{"id": 0, "summary": [{"text": "gars ( or garpike ) are members of the lepisosteiformes ( or semionotiformes ) , an ancient holosteian order of ray-finned fish ; fossils from this order are known from the late cretaceous onwards .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the family lepisosteidae includes seven living species of fish in two genera that inhabit fresh , brackish , and occasionally marine , waters of eastern north america , central america and the caribbean islands .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "gars have elongated bodies that are heavily armored with ganoid scales , and fronted by similarly elongated jaws filled with long , sharp teeth .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "all of the gars are relatively large fish , but the alligator gar ( atractosteus spatula ) is the largest , as specimens have been reported to be 3 m ( 9.8 ft ) in length ; however , they typically grow to 2 m ( 6.6 ft ) and weigh over 45.3 kg ( 100 lb ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "unusually , their vascularised swim bladders can function as lungs , and most gars surface periodically to take a gulp of air .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "gar flesh is edible and the hard skin and scales of gars are used by humans . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "gar", "paragraphs": ["i am so gar for archer .\ngaogaigar is so incredibly gar .\nused gar skins as protective covers . furthermore , gar species such as this have maintained a spiral valve intestine throughout their evolutionary\nepisode 14 left me totally gar for archer .\nyou are gar for badasses , but gay for traps .\ni & apos ; m gar for archer .\nof course . everyone & apos ; s gar for archer .\nhere are some useful ( and painstakingly completed ) links for you to access should you want to identify your gar or learn more about gar identification .\ngar\u2019s mission is to help akron become smarter , stronger , and more vibrant .\ngar wood ' s miss america viii race boat to be auctioned in florida .\ngar - ezer , spontaneous breakdown in two dimensional space - time , commun .\naran ' gar : etymology explained in the series as a type of blade .\nosan ' gar : etymology explained in the series as a type of blade .\ndistribution and ecology of alligator gar in oklahoma : : documents . ok . gov\northologs of human mhc class ii and class iii region genes in spotted gar .\ntabasco\u2019s freshwater gar , an ancient , primitive fish with a face like an alligator\u2019s .\nfor de\ufb01nitions and results concerning these see the book by garnett , [ gar ] .\nthere are seven known species of gar , and all are quite abundant in their ranges . in the southeastern united states , where the alligator gar lives , they are prized by sport fishermen for the fierce fight they give when hooked . gar meat is edible , but is extremely bony and rarely consumed . gar eggs are highly toxic to humans .\nthe spotted gar genome assembly is available from genbank under accession gca _ 000242695 . 1 . rna - seq data are available from the sequence read archive ( sra ) under accessions srp042013 ( broad institute gar transcriptome ) , srp044781 \u2013 srp044784 ( phylofish transcriptomes of zebrafish , gar , bowfin and medaka ) and srp063942 ( gar small rna - seq for mirna annotation ) . gar scpp gene sequences are available from genbank under accessions ku189274 \u2013 ku189300 .\nsister species to the spotted gar , this fish looks nearly identical but primarily resides in florida . it is frequently seen in roadside canals , and much of the everglades . it\u2019s the most common gar in the pet trade , and often mislabeled as \u201calligator gar . \u201d\nthe spotted gar is one of three gar species native to texas . they are primitive fish and date back to the cretaceous period , some 65 to 100 million years ago . the ancestors of spotted gar swam with the dinosaurs ! a large gar can eat a lot of fish , including catfish , causing them to compete with some anglers . because of the competition and because many people think gar are difficult to clean , gar are sometimes called a\ntrash\nfish . this term may not be warranted when you consider that spotted gar , like all native species , have an important role to play in their ecosystem .\n\u201c 1 gar \u201d in dictionary of the irish language , royal irish academy , 1913\u201376 .\nae man may tak a horse to the water , but twenty winna gar him drink .\nthe 7 gar ( lepisosteidae ) species of the world . find prints of this gartwork at\nfish species identification , roughfish , suckers carp buffalo bowfin gar whitefish eels burbot sculpin etc .\namerican alligators are a potential predator of alligator gar , image courtesy u . s . geological survey\nwhile there are no confirmed attacks on people , alligator gar continue to be feared by many .\nthe gar is a fish . . . is a bird . . . is a mammal ?\ngar\nin focl\u00f3ir gaeilge - b\u00e9arla , an g\u00fam , 1977 , by niall \u00f3 d\u00f3naill .\nfigure 5 : identification and functional analysis of the gar and teleost early - phase hoxd enhancer cns65 .\nrothwell , gar w . 1998 . life on earth , paleobotany . geotimes 43 : 44 - 45 .\njeff yoder is an associate professor of immunology at nc state\u2019s college of veterinary medicine and a contributor to the gar genome project . he agreed to a short q & a about the significance of the spotted gar\u2019s genome .\nthe longnose gar ' s tough scales keep it safe from most natural predators ; however , young gar commonly fall prey to larger predatory fish . in florida and the southern region , the billly gar can be preyed on by the american alligator . when it comes to their own hunt , their spiky teeth enable the gar to prey on smaller fish and crustaceans . when hunting , the gar remains stealthy and motionless , but have been known to stalk prey . they catch prey sideways , then manipulate it so that it will enter head - first .\nby gar , if my wife die ' count of this , i goin ' kill you , jarth rolan .\nthe longnose gar is most easily identified by its long , narrow snout and slender body . longnose gars have the longest and most narrow snout of all gar species . longnose gars are also the most slender among the 7 species of gar , especially when under 18\n. specimens over 2 ' have been noted to get quite thick .\nworld record in 2011 , a commercial fisherman accidentally caught the largest alligator gar on record in mississippi\u2019s lake chotard . the gar was 8 . 5 feet long , weighed 327 pounds and was believed to be 94 years old .\ngar immunoglobulin genes ( supplementary fig . 22 ) and transcripts generally resemble those of teleosts . unexpectedly , gar has a second , distinct igm locus but lacks igt ( igz ) 58 , 59 , thought to provide mucosal immunity 60 , suggesting that igt is teleost specific and that gar ganoid scales may suffice for exterior surface protection . gar t cell receptor genes ( supplementary fig . 23 ) are tightly linked as in mammals but , unlike in xenopus tropicalis 61 , are downstream of v h and j h segments . phylogenetic analyses of toll - like receptor ( tlr ) genes ( supplementary fig . 24 ) in tetrapods , teleosts and gar showed that the 16 identifiable gar tlrs encompass all six major tlr families 62 . gar tlrs appear to share evolutionary histories with the tlrs from teleosts and / or tetrapods . gar encodes nitr ( novel immune - type receptor ) genes ( supplementary fig . 25 ) , which function in allorecognition and were thought to be teleost specific 63 , 64 . the 17 gar nitr genes form 15 families , suggesting few recent tandem duplications or rapid divergence after gene duplication . in sum , the gar immunogenome bridges teleosts to tetrapods .\ngar rourke didn ' t ask to be the colusa treasurer , but ended up serving 17 years in the post .\nthe longnose gar along with a few other fish species have existed relatively unchanged since before the age of the dinosaurs .\nspotted gar genome at ensembl , urltoken ; synteny database , urltoken ; phylofish portal , urltoken ; repeatmasker , urltoken .\nthe longnose gar is an animal , but more defining , is part of the actinopterygii class of ray - finned fishes and the lepisosteidae family of gar pikes , garfishes , and other gar , of which there are seven recognized species today . also , even though they are similar in shape and appearance , l . osseus is not related to the needlefishes .\nthe shortnose gar is most easily identified by its lack of spots on head or body , but spotted individuals occasionally found from clear water habitats . the snout of larger specimens are shorter and broader than that of the longnose gar and spotted gar . however , smaller specimens have narrower snouts that get broader with time and growth . the caudal peduncle is shorter than that of the longnose gar . these fish have two rows of teeth , but only the outer row of teeth is prominent .\ngar awards grants to organizations and programs that foster the needs of the akron community and fall within our primary giving areas .\ni suah ' members de time she hooked dat ole gar , en hollered fo ' help tuh pull ' im out .\ngar was a challenge to me , for i saw in him something wild , untamed , and , perhaps , untamable .\nidentification : all gars have long and slender bodies , beak - like jaws , and large , diamond - shaped scales . alligator gar is the largest species , reaching 9 ft . ( 300 lbs ) . it is distinguished from other gars by its short , broad snout , and heavy body . spotted gar has a unique pattern of large spots on the top of head and body . shortnose gar is similar to spotted gar , but lacks spots on head and body . both species are\ndistribution and habitat : longnose gar is common statewide in streams , rivers , and reservoirs . spotted gar and shortnose gar occur in the ohio and mississippi rivers and in western kentucky , from the lower green river basin to the mississippi river . alligator gar once occurred in the ohio and mississippi rivers and in backwaters and embayments along the lower ohio and mississippi river floodplains in western kentucky . the kentucky department of fish and wildlife resources is working to re - establish native populations to these habitats .\nlateral close - up headshot of a . tropicus . notice that the snout is shorter than that of a florida gar .\nappearance alligator gar are long , slender fish with bony , diamond - shaped scales . they are distinguished from other gar by a heavier body and a relatively shorter , broader snout filled with two rows of canine - like teeth . alligator gar generally have a dark , olive green body that fades into a white belly , and their fins are often a reddish - pink .\nin new york state , we have only one species of gar : the longnose \u2014named for having the longest snout in relation to the rest of the body . although a large fish for our region , the longnose certainly isn\u2019t the largest gar in the world . that honor goes to the alligator gar , a native of the southeastern us that can weigh more than 300 pounds !\nthe alligator gar inhabits large , slow moving rivers , reservoirs , oxbow lakes , bayous and bays , in fresh and brackish water . the alligator gar is the most tolerant gar species of high salinity and occasionally strays into salt water . young may be seen at the surface in debris such as leaves and twigs . alligator gar prefer large rivers that have a large overflow floodplane , but these rivers have all but disappeared in north america due to the use of dredging , dams , dikes , and levees .\ngrow to 6 ft . ( 50 lbs ) . differences in head shape among the four species of gar are illustrated below .\nrecommended baiting : anglers rarely fish for gar due to their bony skin and toxic eggs . longnose gar are tough to catch because of their peculiar feeding behavior ( see below ) and long , slender snout . the best strategy is to use a hookless rope lure and spinners . a gar\u2019s teeth will get tangled in the hairs of the rope lure , so a hook is not needed . fish in warm shallow areas where the water is near stagnant . look for basking gar or signs of baitfish . cast and then retrieve in 1 - 2 ft bouts . it is best to allow the \u201croped\u201d gar to run a bit to ensure a good tangle .\n( a ) the gar bridge principle of vertebrate cne connectivity from human through gar to teleosts . hidden orthology is uncovered for elements that do not directly align between human and teleosts but become evident when first aligning tetrapod genomes to gar , and then aligning gar and teleost genomes . ( b ) connectivity analysis of 13 - way whole - genome alignments shows the evolutionary gain ( green ) and loss ( red ) of 153 human limb enhancers . direct human - teleost orthology could only be established for 81 elements as opposed to 95 when using gar as a bridge as in a . see supplementary figure 37 , supplementary table 22 and the supplementary note for details .\nthe gar founded soldiers\u2019 homes , was active in relief work and in pension legislation . five members were elected president of the united states and , for a time , it was impossible to be nominated on the republican ticket without the endorsement of the gar voting block .\nkeith camper hooked this 71 - pound alligator gar fish during the young men ' s business club ' s 23rd annual fishing rodeo .\nstudents at gar - field senior high school in woodbridge were evacuated thursday morning because of a bomb threat , according to school officials .\nwhole - body disposition and polyglutamate distribution of the gar formyltransferase inhibitors ly309887 and lometrexol in mice : effect of low - folate diet .\nthe longnose gar has fang - like teeth on both its upper and lower jaw that allow it to catch and hold onto fish .\nusing the gar bridge ( fig . 4a ) , we tested whether the 29 human enhancers not directly identified in teleosts might represent rapid divergence rather than definitive loss . inspection of human - centric and then gar - centric alignments showed 48 % ( 14 / 29 ) aligning to at least one teleost ( supplementary table 22 ) . gar thus substantially improves understanding of the evolutionary origin of vertebrate limb enhancers and their fate in teleosts ( fig . 4b , supplementary fig . 37 and supplementary table 22 ) . strikingly , despite using the gar bridge , we found that teleosts lost substantially more limb enhancers ( 15 ) than gar ( 2 ) ( fig . 4b and supplementary fig . 37 ) , suggesting that gar might be a better model than teleosts for investigating the fin - to - limb transition 85 .\nthe english common name for atractosteus spatula are alligator gar , gator , greater gar , garpike , garfish , and mississippi alligator gar . other common names are pejelagarto ( spanish ) , marjuari ( spanish ) , catan ( spanish , gaspar baba ( spanish ) , garpigue alligator ( french ) , alligatorpansergedde ( danish ) , alligatorbengadda ( swedish ) , keihasluuhauki ( finnish ) , and kostlin obrovsky ( czech ) .\nhabitat alligator gar once inhabited waters throughout the mississippi river valley , occurring as far north as iowa and west to kansas . they have a modified swim bladder that allows them to obtain oxygen from both water and air . this ability , along with the highest salt tolerance of any gar species , allows the alligator gar to survive in almost any water condition . however , habitat loss has limited its populations to the gulf coast states . in florida , alligator gar are only known to inhabit coastal rivers in the panhandle from gulf county to escambia county .\ngar move slowly unless trying to catch food , which it grabs in its jaws in a quick sideways lunge . they often bask near the water ' s surface on warm days . fry feed primarily on insect larvae and tiny crustaceans , but fish appear on the diet of young gar very early . prey is usually swallowed headfirst . spotted gar are eaten by larger fish , alligators , herons , and cottonmouth snakes .\nspotted gar prefer clear , quiet , vegetated waters of streams , swamps and lakes . they sometimes enter brackish waters along the gulf coast .\nrothwell , gar w . 1999 . fossils and ferns in the resolution of land plant phylogeny . botanical review 65 : 188 - 218 .\ndetermine the distribution , abundance , movements , habitats and population characteristics of the alligator gar in the red and arkansas river drainages in oklahoma .\nit has a brown midlateral stripe from nose to tail . the gar\u2019s coloring varies from grey / brown to olive , with black spots .\ngar informs the evolution of vertebrate genomes and gene functions after genome duplication and illuminates evolutionary mechanisms leading to teleost biodiversity . the gar genome evolved comparatively slowly and clarifies the evolution and orthology of problematic teleost protein - coding and microrna ( mirna ) gene families . surprisingly , many entire gar chromosomes have been conserved with some tetrapods for 450 million years . notably , gar facilitates the identification of cnes , which are often regulatory , that teleosts and humans share but that are not detected by direct sequence comparisons . global gene expression analyses show that expression domains and levels for tgd - generated duplicates usually sum to those for the corresponding gar gene , as expected if ancestral regulatory elements were partitioned after the tgd . by illuminating the legacy of genome duplication , the gar genome bridges teleost biology to human health , disease , development , physiology and evolution .\nthe longnose gar can be found in freshwater rivers , streams , lakes , and estuaries with little tidal influence . they prefer areas with minimum water movement , as the gar will suspend itself in the water column . in the united states , the long nose can be found mostly on the eastern half of the country , as far north as canada and south into florida . the gar is well known in virginia and the\nwhat made you want to look up gar ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\ngar \u00e7on , m . , and van orden , j . w . , preprint nucl - th / 01020 49 , advances in nucl .\nthe alligator gar has a short , very broad snout . their pattern and appearence can vary greatly throughout their lives as they age and mature .\nin florida , the largest member of the gar family is only known to inhabit coastal rivers in the panhandle from gulf county to escambia county .\nthis large alligator gar was just under 8 feet in length and weighed 215 pounds ! image \u00a9 mike guerin / http : / / thejump . net\ni was baffled when i found that the\ngar\npage on urban dictionary didn & apos ; t have any definitions whatsoever relating to fish .\nif i was to tak ' her in , it ' s highly possible the hellicat would try and gar me marry her when he turned up .\ngar and teleost orthologs of the hoxd early enhancer cns65 were identified with vista ( lagan ) 121 . gar and zebrafish cns65 elements were cloned into pxig - cfos - egfp and gateway - hsp68 - lacz vectors for zebrafish 127 and mouse ( cyagen biosciences ) transgenesis , respectively ( supplementary note ) .\nestablished in 1967 , gar foundation was born of the philanthropic desire of the roush family to support the needs of those in the greater akron area community .\n* do not eat the eggs though ! gar eggs are toxic to mammals , birds , and most arthropods ; but not to fishes . weird right ?\nwe next calculated average expression levels for each gene over the 11 tissues and computed the ratio of each teleost gene to its gar ortholog . comparisons showed that individual ohnologs were each expressed at significantly lower levels than singletons as compared to gar orthologs ( fig . 6g , h ) . the ohnolog pair / gar expression ratios , however , showed no statistical difference from the singleton / gar expression ratios ( fig . 6g , h ) . this finding suggests that the aggregate expression level for ohnolog pairs tends to evolve to approximately the expression level of the preduplication gene , as expected by quantitative subfunctionalization 89 , 90 , 96 .\ngar represents the first chromonome 22 of a non - tetrapod , non - teleost jawed vertebrate , allowing for the first time long - range gene order analyses without the confounding effects of the tgd . the gar karyotype ( 2 n = 58 ) contains both macro - and microchromosomes ( fig . 2a , supplementary fig . 7 and supplementary note ) . aligning gar chromosomes to those of human , chicken and teleosts highlighted distinct conservation of orthologous segments in all species ( fig . 2b\u2013e , supplementary figs . 8 and 9 , and supplementary note ) . strikingly , gar - chicken comparisons showed conservation of many entire chromosomes ( fig . 2c ) . the chicken and gar karyotypes differed only by about 17 large fissions , fusions or translocations . almost half of the gar karyotype ( 14 / 29 chromosomes ) showed a nearly one - to - one relationship in gar - chicken comparisons , including macro - and microchromosomes with highly correlated chromosome assembly lengths ( fig . 2d and supplementary note ) . this similarity in chromosome size and gene content is strong evidence that the karyotype of the common bony vertebrate ancestor of gar and chicken possessed both macro - and microchromosomes as ohno 35 hypothesized , consistent with microchromosomes in coelacanth 36 and cartilaginous fishes 35 , for which no chromonomes are yet available .\nlooking at a gar is a bit like looking into the distant past . largely unchanged over the past 100 million years , they are often called living fossils .\nchicago bulls general manager gar forman said thursday that he ' s optimistic derrick rose will be able to play at some point during the 2012 - 13 season .\nmany of his results were proved in 1995 by berndt , bhargava , and garvan in a long paper [ bbg ] ( see also [ gar ] ) .\nwhole - body disposition and polyglutamate distribution of the gar formyltransferase inhibitors ly309887 and lometrexol in mice : effect of low - folate . . . - pubmed - ncbi\n- snout is thicker and shorter than any lepisosteus gar ( perhaps with the exception of large shortnose gars ) but longer and more narrow than any atractosteus gars .\n( a ) the spotted gar karyotype consists of macro - and microchromosomes ( see supplementary fig . 7 for chromosome annotations ) . ( b ) circos plot 99 showing conserved synteny of gar ( colored , left ) and human ( black , right ) chromosomes . ( c ) gar - chicken comparison shows strong conservation of the genomes over 450 million years and one - to - one synteny conservation for many entire chromosomes , particularly microchromosomes ( for example , loc13 and gga14 , loc23 and gga11 , etc . ) . ( d ) the assembled chromosome lengths for gar and chicken chromosomes with one - to - one conserved synteny are highly correlated ( r 2 = 0 . 97 ) . ( e ) gar - medaka comparison shows the overall one - to - two double - conserved synteny relationship of gar to a post - tgd teleost genome ( for example , gar loc11 corresponds to medaka ola16 and ola11 ) . the gar chromosomes are displayed in a different order in d than they are in b and c ; asterisks indicate chromosomes inverted with respect to the arbitrarily oriented reference genome . ( f ) gar - chicken - medaka comparisons illuminate the karyotype evolution leading to modern teleosts . the genome of the bony vertebrate ancestor contained both macro - and microchromosomes , some of which remain largely conserved in chicken and gar , for example , macrochromosome loc2 - ggaz and microchromosomes loc20 - gga15 and loc21 - gga17 . all three chromosomes possess double - conserved synteny with medaka chromosomes ola9 and ola12 , which is explained by chromosome fusion in the lineage leading to teleosts after divergence from gar , followed by tgd duplication of the fusion chromosome and subsequent intrachromosomal rearrangements and rediploidization . multiple examples of such pre - tgd chromosome fusions explain the absence of microchromosomes in teleosts . see the supplementary note for details .\ngar elucidates the origins of tetrapod limb enhancers , evidenced by whole - genome alignments for 13 vertebrates ( including gar , five teleosts , coelacanth , five tetrapods and elephant shark ; supplementary fig . 36 , supplementary tables 20 and 21 , and supplementary note ) . of 153 known human limb enhancers 33 , 82 , 83 , 84 , human - centric alignments identified 71 % ( 108 ) in gar , but only 53 % ( 81 ) were identified through direct human - teleost alignments . of the 72 human limb enhancers not detected by human - teleost alignment , 40 % ( 29 ) aligned to gar , confirming their presence in the bony vertebrate ancestor and loss or considerable divergence in teleosts . of these 29 enhancers , 15 also aligned to elephant shark , highlighting their existence in the gnathostome ancestor . fourteen occurred in gar but not in teleosts and would have been incorrectly characterized as lobe - finned vertebrate innovations without gar data ( supplementary table 22 and supplementary note ) .\nthe prehistoric - looking gar is a voracious predator with a mouthful of sharp teeth . they usually drift motionless near the surface waiting for smaller fish to swim by .\nto connect human biology to fish biomedical models , we sequenced the genome of spotted gar ( lepisosteus oculatus ) , whose lineage diverged from teleosts before teleost genome duplication ( tgd ) . the slowly evolving gar genome has conserved in content and size many entire chromosomes from bony vertebrate ancestors . gar bridges teleosts to tetrapods by illuminating the evolution of immunity , mineralization and development ( mediated , for example , by hox , parahox and microrna genes ) . numerous conserved noncoding elements ( cnes ; often cis regulatory ) undetectable in direct human - teleost comparisons become apparent using gar : functional studies uncovered conserved roles for such cryptic cnes , facilitating annotation of sequences identified in human genome - wide association studies . transcriptomic analyses showed that the sums of expression domains and expression levels for duplicated teleost genes often approximate the patterns and levels of expression for gar genes , consistent with subfunctionalization . the gar genome provides a resource for understanding evolution after genome duplication , the origin of vertebrate genomes and the function of human regulatory sequences .\nrothwell , gar w . and charles w . good . 2000 . reconstruction of the pennsylvanian age filicalean fern botryopteris tridentata . interenational journal of plant science , in press .\nusually less than 3 ft . ( 5 - 10 lbs ) . longnose gar is easily distinguished from other gars by having an extremely long and narrow snout . it can\npredators : pretty much all larger predatory fish and some birds of prey . gar are the fastest growing freshwater fish in the state giving them a large advantage against predation .\ncne analyses near developmental gene loci ( hox and parahox clusters , pax6 and irxb ) showed that gar contains more gnathostome cnes ( conserved between bony vertebrates and elephant shark ) than teleosts . analyses incorporating gar identified many bony vertebrate cnes ( absent from elephant shark ) that were not predicted by direct human - teleost comparisons ; furthermore , gar - based alignments identified cnes recruited in the common ancestor of ray - finned fishes ( supplementary figs . 14 , 15 and 29\u201335 , supplementary tables 12\u201319 and supplementary note ) .\ngar is the first ray - finned fish genome sequence not affected by the tgd . because of gar ' s phylogenetic position , slow rate of sequence evolution , dense genetic map and ease of laboratory culture , this resource provides a unique bridge between tetrapods and teleost biomedical models . our analyses show that gar bridges teleosts to tetrapods in genome arrangement , allowing the identification of orthologous genes by possessing ancient vgd ohnologs lost reciprocally in teleosts and tetrapods and elucidating the evolution of vertebrate - specific features , including adaptive immunity and mineralized tissues , and the evolution of gene expression . clarification of gene orthology and history is crucial for the design , analysis and interpretation of teleost models of human disease , including those generated with crispr / cas9 - induced genome editing 97 , 98 . gar genomic analyses show that sequences formerly considered unique to teleosts or tetrapods are often shared by ray - finned and lobe - finned vertebrates , including human . notably , the gar bridge helps identify potential gene regulatory elements that are shared by teleosts and humans but are elusive in direct teleost - tetrapod comparisons . the availability of gar embryos and the ease of raising eggs to adults in the laboratory 22 ( supplementary fig . 1 ) make gar a ray - finned species of choice when analyzing many vertebrate developmental and physiological features . in conclusion , the gar bridge facilitates the connectivity of teleost medical models to human biology .\nacross the gar genome , we identified approximately 28 % of human - centric cnes ( 39 , 964 / 143 , 525 ) , more than in any of five aligned teleost genomes . around 19 , 000 human - centric cnes aligned to gar but not to any teleost ( supplementary table 21 and supplementary note ) . without gar , one would have erroneously concluded that these elements originated in lobe - finned vertebrates or were lost in teleosts . the gar bridge ( fig . 4a ) establishes hidden orthology from human to gar to zebrafish for many of these human - centric cnes ( 30\u201336 % , depending on overlap ; supplementary table 21 and supplementary note ) . these approximately 6 , 500 newly connected human cnes contain around 1 , 000 snps linked to human conditions in genome - wide association studies ( gwas ) , thereby connecting otherwise undetected disease - associated haplotypes to genomic locations in zebrafish ( supplementary table 21 ) . the gar bridge thus helps identify biomedically relevant candidate regions in model teleosts for functional testing , potentially enhancing teleost models for biomedical research .\nother info . : although often blamed for game species decline , it has been found that longnose gar rarely feed on popular game species in large quantities . in some regions of the country they are stocked in order to help control overpopulation of sunfish and yellow perch . gar scales are as hard as stone and can be polished for use in jewelry .\nphylogenies of 243 one - to - one orthologs in 25 jawed vertebrates 17 , including the gar genome and our transcriptome of the bowfin amia calva ( supplementary note and supplementary data set ) , strongly supported the monophyly of holostei ( gar and bowfin ) as the sister group to teleosts ( fig . 1b , supplementary fig . 6 and supplementary note ) 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , suggesting that morphologies shared by bowfin and teleosts 29 , 30 may be convergent or may be ancestral traits that were altered in the gar lineage .\nwith membership limited strictly to \u201cveterans of the late unpleasantness , \u201d the gar encouraged the formation of allied orders to aid them in its various works . numerous male organizations jousted for the backing of the gar and the political battles became quite severe until the gar finally endorsed the sons of veterans of the united states of america ( later to become the sons of union veterans of the civil war ) as its heir . a similar , but less protracted , battle took place between the womens\u2019 relief corps ( wrc ) and the ladies of the grand army of the republic ( lgar ) for the title \u201cofficial auxiliary to the gar . \u201d that battle was won by the wrc , which is the only allied order open to women who do not have an hereditary ancestor who would have been eligible for the gar . but in this case the lgar retained its strength and was made one of the allied orders .\noutlook : clinton marina reports : crappie \u2013 fair to good around the docks and along the banks ; gar are being caught around the marina ; all other species \u2013 no reports .\ngainesville area rowing , or gar , has made north central florida one of the best crew spots in the state , and a hotsp0ot for local high schoolers to join the club .\nto test whether cryptic cne orthologs preserve enhancer function , we used cns65 - driven reporter constructs to generate transgenic zebrafish and mice ( supplementary note ) . cns65 from either gar or zebrafish drove early expression in the developing zebrafish pectoral fin ( fig . 5b ) . gar cns65 drove expression in the forelimbs and hindlimbs of embryonic day ( e ) 10 . 5 mice ( fig . 5c ) that was indistinguishable from the activity of mouse cns65 ( ref . 88 ) . zebrafish cns65 activated forelimb expression somewhat more weakly than gar cns65 ( fig . 5c ) . at e12 . 5 , gar cns65 activated proximal but not distal limb expression ( fig . 5c ) , mimicking the endogenous mouse enhancer 88 . these functional experiments suggest that regulation of hoxd early - phase expression in limbs and fins is an ancestral , conserved feature of bony vertebrates and that gar connects otherwise cryptic teleost regulatory mechanisms to mammalian developmental biology .\ni ' d love to do a jakob von uexk\u00fcll drawing of the world of the gar . i wonder what it would look like . chris schaberg describes fishing for them as a kid , \u201cjust one big muscle\u201d that used to pull his canoe around . this world diagram would have to include the above - surface world of the gar as it leaps out of the water to fill its swim bladder . gar have swim bladders that they fill manually by gulping in air . swim bladders eventually evolved into lungs . we share some ancestors with them .\nthea buxbaum , a gallery manager , and gar waterman , a sculptor , were married yesterday in new haven at west rock studio , the couple ' s gallery , workshop and home .\nm apes , gene , and gar w . rothwell . 1998 . pollen cone structure of the late pennsylvanian ( stephanian ) conifer emporia . journal of paleontology 72 : 571 - 576 .\nthe spotted gar karyotype was determined from caudal fin fibroblast cell cultures established as described for zebrafish 109 ( supplementary note ) . analyses of conserved synteny between gar , tetrapods ( human and chicken ) and teleosts ( supplementary note ) were performed with ( i ) circos plots 99 on the basis of orthology relationships from ensembl 75 and as described in the supplementary note ; ( ii ) the synteny database 94 after integration of the gar genome assembly ( ensembl version 74 ) ; and ( iii ) comparative synteny maps derived as described in refs . 17 , 110 .\nthe alligator gar is rare , endangered , and has even been extirpated from many of the outer areas of its range . studies in alabama , mississippi , and louisiana have shown that the alligator gar is very susceptible to overfishing . it has been classified as rare in missouri , threatened in illinois , and endangered in arkansas , kentucky , and is soon to be in tennessee .\nmirna genes could become teleost or tetrapod specific 18 , 72 by their loss in one lineage or gain in the other . we studied gar mirnas computationally ( supplementary fig . 27 , supplementary table 10 and supplementary note ) and annotated them using a sequence - based approach ( supplementary note ) . small rna - seq data for four tissues identified 302 mature mirnas derived from 233 genes , of which 229 belong to 107 families and 4 lack a known family ( supplementary fig . 28 and supplementary table 11 ) . gar - zebrafish 73 , 74 comparisons showed that four families and four individual mirna genes emerged in teleosts . of the 22 families thought to have been lost in teleosts 18 , 2 actually belong to the same family and orthologs of 4 gar mirna genes were previously overlooked in teleosts . fourteen families are absent from both gar and teleosts , and three are present in gar and many teleosts 74 but absent from zebrafish . a single family present in teleosts and lobe - finned fishes ( mir150 ) was not found in gar . notably , no mirna family loss was specific to teleosts , suggesting that the tgd did not accelerate family loss .\nevolution of vertebrate immunity becomes clearer using gar ( supplementary note ) . major histocompatibility complex ( mhc ) class i and class ii genes ( supplementary figs . 19\u201321 ) are tightly linked in tetrapods and cartilaginous fishes but are unlinked in teleosts 51 , 52 . in gar , at least one pair of class i and class ii genes is linked as in tetrapods 53 , 54 , suggesting that gar retains the ancestral configuration , although most gar mhc genes remain on unassembled scaffolds ( supplementary fig . 21 ) . gar has some class i genes thought to be teleost specific ( z / p - like , l - like and u / s - like , for example 54 , 55 , 56 ; supplementary fig . 19 ) and some class ii genes similar to and some distinct from teleost da / db and de lineages ( supplementary fig . 20 ) . several gar mhc region genes are on unassembled scaffolds linked to genes whose human orthologs are encoded in the mhc class ii or class iii region on hsa6 , and some are adjacent to orthologs of teleost mhc class i genes ( supplementary table 8 ) . the human mhc class iii region on hsa6 has syntenic segments on hsa1 , hsa9 and hsa19 ; these four ohnologs likely arose in vgd1 and vgd2 ( ref . 57 ) , as supported by the gar genome ( supplementary table 8 ) .\ngar are long and cylindrical with elongated mouths . spotted gar grow to a length of 3 feet ( 0 . 9 m ) , weighing 8 pounds ( 3 . 6 kg ) . their upper body is brown to olive , and they have silver - white sides . head , body , and fins have olive - brown to black spots that help camouflage the fish . a broad , dark stripe is on the sides of immature fish . their long , snout - like mouth is lined with strong , sharp teeth , and their body is covered with thick , ganoid ( diamond - shaped ) scales . spotted gar may be distinguished from other texas gar species by the dark roundish spots on the top of the head , the pectoral fins and on the pelvic fins .\n( a ) scpp gene arrangements in human , coelacanth , gar and zebrafish including p / q - rich ( red ) and acidic ( blue ) scpp genes and sparc - like genes ( yellow ) ( supplementary note ; ref . 68 ) . orthologies ( gray vertical bars ) among lobe - finned vertebrates ( for example , human and coelacanth ) and teleosts ( for example , zebrafish ) had previously been limited to odam and spp1 genes . gar connects lineages through orthologs of genes previously known only from either teleosts ( scpp1 , scpp3 , scpp5 , scpp7 and scpp9 ) or lobe - finned vertebrates ( enam , ambn , dmp1 , dsppl1 , ibsp and mepe ) . further putative orthologies supported by only short stretches of sequence similarity ( indicated by a question mark ) connect gar enam , ambn and lpq14 genes with zebrafish fa93e10 , scpp6 and scpp8 genes , respectively ; gar lpq1 and coelacanth scpppq4 ; and gar lpq5 with amtn genes in lobe - finned vertebrates . arrows in human and zebrafish indicate intrachromosomal rearrangements separating originally clustered genes into distant chromosomal locations ( distance in mb ) . analysis of conserved synteny for the gar scpp gene cluster on lg2 suggests that the scpp gene regions on zebrafish chromosomes 10 and 5 are derived from the tgd ( supplementary fig . 26 and supplementary note ) . ( b ) the gar ' conserved synteny bridge ' ( supplementary note ) infers that the mirna cluster of mir731 and mir462 on gar lg4 and zebrafish chromosome 8 and a mirna - free region on zebrafish chromosome 2 are tgd ohnologous to the mammalian mir425 - 191 cluster ( highlighted in bold ) . ( c ) gar newly connects through synteny zebrafish tgd - derived ohnologs mir135c - 1 and mir135c - 2 with mammalian mir135b genes ( highlighted in bold ) .\n( a , b ) the origin ( a ) and distribution ( b ) of gar and teleost singletons and tgd - derived ohnologs ( supplementary table 23 and supplementary note ) . ( c ) neofunctionalized ohnologs for slc1a3 showing new expression in liver . ( d ) subfunctionalized tgd orthologs of gpr22 with one expressed in brain as in gar and the other expressed in heart as in gar . in c and d , the r values denote the correlation of the expression profile of each ohnolog with the gar pattern . the supplementary note lists neofunctionalization and subfunctionalization criteria . ( e \u2013 h ) expression conservation for ohnologs and singletons in zebrafish ( zf ; e , g ) and medaka ( md ; f , h ) ( supplementary note ) . ( e , f ) mean correlation between the expression patterns of gar genes and teleost ortholog ( s ) . the correlation between average expression levels for ohnolog pairs and gar genes was greater than that for ohnologs alone and than that for singletons , indicating sharing of ancestral subfunctions by the ohnolog pair ( multiple wilcoxon mann - whitney tests with bonferroni correction , \u03b1 = 0 . 05 for significance ) . ( g , h ) mean log 10 - transformed ratios of expression levels for gar genes and teleost ortholog ( s ) . in comparison to gar genes , individual ohnologs were expressed at significantly lower levels than singletons ; ohnolog pair / gar ratios were not statistically different from singleton / gar ratios , suggesting that the aggregate expression level of ohnolog pairs approaches the expression level of the preduplication gene ( multiple two - sided student ' s t test with bonferroni correction , \u03b1 = 0 . 05 for significance ) . error bars in e \u2013 h , s . e . m . br , brain ; gil , gill ; hrt , heart ; mus , muscle ; liv , liver , kid , kidney ; bo , bone ; int , intestine ; ov , ovary ; te , testis ; emb , embryo .\nhartley , w . r . , thiyagarajah , a . and treinies , a . m . : 1996 , ' liver lesions in the gar fish ( lepisosteidae ) as biomarkers of exposure ' ,\ngars are an ancient group of fishes that belong to the family lepisostidae . there are four species of gar in kentucky : alligator gar , longnose gar , shortnose gar , and spotted gar . they occur in a variety of habitats , although they are usually associated with large bodies of water such as rivers and reservoirs . they have a long and slender body covered with diamond shaped ganoid scales . gars are ambush predators and their long body shape allows for quick movements to catch prey . they have a lung like swimbladder which allows them to rise to the surface of the water and gulp air . this type of swimbladder allows the group to survive in low dissolved oxygen conditions . they are often seen either alone or in loosely formed groups resting just beneath the surface . spawning occurs in spring and summer months . fertilization is external and eggs are adhesive . all gar eggs are reported to be toxic to humans . in some areas of the southeastern united states , gars are consumed in large numbers . they have a mild flavor and a firm white flesh . while gars are generally scorned by commercial and sport fishermen , they have an important ecological role as a top predator in reducing overpopulation of forage fishes .\nrothwell , gar w . , lea grauvogel - stamm and gene mapes . 2000 . an herbaceous fossil conifer : gymnospermous ruderals in the evolution of mesozoic vegetation . palaeogeography , palaeoclimatology , palaeoecology , in press .\nthe cuban gar is most easily identified by its lack of pattern ( upon shedding its yoy markings ) , unique striation patterned fins and colour . these fish vary from an olive green to yellow bronze colouration .\nto characterize the effects of the tgd on evolution of gene expression , we plotted tissue - specific expression levels in gar versus ( i ) expression of orthologous teleost singletons , ( ii ) expression of each tgd - derived ohnolog when both were retained and ( iii ) the averaged expression level of both retained ohnologs ( ' ohnolog pair ' ) , and we then calculated correlation coefficients . our results showed that the correlation between the expression patterns of gar genes and those of their teleost singleton orthologs was not significantly different from the correlation of expression patterns between gar genes and those of either copy of their teleost tgd - derived co - orthologs ( fig . 6e , f ) . thus , when compared to ancestral single - copy genes as estimated from gar , teleost ohnologs binned at random do not appear to have evolved expression pattern differences significantly more rapidly than singletons . in contrast , the average tissue - specific patterns of both tgd - derived duplicates correlated significantly more closely with gar than with either ohnolog taken alone and correlated more closely with gar than with singletons ( fig . 6e , f ) ; thus , ancestral gene subfunctions tended to be partitioned between tgd - derived ohnologs , which maintained ancestral functions as a gene pair , as predicted by the subfunctionalization model 89 .\nthe broad institute gar rna - seq transcriptome ( supplementary note ) was generated from ten tissues ( stage 28 embryo 100 , 8 - day larvae , eye , liver , heart , skin , muscle , kidney , brain and testis ) and assembled using trinity 101 . phylofish rna - seq transcriptomes of gar , bowfin , zebrafish and medaka ( supplementary note ) were generated from ten adult tissues ( ovary , testis , brain , gills , heart , muscle , liver , kidney , bone and intestine ) and one embryonic stage ( ' pigmented eye ' stage of gar , zebrafish and medaka ) and assembled using the velvet / oases package 102 .\nthe alligator gar has been commercially fished in southern states along with other gar species , and has also been fished and bow - fished . the meat of the alligator gar has been commercially sold for over a dollar a pound locally . it is not classified as a sport fish in some states such as texas even though there is a popular bow fishery along the rio grande river . it is classified as a sport fish alabama where the limit is 2 fish per day , which makes it off limits to commercial fishing in alabama . the alligator gars , along with other gars , are important to their ecosystem in order to maintain the ecological balance .\nwhat makes the gar a successful predator is its ability to exploit waters that many other large predators avoid . the gar\u2019s vascular air bladder , used to regulate buoyancy in most fish , is connected to the gar\u2019s throat , allowing them to take in gulps of air like primitive lungs . this allows them to survive in waters with little or no oxygen content . low metabolism helps them to conserve oxygen and energy , and make them near - motionless when they hunt . shallow water , with little flow and higher temperatures are just fine for the gar . here their colors and patterns help them blend into the environment . appearing to be a drifting log or stick , they can sneak up on prey without being detected . gars are generally freshwater fish , but their tolerance of various water conditions allow them to successfully populate brackish waters and they can sometimes migrate out to sea .\nspotted gar are very widespread , and can be found from central texas east into western florida . their territory extends north through the mississippi river drainage into illinois , the lower ohio river , and the lake erie drainage .\nschools of beautiful , graceful 2 - 5 foot gar are our favorite reason to snorkel in blue springs state park , florida . they swim leisurely . or sit like soldiers , noses to the current from the spring .\nphysiological mechanisms are shared among vertebrates , including light control of circadian rhythms , despite important gene repertoire differences between teleosts and tetrapods 46 , 47 . analyses of gar circadian clock ( supplementary fig . 17 , supplementary table 6 and supplementary note ) 48 and opsin ( supplementary fig . 18 , supplementary table 7 and supplementary note ) 49 genes link the gene repertoires of teleosts and tetrapods : for example , gar clarifies which circadian genes originated in vgd events and which originated in the tgd event . gar has pinopsin , present in tetrapods but absent from teleosts , along with exo - rhodopsin , previously thought to compensate for the lack of pinopsin in teleosts 50 .\ncoloration the alligator gar is dark olive - green dorsally , fading to yellowish white ventrally . young alligator gars possess a light mid - dorsal stripe bordered by thin dark lines from the tip of snout to the dorsal fin , and a dark lateral band extends along the sides with irregular borders . the dorsal , anal , and caudal fins of the alligator gar often have oval - shaped black spots . adult specimens lack spots on the body .\nrt - pcr and our gar skin transcriptome analysis identified expression of ambn and enam in enamel - containing gar teeth and in gar skin that includes scales with ganoin ( supplementary table 9 and supplementary note ) , suggesting that strong expression of ambn and enam is limited to enamel and ganoin . thus , enamel in teeth and ganoin in ganoid scales likely represent the same tissue , and common expression of ambn and enam in lobe - finned vertebrate enamel and in gar enamel and ganoin supports homology of these tissues . analysis of gnathostome fossils suggested that ganoin is plesiomorphic for crown osteichthyans and arose before enamel 71 , 133 ; thus , enamel - bearing teeth likely evolved by coopting enamel matrix genes originally used in ganoid scales . the amel gene may have evolved subsequently to encode the principal organic component of the ' true enamel ' that appears to have originated in lobe - finned vertebrates 68 , 133 ."]}
{"id": 2, "summary": [{"text": "the red-crested cardinal ( paroaria coronata ) is a songbird with a prominent red head and crest .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this species belongs in the family of the tanagers ( thraupidae ) .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "notwithstanding its similar name , this bird is not closely related to the true cardinal family ( cardinalidae ) .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in northern argentina , bolivia , paraguay , uruguay , brazil 's rio grande do sul and the pantanal .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry shrubland and heavily degraded former forest .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "among other regions , it is found in southern part of the pantanal .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it has also been introduced to hawaii and puerto rico .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "in brazil , it has been introduced to various places outside its historical range , as in the tiet\u00ea ecological park in s\u00e3o paulo , alongside its very similar-looking close relative , the red-cowled cardinal ( p. dominicana ) .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the yellow-billed cardinal ( p. capitata ) could be easily confused with the red-crested cardinal ; both the red-cowled and yellow-billed have a very short crest that is not visible except in excited birds , and in the case of the latter , a black throat , darker upper parts and a bright yellow bill . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "red - crested cardinal", "paragraphs": ["red - crested cardinal : yellow - billed cardinal has no crest , upperparts are black , and has a black chin and throat .\nred - crested cardinal gets its common name from its red head and prominent crest . native to northern argentina , bolivia , southern brazil , paraguay and uruguay , red - crested cardinal has been introduced to various regions of the world including hawaii and puerto rico . mainly a seed eater , red - crested cardinal generally searches for seeds and small arthropods on or near the ground . red - crested cardinal ' s natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry shrubland and heavily degraded former forest .\nthe red - crested cardinal has been featured on postage stamps in its native countries of argentina , brazil and uruguay .\nred - crested cardinal : native to south america . in hawaii commonly found on lawns and in parks . a medium - sized passerine with bright red head ,\nmis fotos de aves : paroaria coronata cardenal com\u00fan red - crested cardi . . .\nthe red - crested cardinal is listed as a species of least concern by the iucn because of its large range and estimated population size .\nin the wild , red - crested cardinals eat fruit , seeds and insects . at the smithsonian ' s national zoo , red - crested cardinals are fed bird food , insects and fruit .\nthe red - crested cardinal is native to argentina , bolivia , southern brazil , paraguay and uruguay . it has also been introduced to hawaii and puerto rico .\nthe red - crested cardinal will lay two to five eggs . the eggs have a 12 to 13 day incubation period . they breed readily in human care .\nred - crested cardinals live 3 to 6 years in the wild and about 13 years in human care .\nred - crested cardinal : both sexes sing\nwheet - cheer - up\n, song is a series of whistles that alternate up and down , more melodious and quieter than a northern cardinal . call is a soft , squeaky note .\nthe red - crested cardinal ( p . coronata ) , also known as the brazilian cardinal , has a red head , a white belly , and gray wings . though native to brazil , argentina , paraguay , uruguay , and bolivia , it occasionally can be seen visiting the eastern coast of the united states . it was introduced\u2026\nunlike northern cardinals , males and females have similar plumage , with dark gray above on the back of their necks and their stomachs . the head , crest and upper breast are bright red . the red - crested cardinal has a silver - gray bill and dark legs .\na medium - sized bird , the red - crested cardinal resembles north america ' s northern cardinal in shape , but is mainly gray with only a brilliant red head , crest and breast . native to argentina , bolivia , brazil , paraguay and uruguay , it is also a common sight in hawaii and puerto rico , where it has been introduced .\ndespite its name it is not closely related to birds in the cardinal family .\nbeautiful and engaging , red pandas are classified as endangered on the iucn red list of threatened species . there may be fewer than 2 , 500 adult red pandas living in the wild today .\nred - crested cardinals live in semi - open areas with shrubs and trees , such as parks , lawns , tropical shrub land and degraded forests .\none of hawai ` i\u2019s most beautiful birds is another species of cardinal called the red - crested or brazilian cardinal . it was brought to hawai ` i from south america in the 1930s and it is a common sight on kaua ` i . adults have gray feathers above and white below with a striking red head crest and white bill . juveniles have a dark head and dark bill .\nthe red - crested cardinal has a fairly large range , estimated globally at 2 , 400 , 000 square kilometers . it is primarily found in argentina , brazil , uruguay , bolivia and paraguay , though it has also been introduced to the united states . this bird prefers a dry subtropical or tropical shrubland ecosystem , though it has been known to reside in heavily degraded former forests . the population of the bird has not been determined but is known to be frequent in many of its native areas . the red - crested cardinal does not currently meet the criteria for the iucn red list and has an evaluation level of least concern .\nred - crested cardinal : two to four green - white eggs , mottled and streaked with gray and brown - olive , are laid in a woven cup - shaped nest . incubation takes 10 to 13 days and is primarily carried out by the female . chicks fledge 14 to 18 days after hatching .\nred - crested cardinal : this species is native to south america , but was introduced to the hawaiian islands around 1930 . in hawaii , these birds prefer parks , lawns and dry thickets in hawaii ; however , within their south american range , they can be found in subtropical or tropical dry shrubland and degraded forests .\nthe scarlet tanager , like many members of this family , is known for its brightly colored plumage . vivid red and black , this bird shines like a red light against the green foliage .\nred - crested cardinal : these cardinals are often seen foraging on or near the ground and in shrubbery . they feed primarily on seeds , but they also eat small arthropods , plant matter and fruit . they have a strong beak to crack seeds . they prefer insects during the breeding season . these cardinals are often found in pairs or small family groups .\nthe northern cardinal , brought to hawai ` i in 1929 , is familiar to many visitors from north america . the bright red plumage of the male makes him easy to spot . the females are more subdued in their plumage . they are brown with hints of red on the head , wings and tail , and the bill is red . they are territorial and one vociferous male is frequently perched in a large ironwood tree across from the visitor center entrance during nesting season .\njaramillo , a . ( 2018 ) . red - crested cardinal ( paroaria coronata ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nalso known as the brazilian cardinal , it was introduced around 1930 from south america . it feeds on seeds , plant matter , insects and fruit .\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nmany say the tradition was started by a czech immigrant , william oktavec , who originated the red - roofed bungalow motif with a pond and two swans .\njuveniles are similar in size to adults but lack the red feathers ; instead , the head , crest and upper breast are brown and the bill is dark .\ndecades ago , folks might charge 50 cents or a dollar or two for a painted screen . today , depending on what buyers want , artists might charge $ 25 to $ 500 . in highlandtown , painted screens are part of a community revitalization effort . amanda smit - peters , the neighborhood ' s main street manager , is promoting painted screens in the commercial district . while screens don ' t advertise businesses outright , they often have a whimsical connection . cardinal chiropractic , 423 s . conkling st . , has screens depicting a pair of birds \u2014 red - crested cardinals . screens at really raw honey , 3725 gough st . , have bumblebees .\n19 cm ; 29\u00b75\u201344 g . a medium - sized passerine with striking red or reddish head and long erectile crest ( can be raised to look shaggy , or flattened to look more . . .\nto add privacy , window screens were sometimes painted over with pictures of idyllic rural scenes : red - roofed cottages with winding paths and ponds with swans . in their mid - 20th century heyday , painted screens might have covered 200 , 000 windows around baltimore , according to elaine eff , author of\nthe painted screens of baltimore .\nthe tanager family is among the most brightly colored family of birds in the world . just about every shade of color imaginable is shown by this family , especially in the glittering plumages of tangara genus species in south america . the plumages of north american species are mostly red , yellow , and black , the females with duller yellow - olive coloration .\nmy husband and i just got back from an incredible vacation to maui ! one of the very best days we had was our private road to hana trip with beth of explore maui nature . it was just the three of us and we had a perfect day ! beth knows all of the best places to stop to learn about the area and for fabulous photo opportunities . i think between my husband and i , we took about 200 pictures . gotta love digital photography ! we saw painted eucalyptus trees , black and red sand beaches , and a whole gathering of sea turtles who had come ashore for their daily rest . we had a nice picnic lunch that beth put together and snacks from her special snack drawer in the back of her very comfortable tour van ! we learned a lot about the history of the area and about the birds , trees and flowers . and did i mention this was a private tour ! i highly recommend for couples , families and other small groups that want more of a personal experience that doesn ' t always come with the bigger tour companies . if you are planning a trip to maui and want to do the road to hana , i highly recommend beth from explore maui nature . so glad we didn ' t try to do this drive ourselves . it ' s definitely much more enjoyable letting someone else navigate this very winding and narrow road while you just sit back and enjoy ! thanks again beth ! it was a day we will never forget .\nmy wife and i did the road to hana tour and the doors off helicopter tour with explore maui nature and it was the highlight of our maui vacation ! beth and wayne are so much fun and so cool to hang out with . they are so laid back and fun that you feel like you ' ve known them for years . beth knew everything there was to know about maui on the road to hana and she knew all the sweet spots to stop at and all the lame ones to skip . you would never know where to go if you were on your own and all the spots we hit were amazing ! ! red sand beach was my favorite by far but the bamboo forrest was a close second . great food stands , beautiful scenery and a great tour guide there whole way . . . it was amazing . the van was super comfy and nice too . it was a brand new mercedes sprinter van with crazy good air conditioning and an awesome snack drawer . you ' ll see what i mean . ; ) the doors off helicopter tour with wayne was unbelievable ! we got so see so many cool places and with the doors off it ' s like a whole different adventure . we ' ve done helicopter tours before in vegas and the grand canyon but the doors off tour is the way to go ! so fun and you get so close to the waterfalls that you actually get a little wet ! thanks to beth and wayne for making this the best vacation we ' ve ever had !\nauthors : amanda linn , kevin j . burns , and casey h . richart\nlinn , a . , k . j . burns , and c . h . richart ( 2015 ) .\n) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' fairly common ' ( stotz et al . ( 1996 ) , while the population in japan has been estimated at c . 100 - 10 , 000 introduced breeding pairs ( brazil 2009 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ntoday ' s hours : 8 a . m . to 7 p . m . last admittance 6 p . m .\nhead to freedom plaza for the fast & the fierce 5k and fun run . then , make your way to the zoo for an after - party on the great meadow !\nshow the animal lover in your life how big your heart is with the gift that supports animal care and conservation .\nsplash into fun with nature cubs summer preschool classes ! attend the beach buddies series starting july 10 , or pick a weekend class about elephants , monkeys , pandas and other zoo favorites .\nit is a common sight in hawaii and puerto rico , where it has been introduced .\nsmithsonian\u2019s national zoo & conservation biology institute 3001 connecticut ave . , nw washington , dc 20008\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na light gray bill and gray legs and feet . it mainly feeds on plant seeds , fruits , berries and insects . it has an undulating flight . sexes are similar .\nthe tanagers are one of the one hundred eighteen families of birds in the order passeriformes ( pronounced pas - ser - i - for - meez ) ; a large taxonomic order that also includes the cardinals and grosbeaks , the old world orioles , and the new world blackbirds .\nthe tanager family , thraupidae ( pronounced thrau - pih - dee ) , is a large family composed of three hundred and ninety - six species in one hundred and two genera restricted to the americas .\nthere are seventy species of thraupidae in twenty - four genera that occur in north america . included among these species are the scarlet tanager , bush - tanagers , and the spindalis species of the caribbean .\nthe tanagers are small to medium - sized birds with medium length tails , fairly long wings , medium length legs with strong feet , and medium length fairly stout bills .\nin north america , members of the thraupidae occur in forested areas from southern canada south into mexico . in the united states and canada , the scarlet tanager occurs in eastern deciduous forests and is mostly replaced by the summer tanager in the southeast and the western tanager in western coniferous forests . the hepatic tanager also occurs in southwestern coniferous forests , other tanager species in the united states being vagrants or introduced .\na few tanager species in north america are long distance migrants to central and south america .\nthe north american tanager species are solitary birds on their breeding grounds , but often migrate in flocks and join mixed flocks on their tropical wintering grounds . most species are arboreal birds that often occur high up in the canopy where they slowly forage for invertebrates and also take fruit .\nthe north american members of this family are not threatened , although a few species in south america are threatened by habitat destruction .\nthe summer tanager eats a great deal of bees , often taking them right from their nests without too much apparent discomfort from their stings . although the stings may not bother it too much , the summer tanager does not enjoy eating the stingers because it is often seen rubbing the stinger off on a branch before swallowing the bee .\n\u00a9 2002 - 2013 urltoken all rights reserved . mitch waite group . no part of this web site may be reproduced without written permission from mitch waite group . privacy policy\nsimilar to the upper part of the human neck , located at the back of the crown .\nthe front part of the head consisting of the bill , eyes , cheeks and chin .\nare white . bill is light gray . sexes are similar . juvenile resembles adult ; has brown head and upperbreast .\ne bolivia ( santa cruz , locally also s beni ) , s & se brazil ( sw mato grosso , w mato grosso do sul and s rio grande do sul ) , w & c paraguay , n argentina ( s to c la pampa and c buenos aires ) and uruguay . introduced to hawaiian is and se brazil ( mainly s\u00e3o paulo ) .\nsong sweet , melodious and slowly delivered , often a repetitive series of alternating notes before . . .\ntakes variety of foods , from seeds and berries to insects , also young shoots , and fruit fallen on ground . forages usually on ground , also . . .\nseason sept\u2013mar . nest cup - shaped , made from fibres and fine stems , lined with rootlets and hair , placed 1\u00b79\u20135 m from . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . common to abundant ; often the most common and conspicuous species in the local avifauna . has large range and is under no immediate . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nin past , included in a much broader emberizidae . probably sister to cardinalidae , with these two perhaps sister to mitrospingidae # r # r # r # r . family limits and internal structure extensively revised in recent years on basis of numerous genetic studies # r # r # r # r # r # r . these have led to subdivision into 15 subfamilies , as well as numerous other notable changes ( as compared to hbw ) including : relocation herein of parkerthraustes and saltator from cardinalidae , and of charitospiza , coryphaspiza , embernagra , emberizoides , incaspiza , porphyrospiza , tiaris , euneornis , loxipasser , loxigilla , melanospiza , certhidea , platyspiza , pinaroloxias , geospiza , volatinia , coryphospingus , rhodospingus , sporophila , piezorina , xenospingus , poospiza , donacospiza , sicalis , phrygilus , nesospiza , rowettia , melanodera , haplospiza , acanthidops , idiopsar , catamenia , lophospingus , diuca , gubernatrix and paroaria from emberizidae ( = passerellidae ) ; and also removal of chlorophonia and euphonia to fringillidae , of rhodinocichla to rhodinocichlidae , of chlorospingus to passerellidae , of phaenicophilus to phaenicophilidae , of spindalis to spindalidae , of nesospingus to nesospingidae , of calyptophilus to calyptophilidae , of lamprospiza , mitrospingus and orthogonys to mitrospingidae , and of habia , chlorothraupis and piranga to cardinalidae . generic limits within family also extensively revised , and associated sequence of species followed herein # r .\n\u201ccore tanagers\u201d , with over 100 species , including a clade most members of which ( lophospingus , diuca , gubernatrix , paroaria ) were previously treated in emberizidae and one species ( pseudosaltator rufiventris ) previously treated in cardinalidae # r .\npreviously classified in emberizidae , but forms a well - supported thraupine clade with lophospingus , neothraupis , diuca , gubernatrix , stephanophorus , cissopis and schistochlamys # r # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\na foraging adult on the ground , while a foraging juvenile is walking past .\njosep del hoyo , anna motis , joe angseesing , luis lorente , martin manassero , pieter de groot boersma , keith blomerley , antonio silveira , greg baker , barry attridge , alvaro riccetto , carlos gussoni .\nantonio silveira , santiago meligeni lozano , carlos gussoni , marvinhyett , caduagne , batitu , richardgreenhalgh031 , horacio luna , jacob . wijpkema , annabelle watts , tom dudones , r\u00e9mi bigonneau , holger teichmann , eduardo de juana , jorgeschlemmer , bill benish , leandro herrainz , paul bartlett , samantha klein , daniel field , luiz cavalcanti damasceno , christophe gouraud , lindolfo souto , dannie polley , juanjaimemg , mascarallot , ken havard , cristiano crolle , socktopus , ossewa , jacqueserard , dani valverde , josef widmer , raniero massoli - novelli , netosevero , paul van giersbergen , alvaro riccetto , miguel andina , hickson fergusson , manakincarmelo , tomas grim , alessandro abreu , jomacomo , juan carlos melillo , silvia vitale , lena . avonavi , markus lilje , erkki lehtovirta , marco valentini .\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\ndog , ( canis lupus familiaris ) , domestic mammal of the family canidae ( order carnivora ) . it is a subspecies\u2026\nlook for this bird traveling in family groups . if you see a bird with a brown crest and black bill , it ' s a juvenile . observe the unique interaction of the juvenile with the parents . often , the juveniles will wait for the adult to pick up the food and give it to them , even though they are the same size !\nwhere to find on campus : st . john courtyard has several nests and juveniles are usually seen in the median in front of the building .\npurple finch ( carpodacus purpureus ) , breeding in forests of northern u . those in the far north of canada migrate to southern u . they are in decline due to competition from the house finch and house sparrow .\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\nexplore maui nature offers private interactive road to hana and haleakala tours , where you can experience your surroundings instead of just sightseeing . - swim in a waterfall , jump in the ocean , explore a secret lava tube , taste the best local banana bread on the planet , and so much more ! we also offer the only bird watching tour on island , an amazing doors - off helicopter experience and hiking options . with your own biologist as tour guide , take the best photos ( and let us photograph you ! ) and experience maui ' s flora / fauna , history , culture , legends and more !\ni got back from hawaii a few days ago , and one of the best days of my trip was doing the birding tour with explore maui nature . i would highly recommend it to any birder / bird - watcher / naturalist going to maui . we had a small group , as well as amazing accommodations . beth did a great job showing us the local hotspots , as well . . .\ndrew , thank you for this nice review ! your bird knowledge and enthusiasm . . . impressive beyond words ! thanks for sharing the day birding and good luck in your quest to bird the world ! it was such a great day !\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content .\nthis temple is located at the\nvalley of the temples\nmemorial park . it is one of the interesting buildings located here , so if you have the time , please check out the other areas . the byodo - in temple is as fascinating as it is peaceful to the eye and soul . off to the left ( as you are facing the building ) is a . . .\nwe are so happy you found your visit peaceful . thank you so much for visiting the temple .\nthis june 8 , 2014 photo shows amanda smit - peters showing an example of painted window screens in the highlandtown neighborhood of baltimore . smit - peters , main street manager for the neighborhood , is working with local artists to bring back the urban folk art of painted screens . they were popular in the 20th century as a way to keep people walking by on the street from seeing inside baltimore\u2019s row house windows . ( ap photo / beth j . harpaz )\nthis june 8 , 2014 photo shows amanda smit - peters showing an example of painted window screens in the highlandtown neighborhood of baltimore . smit - peters , main street manager for the neighborhood , is working with local artists to bring back the urban folk art of painted screens . they were popular in the 20th century as a way to keep people walking by on the street from seeing inside baltimore\u2019s row house windows . ( ap photo / beth j . harpaz ) ( the associated press )\nbaltimore ( ap ) \u2014 baltimore is known for its row houses \u2014 modest brick buildings lining sidewalks so narrow , you can see right through the front windows into people ' s homes .\nthey used to be everywhere ,\nshe said .\nit was the coolest thing . every house might have a dozen painted screens .\nnow eff and others in baltimore , from artists to community development groups , are reviving this simple urban folk art . in some neighborhoods , businesses hire artists to create customized screens for storefronts . you can also find the occasional vintage screen in a window on a quiet street , faded but attesting to the tradition ' s authenticity . if you ' re inside a house , you can see out through the screens ; you just can ' t see in from the street .\nbaltimore ' s american visionary art museum has a permanent exhibit about painted screens with a documentary and re - creation of a row house . the painted screen society of baltimore \u2014 urltoken \u2014 hosts events promoting the art , sells a $ 5 map of where to find screens and can arrange customized tours . or go hunting on your own along elliot street in the canton neighborhood between conkling and linwood , or on eastern avenue in the vicinity of gough street in highlandtown urltoken . you can buy ready - made hand - painted screens at razzo , a home decor store in hampden ( 911 w . 36th st . ) , or for do - it - yourselfers , the painted screen society sells a how - to dvd .\neff says there are about 1 , 000 painted screens in homes now , and credits the centennial of the tradition , marked last year , with revitalizing the custom .\nit ' s growing , and that ' s the beauty of it ,\neff said .\nit was where popular culture met the immigrant mind ,\neff said .\npeople said it was a longing for the homeland , but that ' s not true . it was just , ' isn ' t it nice to have that greenery , that country scene , ' or ' i ' d rather be in the country than in the middle of the city . ' people would ask oktavec , ' is this where you used to live ? ' and he ' d say , ' no , people just hand me greeting cards or calendars with pictures they want . '\nhighlandtown resident monica broere , a retired public school art teacher , paints screens that include bold , abstract graphic elements , but she also winks at the old motifs by including swans .\ni ' ve been painting screens but my own way \u2014 traditional and contemporary ,\nshe says .\nsome people collect vintage screens . highlandtown resident christopher fugate says he has close to 40 .\ni ' ve loved them since i was a kid ,\nhe said .\neff says the screens are as much a part of baltimore as the city ' s row houses .\nas long as there is a row house ,\nshe said ,\npeople will have a need for privacy and painted screens .\nthis list shows both native and introduced species that you may see at k\u012blauea point or the surrounding area . most introduced birds were intentionally brought in for various reasons such as food sources , their songs , and pest control . other non - natives are a result of escape from captivity . many of the song birds were brought to hawai ` i in the early 1900s to bring birdsong back into areas that had become silent due to the disappearance of native forest birds through deforestation and urbanization .\nhawaii\u2019s state bird , the n\u0113n\u0113 , is an endangered species and considered to be the rarest goose in the world . re - introduction efforts , coupled with good management practices on the refuge and throughout the islands , are helping to increase the population . k\u012blauea point nwr was the location of one of the first re - introduction efforts on kauai in the nineteen nineties , and since that time the population on the refuge has grown steadily . visitors out to the point are regularly treated to up - close views of nene and , during the breeding season , even their goslings too .\nthe pueo is an endemic species of owl that can sometimes be spotted by visitors hunting over the open areas at k\u012blauea point . unlike most owl species , the pueo hunts in the daytime , though it is known to hunt at night too . though it feeds primarily on small rodents and insects , it does not turn its beak up at seabirds and nene on the refuge . the other species of owl seen in hawaii is the introduced barn owl . it is larger than the pueo and primarily hunts at night . in hawaiian culture the is revered as an important guardian spirit or aumakua .\nthe pacific golden - plover , or k\u014dlea , in hawaiian , is a shorebird that migrates to and from hawaii each year . in august it makes a non - stop , 72 - hour flight from its breeding grounds in the arctic to hawaii where it spends the winter . this little flyer travels from 5000 - 13 , 000 km one - way , depending on where in the pacific it will overwinter .\nthis is the smaller of the dove species found in hawai ` i and is also called barred dove . it was introduced in 1922 from malaysia and is now probably one of the most common lowland birds in the islands . the stripes on the chest and belly are the giveaway for its name .\nthe java finch , also known as java rice bird , is native to indonesia . it was first introduced into hawai ` i in the mid - 1860\u2019s but the introduction failed . about a hundred years later , in 1960 , they were brought in again and this time it was successful . java rice birds became popular cage birds in the us in the 60\u2019s and 70\u2019s but not long after that they were banned because they were classified as an agricultural pest .\nin hawai ` i this little green bird is commonly called by its japanese name \u201cmejiro . \u201d it was brought to oahu in 1929 and is common throughout all of the islands now from sea level all the way up into the forest . it is a busy little bird that rarely sits still , feeding on insects , nectar and fruit . its presence in native forest bird habitat is problematic as it competes with native forest birds for food and can spread the seeds of invasive weeds into important native habitat .\nowner description : explore maui nature offers private interactive road to hana and haleakala tours , where you can experience your surroundings instead of just sightseeing . - swim in a waterfall , jump in the ocean , explore a secret lava tube , taste the best local banana bread on the planet , and so much more ! we also offer the only bird watching tour on island , an amazing doors - off helicopter experience and hiking options . with your own biologist as tour guide , take the best photos ( and let us photograph you ! ) and experience maui ' s flora / fauna , history , culture , legends and more !\ni really enjoyed the birding tour on maui with beth . an experienced biologist , beth is the perfect combination of scientist , teacher , and story - teller . she mixed her knowledge about the flora and fauna of maui with her understanding of hawaiian legends . the various landscapes one sees on this tour also make it worth the price . from the summit of haleakala to the birds of the wetlands below , you see the geographical changes and gain different perspectives of maui . i saw a nice variety of birds that i would not have seen on my own . not to mention , beth is - - in addition to smart and insightful - - so personable that you ' ll want to hang out with her for coffee or a drink . a couple days after my tour , beth saw me walking in kihei and she and her husband pulled over to say hello . i was as excited to see her as i would have been an old friend ; she has that kind of charisma ! if you ' re going to spend a day touring the island , i encourage you to do it with someone who is fun to be around and has the education and experience to give you the value you want on a tour . whether you are a birder or not , this is a great way to see maui !\nthis hike is definitely a\nbucket list\nhike , and beth and her team made the process seamless . she ' s very knowledgeable and took great care of us during this challenging hike . great service , and great experience !\nthank you so much leanne for taking the time to write us a review ! high five for checking that hike off the list . it ' s a great one . . . thanks for tackling it with us !\nown or manage this property ? claim your listing for free to respond to reviews , update your profile and much more ."]}
{"id": 3, "summary": [{"text": "poritidae is a family of stony corals .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "members of the family are colonial hermatypic ( reef-building ) corals .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they are variable in size and form but most are massive , laminar or ramose as well as branching and encrusting .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the corallites are compact with very little coenosteum covering the skeleton .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the walls of the corallites and the septa are porous .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "j.e.n. veron considers the family is not a natural grouping but is a miscellaneous collection of genera that do not fit well elsewhere . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "poritidae", "paragraphs": ["family poritidae ( enter poritidae or species in search bar ) on the iucn red list of threatened species website : technical fact sheet .\ndiagnostic morphological characters among genera in the family poritidae are summarized in table 2 .\nmolecular phylogenetic relationships of the family poritidae and related families based on mitochondrial coi sequences .\nmolecular phylogenetic relationships of genera of the poritidae except of alveopora based on its sequences .\nspecies delimitation in the coral genus goniopora ( scleractinia , poritidae ) from the saudi arabian red sea .\ncomparison of the diagnostic morphological characters between the previous classifications and the classification used in this study in the family poritidae .\nand related species ( scleractinia : poritidae ) in japan based on molecular and morphological data . zool stud 52 : 25\nspecies delimitation in the coral genus goniopora ( scleractinia , poritidae ) from the saudi arabian red sea . - pubmed - ncbi\nmolecular phylogenetic relationships of genera of the poritidae except of < i > alveopora < / i > based on its sequences .\n. thus , the presence of 24 septa would seem to be an ancestral feature in the poritidae . the fact that taxa in the family dendrophylliidae , the closest related outgroup of the poritidae , have more than 24 septa would appear to support this .\nfamily poritidae and alveropora species on reef corals of the indo - malayan seas , the marine species identification portal : technical fact sheet .\n, a new genus and new species of scleractinian coral ( scleractinia , poritidae ) from the gulf of oman . zootaxa 532 : 1\u20138 .\nfamily poritidae ( select species from list ) on corals of the world online on the australian institute of marine science website : technical fact sheet .\nbernard hn ( 1903 ) the family poritidae , i : the genus goniopora . cat madreporarian corals br mus ( nat hist ) 4 : 1\u2013206 , pl 1\u201314 .\nas the only representative here , is a taxonomic and ecological isolate that , superficially , has as much in common with the primarily mesozoic actinacididae as the extant poritidae . like\n, a new species of hard coral ( scleractinia , poritidae ) from the southern red sea , the gulf of tadjoura , and the gulf of aden . zootaxa 3447 : 56\u201368 .\nbernard hn ( 1906 ) the family poritidae , ii : the genus goniopora , a supplement to vol . iv . cat madreporarian corals br mus ( nat hist ) 6 : 145\u2013173 , pl 7\u20138 , 17 .\nbernard hn ( 1905 ) the family poritidae , ii : the genus porites part i : porites of the indo - pacific region . cat madreporarian corals br mus ( nat hist ) 5 : 1\u2013303 , pl 1\u201335 .\nhoeksema , b . w . ; cairns , s . ( 2018 ) . world list of scleractinia . poritidae gray , 1842 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 196105 on 2018 - 07 - 09\nwe obtained a total of 84 sequences of its from all 5 genera in the poritidae ( table 1 ) . in this study , we excluded alveopora from its analysis because its regions were highly variable between alveopora and other genera and they were hardly aligned .\ncitation : kitano yf , benzoni f , arrigoni r , shirayama y , wallace cc , fukami h ( 2014 ) a phylogeny of the family poritidae ( cnidaria , scleractinia ) based on molecular and morphological analyses . plos one 9 ( 5 ) : e98406 . urltoken\nremarks : there are four extant genera in family poritidae , porites , goniopora , stylaraea and bernardpora gen . nov . all are zooxanthellate corals . porites is the only genus distributed throughout the tropics . others are indo - pacific . based on our results we confirm that the genus alveopora does not belong to the same lineage as the family poritidae . although a full evaluation of the position of alveopora is not completed yet , it is certain that alveopora is closely related to other genera in the family acroporidae ( [ 20 ] , this study ) .\nbernard hn ( 1906 ) the family poritidae , ii : the genus porites part ii : porites of the atlantic and west indies , with the european forms . the genus goniopora , a supplement to vol . iv . cat madreporarian corals br mus ( nat hist ) 6 : 1\u2013167 , pl 1\u201317 .\ndescription colonial , hermatypic , mostly extant . colonies usually massive , laminar or ramose . corallites have a wide size range but are usually compacted with little or no coenosteum . walls and septa are porous . poritidae is an isolated family . it is essentially a heterogeneous assembly of distantly related genera . ( veron , 1986 < 57 > ) . [ details ]\nkitano , y . f . ; benzoni , f . ; arrigoni , r . ; shirayama , y . ; wallace , c . c . ; fukami , h . ( 2014 ) . a phylogeny of the family poritidae ( cnidaria , scleractinia ) based on molecular and morphological analyses . plos one . 9 ( 5 ) : e98406 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nbernard [ 26 ] proposed that the septal formula of porites derives from that of goniopora by reduction of the third septal cycle , referring to the typical septal pattern of goniopora as the gonioporoid pattern . veron and pichon [ 15 ] showed that g . stutchburyi typically has this septal pattern ( fig . 2g ) . in this study , we proved that g . stutchburyi is a basal species of porites , and our results strongly support bernard ' s hypothesis that porites is derived from goniopora - like morphologies . this conclusion is also supported by the fossil record : goniopora extends back to the cretaceous , but porites only to the eocene [ 16 ] . thus , the presence of 24 septa would seem to be an ancestral feature in the poritidae . the fact that taxa in the family dendrophylliidae , the closest related outgroup of the poritidae , have more than 24 septa would appear to support this .\nwe obtained 69 coi sequences from all 5 genera in the poritidae with alveopora , 3 sequences from turbinaria peltata and astreopora spp . , and one from montipora venosa ( table 1 ) . a total of 473 positions were used ( 120 polymorphic sites with 109 informative sites ) and no indels were observed . a phylogenetic tree was reconstructed using these data , including sequences from genbank / ddbj ( see methods ) . siderastrea siderea was used as an outgroup , based on the phylogenetic position of the scleractinia shown by fukami et al . [ 19 ] .\nin this study , we assess the relationship of all 5 genera in the poritidae with alveopora to revise the taxonomy , and infer the morphological changes in the evolutional lineage in this family , using both molecular and morphological analysis . also to assess phylogenetic variation in the regional and species differences , the present study examines a large number of specimens collected with broad geographic ranges from mainly japan water to the indian ocean , covering most of common species and some uncommon and rare species , together with the genetic data of porites spp . from forsman et al . [ 9 ] .\nmolecular phylogenetic relationships of genera of the poritidae except of alveopora based on combined coi + its sequences . numbers on / below main branches show bootstrap values ( > 50 % ) in ml and nj analyses , and bayesian posterior probability ( > 0 . 8 ) . stars show specimens collected from western indian ocean , and triangles show ones collected from malacca strait . sample codes or accession numbers are shown after species names ( see table 1 , table s3 ) . grey in color for alveopora , green for porites , purple for stylaraea , blue for \u2018 poritipora \u2019 , and orange for \u2018 machadoporites \u2019 . goniopora is shown by bars in black . bernardpora is shown by bar in red .\ndescription colonial , hermatypic , mostly extant . colonies usually massive , laminar or ramose . corallites have a wide size range but are . . .\nveron , j . e . n . ( 1986 ) . corals of australia and the indo - pacific . angus & robertson publishers , london . [ details ]\nveron jen . ( 2000 ) . corals of the world . vol . 1\u20133 . australian institute of marine science and crr , queensland , australia . [ details ]\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncopyright : \u00a9 2014 kitano et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : financial support was provided by a grant to h . f . from grant - in - aid for scientific research ( b ) ( no . 223070033 ) and by sasagawa science research grant from the japan science society ( 23\u2013515 ) . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\na : indian and pacific ocean , b : southern red sea , gulf of tadjoura and gulf of aden ; c\u2013e : main island of japan and ryukyu archipelago . ad : aden , yemen , ak : akajima island , japan , am : amakusa , japan , ao : amami - oshima , japan , ba : bir ali , yemen , bu : al mukallah , yemen , dj : djibouti , ik : iki island , japan , ir : iriomote island or hatoma island , japan , is : ishigaki island or taketomi island , japan , ka : kamaran islands , yemen , kk : kikai island , japan ks : kushimoto , japan , mi : miyako island , japan , my : mayotte island , france , ot : ootuki , japan , ou : oura bay , japan , pen : song song island , malaysia , so : suou - oshima , japan , sr : shirahama , japan , ss : sesoko island , japan , tn : tanegashima island , japan , tr : nakanoshima island , japan\nlist of samples examined in this study and the accession numbers of dna sequences .\na small sample ( less than 1 cm 3 ) of each specimen was put in chaos solution to dissolve the tissues or fixed in 99 % ethanol . total dna was extracted from chaos solution using the phenol / chloroform extraction method [ 61 ] , and from the coral tissues preserved in ethanol using the dneasy blood & tissue kit ( qiagen ) . the barcoding region of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit i ( coi ) was amplified by the polymerase chain reaction ( pcr ) using the primers zco1 and zco1r [ 9 ] . the nuclear ribosomal its region ( its ) including the 3\u2032 end of the 18s rrna , its - 1 , 5 . 8s , its - 2 , and the 5\u2032 end of the 28s rrna was also amplified by pcr using the primers 1s and 2ss [ 62 ] . the pcr condition for these two markers was 94\u00b0c for 30 seconds followed by 30 or 35 cycles at 94\u00b0c for 30 seconds , 55\u00b0c or 60\u00b0c for 45 seconds , and 72\u00b0c for 90 seconds , with a final phase of 72\u00b0c for 5 minutes . for the mitochondrial region , pcr products were treated with shrimp alkaline phosphatase ( sap ) and exonuclease i ( exoi ) at 37\u00b0c for 40 minutes followed by 80\u00b0c for 20 minutes . the dna sequences were then determined via a direct sequence method , using abi3730 or abi310 sequencer . pcr products of the nuclear marker were also directly sequenced , but when obtained sequences had more than double peaks in the chromatogram , they were sub - cloned into ta - vector ( promega ) or topo10 ( invitrogen ) and sequenced using abi3730 or abi310 . all dna sequences obtained in this study were submitted to ddbj ( accession no . ab906942\u2013ab907101 , listed in table 1 ) .\nin addition , we combined coi and its data and analyzed them with same methods as each marker using the gtr + i + g model for the nucleotide substitution ( the average standard deviation of split frequencies after 1 . 0\u00d710 6 generations was 0 . 009909 ) .\nthe electronic edition of this article conforms to the requirements of the amended international code of zoological nomenclature , and hence the new names contained herein are available under that code from the electronic edition of this article . this published work and the nomenclatural acts it contains have been registered in zoobank , the online registration system for the iczn . the zoobank lsids ( life science identifiers ) can be resolved and the associated information viewed through any standard web browser by appending the lsid to the prefix \u201c urltoken \u201d . the lsid for this publication is : urn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 6975d790 - 3a4f - 466a - abfa - d922e6675b4b . the electronic edition of this work was published in a journal with an issn , and has been archived and is available from the following digital repositories : pubmed central , lockss .\ntwenty samples of alveopora and 58 samples of goniopora were analyzed in this study ( table 1 ) . although a few species have species - specific polyps , such as goniopora albiconus , polyp characters vary greatly in the field . for example , terete tentacles , a typical polyp character of g . tenuidens , are also seen in g . burgosi .\nall 7 specimens of stylaraea punctata were found in very shallow water ( 1 m ) on a sandy beach in aakajima island , okinawa , japan ( fig . 1 ) . notably , all of them were attached to dead coral skeletons of the genus acropora . their size is very small ( less 1 cm ) and they have only 5 or 6 corallites . tentacle and septal numbers were both 12 in all of them ( fig . 2a\u2013d ) .\na\u2013b . stylaraea punctata ak93 , mufs yfk1244 , akajima island , japan . c\u2013d . s . punctata ak92 , mufs yfk1243 , akajima island , japan . e\u2013h . bernardpora stutchburyi ss21g mufs yfk220 , sesoko , japan . living specimen for whole colonies ( a , e ) and polyps ( b , f ) , corallite structures ( c , g ) , and star - shaped columella ( d , h ) . arrows show columella . bars show 1 mm for ( c ) and ( g ) , and 0 . 5 mm for ( d ) and ( h ) .\nporitipora paliformis veron , 2000 has 24 septa with typically 2 septal cycles ( long and short ) , 6 pali and no columella reported in the literature [ 24 ] . two samples we collected in taketomi island , japan ( first record in the pacific ocean ) had no elongating polyps in the field and had a cellular appearance ( fig . 3a ) , which is a feature of p . paliformis , as shown in veron [ 1 ] , [ 24 ] . the skeletal morphologies are also consistent in the literature , although the second cycle is not well developed in some corallites ; however , many had 24 septa with 2 cycles ( fig . 3b ) . therefore , we identified these 2 samples as p . paliformis . this species was described in veron [ 1 ] without designating type material , and then it was redescribed [ 24 ] designating the holotype . however , the hototype of this species is not valid following iczn [ 74 ] , and the specimens listed in veron [ 1 ] are regarded as part of the syntype series . therefore , the holotype of this species listed in veron [ 24 ] is to be considered a lectotype .\nliving specimens and corallite structures for p . paliformis is48 , mufs yfk959 , taketomi , japan ( a , b ) and m . tantillus ad068 , unimbi ad068 , aden , yemen ( e , f ) , respectively . corallite structures of holotypes of p . paliformis mtq g55857 ( c ) and goniopora minor nhmuk 1934 . 5 . 14 . 436 no . 56 ( d ) . corallites structures of g . burgosi ot6 , mufs yfk286 , otsuki , japan ( g ) and g . pendulus tn11 , mufs yfk243 , tanegashima , japan ( h ) from japan water , as examples of corallites with less 24 septa . bars show 1 mm .\nfour specimens collected in the gulf of aden ( fig . 3ef ) , which is near the type locality of machadoporites tantillus ( claereboudt & al - amri , 2004 ) , were identified as m . tantillus because they are consistent with the original description of this species [ 23 ] .\nnumbers on / below main branches show bootstrap values ( > 50 % ) in ml and nj analyses , and bayesian posterior probability ( > 0 . 8 ) . stars show specimens collected from western indian ocean , and triangles show ones collected from malacca strait . sample codes or accession numbers are shown after species names ( see table 1 , table s3 ) . grey in color for alveopora , green for porites , purple for stylaraea , blue for \u2018 poritipora \u2019 , and orange for \u2018 machadoporites \u2019 . goniopora is shown by bars in black . bernardpora is shown by bar in red .\nall samples of alveopora are genetically distant from all other poritids ( p - distance 0 . 08\u20130 . 10 ) , but closely related to the family acroporidae ( 0 . 06 ) . the phylogenetic position of alveopora is unclear due to low bootstrap values , but it forms a sister group with astreopora spp . in addition , sequences from t . peltata ( family dendrophylliidae ) form a sister clade of all poritids except alveopora and are positioned between alveopora and the other poritids .\nthe phylogenetic relationships among porites , goniopora , stylaraea , poritipora , and machadoporites were inferred using its ( fig . 5 ) . the 68 porites sequences from forsman et al . [ 9 ] and 26 goniopora sequences from kitano et al . [ 13 ] were also added for this analysis ( see table s3 ) . a total of 347 positions were used ( 108 polymorphic sites with 89 informative sites ) . this its tree also showed similar topology to the coi tree as described above . in particular , stylaraea punctata and g . stutchburyi are sister taxa . poritipora paliformis formed a clade with g . minor and g . columna . one specimen of g . minor in the poritipora clade is from the western indian ocean and others are from japan . machadoporites tantillus formed a clade with g . somaliensis and another 3 species ( g . cf . somaliensis , g . sp . 1 , and g . sp . 2 ) , all of which were collected from the western indian ocean . other western indian ocean specimens ( g . albiconus , g . ciliatus ) and malacca strait specimens ( g . albiconus , g . pendulus ) were included in a major clade of goniopora spp . meanwhile , species relationships of goniopora were less resolved because porites and goniopora have many indels in their rdna sequences and phylogenetic information sites were largely excluded .\nletter ( a , b , c , d ) after sample code indicates that different alleles were obtained from a single coral sample by cloning . numbers on / below main branches show bootstrap values ( > 50 % ) in ml and nj analyses , and bayesian posterior probability ( > 0 . 8 ) . stars show specimens collected from western indian ocean , and triangles show ones collected from malacca strait . sample codes or accession numbers are shown after species names ( see table 1 ) . green in color for porites , purple for stylaraea , blue for \u2018 poritipora \u2019 , orange for \u2018 machadoporites \u2019 , red for bernardpora , and black for goniopora .\nthe tree using combined data of coi and its showed a similar topology to the one for its ( fig . s1 ) .\nporitipora and machadoporites are found within the goniopora lineage in all molecular phylogenetic trees . this is supported by morphology . machadoporites differs from goniopora by having fewer septa ( fewer than 24 ) and smaller calices ( < 1 . 7 mm ) . however , some goniopora species can have superficially similar characters . for example , g . burgosi has typically 12\u201315 septa , as shown in the original description ( [ 51 ] , fig . 3g ) . a similar pattern is also observed in g . pendulus ( fig . 3h ) . moreover , the g . minor calices were described as 1 . 5\u20132 mm in size in the original description [ 50 ] . thus , characters such as \u201cfewer than 24 septa , \u201d and \u201csmall size calices\u201d are not enough to separate machadoporites from goniopora . in addition , m . tantillus forms a clade with g . somaliensis and other goniopora species from the western indian ocean .\nsimilar to goniopora , poritipora has 24 septa , but the 2 genera can be distinguished by the difference in the number of septal cycles : 2 in p . paliformis and 3 in goniopora . however , for several goniopora species , primary and secondary cycles of septa are equal or subequal , such as in the case of g . minor ( fig . 3d ) . therefore , the character \u201ctwo cycles of septa\u201d is not enough to separate poritipora from goniopora . in addition , p . paliformis forms a clade with g . minor and g . columna .\non the one hand , machadoporites and poritipora are considered junior synonyms of goniopora and their taxonomy is hence revised hereafter .\non the other hand , the type material of p . paliformis ( fig . 3c ) and our samples ( fig . 3b ) look similar to the type material of g . minor ( fig . 3d ) shown in crossland [ 50 ] . goniopora minor has a similar size of corallites , 12 equally sized septa for the primary and secondary cycles , small or absent septa in tertiaries , and 4\u20136 pali . the development of the columella was described as \u201clarge , \u201d but it is composed only of joined septa , which is the same pattern as that of poritipora . considering that most g . minor examined in this study ( one colony of g . minor was genetically separated ; figs . 4 and 5 ) formed a clade with p . paliformis with little genetic difference , p . paliformis may be a morphological variant of g . minor .\nbelow we propose the description of the new genus bernardpora gen . nov . and the revised diagnosis of goniopora , based on the original descriptions and subsequent information resulting from this study . see table 1 for the museum abbreviations .\ndiagnosis [ 1 ] , [ 16 ] , [ 60 ] : massive , laminar or ramose colonies ; corallites vary in size but usually small and mostly compacted closely without coenosteum , with one or two synapticular rings . walls and septa are porous . septa usually 12 to 24 . septa formed by 3 to 8 nearly vertical trabeculae , and innermost trabeculae of certain septa differentiated as pali .\ntype species : porites polymorphus link , 1807 : 163 ( = madrepora porites pallas , 1766 : 324\u2013326 , neotype : mhnnp lamarck collection no . 150 ( figured in jameson & cairns , 2012 , figs 4d , 5 ) . this specimen is also the holotype of porites clavaria lamarck , 1816 [ 78 ] , [ 80 ] )\n- neoporites duchassaing & michelotti , 1864 : 97 . type species is not fixed .\n- cosmoporites duchassaing & michelotti , 1864 : 99 . type species : cosmoporites laevigata duchassaing & michelotti , 1864 : 99 . holotype : unknown ( figured in duchassaing & michelotti , 1864 : 99 , pl . x , figs . 12 , 16 . bernard [ 79 ] described \u2018the type specimen was not found by count peracca in the turin museum\u2019 . )\n- synaraea verrill , 1864 : 42 . type species : porites erosa dana 1846 : 565\u2013566 , pl . 55 , fig . 8 . holotype : usnm 668\n- napopora quelch , 1884 : 296 . type species : napopora irregularis quelch , 1884 : 296\u2013297 . holotype : nhmuk 86 . 12 . 9 . 302 .\ndiagnosis [ 1 ] , [ 16 ] , [ 78 ] : colonies massive , ramose , laminar , or encrusting . corallites are small , immersed , circular or polygonal . calice diameter 0 . 5\u20132 . 2 mm . septa are 12 in number , composed of 1 to 4 trabeculae . the typical formula of septal arrangement in this genus , with some of its variations , is seen . pali are present , variable development in different species , usually 4\u20138 in number . mural trabeculae always present . columella trabeculae usually present with star - shaped granules . the wall is really simple , but the incipient synapticulae , seen starting from the sides of septal granules , may become complete and form an inner synapticular wall .\nremarks : distribution : indo - pacific and atlantic [ 1 ] . species number : 73 [ 1 ] , [ 15 ]\ntype species : goniopora pedunculata quoy & gaimard , 1833 : 218\u2013220 , pl . 16 , figs . 9\u201311 . the type specimen appears to be lost [ 15 ] .\n- rhodaraea mile edwards & haime , 1849 : 259 . type species : astraea calicularis , lamarck 1816 : 266 . holotype : unknown .\n- tichopora quelch , 1886 : 188 . type species : tichopora tenella quelch , 1886 : 189 , pl . 11 , figs . 1 , 1a . type specimens : nhmuk 86 . 12 . 9 . 342 .\n- poritipora veron , 2000 : 347 . type species : poritipora paliformis veron , 2000 : 347 . lectotype : mtq g55857\n- calathiscus claereboudt & al - amri , 2004 . type species : calathiscus tantillus claereboudt & al - amri , 2004 ( this species is also type species of the genus machadoporites ) . holotype : squ040001 .\n- machadoporites nem\u00e9sio , 2005 . type speices : calathiscus tantillus claereboudt & al - amri , 2004 .\nrevised diagnosis [ 1 , 16 , 26 , this study ] : massive , columnar or ramose , rarely encrusting colonies . corallites are circular or polygonal . calice diameter 1\u201310 mm . septa 24 in two or three cycles , or between 24 and 12 in two or three cycles , composed of 4 to 8 trabeculae . pali and columella may develop . columellae are composed of anastomosed septal dentations or arranged synapticula and fused inner ends of septa . wall structure is synapticulothecal . polyps usually elongate during the day ( note that g . paliformis does not elongate polyps during the day ) .\nremarks : poritipora and machadoporites are considered as junior synonyms of goniopora . distribution : indo - pacific [ 1 ] . species number : 33 [ 1 , 15 , this study ] .\ntype species : madrepora punctata linnaeus , 1758 : 795 . the specimen zmb # 956 may be syntype [ 78 ] ( examined ) .\ndiagnosis : stylaraea is a monospecific genus with only known species , s . punctata . therefore , the characters of this genus are those of s . punctata . colonies are tiny ( usually less 10 mm in size ) and from \u201ccushion - shaped crusts\u201d [ 46 ] . calices are concavate and around 1 mm diameters . septal number is 12 ( \u201c2 cycles of 6 each\u201d [ 15 ] ) without specific septal pattern . septa are composed of rows of star - shaped granules . primary septa may reach to collumellae . columella is composed of a star - shaped central rod such as porites or bernaldopora . wall structure is synapticulothecal .\nremarks : distribution : indo - pacific [ 1 ] . species number : 1\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 9c2fe523 - a491 - 45ae - bc22 - b528ca68c040\ntype species : goniopora stutchburyi wells , 1955 : 11 , pl . 1 , figs 1\u20132 ; holotype : mtq g2931 ( examined )\netymology : the generic name is in honor of the coral scientist henry m . bernard .\nsummary of the diagnostic morphological characters for species identification of the genus goniopora . original descriptions are shown in bold .\nsummary of the diagnostic morphological characters for species identification of the genus alveopora . original descriptions are shown in bold .\nlist of poritid samples and accession numbers for coi and its , referred from previous study .\nconceived and designed the experiments : yk hf . performed the experiments : yk . analyzed the data : yk . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : yk hf fb ra cw ys . wrote the paper : yk hf fb .\nveron jen ( 2000 ) corals of the world . vol . 3 . townsville : australian institute of 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( 2007 ) debating phylogenetic relationships of the scleractinian\n( cnidaria , anthozoa , scleractinia ) and description of a new family through combined morphologic and molecular analyses . system biodivers 10 : 417\u2013433 doi :\nkitahara mv , cairns sd , stolarski j , blair d , miller dj ( 2010 ) a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of the scleractinia ( cnidaria , anthozoa ) based on mitochondrial co1 sequence data . plos one 5 : e11490 doi :\nbudd af , fukami h , smith nd , knowlton n ( 2012 ) taxonomic classification of the reef coral family mussidae ( cnidaria : anthozoa : scleractinia ) . zool j linn soc 166 : 465\u2013529 .\nbudd af , stolarski j ( 2009 ) searching for new morphological characters in the systematics of scleractinian reef corals : comparison of septal teeth and granules between atlantic and pacific mussidae . acta zoologica 90 : 142\u2013165 .\nbudd af , stolarski j ( 2011 ) corallite wall and septal microstructure in scleractinian reef corals : comparison of molecular clades within the family faviidae . j morphol 272 : 66\u201388 .\nlamark jbpade ( 1816 ) histoire naturelle des animaux sans vert\u00e8bres . paris 2 : 1\u2013568 .\nmilne edwards h , haime j ( 1851 ) monographie des polypiers fossiles des terrains palaeozo\u00efque . arch mus hist natur , paris 5 : 1\u2013502 .\nmilne edwards h ( 1860 ) histoire naturelle des coralliaires ou polypes proprement dits . 3 : 1\u2013560 .\nverrill ae ( 1864 ) list of the polyps and corals sent by the museum of comparative zoology to other institutions in exchange , with annotations . bull mus comp zool harv college 1 : 29\u201360 .\nquelch jj ( 1886 ) report on the reef - corals collected by h . m . s . challenger during the years 1873 - 76 . rep sci results voyage hms challenger zool 16 : 1\u2013203 , pl 1\u201312 .\nortmann a ( 1888 ) studien \u00fcber systematik und geographische verbreitung der steinkorallen . zool jahrb abt syst geogr biol tiere 3 : 143\u2013188 , pl . 6 .\nbasett - smith pw ( 1890 ) report on the corals from the lizard and macclesfield banks , china sea . ann mag nat hist ser 6 : 353\u201374 .\nsaville - kent w ( 1891 ) notes on new and little known australian madreporaceae . rec aust mus 1 : 123\u2013124 .\nsaville - kent w ( 1893 ) the great barrier reef of australia . its products and potentialities . london : wh allen & co . 387 p .\na supplement to vol . iv . cat madreporarian corals br mus ( nat hist ) 6 : 145\u2013173 , pl 7\u20138 , 17 .\nbedot m ( 1907 ) madr\u00e9poraires d ' amboine . rev suisse zool 15 : 143\u2013292 , pl . 5\u201350 .\nvaughan tw ( 1907 ) some madreporarian corals from french smaliland , east africa , collected by dr . charles gravier . proc us nat mus 32 : 249\u2013266 , pl 17\u201328 .\nvaughan tw ( 1918 ) some shoal - water corals from murray islands ( australia ) , cocos - keeling islands and fanning island . pap dep mar biol carnegie inst wash 9 : 51\u2013234 , pl 20\u201393 .\nhoffmeister je ( 1925 ) some corals from american samoa and the fiji islands . pap dep mar biol carnegie inst wash 22 : 1\u201390 .\nfaustino la ( 1927 ) recent madreporaria of the philippine islands . ber sci manila monogr 22 : 1\u2013310 . pl . 1\u2013100 .\n. great barrier reef exped 1928\u201329 : sci rep br mus ( nat hist ) 6 : 85\u2013257 , pl 1\u201356 .\nnemenzo f ( 1955 ) systematic studies on philippine shallow water scleractinians : i . suborder fungiida . natur appl sci bull 15 : 3\u201384 , pl 1\u201314 .\nwells jw ( 1955 ) recent and subfossil corals of moreton bay queensland . univ queensl pap dep geol 4 : 1\u201318 , pl 1\u20133 .\neguchi m ( 1965 ) scleractinia . in : uchida k & uchida t , editors . new illustrated encyclopedia of the fauna of japan 1 . tokyo : hokuruyu - kan . pp . 270\u2013296 .\neguchi m ( 1968 ) the hydrocorals and scleractinian corals of sagami bay collected by his majesty the emperor of japan . tokyo : maruzen co ltd . 221 p .\nwells jw ( 1968 ) notes on indo - pacific scleractinian corals . v . a new species of\nrosen brr , taylor jd ( 1969 ) reef coral from aldabra : new mode of reproduction . science 166 : 119\u2013121 .\nveron jen ( 1985 ) new scleractinia from australian coral reefs . rec west aust mus 12 : 147\u2013183 .\nveron jen ( 1990 ) new scleractinia from japan and other indo - west pacific countries . galaxea 9 : 95\u2013173 .\nnishihira m , veron jen ( 1995 ) hermatypic corals of japan . tokyo : kaiyusha . 440 p . ( in japanese )\nwallace cc , fellegara i , muir pr , harrison pl ( 2009 ) recent and fossil corals of moreton bay , s . e . queensland . mem queensl mus 54 : 1\u2013118 .\nfukami h , budd af , levitan dr , jara j , kersanach r , et al . ( 2004 ) geographic defferences in species boundaries among members of the\nwei nwv , wallace cc , dai cf , pillay krm , chen ca ( 2006 ) analyses of the ribosomal internal transcribed spacers ( its ) and the 5 . 8s gene indicate that extremely high rdna heterogeneity is a unique feature in the scleractinian coral genus\nvan oppen mjh , catmull j , mcdonald bj , hislop nr , hagerman pj , et al . ( 2002 ) the mitochondrial genome of\n( cnidaria ; scleractinia ) contains a large group i intron and a candidate control region . j mol evol 55 : 1\u201313 .\nshearer tl , coffroth ma ( 2008 ) dna barcoding : barcoding corals : limited by interspecific divergence , not intraspecific variation . mol ecol resour 8 : 247\u2013255 .\ntseng c - c , wallace cc , chen ca ( 2005 ) mitogenomic analysis of montipora cactus and anacropora matthai ( cnidaria ; scleractinia ; acroporidae ) indicates an unequal rate of mitochondrial evolution among acroporidae corals . coral reefs 24 : 502\u2013508 .\ngouy m , guindon s , gascuel o ( 2010 ) seaview version 4 : a multiplatform graphical user interface for sequence alignment and phylogenetic tree building . mol biol evol 27 : 221\u2013224 .\nkatoh k , standley dm ( 2011 ) mafft multiple sequence alignment software version 7 : improvements in performance and usability . mol biol evol 30 : 772\u2013780 .\ntamura k , dudly j , nei m , kumar s ( 2007 ) mega4 : molecular evolutionary genetics analysis ( mega ) software version 4 . 0 . mol biol evol 24 : 1596\u20131599 .\nswofford dl ( 2002 ) paup * . phylogenetic analysis using parsimony ( * and other methods ) , version 4 . 0b10 . sinauer associates , sunderland , ma .\nkimura m ( 1980 ) a simple method for estimating evolutionary rates of base substitutions through comparative studies of nucleotide sequences . j mol evol 16 : 111\u2013120 .\nnylander jaa ( 2004 ) mr . modeltest v2 . program distributed by the author . evolutionary biology centre , uppsala university .\nzwickl dj ( 2006 ) genetic algorithm approaches for the phylogenetic analysis of large biological sequence datasets under the maximum likelihood criterion . ph . d . dissertation , the university of texas at austin .\nronquist f , teslenko m , van der mark p , ayres dl , darling a , et al . ( 2012 ) mrbayes 3 . 2 : efficient bayesian phylogenetic inference and model choice across a large model space . syst biol 61 : 539\u2013542 .\niczn ( 2011 ) coral taxon names published in \u2018corals of the world\u2019 by j . e . n . veron ( 2000 ) : potential availability confirmed under article 86 . 1 . 2 . bull zool nomencl 68 : 162\u2013166 .\narrigoni r , stefani f , pichon m , galli p , benzoni f ( 2012 ) molecular phylogeny of the robust clade ( faviidae , mussidae , merulinidae , and pectiniidae ) : an indian ocean perspective . mol phylogenet evol 65 : 183\u2013193 .\nkeshavmurthy s , yang s - y , alamaru a , chuang y - y , pichon m , et al . ( 2013 ) dna barcoding reveals the coral \u201claboratory - rat\u201d .\nreijnen bt , mcfadden cs , hermanlimianto yt , van ofwegen lp ( 2014 ) a molecular and morphological exploration of the generic boundaries in the family melithaeidae ( coelenterata : octocorallia ) and its taxonomic consequences . mol phylogenet evol 70 : 383\u2013401 .\nof the indo - pacific region . cat madreporarian corals br mus ( nat hist ) 5 : 1\u2013303 , pl 1\u201335 .\n, a supplement to vol . iv . cat madreporarian corals br mus ( nat hist ) 6 : 1\u2013167 , pl 1\u201317 .\ndo these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !\nveron , j . e . n . , 1986 . corals of australia and the indo - pacific . angus & robertson .\nveron , j . e . n . , 2000 . corals of the world . volumes 1 - 3 . ? australian institute of marine science , townsville , qld .\nsorry , there are no images or audio / video clips available for this taxon .\nfrom danwei huang , karenne p . p . tun , l . m chou and peter a . todd . 30 dec 2009 .\ngoniopora sp . with list of species recorded for singapore porites sp . ( pore corals ) with list of species recorded for singapore alveopora sp . ( daisy corals ) alveopora allingi ( vulnerable ) alveopora catalai ( near threatened ) alveopora excelsa ( endangered ) alveopora fenestrata ( vulnerable ) alveopora marionensis ( vulnerable ) alveopora spongiosa * * ( near threatened ) alveropora tizardi * *\ndanwei huang , karenne p . p . tun , l . m chou and peter a . todd . 30 dec 2009 . an inventory of zooxanthellate sclerectinian corals in singapore including 33 new records ( pdf ) . raffles bulletin of zoology supplement no . 22 : 69 - 80 .\nveron , jen . 2000 . corals of the world australian institute of marine science , australia . 3 volumes .\nchou , l . m . , 1998 . a guide to the coral reef life of singapore . singapore science centre . 128 pages .\nerhardt , harry and daniel knop . 2005 . corals : indo - pacific field guide ikan - unterwasserachiv , frankfurt . 305 pp .\nborneman , eric h . 2001 . aquarium corals : selection , husbandry and natural history t . f . h publications . 464 pp\nwee y . c . and peter k . l . ng . 1994 . a first look at biodiversity in singapore . national council on the environment . 163pp .\nng , p . k . l . & y . c . wee , 1994 . the singapore red data book : threatened plants and animals of singapore . the nature society ( singapore ) , singapore . 343 pp .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nmassive or branching species easily recognized by their small hexagonal calices with a snowflake pattern . many are difficult to identify in the field since id ' s are based upon minute skeletal structures hidden by the live polyp . lobe and finger coral are dominant reef - forming species in hawaii while the others are occasional in clear waters .\nlarge fleshy polyp species of tropical seas include alveopora and goniopora with 12 and 24 tentacles . these do not occur in hawaii or the atlantic .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nterraneo ti 1 , benzoni f 2 , arrigoni r 3 , berumen ml 3 .\nred sea research center , division of biological and environmental sciences and engineering , king abdullah university of science and technology , thuwal 23955 - 6900 , saudi arabia . electronic address : tulliaisotta . terraneo @ kaust . edu . sa .\ndepartment of biotechnology and biosciences , university of milano - bicocca , piazza della scienza 2 , milano 20126 , italy ; institut de recherche pour le d\u00e9veloppement , umr227 coreus2 , 101 promenade roger laroque , bp a5 , 98848 noumea cedex , new caledonia .\nred sea research center , division of biological and environmental sciences and engineering , king abdullah university of science and technology , thuwal 23955 - 6900 , saudi arabia .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\nwe sequenced igr , its region , atps\u03b2 , calm for the genus goniopora from the red sea .\nwe used haploweb , abgd , ptp and , gmyc to evaluate species delimitation in goniopora .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\n, it is confined to shallow rocky - subtidal environments where other corals are seldomly found . this species resembles\nexcept that septa are short , are in two cycles and do not fuse . colonies are circular or encrusting , less than 15mm across with uniformly spaced corallites . septa are in 2 cycles of 6 each . columella is an irregular pinnule . color is pale brown , with white septa and columella .\nas the only member , forms dull brown , massive colonies , usually hemispherical , several meters across an occurs in shallow reef environments and lagoons . it resembles\n, which has lightly smaller corallites , but this species is easily recognised under water . the undulating surface houses deeply excavated corallites that are 2 - 3mm in diameter ( cellular appearance ) . the surface is smooth to undulating . corallites are deeply excavated . septa are arranged in 2 alternating cycles of 6 each , with the primary cycle forming decent paliform styli . columella is absent . corallite walls are very thin ( coral skeleton is very light ) .\nthis genus has been a major reef - builder throughout much of the duration of the cenozoic tethys . the derivation of the poritid pattern of septal fusion from\nis one of the few instances in scleractinian taxonomy where one taxon or taxonomic character can be said to be ' primitive ' compared with another .\nfrequently forms very extensive monospecific or multi - specific stands in inshore environments dominated by terrigenous sediments as well as offshore areas that are influenced by river runoff . thus\ncan be found in turbid water and in areas generally protected from wave action ; e . g .\ncan form extensive stands that are tens of meters long and wide . local dominance in certain habitats may be related to their sediments - rejecting ability , which may be facilitated by the fact t hat the large fleshy polyps of most\nis also one of the most aggressive coral species , excluding other corals within its periphery . it has been observed that\nuses specialized elongated\nsweeper polyps\nto attack neighboring coral colonies . the sweeper polyps of\nspecies are easily recognized in situ by characters of soft tissues , but these may become unreliable over wide geographic ranges . colonies are massive or rounded , few even encrusting to fine - branched colonies and far less massive than\n. the peristome , polyp , and the tentacles are of different color . calices are rounded or hexagonal that extend 1 - 5mm in diameter . septal margins are pitted or spiny and seem to come up from the floor of the corallite ( contrary to\n) . septa are usually 24 septa in 3 cycles . the larger first 2 cycles are very distinct ( dorsal and ventral septa are isolated , while lateral septa merge ) , while the 3rd merges with the former at close proximity of the corallite wall .\n, although these genera are probably not closely related . morphological differences between the two are demonstrated by all\nspecies together in the same biotope , as habitats of individual species are very different , more so than for any other genus . these habitats include protected turbid biotopes ( the majority of species ) , exposed upper reef slopes ( e . g .\n) and high - latitude , non - reef biotopes ( e . g .\n. corallum and tentacles are brownish or bluish . calices are rounded or polygonal and about 1 - 2mm in diameter . they are crowded or closely united by their very brittle walls ( entire\n) ; the shared wall is pierced by pores giving it a lace - like appearance .\nyuko f . kitano , 1 , 2 francesca benzoni , 3 roberto arrigoni , 3 yoshihisa shirayama , 1 , 4 carden c . wallace , 5 and hironobu fukami 2 , *\nthis is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are properly credited .\n) was performed in the frame of research projects by japanese society for coral taxonomy or by associate prof . h . fukami at university of miyazaki with sampling permission from each local government in japan . malaysia ( pen ; see\n) sampling has taken place by local staffs in non - marine protected area , songsong island , under the permission of the research project by prof . zulfigar yasin and prof . aileen tan at universiti sains malaysia . all western indian ocean sampling was also performed in the frame of research projects for which a sampling permission was delivered by local authorities and samples were shipped with cites permits . ad , ba , bu , dj , and mu are all sites in yemen (\n) . there , sampling has taken place in several missions and regular sampling permits were issued by yemen environmental protection agency ( epa ) in sana ' a . moreover , epa staff supervised the activities in the field at all times . my is mayotte island (\n) . sampling permits there were issued by the direction de l ' agriculture et de la foret de mayotte , service environnement et foret and by the maritime affairs office . dj are samples from djibouti (\n) taken during the tara oceans expedition and the sampling permits were delivered by the am\u00e9nagement du territoire et de l ' environnement de djibouti . photos of each specimen were taken in the field ( particularly for living polyps ) and the depth and habitat were recorded . after collection , a small piece of each specimen was removed for use in dna extraction ( see below ) , and the remaining sample was bleached to investigate the skeletal morphology for species identification .\nasterisk shows accession number referred from kitano et al . [ 13 ] . note that more than one its sequences were obtained by sub - cloning from a single specimen in several samples while its from other samples were determined by direct sequencing of pcr products . museum abbreviations are as follows : msl / usm : universiti sains malaysia , mufs : university of miyazaki , department of fisheries science ( = department of marine biology and environmental science ) , japan , smbl : seto marine biological laboratory , kyoto university , japan , and unimib : university of milano - bicocca , department of biotechnology and biosciences , italy .\n) of each specimen was put in chaos solution to dissolve the tissues or fixed in 99 % ethanol . total dna was extracted from chaos solution using the phenol / chloroform extraction method\n, and from the coral tissues preserved in ethanol using the dneasy blood & tissue kit ( qiagen ) . the barcoding region of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit i ( coi ) was amplified by the polymerase chain reaction ( pcr ) using the primers zco1 and zco1r\n. the nuclear ribosomal its region ( its ) including the 3\u2032 end of the 18s rrna , its - 1 , 5 . 8s , its - 2 , and the 5\u2032 end of the 28s rrna was also amplified by pcr using the primers 1s and 2ss\n. the pcr condition for these two markers was 94\u00b0c for 30 seconds followed by 30 or 35 cycles at 94\u00b0c for 30 seconds , 55\u00b0c or 60\u00b0c for 45 seconds , and 72\u00b0c for 90 seconds , with a final phase of 72\u00b0c for 5 minutes . for the mitochondrial region , pcr products were treated with shrimp alkaline phosphatase ( sap ) and exonuclease i ( exoi ) at 37\u00b0c for 40 minutes followed by 80\u00b0c for 20 minutes . the dna sequences were then determined via a direct sequence method , using abi3730 or abi310 sequencer . pcr products of the nuclear marker were also directly sequenced , but when obtained sequences had more than double peaks in the chromatogram , they were sub - cloned into ta - vector ( promega ) or topo10 ( invitrogen ) and sequenced using abi3730 or abi310 . all dna sequences obtained in this study were submitted to ddbj ( accession no ."]}
{"id": 15, "summary": [{"text": "oedignathus inermis is a species of king crab found off the pacific coasts of the united states and canada , from california to alaska , and disjunctly around the coasts of japan .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it is the only species in the genus oedignathus , and is sometimes called the granular claw crab , paxillose crab or tuberculate nestling lithode crab . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "oedignathus", "paragraphs": ["where are you likely to find oedignathus inermis ? how could you tell it apart from petrolisthes spp . ? what does it presumably eat ( two food types ) ?\nsecurity for granular claw crabs , oedignathus inermis , is an abandoned barnacle shell . they have to locate protection because their soft - shelled abdomens are vulnerable and nutritious . the specific epithet , inermis , means unarmed . some people call o . inermis soft - bellied crabs . they are much sought by predators .\nthese crabs are scientifically called oedignathus inermis . they are usually found in large numbers across the pacific coast of the usa , from california to alaska . a feature that differentiates them from other species is the large number of eminences which are visible on the planate chelipeds and leg areas . they usually reside underneath purple - colored algae .\nshallow - water representatives of the hapalogastrinae ( oedignathus , hapalogaster , cryptolithodes ) and lithodinae ( paralithodes , lopholithodes ) have average egg diameters ranging from 0 . 63 to 1 . 15 mm and are significantly smaller ( p < 0 . 01 ) than those produced by deep - sea genera ( neolithodes , lithodes and paralomis ) .\n( of oedignathus gilli benedict , 1895 ) mclaughlin , p . a . ; komai , t . ; lemaitre , r . ; listyo , r . ( 2010 ) . annotated checklist of anomuran decapod crustaceans of the world ( exclusive of the kiwaoidea and families chirostylidae and galatheidae of the galatheoidea . part i \u2013 lithodoidea , lomisoidea and paguroidea . the raffles bulletin of zoology . supplement no 23 , 5 - 107 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmclaughlin et al . 2005 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : crustaceans . american fisheries society special publication 31\nwilliams , austin b . , lawrence g . abele , d . l . felder , h . h . hobbs , jr . , r . b . manning , et al .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nmclaughlin , p . a . ; komai , t . ; lemaitre , r . ; listyo , r . ( 2010 ) . annotated checklist of anomuran decapod crustaceans of the world ( exclusive of the kiwaoidea and families chirostylidae and galatheidae of the galatheoidea . part i \u2013 lithodoidea , lomisoidea and paguroidea . the raffles bulletin of zoology . supplement no 23 , 5 - 107 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of hapalogaster inermis stimpson , 1860 ) mclaughlin , p . a . ; komai , t . ; lemaitre , r . ; listyo , r . ( 2010 ) . annotated checklist of anomuran decapod crustaceans of the world ( exclusive of the kiwaoidea and families chirostylidae and galatheidae of the galatheoidea . part i \u2013 lithodoidea , lomisoidea and paguroidea . the raffles bulletin of zoology . supplement no 23 , 5 - 107 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of hapalogaster brandtii schalfeew , 1892 ) mclaughlin , p . a . ; komai , t . ; lemaitre , r . ; listyo , r . ( 2010 ) . annotated checklist of anomuran decapod crustaceans of the world ( exclusive of the kiwaoidea and families chirostylidae and galatheidae of the galatheoidea . part i \u2013 lithodoidea , lomisoidea and paguroidea . the raffles bulletin of zoology . supplement no 23 , 5 - 107 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\n) . the first ( basal ) segment of the abdomen has calcified plates , as do the two terminal ones .\n, and small spines but no large spines . note , however , that there are large spines on the anterior margins of leg 1 ( the\nto 3 cm long and 2 . 5 cm wide in males , 2 cm wide in females ; wider posteriorly than anteriorly , brown with scales on the dorsal surface . it has white - centered orange granules and dark brown spots , but these colors may be masked by mud . may have white on the sternum . there are few if any\namchitka island , ak to monterey , ca ; eastern russia , japan , korea . mostly on the open coast . rarely seen in the san juan islands and is said to not to occur in puget sound ; rare in california .\nthese crabs are often found in pairs , and may be in such a tightly secluded space that they appear to be trapped . they feed by straining plankton from the water with their third\n. captive individuals also catch worms and small crustaceans with their small claw and crush mussels with the large claw . predators include black oystercatchers .\nthe abdomen of this species is thick and soft . the basal segment and the two distal segments have some calcified plates , which are not evident in this view .\none claw is much larger than the other . the\npalm\nof the\nthe rostrum is short . the carapace has orange - red tubercles with a white spot in the middle .\ngranular claw crab found in an intertidal area of calvert island . note the granules covering the larger claw . photo by cody gold .\nin : nishimura , s . ( ed . ) , guide to seashore animals of japan with color pictures and keys , vol . ii . hoikusha , osaka , 347 - 378 ( in japanese ) .\nannotated checklist of anomuran decapod crustaceans of the world ( exclusive of the kiwaoidea and families chirostylidae and galatheidae of the galatheoidea ) . part i - lithodoidea , lomisoidea and paguroidea .\njapanese crustacean decapods and stomatopods in color , vol . i . macrura , anomura and stomatopoda .\noccurrence record in darwincore format ( elements of obis schema and some of dwc1 . 4 )\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nking crabs are well - known due to their exceptionally big size and their ability to reside in cold waters . this article provides some basic facts about the various species of king crabs .\nking crabs are one of the most hunted sea dwellers . there are different species of these creatures which are found in seas all around the globe . they are also known as ' stone crabs ' due to their appearance . they prefer to live in freezing cold waters , whereas other species of crabs are normally found in warmer waters . they are the largest amongst all kinds of crabs , and have a great commercial demand and importance . some of their species are used as food by many people due to their size and taste . japanese and american restaurants are famous for preparing king crab recipes . around 40 species of these crabs are known till now . the most common are red , blue , and golden king crabs , which are generally found in alaskan waters .\nthese crabs are usually hunted in alaska . their scientific name is paralithodes platypus . the ones which are caught in the pribilof islands are the largest among the blue king crabs . they have a brown - colored body with blue highlights on it . they have exceptionally big claws which seem really dangerous .\nthese crabs are also known as lithodes aequispinus , and are generally found in regions from the british columbia to the aleutian islands , and also japan . these are relatively smaller in size in comparison with other species . as their name suggests , they have a golden - colored outer covering .\nthese are also called golf - ball crabs , and are normally found at depths of about 10 - 75 meters . their shell is triangular in shape , and approximately seven centimeters in length . there are numerous spines and bristle - like structures present on the legs of these crabs .\nthey are scientifically known as lithodes couesi , and are smaller in size . they are found in large numbers , which lessens their commercial value .\nfishing for king crabs is largely carried out in alaska . due to this reason , the government has implemented regulations on overfishing to save these king crabs from becoming extinct .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ndorsoventrally flattened , carapace as long as or wider than long ; carapace with linea anomurica ; outer orbital spines absent ; rostrum overreaching distal corneal margin , or not overreaching bases of corneas . eye cornea well developed ; ocular acicles absent .\nbases widely separated ; crista dentata present ; accessory tooth present ; dactylus simple .\nall of similar form ; 2 - 4 with basis and ischium fused ; dactyli of pereopods 2 to 3 simple . pereopod 3 about the same length as pereopod 2 ; pereopods 3 dactyli and propodi of right and left similar . pereopod 4 simple .\npartially divided ; sternite of pereopod 5 reduced , contiguous with preceding sternite ; somite of pereopod 5 not fused with first abdominal somite , or somite of pereopod 5 fused with first abdominal somite .\n3 - 5 absent ; none modified as gonopods . male with no other sexual modifications ; female with first pleopods paired and modified as gonopods . uropods absent .\ncite this publication as : ' mclaughlin , p . , s . ahyong & j . k . lowry ( 2002 onwards ) . ' anomura : families . ' version : 2 october 2002 . urltoken ' .\nthe infraorder anomura has long captivated the attention of evolutionary biologists due to its impressive morphological diversity and ecological adaptations . to date , 2500 extant species have been described but phylogenetic relationships at high taxonomic levels remain unresolved . here , we reconstruct the evolutionary history\u2014phylogeny , divergence times , character evolution and diversification\u2014of this speciose clade . for this purpose , we sequenced two mitochondrial ( 16s and 12s ) and three nuclear ( h3 , 18s and 28s ) markers for 19 of the 20 extant families , using traditional sanger and next - generation 454 sequencing methods . molecular data were combined with 156 morphological characters in order to estimate the largest anomuran phylogeny to date . the anomuran fossil record allowed us to incorporate 31 fossils for divergence time analyses .\nour findings are compared against current classifications and previous hypotheses of anomuran relationships . many families and genera appear to be poly - or paraphyletic suggesting a need for further taxonomic revisions at these levels . a divergence time analysis provides key insights into the origins of major lineages and events and the timing of morphological ( body form ) and ecological ( habitat ) transitions . living anomuran biodiversity is the product of 2 major changes in the tempo of diversification ; our initial insights suggest that the acquisition of a crab - like form did not act as a key innovation .\nthe infraorder anomura represents a highly diverse group of decapod crustaceans comprised of hermit crabs , mole crabs , king crabs , squat - lobsters and porcelain crabs . the fossil record contains representatives of nearly all extant families and spans the norian / rhaetian ( late triassic ) [\n] and the common use of hermit crabs as pets in the aquarium trade . moreover , some species are threatened or endangered due to rarity in nature , e . g . , pylochelidae [\n] . thus , improved understanding of these groups bears not only on appreciation of their diversity and ecology , but also strategies for their conservation .\n] ] . early classifications from the 19th to the first half of the 20th centuries were based on adult morphological characters including mouthparts , antennae , gills , pleon type , and / or larval characteristics . these classifications often differed in higher - level composition and , in some cases , the infraordinal name ( e . g . anomura vs . anomala ) . since these studies , various researchers have proposed changes in the classification scheme [\n] , many of which remain actively debated . more recently , molecular and / or morphological data have been used to reevaluate anomuran relationships [\none of the most debated evolutionary questions within anomura is phylogenetic relationships between hermit and king crabs . since the early 1800\u2019s [ e . g . , [\n] ] , studies have suggested king crabs and hermit crabs are close relatives , despite first appearances to the contrary . king crabs are among the largest arthropods and have a crab - like body shape , whereas hermit crabs are relatively small and depend on a shell for protection . despite glaring morphological differences as adults , an affinity between king crabs ( lithodoids ) and hermit crabs ( paguroids ) has been long suggested [\n] . although most accept this claim , the evolutionary pathways and hypothesized ancestor of both groups has been debated for decades , with two major hypotheses being proposed . the first suggests that the lithodids (\n) ( \u201chermit to king hypothesis\u201d ) while the second suggests the opposite evolutionary pathway ( \u201cking to hermit hypothesis\u201d ) . here we revisit these hypotheses in light of new phylogenetic data to test the \u201chermit to king\u201d / \u201cking to hermit\u201d evolutionary pathway .\nadditional controversy over anomuran relationships stems from apparently rampant examples of convergent and / or parallel evolution in body forms . anomurans span an impressive array of body configurations that include : 1 ) crab - like forms 2 ) squat - lobster forms 3 ) hermit crab forms with pleonal ( abdomen ) symmetry ( found in 1 hermit crab family ) and 4 ) hermit crab forms with pleonal asymmetry ( found in 4 hermit crab families ) . recent studies suggest that the acquisition of a crab - like body form , known as carcinization [ see , [\n] , possibly impacting diversification rates within these lineages . for the first time , we explore diversification patterns in anomura and specifically test if carcinized lineages underwent unusually rapid diversification rates . if the emergence of the crab - like form promoted diversification we would expect the overall rate in carcinized lineages to be high compared to net of diversification across anomura . additionally , we test if the acquisition of different body forms ( i . e . , crab - like , squat - lobster - like , pleonal asymmetry and symmetry ( hermit ) ) arose once or multiple times during the emergence of the anomurans and reconstruct the evolutionary pathways of these transitions .\ndivergence dating is a powerful tool used to estimate the timing and origins of diversity , morphological traits , habitat shifts , and diversification . although nearly all the family - level groups of anomura are represented in the fossil record , the discovery has not been as frequent as that of other decapod groups ( i . e . , true crabs , lobsters ) . two factors , variations in cuticular sclerotization and habitat preference , are likely responsible for the limited occurrence of anomuran fossils . many taxa are weakly calcified , whereas others possess well - calcified claws and poorly calcified carapaces and pleons . in addition , habitats currently occupied by anomurans , including freshwater , terrestrial , intertidal marine , deep marine , and hydrothermal vent areas are strongly underrepresented in the fossil record . despite these limitations , we incorporate 31 fossil calibrations to estimate the origin of lineages and major events during anomuran evolutionary history , including the transition of body forms and shift into freshwater and terrestrial environments .\nhere , we present the taxonomically broadest and largest dataset yet assembled . we combine sequences generated by traditional sanger and next - generation 454 sequencing methods with morphological characters , including 19 / 20 extant families and 137 species , to estimate phylogenetic relationships , character state evolution , divergence times , and diversification patterns among major lineages of this diverse clade of crustaceans . our comprehensive sampling , in combination with modern integrative approaches , allows us to present the most complete evolutionary picture for the infraorder anomura to date .\n) . alternative outgroup sampling schemes did not affect internal relationships among anomura . the optimal models of evolution for each gene selected in modeltest were as follows : gtr + i + g 18s , 28s , h3 and tvm + i + g 12s , 16s . several sequences downloaded from genbank were excluded from the analysis due to contamination after a blast search and / or strange alignment results ( see additional file\nan \u201cn / a\u201d not available indicates missing sequence data . new sequences are indicated as kfxxxxxx .\nalternative outgroup selections did not affect internal anomuran relationships . with all outgroups included , brachyura was recovered as the sister taxon . the bayesian analysis from the combined molecular + morphology dataset recovers anomura as a monophyletic group with high support ( 100 = pp , figure\n) . the majority of the nodes ( 86 % ) are recovered with very high support ( > 95 ) . three families are recovered as para - or polyphyletic ( diogenidae , paguridae , munididae ) . with the exception of three families ( blepharipodidae , kiwaidae , lomisidae ) each having a single representative , the remaining families were found to be monophyletic ( hippidae , albuneidae , munidopsidae , galatheidae , porcellanidae , parapaguridae , aeglidae , eumunididae , chirostylidae , lithodidae , hapalogastridae , pylochelidae , and coenobitidae ) with high support . blepharipodidae , hippidae , and albuneidae ( hippoidea ) group together with very high support ( 100 ) , being sister to the remaining 16 anomuran families . lomisidae , eumunididae , kiwaidae , and chirostylidae ( lomisoidea + chirostyloidea ) form a clade with high support ( 100 ) and are sister to aeglidae ( aegloidea ) . munidopsidae , galatheidae , munididae , and porcellanidae ( galatheoidea ) form a clade with high bayesian support ( 100 ) . within the galatheoidea , munididae is paraphyletic with the galatheids nested within the group . pylochelidae , parapaguridae , diogenidae , coenobitidae , paguridae , hapalogastridae , and lithodidae ( = paguroidea + lithodoidea ) form a statistically supported clade ( 97 ) . six of the seven anomuran superfamilies are monophyletic ( hippoidea , galatheoidea , aegloidea , lomisoidea [ monotypic ] , chirostyloidea , and lithodoidea ) . the remaining superfamily , paguroidea is found to be paraphyletic and includes the superfamily lithodoidea ( lithodidae + hapalogastridae ) . 11 genera were found to be poly - or paraphyletic (\ncombined bayesian phylogram based on molecular ( 3669 characters ) and morphological ( 156 characters ) data . vertical colored bars represent anomuran families , grey brackets represent superfamilies , and the black vertical line represents outgroups . bayesian posterior probabilities represented as percentages and > 70 % are noted above or below branches .\n) is similar to our combined phylogeny , with most differences being found in placement and composition of paguroidea . unlike the combined phylogeny , which recovered paguroidea as paraphyletic , paguroidea was found to be polyphyletic . the family pylochelidae was recovered as polyphyletic according to molecular data but was monophyletic when morphology was added . parapaguridae was sister to a clade containing pylochelidae , aeglidae , lomisidae , eumunididae , kiwaidae , and chirostylidae , similar to the results of tsang et al . [\n] based on nuclear protein coding genes . as in the combined phylogeny , coenobitidae is nested within the diogenidae , and lithodoidea nested within the paguroidea . within lithodoidea of the molecular\u2013only phylogeny , hapalogastridae was found to be paraphyletic , with representatives of the genera\n) end of the tree . however lithodoid relationships in the molecular - only phylogeny should be interpreted with caution as many were recovered with little to no support . in the combined phylogeny hapalogastridae was found to be a monophyletic and sister to lithodidae ( figure\nsome deep splits and short branches in the molecular - only phylogeny should be interpreted with caution , as support is low .\nbayesian phylogram based on 5 genes 12s , 16s , 18s , 28s , h3 and 3669 characters . vertical colored bars represent anomuran families , grey brackets represent superfamilies , and the black vertical line represents outgroups . bayesian posterior probabilities represented as percentages and maximum likelihood bootstrap values are noted above or below branches .\n] were tested using the shimodaira - hasegawa test ( s - h ) . three of the seven hypotheses were found to be significantly worse than our unconstrained topology (\n= \u221268430 . 951016 ) . hypotheses that tested a \u201cking to hermit\u201d evolutionary pathway were all significantly worse than the alternative ( i . e . , \u201chermit to king\u201d ) as recovered in our best ml tree (\na ) . analyses indicated that a crab - like ancestor gave rise to all extant anomuran lineages . in addition to the earliest branching clade , hippoidea , carcinization occurred independently three times during the evolution of the group , twice through squat lobster - like intermediaries ( squat intermediary = si on tree ) and once through an asymmetrical hermit crab - like ancestor ( asymmetrical hermit intermediary = ahi on tree ) ( figure\na ) . the squat lobster - like form arose once as an early branching lineage and gave rise to the crab - like clades , lomisidae and porcellanidae . within the hermit crab lineages , the symmetrical pleon arose once within the pylochelidae . the asymmetrical pleon arose once within the paguroidea , but was subsequently partially reverted to the ancestral symmetrical condition ( in males only ) within the crab - like lithodidae and hapalogastridae ( = lithodoidea , figure\nb ) . in combination with divergence time results , we can make predictions about the timing of these events ( see discussion ) . maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood methods recovered similar ancestral state reconstructions for body form and habitat ( figure\nancestral state reconstruction analysis using maximum likelihood methods for body shape and habitat transition within anomura . colored taxa correspond to anomuran families as noted in legend . pie charts represent the likelihood of the ancestral state . ( a ) character states for body shape were defined as crab - like white , squat lobster blue , symmetrical hermit green and asymmetrical hermit black . ( b ) character states for habitat were defined as freshwater white , semi - terrestrial green , and marine black . subtrees are shown for the transition into freshwater ( aeglidae ) and semi - terrestrial habitats ( coenobitidae ) .\n) . all parameters reached convergence for individual runs . beast estimated the divergence of the anomurans from the true crabs , brachyura , to be in the permian ( ~ 259 ( 224\u2013296 ) mya , figure\n, square g ) . the origin of the asymmetrical hermit crab lineages followed soon after in the pliensbachian , early jurassic ( ~ 187 mya , square h ) . two hermit crab families were recovered as non - monophyletic assemblages ( diogenidae , paguridae ) , which resulted in multiple timing of origins for these families . parapaguridae split from one clade of diogenidae (\n) in the bathonian , middle jurassic ( ~ 167 mya , square i ) , while the family coenobitidae is found nested within a slightly older clade of diogenidae ( ~ 173 mya , square j ) , which includes most present day genera . paguridae is not monophyletic , because of the internally nested lithodidae and haplogastridae . the most recent common ancestor of the pagurid + lithodid + hapalogastrid clade was placed in the late cretaceous ( cenomanian , ~ 98 mya , square k ) with lithodidae and hapalogastridae splitting from one another around 18 mya ( burdigalian , miocene ) .\n) . divergence time estimates ( my ) are noted adjacent to their respective nodes and blue nodal bars correspond to the 95 % highest posterior density regions . geological periods are superimposed onto the phylogeny and listed as follows : d , devonian ; c , carboniferous ; p , permian ; tr , triassic ; j , jurassic ; k , cretaceous ; t , tertiary . colored taxa correspond to anomuran families as noted in the legend . green boxes indicate a diversification shift .\n] was used to detect whether any clade within the anomuran tree was best explained by independent diversification models , and to specifically address whether acquisition of the crab - like form resulted in an increase of diversification rates . the background tempo of diversification across the anomuran tree is characterized by a speciation rate\n) . a slow speciation rate is detected in the lineage leading to the monotypic and carcinized family lomisidae , and an increase rate occurred in the squat - lobster family chirostylidae . the ancient but species - depauperate branch leading to the monotypic family lomisidae was optimally modelled separately with maximum likelihood estimate of\nof 0 . 054182 ( rate acceleration ) . all three resulting clade - specific diversification models were optimally fit as yule models ( aic = 339 . 3032 ) .\n] to resolve phylogenetic relationships . these studies have dramatically increased our understanding of anomuran relationships and resulted in several major changes within higher - level classification [\n) . as mentioned previously , anomurans have undergone dramatic changes in higher - level classification based on recent phylogenetic studies . galatheoidea has been revised recently to exclude aeglidae , kiwaidae , and chirostylidae [\n] . with the recent revision of galatheoidea , all superfamilies were recovered as monophyletic ( i . e . , hippoidea , aegloidea , lomisoidea , chirostyloidea , galatheoidea , lithodoidea ) , except for paguroidea ( figures\n] for review of literature ] , based on morphological characters including mouthparts , gills , and pleonal characters . however , the evolutionary pathways of the two groups continue to be debated ( see also \u201chermit to king , king to hermit evolutionary hypotheses\u201d ) with all recent evidence pointing to a \u201chermit to king\u201d hypothesis .\n) . galatheidae was found nested inside munididae , but alternative topologies that recovered munididae as monophyletic were not significantly worse than our best estimate ( see results ) . deeper sampling within both families is needed to resolve family and genus level relationships . the families galatheidae , munidopsidae , and porcellanidae were all recovered as monophyletic with high support ( figure\n] . alternative hypotheses proposing the monophyly of these families ( i . e . , diogenidae , paguridae ) were rejected using s - h tests , confirming our findings ( see results ) . coenobitidae ( semi - terrestrial hermit crab ) was deeply nested within diogenidae ( left - handed hermit crabs ) while\n] , which he collectively called the paguristinen . the families pylochelidae and hapalogastridae were found to be polyphyletic in the molecular analysis ( figure\ngeneric relationships within anomura seem to be much less resolved than superfamily and family level relationships . we found several genera to be poly - or paraphyletic ( i . e . ,\n] . most instances of non - monophyly occur within highly speciose genera ( i . e . ,\n, suggesting deeper sampling and continued research needs to be undertaken on these groups .\nalthough past studies have shown an affinity between paguridae ( hermit crabs ) and lithodidae ( king crabs ) , the evolutionary pathways and ancestry of these anomuran lineages have been debated for the past two centuries . the traditional and prevalent hypothesis posits that lithodids are free - living hermit crabs that abandoned shell use and underwent a series of morphological changes ( carcinization ) resulting in a crab - like form . it has been argued that the asymmetry of the lithodid female pleon , in particular , is evidence of asymmetrical hermit crab ancestry . boas [\n] similarly derived the lithodids from the pagurids , agreeing with boas on the structural pleonal similarities between these two groups . however , bouvier also proposed a series of gradual and linear progressive stages in the transformation of the pagurid pleon , starting from a pagurid precursor to various genera of hapalogastrids (\n) . in modern times , this concept of pagurid and lithodid evolution was brought to attention when cunningham et al . [\n] supported this same evolutionary view of pagurid and lithodid evolution . recently , a study that examines the hemolymph vascular system in hermit and king crabs found close similarities in arterial systems of the dorsal cephalothorax [\n] . based on observations of the complex changes in pleonal tergites from megalopa to juvenile crab stages , these studies demonstrated that adult lithodid pleonal tergite structure in several species was the result of decalcification and sundering , not secondary calcification and fusion as had been proposed by bouvier .\n] . with the largest number of taxa and most robust molecular / morphological dataset ever used in a phylogenetic study of anomurans , our study once again shows lithodoidea to be nested within paguridae . moreover , our conclusions are consistent with the fossil record , which suggest hermits are much older ( jurassic ) than king crabs ( miocene , table\n< 0 . 05 ) ( i . e . , \u201chermit to king\u201d ) ( see results ) .\nwhile there is undeniable evidence of a close relationship between hermits and king crabs , it is less clear how morphological changes associated with carcinization may have proceeded within the lithodoidea . a recent study comparing hermit and king crab circulatory systems identified several vascular changes that occurred as the result of carcinization , arguing for more comparative studies that look at morphology ( both internal and external ) and development [\n] . however , only with a clear phylogenetic hypothesis can many of these studies be correctly interpreted . recent molecular or combined morphological - molecular phylogenies recover conflicting evolutionary relationships , although only three lithodoid genera ( and not always the same , or excluding hapalogastridae ) have been used in previous analyses [\n) shows the less carcinized and less calcified hapalogastridae as sister to lithodidae , in agreement with virtually every study since bouvier\u2019s in the 19th century . but within lithodidae , and in contrast to bouvier\u2019s linear hypothesis , our study places\n) . it thus appears that the process of heavy calcification may have appeared at least twice in lithodid lineages . more lithodoid genera / species are needed to examine the process of carcinization within the lithodoidea and to properly test bouvier\u2019s and boas\u2019 earlier hypotheses ( explaining the transition of a shell - dwelling hermit crab to a fully calcified lithodid crab ) . in conclusion , while recent , modern studies , including ours , overwhelmingly and clearly support a \u201chermit to king\u201d evolutionary scenario , it is also clear that the evolutionary process and concomitant morphological changes ( particularly in pleonal tergal plates and pleopods ) that occurred within the lithodoidea to produce the various degrees of crab - like forms in that family , is at best poorly understood .\n\u201d could be the most likely candidate for lithodoid ancestry . the close relationship between\n- like hermit crab as the precursor to the crab - like lithodoids . all species of\nare tube - dwellers , not shell - dwellers , and show pleonal asymmetry only in having unpaired pleopods . the genus is relatively small in size compared to the typically large - sized lithodoids with a distribution across both sides of the north pacific , from the sea of japan to puget sound and the straits of juan de fuca , washington [\n) in similar areas . future studies with increased sampling within these groups will shed light into the evolutionary pathway of lithodoids from paguroid ( possibly\n] . although this date is considerably older than the hippoid fossil record , closely related extinct forms extend into the triassic and present day hippoidea are found in substrates underrepresented in the fossil record . the superfamily hippoidea containing blepharipodidae , hippidae , and albuneidae , has been described as being similar to primitive brachyurans [\na ) . the next radiation occurred in the late triassic , giving rise to the squat - lobsters and crab - like superfamilies chirostyloidea and galatheoidea , aegloidea , lomisoidea , and the hermit crab and crab - like superfamilies paguroidea and lithodoidea . our results suggest these superfamily clades were derived from a squat - lobster - like ancestor approximately ~ 205 mya ( figures\nwith a possibly squat - lobster - like body form , dates back to the late triassic ( ~ 201 . 6 - 228 mya ) and has strong morphological affinity with the superfamilies chirostyloidea and galatheoidea . this fossil was found as part of a biotic assemblage suggesting that\naround 137 mya a squat - lobster like ancestor gave rise to a unique superfamily of anomurans , aegloidea . aegloid crabs represent the only freshwater anomuran family and can be found in caves , lakes , and streams throughout the neotropical region of south america [\n] . in combination with our divergence time analyses , we hypothesize that the complete transition in freshwater occurred sometime between the late cretaceous and miocene . this transition appears to have allowed for rapid diversification approximately 13 mya ( 20\u20137 . 4 mya ) .\nfrom approximately 180 mya to 147 mya , the families of galatheoidea radiated and diversified . these include the squat lobsters families munidopsidae , munididae and galatheidae , and the porcelain crab family porcellanidae . the porcellanids diverged in the middle jurassic ( ~ 172 mya ) from squat - lobster like ancestors , but a crab - like body form evolved by the tithonian ( ~ 151 - 145 . 5 mya ) based on fossil evidence and ancestral reconstruction analyses . this was the first occurrence of carcinization from a squat - lobster or hermit - like ancestor within anomura ( figures\n] suggested porcellanid crabs were derived galatheids despite the differences in body shape and form , and this is consistent with our current evolutionary hypothesis .\nlomisoidea and chirostyloidea diverged around 122 mya from a squat - lobster like ancestor . this body form was retained within the chirostyloids and underwent further carcinization , attaining a crab - like form in the monotypic lomisidae , endemic to australia .\n] . in our combined analysis , the hermit crab families , pylochelidae , parapaguridae , diogenidae , coenobitidae , and paguridae , formed a monophyletic group with the inclusion of lithodidae or king crabs , and hapalogastridae . we estimated these families arose early in the evolution of anomura , approximately 205 mya . the symmetrical hermit crabs , pylochelidae , are unique with most having complete body symmetry and in utilizing broken gastropod shells , siboglinid tubes , and coral pieces for shelter and protection , in contrast to other hermit groups that commonly use coiled gastropod shells [\n) . this is consistent with our divergence time analysis , which recovers these families as early branching lineages . diogenidae , coenobitidae , and paguridae typically possess an asymmetrical pleon accompanied by an enlarged right or left chela . according to our combined analysis , pleonal asymmetry in hermits appears to have been derived once in the evolution of the anomurans , most probably between 200\u2013187 mya . this contrasts with the results obtained by tsang et al . [\n] , who proposed that the pleonal asymmetry evolved independently in two different hermit crab lineages , once in parapaguridae , and a second time in diogenidae , coenobitidae , and paguridae . these contrasting differences are the result of incongruent phylogenies based on total evidence ( molecular + morphology , this paper ) and molecular only approaches [\n] . note , however , that our molecular - only analyses recover similar results to those of tsang et al . [\n) . carcinization occurred for the third time in the crab - like superfamily lithodoidea between 29\u201318 mya from an asymmetrical hermit - like ancestor . this estimation is consistent with other timing estimates of king crab carcinization [\nthe crab - like body form was recovered in our study as the ancestral state for all the anomurans . in our study , all alternative body forms were present ( crab - like , squat lobster , symmetrical hermit , and asymmetrical hermit ) early in the divergence of the anomurans . from these ancestral character states , carcinization occurred independently three times during the evolution of anomura , once in the lithodoidea through an asymmetrical hermit intermediate , and twice in lomisidae and porcellanidae through squat lobster intermediates ( see ahi and si , figure\n] . however , our tree differs significantly from tsang et al . \u2019s study [\n] in the deep ancestral origins of carcinization . tsang et al . \u2019s hypothesis suggests a symmetrical hermit crab - like ancestor predated the squat lobster and asymmetrical intermediaries , whereas we recovered a crab - like ancestor to predate these intermediaries . we acknowledge that our analysis recovers two deep nodes that are unresolved , however symmetrical reconstruction at these nodes seems unlikely ( figure\na ) . it must also be noted that the most recent common ancestor of anomura is unresolved in the tsang et al . analysis , although it appears to be a crab - like or symmetrical hermit ancestor . the major differences in the two analyses stems from the differences in phylogeny and more specifically the monophyly ( our study ) or polyphyly [\n] of paguroidea and families therein ( i . e . , pylochelidae ) . there is agreement with tsang et al . in the sister group relationship between paguridae and lithodoidea , although tsang et al . used only four lithodid genera ( vs . eight in our study ) and did not include representatives of hapalogastridae . in addition , both studies provide strong evidence for the intermediary ancestors directly predating carcinization across anomura ( twice through squat lobster ( si ) and once through asymmetrical hermit ( asi ) , figure\nthe multiple cases of carcinization among the anomurans have been noted since the early 1900s . borradaile ( 1916 ) was the first to propose the term carcinization to explain the crab - like aspects of the hermit crab\nand the tendency of anomurans to achieve this form , a phenomenon unique to anomura not evident in other decapod lineages ( e . g . , lobsters , shrimp ) . the emergence of the crab - like form is not \u2018evenly distributed\u2019 across our phylogeny , first occurring in the older lineages porcellanidae and lomisidae and only more recently within the superfamily lithodoidea . some questions naturally arise . why did carcinization occur independently three times during the evolution of the anomura ? why did the presumably shell - dwelling asymmetrical hermit crab ancestors of lithodid king crabs forsake the use of shells for protection , which already provided them with survival advantage ? morrison et al . [\n] suggest that the crab - like form might represent a key innovation that is associated with an evolutionary advantage , possibly due to the greater mobility and agility provided by this morphology . this seems to be evident within the true crabs , or brachyura , which dominate decapods in terms of species richness [ > 6 , 559 species ; 34 ] and have thrived in marine , freshwater , and terrestrial environments . although diversification seems to be low in the crab - like anomurans when compared to the brachyurans , fossil evidence and divergence time analyses suggest crab - like anomurans are much younger when compared to the closely related true crabs ( table\n) . furthermore , the crab - like porcellanids are one of the oldest ( ~ 172 mya , mrca = 139 mya ) and most diverse families of anomurans [ ~ 247 species , 22 ] . lithodids represent an even younger lineage , originating ~ 18 mya , but comprising over 100 extant species . it is plausible that a crab - like form may hold some evolutionary advantage when considering age and diversification within anomura , although this does not seem to hold true for all groups that underwent the crab - like transition ( i . e . , monotypic family lomisidae ) . a second hypothesis explains the possible advantage of carcinization from a hermit - like ancestor . previous studies have suggested a free - living body form may have a selective advantage in obtaining food resources when unconstrained by a gastropod shell [\nthe extraordinary morphological and ecological diversity of anomurans has long fascinated evolutionary biologists . previous studies covering a wide range of faunas have shown how morphological or ecological factors may influence the course of subsequent evolutionary diversification [\nour analysis reports the pattern of diversification in anomura to be characterized by a low net rate of diversification , with two major changes in the rates of speciation along its evolutionary history . the initial diversification of the group during the late permian was characterized by slow rates of diversification and it was not concomitant with major family radiations , which took place from the jurassic onwards .\n) and currently occupy deep - sea habitats suggests that similar geological and environmental changes may also have driven major diversification within the munididae , which shifted habitats at some point because the jurassic forms are nearly all coral - reef associated . currently , the family chirostylidae accounts for 7 % of all anomuran species , but the true diversity is underestimated and about 100 new species are in hand of taxonomists [\n] . clearly , a more accurate phylogenetic framework is needed to interpret in detail the exceptionally high speciation rates reported here .\nthe monotypic family lomisidae showed a strikingly lower rate than the overall tempo of diversification in anomura .\nis anomalous in its prolonged persistence despite an inferred speciation rate of zero ( as recovered by the medusa analysis , see results ) . these taxa , old lineages with few extant species , have been reported in several invertebrates and vertebrates [\n] , suggesting that extremely low rates of diversification characterize these groups . high extinction rates could also account for this pattern ; however , we report that a pure - birth yule model best explains our data . under a high - extinction scenario we would expect to see an overabundance of more recently arisen species that simply have not yet gone extinct ; such a pattern is not observed in our phylogeny .\nour analysis failed to identify a correlation between the timing of branching events ( speciation ) and the evolutionary history of carcinized lineages , which suggests that the acquisition of a crab - like form did not play a major role in shaping extant anomuran biodiversity . however , a major limitation of the medusa approach is that rate shifts cannot be assigned below the level of phylogenetic resolution [\nour study included extant representatives from 19 families , 77 genera , and 137 species of anomurans . the exceptionally rare family pylojaquesidae is excluded for lack of molecular grade tissue samples . a total of 345 sequences from 76 of 144 anomuran specimens were new to this study , while sequences for all five genes from 68 taxa were obtained from genbank . newly included specimens were collected on cruise and field expeditions , from collaborators , or from the university of louisiana at lafayette zoological ( ullz ) collection of molecular grade specimen and tissue samples ( table\n) spanning several decapod lineages . different outgroups were included / excluded to explore sister relationships to anomura and the impact of outgroup selection on anomuran relationships . they consist of representatives from infraorders brachyura ( 5 ) , axiidea ( 4 ) , gebiidea ( 3 ) , caridea ( 4 ) , and suborder dendrobranchiata ( 2 ) .\nour morphological data matrix consisted of 156 characters and 154 species ( including outgroups ) and was constructed in macclade 4 . 0 ( see additional files\nmissing data were scored as unknown ( ? ) and polymorphisms were scored as such rather than assuming a plesiomorphic state . just as alignment gaps in molecular data have been variously treated as a fifth position or as missing in different studies , inapplicable character states in the morphological data may be scored as missing or as an additional character state , \u2018inapplicable\u2019 [\ntotal genomic dna was extracted from the pleon or gills using the qiagendneasy\u00ae blood and tissue kit cat . no . 69582 . two partial mitochondrial genes , 16s and 12s , were amplified by pcr using the following primers , respectively : l2 / l9 & 16s1472 or 16sf & 16s1472 [ ~ 580 bps , [\n] ] . the nuclear large subunit 28s rrna was amplified in sections by 1 . 3 f / 4b , 3 . 25 / 4 . 4b , sa / 5b , and 4 . 8 / 6b [ ~ 2200 bps , [\n] ] or by 1 f / 2 . 9 , 0 . 7 / bi , 2 . 0 / 9r [\n] ] . the majority of target gene regions were obtained through traditional sanger sequencing and data for seven taxa were obtained through next - generation 454 sequencing ( see below ) .\npcr amplifications were performed in 25 \u03bcl volumes containing 1 \u03bcl of taq polymerase hotmaster or redtaq , pcr buffer , 2 . 5 mm of deoxyribonucleotide triphosphate mix dntps , 0 . 5 \u03bcm forward and reverse primer , and extracted dna . the thermal profile used an initial denaturation for 1 min at 94\u00b0c followed by 35\u201340 cycles of 30 sec at 94\u00b0c , 45 sec at 45 - 60\u00b0c depending on gene region , 1 min at 72\u00ba and a final extension of 10 min at 72\u00b0c . pcr products were purified using plate filters prepease\u2122 pcr purification 96 - well plate kit , usb corporation and sequenced with abi bigdye\u00ae terminator mix ( applied biosystems , foster city , ca , usa ) . cycle sequencing reactions were performed in an applied biosystems 9800 fast thermal cycler ( applied biosystems , foster city , ca , usa ) , and sequencing products were run forward and reverse on an abi 3730xl dna analyzer 96 - capillary automated sequencer in the brigham young university ( byu ) sequencing center .\n] . the process required a two - step pcr to prepare selected dna regions for targeted / directed sequencing . the first pcr used a locus specific primer ( e . g . , 16s , 12s , etc . ) with a 22 bp adapter . these amplicons were cleaned using plate filters prepease\u2122 pcr purification 96 - well plate kit , usb corporation . one \u03bcl of cleaned pcr product was used as template for the second pcr . pcr ii incorporated a 10 bp barcode multiplex identifier , mid , 4 bp key , and a 21 bp 454 titanium primer . samples were again cleaned using the millipore system and subsequently combined in emulsion pcr and sequenced via 454 gs flx titanium pyrosequencing technology ( roche ) at the byu sequencing center . the bioinformatic pipeline , barcodecruncher , allowed us to exclude short reads , trim adapters , identify contamination , parse barcoded sequences , and assembly consensus sequences for phylogenetic reconstruction [ for full description of methods see [\nsequences were cleaned and assembled using sequencher 4 . 9 ( genecodes , ann arbor , mi , usa ) . to check for pseudogenes , we followed suggestions by song et al . ( 2008 ) , which included extracting dna from tissue with high amounts of mitochondrial gill tissue , translating protein - coding sequences h3 to check for indels and stop codons , comparing sequences among closely - related species , and building individual gene trees to ensure similar topologies [\n] . comparing gene trees and blast searches helped identify contamination . two datasets were assembled : 1 ) molecular dataset including all 5 gene regions 2 ) combined dataset including molecular + morphological data .\nindividual gene alignments were performed using mafft , implementing the \u201ce - ins - i\u201d option . for non - protein coding genes 12s , 16s , 18s , 28s , gblocks v0 . 91b were used to exclude regions of the alignment with questionable positional homology ["]}
{"id": 18, "summary": [{"text": "synanthedon pini , the pitch mass borer , is a moth of the family sesiidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "the pitch mass borer occurs on spruce and pine in eastern north america .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "it does not kill trees , but the pitch-filled larval tunnels in the wood cause defects in the lumber . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "synanthedon pini", "paragraphs": ["species synanthedon pini - pitch mass borer - hodges # 2585 - bugguide . net\n\u00a9 william taft and mich . st . univ . , moth photographers group \u00b7 2 synanthedon pini , male\nall are in one genus - synanthedon sp . single eggs are laid on the bark of the pines . larvae of some species tunnel into the cambium area soon after hatching . they make a hole in which they feed . sap oozes out of these pits / holes . the pitch mass borer\nduckworth , w . d . & t . d . eichlin 1973 . new species of clearwing moths ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) from north america . proceedings of the washington entomological society 75 ( 2 ) : 150 - 159 melittia calabaza , synanthedon arkansasensis , s . canadensis , s . dominicki , s . engelhardti\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nlarva - body white with a light brown head . ( kellicott , 1881 ) .\nthe males are strongly attracted to zzoh / ezoh 50 : 50 pheromone lures and are on the wing starting in late june in michigan .\n, pinaceae ) . larvae typically bore in large trees below a broken branch or scar as high as 40 ' up the trunk ( kellicott , 1881 ) .\nit is found rarely in insect collections and museums . trees with active larvae have pitch mass swellings on the tree trunk with a white , powdery appearance .\nbeuttenm\u00fcller , w . 1901 . monograph of the sesiidae of america , north of mexico . memoirs of the american museum of natural history 1 ( 6 ) :\nengelhardt , g . p . 1946 . the north american clear - wing moths of the family aegeriidae . united states national museum bulletin 190 :\nkellicott , d . s . 1881 . observations of several species of ageriadae inhabiting the vicinity of buffalo , n . y . . the canadian entomologist 13 ( 1 ) : 5 - 7\ndictionary of word roots and combining forms donald j . borror . 1960 . mayfield publishing company .\nthe north american clear - wing moths of the family aegeriidae . george p . engelhardt . 1946 . united states national museum bulletin 190 : 1 - 222 , pl . 1 - 32 .\nmonograph of the sesiidae of america , north of mexico . william beutenm\u00fcller . 1901 . memoirs of the american museum of natural history 1 ( 6 ) : 218 - 352 , pl . 29 - 36 .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\neastern white , scots and jack pines as well as white , norway and colorado blue spruce .\npine pitch moth adults resemble yellowjackets . the adults are clear wing moths . there are many types of pitch moths .\nlarge volumes of pitch ooze from the holes made in the trunk by these insects .\nattacks austrian , eastern white , scots and jack pines as well as white , norway and colorado blue spruce . adults are only seen during the summer and the insect can take up to three years to complete its life cycle .\ncheck with your local land grant university ( cooperative ) extension service for recommended insecticide .\nthe home , yard & garden pest guide ( c1391 ) provides is written for homeowners and other residents and provides nonchemical and current chemical recommendations for controlling pests associated with trees , shrubs , turf , flowers , groundcovers , vegetables , fruit , and houses . in addition , you ' ll find detailed information about integrated pest management , pesticide safety , and pesticide application and calibration techniques . this publication may be purchased at your local university of illinois extension unit office , or by calling 800 - 345 - 6087 , or by placing an order online ( search for\nc1391\n) . visit site > >\nthe illinois commercial landscape and turfgrass pest management handbook ( iclt ) is written for professional applicators and provides nonchemical and current chemical recommendations as well as application timing information for all major pests of turf , woody ornamentals and herbaceous ornamentals . this publication may be purchased at your local university of illinois extension unit office , or by calling 800 - 345 - 6087 , or by placing an order online ( search for\niclt\n) . visit site > >\na free plant , weed , insect and disease identification service available through your local university of illinois extension office . center educators or state specialists review & respond to information and digital images submitted by local extension office personnel . some samples may require further examination or culture work ( nominal fee involved ) at the u of il plant clinic . visit site > >\nservices include plant and insect identification , diagnosis of disease , insect , weed and chemical injury ( chemical injury on field crops only ) , nematode assays , and help with nutrient related problems , as well as recommendations involving these diagnoses . microscopic examinations , laboratory culturing , virus assays , and nematode assays are some of the techniques used in the clinic . visit site > >\neastern white pine , scots pine , austrian pine , jack pine and red pine . as well as white spruce , norway spruce and blue colorado spruce trees .\nthe larvae tunnel into the inner bark on trunks and limbs of host trees . this causes a cavity .\nthe clearwing moth looks similar to yellow jacket wasps . it lays its eggs in midsummer in pruning cuts and on the bark of the trunk or limbs . the larvae tunnel into the inner bark to feed on resin from the damaged tissue . the mature larvae reach a length of about 25mm . their body colour is usually near white to pink depending on which tree they are feeding on . their brown head is smaller than their prothorax . large amounts of pitch and frass form at the point of entry . pupation occurs within the pitch mass from late may to june . the clearwing moths appear from the middle to the end of june , although others can emerge in july and august depending on locations . two or three years are required to complete a life cycle .\nlarvae and pupa are found under the pitch masses . they can be removed and killed .\ndo not prune trees during the egg laying period of the pitch mass moth . ( midsummer )\ncomplete this form for a certified arborist to visit your property and provide recommendations and an estimate .\ntype of work requested ( select all that may apply with ctrl + click . ) :\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on images to enlarge .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nstrict warning : non - static method view : : load ( ) should not be called statically in / home2 / c241301 / public _ html / clm / sites / all / modules / views / views . module on line 879 .\nstrict warning : declaration of views _ handler _ filter : : options _ validate ( ) should be compatible with views _ handler : : options _ validate ( $ form , & $ form _ state ) in / home2 / c241301 / public _ html / clm / sites / all / modules / views / handlers / views _ handler _ filter . inc on line 0 .\nstrict warning : declaration of views _ handler _ filter : : options _ submit ( ) should be compatible with views _ handler : : options _ submit ( $ form , & $ form _ state ) in / home2 / c241301 / public _ html / clm / sites / all / modules / views / handlers / views _ handler _ filter . inc on line 0 .\nstrict warning : declaration of views _ plugin _ style _ default : : options ( ) should be compatible with views _ object : : options ( ) in / home2 / c241301 / public _ html / clm / sites / all / modules / views / plugins / views _ plugin _ style _ default . inc on line 0 .\nstrict warning : declaration of views _ plugin _ row : : options _ validate ( ) should be compatible with views _ plugin : : options _ validate ( & $ form , & $ form _ state ) in / home2 / c241301 / public _ html / clm / sites / all / modules / views / plugins / views _ plugin _ row . inc on line 0 .\nstrict warning : declaration of views _ plugin _ row : : options _ submit ( ) should be compatible with views _ plugin : : options _ submit ( & $ form , & $ form _ state ) in / home2 / c241301 / public _ html / clm / sites / all / modules / views / plugins / views _ plugin _ row . inc on line 0 .\nadults are wasp - like clearwing moths with a mostly orange head , grey hairs on the face , a brown - black thorax , clear hind wings , opaque brown forewings with ( usually ) some orange scales and a mostly blue - black abdomen with an orange 4th segment .\nlarvae are white to pink in colour and can vary depending on the host tree . they have a head capsule that is smaller than the prothorax . when compared to the\neggs are laid on the bark of trunks or branches . females prefer fresh wound sites ( e . g . recently pruned branches ) if available .\nlarvae bore into the inner bark and sap wood . tunneling in this area causes copious amounts of sap to flow out of the wound .\nfemale moths deposit eggs in june to july on the trunk or larger branches , preferably at a wound site . larvae tunnel into the sapwood behind the bark , causing copious amounts of sap to flow out of the infested area . it takes 2 - 3 years for the larvae to mature . larvae overwinter within the pitch mass . there is only one generation every 2 - 3 years . adults emerge in spring to early summer .\njohnson , w . t . and lyon , h . h . 2003 . insects that feed on trees and shrubs . second edition . cornell university press , ithaca , new york . 560 pp .\neichlin , t . d . , duckworth , w . d . 1988 . the moths of america north of mexico , sesioidea , sesiidae , fascicle , 5 . 1 . the wedge entomological research foundation .\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 18 june , 2013 - 12 : 00am\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 25 may , 2013 - 7 : 53pm\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 1 august , 2013 - 10 : 45pm\nmemoirs of the american museum of natural history 1 ( 6 ) : 218 - 352 , pl . 29 - 36 , 1901\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . 1901 . monograph of the sesiidae of america , north of mexico . memoirs of the american museum of natural history 1 ( 6 ) : 218 - 352 , pl . 29 - 36\nbrown , l . n . & r . f . mizell , iii 1993 . the clearwing borers of florida ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . tropical lepidoptera 4 ( 4 ) : 1 - 21 ( pdf )\neichlin , t . d . 1992 . clearwing moths of baja california , mexico ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . tropical lepidoptera 3 ( 2 ) : 135 - 150 ( pdf ) andrewsi bibionipennis erici faulkneri gilberti gloriosa hennei magnifica mexicanus palmii ( neumoegen ) palmii ( beutenm\u00fcller ) polygoni resplendens robiniae snellingi\nunited states national museum bulletin 190 : 1 - 222 , pl . 1 - 32 , 1946\nengelhardt , g . p . 1946 . the north american clear - wing moths of the family aegeriidae . united states national museum bulletin 190 : 1 - 222 , pl . 17 - 32 species index food - plant index"]}
{"id": 33, "summary": [{"text": "the white-fronted capuchin ( cebus albifrons ) is a species of capuchin monkey , a type of new world primate , found in seven different countries in south america : bolivia , brazil , colombia , venezuela , ecuador , peru , and trinidad and tobago .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the species is divided into several different subspecies , though the specific divisions are uncertain and controversial .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "this primate is a medium-sized monkey with a light brown back and a creamy white underside .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "like other capuchin monkeys , it is omnivorous , feeding primarily on fruits , invertebrates , other plant parts and sometimes small vertebrates .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it is predated upon primarily by raptors and probably small cats , especially the margay , though snakes have been known to attack the species .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it is a polygamous animal and lives on fairly large groups of 15 to 35 individuals , reproductive females give birth to a single young at biennial intervals .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the species maintains a home range of 1.2 to 1.5 km \u00b2 ( 0.46 to 0.58 sq mi ) and has a complex vocal repertoire .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "it is one of the few primates to have been observed crafting and utilising tools in the wild .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "white-fronted capuchin populations are declining .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the decline is believed to be caused by human-induced habitat loss and degradation , and hunting .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "in 2008 the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) classified the ecuadorian white-fronted capuchin ( ssp. aequatorialis ) and the trinidad white-fronted capuchin ( ssp. trinitatis ) as critically endangered , and the varied white-fronted capuchin ( ssp. versicolor ) in colombia is classified as endangered .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the total population of the trinidad subspecies was 61 at the last census . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "white - fronted capuchin", "paragraphs": ["species group within the genus cebus , a group that also includes the white - fronted capuchin , the weeper capuchin and the kaapori capuchin .\ninformation on the white - fronted capuchin is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nyou selected santa marta white - fronted capuchin ( english ) . this is a common name for :\nthe white - fronted capuchin is an arboreal , forest dwelling species which feeds mainly on fruit and insects .\nwhite - fronted capuchin at about 1600m elevation in our cerro candelaria reserve . photo : luis recalde / ecominga .\nnumerous subspecies of the white - fronted capuchin have been described , although there is some debate regarding the exact number .\nnotes on interactions between the tayra ( eira barbara ) and the white - fronted capuchin ( cebus albifro . . .\nclassified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix i of cites ( 2 ) . subspecies : ecuadorian white - fronted capuchin , cebus albifrons aequatorialis , and the trinidad white - fronted capuchin , c . a . trinitatis , are listed as critically endangered ( cr ) , the r\u00edo cesar white - fronted capuchin , c . a . cesarae , is listed as data deficient ( dd ) , the shock - headed capuchin , c . a . cuscinus , is listed as near threatened ( nt ) , the santa marta white - fronted capuchin , c . a . malitiosus , and the varied white - fronted capuchin , c . a . versicolor , are listed as endangered ( en ) and the white - fronted capuchin , c . a . albifrons , is listed as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\na white - fronted capuchin ( cebus albifrons ) . \u00a9 renee lynn , national audubon society collection / photo researchers , inc . reproduced with permission .\nwhite - fronted capuchins are found in rainforest habitats from sea - level to 2000 meters ( hill , 1960 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - white - fronted capuchin ( cebus albifrons )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - white - fronted capuchin ( cebus albifrons )\ntitle =\narkive species - white - fronted capuchin ( cebus albifrons )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe average body mass for the white - fronted capuchin is about 3 kilograms . this species has relatively long limbs compared to trunk size . the white - fronted capuchin has a prehensile tail . this species is sexually dimorphic . fingers on this species are short and the thumb is opposable ( fleagle , 1988 ) . the premolars of the white - fronted capuchin are large , and the molars are square shaped with a thick enamel to help with cracking nuts ( fleagle , 1988 ) .\nlike other capuchin species , the white - headed capuchin matures slowly . sexual maturity can be reached at 3 years .\nmale white - fronted capuchins are dominant over females , and it has been observed that an alpha male appears to lead the group .\nabout whether there are any subspecies of white - headed capuchin . some authorities consider there to be three subspecies of white - headed capuchin , based on small differences in appearance :\nlike other monkeys of the cebus group , the white - headed capuchin is named after the order of capuchin friars \u2013 the cowls worn by these friars looks like the monkey ' s white fur .\nthe iucn red list and other sources don\u2019t provide the number of the white - fronted capuchin total population size . according to the wikipedia resource the total population size of the trinidad subspecies was 61 individuals at the last census . currently white - fronted capuchins are classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ; however their numbers today are decreasing .\nthis video was taken in the town of misahualli , ecuador . the town has a semi - free ranging population of white - fronted capuchin monkeys , that regularly use rocks to smash open nuts and sticks .\nenglish : white - shouldered capuchin ; french : sajou \u00e0 gorge blanche ; spanish : mono capuchino .\ntail that is often held coiled , giving the white - headed capuchin the nickname\nringtail\n.\nthere is disagreement among primatologists about whether there are any subspecies of white - headed capuchin . some authorities consider there to be three subspecies of white - headed capuchin , based on small differences in appearance :\nthe scientific community has focused on the tool use of brazilian populations of the brown tufted capuchin , cebus apella , the species in the attenborough video . in our ecominga reserves , we do not have this species , but we do have the white - fronted capuchin , cebus albifrons in our cerro candelaria , naturetrek , and rio zunac reserves . one of our forest caretakers , luis recalde , recently managed to photograph this white - fronted capuchin in the cerro candelaria reserve :\nthe white - headed capuchin ( cebus capucinus ) , also known as the white - faced capuchin or white - throated capuchin , is a medium - sized new world monkey of the family cebidae , subfamily cebinae . native to the forests of central america and the extreme north - western portion of south america , the white - headed capuchin is important to rainforest ecology for its role in dispersing seeds and pollen .\nthe white - headed capuchin was originally described by carolus linnaeus in his 18th century work , systema naturae . it is a member of the family cebidae . it is part of the family of new world monkeys containing capuchin monkeys , squirrel monkeys , tamarins and marmosets . it is part of the genus cebus . it is part of the c . capucinus species group . this group also includes the white - fronted capuchin , the weeper capuchin and the kaapori capuchin .\nthe white - headed capuchin has mostly black fur , with white to yellow like fur on the neck , throat , chest , shoulders , and upper arms .\non another occasion , juan pablo reyes and our caretakers set up a camera trap near that reserve to discover what animal was eating our neighbors\u2019 corn . the culprit turned out to be a sneaky white - fronted capuchin :\nwhite - fronted capuchins inhabit northwestern south america , including columbia , ecuador , venezuela , eastern peru , and a good part of amazonian brazil . they like to live in thick primary growth rainforest where traveling from tree to tree can be done easily . white - fronted capuchins also like flooded forests , forests growing between rocks , forests growing in white sand and gravel at the bottom of mesas .\nas white - fronted capuchins are limited to rainforest habitats , they are threatened by habitat destruction from logging and forest clearance . in some areas they are hunted for meat .\nthere are four species of capuchin monkeys found in south america . the brown capuchin ( cebus apella ) lives in tropical and subtropical forests from venezuela to brazil . capuchins are not found in the andes mountains along the western part of the continent . the brown capuchin has tufts a white - fronted capuchin ( cebus albifrons ) . \u00a9 renee lynn , national audubon society collection / photo r\u2026\nthe white - headed capuchin ( cebus capucinus ) is a medium - sized new world monkey of the family cebidae , subfamily cebinae . it is also known as the white - faced capuchin or the white - throated capuchin . it comes from the forests of central america . it also lives in the extreme northwestern part of south america . the white - headed capuchin is important to rain forests because of its role in dispersing seeds and pollen .\nthe white - headed capuchin ( cebus capucinus ) is a medium - sized new world monkey of the family cebidae , subfamily cebinae . it is also known as the white - faced capuchin or the white - throated capuchin . it comes from the forests of central america . it also lives in the extreme northwestern part of south america . the white - headed capuchin is important to rain forests because of its role in dispersing seeds and pollen .\nthe white - headed capuchin is found in much of central america and a small portion of south america . in\n, more than it directly impacts the white - headed capuchin , and so on a net basis deforestation may not be as harmful to the capuchin ' s status .\nthe white - headed capuchin was originally described by carolus linnaeus in his 18th century work , systema naturae . [ 4 ] it is a member of the family cebidae . it is part of the family of new world monkeys containing capuchin monkeys , squirrel monkeys , tamarins and marmosets . it is part of the genus cebus . [ 5 ] it is part of the c . capucinus species group . this group also includes the white - fronted capuchin , the weeper capuchin and the kaapori capuchin . [ 5 ]\nlike other monkeys of the cebus group , the white - headed capuchin is named after the order of capuchin friars \u2013 the cowls worn by these friars looks like the monkey ' s white fur . [ 6 ] [ 7 ]\nthe white - headed capuchin monkey ( cebus capucinus ) , also known as the white - faced capuchin or white - throated capuchin , is a small new world monkey of the family cebidae . native to the forests of south and central america , white - throated capuchins are important to rainforest ecology by their role in dispersing seeds and pollen . like other monkeys in the genus cebus , white - headed capuchins are named after the order of capuchin friars : the cowls worn by these friars closely resemble the monkeys head colouration .\ninsects , ant and wasp larvae and vertebrates become a particularly important part of the white - headed capuchin ' s diet .\nthe white - headed capuchin is known to rub parts of certain plants into their hair . plants used in this manner include\n) , also known as the white - faced capuchin or white - throated capuchin , is a medium - sized new world monkey of the family cebidae , subfamily cebinae . native to the forests of central america and the extreme north - western portion of south america , the white - headed capuchin is important to rainforest ecology for its role in dispersing seeds and pollen .\nthe white - fronted capuchin ( c . albifrons ) is found in the moist forests of venezuela , brazil , bolivia , ecuador , colombia , and on the island of trinidad . this species is slightly smaller than other capuchin monkeys . the colors are similar to weeper and white - faced capuchins , with a pale and broad cap that covers most of the tops of their heads .\nwhite - fronted capuchins assist in dispersing via their feces , the seeds of the fruits that they eat . this may transport propagules somewhere they normally would not get to , far away from the tree they fell from .\nperry , s . ( 1996 ) .\nfemale - female relationships in wild white - faced capuchin monkeys , cebus capucinus .\n.\nperry , s . ( 1997 ) .\nmale - female social relationships in wild white - faced capuchin monkeys , cebus capucinus\n.\nthe white - headed capuchin has a long life span given its size . the maximum recorded life span in captivity is over 54 years .\nother names : black - capped capuchin , brown capuchin , guianan brown capuchin , tufted capuchin ; gekuifde kapucijnaap ( dutch ) ; sajon apelle ( french ) ; macaco prego ( spanish ) ; tjockhuvudtamarin , brun kapucin , gulbr\u00f6stad kapucin , m\u00f6sskapucin ( swedish ) ; c . a . apella : mono capuchin pardo ( spanish ) .\nfactors such as easier access to water and food may have to do with the white - headed capuchin ' s less extensive use of tools .\nperry , s . ( 1997 ) .\nmale - female social relationships in wild white - faced capuchin monkeys , cebus capucinus .\n.\nthe white - headed capuchin can eat a wide variety of fruits as well as caterpillars in the early rainy season ( june to november ) .\nthe black capuchin monkey ( cebus nigritus ) , is a capuchin monkey from south america . it is found in brazil and argentina . the robust tufted capuchin ( cebus nigritus robustus ) , is a subspecies of the black capuchin endemic to brazil . conservation status \u2013 vulnerable .\nthough the white - headed capuchin has perhaps the most extensive and most frequent tool use in comparison to the other gracile capuchins , its tool use is considerably inferior to that of robust capuchins , especially the tufted capuchin . factors such as easier access to water and food may have to do with the white - headed capuchin ' s less extensive use of tools .\nthe white - fronted capuchin is found in the countries of bolivia , brazil , colombia , ecuador , peru , and venezuela . this species prefers to live in primary and advanced secondary forests . this species prefers canopy trees over 30 meters high with crowns 55 meters in diameter ( kinzey , 1997 ) .\nthough the white - headed capuchin has perhaps the most extensive and most frequent tool use in comparison to the other gracile capuchins , its tool use is considerably inferior to that of robust capuchins , especially the tufted capuchin .\nlike other monkeys in the genus cebus , the white - headed capuchin is named after the order of capuchin friars \u2013 the cowls of these friars closely resemble the monkey ' s head coloration . the white - headed capuchin has mostly black fur , with white to yellow like fur on the neck , throat , chest , shoulders , and upper arms . the face is pink or a white - cream color and may have identifying marks such as dark brows or dark fur patches . an area of black fur on the crown of the head is distinctive . it has a prehensile tail that is often held coiled , giving the white - headed capuchin the nickname\nringtail\n.\nwhite - fronted capuchins help to disperse the seeds of fruits they eat in their feces . this may carry propagules to an area that might not normally be reached , far from the perimeter of the tree . ( terborgh , 1992 ) .\n1986 . boa constrictor predation and group response in white - faced cebus monkeys .\nalthough they engage in activity that has been described as\nterritorial\n, more recent research indicates that white - faced capuchin troops tend to behave aggressively to other white - faced capuchin troops regardless of where they meet , and the aggression is not necessarily intended to exclude the other troops from a specific home range .\nlike other capuchin monkeys , the white - headed capuchin matures slowly . sexual maturity is reached at 3 years . on average , females give birth for the first time at 7 years old and give birth every 26 months . males reach maturity at 10 years old . the white - headed capuchin has a long life span . the maximum recorded life span in captivity is over 54 years .\nthe small size of white - fronted capuchins makes them vulnerable to larger predators . these capuchins have adopted a loud alarm call which scares some predators off and may warn others in the group about the presence of predators ( smuts et al . , 1987 ) .\nand agoutis are attracted by feeding white - headed capuchins , looking for fruit that the capuchins drop . several species of bird are also known to follow white - headed capuchins looking for food . these include the double - toothed kite , the white hawk and the\nseveral non - primate animal species tend to follow troops of white - faced monkeys or are otherwise attracted by their presence . white - lipped peccaries and common agoutis are attracted by feeding white - headed capuchins , looking for fruit that the capuchins drop . several species of bird are also known to follow white - headed capuchins looking for food . these include the double - toothed kite , the white hawk and the sharp - shinned hawk .\ncapuchin monkey ,\nmindy ' s memory primate sanctuary website , 2007 .\nthe capuchin monkeys are the group of new world monkeys classified as genus cebus .\nare attracted by feeding white - headed capuchins , looking for fruit that the capuchins drop .\nlike other capuchin species , the white - headed capuchin matures slowly . sexual maturity can be reached at 3 years . but on average , females give birth for the first time at 7 years old and give birth every 26 months thereafter . males attain reproductive maturity at 10 years old . the white - headed capuchin has a long life span given its size . the maximum recorded life span in captivity is over 54 years .\nalthough south american capuchin species often travel with and feed together with squirrel monkeys , the white - headed capuchin only rarely associates with the central american squirrel monkey . this appears to be related to the patchier , more dispersed distribution of food resources in central america and the fact that there is less dietary overlap between the central american squirrel monkey and the white - headed capuchin than between their south american counterparts . therefore , there is less benefit to the central american squirrel monkey in associating with the white - headed capuchin in order to exploit the capuchin ' s knowledge of food resource distribution . in addition , compared to their south american counterparts , male white - headed capuchins are relatively more alert to rival males than to predators , reducing the predator detection benefits that the central american squirrel monkey receives from associating with the white - headed capuchin compared to its south american counterparts . since the squirrel monkeys generally initiate interactions with the capuchins in south america , the fact that similar associations would impose higher foraging costs and impart fewer predator detection benefits to the central american squirrel monkey leads to fewer associations with the white - headed capuchin .\ni haven\u2019t noticed reports in the scientific literature about stone tool use in the white - fronted capuchin , but some friends of mine ( juan medina , oscar valenzuela ) have repeatedly observed complex behaviors in this ecuadorian species . the best place to observe these behaviors is in the jungle town of misahualli , home of a wild population of white - fronted capuchins that has adapted to human city life . juan medina , a guide who spent much time in the town , tells me that just like the brazilian cebus apella , the monkeys there collect large pounding rocks along the rivers and carry them ( sometimes using both hands ) into the town , where they use them to break hard food objects . juan observed that they also use carefully - chosen sticks ( again , brought from a distance ) to dig out carpenter bee larvae from their tunnels . here is a short clip on youtube made by a visitor in misahualli . the stone tool use by the white - fronted capuchin is clearly visible :\nthe black - striped capuchin monkey ( cebus libidinosus ) , is a new world capuchin monkey from south america . it is found in brazil , argentina and paraguay .\nseveral non - primate animal species tend to follow troops of white - faced monkeys or are otherwise attracted by their presence . white - lipped peccaries and common agoutis are attracted by feeding white - headed capuchins , looking for fruit that the capuchins drop . [ 38 ] several species of bird are also known to follow white - headed capuchins looking for food . these include the double - toothed kite , the white hawk and the sharp - shinned hawk . [ 38 ]\nthe white - headed capuchin sometimes interacts with other sympatric monkey species . white - headed capuchins sometimes travel with and even groom geoffroy ' s spider monkeys . however , aggressive interactions between the capuchins and spider monkeys also occur . interactions between the white - headed capuchin and mantled howler are infrequent , and sometimes result in the capuchins threatening the larger howlers . however , affiliative associations between the capuchins and howlers do sometimes occur , mostly involving juveniles playing together .\nthe white - headed capuchin sometimes interacts with other sympatric monkey species . white - headed capuchins sometimes travel with and even groom geoffroy ' s spider monkeys . however , aggressive interactions between the capuchins and spider monkeys also occur . interactions between the white - headed capuchin and mantled howler are infrequent , and sometimes result in the capuchins threatening the larger howlers . however , affiliative associations between the capuchins and howlers do sometimes occur , mostly involving juveniles playing together .\nblond capuchin , cebus queirozi ( new species , mendes pontes et al . 2006 )\nthe white - headed capuchin ' s intelligence and ability to use tools allows them to be trained to assist paraplegics . other species of capuchin monkeys are also trained in this manner . white - headed capuchins can also be trained for roles on television and movies , such as marcel on the television series friends . they were also traditionally used as organ grinder monkeys .\nthe white - headed capuchin ' s intelligence and ability to use tools allows them to be trained to assist paraplegics . other species of capuchin monkeys are also trained in this manner . white - headed capuchins can also be trained for roles on television and movies , such as marcel on the television series friends . they were also traditionally used as organ grinder monkeys .\nthe white - headed capuchin has mostly black fur . it has white or yellow fur on the neck , throat , chest , shoulders , and upper arms . the face is pink or a white - cream color . the face can sometimes have marks like dark brows or dark fur patches . there is also an area of black fur on the top of the head .\nalthough south american capuchin species often travel with and feed together with squirrel monkeys , the white - headed capuchin only rarely associates with the central american squirrel monkey . this appears to be related to the patchier , more dispersed distribution of food resources in central america and the fact that there is less dietary overlap between the central american squirrel monkey and the white - headed capuchin than between their south american counterparts . therefore , there is less benefit to the central american squirrel monkey in associating with the white - headed capuchin in order to exploit the capuchin ' s knowledge of food resource distribution . in addition , compared to their south american counterparts , male white - headed capuchins are relatively more alert to rival males than to predators , reducing the predator detection benefits that the central american squirrel monkey receives from associating with the white - headed capuchin compared to its south american counterparts . since the squirrel monkeys generally initiate interactions with the capuchins in south america , the fact that similar associations would impose higher foraging costs and impart fewer predator detection benefits to the central american squirrel monkey leads to fewer associations with the white - headed capuchin . [ 13 ] [ 43 ] [ 44 ] [ 45 ]\nlike other capuchin monkeys , the white - headed capuchin matures slowly . sexual maturity is reached at 3 years . [ 57 ] on average , females give birth for the first time at 7 years old and give birth every 26 months . [ 13 ] males reach maturity at 10 years old . [ 13 ] the white - headed capuchin has a long life span . the maximum recorded life span in captivity is over 54 years . [ 13 ]\nperry s . rose l . ( 1994 ) . begging and transfer of coati meat by white - faced capuchin monkeys , cebus capucinus . primates 35 ( 4 ) : 409 - 415\nthe white - headed capuchin also uses tools in other ways . it has been known to beat snakes with sticks in order to protect itself or to get the snake to release an infant .\nthe white - headed capuchin can adapt to forest fragmentation better than other species due to its ability to live in a wide variety of forest types and exploit a wide variety of food sources .\ncapuchin monkeys belong to the cebidae family with the marmosets , tamarins , and squirrel monkeys .\n. this appears to be related to the patchier , more dispersed distribution of food resources in central america and the fact that there is less dietary overlap between the central american squirrel monkey and the white - headed capuchin than between their south american counterparts . therefore , there is less benefit to the central american squirrel monkey in associating with the white - headed capuchin in order to exploit the capuchin ' s knowledge of food resource distribution . in addition , compared to their south american counterparts , male white - headed capuchins are relatively more alert to rival males than to predators , reducing the predator detection benefits that the central american squirrel monkey receives from associating with the white - headed capuchin compared to its south american counterparts . since the squirrel monkeys generally initiate interactions with the capuchins in south america , the fact that similar associations would impose higher foraging costs and impart fewer predator detection benefits to the central american squirrel monkey leads to fewer associations with the white - headed capuchin .\nperry , s . , manson , j . & barrett , h . c . ( 2004 ) .\nwhite - faced capuchin monkeys exhibit triadic awareness in their choice of allies .\n.\nwhite - faced capuchin troops occupy home ranges of between 32 and 86 hectares ( 79 and 213 acres ) . they travel between 1 and 3 kilometres ( 0 . 62 and 1 . 86 mi ) daily , averaging 2 kilometres ( 1 . 2 mi ) per day . although they engage in activity that has been described as\nterritorial\n, more recent research indicates that white - faced capuchin troops tend to behave aggressively to other white - faced capuchin troops regardless of where they meet , and the aggression is not necessarily intended to exclude the other troops from a specific home range .\nperry , s . ; manson , j . & barrett , h . c . ( 2004 ) .\nwhite - faced capuchin monkeys exhibit triadic awareness in their choice of allies .\n.\nwhite - faced capuchin troops occupy home ranges of between 32 and 86 hectares ( 79 and 213 acres ) . they travel between 1 and 3 kilometres ( 0 . 62 and 1 . 86 mi ) daily , averaging 2 kilometres ( 1 . 2 mi ) per day . although they engage in activity that has been described as\nterritorial\n, more recent research indicates that white - faced capuchin troops tend to behave aggressively to other white - faced capuchin troops regardless of where they meet , and the aggression is not necessarily intended to exclude the other troops from a specific home range .\none white - faced capuchin monkey sticks its fingers deep into the eye sockets of another capuchin it ' s friends with . a capuchin uses her ally ' s body parts to whack their common enemy . these behaviors become entrenched in the repertoires of the inventors . but in the first case , the behavior spreads to other group members , and in the second case it does not .\nthe white - headed capuchin is regarded as\nleast concern\nfrom a conservation standpoint by iucn . however , its numbers are affected by the fact that it is sometimes captured for the pet trade . its status can also be harmed by deforestation . however , deforestation may also impact its main predator , the harpy eagle , more than it directly impacts the white - headed capuchin , and so on a net basis deforestation may not be as harmful to the capuchin ' s status . the white - headed capuchin can adapt to forest fragmentation better than other species due to its ability to live in a wide variety of forest types and exploit a wide variety of food sources . the white - headed capuchin is important to its ecosystems as a seed and pollen disperser . it also impacts the ecosystem by eating insects that act as pests to certain trees , by pruning certain trees , such as\nseveral species of bird are also known to follow white - headed capuchins looking for food . these include the\nenglish : brown or tufted capuchin ; french : sapajou apelle ; spanish : capuchino de copete .\nthe range of the capuchin monkeys includes central america ( honduras ) and middle south america ( middle brazil , eastern peru , paraguay ) . capuchin monkeys generally resemble the friars of their namesake .\nthe white - headed capuchin was one of the many species originally described by linnaeus in his 18th century work , systema naturae . it is a member of the family cebidae , the family of new world monkeys containing capuchin monkeys , squirrel monkeys , tamarins and marmosets . it is the type species for the genus cebus , the genus that includes all the capuchin monkeys . it is a member of the\nthe kaapori capuchin monkey ( cebus kaapori ) is a capuchin monkey endemic to brazil . this species is found in the brazilian states of para and maranhao . formerly considered a subspecies of the weeper capuchin ( cebus olivaceus ) , it was recently elevated to species status . conservation status \u2013 vulnerable .\ncapuchin monkeys belong to the new world monkey group , native only to central and south america . the capuchin monkey is active during the day and generally lives and travels through trees . [ 1 ]\n, causing them generate more branches and possibly additional fruit , and by accelerating germination of certain seeds when they pass through the capuchin ' s digestive tract . in addition , the white - headed capuchin sometimes kills acacia collinsii plants when it rips through the plant ' s branches to get to resident ant colonies .\nthe white - headed capuchin sometimes interacts with other sympatric monkey species . white - headed capuchins sometimes travel with and even groom geoffroy ' s spider monkeys . [ 11 ] [ 38 ] however , aggressive interactions between the capuchins and spider monkeys also occur . [ 42 ] interactions between the white - headed capuchin and mantled howler are infrequent , and sometimes result in the capuchins threatening the larger howlers . [ 38 ] however , affiliative associations between the capuchins and howlers do sometimes occur , mostly involving juveniles playing together . [ 42 ]\nwhite - faced capuchin troops occupy home ranges of between 32 and 86 hectares ( 79 and 213 acres ) . [ 11 ] they travel between 1 and 3 kilometres ( 0 . 62 and 1 . 86 mi ) daily , averaging 2 kilometres ( 1 . 2 mi ) per day . [ 38 ] although they engage in activity that has been described as\nterritorial\n, more recent research indicates that white - faced capuchin troops tend to behave aggressively to other white - faced capuchin troops regardless of where they meet , and the aggression is not necessarily intended to exclude the other troops from a specific home range . [ 39 ]\nthe white - headed capuchin ' s intelligence and ability to use tools allows them to be trained to assist paraplegics . [ 54 ] other species of capuchin monkeys are also trained in this manner . [ 55 ] white - headed capuchins can also be trained for roles on television and movies , such as marcel on the television series friends . [ 56 ] they were also traditionally used as organ grinder monkeys . [ 57 ]\nfruit can make up between 50 % and 67 % or more of the capuchin ' s diet .\noccasionally eats insects or other small invertebrates . according to a year - long study in peru ' s manu national park , white - fronted capuchins only seek out invertebrates when traveling to fruiting trees , or when droughts reduce fruit availability . other food sources in times of drought include palm nuts , figs , and nectar . ( terborgh , 1992 ) .\nthe weeper capuchin monkey ( cebus olivaceus ) , is a new world capuchin monkey from south america . it is found in brazil , guyana , french guiana , suriname and venezuela . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nthe white - faced capuchin ( c . capucinus ) is found in central america from the southern region of mexico , south into colombia . white - faced capuchins live in dry or wet forests , and in mangroves . the color of their fur is pale cream to white on their bellies and the upper parts of their arms and legs , with black fur on their backs and lower limbs . they have white fur on their faces and a black cap . many older white - faced capuchins have a ruff ( fringe ) of hair on their foreheads and crowns . the average weight for males is 7 lb ( 3 . 5 kg ) and 5 lb ( 2 . 5 kg ) for females .\nin captivity , it has been known to use tools to get to food or to defend itself , and in one case a white - headed capuchin used a squirrel monkey as a projectile , hurling it at a human observer .\nthe large - headed capuchin monkey ( cebus apella macrocephalus ) , is a subspecies of the tufted capuchin from south america . it is found in brazil , colombia , ecuador and peru . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nperry , s . ( 1996 ) .\nintergroup encounters in wild white - faced capuchins , cebus capucinus .\n.\nseveral non - primate animal species tend to follow troops of white - faced monkeys or are otherwise attracted by their presence .\nthe diet of the capuchin monkey is more varied than other monkeys in the family cebidae . capuchin monkeys are omnivores , eating not only fruits , nuts , seeds and buds , but also insects , spiders , bird eggs and small vertebrates . capuchin monkeys living near water will also eat crabs and shellfish by cracking their shells with stones .\nthe white - fronted capuchin monkey ( cebus albifrons ) , is a new world primate , endemic to six different countries in south america : bolivia , brazil , colombia , venezuela , ecuador and peru . the species is also divided into several different subspecies . just like any other capuchin monkey , it is also an omnivorous animal , feeding primarily on fruits , although it can also eat invertebrates and other plant parts . it is a polygamous animal and lives on fairly large groups ( 15 up to 35 individuals ) , giving birth to a single young at 2 year intervals . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nperry , s . ( 1996 . ) .\nintergroup encounters in wild white - faced capuchins , cebus capucinus .\n.\nthe face is pink or a white - cream color and may have identifying marks such as dark brows or dark fur patches .\nthe white - headed capuchin has mostly black fur . it has white or yellow fur on the neck , throat , chest , shoulders , and upper arms . [ 8 ] the face is pink or a white - cream color . the face can sometimes have marks like dark brows or dark fur patches . [ 8 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] there is also an area of black fur on the top of the head . [ 8 ] [ 11 ] [ 8 ] [ 12 ]\nwhite - headed capuchins have mostly black fur , with white to yellowish fur around the naked , pinkish face and on the shoulders ; and , of course , white throats . a v - shaped area of black fur on the crown of the head is distinctive . the tip of the tail is often held coiled , giving white - headed capuchins the nickname \u2018ringtail\u2019 . adults may reach a length of 435 millimetres and a weight of 3 . 9 kilograms . their tail is prehensile . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nboinski , s .\nuse of a club by a wild white - faced capuchin ( cebus capucinus ) to attack a venomous snake ( bathrops asper ) .\namerican journal of primatology 4 , no . 2 ( 1998 ) : 177\u2013179 .\none of the unusual features of the kinship structure of the white - headed capuchin , relative to other primate species , is the high degree of relatedness within groups that results from the long tenures of alpha males who sire most of the offspring .\ngroup size ranges from 15 to 35 members . groups are typically led by a dominant male and female . aggressive interactions constitute only about 10 % of social interactions . white - fronted capuchins are highly social and spend a lot of time in reciprocal grooming , however , dominant males and females receive a large proportion of grooming and rarely groom other individuals ( smuts et al . , 1987 ) .\nthe blond capuchin monkey ( cebus queirozi ) is a claimed new capuchin monkey species that was discovered in early 2006 by zoology researchers from the federal university in pernambuco , near recife , northeastern brazil . pontes said that \u2018as soon as i saw the monkey with its golden - yellow hair and the white tiara on its head , i knew it was a new species\u2019 .\nthe diet can vary between the rainy and dry season . for example , in guanacaste , costa rica the white - headed capuchin can eat a wide variety of fruits as well as caterpillars in the early rainy season ( june to november ) . but during the dry season , only figs and a few other types of fruit are available . during the dry season , chitinous insects , ant and wasp larvae and vertebrates become a particularly important part of the white - headed capuchin ' s diet . access to water can also become an issue during the dry season . the white - headed capuchin likes to drink daily , so in forests where water holes dry up during the dry season , there can be competition between troops over access to the remaining water holes .\nthe diet can vary between the rainy and dry season . for example , in guanacaste , costa rica the white - headed capuchin can eat a wide variety of fruits as well as caterpillars in the early rainy season ( june to november ) . but during the dry season , only figs and a few other types of fruit are available . during the dry season , chitinous insects , ant and wasp larvae and vertebrates become a particularly important part of the white - headed capuchin ' s diet . access to water can also become an issue during the dry season . the white - headed capuchin likes to drink daily , so in forests where water holes dry up during the dry season , there can be competition between troops over access to the remaining water holes .\nare threatened by habitat destruction due to logging and forest clearing . they are not currently endangered because their habitats continue to be fairly widespread and population numbers remain fairly high . white - fronted capuchins are also hunted for meat in some areas . while this hunting is not excessive and simply maintains the population at a slightly lower level , it is a potential threat ( smuts et al . , 1987 ) .\nperry , s . ( 1998 ) .\nmale - male social relationships in wild white - faced capuchins , cebus capucinus .\n.\naccess to water can also become an issue during the dry season . the white - headed capuchin likes to drink daily , so in forests where water holes dry up during the dry season , there can be competition between troops over access to the remaining water holes .\nthe tufted capuchin monkey ( cebus apella ) , also known as brown capuchin or black - capped capuchin is a new world primate from south america . it is one of the more widespread species of primates in the neotropics . tufted capuchins are omnivorous animals , mostly feeding on fruits and invertebrates , although they sometimes feed on small vertebrates ( lizards and bird chicks ) and other plant parts .\nthe diet can vary between the rainy and dry season . for example , in guanacaste , costa rica the white - headed capuchin can eat a wide variety of fruits as well as caterpillars in the early rainy season ( june to november ) . [ 47 ] but during the dry season , only figs and a few other types of fruit are available . [ 47 ] during the dry season , chitinous insects , ant and wasp larvae and vertebrates become a particularly important part of the white - headed capuchin ' s diet . [ 47 ] access to water can also become an issue during the dry season . the white - headed capuchin likes to drink daily , so in forests where water holes dry up during the dry season , there can be competition between troops over access to the remaining water holes . [ 47 ]\n, 1975 . comparison of the behavior and ecology of red colobus and black - and - white colobus monkeys in uganda : a summary . in :\nthe white - headed capuchin also uses tools in other ways . it has been known to beat snakes with sticks in order to protect itself or to get the snake to release an infant . in captivity , it has been known to use tools to get to food or to defend itself , and in one case a white - headed capuchin used a squirrel monkey as a projectile , hurling it at a human observer . some populations also use trees or other hard surfaces as anvils in order to crack mollusks . and it sometimes uses sticks as probes to explore openings .\nduring the mosquito season , capuchin monkeys crush up millipedes and rub the remains on their backs . this acts as a natural insect repellent .\nit is very common in costa rica and panama , but the monkey has been thrown out from honduras and much of nicaragua . many honduran capuchin monkeys were captured and relocated to the island of roat\u00e1n , and many nicaraguan capuchin monkeys were captured and relocated to the island of ometepe .\nit is very common in costa rica and panama , but the monkey has been thrown out from honduras and much of nicaragua . many honduran capuchin monkeys were captured and relocated to the island of roat\u00e1n , and many nicaraguan capuchin monkeys were captured and relocated to the island of ometepe .\nthe white - headed capuchin also uses tools in other ways . it has been known to beat snakes with sticks in order to protect itself or to get the snake to release an infant . in captivity , it has been known to use tools to get to food or to defend itself , and in one case a white - headed capuchin used a squirrel monkey as a projectile , hurling it at a human observer . it has been historically noted that the species is often able to recognize , and therefore avoid baited cage traps , and hidden net snares are often the only way to capture this monkey .\nagile and lean , capuchin monkeys weigh only 3 - 9 pounds ( 1 . 36 - 4 . 9 kilograms ) . the fur of the capuchin monkey varies , but is most commonly seen with cream or light tan coloring around the face , neck and shoulders . the rest of its coat is dark brown . the hair is shorter and darker on the capuchin ' s back than on other parts of its body . the face of this cute monkey will range from white to pink in color . the tail is long , covered in hair and is partially able to wrap around branches .\nthe white - headed capuchin lives in central america and a small part of south america . in central america , its home includes honduras , nicaragua , costa rica and panama . it has also been seen in eastern guatemala and southern belize , but these reports are unconfirmed . in south america the white - headed capuchin lives in the extreme north - western part between the pacific ocean and the andes mountains in colombia and ecuador . it is among the most commonly seen monkeys in central america ' s national parks , such as manuel antonio national park , corcovado national park , santa rosa national park and soberania national park .\nperry , s . ( 1998 ) .\nmale - male social relationships in wild white - faced capuchins , cebus capucinus .\n. behaviour 135 : 1\u201334 .\ncapuchin monkeys live in central america and south america . they make their home in trees , traveling during the day and sleeping in the trees at night .\n. it is mostly black , but with a pink face and white on much of the front part of the body , giving it its common name . it has a distinctive\nthe white - headed capuchin is found in much of central america and a small portion of south america . in central america , its range includes much of honduras , nicaragua , costa rica and panama . it has also been reported to occur in eastern guatemala and southern belize , but these reports are unconfirmed . in south america the white - headed capuchin is found in the extreme north - western strip between the pacific ocean and the andes mountains in colombia and northwestern ecuador . it is among the most commonly seen monkeys in central america ' s national parks , such as manuel antonio national park , corcovado national park , santa rosa national park and soberania national park .\ncapuchin monkeys are featured in the movies outbreak , pirates of the caribbean : the curse of the black pearl ( and its sequels ) , the zookeeper film , george of the jungle , and the hangover part ii . ross geller ( david schwimmer ) on the nbc sitcom friends had a capuchin monkey named marcel .\nuniversity of california - los angeles .\nhow new behaviors appear and spread among capuchin monkeys .\nsciencedaily . urltoken ( accessed august 25 , 2017 ) .\nthe white - headed capuchin lives in central america and a small part of south america . in central america , its home includes honduras , nicaragua , costa rica and panama . [ 3 ] it has also been seen in eastern guatemala and southern belize , but these reports are unconfirmed . [ 3 ] in south america the white - headed capuchin lives in the extreme north - western part between the pacific ocean and the andes mountains in colombia and ecuador . [ 3 ] it is among the most commonly seen monkeys in central america ' s national parks , such as manuel antonio national park , corcovado national park , santa rosa national park and soberania national park . [ 63 ]\nmanson jh , gros - louis j , perry s ( 2004 ) .\nthree apparent cases of infanticide by males in wild white - faced capuchins ( cebus capucinus )\n.\nis one of the smaller species of the capuchin group . the head is small in comparison to the body and the torso is slender with long , narrow limbs .\nwhen presented with a reflection , capuchin monkeys react in a way that indicates an intermediate state between seeing the mirror as another individual and recognizing the image as self .\ntheir body , arms , legs and tail are all darkly ( black or brown ) coloured , while the face , throat and chest are white coloured and their head has a black cap . capuchin monkeys reach a length of 30 to 56 centimetres ( 12 \u2013 22 inches ) , with tails that are just as long as their body . capuchin monkeys weigh up to 1 . 3 kilograms ( 2 \u2013 3 pounds ) , with brains of mass 35 \u2013 40 grams . they are considered the most intelligent new world monkeys .\nthe white - headed capuchin has a polygamous mating system . the male can mate with many females . the dominant male usually fathers most of the young . the dominant male is more likely to mate when the female is the most fertile . dominant males avoid breeding with their own daughters who are members of the troop . this is rare among new world monkeys .\njack , k . & fedigan , l . ( 2004 ) .\nmale dispersal patterns in white - faced capuchins , cebus capucinus part 1 : patterns and causes of natal emigration\n.\njack , k . & fedigan , l . ( 2004 ) .\nmale dispersal patterns in white - faced capuchins , cebus capucinus part 2 : patterns and causes of secondary dispersal\n.\nmanson jh , gros - louis j , & perry s . ( 2004 ) .\nthree apparent cases of infanticide by males in wild white - faced capuchins ( cebus capucinus )\n.\nalso , higher densities of white - headed capuchins are found in older areas of forest and in areas containing evergreen forest , as well as areas with more water availability during the dry season .\nweeper capuchins ( c . nigrivittatus ) are found north of the amazon and north and east of the rio negro in brazil , the guianas , and central venezuela . females weigh less than 5 lb ( 2 . 5 kg ) and males weigh around 6 lb ( 3 kg ) . their colorings are like the white - faced capuchins but there is less contrast between the dark and light colors . they have a narrow crown patch that comes to a marked point on their foreheads . they also live in dry and wet forests and mangroves as do the white - faced capuchin .\nwhite - fronted capuchins are a monkey of the new world and one of the smallest within the capuchin group . their head is small compared to their body , their torso is slender and they have long , narrow limbs . they are a light brown color on their back and lighter underneath , often in shades of red and yellow . the fur on their back is long and soft , in contrast to the short coarser fur of their underparts . the crown of their head has a dark , round patch . females sometimes possess a tuft of hair behind this patch . their face is sparsely covered with pale colored hair , through which their peach - colored flesh can be seen . the color of their limbs ranges from yellows to reddy browns . the males are larger than females and the male\u2019s tail may have a lighter tip ."]}
{"id": 38, "summary": [{"text": "the large tree finch ( camarhynchus psittacula ) is a species of bird in the darwin 's finch group of the tanager family thraupidae .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is endemic to the galapagos islands .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "large tree finch", "paragraphs": ["large tree finch ( camarhynchus psittacula ) is a species of bird in the thraupidae family .\nprotection / threats / status : the large tree - finch is common within its range , and its populations appear to be stable . this species is not currently threatened .\nthe large tree - finch is the largest and heaviest bodied of the three tree - finch species , imaginatively named the large , medium and small tree - finches . large tree - finches have a big and deep bill with a strongly arched culmen , being approximately as long as it is deep . the fine tips of the mandibles actually cross a feature that is difficult to see on live birds . males show a dark hood , greenish back and whitish underparts . this species is found in a number of the islands in the galapagos archipelago , and in many it is sympatric with the small tree - finch ( c . parvulus ) . it is never as common as the small tree - finch and it is found in areas with taller and larger trees .\nhabitat : the large tree - finch frequents mainly humid evergreen forest between 300 and 700 metres of elevation . however , during the dry season , it may move to lower areas with deciduous trees , shrubs and opuntia cacti .\nthe breeding season is associated with rains , involving abundant food resources . the large tree - finch is monogamous and the pair defends a small territory . they often have long - term pair - bonds . the male is territorial and guards the female during the egg - laying .\nintroduction : the large tree - finch is the largest of the genus camarhynchus . this is mainly an arboreal species and an insect - eater . both scientific and french names could illustrate the repetitive song of this species , but also its strongly arched bill a bit similar to that of a parrot .\ncalls and songs : sounds by xeno - canto the large tree - finch\u2019s call is a nasal \u201ctzeeuu\u201d . the song is a series of repeated notes \u201cchu - tzee chu - tzee chut - zee\u201d . this song can be given by both mates . like in other darwin\u2019s finches , the song includes various trills and buzzes .\nconservation and research actions underway no actions are currently known . conservation and research actions proposed implement a full - scale monitoring programme across the gal\u00e1pagos islands . ensure that management activities to control invasive alien plant species do not have a negative impact on large tree - finch . investigate drivers behind observed declines and assess the impact of philornis downsi on the population . protect and enhance existing habitat .\nbehaviour in the wild : the large tree - finch feeds primarily on arthropods , but it also takes cactus fruits and other fruits , flowers and seeds . during the nesting season , the chicks are fed with a mixed diet including arthropods , fruits and seeds . outside the breeding season , it feeds mainly on seeds according to the size of its bill . it forages in trees , probing and biting into the bark of twigs , in order to extract insects and larvae , but also caterpillars .\nidentification : the largest of the tree finches with a large , rather parrot - like bill , the tips of the mandibles crossing . adult male : head , neck , breast and mantle black when fully mature , the remainder of the upperparts being olive - grey with some dark streaking . underparts pale , often with a yellow tinge . female / immature : upperparts olive - grown with faint streaking . underparts paler and virtually unstreaked .\n13 cm , largest tree - finch . deep bill , approximately as long as it is deep . mandible tips cross slightly when bill closed . male has upperparts greyish - olive and whitish below , with blackish hood . female is dull greyish brown ( jaramillo and sharpe 2015 ) . voice song a repeated series of 4 - 6 notes given in pairs\nchu - tzee chu - tzee chut - zee\n. call includes a nasal\ntzeeuu\n.\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\nashpole , j , butchart , s . , ekstrom , j . , fisher , s . , harding , m . , sharpe , c . j .\njustification : this species has been uplisted to vulnerable . the species has declined significantly on the island of santa cruz and is likely to also be declining on other islands within its range , owing to habitat loss and degradation .\nthis species is endemic to the gal\u00e1pagos islands , ( ecuador ) , with breeding populations on isabela , santa cruz , santa f\u00e9 , fernandina , santiago , marchena , pinta and r\u00e1bida ( castro and phillips 1996 , stotz et al . 1996 ) . it is extinct on pinz\u00f3n ( castro and phillips 1996 ) and thought to be extinct on floreana ( kleindorfer et al . 2014 , jaramillo and sharpe 2015 ) .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' uncommon ' in at least parts of its range ( stotz et al . 1996 ) . on the island of santa cruz its population has been estimated at 9 , 000 singing males ( dvorak et al . 2012 ) . however no data exists for the islands of isabela and santiago . trend justification : the population is suspected to be decreasing rapidly . on the island of santa cruz , the species reportedly declined significantly in the dry zone between 1997 and 2010 , but not in the scalesia zone ( dvorak et al . 2012 ) . habitat alteration , introduced pathogens and parasites and changes in insect availability may have contributed to declines . on the islands of isabela and santiago , where native forest has also been degraded ( by introduced herbivores ) population declines are also suspected ( dvorak et al . 2012 ) .\nthis species inhabits lowland deciduous and montane evergreen forest , between 300 and 700 m altitude ( stotz et al . 1996 ) . on santa cruz in the dry zone it is restricted to areas with tall palo santo bursera graveolens trees , it is also found in the scalesia zone and locally in the agricultural zone ( dvorak et al . 2012 ) . it feeds on the fruits of native plant species , and on insects for which it forages under leaves and excavates dead branches ( castro and phillips 1996 ) . it may move to lower elevations during the dry season ( jaramillo and sharpe 2015 ) .\nthe species is likely to be affected by a number of threats . development , introduced herbivores , the spread of invasive alien plant species and the herbicides used to manage these invasions may all have contributed to unfavourable habitat conditions for the species on santa cruz ( dvorak et al . 2012 ) . the introduced parasitic fly philornis downsi is known to have a negative impact on nesting success in gal\u00e1pagos finches and the species may be susceptible to avian pox . severe weather and changes in rainfall patterns owing to climate change also pose a threat .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe adult male of the nominate race has greyish - olive upperparts with blackish feather centres . the tail is short . the underparts are whitish with yellowish - buff wash . lower breast and flanks are streaked dark . the undertail - coverts are buffy - white and unstreaked . the head is dark , forming a blackish hood extending down to throat and breast . the deep , relatively long bill has strongly arched culmen . it is black when breeding , and dull orange with dark culmen outside the breeding season . the eyes are dark brown . legs and feet are black .\nthe female has duller greyish - brown upperparts . the upperwing is brownish with two narrow pale wingbars . the underparts are whitish with indistinct dark streaking on breast , variable according to each bird . from belly to undertail - coverts , the plumage is plain pale buff . the head is greyish - brown with pale supercilium . the bill is dull orange with darker culmen . the eyes are dark . legs and feet are blackish .\nthe immature male resembles female , with blackish forehead , face and lower throat .\nsubspecies and range : there are three subspecies . c . p . habeli occurs on pinta and marchena islands , in n galapagos islands . this race is smaller than nominate . the male is darker too . the bill is longer , with less arched culmen .\nc . p . affinis is found on fernandina and isabela islands , in w galapagos islands . this one is smaller than nominate , with smaller bill too .\nc . p . psittacula ( here described and displayed ) occurs on santiago , r\u00e1bida , santa cruz , santa fe and floreana , in c and s galapagos islands .\nthis species is resident in its range , only performing some altitudinal movements during the dry season .\nreproduction of this species : the breeding season occurs during the wet period . the male builds the nest , a spherical structure with lateral entrance towards the top . the nest is made with dry grasses , moss and lichen .\nthe female lays 4 whitish eggs with darker spots . she incubates alone during 12 days . the chicks are fed by both parents . they fledge about 13 - 15 days after hatching .\ndarwin finches , or galapagos finches , are small land birds with generally dull black , brown or olive , often streaky , plumage ; short tails ; and short , rounded wings . their bills vary greatly in size and shape ( a fact which was instrumental in inspiring charles darwin\u2019s thinking in relation to the theory of evolution \u2013 and hence the name given to this fascinating group of species ) .\nare you sure you want to leave this form and resume later ? if so , please enter a password below to securely save your form .\nthere was an error displaying the form . please copy and paste the embed code again .\nthere was an error initializing the payment processor on this form . please contact the form owner to correct this issue .\nnote : quasar expeditions is committed to ensuring your privacy as a visitor . we do not sell or rent emails or phone numbers provided . read our complete privacy policy .\nchat live with a travel expert and get your questions answered right away . mon - fri 9am - 6 : 30pm pst\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\ncamarhynchus psittacula psittacula : galapagos islands ( seymour , barrington , santa cruz , floreana , pinz\u00f3n , r\u00e1bida , santiago is . )\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 298 , 442 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nthe checklists are descriptive documents of the species that are part of a concrete taxonomic group or a group of species that are part of an specific analysis .\nthese documents have a structure that includes a list of the authors , a description of the taxonomic group or subject , and a list of the species that are part of the list .\nthe checklists aren ' t updated regularly , since they require revisions from groups of authors before their publication .\na complete set of a checklist include a pdf document and a table in csv format .\ngustavo jim\u00e9nez - uzc\u00e1tegui , david a . wiedenfeld , f . hern\u00e1n vargas , howard l . snell .\nnathalia tirado - sanchez , john mccosker , diego ruiz , angel chiriboga , stuart banks .\nyves finet , nathalia tirado - sanchez , angel chiriboga , diego ruiz , stuart banks .\nfrank bungartz , frauke ziemmeck , alba y\u00e1nez ayabaca , fredy nugra , andr\u00e9 aptroot .\nanne gu\u00e9zou , susana chamorro , paola pozo , ana mireya guerrero , rachel atkinson , chris buddenhagen , patricia jaramillo d\u00edaz , mark gardener .\ngustavo jim\u00e9nez - uzc\u00e1tegui , javier zabala , brian milstead , howard l . snell .\nto get up - to - date information about our work , please subscribe to our e - newsletter or follow us on our social media platforms .\nevery single donation we receive , no matter how small , counts as we are completely dependent on the generosity of others to carry out our scientific projects . we need your passion , loyalty and continual support .\nthe \u201ccharles darwin foundation for the galapagos islands\u201d , in french \u201cfondation charles darwin pour les \u00eeles galapagos\u201d , association international sans but lucratif ( \u201caisbl\u201d ) , has its registered office located at dr\u00e8ve du pieur\u00e9 19 , 1160 brussels , and is registered under the trade registry of brussels under the number 0409 . 359 . 103 ."]}
{"id": 39, "summary": [{"text": "idiosoma nigrum , also called black rugose trapdoor spider , occurs only in south-western australia , in dry woodlands east of the darling scarp and north to moore river .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "females can reach a length of about 30 mm , males about 18 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "i. nigrum digs burrows up to 32 cm deep . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "idiosoma nigrum", "paragraphs": ["ecologia environment ( 2013 ) . blue hills idiosoma nigrum targeted survey 2012 . sinosteel midwest corporation . urltoken\necologia environment ( 2010a ) . weld range idiosoma nigrum population genetic study . sinosteel midwest corporation . available from : urltoken .\nidiosoma nigrum main , 1952 : 133 , pl . i , f . 2 - 5 , f . 2c ( d f ) . idiosoma nigrum main , 1957a : 439 , f . 2g - h , 9d , 14b , 24b ( d m ) . idiosoma nigrum main , 1985a : 13 , f . 23 , 27 , 215 ( m f ) . idiosoma nigrum rix et al . , 2018b : 18 , f . 1 - 3 , 26 - 56 ( m f ) .\nshield - backed trapdoor spider ( idiosoma nigrum ) conservation plan ( avon catchment council ( acc ) , 2007 ) [ state species management plan ] .\necologia environment ( 2009a ) . shield - back spider idiosoma nigrum survey . weld range iron ore project . sinosteel midwest corporation . available from : urltoken .\ngray , m . ( 2014 ) . idiosoma nigrum ( family idiopidae ) . species bank . australian biological resources study , canberra . available from : urltoken .\nanonymous ( 2010 ) . idiosoma nigrum . form to nominate a western australian species for listing as threatened , change of category or delisting . available from : urltoken .\navon catchment council ( acc ) ( 2007 ) . shield - backed trapdoor spider ( idiosoma nigrum ) conservation plan . avon catchment council , western australia . available from : urltoken .\ncitation : department of the environment ( 2018 ) . idiosoma nigrum in species profile and threats database , department of the environment , canberra . available from : urltoken . accessed tue , 10 jul 2018 05 : 15 : 41 + 1000 .\nmain , b . y . ( 2003 ) . demography of the shield - back trapdoor spider idiosoma nigrum main in remnant vegetation of the western australian wheatbelt . records of the south australian museum , monograph series . 7 : 179 - 185 .\nthe closest relatives to the shield - backed trapdoor spider are idiosoma sigillatum and idiosoma hirsutum , both of which lack the hardened shield on the abdomen ( anonymous 2010 ) .\nin synonymy : idiosoma hirsutum main , 1952 = idiosoma sigillatum ( o . pickard - cambridge , 1870 ) ( rix et al . , 2017a : 593 ) . idiosoma pulleinei ( hogg , 1902 ) = idiosoma subtriste ( o . pickard - cambridge , 1877 ) ( main , 1957a : 428 , sub aganippe ) . idiosoma schomburgki ( karsch , 1878 , t from idiommata ) = idiosoma subtriste ( o . pickard - cambridge , 1877 ) ( main , 1985a : 12 , sub aganippe ; placed by raven , 1985a : 161 in misgolas ) .\nthreatened species scientific committee ( tssc ) ( 2013cb ) . commonwealth listing advice on idiosoma nigrum ( shield - back trapdoor spider ) . canberra : department of sustainability , environment , water , population and communities . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 14 - may - 2013 .\ndepartment of sustainability , environment , water , population and communities ( 2013g ) . approved conservation advice for idiosoma nigrum ( shield - back spider ) . canberra : department of sustainability , environment , water , population and communities . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 14 - may - 2013 .\nidiops sigillatus o . pickard - cambridge , 1870c : 105 , pl . 8 , f . 1 ( d m ) . idiosoma sigillatum ausserer , 1871a : 150 . acanthodon sigillatum simon , 1892a : 91 . idiosoma sigillatum pocock , 1897a : 109 ( d f ) . idiosoma sigillatum simon , 1903a : 901 , f . 1053 ( f ) . idiosoma hirsutum main , 1952 : 132 , f . 2b ( d f ) . idiosoma sigillatum main , 1952 : 131 , f . 1a - c , 2a ( m ) . idiosoma hirsutum main , 1957a : 440 , f . 15a - b ( considered a possible hybrid of i . sigillatum x aganippe rhaphiduca rainbow & pulleine , 1918 ) . idiosoma sigillatum main , 1964 : 32 , f . a - d , f ( m ) . idiosoma hirsutum main , 1985a : 54 ( considered a valid species ) . idiosoma sigillatum main , 1985a : 14 , f . 26 , 190 , 216 ( m f ) . idiosoma sigillatum rix et al . , 2017a : 593 , f . 83 - 84 , 87 , 91 , 93 , 97 ( m , s of i . hirsutum ) . idiosoma sigillatum rix et al . , 2018b : 64 , f . 4 - 6 , 351 - 372 ( m f ) .\nin synonymy : aganippe o . pickard - cambridge , 1877 = idiosoma ausserer , 1871 ( rix et al . , 2017a : 590 ) anidiops pocock , 1897 = idiosoma ausserer , 1871 ( rix et al . , 2017a : 590 )\nthe shield - backed trapdoor spider ( idiosoma nigrum ) belongs to the suborder mygalomorphae , commonly known as \u201ctrapdoor\u201d and \u201cfunnel - web\u201d spiders . they are primarily terrestrial burrowing spiders which occasionally make tubular silk nests on tree trunks . mygalomorphs are able to persist in small isolated areas due to their low dispersion powers , long life cycle and sedentary life style ( main , 1987a ) .\nidiosoma gardneri rix & harvey , in rix et al . , 2018b : 38 , f . 167 - 179 ( d m ) .\nidiosoma gutharuka rix & harvey , in rix et al . , 2018b : 39 , f . 180 - 192 ( d m ) .\nidiosoma incomptum rix & harvey , in rix et al . , 2018b : 41 , f . 193 - 205 ( d m ) .\nidiosoma kwongan rix & harvey , in rix et al . , 2018b : 53 , f . 272 - 284 ( d m ) .\nidiosoma clypeatum rix & harvey , in rix et al . , 2018b : 25 , f . 79 - 100 ( d m f ) .\nidiosoma corrugatum rix & harvey , in rix et al . , 2018b : 30 , f . 101 - 122 ( d m f ) .\nidiosoma dandaragan rix & harvey , in rix et al . , 2018b : 32 , f . 132 - 144 ( d m f ) .\nidiosoma formosum rix & harvey , in rix et al . , 2018b : 35 , f . 145 - 166 ( d m f ) .\nidiosoma intermedium rix & harvey , in rix et al . , 2018b : 43 , f . 206 - 227 ( d m f ) .\nidiosoma mcnamarai rix & harvey , in rix et al . , 2018b : 57 , f . 307 - 328 ( d m f ) .\nidiosoma jarrah rix & harvey , in rix et al . , 2018b : 46 , f . 7 , 228 - 249 ( d m f ) .\nidiosoma kopejtkaorum rix & harvey , in rix et al . , 2018b : 50 , f . 9 , 250 - 271 ( d m f ) .\nidiosoma mcclementsorum rix & harvey , in rix et al . , 2018b : 55 , f . 8 , 285 - 306 ( d m f ) .\nidiosoma schoknechtorum rix & harvey , in rix et al . , 2018b : 60 , f . 10 , 329 - 350 ( d m f ) .\nidiosoma arenaceum rix & harvey , in rix et al . , 2018b : 23 , f . 11 - 12 , 57 - 78 ( d m f ) .\nidiosoma galeosomoides rix , main , raven & harvey , in rix et al . , 2017a : 599 , f . 99 , 116 - 128 ( d f ) .\naganippe winsori faulder , 1985 : 89 , f . 9a - c ( d m ) . idiosoma winsori rix et al . , 2017a : 601 ( t from aganippe ) .\naganippe cupulifex main , 1957a : 436 , f . 7f , 9b , 12a , 13c ( d m f ) . idiosoma cupulifex rix et al . , 2017a : 599 ( t from aganippe ) .\naganippe castellum main , 1986b : 101 , f . 2 , 4a - h ( d m f ) . idiosoma castellum rix et al . , 2017a : 594 , f . 89 , 92 , 95 ( m , t from aganippe ) .\naganippe montanus faulder , 1985 : 85 , f . 5a - c , 6a - c , 7a - c , 8a - b ( d m f ) . idiosoma montanum rix et al . , 2017a : 601 ( t from aganippe ) .\naganippe planites faulder , 1985 : 91 , f . 10a - c , 11a - c , 12a - c , 13a - b ( d m f ) . idiosoma planites rix et al . , 2017a : 571 ( t from aganippe ) .\naganippe occidentalis hogg , 1903b : 309 , f . 1 - 2 ( d m ) . aganippe occidentalis main , 1957a : 414 , f . 11b ( m , d f ) . idiosoma occidentale rix et al . , 2017a : 571 ( t from aganippe ) .\nnomina dubia : idiosoma modestum ( rainbow & pulleine , 1918 : 98 , pl . 21 , f . 47 - 48 , f , australia ( south australia ) , originally in aganippe ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 000633 ] - - rix et al . , 2017a : 592 . idiosoma pelochroa ( rainbow & pulleine , 1918 : 100 , pl . 21 , f . 51 , f , originally in aganippe , australia ( south australia ) ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 000636 ] - - rix et al . , 2017a : 592 . idiosoma robustum ( rainbow & pulleine , 1918 : 97 , pl . 21 , f . 45 - 46 , f , originally in aganippe , australia ( south australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 000639 ] - - rix et al . , 2017a : 592 . idiosoma simpsoni ( hickman , 1944a : 22 , f . 7 - 10 , f , originally in aganippe , australia ( south australia ) ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 000640 ] - - rix et al . , 2017a : 592 . idiosoma whitei ( rainbow , 1915 : 774 , pl . 67 , f . 1 - 2 , f , originally in aganippe , australia [ south australia ] ) - - rix et al . , 2017a : 590 , contra main , 1957a : 426 , sub anidiops .\naganippe smeatoni hogg , 1902 : 126 , f . 23 , pl . 13 , f . 7 ( d m ) . aganippe smeatoni simon , 1903a : 901 , f . 1054 - 1055 ( m ) . aganippe smeatoni main , 1957a : 429 , f . 11a ( m , d f ) . idiosoma smeatoni rix et al . , 2017a : 601 ( t from aganippe ) .\naganippe berlandi rainbow , 1914a : 199 , f . 9 - 13 ( d m ) . aganippe berlandi faulder , 1985 : 83 , f . 1a - c , 2a - c , 3a - c , 4a - b ( m , d f ) . aganippe berlandi main , 1985a : 51 ( not a junior synonym of a . smeatoni hogg , 1902 ) . idiosoma berlandi rix et al . , 2017a : 594 , f . 96 ( m , t from aganippe ) .\naganippe rhaphiduca rainbow & pulleine , 1918 : 93 , pl . 21 , f . 38 - 42 ( d m f ) . aganippe raphiduca main , 1957a : 433 , f . 2e - f , 7d , 12b - c , 13d , 26a - g , 27a - c ( m ) [ 13a - b is eucanippe nemestrina per rix et al . , 2018 : 153 ] . aganippe raphiduca main , 1964 : 34 , f . e - h ( m ) . idiosoma rhaphiduca rix et al . , 2017a : 571 ( t from aganippe ) .\nanidiops manstridgei pocock , 1897a : 114 ( d f ) . anidiops manstridgei simon , 1903a : 903 , f . 1052 . anidiops manstridgei rainbow & pulleine , 1918 : 101 , pl . 21 , f . 52 - 54 ( f ) . anidiops manstridgei main , 1957a : 426 , f . 2c - d , 3b , 5a , 10a - c ( m , s ) . anidiops manstridgei main , 1985a : 16 , f . 20 - 21 , 192 ( f ) . idiosoma manstridgei rix et al . , 2017a : 600 , f . 132 - 144 ( m , t from anidiops ) .\naganippe subtristis o . pickard - cambridge , 1877c : 28 , pl . 6 , f . 3 ( d f ) . idiommata schomburgki karsch , 1878c : 820 ( d m ) . aganippe subtristis simon , 1892a : 106 , f . 104 . aganippe pulleinei hogg , 1902 : 128 , f . 24 , pl . 13 , f . 3 - 4 ( d m f ) . aganippe subtristis simon , 1903a : 901 , f . 1050 . aganippe subtristis rainbow & pulleine , 1918 : 91 , pl . 21 , f . 32 , 35 - 37 ( d m ) . aganippe subtristis main , 1957a : 428 , f . 7c ( m , s ) . aganippe subtristis main , 1964 : 34 , f . a - d ( m ) . aganippe subtristis main , 1985a : 12 , f . 13 , 15 - 18 , 24 - 25 , 188 - 189 ( m f , s ) . idiosoma subtriste rix et al . , 2017a : 601 ( t from aganippe ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfor information to assist regulatory considerations , refer to policy statements and guidelines , the conservation advice , the listing advice and / or the recovery plan .\ndepartment of sustainability , environment , water , population and communities ( 2013 ) .\n. canberra : department of sustainability , environment , water , population and communities . available from :\nrecovery plan not required , the approved conservation advice for the species provides sufficient direction to implement priority actions and mitigate against key threats ( 26 / 04 / 2013 ) .\nthe distribution shown is generalised from the departments species of national environmental significance dataset . this is an indicative distribution map of the present distribution of the species based on best available knowledge . some species information is withheld in line with sensitive species polices . see map caveat for more information .\nthere is currently some discussion about whether the species found in the rangelands of the midwest region is the same as that found in the wheatbelt and the coastal regions of the midwest . there appears to be some taxonomic differences in the male morphology ( framenau pers . comm . cited in anonymous 2010 ) and these are currently being investigated ( anonymous 2010 ) . there are only two significant populations in the wheatbelt , east yorkrakine and minnivale , and these would be particularly important if the species is polyphyletic ( i . e . if it has a northern and southern species ) ( anonymous 2010 ) .\nthe shield - backed trapdoor spider is dark brown to black , large ( females up to 30 mm in body length ) and with a distinctive thick and hard cuticle on the abdomen . the end of the abdomen is flattened into a shield and the sides are deeply corrugated . the burrows always have a lightweight , leaf litter and silk door , with leaf and twig trip - lines fanning out from the centre of the front of the burrow rim ( gray 2014 ) .\nthe shield - backed trapdoor spider is endemic to semi - arid south - west western australia ( wa ) . it occurs in a number of severely fragmented populations in the central and northern wheatbelt ( e . g . minnivale and east yorkrakine ) ( main et al . 2000 cited in tssc 2013ca ) . further north , the species occurs in more arid areas in the midwest ( e . g . large isolated ranges at jack hills ( tssc 2013ca ) , weld range ( ecologia environment 2009a ) and blue hills ( ecologia environment 2013 ) ) and coastal areas of the midwest ( e . g . zuytdorp station north of the murchison river and nanga station south of shark bay ) ( main et al . 2000 cited in anonymous 2010 ) . the arid midwest populations are naturally fragmented or isolated because they persist only on ranges , but the wheatbelt and coastal midwest populations are all severely fragmented as a result of land clearing ( anonymous 2010 ) .\nthe avon catchment council ( 2007 ) includes a number of eastern records ( e . g . at westonia in 2007 ) that are not reported elsewhere ( e . g . tssc 2013cb ) . post - 1980 , verified records only extend as far east into the wheatbelt as durokoppin and trayning ( ala 2014 ) .\nin 2010 , there were around 6100 burrows databased , although some of these would have been inactive or burrows of juveniles . the overwhelming majority ( around 5400 ) of these are from midwest ranges and were recorded as part of the environmental impact assessment process . many wheatbelt records , outside of the main populations at minnivale and east yorkrakine , were recorded decades ago and many of these are likely to be extinct ( anonymous 2010 ) .\nthe species extent of occurrence is approximately 21 000 km\u00b2 . it is highly likely that the species occurs throughout much of the midwest region in association with large ranges with deep gullies and possibly with breakaways ( anonymous 2010 ) .\nthe species occurs in three areas at weld range ( weld range north , weld range south and hampton hill ) over an area of 15 km . in one study , the mean number of burrows per hectare in the area ranged between 11 . 3 - 43 . 9 ( ecologia environment 2009a ) . genetic studies indicated a strong population subdivision between weld range north and weld range south ( ecologia environment 2010a ) . the collections at weld range extended the species distribution by approximately 200 km further north , into more arid areas ( ecologia environment 2009a ) .\nat blue hills , one study showed the mean number of burrows per hectare of 4 . 08 in an area of 13 ha ( ecologia environment 2013 ) .\nsurvey work has been carried out at minnivale and east yorkrakine nature reserves , karara , weld range and jack hills mining leases and , more recently , on likely conservation areas and department of environment and conservation managed lands through the northern wheatbelt and the southern / central midwest ( anonymous 2010 ) . these surveys did not detect the species in much of the northern wheatbelt and southern midwest . these surveys demonstrated that there are unlikely to be any populations in the interior of the wheatbelt and midwest until you reach the large banded iron formation ranges of the midwest to the north and the higher rainfall of the central wheatbelt to the south ( anonymous 2010 ) .\nthis work also showed that there is a likelihood that the species occurs throughout more of the midwest region than currently known , with up to 60 sites identified as possibilities ( anonymous 2010 ) . however more than half of these occur east of the current known eastern extent , and a number of mining tenements in these areas have not found the species despite significant survey work . at least half a dozen occur further north than the northern known extent . there are about 20 sites that have a high potential for harbouring significant populations of this species ( anonymous 2010 ) .\nin 2010 , there were seven locations with populations larger than 30 shield - backed trapdoor spider individuals ( anonymous 2010 ) . ecologia environment ( 2009a ) estimated that there is over 1000 ha of suitable habitat in weld range that could support over 20 000 individuals . based on detected adults , the site is estimated to have an effective population size of approximately 4000 with wilgie mia and weld range north supporting the largest effective populations 2300 and 1000 , respectively ( ecologia environment 2009a ) . proposed mining activity in the area is estimated to impact 11 % of the population ( ecologia environment 2009a ) .\ntotal population reduction has not been investigated , but data from a study in east yorkrakine reserve from 1989 to 1999 showed a 95 % reduction in abundance at the site ( main 2003 ) . future reductions are possible due to ongoing threats in the wheatbelt and mining in the vicinity of populations at karara , weld range and jack hills ( anonymous 2010 ) .\nin the wheatbelt , the shield - backed trapdoor spider typically inhabits clay soils whereas the arid midwest populations are associated with rocky habitats , primarily in positions with increased moisture retention properties like gullies and drainage lines on southern facing slopes ( anonymous 2010 ; ecologia environment 2009a ) . the wheatbelt and coastal midwest populations are in areas with more consistent annual rainfall than those in the arid midwest , which is likely to be why the populations in these areas are primarily found in sheltered habitat ( anonymous 2010 ) . in the wheatbelt , populations are associated with eucalypt woodland and acacia shrubland , and in the arid midwest they are associated with acacia shrubland ( anonymous 2010 ) .\nleaf litter and twigs are extremely important to the species as it provides material for the burrows , reduced soil moisture loss and increased prey availability ( anonymous 2010 ) . the species avoids areas of dense leaf litter as juveniles are unable to dig their initial hole in such areas ( main 1992 cited in ) . areas of lower grazing pressure may suport greater population abundance ( ecologia environment 2009a ) .\nin the wheatbelt , habitat critical to the species is identified as open york gum ( eucalyptus loxophleba ) , salmon gum ( e . salmonophloia ) and wheatbelt wandoo ( e . capillosa ) woodland , where jam ( acacia acuminata ) forms a sparse understorey in heavy clay soils ( acc 2007 ) .\nin a study at weld range , all burrows were found within boundaries of drainage lines underneath predominantly acacia vegetation ( mulga ( acacia aneura ) , a . sp . weld range , dead finish ( a . tetragonophylla ) , a . ramulosa , a . craspedocarpa , a . paraneura ) and also underneath hakea preissii and eremophila glutinosa ) . of 1708 burrows detected , 33 % were on slope - foot - plain , 30 % on the plain , 27 % on slopes and 10 % on hilltop - slope - foot ( ecologia environment 2009a ) . burrows were found in soil dominated by clay and rocks ( 54 % ) , or clay , rock and sand ( 38 % ) . the average leaf litter of sites ranged between 7 - 100 % with a mean of 59 % ( ecologia environment 2009a ) .\nin a study at blue hills , 53 burrows were recorded under a . ramulosa or a . caesaneura , in microhabitat ranging from loamy plains to rocky hillslopes ( ecologia environment 2013 ) . the average leaf litter of sites ranged between 25 - 98 % with a mean of 63 % ( ecologia environment 2013 ) .\nin a study at mummaloo , of a 52 quadrat survey the species was detected at 14 locations ( bennelongia 2012 ) . two records occurred in ecualyptus woodland and twelve occurred in mixed species shrubland . the eucalypt woodland consists of york gum , salmon gum and gimlet ( e . salubris ) with callitris columellaris usually present and occasionally casuarina obesa . the understorey contains 5 - 60 % cover of eremophila spp . , acacia spp . and allocasuarina spp . . the mixed species shrubland consists of melaleuca stereophloia , callitris columellaris and casuarina obesa ( of no more than 55 % overall cover ) , and 10 - 100 % cover of shrub species , especially kimberly ' s wattle ( acacia anthochaera ) and allocasuarina acutivalvis subsp . prinsepiana ( bennelongia 2012 ) .\nthe shield - backed trapdoor spider is protected from dessication partly through a deep burrow that extends into humid soil . additionally it has an extraordinary thickened abdominal integument ( tough outer protective layer ) . this is dorsally corrugated and posteriorly truncated with large button - like sigilla ( seal ) and in some parts of the geographic range has stout spines along the ridges . this morphology reduces evaporative water loss in contrast to most species in the related genus aganippe . the enlarged eyes and long legs together with the attached twiglines to the buttom rim are advantageous for foraging ( main 2010 ) .\nspiderlings generally construct their burrows within a very short distance ( several centimetres ) of the matriarch female , forming a family cluster that is typical of mygalomorph spiders ( a group of large spiders that include tarantulas , trapdoor spiders and funnel - web spiders ) that do not have aerial dispersal . gene flow is maintained through the dispersal of mature males in search of females for mating ( travelling up to 500 m ) the only time males leave their burrows . females spend their entire life in the one burrow or within its proximity ( anonymous 2010 ) . the population at weld range north was shown to have uninterrupted gene flow over a range of at least 6 km ( ecologia environment 2010a ) .\nboth males and females reach maturity after approximately 5 - 6 years . males die shortly after reaching sexual maturity and mating , whereas females may live as long as 20 years , reproducing several times ( anonymous 2010 ) . it is believed that males mature and mate after the first significant rains of the year , dispersing up to 500 m ( main unpub . data cited in anonymous 2010 ) . there is some evidence that females may store sperm ( main unpub . data cited in anonymous 2010 ) but whether this means that males only mate with virgin females or whether adult females mate repeatedly during their life is unclear . it is also unknown whether males mate within their matriarchal unit and whether they mate with more than one female ( anonymous 2010 ) . the very low dispersal capabilities of the males mean that fragmentation and isolation are likely to be playing a major role in the declining populations in the wheatbelt ( anonymous 2010 ) .\nthe shield - backed trapdoor spider is an opportunistic feeder and feeds primarily on ants , but also includes beetles , cockroaches , millipedes and moths ( clark & spier - ashcroft 2003 ) . the species relies on the twigs and leaves they have attached to the rim of their burrow for the detection of prey within the vicinity of their burrow ( anonymous 2010 ) . this reliance on leaf litter means that leaf litter loss through inappropriate fire regimes and management may impact significantly on the species ability to feed ( anonymous 2010 ) .\nsearching for burrows during the wetter parts of the year is the most common and most effective way of surveying for the shield - backed trapdoor spider . the burrow is quite distinctive but can be easily mistaken for other twig - lining species . the burrow has two tufts of leaf litter radiating out from the centre of the burrow rim , similar to a moustache . the atrium of the burrow is cup shaped and narrows to the main shaft of the burrow . it is this characteristic that is often missed or misinterpreted by surveyors ( anonymous 2010 ) . searching for burrows within and on the edges of leaf litter in suitable habitats is the most effective approach for detection . pit traps placed around vegetation in suitable habitats during autumn can be used to catch wandering males ( anonymous 2010 ) .\nsecondary salinisation : the widespread clearing of the wheatbelt has resulted in the water table rising and an increase in salinisation close to the surface . this results in vegetation changes that directly affect the shield - backed trapdoor spider because of it\u2019s reliance on the vegetation and associated leaf litter for habitat ( anonymous 2010 ) .\ngrazing : grazing by stock and feral animals affects both the wheatbelt and midwest populations largely through the disturbance of leaf litter , vegetation and soil . work in the midwest has shown that areas where grazing occurs have fewer emergents and juveniles ( ecologia environment unpub . data cited in anonymous 2010 ) .\nfragmentation and clearing : the clearing of habitat has resulted in the severe fragmentation of populations in the wheatbelt . the populations at karara , weld range , jack hills and blue hills will all be negatively affected by land clearing because of the mining operations ( anonymous 2010 ; ecologia environment 2009a , 2013 ) , which will fragment these significant populations . dust pollution associated with mining could negatively impact the species\nvibrations : vibrations associated with vehicles and exploration drilling have the potential to affect nearby populations . recent work at jack hills and weld range has shown a possible reduction in emergents and juveniles within 50 m of exploration drilling pads ( phoenix environmental unpub . data cited in anonymous 2010 ) . exploration restrictions have been put in place at weld range and jack hills based on this research .\ninappropriate fire : in the wheatbelt , the combination of fragmentation and intense fire has a high potential to result in local extinctions , with little to no chance of recolonisation ( main 1995 ) . intense fires can not only remove burrow doors but also remove all the leaf litter , providing no material for reparation work and dramatically affecting the prey population ( anonymous 2010 ) .\nlack of litter management in reserves : although the species requires leaf litter to survive , excessive , deep litter canrestrict the establishment of emergent burrows , forcing them further away from vegetation and exposing them to the elements that likely decrease their chances of surviving to adulthood . similarly deep litter reduces the chances of understorey vegetation growing , reducing the diversity of invertebrates and the health of the habitat and increases the chances of hot , intense fires going through a population ( anonymous 2010 ) .\nrecovery actions for this species are provided in the conservation advice for the shield - backed trapdoor spider ( tssc 2013ca ) and the avon catchment shield - backed trapdoor spider conservation plan ( acc 2007 ) at the start of the profile .\natlas of living australia ( ala ) ( 2014 ) . atlas of living australia . available from : urltoken .\nbancroft , w . & m . bamford ( 2012 ) . karara iron ore project : annual monitoring survey of the shield - backed trapdoor spider 2010 to 2012 . prepared for : karara mining limited .\nbennelongia ( 2012 ) . mummaloo hill project : short - range endemic invertebrates . prepared for top iron . available from : urltoken .\nclarke , g . & f . spier - ashcroft ( 2003 ) . a review of the conservation status of selected australian non - marine invertebrates . environment australia , canberra . available from : urltoken .\nmain , b . y . ( 1992 ) . the role of life history patterns and demography of mygalomorph trapdoor spiders for assessing persistence in remnant habitats of the western australian wheatbelt . report for the world wide fund for nature , world wide fund for nature , sydney .\nmain , b . y . ( 1995 ) . survival of trapdoor spiders during and after fire . calm science supplement . 4 : 207 - 216 .\nmain , b . y . ( 2010 ) . interactions of water , plants and ground - dwelling fauna : water harvesting and tapping by trapdoor spiders . landscapes : the journal of the international centre for landscape and language . 4 ( 1 ) .\nanonymous ( 2009 ) . australian faunal directory . australian biological resources study . available from : urltoken .\nepbc act email updates can be received via the communities for communities newsletter and the epbc act newsletter .\nthis database is designed to provide statutory , biological and ecological information on species and ecological communities , migratory species , marine species , and species and species products subject to international trade and commercial use protected under the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 ( the epbc act ) . it has been compiled from a range of sources including listing advice , recovery plans , published literature and individual experts . while reasonable efforts have been made to ensure the accuracy of the information , no guarantee is given , nor responsibility taken , by the commonwealth for its accuracy , currency or completeness . the commonwealth does not accept any responsibility for any loss or damage that may be occasioned directly or indirectly through the use of , or reliance on , the information contained in this database . the information contained in this database does not necessarily represent the views of the commonwealth . this database is not intended to be a complete source of information on the matters it deals with . individuals and organisations should consider all the available information , including that available from other sources , in deciding whether there is a need to make a referral or apply for a permit or exemption under the epbc act .\nthis \u20183 year plan\u2019 presents strategic direction to ensure wheatbelt nrm effectively responds to national , state and regional nrm needs . this will be achieved by engaging our community to actively support and progress our strategic objectives . this \u20183 year plan\u2019 is supported each year by an operations plan that sets out how resources will be allocated and utilised in progressing the strategic objectives in this document .\nthe wheatbelt regional nrm strategy guides nrm investment priorities within the region . the regional community provided important guidance to the development of the strategy , which reflects their values and understanding of the environment they live in and know .\nthe western australian government 2018 - 19 community stewardship grants are now open and wheatbelt nrm is supporting our community to apply .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 695e1e77 - a2b7 - 4786 - 9502 - 81be54ac63d9\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : a5fba25c - 9301 - 4111 - bd1d - f020b12a5b0a\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : e67764dc - eda3 - 4e87 - aec6 - 15c1bee8e0a9\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : b1892325 - 13b1 - 4247 - a2e0 - 986a69278e48\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 301255\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nwe love australia : its environment and its people . that ' s why we want to be a part of its sustainable development to ensure we preserve its unique , fragile beauty . through our work and shared passions , we strive to achieve sensible , measurable , realistic outcomes that are good for our clients ' businesses and the natural environment .\nphoenix has a core team of highly skilled , passionate environmental professionals that strikes the right balance of scientific credibility , practical application and business sense .\ncommunication and collaboration are the cornerstones of our client relationships . we offer personalised service and ready access to experienced senior staff . meticulously developed , our business and data management systems ensure efficiency and data accuracy . we pursue innovative approaches to overcome complex issues , manage risk , and minimise constraints and operational costs .\nthe phoenix botany team has broad botanical knowledge and offers a diverse range of services underscored by a reputation for delivering high quality , robust assessments .\nour rehabilitation framework , developed over several years is sufficiently adaptable to manage these challenges and sufficiently transparent to satisfy regulators .\nstriking the right balance between science and practicality , the phoenix vertebrate fauna team is comprised of career zoologists with intimate knowledge of wa species .\nphoenix is the industry leader in targeted terrestrial invertebrate surveys , including short - range endemic ( sre ) assessments .\nphoenix offers complete subterranean survey solutions that are well - planned and employ cutting - edge , best practice field and laboratory methods .\nphoenix ' s invertebrate team offers a wealth of experience in invertebrate taxonomy and aquatic ecosystem management , which delivers clear impact management , mitigation strategies and baseline information .\nphoenix employs people with a diverse range of experiences and skills that are capable of reading between the lines , identifying and stitching together the key environmental factors of any project .\nphoenix ' s team of taxonomists offers extensive experience in invertebrate species systematics and biology and fast turnaround times that effectively eliminate costly project delays .\nthese spiders are restricted to the northern wheatbelt region in western australia . they are currently ( 2017 ) the only species listed as threatened under federal legislation ( epbc act ) . they are believed to be threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation . a number of spider species have a rugose abdomen like this and are subject to a taxonomic study by michael rix ( queensland museum ) and collaborators .\nn . b . : considered a senior synonym of aganippe o . pickard - cambridge , 1877 ( type a . subtristis o . pickard - cambridge , 1877 ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidergen : 00072 ] and of anidiops ( type a . manstridgei pocock , 1897 ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidergen : 00073 ] by rix et al . , 2017 : 590 ; transferred from the ctenizidae to the idiopidae by raven , 1985a : 138 .\n| | australia ( western australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 050288 ]\n| | australia ( new south wales ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 000630 ]\n| | australia ( western australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 000631 ]\n| | australia ( western australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 050289 ]\n| | australia ( south australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 050290 ]\n| | australia ( western australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 000632 ]\n| | australia ( western australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 050291 ]\n| | australia ( western australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 050292 ]\n| | australia ( western australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 049619 ]\n| | australia ( western australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 050293 ]\n| | australia ( western australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 050294 ]\n| | australia ( western australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 050295 ]\n| | australia ( western australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 050296 ]\n| | australia ( western australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 050297 ]\n| | australia ( western australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 050298 ]\n| | australia ( western australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 050299 ]\n| | australia ( western australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 000644 ]\n| | australia ( western australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 050300 ]\n| | australia ( western australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 050301 ]\n| | australia ( new south wales ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 000634 ]\n| | australia ( western australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 000806 ]\n| | australia ( western australia , south australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 000635 ]\n| | australia ( new south wales ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 000637 ]\n| | australia ( western australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 000638 ]\n| | australia ( western australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 050302 ]\n| | australia ( western australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 000807 ]\n| | australia ( south australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 000641 ]\n| | australia ( south australia ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 000642 ]\n| | australia ( victoria ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 000643 ]\nthese spiders , from the sub - order orthognatha ( mygalomorphae ) or primitive spiders , are famous for their falsely suggested\ndeadly\nbites . more about the exaggerated poisonous of these and other spiders can be read here . the bird - eating spider and tarantula , which is a common name for these spiders , the goliath spider ( theraposa blondi ) which is the largest spider on the world with a leg span of 30 cm and a weight of 130 grams , sydney funnel web spider ( atrax robustus ) and the mouse spider ( missulena ) are names given to species belonging to the order . in europe only two members of this sub - order can be found . in australia 13 % ( > 240 ) of the spiders belong to the mygalomorphae . the ancestral lineage of these spiders goes back over 360 million years .\nmost of these spiders live fearful lives buried deep in holes . many species react on unexpected events by cowering in fear , unable to move , or by violently plunging their pickaxe fangs . ( more about the fangs ) the spider can often be spotted when the males start searching for females and leave their burrows . females are more difficult to find because they can live for several years in their burrow with out leaving it .\nthe two long spinnerets at the back end of their abdomen and their large fangs that move up and down instead of sideways , like the modern spiders , are characteristic for this order .\ndistribution the eastern mouse spider ( missulena bradleyi ) lives in eastern australia from queensland to victoria . the redheaded mouse spider ( missulena occatoria ) occurs across most of the mainland , except southern victoria and northern australia . the male of this species has a bright red cephalothorax . the northern mouse spider ( missulena pruinosa ) is found in northern australia around darwin . one species has been described outside australia in chile .\nmissulena bradleyi rainbow , 1914 ; new south wales missulena dipsaca faulder , 1995 ; australia missulena granulosa o . p . - cambridge , 1869 ; western australia missulena hoggi womersley , 1943 ; western australia missulena insignis o . p . - cambridge , 1877 ; australia missulena occatoria walckenaer , 1805 ; southern australia missulena pruinosa levitt - gregg , 1966 ; western australia , northern territory missulena reflexa rainbow & pulleine , 1918 ; south australia missulena rutraspina faulder , 1995 ; western australia , south australia , victoria missulena torbayensis main , 1996 ; western australia missulena tussulena goloboff , 1994 ; chile\nthere are over 150 species in the family barychelidae in australia . males are called silverbacks because they are silvery coloured on the head . females have dark to golden brown hairs on their heads .\nidiomata are funnel web spiders that build their burrows with a door . not all genera in this family have a door to close their burrow . the flask - like chambers are just below the ground .\nthey are mostly terrestrial spiders , which build typical silk - lined tubular burrow retreats , with a collapsed\ntunnel\nor open\nfunnel\nentrance from which irregular trip lines radiate out over the ground . exceptions , which lack trip lines but may have trapdoors , are those hadronyche from south australia , like\nthe silk entrance tube may be split into 2 openings , in a y or t form . in the case of\nthe burrow may be in the hollow of a tree trunk or limb , many meters above ground level .\nadult male spiders leave the burrow permanently to seek a mate . such wandering male spiders may enter houses , sometimes even find their way into clothing , and thus account for many bites . most funnel - web spiders are ground or log dwellers but at least two are tree dwellers (\n, the sydney funnelweb spider , has a distribution centering on sydney , extending north to the hunter river , south to shoalhaven river , and narrowing westwards as far as lithgow .\nhas a considerably wider distribution ; being the coastal areas and highland forest regions from tasmania to queensland .\nthe australian funnel - web spiders ( family hexathelidae , simon , 1892 ) are probably the most dangerous spiders we can encounter . the most famous spider is the sydney funnel web ( atrax robustus ) . chances to be bitten are small . there are only two cases of envenomation annually in the last 10 years . funnel - web spiders belong to the family hexathelidae and two ( atrax and hadronyche ) of the eleven genera are considered dangerous . of the 40 described species in this family , the six red printed species caused severe envenomation .\nhadrochyne spiders are medium sized spiders with a size varying between 10 and 50 mm . the largest species , hadronyche formidabilis measures between 40 and 50 mm . the sparsely haired spiders are coloured between brown to black . not all species are dangerous but a bite from a funnel web spider should always be treated seriously .\nthe southern tree funnel - web spider , hadronyche cerberea , is common around sydney and in the central coast regions . they make their silk - lined retreats in rough - barked trees often covered with bark and other wood particles .\nthis family contains six subfamilies with 38 genera and 329 species , widely distributed worldwide . in australia 86 species in at least six genera are described .\nthese spiders live in silk - lined burrows up to 20 cm deep . some species close the burrow with a lid .\nthis is a large family of trap door spiders with about 270 species , mostly found in the southern hemisphere , worldwide . eight genera with about 70 species live in australia . all australian genera are endemic with the exception of misgolas that also occurs in new zealand . almost all members of this family live in arid areas where they live in burrows up to 60 cm deep .\nmisgolas spiders are 15 - 30 mm in length and commonly found in eastern australia . the spider can of course bite but the toxin is not dangerous . the penetration of the fangs throught the skin may hurt .\nthis is a large family with 111 genera and 883 species world wide . their body size varies from 13 to 90 mm . the largest spider theraphosa blondi also belongs to this family . spiders of this family are called tarantulas or bird - eating spiders . this is a very common name but it often refers to these spiders .\nin australia inly six species occur ; selenocosmia crassipes , selenocosmia stirlingi , selenocosmia strenua , selenocosmia subvulpina , selenotholus foelschei , selenotypus plumipes .\na famous member is the barking spider or whistling spider selenocosmia crassipes . she makes a rasping sound with her mouthparts that can be heard from a one meter distance . spiders from this family make burrows that can reach a length of two meters when the spider is mature . young spiders can be found under rocks and roots . the spider lives in north eastern australia and papua new guinea . the spider is quite large with a body length of 70 to 90 mm . measured from the tip on her legs she can be 200 mm in length .\nfunnel web tarantulas occur almost worldwide in the tropics . the 175 world wide and 90 australian members of this family often build messy funnel webs . most species are uncommon and live in remote areas . most species are small hairy and dark brown to black . sometimes they can be found in holes in trees . their spinnerets are moderate long .\ncethegus ischnotheloides has a body length of 15 mm . this spider lived in a dense web on the ground between shrub in leinster , western australia .\nfor full functionality of this site it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\npossible taxa information in external databases . this is subject to revision in urls and sites . please contact the data centre if you find any problems or wish to advise of another useful resource .\nthe scientific data on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3 . 0 unported license ."]}
{"id": 42, "summary": [{"text": "zafeen ( 25 april 2000 ) was a french-bred thoroughbred racehorse and sire .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "trained in the united kingdom , he showed good form as a two-year-old in 2002 , winning two of his six races including the mill reef stakes and finishing second in the prix morny .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in the following year he finished second in the 2000 guineas , won the st james 's palace stakes at royal ascot and was rated the best three-year-old over one mile in europe and north america .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he was retired to stud at the end of the year and had moderate success as a sire of winners . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "zafeen", "paragraphs": ["drowne ' s mature reaction to losing the ride on zafeen should come as no surprise to those who have seen his career blossom .\nridden by pat smullen , refuse to bend held off outsiders zafeen and norse dancer to win a tightly - fought contest at newmarket .\nthen came a bolt from the blue when zafeen ' s owner , jaber abdullah , decided that his star miler needed a different rider .\nthis is probably only for tb readers - but does anyone know or have any progeny by the tb stallion zafeen ? one of our clients has just foaled down one of her mares by zafeen and wants to know if this youngster is showing the normal behaviour for a zafeen foal ( the mare has foaled previously ) . also interested to know ourselves anyway , as have another mare coming into us for foaling down which will be a zafeen foal . would like to know if they all portray the same type of temperament . thanks . feel free to pm if you ' d rather .\nhow is the mare bred ? maybe the caro influence in zafeen is not a good mix ? though gone west is usually a chilling out factor for temperaments ime . . .\nit was great to have two winners at royal ascot after the setback with zafeen and both mick and roger have some lovely horses to look forward to ,\nhe added .\nmajor general mohammed al marri , khalifa al zafeen and humaid bin dimas , presented ideas for the management of the award which can be implemented in the future cycles of the award .\nbut refuse to bend , ridden by pat smullen , got his nose in front two furlongs out and held off the late challenge of zafeen to claim the first classic of the season .\nzafeen is to be given a mid - season break before taking in a group one contest over a mile with the sussex stakes at goodwood high on his trainer mick channon\u2019s priority list .\nthere ' s nothing new about rich men losing patience when things go wrong in racing , and abdullah felt zafeen would benefit from a change in personnel ahead of the biggest meeting of the year .\nit was in easy conditions that zafeen flopped in the irish 2000 guineas but he had his favourite lightening fast ground when landing last week\u2019s group one three - year - old race under darryll holland .\n1 refuse to bend ( p smullen ) 9 - 2 2 zafeen ( s drowne ) 33 - 1 3 norse dancer ( p robinson ) 100 - 1 20 ran . dist : \u00bel , hd\nsoumillon managed to get off a series of rides at deauville to secure the mount on kalaman , who looked distinctly unlucky when second to zafeen in the st james ' s palace stakes at royal ascot in june .\njust over a month ago steve drowne was getting on with business in his quiet yet efficient way and looking forward to the ride of his life aboard zafeen in the st james ' s palace stakes at royal ascot .\nchannon has long regarded the three - year - old as a top - class prospect , having trained his half - brother zafeen to win the 2003 st james ' s palace stakes and finish second in that season ' s 2 , 000 guineas .\nthis is two time winning shamardal mare texas queen\u2019s first foal . texas queen is from the immediate family of champion 3yo in europe ( 2003 ) zafeen \u2013 whose wins include the gr . 1 st . james\u2019 palace and the gr . 2 mill reef stakes .\ntrade fair and zafeen will carry the hopes of the three - year - old division in the group one second showpiece on wednesday but they will have trouble coping with dubai destination if the godolphin colt is in the same explosive form as when winning the queen anne stakes at ascot in june .\nzafeen ( fr ) b . h , 2000 { 21 - a } dp = 6 - 7 - 11 - 0 - 0 ( 24 ) di = 3 . 36 cd = 0 . 79 - 11 starts , 3 wins , 4 places , 0 shows career earnings : $ 559 , 248\nbut sir michael stoute is adamant the best has not been seen of kalaman , who was deprived of a group one notch to his belt when he suffered severe interference in the home straight before flashing home for second place behind zafeen in the st james ' s palace stakes at royal ascot last month .\nif the alarm bells ring when assessing trade fair , who has raced only on good or fast ground , they will reach a cresendo with the mention of zafeen , whose only poor run this year came in the irish 2 , 000 guineas at the curragh , where the ground was badly rain - affected .\nsheikh mohammed was also accompanied during the tour by khalifa saeed suleiman , director - general of protocols and hospitality department in dubai , eng . khalifa al zafeen , ceo of dubai airports , major general obaid mohair , deputy director - general of the general directorate of residency and foreign affairs in dubai and others .\nfor those breeders who have not yet had a chance to visit overbury stud to see the stallions , proclamation and zafeen will be on show in the ring at tattersalls on thursday , 7 february at 10am , prior to the february sale . for closer inspection , they will be stabled in further paddocks at the sales complex .\nby zafonic ( 1990 ) european horse of the year , dewhurst s ( g1 ) , 2 , 000 guineas ( g1 ) , etc . sire of 656 foals aged three and up , including iffraaj , count dubois , xaar , zafeen , zee zee top , flashy wings , pacino , zipping , alrassaam , dupont , trade fair , etc .\ntwice - raced moresweets \u2018n lace , a zafeen filly , needs to win . if able to perform anything like , will oblige and considerably enhance her stud value , just in time for the northern hemisphere season that commences halfway through next month . you willl definitely be on a 100 per cent trier and unfortunately , that\u2019s not always the case , is it ?\nlooks and pedigree : both are correct , impressive individuals , from different ( but equally successful ) branches of the mr prospector line \u2013 which is noted for speed and brilliance . proclamation hails from one of the aga khan ' s first families , while zafeen is from a young and especially precocious damline . i ' d enjoy welcoming you to overbury to inspect them .\nsharp\nwould be a very mild word to describe the temperament of this one particular foal . maybe the mare who is coming to us this weekend to foal down ( in foal to zafeen ) may be different - because we certainly hope so after hearing what this other one has been like ! perhaps also , it ' s in the handling . thanks for responding .\nzafeen , too , was rated the best miler of his generation , his st james ' s palace stakes win assessed as even better than refuse to bend ' s 2 , 000 guineas and six perfections ' breeders ' cup mile . he was also top class at two , winning the mill reef stakes having run a close second in a lightning fast prix morny . in other words , they are both easily good enough to excel at stud .\nwe\u2019ve been thrilled at how well both champion milers have been supported since retiring to overbury . proclamation , now in his second season at stud , covered more dams of group winners than any stallion in britain or ireland standing at the equivalent of \u00a35 , 000 or less . zafeen ' s first book in 2006 included no fewer than 44 two - year - old winners or dams of two - year - old winners \u2013 exactly the kind of mares that can help him off to a flying start . his first foals sold in 2007 , making up to \u00a378 , 000 and averaging almost five times his stud fee . with proclamation standing at \u00a34 , 000 and zafeen at \u00a33 , 000 , we believe both represent outstanding value . not only are they both beautifully bred individuals but , as you can see from our stallion pages on the website , they have the racecourse form to back it up . and as for conformation , you\u2019ll be able to judge this for yourself on thursday or give us a call to arrange to visit them at home , here at overbury .\nnext up for oasis dream was the 2002 group one middle park stakes at newmarket , where he would go up against several horses with major race wins to their name . \u2018zafeen\u2019 and \u2018elusive city\u2019 were just two of the horses with major honours that were tipped for success . fortune rode him brilliantly , tracking the leaders and taking over the lead a furlong out , to give the horse his first group one victory in a race record time of 1 : 09 . 61 . that would be his last race as a two - year - old and also the last time jimmy fortune would ride him\nzafonic ( usa ) ( bay 1990 - stud 1994 ) . head of the 1992 2yo & 1993 3yo european classifications . 5 wins - 4 at 2 - from 6f to 1m , \u00a3374 , 713 , the two thousand guineas , gr . 1 . brother to sw zamindar . sire of 521 rnrs , 359 wnrs , 53 sw , inc . xaar ( longchamp prix de la salamandre , gr . 1 ) , count dubois , zafeen , zee zee top , dupont , alrassaam , attima , iffraaj , flashy wings , zipping , pacino , shenck , trade fair , kavafi , banknote , clearing , kareymah , etc .\nrefuse to bend was , of course , an unbeaten g1 - winning two - year - old , but he clearly got even better as he got older . winner of the g1 national stakes at the curragh as a juvenile , refuse to bend maintained his unbeaten record when winning the 2 , 000 guineas in 2003 , defeating zafeen by three - quarters of a length with the remaining 18 runners following the pair home at intervals . lack of stamina proved his undoing when he was unplaced in the derby , but he bounced back in his next start when justifying odds - on favouritism in the group three desmond stakes at the curragh .\nmon fils won the first mill reef stakes graduating to take the 2000 guineas the following year . other notable winners include magic of life ( 1987 ) who won the following season ' s coronation stakes ; firebreak ( 2001 ) who went on to win the hong kong mile and two renewals of the godolphin mile in dubai ; zafeen ( 2002 ) who next season finished second to refuse to bend in the 2000 guineas before winning the st james ' s palace stakes ; excellent art ( 2006 ) ( pictured above ) who won the next year ' s st james ' s palace stakes and then notched up three high profile seconds in the sussex stakes , queen elizabeth ii stakes and breeders ' cup mile .\nparticularly sire of alrassaam , arabesque , attima , aynthia , banknote , bibury flyer , bodyguard , californian , canasita , clearing , corsario , count dubois , dreams come true , dupont , endless summer , flashy wings , guest connections , herodotus , hockney , ibn al haitham , iffraaj , i ' m in love , inhabitant , kareymah , kavafi , le z\u00e8le , legal approach , lucidor , maybe forever , mooring , morning eclipse , munsef , nota bene , nufoos , organizer , ozone layer , pacino , shenck , soft centre , spanish don , summerhill parkes , trade fair , undeterred , urg\u00e8le , xaar , yawmi , zachariah , zafeen , zante , zarfoot , zato , zavone , zee zee top , zipping , . . .\n12 b invincible spirit \u2013 lethal quality ( elusive quality ) . sister to promising , winner and 2nd gr . 3 prestige stakes , 3rd gr . 3 fred darling stakes , 2017 , and lethal promise ( winner at 2 , also 4th grangecon stud stakes \u2013 gr . 3 , 2018 ) . dam stakes - placed sprinter in the us , half - sister to changing karma , listed - placed in the us . out of winning half - sister to diffident ( won diadem stakes \u2013 gr . 2 , prix de ris - orangis \u2013 gr . 3 etc ) . further family of zafeen ( gr . 1 winner ; sire ) , opening verse ( gr . 1 winner ; sire ) , atlantic sport ( listed winner ; sire ) , nouriya ( listed winner ) etc\n- ya hajar ( lycius ) , 2 wins , prix du calvados ( gr . 3 ) , 47 547 euros . dam of 3 winners . - zafeen - min asl wafi ( octagonal ) , placed in england . dam of 2 winners . - atlantic sport ( machiavellian ) , 3 wins , fortune stakes ( l . ) , 2nd premio bersaglio ( l . ) , 3rd thoroughbred st . ( l . ) , 4th doncaster mile ( l . ) , \u00a3 88 396 ( 11 ) - fantastic dubai ( storm cat ) , 2 wins in england and in the emirates - happy today ( gone west ) , 1 win in england , 2nd fielden st . ( l . ) ( 11 ) - akeed wafi ( street cry - 2009 ) , 1 win in ireland ( 11 ) - n . ( raven ' s pass - 2010 )\n10 f teofilo \u2013 majestic sakeena ( king\u2019s best ) winner , 2nd pretty polly stakes \u2013 listed , lyric fillies\u2019 stakes \u2013 listed , 3rd lord weinstock memorial ballymacoll stakes \u2013 listed . 1 / 2 sister to nouriya ( won lyric fillies\u2019 stakes \u2013 listed , john musker fillies\u2019 stakes \u2013 listed ; dam of gr . 3 winner and gr . 2 - placed aljazzi ) , yuften ( won balmoral handicap , 3rd lady wulfruna stakes \u2013 listed , 4th prix jean prat , gr . 1 , sovereign stakes , gr . 3 ) , zanotti ( winner ) . dam 1 / 2 sister to shy lady ( listed winner ; dam of zafeen , won st . james\u2019s palace stakes \u2013 gr . 1 ; sire , and ya hajar , won prix du calvados \u2013 gr . 3 ) . family of opening verse ( gr . 1 ; sire ) , diffident ( gr . 2 ; sire ) etc\n14 b galileo \u2013 majestic sakeena ( king\u2019s best ) . placed at 3 years . half - sister to nouriya ( won lyric fillies\u2019 stakes \u2013 listed , john musker fillies\u2019 stakes \u2013 listed ; dam of gr . 2 winner aljazzi ) , lady nouf ( 2nd pretty polly stakes \u2013 listed , lyric fillies\u2019 stakes \u2013 listed , 3rd lord weinstock memorial ballymacoll stakes \u2013 listed ) , yuften ( won balmoral handicap , 3rd lady wulfruna stakes \u2013 listed , 4th prix jean prat , gr . 1 , sovereign stakes , gr . 3 ) , zanotti ( winner ) . dam 1 / 2 sister to shy lady ( listed winner ; dam of zafeen , won st . james\u2019s palace stakes \u2013 gr . 1 ; sire , and ya hajar , won prix du calvados \u2013 gr . 3 ) . family of opening verse ( gr . 1 ; sire ) , diffident ( gr . 2 ; sire ) etc\n12 f dansili ( gb ) \u2013 majestic sakeena ( king\u2019s best ) won 2 races . 1 / 2 sister to nouriya ( won lyric fillies\u2019 stakes \u2013 listed , john musker fillies\u2019 stakes \u2013 listed ; dam of gr . 3 winner aljazzi ) , lady nouf , winner and 2nd pretty polly stakes \u2013 listed , lyric fillies\u2019 stakes \u2013 listed , 3rd lord weinstock memorial ballymacoll stakes \u2013 listed , yuften ( won balmoral handicap , 3rd lady wulfruna stakes \u2013 listed , 4th prix jean prat , gr . 1 , sovereign stakes , gr . 3 ) , zanotti ( winner ) . dam 1 / 2 sister to shy lady ( listed winner ; dam of zafeen , won st . james\u2019s palace stakes \u2013 gr . 1 ; sire , and ya hajar , won prix du calvados \u2013 gr . 3 ) . family of opening verse ( gr . 1 ; sire ) , diffident ( gr . 2 ; sire ) etc\n14 f galileo \u2013 nouriya ( danehill dancer ) ran once . half - sister to aljazzi ( won 5 races inc . duke of cambridge stakes \u2013 gr . 2 , atalanta stakes \u2013 gr . 3 , snowdrop fillies\u2019 stakes \u2013 listed , dick hern fillies\u2019 stakes \u2013 listed etc , also 2nd duke of cambridge stakes \u2013 gr . 2 , 3rd bet365 mile \u2013 gr . 2 ) , lady nouf ( 2nd pretty polly stakes \u2013 listed , lyric fillies\u2019 stakes \u2013 listed , 3rd lord weinstock memorial stakes \u2013 listed ) , yuften ( won balmoral handicap , 3rd lady wulfruna stakes \u2013 listed , 4th prix jean prat \u2013 gr . 1 ) . dam won lyric fillies\u2019 stakes \u2013 listed , john musker fillies\u2019 stakes \u2013 listed , out of half - sister to shy lady ( listed winner ; dam of zafeen , won st . james\u2019s palace stakes \u2013 gr . 1 ; sire , and ya hajar , won prix du calvados \u2013 gr . 3 ) . family of opening verse ( gr . 1 ; sire ) , diffident ( gr . 2 ; sire ) etc\n07 b danehill dancer \u2013 majestic sakeena ( king\u2019s best ) won 3 races inc . lyric fillies\u2019 stakes \u2013 listed , john musker fillies\u2019 stakes \u2013 listed . dam of aljazzi , won 4 races inc . atalanta stakes \u2013 gr . 3 , snowdrop fillies\u2019 stakes \u2013 listed and dick hern fillies\u2019 stakes \u2013 listed , and 2nd duke of cambridge stakes \u2013 gr . 2 , 3rd bet365 mile \u2013 gr . 2 . 1 / 2 sister to lady nouf ( 2nd pretty polly stakes listed , lyric fillies\u2019 stakes \u2013 listed , 3rd lord weinstock memorial stakes \u2013 listed ) , yuften ( won balmoral handicap , 3rd lady wulfruna stakes \u2013 listed , 4th prix jean prat , gr . 1 , sovereign stakes , gr . 3 ) , zanotti ( winner ) . dam 1 / 2 sister to shy lady ( listed winner ; dam of zafeen , won st . james\u2019s palace stakes \u2013 gr . 1 ; sire , and ya hajar , won prix du calvados \u2013 gr . 3 ) . family of opening verse ( gr . 1 ; sire ) , diffident ( gr . 2 ; sire ) etc\ni ' m not entirely sold on any of the options available , mostly because i think something your mare could use is some sharpen up , and none of them carry sharpen up . while i realize that orpen is not danzig , sharpen up has been a good cross with danzig in general and orpen ' s genetic sibling danehill in particular , with horses like danehill dancer , dylan thomas , mount nelson , boscobel , vital equine , dream scheme , etc . i really , really like her with three valleys . he is from the one of the best families in the studbook , and more to the point one that has a good affinity for danzig blood . he is advertised at gbp 5000 on the juddmonte website . it ' s more than you ' d planned , but juddmonte may be willing to make a deal with you . he ' s a lot of horse for the money , and had he not been disqualified from the middle park stakes he ' d have started for more than he did . also carrying sharpen up is the halling son norse dancer , standing for gbp2500 at wood farm . of the four you listed , i like firebreak best , followed by zafeen .\n\u00a359 . 70 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a345 , 839 . 74 - 559 . 76 winning units\n\u00a329 . 50 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a34 , 170 . 62 - 104 . 32 winning units\ndistances : hd , 1\u00bel , 1\u00bdl time : 1m 12 . 03s ( slow by 2 . 23s ) total sp : 114 %\ndistances : 2\u00bdl , nk , \u00bel time : 57 . 41s ( slow by 0 . 21s ) total sp : 111 %\ndistances : hd , \u00bel , 3l time : 1m 38 . 66s ( slow by 1 . 46s ) unplaced fav : whatsthemessage 5 / 2f total sp : 111 %\ndistances : 1\u00bel , nse , nk time : 2m 53 . 43s ( slow by 7 . 43s ) unplaced fav : luv u whatever 5 / 2f total sp : 111 %\ndistances : 4l , \u00bel , nk time : 1m 29 . 63s ( slow by 2 . 33s ) total sp : 116 %\ndistances : hd , 1\u00bcl , 2\u00bel time : 1m 31 . 16s ( slow by 3 . 86s ) unplaced fav : different journey 5 / 2f total sp : 117 %\nwas keen early but made some good late progress and looks one for nurseries .\n\u00a3144 . 30 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a363 , 971 . 93 - 323 . 42 winning units\n\u00a324 . 00 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a34 , 618 . 12 - 141 . 81 winning units\ndistances : 4\u00bdl , 1\u00bdl , shd time : 1m 13 . 63s ( slow by 3 . 13s ) total sp : 115 %\ndistances : 1\u00bdl , 1\u00bcl , shd time : 1m 39 . 73s ( slow by 2 . 03s ) unplaced fav : shamaheart 7 / 2f total sp : 117 %\ndistances : nk , 18l , 8l time : 2m 34 . 18s ( slow by 2 . 68s ) total sp : 108 %\ndistances : nk , 4l , nk time : 2m 2 . 05s ( slow by 1 . 75s ) unplaced fav : lamloom 9 / 4j total sp : 109 %\ndistances : 7l , 9l , nk time : 1m 38 . 94s ( slow by 1 . 24s ) total sp : 114 %\ndistances : 1l , nk , 2l time : 1m 29 . 86s total sp : 113 %\ndistances : hd , 2\u00bcl , 1\u00bcl time : 1m 31 . 21s unplaced fav : alfirak 6 / 4f total sp : 119 %\ndistances : \u00bel , 1\u00bcl , nk time : 2m 11 . 38s ( slow by 3 . 38s ) unplaced fav : check your pockets 9 / 4f total sp : 112 %\npick six : not won . 24 , 281 . 38 carried forward to roscommon tuesday . tote aggregates : 2017 ; 296 , 281 . 2018 ; 128 , 518\n\u00a320 . 90 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a388 , 688 . 16 - 3 , 097 . 60 winning units\n\u00a311 . 10 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a36 , 385 . 65 - 424 . 16 winning units\ndistances : nk , nk , 1l time : 1m 13 . 14s ( slow by 2 . 94s ) total sp : 123 %\ndistances : \u00bel , 2l , hd time : 1m 13 . 86s ( slow by 3 . 66s ) total sp : 121 %\ndistances : nk , 1\u00bcl , 1l time : 2m 12 . 59s ( slow by 8 . 09s ) total sp : 111 %\ndistances : shd , hd , 2l time : 1m 45 . 90s ( slow by 5 . 30s ) unplaced fav : brigand 11 / 10f total sp : 111 %\ndistances : 2l , nse , 2l time : 1m 48 . 09s ( slow by 7 . 49s ) total sp : 122 %\ndistances : 4\u00bdl , nk , 1l time : 2m 32 . 25s ( slow by 8 . 75s ) total sp : 113 %\n\u00a3134 . 50 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a370 , 403 . 42 - 382 . 07 winning units\n\u00a331 . 10 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a37 , 689 . 58 - 182 . 62 winning units\ndistances : 1\u00bel , 1l , nk time : 1m 15 . 80s ( slow by 3 . 60s ) total sp : 125 %\ndistances : nk , 1\u00bel , hd time : 1m 31 . 96s ( slow by 5 . 86s ) unplaced fav : cupid ' s arrow 4 / 1j , be bold 4 / 1j total sp : 122 %\ndistances : \u00bdl , 13l , nse time : 2m 40 . 17s ( slow by 5 . 17s ) total sp : 119 %\n\u00a3294 . 80 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a364 , 468 . 45 - 159 . 62 winning units\n\u00a354 . 30 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a35 , 729 . 64 - 77 . 96 winning units\ndistances : 6l , shd , 4\u00bdl time : 5m 49 . 80s ( slow by 14 . 80s ) unplaced fav : master sunrise 6 / 4f total sp : 115 %\nnewton geronimo was withdrawn . price at time of withdrawal 13 / 8f . rule 4 applies to all bets - deduction 35p in the pound\ndistances : 1\u00bdl , hd , 2\u00bdl time : 3m 42 . 80s ( slow by 2 . 80s ) unplaced fav : tommy hallinan 9 / 4j total sp : 117 %\ndistances : 6l , 11l , hd time : 5m 44 . 60s ( slow by 22 . 60s ) total sp : 116 %\ndistances : nk , 2l , 1\u00bel time : 3m 44 . 70s ( slow by 4 . 70s ) unplaced fav : excellent team 100 / 30f total sp : 113 %\ndistances : 1\u00bel , \u00bdl , nk time : 2m 2 . 21s ( slow by 0 . 21s ) total sp : 120 %\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 2 . 90 place 1 . 70 , 2 . 00 , 4 . 40 df 7 . 80 sf 12 . 90\ndistances : \u00bel , \u00bdl , nse time : 2m 31 . 62s ( slow by 2 . 62s ) unplaced fav : north hunter 12 / 5f total sp : 121 %\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 25 . 60 place 5 . 70 , 2 . 90 , 2 . 80 df 110 . 70 sf 295 . 60\ndistances : hd , \u00bel , \u00bdl time : 1m 27 . 55s ( slow by 4 . 25s ) total sp : 120 %\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 5 . 50 place 1 . 80 , 2 . 40 , 1 . 60 df 28 . 80 sf 58 . 00\ndistances : nse , 1\u00bdl , snk time : 1m 52 . 14s ( slow by 3 . 64s ) unplaced fav : flowrider evensf total sp : 121 %\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 1 . 50 ( coupled with flowrider ) place 1 . 80 , 1 . 90 sf 8 . 00\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 2 . 30 place 4 . 10 , 5 . 10 , 4 . 10 df 64 . 60 sf 146 . 60\ndistances : hd , 1l , snk time : 1m 25 . 85s ( slow by 2 . 55s ) total sp : 121 %\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 5 . 50 place 2 . 00 , 3 . 80 , 3 . 00 df 31 . 40 sf 55 . 20\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 5 . 70 place 1 . 90 , 2 . 20 , 1 . 90 df 26 . 60 sf 50 . 50\ndistances : snk , 1\u00bcl , 1\u00bel time : 2m 3 . 57s ( slow by 1 . 57s ) unplaced fav : ducale di maremma 14 / 5f total sp : 121 %\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 11 . 80 place 3 . 70 , 3 . 10 , 6 . 60 df 37 . 80 sf 87 . 60\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\nowner : mr . jaber abdullah breeder : gainsborough stud management ltd . winnings : 11 starts : 3 - 4 - 0 , $ 559 , 248 1st : st james ' s palace s . ( gb - gr . 1 ) 1 mile ; mill reef s . ( gb - g2 ) 1200m 2nd : prix morny ( fr - g1 ) , 2000 guineas ( gb - g1 ) , greenham s . ( gb - g3 ) . 2006 : at overbury stud , simon sweeting tel : ( 01386 ) 725552 . urltoken in 2010 to haras du petit tellier in normandy , france . ( close )\nfor inquiries related to this message please contact support . for sales inquiries , please visit urltoken\nif you believe this to be in error , please confirm below that you are not a robot by clicking\ni ' m not a robot\nbelow .\nplease make sure your browser supports javascript and cookies and that you are not blocking them from loading . for more information you can review the terms of service and cookie policy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nability : proclamation was an exceptional champion miler , rated above both shamardal and dubawi , either of whom would have been a good champion in a normal year . his jersey stakes win , and his sussex stakes triumph \u2013 both coming from last to first , circling his opponents with a brilliant swoop of acceleration \u2013 were very impressive : timeform rated him 130 , a horse of extremely rare gifts .\n( 1 ) to deliver information efficiently to users who request information from overbury stud , and who supply us with their name , mobile number and other details .\n( 2 ) to allow us to improve our website by gathering anonymous data about you and your browsing habits , analysing which webpages visitors access , and seeing how many return to our website . this is done using google analytics and involves cookies being set on visitors\u2019 computing devices . these cookies gather no personal details about you , and all visitors remain anonymous . we do not allow third parties any access to the data from these cookies , such as advertisers or partners , no third parties such as advertisers have access to this data , nor does our website ever place any cookies on behalf of any third parties .\nall modern web browsers allow the user to refuse to accept cookies for a particular website or for all websites , and this option is usually accessible through preferences or tools . more detail on how businesses use cookies is available at urltoken . you can opt out of google analytics altogether and for all websites by installing the simple add - on found at urltoken .\n( 1 ) if you have given us your personal details , overbury stud staff may use them to contact you by phone , text , email or post as part of fulfilling a request by you ( such as asking for a brochure ) , or to provide you with information about our services on an ongoing basis , or more generally to make our service to you , the customer , as efficient as possible . as part of our marketing work , we may from time to time invite you to participate in surveys and other research relating to overbury stud and its services . you can unsubscribe from receiving all such information and / or contacts simply and easily at any time , either by writing to us at the address below or by emailing jo @ urltoken\n( 2 ) we will never sell , rent , or otherwise trade your details to any third party , and no third parties such as advertisers have access to your details .\n( 3 ) we will continue to invest in high - quality security and do our utmost to protect user privacy through the appropriate use of the latest security technology .\nall customer data is kept in a private and secure environment that is accessible only by overbury stud staff with appropriate security clearance . we invest in high - quality security and do our utmost to protect user privacy .\nas described in our principles above , we will not sell , trade , or rent your personal information to third parties \u2013 ever . please note that we reserve the right to access and disclose individually identifiable information to comply with applicable laws and lawful government requests , to operate our systems properly and to protect both ourselves and our users .\nyou can ask us to show you the data we have about you at any time and you have the right to edit or erase this data . to do this , please write to :\nplease note that such written requests will need to be accompanied by photocopies of a household or utility bill in your name and of the photo page of your driving licence or passport . please also include a daytime telephone number and email address so that we can verify that the request to access your data is coming from you , and not someone else .\nshould we elect to change our privacy policy we will post the changes here .\nwe ' ve detected that javascript is disabled in your browser . would you like to proceed to legacy twitter ?\ntwitter may be over capacity or experiencing a momentary hiccup . try again or visit twitter status for more information .\nyou can add location information to your tweets , such as your city or precise location , from the web and via third - party applications . you always have the option to delete your tweet location history . learn more\nhere ' s the url for this tweet . copy it to easily share with friends .\nby embedding twitter content in your website or app , you are agreeing to the twitter developer agreement and developer policy .\nnot on twitter ? sign up , tune into the things you care about , and get updates as they happen .\nthis timeline is where you\u2019ll spend most of your time , getting instant updates about what matters to you .\nhover over the profile pic and click the following button to unfollow any account .\nwhen you see a tweet you love , tap the heart \u2014 it lets the person who wrote it know you shared the love .\nthe fastest way to share someone else\u2019s tweet with your followers is with a retweet . tap the icon to send it instantly .\nadd your thoughts about any tweet with a reply . find a topic you\u2019re passionate about , and jump right in .\nif this is your first visit , be sure to check out the faq by clicking the link above . you will need to register before you can post on the forum : click the register link above to proceed . to start viewing messages , select the forum that you want to visit from the selection below . you can also switch from viewing the ' full site ' ( desktop ) , or the ' mobile ' device version via the drop - down menu ( bottom / left of this page ) , and vice versa . to report a problem please use the contact us form at the foot of the full site version of the forum page .\npowered by vbulletin\u00ae version 4 . 2 . 3 copyright \u00a9 2018 vbulletin solutions , inc . all rights reserved .\nsky sports news takes you through all of the day ' s racing news , plus alex hammond ' s tip of the day .\nfollow the latest from the written press with the best gossip and speculation from the papers .\nsky has launched a pub finder for eager fans wanting to find a venue to watch sky sports .\nget a sports star to visit your old secondary school as part of our free schools initiative .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nthe table in the second section of this article covers the first season sires you should expect to see represented by 2yos in the 2009 season . this section provides details on the information in the table and the links from it .\nthe table provides links to a picture of the sire from the the sire ' s name and the , most recent , season page for the sire ' s sire from it ' s name in the second column .\nmuch of the information in the table is self explanatory but a few items need to be noted . the first column gives the horses name and it ' s height were available . for example the sire acclamation is 16 hands high as given in the table . see the\non this site if you require an explanation of the use of ' hands ' in denoting a horse ' s height . in some cases the height is given in metres where the horse in at stud outside of the british & ireland . for comparison 1 . 60 metres is equivalent to a hands heights of 15 . 3 ( i . e . 160 centimetres is very close to the 63 inches that\n15 . 3hh\nrepresents ) .\nfor the most part . note that many of the coolmore ( magnier , et al ) and darley ( maktoum family ) sires will be ' shuttle sires ' and will move to the southern hemisphere ( usually australia which ranks second only to the usa in the total number of foals produced each year ) to cover mares outside of the european ( i . e . northern hemisphere ) breeding season . the thoroughbred horse has a gestation period of around 11 months which means that the covering season in the northern hemisphere encompasses the period from february through to june . this means the stallion can then be moved to the southern hemisphere to cover during their breeding season which is from august through to december . this six month relative ' shift ' between the hemispheres means that a 3yo australian bred sprinter born in , for example , october will be classed as a 4yo if it came to race in britain because of our january 1st ' birthday ' for all thoroughbreds . the southern hemisphere group birthday is on july 1st .\nthe ' fee ' column usually gives the cost of having a mare covered by the stallion in 2009 currently and not in 2006 when these sires first went to stud ( in the northern hemisphere ) . note that the widespread economic downturn in 2008 has affected thoroughbred breeding as well and many studs have downgraded all their sire covering fees to reflect the depressed economic market . therefore a downgrade in covering fee for 2009 may not indicate a sire getting below average results , or getting elderly & unfashionable , as it normally would .\n. yearlings which did not reach their reserve price ( equals ' not sold ' and the abbreviation ' ns ' used on the b2yor website ) or were bought back by their owners ( and therefore ' retained ' with ' rtnd ' used as the b2yor abbreviation ) are not included .\nfor those who do not understand the term ' median ' a short description is useful . the median figure is produced by ranking all the sire ' s yearling sales in a group from highest to lowest . the ' middle ' figure down this ranking is then chosen as the median figure . if there are an even number of figures in the list the middle two are chosen , added together and divided by two to get the median . why bother with a median figure ? the main reason is that averages can be misleading and distorted by a small number of notably high prices . if a sire has 5 yearlings sold , for example , and four sell for 10 , 000 gns and one sells for 60 , 000 gns the average figure is 20 , 000 gns but 80 % of his yearlings made much less than that so it is not a representative figure . the median in the example would be a representative 10 , 000gns . comparing the average and median figures for the sire gives an indication of how ' consistent ' the sales prices were ( how small the overall range was ) .\nnote that the averages are given in the archaic ' guineas ' denomination because the major european auction house ( tattersalls ) still sell using them and in britain this has long been the traditional unit of sale . the ' guinea ' is ' one pound and one shilling ' in pre - metric british currency which equates to \u00a31 . 05 now . therefore , a sale at the level of\n10 , 000 guineas\nmeans a pounds sterling value of \u00a310 , 500 prior to any sales taxes and other costs .\nnote that the majority of european sales now use the euro ( \u20ac ) as the sales unit and reporting currency . the second biggest british based auction house ( doncaster bloodstock sales ) has recently linked up with the irish based\ngoffs\ncompany and now sell in euros .\nwon 2 from 2 , both at 8f , in a sep 26th maiden and the group 3 bresford stakes at the curragh on oct 13th .\nwon 2 from 3 in a 7f maiden on may 14th & the 6f group 2 railway stakes at the curragh on june 29th . 11th of 12 in the 7f group 1 dewhurst stakes at 10 / 1 on oct 18th .\nran twice . placed in 6f maidens at salisbury & newmarket on sep 9 & oct 3rd .\nwon 3 from 4 , all runs at 6f . unplaced in windsor maiden on aug 12th debut . won a maiden on aug 29th , a nursery off or85 on sep 13th & the listed rockingham stakes at york on oct 12th .\nwon 2 from 2 . a 7f maiden on sep 14th & the 8f group 2 beresford stakes at the curragh on oct 12th .\nwon 1 from 2 in a 6f maiden on debut on july 17th . 3rd of 5 in a 7f conditions race on sep 8th .\nwon 2 from 5 in france . began career with places in 6f listed & group 3 events on aug 9th & oct 1st . then won listed races over 5 - 6f by nov 12th either side of a second place in the 6f group 2 criterium de maisons lafitte behind whipper ( q . v . ) .\nwon 2 from 3 runs , all at 6f , in an aug 2nd newmarket maiden & the group 2 gimcrack stakes on aug 21st . fourth , at 6 / 1 , in the 6f group 1 middle park stakes to oasis dream on october 3rd\nwon 3 from 3 in a 6f maiden on june 4th , the 7f group 3 superlative stakes on july 8th & the 7f group 1 national stakes at the curragh on sep 19th .\nwon 4 from 6 starting in 5f maiden & conditions races on may 22nd & june 5th . won the 6f group 3 prix de cabourg on aug 4th and the 6f group 2 mill reef stakes ( from the still active irony ) on sep 21st . also placed in the 6f coventry stakes & 4th in the group 1 prix morny ( with still active whitbarrow behind )\nwon 2 from 2 in a 6f maiden on oct 17th & the 7f group 3 killavullen stakes , from nonentities , eight days later .\nwon 2 from 5 in a york 7f maiden on sep 4th & the 7f group 3 somerville tattersalls stakes at newmarket on oct 2nd . 14th of 16 in the 7f group 1 dewhurst stakes later that month & 3rd of 5 in an 8f group 1 in france on nov 2nd .\nwon 1 from 4 in an 8f goddwod maiden on sep 26th after prior 2nd places in 7f conditions & listed races ( ( to later older grade 1 winner right approach & multiple ayr gold cup winner funfair wane ) . 4th of 8 in a sub - standard italian group 1 gran criterium over 8f later .\nwon 2 from 4 in a 6f maiden on may 26th debut & 6f group 3 july stakes on july 11th . also placed in the group 2 coventry stakes ( as 2 / 1f ) and the 6f group 1 prix morny .\nwon 2 from 2 , both over 8f , in a newmarket maiden on aug 13th & the group 1 racing post trophy on oct 23rd .\nwon 4 from 7 in a 6f maiden on may 29th debut , 6 . 3f group 3 anglesey stakes july 18th , 7f group 2 futurity stakes at the curragh on aug 21st & the 7f group 1 prix legadere on october 3rd . also placed second in the 6f group 1 phoenix stakes & the 7f group 1 dewhurst stakes ( to shamardal q . v . ) . unplaced in the coventry stakes .\nwon 3 from 4 , all at 6f , in a july 25th maiden , conditions event on aug 10th and the group 3 sirenia stakes . placed second debut at 33 / 1 .\nwon 4 from 6 in a 6f maiden may 24th , 7f listed chesham stakes june 18th , 7f group 2 futurity stakes aug 23rd & the 8f group 1 gran criterium in milan on oct 19th .\nwon 3 from 8 , all at 5f , in his first three races in a march 21st maiden , may 3rd conditions event and the listed marble hill stakes on may 22nd . placed 4 times later , 3 in group 1 races , in ireland & france over 6 - 7f .\nwon 3 from 3 in a 6f maiden on july 16th , 7f group 2 vintage stakes july 28th & the 7f group 1 dewhurst stakes on oct 16th . nominated champion european 2yo .\nwon 1 from 3 , all at 7f , in a newbury maiden on his second start on sep 21st . 3rd on his debut at newmarket on aug 23rd and later 3rd in the 7f group 1 dewhurst stakes on oct 19th .\nwon 3 from 5 in the 5 . 5f group 1 prix morny on aug 31st & the 6f group 2 criterium de maisons laffitte on oct 31st . unplaced in three other group races at 5 - 6f between jul 5th & oct 3rd including 4th in the 6f group 1 middle park stakes .\nwon 2 from 6 in a 6f salisbury maiden on july 26th & the 6f group 2 mill reef stakes . 5th in the 6f group 1 middle park stakes & 4th in the 7f group 1 dewhurst stakes in october to finish his season .\n2000 foal , 16 . 3hh . trained by mick channon for owner jaber abdullah . at 2yo won 2 from 6 in a 6f salisbury maiden on july 26th & the 6f group 2 mill reef stakes . 5th in the 6f group 1 middle park stakes & 4th in the 7f group 1 dewhurst stakes in october to finish his season . at 3yo placed second in the 2 , 000 guineas at 33 / 1 and unplaced in the irish 2 , 000 guineas at 11 / 1 . later that season won the 8f group 1 st james ' s place stakes .\nretired to stud in britain and a first season sire in 2009 . 17 yearlings sold in 2008 for an average of 11 , 800 guineas .\nplus gst payment on 42 - day ppt , free return ( conditions apply ) . standing at haunui stud , nz\nworld - class sire of champion two - year - olds , g1 sprinters and milers , classic fillies and derby winners . proven g1 cross for danehill mares , his best yet is two - time champion miler ribchester .\n1st dam : pastorale by nureyev . 2 wins ( 8f ) at 3 . dam of 13 foals , 12 to race , 11 winners :\nfarraaj ( g dubai destination ) 6 wins ( 7f - 10\u00bdf ) , 2 to 5 , winter derby ( g3 ) , churchill s , 2nd somerville tattersall s ( g3 ) , 3rd breeders\u2019 cup juvenile turf ( g1 ) , mackinnon s ( g1 ) .\nkareymah ( f zafonic ) 3 wins ( 7f ) at 2 , prix du calvados ( g3 ) , sweet solera s .\ntaqdeyr ( g dubai destination ) 4 wins ( 7f ) at 3 and 4 , 3rd guisborough s .\njathaabeh ( f nashwan ) 2 wins ( 8f ) at 3 . dam of :\nmijhaar ( g shirocco ) braveheart s , 3rd wolferton h , hambleton s .\n2nd dam : park appeal by ahonoora . champion two - year - old filly in england and ireland , 5 wins ( 6f - 8f ) , 2 to 4 , cheveley park s ( g1 ) . sister to nashamaa . dam of 9 winners :\ncape cross ( c green desert ) 5 wins , 2 to 5 , lockinge s ( g1 ) , queen anne s ( g2 ) , 3rd prix jacques le marois ( g1 ) . sire .\nvincennes ( f king\u2019s best ) 3 wins at 3 , kolner herbst - stuten - meile ( g3 ) .\nphoenix park ( c sadler\u2019s wells ) 3 wins at 4 and 6 , prix du carrousel .\ngreat britain ( c green desert ) winner at 3 and 5 , al quoz sprint .\ndiktat ( c warning ) haydock park sprint cup s ( g1 ) . sire .\nrecite ( f forty niner ) winner . dam of : one spirit ( f invincible spirit ) owenstown stud s , 2nd solonaway s ( g3 ) ; some spirit ( f invincible spirit ) 2nd fairy bridge s ( g3 ) .\n3rd dam : balidaress by balidar . 3 wins at 3 and 4 . dam of 8 winners :\nalydaress ( f alydar ) 3 wins at 3 , irish oaks ( g1 ) . dam of :\nlaiyl ( f nureyev ) winner at 3 . dam of : layman ( c sunday silence ) prix de cabourg ( g3 ) , sovereign s ( g3 ) , 2nd prix morny ( g1 ) . sire .\nshadayid ( f shadeed ) champion two - year - old filly in europe , 1 , 000 guineas ( g1 ) , prix marcel boussac ( g1 ) . dam of : bint shadayid ( f nashwan ) prestige s ( g3 ) , 3rd 1 , 000 guineas ( g1 ) ; imtiyaz ( c woodman ) glasgow s , 2nd prix jean prat ( g1 ) . grandam of : farhaan ( c jazil ) 2nd shoemaker mile s ( g1 ) . third dam of : takaful ( c bernardini ) vosburgh s ( g1 ) , 2nd allen h jerkins s ( g1 ) , 3rd toboggan s ( g3 ) .\ndumaani ( c danzig ) keio hai spring cup ( g2 ) . sire .\nfath ( c danzig ) lennox s ( g3 ) , 2nd middle park s ( g1 ) . sire .\nnashamaa ( c ahonoora ) 4 wins , 2 to 4 , ballymacoy s ( g3 ) . sire .\nbin ajwaad ( c rainbow quest ) gladness s ( g3 ) . sire .\nrussian rhythm ( f kingmambo ) 1 , 000 guineas ( g1 ) . grandam of : zonderland ( c dutch art ) sovereign s ( g3 ) , 2nd celebration mile s ( g2 ) ; spangled ( f starspangledbanner ) sceptre s ( g3 ) ; marenko ( f exceed and excel ) fred darling s ( g3 ) .\nflames of paris ( f blushing groom ) unraced . dam of : hot snitzel ( g snitzel ) btc cup ( g1 ) .\nwokingham s , 6f , york , beating beckermet , fire up the band , country reel , continent .\n, 7f , goodwood , beating jedburgh , assertive , nayyir , etlaala , jeremy .\n, 6f , newmarket , to les arcs , beating ashdown express , amadeus wolf , moss vale , takeover target , falkirk ."]}
{"id": 46, "summary": [{"text": "dawkinsia filamentosa is a species of barb .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "young fish have barely any color and black spots .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they start having more color at three months old .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the fish is a swift swimmer .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "males are larger than females and they fertilize eggs by swimming into the cloud of eggs .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the species is most commonly found in coastal floodplains near the southwest indian states of kerala , tamil nadu and karnataka .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the species ' common names are filament barb and blackspot barb . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "dawkinsia filamentosa", "paragraphs": ["several dawkinsia species , including d . filamentosa , continue to appear on trade lists as \u2018mahecola barb\u2019 .\nfilamentosa : from the latin filamentosa , meaning \u2018filamentous\u2019 , in reference to the dorsal - fin extensions which develop as the fish mature .\ndawkinsia filamentosa is an omnivorous species and major components of its diet vary spatially , temporally , and ontogenetically . major food items include aquatic macrophytes , insects , cladocerans , ostracods , and detritus ( weliange and amarasinghe 2003 ) .\ndawkinsia : named for richard dawkins , for \u2018his contribution to the public understanding of science and , in particular , of evolutionary science\u2019 .\ntable 1 . states with nonindigenous occurrences , the earliest and latest observations in each state , and the tally and names of hucs with observations\u2020 . names and dates are hyperlinked to their relevant specimen records . the list of references for all nonindigenous occurrences of dawkinsia filamentosa are found here .\nanother old favorite , dawkinsia filamentosa was formerly in the genus puntius , where it was the type species for the filamentosus - group . the filament barb\u2019s common name derives from the extended dorsal fin filaments possessed by adult males . this feature distinguishes it from most other members of the genus .\nforms apparently intermediate between d . filamentosa and d . tambraparniei have also been collected where the two occur together in the thamirabarani river , tamil nadu .\nadult males of d . filamentosa . the fish in the bottom - left corner of the image is a specimen of the closely - related d . assimilis .\nleo nico , pamela j . schofield , and matt neilson , 2018 , dawkinsia filamentosa ( valenciennes in cuvier and valenciennes , 1844 ) : u . s . geological survey , nonindigenous aquatic species database , gainesville , fl , urltoken revision date : 3 / 11 / 2012 , peer review date : 2 / 10 / 2016 , access date : 7 / 9 / 2018\nd . filamentosa has been misidentified as puntius mahecola ( valenciennes 1844 ) in the past but the identity of both species was resolved by pethioyagoda and kottelat ( 2005a , 2005b ) .\nlike d . filamentosa , adult male d . tambraparniei also possess extended rays in the dorsal fin . although it is similar in size and temperament to d . filamentosa , i\u2019ve ranked d . tambraparniei higher because i find it more attractive . there is more of a pattern on the body , with variously shaped black blotches , a green area behind the gills , and a bit of green iridescence over the body .\np . mahecola had previously been considered a synonym of d . filamentosa , with a fish resembling the latter collected from the chalakudy river and exported for the aquarium hobby as \u2018 p . mahecola \u2018 in 1996 .\nthe common name for dawkinsia tambraparniei represents an old misidentification that has been perpetuated in the hobby for many years . the true d . arulius is exceedingly rare in the hobby , and almost all the fish sold as arulius barbs are in fact d . tambraparniei .\nthey inspected the syntypes of p . mahecola and concluded that though valid it isn\u2019t closely related to any member of dawkinsia ( then the p . filamentosus group ) but is rather a smaller , silvery fish with a single dark blotch on the caudal peduncle , located entirely posterior to the anal - fin .\nthe majority of sub - himalayan puntius species were reclassified and new genera dawkinsia , dravidia , and pethia erected to accomodate some of them , with the remainder either retained in puntius or moved to the existing systomus assemblage , though the definition of the latter was altered meaning some southeast asian species formerly placed there are no longer members .\nwhile no conclusions were reached because dna testing was not performed , hybridisation between d . filamentosa and d . arulius in that river had previously been speculated and is a phenomenon known to be more common in the family cyprinidae than in any other group of fishes , meaning future research may yield interesting results .\nd . exclamatio should also have a sub - terminal mouth and lack dorsal - fin filaments but some specimens possess a terminal mouth and / or possess dorsal filaments , and one specimen also had black caudal - fin tips as typically seen in d . filamentosa , whereas the description states that the fin tips are only dusky and lack distinctive markings .\ndistinguishing characteristics , a key , and a figure were given in talwar and jhingran ( 1992 ) , and a key to the ' puntius filamentosus ' species group was given by pethiyagoda and kottelat ( 2005 ) . pethiyagoda et al . ( 2012 ) recently moved this species into the genus dawkinsia , and provided a key to genera related to puntius . color photographs appeared in axelrod et al . ( 1985 ) and in petrovicky ( 1988 ) .\ngrowing to 5 inches ( 12 . 5 cm ) in length , this species is ideally suited to 75 gallon ( 284 liters ) and larger aquaria where it will be best displayed in larger schools . it is a great tankmate for similarly sized fishes that are not overly territorial or aggressive . filament barbs are plant safe and do well in planted aquariums . d . filamentosa is sometimes sold as d . mahecola .\nwithin the group the most similar - looking species are d . assimilis and d . rohani , but the former is readily identifiable by possession of an inferior mouth ( vs . subterminal in d . filamentosa ) and longer maxillary barbels ( 5 . 5 - 9 . 3 % sl , vs . 0 . 5 - 2 . 2 % ) , while in the latter the caudal - fin lobes lack transverse black bands .\nother species found in the same general area include pethia conchonius , puntius denisonii , haludaria fasciata , dawkinsia assimilis , d . arulius , d . rubrotinctus , barilius bakeri , b . bendelisis , b . canarensis , devario malabaricus , esomus danricus , garra mcclellandi , g . hughi , bhavania australis , travancoria jonesi , mesonoemacheilus guentheri , m . triangularis , schistura denisonii , lepidocephalichthys thermalis , batasio travancoria , mystus armatus , m . canarensis , glyptothorax annandalei , aplocheilus lineatus , parambassis thomassi , etroplus canarensis , e . maculatus , sicyopterus griseus , pseudosphromenus dayi , channa striata , and carinotetraodon travancoricus .\nd . filamentosa is told apart from all other d awksinia spp . by the following combination of characters : branched dorsal \u2013 fin rays extended into filament - like extensions in adult males and some adult females ; a black band about as wide as the eye near tip of each caudal - fin lobe ; lower lip continuous ; presence of a dark blotch on the caudal peduncle , 2 - 5 scales wide and commencing posterior to anal - fin origin ; no distinct markings on body in advance of anal - fin origin .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) . 2015 . catalog of fishes . updated 7 january 2015 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 7 january 2015 ) .\nrema devi , k . r . , gopalakrishnan , a . , johnson , j . a . , rahul , k . & molur , s .\nis found over a large area where threats are not uniform and also , since in rivers with existing threats , it is resilient and is assessed as least concern .\nis widely distributed across peninsular india , in the east flowing cauvery , krishna and tamitaparani rivers of andhra pradesh , karnataka and tamil nadu and throughout the west flowing coastal floodplain rivers of kerala , karnataka and goa .\nit occurs in lowland , upper and middle reaches of rivers and also in estuaries , reservoirs and marshes ( pethiyagoda and kottelat 2005 , jayaram 2010 ) . occurs in the west coast of maharashtra ( s . jadhav pers . comm . 2010 ) .\nit is very common across its range . the population status for this species is unknown .\nis a common fish found inhabiting a whole array of habitats , both in the hill streams and streams of the lowlands and wetlands . it exhibits sexual dimorphism during the breeding periods . in breeding males , the anterior 4 - 5 branched rays of the dorsal fin are extended into filaments , the scales display a brighter colour and the snout becomes covered with tubercles . it is also often found very close to the sea ( for e . g . , the type locality , alleppey ) in brackish water , together with typically estuarine fishes ( jayaram 1991 , chhapgar and manakadan 2000 , pethiyagoda and kottelat 2005 ) .\nthe species is often caught for consumption by local people . it is also caught for the aquarium trade .\nmany rivers in the species ' range is undergoing degradation due to pollution and habitat destruction , but the species is still found in large numbers in many of these rivers and also in dam reservoirs .\nthe species occurs in some protected areas , but the majority of it ' s range is unprotected .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis species will display better colouration and more interesting behaviour when maintained in a group .\nthe bhadra river , pictured here near kalasa , chikamagalur district , karnataka , is a natural habitat of this species .\nfreshly - collected adult males from chembarambakkam lake , tamil nadu state , southern india .\npossible natural hybrid : this wild - collected fish does not have an inferior mouth but possesses prominent barbels , thus mixing diagnostic characters for both d . assimilis and d . filamentosus .\nsexually - mature males develop a series of tubercules on the snout and head when in spawning condition .\nendemic to but widespread within the western ghats mountains region of southern india in the states of kerala , tamil nadu and karnataka , and possibly restricted to the south of the latter .\ntype locality is \u2018alleppey\u2019 , also known as alappuzha , situated between vembanad lake and the arabian sea , 9\u00b020\u2019n , 76\u00b025\u2019e , kerala state , southwestern india .\naccording to pethiyagoda and kottelat ( 2005 ) this species is most common in lowland coastal floodplains . it\u2019s found in both fresh and brackish waters of rivers , estuaries , coastal marshes and reservoirs .\nnot difficult to keep in a well - maintained set - up , though we recommend aquascaping the tank to resemble a flowing stream or river with a substrate of variably - sized , water - worn rocks , sand , fine gravel and perhaps some small boulders .\nthis can be further furnished with driftwood roots or branches , and while the majority of aquatic plants will fail to thrive in such surroundings hardy types such as microsorum , bolbitis or anubias spp . can be grown attached to the d\u00e9cor .\nsince it naturally occurs in relatively pristine habitats it\u2019s intolerant to accumulation of organic pollutants and requires more - or - less spotless water in order to thrive .\nthough torrent - like conditions are unnecessary it also does best if there is a high proportion of dissolved oxygen and moderate water movement , while weekly water changes of 30 - 50 % tank volume should be considered routine .\nprobably a foraging omnivore feeding on a variety of worms , insects , crustaceans , plant material , and other organic debris in nature .\nin the aquarium it\u2019s easily - fed but a balanced diet comprising regular meals of small live and frozen foods such as bloodworm , daphnia , and artemia alongside good quality dried flakes and granules will being about optimal condition and colours .\nan ideal addition to a peaceful community of riverine species alongside other schooling or shoaling cyprinids plus botiid , cobitid , nemacheilid , and balitorid loaches .\nif geography isn\u2019t an issue it can actually be combined with most peaceful fish of a size too large to be considered food and that have a bold enough disposition to not be intimidated by its size and active nature .\nas always , thorough research is the best way to avoid problems when selecting a compatible fish community .\nit\u2019s a schooling species by nature so ideally 8 - 10 specimens should be purchased . maintaining it in decent numbers will not only make the fish less skittish but will result in a more effective , natural looking display .\nin addition , any aggressive behaviour will normally be contained as males concentrate on maintaining their hierarchical position within the group .\nadult males develop a more intense colour pattern than females and exhibit noticeable tubercules on the head when in spawning condition .\nadult females tend to grow a little larger , are heavier - bodied , and less colourful .\nboth sexes may develop filamentous rays in the dorsal - fin , depending on population , but apparently these are not always present and shed or absorbed outside the spawning season ( k . r . devi et al . 2010 ) .\nlike most small cyprinids this is an egg - scattering free spawner exhibiting no parental care .\nwhen in good condition it will spawn often and in a mature aquarium it\u2019s possible that small numbers of fry may start to appear without intervention , although if you want to maximise yield a more controlled approach is required .\nthe adult group can still be conditioned together but a separate aquarium should be set up and filled with mature water .\nthis should be very dimly lit and the base covered with some kind of mesh of a large enough grade so that the eggs can fall through but small enough so that the adults cannot reach them . the widely available plastic \u2018grass\u2019 - type matting can also be used and works well , as does a layer of glass marbles .\nalternatively filling much of the tank with a fine - leaved plant such as taxiphyllum spp . or spawning mops can also return decent results .\nthe water itself should be of slightly acidic to neutral ph with a temperature towards the upper end of the range suggested above , and an air - powered sponge filter or air stone ( s ) should also be included to provide oxygenation and water movement .\nwhen the adults are well - conditioned and the females appear gravid one or two pairs should then be introduced , and spawning should take place the following morning .\nan alternative is to spawn the fish in a group with half a dozen specimens of each sex being a good number , although a larger aquarium may be necessary .\nin either situation the adults will probably eat the eggs given the chance and should be removed as soon as any are noticed .\nthese should hatch in 24 \u2013 48 hours with the fry free swimming around 24 hours later .\nthey require microscopic food for the first few days until large enough to accept microworm , artemia nauplii or suchlike .\nalso referred to as \u2018blackspot barb\u2019 and formerly included in the genus puntius and puntius filamentosus \u2018group\u2019 of related species which also contained p . arulius , p . assimilis , p . exclamatio , p . filamentosus , p . rohani , p . rubrotinctus , p . singhala , p . srilankensis and p . tambraparniei , but all of these were moved to the new genus dawksinia by pethiyagoda et al . ( 2012 ) .\ndawksinia species are defined by the following combination of characters : adult size normally 80 - 120 mm sl ; rostral barbels absent ; maxillary barbels present or absent ; last unbranched dorsal - fin ray smooth ; 4 unbranched and 8 branched dorsal - fin rays ; 3 unbranched and 5 branched anal - fin rays ; lateral line complete , with 18 - 22 scales on body ; gill rakers simple , acuminate ( not branched or laminate ) ; no antrorse predorsal spinous ray ; free uroneural present ; 4 - 5 supraneurals ; 15 precaudal and 14 - 17 caudal vertebrae ; post - epiphysial fontanelle absent ; infraorbital 3 slender , not overlapping preoperculum ; juvenile ( < 50 mm sl ) colour pattern consisting of three black bars on body , retained in adults of some species ; a black , horizontally elongate blotch on the caudal peduncle in adults .\nit\u2019s widely - distributed in kerala state , southern india and has been pictured in some older literature as puntius amphibius ( valenciennes 1842 ) .\nthe precise relationships within the genus are still open to question in some respects with knight et al . ( 2011 ) suggesting that members may hybridise naturally at some localities .\nfor example , a d . arulius - like fish ( possibly d . rubrotinctus ) co - occurs with d . assimilis in the kallada river at thenmalai , which also happens to be the type locality of d . exclamatio .\nthe latter is somewhat anomalous since it\u2019s the only dawksinia species other than d . rubrotinctus to feature a ( roughly ) w - shaped mid - lateral blotch , but also has a laterally - elongated blotch on the caudal peduncle as in other genus members .\nthe genus puntius was for a number of years viewed as a polyphyletic catch - all containing over 100 species of small to mid - sized cyprinid until pethiyagoda et al . ( 2012 ) published a partial review covering south asian members .\nit subsequently became clear that the name dravidia was preoccupied by a genus of flesh fly , therefore the replacement name haludaria was made available by pethiyagoda ( 2013 ) .\nno species from indochina , china , or indonesia were included in the study meaning a significant number of former puntius are currently classed as incertae sedis , i . e . , of uncertain taxonomic placement , and this also applies to a number of south asian species of unresolved status .\nthey\u2019re perhaps best referred to as \u2018 puntius \u2018 for the time being whereby the genus name is surrounded by quotation marks to denote its questionable usage , and that is the convention used here on sf .\nkottelat , m . and h - h tan , 2011 - ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 22 ( 3 ) : 209 - 214 systomus xouthos , a new cyprinid fish from borneo , and revalidation of puntius pulcher ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) .\nkurian abraham , r . , n . kelkar and a . biju kumar , 2011 - journal of threatened taxa 3 ( 3 ) : 1585 - 1593 freshwater fish fauna of the ashambu hills landscape , southern western ghats , india , with notes on some range extensions .\nmarcus knight , j . d . , k . rema devi , and v . atkore , 2011 - journal of threatened taxa 3 ( 4 ) : 1686 - 1693 systematic status of systomus rubrotinctus jerdon ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) with notes on the puntius arulius group of fishes .\npethiyagoda , r . , 2013 - zootaxa 3646 ( 2 ) : 199 haludaria , a replacement generic name for dravidia ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) .\npethiyagoda , r . and m . kottelat , 2005b - raffles bulletin of zoology supplement 12 : 145 - 152 the identity of the south indian barb puntius mahecola ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) .\npethiyagoda , r . and m . kottelat , 2005a - raffles bulletin of zoology supplement 12 : 127 - 144 a review of the barbs of the puntius filamentosus group ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) of southern india and sri lanka .\npethiyagoda , r . , m . meegaskumbura , and k . maduwage , 2012 - ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 23 ( 1 ) : 69 - 95 a synopsis of the south asian fishes referred to puntius ( pisces : cyprinidae ) .\nraju thomas , k . , c . r . biju , c . r . ajithkumar and m . j . george , 2000 - journal of the bombay natural history society 97 ( 3 ) : 443 - 446 fish fauna of idukki and neyyar wildlife sanctuaries southern kerala , india .\nraju thomas , k . , m . j . george , and c . r . biju , 2002 - journal of the bombay natural history society 99 ( 1 ) : 47 - 53 freshwater fishes of southern kerala with notes on the distribution of endemic and endangered species .\nrema devi , k . , t . j . indra , and j . d . marcus knight , 2010 - journal of threatened taxa 2 ( 9 ) : 1121 - 1129 puntius rohani ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) , a new species of barb in the puntius filamentosus group from the southern western ghats of india .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe nonindigenous occurrences section of the nas species profiles has a new structure . the section is now dynamically updated from the nas database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information . occurrences are summarized in table 1 , alphabetically by state , with years of earliest and most recent observations , and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed . the table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states , years , and drainages selected . references to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables .\nasia . india , sri lanka , burma , and possibly thailand ( talwar and jhingran 1992 ) .\naxelrod , h . r . , w . e . burgess , n . pronek , and j . g . walls . 1985 . dr . axelrod ' s atlas of freshwater aquarium fishes . tropical fish hobbyist publications , inc . , neptune city , nj .\ndevick , w . s . 1991a . disturbances and fluctuations in the wahiawa reservoir ecosystem . project f - 14 - r - 15 , job 4 , study i . division of aquatic resources , hawaii department of land and natural resources .\ndevick , w . s . 1991b . patterns of introductions of aquatic organisms to hawaiian freshwater habitats . pages 189 - 213 in new directions in research , management and conservation of hawaiian freshwater stream ecosystems . proceedings of the 1990 symposium on freshwater stream biology and fisheries management , division of aquatic resources , hawaii department of land and natural resources .\nmenon , a . g . k . 1999 . check list - fresh water fishes of india . records of zoological survey of india , miscellaneous publication , occasional paper 175 : 1 - 366 .\nmundy , b . c . 2005 . fishes of the hawaiian archipelago . bishop museum bulletins in zoology , number 6 .\npethiyagoda , r . , and m . kottelat . 2005 . a review of the barbs of the puntius filamentosus group ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) of southern india and sri lanka . raffles bulletin of zoology supplement 12 : 127 - 144 .\npethiyagoda , r . , m . meegaskumbura , and k . maduwage . 2012 . a synopsis of the south asians fishes referred to puntius ( pisces : cyprinidae ) . ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 23 ( 1 ) : 69 - 95 .\ntalwar , p . k . , and a . g . jhingran . 1991 . inland fishes of india and adjacent countries . aa balkema , rotterdam , the netherlands .\nweliange , w . s . , and u . s . amarasinghe . 2003 . seasonality in dietary shifts in size - structured freshwater fish assemblages in three reservoirs of sri lanka . environmental biology of fishes 68 : 269 - 282 .\nyamamoto , m . n . , and a . w . tagawa . 2000 . hawaii ' s native and exotic freshwater animals . mutual publishing , honolulu , hi .\nthis information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision . it is being provided to meet the need for timely best science . the information has not received final approval by the u . s . geological survey ( usgs ) and is provided on the condition that neither the usgs nor the u . s . government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information .\nthe data represented on this site vary in accuracy , scale , completeness , extent of coverage and origin . it is the user ' s responsibility to use these data consistent with their intended purpose and within stated limitations . we highly recommend reviewing metadata files prior to interpreting these data .\ncitation information : u . s . geological survey . [ 2018 ] . nonindigenous aquatic species database . gainesville , florida . accessed [ 7 / 9 / 2018 ] .\ncontact us if you are using data from this site for a publication to make sure the data are being used appropriately and for potential co - authorship if warranted . for queries involving fish , please contact pam fuller . for queries involving invertebrates , contact amy benson .\ntypical tank setup : a well planted aquarium with rock work and driftwood / bogwood . plants will give the weaker individuals a place to hide , until the pecking order of the school is established . plenty of open swimming space is required as the denison barb is always on the move and schooling .\ncompatibility : this fish needs to be kept in schools . the larger the school the better with 6 fish a good minimum amount . if kept in smaller schools the weaker individuals will be harassed continuously by the more aggressive individuals until they die .\nfeeding : omnivorous . they should be fed a varied diet of flakes , small pellets , frozen and live foods such as daphnia and brine shrimp . blood worms and brown worms can also be fed as a treat , but do not feed worms very often as they can cause bloat .\nsexing : adult males develop a more intense colour pattern than females and exhibit noticeable tubercules on the head when in spawning condition . adult females tend to grow a little larger , are heavier - bodied , and less colourful .\nbreeding : like most small cyprinids this is an egg - scattering free spawner exhibiting no parental care .\nadditional information : excellent addition to the community aquarium if you are looking for a schooling species however should be kept in groups of at least 6 , ideally 10 or more to encourage this natural behaviour .\nmales are larger and have a\nfilamented\ndorsal fin , an elongated spike on their dorsal fin . they also develop small white spots around their nose when they ' re spawning .\nthis fish prefers a laterally long spacious tank , minimum 4ft , with lots of open swimming room .\ntypical barb in shape , large iridescent green / blue / silver scales , with a large spot on the flanks towards the tail . tail is a scissor shape and tipped with black and red bands . males have an extended dorsal spike .\nhas been produced back in 1970s . the hybrids are fertile , unlike most other\nthis page was last edited on 13 december 2017 , at 03 : 07 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license unless otherwise noted .\noccurs in clear streams , lakes and ponds ( ref . 41236 ) . inhabits lowland rivers and also estuaries , reservoirs and marshes ( ref . 55036 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nbarbs have long been popular among aquarists , yet most of the species we know best are among the smaller members of the group . that is as it should be , because most aquariums are less than 75 gallons ( 284 liters ) in capacity , and smaller species are the best choices for those tanks . but small barbs can certainly be maintained by those with tanks of 75 gallons ( 284 liters ) or more , and many look great in large schools .\nbig tanks , though , offer additional possibilities , including a few species whose adult size may make you think they\u2019d be good choices for smaller tanks but whose activity level means they do best in larger tanks . this month we\u2019ll rate the top 10 barbs that are suitable only for tanks of at least 75 gallons ( 284 liters ) . some of these species will be old favorites , but others will be chosen from the numerous barbs that have reached the hobby in the last decade .\nand b . altus are two species that are regularly sold as tinfoil barbs . tinfoil barbs have to be on the list because they\u2019re the first fish most people think of when talk turns to larger barbs .\nas young fish , it can be difficult to tell the two species apart . b . altus is frequently sold as the red - tail tinfoil barb , but that won\u2019t always hold up as an indicator . by the time the fish have reached 4 to 5 inches ( 10 to 12 . 5 cm ) in length , the differences become more apparent in wild - type fish . b . schwanenfeldii have black lines on each lobe of the caudal fin ; b . altus does not . in addition , b . schwanenfeldii has a body color that is clearly silver while that of b . altus is more golden .\nwhy the proviso regarding natural color pattern , you ask ? because there are captive - bred forms that are more golden in color , and i suspect they represent a hybrid between the two species . at the end of the day , does it matter which species you have ? well , it might .\nwhile most b . schwanenfeldii will not exceed 12 inches ( 30 cm ) in length in an aquarium , that is still several inches longer than b . altus , which seldom exceeds 8 inches ( 20 cm ) . the potential for size in b . schwanenfeldii , is , however , much greater . while i haven\u2019t seen them with my own eyes , i have heard of breeder tinfoil barbs at farms in florida that exceed 20 inches ( 50 . 75 cm ) .\nregardless of species , tinfoils are active , boisterous fish that are suitable for only the largest of home aquariums . they make wonderful tankmates for any fish not bothered by their activity level . they will eat any and all commonly available prepared foods and will also eat most commonly fed vegetables such as romaine lettuce , bok choy , and other leafy greens along with zucchini , broccoli , etc . as you may have surmised , they will also view any aquatic plants as their own personal salad bar .\ni must admit i was very tempted to rank hypsibarbus wetmorei much higher on the list but didn\u2019t due to its 10 - inch ( 25 - cm ) size . it is one of my favorite fishes , but it has some drawbacks that make it less than a perfect species for many hobbyists .\napart from size , the biggest negative is that it likes plants as much as most planted tank enthusiasts ; unfortunately , it likes them on the menu , and has no appreciation for the aesthetics of a planted aquarium . lemon - fin barbs , in fact , like plants so much that they\u2019ll even eat anubias .\non the plus side , h . wetmorei is completely peaceful . while i would expect them to eat any fish small enough to fit into their mouths , they won\u2019t bother anything too big to be eaten . when kept in an unplanted tank with plenty of swimming room , this species makes a very striking addition . the tight school is always on the move , and their silvery bodies are real eye - catchers , with the scales edged in black and the bright yellow fins .\ninterestingly , juveniles start out with a rather elongated body shape , but as they grow the body depth increases until they are approximately the same shape as tinfoil barbs . their speed and durability make them an excellent dither fish for many larger cichlids and a good tankmate for most medium - size cichlids .\nwhile not common in american pet shops , desmopuntius johorensis is available regularly from exporters in asia . the color pattern is rather subtle , which probably makes it less popular than it should be . despite the lack of colors , the pattern is attractive and this species is particularly hardy .\nit is plant safe and does well with fishes of a similar size and temperament . i\u2019ve seen one or two individuals that were approaching 5 inches ( 12 . 5 cm ) in length , but most don\u2019t exceed 4 inches ( 10 cm ) , so a school of five to 10 will fit nicely in any aquarium of at least 75 gallons . most older aquarium literature refers to the lined barb as puntius ( or barbus ) lineatus , but that is a different and smaller species .\nan old - time favorite , barbodes lateristriga is still readily available from breeders in asia , but it is not as commonly seen in american pet shops as it once was . this is unfortunate because its 7 - inch ( 18 - cm ) size makes it a much better choice for many aquariums than the more popular tinfoil barbs .\nlike the tinfoils , b . lateristriga is active and outgoing . its very nature may intimidate shy fishes , so its tankmates should be chosen with care . it will nibble soft - leaved plants , but java ferns , anubias and similar species will typically go untouched .\nthe color pattern consists of a silver body with several vertical black stripes in the anterior portion of the body , with a horizontal black stripe that runs from the base of the caudal fin to the mid - body , forming a t shape with the mid - body vertical bar . when you add in the other vertical bar , the pattern is reminiscent of a spanner , or wrench , as well .\ni\u2019ve only seen the extended filaments on males but have read that they can also be present on females . their presence may indicate that the spawning season has arrived .\nadult males from some locations can develop a fair amount of red on the body , while others sport the more traditional brassy gold . the brassy gold color is more vibrant on the dorsal region and can fade to white on the ventral region . males are somewhat more colorful than females . other aspects of the color pattern include an elongated black spot on the caudal peduncle and red and black spots on each lobe of the caudal fin .\nyou\u2019re likely wondering about the scientific name , so let\u2019s start there . i\u2019ve always known this fish as puntius everetti . after all , that is the scientific name listed in every book i own or have seen that includes the clown barb .\nwith all the revisions that have been made to puntius recently , i checked the current name to see whether the genus had been changed . i looked at fishbase . org , where i found it listed as p . everetti . while looking up another species on urltoken i saw a reference to clown barbs as barbodes dunckeri .\nfaced with a choice , my inclination is to follow the name listed on seriouslyfish . com , which updates its nomenclature more rapidly than fishbase . org . these are the two go - to sites on the web for fish information and they usually agree , but sometimes situations like this arise . as it turns out , the true p . everetti hails from the sarawak region of borneo , where it is only rarely collected for the aquarium hobby .\nas for b . dunckeri , the clown barb has been a personal favorite ever since the first time i kept them back in the 1970s . its coloration is subtle yet attractive , with a pinkish body marked with black spots and bars that are overlain with a blue sheen and orange to red fins .\nmy personal experience is that they work well in planted aquariums , although not all hobbyists have found that to be true . they may nibble a bit on soft - leaved plants , but i don\u2019t feel that they do enough damage to justify leaving them out , unless the bulk of the aquascaping will feature such plants . while they are frequently listed as growing to 6 inches ( 16 cm ) in length , i\u2019ve never seen one that exceeded 5 inches ( 12 . 5 cm ) .\nthis is a gregarious species that does best when kept in a sizable school although it can be kept in groups as small as two specimens . a tank that features some driftwood , along with tough - leaved plants and a large open area for swimming is ideal .\ntankmates can include medium to large gouramis , larger rasboras , and most of the larger rainbows . robust tetras , such as bleeding hearts , also work quite well . medium - size cichlids are another possibility , as long as they are not too aggressive .\nwas not named after j . r . r . tolkien\u2019s fictional kingdom of rohan but rather after rohan pethiyagoda , in recognition of his work on the freshwater fishes of india and sri lanka .\nthe main thing to know about d . rohani is that it is absolutely gorgeous ! most of the time males feature a gold upper part of the body with each scale outlined in a golden - green pattern , all overlain with a green sheen , and a whitish lower body . where these colors meet on the caudal peduncle is a horizontal black spot in the shape of a teardrop . the caudal and anal fins are red , and the dorsal has black spines .\nwhen teardrop barbs are in spawning condition , all the colors intensify and the lower cheeks and gill covers also turn red . this is truly a sight to behold , and because the rohan barb grows to only about 4\u00bd inches ( 11 cm ) in length , it is a sight that anyone with a tank at least 75 gallons ( 285 liters ) or larger can experience .\nthis species is still a bit expensive , but you should try to buy as large a school as possible . your investment will pay dividends every time you look at your aquarium . to truly show its best colors , keep d . rohani in a planted aquarium with other robust , active species .\nis frequently imported and sold as puntius mahecola , but that is a smaller and not closely related species . one of the most beautiful species in the ranking , d . assimilis makes a wonderful addition to planted aquariums of at least 75 gallons ( 284 liters ) .\nthe blue line under the eyes leads to the common name . the snout is red in males from the lips up along the forehead to behind the eyes , where the red becomes a scale coloration in a pattern leading back to the almond - shaped black spot on the caudal peduncle .\nmany of the upper body scales have red centers , with the rest of the scale a luminous gold . the lower body is white . the caudal fin has a black crescent that ends in a red dot , with a black dot closer to the tip of each lobe . the dorsal and pectoral fins are red , and the anal and ventral fins are white .\nthe mascara barb grows to just over 4 inches ( 10 cm ) and is extremely active . it will be happiest in a large group , and its colors will make it a constantly moving , visual focal point of any display .\nthere is a lot of confusion regarding the description and status of sahyadria denisonii . it has variously been included in the genera puntius , barbus , labeo , and crossocheilus . it is my belief that there is actually a species complex , because size and color pattern are highly variable . while most individuals won\u2019t exceed 5 inches ( 12 cm ) or so in length , others will exceed 12 inches ( 32 cm ) . the amount of red on the body is highly variable , as is the yellow in the fins .\nfortunately for the hobbyist , the most colorful individuals seem to be those that grow to 5 inches ( 12 cm ) in length . it may be that the larger form is s . chalakkudiensis and that the smaller fish that are more common in the hobby now are s . denisonii , and these may be the only two species involved .\na great aspect of this fish is that it does not eat plants . a school of roseline sharks sporting their best colors in a large planted aquarium is a sight no aquarist will soon forget .\ndue to their high activity level and preference to be kept in large schools , roseline sharks are best suited to aquariums of at least 75 gallons ( 284 liters ) , with larger tanks being preferred . tankmates can include any species that is large enough not to be eaten and outgoing enough to compete with the roseline sharks at feeding time .\nbetween this article and my previous survey of the smaller barbs ( tfh , june 2014 ) , i hope i\u2019ve shown you that there is a barb for every tank . no matter the size of your tank , there is a barb that is well suited to occupying it . with the exception of highly predatory and highly aggressive species , there is a barb that can be a tankmate to almost every fish you might wish to keep .\nconsider a barb for your next aquarium and you\u2019ll be rewarded with a colorful , energetic fish of which you will likely grow increasingly fond of as time goes by ."]}
{"id": 49, "summary": [{"text": "mirapinna esau , the hairyfish , is a species of flabby whalefish only known from the atlantic ocean from near the azores .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "formerly considered a member of the no longer recognized family mirapinnidae , this species is the only known member of its genus . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "mirapinna esau", "paragraphs": ["hairyfish , also known as mirapinna esau , lodsilungur , fur - bearing trout .\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2012 ) .\nmirapinna esau\nin fishbase . august 2012 version .\nmirapinna esau bertelsen and marshall 1956 ( hairy fish ) named after esau , a hairy character of the bible . the fish has curious growths all over its body , making it look like it is covered in fur .\n( after jacob ' s hairy brother , esau , in the bible ) .\nwhy do you think this makes no realistic sense , or that the hair is nuisance ? you should look up the mirapinna esau , which is a furry fish .\nscientific synonyms and common names mirapinna esau bertelsen & marshall , 1956 synonyms : mirapinna esau bertelsen & marshall , 1956 , dana rep . , ( 42 ) : 4 - 6 , fig . 1 - 2 , and 12 ( north atlantic 500 miles north of the azores , 47\u00b0 20 ' n . , 22\u00b0 30 ' w . ) . holotype : zmuc . common names : none\nthe specific name is from the character esau in the bible , who is stated to be a hairy man ( genesis 27 : 11 ) .\nrecent sightings : hairyfish sightings are reported almost annually by fishermen , but most of these sightings have not been verified . to complicate identification , scientists now believe that the hairyfish captured in 1911 was not a unique species , but only a juvenile whalefish , not a unique species , and discontinued use of the genus mirapinna . however , this change in taxonomic description does not explain the freshwater fur - bearing fish sighted in ontario , maine and montana .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n- home - - rules - - etymology - - puns - - wordplay - - gene names - - misc . - - references - - feedback -\nachelousaurus horneri sampson , 1995 ( ceratopsian dinosaur ) . this hornless ceratopsian evolved from horned ancestors . it was named for achelous , a greek river god whose horn was broken in a battle with heracles . the species name ( for paleontologist jack horner ) replaces the lost horn . [ j . vert . paleo . 15 ( 4 ) ]\nacherontia atropos linnaeus , a . lachesis fabricius 1798 , and a . styx westwood , 1847 ( deathhead hawk moth ) acheron and styx are rivers in the greek underworld . atropos and lachesis are two of the fates .\nacteon montfort , 1810 ( gastropod ) named after the hunter actaeon of greek myth . the snails are predatory .\nanapachydiscus terminus ward ( late cretaceous ammonite )\nthis was the last ammonite ever to have evolved on earth .\nnamed for terminus , the roman god of boundaries .\narethusa ( swamp pink ) this orchid grows in aquatic environments in eastern north america . named for a greek nymph whom artemis transformed into a spring so that she might not suffer the passions of a river god .\nargonauta argo linnaeus ( paper nautilus ) named for jason ' s ship and its crew .\nasklepia liebke , 1938 ( ground beetle ) named after asklepius , greek god of healing , for unknown reasons .\nastraptes augeas brower 2010 ( skipper butterfly ) named for the augean stables , whose cleaning was hercules ' fifth labor .\nthe name recognizes the enormous throughput of the acg barcoding endeavour and the resultant labour required of systematists .\n[ syst . biodivers . 8 : 486 ]\nathene boie , 1822 ( burrowing owl ) the owl was athene ' s sacred bird .\natropoides werman , 1992 ( jumping pitviper ) named after atropos , the fate which cuts off a person ' s life . there are also numerous species with specific epithet atropos , including the adders bitis atropos linnaeus , 1758 and clotho atropos gray , 1849 ( a synonym for bitis inornata ( smith , 1838 ) ) .\ncassiopeia andromeda ( eschscholz ) ( upside - down sea jelly ) andromeda was the daughter of cassiopeia in greek myth .\ncloacina von linstow 1898 ( nematode ) found only in the stomachs of kangaroos ; named after cloacina , the roman goddess of the sewers .\ncymodoce , dynamene , eurydice , jaera , janira , limnoria ( isopods ) all of these , described by leach in 1814 , are names of nereids , probably taken from the preface of fabulae by hyginus . the first nereid isopod , however , was ligia fabricius , 1798 .\ndaedalosaurus carroll , 1978 ( late permian gliding reptile from madagascar ) and icarosaurus colbert , 1970 ( upper triassic gliding reptile from new jersey ) , after daedalus and icarus .\nicarops hand et al . , 1998 ( miocene bat from australia )\nfrom icaros , the mythological greek who flew towards the sun , in reference to the ancient mystacinid that flew eastwards from australia to new zealand .\n[ j . paleo . , 538 - 540 ] .\ndamocles lund , 1986 ( carboniferous shark ) the males had an elaborate projection from the back that ended poised over its head .\nglaucus forster , 1777 ( nudibranch ) named after a prophetic sea god , a fisherman who turned immortal upon eating a magical herb .\ngorgonocephalus medusae ( basket star ) the basket star looks like a mass of serpents . medusa was the most famous of the gorgons , which had serpents for hair .\nhadoprion ( hinde , 1879 ) ( fossil polychaete ) named after hades . ( the\n- prion\nmeans\nsaw ,\nafter the fossil ' s toothed nature . )\ngeophilus hadesi stoev , et al . 2015 and geophilus persephones foddai & minelli , 1999 ( cave centipedes )\nhydraena nike j\u00e4ch 1995 ( beetle ) named for nike , greek goddess of victory , because samothraki , the location of the beetle , is also the source of a superb statue of nike . [ ann . naturhist . mus . wien 97b : 177 - 190 . ]\nkerberos sol\u00e9 et al . 2015 ( eocene hyaenodont ) named after cerberus ( kerberos in greek ) , the three - headed dog that guarded the gates of hades . [ plos one 10 ( 9 ) ]\nthermarces cerberus rosenblatt and cohen , 1986 ( eelpout fish ) from the galapagos rift vents .\nlachesis daudin , 1803 ( bushmaster ) this largest of pit vipers is named after the fate who apportions each individual ' s lifespan .\nmerope newman , 1838 ( earwigfly ) merope is one of the pleaides sisters .\nmercuriceratops gemini ryan et al . , 2014 ( cretaceous ceratopsid dinosaur ) named after mercury because ornamentation on its head resembles the wings on the head of the roman god , and gemini because two almost identical specimens were found .\nmoira atropis and m . clotho ( heart urchins ) in greek myth , the moirae are the three fates , named atropis , clotho , and lachesis .\nmyotis midastactus moratelli & wilson , 2014 ( bat ) the specific epithet is\nmidas touch\nlatinized , alluding to the mythical greek king whose touch turned everything into gold , referring to the bat ' s unique golden fur .\nnemertes cuvier , 1817 ( sea worm ) named for the sea nereid nemertes , wisest of her sisters .\nouroborus stanley et al . , 2011 ( armadillo lizard ) the ouroboros is an ancient symbol of a serpent or dragon devouring its own tail . the lizard , when threatened , grabs its tail in its mouth and curls up .\npapio hamadryas ( hamadryas baboon ) hamadryads , in greek myth , were nymphs whose lives began and ended with a particular tree . these baboons live in rocky and dry areas and rarely climb trees .\npectinivalva ( casanovula ) minotaurus hoare , 2013 ( moth ) named for the minotaur because its flattened antennae resemble horns . [ zookeys 278 ]\nphoenix ( date palm ) probably named not after the mythical bird , but for a king who fought with the greeks at troy and is credited with bringing the first date palms to greece .\nchalicodoma pluto smith , 1860 ( world ' s largest bee , from the rainforests of the moluccas ) the type specimen was collected by alfred r . wallace . only one other specimen was found before 1990 , when several nests were found in termite nests .\nproteus laurenti 1768 ( blind cave salamander ) europe ' s only troglobitic chordate . named for a greek sea god , the son of poseidon . there is also amoeba proteus ( amoeba ) , so named because proteus had the ability to change form .\nsisyphus latreille , 1807 ( dung beetle ) named after a king condemned in hades to roll an immense boulder uphill , only to have it inevitably break free and roll down again , this beetle makes and rolls large balls of dung with greater success .\nsterculius ( rove beetle , or plant ) sterculius was the greek god of the latrine , and rove beetles are often found associated with dung . sterculius is also a genus of plant , many species of which emit a dung - like odor from flowers or leaves . its family , sterculiaceae , also includes chocolate and cola .\ntalos zanno et al . , 2011 ( birdlike theropod dinosaur ) named for a winged bronze giant of greek mythology , which could run extremely fast and which succumbed to an ankle wound . the name is also a pun on\ntalon\n.\ntethys linnaeus , 1767 ( sea slug ) tethys was both sister and wife of oceanus .\ntitanus giganteus ( l ) ( cerambycid beetle ) the world ' s largest ( but not heaviest ) beetle .\nupupa antaios olson , 1975 ( extinct giant hoopoe ) named for the libyan giant antaios ( or antaeus ) , who wrestled travelers and used their skulls to decorate a temple to his father poseidon . drawing strength from the ground , he was invincible until heracles held him up .\nurania fabricius , 1807 ( moth ) diurnal moths ironically named after the muse of astronomy .\nvenus dione linnaeus , 1758 ( clam ) named after venus , goddess of love , and dione , mother of her greek equivalent aphrodite , due to the clam ' s resemblance to human female genetalia . ( its new genus is hysteroconcha meaning\nwomb shell\n. )\nzeus olympius minter & diam . ( 1987 ) ( fungus ) discovered on mt . olympus . the expedition which discovered it also found , growing on the remains of a z . olympius , another flask - shaped fungus in the genus nectria ( alas , derived from the greek for\nswimmer\n, not from nectar , the drink of the gods ) , which was named nectria ganymede , after the youth taken to heaven to be zeus ' s cupbearer .\naegirosaurus bardet & fernandez , 2000 ( upper jurassic ichthyosaur ) named for aegir , god of the oceans and seashores .\nasgard archaea\n- a superphylum of archaea with some genetic similarities to eukaryotes . lokiarchaeota was the first phylum proposed ; thorarchaeota , odinarchaeota , and heimdallarchaeota have been added to the group .\nasgardaspira wagner 1999 ( snail ) it is very loosely coiled , with a serpent - like look . [ smithsonian contrib . to paleobiology 88 : 1 - 154 ]\neoconodon nidhoggi van valen , 1978 ( paleocene mammal ) named for the nordic corpse - eating underworld serpent ( and found in purgatory hill ) .\nmidgardia downey , 1972 ( starfish ) from the midgard serpent ,\nwhich lies at the bottom of the sea and encircles the earth .\nmidgardia xandaros has the longest arms ( 67 cm . ) of any known starfish . [ proc . biol . soc . wash . 84 : 422 ]\nragnarok van valen , 1978 ( paleocene mammal , synonym of baioconodon gazin , 1941 ) for norse end times ,\ndoom of the gods .\nscutisorex thori stanley et al . , 2013 ( hero shrew ) hero shrews are unusually strong . [ biol . lett . 9 ( 5 ) ]\nbalaur csiki et al . , 2010 ( theropod dinosaur ) a balaur is a dragon - like creature from romanian myth .\nsampo \u00f6pik , 1933 ( ordovician brachiopod ) named for the three - sided magic mill that in finnish mythology created flour , salt , and gold .\nzalmoxes nopsca , 1899 ( cretaceous iguanodontid ) named for the dacian supreme deity zalmoxis .\nzilantophis jasinski & moscato ( miocene or eocene snake ) named after zilant , a winged serpent in tatar mythology , because of wing - shaped projections on the side of the fossil ' s vertebrae .\nangelica archangelica linnaeus ( umbellifer ) traditionally said to bloom on may 8 , the day of st . michael the archangel .\nanzu lamanna et al . , 2014 ( theropod dinosaur ) named for a feathered demon in akkadian and sumerian mythology .\nlivyatan lambert et al . 2010 ( fossil sperm whale ) . originally named leviathan , but that name was junior homonym ; german paleontologist albert koch used it for an american mastadon skeleton in 1841 , which name was itself invalid as mammut had priority . lambert et al . renamed the fossil whale livyatan , from the original hebrew spelling . [ nature 466 : 105 , 1134 ]\nifrita rothschild 1898 ( blue - capped babbler of new guinea ) from arabic ifrit ' djinn or spirit ' .\nipomopsis sancti - spiritus ( polemoniaceae ) holy ghost ipomopsis , an endangered plant .\nziziphus spina - christi ( l . ) ( spiny shrub or tree ) christ ' s crown - of - thorns is traditionally said to have been made from this plant .\nbeelzebufo evans , jones and krause , 2008 ( cretaceous frog from madagascar ) nicknamed\nthe frog from hell\nby the researchers .\ndiabloceratops kirkland et al . , 2010 ( cretaceous ceratopsian dinosaur ) its horns and neck shield evoke images of the devil .\nhalicephalobus mephisto borgonie et al . , 2011 ( nematode ) the deepest known land animal , discovered 2 . 2 miles underground .\nsatan hubbs & bailey , 1947 ( catfish ) a blind unpigmented fish from artesian wells 1000 - 1250 feet underground , near san antonio , tx .\nsatan eurystomus signifies ' wide - mouthed prince of darkness . '\n[ occasional papers mus . zool . , u . of mich . 499 : 1 - 15 . ]\nsatanoperca lilith kullander & ferreira 1988 ( amazonian cichlid ) there were also s . daemon and s . jurupari ( the latter named after a tupi forest demon ) , but these have been moved to the genus geophagus . [ cybium 12 ( 4 ) : 344 ; ann . wien . mus . naturges . 2 : 389 , 392 ]\nsolidago satanica lunell , 1911 ( goldenrod ) its type specimen came from devil ' s lake , north dakota . ( it is now probably synonymized with another species . ) [ american midland naturalist 2 : 58 ]\nmoloch gray , 1841 ( thorny devil lizard ) named after a canaanite god as depicted by milton .\nninurta stanley et al . , 2011 ( blue - spotted girdled lizard ) ninurta was the sumerian and akkadian god of , among other things , rain and the south wind . the lizard ' s genus refers to its occurrence along the cool , moist south coast of south africa . [ mol . phylo . evo . 58 : 53 ]\nstygimoloch galton & sues , 1983 ( pachycephalosaur ) from\nstyx\n, for the hell creek formation ;\nmoloch\n, after a canaanite god .\nzu walters & fitch , 1960 ( ribbonfish ) zu was an lesser akkadian deity .\nabydosaurus ( brachiosaur ) described from a fossilized skull and cervical vertebrae , it is named for the town abydos in egypt , where osiris ' s head and neck were buried .\nammonoidea ( ammonite , fossil cephalopod ) named after the egyptian god amun ( ammon ) , who was represented by a ram , because the shells resemble ram ' s horns - - in particular , the horn of ammon , the cornucopia from roman myth .\ntasmaniosoma anubis mesibov 2015 ( millipede ) so named because the tip of the male genitalia resembles popular depictions of the jackal - headed god . [ zookeys 488 : 31 ]\nkheper aegyptiorum latreille , 1827 ( dung beetle ) named after khepera , god of the rising sun ; the dung beetle is his emblem .\nthalassodromeus sethi kellner & campos , 2002 ( cretaceous pterosaur ) named after the egyptian god seth because of the shape of its large crest . ( but probably the god amun , whose crown is a closer match , was intended . )\njobaria sereno et al , 1999 ( cretaceous sauropod ) from the niger republic ; named for\njobar\n, a creature from tuareg mythology .\nazhdarcho nessov , 1984 ( cretaceous uzbekistan pterosaur ) named for an uzbek dragon .\nerlikosaurus perle , 1980 ( mongolian therizinosaur ) erlik is the siberian / mongolian god of the dead .\nindricotherium ( oligo - miocene rhinoceros ) this , the largest terrestrial mammal , was named for indrik , the lord of the animals in russian folklore . ironically , indricotherium was hornless , while lord indrik was horned .\nsamrukia naish et al . , 2012 ( cretaceous pterosaur ) named after samruk , a kazakh mythical bird .\nsordes sharov , 1971 ( jurassic kazakhstan pterosaur ) named for a russian demon .\napsaravis norell & clark , 2001 ( fossil bird ) ' apsara ' ( sanskrit ) , winged consorts prominent in buddhist and hindu art , plus ' avis ' ( gk ) , bird .\nbramatherium falconer , 1845 ( miocene giraffid ) , vishnutherium ( fossil giraffid ) , sivatherium falconer & cautley , 1832 ( pleistocene giraffid ) named for the hindu gods brahma , vishnu , and shiva , the creator , sustainer , and destroyer . all these giraffids are from india .\ncitipati clark , norell & barsbold , 2001 ( oviraptor dinosaur ) citipati are funeral demons from buddhist tradition , often represented by two dancing skeletons , representing the impermanence of worldly things .\ndibasterium durgae briggs et al . , 2012 ( fossil horseshoe crab ) named for the hindu goddess durga , who has many arms . ( the genus name refers to double limbs . ) [ pnas 109 : 15702 ]\ngarudimimus barsbold , 1981 ( theropod dinosaur )\ngaruda mimic\n; garuda is the hindu prince of birds and national symbol of indonesia .\nmegalara garuda kimsey & ohl , 2012 ( wasp ) from sulawesi , indonesia . [ zookeys 177 : 49 ]\nlakhsmia venusta ( thwaites ) veldk . , 2008 ( grass from sri lanka ) lakshmi is the hindu goddess of beauty , charm , prosperity , and other positive things . the specific epithet derives from the roman goddess of beauty , venus . [ rheedea 18 ]\nprotogryllus lakshmi p\u00e9rez - de la fuente et al . , 2012 ( jurassic cricket ) here , lakshmi ' s influence over wealth and prosperity is the inspiration .\nstegodon ganesa ( pliocene elephant ) named for ganesa , the elephant - headed hindu god of wisdom and art . it was the subject of the world ' s first postage stamp featuring a reconstructed prehistoric animal ( in india , jan . 1951 ) .\nwathondara wang et al . , 2015 ( cretaceous scale insect ) named for an earth goddess of buddhist mythology . [ elife 4 : e05447 ]\nyamaceratops makovicky & norell , 2006 ( mongolian ceratopsian dinosaur ) named for yama , a tibetan buddhist deity .\naorun choiniere et al . 2013 ( theropod dinosaur ) named for ao run , the dragon king of the west sea , from the mandarin epic journey to the west .\nizanami galil & clark , 1994 ( matutine crab ) named for izanami , the primordial goddess in japanese shinto mythology .\nmahakala turner et al . , 2007 named for one of eight protector deities of tibetan buddhism .\ntara peckham & peckham , 1886 ( jumping spider ) named for the buddhist saviour - goddess , the feminine counterpart of the bodhisattva .\narkarua gehling , 1987 ( ediacaran echinoderm ) named after arkaru , a giant snake from the mythology of the adnajamathana people of the central flinders ranges .\nkakuru molnar & pledge , 1980 ( theropod dinosaur )\nrainbow serpent\nfrom south australia . it is the only known dinosaur preserved as opal .\nkiwa 2006 (\nyeti crab\n) named for the polynesian goddess of crustaceans .\nmauisaurus hector 1874 ( plesiosaur from new zealand ) after maui , a demi - god of maori mythology .\nobdurodon tharalkooschild pian et al . , 2013 ( miocene platypus ) the specific epithet comes from a myth from south australia ( from the dieyerie people ? ) in which a duck named tharalkoo is ravished by a water rat and gives birth to the platypus .\npseudionella akuaku boyko & williams , 2001 ( isopod ( crustacea : isopoda : bopyroidea ) parasitic on hermit crabs ) named after a polynesian spirit known to pinch children .\nquinkana molnar , 1981 ( extinct crocodylian ) named after the quinkans , a legendary folk often depicted in australian rock art .\ntangaroa lehtinen , 1967 ( tahitian uloborid spider ) named for the tahitian god of the sea .\ntaniwhasaurus hector 1874 ( mosasaur from new zealand ) a taniwha is a dragon - like giant lizard of maori myth .\ntinirau swartz , 2012 ( devonian fish ) named for tinirau , a polynesian god , gaurdian of fish .\nwonambi smith , 1976 ( extinct snake ) this giant snake takes its name from a south australian aboriginal name for the rainbow serpent .\nwoolungasaurus persson 1964 ( plesiosaur from australia ) after the woolunga , a reptile - like beast from aborigine mythology .\nxevioso lehtinen , 1967 ( amaurobiid spider ) named for a west african god of storm .\nyhi barnard & thomas , 1991 ( amphipod ) named for an australian ( specifically , karraur ) goddess of light and creation .\nyurlunggur scanlon , 1992 ( middle miocene madtsoiid python ) named for the australian rainbow serpent yurlunggur .\nalabagrus coatlicue , a . ixtilton , a . mixcoatl , and a . xolotl ( braconid wasps ) named for aztec deities .\naztlanolagus russell & harris , 1986 . ( aztl\u00e1n rabbit , a pliocene / pleistocene lagomorph ) . aztl\u00e1n is the legendary place of origin of the nahua peoples as recorded in the mythology of the aztecs and other nahua groups . some traditions place it in the border regions of the southwestern united states and adjacent northern mexico .\neurhopalothrix hunhau , e . mabuya , e . xibalba and e . zipacna longino , 2013 ( ants ) all names relate to the mayan underworld . xibalba is name of the mayan underworld . hunhau is a mayan death god and a lord of the underworld . zipacna is a crocodile - like demon , and mabuya another demon . [ zootaxa 3693 : 101 ]\nmammillaria huitzilopochtli hunt , 1979 ( mexican cactus ) named for huitzilopochtli , an aztec war god .\ntlaloc alvarez & carranza , 1951 ( central american killifish ) named for the aztec rain and fertility deity .\nquetzalcoatlus northropi lawson , 1975 ( texas pterosaur ) named after an aztec god and an aircraft designer . the pterosaur was as large as an ultra - light plane .\naleiodes mannegishii fortier , 2009 ( braconid wasp )\nrefers to tricksters called the mannegishi , with large eyes , mythical ' little people ' described by the cree people .\naleiodes selu fortier , 2009 ( braconid wasp )\nrefers to the cherokee corn woman , selu , and refers to the bright yellow - orange coloration of the female .\n[ zootaxa 2256 ]\nanhanguera campos & kellner , 1985 ( brazilian pterosaur ) named for a tupian spirit .\natopophlebia pitculya flowers , 2012 ( mayfly ) named for a mythical being which the cayapas of ecuador say lives in streams and decorates its body with yellow dye . the mayfly is yellow . [ zootaxa 3478 : 15 ]\nbrontotherium marsh ( oligocene ungulate ) named for the sioux mythical\nthunder beast\n( albeit in greek , not siouxan ) associated with the big fossils exposed by thunderstorms in the dakota badlands .\nhoplias curupira oyakawa & mattox , 2009 ( wolf fish ) named after the curupira , a mischievous creature of brazilian folklore that protects the forest ; it appears as a small child with its feet turned backwards , making it difficult to follow its tracks . the fish was so named because it took almost 18 years to gather enough material for the description . [ neotrop . ichthyol . 7 : 128 ]\nkelenken guillermoi bertelli et al . , 2007 ( phorusrhacid ) an extinct giant flightless carnivorous bird named after a ' fearsome spirit of the tehuelche tribe . . . represented as [ a ] giant bird of prey ' [ j . vert . paleontol . 27 : 409 ]\nkokopellia cifelli , 1993 ( cretaceous mammal ) named for kokopelli , flute - playing god of the anasazi . [ pnas 90 : 9413 ]\nmapinguari wiedemann , 1828 ( gigantic mydid flies ) named for an ogre of amazonian indian folklore . only three specimens are known .\nsacisaurus ferigolo & langer , 2006 ( ornithischian dinosaur ) named for saci , a one - legged elf from brazilian folklore , because the fossil was missing a leg .\nseitaad ( sauropodomorph dinosaur ) named for a mythological navajo beast that swallowed its prey in sand dunes , alluding to the own creature ' s death .\nsiats zanno & makovicky , 2013 ( theropod dinosaur ) this giant cretaceous predator discovered in utah is named after the siats ( pronounced\nsee - atch\n) , a voracious monster of ute legend .\ntapejara kellner , 1990 ( brazilian pterosaur )\nthe old being\nfrom tupi mythology .\ntupilakosaurus nielsen , 1954 ( fossil amphibian ) named after an inuit water spirit .\ntupuxuara kellner & campos , 1989 ( pterosaur from brazil ) named for a tupian\nfamiliar spirit\n.\nyawunik kootenayi aria et al . , 2015 ( cambrian predatory arthropod ) named after yawu\u02c0nik , a sea monster from the ktunaxa ( kootenay ) creation myth , which caused such disturbance that the other animals hunted and destroyed him .\nzupaysaurus arcucci & coria , 2003 ( triassic theropod ) supay ( aka zupay ) was the incan god of death and ruler of the underworld .\n< < - home - - rules - - etymology - - puns - - wordplay - - gene names - - misc . - - references - - feedback - > >\nlatin , mirus = wonderful + latin , pinna = thorn ( ref . 45335 )\neastern atlantic : one specimen caught north of azores island ( 47\u00b020 ' n , 22\u00b030 ' w ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 5 . 5 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 557 )\npelagic ( ref . 51024 ) . only known specimen was caught near the surface . feeds on copepods ( ref . 6713 ) .\nwheeler , a . , 1977 . das grosse buch der fische . eugen ulmer gmbh & co . stuttgart . 356 p . ( ref . 557 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00389 ( 0 . 00180 - 0 . 00842 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 0 \u00b10 . 00 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nromero , p . , 2002 . an etymological dictionary of taxonomy . madrid , unpublished .\nthis dictonary resides in a database and will eventually be published . etymology of names was made available to fishbase in spreadsheets . see in rms as 45335 _ romero . xls which is in spanish .\npelagic ( ref . 51024 ) . only known specimen was caught near the surface . feeds on copepods ( ref . 6713 ) .\n5 . 5 cm tl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 557 ) )\ngrows to a length of 5 . 5 centimetres ( 2 . 2 in )\n. little is known of the fish beyond its appearance . wheeler ( 1977 ) states that only one specimen was caught , near the sea surface , and that it was a\nthe generic name is from the latin ' mirus ' ( wonderful ) , ' pinna ' ( thorn ) , for the unusual fins possessed by this fish .\nwheeler , a . ( 1977 ) . das grosse buch der fische . stuttgart : eugen ulmer . pp . 356 pp .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00389 ( 0 . 00180 - 0 . 00842 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref .\n) : 3 . 0 \u00b10 . 00 se ; based on food items .\n) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nd 16 ; a 14 ; p 13 ; v 8 ; other characters : see family .\n: only one known specimen caught north of the azores ( 47\u00b0 20 ' n , 22\u00b0 30 ' w ) . ( re - examination by author of a specimen from the pacific , referred to as this\nbertelsen , e . ; marshall , n . b . 1956 . the miripinnati , a new order of teleost fishes . dana rep . , ( 42 ) : 1 - 34 , 15 fig . , i pl .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nzoologist , media consultant , and science writer , dr karl shuker is also one of the best known cryptozoologists in the world . author of such seminal works as\nhis many fans have been badgering him to join the blogosphere for years . the cfz blog network is proud to have finally persuaded him to do so .\n, the hairy fish , whose controversial , highly unexpected zoological identity has only recently been exposed . here is its fascinating history - excerpted from my soon - to - be - published latest book ,\nthe year 1956 saw the description of a 2 . 5 - in - long hump - backed fish so grotesque in appearance that it required a wholly new family to accommodate it . caught many years earlier ( in june 1911 ) at the surface of the mid - atlantic about 550 miles north of the azores , this extraordinary fish seemed to be covered in hair ! closer examination , however , disclosed that its ' fur ' was really a mass of living body outgrowths ( hair , conversely , is composed of dead cells ) containing secretory cells . their function is unknown , though they may produce distasteful compounds to deter would - be predators .\nif you ' d like to assist me in my ongoing crypto - investigations , even the smallest donation would be immensely appreciated . all donations are non - profit - making , going exclusively towards the updating / maintenance of my crypto - archives ' source material and other necessities that enable me to continue researching and blogging my findings right here for you on shukernature . thank you so much for your help ! - karl\n\u201cand hast thou slain the peryton ? \u201d - an antlered a . . .\nthe mermaid of haraldskaer ' s skeleton , exhibited at the danish national museum , copenhagen , in 2012 ( \u00a9 danish national museum . . .\ncomputer - generated mock - up of a black puma ( dr karl shuker ) in all the time that i have been researching and documenting creatures of cryp . . .\ncontemporary picture postcard depicting the infamous hexham ( allendale ) wolf , from my personal collection ( \u00a9 dr karl shuker ) whe . . .\nphotoshopped black lion # 1 ( tumblr . com ) in recent weeks , two very stunning black lion photographs have been circulating online . one of th . . .\nthe iconic photograph of a . l . butts holding up a supposed giant grasshopper that he had allegedly shot dead in his apple orchard duri . . .\nartistic impression of a megalodon encounter ( \u00a9 william m . rebsamen ) it was only ever going to be a matter of time before shuker . . .\na full - scale animatronic yeti ( dr karl shuker ) i\u2019m always pleased to receive an update of an ostensibly long - forgotten cryptozoologic . . .\na genuine photograph of the green anaconda eunectes murinus \u2013 the largest and most familiar of the four species of anaconda currentl . . .\njohn g . keulemans ' s painting of the purple macaw in lord walter rothschild ' s extinct birds ( 1907 ) famed for their gaudy plumage , . . .\nover the years , certain online photos of bizarre but allegedly real entities have surfaced and resurfaced with monotonous regularity , i . . .\nin accordance with title 17 usc section 107 , any copyright material on display here is under fair use without any claim of ownership or any profit accrued by the display . the material herein is for non - profit educational or criticism puposes only . notwithstanding the provisions of sections 106 and 106a , the fair use of a copyrighted work including reproduction and distribution of said material as specified in that section , for purposes of education , news reporting , commentary or criticism , scholarship or research , to persons who have expressed a prior interest in receiving such material for such purposes , is not an infringement . also : unless stated otherwise , all illustrations in shukernature blog articles that are credited to a named copyright owner plus wikipedia have been made available by the copyright owner and wikipedia for third - person use under the conditions of the creative commons licence . should any copyright holder of any of the illustrations included on shukernature not wish those illustrations to be included here , please contact me and i shall of course remove them .\nall original content on this blog is the exclusive copyright of dr karl shuker , with all rights reserved by him , and must not be reproduced in any manner without his strict permission in writing .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nspecial publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nwheeler , a . , 1977 . das grosse buch der fische . eugen ulmer gmbh & co . stuttgart . 356 p .\nhureau , j . - c . and t . monod ( eds . ) , 1979 . supplement . check - list of the fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and of the mediterranean . p . 339 - 394 . in j . - c . hureau and th . monod ( eds . ) check - list of the fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and of the mediterranean . united nations educational scientific and cultural organization ( unesco ) , paris , france . vols 1 - 2 . 683 p .\npaxton , j . , 1979 . mirapinnidae . p . 212 . in j . c . hureau and th . monod ( eds . ) check - list of the fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and of the mediterranean ( clofnam ) . unesco , paris . vol . 1 .\npihu , e . , 1979 . loomade elu 4 . k\u00f6ide . kalad pihu , e . 1979 . loomade elu , 4 . k\u00f6ide , kalad . valgus , tallinn .\nasih , american society of ichthyologists and herpetologists , 1984 . ontogeny and systematics of fishes . based on an international symposium dedicated to the memory of elbert halvor ahlstrom , 15 - 18 august 1983 , la jolla , california . spec . publ . am . soc . ichthyol . herpetol . 1 : ix , 760 p .\nnelson , j . s . , 1984 . fishes of the world . 2nd edition . john wiley & sons , inc . , new york . 523 p .\nbertelsen , e . , 1986 . mirapinnidae . p . 521 . in p . j . p . whitehead , m . - l . bauchot , j . - c . hureau , j . nielsen and e . tortonese ( eds . ) fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean . volume 2 . unesco , paris .\nwu , h . l . , k . - t . shao and c . f . lai ( eds . ) , 1999 . latin - chinese dictionary of fishes names . the sueichan press , taiwan . 1028 p .\nchinese academy of fishery sciences , 2003 . chinese aquatic germplasm resources database . urltoken\nchinese academy of fishery science ( cafs ) , 2007 . database of genetic resources of aquatic organisms in china ( as of january 2007 ) . chinese academy of fishery science .\nfao - fies , 2008 . aquatic sciences and fisheries information system ( asfis ) species list . retrieved from urltoken 29 april 2008 .\nfao - fies , 2010 . aquatic sciences and fisheries information system ( asfis ) species list . retrieved from urltoken march 2010 .\nfao - fies , 2012 . aquatic sciences and fisheries information system ( asfis ) species list . retrieved from urltoken march 2012 .\nfao - fies , 2014 . aquatic sciences and fisheries information system ( asfis ) species list . retrieved from urltoken april 2014 .\nfao - fies , 2015 . aquatic sciences and fisheries information system ( asfis ) species list . retrieved from urltoken [ accessed 13 / 04 / 2015 ] .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 13 . 10 . 04 , php script by rolavides , 09 / 05 / 08 , last modified by caldemita , 04 / 03 / 16\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ng . david johnson , 1 , * john r . paxton , 2 tracey t . sutton , 3 takashi p . satoh , 4 tetsuya sado , 5 mutsumi nishida , 4 and masaki miya 5\nreceived 2008 dec 2 ; revised 2009 jan 4 ; accepted 2009 jan 5 .\nthis is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original work is properly cited .\nnew specimens from collecting expeditions continue to provide insights into the many mysteries of the earth ' s largest ecological habitat , the midwaters of the deep sea between the sunlit surface waters and the bottom . the cetomimidae ( whalefishes ) , one of the most speciose bathypelagic fish families ( nine genera , 20 species ) , were described by\n) . the hairyfish , known from a single specimen , is uniquely characterized by a dense covering of hair - like outgrowths over the head , body and fins . tapetails have the skin of the caudal fin prolonged into a long ribbon - like streamer that may extend nine times the body length . all 120 mirapinnid specimens ( 5\u201356 mm ) are sexually immature , and all but four were collected in the upper 200 m . the megalomycteridae ( bignose fishes ) , described by\n, comprise four monotypic genera . these small ( 34\u201368 mm ) , elongate fishes have huge nasal organs , small , horizontal mouths with immobile upper jaws , non - overlapping , mosaic scales and lack pelvic fins (\nlife stages and selected skeletal elements of cetomimid whalefishes . ( a ) eutaeniophorus festivus postlarva , bsku 51970 , 56 mm sl , approximately 816 mm tl , photo courtesy of masanori nakamachi , \u2018sea fishes of japan\u2019 \u00a9 yama - kei publishers co . , ltd . p . brevis ? : ( b ) postlarva , cozumel , mexico , photo courtesy of donald hughes ; ( c ) postlarva , kpm ni13654 : ( i ) photo courtesy of yasuhiro morita , ( ii ) photo courtesy of sandra raredon , usnm ; ( d ) larva , mcz 59910 , 13 mm sl , photo courtesy of chris kenaley , \u00a9 president and fellows of harvard college ; ( e ) ataxolepis apus adult male , usnm 391648 : ( i ) dorsal view of nasal organs , ( ii ) lateral view of viscera , enlarged liver on left , enlarged testes dorsal and ventral right , intestine middle right . ( f ) gyrinomimus sp . , juvenile female , ne pacific , photo courtesy of bruce robison , mbari . ( g ( i ) , h ( i ) , i ( i ) ) cranium and anterior vertebrae , and ( g ( ii ) , h ( ii ) , i ( ii ) ) left jaws , palatine arch , suspensorium and operclular bones of ( g ) e . festivus postlarva , usnm 391655 , 60 mm sl , ( h ) a . apus adult male , usnm 391649 , 58 mm sl and ( i ) c . regani female , usnm 391657 , 93 mm sl , respectively . blue \u2018ovals\u2019 enclose maxillae , premaxillae and rostral cartilage , which , in ( h ( ii ) ) are fused to each other and to broken nasals . ( g \u2013 i ) photo courtesy of g . d . j .\nexcellent new gulf of mexico megalomycterid specimens with closing - net data that placed them together with the cetomimids at 1500\u20132000 m depth led us to re - examine the problem . we discovered that the holotype and only known specimen of the megalomycterid\nis actually a transforming mirapinnid , as evidenced by the remains of three small pelvic - fin rays , a slightly oblique mouth , a gut full of copepods and still - developing nasal organ anlagen . subsequently , we found that the holotype of\n) , one of the few mirapinnids collected at depths greater than 200 m , is in a similar , but earlier , state of transition . the identity of mirapinnids as larval megalomycterids was thus established . fortuitously , a transforming specimen of the cetomimid long - finned whalefish\n( a ) ml tree derived from analyses of whole mitogenome sequences from 15 specimens using raxml v . 7 . 0 . 4 . numerals beside internal branches indicate bootstrap values ( only 50 % and above are shown ) based on 1000 replicates . scale indicates expected number of substitutions per site ; red asterisks , larvae ; blue asterisk , male . long - finned whalefish c . regani zugmayer , 1914 : ( b ) usnm 391563 ; ( c ) mcz 60609 ( inset , enlarged nasal organ ) ; ( d ) bmnh 1957 . 7 . 20 . 1 . 00 , holotype of p . gulosus ( inset , elongate nasal rachis ) ; ( e ) usnm 392646 ; ( f ) usnm 391656 . photo courtesy of s . raredon and g . d . j .\nclearing and staining procedure follows dingerkus & uhler ( 1977 ) . collection acronyms follow eschmeyer ( 1998 ) . sl = standard length ; tl = total length .\nunambiguously aligned mitogenome sequences from 15 specimens were divided into five partitions ( first , second and third codon positions of the 13 protein - coding , rrna and trna genes ; total = 15 886 positions ) and subjected to the partitioned maximum - likelihood ( ml ) analysis using raxml v . 7 . 0 . 4 ( stamatakis 2006 ) . we estimated the best - scoring ml tree using a general time reversible ( gtr ) + gamma model of sequence evolution with 1000 bootstrap replicates . the resulting ml tree was then used as a backbone constraint ( \u2212 r option in raxml ) for subsequent ml analysis using unambiguously aligned , partial sequences of the 16s rrna gene from all 36 specimens . we similarly estimated the best - scoring ml tree using a gtr + gamma model of sequence evolution with 1000 bootstrap replicates . more details of the dna methods are in the electronic supplementary material .\nwe identified three specimens in transition from larval / juvenile stage to adult . the 41 . 7 mm\n) collected in a closing net between 700\u20131400 m is an early transforming specimen with a full complement of 10 pelvic - fin rays , moderately long jaws and a gut full of copepods . although the nasal organ is incompletely developed , the elongate , thickened median rachis (\ninset ) indicates that the individual would have developed into a male . the 34 mm holotype of\ndescribed above was caught in an open net fished to a depth of 1650 m . histology of the gonad reveals good spermatogenic tissue with pre - spermatids ( h . g . moser 2006 , personal communication ) .\nillustrate the amazing ontogenetic transformations that result in extraordinary sexual dimorphism . these transformations include major changes in jaw length , depth and angle , and concomitant radical modifications of the suspensorium and angle of attachment of the skull to the vertebral column (\n) . females develop taxon - specific gill arch structure and males exhibit hyperossification of most bones . of the latter , most remarkable are fusion of the first vertebra to the occiput and of the hypertrophied nasal , lacrimal and upper jawbones (\n= 6 ) visible externally in life as a swollen orange bulge . this bolus of copepods must provide the nutrition required to generate the large liver that sustains the male through the rest of its life . this is unnecessary in females that continue to feed and may reach more than 40 cm . the transforming female\n) , both with copepod - gorged guts , lost their streamers during capture . the most striking streamer is that of\n) . one can only speculate regarding the possible advantages and disadvantages of this remarkable appendage in feeding versus predator avoidance . videos of live female whalefish show that their locomotion involves both rapid swimming with sinusoidal body waves and slow swimming with undulations of dorsal and anal fins ( see video a in the electronic supplementary material ) .\n) from one male specimen , three larvae representing two species and six species of females in five genera . the linking of larval\nis confirmed , with an ml tree based on 16s rrna analyses ( see figure s1 in the esm ) including two larvae and nine females of this species . larval\n. further analyses combining morphologic and genetic data are planned , while tissues from additional genera and larvae are needed . with the synonymy of the three families confirmed , the next challenge is to link the three life stages of each species . meristic data establish\nalthough remarkable ontogenetic transformations occur in a few other deep - sea fish families ( e . g . giganturidae ) , and prominent sexual dimorphism is widespread among vertebrates , the extraordinary combination of both that we have documented here for the whalefishes is unparalleled within vertebrata .\nresearch carried out in this study followed animal care and use guidelines provided by the smithsonian institution .\nsincere thanks to the following for providing significant specimens , tissue and / or data : k . hartel , a . williston ( mcz ) , e . wiley , a . bentley ( ku ) , b . cowen ( rsmas ) , i . byrkjedal ( zmub ) , n . merrett , j . badcock , j . maclaine ( ios / bmnh ) , e . bertelsen \u2020 , and p . m\u00f8ller ( zmuc ) ; images : b . robison ( mbari ) , d . hughes , y . morita and m . nakamachi . numerous others who have helped in many ways are listed in the electronic supplementary material .\nbertelsen e . , marshall n . b . the mirapinnati , a new order of fishes .\ndingerkus g . , uhler l . d . enzyme clearing of alcian blue stained whole small vertebrates for demonstration of cartilage .\ncalifornia academy of sciences ; san francisco , ca : 1998 . catalog of fishes .\ngoode g . b . , bean t . h . on cetomimidae and rondeletiidae , two new families of bathybial fishes from the northwestern atlantic .\ngosline w . a . university press hawaii ; honolulu , hi : 1971 . functional morphology and classification of teleostean fishes .\n( teleostei : stomiiformes ) : first example of transfer rna gene rearrangements in bony fishes .\nmiya m . , et al . major patterns of higher teleostean phylogenies : a new perspective based on 100 complete mitochondrial dna sequences .\nmyers g . s . , freihofer w . c . megalomycteridae , a previously unrecognized family of deep - sea cetomimiform fishes based on two new genera from the north atlantic .\npaxton j . r . synopsis of the whalefishes ( family cetomimidae ) with descriptions of four new genera .\npaxton , j . r . 1999 family megalomycteridae , bignose fishes . in the living marine resources of the western central pacific ( eds k . e . carpenter & v . h . niem ) . rome , italy : fao .\npaxton j . r . , johnson g . d . cetomimidae : whalefishes ; mirapinnidae : tapetails & hairyfish ; megalomycteridae : bignose fishes . in : richards w . j . , editor .\nrobins c . r . review : fishes of the western north atlantic . part 6 .\nstamatakis a . raxml - vi - hpc : maximum likelihood - based phylogenetic analyses with thousands of taxa and mixed models .\nwalking rocks ? query : when i was in death valley earlier this year , i saw some enormous 750 - pound rocks that appear to travel across the desert on their own . i remembered your article about rock tortoises , and wondered if that\u2019s what these rocks could be ?\ncorn of plenty ( part 4 of 4 ) : a field guide by dr . midas welby corns of the air : air - corns utilize their horns for jousting , playing tic - tac - toe , and spearing food in mid - flight . air - corns often lurk undetected in trees , wood piles , and rain gutters . when bored , they use their horns to ring the doorbells of unsuspecting humans . when the door begins to open , the air - corn flies away .\ngoing on hiatus december 6 , 2014 : i am loving college , but i have to admit , i\u2019m overwhelmed .\npine cone feeders a present for imaginaries : when winter comes , i get concerned about providing extra shelter from the elements for imaginaries . recently , i read about people who build wildlife brush shelters out of branches and plants in their yards , and thought this was a great idea .\nrange : small , widely - scattered populations in ocean , lake , and river waters in iceland , ontario , montana , maine , and the azores .\nphysical description : the most accurate description comes from a single hairyfish caught off the azores in the eastern atlantic in 1911 . covered in hair - like outgrowths , the fish had large fins near its throat that stuck up like wings , and the tail fin was divided into two overlapping parts . this particular hairyfish was dark brown and about 2 . 5 inches long , although a fish sighted in iceland in 1855 was reddish in color , and a hairyfish sighted in maine was reputed to be as large as a man\u2019s foot .\ncharacteristics : a great deal of folklore has grown up around the hairyfish , but no reliable information on the habits or behavior of this imaginary is known . as hairyfish have been reported in both fresh and salt water , it is possible that the presence of hair or fur on a fish is an adaptation , much like guyuscosity , rather than characteristic of a unique species of fish . all that we know about the habits of the hairyfish is that the one from the azores ate plankton ."]}
{"id": 56, "summary": [{"text": "stay thirsty ( foaled on 29 march 2008 ) is an american thoroughbred racehorse sired by the leading stallion bernardini .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "he was bred in kentucky by john d. gunther and john darren gunther .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "his dam , marozia , was sired by storm bird .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "stay thirsty was consigned as lot 1147 by glenwood farm to the 2009 keeneland september yearling auction and was bought for $ 160,000 by whitehorse stables .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "his trainer , todd pletcher , bought him for his owner , mike repole , for $ 500,000 at the 2010 fasig-tipton sale of 2-year-olds in training in florida . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "stay thirsty", "paragraphs": ["stay thirsty in the 2010 breeder ' s cup juvenile . photo : melissa bauer - herzog\nstay thirsty came up huge in the travers on a hot , muggy day at the spa .\nstay thirsty will race one more time this year and then stand at ashford stud next year .\nthere is another obstacle for either coil or stay thirsty to overcome that shackleford already has to his advantage .\npreakness winner shackleford set the pace until stay thirsty passed him and then faded to an eighth - place finish .\nstay thirsty wins 2011 travers stakes as mike repole , javier castellano , and todd pletcher talk about the win .\nand how about missandhei still trying to figure out whether the unsullied have genitals ? stay thirsty , my friend .\nstay thirsty and uncle mo met only twice on the track , both in breeders\u2019 cup races at churchill downs . last year , stay thirsty was fifth to uncle mo\u2019s victory in the juvenile . this year uncle mo and stay thirsty finished 10th and 11th respectively in the classic . so they really didn\u2019t have much of a rivalry on the track .\nstay thirsty earned $ 600 , 000 for the win and boosted his career total to $ 1 . 4 million .\nmultiple grade 1 winner stay thirsty has been sold and will relocate to lovacres ranch in california . the bloodhorse reports that terry lovingier , owner of lovacres ranch , purchased stay thirsty outright from ashford stud . \u201cstay thirsty brings a ton of pedigree and is a big alternative to a lot of stallions out here , \u201d lovingier told the bloodhorse . [ \u2026 ]\ntdn ' s andrew caulfield focuses his column this week on the pedigree of gi travers s . winner stay thirsty ( bernardini ) . he examines the success of a . p . indy - storm bird and a . p . indy - storm cat crosses ( stay thirsty is bred on the former ) and takes a closer look at stay thirsty dam side pedigree .\nlet ' s stay with the theme of things , longshots in the major three year old faces . going to use velazquez and rattlesnake bridge on top of stay thirsty and wheel in the double .\npletcher , the nation ' s leading trainer , said the jockey club gold cup on oct . 1 could be next for stay thirsty .\nstay thirsty improved his record to four wins in 10 starts with his travers win . rattlesnake bridge and jw blue finished second and third respectively .\nhowever , castellano was able to keep stay thirsty relaxed along the backstretch , and the colt had plenty left when he hit the final turn .\nuncle mo\u2019s sidekick stay thirsty looks to take back the limelight now that his stablemate is retired . thirsty obviously loves the new york tracks with his worst finish on them being a third in the g1 jockey club gold cup .\nstay thirsty | storm bird | bernardini | todd a . pletcher | kentucky derby | gotham | kentucky derby ( 2011 ) | gotham ( 2011 )\n\u201cno doubt the travers was the highlight of owning stay thirsty , but the race that was the most impressive that he ever competed in by far was the jockey club gold cup , \u201d said repole , who will retain a minority ownership interest in stay thirsty . \u201che ran too good to be second . \u201d\nuncle mo will have a year to get the jump on stay thirsty in the breeding shed , but i doubt it will make much of a difference .\nunlike last year ' s thrilling finish , stay thirsty seized the lead rounding the quarter pole and never let persistent rattlesnake bridge get close enough to seriously threaten .\nstay thirsty might be the best 3 year old colt in the country . he is really coming into his own . hope he runs and wins the classic .\nin what might be the greatest revenge in the stallion community since the success of alydar over affirmed , stay thirsty appears destined to do the same to uncle mo . the uncle mo / stay thirsty rivalry on the track does not compare to the battle tested years affirmed and alydar went at each other . alydar and affirmed\nthis entry was posted in bloodlines archive and tagged frank mitchell , horse racing , stay thirsty , the factor , thoroughbred by frank mitchell . bookmark the permalink .\nas a result , stay thirsty could be destined for the title his sire , bernardini , captured in 2006 , that of 3 - year - old champion male .\ncastellano expertly rode stay thirsty to a 11 / 4 - length victory in the midsummer derby on saturday before a crowd of 43 , 050 at saratoga race course .\npoint given , sire of coil , won the haskell and travers in 2001 . bernardini , sire of stay thirsty , won the jim dandy and travers in 2006 .\ni allways like when a stable has 2 horses in the derby . and stay thirsty is definately bred to win . and i allways liked uncle moon of course .\nstay thirsty followed in the footsteps of his champion sire bernardini on august 27 recording a triumphant victory in the $ 1 million g1 travers stakes at saratoga , usa .\nstay thirsty is winless in four starts since the travers last aug . 27 . in two starts this year , he was second to trickmeister in a swiftly run vanlandingham stakes at belmont in may . last month , stay thirsty finished a non - threatening fifth to mucho macho man in the grade 2 suburban at steamy belmont park .\ndespite stay thirsty\u2019s affinity for saratoga , trainer todd pletcher opted to skip the whitney , giving the colt a little more time to be better prepared for the woodward .\nstay thirsty won jim dandy very impressive way , shackleford in haskell did not run very well , it was not his actual run , i think he has still the same stamina as he shown in kentucky derby and preakness , so i am not counting him down yet , i still believe that if he takes the lead as he did in the preakness stakes , he has still chance to beat stay thirsty , i am not worring about other horse , coil and ruler on ice might be challenging theses two horses like stay thirsty and shackleford but i have a doubt that they can succeed . so my selection will be either stay thirsty or shackleford will take the travers .\nmeanwhile , stay thirsty was unfazed by his outer post position , becoming only the second horse since 1901 to win the travers after breaking from the no . 9 post .\nthis entry was posted in bloodstock and tagged ashford stud , bernardini , horse racing , mike repole , stay thirsty , thoroughbred by paulick report staff . bookmark the permalink .\n( bernardini \u2013 marozia , by storm bird ) spent his two year old season in the shadow of his more precocious stable mate , uncle mo . as a juvenile , stay thirsty won his maiden at six furlongs then jumped into graded stakes company , finishing second in the hopeful stakes to the speedball , boys at tosconova . after a tough trip in the breeders\u2019 cup juvenile , stay thirsty spent the winter maturing . stay thirsty prepped for his gotham win by working in tandem with the current kentucky derby favorite , uncle mo .\nfinish in the jockey club gold cup ( g1 ) and finishing off the board in the breeders\u2019 cup classic . stay thirsty hit the board in three of five starts as a\nstay thirsty has two winners from five starters . not surprising , since many of his babies will be mid - to - late season types and round into shape as three and\nstay thirsty , a grand - looking son of bernardini , has a record of 4 - 5 - 1 from 16 starts and earnings of $ 1 , 726 , 000 .\nthirsty : tell me a little about the debut ep , \u201cget it over with already\u201d .\nthirsty : i find that people from small towns or the midwest make music like this .\nafter winning the gotham stakes at aqueduct in early march , but after a seventh - place finish in the florida derby and a 12th in the kentucky derby , stay thirsty was moving ever closer to staying home . a second - place finish to ruler on ice in the belmont stakes awoke some , but not enough to make stay thirsty the favorite in his next start , the grade 2 jim dandy stakes . stay thirsty won the jim dandy impressively by four lengths and went to the travers as the favorite , but only by one dime to the dollar more popular . stay thirsty was 2 . 5 - to - 1 in the jim dandy and the 2 . 4 - to - 1 favorite in the travers .\nstay thirsty followed up a victory in the jim dandy stakes a few weeks ago with an impressive 1 1 / 4 length victory saturday in the travers stakes at saratoga race course .\nstay thirsty , the betting favorite , paid $ 6 . 80 , $ 4 . 20 and $ 3 . 40 to win . rattlesnake bridge finished second , paying $ 10 . 80 and $ 7 . 60 . j . w . blue placed third , paying $ 11 . 40 . stay thirsty ' s winning time was 2 : 03 . 03 .\nstay thirsty came into 2012 as one of the hottest horses in the sport , but unimpressive rides throughout the season and poor posting positions have doomed the greatness of the young horse .\nthirstforlife , by ashford stud\u2019s multiple grade 1 winner stay thirsty , will make his career debut in a stakes for trainer mark casse . the colt , a $ 240 , 000 keeneland november weanling purchase , is out of graded stakes winner promenade girl , making him a half - brother to grade 1 winner cavorting . the latter is by stay thirsty\u2019s sire bernardini .\nthirsty\u2019s half brothers andromeda\u2019s hero , who was second in the belmont stakes and his precocious full brother superfly who placed in the champagne stakes . stay thirsty\u2019s distaff family traces directly back to mahubah , the dam of man o\u2019war . his fifth dam igual produced triple crown champ assault .\nstay thirsty ' s owner mike repole , center , with his grandmother noni , left , and his wife maria repole , right , hold up trophies after stay thirsty ridden by javier castellano won the 142nd travers stakes horse race at saratoga race course in saratoga springs , n . y . , saturday , aug . 27 , 2011 . ( ap photo / hans pennink )\nstay thirsty broke well and led entering the first turn . he conceded the lead to shackleford on the backstretch , but raced close behind in second with moonshine mullin in third on the outside .\nstay thirsty ( 12 - 1 ) has had a disappointing four year - old season . he is zero for three in 2012 , with two fifth place finishes in his graded stakes races .\nrepole said the $ 500 , 000 he spent to buy stay thirsty was the most he ever paid for a horse \u201cand i got every penny of thrills from it , \u201d repole said .\nfrom left , shackleford with jesus castanon , stay thirsty with javier castellano , malibu glow with rajiv maragh , and ruler on ice with jose valdivia lead the field at the start of 142nd travers stakes horse race at saratoga race course in saratoga springs , n . y . , saturday , aug . 27 , 2011 . stay thirsty won the race . ( ap photo / hans pennink )\nwhile most of the recent talk is about coil and stay thirsty\u2019s recent performances , the build up towards the travers is that the lead in the race for the division title is up for grabs .\nbut out of the \u201cbig\u201d horses running , only stay thirsty , who went off as the morning line favorite , finished as expected . ruler on ice finished the best of the rest in fourth .\n\u201che\u2019s gotten so much better since the kentucky derby [ where he placed 12th ] , \u201d said stay thirsty\u2019s trainer todd pletcher . \u201conce javier [ castellano ] geared him up he took off . \u201d\nstay thirsty ' s owner mike repole , center , with his grandmother noni , left , and his wife maria repole , right , hold up trophies after stay thirsty ridden by javier castellano won the 142nd travers stakes horse race at saratoga race course in saratoga springs , n . y . , saturday , aug . 27 , 2011 . ( ap photo / hans pennink ) ( / ap )\nrepole said that uncle mo and stay thirsty were the two horses that put his stable on the map , and he\u2019s happy to have them together again . uncle mo retired to ashford last year .\nshackleford was expected to stay longer , but he was done by the time they reached the quarter - pole and left stay thirsty ( one mile in 1 : 36 . 74 ) to inherit the lead . stay thirsty held a 1 1 / 2 - length advantage with a furlong remaining , and only had to survive a mild threat from a closing rattlesnake bridge to secure his career - defining win . the final time for the distance on a fast main track was 2 : 03 . 03 .\nstay thirsty raced closer to the front than he normally does , and in fact held the lead after a : 23 . 45 opening quarter before the expected pacesetter , preakness stakes ( gr . i )\nwith mucho macho man , to honor and serve and many others insuring this is one of the toughest races of the year , stay thirsty will be a favorite but far from a lock to win .\nstay thirsty has a cross of northern dancer on his pedigree through his maternal grandsire storm bird and his paternal granddam cara rafaela . the 3 x 5 northern dancer cross the only doubling of a horse in the first five generations . while northern dancer is a prominent name in thoroughbred pedigrees , the lack of doubling in any other names in the immediate pedigree leaves stay thirsty a lot of options for mares .\nstay thirsty was bred in kentucky by john gunther , who was at saratoga for the travers to watch the scopy bay by preakness and travers winner bernardini perform . gunther was impressed by the condition of stay thirsty and said , \u201che ' s filled out and matured a lot since the derby coming to the travers . he seems to have more weight through the body and be more mature - looking . \u201d\n@ ivanlsardi , i ' ve also been impressed by stay thirsty this season . he looked awesome in the jim dandy , and i thought he ran a really respectable belmont , too . but i ' m torn between stay thirsty and coil for the travers ? because , imo , coil has been equally impressive himself in 2011 . his win in the haskell , coming from well off the pace to run down shakleford looks strong . and his swaps stakes and affirmed handicap run ' s look like really strong form lines as well . i may just play a stay thirsty - coil exacta , and box it .\nstay thirsty\u2019s damsire storm bird was a champion juvenile in ireland . at stud he produced preakness winner summer squall , the great storm cat and many other prominent runners . the offspring produced by his daughters include belmont stakes hero birdstone and multiple g - 1 winners commentator , and court vision . stay thirsty also carries the bloodlines of the classic chef - de - race roberto and belmont stakes winner arts and letters .\nfrom left , shackleford with jesus castanon , stay thirsty with javier castellano , malibu glow with rajiv maragh , and ruler on ice with jose valdivia lead the field at the start of 142nd travers stakes horse race at saratoga race course in saratoga springs , n . y . , saturday , aug . 27 , 2011 . stay thirsty won the race . ( ap photo / hans pennink ) ( / ap )\nstay thirsty\u2019s half brother andromeda\u2019s hero was also second in the belmont stakes . that one\u2019s full brother superfly was third in the champagne stakes ( g1 ) . their second and third dams are grade one placed .\nstay thirsty is by bernardini , winner of the preakness , travers and jockey club gold cup - two of which are at the classic distance of 1 - 1 / 4 miles . after his first crop hit the track this year as 3 - year - olds with stay thirsty and to honor and serve among them , bernardini\u2019s fee has been raised to $ 150 , 000 by darley stud in lexington , kentucky .\nwhile stay thirsty was eclipsed by stablemate uncle mo during the majority of his career , he has a successful record , especially in new york races . as a 2 - year - old , stay thirsty finished second in the hopeful stakes ( gr . i ) behind boys at tosconova . he ended his second with a fifth place finish in the grey goose breeders\u2019 cup juvenile ( gr . i ) behind uncle mo .\nstay thirsty also matched his father by winning both the jim dandy at the spa and the travers , a feat that his owner , mike repole , said should put him firmly at the top of his division .\nthis year the one - and - a - quarter - mile stakes race for three - year - old colts will be headlined by haskell invitational winner coil , jim dandy winner stay thirsty and preakness winner shackleford .\nit\u2019s interesting enough to know that both coil and stay thirsty will try , at some degree , to duplicate their sire\u2019s path in their three - year - old campaign and win the eclipse award in their division .\nthe impressive victories by coil and stay thirsty over the weekend have put them squarely in the conversation about the three - year - old division of the eclipse awards , with about three months left in the season .\nthis entry was posted in racing and tagged breeders ' cup classic , coil , eclipse awards , haskell invitational , shackleford , stay thirsty , tom law , travers stakes by paulick report staff . bookmark the permalink .\nstay thirsty rebounded in the belmont stakes and missed the victory by less than a length . he picked up victories in the jim dandy ( g2 ) and travers stakes ( g1 ) before falling off form with a\n. their distance scope will be sprinters through middle distances , and some may prefer running longer . it isn\u2019t out of the realm of possibility that we\u2019ll see some of stay thirsty\u2019s offspring on the triple crown trail .\npurchase on : urltoken digital download : urltoken - - - - - - - - - - - * * *\nthirst\n* * * - - - - - - - - - - - new studio album of legendary german thrash metal pioneers tankard out december 19th , 2008 ! lim . ed . incl . bonus dvd ! let the beer flow - stay thirsty ! liquid nation - stay thirsty ! urltoken urltoken urltoken urltoken\nstay thirsty ( 9 ) , with javier castellano up , malibu glow , left , with rajiv maragh up , and ruler on ice , right , with jose valdivia up , head towards the first turn at the start of the 142nd travers stakes horse race at saratoga race course in saratoga springs , n . y . , saturday , aug . 27 , 2011 . stay thirsty won the race . ( ap photo / hans pennink )\nas expected , shackleford broke for the lead from the outside no . 10 post . stay thirsty likes to run just off the pace , but found himself in front early - not exactly what pletcher had in mind .\nstay thirsty\u2019s sire bernardini was the three - year - old champion of 2006 and had a streak of five graded victories in a row before finishing second to horse of the year invasor ( arg ) in the breeders\u2019 cup classic ( gr . i ) . stay thirsty was from bernardini\u2019s first crop and helped him rank third on the leading first - crop sires list in 2010 . bernardini was the leading second - crop sire in 2011 .\nsaratoga springs , n . y . \u2013 on the day they ran the 143rd travers stakes , stay thirsty , winner of the 142nd travers at saratoga , was continuing preparations for next saturday\u2019s $ 750 , 000 woodward stakes .\nstay thirsty with jockey javier castellano in the saddle , right wins 142nd running of the travers stakes at the saratoga race course in saratoga springs , n . y . aug 27 , 2011 . ( skip dickstein / times union )\nstay thirsty with jockey javier castellano is exultant as owner mike repole , right leads his horse in to the winner ' s circle after winning the 142nd running of the travers stakes at the saratoga race course in . . . more\nstay thirsty ( 9 ) , with javier castellano up , malibu glow , left , with rajiv maragh up , and ruler on ice , right , with jose valdivia up , head towards the first turn at the start of the 142nd travers stakes horse race at saratoga race course in saratoga springs , n . y . , saturday , aug . 27 , 2011 . stay thirsty won the race . ( ap photo / hans pennink ) ( / ap )\nprize in august and following up with a second place finish in the hopeful stakes ( g2 ) . he finished off of the board in the breeders\u2019 cup juvenile . stay thirsty needed time to mature through the early spring of his\nuncle mo has the 2 - year - old championship but in the end , stay thirsty has something much more important to breeders\u2019 , a grade 1 win at 10 furlongs ( 1 - 1 / 4 miles ) . in fact , uncle mo never won at 1 - 1 / 8 miles , finishing third in the wood memorial in his only attempt at that distance . stay thirsty won the 9 furlong jim dandy and 1 - 1 / 4 mile travers .\nbernardini and stay thirsty became the 16th father - son duo to win the travers , but only the second to be ridden by the same jockey . gary stevens accomplished the feat with thunder gulch in 1995 and point given in 2001 .\nas if aware of the slight , stay thirsty galloped around the saratoga oval and won the travers nearly gate - to - wire and suddenly he was atop the 3 - year - old class looking down . in his first test against older horses in the grade 1 jockey club gold cup , stay thirsty was a good third behind eventual classic winner drosselmeyer and classic favorite flat out . he looked primed to be competitive and possibly be among the favorites for the classic .\n, took over under jesus castanon . shackleford showed the way through a half - mile in : 47 . 63 and six furlongs in 1 : 11 . 91 while stay thirsty stalked him , and belmont stakes ( gr . i ) winner\nwhen castellano asked for run around the turn , stay thirsty had plenty of response , surging into first to shackleford ' s outside . he never relinquished the lead despite a game effort from rattlesnake bridge , who drifted wide in the stretch .\nstay thirsty , who emerged from the shadow of his more celebrated stablemate uncle mo to become a grade 1 winner , will rejoin uncle mo in his next career as a stallion at ashford stud in kentucky , owner mike repole said monday .\nthough he is winless this year , stay thirsty set the pace and repelled three early challenges in the jockey club gold cup before getting passed in the final three strides by flat out . he earned a career - best beyer of 109 .\ntodd and i will discuss the two options for stay thirsty , probably either the arkansas derby ( g1 ) ( on april 16 at oaklawn park ) or the florida derby ( g1 ) ( on april 3 at gulfstream park ) .\nthe travers is setting up very nicely . coil and stay thirsty looked great , and shackleford , ruler on ice and brilliant speed had their preps . throw in dominus and a few others and we have the makings of a great midsummer classic !\nhis face covered with perspiration , a conflicted mike repole tried to express his emotions after losing one big race by a nose with uncle mo and winning the $ 1 million travers stakes with stay thirsty about 30 minutes later at saratoga race course .\nin this year\u2019s renewal of the gotham , the favorite , stay thirsty , triumphed over whirlaway stakes winner toby\u2019s corner grade 2 stakes placed nacho saint and a field of recent allowance and maiden winners . the todd pletcher trainee was wide on both turns and traveled the 1 1 / 16 miles in a moderate 1 : 44 . 78 conquering his rivals by over three lengths . in light of the developing trend , we need to ask , does stay thirsty have the pedigree to win a classic race ?\nbut americans still pay for distance . and stay thirsty will be much more likely to produce winners who can compete at the classic distance . and likely to some day emerge from the shadow of uncle mo and shine as if he was alydar himself .\nstay dry . with the start of the rainy season , it\u2019s important to avoid getting overly wet when out and about .\nstay thirsty didn\u2019t have the best start to the year , winning an unimpressive gotham stakes earlier in the year before finishing mid - pack in the derby . but when the triple crown made its way to belmont for the final jewel of the series , the repole camp was ready . \u201cthirsty\u201d didn\u2019t win the race , but he did show a major improvement on form , finishing second .\nit would be unfair to compare coil and stay thirsty to their sires at this time in their careers . by now point given had won the preakness and belmont , and bernardini the preakness . but at least on this part of their campaigns is similar .\npreakness winner shackleford dueled stay thirsty for the lead throughout the first half of the 1 1 / 4 - mile race , but eventually fell off the pace . belmont stakes winner ruler on ice ( fourth ) and haskell invitational winner coil were never factors in the race . coil , the 5 - 2 second choice entering the race , finished last in the 10 - horse field in fact , once shackleford fell off the pace stay thirsty really was never challenged down the backstretch . shackleford faded to eighth place .\nowner mike repole decided to run uncle mo in the classic instead of the dirt mile and before the classic , uncle mo would go off at 5 - to - 1 odds compared to stay thirsty back in double digits at 11 - to - 1 .\njim dandy winner and belmont runner - up stay thirsty pushed his way into the three - year - old eclipse talks after a win in the travers stakes at saratoga on august 27 . drawing a field that included triple crown jewel winners shackleford and ruler on ice , and haskell winner coil , in addition to stay thirsty , the travers was determined to be perhaps the biggest race in the second half of this year ' s three - year - old season with a wide open group of potential eclipse winners running .\nstay thirsty , who ran a gutsy race when beaten a head by flat out in saturday\u2019s grade 1 , $ 1 million jockey club gold cup at belmont park , will race once more before being retired , repole said . in no particular order , repole said he and trainer todd pletcher are considering the breeders\u2019 cup classic , the bc dirt mile \u2013 both on nov . 3 at santa anita \u2013 or the grade 1 , $ 350 , 000 cigar mile on nov . 24 at aqueduct for stay thirsty\u2019s final race .\nduring the 2000m race stay thirsty pressed the pace and found himself in the perfect stalking position . around the turn he began to take command , then opened up at the top of the lane and never looked back for a victory in the ' midsummer derby . '\nstay thirsty has the better resume , as he won the grade iii gotham stakes early on the year and looked impressive with his easy win in the jim dandy . but coil has the quality win , as he defeated the preakness and belmont stakes winners in the haskell .\nwhile repole\u2019s big horse uncle mo made a splash in his return to racing today in the g1 king\u2019s bishop where he finished second , repole\u2019s forgotten colt , stay thirsty made his way to the winner\u2019s circle , and eclipse talks , in the biggest race of the day .\nstay thirsty , with javier castellano aboard , stands in the winner ' s circle after winning the 142nd travers stakes horse race at saratoga race course in saratoga springs , n . y . , saturday , aug . 27 , 2011 . ( ap photo / hans pennink )\nuncle mo was everybody\u2019s all - everything from the time he broke his maiden by 14 - 1 / 2 lengths at saratoga through his undefeated championship season and being the winter racebook favorite to win the kentucky derby . meanwhile , during his 2 - year - old seaso , stay thirsty had finished second to boys at toscanova in the hopeful stakes after breaking also breaking his maiden at saratoga , but only by five lengths . stay thirsty went into the juvenile as an anonymous 13 - to - 1 shot and came out as a fifth - place whatchmacallit .\n\u201ci hope i own a lot of good horses , but there\u2019ll be no horses that mean more to me than uncle mo and stay thirsty , \u201d repole said . \u201cthat they\u2019re together again is just an amazing feeling . they couldn\u2019t be on a better farm than coolmore\u2019s ashford . \u201d\nmultiple grade 1 winner stay thirsty joins four other freshmen by 2006 preakness stakes ( gr . i ) winner bernardini in 2013 . this is the first time bernardini will have more than one son standing in a season as sophomore stallion wilburn stood his first year in 2012 last year .\nwith a powerful performance that catapulted him to the head the 3 - year - old division , stay thirsty took command at the top of the stretch and rolled to a decisive 1 \u00bc - length victory over rattlesnake bridge in saturday ' s 142nd running of the grade 1 , $ 1 million travers at saratoga race course . leaving from post position 9 as the 5 - 2 favorite , stay thirsty found himself on the lead between horses as the field of 10 barreled toward the first turn and through an opening quarter in 23 . 45 seconds . eased back by javier castellano into second as preakness winner shackleford took over through a half in 47 . 63 and three - quarters in 1 : 11 . 91 , stay thirsty ranged up to challenge for the lead on the far turn and spun into the stretch with a lead that was never seriously threatened .\nthe 1 1 / 4 - mile travers , which included four of the top - ranked sophomores in the country , was billed as a race that would determine the division leader , and 2 - 1 favorite stay thirsty did just that under javier castellano . five years after his sire ,\nstay thirsty won for the third time in four starts at saratoga . he broke his maiden there and romped by four lengths in the july 30 jim dandy . his only defeat at the spa came when second in the three chimneys hopeful stakes ( gr . i ) as a juvenile .\nstay thirsty has a stamina oriented pedigree and has shown the ability to sit off the pace , yet he has the speed to quicken and put away his foes . the classic race distances shouldn\u2019t be a concern for him and he could easily continue the eleven year gotham / classic trend .\nthe whitney drew a field of nine . fewer are expected for the woodward . as of saturday , the confirmed woodward starters were cease , mucho macho man , stay thirsty , and to honor and serve . possibles included isn\u2019t he perfect and rule , who finished last in the whitney .\ncontinuing the rash of 3 year old retirements is gemologist . he is joined by announcements for a trio of four year old horses : the factor , caleb ' s posse , and stay thirsty . additionally , winter memories , a millionaire mare on the turf , was retired as well .\nstay thirsty , who went off as the 2 - 1 favorite , finished in 2 minutes , 3 . 03 seconds . he was followed by 14 - 1 rattlesnake bridge in second , 32 - 1 long shot j w blue in third and belmont stakes champion ruler on ice in fourth .\nstay thirsty , with javier castellano aboard , stands in the winner ' s circle after winning the 142nd travers stakes horse race at saratoga race course in saratoga springs , n . y . , saturday , aug . 27 , 2011 . ( ap photo / hans pennink ) ( / ap )\nbut there was a rivalry for recognition between the two , especially since both came from the same shed row of trainer todd pletcher and raced for outgoing owner mike repole . and no matter what he did , stay thirsty seem to ever remain in the shadow of his stable mate uncle mo .\nstay thirsty\u2019s dam marozia ( storm bird ) raced in europe , winning one race in nine starts and hitting the board three other times . she has proven to be a respectable producer with nine foals of racing age on the ground . from those foals , six have went on to race with five breaking their maidens and three winning stakes . andromeda\u2019s hero and stay thirsty both brought home graded stakes wins for the mare with andormeda\u2019s hero also finishing second in the belmont stakes ( gr . i ) in 2005 . marozia only has one grandfoal of racing age , who has not yet started .\nstay thirsty\u2019s granddam make change ( roberto ) was an ungraded stakes winner but hit the board in multiple graded stakes including seconds in five grade one races . in all , she won five times , finished second six times and third five times in 23 starts for $ 506 , 338 in earnings .\nbut earlier that same day at belmont , uncle mo had turned heads by winning the grade 1 kelso mile in only his second race after being sidelined and missing the triple crown . and during the weeks leading up to the breeders\u2019 cup classic , uncle mo again took the spotlight from stay thirsty .\nalso there are some other contenders prepping up to try a late fall run at the title . most notably among them is stay thirsty\u2019s stablemate , 2010 two - year - old champ uncle mo , who had his third work today . uncle mo worked five furlongs in 1 : 02 4 / 5 .\nstay thirsty , winner of the 2011 travers stakes ( gr . i ) and second in saturday ' s jockey club gold cup ( gr . i ) , will stand at ashford stud , near versailles , ky . , upon retirement , owner mike repole told the daily racing form oct . 1 .\nbrilliant travers stakes winner stay thirsty will retire to stand at ashford stud for the 2013 season . the todd pletcher - trained son of bernardini ran a huge race in saturday ' s jockey club gold cup invitational and a decision will be made on the remainder of his racing career in the near future .\nstay thirsty ( bernardini ) didn ' t show much in this one , but the four - year - old was making just his second start of 2012 and has tons of room for improvement this season . the top colt loves saratoga , so don ' t hold this race against him too hard .\nfrom the first crop of champion three - year - old bernardini ( a . p . indy ) , winner of the preakness ( g1 ) , travers ( g1 ) and jockey club gold cup ( g1 ) , stay thirsty has an ideal pedigree for the kentucky derby on his dam side . he hails from the winning storm bird mare marozia , who also has produced grade 3 winner and 2005 belmont ( g1 ) runner - up andromeda ' s hero ; and stakes victor superfly , both by fusaichi pegasus . stay thirsty also counts an unnamed juvenile colt by mr . greeley as a half - brother .\nholy cow ! ! he is for real ! after that stumble . . . to stay in the game and win like he did . awesome !\ntiznow would be the exception , and the one coil and stay thirsty look to emulate . he was a late bloomer who benefited from a year where there was also a close competition to the division title . he won the super derby and then a memorable breeder ' s cup classic which secured his title .\nstay thirsty with jockey javier castellano is exultant as owner mike repole , right leads his horse in to the winner ' s circle after winning the 142nd running of the travers stakes at the saratoga race course in saratoga springs , n . y . aug 27 , 2011 . ( skip dickstein / times union ) less\nstay thirsty wrested command from shackleford nearing the quarter pole , edged away to a clear lead in midstretch , and held off a late run from 14 - 1 rattlesnake bridge to win the $ 1 million travers stakes by 1 1 / 4 lengths . stay thirsty ( $ 6 . 80 ) , the favorite in the field of 10 3 - year - olds , ran the 1 1 / 4 miles in 2 : 03 . 03 under javier castellano . he was the second stakes winner on the day for trainer todd pletcher , who came within a nose of sweeping the day ' s three grade 1 stakes races . urltoken\nstay thirsty , front right , with javier castellano aboard , pulls away from j w blue ( 8 ) , with cornelio velasquez to win the 142nd travers stakes horse race at saratoga race course in saratoga springs , n . y . , saturday , aug . 27 , 2011 . ( ap photo / hans pennink )\nthe travers field breaks from the gate during the start of the 142nd travers stakes horse race at saratoga race course in saratoga springs , n . y . , saturday , aug . 27 , 2011 . stay thirsty ( 9 ) , with javier castellano aboard , won the race . ( ap photo / hans pennink )\nthe win moves stay thirsty to the head of the 3 - year - old class , ahead of sidelined derby winner animal kingdom and the two other classic winners he beat in the travers - shackleford and belmont stakes winner ruler on ice , who was fourth . haskell winner coil , the second choice , finished 10th .\n\u201ci hope i own a lot of good horses , but there ' ll be no horses that mean more to me than uncle mo and stay thirsty , \u201d repole said . \u201cthat they ' re together again is just an amazing feeling . they couldn ' t be on a better farm than coolmore ' s ashford . \u201d\nstay thirsty ( usa ) dkb / br . c , 2008 { 4 - c } dp = 4 - 6 - 16 - 0 - 0 ( 26 ) di = 2 . 25 cd = 0 . 54 - 17 starts , 5 wins , 5 places , 1 shows career earnings : $ 1 , 936 , 000\nbred in kentucky by john d . gunther and john darren gunther , stay thirsty is out of the storm bird mare marozia . pletcher bought him for repole for $ 500 , 000 at the fasig - tipton florida select sale of 2 - year - olds in training in 2010 . he was consigned by scanlon training center , agent .\nstay thirsty had made this a trio of g1 - placed offspring for marozia with his seconds in the hopeful last year and more recently in the belmont stakes , but the good - looking bay took the step into the winner ' s circle as a g1 winner at saratoga , which seems to be the colt ' s favorite racetrack .\nstay thirsty , front right , with javier castellano aboard , pulls away from j w blue ( 8 ) , with cornelio velasquez to win the 142nd travers stakes horse race at saratoga race course in saratoga springs , n . y . , saturday , aug . 27 , 2011 . ( ap photo / hans pennink ) ( / ap )\nthe travers field breaks from the gate during the start of the 142nd travers stakes horse race at saratoga race course in saratoga springs , n . y . , saturday , aug . 27 , 2011 . stay thirsty ( 9 ) , with javier castellano aboard , won the race . ( ap photo / hans pennink ) ( / ap )\nstay thirsty looks to have the makings of a very good stallion . he will be the first of bernardini ' s sons to enter the breeding shed and looks to pass the tests . his female family shows high end production as well as a wide array of winners . he will stand at coolmore ' s ashford in lexington , kentucky .\nin total , stay thirsty retired with a record of five wins , five seconds , and one third in 17 starts for $ 1 , 936 , 000 in earnings . of those five wins , two were grade 1 victories , with one grade 2 and one grade 3 . he also finished second in three grade 1 races and third in another .\nstay thirsty looked like his sire at the spa . that was important to his breeder , who said that \u201cwhen i went to see bernardini at jonabell , i just loved his looks , and i bred two mares to him the first year , three the second year , and it looks like he ' s going to be a good sire . \u201d\nrepole told the drf that stay thirsty will make one more start this year before being retired . what race that will be is up in the air ; the colt could run in either the breeders ' cup classic ( gr . i ) , breeders ' cup dirt mile ( gr . i ) , or the cigar mile ( gr . i ) .\nrobert lapenta and head of plains partners\u2019 coal front was headed by american pastime at the head of the stretch in saturday\u2019s g3 gallant bob stakes , but the 3 - year - old son of stay thirsty refused to give in under jockey john velazquez . finding another gear at the eighth pole , coal front re - rallied to pull away from [ \u2026 ]\nmarozia raced nine times in england and won or was in the money four times . she\u2019s a successful broodmare , having produced four winners from five foals to race , including stay\nrobert lapenta and head of plains partners\u2019 coal front led the field wire - to - wire in saturday\u2019s g2 amsterdam stakes at saratoga , finishing 1 1 / 2 lengths in front of excitations to earn his first graded stakes win . the sophomore son of stay thirsty is now unbeaten in three career starts for trainer todd pletcher . ridden by john velazquez [ \u2026 ]\nthe spa has certainly treated stay thirsty well this year , as it was the three - year - old ' s second graded victory for the season . on july 30 , he dominated in the g2 jim dandy stakes , a feat his sire also accomplished . prior to his jim dandy win , the dark bay was classic - placed in the g1 belmont stakes .\nstay thirsty , who ran 12th in the derby and second in the belmont before his jim dandy - travers sweep , returned $ 6 . 80 , $ 4 . 20 and $ 3 . 40 . rattlesnake bridge , ridden by john velazquez , paid $ 10 . 80 and $ 7 . 60 , and j w blue returned $ 11 . 40 to show .\nthe expectation is that stay thirsty will contest the jockey club gold cup prior to the breeders ' cup classic as part of a program that might make him champion of his division and a horse of the year contender . those races will test both the colt ' s apparent maturity and his rise up the class ladder when he tackles older horses for the first time .\nstay thirsty built his resume in 2011 as a 3 - year - old , starting with a win in the gotham stakes ( gr . iii ) and highlighting the year with a 1 1 / 4 length victory in the travers stakes ( gr . i ) . the colt also finished second in the belmont stakes ( gr . i ) by \u00be of a length behind ruler on ice . he topped off his new york campaign with a third place finish in the jockey club gold cup stakes ( gr . i ) behind flat out and eventual breeders\u2019 cup classic ( gr . i ) winner drosselmeyer . stay thirsty ended his 3 - year - old season in the breeders\u2019 cup classic ( gr . i ) , finishing 11 th .\nsent off as the 2 - 1 favorite in the field of 10 , stay thirsty raced just off the pace set by preakness winner shackleford . but when the field turned for home in front of a crowd of 43 , 050 , the son of 2006 travers winner bernardini surged to the lead under javier castellano and held off rattlesnake bridge by 1 1 / 4 lengths .\nuncle mo begins his stallion career as the grandson of in excess ( ire ) , one of the top stallions in california before being pensioned in july . stay thirsty , who will race at age four according to his facebook page , will begin his stallion career next year as the grandson of a . p . indy , one of the top stallions of his generation .\nstay thirsty ' s sire bernardini won from a mile to 1 1 / 4 miles , including the preakness and travers stakes . as a three year old he beat older horses in the jockey club gold cup . although he was second to invasor in a highly anticipated match - up in the breeders\u2019 cup classic , bernardini earned horse of the year honors for his previous exploits .\nryan : we all shared the same keys so we had to stay together ! they were like , \u201cwhy are there so many keys on this one ring ? \u201d and we were like , \u201cwell , we ' re all one package ! \u201d but , you know , it ' s all curable and there are no symptoms . just stay away from des roar .\nfirst guy :\ndude , i made out with that hot chick .\nsecond guy :\nwell , i got to third base with that cheerleader .\nfirst guy :\na beauty queen gave me a hand job .\nsecond guy :\ni banged a super model .\nfirst guy : stunned silence second guy :\nstay thirsty , my friend .\nstay thirsty doesn\u2019t appear to be a large colt , but he is well - balanced , muscular and has a smooth stride . he has a well - angled shoulder and has the lean demeanor of a route horse . size isn\u2019t an indicator of racing prowess . notable horse that were smaller than average include kentucky derby winners northern dancer , mine that bird and belmont stakes winner birdstone .\nwith his female family\u2019s success with jumpers in his second and third dam , he could also bring an interesting twist to the steeplechase scene if any breeder decides to go that route . of the six bernardini stallions standing at stud in 2013 , stay thirsty is the second most expensive at stud with a fee of $ 20 , 000 behind to honor and serve\u2019s $ 30 , 000 .\n\u201ci feel like he\u2019s rounding into his best form off his last couple of breezes , \u201d said pletcher , who was planning to give stay thirsty his last woodward breeze sunday . \u201cthe suburban was a really hot day and he didn\u2019t seem to fire at all . it took a little while for him to rebound so i felt like we ran out of time to make the whitney . \u201d\nstay thirsty separates himself from every other 3 - year - old by far right now ,\nrepole said .\nthere ' s nothing else this horse can do . he should have won the belmont . he ran an incredible jim dandy . javier rode him great . he was all out , a length and a half . there ' s no doubt in my mind .\nstay hydrated . one of the most important things seniors \u2014 and any human , really \u2014 can do is drink plenty of fluids . as people age , the ability for the body to conserve water diminishes , so it becomes more difficult for seniors to gauge the need for liquid . keep water and sports drinks close at hand to rehydrate and replenish electrolytes even when you\u2019re not feeling thirsty .\nin 2012 , he finished second in the ungraded vanlandingham stakes in his may debut but finished second in two graded stakes before finishing second by a head to flat out in the tvg jockey club gold cup invitational stakes ( gr . i ) . stay thirsty finished his career with a second grade one victory when he won the cigar mile handicap ( gr . i ) over groupie doll ."]}
{"id": 62, "summary": [{"text": "melanocetus eustalus is a deep sea anglerfish in the family melanocetidae , found off the pacific coast of mexico at depths down to about 1,675 m ( 5,500 ft ) . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "melanocetus eustalus", "paragraphs": ["melanocetus eustalus is derived in having an extremely large escal bulb , comparable to no other known ceratioid . distribution melanocetus johnsonii and m . more\nmelanocetus eustalus on fish mapper tsn 690551 ( taxonomic serial number ) retrieved on from the integrated taxonomic information system online database . this is a cached copy . more\nblack seadevils are small , deep - sea anglerfish of the family melanocetidae , which includes one genus ( melanocetus ) and six species ( melanocetus eustalus , m . johnsonii , m . murrayi , m . niger , m . polyactis and m . rossi ) found worldwide .\nfree - living male of melanocetus sp , zmuc p92675 . after bertelsen ( 1951 ) . \u00a9 1951 , 1983 bertelsen\nblack seadevil ( probably melanocetus johnsonii ) , about 9 cm long . image credit : \u00a9 monterey bay aquarium research institute .\n\u201canglerfish , like this melanocetus , are among the most rarely seen of all deep - sea fishes , dr robison said .\nthe four remaining species are much more closely related to each other than any is to m . murrayi . five characters can be used to distinguish these forms : 1 ) number of lower jaw teeth , 2 ) longest lower jaw tooth , 3 ) illicium length , 4 ) escal bulb width , and 5 ) escal morphology . unfortunately , all but the last of these characters overlap in variation among the remaining forms of the genus , and , furthermore , the relative primitiveness of character states among these features is nearly impossible to determine . melanocetus johnsonii is perhaps derived in having a relatively long illicium , and in having fewer , but longer jaw teeth ( see pietsch 1972b , 1974a ) . melanocetus polyactis and m . niger are similar in having relatively short jaw teeth , a similar escal morphology lacking anterior and posterior crests , and a sympatric geographic distribution that is restricted to the gulf of panama and adjacent eastern tropical pacific . melanocetus eustalus is derived in having an extremely large escal bulb , comparable to no other known ceratioid .\ndr bruce robison of the monterey bay aquarium research institute and his colleagues observed a black seadevil ( probably melanocetus johnsonii ) in the waters of the monterey canyon just off monterey bay , california , on november 17 , 2014 .\nmelanocetus johnsonii and m . murrayi , by far the best known species of the genus , have broad distributions , the former known from all three major oceans of the world , the latter from the atlantic and pacific . melanocetus rossi is represented by a single specimen collected in the ross sea , antarctica ; m . polyactis and m . niger , known from 15 and six specimens , respectively , are both restricted to the eastern tropical pacific ; and m . eustales , is known from a single specimen collected in the eastern pacific off mazatl\u00e1n , mexico .\nbalushkin , a . v . , and v . v . fedorov . 1981 . on finding the deepwater anglerfishes ( melanocetus rossi sp . n . and oneirodes notius ) in the ross sea ( antarctica ) . biologiya morya , 2 ( 2 ) : 79\u009682 . [ in russian , with english abstract . ]\ncolor of metamorphosed females dark brown to black over entire surface of head and body ( except for distal portion of escal bulb ) and oral cavity ; all fins white in specimens less than approximately 40 mm ( except for caudal - fin rays of adolescent specimens of melanocetus murrayi ; bertelsen , 1951 : 47 , fig . 16i ) . metamorphosed males with outer pigmentation as for females ( except nasal area unpigmented ) , subdermal pigmentation variable ( bertelsen , 1951 : 42 ; pietsch and van duzer , 1980 : 83 ) .\nthe family melanocetidae includes globose bathypelagic anglerfishes , easily separated from members of allied families by having a combination of features that includes 12 or more dorsal - fin rays , three to five anal - fin rays , a huge mouth , and numerous long fang - like teeth ( bertelsen , 1951 ; pietsch , 1972a ; pietsch and van duzer , 1980 ) . the only currently recognized genus of the family was established by g\u00fcnther ( 1864 ) with the description of melanocetus johnsonii , based on a single female specimen collected in the atlantic ocean off madeira . since that time , 13 additional species based on females have been described . the family currently includes six recognized species ( pietsch and van duzer , 1980 ; balushkin and fedorov , 1981 )\ngreek , ' melas ' or ' melanos ' = black + greek , ' ketos ' = any large sea creature , more often referring to a whale ( ref . 86949 )\nmarine ; bathypelagic ; depth range 0 - 1675 m ( ref . 46206 ) . deep - water\ndorsal soft rays ( total ) : 14 - 16 ; anal soft rays : 4 . distinguishing characteristics of metamorphosed female : nearly straight anterior margin of vomer ; least outside width between frontals 18 . 0 % sl ; upper jaw with 91 teeth , lower jaw with 60 teeth ; vomerine teeth 0 - 6 ; length of longest tooth in lower jaw 5 . 9 % sl ; width of pectoral fin lobe 9 . 9 % sl ; width of escal bulb 11 . 3 % sl ; illicium length 30 . 6 % sl ; esca without crest ; relatively thick integument ( ref . 86949 )\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) , 2003 . catalog of fishes . updated database version of march 2003 . catalog databases as made available to fishbase in march 2003 . ( ref . 46206 )\n) : 6 . 7 - 11 . 2 , mean 9 . 3 ( based on 9 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5312 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 8 \u00b10 . 2 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\npietsch & van duzer , 1980 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 272602 on 2018 - 07 - 09\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe root of the current tree connects the organisms featured in this tree to their containing group and the rest of the tree of life . the basal branching point in the tree represents the ancestor of the other groups in the tree . this ancestor diversified over time into several descendent subgroups , which are represented as internal nodes and terminal taxa to the right .\nyou can click on the root to travel down the tree of life all the way to the root of all life , and you can click on the names of descendent subgroups to travel up the tree of life all the way to individual species .\nfor more information on tol tree formatting , please see interpreting the tree or classification . to learn more about phylogenetic trees , please visit our phylogenetic biology pages .\nmetamorphosed males and females of the family melanocetidae are distinguished from those of all other ceratioid families by having a combination of 13 - 16 ( rarely 12 or 17 ) dorsal - fin rays and 4 ( rarely 3 or 5 ) anal - fin rays .\nmetamorphosed males are further differentiated in having the following combination of character states : eyes directed laterally , elliptical in shape , pupil larger than lens ; olfactory organs large , nostrils lateral , inflated ; nasal area unpigmented ; 12 - 24 olfactory lamellae ; jaw teeth absent ; upper denticular with 2 or 3 semicircular series of strong recurved denticles , fused with a median series of 3 - 9 enlarged dermal spines that articulate with the pterygiophore of the illicium ; lower denticular with 10 - 23 recurved denticles , fused into a median and two lateral groups ; skin spinulose or naked ; fin - ray counts as given for metamorphosed females ; free - living , never parasitic , two known examples of males attached to females in temporary coupling ( pietsch , 2005 ) .\nlarvae are further differentiated in having the following combination of character states : body short , almost spherical ; skin moderately inflated ; pectoral fins of normal size , not reaching beyond dorsal and anal fins ; pelvic fins absent ; sexual dimorphism evident , females with a small , club - shaped illicial rudiment protruding from head ; fin - ray counts as given for metamorphosed females ; metamorphosis beginning at lengths of 8 - 10 mm sl ( bertelsen , 1951 : 45 , 49 , figs . 16a - g , 17a - f ; 1984 : 326 , 328 , fig . 169c - d ) .\nthe largest known female is a 135 - mm specimen of m . johnsonii ; the largest known metamorphosed male , also identified as m . johnsoni , measures 28 mm .\nthe melanocetidae appears to be a relatively primitive ceratioid family ( bertelsen 1951 ; pietsch 1972a , 1976 , 1979 ) . the five species are characterized by a confusing mosaic of primitive and derived character states such that an interpretation of interspecific phylogenetic relationships is difficult . in any case , however , it seems apparent that m . murrayi has split off from the main line of melanocetid evolution and acquired a number of unique features that reflect its most derived position in the genus : 1 ) depressed cranium , 2 ) concave vomer , 3 ) small pectoral fin , 4 ) tiny escal bulb , and 5 ) thin integument . living in considerably deeper strata than its congeners most probably also reflects a derived condition .\nbertelsen , e . 1951 . the ceratioid fishes . ontogeny , taxonomy , distribution and biology . dana rept . , 39 , 276 pp .\nbertelsen , e . 1980 . notes on linophrynidae v : a revision of the deepsea anglerfishes of the linophryne arborifer - group ( pisces , ceratioidei ) . steenstrupia , 6 ( 6 ) : 29\u009670 .\nbertelsen , e . 1982 . notes on linophrynidae viii : a review of the genus linophryne , with new records and descriptions of two new species . steenstrupia , 8 ( 3 ) : 49\u0096104 .\nbertelsen , e . 1984 . ceratioidei : development and relationships . pp . 325 - 334 , in : moser , h . g . , w . j . richards , d . m . cohen , m . p . fahay , a . w . kendall , jr . , and s . l . richardson ( editors ) , ontogeny and systematics of fishes , spec . publ . no . 1 , amer . soc . ichthy . herpet . , ix + 760 pp .\ng\u00fcnther , a . c . l . g . 1864 . on a new genus of pediculate fish from the sea of madeira . proc . zool . soc . london , 1864 ( 6 ) : 301\u0096303 .\npietsch , t . w . 1969 . a remarkable new genus and species of deep - sea anglerfish ( family oneirodidae ) from off guadalupe island , mexico . copeia , 1969 ( 2 ) : 365\u0096369 .\npietsch , t . w . 1972a . a review of the monotypic deep - sea anglerfish family centrophrynidae : taxonomy , distribution , and osteology . copeia , 1972 ( 1 ) : 17\u009647 .\npietsch , t . w . 1972b . a second specimen of the deep - sea anglerfish , phyllorhinichthys micractis ( family oneirodidae ) , with a histological description of the snout flaps . copeia , 1972 ( 2 ) : 335\u0096340 .\npietsch , t . w . 1974a . osteology and relationships of ceratioid anglerfishes of the family oneirodidae , with a review of the genus oneirodes l\u00fctken . nat . hist . mus . l . a . co . , sci . bull . , 18 , 113 pp .\npietsch , t . w . 1974b . systematics and distribution of ceratioid anglerfishes of the genus lophodolos ( family oneirodidae ) . breviora , 425 : 1\u009619 .\npietsch , t . w . 1979 . ceratioid anglerfishes of the family caulophrynidae with the description of a new genus and species from the banda sea . contrib . sci . , nat . hist . mus . los angeles co . , 310 : 1\u009625 .\npietsch , t . w . 2005 . dimorphism , parasitism , and sex revisited : modes of reproduction among deep - sea ceratioid anglerfishes ( teleostei : lophiiformes ) . ichthyol . res . , 52 : 207\u0096236 .\npietsch , t . w . , and j . p . van duzer . 1980 . systematics and distribution of ceratioid anglerfishes of the family melanocetidae , with description of a new species from the eastern north pacific ocean . u . s . fish . bull . , 78 ( 1 ) : 59\u009687 .\ncorrespondence regarding this page should be directed to theodore w . pietsch at and christopher p . kenaley at\n. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the\neach tol branch page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a branch of the tree of life . the major distinction between a branch and a leaf of the tree of life is that each branch can be further subdivided into descendent branches , that is , subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\n) : 6 . 7 - 11 . 2 , mean 9 . 3 ( based on 9 cells ) . phylogenetic diversity index ( ref .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref .\nscientists from the monterey bay aquarium research institute using their remotely operated vehicle doc ricketts have filmed a rare and bizarre - looking anglerfish called the black seadevil in its native habitat , at depths of about 580 meters .\n\u201cthe shining spot at the tip of the \u2018fishing pole\u2019 projecting from the fish\u2019s head is a glowing lure . \u201d\n\u201cthe anglerfish uses its light to attract prey in its deep , dark habitat . \u201d\nthe scientists believe that this is the first video footage ever made of this species alive and at depth .\n\u201cthis is the first time we have captured this fish on video in its habitat , \u201d dr robison said .\njuvenile australopithecus climbed trees , 3 . 32 - million - year - old foot fossil shows\n\u00a9 2011 - 2018 . sci - news . com . all rights reserved . | back to top\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 64, "summary": [{"text": "the unionidae are a family of freshwater mussels , the largest in the order unionoida , the bivalve mollusks sometimes known as river mussels , or simply as unionids .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "the range of distribution for this family is world-wide .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is at its most diverse in north america , with about 297 recognised taxa , but china and southeast asia also support very diverse faunas .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "freshwater mussels occupy a wide range of habitats , but most often occupy lotic waters , i.e. flowing water such as rivers , streams and creeks . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "unionidae", "paragraphs": ["water quality guidance for protection of freshwater mussels ( unionidae ) from ammonia exposure .\nmatteson , m . 1955 . studies on the natural history of the unionidae .\nwater quality guidance for protection of freshwater mussels ( unionidae ) from ammonia exposure . - pubmed - ncbi\nphylogenetic analysis of prisodontopsis tomlin , 1928 and mweruella haas , 1936 ( bivalvia : unionidae ) . . .\nearly life - history and conservation status of venustaconcha ellipsiformis ( bivalvia , unionidae ) in minnesota\nby daniel c . allen\nallen , w . 1921 . studies of the biology of freshwater mussels : experimental studies of the food relations of certain unionidae .\nwhat made you want to look up unionidae ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nkohl , m . 2000 .\nunionidae\n( on - line ) . freshwater molluscan shells . accessed august 31 , 2003 at urltoken .\nto cite this page : winhold , l . 2004 .\nunionidae\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nstrayer , d . 1983 . the effects of surface geology and stream size on freshwater mussel ( bivalvia : unionidae ) distribution in southeastern michigan , u . s . a . .\nin previous molecular phylogenetic analyses of the freshwater mussel family unionidae ( bivalvia : unionoida ) , the afrotropical genus coelatura had been recovered in various positions , generally indicating a paraphyletic unionidae . however that result was typically poorly supported and in conflict with morphology - based analyses . we set out to test the phylogenetic position of coelatura by . . . [ show full abstract ]\nzebra mussel infestation of unionid bivalves ( unionidae ) in north america . dw schlosser , tf nalepa , and gl mackie . amer . zool . , 36 : 300 - 310 ( 1996 )\n\u2026and two important families , the unionidae and corbiculidae , are predominantly freshwater with complicated reproductive cycles . there are no terrestrial bivalves , although some high - intertidal and freshwater species can withstand drought conditions .\ngraf , d . 2002 . molecular phylogenetic analysis of two problematic freshwater mussel genera ( unio and gonoidea ) and a re - evaluation of the classification of nearctic unionidae ( bivalvia : palaeoheterodonta : unionoida ) .\ndaniel c . allen , bernard e . sietman , daniel e . kelner , mark c . hove , et al . .\nearly life - history and conservation status of venustaconcha ellipsiformis ( bivalvia , unionidae ) in minnesota\nthis key covers the 3 subfamilies of unionidae that we have collected in north dakota rivers and streams . this key will aid you by providing simple features you can look for to identify your specimen . after using the key , confirm the identity of you specimen by reading the genera page .\nin the freshwater unionidae the released larva , called a glochidium , often has sharp spines projecting inward from each valve . the larva attaches to either the gills or fins of passing fish and becomes a temporary parasite . eventually , it leaves the fish , falls to the lake floor , and metamorphoses\u2026\n\u2026of the bivalve mollusk families unionidae and margaritiferidae . of these , 21 have become extinct in the past century , and another 120 species are in danger of extinction . during this same period , engineers have extensively dammed and channeled north america\u2019s rivers . the tennessee river , for example , is dammed along its entire\u2026\nthe unionidae , of worldwide distribution , are most diverse in eastern and central north america , and secondarily in china and southeast asia . these include north america ' s most abundant , interesting , and economically valuable shells . because of their long association with activities of leisure , livelihood and trade , many have acquired colorful common names .\na refuge for native freshwater mussels ( bivalvia : unionidae ) from impacts of the exotic zebra mussel ( dreissena polymorpha ) in lake st . clair . dt zanatta , gl mackie , jl metcalfe - smith , and da woolnough . j . great lakes res . 28 ( 3 ) : 479 - 489 internat . assoc . great lakes res . , 2002\nzhou et al . ( 2007 , acta zoologica sinica , 53 : 1024\u20131030 ) reported the eastern asian freshwater mussel genus lamproula sensu lato simpson , 1900 ( unionidae ) to be polyphyletic and advocated a revision of the genus - and family - level classifications . however , their taxon sampling and analyses were insufficient to infer accurately the systematic placement of the resultant clades . we . . . [ show full abstract ]\nty - jour ti - life history of the endangered fine rayed pigtoe fusconaia cuneolus ( bivalvia , unionidae ) in the clinch river , virginia t2 - american malacological bulletin . vl - 10 ur - urltoken pb - [ american malacological union ] , cy - [ hattiesburg , miss . ? ] : py - 1993 sp - 83 ep - 91 sn - 0740 - 2783 au - bruenderman , s a au - neves , r j er -\n. . . although the statistical biogeographic models assume that the crown group of the family was widely distributed across the east laurasia ( east asia + mediterranean ) , the fossil evidence shows an east asian origin for both the stem and the crown group ( e . g . , chen , 1984 ; jingshan et al . , 1993 ; ma , 1994ma , , 1996jiang et al . , 2005 ; pan and sha , 2009 ; fang et al . , 2009 ; yao et al . , 2011 china ( fang et al . , 2009 ) is here proposed as a fossil member of the crown group of margaritiferidae + unionidae , most likely re - presenting a separate ancestral family ( supplementary tables 3 and 4 ) . this agrees with graf et al . ( 2015 ) and skawina and dzik ( 2011 ) , who suggested that pre - jurassic freshwater bivalves may represent the stem - groups of modern unionoid clades . bolotov et al . ( 2017a ) showed that the unionidae most likely originated in east and southeast asia , which is consistent with the hypothesis of an asian origin for both families . . . .\n@ article { bhlpart143222 , title = { life history of the endangered fine rayed pigtoe fusconaia cuneolus ( bivalvia , unionidae ) in the clinch river , virginia } , journal = { american malacological bulletin . } , volume = { 10 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder } , url = urltoken publisher = { [ hattiesburg , miss . ? ] : [ american malacological union ] , 1983 - } , author = { bruenderman , s a and neves , r j } , year = { 1993 } , pages = { 83 - - 91 } , }\nthe shell morphology and population dynamics of the five british unionidae are compared within a sympatric population . pseudanodonta complanata is distinguished from anodonta anatina and a . cygnea by the hinge length\u2013shell length relationship ; this morphological distinction may serve as a useful tool in the identification of this threatened species . the shell length at a given annulus was remarkably similar for all five species , although the asymptotic length is reached most quickly in p . complanata and unio pictorum . p . complanata is relatively short - lived and attains the lowest maximum length , while a . cygnea lives more than twice as long and attains almost double the length of p . complanata . unio spp . have a short gravid season over the summer , while anodonta spp . have a long gravid period , lasting from autumn through to spring . unlike other members of the anodontinae , p . complanata has a short breeding season , overlapping with that of the unio spp .\n< mods xmlns : xlink =\nurltoken\nversion =\n3 . 0\nxmlns : xsi =\nurltoken\nxmlns =\nurltoken\nxsi : schemalocation =\nurltoken urltoken\n> < titleinfo > < title > life history of the endangered fine rayed pigtoe fusconaia cuneolus ( bivalvia , unionidae ) in the clinch river , virginia < / title > < / titleinfo > < name > < namepart > bruenderman , s a < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > neves , r j < / namepart > < / name > < typeofresource > text < / typeofresource > < genre authority =\nmarcgt\n> < / genre > < note type =\ncontent\n> 10 < / note > < relateditem type =\nhost\n> < titleinfo > < title > american malacological bulletin . < / title > < / titleinfo > < origininfo > < place > < placeterm type =\ntext\n> [ hattiesburg , miss . ? ] : < / placeterm > < / place > < publisher > [ american malacological union ] , < / publisher > < / origininfo > < part > < detail type =\nvolume\n> < number > 10 < / number > < / detail > < extent unit =\npages\n> < start > 83 < / start > < end > 91 < / end > < / extent > < date > 1993 < / date > < / part > < / relateditem > < identifier type =\nuri\n> urltoken < / identifier > < accesscondition type =\nuseandreproduction\n> in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder < / accesscondition > < / mods >\n\u00bb genus amphinaias crosse & p . fischer , 1894 accepted as cyclonaias pilsbry in ortmann & walker , 1922\n\u00bb genus amygdalonaias crosse & p . fischer , 1894 accepted as truncilla rafinesque , 1819\n\u00bb genus amygdalonajas crosse & p . fischer , 1894 accepted as truncilla rafinesque , 1819\n\u00bb genus cokeria w . b . marshall , 1916 accepted as amblema rafinesque , 1820\n\u00bb genus corunculina simpson in f . c . baker , 1898 accepted as toxolasma rafinesque , 1831\n\u00bb genus lapidosus simpson , 1900 accepted as disconaias crosse & p . fischer , 1894\n\u00bb genus mesonaias crosse & p . fischer , 1894 accepted as cyrtonaias crosse & p . fischer , 1894\n\u00bb genus anadontoides simpson in f . c . baker , 1898 accepted as anodontoides simpson in f . c . baker , 1898\n\u00bb genus anodontopsis simpson in f . c . baker , 1898 accepted as anodontoides simpson in f . c . baker , 1898\n\u00bb genus brachyanodon crosse & p . fischer , 1894 accepted as anodonta lamarck , 1799\n\u00bb genus flexiplis rafinesque , 1831 accepted as pyganodon crosse & p . fischer , 1894\n\u00bb genus flexiptis rafinesque , 1831 accepted as pyganodon crosse & p . fischer , 1894\n\u00bb genus mesanodon crosse & p . fischer , 1894 accepted as anodonta lamarck , 1799\n\u00bb genus nayadina de gregorio , 1914 accepted as utterbackia f . c . baker , 1927\n\u00bb genus utterbachia f . c . baker , 1927 accepted as utterbackia f . c . baker , 1927 ( original misspelling )\ngenus nodularidia cockerell , 1901 accepted as nodularia conrad , 1853 ( unnecessary nom . nov . pro nodularia conrad , 1853 )\nbieler r . , carter j . g . & coan e . v . ( 2010 ) . classification of bivalve families . pp . 113 - 133 , in : bouchet p . & rocroi j . - p . ( 2010 ) , nomenclator of bivalve families . malacologia 52 ( 2 ) : 1 - 184 . [ details ]\nlove words ? you must \u2014 there are over 200 , 000 words in our free online dictionary , but you are looking for one that\u2019s only in the merriam - webster unabridged dictionary .\nthe story of an imaginary word that managed to sneak past our editors and enter the dictionary .\ntake this quiz and discover 12 words for things you didn ' t know had words .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\naugspurger t 1 , keller ae , black mc , cope wg , dwyer fj .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service , p . o . box 33726 , raleigh , north carolina 27636 - 3726 , usa . tom _ augspurger @ urltoken\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ngraf , d . l . & k . s . cummings . 2013 . the freshwater mussels ( unionoida ) of the world ( and other less consequential bivalves ) , updated 8 august 2013 . mussel project web site , urltoken\nturgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , et al .\ncommon and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks , 2nd ed .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nlampsilis cardium rafinesque , 1820 , in a very shallow creek in southwest missouri . the gray mantle flaps have black and white\neyespots\nand undulate back and forth rhythmically . click here for animated sketch .\nthe anodontinae ( subfamily status for anodontini used by banarescu in his worldwide synthesis ) and the genus anodonta have wide distribution in the northern hemisphere . 11 genera have been listed for east and southeast asia , and two in western asia .\ntwenty north american genera further grouped into five subtribes by burch . names in parenthesis are older synonyms in common use ;\nacuticostinae : east and southeast asia , eight genera . lamellidentina : one genus in india and afghanistan . psilunioninae : one genus in southern europe , northern africa . unioninae s . s . ( not equivalent to the north american unioninae , above ) six genera in europe , east asia and africa , including unio itself .\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\ndog , ( canis lupus familiaris ) , domestic mammal of the family canidae ( order carnivora ) . it is a subspecies\u2026\nmore than 40 species of freshwater mussels are native to the great lakes . all are filter feeders . most are considered endangered and / or restricted to protected areas . exotic dreissenid mussels are largely to blame - - faster - growing dreissenids settle on the shells of the native species effectively smothering them . adults are male and female , fertilization usually takes place internal to the female with young brooded in the mother ' s gills until they reach a glochidia stage . the juvenile glochidia stages of unionids are usually parasitic on fish - often confined to a single host species .\n* * reported locations based on a limited literature search . codes indicate presence reported but absence of a code should not be interpreted as a species absence .\nabundance , biomass , and species composition of benthic macroinvertebrate populations in saginaw bay , lake huron , 1987 - 96 . thomas nalepa , david fanslow , margaret lansing , gregory lang , mark ford , gerald gostenik , and david hartson . noaa technical memorandum glerl - 122 .\nrelationships among zoobenthos , sediments , and organic matter in littoral zones of western lake erie and saginaw bay . 1983 . richard a . cole and diana l . weigmann . jglr 9 ( 4 ) 568 - 581 .\nwave - zone macrobenthos of the exposed canadian shores of the st . lawrence great lakes . 1978 . d . r . barton and b . n . hynes . jglr 4 ( 1 ) 27 - 45 .\nbenthic community structure and composition among rocky habitats in the great lakes and keuka lake , ny . 1987 . michael h . winnell and david j . jude . jglr 13 ( 1 ) 3 - 17 .\nchanges in the biodiversity of freshwater mussels in the canadian waters of the lower great lakes drainage basin over the past 140 years jl metcalfe - smith , sk staton , gl mackie , and nm lane . j . great lakes res . 24 ( 4 ) : 845 - 858 , 1998 .\nchanges to the deepwater benthos of eastern lake erie since the invasion of dreissena 1979 - 1993 . 1997 . r dermott and d kerec . cjfas 54 : 922 - 930 .\nw ( wave zone = 0 - 2m ) based on : wave - zone macrobenthos of the exposed canadian shores of the st . lawrence great lakes . 1978 . d . r . barton and b . n . hynes . jglr 4 ( 1 ) 27 - 45 .\nr ( rocky habitats ) based on : benthic community structure and composition among rocky habitats in the great lakes and keuka lake , ny . 1987 . michael h . winnell and david j . jude . jglr 13 ( 1 ) 3 - 17 .\nindicates a link to a non - glerl noaa website . indicates a link to a non - noaa website or content not generated by noaa . noaa is not responsible for the accuracy of content . please check privacy and use policies of the destination site . use notice\nfm ( u ) otw ( aolcb ) is the web version of the mussel project database . follow the links to browse the data or use the search fields . either way , you win !\nthe mussel project \u0097 home page urltoken . site developed and maintained by dan graf & kevin cummings . hosted by the university of wisconsin - stevens point . funded by the national science foundation .\nmaking the world a better place , one mollusk at a time .\nsorry , preview is currently unavailable . you can download the paper by clicking the button above .\nenter the email address you signed up with and we ' ll email you a reset link .\npublished 2015 , zoological journal of the linnean society 175 : 307 - 318 . click here for electronic access .\nby daniel l . graf , hugh jones , anthony j . geneva , john . m . pfeiffer iii & michael w . klunzinger\npublished 2015 , molecular phylogenetics & evolution 85 : 1 - 9 . click here for electronic access .\ninvited presentation at the second international meeting on biology and conservation of freshwater bivalves , 4 - 8 october 2015 , buffalo , ny .\nthis slide shows the distributions of two species in the magdalena basin , colombia .\npresented at the 81st annual meeting of the american malacological society , 28 - 31 august 2015 , university of michigan biological station , pellston , mi .\nby kevin s . cummings , jeremy tiemann , daniel l . graf , maria cristina dreher mansur & mark h . sabaj - perez\npresented at the 53rd annual meeting of the american fisheries society \u2013 illinois chapter , pere marquette state park , 3 - 5 march 2015 . also presented at the 9th biennial freshwater mollusk conservation society symposium , st . charles , missouri , 22 - 26 march 2015 .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\n. . . in this classification , hyrioidea ( represented only by hyriidae ) occupy an intermediate position between the two other groups , etherioidea and unionoidea , reflecting the conflicting data from other authors concerning the position of hyriidae ( , hoeh et al . 2001 , graf & cummins 2006 ) . graf et al . ( 2015 ) presented hyriidae as sister to all other freshwater mussel families , in a position quite different from the previously one ( graf & cummings 2006 ) , however similar ( regarding to hyriidae position ) to topology presented by hoeh et al . ( 2009 ) . . . .\n. . . there are around 80 species of hyriidae , occurring throughout oceania and south america , with only two or three species west of the andes ( bonetto et al . 1986 ; parada & peredo , 2002 ; graf & cummings , 2007 ; bogan , 2008 ) . hyriidae is monophyletic ( graf et al . 2015 ) and usually divided in two groups ( sub - families ) , the hyriinae , which comprises south american species , except by hyridella swainson , 1840 and some related australian species ; and velesunioninae , that comprises most australian species ( graf & cummings , 2006bieler et al . 2010 ; graf et al . 2015 ) . among hyriidae seven genera are recognized to south america : prisodon schumacher , 1817 ; paxyodon schumacher , 1817 ; callonaia simpson , 1900 ; castalia lamarck , 1819 ; castaliella simpson , 1900 ; diplodon spix in wagner , 1827 and rhipidodonta m\u00f6rch , 1893 ( simone , 2006 ) ; and , nine genera to australia : hyridella ; cucumerunio iredale , 1934 ; echyridella mcmichael & hiscock , 1958 ; virgus ; velesunio iredale , 1934 ; alathyria iredale , 1934 ; lortilella iredale , 1934 ; microdontia tapparone canefri , 1883 ; westralunio iredale , 1934 ( graf & cummings , 2007 ) . . . .\n. . . there are around 80 species of hyriidae , occurring throughout oceania and south america , with only two or three species west of the andes ( bonetto et al . 1986 ; parada & peredo , 2002 ; graf & cummings , 2007 ; bogan , 2008 ) . hyriidae is monophyletic ( graf et al . 2015 ) and usually divided in two groups ( sub - families ) , the hyriinae , which comprises south american species , except by hyridella swainson , 1840 and some related australian species ; and velesunioninae , that comprises most australian species ( graf & cummings , 2006bieler et al . 2010 ; graf et al . 2015 ) . among hyriidae seven genera are recognized to south america : prisodon schumacher , 1817 ; paxyodon schumacher , 1817 ; callonaia simpson , 1900 ; castalia lamarck , 1819 ; castaliella simpson , 1900 ; diplodon spix in wagner , 1827 and rhipidodonta m\u00f6rch , 1893 ( simone , 2006 ) ; and , nine genera to australia : hyridella ; cucumerunio iredale , 1934 ; echyridella mcmichael & hiscock , 1958 ; virgus ; velesunio iredale , 1934 ; alathyria iredale , 1934 ; lortilella iredale , 1934 ; microdontia tapparone canefri , 1883 ; westralunio iredale , 1934 ( graf & cummings , 2007 ) . . . .\n. . . 257 ma in the permian . however , the genesis of extant margaritiferids traces back to ca . 88 ma in the late an early jurassic ( mean age = 194 ma ) origin of the crown - group hyriidae was estimated previously ( graf et al . , 2015 ) , but a relatively younger age is shown in our study ( 178 ma ) . even though fewer hyriidae species were sampled and no calibration point inside this family was used in present study , the major reason contributes to the difference is the incongruence on relationships between hyriidae with the other five families of unionoida . . . .\nreclassification of lamprotula rochechouartii as margaritifera rochechouartii comb . nov . ( bivalvia : margaritiferidae ) revealed by time - calibrated multi - locus phylogenetic analyses and mitochondrial phylogenomics of unionoida\n. . . we focus on echyridella menziesii , the most abundant of three freshwater mussel species found in new zealand and a species that is widely distributed in streams , rivers and lakes ( marshall , fenwick , & ritchie , 2014 ) . echyridella menziesii belongs to a family of freshwater mussels ( hyriidae ) only found in the southern hemisphere ( new zealand , australia , new guinea , south america ; graf , jones , geneva , pfeiffeer , & klunzinger , 2015 ) . . . .\n. . . bonetto , 1967 ; haas , 1969 ; mansur & valer , 1992 ; pimp\u00e3o et al . , 2012 ) . genetic studies , based on molecular data have been carried out on freshwater bivalves from australia , north america , europe and africa , mainly to clarify systematic classifications ( graf et al . , 2014 graf et al . , , 2015 santos - neto et al . , 2016 ; lopes - lima et al . , 2017 ) , but also to evaluate their population structure , variability and demography ( hughes et al . , 2004 ; mock et al . , 2010 ; jones et al . , 2015 ; froufe et al . , 2014froufe et al . , , 2016ainoue & berg , 2017 ) . only a few genetic studies ( whelan et al . , 2011 ; graf et al . , 2015 ; santos - neto et al . , 2016 ; combosch et al . 2017 ) have included hyriidae from the amazon region , all of which were used to establish phylogenetic relationships . . . .\n. . . genetic studies , based on molecular data have been carried out on freshwater bivalves from australia , north america , europe and africa , mainly to clarify systematic classifications ( graf et al . , 2014graf et al . , , 2015santos - neto et al . , 2016 ; lopes - lima et al . , 2017 ) , but also to evaluate their population structure , variability and demography ( hughes et al . , 2004 ; mock et al . , 2010 ; jones et al . , 2015 ; froufe et al . , 2014froufe et al . , , 2016ainoue & berg , 2017 ) . only a few genetic studies ( whelan et al . , 2011 ; graf et al . , 2015 ; santos - neto et al . , 2016 ; combosch et al . 2017 ) have included hyriidae from the amazon region , all of which were used to establish phylogenetic relationships . . . .\n. . . whereas , molecular phylogenetics has dramatically improved our understanding of the higher level classification of the hyriidae ( graf et al . , 2015 ; santos - neto et al . , 2016 ) , our understanding of hyriid diversity at , and below , the species level , remains poor . cytochrome c oxidase subunit i ( coi ) sequences have revealed interesting patterns of freshwater bivalve population structure , both within and among distinct basins , raising awareness of the conservation needs of specific populations ( hughes et al . , 2004 ; elderkin et al . , 2007elderkin et al . , , 2008playford & walker 2008 ; mock et al . , 2010 ; froufe et al . , 2014 ) . . . .\n. . . as a response , taxonomic and systematic studies of unionids that integrate conchological and anatomical analyses with molecular phylogenies have increased over the last two decades . most studies have dealt with american , european and australasian taxa ( rosenberg et al . 1994rosenberg et al . , 1997 ; graf and \u00f3foighil 2000 ; hoeh et al . 2001 ; graf and cummings 2011 ; graf 2013 ; lopes - lima et al . 2014 ; pri\u00e9 and puillandre 2014 ; graf et al . 2015 ) , whereas asian taxa have largely been neglected . the monographs by haas ( 1969 ) and brandt ( 1974 ) have reported taxonomic surveys of thai species . . . .\n. . . tests of phylogenetic hypotheses on the basis of other data sources , such as those derived from molecules and chromosomes , are therefore likely to be informative . however , such approaches have as yet been attempted only on a limited number of taxa and there are still very few studies in asian and african regions ( lopes - lima et al . 2014 ; marshall et al . 2014 ; graf et al . 2015 ) . several sympatric species have been recorded in numerous thai localities ( brandt 1974 ; panha 1990 ) , raising many interesting taxonomic and ecological questions . . . .\n. . . taxon 28s coi 16s source locality larval type mytilidae mytilus edulis linnaeus , 1758 * z29550 gu570521 af317054 littlewood ( 1994 ) , lesser et al . ( 2010 ) , direct submission marine veliger veneridae mercenaria mercenaria ( linnaeus , 1758 ) * af131019 dq184836 dq184737 park & \u00f3 foighil ( 2000 ) , mikkelsen et al . ( 2006 ) marine veliger trigoniidae neotrigonia margaritacea ( lamarck , 1804 ) * af400695 nmu56850 dq280034 graf ( 2002 ) , hoeh et al . ( 1998 ) , giribet et al . ( 2006 ) marine veliger etheriidae etheria elliptica lamarck , 1807 kp184873 kp184897 kp184847 graf et al . ( 2015 ) zambia lasidium mycetopodidae lamproscapha ensiformis ( spix & wagner , 1827 ) kp795004 kp795021 kp795039 ansp416342 peru lasidium iridinidae chambardia wahlbergi ( krauss , 1848 ) * jn243864 jn243886 kp795040 whelan et al . ( 2011 ) , fmnh 343928 zambia lasidium hyriidae hyridella australis ( lamarck , 1819 ) kp184883 kp184907 kp184859 graf et al . ( 2015 ) . . .\n. . . australia s - shaped hooked velesunio ambiguous ( philippi , 1847 ) kp184892 kp184915 kf011257 graf et al . ( 2015 ) , pfeiffer & graf ( 2013 ) australia s - shaped hooked triplodon corrugatus ( lamarck , 1819 ) kp184876 kp184900 kp184852 graf et al . ( 2015 ) peru s - shaped hooked castalia ambigua lamarck , 1819 jn243867 jn243889 kp184848 graf et al . ( 2015 ) . . .\n. . . owing to their relatively limited migration and dispersal abilities , their sensitivity to changes in the environment has become evident through heavy declines in recent decades ; freshwater mussels are among the most threatened group of fauna globally ( seddon et al . 2012 ; lopes - lima et al . 2014 ) . australia ' s freshwater mussels belong to six genera , all from the hyriidae , believed to have arisen between the jurassic and cretaceous periods , with westralunio carteri as perhaps the most ancient ( graf et al . 2015 ) and the sole representative of the genus in australia ( mcmichael and hiscock 1958 ) . the taxon was described as a subspecies ( w . . . .\nas members of the iucn red list mollusc specialist committee , we aim to work with collaborators to update the conservation status of freshwater mussels across australia .\nwe wish to determine the origin of helicoidea and sagdoidea within eupulmonata as well as family - level relationship within the superfamilies .\nmolecular phylogenetic analysis of tropical freshwater mussels ( mollusca : bivalvia : unionoida ) resol . . .\nthe freshwater mussels prisodontopsis aviculaeformis ( f . r . woodward , 1991 ) and mweruella mweruensis ( e . a . smith , 1908 ) are endemic to lake mweru and confluent rivers in zambia and the democratic republic of congo in southcentral africa . each species has traditionally been regarded as monotypic at the genus - level or above . we assessed the phylogenetic relationships of these two species together . . . [ show full abstract ]\nbilaterally asymmetrical glochidia ( i . e . bivalved parasitic larvae bearing a large marginal appendage on a single valve ) have been reported from five asian freshwater mussel genera belonging to two separate subfamilies , the gonideinae ( i . e . pseudodon , solenaia , and physunio ) and rectidentinae ( i . e . contradens and trapezoideus ) . this classification requires that the bilaterally asymmetrical . . . [ show full abstract ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\nneed help ? click here for mspace how - to documentation wendy prystenski ( fort garry campus ) , phone : 204 - 474 - 7895 , email : wendy . prystenski @ urltoken\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nin order to access this website , please configure your browser to support cookies .\n877 . 705 . 1878 ( toll - free , u . s . & canada ) 773 . 753 . 3347 ( international )\nbiodivlibrary @ jzed _ trees @ kew _ laa awesome ! we ' re so honored to have this treasure in # bhlib . thanks @ kew _ laa ! now we can enjoy p\u2026 urltoken\nu . s . department of the interior | u . s . geological survey url : urltoken page contact information : pubs warehouse contact page page last modified : july 08 , 2016 12 : 36 : 28\nu . s . department of the interior | u . s . geological survey url : urltoken page contact information : pubs warehouse contact page page last modified : march 12 , 2012 17 : 20 : 27\nis commonly referred to as pearly mussels , naiads , or unionids . although no full accounts for the family\nincludes around 1 , 000 species worldwide ( bauer 2001a ) . charles torrey simpson described 1 , 172 species in 1900 and 1 , 337 in 1914 . a more recent account by fritz haas ( 1969 ) combined over 4 , 000 names into just 837 recognized species ( graf & cummings 2002 ) .\nare acephalic ( no head ) , bivalved mollusks usually with the beak ( the elevated portion of the dorsal margin ) slightly anterior . when present , the pseudocardinal teeth are generally anterior to the beak . the lateral teeth , generally posterior to the beak , are parallel to the hinge line . the species in this family have a foot rather than a byssus , fibrous structures found in other mussel families . along with\ndoes not have true siphons ( true siphons are formed when tissues between the inhalent and exhalent openings are fused and mantle aperatures are elongated ) . unlike the family\nhas unbranched papillae ( bumps ) . individuals vary in shape , size and coloration . adult individuals can range from 30 to 250 mm .\noccur in north america , europe , asia , africa , and the indonesian archipelago ( graf and cummings , 2002 ) and can thrive in tropical to temperate climates . the most diversity is in north america , where there are approximately 286 species ( turgeon et al . , 1998 ) , mainly east of the rocky mountains ( jennings , 2000 ) . the nearly 300 species in north america are grouped into 49 genera , which make up two subfamilies :\nis an example of this broad diversity . only two species are found in the interior united states ( mississippi river basin ) , and the majority of the species ( 36 currently recognized ) are found in the rivers of the southeastern atlantic coastal plain ( watters , 2001a ) . historical documentation describes mussels paving the beds of the ohio and wabash rivers ( warren , 2000 ) .\n( cummings and mayer , 1992 ; graf and cummings , 2008 ; graf , 2002 ; jennings , 2000 ; turgeon , et al . , 1998 ; warren , 2000 ; watters , 2001a )\nunionids are found in various permanent freshwater sources such as lakes , streams , and rivers . the family\nis not found in high mountain lakes , probably due to a lack of proper fish hosts for the glochidia or poor nutrient supply ( smith 2001 ) . most species are generally found where there are coarse substrates like sand or gravel ( smith 2001 ) however , the predictive value of substrate has been questioned ( strayer and ralley , 1993 ) . in michigan , different mussel distributions may more strongly tied to surface geology in the streams ( strayer , 1983 ) . constantly shifting substrates or stream basins composed of solid rock have few mussels . rivers tend to have a more abundant food supply and higher dissolved oxygen content than bodies of water with little or no current . large rivers tend to contain a wider diversity of mussel species and larger populations than smaller streams ( cummings & mayer 1992 ) . watters ( 1992 ) found as the area of a drainage basin increases , so does the fish diversity . this relationship is likely due to the increased diversity in habitat for fish . watters ( 1992 ) also found a linear correlation between fish diversity and mussel diversity , likely due to the increase number of host fish species available .\nbecause the shell is primarily composed of calcium carbonate , mussels prefer an aquatic habitat with an alkaline ph , an abundance of calcium , a bound carbon dioxide content of more than 15 mg / l , and a potassium level less than 7 mg / l . some species are able to tolerate an acidic ph for a short time , but eventually the acid will dissolve the shell and alter the internal chemistry of the visceral mass . calcium and carbon dioxide are important for the development of the shell , and potassium appears to be toxic .\nunionids are most abundant in depths less than 2 m , but will populate waters as deep as 7 m ( smith 2001 ) . the record depth for a\nspecimens ranging between 7 and 14 years old and less than 53 mm long were collected from lake michigan ( reigle 1967 ) .\ncalled\nvalves\n( bivalved ) attached at the hinge by an elastic ligament . they have an\n( beak ) along the dorsal margin and slightly anterior to the hinge and are bilaterally symmetrical along a plane running between the two valves . individuals do not have true siphons . instead , they have two to three openings in the mantle along the posterior margin that act as the inhalant and exhalant apertures ( smith 2001 ) . these openings are either papillated ( bumpy ) or crenulated ( grooved ) along the external margin . under each mantle is a gill made up of two demibranchs . each demibranch is composed of two\nfused at the ventral surface but open at the dorsal surface forming a \u201cw . \u201d each lamella is lined vertically with compact\n, which are closed at the bottom but open into a larger , shared cavity at the top called the suprabranchial chamber . these water tubes are characteristic of\nis found on the anterior end of the organism and between the demibranchs in the two valves . the majority of the median visceral mass in the posterior portion of the organism is primarily dorsal and not as confined in the anterior portion ( smith 2001 ) . unionids have a simple sensory system . their\nis comprised of three pairs of ganglia : cerebropleural , pedal , and visceral . with one on each side of the esophagus , the cerebropleural ganglia are located on the posterior side of the anterior adductor muscle and are connected by a short commissure . in the foot and fused is the pair of pedal ganglia and anterior to the posterior adductor muscle is the partially fused visceral ganglia . the ganglia are connected by long commissures and each pair is the source of the nerve fibers for the surrounding organs ( smith 2001 ) . near the pedal ganglia is a pair of\n, which are ovid or spherical . these statocysts are filled with fluid and lined with sensory cells . they also contain a solid sphere called a statolith ( smith 2001 ) . these mussels generally have closed statocysts and a single statolith ( meglitsch & schram 1991 ) . osphradia are specialized epithelium concentrated in two small regions on the roof of the cloacal chamber ( the posterior end of the suprabranchial chamber in the gills where it is fused ) ( smith 2001 ) . in some species , there is a spot of pigmentation near the inhalant aperture that may be photoactive ( smith 2001 ) .\nadult unionids can range anywhere from 30 to 250 mm ( smith 2001 ) in length , and are just as variable in shape and color . among the common shapes are triangular , circular , rhomboidal , quadrate , trapezoidal , and elliptical ( burch 1975 ) . shape is a general description ; it cannot be heavily relied upon in the identification of species because it can vary among individuals of the same species . it is not uncommon to have a more inflated , rounded form of a species found in large rivers , while the larger , more compressed form of the same species is found in smaller streams and lakes where currents are not as strong . many genera in the subfamily\nexhibit sexual dimorphism . in these species , the males are usually bluntly pointed or squared along the posterior - ventral margin , while females are broadly truncated . periostracum colors vary from yellow or tan to shades of green to dark brown or black . some have solid rays , broken rays , wavy rays , rays composed of chevrons , or even a combination of rays and spots . external shell sculpturing can also vary from one species to another and can be used to distinguish some taxa . sculptures can be one of several combinations of ridges and bumps called\nnodules\nor\npustules .\nnot all mussel species have sculpturing . nearly the entire\nsubfamily has smooth surfaces with the exception of ridges formed from the concentric growth rings . another exterior sculpturing that is relied upon in identification is beak sculpture . beak sculptures range from numerous fine concentric ridges to a few distinctive bars to double - looped or v - shaped ridges . in some cases , the difference in beak sculpture is the best way to distinguish between two species . other exterior shell characteristics may include a prominent posterior ridge extending from beak to posterior - ventral margin , a unique texture to the periostracum , or a wing - like structure extending from the dorsal margin .\nare the parasitic stage of the larvae and are generally dependent on a host to survive . mature glochidia range from 0 . 05 to 0 . 5 mm in diameter . they are bivalves , which vary in shape from triangular , circular , oblong , or ( in\nonly ) ax head shaped and are typically attached by a single adductor muscle . most glochidia have sensory hairs lining their mantle and a larval thread protruding from the open valves , which may allow them to attach to the host . many species have hook - like structures to allow them to attach to the fins or skin of the fish . those species without hooks usually attach to the gills .\nmeasurements are generally taken of the length , height , and width . the length is the distance from the anterior to the posterior margin . the height is the distance from dorsal to ventral margin , usually at the beak . width is the widest point when the mussel valves are together , which is usually below the beaks . in addition , some identification keys will use the length to height ratio as a way to distinguish some species .\nembryonic unionids develop within the marsupia , or specialized portions of the gills , of the female . once fully developed , they are\nfrom the female and must attach to the gills or fins of a fish host within a few days or they will die .\nare the only two species capable of direct development without a host ( watters 1994c ) . only one species ,\n. many unionids are species - specific , requiring one or a narrow range of species . if attached to the wrong species , the glochidia will die as a result of the fish ' s immune system response ( watters 1998 ) . within a couple of days , the hosts\u2019 dermal tissue will encapsulate each glochidium forming a nodular cyst . while encysted , the glochidia will metamorphose , allowing the organs to develop more like an adult\u2019s organs ( meglitsch & schram 1991 ) . there is a mortality rate of over 99 . 99 % from the time the glochidia are released from the mother to the time in which the metamorphosed juveniles settle in the sediments ( jansen et al 2001 ) .\n( jansen , et al . , 2001 ; meglitsch and schram , 1991 ; watters , 1994c ; watters , 1998 )\nafter an average of 10 - 30 days ( the record is 190 days ) , the metamorphosis will be complete and the glochidia will break from the cysts and drop from the host . the third and final stage of development occurs in the sediments of the stream or lake and may last anywhere from one to eight years before the juvenile is sexually mature . in this juvenile stage , the young mussel will complete its internal development , create the adult shell , and begin to live independently in the stream or lake .\nas in most bivalves , the shell is composed of three layers : the periostracum , the prismatic layer , and the nacre . the periostracum is the outermost layer and is composed of an organic material . the prismatic layer is the middle layer and is composed of thin blocks of a prism - like calcium carbonate , which are oriented perpendicular to the mantle and the other two layers . the nacre , or mother of pearl , is the innermost layer , which is composed of thin , alternating , laminae ( flakes or sheets ) of calcium carbonate and an organic material ( smith 2001 ) . the mantle is responsible for generating new shell as the mussel ages . a mantle flap is pressed against the interior of each valve and ends in three folds . the periostracum forms at the outer margin and the prismatic layer forms at the outer border . the nacre forms along the entire surface of the mantle .\nform where the muscle attaches to the shell , disrupting the formation of the nacre . instead of the shell forming along the dorsal edge where the hinge is located , an elastic hinge ligament composed of conchiolin ( a protein - rich substance ) forms , binding the two valves together ( meglitsch & schram 1991 ) .\n. because new shell is added along the entire edge of the mantle , concentric rings form around the beak . in some species , these rings may be grouped closer together in some areas than others , forming ridges . these ridges indicate the period of diapause during the winter or unfavorable environmental conditions , such as lower water level or lack of food . the period of growth in northern populations is typically from april to september . the growth rate depends mostly on environmental conditions such as water temperature , food supply , and the chemical composition of the water . many mussel species are capable of growing 30 to 80 mm every two growing seasons .\na few species are occasionally or permanently simultaneous hermaphrodites ( bauer 1987 ) , but in most cases , unionid sexes are separate . bauer ( 1987 ) suggested that hermaphroditism occurs when the population density is low or gene flow is limited . in these cases , the female is the only one of the two sexes that can become hermaphroditic . despite the dioecious nature of most mussels , males and females do not make contact with each other . males produce sperm year round and\nduring the time of year when females ovulate ( matteson 1948 ) . this simultaneous release of gametes may be triggered by a change in the water temperature and the intensity of light in the environment . the male\u2019s sperm leaves the suprabranchial chamber of each demibranch and exits the organism through the exhalant aperture to be carried by the water current to a nearby female . because sperm cannot swim against the current , the receiving female must be downstream ( watters 1994a ) . the sperm enters the female through the inhalant aperture and fertilizes the eggs stored in the water tubes of the demibranch\u2019s lamellae ( smith 2001 ) .\ndepending on the species , sexual maturity is reached between one and eight years ( smith 2001 ) . gamete production is initiated by a change in the water temperature surrounding the mussel ( watters 1998 ) . annual gametogenesis and gravidity may occur throughout the year or during certain seasons depending on latitude . the more northern populations tend to be gravid for a few months or all winter long and release the glochidia in the spring . there are a few species that release the glochidia in the fall . in many cases , southern populations are not restricted to reproducing during certain seasons . the number of larvae developing in one female at a time may range from several thousand in some of the smaller\ngenera to possibly over 1 million . the maximum amount of glochidia in one female is unknown , but tankersley and dimock ( 1992 ) recorded nearly 1 million in a\n, contains species which have produced more than 3 million per individual ( smith 2001 ) . bradytictic ( long term ) breeders will maintain the glochidia within the marsupia , the specialized portions of the gills , until the following spring or summer before\n. tachytictic ( short term ) breeders will release the glochidia in the same year , usually by july or august ( watters 1998 ) . matteson ( 1948 ) was convinced that the membrane surrounding the developing embryos provides all of the necessary nutrients , rather than the female transferring food to the developing young . his conclusion was based on a lack of connective structure from the gills to the young and that the fertilization membrane surrounding each embryo , which prevents the passing of any materials , remains until development is complete .\nunionid embryos spend the first stage of development in the marsupial portion of the female unionid ' s gills , where they develop into glochidia , the parasitic stage . once the first stage is complete , usually in the spring , the female will\ninto the water to begin the second stage as a parasite . because glochidial mortality is high , many unionids have developed specialized methods of attracting fish to the mother before the glochidia are released , increasing the chances the larvae can attach to a host . some of these species extend the glochidia encapsulated in conglutinates ( chamberlain 1934 ) . these conglutinates ( sacs ) are attached to the parent organism and move in the current like worms . this encapsulated appendage acts as a lure to attract the host fish , which then eats the glochidia freeing them from the capsule and allowing them to attach to the gills of the fish . other species use a modified mantle flap to attract the fish . this flap mimics the prey of the potential host fish . the glochidia are sensitive enough to attach themselves to the fish as soon as contact is made .\nfor small organisms , unionids are long - lived , living an average of 10 or more years ( cummings & mayer 1992 ) . some genera live only 8 to 9 years , while others can live up to 10 to 15 years ( smith 2001 ) . given the proper conditions , many species can live up to 20 or 30 years ( watters 1998 ) . bauer ( 2001b ) suggested life span is dependent upon metabolic rate . mussels with a higher metabolic rate tend to have a shorter life span . those unionids in larger rivers or streams would have a higher metabolic rate due to the abundance of food , and would be expected to have a short life . unionids that thrive further upstream may have a longer lifespan because they would have adapted to a limited food supply by decreasing their metabolic rate . although metabolic rate is a key factor affecting longevity in some species , it is not a universal constant . some species with similar metabolic rates may have very different lifespans .\nfor the most part , mussels are sedentary , but they are capable of a restricted form of locomotion . they move around by a series of muscular motions of the\nlocated at the anterior end of each individual . the foot is thrust forward first . it then swells and shortens at the same time , causing the body and shell to pull forward slightly . this process is repeated until the mussel has reached its destination . some species have been recorded to move up to several feet within an hour . researchers are still unsure what causes this migration , but they suspect the movement is caused by a drop in water level or some other unfavorable change in the surrounding environment .\nunionids are solitary organisms . the only intra - or inter - species interactions occur during reproduction . once they drop from the host , the mussel becomes a solitary individual and live partially buried in the sediments . as juveniles , mussels burrow into the sediments along the bottom of the stream or lake , which protects them from predators . once mature , more of the organism must protrude from the substrate in order for the inhalant and exhalant apertures to bring in and expel water . because more of the shell is visible , they are more susceptible to predation .\nduring winter months and aestivation periods ( matteson 1955 ; van der schalie 1940 ) , mussels will burrow into the substrate until only the apertures are protruding . they then go into a state of dormancy where the apertures only open on occasion . some genera are able to survive in this dormant state among the dry to moist sediments for months at a time ( smith 2001 ) ."]}
{"id": 70, "summary": [{"text": "elimia tenera , formerly known as goniobasis tenera , is an extinct species of freshwater snail with an operculum , in the aquatic gastropod mollusk family pleuroceridae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this species flourished during the eocene and is now known only from the fossil record .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the genus name elimia was restored to this species in 1975 ; formerly it was placed in goniobasis . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "elimia tenera", "paragraphs": ["aquamarine | elimia tenera fossil | raw aquamarine & elimia tenera mismatched earring studs . mermaid earrings . boho jewelry .\nturritella agate slab , elimia agate slice for cabbing or display , fossilized elimia tenera , 91x64x6 . 7mm\npaleo & geo topics : comments by r . l . squires : elimia tenera : a commonly misidentified eocene freshwater snail\nelimia tenera , green river formation , usa , eocene era ( 45 mya ) - 18 . 8g | fossils | pinterest | green river\nelimia tenera , green river formation , usa , eocene era ( 45 mya ) - 15 . 4g | fossils | pinterest | green river\nclick the button below to add the turritella ( elimia tenera ) fossil - 34 to 56 mya - actual authentic fossil to your wish list .\nthis rock ( 77 mm width ) is fully packed with specimens of e . tenera .\nelimia tenera : specimen on the left ( 19 mm height ) shows the spiral ribs , and the specimen on the right ( 14 mm height ) shows both spiral and radial ribs .\nturritella agate , elimia tenera fossil shell , 6mm ( 6 . 4mm ) round beads , 16 inch , full strand , approx 65 beads , hole 1mm , a + quality ( 421054002 )\nnamed\nturritella\nin error decades ago . the correct name is\nelimia agate .\nthis polished slab ( 37 mm width ) shows only the cross section of shells of e . tenera .\nso , next time you visit your favorite rock and fossil shop or show , ask for an agatized elimia tenera cabechon . it is very likely no one will know what you are talking about . but you will !\nrather , the green river formation fresh water snail species is elimia tenera , and is a member of the pleuroteridae family of gastropods . the best preserved specimens are found in the laney member of the green river formation in sweetwater county , wyoming . elimia tenera are prolifically preserved in regions of southern wyoming , northern colorado and northeastern utah where near shore lake beds were silicified during burial . intermittent volcanic eruptions likely provided the hot silica - rich ground waters responsible for shallow formation of chalcedony in a subtropical environment where the gastropods thrived .\nelimia tenera , which used to be ( and incorrectly ) called goniobasis tenera , is a freshwater snail that lived in shallow subtropical lakes with intermittent volcanic eruptions nearby . this gastropod is of eocene age and is commonly found in the laney member of the green river formation in utah . this is the same formation that famously has many very well preserved fish , insect , leaf , and other fossils .\nover the years , as i have viewed various collections of fossils , i have come across specimens of a small fossil gastropod that occur in great abundance . rocks containing these shells can be found for sale in rock shops or online , and the shells are commonly and incorrectly called \u201c turritella agate . \u201d these rocks do not consist of turritella ; rather they consists of specimens of the freshwater gastropod elimia tenera ( hall , 1845 ) , which have been preserved in chalcedony . actual specimens of turritella can be much larger , possess only spiral ribs , and are known only from shallow - marine deposits . elimia tenera has both radial and spiral ribs , and the aperture of elimia is quite unlike that of turritella .\nabundant plants and algae grew on the margins of these lakes , providing a perfect habitat and food source for elimia tenera , the freshwater snail . when the snails died , their shells sank to the bottom of the lake . the snails were so prolific that entire lenses of sediment were composed almost entirely of their shells .\nthis organic gem material was incorrectly named decades ago when the christener thought that the spectacular spiral - shaped gastropod ( snail ) fossils entombed within the stone were members of the marine turritella genus . that was a mistake . instead , the fossils are of the freshwater snail , elimia tenera , a member of the pleuroceridae family .\nif you want to learn more about elimia tenera and the best name for turritella agate , we recommend a visit to the paleontological research institution - people who know what they are talking about when it comes to fossils . their article on turritella agate was authored by dr . warren d . allmon , director of the institution .\nthe rock shown above is lacustrine fossiliferous chert packed with fossil snails . this material is popular with rockhounds and lapidarists , who call it\nturritella agate\n. well , it ' s not agate - it ' s fossiliferous chert . and the snails aren ' t turritella , they are elimia tenera ( animalia , mollusca , gastropoda , cerithioidea , pleuroceridae ) .\nturritella agate is a type of chalcedony rich sedimentary rock from wyoming usa . it is characterized by the distinct snail shell - like creamy coloured markings within a mainly dark brown / black base . the creamy patterns are created by , and composed of , the silicated fossilized remains of an extinct type of freshwater snail , namely elimia tenera , from the turritella genus .\nthese three specimens of e . tenera are internal casts ( i . e . , each one shows only the interior of a shell , which was filled with chalcedony ) . the largest specimen is 14 mm height .\nthere has been considerable disagreement in blogs and websites as to whether or not the e . tenera specimens , found in rock shops , have been replaced by chalcedony or agate . technically speaking , chalcedony is the \u201cculprit . \u201d it is a microcrystalline form of silica , and chalcedony has many varieties , including agate , which commonly has multi - colored curved or angular banding . the specimens of e . tenera that i have seen were replaced by a fairly uniform brown or gray color of \u201cordinary\u201d chalcedony and not replaced by the more eye - catching , beautiful colors typically associated with agate .\nturritella agate / elimia agate : a close - up photo of a sawn surface of turritella agate showing numerous spiral - shaped snail shells . this type of view shows how the internal cavities of the shells and the voids between the shells have all been infilled with the translucent - to - transparent agate . this view is about two inches across .\nif you go into a rock shop or a gem , mineral , and fossil show and ask for\nelimia agate ,\na lot of people will say that they have never heard of it . but , if you ask for turritella , almost everyone around you will know what it is . the incorrect name is that well - entrenched in the lapidary trade .\nbefore the correct name was realized and widely published , the gem material became quite popular and the name\nturritella\nwent wild in lapidary magazines , gem , mineral , and fossil books , catalogs , and exhibits . today it is typically seen without corrective note in all of those sources , along with websites , online auctions , and computer software . only a fraction of the people who have collected the material , cut it into cabochons , sold it , bought it , or worn it in jewelry have any knowledge that elimia is a more appropriate name .\nmolluscan taxa and their paleoecological associations appear to remain uniform throughout deposition of the formation , except for the large planorbid biomphalaria pseudoammonius , which occurs only in the bridgerian - aged rocks of the formation . living forms of the most common freshwater taxa elimia , viviparus , and the unionids ) do not now naturally occur in the rocky mountains , but occur in two separated regions : one in the eastern mississippi river drainages , the other in the pacific northwest . this distribution reflects the shift from perennial warm waters in the eocene to cooler , largely intermittent waters in the post - eocene .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : north american freshwater snails author : j b burch publisher : hamburg , mich . : malacological publications , \u00a91989 . oclc : 20559611\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nonline version : burch , j . b . ( john bayard ) , 1929 - north american freshwater snails . hamburg , mich . : malacological publications , \u00a91989 ( ocolc ) 767787615\npreface v i . introduction 1 ii . systematics , nomenclature , indentification and morphology 7 - systematics 7 - nomenclature 18 - identification and morphology 25 iii . habitats and distribution 74 - habitats 74 - distribution 76 iv . species list , ranges and illustrations 81 - family neritinidae [ neritidae ] 81 - family valvatidae 81 - family viviparidae 84 - family ampullariidae [ pilidae ] 90 - family bithyniidae 92 - family micromelaniidae 92 - family hydrobiidae 92 - family pomatiopsidae 130 - family thiaridae 130 - family pleuroceridae 131 - family acroloxidae 170 - family lymnaeidae 170 - family physidae 182 - family planorbidae 194 - family ancylidae 212 v . identification keys to the freshwater gastropods of north america 217 - families and higher taxa 217 - family neritidae [ neritinidae ] 223 - family valvatidae 223 - family viviparidae 227 - family ampullariidae [ pilidae ] 230 - family bithyniidae 230 - family micromelaniidae 231 - family hydrobiidae 231 - family pomatiopsidae 239 - family thiaridae 240 - family pleuroceridae 241 - family acroloxidae 247 - family lymnaeidae 247 - family physidae 253 - family planorbidae 254 - family ancylidae 261 vi . generic synonymy 264 vii . supplemental notes 268 viii . glossary 285 ix . references 77 , 293 x . index 338 corrigenda 80 , 283\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nnorth american freshwater snails / j b burch ; hamburg , mich . : malacological publications , \u00a91989 .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nauthor : hobart m . king , ph . d . , gia graduate gemologist\nturritella agate is the popular name used for a brown , translucent , fossiliferous agate found in the green river formation of wyoming . it is very easy to recognize because it contains large fossil snails that stand out in a white - to - tan color that contrasts with the brownish agate .\nit is possible that the misnamed turritella is the best - known fossil from the green river formation .\nturritella agate cabochon : a cabochon cut from turritella agate that features one of the spiral - shaped snail shells . this cab is about 1 1 / 2 by 1 inch in size .\nabout 50 million years ago , during the eocene epoch , the young rocky mountains were almost finished growing , and the landscape of what is now parts of colorado , utah , and wyoming consisted of rugged mountains separated by broad intermountain basins . rains falling on the slopes of these mountains ran off of the land and collected into streams that carried sand , silt , mud , and dissolved materials down into the lakes that occupied the intermountain basins . over time , these sediments began filling the lakes , and many types of fossils were preserved within them .\nafter these layers were buried , groundwater moved through the sediments . small amounts of dissolved microcrystalline silica in the groundwater began to precipitate , possibly in the form of a gel , within the cavities of the snail shells and the empty spaces between them . over time , the entire mass of fossils was silicified , forming the brown fossiliferous agate ( also known as chalcedony ) that we know today as turritella agate .\nthe green river formation is one of the best - known rock units in the world for its fossils . some geologists call it a\nlagerst\u251c\u0105tte ,\na name given to a rock unit that is exceptionally rich in fossils . spectacular fish , plant , insect , and animal fossils have been found in the green river formation .\nturritella slab : a slab of turritella agate about six inches in width and 3 / 8 inch thick . slabs like this are used to cut cabochons . the lapidary selects a nice scene in the slab , saws a rough outline , and grinds the material into a cab .\nfor at least the past fifty years , turritella agate has been prized as a unique and beautiful gem material . when it is completely silicified , it can be sawn into slabs that are polished and used for bookends , desk sets , clock faces , and other lapidary craft items .\nmany lapidaries mark ovals , circles , squares and other shapes on the slabs and cut them into cabochons . these make great pendants , belt buckles , bolos , ring stones , and earrings . scraps and pieces too small to slab or make other items with can be placed in a rock tumbler to produce some of the most interesting tumbled stones .\npeople who see these beautiful projects marvel that so many spectacular fossils are preserved in the rock . they are also surprised by the cross - sections of the fossils that are visible in great detail on the slabs , cabs , and tumbled stones . turritella is one of the most fascinating gem materials and a lesson in snail anatomy .\nthe rock material that contains the fossil snails ranges from a shale to a sandstone . some of it has been silicified into a dense agate that is free of voids and serves as an excellent gem material . however , most of the material is only somewhat silicified , or unsilicified .\nwhen purchasing or collecting material for lapidary work , it must be carefully inspected to be sure that it is fully silicified and that the fossils are firmly cemented into the rock . some of the vendors who sell it do not know the qualities that are needed for lapidary work . incompletely silicified material is a waste of money and time . it is frustrating to cut , yields a low - quality product , and doesn ' t even make nice tumbled stones .\nturritella agate rough : another close - up photo of turritella agate . the width of this view is about two inches .\nimages , code , and content on this website are property of urltoken and are protected by copyright law .\ndr . squires shares his enthusiasm for interesting paleontologic and geologic topics with the general public .\ntoday is confined entirely to north american fresh waters : the eastern united states and into texas and from southern canada to florida . pleurocerids might be relicts ( \u201cliving fossils\u201d ) from earlier geologic times ( paleozoic ? ) in eastern north america .\ni taught paleontology for 40 years at california state university northridge . my on - going research concerns fossil mollusks ( i . e . , snails and clams ) that can be found in cretaceous and cenozoic rocks along the west coast of north america .\nall images and text are copyrighted by r . squires , unless otherwise noted . . simple theme . powered by blogger .\nthe premier and trusted museum store company for ancient art , artifacts of antiquity , historic museum jewelry reproductions , museum reproductions , art history replicas , archaeology & museum gifts .\nown a piece of history . . . give a piece of history ( tm ) - established 1997\n. item descriptions are entirely informational without any claim to origin or manufacture . none of our products are indian made or an indian product under u . s . c . 305et . seq . not responsible for errors / omissions . items are for decorative use only . warning : toys , games , and other items may contain small parts which pose a choking hazard and are not for children under 3 . adult supervision is recommended for all of our items . all\nare licensed trademarks of museum store company and arden technologies , inc . all rights reserved\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nbeginning of a dialog window , including tabbed navigation to register an account or sign in to an existing account . both registration and sign in support using google and facebook accounts . escape will close this window .\nby clicking register , you agree to etsy ' s terms of use and privacy policy . etsy may send you communications ; you may change your preferences in your account settings .\nturritella agate pendant . turritella necklace . fossil necklace . fossil jewelry . protection stone . gift for him .\nyou ' ve already signed up for some newsletters , but you haven ' t confirmed your address . register to confirm your address .\nset where you live , what language you speak , and the currency you use . learn more .\nstart typing the name of a page . hit esc to close , enter to select the first result .\n? well you ' re in luck , because here they come . there are\nwe don ' t know when or if this item will be back in stock .\nlist & earn rs . 250 * extra . available in bangalore , mumbai , chennai , hyderabad .\nenter your mobile number or email address below and we ' ll send you a link to download the free kindle app . then you can start reading kindle books on your smartphone , tablet , or computer - no kindle device required .\nprime members enjoy unlimited free , fast delivery on eligible items , video streaming , ad - free music , exclusive access to deals & more .\nafter viewing product detail pages , look here to find an easy way to navigate back to pages you are interested in .\n, department of geology and geological engineering , univ of north dakota , box 8358 , grand forks , nd 58202 , joseph _ hartman @ und . nodak . edu , hanley , john h , u . s . geol survey , denver federal center , box 25046 , denver , co 80225 , good , steven c . , department of geology & astronomy , west chester univ , west chester , pa 19383 , and evanoff , emmett , university of colorado museum , univ colorado - boulder , campus box 265 , boulder , co 80309 - 0265\nthe shells of freshwater and terrestrial mollusks occur in all facies of the wasatchian and bridgerian - age green river formation and can be so abundant as to form coquinas . fossil assemblages include freshwater gastropods , terrestrial ( subaerial ) gastropods , freshwater mussels , and fingernail clams .\n. these two gill - bearing snails are most abundant in the high - energy shore facies of the formation . other gastropods include species of\n( heterostropha ) . the latter are typically the only gastropods that occur in the sublittoral oil shales . freshwater pulmonate gastropods are numerically rare in the formation but include species of\n. the pulmonate gastropods typically occur in near - shore facies and in pond deposits in the wasatch and bridger formations lateral to the green river formation .\nis most abundant in the near - shore facies . the highly alkaline chemistries of the green river lakes allowed for the preservation of the glochidium on adult shells of\nis most abundant in the sublittoral facies and can occur in the oil shales .\n\u00a9 copyright 2002 the geological society of america ( gsa ) , all rights reserved . permission is hereby granted to the author ( s ) of this abstract to reproduce and distribute it freely , for noncommercial purposes . permission is hereby granted to any individual scientist to download a single copy of this electronic file and reproduce up to 20 paper copies for noncommercial purposes advancing science and education , including classroom use , providing all reproductions include the complete content shown here , including the author information . all other forms of reproduction and / or transmittal are prohibited without written permission from gsa copyright permissions .\nwe interpret the lower laclede bed to record deposition in a balanced - fill lake basin , in which lakes of varying salinity expanded and contracted across a low - relief basin floor . the preservation of shoreline and alluvial facies in the northeastern part of the transect suggest maximum lake depths of ~ 50 m or less , based on analogy to the modern bear river delta in utah . we interpret the upper laclede bed to record deposition in an overfilled lake basin , that was continuously occupied by a relatively stable , freshwater lake with an outlet to the south .\nprevious studies concluded that the transition to overfilled conditions resulted from capture of the idaho river . the results of this study suggest a more complex process of continuous watershed expansion that occurred throughout laney member deposition . based on 87s r / 86 sr ratios , the base of the laney member in the bridger basin appears to be slightly older than in the washakie basin . capture of the idaho river did trigger the shift to overfilled conditions however , and southward spillage of lake gosiute caused lakes in the piceance creek and uinta basins to merge and deposit the highly organic - rich mahogany zone . detritus from the challis volcanic field eventually filled in lake gosiute , and was then carried downstream to partly fill lake uinta .\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\nwe thank b . l . beard , k . m . bohacs , h . p . buchheim , g . grabowski , c . m . johnson , j . t . pietras , and m . e . smith for their helpful assistance , advice , and discussions concerning the laney member . e . drew , e . parcher - wartes , and j . van alstine served as tireless field assistants during this project , and a . devaughn assisted with laboratory analyses . we are grateful for funding received from conoco , texaco , the u . s . national science foundation ( ear - 9406684 and ear - 9628549 to c . m . johnson ) , the donors of the petroleum research fund of the american chemical society , the j . david love wyoming field geology fellowship , and the university of wisconsin - madison department of geoscience , and the morgridge distinguished graduate fellowship . we also thank m . e . smith for thoughtfully reviewing the manuscript .\naswasereelert w , meyers sr , carroll ar , peters se , smith me , feigl kl ( 2013 ) basin - scale cyclostratigraphy of the green river formation , wyoming . geol soc am bull 125 : 216\u2013228\nbaker pa , kastner m ( 1981 ) constraints on the formation of sedimentary dolomite . science 213 : 214\u2013216\nbehr h ( 2002 ) magaiite and magadi chert ; a critical analysis of the silica sediments in the lake magadi basin , kenya . in : renaut rw , ashley g ( eds ) sedimentation in continental rifts , vol 73 , society for sedimentary geology ( sepm ) special publication . sepm ( society for sedimentary geology ) , tulsa , pp 257\u2013273\nbohacs km ( 1998 ) contrasting expressions of depositional sequences in mudrocks from marine to nonmarine environs . in : schieber j , zimmerlie w , sethi p ( eds ) mudstones and shales , v . 1 , characteristics at the basin scale . schweizerbart\u2019sche verlagsbuchhandlung , stuttgart , pp 32\u201377\nbohacs km , carroll ar , neal je , mankiewicz pj ( 2000 ) lake - basin type , source potential , and hydrocarbon character : an integrated sequence - stratigraphic - geochemical framework . in : gierlowski - kordesch eh , kelts kr ( eds ) lake basins through space and time , vol 46 , american association of petroleum geologists studies in geology . american association of petroleum geologists , tulsa , pp 3\u201334\nbradley wh ( 1929 ) the varves and climate of the green river epoch . u . s . geological survey professional paper 158 - e .\nbradley wh ( 1964 ) the geology of the green river formation and associated eocene rocks in southwestern wyoming and adjacent parts of colorado and utah . u . s . geological survey professional paper 496 - a .\nbraunagel lh , stanley ko ( 1977 ) origin of variegated redbeds in the cathedral bluffs tongue of the wasatch formation ( eocene ) , wyoming . j sediment petrol 47 : 1201\u20131219\nbuchheim hp ( 1978 ) paleolimnology of the laney member of the eocene green river formation . phd thesis , university of wyoming , laramie , 101 p\nbuchheim hp , surdam rc ( 1977 ) fossil catfish and the depositional environment of the green river formation , wyoming . geology 5 : 196\u2013198\ncarroll ar , bohacs km ( 1999 ) stratigraphic classification of ancient lakes : balancing tectonic and climatic controls . geology 27 : 99\u2013102\ncarroll ar , doebbert ac , booth al , chamberlain cp , rhodes - carson mk , smith me , johnson cm , beard bl ( 2008 ) capture of high - altitude precipitation by a low - altitude eocene lake , western u . s . geology 36 : 791\u2013794\ncasanova j , hillaire - marcel c ( 1992 ) late holocene hydrological history of lake tanganyika , east africa , from isotopic data on fossil stromatolites . palaeogeogr palaeoclimatol palaeoecol 91 : 35\u201348\nchetel lm , carroll ar ( 2010 ) terminal infill of eocene lake gosiute , wyoming , usa . j sediment res 80 : 492\u2013514\nchetel l , janecke su , carroll ar , beard bl , johnson cm , singer bs ( 2011 ) paleographic reconstruction of the eocene idaho river , north american cordillera . geol soc am bull 123 : 71\u201388\ncohen as , thouin c ( 1987 ) near - shore carbonate deposits in lake tanganyika . geology 15 : 414\u2013418\ndemaison dj , moore gt ( 1980 ) anoxic environments and oil source bed genesis . aapg bull 64 : 1179\u20131209\ndesborough ga ( 1978 ) a biogenic - chemical stratified lake model for the origin of oil shale of the green river formation : an alternative to the playa - lake model . geol soc am bull 89 : 961\u2013971\ndickinson wr , klute ma , hayes mj , janecke su , lundin er , mckittrick ma , olivares md ( 1988 ) paleogeographic and paleotectonic setting of laramide sedimentary basins in the central rocky mountain region . geol soc am bull 100 : 1023\u20131039\ndoebbert ac , carroll ar , mulch a , chetel lm , chamberlain cp ( 2010 ) geomorphic controls on lacustrine isotopic compositions : evidence from the laney member , green river formation , wyoming . geol soc am bull 122 : 236\u2013252\ndoebbert ac , johnson cm , carroll ar , beard bl , pietras jt , rhodes - carson mk , norsted b , throckmorton la ( 2014 ) controls on sr isotopic evolution in lacustrine systems : eocene green river formation , wyoming . chem geol 380 : 172\u2013179\neggleston jr , dean we ( 1976 ) freshwater stromatolitic biotherms in green lake , new york . in : walker mr ( ed ) stromatolites . elsevier , amsterdam , pp 479\u2013488\neugster hp ( 1967 ) hydrous sodium silicates from lake magadi , kenya ; precursors of bedded chert . science 157 : 1177\u20131180\neugster hp ( 1969 ) inorganic bedded cherts from the magadi area . contrib mineral petrol 22 : 2\u201331\nfischer ag , roberts lt ( 1991 ) cyclicity in the green river formation ( lacustrine eocene ) of wyoming . j sediment petrol 61 : 1146\u20131154\nhalley rb ( 1976 ) textural variation within great salt lake algal mounds . in : walker mr ( ed ) stromotolites . elsevier , amsterdam , pp 435\u2013445\nhorsfield b , curry dj , bohacs km , littke r , rullk\u00f6tter j , schenk hj , radke m , schaefer rg , carroll ar , isaksen g , witte eg ( 1994 ) organic geochemistry of freshwater and alkaline lacustrine sediments in the green river formation of the washakie basin , wyoming , u . s . a . org geochem 22 : 415\u2013440\nkelts kr , hs\u00fc kj ( 1978 ) freshwater carbonate sedimentation . in : lerman a ( ed ) lakes : chemistry , geology , and physics . springer , berlin , pp 295\u2013323\nkornegay gl , surdam rc ( 1980 ) the laney member of the green river formation , sand wash basin , colorado , and its relationship to wyoming . in : hollis s ( ed ) stratigraphy of wyoming . wyoming geological association 31st annual field conference guidebook , pp 191\u2013204\nludlam sd ( 1969 ) fayetteville green lake , new york ; 3 . the laminated sediments . limnol oceanogr 14 : 848\u2013857\nma l ( 2006 ) origin of dolomite in the green river formation . university of houston ph . d . dissertation , 336 p\nmachlus ml , olsen pe , christie - blick n , hemming sr ( 2008 ) spectral analysis of the lower eocene wilkins peak member , green river formation , wyoming : support for milankovitch cyclicity . earth planet sci lett 268 : 64\u201375\nmachlus ml , ramezani j , bowring sa , hemming sr , tsukui k , clyde wc ( 2015 ) a strategy for cross - calibrating u\u2013pb chronology and astrochronology of sedimentary sequences : an example from the green river formation , wyoming , usa . earth planet sci lett 413 : 70\u201378\nmeyers sr ( 2008 ) resolving milankovitchian controversies : the triassic latemar limestone and the eocene green river formation . geology 36 : 319\u2013322\nmurphy jt , lowenstein tk , pietras jt ( 2014 ) preservation of primary lake signatures in alkaline earth carbonates of the eocene green river wilkins peak - laney member transition zone . sediment geol 314 : 75\u201391\nplatt nh , wright vp ( 1991 ) lacustrine carbonates : facies models , facies distributions and hydrocarbon aspects . in : anad\u00f3n p , cabrera l , kelts k ( eds ) lacustrine facies analysis , vol 13 , international association of sedimentologists special publication . blackwell scientific publications , oxford / boston , pp 57\u201374\nrhodes mk , carroll ar , pietras jt , beard bl , johnson cm ( 2002 ) strontium isotope record of paleohydrology and continental weathering , eocene green river formation , wyoming . geology 30 ( 2 ) : 167\u2013170\nroehler hw ( 1973 ) stratigraphic divisions and geologic history of the laney member of the green river formation in the washakie basin in southwestern wyoming . u . s . geological survey bulletin 1372 - e .\nroehler hw ( 1992 ) correlation , composition , areal distribution , and thickness of eocene stratigraphic units , greater green river basin , wyoming , utah , and colorado . u . s . geological survey professional paper 1506 - e .\nroehler hw ( 1993 ) eocene climates , depositional environments , and geography , greater green river basin , wyoming , utah , and colorado . u . s . geological survey professional paper 1506 - f .\nschultz c , buchheim hp , awramik s ( 2004 ) a high resolution archive of lake dynamics preserved in the stromatolites of the laney member of the green river formation ( eocene ) . geol soc am abstr progr 36 : 285\nar geochronology of the eocene green river formation , wyoming . geol soc am bull 115 : 549\u2013565\nsmith me , carroll ar , singer bs ( 2008 ) synoptic reconstruction of a major ancient lake system : eocene green river formation , western united states . geol soc am bull 120 : 54\u201384\nar , u - pb , and astronomical ages from the green river formation . geology 38 : 527\u2013530\nsmith me , jicha br , carroll ar , cassel ej , scott jj ( 2014 ) paleogeographic record of eocene farallon slab rollback beneath western north america . geology 42 : 1039\u20131042\nstanley ko , surdam rc ( 1978 ) sedimentation on the front of eocene gilbert - type deltas , washakie basin , wyoming . j sediment petrol 48 : 557\u2013573\nsurdam rc , stanley ko ( 1979 ) lacustrine sedimentation during the culminating phase of eocene lake gosiute , wyoming ( green river formation ) . geol soc am bull 90 : 93\u2013110\nsurdam rc , stanley ko ( 1980 ) effects of changes in drainage - basin boundaries on sedimentation in eocene lakes gosiute and uinta of wyoming , utah , and colorado . geology 8 : 135\u2013139\ntalbot mr , allen pa ( 1996 ) lakes , 3 . in : reading hg ( ed ) sedimentary environments ; processes , facies and stratigraphy . blackwell , oxford , pp 83\u2013124\nvan wagoner jc , posamentier hw , mitchum rm , vail pr , sarg jf , loutit ts , hardenbol j ( 1988 ) an overview of sequence stratigraphy and key definitions . in : wilgus cw et al ( eds ) sea level changes : an integrated approach , vol 42 , sepm special publication . society of economic paleontologists and mineralogists , tulsa , pp 39\u201345\nwinland hd , matthews rk ( 1974 ) origin and significance of grapestone , bahama islands . j sediment petrol 44 : 921\u2013927\nwolfbauer ca , surdam rc ( 1974 ) origin of nonmarine dolomite in eocene lake gosiute , green river basin , wyoming . geol soc am bull 85 : 1733\u20131740\nrhodes m . k . , carroll a . r . ( 2015 ) lake type transition from balanced - fill to overfilled : laney member , green river formation , washakie basin , wyoming . in : smith m . , carroll a . ( eds ) stratigraphy and paleolimnology of the green river formation , western usa . syntheses in limnogeology , vol 1 . springer , dordrecht\ngreen river fossil bat : this 5 . 5 inch long bat is the most primitive bat known . claws on each finger of its wings indicate it was probably an agile climber and crawled along and under tree branches searching for insects . national park service photo . enlarge image .\nthe green river formation has yielded some of the best - preserved and oldest fossil bats ever found . it has also produced a variety of other unusual fossils such as turtles , crayfish , and horses . the photos shown below are by the national park service - fossil butte national monument .\ngreen river fossil turtle : this 1 . 7 meter ( 5 foot 6 inch ) softshell turtle is one of the largest turtles from fossil lake . during the eocene , trionychid turtles reached maximum size . today , north america ' s largest softshell turtles reach 51 cm ( 20 inches ) in length . national park service photo . enlarge image .\ngreen river fossil turtle : this ten - inch - long turtle belongs to the baenidae family , an extinct north american group . shell characteristics , a very long tail and recurved claws suggest they were strong bottom - walking turtles . national park service photo . enlarge image .\ngreen river fossil horse : most mammal fossils consist of teeth and bone fragments . this fully - articulated early horse is an extremely rare find and to date , the only horse found in the green river formation . national park service photo . enlarge image .\ngreen river fossil crayfish : crayfish lived in the shallow , near - shore water of fossil lake . procambarus is known only from the eocene deposits of fossil lake . its closest living relative , austrocambarus , is found in mexico . national park service photo . enlarge image .\ngreen river fossil stingray : heliobatis radians had small teeth for crushing snails and other mollusks and barbed spines on the tail for defense . national park service photo . enlarge image .\ndacite - a light - colored extrusive igneous rock intermediate between rhyolite and andesite .\nkick ' em jenny is a submarine volcano and one of the most active on the caribbean plate .\nash plume at kilauea caused by explosions in the summit crater rise high into the atmosphere .\nminerals : information about ore minerals , gem materials and rock - forming minerals .\nplate tectonics - articles and maps about plate tectonics and the interior of earth .\ncleoniceras ammonite fossil , middle cretaceous ( 110 mya ) , tulear , madagascar - 13 . 8g | fossils | pinterest | ammonite\npolished horn coral fossil , western sahara , morocco , devonian ( 380 mya ) - 7 . 1g | fossils | pinterest | western sahara\nturritella agate\nfrom the eocene of wyoming , usa . ( 5 . 7 cm across along the base )\nof all the molluscs , the gastropods ( snails ) have made the most ecological adaptations . they can be found in almost all fundamental environments : marine , freshwater , terrestrial . most gastropods live in the ocean , and have a single , asymmetrically coiled , external shell of calcium carbonate ( caco3 - usually aragonite ) . the hard calcareous shell is the most easily fossilized part of the gastropod . the soft parts of a snail ( the \u201cslug\u201d portion ) include a well developed head having eyes , tentacles , and a mouth , and a well developed , strong , muscular foot used principally for locomotion . the shell is carried upright on the snail\u2019s back , or is partially dragged behind . when threatened by a predator , many snails can retract their soft parts into the shell\u2019s interior for protection .\nmany fossil snails in the paleozoic rock record are often not well preserved , or are preserved as internal molds . the original aragonite of many gastropod shells is not stable on geologic time scales , and often recrystallizes or dissolves completely away . fossil snail shells in mesozoic and cenozoic rocks are usually better preserved .\nsometimes things get named too fast and once labeled incorrect associations are very difficult to rectify . have you ever seen \u201c turritella agate\u201d at your favorite fossil dealer\u2019s table ? it has often been polished into cabochons designed to display the whorls of the spiral shaped shell and the agate that has filled the apertures . raw specimens are attractive as well .\nthe cabachon on the left is 1 . 5\u201d high and is from utah . the raw hand sample on the left is from south central wyoming . both are incorrectly labeled turritella agate in their internet source .\nthe pieces will probably come with the label \u201cgreen river formation\u201d and it might be from wyoming , utah or colorado . the location is likely correct , but the fossil identification is not .\nhave lived since the cretaceous period , thriving during the upper paleocene epoch ( 56 - 60 million years ago ) , just a few million years before \u201cturritella agate\u201d from the green river formation was deposited . however , they were not living in the\nthis is a fossil turritella mortoni from the paleocene epoch . it was found in the silty shales of the marine aquia formation in king george county , virginia .\nthe stamps depicted above both correctly depict recent turritella species that are clearly of marine origin . the el salvador stamp issued in 1980 depicts a turritella leucostoma , a species found along the pacific coast from mexico to peru . the 2008 stamp from bosnia and herzegovina features a turritella turris fossil common in the marine miocene rocks of southeast europe .\nwonderful article ! we will be linking to this particularly great post on our website . keep up the good writing .\nthe frequency of turritella agate connects to the base chakra , so that one feels supported , safe , secure and protected in the third dimensional reality , and that one actually creates one\u2019 own reality .\nturritella agate can help to opens one\u2019s consciousness so that one is able to connect to the natural spirits of plant and mineral forms and to aid in earth healing .\nwe have two very comprehensive search facilities , crystals a to z and search for crystals . please explore . . .\ncopyright 2018 soulful crystals all rights reserved and our sitemap all logos & trademark belong to soulful crystals ."]}
{"id": 72, "summary": [{"text": "platyallabes tihoni is the only species in the genus platyallabes of catfishes ( order siluriformes ) of the family clariidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "this species is found in the malebo pool .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "p. tihoni has a body plan that is intermediate to the generalized , fusiform ( torpedo-shaped ) type such as clarias species and the anguilliform ( eel-shaped ) type such as gymnallabes .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this species is known to grow up to 52.8 centimetres ( 20.8 in ) tl . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "platyallabes tihoni", "paragraphs": ["platyallabes tihoni is the only species in the genus platyallabes of catfishes of the family clariidae .\nplatyallabes tihoni is the only species in the genus platyallabes of catfishes ( order siluriformes ) of the family clariidae . this species is found in the malebo pool . p . more\nplatyallabes tihoni ( poll , 1944 ) - add this species to your\nmy cats\npage . common name ( s ) none type locality kinshasa , zaire . more\nfood and agriculture organization of the united nations . fishstat . platyallabes tihoni ( dimensionmember ) . ( latest update : 27 nov 2013 ) accessed ( 9 jul 2018 ) . uri : urltoken\nclariids , it is not as large as in platyallabes tihoni , where it is one of the diagnostic features for the genus and species ( devaere et al . , 2005a ) . although , figs 3 & 4 show two clear groups , which were tested significantly different , no new species is currently recognized . more\ngreek , platys = flat + greek , allabes , - etos = a fish of the nile , a kind of lamprey ( ref . 45335 )\nafrica : lower congo river basin and pool malebo ( stanley - pool ) ( ref . 78218 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 52 . 8 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3820 )\nno real information available on the biology of this species . apparently live in crevices between stones and rocks where they burry themselves in the substrate ( ref . 78218 ) .\nteugels , g . g . , 1986 . clariidae . p . 66 - 101 . in j . daget , j . - p . gosse and d . f . e . thys van den audenaerde ( eds . ) check - list of the freshwater fishes of africa ( cloffa ) . isnb , brussels , mrac , tervuren ; and orstom , paris . vol . 2 . ( ref . 3820 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 5 \u00b10 . 5 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 35 of 100 ) .\n528mm or 20 . 8\nsl . find near , nearer or same sized spp .\nunpaired fins continuous , head very broad , paired fins well developed . color is blackish olve - grey , noticeably lighter and sometimes pink on the belly . the caudal fin is light red in color .\nin ventral view especially , females are much broader in the body than males of equal age and rearing practices .\nrevue de zoologie et de botanique africaines v . 38 ( no . 1 ) , p 79 .\nget or print a qr code for this species profile , or try our beta label creator .\nhas this page been useful ? please donate to our monthly hosting costs and keep us free for everyone to enjoy ! explore our youtube channel , facebook page or follow us on twitter .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 urltoken , part of the aquatic republic network group of websites . all rights reserved . cite this website . by accessing this site you agree to our terms and conditions of use . our privacy policy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nbrummett , r . , mbe tawe , a . n . , dening touokong , c . , reid , g . m . , snoeks , j . staissny , m . , moelants , t . , mamonekene , v . , ndodet , b . , ifuta , s . n . b . , chilala , a . , monsembula , r . , ibala zamba , a . , opoye itoua , o . , pouomogne , v . , darwall , w . & smith , k .\njustification : there are currently no threats to the species known , and it is assessed as least concern . if the construction of inga 3 and grand inga , and the luozi mining project will be executed , the status of this species needs to be reassessed .\nthere are currently no threats to the species known . inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact . the possible future elaboration of the dam complex with inga 3 and later possibly grand inga will pose a great threat to the species that has a limited distribution to this region . given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution , it can be threatened in the future by mining in the luozi region . the key component of concrete is found in this region , and there is potential for mining in the area .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe urltoken website brings together statistics , maps , pictures , and documents on food and agriculture from throughout the fao organization in one convenient location . this means that instead of searching multiple sites and sources , you will be able to go to one central place in order to collect or view the data that interests you . to assist in data retrieval , the site provides an efficient search engine as well as easy - to - use navigation menus .\nheads up ! we will have a convenient download format available for this resource soon .\nfood and agriculture organization of the united nations . ( 2012 ) . fishstat . rome , italy : fao .\nfood and agriculture organization of the united nations . 2012 . fishstat . rome , italy : fao .\nfood and agriculture organization of the united nations . ( 2012 ) . fishstat . rome , italy , fao ."]}
{"id": 75, "summary": [{"text": "the grey-faced petrel ( pterodroma gouldi ) is a petrel endemic to the north island of new zealand .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in new zealand it is also known by its m\u0101ori name oi and ( along with other species such as the sooty shearwater ) as a muttonbird . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "grey - faced petrel", "paragraphs": ["grey - faced petrel has been split from great - winged petrel . this grey - faced petrel photo off tasmania taken by paul brooks / macaulay library\nfind out more about the grey - faced petrel at new zealand birds online .\nnobody uploaded sound recordings for grey - faced petrel ( pterodroma gouldi ) yet .\ngrey - faced petrel ( pterodroma gouldi ) several grey - faced petrels flying around at sea . | the internet bird collection | hbw alive\na grey - faced petrel briefly landing on the water ' s surface before flying away .\ngrey - faced petrel has been split from great - winged petrel . both species occur in australian waters . many organised pelagic trips already routinely reported these as subspecies in the past .\nimber , m . j . 1976 . breeding biology of the grey - faced petrel pterodroma macroptera gouldi . ibis 118 : 51 - 64 .\ngrey - faced petrel . in flight , dorsal . off wollongong , new south wales , australia , december 2006 . image \u00a9 brook whylie by brook whylie urltoken\ntaylor , g . a . 2013 . grey - faced petrel . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken\nthis subspecies is often split as grey - faced petrel . this form is a breeding endemic to new zealand , breeding off the nw coast of north island .\ngrey - faced petrels breed on tiritiri matangi and can often be heard at night during the breeding season .\n, this dark gadfly petrel is slightly larger , with pale grey area around bill often extending to . . .\njohnstone , r . m . ; davis , l . s . 1990 . incubation routines and foraging - trip regulation in the grey - faced petrel pterodroma macroptera gouldi . ibis 132 : 14 - 20 .\neach of the two monotypic groups of great - winged petrel is elevated to species rank , based on differences in mitochondrial dna , vocalizations , plumage , morphometrics , and in other aspects of their biology ( wood et al . 2016 ; see also onley and scofield 2007 and howell 2012 ) : great - winged petrel ( great - winged ) pterodroma macroptera macroptera becomes great - winged petrel pterodroma macroptera , and great - winged petrel ( gray - faced ) pterodroma macroptera gouldi becomes gray - faced petrel pterodroma gouldi .\nthe largest breeding colony of grey - faced petrel is on whale island , moutohora , near whakatane in the eastern bay of plenty . there are also small colonies on the mainland near whakatane but these colonies are very fragile .\nfollowing the split , leach\u2019s storm - petrel now contains only two subspecies , each of which is recognized as a monotypic group : leach\u2019s storm - petrel ( leach\u2019s ) oceanodroma leucorhoa leucorhoa and leach\u2019s storm - petrel ( chapman\u2019s ) oceanodroma leucorhoa chapmani .\ncorrect the english name of the polytypic group zimmerius chrysops minimus / cumanensis from golden - faced tyrannulet ( coopman\u2019s ) to golden - faced tyrannulet ( coopmans\u2019s ) .\nthere are two sub - species of grey\u2013faced petrel , macroptera , which breeds on islands in the atlantic and indian oceans and off southwestern australia , and gouldii , which breeds on off shore islands and coastal headlands of the northern north island of new zealand .\nventral view of two birds . bird behind is a great - winged petrel ( pterodroma macroptera ) .\nthe grey - faced petrel is a large dark gadfly petrel with long narrow wings and a long pointed tail . the entire body is uniformly dark black - brown but with occasional paler brown worn feathers . the base of the bill and throat are either grey or buff - white . in the hand , the stout black bill ( 33 - 40 mm long ) has a large sharp hook that can slice through squid and the hands of those holding these birds . the eyes and legs are black .\nsimilar species : other all - dark gadfly petrels are rare in new zealand coastal water . providence petrel is greyer and has white flashes on the underwing . dark morph kermadec petrel is smaller with a shorter tail and white shafts on the primaries . kerguelen petrel ( most likely to occur august - october ) is smaller with a shorter bill and glossy grey sheen on its plumage and silver - white leading edge on the underwing .\nthe most obvious evidence of the update in process is likely to be the my ebird pages . this update does not only involve name changes and changes to the species sequence , but also a number of splits . each split needs to be carefully considered . if ebird had a subspecies group ( e . g . \u201cgreat - winged petrel ( grey - faced ) \u201d ) that was relevant to the new split , then those entries will be upgraded from a subspecies group to the new species ( e . g . grey - faced petrel ) . if you did not specify the subspecies , then we try to assign records based on known range and occurrence patterns where possible .\nthe grey - faced petrel is blackish brown except for the pale grey forehead , sides of the face , chin and throat . the black bill is stout , the legs and feet are black and the wings are long and narrow . the call is \u2018o - hi\u2019 or \u2018o - hoe\u2019 , uttered at dusk as they fly over their breeding colonies . birds on the ground or in burrows utter a loud \u2018or - wik\u2019 and \u2018si - si - si\u2019 .\nthe grey\u2013faced petrels have many predators including \u2014 stoats , rats , dogs , illegal harvesting , fire , birds of prey . by visiting their colonies at night they do not run the risk of being harassed by birds of prey .\nainley , d . g . 1980 . geographic variation in leach\u2019s storm - petrel . auk 97 : 837 - 853 .\nrevise the range description of gray - faced petrel from \u201cbreeds on islands off north i . ( new zealand ) and sw australia\u201d to \u201cbreeds on islands off north island ( new zealand ) ; ranges in tasman sea and southwestern pacific ocean . \u201d\nimber , m . j . 1973 . the food of grey - faced petrels ( pterodroma macroptera gouldi ( hutton ) ) , with special reference to diurnal vertical migration of their prey . journal of animal ecology 42 : 645 - 662 .\nthe major threat to grey - faced petrels is mammalian predators on their breeding grounds , especially feral cats and rats . many former colonies have been lost due to predators , and some mainland colonies are sustained by immigration from island colonies . eradication of rats from islands has benefitted grey - faced petrels at many sites , as rats take eggs and chicks . a small colony at rapanui in taranaki has been protected by the building of a predator - exclusion fence . long - term studies of grey - faced petrels at several sites have improved our understanding of the ecology of this species . the information obtained supported the conservation of the related and critically endangered chatham island taiko . these studies included captive - rearing trials , testing of tracking devices , long - term marking projects and research on the breeding biology and diet . translocations of chicks to establish new colony sites have been attempted but are still in the early stages of chick returns . grey - faced petrels occasionally follow fishing boats and sometimes occur as by - catch on long - line fisheries .\nwood , j . r . , h . a . lawrence , r . p . scofield , g . a . taylor , p . o\u2019b . lyver , and d . m . gleeson . 2016 . morphological , behavioural , and genetic evidence supports reinstatement of full species status for the grey - faced petrel , pterodroma macroptera gouldi ( procellariiformes : procellariidae ) . zoological journal of the linnean society .\n41 cm . , 550 g . , plumage black brown , pale grey face and throat , bill , legs and feet black .\nthe breeding biology of the grey - faced petrel is well known from several long - term studies . the season is broadly march to january with the single white egg ( 68 x 48 mm ) laid between mid - june and late july . the well - lined nest chamber is at the end of a long burrow dug into soil , or amongst vegetation . the egg hatches in august or september after c . 55 days of incubation , and the chick fledges between november and january at c . 118 days - old . grey - faced petrel mostly breed annually ; very few pairs skip a breeding season . incubation and chick - care are shared . the chick is independent of the parents at fledging . immatures begin to return to colonies at 3 years of age and can breed as early as four years of age but most delay breeding until they are 8 - 10 years old .\nwhite - faced cuckoo - dove is not monotypic ; sulaensis forbes and robinson 1900 , long considered to be a junior synomym of nominate manadensis , is vocally distinct ( ng and rheindt 2016 ) . therefore , white - faced cuckoo - dove is split into two species : white - faced cuckoo - dove turacoena manadensis , with range \u201csulawesi and the togian islands\u201d ; and sula cuckoo - dove turacoena sulaensis , with range \u201cbanggai islands and sula islands . \u201d\nin the breeding season of the year 2000 a study was being done on one of the mainland colonies near whakatane by phillipa gardner of grey\u2013faced petrels , using a safety door on their burrows . this was a trial for the protection of petrels that are at risk from predators eating their chick or egg .\na large dark gadfly petrel with uniformly dark black - brown body with occasional paler brown worn feathers , long narrow wings , a long pointed tail , and black eyes and legs . the stout black bill has a large sharp hook and the base of the bill and throat are either grey or buff - white .\ngrey - faced petrels are nocturnally active at the breeding grounds . unlike their relatives on southern islands , grey - faced petrels are very active on the colony surface at night , with birds calling , prospecting for burrows , displaying and sleeping ashore . activity ashore is more pronounced on dark nights during periods of wet weather , but birds will return in bright moonlight on windy nights . spectacular aerial courtship chases over the colony are a feature of this species and the breeding sites can be quite noisy during april / may and again in august . at sea , grey - faced petrels fly rapidly out to the continental shelf edge before they begin foraging for food . they can cover large distances in their quest for food with birds recorded flying to the east coast of australia while their partner is sitting on the egg . after breeding the birds disperse mainly to warmer water in the north tasman sea or off southern and eastern australia .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . grey - faced petrel ( pterodroma gouldi ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ncorrect the scientific name for the polytypic group ashy drongo ( island white - faced ) from dicrurus leucophaeus periophthalmicus / siberu to dicrurus leucophaeus [ periophthalmicus group ] .\nmacleod , c . j . ; adams , j . ; lyver , p . 2008 . at - sea distribution of satellite - tracked grey - faced petrels , pterodroma macroptera gouldi , captured on the ruamaahua ( aldermen ) islands , new zealand . papers & proceedings of the royal society of tasmania 142 : 73 - 88 .\nduring the breeding season , grey - faced petrels feed mainly in the tasman sea or east of new zealand , around the continental shelf edge or over deeper oceanic water , ranging thousands of kilometres . during the summer moult period , they disperse widely across the tasman sea to the coast of australia , and some reach the coral sea .\ninsert a newly added subspecies , obscurior matthews 1923 , immediately following subspecies curnamona , with range \u201csoutheastern australia ( grey range periphery , northwestern new south wales ) \u201d ( black 2011 ) .\nthe first indication that the petrel population was under stress was in 1962 , when muttonbirders , local people of maori decent with hereditary rights to kill for food the young petrels before they fledge , concerned at the scarcity of petrel chicks for exploitation , requested a ban on the harvest , rahui in 1963 and 1964 . wildlife refuge status imposed on moutohora in 1964 has legally protected the petrels since then .\nin accord with aou - sacc ( proposal 628 ) , based on isler et al . ( 2013 ) , change the scientific name of rufous - faced antbird from schistocichla rufifacies to myrmelastes rufifacies .\nng , n . s . r . , and f . e . rheindt . 2016 . species delimitation in the white\u2011faced cuckoo\u2011dove ( turacoena manadensis ) based on bioacoustic data . avian research 7 : 2 .\ngrey - faced petrels are generalists feeding most often on squid but they also eat crustaceans and fish . they have been observed capturing prey at night but activity recorders also show they frequently alight at sea during the day and presumably take prey . smaller squid are captured alive on the surface , but larger squid are probably scavenged when dead animals float to the surface . studies of the diving ability of the species reveals they mainly feed in the top 5m of the water column but are capable of occasional deeper dives , perhaps down to 20 m .\nevery year young fledgling grey\u2013faced petrels are brought into whakatane bird rescue , as instead of heading out to sea the birds get disorientated and land in town . sometimes heading for the lights of night industry such as the kawerau paper mills . once checked out most of the birds can be released in the evening . some years more birds are brought in , this maybe due to the cloudy conditions , no moon or stars to guide them , or wind conditions . strong northerly winds will send the birds towards whakatane instead of heading out to sea .\nrevise the range description of great - winged petrel from \u201cbreeds and ranges islands and seas in southern oceans\u201d to \u201cbreeds on islands in southern atlantic and indian oceans ( tristan da cunha , gough , marion , crozet and kerguelen islands , and off southwestern australia ) ; primarily ranges from southern atlantic and indian oceans to tasman sea . \u201d\ngrey - faced petrels are one of the few burrowing petrels to still survive on the new zealand mainland . small colonies are scattered around the coasts of the upper north island , mainly on headlands and peninsulas adjacent to the sea . over 100 colonies are still present but most sites have fewer than 500 breeding pairs . the largest colonies occur on the three kings , hen and chickens , mokohinau , mercury and alderman island groups , and also on cuvier , moutohora , white and east islands . nests are mainly in burrows under tall forest , but also under grass or shrublands , especially near cliffs above the sea . sandy or friable soils with few rocks and tree roots are preferred .\nas these updates are applied , you might encounter species lists with the same species listed twice , or you might view lists of your records of great - winged petrel ( for example ) and see that some of the records have changed names and some have not . for brief periods , you might also see the same record on your list twice . the updates to your personal lists usually take an hour or more for each species .\nhas been considered conspecific with p . lessonii , and until recently treated as conspecific with p . macroptera , but differs in much more grey on forehead , face and chin ( 3 ) ; slightly larger size ( bill , wings , tail ) ( allow 1 ) ; and osteological morphology # r ( allow 1 ) , vocalizations ( allow 1 ) and breeding biology ( allow 1 ) # r . monotypic .\ngeographical variation : two subspecies : the nominate pt . m . macroptera breeds at tristan da cunha , gough , prince edward , marion , kerguelen and crozet islands , and islands off western australia ; pt . m . gouldi breeds only in new zealand .\nvoice : the main flight calls are high pitched whistles whis - her , wik - wik or low moans oor - wik . these same calls are given frequently on the surface or from burrows .\nthe largest colonies are on moutohora island and hongiora island in the bay of plenty . over 100 , 000 pairs breed on these two islands combined . elsewhere there are many smaller colonies with mostly less than 500 pairs but some of the larger islands have 1000 - 20 , 000 pairs . the world population is estimated to be 200 , 000 to 300 , 000 pairs .\nbrooke , m . 2004 . albatrosses and petrels across the world . oxford university press , oxford .\nmarchant , s . ; higgins , p . j . ( eds ) , 1990 . handbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds . vol . 1 , ratites to ducks . oxford university press , melbourne .\nmiskelly , c . m . ; taylor , g . a . ; gummer , h . ; williams , r . 2009 . translocations of eight species of burrow - nesting seabirds ( genera pterodroma , pelecanoides , pachyptila and puffinus : family procellariidae ) . biological conservation 142 : 1965 - 1980 .\nonley , d ; scofield , p . 2007 . albatrosses , petrels and shearwaters of the world . princeton university press , princeton .\ntaylor , g . a . 2000 . action plan for seabird conservation in new zealand , part b : non - threatened seabirds . threatened species occasional publication 17 . department of conservation , wellington .\ntaylor , g . a . 2008 . maximum dive depths of eight new zealand procellariiformes including pterodroma species . papers & proceedings of the royal society of tasmania 142 : 189 - 198 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nour 2018 concert will feature an afternoon of light classics and jazz courtesy of the auckland ph . .\nfor the social on 19 march the speaker will be ben goodwin of auckland zoo , who will talk about t . .\nthankfully doc staff andre de graaf and polly hall and their assistants have trapped the rat whic . .\naka - the grand christmas shopping expedition to tiritiri matangi island shop dreading . .\nthe 2018 photo competition is now open for entries . click here ( / 2018 - photo - competition - tiritiri - mat . .\ntwo new reports have been added to the website . the first gives details of a summer students . .\nour latest calendar , beautifully illustrated with images taken on the island , is now available fo . .\nfor a wonderful day of wildlife photography please join us on tiritiri matangi island for a ph . .\ntiritiri matangi island , the perfect winter ' s day trip . the birds are at their best , warm up w . .\nin 1993 and 1995 , sixteen little spotted kiwi were released on tiritiri matangi island . the ma . .\nbreeding takes place in winter . adults return to clean out their burrows and court in march . after a long pre - laying exodus of two months , the females return and in late june or early july lay one white egg in a burrow 0 . 5 - 2 metres long . both sexes incubate for spells of several days and the egg hatches between mid - august and mid - september after 51\u201358 days . the chick is fed at the nest for several months and finally departs from about december to late january , at around 118 days old . young birds can return to the breeding colony from the age of three years onwards , but most do not breed until they are over seven years old .\nreferences : heather , b . d . ; robertson , h . a . 2000 the field guide to the birds of new zealand . auckland , viking . moon , g the reed field guide to new zealand birds .\nexclamations are short utterances that you make when you are very surprised or upset . they are not always whole sentences . sometimes they are more like a noise than a word . in this case they are call . . .\nimpress your friends , family and colleagues with this unusual collection of football lingo .\ncatch up on the latest words in the news this june with robert groves .\nall the latest wordy news , linguistic insights , offers and competitions every month .\n\u2190 click inside , copy the code and then paste it into your web page code .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\na close - up of a bird in flight ( then at 50 % speed ) .\njosep del hoyo , pieter de groot boersma , greg baker , peter fraser , nick talbot .\nholger teichmann , nick talbot , kirk zufelt , jennifer spry , r\u00e9mi bigonneau , ben lascelles , timbawden , fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric pelsy , samantha klein , fran trabalon , lindsay hansch .\nthe data in this project is publicly available under a creative commons attribution license . if you use these data in any type of publication then you must cite the project doi ( if available ) or any published peer - reviewed papers associated with the study . we strongly encourage you to contact the data custodians to discuss data usage and appropriate accreditation .\ngeographical bounding box specifying limits for latitude / longitude in the format north , west , south , east .\nall site content , except where otherwise noted , is licensed under a creative commons attribution license .\ntasman sea , temperate and subtropical sw pacific ocean , breeding on many islands , clifftops and headlands along w , n & ne coasts of north i ( new zealand ) .\n, but \u201cbor - r - r\u201d and braying \u201ceee - aw\u201d or \u201co - hee\u201d calls ( . . .\nmarine and highly pelagic . breeds on islands and headlands around north i , new zealand .\nstudy in new zealand found that cephalopods dominated the diet , with ratios of squid , fish and crustaceans , respectively , as follows : 58 % , . . .\nbreeds in winter , returning to colonies in feb , followed by pre - laying exodus of c . 50 days ( by males ) or 60 days ( females ) at least , egg - . . .\nin off - season visits w tasman sea , off new south wales , in oct\u2013apr . further afield , in sw pacific . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . reasonably abundant , with 200 , 000\u2013300 , 000 pairs , of which most important colonies are on moutohora and hongiora is , which support c . . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nsometimes divided into several subgenera # r . includes several species described in genus aestrelata , which was erroneously emended by some authors to oestrelata .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 296 , 855 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe birds visit their burrows after dusk and leave again before dawn . they start to breed from 6 to 7 years of age . the petrels visit their colonies between march and april to clean out their burrows and take part in pair bonding . egg laying starts from late june to the end of july , one white egg is laid . the egg hatches after 51 \u2013 58 days of incubation .\nboth parents help in incubation and after the chick hatches the parent guards the chick for the first few days . the chick is then left on its own and is visited every few days with food , sometimes this may mean a wait of 7 days or more before its next feed . the parent has to travel many miles from their burrows in search of food , which is regurgitated for the chick . this may include squid , fish and crustaceans . the chick continues to grow and fledging takes place from early december to the end of january . the moult of the adult birds , take place from january to april .\nunfortunately a high percentage of the chicks in the study were taken illegally for food . these birds are protected by law , and illegal harvesting will see these fragile colonies die out . if the chicks are taken then there will be no replacement egg laid . this in time will mean that once the parents die , no new adult offspring will be replacing them . the birds taken would have weighed no more than 300g and with the feathers and head removed probably weighed no more than 150g .\non a recent trip to whale island in december , the petrels could be seen just before dusk gathering off the island . the birds were coming back to feed the young that were nearly due to fledge . as dusk fell , birds would skim over the island looking for their burrows , they then crash through the trees and head for their nest site . sometimes they liked to sit before going underground . some birds get caught in the trees as they crash through and die .\nwhale island was once home to goats , rats , and rabbits . the wildlife service , and then the department of conservation eradicated these pests . it is vital that our islands are kept free of predators and that bait stations are monitored . it will only take one rat or stoat to undo all the work of the previous years .\nin april and may , and at other times , the birds can be heard calling during the night over ohope and otarawairere in whakatane . one colony at ohope is against the hillside and on occasions birds crash into new homes that were not there the previous nesting season . it must be quite a shock for the birds to suddenly find something blocking their flight path to their burrows .\nthe main colonies are on hen , mokohinaus , the mercury and alderman , whale and white islands .\ngodman , frederick du cane , monograph of the petrels , 1907 - 1910 .\nheather , b . , & robertson , h . , field guide to the birds of new zealand , 2000 . marchant & higgins , 1993 . oliver , w . r . b . new zealand birds , 1955 . imber , mike , harrison , malcolm , and harrison , jan , new zealand journal of ecology ( 2000 ) 24 ( 2 ) ; 153 - 164 .\nthe annual ebird taxonomy update will begin this tuesday , 9 august . the process will continue for at least a couple of days ( until wednesday , 10 aug or thursday , 11 aug ) . we do this once a year to reflect the most recent changes in avian taxonomy : splits , lumps , name changes , and changes in the sequence of the species lists . you may notice some unusual behaviour with your lists and other tools ( see below ) , but this is nothing to worry about . the 2016 splits and lumps will be published very soon on this page . we will summarise these changes in an ebird story once the taxonomy update is complete . a more thorough discussion of this year\u2019s changes can be found at the clements checklist , where the 2016 updates have been posted .\nother unexpected behaviour should likewise be temporary . if you see odd behaviour on a data entry checklist , save your work and go back to manage my observations a few minutes later to continue data entry .\nif you use ebird mobile , we recommend submitting any \u201cnot submitted\u201d lists in advance of august 9 . don\u2019t worry though , as long as you are running the most recent version of the app , everything will update correctly even if you have \u201cnot submitted\u201d lists on the phone . please make sure to update your app version to the one current in the app store or google play store .\nwestern whistler by geoffrey groom / macaulay library although male golden whistlers are bright and easily identifiable , females and juveniles are not so easy to tell apart .\nthe annual ebird taxonomy update is now underway . work is still going in the background to update existing checklists , update maps etc . , but the revised taxonomy should already appear as you enter new checklists . it is worth having a look at which australian species are being treated differently with the 2016 update .\nevery year , the ebird / clements taxonomy is updated . this year , for australian ebirders , there are several changes to be aware of .\nemerald doves on christmas island ( natalis ) are now part of the asian emerald dove . those normally found in the rest of australia ( and lord howe ) are pacific emerald dove .\nspotted catbirds have also been split into several species , which mostly affects observations from new guinea . in australia , the former spotted catbird is now treated as two species :\nblack - eared catbird ailuroedus melanotis [ northern cape york , e . g . iron range np ]\nthe former golden whistler ( pachycephala pectoralis ) , has been split into two species . note that the sa and victorian mallee birds ( formerly treated as part of p . p . fuliginosa ) are retained in golden whistler , and the split between species is essentialy at the sa / wa state border .\nthe ebird / clements taxonomy makes extensive use of subspecies groups to allow observers to explicitly record subspecies , or groups of subspecies , that are identifiable in the field . subspecies groups have been recognized for several more australian species . when recording a subspecies group , be sure to include field notes regarding the characters you used to identify the group . new subspecies groups are as follows :\nwith golden whistler , note that the eastern parts of the former \u201cwestern\u201d subspecies are retained as golden whistler ( i . e . the split to western whistler only takes the wa part of the former fuliginosa range ) :\nwestern grasswren ( western ) amytornis textilis textilis [ e . g monkey mia wa ]\nwestern grasswren ( gawler ranges ) amytornis textilis myall [ e . g . whyalla sa ]\naustralian ringneck : as well as the lump of mallee ringneck and western ringneck , the 2016 update also subsumes the former occidentalis and whitei into zonarius . the subspecies recognised in ebird are now :\nsome species pairs may be difficult to separate in the field , or were previously lumped , and in these cases ebird allows you to record the fact that you saw one or other of the pair but could not decide which . new slash taxa for australia include :\nthe updates and corrections are grouped into four sections . within each section , items are listed in the order in which they are encountered in the ebird / clements checklist v2016 spreadsheet , although we also continue to reference by page number the relevant entry in the last published edition of the clements checklist ( sixth edition , 2007 ) .\n3 standard updates and correction \u2013 all other changes , listed in sequence as they occur in the spreadsheet ( posted april 2018 ) .\nhowell , s . n . g . 2012 . petrels , albatrosses , and storm - petrels of north america : a photographic guide . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey .\nonley , d . , and p . scofield . 2007 . albatrosses , petrels , and shearwaters of the world . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey .\nchesser , r . t . , k . j . burns , c . cicero , j . l . dunn , a . w . kratter , i . j . lovette , p . c . rasmussen , j . v . remsen , jr . , j . d . rising , d . f . stotz , and k . winker . 2016 . fifty - seventh supplement to the american ornithologists\u2019 union check - list of north american birds . auk 133 : 544 - 560 .\nfollowing nominate cajaneus , insert a previously overlooked subspecies , avicenniae ( stotz 1992 ) , with range \u201cmangroves of southeastern brazil ( s\u00e3o paulo south at least to paran\u00e1 , and possibly to santa catarina ) \u201d . we also recognize avicenniae as a new monotypic group , gray - cowled wood - rail ( gray - backed ) .\nmarcondes , r . s . , and l . f . silveira . 2015 . a taxonomic review of aramides cajaneus ( aves , gruiformes , rallidae ) with notes on morphological variation in other species of the genus . zookeys 500 : 111 - 140 .\nstotz , d . f . 1992 . a new subspecies of aramides cajanea from brazil . bulletin of the british ornithologists\u2019 club 112 : 231 - 234 .\nbased primarily on vocal differences , dusky cuckoo - dove macropygia magna is split into three species ( ng et al . 2016 ) : a polytypic flores sea cuckoo - dove macropygia macassariensis , including subspecies macassariensis and longa ; a monotypic timor cuckoo - dove macropygia magna ; and a monotypic tanimbar cuckoo - dove macropygia timorlaoensis .\nng , e . y . x . , j . a . eaton , p . verbelen , r . o . hutchinson , and f . e . rheindt . 2016 . using bioacoustic data to test species limits in an indo - pacific island radiation of macropygia cuckoo doves . biological journal of the linnean society 118 : 786 - 812 .\nbased primarily on vocal differences , slender - billed cuckoo - dove macropygia amboinensis split into two species ( ng et al . 2016 ) : a polytypic amboyna cuckoo - dove macropygia amboinensis , including subspecies amboinensis , keyensis , maforensis , griseinucha , kerstingi , meeki , admiralitatis , hueskeri , carteretia , goldiei , cinereiceps , and cunctata ; and a polytypic sultan\u2019s cuckoo - dove macropygia doreya , including subspecies sanghirensis , albicapilla , atrata , sedecima , albiceps , doreya , and balim . the sequence of subspecies within amboyna cuckoo - dove is revised , to reflect the order in which they are listed above .\nrevise the range description of subspecies maforensis from \u201cnumfor i . ( geelvink bay off n new guinea ) \u201d to \u201cnumfor i . ( geelvink bay off n new guinea ) ; population on biak island is not identified to subspecies , but vocally is similar to maforensis , and birds on yapen island presumably are the same subspecies as birds on biak\u201d ( ng et al . 2016 ) .\nadd a previously overlooked subspecies , admiralitatis mayr 1937 ( ng et al . 2016 ) , with range \u201cadmiralty islands , bismarck archipelago . \u201d insert subspecies almiralitatis immediately following subspecies meeki .\nrevise the range description for subspecies carteretia from \u201cbismarck archipelago ( except new hanover ) and lihir is . \u201d to \u201cbismarck archipelago ( except admiralty islands and new hanover ) and lihir is . \u201d\nadd a previously overlooked subspecies , atrata ripley 1941 ( white and bruce 1986 , ng et al . 2016 ) , with range \u201ctogian island ( off sulawesi ) . \u201d\nadd a previously overlooked subspecies , sedecima neumann 1939 ( white and bruce 1986 , ng et al . 2016 ) , with range \u201csula islands . \u201d\nchange the name of the subspecies of the northern moluccas from batchianensis to the older available name albiceps ( mees 1982 ) .\nadd a previously overlooked subspecies , balim rand 1941 ( ng et al . 2016 ) , with range \u201cbalim valley , western new guinea . \u201d\nmayr , e . 1937 . birds collected during the whitney south sea expedition , xxxvi . notes on new guinea birds 3 . american museum novitates number 947 .\nmees , g . f . 1982 . bird records from the moluccas . zoologische mededelingen 56 : 91 - 111 .\nnewman , o . 1939 . a new species and eight new races from peleng and talaiboe . bulletin of the british ornithologists\u2019 club 59 : 89 - 94 .\nripley , s . d . 1941 . notes on a collection of birds from northern celebes . occasional papers of the boston society of natural history 8 : 343 - 358 .\nwhite , c . m . n . , and m . d . bruce . 1986 . the birds of wallacea . ( sulawesi , the moluccas & lesser sunda islands , indonesia ) . british ornithologists\u2019 union check - list number 7 . british ornithologists\u2019 union , london .\nbased primarily on vocal differences , ruddy cuckoo - dove macropygia emiliana is split into three species ( ng et al . 2016 ) : a polytypic ruddy cuckoo - dove macropygia emiliana , including subspecies emiliana and megala ; a monotypic enggano cuckoo - dove macropygia cinnamomea ; and a polytypic barusan cuckoo - dove macropygia modiglianii , including subspecies hypopercna , modiglianii , and elassa .\nemerald dove chalcophaps indica is split into two species ( rasmussen and anderton 2005 , beehler and pratt 2016 ) : a polytypic asian emerald dove chalcophaps indica , with subspecies indica , robinsoni , natalis , minima , and augusta ; and a polytypic pacific emerald dove chalcophaps longirostris , with subspecies rogersi , longirostris , and sandwichensis .\nrevise the range description of subspecies indica from \u201cindia to malaysia , philippines , indonesia and w papuan islands\u201d to \u201cindia to southeastern china , south to the philippines , indonesia and western papuan islands . \u201d\nbeehler , b . m . , and t . k . pratt . 2016 . birds of new guinea : distribution , taxonomy , and systematics . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey .\nrasmussen , p . c . , and j . c . anderton . 2005 . birds of south asia . the ripley guide . volume 2 : attributes and status . smithsonian institution and lynx edicions , washington d . c . and barcelona .\ncrimson - crowned fruit - dove ptilinopus porphyraceus is split into three species ( cibois et al . 2014 , hayes et al . 2016 , pratt and mittermeier 2016 ) : a monotypic purple - capped fruit - dove ptilinopus ponapensis ; a monotypic kosrae fruit - dove ptilinopus hernsheimi ; and a polytypic crimson - crowned fruit - dove ptilinopus porphyraceus , with subspecies porphyraceus and fasciatus .\ncibois , a . , j . - c . thibault , c . bonillo , c . e . filardi , d . watling , and e . pasquet . 2014 . phylogeny and biogeography of the fruit doves ( aves : columbidae ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 70 : 442 - 453 .\nhayes , f . e . , h . d . pratt , and c . j . cianchini . 2016 . the avifauna of kosrae , micronesia : history , status , and taxonomy . pacific science 70 : 91\u2013127 .\npratt , h . d . , and j . c . mittermeier . 2016 . notes on the natural history , taxonomy , and conservation of the endemic avifaua of the samoan archipelago . wilson journal of ornithology 128 : 217 - 241 .\nyellowbill ceuthmochares aereus is split into two species ( payne 2005 ) : the polytypic group yellowbill ( blue ) ceuthmochares aereus aereus / flavirostris becomes blue malkoha ceuthmochares aereus , with subspecies aereus and flavirostri s ; and the monotypic group yellowbill ( green ) ceuthmochares aereus australis becomes green malkoha ceuthmochares australis .\npayne , r . b . 2005 . the cuckoos . oxford university press , new york and oxford , united kingdom .\neach of the two monotypic groups of large hawk - cuckoo hierococcyx sparverioides is recognized as a separate species ( sorenson and payne 2005 , payne 2005 ) : large hawk - cuckoo ( large ) hierococcyx sparverioides sparverioides becomes large hawk - cuckoo hierococcyx sparverioides , and large hawk - cuckoo ( dark ) hierococcyx sparverioides bocki becomes dark hawk - cuckoo hierococcyx bocki . revise the range description of large hawk - cuckoo from \u201cn pakistan to india , s china , myanmar , thailand and indochina\u201d to \u201cbreeds from northern pakistan to india , southern china , myanmar , thailand and indochina ; winters to southern india ( eastern and western ghats ) , bangladesh , the malay peninsula , sumatra , java , bali , the philippines , borneo , and sulawesi\u201d .\nsorenson , m . d . , and r . b . payne . 2005 . a molecular genetic analysis of cuckoo phylogeny . pages 68 - 94 in r . b . payne , the cuckoos . oxford university press , new york , new york , and oxford , united kingdom .\ncleere , n . 2010 . nightjars : potoos , frogmouths , oilbird and owlet - nightjars of the world . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey .\ndickinson , e . c . , and j . v . remsen , jr . ( editors ) . 2013 . the howard & moore complete checklist of the birds of the world . fourth edition . volume 1 . aves press , eastbourne , united kingdom .\nsigurdsson , s . and j . cracraft . 2014 . deciphering the diversity and history of new world nightjars ( aves : caprimulgidae ) using molecular phylogenetics . zoological journal of the linnean society 170 : 506 - 545 .\ngreen violetear colibri thalassinus is split into two species , a monotypic mexican violetear colibri thalassinus , which is equivalent to the former ebird group green violetear ( northern ) colibri thalassinus thalassinus ; and the polytypic lesser violetear colibri cyanotus , which includes the ebird groups green violetear ( costa rican ) colibri thalassinus cabanidis and green violetear ( andean ) colibri thalassinus cyanotus / crissalis . this split follows actions by aou - nacc ( chesser et al . 2016 ) ; see also remsen et al . ( 2015 ) .\nwith the split of green violetear into two species , change the names of the monotypic group green violetear ( costa rican ) colibri thalassinus cabanidis to lesser violetear ( costa rican ) colibri cyanotus cabanidis ; and change the names of the polytypic group green violetear ( andean ) colibri thalassinus cyanotus / crissalis to lesser violetear ( andean ) colibri cyanotus cyanotus / crissalis .\nremsen , j . v . , jr . , f . g . stiles , and j . a . mcguire . 2015 . classification of the polytminae ( aves : trochilidae ) . zootaxa 3957 : 143 - 150 .\nin accord with aou - nacc ( chesser et al . 2016 ) , blue - crowned motmot momotus coeruliceps is split into two species . the monotypic group blue - crowned motmot ( blue - crowned ) momotus coeruliceps coeruliceps is elevated to species rank as blue - capped motmot momotus coeruliceps ; and the remaining taxa , of the polytypic group blue - crowned motmot ( lesson\u2019s ) momotus coeruliceps [ lessonii group ] , become lesson\u2019s motmot momotus lessonii , which includes the subspecies lessonii , goldmani , and exiguus . \u201c momotus coeruliceps is treated as separate from m . lessonii on the basis of strong differences in plumage maintained in apparent parapatry\u201d ( chesser et al . 2016 ) .\nin accord with aou - nacc ( chesser et al . 2016 ) , the extinct subspecies maugei , which formerly occurred on mona island and on adjacent puerto rico , is split as a separate species , puerto rican parakeet psittacara maugei . this split follows olson ( 2015 ) , who argued that maugei and chloropterus differ \u201cin plumage and particularly in bill morphology , such that a probable difference in diet is suggested\u201d . with this split , hispaniolan parakeet becomes monotypic .\nolson , s . l . 2015 . history , morphology , and fossil record of the extinct puerto rican parakeet psittacara maugei souanc\u00e9 . wilson journal of ornithology 127 : 1 - 12 .\nin accord with aou - sacc ( proposal 589 ) , each of the three subspecies of stipple - throated antwren epinecrophylla haematonota is elevated to species rank , following whitney et al . ( 2013 ) : the monotypic group stipple - throated antwren ( negro ) epinecrophylla haematonota pyrrhonota becomes fulvous - throated antwren epinecrophylla pyrrhonota ; the monotypic group stipple - throated antwren ( napo ) epinecrophylla haematonota haematonota becomes rufous - backed antwren epinecrophylla haematonota ; and the monotypic group stipple - throated antwren ( madeira ) epinecrophylla haematonota amazonica becomes madeira antwren epinecrophylla amazonica . all of these english names are provisional , pending a final decision on this issue by aou - sacc ( see proposal 696 ) .\nwhitney , b . m . , m . l . isler , g . a . bravo , n . aristiz\u00e1bal , f . schunck , l . f . silveira , and v . de q . piacentini . 2013 . a new species of epinecrophylla antwren from the aripuan\u00e3 - machado interfluvium in central amazonian brazil with revision of the \u201cstipple - throated antwren\u201d complex . pages 263 - 267 in j . del hoyo , a . elliott , j . sargatal , and d . christie ( editors ) , handbook of the birds of the world . special volume . new species and global index . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nin accord with aou - sacc ( proposal 684 ) , the monotypic group rufous gnateater ( ceara ) conopophaga lineata cearae is elevated to species rank as ceara gnateater conopophaga cearae . this split long was anticipated , based on vocal differences between cearae and other subspecies of rufous gnateater ( whitney 2003 ) , and was confirmed with genetic data showing that ceara gnateater is more closely related to ash - throated gnateater ( conopophaga peruviana ) than it is to rufous gnateater ( batalha - filho et al . 2014 ) .\nbatalha - filho , h . , r . o . pessoa , p . - h . fabre , j . fjelds\u00e5 , m . irestedt , p . g . p . ericson , l . f . silveira , and c . y . miyaki . 2014 . phylogeny and historical biogeography of gnateaters ( passeriformes , conopophagidae ) in the south america forests . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 79 : 422 - 432 .\nwhitney , b . m . 2003 . family conopophagidae ( gnateaters ) . pages 732 - 747 in j . del hoyo , a . elliott , and d . christie ( editors ) , handbook of the birds of the world . volume 8 . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nyet another new species of tapaculo was described by avenda\u00f1o et al . ( 2015 ) , and was endorsed by aou - sacc ( proposal 670 ) as perija tapaculo scytalopus perijanus , with range \u201csierra de perij\u00e1 , colombia ( and venezuela ? ) \u201d . insert perija tapaculo immediately following brown - rumped tapaculo scytalopus latebricola .\navenda\u00f1o , j . e . , a . m . cuervo , j . p . l\u00f3pez - o . , n . guti\u00e9rrez - pinto , a . cort\u00e9s - diago , and c . d . cadena . 2015 . a new species of tapaculo ( rhinocryptidae : scytalopus ) from the serran\u00eda de perij\u00e1 of colombia and venezuela . auk 132 : 450 - 466 .\nin accord with aou - sacc ( proposal 697 ) , the monotypic group vilcabamba thistletail ( ayacucho ) asthenes vilcabambae ayacuchensis is elevated to species rank as ayacucho thistletail asthenes ayacuchensis , based on vocal and genetic differences ( hosner et al . 2015 ) .\nhosner , p . a . , l . cueto - aparicio , g . ferro - meza , d . miranda , and m . b . robbins . 2015 . vocal and molecular phylogenetic evidence for recognition of a thistletail species ( furnariidae : asthenes ) endemic to the elfin forests of ayacucho , peru . wilson journal of ornithology 127 : 724 - 765 .\nin accord with aou - sacc ( proposal 686 ) , elaenia chiriquensis brachyptera is elevated to species rank as coopmans\u2019s elaenia ( elaenia brachyptera ) . this split is based primarily on vocal differences between coopmans\u2019s and lesser elaenias , as well as on a relatively deep genetic divergence between coopmans\u2019s elaenia and the two other subspecies of lesser elaenia ( rheindt et al . 2015 ) . also , revise the range description of brachyptera from \u201cpacific slope of sw colombia ( nari\u00f1o ) and nw ecuador\u201d to \u201cpacific slope of southwestern colombia ( nari\u00f1o ) and northwestern ecuador ; also east slope of the andes of ecuador . \u201d\nrheindt , f . e . , n . krabbe , a . k . s . wee , and l . christidis . 2015 . cryptic speciation in the lesser elaenia elaenia chiriquensis ( aves : passeriformes : tyrannidae ) . zootaxa 4032 : 251 - 263 .\nwhite - eared catbird ailuroedus buccoides is split into three species ( irestedt et al . 2016 ) : white - eared catbird ailuroedus buccoides , which is monotypic ; ochre - breasted catbird ailurodeus stonii , which includes subspecies stonii and cinnamomeus ; and tan - capped catbird ailuroedus geislerorum , which includes geislerorum and a newly added subspecies , molestus . following irestedt et al . ( 2016 ) , we recognize subspecies molestus , with range \u201clowlands of southeastern new guinea ( north side of owen stanley range ) \u201d ; described in 1929 , molestus previously was considered to be a junior synonym of geislerorum . subspecies oorti , with range \u201cw papuan islands and w new guinea\u201d , is merged with buccoides ( mees 1964 , beehler and pratt 2016 ) . revise the range of buccoides from \u201cs new guinea ( triton bay to upper fly river ) \u201d to \u201cwestern papuan islands and northwestern new guinea , east through southern lowlands to upper kikori river\u201d .\nirestedt , m . , h . batalha - filho , c . s . roselaar , l . christidis , and p . g . p . ericson . 2016 . contrasting phylogeographic signatures in two australo - papuan bowerbird species complexes ( aves : ailuroedus ) . zoologica scripta 45 : 365 - 379 .\nmees , g . f . 1964 . four new subspecies of birds from the moluccas and new guinea . zoologische mededelingen 40 : 125 - 130 .\nspotted catbird ailuroedus melanotis is split into six species ( irestedt et al . 2016 ) : spotted catbird ailuroedus maculosus , which is monotypic ; huon catbird ailurodeus astigmaticus , which is monotypic ; black - capped catbird ailuroedus melanocephalus , which is monotypic ; northern catbird ailuroedus jobiensis , which is monotypic ; arfak catbird ailuroedus arfakianus , which includes subspecies arfakianus and misoliensis ; and black - eared catbird ailuroedus melanotis , which includes the subspecies melanotis , facialis , and joanae . subspecies guttaticollis is considered to be a junior synonym of jobiensis ( beehler and pratt 2016 , irestedt et al . 2016 ) , and is deleted . revise the range description of jobiensis from \u201cnew guinea ( weyland and adelbert mountains ) \u201d to \u201cnorth central new guinea ( north slope of western , border , and eastern ranges , and coastal ranges from foja mountains east to adelbert mountains ) \u201d . note that the scientific name associated with the english name spotted catbird has changed from ailuroedus melanotis ( now black - eared catbird ) to ailuroedus maculosus ."]}
{"id": 95, "summary": [{"text": "epirrita filigrammaria , the small autumnal moth or small autumnal carpet , is a moth of the family geometridae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in scotland , northern england , wales and ireland .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "epirrita filigrammaria is endemic to the british isles the wingspan is 30 \u2013 38 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the ground colour is greyish brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there are a few small dark bands across the forewings ( sometimes obscure ) and a well-defined fringe along the edge of the forewings .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "very similar to the autumnal moth .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the moth flies in august & september .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the larvae feed on heather ( calluna vulgaris ) and bilberry ( vaccinium myrtillus ) . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "epirrita filigrammaria", "paragraphs": ["small autumnal moth ( epirrita filigrammaria ) - norfolk moths - the macro and micro moths of norfolk .\nid pointers \u2013 an epirrita moth in late august on the upland moors is almost certain to be this species .\nid : very similar to the other three epirrita species ; averages smaller but with overlap through most of the size range . usually distinguishable from the other three species by flight season as none of them fly before the end of september . male genitalia : octavals short , widely spaced and inclined medially . valvae with an angular prominence on the ventral border but without a distinct dentate projection ( which is present in e . dilutata and e . christyi ) . dissection group suggests that e . autumnata and e . filigrammaria cannot be separated on male genital features . pierce states that the octavals are smaller with a shallower excavation between them in e . autumnata and that the number of hairs on the christae , ~ 19 in e . autumnata , ~ 7 in e . filigrammaria , provides a clear distinction . female genitalia : there is probably no reliable means of separating female epirrita species , though pierce suggests that the signa of e . autumnata are distinctly smaller than those of the other 3 species .\nnotes : common on moorland throughout much of scotland , northern england and wales , rare elsewhere ; problems in identifying individuals to specific status mean that all epirrita species are under - recorded . unlikely to be recorded in hampshire or on the isle of wight . wingspan 30 - 38 mm . one of four very similar species of epirrita found in the uk , which are generally separable only by dissection of the genitalia . larva feeds on heather , bilberry and sallow , over - wintering as an egg .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nthe fore wings are pale yellow inclining to ochreous , and the front edge is more or less tinged with the same colour as that of the oblique stripe from the tips of the wings to the middle of the inner margin . in the type , this stripe is purplish - brown , but in ab . labda , cramer , it is crimson , and in ab . atrifasciaria , stefan , it is blackish . in ab . sanguinaria , esper , the ground colour is pinkish . the hind wings are always white . ( plate 54 , figs . 1 and 2 . )\nfrom 1857 , in which year the first specimen recorded as british was captured in september at plymouth , to 1874 , one or more examples of this interesting migrant seem to have occurred during the autumns of most years , in some part of the british isles , but chiefly in the south of england . the years in which it was apparently unrecorded were 1860 , 1861 , 1870 , 1872 , and 1873 . since 1874 there have been very few records . in 1879 a male specimen was taken at chingford , essex , august 17th , and a female ( ova obtained ) on september 1st ; a specimen occurred at christchurch , hants , october , 1893 ; a male was obtained in the isle of purbeck , dorset , september , 1895 , and one was secured at timoleague , co . cork , in august , 1898 ; one was accounted for at malvern , worcestershire , in august , 1901 ; a female in fine condition was captured , as it flew in the sunshine over a cambridgeshire meadow , in the autumn of 1906 . mr . h . m . edelsten obtained a male specimen in south devon , on september 12 , 1908 . the largest number of specimens appears to have been recorded in 1867 , when nearly thirty were secured , and of these four were taken in may in the isle of wight , where also two females were captured on\naugust 14th and 16th , and one specimen on september 3rd . six or seven occurred during august in lancashire , and three in perthshire , also in august .\nthe long caterpillar is variable , but is usually some shade of green above , inclining to whitish beneath , and yellowish between the rings ; the lines along the back are paler green , reddish , and olive green . it feeds on low - growing plants , such as knotgrass and dock , and has been reared from the egg in august and september . if eggs were obtained in may it would be possible to raise two generations of moths , or , perhaps , even three , during the year .\nthe species is an inhabitant of southern europe and north africa , and its range extends to india , madeira , and the canaries . in central europe , including the british isles , its occurrence is always a more or less casual event .\nappears to be valid and is here employed . if it has to give way ,\nhas long been reported as a british species , but there does not appear to be any very convincing record of its capture in the british isles . it is widely distributed in europe , and generally common . as it is a sun - loving insect , it could hardly escape detection if it occurred in any part of our isles . a note by mr . v . r . perkins , in\nfor 1861 , p . 7449 , should , however , not be overlooked . this refers to the capture , on june 18th , of two male specimens that were disturbed from broom ,\nnot far from the city of perth , by mr . d . p . morrison .\ntwo ordinary examples of this species are shown on plate 54 , figs . 4 , 5 . the ground colour is greyish , ranging in one direction to whitish , and in the other to brownish ; on the fore wings there are three cross lines , usually reddish - brown in colour , but sometimes dark brown inclining to blackish ; the first of these lines is always slender and sometimes very indistinct ; the second is often shaded on its outer edge , and the third on its inner edge , with brownish ; occasionally the space between the second and third is more or less dusky , especially on the lower half ; sometimes these two lines approach each other very closely on the inner margin ; the short oblique streak from the tip of the wing to the wavy submarginal line , and also the blackish central dot , are far more distinct in some specimens than in others .\nthe long stick - like caterpillar is pale ochreous brown , often striped with darker brown or blackish . it feeds on furze ( ulex ) and broom ( cytisus ) , from august to april . the moth is out in may and june , earlier or later according to the season , and is to be found almost everywhere that its food plants flourish .\nthe fore wings of this species are normally ochreous brown , inclining to reddish , but sometimes the general colour is of a light chocolate tint , and in such specimens the slender white lines edging the dark markings , and the white wavy submarginal line , are more distinct ; the central band - like marking occasionally tapers towards the inner margin . ( plate 54 , figs . 6 , 7 . )\nthe long caterpillar ( figured from a coloured drawing by mr . a . sich , plate\nto yellowish between the rings ; there are indications of darker lines on the middle of the back and along the sides ; the usual dots are whitish and the spiracles black ; in some specimens the central line on the back is pinkish . it hatches from the egg in march or april , and feeds until june on mallow (\nthe moth appears in september and october , and is sometimes seen in november . it hides under the mallow , and other plants around , and is not much inclined to move during the day , but it becomes active in the evening , and then flies pretty briskly . the occurrence of this species in any locality will , of course , largely depend upon the presence of the food plant , but it seems to be widely distributed throughout the greater part of the british isles . it is , however , most frequent in the southern half of england .\nto the earliest british entomologists this species ( plate 54 , figs . 8 and 9 ) was known by the english name given to it by moses harris , which is here revived . haworth ' s popular name for the insect is the\nsmall mallow ,\nbut this seems less suitable .\nthe fore wings are usually ochreous brown in colour , with a darker brown band , the inner area of which is often paler . the ground colour , however , varies considerably , in some examples tending to whity brown , and in others to a smoky hue . the whitish hind wings are generally more or less dusky clouded , chiefly from the base of the wing to the dark brown or blackish cross shade ; but sometimes these wings are entirely blackish , with just a trace of a pale cross stripe .\nthe caterpillar is greyish , with a pinkish tinge and black dots ; there are three lines along the back , the central one slaty blue , and the others ochreous , shaded on each side with pale brown ; a pinkish irregular ridge runs low down along the sides . it feeds on clover , vetch , grass , etc . , from september to june . ( plate 52 , fig . 2 , after hofmann . )\nthe moth is out in july and august , and is often common in fields and grassy places , generally throughout the greater part of the british isles . in ancient times it was dubbed the\naurelian ' s plague .\nthe range abroad extends to amurland .\northolitha moeniata . \u2014except that one specimen was said to have been taken near baron wood , carlisle , some years prior to 1855 ; and another , in 1866 , near york ; there is no evidence that this species is an inhabitant of the british isles .\nin this species ( plate 54 , figs . 11 and 12 ) the ground colour of the fore wings is white ( inclining to bluish - white in some specimens ) , more or less stippled and scored with greyish brown ; the cross band is darker grey brown , and there are two black dots placed : - wise ( sometimes united ) in the paler central space of the band . hind wings , smoky grey , with a darker shade across the middle , and a pale one parallel with the outer margin . in some rare instances , the ground colour of the fore wings is entirely white , and the band exceedingly dark ; but specimens with the general colour , slaty - black and the band and basal patch grey , are extremely rare ; barrett mentions one such example , from box hill , surrey , in mr . r . adkin ' s collection .\nthe caterpillar is whity brown , more or less tinged with pink , dotted with black , and lined with grey along the back , the sides , and the under surface . it feeds , at night , on clover and trefoils , from september to june . ( plate\n, fig . 3 , after hofmann . ) the moth is out in july and august , and in suitable localities , such as chalk downs , lime - stone hills , etc . , is generally plentiful\nthroughout england and south wales . it does not appear to have been noted in ireland , or in scotland , except that it has been recorded from the isle of arran .\nthe sexes of this species are shown on plate 54 , figs . 3 \u2642 , 10 \u2640 . the fore wings are greyish , inclining to whitish or to brownish , with two white - edged oblique bands , which in the lighter coloured specimens are broad and show up conspicuously , but in the darker are narrower and much less distinct .\nthe caterpillar is brownish , but varies in tint , in some cases inclining to pink ; there are three lines along the back , the central one dark green or brown , and the others more or less yellowish ; a blackish or dark grey line low down along the sides . it feeds on yellow bedstraw ( galium verum ) , and may be reared on other kinds of galium . there are two broods , one in may and june , and the other in august and september .\nthe moth , which frequents sand - hills and shelving banks by the seaside , is found resting upon its food plant or other vegetation around , in may and june , and again in july and august .\nthe species has a wide distribution , and occurs in suitable localities around the coasts of england ( except the north - east ) , and on the west coast of wales . it also inhabits the breck sand district of norfolk and suffolk , and has been found on chalk downs and hills in the south of england , and in cambridgeshire and berkshire . in ireland , it has been recorded from the counties of down and kerry .\ntexture . after it has flown for a time , the wings become paler , and lose most of their sheen .\nthe species has been recorded from pembrokeshire , glamorganshire , and monmouth , in south wales ; and it appears to be found in most of the counties of england southwards from worcester , hereford , gloucester , oxford , and bucks . except that it has been doubtfully recorded from stowmarket , suffolk , it does not seem to be found in the eastern counties ; and i cannot find that it has been noted from devon or cornwall .\n, figs . 4 \u2642 , 5 \u2640 ) is very constant , and except that specimens after having been on the wing for a day or two become sooty brown , there is nothing much to note . it is the fringe at the tip of the\nfore wings rather than the tip itself that is white , and this sometimes extends for a short distance along the fringe of the outer margin . haworth ' s english name for this insect ( his\n) was\nthe looping chimney sweeper\nin reference to its caterpillar , and to distinguish it from his\nchimney sweeper ,\nchimney sweeper ' s boy ,\nand other oddities in the vernacular among the psychids .\nthe caterpillar , which feeds in the spring on flowers of the earth - nut ( conopodium denudatum , or bunium flexuosum ) , is green , and paler on the sides than on the back ; there are three darker green lines along the back , the central one merging into reddish on the last ring , and the others narrowly edged on each side with white ; a whitish stripe runs below the red spiracles .\nthe moth is a sun lover , and flits about flowers growing among or near its food plant , in june and july .\nthe species is widely distributed over england , wales , ireland , and scotland , but it does not appear to have been noted north of moray in the last - named country . it is always very local , frequents moist fields , borders of woods , and even waysides .\nthe more or less greyish moth , shown on plate 55 , fig . 3 , varies in tint , some specimens being decidedly more grey than others . at the apex of the fore wings is a short blackish dash , and from this a curved dusky line may be traced to the inner margin . the female has the wings rather shorter than those of the male .\n) , in july and august . when reared in captivity it will thrive on other kinds of crucifer\u00e6 .\nthe moth is out in june , sometimes late may ; it is exceedingly local in britain , and only occurs in the breck district , where it was first met with about fifty years ago . tuddenham , in suffolk , is a noted locality , as also is thetford , in norfolk .\nthis is a greyish white species , of which specimens of both generations are shown on plate 55 , figs . 6 \u2642 , 7 \u2640 ( 1st generation ) , fig . 8 \u2642 ( 2nd generation ) . the chief variation is in the cross central bars of the fore wings , which are sometimes much widened , and occasionally joined from the middle to the inner margin ; or the space between these two bars is more or less filled up with dark grey . on the other hand , the bars are sometimes very faint , but such aberrations are perhaps most frequent in the second generation , which consists of smaller specimens .\nthe long caterpillar is brown , inclining to reddish or to greenish , with several darker and paler lines on the back and a yellowish line low down along the sides . it feeds on st . john ' s wort ( hypericum ) in june and july ; the caterpillars , hatching in the autumn , are not mature until the following april .\nusually there are two generations of the moth , the first appearing in may and june , and the second in august and september . the species is pretty generally distributed over the british isles , extending to the hebrides and the orkneys ; and will probably be found in all localities where its food plant occurs freely . it affects cliffs and sandhills by the sea , rough places on chalk slopes , and sometimes the moths fly up in numbers as we walk over the herbage in such spots .\nin general character this species somewhat resembles that last considered . it is , however , much smaller , and there are reddish clouds on the outer marginal area .\nthis reddish shading is more or less absent in the type , which is otherwise less variegated than var . imbutata , the form to which our british specimens are almost entirely referable . ( plate 55 , figs . 9 and 10 . )\nthe caterpillar is of somewhat stoutish build , and reddish brown in colour ; three darker lines along the back , and yellow stripe low down along the sides , the latter edged above with black on the front three rings , and blotched with pinkish on the middle rings ; the head is rather paler than the body , and the dots on the latter are yellow . it feeds on cowberry ( vaccinium vitis - id\u00e6a ) and cranberry ( v . oxycoccos ) , and seems to have a preference for the flowers of these plants : april to june .\nthe moth is out in july and august among the vaccinium in its swampy haunts on the heaths and moors of the north of england , and scotland , even to the shetlands . mcarthur took a specimen in the isle of lewis in 1901 . it also occurs in ireland . in england it does not seem to have been noted south of staffordshire .\nthe most striking features of this shining brownish coloured species are the oval - shaped marks on the disk of the fore wings , and the long whitish streak running to the tips of the wings . ( plate 57 , figs . 3 \u2642 , 4 \u2640 . )\nthe long caterpillar ( plate 56 , fig . 2 ) is deep green , with a darker line along the middle of the back , and whitish lines along the sides and the under surface ; the spiracles are reddish , encircled with black , and the head is flecked with brown . it feeds in the spring on broom ( cytisus scoparius ) .\nthe moth is out in september and october , and secretes itself during the day , but may be found at night flying about the broom bushes for a short time , and later on it sits upon the twigs . it occurs in almost every part of the british isles where the food plant of the caterpillar is well established .\na noticeable character in this glossy , greyish moth ( plate 57 , figs . 1 \u2642 , 2 \u2640 ) is the black mark on the upper part of the second cross line of the fore wings ( which probably suggested the english name\nchevron\ngiven to the species by donovan ) ; following the mark is a reddish or ochreous flush , extending to the tips of the wings .\nthe long , green caterpillar inclines to bluish above , and to paler green beneath ; a darker line along the middle of the back , then a slender whitish line edged with darker green , and between this and the white spiracular line there is another slender whitish line . it feeds , in august and september , on broom ; when full grown it enters the earth , and there turns to a reddish brown chrysalis , the wing cases of which are greenish . i am indebted to mr . a . j . scollick for the caterpillar and chrysalis figured on plate 56 , figs . 1 , 1 a .\nthe moth emerges the following year , from may to july , but its time of appearance is uncertain , and it may come up in early spring or not until early autumn . sometimes it will remain in the chrysalis for two winters .\nnorfolk , suffolk ; also glamorgan , and other parts of south wales . in scotland it is found in the south , but is more frequent from perthshire to moray . probably occurs in other british localities where there is plenty of broom .\nthe general colour of the species represented on plate 57 , figs . 5 \u2642 , 6 \u2640 , is greyish , inclining to ochreous or to whitish ; but occasionally it is clouded with dark greyish on the basal area , and there is a broad band of the same colour on the outer marginal area ; in such specimens the central band becomes less conspicuous .\nthe caterpillar ( plate 59 , fig . 2 ) feeds in may and june , on privet , at first on the leaf buds , and afterwards on the expanded leaves . it will also eat ash and honeysuckle . in colour it is rather deep green , with three fine lines along the back , the central one darker than the ground colour , and the others whitish and irregular ; a whitish stripe low down along the sides ; two points on the last ring of the body . the chrysalis ( plate 59 , fig . 2 a ) , which is enclosed in an oval earthen cocoon , is dark yellowish brown , inclining to blackish on the wing cases .\nthe moth may be found at night , in march and april , sitting on the privet hedge , and may then be easily boxed , as it seems very disinclined to fly at that time , but earlier in the evening it flits along the hedgerows , and is equally easy to net . when resting , however , one is able to select just the finest specimens .\nnorth lancashire , cumberland , northampton , berks , essex , and kent . in scotland it has been reported from clydesdale and arran , but has not been noted from ireland .\nthe whitish fore wings of this species are tinged with grey or greenish grey , the cross lines and bands vary in intensity , and , as a rule , are more distinct and complete in the female than in the male . a form of not infrequent occurrence in scotland ( ab . fasciata , prout ) has blackish bands , which show up in strong contrast with the general whitish colour of the wings . the ordinary form is represented on plate 57 , fig . 7 \u2642 , and fig . 8 on the same plate shows the named variety referred to .\nthe caterpillar is green , with rather darker lines along the back , and a yellow stripe low down along the sides ; the two points on the last ring are also yellow . it feeds , in june and july , on honeysuckle , sallow , birch , and alder . the moth is out in april and may , and seems to be more or less common in woodlands throughout the greater part of the british isles . in scotland it appears to be most plentiful from perthshire northwards to sutherlandshire , but it has not been reported from the orkneys , shetlands , or hebrides . ( early stages are shown on plate 59 , figs . 3 - 3 b . )\nthe boles of trees are favourite resting places , and upon them , and also upon gate - posts , etc . , the moth is often met with in the daytime .\nwith black , and sometimes there are whitish lines between them ; those on the central area are often united by a blackish cloud , and so form a band , and not infrequently the basal area is also blackish marked . ( plate\n, figs . 3 and 4 . ) the ground colour is very apt to fade if the insect is exposed to moisture of any kind , as , for instance , when pinned in a damp collecting box , but i have one bred specimen of a reddish ochreous colour , and i am assured that it was of this tint when it emerged from the chrysalis . an old english name was\nthe brindle - barred yellow .\nthe thick - set caterpillar is green , more or less tinged with pinkish ; three interrupted pink lines on the back , the central one sometimes inclining to purple , and broken up into spots ; the head is brown , sometimes marked with purplish , and there are two tiny points on the last ring of the body . it varies in the green tint and also in marking . it feeds on flowers and leaves of holly , ivy , dogwood , privet , etc . , in june and july , and in some sheltered southern localities again in september and october .\nthe moth is out in may and early june , and where a second generation is developed , in august and early september . it sits in the daytime on tree - trunks , but more especially those with smooth bark ; the stems of holly are a favourite resting place , but at box hill i have occasionally seen a specimen on the trunk of a beech tree . barrett states that it also rests on the trunks of fir trees , and that it is then very easily seen . night is its time of activity , and it is then attracted by light .\nthe species seems to be widely distributed , but locally and not generally common , throughout england , wales , and ireland ; it has only been recorded from rosemount , ayr , and one or two other localities in the south of scotland .\nfore wings whitish , with two greyish bands on the basal area ; first and second lines greyish , variable in width , and sometimes only represented by marks on the front or inner margins ; there is a black central dot , and the outer area beyond the submarginal line is clouded with dark grey , especially on the upper half . sometimes the wings are so thickly stippled with the darker colour that they appear to be greyish , with interrupted and indistinct whitish cross lines . a rather frequent form has the fore wings tinged with ochreous , and of this tint is ab . zonata , thnbg . , which has the basal bands and outer marginal border blackish , the central area being without cross lines . ( plate 57 , figs . 9 \u2642 and 10 \u2640 . )\nthe caterpillar is green , darker below and between the rings ; the most distinct markings are two yellow lines along the back ; head , notched ; body wrinkled , and with two points on the last ring . it feeds on aspen , and other kinds of poplar , in june and july .\nthe moth appears in may , and continues out well into june , especially in its northern localities . it rests on the trunks of poplar trees , or on the stems of bushes around , and is sometimes easily alarmed , and flies off on the collector ' s approach , whilst at other times it sits quietly , and may be easily boxed . at dusk it may be seen flying around the poplars .\nwidely distributed in the southern half of england , and only found where poplars , chiefly aspens , are well established . from worcester its range extends northwards to staffordshire , leicestershire , derbyshire , and cheshire ; and it has been recorded from yorkshire and cumberland ; also from glamorganshire , south wales . in scotland it seems not to have been noted in the south , but is found more or less frequently from perthshire to sutherlandshire . rare in ireland .\nthis is a much smaller species than the last . the fore wings are whitish , with brownish - grey , or blackish - grey , cross lines and bands ; the central most distinct towards the front margin , where it encloses a black dot ; hind wings greyish , with black central dot . ( plate 58 , figs . 1 and 2 . )\nthe green , much wrinkled caterpillar has three whitish lines or stripes along the back , and in some examples there is a white line low down along the sides ; the head , which inclines to yellowish , is notched , and there are two pinkish points on the last ring of the body . it feeds on sallow in august and september .\nthe moth is to be found in may and june , and , in some years , again in july and august . it inhabits woods and hedgerows where sallow is plentiful , but , perhaps , is obtained more freely in fens . occasionally it may be beaten from the hedges , but it is active on the wing just before the close of day , and then disports itself over and about the sallow bushes . it occurs in suitable localities in most of the eastern and southern counties of england , and has been reported from some of the northern ones , and from glamorganshire , in south wales . kane states that it has been found in the north , south , east , and west of ireland , but is always local and scarce .\nin orchards and gardens wherein are fruit trees one may have noticed that the trunks of the trees have broad bands around them . if these bands are examined , they will be seen\nto be covered with a sticky compound , which has been put there for the purpose of trapping the almost wingless females of the winter moth , as they crawl up the tree after emergence from the chrysalis . in spite of such devices , and other precautionary measures taken to safeguard the trees from attack , the foliage of apple , pear , etc . , will not be quite free from the caterpillars of this species in their season .\nthe male has greyish brown fore wings , which are crossed by rather darker lines , and a dark , more or less distinct , central band ( ab . hyemata , huene ) . the ground colour is very much darker in some specimens than in others , and examples of a sooty brown colour are not infrequent ; barrett mentions an almost buff - coloured specimen . in the female , the tiny affairs representing wings are brownish , with indications of a darker band towards the outer margin of the front pair .\na small , purplish brown form , reared in january , 1882 , from caterpillars found in cumberland , feeding on sweet gale ( myrica gale ) , was described as a new species under the name myricaria , cooke ( entom . , xv . 57 ) . this has been referred by staudinger to c . boreata , as a form of that species , but it is probably an aberration of c . brumata .\nthe caterpillar is green , with a stripe of darker green along the back ; on each side of this are two white lines , and along the black spiracles is a pale yellowish line ; head , green , sometimes marked with blackish . it feeds on the foliage of trees and bushes , and sometimes abounds in april and may .\nthe moth appears during the winter months , and has been noted as early as october and as late as february . ( plate 58 , figs . 8 - 10 . )\nthis species is generally larger than the last - mentioned . the fore wings are marked somewhat as in that species ,\nbut they are paler in colour and more glossy ; hind wings whitish and glossy . in the female , the wings are useless for flying , but still they are larger than those of\nthe caterpillar is greenish , with a greyish stripe along the back , another edged above with yellow along the black spiracles , and a greyish line between the stripes ; the head is black . it feeds , in may and june , on birch , and the moth does not appear until october or november .\nat one time considered to be a purely northern species : the earliest known british specimens , four in number , having been captured at petty pool , delamere , cheshire , on october 31 , 1848 . it is now known , however , to have a wide distribution in the south of england . northwards , its range extends throughout england and scotland up to moray . it is found in south wales ; also in galway , monaghan , and connemara , in ireland .\nthe fore wings of this glossy species ( plate 60 , figs . 1 , 2 ) are pale brown , tinged more or less strongly with rosy or purplish ; there are numerous darker and paler cross lines , the most distinct and constant being the blackish basal , and the two forming the edges of the central band ; the latter are marked with black ; the submarginal line is whitish , wavy , and sometimes broken up into dots . the species varies considerably in tint , some specimens inclining to pale greyish brown , others to smoky brown . hind wings , whitish grey , with several darker grey cross lines ; in dark specimens these wings are smoky grey . ab . cinereata , stephens , is a small pale greyish form , almost without rosy tinge and with fewer cross lines .\ndarker green stripes and lines . in another form there are four pale yellowish lines along the back and a yellow stripe low down along the sides . it feeds on buckthorn (\n) , the leaves of which it fastens together with silk , and so forms a retreat . it will also eat sloe and bird - cherry (\nthe moth is out in august and through the autumn , when it sometimes visits the flowers of ivy , ragwort , etc . ; after hibernation it is again seen , perhaps even more frequently , in april and may , and is then occasionally found at sallow catkins . the species seems to have been noted from nearly all the english counties , but becomes rare from yorkshire northwards . in wales , and in ireland , it is apparently widely distributed , but in scotland it seems confined to southern localities , and is only rarely met with .\nthis species is very similar to the last , but the wings are not glossy , only reddish on the outer margin , and the black marked lines edging the central band of the fore wings are less irregular , the inner ones usually being much straighter . on the under side of the hind wings of the male is a fold enclosing hairs ; this is on the inner margin , just above the anal angle . ( plate 60 , fig . 3 \u2640 . )\n, fig . 3 , after hofmann ) is greyish inclining to greenish ; four white lines along the back , the central pair enclosing a dark line , the others are bordered below with dark greyish ; the black spiracles are set in yellowish blotches , and the plates on first and last rings are brown ; head , reddish - brown , glossy ( adapted from fenn ) . it feeds on the barberry (\nis out in may and june , but in favourable seasons has appeared in late april . when on the wing at night it is freely attracted by light , but otherwise not often noticed . the species has occurred in many of the english counties from devon to durham , but it seems to be only common in the eastern counties , and most frequent perhaps in suffolk . it has been recorded from south wales , but is seemingly absent from ireland .\nwings pale greyish , sometimes ochreous tinted , and crossed by numerous dark - grey wavy lines inclining to blackish on the front margin of the fore wings ; the waves of the central pair of lines on the fore wings often meet and so form a series of rings ; sometimes the space between the eighth and twelfth lines is of a dusky hue , and occasionally it is distinctly darker and band - like ; the outer margin of all the wings is brownish and traversed by a wavy white line . the male has tufts of blackish hair in a fold on the inner margin of the hind wing , this is noticeable on the upper side , but is best seen from the under side . ( plate 60 , figs . 4 \u2642 , 5 \u2640 . )\nthe somewhat dumpy caterpillar is reddish - brown with four yellowish lines along the back ; a greyish stripe along the sides , and a creamy stripe along the black spiracles ; head , pale brown and glossy . it feeds on sallow , aspen , and bilberry , and may be found from august throughout the autumn in spun - together leaves at the tips of the shoots . ( plate 62 , fig . 2 . )\nthe moth is out in june and july , and occurs in woods where there is a good growth of bilberry , or in marshy spots where sallow bushes abound .\nin england the species is widely distributed over the southern and eastern counties ; its range extends through the midlands to cheshire , lancs . , and westmorland , rarely in lincoln and yorks . , and once recorded in durham ; it occurs in wales and in scotland , but only in the more southern part of each country . it is not plentiful in ireland , but widely distributed . the range abroad includes amurland .\nthe male is always smaller than the female , and is noticeable for its long body with tuft of hairs at the extremity . the wings in both sexes are dingy brown , or greyish brown , and the usual lines on fore wings are blackish , the space between first and second often dusky . ( plate 60 , fig . 6 . )\nthe caterpillar is short and stout , and in form very like that of the winter moth ; the back and a central dorsal stripe are black , the latter bordered with white , the sides are yellow ; the spiracular line is black , broken , and unconnected ; the spiracles are black ; the head is black , and the edge of the first ring of the body is yellow . ( crewe . ) it feeds , in may and june , on purging buckthorn ( rhamnus catharticus ) , and is to be found between two or more leaves , which it spins together as a hiding place .\nin june and july the moth may sometimes be obtained by beating bushes of buckthorn , or the herbage below and around ; this plan works best when operated just before dusk . as a british insect it is only found in england , and is most frequent in the southern and eastern counties , but widely distributed in the west to worcester , and has been found in lancashire , westmorland , and yorks . in the last - named county , caterpillars were obtained freely at askham bogs in 1900 .\nwhen stephens wrote of this insect in 1831 he noted its occurrence\nin a lane near fulham .\neven so recently as 1906 i obtained specimens on the putney side of wimbledon common .\nthe blackish oblique band on the fore wings of this ochreous brown species ( plate 60 , fig . 7 \u2642 , 8 \u2640 ) is sometimes indicated only by the blackish lines , the space between them being hardly darker than the general colour . sometimes all the wings are suffused with blackish brown , and in such specimens the only distinct marking is the whitish submarginal line .\nthe caterpillar is green , with three lines along the back , the central one dark green , and the others yellow ; the hind wings are marked with purple , and a stripe of the same colour runs along under the spiracles . in another form the general colour is greyish with a reddish - brown stripe along the back , and series of spots of the same colour along the sides . it may be found in may and june , concealed between leaves that it has fastened together to form a retreat .\nthe moth flies in late june and in july , and may be disturbed in the daytime from buckthorn bushes . it is widely distributed , and often common in the south of england , but is rare in the north ; and has also been recorded from south wales .\n, hufnagel , and as this is an earlier name it may have to be adopted . according to prout , both this and the preceding species should be placed in the genus\nin its typical form ( plate 63 , fig . 3 ) the blackish band of the fore wings is entire , but in ab . insulata , haworth ( fig . 4 ) , this band is interrupted by two whitish lines along the median veins , and so divided into three or four portions , the smaller section placed between the lines ; occasionally , the dividing lines assume stripe - like proportions , and the main portions are consequently smaller in size and further from each other , but one\nisland\nstill remains . in another form , the lower outer corner is distinctly separate from the costal portion ; thus the band is broken into four parts .\nthe long caterpillar is green , with a reddish - brown stripe along the back ; this is broken up into spots , except on the first three rings ; there are some reddish - brown spots on the sides . it feeds on various kinds of willow herb (\nthe moth should be looked for in beech and other woods amongst the food plants , from which , and the surrounding herbage , it is readily evicted . it flies at twilight , and later on , when it has been known to visit the sugar patch ; it is also attracted by light . it is out in may and june , and specimens of a second generation sometimes occur in the south . the species occurs locally throughout england , probably wales , and in scotland up to ross . in ireland , it is widely distributed and locally common in the north , but apparently not noted in the south .\nthe white veins and white lines passing through the blackish blotches at the base and on the front margin of the fore wings , give these wings a curious netted appearance ; the hind wings are smoky grey , with two white lines which appear to be continuations of the white second line and sub - marginal of the fore wings . ( plate 61 , fig . 1 . )\nthe caterpillar is green , inclining to yellowish , and more or less tinged with pinkish , especially on the sides ; three lines on the back , the central one reddish , the others whitish ; a central line along the pinkish spiracles . it feeds at night on yellow balsam (\nseeds , and young foliage , and rests by day on the undersides of the leaves : september and october . ( plate\nthe moth is out in july and august , and , of course , will only be found in localities where the balsam flourishes ; these are very limited , and in britain are confined to westmorland and the northern border of lancashire , and north wales . the species was first introduced as british in 1861 , when the late henry doubleday recorded the capture of three specimens in august , 1856 , on the border of one of the lakes in westmorland , by his friend the late thomas h . allis . it seems that other specimens had been taken at the same time , but these passed into collections as the\nsecond brood of silacearia .\nthe caterpillar is said to have been found in north wales , but has been more frequently obtained in the english lake district .\nthe range abroad extends to eastern siberia , amurland , corea , and japan ; but in the three last - named countries it is chiefly represented by var . \u00e6rosa , butt . , a large form .\nthe english name here retained was given to this species ( plate 63 , figs . 1 \u2642 , 2 \u2640 ) by harris , in 1775 , but in 1782 he changed it to\nclouded carpet .\nin ground colour the fore wings are pale brown , more or less clouded with darker brown , or with reddish - brown ; the basal patch , central band , and blotch on outer margin below the tip of the wing , are all chocolate brown clouded with blackish and edged with white . hind wings , whitish , suffused with smoky grey , except on front area ; three dusky whitish - edged wavy lines , inclining to blackish on the inner margin . the egg ( plate 67 , fig . 3 ) is yellowish when laid , and then changes to purplish with a whitish bloom .\nmiddle of the back is a series of purplish - edged , brown - centred , whitish , triangular markings ; the third ring is swollen , and has a black collar . it feeds at night on the foliage of red and black currant , also on gooseberry , and may be found in april and may , earlier or later according to season , sitting by day upon the bushes .\nthe moth flies in july and august , and occurs in gardens , but is said to be partial to sloe bushes and hedges . it is always more or less local , although it is distributed over the greater part of the british isles .\nthe fore wings of this rather variable species ( plate 63 , figs . 5 - 7 ) are yellowish or reddish grey , with a darker basal patch and central band ; a reddish blotch below the tip of the wing is edged with white , and the central band is also outwardly edged with white . hind wings , whitish , with two lines , and dusky hind marginal border , the latter sometimes inclining to reddish . occasionally , the fore wings are entirely pale ochreous , and the basal patch and the central band only very slightly darker , but the limiting lines are reddish , and the patch under the tip of the wing is bright orange red . var . insulicola , staud . , from the isles of scotland , has the fore wings rather narrower , and suffused with purplish brown or deep violet grey ; the hind wings are smoky grey . the female is usually smaller than the male , and often more yellow in colour .\neggs , whitish brown , mottled with darker . the early stages are shown on plate 67 , figs . 2 - 2 b .\nwith reddish ; another white line along the region of the spiracles . it feeds , in may or june ( earlier or later in some seasons ) , on sallow and birch . the moth is out in july and august , and frequents heaths and bogs more especially , but is also found in or around woods , and i have captured male specimens as they flew along hedgerows bordering fields , at dusk , in middlesex . the female is rarely seen on the wing .\nthe species , which ranges through central and northern europe to the ural and altai , is generally distributed throughout the british isles ; it is found also in the atlantic states of america .\nthe fore wings are yellow , with a reddish or purplish - brown basal patch , central band , and small patch on outer margin below tip of the wing , the central band more or less clouded or mottled with yellow . hind wings , whitish , tinged with yellow . the female is usually smaller , the colour generally paler , and the markings frequently only represented by cross lines . specimens from the isle of arran have the ground colour of fore wings more or less dappled with brown of the same tint as that of the central band and other markings ; the hind wings are tinged with a smoky hue . in other parts of scotland the brown colour becomes more and more general , until the fore wings are uniformly brown , and the hind wings dusky . on the mountains in the north nearly black specimens occur , and these seem to be referable to ab . musauaria , freyer . ( plate 63 , figs . 8 - 10 . )"]}
{"id": 96, "summary": [{"text": "halichondria bowerbanki is a species of sponge that lives on rocky surfaces in the shallow subtidal , with occasional intertidal specimens under overhanging rocks .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the physical appearance and structure of the species is variable and it has tassel-like irregular branches .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "colonies can be up to 25 centimeters high with branches reaching 12 centimeters high .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the color of the species is beige to brown in the summer , and light grey/yellow in the winter . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "halichondria bowerbanki", "paragraphs": ["variety halichondria bowerbanki var . stellifera breton , girard & lagard\u00e8re , 1995 accepted as halichondria ( halichondria ) bowerbanki burton , 1930 ( junior synonym )\neasily confused with halichondria panicea , but halichondria bowerbanki is distinguished by the absence of the chimney - like oscules that occur in halichondria panicea .\nthe green filamentous algae microspora ficulinae lives in association with the tissues of halichondria bowerbanki .\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nklumpenschwamm\nto\nhalichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930\n.\njennifer hammock split the classifications by inventaire national du patrimoine naturel from halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 to their own page .\nbiotic ( from synonym halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) encyclopedia of marine life of britain and ireland ( from synonym halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) marine life information network - uk to barcode of life ( from synonym halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 22 publications ) ( from synonym halichondria coalita ( sensu lamarck , 1814 ) ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 59 publications ) ( from synonym spongia coalita sensu lamarck , 1814 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 9 publications ) ( from synonym halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 15 nucleotides ; 9 proteins ) ( from synonym halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) to pesi ( from synonym halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) to pesi ( from synonym halichondria bowerbanki var . stellifera breton , girard & lagard\u00e8re , 1995 ) to pesi to usnm invertebrate zoology porifera collection ( 2 records ) ( from synonym halichondria coalita ( sensu lamarck , 1814 ) ) to usnm invertebrate zoology porifera collection ( 30 records ) ( from synonym halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 )\nin the united kingdom , halichondria bowerbanki ( studied as halichondria coalita ) was recorded up to depths of 90 m ( bowerbank , 1874 , cited in vethaak et al . , 1982 ) .\nsimilar species : the variable nature of halichondria bowerbanki can make it very difficult to identify positively . the most likely confusion is with halichondria panicea . the growth of tassels in h . bowerbanki seems to be a good character , but these are not present all year round . h . bowerbanki lacks the green colour that is present in h . panicea in well lit conditions and also the characteristic smell .\nhabitat : on rock or other animals , even ascidian tests . it reaches its maximal development in harbours and estuaries , being very tolerant of muddy and brackish conditions where it tends to replace halichondria panicea . ( but there are reports of both halichondria species occurring together in silty conditions , e . g . from sussex . ) halichondria bowerbanki can be partly embedded in mud . halichondria bowerbanki occurs typically from the upper infralittoral downwards , and is never ( ? ) found on the shore . halichondria panicea occurs from the shore to the lower infralittoral , rarely deeper .\n( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) gosner , k . l . ( 1978 ) . a field guide to the atlantic seashore . boston : houghton mifflin . 329p . [ details ]\noccurs in muddy environments where the similar sponge halichondria panicea cannot survive . reaches its best development in harbours . in the oosterschelde , halichondria bowerbanki was found growing on tunicates ( especially styela clava ) , molluscs and , in a brackish lagoon , on small reefs of electra crustulenta ( vethaak et al . , 1982 ) .\nidentity : the variable nature of halichondria bowerbanki can make it very difficult to identify positively . the most likely confusion is with halichondria panicea . the table with halichondria panicea will help to separate the two species . some growth forms are peculiar to one or other of the species and these are indicated . the growth of tassels in halichondria bowerbanki seems to be a good character , but these are not present all year round . frequently however , it is impossible to be certain to which of the two species a specimen belongs . however larval differences prove that two species are involved here . the cushion forms , with modest oscular chimneys , can be mistaken for myxilla incrustans ( q . v . ) . the confusion arises when a specimen of halichondria bowerbanki has an ' open ' sub - surface appearance , which is reminiscent of the labyrinthine channels of m . incrustans .\npicton , b . e . & morrow , c . c . ( 2016 ) . halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 . [ in ] encyclopedia of marine life of britain and ireland . urltoken accessed on 2018 - 07 - 09\n( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) vethaak , a . d . ; cronie , r . j . a . ; van soest , r . w . m . 1982 . ecology and distribution of two sympatric , closely related spongespecies , halichondria panicea ( pallas , 1766 ) and h . bowerbanki burton , 1930 ( porifera , demospongiae ) , with remarks on their speciation . bijdragen tot de dierkunde 52 ( 2 ) : 82 - 102 . page ( s ) : 86 [ details ]\n( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) linkletter , l . e . ( 1977 ) . a checklist of marine fauna and flora of the bay of fundy . huntsman marine laboratory , st . andrews , n . b . 68 : p . [ details ]\nhalichondria bowerbanki survives over the winter months as a dormant form with no growth and a disintegration of tissue . in the oosterschelde , this species experienced a drastic reduction in biomass during the severe winter of 1978 / 9 , especially in the intertidal ( vethaak et al . , 1982 ) .\n( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) burton , m . ( 1930 ) . additions to the sponge fauna at plymouth . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom . 16 ( 2 ) : 489 - 507 . page ( s ) : 489 - 491 [ details ]\n( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) van soest , r . w . m . ( 1993 ) . affinities of the marine demospongiae fauna of the cape verde islands and tropical west africa . courier forschungsinstitut senckenberg . 159 : 205 - 219 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nconsistency : soft and moderately elastic . branches do not break even if bent through 180 deg . ( cf . halichondria panicea ) .\n( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) sol\u00f3rzano , m . r . ( 1990 ) . por\u00edferos del litoral gallego : estudio faun\u00edstico , distribuci\u00f3n e inventario . phd thesis unversidad de santiago de compostela . 1036 pp . page ( s ) : 960 - 963 ; l\u00e1m . 124 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) burton , m . ( 1954 ) . sponges . pp . 215 - 239 , pl . 9 . in : the ' rosaura ' expedition . part 5 . bulletin of the british museum ( natural history ) zoology . 2 ( 6 ) . page ( s ) : 233 [ details ]\n( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) labate , m . ; arena , p . ( 1964 ) . la fauna dei poriferi nei laghi di ganzirri e faro ( messina ) . archivo zoologico italiano . 49 : 249 - 280 . page ( s ) : 265 - 267 ; fig 5 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) ackers , r . g . ; moss , d . ; picton , b . e . ( 1992 ) . sponges of the british isles ( \u2018sponges v\u2019 ) . a colour guide and working document . marine conservation society . 1 - 175 . page ( s ) : 127 - 129 [ details ]\n( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) alander , h . ( 1942 ) . sponges from the swedish west - coast and adjacent waters . ph . d . thesis . ( university of lund , h . struves : g\u00f8teborg ) . pp . 1 - 95 , 15 pls . page ( s ) : 28 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) castric - fey , a . ( 1996 ) . richesse et biodiversit\u00e9 en mer m\u00e9gatidale : communaut\u00e9s sublittorales rocheuses de la r\u00e9gion de tr\u00e9beurden - ploumanac ' h ( nord bretagne france ) . cahiers de biologie marine . 37 , 7 - 31 . page ( s ) : 22 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) borojevic , r . ; cabioch , l . ; l\u00e9vi , c . ( 1968 ) . inventaire de la faune marine de roscoff . spongiaires . cahiers de biologie marine . 9 ( 1 ) : 1 - 44 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 15 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nbowerbank ' s halichondria is easy to confuse with the breadcrumb sponge . older specimen have long thin , stringy branches which emerge from a thin crust . young specimen lack these stringy branches . since the delta works were built , bowerbank ' s halichondria is found more often than the breadcrumb sponge . it used to be the other way around . but this sponge is more resistant to mud . bowerbank ' s halichondria is also known as crumb - of - bread sponge or the common sponge .\nvethaak , a . d . , r . j . a . cronie and r . w . m . van soest , 1982 . ecology and distribution of two sympatric , closely related sponge species , halichondria panicea ( pallas , 1766 ) and h . bowerbanki burton , 1930 ( porifera , demospongiae ) , with remarks on their speciation . bijdragen tot de dierkunde , 52 ( 2 ) : 82 - 102 .\n( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) hayward , p . j . ; ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) . ( 1990 ) . the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe : 1 . introduction and protozoans to arthropods . clarendon press : oxford , uk . isbn 0 - 19 - 857356 - 1 . 627 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) muller , y . ( 2004 ) . faune et flore du littoral du nord , du pas - de - calais et de la belgique : inventaire . [ coastal fauna and flora of the nord , pas - de - calais and belgium : inventory ] . commission r\u00e9gionale de biologie r\u00e9gion nord pas - de - calais : france . 307 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nburton , m . , 1947a . the identity of halichondria albescens johnston and hymeniacidon albescens bowerbank . ann . mag . nat . hist . , ( 11 ) 14 : 252 - 256 .\nvethaak , a . d . ; cronie , r . j . a . ; van soest , r . w . m . 1982 . ecology and distribution of two sympatric , closely related spongespecies , halichondria panicea ( pallas , 1766 ) and h . bowerbanki burton , 1930 ( porifera , demospongiae ) , with remarks on their speciation . bijdragen tot de dierkunde 52 ( 2 ) : 82 - 102 . page ( s ) : 86 [ details ]\n( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) van soest , r . w . m . ( 2001 ) . porifera , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels . 50 : 85 - 103 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\ngraat - kleeton , g . , 1965 . les halichondria de roscoff . proc . kon . ned . acad . wetensch . , ( c ) 68 ( 3 ) : 166 - 174 .\n( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) ereskovsky , a . ; kovtun , o . a . ; pronin , k . k . ; apostolov , a . ; erpenbeck , d . ; ivanenko , v . ( 2018 ) . sponge community of the western black sea shallow water caves : diversity and spatial distribution . peerj . 6 : e4596 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 9 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) carballo , j . l . ; garcia - g\u00f3mez , j . c . ( 1994 ) . esponjas del estrecho de gibraltar y \u00e1reas pr\u00f3ximas , con nuevas aportaciones para la fauna iberica [ porifera from the straits of gibraltar and nearby areas , new species of the iberian fauna ] . cahiers de biologie marine . 35 ( 2 ) : 193 - 211 . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 197 [ details ]\n( of halichondria bowerbanki var . stellifera breton , girard & lagard\u00e8re , 1995 ) breton , g . ; girard , a . ; lagard\u00e8re , j . - p . ( 1995 ) . esp\u00e8ces animales benthiques des bassins du port du havre ( normandie , france ) rares , peu connues ou nouvelles pour la r\u00e9gion . bull . trim . soc . g\u00e9ol . normandie et amis mus . havr , 82 ( 3 ) : 7 - 29 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) r\u00fctzler , k . ; van soest , r . w . m . ; piantoni , c . ( 2009 ) . sponges ( porifera ) of the gulf of mexico . in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m press , college station , texas . 285\u2013313 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of halichondria bowerbanki var . stellifera breton , girard & lagard\u00e8re , 1995 ) van soest , r . w . m . ( 2001 ) . porifera , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels . 50 : 85 - 103 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) cardone , f . ; corriero , g . ; fianchini , a . ; gravina , m . f . ; nonnis marzano , c . ( 2014 ) . biodiversity of transitional waters : species composition and comparative analysis of hard bottom communities from the south - eastern italian coast . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom . 94 ( 01 ) : 25 - 34 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 4 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) girard - descatoire , a . ; castric - fey , a . ; l ' hardy - halos , m . t . ( 1995 ) . inventaire de la faune et de la flore sur les fonds rocheux autour de l ' \u00eele d ' ouessant . rapport adms , direction r\u00e9gionale de l ' environnement bretagne , conseil r\u00e9gional de bretagne , conseil g\u00e9n\u00e9ral du finist\u00e8re , fonds europ\u00e9ens , rennes . , 148pp . convention znieff 94 . page ( s ) : annexe 1 , 8 [ details ]\ntopsent , e . , 1911 . sur les affinit\u00e9s des halichondria et la classification des halichondrines d ' apr\u00e8s leurs formes larvaires . arch . zool . exp\u00e9r . g\u00e9n . , ( 5 ) 7 ( notes et revue ) : i - xv .\n( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) wapstra , m . ; van soest , r . w . m . ( 1987 ) . sexual reproduction , larval morphology and behaviour in demosponges from the southwest of the netherlands . in : vacelet j . , boury - esnault n . ( eds ) taxonomy of porifera from the n . e . atlantic and the mediterranean sea . nato advanced science institutes series g , ecological sciences , springer , heidelberg . 13 : 281 - 307 . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 285 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of halichondria coalita ( sensu lamarck , 1814 ) ) grant , r . e . 1826c . observations on the structure and functions of thesponge . edinburgh new philosophical journal 2 : 121 - 141 , pl . ii . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhabitat : on rock or other animals , even ascidian tests . it reaches its maximal development in harbours and estuaries , being very tolerant of muddy and brackish conditions where it tends to replace halichondria panicea ( but there are reports of both species occuring together in silty conditions ) .\nh . bowerbanki may be confused with another common species , h . panicea . it does not have the same distinct smell and is not easily broken into pieces . it is also more polymorph , taking a variety of forms from smooth cushions to very branched , bush - like shapes . the color is usually light brown or yellow , sometimes with shades of green .\n( of halichondria coalita ( sensu lamarck , 1814 ) ) topsent , e . ( 1934 ) . eponges observ\u00e9es dans les parages de monaco . ( premi\u00e8re partie ) . bulletin de l\u2019institut oc\u00e9anographique , monaco . 650 : 1 - 42 . page ( s ) : 22 - 23 [ details ]\n( of halichondria coalita ( sensu lamarck , 1814 ) ) topsent , e . ( 1925 ) . \u00e9ponges de l ' \u00e9tang de thau . bulletin de l ' institut oc\u00e9anographique de monaco . 452 , 1 - 42 . page ( s ) : 11 - 12 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of halichondria coalita ( sensu lamarck , 1814 ) ) bowerbank , j . s . ( 1866 ) . a monograph of the british spongiadae . volume 2 . ( ray society : london ) : i - xx , 1 - 388 . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 238 - 240 [ details ]\nspicules : simple . megascleres are slightly curved slender oxea only : 400 - ( 500 ) - 600 x 12\u00e1m , and 200 - ( 253 ) - 320 x 2 . 5\u00e1m . the spicules are rather more slender and show a wider size range than in haliclona spp . , with which certain forms of halichondria may be confused . no microscleres .\n( of halichondria coalita ( sensu lamarck , 1814 ) ) bowerbank , j . s . ( 1874 ) . a monograph of the british spongiadae . volume 3 . ( ray society : london ) : i - xvii , 1 - 367 , pls i - xcii . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 102 , pl . xli 18 - 20 [ details ]\napertures : oscules are\nusually small\n, ( but see photo 59 ) and either at the tops of chimneys , whose shape is uneven , or along the sides of branches . larger oscular chimneys ( up to 1 cm tall ) tend to have an ill defined translucent band running up one side . the apical termination of this band ( canal ? ) contributes to the unevenness of the oscular rims ( cf . halichondria panicea ) .\nform : polymorphic , varying from a cushion to almost a branching - repent form . a cushion can give rise to oscular chimneys with oscules at the top or , more typically , to a profusion of simple , solid , tassel - like branches with the oscules mainly along their length ( cf . halichondria panicea ) . in some sheltered localities the branches grow over other organisms and loop like bramble stolons , attaching to any suitable object they encounter .\n( of halichondria coalita ( sensu lamarck , 1814 ) ) muller , y . ( 2004 ) . faune et flore du littoral du nord , du pas - de - calais et de la belgique : inventaire . [ coastal fauna and flora of the nord , pas - de - calais and belgium : inventory ] . commission r\u00e9gionale de biologie r\u00e9gion nord pas - de - calais : france . 307 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of halichondria coalita ( sensu lamarck , 1814 ) ) harms , j . ( 1993 ) . check list of species ( algae , invertebrates and vertebrates ) found in the vicinity of the island of helgoland ( north sea , german bight ) : a review of recent records . helgol\u00e4nder meeresunters . 47 : 1 - 34 . [ p . 25 , tab . 3 : gastrosaccus spinifer , mysis relicta , praunus inermis , schistomysis kervillei , schistomysis spiritus . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\ndescription : this sponge can be very polymorphic , varying from a cushion to almost a branching - repent form . a cushion can give rise to oscular chimneys with oscules at the top or , more typically , to a profusion of simple , solid , tassel - like branches with the oscules mainly along their length ( cf . halichondria panicea ) . in some sheltered localities the branches grow over other organisms and loop like bramble stolons , attaching to any suitable object they encounter . the colour is usually buff or cream , never green .\nskeleton : halichondroid . the main skeleton is a confused reticulation of oxea of variable size with a slight tendency to form fibres 4 - 10 spicules thick . the ectosomal skeleton is typically a regular reticulation of similar spicules arranged tangentially , these either lying singly and parallel to one another , or formed into fibres : this regular arrangement can become confused and lost . the surface spicules help to reinforce a well - defined ectosomal membrane . sub - surface spaces are not as well developed as in halichondria panicea . very small quantities of spongin are present .\nis a shallow subtidal , occasionally intertidal yellowish beige sponge with characteristically stringy appearance . long , string - like projections issue from a thinly encrusting base . no apparent oscules . texture like crumb - of - bread , soft . confused\nsuffice to tell them apart . less common , but largely overlapping in ecological and geographical range .\nbeige or dull brownish grey in summer , light grey yellow or whitish in winter . specimens about to spawn their larvae are often characteristically yellow - orange due to colour of larvae . greenish shades are rarely encountered .\n) . size up to 25 cm across and branches may reach12 cm . surface smooth or uneven , often with a translucence . parchment - like skin . consistency soft , compressible . texture crumb - of - bread like . oscules inconspicuous , at the base of branches , opening irregular , mostly small ( 1 - 2 mm ) , but occasionally larger ( up to 5 mm ) , then with irregular rim (\n) oxeas , relatively long and thin , tapering very gradually towards the apices : 133 - 570 by 2 - 16 \u00b5m . average sizes are 375 by 6 or 385 by 11 \u00b5m . no statistically significant difference between ectosomal and choanosomal oxeas has been found .\n) , with paucispicular bundles intercrossing , and lying at some distance from each other , giving a more open reticulated aspect .\n: confused , with ill - defined paucispicular dendritic bundles ending at the surface at various angles . no visible spongin .\nthis is a viviparous species . the parenchymella larvae are yellow - ochre coloured , darker than those of\nsheltered environments , under overhanging rocks in sediment rich environments . although it overlaps broadly with\ncannot survive . it is less resistant towards desiccation and thus is found only in the lowest part of the intertidal . it grows often intertwined with hydroids and algae .\n, on both sides of the atlantic , penetrating far to the south along the coasts of the eastern united states , e . g . it is reported from north carolina . on the european coasts it is reliably reported southwards until bretagne . morphologically similar specimens are found along the west coast of africa and in the mediterranean , but need revision . records from other oceans are likewise unreliable .\nnamed after james scott bowerbank ( 1797 - 1877 ) , pioneering author of the w european sponges .\nthe type is in the natural history museum , london : bmnh 1938 . 6 . 30 . 32a ? ( bowerbank ' s specimen of\ncan make it very difficult to identify individual specimens . typical growth forms , however , are easy to recognize :\nis compact with clearly recognizable regular oscular chimneys . below a table of differences between the two species is given . other species in the area with long and thin oxeas , which may be occasionally confused with the present species are\nackers , r . g . , d . moss , b . e . picton and s . m . k . stone , 1985 . sponges of the british isles (\nsponge iv\n) . ii . marine conservation soc . , ross on wye , u . k . : 108 - 197 .\nackers , r . g . a . , d . moss and b . e . picton , 1992 . sponges of the british isles (\nsponge v\n) , a colour guide and working document . marine conservation society , 175 pp .\nackers , r . g . , 1983 . some local and national distributions of sponges . porcupine newsletter , 2 ( 7 ) : 162 - 165 .\nalander , h . , 1942 . sponges from the swedish west - coast and adjacent waters . thesis lund univ . , 95 pp . , 16 pls .\narndt , w . , 1935 . porifera . tierwelt nord . - ostsee , iiia : 1 - 140 , figs . 1 - 239 .\nbeauchamp , p . de , 1914 . les gr\u00e8ves de roscoff . lechevalier , paris .\nbellamy , j . c . , 1839 . the natural history of south devon . plymouth , 80 pp .\nbenito , j . , 1976 . aportaci\u00f3n al conocimiento de la fauna bent\u00f3nica de la r\u00eda de vigo ( nw de espa\u00f1a ) . ii . esponjas . inv . pseq . , 40 ( 2 ) : 491 - 503 .\nborojevic , r . , l . cabioch and c . l\u00e9vi , 1968 . spongiaires . inventaire faune marine de roscoff . 44 pp .\nbowerbank , j . s . , 1866 . a monograph of the british spongiadae , ii . ray society , london : i - xx , 1 - 388 .\nbowerbank , j . s . , 1874 . a monograph of the british spongiadae , iii . ray society , london : i - xvii , 1 - 367 , pls . i - xcii .\nbowerbank , j . s . , 1882 . a monograph of the british spongiadae , iv . ray society , london . xvii , 250 pp . , 17 pls .\nbreton , g . , a . girard and j . p . lagard\u00e8re , 1996 . esp\u00e8ces animales benthiques des bassins du port du havre ( normandie , france ) rares , peu connues ou nouvelles pour la r\u00e9gion . bull . trim . soc . g\u00e9ol . normandie et amis mus\u00e9um du havre , 82 ( 3 ) : 7 - 28\nbruce , j . r . , j . s . colman and n . s . jones , 1963 . marine fauna of the isle of man and its surrounding seas . l . m . b . c . memoirs , 36 . 307 pp . ( sponges : 42 - 47 ) .\nburton , m . , 1930a . norwegian sponges from the norman collection . proc . zool . soc . london , 2 : 487 - 546 .\nburton , m . , 1930b . additions to the sponge fauna at plymouth . j . mar . biol . ass . u . k . plymouth , 16 : 489 - 507 .\nburton , m . , 1957 . plymouth marine fauna . 3rd ed . porifera . mar . biol . ass . u . k . : 26 - 36 .\ndescatoire , a . , 1969a . peuplements sessiles de l ' archipel de gl\u00e9nan . i . inventaire : spongiaires . vie milieu , ( b ) 20 ( 1 , b ) : 177 - 210 .\nd\u00edaz , m . c . , s . a . pomponi and r . w . m . van soest , 1993 . a systematic revision of the central west atlantic halichondrida ( demospongiae , porifera ) . part iii : description of valid species . in : m . j . uriz and k . r\u00fctzler ( eds ) , recent advances in ecology and systematics of sponges . sci . mar . 57 ( 4 ) : 283 - 306 .\nfleming , j . , 1828 . a history of british animals . edinburgh , london , 565 pp .\ngrant , r . e . , 1825 . observations on the structure and functions of the sponge . edinborough new philosphical journal , 1825 : xiii .\ngrant , r . e . , 1826a . notice of two new species of british sponges . edinburgh new philos . j . , 2 : 203 - 204 .\nhartman , w . d . , 1958a . natural history of the marine sponges of southern new england . bull . peabody mus . nat . hist . , 12 : 1 - 155 .\njohnston , g . , 1842 . a history of british sponges and lithophytes . lizars , edinburgh : 1 - 264 , 25 pls .\nk\u00f6nnecker , g . , 1973 . littoral and benthic investigations on the west coast of ireland - i . ( section a : faunistic and ecological studies ) . the sponge fauna of kilkieran bay and adjacent waters . proc . roy . irish acad . , 73 ( b ) : 451 - 472 .\nlamarck , j . b . p . a . de monet , 1813 - 15 . sur les polypiers emp\u00e2t\u00e9s . ann . mus . hist . nat . paris , 20 : 294 - 312 ( published 1813 ) , 370 - 386 , 432 - 458 ( published 1814 ) .\nlamouroux , j . v . f . , 1816 . histoire des polypiers corallig\u00e8nes flexibles . poisson , caen .\nl\u00e9vi , c . , 1950b . inventaire de la faune de roscoff . spongiaires . trav . stat . biol . roscoff , n . s . 1 ( suppl . 2 ) : 1 - 28 .\nlilly , s . j . , f . sloane , r . basindale , f . j . ebling and j . a . kitching , 1953 . the ecology of the lough ine rapids with special reference to water currents . iv . the sedentary fauna of sublittoral boulders . j . anim . ecol . , 22 : 87 - 122 .\nlombas , i . , 1982 . distribuci\u00f3n de esponjas esciafilas en la zona intermareal de aramar ( luanco , asturias ) . bol . cienc . nat . i . d . e . a . , 29 : 37 - 50 .\nmaitland , r . t . 1897 . prodrome de la fauna des pays bas et de la belgique flamande . brill , leiden . 62 pp .\nm\u00fcller , o . f . , 1776 . zoologiae danicae prodromus . havniae , 40 pp .\nparfitt , e . , 1868 . on the marine and freshwater sponges of devonshire . trans . devonshire ass . advancement sci . lit . art , 1868 : 9 - 12 ( 452 - 454 ) .\nparfitt , e . , 1869 . on the marine and freshwater sponges of devonshire . trans . devonshire assoc . , 1869 .\nprenant , m . , 1927 . notes \u00e9thologiques sur la faune marine sessile des environs de roscoff . ii . spongiaires , tuniciers , anthozoaires . associations de la faune fix\u00e9e . trav . stat . biol . roscoff , 6 : 1 - 58 .\nrodriguez babio , c . and l . gondar , 1978 . fauna marina de galicia . ii . contribuci\u00f3n al conocimiento de por\u00edferos del litoral gallego . monogr . univ . santiago compostela : 1 - 68 .\nschmidt , o . , 1870 . grundz\u00fcge einer spongien - fauna des atlantischen gebietes . engelmann , leipzig : iv + 88 pp . , vi pls .\nsoest , r . w . m . van , and s . weinberg , 1980 . a note on the sponges and octocorals from sherkin island and lough ine , co . cork . irish nat . j . , 20 : 1 - 15 .\nsoest , r . w . m . van , j . d . guiterman and m . sayer , 1981 . sponges from roaringwater bay and lough ine . j . sherkin isl . , 1 ( 2 ) : 35 - 49 .\nsoest , r . w . m . van , 1977 . marine and freshwater sponges ( porifera ) of the netherlands . zool . meded . leiden , 50 ( 16 ) : 261 - 273 .\nsoest , r . w . m . van , 1983 . sponzenonderzoek in nederland . het zeepaard , 43 ( 2 ) : 28 - 33 .\nsol\u00f3rzano , m . r . , 1991 . inventario dos por\u00edferos do litoral galego . cadernos de area de ciencias biol\u00f3xicas . inventarios , 7 : 1 - 53 .\ntopsent , e . , 1888a . contribution \u00e0 l ' \u00e9tude des clionides . arch . zool . exp\u00e9r . g\u00e9n . , ( 2 ) 5 : 1 - 166 , pls . i - vii .\ntopsent , e . , 1891a . essai sur la faune de spongiaires de roscoff . arch . zool . exp\u00e9r . g\u00e9n . , ( 2 ) 9 : 523 - 554 .\ntopsent , e . , 1913 . spongiaires provenant des campagnes scientifiques de la\nprincesse alice\ndans les mers du nord . r\u00e9s . camp . sci . prince albert monaco , 45 : 1 - 67 .\nvethaak , a . d . , 1983 . het oecologische onderzoek van broodsponzen . het zeepaard , 43 ( 2 ) : 62 - 70 .\nwapstra , m . and r . w . m . van soest , 1987 . sexual reproduction , larval morphology and behaviour in demosponges from the southwest of the netherlands : 281 - 307 . in : j . vacelet and n . boury - esnault , eds . taxonomy of porifera . springer verlag , berlin , heidelberg . nato - asi series , g13 : 1 - 332 .\nburton , m . ( 1930 ) . additions to the sponge fauna at plymouth . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom . 16 ( 2 ) : 489 - 507 . page ( s ) : 489 - 491 [ details ]\nvan soest , r . w . m ; boury - esnault , n . ; hooper , j . n . a . ; r\u00fctzler , k . ; de voogd , n . j . ; alvarez , b . ; hajdu , e . ; pisera , a . b . ; manconi , r . ; sch\u00f6nberg , c . ; klautau , m . ; picton , b . ; kelly , m . ; vacelet , j . ; dohrmann , m . ; d\u00edaz , m . - c . ; c\u00e1rdenas , p . ; carballo , j . l . ; r\u00edos , p . ; downey , r . ( 2018 ) . world porifera database .\nvan soest , r . w . m . ( 2001 ) . porifera , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels . 50 : 85 - 103 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nackers , r . g . ; moss , d . ; picton , b . e . ( 1992 ) . sponges of the british isles ( \u2018sponges v\u2019 ) . a colour guide and working document . marine conservation society . 1 - 175 . page ( s ) : 127 - 129 [ details ]\nalander , h . ( 1942 ) . sponges from the swedish west - coast and adjacent waters . ph . d . thesis . ( university of lund , h . struves : g\u00f8teborg ) . pp . 1 - 95 , 15 pls . page ( s ) : 28 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nborojevic , r . ; cabioch , l . ; l\u00e9vi , c . ( 1968 ) . inventaire de la faune marine de roscoff . spongiaires . cahiers de biologie marine . 9 ( 1 ) : 1 - 44 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 15 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nlinkletter , l . e . ( 1977 ) . a checklist of marine fauna and flora of the bay of fundy . huntsman marine laboratory , st . andrews , n . b . 68 : p . [ details ]\nhayward , p . j . ; ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) . ( 1990 ) . the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe : 1 . introduction and protozoans to arthropods . clarendon press : oxford , uk . isbn 0 - 19 - 857356 - 1 . 627 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nburton , m . ( 1954 ) . sponges . pp . 215 - 239 , pl . 9 . in : the ' rosaura ' expedition . part 5 . bulletin of the british museum ( natural history ) zoology . 2 ( 6 ) . page ( s ) : 233 [ details ]\nvan soest , r . w . m . ( 1993 ) . affinities of the marine demospongiae fauna of the cape verde islands and tropical west africa . courier forschungsinstitut senckenberg . 159 : 205 - 219 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nwapstra , m . ; van soest , r . w . m . ( 1987 ) . sexual reproduction , larval morphology and behaviour in demosponges from the southwest of the netherlands . in : vacelet j . , boury - esnault n . ( eds ) taxonomy of porifera from the n . e . atlantic and the mediterranean sea . nato advanced science institutes series g , ecological sciences , springer , heidelberg . 13 : 281 - 307 . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 285 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nmuller , y . ( 2004 ) . faune et flore du littoral du nord , du pas - de - calais et de la belgique : inventaire . [ coastal fauna and flora of the nord , pas - de - calais and belgium : inventory ] . commission r\u00e9gionale de biologie r\u00e9gion nord pas - de - calais : france . 307 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ncarballo , j . l . ; garcia - g\u00f3mez , j . c . ( 1994 ) . esponjas del estrecho de gibraltar y \u00e1reas pr\u00f3ximas , con nuevas aportaciones para la fauna iberica [ porifera from the straits of gibraltar and nearby areas , new species of the iberian fauna ] . cahiers de biologie marine . 35 ( 2 ) : 193 - 211 . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 197 [ details ]\nlabate , m . ; arena , p . ( 1964 ) . la fauna dei poriferi nei laghi di ganzirri e faro ( messina ) . archivo zoologico italiano . 49 : 249 - 280 . page ( s ) : 265 - 267 ; fig 5 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nr\u00fctzler , k . ; van soest , r . w . m . ; piantoni , c . ( 2009 ) . sponges ( porifera ) of the gulf of mexico . in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m press , college station , texas . 285\u2013313 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\ngosner , k . l . ( 1978 ) . a field guide to the atlantic seashore . boston : houghton mifflin . 329p . [ details ]\ncardone , f . ; corriero , g . ; fianchini , a . ; gravina , m . f . ; nonnis marzano , c . ( 2014 ) . biodiversity of transitional waters : species composition and comparative analysis of hard bottom communities from the south - eastern italian coast . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom . 94 ( 01 ) : 25 - 34 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 4 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nsol\u00f3rzano , m . r . ( 1990 ) . por\u00edferos del litoral gallego : estudio faun\u00edstico , distribuci\u00f3n e inventario . phd thesis unversidad de santiago de compostela . 1036 pp . page ( s ) : 960 - 963 ; l\u00e1m . 124 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\ngirard - descatoire , a . ; castric - fey , a . ; l ' hardy - halos , m . t . ( 1995 ) . inventaire de la faune et de la flore sur les fonds rocheux autour de l ' \u00eele d ' ouessant . rapport adms , direction r\u00e9gionale de l ' environnement bretagne , conseil r\u00e9gional de bretagne , conseil g\u00e9n\u00e9ral du finist\u00e8re , fonds europ\u00e9ens , rennes . , 148pp . convention znieff 94 . page ( s ) : annexe 1 , 8 [ details ]\ncastric - fey , a . ( 1996 ) . richesse et biodiversit\u00e9 en mer m\u00e9gatidale : communaut\u00e9s sublittorales rocheuses de la r\u00e9gion de tr\u00e9beurden - ploumanac ' h ( nord bretagne france ) . cahiers de biologie marine . 37 , 7 - 31 . page ( s ) : 22 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nereskovsky , a . ; kovtun , o . a . ; pronin , k . k . ; apostolov , a . ; erpenbeck , d . ; ivanenko , v . ( 2018 ) . sponge community of the western black sea shallow water caves : diversity and spatial distribution . peerj . 6 : e4596 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 9 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of spongia coalita sensu lamarck , 1814 ) lamarck , j . b . p . de monet , comte de . ( 1814 [ 1813 ] ) . sur les polypiers emp\u00e2t\u00e9s . annales du museum national d ' histoire naturelle . 294 - 312 ; 370 - 386 ; 432 - 458 . page ( s ) : 457 [ details ]\nmarra , m . v . ; bertolino , m . ; pansini , m . ; giacobbe , s . ; manconi , r . ; pronzato , r . ( 2016 ) . long - term turnover of the sponge fauna in faro lake ( north - east sicily , mediterranean sea ) . italian journal of zoology . 1 - 10 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 4 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of spongia coalita sensu lamarck , 1814 ) montagu , g . ( 1814 ) . an essay on sponges , with descriptions of all the species that have been discovered on the coast of great britain . memoirs of the wernerian natural history society . 2 ( 1 ) : 67 - 122 , pls iii - xvi . page ( s ) : 80 [ details ]\n( of amorphina coalita ( sensu lamarck , 1814 ) ) schmidt , o . ( 1870 ) . grundz\u00fcge einer spongien - fauna des atlantischen gebietes . ( wilhelm engelmann : leipzig ) : iii - iv , 1 - 88 , pls i - vi . [ details ]\n( of amorphina coalita ( sensu lamarck , 1814 ) ) topsent , e . ( 1887 [ 1888 ] ) . contribution \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9tude des clionides . archives de zoologie exp\u00e9rimentale et g\u00e9n\u00e9rale . 2 ( 5 bis ) : 1 - 165 , pls i - vii . [ details ]\nsurface : smooth or uneven , often with a translucence which enables the outline of some deeper structures to be seen . in a collected specimen the translucence and consistency are reminiscent of parchment . surface spicules are sometimes more or less parallel and united into widely spaced fibres , or the spicules are arranged in no obvious order .\ndistribution :\narctic ; norway ; belgium ; british isles ; france ; mediterranean .\na common species in the british isles .\ndistribution map from nbn : grid map ( fast ) : interactive map ( slower , requires login to view records ) : national biodiversity network mapping facility , data for uk .\npicton , b . e . , morrow , c . c . & van soest , r . w . b . , 2011 . [ in ] sponges of britain and ireland urltoken\ndistribution map from nbn : interactive map : national biodiversity network mapping facility , data for uk .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nit seems to thrive on current - and wave - exposed location in relatively shallow waters ( less than 100 meters ) .\nthis sponge is common in the north - east atlantic and can be found as far north as troms , norway .\nmicroscopic examination of the spicules reveals that they are relatively long and thin , and taper to the apices .\nnamed after james s . bowerbank ( 1797 - 1877 ) , a pioneering authority on sponges .\nhowson & picton , 1997 , soest van et al . , 2000 , moss & ackers , 1982 ,\nunder optimal conditions ( and with a low sample number ) , vethaak et al . ( 1982 ) recorded a mean length increase of 1 . 1 mm / day in summer and no growth in winter .\nvethaak et al . ( 1982 ) identified five distinct growth forms ( plus intermediate forms ) including incrusting , bushlike and massive forms . they reported a maximum colony size of 25 cm width to 12 cm high although most colonies are rarely this big .\nin some sheltered locations the branches grow over other species and loop like bramble stolons attaching to any suitable object they encounter .\nfound to house a large community of associated amphipod species which show seasonal variation ( biernbaum , 1981 ) .\nsoest van et al . , 2000 , moss & ackers , 1982 , farnham et al . , 1985 , biernbaum , 1981 , barthel & wolfrath , 1989 , barthel , 1988 ,\ncommonly found in southern england , pembrokeshire and north west wales , also frequently found in western scotland . isolated records from the north sea .\npresent on both sides of the north atlantic . in europe it has been reported south to brittany , and is found in the south west netherlands and in harbours of the wadden sea . it is a non - native species in north america .\nsoest van et al . , 2000 , hayward et al . , 1996 , moss & ackers , 1982 , biernbaum , 1981 , soest van , 1977 , jncc , 1999 , nbn , 2002 , vethaak et al . , 1982 , bowerbank , 1874 ,\nfrom the same area contained oocytes from april through to november although embryos were only observed from june to november . newly settled colonies were seen within just over a year , i . e . the following september and october ( vethaak\ncould be protandrous or protogynous hermaphrodites . no information was found concerning the life span of\nsoest van et al . , 2000 , wapstra & van soest , 1987 ,\nbiotic ( biological traits information catalogue ) by marlin ( marine life information network ) is licensed under a creative commons attribution - non - commercial - share alike 2 . 0 uk : england & wales license . permissions beyond the scope of this license are available at urltoken . note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own terms and conditions and they may or may not be available for reuse . based on a work at urltoken ."]}
{"id": 101, "summary": [{"text": "spondylus is a genus of bivalve molluscs , the only genus in the family spondylidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "as well as being the systematic or scientific name , spondylus is the most often used common name for these animals , though they are also known as spondylids , thorny oysters , and spiny oysters ( though they are not , in fact , oysters ) .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "the meat of these bivalves is edible . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "spondylus", "paragraphs": ["variety spondylus gaederopus var . albinus monterosato , 1875 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758\nvariety spondylus gaederopus var . coralinus monterosato , 1875 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758\nvariety spondylus gaederopus var . foliosus monterosato , 1875 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758\nvariety spondylus gaederopus var . horrida dautzenberg , 1895 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758\nvariety spondylus gaederopus var . inermis monterosato , 1875 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758\nvariety spondylus gaederopus var . lamellosa pallary , 1904 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758\nvariety spondylus gaederopus var . spinosa pallary , 1904 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758\nspecies spondylus albidus broderip , 1836 accepted as spondylus gussonii o . g . costa , 1830\nspecies spondylus minimus chenu , 1844 accepted as spondylus gussonii o . g . costa , 1830\nspecies spondylus calcifer carpenter , 1857 accepted as spondylus limbatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847\nspecies spondylus ciliatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 accepted as spondylus nicobaricus schreibers , 1793\nspecies spondylus coccineus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 accepted as spondylus nicobaricus schreibers , 1793\nspecies spondylus cumingii g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 accepted as spondylus regius linnaeus , 1758\nspecies spondylus delessertii chenu , 1844 accepted as spondylus varius g . b . sowerby i , 1827\nspecies spondylus digitatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 accepted as spondylus tenuis schreibers , 1793\nspecies spondylus jamarci okutani , 1983 accepted as spondylus occidens g . b . sowerby iii , 1903\nspecies spondylus petroselinum g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 accepted as spondylus foliaceus schreibers , 1793\nspecies spondylus iredalei fulton , 1915 accepted as spondylus raoulensis w . r . b . oliver , 1915\nspondylus linnaeus , 1758 ( basis of record ) spondylus aculeatus broderip , 1833 accepted as spondylus nicobaricus schreibers , 1793 ( source of synonymy ) spondylus aurantius lamarck , 1819 accepted as spondylus versicolor schreibers , 1793 ( source of synonymy ) spondylus candidus lamarck , 1819 ( basis of record ) spondylus castus reeve , 1856 accepted as spondylus echinatus schreibers , 1793 ( basis of record ) spondylus coccineus lamarck , 1819 accepted as spondylus limbatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ( source of synonymy ) spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758 ( additional source ) spondylus gloriandus melvill & standen , 1907 ( basis of record ) spondylus gravis fulton , 1915 ( basis of record ) spondylus groschi lamprell & kilburn , 1995 ( basis of record ) spondylus hystrix r\u00f6ding , 1798 accepted as spondylus nicobaricus schreibers , 1793 ( source of synonymy ) spondylus layardi reeve , 1856 ( basis of record ) spondylus limbatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ( basis of record ) spondylus marisrubri r\u00f6ding , 1798 accepted as spondylus spinosus schreibers , 1793 ( source of synonymy ) spondylus nicobaricus schreibers , 1793 ( additional source ) spondylus pickeringae lamprell , 1998 accepted as spondylus darwini jousseaume , 1882 ( original description ) spondylus pratii parth , 1990 ( basis of record ) spondylus punicus bernard , cai & morton , 1993 accepted as spondylus limbatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ( source of synonymy ) spondylus smytheae lamprell , 1998 accepted as spondylus fauroti jousseaume , 1888 ( original description ) spondylus somalicus parth & philippe , 1992 accepted as spondylus gravis fulton , 1915 ( source of synonymy ) spondylus spinosus schreibers , 1793 ( additional source ) spondylus versicolor schreibers , 1793 ( basis of record )\nvariety spondylus gaederopus var . mixta koch & pallary in pallary , 1900 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758\nspecies spondylus mireilleae lamprell & healy , 2001 accepted as spondylus occidens g . b . sowerby iii , 1903\nspecies spondylus darwini sensu lamprell & healy , 1998 accepted as spondylus asperrimus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847\nspecies spondylus lamarckii sensu carpenter , 1857 accepted as spondylus limbatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ( misidentification )\nspecies spondylus longitudinalis sensu g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 accepted as spondylus tenuis schreibers , 1793 ( misidentification )\nvariety spondylus gaederopus var . albina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758 ( synonym )\nvariety spondylus gaederopus var . contraria bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758 ( synonym )\nvariety spondylus gaederopus var . corallina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758 ( synonym )\nvariety spondylus gaederopus var . foliosa bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758 ( synonym )\nvariety spondylus gaederopus var . inermis bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758 ( synonym )\nspecies spondylus armatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 accepted as spondylus victoriae g . b . sowerby ii , 1860\none of the most - cited article on aegean spondylus , akira tsuneki\u2019s \u201cthe manufacture of spondylus objects at neolithic dimini , greece \u201c , a pioneering study on spondylus shell technology , published in 1989 , is now available in pdf format .\nthe life expectancy of spondylus americanus has not been recorded as of march , 2011 .\nno genetic data is currently available for spondylus americanus ( as of march 2011 ) .\nworms - world register of marine species - spondylus gussonii o . g . costa , 1830\n( of spondylus ( rimaespondylus ) damarco , 2015 ) damarco p . ( 2015 ) . a new species of spondylus from indonesia . malacologia mostra mondiale . 87 : 6 - 14 . [ details ]\nspecies spondylus coccineus lamarck , 1819 accepted as spondylus limbatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ( invalid : junior homonym of s . coccineus schreibers , 1793 ; s . punicus is a replacement name )\n( of spondylus parocellatus iredale , 1939 ) lamprell , k . 2006 . spiny oysters : a revision of the living spondylus species of the world . jean lamprell : brisbane . 119 pp . [ details ]\nto biodiversity heritage library ( 1 publication ) ( from synonym spondylus cevikeri lamprell , stanisic & clarkson , 2001 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 194 publications ) to clemam ( from synonym spondylus cevikeri lamprell , stanisic & clarkson , 2001 ) to clemam to clemam ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . lamellosa pallary , 1904 ) to clemam ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . mixta koch & pallary in pallary , 1900 ) to clemam ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . contraria bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to clemam ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . foliosa bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to clemam ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . albina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to clemam ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . corallina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to clemam ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . inermis bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 8 nucleotides ; 1 proteins ) to pesi to pesi ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . contraria bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to pesi ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . mixta koch & pallary in pallary , 1900 ) to pesi ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . lamellosa pallary , 1904 ) to pesi ( from synonym spondylus cevikeri lamprell , stanisic & clarkson , 2001 ) to pesi ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . inermis bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to pesi ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . corallina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to pesi ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . albina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to pesi ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . foliosa bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection\nspondylus is associated with water shrines in the wari and inca empires , at sites such as marcahuamachucot , viracochapampa , pachacamac , pikillacta , and cerro amaru . at marcahuamachucot was recovered an offering of about 10 kilograms ( 22 pounds ) of spondylus shells and shell fragments , and small turquoise figurines carved in the shape of spondylus .\n( of spondylus rostratus chenu , 1844 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1987 ) . spiny oysters of the world - spondylus . e . j . brill / dr w . backhuys , leiden . [ details ]\n( of spondylus igneus fulton , 1915 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1987 ) . spiny oysters of the world - spondylus . e . j . brill / dr w . backhuys , leiden . [ details ]\n( of spondylus sparsispinosus dall , bartsch & rehder , 1938 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1987 ) . spiny oysters of the world - spondylus . e . j . brill / dr w . backhuys , leiden . [ details ]\ngenerally , members of the family spondylidae will look similar to each other because of the presence of spines ; spondylus princeps appears most alike , although its red coloration and shorter spines distinguish it from the more muted yellow shell of spondylus americanus ( weisbord , 1964 : 166 ) .\na chimu spondylus and mussel shell necklace with stone beads , 1100 - 1470 ce . ( american museum of natural history , new york )\nspondylus was known as the\nfood of the gods\n, according to a quechua myth recorded in the 17th century . some debate exists among scholars as to whether this meant that the gods consumed spondylus shells , or the flesh of the animal . american archaeologist mary glowacki ( 2005 ) makes an interesting argument that the effects of eating spondylus shell meat out of season may have made them an essential part of religious ceremonies .\nwhat made you want to look up spondylus ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\na detail of the celebrated aztec double - headed serpent . it is made from wood covered in turquoise mosaic , spondylus ( red . . .\ndelivering alien invasive species inventories for europe ( daisie ) to barcode of life ( 1 barcode ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 20 publications ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 37 publications ) ( from synonym spondylus coccineus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 50 publications ) ( from synonym spondylus aculeatus broderip , 1833 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 52 publications ) ( from synonym spondylus hystrix r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 5 nucleotides ; 2 proteins ) to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection ( from synonym spondylus sparsispinosus dall , bartsch & rehder , 1938 ) to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection ( from synonym spondylus serratissimus dall , bartsch & rehder , 1938 )\nthe features of pectinids were adapted for swimming , but as a sessile species , spondylus americanus has experienced changes in the function of some organs : while the adductor muscle is similar , spondylus americanus \u2019 has more development in the area designed to close the shell ( dakin , 1928a : 342 ) .\nspondylus americanus is threatened by predators , but not to the extent that conservational efforts will be required ( logan , 1974 : 583 - 584 ; feifarek , 1987 ) . human factors such as pollution or overfishing are probably not major threats to spondylus americanus either ( mikkelsen , 2003 : 454 ) .\none less - known to the western - language academia article on the diminian spondylus by akira tsuneki entitled \u201c spondylus shell objects of neolithic greece used on the materials from dimin i\u201d and published in 1988 , is also available in pdf format . being written in japanese , it serves mostly as a \u201ccollector\u2019s item\u201d\u2026\nresearch focusing on spondylus varius reveals it to have hepatoprotective properties , preventing the human liver from damage ; whether the same holds for spondylus americanus remains to be seen ( koyama et al . , 2006 : 729 - 731 ) . because it is a filter feeder , spondylus americanus can also be of benefit to the oceanic ecosystems it is a part of , redistributing nutrients and clearing out particles suspended in water ( peterson and lubchenco , 1997 : 182 ) .\nlamprell , k . l . ( 1998 ) . recent spondylus species from the middle east and adjacent regions , with the description of two new species .\nspondylus americanus is a sessile bivalve , occurring in shallow water in the atlantic ocean from brazil to north carolina , where it is usually found as part of a coral reef . like all spondylidae , spondylus americanus is noted for its striking , spiny appearance , giving rise to its common name , the atlantic thorny oyster .\nhalstead p . 1993 . spondylus shell ornaments from late neolithic dimini , greece : specialized manufacture or unequal accumulation ? antiquity 67 ( 256 ) : 603 - 609 .\ndimitrijevic v , and tripkovic b . 2006 . spondylus and glycymeris bracelets : trade reflections at neolithic vinca - belo brdo . documenta praehistoric a 33 : 237 - 252 .\n( of spondylus aurantius lamarck , 1819 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1998 ) . recent spondylus species from the middle east and adjacent regions , with the description of two new species . vita marina . 45 ( 1 - 2 ) : 41 - 60 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of spondylus aculeatus broderip , 1833 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1998 ) . recent spondylus species from the middle east and adjacent regions , with the description of two new species . vita marina . 45 ( 1 - 2 ) : 41 - 60 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of spondylus hystrix r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1998 ) . recent spondylus species from the middle east and adjacent regions , with the description of two new species . vita marina . 45 ( 1 - 2 ) : 41 - 60 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of spondylus castus reeve , 1856 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1998 ) . recent spondylus species from the middle east and adjacent regions , with the description of two new species . vita marina . 45 ( 1 - 2 ) : 41 - 60 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of spondylus smytheae lamprell , 1998 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1998 ) . recent spondylus species from the middle east and adjacent regions , with the description of two new species . vita marina . 45 ( 1 - 2 ) : 41 - 60 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of spondylus gaederopus var . contraria bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of spondylus gaederopus var . inermis bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of spondylus gaederopus var . corallina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of spondylus gaederopus var . albina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of spondylus gaederopus var . foliosa bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nbecause spondylus lives so far below sea level , retrieving them requires experienced divers . the earliest known illustration of spondylus diving in south america comes from drawings on pottery and murals during the early intermediate period [ ~ 200 bc - ad 600 ] : they likely represent s . calcifer and the images probably were of people diving off the coast of ecuador .\nbauer de . 2007 . the reinvention of tradition : an ethnographic study of spondylus use in coastal ecuador . journal of anthropological research 63 ( 1 ) : 33 - 50 .\nlamprell , k . l . ( 1987 ) . spiny oysters of the world - spondylus . e . j . brill / dr w . backhuys , leiden . [ details ]\nglowacki m . 2005 . food of the gods or mere mortals ? hallucinogenic spondylus and its interpretive implications for early andean society . antiquity 79 ( 304 ) : 257 - 268 .\nspondylus shell also was also part of the extensive north american pre - columbian trade network , finding its way into far - flung places in the form of beads , pendants , and unworked valves . ritually significant spondylus objects such as the so - called\ncharlie chaplin\nfigurines have been found in several maya sites dated between the pre - classic to late classic periods .\nby the middle to late neolithic , the number and size of spondylus shell pieces sharply drop off , found in archaeological sites of this time period as tiny pieces of inlay in necklaces , belts , bracelets , and anklets . in addition , limestone beads appear as imitations , suggesting to scholars that the sources of spondylus dried up but the symbolic importance of the shell had not .\npillsbury j . 1996 . the thorny oyster and the origins of empire : implications of recently uncovered spondylus imagery from chan chan , peru . latin american antiquity 7 ( 4 ) : 313 - 340 .\nspondylus americanus typically inhabits shallow water bodies that may be enclosed , such as lagoons , or unenclosed , at depths of 10m to 168m ( tunnell et al . , 2010 : 330 ; logan , 1974 : 576 ) . as part of the epifaunal community of its habitats , the adolescent spondylus americanus will traverse surfaces until it finds a suitable settling spot , where the adult will typically remain ( logan , 1974 : 573 ) .\nspondylus gaederopus lives in the eastern mediterranean , at depths between 6 - 30 m ( 20 - 100 ft ) . spondylus shells were prestige goods showing up in burials within the carpathian basin by the early neolithic period ( 6000 - 5500 cal bc ) . they were used as whole shells or cut into pieces for ornaments , and they are found in graves and hoards associated with both sexes . at the serbian site of vinca in the middle danube valley , spondylus were found with other shell species such as glycymeris in contexts dated to 5500 - 4300 bc , and as such are thought to have been part of the trade network from the mediterranean region .\nthe main trade route for spondylus in south america was along the andean mountain routes which were precursors to the inca road system , with secondary pathways branching down the river valleys ; and perhaps partially by boat along the coasts .\nmackensen ak , brey t , and sonnenholzner s . 2011 . the fate of spondylus stocks ( bivalvia : spondylidae ) in ecuador : is recovery likely ? journal of shellfish research 30 ( 1 ) : 115 - 121 .\narchaeological research in the salango region indicates spondylus was first exploited beginning during the valdivia phase [ 3500 - 1500 bc ] , when beads and worked rectangular pendants were made and traded to the ecuadoran interior . between 1100 and 100 bc , the produced items increased in complexity , and small figurines and red and white beads were traded to the andean highlands for copper and cotton . beginning about 100 bc , trade in ecuadoran spondylus reached the lake titicaca region in bolivia .\nspondylus shell first appears in andean archaeological sites dated to the preceramic period v [ 4200 - 2500 bc ] , and the shellfish was consistently used up until the spanish conquest in the 16th century . andean people used spondylus shell as complete shells in rituals , cut into pieces and used as inlay in jewelry , and ground into powder and used as architectural decoration . its form was carved into stone and made into pottery effigies ; it was worked into body adornments and placed in burials .\noxygen isotope analysis supports scholars & apos ; contentions that the sole source of the central european spondylus was the mediterranean , specifically the aegean and / or adriatic coasts . shell workshops were recently identified at the late neolithic site of dimini in thessaly , where over 250 worked spondylus shell fragments were recorded . finished objects were found in other locations throughout the settlement , but halstead ( 2003 ) argues that the distribution suggests that the amount of production waste indicates that the artifacts were being produced for trade into central europe .\ndistinguishing characteristics in the early stages of growth spondylus species are extremely difficult to identify and many exhibit a similar ornamentation , shape and color . differences from the very similar s . spinosus in rib number and shape , spine development and color are given under s . spinosus .\nno documentation of the eggs and pre - juvenile stages of spondylus americanus exists , but that data is available for members of the family pectinidae , with which spondylus americanus shares some similarities ; possibly the larval stages are alike ( logan , 1974 : 573 ) . pecten irradians hatches from the egg as a free - swimming , ciliated trocophore , before developing into a veliger which may feed using the velum ( fay et al . , 1983 : 4 ) . the foot is the final development of this stage ( fay et al . , 1983 : 5 ) .\nthe aim of this blog - based community is to gather info , news and data on spondylus , a sea - shell whose importance is acknowledged both in new and old worlds prehistory . if you want to become a co - author , please e - mail at fotisif @ urltoken\nspondylus americanus is found in mostly tropical regions in the atlantic , where there is an abundance of calcium carbonate from coral reefs in the area . the calcium carbonate molecule is instrumental in the development of the species ' spines and cementation , so spondylus americanus will seek to settle near coral formations ( logan , 1974 : 569 ) . they can then become members of the coral ecosystem , serving as roosts for epibiontic algae which camouflage the shell , as well as being subject to predators such as gastropods , and lobsters ( logan , 1974 : 581 ; feifarek , 1987 ) .\n( of spondylus albibarbatus reeve , 1856 ) liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of spondylus spectrum reeve , 1856 ) liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of spondylus castus reeve , 1856 ) liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nmienis h . k . , galili e . and rapoport j . , 1993a . the spiny oyster , spondylus spinosus , a well established indo - pacific bivalve in the eastern mediterranean off israel ( mollusca , bivalvia , spondylidae ) . zoology in the middle east , 9 : 83 - 91 .\nlamprell , k . l . ( 1998 ) . recent spondylus species from the middle east and adjacent regions , with the description of two new species . vita marina . 45 ( 1 - 2 ) : 41 - 60 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nspondylus americanus is a heterotrophic organism , relying on omnivorous filter feeding to attain sustenance ( logan , 1974 : 569 ) . water is brought in past the marginal denticles at the edge of the shell where particles may be foraged from the water to serve as nutrients ( logan , 1974 : 579 ) .\na few other organisms prey on spondylus americanus , including octopi and fish such as wrasses , although specific species that act as predators towards the species have not been recorded ( logan , 1974 : 583 - 584 ) . it is likely that the sharp spines defend against predators , and successful cementation to a substrate has been shown to increase survivability against predators ( logan , 1974 : 583 ; harper , 1990 : 457 ) . although parrot fish are not natural predators of the species , as they consume the algae lining the shell as camouflage , they may decrease spondylus americanus \u2019s survivability ( logan , 1974 : 583 ) .\n( of spondylus gaederopus var . mixta koch & pallary in pallary , 1900 ) pallary p . ( 1900 ) . coquilles marines du littoral du d\u00e9partment d ' oran . journal de conchyliologie . 48 ( 3 ) : 211 - 422 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 372 [ details ]\n( of spondylus gaederopus var . lamellosa pallary , 1904 ) pallary p . ( 1912 ) . catalogue des mollusques du littoral m\u00e9diterran\u00e9en de l ' egypte . m\u00e9moires de l ' institut d ' egypte , 7 ( 3 ) : 69 - 207 , pl . 15 - 18 , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nthese oysters ' spines serve as protection and provide growth areas for barnacles and algae , which in turn provide camouflage . although the spondylus imperialis resembles oysters , these creatures are more closely related to scallops . thorny oysters live attached to hard substrates or other shells , and interspecific variability makes them difficult to identify with certainty .\n( of spondylus sparsispinosus dall , bartsch & rehder , 1938 ) spencer h . g . , willan r . c . , marshall b . a . & murray t . j . ( 2011 ) . checklist of the recent mollusca recorded from the new zealand exclusive economic zone . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nthe larval stage of spondylus americanus has not been observed , but presumably the larvae are free - swimming until choosing a substrate to attach to and develop into the postlarval stage ( logan , 1974 : 573 ) . adults will remain attached to the substrate unless they have been forcibly detached ( logan , 1974 : 578 ) .\nthe symptoms of psp include sensory distortions , euphoria , loss of muscular control , and paralysis , and , in the most severe cases , death . glowacki suggests that purposefully eating spondylus during the wrong months may well have effected a hallucinogenic experience associated with shamanism , as an alternative to other forms of hallucinogens such as cocaine .\nalthough evidence of shell - working is known in the andean highlands , workshops are also known to have been located much nearer their source beds along the pacific coast . in coastal ecuador , for example , several communities have been identified with prehispanic procurement and production of spondylus shell beads and other goods which were part of extensive trade networks .\n( of spondylus contrarius anton , 1838 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus fulvus schreibers , 1793 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus mediterraneus hermann , 1781 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus aurantius lamarck , 1819 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus plurispinosus reeve , 1856 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus aculeatus broderip , 1833 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus rostratus chenu , 1844 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus gracilis chenu , 1844 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus lima chenu , 1844 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus lindea iredale , 1939 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus maculatus schreibers , 1793 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus parocellatus iredale , 1939 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus percea iredale , 1939 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus pseudochama schreibers , 1793 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus igneus fulton , 1915 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus radians lamarck , 1819 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus hystrix r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus albibarbatus reeve , 1856 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus albus anton , 1838 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus albus chenu , 1844 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus spectrum reeve , 1856 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus spinulosus kuster , 1858 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus castus reeve , 1856 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus albidus broderip , 1836 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus minimus chenu , 1844 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus smytheae lamprell , 1998 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nbajn\u00f3czi b , sch\u00f6ll - barna g , kalicz n , sikl\u00f3si z , hourmouziadis gh , ifantidis f , kyparissi - apostolika a , pappa m , veropoulidou r , and ziota c . 2013 . tracing the source of late neolithic spondylus shell ornaments by stable isotope geochemistry and cathodoluminescence microscopy . journal of archaeological science 40 ( 2 ) : 874 - 882 .\ncalcium carbonate is necessary for spine development and cementation to a substrate , and spondylus americanus will attempt to dwell on or around coral in order to easily fulfill the requirements for that substance ( logan , 1974 : 569 ) . a variety of substrate shapes are suitable : the species\u2019 shell will adapt to even narrow clefts ( logan , 1974 : 573 ) . the presence of coral is desirable , but by no means necessary for life once matured , as sand - dwelling , non - cemented adults have also been found ( logan , 1974 : 576 , 578 ) . however , life on the substrate is more sustainable , as spondylus americanus is protected from the turbulence of storms ( logan , 1974 : 578 ) .\nfoot : the foot serves the function of cleaning the interior of the shell , as cementation frees it from having to anchor spondylus americanus to the substrate ( yonge , 1973 : 180 - 181 ) . cilia are present to aid in transporting particles ; when large groups of particles are built up , they can then be expelled ( yonge , 1973 : 181 ) .\n( of spondylus cevikeri lamprell , stanisic & clarkson , 2001 ) lamprell k . , stanisic j . & clarkson p . ( 2001 ) . spondylids from the mediterranean sea and atlantic ocean with the description of a new species ( mollusca , bivalvia , spondylidae ) . . memoirs of the queensland museum 46 : 611 - 622 page ( s ) : 612 [ details ]\n( of spondylus gaederopus var . spinosa pallary , 1904 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus gaederopus var . albinus monterosato , 1875 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus gaederopus var . coralinus monterosato , 1875 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus gaederopus var . foliosus monterosato , 1875 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus gaederopus var . horrida dautzenberg , 1895 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus gaederopus var . inermis monterosato , 1875 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus gaederopus var . lamellosa pallary , 1904 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus cevikeri lamprell , stanisic & clarkson , 2001 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus serratissimus dall , bartsch & rehder , 1938 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus sparsispinosus dall , bartsch & rehder , 1938 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus ciliatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus coccineus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\neventual size of the shell and spines depends on the area the larva chooses to attach to : the valves have some plasticity to adapt for proper function in narrow places . spines grow at random angles before resolving to the large spines pointed away from the shell seen in adult spondylus americanus ; older spines are usually ground away by this point ( logan , 1974 : 573 - 574 ) .\n( of spondylus gaederopus var . mixta koch & pallary in pallary , 1900 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of spondylus radians lamarck , 1819 ) dautzenberg , ph . ( 1929 ) . contribution \u00e0 l ' \u00e9tude de la faune de madagascar : mollusca marina testacea . faune des colonies fran\u00e7aises , iii ( fasc . 4 ) . soci\u00e9t\u00e9 d ' editions g\u00e9ographiques , maritimes et coloniales : paris . 321 - 636 , plates iv - vii pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nthe fossil record of spondylidae extends to the early jurassic , although spinous bivalves that existed during the late paleozoic may be ancestors ( logan , 1974 : 584 ) . spondylus americanus ' particular evolution does not appear to have been studied , but with respect to the family as a whole , one of these potential ancestors may be the pectinidae of the carboniferous ( dakin , 1928a : 354 ) .\nmantle : the middle of three mantle folds houses a row of short tentacles and eyes , while the innermost fold is muscular and dappled with brown ( logan , 1974 : 570 ; yonge , 1973 : 177 ) . the eyes on spondylus americana are of a relatively small size , and there are 92 on the upper valve and 71 on the lower valve ( dakin , 1928b : 356 ) .\nin 1525 , francisco pizarro & apos ; s pilot bartolomeo ruiz met an indigenous balsa wood craft sailing off the ecuadoran coast . its cargo included trade goods of silver , gold , textiles , and seashells , and they told ruiz they came from a place known as calangane . research conducted near the city of salango in that region indicated that it has been an important center of spondylus procurement for at least as long as 5 , 000 years .\nbetween the months of april and september , the flesh of spondylus is toxic to humans , a seasonal toxicity recognized in most shellfish called paralytic shellfish poisoning ( psp ) . psp is caused by toxic algae or dinoflagellates consumed by shellfish during those months , and typically it is at its most toxic following the appearance of the algae bloom known as the\nred tide\n. red tides are associated with el ni\u00f1o oscillations , themselves associated with catastrophic storms .\n( of spondylus sparsispinosus dall , bartsch & rehder , 1938 ) spencer , h . g . , marshall , b . a . & willan , r . c . ( 2009 ) . checklist of new zealand living mollusca . pp 196 - 219 . in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) new zealand inventory of biodiversity . volume one . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . canterbury university press , christchurch . [ details ]\namerican anthropologist daniel bauer conducted ethnographic studies with modern shell - workers at salango in the early 21st century , before over - exploitation and climate change caused a crash in shellfish population and resulted in a fishing ban in 2009 . modern ecuadoran divers collect spondylus using oxygen tanks ; but some use a traditional method , holding their breaths for up to 2 . 5 minutes to dive to the shell beds 4 - 20 m ( 13 - 65 ft ) below the surface of the sea .\ncharlie chaplin figurines ( referred to in the literature as gingerbread cut - outs , anthropomorphic figurines , or anthropomorphic cut - outs ) are small , crudely - shaped human forms lacking much detail or gender identification . they are found primarily in ritual contexts such as burials , and dedicatory caches for stelae and buildings . they aren & apos ; t just made of spondylus : charlie chaplins are also made of jade , obsidian , slate , or sandstone , but they are almost always in ritual contexts .\nthe pectinidae have unique eyes among the bivalves that are homologous to those found in spondylus americanus ( dakin , 1928b : 356 ) . both families rest on the same valve ( dakin , 1928a : 337 , 338 ) . the mantle , adductor muscle , and radial muscle characteristics that have been specialized in pectinidae are mostly shared in spondylidae as well ( dakin , 1928a : 338 - 342 ) . the ctenidia of both families have a \u201crespiratory expansion\u201d that also appears unique ( dakin , 1928a : 344 ) .\nthe larvae are most likely motile , seeking suitable substrates to settle on ( logan , 1974 : 573 ) . adult spondylus americanus live a sessile existence , relying on filter feeding for sustenance and defense via sealing the valves ( logan , 1974 : 569 ) . if necessary , flapping of the valves allows the organism to swim , and may be useful in spreading sexual products during reproduction and possibly evading predators if s . americanus becomes detached from the substrate ( dakin , 1928a : 342 ; drew , 1906 : 34 ) .\natlantic thorny - oyster spondylus americanus hermann , 1781 description : this bivalve shell is attached to the substrate with one shell . the shells are roundish with numerous spines in rows . the spines can be up to 4 cm . long . the color is variable , from white via yellow and orange to purple . size : up to 10 cm . habitat : the shell lives on reefs , usually under overhangs or in recesses . well camouflaged by its color . depth : ranges from 12 m down to 40 m . distribution : common all over the caribbean . remarks : in most countries it is illegal to bring back these shells from holidays .\n( of spondylus gaederopus var . contraria bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) bucquoy e . , dautzenberg p . & dollfus g . ( 1887 - 1898 ) . les mollusques marins du roussillon . tome ii . p\u00e9l\u00e9cypodes . paris , j . b . bailli\u00e8re & fils 884 p . , 99 pl . [ pp . 1 - 24 , pl . 1 - 6 , november 1887 ; pp . 25 - 60 , pl . 7 - 11 , august 1888 ; pp . 61 - 112 , pl . 12 - 21 , may 1889 ; pp . 113 - 172 , pl . 22 - 29 , april 1890 ; pp . 173 - 220 , pl . 30 - 37 , april 1891 ; pp . 221 - 272 , pl . 38 - 44 , april 1892 ; pp . 273 - 320 , pl . 45 - 51 , may 1892 ; pp . 321 - 388 , pl . 52 - 59 , november 1893 ; pp . 389 - 450 , pl . 60 - 67 , december 1893 ; pp . 453 - 540 , pl . 68 - 70 , march 1895 ; pp . 541 - 620 , pl . 79 - 88 , april 1896 ; p . 621 - 690 , pl . 89 - 95 , march 1898 ; p . 693 - 884 , pl . 96 - 99 , october 1898 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of spondylus gaederopus var . foliosa bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) bucquoy e . , dautzenberg p . & dollfus g . ( 1887 - 1898 ) . les mollusques marins du roussillon . tome ii . p\u00e9l\u00e9cypodes . paris , j . b . bailli\u00e8re & fils 884 p . , 99 pl . [ pp . 1 - 24 , pl . 1 - 6 , november 1887 ; pp . 25 - 60 , pl . 7 - 11 , august 1888 ; pp . 61 - 112 , pl . 12 - 21 , may 1889 ; pp . 113 - 172 , pl . 22 - 29 , april 1890 ; pp . 173 - 220 , pl . 30 - 37 , april 1891 ; pp . 221 - 272 , pl . 38 - 44 , april 1892 ; pp . 273 - 320 , pl . 45 - 51 , may 1892 ; pp . 321 - 388 , pl . 52 - 59 , november 1893 ; pp . 389 - 450 , pl . 60 - 67 , december 1893 ; pp . 453 - 540 , pl . 68 - 70 , march 1895 ; pp . 541 - 620 , pl . 79 - 88 , april 1896 ; p . 621 - 690 , pl . 89 - 95 , march 1898 ; p . 693 - 884 , pl . 96 - 99 , october 1898 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of spondylus gaederopus var . albina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) bucquoy e . , dautzenberg p . & dollfus g . ( 1887 - 1898 ) . les mollusques marins du roussillon . tome ii . p\u00e9l\u00e9cypodes . paris , j . b . bailli\u00e8re & fils 884 p . , 99 pl . [ pp . 1 - 24 , pl . 1 - 6 , november 1887 ; pp . 25 - 60 , pl . 7 - 11 , august 1888 ; pp . 61 - 112 , pl . 12 - 21 , may 1889 ; pp . 113 - 172 , pl . 22 - 29 , april 1890 ; pp . 173 - 220 , pl . 30 - 37 , april 1891 ; pp . 221 - 272 , pl . 38 - 44 , april 1892 ; pp . 273 - 320 , pl . 45 - 51 , may 1892 ; pp . 321 - 388 , pl . 52 - 59 , november 1893 ; pp . 389 - 450 , pl . 60 - 67 , december 1893 ; pp . 453 - 540 , pl . 68 - 70 , march 1895 ; pp . 541 - 620 , pl . 79 - 88 , april 1896 ; p . 621 - 690 , pl . 89 - 95 , march 1898 ; p . 693 - 884 , pl . 96 - 99 , october 1898 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of spondylus gaederopus var . corallina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) bucquoy e . , dautzenberg p . & dollfus g . ( 1887 - 1898 ) . les mollusques marins du roussillon . tome ii . p\u00e9l\u00e9cypodes . paris , j . b . bailli\u00e8re & fils 884 p . , 99 pl . [ pp . 1 - 24 , pl . 1 - 6 , november 1887 ; pp . 25 - 60 , pl . 7 - 11 , august 1888 ; pp . 61 - 112 , pl . 12 - 21 , may 1889 ; pp . 113 - 172 , pl . 22 - 29 , april 1890 ; pp . 173 - 220 , pl . 30 - 37 , april 1891 ; pp . 221 - 272 , pl . 38 - 44 , april 1892 ; pp . 273 - 320 , pl . 45 - 51 , may 1892 ; pp . 321 - 388 , pl . 52 - 59 , november 1893 ; pp . 389 - 450 , pl . 60 - 67 , december 1893 ; pp . 453 - 540 , pl . 68 - 70 , march 1895 ; pp . 541 - 620 , pl . 79 - 88 , april 1896 ; p . 621 - 690 , pl . 89 - 95 , march 1898 ; p . 693 - 884 , pl . 96 - 99 , october 1898 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of spondylus gaederopus var . inermis bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) bucquoy e . , dautzenberg p . & dollfus g . ( 1887 - 1898 ) . les mollusques marins du roussillon . tome ii . p\u00e9l\u00e9cypodes . paris , j . b . bailli\u00e8re & fils 884 p . , 99 pl . [ pp . 1 - 24 , pl . 1 - 6 , november 1887 ; pp . 25 - 60 , pl . 7 - 11 , august 1888 ; pp . 61 - 112 , pl . 12 - 21 , may 1889 ; pp . 113 - 172 , pl . 22 - 29 , april 1890 ; pp . 173 - 220 , pl . 30 - 37 , april 1891 ; pp . 221 - 272 , pl . 38 - 44 , april 1892 ; pp . 273 - 320 , pl . 45 - 51 , may 1892 ; pp . 321 - 388 , pl . 52 - 59 , november 1893 ; pp . 389 - 450 , pl . 60 - 67 , december 1893 ; pp . 453 - 540 , pl . 68 - 70 , march 1895 ; pp . 541 - 620 , pl . 79 - 88 , april 1896 ; p . 621 - 690 , pl . 89 - 95 , march 1898 ; p . 693 - 884 , pl . 96 - 99 , october 1898 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nparent taxon : spondylidae according to t . j . wild and j . d . stilwell 2016\nsee also coan and valentich - scott 2012 , dockery 1982 , islamoglu and taner 1995 , lamprell and healy 1998 , moore 1987 , olsson 1931 , perrilliat 1992 , sepkoski 2002 , spencer et al . 2004 , squires and demetrion 1990 , stilwell 1998 , todd 2001 , vokes 1980 , vokes and vokes 1992 , woodring 1982 and wozny 1977\nthis page was last edited on 2 june 2017 , at 13 : 08 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nlinnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ngofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nhuber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]"]}
{"id": 102, "summary": [{"text": "heteroteuthis dagamensis is a species of bobtail squid native to the southeastern atlantic ocean and southwestern indian ocean .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it occurs off western , southern , and southeastern africa .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the type specimen was collected off south africa and is deposited at the natural history museum in london . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "heteroteuthis dagamensis", "paragraphs": ["heteroteuthis dispar ( triangle ) and heteroteuthis dagamensis ( circle ) . . . | download scientific diagram\nfigure 1 . heteroteuthis dispar ( triangle ) and heteroteuthis dagamensis ( circle ) distribution in the atlantic ocean based on the male specimens examined .\npublished records indicate that heteroteuthis dispar ( ruppell , 1844 ) is found in the north atlantic ocean and that heteroteuthis dagamensis robson , 1924 inhabits the south atlantic ocean . however , specimens recently collected in the northern gulf of mexico ( n = 123 ) show that h . dagamensis is the only species of the genus common in the gulf of mexico based on identification of male specimens . also , comparison of dna barcodes for three morphologically similar species of heteroteuthis , h . dispar , h . dagamensis , and heteroteuthis hawaiiensis ( berry , 1909 ) confirm that all are distinct species and indicate that h . dagamensis and h . hawaiiensis are closer genetically than either is to h . dispar .\njudkins , h . , k . rosario , m . vecchione . 2016 . morphological and molecular evidence of heteroteuthis dagamensis in the gulf of mexico . bulletin of marine science . doi : urltoken\npublished records indicate that heteroteuthis dispar ( ruppell , 1844 ) is found in the north atlantic ocean and that heteroteuthis dagamensis robson , 1924 inhabits the south atlantic ocean . however , specimens recently collected in the northern gulf of mexico ( n = 123 ) show that h . dagamensis is the only species of the genus common in the gulf of mexico based on identification of male specimens . . . . [ show full abstract ]\nreproduction in heteroteuthis dispar ( r\u00fcppell , 1844 ) ( mollusca : cephalopoda ) : a sepiolid reproductiv . . .\nfigure . left - brachial crown of a mature female h . dagamensis 16 mm ml , arms i are in center . right - left arms i - iii of a female . drawing by a . hart .\nsmall cephalopods of the genus heteroteuthis are the most pelagic members in the family sepiolidae . this study examines the reproductive biology of heteroteuthis dispar ( r\u00fcppell , 1844 ) , the first such study on any member of the genus , based on 46 specimens ( 27 females and 19 males ) collected during the mar - eco cruise in the north atlantic in the region of the mid - atlantic ridge in 2004 , and . . . [ show full abstract ]\nfigure . oral view of the brachial crown of h . dagamensis 16 mm ml , mature male . note that the large suckers on arms iii are in the dorsal series and alternate with small suckers in the ventral series . drawing by a . hart .\nat present the only character that distinguishes h . dagamensis from h . dispar / hawaiiensis is the arrangement of large suckers on arms iii of males . we have not made detailed comparisons of these species to search for additional characters . the description presented here is made from notes taken many years ago .\nfigure . oral view of the arms of h . dagamensis 19 mm ml , male left - full arm crown . note that right arms i and ii are folded dorsally . right - dorsal view of the head showing the distal region of right arms i and ii . photographs by r . young .\nrotermund n . & guerrero - kommritz j . ( 2010 ) taxonomy and biogeography of the genus heteroteuthis ( mollusca : cephalopoda ) in the atlantic ocean . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom 90 ( 2 ) : 367 - 390 . , available online at urltoken ; = 7399392 [ details ]\nthe stomachs of 427 giant red shrimps , aristaeomorpha foliacea , caught in the strait of sicily ( mediterranean sea ) during four seasonal surveys contained 73 cephalopods , or 8\u00b76 % of prey . cephalopods ranked third as prey following crustaceans ( 49\u00b72 % of prey ) and bony fish ( 20\u00b75 % of prey ) . the following cephalopod taxa were identified : heteroteuthis dispar , sepietta oweniana , brachioteuthis sp . , . . . [ show full abstract ]\nyes , it ' s a cephalopod ! this squid and other cephalopods are featured in the cephalopod pages maintained at the national museum of natural history , department of invertebrate zoology ! see the following links for more information on cephalopods .\ncephalopods in action . this is a multimedia appendix to published papers , that features video clips of cephalopods filmed from submersibles . included are :\nthe list of species featured in the videos , arranged as a taxonomic list , only relevant taxa included .\nintroducing an interactive key to the families of the decapodiformes . try this , it ' s exciting !\nexpedition journals from the search for the giant squid off new zealand , 1999 .\nthis page was created by jim felley , mike vecchione , clyde roper , mike sweeney , and tyler christensen . if you have questions or comments , contact mike vecchione .\nrobson , g . c . ( 1924 ) . preliminary report on the cephalopoda ( decapoda ) procured by the s . s .\npickle\n. report of the fisheries and marine biological survey of the union of south africa . 3 : 1 - 14 . page ( s ) : 11 [ details ]\nintergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nhas been assessed as data deficient as major taxonomic issues exist which need clarifying and will likely alter the known range of this species .\n. ( 2007 ) report specimens from south africa , off the atlantic coast of south america , off new zealand and off australia .\nthis species is of no current interest to fisheries ( reid and jereb 2005 ) .\nfurther research is required to resolve taxonomic uncertainties and determine population trends and life history patterns of this species .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmichael vecchione , richard e . young , and clyde f . e . roper\nright arms i and ii hectocotylized : arms longer than left counterparts , with deep joining membrand and swollen marginal membranes on proximal half of both arms with pores and internal white glandular masses . proximal ventral bilobed projection of right arm i overlaps base of right arm ii . large gland between these arms opens between lobes .\nmales with few greatly enlarged suckers in the dorsal sucker series on arms iii : sucker 10 about 4 - 5 times diameter of sucker 9 ; enlarged suckers of dorsl series much larger than counterparts in ventral series but latter still enlarged .\ntype locality - off the natal coast , south africa . the specimen we photographed came from the south atlantic off south africa at 36\u00b0s , 11\u00b0e and off south america at 37\u00b0s , 53\u00b0w . the specimen drawn came from off new zealand at 40 . 1\u00b0s , 168 . 1\u00b0e .\nthis media file is licensed under the creative commons attribution - noncommercial license - version 3 . 0 .\n. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the\nvecchione , michael , richard e . young , and clyde f . e . roper . 2013 .\neach tol leaf page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a leaf at the tip of the tree of life . the major distinction between a leaf and a branch of the tree of life is that a leaf cannot generally be further subdivided into subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ntypical mantle - length 15 mm . lives in offshore waters . native . endemic to southeastern australia ( nsw , tas and vic ) . in tasmanian waters , this species occurs well offshore , with available records all from off the south and east coasts .\nthe web - pages on this web - site are generated from an underlying database . these can be cited as\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nexamination of specimens of euprymna steenstrup , 1887 from northern australia led to the discovery of a new species . it is described here as euprymna pardalota sp . nov . it is distinguished from all but one other nominal species of euprymna ( e . phenax voss , 1962 ) in having two rows of suckers on the arms , rather than four rows . it differs from e . phenax in a number of traits , including : the . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe bulletin of marine science is dedicated to the dissemination of high quality research from the world ' s oceans . all aspects of marine science are treated by the bulletin of marine science , including papers in marine biology , biological oceanography , fisheries , marine affairs , applied marine physics , marine geology and geophysics , marine and atmospheric chemistry , and meteorology and physical oceanography .\ningenta . article copyright remains with the publisher , society or author ( s ) as specified within the article .\nwebsite makes use of cookies so as to keep track of data that you have filled in .\njoin researchgate to access over 30 million figures and 118 + million publications \u2013 all in one place .\nallcock , l . , h . judkins , y . sakuri . 2017 . editorial : recent advances in cephalopod science . ciac 2015 special issue . 2565 - 2567 . urltoken\nshea , e . , h . judkins , m . d . staudinger , v . hartigan , a . lindgren , m . vecchione . 2017 . cephalopod biodiversity in the vicinity of bear seamount , western north atlantic . marine biodiversity ; 47 : 699 . urltoken 0633 - 3\njudkins h . , m . vecchione , a . cook , t . sutton . 2016 . diversity of midwater cephalopods in the northern gulf of mexico : comparison of two collecting methods . marine biodiversity . doi 10 . 1007 / s12526 - 016 - 0597 - 8\nroper , c . f . e . , h . judkins , n . voss , e . shea , e . dawes , d . ingrao , p . rothman , i . roper . 2015 . a compilation of recent records of the giant squid , architeuthis dux ( steenstrup , 1857 ) ( cephalopoda ) from the western north atlantic ocean , newfoundland to the gulf of mexico . american malacological bulletin , 33 ( 1 ) 1 - 11 .\nhoving , hj , j . perez , k . bolstad , h . braid , a . evans , d . fuchs , h . judkins , j . kelly , j . marian , r . nakajima , u . piatkowski , a . reid , m . vecchione , j . xavier . 2014 . the study of deep - sea cephalopods ; e . vidal editor ; advances in marine biology , v . 67 ; 235 - 259 .\njudkins , h , s . arbuckle , m . vecchione , l . garrison , a . martinez ( 2013 ) . cephalopods in the potential prey field of sperm whales ( physeter macrocephalus ) in the northern gulf of mexico . journal of natural history , doi : 10 . 1080 / 00222933 . 2013 . 802045\njudkins , h and m . vecchione . 2013 . doryteuthis plei ( blainville , 1823 ) , the slender inshore squid . advances in squid biology , ecology and fisheries , part i : myopsid squid . ed . rui rosa , graham pierce , ron o\u2019dor ; pp . 241 - 256 .\njudkins , h , m . vecchione , j . torres , c . f . e . roper . 2010 . cephalopod species richness in the wider caribbean region . - ices journal of marine science , 67 : 1392 - 1400 .\njudkins , h . m . vecchione , & c . f . e . roper . 2009 . cephalopods ( mollusca : cephalopoda ) of the gulf of mexico . gulf of mexico origin , waters , and biota biodiversity , volume 1 ( darryl felder , david a . camp , editors ) texas a & m university press , college station , texas , ch . 34 , pp . 701 - 710 .\njudkins , heather . 2009 . cephalopods of the broad caribbean : distribution , abundance and ecological importance ; dissertation ; university of south florida ; 156 p .\njudkins , h . debra ingrao , c . f . e . roper . august 2009 . first records of asperoteuthis acanthoderma ( lu , 1977 ) cephalopoda : oegopsidae : chiroteuthidae ) , from the north atlantic ocean , straits of florida . proceedings of the biological society of washington ; 122 ( 2 ) : 162\u2013170 .\nheather judkins , ph . d . assistant professor department of biological sciences , stg 222 university of south florida st . petersburg 140 7th ave south st . petersburg , fl 33701 ( 727 ) 873 - 4512 lab\nwe use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites . close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings .\nthis article has been cited by the following publications . this list is generated based on data provided by crossref .\nguerrero - kommritz , j\u00fcrgen and rodriguez - bermudez , adriana 2017 . sepiolids ( mollusca : cephalopoda ) from the southern caribbean , colombian coast , and a redescription of nectoteuthis pourtalesii verrill , 1883 . marine biodiversity , vol . 47 , issue . 1 , p . 203 .\nin the south atlantic ocean . in total 58 individuals were examined , 23 belonging to the species\n. all specimens were captured during the walther herwig expeditions 1966 , 1968 , 1976 and 1982 . a full description of both sexes of\nis provided . these two species can only be distinguished by means of the male ' s enlarged suckers on arm pair iii . females are not useful for taxonomic identifications and are morphologically identical in both species . the results do not support the definition of subgenera in this genus . this is the first report for\ncephalopods of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of species known to date . vol . 1 . chambered nautiluses and sepioids ( nautilidae , sepiidae , sepiadariidae , idiosepiidae and spirulidae )\n[ fao species catalogue for fishery purposes , no . 4 , vol . 1 . ]\nle pesche abissali eseguite da f . a . krupp col yacht puritan nelle adjacenze di capri ed altere localit\u00e0 del mediterraneo\npreliminary report on the cephalopoda ( decapoda ) procured by the s . s . \u201cpickle\u201d\nintorno ad alcuni cefalopodi del mare di messina . lettera del d . eduardo r\u00fcppel di frankfort sul meno al prof . anastasio cocca\nmollusques m\u00e9diterran\u00e9ens . pr\u00e9miere partie : c\u00e9phalopodes de la m\u00e9diterran\u00e9e . g\u00eanes , imprimerie des souds - muets , 132 pp . , 44 plates\nemail your librarian or administrator to recommend adding this journal to your organisation ' s collection ."]}
{"id": 109, "summary": [{"text": "oxyurichthys keiensis also known as the kei goby is a species of goby native to marine and brackish waters along the coasts of mozambique , south africa , madagascar and the seychelles .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "this species can reach a length of 7 centimetres ( 2.8 in ) tl . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "kei goby", "paragraphs": ["a study by harrison ( 2005 ) found the kei goby to be one of the most frequently captured species in open subtropical estuaries in south africa .\nthreatened kei goby ( oligdepis keimsis ) . more familiar to many people are the two breeding species of turtles : hawksbill ( eretmochelys imbricata ) and green ( chelonia mydas ) . more\nthe kei goby ( oligolepis keiensis ) is a species of fish in the gobiidae family . it is found in mozambique and south africa . source - * skelton , p . 1996 . oligolepis keiensis . more\ni absolutely agree with you kei - those colours are out of this world ! i love how the blues melt into each other thanks to the shallow depth of field and the small goby pops out of the image unexpectedly due to its beautiful colouring around the eyes .\nthe kei goby ( oligolepis keiensis ) occurs from mozambique to the sundays estuary in the eastern cape ( south africa ) , as well as around the seychelles and madagascar . this species has a severely fragmented distribution ( a . k . whitfield pers . comm . 2008 ) .\ntridacnidae has much color pattern , but the blue dot pattern is beautiful in particular . i met the goby which coexisted with a tridacnidae with the beautiful blue dot pattern for the first time last year . i like the small goby which coexists with this tridacnidae . the in them loving design , color and the favorite location exist . i could release the shutter by his favorite point . this galaxy and goby look very mysterious .\nthere are no known major threats to the kei goby . due to its preference for perennial river flow systems , changes to the flow regime of freshwater systems by activities such as abstraction may pose a threat to this species . it is also likely to be impacted by threats such as water pollution from industrial and domestic activities , dredging , and shipping traffic . however , these are localised threats and not known across the entire distribution of this species .\njustification : the kei goby ( oligolepis keiensis ) has been assessed as least concern . this species has a wide range in eastern africa . it is restricted to estuarine habitats and although it is not known to be under any specific threat , it may be affected by habitat degradation through activities in estuaries within its range . given its wide range , lack of specific threats , and no evidence of population decline , this species is assessed as least concern . monitoring of the population numbers and rate of decline is needed so that changes to the threat status of this species can be noted .\nthe kei goby is a benthic species , most commonly found in estuaries . in the warm - temperate and subtropical regions of south africa , this species appears to be exclusively found in estuarine environments , as there are no records from freshwater or marine systems . its main food items include crustaceans and polychaetes . it is most abundant on sandy mud substrata in the middle and upper reaches of permanently open estuaries ( salinity 5\u201315 psu ) , but may also be found in some temporarily closed estuaries ( a . k . whitfield pers . comm . 2008 ) . estuaries with a perennial river flow appear to be the favoured type ( a . k . whitfield pers . comm . 2008 ) .\nwe tested the reactions of free embryos of the amphidromous goby , rhinogobius brunneus , to light under both artificial and ambient conditions along streams in which their downstream migration occurs . the embryos showed a positive phototaxis to 500 1ux light but a negative response to light of more than 5000 lux . they were able to swim at 1 . 54 cm sec \u22121 t in still water and showed positive rheotaxis , but their swimming ability was not sufficient to allow active movement in rapids . ambient natural light conditions varied among locations in relation to local topographical features . the variation in the diel periodicity of their migration could be explained by the interaction between behavioral reactions of embryos and environmental factors along river courses .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . , fricke , r . , and ven der laan , r . ( eds . ) . 2017 . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . updated 31 july 2017 . available at : urltoken .\nde silva , r . , milligan , h . , lutz , m . , batchelor , a . , jopling , b . , kemp , k . , lewis , s . , lintott , p . , sears , j . , wilson , p . , smith , j . & livingston , f .\nthere are no species - specific conservation measures in place for oligolepis keiensis , however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas . further research is needed to monitor population trends and the status of its estuarine habitat .\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2010 : e . t15239a115125895 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngreek , oligos = small + greek , lepis = scale ( ref . 45335 )\nwestern indian ocean : inhaca , mozambique to the fish river mouth , south africa ; including seychelles and madagascar .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 7 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 2798 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 7 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 112 ; anal spines : 1 ; anal soft rays : 12 . body grey or dark brown with brown oblique streak ; upper caudal base with a black spot ; adults with blackish pelvic fins ( ref . 2798 ) .\nhoese , d . f . , 1986 . gobiidae . p . 774 - 807 . in m . m . smith and p . c . heemstra ( eds . ) smiths ' sea fishes . springer - verlag , berlin . ( ref . 2798 )\n) : 24 . 3 - 27 . 6 , mean 26 . 9 ( based on 70 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5156 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00851 ( 0 . 00448 - 0 . 01616 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 88 - 3 . 20 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 7 \u00b10 . 5 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 15 of 100 ) .\n\u200bat ibm , when performance review time rolls around , staff get judged not on their past achievements but also on how they might perform . . .\nsamsung has taken the \u2018make in india\u2019 initiative to another level by launching \u2018 . . .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 bennett , coleman & co . ltd . all rights reserved . for reprint rights : times syndication service\nadding an editor ' s note will send an email notification to the user . please review before saving .\nshow us your best shots whether you\u2019re a hobbyist or a pro , share your best photos with us .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nmax length : 7 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 2798 )\npd 50 = 0 . 5156 many relatives ( e . g . carps ) 0 . 5 - 2 . 0 few relatives ( e . g . lungfishes )\nhigh , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . )\nbalon , e . k . & a . goto . 1989 . styles in reproduction and early ontogeny . pp . 1\u201347 .\na . goto & k . maekawa ( ed . ) reproductive behavior in fishes : styles and strategies , tokai university press , tokyo . ( in japanese . )\nblaxter , j . h . s . 1973 . monitoring the vertical movements and light responses of herring and plaice larvae . j . mar . biol . ass . u . k . 53 : 635\u2013647 .\nblaxter , j . h . s . & k . f . ehrlich . 1974 . changes in behaviour during starvation of herring and plaice larvae . pp . 575\u2013588 .\nj . h . s . blaxter ( ed . ) the early life history of fishes , springer - verlag , hidelberg .\nkani , t . 1944 . ecology of torrent - inhabiting insects . pp . 171\u2013317 .\nh . furukawa ( ed . ) insects 1 , kenkyu - sha press , tokyo . ( in japanese . )\n. chuokoron - sha press , tokyo . 176 pp ( in japanese . )\nmcdowall , r . m . 1988 . diadromy in fishes . migration between freshwater and marine environments . croom helm , london . 308 pp .\ngill with a proposition on the relationship between land - locking and speciation of some freshwater gobies in japan . men . col . sc . univ . kyoto ser . b 27 : 97\u2013115 .\nmizuno , n . & h . kawanabe . 1981 . a topographical classification of streams , with an introduction of the system widely used in japan . 1 . reach type , stream zone and stream type . ver . internat . verein limnol . 21 : 913 .\nmizuoka , s . 1967 . studies on fluvial variations in the gobioid fish , \u2018yoshinobori\u2019 . iv . distributions and variations in color pattern and the pectoral fin ray numbers . bull . fac . educ . hiroshima univ . 16 : 43\u201352 . ( in japanese . )\nnagoshi , m . 1982 . diel vertical migration of zooplankters and fish larvae in lake biwa . bull . fac . fish . mie univ . 9 : 1\u201310 .\nnorthcote , t . g . 1984 . mechanisms of fish migration in rivers . pp . 317\u2013355 .\nj . d . mccleave , g . p . arnold , j . j . dodson & w . h . neil ( ed . ) mechanisms of migration in fishes , plenum press , new york .\npavlov , d . s . , a . n . pakhorukov , g . n . kuragina , v . k . nezdoliy , n . p . nekrasoba , d . a . brodskiy & a . l . ersler . 1977 . some features of the downstream migrations of juvenile fishes in the volga and kuban rivers . journal of ichtyology 9 : 157\u2013179 .\nwoodhead , p . m . j . & d . woodhead . 1955 . reactions of herring larvae to light : a mechanisms of vertical migration . nature 176 : 349\u2013350 .\niguchil , k . & mizuno , n . environ biol fish ( 1991 ) 31 : 295 . urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nphoto by murdy , e . o . / ferraris , c . j . , jr .\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by cmilitante , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by cmilitante , 14 / 03 / 2013"]}
{"id": 113, "summary": [{"text": "the golden goby ( gobius auratus ) is a species of goby native to coastal waters of the eastern atlantic from northern spain to madeira and the canary islands as well as in the mediterranean sea .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it prefers areas with rocky substrates at depths of from 5 to 80 metres ( 16 to 262 ft ) ( though usually not below 30 metres ( 98 ft ) ) with plentiful growth of algae and gorgonians .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this species can reach a length of 10 centimetres ( 3.9 in ) tl .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it can also be found in the aquarium trade . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "golden goby", "paragraphs": ["the golden tile goby , hoplolatilus luteus , also known as the yellow tilefish , and golden tilefish , is a species of goby that requires at least two inches of sandy substrate in the tank for burrowing . it has a golden / yellow body with a black / purple spot behind its eye . it has clear finnage . they will spend most of their time sifting and trolling along the bottom of the sandy tank . the golden tile goby is a peaceful fish with other species but may turn aggressive towards its own species . some aquarists have successfully gotten their golden tile gobies to spawn in the home aquarium environment , however . the golden tile goby will take a carnivorous diet consisting of chopped brine and mysis shrimp and mixed crustaceans and should be fed twice a day .\ngolden flathead goby , glossogobius aureus . source : dinh d . tran , fimsea / http : / / ffish . asia . license : cc by attribution\nthe golden goby is a small fish , that reaches up to 10 centimetres . inhabits rocky substrates , coralline grounds and seagrass meadows , in water depth from three to 36 metres . it feeds on small invertebrates that it captures on the ocean floor .\na pale yellowish - brown goby with a darker back , five dusky blotches along the midside , and many faint irregular dusky lines and spots dorsally .\ngolden goby is a very busy hostel . hundreds of bagpackers arrive here every year and you can read good and bad reports . however , we do not have anything to complain . the hostel is near the mean atractions of ulan bator , our room was fine and the owners were friendly and helpful . our tour , in spite of not being luxurious or . . .\nheymer and zander ( 1992 ) concluded that the yellow mediterranean goby , called gobius luteus by miller and el - tawil ( 1974 ) , is the \u2018true\u2019 g . auratus risso , 1810 and designated a neotype . the species supposed to be g . auratus by miller and el - tawil ( 1974 ) was designated as an undescribed species and the new name g . xanthocephalus was applied after the investigation of abundant populations of both forms at banyuls - sur - mer , france ( heymer and zander 1992 ) . herler et al . ( 2005 ) redescribed g . auratus risso , 1810 to extend the morphological characteristics of the species to cover also the northern adriatic population . two colour morphs are described : pure yellow colour morph 1 from the mediterranean and south and central adriatic and yellow dotted colour morph 2 from the northern adriatic .\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 5 - 80 m ( ref . 4696 ) , usually 5 - 30 m ( ref . 27115 ) . subtropical ; 15\u00b0c - 20\u00b0c ( ref . 27115 ) ; 45\u00b0n - 27\u00b0n , 19\u00b0w - 36\u00b0e\neastern atlantic : northern spain to madeira and the canary islands ; also in the mediterranean .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 10 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 4696 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 7 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 14 ; anal spines : 1 ; anal soft rays : 13 . distinguished by having the following characteristics : reduced suckers ( ref . 92840 ) .\noccurs in deeper inshore waters ; over rocky substrates with algae and gorgonians ( ref . 4696 ) . abundant populations on coasts with steep bedrock . a shy species and difficult to collect due to long flight distances and hiding in deep clefts ( ref . 87880 ) . macrobenthos feeder on hard substrates ingest also shelled organisms like molluscs and echinoderms ( ref . 92840 ) .\nmiller , p . j . , 1986 . gobiidae . p . 1019 - 1085 . in p . j . p . whitehead , m . - l . bauchot , j . - c . hureau , j . nielsen and e . tortonese ( eds . ) fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean . volume 3 . unesco , paris . ( ref . 4696 )\n) : 15 . 6 - 19 . 4 , mean 18 . 1 ( based on 68 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00912 ( 0 . 00414 - 0 . 02009 ) , b = 3 . 07 ( 2 . 90 - 3 . 24 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 0 \u00b10 . 35 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 22 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : gobius auratus is endemic to the mediterranean , where it is most likely widespread and abundant throughout . gobius auratus lives in a variety of habitats , and there are no known widespread threats towards it . therefore , g . auratus is assessed as least concern .\ngobius auratus is a mediterranean endemic species , known from the northern and eastern mediterranean , including the adriatic sea and with a recent finding from crete ( heymer and zander 1992 , 1994 ; bilecenoglu 2002 , papakonstantinou 1988 , relini 2010 , kova\u010di\u0107 et al . 2011 ) . the most western record is from la fourmigue , france , and the most eastern record is from mediterranean coast of turkey ( heymer and zander 1992 , bilecenoglu 2002 ) . gobius auratus is found from five to 35 m depth ( herler et al . 2005 ) . previous records of g . auratus from the atlantic ocean , from northern spain to madeira , portugal and the canary islands , pertain to another species .\nalbania ; bosnia and herzegovina ; croatia ; france ( corsica , france ( mainland ) ) ; greece ( east aegean is . , greece ( mainland ) , kriti ) ; italy ( italy ( mainland ) , sardegna , sicilia ) ; malta ; monaco ; montenegro ; slovenia ; turkey ( turkey - in - asia , turkey - in - europe )\nthe specimens of the colour morph 1 were observed to occur in deeper regions with depths of about 15 to 32 m , while population in the northern parts of the adriatic ( colour morph 2 ) also occurred in more shallower water of about five to 35 m depth ( heymer and zander 1992 , herler et al . 2005 ) . specimens of g . auratus typically hover up to 30 cm above the substratum , mostly over steep bedrock bottom ( herler et al . 2005 ) . no data exist for lifespan , life cycle and growth pattern ( miller 1986 ) .\nno conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas . gobius auratus was previously assessed as least concern in the mediterranean ( abdul malak et al . 2011 , iucn 2011 ) .\n( errata version published in 2016 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2014 : e . t198657a103969532 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nfairy tales to understanding multi - culturalism in korea . source from urltoken upload for more asian understanding each other .\nnorthern australia from the barlee range nature reserve , western australia , to the burdekin river system , queensland , and inland drainages in south - western queensland . elsewhere the species occurs in the tropical east - indo - west pacific . inhabits clear to turbid freshwater rivers and streams , with muddy , sandy or gravel bottoms . although the species has a marine larval phase , land - locked populations occur in australia .\ndorsal fin vi + i , 9 ; anal fin i , 8 - 9 ; caudal fin ( segmented rays ) 9 + 8 = 17 ; pectoral fin 18 - 21 ; pelvic fin i , 5 ; vertebrae 27 ; gill rakers 1 - 2 + 7 - 9 ; tranverse scales 9 - 10 ; predorsal scales 22 - 27 ; longitudinal scale series 31 - 33 ; horizontal scale rows 8 - 12 ( usually 10 ) . body relatively slender , body depth at origin of pelvic fins 14 - 19 % sl , somewhat compressed posteriorly . head and snout flattened , head length 28 - 35 % sl ; anterior nostril tubular , tube reaching a point about halfway between base of tube and upper lip ; posterior nostril a pore . eye diameter 4 - 11 % sl . posterior end of maxillary extending below the anterior part of eye in both sexes ; teeth in outer and inner rows of both jaws large , outer larger , fine teeth between outer and inner rows ; tongue bilobate . lower end of gill - opening behind lower tip of cleithrum ; gill membrane attached to isthmus ; uniserial rows of sensory papillae on cheek . body scales ctenoid ; snout and cheek naked , cycloid scales on upper part of preopercle and opercle , nape and prepelvic space . two separate dorsal fins ; 2nd to 4th dorsal fin spines slightly filamentous . pelvic fins united into an oval disc and margin of interspinal frenum smooth ; caudal fin rounded .\ndark above , pale below with 6 blackish bands across back and 5 blackish blotches midlaterally on side , width of middle blotch narrower than half depth of body ; blackish blotch behind upper part of pectoral fin base ; several faint blackish lines along side ; 2 blackish blotches at base of pectoral fin , upper dark . head with 3 blackish lines from eye , one to middle of upper and lower jaw , one horizontally to upper margin of preopercle anteriorly , third obliquely to posterior margin of preopercle ; cheek and opercle mottled with blackish blotches ; 5 horizontal pale lines on lower part of cheek . first dorsal fin mottled , mottling on membrane behind sixth spine darker or as a blackish spot ; second dorsal fin and upper part of pectoral fins dusky and regularly mottled with dark spots . anal fin pale with dusky hue , palest distally . caudal fin dusky , regularly mottled with dark spots except for upper and lower extremes , lower broader ; upper margin dark , lower pale . pectoral and pelvic fins pale ventrally with dusky hue .\ncarnivore - feeds mostly on aquatic insect larvae as well as some crustaceans and small fishes .\noviparous , benthic spawners . adults usually migrate to the sea to breed and larvae have a marine stage . it is likely that this species is also capable of breeding in freshwater .\nglossogobius aureus akihito & meguro 1975 , jpn j . ichthyol . 22 ( 3 ) : 128 , figs 1 , 2 . type locality : iriomotejima , japan .\nakihito , p . & meguro , k . 1975 . description of a new gobiid fish , glossogobius aureus , with notes on related species of the genus . japanese journal of ichthyology 22 ( 3 ) : 127 - 142 figs 1 - 3\nallen , g . r . 1989 . freshwater fishes of australia . neptune , new jersey : t . f . h . publications 240 pp . , 63 pls .\nallen , g . r . 1991 . field guide to the freshwater fishes of new guinea . publication no . 9 . christensen research institute , madang , papua new guinea , 268 pp .\nallen , g . r . , midgley , s . h . & allen , m . 2002 . field guide to the freshwater fishes of australia . perth : western australian museum 394 pp .\nhoese , d . f . & allen , g . r . 2009 . description of three new species of glossogobius from australia and new guinea . zootaxa 1981 : 1 - 14 .\nkottelat , m . 2013 . the fishes of the inland waters of southeast asia : a catalogue and core bibiography of the fishes known to occur in freshwaters , mangroves and estuaries . raffles bulletin of zoology supplement no . 27 : 1 - 663 .\nlake , j . s . 1978 . australian freshwater fishes . melbourne : thomas nelson 160 pp . 140 figs .\nlarson , h . 2012 . glossogobius aureus . the iucn red list of threatened species 2012 : e . t196326a2445860 . urltoken downloaded on 09 april 2017 .\nlarson , h . k . , williams , r . s . & hammer , m . p . 2013 . an annotated checklist of the fishes of the northern territory , australia . zootaxa 3696 ( 1 ) : 1 - 293\nlarson , h . k . & martin , k . c . 1990 . freshwater fishes of the northern territory . northern territory museum of arts and sciences handbook series number 1 . darwin : northern territory museum of arts and sciences 102 pp . 73 figs .\nmerrick , j . r . & schmida , g . e . 1984 . australian freshwater fishes biology and management . sydney : j . r . merrick 409 pp . figs 280 col . figs .\npusey , b . j . , kennard , m . j . & arthington , a . h . 2004 . freshwater fishes of north - eastern australia . collingwood , victoria : csiro publishing 684 pp .\npusey , b . j . , kennard , m . j . & bird , j . 2000 . fishes of the dune fields of cape flattery , northern queensland and other dune systems in north - eastern australia . ichthyological explorations of freshwater 11 ( 1 ) : 65 - 74\nunmack , p . j . 2001 . biogeography of australian freshwater fishes . journal of biogeography 28 : 1053 - 1089 .\nplease select from the available marine fish species below . you may also click here to browse the category .\nplease select from the available invertebrate species below . you may also click here to browse the category .\nplease select from the available coral species below . you may also click here to browse the category .\nplease select from the available aquarium supplies below . you may also click here to browse the category .\nwith 79 or more in marine life . use coupon code : freeshipping more details\nall images , pictures and descriptions are generalizations and cannot be exact representations . copyright 2018 saltwaterfish . com . all rights reserved .\nreceive free shipping on qualifying order when you sign up to receive our email . open your email for complete details .\neastern atlantic : northern spain to madeira and the canary islands . mediterranean sea .\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content ."]}
{"id": 120, "summary": [{"text": "the oak titmouse ( baeolophus inornatus ) is a passerine bird in the tit family paridae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the american ornithologists ' union split the plain titmouse into the oak titmouse and the juniper titmouse in 1996 , due to distinct differences in song , preferred habitat , and genetic makeup .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the oak titmouse is a small , brown-tinged gray bird with small tuft or crest .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the face is plain , and the undersides are a lighter gray .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "sexes are similar , as there is very little to no sexual dimorphism .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this species lives year-round on the pacific slope , resident from southern oregon south through california west of the sierra nevada to baja california , but its range surrounds the central san joaquin valley .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it prefers open woodlands of warm , dry oak and oak-pine at low to mid-elevations but can also be found in forests as long as adequate oak trees are present .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the oak titmouse will sleep in cavities , dense foliage or birdhouses .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "when roosting in foliage , the titmouse chooses a twig surrounded by dense foliage or an accumulation of dead pine needles , simulating a roost in a cavity .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it forms pairs or small groups , but does not form large flocks .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it may join mixed-species flocks after breeding season for foraging .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "pairs stay together after the breeding season .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "oak titmice eat insects and spiders , and are sometimes seen catching insects in mid air .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they will also take berries , acorns , and some seeds .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "this species forages on foliage , twigs , branches , trunks , and occasionally on ground , sometimes hanging upside down to forage , and hammering seeds against branches to open them .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "oak titmice are attracted to feeders with suet , peanut butter and sunflower seeds .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the song of the oak titmouse is a series of repeated whistled notes of three to seven syllables , with first syllable higher in pitch than the following one .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the call is a scratchy tsicka-dee-dee .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the oak titmouse builds its nest in a woodpecker hole , a natural cavity , or a nest box , using grass , moss , mud , hair , feathers , and fur .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it breeds from march into july , with peak activity in april and may , laying 3 \u2013 9 eggs , usually 6 \u2013 8 .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the female is the primary incubator , with incubation taking 14 \u2013 16 days .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "young are altricial and are tended by both parents in nest for 16 \u2013 21 days .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "parents continue to tend to young for another three to four weeks after they leave the nest .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the oak titmouse and juniper titmouse appear almost identical , but differ in voice as well as range .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the oak titmouse has a browner back than the juniper titmouse .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the oak titmouse gives a repeated series of three to seven syllables , each comprising one low and one high note , while the juniper titmouse song consists of a series of rapid syllables on the same note .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "ranges overlap only in a small area in california .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the tufted titmouse , which does not overlap in range , has whiter belly , rusty flanks , and black on the forehead . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "oak titmouse", "paragraphs": ["the oak titmouse mates for life , and pairs defend year - round territories .\nprimary management goals should be to preserve pine - oak woodlands to provide suitable nesting and foraging habitat for the oak titmouse .\nfurther research and monitoring is needed to gather more information specifically on the oak titmouse requirements .\nthe oak titmouse uses a variety of tree species . at san joaquin experimental range 60 % of the excavated cavities were in blue oak (\nthe oak titmouse\u2019s species name , inornatus , means \u201cplain , \u201d appropriately for this very drab - plumaged bird . taxonomists used to lump the oak titmouse with the juniper titmouse , referring to both as the plain titmouse . though the two sister species look very similar , the juniper titmouse sings differently and lives mainly among not oaks but junipers . their ranges overlap only in extreme northern california .\ndetected on 96 bbs routes throughout california during the time period 1980 - 1996 . ( data from that time period includes both oak titmouse and juniper titmouse . ) more specifically , the oak titmouse was recorded on 50 routes in the california foothills 1980 - 1996 . ( sauer 1997 )\noak titmouse is found west of the desert divides in southern california , southeast from santa barbara and ventura counties .\nthe proliferation of the european starling , may pose an indirect threat to the oak titmouse . ( purcell 1995 )\nonce classified with the juniper titmouse as a subspecies of the aptly named plain titmouse , the oak titmouse is easily separable from other timice species except the juniper . its lack of field marks is , ironically , an important field mark . polytypic . length 5\n.\nthe expansion of the european starling should be monitored to determine their effects on other cavity nesting species including the oak titmouse .\none of the oak titmouse\u2019s vocalizations is a peter peter peter song , which is apparently equivalent to the similar song of the tufted titmouse . the song\u2019s pattern , of high - frequency notes followed by low - frequency notes , is seen across the titmouse and chickadee family .\nthe oldest oak titmouse on record was at least 9 years old when it was recaught and rereleased during banding operations in california .\nthe oak titmouse sleeps in cavities or in dense foliage . when roosting in foliage , the titmouse chooses a twig surrounded by dense foliage or an accumulation of dead pine needles , simulating a roost in a cavity .\neditor ' s note : as originally published by bna , this account combined oak titmouse and juniper titmouse into a single account because most of the work on which it was based considered the two species conspecific (\nplain titmouse\n) . systematic revision of the plain titmouse complex separated these species ( see systematics ) , which will be treated in separate accounts when this account is revised .\nnondescript save for its crest , the oak titmouse might not wow many bird watchers at first sight . but these vocal , active birds characterize the warm , dry oak woods from southern oregon to baja california\u2014they\u2019re \u201cthe voice and soul of the oaks , \u201d according to one early naturalist . mates pair for life , and both partners noisily defend their territory year - round . the oak titmouse and the nearly identical juniper titmouse of the great basin were once treated as a single species , the plain titmouse .\nand a distinctive dark\nbib\non the throat and\ncap\non the head . except for one titmouse species ( the bridled titmouse ) , that has a\nin its pursuit of insects and plant materials , the oak titmouse forages at a rate of about 40 food - catching attempts every 15 minutes .\nas plain as a bird can be , marked only by a short crest , the oak titmouse nonetheless has personality . pairs or family parties travel about the woods together , exploring the twigs for insects and calling to each other frequently . until recently , this bird and the juniper titmouse were regarded as one species under the name of plain titmouse .\nrequires oak and pine - oak woodlands with adequate natural or excavated cavities for nesting and sufficient canopy cover for foraging and roosting .\noak titmouse : this species is a resident from southern oregon south along the pacific coast and to inland areas of california south to the northern baja peninsula . its preferred habitats include live oaks and deciduous growth , including oak woodlands , streamside cottonwoods , forest edges , and oak - juniper woodlands .\nthe bill is small and black , and legs and feet are gray . weak , fluttering flight . a recently formed species , and along with the juniper titmouse , was known as the plain titmouse until 1996 .\ndixon , k . l . 1949 . behavior of the plain titmouse . condor 51 : 110 - 136 .\nin the south bay area the oak titmouse is found in the canyon bottoms of the diablo range and over most of the lower portions of the santa cruz mountains . ( sibley 1952 )\n, oak titmice prefer a woodland habitat in which oaks predominate . ( grinnell and miller , 1944 ) in marin county oak titmice occupy woodlands , oak savannah , open broad - leaved evergreen forests , and riparian woodlands . the open broad - leaved evergreen forest must be spacious , have oaks , and be on south - facing slopes . ( shuford 1993 ) oak and pine - oak woodland , arborescent chaparral , oak - riparian associations . ( aou 1998 )\nhabitat is one major concern in the conservation of the oak titmouse . the loss of dead standing trees , live trees with dead limbs or diseased trees reduces the number of cavities available for nesting .\ncommon . year - round : primarily oak and pine - oak woodlands on the pacific slope . vagrant : casually reported east of its usual limits in california .\nwhereas the oak titmouse is found primarily in oak or oak - pine ( quercus - pinus ) woodlands of the pacific slope , the juniper titmouse inhabits juniper ( juniperus ) and pi\u00f1on - juniper woodlands of the intermountain region . both species are sedentary , nest in natural or woodpecker - excavated cavities , and mate for life . pair bonds form during the first year , and both sexes defend territories year - round . thus , unlike many other parids , these titmice generally do not form winter flocks . clutches typically contain 6\u00bf7 unmarked eggs .\nthe oak titmouse mates for life , and pairs defend year - round territories . most titmice find a mate in their first fall . those that do not are excluded from territories and must live in marginal habitat until they find a vacancy .\ndeclining in california because of losses in its preferred oak habitat , primarily by encroaching suburban and agricultural development , although disease could become a new threat with the appearance of sudden oak death syndrome .\nthe oak titmouse requires an elevated niche , where it forages foliage , twigs , branches , and trunks . it is occasionally seen foraging on the ground . it\u2019s foraging methods include gleaning , hammering hard seeds , chipping bark , and sometimes hovering . ( block 1990 )\n) , and 5 % in snags . of the natural cavities used as nest sites 47 % were in blue oak , 48 % in live oak and 3 % in snags . ( purcell and verner 1995 )\nthe closely related juniper titmouse is slightly larger , paler , and grayer , but similarly plain . the two are best separated by range ; they are sedentary and are sympatric only in a small area of northern california . no other titmouse poses a problem ; they can be identified by conspicuous differences in plumage on head or flanks .\nroberts , r . c . 1986 . preserving oak woodland bird species richness : suggested guidelines from geographical ecology . .\n) primarily on the foliage in april and on the reproductive parts in may . during march they foraged in live oak (\nof the 2 species , the oak titmouse in california has been the subject of most studies of natural and life history information , including pairing , territoriality , survivorship , dispersal , molt , and nesting and foraging behavior ( price 1936 , dixon 1949 , 1956 , 1962 , davis et al . 1973 , block 1989 ) . physiologic studies , on the other hand , have concentrated on the juniper titmouse in utah ( cooper 1997 ) and arizona ( weathers and greene 1998 ) . vocalizations and vocal behavior have been studied in both the oak titmouse in california ( dixon 1969 ) and the juniper titmouse in arizona ( gaddis 1983 , johnson 1983 , 1987a ) . other studies involving both species have focused on behavioral or ecologic interactions with sympatric congeners in california ( dixon 1954 ) and arizona ( dixon 1950 , gaddis 1987 ) , respectively . for the future , studies that use a comparative approach to assess differences between these 2 species in aspects of the annual cycle , and in thermoregulation and energetics , should prove especially valuable .\nthe oak titmouse has a large range , reaching up to roughly 170 , 000 square kilometers . this bird can be found in mexico and the united states where it prefers a variety of habitats . it appears in urban areas as well as subtropical and tropical shrub lands as well as forested areas . the global population of this species is estimated to be around 900 , 000 individual birds . currently , it is not believed that the population trends for this bird will soon approach the minimum levels that could suggest a potential decline in population . due to this , population trends for the oak titmouse have a present evaluation level of least concern .\nmore information about the breeding requirements of the oak titmouse is essential in forming management recommendations . the literature concerning this species is primarily related to genetic variation and does not adequately address breeding biology . more direct studies of breeding biology and habitat requirements are suggested . nest monitoring is one method that would be helpful in assessing the status and needs of this species .\noak titmice flit between branches and trees , flying with a shallow undulating motion . they tend to feed among the woody twigs in the lower canopies of oaks and other trees . they form pair bonds in their first year and mate for life . both sexes defend territories year - round , meaning they don\u2019t flock in the winter the way many other titmice and relatives do . when defending against an intruding member of its species , the oak titmouse raises its crest , quivers its wings , and scolds . oak titmice are hunted by mammals , snakes , and other birds , including western scrub - jays , steller\u2019s jays , western screech - owls , northern pygmy - owls , and accipiter hawks . oak titmice will mob predators , often joining forces with other small birds . back to top\noak titmice live mostly in warm , open , dry oak or oak - pine woodlands . many will use scrub oaks or other brush as long as woodlands are nearby . they live in a restricted range , from southwest oregon to northwest baja california , with another population in the cape district of south baja california . in a few areas they use habitats without oaks . in extreme northern california , oak titmice live in western juniper woodlands ( the only part of their range where they overlap with the juniper titmouse ) . on san benito mountain in central california they live in open pine forests . in the mountains of northwest baja , they live in pinyon pine woodland . at the eastern edge of their range , they live in pinyon or california juniper mixed with joshua trees . back to top\nthe oak titmouse is one of the most common birds in oak woodlands of california , but populations have declined by close to 2 % per year between 1966 and 2014 , resulting in a cumulative decline of 57 % , according to the north american breeding bird survey . partners in flight estimates a global breeding population of 500 , 000 , with 89 % living in the u . s . and 11 % in mexico . the species rates a 14 out of 20 on the continental concern score . oak titmouse is a u . s . - canada stewardship species and is on the 2014 state of the birds watch list , which lists bird species that are at risk of becoming threatened or endangered without conservation action . the decline of this species is linked to the increase in california ' s population during the twentieth century ( from 1 . 5 million to more than 30 million people ) , which has increased pressures on oak woodlands from activities such as timber harvesting , clearing for agriculture , and urban and suburban development . an estimated 80 percent of california\u2019s remaining oak woodlands are privately owned , so landowners can play a crucial role in conservation of this unique habitat . back to top\nthe oak titmouse eats seeds and other plant materials as well as insects and other invertebrates , particularly in warmer months . it eats acorns , pine seeds , oats , thistle seeds , poison oak berries , oak and willow catkins , leaf buds , galls , berries , and cultivated cherries . its invertebrate diet includes leafhoppers , treehoppers , plant lice , aphids , scales , caterpillars , beetles , ants , wasps , flies , and spiders . the oak titmouse gleans its prey from bark and foliage , usually less than 30 feet off the ground . it uses its stout bill to peck and probe crevices , chip away bark , and pull apart leaf galls , flowers , acorns , curled dead leaves , and lichens in search of prey . it may also forage on the ground itself , taking its food to an elevated perch with good visibility before eating it ( or storing it to retrieve later ) . for large food items , it holds the item against a branch with its foot and pulverizes it with its bill . occasionally it catches insects out of the air . back to top\nto see oak titmice , visit oak forests of the pacific slope between southern oregon and baja california , especially around the central valley of california . look for the drab birds as they flit energetically from tree to tree in search of food , and listen for them calling or singing noisily from a high perch .\nblock , w . m . and m . l . morrison . 1986 . conceptual framework and ecological considerations for the study of birds in oak woodlands .\nbetween 1989 and 1990 oak titmice were abundant during searches both east and northeast of shasta valley , approximately 15 - 25 individuals per morning . ( cicero 1996 )\ndata censusing both the oak and juniper titmice showed a 1 . 9 % decline per year throughout california ( p < . 05 ) 1980 - 1996 and a 1 . 6 % annual decline in the california foothills population of oak titmice during 1966 - 1996 ( p = . 06 ) . ( sauer , 1996 )\nkleintjes , p . k . and d . l . dahlsten . 1992 . a comparison of three techniques for analyzing the arthropod diet of plain titmouse and chestnut - backed chickadee . journal of field ornithology 63 ( 3 ) : 276 - 285 .\noak woods , pinyon - juniper ; locally river woods , shade trees . along pacific seaboard , occurs most commonly in oak woodland , including areas where oaks meet streamside trees or pines ; also in well - wooded suburbs , rarely in coniferous forest in mountains . in the interior , also occurs in some woodlands dominated by pine or juniper .\nblock , w . m . 1990 . geographic variation in foraging ecologies of breeding and nonbreeding birds in oak woodlands . studies in avian biology 13 : 264 - 269 .\nwilliams , p . l . and w . d . koenig . 1980 . water dependence of birds in a temperate oak woodland . auk 97 : 339 - 350 .\nthe reduction of habitat loss can be achieved by increasing the number of dead standing oak species , especially important are live trees with dead limbs and diseased trees in which the heartwood decays . these trees should remain standing for use by cavity - nesting birds . a canopy cover of 40 - 70 % should be the objective when thinning oak woodlands .\nthe distribution of the oak titmouse is complex and discontinuous in california . they are absent from the extreme northwest coastal region , and portions of extreme north - central california , from the cascades - sierra axis . this species is also not found in the san joaquin valley , lowlands of eastern and south eastern deserts , as well as a few coastal areas in southern california . otherwise found in suitable habitat throughout the state . ( small 1994 )\nverner , j . and l . v . ritter . 1988 . a comparison of transects and point counts in oak - pine woodlands of california . condor 90 : 401 - 419 .\nverner , j . and l . v . ritter . 1985 . a comparison of transects and point counts in oak - pine woodlands of california . condor 87 : 47 - 68 .\ntietje , w . d . and j . k . vreeland . 1997 . vertebrates diverse and abundant in well - structured oak woodland . california agriculture 51 ( 6 ) : 8 - 14 .\nwilson , r . a . , p . manley and b . r . noon . 1990 . covariance patterns among birds and vegetation in a california oak woodland . in proc . , symposium on oak woodlands and hardwood rangeland management ( davis , ca oct . 31 - nov 2 1990 ) . ] usda for . serv . gen . tech . rep . , psw - 126 , p . 126 - 135 .\nd . post fledging biology of offspring : oak titmice remain in a family group after the young have fledged , often moving away from the nest to an area of the territory infrequently used . ( dixon 1949 )\ncaptured 34 oak titmice during the breeding seasons 1997 and 1998 at the east park reservoir . 1997 - 6 females with brood patches , 26 hatch year birds ; 1998 \u2013 1 female with brood patch ( prbo data )\npurcell , k . l . and j . verner . life history traits and nest site characteristics of open - and cavity - nesting birds in oak - pine woodlands . dissertation for the university of nevada , reno .\nduring 1996 \u2013 1998 field season oak titmice were banded at the lower sacramento river preserve . number of females caught with brood patches were : 3 in 1996 , 2 in 1997 , and 1 in 1998 . ( prbo data )\nhertz , p . e . , j . v . remsen , jr . , and s . i . zones . 1976 . ecological complementarity of three sympatric parids in a california oak woodland . condor 78 : 307 - 316 .\ncounter - singing with another individual in oak - sycamore riparian habitat . a probable third individual was seen entering , but not exiting , a sycamore cavity . high pass filter ( 2000hz , 6db roll off ) , amplified ( 20db ) .\naigner , p . a . , w . m . block , and m . l . morrison . 1998 . effect of firewood harvesting on birds in a california oak - pine woodland . j . wildl . manage . 62 ( 2 ) : 485 - 497 .\nthe paridae in north america are woodland birds , the chickadees occurring in both deciduous and coniferous forests throughout much of the continent and the titmice residing in forest and scrub habitats . most species of titmice reside in the west and a few are associated with oak dominated woodlands .\ngardali , t , g . r . geupel , and g . ballard . 1996 . songbird census in brewer ' s oak forest in the mendocino national forest : results from the 1996 field season . unpublished report of the point reyes bird observatory to the mendocino national forest service .\nverner , j . , k . l . purcell , and j . g . turner . 1997 . bird communities in grazed and ungrazed oak - pine woodlands at the san joaquin experimental range . usda forest service gen . tech . rep . psw - gtr - 160 . 381 - 390 .\nwithin their restricted range oak titmice visit feeders with sunflower seeds and other birdseeds , particularly when tree cover is nearby . they prefer seeds on raised trays or tubes rather than ground feeders . find out more about what this bird likes to eat and what feeder is best by using the project feederwatch common feeder birds bird list .\noak and juniper titmice are common residents of warm , dry woodlands in the western united states , extreme northern mainland mexico , and northwestern and southern baja california . until recently , these taxa were regarded as a single species in the genus parus : plain titmouse ( parus inornatus ) . a comprehensive analysis of geographic variation in the species complex ( cicero 1996 ) , along with genetic evidence of relationships within the family ( sheldon et al . 1992 , slikas et al . 1996 ) , has led to their reclassification as sibling species in the genus baeolophus ( american ornithologists ' union 1997 ) . although similar in appearance , the 2 species are distinguished by a suite of morphologic , colorimetric , genetic , vocal , and ecologic traits ( cicero 1996 ) . they are discussed here in a combined treatment , however , in order to describe and compare distinctive features of each species .\nziener , d . c . , w . laudenslayer , jr . , k . mayer and m . white , eds . 1990 . california\u2019s wildlife , vol . 2 , california department of fish and game , sacramento , ca . 732 pp . return to : cpif oak plan main page point reyes bird observatory copyright 1999 prbo at prbo dot org\nno season - specific information . in general 43 % animal and 57 % vegetable . ( dixon 1949 ) the animal food is made up of true bugs , caterpillars , beetles , wasps , ants , spiders , and other insects . vegetable food contains cultivated fruits and grains , wild fruits , seeds and nuts , leaf galls , oak and willow catkins , and leaf buds . ( dixon 1949 )\noak titmice often take up residence in nest boxes ; consider putting up a nest box to attract a breeding pair . make sure you put it up well before breeding season . attach a guard to keep predators from raiding eggs and young . find out more about nest boxes on our attract birds pages . you ' ll find plans for building a nest box of the appropriate size on our all about birdhouses site .\nthe female selects the nest site , but the male goes with her as she roams across their breeding territory to inspect sites . she chooses a cavity in a tree up to 40 feet off the ground , preferring natural cavities over woodpecker - excavated ones . sometimes she may partially excavate the nest herself in soft or rotten wood , or further excavate an existing cavity . occasionally oak titmice nest in stumps , fenceposts , pipes , eaves , or holes in riverbanks . they will also use nest boxes .\nthe female takes charge of building the nest , taking 4\u201310 days to finish it . the male accompanies her while she gathers material and he feeds her when she is inside the cavity . nests are made of grass , moss , hair , and feathers , and may also contain shredded bark , wool , straw , twigs , plant fibers , rope , string , oak blossoms , snakeskin , sycamore seed balls , rootlets , leaves , and wood chips . the nest may be reused in later years , either by the same pair or a different one .\nlutmerding , j . a . and a . s . love . longevity records of north american birds . version 2015 . 2 . patuxent wildlife research center , bird banding laboratory 2015 .\nnorth american bird conservation initiative . 2014 . the state of the birds 2014 report . us department of interior , washington , dc , usa .\nsauer , j . r . , j . e . hines , j . e . fallon , k . l . pardieck , jr . ziolkowski , d . j . and w . a . link . the north american breeding bird survey , results and analysis 1966 - 2013 ( version 1 . 30 . 15 ) . usgs patuxtent wildlife research center 2014b . available from urltoken\nsibley , d . a . ( 2014 ) . the sibley guide to birds , second edition . alfred a . knopf , new york , usa .\nvery common in parts of its range , but surveys suggest declining numbers in recent decades .\nforages by hopping about in branches and larger twigs of trees , sometimes hanging upside down , searching for insects among the foliage and on the bark . opens nuts and acorns by holding them with feet and pounding with bill . comes to bird feeders for seeds or suet .\nusually 6 - 7 , sometimes 3 - 9 . white , sometimes lightly dotted with reddish brown . incubation is by female only , 14 - 16 days . young : both parents bring food to nestlings . young leave nest about 16 - 21 days after hatching .\nboth parents bring food to nestlings . young leave nest about 16 - 21 days after hatching .\ninsects , nuts , seeds . feeds mainly on insects , including many caterpillars , beetles , true bugs , leafhoppers , aphids , scale insects , and many others , as well as some spiders . also eats acorns , weed seeds , and sometimes berries or small fruits .\npairs or family groups may defend territories all year . nest site ( selected by female ) is usually in hole in tree , sometimes hole in stump , fence post , or pole . may be natural cavity or old woodpecker hole . in rotten wood , both members of pair may work to enlarge small cavities for their use . also will use nest boxes , and sometimes crevices in buildings or other cavities . nest has foundation of grass , weeds , moss , bark fibers , and lining of soft material such as feathers or animal hair .\na harsh , fussy see - dee - dee or chick - a - dee - dee .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\ntuftit _ 7 . tiska - say - sayampothercalls _ flle _ 1 . mp3\ntuftit _ 8 . see - see - seecalls _ flle _ 1 . mp3\ntell congress to oppose a harmful rider that threatens sage - grouse and other wildlife .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\nthe bird is a drab brownish or grayish brown color overall , but is paler below . it has a short crest .\nfour subspecies , one restricted to baja california ; variation is weak and clinal . the northernmost subspecies , inornatus , from oregon to south - central california , has medium brownish gray or olive - brown upperparts , pale gray underparts with pale brown tinge on flanks , and a short bill . the affabilis found in southwestern california is notably larger , has darker gray - brown or olive - brown upperparts , flanks washed in dusky brown , and a longer bill . the mohavensis , restricted to the little san bernardino mountains in san bernardino and riverside counties , is smaller , paler , and grayer than the affabilis .\ncall : a hoarse tsick - a - deer . song : a series of clear , whistled sets of alternating high and low notes , such as peter peter peter or teedle - ee teedle - ee , with many variations .\nthe diet is varied , and the birds are known to cache food . both species are highly vocal , and individuals are most commonly recognized by their chatterlike calls which males and females utter throughout the year . males may sing infrequently during the nonbreeding season , with singing intensity increasing toward spring . vocalizations are directed primarily toward intraspecific defense of territories .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nthe female is primarily responsible for nest construction ; during this time , the male is increasingly attendant to her , feeding her inside the cavity and accompanying her while she gathers nest material .\nthe nest is primarily built of grass , moss , hair , and feathers .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 cornell university cornell lab of ornithology 159 sapsucker woods rd ithaca , ny 14850 tel : 800 . 843 . 2473\nrecorded at the boundary between a residential neighborhood and an open area with hills covered with native chaparral . recorded at a distance of 5 - 8 meters . here playback consisted of playing a recording of the bird i had obtained only 3 minutes earlier .\nequipment : sony pcm - m10 recorder and a sennheiser mke - 400 microphone . edits to the file : trimmed at both ends .\nrecorded in a deep canyon with coast and canyon live oaks , willows , bigleaf maple , california bay , california sycamore , and bigcone douglas - fir . the canyon often has a creek but on this date it was dry . the bird was recorded at distances of 7 - 10 meters as it moved in the upper canopy above me .\nequipment : sony pcm - m10 recorder and a sennheiser me67 microphone . edits to the file : trimmed at the end .\npine creek rd off sunrise hwy , cleveland national forest . san diego co , california\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nm . flannery , point reyes bird observatory , 4990 shoreline hwy . , stinson beach , ca 94970 .\nhistorical references : the following historical references were all obtained from grinnell and miller , 1944 .\nfound in western california below 3000ft , from mendocino county and head of sacramento valley south to santa barbara and tulare counties . populations were located in the northwest coast region , cahto and covelo , mendocino county ; northernmost around the head of the sacramento valley , tower house and baird station , shasta county .\neasternmost found at nevada city , nevada county ; yosemite valley , mariposa county ; three rivers , tulare county .\nrecorded presence in shasta valley , siskiyou county , and the valley of south fork of the trinity river , western trinity county ; three definite localities : near bogus at 2500 ft , siskiyou county ; at the caves , 11 miles northeast of weed ; and at 1 mile west of hyampom , trinity county .\nthe extreme eastward point of sighting are palmdale , in northern los angeles county ; also found at campo , san diego county .\npopulations in hesperia , san bernadino county ; cactus flat and quail spring , north and east of the san bernadino mountains .\nsacramento county : identified as a breeder at cosumnes river preserve . ( lynes pers . comm1999 )\ndetected during the breeding seasons 1997 and 1998 at the east park reservoir . ( prbo data )\nin 1997 and 1998 recorded as a known breeder at the lower sacramento river project . ( prbo data )\ncounted at the tejon ranch , kern county and the california and blodgett forest research station , el dorado county . ( block and morrison 1987 )\nbay delta bioregion : recorded during point counts 1995 - 1998 at cosumnes river preserve . ( prbo data )\nbay delta bioregion : recorded 8 females with brood patches in 1995 , and 3 in 1998 at cosumnes river preserve . ( prbo data )\nnests were located in 1986 and 1987 at the university of california hopland field station in mendocino county for a study on covariance patterns among birds and vegetation . ( wilson , et al 1991 )\neast park reservoir : 3 nests found in 1997 , 1 in1998 . ( prbo data )\nlower sacramento river project produced 8 nests in 1995 and 1 in 1998 . ( prbo data )\nin 1996 - 1998 a mean number of 5 nests were found at the cosumnes river preserve . ( prbo data )\nsan luis obispo co . : breeding at camp roberts military base ( tietje and vreeland 1997 )\nmadera co . : territories were mapped on san joaquin experimental range . ( verner , et . al . 1997 )\narea censuses conducted 1986 and 1987 at the university of california hopland field station in mendocino county . ( wilson , et al 1991 )\nbetween 1990 \u2013 1992 population densities west of clear lake through the modoc plateau ranged from 1 - 3 pair per day at doris and red rock valley and 4 - 7 pair per day west - northwest of lava beds national monument . ( cicero 1996 )\n3 - 4 pair per day found at walker pass , kern county during studies conducted 1989 - 1991 . ( cicero 1996 )\nmojave bioregion : only a few birds were sighted at white - inyo mountains , inyo county , black rock canyon , joshua tree monument during 4 visits 1989 - 1991 . ( cicero 1996 )\nbreeds in interior of eastern marin county , including the hills around novato . rare and local on the point reyes peninsula .\nfound in 1998 at bear valley visitor center , point reyes national seashore during unofficial search . ( humple pers . comm 1999 )\nmean territory size of 6 . 3 acres with a range of 3 . 3 - 12 . 5 acres in alameda county . ( dixon 1949 ) in san mateo county mean territory size was 2 . 0 acres . ( hertz\ne . extent of wintering in ca : year - round resident , defends territory throughout the year . ( verner and boss 1980 )\nmaterials used to form a nest within the cavity are grass , hair , moss , feathers , shredded bark , cotton and / or wool , straw , plant down or blossoms , twigs , twine or string , plant fibers , rootlets , snakeskin , wood chips , and leaves . the nest lining is made up primarily of soft material such as hair and / or feathers . ( cicero 1996 )\n) . within season foraging changes were due to plant phenology . ( hejl and verner 1990 )\non san joaquin experimental range on two 29 . 7 - ha plots there was a mean number of 14 . 1 territories on the ungrazed plot and 19 . 6 territories on the grazed plot . ( verner et . al 1997 ) at camp roberts military base in san luis obispo county there were recorded 46 . 1 territories per 100 acres . ( tietje and vreeland 1997 )\nb . mating system : monogamous with adults permanently paired . pair formation occurs in young birds in early fall soon after the family unit breaks up . ( dixon 1949 )\nc . delayed breeding ( where are immature birds ? ) : no information .\ne . post breeding social behavior ( mixed species flocks , or simply migrate away ? ) : they occasionally form mixed - species flocks during the nonbreeding season . ( ehrlich\nvi . clutch size : variable clutch size with a mean of 6 . 75 . ( dixon 1949 ) at san joaquin experimental range the mean clutch size was 5 . 81 . ( purcell 1995 ) range of 3 - 9 eggs , usually 6 - 8 . ( ziener 1990 )\nviii . . incubation period : 14 - 16 days . ( dixon 1949 )\nvix . . nestling period : approximately three weeks . ( dixon 1949 ) the san joaquin experimental range reported a mean 41 day nestling period . ( purcell 1995 )\nxii . who tends the young : both parents tend young . ( dixon 1949 )\nc or above ) based on fisher water - dependence categories in williams and koenig , 1980 .\nxiv . wintering ground needs and distribution : same as on the breeding grounds .\nb . height of nest : ranges from 3 \u2013 32 ft . ( verner and boss 1980 )\na . canopy cover : at camp roberts military base 40 - 70 % canopy cover . a dense tree canopy is important for this foliage gleaner . ( tietje and vreeland 1997 )\nc . average shrub cover : 27 % shrub cover at camp roberts . ( tietje and vreeland 1997 )\ng . ground cover : 20 % downed woodcover , 28 % unvegetated groundcover . ( tietje and vreeland 1997 )\nk . snags : snags with natural or excavated holes were used only 8 % of the time at the san joaquin experimental range . ( purcell and verner 1995 )\nsuffers depredation from the usual predators of passerines , namely small mammals and hawks . ( ziener 1990 ) western scrub jay may depredate eggs and nestlings . ( bent 1946 )\nvii . other : the protocalliphorid blowfly larvae are parasites of secondary cavity nesters as they lay their eggs in the additional material used to line the nest cavity . a high rate of parasitism was recorded in nests at san joaquin experimental range . ( purcell and verner 1995 )\nii . productivity measure ( s ) : the san joaquin experimental range study of cavity nesters reported a mayfield estimate of nesting success of 62 % in natural cavities and 60 % in nest boxes . ( purcell 1995 )\niii . survivorship : two - thirds of the birds fledged did not survive until the next breeding season . ( dixon 1949 )\naccording to dixon ( 1949 ) dispersal is gradual and restricted , 4 of the 7 birds recorded established territories in their natal area the following season . the median distance of dispersal was approximately 600 meters . ( dixon 1949 )\na list of other species that would benefit from management of the target species .\nrecommend methods that will address immediate needs as well as those most appropriate to monitor how effective the proposed management recommendations will be .\n( from subspecies , trend , local extirpations , state and federal lists , etc . )\nexperiencing a 1 . 9 % decline per year throughout california ( p < . 05 ) 1980 - 1996 and a 1 . 6 % annual decline in the california foothills 1966 - 1996 ( p = . 06 ) . ( sauer , 1996 )\nthe significant decline since 1980 of this species requires further study to determine future conservation goals .\nthe objective is to prevent further decline in this species and to increase suitable habitat .\namerican ornithologists\u2019 union . 1983 . check - list of north american birds . 7\nbalda r . p . 1975 . the relationship of secondary cavity nesters ' snag densities in western coniferous forests . usda forest service wildlife habitat technical bulletin 1 , 37p . southwestern region , albuquerque , nm .\nbent , a . c . 1064 . life histories of north american jays , crows , and titmice . dover publications , inc . , new york , ny .\nproc . , symposium on multi - use management of california ' s hardwood resources [ san luis obispo , ca , nov . 12 - 14 , 1986 ] usda for . serv . gen . tech . rep . , psw - 100 , p . 163 - 173 .\ndebenedictis , p . 1993 . a desert barrier . birding 25 : 437 - 438 .\ndixon , k . l . 1954 . some ecological relations of chickadees and titmice in central california . condor 56 : 113 - 124 .\nehrlich , p . r . , dobkin , d . s , and d . wheye . 1988 . the birder ' s handbook : a field guide to the natural history of north american birds . simon and schuster press , ny .\ngeupel , g . , g . ballard , and a . king . 1997 . songbird monitoring on the cosumnes river preserve : results of the 1995 field season . unpublished report . point reyes bird observatory , stinson beach , ca .\ngeupel , g . , g . ballard , n . nur , and a . king . 1997 . population status and associations of songbirds along riparian corridors of the lower sacramento river : results from 1995 field season and summary of results 1993 - 1995 . unpublished report . point reyes bird observatory , stinson beach , ca .\ngeupel , g . , and g . ballard 1995 . status and distribution of the landbird avifauna along riparian corridors of the sacramento river national wildlife refuge : results of the 1994 field season . unpublished report . point reyes bird observatory , stinson beach , ca .\ngeupel , g . , n . nur , g . ballard , and a . kiener . 1996 . monitoring nests of songbirds and their associated vegetation in montane meadows of the san bernardino national forest , results of the 1992 - 1995 field seasons . unpublished report to the usfs . point reyes bird observatory , stinson beach , ca .\ngrinnell , j . and a . h . miller . 1944 . the distribution of the birds of california . artemesia press , lee vining , ca .\nhejl , s . j . , j . verner . 1990 . within - season and yearly variations in avian foraging locations . studies in avian biology 13 : 202 - 209 .\nking , a and g . geupel . 1997 . songbird response to revegetation along the sacramento river : results from 1996 field season . unpublished report . point reyes bird observatory , stinson beach , ca .\nmartin , t . e . and p . li . 1992 . life history traits of open - vs . cavity - nesting birds . ecology 73 ( 2 ) : 579 - 592 .\nmcclelland , b . r . , s . s . friswell , w . c . fischer , and c . h . halvorson . 1979 . habitat management for hole - nesting birds in forests of western larch and douglas - fir . j . forestry 77 : 480 - 483 .\nohmann , j . l . , w . c . mccomb , and a . a . zumrawi . 1994 . wildl . soc . bull . 22 : 607 - 620 . .\npurcell , k . 1995 . reproductive strategies of open - and cavity - nesting birds . dissertation for university of nevada , reno .\npurcell , k . l . j . verner and l . w . orange . 1997 . a comparison of the breeding ecology of birds nesting in boxes and tree cavities . auk 114 ( 4 ) : 646 - 656 .\nrobertson , d . and c . tenet ( eds . ) 1993 . atlas of breeding birds of monterey county . monterey peninsula audubon society .\nproc . , symposium on multi - use management of california ' s hardwood resources [ san luis obispo , ca , nov . 12 - 14 , 1986 ] usda for . serv . gen . tech . rep . , psw - 100 , p . 190 - 196 .\nsauer , j . r , j . e . hines , g . gough , i . thomas , and b . g . peterjohn . 1997 . the north american breeding bird survey results and analysis . version 96 . 4 patuxtent wildlife research center , laurel , md .\nsheldon , f . h . and f . b . gill . 1996 . a reconsideration of songbird phylogeny , with emphasis on the evolution of titmice and their sylvioid relatives . systematic biology 45 ( 4 ) : 473 - 495 .\nsibley , c . s . 1952 . the birds of the south san francisco bay region . unbound copy available at the point reyes bird observatory library .\nsilkas , b . , f . h . sheldon , and f . b . gill . 1996 . phylogeny of titmice ( paridae ) : i . estimate of relationships among subgenera based on dna - dna hybridization . journal of avian biology 27 : 70 - 82 .\nsmall , arnold . 1994 . california birds : their status and distribution . ibis publishing co . vista , ca . 342 pp .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\n( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22711978a111066495 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsong is a series of evenly - pitched , rapid series of 3 - 7 whistled syllables .\nunlike other members of the family , they do not form flocks in winter .\na group of titmice are collectively known as a\nbanditry\nand a\ndissimulation\nof titmice .\nthe passeriformes ( pronounced pas - ser - i - for - meez ) is a large taxonomic order composed of one hundred eighteen families of birds and includes the predatory shrikes , curious nuthatches and the friendly titmice and chickadees .\nthere are fifty - five species in eight genera in the paridae ( pronounced par - uh - dee ) , a family mostly restricted to the northern hemisphere and the one in which the chickadees and titmice are found .\nthere are twelve species of paridae in two genera that occur in north america with two distinct groups ; the plump , confiding chickadees and the crested titmice .\nthe paridae are mostly known for their friendly behavior . these small birds seem to have little fear of people in wild situations and black - capped and carolina chickadees will readily become tame enough to take seed from an open hand .\nsmall birds with short wings and medium - sized tails , the chickadees have short , stubby bills that give them a large - headed look . the titmice are similar in shape but have slightly larger bills and crests . both groups have strong feet adapted to an arboreal lifestyle that includes hanging upside down on small branches .\npattern somewhat like a chickadee , titmice are mostly gray with dark inquisitive eyes that stand out on their plain faces .\nalthough some black - capped chickadees that breed in canada are short distance migrants to milder climes , these are the exception as most members of the paridae brave the winter even in the boreal zones .\nmembers of the paridae are social , vocal birds that frequently forage in mixed feeding flocks and are quick to give the alarm when a predator is sighted . both chickadees and titmice forage in trees and bushes with chickadees often hanging upside down when inspecting twigs for hidden arthropods . both groups of paridae also readily feed on seeds and nuts .\ntitmice and chickadee species are doing well throughout north america and no members of this family are threatened with extinction .\nthe gray - headed chickadee is one of the hardiest of bird species in north america . this non - migratory bird spends lives year round in central alaska ; a range that also makes it one of the least seen birds by north american birders .\n\u00a9 2002 - 2013 urltoken all rights reserved . mitch waite group . no part of this web site may be reproduced without written permission from mitch waite group . privacy policy\nthe front part of the head consisting of the bill , eyes , cheeks and chin ."]}
{"id": 122, "summary": [{"text": "the black-bellied storm petrel ( fregetta tropica ) is a species of seabird in the family oceanitidae .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is found in antarctica , argentina , australia , bouvet island , brazil , chile , falkland islands , french polynesia , french southern territories , madagascar , mozambique , new zealand , oman , peru , saint helena , s\u00e3o tom\u00e9 and pr\u00edncipe , solomon islands , south africa , south georgia and the south sandwich islands , uruguay , and vanuatu .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "they are usually black with a white band over the rump .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "a white under the wings and on the flanks .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "there is a broad black stripe runs down the center of the belly , but may be broken or absent altogether sometimes .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they have long legs , so that the feet can be seen beyond the tail in flight .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the legs and feet are black .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "they are silent mostly at sea .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "noises can be seen on the breeding colonies , birds on the ground give a drawn-out shrill whistle . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "black - bellied storm petrel", "paragraphs": ["black - bellied storm - petrel , first records for madeira and the canary islands .\nnobody uploaded sound recordings for black - bellied storm - petrel ( fregetta tropica ) yet .\nblack - bellied storm petrel . adult in flight , ventral . at sea off campbell island , april 2013 . image \u00a9 phil battley by phil battley\nthe diet of black - bellied storm petrel is poorly known , but includes crustaceans , small fish and squid taken from the surface of the water .\nsouthey , i . 2013 [ updated 2018 ] . black - bellied storm petrel . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken\na medium - sized black - and - white storm petrel , black above with a white band over the rump , white under the wings and on the flanks , a broad black stripe usually running down the centre of the belly which may be broken or absent altogether . large and very bulky for a storm petrel , they have long black legs so the black feet can be seen beyond the tail in flight .\nsimilar species : the most commonly seen black - and - white storm petrel around new zealand is wilson\u2019s storm petrel which is smaller and entirely black underneath ( though with a similar white band over the rump ) and has yellow webs on the black feet . off the northern new zealand coast new zealand storm petrel is a smaller , more slightly built bird that is white , not solidly black under the tail . the white belly of new zealand storm petrel is characteristically and obviously streaked . the white - bellied storm petrel is rarely seen away from subtropical water and is very difficult to distinguish . it is a little smaller with shorter legs that do not extend beyond the tail . they usually have a clean white belly but the birds breeding on lord howe island may be darker , with varying amounts of smudgy black on the belly and under - wing , some birds being entirely black .\ntoday , during our zino ' s petrel pelagic expedition in oceanodroma a black bellied storm - petrel fregetta tropica was seen and photographed briefly . this bird didn ' t stay with us more than one minute flying over the slick . during this trip great shearwater puffinus gravis , european storm - petrel hydrobates pelagicus and wilson ' s storm - petrel oceanites oceanicus were seen .\nneither black - bellied storm - petrel nor white - bellied storm - petrel has been positively identified in the northeast atlantic . there are three sight records of unidentified fregettas in the northeast atlantic . all three descriptions in our opinion suggest white - bellied birds . records fall in the period mid - august to mid - december : about 500 miles north of cape verde mid - august 1986 , off norfolk ( uk ) 10th december 2007 , and in the severn estuary ( uk ) 25th november 2009 . we include the norfolk sighting having read the description , although it was judged \u2018not proven\u2019 to be a fregetta storm - petrel by british birds rarities committee .\n( excerpt from multimedia id guide to north atlantic storm - petrels & bulwer ' s petrel , bob flood & ashley fisher , urltoken )\nvoice : black - bellied storm petrels are silent at sea ; on the breeding colonies , birds on the ground give a drawn - out shrill whistle .\nblack - bellied storm petrels are black with a white band over the rump , and with white under the wings and on the flanks . a broad black stripe usually runs down the centre of the belly but it may be broken or absent altogether . they are large and very bulky for a storm petrel and have long legs so that the feet can be seen beyond the tail in flight . the legs and feet are black .\n19\u00b75\u201321 cm ; 43\u201363 g ; wingspan 43\u201346 cm . near - black storm - petrel with toes projecting slightly beyond tail tip , white uppertail - coverts , most of . . .\nafter breeding , black - bellied storm petrels migrate to tropical and sub - tropical seas . they travel north in may and june and south in october and november .\nblack - bellied storm petrels are pelagic seabirds that feed over the continental shelf and the very deep water beyond . they are usually solitary but may gather into small groups .\nin the new zealand region they are something of a mystery . although not uncommon at sea , black - bellied storm petrels are poorly known on land . few ornithologists have been on breeding colonies when they are active , as they breed during the autumn after most research expeditions have departed . in fact the eggs of the black - bellied storm petrel have been seen three times only in the new zealand region \u2013 in 1929 and 2018 \u2013 and chicks have never been seen .\nthe black - bellied storm - petrel has a circumpolar distribution from islands of the scotia archipelago , through the southern indian ocean to the antipodes islands ( new zealand ) . outside the breeding season it migrations north into the subtropical and tropical zones of the atlantic , indian and pacific oceans , regularly occurring north up to the equator ( del hoyo et al . 1992 ) .\nblack - bellied storm petrels are often seen gliding close to the surface of the water with the wings held horizontally or about 45\u00b0 up , kicking with one foot , the other trailing and may cut the water by dropping a foot to leave an obvious wake .\nblack - bellied storm petrels are poorly known in the new zealand region , but the local population has been estimated at 50 , 000 to 100 , 000 pairs . tens of thousands of pairs were estimated as being on the main antipodes island and colonies on the auckland islands are thought to be larger .\ncarboneras , c . , jutglar , f . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . black - bellied storm - petrel ( fregetta tropica ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nblack - bellied storm petrels are found throughout the southern ocean , where they breed on many subantarctic islands , and may sometimes be seen off the southern new zealand coast during the breeding season . after breeding they migrate to tropical seas south of the equator , hence the scientific name which was based on birds taken just south of the equator in the atlantic .\nblack - bellied storm petrels nest in colonies , in cavities among loose rocks or excavated burrows in soil and peat . they are monogamous and pair bonds appear to be maintained until one partner dies . the only known nests with eggs found in new zealand were found on adams island , auckland islands on 1 february 1929 . the eggs were in two tiny burrows about 45 cm long , in a nest of dry fine grass .\non the auckland islands , black - bellied storm petrels breed on outlying islands in the absence of exotic mammalian predators and are likely to have been exterminated from campbell island and the main auckland island by norway rats and cats respectively . on the main antipodes island they co - occur with mice , but no nests with eggs or chicks have been found , and so it is not known if the storm petrels are able to breed successfully . the actual colonies there may be restricted to the smaller mouse - free islands of the group , some of which have never been landed on .\nmolecular evidence revealed that traditional grouping of all storm - petrels in a single family was paraphyletic # r # r ; precise relationships at higher levels within this order are still disputed , but storm - petrels now generally split into two families , comprising \u201csouthern\u201d oceanitidae and \u201cnorthern\u201d hydrobatidae # r .\nblack - bellied storm petrels are highly pelagic birds that feed close to or beyond the continental shelf . in summer the birds feed in the southern ocean , spread between the ross sea in the south and as far north as the southern coasts of new zealand . locally they breed on the auckland and antipodes islands ( with eggs recorded from adams , rose and enderby islands in the auckland islands ) . as yet no nests have been found on the antipodes islands and it has been suggested that the active colonies are on the smaller islands of the group , with mice not allowing successful breeding on the main island .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nturbott , e . g . 1990 . checklist of the birds of new zealand . ornithological society of new zealand , wellington .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nbrooke ( 2004 ) estimated the global population to number around 500 , 000 individuals . trend justification : the population is suspected to be in decline owing to predation by invasive species .\nthis species rarely associates with land , except when breeding , and may be associated with cool currents where its diet appears to consist of squid and small fish ( data lacking ) . its breeding season begins in november , forming loose colonies on bare rocky slopes , in thick vegetation or peat of offshore islands or stacks . it lays one egg in burrows or rocky crevices ( del hoyo et al . 1992 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nheather , b . d . ; robertson , h . a . 1996 . the field guide to the birds of new zealand . viking , auckland .\nimber , m . j . ; bell , b . d . ; bell , e . a . 2005 . antipodes islands birds in autumn 2001 . notornis 52 : 125 - 132 .\nmarchant , s . ; higgins , p . j . ( eds ) 1990 . handbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds . vol . 1 , ratites to ducks . oxford university press , melbourne .\ntaylor , g . a . 2000 . action plan for seabird conservation in new zealand . part b : non - threatened seabirds . threatened species occasional publication no . 17 , biodiversity recovery unit , department of conservation , wellington .\ntennyson , a . ; taylor , r . ; taylor , g . ; imber , m . ; greene , t . 2002 . unusual bird records from the antipodes islands in 1978 - 1995 , with a summary of other species recorded at the island group . notornis 49 : 241 - 245 .\ndull white with a few dull reddish - brown markings at the larger end .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : fregetta tropica . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nin past , often lumped with f . grallaria ; relationships between these two are complicated and confused , especially at tristan da cunha and gough i ; proposed race melanoleuca ( tristan da cunha ) may be invalid or may be referable to f . grallaria . considerable individual variation in plumage tends to obscure geographical variation in this complex ; most forms described as races are usually ascribed to f . grallaria . monotypic .\ntropical and subtropical major oceans ; circumpolar breeding , from islands of scotia arc through s indian ocean to antipodes is . possible presence at tristan da cunha and gough i requires confirmation .\ntwo main vocalizations , both usually given from within or close to nest - sites ( it is currently . . .\nmarine and highly pelagic , rarely approaching land except near colonies ; may be associated with . . .\nsquid , crustaceans and small fish recorded during breeding season , with diet at south georgia estimated at 90 % crustacea and 10 % fish ( by . . .\nmost complete studies on signy i ( south orkneys ) , the crozets and south shetlands . return to colonies starts sept ( prince edward is , crozet . . .\nduring breeding season is mainly found s of antarctic polar front . post - breeding , migrates n into . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . widespread , with total population estimated at c . 100 , 000\u2013150 , 000 breeding pairs and c . 500 , 000 individuals , broken down as . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nan individual in flight among the waves , on the ocean ( 50 % speed ) .\na bird flying low over the ocean seen from a boat well off the coast .\njosep del hoyo , greg baker , john gregory , gus yaki , aviceda .\nchristophe gouraud , phillip edwards , jordi sargatal , markus lilje , dusan m . brinkhuizen , neilhughes , julien baudat - franceschi , nick talbot , tony palliser , les george , ben lascelles , tomas grim .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 294 , 111 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nan informative website about birdwatching and madeira wildlife developed by wind birds naturalists and tour leaders to madeira visitors .\njoin madeira wildlife monthly newsletter . all the updates on your email every month .\n\u00a9 2004 - 2018 wind birds , lda . contact faq privacy terms \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 wind birds\u2122 is a trademark of wind birds , lda cc by - nc - nd 4 . 0\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\ncompiled by worthy , t . h . ; holdaway , r . n . ; tennyson , a . j . d . , king , c . m . ; roberts , c . d . ; bell , b . d . ; fordyce , r . e . ; nicol , r . s . ; worthy , t . h . ; paulin , c . d . ; hitchmough , r . a . ; keyes , i . w . ; baker , a . n . ; stewart , a . l . ; hiller , n . ; mcdowall , r . m . ; holdaway , r . n . ; mcphee , r . p . ; schwarzhans , w . w . ; tennyson , a . j . d . ; rust , r . ; macadie , i . 24 : phylum chordata : lancelets , fishes , amphibians , reptiles , birds , mammals , living and recently extinct birds . in : new zealand inventory of biodiversity volume 1 .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 4cc578eb - d15e - 4288 - ad1f - 42cc2d89edf3\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : e7a37d20 - f0b0 - 446d - 8508 - 0c35d55b432b\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 0f85170e - 5051 - 4e7a - a975 - 2af4f84b8465\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 312170\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nthis recording is not modified . this bird was regularly seen and heard calling from bellow one of the chilean camp buildings in the evenings / nights .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict ."]}
{"id": 137, "summary": [{"text": "the european corn worm or european corn borer ( ostrinia nubilalis ) , also known as the european high-flyer , is a pest of grain , particularly maize .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the insect is native to europe , originally infesting varieties of millet , including broom corn .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the european corn borer was first reported in north america in 1917 in massachusetts , but was probably introduced from europe several years earlier .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "since its initial discovery in the americas , the insect has spread into canada and westward across the united states to the rocky mountains .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "european corn borer caterpillars damage the ears of corn , as well as the stalks , by chewing tunnels , which cause the plants to fall over .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "biological control agents of corn borers include the hymenopteran parasitoid trichogramma spp. , the fungus beauveria bassiana and the protozoa nosema pyrausta .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "bt corn , a variety of genetically modified maize , has had its genome modified to include a gene from the bacillus thuringiensis ssp. kurstaki .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "as a result , the corn variety produces a protein that kills lepidoptera larvae , in particular , european corn borer .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "immature maize shoots accumulate a powerful antibiotic substance , dimboa that serves as a natural defense against a wide range of pests and is also responsible for the relative resistance of immature maize to the european corn borer . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "european corn borer", "paragraphs": ["european corn borer larvae feed on several crops species including corn , cotton , and grain sorghum .\n( left ) european corn borer adult male on corn leaf . image by dennis calvin . ( right ) european corn borer adult females . image by faruque - uz zaman .\nostrinia nubilalis ( hbn . , 1796 ) \u2013 pyrale du ma\u00efs , european corn borer\neuropean corn borer is a significant pest of corn in south dakota . the caterpillars tunnel into corn stalks resulting in broken stalks and secondary infection by fungi . there have been few reports of european corn borer damaged fields in the past decade ; however , the transition to non - bt corn in other states has been followed by fields with heavy european corn borer infestation . although bt corn can successfully manage european corn borer , farmers planting non - bt hybrids should scout cornfields for potentially damaging populations .\nygcb \u2013 the yieldgard \u00ae corn borer gene offers a high level of resistance to european corn borer , southwestern corn borer and southern cornstalk borer ; moderate resistance to corn earworm and common stalk borer ; and above average resistance to fall armyworm . yieldgard \u00ae , the yieldgard corn borer design and roundup ready \u00ae are registered trademarks used under license from monsanto company .\ngood decisions for managing european corn borer depend on several biological and economic factors . in regions where intensive management of corn production occurs , european corn borer is usually not the only pest . learn more about pest management models .\ncheck out our economic threshold calculator to determine the most economical time to spray for european corn borer .\nin northern south dakota , where european corn borers are univoltine , corn is more susceptible to economic losses because caterpillar feeding occurs throughout the season . in areas where bivoltine european corn borer are more prevalent , the first generation of european corn borer causes more injury than the second generation because first generation caterpillars feed during more sensitive corn growth stages .\nnote : the european corn borer most likely arrived in the united states during the early 1900\u2019s in imported corn which was used to make brooms .\nfigure 1 . male ( right ) and female ( left ) european corn borer moths . photo courtesy of adam sisson .\nunivoltine and bivoltine european corn borer populations can occur within the same field . this phenomenon is typically observed in central south dakota .\nfigure 4 . adult female european corn borer , ostrinia nubilalis ( h\u00fcbner ) . photograph by john l . capinera , university of florida\neuropean corn borer damages corn when the boring disrupts the plant vascular tissues and interferes with the internal transfer of water , sugars , and nutrients . additionally , some infectious diseases can establish after borer damage . finally , stalk and ear shank strength can be compromised , and severe lodging and ear drop can result . read more about how corn is damaged by the european corn borer .\nrice me , pilcher cd . 1998 . potential benefits and limitations of transgenic bt corn for management of the european corn borer . american entomologist 44 : 75 - 78 .\nfigure 1 . eggs , soon after being laid , of the european corn borer , ostrinia nubilalis ( h\u00fcbner ) . photograph by usda .\nfigure 3 . window pane and shot hole injury caused by early instar european corn borer caterpillars . photo courtesy of eugene e . nelson .\nhx1 \u2013 contains the herculex\u00ae i insect protection gene which provides protection against european corn borer , southwestern corn borer , black cutworm , fall armyworm , lesser corn stalk borer , southern corn stalk borer , and sugarcane borer ; and suppresses corn earworm . hxx \u2013 herculex\u00ae xtra contains both the herculex i and herculex rw genes . herculex\u00ae insect protection technology by dow agrosciences and pioneer hi - bred . herculex\u00ae and the hx logo are registered trademarks of dow agrosciences llc .\ncaffrey dj , worthley lh . 1927 . a progress report on the investigations of the european corn borer . usda bulletin 1476 . 154 pp .\nfigure 5 . newly laid ( above ) and ready to hatch ( below ) european corn borer egg masses . photo courtesy of john gavloski .\nfigure 2 . mature larva of the european corn borer , ostrinia nubilalis ( h\u00fcbner ) . photograph by john l . capinera , university of florida .\nthe european corn borer , an introduced species , has been an important pest of corn in the midwest since the 1920 ' s . besides feeding on all types of corn , european corn borer also attacks and damages hundreds of crop and weed species ( e . g . , peppers , apples , soybean , cotton , foxtails , pigweeds , ragweeds , smartweeds , etc . ) .\nfigure 3 . adult male european corn borer , ostrinia nubilalis ( h\u00fcbner ) , pinned specimen . photograph by john l . capinera , university of florida .\neuropean corn borer ( ecb ) is a common pest of corn in ohio that may cause economic losses during the growing season . european corn borer infestations differ over time and among geographic regions in the state . where ecb is active , the development of borers in corn stalks interferes with the flow of nutrients in the host plant , enhances infection by stalk diseases , causes stalk breakage and ear drop , and reduces corn yield .\nbaker wa , bradley wg , clark ca . 1949 . biological control of the european corn borer in the united states . usda technical bulletin 983 . 185 pp .\nbt corn hybrids that target european corn borer are very effective for management of this pest . for farmers not planting bt hybrids , scouting for caterpillars is recommended . moths are attracted to the tallest corn plants , so begin scouting cornfields that were planted earlier for egg masses ( figure 5 ) , leaf feeding , and caterpillars . for areas with univoltine european corn borer , scout corn from v8 through r1 stages . for areas with bivoltine european corn borer , scout for the first generation during v8 through v14 and for the second generation between r1 and r2 . if you observe significant feeding injury or caterpillar abundance in your cornfields , please contact sdsu extension .\na donor organism may be a bacterium , fungus or even another plant . in the case of bt corn , the donor organism is a naturally occurring soil bacterium , bacillus thuringiensis , and the gene of interest produces a protein that kills lepidoptera larvae , in particular , european corn borer . this protein is called the bt delta endotoxin . growers use bt corn as an alternative to spraying insecticides for control of european and southwestern corn borer .\nhudon m , leroux ej . 1986b . biology and population dynamics of the european corn borer ( ostrinia nubilalis ) with special reference to sweet corn in quebec . ii . bionomics . phytoprotection 67 : 81 - 92 .\nsee ohio state university extension bulletin 545 , control of insect pests of field crops , for those insecticides labeled for european corn borer , or for all insecticides labeled on corn . bulletin 545 can be accessed at urltoken .\nnault ba , kennedy gg . 1996a . timing insecticide applications for managing european corn borer ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) infestations in potato . crop protection 15 : 465 - 471 .\nfigure 4 . european corn borers caterpillar tunneling into ear shank . photo courtesy of iowa state university , department of entomology .\nhudon m , leroux ej . 1986c . biology and population dynamics of the european corn borer ( ostrinia nubilalis ) with special reference to sweet corn in quebec . iii . population dynamics and spatial distribution . phytoprotection 67 : 93 - 115 .\nbt corn has become popular in recent years . this is genetically modified corn in which genetic material from a toxin produced by the bacterium bacillus thuringiensis var . kurstaki is inserted into corn . the expression of the genetic material makes the plant toxic to corn borers and related insects , but not to other animals . widespread planting of bt corn has greatly reduced the abundance of european corn borer ( burkness et al . 2001 , hutchinson et al . 2010 ) .\nfirst found in north america near boston , massachusetts in 1917 , european corn borer , ostrinia nubilalis ( h\u00fcbner ) , now has spread as far west as the rocky mountains in both canada and the united states , and south to the gulf coast states . european corn borer is thought to have originated in europe , where it is widespread . it also occurs in northern africa . the north american european corn borer population is thought to have resulted from multiple introductions from more than one area of europe . thus , there are at least two , and possibly more , strains present . this species occurs infrequently in florida .\nnote : refer to the european corn borer computer decision management software available in your local ( kentucky ) county cooperative extension office and / or ask them for a copy of ent - 49 for further information .\nnault ba , kennedy gg . 1996b . sequential sampling plans for use in timing insecticide applications for control of european corn borer ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) in potato . journal of economic entomology 89 : 1468 - 1476 .\nhudon m , leroux ej . 1986a . biology and population dynamics of the european corn borer ( ostrinia nubilalis ) with special reference to sweet corn in quebec . i . systematics , morphology , geographical distribution , host range , economic importance . phytoprotection 67 : 39 - 54 .\neuropean corn borer is not only a major pest on all types of corn , but it also causes losses in several other crops . for some crops subjected to unusually high infestations , the economic losses can amount to hundreds of dollars per acre . see what other crops are affected .\nnault ba , kennedy gg . 1996c . evaluation of colorado potato beetle ( coleoptera : chrysomelidae ) defoliation with concomitant european corn borer ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) damage on potato yield . journal of economic entomology 89 : 475 - 480 .\npepper cultivars differ in their susceptibility to corn borer . hot pepper cultivars are most resistant , and most green bell peppers are susceptible .\nin south dakota , european corn borer can have either one or two generations per year depending on location . in northern south dakota , european corn borer typically has only one generation per year ( univoltine ) . moths of univoltine populations begin flying in mid - june , with peak populations occurring in mid - july . eggs are laid on the underside of corn leaves from june to july depending on seasonal temperatures , and hatch within one week . caterpillars initially feed on leaf tissue , but will eventually tunnel into corn stalks . late instar ( or late stage ) caterpillars overwinter in stalk residues and pupate the following spring .\ntransgenic or bt corn - field corn producers may choose to manage corn borers through the use of hybrids with a corn borer toxin that is genetically built into the plant . these genetically modified corn hybrids contain a gene derived from a naturally occurring bacterium , bacillus thuringiensis , which produces a protein that is toxic to corn borers . this eliminates the need for the application of a corn borer insecticide . this technology allows producers who regularly experience problems with corn borers to use this as a tool to effectively manage this insect . it reduces the need for laborious scouting for this pest , although producers should spot check areas within bt corn fields to determine the effectiveness of this management strategy . obviously , scouting should not be eliminated as a result of bt corn plantings . other above and below ground insects may be present during the season and bt corn provides little to no protection against these .\noriginally found near boston , massachusetts in 1917 , this destructive pest is now common across much of the country . learn how to identify and get rid of european corn borers here .\n( left ) ecb larvae on a corn ear . ( right ) ecb larva tunneled into corn stalk . images by eric bohnenblust .\nthe european corn borer passes the winter as full - grown larva in corn stalks and other plant refuse such as weed stems . the mature larva is about 1 inch ( 25 mm ) long , creamy to grayish in color , and marked by rather inconspicuous rows of small , round , brown spots running the length of its body .\nhudon m , leroux ej , harcourt dg . 1989 . seventy years of european corn borer ( ostrinia nubilalis ) research in north america . in russell ge . ( ed . ) . agricultural zoology reviews . vol . 3 . intercept , wimborne , dorset , uk .\nthe european corn borer ( ecb ) typically overwinter as fully grown larvae lodged in the stem or cob of the host plant , though they can also be found in other host plants such as large - stemmed grasses and various vegetables . pupation occurs in early sp . . .\nfirst generation - early planted corn is most likely to develop problems with first generation borers because moths are attracted to the tallest , greenest corn for egg laying . during june and early july when the corn is over 18 inches ( 45 cm ) in extended leaf height , look for the characteristic\nshot hole\nleaf feeding damage in the whorl of the corn . corn shorter than this normally has high levels of a plant aglucone , dimboa , which acts as a antifeedant and prevents borer establishment . if you do find signs of corn borer activity , sample to ascertain the extent of infestation .\nsparks an , chiang hc , triplehorn ca , guthrie wd , brindley ta . 1967 . some factors influencing populations of the european corn borer , ostrinia nubilalis ( h\u00fcbner ) in the north central states : resistance of corn , time of planting and weather conditions part ii , 1958 - 1962 . iowa agricultural experiment station research bulletin 559 . 103 pp .\nbeneficial insects , such as ladybugs and lacewing larvae , will consume a large number of borer eggs .\nnote : second generation borers are considered to be the most damaging to corn .\nthis is a very serious pest of both sweet corn and grain corn , and before the availability of modern insecticides this insect caused very marked reductions in corn production . young larvae feed on tassels , whorl and leaf sheath tissue ; they also mine midribs and eat pollen that collects behind the leaf sheath . sometimes they feed on silk , kernels , and cobs , or enter the stalk . older larvae tend to burrow into the stalk and sometimes the base of the corn ear , or into the ear cob or kernels . feeding by older larvae is usually considered to be most damaging , but tunneling by even young larvae can result in broken tassels . the presence of one to two larvae within a corn stalk is tolerable , but the presence of any larvae within the ear of sweet corn is considered intolerable by commercial growers , and is their major concern . european corn borer is considered to be the most important sweet corn pest in northern production areas , and second - generation borers are the principal source of ear damage . heavily tunneled stalks of grain corn suffer from lodging , reducing the capacity for machine harvesting . lodging is not a serious threat to sweet corn . boring by corn borers also allows several fungi to affect corn plants .\ngenetically modified foods are foods derived from gmo crops . for example , corn produced through biotechnology is being used in many familiar foods , including corn meal and tortilla chips . in addition , corn is used to make high fructose corn syrup , which is used as a sweetener in many foods such as soft drinks and baked goods . while the fda ( u . s . food and drug administration ) regulates genetically modified foods , it considers bt - corn to be nutritionally equivalent to traditional corn .\nmanagement of ecb has changed significantly over the past few years , shifting to the use of bt - corn hybrids , which provide virtually 100 % protection against ecb infestation . these products are used as preventive measures against ecb . transgenic corn hybrids are available containing a bt corn borer gene alone or more commonly in combination with a bt gene for control of corn rootworm larval root feeding . currently , there are three transgenic families from different companies with the bt - corn borer gene : agrisure , herculex , and yieldgard . hybrids from these families with the bt - corn borer gene provide excellent control of ecb . when using any of these transgenic corn hybrids whether with the transgenic cb trait alone or in combination , growers need to follow certain epa regulations that include the use of a 20 % refuge . growers should see their seed dealers for all the requirements and guidelines to follow when planting transgenic hybrids .\nextensive use of this technology could result in resistance to the toxin developing in the corn borer population . to reduce the probability of this happening , corn without the bt - like gene should also be grown in bt corn areas . this non - bt corn will act as a refuge for some of the corn borers , thus preserving the genetic diversity that is now in the corn borer population . if these refuge are not included in plantings of bt corn , the technology may be short lived or seed companies will constantly have to introduce new genes , if available , or stack genes to combat this situation . with this in mind , producers should develop resistance management strategies that reduce this risk . contact your state cooperative extension service for resistance management plans . in general , it is suggested that at least 20 % of the acreage in an area be grown in non - bt corn .\na major pest of corn , the european corn borer ( ostrinia nubilalis ) will also feed on over 300 different garden plants including peppers , snap beans , potatoes , tomatoes , apples and gladiolus . damage to corn is caused by the young larvae which chew leaves and tassels . later they tunnel all parts of the stalks and ears , resulting in reduced plant vigor , broken stalks , poor ear development and dropped ears . other crops are damaged primarily by the tunneling of the stalks , pods or stems by the larvae .\ntechniques other than adult capture can be used to estimate borer phenology . plant phenology can be used to predict corn borer development . thermal summations are also highly predictive . moths seek shelter during the daylight hours in dense grass and weeds near corn fields . flushing moths from such habitats gives an estimate of population densities . eggs can be sampled by visual examination , but this is a very time - consuming effort .\nhost plant resistance . extensive breeding research has been conducted , and resistance has been incorporated into grain corn , especially against corn borer populations with only a single annual generation . a principal factor in seedling resistance to young larvae is a chemical known as dimboa , which functions as a repellent and feeding deterrent . it has proven difficult to incorporate the known resistance factors into sweet corn without degradation of quality .\nbiological control . biological control has been attempted repeatedly in sweet corn and other vegetables susceptible to european corn borer attack . bacillus thuringiensis products can be as effective as many chemical insecticides , but often prove to be less effective than some . most single - factor approaches , with the exception of newer formulations of bacillus thuringiensis , have proven to be erratic . release of native trichogramma spp . ( hymenoptera : trichogrammatidae ) , for example , provides variable and moderate levels of suppression .\nin crops other than corn , the pattern of damage is variable . european corn borer larvae damage both the stem and fruit of beans , pepper , and cowpea . in celery , potato , rhubarb , swiss chard , and tomato , it is usually the stem tissue that is damaged . in beet , spinach , and rhubarb , leaf tissue may be injured . entry of borers into plant tissue facilitates entry of plant pathogens . the incidence of potato blackleg caused by the bacterium erwinia carotovora atroseptica , for example , is higher in potato fields with stems heavily infested by corn borers . direct damage by corn borers to potato vines , however , results in negligible yield loss .\nin southern south dakota , european corn borer can have up to two generations per year ( bivoltine ) . bivoltine moths begin flight in mid - may and eggs are laid on the underside of v6 - v9 corn leaves . these caterpillars will also feed on corn leaves and tunnel into stalks . pupation occurs within corn stalks and emerging adults begin laying eggs on the underside of leaves , leaf collars , and on ear husks during tasseling ( vt ) and silking ( r1 ) . eggs hatch roughly a week later , and caterpillars tunnel into the stalks and ear shanks where they feed on developing kernels . late instar caterpillars overwinter in stalk residues and pupate the following spring .\nthe first generation occurs in late may to late june . early planted corn has greatest potential for damage . the second generation occurs in late june to august . late planted corn is most attractive to this generation . a third generation occurs in late july and overwinters in the corn stems .\nyield loss associated with european corn borer is due to caterpillar feeding , as adult moths do not injure corn . newly hatched caterpillars feed on leaf collars and sometimes migrate towards the tassels to feed on pollen . young caterpillars often feed on the leaf surface and midribs , often referred to as \u201cwindow pane\u201d injury ( figure 3 ) . midway through development caterpillars will feed within the whorl , creating \u201cshot hole\u201d type injury that becomes visible when the leaves unfurl ( figure 3 ) . near the end of development , caterpillars will tunnel into corn stalks , ear shanks , and into the ears .\nfully grown corn borer larvae ( 3 / 4 \u2013 1 inch long ) are extremely destructive flesh - colored caterpillars with a reddish or dark brown head and several distinct spots on the top of each abdominal ring or segment . the adult borer is a night - flying yellowish - brown colored moth ( 1 inch wingspan ) with dark wavy bands across its wings .\ncorn borer larvae will feed on many crop or weed species that have suitable stems or fruit sufficiently large for a boring larva . evidence of corn borer infestation on corn plants appears a few days after first generation egg hatch . early damage is characterized by small pin holes in the leaves and fine sawdust - like frass ( excrement ) scattered over the upper surface of damaged leaves . another typical symptom is a noticeable amount of chewing damage and frass in the whorl of the plant . when larvae enter stalks , they leave visible , small , round holes with wet frass exuding from the holes . stalk feeding can weaken the stalk to the point of breaking . damage to field corn resulting from first generation corn borer larvae is seldom great enough to warrant insecticide application . activity of the second generation larvae , which appear from mid - july through august , is similar to the spring generation with several exceptions . second generation larvae commonly move to the tassel area , causing infested tassels and the upper portion of the plant to break . some larvae also enter the shanks and ears . weakening of shanks often results in dropped ears that cannot be harvested . greatest field corn losses from second generation corn borer appear to occur on either late - planted or late - maturing varieties . field corn planted before may 20 is generally not damaged by the second - generation while corn planted later than may 20 is much more susceptible to damage because these plants are still attractive hosts .\nthere are many reports that weather influences european corn borer survival . heavy precipitation during egg hatch , for example , is sometimes given as an important mortality factor . low humidity , low nighttime temperatures , and heavy rain and wind are detrimental to moth survival and oviposition . however , during a 10 - year , 3 - state study , sparks et al . ( 1967 ) reported no consistent relationship between weather and survival .\nsecond generation - because of the difficulty in readily detecting second generation borers and their damage , concentrate sampling efforts on fields that are late planted and / or actively pollinating during the period of peak egg laying . check with your local extension personnel , as to when it is necessary to start sampling . windshield\nsplatter\nof corn borer moths while driving county roads after dusk will alert one to the flight , mating , and egg laying of corn borer moths in an area .\nbt - corn is a type of genetically modified organism , termed gmo . a gmo is a plant or animal that has been genetically modified through the addition of a small amount of genetic material from other organisms through molecular techniques . currently , the gmos on the market today have been given genetic traits to provide protection from pests , tolerance to pesticides , or improve its quality . examples of gmo field crops include bt - potatoes , bt - corn , bt - sweet corn , roundup ready soybeans , roundup ready corn , and liberty link corn .\nnative predators and parasites exert some effect on european corn borer populations , but imported parasitoids seem to be more important . among the native predators that affect the eggs and young larvae are the insidious flower bug , orius insidious ( say ) ( hemiptera : anthocoridae ) ; green lacewings , chrysoperla spp . ( neuroptera : chrysopidae ) ; and several ladybird beetles ( coleoptera : coccinellidae ) . insect predators often eliminate 10 to 20 % of corn borer eggs . avian predators such as downy woodpecker , dendrocopos pubescent ( linnaeus ) ; hairy woodpecker , dendrocopos villosus ( linnaeus ) ; and yellow shafted flicker , colaptes auratus ( linnaeus ) have been known to eliminate 20 to 30 % of overwintering larvae .\nwith the widespread use of bt corn hybrids , ecb populations have been reduced to very low levels in corn and are more likely to be found in other host crops . only those fields not planted with a bt hybrid are at risk . no - till fields with high residue are susceptible , along with frequent corn crops in the rotation .\nnote : ladybugs will consume almost 60 borer eggs a day . stink bugs , damsel bugs , spiders and hover fly larvae feed on young caterpillars .\nin new england , european corn borer and pepper maggot are the most common insect pests of pepper fruit . in many locations , peppers picked at the green stage are only marginally affected by ecb , but those left in the field long enough to ripen fall prey to ecb , then to soft rots . during the 2012 season , the umass ipm team worked with several growers to see if releases of trichogramma could increase their yield of healthy bright red and yellow fruit .\ntrichogramma ostriniae are tiny parasitic wasps that seek out and kill the egg masses of the european corn borer ( ecb ) . the use of these wasps in commercial sweet corn fields in massachusetts has resulted in the reduction or elimination of foliar insecticide sprays , saving time , labor , pesticides , and fuel , reducing soil compaction , and maintaining and improving ear quality . the good news is that trichogramma wasps can also be used to control ecb in peppers . trichogramma reduces fruit infestation , resulting in fewer culls and potentially greater success with high - quality , high value , ripe red peppers .\nadult moths are approximately \u00bd inch in length with triangular wings . female moths have yellow - brown wavy markings on their wings while males are slightly smaller and darker in color ( figure 1 ) . european corn borer caterpillars are light tan to pink in color and are approximately 1 inch in length when fully mature . distinguishing characteristics of the caterpillars include dark brown head capsules , dark spots on each body segment , and three pairs of true legs with four pairs of abdominal prolegs ( figure 2 ) .\nthe pupal stage of the corn borer is rarely visible . pupae remain inside the host plant , and adults emerge in late spring and in july . the pupae are smooth , light to dark brown in color , and 1 / 3 to 5 / 8 of an inch in length .\nearly planted corn is taller and attractive to ovipositing female moths , so late planting has been recommended , but this is useful mostly in areas with only a single generation per year . if a second generation occurs , such late planted corn is heavily damaged .\ncultural practices . destruction of stalks , the overwintering site of larvae , has long been recognized as an important element of corn borer management . disking is not adequate ; plowing to a depth of 20 cm is necessary for destruction of larvae . mowing of stalks close to the soil surface eliminates greater than 75 % of larvae , and is especially effective when combined with plowing . minimum tillage procedures , which leave considerable crop residue on the surface , enhance borer survival .\nsampling for first - brood injury should be initiated when corn is in the whorl stage and early shot - hole foliar injury is evident . sampling should be based on inspection of a series of 20 plant samples from five or more locations in a field . notes should be taken on the proportion of the stand exhibiting whorl injury . the whorls of at least two plants from each sample of 20 plants should be dissected to determine the number of larvae per injured plant and the predominant stage of ecb larvae development . sampling second - brood corn borer is more difficult than first brood , since detection of early larvae on corn in the tassel stage or later is complicated by the size of the corn plant .\nbegin scouting first generation larvae once moths have been detected in pheromone traps and corn has reached the six - leaf stage . ( usually late may to early june in central missouri ; seven to ten days earlier in the southeastern counties ) . scout earliest planted corn fields first .\nwith the widespread use of bt corn hybrids , ecb populations have been reduced to very low levels in corn and are more likely to be found in other host crops . only those fields not planted with a bt hybrid are at risk . no - till fields with high residue . . .\ninsecticides . liquid formulations of insecticide are commonly applied to protect against damage to corn , particularly from the period of early tassel formation until the corn silks are dry . recommendations vary from a single application prior to silking , to weekly applications . liquid applications are usually made to coincide with egg hatch in an effort to prevent infestation . if corn borers are present in a field , however , the critical treatment time is just before the tassels emerge , or at tassel emergence from the whorl . this plant growth period is significant because the larvae are active at this time and more likely to contact insecticide . a popular alternative to liquid insecticides is the use of granular formulations , which can be dropped into the whorl for effective control of first generation larvae because this is where young larvae tend to congregate . insecticide is more persistent when applied in a granular formulation . in grain corn , insecticide applications for suppression of second generation corn borers can be made outside the corn fields in areas of thick grass , or action sites , where adults tend to aggregate . this approach has not been assessed for sweet corn . for borer suppression on potato , a single application of insecticide timed to coinide with the presence of first instar larvae provides optimal yield .\nyield losses due to corn borer can be attributed to a combination of stalk injury by first - or second - brood larvae , ear drop due to second - brood injury to shanks and ears , and enhancement of stalk rot due to microbial infection of injured stalks . in general , if one larva tunnels and completes its development per stalk , the assumption is that a 5 % yield reduction may be expected . the severity of ear drop and stalk breakage depends on the incidence and location of borer cavities and environmental conditions favoring plant infections by microbial agents .\nleaf feeding typically does not cause serious injury to corn . however , tunneling into stalks and ear shanks ( figure 4 ) can result in significant yield losses . tunnels can result in stalk breakage and reduce water and nutrient transport by corn plants . furthermore , tunnel entrances can permit secondary infections of mycotoxin - producing fungi .\nthe european corn borer ( ecb ) typically overwinter as fully grown larvae lodged in the stem or cob of the host plant , though they can also be found in other host plants such as large - stemmed grasses and various vegetables . pupation occurs in early spring and adults emerge in early june to july . larvae initially feed on the leaves and work their way to the whorl of the plant . pinholes or shot holes are signs of borers already moving into the plant . depending on the strain of ecb , growing conditions and the growing region , populations can go through one or two full generations and , in some cases , a partial third generation in a single season .\nhutchinson , w . d . , e . c . burkness , p . d . mitchell , r . d . moon , t , w leslie , s . j . fleischer , m . abrhahamson , k . l . hamilton , k . l . steffey , m . e . gray , r . l . hellmich , l . v . kaster , t . e . hunt , r . j . wright , k . pecinosvsky , t . l . rabaey , b . r . flood , and e . s . raun . 2010 . areawide suppression of european corn borer with bt maize reaps savings to non - bt maize growers . science 330 : 222 - 225 .\n1st generation : field corn controls should be considered if 50 % of the plants show\nshot hole\nor\nwindow pane\nfeeding damage and larvae are present . treatment may be justified for popcorn and seed corn fields if 25 % or more of the plants are infested . once larvae have bored into the stalks , treatment will not be effective .\nhowever , if a new food product developed through biotechnology does not contain substances that are significantly different from those already in the diet , it does not require premarket approval . products that are genetically engineered to provide pesticide traits , such as resistance to the corn borer , are also subject to regulation by the environmental protection agency . currently , genetically modified foods in the united states do not require special labeling to notify consumers .\nseveral microbial disease agents are known from corn borer populations . the common fungi beauveria bassiana and metarhizium anisopliae are sometimes observed , especially in overwintering larvae . the most important pathogen seems to be the microsporidian nosema pyrausta , which often attains 30 % infection of larvae and sometimes 80 to 95 % infection . it creates chronic , debilitating infections that reduce longevity and fecundity of adults , and reduces survival of larvae that are under environmental stress .\noverwintering larvae pupate in the spring , emerging as moths in late may and early june . female moths are pale yellow - brown with irregular darker bands running in wavy lines across their wings ; male moths are distinctly darker and usually smaller . mating takes place in early june ( first generation ) and in late july and early august ( second generation ) in dense grassy areas around corn fields . female moths generally lay their eggs on the underside of corn leaves ( often along the leaf midrib ) , leaf sheaths , and / or ears , depending on the generation , in masses of 15 to 30 eggs overlapping like scales of a fish . tall , lush , early planted corn is the preferred oviposition site for the first generation moths ; whereas second generation moths target actively pollinating corn , which is usually planted late . after 5 to 6 days , the eggs develop what appears to be black spots , which are actually the head capsules of young borer larvae . once the black head is visible , hatching is imminent .\ncheck plants for egg masses and signs of borer feeding . examine closely the lower surface of leaves and at the ear . when an egg mass is found , record the hatching stage according to following : white , cream , black head , hatched .\nsecond generation borer attack may result in stalk or tassel breakage and / or boring into the ear shanks , which may cause ears to drop off . larvae may bore into the ears where they feed on the kernels and cob , resulting in yield losses , as well as avenues for attack from secondary insects and pathogens ( e . g . , ear rots ) . no matter where they may attack the plant , second generation borer damage can result in grain losses , harvesting problems , and poor grain quality .\nthe bt delta endotoxin was selected because it is highly effective at controlling lepidoptera larvae , caterpillars . it is during the larval stage when most of the damage by european corn borer occurs . the protein is very selective , generally not harming insects in other orders ( such as beetles , flies , bees and wasps ) . for this reason , gmos that have the bt gene are compatible with biological control programs because they harm insect predators and parasitoids much less than broad - spectrum insecticides . the bt endotoxin is considered safe for humans , other mammals , fish , birds , and the environment because of its selectivity . bt has been available as a commercial microbial insecticide since the 1960s and is sold under many trade names . these products have an excellent safety record and can be used on many crops until the day of harvest .\nfifteen to 35 white eggs are laid in masses on the underside of corn leaves , often near the midrib . the individual eggs overlap each other much like fish scales . prior to hatching , the mass darkens .\nfirst generation borers are usually present during june in the whorl of corn plants . as the larvae feed and grow , some may be found tunneled into the midrib of leaves . this damage can cause leaves to break at the point of borer entry . as the borers feed on the leaves , they typically produce a characteristic random or\nshot hole\ndamage pattern . these holes become apparent as the leaves grow out of the whorl . by the time the first generation borers are half grown , they will have moved down the stalk and bored into it , leaving behind their sawdust - like excrement called frass at the stalk entry hole . the boring damage may weaken the plant enough to cause subsequent stalk breakage later in the season , typically occurring below the ear . or it may cause corn to become stunted , resulting in yield reductions caused by the inability of the plant to transport water and nutrients through its damaged stalk . after boring into the stalk , the larvae usually feed inside the plant until they reach maturity and pupate . stalk entry and tunneling by corn borer may predispose the plant to pathogens which may lead to stalk rots later in the season . they emerge as adults during july and early august beginning the second generation .\nthe number of generations varies from one to four , with only one generation occurring in northern new england and minnesota and in northern areas of canada , whereas three to four generations occur in virginia and other southern locations . in many areas generation number varies depending on weather , and there is considerable adaptation for local climate conditions even within strains . european corn borer overwinters in the larval stage , with pupation and emergence of adults in early spring . diapause apparently is induced by exposure of last instar larvae to long days , but there also is a genetic component . moth flights and oviposition usually occur during june - july and august - september in areas with one to two generations annually . in southern locations with three generations , moth flights and oviposition typically occur in may , late june , and august . in locations with four generations , adults are active in april , june , july , and august - september .\nthe larvae are dirty white , often having a pinkish tinge . the skin is smooth and free of hairs . there are numerous dark spots scattered over the sides and top of the body . the head is dark brown to black . it is the larval ( borer ) stage that causes damage to crops .\nlarvae of the first brood pupate in the stalks and emerge again as adult moths in late july and early august . these adults prefer to deposit their eggs on late - planted corn . the larvae hatching from this generation are referred to as the second brood ; they will overwinter as late - instar larvae in corn stubble . larvae will feed on the surface of the leaves before tunneling into the corn stalk where the predominant feeding occurs ( fig . 3 ) . injury caused by the second brood includes stalk breakage , ear drop due to infestation of shanks , and infestations of the ear ( fig . 4 ) . larvae of the second brood are also susceptible to adverse weather , predators , and parasites . the overwintering larvae are very susceptible to insect , avian , and mammalian predators that become active during the late fall , winter , or early spring .\nexample : a field that is shedding pollen has 60 % of the plants infested with larvae and / or egg masses . the number of actual larvae observed averages 2 per plant . the number of egg masses averages 1 / 4 per plant . for 1 / 4 egg mass / plant , an average of 1 borer would survive per plant ( assuming survival of 4 borers / egg mass ) . therefore , two live borers plus one borer from egg masses equals 3 borers / plant . anticipated yield is 150 bu / a and the crop is valued at $ 2 . 75 per bushel . the cost of the insecticide and application is $ 12 . 00 and 65 % control can be expected . would it pay to apply the insecticide ?\nassessment of second - brood injury in early september with an emphasis on evaluation of stalk quality and ear shank infestation ( fig . 5 ) will provide relevant information on the need for scheduling timely harvest of corn stands that may be susceptible to significant ear drop or stalk breakage if harvest is delayed .\nduring late july and early august adults mate in grassy areas ( e . g . , roadsides , waterways , weed patches , etc . ) . egg masses , which will produce second generation borers , are laid in corn during late july and throughout august . newly hatched larvae typically move from the leaves to protected areas of the leaf axils and sheaths to feed on pollen and plant tissue . second generation borers normally concentrate their attack in the ear zone , roughly the middle third of the plant . after undergoing several molts , the larvae bore into the corn plant as did the first generation borers .\necb overwinters as late instar or stage larvae in corn stalks . in the early spring , the overwintering larvae pupate and then emerge as moths that prefer to deposit their egg masses on the underside of leaves of mid - whorl stage corn . each egg mass appears like a small mass of fish scales and may include 15 to 20 eggs ( fig . 1 ) . the eggs hatch into early - instars that initially feed on foliage , causing window - pane injury , and on the tender central whorl , which subsequently leads to shot - hole injury in the emerging foliage ( fig . 2 ) . as the larvae become third - and fourth - instars ( about 1 / 2 - inch long ) , they tunnel into the mid - ribs and stalks . there they complete their larval development as fifth - instars and transform into pupae from which adult moths will emerge in midsummer . this larval generation , which occurs in the spring on whorl - stage corn , is called the first brood . during the period of larval development , significant proportions of larvae perish due to natural elements such as heavy rains or predation by beneficial insect predators . although 15 to 20 larvae may emerge from a single egg mass , it is rare to find one or more mature larvae in a corn stalk or adjacent stalks to which larvae may have migrated .\nfully grown larvae pass the winter concealed in corn stubble or other plant parts on which they have been feeding . pupation takes place in late spring with the adult moths appearing in may and june . when mature , the females begin laying clumps of white eggs on the undersides of the lower leaves of host plants . ( adult females may lay up to 500 eggs over their short lifetime . ) under ideal conditions , these first generation eggs hatch within 3 - 7 days . tiny caterpillars begin feeding on host plants and complete their development in 3 - 4 weeks . pupation occurs deep inside the corn stalks and second generation moths emerge and begin laying eggs in early summer . produces 1 - 3 generations per year depending upon the climate .\nlarvae : pinkish tan body , boring into corn , and leaves . adults : small , tan , night fliers about 1 / 2 inch in length that hold their wings in a delta shape at rest . females have a thick body and light colored wings , whereas the males have darker tan - to - brown wings and a thinner body . click here for an identification key .\nburkness , e . c . , w . d . hutchinson , p . c . bolin , d . r . bartels , d . f . warnock , and d . w . davis . 2001 . field efficacy of sweet corn hybrids expressing a bacillus thuringiensis toxin for management of ostrinia nubilalis ( lepidoptera : crambidae ) and helicoverpa zea ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . journal of economic entomology 94 : 197 - 203 .\nlife table studies conducted on corn borer populations in quebec with a single annual generation perhaps provide insight into the relative importance of mortality factors ( hudon and leroux 1986c ) . these workers demonstrated that egg mortality ( about 15 % ) was low , stable and due mostly to predators and parasites . similarly , mortality of young larvae , due principally to dispersal , dislodgement , and plant resistance to feeding was fairly low ( about 15 % ) but more variable . mortality of large larvae during the autumn ( about 22 % ) and following spring ( about 42 % ) was due to a number of factors including frost , disease and parasitoids , but parasitism levels were low . pupal mortality ( about 10 % ) was low and stable among generations . the factor that best accounted for population trends was survival of adults . dispersal of moths and disruption of moth emergence by heavy rainfall are thought to account for high and variable mortality ( 68 to 98 % , with a mean of 95 % ) , which largely determines population size of the subsequent generation . overall generation mortality levels were high , averaging 98 . 7 % .\nfirst brood rescue treatment may be needed when 75 % or more of stand is infested and larvae are susceptible to treatment , that is , they have not tunneled into the stalk . second brood rescue treatment is warranted when egg masses or early larvae are found on 50 % or more of plants . abundant activity of ecb adults along field edges indicates a need for inspection for egg masses or early larvae in corn . however , in a year of heavy second - brood activity , the problem may be forecasted by observation of an abundant summer flight of adults .\ndo bt - corn hybrids differ only in that they possess the genetic code to produce the bt protein ? not exactly . to add a trait to a crop plant , the gene must be inserted along with some additional genetic material . this additional genetic material includes a promoter sequence that , in part , determines how the new trait is expressed in the plant . for example , the promoter may cause to protein to be expressed in certain parts of the plants or only during a particular period of time . there is a marker gene that allows plant breeders to easily determine which plants have been transformed . herbicide and antibiotic tolerance promoters are commonly used to identify transformed plants . there may also be a plasmid or vector sequence that allows for rapid multiplication of the gene of interest in a bacterial host prior to insertion in the crop plant ."]}
{"id": 141, "summary": [{"text": "the south american foxes ( lycalopex ) , commonly called raposas in portuguese , or zorros in spanish , are a genus of the canidae family from south america .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "despite their name , they are not true foxes , but are a unique canid genus , which some somewhat resemble foxes and are named after them .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "the south american gray fox , lycalopex griseus , is the most common species , and is known for its large ears and a highly marketable , russet-fringed pelt .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the oldest known fossils belonging to the genus were discovered in chile , and date from 2.0 to 2.5 million years ago , in the mid - to late pliocene . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "south american fox", "paragraphs": ["group of the south american foxes , or of the outlying group , which consists of bat - eared fox , gray fox , and island fox .\ninformation on the south american grey fox is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nthe south american grey fox can be found in a number of locations including : south america . find out more about these places and what else lives there .\nmain characteristics south american grey foxes have a body length between 42 and 68 cms ( 16 . 5 - 26 . 8 inches ) , a tail length between 30 and 36 cms ( 12 - 14 inches ) and they weigh between 2 and 4 kgs ( 4 . 4 - 8 . 8 lbs ) . they are grey in colour with a pale underside and they have rust coloured markings around their head , ears and legs . habitat south american grey foxes can be found on the plains , grasslands , forest edges and the foothills of mountain ranges in southern south america . diet south american grey foxes mainly feed on rodents , birds and rabbits . breeding after a gestation period of approximately 2 months , 2 - 4 young are born in a den . predators predators of south american grey foxes have not been documented . subspecies there are no subspecies of the south american grey fox . interesting facts south american grey foxes are also known as : south american gray fox argentine grey fox argentine gray fox patagonian fox grey zorro chilla griseus is latin for grey . similar animals culpeo fox darwin ' s fox pampas fox sechuran fox hoary fox island fox bat - eared fox crab - eating fox\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - south american grey fox - overview\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - south american grey fox - overview\ntitle =\narkive video - south american grey fox - overview\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nof this group . the south american clade is rooted by the maned wolf and bush dog , and the fox - like canids by the fennec fox and blanford ' s fox . the grey fox and island fox are basal to the other clades , however this topological difference is not strongly supported .\nas its name suggests , the pampas fox is found in the south american pampas . these vast lowland grasslands are located in argentina , brazil and uruguay .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - south american grey fox ( pseudalopex griseus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - south american grey fox ( pseudalopex griseus )\ntitle =\narkive species - south american grey fox ( pseudalopex griseus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\narctic fox . click the picture to find out more about the arctic fox .\nyou can find out more about the arctic fox here : arctic fox facts .\nthe following habitats are found across the south american grey fox distribution range . find out more about these environments , what it takes to live there and what else inhabits them .\n: the canini ( dogs , wolves , jackals , and some south american\nfoxes\n) and the vulpini ( true foxes ) .\nthis article is about the animal . for the american broadcast television network , see fox broadcasting company . for other uses , see fox ( disambiguation ) .\nthe south american gray fox is the most common member of the lycalopex ( zorro or \u2018false fox\u2019 ) genus . it is found in chile and argentina . this small fox has been hunted for its attractive red - brown tinged coat . it is currently listed as least concern .\nthe maned wolf is a south american native whose range extends from the amazon basin rain forest in brazil to the dry shrub forests of paraguay and northern argentina .\ntrut , lyudmila n . ( 1999 ) .\nearly canid domestication : the fox farm experiment\n. american scientist 87 .\nbobcat facts , pictures , video & information . discover a stealthy north american predator\ncopyright \u00a9 2004 by the american society of human genetics . all rights reserved .\nthe gray fox is one of the few canids that can climb trees , and it is the only american canid able to do so .\nthe gray fox is an american canid whose range covers southern canada to northern south america . it is found throughout the usa , and is the most common fox in the pacific states . its coat is a mixture of greys , black and pale oranges . its tail has a black tip .\n. two of these , the south american canine group , which includes a number of\nfoxes\n, and the wolf group , together form the tribe canini . the third clade is the\ntrue fox\ngroup , tribe vulpini .\ntiger salamander facts , pictures & in - depth information . discover a widespread american amphibian\nnowak , r . 1995 .\nwalker ' s mammals of the world , online . south american foxes\n( on - line ) . accessed november 28 , 2001 at urltoken .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nexamples include : the nine - tail fox from various asian cultures ; the reynard tales from medieval europe ; the sly trickster fox from native american lore ; and aesop\u2019s \u201c the fox and the crow . \u201d the finnish believed a fox made the northern lights by running in the snow so that its tail swept sparks into the sky . from this , we get the phrase \u201cfox fires . \u201d\nthe extant wild canids of north america are the gray wolf , the coyote ( canis latrans ) , the hybrid red wolf ( canis rufus ) , the arctic fox ( alopex lagopus ) , the gray fox ( urocyon cinereoargenteus ) , the red fox ( vulpes vulpes ) , the swift fox ( vulpes velox ) , and the kit fox ( vulpes macrotis ) . in addition to the dire wolf , other members of the genus canis may have inhabited south america , but all these\nwolflike\ncanids were extinct by the end of the pleistocene . the gray wolf and the coyote never moved farther south than the table land of mexico . the gray fox has extended its range into northern venezuela and colombia , but all the other south american canids are unique to that continent .\nand a 2009 paper by tedford , wang and taylor on the north american fossil caninae .\nclosely related native americans of the algonquian branch of the algonquian - wakashan linguistic stock ( see native american languages ) . sac and fox culture was of the eastern woodlands area with some plains - area traits ( see under natives , north american ) .\nthe pampas fox is a \u2018zorro\u2019 , or \u2018false fox\u2019 , meaning that it is not a member of the vulpes , or \u2018true fox\u2019 , genus . it is typically fox - like in appearance , with sandy grey - white fur , erect ears and a bushy tail .\nyahnke , c . 1995 . metachromism and the insight of wilfred osgood : evidence of common ancestory for darwin\u2019s fox and the sechura fox .\nthe canid with the widest distribution in south america is the culpeo ( dusicyon culpaeus ) , which ranges all along the western coastal region of the continent from southern colombia to tierra del fuego . d . griseus , the chilla , is now scarce , but its home is the southern tip of south america , below 25 degrees south latitude . the pampas fox ( d . gymnocercus ) is found in east - central south america , whereas the sechura fox ( d . sechurae ) occurs only in a small region on the northwest coast . the final member of this group of foxes is the hoary fox ( d . vetulus ) which lives in the open grassland of brazil .\ncommon mudpuppy facts , pictures & information . discover a north american amphibian that never leaves the water .\nperhaps because of the fox\u2019s ability to decimate a chicken coop , in the 16th century , fox hunting became a popular activity in britain . in the 19th century , the upper classes turned fox hunting into a formalized sport where a pack of hounds and men on horseback chase a fox until it is killed . today , whether to ban fox hunting continues to be a controversial subject in the uk . currently , fox hunting with dogs is not allowed .\nthe cape fox lives in grasslands and semi - desert scrub . it is found in zimbabwe , botswana , and south africa . it is common throughout its range and rated least concern by the iucn .\nfound in south america , the crab - eating fox has short , dark grey fur and short legs . it weighs between 4 . 5 and 7 . 7 kg ( 10 and 17 lb ) .\ncrab - eating fox , ( cerdocyon thous ) , south american member of the dog family ( canidae ) , found in grassy or forested areas . it attains a length of 60\u201370 cm ( 24\u201328 inches ) , excluding a 30 - centimetre tail , and has a gray to brown coat that is frequently tinged with\u2026\nfox , david l . ( 2007 ) .\nvulpes vulpes ( red fox )\n. animal diversity web . university of michigan museum of zoology .\nthat region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .\n) asian affinities and continental radiation of the four founding native american mtdnas . am j hum genet 53 : 563\u2013590\nmay limit the gray fox\u2019s distribution , even though their territories do not overlap .\nsee h . g . lloyd , the red fox ( 1980 ) ; j . d . henry , red fox : the catlike canine ( 1986 ) .\nthe fennec fox\u2019s large ears help it to stay cool by dissipating heat . they are also useful for hunting , allowing the fox to hear animals moving underground .\ninside even after they descend . like other canines , the male fox has a\nthe island fox is found on six of the channel islands of california . after severe population declines in the 1990\u2019s , the island fox became critically endangered . several conservation programmes were put into place , and the island fox population is now increasing .\nr\u00fcppell\u2019s fox is a small desert fox found in north africa and the middle east . it has a pale sandy - coloured coast and big ears , and is similar in appearance to the smaller fennec fox . its conservation status is least concern .\nif you have a native american name and meaning to add to the list - - fill out the form below .\n, where they diversified . however the most recent common ancestor of the south american canids lived in north america some 4 mya and the likelihood is that there were more than one incursion across the new land bridge . one of the resulting lineages consisted of the\nthere has been a flourishing of the native american indian population : in 2010 , 5 . 2 million people in the united states identified themselves as american indian or alaska native , either alone or in combination with one or more different races . out of this total , 2 . 9 million people identified themselves as american indian / alaska native alone . the native american indian population experienced an increase of 39 % , the greatest growth of any population group since 2000 . 41 % of american indians live in the west , and 33 % in the south . the 2010 census indicated that the five states with the largest native american indian population in order are california , oklahoma , arizona , new mexico , and texas . alaska , florida , north carolina , and south dakota experienced the greatest growth . the following chart lists the top 25 american indian tribes by population in the year 2010 . these are the original u . s . census bureau figures , which indicate those listing one tribe only . whereas the cherokee tribe has the largest overall population , the navajo tribe has the largest population reporting one tribe only .\nthe sechura fox is the smallest member of the zorro , or \u2018false fox\u2019 genus . this pale , yellow - grey fox is found in ecuador and peru . it is threatened by habitat loss , and is listed as near threatened by the iucn .\nthe tibetan sand fox lives high on the tibetan plain and surrounding areas . it is a member of the vulpes , or \u2018true fox\u2019 , genus , and has a typically fox - like appearance , with reddish - grey fur and a bushy tail .\nthe red fox is the largest member of the vulpes , or \u2018true fox\u2019 genus , and is recognisable by its red coat , white chest and underparts , and bushy tail .\nabout the size of a domestic cat , the swift fox is pale yellow and white in colour , and has large ears . it is closely related to the kit fox .\nthe bat - eared fox population is stable , and the species is rated least concern .\nthe red fox : one of the most familiar animals in this wild dogs species list .\nkit fox ) ; large - eared pale foxes of the western north american plains ( swift fox ) and deserts ( kit fox ) ; shy and uncommon ; adult length about 40\u201350 cm without the 20\u201330 - cm tail , weight about 1 . 5\u20133 kg ; burrow - dweller that feeds on small animals ( rodents , rabbits , insects ) ; coat gray to yellowish brown with black - tipped tail .\nsouth american grey foxes are widespread throughout patagonia and western argentina . they prefer to live in the foothills of coastal mountain ranges and in forest edge habitats . foxes pair up and maintain their territory throughout the year . mating is monogamous and both the males and females are actively care for the young . these little foxes are omnivorous , but their diet changes seasonally . they are native to south america , but have been introduced to the falkland islands .\nduring his voyage on the beagle , charles darwin collected a fox that today is unimaginatively called darwin\u2019s fox . this small gray fox is critically endangered and lives in just two spots in the world : one population is on island of chilo\u00e9 in chile , and the second is in a chilean national park . the fox\u2019s greatest threats are unleashed domestic dogs that carry diseases like rabies .\nred fox ( vulpes vulpes ) , potter ' s marsh , alaska , u . s .\nthe bush dog is a rare south american canid . ( \u2018canid\u2019 means member of the dog family , canidae ) . it usually lives near water in rainforests and savannas . the bush dog has a long , squat body with short legs and a short tail , giving it a rather badger - like appearance .\nin the 1960s , a soviet geneticist named dmitry belyaev bred thousands of foxes before achieving a domesticated fox . unlike a tame fox , which has learned to tolerate humans , a domesticated fox is docile toward people from birth . today , you can buy a pet fox for $ 9000 , according to fast company . they\u2019re reportedly curious and sweet - tempered , although inclined to dig in your furniture .\namphibians of north america : american amphibian list with pictures & facts . discover the frogs , toads & salamanders of the u . s . !\nthe culpeo is the second - largest member of the dog family found in south america ( only the maned wolf is larger ) . in - between a red fox and a coyote in size , the culpeo has grey - red or yellow fur and a bushy tail .\nthe corsac fox lives in the steppes of central asia . it is a mid - sized fox , weighing between 1 . 6 and 3 . 2 kilograms ( 3 . 5 and 7 . 1 lb ) . the corsac fox has long fur , which thickens and becomes a lighter colour during the winter .\ntedford , richard ; wang , xiaoming ; taylor , beryl e . ( 2009 ) .\nphylogenetic systematics of the north american fossil caninae ( carnivora : canidae )\n. bulletin of the american museum of natural history 325 : 1\u2013218 . doi : 10 . 1206 / 574 . 1 .\nwhat\u2019s in a name ? for this unique animal , it is a wolf in name only . it is however a canid , and therefore related to the wolf . maned wolves are more closely related to the forest fox and the bush dog ( canid species from south america ) .\nin general , south american foxes are long - haired , rather grayish animals that grow to about 0 . 5\u20131 metre ( 1 . 6\u20133 . 3 feet ) in length , excluding the bushy tail , which is 25\u201350 cm ( 10\u201320 inches ) long . they are found in open terrain as opposed to thick forest , and they feed on small animals , birds , fruit and other plant material , and insects . generally nocturnal , they live in abandoned burrows or in dens among rocks or trees . both parents care for the litters of one to eight young . south american foxes can attack domestic livestock , but they are helpful in controlling rodent populations .\n1 . 5\u20133 . 5 - kg fox inhabiting the sahel savannas and southern desert margin of northern africa ; coat yellow to brown ; similar in form to the red fox , but with longer legs and ears .\n, and thus , walk on their toes . unlike their dog relatives , fox claws are partially retractable .\nand others , but rarely of sustained domestication . a recent and notable case is the russian silver fox ,\nburrows , roger ( 1968 ) . wild fox . newton abbot : david & charles . isbn 9780715342176 .\ncanidae . dictionary . com . the american heritage stedman ' s medical dictionary . houghton mifflin company . urltoken ( accessed : february 16 , 2009 ) .\nthroughout its wide distribution , the culpeo uses many habitat types ranging from rugged and mountain terrain , deep valleys and open deserts , scrubby pampas , sclerophyllous matorral , to broad - leaved temperate southern beech forest in the south . the culpeo uses all the range of habitat moisture gradients from the driest desert to the broad - leaved rainforest . in the andes of peru , chile , bolivia and argentina , the culpeo reaches elevations of up to 4 , 800 m ( redford and eisenberg 1992 , romo 1995 , jim\u00e9nez and novaro 2004 , tellaeche et al . 2014 ) . redford and eisenberg ( 1992 ) placed the culpeo in the coldest and driest environments of south america relative to other south american canids .\nin fact , here\u2019s a fun fact for kids . the maned wolf\u2019s fox - like characteristics \u2013 such as a shaggy , white tipped tail and large ears \u2013 have earned it the nickname of \u201cfox on stilts . \u201d\nsmall and social steppe - dwelling fox that inhabits steppes and semideserts of eastern eurasia ; coat yellowish gray or brown to reddish gray ; body similar in form to the red fox , but with larger legs and ears .\nthe family canidae - - the wolves , dogs , jackals , and foxes - - has wild members on all continents except australia , which has only the dingo . the thirty - eight species of wild canids live in habitats ranging from tropical rainforest to arctic tundra . the north american wolf ( canis lupus ) is social and eats mainly meat from large mammals . the south american maned wolf ( chrysocyon brachyurus ) spends most of its life alone , and fruit forms the bulk of its diet .\nalthough the population is declining due to habitat loss , the bengal fox is rated least concern by the iucn .\nthe gray fox is widespread , and lives in a variety of habitats including forests , scrubland and rocky environments .\nfoxes are found on every continent except antarctica . by far the most common and widespread species of fox is the\nbathgate , michael . the fox ' s craft in japanese religion and culture . 2004 . p . 18 .\nwallen , martin ( 2006 ) . fox . london : reaktion books . pp . 69\u201370 . isbn 9781861892973 .\nfox al ( 1932 ) the relationship between chemical constitution and taste . proc natl acad sci usa 18 : 115\u2013120\nnowak , r . m . 1979 . north american quaternary canis . monograph of the museum of natural history , university of kansas 6 : 1 \u2013 154 .\nthe american crocodile , found in southern florida and all the way down to ecuador is well populated in costa rica . the average crocodile is 10 to 13 ft . long , but in costa rica they measure about 13 to 16 ft . long . they can often be seen congregating by bridges where unenlightened tourists toss them food for photos . this species is currently threatened and now only about 1 , 500 american crocodiles live in mexico , central and south america . the biggest threat to their existence is loss of habitat .\na fox ' s coat color and texture may vary due to the change in seasons ; fox pelts are richer and denser in the colder months and lighter in the warmer months . to get rid of the dense winter coat , foxes\ngrowl - an adult fox ' s indication to their cubs to feed or head to the adult ' s location .\n) preferred habitat of open space , to increase ; the darwin ' s fox , subsequently , is being outcompeted .\nchambers , s . m . ; fain , s . r . ; fazio , b . ; amaral , m . ( 2012 ) .\nan account of the taxonomy of north american wolves from morphological and genetic analyses\n. north american fauna 77 : 1\u201367 . doi : 10 . 3996 / nafa . 77 . 0001 .\na terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .\nbelow are links to spotted wolf ' s corner articles - [ contents - - - register and vote ! ] [ remembering the great chiefs ] [ native american legends & stories ] [ anglos once were immigrants ] [ handbook of american indians 1906 - contents ] [ native american indians and the eagle ] [ native american names & meanings ] [ past notable native americans - pg - . 1 ] [ past notable native americans - pg 2 ] [ hill & holler thanksgiving column ] [ a thanksgiving teaching ] [ on being an indian ] [ where is goyathlay ' s ( geronimo ) skull ? ] [ cochise ] [ goyathlay ( geronimo ) ] [ mangas coloradas ] [ nana ]\nwang , xiaoming ( 1994 ) .\nphylogenetic systematics of the hesperocyoninae\n. bulletin of the american museum of natural history 221 : 1\u2013207 . hdl : 2246 / 829 .\nas their body temperature only drops minimally , it means that they are able to wake up and venture out in search of a light snack to break up their long slumber . in hotter regions in the south black\nlike a guided missile , the fox harnesses the earth\u2019s magnetic field to hunt . other animals , like birds , sharks , and turtles , have this \u201cmagnetic sense , \u201d but the fox is the first one we\u2019ve discovered that uses it to catch prey .\nperini , f . a . ; russo , c . a . m . ; schrago , c . g . ( 2010 ) .\nthe evolution of south american endemic canids : a history of rapid diversification and morphological parallelism\n. journal of evolutionary biology 23 ( 2 ) : 311\u2013322 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1420 - 9101 . 2009 . 01901 . x . pmid 20002250 .\n1 doyle rc . american history . class lectures & notes , franciscan university , steubenville , ohio , 2001 . 2 berkin c , miller cl , cherny rw , gormly jl . making america . fourth edition , houghton mifflin , boston , 2006 . 3 waldman c . encyclopedia of native american tribes . checkmark , new york , 2006 . 4 morison , samuel eliot . oxford history of the american people . oxford university press , new york , 1965 . 5 waldman c , braun m . atlas of the north american indian . checkmark books , new york , 25 - 50 , 2000 . 6 census 2010 , united states of america . 7 gannon m . florida - a short history . university press of florida , gainesville , florida , 2003 .\nemerged in north america . a large wolf , it was found all over north and central america , and was eventually supplanted by its descendant , the dire wolf , which then spread into south america during the late pleistocene .\nnative american indians welcomed us to these shores in florida , virginia , and massachusetts , and eventually the entire east coast . the first mass of thanksgiving on american soil was actually celebrated by the spanish with the timucuan indians from seloy village in attendance on september 8 , 1565 in st . augustine , florida . the pilgrims , who sought religious freedom and crossed the atlantic in the mayflower\nthe argentine gray fox helps to control small mammal and bird populations . it also disperses seeds by eating the fruit then defecating the seeds .\nthe two subspecies of bat - eared fox live in geographically separate regions . one is in southern africa , the other in east africa .\ndespite being hunted for its fur , the corsac fox is widespread and common throughout its range , and rated least concern by the iucn .\nthis small fox is only found on cozumel , a mexican island . it has not been thoroughly studied , and may now be extinct .\nis a mutant strain of red fox found in northwestern europe . it lacks the long guard hairs , and the underfur is tightly curled .\n) have more specialized diets . most species of fox consume around 1 kg ( 2 . 2 lb ) of food every day . foxes\nwhat we know about dogs in native american societies is limited . but we do know that the dogs brought by the spanish were much different in character and breeding from those already present . how these non - european animals meshed with humans in everyday life , how they functioned in the symbolic ream , and how their roles varied across cultural boundaries are questions basic to our understanding of american dogs .\nthe grey fox is omnivorous , meaning it eats both plants and other animals . unlike other canids that hunt in packs , the grey fox hunts alone . it will stalk its prey for a while then pounce , using its long curved claws to trap and kill its victim . the preferred meal for a grey fox is a cottontail rabbit , but it will feast on other small mammals such as mice , wood rats , and cotton rats . this variety of vertebrates makes up the majority of a grey fox\u2019s diet in the winter . the grey fox also eats invertebrates such as grasshoppers , beetles , butterflies , and moths . along with birds , eggs , fruits , nuts , and grains , these invertebrates make up most of a grey fox\u2019s diet in the spring . if a grey fox has excess food , it is a common habit to bury it and mark it with urine or their scent glands to ward off other animals and to make it easier to find later .\nperhaps the most distinctive feature of the fox family , as compared with wolves and coyotes , is the eyes . they are yellow with elliptical pupils . all other canids , including dogs , have round pupils . fox es are monogamous and do not live in packs . they are among\u2026\nthe bat - eared fox is aptly named , not just because of its 5 - inch ears , but because of what it uses those ears for\u2014like the bat , it listens for insects . on a typical night , the fox walks along the african savannah , listening , until it hears the scuttle of prey . although the fox eats a variety of insects and lizards , most of its diet is made up of termites . in fact , the bat - eared fox often makes its home in termite mounds , which it usually cleans out of inhabitants before moving in .\nmany have emailed asking us for information about native american names and their meanings . this began my quest for the answers . below are the native american indian names that i have found with their meanings . when i know which tribe , the name comes from , i have indicated it . if the tribe is not listed , i do not know it , you don ' t have to email asking .\nnative american names are very interesting as names for new babies because they have so much meaning behind them . rooted in forces of nature , religion and personally desired characteristics , they translate into poetic epithets .\nmitchell , peter 2017 . disease : a hitherto unexplored constraint on the spread of dogs ( canis lupus familiaris ) in pre - columbian south america . journal of world prehistory , vol . 30 , issue . 4 , p . 301 .\nit is a small , pale - coloured fox , weighing between 2 . 3 and 4 . 1 kg ( 5 and 9 pounds ) .\nlike other desert foxes , the kit fox has large ears that provide a means of losing heat , as well as giving it exceptional hearing .\naccording to new scientist , the fox can see the earth\u2019s magnetic field as a \u201cring of shadow\u201d on its eyes that darkens as it heads towards magnetic north . when the shadow and the sound the prey is making line up , it\u2019s time to pounce . here\u2019s the fox in action :\nroughly the size of a kitten , the fennec fox has elongated ears and a creamy coat . it lives in the sahara desert , where it sleeps during the day to protect it from the searing heat . its ears not only allow it to hear prey , they also radiate body heat , which keeps the fox cool . its paws are covered with fur so that the fox can walk on hot sand , like it\u2019s wearing snowshoes .\nprevosti , francisco j . ram\u00edrez , mariano a . schiaffini , mauro martin , fabiana udrizar sauthier , daniel e . carrera , marcelo sillero - zubiri , claudio and pardi\u00f1as , ulyses f . j . 2015 . extinctions in near time : new radiocarbon dates point to a very recent disappearance of the south american foxdusicyon avus ( carnivora : canidae ) . biological journal of the linnean society , vol . 116 , issue . 3 , p . 704 .\nthis african fox species ( the only \u2018true\u2019 fox species found in africa ) has a grey - brown coat , and a long , bushy tail with a black tip . average weight for an adult male is 2 . 8 kg ( 6 . 2 lb ) , females are slightly smaller .\nhuman beings have trapped and hunted some canid species for their fur and , especially the gray wolf , coyote and the red fox , for sport .\nthe dhole is found in central , south and southeast asia . it lives in a variety of habitats , including rainforest and grasslands . this large member of the dog family can weigh up to 40 kg ( 88 lb ) ; around twice the weight of a coyote . dholes resemble members of the canis genus ( domestic dogs , grey wolves ) , and have fox - like reddish fur and bushy tails .\nthe crab - eating fox often searches for crabs and other food in floodplains , giving it its name . it does not currently have a conservation status .\nthe red fox is an adaptable animal , able to live in suburban and rural areas . it is often found living alongside humans , but seldom poses any kind of threat . for many people living in suburban areas , the red fox is the largest of the few wild mammals that they will regularly encounter .\nthe bengal fox is found only in the indian subcontinent . it prefers a short grassland habitat , and is a social animal , living in large underground dens .\n, at loma de los muertos raises intriguing questions about the relationship between wild canids and humans . this sub - adult individual appears to have been buried in a human mortuary context in a comparable manner to adjacent human burials . it may have been kept as a pet and been considered part of the human social group . the ability of pets , especially canids , to leave the animal world and enter into a special relationship with people may be related to the cosmology of south american hunter - gatherers .\nwang , xiaoming ; tedford , richard h . ; taylor , beryl e . ( 1999 ) .\nphylogenetic systematics of the borophaginae\n. bulletin of the american museum of natural history 243 : 1\u2013391 . hdl : 2246 / 1588 .\nthis material may not be published , broadcast , rewritten , or redistributed . \u00a92018 fox news network , llc . all rights reserved . all market data delayed 20 minutes .\nthe bat - eared fox is so named due to its distinctive large ears . these are used to locate termites , which form up to 80 % of its diet .\nthe hoary fox is endemic to brazil , and is mainly found in grasslands . it is a small canid , with a grey , black and brown - red coat .\nfoxes are often considered pests or nuisance creatures for their opportunistic attacks on poultry and other small livestock . fox attacks on humans are not common but have increased in frequency .\n1 . charles james . 1749 - - 1806 , british whig statesman and orator . he opposed north over taxation of the american colonies and pitt over british intervention against the french revolution . he advocated parliamentary reform and the abolition of the slave trade\nthe red fox has a huge range that covers north america , europe and much of asia . it was introduced in australia , where it is now considered an invasive species .\nthe swift fox lives in the prairie grasslands of the great plains of the united states . it is also found in canada , where it was introduced after having been extirpated .\nfox species differ in fur color , length , and density . coat colors range from pearly white to black and white to black flecked with white or grey on the underside .\nbush dog , ( spe o thos venaticus ) , small , stocky carnivore of the family canidae found in the forests and savannas of central and south america . the bush dog is a rare species , and its numbers are declining as a result of the destruction of its natural habitat . the bush\u2026\nthere is an important pelt trade in south america . according to cites , from 1980 to 1983 , 381 , 000 fox skins were exported , 98 % of which were purported to have originated in argentina . over 7 , 000 skins were recorded as being exported from chile , despite the species being protected in that country . most exports were made to west germany ( 72 % ) , switzerland ( 7 . 2 % ) , and italy ( 4 . 4 % ) .\nsillero - zubiri ( 2009 ) recognized 35 extant canid species ( 37 if the dingo is treated as a distinct species , canis dingo , rather than a subspecies of the gray wolf , canis lupus dingo , and if the eastern north american wolf is treated as a distinct species , canis lycaon ) . south america has 11 species , including nine ( mainly pseudalopex [ sometimes known as lycalopex ] foxes ) endemic to the continent . africa has 13 species , including eight endemics . asia has twelve species , including three endemics . two species , the golden jackal ( canis aureus ) and arctic fox ( alopex lagopus ) are native to three continents ( africa / europe / asia and north america / asia / europe , respectively ) .\njaksic , f . , j . yanez . 1983 . rabbit and fox introductions in tierra del fuego : history and assessment of the attempts at biological control of the rabbit infestation .\n, or brant , fox is yellowish brown with a black cross extending between the shoulders and down the back ; it is found in both north america and the old world . the\nshort - eared , short - tailed fox of the barren slopes and streambeds of nepal ; length to 70 cm , weight up to 4 kg or more ; colour is variable .\n] ) was first recognized in the early 1930s , when a . j . fox discovered the polymorphism in himself and a coworker , organic chemist c . r . noller ( anonymous\nfox , any of various members of the dog family ( canidae ) resembling small to medium - sized bushy - tailed dogs with long fur , pointed ears , and narrow snouts . in a restricted sense , the name refers to the 10 or so species classified as \u201ctrue\u201d foxes ( genus vulpes ) , especially the red , or common , fox ( v . \u2026\nfound in coastal areas between 30 and 40 degrees latitude , in areas with a mediterranean climate . vegetation is dominated by stands of dense , spiny shrubs with tough ( hard or waxy ) evergreen leaves . may be maintained by periodic fire . in south america it includes the scrub ecotone between forest and paramo .\nthe culpeo is distributed along the andes and hilly regions of south america from nari\u00f1o and putumayo departments of south - west colombia in the north ( jim\u00e9nez et al . 1995 , ram\u00edrez - chaves et al . 2013 ; records from departments further north are dubious ) to tierra del fuego in the south ( markham 1971 , redford and eisenberg 1992 ) . it ranges down to the pacific shoreline in the desert of northern chile ( mann 1945 , jim\u00e9nez and novaro 2004 ) , south to about valdivia ( osgood 1943 ) and then again in magallanes . on the eastern slopes of the andes , the culpeo is found in argentina from jujuy province in the north , reaching the atlantic shoreline from r\u00edo negro and southwards . this extended eastward distribution is relatively recent and was apparently favoured by sheep ranching , increased availability of exotic prey and extirpation of puma ( crespo and de carlo 1963 , novaro 1997a , novaro and walker 2005 ) . however , in the last 10 - 15 years the shrinking of sheep production in argentine patagonia has facilitated puma recolonization . the probable increase in predation or competitive exclusion by pumas in turn appears to have caused declines in culpeo populations ( travaini et al . 2007 , a . travaini pers . comm . 2015 ) .\nthe argentine gray fox is protected by law in chile but enforcementof this law is lax . no hunting or skin trade has been permitted since 1929 in some areas , although fox skins are still exported through chile via argentina . the argentine wildlife board ( direccion nacional de fauna silvestre ) has classified the species as endangered . hunting is banned year - round in some areas .\nyahnke , c . , w . johnson , e . geffen , d . smith , f . hertel . 1996 . darwin\u2019s fox : a distinct endangered species in a vanishing habitat .\n) of the family canidae , to which the jackal and fox also belong . the family canidae is sometimes referred to as the dog family , and its characteristics , e . g .\nlike the bat - eared fox , the black - backed jackal lives in two separate areas of africa . one subspecies is found in southern african countries , the other in eastern africa .\nlloyd , h . g . ( 1981 ) . the red fox ( 2 . impr . ed . ) . london : batsford . p . 21 . isbn 0 7134 11902 .\nthe arctic fox , which lives in the northernmost areas of the hemisphere , can handle cold better than most animals on earth . it doesn\u2019t even get cold until \u201370 degrees celsius . its white coat also camouflages it against predators . as the seasons change , the coat changes too , turning brown or gray so the fox can blend in with the rocks and dirt of the tundra .\nthe argentine gray fox likes to live in lowlands and foothills of coastal mountain ranges , plains , pampas , deserts , low open grasslands and forest edge habitats . they live on shrubby sandy soils .\nthe crab - eating fox lives in forests and savannas . it spends the day in underground dens and comes out at night to hunt . it has been kept as a pet by indigenous peoples .\nsorry , we didn ' t recognize the zip code you entered . it may have been mistyped , or you may have put in a zip code outside the area the american red cross serves in the us , its territories and military installations around the world . please try again .\nblanford\u2019s fox is found in desert and mountainous regions of the middle east and central asia . this small fox weighs between 0 . 9 and 1 . 5 kg ( 2 and 3 . 3 lb ) . it is an excellent climber , and uses its long tail for balance . its large ears help it to stay cool in the desert heat . it has two distinctive dark stripes on its face .\n. they vary in size from the fennec fox , which may be as little as 24 cm ( 9 . 4 in ) in length and weigh 0 . 6 kg ( 1 . 3 lb ) ,\n. the bush dog has only one upper molar with two below , the dhole has two above and two below , and the bat - eared fox has three or four upper molars and four lower ones .\nthe kit fox is a small canid found in the usa and mexico . it lives in arid and desert habitats , and its population is in decline due to habitat loss . conservation programmes are now in place .\ndespite this relationship , the maned wolf is the only species in its genus . it has a very different appearance than the wolves we are used to seeing , and more closely resembles a fox than a wolf .\nlarge ( 5\u20137 - kg ) fox of north america , eurasia , and northern africa , and introduced to australia ; length 90\u2013105 cm , including the 35\u201340 - cm tail ; coat typically reddish brown but variable .\nthis small fox is a natural survivor and has many adaptations for life in the arctic . its thick , insulating coat changes colour with the seasons , and is white in the winter and brown during the summer months .\nthe maned wolf is the largest member of the dog family in south america . its average weight is 23 kg ( 51 lb ) , and its average height is 90 cm ( 35 in ) at the shoulders . it has a reddish - brown coat , and a mane along its back . despite its name , it is not closely related to the grey wolf .\nthe adult male arctic fox grows to around 30 cm ( 11 . 8 in ) tall at the shoulder , and weighs up to 9 . 4 kg ( 20 . 7 lb ) . its conservation status is \u2018least concern\u2019 .\nthe fennec fox is found in hot , arid parts of north africa , and is a desert specialist . its pale coat reflects heat , and thick fur on the bottom of its paws allow it to walk over hot sand .\n. introduced to australia , it has established itself throughout much of the continent . the red fox has a coat of long guard hairs , soft , fine underfur that is typically a rich reddish brown , often a white - tipped\nare adapted as carnassial teeth for slicing flesh , although the bat - eared fox differs in this respect , being largely insectivorous . the molar teeth are strong in most species , allowing the animals to crack open bone to reach the\nwang , xiaoming ( 2003 ) .\nnew material of osbornodon from the early hemingfordian of nebraska and florida\n( pdf ) . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 279 : 163\u2013176 . doi : 10 . 1206 / 0003 - 0090 ( 2003 ) 279 < 0163 : c > 2 . 0 . co ; 2 .\nfoxes are symbols of cunning and craftiness . in older times , they were symbols of the devil . because of the connotations of such expressions as \u201cfox\u201d and \u201cfoxy , \u201d this animal has also become associated with seductive female beauty and charms .\nkang , xiaofei ( 2006 ) . the cult of the fox : power , gender , and popular religion in late imperial and modern china . new york : columbia university press . p . 15\u201321 . isbn 0 - 231 - 13338 - 3 .\nin the wild , the typical lifespan of a fox is one to three years , although individuals may live up to ten years . unlike many canids , foxes are not always pack animals . typically , they live in small family groups , but some (\nwithin their own home range , foxes battle with the factors of competition between other foxes , habitat quality , and the availability of food . however , the more serious dangers grey foxes struggle with are humans , predation , parasites , and disease . humans pose a threat to grey foxes through hunting , trapping , and the use of automobiles . also , a farmer may resort to killing a fox if it acts as a nuisance to his animals . the four main predators of the grey fox are the coyote , the bobcat , the golden eagle , and the great horned owl . the grey fox will either hide under cover or climb trees to evade danger . grey foxes will fight for their lives with their teeth and sharp claws if they are unable to escape in time .\nthe raccoon dog , as its name suggests , resembles a raccoon , with its wide furry face and short , squat body . it is a relatively undeveloped member of the dog family . like the grey fox , it is one of the few canids that climbs trees .\nlike the cat , the fox is most active after the sun goes down . in fact , it has vertically oriented pupils that allow it to see in dim light . it even hunts in a similar manner to a cat , by stalking and pouncing on its prey .\nthe last line seems to refer to the dog & apos ; s connection to the land of the dead . dogs were thought to be essential guides for tricky afterlife journeys . they were part of human existence and the cycle of life , death , and rebirth that was at the core of all native american belief systems . in addition , dogs were utilitarian animals exploited for human survival .\nvan valkenburgh , b . ; wang , x . ; damuth , j . ( oct 2004 ) .\ncope ' s rule , hypercarnivory , and extinction in north american canids\n. science 306 ( 5693 ) : 101\u2013104 . bibcode : 2004sci . . . 306 . . 101v . doi : 10 . 1126 / science . 1102417 . issn 0036 - 8075 . pmid 15459388 .\nthe fennec fox is the smallest member of the dog family , weighing only 1 to 1 . 5 kg ( 2 . 2 to 3 . 3 lb ) . it has pale , orange - white fur and oversized ears , which look huge compared to its small body .\nperhaps the most distinctive feature of the fox family , as compared with wolves and coyotes , is the eyes . they are yellow with elliptical pupils . all other canids , including dogs , have round pupils . foxes are monogamous and do not live in packs . they are among\u2026\nwhine - made shortly after birth . occurs at a high rate when cubs are hungry and when their body temperatures are low . whining stimulates the mother to care for her young ; it also has been known to stimulate the male fox into caring for his mate and cubs .\nthe coat is brindled gray , the underparts paler grays . the head is a rust color flecked with white and a black spot on the chin . the argentine gray fox has large ears and a long and bushy tail . the molars are well developed , and the carnassials are relatively short . this fox can grow up to 2 to 4 kg . its shoulder height is 40 to 45 cm , decreasing as latitude increases from 33\u00b0 s to 54\u00b0 s . the head - body length is 42 to 68 cm , and the tail length is from 30 to 36 cm .\n> fox by horsemen with a pack of hounds . in england , the home of the sport , foxhunting dates from at least the 15th century . in its inception , it was probably an adjunct to stag and hare hunting , with the same hounds used to chase each quarry . \u2026\ndarwin\u2019s fox was discovered by english naturalist charles darwin . this rare canid is found in just two places in chile : nahuelbuta national park , and on the island of chilo\u00e9 . it lives in forests , and is rarely seen . it is one of the smallest members of the dog family ."]}
{"id": 144, "summary": [{"text": "the sangihe shrikethrush or sangihe whistler ( coracornis sanghirensis ) is a species of bird in the family pachycephalidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is endemic to sangihe island in indonesia .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "originally , the sangihe shrikethrush was described in the genus pinarolestes , and has been classified by some authorities as belonging to the genera dendrocincla .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it was re-classified from the genus colluricincla to coracornis in 2013 .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "alternate names include the large tyrannine woodcreeper , sahengbalira shrike-thrush and sangir whistler . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "sangihe shrikethrush", "paragraphs": ["select an image : 1 . sangihe whistler 2 . sangihe whistler 3 . sangihe whistler 4 . sangihe whistler 5 . sangihe whistler\nthe sangihe shrikethrush ( colluricincla sanghirensis ) is a species of bird in the pachycephalidae family . it is endemic to sangihe island in indonesia . its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests . it is threatened by habitat loss . . . .\nneedless to say , ross , michael kearns and i were coming to sangihe with a few targets in mind , but not really knowing if seeing them was even a possibility or if they were already gone , never to be seen by anyone ever again . we knew a few were still plausible so we were hopeful for those but had pretty much already written off the likes of sangihe whistler ( aka sangihe shrikethrush ) , sangihe golden bulbul and sangihe white - eye .\n\u201csangihe is one part of an endemic bird area that includes a number of species / forms of birds that have the unfortunate distinction of being incredibly rare and threatened , with a number critically endangered species on sangihe itself : cerulean paradise flycatcher , sangihe shrikethrush , and sangihe white - eye . the forms of dwarf kingfisher and golden bulbul that occur on sangihe are also most likely at the edge of extinction as well , the former not having been recorded for a number of years , and the latter only rarely recorded . \u201d\nwith transfer of morningbird to pachycephala from colluricincla the nominate race of sooty shrikethrush reverts to the senior name tenebrosa ( rothschild , 1911 ) from umbrina ( reichenow , 1915 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - sangihe shrike - thrush , ventral view\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - sangihe shrike - thrush , ventral view\ntitle =\narkive photo - sangihe shrike - thrush , ventral view\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nit\u2019s a pretty bleak outlook already but unfortunately this sentiment isn\u2019t exactly accurate as the sangihe white - eye that he mentions as \u201ccritically endangered\u201d is already extinct .\nsangihe is a small island located north of sulawesi and just south of the philippines . it is among the northernmost islands in indonesia . our ferry from manado to sangihe left port at 7pm and we arrived at our destination at 3 : 30am , a full hour and a half earlier than we expected . i must admit i was somewhat sluggish to want to move at this hour ( especially after some early morning starts the last few days ) and we didn\u2019t officially leave the ship and get on the road until a full 45 minutes later . we found a taxi driver to take us to the town of tomako where we were staying at a homestay known as rainbow losmen , run by the brother of one of the only people on sangihe who is fighting to keep the forest intact . wesley pangimangen is knowledgeable and passionate about the remaining tracts of forest and is one of the only people who knows the trail up the mountain where the birds might still be around . the top of the mountain , where it is most inconvenient to farm , is the only place that forest remains on the island of sangihe .\ngareth knass , an english birder who visited the area in 2014 does a great job explaining the situation on sangihe in his recent trip report . because i don\u2019t think i could do a better job of saying it myself , i\u2019ll include an excerpt from that report detailing the sad condition of this particular island\u2019s birdlife .\noriginal forest on sangihe has been almost completely converted to agriculture . the largest habitat tract in which the species has been observed is a mere 225 - 340 ha in size , and is undergoing clearance by shifting cultivators in its lower reaches . in 2009 , it was reported that new government initiatives to plant alien tree species were resulting in the clearance of native forest ( sykes 2009 )\nthe outlook for endemic wildlife found on the small island of sangihe appears to be quite grim . several species have gone extinct and several others are teetering on the brink of extinction . stop . think about this for a second \u2013 there are unique living creatures that currently call our blue planet home that will soon no longer exist . gone . forever . naturally we wanted to see them before they meet this sad , sad fate .\nour short trip to sangihe had been extremely successful , but also very sobering . it\u2019s great to see such rare birds , but also depressing to see what little habitat they have left . wesley informed us that the forest that we birded was still privately owned and despite his efforts to convince them otherwise , the people would rather chop it down \u2013 it was not protected . unfortunately most of the birds we saw in the past two days won\u2019t be around for much longer .\naustralasia : south americangihe island . colluricincla sanghirensis is endemic to the island of sangihe , north of sulawesi , indonesia , where it was only known from one historical specimen collected in the late 19th century until its rediscovery in 1995 . it occurs on the mountains gunung sahendaruman and gunung sahengbalira , where the total population is likely to be extremely low ( possibly under 100 birds ) given the tiny area of remaining habitat . in 2009 , reports suggested that numbers of this species were in serious decline owing to forest loss\nthis species is currently known from only one locality , where habitat is declining in extent and quality such that its tiny population must certainly be dwindling . because of this alarming situation it is classified as critically endangered . original forest on sangihe has been almost completely converted to agriculture . the largest habitat tract in which the species has been observed is a mere 225 - 340 ha in size , and is undergoing clearance by shifting cultivators in its lower reaches . in 2009 , it was reported that new government initiatives to plant alien tree species were resulting in the clearance of native forest . at first , planting was restricted to areas below 500 m ; however , more recent reports indicate that planting is now taking place at higher elevations , in areas at 700 - 900 m . having a montane distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range , this species is potentially susceptible to climate change\nthe hike was technically difficult with having to navigate over mud but it was super straightforward and we gained another 350m in elevation in only about 2 km ! we are often used to climbing in elevation only to go back down and have to climb again , or have to hike a long distance at a gradual climb so the fact that we could get to the crest of the mountain in just 90 minutes was perfect , even if we had to do so via a rather treacherous trail . when we reached 730m in elevation we heard sangihe golden bulbul calling off in the distance . seriously ? just like that ? ross played tape and we had the birds respond by calling again but never had a sighting . this was great news in that one of the birds we thought might be gone was clearly still around ! it also meant that since we now knew the bird was in fact around , we would definitely have to put in a proper amount of effort to see it\u2026\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nh & m 4 : 239 . od had two different spellings . h & m 4 action as first reviser . affects species and subspecies .\nh & m 4 : 241 . original spelling . affects species and subspecies .\nh & m 4 : 167 . unsettled nomenclature . usually attributed to ( vieillot , 1820 ) with spelling caerulescens . predated by ( temminck , 1807 ) with spelling coerulescens but the latter published without a description . in the absence of a consensus , we follow the prevailing usage .\nh & m 4 : 56 . restore s . roseogrisea . taxonomic status of s . risoria , referable to domestic barbary dove , relative to wild african collared dove unsettled . ( cf iczn opinion 2215 ) .\nh & m 4 : 58 . od spelled with one \u201ci\u201d . emended spelling based on internal information . affects species and subspecies .\nh & m 4 : 79 . original spelling . affects species and subspecies .\nc . amabilis ( ramsay , ep , 1875 ) has precedence over c . aureicincta ( layard , el , 1875 ) . h & m 4 : 379\nnew genus name required for gynmoglaux which is a junior synonym of gymnasio which is referable to megascops nudipes . aou 54th supplement 2013 . auk 130 : 563 .\nfollows correction of original spelling of genus . auk 130 : 566 . aou 54th supplement . 2013 .\nrevert spelling of ptilogonys to the original spelling ptiliogony s . auk 130 : 566 . aou 54th supplement . 2013 .\nchange spelling of species name to melanorhamphos in accordance with article 82 . 2 of the code ( scon / iou petition to iczn , case no . 3630 , schodde pers . comm ) .\nolsson et al 2013b . transfer to pellorneidae [ change accompanies p . burnesii ( 3 . 4 ) ]\ngutturalis ( r\u00fcppell , 1835 ) has priority over levalliantoides ( smith , a , 1836 ) when the two are considered conspecific as treated here . h & m 4 .\ncrested pitohui is related to crested bellbird and rufous - naped warbler . reassign to ornorectes in incertae sedis ; possibly separate to oreoicidae ( j\u00f8nsson et al 2008 , dumbacher et al 2008 , norman et al 2009 , j\u00f8nsson et al 2010 , tif )\nphylloscopus maforensis ( meyer , ab , 1874 ) has priority over frequently used p . poliocephalus ( salvadori , 1876 ) as the species epithet for island leaf warbler .\nchange species epithet for cory\u2019s shearwater with split of scopoli\u2019s shearwater ( c . diomedea ) .\npayne ms , tebb et al 2008 , rheindt et al ms . ssp aeruginosus reassigned from rusty - breasted cuckoo to moluccan cuckoo . c . aeruginosus salvadori , 1878 has priority over c . heinrichi stresemann , 1931 .\nc . dorsti is a junior synonym of c . guinea . dowsett - lemaire , borrow & dowsett 2005\njohansson et al 2008a . the basal passeroid branches can not yet be accepted as fully resolved , thus , it is unclear whether promeropidae and arcanatoridae are together or represent two independent basal branches . each of them go further back in time than almost any other extant lineage in the passerida \u2026 which would argue for accepting them as two families ( jon fjelds\u00e5 , july 2012 )\nmassmann 2012 . sacc # 521 . chlorospingus flavopectus ( lafresnaye , 1840 ) has priority over chlorospingus ophthalmicus ( du bus de gisignies , 1847 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nrozendaal , f . g . ; lambert , f . r . 1999 . the taxomonic and conservation status of pinarolestes sanghirensis oustalet 1881 . forktail 15 : 1 - 13 .\n17 cm . medium - sized , drab , thrush - like passerine . olive - brown above , more chestnut on shoulders and lower back . paler brownish below , more rufous on belly . strong black bill and legs .\nis larger , more olive - green above , yellow on throat and belly .\nloud drongo - like song of c . 10 second phrases containing much repetition . also soft , lisping\ncritically endangered b1ab ( ii , iii , v ) + 2ab ( ii , iii , v ) ; c2a ( i , ii ) ver 3 . 1\nthis species is currently known from only one locality , where habitat is declining in extent and quality such that its tiny population must certainly be dwindling . because of this alarming situation it is classified as critically endangered .\n, where it was only known from one historical specimen collected in the late 19th century until its rediscovery in 1995 . it occurs on the mountains gunung sahendaruman and gunung sahengbalira , where the total population is likely to be extremely low ( possibly under 100 birds ) given the tiny area of remaining habitat . a survey in 2004 estimated the population to be between 56 - 205 ( birdlife indonesia 2007 ) and a 2009 survey estimated between 92 - 255 individuals ( burung indonesia 2009 ) . in 2009 , reports suggested that numbers of this species were in serious decline owing to forest loss ( sykes 2009 )\nthe population size is likely to be extremely low ( possibly fewer than 100 birds ) given the tiny area of remaining habitat . it is estimated to be between 92 - 255 individuals in total and so is placed in the band 50 - 249 mature individuals .\nthis species is suspected to be declining owing to on - going forest loss within its restricted range . in 2009 , reports suggested that numbers of this species were in serious decline owing to forest clearance ( sykes 2009 ) .\nit is resident in lower montane forest between 600 m and 750 m , occurring singly , and perhaps more frequently in small groups , in the middle and upper forest storeys , and also in dense rattan undergrowth . one boulder - strewn slope where birds were observed in 1996 was dominated by huge ginger - like plants ( possibly zingiberaceae ) , and in an area with a high density of large\nof\nprotection forest\non gunung sahengbalira as a wildlife reserve , although this process was due to take 2 - 3 years . the wildlife conservation society has also worked on the island since 2007 trying to promote sympathetic land use and development by villages surrounding gunung sahengbalira ( n . brickle\nconduct further surveys for the species in remaining forest patches on the island ( e . g . gunung awu ) . ensure effective protection of habitat on gunung sahendaruman . support proposals for the rapid gazetting of remaining forest on gunung sahengbalira as a strict nature reserve . continue education programmes emphasising the value of forest cover to water retention and the benefits of sound farming practices on already cleared slopes . encourage forestry staff to establish a permanent presence on the island . lobby against government initiatives that encourage the clearance of native forest for plantations of exotic tree species .\n( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22724568a118587064 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 143 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\ndistribution maps should be very cautiously looked at . they do not provide with precise location but only give an idea of species global distribution . distribution areas are geopolitical ; as a consequence the whole of a country is selected if a species is only located in one single place . for more precise distribution areas please go to iucn site ( see link above ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nrarest bird in the world : the cone - billed tanager , the mystery .\natlapetes blancae , 8 years later , still not found . wish or species ?\nmedium - sized , drab , thrush - like passerine . olive - brown above , more chestnut on shoulders and lower back . paler brownish below , more rufous on belly . strong black bill and legs . similar spp . golden bulbul ixos affinis platenae is larger , more olive - green above , yellow on throat and belly .\nit is resident in lower montane forest between 600 m and 750 m , occurring singly , and perhaps more frequently in small groups , in the middle and upper forest storeys , and also in dense rattan undergrowth . one boulder - strewn slope where birds were observed in 1996 was dominated by huge ginger - like plants ( possibly zingiberaceae ) , and in an area with a high density of large pandanus sp . palms .\none bird was seen to pass an insect to another , presumably young bird ( head pattern slightly different from other birds ) , november . no other data .\northoptera are taken . the stomach of the single specimen collected in 1985 contained small black and dark brown chitinous insect remains . birds were seen feeding among epiphytic fern fronds and other canopy vegetation , but also keeping close to the ground in slowmoving contour - following parties , with birds turning dead leaves amongst the leaf - litter , foraging on bark and vines , and often gleaning from leaves and mosses .\nenter your email address to follow this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email .\nmadagascar \u2013 bemanevika \u2013 the best day of birding of our lives ( seriously . )\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is affected by global climate change . to learn about climate change and the species that are affected , visit our climate change pages .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nrozendaal , f . g . & lambert , f . r . ( 1999 ) the taxonomic and conservation status of pinarolestes sanghirensis oustalet 1881 .\nmoved to coracornis following j\u00f8nsson , k . a . , r . c . k . bowie , r . g . moyle , l . christidis , j . a . norman , b . w . benz & j . fjelds\u00e5 ( 2010 ) historical biogeography of an indo\u2010pacific passerine bird family ( pachycephalidae ) : different colonization patterns in the indonesian and melanesian archipelagos . \u2012 journal of biogeography 37 : 245\u2010257 ."]}
{"id": 145, "summary": [{"text": "the brook lamprey ( lampetra planeri , also known as the european brook lamprey and the western brook lamprey ) is a small european lamprey species that exclusively inhabits freshwater environments .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the species is related to , but distinct from , the north american western brook lamprey ( lampetra richardsoni ) . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "brook lamprey", "paragraphs": ["his lamprey is the most common irish species of lamprey and is also the smallest . adult brook lamprey (\nbrook lamprey larvae are active filter feeders , feeding on detritus similar to both seam and river lamprey species ; however , the adult brook lamprey does not feed .\nunlike its relative , the sea lamprey , the brook lamprey is non - parasitic . the american brook lamprey is also small , only 10 inches long at the most . ( below )\n: the american brook lamprey is located in the northeastern quarter of iowa , mostly in small streams .\ncolouring : the belly of the brook lamprey is a uniform pale colour , while that of the river lamprey is similar but has irregular dark spots .\nthe brook lamprey lampetra planeri is a non - parasitic freshwater lamprey that undertakes only localised migrations . it is the smallest of the three species occurring in ireland and is normally up to 15 cm long . identification between the ammocoetes of river lamprey and brook lamprey is difficult , except when nearing metamorphosis ; however , the adults can easily be distinguished by size and the absence of developed teeth in brook lamprey .\nthree other lamprey species are found in the lake champlain basin . two species - the northern brook lamprey and the american brook lamprey - are non - parasitic filter feeders similar in size and habits to sea lamprey ammocoetes . the silver lamprey is parasitic , but does not have the negative impact on the lake champlain fish community that the sea lamprey does , due to its smaller size and fewer numbers .\nalthough morthern brook lamprey often share habitat with mayfly nymphs and small mussels , there is little evidence that there is any competition amongst these species . unlike many lamprey species , this species is non - parasitic . there is currently no research available regarding parasites of northern brook lamprey .\nthe wye is an extensive river system spanning the border between england and wales and the brook lamprey lampetra planeri population is widely distributed in its catchment . the river provides exceptionally good quality habitat for brook lamprey and supports a healthy population .\nadditional research needs for the southern brook lamprey include minnesota life history studies , genetic analysis , and identification of habitat guilds .\nbrook lamprey are likely to be spawning in a wide range of rivers and streams all over the country over the coming weeks . we would love to hear from you if you come across brook lamprey spawning over the next several weeks ; email your sightings to\nthe brook lamprey is the most abundant and widespread of the lampreys of the british isles , and still present in many areas throughout northern europe where other lamprey species have gone extinct .\nit is likely that the brook lamprey has been affected by pollution , river engineering works and changes in land use ( 2 ) .\nbrook lamprey spawn in shallow flowing water during march - may when water temperatures are over 10 - 11\u00b0c . typical brook lamprey spawning requirements include water depths of 3 - 30cm and current velocities between 0 . 2m s - 1 and 0 . 3m s - 1 . the spawning nest is constructed on a sand or shallow gravel with average particle size of the substrate used by the brook lamprey less than 0 . 5cm . the nest of the brook lamprey is an oval depressions 20\u00d715 cm in width and 5 - 10 cm deep .\nphoto : brook lamprey active in an area where some digging of the bed material has commenced . they can be hard to spot !\nthe recent inception of minnesota\u2019s clean water legacy program will eventually yield benefits to southern brook lamprey habitats through nutrient and sediment load reductions .\nto be endangered means to have a creature ' s habitat , or prey taken away , or the invasion of another species that pushes the native one out . one reason why the american brook lamprey is endangered because of the invasive sea lamprey . the sea lamprey is parasitic and feeds on the blood of fish . since it is very invasive , it is sometimes found in the same places as the brook lamprey . the sea lamprey is harmful and a poison called chemical tfm targets its ' young to kill them off . unfortunately , when the brook lamprey is in the same place as the sea lamprey , they get killed off too .\nfelbaum , m . 2007 .\nnorthern brook lamprey\n( on - line pdf ) . accessed april 02 , 2012 at urltoken .\nlampetra lamottei , the american brook lamprey , is an inhabitant of streams throughout the great lakes region . i have gathered data on this species with specimens collected in the maple river in northern lower michigan . this paper will focus on the morphology and ecology of the brook lamprey .\nthe endrick brook lamprey lampetra planeri population is strong and healthy and represents the species in scotland . the site also supports important populations of 1099 river lamprey lampetra fluviatilis , for it is also selected .\nvideo : underwater video of brook lamprey at spawning time in an irish stream . in this clip you can see the lamprey use its sucker mouth to carry a stone back to its redd or nest .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - brook lamprey ( lampetra planeri )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - brook lamprey ( lampetra planeri )\ntitle =\narkive species - brook lamprey ( lampetra planeri )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nalthough ammocoetes are blind , adult northern brook lamprey have small eyes . this species also has a lateral line through which the fish may sense vibrations .\nnorthern brook lamprey only feed as ammocoetes . during this time , they feed mainly on organic detrius , diatoms , desmids , protozoans , algae and pollen .\nthe minnesota dnr lists northern brook lamprey as a species of special concern . in order to keep game fish populations high and parasitic sea lamprey populations low , a lampricide treatment is put into streams and rivers where many lamprey , including non - parasitic northern brook lamprey , reside . this lampricide , among other poisons and pollutants , is adversely affecting population size . there is not currently a direct management / conservation plan in place for this species .\nunlike most species of lamprey , the adults do not migrate to sea nor do they have a parasitic phase . adult brook lamprey do not feed and they spawn close to the soft sediment in which they were previously resident .\nkott , e . 1971 . characteristics of pre - spawning american brook lamprey from big creek , ontario . can . field - nat . 85 : 235\u2013240 .\nbrook lampreys are communal spawners usually nesting in groups of 2 - 10 but occasionally as many as 30 have been recorded using the same nest . brook lampreys are characteristically known to spawn at the lower ends of pools and sometimes favour shaded spawning sites , such as under bridges . the spawning ritual is similar to that of the other two species but due to the smaller size of the brook lamprey , females can be less fecund . spawning activity may last over one week and brook lamprey adults die within one month of spawning .\ndistribution and habitat : brook lampreys occur in small streams throughout finland with the exception of northernmost lapland .\nthe freshwater brook lamprey lives in small streams , rivers and lakes ( 6 ) with clean gravel beds to spawn in and silt or sand for the larvae ( 7 ) .\npurvis , h . a . 1970 . growth , age at metamorphosis and sex ratio of northern brook lamprey in a tributary of southern lake superior . copeia 1970 : 326\u2013332 .\nloan - wilsey , a . 2012 .\niowa fish atlas : northern brook lamprey - ichthyomyzon fossor\n( on - line ) . accessed april 02 , 2012 at urltoken .\nthe eden is an example of a brook lamprey lampetra planeri population associated with an extensive river system on a varied and base - rich geology in northern england . the highly erodible nature of the rock results in extensive areas of gravel and finer silt being deposited throughout the system , providing conditions for spawning and nursery areas . brook lamprey is supported widely within the catchment .\nnorthern brook lamprey are solitary outside of breeding season . this species is also mainly sessile , spending the first 4 - 6 years of its life in a burrow until they complete metamorphosis .\ncochran , p . a . 1987 . the southern brook lamprey ( ichthyomyzon gagei ) in the st . croix river drainage of wisconsin and minnesota . copeia 1987 : 443 - 446 .\nnorthern brook lamprey typically live for 5 - 8 years in the wild , dying within a few days of reaching sexual maturity and completing mating . there is no data available regarding captive lifespan .\nminnesota department of natural resources . 2012 .\nichthyomyzon fossor : northern brook lamprey\n( on - line ) . minnesota department of natural resources . accessed april 02 , 2012 at urltoken .\nphoto : spawning usually occurs in relatively shallow and slow flowing water in areas of sandy / gravely bed material . here 3 brook lamprey work together to move stones and form a redd or nest\n, a new species of lamprey from northern italy . copeia 1955 : 215\u2013223 .\nthe river teith rises and flows through upland areas before crossing the highland boundary fault , a major geological feature in scotland , at the falls of leny and meandering through the central lowlands to the east coast . the river system supports a strong brook lamprey lampetra planeri population . brook lampreys have been recorded from the headwaters downstream to the lower reaches . the river provides excellent habitat with usually pristine water quality , well - vegetated banks and a substantially unaltered river channel . the river teith supports high densities of brook / river lamprey ammocoetes and also supports a healthy population of sea lamprey .\nalthough the southern brook lamprey population in minnesota is apparently healthy , it is limited in range and highly disjunct from the southern population . this makes it especially vulnerable to impacts such as habitat degradation .\nthe sea lamprey ( petromyzon marinus ) is one of 31 species of lamprey found throughout the world and one of four lamprey species found in the lake champlain basin . lamprey are eel - shaped fish with a skeleton made of cartilage , not bone . they belong to a relic ( primitive ) group of jawless fishes called agnathans .\nivanova - berg , m . m . 1933 . biology of the river lamprey (\nthe adult lamprey are preyed upon by walleyes , muskellunge , and small mouth bass .\nthe usk in south wales supports a healthy population of brook lamprey lampetra planeri and is considered to provide exceptionally good quality habitat likely to ensure the continued survival of the species in this part of the uk .\nanother possible outcome if the brook lamprey goes extinct , would be an overabundance of its food . since the american brook lamprey often feeds on algae and organic matter that falls into the water , the streams could eventually become clogged with it , causing great harm to all creatures that inhabit the waters . such a change of habitat will lead to a rise of another species , which will adapt and dominate the streams .\nthe brook lamprey is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) . listed on annex iii of the bern convention and annex ii of the ec habitats directive ( 3 ) .\nduring mating , 3 - 7 northern brook lamprey will build a nest together and spawn in groups of 10 - 30 . once eggs are fertilized and laid they are often covered with the substrate surrounding the nest .\n2010 .\nthe northern brook lamprey ( great lakes - upper st . lawrence ) \u2026a species at risk\n( on - line ) . fisheries and oceans canada . accessed april 02 , 2012 at urltoken .\nthe sea lamprey was first noted in lake champlain in 1929 by j . r . greeley , who reported that sea lamprey were found in moderate numbers at that time . it is not clear if , or for how long , sea lamprey had existed in lake champlain prior to this time . taking into account that salmon and trout were sought by both the native people and settlers as a source of food , and later for commercial purposes , coupled with the obvious signs of lamprey parasitism - wounds , scars and attached lamprey - the lack of mention of lamprey in the oral and written history is consistent with the position that sea lamprey may be a non - native invasive species .\nenvironment agency . ( 1998 ) species awareness leaflet number 5 . lamprey . environment agency , bristol .\nsouthern brook lamprey and chestnut lamprey have been observed spawning together in the same nests in the st . croix river system ( namekagon and yellow rivers , wi ) , and samples from the adults and eggs were preserved for genetic analysis ; however , there has been no funding available to run the analyses ( j . lyons , personal communication ) .\nthe habitat of northern brook lamprey varies throughout the life cycle . adults are generally found in areas of rapidly flowing water above a very coarse bed , spawning and then laying eggs in crevices beneath rocks and boulders . ammocoetes ( larvae ) are generally found in the the calmer waters of brook , stream and river side channels where there is fine sediment or organic debris in which to burrow .\nregion 5 fisheries p . o . box 296 1115 state route 86 ray brook , ny 12977 518 - 897 - 1333 send us an email\ncommitee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada ( cosewic ) . assesment and update status report on the northern brook lamprey ichthyomyzon fossor . canada : her majesty the queen in right of canada . 2007 . accessed april 24 , 2012 at urltoken .\nanother reason why the american brook lamprey is endangered is because of the loss of its habitat caused by none other than humans . although it is not only the loss of its habitat , but also changes , like changes of water depth or sedimentation .\nbrook lamprey spawn during april and may in streams and rivers all over ireland . the adult brook lamprey is relatively small , up to 15 cm in length . they are eel - shaped fish with a sucker - like mouth instead of jaws . they spawn in gravel areas , loosening stones and excavating shallow nests or redds . they can use their sucker mouth to lift and move stones and pebbles . they can also attach on to larger stones , leaving the tail free to swish about and loosen material and brush away sand .\nnorthern brook lamprey spawn in the spring at approximately 6 years of age , just after reaching sexual maturity . females lay thousands of eggs , possibly due to high mortality rates during the early stages of the species ' life cycle . eggs hatch 2 - 4 weeks after fertilization .\nduring periods when sea lamprey are abundant in lake champlain , anglers often catch salmon and trout with wounds or lamprey attached . frequently these fish have multiple wounds , multiple scars and / or multiple lamprey attached to them . these high wounding rates indicate that sea lamprey are having a significant impact on the lake trout and salmon populations . angler catches of lake trout and salmon in lake champlain were found to be just a fraction of catches in similar lakes , despite intensive stocking efforts by fishery agencies . sea lamprey were preventing the restoration of these native fish species to lake champlain .\nigoe , f . , quigley d . t . g . , marnell , f . , meskell , e . , o\u2019connor w . and byrne , c . ( 2004 ) the sea lamprey petromyzon marinus ( l . ) , river lamprey lampetra fluviatilis ( l . ) and brook lamprey lampetra planeri ( bloch ) in ireland : general biology , ecology , distribution and status with recommendations for conservation . biology and environment : proceedings of the royal irish academy . 104b ( 3 ) : 43 - 56 .\na number of areas have been proposed as candidate special areas of conservation ( sacs ) for the brook lamprey . the areas chosen support healthy populations and reflect the geographical range of the brook lamprey in the uk as well as the range of habitat features required by the species ( 7 ) . although this should help to improve the conservation status of this primitive fish in the uk , it has been noted that further measures will be required to maintain the species ( 7 ) . draft action plans have been produced for the three lamprey species found in the uk in order to guide their conservation ( 2 ) . the life in uk rivers project is helping to conserve this species .\nregardless of whether the sea lamprey is native or not , due to the severity of the impacts that sea lamprey currently have on the lake champlain fishery and ecosystem , and the social and economic impacts on the people who live in the lake champlain basin , sea lamprey populations must be controlled to balance the lake\u00b4s ecosystem and restore its world class fishery .\nbackground : the brook lamprey ( lampetra planeri ) is the smallest of the three lampreys native to ireland , the adults generally ranging in size from 10 to 15 cm . it is the only one of the three species which is non - parasitic and spends all its life in freshwater . it is clearly distinguished from the sea - and the river lamprey , in the adult form , by its small size .\nthree recent genetic studies provided evidence to support the position that sea lamprey may be native to lake champlain and existed in the lake for around 10 , 000 years . if true , the lamprey may be having a detrimental impact on salmon and lake trout because the original lake champlain strains of these fish that may have evolved with the sea lamprey disappeared in the late 1800s .\n. information that would help us most would include name of river or stream , location ( as much detail as you can ) , number of redds seen at the site and number of brook lamprey seen in the redd . if you can record the water temperature it would be very valuable additional information .\nthe derwent represents brook lamprey lampetra planeri in a high - quality , oligotrophic river in northern england . good populations of the species are known to occur , and this river has features that provide the necessary conditions for both spawning and nursery areas \u2013 extensive gravel shoals , good water quality and areas of marginal silt .\nin typical brook lamprey streams the water over the spawning area is moderately swift ( 0 . 3 - 0 . 5m / sec ) , bed material is gravel and sand and water depth to the base of the nest rarely exceeds 40cm , although in large rivers it is possible that the species spawns in deeper water . lamprey adults generally keep away from bright light but this behaviour changes completely during spawning , when they are active in full daylight .\nshould the brook lamprey go extinct , it may affect mostly its predators . either its ' predators will die off , or more likely they will have to feed on other things like smaller fish . if the predators feed on smaller fish , then the bigger fish that originally ate those small fish will go extinct also .\nis a primitive , jawless fish resembling an eel , and is the smallest of the lampreys found in the uk . it is a non - migratory freshwater species , occurring in streams and occasionally in lakes in north - west europe . like other lamprey species , the brook lamprey requires clean gravel beds for spawning and soft marginal silt or sand for the ammocoete larvae . it spawns mostly in parts of the river where the current is not too strong .\nthe brook lamprey has declined in some areas of the uk but is relatively widespread and common in parts of england . in scotland it is generally absent north of the great glen ( 7 ) . in europe it extends from sweden to france ( 6 ) , and has declined in parts of this range ( 7 ) .\nsea lamprey also feed on other fish species , including lake whitefish , walleye , northern pike , burbot , and lake sturgeon . the lake sturgeon is listed as a threatened species in new york and an endangered species in vermont and it is likely that sea lamprey are affecting their survival . most sea lamprey hosts are native fish species that have been part of the lake champlain basin ecosystem for thousands of years\nthe teifi is a predominantly mesotrophic river in west wales supporting a large population of brook lamprey lampetra planeri . a mixture of habitat and substrate types provides the combination of spawning gravels adjacent to silt beds that are favoured by this and other lamprey species . a large number of tributaries have been included in the sac ; these are thought to be important for lampreys in the teifi because the main channel is prone to severe floods that may result in washout of smaller ammocoetes .\nnorthern brook lamprey are found in many areas of the midwestern and northeastern united states , including the mississippi river drainage in wisconsin , northeastern illinois , and northern indiana , and in parts of canada . they are also found in a lake erie tributary in new york and certain tributaries of the st . lawrence river in quebec , canada .\njuvenile parasitic sea lamprey are 6 to 24 inches in length with smooth , scaleless skin that is mottled grey / blue to black , darker on top and fading to a lighter colored belly . adult sea lamprey , preparing to spawn , are 14 to 24 inches in length and exhibit mottled dark brown / black pigmentation . sea lamprey have two separated fins on their back ( dorsal fins ) and suction disk mouth filled with small sharp , rasping teeth and a file - like tongue . the sea lamprey is a jawless parasite that feeds on the body fluids of fish .\nmore information about the southern brook lamprey ' s distribution , population size , genetics , and habitat requirements in minnesota are necessary to better conserve this species . lyons et al . ( 1997 ) found the species to be much more widespread in wisconsin than just the st . croix drainage , and this may be the case in minnesota as well .\nredds are identified by a small , cleared area along a gravel channel \u2013 often little more than a few centimetres wide and long . there may be brook lamprey inside the redd digging it out or actively spawning . numbers inside a redd can vary from one to many . ifi staff on teh boyne found eight adults actively spawning in the r . moynalty . the recent warm weather seems to have got the brook lamprey spawning earlier this year ! on march 31st , 2011 , ifi staff recorded redd digging and spawning in westmeath ( a tributary of l . owel ) , in meath ( r . moynalty ) , in kilkenny ( r . nore at insitioge ) and in limerick ( r . maigue at adare ) .\nthe lamprey prefers cool streams that are not too big . small or medium size is best and they are often found in streams that are spring fed . the bottom is commonly gravel or sand and they share a habitat with many other fish . like other creatures , the lamprey prefer clean streams .\nthe avon is a high - quality river that represents the southern part of the range of brook lamprey lampetra planeri . a healthy , stable population occurs in the main river and in a number of tributaries . the main river , and in particular its tributaries , provides clean beds of gravel for spawning and extensive areas of fine silt for juveniles to burrow into .\nyouson , j . h . 1980 . morphology and physiology of lamprey metamorphosis . can . j . fish . aquat . sci . 37 : 1687\u20131710 .\nreproduction : larvae of the brook lamprey spend the first 4\u20136 years of their life buried in the mud of the stream , filtering out nutrients from the water . they then metamorphose directly into sexually mature adults , at which point they cease feeding . the adults remain in the stream of their birth , where they spawn on sand or gravel the following spring and after spawning die .\nprior to egg release the female attaches herself to a stone . the male then uses his oral disc to fasten himself to the female , usually to one side of her head and twisting his body round hers . at this moment the female starts to vibrate rapidly and eggs and milt are extruded in a backward stream . the vibration whirls up sand and the eggs , fertilised externally , become embedded in the downstream end of the nest . brook lampreys often spawn in large groups of 10 to 30 in a nest . the female brook lamprey may carry 900 \u2013 1500 eggs . the adults die shortly after spawning .\nhabitat degradation , water pollution , and dams on almost every tributary in the basin during the last two centuries may have kept lamprey numbers low . recent improvements in habitat and water quality , along with the annual stocking of their preferred hosts , may be providing lamprey with a new opportunity to prosper . if native to lake champlain , sea lamprey either remained in the lake as a remnant population after the retreat of the\nchamplain sea\nor migrated into the lake via the richelieu river .\nin the spring , sexually mature adult sea lamprey migrate up tributaries to spawn . they locate spawning streams by following pheromones ( naturally produced chemical attractants ) released by ammocoetes living in those waters . a pair of male and female sea lamprey build a nest , called a redd , in a gravel stream bottom in section of flowing water . the female lays tens of thousands of eggs and the male fertilizes them , then having completed this act the sea lamprey die . the eggs lie in the small spaces between the gravel , and are provided oxygen by the flowing water . weeks later the eggs hatch and the complex life cycle of the sea lamprey begins again .\nthe national parks and wildlife service has published a series of studies ( irish wildlife manuals series ) on lamprey within individual irish catchments , including maps of distribution and photographs . these can be accessed through the npws website at urltoken under publications . issues relevant to lamprey include nos 5 , 14 , 15 , 21 , 22 and 26 .\nsometime in mid to late summer of their third or fourth year the ammocoetes undergo a dramatic change in both form and function . they develop eyes and a suction disk mouth , and become a smaller version of the adult sea lamprey . also during this stage their kidneys change to allow them to live in saltwater . once the ammocoetes\u00b4 change is complete , the newly transformed sea lamprey , known as a transformer , leaves its burrow and moves downstream towards lake champlain . the sea lamprey is then ready to begin the next stage in its life as a parasite of fish . the juvenile sea lamprey move into deeper water and begin to seek host fish on which to feed .\nthe holes along the side of the lamprey ' s head are several gill openings . a single nostril lies in the center of the head as you can see below .\n) measure from 10 - 15cm and spawn in gravels during the springtime . they have a wide distribution in ireland . although they are found in small streams , as their name suggests , they are also found in larger rivers . brook lamprey ammocoetes ( larvae ) live in soft sandy / mud for a number of years before maturing . these young lampreys are blind and are filter feeders , eating detritus and other organic matter .\nmoore , j . w . & j . m . mallatt . 1980 . feeding of larval lamprey . can . j . fish . aquat . sci . 37 : 1658\u20131664 .\no ' boyle , r . n . & f . w . h . beamish . 1977 . growth and intermediary metabolism of larval and metamorphosing stages of the landlocked sea lamprey ,\nstudies on the great lakes show a 40 to 60 percent mortality rate for fish attacked by sea lamprey . other studies have found that a single sea lamprey can kill 40 or more pounds of fish during its life . even when fish survive the attacks , the fish populations will decline as the fish expend more energy on healing than on producing eggs and mating .\nthe juvenile sea lamprey uses its suction disk mouth which is filled with small sharp , rasping teeth and a file - like tongue to attach to fish , puncture the skin , and drain the fish ' s body fluids . an anticoagulant in their saliva ensures that the blood of the host fish does not clot while the sea lamprey feed . often the host fish die from loss of blood , or infections resulting from stress . fish that survive sea lamprey attacks will have decreased reproduction . sea lamprey in lake champlain prefer landlocked atlantic salmon ( salmon ) , lake trout and other trout species , due to their small scales and thin skin . the same native fish species prized by anglers , and that are such an important part of the natural ecosystem of the lake .\nspawning and adult brook lamprey : water temperature is the decisive factor in determining the onset of spawning . in british rivers , the spawning season for l . planeri generally extends from march to april and begins when water temperatures reach 10 - 11oc . observations in ireland have recorded spawning in the mid april \u2013 mid may period . however , recent warm weather in march 2011 led to spawning being observed at sites in limerick , kilkenny , meath and westmeath on 31st march .\nwigley , r . l . 1959 . life history of the sea lamprey of cayuga lake , new york . u . s . fish . wildl . serv . fish . bull . 59 : 559\u2013617 .\nthe blind worm - like larval lamprey , known as ammocoetes [ am - mah - seats ] , can grow up to 5 inches long . they hatch from eggs in gravel nests in tributaries and drift downstream with the current . when they locate suitable habitat - usually silt / sand stream bottoms and banks in slower moving stretches of water - they burrow in and take up residence , filter - feeding on algae , detritus and microscopic organisms and materials . in the lake champlain basin this stage of the sea lamprey ' s life cycle usually lasts 3 to 4 years ; in other waters lamprey spend up to 10 years in their larval form .\nsea lamprey , like many salmon , are\ndiadromous\n. they spend the early stages of their life in streams and rivers . the middle stage of their life is spent in the saltwater of the ocean or in a large freshwater lake . then they return as breeding adults to spawn in the freshwater streams and rivers , and die shortly after spawning . sea lamprey in lake champlain take about six years to complete this life cycle .\nlyons , j . , p . a . cochran , and m . e . sneen . 1997 . taxonomic status and distribution of the lamprey ichthyomyzon cf . gagei . american midland naturalist 138 : 69 - 76 .\nnorthern brook lamprey have two developmental stages : ammocoete ( larval ) and adult . larvae hatch approximately 2 weeks after egg fertilization and drift downstream before burrowing into the substrate . once settled in burrows , larvae feed on suspended algae , bacteria and other detrius for 5 - 6 years until they metamorphose into non - feeding juveniles , typically in the fall . the transformation process lasts for 2 - 3 months . juveniles spend 4 - 6 months drifting until spring , when spawning occurs and they become sexually mature adults . adults die shortly after spawning .\nlamprey hold on to the bottom , suckered on with the use of their mouth . they feed on bacteria , algae and other types of detritus from the water and the mud . they are present in the swansea canal in quite high numbers and occasionally appear elsewhere .\nif sea lamprey are invasive , they are thought to have entered lake champlain during the 1800s from the hudson river estuary through the hudson / champlain canal or possibly from the st . lawrence river through the richelieu river - both the hudson and the st . lawrence rivers empty into the atlantic ocean .\n( above ) the lamprey has a long slender body and is often confused with an eel . ( below ) it has no true teeth or jaw . it is blind up until it becomes an adult . also unlike eels , they have cartilage instead of bones , and skin instead of scales .\nduring spawning , these lampreys coil together in groups of 3 to 7 individuals before going into the nest . once in the nest a male attaches to , but does not wrap around , a female ( as in some other lamprey species ) to complete egg fertilization . adults then leave the nest and die soon thereafter .\nthe cleddau rivers are a predominantly lowland catchment in the pembrokeshire peninsula . the substrates consist mainly of sand , gravel and well - aerated silt , providing an excellent mosaic of lamprey spawning and nursery habitat . this is reflected in electrofishing surveys carried out by the environment agency , which indicate the presence of ammocoetes throughout the catchment .\nduring the late 1800s and early 1900s numerous attempts were made to restock trout and salmon , but all failed . in the late 1950s and 1960s new york state began experimental stockings of lake trout and salmon with some limited success . it became clear that one of the factors limiting the success of stocking was parasitism by sea lamprey .\nthe american brook lamprey adult does not feed . only the offspring burrow into soft silt and filter feed on protozoans , algae , pollen , desmids , diatoms , and small plant and animal life . they live as offspring for about 4 - 7 years before becoming an adult . spawning season is from april to may . the males arrive at the spawning ground before the females in order to make a nest . the males make a nest similar looking to how a hen ' s nest would look . it is saucer shaped and formed by the male moving pebbles in the stream bed with his mouth . the females come and attach themselves to a rock at a nest with their mouth and lay eggs as the males feritilize them . depending on the size of the female , 1 , 000 - 5 , 000 eggs are produced . the adults die shortly after spawning .\nsea lamprey are an ancient fish , with a complex life cycle and mouth parts that are well adapted for their parasitic life . the elimination of this species from lake champlain is neither desired nor possible . however , their population must be reduced to lessen their negative impacts on the lake champlain fishery to an acceptable level , to balance the lake champlain basin ecosystem and its world class fishery .\nkelly , f . l . and king , j . j . ( 2001 ) a review of the ecology and distribution of three lamprey species , lampetra fluviatilis ( l . ) , lampetra planeri ( bloch ) and petromyzon marinus ( l . ) : a context for conservation and biodiversity considerations in ireland . biology and environment : proc . r . ir . acad . 101b , 165 - 185 .\nspawning migration : the migration of non - parasitic lamprey to upstream spawning grounds takes place over short distances . in l . planeri , movement appears to begin in spring only a short time before the onset of spawning and the distances travelled are often less than 1km although this varies with the character of the stream and its gradient . in a swedish study on l . planeri , the critical temperature for onset of migration was 7 . 5c and migration was essentially nocturnal , although daytime migration was also observed late in the season .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nlatin , petra = stone + greek , myzo = to suckle + greek , odous , odontos = teeth ( ref . 45335 ) .\nthe list below must not be used as an authority reference synonymy list like those found in scientific published revisions , which must be the source to be used and cited eventually when they exist .\nrather , it reflects the current content of fishbase , and the progress with respect to synchronization with the catalog of fishes . however , we think it can be useful for users to assess the quality of information in fishbase , to start new work on the family , or to cross - check with other lists .\nbut we appreciate to be cited in publications when this list has been of any working value . in particular , for published scientific , we suggest then to cite it in the material and method section as a useful tool to conduct the research , but again , not as a taxonomic or nomenclatural authority reference .\nunless it is explicitly precised , the list is not complete , please search all original names published for the family in the catalog of fishes ( genera , species ) , including those with uncertain or unknown status , that are not included in fishbase when they are not attached to a valid species .\nthis list uses some data from catalog of fishes ( not shown but used to sort names ) .\nin the column coff , the digit indicates the status of synchronization with coff : 0 : not checked ; 1 : same status ; 2 : different status ; 3 : other combination ; 4 : synonym in coff ; 5 : species / subspecies issue ; 6 : synonym of another species in coff ; 7 : not in coff ; 8 : should not be in coff . the coff version currently used is the one published on 23 - 07 - 2014 ( ref . 97102 ) .\nwhen subfamilies are recognized , nominotypical subfamily first then other subfamilies by alphabetical order .\ntype genus of the family first ( or of subfamily when subfamilies are recognized ) then other genera by chronological order of description ( and alphabetical order ) .\ntype species of the genus first by chronological order ( and alphabetical order ) , with last listed misapplied names in a light gray font .\nfacebook | contact information | terms of use and privacy policy | all rights reserved . \u00a9 copyright luontoportti / naturegate 2018 .\nthe adults spawn in may and june , and the eggs are deposited into depressions in the riverbed . as in river lampreys , a number of males mate with one female ( 5 ) . the larvae ( known as ammocoetes ) live for three to seven years in the sand or mud , and filter organic matter from the water for nourishment ( 5 ) . as they mature they develop eyes and the sucker - like mouth , and as sexual maturity is approached they stop feeding entirely . a few weeks after spawning the adults die ( 5 ) . unlike river and sea lampreys this species does not migrate out to sea , but spends the whole life - cycle in fresh water ( it is not anadromous ) ( 4 ) .\nyou can view distribution information for this species at the national biodiversity network atlas .\nthere may be further information about this species available via the national biodiversity network atlas .\nanadromous in fish : those species that spend most of their lives at sea but migrate to fresh water to spawn . larvae stage in an animal ' s lifecycle after it hatches from the egg . larvae are typically very different in appearance to adults ; they are able to feed and move around but usually are unable to reproduce . spawning the production or depositing of large quantities of eggs in water .\ndavies , c . , shelley , j . , harding , p . , mclean , i . , gardiner , r . and peirson , g . ( 2004 ) freshwater fishes in britain \u2013 the species and their distribution . harley books , colchester .\ncihar , j . ( 1991 ) a field guide in colour to freshwater fish . aventium publishing , prague .\nnature picture library 5a great george street bristol bs1 5rr united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4675 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4699 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nstill rare in some areas , but populations have markedly recovered following earlier pollution problems in central europe .\ngreat britain north to scottish highlands , rivers draining to north sea north to scotland and about stavanger ( norway ) , baltic sea basin , atlantic as far south as adour drainage ( france , spain ) and an isolated population in tagus ( portugal ) , mediterranean basin in france and western italy ( south to about tevere drainage ) . locally in ireland , upper volga , upper danube and some of their tributaries , and pescara drainage on adriatic coast of italy .\nwhen the 2010 assessment of this species was published in 2011 , a 2013 citation reference was accidentally attached to the account and hence the previous version of the assessment showed it as being published in 2013 when it should have been 2011 . the error is corrected here and is therefore given a 2016 citation date ; the 2011 reference that should have been used in the citation is under the references .\n( errata version published in 2016 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2011 : e . t11213a97806694 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nwe use cookies to give you the best , most relevant experience on our website . by continuing to use our site , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time through your browser settings .\nwe have recently updated our privacy policy in line with gdpr . read our updated cookie and privacy policy .\nwe have vacancies across all of our waterways and in the offices , museums and attractions that support them . we ' re one of the uk ' s biggest charities and we take pride in everything we do\nwe ' re continually carrying out work to improve our canals and rivers . find out if we ' re working along your route before you set off on a boat trip\nhelp us make a difference and have fun along the way . find your perfect volunteer role today\nlisted on annex iii of the bern convention and annex ii of the ec habitats directive ( 3 ) .\nappearance : lampreys lack gill covers and paired fins and instead of a jawed mouth , have a sucker disc with two tooth plates with a few blunt teeth .\nthey are eel like in shape , being long and cylindrical with a rear dorsal fin near to the tail and seven breathing holes on each side of the body . they are dark brown or dark grey in the body , have a white belly and bright yellow eyes .\nour teams of regular volunteers meet up and down the country to help us care for their local waterway . join us today\ncanal & river trust is a charity registered with the charity commission no . 1146792 and a company limited by guarantee registered in england & wales no . 7807276 .\ngreek , letheia = apathetic + greek , enteron = intestine ( ref . 45335 )\nfreshwater ; demersal ; ph range : 6 . 8 - 7 . 5 ; dh range : ? - 18 . temperate ; 5\u00b0c - 20\u00b0c ( ref . 12468 ) ; 51\u00b0n - 35\u00b0n\nnorth america : canada and usa : lake superior basin , michigan ; lake michigan basin , michigan ( carp lake , betsie , pine , and pentwater rivers ) and indiana ; lake huron basin , michigan ; lake erie basin , ontario and michigan ; lake ontario basin , ontario and new york ; mississippi river basin , minnesota , missouri , pennsylvania , kentucky , tennessee , and alabama ; st . lawrence river basin , qu\u00e9bec and new york ; atlantic slope basins , new hampshire , massachusetts , connecticut , new york , new jersey , pennsylvania , delaware , maryland , and virginia ( ref . 89241 ) . two subspecies lethenteron appendix appendix and i > l . appendix wilderi\nmaturity : l m 15 . 0 range ? - ? cm max length : 35 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 86798 ) ; common length : 15 . 6 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 12193 ) ; max . reported age : 5 years ( ref . 12193 )\nsemelparous ( ref . 1998 ) . the female attaches with her oral disc to a rock at the upstream end of the nest . the male attaches to the back of her head using his oral disc and wraps his tail around her trunk region in such a way as to have each others urogenital papilla in close proximity and through muscular contraction of his body assists in the extrusion of the eggs . they vibrate vigorously for a few seconds . this results in the release of their gametes and disturbance of the substrate , which partially buries the fertilized eggs ( ref . 89241 ) .\npage , l . m . and b . m . burr , 2011 . a field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . boston : houghton mifflin harcourt , 663p . ( ref . 86798 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5039 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00120 ( 0 . 00052 - 0 . 00277 ) , b = 3 . 00 ( 2 . 80 - 3 . 20 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 6 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( tmax = 6 ; tm = 5 ; fec = 2 , 883 ) .\nprior r = 0 . 36 , 2 sd range = 0 . 16 - 0 . 84 , log ( r ) = - 1 . 02 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 42 , based on : 1 k , 1 tgen , 1 tmax , 1 fec records\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high vulnerability ( 57 of 100 ) .\nspawning is initiated when water temperatures are between 13 and 20 . 5\u00b0c . males begin nest building by moving stones and gravel to create a small dip in the substrate within shallow , pool - riffle , high - gradient stretches of streams .\nthere is no parental investment by adults of this species as they die soon after egg fertilization .\nthis species is prey for many larger fish throughout its life . while eggs and ammocoetes are particularly vulnerable , adults may be consumed as well . known predators include rainbow trout , rock bass and brown trout .\nbronte karvel - fuller ( author ) , minnesota state university , mankato , robert sorensen ( editor ) , minnesota state university , mankato ."]}
{"id": 150, "summary": [{"text": "ancistroteuthis lichtensteinii , also known as the angel clubhook squid or simply angel squid , is a species of squid in the family onychoteuthidae and the sole member of the genus ancistroteuthis .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it grows to a mantle length of 30 cm .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it can be found in the western mediterranean sea , subtropical and tropical eastern atlantic ocean and western north atlantic ocean .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its diet include mesopelagic fish and pelagic crustaceans .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it is sometimes taken as bycatch by commercial fisheries , but is not a targeted species . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "ancistroteuthis", "paragraphs": ["vecchione , m . , young , r . e . , and tsuchiya , k . 2008 . ancistroteuthis gray 1849 . ancistroteuthis lichtensteinii ( ferussac 1835 ) . version 28 april 2008 ( under construction ) . available at : urltoken .\njustification : ancistroteuthis lichtensteini has been assessed as least concern . this oceanic species has a wide geographic distribution , making it less susceptible to human impact . it is occasionally taken as by - catch . however , more research is still needed on its ecology and biology .\ncitation :\nangel clubhook squid , ancistroteuthis lichtensteinii ~ marinebio . org .\nmarinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 1 / 14 / 2013 2 : 22 : 00 pm ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio\nresearch ancistroteuthis lichtensteinii \u00bb barcode of life ~ bioone ~ biodiversity heritage library ~ cites ~ cornell macaulay library [ audio / video ] ~ encyclopedia of life ( eol ) ~ esa online journals ~ fishbase ~ florida museum of natural history ichthyology department ~ gbif ~ google scholar ~ itis ~ iucn redlist ( threatened status ) ~ marine species identification portal ~ ncbi ( pubmed , genbank , etc . ) ~ ocean biogeographic information system ~ plos ~ siris ~ tree of life web project ~ unep - wcmc species database ~ worms\nancistroteuthis is monotypic . kubodera et al . ( 1998 ) , however , briefly described a new form of the species from the central atlantic . a . lichtensteinii is best known from the mediterranean sea . there , males mature at about 200 mm ml and the species reaches a maximum size of 300 mm ml ( kubodera et al . 1998 ) . this species is very similar to species of onychoteuthis but is most easily distinguished by the absence of a visible gladius along the mid - dorsal line and the absence of photophores .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthis pelagic species occurs in open water in tropical to warm temperate waters of the atlantic and mediterranean sea ( roper and jereb 2010 ) . during spring and summer it occurs over gravel bottoms in the mediterranean and spawning occurs in the summer ( roper and jereb 2010 ) . little is known about its biology and ecology . its diet includes mesopelagic fish and pelagic crustaceans , predators include marine mammals and pelagic fish ( roper and jereb 2010 ) .\nthere are no species - specific conservation measures in place for this species . further research is recommended in order to determine the taxonomy , precise distribution , population dynamics , life history and ecology of this species .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n( f\u00e9russac [ in f\u00e9russac & d ' orbigny ] , 1835 ) . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 140647 on 2018 - 07 - 09\n( of onychoteuthis lichtensteinii ( f\u00e9russac [ in f\u00e9russac & d ' orbigny ] , 1835 ) ) f\u00e9russac a . e . j . & d ' orbigny a . [ 1834 ] 1835 - 1848 . histoire naturelle g\u00e9n\u00e9rale et particuli\u00e8re des c\u00e9phalopodes ac\u00e9tabulif\u00e8res vivants et fossiles . pp . [ 1 - 96 ] , i - lvi , 1 - 361 , atlas with 144 plates . paris , bailli\u00e8re . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 334 [ details ]\ngofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nspencer , h . g . , marshall , b . a . & willan , r . c . ( 2009 ) . checklist of new zealand living mollusca . pp 196 - 219 . in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) new zealand inventory of biodiversity . volume one . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . canterbury university press , christchurch . [ details ]\nroper , c . f . e . ; jereb , p . ( 2010 ) . family onychoteuthidae . in : p . jereb & c . f . e . roper , eds . cephalopods of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of species known to date . volume 2 . myopsid and oegopsid squids . fao species catalogue for fishery purposes . no . 4 , vol . 2 . rome , fao . pp . 348 - 369 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 354 [ details ]\n( of onychoteuthis hamatus risso , 1854 ) integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of onychoteuthis hamatus risso , 1854 ) bolstad k . s . r . ( 2010 ) systematics of the onychoteuthidae gray , 1847 ( cephalopoda : oegopsida ) . zootaxa 2696 : 1 - 186 . page ( s ) : 106 [ details ]\n( of onychoteuthis hamata risso , 1854 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nintergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nbolstad k . s . r . ( 2010 ) systematics of the onychoteuthidae gray , 1847 ( cephalopoda : oegopsida ) . zootaxa 2696 : 1 - 186 . page ( s ) : 105 [ details ]\nroper , c . f . e . ; jereb , p . ( 2010 ) . family onychoteuthidae . in : p . jereb & c . f . e . roper , eds . cephalopods of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of species known to date . volume 2 . myopsid and oegopsid squids . fao species catalogue for fishery purposes . no . 4 , vol . 2 . rome , fao . pp . 348 - 369 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 353 [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis genus is currently considered to be monotypic but considerable variability in specimens outside the mediterrranean suggests that more study is needed .\nfigure . oral view of club tip , a . lichtensteinii , type a , 110 mm ml , usnm 294756 . photograph by r . young .\nfigure . left photographs - lateral and dorsoblique views of the occipital folds , a . lichtensteinii , type a , preserved , 110 mm ml , 20\u00b027 ' n , 21\u00b058 ' w , usnm 294756 . photograph by r . young . . the white arrows point to occipital fold number 3 . right drawings - dorsal and lateral views of head and occipital folds , a . lichtensteinii , 145 mm ml , mediterranean sea . drawings from pfeffer , 1912 .\ngladius not visible on dorsal side of mantle ( i . e . , mantle muscle completely surrounds gladius - see title illustrations ) .\nkubodera et al . ( 1998 ) stated that an oval , opaque area with a small posterior patch of photogenic tissue is present on the ventral covering of the eye . we believe this tissue likely to be iridescent ( but not photogenic ) ; observation of live specimens will be necessary to draw any further conclusions .\nkubodera et al . ( 1998 ) also briefly described four geographical morphotypes , three forms in the atlantic and one in the pacific . the south atlantic and south pacific forms , however , belong to notonykia africanae ( nesis et al . 1998 ) and notonykia nesisi ( bolstad 2007 ) respectively . the other two of their forms are mentioned here as type a ( typical a . lichtensteinii ) and type b ; the most distinctive feature of the latter is the rhomboidal , non - attenuate shape of the fins . insufficient information is available at present to evaluate the significance of these differences .\nparalarvae have not been described . the smallest described specimen is 16 mm ml . even at this small size , the mantle covers the gladius at least in its anterior half . the eyes , unlike those of onychoteuthis at this size , do not have luminous organs on the ventral surface of the eyeball . the conus has a spoon - shape rather than the cone - shape seen in onychoteuthis . the row of large brownish - red chromatophores on the dorsal midline is probably characteristic . the specimen showed traces of an iridescent metallic sheen , greenish on the mantle and dark blue on the head . this description is from naef ( 1921 - 23 ) .\nfigure . dorsal and ventral views of juvenile a . lichtensteinii . left - 16 mm ml . drawings from naef ( 1921 - 23 ) . right - dorsal , side and ventral views . photographs by r . young . the significance of the differences in chromatophore patterns is unknown .\nthe type locality is the western mediterranean . this species has been reported from the western mediterranean , and tropical and subtropical waters of the eastern atlantic and off nova scotia in the western north atlantic ( vecchione and pohle , 2002 ) . the records outside the mediterranean are very sparse . this species has also been reported from the gulf of mexico ( voss , 1956 ) and the southwestern pacific ( rancurel , 1970 ) , but these identifications are questionable because in both cases the specimens lacked numerous occipital folds . these squids may be young onykia ( kubodera , et al . , 1998 , their moroteuthis ) .\nbolstad , k . s . 2007 . systematics and distribution of the new zealand onychoteuthid fauna ( cephalopoda : oegopsida ) , including a new species , notonykia nesisi sp . nov . reviews in fish biology and fisheries , 17 : 305\u0096335 .\nkubodera , t . , u . piatkowski , t . okutani and m . r . clarke . 1998 . taxonomy and zoogeography of the family onychoteuthidae ( cephalopoda : oegopsida ) . smithsonian contributions to zoology , no . 586 : 277 - 291 .\nnaef , a . 1921 - 23 . cephalopoda . fauna und flora des golfes von neapel . monograph , no . 35 . english translation : a . mercado ( 1972 ) . israel program for scientific translations ltd . , jerusalem , israel . 863pp . , ipst cat . no . 5110 / 1 , 2 .\nnesis , k . n . , m . a . c . roeleveld and i . v . nikitina . 1998 . a new genus and species of onychoteuthid squid from the southern ocean . ruthenica 8 : 153 - 168 .\npfeffer , g . 1912 . die cephalopoden der plankton - expedition . zugleich eine monographische \u00fcbersicht der oegopsiden cephalopoden . ergebniss der plankton - expedition der humboldt - stiftung , 2 : 1 - 815 .\nrancurel , p . l970 . les contenus stomacaux d ' alepisaurus ferox dans le sud - ouest pacifique ( cephalopodes ) . cahiers o . r . s . t . o . m . , serie oceanographie , 8 ( 4 ) : 3 - 87 .\nvecchione , m . and g . pohle . 2002 . midwater cephalopods in the western north atlantic ocean off nova scotia . bull . mar . sci . 71 ( 2 ) : 883 - 892 .\nvoss , g . l . 1956 . a review of the cephalopods of the gulf of mexico . bulletin of marine science of the gulf and caribbean , 6 ( 2 ) : 85 - 178 .\nphotographs taken aboard the r / v g . o . sars , mar - eco cruise , central north atlantic .\nthis media file is licensed under the creative commons attribution - noncommercial license - version 3 . 0 .\npfeffer , g . 1912 . die cephalopoden der plankton - expedition . zugleich eine monographische \u00fcbersicht der oegopsiden cephalopoden . ergebniss der plankton - expedition der humboldt - stiftung , 2 : 1 - 815 .\n. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the\nvecchione , michael , richard e . young , and kotaro tsuchiya . 2010 .\neach tol leaf page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a leaf at the tip of the tree of life . the major distinction between a leaf and a branch of the tree of life is that a leaf cannot generally be further subdivided into subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\n10 . marine oceanic - > 10 . 1 . marine oceanic - epipelagic ( 0 - 200m ) suitability : suitable major importance : yes 10 . marine oceanic - > 10 . 2 . marine oceanic - mesopelagic ( 200 - 1000m ) suitability : suitable major importance : yes\n5 . biological resource use - > 5 . 4 . fishing & harvesting aquatic resources - > 5 . 4 . 4 . unintentional effects : ( large scale ) [ harvest ] \u2666 timing : ongoing\n1 . research - > 1 . 1 . taxonomy 1 . research - > 1 . 2 . population size , distribution & trends 1 . research - > 1 . 3 . life history & ecology\niucn . 2014 . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2014 . 1 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 12 june 2014 ) .\nkubodera , t . , piatkowski , u . , okutani , t . and clarke , m . r . 1998 . taxonomy and zoogeography of the family onychoteuthidae . smithsonian contributions to zoology 586 : 277 - 292 .\nroper , c . f . e and jereb , p . 2010 . family onychoteuthidae . in : jereb , p . and roper , c . f . e . ( eds ) , cephalopods of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of cephalopods species known to date . volume 2 . myopsid and oegopsid squids . , fao , rome .\nroper , c . f . e . , sweeney , m . j . and nauen c . e . 1984 . fao species catalogue . vol . 3 . cephalopods of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of species of interest to fisheries . fao fisheries synopsis no . 125 vol . 3 : 277p .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nsweeney , m . j . and c . f . e . roper / n . a . voss , m . vecchione , r . b . toll and m . j . sweeney , eds .\nsystematics and biogeography of cephalopods . smithsonian contributions to zoology , 586 ( i - ii )\ntaxon validity : [ fide naef ( 1923 : 326 ) ] . type species : onychoteuthis lichtensteini ferussac , 1835 in ferussac and d ' orbigny , 1834 - 1848 , species first mentioned\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis home page section for this species is currently being developed and will be completed asap ! if you would like to help out or know of a great video , photo or site about this species , let us know and we ' ll notify you as soon as it is finished . our current project plan is to have all marine species home pages finished before christmas this year . if you ' d like to find out more about our ongoing projects here at marinebio , check out our marinebio projects page .\nstart or join a discussion about this species below or send us an email to report any errors or submit suggestions for this page . we greatly appreciate all feedback !\nhelp us protect and restore marine life by supporting our various online community - centered marine conservation projects that are effectively sharing the wonders of the ocean with millions each year around the world , raising a balanced awareness of the increasingly troubling and often very complex marine conservation issues that affect marine life and ourselves directly , providing support to marine conservation groups on the frontlines that are making real differences today , and the scientists , teachers and students involved in the marine life sciences .\nwith your support , most marine life and their ocean habitats can be protected , if not restored to their former natural levels of biodiversity . we sincerely thank our thousands of members , donors and sponsors , who have decided to get involved and support the marinebio conservation society .\ndeep music digitally imported urltoken proton radio * radio paradise radiotunes somafm wers 88 . 9 fm\n~ sharing the wonders of the ocean to inspire conservation , education , research , and a sea ethic ~ marinebio . org , inc . is a u . s . 501 ( c ) 3 charitable , nonprofit organization . contact : info @ urltoken all marinebio conservation society memberships and donations are tax deductible in the united states . > < ( ( ( ( \u00b0 > \u00a9 1998 - 2017 marinebio copyright & terms of use . privacy policy . > - < \u00b0\u00b0 > - <\nfor all at last returns to the sea \u2014 to oceanus , the ocean river , like the everflowing stream of time , the beginning and the end .\n- rachel carson\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 169, "summary": [{"text": "milnesium berladnicorum is a species of eutardigrade in the family milnesiidae , native to b\u00e2rlad , romania .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "brownish in color , the species grows to a length of 400 micrometers .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "m. berladnicorum was named after the berladnici , a tribe from medieval moldova . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "milnesium berladnicorum", "paragraphs": ["yan wong added an association between\nfile : milnesium berladnicorum . jpg\nand\nmilnesium berladnicorum ciobanu , zawierucha , moglan , & kaczmarek , 2014\n.\nno one has contributed data records for milnesium berladnicorum yet . learn how to contribute .\nmeasurements and pt values of selected morphological structures of fifteen females from the type population of milnesium berladnicorum sp . n .\nmilnesium berladnicorum sp . n . ( eutardigrada , apochela , milnesiidae ) , a new species of water bear from romania .\narticle : milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . ( eutardigrada , apochela , milnesiidae ) , a new species of water bear from romania\n6 . milnesium lagniappe meyer , hinton and dupr\u00e9 , 2013 : by the presence of six peribuccal lamellae ( four in milnesium lagniappe ) , a different cuticular sculpture ( sparse pseudopores on the cuticle which do not form a true reticulum in milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . vs nine dorsal and lateral sculptured bands bearing a reticulated pattern of polygons in milnesium lagniappe ) , a different claw configuration ( [ 2 - 3 ] - [ 2 - 2 ] in milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . vs . [ 2 - 3 ] - [ 3 - 2 ] in milnesium lagniappe ) , a smaller anterior width of buccal tube ( 8 . 9\u201317 . 8 \u00b5m in milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . vs 20 . 7\u201325 . 1 \u00b5m in milnesium lagniappe ) , a smaller standard width of the buccal tube ( 7 . 8\u201314 . 7 \u03bcm in milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . vs . 19 . 4\u201323 . 6 \u03bcm in milnesium lagniappe ) , a smaller posterior width of the buccal tube ( 7 . 2\u201313 . 6 \u00b5m in milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . vs 18 . 9\u201323 . 2 \u00b5m in milnesium lagniappe ) , a smaller posterior / anterior width ratio ( 69 % \u201379 % in milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . vs 86 % \u201399 % in milnesium lagniappe ) and a smaller standard width / length ratio ( 31 % \u201339 % in milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . vs 63 % \u201378 % in milnesium lagniappe ) .\n3 . milnesium granulatum ( ramazzotti , 1962 ) : by having a different cuticular sculpture ( sparse pseudopores on the cuticle which do not form a true reticulum in milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . vs a reticular sculpture in milnesium granulatum ) and different claw configuration ( [ 2 - 3 ] - [ 2 - 2 ] in milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . vs [ 3 - 3 ] - [ 3 - 3 ] in milnesium granulatum ) .\n4 . milnesium katarzynae kaczmarek , michalczyk and beasley , 2004 : by having a different cuticular sculpture ( sparse pseudopores on the cuticle which do not form a true reticulum in milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . vs a reticular sculpture in milnesium katarzynae ) , a different claw configuration ( [ 2 - 3 ] - [ 2 - 2 ] in milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . vs [ 2 - 2 ] - [ 2 - 2 ] in milnesium katarzynae ) , larger body size ( 400\u2013734 \u00b5m in milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . vs 285 . 0\u2013294 . 5 \u00b5m in milnesium katarzynae ) , stylet supports inserted in a more anterior position ( pt = 66 . 6 \u2013 71 . 2 in milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . vs pt = 73 . 3 \u2013 78 . 3 in milnesium katarzynae ) and by the presence of eyes .\n7 . milnesium reticulatum pilato , binda and lisi , 2002 : by the lack of dorsal gibbosities , the presence of six peribuccal lamellae ( four in milnesium reticulatum ) , a different claw configuration ( [ 2 - 3 ] - [ 2 - 2 ] in milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . vs [ 2 - 3 ] - [ 3 - 2 ] in milnesium reticulatum ) and slightly larger body length ( 400\u2013734 \u03bcm in milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . vs . 270\u2013405 \u03bcm in milnesium reticulatum ) .\n2 . milnesium beasleyi kaczmarek , jakubowska and michalczyk , 2012 : by having a different claw configuration ( [ 2 - 3 ] - [ 2 - 2 ] in milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . vs . [ 2 - 3 ] - [ 3 - 2 ] in milnesium beasleyi ) , a different posterior / anterior width ratio ( 69 % \u201379 % in milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . vs 90 % \u201396 % in milnesium beasleyi ) and stylet supports inserted in a more posterior position ( pt = 66 . 6 \u2013 71 . 2 in milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . vs pt = 61 . 6 \u2013 65 . 6 in milnesium beasleyi ) .\ndetails - milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . ( eutardigrada , apochela , milnesiidae ) , a new species of water bear from romania - biodiversity heritage library\n5 . milnesium krzysztofi kaczmarek and michalczyk , 2007 : by having a different cuticular sculpture ( sparse pseudopores on the cuticle which do not form a true reticulum in milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . vs dorsal cuticle with pseudopores arranged in a fine reticular design in milnesium krzysztofi ) , a different claw configuration ( [ 2 - 3 ] - [ 2 - 2 ] in milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . vs [ 2 - 3 ] - [ 3 - 2 ] in milnesium krzysztofi ) and by presence of eyes .\nmilnesium argentinum sp . nov . and milnesium beatae sp . nov . milnesium argentinum sp . nov . : ( a ) habitus ( ventral view ) and milnesium beatae sp . nov . : ( b ) habitus ( ventral view ) ( both pcm ) .\n1 . milnesium alabamae wallendorf and miller , 2009 : by having a different cuticular sculpture ( sparse pseudopores on the cuticle which do not form a true reticulum in milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . vs a finely punctuated ( probably pseudopores ) cuticle arranged in bands on caudal segments in milnesium alabamae ) , a different claw configuration ( [ 2 - 3 ] - [ 2 - 2 ] in milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . vs [ 3 - 3 ] - [ 3 - 3 ] in milnesium alabamae ) , the presence of accessory points on primary branches and by presence of eyes .\nmilnesium berladnicorum sp . n . ( eutardigrada , apochela , milnesiidae ) , a new species of water bear from romania . : ciobanu , daniel adrian : free download , borrow , and streaming : internet archive\nbecause of the claw configuration [ 2 - 3 ] - [ 2 - 2 ] , milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . is similar to milnesium almatyense tumanov , 2006 ( michalczyk et al . 2012a , 2012b ) but differs by having a sculptured dorsal cuticle and by presence of eyes .\nfive new species of the genus milnesium ( tardigrada , eutardigrada , milnesiidae ) .\nmilnesium berladnicorum sp . n . : 2 claws iii 3 claws iv 4 sculpture on dorsal cuticle above ii\u2013iii pair of legs 5 sculpture on dorsal cuticle above iv pair of legs 6 buccal apparatus ( ventral view ) .\nmilnesium argentinum sp . nov . and milnesium beatae sp . nov . milnesium argentinum sp . nov . : ( a ) buccal tube ( ventral view ) ; ( b ) dorsal cuticle with pseudopores and milnesium beatae sp . nov . : ( c ) buccal tube ( ventral view ) ; ( d ) dorsal cuticle with pseudopores ( all pcm ) .\nthe administrative map of romania with 13 highlighted counties in which species of the genus milnesium were reported : milnesium tardigradum sensu lato ( according with rudescu 1964 ; see discussion ) : 1 arge\u015f 2 bistri\u0163a - n\u0103s\u0103ud 3 cara\u015f - severin 4 cluj 5 d\u00e2mbovi\u0163a 6 harghita 7 ilfov county and bucharest city 8 maramure\u015f 9 mehedin\u0163i 11 suceava 12 tulcea . milnesium granulatum and milnesium asiaticum ( according to ciobanu et al . 2014 ) : 10 neam\u0163 ( in green ) . milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . ( present study ) : 13 vaslui ( in blue ) . map outline according to wikipedia : urltoken\ntardigradi di terra del fuoco e magallanes . milnesium brachyungue , nuova specie di tardigrado milnesidae .\neggs : oval , smooth and deposited in exuvium as in all other known milnesium species .\neggs : oval , smooth and deposited in exuvium as in all other known milnesium species .\nthe genus milnesium ( tardigrada : eutardigrada : milnesiidae ) in the great smoky mountains national park ( north carolina and tennessee , usa ) , with the description of milnesium bohleberi sp . n .\nmilnesium katarzynae sp . n . , a new species of eutardigrade ( milnesiidae ) from china .\nmorphometric data were handled using the ' ' apochela ' ' ver . 1 . 1 template available from the tardigrada register ( michalczyk and kaczmarek 2013 ) . raw data underlying the description of milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . are deposited in the tardigrada register under urltoken\nciobanu da , zawierucha k , moglan i , kaczmarek \u0142 ( 2014 ) milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . ( eutardigrada , apochela , milnesiidae ) , a new species of water bear from romania . zookeys 429 : 1\u201311 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 429 . 7755\nciobanu , d . a . , zawierucha , k . , moglan , i . & kaczmarek , \u0142 . ( 2014c ) milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . ( eutardigrada , apochela , milnesiidae ) , a new species of water bear from romania . zookeys , 429 , 1\u201311 . urltoken\na new species of tardigrada ( eutardigrada : milnesiidae ) : milnesium krzysztofi from costa rica ( central america ) .\nmeasurements and pt values of selected morphological structures of milnesium argentinum sp . nov . mounted in hoyer ' s medium\nmilnesium argentinum sp . nov . and milnesium beatae sp . nov . milnesium argentinum sp . nov . : ( a ) claws ii ; ( b ) claws iv ; ( c ) rotifer mastaxes in the gut ( black arrowhead ) and milnesium beatae sp . nov . : ( d ) claws i ; ( e ) claws iv ; ( f ) tardigrade buccal apparatuses and claws in the gut ( black arrowheads ) ( all pcm ) .\nmeasurements and pt values of selected morphological structures of milnesium beatae sp . nov . mounted in hoyer ' s medium\nincluding the new species described here , the total number of valid tardigrade taxa recorded in romania is 128 , with three valid milnesium species ( not including milnesium tardigradum tardigradum sensu stricto , which requires confirmation of presence in romania ) .\nmilnesium lagniappe , a new species of water bear ( tardigrada , eutardigrada , apochela , milnesiidae ) from the southern united states .\nredescriptions of three milnesium doy\u00e8re , 1840 taxa ( tardigrada : eutardigrada : milnesiidae ) , including the nominal species for the genus .\ntardigrades of north america : milnesium alabamae nov . sp . ( eutardigrada : apochela : milnesiidae ) a new species from alabama .\nexperimental taxonomy exposes ontogenetic variability and elucidates the taxonomic value of claw configuration in milnesium doy\u00e8re , 1840 ( tardigrada : eutardigrada : apochela ) .\nmeyer , h . a . & hinton , j . g . ( 2010 ) milnesium zsalakoae and milnesium jacobi , two new species of tardigrada ( eutardigrada : milnesiidae ) from the southwestern usa . proceedings of the biological society of washington , 123 ( 2 ) , 113\u2013120 . urltoken\ncurrent knowledge on turkish tardigrades with a description of milnesium beasleyi sp . n . ( eutardigrada : apochela : milnesiidae , the granulatum group ) .\ntwo new tardigrade species from romania ( eutardigrada : milnesiidae , macrobiotidae ) , with some remarks on secondary sex characters in milnesium dornensis sp . nov .\ntumanov , d . v . ( 2006 ) five new species of the genus milnesium ( tardigrada , eutardigrada , milnesiidae ) . zootaxa , 1122 , 1\u201323 .\ndue to the sculptured cuticle , milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . belongs to the granulatum group ( michalczyk et al . 2012a , 2012b ) . the new species differs from all other species in the granulatum group by the presence of a unique claw configuration [ 2 - 3 ] - [ 2 - 2 ] that is not present in any other species in this group . besides the claw configuration , the new species differs from :\ncorrigenda of zootaxa , 3154 : 1\u201320 \u201credescriptions of three milnesium doy\u00e8re , 1840 taxa ( tardigrada : eutardigrada : milnesiidae ) , including the nominal species for the genus\u201d .\ntwo new tardigrade species from romania ( eutardigrada : milnesiidae , macrobiotidae ) , with some remarks on secondary sex characters in milnesium dornensis sp . nov . | ciobanu | zootaxa\npilato , g . & binda , m . g . ( 1991 ) milnesium tetralamellatum new species of milnesiidae from africa ( eutardigrada ) . tropical zoology , 4 , 103\u2013106 .\nsuzuki , a . c . ( 2008 ) appearance of males in a thelytokous strain of milnesium cf . tardigradum ( tardigrada ) . zoological science , 25 , 849\u2013853 . urltoken\nsuzuki , a . c . ( 2003 ) life history of milnesium tardigradum doy\u00e8re ( tardigrada ) under the rearing environment . zoological science , 20 ( 1 ) , 49 \u2013 57 .\nbartels , p . j . , nelson , d . r . , kaczmarek , \u0142 . & michalczyk , \u0142 . ( 2014 ) the genus milnesium ( tardigrada : eutardigrada : milnesiidae ) in the great smoky mountains national park ( north carolina and tennessee , usa ) , with the description of milnesium bohleberi sp . nov . zootaxa , 3826 ( 2 ) , 356\u2013368 . urltoken\nwiederh\u00f6ft , h . & greven , h . ( 1999 ) notes on head sensory organs of milnesium tardigradum doy\u00e8re , 1840 ( apochela , eutardigrada ) . zoologisher anzeiger , 238 , 338\u2013346 .\nbinda , m . g . & pilato , g . ( 1990 ) tardigradi di terra del fuoco e magallanes . milnesium brachyungue , nuova specie di tardigrado milnesidae . animalia , 17 , 105\u2013110 .\nty - jour ti - milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . ( eutardigrada , apochela , milnesiidae ) , a new species of water bear from romania t2 - zookeys vl - 429 ur - urltoken pb - pensoft publishers py - 2014 sp - 1 ep - 11 do - 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 429 . 7755 au - ciobanu , daniel au - zawierucha , krzysztof au - moglan , ioan au - kaczmarek , \u0142ukasz kw - europe kw - new species kw - palearctic kw - tardigrada kw - taxonomy er -\n@ article { bhlpart139345 , title = { milnesium berladnicorum sp . n . ( eutardigrada , apochela , milnesiidae ) , a new species of water bear from romania } , journal = { zookeys } , volume = { 429 } , url = urltoken publisher = { pensoft publishers 2014 } , author = { ciobanu , daniel and zawierucha , krzysztof and moglan , ioan and kaczmarek , \u0142ukasz } , year = { 2014 } , pages = { 1 - 11 } , keywords = { europe | new species | palearctic | tardigrada | taxonomy | } , }\nthe study discusses distribution and taxonomic problems of the milnesium species known from south america . as of now , nine milnesium taxa are known from this region ( including two new species reported in this paper ) . additionally , the study broadens our knowledge of tardigrades ' feeding behaviour , provides some details about their diet and suggests that the type of prey chosen by some species belonging to the family milnesiidae may be associated with the width of their buccal tube .\nkaczmarek , \u0142 . , michalczyk , \u0142 . & beasley , c . w . ( 2004 ) milnesium katarzynae sp . nov . , a new species of eutardigrade ( milnesiidae ) from china . zootaxa , 743 , 1\u20135 .\ndewel , r . a . & clark , w . h . jr . ( 1973 ) studies on the tardigrades , i . fine structure of the anterior foregut of milnesium tardigradum doy\u00e8re . tissue and cell , 5 , 133\u2013146 .\nkaczmarek , \u0142 . & michalczyk , \u0142 . ( 2007 ) a new species of tardigrada ( eutardigrada : milnesiidae ) : milnesium krzysztofi from costa rica ( central america ) . new zealand journal of zoology , 34 , 297\u2013302 . urltoken\nkaczmarek , \u0142 . , jakubowska , n . & michalczyk , \u0142 . ( 2012a ) current knowledge on turkish tardigrades with a description of milnesium beasleyi sp . nov . ( eutardigrada : apochela : milnesiidae , the granulatum group ) . zootaxa , 3589 , 49\u201364 .\nmichalczyk , \u0142 . , we\u0142nicz , w . , frohme , m . & kaczmarek , \u0142 . ( 2012a ) redescriptions of three milnesium doy\u00e8re , 1840 taxa ( tardigrada : eutardigrada : milnesiidae ) , including the nominal species for the genus . zootaxa , 3154 , 1\u201320 .\nwallendorf , m . & miller , w . r . ( 2009 ) tardigrades of north america : milnesium alabamae nov . sp . ( eutardigrada : apochela : milnesiidae ) a new species from alabama . transactions of the kansas academy of science , 112 ( 3\u20134 ) , 181\u2013186 . urltoken\nmilnesium argentinum and m . beatae are new taxa for science . as of now , nine milnesium taxa are known from south america ( including the two new species and two newly recorded taxa for argentina , reported in this paper ) . the presence of m . tardigradum s . s . in south america needs confirmation and for now it should be considered as dubious . it is probable that width of buccal tube may limit a prey size and play an important role in the feeding behaviour in the family milnesiidae . studies on the feeding behaviour in tardigrades are in initial phase and definitive conclusions are not possible at this moment .\nmeyer , h . a . , hinton , j . c . & dupr\u00e9 , m . c . ( 2013 ) milnesium lagniappe , a new species of water bear ( tardigrada , eutardigrada , apochela , milnesiidae ) from the southern united states . western north american naturalist , 73 ( 3 ) , 295\u2013301 .\nmichalczyk , \u0142 . , we\u0142nicz , w . , frohme , m . & kaczmarek , \u0142 . ( 2012b ) corrigenda of zootaxa , 3154 , 1\u201320 \u201credescriptions of three milnesium doy\u00e8re , 1840 taxa ( tardigrada : eutardigrada : milnesiidae ) , including the nominal species for the genus\u201d . zootaxa , 3393 , 66\u201368 .\nroszkowska , m . , ostrowska , m . & kaczmarek , \u0142 . ( 2015 ) the genus milnesium doy\u00e8re , 1840 ( tardigrada ) in south america with descriptions of two new species from argentina and discussion of the feeding behaviour in the family milnesiidae . zoological studies , 54 , 12 . urltoken / 10 . 1186 / s40555 - 014 - 0082 - 7\nclaws of the milnesium type , slender . primary branches on all legs with small accessory points on the top of the branch . secondary claws of all legs with rounded basal thickenings ( lunules ) ( sometimes barely visible ) . claw configuration : [ 2 - 3 ] - [ 2 - 2 ] . single , long transverse , cuticular bars under claws i\u2013iii present .\nthe diversity and distribution of the tardigrades in south america are rather poor and selective , as is information about their feeding behaviour and diet . to date , only ca . 210 tardigrade taxa have been reported from the region of south america . in the present paper , we provide an update of the distribution of the genus milnesium in south america and discuss some aspects of the feeding behaviour in the family milnesiidae .\nbesides the abovementioned the most similar species , m . beatae sp . nov . is similar to other species of the genus milnesium with the claw configuration [ 3 - 3 ] - [ 3 - 3 ] ( m . alabamae , m . antarcticum , m . asiaticum , m . barbadosense , m . eurystomum , m . granulatum , m . longiungue and m . zsalakoae ) or with a sculptured cuticle ( m . beasleyi , m . katarzynae , m . krzysztofi and m . reticulatum ) .\ncharacteristics and measurements of the species used in the differential diagnosis are given according to the original descriptions ( ramazzotti 1962 ; pilato et al . 2002 ; kaczmarek et al . 2004 ; tumanov 2006 ; kaczmarek and michalczyk 2007 ; wallendorf and miller 2009 ; kaczmarek et al . 2012a ; meyer et al . 2013 ) or are based on direct examination of type material ( holotype and paratypes of milnesium beasleyi kaczmarek et al . 2012a ) . ramazzottius specimens were verified and identified using the key to the world tardigrada ( ramazzotti and maucci 1983 ) , a more modern key to the genus ramazzottius ( biserov 1998 ) , and remarks discussed by pilato et al . ( 2013 ) .\ncuticle cuticle covered with numerous tiny , shallow and rounded depressions ( pseudopores ) . under pcm pseudopores are visible as light spots with blurry edges . two cephalic papillae positioned laterally .\nsix peribuccal papillae ( ventral papilla smallest ) and six peribuccal lamellae ( of equal size ) around the mouth opening . buccal tube funnel - shaped , wider anteriorly ( on average the posterior diameter is 73 % of the anterior diameter ) . pharyngeal bulb elongated , pear - shaped and without placoids or septulum .\nsp . n . ( eutardigrada , apochela , milnesiidae ) , a new species of water bear from romania .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\n1 faculty of biology , alexandru ioan cuza university of ia\u0219i , b - dul carol i , no . 20a , 700505 ia\u0219i , romania\n2 department of animal taxonomy and ecology , faculty of biology , a . mickiewicz university in pozna\u0144 , umultowska 89 , 61 - 614 pozna\u0144 , poland\ncorresponding author : daniel adrian ciobanu ( moc . liamg @ unaboic . nairdaleinad )\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license ( cc by 4 . 0 ) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nin a lichen sample collected by the first author in b\u00e2rlad town in july , 2013 , 53 individuals and two exuvia ( with 16 eggs ) of the new species were found . additionally , 55 specimens of ramazzottius oberhaeuseri ( doy\u00e8re , 1840 ) were found in the same sample , including 9 specimens in simplex stage and 9 eggs .\nall specimens were extracted according to dastych ( 1980 , 1985 ) and mounted on microscope slides in hoyer\u2019s medium . observations , measurements and photomicrographs were taken using phase contrast microscopy ( pcm ) ( olympus bx41 with digital camera artcam - 300mi ) . all measurements ( determined with quickphoto camera 2 . 3 ) are given in micrometers [ \u03bcm ] .\nbody length was measured from the mouth to the end of the body excluding the hind legs . the buccal tube and claws characteristics were measured according to tumanov ( 2006 ) and michalczyk et al . ( 2012a ) . subsequently , claw configuration is described according to michalczyk et al . ( 2012a , 2012b ) . other morphometric data were calculated using the pt ratio : the ratio of the length of a given structure to the length of the buccal tube , expressed as a percentage ( pilato 1981 ) . the pt values are always provided in italics in order to differentiate them from length values .\nholotype ( female ) , 52 paratypes and 2 exuvia with 7 and 9 smooth eggs .\nbody brownish ( in live specimens ) or transparent ( in fixed specimens ) with eyes ( visible before and after mounting in hoyer\u2019s medium - 90 % of fixed specimens had eyes ) . six peribuccal papillae ( ventral papilla smallest ) and six peribuccal lamellae ( of equal size ) around the mouth opening present . two cephalic papillae positioned laterally . the cuticle is covered with numerous tiny , shallow and rounded depressions ( pseudopores ) (\n) . buccal tube funnel - shaped , wider anteriorly ( on average the posterior diameter is 73 % of the anterior diameter ) . pharyngeal bulb elongated , pear - shaped and without placoids or septulum . claws of the\n) . primary branches on all legs with small accessory points on the top of the branch . secondary claws of all legs with rounded basal thickenings ( lunules ) ( sometimes barely visible ) (\n) . secondary branches of external claws i\u2013iii and posterior and anterior claws iv with two points . secondary branches of internal claws i\u2013iii with three points ( i . e . claw configuration : [ 2 - 3 ] - [ 2 - 2 ] ) (\n46\u00b014 . 74167n , 27\u00b040 . 27333e ; 99 m asl : romania , vaslui county , b\u00e2rlad town , coppice , lichens ( xanthoria parietina ( l . ) th . fr . ( 1860 ) ) from tree .\nthis new species is named after the berladnici , an ancient population with a controversial origin ( most probably slavs ) who previously lived in the area of the present b\u00e2rlad town .\nholotype ( female ; slide : p8 - 8 ) and 29 paratypes ( females ) and 1 exuvium with eggs ( slides : p8 - 4 , p8 - 5 , p8 - 6 , p8 - 9 , p8 - 13 , p8 - 14 , p8 - 15 , p8 - 17 , p8 - 19 ) are preserved at the department of animal taxonomy and ecology , a . mickiewicz university in pozna\u0144 , umultowska 89 , 61\u2013614 pozna\u0144 , poland . additionally , 14 paratypes ( females ) and 1 exuvium with eggs ( slides : p8 - 1 , p8 - 3 , p8 - 16 , p8 - 18 ) are deposited at natural history museum of \u201calexandru ioan cuza\u201d university from ia\u0219i ( bd . independentei no . 16 , 700101 ) , 4 paratypes ( females ; slides : p8 - 7 , p8 - 12 ) are deposited at collection of binda and pilato ( museum of the department of animal biology \u201cmarcello la greca\u201d , university of catania , italy ) and 5 paratypes ( females ; slides : p8 - 2 , p8 - 10 , p8 - 11 ) are deposited at the natural history museum , university of copenhagen universitetsparken 15 , dk - 2100 copenhagen , denmark .\nthe authors want to thank prof . diane nelson of east tennessee state university for help in improving of the english in the manuscript . we are also grateful to anonymous\nreviewers for valuable remarks . this work was partially funded by the prometeo project of the secretariat for higher education , science , technology and innovation of the republic of ecuador . studies have been partially conducted in the framework of activities of barg ( biodiversity and astrobiology research group ) at the adam mickiewicz university in pozna\u0144 , poland .\nbartels pj , nelson dr , kaczmarek \u0142 , michalczyk \u0142 . ( 2014 )\ntardigrades of the caucasus with a taxonomic analysis of the genus ramazzottius ( parachela : hypsibiidae ) .\nbotezat e . ( 1903 ) versammlung der gesellschaft deutscher naturforscher und \u00e4rzte , 74 . vers . 2 . teil , 1 . h\u00e4fte .\nboto\u0219\u0103neanu l , negrea s . ( 1961 ) une oasis aquatique \u00e0 faune relique dans la plaine du danube inf\u00e9rieur . hydrobiologia , acta hydrobiologica , hydrographica et protistologica , den haag 18 ( 3 ) : 199\u2013218 . [ tardigrada , 212 pp ]\nciobanu da , moglan i , zawierucha k , kaczmarek \u0142 . ( 2014 ) new records of terrestrial tardigrades ( tardigrada ) from ceahl\u0103u national park with zoogeographical and taxonomical remarks on romanian water bears . north - western journal of zoology 10 : art . 140301 . urltoken\ndastych h . ( 1980 ) niesporczaki ( tardigrada ) tatrza\u0144skiego parku narodowego . monografie fauny polski 9 , 233 pp .\ndegma p , bertolani r , guidetti r . ( 2014 ) actual checklist of tardigrada species ( 2009\u20132014 , ver . 25 : 10 - 05 - 2014 ) . urltoken\nkaczmarek \u0142 , zawierucha k , smykla j , michalczyk \u0142 . ( 2012b )\ntardigrada of the revdalen ( spitsbergen ) with the descriptions of two new species : bryodelphax parvuspolaris ( heterotardigrada ) and isohypsibius coulsoni ( eutardigrada ) .\nkaczmarek \u0142 , cytan j , zawierucha k , diduszko d , michalczyk \u0142 . ( 2014 )\ntardigrades from peru ( south america ) , with descriptions of three new species of parachela .\nmichalczyk \u0142 , we\u0142nicz w , frohme m , kaczmarek \u0142 . ( 2012a )\nmichalczyk \u0142 , we\u0142nicz w , frohme m , kaczmarek \u0142 . ( 2012b )\ncontribu\u0163iuni la cunoa\u015fterea tardigradelor din r . p . r . studii \u015fi cercet\u0103ri de biologie , academia r . p . r .\nramazzottius thulini ( pilato , 1970 ) bona species and description of ramazzottius libycus sp . n . ( eutardigrada , ramazzottidae ) .\ntardigradi del cile , con descrizione di quattro nuove specie e di una nuova variet .\nbeitrag zur kentnis der systematik und \u00f6kologie der tardigraden rum\u00e4nies , mit besonderer ber\u00fccksichtigung der bucovina .\nzawierucha k , dziami\u0119cki j , jakubowska n , michalczyk \u0142 , kaczmarek \u0142 . ( 2014 )\nnew tardigrade records for the baltic states with a description of minibiotus formosus sp . n . ( eutardigrada , macrobiotidae ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nbiodivlibrary july is # nationalblueberrymonth ! the w . a . cox nursery co . of mississippi ' s 1920s catalog proclaimed # blueberries to\u2026 urltoken\nbiodivlibrary @ jzed _ trees @ kew _ laa awesome ! we ' re so honored to have this treasure in # bhlib . thanks @ kew _ laa ! now we can enjoy p\u2026 urltoken\nthere are no reviews yet . be the first one to write a review .\n, is located mostly in the southern hemisphere , with a relatively small portion ( ca . 10 % ) in the northern hemisphere . it includes 12 sovereign countries . geographically , the western part of south america is dominated by the andes while the eastern part contains both highland regions and large river basins such as the amazon , paran\u00e1 and orinoco . most of the continent lies in the tropics and the entire south american territory belongs to neotropical ecozone ( peel et al .\nargentina , located in southern part of the continent , shares land borders with chile across the andes to the west , bolivia and paraguay to the north , brazil to the northeast , uruguay and the south atlantic ocean to the east and the drake passage to the south . argentina is the eighth largest country in the world and the second largest in latin america . it is subdivided into 23 provinces and one autonomous city - buenos aires . the exceptionally diverse climate depends on the geographic regional division and ranges from tropical in the north to subpolar in the far continental south ( edwards\nr\u00edo negro , one of the 23 provinces of argentina , is located at the northern edge of patagonia . the central region of the province is dominated by a series of plateaus and isolated hills with altitude ranging from 600 to 1 , 000 m asl . towards the west , the foothills of the andes are dominated by a series of low valleys . the climate of the province is temperate at low elevations and very harsh in the highest andean peaks ( edwards\nthe phylum tardigrada consists currently of ca . 1 , 200 species ( guidetti and bertolani\n) . our knowledge of the diversity and distribution of south american water bears is poor and selective . to date , ca . 210 taxa ( including seven\n) is known from many localities , from the antarctic through tropical and temperate to arctic regions ( michalczyk et al .\n) , many new records and species have been reported from various localities throughout the world ( e . g . kaczmarek et al .\n\u2019 section ) . in this paper , two new species of this genus are described and illustrated . additionally , two new records of\nspecies , with their wide and relatively short buccal tube connected with a large pharynx without placoids , are considered carnivorous , but details of their diet are still very poorly known . they can feed on rotiferas , nematodes , other tardigrades or even on amoebas ( e . g . kinchin\nspecies ( and more general the entire family milnesiidae ) in connection with the different constructions of the buccal tube .\n) . after extraction , all specimens , exuviae and eggs were fixed and mounted on microscope slides in hoyer ' s medium . observations , measurements and photomicrographs were taken using phase contrast microscopy ( pcm ) ( olympus bx41 with digital camera artcam - 300mi , olympus corporation , shinjuku - ku , japan ) . all measurements ( determined with quickphoto camera 2 . 3 ) are given in micrometres [ \u03bcm ] .\nmorphometric data were handled using the \u2018apochela\u2019 ver . 1 . 1 template available from the tardigrada register ( michalczyk and kaczmarek\n) . structures were measured only if their orientations were suitable . body length was measured from the anterior to the posterior end of the body , excluding the hind legs . all measurements followed protocols in tumanov (\n) . buccal tube width was measured at three points as suggested by michalczyk et al . (\n] . configuration of the number of claw points on the secondary branches ( \u2018claw configuration\u2019 ) is given according to michalczyk et al . (\n41\u00b020\u2032s , 71\u00b030\u2032w , ca . 850 m asl : r\u00edo negro , nahuel huapi national park , bariloche , mirador lago mascardi , moss from rock , coll . dawid diduszko , 22 february 2012 .\n41\u00b012\u2032s , 71\u00b050\u2032w , ca . 1 , 000 m asl : r\u00edo negro , nahuel huapi national park , ventisquero negro , car parking near small bar , nothofagus forest , moss from rocks , coll . \u0142ukasz kaczmarek , 27 january 2006 .\n41\u00b012\u2032s , 71\u00b050\u2032w , ca . 1 , 000 m asl : r\u00edo negro , nahuel huapi national park , ventisquero negro , car parking near small bar , nothofagus forest , moss from tree , coll . \u0142ukasz kaczmarek , 27 january 2006 .\n41\u00b012\u2032s , 71\u00b028\u2032w , ca . 1 , 400 m asl : r\u00edo negro , nahuel huapi national park , bariloche , 1 . 5 km from refugio frey , nothofagus forest , moss from stone , coll . marta prange , 26 january 2006 .\n41\u00b013\u2032s , 71\u00b027\u2032w , ca . 1 , 200 m asl : r\u00edo negro , nahuel huapi national park , on the trail to refugio frey , near to van titter stream , nothofagus forest , moss from stone , coll . marta prange , 26 january 2006 .\nmaterial examined : eighteen females , all from nahuel huapi national park , r\u00edo negro , argentina , mosses samples from rocks and stones , coll . dawid diduszko , \u0142ukasz kaczmarek and marta prange .\nadditional material : two specimens in sample i , ten specimens in sample iii and two specimens in sample iv .\n) : the body rose before fixation and transparent afterwards , eyes present . cuticle sculptured with pseudopores ( 0 . 4 to 0 . 7 ) not arranged in bands , sparsely distributed and not forming reticular design ( figure\nb ) . six peribuccal papillae and six peribuccal lamellae around the mouth opening present . two cephalic papillae positioned laterally . peribuccal and cephalic papillae similar in length .\nn , number of specimens / structures measured ; sd , standard deviation ; ? , no data .\na ) . buccal tube rather narrow and long ( standard width on average 27 % of its length ) and funnel - shaped , wider anteriorly ( posterior diameter on average 80 % of the anterior diameter ) . pharyngeal bulb elongated , pear - shaped and without placoids or septulum .\nb ) . all secondary branches on all legs with three points ( claw configuration : [ 3 - 3 ] - [ 3 - 3 ] ) . single , long transverse , cuticular bars under claws i to iii present ( figure\ntardigrade buccal apparatuses and claws in the gut ( black arrowheads ) ( all pcm ) .\nlocus typicus : argentina , 41\u00b013\u2032s , 71\u00b027\u2032w , ca . 1 , 200 m asl . , r\u00edo negro province , nahuel huapi national park .\netymology : the new species is named after the country of argentina , where the species was collected .\ntype depositories : the holotype and 14 paratypes are deposited in the department of animal taxonomy and ecology , adam mickiewicz university in pozna\u0144 , umultowska 89 , pozna\u0144 , poland ; two paratypes are deposited at the natural history museum , university of copenhagen universitetsparken 15 , dk - 2100 copenhagen , denmark and one paratype is deposited at collection of binda and pilato , museum of the department of animal biology \u2018marcello la greca\u2019 , university of catania , italy .\n, known from china , colombia , costa rica and taiwan ( kaczmarek et al .\n, known only from arizona and new mexico , u . s . a . ( meyer and hinton\nmaterial examined : seven females , all from nahuel huapi national park , r\u00edo negro , argentina , moss sample from rocks , coll . \u0142ukasz kaczmarek .\n) : the body rose before fixation and transparent afterwards , eyes present . cuticle sculptured with pseudopores ( 0 . 3 to 0 . 6 ) not arranged in bands , sparsely distributed and not forming reticular design ( figure\nd ) . six peribuccal papillae and six peribuccal lamellae around the mouth opening present . two cephalic papillae positioned laterally . peribuccal and cephalic papillae similar in length .\nc ) . buccal tube wide and short ( standard width on average 62 % of its length ) and funnel - shaped , wider anteriorly ( posterior diameter on average 72 % of the anterior diameter ) . pharyngeal bulb elongated , pear - shaped and without placoids or septulum .\nd , e ) . all secondary branches on all legs with three points ( claw configuration : [ 3 - 3 ] - [ 3 - 3 ] ) . single , long transverse , cuticular bars under claws i - iii present ( figure\nlocus typicus : argentina , 41\u00b012\u2032s , 71\u00b050\u2032w , ca . 1 , 000 m asl . , r\u00edo negro , nahuel huapi national park .\netymology : this species is named after first author ' s secondary school biology teacher - mrs . beata ostasiewicz .\ntype depositories : the holotype and all paratypes are deposited in the department of animal taxonomy and ecology , adam mickiewicz university in pozna\u0144 , umultowska 89 , pozna\u0144 , poland .\nm . bohleberi by having sculptured dorsal cuticle and lower pt of peribuccal papillae length ( [ 18 . 0 - 23 . 6 ] in m . beatae sp . nov . vs . [ 27 . 2 - 32 . 3 ] in m . bohleberi ) .\nm . alabamae by different dorsal sculpture ( pseudopores not arranged in bands , sparsely distributed and not forming a reticular design in m . beatae sp . nov . vs . pseudopores arranged in bands ( especially in caudal region ) , densely distributed and forming a reticular design in m . alabamae ) , presence of accessory points on main branches of claws , presence of eyes and lower pt of standard width of buccal tube ( [ 58 . 1 - 65 . 6 ] in m . beatae sp . nov . vs . [ 29 . 5 - 44 . 0 ] in m . alabamae ) .\nm . antarcticum by having sculptured dorsal cuticle , higher pt of standard width of buccal tube ( [ 58 . 1 - 65 . 6 ] in m . beatae sp . nov . vs . [ 35 . 4 - 43 . 9 ] in m . antarcticum ) and stylet supports inserted in more cephalic position ( [ 63 . 8 - 66 . 7 ] in m . beatae sp . nov . vs . [ 70 . 0 - 73 . 7 ] in m . antarcticum ) .\nm . barbadosense by having sculptured dorsal cuticle , presence of eyes and lower pt of standard width of buccal tube ( [ 58 . 1 - 65 . 6 ] in m . beatae sp . nov . vs . [ 27 . 2 - 49 . 7 ] in m . barbadosense ) .\nm . katarzynae by a different claw configuration ( [ 3 - 3 ] - [ 3 - 3 ] in m . beatae sp . nov . vs . [ 2 - 2 ] - [ 2 - 2 ] in m . katarzynae ) , different dorsal sculpture ( pseudopores not arranged in bands , sparsely distributed and not forming a reticular design in m . beatae sp . nov . vs . pseudopores densely distributed and forming a reticular design in m . katarzynae ) , presence of eyes , higher pt of standard width of buccal tube ( [ 58 . 1 - 65 . 6 ] in m . beatae sp . nov . vs . [ 21 . 7 - 26 . 6 ] in m . katarzynae and stylet supports inserted in more cephalic position ( [ 63 . 8 - 66 . 7 ] in m . beatae sp . nov . vs . [ 73 . 3 - 78 . 3 ] in m . katarzynae ) .\nlocalities and number of specimens in present studies : five females in sample vi .\n) . this is a second report of the species and a new record for argentina .\n, but this hypothesis needs to be confirmed . we strongly suggest that all specimens reported as\ns . s . from this region should be re - examined and determined based on the modern taxonomic characters ( see also michalczyk et al .\n) . this species is characterized by a very wide and relatively short buccal tube , claw configuration [ 3 - 3 ] - [ 3 - 3 ] and smooth cuticle . recently , a similar species ( with a short and wide buccal tube ) ,\n, was described from north america ( usa , north carolina and tennessee ) ( bartels et al .\n) . in this situation , we suggest that the examples , especially from south and north america , should be re - examined ( see also michalczyk et al .\nlocalities and number of specimens in present studies : two females in sample ii .\n) , such wide and discontinuous geographic distribution can suggest a complex of cryptic species , but testing this hypothesis requires molecular data which are not yet available . we suggest that at least the examples from europe should be carefully re - examined ( see also michalczyk et al .\nwas considered to be a monotypic , highly cosmopolitan genus . however , currently there are more than 20 species within the genus and it is very likely that the zoogeographic range of\n) . this unique subspecies is characterized by the presence of short spines on dorsal cuticle . it should be probably promoted to the species level , but the re - description based on type material ( or based on specimens collected in the type locality ) is necessary ( michalczyk et al .\nspecies have been recorded from many localities throughout the world ( michalczyk et al .\nwas the only recognised species in the genus and it has been considered as an extremely cosmopolitan taxon ( e . g . ramazzotti and maucci\n) and finally excluded from the list of tardigrade taxa at all . it was not until 1990 that binda and pilato described a new\n, from tierra del fuego . later , new species were described only occasionally mainly due to the lack of a clear diagnosis of the nominal species\nand described five new species . since this time , many new species have been described and now 25 taxa ( including the two new species described in this paper ) are known in the genus ( degma et al .\n) . the majority of the newly described species are known only from their type localities and michalczyk et al . (\nhave truly restricted geographic ranges , as was also shown in other tardigrade genera ( e . g . pilato and binda\ns . l . has a wide distribution in south america , however the presence of this species in this region is doubtful and needs confirmation . the present study seems to confirm this hypothesis , because although four\nhave rather a narrower geographic range ( restricted to holarctic or palearctic ) , although more extensive studies ( molecular ) are necessary in other regions of south america .\n) , which can suggest the presence of cryptic species complexes or a specific distribution of some of the taxa ( e . g . pantropical for\n) . in this situation , only detailed morphological and molecular studies could shed light on this issue .\nvery little is known about food preferences in tardigrades , although , many different types of food sources have been reported , i . e . plant cell fluids , algae , bacteria , protozoa and small invertebrates like nematodes , rotifers and other tardigrades ( for the review , see schill et al .\n) . previous studies have focused on the following : a ) the rate of consumption , e . g . in the carnivorous\n, e ) life histories of some species and f ) different aspects of tardigrade histology ( e . g . suzuki\nare relatively large ( occasionally more than 2 mm but most often between 0 . 5 to 1 . 0 mm ) and inhabit mainly limno - terrestrial habitats ( guil\n) . their buccal tube is wide , relatively short , connected with a large pharynx without placoids and associated with large buccal lamellae on a wide mouth ring , which is in agreement with the definition of the \u2018carnivore type\u2019 of buccal apparatus proposed by guidetti et al . (\nspecies are considered carnivorous and feed on other small invertebrates like rotifers , nematodes , tardigrades and sometimes also on amoebas ( e . g . kinchin\nspecies suck the entire prey into the gut rather than only single cells or body fluids ( mcinnes et al .\nhas the ability to properly orient their prey , so that the amoeba can be extracted by the sucking action and later the empty shell can be expelled . however , specific differences in the feeding behaviour in connection with the structure of buccal apparatus in different\n( 7 specimens ) were studied . both species were found in the same region of nahuel huapi national park ( r\u00edo negro province , argentina ) in a few moss samples . five specimens ( two specimens of\nsp . nov . ) were found with the remnants of food ( rotifer mastaxes and tardigrade buccal apparatuses and claws ) in their guts . both species were found in the moss samples ( sometimes also together in the same piece of moss ) that also contained rotifers , nematodes and other tardigrades (\nspecies were able to choose from the same type of prey , because the prey were similar in every sample .\nare larger ( 360 to 650 \u03bcm ) and more bulky ( a wider buccal tube is probably necessary to swallow them ) than typical rotifers which are shorter ( 100 to 500 \u03bcm ) and more slender ( a narrower buccal tube is sufficient to swallow them ) . although the numbers are small , these data suggest that the buccal tube width may affect the type of prey consumed . however , it should be also noted that mcinnes et al . (\nthulin 1928 ) , which is in agreement with the observations made in the present research .\n) observations nor the present research provided a definitive answer whether the buccal tube width has a crucial role in the choice of different types of prey , these studies are the basis for further , more comprehensive studies .\n) . however , we know almost nothing about feeding behaviour and prey choice of the members of these monophyletic genera . only claxton (\nthat had remnants of rotifers in their guts . this is a very interesting observation , because this species has a very long and narrow buccal tube , similarly to the \u2018rotifer - feeding\u2019\nbased on the available data , it can be initially hypothesised that the species from the family milnesiidae with long and narrow buccal tubes ( e . g .\n) in contrast to the species with relatively short and wide buccal tubes ( e . g .\nor testate amoebae ) . certainly , such conclusions based only on the \u2018post - mortem\u2019 studied specimens give us only very limited knowledge on the food that had been eaten just before death ( preservation ) of the animal . such information needs confirmation in further , more detailed experimental studies with molecular methods ( e . g . schill et al .\n) or based directly on the observations in cultured animals ( e . g . suzuki\nthe authors want to thank prof . diane nelson of east tennessee state university for very valuable comments to the manuscript and help in improving of the english . this work was partially supported by the polish ministry of science and higher education via the \u2018iuventus plus\u2019 programme ( grant : ip2010 015570 , invertebrate biodiversity in temporary ponds of costa rica - verification of the \u2018great american biotic interchange\u2019 hypothesis ) and by the prometeo project of the secretariat for higher education , science , technology and innovation of the republic of ecuador . studies have been conducted in the framework of activities of barg ( biodiversity and astrobiology research group ) .\nmr examined and analysed the material , identified and described the species , made the measurements , figures and tables and drafted the manuscript . mo made the measurements and tables . \u0142k collected part of the material , invented the research conception , analysed the examined material , identified and described the species , corrected tables and drafted the manuscript . all authors read and approved the final manuscript .\nbertolani r , grimaldi d ( 2000 ) a new eutardigrade ( tardigrada : milnesiidae ) in amber from the upper cretaceous ( turonian ) of new jersey . in : grimaldi d ( ed ) studies on fossils in amber , with particular reference to the cretaceous of new jersey . backhuys publishers , leiden the netherlands , pp 103\u2013110\nbinda mg , pilato g ( 1972 ) tardigradi muscicoli di sicilia ( iv nota ) . boll accad gioenia sci nat catania 11 : 47\u201360\nbinda mg , pilato g ( 1990 ) tardigradi di terra del fuoco e magallanes , i .\n, new species of eutardigrade from southern patagonia and tierra del fuego . entomol mit zool mus hamb 13 : 151\u2013158\nciobanu da , moglan i , zawierucha k , kaczmarek \u0142 ( 2014a ) new records of terrestrial tardigrades ( tardigrada ) from ceahl\u0103u national park with zoogeographical and taxonomical remarks on romanian water bears . north - west j zool 10 : art . 140301\nsp . n . ( eutardigrada , apochela , milnesiidae ) , a new species of water bear from romania . zookeys 429 : 1\u201311\nclaps mc , rossi gc ( 1981 ) contribucion al conocimiento de los tardigrados de argentina . ii rev soc entomol arg 40 ( 1\u20134 ) : 107\u2013114\nclaps mc , rossi gc ( 1984 ) contribucion al conocimiento de los tardigrados de argentina . iv . acta zool lilloana 38 : 45\u201350\nclaps mc , rossi gc ( 1988 ) contribucion al conocimiento de los tardigrados de argentina . vi iheringia 67 : 3\u201311\nclaps mc , rossi gc ( 1997 ) tardigrados de uruguay , com descripcion de dos nuevas especies ( echiniscidae , macrobiotidae ) . iheringia s\u00e9r zool 83 : 17\u201322\n( tardigrada : macrobiotidae ) with descriptions of eleven new species from australia . rec aust mus 50 : 125\u2013160\ngen . n . sp . n . , a new tardigrade from australia ( tardigrada : milnesiidae ) . zool anz 238 : 183\u2013190\ndastych h ( 1980 ) niesporczaki ( tardigrada ) tatrza\u0144skiego parku narodowego . monogr faun pol pwn krakow 9 : 1\u2013232\ndastych h ( 1984 ) the tardigrada from antartica with description of several new species . acta zool cracov 27 : 377\u2013436\ndu bois - reymond marcus , 1944 ( tardigrada ) from the venezuelan andes . a biol benrod 10 : 91\u2013101\nde barros r ( 1943 ) tardigrados de estado de sao paulo , brasil . iii . g\u00eaneros\ndegma p , guidetti r ( 2007 ) notes to the current checklist of tardigrada . zootaxa 1579 : 41\u201353\ngroup ) from the colombian andes ( south america ) . zootaxa 1731 : 1\u201323\ndegma p , bertolani r , guidetti r ( 2014 ) actual checklist of tardigrada species ( 2009\u20132014 , ver . 26 : 10 - 07 - 2014 ) .\ndoy\u00e8re m ( 1840 ) memoire sur les tardigrades . ann sci nat zool paris ser 2 ( 14 ) : 269\u2013362\ndu bois - reymond me ( 1944 ) sobre tard\u00edgrados brasileiros . comun zool mus hist nat monte 1 ( 13 ) : 1\u201319\nedwards tl ( 2008 ) argentina : a global studies handbook . abc - clio , santa barbara , ca , usa\nguidetti r , bertolani r ( 2001 ) the tardigrades of emilia ( italy ) . iii . piane di mocogno ( northern apennines ) . zool anz 240 : 377\u2013383\nguidetti r , bertolani r ( 2005 ) tardigrade taxonomy : an updated check list of the taxa and a list of characters for their identification . zootaxa 845 : 1\u201346\nguidetti r , altiero t , marchioro t , sarzi amade l , avdonina am , bertolani r , rebecchi l ( 2012 ) form and function of the feeding apparatus in eutardigrada ( tardigrada ) . zoomorphol 131 ( 2 ) : 127\u2013148\ngroup of species ( tardigrada : macrobiotidae ) . j nat hist 47 ( 37\u201338 ) : 2409\u20132426\nheinis f ( 1914 ) die moosfauna columbiens . m\u00e9m soc sci nat neu 5 : 713\u2013724\nhinton jg , meyer ha , soileau bn , dupuid ap ( 2013 ) tardigrada of the caribbean island of dominica ( west indies ) . j limnol 72 ( s1 ) : 108\u2013112\nhohberg k , traunspurger w ( 2005 ) predator\u2013prey interaction in soil food web : functional response , size - dependent foraging efficiency , and the influence of soil texture . biol fert 41 ( 6 ) : 419\u2013427\nhohberg k , traunspurger w ( 2009 ) foraging theory and partial consumption in a tardigrade - nematode system . behav ecol 20 ( 4 ) : 884\u2013890\n, in the young soils of a post - mining site . j zool syst evol res 49 ( s1 ) : 62\u201365\nholt bg , lessard jp , borregaard mk , fritz sa , ara\u00fajo mb , dimitrov d , fabre ph , graham ch , graves gr , j\u00f8nsson ka , bravo dn , wang z , whittaker rj , fjelds\u00e5 j , rahbek c ( 2013 ) an update of wallace ' s zoogeographic regions of the world . science 339 ( 6115 ) : 74\u201378\nhorning d , schuster r , grigarick a ( 1978 ) tardigrada of new zealand . new zeal j zool 5 : 185\u2013280\niharos g ( 1963 ) the zoological results of gy . topal ' s collections in south argentina , 3 . tardigrada . ann hist natur ms nat hung budapest 55 : 293\u2013299\njerez jaimes jh , narv\u00e1ez parra ex ( 2001 ) tardigrados ( animalia , tardigrada ) de la reserva el diviso - santander , colombia . biota colomb 2 : 145\u2013151\njohansson c , miller wr , linder et , adams bj , boreliz - alvarado e ( 2013 ) tardigrades of alaska : distribution patterns , diversity and species richness . polar res 32 : 18793"]}
{"id": 172, "summary": [{"text": "spathodus marlieri is a species of cichlid endemic to lake tanganyika where it is only known from the northern portion of the lake .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this species prefers areas with rocky substrates in very shallow waters to a depth of about 2 metres ( 6.6 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this species can reach a length of 10 centimetres ( 3.9 in ) tl .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it can also be found in the aquarium trade . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "spathodus marlieri", "paragraphs": ["spathodus erythrodon is similar to marlieri in teeth only . in fact , it is hard to distinguish spathodus erythrodon from eretmodus cyanostictus except for the teeth . both species of spathodus have long and cylindrical teeth . erythrodon is imported to the u . s . on a somewhat regular basis .\nspathodus marlieri is the monster of the group , with females reaching 2 . 5\nand males a whopping 4\n. it is the least likely to be seen in the aquarium of hobbyists . its reputation is one of nastiness and an overall bad attitude . it is reported to be a maternal mouthbrooder though i cannot speak from first hand experience with this fish . if anyone reading this has kept this fish , please let me know !\nthe\ngobies\nare typically thought of as being one of five species from three geneses . the list includes spathodus marlieri , spathodus erythrodon , eretmodus cyanostictus , eretmodus\ncyanostictus north\n, and lastly tanganicodus irsacae . all of these are mouthbrooders and all of them live in the shallow water or surge habitat of the lake . males tend to be larger than females and may contain a bit more color . of course , none of the gobies are particularly striking when it comes to color but they sure make up for that in their comical personalities . it may be why these fish are also called\nclown\ncichlids in europe . they also appear to be a bit comical in appearance as well .\nexcept for spathodus marlieri , all gobies are bi - parental mouthbrooders . the female holds the eggs for the first ten days or so then she exchanges the eggs to the male for the next ten days . pairs of gobies stay close to one another throughout the aquarium whether breeding or not . it is quite endearing to see a pair of fish journeying around the tank , never straying far from its partner . spawns are usually under 25 fry , although my experience has shown counts smaller than that .\nin the wild they are found alone or in pairs . their routine is different from their cousin the blue goby cichlid spathodus erythrodon , who ' hops ' from place to place . rather , they will swim long distances along the substrate looking for food . they feed by picking algae and micro - organisms living in the algae from the rocks .\nmar\u00e9chal , c . and m . poll , 1991 . spathodus . p . 458 - 459 . in j . daget , j . - p . gosse , g . g . teugels and d . f . e . thys van den audenaerde ( eds . ) check - list of the freshwater fishes of africa ( cloffa ) . isnb , brussels ; mrac , tervuren ; and orstom , paris . vol . 4 . ( ref . 5695 )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\ngreek , spathe = sword + greek , odous = teeth ( ref . 45335 )\nfreshwater ; benthopelagic ; depth range ? - 2 m . tropical ; 25\u00b0c - 27\u00b0c ( ref . 2060 ) ; 3\u00b0s - 6\u00b0s\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 10 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5695 ) ; common length : 7 . 0 cm ng male / unsexed ; ( ref . 6770 )\nswims over rock bottom for long distances , alone or in pairs , instead of jumping from place to place between pebbles as s . erythrodon does . feeds by picking microorganisms from the rock biocover ( ref . 6770 ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 7500 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01514 ( 0 . 00700 - 0 . 03275 ) , b = 2 . 97 ( 2 . 80 - 3 . 14 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 12 of 100 ) .\nbetta fish care infographic , a handy cheat sheet that will benefit any keepers of siamese fighting fish .\nfish tank care . guide to fish care with a simple look at aquarium filtration , how to clean a fish tank , and a fish tank maintenance schedule .\npiranhas , one of the most efficient predators with razor sharp teeth and a ferocious nature . piranha fish species , description , information , habitat , and more !\nsetting up a saltwater aquarium . guide to marine supplies , putting the aquarium together , cycling the aquarium water and adding fish !\nfish information for african cichlids - lake malawi , lake tanganyika , lake victoria , west african cichlids , and dwarf cichlids including cichlid care , cichlid breeding , and fish diseases .\nfish information and habitats for dwarf cichlid aquariums , includes types of cichlids like the ram cichlids , kribensis and more .\nfish information on habitats and keeping african cichlid tanks for lake victoria cichlids , mbipi rock - dwelling cichlids , east and west african cichlids , and african dwarf cichlids .\nfish information and habitats for large cichlid aquariums , types of cichlids like the parrot cichlid , firemouth cichlid , green terror , oscar , texas cichlid and more .\nfish information on the lake malawi cichlids known as the\nhaps\n, haplochromis group habitats and cichlids tanks for free - swimming types of cichlids , including the utaka .\nfish information on peacock cichlids , aulonocara types of cichlids from lake malawi , their habitats and keeping african cichlids tanks .\nfish information for south american cichlids , central american cichlids , and dwarf cichlids including cichlid care , cichlid breeding , and fish diseases for south american cichlid aquariums .\nfish information on the types of cichlids from lake tanganyika , tropheus cichlids , frontosa , goby cichlids , shelldwellers and more , habitats and cichlids tanks for tanganyika cichlids .\nlake malawi cichlids known as zebra cichlids . fish information on the mbuna cichlids , habitats , and cichlids tanks for these rock - dwelling types of cichlids .\nenter your freshwater aquarium enter parameters for your freshwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nenter your saltwater aquarium enter parameters for your saltwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nfish finder search our database for compatible pets ! enter characteristics of what you are looking for and find them instantly .\ndr . jungle ' s pets and animal speak - newsletter featured pet of the week and more . . .\nwe have two large iridescent sharks we are looking to find another home for . our tank is too small and they are very large . do you have a big tank ? do you know they can grow 3 - 4 feet ? where are you located ?\nlooking for medaka rice fish . what ever species you may have for sale .\ni ' m looking to but a balloon kissing gourami . any idea where i can get one ?\nis the largest , and also the most tolerant of the lake tanganyika gobies . while the females are smaller at 2 . 5\u201d ( 6 . 4 cm ) , the males will reach up to 4 inches ( 10 . 2 cm ) in length . this species is commonly called\nplain ,\nbut perhaps that ' s because it is not quite as brilliantly adorned as the other gobies . yet this fish it actually very pretty . it has a body colored in dark brown splotches and is topped with electric sky blue dots on the front half .\nthis cichlid is fascinating in both appearance and in personality . they will spend much of its time swimming over the bottom searching for food , but will also use their rigid pectoral fins to ' perch ' on the substrate . their color patterning is designed to help camouflage them in nature . in the aquarium this patterning and their and swimming style gives their keepers the impression that they are playing ' hide and seek . ' . their larger size also makes them more visible than their smaller cousins .\nplain goby cichlids are an intriguing choice for the cichlid enthusiast who has limited space and cannot provide a large aquarium . as long as their needs are met , aquarists with some experience will find they are easy to moderate to care for . provide stacked rocks with lots of caves and crevices for hiding and flat stones in the front for perching . some natural sunlight will help algae growth on the stones , which the gobies relish . an extra enjoyment for these fish is adding a wave - making box , similar to those used in aquariums , which will simulate the water surge of their natural environment .\nthese cichlids can be kept alone or in pairs but are generally not tolerant of their own species or other goby cichlids . in fact they are said to be the most aggressive of the tanganyikan gobies . they primarily inhabit the bottom of the tank so can be housed with some other mid - water cichlids . avoid other cichlids that are too large or boisterous , like the mbuna from lake malawi . good tankmates are species that inhabit the upper and middle areas of the aquarium rather than the lower substrate areas of these fish .\nthe goby cichlids from lake tanganyika are an intriguing and attractive group of fish .\ngoby cichlids are members of the eretmodini tribe belonging to the pseudocrenilabrinae subfamily under the cichlidae family . currently there are five recognized species of eretmodines placed in three genera : plain goby cichlid\nthese fish are unique in the natural environment where they are found and in body shape .\nscientists speculate that their body shape is most likely an adaptation to their environment . they are small fish , give or take around 3\nin length . they live close to the shore in shallow waters , usually less than 3 feet ( 1 m ) and never more than 10 feet ( 3 m ) . the sandy substrate is strewn with rocks and pebbles . these are fast moving waters subject to ' surge ' , where the shoreline is continuously washed with wind driven waves .\nthe shallow waters get good sunlight penetration and have relatively clear visibility , but the goby cichlids are difficult to see . their interesting color patterns that can readily be seen in the aquarium create a camouflage in the wild .\nthe rocky rubble substrate has plenty of healthy algae growth which houses small crustaceans and insect larvae . this provides a diverse diet for this bottom dwelling cichlid .\nthere are few aquatic predators in such shallow water , but these areas are preyed upon by birds . the goby cichlids forage the substrate with their snout like mouths while with their eyes , mounted high on the head , and their heavily spined dorsal fin help them evade airborne predators .\nthe rugged water movement of the ' surge zone ' requires special adaptations so that these shallow dwelling fish do not get picked up and dashed into the rocks .\ntheir swim bladder is greatly reduced giving them little buoyancy . this keeps them close to the bottom and makes for a rather comical hopping motion when they swim .\ntheir pelvic fins are positioned downward and have stiff heavy spines . perching on their pelvic fins helps them cling to the substrate and maintain their position in the fast moving waters .\nwas described by poll in 1950 . these fish are endemic to the northern end of lake tanganyika , africa . this species is listed on the iucn red list of threatened species as least concern ( lc ) as they are widespread along their range in the northern parts of lake . although they are at risk due to increased siltation , it is not significant enough to consider them threatened .\nthey prefer the top part of the water column , not often venturing below 6 . 5 feet ( 2 m ) . they inhabit the rubble or pebble edges of the shoreline , called the ' surge zone . ' this area is continually washed by waves that are driven by the wind . this water has a ph of over 9 due to the releases of oxygen at the shore called \u201cfaunal exhaust . \u201d\nthe plain goby cichlid is a small , moderately elongated fish , but they are the largest of the tanganyikan gobies . the females are smaller at 2 . 5\u201d ( 6 . 4 cm ) , but the males will reach up to 4 inches ( 10 . 2 cm ) in length . their average life span of the tanganyikan gobies is said to be approximately 3 - 5 years , though like other african cichlids they may live longer when well maintained and provided proper diet and care .\nthe body of this fish has darker brown splotches with electric sky blue dots on the front half of the body . the back half is a lighter plain color and the belly is lighter still . the dorsal , tail , and anal fins are a very light blue tipped in a muted gold and lined in brown .\nthey have a uniquely shaped mouth with their top lip almost looking like an \u201coverbite\u201d . their eyes are located toward the top of their head . these cichlids have one row of teeth on each side of their jaw that are long and curved with tips that are blunt , used for eating algae off of rocks . all cichlids share a common feature that some saltwater fish such as wrasses and parrotfish have and that is a well - developed pharyngeal set of teeth that are in the throat , along with their regular teeth .\nwith the name goby , one would rightly picture a hopping motion that these fish use due to the absence of a swim bladder . their pectoral fins are heavy , sharp and located lower than other cichlids . they use these fins in an almost\nfoot\nlike application by pointing them straight down and digging into the rock or rubble to keep from being thrown around by waves .\ncichlids have spiny rays in the back parts of the anal , dorsal , pectoral , and pelvic fins to help discourage predators . the front part of these fins are soft and perfect for precise positions and effortless movements in the water as opposed to fast swimming . cichlids have one nostril on each side while other fish have 2 sets . to sense \u201csmells\u201d in the water , they suck water in and expel the water right back out after being \u201csampled\u201d for a short or longer time , depending on how much the cichlid needs to \u201csmell\u201d the water . this feature is also shared by saltwater damselfish and cichlids are thought to be closely related .\n4 . 0 inches ( 10 . 16 cm ) - females grow to 2 . 5\u201d ( 6 . 4 cm ) , but males will reach up to 4 inches ( 10 . 2 cm ) in length .\n3 years - the lifespan of lake tanganyikan gobies is said to be 3 - 5 years , but as with other african cichlids , they may live longer with proper care .\nthe plain goby cichlids are suggested for the intermediate aquarists due to their sensitivity and specific requirements . they are easy to moderate to care for , but they are aggressive and they require top - notch water conditions . diligent attention must be given to their requirements of diet and habitat . the aquarists must also be willing to do frequent water changes and provide appropriate tank mates .\nthe lake tanganyikan goby species are rather expensive fish that have rather specific , though uncomplicated needs . they are fine in an aquarium of 30 gallons or more and can be kept in a cichlid community . but their tank needs to have good filtration with highly oxygenated water , and their diet must consist of a variety of quality foods .\nintermediate - these fish must have appropriate tankmates and require attention to diet and tank care .\nthe plain goby cichlid is an omnivore . in the wild they pick algae and microorganisms from the rock biocover . in the aquarium they can be fed nutritious live foods , tablets , and some will accept frozen or flake . flakes are often accepted by captive bred fish though captive caught fish are less enthusiastic . a varied died is important however , as a diet consisting of just flakes has been said to contribute to bloat .\nprovide a diet of high quality spirulina or vegetables such as blanched chopped peas , broccoli or lettuce . also feed crustaceans , cyclops , brine shrimp , glassworms , or other special foods for lake tanganyika cichlids . on rare occasions you can feed bloodworms , but high protein foods such as shellfish , meat ( especially animal meat ) and other worms should be avoided . all fish benefit from vitamins and supplements added to their foods . feed smaller amounts of 2 to 5 small pinches of food several times a day instead of a large quantity once a day .\nsome of diet - avoid high protein foods such as shellfish , animal meat , and worms .\nseveral feedings per day - generally feed 2 - 3 small feedings a day rather than a single large feeding for better water quality .\nthe plain goby cichlid needs diligent maintenance for good water quality . regular partial water changes are very important and removing any uneaten foods will help prevent disease . do water changes of 10 % to 15 % a week , or more frequent changes depending on the nitrite / ammonia levels and stocking numbers .\nthe lake tanganyika cichlids cannot handle large water changes very well unless the new water chemistry closely matches the water they are in . if a large water change is needed , changing 15 % every couple of days should bring water back to normal . this inability to tolerate large water changes is due to lake tanganyika being very deep and the water tends to stay stable .\nweekly - water changes of 10 % to 15 % a week are recommended .\nthe plain goby cichlids will swim mostly on the bottom and occasionally in the middle areas of the tank . though they are a smaller cichlid they are shy and need a minimum 30 gallon aquarium . a tank that is 4 foot long , 75 gallon or more , is better for long term maintenance and if you wish to keep a cichlid community . they need good water movement along with very strong and efficient filtration . extra aeration is suggested for the aquarium to provide optimal oxygen levels . lake tanganyika is a very oxygen rich lake , and in nature these cichlids occur in the\nsurge\nzones near the shore where the water is always high in oxygen .\nwith a fine sand substrate , undergravel filtration is very difficult to implement . an external canister filter or hang on tank filter can be used as long as the flow rate is higher than required for your particular tank because of the oxygenation that is required . make sure the intakes are well above the sand and have a protective cover to prevent sand from entering the filter , or the impeller will wear out quickly .\nfor lake tanganyika cichlids the water needs to be well buffered and maintained with small , regular water changes . they do fine in either freshwater or brackish freshwater . the surge zone areas of lake tanganyika have a ph of over 9 . this is due to the releases of oxygen at the shore called ' faunal exhaust ' . keep an eye on ph parameters for the goby cichlids . a higher ph means that ammonia is more lethal , so water changes are a must for these fish . in addition keep an eye on total hardness and carbonate hardness . avoid overfeeding and overstocking .\nthe best set up is a system of caves that reach almost to the water surface , formed by rocks or flowerpots . though they primarily inhabit the bottom parts of the tank , this provides a higher refuge for the female when the male gets aggressive . laying stones at the bottom and front of the tank for perching and growing the algae the gobies relish is also suggested . positioning the tank near natural sunlight will encourage growing this beneficial algae .\na sandy substrate is needed as it is thought to aid in the goby cichlid\u2019s digestion . it is helpful to use sand that is designed for marine aquariums which will help keep the ph high . salt is sometimes used as a buffering agent to increase the water ' s carbonate hardness . an alternative buffering approach is to use a chemical filtration method , where the water passes through layers of crushed coral or coral sand .\nalthough rift lake cichlids need hard alkaline water they are not found in brackish waters . this cichlid has some salt tolerance so can be kept in slightly brackish water conditions . however it not suited to a full brackish water tank . salinity must be less than about 10 % of a normal saltwater tank , a specific gravity of less than 1 . 0002 .\nfor freshwater an optional practice is to add 1 heaping teaspoon of salt per 11 gallons of water . this is considered to be a simple and natural remedy for wounds , minor fungal infections and film over the eyes of fish in transit . tanganyika cichlids also need iodine for the thyroid to function properly to regulate growth and development , and which can be achieved by adding iodized table salt to the water . be very careful to not add too much salt as this may cause bloat . using a marine salt ( used for salt water fish ) will add some trace elements .\n30 gal ( 114 l ) - the minimum size for a pair of these cichlids is 30 gallons but a 4 foot long , 75 + gallon tank will be needed to keep a cichlid community .\nmoderate - normal lighting - normal lighting is okay , but stronger lighting will help with algae growth .\nsometimes - can tolerate a low salinity , but must be less than 10 % of a normal saltwater tank , a specific gravity of less than 1 . 0002 .\nthe plain goby cichlid is a community cichlid that can be kept with smaller mid - water swimming cichlids . they can be kept alone or in pairs , but are generally not tolerant of their own species when not paired up . in the wild they are the more tolerant of other goby species , but in the aquarium it is a gamble . in fact , this species has a reputation as one of the most abrasive gobies in the aquarium with an overall bad attitude towards conspecifics . they do best in a species specific tank if you want to see much of them or breed them .\nthey can be kept with some other cichlids , but will feel threatened and hide if the other fish swim in the lower regions or compete for the same foods . they will stay hidden in the rockwork but won ' t get hurt . housing with mid - water fish gives them more \u201croom\u201d and allows them to come out of hiding . avoid other cichlids that are too large or boisterous , like the mbuna from lake malawi . good tankmates are species that inhabit the upper and middle areas of the aquarium rather than the lower substrate areas of these fish .\nsemi - aggressive - is generally compatible with mid - water cichlids of similar size but not with the same species .\nsometimes - mostly intolerant of their own species , but can be kept as a pair .\nmales and females have an almost identical appearance , but when adults , the males are larger and develop a more pronounced hump on the forehead .\nthe plain goby cichlid has been bred in captivity . these are the only gobies in the cichlidae family that are not biparental mouthbrooders . this may be because they are the largest of the gobies , allowing the female to carry the eggs full term . only the female cares for the young from beginning to end . a strong bond between the male and female is established by buying around 6 juvenile goby cichlids and waiting for them to pair . once they pair , remove the other fish . just buying a male and female that are not paired will end in the female being harassed to death .\nthe female will clear a flat spot in the tank and display to attract the male . she will lay only 1 or 2 eggs and then immediately pick them up in her mouth . the male then swims over and the female nuzzles his vent until he releases sperm , which she takes into her mouth to fertilize the eggs . she will do this over and over until 10 to 30 orange / yellow eggs are produced . the number is dependant on her age and nutritional levels .\nthe female carries the eggs through hatching and the full development of the fry . the female releases the fry at night , only letting out a few at a time in different areas . the female waits until they find a hiding place but if a fry does not seek shelter , the female pulls it back into her mouth before she moves on .\nprovide small shells and piles of small stones for the fry to hide in after they are released . be sure to cover intakes with screen . if there is a need to remove the 10 mm ( . 3\u201d ) long fry , wait until the female is done releasing the fry so as not to disturb her .\nfeed the fry artemia nauplii and powdered spirulina flake , and within a few weeks they will graze on algae . they double their size in 6 weeks . in 4 to 5 months , they will reach . 9\u201d to 1 . 1\u201d ( 2 . 5 - 3 cm ) and are sexually mature between the 10th and 14th month after the female releases them . in the case of a male being too aggressive toward the female , she can be separated from the male . see more information on breeding cichlids in breeding freshwater fish : cichlids .\nthe goby cichlids are relatively hardy as long as diligent attention is paid to maintaining their environment and diet . these fish are susceptible to typical fish ailments , especially if water is stale and of poor quality and has low oxygenation . an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure . water changes , not overfeeding or overcrowding , and observation along with feeding your fish the proper foods ( thawing frozen food and adding vitamins ) will keep them in optimum health . for freshwater an optional practice is to add 1 heaping teaspoon of salt per 11 gallons of water . this is considered to be a simple and natural remedy for wounds , minor fungal infections and film over the eyes of fish in transit .\none common problem is ich . it can be treated with the elevation of the tank temperature to 86\u00b0 f ( 30\u00b0 c ) for 3 days . if that does not cure the ich , then the fish needs to be treated with copper ( remove any water conditioners ) . several copper based fish medications are available for ich . copper use must be kept within the proper levels , so be sure to follow the manufacturers suggestions . you can also combine increasing the temperature with an ich medication treatment . a copper test also can be used to keep the proper levels .\nas with most fish they are susceptible to skin flukes and other parasitic infestations ( protozoa , worms , etc . ) , fungal infections , and bacterial infections . it is recommended to read up on the common tank diseases . knowing the signs and catching and treating them early makes a huge difference . for information about fish diseases and illnesses , see aquarium fish diseases and treatments .\nthe plain goby cichlid is quite rare online or in fish stores . you may be able to special order , but these cichlids are relatively costly and price varies depending on age and size .\ndr . r\u00fcdiger riehl and hans a . baensch , aquarium atlas vol . 2 , publisher hans a . baensch , 1993\nmark phillip smith , lake tanganyika cichlids , a complete pet owners manual , 2nd edition , barron ' s educational series , inc . 2007\nglen s . axelrod , brian m . scott , neal pronek , encyclopedia of exotic tropical fishes for freshwater aquariums , tfh publications , 2005\nrhett butler ,\ncichlids - lake tanganyika\n, mongabay . com , referenced online , 2007\nglen s . axelrod , rift lake cichlids , t . f . h . publications , inc . , 1979\ncopyright \u00a9 [ animal - world ] 1998 - 2015 . all rights reserved .\nsnoeks , j . ( freshwater fish red list authority ) & darwall , w . ( freshwater biodiversity assessment programme )\njustification : a widespread species of the shallow surf zone in the northern parts of lake tanganyika . it is threatened by increased siltation but is sufficiently widespread so as not to qualify as threatened .\nendemic to lake tanganyika where it is distributed in northern the part of lake .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nwhere as some fish are from lake tanganyika are overrated , some are actually not given enough credit . a great example of this would be any of the goby cichlids from lake tanganyika .\nall gobies have a somewhat\ndeflated swim bladder making them look like they\nhop\nacross the bottom of the aquarium . they also have a snout - like head and eyes placed high on the head as well . all gobies have a spiny dorsal fin designed to deter birds . this dorsal fin can also be a bit of a hassle in an aquarium net .\nall gobies graze through the algae layer on the rocks , eating both algae and the small organisms living among it . in the aquarium i like to feed them spirulina based flakes and other typical fare . they are not picky eaters and adapt to any food pretty easily . they are not strictly vegetarians .\ni will briefly discuss all five species of gobies but , will concentrate on the few that i have kept in my aquariums .\neretmodus cyanostictus and eretmodus\ncyanostictus north\nare basically the same fish except that the northern type has a more underslung mouth . i really enjoyed keeping this fish . i kept a male of the northern type in a large tanganyikan community tank several years ago . he had a strange nature about him . first , he enjoyed playing hide and seek . ok , ok , he never did close his eyes and count but he used to take turns peering behind a large rock in the center of the aquarium . when you looked at him on the right side of the rock , he would scoot around it and look at you from the left side of the rock . when you leaned over to look at him on the left side of the rock he would go to the right side . it was really crazy . i have multiple witnesses to this spectacle and people would laugh out loud at this nutty fish . of the thousands of fish i kept over the years this is one of the few that my wife , brenda , named . his name was charlie . you ' re not going to get me to admit i called him charlie but my wife did . another strange thing was even though i fed ( how do i say this ? ) charlie , he was more apt to come to the front of the tank from behind his big rock when she was there . talk about weird , it happened every time . alas , charlie is no longer with us and my wife has never attached herself to a fish again .\nthough this eretmodus was a great fish , i got lucky enough to receive a pair that was from bemba . this pair had some orange between their vertical stripes and they had some bright blue spots . they were the best looking gobies i have ever seen and they spawned well for me . the male was about 3 . 25\nand the female a bit smaller then that . they were a wild pair and i understand why wild gobies are so popular ; they are inexpensive for wild fish and the fry take a long time to grow up . anyone who had grown up any altolamprologus can appreciate the growth rate of this fish . i would dare to say it is about as slow as any cichlid ! the babies i had from this pair were always in high demand from anyone who saw them .\nlastly there is the smallest of the bunch , tanganicodus irsacae . a wild pair i owned consisted of an adult male at 2 . 5\nand a female at 2\n. they had nice neon blue dots on them and a pointy mouth . not quite like the snout - like mouth of the other gobies . unfortunately the male never seemed particularly pleased with the female and he always chased her around the tank . she died a few months after i got her , probably from the stress of being chased all the time . i would like to try them again when i get the chance .\nspeaking of chances , why not give one of the tanganyikan gobies a chance and see why i believe this is one underrated fish .\nif you like to see a regular article on new world cichlids similar to this one , ask del calhoun . he promised me two years ago if i took up writing a regular cichlid article that he would do one as well . if you don ' t know who del is , you can find him hanging out in the hall during meetings with a diet coke attached to his left hand . this leaves his right hand free for writing . don ' t be shy . he thinks people who enjoy south american cichlids can ' t read but i don ' t believe that ' s really true . but then again maybe . . . \u25a1\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 ."]}
{"id": 181, "summary": [{"text": "mumtaz mahal ( 1921 \u2013 1945 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse who the national sporting library 's thoroughbred heritage website says was \" one of the most important broodmares of the 20th century \" .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "she was named for empress mumtaz mahal , wife of mughal empire ruler shah jahan of taj mahal fame .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "bred by lady sykes at her sledmere stud in driffield , east riding of yorkshire , mumtaz mahal was out of the mare lady josephine .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "her sire was the tetrarch , whom the thoroughbred heritage website also said was \" probably the greatest two-year-old of all time \" , and that he was \" possibly the greatest runner ever . \" ", "topic": 14}], "title": "mumtaz mahal ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["champion racehorse and broodmare mumtaz mahal . | historic h o r s e s | pinterest | horse , race horses and thoroughbred horse\narguably the most influential of mumtaz mahal\u2019s descendants was the truly great sire and sire of sires , nasrullah .\nmumtaz mahal , a legendary broodmare and fantastic sprint racer is impossible to ignore - - and her unusual spotted coat seems appropriate because she is a rare animal indeed . blazingly fast , she was called the flying filly . mumtaz mahal is described as lightening fast , having faultless conformation , with quality , size and a good temperament . she was the champion two year in england , and many say she is the fastest filly of all times . she was bred by lady sykes and bought as a yearling by the aga khan . mumtaz mahal is at the head of his most successful family of winners .\n. the second dam of nasrullah is the \u201cflying filly , \u201d english champion 2 - year - old filly mumtaz mahal ( by the tetrarch ) , who became a great foundation mare for the aga khan .\nmumtaz mahal is also the ancestress of the legendary new zealand broodmare eight carat , whose champion son octagonal ( zabeel ) is the sire of lonhro , whose son the conglomerate won saturday\u2019s gr1 vodacom durban july .\nthe tetrarch is a source of speed in our modern horses . his influence comes from horses like mumtaz mahal , the dam of mumtaz begum ( the dam of nasrullah ) and sun princess ( the dam of royal charger ) . royal charger and nasrullah are 3 / 4 - brothers and are found in the pedigree of seattle slew . mumtaz mahal is the dam of mah mahal the dam of mahmoud , who showed his speed as a winner of the 7 furlong champagne stakes and the 6 furlong richmond stakes . he also won the epsom derby at 1 mile , 4 furlongs and 6 yards . mahmoud was the sire of moolah bux , who is a sire of quarter horse runners .\nthe honorius story is one of many threads , beginning way back to the the tetrarch , the unbeaten star of the turf who stamped so many his progeny with his distinctive grey coat - including the wondrous mumtaz mahal .\nwhile there have been a number of outstanding broodmares of recent times , headed by the likes of urban sea , few will doubt that the mumtaz mahal\u2019s clan still has a major part to play in the world\u2019s best races .\nmumtaz mahal , who won seven of ten outings and was a champion 2yo and champion sprinter , is also the ancestor of this season\u2019s top class 3yo zarak , runner up in this year\u2019s gr1 prix du jockey club ( french derby ) .\na son of dubawi , zarak is the first runner for the brilliant and undefeated arc winner zarkava ( zamindar ) , herself a direct descendant of another outstanding racemare in petite etoile ( petition ) . the latter\u2019s fourth dam being none other than mumtaz mahal .\namong the most recent top class performers to trace back in female line to mumtaz mahal is 2015 cartier champion and horse of the year golden horn ( cape cross ) \u2013 who won seven of nine outings , including the g1 investec derby and gr1 prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe , and who is now standing at stud in newmarket .\n1952 , 1953 and 1954 quarter horse champion gelding brigand , from the 1949 crop by depth charge , raced on both thoroughbred and quarter horse tracks .\n3 - time quarter horse world champion woven web tb was sent to quarter horse racing by the king ranch and ran under the name miss princess .\n; to dodoma ii ( by dastur ) , dam of 1949 english champion 2 - year - old filly diableretta ( by dante ) and three other stakes winners ; and to bibibeg ( by bahram ) , dam of three stakes winners . nasrullah ' s dam mumtaz begum is a half sister to mah mahal ( by gainsborough ) , dam of 1936 derby stakes winner mahmoud , and to rustom mahal\nthere are lessons in this pedigree that we may apply to our sport horse breeding programs . mumtaz mahal is not inbred herself . she is out of two inbred parents . each side of the pedigree engages the background of the opposite side ' s inbreeding . this is why she was a top sprinter herself , she improved and intergrated the bloodlines of the parents .\nmany a high class performer has stemmed from this branch of the mumtaz mahal dynasty , none better than the masterpiece zarkava - the first filly in 15 years to defeat the older horses in the world ' s great test of thoroughbred class , the prix de l ' arc de triomphe .\nmumtaz mahal ( gb ) gr . m , 1921 { 9 - c } dp = 0 - 16 - 0 - 0 - 0 ( 16 ) di = inf cd = 1 . 00 - 10 starts , 7 wins , 2 places , 0 shows career earnings : \u00a313 , 933\none of the mumtaz mahal clan ' s finest achievements is petite etoile , the winner of 14 of her 19 starts - never once out of the first two . the highest ever timeform rated three - year - old filly until bettered only slightly by her relation habibti over two decades later .\nin the breeding of sport horses we have all been told to avoid sprinting thoroughbred lines , that they are generally not good riding horse material . if there was ever a proof that this bias is foolish , we can see it here . mumtaz mahal is the dam of badruddin , mirza ii , rustom mahal - who is dam of abernant , mah mahal who inturn produced mahmoud , and also mah iran , and mumtaz begum - - who produced nasrullah ( the greastest overall sport line anywhere ) and sun princess - - the dam of royal charger . these are only some of her progeny , but these lines are interwoven into the modern race horse , and yes , the modern sport horse . in addition , her dam , lady josephine , is the dam of the fast and sound fair trial , and his sister sansonnet who is the dam of tudor minstrel . this is a virtual who ' s who of important thoroughbred bloodlines - - all stemming from one mare and her mother .\neven though the duplicated lines in her parents are stayers , not sprinters , concentrating them this close up will produce speed . the experts state that building up the far reaches of the pedigree does the opposite : produce stamina . and it looks like mumtaz mahal shows there is merit in this theory .\nwe find mumtaz whereever great sport performance is found , and her grandson nasrullah is rated # 1 sport horse sireline in north america . read more about these bloodlines in legacy of lexington - - 20 % off when ordered from this site .\nundoubtedly there will be a protocol change now , once the horse has literally bolted . . . .\nas befitting a horse named after a roman emperor , honorius is a horse of great style and presence and he is sure to impress breeders as he begins his stud career at larneuk stud , euroa .\nit should not be forgotten however , that golden horn , while being by a very good sire , owes plenty to his superb female line . he traces back to the mighty mumtaz mahal , as does another arc winner of recent times , zarkava ( zamindar ) , while other recent stars tracing back to the \u201cflying filly\u201d include former sa horse of the year , igugu ( galileo ) and this season\u2019s gr1 pretty polly stakes winner , diamondsandrubies ( fastnet rock ) .\nif you have sport success in your horses than you probably have mumtaz mahal or a close relative of her in your lineages . a product of two tightly bred parents : the tetrarch - - who is 3x3 to the full siblings clementina / tadcaster , and lady josephine who is 4x4 to the full siblings the nun / norfolk . this pattern is extremely potent - - which her outstanding breeding career demonstrates .\nnasrullah\u2019s three parts brother royal charger , whose dam sun princess was a granddaughter of mumtaz mahal , also formed a remarkable potent male line , with outstanding male line descendants including the likes of hail to reason , roberto , sir ivor , sir tristram , zabeel , lonhro ( and thus july winner the conglomerate as well ) , sunday silence , more than ready , deep impact , sebring , and habitat to name but a few .\nnz connemara soc . nz farriers assn . aust / nz friesian soc . nz hanoverian soc . irish draught horse soc . advertising options\nmumtaz mahal was dubbed\nthe flying filly\nafter this daughter of the tetrarch proved herself one of the fastest two - year - olds ever . an early purchase for the aga khan , she also became one of his most important foundation mares . her descendants , which include mahmoud , nasrullah , royal charger , abernant , petite etoile , and shergar , spread her influence around the world , making her one of the most important broodmares of the 20th century .\nholy bull was champion three - year - old in 1994 , and won $ 2 . 4 million in his racing career . the son of great above ( by minnesota mac ) got his grey coloring came from his dam , sharon brown , whose parents both descended from the legendary mahmoud . sharon brown\u2019s sire al hatta , was by mahmoud\u2019s son the axe , and he was out of abyssinia , a descendant of mumtaz mahal , a grey dauighter of \u201cthe spotted wonder\u201d ,\ntwo years later an imposing son of danehill , a horse standing his second season at coolmore stud , was chosen as zarinia ' s mate .\nmah iran was the second best two - year - old filly of 1941 and became the dam of migoli ( 1944 by bois roussel ) , winner of the prix de l ' arc de triomphe , eclipse stakes , champion stakes , and second in the derby . migoli later sired the american belmont stakes winner gallant man . migoli ' s sister , star of iran ( by bois roussel - mah iran ) , produced the great filly petite etoile ( 1956 by petition ) , who was inbred 4x5 to lady josephine through mumtaz mahal and lady juror .\nthis season\u2019s smart british 3yo algometer ( archipenko ) is yet another from this female line \u2013 with his dam being triple gr1 winner and horse of the year albanova .\nand her blood flows through many a great australian horse with eight carat - record breaking dam of five group one winners including the champion octagonal - also a descendant .\ndepth charge sired only two starters in quarter horse races from 1955 to 1957 . they were dry powder and submersion . dry power had one start on quarter horse tracks and was unplaced . dry power made 57 thoroughbred starts , including 13 wins and she placed in the 1957 miss cleveland stakes . the dam of dry powder is brown satin by contradiction . submersion had 47 starts with only four wins and was unplaced from one start on quarter horse tracks . she is out of beau maid by beau pere .\nsuch as caulfield cup hero mongolian khan , also winner of the new zealand and australian derbies . . . the only horse to claim all three of those coveted group one races .\nworld champion johnny dial , a 1948 quarter horse son of depth charge , helped establish his sire as a progenitor of speed . johnny dial set or equaled four track records at four different tracks .\nfive of her progeny , including canadian horse of the year l ' enjoleur , were stakes winners and she spurred a dynasty whose members include the australian champion stallions flying spur and encosta de lago .\nincluding a tough fellow by the name of honorius , a horse whose illustrious background demands attention ! a proven high class sire line , an internationally prolific family . . . he has it all .\nthe conglomerate ( whose dam is the australian gr1 star republic lass ) is the eighth gr1 winner for former horse of the year lonhro ( whose 26 wins included no fewer than 11 at gr1 level .\nthe tetrarch ,\nthrough his champion daughter mumtaz mahal , the tetrarch\u2019s bloodline has continued through nasrullah , bold ruler , and secretariat .\nurltoken tim tam , oh what could of been . urltoken\nwinner of the 1958 kentucky derby and preakness who was thought to have a huge chance to win the belmont . indeed , he was leading down the stretch in that race , toward a sure victory . but he fractured a sesamoid bone and hobbled to the line in second place he retired to a successful stud career , and sired champion filly tosmah in 1961\ntriplicate gets a visit from fred astaire . triplicate is a winner of the 1946 hollywood gold cup . what a shame it will be no more . urltoken champion sire turn - to urltoken also saw a few with him in their pedigrees during the sales whats with the man o war essence ? lol upset in a pose , the only horse to beat man o war urltoken\nin addition , mumtaz is a phenomenal broodmare , she and her sister are so prolific that they are considered part of the fabric of the modern thoroughbred . she has the three daughter lines of the broodmare sire hermit - - a filly factor . the full siblings from her sire and dam provided strong filly - colt factor combinations . this is a beautiful pedigree - - excellence for performance and for breeding . when building our sport horse lineages we want to try to have a pattern like this , not of course with sprinting lines , but with sport transmitters . when we have a horse that has good sport duplications close up , we will want to find a mate that connects to the background of that strength and / or provides an equally potent design in different beneficial bloodlines - - like you see here .\nfrom horse racing simulation facebook :\ntoday in horse racing history \u2013 july 02 , 1989 : jockey steve cauthen became the first rider in history to sweep the world ' s four major derbies after winning the irish derby with old vic . he had previously won the kentucky derby with affirmed ( 1978 ) , the epsom derby with slip anchor ( 1985 ) and reference point ( 1987 ) and the french derby with old vic ( 1989 ) .\nthe thoroughbred jackstraw , who traces to the broodmare sire of depth charge\u2019s sire bold venture , is another source of quarter horse speed and has a 2 x 3 breeding pattern to luke mcluke , the broodmare sire of three bars .\ndepth charge is by bold venture and out of the hertz owned mare quickly , by haste . depth charge was sold as a weanling to the king ranch of kingsville , texas , which is the first twist in his story that set him on the road to being an influence on the quarter horse breed . the king ranch is noted for the development of the old sorrel line of quarter horses and the santa gertrudis breed of beef cattle . the king ranch also contributed to quarter horse racing as the owner and / or breeder of horses like the thoroughbreds woven web , aka \u201cmiss princess , \u201d chicaro , top deck and depth charge , who are all important contributors to the quarter horse breed .\nwe ' ve had g1 winners with a lot of chrome , but nothing as loud as the horse above . generally , racing tb breeders don ' t give a hoot about color . most flashy tbs are bred for the halter and / or sport horse markets . appaloosa markings ( lp complex ) have not been shown to occur in thoroughbreds . first secretary would not have been able to be registered as a thoroughbred . a horse can be registered as a tb only if both its parents are registered tbs . first secretary was registered as an appaloosa . he never raced due to his november foaling date , but stood at stud and sired 247 foals including 39 racing starters . appaloosas race together with paints . some racing appaloosas have pedigrees that include considerable quarter horse and / or thoroughbred blood . there ' s a horse named lucky chappy , foaled in ireland , that has placed in graded stakes company for team valor . he is a rabicano with a white tail head and roaning on his hindquarters . he is registered as a bay . then there ' s oxbow , who has some sort of sabino / rabicano thing going on . in japan , there is the white horse , yukichan . she was a g2 winner before being retired to broodmare duty . she is a granddaughter of sunday silence ( aren ' t they all ? ) and her dam seems to have been a spontaneous dominant white mutation .\nnasrullah was bred and owned by the aga khan , who initially stood the horse at barton grange stud in suffolk . after the 1944 breeding season , he sold the horse to joe mcgrath for \u00a319 , 000 , and * nasrullah moved to ireland . mcgrath , in turn , sold the horse to a . b .\nbull\nhancock of claiborne farm for \u00a3150 , 000 ( variously reported as equivalent to us $ 340 , 000 , $ 370 , 000 , or $ 372 , 000 , depending on the source consulted ) with the sale taking effect after the 1950 breeding season ; mcgrath retained one breeding right . * nasrullah died of a ruptured heart at claiborne farm on may 26 , 1959 .\nmoving on to royal ascot , she won the five furlong queen mary stakes , coasting home by ten lengths . it was here that mumtaz mahal earned her sobriquet\nthe flying filly\nand deservedly so . next came the national breeders produce stakes at sandown , also at five furlongs , which she won by four lengths . at goodwood , she won the molecomb stakes ( five furlongs ) but another awesome ten lengths . stepped up to six furlongs in the champagne stakes at doncaster , she won by three lengths . in her final start of the year , in the imperial produce stakes ( kempton ) on october 12 , she was clearly not at her best , barely handled the deep going and bravely lost the six furlong test by half a length to the colt arcade , feeling the whip for the first time .\nnever tasting defeat , zarkava earned the title of cartier european horse of the year and has already produced a group one winner - her son zarak charging home from the rear to claim the grand prix de saint - cloud in early july .\nthe thoroughbred jackstraw , who traces to the broodmare sire of depth charge\u2019s sire bold venture , is another source of quarter horse speed and has a 2 x 3 breeding pattern to luke mcluke ( shown ) , the broodmare sire of three bars .\nkristen manning is a freelance racing writer and pedigree analyst based in melbourne . a keen owner / breeder who loves every aspect of thoroughbred horse racing , she has written two books focusing on the deeds of fields of omagh and prince of penzance .\ndepth charge found himself back in quarter horse territory when he was sold to audie murphy in 1957 . gordon shultz , who later bought an interest in depth charge with murphy , stood the horse . his 1958 foals show 13 starters with 10 rom , one stakes winner and two stakes placed . his stakes winner was midland miss , winner of the brigand handicap . midland miss is out of bobbie leo by leo by champion joe reed ii , and out of frye\u2019s breeze by flying bob by chicaro .\npedigree newsletter : the five - cross files will be featured in a new pedigree analysis newsletter from bloodhorse . com . to sign up for this free weekly email - - or any other newsletters from the blood - horse - - just click here .\nthe 1949 crop for depth charge also did their share of promoting their sire . he sired 12 starters in quarter horse races that included nine rom , three stakes winners and two stakes placed runners . the stakes winners were chudej\u2019s black gold , miss tacubaya and brigand .\nmah mahal ( gr . f . 1928 by gainsborough ) dead - heated for first once in seven starts at two , and won a minor handicap at worcester at three . she produced nine foals , led by epsom derby winner mahmoud ( gr . c . 1933 by blenheim ii ) , who stood a couple seasons in france before being sent to kentucky , where he became a leading sire . mah mahal ' s other foals included khan bahadur ( c . 1935 by blenheim ii ) winner of the prince of wales ' s stakes and rous memorial stakes ; pherozshah ( c . 1934 by pharos ) , sire of rose o ' lynn ( dam of buisson ardent , venture vii ) before his export to a successful stud career in new zealand ; golden fawn ( 1937 by bahram ) , a major stakes winner in india ; and mah iran ( f . 1939 by href =\nbahram . html\n> bahram\ngoing down fighting when only just being beaten by teofilo in the group one dewhurst stakes at newmarket , holy roman emperor looked to have so much ahead of him but with fellow coolmore horse george washington proving infertile he was rushed off to stud to fill that gap on the roster .\nthe first depth charge crop produced in kentucky was foaled in 1952 . he had only five quarter horse starters with just two rom , all out of thoroughbred mares . the rom earners included spanish charge , a 2 - time stakes winner in the ruidoso derby and state fair stallion stakes .\na frustrating mix of talent and temperament while on the race course in england , nasrullah was no easier to handle as a stallion . nonetheless , the tempestuous horse became a leading sire on both sides of the atlantic and has wielded tremendous influence as both a sire of winners and a broodmare sire\nuk horse of the year , one whose record mare earnings took ten years to surpass . a true legend of the turf - and another great mare to make her mark over the generations with her unraced daughter zahra the foundation mare of the aga khan ' s prolific\nz\nfamily .\nlittle wonder that australians have been keen to tap into the influence of this family and it was kia - ora stud , nsw who imported zariya ' s irish bred granddaughter zarinia in 2005 . . . and they struck gold early with her second foal being south african horse of the year igugu .\na bay horse , nasrullah stood 16 . 1 - 1 / 2 hh . he was a handsome and brilliantly talented individual whose racing career was negatively impacted by his willful and ungenerous disposition . among his other bad habits , he was inclined to pull himself up on making the lead , making it quite difficult to time his finishing run . a strongly made , well balanced horse with exceptional muscling through the gaskins , he had a notably sloping croup which was passed on to many of his descendants . nasrullah was quite intelligent and invariably acted worse around humans who could be cowed by a show of temperament .\nflipping through the pages of this week ' s issue of the blood - horse , i did my usual cursory glance at the horses for sale section of the classified ads . one of the entries screamed out\nlovely young dynaformer mare . . .\nand i decided to dig a little deeper .\nthis male line has well and truly flourished in south africa , with current successful representatives including champion sires al mufti and captain al , the successful sire and equus champion greys inn ( sire of legal eagle \u2013 the probable horse of the year for this season ) , and the very promising young sire philanthropist .\nseveral of these early depth charge runners were out of thoroughbred mares , so they were thoroughbreds that competed in both quarter horse and thoroughbred races . these runners included encantadora , winner of the 1950 central bar and grill futurity . she was undefeated from three starts in quarter horse races and had 28 starts in thoroughbred races that included 11 victories . encantadora was a stakes winner in the 1st division of the 1950 silver stakes and set three track records at centennial race track , including a world record for 5 furlongs in 57 seconds . this mare was king ranch bred and out of bruja , by livery . the dam of bruja was chicaro\u2019s hallie by chicaro .\nchampion sire in france in 2009 , cape cross , who has been represented by 10 stakes winners in 2015 , has had just a handful of runners in south africa , with his best being dollarmation , the latter beating subsequent horse of the year , ilha da vitoria ( candy stripes ) when second in the gr2 elevation stakes .\ninterestingly , golden horn is inbred to lorenzaccio ( klairon ) \u2013a horse who broke the hearts of many racing fans when defeating the great nijinsky ii in the champion stakes of 1970 . lorenzaccio\u2019s name will live in pedigrees for decades thanks to the deeds of his hugely successful son , ahonoora \u2013sire of classic winners don\u2019t forget me and dr devious , outstanding sire and broodmare sire , indian ridge , and broodmare sire of such horses as cape cross , derby winner and champion , new approach ( galileo ) , influential speed sire , acclamation ( royal applause ) , and us horse of the year , azeri ( jade hunter ) , to name but a few . ahonoora is also broodmare sire of former champion sa sprinter tracy\u2019s element \u2013 herself dam of ill - fated australian horse of the year , typhoon tracy ( red ransom ) . other notable performers inbred to lorenzaccio include irish derby runner up , definite article - best known as the sire of four time gr1 irish st leger winner vinnie roe .\nand designs on rome , hong kong horse of the year . as well as south american stars salto olimpico and maraton , hong kong mile winner beauty only , nz 1000 guineas winner rollout the carpet , oakleigh plate victor sheidel , american big race winner rich tapestry , uk 1000 guineas heroine homecoming queen and the , high class french galloper morandi .\nhaunted , from the 1950 crop by depth charge , ran on thoroughbred tracks and never had a start in a quarter horse race . she won the 1950 cinderella stakes as one of her four wins from 12 starts . she was second in the hollywood lassie stakes . the dam of haunted was bruja by livery and out of chicaro\u2019s hallie by chicaro .\nholy roman emperor ' s grandam is northern dancer ' s finest daughter fanfreluche - canadian horse of the year , us champion 3y0 filly . best remembered as the victim of a kidnap , she was saved by a family who found her wandering along the road ! fortunately she was eventually returned to clairbone farm from where she proved a powerful breeding force .\nbaloma is by depth charge by bold venture , and out of woven web , or miss princess as she was known in quarter horse racing . woven web is by bold venture , making baloma inbred to bold venture with a 2 x 2 breeding pattern . the dam of woven web is bruja by livery and she is out of chicaro hallie by chicaro .\nthe 1951 crop was the last crop sired by depth charge in texas , as he was sent to stand at the kentucky division of the king ranch . this move to kentucky was another twist in his life that could have ended his success as a quarter horse sire . however , he was not well accepted by kentucky breeders and he was later sold .\nwas looking at mentor cane on a different discussion . . . which brought this question to mind . pardon , i am not a true horse racing fan so this may be a dumb or redundant question : has there been any american g1 racehorse that had very unusual or\nloud\nmarkings on his coat like a loud paint , leopard or appaloosa type coloring ? with all of the horse races i ' ve watched on tv , i ' ve never seen any unusually marked racehorses . i saw marquetry ' s photo , but his coat coloring was more subtle . . . his body was basically a solid color . rachel showed us a paint racehorse in japan . . . ( see image below ) : but do we have any or had any loud marked ( g1 ) racehorses in the us ? btw - another ignorant question on thoroughbred horse racing . . . was first secretary ' s foals ( with his bloodlines from secretariat ) ever able to qualify to race among the thoroughbreds ? ? or because of his mixed appaloosa blood , not eligible ? please advise if you know .\ndepth charge is one of the greatest stallions to impact the racing american quarter horse . the story of depth charge is filled with twists and turns ; however , that could have led to his being lost in history . but like many great stallions , he overcame the obstacles to enter the aqha hall of fame as a sire with a deep and lasting influence on the breed .\ndomino has a breeding pattern of 3 x 4 x 4 to lexington , a 4 x 5 x 5 x 4 breeding pattern to boston , and a breeding pattern of 6 x 5 x 6 x 6 to glencoe . the mating of lexington and boston with the blood of glencoe is one of the great nicks . it is a nick that produced speed that eventually became part of the quarter horse .\n\u201cif you were putting together your fantasy horse stable for the last 25 years , you\u2019d have to have holy bull in your top five . horses like holy bull just don\u2019t come along that often . i\u2019ve always said , he wasn\u2019t a specialist \u2013 short , grass , long or dirt . just a fantastic racehorse . you can\u2019t mention his name without using such words as \u2018fighter , determination and guts . \u201d\ndepth charge was foaled in 1941 at leona farms in carey , illinois . the farm was owned by john d . hertz , sr . and his wife fannie , the listed breeders of depth charge . john d . hertz , sr . was the founder of such automobile businesses as hertz rent a car and the yellow cab company . they were well known in horse racing by the time depth charge was born as the owners of 1928 kentucky derby winner reigh count .\nultimus is the sire of luke mcluke , the broodmare sire of three bars . jackstraw , another source of quarter horse speed , has a 2 x 3 breeding pattern to luke mcluke . stimulus is another son of ultimus and is the sire of captain couragous , who is the sire of rey , the broodmare sire of sugar bars . high time , by ultimus , is the sire of fleeting time , the broodmare sire of joe reed ii , the sire of leo .\njohnny dial , a 1948 son of depth charge , is one of the runners not bred by the king ranch . his dam is the cajun bred running mare black annie by rodney . bred by the hepler brothers , johnny dial ran from 1950 to 1952 , starting in 27 quarter horse races than included 13 wins , six second place finishes and two thirds . he was the 1952 world champion and the 1952 champion stallion . he earned a total of $ 22 , 906 .\nthe race record of depth charge indicates that he was not the kind of horse with the stamina to run the classic distance of the 1 1 / 4 - mile kentucky derby . he was only raced from 2 1 / 2 to 6 furlongs in his 16 starts . we will use his chart book record published in the november 1973 quarter racing world , now speedhorse , in the article \u201cdepth charge : unsung progenitor of speed\u201d by ralph dye , as our source for his race record .\nbaloma is another thoroughbred runner that came from the 1950 depth charge crop . she had six starts on the thoroughbred tracks with two wins , including the debutante stakes at the fairgrounds in new orleans where she set a new track record for 2 furlongs in : 21 . 8 . baloma ran 2 furlongs again in the same time for her second win in mexico . she raced at quarter horse tracks in 1953 , earning her rom and winning one of three starts with two second place finishes .\nstephanie is by stefan the great , winner of the 6 furlong middle park stakes at two . he was injured in the 2000 guineas and retired with two wins in three starts . stefan the great is by the tetrarch , an undefeated race horse that won all seven of his starts at two including the champagne stakes , woodcote stakes , coventry stakes and national breeder\u2019s produce stakes . the tetrarch shows his speed in these races , as they were run from 5 furlongs to 1 mile . his injury prevented his running in longer races and he was retired to stud .\nwhen depth charge\u2019s racing career ended , he returned to texas . the king ranch sent him to john dial , a racehorse owner , breeder and trainer who played a key role in the king ranch race program in texas . dial had sold chicaro to the king ranch , the thoroughbred that is credited with founding the king ranch entry into thoroughbred racing . dial was the first to stand the king ranch - bred top deck and was also the trainer of 3 - time aqha world champion woven web tb that the king ranch sent to quarter horse racing as miss princess .\nhowl at the moon has two young foals . a 2007 proud citizen ( sro ) daughter sold for $ 20 , 000 at last year ' s keeneland november breeding stock sale and is hip # 2832 at the keeneland september sale starting next week . another filly came early this year , this time by olmodavor ( sro ) . for 2009 , howl at the moon is in foal to the royally - bred kitalpha ( a full brother to the spectacular sire kingmamb o ( sro ) ) , who arrived at war horse place in lexington , ky . , in 2008 for his first u . s . stud season .\nholy bull\u2019s original owner , rachel carpenter , bequeathed all of her horses to jimmy croll who was the owner of record for holy bull\u2019s first start in 1993 . he won all four races as a two - year - old , including the g1 futurity stakes at belmont park over eventual champion two - year - old dehere . at three , among his eight wins were five g1 races \u2013 the travers stakes , woodward stakes , met mile , haskell invitational and florida derby \u2013 and was voted the best three - year - old of that year and was also named horse of the year . he retired with an overall record of 13 wins from 16 starts and earnings of $ 2 , 481 , 760 and was inducted into the hall of fame in 2001 .\nbrigand raced from 1951 to 1958 . urltoken gives his thoroughbred race record as nine starts at two with five wins , two seconds and two thirds . he was second in the duncan f . kenner stakes and won $ 5 , 391 on thoroughbred tracks . he started in 75 quarter horse races with 37 wins and 20 stakes wins , earning $ 45 , 964 . his stakes wins include the new mexico breeders\u2019 derby and the new mexico state fair championship in 1952 . he won his third peter mccue stakes in 1957 and was the aqha 1952 , 1953 and 1954 champion gelding . he broke down in 1958 and is buried in the infield at ruidoso downs . brigand\u2019s dam , border jane by boojum and out of chicaro jane by chicaro was also bred by king ranch .\na horse probably more ill tempered than dynaformer , hastings , and halo . meet the mare vampire :\nthe aptly - named daughter of prominent british stallion galopin was renowned for her violent nature . she was known to viciously attack anyone who tried to handle her , with hooves or teeth . her ill - temper had an impact on her racing career , and she was only able to win two of her career twelve races , one of them being the priory stakes when her first foal was born , vampire killed it and seriously injured her groom in the process . despite this , she managed to produce 10 named foals , 6 of which were sired by champion sire orme her best offspring was flying fox , born in 1896 , who won the english triple crown and was a highly successful stallion in france\neven her picture looks vicious urltoken\nive noticed that alot of these champions have upright pasterns , giving them a proud stance to their confirmation stymie beating assualt and gallorette in the 1947 metropolitan handicap ( or met mile ) . he would come from 13 lenghts back to win the race . urltoken baby sunglow urltoken who would grow up to sire 1959 hoy sword dancer sysonby urltoken\nsysonby was the 1905 horse of the year , winning all but one of his races by large margins he died in 1906 , aged just four years , from a disease called variola . the disease caused bloody sores all over his body , which soon became infected , causing death . his remains were donated to the american museum of natural history to become part of the chubb series of skeletons\ni would of rather he lie in peace but oh well ta wee , whose name means beautiful girl in the sioux language urltoken her first foal was the sprinter great above who sired holy bull\nthere is a hidden side to this story of her lineage . first , it is just a piece of good luck that her dam lady josephine was not born a year later . if she had been she would have been excluded from the general stud book ! and of course if that happened then there would be no history writing english broodmare dynasty that influenced all of the racing and sport ! lady josephine ' s dam - sire is americus , an american thoroughbred , who carried the bloodlines of lexington rh who was sire of the full siblings the nun / norfolk who she was 2x2 to . also the dam of those siblings , novice , was by glencoe , but out of chloe anderson , another american running horse . when the american sportsmen began bringing their racehorses and hunters over to england , ireland and france to compete starting in the 1850s no one there was prepared for their far ranging success . by the 1880s the american horses had won just about all the classic races , many multiple times , and their offspring bred there were doing the same , including americus girl , the dam of lady josephine . the surprise at the performance level of these upsetters was quickly followed by uneasiness , then dread and anger , which finally resulted in the english jockey club passing an edict called the jersey act to put the american thoroughbred out of business . lady josephine if born one year later would have been one of those excluded from the stud book . ( see\nowner : hh aga khan iii breeder : lady sykes of sledmere winnings : 10 starts : 7 - 2 - 0 , \u00a313 , 933 won spring stakes , queen mary stakes , national breeders produce stakes , molecomb stakes , champagne stakes , king george stakes , nunthorpe stakes . champion 2yo filly ( 1923 ) champion sprinter in england nicknamed\nthe flying filly\n( stable name :\nmumty\n) died in february , 1945 , at haras marly - la - ville , oise , france , at 24 . ( close )\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ngrey filly , 1921 . by the tetrarch - lady josephine by sundridge . byerley turk sire line woodpecker sire line quick chart . family # 9 - c\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthere is much more to this mare , since i first wrote this article in 2012 , i have isolated the main bloodlines of the jumping trait , and this mare , besides all her other gifts is also a strong source of jump . and her sire and dam : the tetrarch and lady josephine can themselves be relied on to produce jumpers .\nfor the full story on this episode and the reason why it was the american horses were so superior to their british counterparts ) .\n. look at the duplications , and if you are familar with thoroughbred lines you will notice that many of these repetitions are of known staying sources . for instance , lexington rh , is an old pre - potent american line , a wildly successful racehorse and sire when race horses were expected to r\n, several times a day , this is after many of them had to ride ten to twenty miles to get to the races . it would be fair to say that lexington rh is a source of stamina - - he set world records for distance racing . yet concentrating his lines close up has produced a\ncolor : gr ( gb ) won spring stakes , queen mary stakes , national breeders produce stakes , molecomb stakes , champagne stakes , king george stakes , nunthorpe stakes . champion 2yo filly ( 1923 ) champion sprinter in england nicknamed ` the flying filly ` died in february , 1945 , at haras marly - la - ville , oise , france , at 24 . ( close )\nalthough he was the top colt on the free handicap for english juveniles of 1942 with a rating of 132 pounds , nasrullah was weighted 1 pound below the top filly , lady sybil .\nnasrullah was weighted at 132 pounds on the free handicap for english 3 - year - old males of 1943 , 1 pound below champion straight deal .\ned the english general sire list in 1951 and led the u . s . general sire list in 1955 , 1956 , 1959 , 1960 , and 1962 . according to jockey club records , he sired 290 winners ( 68 . 2 % ) and 84 stakes winners ( 19 . 8 % ) from 425 named foals .\nnasrullah with 98 stakes winners from 420 foals ( 23 . 3 % ) ,\n( churchill , reichard and rogers ) shows him as having sired 98 stakes winners from 425 foals ( 23 . 1 % )\nhigh withers and a sloping croup ; many had varying degrees of his volatile temperament as well .\nfull brother to the good english juvenile filly rivaz , dam of the brilliantly fast english filly palariva ( by palestine ; dam of french stakes winner khairunissa and english stakes winner zahedan ) , 1963 mother goose stakes winner spicy living ( by gallant man ) and stakes winner tayeh ( by tehran ; dam of french stakes winners paraguana and paola ii ) . he is also a full brother to the minor stakes winners nizami ii and malindi ( dam of two - time french leading sire prince taj , by prince bio ) . in addition , nasrullah is a\nnasrullah : forgotten patriarch of the american thoroughbred was written by melanie greene and was released by the history press in 2013 .\nnasrullah is profiled in chapter 20 of abram s . hewitt ' s sire lines ( 1977 , the thoroughbred owners and breeders association ; updated and reprinted by eclipse press in 2006 ) and in part three of edward l . bowen ' s dynasties ( 2000 , eclipse press ) .\nnasrullah is one of 205 stallions whose accomplishments at stud are profiled in great thoroughbred sires of the world ( 2006 , the australian bloodhorse review ) , a massive reference work written by jennifer churchill , andrew reichard and byron rogers .\nthe first , an irish - bred filly out of dasaratha , won the 1952 irish one thousand guineas . the second , an american - bred colt out of segula , won the 1955 preakness stakes and belmont stakes . ( ironically , the filly was registered as \u201cnashua ii\u201d in the\nwhen imported to the united states even though she was the elder , as the american - bred of that name was the first to be registered in the asb . )\nwhen the stallions were being shown to visitors at claiborne , nasrullah would throw a fit if he was not the first stallion led out .\ncompletely uncooperative with veterinary treatment , nasrullah never got so much as a tetanus shot while at claiborne .\ndepth charge changed ownership in 1960 when hugh huntley bought him . his 1961 crop included stakes winner pokey chargette and stakes placed bita charger ( shown ) .\nbold venture , the sire of depth charge , won the 1936 kentucky derby and preakness stakes , but bowed a tendon prior to the belmont stakes , ending his race career .\nchica charge is one of three stakes runners from the 1959 crop by depth charge . the others are 1963 champion aged stallion the haymaker and goldseeker .\nstakes placed deep bob is a full sibling to stakes winner midland miss , who is from the 1958 depth charge crop .\ndepth charge\u2019s first start was at 5 furlongs and he won by 10 - lengths . it must be noted that he was first at the quarter in six of his 11 starts .\ntwo of the three stakes winners from the last texas crop by depth charge in 1951 were the quarter horses dividend and super charge ( shown ) .\ndomino is considered one of the great sources of speed . ultimus , the broodmare sire of depth charge\u2019s sire bold venture , is a double grandson of domino .\nthe 1962 foal crop by depth charge included stakes winner kaweah shue fly ( shown ) and stakes placed bob charge .\ndepth charge changed ownership in 1960 when hugh huntley bought him . his 1961 crop included stakes winner pokey chargette ( shown ) and stakes placed bita charger .\nthe 1960 crop by depth charge included stakes winner tiny charger ( shown ) and stakes placed deep bob .\nthe king ranch entered thoroughbred racing in the mid 1930\u2019s , and by 1941 they were well on their way to prominence in the racing industry . they bought bold venture just after his win in the 1936 kentucky derby and stood him at their king ranch kentucky division .\ndepth charge was sent to the king ranch in texas to await his racing career as a contender for such races as the kentucky derby . he was conditioned by max hirsch , who had been the trainer of his sire bold venture and who also trained top king ranch runners such as 1946 triple crown winner assault and 1950 kentucky derby and belmont stakes winner middleground . both runners were also sired by bold venture .\ndepth charge started four times at two , with a win , a second , and a third place , earning just $ 2 , 350 . his third came in the myles standish stakes at suffolk downs , making him a stakes placed runner . he also finished seventh in the juvenile stakes at belmont park . he broke his maiden in his last race of the year at jamaica race course in new york at 5 1 / 2 furlongs . it should be noted that he had the first call at the quarter , or the 3 / 16th pole , in all four of his starts at two .\ndepth charge didn\u2019t race as a three year old . the only known physical reason for depth charge not starting that year came in the ralph dye story in that he had \u201ca tendon that was to give him some trouble . \u201d depth charge resumed racing at four , running at garden state , belmont park and jamaica . he finished second at garden state in a 6 furlong race that year ."]}
{"id": 182, "summary": [{"text": "cratilla lineata ( line forest-skimmer , emerald-banded skimmer or pale-faced forest-skimmer ) is a species of dragonfly in the family libellulidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is found in many asian countries .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is commonly found in forested areas in lowland and montane regions .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "prefers to breed in shaded muddy pools and marshes in forest . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "cratilla lineata", "paragraphs": ["cratilla lineata male hw 36 - 38 mm . female hw 38 - 40 mm ;\nabove : a lonely male cratilla lineata perch for long periods awaiting females at a monsoon shallow drain .\nlarvae of cratilla spp . are very similar , but those of lineata occur in a wider range of standing water forest habitats .\ncratilla lineata is similar but smaller and lighter then cratilla metallica . robust build and deep metallic - green ground color on the thorax . the looks is similar to cratilla metallica but the color is duller in coloration and lacks the dark tips to the wings and abdomen darker and narrower .\ncratilla lineata is an abundant and widespread species ranging from the west coast of india through indo - china , southern china including taiwan and hainan to the philippines and indonesia .\ncoi gene : > gi | 391352385 | dbj | ab708951 . 1 | cratilla lineata mitochondrial coi gene for cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 , partial cds , isolate : rf1768 actagttccattaatattaggagcaccagatatggcattcccacgacttaataatataagattttgacttttaccaccttcttttactctcttacttgctagtagcatagttgaaagaggagcaggtacaggatgaacagtttatcctccattagcaggagcaattgcacatgcaggagcatcagttgatttaacaattttttctttacacctagcaggtgtttcctcgattttgggagcaattaattttatcaccacagtgattaatatgaaatcaccaggtataaagttagatcaattaccattatttgtatgggcagtagtaattacagctattttacttcttctatccttaccagtactagctggagctattaccatattattaactgatcgaaatattaatacttctttttttgaccctgcaggagggggagatccaattctttat\ndescribed by brauer ( 1878 ) the type locality for nominate cratilla lineata lineata is malacca , sumatra . f\u00f6rster ( 1903 ) described cratilla calverti from malabar , india but fraser ( 1936 ) considered this taxon to be just a late stage maturation colour form . lieftinck ( 1953 ) recognised calverti as a subspecies of lineata . davies and tobin ( 1985 ) treated the nominate from to be restricted to east asia whereas the range of c . l . calverti includes india and indo - china . the subspecies cratilla lineata assidua lieftinck 1953 was described from java and this subspecies ranges from bali and java to the philippines .\ndescribed by brauer ( 1878 ) the type locality for nominate cratilla lineata lineata is malacca , sumatra . f\u00f6rster ( 1903 ) described cratilla calverti from malabar , india but fraser ( 1936 ) considered this taxon to be just a late stage maturation colour form . lieftinck ( 1953 ) recognised calverti as a subspecies of lineata . davies and tobin ( 1985 ) treated the nominate from to be restricted to east asia whereas the range of c . l . calverti includes india and indo - china . the subspecies cratilla lineata assidua lieftinck 1953 was described from java and this subspecies ranges from bali and java to the philippines .\ncratilla lineata is very widely distributed throughout the old world tropics ranging from india to the philippines . fraser ( 1936 ) remarked that c . lineata is widely distributed from the west coast of india throughout burma , sri lanka malaysia , the sundaic archipelago to borneo , new guinea and the philippines . however there are no known records from new guinea . h\u00e4m\u00e4l\u00e4inen and pinratana ( 1999 ) consider c . lineata calverti to be widespread and common throughout thailand . hua ( 2000 ) records cratilla lineata from guangdong , jiangxi , sichuan , taiwan , xizang yunnan and zhejiang . wilson , reels and xu ( 2008 ) reported the first record from hainan . orr ( 2005 ) reports c . lineata from p . malaysia and h\u00e4m\u00e4l\u00e4inen and pinratana ( 1999 ) consider c . lineata calverti to be widespread and common throughout thailand . cuong and hoa ( 2006 ) lists just two locations from viet nam in the south near ho chi minh . asahina ( 1968 ) reported c . lineata from baguio , north luzon in the philippines . lieftinck ( 1954 ) lists c . lineata assidua from java and bali and the nominate subspecies from thailand , sumatra and borneo .\nthe dull color of thorax and pattern of the 3 yellow marks are different from those cratilla lineate in taiwan . likely this one is a tropical subspecies .\nthis male cratilla lineate thorax lacked the defined yellow lateral stripe . very likely because of aging as can be seen the lower thorax has become pruinose , with a blue powdery bloom .\ndistinguishing feature : this species resembles p . obscura rather closely . the two are , however , easily distinguished by the distal antenodal nervure complete in cratilla but incomplete in potamarcha . abdomen size : male : 30 - 32 mm female : 31 - 32 mm wing size : male : 35 - 38 mm female : 37 - 41 mm wing spot : male : yellowish white female : yellowish white eye color : male : dark reddish brown female : dark reddish brown\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : given the very extensive range for this species and its common occurrence in forested areas throughout much of the entire indo - malay zoogeographic region it is not considered to be threatened . it is therefore listed as least concern .\nchina ( guangdong , guangxi , hainan , jiangxi , sichuan , tibet [ or xizang ] , yunnan , zhejiang ) ; indonesia ( bali , jawa , kalimantan , lesser sunda is . , sumatera ) ; malaysia ; myanmar ; philippines ; singapore ; sri lanka ; taiwan , province of china ; thailand ; viet nam\noccurs in forested areas in lowland and montane regions . prefers shaded muddy forest pools ( lieftinck 1953 ) but will occur in a wide range of lentic forest habitat ( orr 2005 ) .\nloss of lowland forest habitat throughout much oriental region will undoubtedly have reduced the available habitat for this species . it is common in primary forested locations such as endau rompin , malaysia ( wilson 2009 ) but apart from one recent record absent from deforested areas such as singapore ( cheong\n2009 ) . however it is a highly dispersive species and has able to colonise secondary forested areas in south china .\nall measures to protect lowland and montane forest habitat throughout india , indo - china and southeast asia will help protect this widespread species .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\njoshi , s . , p . koparde , p . dawn , p . roy , and k . kunte ( eds . ) .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 , all rights reserved . national centre for biological sciences ( ncbs ) holds copyright for all the original material and compilations on this website , although contributing writers and photographers may hold copyright for their material as cited . material from this website can be used freely for educational , basic research and conservation purposes , provided that this website is acknowledged and properly cited as the source . contact us to obtain prior permission for any other use , including for large data downloads and collaborative research .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nline forest - skimmer is a moderately large dragonfly which is rare and found only at few locations in the nature reserves . this species breed in small shallow , leafy pools in the closed forests .\nthe thorax of the male is deep metallic dark blue with thin yellow stripes . the yellow stripes are obscured due to pruinose in older males . the wings of the male is clear , without any dark patch .\nfemale is slightly more robust , has a distinct yellow stripes at the abdomen with dark wing - tips . i am not sure is the dark wing tips only found in the singapore species ?\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\ncopyright \u00a9 2017 - 2018 , all rights reserved . odonata of bangladesh holds copyright for all the original material and compilations on this website , although contributing writers and photographers may hold copyright for their material . material from this website can be used freely for educational , basic research and conservation purposes , provided that this website is acknowledged and properly cited as the source . contact us to obtain prior permission for any other use .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nlieftinck , m . a . ( 1953 ) the odonata of the island sumba with a survey of the dragonfly fauna of the lesser sunda islands . : verhandlungen der naturforschenden gesellschaft in basel : 64 ( 1 ) : 118 - 228 , figs . 1 - 72 , tab . 1 - 2 .\nthe definitive coloration of adults is acquired slowly with maturation , and individuals that are not yet mature may not be fully colored . male dragonflies on territory at the water or individuals of either sex engaged in reproductive behavior will surely be mature . some adults become pruinose , with a blue or whitish powdery bloom that covers parts of the body .\nvertex and frons are metallic - blue reflections . the vertex plat has a pair of short horns\nthis adult has become pruinose with a whitish powdery bloom covering lower parts of the body .\nthis male has completely clear wings . but i also saw same species with 2 different types of wing color : one with small tinged brown tip and another one with all wings tinged brown .\nthis species is found in closed forest and forested swamps 0 - 1100 m and in small shallow pools .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\nall the pictures were taken in pure natural conditions without any restriction to a dragonfly freedom . any use of images of this site must be accompanied with a reference to the author\n1 . kosterin o . r . , vikhrev n . e . 2006 . odonata seen during three days in a populated lowland part of cambodia . malangpo 21 : 212 - 217 .\n2 . kosterin , o . e . 2010 . a glance at the odonata of the cambodian coastal regions : end of dry season in 2010 . international dragonfly fund report 29 : 1 - 75 .\n3 . kosterin , o . e . 2011 . odonata of the cambodian coastal regions revisited : beginning of dry season 2010 . international dragonfly fund report 40 : 1 - 108 .\n4 . kosterin , o . e . , j . holden . 2011 . some photographic records of odonata in cambodia . international dragonfly fund report 42 : 1 - 6 .\n5 . kosterin o . 2012 . odonata of the cambodian coastal regions in late rainy season of 2011 . international dragonfly fund report , vol . 45 , pp . 1 - 102 .\n6 . kosterin o . e . 2012 . a rapid survey of odonata on bokor plateau , preah monivong national park , cambodia . cambodian journal of natural history , vol . 2012 , pp . 75 - 86 .\n7 . kosterin , o . e . , n . makbun , p . dawwrueng . 2012 . burmagomphus asahinai sp . nov . , a new species from cambodia and thailand , with a description of the male of b . gratiosus chaoi , 1954 . international journal of odonatology , vol . 15 , pp . 275 - 292 .\n8 . kosterin , o . e . , g . chartier , j . holden , f . s . mey . 2012 . new records of odonata from cambodia , based mostly on photographs . cambodian journal of natural history 2012 : 150 - 163 .\n9 . kosterin , o . e . 2014 . odonata of the sourth - west and north - east of cambodia as studied in early rainy season of 2013 . international dragonfly fund report 67 : 1 - 94 .\n10 . kosterin , o . e . 2014 . notes on infraspecific variation of some gomphidae ( odonata ) species in cambodia . internaional dragonfly fund report 68 : 1 - 16 .\nkosterin , o . e . , g . chartier . 2014 . two more odonata species recorded from cambodia . cambodian journal of natural history 2014 : 8 - 11\n12 . kosterin oe , constant j , wilson kdp . 2014 . neotype of pseudagrion approximans selys , 1867 designated to resolve a nomenclatorial confusion in the genus aciagrion selys , 1891 ( odonata : coenagrionidae ) . international journal of odonatology 17 : 161 - 172 .\nkosterin o . e . 2015 . taxonomical notes on indolestes fraser , 1922 ( lestidae , zygoptera ) . 1 . indolestes gracilis expressior ssp . nov . from eastern cambodia . / / international dragonfly fund \u2013 report 81 : 1 - 11 .\nkosterin o . e . , h . karube , r . futahashi . 2015 . two new subspecies of hemicordulia tenera lieftinck , 1930 ( corduliidae ) from cambodia and thailand . international dragonfly fund \u2013 report \u2013 vol . 82 \u2013 p . 1 - 19 .\n15 . kosterin o . e . risiophlebia guentheri sp . nov . ( odonata , libellulidae ) from southeastern indochina . zootaxa 3964 : 138 - 145 .\n16 . kosterin o . e . 2015 . taxonomic and faunal notes on macromia rambur , 1842 from cambodia ( odonata : macromiidae ) . odonatologica 44 : 117 - 151\n17 . kosterin o . e . 2015 . onychargia priydak sp . nov . ( odonata , platycnemididae ) from eastern cambodia . international journal of odonatology . vol . 18 . iss . 2 . p . 157 - 168 .\n18 . kosterin o . e . 2015 . prodasineura hoffmanni sp . nov . ( odonata , platycnemididae , disparoneurinae ) from eastern cambodia . zootaxa . vol . 4027 . iss . 4 . p . 565 - 577 .\n19 . kosterin o . e . 2015 . dry season odonata of the cardamonean coast ( cambodia and thailand ) revisited . international dragonfly fund report . vol . 89 . p . 1 - 36 .\n20 . kosterin , o . e . & yokoi n . 2016 . asiagomphus reinhardti sp . nov . ( odonata , gomphidae ) from eastern cambodia and southern laos . zootaxa vol . 4103 . issue 1 . p . 35 - 42 .\n21 . kosterin , o . e . 2016 . microgomphus alani ( odonata , gomphidae ) sp . nov . from cambodia . zootaxa vol . 4114 . issue 3 . p . 341 - 350 .\n22 . kosterin , o . e . 2016 . reconsideration of the genera merogomphus martin , 1904 , and anisogomphus selys , 1857 , including erection of a new genus , with a new species and discussion of additional specimens from cambodia . / / zootaxa , vol . 4171 . issue 1 . p . 051 - 076 .\n23 . kosterin , o . e . 2016 . coeliccia poungyi dasha subsp . nov . ( odonata , platycnemididae , calicnemiinae ) from eastern cambodia . international dragonfly fund report . vol . 97 . p . 1 - 16 .\n24 . kosterin , o . e . 2016 . a survey of odonata of mondulkiri , the elevated eastern province of cambodia , for ten days in june 2014 . international dragonfly fund report . vol . 98 . p . 1 - 85 .\n25 . kosterin , o . e . , chartier , g . 2017 . update of 2014 and 2016 to odonata found at the marshy coast of sw cambodia including three species added for the country . international dragonfly fund report . vol . 101 . p . 1 - 26 .\n26 . kosterin , o . e . 2017 . a short survey of odonata in stung treng province in northern cambodia in mid - summer 2016 . international dragonfly fund report . vol . 105 . p . 1 - 40 .\nkosterin , o . e . , kompier . t . 2017 . coeliccia rolandorum sp . nov . from eastern cambodia and southern vietnam , the eastern relative of c . kazukoae asahina , 1984 ( odonata : platycnemididae ) . / / zootaxa , vol . 4341 , issue 4 , p . 509 - 527 .\nkosterin , o . e . too pervert : an attempt of an interfamiliar homosexual copulation wheel in damselflies . / / agrion , vol . 22 , issue 1 , p . 52 - 53 .\nthe following is a list of odonata species found in taiwan . the total number of species , with damselflies and dragonflies , recorded is 156 , within including 14 endemic species and 10 endemic subspecies .\nwen - chi yeh\uff08\u8449\u6587\u742a\uff09 ; hsin - chieh tang\uff08\u5510\u6b23\u6f54\uff09 ; szu - lung chen\uff08\u9673\u8cdc\u9686\uff09 ; mei - hua tsou\uff08\u66f9\u7f8e\u83ef\uff09 ( 2006 ) .\nthree dragonflies ( odonata ) newly recorded in taiwan\n. formosan entomologist . 26 : 187\u2013195 .\nyeh w . c . , h . i . chiou , h . c . tang , j . h . wu and s . l . chen . 2007 . three species of dragonflies newly recorded to taiwan . endemic species research 9 ( 2 ) \uff1a53 - 62 .\nm . a . lieftinck , j . c . lien\uff08\u9023\u65e5\u6e05\uff09 & t . c . maa\uff08\u99ac\u99ff\u8d85\uff09 ( 1984 ) .\ncatalogue of taiwanese dragonflies ( insecta : odonata ) \uff08\u81fa\u7063\u873b\u8713\u76ee\u9304\uff09\n. asian ecological society .\ntrueman , john w . h . & rowe , richard j . ( 2008 ) : tree of life web project \u2013 odonata . dragonflies and damselflies . version of 2008 - mar - 20 . retrieved 2008 - dec - 15 .\nthis page is based on a wikipedia article written by authors ( here ) . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 license ; additional terms may apply . images , videos and audio are available under their respective licenses ."]}
{"id": 188, "summary": [{"text": "stalk-eyed flies are insects of the fly family diopsidae .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the family is distinguished from most other flies by the possession of \" eyestalks \" : projections from the sides of the head with the eyes at the end .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "some fly species from other families such as drosophilidae , platystomatidae , richardiidae , and tephritidae have similar heads , but the unique character of the diopsidae is that their antennae are located on the stalk , rather than in the middle of the head as in all other flies .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the stalk-eyed flies are up to a centimeter long , and they feed on both decaying plants and animals .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "their unique morphology has inspired research into how the attribute may have arisen through forces of sexual selection and natural selection .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "studies of the behavior of the diopsidae have yielded important insights into the development of sexual ornamentation , the genetic factors that maintain such a morphological feature , sexual selection , and the handicap principle . ", "topic": 19}], "title": "stalk - eyed fly", "paragraphs": ["stalk eyed fly pc : rob knell ( cc by sa 2 . 5 )\nsignalling fitness : larger males sire more offspring . studies of the stalk - eyed fly\n. signalling fitness : larger males sire more offspring . studies of the stalk - eyed fly\nfemale choice response to artificial selection on an exaggerated male trait in a stalk - eyed fly .\nfemale preference response to artificial selection on an exaggerated male trait in a stalk - eyed fly .\nmating - induced reduction in accessory reproductive organ size in the stalk - eyed fly cyrtodiopsis dalmanni .\n. female preference response to artificial selection on an exaggerated male trait in a stalk - eyed fly .\nhingle a , fowler k , pomiankowski a . size - dependent mate preference in the stalk - eyed fly\nlorch pd , wilkinson gs , reillo pr . copulation duration and sperm precedence in the stalk - eyed fly\nburkhardt d , de la motte i . how stalk - eyed flies eye stalk - eyed flies : observations and measurements of the eyes of\nburkhardt d . and motte i , 1983 . how stalk - eyed flies eye stalk - eyed flies : observations and measurements of the eyes of\nuniversity college london , department of biology ; 2003 . the evolution of multiple mating in the stalk - eyed fly ,\nmating - induced reduction in accessory reproductive organ size in the stalk - eyed fly cyrtodiopsis dalmanni . - pubmed - ncbi\ncondition dependence of sexual ornament size and variation in the stalk - eyed fly cyrtodiopsis dalmanni ( diptera : diopsidae ) .\nwhether sexually selected traits are sex linked can have profound effects on their evolution . in the diopsid stalk - eyed fly ,\ncotton s , fowler k , pomiankowski a . condition dependence of sexual ornament size and variation in the stalk - eyed fly\nmale sexual ornament size but not asymmetry reflects condition in stalk - eyed flies .\nevolution of genetic variation for condition - dependent traits in stalk - eyed flies .\n. coevolution of sperm and female reproductive tract morphology in stalk - eyed flies .\n. evolution of genetic variation for condition dependent traits in stalk - eyed flies .\nvisual system of the stalk - eyed fly , cyrtodiopsis quinqueguttata ( diopsidae , diptera ) : an anatomical investigation of unusual eyes .\nwilkinson gs , reillo pr . female preference response to artificial selection on an exaggerated male trait in a stalk - eyed fly .\nhingle a , fowler k , pomiankowski a . the effect of transient food stress on female mate preference in the stalk - eyed fly\n. male sexual ornament size but not asymmetry reflects condition in stalk - eyed flies .\nwilkinson g . s . , 1993 . artificial selection alters allometry in the stalk - eyed fly cyrtodiopsis dalmanni ( diptera : diopsidae ) .\ncondition dependence of sexual ornament size and variation in the stalk - eyed fly cyrtodiopsis dalmanni ( diptera : diopsidae ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nselective pressures , variability , and sexual dimorphism in stalk - eyed flies ( diopsidae ) .\n. male eye span in stalk - eyed flies indicates genetic quality by meiotic drive suppression .\nrogers dw , chapman t , fowler k , pomiankowski a . mating - induced reduction in accessory reproductive organ size in the stalk - eyed fly\n. hunting for ayv 28\u2014right and wrong approaches in an attempt to increase our knowledge about the stalk - eyed fly ( diopsidae , diptera ) .\nvisual system of the stalk - eyed fly , cyrtodiopsis quinqueguttata ( diopsidae , diptera ) : an anatomical investigation of unusual eyes . - pubmed - ncbi\npanhuis tm , wilkinson gs . exaggerated eyespan influences male contest outcome in stalk - eyed flies .\nwilkinson gs , fry cl . meiotic drive alters sperm competitive ability in stalk - eyed flies .\nhurley i , pomiankowski a , fowler k , smith h . , 2002 . fate map of the eye antennal imaginal disc in the stalk - eyed fly\nso , the benefit that the compound eye gives the fly is that the fly can see . it lets the fly know if something is coming towards it , where the fly is positioned in its environment , what\u2019s there , and tells the fly that it\u2019s moving in relation to other things .\nrogers dw , grant ca , chapman t , pomiankowski a , fowler k . the influence of male and female eyespan on fertility in the stalk - eyed fly\nstalk - eyed flies ( diopsidae ) : modelling the evolution and development of an exaggerated sexual trait .\npresgraves dc , severance e , wilkinson gs . sex chromosome meiotic drive in stalk - eyed flies .\nfigure 16 : a species of stalk - eyed flies photographed in dairy farm . courtesy of nicky bay .\nwilkinson gs , kahler h , baker rh . evolution of female mating preferences in stalk - eyed flies .\nis the only stalk - eyed fly in the micropezidae family \u2013 and we only have one , slightly damaged specimen in the collection . on the right : the essay unwrapped .\nwilkinson gs . genetic consequences of sexual selection in stalk - eyed flies . in : dugatkin la , editor .\ncotton s , rogers dw , small j , pomiankowski a , fowler k . variation in preference for a male ornament is positively associated with female eyespan in the stalk - eyed fly\nthe full importance of the accessory glands in stalk - eyed fly reproduction is poorly understood . accessory gland products form the casing of the spermatophore and consequently are necessary for sperm transfer [\nfry cl . juvenile hormone mediates a trade - off between primary and secondary sexual traits in stalk - eyed flies .\nbaker rh , denniff m , futerman p , fowler k , pomiankowski a , chapman t . accessory glands influence time to sexual maturity and mating frequency in the stalk - eyed fly ,\nrogers dw , baker rh , chapman t , denniff m , pomiankowski a , fowler k . direct and correlated responses to artificial selection on male mating frequency in the stalk - eyed fly\nlorch p . , wilkinson g . s . , reilo pr . , 1993 . copulation duration and sperm precedence in malaysian stalk - eyed fly , cyrtodiopsis whitei ( diptera : diopsidae ) .\nbaker rh , ashwell ris , richards ta , fowler k , chapman t , pomiankowski a . effects of multiple mating and male eye span on female reproductive output in the stalk - eyed fly\nstalk - eyed flies ( diopsidae ) : modelling the evolution and development of an exaggerated sexual trait . - pubmed - ncbi\nreguera p . , and pomiankowski , a . , 2004 . low cost of reproduction in female stalk - eyed flies ,\nreguera p , pomiankowski a , fowler k , chapman t . low cost of reproduction in female stalk - eyed flies ,\nwilkinson gs , reillo pr : female choice response to artificial selection on an exaggerated male trait in a stalk - eyed fly . proc r soc lond b . 1994 , 255 : 1 - 6 .\nburkhardt d , de la motte i . selective pressures , variability , and sexual dimorphism in stalk - eyed flies ( diopsidae )\nwilkinson gs et al . ,\nsex - biased gene expression during head development in a sexually dimorphic stalk - eyed fly .\n, plos one , 2013 mar 19 ; 8 ( 3 ) : e59826\nbig \u2018antlers\u2019 are favoured : female choice in stalk - eyed flies ( diptera , insecta ) , field collected harems and laboratory experiments .\ndavid p , bjorksten t , fowler k , pomiankowski a . condition - dependent signalling of genetic variation in stalk - eyed flies .\nsukontason kl , chaiwong t , piangjai s , upakut s , moophayak k , et al . ( 2008 ) ommatidia of blow fly , house fly , and flesh fly : implication of their vision efficiency . parasitol res 103 : 123\u2013131 .\nkotrba m . , 2004 . baltic amber fossils reveal early evolution of sexual dimorphism in stalk - eyed flies ( diptera : diopsidae ) .\nthe australian museum has the world ' s largest and most comprehensive collection of signal flies , including examples from 64 different species of stalk - eyed signal fly and a number of unique specimens found in no other museum collection .\nsukontason kl , chaiwong t , piangjai s , upakut s , moophayak k , and sukontason k . 2008 . ommatidia of blow fly , house fly , and flesh fly : implication of their vision efficiency . parasitology research 103 : 123 - 131 .\nburkhardt d . , and motte i . , 1985 . selective pressure , variability and sexual dimorphism in stalk - eyed flies ( diopsidae ) .\nstalk - eyed signal flies occur mainly in new guinea ( with more than 90 recorded species ) and in queensland ( with five recorded species ) .\n. big ` antlers ' are favoured : female choice in stalk - eyed flies ( diptera , insecta ) , field collected harems and laboratory experiments .\nmale stalk - eyed signal flies spend much of their time in rainforests on shaded tree trunks which they use as courtship territory and avidly defend against rivals .\nthe heritability of sexually dimorphic traits in the yellow dung fly scatophaga stercoraria ( l . )\na male big eyed fly . its entire head is a pair of eyes . ( diptera : pipunculidae ) pc : marcello consolo ( cc by sa 2 . 0 )\npanhuis t . m . , wilkinson g . s . , 1999 . exaggerated male eye span influences contest outcome in stalk - eyed flies ( diopsidae ) .\nwright tf , johns pm , walters jr , lerner ap , swallow jg , wilkinson gs . microsatellite variation among divergent populations of stalk - eyed flies , genus\n^ wilkinson g . s . , and reillo p . r . , 1994 . female choice response to artificial selection on an exaggerated male trait in a stalk - eyed fly . proceedings of biological sciences . 255 ( 342 ) : 1 - 6 .\nsometimes evolution just doesn\u2019t care if you can see and it\u2019s only important how sexy you are . that\u2019s what happened to the stalk eyed fly . the outrageous stalks that the males carry around actual hinder their flying capabilities but they can still see relatively well .\na soldier fly . the red color acts as a pair of sunglasses . pc : eddie smith\nstudies on the egg morphology of stalk - eyed flies using scanning electron microscope ( sem ) demonstrated that egg morphology is useful for identification purposes and for cladistic analysis .\nbaker rh , wilkinson gs , desalle r . the phylogenetic utility of different types of molecular data used to infer evolutionary relationships among stalk - eyed flies ( diopsidae )\n^ rihak g . , egge a . r . , swallow g . s . , 2009 . saccadic head rotations during walking in the stalk - eyed fly ( cyrtodiopsis dalmanni ) . proceedings of the royal society of biological sciences . 276 : 1643 - 1649 .\nthis video shows three stalk - eyed fly species from borneo ( teleopsis pallifacies , eurydopsis sarawakensis , cyrtodiopsis sp . ) and features information on their mating biology . it also shows a surprise attack ! ! follow me on twitter @ magsorger # crazybeautifulnature visit my website urltoken\nfigure 3 : eyes of a stalk - eyed flies , showing the position of antenna beside the compund eye . [ image courtesy of tronghieusg , used with permission . ]\n. this suggest that the behavior of aggregating and intrasexual competition between males , besides sexual selection , is a selection force for sexual dimorphsim in the stalk - eyed flies .\nfry cl , wilkinson gs : sperm survival in female stalk - eyed flies depends on seminal fluid and meiotic drive . evolution . 2004 , 58 : 1622 - 1626 .\nbaker rh et al . ,\ngenomic analysis of a sexually - selected character : est sequencing and microarray analysis of eye - antennal imaginal discs in the stalk - eyed fly teleopsis dalmanni ( diopsidae ) .\n, bmc genomics , 2009 aug 5 ; 10 : 361\nmale and female of a blow fly . ( chrysomya rufifacies ) pc : sukontason et al . 2008\nlife returns to discovery channel in october - sundays starting 10 / 3 @ 8 and 9p ! urltoken stalk - eyed flies inflate their long , tube - like eye stalks .\nthe most notable example where this occurs is the family of flies called diopsidae . every species has eye stalks and so they are the ones commonly called the stalk - eyed flies .\nit should be noted that stalk - eyed flies are not the only group of dipteran flies that posses eye stalks ( figure 2 ; click here for examples of dipteran with eye stalk ) . however , they are unique by having the antenna near the end of the eyes stalk , next to the eye instead of in the facial region ( figure 3 ) .\nburkhardt d , de la motte i . big ' antlers ' are favoured : female choice in stalk - eyed flies ( diptera , insecta ) , field collected harems and laboratory experiments .\nstalk - eyed flies ( family diopsidae ) are a model system for studying sexual selection due to the elongated and sexually dimorphic eye - stalks found in many species . more . . .\n^ wilkinson g . s . , johns p . m . , kelleher e . s . , muscedere m . l . , lorsong a . , 2006 . fitness effects of x chromosome drive in the stalk - eyed fly , cyrtodiopsis dalmanni . journal of evolutionary biology . 19 : 1851\u20131860 .\nis definitely the lateral head projection ( the \u201ceye stalk\u201d ) , which bore the eyes and the antenna . the eye stalk is derived from the posterior half of the eye - antennal disc\nwe have shown that the pattern of sperm usage is highly variable in the stalk - eyed fly , t . dalmanni . this greatly limits the utility of population - based estimates of p 2 as descriptors of sperm usage , and suggests that sperm precedence should be viewed as context - specific , rather than a general , constant , metric in stalk - eyed flies . the unexplained variance in male fertilization success found by this study requires further investigation in order to evaluate potential causes and consequences .\n^ cotton s . , small j . , hashim r . , pomiankowski a . , 2010 . eyespan reflects reproductive quality in wild stalk - eyed flies . evolutionary ecology . 24 : 83\u201395 .\nhusak j . f . , ribak g . , wilkinson g . s . , swallow j . g . , 2011 . compensation for exaggerated eye stalks in stalk - eyed flies ( diopsidae ) .\n1 . outer vertical bristle black twice as long as width of eye - stalk in the middle .\nmost times this just involves squaring up to each other like alcohol - infused humans . but sometimes the fights become more physical , with males head butting each other or having fist fights . yes , proper fly - on - fly boxing .\n^ rogers d . w . , baker r . h . , chapman t . , denniff m . , pomiankowski a . , fowler k . , 2005 . direct and correlated responses to artificial selection on male mating frequency in the stalk - eyed fly cyrtodiopsis dalmanni . journal of evolutionary biology . 18 : 642 - 650 .\nstalk - eyed flies of the family diopsidae exhibit a unique form of hypercephaly , which has evolved under both natural and sexual selection . male hypercephaly is used by female diopsids as an indicator of male quality . by choosing to mate with males expressing the most - exaggerated hypercephaly , females can benefit both from the enhanced fertility of these males and the transmission of other heritable advantages to their offspring . stalk - eyed flies are close relatives of the model organism , drosophila melanogaster . we have shown that similar genetic and cellular mechanisms regulate the initial development of the head capsule in fruitflies and diopsids . the great diversity of stalk - eyed fly species , exhibiting varying degrees of hypercephaly and sexual dimorphism , constitutes a major advantage for comparative studies of their development and evolution .\nmy first experience of stalk - eyed flies came while i was carrying out fieldwork in costa rica over 10 years ago and it can probably go down as one of my favourite fieldwork moments . so what happened ?\nit is not just the richardiidae family that contain stalk - eyed species , in fact the stalk - eyed condition has evolved independently in at least eight families of flies . in these families , and generally only in males , the eyes have migrated away from the head and are now found on the end of stalks . called hypercephalization , this condition also includes examples where elaborate structures such as antlers and horns protrude from the head .\nrichard h . baker , robert i . s . ashwell , thomas a . richards , kevin fowler , tracey chapman , andrew pomiankowski ; effects of multiple mating and male eye span on female reproductive output in the stalk - eyed fly , cyrtodiopsis dalmanni , behavioral ecology , volume 12 , issue 6 , 1 november 2001 , pages 732\u2013739 , urltoken\ndiopsinae is a taxonomic group of fly in which members posse the eye stalks . this group is nested within the diopsidae , the stalk - eyed flies . however , taxonomists do not agree with what constitute the diopsidae . the traditional definition of diopsidae includes the centrioncinae , in which members do not have the eye stalks , and the diopsinae . however , some taxonomists argue that the centrioncinae should not be included in the diopsidae , and should treat as a different group . [ 20 ] stalk - eyed flies in this page refers to the members of diopsidae that includes centrioncinae .\nthis group of flies contains some spectacular species including the stalk - eyed signal flies , belonging to the genus achias . true to their name , the males have eyes on long stalks extending from either side of their heads .\nthe signal fly family ( platystomatidae ) includes a great diversity of species found in australia , new guinea and other nearby tropical countries .\nscientists working on this family estimate that there may be as many as 900 species of signal fly that occur in the australasian region .\nkirschfeld k , franceschini n , minke b ( 1977 ) evidence for a sensitising pigment in fly photoreceptors . nature 269 : 386\u2013390 .\nthe common horse fly may seem an ugly nuisance from far away , but in the macro perspective , its eyes draw you in .\nthe band - eyed drone fly is a bee mimic , and it takes the ruse to the limit , with stripes even on its eyes . but why ? scientists hypothesize that it affects what this insect sees \u2014 definitely a subject for further research .\nland mf , eckert h ( 1985 ) maps of the acute zones of fly eyes . journal of comparative physiology a 156 : 525\u2013538 .\nthis deer fly has a distinct pattern on its eyes . in fact , their genus , chrysops , translates to\ngold eyes .\nmost of the described stalk - eyed flies species are found in the old world with the afrotropical region having the most species . there is only two species found in the new world and are found in temperate north america . the distribution of\nthis entry was posted in ecology , physiology and tagged compound eye , diptera , eyes , fly , insect , ommatidia . bookmark the permalink .\nribak g and swallow jg . 2007 . free flight maneuvers of stalk - eyed flies\u201d do eye - stalks effect aerial turning behavior ? journal of comparative physiology a neuroethology , sensory , nuerual , and behavioral physiology 193 ( 10 ) : 1065 - 1079 .\ntill date , there is no proper studies in surveying the diversity of stalk - eyed flies in singapore , but they have been photographed by photography enthusiasts in matritchie reservoir park , dairy farm ( figure 16 ) , singapore botanic garden , bukit timah and nee soon swamp forest ( map ) . teleopsis dalmanni could be found in central catchement area . stalk - eyed flies are generally found at shady areas , near edge of forest streams , or in wet muddy area with rotten vegetation in proximate ( figure 17 ) .\nimagine seeing through the extended eyes of the stalk - eyed fly ! these funky - looking bugs can extend their eyes outward by filling their heads with air as they make their final transformation from pupa to adult ( see this amazing process in this discovery\nlife\nvideo ) . while it seems as though these outward - facing eyes might provide superior vision , the main purpose is to attract female flies .\ncotton , a j f\u00f6ldv\u00e1ri , m cotton , s and pomiankowski , a 2014 . male eyespan size is associated with meiotic drive in wild stalk - eyed flies ( teleopsis dalmanni ) . heredity , vol . 112 , issue . 4 , p . 363 .\nwernet mf , desplan c ( 2004 ) building a retinal mosaic : cell - fate decision in the fly eye . trends in cell biology 14 : 576\u2013584 .\nupdate ( 22 jan . 13 ) : thanks to hans feijen for identifying the fly species , which turned out to be diasemopsis fasciata , and not diopsis .\nfly , ( order diptera ) , any of a large number of insects characterized by the use of only one pair of wings for flight and the reduction of the second pair of wings to knobs ( called halteres ) used for balance . the term fly is commonly used for almost any small flying insect . however , in entomology\u2026\nbath , eleanor wigby , stuart vincent , claire tobias , joseph a . and seddon , nathalie 2015 . condition , not eyespan , predicts contest outcome in female stalk - eyed flies , teleopsis dalmanni . ecology and evolution , vol . 5 , issue . 9 , p . 1826 .\nbonduriansky r , rowe l ( 2003 ) interactions among mechanisms of sexual selection on male body size and head shape in a sexually dimorphic fly . evolution 57 : 2046\u20132053 .\nwithin the fruit fly family , tephritidae , there are two species that have stalked eyes . one of them , pelmatops ichneumonea , was once placed in a different genus and family . in fact , it is easy to see at first glance why this happened when you compare it with achias , the genus it was originally described as . achias is now within the platystomatidae family and contains arguably the most impressive of all of the stalk - eyed flies \u2013 achias rothschildii .\n^ wilkinson , g . s . , amitin , e . g . and johns , p . m . , 2005 . sex - linked correlated responses in female reproductive traits to selection on male eye span in stalk - eyed flies . integrative and comparative biology . 45 : 500 - 510 .\nshortly after eclosion , before their structures hardened , t . dalmanni ingest air thorough their oral cavity , and pump it to the tips to their stalk through a duct in the head , thereby elongating their stalk . watch the video to see an newly - emerged adult flies pumping their eye stalks !\n3 . inner vertical bristle up to 4 . 5\u20135 times as long as width of eye - stalk in the middle ; on a small tubercle .\n^ ribak g . , pitts m . l . , wilkinson g . s . , swallow g . s . , 2009 . wing shape , wing size , and sexual dimorphism in eye - span in stalk - eyed flies ( diopsidae ) . biological journal of the linnean society . 98 : 860\u2013871 .\nstalk - eye flies shared the same general life history pattern ( figure 18 ) , although fecundity , age of sexual maturity and longevity varies among species .\n^ worthington a . m . , berns c . m . , and swallow j . g . , 2012 . size matters , but so does shape : quantifying complex shape changes in a sexually selected trait in stalk - eyed flies ( diptera : diopsidae ) . biological journal of the linnean society . 106 : 104\u2013113 .\nhardie rc ( 1985 ) functional organization of the fly retina . progress in sens physiol . berlin , heidelberg , new york , toronto : springer , vol . 5 . pp . 1\u201379 .\nbefore the museum exhibition about colour and vision closes on 6 november , i thought i should write a piece about some of nature\u2019s most amazing eyes ( their patterns and shapes ) . i\u2019m talking of course about those belonging to flies \u2013 the most enigmatic of all species on the planet \u2013 and specifically all the species referred to as stalk - eyed flies .\nwithin micropezidae there is only one species that exhibits the stalk - eyed condition : anaeropsis guttipennis . and within our collection there is only one , slightly damaged specimen that only has one stalk ! however beside this specimen is an essay \u2013 albeit the smallest of essays . unwrapped , this essay ( by ernest edward austin \u2013 a great dipterist and my forefather in curation terms ) describes how several authors have moved the taxonomic placement of this species around . ernest felt that any decisions to be made needed further proof and greater comparisons \u2013 wise words .\nfascinating , erica ! do such structures occur in just flies ? is it possible that they fulfill functions other than visual superiority of some kind and sexual prowess ? i note the forward rake in some species , which half suggests equivalence to antennae in lepidoptera\u2026 that visual superiority , if it exists\u2026 i wonder if having the eyes on stalks enables fuller all - round vision \u2013 because the optically - facetted part of the stalk - side of each eye fills - in the blind spot in normal flies caused by the head . that might be an evolutionary driver for just thin - stalked eyes . but then why the species with thick - stalked eyed ? one also wonders if the stalked - eyes structure helps with orientation awareness , it\u2019s inertia tending to keep it at a fixed orientation , in turn enabling the fly to sense changes in the orientation of its body . \u2026related to the gyroscopic function of halteres . but then , non - stalk - eyed flies seem to manage well enough without\u2026 \u2026so many questions\u2026 mike\nthe base stock was an outbred laboratory population of the stalk - eyed fly , c . dalmanni , collected from gombak , malaysia in 1993 . the stock was maintained in large cages at high population size ( typically more than 200 individuals per cage ) and with a 1 : 1 sex ratio . flies were fed ground corn medium and kept at 25\u00b0c on a 12 h / 12 h light / dark regime . the regime included a 15 - min\ndawn\nperiod in which the culture room was illuminated by a single 60 - w bulb . all observations of behaviour commenced at the start of this dawn period .\nthat is , of course , if the organism needs to see . eyes are usually the first things to disappear if you live in caves . or if you\u2019re a fly maggot that invests its early days face first eating rotting corpses .\nthe distribution of second male sperm precedence ( p 2 ) among 22 dam - sire pair families in the stalk - eyed fly , teleopsis dalmanni . open bars depict the frequency of families with p 2 significantly different from 0 . 5 ( using 2 - tailed binomial tests ) ; black bars denote those with p 2 not significantly different from 0 . 5 . the grey bar denotes the sperm precedence of a single family where the observed p 2 of zero was not significantly different from p 2 = 0 . 5 . however , the brood size of this family was small ( n = 5 ) , so this result should be treated with caution .\ninternal reproductive organ size is an important determinant of male reproductive success . while the response of testis length to variation in the intensity of sperm competition is well documented across many taxa , few studies address the importance of testis size in determining other components of male reproductive success ( such as mating frequency ) or the significance of size variation in accessory reproductive organs . accessory gland length , but not testis length , is both phenotypically and genetically correlated with male mating frequency in the stalk - eyed fly cyrtodiopsis dalmanni . here we directly manipulate male mating status to investigate the effect of copulation on the size of both the testes and the accessory glands of c . dalmanni .\ninternal reproductive organ size is an important determinant of male reproductive success . while the response of testis length to variation in the intensity of sperm competition is well documented across many taxa , few studies address the importance of testis size in determining other components of male reproductive success ( such as mating frequency ) or the significance of size variation in accessory reproductive organs . accessory gland length , but not testis length , is both phenotypically and genetically correlated with male mating frequency in the stalk - eyed fly cyrtodiopsis dalmanni . here we directly manipulate male mating status to investigate the effect of copulation on the size of both the testes and the accessory glands of c . dalmanni .\nsince males with longer eye span gain benefits of having more mating opportunities , there is a strong sexual selection force for increasing longer eye stalks in males . however , there is a limit in the length of the eye stalks . the process of developing longer eye stalk could create developmental problems in the larvae stage , leading to high larvae mortality rate in the pupae stage . longer eye stalk also requires longer development time , which increase the exposure to toxic metabolites produced by conspecific larva , as well as to predators and parasites . therefore , the length of male eye stalk is maintain by natural selection opposing the force of sexual selection .\nwe thank t . chapman and g . hurst for comments , and a . hingle for help in rearing fly stocks . this work was supported by royal society university research fellowships ( k . f . and a . p . ) and the nerc .\nthere are about 150 , 000 described species of described true flies ( diptera ) with an estimated total number of fly species to be around 240 , 000 . so , this is going to be very generalized and does not at all encompass every organism .\nmale mating history is often associated with changes in male investment in current mating attempts , with concomitant effects on patterns of paternity [ 12 , 13 ] . however , all males were virgins at the start of the experiment and performed equal numbers of copulations , so variation in mating experience did not differ between first and second males , and hence is not an explanation of our data . in addition , all males were maintained on a high quality diet , so variation in environmental conditions was minimised between pairs of sires . these factors ( when variable ) may well be important in determining stalk - eyed fly paternity and deserve further investigation , but they cannot explain the results reported in the current study .\nin some species , females choose mates possessing ornaments that predict offspring survival 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 . however , sexual selection by female preference for male genetic quality 6 , 7 , 8 remains controversial because conventional genetic mechanisms maintain insufficient variation in male quality to account for costly preference and ornament evolution 9 , 10 . here we show that females prefer ornaments that indicate genetic quality generated by transmission conflict between the sex chromosomes . by comparing sex - ratio distributions in stalk - eyed fly ( cyrtodiopsis ) progeny we found that female - biased sex ratios occur in species exhibiting eye - stalk sexual dimorphism 11 , 12 and female preferences for long eye span 13 , 14 . female - biased sex ratios result from meiotic drive 15 , the preferential transmission of a \u2018selfish\u2019 x - chromosome . artificial selection for 22 generations on male eye - stalk length in sexually dimorphic c . dalmanni produced longer eye - stalks and male - biased progeny sex ratios in replicate lines . because male - biased progeny sex ratios occur when a drive - resistant y chromosome pairs with a driving x chromosome 15 , long eye span is genetically linked to meiotic drive suppression . male eye span therefore signals genetic quality by influencing the reproductive value of offspring 16 .\nwhen females mate with different males , competition for fertilizations occurs after insemination . such sperm competition is usually summarized at the level of the population or species by the parameter , p 2 , defined as the proportion of offspring sired by the second male in double mating trials . however , considerable variation in p 2 may occur within populations , and such variation limits the utility of population - wide or species p 2 estimates as descriptors of sperm usage . to fully understand the causes and consequences of sperm competition requires estimates of not only mean p 2 , but also intra - specific variation in p 2 . here we investigate within - population quantitative variation in p 2 using a controlled mating experiment and microsatellite profiling of progeny in the multiply mating stalk - eyed fly , teleopsis dalmanni .\ncolored eyes , like those of the soldier fly above , serve a specific purpose in insects : they narrow down the information being processed by each of the tiny lenses . some insects with metallic - colored eyes have layers and layers of lenses that reflect light , lending an iridescent quality .\nthe length of eye stalk strongly affects the outcome of the males\u2019 competition over a female aggregation . males with larger eyespan , independent of body size , are more aggressive and win proportionately more aggressive interaction than males with smaller eye span [ 6 ]\nmicropezidae , diopsidae , ottidae , platystomatidae , tephritidae , richardiidae , periscelididae and drosophilidae all contain some species that exhibit some level of hypercephalization and , interestingly , the stalk - eyed condition has evolved independently more than once in platystomatidae . this is a very good example of convergent evolution \u2013 where species that are not related have a very similar form ( the hedgehog and the spiny anteater are another good example ) . it is also an example of recurrent evolution \u2013 where a similar feature evolves time and time again .\nwe used the stalk - eyed fly cyrtodiopsis dalmanni to examine predictions made by condition - dependent handicap models of sexual selection . condition was experimentally varied by manipulation of larval food availability . cyrtodiopsis dalmanni is a highly dimorphic species exhibiting strong sexual selection , and the male sexual ornament ( exaggerated eyespan ) showed strong condition - dependent expression relative to the homologous trait in females and nonsexual traits . male eyespan also showed a great increase in standardized variance under stress , unlike nonsexual traits . the inflated variance of the male ornament was primarily attributable to condition - dependent ( but body - size - independent ) increase in variance . thus , evaluation of male eyespan allows females to gain additional information about male condition over and above that given by body size . these findings accord well with condition - dependent handicap models of sexual selection .\nunder the handicap hypothesis of mate choice , female judge the quality of males through sexual ornamentation , such as the eye stalk , which are costly to develop . a high - quality male will be able to support longer eye stalks which are costly despite poor condition\nmales come head to head and primarily compare stalk length . if there is a difference the male with the smaller stalks leaves and the larger male retains control of his territory ( and often harem ) . however , when they judge themselves as equal they fight !\nfigure 1 : mapping of compound eyes ( red ) , antenna ( green ) and eye - antenna dics ( blue ) in the stalk - eyed flies ( diopsidae ) , showing a gradual evolution of eye - stalks from condition ' a ' through ' b ' and ' c ' to ' d ' : ( a ) centrioncus prodiopsis speiser ; ( b ) sphyracephala beccari ; ( c ) sphyracephala ( pseudodiopsis ) detrahens walker ; ( d ) diopsis thoracica westwood . ( extracted and modified from meier & baker , 2002 )\nstalk - eyed flies ( diptera : diopsidae ) are increasingly important model organisms for studies of sexual selection [ 19 - 22 ] . they are characterised by the lateral extension of the eyes on elongate protuberances on the side of the head capsule , a trait common to both sexes in all species [ 19 , 23 ] . in many species the eyespan of males is greater than that of females , the result of sexual selection through female mate choice [ 24 - 29 ] and male - male competition [ 30 , 31 ] .\nthe authors thank matthew denniff for assistance with fly rearing and behavioural observations , and two anonymous referees for their helpful comments on the manuscript . this research was funded by awards from the natural environment research council ( tc , kf & ap ) , the royal society ( tc ) and the association of commonwealth universities ( dwr ) .\nboth male and female stalk - eyed flies mate frequently . in the current study , each male mated an average of 3 . 79 times ( up to a maximum of 12 ) during the 60 - minute observation period . only 23 . 9 % ( 37 out of 155 ) of males mated at least 6 times and therefore 76 . 1 % ( 118 out of 155 ) of males failed to mate with all 6 virgin females provided . as females housed with three males will mate an average of 5 . 51 times during the 60 minutes following artificial dawn [\nflies that rely heavily on their vision , for the most part , have cashed in on all of the options . house flies ( musca domestica ) have a moderate amount of ommatidia , but males have more ommatidia ( ~ 3 , 500 ) than females ( ~ 3 , 400 ) and bigger eyes , suggesting that vision plays an important role in mate determination . in fact , this pattern is readily seen in two other families of flies , the flesh flies ( sarcophagidae ) and the blow flies ( calliophoridae ) . house flies were at the lower end of the spectrum with some blow files coming in closer to the ~ 5 , 500 ommatidia honey bees have . while this isn\u2019t the 30 , 000 that dragonflies have , each ommatidium of a house fly , flesh fly , or blow fly is bigger than that of a dragonfly . plus they still have a lot more than the 2 , 000 american cockroaches have and the 800 that drosophila have . so we\u2019ll call it a nice middle ground .\nwhen fighting face to face , rival males gauge their opponents ' size and strength from their head width . small males ( which may have begun life as under - nourished or disadvantaged larvae ) have very short or no eye - stalks . the clear difference in head - width allows the weaker fly to back off early and avoid possible injury .\nmany little gnats and mosquitoes are crepuscular meaning they fly at dawn and at dusk but flies generally have eye modifications for frolicking around in the sunlight . normally they\u2019d be out of luck seeing once the sun dipped below the horizon , but flies have that 7 way split rhabdom . this helps them fly in low light conditions because the 7 parts of the rhabdom are separated and act in a similiar manner to the rhabdoms separated from the ommatidia by the clear zone . specifically for gnats and mosquitoes , it gives them an extra 15 or so minutes before dawn and after sunset . this doesn\u2019t seem like much for us , but it gives them a small window to swarm , mate , and feed without being incredibly visible to predators .\ni was walking along a path in the forest near the tropical field station la suerte ( where i was based for a month or so ) when i saw this strange creature \u2013 a hammerhead fly \u2013 scuttling over the bark of a tree . i chased it round and round the tree and finally managed to catch it in my hands ! it turned out to be this little beast \u2013\nhandicap models of sexual selection predict that male sexual ornaments have strong condition - dependent expression and this allows females to evaluate male genetic quality 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 . a number of previous experiments have demonstrated heightened condition - dependence of sexual ornaments in response to environmental stress 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 . here we show that genetic variation underlies the response to environmental stress ( variable food quality ) of a sexual ornament ( male eye span ) in the stalk - eyed fly cyrtodiopsis dalmanni . some male genotypes develop large eye span under all conditions , whereas other genotypes progressively reduce eye span as conditions deteriorate . several non - sexual traits ( female eye span , male and female wing length ) also show genetic variation in condition - dependent expression , but their genetic response is entirely explained by scaling with body size . in contrast , the male sexual ornament still reveals genetic variation in the response to environmental stress after accounting for differences in body size . these results strongly support the hypothesis that female mate choice yields genetic benefits for offspring .\nfemales of the stalk - eyed fly , cyrtodiopsis dalmanni , mate repeatedly during their lifetime and exhibit mating preference for males with large eye span . how these mating decisions affect female fitness is not fully understood . in this study , we examined the effects of multiple mating and male eye span on short - term reproductive output in this species . experiments that manipulated the number of copulations and partners a female received suggested that obtaining a sufficient sperm supply is an important benefit associated with multiple mating . the average percentage of fertile eggs laid by females increased as a function of mating frequency and ranged from 40 % for females mated once , to 80 % for females mated continuously . in addition , a high proportion of copulations in this species appeared to be unsuccessful . one - third of all females mated once laid less than 10 % fertile eggs . there was no significant difference in reproductive performance between females mated to multiple partners and females mated to a single partner . there was also no indication that females received any short - term reproductive benefits from mating with males with large eye span . in fact , females mated to males with short eye span laid a higher percentage of fertile eggs than females mated to large eye span males .\nthe malaysian stalk - eyed fly , teleopsis dalmanni ( formerly known as cyrtodiopsis dalmanni ; [ 32 ] ) , exhibits extreme sexual dimorphism for eyespan resulting from strong intra - and inter - sexual selection on the trait in males ( ibid . ) . females form large harems on root hairs overhanging the eroded banks of streams and males compete to control these harems [ 19 , 33 ] . both sexes are highly promiscuous and mate at high frequencies ( ~ 10 and 6 times per hour in the laboratory , for males and females respectively ; [ 34 , 35 ] ) . there is also some evidence that males strategically allocate more ejaculate to larger , more productive females through the production and delivery of larger spermatophores [ 36 ] . however , t . dalmanni spermatophores are small [ 37 ] and females store few sperm following a single mating ( ~ 140 ; [ 36 ] ) . females are therefore sperm - limited and must copulate repeatedly to attain maximal fertility [ 38 ] . this problem is exacerbated in large , highly fecund females despite being allocated more ejaculate , as they lay a lower proportion of fertilised eggs following a single copulation in comparison with less productive females [ 38 ] . without measures of paternity however , the value of both mate choice and multiple mating can only be inferred indirectly .\nwith eyes at the tip of their eye stalk , teleopsis dalmanni and members of diopsinae definitely make into the list of most bizarre - looking animals on earth . this group of flies has sparks research interest in the physiology , development and evolutionary mechanism leading to the eye stalks . t . dalmanni is probably the most widely studied particularly in the field of sexual selection leading to sexual dimorphism in this species , where males and females differ in appearance .\nthe fly , c . dalmanni , is highly promiscuous ( wilkinson et al . , 1998 ) thereby creating ample opportunity for intense postcopulatory sexual selection by sperm competition or selection . comparative studies across stalk - eyed flies reveal that sperm length , spermathecal duct length and ventral receptacle size have coevolved between males and females ( presgraves et al . , 1999 ) . the size and shape of female sperm storage organs have the potential to influence which sperm are used for fertilization . thus , correlated evolution between male and female reproductive traits may be due , in part , to selection on sperm size mediated by the size of the female organs . however , correlated evolution between male and female reproductive traits may also be the result of linkage disequilibrium between pre - and postcopulatory traits . among lines selected for long or short male eye span , wilkinson et al . ( 2005 ) found a strong correlation between eye span and ventral receptacle size due , in part , to x - linked effects . eye span is , therefore , partly indicative of both male and female postcopulatory features . consequently , genetic linkage among x - linked genes that influence eye span , sperm length and ventral receptacle size provides a mechanism by which female mate choice can potentially influence male external morphology and sperm length as well as result in coevolution between sperm length and female sperm storage organ size . furthermore , the genetic linkage between eye span and sperm length allows both pre - and postcopulatory sexual selection to act against the transmission bias caused by the sex - ratio chromosome .\nlay on average 4 - 6 eggs per day and may continue laying eggs for many months . the eggs require 1 - 3 days to hatch . larvae stage range from 10 days to several weeks , depending on temperature of environment and food quality . late - instar larvae empty their gut content in a process called gut - purge , and enter pupation state . in food - depriving environment , pupation might occur at smaller larvae size . they typically pupate on emergent vegetation . pupation stage last for almost a week , after which an adult fly will emerge , completing the life cycle of\nas yet , there has been no effort to identify within - population quantitative variation in p 2 in stalk - eyed flies . in this paper we investigated intra - specific , within population variation of p 2 in t . dalmanni using controlled mating experiments and microsatellite profiling of progeny . we standardized male mating history , diet and body size in order to limit variation in male reproductive organ size , as we have shown that testes and accessory glands are reduced by mating [ 41 ] and scale positively with diet quality and body size [ rogers et al . in prep ; cotton & pomiankowski unpublished ] . we also chose sires with similar eyespan to each other to limit the potential effects on p 2 of female mate choice based on male ornament size [ 25 , 27 , 28 ] . we show that even in the absence of these factors there is significant variation in sperm precedence in t . dalmanni , with familial p 2 values ranging from zero to one . we discuss the likely causes of this variation .\nwe know that sperm precedence in c . dalmanni is highly variable and exhibits a trimodal distribution ( corley et al . , 2006 ) . furthermore , when females are double - mated to st and sr males , st males are twice as likely to fertilize offspring ( wilkinson et al . , 2006 ) . the greater sperm length of st males may facilitate fertilization success . in other insect species , longer sperm do not necessarily have a fertilization advantage over shorter sperm ( e . g . , gage and morrow , 2003 ) , but can in species where females mediate fertilization through organs like sperm receptacles ( reviewed in snook , 2005 ) . we do not know the exact mechanisms of sperm competition in c . dalmanni ; there may be a trade - off between producing many small or few long sperm , although very few sperm per ejaculate succeed in getting stored in female spermathecae ( approximately 35 in cyrtodiopsis whitei ; fry and wilkinson , 2004 ) . male and female postcopulatory traits have coevolved across stalk - eyed fly taxa ( presgraves et al . , 1999 ) and are the fastest evolving traits measured among populations within c . dalmanni ( eg amitin and gs wilkinson , unpublished data ) , which are patterns consistent with sperm competition mediated by ventral receptacles . double - mating experiments using flies that differ only in sperm length , but not presence of drive , are needed to determine how sperm length influences sperm competitive ability . by simultaneously allowing males to differ in eye span it may be possible to determine whether pre - and postcopulatory selection operates in concert or independently on male pre - and postcopulatory sexually selected traits .\ntempleton ( 26 ) proposed that sexual selection is not important in speciation in the hawaiian drosophila because mate choice is stabilizing within species . the sexually selected trait that we examined is not important in behavioral isolation , but the reason is not consistent with templeton\u2019s proposal because we found directional sexual selection through female mate choice . our detection of directional selection is not due to sampling a smaller size range than templeton did because the range of head widths in our study was 2 . 4\u20133 . 1 mm , nearly the same as the range studied by templeton ( 17 , 26 ) . statistical analyses of selection are essentially correlational ( 25 , 29 ) , and the cause of selection needs to be confirmed with an experimental approach , such as increasing the male eye span through artificial selection ( 30 ) . female preferences for broad heads in distantly related stalk - eyed flies ( diopsidae ) also appear to be directional ; females preferred to perch near males with heads that had been widened experimentally well beyond the natural range of the species ( 31 ) ."]}
{"id": 189, "summary": [{"text": "kerria lacca is a species of insect in the family kerriidae , the lac insects .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "these are in the superfamily coccoidea , the scale insects .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "this species is perhaps the most commercially important lac insect , being a main source of lac , a resin which can be refined into shellac and other products .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "this insect is native to asia . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "kerria lacca", "paragraphs": ["general remarks : takahashi ( 1949 ) regarded this species as a form or subspecies of kerria lacca . varshney ( 1976 ) gave a table of taxonomic characters to distinguish between kerria ( kerria ) lacca lacca , kerria ( kerria ) lacca ambigua and kerria ( kerria ) lacca mysorensis .\nkerria ( kerria ) lacca ambigua ( misra ) ; varshney 1984b : 368 . change of combination\nkerria lacca ambigua ( misra ) ; varshney 1977 : 43 . change of combination\nraising kerria lacca keer entail heavy production costs and is not as difficult as farm work . locals just have to rezone forest land to raise kerria lacca keer and harvest shellac .\npeople in huoi leng commune tend palm trees to raise kerria lacca keer ( photo : baodienbienphu . com . vn )\nstudies on the biology of lac insect , laccifer lacca ( kerr ) targ .\nhuoi leng\u2019s soil and weather are favorable for raising kerria lacca keer , a kind of insect that lives on palm trees and produces a shellac used in fine arts and medicine .\nstudies on the biology of lac insect , laccifer lacca ( kerr ) targ .\nkrishan sharma k , ramani r ( 2001 ) parasites effected reduction in fecundity and resin yield of two strains of indian lac insect , kerria lacca . indian j ent 63 : 456\u2013459 .\nstudies on the biology of lac insect , laccifer lacca ( kerr ) targ . [ 1984 ]\nsince they began raising kerria lacca keer , h\u2019mong people no longer burn the forests to create terraced fields . bare hills have been recovered with palm trees . kerria lacca keer raising areas have expanded to 300 hectares . traders come to huoi leng to buy shellac at high prices , sometimes as high as 150 usd per kg . hang say dua , chairman of the huoi leng people\u2019s committee , says : \u201c about 200 h\u2019mong households have become better - off from raising kerria lacca keer . h\u2019mong people now have access to education and mass media and their knowledge has improved . their lives have improved remarkably . \u201d\ngenetic diversity in lac resin - secreting insects belonging to kerria spp . , as revealed through issr markers\ngenetic diversity in lac resin - secreting insects belonging to kerria spp . , as revealed through issr markers - pubag\nlac is a natural resin secreted by a tiny insect \u2013 kerria lacca ( kerr ) for its own protection . this was an important resin because it was commercially used in various industries such as food , pharmaceuticals , cosmetics , varnishes , sealing wax , lubricants and insulating materials .\nho thi dinh says her family\u2019s average annual income is 2 , 500 usd and their lives are now much better . \u201c we sell shellac and have enough money to afford to send my children to school and buy a motorbike . last season , i had enough money to buy 3 horses and 5 buffaloes . growing rice earns less money than raising kerria lacca keer . \u201d dinh said .\nthe purpose of this study is to clarify the taxonomic status of two species of kerria in china . fresh insects were collected from their host in the locations according the first record in publication . the two species were compared morphologically at the cellular level by studying their karyotypes , rapd reactions were performed , they were sequenced with ef1\u03b1 genes and hybridization to establish their identifications , and their relationship with other species in genus kerria was analyzed .\ncitation : chen y , lu z , li q , hoffmann bd , zhang w ( 2014 ) multiple ant species tending lac insect kerria yunnanensis ( hemiptera : kerriidae ) provide asymmetric protection against parasitoids . plos one 9 ( 6 ) : e98975 . urltoken\nthe technique of random amplified polymorphic dna ( rapd ) was used to study the relationships of 12 populations from 7 species of kerria . the genetic distance and identity among species were generated by popgene32 ( yeh and boyle 1997 ) . the molecular dendrogram was constructed based on nei ' s genetic distance by meg a3 using the upgma method ( kumar et al . 2004 ) .\nmorphology , cytology , and molecular biology evidence consistently indicated k . yunnanensis and k . ruralis , the two chinese endemic species , had significant differences with the other five species examined in this study . the relationships of the seven species were basically consistent , with a few phylogenetic positions being incomplete . however , with no matter which methods , k . lacca and k . sindica , and k . pusana and k . nepalensis , always clustered together and formed two sister groups indicating a close genetic relationship between them . with the exception of rapd , k . nepalensis and k . pusana always clustered together , indicating a close genetic relationship . k . chinensis was rather special and always stood alone in a separate branch .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncopyright : \u00a9 2014 chen et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : this research was partly supported from grant 201204602 provided by special fund for forestry research in the public interest and national natural science foundation ( nsf ) grant 31270561 . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nlac cultivation is unique among most agricultural practices in that it is obliged to be organic , because chemicals that can be used to kill predators and parasitoids of lac insects would also kill the lac insects . many ant species tend k . yunnanensis for honeydew [ 21 ] , and the presence of at least one species in china , crematogaster macaoensis , was recently found to improve key features of fitness of k . yunnanensis , including survival rate , number of females and number of offspring [ 22 ] , presumably by providing protection from predators and parasitoids . therefore ants have a clear role in the management of lac cultivation .\ndespite the economic importance of this agricultural system , and a clear reliance on ants for lac production , very little is known about lac insect - ant - parasitoid relationships . all other work conducted to date has been limited to the identification and basic biology of parasitoids [ 23 ] , [ 24 ] , [ 25 ] , [ 26 ] , [ 27 ] , and demonstrating the impacts of parasitoids on lac insects [ 22 ] , [ 28 ] , [ 29 ] . here , for the first time , we investigate the role of ants in protecting lac insects from parasitoids within the typical conditions of a lac farming system . specifically we address two hypotheses : 1 ) that different ant species with different abundance levels provide different levels of protection to k . yunnanensis ; and 2 ) that these relationships differ with the different life stages of k . yunnanensis .\nthe study was carried out on private land ; we confirmed that the owner of the land gave permission to conduct the study on this site .\nat experimental commencement in october 2009 , one third of the trees throughout the plantation were inoculated with k . yunnanensis , typical of normal lac farming practices . inoculation involved placing brood lac , containing k . yunnanensis larvae , on branches . the larvae move from the brood lac onto the branches and aggregate .\nwe selected 174 d . obtusifolia that were eight years old , 2 . 5 m to 2 . 8 m high , with a trunk diameter of 5 cm to 7 cm , and spaced at least 20 m apart . for the ant exclusion treatment , prior to k . yunnanensis inoculation , all ants visiting or living on 60 trees were removed , and a ring barrier of insect glue was applied to the main branch 0 . 5 m above the ground to prevent ant access . all other vegetation touching the tree were also cleared . every second week the insect glue was replaced and the surrounding vegetation was cleared to maintain ant exclusion .\nif our two treatments merely varied the abundance of a single ant species we would anticipate having a single relationship between parasitoids and the ants of the two ant attendance treatments . instead , because there are different ant species within the two ant attendance treatments , we would anticipate multiple relationships . this more complicated design reflects the on - ground reality of the farming system and therefore has greater practical application .\nexcept when stated otherwise , analyses were conducted using statistica 11 . not all k . yunnanensis aggregations were parasitized and there was no pattern of lack of parasitism with treatment ( e . g . all non - parasitized aggregations being in the high ant attendance treatment , or increasing lack of parasitism with decreasing ant attendance ) , so we excluded such trees from statistical analyses , leaving 22 , 20 and 21 samples ( february ) and 28 , 29 and 22 samples ( april ) in the exclusion to high ant attendance treatments respectively .\nmean ( \u00b1se ) lac crust area sampled in the three treatments and two sample times .\nto compensate for the slight non - homogeneity of sample size , we initially standardized the ant and parasitoid data per crust area , however , we found no relationship between ant abundance or parasitoid abundance with crust area . instead it appears that ants merely respond to the presence / absence of crust , and the effects on parasitoids are dependent on the type and number of ants present , irrespective of the size of the crust . additionally , the patterns of parasitoid abundance per crust and their statistical separation were identical when using non - standardized and standardized data . accordingly we used unadjusted abundance data for both ants and parasitoids in all analyses , and acknowledge that sample surface area of crusts between sample times are not fully homogeneous .\nnon - metric multidimensional scaling was used to compare homogeneity of ant community structure of the low ant attendance treatment between the two sample times , and parasitoid community structure among the three treatments in the two sample times . the association matrices were based on a bray - curtis association of species - level abundance data per crust of ants and parasitoids respectively . differences among categories were tested using analysis of similarity ( anosim ) for the ant data , and permanova for the parasitoid data . all multivariate analyses were conducted using primer 6 .\nbecause parasitoid abundance and species varied so greatly between the two sample times , different statistical tests were used for different levels of analysis . total parasitoid abundance data were compared among treatments and between sample times using 2 - way anova , and tukey ' s hsd test for the post - hoc comparison of means . the abundance data was log ( x + 1 ) transformed so that residuals met parametric test assumptions , with normality and homogeneity of variance being assessed using graphical observations and levene ' s test respectively .\nabundance data of individual species could only be assessed for the three most common species , but not always for both sample times . additionally these data could not satisfy assumptions for parametric tests . for consistency of tests , where there were enough data to perform a test , we analysed sample times separately using non - parametric kruskal - wallis anova .\nparasitoid species richness per crust varied little and was heavily skewed , so we compared parasitoid species richness among treatments and between sample times using a poisson - log generalized linear model .\nwithin the low ant attendance treatment we found 11 species tending crusts , six in february , and eight in april ( table s1 ) . the two most abundant species were crematogaster ferrari and c . macaoensis , contributing 50 . 8 and 30 . 5 % of individuals respectively . ordination of the species - level ant abundance data showed that the species and their abundances differed significantly between the two sample times ( figure 2 ; anosim global r = 0 . 133 , p = 0 . 005 ) . this is largely due to the february sample having approximately half ( 5 ) the number of ants per crust compared to the april sample ( 10 ) , and the greater presence of the two most common ants , c . ferrari and c . macaoensis in april compared to february ( present on 86 % of crusts vs 65 % respectively ) .\ndata are for low attendance treatment only , sampled in february ( closed symbols ) and april ( open symbols ) . 2d stress = 0 . 1\na total of 2574 individuals of parasitoids belonging to five species were collected ( table 1 ) . the two most abundant species were tetrastichus purpureus and tachardiaephagus tachardiae , contributing 82 . 7 % and 13 . 2 % of individuals respectively . total parasitoid abundance varied greatly with treatment ( two - way anova ; f = 4 . 4 , p = 0 . 014 ) and sample time ( f = 52 , p < 0 . 0001 ) , with the two factors having a strong interaction effect ( f = 33 , p < 0 . 0001 ) . total parasitoid abundance was lowest in the february sample when k . yunnanensis was in its younger life stage , and interestingly was significantly lower in the ant exclusion treatment ( figure 3 ) . in april , all three treatments had significantly different parasitoid abundances ( figure 3 ) , with abundance being highest in the ant exclusion treatment and the lowest in the high ant attendance treatment .\nmean ( \u00b1se ) parasitoid abundance in the three treatments and two sample times .\nmean ( \u00b1se ) parasitoid species abundance data within the three ant attendance treatments from the two sample times .\nwhen ants were present , there were strong negative relationships between total parasitoid abundance and ant abundance , with the relationships being dependent upon the ant species composition and abundance ( figure 4 ) . for the single species c . macaoensis , its relationship with parasitoid abundance was consistent between the two sample times . however , the ant assemblages of the low ant attendance treatment that differed between the two sample times ( figure 2 ) displayed distinctly different relationships with parasitoid abundance ( figure 4 ) . the patterns of total parasitoid abundance were clearly driven by the two most abundant parasitoid species ( figure 5a , b ) . no relationship was evident for marietta javensis , the only other species with enough data to analyse ( figure 5c ) .\ntreatments and sample times are low ( triangles ) and high ( circles ) ant attendance treatments sampled in february ( closed symbols ) and april ( open symbols ) . relationship metrics are : low ant attendance february sample : y = 22 . 627e \u22120 . 459x , r 2 = 0 . 9257 ; low ant attendance april sample : y = 831 . 1e \u22120 . 439x , r 2 = 0 . 914 ; high ant attendance : y = 39371x \u22122 . 837 , r 2 = 0 . 8571 .\ntreatments and sample times are low ( triangles ) and high ( circles ) ant attendance treatments sampled in february ( closed symbols ) and april ( open symbols ) . relationship metrics are : graph a ) low ant attendance february sample : y = 70277e \u22120 . 301x , r 2 = 0 . 464 ; low ant attendance april sample : y = 839 . 3e \u22120 . 454x , r 2 = 0 . 827 ; high ant attendance : y = 2930 . 6x \u22122 . 079 , r 2 = 0 . 753 ; graph b ) low ant attendance february sample : y = 10 . 316x \u22121 . 128 , r 2 = 0 . 496 ; high ant attendance : y = 523271x \u22123 . 87 , r 2 = 0 . 638 .\ntreatments and sample times are low ( triangles ) and high ( circles ) ant attendance , and ant exclusion ( squares ) , sampled in february ( closed symbols ) and april ( open symbols ) . 2d stress = 0 . 1 .\nour results clearly showed strong negative relationships between the abundance of tending ants and parasitoids , with the relationships being dependent upon the ant species present , ant abundance , and the k . yunnanensis developmental stage . greatest parasitism rates occurred at the oldest developmental stage measured , with the rate being least where crematogaster macoensis were present in high abundance .\nasymmetric protection from enemies provided to symbionts by different ant species is well documented globally [ 7 ] , [ 10 ] , [ 33 ] , [ 34 ] with greater protection being provided by ants with greater abundance and greater aggression . here , c . macaoensis was the most abundant , and the most aggressive species , and it provided the greatest protection from parasitoids possibly because they build structures over the lac crusts that provide additional protection against parasitoids . so from the perspective of both k . yunnanensis , and the farmer , c . macaoensis is best to protect lac insects within this agricultural system .\nmore broadly for theoretical ecology , several hypotheses have been offered to explain mutually beneficial interactions between ants and honeydew - producing insects . our results supported the predictable rewards hypothesis [ 39 ] , [ 40 ] . for ants , the honeydew secreted by k . yunnanensis was predictable in space and time , which elicited repeated visits by ant foragers , and incidentally increased the likelihood of encounters with parasitoids without requiring an increase in ant activity or aggressiveness .\nparasitoid trap , consisting of a 25 cm long\u00d710 cm diameter polyester mesh ( 1 mm 2 ) , was placed on the lac crust to collect parasitoids .\nparasitoid species and abundance captured from certain area of lac crust within the three ant attendance treatments from the two sample times , which were used in the analyses presented in the paper .\nwe thank the property owner of the lac - producing farm in yunnan province , china for access to the land , and dr . zhu chaodong for specimen identification .\nconceived and designed the experiments : yc ql . performed the experiments : zl wz . analyzed the data : yc zl bh . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : yc zl . wrote the paper : yc bh .\ngullan pj , kosztarab m ( 1997 ) adaptations in scale insects . annu rev entomol 42 : 23\u201350 .\nway mj ( 1963 ) mutualism between ants and honeydew - producing homoptera . annu rev entomol 8 : 307\u2013344 .\nbuckley rc ( 1987 ) ant - plant - homopteran interactions . adv ecol res 16 : 53\u201385 .\ndel - claro k , oliveira ps ( 2000 ) conditional outcomes in a neotropical treehopper - ant association : temporal and species - specific variation in ant protection and homopteran fecundity . oecologia 124 : 156\u2013165 .\nmorales ma ( 2000 ) survivorship of an ant - tended membracid as a function of ant recruitment . oikos 90 : 469\u2013476 .\nstadler b , dixon afg ( 2005 ) ecology and evolution of aphid - ant interactions . annu rev ecol evol s 36 : 345\u2013372 .\naddicott jf ( 1979 ) a multispecies aphid - ant association : density dependence and species - specific effects . can j zool 57 : 558\u2013569 .\nbristow cm ( 1984 ) differential benefits from ant attendance to two species of homoptera on new york ironweed . j anim ecol 53 : 715\u2013726 .\ngibernau m , dejean a ( 2001 ) ant protection of a heteropteran trophobiont against a parasitoid wasp . oecologia 126 : 53\u201357 .\nbreton lm , addicott jf ( 1992 ) density - dependent mutualism in an aphid - ant interaction . ecology 73 : 2175\u20132180 .\ncushman jh , whitham tg ( 1989 ) conditional mutualism in a membracid - ant association : temporal , age - specific , and density - dependent effects . ecology 70 : 1040\u20131047 .\nbannerman ja , roitberg bd ( 2014 ) impact of extreme and fluctuating temperatures on aphid\u2013parasitoid dynamics . oikos 123 : 89\u201398 .\naddicott jf ( 1978 ) competition for mutualists : aphids and ants . can j zool 56 : 2093\u20132096 .\ncushman jh ( 1991 ) host - plant mediation of insect mutualisms : variable outcomes in herbivore - ant interactions . oikos 61 : 138\u2013144 .\ncushman jh , addicott jf ( 1991 ) conditional interactions in ant - plant - herbivore mutualisms . in : huxley cr , cutler df ant - plant interactions . oxford , oxford university press . pp 92\u2013103 .\nsogawa k ( 1982 ) the rice brown planthopper - feeding physiology and host plant interactions . annu rev entomol 27 : 49\u201373 .\nmiller dr , kosztarab m ( 1979 ) recent advances in the study of scale insects . annu rev entomol 24 : 1\u201327 .\nchen yq , yao wj ( 2007 ) lac resources and their utilization in the world . world forestry research 20 : 61\u201365 ( in chinese ) .\nmahdihassan s ( 1981 ) ecological notes on a few hymenoptera associated with lac . pak j sci ind r 24 : 148\u2013150 .\n( hymenoptera : ichneumonidae ) in relation to lac insect strains . j entomol res 9 : 240\u2013241 .\nkerr . on the basis of biometrical characters . j entomol res 19 : 27\u201332 .\nsrivastava dc , chauhan ns ( 1984 ) a critical appraisal of the estimates of parasitic losses in lac . indian shellac ( 1 and 2 ) : 24 .\nwang sm , chen yq , lu zx , liu cj , zhang w , et al . ( 2011 ) monopolization of honeydew sources by\nand its effects on lac production . chin j appl ecol 22 : 229\u2013234 .\nchen xm , chen yq , zhang h , shi l ( 2008 ) lac insect cultivation and lac processing . beijing : chinese forestry press .\nliao dx , li xl , pang xf , chen tl ( 1987 ) economic insect fauna of china : hymenoptera : chalcidoidea ( 1 ) . beijing : science press .\nbuckley rc , gullan p ( 1991 ) more aggressive ant species ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) provide better protection for soft scales and mealybugs . biotropica 23 : 282\u2013286 .\ndavidson dw , cook sc , snelling rr ( 2004 ) liquid - feeding performances of ants ( formicidae ) : ecological and evolutionary implications . oecologia 139 : 255\u2013266 .\ncerd\u00e1 x , retana j , manzaneda a ( 1998 ) the role of competition by dominants and temperature in the foraging of subordinate species in mediterranean ant communities . oecologia 117 : 404\u2013412 .\nsantini g , tucci l , ottonetti l , frizzi f ( 2007 ) competition and trade - offs in the organisation of a mediterranean ant assemblage . ecol entomol 32 : 319\u2013326 .\njanzen dh ( 1985 ) the natural history of mutualisms . in : boucher dh the biology of mutualism : ecology and evolution . london , croom helm ltd . pp 40\u201399 .\nness jh , morris wf , bronstein jl ( 2009 ) for ant - protected plants , the bets defense is a hungry offense . ecology 90 : 2823\u20132831 .\nagarwal vm , rastogi n ( 2005 ) ant diversity in sponge gourd and cauliflower agroecosystems and the potential of predatory ants in insect pest management . entomon 30 : 263\u2013267 .\nheil m ( 2008 ) indirect defence via tritrophic interactions . new phytol 178 : 41\u201361 .\n( thysanoptera : thripidae ) in mango crops in the northern territory of australia . int j pest manage 50 : 107\u2013114 .\npeng rk , christian k ( 2013 ) do weaver ants affect arthropod diversity and the natural - enemy - to - pest ratio in horticural systems ? j appl entomol 137 : 711\u2013720 .\ndo these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !\n( vovworld ) \u2013 huoi leng is a disadvantaged mountain commune in muong cha district , dien bien province . in recent years , the commune has strived to fulfill its socio - economic targets and 10 % of its 200 poor households have escaped poverty . the improvement is due to changes in people\u2019s production habits and views .\nhuoi leng covers an area of 10 , 000 hectares and has a population of 2 , 500 people , mainly of the h\u2019mong ethnic group . they grow rice and corn on hillsides and their productivity is not very high .\nlocal authorities have encouraged people to change animal raising on mountains to centralized husbandry , which ensures better animal health and higher profits . giang chu nu is a villager . \u201c previously , we farmed on terraced fields and grazed cattle on mountains but we didn\u2019t have techniques and the yield was not high . now we are trained in modern production methods and production has improved . we earn higher incomes and our lives have changed positively . \u201d\nvov1 vov2 vov3 vov4 vov5 vovgt - ha noi vovgt - tp . hcm vovtv\nwiz khalifa - see you again ft . charlie puth ( mattybraps ft carissa adee cover )\ngrow thai basil big size or how to trim it so it grows big .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nexample : yes , i would like to receive emails from the 5 towns jewish times . ( you can unsubscribe anytime )\nby submitting this form , you are granting : five towns jewish times , 445 central avenue , cedarhurst , ny , 11516 , permission to email you . you may unsubscribe via the link found at the bottom of every email . ( see our email privacy policy urltoken for details . ) emails are serviced by constant contact .\n( july 9 , 2018 / jns ) israel saw a record number of tourists in the first half of 2018 , injecting billions of dollars of revenue . . .\nwomen of the community are in for a special treat on wednesday , july 11 , when the five towns yoetzet initiative hosts\nwine and wisdom ,\n. . .\np samuels the lazy hazy days of summer are finally here . you are beginning to actually relax and recuperate from last week\u2019s frenzy of shopping , . . .\nerror : error validating application . application has been deleted . type : oauthexception code : 190 please refer to our error message reference .\nwrite css or less and hit save . ctrl + space for auto - complete .\nlaccifer ambigua misra 1930 : 163 . type data : india : uttar pradesh , guna , jhansi , on\njheolia\n[ a botanical or vernacular name of unknown plant ( kapur , 1958 ) ] . . syntypes , female and first instar , accepted valid name notes : varshney ( 1976 : 30 ) reported that no type material of the species described by misra , was found at banaras hindu university , varanasi , where dr . a . b . misra has been working . illustr .\nbiology : misra ( 1930 ) reported this species from\njheolia\n, a vernacular name that was not verified by kapur ( 1958 ) and by varshney ( 1976 ) .\nthis translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations .\nwang , y . d . ( chinese academy of forest sciences , beijing ( china ) . inst . of lac research )\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . no available public dna sequences . download fasta file\nwouters , jan , and verhecken , andr\u00e9 ( 1989 ) .\nthe coccid insect dyes : hplc and computerized diode - array analysis of dyed yarns\n. studies in conservation 34 ( 4 ) : 189\u2013200 . doi : 10 . 1179 / sic . 1989 . 34 . 4 . 189 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nthis is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original work is properly cited .\nwas identified by wang ziqing . both of them were collected in yunnan , china .\nwere collected in burma . the three species were identified by authors after a discussion with dr . xie yinping , who is an expert of scale insect in shanxi university , china .\nmicrophotographs of chromosomes in different species were taken with a nikon e800 optical system using the air - dried method ( chen et al . 2007 ) and karyotypic parameters were measured by im50 software ( leica ltd . 1992 ) . karyotype analysis was performed according to the standard method ( leven 1964 ; stebbins 1971 ; guo 1972 ) . phylogenetic relationship of lac insects were studied to built the dendrogram clustered using upgma by applying karyotype resemblance - near coefficients ( \u03bb ) and the evolution distance with specific software ( li et al . 2005 ) .\ntotal genomic dna was isolated from whole insect body using a standard proteinase k , phenol / chloroform extraction technique ( marchant 1988 ; tian 1999 ) . ef1\u03b1 genes were amplified by polymerase chain reaction ( pcr ) using primer pair forward ( 5\u2032 - atgtgagcagtgtggcaatccaa - 3\u2248 ) and reverse ( 5\u2032 - gaacgtgaacgtggtatcac - 3\u2032 ) ( palumbi 1996 ) .\ndna amplifications were carried out in the bio - rad mycycler thermal cycler . amplification cycles were as follows : 95\u00b0 c for 4 min as initial denaturation step ; 35 cycles of 64\u00b0 c denaturation for 1 min , 72\u00b0 c annealing for 2 min , 72\u00b0 c extension for 7 min , and ended by cooling at 4\u00b0 c . the resulting sequences were assembled using bioedit version 7 . 0 . 5 . 3 (\nall male insects were manually removed from twigs harboring second instar larvae and the remaining females were covered by a synthetic net sleeve ( 80 mesh ) , which protected the insects from attack from parasitoids and predators . when the females in the sleeves developed into adults , they were copulated with males chosen from other species . the female insects not copulating were treated as controls .\nadult female : 1 . 04\u20131 . 9 mm long , 0 . 69\u20131 . 38 mm wide , globe - like body , dark reddish brown . anal tubercle heavily sclerotized with 0 . 08\u20130 . 38 mm long and 0 . 06\u20130 . 36 mm wide , nearly quadrate , apparently two - segmented and harboring 6\u201313 anal ring setae about 0 . 18\u20130 . 27 mm long . branchial tube less than 0 . 09 mm high , brachial plate with crater about 0 . 10\u20130 . 15 mm long , 0 . 08\u20130 . 14 mm wide , and 0 . 03\u20130 . 05 mm 2 in the center . dimples in crater are formed by the brachial pores , numbers vary from 8 to 15 . anterior spiracles are situated 0 . 02\u20130 . 11 mm to brachial plates with 0 . 18\u20130 . 3 lmm in length and 0 . 10\u20130 . 15mm in width , inside the keratinization trail is inconspicuous and less than 0 . 22 mm . dorsal spines are found between the brachia and anal tubercle , and have two parts : a stout pedicel about 0 . 01\u20130 . 11 mm long and 0 . 04\u20130 . 05 mm wide and a conspicuous scletotized spine averaged 0 . 10\u20130 . 23 mm in length . perivulvar pore clusters originate circularly near the anal tubercle . mouthparts have a labium about 0 . 31\u20131 . 40 mm long , 0 . 11\u20130 . 21 mm wide with inconspicuous segmentation and a pair of post oral lobes 0 . 03\u20130 . 12 mm wide just behind the mouth .\nholotype : \u2640 , paratypes , 8 \u2640\u2640 , 4 may 1987 , yunnan , p . r . china ( ou and hong 1990 ) .\nbiological characteristics : bi - voltine , summer ( may\u2013october ) and winter crops ( october - the next may ) . life history of females and males are list in\ndistribution : subtropical areas of pu ' er and lincang of yunnan province , p . r . china .\nadult female : length on slide 1 . 02\u20132 . 3 mm and 0 . 58\u20131 . 27 mm wide , globe - like body , two body color types , i . e . dark reddish brown or yellow . anal tubercle heavily sclerotized , 0 . 06\u20130 . 36 mm long and 0 . 21\u20130 . 37mm wide , apparently two - segmented and consist 1\u201313 anal ring setae about 0 . 17\u20130 . 31 mm long . brachial tube less than 0 . 09 mm long , brachial plate with a crater about 0 . 08\u20130 . 13 mm long , 0 . 06\u20130 . 11 mm wide and 0 . 03\u20130 . 04 mm 2 in the center . numbers of pores in crater vary from 4 to 11 . anterior spiracles are situated 0 . 02\u20130 . 11 mm to brachia 0 . 18\u20130 . 26 mm long and 0 . 10\u20130 . 15 mm wide , inside the inconspicuous keratinization trail is less than 0 . 12 mm . dorsal spine heavily sclerotized 0 . 10\u20130 . 23 mm long ; pedicel of dorsal spine 0 . 02\u20130 . 16 mm long , 0 . 04\u20130 . 13 mm wide . perivulvar pore clusters circular , present near anal tubercle . mouthparts with a labium about 0 . 21\u20130 . 82 mm long , 0 . 12\u20130 . 19 mm wide , with inconspicuous segmentation and a pair of post oral lobes , each 0 . 06\u20130 . 14 mm wide , behind the mouthparts .\nholotype : \u2640 , paratypes , 7 \u2640\u2640 , 10 june 1969 , yunnan , p . r . china ( wang et al . 1982 )\nbiological characteristics : bi - voltine , summer ( march\u2013july ) and winter crops ( august - the next march ) . life history of female and male were list in\n, respectively . two body color types , i . e . red and yellow . the ratio of red : yellow is about 12 : 1 .\ndistribution : tropical and subtropical areas of pu ' er and xishuangbanna of yunnan province , china .\nshows the results . these specimens and permanent slides were deposited in research institute of resource insect of china .\nphylogenetic hypotheses among seven species of lac insects based on the morphological characters by the mp method ( the numbers above branches are bootstrap values , chen et al . , 2008 ) . the aphid stomaphis japonica ( hemiptera : aphididae ) is the outgroup . high quality figures are available online .\nare made of six metacentric ( or sub - metacentric ) and ten telocentric chromosomes . and\nwere formed with eight metacentric and ten telocentric chromosomes . both differ from other species and have a certain degree of uniqueness . differences of interspecific relationship were reflected in the centromere position of chromosomes . the cluster analysis method of karyotype resemblance - near coefficient indicated\nhad the highest identity in karyotype ( 0 . 9688 ) and nearest distance in evolution ( 0 . 0317 ) , which showed they were the latest species of the seven grouped in the dendrogram (\ndendrogram of seven species of lac insect based on the karyotype resemblance - near coefficients and evolutionary distance . rnc = resemblance - near coefficients . ed = evolutionary distance . high quality figures are available online .\nthe results of rapd analysis showed the genetic distance inter - species were 0 . 1854\u20130 . 7917 , in which the average genetic distance among species was 0 . 4430 (\nwere 0 . 6297 and 0 . 5789 , respectively ; obviously for different categories . the results of upgma showed that the seven species could be divided into two natural groups (\nwas the earliest diverging member of this group and is placed as the base branch in the group .\ndendrogram of lac insect among seven species based on genetic distances using the method of upgma . high quality figures are available online .\n( 57 % ) , in which mp tree length = 377 , ci = 0 . 976 , ri = 0 . 813 , and rc = 0 . 793 using the maximum likelihood ( ml ) to build the phylogenetic tree , the gtr + g model was selected as the best model for phylogenetic analysis in accordance with the hlrt test ( - inl = 2913 . 3172 ) . the support value of all branches was in excess of 70 % . bayesian analysis results were consistent with the systematic relationships of mp and ml trees . except the branch of\n, which was 92 % , other branches all received high posterior probability ( pp > 95 % ) .\nmajority - rule consensus tree resulting from bayesian analysis of ef1\u03b1 gene ( model = gtr + g ) from seven species of lac insects and the aphid stomaphis japonica ( hemiptera : aphididae ) as outgroup . branches represented are based on the maximum likelihood topology . numbers above internodes indicate bayesian posterior probabilities ; numbers below internodes indicate nonparametric bootstrap proportions for the parsimony analysis ( left ) and likelihood analysis ( right ) . thickened branches indicate bayesian posterior probabilities \u226595 % . high quality figures are available online .\n( bayes , 99 % ; mp , 100 % ; ml , 100 % ) and the other containing the remain five species ( bayes , 92 % ; mp , 92 % ; ml , 71 % ) . in group 1 ,\nformed a sister branch , showing a close relationship , and indicated that they were the most recently evolved species of the seven .\nwas the earliest diverging member of group 2 , and has a distant relationship with the others .\nwere the most recently evolved species of the taxon , forming a close sister group with high support value ( bayes , 100 % ; mp , 83 % ; ml , 78 % ) .\nproduced first filial generation , indicating the close genetic relationship of the two species . however , crossbreeding between\n) , which indicated that three populations belong to separate species with the existence of reproductive isolation among them .\nshould belong to different categories , with obvious differences from other five species on the morphological characters . the results were in accord with the study of morphological characteristics by using scanning electron microscopy , which confirmed lac commercial species in china was a new species with clear differences from\n) , both higher than the average value of inter - species , which proved the three individuals should be classified into different species . this was in contrast to the idea that lac production species in china were the same as\nthe phylogenetic analysis also found that species distributed in similar ecological environments usually clustered indicating a near relationship .\nwas originally found ( india , pakistan , nepal , bangladesh , and sri lanka ) .\nhad the closest relationship and were sister taxa with high support values ( bayes , 99 % ; mp , 100 % ; ml , 92 % ) , in the most basal branch of seven species .\nwere the most recent of the genus , forming a close sister group with high support values ( bayes , 100 % ; mp , 83 % ; ml , 78 % ) . these four more advanced species were mainly distributed in edge of south subtropical and the north tropical regions .\nwas found in semi - arid and semi - humid area of southern subtropical zone , with 600\u20131500 m elevation and 18\u201320\u00b0 c average annual temperature .\noccured in xishuangbanna , yunnan province in the type humid subtropical climate , close to tropical north border , where the average annual temperature was 19\u201321\u00b0 c and the annual precipitation was 1200\u20131700 mm .\ndistributed in 800\u20131400 m altitude area of taunggyi , lashio , meimiao , which belonged to subtropical climate with average annual temperature of 19\u201320\u00b0 c and 1200\u20131500 mm average annual rainfall . while\nwas located at low elevations in south mandalay , about 200 m above sea level , in a tropical monsoon climate with annual average temperature of 23\u201329\u00b0 c and an average of 800\u20131000 mm annual precipitation .\nthe authors thank dr . lei shi , youqing chen and engineer shoude ye for their kind help in collecting some lac insect specimens . this research work was supported by the national natural sciences foundation of china ( no . 30800105 ) and the national key technology support program ( 2006bad06b07 ) . the authors also offer special thanks to the anonymous reviewers .\npaper copies of this article will be deposited in the following libraries . universitaetsbibliothek johann christian senckenberg , frankfurt germany ; national museum of natural history , paris , france ; field museum of natural history , chicago , illinois usa ; university of wisconsin , madison , usa ; university of arizona , tucson , arizona usa ; smithsonian institution libraries , washington d . c . usa ; the linnean society , london , england . the date of publication is given in \u2018about the journal\u2019 on the jis website .\nben - dov y , lit il . stabilizing kerriidae as the family - group name of the lac insects ( hem . , coccoidea ) .\nchamberlin jc . a systematic monograph of the tachardiinae or lac insects ( coccidae ) .\nchamberlin jc . supplement to a monograph of the lacciferidae ( tachardiinae ) or lac insects ( coccidae ) .\nchen xm , wang sy , mao yf , feng y . on the male aedeas of four species of lac insects and preliminary cross breeding test .\nchen h , chen xm , feng y , ye sd . analysis of relationships among the main commercial species of lac insects using random amplified polymorphic dna ( rapd ) .\nchen h , chen xm , feng y . karyotype and genetic relationships among seven species of lac insects .\nchen h , chen xm , feng y . cladistic analysis of phylogenetic relationships among 7 species of lac insects ( homoptera : tachardiidae ) .\nguo sr , wang tt , huang tc . karyotype analysis of some formosan gymnosperms .\nhall ta . bioedit : a user - friendly biological sequence alignment editor and analysis program for windows 95 / 98 / nt .\nharland wb , armstrong rl , cox av , craig le , smith ag , smith dg .\nkumar s , tamura k , nei m . mega3 : integrated software for molecular evolutionary genetics analysis and sequence alignment .\nlevan a , fredga k , sandberg aa . nomenclature for centromeric position on chromosomes .\nli f , pan sy . a software programming for cluster analysis of the karyotype resemblance - near coefficients .\nscience press ; 1959 . lac research : its progress and results . pp . 334\u2013376 .\nmarehant ad . apparent introgression of mitochondrial dna across a narrow hybrid zone in the caledia captiva - complex .\nou br , hong gj . obeservation on the morphology of lac insect ( homoptera : kerriidae ) with scanning electron microscope .\npalumbi sr . nucleic acids ii : the polymerase chain reaction . in : hillis dm , moritz cbk , editors .\npage rdm . treeview : an application to display phyloenetic trees on personal computers .\nposada d , crandall ka . modeltest : testing the model of dna substitution .\nthompson jd , gibson tj , plewniak f , jeanmougin f , higgins dg . the clustalx windows interface : flexible strategies for multiple sequence alignment aided by quality analysis tools .\ntamura k , dudley j , nei m , kumar s . mega4 : molecular evolutionary genetics analysis ( mega ) software version 4 . 0 .\ntian yf , huang g , zheng zm . a simple method for isolation of genomic dna on insect .\nvarshney rk . taxonomic studies on lac insects of india ( homopetra : tachardiidae ) .\nvarahney rk . a review of family tachardiidae ( kerridae ) in the orient ( homoptera : coccoidea ) .\nwang zq , yao df , cui sy , liang cj . a new species of laccifer , with preliminary studies on the biological characteristics ( homoptera : coccoidea : lacciferidae ) .\nyeh fc , boyle tj . population genetic analysis of co - dominant and dominant markers and quatntitative traits .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nlakra , r . k . ( haryana agricultural univ . , hisar ( india ) . dept . of entomology )\nstudies on extraction , isolation , purification and antioxidation activity of flavonoids from the fruits of avicennia marina , s793 . 9\nstudy on application of non - phosphate additive in frozen penaeus vannamei and mechanism of water - holding , ts254 . 4\nmodification for pva - based composite packaging material with nano - sio 2 and its influence on fresh preservation effect of salted duck eggs , ts253 . 46\noptimization of extraction of gastrodin from rhizoma gastrodia by response surface methodology , r284 . 1\nstudy on the synthesis of tmpde and the measurement of vapor - liquid equilibrium of the mixture , tq225 . 2\nbased on the response surface method injection molding process optimization and quality prediction , tq320 . 662\nstudy on gannan prairie rat damage regionalization and control technique and prevention and control strategic for main harmful rodents , s812 . 6\ndetermination of 1 - deoxynojirimycin in silkworm and mulberry and optimization of extraction process , s881 . 24\nscientists from icar - iinrg \u2013 vaibhav d . lohot and a . mohanasundaram discovered lac insects in the peripheral areas of jawadhu hills , gandhi nagar , cmc and vellore fort on rain tree and pipal tree during a survey . \u2014 photo : v . m . maninathan\ntwo scientists from the indian council of agricultural research ( icar ) - indian institute of natural resins and gums ( iinrg ) , ranchi , have discovered lac insect on rain tree and pipal tree in the peripheral areas of jawadhu hills , gandhi nagar in katpadi and vellore fort .\nin fact , the resin was a major source of livelihood for tribals in jharkhand , chhattisgarh , odisha and west bengal as it was traditionally used in making jewellery , according to the scientists .\nthe scientists from icar - iinrg \u2013 vaibhav d . lohot ( plant physiology ) and a . mohanasundaram ( entomology ) - came across the lac insect and their host plants during a survey across various parts of vellore district including yelagiri hill , alangayam , tirupattur , vaniyambadi and gudiyatham , and kancheepuram and tiruvannamalai districts , from october 28 to 31 .\n\u201cwe have conducted surveys across tamil nadu . we had carried out surveys in madurai and theni in 2011 and in salem in 2014 and found the insect on rain tree , known as \u2018thoongu moonchi maram\u2019 in tamil , \u201d mr . mohanasundaram said .\nnow , the two scientists , said , for the first time , they have found the lac insect and their host plants in the peripheral areas of jawadhu hills that is venkatesapuram , gandhi nagar in katpadi and vellore fort . it was found on rain tree and pipal tree ( \u2018arasa maram\u2019 ) , he added . the insect\u2019s host plants were also observed during the survey .\nhe said the resin had medicinal value and was used in creams for treating cracked heels , tablet coating and also in ayurveda .\nlac insect was reported in the state from the 1930s . however , over the years , lac insect cultivation has lost importance in the state , and people were not aware of it now , leading to disappearance of the insect from southern parts of india , the scientists said .\nit is here that icar - iinrg has been playing a pivotal role . with india being a leading producer and exporter of lac resin in the world , icar - iinrg that was established in 1924 is exclusively dedicated to lac insect cultivation . the institute has been taking up exploration , collection and conservation of lac insect and host plants throughout the country on a regular basis .\n\u201cthis exploration activity was mainly taken up to conserve lac insect , its host plant biodiversity from extinction , \u201d he said .\nwith this discovery , the scientists will be taking samples of the insect for morphology and molecular study . \u201cthe insect is usually found in areas where the temperature is between 36 and 37 degree celsius . we will also study how it exists in a place like vellore where temperature levels are high , \u201d he added .\nthis discovery , they say , has brightened the scope of lac cultivation in the state and will provide income source to many people ."]}
{"id": 193, "summary": [{"text": "nesopupa quadrasi is a species of very small , air-breathing land snail , a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family vertiginidae , the whorl snails .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this species is endemic to guam . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "nesopupa quadrasi", "paragraphs": ["nesopupa is a genus of very small air - breathing land snails , terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusks in the family vertiginidae .\nthe distribution of the genus nesopupa includes hawaii , federated states of micronesia , palau , guam , the cook islands , mauritius , r\u00e9union and saint helena .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nthe encyclopedia of world problems and human potential is a collaboration between uia and mankind 2000 , started in 1972 . it is the result of an ambitious effort to collect and present information on the problems with which humanity is confronted , as well as the challenges such problems pose to concept formation , values and development strategies . problems included are those identified in international periodicals but especially in the documents of some 60 , 000 international non - profit organizations , profiled in the yearbook of international organizations .\nthe encyclopedia includes problems which such groups choose to perceive and act upon , whether or not their existence is denied by others claiming greater expertise . indeed such claims and counter - claims figure in many of the problem descriptions in order to reflect the often paralyzing dynamics of international debate . in the light of the interdependence demonstrated among world problems in every sector , emphasis is placed on the need for approaches which are sufficiently complex to encompass the factions , conflicts and rival worldviews that undermine collective initiative towards a promising future .\nthe union of international associations ( uia ) is a research institute and documentation centre , based in brussels . it was established in 1907 , by henri la fontaine ( nobel peace prize laureate of 1913 ) , and paul otlet , a founding father of what is now called information science .\nnon - profit , apolitical , independent , and non - governmental in nature , the uia has been a pioneer in the research , monitoring and provision of information on international organizations , international associations and their global challenges since 1907 .\nwe don ' t know when or if this item will be back in stock .\nno kindle device required . download one of the free kindle apps to start reading kindle books on your smartphone , tablet , and computer .\nprime members enjoy free two - day shipping , free same - day or one - day delivery to select areas , prime video , prime music , and more .\nafter viewing product detail pages , look here to find an easy way to navigate back to pages that interest you .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspecies lyropupa rhabdota c . m . cooke & h . a . pilsbry , 1920\nspecies lyropupa scabra h . a . pilsbry & c . m . cooke , 1920\nspecies lyropupa spaldingi h . a . pilsbry & c . m . cooke , 1920\nspecies lyropupa thaanumi c . m . cooke & h . a . pilsbry , 1920\nsubspecies spelaeoconcha paganettii polymorpha a . j . wagner , 1914 - diverse cave snail\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en"]}
{"id": 197, "summary": [{"text": "poropuntius is a genus of cyprinid fish found mainly in freshwater habitats of southeast asia and yunnan in china , but p. burtoni is from south asia .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "several species have highly restricted ranges and are threatened , and a single p. speleops is a cavefish . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "poropuntius", "paragraphs": ["information on poropuntius speleops is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nporopuntius speleops is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - barb ( poropuntius speleops )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - barb ( poropuntius speleops )\ntitle =\narkive species - barb ( poropuntius speleops )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - < i > poropuntius tawarensis < / i > specimen\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - < i > poropuntius tawarensis < / i > specimen\ntitle =\narkive photo - < i > poropuntius tawarensis < / i > specimen\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nty - jour ti - species status of poropuntius burtoni ( mukerji 1934 ) , ( cypriniformes : cyprinidae ) with a systematic note on poropuntius clavatus ( mcclelland 1845 ) t2 - the journal of the bombay natural history society . vl - 98 ur - urltoken pb - bombay natural history society , cy - bombay : py - 2001 sp - 31 ep - 37 sn - 0006 - 6982 au - vishwanath , waikhom au - kosygin , laishram er -\ncitation : wu x , luo j , huang s , chen z , xiao h , zhang y ( 2013 ) molecular phylogeography and evolutionary history of poropuntius huangchuchieni ( cyprinidae ) in southwest china . plos one 8 ( 11 ) : e79975 . urltoken\nthe evolution of the yunnan plateau\u2019s drainages network during the pleistocene was dominated by the intense uplifts of the qinghai - tibetan plateau . in the present study , we investigated the association between the evolutionary histories of three main drainage systems and the geographic patterns of genetic differentiation of poropuntius huangchuchieni .\n@ article { bhlpart155125 , title = { species status of poropuntius burtoni ( mukerji 1934 ) , ( cypriniformes : cyprinidae ) with a systematic note on poropuntius clavatus ( mcclelland 1845 ) } , journal = { the journal of the bombay natural history society . } , volume = { 98 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder } , url = urltoken publisher = { bombay : bombay natural history society , 1886 - } , author = { vishwanath , waikhom and kosygin , laishram } , year = { 2001 } , pages = { 31 - - 37 } , }\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nkottelat , m . 2013 . the fishes of the inland waters of southeast asia : a catalogue and core bibiography of the fishes known to occur in freshwaters , mangroves and estuaries . raffles bulletin of zoology supplement no . 27 : 1 - 663 .\nkottelat , m . , parenti , l . , vidthayanon , c . & juffe bignoli , d .\nthe species is assessed as endangered due to a significant decline ( that may reach 80 % ) in the abundance of this species in central vietnam that has been observed in the last ten years . this observed decline is probably the result of overfishing , as well as habitat loss and degradation . it is possible that the species may qualify for a higher threat category , and further survey and fishing regulations are required .\nbetween 2000 and 2009 , a marked decline in the abundance of the species in central viet nam was observed by freyhof ( unpublished data ) . it is thought ( j . freyhof , pers . comm ) , that the decline might be as high as 80 % , mainly due to overfishing .\n. 2006 ) . it does not persist in impoundments and it feeds mainly on fine debris , algae , diatoms , and aquatic insects ( rainboth 1996 ) .\nmajor threats to this species are overfishing ( where it is captured using seines , cast - nets , and traps ) , and habitat degradation caused by human infrastructure including dam construction and water pollution .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngreek , poros = porous + greek , punctum = marked with points ( ref . 45335 )\nfreshwater ; benthopelagic ; potamodromous ( ref . 51243 ) . tropical ; 12\u00b0c - 24\u00b0c ( ref . 13614 )\ncaudal fin very pale yellow ( live specimens ) , with dark upper and lower margins ; specimens at least 6 cm sl with well developed breeding tubercles on lower half of the posterior part of body ; last simple dorsal fin ray slender , with a very weak serration along its posterior margin ( ref . 36949 ) .\nkottelat , m . , 2000 . diagnosis of a new genus and 64 new species of fishes from laos ( teleostei : cyprinidae , balitoridae , bagridae , syngnathidae , chaudhuriidae and tetraodontidae ) . j . south asian nat . hist . 5 ( 1 ) : 37 - 82 . ( ref . 36949 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00933 ( 0 . 00431 - 0 . 02019 ) , b = 3 . 02 ( 2 . 85 - 3 . 19 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 2 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 37 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncopyright : \u00a9 2013 wu et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : this work was supported by national basic research program of china , national natural science foundation of china , bureau of science and technology of yunnan province . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\npast tectonic movements and climatic changes have greatly shaped the structure of hydrographic systems [ 1 ] , [ 2 ] , [ 3 ] . likewise , since freshwater fish species are strictly confined to freshwater drainages , the historical connections , capture , reversal and separation of rivers are a driving force behind their diversification and speciation [ 1 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 5 ] , [ 6 ] , [ 7 ] . consequently , the genetic structure and the dispersal of freshwater fish species is also strongly connected to historical and ecological changes to the aquatic environment [ 1 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 5 ] , [ 6 ] , [ 7 ] , so by examining the historical biogeography of freshwater fishes could provide a natural link in understanding concurrent geographical and biotic evolution of a given region [ 8 ] .\nin this study , we used the sequences of the mtdna control region to estimate the genetic differentiation and phylogeographical patterns of p . huangchuchieni . to examine the taxonomic status of p . opisthoptera , we also determined the phylogenetic relationships between p . huangchuchieni and p . opisthoptera . accordingly , the main objectives of this study are ( 1 ) to examine the population genetic structure and the demographic history of p . huangchuchieni ; ( 2 ) to propose a historical biogeography and climate hypothesis to accommodate the phylogeographic patterns of lineages within p . huangchuchieni ; and ( 3 ) to determine the taxonomic implications for p . opisthoptera .\nafter alignment , 965 bp dna sequences of the complete control region were obtained from all p . huangchuchieni specimens . the control region sequences yielded 126 variable sites of which 100 were parsimony informative , defining 126 haplotypes ( genbank access number : kc567019 - kc567146 ) . the overall nucleotide diversity ( \u03c0 ) and haplotype diversity ( h ) of all in - group sequences was 0 . 0286\u00b10 . 0139 and 0 . 9856\u00b10 . 0020 , respectively . in total , 1140 bp dna sequences of the complete cyt b gene were determined from 20 in - group individuals , and these 20 cyt b sequences contained 117 variable sites of which 87 were parsimony informative , further defining 18 haplotypes ( genbank access number : kc567001\u2013kc567018 ) .\nml and bayesian phylogenetic analysis of the 126 haplotypes identified two major phylogroups , containing five highly independent lineages with strong statistical support ( fig . 1a ) . one group , named lineage sw , clustered all of the p . opisthoptera individuals from the salween river , which was at the most basal position of the tree . the other group contained all p . huangchuchieni individuals , which formed four major evolutionary lineages : mk - a , mk - b , rl and lx ( fig . 1a ) .\nphylogenetic trees reconstructed based on mitochondrial control region sequences of all haplotypes ( a ) , the combined sequences of 20 haplotypes ( c ) , and the haplotypes network analysis of the 126 haplotypes ( b ) .\n( a ) ml tree reconstructed based on mitochondrial control region sequences of all haplotypes under hky + i + g model . numbers on major nodes represents bootstrap values after 1 , 000 replications . if bootstrap values were less than 50 % , they were defaulted . trees were rooted by h . pierrei and one h . vernayi . ( b ) haplotypes networks conducted based on the 126 haplotypes . circle size is proportional to haplotype frequency . the number of black dots on line connected haplotypes represents mutation steps between haplotypes ; when the mutation step is 1 , it was defaulted . ( c ) 50 % majority - role consensus tree inferred from ml and bayesian analysis of combined sequences of 20 haplotypes under gtr + i + g model . numbers at nodes represent the posterior probability for bayesian analysis and bootstrap value for maximum likelihood ( ml ) analysis . if the bootstrap values were less than 50 % , they were defaulted . trees were rooted by h . pierrei and one h . vernayi .\nlineages of mk - a and mk - b were represented by nearly all of the haplotypes ( except of hap 81 ) from the mekong river system , and co - occurred in most sample sites in the mekong river system ( table 1 ) . the haplotypes from luosuo river ( m3 ) , nanla river ( m5 ) and puwen river ( m7 ) in the mekong river system were only found in lineage mk - a , and the haplotypes from menghan ( m2 ) and dazhong river ( m8 ) were only found in mk - b ( table 1 ) . the rl lineage contained the haplotypes from amo river ( r1 ) , tengtiao river ( r3 ) , lvzhi river ( r4 ) and hedi river ( r5 ) in the red river system . interestingly , two haplotypes\u2013hap48 from the lvzhi river within the red river system and hap81 from nanlei river within the mekong river system\u2013fell outside the main cluster of lineage rl and located at the basal position within lineage rl ( table 1 ) . lineage lx was comprised of all of the haplotypes from lixian river ( r2 ) and two haplotypes from amo river ( r1 ) ( table 1 ) . within mk - a , there were two sublineages , which were named as mk - a1 and mk - a2 . mk - a1 was distributed in most of the sample sites ( 10 of 12 sample sites ) of mekong river system , whereas mk - a2 was distributed in only 4 sample sites ( figure 2 ) . lineage lx likewise contained two sublineages , which we named lx - 1 and lx - 2 . lx - 1 was only located in the lixian river , while lx - 2 , which contained three haplotypes , was found in both the lixian and amo river ( figure 2 ) .\ngeographic distribution of sample sites and the frequency of lineages and sublineages at each site . circle area is proportional to the sample size .\nsampling information and size in each lineage , as well as haplotype , and nucleotide diversity of populations based on mtdna d - loop sequences .\nin the phylogenetic trees based on the combined sequences of control region and the cyt b gene , the five major lineages could be clearly detected ( fig . 1c ) , corresponding to those defined in the control region trees . compared with the control region trees , the placement of lineages sw and lx were slightly different ; lx was placed at the most basal position and sw at the second basal position in the combined sequence trees . based on the combined sequences , the positions of other three lineages were recovered with strong supports .\nin total , among the 5 lineages , 126 haplotypes formed 9 unconnected haplotype networks at the 95 % connection limit ( fig . 1b ) . mk - a was divided into two unconnected sublineages , mk - a1 and mk - a2 . lx was also unconnected and formed two independent networks , lx - 1 and lx - 2 . rl was divided into three unconnected networks , where hap 48 and hap 81 formed two independent networks , while all the other haplotypes formed an integrate network .\nthe geographical structure at the river systems levels was determined using amova analysis . once all populations were grouped into the three river systems ( f st = 0 . 650 , f ct = 0 . 331 , p < 0 . 0001 ) , 33 . 09 % of the variation was between the different river systems and 31 . 91 % of the variation was between populations within the same river systems .\nin conducting the relative rate test , the null hypothesis of rate constancy could not be rejected for all lineages pairs . accordingly , mtdna divergence could instead be used to calculate the divergence times of the inferred mtdna lineages . we calculated the net between\u2013lineage mean distances using 20 cyt b sequences , with values ranging from 0 . 016 to 0 . 033 among the inferred lineages ( table 2 ) ; the net between\u2013lineage mean distances estimated using all the control region sequences were between 0 . 017\u20130 . 030 ( table 2 ) . we also calculated the net between\u2013lineage mean distances based on the same 20 specimens of control region sequences with values from 0 . 013 to 0 . 038 ( results not shown ) among the inferred lineages . accordingly , it could be concluded that the evolutionary rate of the control region sequences was similar to that of the cyt b gene among the five major lineages of p . huangchuchieni .\ndata set are above the diagonal , net genetic distances estimated based on the d - loop data set are below the diagonal .\nthe most recent common ancestor ( tmrca ) of all the ingroup sequences was dated back to around 1 . 57 mya ( 95 % ci = 1 . 03\u20132 . 21 ) . meanwhile , the estimated divergence time of the lineage lx from lineages mks and rl was estimated at 1 . 28 mya ( 95 % ci = 0 . 89\u20131 . 70 ) ; the diversification time of lineage rl from lineages mks was 1 . 11 mya ( 95 % ci = 0 . 79\u20131 . 46 ) . the tmrca of lineages mks and mk - a were dated 0 . 96 mya ( 95 % ci = 0 . 67\u20131 . 27 ) and 0 . 73 mya ( 95 % ci = 0 . 49\u20130 . 99 ) , respectively .\nthe mismatch distribution analysis of lineages mk - a , rl and lx were multimodal distribution of pairwise differences , and the fu\u2019s fs values were also not significant , indicating a long term demographic stability in these lineages ( fig . 3 ) . lineage mk - b displayed a unimodal mismatch distribution and a significant fs value , suggesting a recent population expansion . lineage sw was excluded from this analysis because of its small sample size . two sublineages ( mk - a1 and lx - 1 ) fitted the expected distributions under the expansion model ( fig . 3 ) . mismatch distributions for sublineages mk - a1 and lx - 1 were unimodal , with f s values of \u221216 . 48 ( p < 0 . 01 ) and \u22123 . 48 ( p < 0 . 05 ) , respectively ( table 3 ) . neither mismatch distribution nor neutrality tests , however , supported the expectation of population expansion for sublineage mk - a2 . given the small sample size of sublineage lx - 2 , the detection of population expansion was not performed . with the estimated tau value ( \u03c4 ) and a generation time of one year , the estimated times since population growth for lineage mk - b , and sublineages mk - a1 and lx - 1 were respectively dated to around 140 ka , 100 ka , and 60 ka years ago ( table 3 ) .\nstatistics of genetic diversity , tests of neutrality , and demographic parameters estimated for the major lineages and sublineages . these data were defaulted when number of individuals in a population was less than 10 .\na total of 234 specimens were included in morphological analysis ( lineage mk - a : n = 124 ; lineage mk - b , n = 55 ; lineage rj , n = 25 ; lineage lx , n = 13 ; lineage sw , n = 18 ) . the canonical variates analysis ( cva ) produced a scatter of specimens along the two first canonical axes ( fig . 4 ) . plotting canonical variables 1 ( cv1 ) and canonical variables 2 ( cv2 ) showed a clear morphometric space among groups . together , these first two canonical variables collectively explain 83 . 64 % of the total variability between groups ( cv1 accounted for 65 . 09 % and cv2 accounted for 18 . 55 % ) . meanwhile , 95 % frequency ellipses showed an overlap in the scatter of data among the 5 groups , with the exception of lineages mk - a and lx not overlapping with lineage sw ( p . opisthoptera ) ( fig . 4 ) . the cv1 sets lineage sw ( p . opisthoptera ) as having diverged from the other 4 lineages , being then associated with the relative position of the dorsal fin ( table 4 ) . the cv2 sets lineage lx from lineages mk - a and mk - b , and corresponded to the relative heights of body and caudal peduncle ( table 4 ) .\nfactor loadings for the 10 highest measured variables and canonical correlations of the differentiation analysis for the 5 main lineages .\nthe mitochondrial control region phylogenetic tree revealed the basal position of p . opisthoptera , which suggested a close relationship with p . huangchuchieni . however , the phylogenetic trees based on both the cyt b gene and combined genes all showed the basal position of lineage lx , and the second basal position of p . opisthoptera , indicating that p . opisthoptera may instead be a paraphyletic group of p . huangchuchieni . while the phylogenetic trees based on different data sets provided somewhat ambiguous results for the taxonomic inference of p . opisthoptera , together they firmly supported the notion that p . opisthoptera and the four major lineages of p . huangchuchieni all originated from a common ancestral stock .\nnote : 1 : tip of the mouth , junction of premaxilary and ethmoid ; 2 : center of eyes ; 3 : former basal point of dorsal fin ; 4 : posterior basal point of dorsal fin ; 5 : upper basal point of tail fin ; 6 : centre basal point of tail fin ; 7 : abdominal basal point of tail fin ; 8 : posterior basal point of anal fin ; 9 : former basal point of anal fin ; 10 : former basal point of ventral fin ; 11 : former basal point of pectoral fin .\nthe population differentiated in mekong and red river systems after the kym vicariant event . for example , the lineage mk - b and mk - a which split into two sublineages , mk - a1 and mk - a2 , in mekong river system ; the lineages rl and lx which split into two sublineages , lx - 1 and lx - 2 , in the red river system ( fig . 1 ) . independent geological or climatic evidence often serves to suggest that distinctive mtdna phylogroups may have diverged in allopatry [ 25 ] . in addition , most patterns in mtdna surveys also reveal the secondary admixture between allopatrically evolved phylogroups [ 25 ] .\np . huangchuchieni is a common economic fish . all specimens and muscle tissues were bought from local fish dealers . the specimens used in this study were dead . samples were obtained following the regulations for the implementation of china on the protection of wild animals ( presidential decree [ 2004 ] no . 9 ) .\ntotal genomic dna was extracted from muscle tissues using the standard phenol - chloroform extraction method . the complete sequence of the mitochondrial control region was amplified with the primers used by gilles et al . [ 34 ] . afterward , the complete sequence of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene ( cyt b ) was amplified for a subset of samples , selected based on the topology of the control region sequences , using the primers outlines by xiao et al . [ 35 ] . pcr amplifications were carried out in 50 ul reaction mixture containing 5 ul 10\u00d7pcr buffer ( takara , dalian ) , 0 . 2 mm dntps , 0 . 2 um each primer , with 1 . 5 u taq dna polymerase ( takara ) and approximately 50 ng genomic dna . reaction condition were 3 min at 95\u00b0c , followed by 35 cycles of 1 min at 94\u00b0c , 1 min at 57\u00b0c ( for the control region ) or 52\u00b0c ( for cyt b ) , and 1 min at 72\u00b0c , and 7 min at 72\u00b0c . pcr products were purified using the gel extraction mini kit ( waston biotechnologies , shanghai ) .\npcr products were sequenced in an abi prism 3730 ( applied biosystems ) automatic sequencer . the complete sequences of control region were sequenced directly with pcr primers ; the 19 complete sequences of cytochrome b were sequenced using pcr primers and two internal primers ( l15286 and h15374 ) employed by xiao et al . [ 36 ] . the sequencing reaction conditions were 25 cycles of 96\u00b0c for 30 s , 50\u00b0c 15 s and 60\u00b0c 4 min .\nall nucleotide sequences of the d - loop region , cyt b and combined sequences ( both cyt b and d - loop ) were aligned using megalign in dnastar 6 ( dnastar , madison , usa ) , and further alignment was confirmed visually in bioedit 7 . 0 . 9 [ 37 ] . protein - coding nucleotide sequences were translated to amino acids to confirm alignment . the sequence polymorphic analysis was performed in mega 4 [ 38 ] .\na haplotype network was constructed using tcs 1 . 2 . 1 [ 45 ] to estimate gene genealogies for the control region . the connection limit was fixed at 95 % and gaps were treated as a 5th state . when ambiguities ( closed loops or \u2018stranded\u2019 clades ) occurred in the networks , they were resolved using published rules and predictions based on coalescence theory [ 46 ] , [ 47 ] .\ngenetic structure analysis was performed based on the control region using arlequin 3 . 1 [ 48 ] . the haplotype diversity ( h ) and nucleotide diversity ( \u03c0 ) [ 49 ] for each sampled population with a sample size \u226510 and each lineage / sublineage were estimated . a hierarchical analysis of molecular variance ( amova ) was implemented to assess the significant population structure on different levels . the fixation index f st , fct and fsc [ 50 ] was used to estimate genetic differentiation at the three river systems levels . both amova and f st analysis were performed using pairwise difference with gamma correction ; the significance was assessed by 10 , 000 permutations with arlequin 3 . 1 . 1 . 1 [ 48 ] .\nthe six main rivers distribute in yunnan plateau , china . the six rivers are divided into two groups , jinsha - nanpan - red and mekong - salween - irrawaddy , by the red lines .\nconceived and designed the experiments : hx , ypz . performed the experiments : xyw . analyzed the data : xyw , jl . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : jl , sh , zmc . wrote the paper : xyw . revised the manuscript : jl , ypz .\nbermingham e , avise jc ( 1986 ) molecular zoogeography of freshwater fishes in the southeastern united states . genetics 113 : 939\u2013965 .\ndurand jd , persat h , bouvet y ( 1999 ) phylogeography and postglacial dispersion of the chub ( leuciscus cephalus ) in europe . mol ecol 8 : 989\u2013997 .\ndominguez - dominguez o , alda f , de leon gp , garcia - garitagoitia jl , doadrio i ( 2008 ) evolutionary history of the endangered fish zoogoneticus quitzeoensis ( bean , 1898 ) ( cyprinodontiformes : goodeidae ) using a sequential approach to phylogeography based on mitochondrial and nuclear dna data . bmc evol biol 8 : 161 .\nzemlak ts , walde sj , habit em , ruzzante de ( 2011 ) climate - induced changes to the ancestral population size of two patagonian galaxiids : the influence of glacial cycling . mol ecol 20 : 5280\u20135294 .\nwaters jm , rowe dl , apte s , king tm , wallis gp , et al . 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the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\njoel is a popular keynote speaker with conservation , corporate , and civic groups .\njoel is the founder of the photo ark , a groundbreaking effort to document every species in captivity before it\u2019s too late .\nevery purchase goes directly to support our mission : getting the public to care and helping to save species from extinction .\nbiodivlibrary july is # nationalblueberrymonth ! the w . a . cox nursery co . of mississippi ' s 1920s catalog proclaimed # blueberries to\u2026 urltoken\nbiodivlibrary @ jzed _ trees @ kew _ laa awesome ! we ' re so honored to have this treasure in # bhlib . thanks @ kew _ laa ! now we can enjoy p\u2026 urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\njustification : the species is endemic to the phatewada cave in phu khiew wildlife sanctuary , thailand . it is restricted to a single underground stream system . the population has been impacted by occasional collection for food and , to a lesser extent , for the aquarium trade , thought the population is considered stable at present . it is assessed as vulnerable ( d2 ) as it is present at a single location and impacted by harvest and potential pollution from agriculture , although the cave system is located with a wildlife sanctuary .\nendemic to the subterranean stream of tham ( cave ) phatewada in the phu khiew wildlife sanctuary in chayaphum province , thailand ( mekong khorat plateau ecoregion ) .\nlocalized and uncommon , declined in the past 20 years from its discovery in 1991 . the species has occasionally been harvested for food , and might have undergone occasional declines , but the population is thought likely to be stable at present .\n, this species does not differ from riverine surface - dwelling species of the genus .\nrarely seen in aquarium trade ( harvested by poaching ) . locally consumed by locals who pass by the cave . both harvests would present a threat if undertaken in larger numbers or with greater frequency .\nthe population has declined due to local consumption from this small population , rarely harvested for the aquarium trade , however the population is considered to be stable at present . other potential threats include impacts from tourist visitors , and degradation of water quality as a result of sedimentation and agricultural pollution .\nprotected by thai law and in the protected area ( wildlife sanctuary ) . research is needed on the species population , threats and conservation actions .\nis still very confused ( kottelat 2011 ) , despite a recent revision , and the identity and distribution of species from the genus in the region requires further work .\nlocally common to uncommon in the mekong basin . although some threats have been identified , the species\nis not widely threatened and it is therefore assessed as least concern . further work is required to confirm the species distribution , especially with respect to the taxonomic identity of some records .\nthe species is known from the lower mekong basin in thailand and lao pdr to viet nam , where it is recorded from numerous major tributaries , e . g . , throughout the xe bangfai ( kottelat 1998 ) and the xe kong ( kottelat 2011 ) in lao pdr . the species is likely to be quite widely distributed , but under - recorded or misidentified in surveys ( m . kottelat pers . comm . 2012 ) .\nthe species is recorded from myanmar ( roberts 1998 ) , presumably in the mekong drainage . records from viet nam require confirmation ; e . g . , thua thien hue province in central viet nam ( vo\ninhabits rivers and tributaries to montane streams . tends to be found in faster flowing waters ( kottelat 2011 ) .\nconsumed and sold in local markets . occasionally found in the domestic aquarium trade in thailand .\njustification : the species has been assessed as data deficient , due to a lack of information regarding species ' taxonomic status , distribution range , population trends , or direct threats to this species .\nthe species is known from the nho qu\u00ea river in northern viet nam ( bao lac county , cao b\u00e0ng province ; nguyen and ngo 2001 ) .\nwithout greater information on the species distribution and ecology , nothing can be said of the threats to the species .\nresearch is required to confirm the taxonomic placement of the species , as well as its distribution and population trends .\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of barbus chonglingchungi tchang , 1938 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of barbodes chonglingchungi ( tchang , 1938 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of barbodes lacustris wu , 1977 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of puntius pachygnathus wang , zhuang & gao , 1982 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 207, "summary": [{"text": "bucculatrix polymniae is a moth in the bucculatricidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from kentucky and ohio .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 6 \u2013 7 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are brown , darkest brown between the silvery streaks .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults have been recorded on wing from march to april and from july to september in three generations per year .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on polymnia uvedalia .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they mine the leaves of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "larvae of the first generation mine only in the lowest pair of leaves .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "larvae of the second generation can be found in august and the third generation feeds in october and overwinters in the pupal stage .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the mine is winding , with a fine central line of frass .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "pupation takes place in a white cocoon . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "bucculatrix polymniae", "paragraphs": ["bucculatrix polymniae is a moth in the bucculatricidae family . it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from kentucky and ohio . the wingspan is about 6\u20137 mm . the forewings are brown , darkest brown between the silvery streaks . the hindwings are grey . adults have been recorded on wing from march to april and from july to september . . .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nas part our commitment to scholarly and academic excellence , all articles receive editorial review .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en"]}
{"id": 210, "summary": [{"text": "symmetrischema capsica , the pepper flowerbud moth , is a moth in the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by bradley and povoln\u00fd in 1965 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found mexico , the west indies , the caribbean ( trinidad and tobago ) and the south-eastern united states , where it has been recorded florida and texas .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 3-3.5 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are ash-gray , mottled with dark gray and yellowish-orange and with two or three grayish-black longitudinal dashes .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are gray .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed in the flower buds of capsicum annuum and physalis species . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "symmetrischema capsica", "paragraphs": ["ecology and natural control of symmetrischema capsica bradley & povolny ) a pest of peppers ( capsicum spp . )\necology and natural control of symmetrischema capsica bradley & povolny ) a pest of peppers ( capsicum spp . )\necology and natural control of symmetrischema capsica bradley & povolny ) a pest of peppers ( capsicum spp . ) [ 1981 ]\necology and natural control of symmetrischema capsica bradley & povolny ) a pest of peppers ( capsicum spp . ) [ trinidad ]\nbiology and description of stages of symmetrischema capsica ( bradley and povolny ) [ a pest of peppers ( capsicum spp . ) ] .\nbiology and description of stages of symmetrischema capsica ( bradley and povolny ) [ a pest of peppers ( capsicum spp . ) ] .\nbiology and description of stages of symmetrischema capsica ( bradley and povolny ) [ a pest of peppers ( capsicum spp . ) ] . [ 1979 ]\nspecies symmetrischema capsicum - pepper flowerbud moth - hodges # 2032 - bugguide . net\ngnorimoschema capsica bradley & povoln\u00fd , 1965 ; bull . ent . res . 56 ( 1 ) : 58 ; tl : lesser antilles\nsymmetrischema inexpectatum povoln\u00fd , 1967 ; acta ent . mus . natn . pragae 37 : 60\nsymmetrischema capsicivorum povoln\u00fd , 1973 ; acta ent . bohemoslov . 70 : 209 ; tl : peru , lambayeque\nsymmetrischema kendallorum blanchard & knudson , 1982 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 84 ( 3 ) : 628 ; tl : texas , nueces co . , north padre island\nsymmetrischema striatellum ; powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 13 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 27\nsymmetrischema ( gnorimoschemini ) ; [ sangmi lee ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 27 ; landry & roque - albelo , 2010 , revue suisse zool . 117 ( 4 ) : 730 , 699 ( list )\nsymmetrischema escondidella landry , 2010 ; revue suisse zool . 117 ( 4 ) : 730 , 699 ( list ) ; tl : galapagos , santa cruz , est . cient . charles darwin , el barranco , s 00\u00b044 . 291 ' , w 90\u00b0 18 . 107 ' , 22m\nsymmetrischema capsicum can be separated from other species in this tool by the lack of a dark band on the posterior margin of the prothoracic shield , the trisetose l group on a9 , the rounded head , pale thoracic legs , the eastern united states distribution and the host being pepper or physalis . the legs of p . operculella are pigmented .\nsymmetrischema tangolias ; hodges & becker , 1990 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 92 ( 1 ) : 84 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 12 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 27\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nadults are about 3 . 0 - 3 . 5 mm in forewing length . they are ash gray , mottled with dark gray and yellowish - orange with two or three grayish - black longitudinal dashes from median to preapex . the labial palpus is upturned . the hindwing is gray without hair - pencils in males . the abdomen has hair - pencils arising laterally from near the base of the eighth sternum in males . the male genitalia have a hood - shaped uncus with small lateral stubs , sagittate gnathos , valva short and thin with spatulate apex , and phallus with a short lateral process without numerous fine spines at the tip . females have an ostium with strongly sclerotized sclerites , with the caudal margin very slightly undulate , a stout funnel - shaped antrum leading into a very short ductus bursae , the colliculum well developed , and signum absent .\nthe prothoracic shield is uniformly brown or black . the line joining setae l1 and s2 is tangent to or passing through stemma i . the lateral setae of abdominal segment 9 are in a nearly vertical line . the legs are pale .\nthis species is superficially similar to keiferia gudmanella ( walsingham ) , but it differs by the hindwing not having hair - pencils in males of s . capsicum , whereas males of k . gudmanella have hair - pencils arising from near base of costa of the hind wing . also it can be differentiated by the male genital characters : the uncus is hood - shaped with small lateral stubs in s . capsicum , whereas the uncus is sickle - shaped in k . gudmanella .\neggs are laid on the youngest shoots near flower buds . after eclosing , larvae enter the bud . pupation is in the ground or debris but outside the flower bud in pepper . pupation in physalis occurs inside the fruit .\nnative to the west indies . usa ( florida , texas , in states bordering the gulf of mexico ) , mexico , west indies , caribbean ( trinidad , tobago ) .\n= ; landry & roque - albelo , 2010 , revue suisse zool . 117 ( 4 ) : 730\nphthorimaea altisona meyrick , 1917 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1917 ( 1 ) : 46 ; tl : peru , huancayo , 10650ft\nardeola ( meyrick , 1931 ) ( phthorimaea ) ; j . linn . soc . lond . ( zool . ) 37 : 280\nphthorimaea atrifascis meyrick , 1917 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1917 ( 1 ) : 45 ; tl : peru , chosica , 2800ft\nborsaniella ( k\u00f6hler , 1939 ) ( gnorimoschema ) ; an . soc . cient . argent . 128 : 370\ngnorimoschema cestrivora clarke , 1950 ; j . wash . acad . sci . 40 : 288 , f . 4 - 4d ; tl : tucuman , argentina\nchelaria conifera meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 582 ; tl : ecuador , huigra , 4500ft\ngnorimoschema fercularia meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 16 ) : 492 ; tl : texas , fort davis ( 5000ft ) , alpine ( 5000 - 8000ft )\ninsertum povoln\u00fd , 1988 ; revta inst . cienc . nat ecol . 1 : 77\nlarva on physalis virginiana var . spathulaefolia blanchard & knudson , 1982 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 84 ( 3 ) : 630\ngnorimoschema lectulifera meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 16 ) : 493 ; tl : texas , fort davis and alpine , 5000ft\nphthorimaea loquax meyrick , 1917 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1917 ( 1 ) : 45 ; tl : peru , chosica , 2800ft\ndepressaria pallidochrella chambers , 1872 ; can . ent . 4 ( 7 ) : 126 ; tl : kentucky\neucatoptus striatella murtfeldt , 1900 ; can . ent . 32 ( 6 ) : 163\nlarva on ( berries ) solanum nigrum murtfeldt , 1900 , can . ent . 32 ( 6 ) : 164\nperu , new south wales , . . . , california . see [ maps ]\n= ; hodges & becker , 1990 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 92 ( 1 ) : 84 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 12 ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 27\n= ; hodges & becker , 1990 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 92 ( 1 ) : 84 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 12 ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 28\nlarva on ( for _ gnorimoschema tuberosella ) solanum tuberosum busck , 1931 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 33 ( 3 ) : 60 , solanum nigrum powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 13\ngelechia ( teleia ? ) ventralella zeller , 1877 ; horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 348 , pl . 4 , f . 116\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nzeller , 1877 exotische microlepidopteren horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 3 - 493 , pl . 1 - 6\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nthis translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nlarvae feed in the flower buds of capsicum annuum l . ( cayenne pepper ) , physalis spp . ( groundcherry ) .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\ncopyright \u00a9 new earth online . content from external sites are the property of their respective owners where stated .\nconservation status where available has been identified by the iucn red list of threatened species ."]}
{"id": 213, "summary": [{"text": "makahiki ( japanese \u30de\u30ab\u30d2\u30ad , foaled 28 january 2013 ) is a japanese thoroughbred racehorse .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in 2016 he won the yayoi sho , tokyo yushun and prix niel", "topic": 14}], "title": "makahiki ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["jockey christophe - patrice lemaire rides his japanese horse makahiki on september 7 , 2016 , in gouvieux . on october 2 , 2016 , makahiki will try to win the prix de l ' arc de triomphe . jacques demarthon / afp\n\u201che ran his heart out , \u201d ninomiya said of his colt , also by deep impact . \u201cbut the horse that won was the better horse today . \u201d\nhorse racing betting tips : top picks for the eclipse at sandow . . .\nhorse racing betting tips june 30 : best bets for the northumbe . . .\nhorse racing tips july 2 : pontefract , hamilton , windsor , wolve . . .\nhorse racing tips july 6 : best bets for sandown , doncaster , ne . . .\nhorse racing tips july 3 : best bets for stratford , brighton , h . . .\nhorse racing tips july 1 : best bets for uttoxeter , cartmel , wi . . .\nhorse racing tips june 30 : best bets for york , chester , windso . . .\nhorse racing tips june 25 : best bets for beverley , brighton , n . . .\ndavid ord has a horse - by - horse guide to saturday ' s darley july cup and he ' s siding with a potential improver to shake - up the established sprinting stars .\nthe home of horse breeding in japan is hokkaido and its undisputed kings are the yoshida brothers .\nhorse racing tips july 8 : best bets for ayr , market rasen , fai . . .\nfirst three were market leaders and also first three in the japanese 2000 guineas , albeit there dee - makahiki - satono .\nmakahiki , ridden by christophe lemaire , stretches out on the gallops at gouveiux . photograph : jacques demarthon / afp / getty images\nurltoken has been a home to passionate debate and intelligent discussion for horse racing enthusiasts since the year 2000 . we are a passionate community of over 55 , 000 horse racing fans , commentators and industry professionals . the loyalty and effort of our members make the racing forum the friendliest and most informative horse racing community .\nsatono diamond was rated seventh from the front with makahiki and dee majesty traveling close behind . though allowing makahiki to surge out before him in the straight , the second favorite dislodged a powerful late charge under christophe lemaire to close in on the leader in the last furlong .\nmakahiki ( right ) , ridden by yuga kawada , edges satono diamond to win sunday ' s japanese derby at tokyo racecourse . | kyodo\nthis photo shows how a smile on your lips and an open heart can effect the attitude of your horse .\nsatono diamond was rated seventh from the front , with makahiki and dee majesty traveling close behind . though he allowed makahiki to surge out before him in the straight , satono diamond unleashed a powerful late charge under christophe lemaire to close in on the leader in the last furlong and just missed .\nbred in japan , makahiki is out of the french deputy mare wikiwiki . trained by yasuo tomomichi , he has four wins from five career starts .\nryan moore rode this horse on this track in november , finishing a neck second to one of today\u2019s favourites dee majesty .\ncrimean tatar is the most inexperienced horse in the field , but is the only unbeaten runner in the line - up .\nmakahiki clocked 2 minutes , 24 . 0 seconds over the 2 , 400 meters as both jockey yuga kawada and trainer yasuo tomomichi won their first derby .\nchristophe lemaire , who will also ride makahiki in the arc , was confident after sunday\u2019s success that his partner will improve significantly by the first weekend in october .\nhot favourite postponed could not pick up entering the straight and was ultimately well beaten in fifth place , as were big japanese hope makahiki and dual derby hero harzand .\nmakahiki , with yuga kawada aboard , traveled in mid - division , around eighth from the front - runner , along the rail , and eyed satono diamond in front .\nhorse sales at northern farm and the other yoshida stables now bring in the best trainers , and the richest buyers from across the world .\nmakahiki became the top 3 - year - old in all of japan on sunday , winning the japanese derby and a \u00a5200 million check after a photo finish over satono diamond .\nin the fall , makahiki may skip the third triple crown race , the kikka - sho , and take a shot at the elusive prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe in france .\na quarter of a century ago , harry sweeney was a horse doctor in ireland when he was asked to bring his veterinarian skills to hokkaido .\nfound was rated the best three - year - old filly in the world and the forty - second best horse of any age or sex .\nmakahiki had not run since he edged the tokyo yushun in may and considering midterm was himself coming back off a break following a hamstring injury , there are two ways of looking at the form .\n\u201che\u2019s a very clever and relaxed horse . he knows his job , he really does what you ask him to do and he preserves himself . today he came very easily to the front and then just relaxed . he\u2019s a typical mile - and - a - half horse , a big stride and then nice acceleration . \u201d\nrounding far turn , kawada steered makahiki to the outside for a clear path . although caught between horses at the top of the stretch , makahiki found an opening 300 meters out . he slipped out from the behind air spinel around the 200 - meter marker , and then accelerated to take command 100 meters out . he managed to fend off a strong challenge by satono diamond nearing wire for the narrow win .\nhorse numbers are indicated in the order of their positions at each corner , with the first position listed first . two or more horses inside the same parentheses indicate that they were positioned side by side . hyphens between the horse numbers indicate that there is distance between the former and the latter . the asterisk indicates a slight lead .\nall information , including ages and race performances , are as of december 31 , 2016 , unless otherwise indicated . wins and earnings include jra - designated local public races under the national association of racing ( nar ) and overseas starts , except for jockeys . the season performances chart shows the horse\u2019s positions in the 1st , 2nd , 3rd and final corners , from left to right . \u201cl3f\u201d and \u201c [ horse ] \u201d indicate time over the last 3 furlongs ( 600m ) and the horse\u2019s weight , respectively .\nmarking three consecutive wins from his debut in the yayoi sho ( jpn - ii ) in march , makahiki covered 2 , 400 meters ( about 1 1 / 2 miles ) in 2 : 24 on firm turf .\nwhat appeals most about makahiki is that he seems to share the strengths of horses like deep impact and orfevre , who finished runner - up in the arc in 2012 and 2013 , but not many of the weaknesses .\nthird choice makahiki bested a strong field of 3 - year - olds in the tokyo yushun ( jpn - i , japanese derby ) to claim his first top - level win by a nose may 29 at tokyo racecourse .\npostponed , admittedly , is a horse of genuine quality with the tactical speed to take a good position from stall seven and he is a solid favourite at around 2 - 1 .\nmakahiki improved for the step up to 12 furlongs in the japanese derby and held on with real determination in the closing stages to win by a nose . he did not have much to spare in the prix niel three weeks ago , having taken his time to get past midterm , but that win was probably a lot better than it looked , as it was his first start since may and makahiki has been prepared solely with sunday\u2019s race in mind .\n\u201c ( there is ) a reverence for the horse and for the sport that hasn\u2019t existed in the west for decades , \u201d wrote ryan goldberg , an american journalist in december 2014 .\nmakahiki is a homebred of makoto kaneko , who campaiged deep impact to a derby win in 2005 . he also landed the races in 2004 with king kamehameha and is now tied with sunday racing co . for the most derby wins .\nmakahiki put down the best performance out of the three trials for next month\u2019s prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe on sunday in the group 2 qater prix niel and connections of the japanese derby winner are confident there is much more to come .\njockey christophe lemaire has played a key role in the preparation of makahiki , who has been in chantilly for nearly two months . the french rider revealed that the three - year - old son of deep impact had a lot more to give .\nmakahiki turned it up with 200 meters remaining , going ahead by the narrowest of margins and holding on past the winning post . even though the stewards had to review the finish , satono diamond\u2019s jockey christophe lemaire knew who was heading to the winner\u2019s circle .\nbecame a well - deserving winner of the 2016 best dirt horse by claiming his second g1 title in the champions cup and consistently placing within the money in five other grade - race starts . the son of\nbegan riding at an early age and won a preliminary in the kanto area to earn a berth in the jra\u2019s \u201cjockey babies\u201d race , finishing fifth . he enrolled in the jra horse racing school in 2012 .\nmakahiki did the barest of minimums here on sunday but the latest star to emerge from japan with the prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe as his target remains on course for the big race on 2 october , having beaten midterm by a neck in the prix niel .\nlast time out , makahiki finished second , 1 1 / 4 lengths behind dee majesty , in the satsuki sho ( jpn - i , japanese two thousand guineas ) , closing in on the winner with a powerful late charge but got his classic victory sunday .\nchantilly , france / / makahiki put down the best performance out of the three trials for next month\u2019s prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe on sunday in the group 2 qater prix niel and connections of the japanese derby winner are confident there is much more to come .\nit is a decade since the doors at longchamp racecourse were thrown open on the first sunday in october to reveal an excited queue of several thousand japanese racing fans stretching back into the bois de boulogne . deep impact , the horse that had lured them across two continents , could finish only third in the prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe , but the experience sparked a japanese obsession with winning the arc that makahiki , a son of deep impact , may finally satisfy on sunday .\nthe jra equine culture award recognizes noteworthy achievements and contributions to japanese equine culture . nominations for the 2016 award included horse - related cultural events and publications that were held or published between november 2015 and october 2016 .\ncandy said : \u201cthe race worked out really , really well . the horse was really relaxed and harry was able to take a pull . it was lovely to see the way he quickened up like that . \u201d\nmakahiki , also sired by deep impact , won the japanese derby in may , earning a prize of \u00a5200 million . the yoshida family owns or has a stake in most of the nation\u2019s other top stallions , including king kamehameha , harbinger and just a way , once the world\u2019s top - rated thoroughbred horse . their successes abroad include rulership , who won the queen elizabeth ii cup in hong kong in 2012 , and gentildonna , winner of the dubai sheema classic two years ago .\nit was far from spectacular , and for a brief moment inside the final furlong , it seemed that makahiki might not find enough to overhaul midterm , who was running for the first time since finishing only fifth when favourite for the dante stakes at york in may .\non a glorious afternoon at tokyo racecourse , the deep impact - sired makahiki , who went off as the third choice in a full field of 18 , held off satono diamond by a nose at the wire to capture the second leg in the japanese triple crown .\nbut makahiki too was returning from a break , having been off the track since winning the japanese derby by a nose on 29 may . he kept responding on the run to the line here , and had more to spare at the post than the margin might imply .\nlike deep impact , he had the class to win the japanese derby . unlike deep impact , he is a three - year - old , the generation that has supplied 17 of the last 22 arc winners , and has a rider in christophe lemaire who knows his way around chantilly . and unlike orfevre , who veered sharply right and threw away his chance after hitting the front in 2012 , makahiki seems to have the no - nonsense attitude of a horse who will get the job done .\nclaimed the 2016 horse of the year title after for an outstanding season that included two of japan\u2019s most prestigious g1 titles as well as two close finishes\u2014under 0 . 1 second\u2014in all - star g1 events , the takarazuka kinen and the arima kinen . these combined with another g2 win in the kyoto daishoten boosted his total earnings above the billion yen mark and won him 44 votes over 2015 horse of the year maurice for the season\u2019s highest honor .\nhorse racing in japan appears at first glance to have its best days behind it : attendance at racecourses is down by more than half from the 14 million people who went in the late 1990s , when betting revenue peaked .\nunlike in the satsuki - sho when he had to bring up the rear , kawada \u2014 who became the eighth jockey to sweep japan\u2019s five classic races \u2014 made sure makahiki made the trip in midfield and unleashed him down the 525 - meter straight with satono diamond in his sights .\n\u201cbeing a horse with great expectation ever since his debut as a two - year - old , it ' s been a long way to finally prove his true ability with his first g1 victory this time and i am grateful to have been given the opportunity to train such a talented horse , \u201d said trainer yasutoshi ikee . \u201che ' s had the potential all along but a g1 title was needed to justify that and i ' m glad he did .\non paper the defeat of one - time english derby favourite midterm by a neck hardly sets the pulse racing , but makahiki showed that he is in good heart and , according to his trainer , did only as much as he had to in order to hold off the british challenger .\nmakahiki ( jpn , c4 , by deep impact ) , who claimed the tokyo yushun by crossing the wire a nose in front of satono diamond , disappointed to 14th in his arc challenge last year and was given the rest of the season off . he finished third in his comeback start in february this year in the kyoto kinen , which was won by satono crown ( jpn , h5 , by marju ) who scored his second consecutive win following his first g1 success overseas in the hong kong vase last year . both makahiki and satono crown will start in the osaka hai .\nfrench horses dominated the other two trials with pascal bary\u2019s silverwave proving an easy winner of an unremarkable prix foy , and carlos laffon - parias\u2019s left hand taking the prix vermeille for fillies . both could join makahiki and midterm in the european showpiece and of the two left hand could be dangerous .\nwith the arc in mind , makahiki was the main attraction on the card of trial races over the big - race course and distance here , and his price to win europe\u2019s showpiece race is largely unchanged at around 8 - 1 , although a couple of firms pushed him out to 10 - 1 .\nif so , few will care that their dreams will come true in chantilly , about 30 miles north of paris , rather than the arc\u2019s traditional home . while you cannot see the eiffel tower in the distance , the chateau and the grandes \u00e9curies , built by an aristocrat who believed he would be re - incarnated as a horse , will provide a suitably impressive backdrop for one of sport\u2019s most glamorous annual events . and at around 6 - 1 , makahiki is a very attractive price to succeed where his father and several other japanese contenders have failed over the years .\ndelivered another outstanding season to conclude his sparkling racing career with six g1 titles in everything from a mile to extended distances of 2 , 000 meters . while falling 44 votes short of kitasan black for his second horse of the year title , the son of\nthird pick makahiki broke smoothly from stall three and traveled in mid - division , around eighth from the frontrunner , along the rails while eying second favorite satono diamond in front . rounding the third corner and approaching the final turn , yuga kawada steered the deep impact colt to the outside for a clear path . although caught between horses at the top of the stretch , makahiki found an opening 300 meters out and after slipping out from the pack behind air spinel around the 200 - meter marker , accelerated strongly to take command 100 meters out and managed to fend off a strong challenge by satono diamond before the wire for a photo - finish win .\n\u201cit meant he met the big bend on the wrong lead and then he didn\u2019t quicken up like he can . it\u2019s disappointing as we went in hoping we would win , but the main thing is we still have a horse to go to war with . \u201d\nnot every horse performs on cue . breeding is a hit - and - miss affair : foals can turn out to be sickly or deformed . mares and stallions can be temperamental , or worse : one of america\u2019s most iconic racehorses , cigar , won almost $ 10 million in prize money and was twice voted horse of the year in the 1990s . however , his performance on racecourses was not matched in the stable : none of the 34 mares he squired became pregnant . cigar , it turned out , was shooting blanks .\ndeep impact , the sire of makahiki , drew thousands of japanese racing fans to paris when he ran third in the arc a decade ago . having tried and failed several times to win the arc at longchamp , japan will now hope to win it at chantilly in three weeks\u2019 time while the race\u2019s traditional home is being rebuilt .\nmakahiki ( jpn ) b . c , 2013 { 1 - m } dp = 2 - 0 - 7 - 3 - 0 ( 12 ) di = 0 . 85 cd = 0 . 08 - 11 starts , 5 wins , 1 places , 1 shows career earnings : jp\u00a5409 , 655 , 000 + \u008074 , 100\nconcluded a spectacular 2016 season with a near perfect score of four wins and a second that included both j - g1 titles and two other graded jump titles , positioning himself as the undisputed jra award winner for best steeplechase horse . the five - year - old son of\n\u201ci like it here ; it\u2019s a fantastic horse industry , structure , racing and prize money , \u201d sweeney says . \u201ci love the farm , the scenery , people and the food . i think i have a wonderful life : a home in ireland and a home here . \u201d\nthe form of the arc trials three weeks ago was boosted in group two events at chantilly on saturday as doha dream , a close third behind makahiki in the prix niel , took the prix chaudenay , and the juliet rose , who finished third to arc contender left hand in the prix vermeille , was an impressive front - running winner of the prix de royallieu .\nriding under trainer hidekazu asami upon graduating from jra\u2019s horse racing school in february 2015 , he scored his first win on march 14 at chukyo . he was second best among first - season jockeys with 17 wins by august and then ultimately overtook his rivals to win by nine victories for the champion title .\nbut despite the big buildup to the arc , makahiki disappointed badly by finishing 14th . the race unfolded with an uncharacteristically fast pace early on , wearing out the inexperienced three - year - old as he fought to keep his position near the leaders but stayed wide throughout . although japan\u2019s highly regarded colt faded from contention , the 2016 arc added a new page to its history book as the top three finishers\u2014found ( ire , f4 ) , highland reel ( ire , c4 ) and order of st george ( ire , c4 ) \u2014all came from the same yard ( irish trainer aidan o\u2019brien ) and all shared the same sire ( galileo ) . makahiki , who never managed to demonstrate his bursting finishing speed , is expected to rest for the remainder of the season .\nbecame only the second horse to claim both j - g1 titles in the same year\u2014the first was up to date in 2015\u2014including the nakayama daishogai in december , when he used his outstanding stamina and speed to keep the pace and then still have plenty left to draw away to an overwhelming nine - length victory .\nmidterm could yet join makahiki in the field for the arc , as this was a much more encouraging performance than his run in the dante , a race that he started as the ante - post favourite for the derby . new bay , last year\u2019s french derby winner , is another possible arc runner in prince khalid abdullah\u2019s colours , however , and the champion stakes is an alternative target .\ncolt , unbeaten in two starts as a two - year - old after a late debut in november , kicked off the 2016 season with his third win and first grade - race victory in the kisaragi sho . as the favorite in the first leg of the triple crown , the satsuki sho ( japanese 2000 guineas ) , he impressively out - finished 2015 best two - year - old colt leontes , but was overtake n by eventual winner dee majesty and subsequent tokyo yushun ( japanese derby ) winner makahiki , settling for third place . he almost won the next time out in the tokyo yushun , just missing by a nose to makahiki while holding off dee majesty by a half a length . starting the fall with his second grade - race victory in the kobe shimbun hai ,\nthird choice makahiki broke smoothly from stall three , eased back toward the rear and traveled wide behind dee majesty throughout the race . the yasuo tomomichi - trained bay exploded powerfully in the last stretch , running the last three furlongs the fastest in the field and , although unable to close in on the winner , finished 1 - 1 / 4 - length ahead of the race favorite in second .\n, earned 90 votes to deny him a second consecutive horse of the year title , but he still earned a special award for continuing to excel in the final season of his illustrious career . the annual jra awards , which will be handed out in a ceremony at prince park tower tokyo on monday , january 30 , recognize\n> > > > > it is said that this season\u2019s three - year - old colts in japan are a vintage crop , and many experts who have been involved in writing and commenting on horse racing in japan , share the feeling that the tokyo yushun ( japanese derby ) , is the strongest ever . i do not hesitate to agree with this opinion .\nturned in another outstanding season in 2016 after becoming the jra\u2019s leading trainer for the first time in 2015 . success in both japan and overseas produced his first jra awards for money earned and training technique and his third title for winning average . even though two - time triple crown winner duramente was forced to retire in mid - season with injury , horse of the year maurice gave\nhowever , he does not have as much in hand of the field as his odds might suggest , and as a lightly raced three - year - old who has been pointed towards chantilly for many months , makahiki\u2019s profile makes far more appeal at the prices . at much bigger odds , meanwhile , savoir vivre , the grand prix de deauville winner , could scrape into the frame and may be worth an additional ( and small ) each - way interest at 50 - 1 .\ntoshikazu wakamatsu , groom \u201cyou may not be able to see the difference just by looking at him but he has gotten better little by little with each race . he\u2019s small but always gives it his all . he\u2019s really a great little horse . he\u2019s good at hauling too and the trip to the track won\u2019t hurt him . i think he\u2019ll be able to handle the extra distance . \u201d\nin the final race of the day limato was a comfortable winner of the prix de la foret for lambourn handler henry candy but there is a difference of opinion in the victorious camp about the breeders\u2019 cup target for the horse . winning rider harry bentley said \u201che\u2019s got an incredible turn of foot , but he does settle in his races , too . he really is a class act . \u201d\nthe jra horse racing season starts in earnest with the three - year - old classic trials in march , whilehorses begin to prepare towards the spring 2017 g1 events . we take this opportunity to bring you up to date on the progress of last year\u2019s stars and this season\u2019s key runners , hoping that this special spring edition of our seasonal japan autumn international newsletter will support your reporting of upcoming events .\nthe jra horse racing season starts in earnest with the three - year - old classic trials in march , whilehorses begin to prepare towards the spring 2016 g1 events . we take this opportunity to bring you up to date on the progress of last year\u2019s stars and this season\u2019s key runners , hoping that this special spring edition of the seasonal japan autumn international newsletter will assist you in reporting on upcoming events .\nlightly raced this season , satono aladdin finished ninth in his only start , the keio hai spring cup over a yielding track . his latest triumph being the satsuki sho ( japanese 2000 guineas ) this season with al ain , trainer yasutoshi ikee has now 18 jra - g1 titles under his belt , while jockey yuga kawada claimed his ninth , his latest the tokyo yushun ( japanese derby ) last year with makahiki . this is also kawada ' s second yasuda kinen title following his 2015 victory with maurice .\nharry sweeney has his hand up a horse\u2019s backside . the mare looks put out by this intrusion . her eyes dart about nervously and she shifts her weight before accepting five thick human digits probing her insides . after feeling the uterus and the swelling of the ovaries , sweeney\u2019s arm , slick with mucus and excrement , reemerges . he doesn\u2019t even need to look at the monitor . \u201cshe\u2019s pregnant , \u201d he confirms , smiling .\n3yo , turf firm 2400 meters gr . 1 1 . makahiki ( deep impact - wikiwiki , by french deputy ) yuga kawada - yasuo tomomichi 2 : 24 . 0 2 . satono diamond ( deep impact - malpensa , by orpen ) 3 . dee majesty ( deep impact - hermes tiara , by brian ' s time ) 4 . air spinel ( king kamehameha - air messiah , by sunday silence ) 5 . leontes 6 . smart odin 7 . mount robson 9 . red eldest 11 . lord quest 13 . vanquish run\nfor his next start , he gave another strong performance in his first g1 challenge , the yasuda kinen , where he prevailed by a neck to become the first g1 winner sired by screen hero . he then validated the win by claiming the mile championship with a convincing 1 - 1 / 4 - length margin . his overseas success in the hong kong mile secured his 2015 awards for both the horse of the year title and best sprinter or miler .\nfound was quickly in a clear lead and , though she had finished second at group one level in all five of her previous starts , there was never any chance that it would be surrendered . highland reel , the king george winner , was a length and three - quarters behind her at the line , while order of st george was another length and a half in front of siljan\u2019s saga and postponed . harzand was ninth , while makahiki , attempting to give japan its first win in the arc , was a bitter disappointment , finishing 14th of the 16 runners .\nyasuo tomomichi , trainer \u201che wasn\u2019t able to catch the winner in the satsuki sho , who had made his move before he did , but this horse did run really well in the stretch . he lost but i think it was by no means a bad race . his constitution is stronger now and every time we race him he recovers more quickly than the time before . since he came out of the last start well i clocked him over the woodchip course on may 12 . i had the jockey ride him on may 18 and push him quite hard . his responses were excellent . this week he gave us a solid bit of work . it\u2019s our usual routine to give him his last fast work up the hill and push him enough to give his lungs a good workout . the ground was a bit slow this week and the rider didn\u2019t overdo it but the horse looked like he had a whole lot left . even so , his time was good . i was reminded again just how strong this horse is . his breathing was good too . and he\u2019s eating well . i\u2019d say he\u2019s in good shape . he settles nicely and he runs solidly when you ask him to extend . i think he\u2019ll be able to handle the distance . it\u2019s a wide open track and the stretch is long so i think racing will be even easier for him this time . i\u2019m looking forward to it . \u201d\nmost strikingly of all has been the evolution of breeding over the past two decades . from being largely also - rans in international competition , japan - bred horses are now among the fastest and strongest in the world , thanks largely to mixing with foreign bloodlines ( see sidebar ) . american horses , once the ones to beat , haven\u2019t won the japan cup since 1991 . the last time the race was won by a horse from outside japan was more than a decade ago .\nas well he might . foals bred on sweeney\u2019s hokkaido farm , paca paca ( the onomatopoeic sound of a trotting horse ) , have sold for more than $ 1 million ( \u00a5102 million ) . in 2012 , deep brillante , born on this farm , won the japanese derby , the country\u2019s most prestigious race . sweeney later sold her sister for $ 1 . 79 million . the clump of cells inside the belly of this timorous mare could one day be worth a pile of cash .\nbest steeplechase horse of 2015 up to date ( jpn , h6 , by kurofune ) , winner of the nakayama grand jump ( j - g1 , 4 , 250m ) and the nakayama daishogai ( j - g1 , 4 , 100m ) , kicked off this season with a second - place finish in the hanshin spring jump ( j - g2 , 3 , 900m ) on march 12 . he looked to be in good form for another strong performance in the coming j - g1 event .\nthe arc trials were perhaps more mundane than meaningful this year , though left hand winning the vermeille was a reminder of la cressonniere ' s class , having beaten that filly with a bit up her sleeve in the french oaks , number seven in her eight - race unblemished record . the prix foy was a trial and trial only for makahiki , who came through in greyish colours rather than flying ones , but the knowledge from his japanese form is that he ' s good - and the suspicion from the japanese experts is that he could be very good - and his presence certainly adds an extra dimension to the arc .\nwould strive to become a jra trainer and that he would first learn the art of training outside japan . his father\u2019s advice helped him to acquire important basics in training while spending time in australia , where he worked at randwick in new south wales and flemington , victoria and toowoomba in queensland , after which he trained in britain . upon his return to japan , he introduced the interval training method while helping at his father\u2019s yard , then enrolled in the stable employee course at jra horse racing school .\non the day these photos were taken the rider was feeling frustrated with herself and her horse because she wasn\u2019t able to get the degree of engagement she needed from the mare to prepare her for the upper levels of dressage in spite of several years of careful preparation and skillful riding . the lack of collection was certainly not due to lack of rider skill or the mare trying . it is my opinion it was influenced by two colic surgeries that made it more difficult for whisper to connect to her hindquarters .\n\u201ci thought he was a horse of great potential since i first rode him last season and i ' m delighted to have proved that today , \u201d jockey yuga kawada said . \u201che had a good draw today and everything went as planned\u2014i concentrated on keeping him in a good rhythm and we had a perfect trip and i was able to take him wide for clear sailing\u2014so i had every confidence in pinning the leader although logotype was quite persistent\u2014i knew that we had a good chance of winning the race . \u201d\nkazuhide sasada , trainer \u201cthe satsuki sho was run at a high pace and the horses that were on the pace couldn\u2019t hold up in the end . also , this horse went to gain the front and ran into interference . so , if you consider that , i\u2019d say it was a good race and he showed his strength . i think we saw the results of what we\u2019d been teaching him leading into that race . he was a bit tired afterward , but he\u2019s totally recovered now . all has gone well and i\u2019d say that he has even moved up a step since the satsuki sho . the jockey breezed him on may 18 working with another horse and his time was good . he looks to have definitely improved . he has good racing sense so his first time at tokyo shouldn\u2019t pose a problem . the extra distance is also not a concern . i think the pace will be quite different over the tokyo 2 , 400 and the results different as well . he\u2019s in good shape and i\u2019m looking forward to it . \u201d\nnorihiko kishimoto , assistant trainer \u201cthe satsuki sho results were disappointing , but the first 1 , 000 meters was run in 58 . 4 seconds . the jockey said that mount robson was bearing down on his outside , which bothered this horse and so he made his move earlier than the others . it turned out to be a very difficult pace . it was decided from early on to give him three races in the spring , the yayoi sho , the satsuki sho and then the derby . and he\u2019s looking to be peaking now and is in tiptop shape . the jockey rode him on the flat on may 18 and again this week . he got good times and looked good in both workouts . he seems much lighter on his feet than he was before the last race . his dam is cesario and his half brother epiphaneia . it\u2019s a bloodline that has gotten good results over the tokyo 2 , 400 . and this horse too , considering his morning work , looks like he\u2019ll be able to handle the lefthanded track well . \u201d\ncriquette head - maarek , who saddled treve to win the arc in 2013 and 2014 , has endured a miserable season but has more to look forward to next year after the victory of national defense in the prix jean - luc lagardere . the success was just head - maarek\u2019s third winner in 2016 , but the trainer hopes that national defense \u201cwill be a guineas horse\u201d . she added : \u201cwe\u2019ve had a terrible year , the horses were sick for a long time but they are coming back to themselves now . \u201d\nat this stage , we have little idea of the make and shape of this year ' s edition , but here ' s the thing with the charlie hall : it ' s always significant , marking the changing of the seasons , and sometimes it ' s far more than that . take the 2015 renewal , for example , when the charlie hall was arguably the most important race of the whole season , because cue card was arguably the most important horse of the whole season , and wetherby was the turning point .\narima kinen ( g1 , satono diamond ) , hanshin juvenile fillies ( g1 , soul stirring ) , kikuka sho ( japanese st . leger , g1 , satono diamond ) , nhk mile cup ( g1 , major emblem ) , hopeful stakes ( g2 , rey de oro ) , keio hai nisai stakes ( g2 , monde can know ) , kobe shimbun hai ( g2 , satono diamond ) , sapporo kinen ( g2 , neorealism ) , flora stakes ( g2 , cecchino ) , yayoi sho ( g2 , makahiki ) , queen cup ( g3 , major emblem ) , kisaragi sho ( g3 , satono diamond ) , turquoise stakes ( magic time )\nkunihide matsuda , trainer \u201ckeeping the derby in mind , i wanted to race him in a race with four turns , thus the 2 , 200 - meter kyoto shimbun hai . and i knew that if you put him behind another horse he\u2019ll settle well . he\u2019d learned how to wait patiently until the first turn and how to accelerate in the stretch from having raced over the outer 1 , 800 and he drew on that experience in winning the kyoto shimbun hai . after that race i watched to see how he\u2019d come out of it and was careful in bringing him back into work . i didn\u2019t give him much hard work but did give him long gallops on may 17 and 18 , then gave him a fast workout on may 19 . he started behind the other horse and ran balanced , then clocked 11 . 9 seconds over the last furlong . his movement was good . his weight is right where it was before his last race . i can\u2019t say how he\u2019ll be up against horses he hasn\u2019t met before and i don\u2019t know if he\u2019ll give us his usual race . things should go well if he can race in a decent position until the third turn . \u201d\nfollowing several acclaimed results at the graded level , the six - year - old bay son of deep impact notched his first grade - race win last year in the keio hai spring cup ( g2 , 1 , 400m ) . after finishing fourth in his next yasuda kinen start , the horse out of a daughter of storm cat successfully captured the swan stakes ( g2 , 1 , 400m ) that autumn but was fifth in the g1 mile championship . he has been tested overseas twice , turning in an 11th and a seventh in the 2015 hong kong up and 2016 hong kong mile , respectively .\nnow onto the big two races , though one already feels like an old friend after waxing lyrical earlier about almanzor . for him , it ' s akin to a cup competition where the semi - final takes more winning than the final itself , nothing for him to fear at ascot , surely , having beaten the biggest and best group 1 field of the year at leopardstown , which featured every top horse at the trip . apart from one . and it ' s a significant one , given he won the champion stakes in 2015 , fascinating rock capable of asking a different question of almanzor , especially if it comes up soft .\nfour dirt runners are bidding for the dubai world cup ( g1 , dirt , 2 , 000m ) , the second richest horse race in the world . awardee ( usa , h7 , by jungle pocket ) made a successful switch to dirt from turf racing in the fall of his five - year - old season , winning six in a row , including his first g1 victory in the 2016 jbc classic ( dirt , 2 , 100m ) in november . he just missed by a neck in the following champions cup ( g1 , dirt , 1 , 800m ) before another second in his last start , the tokyo daishoten ( g1 , dirt , 2 , 000m ) .\nin dubai\u2019s biggest international horse racing event , which takes place this year on march 26 , japanese runners have been successful seven times already : the 2011 dubai world cup with victoire pisa ( jpn , by neo universe ) ; three titles in the dubai sheema classic with stay gold ( jpn , by sunday silence ) , heart\u2019s cry ( jpn , by sunday silence ) and gentildonna ( jpn , by deep impact ) in 2001 , 2006 and 2014 , respectively ; twice in the dubai turf with admire moon ( jpn , by end sweep ) in 2007 and with just a way ( jpn , by heart\u2019s cry ) in 2014 ; and the 2006 godolphin mile with utopia ( jpn , by forty niner ) .\nwhen i mounted , i opened my heart and held a feeling of love and appreciation . i thought about how beautiful she is and held the picture in my mind of her perfection and her potential . whisper became light in my hands and very responsive to my leg aids . her center of gravity shifted back , her forehand became lighter and i felt a shift in her heart as though she was smiling . the feeling of oneness was remarkable . this is a typical example of the importance of heart coherence and illustrates how our attitude affects performance . practicing with a smile on our lips , an open heart , and a desire to flow together , can have a huge effect on performance and take the horse / human relationship to inspiring levels .\nshigeyuki kojima , trainer \u201cin the nhk mile cup , this colt\u2019s responses were better than the jockey had expected and he got too close to the horse in front at the third turn and lost his balance . that made a difference and was a real shame . he\u2019d been showing signs of getting a bit sour so we worked him in the pool for a change of scenery . he\u2019s now back looking really good and listening for the rider\u2019s signal . most importantly , he\u2019s calm . the distance is far from his best but if he takes the lead or you put on the brakes at some point , it ensues in a loss , so i think it\u2019s better to keep him away from the others and try to make the most of his late speed . \u201d\ngiven the high stakes , owners strive to improve the odds by employing the services of proven winners . deep impact , one of japan\u2019s best - loved and most famous racehorses , is also one of the country\u2019s leading live sperm donors . hundreds of times a year , the stallion is trundled off from his home in a farm a few hours from paca paca to inseminate another unsuspecting mare . if this union produces a foal , deep impact\u2019s owner , katsumi yoshida , is rewarded with \u00a530 million . so successful has the thoroughbred been that deep impact is currently earning \u00a56 billion ( almost $ 60 million ) a year . and at 14 \u2014 middle - aged for a horse \u2014 the stallion is still young enough to sire hundreds more children , as long as the spirit \u2014 and the body \u2014 is willing .\nalthough maurice , a shin hikari ( jpn , by deep impact ) and lovely day ( jpn , by king kamehameha ) left the racing scene as of the end of last season , the middle - distance category still maintains its high standard . several g1 winners remain in training , led by kitasan black ( jpn , h5 , by black tide ) , winner of the 2016 tenno sho ( spring ) ( g1 , 3 , 200m ) and japan cup , as well as the season\u2019s horse of the year . kitasan black will focus on racing in japan this spring , beginning with the osaka hai ( 2 , 000m ) \u2014upgraded to g1 status this year\u2014on april 2 , then the tenno sho ( spring ) on april 30 and the takarazuka kinen ( g1 , 2 , 200m ) on june 25 .\nthe japanese runners turned in remarkable results at sha tin in hong kong last year where japan\u2019s maurice ( jpn , h5 , by screen hero ) claimed victory against hong kong\u2019s top milers in the hong kong mile ( g1 , 1 , 600m ) and a shin hikari ( jpn , h5 , by deep impact ) added another trophy in the hong kong cup ( g1 , 2 , 000m ) in december . maurice , 2015 horse of the year following victories in the yasuda kinen ( g1 , 1 , 600m ) , the mile championship ( g1 , 1 , 600m ) and the hong kong mile , cancelled his trip to dubai due to a minor hoof problem but is scheduled to have a go at becoming the first japanese winner of the champions mile ( g1 , 1 , 600m ) on may 1 .\nb ) if any race on the afternoon is going to be a championship clincher , as the day designates , then it ' s the sprint . apart from five - furlong specialist profitable , we could have every other group 1 winner in the league this year , namely mecca ' s angel , twilight son , limato and quiet reflection . if we get three in a row , never mind the jackpot of four , then , as the americans say , we got ourselves a horse race . fine margins make a big difference in top - level sprints , and arguably the least conditional of the quality quartet in the three - year - old , quiet reflection , who can do it on any ground , in any way , and we don ' t yet know her ability limits , when we do with the rest .\nthe first major dirt race of the fall season , held on the same day as the kyoto daishoten , was the mile championship nambu hai . the winner in record time was copano rickey ( jpn , h6 , by gold allure ) , the 2015 best dirt horse and son of gold allure , who scored his eighth career g1 title . in third , 4 - 3 / 4 lengths behind , was hokko tarumae ( jpn , h7 , by king kamehameha ) , winner of the 2014 champions cup ( g1 , dirt , 1 , 800m ) . both horses will join 2015 champions cup runner - up nonkono yume ( jpn , c4 , by twining ) and third - place finisher sound true ( jpn , g6 , by french deputy ) in their next start , the jbc classic ( dirt , 2 , 100m ) on november 3\nmasahiro yokota , assistant trainer \u201cthe pace was fast in the second lap of the aoba sho and after the 1 , 000 - meter mark and with it being 2 , 400 meters , it was very tough for him leading the way he did . he\u2019s really too serious of a horse and he\u2019d do better if he could relax a bit under way . for about a week after that we took pains to make sure he was fully recovered , then worked him up the hill course . daichi shibata rode him on the woodchips over the flat on may 19 and all looked in order . i\u2019m hoping he\u2019ll be able to use the experience he has having run before under the derby conditions . i don\u2019t know if he\u2019ll be able to settle well or not , but he is good over bad ground , so rain would be most welcome . \u201d"]}
{"id": 218, "summary": [{"text": "the yellowfin fairy-wrasse , cirrhilabrus flavidorsalis , is a species of wrasse native to the western pacific ocean from indonesia to the philippines and palau .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it inhabits coral reefs , living in groups among the branches of branching coral .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it can be found at depths from 6 to 40 m ( 20 to 131 ft ) , though rarely deeper than 28 m ( 92 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this species can reach a total length of 6.5 cm ( 2.6 in ) . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "yellowfin fairy - wrasse", "paragraphs": ["the yellowfin fairy wrasse is also sometimes referred to as a millenium wrasse . it has a stout body and is perfect in a reef aquarium . more\nthe yellowfin fairy wrasse ( cirrhilabrus flavidorsalis , sometimes called the millenium wrasse ) is bright pink or red with a yellow dorsal fin . the bo . . .\nthe yellowfin fairy wrasse , sometimes called the millenium wrasse , is bright pink or red with a yellow dorsal fin . the body of this fairy wrasse is stockier than most . fairy wrasses are reef safe and safe with most ornamental shrimp and crabs as well . more\nspecificationsmpnf91 0007 0826manufacturerthat fish placecommon nameyellowfin fairy wrasse scientific namecirrhilabrus flavidorsalis difficultymoderat . . .\nyellow - fin fairy wrasse adults will grow to 8 cm ( 3 . 1 inches ) .\nthe yellowfin fairy wrasse lacks some of brilliant colors of the three previous cirrhilabrus , but it remains a beautiful fish in its own right . its personality , however , is as equally outgoing as any other cirrhilabrus . more\nthough a small fish , the yellow - fin fairy wrasse is a multicolored beauty . . . a striking addition to the marine aquarium !\nmales may be aggressive towards other fairy wrasses and zooplankton feeders in the aquarium .\nthe yellow fin fairy wrasse diet should include vitamin enriched frozen mysis shrimp , vitamin enriched frozen brine shrimp , and other meaty foods along with a high quality marine flake and marine pellet food .\none of the more attractive aquarium fishes , the yellow - fin fairy wrasse is lavishly colored . it closely resembles and is very similar to c . lubbocki from almost the same region that was described at the same time .\nthe yellow - fin fairy wrasse is found in the western central pacific ; in the philippines , indonesia , palau , and eastern malaysia . a male was first collected as a holotype from manado , sulawesi , indonesia in 1978 , and\nlive in their natural habitat by forming a harem of one dominant male , several females and juveniles . the yellow - fin fairy wrasse can be seen solitarily or in a small group . they are not uncommon in their natural habitat and dwells at depths of 6 - 40 meters .\nthe yellowfin fairy wrasse ( cirrhilabrus flavidorsalis , sometimes called the millenium wrasse ) is bright pink or red with a yellow dorsal fin . the body of this fairy wrasse is stockier than most . fairy wrasses ( cirrhilabrus sp . ) and flasher wrasses ( paracheilinus sp . ) have a generally placid temperament and tolerate most tankmates , provided that they have plenty of places to escape to and hide to feel secure . flasher wrasses tend to be more active and outgoing than fairy wrasses and the two groups may be aggressive towards each other . males of both groups are usually brighter in color than juveniles and females , and males will show their colors and behavior to the best advantage in the presence of a female . regional variations and cross - breeding within each groups can make identification difficult . both fairy and flasher wrasses can usually be found around rubble piles and rockwork and should have plenty in the tank to retreat to . these wrasses are perfect for reef aquariums . most will not harm corals , polyps or most invertebrates but should not be kept with very small crustaceans like sexy shrimp . these fish are known jumpers , so the tank should be covered at all times . these wrasses will usually accept most types of small foods once acclimated . they can be fed a varied diet of flakes , frozen and fresh foods like copepods , cyclops , brine shrimp , mysis shrimp and similar items .\na 50 gallon or larger aquarium , either fish - only or reef , with a shaded area is recommended . the yellow - fin fairy wrasse will not bother fish or invertebrates , making them a perfect addition to any reef aquarium . these fish do like to jump , so a tight fitting canopy is required .\nwill be acceptable . smaller cardinalfishes , gobies , tilefishes , butterflyfishes , fairy basslets , other fairies and flasher wrasses , etc . can be kept together .\nlow prices ! nano fish sw beginners angels , dwarf angels , large anglers anthias basslets blennies boxfish butterflyfish captive - bred cardinalfish caribbean fish chromis clownfish damselfish dartfish dottybacks dragonets eels filefish foxface / rabbit gobies groupers grunts hawkfish hogfish jawfish lionfish pipefish puffers scorpions seahorses sharks squirrelfish tangs triggerfish wrasse - reef safe wrasse - fish - only tanks misc . fish brackish\nthe yellow - fin fairy wrasse would be a good choice for any reef - type aquarium , doing well in coral - rich tank with sessile inverts and / or a fish community tank , but it may harm some small species of shrimps . select tank mates that are not very aggressive . larger and rather territorial angelfishes like the members of\nlike all wrasses , the yellow - fin fairy wrasse is very energetic so needs frequent feedings . feed at least twice a day . as it does not harm any polyp of stony or soft corals , it is an excellent tank mate for reef aquariums . make sure there is open space for free swimming and many crevices to hide in .\nthe yellow - fin fairy wrasse is a pretty chill customer , getting along with pretty much everyone ! they are great with any peaceful fish , and even get along with others in their genus , as long as they are similar in size when added and all added at the same time as juveniles . a 50 gallon tank will suit them just fine and they will quickly adapt to prepared foods . fairy wrasses love mysis shrimp and can hide if they are added after other larger or more aggressive fish . add your yellow - fin first along with any other fairy wrasses and let them settle in before adding other fish . put a lid on the tank as they can jump if startled . they are great in a reef or fish only tank and are easy to care for !\nthe yellow - fin fairy wrasse is mostly red and white in coloration with a yellow dorsal fin . the females of this species , like other wrasses in the cirrhilabrus genus , are mostly pink with a white underside . when courting , the male will display an increased color intensity . these wrasses are always in movement , providing an endless amount of activity for either a saltwater fish only or reef aquarium .\nthe yellow - fin fairy wrasse is sexually dimorphic . males are red in the upper 2 / 3 - 3 / 4 portion of their body , the abdomen is pinkish to white , and there are three vertical whitish bands on the side . the dorsal fin is yellow distally , red basally , and transparent posteriorly . pelvic fins are white , the caudal fin is pinkish , and the anal fin is white to bluish .\nvery easily kept in captivity , the yellow - fin fairy wrasse will accept almost any food and is easy to maintain . it will become a hardy pet but it may not come out from hiding places in the beginning . it will not harm any polyp of stony or soft corals , so it would be an excellent tank mate for reef aquariums . this fish is not aggressive or territorial but a large male may fight with new comers of the tank or dart quickly into a crevice when an aggressive fish approaches . it can do well together with larger non - aggressive species . a group of several individuals of the fairy wrasses might be kept successfully but they would fight at first .\nthe yellow - fin fairy wrasses are sexually dimorphic . while the males body is red on the upper portion of the body with three vertical whitish bands on the side , the female has an overall red - orange body . see the description section above for more detailed information .\ni have kept over ten specimens of this species of 3 - 8 cm long males and females ( from the philippines and indonesia ) in fish only tanks and reefs with some other several fairy and flasher wrasses , and they did very well without any trouble . two males of the same size did well without any serious fighting .\nkeep only one male per tank and only house a male with conspecifics or similar fairy wrasses in a large tank ( 135 gallons [ 513 l ] or larger ) . i have had males that picked on other fishes , in particular very gentle flasher wrasses ( paracheilinus species ) and longray shrimp gobies ( stonogobiops species ) . in one case , a male had to be removed because of its relative aggressiveness .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nlatin , cirrus = curl fringe + greek , labros = furious ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 6 - 40 m ( ref . 26153 ) , usually 6 - 28 m ( ref . 37816 ) . tropical\nwestern central pacific : philippines ( ref . 44110 ) . reported from indonesia ( ref . 26153 ) and palau ( ref . 37816 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 6 . 5 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 48636 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 11 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 9 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 9 . males highly variable in color with dorsal fin colors from all yellow to red or blue , and body from red to pink or white , depending on mood and stage ( ref . 48636 ) .\ninhabits finely branching corals on protected coral and rubble slopes . occurs in aggregations ( ref . 37816 ) .\nrandall , j . e . and k . e . carpenter , 1980 . three new labrid fishes of the genus cirrhilabrus from the philippines . rev . fr . aquariol . 7 ( 1 ) : 17 - 26 . ( ref . 26153 )\n) : 28 - 29 , mean 28 . 6 ( based on 192 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01660 ( 0 . 00720 - 0 . 03825 ) , b = 2 . 95 ( 2 . 75 - 3 . 15 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 12 of 100 ) .\njustification : this species is found in indonesia , phillippines and palau . there are no major threats to this species . it is listed as least concern .\nthis species inhabits rubble areas and finely branching corals on protected coral and rubble slopes , with a depth range of 6 - 40 m ( myers 1999 ) . it occurs in schools or in small groups .\nthis species is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade , but there are no statistics on collection . it is sold in aquarium stores in the us for us $ 20 - 25 .\nthere are no major threats known for this species , although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade .\nthere are no specific conservation measures in place for this species . its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nbeginners african cichlids new world cichlids freshwater angels barbs bettas bichir cory cats danios / minnows discus goldfish extra large oddball fish gouramis guppies hatchets killifish larger catfish loaches mollies platy plecos rainbowfish rasboras sharks sucker cats swordtails tetras misc . fish brackish\ndue to variations within species , your item may not look identical to the image provided .\n72 - 78\u00b0 f , dkh 8 - 12 , ph 8 . 1 - 8 . 4 , sg 1 . 020 - 1 . 025\ni love this fish ! he swims from rock to rock and has gotten used to my presence . he loves to eat pellets and his favorite snacks are when i put amphipods in front of him . he goes crazy over them . definitely a model citizen and gets along with his tank mates .\n* free shipping on qualifying aquatic life orders $ 99 and up . free shipping on qualifying aquarium supplies orders $ 19 and up . excludes frozen foods .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 , doctors foster and smith . all rights reserved . 2253 air park road , p . o . box 100 , rhinelander , wisconsin 54501\njavascript is disabled on your browser . to view this site , you must enable javascript or upgrade to a javascript - capable browser .\nmini reef aquarium guide . reef aquarium setup for large reef tanks , nano reef tanks , pico reef or micro reef aquariums with reef tank lighting , filtration , choosing coral reef animals , and problem solving !\nsetting up a saltwater aquarium . guide to marine supplies , putting the aquarium together , cycling the aquarium water and adding fish !\nthroughout the ages people of been fascinated , thrilled , frightened , and horrified by these creatures . they have been the subject of myths , novels , movies . . .\nobservations and insights of a marine enthusiast . an in - depth explanation of what it takes to be a successful marine aquarist\nenter your freshwater aquarium enter parameters for your freshwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nenter your saltwater aquarium enter parameters for your saltwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nfish finder search our database for compatible pets ! enter characteristics of what you are looking for and find them instantly .\ndr . jungle ' s pets and animal speak - newsletter featured pet of the week and more . . .\nwe would like to import some live zebra shark . contact me please . best regard , liu wei chung . email : s89186 @ urltoken\ni have a green moray eel that is just too big now , does anyone have a huge tank . . . . 400 + gallons ?\nall of the cirrhilabrus species often are very colorful and are easy to keep for a long period if properly cared for . but they sometimes suffer from\nich\n( white spot disease ) or other infectious diseases . they can be treated successfully with medical care or a copper drug .\nthe species was known mainly from the philippines and indonesia from where many individuals have been exported . several japanese divers reported it from palau , and males were only recently photographed also in mabul , eastern malaysia ( rare ) .\nfemales overall are orange - red with a white abdomen and a black spot on the upper side of caudal peduncle . their fins are transparent .\nis variable in coloration and some have a yellow dorsal fin but some possess a pinkish orange one . females of these species are almost identical .\nvery easily kept . no special care is needed for this species in the aquarium and it will accept almost any food . it is not aggressive or territorial but a large male may fight with new comers of the tank or dart quickly into a crevice when an aggressive fish approaches . the tank should be well decorated with rocks / corals with many hiding places . it may frighten and jump out , so the aquarium should be firmly covered on the top . it will do well kept together with larger but non - aggressive species .\nmales will exhibit a more vivid white coloration on their sides when excited . one 8 cm long male had an entirely whitish fat body with four pinkish bands on the side , and it might be called a \u2018super male ' . it kept its coloration without any change .\nmeaty foods , dried flakes , and dried shrimps are favorable foods and it will also feed on tablets . if kept with too large or aggressive fish species it may not take any food , except perhaps in the corner or behind rocks .\nfrequent water changes are not needed . when doing water changes , it will tolerate a sudden small change but the water temperature should be kept the same .\nthe tank size of at least 60x30x30 cm should be provided for large males .\nit can be kept under strong lights or in a dim - light tank . .\nkeep the water temperature at around 75 - 79\u00b0 f ( 24 - 26\u00b0 c ) . this species lives in tropical to subtropical areas , but higher than 84\u00b0 f ( 29\u00b0 c ) or below 68\u00b0 f ( 20\u00b0 c ) would not be good .\nwater movement is not a significant condition , but slow - moving water is recommended as it needs a slow flow in the tank to feed .\nit usually is actively swimming near the bottom and it will venture to the surface for foods .\nthis species is commonly available at retailers . specimens often seen range 5 - 6 cm , and are priced around us $ 20 . 00 - $ 25 . 00 . females are also available on occasion but due to their almost identical appearance , females or juveniles sold as\ncopyright \u00a9 [ animal - world ] 1998 - 2015 . all rights reserved .\na great choice for the reef aquarium , but males tend to be aggressive .\nthis is a great reef aquarium inhabitant that will not harm invertebrates and has begun to show up occasionally in aquarium stores in the last several years . it is , like others in this genus , a near - perfect candidate for the peaceful reef community , while also being very disease - resistant .\nhabitat : in nature , this colorful species inhabits finely branching corals on protected coral and rubble slopes .\nmeaty foods , including finely shredded frozen seafood , mysid shrimp , frozen preparations , pigment - enriched flake food , and cyclop - eeze . feed at least twice a day .\nurltoken | urltoken | urltoken microcosm\u2122 is a trademark of microcosm , ltd . 823 ferry road | charlotte , vt | usa 05445 | telephone 802 - 425 - 5700 ext . 19\nmicrocosm aquarium explorer is a world - class online resource devoted to the underwater worlds that are home to fishes , corals , aquatic plants and invertebrate life of special interest to aquarium keepers . the mission of microcosm aquarium explorer is to inspire and inform those with an interest in the natural world , with particular emphasis on tropical coral reef and rainforest aquatic ecosystems that are the models for aquarists creating captive microcosms in their home aquaria .\nbecause of the sheer size of our forum , we ' ve been forced to limit selling and trading to members who ' ve met a couple of criteria . ( if you ' re seeing this message , you haven ' t met them yet . ) please take a moment to acquaint yourself with our selling / trading rules to help make your stay a long and rewarding one .\nanyone ever keep one ( cirrhilabrus flavidorsalis ) ? i was given one for $ 10 bucks but cant find any good info on it . looks to be a male , i will get a pic up asap .\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ john the answer is always no if you never ask the question . . . . . current tank info : 120 aga rr , 40 gal fuge , basement sump , asm skimmer , lifreef ca reactor , 7gal rdsb\noriginally posted by landolakes anyone ever keep one ( cirrhilabrus flavidorsalis ) ? i was given one for $ 10 bucks but cant find any good info on it . looks to be a male , i will get a pic up asap .\nnow tell me that i am right about the i . d . , best pics i could get . [ img ] [ / img ] [ img ] [ / img ] [ img ] [ / img ]\nlooks like cirrhilabrus filamentosus to me , kinda tough from the pic though . try urltoken for some decent pics or even marinecenter . com . i ' ve got one , their tempermant is the same as most other cirrhilabrus , reef safe , pretty mild mannered except for with each other . in the wild they are almost exclusively meat eaters but once they get in the aquarium they ' ll eat anything ( mine will eat nori ) . last but not least they are skittish and are great jumpers - - keep that tank covered ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! dave\npowered by vbulletin\u00ae version 3 . 8 . 4 copyright \u00a92000 - 2018 , jelsoft enterprises ltd . powered by searchlight \u00a9 2018 axivo inc .\nuse of this web site is subject to the terms and conditions described in the user agreement . reef central tm reef central , llc . copyright \u00a91999 - 2014\nuser alert system provided by advanced user tagging v3 . 3 . 0 ( pro ) - vbulletin mods & addons copyright \u00a9 2018 dragonbyte technologies ltd .\nurltoken is the world ' s leading destination for sustainable coral reef farming and the aquarium hobby . we offer a free open forum and reef related news and data to better educate aquarists and further our goals of sustainable reef management . reefs\u00ae community system | copyright \u00a9 2018\nrange : indo - west pacific ocean : indonesia , philippines , and palau .\nnatural environment : inhabits finely branched corals on protected coral reefs and usually found at depths between 20 \u2013 100 feet ( 6\u2013 30 m ) where it feeds on zooplankton .\ngeneral husbandry : occasionally seen in the trade with the male having a reddish body with two whitish - pink vertical bands on the mid body , whitish - pink caudal peduncle area , and a yellow dorsal . females are generally drab reddish , often with a black spot on the upper caudal peduncle . colors vary depending upon the age of the specimen , collection areas , and breeding timeframes .\ncan be maintained in reef or fish - only aquariums that should have ample crevices and caves , and peaceful tankmates .\nas to diet , will eat most regular aquarium foods , e . g . , finely chopped various frozen or fresh meaty foods such as mysis , squid , fish flesh , shrimp , clam , etc . , and should be offered two to three times daily .\nfyi : those in this genus may hide for several days when first introduced , and are also good jumpers , therefore covered aquariums , possibly with eggcrate , are necessary to prevent them from jumping out of the aquarium .\nthey don ' t bury themselves in the sand at night , as do many other wrasses . instead , they may form a mucus cocoon similar to some parrotfishes and / or wedge themselves into a rock crevice . it should be noted the cocoon remnants do not seem to harm water quality or other aquarium inhabitants .\nthe material on this site may not be reproduced , distributed , transmitted , cached or otherwise used , except with the prior written permission of bob goemans .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\n, depth range 6 - 40 m , usually 6 - 28 m environment .\npicture of cirrhilabrus flavidorsalis has been licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial . original source : fishbase permission : some rights reserved"]}
{"id": 219, "summary": [{"text": "parambassis ranga , commonly known as the indian glassy fish , indian glassy perch or indian x-ray fish , is a species of freshwater fish in the asiatic glassfish family ambassidae of order perciformes .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is native to an area of south asia from pakistan to malaysia .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the indian glassy fish has a striking transparent body revealing its bones and internal organs ; the male develops a dark edge to the dorsal fin .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the fish grows to a maximum overall length of 80 mm ( 3.1 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it occurs in standing water , especially in impoundments , and it breeds prolifically during the rainy season .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the species feeds on crustaceans , annelid worms , and other invertebrates .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it is , in turn , prey for larger fish , including snakeheads ( family channidae ) .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the indian glassy fish is not important as a food fish for humans , but is very common in the aquarium trade .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "formerly classified as chanda ranga , the species is also known as the indian glassfish , indian glass perch , and siamese glassfish . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "parambassis ranga", "paragraphs": ["glassfish under the acropora . pesci vetro sotto un acropora . ( parambassis ranga ) by omar flumignan\nour first encounter with dyed fish was back in the late 1980s . thousands of artificially coloured glassfish , parambassis ranga ( formerly chanda ranga ) were imported into the uk .\na . k . a . , parambassis ranga - - seen at the california academy of sciences in golden gate state park , san francisco .\ngiant glassfish ( parambassis gulliveri ) , darwin , northern territory , australia . by michael j barritt\nglass fish ( parambassis ranga ) at the sydney aquarium . this type of fish is often sold in pet stores with neon stripes painted on them . they are much more attractive in their natural state .\nconsidered valid as pseudambassis ranga ( hamilton , 1822 ) by eschmeyer and fricke ( 2012 ) .\nmacro of a tiny glass fish a . k . a . indian glassy fish ( scientific name : parambassis ranga ) . this one measured only a mere 1 . 2 centimeters from head to tail . the fish was laid on a glass bowl that ' s pretty old , hence all the scratches .\nambassis ranga : day , 1878 ; day , 1889 ; shaw and shebbeare , 1937 ; ahmad , n . 194 ; bhuiyan , 1964 .\nspecies name : parambassis ranga synonym : ambassis alta , ambassis barlovi , ambassis notatus , ambassis ranga , chanda ranga , pseudambassis notatus , pseudambassis ranga common names : glassfish , indian glassfish family : ambassidae order : perciformes class : actinopterygii max . size : 8 cm / 3 inches environment : fresh water origin : asia . pakistan , india , bangladesh , myanmar , thailand , and malaysia . temperament : peaceful , timid company : other small peaceful fish . water parameters : ph 7 . 0 - 8 . 2 , temperature 20 - 30\u00b0c / 68 - 86\u00b0 f aquarium setup : parambassis ranga ( indian glassfish ) can be kept in small aquariums . decorate aquarium with free areas to swim in the middle and heavily planted areas around the sides . use rocks to create caves and hiding places . fish are easier to keep healthy if a small amount of salt is added to the water . feeding : accepts most foods including flakes . breeding : easy . raising the temperature and conducting water changes may trigger spawning . eggs are laid on broad leaved plants . the fry can be hard to raise .\nthe indian glassfish ( parambassis ranga ) is a lovely and unusual fish , that has been in the hobby / industry for many years . unfortunately , most of the indian glassfish that you will see in local fish stores are the \u201cpainted\u201d or \u201cdyed\u201d ones , which should be avoided like the plague ; more on that later , i assure you .\nthe humphead glassfish tetra or the parambassis pulcinella come from the rivers and streams of myanmar and thailand . it apparently was not scientifically described till 2003 . i haven ' t found why it has a hump though .\nnonetheless , this fish does best when kept in a dark , thickly planted tank alongside neons , cardinals , and other small , blackwater fish . while this fish resembles parambassis lala , the males are distinguished by their elongated dorsal and anal fin rays .\nno fewer than three species are imported as common or indian glassfish , and in general , no attempt is made by the retailers to separate them . fortunately , all require much the same conditions to do well . the only difference between them is size \u0096 at 3cm / 11 / 3\nwhen fully grown , the smallest species , parambassis lala , is less than half the size of the largest , p . ranga . the third , p . siamensis , is somewhere between the two , averaging 5 - 6cm / 2\n- 21 / 4\n.\nthis fish is found in the clear streams , beels and canals . most abundant found during rainy season . it feeds on larvae and pupae of mosquito ( bhuiyan , 1964 ) . iqbal , et . al . ( 1995 - 96 ) also described about feeding habit of chanda ranga .\nglassfish can be susceptible to fungal infections , and keeping them in slightly brackish water can prevent this . however , adding salt is not essential , and in the case of species that are strictly confined to freshwater , such as g . filamentosa and parambassis pulcinella , keeping them in brackish water over the long term will probably do more harm than good .\nbesides being muddled up by importers and retailers , glassfish have laboured under a variety of scientific names . older books consign all of them to the genus chanda , and many people still refer to them as such . more recently they were moved to another genus , ambassis , and this name remains common in literature . finally , some of the glassfish were divided up between two new genera , pseudambassis and parambassis .\niqbal , s . m . , mortuza , m . g . , parween , s . and hossain , m . a . 1995 - 1996 . length - weight relationship and condition factor of chanda nama ( hamilton ) and chanda ranga ( hamilton ) . rajshahi university studies ( part - b ) . 23 - 24 : p . 238 - 242 .\nthe situation is still far from resolved , but the three species of interest here are all in parambassis . thankfully , recent aquarium books , magazines and web sites tend to describe these fish under this name . as if the fact that you could have any one of three difficult - to - tell - apart species of glassfish in your tank wasn ' t enough , things get even more complicated when it comes to settling on their ideal water conditions .\nomnivorous ( with preference for proteins ) : in the wild , this species feeds on crustaceans , earth worms and other invertebrates . in aquaria , p . ranga does best on a mix of live and frozen foods , including bloodworm , tubifex , brine shrimp , mysis shrimp and insect larvae such as glassworm . flake foods are also eagerly accepted , but shouldn ' t be fed exclusively . feed small amounts once or twice daily .\nit is not inconceivable that a combination of the brackish myth , the susceptibility of the painted fish to disease and the fact that this is quite a short - lived species have given rise to the commonly held belief that this fish is hard to keep . in reality , it is a pretty and peaceful species , well - suited to many community tanks . one final point to note is that there are several other species in the genus which are often imported as p . ranga , as they look very similar . the most common of these are p . lala and p . siamensis . lala can be distinguished by it\u2019s small ( 1 1 / 2\u2033 ) adult size and the presence of three vertical bars behind it\u2019s eye . ranga has a dark area behind the eye , whilst siamensis has no patterning here . p . siamensis is also a more elongate fish than the other 2 species .\npreviously known as chanda ranga , the common name of this species arose because it\u2019s translucent skin means that the bone structure and internal organs are clearly visible . for many years it has been artificially injected with luminous dyes on fish farms in asia and then sold as \u201cpainted\u201d glass fish or \u201cdisco fish\u201d . this abhorrent act involves injecting the fish repeatedly with a large needle and most fish do not survive more than a few months afterwards . whilst painted fish of this and other species are still available in many countries , protracted campaigning has seen them virtually removed from uk stores .\nthere are two fish commonly referred to in the trade as glassfish ; the chanda ranga , and the chanda baculis . of these two southeast asian fish , the one most commonly used for painting would be the latter , chanda baculis . and true , in and of itself , this is no spectacular fish . obviously it\u2019s got to be an easy catch for importers in the confines of its natural range , india , myanmar and thailand . i would speculate the initial fascination with this fish was its transparent body . you could see right inside , organs , bones , and everything . neat !\nbrackish or freshwater : because this fish is found in both slightly brackish and freshwater conditions , the fishkeeper may choose to replicate either habitat ( however more fish are found in freshwater distributions . ) it ' s recommended to ask the seller whether the fish has been kept in brackish or freshwater . in this way , if a change from brackish to freshwater needs to be made , it can be done gradually and without harm to the fish . clean , well - oxygenated water heated consistently to 68 \u2013 86\u00b0f ( 20\u00b0c - 30\u00b0c ) best replicates riverine and lacustrine habitats p . ranga is native to .\np . ranga is peaceful and shy and should not be combined with vigorous or aggressive species . the choice of tankmates is also governed by the type of water in which it is being kept . in freshwater conditions , it can be kept with barbs , livebearers , smaller rainbowfish , loaches and many other small tropicals . in the brackish aquarium , mollies , bumblebee gobies and chromides are all possibilities . the indian glass fish is a shoaling species and will not do well if kept singly or in pairs . aim for a group of at least 6 . males do become somewhat territorial when spawning but physical damage is rare .\nmany books suggest that in an aquarium , p . wolffii does not grow any bigger than the ' dwarf ' species like p . ranga . this appears to be the result of confusion over which species was actually imported , with p . siamensis often being sold as p . wolffii . recent imports of p . wolffii have brought them in at around 10cm / 4\n, and it is probably safe to say that if looked after well , these fish will continue to grow . in other words , this species shouldn ' t be bought on the hope that it will stay small if kept in a small aquarium .\nglassfish have a reputation for being delicate and tricky to keep \u0096 is this because brackish water is harmful to them ? most likely not since p . lala and p . ranga are found in brackish water , albeit rarely . of the three , only p . siamensis is entirely restricted to freshwater . adding too much salt may stress them over the long term , and these fish certainly don ' t need strongly brackish conditions like scats or monos . a specific gravity of 1 . 005 or less is probably safe , which means that these fish could be mixed with bumblebee gobies , pipefish and other fish that do well in slightly brackish conditions .\nbody length is comparatively short from other chanda species and body is deeply compressed . head is also short and compressed and the snout is sharp . lateral line is partly distinct and partly absent . lower jaw is longer than the upper jaw . caudal forked . in shape and colour this fish resembles chanda nama but it is rather deeper in the body and shorter in length than the chanda nama . the chief distinction is in teeth which are all small in chanda ranga . the general body colour transparent yellowihs white . outer edge of both dorsals , anal and caudal tinged black . in young specimens which are locally known as \u201clal chanda\u201d the body is brightly coloured with red and yellow . dorsals , anal and caudal scarlet is red . first dorsal and pelvic black tipped . the morphological description of this species is quite similar to rahman ( 2005 ) , bhuiyan ( 1964 ) , yadav ( 1997 ) and talwar and jhingran ( 2001 ) .\ngreek , para = near + greek , ambassis , anabasis = climbing up ( ref . 45335 )\nfreshwater ; brackish ; demersal ; ph range : 7 . 0 - 8 . 0 ; dh range : 9 - 19 ; potamodromous ( ref . 51243 ) . tropical ; 20\u00b0c - 30\u00b0c ( ref . 1672 ) ; 38\u00b0n - 1\u00b0n\nasia : pakistan , india , bangladesh , myanmar , thailand , malaysia ( ref . 4833 ) and nepal ( ref . 9496 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 8 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 1479 )\nfound in sluggish and standing water . a common species proliferating in impoundments . most abundant during the rainy season . feeds on invertebrates ( ref . 12693 ) , worms and crustaceans ( ref . 7020 ) . breeds everywhere during the rains . builds a nest and guards its young . rare in markets and often found in the aquarium trade ( ref . 12693 ) . aquarium keeping : in groups of 5 or more individuals ; minimum aquarium size 60 cm ( ref . 51539 ) .\nroberts , t . r . , 1994 . systematic revision of tropical asian freshwater glassperches ( ambassidae ) , with descriptions of three new species . nat . hist . bull . siam soc . 42 : 263 - 290 . ( ref . 10429 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01479 ( 0 . 00728 - 0 . 03004 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 86 - 3 . 22 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 \u00b10 . 39 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . fec = 500 . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 20 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : the species is common or uncommon fish throughout its range and no threat recognized recently , it is assessed as least concern .\nthe species has an enormous range , from pakistan ( north west frontier province , punjab , sinh and azad kashmir ; mirza 2002 ) , the nepalese terai , india ( most of india , including the ganges drainage , the western ghats rivers , and chilka lake in orissa ; ( talwar and jhingran 1991 ) to the ayeyarwaddy and sittaung drainages in myanmar . records of the species from the salween basin in myanmar and thailand ( where it has also been recorded from the pai river , mai hong song province , and songkhla in peninsular thailand ) probably refer to other species ( c . vidthayanon pers . comm . 2012 ) . introduced elsewhere ( e . g . , japan ) .\ncommon in suitable habitats throughout its range , less common in middle reaches and tributaries of the salween in thailand .\nthere is little fishery interest , though it is sometimes mixed with small foodfishes . this species is rarely found in the aquarium trade .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nindia , pakistan , nepal , bangaldesh , myanmar , thailand , malaysia , cambodia , japan .\na dark substrate will help to make this shy species less nervous and encourage it to display its best colours . provide cover by planting some areas of the tank densely , along with some floating vegetation . rocks and driftwood can also be used . the fish can live in both freshwater and slightly brackish conditions .\nmales have blue edging to the dorsal and anal fins and are a slightly deeper yellow on the body than females . these differences are more apparent when the fish are breeding , as the colours become more intense . the swim bladder ( which is clearly visible ) has a pointed back edge in males .\nnot too difficult , although the fry are difficult to raise . provide the fish with a heavily planted aquarium of around 30\u2033 x 12\u2033 x 12\u2033 . stock it with 6 - 8 adult fish . it is an advantage if the tank is situated so that it recieves direct sunlight in the morning . condition the group with a high quality , varied diet . during this period , maintain them at a temperature of around 70 - 75\u00b0f . a ph around neutral should be fine .\nwhen the fish are inbreeding condition ( look for an intensifying of the colours of the males , and round bellies on the females ) , perform a large water change with warmer water ( around 80 - 84\u00b0f ) in the evening . the fish should spawn the following morning . each pair may deposit up to 200 eggs , and these will be found amongst the vegetation , stuck to plant leaves and stems . the adult fish can be removed at this point .\nthe eggs are very sensitive to fungussing and the entire tank should be dosed with a weak solution of methylene blue , or similar , in order to prevent this . they will hatch in around 24 hours and will be seen hanging from the plants . they become free swimming in another 3 - 4 days . they are quite difficult to raise , as they do not actively seek food . instead they wait for morsels to drift by . we suggest feeding quite heavily with brine shrimp nauplii and creating a slow current in the tank . regular small water changes will be required in order to keep the water conditions perfect .\nnow to dispel a myth about glass fish . according to most resources ( including the majority of internet sites ) , this species requires the addition of salt to its water to keep it at it\u2019s best , often stating that it is susceptible to fungal infections when kept in freshwater . this is simply not true . whilst the fish can indeed be acclimatised to mildly brackish water ( and are found in brackish conditions in some of their habitats in nature ) , it is found most often in freshwater . additionally , many of these freshwater habitats actually contain quite soft , acidic water . when purchasing this fish , ask your dealer what conditions they are being kept in . if they are in freshwater , don\u2019t be tempted to add salt to the tank when you get home , as there is no need .\nthis page will give a completely detailed profile of the selected fish , from a to z . the profiled fish will be chosen randomly by badman , and will come from the complete genre of tropical fish . new profiles are added on a regular basis . if you would like to submit a profile for the site please contact me . don ' t forget to let us know you experiences with this fish by filling out the\ncomment form . this profile was written by bunny an active contributor to the site .\nthese beautiful and delicate fish have the distinction of being so transparent that their bones and internal organs can be easily seen . when kept in groups of 6 or more , their timid personalities are replaced by bold and curious natures . they can be easily kept in freshwater , and also have the option of being kept in very mild brackish environment .\nschool of 6 : 25 gallons ( 94 . g liters ) or larger .\n1 \u20131 . 010 ( can be kept in very mild brackish or freshwater . )\nasia : pakistan , india , bangladesh , myanmar , thailand , malaysia in rivers , lakes , standing water and reservoirs ; both brackish and freshwater .\nthis delicate fish is deep - bodied and laterally compressed . fins are long and rounded with the exception of two separate , pointed dorsal fins ; caudal fin is moderately long and forked . back is arched . mouth is small and dorsally - located . forehead is indented slightly . eyes are relatively large .\nbody and fins are primarily silvery transparent with a pale amber to green iridescence . spine and other bones and internal organs are clearly visible . dorsal and anal fins of males are edged in greyish - blue . when males are in spawning condition , their amber color intensifies and fins may display a coral color proximally .\nindian glassy fish have often been sold as having been\ndyed\nor\npainted ,\na process by which numerous injections of colored dye are made into the fish ' s transparent tissue to make them more brightly colored . the process is cruel , far from painless , opens the fish up to opportunistic diseases such as fin rot , ich and lymphocystis , and has been shown to shorten their lives considerably ( from 6 months instead of their natural lifespan of approximately 5 \u2013 8 years . )\nplease remember that the following comments are personal experiences and may or may not apply to your setup . use them as guide to help better understand your fish , like us all individuals will behave differently under different circumstances .\nfrom : carol h date : 10 / 01 / 2015 timid fish ? ha ! i bought six and placed them in a 75 gallon tank that also contained a male betta i was quarantining because he was a bully . the glass fish took very little time to school together and promptly start following the betta , even taking a nip at his tail ! i tried to distract them with frozen bloodworms , and they left off . however , the betta began avoiding them whenever possible , staying under the powerful filter current that he had such a hard time swimming under . it ' s true the glass fish swim away when i approach the tank , but they are bold and curious otherwise . and they are positively rapacious when i feed them . unfortunately , they seem picky . they don ' t care for brine shrimp or freeze dried tubifex , and never notice pellets whether they float or sink . they also won ' t scavenge the bottom , even if there ' s juicy bloodworms on it . even the betta isn ' t so picky !\nprivacy policy | contact badman ' s tropical fish copyright \u00a9 all rights reserved . reproduction of any portion of this website ' s content is forbidden without written permission .\noops ! it appears that you have disabled your javascript . in order for you to see this page as it is meant to appear , we ask that you please re - enable your javascript !\nd 1 . vi - vii , d 2 . i / 12 - 15 , p 1 . i / 9 - 12 , p 2 . i / 5 , a . iii / 14 - 15 .\nd 1 . vii / 8 , d 2 . i / 13 - 15 , p 1 . 11 , p 2 . 6 , a . iii / 14 - 16 ( shafi and quddus , 1982 ) .\nd . vii + i 11 - 14 , p 1 . i 11 - 12 , p 2 . i 5 , a . iii 13 - 15 ( talwar and jhingran , 2001 ) .\nbreeding time of this species is may - october . it breeds in confined water ( talwar and jhingran , 2001 ) .\nthis species is popular small indigenous species of fish of bangladesh . most of them are taken for drying in northern region of bangladesh . it is very much famous food in rural bangladesh . good source of nutrition but low price in the market . though it is small and bony people like it as food ( rahman , 2005 ) .\nahmad ( 1943 ) states that the fish breeds freely in confined water . in confinement , on an average it feeds on about 120 larvae and pupae of mosquito a day during the first few days but this number continues to decrease as time passes .\nahmad , n . 1943 . \u201cfauna of lahore . 5 fishes of lahore . \u201d bull . dep . zoo1 punjub univ . lahore . pp . 253 - 374 .\nbhuiyan , a . l . 1964 . fishes of dacca . asiatic soc . pakistan , publ . no . 13 , dacca . pp . 101 - 102 .\nday , f . 1878 . fishes of india . william dowson and sons . , london . p . 51 .\nday , f . 1889 . fishes . fauna . brit . india . william dowson and sons . , london . 1 - 2 : p . 484 .\nhamilton , f . 1822 . fishes of the ganges . archibald constable and company , edinburgh . pp . 113 - 114 .\nmenon , a . g . k . 1974 . fishes of the himalayan and indo - gangetic plains . inland fisheries society of india sp . publ . 1 . p . 136 .\nrahman , a . k . a . 2005 . freshwater fishes of bangladesh . the zoological society of bangladesh , dhaka . pp . 340 - 341 .\nshafi , m . and quddus , m . m . a . 1982 . bangladesher matshya sampad ( in bengali ) . dhaka . pp . 268 - 269 .\nshaw , g . e . and shebbeare , e . o . 1937 . fishes of northern bengal . j . royal asiat . soc . bengal science . p . 110 .\ntalwar , p . k . and jhingran , a . g . 2001 . inland fishes of india and adjacent countries . oxford and ibh publishing co . pvt . ltd . new delhi . 2 : pp . 805 - 806 .\nyadav , b . n . 1997 . fish and fisheries . daya publishing house , calcutta . p . 320 .\nex - student , department of fisheries , university of rajshahi , rajshahi - 6205 , bangladesh . more . . .\nthis site uses akismet to reduce spam . learn how your comment data is processed .\nlicense . you may use any content ( of this site ) only non - commercial purpose with proper citation under the same license at your own caution . | the contents and opinions expressed herein are those of the author ( s ) and do not necessarily reflect the views of bdfish . |\nnative fish : north - west glassfish ( ambassis sp . ) , finniss river catchment , northern territory\nmale has a pointed swimbladder , whereas females ' are rounded . males also have blue edging on the dorsal and anal fins and have slightly deeper yellow colouration on the body than females . these colours are at their most vibrant when the fish are spawning .\nin a freshwater set up . male indian glassfish can become territorial when spawning but physical damage is rare . males can be identified by their pointed swim bladder , whereas females have a more rounded one , a slight yellow tinge to their bodies and a blue edging on their dorsal and anal fins . the males ' colors are much more vibrant when they are in spawning condition .\nwill not live on flake alone , and live and frozen foods should be offered regularly .\nthis is not actually a brackish water species despite popular belief and does best in freshwater that is slightly acidic to slightly alkaline , ph 6 . 5 to 7 . 5 . should be provided areas of cover in the from of plants and other d\u00e9cor .\n. these fish traditionally have a transparent high - sided body with visible skeleton . if they are found with any hint of unnatural looking colour , they have been dyed and should not be purchased .\nthis page was last edited on 13 december 2017 , at 02 : 57 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license unless otherwise noted .\nfreshwater ; brackish ; demersal ; ph range : 7 . 0 - 8 . 0 ; dh range : 9 - 19 ; potamodromous ( ref . 51243 ) . tropical ; 20\u00b0c - 30\u00b0c ( ref . 1672 ) , preferred ? ; 38\u00b0n - 1\u00b0n\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nobviously named for its translucent flesh , the glassfish is an interesting , slightly odd addition to the right aquarium . glassfish are a schooling fish , and prefer to be kept in groups of five or more . they can be kept in smaller numbers , but they will be shy and will spend much of their time hiding . even when kept in larger numbers , they tend to not be aggressive , though they can get to be very bold and energetic .\nglassfish have a reputation for being difficult to keep alive , but this belief largely stems from the myth that they require brackish water to survive . in nature , these fish live in standing water such as bodies created from dammed mountain streams , not estuaries or other areas of brackish water . if they are kept in true freshwater , they seem to be fairly hardy fish , no more difficult to keep than many tetras .\ni am currently unaware of the difficulty of breeding glassfish in the aquarium . in the wild , they breed prolifically during the rainy season . if the tank ' s water temperature is raised to 85\u00b0 and the fish are fed a healthy diet of high protein food , they may be induced to breed in an aquarium .\none particular note about glassfish is that , due to their transparent flesh , they are often injected with fluorescent dye . the result is a glassfish with fluorescent dots floating in its body . most of these fish do not survive the dyeing process , and those that do are four times as likely to develop certain viral infections as undyed glassfish . for more information on this , check out the article on dyed fish .\nto induce spawning they need slightly brackish water conditions with elevated temperatures . they may place eggs on plant leaves . raising the fry is another story all together . considered difficult .\na few specimens could likely be kept in a species - only 10g . 20g and at least five glassfish is preferable .\nmany . would likely make excellent dither fish in groups of five or more . would also make good\ntarget\nfish for species that get aggressive during mating . glassfish are very fast swimmers , and also seem to be playful . obviously , avoid predators large enough to eat the glassfish . purely aggressive tank mates may not be the best choice , though glassfish may do well in a tank with semi - aggressive fish and plenty of hiding places .\npage includes symptoms , diagnosis and treatment info . only painted glassfish seem to be particularly susceptible to any particular disease . painting seems to encourage ich and fin rot immediately after paining , and makes the fish more likely to develop lymphocystis , a viral infection that causes white cysts on the body and fins , throughout its life .\nfrozen or fresh , mostly carnivorous diet . generally do not eat dry food , according to several sources . that being said , i have fed my glassfish nothing but flakes and freeze - dried bloodworms , and they are always eager to eat .\nsupposedly mid to bottom . this may be a result of lethargy induced by brackish water . in purely freshwater tanks , they range across the entire depth of the aquarium .\n\u00a9 urltoken - providing tropical fish tank and aquarium information for freshwater fish and saltwater fish keepers . sitemap | aquarium fish sitemap | aquarium fish dictionary | privacy policy | contact us\nif you do , and you would like to get more interaction with aquarium hobbyists ( i . e . aq members ) , aq can automatically read your rss feeds and post your new blog entries as aq threads . this should encourage more views and interaction . aq will of course preserve the links back to your blog .\nto aq by using categories / labels / tags , so no need to worry that non - aquarium related posts gets here .\nwe hope you have found aq to be useful and informative . membership on aq is free . if you have not already done so ,\nindefinite ban of shrimp sales on aq w . e . f . from monday 20th aug 2012\nwe have decided to disallow the sales , giving and trading of shrimp through aq from monday , 20th aug 2012 onwards until further notice .\nthis will appear once only per visit to aq . if aq is down , go to our facebook page for status updates .\nneale monks explains how to keep the many varieties of glassfish on sale at specialist aquatic shops . here is an extract of the complete article .\nglassfish are a regular fixture in tropical fish stores , though often not for the right reasons .\nfor many years they were almost always imported as ' disco fish ' , with fluorescent paints injected into their bodies to create brightly coloured fish that appealed to inexperienced fishkeepers .\nhowever pretty these disco fish might be , the process of dyeing is known to harm their health , as well as being cruel and unnecessary . in particular , dyed glassfish are significantly more likely to contract lymphocystis than undyed fish .\nsince 1996 , practical fishkeeping has encouraged retailers not to stock these dyed fish , and disco fish are now far less frequently offered for sale than before . a knock - on effect has been that glassfish have slipped off the radar as far as many fishkeepers are concerned , and finding them can sometimes be tricky .\nwhich is a pity as undyed glassfish have a subtle beauty that is easily overlooked when kept with brightly coloured , showier fish like fancy livebearers and neon tetras .\ntraditionally these were viewed as brackish fish , and most books suggest adding an amount of salt to their aquarium . however , collectors say these fish are found primarily in freshwater habitats , sometimes even soft and acidic ones .\nhowever , the ideal water conditions are much more like those of other south - east asian freshwater fish : a neutral ph , not too hard , a steady but not overbearing water current , and plenty of oxygen . although not fussy about water chemistry , glassfish can be awkward when it comes to feeding . they rarely , if ever , accept flake , and even some frozen foods are rejected .\nmy glassfish don ' t show any interest in frozen bloodworm or mosquito larvae , though they enjoy both as live food . frozen lobster eggs , by contrast , are readily accepted and make an inexpensive and convenient staple food . frozen lobster eggs are sometimes difficult to find \u0096 look for them in stores specialising in marine invertebrates since they ' re primarily used to feed corals and giant clams . each egg is tiny , but they ' re rich in fat and protein , and the glassfish seem to go wild for them , darting about , snapping up the eggs .\na newcomer to the hobby is the hump - head glassfish , p . pulcinella . only discovered in 2003 , it has already become something of a staple and while expensive , is relatively easy to obtain . a classic oddball , this fish not only retains the silvery transparency of the smaller glassfish species , but also sports a spectacular nuchal hump .\nmales have more strongly developed humps than females , and by any standards , these are extraordinary fish . p . pulcinella is a schooling fish , and given that this species grows to around 20cm / 8\n, it is obviously best suited to a large aquarium . not much is known about the health of this fish in captivity , but since the fish normally inhabits fast - flowing waters , good filtration and plenty of oxygen are probably crucial to long - term health .\nin terms of social behaviour , p . pulcinella is a bit problematic . as with many schooling fish , there is a definite pecking order within the group and if too few are kept , dominant specimens will harass weaker individuals . you probably want to keep at least six specimens , ideally ten or more . if you only have the option of keeping three or four specimens , the safest approach is to keep just a single male in the tank , on the assumption that the most aggressive fish within a school tend to be the males .\nanother giant glassfish is p . wolffii . like p . pulcinella , it is an inhabitant of fresh , not brackish , water and is very widely distributed in slow - moving rivers throughout south - east asia . an adult p . wolffii is an impressive fish despite not being particularly transparent , with sturdy , spiny fins and a rather menacing face !\nthese fish probably have most appeal to those with an interest in oddball predators , which these most definitely are . at an adult length of 20 / 8\ncm , it can easily swallow fish as large as platies and small barbs . on the other hand , it is completely peaceful with gouramis , catfish and barbs of comparable size .\nby far the most infrequently imported glassfish , though many would say also the most beautiful , is gymnochanda filamentosa .\nthis fish is an inhabitant of acidic , blackwater streams similar to those associated with discus , though it does tolerate hard or slightly brackish water surprisingly well .\nof all the glassfish , this species is generally considered the most delicate , and it is best left to advanced hobbyists .\nkeeping glassfish generally presents no problems once the fish are settled in and feeding properly . the main problem is that many fish may not have eaten much over the weeks that they have been in the fish shop .\nsince glassfish usually refuse flake or dried foods , if they have not been provided with live or frozen foods , they can quickly become weak and disease prone . ask the retailer what the glassfish have been fed on : if the answer is flake food , you can assume that the fish will be underweight and will need to be looked after especially well once you bring them home .\nthey are not particularly disease - prone , though whitespot can be a problem . some glassfish , most notably gymnochanda filamentosa , do not have any scales on their bodies and are in fact very sensitive to skin parasites . fortunately , glassfish respond well to commercial whitespot treatments .\nglassfish are generally not aggressive , and the smaller species prefer to be kept with quiet tankmates . persistently aggressive species like the larger cichlids , pufferfish and some of the sharks and loaches are bad choices , even for the larger species of glassfish . on the other hand , the small species get along very well with small community fish , and since they are fast - moving midwater fish , they manage to keep out of the way of territorial dwarf cichlids like microgeophagus ramirezi and pelvicachromis pulcher .\nin short , glassfish are ideal for the peaceful community , much misunderstood over the years , but beginning to be truly appreciated by those looking for something a bit different .\n* this thread is an item from practical fishkeeping magazine website ' s articles rss feed , brought to you by courtesy of aq ' s rss feed poster robot . *\npowered by vbulletin\u00ae version 4 . 2 . 5 copyright \u00a9 2018 vbulletin solutions inc . all rights reserved .\nindian glassfish are found in nature , as the first name of the fish suggests , in the region of india and other countries such as pakistan and malaysia . as the second name would indicate , the indian glassfish has a totally transparent body \u2013 \u201cclear as glass . \u201d all of the bones can be clearly seen , as can the organ sac and some individual organs . the fish has a slightly yellowish cast to the body overall , but it is the fact that the body is transparent that really defines the fish .\nindian glassfish have had a bad reputation as being a difficult fish to keep . most of this is because of a myth that has been powerful in the aquarium hobby / industry for many years that indian glassfish require salt in their water ; often it is erroneously stated that they require \u201cbrackish\u201d water . a small amount of salt is fine for almost any fish . keeping a freshwater fish in brackish water will , in fact , lead to their difficulty in keeping . please note : this topic of whether indian glassfish require salt in their water , or even brackish water , is somewhat controversial . i base my statement that they do not need salt on talking with suppliers in the far east , and on my own experience . i freely acknowledge that others take the \u201cthey need salt\u201d point of view .\nonce we have established that the indian glassfish does not need salt in its water , the other water parameters it requires are very simple to achieve , as they are wide ranges . ph should be in the range from 6 . 5 to 7 . 5 , with moderate hardness . they do well at a wide temperature range from 70 to 85 degrees f . indian glassfish do best in schools of five or more fish , and they like to have some thickets of plants where they can hide . they can be a bit nippy toward each other , but will usually not bother any other tank mates . indian glassfish are not , however , above eating any small tetra or other fish that can fit into their mouth .\nfor regular feeding they initially may require frozen , freeze - dried or live brine shrimp , mysis shrimp or bloodworms , but usually they will accommodate to dry prepared foods as they become accustomed to their surroundings . when you buy your indian glassfish it is a good idea to ask the local fish store what they are eating \u2013 and ask them to feed the indian glassfish before you purchase them .\nindian glassfish are typical egg scatterers , although they are not frequently bred by hobbyists . this may be because of the reputation that these fish have for being difficult to keep , let alone breed . or it may simply be because there are so many other interesting fish to devote your tanks , time and money to getting to breed . if you do successfully breed indian glassfish i am sure that your local fish store would be pleased to buy the babies from you when they are up to a reasonable size .\nunfortunately , the original form of indian glassfish ( how they are in nature ) are not what is seen most often in local fish stores . instead , what many stores offer are the \u201cpainted\u201d or \u201cdyed\u201d indian glassfish , which they sell under various names . these fish are the natural indian glassfish that has either been injected with dyes in small spots in a pattern on the fish , or where the entire fish has been dyed some horrific purple , green or other color .\nthis is a painted indian glass fish . these are injected with a dye and should be avoided . photo by quatermass / wikipedia\nif my bias is coming through on this issue \u2013 good ! i feel very strongly that painted and dyed fish have no place in our hobby / industry . many store owners who i know well , and respect , carry painted and dyed fish . their argument is \u201cif i don\u2019t carry painted glassfish my customers will go to joe\u2019s fish store to buy them . \u201d sorry , but i do not buy that line of reasoning . there are , in fact , many stores who will have nothing to do with painted or dyed fish , and their business are thriving . please \u2013 do not buy painted or dyed fish of any kind , including when fish with a tattooed heart on them are available around valentine\u2019s day . please note : painted and dyed fish must be distinguished from the glofish \u2013 the brightly colored zebra fish , tetras and other fish that are being produced by the industry . glofish are a genetic variation ( albeit with a gene for the colors introduced from a different animal ) , and i have no problem with them at all . in fact , glofish have probably brought more kids into the hobby than we can imagine , and that is a good thing , and i don\u2019t think they are any different from fancy goldfish or guppies , that bear little semblance to the wild fish , but were achieved by the breeders\u2019 art \u2013 not women in indonesia injecting fish with dyes .\nnatural indian glassfish are terrific fish , and they are not at all as difficult to keep as they have the reputation for . painted and dyed fish \u2013 be they indian glassfish , black tetras or any other fish \u2013 should not be encouraged . i will end by relating something that i saw a couple of years ago when i was wholesaling and delivering fish . i was dropping off the fish order for a good store ( one that has been in business many years , where the owners and staff all really know fish ) . a woman asked the owner if she could have two of the painted glassfish . the owner said of course , but he wanted her to know that the colors would fade in six weeks or so . the woman\u2019s response was \u201coh , i don\u2019t expect them to live that long ! \u201d\nperhaps this burned my disapproval for painted and dyed fish deeper into my mind \u2013 as it is surely not what we want to hear from anyone keeping tropical fish .\nkeep the natural indian glassfish \u2013 and please do not keep the painted or dyed ones . in fact , please tell any store that carries them that you do not approve of this practice .\nfor this , my inaugural piece for the conscientious aquarist , i have to go back to where it all started . i don\u2019t mean genesis . i don\u2019t mean the ice age . i don\u2019t even mean the frameless aquarium . and what do i mean by\nit ?\nit ,\nis what i believe is the causal effect that should have opened our eyes to the fact that we need to start looking into the role within the hobby we have to take as hobbyists . in this case , i believe , is the appearance / emergence of \u201cpainted\u201d glassfish . now i hear you hollering out , \u201coh , come on glass , ( no pun intended , or maybe there is ) there have been worse problems to deal with before that . what about releasing oscars and piranha into floridian waters ? what about cyaniding philippine coral reefs ? what about this , what about that ? \u201d they are all legitimate concerns . ( especially the \u201cwhat about thats\u201d )\nwhat i\u2019m talking about here is when the envelope was pushed way too far . once we started accepting dyed fish into our hobby , we\u2019d done just went too dang far . i can\u2019t help but imagine some seedy fish exporter looking over his bottom line , exclaiming , \u201cwe\u2019re just not selling enough glassfish . . . we must sell more glassfish ! \u201d in an effort to make 3 more cents a day , some cerebral little boy meekly shimmies over to the fishlord and mumbles , \u201cwe should paint them , sir . \u201d\nthe boy , a little stronger in voice articulates , \u201cwe should paint them sir . . . bright colors , then people would buy them\u201d .\nthe fishlord twirls his feathery beard , and shouts , \u201ceveryone , stop what you\u2019re doing ! \u201d the little boy smiles , sensing a full loaf of bread for dinner tonight .\nthe fishlord kicks him in the rear , sends him away boisterously glowering , \u201cmind your manners , you little impish slug . how dare you make my idea your own ! now git . you\u2019re fired\u201d\nyes , i have a way of letting my imagination run away with me , but you do get a glimpse of the picture here , don\u2019t you ? so let\u2019s talk about the \u201cglassfish\u201d before the world of fluorescence brandished it\u2019s nasty brush on the scaly canvas .\ni must admit when i re - entered the hobby , post - childhood around 1986 , my eyes fell upon a tank labeled \u201cpainted glassfish\u201d . they were transparent with a spinal stripe , colored either pink , or yellow , or orange , or blue , or purple , or green . wow ! they were pretty neat . i wondered why i never saw them as a kid . i woulda bought a bunch of them . i asked the store employee if they were real . it was a dumb question and i got a dumber answer . \u201cuh , yeah they\u2019re real . all the fish here are real . \u201d"]}
{"id": 224, "summary": [{"text": "acrocercops melanoplecta is a moth of the gracillariidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from hong kong , india ( meghalaya ) , japan ( honsh\u016b , tusima and the ryukyu islands ) , nepal and taiwan .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the wingspan is 7-10.8 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the larvae feed on castanopsis cuspidata , castanopsis fissa , castanopsis hystrix and castanopsis tribuloides .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "they mine the leaves of their host plant . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "acrocercops melanoplecta", "paragraphs": ["ngu ? n : wikipedia . c c trang : 49 . ch ng : acrocercops transecta , acrocercops panacivermiforma , acrocercops chionosema , acrocercops calicella , acrocercops laciniella , acrocercops brongniardella , acrocercops panacitorsens , acrocercops unistriata , acrocercops mantica , acrocercops aellomacha , acrocercops pnosmodiella , acrocercops bifasciata , acrocercops melanoplecta , acrocercops euthycolona , acrocercops astericola , acrocercops macaria , acrocercops zorionella , acrocercops panacifinens , acrocercops albinatella , acrocercops albidorsella , acrocercops apicella , acrocercops insulariella , acrocercops plebeia , acrocercops panacivagans , acrocercops phaeospora , acrocercops hoplocala , acrocercops apicepunctella , acrocercops coffeifoliella , acrocercops diffluella , acrocercops panacicorticis , acrocercops inconspicua , acrocercops vallata , acrocercops didymella , acrocercops malvacea , acrocercops heptadrachma , acrocercops distylii , acrocercops argentigera , acrocercops albofasciella , acrocercops praeclusa , acrocercops diatonica , acrocercops tristaniae , acrocercops macroclina , acrocercops paliacma , acrocercops eugeniella , acrocercops querci , acrocercops cylicota , acrocercops marmaritis , acrocercops gemmans , acrocercops hormista , acrocercops demotes , acrocercops combreticola , acrocercops ochnifolii , acrocercops quinquistrigella , acrocercops isodelta , acrocercops insulella , acrocercops phaeomorpha , acrocercops leucophaea , acrocercops ustulatella , acrocercops cocciferellum , acrocercops telestis , acrocercops arbutella , acrocercops eurhythmopa , acrocercops pentalocha , acrocercops glutella , acrocercops nolckeniella , acrocercops hexaclosta , acrocercops autadelpha , acrocercops chionoplecta , acrocercops crystallopa , acrocercops albomaculella , acrocercops loxias , acrocercops caenotheta , acrocercops eupetala , acrocercops alysidota , acrocercops hyphantica , acrocercops ornata , acrocercops convoluta , acrocercops homalacta , acrocercops irradians , acrocercops angelica , acrocercops chrysophila , acroce . . .\nacrocercops melanoplecta is a moth of the gracillariidae family . it is known from hong kong , india ( meghalaya ) , japan ( honsh\u016b , tusima and the ryukyu islands ) , nepal and taiwan .\nacrocercops distylii is a moth of the gracillariidae family . it is known from japan ( honsh\u016b , ky\u016bsh\u016b , shikoku , tusima and the ryukyu islands ) .\nacrocercops transecta is a moth of the gracillariidae family . it is known from japan ( hokkaid\u014d , honsh\u016b , ky\u016bsh\u016b , shikoku , tusima ) , korea , the russian far east and taiwan .\nacrocercops unistriata is a moth of the gracillariidae family . it is known from china ( guangdong , zhejiang ) , hong kong , japan ( tusima , honsh\u016b , the ryukyu islands , shikoku ) , nepal and taiwan .\nacrocercops - species dictionary - global : ispot nature - your place to share nature . ispot is a website aimed at helping anyone identify anything in nature . once you ' ve registered , you can add an observation to the website and suggest an identification yourself or see if anyone else can identify it for you .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\nborboryctis euryae is a moth of the gracillariidae family . it is known from japan ( honsh\u016b , ky\u016bsh\u016b , shikoku and tusima ) .\nphyllonorycter bifurcata is a moth of the gracillariidae family . it is known from the islands of ky\u016bsh\u016b , shikoku and tusima in japan .\ngibbovalva urbana is a moth of the gracillariidae family . it is known from china ( guangdong , hainan and fujian ) , india ( meghalaya ) and japan ( the ryukyu islands , honsh\u016b and tusima ) .\nelachista kurokoi is a moth in the elachistidae family . it was described by parenti in 1983 . it is found in japan ( honsy\u00fb , sikoku , ky\u00fbsy\u00fb , tusima , ry\u00fbky\u00fb ) .\ncryptolectica ensiformis is a moth of the gracillariidae family . it is known from china ( hainan ) , india , indonesia ( sulawesi ) , japan ( tusima , the ryukyu islands , honsh\u016b , ky\u016bsh\u016b , shikoku ) and thailand .\ndeoptilia heptadeta is a moth of the gracillariidae family . it is known from japan ( the ryukyu islands , ky\u016bsh\u016b , shikoku , honsh\u016b , tusima , the amami islands ) and taiwan .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 227, "summary": [{"text": "parmacellidae is a family of air-breathing land slugs , terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusks within the superfamily parmacelloidea ( according to the taxonomy of the gastropoda by bouchet & rocroi , 2005 ) .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this family has no subfamilies ( according to the taxonomy of the gastropoda by bouchet & rocroi , 2005 ) .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "slugs in this family make and use love darts made of chitin . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "parmacellidae", "paragraphs": ["worms - world register of marine species - parmacellidae p . fischer , 1856 ( 1855 )\nurocyclidae parmacellidae milacidae the pneumostome is located posterior to the midpoint of the mantle . a dorsal key is present . there is no caudal mucous gland .\nschileyko a . a . 2003 . treatise on recent terrestrial pulmonate molluscs . pt . 10 . ariophantidae , ostracolethidae , rissotidae , milacidae , dyakiidae , staffordiidae , gastrodontidae , zonitidae , daudebardiidae , parmacellidae . ruthenica , russian malacological journal , supplement 2 : 1308 - 1466 .\nbouchet p . , rocroi j . p . , hausdorf b . , kaim a . , kano y . , n\u00fctzel a . , parkhaev p . , schr\u00f6dl m . & strong e . e . ( 2017 ) . revised classification , nomenclator and typification of gastropod and monoplacophoran families . malacologia . 61 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 526 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of cryptellidae gray , 1855 ) bouchet p . , rocroi j . p . , hausdorf b . , kaim a . , kano y . , n\u00fctzel a . , parkhaev p . , schr\u00f6dl m . & strong e . e . ( 2017 ) . revised classification , nomenclator and typification of gastropod and monoplacophoran families . malacologia . 61 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 526 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nariolimax _ californicus _ 2011 _ richard _ sage _ apr _ 2 _ 1995 _ purissima _ creek _ san _ mateo _ county _ california _ us . jpg\n1k _ arion - rufus _ 11 _ welter _ schultes _ francisco _ denmark - _ bornholm _ between _ vang _ and _ hammerhus _ date - 15 - 06 - 2009 . jpg\n1k _ arion - rufus _ 11 _ welter _ schultes _ francisco _ denmark - . . .\nillustrazione delle specie terrestri e d\u2019acqua dolce raccolte nell\u2019isola di borneo dai signori g . doria e o . beccari .\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nkatja schulz marked the classification from\nwikipedia\nas preferred for\nparmacella valenciennii webb & van beneden , 1836\n.\nkatja schulz merged another page with parmacella valenciennii webb & van beneden , 1836 .\nvalter jacinto marked\nlesma / / slug ( parmacella valenciennii )\nas trusted on the\nparmacella valenciennii\npage .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ndouble - check spelling , grammar , punctuation . translators work best when there are no errors or typos .\nif words are different , search our dictionary to understand why and pick the right word .\nif phrases are different , try searching our examples to help pick the right phrase .\nwe ' ve combined the most accurate english to spanish translations , dictionary , verb conjugations , and spanish to english translators into one very powerful search box .\nspanishdict is devoted to improving our site based on user feedback and introducing new and innovative features that will continue to help people learn and love the spanish language . have a suggestion , idea , or comment ? send us your feedback .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\nslugs are mollusks in the phylum mollusca . the information below highlights the taxonomy of slugs of economic interest as pest species .\nsubclass gymnomorpha order soleolifera family veronicellidae ( = vaginulidae ) the mantle of veronicellid slugs covers the entire surface dorsal surface of the animal . veronicellid slugs include several species of slugs found in the genera vaginulus and veronicella . they are herbivores and live mainly in tropical and subtropical africa , america and asia . they are also intermediate hosts of angiostrongylus costaricensis , the rat lung worm .\nsubclass pulmonata order stylommatophora suborder sigmurethra the families : testacellidae these are an earthworm ' s enemy , a carnivore with sharp teeth that impale their wormy prey . the remnant of a shell at the tail end of the slug covers the mantle and organs . this family is comprised of a single genus , testacella . testacella has been introduced into north america and new zealand . regionally , testacella sp . has been found in the portland and eugene areas of oregon .\nlimacidae the pneumostome is located posterior to the midpoint of the mantle . a dorsal keel is present . there is no caudal mucous gland . this family includes several large slug species in the genus limax . limax maximus is very prominent in the pacific northwest and also been distributed in other regions of north america . limax flavus , also called the cellar slug , can also be found in the northwest . it can be recognized by its brilliant blue tentacles .\nthis family also includes the genus deroceras . this genus includes several species that can reach pest status including : d . agreste , d . laeve , the marsh slug , d . reticulatum , the field slug or milky slug .\nlehmannia valentiana can also be found in the pacific northwest . the mantle has dark lateral bands and dark bands along the dorsal side of the foot .\nboettgerillidae trigonochlamydidae arionidae this family of slugs has a mantle on the front part of the slug body . the pneumostome is located towards the anterior portion of the mantle . subfamilies of arionid slugs are separated by anatomical features .\n; a . dolichophallus ; and a . californicus . slugs in this subfamily have a keel along their back . they can often be found with a slime plug or caudal pore with a mucous\nanadeninae the subfamily has a number of genera found in north america . the genus prophysaon andersoni ( cooper ) is endemic in the pacific northwest . this species can drop a portion of its foot as a defensive measure giving it the common name , the reticulate taildropper . the pneumostome is located near the middle of the mantle .\narioninae the subfamily contains several genera commonly found in the pacific northwest , although exotic transplants . these slugs can be quite large . there may be a prominent fringe along the edge of their foot . the pneumostome is located towards the front of the mantle , anterior to the midpoint . these slugs also have a well developed caudal mucous gland . one of key genera in this subfamily is arion . a . rufus , a . ater , a . circumcriptus , arion subfuscus are some of the species commonly found in the pacific northwest . these mostly palaearctic slugs have been distributed worldwide including in america , australia , new zealand , and south africa .\narion subfuscus can eat a wide variety of foods but fungi and decaying vegetation have been noted as their preferred diet . this species has a flexible abilty to occupy a variety of ecological environments ( beyer and saari , 1978 ) .\nn . beyer and d . saari . 1978 . activity and ecological distribution of the slug , arion subfuscus ( drapanard ) ( stylommatophora , arionidae ) . american midland naturalist .\nbefore applying any of the information found on this site , please read our disclaimer . copyright \u00a9 2018 , all rights reserved\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nadditions to the malacofauna of vietnam : genera parmarion and meghimatium ( pulmonata , stylommatophora ) | a . a . | ruthenica\nhome > vol 26 , no 1 ( 2016 ) > a . a .\ntwo species of south - east asian genus parmarion fischer , 1856 ( p . martensi simroth , 1894 and p . pupillaris humbert , 1864 ) ( ariophantidae ) have been found in central vietnam ( dak lak province ) . illustrated descriptions of external appearance and reproductive tracts of both species are presented . along with these species one juvenile specimen of meghimatium bilineatum ( benson , 1842 ) ( philomycidae ) has been found in south - east part of vietnam ( dalat city ) .\n\u043b\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0440\u0435\u0432 \u0438 . \u043c . , \u0432\u0438\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0430 . \u0439 . 1980 . \u0441\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0438 \u0444\u0430\u0443\u043d\u044b \u0441\u0441\u0441\u0440 \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d ( gastropoda terrestrial nuda ) . \u0444\u0430\u0443\u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0441\u0441\u0440 . \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043b\u044e\u0441\u043a\u0438 . 3 ( 5 ) . \u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434 , \u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430 : 1 - 438 .\nbenson w . h . 1842 . mollusca . in : cantor th . general features of chusan , with remarks on the flora and fauna of that island . annual and magazine of natural history , 9 : 486 - 489 .\nbenthem jutting w . s . s . 1950 . systematic studies on the non - marine mollusca of the indo - australian archipelago . ii . treubia , 20 ( 3 ) : 381 - 506 .\nbenthem jutting w . s . s . 1952 . systematic studies on the non - marine mollusca of the indo - australian archipelago . iii . treubia , 21 ( 1 / 3 ) : 291 - 435 .\nhoffmann h . 1941 . anatomische und systematische untersuchungen \u00fcber die parmarioninen ( gastr . pulm . ) . zoologische jahrb\u00fccher , abteilung f\u00fcr systematik , geographie und biologie der thiere , 74 ( 3 ) : 1 - 155 .\nhumbert a . 1864 . \u00e9tudes sur quelques mollusques terrestres nouveaux ou peu connus . m\u00e9moires de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de physique et d\u2019histoire naturelle de gen\u00e9ve , 15 : 109 - 128 .\nschileyko a . a . 2011 . check - list of land pulmonate molluscs of vietnam ( gastropoda : stylommatophora ) . ruthenica , russian malacological journal , 21 ( 1 ) : 1 - 68 .\nsimroth h . 1894 . ueber einige parmarion - arten . in : m . weber . zoologische ergebnisse einer reise in niederl\u00e4ndisch ost - indien . 3 : 100 - 111 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nsuperfamily athoracophoroidea family athoracophoridae - these are the leaf - veined slugs of new zealand , australia , and surrounding islands . the discover life web site does not list all the genera below . this list and the distributions were taken from powell , 1979 [ new zealand mollusca , william collins publishers ltd , auckland , new zealand ] .\nsuperfamily succineoidea family succineidae - these snails have a very thin shell with a large aperature . they are usually found near water .\nnorth america , hawaiin ids . , samoa , raotunga isl . , costa rica , europe\nthis clade is characterized by the placement of the pore of ureter opening into mantle cavity near the anterior margin of lung after the ureter passes forward from anterior kidney margin . bouchet & rocroi , 2005 [ classification and nomenclature of gastropod families . malacologia 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 ] recognize five superfamilies .\neven though this is a paraphyletic group , there are some monophyletic clades contained within . bouchet & rocroi , 2005 [ classification and nomenclature of gastropod families . malacologia 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 ] recognize 21 superfamilies within the sigmurethra . these are all considered monophyletic . in addition , seven of these superfamilies are grouped into a clade called the\nlimacoid clade\nreflecting their presumed monophyly .\n\u00a9 2012 university of illinois board of trustees . all rights reserved . for permissions information , contact the illinois natural history survey .\na world treatise on the recent genera of terrestrial molluscs , in numerous parts ."]}
{"id": 231, "summary": [{"text": "the diamantina tapaculo ( scytalopus diamantinensis ) is a species of bird in the rhinocryptidae family .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it was described as a new species in 2007 , and is endemic to chapada diamantina in bahia , brazil .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "in the same region , another species , the sincor\u00e1 antwren , was described in 2007 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the diamantina tapaculo is closely related to the very similar espinha\u00e7o tapaculo and planalto tapaculo .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the three differ mainly by their calls . ", "topic": 16}], "title": "diamantina tapaculo", "paragraphs": ["this entry was posted in archive , south america and tagged bahia , brazil , diamantina tapaculo . bookmark the permalink .\nthis is the recently described diamantina tapaculo ( scytalopus diamantinensis ) , see the formal description on - line : urltoken neornithes / 12 % 20 - % 20rbo . pdf\npossibly responding to playback of mouse - colored tapaculo ( s . speluncae ) , which i had played a few minutes before .\nbornschein , m . r . ; maur\u00ed\u00adcio , g . n . ; belmonte - lopes , r . ; mata , h . ; bonatto , s . l . 2007 . diamantina tapaculo , a new scytalopus endemic to the chapada diamantina , northeastern brazil ( passeriformes : rhinocryptidae ) . revista brasileira de ornitologia 15 ( 2 ) : 151 - 174 .\n. the remaining forest fragments in the chapada diamantina are described as very disturbed . large - scale governmental projects and unsustainable ecotourism are also listed as threats ( bornschein\nendangered . restricted - range species : present in central brazilian hills and tablelands eba . has moderately small range , limited to chapada diamantina region of bahia , in . . .\nc . 10\u201311 cm ; c . 15 g . a mouse - grey tapaculo with buff or rufous flanks conspicuously barred blackish , and relatively short tail . male is dark grey above , some brown and . . .\nfjelds\u00e5 , j . & sharpe , c . j . ( 2018 ) . diamantina tapaculo ( scytalopus diamantinensis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ndiamantina tapaculo is known only from the chapada diamantina , bahia , brazil ( bornschein et al . 2007 ) . the species is listed as near threatened , approaching the thresholds for b1ab ( iii ) . the species\u2019s extent of occurrence ( eoo ) is estimated to be 21 , 200 km 2 , to be revised to 31 , 500 km 2 following changes to the standardised method for eoo calculation . the species\u2019s population size has not been quantified . the population is suspected to be in decline owing to the continued loss and degradation of its forest habitat , as driven by the expansion and shifting of agriculture , charcoal production and use of fires in pasture management ( bornschein et al . 2007 ) .\nthe species ' s range is partly protected by chapada diamantina national park , marimbu / iraquara state environmental protection area , and possibly morro do chapu state park . forest clearance is reported to be ongoing in the national park ( bornschein\ni agree with uplisting this species from nt to en and am sending andy symes separately more information on this species based on research by brazilian ornithologists in 2013 funded by american bird conservancy that found this species at 17 of 34 search sites in and around chapada diamantina national park .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\n, being small , predominantly grey in colouration , with a relatively short tail . males have blackish grey crown , nape , upper neck and back , with some brown and black barring on the blackish grey rump and uppertail coverts . chin light grey ; throat and breast slightly darker grey . belly medium grey , becoming paler to whitish in the centre of the lower belly . flanks and extreme lower belly brown to cinnamon , barred blackish . undertail coverts barred blackish and cinnamon . iris dark brown . bill black , with some brown areas . legs and feet brown with yellowish - brown undersides to the toes . the upperparts are washed dark brownish olive and the belly is slightly paler in subadult males , with some variation in barring . a presumed subadult female had brownish upperparts and cinnamon rump , the feathers having blackish edges and central dots ; throat grey and upper breast washed buffy .\ncall , which is distinctive among its congeners . its song is generally faster - paced and lower - pitched compared to congeners , although with some overlap , and its accelerating song is slower paced compared with closely related species .\nbelmonte - lopes , r . , bornschein , m . & lebbin , d .\nsharpe , c j , taylor , j . , wheatley , h . & ashpole , j\nthis species has a very small range with fewer than five locations and its habitat is declining owing to the replacement of natural vegetation by coffee and banana plantations , collection of firewood for domestic and industrial use and unregulated tourism . for these reasons , this species is evaluated as endangered .\nvegetation . it favours patches of dense vegetation such as bamboo stands , masses of dead fern leaves and fallen stems . the species has been observed to move around at ground level and in the lower vegetation strata , up to 2 m above the ground ( bornschein\ncarry out surveys to find new locations and obtain a population estimate . monitor population trends . monitor the extent and condition of suitable habitat . promote sustainable ecotourism practices . protect more forest fragments in the species ' s known range , perhaps partly through encouragement of private reserve designation ( bornschein\n. 2007 ) . provide alternatives to local people to reduce pressure on habitats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nprobably sister to s . petrophilus # r ; see also s . novacapitalis and s . speluncae ( below ) . monotypic .\nsong composed of long ( often more than a minute ) and fast repetition of one simple note , series . . .\na nest found in jan 2016 , containing two nestlings , was in a rock crevice 50 cm above the ground ; the bowl - shaped nest was made of grasses . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nrecent phylogenetic study recommends division into two subfamilies , rhinocryptinae and scytalopodinae # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\ndistance to mic . 4m . middle of long typical song phrase ( cut due to road noise at start and end ) . different individual from others recorded at this site .\ndistance to mic . 3m . short song phrase , then calls , then very short song phrase , all from apparent male in view , near top ( 1 . 0m ) of fern vegetation near river . different individual from other recs .\ndistance to mic . 3m . female in view 1 . 5m above ground on top of dense fern vegetation . note female song has rapid descent at end ( just like female s . novacapitalis ) .\ndistance to mic . ( nearer bird ) 6m . songs after playback of two males , one already singing more distantly at start of cut .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : scytalopus diamantinensis . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nin the brazilian red list assessment for birds ( mma 2014 ) this species is listed as endangered under b2ab ( iii ) . its area of occupancy ( aoo ) is estimated to be 32 km 2 and it is estimated to occur at only five locations . a continuing decline in habitat quality is inferred owing to the replacement of natural vegetation by coffee and banana plantations , collection of firewood for domestic and industrial use and unregulated tourism . the species\u2019s assessment on the brazilian red list can be accessed here .\nup - to - date information is requested on the species\u2019s geographic range . confirmation that the species is found at less than or equal to five locations or is severely fragmented , with a continuing decline in area / extent and / or quality of habitat and an aoo of < 500 km 2 would likely qualify the species for endangered under criterion b2ab ( iii ) . comments on the proposed uplisting are welcome . references :\nmma ( 2014 ) lista nacional oficial de esp\u00e9cies da fauna amea\u00e7adas de extin\u00e7\u00e3o . portaria no 444 , de 17 de dezembro de 2014 . di\u00e1rio oficial da uni\u00e3o \u2013 se\u00e7\u00e3o 1 . n\u00ba 245 , quinta - feira , 18 de dezembro de 2014 .\nbased on available information , our preliminary proposal for the 2016 red list would be to adopt the proposed classifications outlined in the initial forum discussion .\nthere is now a period for further comments until the final deadline of 28 october , after which the recommended categorisations will be put forward to iucn .\nplease note that we will then only post final recommended categorisations on forum discussions where these differ from those in the initial proposal .\nthe final 2016 red list categories will be published on the birdlife and iucn websites in early december , following further checking of information relevant to the assessments by both birdlife and iucn .\nthis year , to celebrate world migratory bird day , we wanted to do something really special . so we asked schools and birdlife partners across the african continent to send in videos of them singing songs about the wonders of bird migration . the results blew us away . the videos were amazing \u2013 and all but one were [ \u2026 ]\na major stopover site of europe\u2019s great white pelicans has recently been discovered in turkey . a count conducted by our turkish partner do\u011fa derne\u011fi showed that more than 15 , 000 pelicans stop off at the karacabey floodplain to roost and feed during their spring migration . the sea of marmara may be the smallest sea in the [ \u2026 ]\nread the project press release here the micronesian scrubfowl megapodius laperouse is a genius at inventing ways to keep its eggs warm . those on the northern mariana islands burrow into volcanic cinder fields or use the geothermal heat beneath the ground to warm their unhatched young . across the palau archipelago , they bury their eggs in large [ \u2026 ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international license .\nwe would like to invite participants of this ornithological congress of the americas to submit manuscripts to be considered for publication on a special volume of the brazilian journal of ornithology . we welcome review and case study manuscripts derived from the research exposed at the meeting . particularly , we would like to invite organizers of each symposium , as well as symposium\u00b4s participants , to submit a review manuscript on the topic of the symposium , which could have particular emphasis on the individual talks involved in the symposium . also , we would like to publish one study case per symposium . in addition to the manuscripts derived from symposia , we encourage other authors presenting their studies to submit manuscripts as a general submi\nfor this particular issue , the brazilian journal of ornithology will publish articles and reviews on ornithology in general , with emphasis on neotropical birds . it is indexed in databases zoological records , biological abstract , scopus , and isi . the current ( june 2017 ) impact factor is 0 . 414 ) . the journal o\nnly publishes articles in english , with four volumes per year . this special issue is schedule to appear in full in mid - 2018 , with individual / accepted manus\ncripts released before in the webpage . for this special volume authors should login into the journal\u00b4s webpage and to follow the editorial rules and guidelines of the journal for manuscript submission . please , refer to the following webpage for details .\nmarcos ricardo bornschein , giovanni nachtigall maur\u00edcio , ricardo belmonte lopes , helena mata , sandro l . bonatto\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 665 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !"]}
{"id": 239, "summary": [{"text": "bythinella cylindrica is a species of very small freshwater snail , an aquatic gastropod mollusk in the family amnicolidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this species is endemic to austria . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "bythinella cylindrica", "paragraphs": ["have a fact about bythinella cylindrica ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for bythinella cylindrica ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\ndifferent spring snail species . right : bythinella cylindrica , left : belgrandiella wawrai ( hydro - biidae ) . picture : \u00a9 alexander mrkvicka , vienna .\nrh\u00f6n spring snail ( bythinella compressa ) . picture : \u00a9 alexander mrkvicka , vienna ( urltoken ) .\nrobert a . patzner , naturschutzbund \u00f6sterreich : weichtier des jahres 2008 - bythinella austriaca . ( in german )\nspring snails ( bythinella compressa ) on a fallen leaf . picture : \u00a9 alexander mrkvicka , vienna ( urltoken ) .\nrh\u00f6n spring snails ( bythinella compressa ) on a fallen leaf . picture : \u00a9 alexander mrkvicka , vienna ( urltoken ) .\nlimestone tuff spring near fischbach in the rh\u00f6n mountains . habitat of the rh\u00f6n spring snail ( bythinella compressa ) . picture : j . gombert ( source ) .\njustification : bythinella cylindrica has been assessed as critically endangered ( cr b1ab ( iii ) ) . this species has a restricted range and has undergone a significant decline in the population and is now considered to be ' very rare ' . there are current threats posed to this species , and whilst it is protected under austrian law , there is no specific recovery plan in place . it is found on the austrian red list as critically endangered ( cr ) . it is suggested that habitat monitoring is conducted , along with research into the species ' population trend\ndescription : the austrian spring snail is smaller than bythinella bavarica ( see below ) and almost cylindrical . the whorls of its shell are flattened at the sides . also the suture is less prominent . the last whorl takes two fifths of the shell ' s overall height .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nthis species is one of many small spring - snails that can most easily be identified using anatomical characters of the reproductive system .\nis endemic to austria . specifically it is known from the eastern alps in the lower austria province , in the triesting valley .\nthis species is described as ' rare ' . it has also experienced a significant decline in the population . the last known living population was significantly reduced ( from millions of individuals down to tens of living specimens ) due to the reconstruction of a chapel .\nthe species inhabits mainly freshwater springs , but during dry phases of the spring it can withdraw for a short periods of time into the deeper ' groundwater ' zones of the spring .\nthe main current threats to this species are habitat degradation , the abstraction of water for drinking purposes and pollution , arising mostly from the over - use of fertilizers in agricultural practices .\nthis species is possibly present in a nautra 2000 protected area but there is no species specific recovery plan in place . however , it is strictly protected by law in lower austria . it is found on the austrian red list as critically endangered ( cr ) . it is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted , along with research into the species population trends .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\naustria . kuchlbach . altmunster . near lake traunsee . ex - coll . wart . 09 july 1976 .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 001 seconds . )\nbank , r . a . ; neubert , e . ( 2017 ) . checklist of the land and freshwater gastropoda of europe . last update : july 16th , 2017 . [ details ]\nin central and south europe about 40 species of spring snails are found , of which the five most important german species are defined mainly by anatomic characters , but are difficult to tell apart by shell characters . often , the single species can only be told apart by the finding location , as they are restricted to a very narrow area . this does lose importance in a growing fashion , as for example in austria there are often several species of spring snails in one place usually restricted to a narrow finding area .\nthe colour of spring snail shells often appears dark brown or green . this is due to diatoms ( brown ) and green algae growing on the shell surface . distribution of spring snail species often happens by insects capable of flying , on which the snails have laid eggs . spring snails live on diatoms , blue and green algae which they graze from the ground , as well as on detritus - decaying organic matter .\naccustomed to constantly low water temperatures , spring snails are cold - stenothermal creatures . they almost exclusively live on springs and in the uppermost areas of streams . the presence of spring snails is an indicator for very clean water ; in the springs of clean streams sometimes more than 1000 snails can be found per square metre .\nspring snails are crenobionts , which means the are specialist with a very low ecological amplitude , which react to the slightest difference in environmental conditions , their density decreasing or the population disappearing altogether . on the other hand , spring snails are very well adapted to the extreme habitat of springs .\nspring snails are usually threatened by fountain constructions around the springs they live in , by agricultural use as watering place for cattle . also drainage and ground water descent are a large problem to spring snails , and sadly so is overfertilisation , resulting in the eutrophication also of springs .\nadditionally , global warming results in the water temperatures of springs rising , which means , the cold - stenothermous populations of spring snails generally decrease .\numweltschutz - news : klimawandel bedroht weichtier des jahres 2008 , die \u00f6sterreichische quellschnecke . ( in german ) urltoken : die \u00f6sterreichische quellschnecke ist das weichtier des jahres . ( in german ) naturschutzgro\u00dfprojekt th\u00fcringer rh\u00f6nhutungen : feuchtlebensr\u00e4ume - naturnahe quellen und kalk - flachmoore . ( in german )\ndistribution : the species is an main indicator species for springs and low mountain streams . it is found in the eastern bavarian limestone alps and the sudetes , through moravia , austria as far as north - eastern tyrol , styria , carinthia , northern slovenia , hungary and galicia .\nthreat situation : in austria the austrian spring snail is classified as\nnear threatened\n( nt ) ( see also : iucn threat categories ) .\nthe shell is less slender , the suture noticeably deepened . the whorls are rounded at the sides , the last whorl takes two thirds of the overall shell height .\ndistribution : northern alps , eastern bavarian limestone alps and their foot hills . from munich east through bavaria , as far as northern tyrol and salzburg country , pottenstein near wiener neustadt ( lower austria ) and the high terrace near munich .\nthe rh\u00f6n spring snail ' s shell is oval to bluntly conical , the last whorl takes four fifths of the shell height . the whorls are strongly rounded at the sides , the apex is blunted a little obliquely .\ndistribution : in germany : rh\u00f6n and vogelsberg mountains in hesse and thuringia . also present in austria .\nthe rh\u00f6n spring snail needs constantly cold and unpolluted water ( saprobial value of 1 . 0 ) with a temperature of around 7 - 8 \u00b0c . it feeds on bacteria growing on stones and leaves , as well as on decaying organic matter ( detritus ) , which is grazed from stones , water plants , fallen leaves ( picture ) and dead wood lying in the water .\nwhile some time ago the rh\u00f6n spring snail was wide spread in the open landscape shaped by man , today it appears nearly exclusively in spring exits and some hundreds of metres downstream in the streams of deciduous forest areas . in intact habitats there may be as many as 50 snails on 25 x 25 cm .\npopulations live isolated from each other . with their highly specialized demands to habitats ( see above ) , populations disappeared are lost forever .\ndescription : the bavarian spring snail usually is large ( for a spring snail ) , turricular and conical with rounded whorls , the last of which is widened . the shell often is green coloured due to algae growing on it . the shell tip ( apex ) is small and blunted obliquely , the whorls are separated by a deep suture .\ndimensions : h : 4 mm ; w : 2 . 3 mm ; n : 4 \u00bd - 5 . ( abbreviations ) .\ndistribution : the bavarian spring snail is a calciphile species - it needs limestone ground . its distribution area spreads over the northern alps and the foot hills ( lech and isar river areas ) . the bavarian spring snail can be found from southern w\u00fcrttemberg as far east as the inn river and northern tyrol in austria .\n, d . : unsere land - und s\u00fc\u00dfwassermollusken , stuttgart , 1927 , s . 165 ff .\nwide - lipped spring snail ( emmericia patula ) . picture : \u00a9 alexander mrkvicka , vienna ( urltoken ) .\ndescription : the wide - lipped spring snail has a bluntly conical shell , the last whorl of which has a distinctive palatal callus . the apertural lip , as the name states , is folded back to form a wide whitish lip . the whorls grow fast .\ndimensions : h : 6 mm ; w : 4 mm . n : 4 \u00bd - 5 . ( abbreviations ) .\nhabitat and distribution : emmericia patula lives in springs and rivers rich in limestone .\nthe species ' distribution area spreads along the italian and yugoslavian adriatic coast from venetia as far south as central dalmatia . in southern france and bavaria ( central franconia ) , emmericia patula has been introduced in 1960 ; how and where from , is unknown . in the meantime , it has also been found in dachau and munich .\nwide lipped spring snail ( emmericia patula ) from the tinavo springs near trieste , italy .\nfrancisco welter - schultes : emmericia patula species homepage . dr . stefan nehring : neozoa ( makrozoobenthos ) in den deutschen gew\u00e4ssern - eine einf\u00fchrung . ( in german ) . molluscs with immigration background ( neobiota ) .\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 ."]}
{"id": 240, "summary": [{"text": "the timor imperial pigeon ( ducula cineracea ) is a species of bird in the family columbidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in timor and wetar .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "timor imperial pigeon", "paragraphs": ["timor imperial pigeon ( ducula cineracea ) is a species of bird in the columbidae family .\ninformation on the timor imperial - pigeon is currently being researched and written and will appear shortly .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - timor imperial - pigeon ( ducula cineracea )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - timor imperial - pigeon ( ducula cineracea )\ntitle =\narkive species - timor imperial - pigeon ( ducula cineracea )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe timor imperial - peigeon ( ducula cineracea ) is classified as endangered on the iucn red list of threatened species ( 1 ) .\nbaptista , l . f . , trail , p . w . , horblit , h . m . , sharpe , c . j . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . timor imperial - pigeon ( ducula cineracea ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nnot globally threatened . currently considered near threatened . restricted - range species : present in timor and wetar eba . reported to be generally uncommon , though recent . . .\n( birdlife international 2001 ) . it is locally common , but presumed to be declining as available habitat continues to shrink . recent observations have revealed a stable population on gunung mutis in west timor . it was recently described as frequent in coffee plantations in the ermera area of timor - leste , although little time has yet been spent surveying at appropriate altitudes for this mostly montane species ( trainor\nundated ) . the species was also recorded during surveys of mt . mundo perdido , timor - leste , in 2009 ( birdlife international 2009 ) . the population on wetar may account for a very high proportion of the global population ( trainor\nthis pigeon occupies a small range and the population is experiencing a moderate and on - going decline . it is likely to occur in more than 10 locations and is not severely fragmented . the species has therefore been downlisted to near threatened ; as it still approaches the requirements for listing as threatened under criterion b1ab ( ii , iii , iv , v ) .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : ducula cineracea . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nprobably closely related to d . cuprea , d . badia and d . lacernulata . claimed geographical differences are slight , based on limited material , and races may not be worthy of recognition . two subspecies tentatively recognized .\n39\u201345 cm . head and neck dull bluish grey grading to darker slate - grey on upperparts ; wings and tail show a faint greenish sheen in some lights ; primaries have narrow . . .\nvery distinct . a single short note followed by a bubbling trill lasting c . 1\u00b76\u20132\u00b70 seconds , \u201cwup . . . . .\nno information available on diet . forages in dense canopy of fruiting trees ; seen alone , in pairs or in groups of up to 4 birds .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\na bird giving its distinctive song , a rapid series of resonant ho notes at constant pitch .\nrecording affected by strong winds , but bird was close . initially only sporadic calls ( eg 2 in an hour ) , but this series recorded after bird was located and some playback used , with the bird becoming territorial , including displaying .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 299 , 004 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nkari pihlaviita marked the finnish common name\ntimorinkeisarikyyhky\nfrom\nducula cineracea ( temminck , 1835 )\nas trusted .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !"]}
{"id": 241, "summary": [{"text": "aphanius is a genus of pupfishes .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "unlike other members of the family which are from the americas , aphanius species are native to northern africa , southwestern asia ( as far east as india ) and southern europe .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "several species in the genus have very small distributions and are seriously threatened . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "aphanius", "paragraphs": ["estimation of genetic divergence ( kimura 2 - parameter model ) between the sequences of the aphanius arakensis sp . n . , and other iranian aphanius species . aa = aphanius arakensis , ai = aphanius isfahanensis , as = aphanius sophiae , af = aphanius farsicus and av = aphanius vladykovi .\nmorphometric characters of aphanius arakensis sp . n . and other iranian aphanius species . each cell contains mean \u00b1 standard deviation and range ( minimum\u2013maximum ) .\ntwo new species of the tooth - carp aphanius ( teleostei : cyprinodontidae ) and the evolutionary history of the iranian inland and inland - related aphanius species .\naphanius furcatus \u2022 a new and unique species of the genus aphanius nardo , 1827 ( teleostei : cyprinodontidae ) from southern iran : a case of regressive evolution .\nkillifishes , with emphasis on aphanius from iran , click here for more information .\nmeristic characters ( mean \u00b1 standard deviation and range ) of iranian aphanius species .\naphanius almiriensis , a new species of toothcarp from greece ( teleostei : cyprinodontidae ) .\nleft otoliths ( medial view ) of aphanius isfahanensis ( a\u2013f ) , aphanius farsicus ( g\u2013l ) , aphanius sophiae ( m\u2013q ) , aphanius vladykovi ( r\u2013v ) and aphanius arakensis ( w\u2013aa ) . otolith terminology and taxonomic most informative morphometric distances are indicated in fig . 3f and include height of antirostrum ( a\u2013c ) , height of rostrum ( c\u2013e ) , length of antirostrum ( b\u2013g ) , and length of rostrum ( d\u2013 f ) . sem pictures .\ntwo new species of the tooth - carp aphanius ( teleostei : cyprinodontidae ) and the evolutionary history of the iranian inland and inland - related aphanius species . zootaxa 3786 ( 3 ) : 246 - 268 .\na new species of the genus aphanius ( nardo , 1832 ) ( actinopterygii , cyprinodontidae ) from algeria .\nlife - history variations of killifish ( aphanius sophiae ) populations in two environmentally different habitats in central iran .\nun exemple de\nr\u00e9gression \u00e9volutive\nchez des poissons cyprinodontidae du mioc\u00e8ne sup\u00e9rieur d\u00b4espagne : aphanius illunensis nov . sp\na new species of tooth - carp , aphanius mesopotamicus , from iran and iraq ( actinopterygii , cyprinodontidae ) .\nmolecular phylogeny and historical biogeography of the aphanius ( pisces , cyprinodontiformes ) species complex of central anatolia , turkey .\ncombined otolith morphology and morphometry for assessing taxonomy and diversity in fossil and extant killifish ( aphanius , prolebias ) .\nnew species of aphanius ( teleostei , cyprinodontidae ) from isfahan province of iran and a reanalysis of other iranian species .\ngeographic variation in otolith morphology among freshwater populations of aphanius dispar ( teleostei , cyprinodontiformes ) from the southeastern arabian peninsula .\naphanius sophiae zm - cbsu , m46 , m97 , m98 , m174 - 176 ( ghadamgah spring - stream system ) ; aphanius farsicus zm - cbsu , m47 , m136 , m177 - 178 ( barm - e - shur spring ) ; aphanius isfahanensis zm - cbsu , m211 , m213 - 214 ( zayanderh river near varzaneh ) ; aphanius arakensis sp . n . zm - cbsu , m198 - 200 ( namak lake basin , 34\u00b000 ' n , 49\u00b050 ' e ) ; aphanius vladykovi zm - cbsu , m60 , m139 , m209 ( chaghakhor wetland in the upper reaches of the karoun basin ) .\nsystematics of the tooth - carp genus aphanius nardo , 1827 ( actinopterygii : cyprinodontidae ) in fars province , southern iran .\nthe endangered cyprinodont aphanius ginaonis ( holly , 1929 ) from southern iran is a valid species : evidence from otolith morphology .\naphanius shirini ( gholami , z . , h . r . esmaeili , d . erpenbeck and b . reichenbacher , 2013 )\nsummary of diagnostic molecular characters that differentiate aphanius arakensis sp . n . , from other iranian aphanius species . of the 19 molecular apomorphies , 17 are transitions and two are transversions . numbers above characters indicate the character\u2019s position in the complete molecular character matrix .\naphanius mento thrives in the type of water found in most communities in the united states . while most killies come from soft , acid waters , the persian killie prefers a hard , alkaline chemistry . if you keep african rift lake cichlids , aphanius mento likes the same conditions .\nmorphometric study of the iberian aphanius ( actinopterygii : cyprinodontiformes ) , with description of a new species . folia zoologica 51 : 67\u201379 . urltoken\naphanius farsicus , a replacement name for a . persicus ( jenkins , 1910 ) ( teleostei , cyprinodontidae ) zootaxa 3096 : 53\u201358 . urltoken\nspecies and subspecies of the genus aphanius nardo 1897 ( pisces : cyprinodontidae ) in turkey . turkish journal of zoology 23 : 23\u201344 . urltoken\naphanius ( nardo , 1927 ) and cyprinodon ( lac . , 1803 ) ( pisces : cyprinodontidae ) , an attempt for genetic interpretation of speciation\naphanius arakensis , a new species of tooth - carp ( actinopterygii , cyprinodontidae ) from the endorheic namak lake basin in iran . zookeys 215 : 55 - 76 .\naphanius kruppi , a new killifish from oman with comments on the a . disparspecies group ( cyprinodontiformes : aphaniidae ) , j\u00f6rg freyhof , anton weissenbacher , matthias geiger ,\nphylogenetic relationships of aphanius arakensis sp . n . , and other endemic species of aphanius in iran as indicated by maximum parsimony ( based on cytochrome b sequences ) analysis . the maximum parsimony phylogeny has a ci of 0 . 462 and ri of 0 . 747 . numbers above nodes represent maximum parsimony bootstrap values based on 2000 replicates .\nhardness : although it is tolerant of slightly more acidic conditions than most aphanius it does not appreciate soft water . aim for somewhere within the range 179 \u2013 357 ppm .\nmorphometric study of the iberian aphanius ( actinopterygii , cyprinodontiformes ) , with description of a new species . folia zoologica , 51 : 74 , figs . 3 - 4a .\nnew species of aphanius ( teleostei , cyprinodontidae ) from isfahan province of iran and a reanalysis of other iranian species . copeia 2006 ( 2 ) : 244 - 255 .\nesmaeili , h . r . , teimori , a . , gholami , z . , reichenbacher , b . ( 2014 ) . two new species of the tooth - carp aphanius ( teleostei : cyprinodontidae ) and the evolutionary history of the iranian inland and inland - related aphanius species . zootaxa 3786 ( 3 ) : 246 - 268 .\nabstract : a primarily vicariance - based speciation has been suggested for the killifish genus aphanius nardo , 1827 , but ecological factors are likely to have promoted the speciation processes in addition .\na new record confirms the occurrence of aphanius mesopotamicus coad , 2009 , in southwestern iran ( actinopterygii : cyprinodontidae ) . check list 8 ( 2 ) : 283 - 285 , 2012\ntwo new species of the tooth - carp aphanius ( teleostei : cyprinodontidae ) and the evolutionary history of the iranian inland and inland - related aphan . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nnatural shallow pond and type locality of aphanius arakensis sp . n . , in the namak lake basin , 5 km se of arak city , iran ( see fig . 1 ) .\ncoad , b . w . 2009 . a new species of tooth - carp , aphanius mesopotamicus , from iran and iraq ( actinopterygii , cyprinodontidae ) . zookeys 31 : 149 - 163 .\na aphanius arakensis , holotype , male , 31 . 5 mm sl ( zm - cbsu 10999 ) b paratype , female , 31 . 5 mm sl ( zm - cbsu 11054 ) .\nphylogenetic relationships of aphanius arakensis sp . n . , and other endemic species of aphanius in iran as indicated by maximum likelihood ( based on cytochrome b sequences ) and phenetic ( based on morphometric characters of fish specimens + j scale indices ) analysis . numbers above nodes represent maximum likelihood bootstrap values based on 2000 replicates . species and locations correspond to those listed in the material section .\naphanius persicus ( priem , 1908 ) ( pisces , teleostei , cyprinodontidae ) : une nouvelle combinaison pour brachylebias persicus priem , 1908 , du mioc\u00e8ne sup\u00e9rieur des environs de tabriz ( iran ) .\na world of killies . atlas of the oviparous cyprinodontiform fishes of the world . the genera adamas , adinia , aphanius , aphyoplatys and aphyosemion . indiana , american killifish association , 311 p .\naphanius mesopotamicus ( coad , 2009 ) , zm - cbsuzg 362 , 363 , 364 , 365 ( four c & s from the karun basin , sw iran ; see [ 44 ] ) .\nre - validation and re - description of an endemic and endangered species , aphanius pluristriatus ( jenkins , 1910 ) ( teleostei , cyprinodontidae ) , from southern iran . zootaxa 3208 : 58\u201367 . urltoken\naphanius vladykovi , a new species of tooth - carp from the zagros mountains of iran ( cyprinodontidae ) . environmental biol . fishes , 23 ( 1 - 2 ) : 115 , fig . 1 .\naphanius mento is widespread throughout the near east . its range runs from around the dead sea and jordan valley in israel up through lebanon and syria into south central turkey and then down the euphrates and tigris river valleys into the shat al arab marshes near the persian gulf . while many species which are closely related to aphanius mento live in marine or brackish water , aphanius mento is only found in freshwater or lightly brackish habitats such springs , creeks , rivers , and small lakes . in nature , you will find it in shallow water , close to or in vegetation where the males establish their spawning territories .\necological plasticity and divergence processes of the iranian inland species of aphanius ( teleostei , cyprinodontidae ) , with focus on a . sophiae and a . farsicus in the kor river and maharlu lake basins , southwestern iran\ndid you know that killifish are found in the middle east ? one species , aphanius mento , sometimes known as the persian killie , is from that region and has been an aquarium favorite for many years .\neurope : spain along mediterranean coast from 30 known localities ( now extirpated in 14 of them ) . historical records from near perpignan , france now extirpated . populations from algeria and the atlas along morocco - algeria border have long been identified as aphanius iberus but they belong to aphanius saourensis and other , unnamed and possibly extinct , species ( ref . 59043 ) . in appendix iii of the bern convention ( protected fauna ) .\n( of aphanius nanus nardo , 1827 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of aphanius fasciatus nardo , 1827 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of aphanius nonus nardo , 1827 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhere , we report on the discovery of a unique aphanius species from southern iran and show that also regressive evolution has shaped the present - day diversity of aphanius . the species is characterized by complete absence of scales and reduction in the biomineralization of hard structures , particularly of the caudal skeleton and jaw teeth . based on mt - dna sequences , morphometric and meristic data , osteology , jaw teeth and otoliths , it is described as\nkeivany , y . and n . m . soofiani , 2004 - environmental biology of fishes 71 : 165 - 169 contribution to the biology of zagros tooth - carp , aphanius vladykovi ( cyprinodontidae ) in central iran .\ncoad , b . w . 1996 . systematics of the tooth - carp genus aphanius nardo , 1827 ( actinopterygii : cyprinodontidae ) in fars province , southern iran . biologia , bratislava 51 ( 2 ) : 163\u2013172 .\n( of aphanius calaritanus ( cuvier , 1829 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of aphanius cyanogaster ( guichenot , 1859 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of aphanius doliatus ( guichenot , 1859 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of aphanius flavus ( costa , 1838 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of aphanius hammonis ( valenciennes , 1846 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of aphanius lineatopunctatus ( wagner , 1828 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of aphanius moseas ( valenciennes , 1846 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of aphanius nigropunctata ( bonaparte , 1841 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of aphanius sarda ( wagner , 1828 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of aphanius timidus ( gulia , 1861 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\naphanius villwocki , a new species from the sakarya river basin of central anatolian plain , turkey ( teleostei : cyprinodontiformes ) . ichthyol . expior . freshwaters , 14 ( 2 ) : 138 , figs . 1 - 2 .\nabstract : a new killifish species , aphanius isfahanensis , is described from the isfahan basin of iran . it is distinguished from the other iranian species of aphanius by adult color pattern , molecular character states of mitochondrial dna sequence data , and in multivariate morphometric and meristic space . based on the phylogenetic analysis of molecular sequence data , the new species is hypothesized to be sister taxon to a . sophiae plus a . persicus , which also occur in iran .\naphanius mento is also an easy fish to feed . while they enjoy live foods , they also do well on flake foods . in fact , i ' d recommend an algae flake food as a regular item in their diet .\ncoad , b . w . , 1988 - environmental biology of fishes 23 ( 1 - 2 ) : 115 - 125 aphanius vladykovi , a new species of tooth - carp from the zagros mountains of iran ( osteichthyes : cyprinodontidae ) .\nzur taxonomie , verbreitung und speziation des formenkreis aphanius dispar ( r\u00fcppell , 1828 ) und beschreibung von aph . sirhani n . sp . mitt . hamburg zool . mus . inst . , 80 : 260 , figs . 3 - 4 .\ncoad , b . w . 1988 . aphanius vladykovi , a new species of tooth - carp from the zagros mountains of iran ( osteichthyes : cyprinodontidae ) . environmental biology of fishes 23 ( 1 - 2 ) : 115 - 125 .\noccurrence of the genus aphanius nardo ( teleostean fishes , cyprinodontidae ) in the evaporitic upper badenian of eastern czech republic . casopis slezskeho zemskeho muzea , serie a , vedy prirodni , 55 ( 2 ) : 97\u2013104 [ zoological record volume 143 ] .\nphylogenetic analysis of aphanius from the endorheic kor river basin in the zagros mountains , south - western iran ( teleostei : cyprinodontiformes : cyprinodontidae ) . j . zool . sys . evol . res . 52 ( 2 ) : 130 - 141 .\nthe noticeable features of the present - day diversity of the endemic aphanius species in iran include high genetic divergence and clear differences in otolith morphology , but only weak differences in general external morphology , morphometry and meristics . these patterns are probably caused by different rates of evolution in the mentioned characters that may be linked to the similarity of the individual environments , intra - species communication , and vicariance events . it is likely that additional aphanius species are present in remote areas of iran , especially in the zagros and alburz mountains .\nhrbek , t . , y . keivany , and b . w . coad . 2006 . new species of aphanius ( teleostei , cyprinodontidae ) from isfahan province of iran and a reanalysis of other iranian species . copeia 2006 ( 2 ) : 244 - 255 .\nreichenbacher , b . , u . sienknecht , h . k\u00fcchenhoff , and n . fenske , 2007 . combined otolith morphology and morphometry for assessing taxonomy and diversity in fossil and extant killifish ( aphanius , \u2020 prolebias ) . journal of morphology 268 : 898 - 915 .\nmale ( above ) and female specimens ( not preserved ) of aphanius arakensis sp . n . , collected from cheshmeh nazi ( nazi spring , 33\u00b042 ' 56 . 8\nn , 50\u00b004 ' 21 . 9\ne ) near type locality , namak lake basin .\naphanius mento was first described by heckel in 1843 and has been kept by aquarists for a long time . nonetheless , it has never been readily available . after attempting to keep and breed the fish numerous times over the past 20 years , i believe that i know why .\nabstract : aphanius almiriensis , new species , is described from a brackish water spring and from a lagoon ( and its inflowing freshwater spring ) in the peloponnese ( greece ) . it is distinguished by the yellowish caudal fin of the male that has a wide faint grey margin and by the colour pattern of the female ( 7 - 11 dark , roundish blotches on the side , more or less connected by an irregular dark midlateral stripe ) . aphanius almiriensis is critically endangered ; it is possibly extinct at the type locality and the second locality is much impacted . the identity , type material and type locality of a . fasciatus are discussed , and a neotype is designated . several species are possibly confused under the name a . fasciatus .\naphanius mento are generally aggressive only among themselves . they seem to get along , particularly while they are young , as long as they cannot be confused with food . the persian killie generally ignores other fish species , particularly when the other species are clearly different , and actually seem to do quite well when kept with other ( dither ) fish that are similarly sized .\nthe neural spine of pu2 was wider than the neural spines of pu4 and pu5 in almost all specimens studied ( table 3 and s8 table ) , as expected for a cyprinodontiform species ( see table 5 ) . the single exception is specimen zm - cbsuzg 363 of aphanius mesopotamicus , which reveals the neural spine of pu2 as wide as the neural spine of pu4 .\nwe report the occurrence of mesopotamian tooth carp , aphanius mesopotamicus coad 2009 , in a southern branch of the karkheh river , 10 km west of hoor - al - azim wetland . this is the first report of successful collection of this species after its first collection in 1978 - 80 and futile efforts during the last three decades and after its original description based on those old museum specimens .\nabstract : we report the occurrence of mesopotamian tooth carp , aphanius mesopotamicus coad 2009 , in a southern branch of the karkheh river , 10 km west of hoor - al - azim wetland . this is the first report of successful collection of this species after its first collection in 1978 - 80 and futile efforts during the last three decades and after its original description based on those old museum specimens .\nmasoudi , m . , esmaeili , h . r . , teimori , a . , gholami , z . , gholamhosseini , a . , sayyadzadeh , g . , keivany , y . , reichenbacher , b . ( 2016 ) . sympatry and possible hybridization among species of the killifish genus aphanius nardo , 1827 ( teleostei : cyprinodontidae ) in southwestern iran . limnologica , 59 ( 2016 ) : 10\u201320 .\nyou\u2019re unlikely to find it on sale in aquatic stores although it may be available via specialist breeders or associations from time - to - time . while aphanius are certainly not as colourful as some of their relatives their interesting behaviour and continuous activity make them fascinating aquarium subjects and well worth a try if you possess the dedication to take on a long - term maintenance project since conservation is key with all members of the genus .\nin practically all cases the root cause for this decline is the activity of humans and although some species are now protected by conservation law the mismanagement and degradation of their habitats continues at an alarming rate . a few species are still sometimes listed as members of lebias although that name has long been considered a synonym of cyprinodon by most authorities and an iczn committee voted to suppress the name in favour of aphanius as recently as 2003 .\nfurthermore , we did not use differences in numbers of preural vertebrae to discriminate between species because this number can vary within a single species ( this study and unpublished data of w . costa , pers . communication , may 2013 ) . while costa [ 1 ] assumed that cyprinodontiform species possess four to six preural vertebrae , our data derived from the four species of aphanius indicate that the number may be as low as three in some specimens ( s7 table ) .\nteimori , a . , jawad , l . a . j . , al - kkarusi , l . h . , al - mamry , j . n . & reichenbacher , b . ( 2012 ) . late pleistocene to holocene diversification and zoogeography of the arabian killifish aphanius dispar inferred from otolith morphology . scientia marina , 76 ( 4 ) : 637 - 645 . [ featured article ] . this article is open access , please click here . you can also download the pdf here .\nthe iranian plateau is home to a diverse group of aphanius with four species already described and several awaiting description . these are among the most ancient in the genus having divereged away from a common ancestor around 20 \u2013 24 million years ago . among them this species is most closely related to a . sophiae from the kor river system but can be distinguished by differences in patterning . males of a . sophiae lack the characteristic dark dorsal fin colouration seen in a . vladykovi and females possess a dark , lozenge - shaped spot at the caudal peduncle which is absent in those of vladykovi .\ni did not experience success keeping aphanius mento until i started using a 22 gallon breeder flat ( 24\nx20\nx10\n) . you can keep about 20 young adults in this set - up . by using a\ncolony\napproach with sufficient\nelbow room ,\nthe dominant male seems to lose some of his aggressiveness and seems content to guard his spawning site . the energy required to be dominant eventually tuckers the male and , with a colony , there is always another male waiting to become the big stud . this keeps your egg production rolling and provides some genetic diversity .\nsome aquarists might consider the growth rate of aphanius mento to be another problem . this is a slow growing species ( compared to most killies ) , with about a two year lifespan . males require about 4 to 6 months before they become sexually mature and begin to display their colors , and they will only be about \u00bd inch in size at this point . in a crowded environment , only the most dominant males will display their colors . the more room you provide , the more territorities there will be , and with more territories , more males will exhibit their flashy colors as they defend their turf .\ncaptive reproduction is not difficult if the tank or container is properly arranged and maintained ( see \u2018 tank set - up\u2019 ) . it is a fractional spawner with females depositing eggs on a more - or - less continuous basis between the months of march and june in iran . males form temporary territories which they defend against rivals while attempting to entice females to spawn . dominant individuals will show more intense colouration . eggs are released singly or in small batches and are attached to algae or other surfaces by means of small filaments . aphanius typically eat their eggs / fry and the medium should therefore be checked on a daily basis during the spawning period .\nin some regards , aphanius mento can be an easy fish to keep . like our desert pupfish , it has the ability to adapt to a wide range of temperatures . recently , i moved a few outside into a large breeder flat ( 30\nx24\nx12\n) where they survived a northern california winter . although this proved to be a mild winter , temperatures did drop into the low 30 ' s from time to time . at the present , the same fish are basking in the same tank with our summer heat ( highs from the mid - 90 ' s to mid - 100 ' s ) . there is no doubt in my mind that they would thrive in a fish pond , if i had one .\naphanius isfahanensis : 18 males ( 17 . 6\u201323 . 8 mm sl ) and 25 females ( 17 . 7\u201334 . 0 mm sl ) from the zayanderh river near varzaneh , esfahan basin ( type locality ) ( iran , esfahan province ) , 32\u00b025 ' n , 52\u00b039 ' e . males : zm - cbsu , 6472 , 6474 , 6476 , 6478 , 6480 , 6482 , 6484 , 6486 , 6488 , 6490 , 6492 , 6494 , 6496 , 6498 , 6500 , 8602 , 8604 , 8613 ; females : zm - cbsu , 6471 , 6473 , 6475 , 6477 , 6479 , 6481 , 6483 , 6485 , 6487 , 6489 , 6491 , 6493 , 6495 , 6497 , 6499 6501 , 8603 , 8605 - 8612 .\nwhy , then , is this fish hard to find ? in my experience , there are several reasons . first , aphanius mento requires space . this is quite a contrast to the average killifish that is content in a two gallon aquarium . enough though their maximum size is about two inches , a group of persian killies should be kept in a 45 gallon aquarium , and even bigger is better . a breeder flat or large plastic\nblanket\nbox can be used to breed the adults . in this\nsmall\ncontainer , you will need to closely monitor the females . the dominant male can be extremely aggressive toward the females , and the females need room to run . without enough space , you will end up with a lonely male .\naphanius vladykovi : 35 males ( 17 . 3\u201329 . 2 mm sl ) and 35 females ( 16 . 1\u201341 . 4 mm sl ) from the chaghakhor wetland in the upper reaches of the karoun basin ( iran , chahar mahale bakhtyari province ) , 31\u00b055 ' n , 50\u00b056 ' e . males : zm - cbsu , 6408 - 09 , 6413 - 14 , 6416 , 6418 , 6420 - 21 , 6423 , 6425 - 27 , 6430 , 6433 - 41 , 6443 - 44 , 6446 , 6448 - 49 , 6451 - 57 : females : zm - cbsu , 6401 - 03 , 6405 - 07 , 6410 - 12 , 6415 , 6417 , 6419 , 6422 , 6424 , 6428 - 29 , 6431 - 32 , 6442 , 6445 , 6447 , 6450 , 6458 - 70 .\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 9 - 11 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 7 - 10 . can be diagnosed from other species of aphanius , valenciidae and fundulidae in europe by having the following characters : males possess a hyaline to bluish - grey caudal fin , with 2 - 5 dark grey bars , 10 - 20 dark grey to dark blue bars on a silvery background , bars usually irregularly shaped and set , often connected , breaking up into a mosaic of dark blue and silvery spots along back and in posterior part of body ; females have numerous dark brown spots on sides and back ; 23 - 27 scales in lateral line series on body ; pectoral fin with 9 - 10 rays ; and anal fin with 7 - 8 rays ( ref . 59043 ) .\napart from those few specimens that show the neural spine smaller to equal to those of pu4 and / or pu5 , all specimens of \u2020 kenyaichthys exhibit a neural spine on pu2 that is wider than those of pu4 and pu5 ( see above ) , like the studied extant cyprinodontiform species , with the exception of one specimen of aphanius mesopotamicus ( see table 3 ) . furthermore , \u2020 kenyaichthys displays mean values and ranges of pu3 / pu5 neural and haemal spine ratios that are comparatively close to the mean values of the studied aplocheiloid specimens ( see table 3 ) . in addition , the haemal spine pu2 / pu4 mean value of \u2020 kenyaichthys is closer to the respective value of the studied aplocheilid specimens , whereas the haemal spine pu2 / pu5 mean value of \u2020 kenyaichthys is closer to the respective value of the studied nothobranchiid specimens ( see table 3 ) .\naphanius sophiae : 35 males ( 19 . 3\u201333 . 3 mm sl ) and 35 females ( 18 . 6\u201336 . 6 sl ) from the ghadamgah spring - stream system ( close to type locality ) in the kor river basin ( iran , fars province ) , 30\u00b015 ' n , 52\u00b025 ' e . males : zm - cbsu , 8460 , 8462 , 8462 , 8466 , 8468 , 8470 , 8472 - 73 , 8475 , 8477 , 8479 , 8481 , 8483 , 8485 , 8487 , 8479 , 8489 , 8491 - 97 , 8499 , 8501 , 8503 - 09 , 8511 - 13 ; females : zm - cbsu , 8461 , 8463 , 8465 , 8467 , 8469 , 8471 , 8474 , 8476 , 8478 , 8480 , 8482 , 8484 , 8486 , 8488 , 8490 , 8498 , 8500 , 8502 , 8510 , 8514 - 29 .\naphanius farsicus : 35 males ( 20 . 0\u201326 . 8 mm sl ) and 35 females ( 20 . 4\u201335 . 2 mm sl ) from the barm - e - shur spring in the maharlu lake basin ( type locality ) ( iran , fars province ) , 29\u00b027 ' n , 52\u00b042 ' e . males : zm - cbsu , 9413 , 9415 , 9417 , 9421 , 9441 , 9443 , 9447 , 9449 , 9459 , 9467 , 9481 , 9483 , 9485 , 9487 , 9489 , 9493 , 9497 , 9499 , 9503 , 9511 , 9513 , 9515 , 9517 , 9519 , 9527 , 9529 , 9531 , 9533 , 9537 , 9539 , 9541 , 9555 , 9557 , 9559 , 6375 ; females : zm - cbsu , 9410 , 9412 , 9420 , 9422 , 9428 , 9442 , 9444 , 9452 , 9458 , 9472 , 9474 , 9478 , 9482 , 9488 , 9492 , 9494 , 9498 , 9500 , 9502 , 9504 , 9506 , 9510 , 9516 , 9520 , 9530 , 9532 , 9534 , 9536 , 9558 , 9560 , 9562 , 9564 , 6364 , 6359 , 6385 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncarmona , j . & darwall , w . ( mediterranean workshop , dec . 2004 )\njustification : a . fasciatus is widely distributed , abundant and has no major widespread threats .\nit is distributed in all countries of the mediterranean region to the exception of the iberic peninsula . it is restricted to coastal waters including islands . it is found in several mediterranean islands , except crete ( bianco et al . 1996 ) . the species is also found in the suez canal ( lotan and ben - tuvia 1996 ) .\nit is listed in the annex ii of the european union habitat directive and in appendices ii and iii of the bern convention .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nmarine ; freshwater ; brackish ; demersal ; non - migratory . subtropical ; 16\u00b0c - 26\u00b0c ( ref . 2060 )\nindian ocean : egypt to somalia southward to eil , a landlocked population in the siwa oasis , western egypt . immigrant through the suez canal into the southeastern mediterranean basin , egypt and israel . elsewhere : dead sea , red sea , persian gulf , western india ; landlocked populations in saudi arabia , iran .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 7 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 27139 )\ndorsal soft rays ( total ) : 8 - 11 ; anal soft rays : 9 - 11 .\noccurs in coastal zones , also found in oasis pools with hypersaline to fresh water ( ref . 3788 ) . forms schools . chiefly a herbivorous species ( ref . 13530 ) . spawn in areas where roots of hyacinth or other floating plants abound ( ref . 44327 ) . not a seasonal killifish . very difficult to maintain in aquarium ( ref . 27139 ) .\njouladeh - roudbar , a . , s . vatandoust , s . eagderi , s . jafari - kenari and h . mousavi - sabet , 2015 . freshwater fishes of iran ; an updated checklist . aacl bioflux 8 ( 6 ) : 855 - 909 . ( ref . 106319 )\n) : 25 - 29 . 2 , mean 27 . 4 ( based on 519 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00741 ( 0 . 00534 - 0 . 01030 ) , b = 3 . 18 ( 3 . 11 - 3 . 25 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 0 \u00b10 . 00 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( assuming tm = 1 and fec < 1000 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 15 of 100 ) .\nmarine ; freshwater ; brackish ; demersal ; ph range : 6 . 5 - 7 . 5 ; dh range : 8 - 10 ; non - migratory . subtropical ; 10\u00b0c - 24\u00b0c ( ref . 1672 ) ; 46\u00b0n - 34\u00b0n , 2\u00b0e - 36\u00b0e\neurope : france , italy , slovenia , croatia , albania , greece and montenegro . mediterranean basin : north africa from egypt to eastern algeria , sometimes in landlocked basins ; through the suez canal into the bitter lakes , egypt ( ref . 3788 ) . in appendix iii of the bern convention ( protected fauna ) . asia : turkey .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 6 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 27139 )\nkottelat , m . and j . freyhof , 2007 . handbook of european freshwater fishes . publications kottelat , cornol and freyhof , berlin . 646 pp . ( ref . 59043 )\n) : 17 . 6 - 20 . 1 , mean 18 . 9 ( based on 346 cells ) .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00807 - 0 . 01240 ) , b = 3 . 25 ( 3 . 21 - 3 . 29 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 7 \u00b10 . 27 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( k = 0 . 16 - 0 . 22 questionable ; assuming tm < 1 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 14 of 100 ) .\nfreshwater ; brackish ; benthopelagic ; ph range : 6 . 5 - 7 . 5 ; dh range : 8 - 10 ; non - migratory . temperate ; 10\u00b0c - 32\u00b0c ( ref . 1672 ) ; 42\u00b0n - 34\u00b0n , 3\u00b0w - 1\u00b0e\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 5 . 5 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3788 ) ; 5 . 4 cm tl ( female )\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00933 ( 0 . 00558 - 0 . 01561 ) , b = 3 . 20 ( 3 . 06 - 3 . 34 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 \u00b10 . 45 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( tm = 0 . 5 ; k > 0 . 3 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 29 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nrestricted to a small area of the zagros mountain range in chah\u0101rmah\u0101l o bakhtiy\u0101r\u012b province , iran . the type locality is close to the town of boldaji in the upper karun river basin and it has been recorded from nearby wetlands at chagha khur and gandoman plus a few other localities in the region . some aspects of its distribution remain unclear but it is thought to occur in the upper khersan river within the karun drainage as well as the upper marun river , a tributary of the karun that also arises in the zagros .\nthis species \u2018 natural waters lie over 2000m above sea level ( the type locality is an artificially - dammed pool at 2380m ) . it inhabits slow - moving freshwater streams , pools and marshes which tend to have substrates of mud and pebbles with often quite turbid water . aquatic plants such as myriophyllum or potamogeton species grow in areas where the fish can be found .\na pair or trio can be kept in a container with base dimensions of 60 cm x 30 cm or so but as a general rule members of this genus do best when maintained as a larger group in a space measuring upwards of [ dimensions ] .\neven for long - term maintenance a simple set - up will suffice . the most important factors are the provision of many broken lines of sight and a suitable medium in which the fish can deposit eggs . female and subdominant male individuals must be offered the opportunity of respite from the aggressive alpha males during the spawning season so much of the available space can be filled with acrylic wool mops ( use a fine grade if available ) , clumps of java moss or ceratophyllum and ideally filamentous algae .\nthere\u2019s no need to add a substrate although inert sand or gravel can be added if you preferand filtration need not be too strong either . it is possible , and preferable , to maintain it outdoors all year round in many countries and it will show better colours and overall condition if exposed to at least a few hours of natural sunlight each day .\ntemperature : active over a wide temperature range of 12 \u2013 32 \u00b0c . ideally it should be provided with a \u2018winter\u2019 period of several months during which it is maintained at temperatures towards the lower end of this range or it is likely to suffer both reduced fecundity and a shortened lifespan .\nph : readings taken from its habitats have varied between 6 . 2 \u2013 8 . 5 .\nits vigorous spawning behaviour makes a . vladykovi a poor choice for the community aquarium . given its rarity in the hobby the emphasis should be on captive reproduction and we strongly recommend maintaining it alone . it should be kept in a group with a ratio of two or three females to each male being the ideal . males are relatively peaceful towards one another compared with some congeners and it is found swimming in large schools in nature .\nas with all members of the genus sexual dimorphism is pronounced . males exhibit a series of blue vertical bars in the rear portion of the body . the dorsal fin has a light blue marginal band and another thin band towards the base but is otherwise dark blue / black . the overall body colour is noticeably more yellowish than in females . females are larger and much plainer possessing only a series of variable dark spots on the body and almost colourless finnage .\nthe eggs are very small and must be treated carefully . use a fine pair of forceps to gently remove pieces of medium with eggs attached whilst avoiding contact with the eggs themselves . alternatively the entire medium can be removed and replaced every couple of days . the medium / eggs should be transferred to a container with water of the same chemistry and temperature as that of the adults . the incubation period can vary a little with the temperature but is usually between 7 \u2013 14 days with the fry being large enough to accept artemia nauplii , microworm etc . immediately after they become free - swimming .\nit currently contains 22 species and subspecies which are thought to have derived from a common ancestor originally distributed around the periphery of the former tethys sea . none are particularly well - documented in aquarium literature although some are very beautiful and the majority are not too difficult to maintain and breed . sadly most are on the verge of extinction for one reason or another with several existing only in remnant , highly - localised populations .\nhrbek , t . and a . meyer . 2003 , 2003 - journal of evolutionary biology 16 ( 1 ) : 17 - 36 closing of the tethys sea and the phylogeny of eurasian killifishes ( cyprinodontiformes : cyprinodontidae ) .\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nvan der land , j . ; costello , m . j . ; zavodnik , d . ; santos , r . s . ; porteiro , f . m . ; bailly , n . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; froese , r . ( 2001 ) . pisces , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 357 - 374 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of poecilia calaritana cuvier , 1829 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of lebias calaritana ( cuvier , 1829 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of lebias calaritanus ( cuvier , 1829 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of lebias fasciata valenciennes , 1821 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of lebias fasciatus valenciennes , 1821 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of lebias flava costa , 1838 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of lebias lineatopunctata wagner , 1828 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of lebias nigropunctata schinz , 1840 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of lebias nigropunctata bonaparte , 1841 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of lebias sarda wagner , 1828 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cyprinodon calaritanus ( cuvier , 1829 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cyprinodon cyanogaster guichenot , 1859 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cyprinodon doliatus guichenot , 1859 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cyprinodon fasciatus ( valenciennes , 1821 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cyprinodon hammonis valenciennes , 1846 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cyprinodon moseas valenciennes , 1846 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of ciprinoides nanofasciatus nardo , 1824 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of micromugil macrogaster gulia , 1861 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of micromugil timidus gulia , 1861 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina marmorata risso , 1810 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of lebias caleritana ( cuvier , 1829 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cyprinodon ammonis ( valenciennes , 1846 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nprodromus observationum et disquisitionum adriaticae ichthyologiae . giornali di fisica , chimica , storia naturale , medicina ed arti , 2 ( 10 ) : 34 , 39 - 40 .\nrecherches sur les poissons fluviatiles de l ' am\u00e9rique \u00e9quinoxiale . in : f . h . a . humboldt & a . valenciennes . voyage de humboldt et bonpland . schoell & dufour eds . paris . zoologie , vol . ii . : 160 , pl . 51 ( fig . 4 ) .\nrevue suisse de zoologie v . 114 ( no . 1 ) : 13 - 31 .\nzoological messages , budapest ) , 11 ( 3 ) : 130 , fig . 1 .\njazla jayla , near the karadza da mountains , asia minor ( today turkey ) .\nremarques sur les poissons fluviatiles de l ' alg\u00e9rie et description de deux genres nouveaux sous les noms de coptodon et tellia . ann . sci . natur . , 3 ( 19 ) : 15 .\nlebrija , salado river , sevilla ( region ) , guadalquivir basin , ( southwestern ) spain .\nnotes sur quelques esp\u00e8ces de cyprinodon de l ' asie mineure de la syrie . arch .\natlas zu der reise im n\u00f6rdlichen afrika von eduard r\u00fcppell . fische der rothen meers . heinrich ludwig br\u00f6nner , frankfurt am main : 66 , pl . 18 ( figs . 1 - 2 ) .\nlebias dispar foemina nom . nudum ( r\u00fcppell in cuvier & valenciennes , 1846 )\nzoologischer anzeiger - a journal of comparative zoology . 253 ( 4 ) ; 327\u2013337 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . jcz . 2013 . 12 . 001\nthe new species is sympatric with a . dispar ( r\u00fcppell , 1829 ) in salty rivers and hot sulphuric springs in the hormuzga\nn basin ( southern iran ) , and is sister taxon to this species plus a . ginaonis holly , 1929 . based on geological data we estimate that the divergence between the lineages of a . furcatus and a . dispar is about 12\u201314 million years old . we conclude that the reductive phenomena observed in a . furcatus have evolved as an evolutionary response to the extreme habitat conditions in order to save energy ( because storage of ca2 + is not necessary ) , and to transport oxygen efficiently . the results confirm that regressive evolution is an important factor in speciation and occurs independently in separate lineages .\ndrei neue fischformen aus persien . sitz . akad . wiss . wien mathem . - naturwiss . klasse abt . 1 , 138 ( 7 ) : 63 .\nginao , spring , ( 38 km ) north of bandar abbas ( and 2 km west of bandar abbas to sirjan road ) , southeastern iran .\nlibrairie de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 g\u00e9ologique de france , bertrand p . ed . , paris , 18 : 160 , pl . 528 .\nspain ( without details ) ; restricted to eastern spain to separate it from baeticus , a cryptic species described from southwestern spain ( subseq . , herein ) .\nreisen in europa , asien und afrika , etc . e . schweizerbart ' sche verlagshandlung ( e . koch ) , stuttgart , vol . 1 , part 2 . : 1089 , pl . 6 ( fig . 4 ) .\nrusseger , j . reisen in europa , asien und afrika , etc . e . schweizerbart ' sche verlagshandlung ( e . koch ) , stuttgart , vol . 2 , part 3 . : 267 , pl . 22 .\ntype locality : near persepolis ( today , endorheic kor river basin , north of shiraz , fars ) , iran .\nnouveaux cyprinodontid\u00e9s de l ' anatolie centrale . rev . fac . sci . univ . istambul , ser . b , 10 : 77 , fig . 2 .\nlebias stiassnyae : a new species of killifish from lake afdera , ethiopia . copeia , 1 : 150 , fig . 1 .\nlake afdera , hot spring in southwestern part , ethiopia ( 80 m below sea level ) .\ncyprinodon sureyanus aus dem burdur g\u00f6l\u00fc . rev . fac . sci . univ . istambul , n . s . 2 ( 2 ) : 109 .\ntype locality : shahrestan - e bakhtiari va chahar mahall , 3 km west of boldaji , iran , ca . 2380 m altitude .\nthe second problem i experienced was obtaining eggs . when i used floating and / or bottom mops , the egg harvest was slight or nonexistent . it was obvious that the adults were predating the eggs and i needed to find a way to reduce this . success came when i tried some plastic\nbreeder grass .\nthere are two varieties of this and the one i used was a long stringer with somewhat stiff plastic\nleaves .\nthis form is also known as\nguppy grass\nbecause it can be floated . i did not use the floats but rather bent it into a horseshoe shape and let it settle on the bottom . the dominant male took up residence in the middle of the horseshoe and chased everyone else away , unless it was a female interested in spawning . the reduced the egg predation and my harvest went up dramatically .\nhatching the eggs was no problem . i kept them in a lightly colored ( from acriflavine ) water in a separate container . the eggs hatch in 6 to 14 days depending upon temperature . the fry take a few days to absorb their yolk sacs . at the point when they become free swimming , you can feed them baby brine shrimp and they grow well .\na third problem that occurred was the sensitivity of the fry to water changes . while the fry need frequent , small water changes to obtain good growth , too large of a change , even with well aged water of the same temperature , would occasionally wipe out a fry tank . this sensitivity seems to be most acute at the \u00bc to \u00bd inch size . the best advice is to use a large rearing container so that your small water changes make a limited impact on water conditions .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\n\u2020kenyaichthyidae fam . nov . and \u2020 kenyaichthys gen . nov . \u2013 first record of a fossil aplocheiloid killifish ( teleostei , cyprinodontiformes )\ncitation : altner m , reichenbacher b ( 2015 ) \u2020kenyaichthyidae fam . nov . and \u2020 kenyaichthys gen . nov . \u2013 first record of a fossil aplocheiloid killifish ( teleostei , cyprinodontiformes ) . plos one 10 ( 4 ) : e0123056 . urltoken\nacademic editor : matthew c . mihlbachler , nyit college of osteopathic medicine , united states\ncopyright : \u00a9 2015 altner , reichenbacher . this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited"]}
{"id": 242, "summary": [{"text": "the mountain serpent eagle ( spilornis kinabaluensis ) , also known as the kinabalu serpent eagle , is a bird of prey that is found in northern borneo .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it is found at altitudes of 1,000 \u2013 4,100 metres ( 3,300 \u2013 13,500 ft ) in forest , especially where it becomes stunted .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "where their range overlaps , the crested serpent eagle generally occurs at lower altitudes .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the mountain serpent eagle is darker than the bornean subspecies of the crested serpent eagle .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "the mountain serpent eagle is threatened by habitat loss .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "however , they occur within the kinabalu national park and the gunung mulu national park .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "their high-altitude habitats are usually too remote for logging and agriculture , making some of its range secure . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "mountain serpent eagle", "paragraphs": ["select an image : 1 . mountain serpent eagle > > adult in flight from below 2 . mountain serpent eagle > > adult 3 . mountain serpent eagle 4 . mountain serpent eagle > > adult in flight from below 5 . mountain serpent eagle > > adult in flight 6 . mountain serpent eagle > > adult in flight from below\nthe call of the mountain serpent eagle is a repeated , high - pitched whistle ( 2 ) .\nthe long , dark tail of the mountain serpent eagle has a thick white band running across it , a feature that differentiates it from its close relative the crested serpent eagle ( spilornis cheela ) , which has a less distinctive greyish - white tail band . the mountain serpent eagle also has larger wings , smaller speckles and is generally darker in appearance than the crested serpent eagle ( 4 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - mountain serpent eagle ( spilornis kinabaluensis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - mountain serpent eagle ( spilornis kinabaluensis )\ntitle =\narkive species - mountain serpent eagle ( spilornis kinabaluensis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nan inhabitant of montane and submontane evergreen rainforest , the mountain serpent eagle favours ridge tops at elevations between 750 and 2 , 900 metres ( 2 ) .\nthe mountain serpent eagle is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .\nhowever , because the mountain serpent eagle is found at high altitudes and in remote locations , it is secure in many parts of its range ( 6 ) .\ninformation on the breeding biology of the mountain serpent eagle is also scarce . in one case , adults were seen with two juvenile birds in november ( 9 ) .\nthe mountain serpent eagle is found only in borneo . it is restricted to the mountains of central and northern borneo , in brunei , malaysia and indonesia ( 2 ) .\nfor many years the mountain serpent eagle was assumed to be a subspecies of the crested serpent eagle ( spilornis cheela ) , borneo\u2019s most common eagle ( 7 ) ( 8 ) . due to this , and the fact that its habitat is often difficult to access , little is known about the biology of this rare bird ( 6 ) .\nc . 51\u201358 cm ; wingspan 118\u2013129 cm . large - headed , broad - winged dark serpent - eagle ; differs from\nthe mountain serpent eagle is often seen soaring over ridge tops ( 6 ) . it has been reported to feed on snakes and lizards , including anglehead lizards ( gonocephalus species ) ( 9 ) .\nthe mountain serpent eagle ( spilornis kinabaluensis ) is a fierce - looking , forest - dwelling eagle found only on the island of borneo . a relatively small eagle , it has dark brown plumage that is paler and speckled on the underparts . the flight feathers of the long wings have black tips and white bases . the head and throat of the mountain serpent eagle are black with light speckles on the back of the neck ( 4 ) , and it has a short , bushy crest of feathers on top of the head ( 5 ) .\nlike all birds of prey , the mountain serpent eagle has an incredibly sharp , hooked beak , used for tearing apart its prey . the talons and beak are bright yellow and stand out against the dark body ( 6 ) .\nthe greatest threats facing the mountain serpent eagle are habitat loss and degradation . this is mainly due to logging and the expansion and intensification of agriculture , forcing rainforest to be converted into oil palm , rice , maize , sugar and coffee crops ( 6 ) .\noutside of these parks there are no specific conservation measures in place for the mountain serpent eagle , as it is found at altitudes which are beyond logging and agricultural activities and is therefore assumed to be relatively secure in these parts of its range ( 2 ) ( 6 ) .\ninternational trade in the mountain serpent eagle should be strictly controlled under its listing on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) ( 3 ) . this bird is protected in sarawak , and it occurs in kinabalu park in sabah and gunung mulu national park in sarawak , where its habitat is protected ( 2 ) ( 9 ) .\nsmall , dark , forest - dwelling eagle . plumage dark brown , speckled paler on underparts , wings and hindneck . rich umber - brown patch on nape . black throat . fairly long , blackish tail with broad white band . long wings with black tips and white bases to flight feathers . its widespread relative , crested serpent - eagle s . cheela , is paler with shorter wings and narrower , less distinct greyish - white band on tail . the plumage , flight silhouette and different calls of this bird all support the notion that it is distinct from crested serpent - eagle spilornis cheela\nhowever , a number of conservation actions have been recommended for this species , including conducting research to accurately estimate its range and population , and to assess the degree of threat from habitat destruction . it is proposed that a large area of the mountain serpent eagle\u2019s habitat in the bornean highlands should be protected , and the areas that are currently protected should be properly managed ( 2 ) ( 6 ) .\nclark , w . s . , kirwan , g . m . & christie , d . a . ( 2018 ) . kinabalu serpent - eagle ( spilornis kinabaluensis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\n51 - 56 cm . small , dark , forest - dwelling eagle . plumage dark brown , speckled paler on underparts , wings and hindneck . rich umber - brown patch on nape . black throat . fairly long , blackish tail with broad white band . long wings with black tips and white bases to flight feathers .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\n, is paler with shorter wings and narrower , less distinct greyish - white band on tail .\ndavison , g . , mann , c . , van balen , b . s . & eaton , j .\ngiven the small range and relative mobility of this species , it is judged to comprise a single small population which is likely to be decreasing as a result of continuing habitat loss and degradation creeping up hill - slopes into its altitudinal range . for these reasons it qualifies as vulnerable .\n( birdlife international 2001 ) . from observations in the 1980s and 1990s , it appears to be a genuinely scarce species , with a small total population . however , much of its range is infrequently visited and it may prove to be more widespread than current indications suggest . it is likely to occur more or less continuously along the crocker range from mount kinabalu to ulu padas , g . mulu and the border mountains of brunei , and gunung murud ( pulong tau national park )\n2010 ) , though the southern and western limits of its distribution are poorly known and need to be investigated , e . g . , its occurrence in the kelabit highlands and usun apau , kayan mentarang and central montane parts of kalimantan\nthe population is estimated to number 2 , 500 - 9 , 999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records , descriptions of abundance and range size . this is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size , and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated extent of occurrence is likely to be occupied . this estimate is equivalent to 3 , 750 - 14 , 999 individuals , rounded here to 3 , 500 - 15 , 000 individuals . trend justification : a population decline is suspected on the basis of rates of logging and land clearance from lower altitudes up into the montane habitat of this species . the likely rate of population decline , however , has not been estimated .\nit is apparently sedentary in submontane and montane evergreen rainforest where it tends to prefer ridge - top forest at 750 - 2 , 900 m . in areas where it occurs alongside\n, where the extent of forest is diminishing fairly rapidly in the face of agricultural expansion and intensification , although forest at higher altitudes is also threatened , for example by small - holder agriculture ( g . davison\nconduct fieldwork to determine the range ( particularly the southern and western limits ) and population size of this species along with the degree of threat it faces from habitat destruction . propose further sites for establishment as protected areas in the bornean highlands . ensure effective management of key protected areas for the species , including lending support to the ' heart of borneo ' initiative .\nedited geographic range information text , which involved the addition of a reference ; added contributor and facilitator / compiler .\n( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22695306a110039784 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nevergreen rainforest rainforest consisting mainly of evergreen trees , which retain leaves all year round . this is in contrast to deciduous trees , which completely lose their leaves for part of the year . flight feathers the feathers at the end of the wing , involved in flight . montane of mountains , or growing in mountains . submontane forest forest occurring in the foothills or lower slopes of a mountainous region . subspecies a population usually restricted to a geographical area that differs from other populations of the same species , but not to the extent of being classified as a separate species .\nmackinnon , j . and phillipps , k . ( 1993 ) a field guide to the birds of borneo sumatra , java and bali . oxford university press , new york .\nferguson - lees , j . and christie , d . a . ( 2001 ) raptors of the world . christopher helm , uk .\nstattersfield , a . j . and capper , d . r . ( 2000 ) threatened birds of the world . lynx edicions and birdlife international , cambridge .\nsibley , c . g . and monroe jr , b . l . ( 1990 ) distribution and taxonomy of birds of the world . yale university press , london and new haven .\nsmythies , b . e . ( 1960 ) the birds of borneo . oliver and boyd ltd , edinburgh .\nbirdlife international ( 2001 ) threatened birds of asia : the birdlife international red data book . birdlife international , cambridge , uk .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is affected by global climate change and has been profiled with the support of bank of america merrill lynch . to learn more visit our climate change pages .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nconsidered closely related to s . cheela , s . holospilus , s . klossi and s . rufipectus . taxonomic status uncertain : sometimes regarded as race of s . cheela , but altitudinally segregated and vocalizations quite different . monotypic .\nmountains of n & c borneo , from mt kinabalu ( w sabah ) s at least to mt mulu ( ne sarawak ) and mt murud ( ne kalimantan ) .\nmontane and submontane evergreen forests ; tendency to prefer ridgetop forest . occupies higher . . .\nparticularly snakes and lizards ; diet generally similar to that of s . cheela .\nnest and eggs unknown , but adults with two fledged young observed in crocker range in early nov .\nvulnerable . cites ii . very small range , and probably small population likely decreasing because of continuing habitat loss and degradation . from assessment of known records , . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\ntaxonomy extremely confused and tentative ; complete revision and extensive study of relationships and species limits required . research priorities include field studies of biology , especially with regard to prey and vocalizations , and laboratory analyses of dna ; extent of sympatry of various taxa requires full investigation .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nerror . page cannot be displayed . please contact your service provider for more details . ( 9 )\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : spilornis kinabaluensis . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nolympus ls10 . no filtering except conversion from wav to mp3 . this is clip of loudest call at end of my longer recording of the same bird ( xc158318 ) . bird only seen when it flew overhead at my location n 06 . 0231 e 116 . 5411 . dark throat and underwing - coverts . call resembles a rooster ' s call in rhythm . with jason bugay reyes , jaap and peter eerdmans and han buckx . see also urltoken\nolympus ls10 . no filtering except conversion from wav to mp3 . bird only seen when it flew overhead at my location n 06 . 0231 e 116 . 5411 . dark throat and underwing - coverts . last call of this recording also in xc158319 . with jason bugay reyes , jaap and peter eerdmans and han buckx . see also urltoken\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 291 , 960 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nrarest bird in the world : the cone - billed tanager , the mystery .\natlapetes blancae , 8 years later , still not found . wish or species ?\nmembers of the genus spilornis are mostly rather large hawks , ranging to rather small . essentially there is only one widespread form from india to celebes and the philippines , with many well - marked island forms . only on the andaman islands has there been a ` double invasion\u2019 with two spccies co - existing , and even they appear to be separated ecologically with one living inland and the other in the mangrove swamps . the celebes and philippine forms are recognised as distinct ; as are some of the dwarf races of the nicobars and sumatran islands .\noriental region : borneo . spizaetus kinabaluensis is confined to the mountains of central and northern borneo in brunei , sabah and sarawak , malaysia , and kalimantan , indonesia\nit is apparently sedentary in submontane and montane evergreen rainforest where it tends to prefer ridge - top forest between 750 - 2 , 900 m . in areas where it occurs alongside s . cheela it is separated vertically by a few hundred metres .\nno data . the only information appears to be an observation of adults with two flying young at c . 900 m ,\ngiven the small range and relative mobility of this species , it is judged to comprise a single small population which is likely to be decreasing as a result of continuing habitat loss and degradation creeping up hill - slopes into its altitudinal range . for these reasons it qualifies as vulnerable . habitat loss , degradation and fragmentation is the primary threat to the species towards the lower limits of its distribution , where the extent of forest is diminishing fairly rapidly in the face of agricultural expansion and intensification .\n. 2007 ) . the southern and western limits of its distribution are poorly known and need to be investigated , e . g . , its occurrence in the kelabit highlands and usun apau , kayan mentarang and central montane parts of kalimantan\nkari pihlaviita marked the finnish common name\nharjakotka\nfrom\nspilornis kinabaluensis w . l . sclater , 1919\nas untrusted .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nborneonharjakotka\nto\nspilornis kinabaluensis w . l . sclater , 1919\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !"]}
{"id": 253, "summary": [{"text": "striatolamia is an extinct genus of sharks belonging to the family odontaspididae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "these extinct sharks lived in the paleocene and miocene periods ( from 61.7 to 10.3 ma ) . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "striatolamia", "paragraphs": ["carcharias cf . macrota , carcharias macrota , carcharias macrotus , eugomphodus macrota , lamna cf . compressa , lamna compressa , lamna depressa , odontaspis macrota , odontaspis macrota striata , odontaspis ( otodus ) macrota , odontaspis ( synodontaspis ) macrota , striatolamia cf . macrota , striatolamia compressa , striatolamia depressa , striatolamia elegans elegans\nlateral striatolamia macrota . when view on profile the lateral teeth are very compressed .\nexcellent examples of striatolamia macrota - anterio - lateral teeth . a large species !\ncompared with the striated - crown carcharias species , the striatolamia crowns tend be more erect ( less sigmoid ) with stronger striations and more greatly reduced cusplets . in contrast to striatolamia , the striations on\nabout 65 million years ago , just as the dinosaurs were ending , this shark , striatolamia , appears .\nfig . 1 - striatolamia striata - lateral 16 . 5 x 14 . 0 mm aquia formation ( paleocene ) , maryland\neugomphodus striatus , lamna striata , odontaspis striata , odontaspis striatus , odontaspis ( synodontaspis ) striata , otodus striatus , striatolamia cf . striata\nthe genus striatolamia left a fossil record with teeth that can be easily confused with those from other genera . i find it particularly disconcerting to need to know the stratigraphic position before tendering an opinion as to whether an anterior tooth might be scapanorhynchus or striatolamia , or at other times , carcharias or striatolamia . the experts may find the subtleties\nobvious\n, but i ' ve never achieved that comfort level .\nappearing again , and the back curving shape is beginning to re - appear . this tooth is actually from a later striatolamia , a giant version\ncompared with the striated - crown carcharias - like species , the striatolamia crowns tend be more erect ( less sigmoid ) with stronger striations and more greatly reduced cusplets . in contrast to striatolamia , the striations on scapanorhynchus tend to be stronger and extend beyond the basal margin of the crown ' s enameloid .\npurdy , r . ( 2005 ) .\nis striatolamia a junior synonym of mitsukurina ?\n. journal of vertebrate paleontology 25 ( 3 ) : 102a .\nit is more likley that they intended to refer to siverson ( 1995 ) where the author described striatolamia cederstroemi from the danian of sweden and ascribed the genus to .\nstriatolamia is an extinct genus of sharks from the paleocene and eocene . its teeth are notably big and rather common in sediments of these epochs . = = systematics = = this genus had been assigned to families mitsukurinidae , odontaspididae and striatolamiidae by different authors . most widespread species of striatolamia are s . striata and s . macrota . . . .\nfig . 2 - striatolamia macrota - anterior left 31 . 5 x 15 . 0 mm and right : 27 . 5 x 15 . 0 mm nanjemoy formation ( eocene ) , virginia\ni have one shark tooth from washington . it ' s an incomplete sand tiger that appears to be a striatolamia tooth . the locality data says\nlate eocene , tukwilla formation , duwamish river , seattle , washington .\nstriatolamia is not known elsewhere from the late eocene . however , i ' ve read that part of the tukwila is considered late middle eocene and that would be around the time of the most recent occurrence of the genus .\nthis is a large anterior fossil tooth of the extinct sand tiger shark , striatolamia macrota . these teeth come from the eocene aged phosphate deposits near khouribga , morocco . the distinctive side cusps are well preserved on this beautiful tooth .\nthis catalog contains teeth from a large extinct sand tiger shark , striatolamia macrota . all teeth are complete . exceptional specimens . note - 1 ) all teeth sizes are slant height unless otherwise noted . click on photos to enlarge .\nthe muddy creek material employed by cunningham ( 2000 ) and this author , includes teeth that appear to be stunted anteriors ( la1 ) and intermediate teeth of a sand tiger - design . based on the similarities of the striatolamia macrota and carcharias taurus dental morphologies , as expressed in cunningham ( 2000 ) , it is reasonable to expect that many of these teeth belong to the most common sand tiger in the fauna . the presence of strong striations helps confirm those that are likely striatolamia in origin .\nstriatolamia is represented by two named species in north america , s . striata ( winkler 1874 ) from the paleocene & early eocene and s . macrota agassiz 1843 from the eocene . these two species have also been reported from europe and north africa .\nremains from 10 vertebrate species were recovered by screen - washing ( george and westgate , 1998 ) . five shark species include striatolamia macrota ( sand tiger shark ) , tmm 42986 - 1 ; abdounia enniskilleni ( requiem shark ) , tmm 42986 - 2 ; . . .\nwell preserved teeth from the shark species - striatolamia macrota . they come from the phosphatic mines of morocco and date to the eocene epoch of around 50 million years ago . you will receive one boxed tooth as shown or similar and they measure around 25 - 30mm long .\nmost widespread species of striatolamia are s . striata and s . macrota . s . macrota anterior teeth have smaller roots than s . striata , and they are often recurved . another difference between these two spieces is the length of their teeth . teeth of striata are generally smaller ( 13 - 51mm ) than macrota ( 19 - 38mm )\ndb = nuccore | term = striatolamia % 20rossica % 20rossica | query = 1 | qty = 23 | blobid = ncid _ 1 _ 267939926 _ 130 . 14 . 22 . 215 _ 9001 _ 1531162914 _ 1251276653 _ 0meta0 _ s _ megastore _ f _ 1 | ismultiple = false | min _ list = 5 | max _ list = 20 | def _ tree = 20 | def _ list = | def _ view = | url = / taxonomy / backend / subset . cgi ? | trace _ url = / stat ?\nstriatolamia is represented by two named species in north america , s . striata ( winkler 1874a ) from the palaeocene & early eocene and s . macrota agassiz 1843 from the eocene . purdy ( 1998 ) attempted to synonymized s . striata with s . macrota and reported the latter from the williamsburg formation ( thanetian - late palaeocene ) of south carolina . these two species have also been reported from europe and north africa . in western europe , they are found in early ( middle ypresian ) and middle eocene sediments . ( in kazakhstan very large specimens are found in the bartonian . )\nstriatolamia macrota is one of the few species from nj to posse moderately strong striations on the lingual side of the tooth . these teeth range in size from 1 / 2 inch to 2 inches plus , with the average being a little over an inch . the anterior teeth have a moderately narrow elongated crown with one small ( sometimes even completely lacking ) , cusplet on each shoulder . the moderately strong striations tend to weaken the larger the tooth gets . there is a pronounced lingual protuberance and obvious nutrient grove on the root . the lateral teeth are broader and compressed , the striations are weaker or lacking entirely and the cusplets reduced , often appearing as no more than a scalloped nub . although not that uncommon , these teeth are very prone to root damage .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe anterior teeth of this genus have an elongated crown , sigmoid in shape when viewed laterally , which bears striations on the lingual face . lateral cusplets are greatly reduced or absent . kent ( 1993 ) reports these teeth ( from s . macrota ) reaching 5 . 6 cm in height . the lateral teeth are lower and broader , the striations are weaker or lacking entirely and the cusplets reduced , often appearing as no more than a scalloped heel . teeth from the eocene species , s . macrota , are larger than their paleocene counterpart and bear shorter striations . it is arguable whether there are actually two species or just an evolutionary trend toward larger teeth within a single species ( the eocene teeth termed s . striata actually being juvenile s . macrota ) .\ntend to be stronger and extend beyond the basal margin of the crown ' s enameloid .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nteeth , which can in most cases , help differentiate these teeth from other sand tigers , yet showed the dentition itself to be more similar to the odontaspids rather than mitsukurinids .\nanother view on its phylogenetic position has been raised by siverson ( 1996 : 835 - 36 , pers . com . july 2008 ) - - it may have been derived from\nis neither an odontaspid nor a mitsukurinid but a lamniform of uncertain familial affinity having evolved an odontaspid - like dentition convergently .\n. text ( 5 vols ; i . , xlix + 188 pp . , ii xii + 310 + 366 pp . , iii viii + 390 pp . , iv xvi + 296 pp . , v xii + 122 + 160 pp . ) and atlas ( 5 vols ; i 10 pl . , ii . , 149 pl . , iii 83 pl . , iv , 61 pl . , v , 91 pl . ) . neuch\u00e2tel .\nchondrichthyan fishes from the paleocene of south carolina . in : paleobiology of the williamsburg formation ( black mingo group ; paleocene ) of south carolina , u . s . a . , albert sanders ed .\nlamniform sharks of the mid - cretaceous alinga formation and beedagong claystone , western australia . palaeontology , vol 39 : 4 , pp 813 - 49 . 1997 . sharks from the mid - cretaceous gearle siltstone , southern carnarvon basin , western australia .\n, 1878 ; vol . iv , ( fasc . 1 , 1876 ) , pp 1 - 15 ; extraits [ 1874 ] . les h\u00e9ritiers loosjes , haarlem , belgium .\nlingual view of anterior tooth . the striations are a good characteristic for identification . 1 1 / 4 inch monmouth county , nj .\nthe striations on the lateral teeth are reduced , but present on most teeth . note the scalloped cusplets .\naverage tooth size is a about one inch but larger teeth are not uncommon . the tooth on the right is just shy of two inches\nblades are the order of the day in the new jersey area . expect to find a significant amount of blades or damaged teeth , laterals seem to hold up a little better .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nbe the first to find out when we add items to this site ! join the lowcountry geologic mailing list .\nthe modern sand tiger shark reaches about 10 ft in length and about 600 lb in weight . the bar under each shark image indicates 4 ft in length .\nit still retains the cusplets , but there is a growing difference between the front teeth ( right ) and the side teeth ( left ) .\nnotice how the cusps are still big on the side teeth , but are reduced to a simple sharp point on the front teeth . and here are the striations\nabout 35 million years ago . these teeth date to 40 million years ago , from the piney point formation in virginia .\nto at least 35 million years ago . notice the front tooth ( on the right ) is now showing small barb - like cusplets , and the side tooth ( left )\nis looking very similar . these teeth date to about 55 million years ago , and are from morocco .\nwhich brings us to the current end - result : the modern sand tiger shark . they appear about 29 million years ago ,\nbut the cut - off dates become blurred as the teeth now look so similar to the prior shark . this is carcharias taurus , and as you can see the\nfront and side tooth look quite identical , and both show small sharp cusplets and have the recurve shape .\nthis is a side view of the same teeth to show the curve in the teeth . the inside of the mouth is to the image left .\nthis tooth style is ideal for grabbing and holding a small fish , and then just swallowing it whole . they seem a refinement of the\noriginal old shark ` s teeth design . these are not teeth for biting out chunks of a victim . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nformat summary genbank genbank ( full ) fasta asn . 1 xml insdseq xml tinyseq xml feature table accession list gi list gff3\numbilicaria rossica isolate agred52 18s small subunit ribosomal rna gene , partial sequence ; internal transcribed spacer 1 , 5 . 8s ribosomal rna gene , and internal transcribed spacer 2 , complete sequence ; and 28s ribosomal rna gene , partial sequence\numbilicaria rossica isolate agred33 18s small subunit ribosomal rna gene , partial sequence ; internal transcribed spacer 1 , 5 . 8s ribosomal rna gene , and internal transcribed spacer 2 , complete sequence ; and 28s ribosomal rna gene , partial sequence\numbilicaria rossica isolate agred014 18s small subunit ribosomal rna gene , partial sequence ; internal transcribed spacer 1 , 5 . 8s ribosomal rna gene , and internal transcribed spacer 2 , complete sequence ; and 28s ribosomal rna gene , partial sequence\numbilicaria rossica isolate agred008 18s small subunit ribosomal rna gene , partial sequence ; internal transcribed spacer 1 , 5 . 8s ribosomal rna gene , and internal transcribed spacer 2 , complete sequence ; and 28s ribosomal rna gene , partial sequence\numbilicaria rossica isolate agred006 18s small subunit ribosomal rna gene , partial sequence ; internal transcribed spacer 1 , 5 . 8s ribosomal rna gene , and internal transcribed spacer 2 , complete sequence ; and 28s ribosomal rna gene , partial sequence\nlasallia rossica internal transcribed spacer 1 , 5 . 8s ribosomal rna gene , and internal transcribed spacer 2 , complete sequence ; and 28s ribosomal rna gene , partial sequence\nfinds sub - sequence or patterns in the sequence and highlights the matching region . the tool works with standard single letter nucleotide or protein codes including ambiguities and can match prosite patterns in protein sequences . more . . .\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\nfirst report of costacoplumacollins and morris , 1975 ( decapoda : brachyura : retroplumidae ) from the eocene of alabama , u . s . a . | journal of crustacean biology | oxford academic\nfirst report of costacopluma ( decapoda : brachyura : retroplumidae ) from the eocene of alabama , u . s . a .\n( rmf , correspondence ) department of geology , kent state university , kent , ohio 44242 , u . s . a .\n( rwp ) florida museum of natural history , p . o . box 117800 , university of florida , gainesville , florida 32611 - 7800 , u . s . a .\nrodney m . feldmann , roger w . portell ; first report of costacopluma ( decapoda : brachyura : retroplumidae ) from the eocene of alabama , u . s . a . , journal of crustacean biology , volume 27 , issue 1 , 1 january 2007 , pages 90\u201396 , urltoken\nnine specimens of retroplumid crabs collected from the late early or early middle eocene tallahatta formation in southern alabama form the basis for description of a new species , costacopluma grayi . the discovery confirms the extension of the range of the genus into the eocene and represents the first occurrence of costacopluma in the united states . as a result of the geologic range extension , the genus is now known to be contemporary with two other retroplumid genera , retrocypoda , and retropluma .\nthe retroplumidae gill , 1894 , is a relatively small family of decapod crustacea which was originally named for a single extant genus of deep - water crabs from the indo - pacific region . subsequently , another extant genus has been recognized and as many as five genera , known only from the fossil record , have been assigned to the family . the stratigraphic range has been extended into the late cretaceous as a result . the family has been re - evaluated by de saint laurent ( 1989 ) , vega and feldmann ( 1992 ) , and schweitzer and feldmann ( 2001 ) , and the position of the extinct genera has been debated .\n: 50 - 51 ) . these shallow - marine sediments are part of a transgression - related condensed section in the lower tallahatta formation of eocene age .\nlocation map showing the costacopluma collecting area along the southeastern bank of the conecuh river behind the point a dam in covington county , alabama .\nthe name \u201ctallahatta\u201d was first applied by w . h . dall ( 1898 : 344 ) as a replacement for the colloquial name \u201cbuhrstone . \u201d dall , at the suggestion of e . a . smith , renamed the formation after the tallahatta hills in choctaw county , alabama , which exhibited the lithologic character and fauna of the unit .\nin alabama , the tallahatta formation is the basal member of the lower to middle eocene claiborne group which also consists ( in ascending order ) of the lisbon formation and gosport sand . typically , the tallahatta is disconformably underlain by either the lower eocene hatchetigbee or bashi formations ( upper wilcox group ) . elsewhere in the eastern gulf coast plain , the tallahatta formation has been mapped in mississippi and georgia . in alabama , the unit typically consists of massive siliceous claystone ( buhrstone ) interbedded with layers of glauconitic sand and sandy clay . according to\n: 50 - 51 ) consists of very coarse to medium grained quartz sand with glauconite , clay clasts , and fine clay particles . here , evidence of bioturbation is abundant throughout the entire stratigraphic section . the bluish - green sediments of bed 5 , contain a diverse assemblage of fossils , consisting mainly of remains of sharks and other fishes . teeth of shark and ray species collected in situ with\narchaeopus rathbun , 1908 ; bathypluma de saint laurent , 1989 ; costacopluma collins and morris , 1975 ; cristipluma bishop 1983 ; loerenthopluma beschin , busulini , de angeli , and tessier , 1996 ; retrocypoda via boada , 1959 ; retropluma gill , 1894 .\narchaeopus originated in the cretaceous and is the oldest of the genera assigned to the family . today , the family is represented in the indo - pacific region by retropluma and bathypluma .\ncostacopluma concava collins and morris , 1975 , p . 823 , pl . 97 , figs . 1\u20139 , by original designation .\ncostacopluma australis feldmann , casad\u00edo , chirino - g\u00e1lvez , and aguirre - urreta , 1995 ; c . bifida collins , higgs , and cortitula , 1994 ; c . binodosa collins and rasmussen , 1992 ; c . bishopi vega and feldmann , 1992 ; c . concava collins and morris , 1975 ; c . mexicana vega and perrilliat , 1989 ; c . nordestina feldmann and martins - neto , 1995 ; c . salamanca feldmann , rodriguez , martinez , and aguirre - urreta , 1997 ; c . senegalensis ( r\u00e9my in gorodiski and r\u00e9my , 1959 ) , as archaeopus .\nsmall , rectangular to ovoid carapace ; wider than long ; with distinctly flattened surface crossed by three elevated ridges , the anteriormost complete and the medial and posterior ridges converging mesially to define depressed , triangular mesobranchial region . carapace flanks distinct , nearly perpendicular to dorsal surface . sternal plates well defined ; sternites 4 - 7 each with prominent transverse , beaded ridge . transverse ridges also present on abdominal somites .\nnew species . a , dorsal view of holotype , uf 113749 . b , oblique frontal view of paratype , uf 113748 , showing the downturned , rimmed , pustulose rostrum ( arrow ) , rectangular orbit , and steep lateral flanks . c and d , dorsal and ventral views of paratype , uf 115672 , illustrated at the same scale and showing well developed carapace regions and , on the ventral surface , pterygostomial regions and left mxp3 . e , dorsal view of worn and exfoliated paratype , uf 113750 , on which the carapace ornamentation is not in evidence . f , dorsal view of\nr\u00e9my , 1959 , holotype , ro 3785 , deposited in the mus\u00e9um national d\u2019histoire naturelle , paris . scale\n. b , enlargement of part of mesogastric and epibranchial regions showing the different sculpture exhibited on surface of exocuticle and endocuticle . scale\n. c , ventral view of paratype , uf 115794 , showing nearly complete sternum and male abdomen . scale\n. d , ventral view of paratype , uf 115796 , showing posterior part of sternum and proximal segments of male abdomen . scale\ntypical costacopluma with strongly downturned , triangular rostrum with beaded surface ; sharp , distinctly beaded lateral margin ; nearly circular posterior element of mesogastric region .\ncarapace small to moderate size for genus ; subovate , wider than long , length about 80 percent maximum width measured at midpoint of mesobranchial region ; flattened transversely and longitudinally ; lateral flanks distinct , downturned at right angles to carapace surface ; three transverse ridges of which anteriormost is complete ; posterior and medial ridges converge in advance of cardiac region .\nfront narrow , about 17 percent maximum carapace width ; rostrum strongly downturned , triangular , axially sulcate ; surface pustulose . orbits deep , concave , forward - directed , rectangular when viewed from front ; bounded dorsally by distinct , beaded rim . fronto - orbital margin about 65 percent maximum width . anterolateral margin straight to weakly convex with distinct beaded rim extending from outer - orbital corner to merge with more convexly rounded , rimmed posterolateral margin . posterolateral corner and posterior margins poorly preserved , appearing to be gently convex .\nepibranchial regions transversely elongate , swollen , separated by axial sulcus extending onto rostrum . protogastric and hepatic regions not distinguishable , depressed . mesogastric region circular , swollen , beaded , 27 percent maximum width , bounded laterally by deep , broad arcuate depressions . metagastric and urogastric region indistinct , narrow , with subtle longitudinal axial elevation . cardiac region transversely ovoid , 40 percent maximum width . urogastric region elongate - oval , inflated , separated from posterior margin by shallow depression . epibranchial and mesobranchial regions depressed .\ntransverse ridges distinct , elevated well above remainder of carapace . anterior - most ridge a sinusoidal curve , concave axially and convex laterally , surface beaded ; medial ridge straight , beaded , extending posteromesially to anterior end of cardiac region where it merges with concave forward , beaded , anteromesially - directed posterior ridge ; medial and posterior ridges define a triangular mesobranchial region .\nsurface of exocuticle very finely beaded , nearly smooth . surface of endocuticle with coarser , evenly spaced pustules .\nbuccal frame broad , widening anteriorly , bounded by inflated and beaded pterygostomial regions . ischium of third maxilliped generally rectangular , tapering slightly anteriorly ; surface smooth .\nsternites 1 - 3 forming isosceles triangle , directed dorsally ; sutures 1 - 2 , 2 - 3 , and 3 - 4 fused but elevated and distinct in position . sternite 4 much wider than sternite 3 with prominent anterolaterally directed projection . lateral margin of sternite 4 elevated into rim . sutures between somites 4 - 5 , 5 - 6 , and 6 - 7 appear to be unfused laterally and obscurred by abdomen axially . somite 5 directed laterally ; somites 6 and 7 directed posterolaterally ; each with prominent nodose keel . somite 8 not exposed . axis of somites 2 - 7 deeply depressed , weakly rimmed on somite 4 . male abdomen apparently unfused throughout , each abdominal somite transversely keeled , telson triangular , extends onto depression in sternal somite 3 .\nmeasurements , in millimeters , taken on specimens of costacopluma grayi are given in table 1 .\ncarapace measurements ( mm ) . key : maximum length ( l ) , maximum width ( w ) , fronto - orbital width ( w1 ) .\nthe trivial name honors mark m . gray , for bringing the first specimens to the attention of the authors and for generously donating his specimens to the florida museum of natural history ( flmnh ) .\nthe holotype , uf 113749 , and paratypes , uf 113748 , 113750 , 114747 , 115672 115793 , 115794 , 115795 , and 115796 , are deposited in the invertebrate paleontology division at the flmnh , university of florida , gainesville , florida .\nthe type series was collected from the upper lower to lower middle eocene tallahatta formation behind point a dam , sw1 / 4 , ne1 / 4 , sec . 35 , t5n , r15e , river falls quadrangle ,\ncostacopluma grayi conforms to the diagnostic features of the carapace of the genus in all regards . the ventral surface of the carapace is not preserved on six of the nine specimens and only the pterygostomial region and one of the maxillipeds is preserved on one specimen . two specimens exhibit parts of the sternum and abdomen of male specimens so it is possible to describe the morphology . the morphology of the sternum and abdomen , coupled with that of the dorsal carapace , makes placement within costacopluma and the retroplumidae certain .\na single specimen , uf 115793 , retains the exocuticule over much of the dorsal carapace ( fig . 3a , b ) . as is the case with many decapods , the sculpture exhibited by the exocuticle is different from that seen on the surface of the endocuticle , which is visible when the exocuticle is exfoliated . therefore it is important to note which surface that observations of sculpture are made , if possible . the contrast in ornamentation is even more striking when comparing the sculpture of the cuticular surfaces with that of the mold of the interior as seen on uf 113750 ( fig . 2e ) , which lacks ornamentation at a fine scale . these observations provide a note of caution when employing fine details of surface ornamentation in systematic work .\nspecies within the genus are distinguished from one another on the basis of shape of the rostrum , development of granulation on the carapace elevations , carapace outline , and various dimensional ratios including length / width , posterior width / maximum width , and frontal width / maximum width . because the margins of the alabama specimens are not completely preserved , it is difficult to employ these ratios with certainty ; however , morphological features of the surface of the carapace are well exhibited so that detailed comparisons can be made . examination of types , or illustrations of types , of all other species within the genus confirms that the form of the carapace ridges , shape of the rostrum , and outline of the posterior element of the mesogastric region provide ample evidence that c . grayi is unique . all species within the genus , except c . concava , c . senegalensis , and c . grayi , possess ridges that are broadly rounded . the three exceptions have narrower , more sharply defined , granular ridges . among these three species , only c . senegalensis and the new species have downturned , triangular rostra . costacopluma concava , as with all other species of the genus for which the rostrum is known , bears a rostrum that is broadened or clearly bifid distally . all species of costacopluma , with the exception of c . senegalensis and c . grayi , have rostra that are substantially narrower proximally than it is distally . costacopluma grayi can be readily distinguished from c . senegalensis because the former exhibits a beaded rostral surface , a distinctly beaded lateral margin , and a nearly circular posterior element of the mesogastric region . the posterior part of the mesogastric region on c . senegalensis is transversely ovoid and lacks beaded ornamentation .\nretroplumoidea ( crustacea , brachyura ) nel terziario del vicentino ( italia settentrionale ) .\nfossil decapod crustacea from the late cretaceous coon creek formation , union county , mississippi .\nthe eocene tallahatta formation of alabama and georgia : its lithostratigraphy , biostratigraphy , and bearing on the age of the claibornian stage .\na new crab , costacopluma bifida ( crustacea , decapoda ) from the palaeocene of venezuela .\na table of the north american tertiary horizons , correlated with one another and with those of western europe , with annotations .\ncostacopluma nordestina n . sp . ( decapoda : retroplumidae ) from the maria farinha formation ( paleocene ) of brazil .\nfossil decapod crustaceans from the jag\u00fcel and roca formations ( maastrichtian - danian ) of the neuqu\u00e9n basin , argentina .\ncostacopluma salamanca new species ( decapoda , retroplumidae ) from the salamanca formation ( danian ) of patagonia , argentina .\nhistoire naturelle , g\u00e9n\u00e9rale et particuli\u00e8re , des crustac\u00e9s et des insectes . vol . 3 .\ncatalogue of the fossil reptilia and amphibia in the british museum ( natural history ) .\nnatural history notes from the r . i . m . s . \u201cinvestigator\u201d , series iii , no . 6 . an account of the new and some of the rarer decapod crustacea obtained during the surveying season , 1901 - 1904 .\nla nouvelle superfamille des retroplumoidea gill , 1894 ( decapoda , brachyura ) : syst\u00e9matique , affinit\u00e9s , et \u00e9volution . pp . 103 - 179 .\noccurrence of costacopluma ( decapoda : brachyura : retroplumidae ) in the maastrichtian of southern mexico and its paleobiogeographic implications .\nuna especie nueva de cangrejo del g\u00e9nero costacopluma ( crustacea : decapoda : retroplumidae ) del maastrichtiano del estado de nuevo le\u00f3n .\ncuticular structure in costacopluma mexicana vega and perrilliat , from the difunta group ( maastrichtian ) of northeastern mexico , and its paleoenvironmental implications .\nfossil crabs ( crustacea : decapoda ) from the late cretaceous c\u00e1rdenas formation , east - central mexico .\noxford university press is a department of the university of oxford . it furthers the university ' s objective of excellence in research , scholarship , and education by publishing worldwide\nfor full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription .\neducalingo cookies are used to personalize ads and get web traffic statistics . we also share information about the use of the site with our social media , advertising and analytics partners .\nis the study of the origin of words and their changes in structure and significance .\nis a type of word the meaning of which determines reality . nouns provide the names for all things : people , objects , sensations , feelings , etc .\nany shark of the family carcharhinidae , occurring mostly in tropical seas and characterized by a nictitating membrane and a heterocercal tail . the family includes the tiger shark and the soupfin .\nfrom english to other languages presented in this section have been obtained through automatic statistical translation ; where the essential translation unit is the word \u00abrequiem shark\u00bb in english .\nthe map shown above gives the frequency of use of the term \u00abrequiem shark\u00bb in the different countries .\nof the word \u00abrequiem shark\u00bb during the past 500 years . its implementation is based on analysing how often the term \u00abrequiem shark\u00bb appears in digitalised printed sources in english between the year 1500 and the present day .\nand brief extracts from same to provide context of its use in english literature .\nset in the 18th century ' s golden age of piracy , the requiem shark is the tale of a young recruit , william williams and his forced apprenticeship to bartholomew roberts , slaver turned pirate captain .\nplease note that the content of this book primarily consists of articles available from wikipedia or other free sources online .\nfour taxa , however , make up over 99 % of the identified specimens : requiem shark ( carcharhinidae ) , bat ray ( myliobatis californica ) , salmon ( oncorhynchus sp . ) , and sturgeon ( acipenser sp . ) . each of these species can reach substantial sizes , . . .\nlast & stevens ( 1994 ) reviews the australian requiem shark fauna , and compagno & niem ( 1998 ) provide an overview of indo - west pacific species . compagno ( 1999 ) is an updated list of living carcharhinid ( and chondrichthyan ) species . . .\n. . . shark sand shark tope hammerhead shark mackerel shark porbeagle requiem shark school shark soupfin shark bull shark lemon shark bronze whaler sixgill shark frill shark nurse . . .\ndutertref described a requiem shark which , according to the description and drawing of it given by him , must have been a carcharias . dutertre says that its young were fixed by means of a cord to a large membrane . cuvier | also says briefly in . . .\nhigh quality content by wikipedia articles ! the silvertip shark ( carcharhinus albimarginatus ) is a large species of requiem shark , family carcharhinidae , with a fragmented distribution throughout the tropical indian and pacific oceans .\na young , great white shark had a near - death experience when the retreating tide . . . sharks that live close to shore , like the\nit is estimated that 160 species of sharks are known to occur in india ' s commercial fishing zone .\n, with a rounded nose , dark grey coloration , large teeth , and a curved dorsal fin .\nthat inhabits deep waters in the world ' s temperate and tropical oceans . preferring cooler waters ,\nvisitors watch the fish and sharks inside the shark tank at the loveland . . . the reef sharks and sandbar sharks are from the family of\nas we brought it in closer we could see there were actually two sharks on the line . . . . renowend experts think it was made by a carcharhinus or\n\u00ab educalingo . requiem shark [ online ] . available < urltoken > . jul 2018 \u00bb .\nthis email address is being protected from spambots . you need javascript enabled to view it .\nfinal citation : cicimurri , david j . and ebersole , jun a . 2015 . two new species of pseudaetobatus cappetta , 1986 ( batoidei : myliobatidae ) from the southeastern united states . palaeontologia electronica 18 . 1 . 15a : 1 - 17 . urltoken urltoken\nthe hatchetigbee formation specimens discussed herein were all recovered from an upper unnamed member of the formation from three distinct localities in alabama and mississippi : site abu - 3 in butler county , al ; site awa - 1 in washington county , al ; and the whynot locality located in lauderdale county , ms ( figure 1 ; more detailed geographic information on these localities is provided in the systematic paleontology section ) .\nin both states , the hatchetigbee comprises the upper unit of the upper paleocene - to - lower eocene wilcox group . in alabama , the thickness of the hatchetigbee ranges from 76 m in the western part of the state to 11 m in the east , and the formation is subdivided into two members , the lower bashi marl and an unnamed upper member ( mancini and tew , 1995 ; raymond et al . , 1988 ; toulmin , 1977 ) . in mississippi , the bashi sequence is more complete than in alabama and is considered a distinct formation from the hatchetigbee ( dockery et al . , 1994 ) .\nboth the hatchetigbee in mississippi and the corresponding unnamed upper member in alabama are composed of a series of non - marine and marine beds that consist of olive green fine - grained , micaceous and carbonaceous fossiliferous sand , with silty clay , silt , and sandy clay ( raymond et al . , 1988 ; toulmin , 1977 ) . bounded by unconformities both above and below , the hatchetigbee is interpreted to represent a tagc - 2 . 4 type 1 depositional sequence , and strata represent inner neritic deposits ( gibson , 1982 ; mancini and tew , 1990 ; 1995 ) .\nthe tallahatta formation specimens presented in this study , which includes the type material of a new pseudaetobatus species , were collected from site adl - 1 in dale county , southeast alabama ( figure 1 ; more detailed geographic information is provided in the systematic paleontology section ) . in alabama , the tallahatta formation represents the basal unit of the lower - to - middle eocene claiborne group . in ascending order , this group is composed of the tallahatta , lisbon , and gosport sand formations ( raymond et al . , 1988 ) . the contact between the claiborne group and the underlying wilcox group represents a type 1 unconformity , which lies at the contact between the tallahatta and underlying hatchetigbee formation ( bybell and gibson , 1985 ; mancini and tew , 1991 ) .\nthe aerial extent of the tallahatta formation forms an arcuate belt that extends through northern and central mississippi , east to west across southern alabama , and into western georgia . in mississippi , the tallahatta formation is divided into three members : the meridian sand , basic city shale , and neshoba sand . although outcrops of the basal meridian sand are exposed in southwestern alabama ( bybell and gibson , 1985 ) , the tallahatta thins in the southeastern part of the state and is generally not differentiated into members ( raymond , 1988 ; savrda et al . , 2010 ) . bybell and gibson ( 1985 ) , however , described a unit at the base of the tallahatta in southeastern alabama that they referred to as \u201cmeridian sand equivalent . \u201d\nin aiken county , the dry branch formation disconformably overlies kaolin deposits ( which are up to 12 . 5 m thick ) of the lower - to - middle eocene huber formation ( figure 3 ) . the contact between these two formations has been reported as a sequence boundary , and the base of the dry branch formation consists of a lag deposit ( harris et al . , 2002 ; schroeder et al . , 2002 ) that formed during the initial transgression of the jackson sea into the region ( huddleston , 1993 ; huddleston and hetrick , 1986 ) .\nthe dry branch formation is at least 28 m thick in aiken county , and twiggs clay , griffins landing sand ; and irwinton sand lithologies have been reported in the area ( mittwede , 1982 ; nystrom and willoughby , 1982 ; zullo and kite , 1985 ) . to the south of aiken in the jackson quadrangle , mittwede ( 1982 ) described mustard - yellow to orange - yellow loose , fine - to - medium grained quartz sand containing thin , discontinuous clay beds that he attributed to the irwinton sand , and he noted that the unit thickened markedly towards the aiken area . the dry branch formation deposit yielding pseudaetobatus teeth is consistent with the irwinton sand , and the stratum occurs approximately 2 . 0 m below the contact with the overlying tobacco road formation .\nmsc , mcwane science center , birmingham , alabama ; sc , south carolina state museum , columbia .\ntype species . pseudaetobatus casieri cappetta , 1986 , lower eocene ( ypresian ) phosphate deposits , sidi daoui , morocco .\netymology . species named for gorden l . bell , jr . in honor of his contributions to alabama vertebrate paleontology . gorden also collected the matrix sample from which this new species was recovered .\nhypodigm . msc 35048 ( holotype ) , lower median tooth ( figure 4 . 1 ) ; msc 35054 ( paratype ) , lower right distal - most lateral tooth ( figure 4 . 2 ) ; msc 35058 ( paratype ) , right half of upper ? median tooth ( figure 4 . 5 ) , msc 35059 ( paratype ) , upper right distal - most lateral tooth ( figure 4 . 3 ) ; msc 35062 ( paratype ) , intermediate lateral tooth ( figure 4 . 4 ) . all tallahatta formation , site adl - 1 .\ntype locality . site adl - 1 , 31 . 317309 n , - 85 . 71598 w ( n 31\u00b0 19\u2019 02\u201d lat . , w 85\u00b0 42\u2019 57\u201d long . ) , dale county , alabama .\ntype horizon . lower tallahatta formation , just above the \u201cmeridian sand member equivalent\u201d beds .\ndiagnosis . teeth are larger than those of the type species , pseudaetobatus casieri . as in p . casieri , upper median teeth fairly straight , whereas lower median teeth are arcuate , both have crowns with rectangular cross sections , angular distal ends and labial / lingual ornamentation of fine vertical ridges ; tooth base thick , with sharply oblique labial face and lingual lobes that extend distally past the crown foot . distal - most lateral teeth differ from p . casieri in being less wide , with shorter and less pronounced distal projection , but more sharply basally curved margin . intermediate lateral tooth morphology is six - sided and nearly symmetrical .\nthe holotype of pseudaetobatus belli sp . nov . , a lower median tooth , is 20 % larger than equivalent teeth of p . casieri illustrated by cappetta ( 1986 , plate 3 , figure 9 ) . in addition , the distal - most lateral teeth of p . belli sp . nov . are not as wide as those of p . casieri , the distal corner of the crown are not as elongated , but the distal edge is more tightly curled . the intermediate lateral tooth morphology represented by msc 35602 may not have been available to cappetta ( 1986 ) for his description of p . casieri , but it was likely present because it has been identified in another new species of pseudaetobatus from south carolina .\nstratigraphic and geographic range . hatchetigbee formation ( np 11 ) of eastern mississippi and southern alabama ; tallahatta formation ( np 12 - 13 ) of southern alabama .\nhypodigm . sc 2013 . 38 . 91 ( holotype ) , upper right distal - most lateral tooth ( figure 6 . 1 ) ; sc 2013 . 38 . 84 ( paratype ) , lower median tooth ( figure 6 . 6 ) ; sc 2013 . 38 . 86 ( paratype ) , upper median tooth ( figure 6 . 8 ) ; sc 2001 . 1 . 5 . 1 ( paratype ) , lower right distal - most lateral tooth ( figure 6 . 5 ) ; sc 2001 . 1 . 5 . 2 ( paratype ) , intermediate lateral tooth ( figure 6 . 4 ) .\ntype locality . 33 . 504444 n , - 84 . 742778 w ( n 33\u00b0 30 ' 16\nlat . , w 81\u00b0 44 ' 34\nlong . ) , aiken , aiken county , south carolina .\ntype horizon . dry branch formation , approximately 2 . 0 m below contact with overlying tobacco road formation .\nadditional material . abandoned clay pit north of the aiken city limit , 33 . 624867 n , - 81 . 681713 w ; aiken county , sc ; dry branch formation - sc 96 . 97 . 52 , 22 median tooth fragments ; sc 96 . 97 . 53 , lateral tooth . type locality - sc 2001 . 1 . 3 , 110 partial median teeth ; sc 2001 . 1 . 4 . 1 , upper left distal - most lateral tooth ( figure 6 . 2 ) ; sc 2001 . 1 . 4 . 2 , lower right distal - most lateral tooth ; sc 2001 . 1 . 4 . 3 , lateral tooth ; sc 2001 . 1 . 5 . 3 , 8 lateral teeth ; sc 2001 . 1 . 6 , lateral tooth ; sc 2001 . 1 . 7 , lower left distal - most lateral tooth ; sc 2013 . 38 . 85 , upper median tooth ( figure 6 . 10 ) ; sc 2013 . 38 . 87 , upper median tooth ; sc 2013 . 38 . 88 , incomplete upper median tooth ; sc 2013 . 38 . 89 , incomplete upper median tooth ; sc 2013 . 38 . 90 , lower median tooth ( figure 6 . 7 ) ; sc 2013 . 38 . 92 , lower right distal - most lateral tooth ; sc 2013 . 38 . 93 . 1 , upper right distal - most lateral tooth ; sc 2013 . 38 . 93 . 2 , upper left distal - most lateral tooth ; sc 2013 . 38 . 93 . 3 , lower left distal - most lateral tooth ( figure 6 . 3 ) ; sc 2013 . 38 . 93 . 4 , two upper distal - most lateral teeth ; sc 2013 . 38 . 94 , 12 lower distal - most lateral teeth ; sc 2013 . 38 . 95 , intermediate lateral tooth ; sc 2013 . 38 . 96 . 1 , intermediate lateral tooth ; sc 2013 . 38 . 96 . 2 , intermediate lateral tooth ; sc 2013 . 38 . 96 . 3 , three intermediate lateral teeth ; sc 2013 . 38 . 97 , 88 partial median teeth .\ndiagnosis . upper and lower tooth morphologies as in pseudaetobatus casieri and p . belli sp . nov . , but smaller in overall size than the latter species . the distal - most lateral teeth are the most diagnostic , and these are distinguished from equivalent teeth of all other pseudaetobatus species by their sinuous outline in labial / lingual view .\nremarks . the median teeth of pseudaetobatus undulatus sp . nov . differ from those of p . belli sp . nov . in that they are smaller in overall size ( sc 2013 . 38 . 84 is only half as large as the p . belli holotype ) , the lingual crown face is more vertical , and the groove above the lingual longitudinal ridge is more deeply impressed . the distal - most lateral teeth of p . undulatus sp . nov . , uppers and lowers , are easily distinguished from p . casieri and p . belli sp . nov . in having undulating crowns ( those of the latter two species are rather flat ) . in addition , the distal - most lateral teeth of p . casieri are wider and have more elongated disto - lingual projections than either p . belli sp . nov . or p . undulatus sp . nov . ( cappetta , 1986 ) .\nstratigraphic and geographic range . the species is thus far only known from the upper eocene ( priabonian ) dry branch formation of aiken county , south carolina .\nthe distal ends of pseudaetobatus median teeth are angular and have straight edges ( i . e . , figure 4 . 1 and figure 5 . 7 - 8 ) , and these areas articulate with lateral teeth . in contrast , aetobatus has no lateral teeth , the distal ends of median teeth curl basally ( figure 7 . 8 ) , and the straight margin is perpendicular to the tooth width ( see also hovestadt and hovestadt - euler , 2013 ; purdy et al . , 2001 ) . in pseudaetobatus , these features are observed on the distal - most lateral teeth ( i . e . , figure 4 . 2 - 3 and figure 5 . 3 , 5 . 10 ) . it may be difficult to distinguish these two genera if the distal ends of a median tooth are missing ( figure 5 . 10 ; also compare figure 7 . 7 to figure 5 . 14 - 15 ) , and the presence of pseudaetobatus in other deposits could go unnoticed without the aid of more complete material and / or the recognition of lateral teeth .\nalbin , e . f . 1999 . regional stratigraphic correlation of north american tektites . lunar and planetary science , 30 : 1 - 2 .\nalbin , e . f . and wampler , j . m . 1996 . new potassium - argon ages for georgiaites and the upper eocene dry branch formation ( twiggs clay member ) : inferences about tektite stratigraphic occurrence . lunar and planetary science , 27 : 5 - 6 .\narambourg , c . 1952 . les vert\u00e9br\u00e9s fossils des gisements de phosphates ( maroc - alg\u00e9rie - tunisie ) . notes et m\u00e9moires du service g\u00e9ologique du maroc , 92 : 1 - 372 .\nbaum , g . r . and vail , p . r . 1988 . sequence stratigraphic concepts applied to paleogene outcrops , gulf and atlantic basins , p . 309 - 327 . in wilgus , c . k . , hastings , b . s . , posamentier , h . , van wagoner , j . , ross , c . a . , and kendall , c . g . s . c . ( eds . ) , sea level change - an integrated approach . sepm ( society for sedimentary geology ) special publications 42 .\nbonaparte , c . l . 1838 . selachorum tabula analytica . nuovi annali delle scienze naturali , 1 ( 2 ) : 195 - 214 .\nbybell , l . m . and gibson , t . g . 1985 . the eocene tallahatta formation of alabama and georgia : its lithostratigraphy , biostratigraphy , and bearing on the age of the claibornian stage . united states geological survey bulletin , 1615 : 1 - 20 .\ncappetta , h . 1986 . myliobatidae nouveaux ( neoselachii , batomorphii ) de l\u2019ypr\u00e9sien des ouled abdoun , maroc . geologica et palaeontologica , 20 : 185 - 207 .\ncappetta , h . 2012 . handbook of paleoichthyology , vol . 3e : chondrichthyes . mesozoic and cenozoic elasmobranchii : teeth . verlag dr . friedrich pfeil .\ncappetta , h . and nolf , d . 1981 . les s\u00e9laciens de l\u2019auversien de ronquerolles ( eoc\u00e8ne sup\u00e9rieur du bassin de paris ) . mededelingen van den werkgroep voor tertiaire en kwartaire geologie , 18 ( 3 ) : 87 - 107 .\ncappetta , h . and nolf , d . 2005 . r\u00e9vision de quelques odontaspididae ( neoselachii : lamniformes ) du pal\u00e9oc\u00e8ne et de l\u2019eoc\u00e8ne du bassin de la mer du nord . bulletin de l\u2019institut des sciences naturelles de belgique , science de la terre , 75 : 237 - 266 .\ncarter , b . d . 1987 . paleogene echinoid distributions in the atlantic and gulf coastal plains . palaios , 2 : 390 - 404 .\ncase , g . r . and cappetta , h . 1990 . the eocene selachian fauna from the fayum depression in egypt . palaeontographica abteilung a , 212 : 1 - 30 .\ncase , g . r . , udovichenko , n . i . , nessov , l . a . , averianov , a . o . , and borodin , p . d . 1996 . a middle eocene selachian fauna from the white mountain formation of the kizylkum desert , uzbekistan , c . i . s . palaeontographica , abteilung a , 242 ( 4 - 6 ) : 99 - 126 .\ncasier , e . 1946 . la faune ichthyologique de l\u2019ypresien de la belgique . memoires de mus\u00e9e royal d\u2019histoire naturelle de belgique 104 .\ncasier , e . 1966 . faune ichthyologique du london clay . british museum ( natural history ) , london , england .\nclayton a . a . , ciampagalio , c . n . , and cicimurri , d . j . 2013 . an inquiry into the stratigraphic occurrence of a claibornian ( eocene ) vertebrate fauna from covington county , alabama . bulletin of the alabama museum of natural history , 31 ( 2 ) : 60 - 73 .\ncompagno , l . j . v . 1973 . interrelationships of living elasmobranchs . zoological journal of the linnean society , 53 ( 1 ) : 15 - 61 .\ndames , w . 1883 . \u00fcber eine terti\u00e4re wirbelthierfauna von der westlichen insel des birket - el - qur\u016bn im fajum ( aegypten ) . sitzungsberichte der k\u00f6niglich preussischen akademie der wissenschaften zu berlin , 6 : 129 - 153 .\ndarteville , e . and casier , e . 1959 . les poissons fossils du bas - congo et des regions voisines ( part iii ) . annales du mus\u00e9e congo belge , min\u00e9ralogique g\u00e9ologique , pal\u00e9ontologique , 3 ( 2 ) : 257 - 568 .\ndockery , d . t . , iii , copeland , c . w . , jr . , and huddlestun , p . f . 1994 . reply to a revision of the hatchetigbee and bashi formations . mississippi geology , 4 ( 3 ) : 11 - 15 .\nduthiel , d . b . 1991 . a checklist of neoselachii ( pisces , chondrichthyes ) from the palaeogene of the paris basin , france . tertiary research , 13 ( 1 ) : 27 - 36 .\nedwards , l . e . , bybell , l . m . , gohn , g . s . , and frederiksen , n . o . 1997 . paleontology and physical stratigraphy of the usgs - pregnall no . 1 core ( dor - 208 ) , dorchester county , south carolina . united states geological survey open - file report 97 - 145 .\nedwards , l . e . , gohn , g . s . , bybell , l . m . , chirico , p . g . , christopher , r . a . , frederiksen , n . o . , prowell , d . c . , self - trail , j . m . , and weems , r . w . 2000 . supplement to the preliminary stratigraphic database for subsurface sediments of dorchester county , south carolina . united states geological survey open - file report 00 - 049 - b .\neversull , l . g . 2005 . the twiggs clay : mineralogy , origin , and industrial properties of an upper eocene opaline claystone in the coastal plain province of georgia , u . s . unpublished phd dissertation , louisiana state university , baton rouge , louisiana .\nfalls , w . f . and prowell , d . c . 2001 . stratigraphy and depositional environments of sediments from five cores from screven and burke counties , georgia . usgs professional paper 1603 - a .\ngibson , t . g . 1982 . revision of the hatchetigbee and bashi formations ( lower eocene ) in the eastern gulf coastal plain . united states geological survey bulletin , 1529 - h : h33 - h41 .\ngradstein , f . , ogg , j . , and smith , a . 2004 . a geologic time scale . cambridge university press , massachusetts .\nharris , r . s . , duncan , m . s . , holland , s . m . , roden , m . f . , and schroeder , p . a . 2002 . probable shocked quartz as evidence for an upper eocene impact horizon in coastal plain strata , warren county , georgia , u . s . a . geological society of america , abstracts with programs , 2002 annual meeting , paper 178 - 9 .\nherman , j . , hovestadt - euler , m . , hovestadt , d . c . , and stehman , m . 2000 . contributions to the study of the comparative morphology of teeth and other relevant ichthyodorulites in living supraspecific taxa of chondrichthyan fishes . part b : batomorphii 4c : order rajiformes - suborder myliobatoidei - superfamily dasyatoidea - family dasyatidae - subfamily dasyatinae - genus : urobatis , subfamily potamotrygoninae - genus : paratrygon , superfamiliy plesiobatoidea - family plesiobatidae - genus : plesiobatis , superfamily myliobatoidea - family myliobatidae - subfamily myliobatinae - genera : aetobatus , aetomylaeus , myliobatis and pteromylaeus , subfamily rhinopterinae - genus : rhinoptera and subfamily mobulinae - genera : manta and mobula . addendum 1 to 4a : erratum to genus pteroplatytrygon . bulletin de l\u2019institut royal des sciences naturelles de belgique , 70 : 5 - 67 ."]}
{"id": 273, "summary": [{"text": "loricaria lentiginosa is a species of catfish of the family loricariidae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is endemic to the basin of the paran\u00e1 river .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the species was described by dutch ichthyologist isa\u00e4c j. h. isbr\u00fccker in 1979 . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "loricaria lentiginosa", "paragraphs": ["in nature loricaria lentiginosa occurs in the brazilian state of sao paulo . in the natural habitats of this species the water is pretty cool in the winter ( our summer ) , eg 16 more\nloricaria lentiginosa isbr\u00fccker , 1979 - add this species to your\nmy cats\npage . common name ( s ) none type locality high basin of rio paran\u00e1 , represa de volta grande , rio grande , sao paulo , e . brazil . more\nwhen young , loricaria spp . can be differentiated from the similar rineloricaria spp . by their more feathered sucker - mouths . in adults this difference is considerably more evident .\nsince there are no studies focusing on reproductive characteristics in l . lentiginosa , the present study aimed to analyze the gonadic structure and the gametogenesis in this species , using anatomical techniques and light microscopy .\npostovulatory follicles in l . lentiginosa had a wide irregular lumen , surrounded by hypertrophied follicular cells and a theca , in a pattern similar to the descriptions made by drummond et al . ( 2000 ) for astyanax bimaculatus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) .\nfollicular cells in l . lentiginosa surround the oocyte forming a unique layer , in a pattern common to all teleosts ( selman & wallace 1989 ) . these cells can present structural changes during the developmental process of the oocytes ( guraya 1986 ) . in fact , the late perinucleolar oocytes in l . lentiginosa showed pavimentous follicular cells that became cubic in previtellogenic oocytes and prismatic at the end of the vitellogenesis . in the present study it was observed that the theca of previtellogenic and vitellogenic oocytes was constituted of cells that are similar to fibroblasts , presenting capillary blood vessels in the pattern typical of most bony fishes ( tyler & sumpter 1996 ) .\ncommon in the rio pardo in brazil , a clear water tributary of the mogi guacu . aquarium care : grows very large and would need a large aquarium with cool water and a strong current to house this species . should be acclimatised slowly for the home aquarium . diet : carnivore : feed with tablets , pellets , insect larvae , zooplankton and shrimps . a varied diet is important to this species and genus . remarks : l . lentiginosa and l . prolixa are quite difficult to tell apart and its quite possible that they may be one and the same species . if so l . lentiginosa would become a synonym of l . prolixa .\nthe testes of l . lentiginosa are paired elongated organs ( fig . 5 ) , dorsally attached to the coelomic cavity by the mesorchium ; they were dorsally related to the kidneys and ventrally to the digestive tube . both testes had spermatic ducts , which join together caudally forming a common spermatic duct that extended to the urogenital papillae .\nthe testes of fresh water neotropical siluriforms that have external fertilization present variable anatomical characteristics ; they are elongated and fringed in the species pimelodus maculatus la cep\u00e8de , 1803 ( bazzoli et al . 1997 ) , iheringichthys labrosus ( l\u00fctken , 1874 ) ( santos et al . 2001 ) , pseudoplatystoma corruscans ( spix & agassiz , 1829 ) ( brito & bazzoli 2003 ) and conorhynchos conirostris ( valenciennes , 1840 ) ( lopes et al . 2004 ) ; and elongated without fringes in hypostomus albopucntatus ( regan , 1908 ) ( antoniutti et al . 1985 ) , rhinelepis aspera spix & agassiz , 1829 ( agostinho et al . 1987 ) , hoplosternum littorale ( hancock , 1828 ) ( loir et al . 1989 ) , liposarcus pardalis ( castelnau , 1855 ) ( neves & rufino 1998 ) and loricaria lentiginosa ( this study ) .\nmacroscopic and microscopic appearance of the ovaries of l . lentiginosa were similar to those reported for other species in the family loricariidae , such as plecostomus commersonii ( valenciennes , 1840 ) = hypostomus scabriceps ( eigenmann & eigenmann , 1888 ) ( agostinho et al . 1982 ) , r . aspera ( agostinho et al . 1987 ) and hypostomus punctatus ( menezes & caramaschi 1994 ) . according to the classification proposed by hoar ( 1969 ) , the ovaries of l . lentiginosa would be classified as cystovarian , where the ovarian lumen has continuity with the oviduct , through which the oocytes are released into the environment . in contrast , in some salmon and trout species , the oviduct was lost secondarily , with the oocytes being released to the coelomic cavity and then , to the external environment ( helfman et al . 2000 ) .\nas already demonstrated in the present study , the structural organization of l . lentiginosa testes presents a cranial spermatogenic portion , spermatogenic and secretory transition portion , and an exclusively secretive caudal portion with secretory activity only during the maturation period . the spermatogenesis can be classified as cystic , and it occurs along the whole extension of the seminiferous tubules . the ovaries are of the cystovarian type and the oogenesis was characterized histologically by four developmental stages .\na estrutura gonadal e a gametog\u00eanese de loricaria lentiginosa isbr\u00fccker , 1979 foram estudadas atrav\u00e9s de t\u00e9cnicas anat\u00f4micas e histol\u00f3gicas . capturaram - se , trimestralmente , no reservat\u00f3rio de porto col\u00f4mbia , bacia do rio paran\u00e1 , minas gerais , quarenta e dois machos e dez f\u00eameas nos est\u00e1dios em matura\u00e7\u00e3o / maduro , utilizando - se redes de emalhar , no per\u00edodo de novembro de 2001 a outubro de 2002 . os test\u00edculos s\u00e3o \u00f3rg\u00e3os pares , alongados e n\u00e3o franjados . histologicamente , os test\u00edculos apresentam tr\u00eas regi\u00f5es distintas : cranial espermatog\u00eanica , transi\u00e7\u00e3o espermatog\u00eanica e secretora e caudal exclusivamente secretora . na secre\u00e7\u00e3o dos t\u00fabulos da regi\u00e3o caudal detectaram - se glicoprote\u00ednas neutras . a espermatog\u00eanese ocorre em cistos em toda a extens\u00e3o da parede dos t\u00fabulos semin\u00edferos , os quais anastomosam - se e liberam os espermatoz\u00f3ides no lume dos ductos esperm\u00e1ticos . os ov\u00e1rios s\u00e3o \u00f3rg\u00e3os pares , saculiformes e , histologicamente , apresentam lamelas ovul\u00edgeras que cont\u00e9m as c\u00e9lulas da linhagem ovog\u00eanica . os ov\u00f3citos foram classificados em quatro est\u00e1dios , baseando - se em suas caracter\u00edsticas citol\u00f3gicas e nas camadas que os circundam . fol\u00edculos p\u00f3s - ovulat\u00f3rios e ov\u00f3citos vitelog\u00eanicos em processo de atresia folicular foram tamb\u00e9m observados .\nneutral glycoproteins in the secretion of the caudal portion tubules in the maturing / mature testes of l . lentiginosa were also detected in the caudal fringes of i . labrosus ; and neutral glycoproteins , carboxylated acid glycoconjugates ( including sialomucines and acid and sulfates glycoconjugates ) were detected in the caudal fringes of p . maculatus ( guimar\u00e3es - cruz & santos 2004 ) . these substances may have similar functions as those exhibited by substances produced in the seminal vesicles of other teleosts species : acting on female attraction , in the augmentation of the seminal volume and in the fertilization process ( van den hurk et al . 1987 , lahnsteiner et al . 1992 ) .\nthe formation of an acellular layer , the zona pellucida , during the oogenesis , is described for several teleosts species ( guraya 1986 ) , and it has multiple functions : it allows the passage of substances to the oocyte interior ; protects it from mechanical wear and pathogens ; maintains the integrity of the membrane ; and promotes the adhesion of the egg to the substrate ( agostinho et al . 1987 ) . in l . lentiginosa , the zona pellucida was observed with a unique acidophilic layer in the late perinucleolar oocytes , and two layers in previtellogenic and vitellogenic oocytes as described for galeocharax knerii ( steindachner , 1879 ) by magalh\u00e3es et al . ( 2004 ) .\nthe specimens were dissected and fragments from the cranial and caudal portions of the gonads of all specimens were fixed in bouin ' s solution for 6 - 8 hours . gonad fragments were embedded in paraffin or in glycol methacrilate , sectioned in serial sections at 3 - 5 \u00b5m , and stained with haematoxylin - eosin or with 1 % toluidin blue - sodium borate ( junqueira & junqueira 1983 ) . the oocytes in l . lentiginosa were classified by histological characteristics into four stages , based on the changes that occurred : in the nucleus , in the ooplasm and in the follicular wall , as proposed by bazzoli ( 2003 ) . to detect carbohydrates and proteins on the testes caudal region , the following histochemical techniques were used : pas ( periodic acid - shiff ) ; pas + amylase ; alcian blue ph 2 , 5 ; alcian blue ph 0 , 5 and ninhydrin - shiff ( pearse 1985 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nlatin , lorica , loricare = cuirass of corslet of leather ; 1706 + greek , ichthys = fish ( ref . 45335 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 51 . 4 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 56003 )\nferraris , c . j . jr . , 2003 . loricariidae - loricariinae ( armored catfishes ) . p . 330 - 350 . in r . e . reis , s . o . kullander and c . j . ferraris , jr . ( eds . ) checklist of the freshwater fishes of south and central america . porto alegre edipucrs , brasil . ( ref . 36389 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00363 ( 0 . 00147 - 0 . 00899 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 91 - 3 . 33 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 1 \u00b10 . 2 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 45 of 100 ) .\nhigh basin of rio paran\u00e1 , represa de volta grande , rio grande , sao paulo , e . brazil .\n( latin ) lorica , loricare = cuirass of corslet of leather ( a suit of armour made of leather ) .\n290mm or 11 . 4\nsl . find near , nearer or same sized spp .\n( 1 ) decker504 . click on a username above to see all that persons registered catfish species . you can also view all\nmy cats\ndata for this species .\nget or print a qr code for this species profile , or try our beta label creator .\nhas this page been useful ? please donate to our monthly hosting costs and keep us free for everyone to enjoy ! explore our youtube channel , facebook page or follow us on twitter .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 urltoken , part of the aquatic republic network group of websites . all rights reserved . cite this website . by accessing this site you agree to our terms and conditions of use . our privacy policy .\nfor the discussion of catfish systematics . post here to draw our attention to new publications or to discuss existing works .\ninteresting to know , that the catfish of the family loricariidae also eat more than algae , detritus , and so on . its very new for me .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nbrazil : upper paran\u00e1 river basin . type locality : br\u00e9sil , est . sao paulo , haut bassin du rio parana , represa de volta grande , rio grande .\nevers , h . - g . & i . seidel : mergus , baensch catfish atlas volume 1 , 1st english edn . , 2005 . pp . 944 .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nrev . bras . zool . vol . 22 no . 3 curitiba july / sept . 2005\nrodrigo j . guimar\u00e3es - cruz ; jos\u00e9 e . dos santos ; gilmar b . santos\nprograma de p\u00f3s - gradua\u00e7\u00e3o em zoologia de vertebrados , pontif\u00edcia universidade cat\u00f3lica de minas gerais . caixa postal 2686 , 30535 - 610 belo horizonte , minas gerais , brasil . e - mail : enemir @ urltoken\ngonadal organization and gametogenesis in neotropical teleosts have been extensively studied . in general , most published work focuses on biometrical , morphological , physiological and / or biochemical characters , and the distribution of the different cytoplasmic and nuclear inclusions ( tyler & sumpter 1996 , grier 2000 ) .\nlegendre et al . ( 1996 ) reports that some siluriformes species present fringed testes while others do not . in most fish species gonads are paired organs of similar size , which can be partially or totally fused ( le gac & loir 1999 ) . some siluriformes fishes from families pimelodidae , loricariidae and callichthyidae present secretory activity in the caudal portion of the testes , sometimes forming a seminal vesicle ( loir et al . 1989 ) .\nin terms of spermatogonia distribution , the structure of teleosts testes has two types : in the most common , spermatogonia occur all along the seminiferous tubules , while in atherinomorph fishes they are confined to the distal portion of these structures ( grier 1981 ) .\naccording to various authors ( shrivastava 1967 , srivastava & singh 1994 , magalh\u00e3es et al . 2004 ) fishes can present cystic or semi - cystic spermatogenesis in relation to the phase of release of germ cells in the cysts to the seminiferous tubules lumen .\nfishes ovaries can be classified as gymnovaries , a primitive condition founded in lungfishes , sturgeons and bowfins or cystovaries , the condition that characterizes most of the teleosts , where the ovary lumen has continuity with the oviduct ( helfman et al . 2000 ) .\noogonia development in teleosts fishes varies according to the group , and the determination of oogenesis dynamics allows the understanding of maturation and fertilization processes ( wallace & selman 1981 ) . changes in the nucleus , ooplasm and the surrounding layers characterize the oocyte maturation process ( bazzoli & rizzo 1990 ) .\npostovulatory follicles are structures formed after oocyte release ; they do not have endocrine function , present a wide irregular lumen , and are rapidly reabsorbed in a process involving the apoptosis of follicular cells ( drummond et al . 2000 ) . a degenerative process called follicular atresia reabsorbs vitellogenic oocytes not spawned . this process can also occur , but less frequently , in oocytes in other developmental stages ( miranda et al . 1999 ) .\nin brazil , to meet energy demands , the construction of artificial reservoirs by damming river courses is increasing being employed ( tundisi 1978 ) . today , in alto paran\u00e1 river basin , there are around 130 reservoirs , most of them located sequentially along the rio grande , having a total of 3 , 511 km 2 of flooded area ( santos & formagio 2000 ) . the porto col\u00f4mbia reservoir ( fig . 1 ) is located in the middle of the rio grande , on the border of minas gerais and s\u00e3o paulo states , between the municipalities of planura ( minas gerais ) and gua\u00edra ( s\u00e3o paulo ) ( paiva 1982 ) .\nfish captures were carried out once every three months in the period between november 2001 and october 2002 in the porto col\u00f4mbia reservoir ( 20\u00b007 ' 52\ns - 20\u00b001 ' 69\ns and 48\u00b034 ' 13\n- 48\u00b013 ' 40\nw ) . forty - two males and ten females , with , respectively , 21 , 2 - 42 , 5 cm and 36 , 5 - 43 , 4 cm of minimum and maximum standard length , in maturation / mature stage were collected using gillnets with mesh sizes between 8 to 20 cm ( stretched measurement ) . specimens were fixed in 10 % formaldehyde solution for 24 hours and stored in 70 % ethanol solution , kept in containers and transported to the fish laboratory at programa de p\u00f3s - gradua\u00e7\u00e3o em zoologia de vertebrados da puc minas .\nthe testes were surrounded by a tunica albuginea of connective tissue , and they had tubular and interstitial compartments . morphofunctional organization of the tubular compartment in maturing / mature testes was variable depending on the region : a cranial region ( 86 % total length \u0096 tl ) with seminiferous tubules containing cysts of spermatogenic lineage cells , in the same developmental stage in the walls , and spermatozoa in the lumen ( fig . 6 ) ; a transition region ( 7 % tl ) , with tubules presenting cysts and secretory prismatic cells in the wall , and spermatozoa and acidophilus secretion in the lumen ( fig . 7 ) ; and a caudal region ( 7 % tl ) , where the tubules only exhibited secretory prismatic cells in the wall and acidophilus secretion in the lumen ( fig . 8 ) . cysts were oval - shaped , delimited by sertoli cells ( insert in fig . 6a ) , leydig cells and conjunctive tissue ( insert in fig . 6b ) , forming the interstitial tissue . in resting males , the wall of the tubules in the caudal region of the testes has cubic secretory cells with no secretion in the lumen . during spermatozoa release , cysts broke apart releasing the spermatozoa in the tubules lumen ( fig . 9 ) , which anastomosized ( fig . 10 ) thereby directing the spermatozoa towards the spermatic ducts and then to the common spermatic duct for the spermiation process . in the lumen of the spermatic ducts of maturing / mature testes , acidophilus secretion and spermatozoa were also observed ( fig . 11 ) . the secretion of the testes caudal region reacted positively to the pas and ninhydrin - shiff techniques , thereby indicating the presence of neutral glycoproteins .\nprimary spermatogonia : the largest of the lineage , occurring only one per cyst , it had abundant cytoplasm , spherical central nucleus with vesicles , and a prominent nucleolus .\nsecondary spermatogonia : they formed cysts with two to four cells , having little cytoplasmic material , and a spherical central nucleus with a prominent nucleolus .\nprimary spermatocyte : originated from the last generation of secondary spermatogonias after successive mitotic divisions ; they had little cytoplasmic content and slightly condensed granulated chromatin in a central nucleus .\nsecondary spermatocyte : originated from the first meiotic division of primary spermatocytes , it had little cytoplasmic content and nucleus with granulated chromatin .\nspermatid : originated from the second meiotic division of secondary spermatocytes , it had little cytoplasmic content and a dense spherical nucleus with a differentiated flagellum .\nspermatozoa : the smallest of the lineage , they had little cytoplasmic content , with no acrosome and a nucleus with heavily condensed chromatin .\novaries were saculiform - paired organs ( fig . 12 ) , attached dorsally to the coelomic cavity by the mesovary ; they were dorsally related to the kidneys and ventrally to the digestive tube , and joined together caudally to form the ovaric duct that extended to the urogenital papillae . histological examination of the ovaries showed that they were also coated with the tunica albuginea of conjuntive tissue , which sent septum to the ovaric lumen forming the ovigerous lamellae that contained the oogenic lineage cells .\noogonia : the smallest of the lineage , they were rounded cells found in a nested arrangement ; they had little cytoplasmic content , with vesiculous and central nucleus with a unique prominent central nucleolus and the chromatin irregularly located near the nuclear membrane . oogonias proliferated and produced the oocytes .\nearly perinucleolar oocyte : it had a bigger and strongly basophilic cytoplasm with vitreous appearance , a central nucleus and spherical peripheral nucleoli .\nadvanced perinucleolar oocyte : it had basophilic granular ooplasm , central nucleus and spherical nucleoli attached to the nuclear membrane . in the ooplasm of some oocytes it was possible to identify the yolk nucleus , which in the beginning was next to the nucleus and later was displaced to the periphery . the zona pellucida was a thin layer and a unique layer of follicular cells that were pavimentous .\nprevitellogenic oocyte : it had cortical vesicles scattered in the ooplasm , which were slightly coloured by haematoxylin - eosin . the nucleus was central and presented digitiform expansions and a perinuclear halo . the zona pellucida was acellular , acidophilic , and had two layers . follicular cells were cubic and the theca was thin .\nvitellogenic oocyte : was the largest of the lineage , characterized by the presence of acidophilus yolk globules in the ooplasm . cortical vesicles were organized in the ooplasm periphery , forming continuous cortical alveoli . the zona pellucida remained with two layers , follicular cells were prismatic , and the theca was similar in thickness to the previous stage and presents capillary blood vessels .\nafter ovulation , postovulatory follicles were identified ; they presented wide irregular lumen and a wall consisting of a unique layer of follicular prismatic cells and the conjunctive theca ( fig . 17 ) . follicular atresia was observed in vitellogenic oocytes , which presented , through the liquefaction of yolk globules , fragmentation of the zona pellucida and integrity loss of the follicular cells ( fig . 18 ) .\nspermatogenesis in teleosts has two different stages : ( 1 ) the renewal and proliferation of spermatogonias by mitosis , and ( 2 ) meiosis followed by spermiogenesis ( schulz et al . 2000 ) . the disruption of the cystic walls with the release of the germ cells to the lumen of the seminiferous tubules can occur at different developmental stages : secondary spermatocytes ( shrivastava 1967 ) , spermatids ( srivastava & singh 1994 , andrade et al . 2001 ) and spermatozoa ( santos et al . 2001 , magalh\u00e3es et al . 2004 , present study ) .\nin teleosts , oocytes not ovulated suffer a degenerative process called follicular atresia ( wallace & selman 1981 ) . this process can occur during any phase of the oocyte development ( \u00fcnver & \u00fcnver saraydin 2004 ) ; however , its occurrence is unusual during the pre - spawn period ( guraya 1986 ) . in the present study , follicular atresia was observed only in vitellogenic oocytes , in ovaries that presented histological characteristics typical of the post - spawned .\nwe wish to thank : probic \u0096 puc minas for financial support ( project n\u00ba 2003 / 13 ) ; the biologists dirceu marzulo and paulo s . formagio from the\nesta\u00e7\u00e3o de hidrobiologia e piscicultura de furnas centrais el\u00e9tricas s / a\nfor their technical assistance ; the biologist jefferson lopes for help in the capture of biological material ; to dr robert j . young for the suggestions on the english version and the laboratory technicians rubens miranda and rog\u00e9rio da silva matos for preparation of the histological plates .\n( valenciennes , 1840 ) osteichthyes - loricariidae : desenvolvimento dos ov\u00f3citos e escala de maturidade .\n( agassiz , 1829 ) ( teleostei , loricariidae ) no rio paranapanema . ii . estrutura dos ov\u00e1rios e est\u00e1dios de matura\u00e7\u00e3o .\nantoniutti , k . m . ; m . j . t . ranzani - paiva ; h . m . godinho & p . paiva . 1985 . peso total / comprimento total , crescimento e idade do cascudo\nregan , 1908 ( osteichthyes , loricariidae ) do rio jaguari , s\u00e3o paulo , brasil .\nbazzoli , n . 2003 . par\u00e2metros reprodutivos de peixes de interesse comercial do rio s\u00e3o francisco , regi\u00e3o de pirapora mg , p . 291 - 306 .\nbazzoli , n . & e . rizzo . 1990 . a comparative cytological and cytochemical study of the oogenesis in ten brazilian teleost fish species .\nbazzoli , n . & h . p . godinho . 1995 . comparative morphology of the yolk nucleus ( balbiani body ) in freshwater neotropical teleost fish .\nbillard , r . 1986 . spermatogenesis and spermatology of some teleost fish species .\nbrito , m . f . g . & n . bazzoli . 2003 . reproduction of the surubim catfish ( pisces , pimelodidae ) in the s\u00e3o francisco river , pirapora region , minas gerais , brazil .\n: m . m . vaz ; v . c . torquato & n . d . c . barbosa ( eds ) . belo horizonte , cetec , 141p .\nde pinna , m . c . c . 1998 . phylogenetic relationships of neotropical siluriformes ( teleostei : ostariophysi ) : historical overview and synthesis of hypotheses , p . 279 - 330 .\nferraris jr . , c . j . 2003 . subfamily loricariinae , p . 330 - 350 .\ngrier , h . j . 1981 . cellular organization of the testes and spermatogenesis in fishes .\nguimar\u00e3es - cruz , r . j . & j . e . santos . 2004 . testicular structure of three species of neotropical freshwater pimelodids ( pisces , pimelodidae ) .\nguraya , s . s . 1986 . the cell and molecular biology of fish oogenesis .\nle gac , f . & m . loir . 1999 . male reproductive system fish , p . 20 - 30 .\nlegendre , m . ; o . linhart & r . billard . 1996 . spawning and management of gametes , fertilized eggs and embryos in siluroidei .\nloir , m . ; c . cauty ; p . planquette & p . y . bail . 1989 . comparative study of the male reproductive tract in seven families of south - american catfishes .\nmiranda , a . c . l . ; n . bazzoli ; e . rizzo & y . sato . 1999 . ovarian follicular atresia in two teleost species : a histological and ultrastructural study .\n( pisces , siluriformes , loricariidae ) ( castelnau , 1855 ) do m\u00e9dio amazonas .\npudney , j . 1993 . comparative cytology of the non - mammalian vertebrate sertoli cell , p . 611 - 657 .\n( bloch , 1975 ) ( teleostei ; synbranchidae ) . ovarian anatomy , stages of oocyte development and micropyle structure .\nreis , r . e . & s . a . schaefer . 1998 . new cascudinhos from southern brazil : systematics , endemism , and relationships ( siluriformes , loricariidae , hypoptopomatinae ) .\nsantos , g . b . & p . s . formagio . 2000 . estrutura da ictiofauna dos reservat\u00f3rios do rio grande , com \u00eanfase no estabelecimento de peixes pisc\u00edvoros ex\u00f3ticos .\nschulz , r . w . ; j . bogerd & h . j . th . goos . 2000 . spermatogenesis and its endocrine regulation .\nselman , k . & r . a . wallace . 1989 . cellular aspects of oocyte growth in teleosts .\ntundisi , j . g . 1978 . constru\u00e7\u00e3o de reservat\u00f3rios e previs\u00e3o de impactos ambientais no baixo tiet\u00ea : problemas limnol\u00f3gicos .\ntyler , c . r . & j . p . sumpter . 1996 . oocyte growth and development in teleosts .\nvan den hurk , r . ; j . w . resink & j . peute . 1987 . the seminal vesicle of the african catfish ,\nwallace , r . a . & k . selman . 1981 . cellular and dynamic aspects of oocyte growth in teleosts .\ncaixa postal 19020 81531 - 980 curitiba pr brasil tel . / fax : + 55 41 3266 - 6823 sbz @ urltoken\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\n. . . the dams deeply influence the composition and structure of aquatic communities , creating great challenges , especially for fish populations ( m\u00e9rona et al . 2001 ; lazzaro et al . 2003 ; loureiro - crippa & hahn 2006 ; delariva et al . 2007 ; gubiani et al . 2007 ; petesse et al . 2007 ; luzagostinho et al . 2009 ) . the natural distribution of loricariidae ( armored catfish ) encompasses the neotropical region , reaching panama and costa rica ( salvador - jr et al . 2010 ) . this family includes fish that live near the bottom , possessing sucker - shaped mouths . . . .\n. . . the loricariidae family of neotropical catfish consists of 80 genera with approximately 830 characterized species [ 15 , 16 ] . reports of algae , detritus , vegetal matter , seed , and benthic matter consumption by loricariids are common1718 19 and they are generally classed as omnivorous [ 20 ] . furthermore , consumption of wood is unique to the genus panaque ( eigenmann and eigenmann ) ( heckel ) [ 20 ] and hypostomus cochliodon [ 21 ] . . . .\n. . . the loricariidae family of neotropical catfish consists of 80 genera with approximately 830 characterized species [ 15 , 16 ] . reports of algae , detritus , vegetal matter , seed , and benthic matter consumption by loricariids are common [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] and they are generally classed as omnivorous [ 20 ] . furthermore , consumption of wood is unique to the genus panaque ( eigenmann and eigenmann ) ( heckel ) [ 20 ] and hypostomus cochliodon [ 21 ] . . . .\n. . . however , german and bittong ( 2009 ) found that wood - eating and detritivorous catwshes possess low cellulolytic activities , low levels of scfas in their gi tracts , and are equipped to digest soluble components ( e . g . , - and - glucosides ) of detritus rather than refractory polysaccharides . the family to which the wood - eating catwshes belong , the loricariidae , is composed of many species ( 680 described taxa in 80 genera ; armbruster 2004 ) that consume animal , plant , and detrital material from the benthos ( delariva and agostinho 2001 ; pouilly et al . 2003 ; de melo et al . 2004 ; novakowski et al . 2008 ; salvador et al . 2008 ; german and bittong 2009 ) . wood - eating , however , has evolved twice in the family , as species in the genera hypostomus ( armbruster 2003 ) and panaque ( schaefer and stewart 1993 ) are considered xylivorous ( german and bittong 2009 ) . . . .\nassess whether the mining and reforestation activities are affecting the integrity of aquatic ecosystems and their fauna , considering different scales of analysis . specific objectives : i ) assess wh\u2026\n[ more ]\nthe objective of this study was to characterize the trophic structure of the community of fishes exploiting riverine sandbank habitats . collections were carried out during the period of october 1999 to december 2003 , on six sand banks in the upper and middle portions of the tocantins river drainage basin in central brazil . the availability of food resources was evaluated based on the volume of . . . [ show full abstract ]\nwe evaluated the feeding of fish species of the nova avanhandava reservoir , low tiet\u00ea river , s\u00e3o paulo state , brazil . fishes were collected in two stretches of the reservoir : santa b\u00e1rbara ( 14 samples ) and bonito ( two samples ) between september 2002 and march 2004 , using gill and seining nets . the results of stomach contents analysis were expressed with the frequency of occurrence and . . . [ show full abstract ]\ndiet of anostomidae species ( teleostei , characiformes ) in the influence area of manso reservoir , mat . . .\nthe diet of four species of anostomidae ( leporinus friderici bloch , 1794 , l . striatus kner , 1858 , l . elongatus valenciennes , 1849 and leporinus sp . ) were investigated in the manso reservoir , mato grosso state , brazil . fish were sampled in three sites : upriver , in the main body of the reservoir , and below the dam . were analized 276 stomachs . the diet was evaluated using the frequency of . . . [ show full abstract ]\nfeeding and trophic ecomorphology of satanoperca pappaterra ( pisces , cichlidae ) in the manso reservo . . .\nthe aim of this work was to evaluate the relationship between diet and features of the trophic ecomorphology of satanoperca pappaterra ( heckel , 1840 ) in an impacted environment . samples were collected from march 2000 to february 2003 in manso reservoir , cuiab\u00e1 river , mato grosso state . analysis of 93 stomachs contents showed that food resources associated with the substrate , such as plant . . . [ show full abstract ]\nsorry , preview is currently unavailable . you can download the paper by clicking the button above .\nenter the email address you signed up with and we ' ll email you a reset link .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 279, "summary": [{"text": "the pied starling or african pied starling , ( lamprotornis bicolor ) is a bird endemic to south africa , lesotho and swaziland .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is common in most of its range , but largely absent from the arid northwest and the eastern lowlands of south africa .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is found in open habitats such as grassland , karoo scrub , thornbush and agricultural land , and often associates with farm animals . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "pied starling", "paragraphs": ["asian pied starling ( gracupica contra ) complete detail \u2013 updated . description and classification of asian pied starling ( gracupica contra ) .\nasian pied starling ( sturnus contra ) at nest on jarul ( lagerstroemia speciosa ) in kolkata i img 8745 . jpgasian pied starling . . . 203 , 859 bytes asian pied starling ( sturnus contra ) calling at kolkata i img 8809 . jpgasian pied starling . . . 191 , 519 bytes asian pied starling ( sturnus contra ) feeding on indian coral tree ( erythrina variegata ) in kolkata i img 4005 . jpgasian pied starling . . . 191 , 250 bytes asian pied starling ( sturnus contra ) feeding on kapok ( ceiba pentandra ) in kolkata i img 3091 . more\npied starling , de hoop nature reserve , western cape . [ photo duncan robertson \u00a9 ]\nasian pied starling ( sturnus contra ) is a common and widespread resident in india . more\nthe asian pied starling , also known as pied myna , is a species of starling found in south and southeast asia . the taxonomic position has changed with it being placed with the sturnus in the past .\nthe asian pied starling is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nhabit and habitat asian pied starling . asian pied starling , usually found in small groups mainly on the plains and low foothills . they a wide repertoire of calls consisting of whistles , trills , buzzes , clicks and warbling notes\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\ninformation on the asian pied starling ( sturnus contra ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nasian pied starling produce a wide repertoire of calls consisting of whistles , trills , buzzes , clicks and warbling notes .\npied starling , west coast fossil park , western cape , south africa . [ photo h . robertson , iziko \u00a9 ]\nsize between 20 cm . to 25 cm . and weigh between 75 to 100 g . asian pied starling has a yellowish bill with a bright orange - red base . asian pied starling is strikingly marked in black and white , with long legs .\nthe calls of the pied starling - or pied mynah are loud , but familiar . the materials for this video have been taken from the net and duly credited at the end of the video .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - juvenile asian pied starling\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - juvenile asian pied starling\ntitle =\narkive photo - juvenile asian pied starling\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - asian pied starling perched\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - asian pied starling perched\ntitle =\narkive photo - asian pied starling perched\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - asian pied starling singing\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - asian pied starling singing\ntitle =\narkive photo - asian pied starling singing\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - asian pied starling flock in flight\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - asian pied starling flock in flight\ntitle =\narkive photo - asian pied starling flock in flight\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - asian pied starling ( sturnus contra )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - asian pied starling ( sturnus contra )\ntitle =\narkive species - asian pied starling ( sturnus contra )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe asian pied starling is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\nasian pied starling gracupica contra is being split into gracupica contra and gracupica jalla , following the application of criteria set out by tobias et al . ( 2010 ) .\nfor more information about pied wagtails , see the bto\u2019s birdfacts and wider countryside report .\ncyndy parr changed the thumbnail image of\nfile : asian pied starling ( sturnus contra ) feeding on kapok ( ceiba pentandra ) in kolkata i img 3091 . jpg\n.\nthe starling has the reputation for being one of the noisiest and most gregarious garden birds .\narchived 2016 topics : asian pied starling ( sturnus contra ) is being split and placed in the genus gracupica : list g . contra as least concern and gracupica jalla as critically endangered ?\nasian pied starling is a bird of north central , central and eastern india , south and east of a line roughly from east punjab , through east rajasthan , west madhya pradesh to the krishna delta .\n2 responses to archived 2016 topics : asian pied starling ( sturnus contra ) is being split and placed in the genus gracupica : list g . contra as least concern and gracupica jalla as critically endangered ?\nthe starling ' s plumage is mainly blackish with buff edged wing feathers and reddish - brown legs .\nthe asian pied starlings - also known as pied mynas ( gracupica contra formerly sturnus contra ) - are starlings found in south and southeast asia . they are locally known as gursal , ablak and ablaki maina .\ncyndy parr set\nfile : asian pied starling ( sturnus contra ) feeding on kapok ( ceiba pentandra ) in kolkata i img 3091 . jpg\nas an exemplar on\nsturnus contra linnaeus 1758\n.\ncyndy parr marked\nfile : asian pied starling ( sturnus contra ) - adult feeding juveniles in kolkata i img 9866 . jpg\nas trusted on the\ngracupica contra ( linnaeus , 1758 )\npage .\nasian pied starling , usually found in small groups mainly on the plains and low foothills . they have also adapted well to urban living and are often seen in cities and villages , and are generally seen in small groups\nasian pied starlings usually only raise one brood in a season ; however , are likely to replace lost clutches .\ncyndy parr marked\nfile : asian pied starling ( sturnus contra ) on kapok ( ceiba pentandra ) in kolkata w img 4513 . jpg\nas trusted on the\ngracupica contra ( linnaeus , 1758 )\npage .\narchived 2016 topics : asian pied starling ( sturnus contra ) is being split and placed in the genus gracupica : list g . contra as least concern and gracupica jalla as critically endangered ? | birdlife ' s globally threatened bird forums\ncyndy parr marked\nfile : asian pied starling ( sturnus contra ) feeding on kapok ( ceiba pentandra ) in kolkata i img 3091 . jpg\nas trusted on the\ngracupica contra ( linnaeus , 1758 )\npage .\nasian pied starling found in bhutan , china , india , myanmar , nepal , pakistan , bangladesh , cambodia , china , india , laos , myanmar , thailand , viet nam , brunei darussalam , indonesia , malaysia , singapore , and thailand .\nluckily , the black - winged starling parents are great ! they even fight over who gets to feed the chick first . we are also eagerly awaiting the hatching of the asian pied starling chick ( or chicks ) . as i get their meals ready , i watch tiny geckos zoom around on the kitchen wall and call out to their mates . not bad company , if you ask me .\nasian pied starling has a yellowish bill with a bright orange - red base . asian pied starling is strikingly marked in black and white , with long legs . the flight is slow and butterfly - like on round wings . the plumage is a contrasting black and white , with the upper parts throat and chest being black and the cheeks , lores , wing coverts and rump being white . both sexes are similar in plumage but young ones have dark brown in place of black . the flight is slow and butterfly - like on round wings . they feed on insects , worms , spiders , earthworms , various grains , various fruits and molluscs usually taken from the ground\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\nasian pied starling at nest - photo , video and / or article contributions are welcome ! please click here for info the avianweb strives to maintain accurate and up - to - date information ; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please send us an e - mail . more\ndistribution of pied starling in southern africa , based on statistical smoothing of the records from first sa bird atlas project ( \u00a9 animal demography unit , university of cape town ; smoothing by birgit erni and francesca little ) . colours range from dark blue ( most common ) through to yellow ( least common ) . see here for the latest distribution from the sabap2 .\nevery winter in poole harbour , winter - roosts of many different bird species are formed in a selection of habitats . some , like the grebe roosts are well studied and documented , but others are still a total unknown . during the winter period of 2014 / 15 nick hopper was commisioned to carry out a survey into the winter roosting habits of pied wagtail , starling and magpie . in the first part of his three part survey you can read about the behaviour and location choices that pied wagtails adopt pre and post roost during the cold winter months .\n22 cm ; 76\u201390 g . medium - sized starling with feathers of forehead and crown hackled , and feathers of hindcrown and nape elongated . nominate race has forehead and cheeks . . .\nmy journey starts in pejeng where he breeds the starlings as well as pied mynahs and black - winged starlings , which are even more endangered than the bali starlings . to own a bali starling is considered a status symbol in many countries , so they are poached for the pet trade as soon as they are released into the wild . this makes it extremely important that the locals work to help protect them .\ncraig , a . , feare , c . & christie , d . a . ( 2018 ) . asian pied starling ( gracupica contra ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthis species is instantly recognisable , with its black and white plumage and its long tail that always seems to be on the move . pied wagtails use a wide range of habitats and are even found nesting in the middle of our largest city centres . outside the breeding season , pied wagtails gather to roost in reed beds , greenhouses or in bushes and trees in supermarket car - parks and petrol - stations . presumably , they feel more secure when sleeping with the lights on .\nstarlings are great at mimicry , with examples including machines , such as telephones and car alarms , and other birds such as curlews and pied wagtails . consequently , it ' s difficult to know what their song is other than a medley of squeaks , clicks and whistles .\na clutch consists of 4 - 6 glossy blue eggs , which are laid one every other day . the incubation usually starts after the third or fourth egg has been laid . the young hatch about 14 to 15 days later . the female broods the chicks for about two weeks , with the female staying at the nest during the night . the chicks are fed by both parents until they fledge ( leave the nest ) about three weeks later . one instance of interspecific feeding has been reported - where a common myna fed a young asian pied starling .\nstarlings seem to have an insatiable appetite and will eat just about anything from anywhere - except starling proof feeders - and throw much of it about while they are at it ! further , they feed in flocks and so several birds are usually feeding in this lively manner , which is a sight to behold .\neach winter many thousands of starling enter the uk from mainland europe often forming large evening murmurations in rural , urban and semi - urban areas . roost sizes can vary greatly year on year , and in this report nick hopper focuses on the winter roost behavior during the 2014 / 15 winter period within poole harbour .\nunfortunately , the second bali starling chick died too . the adults are just not good parents and fed themselves before the baby . both were hand - raised and never learned how to properly parent . so we separate them , and each will get a new parent - raised mate in the hope that their new partners will teach them how to care for chicks .\nasian pied starlings occur naturally on the plains and low foothills of the indian subcontinent ( south asia ) and southeast asia up to 2 , 300 feet ( 700 meters ) above sea level . these starlings typically remain in areas with easy access to open water . over the last decades , they have expanded their territories . populations of them have also established themselves in dubai .\nstarling populations have declined seriously ( by over 70 % ) in recent times and are on the red list of birds of high conservation concern . there are several causes of this decline : changes in farming practices , changes in grassland management , loss of invertebrate food through the use of pesticides , fewer nesting sites in urban areas owing to household improvements and poorer survival rates among young birds .\nan increasingly common vagrant from eastern europe is the rose - coloured starling . in the summer , the adults have distinctive and unmistakable black and pink plumage - the breast , belly and back being pink . many visitors , however , are juveniles and these can be easily overlooked as they look similar to juvenile common starlings , except that the bill is yellowish , legs are pale pink , and the plumage is a drab pale grey - brown with darker wings .\nsexes alike . black and white ( pied ) plumage distinctive ; orange - red beak and orbital skin in front of eyes confirm identity . sociable ; small parties either move on their own or associate with other birds , notably other mynas and drongos ; rather common and familiar over its range but keeps a distance from man ; may make its ungainly nest in garden trees , but never inside houses , nor does it enter houses ; more a bird of open , cultivated areas , preferably where there is water ; attends to grazing cattle ; occasionally raids standing crops .\npicture of the asian pied starling has been licensed under a gfdl original source : j . m . gargattribution information , such as the author ' s name , e - mail , website , or signature , that was once visible in the image itself has been moved into the image metadata and / or image description page . this makes the image easier to reuse and more language - neutral , and makes the text easier to process and search for . commons discourages placing visible author information in images . boarisch | catal\u00e0 | deutsch | \u03b5\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac | english | espa\u00f1ol | fran\u00e7ais | magyar | italiano | author : j . m . gargattribution information , such as the author ' s name , e - mail , website , or signature , that was once visible in the image itself has been moved into the image metadata and / or image description page . this makes the image easier to reuse and more language - neutral , and makes the text easier to process and search for . commons discourages placing visible author information in images . boarisch | catal\u00e0 | deutsch | \u03b5\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac | english | espa\u00f1ol | fran\u00e7ais | magyar | italiano | permission : gnu free documentation license\nlos angeles zoo animal keepers regularly participate in field projects where their expertise benefits species in danger of extinction . established in 2003 by donor and former zoo commission president shelby kaplan sloan , the animal keeper advanced studies fund ( now underwritten by donor and former trustee dominic ornato ) encourages these opportunities . earlier this year , animal keeper lori rogalski took a break from the zoo\u2019s avian conservation center where she cares for many rare and endangered bird species to participate in a bali starling conservation project . her goal was to lend her skills to the project and to gain insights that might enhance the zoo\u2019s efforts to breed its bali starlings . rogalski shares her insights and travel experience to shine a light on this special species .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be common to abundant ( feare et al . 1998 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nlars petersson , holger teichmann , joggels , jonathan , fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric pelsy , dubi shapiro , fran trabalon , tom dudones , laurent demongin , jmdebruyn , paul van giersbergen , hannes lotter .\nhitherto treated as conspecific with g . jalla ( see that species ) . four subspecies recognized .\n( linnaeus , 1758 ) \u2013 extreme e pakistan ( lahore area ) , n & c india ( e to w assam , s to extreme n karnataka and n andhra pradesh ) , s nepal and bangladesh .\n( blyth , 1863 ) \u2013 ne india ( manipur ) , myanmar ( except s & e ) and sw china ( sw yunnan ) .\n( sharpe , 1897 ) \u2013 s & e myanmar , thailand ( except e ) , nw laos and cambodia .\nintroduced ( presumed nominate race ) in united arab emirates and perhaps saudi arabia ; also w india ( bombay area ) , japan and peninsular malaysia # r .\nsong , by both sexes , a prolonged series of phrases with shrill churrs and a few croaking and . . .\nopen areas with scattered trees and wet ground , often near cultivated areas and human habitation ; . . .\nomnivorous , diet includes animal food , fruit , nectar and flowers , and seeds . fruits taken include those of figs (\nseason feb\u2013oct ( mainly may\u2013jul ) in india , may\u2013jul in se asia ; possibly apr\u2013sept in arabia ; occasionally double - . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . common to locally abundant in most of indian subcontinent range , uncommon in w ; common to fairly common in se asia . common in bombay . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\ngracupica contra and g . jalla ( del hoyo and collar 2016 ) were previously lumped as sturnus contra following sibley and monroe ( 1990 , 1993 ) .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as generally common to fairly common , although rare and local in pakistan ( grimmett et al . 1998 ) , while national population sizes have been estimated at < c . 100 introduced breeding pairs in taiwan and c . 100 - 10 , 000 introduced breeding pairs in japan ( brazil 2009 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be increasing due to range expansions in pakistan and sumatra as ongoing habitat degradation is creating new areas of suitable habitat ( feare and craig 1998 ) .\n( amended version of 2017 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t103890729a118852226 .\ncritically endangered a2bd + 3bd + 4bd ; c2a ( i , ii ) ; d ver 3 . 1\nbutchart , s . , ekstrom , j . , martin , r , westrip , j . , wheatley , h .\njustification : the newly split species has almost completely disappeared from the wild within the past few decades , from which is inferred a very rapid population decline due to trapping for the cage bird trade . any remaining wild population is estimated to be very small , and the interbreeding in captivity of this species and g . contra leaves considerable doubt over the continuing existence of wild populations of g . jalla on java and perhaps anywhere . for these reasons the species is evaluated as critically endangered .\nthe species is known from java and bali , and formerly from lampung province in east sumatra , indonesia .\nthe newly split species has almost completely disappeared from the wild within the past few decades , a decline that has gone largely unnoticed due to the species previously being included with the widespread g . contra . wild populations are thought to have gone extinct on sumatra sometime between 1990 and 2000 , had been reduced by 2010 to a tiny remnant in a remote area of central java ( known from trapped birds ) and a small population on bali that may be derived from escapes ( eaton et al . 2015 ) . trend justification : the wild population on java may have been lost within the past few years , with recent records appearing to relate to small numbers of escaped or released birds . the large numbers being supplied to the market by commercial breeders are not readily distinguished from wild - sourced birds as the practice of using closed rings is very rare and not enforced at the point of sale ( s . chng in litt . 2016 ) .\nconsidered to have been similar to g . contra , a bird of open habitats with scattered trees , especially agricultural areas with wet ground and often associated with human habitation ( craig et al . 2016 ) .\nlarge numbers , apparently of this taxon , are being bred in commercial bird farms in central java to supply the trade . however , imports of other taxa into java and apparent mixing of these in captivity seem likely to have reduced the likelihood there being a source of g . jalla stock for conservation breeding ( collar et al . 2012 , eaton et al . 2015 )\nconservation actions underway it is not known to occur in any protected areas but key sites have been identified . research proposed surveys of locations where wild populations may persist are required urgently .\n( amended version of 2017 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t103890801a118590020 .\nstarlings : information and species . . . myna information and species . . . myna photo gallery\ndistribution / habitat . . . subspecies , ranges and id . . . alternate ( globa ) names\nthey have also adapted well to urban living and are often seen in cities and villages , and are generally seen in small groups . in urban environments , they are becoming so abundant that they are considered pests by many human residents . iucn ( 2006 ) listed them recently as among \u201c100 of the world\u2019s most invasive species\u201d .\nslight plumage variations , extent of streaking and size differences have been noted between the different subspecies .\nrange : found in extreme eastern pakistan , in the lahore area ; northern and central india ( east to western assam , south to extreme northern karnataka and northern andhra pradesh ) ; and southern nepal and bangladesh .\nid : similar to the nominate form , except for having reduced streaking on the shoulders and nape ( back of the neck ) .\nrange : found in the state of manipur located in northeastern india ; also western and northern myanmar and southwestern china ( southwestern yunnan ) .\nrange : southern and eastern burma ( myanmar ) , southern china ( southeastern yunnan ) , thailand ( except eastern parts ) , northwestern laos and cambodia .\nthe plumage is a contrasting black and white , with the upperparts , throat and chest being black and the cheeks , lores ( areas between the eyes and the bill ) , wing coverts and rump being white . the bare skin around the eyes are reddish . rarely , leucism ( partial albinism ) has also been recorded with this species .\njuvenile birds can be identified by the fact that the black markings of the adults are replaced by dark brown .\nmost breeding activities have been recorded between march and october . as the breeding season commences , flocks break up and birds pair up , although several pairs may breed in the same vicinity . the courtship ritual involves calling , fluffing of the feathers and head bobbing .\nthe nest is placed on a large tree ( often banyan , mango , jackfruit or rosewood ) or in urban areas , on man - made structures . it is loosely constructed out of straw into the shape of a dome with an entrance on the side .\ntheir diet mostly consists of insects , worms , spiders , etc . and various fruits .\nthey produce a wide repertoire of calls consisting of whistles , trills , buzzes , clicks and warbling notes .\nthey make well known for their outstanding ability to mimic human speech and imitate tunes .\nchinese : ? ? ? , ? ? ? . . . czech : \u0161pa ? ek indomalajsk\u00fd , \u0161pacek strakat\u00fd . . . danish : skadest\u00e6r . . . finnish : kyl\u00e4kottarainen . . . french : \u00e9tourneau pie , martin pie . . . german : elsterstar . . . irish : m\u00edona breac . . . indonesian : jalak suren . . . italian : storno bianco e nero , storno bianconero asiatico . . . japanese : hoojiromukudori . . . japanese : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . dutch : eksterspreeuw . . . norwegian : svartstrupest\u00e6r . . . polish : szpak srokaty . . . russian : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . slovak : \u00e9korec strakat\u00fd , \u0161korec strakat\u00fd . . . spanish : estornino p\u00e1lido asi\u00e1tico , estornino p\u00edo . . . swedish : svartvit stare . . . thai : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\na flock of birds seen feeding in short grass in a field on a rainy day .\na flock of birds heard calling from a tall tree during the dawn chorus in a small village .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nendemic to south africa , lesotho and swaziland , generally preferring open habitats with lots of grass , such as cultivated areas , grassland and rural settlements , but generally avoiding larger cities and towns .\nit mainly eats arthropods , supplemented with seeds , fruit and nectar , doing most of its foraging on the ground . it often associates with livestock , catching the prey they disturb and removing ticks from their skin . the following food items have been recorded in its diet :\nmonogamous , usually colonial cooperative breeder , nesting either solitarily or in colonies ranging from a few pairs to several thousand individuals . the breeding pair are typically assisted by up to 7 helpers , who are either immature or unmated adults , often becoming the mate of a bird previously assisted in an earlier breeding season .\negg - laying season is year - round , peaking from august - january .\nit lays 2 - 6 eggs , which are incubated solely by the female for about 14 - 16 days .\nthe chicks are fed by parents and helpers , leaving the nest after about 23 - 27 days ; helpers continue to feed them for about a week more before they become independent .\nhockey par , dean wrj and ryan pg 2005 . roberts - birds of southern africa , viith ed . the trustees of the john voelcker bird book fund , cape town .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 289 , 635 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nthe breeding season in india is spread from march to september . nest is different from that of the other mynas , being a large untidy globular structure of twigs , leaves , grass and rubbish , placed on a large tree or in urban areas , on man - made structures . it is loosely constructed out of straw into the the shape of a dome with an entrance on the side . eggs 4 - 6 , glossy blue , without markings , which are laid one every other day . the incubation usually starts after the third or fourth egg has been laid . the young hatch about 14 to 15 days later . both sexes share in building and care of the young\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026 .\nskin around the eyes is orange - reddish . the upper body , throat and breast are black while the cheek , lores , wing coverts and rump are light grayish - white .\nthe plumage is a contrasting black and white , with the upper parts , throat and chest being black and the cheeks , lores , wing coverts and rump being white . both sexes are similar in plumage but young ones have dark brown in place of black .\nthe species is found mainly in the plains but in the foothills up to about 700 meter above sea level .\nthe flight is slow and butterfly - like on round wings . they feed on insects , worms , spiders , earthworms , various grains , various fruits and molluscs usually taken from the ground .\nthe breeding season in india is spread from march to september . nest is different from that of the other mynas , being a large untidy globular structure of twigs , leaves , grass and rubbish , placed on a large tree or in urban areas , on man - made structures . it is loosely constructed out of straw into the shape of a dome with an entrance on the side .\neggs 4 - 6 , glossy blue , without markings , which are laid one every other day . the incubation usually starts after the third or fourth egg has been laid . the young hatch about 14 to 15 days later . both sexes share in building and care of the young .\nsave my name , email , and website in this browser for the next time i comment .\nanswer key ugc net november 2017 . download answer key of ugc net november 2017\nin the winter it has white speckles above and below . the sexes are alike though the male has fewer speckles on the rump and wings . the bill is dark grey - brown during the winter .\nthe speckles disappear through the course of the winter and by the spring the plumage becomes predominantly iridescent with green and purple . the colour of the base of its quite long yellow beak is different in males and females - it is pink for girls and blue for boys .\njuvenile starlings have grey - brown plumage with large white speckles on the underparts and light cream coloured throat , but moult completely in the autumn in to the spotty adult plumage . they have a dark greyish bill .\nfirst winter starlings look most peculiar and give rise to many queries about strange birds in people ' s gardens - they are typically grey - brown on the head and back but blackish with white spots below .\nin flight , starlings have pointed , triangular wings and fly fast and direct . when they come in to land they look a little like harrier aircraft with slightly drooped triangular wings .\nmale starlings can be heard singing throughout the year except when they are moulting in july and august .\nstarlings seem to feed on just about anything : insects , worms , snails , berries , fruit , scraps , suet . however , they feed only invertebrates - not\njunk\nfood - to their young .\ntheir beak is used to probe the ground and is powerful enough to be opened to part the ground and reach food that is buried , they can also swivel their eyes forward to look along the length of their bill to the area they are probing .\nthey are often found with lapwings in wetland areas , where they feed on the food that the lapwings have disturbed - this is called commensal feeding .\nthe male builds the nest from grass in a hole in a wall , tree or building , but the female lines it with feathers , wool and moss . the male may decorate the nest with leaves and petals in order to deter parasites and improve his chances of attracting a mate .\nthe eggs are pale blue , smooth and glossy , and about 30 mm by 21 mm . the male and female take turns incubating the eggs , and both adults feed the young . the female will sometimes remove an egg from a neighbouring starlings ' nests and lay one of her own in its place so as to give her offspring a better chance of surviving .\nstarlings will use medium - sized nest boxes with a hole about 45 mm diameter .\njuveniles disperse after becoming independent and roam woodlands and the countryside in large flocks . in the autumn , many birds from scandinavia , finland and poland cross the north sea to winter in britain .\nin the wintertime , both resident and immigrant birds form large roosts , gathering in buildings , trees or reed beds . the roosts are often several thousand birds ' strong , but those that gather in reed beds , such as on the somerset levels , can comprise a few million birds . as the day draws to a close , the starlings return to the roost and before settling down for the night the increasingly large flock darkens the skies as it swirls around like a swarm of insects , making this one of nature ' s greatest spectacles .\nwhen the young have left their nest , usually by the end of may , seeing both parents dashing back and forth with food for the gaping mouths of up to four juveniles is common . the juveniles are very inquisitive and are always drawn to the pond , where they inevitably find a way in through the netting .\nin the winter , the starlings roost at night either in the city centre or in woodlands . between 9 . 00 am and 10 . 00 am , a murmuration of starlings will descend on our suburban gardens looking for food and then again just before dusk , when they are usually also seen bathing and can quickly empty the bird bath of water through their furious splashing .\nduring the summer and early autumn we rarely see any starlings as they are probably in woodland and farmland areas . their numbers peak in the winter when migrants ( up to 30 million birds from northern europe ) add to the numbers and they search for food in the suburbs , and in the spring when they are feeding juveniles . the migrant birds usually have duller bills .\nover the years fewer starlings have been visiting the garden ; a possible explanation is that food is abundant elsewhere , such as in the city centre .\nwe\u2019ve partnered with invision to make it easier to search and download our images in sketch and adobe\u00ae photoshop\u00ae .\n{ { t ( ' more _ than _ one _ credit ' , { zero : calc . totalcreditcost } ) } }\nonce this video clip is done converting , you ' ll be able to download it from your video conversion queue or download history .\neditorial use only photos don ' t have any model or property releases , which means they can ' t be used for commercial , promotional , advertorial or endorsement purposes . this type of content is intended to be used in connection with events that are newsworthy or of general interest ( for example , in a blog , textbook , newspaper or magazine article ) .\nthis format requires a quick conversion ( usually under 5 mins ) before download begins , or you can get the largest and smallest formats immediately .\nby clicking\nconfirm download\nyou agree that you ' ve read and agree to all applicable license agreements for this download .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nif is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .\nenter your log in email address and we\u0092ll send you a link to reset your password .\nsorry , this image isn ' t available for this licence . please refer to the license restrictions for more information .\non the alamy prints site ( powered by art . com ) choose your frame , the size and finish of your photo .\nenter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .\narchived 2016 topics : hill myna ( gracula religiosa ) is being split : list g . religiosa and g . indica as least concern , g . robusta as critically endangered and g . venerata as endangered ?\nthis is part of a consultation on the red list implications of extensive changes to birdlife\u2019s taxonomy for passerines .\nlynx edicions and birdlife international will soon publish the second volume of the hbw - birdlife illustrated checklist of the birds of the world , building off the handbook of the birds of the world series , and birdlife\u2019s annually updated taxonomic checklist .\nthe new checklist will be based on the application of criteria for recognising species limits described by tobias et al . ( 2010 ) . full details of the specific scores and the basis of these for each new taxonomic revision will be provided in the checklist .\nfollowing publication , an open and transparent mechanism will be established to allow people to comment on the taxonomic revisions or suggest new ones , and provide new information of relevance in order to inform regular updates . we are also actively seeking input via a discussion topic here regarding some potential taxonomic revisions that currently lack sufficient information .\nthe new checklist will form the taxonomic basis of birdlife\u2019s assessments of the status of the world\u2019s birds for the iucn red list . the taxonomic changes that will appear in volume 2 of the checklist ( for passerines ) will begin to be incorporated into the 2016 red list update , with the remainder to be incorporated into subsequent red list updates .\npreliminary red list assessments have been carried out for the newly split or lumped taxa . we are now requesting comments and feedback on these preliminary assessments .\nlarge numbers , apparently of this taxon , are being bred in commercial bird farms in central java to supply the trade . however , imports of other taxa into java and apparent mixing of these in captivity seem likely to have reduced the likelihood there being a source of g . jalla stock for conservation breeding ( collar et al . 2012 , eaton et al . 2015 ) ; while chng et al . ( 2015 ) mention large numbers of likely captive - bred juveniles in javan markets these are not listed as definitively this taxon in their appendix .\nany remaining wild population is likely to be tiny and clarifying the status ( and indeed identity ) of the birds currently at large within the species native range is a high priority .\nit is proposed that the newly split species be listed as critically endangered , under criteria a2d + 3d + 4d ; c2a ( i ) ; d .\nchng , s . c . l . , eaton , j . a . , krishnasamy , k . , shepherd , c . r . & nijman , v . 2015 . in the market for extinction : an inventory of jakarta\u2019s bird markets . petaling jaya , selangor , malaysia : traffic .\ncollar , n . j . , gardner , l . , jeggo , d . f . , marcordes , b . , owen , a . , pagel , t . , pes , t . , vaidl , a . , wilkinson , r . & wirth , r . 2012 . conservation breeding and the most threatened birds in asia . birdingasia 18 : 50\u201357 .\neaton , j . a . , shepherd , c . r . , rheindt , f . e . , harris , j . b . c . , van balen , s . ( b . ) , wilcove , d . s . and collar , n . j . 2015 . trade - driven extinctions and near - extinctions of avian taxa in sundaic indonesia . forktail 31 : 1 - 12 .\nebird 2016a . steve jones : checklist s24210802 . denpasar , jalan pulau serangan , bali county , nusa tenggara , id . urltoken . accessed 25 th august 2016 .\nharris , j . b . c . , green , j . m . h . , prawiradilaga , d . m . , giam , x . , giyanto , hikmatullah , d . , putra , c . a . & wilcove , d . s . 2015 . using market data and expert opinion to identify overexploited species in the wild bird trade . biol . conserv . 187 : 51\u201360 .\niucn ( 2001 ) iucn red list categories and criteria : version 3 . 1 . gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk : iucn species survival commission .\ntobias , j . a . , seddon , n . , spottiswoode , c . n . , pilgrim , j . d . , fishpool , l . d . c . and collar , n . j . ( 2010 ) quantitative criteria for species delimitation . ibis 152 : 724\u2013746 .\nthis entry was posted in archive , asia , indonesian cagebird trade , taxonomy and tagged bali , cagebird trade , indonesia , java , sumatra . bookmark the permalink .\ntraffic would like to share information on trade observations of this species , in a bid to quantify and better understand the threat from overexploitation .\ngracupica jalla are regularly seen in large numbers in markets in indonesia . 666 individuals were recorded from 44 stalls in three markets in jakarta surveyed in july 2014 ( chng et al . , 2015 ) ( another 116 were gracupica contra floweri ) . furthermore , 242 individuals were recorded from 57 stalls in an inventory of five markets in surabaya , malang and yogyakarta in june 2015 ( chng and eaton , 2016 ) ( 4 more were gracupica contra floweri ) \u2013 of these , 2 were observed with closed leg rings . 144 were recorded for sale in bandung in september 2016 ( 2 more were gracupica contra floweri ) \u2013 of these , 33 were juveniles , and prices ranging from idr650 , 000 to idr1 million were recorded . it is suspected that most of the gracupica jalla seen in trade are from captive breeding facilities .\nreference : chng , s . c . l . & eaton , j . a . 2016 . in the market for extinction : eastern and central java . traffic . petaling jaya , selangor , malaysia .\nbased on available information , our preliminary proposal for the 2016 red list would be to adopt the proposed classifications outlined in the initial forum discussion ."]}
{"id": 280, "summary": [{"text": "the northern nightingale-wren ( microcerculus philomela ) is a species of passerine bird in the family troglodytidae .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is found in belize , costa rica , guatemala , honduras , mexico , and nicaragua .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "northern nightingale - wren", "paragraphs": ["christian , d . , d . roberts . june 2000 . first description of the nest and nesting behavior of the nightingale wren .\n, under the name nightingale wren . their geographic differences , along with distinct differences in song and physical traits have separated the groups . they are sometimes referred to as northern and southern nightingale wrens , respectively . this division is likely the beginning of speciation in this group of very closely related birds .\nthe nightingale wren has a very limited range . it is found from far southeast mexico through to costa rica ( the northern portion of central america ) . it has been seen by a few observant researchers , birdwatchers , and tourists in this area .\nkroodsma , d . & brewer , d . ( 2018 ) . northern nightingale - wren ( microcerculus philomela ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nnightingale wrens are popular on birding resorts in central america . along with the many other diverse species of birds found in this region , they create an attraction for tourists and an industry for this kind of resort .\nnightingale wrens are mostly insectivores that forage in the debris of the forest floor for insects , arachnids , and other small forest invertabrates . a peculiar behavior when searching for food is the constant motion of the tail beating on the ground as they walk . this could be used as a method of drawing food out into the open to be eaten .\nnightingale wrens are very elusive , which makes them difficult to study , as well as to observe and enjoy in the wild . their markings and habit of hiding on the forest floor or in low vegetation help them to be safe , and also avoid intervention from humans . the song of these birds is largely what helps people locate them in the forest and distinguish them from other birds .\ndue to their secretive nature . their mating season runs from may or june until september . they have been observed using previously existing nests on the floor of forests in the dirt to lay eggs and raise their young . some biparental care has also been observed . the average clutch size is about 2 - 3 eggs . the incubation period usually lasts for 19 - 20 days during which the parents are directly involved with caring for the eggs . once hatched , the observed time to fledging is about 16 - 17 days . no observations have been made of the time it takes young to reach sexual maturity . most wrens are polygamous , so it can be hypothesized that nightingale wrens are as well , but no research supports the idea at this time .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\npartners in flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50 , 000 individuals ( a . panjabi in litt . 2008 ) , thus it is placed in the band 20 , 000 - 49 , 999 individuals here . trend justification : the population is suspected to be in decline owing to ongoing habitat destruction and fragmentation .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\nbird calling naturally , no play back used . recording filtered to rid of environment noise\nrecording equipment : iphone + no mic . comments : sobre sendero , respuesta a playback , sendero ajillo cerca de lek phaethornis longirostris tir2 . to access original . wav file contact marceloa27 ( at ) gmail . com\nnear edge of forest and trail singing from forest floor about 30 - 40ft away . recording amplified to emphasize quieter bits of song using audacity .\nfile not edited in any way . equipment : telinga parabola , sennheiser mk62 microphone , zoom h6 recorder . it was approaching sunset in the sub - montane / montane broadleaf forest and the individual was in thick understory within 2 meters of the forest floor . it was not possible to see it . this was in eligio panti national park . the next morning , several pair of this species were heard in the same area . i was able to video an individual singing the next morning . at one point i was able to record one individual singing for more than 5 1 / 2 minutes without stopping .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nsometimes treated as conspecific with m . marginatus , but differs in its all - black bill ( 1 ) ; dark vs whitish or white throat ( 3 ) ; deep grey - brown vs mid - grey or white breast ( 2 ) ; and song consisting of short whistles randomly going up and down in pitch vs a fast series of rising whistles ( 3 ) followed by a very long series of long pure whistles gradually descending in pitch , but remaining above c . 5 khz ( 3 ) . monotypic .\nwhat do ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) mean ? learn more about the scoring system .\nlowlands of s mexico ( n chiapas ) , nc guatemala , s belize , and caribbean lowlands of honduras , nicaragua and n costa rica ( s to r reventaz\u00f3n ) .\n10\u201311\u00b75 cm ; male 17\u00b74\u201321\u00b75 g , female 16\u00b74\u201317\u00b74 g . lores and side of face are dull greyish - brown ; crown and upperparts deep chocolate - brown , each feather . . .\nsong unmistakable and \u201chaunting\u201d , a series , up to 30 seconds long , of clearly whistled notes , c . 2 . . .\nhumid lowland forest , especially undisturbed virgin evergreen forest and contiguous cloudforest ; . . .\nlittle information ; in costa rica , insects , woodlice ( isopoda ) , spiders ( araneae ) and centipedes ( chilopoda ) recorded as food . typically , . . .\nseason from may or jun until at least sept in costa rica . no other information available .\nnot globally threatened . uncommon to fairly common in mexico , uncommon in guatemala , apparently rare in belize , uncommon to fairly common in honduras , and locally common in . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\ngenetic data indicate a close relationship to polioptilidae , followed by certhiidae and sittidae # r # r # r , and support monophyly of present family , once donacobius is removed ; traditional linear sequence of species and genera , with campylorhynchus listed first , now rearranged to reflect discovered phylogenetic relationships # r # r # r # r # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 291 , 797 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\namerican ornithologists ' union ' s\nlist of the 2 , 037 bird species ( with scientific and english names ) known from the a . o . u . check - list area\n( aou check - list , 7th edition , updated with supplements 42 - 46 ) , maintained at urltoken\nzoonomen - zoological nomenclature resource , 2011 . 02 . 04 , website ( version 04 - feb - 11 )\nzoonomen - zoological nomenclature resource\nmaintained by alan p . peterson at urltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : microcerculus philomela . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nlives in thick evergreen forests , which are also usually very moist , and have a large amount of cover on the forest floor . most of the time\ncan be found on the forest floor , or perched on low branches and plants , and are very difficult to spot unless they are singing . ravines and foothills in these forests are favorite environments of these birds . ( stiles & skutch 1989 )\nboth male and female adults have dark black markings , usually scaling on their breast and throat which have a greyish base color , but can appear almost completely black . their dorsal side is dark brown , with black scalloping around the edges , as well as on the wings . there are a lighter spots on the wing coverts . they have a black bill and black legs .\nimmature wrens have markings similar to adults , but are over - all paler in color , creating more contrast between light and dark markings .\nyoung wrens are even paler than immature wrens , though still similar , also with a marked contrast in color . their scaling is mostly grey , instead of black , and their base color is more of a light cream or buff shade .\nmales learn only one song during their lifetime , but this song can be altered to fit different uses , such as mating and marking territory .\nkali reichert ( author ) , university of michigan - ann arbor , phil myers ( editor ) , museum of zoology , university of michigan - ann arbor .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nreproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .\nrainforests , both temperate and tropical , are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground . epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant . precipitation is typically not limiting , but may be somewhat seasonal .\nto cite this page : reichert , k . 2003 .\nmicrocerculus philomela\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 287, "summary": [{"text": "tyler 's mouse opossum ( marmosa tyleriana ) is a south american marsupial of the family didelphidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it lives in rainforests of the guiana highlands of southern venezuela at elevations between 1300 and 2200 m .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the species has only been found on three isolated tepuis ( auyantepui , marahuaca and sarisari\u00f1ama ) .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "all three of these locations are in protected areas ( canaima , duida-marahuaca and jaua-sarisari\u00f1ama national parks ) .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the latin species name refers to the habitat in which the opossum was first found , a tyleria forest .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "in turn , both the genus tyleria and the opossum 's common name refer to sidney f .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "tyler , an american historian and photographer who helped finance the 1928-29 expedition of the american museum of natural history to the headwaters of the orinoco , during which the opossum was discovered . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "tyler ' s mouse opossum", "paragraphs": ["tyler s mouse opossum tyler ' s mouse opossum tyler ' s mouse opossum ( marmosa tyleriana ) is a venezuela .\ntyler s mouse opossum tyler ' s mouse opossum tyler ' s mouse opossum ( marmosa tyleriana ) is a venezuela . ( full text )\ntyler ' s mouse opossum ( marmosa tyleriana ) is a south american marsupial of the family didelphidae .\ntyler ' s mouse opossum ( marmosa tyleriana ) is a south american marsupial of the family didelphidae . ( wiki )\nand the opossum ' s common name refer to sidney f . tyler , an american historian and photographer who helped finance the 1928 - 29 expedition of the\na young / baby of a tyler is called a ' joey ' . the females are called ' jill ' and males ' jack ' .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\nvoss , r . s . , lunde , d . p . & jansa , s . a . , 2005 : on the contents of gracilinanus gardner and creighton , 1989 , with the descripition of a previously unrecognized clade of small didelphid marsupials . \u2013american museum novitates : # 3482 , pp . 1 - 34\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nvoss , r . s . & jansa , s . a . , 2003 : phylogenetic studies on didelphid marsupials ii . nonmolecular data and new irbp sequences : separate and combined analyses of didelphine relationships with denser taxon sampling . \u2013bulletin of the american museum of natural history : vol . # 276 , pp . 1 - 82\nvoss , r . s . , gardner , a . l . & jansa , s . a . , 2004 : on the relationships of \u201c marmosa \u201d formosa shamel , 1930 ( marsupialia : didelphidae ) , a phylogenetic puzzle from the chaco of northern argentina . \u2013american museum novitates : vol . # 3442 , pp . 1 - 18\nnowak , r . m . , 1991 : walker ' s mammals of the world ; part 1 . \u2013the johns hopkins university press , baltimore and london , 1991 , xlviii - 642 - lxiii\nnowak , r . m . , 1991 : walker ' s mammals of the world ; part 2 . \u2013the johns hopkins university press , baltimore and london , 1991 , xii - 643 - 1629\nmckenna , m . c . & bell , s . k . , ( eds . ) 1997 : classification of mammals \u2013 above the species level . \u2013columbia university press , new york , 1997 , xii - 631\nthis species inhabits highland tepuis . the female has only four teats , indicating one of the smallest litter sizes for any species of marmosa s . l . . it is nocturnal and crepuscular , arboreal and terrestrial ( eisenberg 1989 ) .\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is listed as data deficient in view of the absence of recent information on its extent of occurrence , status and ecological requirements . the species is known from only three isolated localities , and although these are within protected areas these restricted populations could be at risk . further information in needed on the actual distribution and natural history .\nthis species is found in the guyanan highlands of southern venezuela ( gardner 2008 ) , and is restricted to three isolated tepuis ( duida - marahuaca , jaua - sarisari\u00f1ama , and auyantepui ) . the species is not suspected to occur on the serrania de maigualida ( northwest of its known distribution ) and on sierra de lema ( east of its known distribution ) , as both areas have different vegetation . it might occur on roraima , which has similar vegetation . this species was first found on mount duida above 2 , 000 m ( eisenberg 1989 ) . it is found in humid forests from 1 , 300 to 2 , 100 m .\nthis species is rare ; there have been many surveys in the guyanan highlands of southern venezuela with no records of this species .\nall three places where the species has been captured are national monuments ( the most strict figure of protected area in venezuela ) , and the areas are restricted to access with helicopters due to their isolation .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nvenezuela , amazonas ,\ncentral camp , mt . duida plateau , upper rio orinoco .\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\nmammalogists for helping to forge the nomenclatural mesh that holds our science together . * journal of mammalogy * to refer to this work as a checklist undervalues it and does not give sufficient credit to the authors and editors for their meticulous efforts in its production . a valuable reference work and a vital tool , particularly for researchers . * journal of natural history * by far the most convenient source for finding the correct scientific name of any mammal and should be on the reference shelf of libraries striving to have useful science sections . * science books and films * the editors and authors are to be congratulated for undertaking such an outstanding and authoritative work , and it should serve as a standard reference for mammalian species taxonomy for many years to come . * journal of mammalian evolution * the third edition adds to its reputation as an outstanding and authorative work . * national museum of natural history weekly update & forecast * impressive and elegant work . - - g . r . seamons * reference reviews * a must - have text for any professional mammalogist , and a useful and authoritative reference for scientists and students in other disciplines . * southeastern naturalist * a magnificent work important to anyone seriously interested in mammals . this work is essential for academic or special libraries supporting zoology or conservation and for large public libraries . * american reference books annual * as were many of our colleagues , we were waiting for this revised edition since 2003 . . . we can say that the wait was worth it . - - sergio solari and robert j . baker * journal of mammalogy *\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nthis species is found in the guyanan highlands of southern venezuela ( gardner 2007 ) . the species is restricted to three isolated tepuis ( duida - marahuaca , jaua - sarisariama , and auyantepui ) at elevations between 1 , 300 and 2 , 200 m ( gardner and creighton 2007 , ochoa 1985 , rossi 2005 , tate 1933 ) .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nguayananhiiriopossumi\nto\nmarmosa tyleriana tate , 1931\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthis species inhabits humid forests in highland tepuis . as expected from the paucity of specimens in natural history collections , there are not studies available about the ecology and natural history of this species .\nlew , d . , prez - hernandez , r . , gutirrez , e . , ventura , j . & lpez fuster , m .\nthis species is listed as data deficient in view of the absence of recent information on its extent of occurrence , status and ecological requirements . this species is known only from three isolated locations and , therefore , its populations might be at risk in spite of these sites being in protected areas .\nall three places are national monuments ( the most strict figure of protected area of venezuela ) and the areas are restricted to access with helicopters due to their isolation .\ngardner , a . l . ( 2005 ) .\norder didelphimorphia\n. in wilson , d . e . ; reeder , d . m . mammal species of the world ( 3rd ed . ) . johns hopkins university press . pp . 9\u201310 . isbn 978 - 0 - 8018 - 8221 - 0 . oclc 62265494 .\nbeolens , bo ; watkins , michael ; grayson , michael ( 2009 - 09 - 28 ) . the eponym dictionary of mammals . baltimore : the johns hopkins university press . p . 421 . isbn 978 - 0801893049 . oclc 270129903 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\npicture has been licensed under a creative commons attribution sharealike license original source : base map derived from file : blankmap - world . png . distribution data from iucn red list author : chermundy\nsorry , the species or group that you asked for is not on the onezoom tree .\nthe open tree contains additional species not on the onezoom tree ( particularly subspecies and fossils ) . to check if this is why we cannot find your species or group , you can\n, then chances are you have entered a wrong number or a misspelt name .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\ncarroll , r . l . , 1988 : vertebrate paleontology and evolution . \u2013w . h . freeman and company , new york , 1988 , 698 .\ncarroll , r . l . , 1988 : appendix . 594 - 648 . in carroll , r . l . , 1988 : vertebrate paleontology and evolution . \u2013w . h . freeman and company , new york , 1988 , 698 .\njos h . m . dols , for gathering additional information and missing species .\nenglish french online dictionary term bank , where you can search in more than 2 million words in categories and different pronunciation options .\nbiokids is sponsored in part by the interagency education research initiative . it is a partnership of the university of michigan school of education , university of michigan museum of zoology , and the detroit public schools . this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant drl - 0628151 . copyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 , the regents of the university of michigan . all rights reserved ."]}
{"id": 288, "summary": [{"text": "a woodlouse ( plural woodlice ) is a terrestrial isopod crustacean with a rigid , segmented , long exoskeleton and fourteen jointed limbs .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "woodlice mostly feed on dead plant material , and they are usually active at night .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "woodlice form the suborder oniscidea within the order isopoda , with over 5,000 known species .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "woodlice in the genus armadillidium and in the family armadillidae can roll up into an almost perfect sphere as a defensive mechanism , hence some of the common names such as pill bug or roly-poly .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "most woodlice , however , can not do this . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "woodlouse", "paragraphs": ["and the area which the woodlouse inhabits . the woodlouse is found in nearly every\nporcellio scaber ( otherwise known as the common rough woodlouse or simply rough woodlouse ) , is a species of european woodlouse .\nthis is the british english definition of woodlouse . view american english definition of woodlouse .\nthe common woodlouse is the most widespread species of woodlouse in the british isles , both geographically and ecologically .\nthe female woodlouse lays around 24 eggs which she keeps inside a brood pouch . the woodlouse eggs hatch after an\nthe ' reading woodlouse watch 1987 ' - s . p . hopkin download paper\nthe woodlouse is found in dark , damp places in forests and jungles throughout the world . the woodlouse feeds on decaying leaf and plant matter on the forest floor , meaning that the woodlouse plays a vital role in the natural carbon dioxide cycle .\n, it is one of the\nbig five\nspecies of woodlouse . it has also colonised\ncommon woodlouse : the origin of the common woodlouse and a description are a part of the information found on this link to the slater museum of natural history / university of puget sound website .\nwhile their closest modern descendant is the horseshoe crab , they bear close resemblance to the modern woodlouse .\nalso include common pill woodlouse , roly poly , and german ' kugelassel ' . the genus was once\nthe species are noted for resemblance to the common woodlouse or pill bug , to which they are related .\nto anyone with the intelligence of a woodlouse it is obvious that they have had more than ample warning .\noniscus asellus , the common woodlouse , is one of the largest and most common species of woodlouse in the british isles and western and northern europe , growing to lengths of 16 mm and widths of 6 mm .\nthe first 3 - 5 are dug by a single woodlouse , which then stops to guard the new burrow .\nbibble - bug , chooky , chuggy pig , roly - poly . . . the many names of the woodlouse\nof just a few days exposing the woodlouse babies . due to the fact that the baby woodlice take a number of months to fully develop , the mother woodlouse will often stay close to her young until they are adult woodlice .\npub . med . verified bites by the woodlouse spider , dysdera crocata . vetter , rs , isbister , gk .\nbut a crustacean , that has 14 parts to its body , which gives the woodlouse the flexibility to be able to curl into a ball to protect itself from danger . this means that only the hard outer shell of the woodlouse is exposed .\nsource / reference article learn how you can use or cite the woodlouse article in your website content , school work and other projects .\nisopods live in the sea , in fresh water , or on land and include familiar animals such as the sea slater and woodlouse .\na female woodlouse will keep fertilised eggs in a marsupium on the underside of her body until they hatch into small , white offspring .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - common woodlouse - overview\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - common woodlouse - overview\ntitle =\narkive video - common woodlouse - overview\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\na single woodlouse , ( pea bugs and roly - polies are commonly used names due to the woodlouse\u2019s ability to roll itself into a ball when in danger ) may not bother you too much , however , an infestation of woodlice ( the plural for woodlouse ) is usually a sign that your home has sufficient damp and decaying wood for them to thrive , meaning its time to call pest control professionals immediately .\nif a foraging woodlouse can not find the burrow entrance on its return , it employs a complex and efficient strategy to find it again .\nthese woodlice are three of the five species most commonly found in gardens - together with the other two species , they are known as the \u2018famous five\u2019 . the remaining two in this club are common pigmy woodlouse , trichoniscus pusillus , and the common shiny woodlouse , oniscus asellus .\nthe common woodlouse is one of the largest native woodlice in britain , at up to 16 mm ( 0 . 63 in ) long .\na more obvious animal connection is the armadillo , reflected in the latin name of the pill woodlouse , armadillidium . both creatures have a protective , ridged body , and the woodlouse in some ways resembles a miniature armadillo \u2013 which gets its name from the spanish armado , \u2018armed one\u2019 .\nnatureplus : wildlife garden blog : bibble - bug , chooky , chuggy pig , roly - poly . . . the many names of the woodlouse\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - pill woodlouse ( armadillidium vulgare )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - pill woodlouse ( armadillidium vulgare )\ntitle =\narkive species - pill woodlouse ( armadillidium vulgare )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - common woodlouse ( oniscus asellus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - common woodlouse ( oniscus asellus )\ntitle =\narkive species - common woodlouse ( oniscus asellus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\n, some are even bigger . the woodlouse has an average lifespan of around 2 years but some are known to get up to 4 years old .\na is another relative of the woodlouse , it lives in the splash zone on rocky shores and can grow surprisingly large , about 2 . 5 cm .\none of the most recent additions to the pantheon of woodlouse nomenclature is roly - poly bug which , as with its older cousin lockchest , relates to the pill woodlouse\u2019s ability to roll into a ball . still a colloquial term and chiefly used in north america , roly - poly bug can also be applied to similar invertebrates .\npillbugs belong to the woodlouse family . they are one of the few sub - species which has the ability to roll into a ball when threatened . this defensive stance is a means of protection . because of this characteristic , pillbugs belong to the armadillidiidae genus ; which is a family of woodlouse which share this specific ability .\n, known as woodlouse hunters , which feed exclusively on them ) , small mammals ( such as shrews ) , birds , centipedes , harvestmen , and ground beetles .\n- vetter , r . & isbister , g . 2006 . verified bites by the woodlouse spider , dysdera crocata . toxicon 47 ( 2006 ) 826 - 829 .\ntheir morphology resembles that of their terrestrial cousin , the woodlouse : their bodies are dorso - ventrally compressed , protected by a rigid , calcareous exoskeleton composed of overlapping segments .\nhe found a moth that lived on feathers , a beetle , a woodlouse that lived on dung , and numerous spiders that he thought lived on scavengers of the waterfowl .\nthe general body form of the different genuses explains some of their behaviour \u2013 there are six types : runner , clinger , roller , creeper , spiny form and non - conformist , of which the first four only are found in britain . when you pick up a woodlouse , you may recognise it by its body form - for example , if disturbed , the common pill woodlouse , armadillidium vulgare , will roll into a ball . conversely , a common striped woodlouse , philoscia muscorum , is a definite runner . . .\nzimmer , m . , t . werner . 1998 . microorganisms and cellulose digestion in the gut of the woodlouse porcellio scaber . journal of chemical ecology , 24 : 1397 - 1408 .\nthe president and fellows of harvard college . 2013 .\ncommon rough woodlouse\n( on - line ) . boston harbor islands @ harvard university . accessed january 31 , 2013 at urltoken .\nwoodlice are widespread and common animals . this fold - out chart provides a simple woodlouse identification trail to the species that are most likely to be encountered in gardens or in and around buildings .\nwoodlice have the ability to increase in number quickly . in some species the female lays eggs three times a year with approximately fifty eggs laid each time . the common garden woodlouse species , found inside uk homes , lays one clutch of 150 eggs a year . the female woodlouse retains the eggs in a pouch on her body until they hatch . the hatchlings start life measuring approximately 2 millimeters .\napart from body form , shape and colour , another useful diagnostic feature is the antennae and it is important to examine the individual sections . for example , the common rough woodlouse , porcello scaber , has a flagellum ( end section of an antennae ) made up of 2 segments whereas the common striped woodlouse has a 3 - segmented flagellum . we were equipped with microscopes to observe these finer details .\nwoodlice feed on dead organic matter , which they detect by means of taste and smell ( 2 ) . the common woodlouse is gregarious , and typically spends the day concealed beneath stones , logs and other objects . when threatened , this species defends itself by clamping down onto the surface ; the feet can grip the substrate very tightly , and this woodlouse is able to cling on tenaciously ( 2 ) .\ngunn , d . 1937 . the humidity reactions of the woodlouse ; porcellio scaber ( latreille ) . the journal of experimental biology , 14 : 178 - 186 . accessed january 31 , 2013 at urltoken .\nbites by the woodlouse spider , dysdera crocata , are virtually innocuous . the main symptom is minor pain , typically lasting less than 1 hr , probably due mostly to the mechanical puncture of the skin .\nand therefore only eats organic plant matter . the woodlouse rarely eats live plants and feeds on the decaying leaf and plant matter found on the forest floor such as leaves , rotting wood and fruits that fall from the trees above .\nit\u2019s the turn of swine next : various historical names for the woodlouse riff on a connection with pigs . hog - louse and swine - louse crop up in the 16 th century , with timber - sow in the 17 th and sow - bug found by the 18 th century ; hog - beetle was another rare option . this is also seen in other languages \u2013 for instance , the spanish cochinilla , \u2018woodlouse\u2019 , is the diminutive of cochina , \u2018sow\u2019 .\nbilton , d . t . , goode , d . and mallet , j . ( 1999 ) genetic differentiation and natural hybridisation between two morphological forms of the common woodlouse , oniscus asellus linnaeus 1758 . heredity , 82 : 462 - 469 .\ndid you find any words particular to reading ? the only local word anybody mentioned was ' cheeselog ' ( meaning ' woodlouse ' - ed ) . i think it comes from an american cake that ' s long and thin , and has segments .\naround my way children sometimes call them ' cheesy - bobs ' . to me they were always ' woodlice ' . there seems to be mostly the type of woodlouse which doesn ' t roll up where i live . they are flatter and dull , compared with the ones which do roll up . i remember as a child finding a curled up woodlouse , and throwing it down on the patio to see if it bounced . it did , quite well , but i felt so guilty in case i hurt it .\nin our brief foray in the bitter wind , we found 5 different species - four of the famous five and porcellio dilatatus . we know there are at least seven different species in the garden in addition to the honourary woodlouse , the landhopper , arcitralitrus dorrieni .\nthe common woodlouse occurs in moist places in many habitats , and is frequently found under bark and amongst leaf litter in gardens and woodlands ( 1 ) . this species avoids dry habitats , and unlike many woodlice , it can tolerate acid soils ( 2 ) .\nubiquitous throughout britain , the common woodlouse ( subspecies oniscus asellus asellus ) is one of the most widespread and common terrestrial arthropods in western europe ( 3 ) . the subspecies o . asellus occidentalis is found mainly in the south - west of britain and western france ( 3 ) .\nubiquitous throughout britain , the common woodlouse ( subspecies oniscus asellus asellus ) is one of the most widespread and common terrestrial arthropods in western europe ( 3 ) . the subspecies o . asellus occidentalis is found mainly in the south - west of britain and western france ( 3 ) .\nthe study day , held in the angela marmont centre for uk biodiversity , was led by museum scientists miranda lowe and duncan sivell and covered an introduction to woodlouse anatomy and classification , as well as ecology and recording methods . below are just a few of the many interesting facts we learnt :\nthe common woodlouse is one of the commonest and widely spread of the british woodlice ( 1 ) . woodlice are not insects , but are crustaceans ; more closely related to crabs and shrimps than insects . the body is divided into three main regions , the head , the thorax ( known in woodlice as the ' pereion ' ) , and the abdomen ( ' pleon ' ) ( 2 ) . the common woodlouse is typically grey with irregular light patches , but yellow and orange forms may occur near to the sea ( 2 ) . the surface of the body is dotted with raised blotches ; adults usually have a glossy body , but in contrast juveniles often have a rough body texture ( 2 ) . there are currently two recognised subspecies of the common woodlouse , oniscus asellus asellus and o . asellus occidentalis , which differ in the details of their appearance and ecology ( 3 ) .\n1995 , olaf breidbach , wolfram kutsch ( editors ) , the nervous systems of invertebrates : an evolutionary and comparative approach , page 193 , in addition , both the woodlouse and the crayfish possess an unpaired medial nerve which runs along the whole length of the ventral nerve cord , linking adjacent ganglia .\nhopkin , s . , g . hardisty , m . martin . 1986 . the woodlouse porcellio scaber as a ' biological indicator ' of zinc , cadmium , lead and copper pollution . environmental pollution ( series b ) , 11 : 271 - 290 . accessed january 31 , 2013 at urltoken .\nwoodlice are not insects , but are crustaceans ; more closely related to crabs and shrimps than insects . the body is divided into three main regions , the head , the thorax ( known in woodlice as the ' pereion ' ) , and the abdomen ( ' pleon ' ) ( 2 ) . the pill woodlouse is so called because it is able to roll into a ball when threatened ; it is often confused with the pill millipede ( glomeris marginata ) for this reason ( 3 ) . this woodlouse is typically slate grey in colour , but red or patchy forms may arise ( 2 ) .\nthe common woodlouse ( oniscus asellus ) is one of the commonest and widely spread of the british woodlice ( 1 ) . woodlice are not insects , but are crustaceans ; more closely related to crabs and shrimps than insects . the body is divided into three main regions , the head , the thorax ( known in woodlice as the ' pereion ' ) , and the abdomen ( ' pleon ' ) ( 2 ) . the common woodlouse is typically grey with irregular light patches , but yellow and orange forms may occur near to the sea ( 2 ) . the surface of the body is dotted with raised blotches ; adults usually have a glossy body , but in contrast juveniles often have a rough body texture ( 2 ) . there are currently two recognised subspecies of the common woodlouse , oniscus asellus asellus and o . asellus occidentalis , which differ in the details of their appearance and ecology ( 3 ) .\nstill in use in scotland , australia , and new zealand , slater is a term for a woodlouse that dates back to the 17 th century ( found in the earliest instances as sclater ) . as with the armadillo reference , slater presumably comes from the ridged nature of the backs of woodlice looking like slates .\nthe landhopper or woodhopper is the only truly terrestrial anmphipod occuring in the british isles . it is not native , but originates from eastern australia , and was first found in britain early in the 20th century . arcitalitrus dorrieni has been adopted by bmig as an\nhonorary woodlouse\nto provide a focus for recording .\nthe scientific or latin name for a woodlouse is armadillidium vulgare . they may be small , but they have an important role to play in helping decompose the cellulose in wood and paper . they also help break down animal feces and turn it into useful manure . their natural habitat is in leaf litter in woodland and shrub areas .\nand they\u2019ve really made a go of it too . there are over 40 different varieties of woodlouse common to the british isles , but there are a far greater variety of different names and spellings for the species as a whole , depending on location , imagination and the ability to think laterally . too many to count , in fact .\nthere\u2019s not a lot to do in the british countryside , especially if you\u2019re whiling the decades away waiting for someone to invent the internet . so you can\u2019t blame the residents of a tiny island nation for choosing to pass the time creating quite so many cute little names for the common woodlouse . for entertainment value , it will have very much been the facebook of its day .\nbesides the common maltese woodlouse , which one may occasionally find in a residence , the common woodlouse , armadillidium vulgare , \u0127anzir l - art komuni , is the most familiar one in establishments and unfortunately the one which is regarded the most as a pest . these creatures are harmless and also beneficial , but seen as pests because they tend to congregate in large numbers . on some house facades each year , thousands cover the facades during the evening and then disperse or die out in the morning . this behaviour is still a phenomenon not understood . this species may reach a length of 18 mm , and is capable of rolling into a ball when disturbed . this ability , along with its general appearance , gives it the name pill - bug and also creates confusion with pill millipede species .\nvarious names for the woodlouse are constructed from the combinations of lock and chest , and though the origin is uncertain , it has been suggested that this refers to the woodlouse\u2019s ability to roll itself up tightly \u2013 that is , to lock its chest . lockchest and lockchester are both attested in medieval english , and continued into the 20 th century in some regional englishes , while it has been suggested that the 16 th - century cheslock is a reversed equivalent . as a . s . palmer wrote in his 1904 work folk and their word - lore , it \u2018long survived in oxfordshire in the form of lockchester and lockchest \u2019 . an alternative theory has been put forward for lockchest , that it may be an alteration of the classical latin locusta , denoting a kind of crustacean , perhaps a lobster .\nnote : of course , these terms are part of an oral tradition , and so while there are pockets of commonly used terms in certain areas , they are by no means definitive , and do get passed down through families even as those families move around the country . so if you excitedly show a grammasow to a friend from penryn and they look confused and explain that it\u2019s just a woodlouse , don\u2019t be too disheartened .\nsimilar to lockchest , it appears that lugdor is a combination of lock and door . a door isn\u2019t as obvious an element in the woodlouse\u2019s \u2018locking\u2019 as a chest , and perhaps that is why dor has also been submitted as a possible element in lugdor \u2019s etymology . dor refers to \u2018an insect that flies with a loud humming noise\u2019 \u2013 that is , it has an entomological use , but usually for a different type of insect .\nthere\u2019s no obvious connection between monkeys and woodlice \u2013 but monkey pea is found as a term for a woodlouse in the late 17 th century and survived for some time in british regional use . a potentially related , though long obsolete , option is monk\u2019s peason . the addition of pea is ( like pill ) presumably with reference to the shape of the insect when it is curled up \u2013 and also appears in pea - bug .\nyou\u2019ll notice a definite porcine theme developing there too , and this continues across a great deal of the woodlouse nicknames that have stuck over the years . the people of bristol have been known to call them slunkerpigs , or there\u2019s woodpigs , timperpigs and penny sows . in fact , some people from cornwall and devon managed to achieve double bacon by calling them sowpigs ( or , as it came out in the local accent ; zowpigs ) .\nbritain\u2019s non - marine isopods are divided into two sub - orders : asellota , the aquatic waterlice , and oniscidea , the terrestrial woodlice . just four species of waterlouse , but 40 species of woodlouse are known to occur in th e wild in britain ( gregory , 2009 ) . woodlice and waterlice are detritivores , mainly feeding upon organic detritus , such as dead leaves , dead wood , etc . some will also graze algae and fungi .\nplease note that the content of this book primarily consists of articles available from wikipedia or other free sources online . pages : 24 . chapters : porcellionidae , woodlice of europe , list of woodlice of the british isles , armadillidium , woodlouse , hemilepistus reaumuri , philosciidae , trichoniscidae , armadillidium vulgare , trichoniscus , trichoniscus pusillus , armadillidiidae , androniscus dentiger , porcellionides , haplophthalmus , ligidium , ligia oceanica , styloniscus , pseudarmadillo , oniscus asellus , armadillidium pictum , . . . read more\nwith the return of wintry weather there\u2019s little chance of finding many flying insects at the moment so - when not pruning or planting up hedge gaps in the wildlife garden - we\u2019ve been focusing on animals found at ground level under stones , logs , leaf litter and within pitfall traps ( n . b . more about pitfall traps another time ) . amongst these animals , woodlice are a rewarding group to study as some of us learnt at a woodlouse workshop we attended a week ago last sunday .\nlet\u2019s start with my favourite . it may be obsolete , and was always rare , but robin goodfellow\u2019s louse has been found as a term for the woodlouse in the mid - 16 th century . as for robin goodfellow , he was a mischievous sprite or goblin believed to haunt the countryside ; an account of his purported activities is included by shakespeare in a midsummer night\u2019s dream , where his exploits include leading travellers astray in the dark , interfering with the churning of butter , and playing practical jokes on women .\nwoodlice : everyone knows them but they\u2019re not exactly held in great esteem , even though they deserve better . in the netherlands they\u2019re known as \u2018pissabeds\u2019 , because according to popular mythology , eating them was supposed to cure bed - wetting . there are more than 11 , 000 species of woodlice and other isopods worldwide , 39 of which are found in the netherlands . the smallest of these live underground and are just a few millimetres long while the biggest , a littoral woodlouse known as the \u2018sea roach\u2019 , may reach up to 4 . 5 centimetres in length .\npedantic little sod that i was ( am ? ) , i would get almost apoplectic at school every time someone spoke of ' a woodlice ' . apart from that , they are really quite interesting being aquatic . i think they have gills . i saw one in my pond quite happily wandering about under the surface . well if he wasn ' t a woodlouse , he was certainly a very close relative . apart from all that , its name reminds me of a large lady in sensible shoes blowing up horses ' noses and talking in a silly voice to dogs .\nsome local names for woodlice are roly - polies and pill - bugs . these names relate to their ability to form little balls with their armor plating on the outside , protecting their soft innards . their tough outer shell or exoskeleton has to be shed regularly to enable a woodlouse to grow and mature . the shedding is done in two stages . first it sloughs the rear half of its armor plating and then two or three days later it loses the front half of its exoskeleton . the shedding is done in stages in order to minimize the vulnerability of the creature during the short period it is without its armor .\namong the most - read papers at the journal of experimental biology last month was a blast from the past \u2014 a 1937 paper about the humidity - seeking behaviour of the common woodlouse by d . l . gunn of the university of birmingham , uk . gunn used specially built chambers to watch the crustaceans \u2014 which thrive on wet wood \u2014 avoid dryness , principally by hunkering down in humid places and staying still . gunn looked for the location of the creature ' s humidity receptor by removing candidate regions of the body or blocking them with vaseline or paraffin ; he concluded that the relevant organs were not on the abdomen or head .\nin the common woodlouse porcellio scaber different parts of the gut were observed with respect to microbial counts , cellulose activity , and degradation of cellulose . cellulose is mainly digested in the anterior part of the hindgut , as was indicated by the distribution of cellulolytic activity and the decrease of cellulose content inside the gut . the cellulases woodlice utilize for the degradation of litter are mainly produced by endosymbiotic bacteria in the hepatopancreas rather than by microorganisms ingested with the food . microorganisms ingested with the litter are digested in the anterior part of the hindgut and may provide an important food source . in the posterior hindgut , bacterial proliferation ensures microbial colonization of feces .\nthe pill bug goes by many names\u2014roly - poly , woodlouse , armadillo bug , potato bug . but whatever you call it , it ' s a fascinating creature . . . or actually 4 , 000 species of creature . the nocturnal crustaeans have seven pairs of legs , segmented sections like a lobster ' s tail , and prefer humid environments . they eat rotting vegetation and help nutrients in it get returned to the soil for plants to feed on , so they ' re not pests . they don ' t bother living vegetation . these insights into pill bugs will give you a newfound respect for the tiny tank living beneath your flower pots .\n, if we ' re being technical ) . my dinner companions were discussing why we call woodlice what we do ; to my grandmother they were always ' cheesybugs ' , but to the others at the table they were ' monkeypeas ' , ' slaters ' ( which to me is a sort of marine arthropod , instead of a woodlouse ) , ' pillbugs ' or ' pill millipedes ' . i ' ve heard them called ' doodlebugs ' , ' armadillo - bugs ' and ' rolypolys ' before , but does anyone know of any others . it strikes me that for such small creatures , they ' re positively embarrased by common names . or does anyone know of any other animals with more alternative common names ?\nwoodlice undergo a series of moults before reaching maturity , growing at each stage ; the stages between these moults are known as ' stadia ' , and are generally similar in structure and appearance . mature woodlice continue to moult . prior to moulting , the calcium contained in the old cuticle is removed and stored as conspicuous white blotches , these blotches disappear after moulting as the calcium is used to reinforce the new cuticle ( 2 ) . the rear part of the body moults a few days before the front half , and occasionally woodlice may be seen with half a pinkish body and half a ' usual ' grey body for this reason ( 4 ) . the discarded cuticle is frequently eaten by the newly moulted woodlouse ( 2 ) .\nwoodlice feed on dead organic matter , which they detect by means of taste and smell ( 2 ) . during the breeding season , reproductive females develop a ' brood pouch ' , which consists of overlapping leaf - like structures known as ' oostegites ' , that form a ' false floor ' below the body . the fertilised eggs pass into this fluid - filled chamber , and the young crawl out of the brood pouch when they are fully developed .\nthis species is very common in the south - east of england , is found in parts of western and northern england and becomes rare in scotland ( 2 ) .\nyou can view distribution information for this species at the national biodiversity network atlas .\noccurs only on calcareous soils , except in coastal areas ( 2 ) , and is able to withstand much drier conditions than most other woodlice ( 3 ) . it shows a distinct preference for chalky or limestone sites with stony turf ( 2 ) .\nthere may be further information about this species available via the national biodiversity network atlas .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nabdomen in arthropods ( crustaceans , insects and arachnids ) the abdomen is the hind region of the body , which is usually segmented to a degree . in crustacea ( e . g . crabs ) the limbs attach to the abdomen ; in insects the limbs are attached to the thorax ( the part of the body nearest to the head ) and not the abdomen . in vertebrates the abdomen is the part of the body that contains the internal organs ( except the heart and lungs ) . calcareous containing free calcium carbonate , chalky . thorax part of the body located near the head in animals . in insects , the three segments between the head and the abdomen , each of which has a pair of legs .\nsutton , s . l . ( 1972 ) invertebrate types : woodlice . ginn & company ltd . , london .\nnichols , d . , cooke , j . & whiteley , d . ( 1971 ) the oxford book of invertebrates . oxford university press , oxford .\nnature picture library 5a great george street bristol bs1 5rr united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4675 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4699 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nplace an ad to recruit pest control employees , or to advertise your availability if you are looking for work in the pest control industry .\nsowbugs are land crustaceans which look very similar to pillbugs , at least at first glance . sowbugs are small crustaceans with oval bodies when viewed from above . their back consists of a number of overlapping , articulating plates . they have 7 pairs of legs , and antennae which reach about half the body length . most are slate gray in color , and may reach about 15 mm long and 8 mm wide .\nthe pillbug on the other hand has a rounder back , from side to side , and a deeper body , from back to legs . when disturbed , it frequently rolls into a tight ball , with its legs tucked inside , much like its larger but dissimilar counterpart the armadillo .\nsowbugs have gills which need constant moisture , so they tend to live in moister northwest climates . they are primarily nocturnal , and eat decaying leaf litter and vegetable matter . they may also feed on the tips of young plants , so can be considered pests , but they also help the environment by breaking up decaying plant matter and help speed up the recycling of the nutrients they contain .\nthe presence of sow bugs or pill bugs in the living quarters of a home is an indication high moisture conditions . this condition will also contribute to a number of other problems including mildew , wood rot and a good breeding environment for other insects .\nreduce moisture or humidity level indoors . use bathroom fans , stove hood vent fans , vent clothes dryers outside . crawl spaces and attics need to be well ventilated .\nremove excess vegetation and debris around exterior perimeter of the home . make sure that leaf debris ( leaves hold moisture and hide the bugs ) is cleaned up from around the outside of your house . keep rain gutters and downspouts clean and in good repair .\ninstead of chemicals , use a caulking gun to close any cracks or crevices at or near ground level . houses built on a concrete slab poured directly on the ground , can have more of a problem with sow bugs or pill bugs if there is no moisture barrier under the concrete .\nbuilt - in planters are usually a bad idea for many reasons . window box planters and planter boxes on decks tight against the house are good breeding places for many bugs .\nmake sure all your doors ( ground level , to the outside ) are weather - stripped . if your garage is attached or integral with the house , make sure those doors are properly weather - stripped also .\na perimeter pesticide spray may help break the cycle for a short time but will not eliminate the problem permanently . remember , if you don\u2019t solve the moisture problem , the bugs will return no matter what chemicals you use , or how much you use them .\nthorax is comparatively large and is composed of 7 hard individual but overlapping plates .\nfemale gives birth to numerous , live young and carries her young in a pouch ( marsupium ) on the underside of the body . the brood is carries for an average of 44 days . usually 2 new generations are produced per year depending on environmental conditions with an average of 28 young in brood . new generation are white in colour . 1st moult within 24 hours ( 7th pair of legs appear after 1st moult ) . 2nd moult during 2nd week . 3rd moult during 3rd week . 4th instar moults every 2 weeks until the animal is 20 weeks old . after 20 weeks , periods between moults are irregular .\nhabitat prefer moist locations and are found under objects on damp ground or under vegetable debris . have been known to bury themselves under several centimeters of soil . can at times invade damp basements , fern houses and first floors of houses indicating large number present outside the house nearby .\npest status in rare instances can become pests of young plants ( especially in fern houses where climatic conditions are ideal ) . the slater does not bite and is harmless . in unusual climatic conditions ( extreme wet ) , they can invade houses in large numbers creating concern for occupants . their presence though is short - lived because these animals die from desiccation . neither adults nor young are considered pests .\ncontrol habitat and food requirement leaves wide variety of areas to inhabit in gardens etc . because of this need they cannot survive away from its ideal environment thus it will not breed or survive for long indoors . a high degree of moisture is required for survival .\nthese bugs play a vital roll in composting organic matter in the garden and compost bins . they can be more effective making soil than earthworms .\nsowbugs and pillbugs get blamed for more damage to garden plants than they actually do . they are deemed guilty as they are often found feeding in decaying or damaged garden produce , after diseases , slugs and other pests have inflict the initial damage . they are great opportunists .\nmost annoyingly , sowbugs and pillbugs feed on tender seedlings , young roots , flowers and fruits and vegetables laying directly on damp soil . most active at night , sowbugs hide in dark , moist protected areas during the day , such as under flowerpots , decaying leaves on the soil surface , boards , mulches and ground cover . they thrive under sprinkler irrigation .\n> limit moist , dark hiding places . clean up organic debris , boards , boxes and piles of leaves around the yard and garden .\n> water early in the day so plants and the soil surface dries out by the evening when sow or pill bugs are active .\n> mulch with coarse materials , so water passes through to the soil quickly .\n> elevate fruits and vegetables off the ground with old strawberry baskets or pebbles . black plastic mulches are good because they get too hot in the summer to provide desirable shelter for sow bugs .\n> plant seeds deeply and do not water until seedlings have their first true leaves . or start seedlings indoors . then to maintain good drainage , transplant seedlings into the garden so that the soil around seedlings is higher than surrounding garden soil .\n> a non toxic method for sow bug control is to place a rolled up newspaper tube on the soil surface . leave it overnight . in the morning , shake out the tubes into a pail of soapy water .\nanother less toxic method to control sow bugs is to sprinkle diatomaceous earth directly on the row where seeds have been planted to dry the soil surface enough to discourage sow bugs . experiment with the amount of diatomaceous earth , as too thin a layer will not be effective and too thick a layer can become like plaster if it becomes wet .\nvarious species of sow and pill bugs are common around the world but they have many different names .\njohn germon was born and raised in the devon stannary town of ashburton . he attended both the primary and\nand has a keen interest in local dialect . john ' s been the chairman of ashburton devon dialect club for more years than he cares to remember .\nas town clerk of the south devon stannary town of ashburton , you will often see john dashing around dealing with all sorts of issues .\nhe also plays a very active part in the community - and at carnival time you will see him in a totally different light .\njohn is chairman of the ashburton devon dialect club and has compiled this a - z . if you want to know how to pronounce the words in a true devon accent , just click on the link and john will read them out to you .\nhow well do you know your devon dialect ? have a bit of fun and try john ' s dialect challenge . launch quiz\nonce you think you ' ve mastered the art of ' speakin ' like wot we duz ' you can put your new found skills to the test by taking john ' s devon dialect challenge .\nthis multiple choice quiz will help you find out just how much you know about the words john ' s been teaching you . just click on the link to launch the quiz - there are no prizes , it ' s just for fun . * please note - to be able to listen to john reading the words , you will need to have real player installed on your computer .\nbbc devon website , broadcasting house , seymour road , plymouth , pl3 5bd phone : 01752 229201 | e - mail : devon . online @ urltoken | e - mail radio devon : radio . devon @ urltoken\nwe spoke to professor paul kerswill of lancaster university . paul has conducted research into the accent of reading , having lived in the town for 18 years . he made some interesting discoveries about the changes in the way people are speaking .\ntell us about your work .\nwe looked at reading as a contrast to milton keynes ( a new town ) . reading is an older town which is about the same distance from london , so we compared pronunciations . we found that reading is gradually changing its accent and becoming a bit more like london . older people have the berkshire accent , which to many people sounds west country , but young people sound more like london , but not like cockneys .\nis this change due to the expansion of london ?\nyes . as people are getting more mobile , they move out of london , they commute and travel more for leisure . it ' s these people who are acquiring a more levelled - out accent . but the local accent is still there quite strongly in reading . if you listen to older families , with two or three generations living within a few streets , they maintain a much more local accent .\ndo you think our voices are becoming homogenised ?\nit would be a pity if it were no longer possible to hear where people come from . the people i met in reading were certainly very proud to be from reading even though from the outside it ' s perceived as a satellite of london .\nthere are plenty of other influences in reading , though , like the immigrant communities .\nespecially among teenagers . young people are most interested in their peer groups , and that quite often cuts across ethnic divides , so sometimes you find kids of english origin taking on pronunciations and words from asian or caribbean kids . all the ethnic groups share those features .\ndid you find anything particularly unusual in your research ?\none thing we looked at was whether reading teenagers could pick out a reading accent . they placed the reading accents on the tape firmly in the west country - an elderly person ' s accent in reading sounds to the teenagers like somerset . middle - aged people were thought to have come from wiltshire or somewhere like that . but they picked out the cockney voices straight away .\nso , it must be an interesting place for linguists to study , then .\nit was interesting to see the clash between something west country and something london .\ni am a reading bloke in my 60s , though i moved away in the late 1970s . i remember the term\ncheeselog\nwell , and always wondered about it . as well as slang , there were urban myths associated with the town , many of them rather rude . one popular myth related to simmonds carthorses , and others centred on the public toilets at the cemetery junction ; i heard ricky gervais repeat one on tv recently as if it was a real and recent event . my dad had a broad reading accent . i have retained some of this , but is is mixed with a home counties sound . i heard mike walker , the football manager , speaking a while back . . . . that is how i sound , i think .\ni grew up in henley - on - thames just 8 miles from reading and on the borders of berks . bucks and oxon . outside of henley no one i ever met had heard the term\ncheeselog\nthat is until i moved to the high wycombe area in bucks where local - born people were familiar with the word . strange though was that my grandmother , who was from central london , also always called the little critters\ncheeselogs !\ni was born and brought up in reading , and definitely say cheeselog ! the only other word which i know of which i think is local to reading , is that when children in the playground cross their fingers to temporarily be out of a game , they say\ncribs\n. ( or they used to ! ? ) i agree that an old berkshire accent can sound west country . i think the most distinctive part of the accent is pronouncing\now\nsounds as\nai\nas in\ntraisers\ninstead of\ntrousers .\nit always makes me chuckle when i hear other people say these things ! ! i never realised i had an accent either but my student friends from other towns laugh when i say ' fri - dee ' instead of fri - day and ' roight ' instead of right . i too also say cheeselog , and am interested in the theory of cockney to cornish ! ! it sounds true to me ! !\ni ' m born and bred in reading as are all my family . imust say though that the main accent in reading is african and asian . true readingers are a fast dying breed\ni am from tilehurst born & bred , i was on holiday in floida a few years back , whilst in a restaurant an american lady came over to me and said she was sorry to bother me but she just loved my berkshire accent , i had no idea that i even had an accent but it is nice to know that i have . i also use the word cheeselog a lot , now lots of people i know in the brighton area now call them cheeselogs too !\ni lived in reading until i was eighteen , left twenty years for the north - west , and still have relatives in newbury . my friends tell me that my accent is still strong , but only people from reading seem able to distinguish the reading accent from the various london ones . i remember using the word cheeselog and it ' s a word that i still use . i had no idea tbat it was virtually unique to reading . are there are any other words that are specific to reading ?\nprof . kerswill demostrates his total ignorance of berkshire speech . my grandparents , who married in 1906 lived in reading in the same house until they died in 1968 sounded nothing like those originating in the west country . i was educated in newbury and have not a trace of anything approaching the dialects heard in devon or cornwall . i once met a lady who sounded american but in fact came from plymouth , and the story goes that since the first britons to arrive in america were largely from the west country , their speech pattern maintained and became the generalised accent associated with the united states today . incidentally , it is\nbark\nshire in britain but\nburk\nshire in the us .\ni have just goggled cheeselog and was delighted to find your site . i am born and breed in reading and married to a lancastrian . he had never heard of cheeselogs and so i have done my own research into this word , by asking people i meet over the town , county and country . it is true it is a word used mainly by people from reading , but some from wallingford were also aware of its meaning .\ni comfrom wokingham 5 miles southeast of reading . hisorically wokingham was firmly part of county wiltshire , so even some local teenagers speak with the traditionhal wetcountry accent . however a more easternn prononciation of words is becoming ever more prominant in the area ."]}
{"id": 294, "summary": [{"text": "the vaurie 's nightjar ( caprimulgus centralasicus ) is a species of nightjar in the family caprimulgidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is endemic to china .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its natural habitat is cold desert .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "however , it is threatened by habitat loss .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "this bird is only known from a single 1929 specimen from xinjiang , china .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it has never been found again , and it is quite possibly invalid as it has not yet been compared to the similar subspecies of the european nightjar , c. europaeus plumipes , which occurs at the locality where c. centralasicus was found . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "vaurie ' s nightjar", "paragraphs": ["select an image : 1 . vaurie ' s nightjar > > type specimen 2 . vaurie ' s nightjar > > type specimen 3 . vaurie ' s nightjar > > type specimen 4 . vaurie ' s nightjar\nleader 2009 . is vaurie ' s nightjar caprimulgus centralasicus a valid species ? birding asia 11 : 47\u009650 .\nleader , pj 2009 . asian enigma : is vaurie ' s nightjar caprimulgus centralasicus a valid species ? birding asia 11 : 47 - 50 .\nsince vaurie ' s nightjar is known from a single specimen , then if it was the last of its kind , it would be extinct now anyway .\ndon ' t forget that there is a subspecies of the nightjar in nw china , c . europaeus plumipes . maybe you ' ve seen this bird rather than the vaurie ' s nightjar ( if it is really exist ) .\nit ' s wings have been clipped to and it ' s very tame . so someone has been taking care of it .\nknown only from this type specimen , which was collected in \u2018sandy scrub - jungle\u2019 by frank ludlow at pishan ( formerly goma ) ( 37\u00b0 31\u2019n . , 78\u00b0 17\u2019e ) , in xinjiang on september 7 , 1929 and described as a new species in vaurie 1960 . refs : vaurie , c . ( 1960 ) systematic notes on palearctic birds , no . 39 : caprimuligidae : a new species of caprimulgus . amer . mus . novit . no . 1985 . leader , p . j . ( 2009 ) is vaurie ' s nightjar caprimulgus centralasicus a valid species ? birdingasia 11 : 47 - 50 .\nlooking forward for the paper , but i would like to see dna analysis . actualy , some cleverdick could analyze dna of nightjars . he might also discover several overlooked nightjar species worldwide . about vaurie ' s - i think it is an aberrant bird . if not , there is no reason why it should be extinct . i guess practicaly nobody surveyed for nightjars in w china !\ncleere , n . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . vaurie\u2019s nightjar ( caprimulgus centralasicus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthere ' s been a lot of habitat degradation in xinjiang , according to the red list data .\nno , it ' s pawel kwak beer ( est 1791 ) , after three 330ml bottles . . .\nunknown , but species ( if valid ) is assumed to be a migrant given that winter bird community of s . . .\nhello , i ' m an expat living in china and my wife found a nightjar / nighthawk on the ground while walking to the store . we ' re trying to identify what kind of nightjar / nighthawk it is and was wondering if you guys could help ? if i get any replies i ' ll take a picture and put it online asap . thanks .\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nleader acknowledges possible habitat changes . he also notes that , given the winter temperatures at the type location , it is most unlikely that the nightjar would be a permanent resident , and suggests that it should be looked for in oct - apr in the deserts and semi - deserts of pakistan and n & w india ( perhaps overlooked among sykes ' s ) ; and could also be just a migrant through s xinjiang , breeding further n in the taklamakan or gobi deserts .\nif you have videos , photographs or sound recordings you can share them on the internet bird collection . it ' s free and easy to do .\npaul leader describes how in june 2004 he and and three others spent two weeks in southern xinjiang , including several days and nights at the type locality of the nightjar ( pishan , between kashgar and hotan ) , without success .\none amazing fact ( new to me anyway ) : paul leader notes that the first of only two specimens of leucosticte sillemi was collected on the same day ( 7 sep ) as the nightjar , also in xinjiang , although 250km to the s ( with the second on the following day ) . i knew that both species were collected in the same year ( 1929 ) , but had never appreciated that it was on exactly the same day . what are the chances of that - 2 species never to be seen again ?\none amazing fact ( new to me anyway ) : paul leader notes that the first of only two specimens of leucosticte sillemi was collected on the same day ( 7 sep ) as the nightjar , also in xinjiang , although 250km to the s ( with the second on the following day ) . i knew that both species were collected in the same year ( 1929 ) , but had never appreciated that it was on exactly the same day . what are the chances of that - 2 species never to be seen again ? richard\nw china ( sw xinjiang ) , where possibly occurs throughout s tarim basin along kun lun ; speculated to breed in taklamakan desert or as far n as gobi desert and to winter in semi - deserts of pakistan and nw india # r .\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ oriental bird club - helping to save asia ' s threatened birds . urltoken\nbirdforum is the net ' s largest birding community , dedicated to wild birds and birding , and is absolutely free ! you are most welcome to register for an account , which allows you to take part in lively discussions in the forum , post your pictures in the gallery and more .\ndid you need special permits ? and were you restricted to the main highway when transiting aksai chin , or was it possible to travel freely towards the indian border ? ( the sillem ' s type locality is in the extreme west of aksai chin , very close to the border with jammu & kashmir . )\nblack robin petroica traversi the black robin was the world ' s rarest bird , and is new zealand ' s comeback hero from the brink of extinction . extinction could not have been any closer in 1980 when there was one female named old blue and her breeding partner and three other males , but the black robin has been brought back to a population of about 254 . when old blue died it was announced in parliament . its status has been lowered to endangered on the 2007 iucn red list . the black robin is found only on three small islands in the chatham islands and remains ' nationally critical ' on the 2005 nz threat\ni haven ' t checked , but if i remember right these specimens are from a region that , at least in part , is off - limits to birders ( foreign , not sure about chinese ) . the region is certainly considered\npolitically sensitive\nby chinese authorities ( uyghur issue , nearby tibet issue , china - india border issue ) and there is a rather heavy military presence . . . possibly making it somewhat difficult to freely search for these species without risking being shot ( ! ) . i know birders have looked for the nightjar near the region where the specimen was collected . has anyone managed to do the same for the mountain - finch ?\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : despite recent searches , this species is known from only one specimen , the provenance of which has been debated . as such , there is insufficient information available for an assessment of its threat status .\nthis species is only known from its type specimen and as such no population estimates are available . trend justification : the current population trend is unknown as the species is only known from a single record .\nthe type - specimen was collected in sandy scrub - jungle at 1 , 220 m and it presumably occurs in desert and semi - desert habitats .\nthere has been widespread degradation of desert and semi - desert habitats in the taklimakan desert through intensive grazing by goats and camels , extraction of fuelwood , and the conversion of huge areas to irrigated farmland . in 1990 , the habitats at the type - locality , guma , were found to have been very much altered since the 1920s .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ntaxonomic status perhaps questionable . known only from type specimen , an immature female originally identified as c . aegyptius , and compared only with that species when described ; further study of immature c . europaeus plumipes may also be of interest . recent reassessment , however , strongly supports probability that taxon is valid , specimen being markedly smaller than any plumipes even allowing for incomplete growth of wings # r . monotypic .\n19 cm . known only from type specimen , a suspected immature female . closest in size to\npossibly arid plains and sandy foothills covered in short scrub . type specimen was collected at . . .\nnot globally threatened . previously considered vulnerable ; now regarded as data deficient . restricted - range species : present in taklimakan ( taklamakan ) desert eba . taxonomic . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\ndespite recent searches , this species is known from only one specimen , the provenance of which has been debated . as such , there is insufficient information available for an assessment of its threat status .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : caprimulgus centralasicus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nclick here to go to the home page and find out more . | click here to join .\nthe type locality of the finch is in aksai chin , which is under chinese administration but claimed by india - so probably difficult to visit .\nthe type locality of the finch is in aksai chin , which is under chinese administration but claimed by india - so probably difficult to visit . richard\nthat must have been an interesting trip - certainly well off the beaten track . ( i know that ben king runs occasional tours to xinjiang , but only to the north . )\nyes , it was an amazing trip . excellent views of tibetan sandgrouse and snowcock , as well as the ground jay . we did have permits , but these had been arranged by chinatibet travel in chengdu . we had an english speaking tibetan for a guide and a chinese driver . there were a few checkpoints in the odd town , but not a lot in the aksai chin , although we did bump into nomads in the most desolate places ! stunning scenery however , different views of k2 etc . tony\ni knew that both species were collected in the same year ( 1929 ) , but had never appreciated that it was on exactly the same day . what are the chances of that - 2 species never to be seen again ?\nunfortunately the llast specimens were collected and now the species are extinct . . .\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ val\u00e9ry schollaert birds are disappearing because we destroy their natural habitat . by far , the main reason of this destruction is animal agriculture ; thus , the first essential step for all bird lovers : becoming vegan .\nit is just to recall that when a new bird is found , killing the first specimen is not a good idea . . . we did in the past , whatever , but we should stop now .\nyou never now . . . urltoken it is just to recall that when a new bird is found , killing the first specimen is not a good idea . . . we did in the past , whatever , but we should stop now .\ni don ' t disagree with you about present - day collection of specimens , but you can ' t really expect people to take you seriously when you make ridiculous comments about birds collected in 1929 .\nobviously i forgot the smilies . . . ( i wanted to click on\ngo advanced\nand clicked on\npost quick reply\n) . . .\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _\n. . . bureaucracy is a parasite that preys on free thought and suffocates free spirit . . .\ndouglas adams urltoken\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ the fuzziness of all supposedly absolute taxonomic distinctions - stephen jay gould ( 1977 )\never since darwin : reflections in natural history\n. species and subspecies are but a convenient fiction - kees van deemter ( 2010 ) ,\nin praise of vagueness\n. biology is messy\npowered by vbulletin\u00ae , copyright \u00a92000 - 2018 vbulletin solutions , inc . \u00a9 birdforum ltd 2002 - 2018"]}
{"id": 313, "summary": [{"text": "trachipterus arcticus is a species of ribbonfish found predominantly in the north atlantic ocean , with one report from the mediterranean sea .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "they are rarely encountered by humans due to their deep-sea habitat and the fact that they are of no commercial value .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "this species is commonly referred to as the dealfish to differentiate it from the nine other ribbonfish species in the trachipteridae family .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the species commonly known as red bandfish ( cepola macrophthalma ) is sometimes referred to as ribbonfish , but it is unrelated to any ribbonfish in the trachipteridae family . ", "topic": 29}], "title": "trachipterus arcticus", "paragraphs": ["dealfish , trachipterus arcticus . head detail . mouth articulation . azores , portugal .\ndealfish , trachipterus arcticus . lateral view . young animal . azores , portugal .\ncyndy parr changed the thumbnail image of\ntrachipterus arcticus ( br\u00fcnnich , 1788 )\n.\ndealfish n . a deep - sea ribbonfish , trachipterus arcticus , from the north atlantic .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nviikatekala\nto\ntrachipterus arcticus ( br\u00fcnnich , 1788 )\n.\nnamngivning : trachipterus arcticus ( br\u00fcnnich , 1771 ) . originalbeskrivning : gymnogaster arcticus . det kongelige danske videnskabers selskabs skrivter , nye samling , 3 : 418 . etymologi : arcticus ( lat . ) = nordlig . uttal : [ trak\u00edpterus \u00e1rktikus ]\nclick on the first link on a line below to go directly to a page where\ntrachipterus arcticus\nis defined .\nkatja schulz set\nfile : trachipterus altivelis . jpg\nas an exemplar on\ntrachipterus altivelis kner , 1859\n.\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nlohikuningas\nto\ntrachipterus altivelis kner , 1859\n.\nnorthernmost occurrence of the ribbonfish trachipterus trachypterus ( gmelin , 1789 ) in the ne atlanti . . .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\netel\u00e4nviikatekala\nto\ntrachipterus trachypterus ( gmelin , 1789 )\n.\ntrachipterus trachypterus , mediterranean dealfish . young animal photographed at night close to surface . these fish reach 3 meters length and live from\ntrachipterus trachypterus , mediterranean dealfish . young animal photographed close to surface . these fish reach 3 meters length and live from 100 to\nkatja schulz selected\nking - of - the - salmon\nto show in overview on\ntrachipterus altivelis kner , 1859\n.\nhognestad , p . t . 1962 . the dealfish , trachypterus arcticus br\u00fcnnich , in north norway . astarte , ( 21 ) : 1 - 13 .\ntrachipterus go\u00fcan 1770 trachy , rough ; pterus , fin , referring to rough ( i . e . , granular ) dorsal - and ventral - fin rays\nwent , a . e . j . 1952 . an unrecorded deelfish , trachypterus arcticus brunnich , from irish waters . ir . nat . j . , 10 : 302 .\ndescription : hello , a few years ago i was on a holiday with my parents and we ' ve seen a fish wash ashore ( but it was stil alive ) in the meditteranean which i think , based on the information on your site , is trachipterus arcticus . you can check the details here : urltoken ( if it is in dutch you can change the language in the upper right corner ) . on your website you say that there is only one report of this species from the mediterranean , so when my id is correct it will be the second i guess ? can you confirm the id as trachipterus arcticus ? thanks in advance and sorry for my bad english , best regards , jonas pottier , belgium .\nmeek , a . 1890 . on the structure of trachypterus arcticus ( the northern ribbon fish ) . stud . dundee mus . , 1 ( 6 ) : 1 - 24 , 2 pl .\ntrachipterus trachypterus ( gmelin 1789 ) trachy , rough ; pterus , fin , referring to sharp , serrated and rough ( i . e . , granular ) fins ( \u201cpinnis aculeatis serratis scabris\u201d )\nthe deal fish ( trachipterus arcticus ) is a real beauty . the slim and flat body shines like silver , and the red fins look like decorative feathers . this fish is a rare sight as it lives in deep waters ( 300 - 600 meters ) . sometimes dead deal fish get washed ashore . this fish has not the same elegance on land , especially when it has bee dead for some days .\n( of gymnogaster arcticus br\u00fcnnich , 1788 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nl\u00fctken , c . f . 1882a . nogle bemaerkninger om vaagmaeren ( trachypterus arcticus ) og sildetusten ( gymnetrus banksii ) . overs . k danske vidensk . selsk . forh . , ( 2 ) : 206 - 216 .\nbr\u00fcnnich , m . t . 1788c . om den islandske fisk , vogmeren . gymnogaster arcticus . k danske vidensk . selsk . skr . ( n . s . ) , 3 : 408 - 413 , pl . b ( fig . 1 - 3 ) .\nandriashev , a . p . 1954 . ryby severnykh morei sssr . izv . akad . nauk sssr . moskwa - leningrad . ( english trans . 1964 , jerusalem , ipst , 617 pp . , 300 fig . )\nbarnard , k . h . 1926 - 1927 . a monograph of the marine fishes of south africa . part i , ann . s . afr . mus . , 21 : pp . 1 - 418 , fig . 1 - 18 , pl . i - xvii . part ii , ibid . , 21 : pp . 417 - 1065 , fig . 19 - 32 , pl . xviii - xxxviii .\nbloch , m . e . ; schneider , j . g . 1801 . m . e . blochii systema ichthyologiae iconibus cx illustratum . post obitum auctoris opus inchoatum absolvit , correxit , interpolavit j . g . schneider , saxo . berolini : ix + 584 pp . , 110 pl .\nbreder , c . m . ; rosen , d . e . 1966 . modes of reproduction in fishes . nat . hist . press , new york : xv + 941 p .\nbuen , f . de 1935 . fauna ictiologica . catalogo de los peces ibericos : de la planicie continental , aguas dulces , pelagicos y de los abismos proximos . primera parte . notas res\u00fam . inst . esp . oceanogr . , ser . ii , ( 88 ) : pp . 1 - 89 , pl . i - xx ( fig . 1 - 40 ) . secunda parte . ibid . , ser . ii , ( 89 ) : pp . 91 - 149 , pl . xxiliii ( fig . 40 - 115 ) .\nday , f . 1880 - 1884 . the fishes of great britain and ireland . london - edinburgh , 2 vol . , cxii + 336 pp . , 5 + 7 fig . , 92 pl . and 388 pp . , 87 pl . 1880 : 1 ( 1 ) : pp . 1 - 64 , pl . i - xxvii ; 1881 : 1 ( 2 ) ( 3 ) : pp . 65 - 240 , pl . xxviii - lxviii ; 1882 : 1 ( 4 ) : pp . 241 - 336 , pl . lxix - xcii ; 2 ( 5 ) : pp . 1 - 96 , pl . xciii - cxvi ; 1883 : 2 ( 6 ) : pp . 97 - 176 , pl . cxvii - cxxxii ; 2 ( 7 ) : pp . 177 - 272 , pl . cxxxiii - cxlviii ; 1884 : 2 ( 8 ) : pp . 273 - 368 , pl . cxlix - clxxix .\nemery , c . 1879 . contribuzioni all ' ittiologia . i . le metamorfosi del trachypterus taenia . atti r . accad . lincei mem . rom . , ( 3 ) 3 : 390 - 397 , 1 pl . ( also publ . in mitt . zool stn neapel , 1 : pp . 581 - 588 , pl . xviii ( fig . 1 - 6 ) ) .\nlowe , r . t . 1852a . an account of fishes discovered or observed in madeira since the year 1842 . proc . zool . soc . lond , 18 : 247 - 253 .\nmohr , n . 1786 . f\u00f6rsog til en islandsk naturhistorie , med adskillige oekonomiske samt andre anmaetkninger , etc . . . . kj\u00f6benhavn : xvi + 413 p . , 7 pl .\nnilsson , s . 1855 . skandinavisk fauna . fjerde delen : fiskarna , lund : xxxiv + 768 p .\npriol , e . p . 1944 . observations sur les germons et les thons rouges captur\u00e9s par les p\u00eacheurs bretons . iii . remarques sur quelques poissons recueillis dans l ' estomac des thons . revue trav . off . ( scient . tech . ) p\u00each . marit . , 13 : 430 439 , fig .\nreid , j . 1849 . an account of a specimen of the vaagmaer or vogmarus islandicus ( trachypterus bogmarus of cuvier and valenciennes ) thrown ashore in the firth of forth . ann . mag . nat . hist . , ( 2 ) 3 ( 18 ) : 456 - 477 , pl . xvi .\nreinhardt , j . c . h . 1838 . vaagmaeren ( trachypterus vogmarus ) . k . danske vidensk . selsk . naturvid . math . afhandl . , 7 : pp . 65 - 82 , pl . i - ii .\nsmith , j . l . b . 1949b . the sea fishes of southern africa . south africa , 580 p . , 111 pl . , 1232 fig . ( other editions : 1950 , 1953 , 1961 , 1965 , 1970 ) .\nsmitt , f . a . 1893 - 1895 . ( ed . ) a history of scandinavian fishes , stockholm and paris , atlas , i , 1893 , pl . i - xxvii .\ngreek , trachys , - eia , - ys = rough + greek , pteron = wing , fin ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; bathypelagic ; depth range 300 - 600 m ( ref . 35388 ) . deep - water ; 72\u00b0n - 25\u00b0n , 62\u00b0w - 25\u00b0e\nnortheast atlantic : norway and iceland to madeira islands ; one report from spain in the mediterranean . western atlantic : new york to southern florida in usa . populations in western atlantic are probably a separate species ( ref . 7251 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? , range 200 - ? cm max length : 300 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 35388 )\nprobably solitary although occasional aggregations have been reported , either for feeding or breeding purposes . feeds on small fishes and squids ( ref . 6392 ) . sexually mature at a length of 200cm and an age of 14 years ( ref . 35388 ) . eggs , larvae , and young are pelagic ( ref . 6392 ) .\npalmer , g . , 1986 . trachipteridae . p . 729 - 732 . in p . j . p . whitehead , m . - l . bauchot , j . - c . hureau , j . nielsen and e . tortonese ( eds . ) fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean . unesco , paris . vol . 2 . ( ref . 6392 )\n) : 2 . 7 - 10 . 4 , mean 5 . 2 ( based on 145 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5166 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 5 \u00b10 . 62 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : very low , minimum population doubling time more than 14 years ( tm = 14 ; fec = 500 , 000 ) .\nprior r = 0 . 17 , 2 sd range = 0 . 04 - 0 . 73 , log ( r ) = - 1 . 77 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 73 , based on : 1 k , 1 tgen , 1 fec records\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : very high vulnerability ( 85 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nvan der land , j . ; costello , m . j . ; zavodnik , d . ; santos , r . s . ; porteiro , f . m . ; bailly , n . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; froese , r . ( 2001 ) . pisces , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 357 - 374 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nrobins , c . r . , g . c . ray , j . douglass and r . freund . 1986 . a field guide to atlantic coast fishes of north america . houghton mifflin co . boston . 354 p . [ details ]\nmceachran , j . d . ( 2009 ) . fishes ( vertebrata : pisces ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 1223\u20131316 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . [ details ]\ndyntaxa . ( 2013 ) . swedish taxonomic database . accessed at urltoken [ 15 - 01 - 2013 ] . , available online at http : / / urltoken [ details ]\nbr\u00fcnnich , m . t . ( 1788 ) . om en ny fiskart , den draabeplettede pladefish , fanget ved helsing\u00f6r i nords\u00f6en 1786 . k . danske selsk . skrift . n . saml . 3 : 398 - 407 . pl . a . [ details ]\nwheeler , a . ( 1992 ) . a list of the common and scientific names of fishes of the british isles . j . fish biol . 41 ( suppl . a ) : 1 - 37 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nintergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nprobably solitary although occasional aggregations have been reported , either for feeding or breeding purposes . feeds on small fishes and squids ( ref . 6392 ) . sexually mature at a length of 200cm and an age of 14 years ( ref . 35388 ) . eggs , larvae , and young are pelagic ( ref . 6392 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmoore , jon a . , karsten e . hartel , james e . craddock , and john k . galbraith\nnelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .\nfull author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h\u00e9ctor espinosa - p\u00e9rez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams\nrobins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nwhether you ' re a student , an educator , or a lifelong learner , urltoken can put you on the path to systematic vocabulary improvement .\ndon ' t have an account yet ? sign up . it ' s free and takes five seconds .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nall content on this website , including dictionary , thesaurus , literature , geography , and other reference data is for informational purposes only . this information should not be considered complete , up to date , and is not intended to be used in place of a visit , consultation , or advice of a legal , medical , or any other professional .\ndealfish are found in the north atlantic to as far south as florida . not much is known but they are about them . they feed on small fishes and squids .\nthe bottom picture recently surfaced . . . i jest . the fish washed up on the beach in florida . it has been misidentifed by some as an oarfish . it is not . there is another close relative of this fish that lives around australia and other places that is very similiar . it also goes by the name dealfish . but the scientific name is different . same genus name different species name .\nv\u00e5gm\u00e4ren har stj\u00e4rtfenan k\u00e4ckt i topp som ingen annan svensk fisk . eftersom den dessutom \u00e4r l\u00e5ngsmal och silvrig med r\u00f6da fenor \u00e4r den l\u00e4tt att k\u00e4nna igen . totall\u00e4ngd 300 cm , vanligtvis 100 cm . en mycket l\u00e5ngstr\u00e4ckt art vars rygg \u00e4r mer rundad \u00e4n buksidan , s\u00e5 att den liknar ett utdraget pilblad . huvudet \u00e4r litet och trubbigt , \u00f6gonen relativt stora och t\u00e4nderna mycket korta . ryggfenan b\u00f6rjar strax bakom \u00f6gat och forts\u00e4tter bak\u00e5t n\u00e4stan till stj\u00e4rtfenans bas . de fr\u00e4mre 5 - 6 fenstr\u00e5larna \u00e4r avgr\u00e4nsade fr\u00e5n resten av ryggfenan samt n\u00e5got f\u00f6rl\u00e4ngda j\u00e4mf\u00f6rt med de omedelbart p\u00e5f\u00f6ljande , men hela fenan \u00e4r relativt l\u00e5ng . analfena saknas . nedre stj\u00e4rtfensloben \u00e4r kort , medan den \u00f6vre stj\u00e4rtfensloben \u00e4r v\u00e4lutvecklad och upp\u00e5triktad , vilket ger stj\u00e4rten \u00e4r s\u00e4reget utseende . br\u00f6stfenorna \u00e4r mycket korta och rundade . bukfenorna \u00e4r tr\u00e5dlika hos unga individer och saknas helt eller \u00e4r starkt f\u00f6rkortade hos vuxna individer . fj\u00e4ll saknas , utom i sidolinjen - som l\u00f6per rakt fr\u00e5n huvudet bak\u00e5t till stj\u00e4rtfenan - d\u00e4r de ser ut som sm\u00e5 taggar . l\u00e4ngs bukkanten finns en rad spetsiga sm\u00e5 kn\u00f6lar . kroppen \u00e4r silvergl\u00e4nsande med 1 - 5 svarta fl\u00e4ckar som f\u00f6rsvinner med \u00f6kande \u00e5lder . ryggfenan och stj\u00e4rtfenan \u00e4r illr\u00f6da , br\u00f6stfenorna rosa . fenstr\u00e5lar och fj\u00e4ll : d iv - viii . ca 150 , a saknas , p 10 - 13 , v 0 ( 4 - 6 hos yngel ) . fj\u00e4ll saknas utom i sidolinjen , d\u00e4r de \u00e4r sv\u00e5rr\u00e4knade .\nv\u00e5gm\u00e4r f\u00f6rekommer regelbundet men s\u00e4llsynt i skagerrak , och emellan\u00e5t p\u00e5tr\u00e4ffas den \u00e4ven i kattegatt och \u00f6resund . totalt har omkring 20 fynd gjorts i sverige , senast i bohusl\u00e4n 2011 . arten har en omfattande utbredning \u00f6ver hela nordatlanten mellan ungef\u00e4r 30\u00b0 n och islands , gr\u00f6nlands och nordnorges kuster .\nv\u00e5gm\u00e4r \u00e4r en nordatlantisk art med f\u00f6rekomst fr\u00e5n madeira till island och norra norge . arten lever pelagiskt och oftast p\u00e5 stort djup . den upptr\u00e4der regelbundet men relativt f\u00e5taligt i nordsj\u00f6n och mera regelbundet p\u00e5 djupt vatten utanf\u00f6r norges kust . v\u00e5gm\u00e4ren \u00e4r en s\u00e4llsynt bes\u00f6kare l\u00e4ngs svenska v\u00e4stkusten med fynd fr\u00e5n bohusl\u00e4n till \u00f6resund .\nv\u00e5gm\u00e4r \u00e4r en pelagisk fisk som uppeh\u00e5ller sig p\u00e5 relativt djupt vatten , ned till 600 meters djup , och lever av fiskar och bl\u00e4ckfiskar . den blir k\u00f6nsmogen vid 14 \u00e5rs \u00e5lder och 245 cm l\u00e4ngd . en hona kan producera ca 580 000 \u00e4gg , och s\u00e5v\u00e4l \u00e4ggen som larverna \u00e4r pelagiska .\nl\u00e4nsvis f\u00f6rekomst och status f\u00f6r v\u00e5gm\u00e4r baserat p\u00e5 sammanst\u00e4llningar och bed\u00f6mningar av gjorda fynd .\nbl\u00e5 punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och \u00f6vriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan inneh\u00e5lla observationer som inte \u00e4r validerade . kartan uppdateras var fj\u00e4rde vecka .\nnationalnyckeln till sveriges flora och fauna . str\u00e5lfeniga fiskar . actinopterygii . 2012 . artdatabanken , slu , uppsala .\nl\u00e4ngre texter , ut\u00f6ver kriteriedokumentation , har sammanst\u00e4llts av : sven o . kullander & bo delling 2012 ( bearbetad av tomas carlberg och ragnar hall , artdatabanken ) .\ni det avancerade verktyget kan man s\u00f6ka ut och f\u00e5 fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst l\u00e4n , i en viss biotop , substrat , som p\u00e5verkas av en hotfaktor , eller som \u00e4r knutna till en sk v\u00e4rdart , t ex tr\u00e4det alm . dessa kan \u00e4ven kombineras .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , knutna till alm , \u00e4r beroende av d\u00f6d ved och som finns i kronobergs l\u00e4n .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , lever i sm\u00e5vatten och som p\u00e5verkas negativt av igenv\u00e4xning .\ndefaultl\u00e4get i verktyget \u00e4r arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade 2015 och dessa \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga s\u00f6kfaktorer . under fliken r\u00f6dlistekategori kan man dock v\u00e4lja att \u00e4ven inkludera arter som inte \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade . om man v\u00e4ljer att inkludera icke r\u00f6dlistade arter beh\u00f6ver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanst\u00e4llning av vad som \u00e4r komplett .\ndenna funktion anv\u00e4nds n\u00e4r du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka p\u00e5 deras namn . du kan ocks\u00e5 v\u00e4lja att anv\u00e4nda knappen \u201dj\u00e4mf\u00f6r arter\u201d f\u00f6r att se bilder , kartor och k\u00e4nnetecken i en j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevy .\ndu kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via sl\u00e4kttr\u00e4det och d\u00e4r v\u00e4lja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat s\u00e4tt att g\u00f6ra ditt urval \u00e4r att anv\u00e4nda fliken \u201dfiltrera\u201d , d\u00e4r du kan s\u00f6ka p\u00e5 olika egenskaper . ovanf\u00f6r listan med s\u00f6kresultatet finns en knapp \u201dl\u00e4gg i mitt urval\u201d .\nthe mit license copyright ( c ) 2014 - 2016 google , inc . urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\nthe mit license ( mit ) copyright ( c ) 2011 - 2015 twitter , inc permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright 2008 - 2015 martin wendt , urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright ( c ) 2009\u20132015 permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\nsome of the most common fish in the ocean are the small pelagic fish , which means they spend their life away from the coast and near the surface . in warm waters anchovies and sardines are superabundant while in cold waters , it\u00b4s herrings and smelts ( incl . capelin ) . in between , one can find blue whitings , and mackerels . these species are not many but they are extremely abundant and migrate great distances . changes in their distribution due to environmental changes are dramatic and easily noticeable . usually they feed on zooplankton such as copepods .\n) arrive on the coast in the spring and summer . adult herring is often found in great abundance off the northern coast and in fact sustained the most important fisheries there for decades . however , the migration patterns of the adult herring can change dramatically , so large herring has not been particularily common off northern iceland during the last decades . adult capelin remain outside the fjord except during the spawn in the late winter , at which time they move closer to the coast and follow it to the south shore . some capelin remain in the various fjords along the north and east .\nsome larger pelagic fish are occasionally found off northern iceland . however , large pelagic fishes are rare in cold waters , and their role is taken over by\n) . all are rare guests but for some unknown reason really many dealfish were found within the fjords in 2009 . although dealfish are related to opahs , the two species are radically different in appearance . the opah is nearly as tall as it is long and it\u2018s thick and heavy , reaching a weight of 270 kg . it is also brightly colored . the opah was recently shown to be warm - blooded . on the other hand , the dealfish is very long and slender . it can reach a length of 300 cm and its body is a silvery white on the sides with bright red fins .\nthe smallest pelagic fish are usually found at middle depths . three of these are often seen off the northern coast are the\nmetavelifer walters 1960 meta - , after , i . e . , after velifer , assuming this genus is more specialized than velifer\nlampris retzius 1799 radiant , brilliant or shining , referring to brilliant coloration of l . guttatus\nlampris immaculatus gilchrist 1904 im - , not ; maculata , spotted , no white spots on any part of body unlike l . guttatus\nstrange or unknown , referring to the \u201cstrange or unknown presence of multiple species of opahs [ i . e . , five distinct , monophyletic lineages previously within l . guttatus ] in the same geographic region\u201d ( matthew t . craig , pers . comm . )\neumecichthys fiski ( g\u00fcnther 1890 ) in honor of rev . george henry redmore fisk ( 1829 - 1911 ) , a collector of zoological curiosities in south africa , who \u201ckindly submitted\u201d this \u201chighly interesting fish\u201d and specimens of other animals\nzu elongatus heemstra & kannemeyer 1984 referring to its more elongate body compared to z . cristatus\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nthe benthopelagic black scabbardfish ( aphanopus carbo lowe , 1839 ) is an important species for northeast atlantic deep - water fisheries . its wide distribution across the ne atlantic and the difficult\u2026\n[ more ]\ndescription of dermal denticles from the caudal region of raja clavata and their use for the estimat . . .\nserra - pereira , b . , figueiredo , i . , farias , i . , moura , t . , and gordo , l . s . 2008 . description of dermal denticles from the caudal region of raja clavata and their use for the estimation of age and growth . \u2013 ices journal of marine science , 65 : 1701\u20131709 . this work is a response to a lack of knowledge of the biology of raja clavata in southern european waters , particularly in terms of age and . . . [ show full abstract ]\notolith shape analysis as a tool for stock discrimination of the black scabbardfish , aphanopus carbo . . .\nthe variability in otolith contour shape of black scabbardfish ( aphanopus carbo ) from portuguese waters was analysed for stock discrimination purposes . the contour shape of otoliths from specimens caught off mainland portugal , madeira and azores archipelagos was digitised and extracted according to the closed - form fourier analysis technique . mainland and madeira specimens were compared through . . . [ show full abstract ]\ndiet comparison of four ray species ( raja clavata , raja brachyura , raja montagui and leucoraja naev . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwe ' ve sent an email to please follow the instructions to reset your password .\nenter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .\nif is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .\nthe ribbonfish are any lampriform fishes in the family trachipteridae . these pelagic fish are named for their slim , ribbon - like appearance . they are rarely seen alive , as they typically live in deep waters , though are not bottom feeders . the sparidae are\nit is believed to be two different stocks of dela fish : one in the northeastern atlantic and another in the northwestern atlantic .\na norwegian trawler got a lot of dela fish while trawling for blue whiting west of ireland in march 2007 . scientists on board said that they never before had got so many deal fish on such a survey . the deal fish can grow to be three meters long .\nthe steward on the vessel prepared some deal fish for the crew . reliable reports tells that the deal fish didn\u2019t taste much . it had a jelly - like consistency and the crew left the dinner table early that day . maybe the conclusion had been different with a steward and a crew from asia ?\na couple of strange fish caught with trawl in the northern atlantic ocean has been shown on this post . her are two more of these strange looking creatures . the fish above looks like a monster thought it has the seize of a small herring . it seems to be able to eat preys of its own seize with its gigantic gap . the long and sharp teeth makes this fish look more than dangerous . i do not know the names of this fish , nor the name to the fish below .\nsomething like an eel with a tale and a birds head ? the appearance is not important while living in total darkness on several hundred meters depth . below you see a photo of its head .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 28 . 08 . 01 , php script by cmilitante , 04 / 03 / 10 , last modified by cmilitante , 11 / 12 / 12\nthe national weather service in taunton , massachusetts , hosted the first stop of the 2007 east coast hurricane awareness tour at quonset state airport in north kingstown , rhode island . the purpose of the tour is to increase hurricane awareness and to encourage preparedness in vulnerable coastal and inland communities through information stations , prescheduled briefings , public tours of one of noaa ' s lockheed wp - 3d orion hurricane hunter aircraft , and visits with hurricane hunter crew members and national hurricane center - tropical prediction center staff members . standing in front of the noaa hurricane hunter aircraft are ( from left ) : tracy mccormick , jeane wallace , david vallee , edward capone , and jeff ouellet .\n200th celebration greeting from the hague , netherlands ! u . s . delegates from noaa fisheries service presented listing proposals to protect sawfish , pink and red corals , and the banggai cardinalfish from unsustainable international trade during the 14th conference of the parties to the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) . they also worked to protect and regulate trade in other sharks , whales , and marine turtles at the conference . in this photo , they are taking a few minutes to commemorate noaa ' s 200th celebration . pictured are ( from left ) : andy bruckner , david cottingham , nancy daves , ryan wulff , and john carlson .\non a beautiful june morning at constitution gardens on the national mall in washington , dc , noaa fisheries volunteers helped 25 kids from ross elementary school learn about the glorious fun that is boating and fishing . the kids had a blast , and so did the noaa fisheries volunteers ! one of the kids jumped up and down with excitement at his 3\nfish ( which he then released ) and shouted ,\nthis is the best day of my whole life !\nthe annual event is a collaboration of the national park service , the department of the interior , noaa , dc fisheries program , and the non - profit recreational boating and fishing foundation . volunteers included liz fairey , maile bliss , mark oswell , dianna avery , anne isham , mark oswel , arminta brown , shirley lucas , stephie bost , terry sheriff , chris german , brad gentner , jim mccallum , and forbes darby .\nthe noaa chief financial officer ( cfo ) office held a team - building exercise with its staff from the finance and budget offices at east point park in washington , dc . the chief financial officer serves as the principal financial manager for noaa ' s resources . the cfo ' s office is responsible for providing leadership necessary for noaa to obtain a yearly - unqualified opinion in the audit of its consolidated financial statements , as well as ensuring that noaa ' s bills are paid in a timely manner . we are also responsible for the oversight and management of noaa ' s budget process , including coordinating the preparation of noaa budget submissions to the department , office of management and budget , and the congress .\nfollowing a severe weather safety presentation by john paul martin ( holding banner at the far left ) , warning coordination meteorologist at noaa ' s national weather service in bismarck , north dakota , personnel from the department of the interior ' s bureau of reclamation joined in commemorating noaa ' s celebration of 200 years of science , service , and stewardship at the bureau ' s bismarck office .\nthe national weather service in north platte , nebraska , entered a float in the nebraskaland days parade this year . the theme of the parade was\nthe tradition rides on\nas nebraskaland days was celebrating 125 years . the national weather service office won first prize in the commercial float division and also took home the best float overall . the float highlighted the arrival of the national weather service in north platte in 1874 , the first weather satellite in 1960 , the first weather radar in 1942 , and the first tornado warning was in 1947 . the float also showcased noaa ' s 200th celebration of science , service and stewardship . pictured ( top , from left ) christina henderson ; bill taylor ; brian hirsch ; teresa keck ; dennis phillips ( as dorothy in the wizard of oz ) ; and jim sweet ( as glenda the good witch of the north in the wizard of oz ) ; national weather service employee ' s children , james , leela , jamie , samantha , alex , and landon . standing in front of the float ( from left ) : deb blondin and angela oder .\nnoaa ' s national weather service southern region acting director steven cooper gathered his headquarters staff together recently to celebrate their department of commerce bronze medal . also on hand were visiting meteorologists from the people ' s republic of china . the chinese meteorologists have been visiting local , regional and national centers as part of an international exchange agreement with the national weather service . the headquarters staff has been recognized for leadership and support for national weather service field office warning and forecast operations during the 2005 hurricane season . the headquarters employees provided indispensable administrative , logistical , and technical support to the offices . their leadership and actions assisted the offices in preparing for , delivering , and sustaining critical forecast and warning operations prior to , during , and in the aftermath of the storms .\nthe monitor national marine sanctuary ' s advisory council ( sac ) recently gathered for meetings in cape hatteras , north carolina . while the wreck of the uss monitor was the main item on the agenda , participants also were given briefings on the biological , environmental , and historical aspects of the area aptly known as the graveyard of the atlantic . here sac members , staff from the monitor national marine sanctuary , and members of the maritime heritage program examine one of the\nanomalies\nthat has been attributed to some of the mysterious losses of ships in the graveyard ' s waters . pictured ( from left ) : ( back ) wayne smith , richard lawrence , david alberg , tane casserley , jeff johnston , ( front ) krista trono , don reynolds , susan langley , dr . tim runyan , and channing zucker .\nafter months of planning seattle ' s noaa 200th celebration event , the\nget to know noaa weekend\nwas held in june in conjunction with the\ntreasures of noaa ' s ark\nexhibit at the pacific science center in seattle , washington , featuring activities , exhibits , and talks by noaa scientists . hundreds of visitors stopped by the\nmeet a noaa scientist\narea where booths from a variety of noaa offices were set up to answer questions and inform the visitors about their role within noaa . pictured in the\nmeet a noaa scientist\nexhibit are ( front row , from left ) : lcdr mike hopkins , helen bottcher , and lisa hiruki - raring . ( back row , from left ) : rebecca reuter , liz clarke , jeff napp , and ted buehner .\nafter months of planning seattle ' s noaa 200th celebration event , the\nget to know noaa weekend\nwas held in june in conjunction with the\ntreasures of noaa ' s ark\nexhibit at the pacific science center in seattle , washington , featuring activities , exhibits , and talks by noaa scientists . hundreds of visitors stopped by the\nmeet a noaa scientist\narea where booths from a variety of noaa offices were set up to answer questions and inform the visitors about their role within noaa . this photo shows ken kruse with a few youth who stopped by to see the\nsurvival at sea\ndemonstration with seattle ' s space needle in the background .\nfor the past four years , researchers from noaa ' s center for coastal fisheries and habitat research have conducted an annual research cruise aboard noaa ship nancy foster to puerto rico and isla vieques with the help of participants from other noaa line offices and academic institutions . the purpose of this cruise is an ongoing investigation of the response of seagrass beds to physical disturbances including boat groundings , storms , wave energy , and foraging areas . this year ' s cruise included participants from noaa ' s southeast fisheries science center , noaa ' s office of response and restoration , and the north carolina state university . pictured in the bow of nancy foster are ( from left ) : tracy hamburger , chris taylor , jud kenworthy ( seated ) , sean meehan , todd kellison , giuseppe di carlo , jenny vander pluym , john burke , erika hansen , brian degan , missy partyka , paula whitfield , kevin kirsch , warren mitchell , amy uhrin , brooke landry and john hackney ( seated ) .\npromoting environmental literacy is essential to support noaa ' s mission and one way we do that is through internship programs that provide the opportunity for hundreds of young scholars to work side by side with noaa scientists . this year , more than 120 students from three separate programs - the ernest f . hollings undergraduate scholars , the educational partnership program ( epp ) undergraduate scholars , and the epp graduate scholars - traveled to silver spring , maryland , for a very busy introduction to noaa .\nthis group of americorps volunteers from northern colorado called the colorado range riders was assigned to help restore a portion of southern mississippi impacted by hurricane katrina . after participating in three days of coastal cleanups and weeks of restoring damaged homes , these hard - working young adults were rewarded with an educational / recreational kayak tour of the grand bay national estuarine research reserve . these young leaders of tomorrow had a great time while learning the importance of conserving coastal habitats .\n200th celebration greetings from northern indiana , southwest michigan , and northwest ohio ! noaa ' s national weather service northern indiana office commemorated noaa ' s 200th celebration at the airport with fireworks ! goshen freedom fest was held on june 30th at the goshen indiana airport . an estimated 25 , 000 to 30 , 000 people attended the day - long event . staff from noaa ' s national weather service northern indiana office set up an information and display booth , complete with posters , brochures , and a noaa weather radio all hazards display . the staff kept busy during the day answering numerous questions from the crowd about weather safety , aviation weather , noaa weather radio all hazards , and noaa ' s 200th celebration . in the photo , senior meteorologists john taylor and sam lashley , along with scep sara weisser and intern b . j . simpson , pose for a picture with the crew of a blackhawk helicopter , from the 38th aviation battalion based in shelbyville .\nin june , the indianapolis weather forecast office ( wfo ) hosted a lightning safety awareness week event on monument circle in downtown indianapolis , indiana . meteorologists from the wfo distributed lightning safety posters , magnets , brochures , and golf tees , as well as answered questions from the public and an interview from wibc radio news . shown under the awning ( from left ) : an interested citizen and national weather service meteorologists joseph nield and jason puma .\nlibrarians take time out from the books to send greetings from the annual noaa libraries conference in silver spring , maryland . noaa has 31 libraries encompassing some of the largest environmental science collections on earth that serve noaa operations , research , and policy offices at noaa facilities from kodiak island to miami and from woods hole to honolulu . noaa libraries have served noaa personnel from antarctica to the alaskan arctic and even have provided information to noaa ships at sea . pictured are ( seated , front row , from left ) : linda pikula , lagena fantroy , kathy kelly , maria bello , lisa pugh , janice beattie , and earie taniuchi ; ( back row , from left ) : michelle campbell , brian voss , skip theberge , liselle drake , linda salyers , caroline woods , paula jonson , eileen mcvey , gloria aversano , nick berry , ginny dietrich , claire steimle , neal kaske , debra losey , anna fiolek , and doria grimes .\non june 12 , hundreds of noaa employees and partners participated in the 4th annual noaa restoration day in maryland and virginia . noaa restoration day is one of the largest voluntary federal - employee - sponsored environmental stewardship events in the bay watershed . the maryland event was held at the jug bay component of the chesapeake bay national estuarine research reserve in maryland and the virginia event was held at the virginia commonwealth university rice center in charles city , virginia . at jug bay , more than 170 noaa volunteers from all noaa line offices joined staff from partner agencies to restore a portion of the patuxent river . volunteers planted underwater grasses grown in 22 tanks in noaa offices , transplanted wild rice , performed fish seining and sampling , mapped and removed invasive plants , completed digital elevation mapping , and more . more information can be found at http : / / restorationday . noaa . gov .\nclick headings [ a - z ] or [ ascending ] to sort the author ( s ) or year column . currently sorted by year of publication .\nreview : ' history of the british flora , a factual basis for phytogeography ' by sir h . godwin\nblackfish centrolophus niger ( gmelin , 1789 ) ( c . pompilus cuv . & val . ) in irish waters : a further record and a review of irish records\ncarter , c . j . , wood - baker , c . s . & polaszek , a .\nthe distribution in scotland and ireland of calliphora uralensis and its occurrence with ] and separation from c . vicina ( insecta : diptera )\nadditional data on the distribution of the bank vole , clethrionomys glareolus ( schreber , 1780 ) , on the beara peninsula , cos . cork and kerry\nby continuing to browse this site , you are agreeing that google and its partners will use cookies to provide you with targeted ads tailored to your interests and to enable us to measure the audience , click to learn more . okay\ndealated adj . ( entomology ) having shed or lost its wings , usually in the normal course of its life cycle .\nidealism n . the property of a person of having high ideals that are usually unrealizable or at odds with practical . idealism n . the practice or habit of giving or attributing ideal form or character to things ; treatment of things . idealism n . ( philosophy ) an approach to philosophical enquiry , which asserts that direct and immediate knowledge can .\nidealist n . ( philosophy ) one who adheres to idealism . idealist n . someone whose conduct stems from idealism rather than from practicality . idealist n . an unrealistic or impractical visionary .\nideality n . ( uncountable ) the quality or state of being ideal . ideality n . ( uncountable ) the capacity to form deals of beauty or perfection . ideality n . the conceptive faculty .\nidealize v . ( transitive ) to regard something as ideal . idealize v . ( intransitive ) to conceive or form an ideal . idealize v . ( art ) to portray using idealization .\nmegadeal n . ( informal ) a transaction of very large size . megadeal n . ( informal ) a deal offering exceptional value for money .\nmisdeals n . plural of misdeal . misdeals v . third - person singular simple present indicative form of misdeal .\nsomedeal pron . some part ; a portion , something ; some . somedeal adv . ( rare ) in some measure or degree ; somewhat , partly , partially .\nthis site uses web cookies , click to learn more . \u00a9 ortograf inc . website updated on 26 september 2017 . informations & contacts\ncarolinus y menticirrhus littoralis se mantuvieron cercanos al lugar original de captura entre 21 y 27 dias .\nuse of the surf zone of sandy beaches by croaker ' s larvae ( cynoscion spp . ) , province of guayas , ecuador\neffects of dietary protein levels on the growth , feed utilization and haemato - biochemical parameters of freshwater fish , cyprinus carpio var . specularis\ncarolinus ( linnaeus , 1766 ) , brevoortia aurea ( spix and agassiz , 1829 ) ) species .\nhigh levels of total ammonia nitrogen as n [ h . sub . 4 . sup . + ] are stressful and harmful to the growth of nile tilapia juveniles / elevados niveis de nitrogenio amoniacal total como n [ h . sub . 4 . sup . + ] sao estressantes e danosos ao crescimento de juvenis de tilapia nilotica\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nmonthly electronic news bulletin for the marine life of the ne atlantic oceans including the seas and seashore around the british isles . the bulletin is designed for microsoft explorer 4 and above using medium fonts at a resolution of 800 x 600 and can be viewed satisfactorily at a resolution of 1024 x 768 . subscribe and unsubscribe options are at the foot of this page .\nif you receive this bulletin as an email subscriber , you may find the best way to view the file is on your hard disc in your directory of incoming emails .\nreports of marine wildlife from all around the british isles , with pollution incidents and conservation initiatives as they affect the flora and fauna of the ne atlantic ocean .\n, north devon . most were about 10 mm in size , and some were still alive with their bubble rafts and\ninked\nwhen placed in a bucket . they were washed in with tiny ( max 12 mm )\nbeach , west sussex . there was much remaining of this large turtle , but the distinctive outer shell and at least one flipper is seen in the photograph by\nthey cause a huge amount of damage to the tidal and lower freshwater sections of rivers as they burrow into riverbanks causing them to collapse and silt up . further pressure is also put on our wildlife as these crabs out compete native species . these crabs must spend the juvenile part of their life cycle in freshwater but must return to the sea to breed .\nsix of these tiny crabs were found on a plastic barrel and one on a plastic float .\nwere recorded and collected by a rov submersible , the first a beige species with short arms ( like a cushion star ) from a depth of around 250 metres off west norway , and the second similar one from a depth of 600 metres in a norwegian fjord at an earlier date . neither of these species have been positively identified at time of writing .\ncoast . the height of this round fish was measured at 98 cm ( including the fins ) .\nare frequently found stranded on the western and southern coasts of britain , but much less often on north sea coasts .\nfrom the baltic coast of southern sweden , means this fish must have navigated through the narrow parts of the kattegat . it was a smallish specimen with a total length of 60 cm .\nand there are clues that the buoys , wooden pallets , fish boxes etc . have been floating around the atlantic ocean for two years or more and are american in origin . the live crabs were placed in the aquarium at the\nthese crabs are rarely recorded pelagic life with british records only from the extreme west coasts , with the only cornish records of the crab coming from the 19th century .\ngulf - weed crab because the largest population of this abundant crab is believed to inhabit the open atlantic ocean area known as the sargasso sea .\n; the fish was one metre long , 30 cms wide and laterally very thin with a tapering tail . i have identified this fish as a"]}
{"id": 316, "summary": [{"text": "balbaroo fangaroo is an extinct species of kangaroo .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it was discovered at the riversleigh world heritage area in northern australia and described as a new species in 2000 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the species was described from fossilized remains of part of the skull .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the skull is approximately the size of that of a modern wallaby .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the curved upper canine teeth are more than twice as long as the adjacent incisors and form \" fangs \" which may have been visible on the living animal even when its mouth was closed .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this feature is reflected in the fossil 's nickname , \" fangaroo \" , which later became part of its official scientific name . ", "topic": 10}], "title": "balbaroo fangaroo", "paragraphs": ["skull of balbaroo fangaroo , a member of the fanged kangaroos that may have been in direct competition with cookeroo hortusensis .\nthe two species , cookeroo bulwidarri and the cookeroo hortusensis were very small animals that moved on all fours , and outlasted a competitor species the balbaroo fangaroo .\nthe fanged species , named the balbaroo fangaroo , might not have been as good at adapting to the environment change from the rainforest to the open woodland , the researchers suggested .\nbelongs to balbaroo according to l . r . s . schwartz and d . megirian 2004\nthe newly found genus was in direct competition with a rival kangaroo species living in the same place at the same time \u2013 but the rival species had fangs . the ancient kangaroos outlived this fanged species , named the balbaroo fangaroo , because it was more able to adapt to the environment . bones of the balbaroo is pictutred\na new species of fanged kangaroo has been described from 15 - 13 million year old sites at the riversleigh world heritage area , but it seems to represent one of the last living members of the fanged kangaroo family , balbaridae . the study published in plos one , reviews all species in the genus balbaroo , which contains the famous fanged kangaroo , balbaroo fangaroo . the new species , named balbaroo nalima , has a partial skeleton associated with its skull , providing some information about the locomotion of the animal . it appears that fanged kangaroos were mostly walking on four legs , and probably galloped rather than hopped .\nblack kh , travouillon kj , den boer w , kear bp , cooke bn , et al . ( 2014 ) a new species of the basal \u2018\u2018kangaroo\u2019\u2019 balbaroo and a re - evaluation of stem macropodiform interrelationships . plos one 9 ( 11 ) : e112705 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0112705\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nfull reference : b . n . cooke . 2000 . cranial remains of a new species of balbarine kangaroo ( marsupialia : macropodoidea ) fromthe oligo - miocene freshwater limestone deposits of riversleigh world heritage area , northern australia . journal of paleontology 74 ( 2 ) : 317 - 326\ntype specimen : qm f3699 , a partial skull ( right half of a cranium and an associated left dentary ) . its type locality is upper site , which is in a miocene terrestrial limestone in the system b formation of australia .\nresearchers have discovered two new species of extinct , tiny , non - hopping kangaroos that could help uncover the evolutionary story of modern kangaroos and wallabies .\nthe genus was discovered after an analysis of ancient fossil deposits at the riversleigh world heritage area in north - west queensland , and is thought to be between 15 and 23 million years old .\na team of researchers at the university of queensland , the university of new south wales , and the western australian museum published a paper last week officially describing the new genus .\nuniversity of queensland researcher and lead author of the publication kaylene butler said the discovery highlights evidence that the cookeroo are a direct ancestor of the kangaroos and wallabies that exist today .\nwhat is really interesting about this new species , and the family they belong to , is that they represent the ancestors of our modern kangaroos and wallabies ,\nms butler said .\nwhat ' s happened is at some point [ competitor ] kangaroos have gone extinct , while the descendants of cookeroo , and the other kangaroos that are closely related to it , have diversified and increased in numbers .\nso what we ' re trying to understand is \u2026 how they were able to survive and increase in numbers at the same time that the fanged [ competitor ] kangaroos went extinct .\nthe new genus was named in honour of queensland museum researcher dr bernard cooke , who led research into the ancestry of ancient kangaroo fossils at riversleigh .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe fanged kangaroo have no descendants today , and appear to go extinct sometimes in the middle to late miocene ( around 10 million years ago ) . they were a very diverse family , with many species , and ranged in size from 3 - 10kg .\nyour graphics card does not support html5 canvas . stills are available to view and you can download the files for offline viewing in many 3d applications .\nskull of cookeroo hortusensis , a new species of ancient kangaroo from the riversleigh world heritage area .\ntwo newly described species of tiny kangaroos that lived between 18 million and 23 million years ago scurried rather than hopped , a new study finds . but although these pint - size kangas were short on bounce , they outperformed their fanged kangaroo relatives , which lived alongside them and eventually went extinct , researchers say .\nin a recent study , researchers described a new kangaroo genus , cookeroo , and two new species : cookeroo bulwidarri , dated to about 23 million years ago , and cookeroo hortusensis , which lived between 18 million and 20 million years ago .\nboth species were found at the riversleigh world heritage area in northwestern queensland , australia , a location recognized as one of the richest fossil deposits in the world , according to the united nations educational , scientific and cultural organization ( unesco ) world heritage center . [ see photos of kangaroos , wallabies & other cute marsupials ]\naccording to kaylene butler , the study ' s lead author , the new genus occupies a position near the base of the kangaroo family tree that includes all modern kangaroos and wallabies , their close relatives . butler , a paleontologist at the school of earth sciences at the university of queensland in australia , told live science in an email that the team figured out where to place cookeroo by comparing 119 different features representing 69 kangaroo species .\ncookeroo is distinguished as a genus by the combination of a number of features on the skull and teeth\n\u2014 points of comparison that were also used to distinguish between the two new species , butler said .\nthe newfound minikangaroos are\nthe size of very small wallabies ,\nwith bodies that probably measured about 17 to 20 inches ( 42 to 52 centimeters ) long , butler said . the landscape at the time was very different from the arid outback it is today , butler said . c . bulwidarri and c . hortusensis likely inhabited a dense forest , moving through it on all fours and sharing it with a diverse collection of animals : marsupial moles , feather - tailed possums , ancient koalas and crocodiles .\ncookeroo also lived alongside other species of small kangaroos that were part of the ancestral group for kangas alive today , as well as a related group of fanged kangaroos , butler told live science . the fanged kangaroos were also plant eaters , and they probably competed with the ancestors of modern kangaroos over their habitat ' s vegetation .\nhowever , the fanged kangaroos went extinct , while the ancestors of modern kangaroos continued to diversify and thrive ,\nbutler said .\nthe direct competition between the two groups may have contributed to the fanged kangaroos ' extinction , butler suggested in a statement , though it is not certain what features provided cookeroo with the advantage .\nthe fossil record for kangaroos is quite rich ,\nbutler said .\nwe have giant kangaroos from the pleistocene [ 2 . 6 million to 11 , 700 years ago ] and pliocene [ 5 . 3 million to 2 . 6 million years ago ] , as well as other sites similar in age to riversleigh where we see our tiny ancestors of modern kangaroos as well as the fanged kangaroos .\nhowever , there is still much to learn about kangaroo evolution , and new fossil finds help to bring this ancient lineage more clearly into focus , butler said .\nhopefully , further study of these new species will help us understand just what is so special about the ancestors of modern kangaroos \u2014 why did they survive when , at the same time , the fanged kangaroos went extinct .\nthe findings were published online feb . 17 in the journal of vertebrate paleontology .\nfollow mindy weisberger on twitter and google + . follow us @ livescience , facebook & google + . original article on live science .\nmindy weisberger is a senior writer for live science covering general science topics , especially those relating to brains , bodies , and behaviors in humans and other animals \u2014 living and extinct . mindy studied filmmaking at columbia university ; her videos about dinosaurs , biodiversity , human origins , evolution , and astrophysics appear in the american museum of natural history , on youtube , and in museums and science centers worldwide . follow mindy on\nelon musk ' s plan to rescue trapped thai boys ? a kiddie submarine that looks like a coffin .\nthe riversleigh giant carnivorous , toothed platypus , obdurodon tharalkooschild , tenderizing a young short - necked tortoise . ( supplied )\ngiant carnivorous platypuses , galloping fanged kangaroos and tree - climbing crocodiles sound like creatures from a strange dream , but all these animals were real a few million years ago .\nand they have all been discovered at the same fossil site \u2013 riversleigh , queensland .\nriversleigh today - fossils here are 24 million years old . photo by ross arnett .\ndavid attenborough has called riversleigh one of the four most important fossil deposits in the world . originally a cattle station , the site gained world heritage listing in 1994 because of the amazing fossils found there .\n\u201criversleigh itself has at least 300 individual fossil deposits and we continue to find a mass of new sites every year . the fossil deposits range in age from approximately 25 million years old to about 30 , 000 years old , \u201d says palaeontologist dr karen black from the university of new south wales ( unsw ) .\nhere , the combination of calcium carbonate , phosphates , and a rainforest full of animals has led to 25 million years of pristine and highly detailed fossils .\nspecies rich rainforest at riversleigh 19 million years ago . artist - dorothy dunphy .\n\u201canything that landed in that water was guaranteed to become a fossil , because almost immediately limestone began to precipitate around the object . . . it could have been a leaf , we ' ve even found butterfly wings , \u201d says professor michael archer , also from unsw , who has been digging fossils at the site for over 35 years .\nreconstruction of the 15 million - year - old malleodectes from riversleigh chomping down on what appears to have been its favourite food - snails . the massive , shell - cracking premolar tooth is clearly visible in the open mouth . reconstruction by peter schouten .\nthe snail eater is the newest weird animal found at riversleigh . it\u2019s distantly related to marsupial carnivores , but has a weird premolar which scientists think it used to crush up snails .\n\u201cit wasn ' t until we found the tooth that was part of a mammal jaw that we realised what it was , and how strange it was . there ' s no other mammal in the world that has teeth like this , \u201d says archer .\n\u201cit is speculation , but its informed speculation , based in part\u2026 [ by ] actual study of the teeth itself , that lead us to the conclusion that it is primarily a snail eater . \u201d\nthe riversleigh giant carnivorous , toothed platypus , obdurodon tharalkooschild , tenderizing a young short - necked tortoise . the powerfully - built tooth of obdurodon tharalkooschild shown in the inset is vastly different than the vestigial , dysfunctional teeth of the living platypus . ( artwork by peter schouten ; photo of tooth by rebecca pian )\n\u201cthe giant platypus was far bigger than any known platypus and at around 80cm to 1m in length . it also differs to the living platypus in that it has well developed teeth \u2013 whereas those of the modern species are poorly developed and absent in adult individuals , \u201d says black .\nthere were a wide variety of platypuses 25 million years ago - a far cry from the one lone species we see in rivers today .\nthe skull of carnivorous kangaroo ekaltadeta from riversleigh , 19 million years old . photo by henk godthelp .\nkangaroos that have teeth like a wolf , are nearly the size of a human , and gallop instead of hopping , right towards you . definite nightmare material .\n\u201cthe carnivorous kangaroo was something that shocked us when we first found them . we didn ' t believe it , but we couldn ' t come to any other conclusion , \u201d says archer .\n\u201cthere was a whole group of these [ types of kangaroos ] that would have stood up to about a human shoulder with teeth that show unmistakably that they are eating flesh and bone . \u201d\nthese types of species would have made their home in lush rainforests , not open plains like today\u2019s kangaroos .\ncleaver - headed crocodile in riversleigh forest 24 million years ago . artist - dorothy dunphy .\nthese crocodiles could grow up to 5 metres in length , and the first skull found at riversleigh was discovered with the bones of a marsupial lion in its mouth .\nalthough this species may not have been able to climb trees , some other species like mekosuchus whitehunterensis , which were goanna - like , may have been able to climb , possibly to eat bird eggs .\nthylacoleo carnifex , pencil drawing based on the skeleton at the victoria fossil cave . artist - nobu tamura , cc by 3 . 0\nthese guys aren\u2019t actually related to lions , but they are still the largest meat - eating mammal known to have existed in australia .\n\u201criversleigh 20 - 15 million years ago was a biodiversity hotspot because of the palaeoenvironment of temperate rainforest with rain all year round , \u201d black explains .\n\u201cthe diversity of plants in the riversleigh rainforests was able to support a high diversity of mammals . mammals at this time were occupying niches no longer seen in the much drier environments of australia today . \u201d\nsponges are thought to be some of the earliest animals to have evolved on earth , and this one is a true giant .\nnative australian animals such as bats and rodents don ' t get enough attention - which puts them at risk , according to a new study .\nrare whiteness isn ' t just for giraffes - we ' ve rounded up a bunch of pale animals closer to home .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\n/ / urltoken\nthe iconic hop of modern - day kangaroos make the species instantly recognisable , and a firm favourite among children .\nbut 23 million years ago , an ancient relative of these marsupials scurried through dense forests on four legs , instead of two .\nthis wallaby - sized kangaroo also outlived another species of fanged marsupial that lived alongside it because it was better at adapting to their changing environment .\nancient bones ( skull pictured ) belonging to two species of the new kangaroo genus were found in queensland . the genus has been named cookeroo , in honour of researcher dr bernard cooke , who led much of the research program focused on the evolution of riversleigh ' s ancient kangaroos\nancient bones belonging to two species of the new kangaroo genus were found in the riversleigh world heritage site in queensland , australia by researchers at the university of queensland .\nthe genus has been named cookeroo , in honour of researcher dr bernard cooke , who led much of the research program focused on the evolution of riversleigh ' s ancient kangaroos .\nand the two new species within the genus are cookeroo bulwidarri , which lived about 23 million years ago , and cookeroo hortusensis , which lived 18 to 20 million years ago .\nworld ' s biggest bony fish gets its closeup : divers are . . .\nhelping \u00f6tzi the iceman ' speak ' from beyond the grave : scans . . .\nthe first was named after the word bulwidarri which means ' white ' in the aboriginal waanyi language , referring to the riversleigh white hunter site where specimens were found .\nthe second was named after the latin word hortusensis , meaning ' belonging to the garden ' in reference to neville ' s garden site at riversleigh , where the bones were found .\nthe new species of kangaroo couldn ' t hop like modern - day kangaroos ( stock image pictured ) but it is thought to be an ancestor of all wallabies and kangaroos alive today . the tiny marsupial was the size of a wallaby and lived between 15 and 23 million years ago\nthe newly discovered non - hopping ancestors of modern kangaroos were in the same place as fanged kangaroos at the same time .\nbut one group , the fanged kangaroos , went extinct while the ancestors of modern kangaroos survived .\nthe non - hopping ancestors appear to have won and outlived the fanged species .\nthe fanged species might not have been as good at adapting to the environment change from the rainforest to the open woodland , the researchers suggested .\n' they moved on all fours , scurrying across a densely forested landscape quite different from the dry outback we see in western queensland today , ' kaylene butler , graduate student at the universiy of queensland who worked on the paper , said .\nthe newly found genus was in direct competition with a rival kangaroo species living in the same place at the same time \u2013 but the rival species had fangs .\n' we also know that both the fanged kangaroos and the ancestors of modern kangaroos were plant eaters .\n' surprisingly fangs have nothing to do with diet but the molar teeth tell us both were likely herbivores .\n' so we know they were likely to be competing for the same resources and clearly the ancestors of modern kangaroos appear to have won .\n' exactly why the ancestors of modern kangaroos survived while fanged kangaroos went extinct requires further study , ' she added .\nthe first genus was named after the word bulwidarri which means ' white ' in the aboriginal waanyi language , referring to the riversleigh white hunter site where specimens were found ( marked ) . the second was named after the latin word hortusensis , meaning ' belonging to the garden ' in reference to neville ' s garden site\nafter uncovering the bones , the researchers were able to identify the new genus and two species within the genus by looking at the skull bones and teeth and comparing them to known species .\n' currently we are unsure as to exactly what makes these non hopping ancestors of modern kangaroos so special .\n' trying to determine what makes these animals better adapted is where our research is headed in the future , ' butler told mailonline .\n' we know where you live ' : angry protesters confront mitch . . .\n' diana would be ashamed ' : meghan ' s bitter half - sister . . .\npolice find the body of a missing four - month - old boy near . . .\n' prostitutes , orgies , group sex - all of it ' : ex - wife of . . .\nwoman , 38 , ' shoots her father in the head and then lives . . .\nalive ! four thai boys who made it out of cave in daring . . .\nbottleneck of 700 , 000 migrants wait in libya to cross the . . .\nwhat was agreed at chequers . . . and how the three - page . . .\n' this is no sell - out ' : theresa may insists she has chosen . . .\nsydney tower skywalk was ' shut down due to unsafe winds ' . . .\na new way to tackle climate change ? heat from underground rivers in london could help cut the capital ' s . . .\nhas kepler found its last alien world ? nasa reveals its planet hunting space telescope is about to run out . . .\namazon is still selling nazi - branded merchandise , despite researchers first warning it about the products . . .\nmummified head of serial killer ' the vampire of dusseldorf ' who raped and murdered girls as young as four . . .\npeople who see themselves as albert einstein suddenly think they are smarter : being in the body of someone . . .\nsamsung opens the world ' s largest phone plant in india : 1 . 5 million square foot factory will produce 120 . . .\nai learns the basics of driving a car using trial and error after being let loose on the road for just ' 15 . . .\nwant to appear rich ? buy an iphone , a samsung tv and soy sauce : scientists reveal the top 10 items that make . . .\nhidden artwork from chapel inside underground quarry that was used as a hideout in the second world war . . .\nmassive timehop data breach exposes the private details of 21 million users including names , email addresses . . .\nshocking security lapse as running app polar flow exposes the locations and personal details of 6 , 400 spies . . .\nnissan admits altering fuel emission tests after it was caught letting unqualified staff conduct the . . .\nselena gomez is seen with same mystery man she was with in may . . . after news her ex justin bieber is engaged to hailey baldwin\nkhloe kardashian reveals she stopped breast - feeding daughter true . . . three months after giving birth\ngiuliana rancic takes a hike with bill . . . as the couple vacation with friends ahead of her return to e ! news\nkhloe kardashian shows off neon sign in true ' s nursery . . . as she reveals it ' s kris jenner ' s handwriting\nmakeup artist joyce bonelli reaches out to the kardashian clan on instagram . . . after the famous family ' fire ' and unfollow her on social media\ndaddy daycare ! jared kushner takes kids back to d . c . after weekend in new jersey - as ivanka dons a short dress for visit to a nyc asphalt company\nsofia richie , 19 poses in a bikini top just after scott disick ' s ex kourtney kardashian , 39 , did the same . . . and fans call her out for it\nnaomi campbell wows in flamboyant feathered gown . . . while ashley graham sizzles in plunging lace dress as they walk in dolce & gabbana show in italy\nnaya rivera sells her five - bedroom la home for a cool $ 3 . 55 million after finalizing her divorce from ryan dorsey\nmel b ' is unable to pay her back taxes amid ongoing divorce battle with stephen belafonte . . . as it ' s estimated the pair owe up to $ 650k ' to the irs\nkylie jenner rocks curve - clinging attire as she shows off body . . . and considers going back to blonde\ndakota johnson dons striped wrap dress in la . . . after calling co - star chris hemsworth ' spectacular '\ncardi b hits back at troll who mocked her baby shower . . . as she shows off naked baby bump for photoshoot\nbuy your own celebrity hideaway ! castle adored by michael douglas and jack nicholson goes on sale for $ 5 . 2m ( and even comes with treehouse )\nant - man and the wasp soars to $ 76 million on opening weekend . . . beating its prequel by $ 19 million\nliam payne and cheryl split : carefree 1d star returns to stage for first time since break - up . . . as he poses happily with his backing dancers in france\ntristan thompson goes house hunting alone as he checks out $ 2m property in la with its own basketball court . . . just minutes from khloe ' s mansion\nchris hemsworth kicks off filming for the star - studded men in black spin - off as he cuts a sharp figure in london . . . 21 years after the first film hit screens\njill zarin admits she ' s ready to date again after being spotted with handsome businessman . . . following beloved husband bobby ' s death\ndj khaled cancels wireless performance due to ' travel issues ' just hours before his slot . . . as fans rage over his ' vacation ' snap\n13 reasons why villain justin prentice says he ' s not bothered by social media trolls . . . and that getting attacked online means he ' s doing his job as an actor\n' she didn ' t get those from me ' : kylie jenner says daughter stormi has dad travis scott ' s lips . . . as star reveals her breasts are ' three times the size ' post - baby\nkevin hart celebrates 39th birthday in las vegas . . . nearly a year after sin city cheating scandal\ndakota fanning joins michael b . jordan in voice cast of western anime series gen : lock\nfarm heroes saga , the # 4 game on itunes . play it now !\nit ' s eye - wateringly expensive at $ 2 , 999 , but naim ' s uniti atom is a revelation , an integrated amplifier than makes it easy to stream music at a quality you ' ve probably never heard before .\nafter a day with the iphone x , while face id isn ' t perfect , and the ' notch ' is an annoyance , the iphone x is a glimpse into the future of phones and the best handset of the market by a long way .\nthey aren ' t cheap , but shinola ' s $ 595 foray into headphones are the perfect accessory for design obsessives looking to upgrade their listening habits .\nwith the pixel xl , google has created a handset that is not only the best android device out there , but arguably matches the iphone 8 in terms of design and feel .\napple ' s watch will free you from your phone - while making sure you don ' t suffer the fear of missing out . it ' s a huge step forward , and a compelling reason for the average user to buy a smartwatch .\nwhile the iphone x may have stolen the headlines , in fact the iphone 8 could be the sleeper hit of apple ' s new range , offering the same power as the x but with features and a design users trust .\nwhile the design is impressive and easy to use , the game line up is disappointing .\nnaim ' s incredible mu - so qb takes you back to the good old days - where the music captivates and enthralls , rather that simply being something in the background .\nit might not be a name familiar to the us market , but naim is a legendary british brand hoping to make a splash with the american launch of its $ 1499 mu : so speaker .\npeloton ' s hi - tech bike lets you stream live and on demand rides to your home - and it ' s one of the best examples of fitness technology out there - at a price ."]}
{"id": 321, "summary": [{"text": "the sunburst butterflyfish , chaetodon kleinii , is also known as the black-lipped butterflyfish ( or \" blacklip butterflyfish \" ) or klein 's butterflyfish .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is a native of the indo-pacific region , from the red sea and east africa to the hawaiian islands and samoa , north to southern japan , south to australia and new caledonia .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is also found in galapagos islands in the eastern pacific .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "under its junior synonym c. corallicola was placed in the monotypic subgenus tifia , but this can not be separated from the earlier-described lepidochaetodon ( sometimes considered a separate genus ) .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it appears to be closer to the tahiti butterflyfish ( c. trichrous ) than to the teardrop butterflyfish ( c. unimaculatus ) . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "sunburst butterflyfish", "paragraphs": [", commonly called klein\u2019s butterflyfish but also known by a variety of other epithets , such as the sunburst butterflyfish , orange butterflyfish , brown butterflyfish , blacklip butterflyfish , corallicola butterflyfish , and probably a few others i\u2019m not aware of .\nthis species is on the iucn red list as least concern ( lc ) . they have a wide distribution and a large population with no major threats identified . other common names they are known by include sunburst butterflyfish , blacklip butterflyfish , orange butterflyfish , bluehead butterflyfish , brown butterflyfish , klein ' s coralfish , kleini butterflyfish , black - lipped butterflyfish , white - spotted butterflyfish , whitespotted butterflyfish , and yellowspot butterflyfish .\nthis fish has an oval , disc - like shape with a pretty yellowish brown color . there are one or two broad white bands running vertically down the body and many spotted horizontal stripes on the sides . the body is contrasted with a strong black vertical stripe running across the face that has an almost metallic blue hue just above the eye in the adults . there are many descriptive common names it is known by including sunburst butterflyfish , blacklip butterflyfish , orange butterflyfish , bluehead butterflyfish , whitespotted butterflyfish , yellowspot butterflyfish , and brown butterflyfish .\nthe sunburst butterflyfish , found in the tropical indo - pacific from the red sea to hawaii , is also called the black - lipped butterflyfish and klein\u2019s butterflyfish . this fish is yellowish brown with 1 - 2 broad lighter vertical bars . it has a black bar across the eyes . it is an easy fish to keep and suitable for beginners .\nthe sunburst butterflyfish is a species of fish that lives in the tropical waters or the indo - pacific basin . it evolves in shallow waters , and crowds coral massives . it prefers areas sheltered from the current , such as the sandy bottoms near mauritius , maldives and even the red . . .\nnice underwater video showing a large group of klein ' s butterflyfish enjoying what ' s left of a sea urchin , likely initially killed by triggerfish . butterflyfish aren ' t above scavenging food and sea urchins are normally protected by their long spines , so a full triggerfish provides the best opportunity for the butterflyfish to dig in !\nthis is my favorite butterflyfish . even though i am an expert marine aquarist , i still like to keep them .\ntherefore it is important to choose the correct species in relation to the corals wanted , if one desires to keep butterflyfish in a coral - aquarium . bristleworms , tubeworms and other small invertebrates are also a part of the diet for many butterflyfish .\nmarine butterflyfish have not reportedly been spawned successfully in captivity . there are however , reports of some success in rearing wild collected larvae of some of the corallivorous butterflyfish . it is hoped these captive reared fish will be adapted to accept aquarium foods , and thus broaden the species selections that can be sustained in captivity . for more information see , marine fish breeding : butterflyfish .\nthis species is a member of a group of butterflyfishes that tentatively belong to the subgenus lepidochaetodon , which may become a distinct genus . this is a small group that consists of 8 species . also under a junior synonym is the coral butterflyfish or corallicola butterflyfish\ni have bought one klein butterflyfish from the local marine fish shop , and i have to say that i have fallen in love with this fish .\nbutterflyfish mostly range from 12 to 22 cm ( 4 . 7 to 8 . 7 in ) in length . the largest species , the lined butterflyfish and the saddle butterflyfish , c . ephippium , grow to 30 cm ( 12 in ) . the common name references the brightly coloured and strikingly patterned bodies of many species , bearing shades of black , white , blue , red , orange , and yellow . other species are dull in colour . many have eyespots on their flanks and dark bands across their eyes , not unlike the patterns seen on butterfly wings . [ 2 ] their deep , laterally narrow bodies are easily noticed through the profusion of reef life . the conspicuous coloration of butterflyfish may be intended for interspecies communication . butterflyfish have uninterrupted dorsal fins with tail fins that may be rounded or truncated , but are never forked .\nbutterflyfish look like smaller versions of angelfish ( pomacanthidae ) , but unlike these , lack preopercle spines at the gill covers . some members of the genus heniochus resemble the moorish idol ( zanclus cornutus ) of the monotypic zanclidae . among the paraphyletic perciformes , the former are probably not too distantly related to butterflyfish , whereas the zanclidae seem far less close .\nthey ignore most other fish and are generally peaceful , therefore multiple butterflyfish will have no problem living together . one should however be cautious about keeping similar species together unless they are a couple .\ngenerally diurnal and frequenting waters less than 18 m ( 59 ft ) deep ( though some species descend to 180 m ( 590 ft ) ) , butterflyfish stick to particular home ranges . these corallivores are especially territorial , forming pairs and staking claim to a specific coral head . contrastingly , the zooplankton feeders form large conspecific groups . by night , butterflyfish hide in reef crevices and exhibit markedly different coloration .\nadults are most often seen in pairs , but are also found alone or in loose groups of up to about 30 individuals . sometimes groups will invade the nests of damselfish to eat the eggs . adults will also join groups of zooplankton feeding fish that contain some varieties of anthias , damselfish , wrasses , triggerfish , and other butterflyfish . juveniles will often associate with small surgeonfish ( tangs ) and other juvenile butterflyfish .\nthe butterflyfish are known for their attractive patterns and colours . they are closely related to angelfishs , but can always be distinguished , as they lack the spines on each side of the head of the angelfish .\nthe klein ' s butterflyfish is best kept in a large fish only live rock ( folr ) community tank . like many butterflyfish it can be a coral eater and so is not recommended for a reef tank . success may be achieved if it is well fed and has carefully selected corals . but it does eat most soft corals as well as sessile invertebrates , and may very well begin to nip on hard coral polyps\nno sexual difference is noted for this species . butterflyfish species studied up to this time indicate that these fish are gonochoristic , meaning that each fish is either a male or a female and they do not change sex .\ni have bought one klein butterflyfish from the local marine fish shop , and i have to say that i have fallen in love with this fish . it is not only hardy , but also . . . ( more ) sanchez\na smaller group of these fish will seek out primairily soft corals , like zoanthus . a larger part of the species will target different types of lps corals . butterflyfish are also known to seek out anemones , tubeworms and bristleworms .\nthis is one of the few butterflyfish that can be recommended to beginners . it is one of the most durable butterflyfish , but the key to successfully keeping it is getting a strong , healthy specimen . the biggest challenge with these fish seems to be in transportation . so to get the best specimen , make sure sure it has acclimated and is eating before you purchase . once this fish is acclimated it will take a variety of foods and no special care is needed to maintain it .\nthe word \u201cbeginner\u201d and \u201cbutterflyfish\u201d aren\u2019t often paired together , as so many of the butterflyfishes seem to present some manner of husbandry challenge , often related to diet . still , certain butterflies have a well - deserved reputation for hardiness and general ease of care . among them is\nthe klein ' s butterflyfish has the typical butterflyfish shape . it has a laterally compressed disc - shaped body with a protruding snout tipped with a small mouth . the dorsal fin is continuous and it has a rounded tail fin . this species can reach a length of about 6 inches ( 15 cm ) in the wild , but most specimens in the aquarium reach about 5 inches ( 12 . 5 cm ) . the lifespan for most of the chaetodon species is between 5 - 7 years , but these fish can live longer with proper care .\nthe klein ' s butterflyfish are generally hardy and problems with disease are reduced in a well maintained aquarium . any additions to a tank can introduce disease , so it ' s advisable to properly clean or quarantine anything that you want add to an established tank prior to introduction .\nthis butterflyfish is a stony coral eater and it can also be sensitive to some drugs . be sure to observe this fish closely when medicating it , so you can remove it if it shows signs of stress . for information about saltwater fish diseases and illnesses , see aquarium fish diseases and treatments .\nit is not only hardy , but also clever and cute . i used to put the live athemias in the strainer and feed my fishes with holding athemias in the strainer , and suddenly a klein butterflyfish got into the strainer to eat athemia , so i could feel his movement , i could really play with him . i recommend beginners to buy this fish . in my opinion , it is fairly pretty . his colour would change to be a bit dull at night time . now i also have other species of butterflyfish , angelfish , clownfish , wrasses , tangs , cardinal , dottyback as his tankmates , and they can cope well .\nthis species has not been cultivated in captivity . in the wild butterflyfish are pelagic spawners that release many tiny eggs into the planktonic water column where they float with the currents until they hatch . once hatched the fry are in a post - larval where their body , extending from the head , is covered with large bony plates .\nthe klein ' s butterflyfish are omnivores , in the wild they feed on algae , macroalgae , a broad range of coral species , and other cnidarians as well as tiny benthic crustaceans and zooplankton . no special food is needed in the aquarium , they will readily accept a wide variety of foods . offer meaty foods , dried flakes , shrimps , and tablets and frozen foods of all kinds including formula i , formula ii , angel formula and spirulina . several sponge based frozen foods are now available and can also be fed to butterflyfish . japanese nori will also be favored . feed it at least twice a day , and if it is a tiny juvenile feed it three to four times everyday .\nit will work well with a variety of tank mates including moderately aggressive fish . it can also be housed with other butterflyfish , even its own kind , as long as they are all introduced simultaneously . the only caveat here is that two males will fight , and so will have to be separated if that occurs . many reef - keepers hope to keep it in a mini reef , but like many butterflyfish it can be a coral eater and so is not recommended for a reef tank . success may be achieved if it is well fed and has carefully selected corals . but it does eat most soft corals as well as sessile invertebrates , and may very well begin to nip on hard coral polyps\nthis is a peaceful fish that can be housed with a variety of tank mates , including moderately aggressive fish . it can also be housed with other butterflyfish , even its own kind , as long as they are all introduced simultaneously . the only caveat here is that two males will fight , and so will have to be separated if that occurs .\nthe butterflyfish are a group of conspicuous tropical marine fish of the family chaetodontidae ; the bannerfish and coralfish are also included in this group . the approximately 129 species in 12 genera [ 1 ] are found mostly on the reefs of the atlantic , indian , and pacific oceans . a number of species pairs occur in the indian and pacific oceans , members of the huge genus chaetodon .\nmales and females are both 6 in . as newcomers , they can be bullied by tangs , surgeons or other butterflyfish , but usually endure with no damage . when keeping them in groups , it is best to introduce them to the aquarium simultaneously . the minimum tank size is 53 gal . they should be fed meaty foods three times a day . they should also be fed algae - based foods .\nis not the flashiest or most beautiful butterflyfish , but it is very hardy and inexpensive . it is one of the smaller members of the chaetodontidae family . it could reach close to 6 inches ( 15 cm ) , but will rarely grow over 5 inches ( 12 . 5 cm ) in the aquarium . this fish exhibits all the grace and beauty of its relatives and has the same characteristic elegant form .\nthese butterflyfish are associated with rocky reefs and coral rich areas . they occur in protected lagoons and channels , back reef areas , reef faces and reef slopes . they seem to prefer reefs that have a sandy coral bottom and not much surge . they are found at depths from 13 - 400 feet ( 4 - 122 m ) , but are most abundant at depths of less than 33 feet ( 10 m ) .\nbutterflyfish are pelagic spawners ; that is , they release many buoyant eggs into the water , which become part of the plankton , floating with the currents until hatching . the fry go through a tholichthys stage , wherein the body of the post larval fish is covered in large , bony plates extending from the head . they lose their bony plates as they mature . [ 2 ] only one other family of fish , the scats ( scatophagidae ) express such an armored stage .\nthis is a durable butterflyfish that can be suggested for a beginning aquarist . the key to successfully keeping this fish is to get the best possible specimen . to get a strong healthy specimen make sure it has acclimated and is eating before you purchase . this fish will become a hardy pet once it is acclimated and no special care is needed to maintain it . it is not recommended for reef aquariums as it is a coral eater . it will most likely snack on the polyps of stony corals as well as pick at sessile invertebrates .\nthe chaetodontidae can be , but are not usually , divided into two lineages that arguably are subfamilies . the subfamily name chaetodontinae is a little - used leftover from the period when the pomacanthidae and chaetodontidae were united under the latter name as a single family . hence , chaetodontinae is today considered a junior synonym of chaetodontidae . in any case , one lineage of chaetodontidae ( in the modern sense ) contains the\ntypical\nbutterflyfish around chaetodon , while the other unites the bannerfish and coralfish genera . as the perciformes are highly paraphyletic , the precise relationships of the chaetodontidae as a whole are badly resolved . [ 3 ]\ngreek , chaite = hair + greek , odous = teeth ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 4 - 61 m ( ref . 9710 ) , usually 10 - ? m ( ref . 1602 ) . tropical ; 30\u00b0n - 32\u00b0s , 29\u00b0e - 130\u00b0w\nindo - pacific : red sea and east africa ( south to coffee bay , south africa , ref . 5372 ) to the hawaiian islands and samoa , north to southern japan , south to new south wales , australia and new caledonia . eastern pacific : galapagos islands ( ref . 5227 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 15 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5372 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 13 - 14 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 20 - 23 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 17 - 20 ; vertebrae : 24 . body is yellowish brown with two broad white vertical bars running across the body one from near the origin of the dorsal spine and the other from the middle of the back . a black bar runs vertically across the eye . there are numerous dotted horizontal stripes on the sides . the margin of caudal fin is transparent ( ref . 4855 ) . snout length 2 . 5 - 3 . 2 in hl . body depth 1 . 5 - 1 . 8 in sl ( ref . 90102 ) .\noccur in deeper lagoons and channels , and seaward reefs ( ref . 1602 ) . benthopelagic ( ref . 58302 ) . depth 2 - 61 m , usually below 10 m ( ref . 90102 ) . occur singly or in pairs ( ref . 37816 ) . common , omnivorous individuals that feed mainly on soft coral polyps ( mainly on sarcophyton tracheliophorum and litophyton viridis ) , algae and zooplankton . oviparous ( ref . 205 ) . form pairs during breeding ( ref . 205 ) .\ndistinct pairing ( ref . 205 ) . monogamous mating is observed as both obligate and social ( ref . 52884 ) .\nmyers , r . f . , 1991 . micronesian reef fishes . second ed . coral graphics , barrigada , guam . 298 p . ( ref . 1602 )\n) : 24 . 7 - 29 , mean 27 . 8 ( based on 832 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 03090 ( 0 . 01890 - 0 . 05054 ) , b = 3 . 05 ( 2 . 91 - 3 . 19 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 9 \u00b10 . 2 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 12 of 100 ) .\nindo - pacific : red sea and east africa ( south to coffee bay , south africa ) to the hawaiian islands and samoa , north to southern japan , south to new south wales , australia and new caledonia . eastern pacific : galapagos island .\nthis butterfly can be kept with other butterflies , including those of it ' s own species , as long as they are introduced to the tank at the same time . new additions to a tank with an established fish may be bullied . is otherwise generally peaceful towards other fish , but may nip at soft corals and small invertebrates .\nwill graze on algae , and will also eat small invertebrates and polyps . must be supplemented with frozen , live and veges if these aren ' t available .\nrequires a long tank of at least 208 litres ( 55 us g . ) , established with live rock for grazing . some open swimming space is appreciated combined with hiding places .\nhigh sided slender oval fish . the body is primarily yellow in colour , there is half a white band in the centre from the dorsal fading mid - way down the body . the head is bolder white with a dark band running vertically from the beginning of the dorsal down through the eye and down to the anal fin . this darker band varies in colour from blue to brown . the lips of the fish are black in colour . the dorsal , caudal and anal fin are edged with blue iridescence .\nthis page was last edited on 13 december 2017 , at 03 : 19 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license unless otherwise noted .\nmini reef aquarium guide . reef aquarium setup for large reef tanks , nano reef tanks , pico reef or micro reef aquariums with reef tank lighting , filtration , choosing coral reef animals , and problem solving !\nsetting up a saltwater aquarium . guide to marine supplies , putting the aquarium together , cycling the aquarium water and adding fish !\nthroughout the ages people of been fascinated , thrilled , frightened , and horrified by these creatures . they have been the subject of myths , novels , movies . . .\nobservations and insights of a marine enthusiast . an in - depth explanation of what it takes to be a successful marine aquarist\nenter your freshwater aquarium enter parameters for your freshwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nenter your saltwater aquarium enter parameters for your saltwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nfish finder search our database for compatible pets ! enter characteristics of what you are looking for and find them instantly .\ndr . jungle ' s pets and animal speak - newsletter featured pet of the week and more . . .\nwe would like to import some live zebra shark . contact me please . best regard , liu wei chung . email : s89186 @ urltoken\ni have a green moray eel that is just too big now , does anyone have a huge tank . . . . 400 + gallons ?\nit does need a good sized aquarium that is well established . a 55 gallon tank is the minimum size for a single fish , and a much bigger tank will be needed if you want to keep more than one . decorate the tank with rocks and / or corals with many hiding places along with plenty of swimming space . it swims freely and usually spends a good deal of its time in the open water , traveling along the substrate when looking for items to graze on .\nwas described by bloch in 1790 . they have a very wide distribution . they are found in the red sea , in the indo - pacific from eastern coast of africa and eastward to hawaii and samoa , north to southern japan and south to new south wales , australia and new caledonia as well as in the eastern pacific from the galapagos islands of ecuador .\nalthough they are known to feed primarily on algae and macroalgae they are also known to be facultative corallivores , meaning they will eat a broad range of coral species . they will feed on of soft coral polyps , hard coral polyps , anemones , sponges , and hydroids . they also feed on tiny benthic crustaceans and zooplankton containing copepods , mysid shrimp , crustacean larvae , fish eggs and salps , as well as the tentacles of polychaete worms ( tubeworms , spaghetti worms ) .\npairs - adults are usually seen in pairs , though sometimes seen singly or in small groups .\nhas a yellowish brown color and there are one or two broad white bands running vertically down the body and many spotted horizontal stripes on the sides . there is a strong black vertical stripe running across the face , through the eye , that has an almost metallic blue hue just above the eye and the snout is black . juveniles are very similar but without the blue coloring to the eyebar .\nthere are some color variation depending upon where they are from . those from the western range will usually have a single broad vertical bar that is more beige than white , while the eastern specimen have two white bars . the eastern specimens may also have a darker band between the two lighter bands .\n5 . 9 inches ( 15 . 01 cm ) - they are usually smaller in the aquarium at about 5\n( 12 . 5 cm ) .\n5 years - the average lifespan chaetodon species is between 5 - 7 years , and possibly longer with proper care .\nseveral feedings per day - offer various foods quite frequently at first . once acclimated adults need at least 2 feedings a day and juveniles need 3 to 4 .\nno special care or technique is needed to maintain this fish in the aquarium . frequent water changes are not necessary , rather normal water changes at 10 % biweekly or 20 % monthly are fine . sudden massive water changes can cause trouble .\nbi - weekly - change 10 % biweekly or 20 % monthly and avoid sudden massive water changes .\nthese fish need a lot of space to accommodate their size and to swim , they can reach about 5 inches in length . a 55 gallon tank is the minimum size for a single fish , and a bigger tank will be needed if you want to keep more than one . the tank should be well decorated with rocks and / or corals with many hiding places , along with open areas fro swimming . this fish is a coral eater , nipping the polyps of hard stony coral species . consequently it is not recommended for coral - rich reefs\nmoderate - normal lighting - it can also be kept under very bright light as long as some dark areas are provided .\nweak - water movement is not a significant factor . it can tolerate a rather strong flow but slow - moving water is recommended .\nsmaller non - aggressive fishes like cardinalfish , gobies , tilefish , fairy basslets , fairy and flasher wrasses are good candidates as tank mates . larger and rather territorial angelfish like\nalso can be good tank mates . small but very territorial fishes like dottybacks should be avoided . such fish as basses or scorpionfish , even if they are small enough , should also be avoided .\nyes - sometimes two males will fight , and then have to be separated .\n. some can be treated successfully with medical care or copper drugs , but some species hate sudden changes of water including ph , temperature , or any drug treatment . in the wild a cleaner wrasse (\n) will help them by taking parasites from their bodies , however these wrasses are extremely difficult to sustain in captivity . alternative fish such as neon gobies (\nthis fish is generally readily available in pet stores and online , and is fairly inexpensive .\nhelmut debelius , rudie h . kuiter , world atlas of marine fishes , hollywood import & export . inc . , 2006\nmark allen , roger steene and gerald r . allen , a guide to angelfishes and butterflyfishes , odyssey publishing , 1998\ndr . warren e . burgess , dr . herbert r . axelrod , raymond e . hunziker iii , dr . burgess ' s atlas of marine aquarium fishes , t . f . h publications inc . , 1990\nroger steene , gerald r . allen , hans a . baensch , butterfly and angelfishes of the world , volume 1 , john wiley & sons , 1980\ncopyright \u00a9 [ animal - world ] 1998 - 2015 . all rights reserved .\nthese fish normally eat for the most part , coral polyps , therefore problems can arise in captivity when trying to give it an alternative food .\nit is therefore essential to be well prepared before acquiring them and have several suitable food types ready to present them with . however well prepared , there will be a large percentage , that will die after a short time in captivity .\nit may mean having to keep living corals , mussels and zooplankton as food , in order to keep these fish alive whilst they are getting accustomed to alternative types of food .\nwhen the fish can find its natural food in the aquarium it requires less frequent feeding .\nthese fish should be kept in a well run aquarium where they can\ngraze\nalgae from rocks and stones .\nif there are insufficient algae on the rocks , it is important to feed more frequently and supplement with algae rich food e . g . spirulina .\nseveral specimen of this species can coexist in the same aquarium , provided they are introduced simultaneously .\nsome species of the chaetodon genus are grouped together in what is known as a\ncomplex\n, since they are so very similar .\nregardless of resemblance , it is important to be able to distinguish them , as in some cases they vary greatly in their needs . sometimes there are just small differences in colour or pattern , but in other instances it is vital to know where the fish originally come from .\nit can be problematic , with many of these species , to get them eating in the beginning , but many of the species cannot resist live zooplankton or live mussels with crushed shells . another option is to mimic their natural behaviour by stuffing their food into coral skeletons or stones .\nas these fish can be difficult to acclimatize and get feeding , it is important to buy healthy fish , to avoid having to deal with more problems . make sure to check that they do not have parasites or any visible infections .\nthere are some species that should not be kept in an a aquarium , as they are food specialists and will almost always refuse to eat replacement foods . it can be possible to breed some species , which will eat frozen foods . otherwise the only way to keep food specialists is by feeding them their natural diet , which consists of live sps or lps corals for example .\nindo - pacific : red sea and east africa ( south to coffee bay , south africa , ref . 5372 ) to the hawaiian islands and samoa , north to southern japan , south to new south wales , australia and new caledonia . eastern pacific : galapagos islands ( ref . 5227 ) .\nscott w . michael . 2004 . angelfishes and butterflyfishes ( reef fishes series book 3 ) tfh publications / microcosm ltd . - ( english ) bob fenner . butterflyfishes ; separating the good ones and those you don ' t want - wet web media - ( english ) collection of links to additional information - wet web media - ( english ) tea yi kai . 2014 . reef nuggets 2 : aquatic lepidopterans for your reef ( revised edition ) - reef builders - ( english )\nfroese , r . and d . pauly . editors . 2014 . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . urltoken , version ( 08 / 2014 ) .\nminimum volume\nindicates the size of the tank needed to house this species under optimal conditions .\nthis is based on a medium size animal , which you want to keep for several years . it might be possible to keep smaller specimens for a limited period in a smaller tank . a larger tank might be needed for fully - grown specimens .\nhardiness\nindicates how resistant this species is to disease and how well i tolerates bad conditions in general . some species doesn ' t handle transportation very well , but that doesn ' t mean that the species isn ' t hardy under the right conditions .\nin this case , a\nnormal\naquarium is a reef aquarium with mixed corals or a fish only aquarium with an approximately salinity of 1 . 026 ( sg ) and a temperature close to 26\u00b0c . species requiring more than a 4000 - liter tank are considered not suitable for home aquarium .\nspecial aquariums may cover tanks with low salinity , sub - tropical temperature , deep sand bed , sea grass etc .\nalways reef safe : no sources indicate that this species will harm corals or other invertebrates .\noften reef safe : only a few aquarists has reported problems keeping this species with corals and other invertebrates .\nreef safe with caution : this species may be a threat to some types of invertebrates .\nreef safe with luck : most specimens will harm corals and / or other invertebrates , but you might be lucky .\nnot reef safe : this species is a threat to most corals and / or other invertebrates .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nlisted as least concern in view of its wide distribution , large population and no apparent major threats .\nthis species is widely distributed throughout most of the indo - pacific region , from coastal east africa to central and western pacific , including the hawaiian islands and rapa iti to the east , extending northwards to southern japan and south to lord howe island ( australia ) . vagrants are occasionally seen in the eastern pacific and at the galapagos islands ( ecuador ) ( g . r . allen pers . comm . 2006 ) . occurs at depths from 2 - 61 m but usually below 10 m .\namerican samoa ; australia ; china ; christmas island ; cocos ( keeling ) islands ; comoros ; fiji ; french polynesia ; guam ; india ( andaman is . , nicobar is . ) ; indonesia ; japan ; kenya ; kiribati ; korea , republic of ; madagascar ; malaysia ; maldives ; marshall islands ; mauritius ; mayotte ; micronesia , federated states of ; mozambique ; myanmar ; nauru ; new caledonia ; northern mariana islands ; palau ; papua new guinea ; philippines ; r\u00e9union ; samoa ; seychelles ; singapore ; solomon islands ; somalia ; south africa ; sri lanka ; taiwan , province of china ; tanzania , united republic of ; thailand ; tokelau ; tonga ; tuvalu ; united states ( hawaiian is . ) ; vanuatu ; viet nam ; wallis and futuna\nit is generally common with stable populations ( g . r . allen pers . comm . 2006 ) . it is common in new guinea and queensland ( australia ) ( steene 1978 ) . this species was not observed during a recent survey conducted at the galapagos archipelago ( edgar\ncommon species : mean of 0 . 87 individuals per 200 m 2 in northern great barrier reef ( pratchett and berumen 2008 ) .\nthis species is associated with rocky reefs and coral - rich areas ( sometimes interspersed with sandy bottoms ) of lagoons , channels and outer reef slopes . occurs singly , in pairs , or occasionally in larger aggregations of up to about 30 individuals ( myers 1991 ) , sometimes high in the water column . it is a facultative corallivore , feeding on hard and soft corals , as well as algae , hydroids and zooplankton .\nthis species is frequently exported through the aquarium trade ( pyle 2001 ) . this species is important to subsistence fisheries ( mangi and roberts 2006 ) . approximately 7 , 000 individuals traded between 1988 - 2002 ( global marine aquarium database 2009 ) .\nthere appear to be no species - specific conservation measures in place . this species is present within a number of marine protected areas .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthe bandit angelfish is a rare and distinctive fish , found in the hawaiian and johnston islands . one of the smallest of this species , they grow to 7 in . wrasses , some surgeons and tangs may show aggression while other species are usually peaceful . the minimum size tank is 90 gals . this fish is shy and requires [ \u2026 ]\nthe semicircle angelfish is also known as the blue angelfish and koran angelfish . it is found in the red sea , east africa and the tropical indo - pacific . adults and juveniles have very different appearances . angelfish in general are not very hardy , but this fish is one of the hardiest of this fish family . males are 15 . 7 [ \u2026 ]\nthe bluestreak cleaner wrasse is found in the red sea , indian ocean and western tropical pacific . it eats parasites and dead tissue off larger fishes\u2019 skin . this fish is very difficult to keep in captivity and only expert aquarists should attempt it . usually it will only survive a few weeks to a month before dying [ \u2026 ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nreaching between 5 and 6 inches in total length , c . kleinii exhibits the laterally compressed body typical of butterflies and is mostly golden - yellow on the posterior half of the body . from about mid - body forward , the base coloration becomes more creamy white , with a vertical dusky - brown band occurring just behind the operculum ( gill cover ) , a vertical black band passing through the eye , and black lips .\naccording to fishbase , in nature , this indo - pacific butterfly feeds \u201cmainly on soft coral polyps ( mainly on sarcophyton tracheliophorum and litophyton viridis ) , algae , and zooplankton . \u201d specimens kept in aquariums should be offered , and will typically accept , a variety of readily available foods , such as frozen mysids , chopped fresh seafoods , and commercial formulations that satisfy their omnivorous palate . also , be sure to provide multiple smaller feedings per day rather than one or two larger meals .\nthough just a medium - sized fish , c . kleinii benefits from a good combination of open swimming space and rockwork for concealment . so , a good - sized tank is recommended . i wouldn\u2019t go any smaller than 75 - gallons for this fish , and a larger tank would be even better .\nc . kleinii is a generally peaceful species that will coexist nicely with most other peaceful to moderately assertive species . it can also be kept in conspecific ( same - species ) groups provided all of the specimens are introduced to the tank at the same time . keep in mind , however , that larger housing will be necessary if you plan to keep a group of these butterflies .\nconsidering its natural tendency to feed on certain coral polyps , c . kleinii cannot be considered reliably reef safe , so a fish - only or fowlr ( fish only with live rock ) system is preferable .\nif you enjoyed this post , subscribe to get our new posts in your email .\njeff kurtz is the co - founder / editor of saltwater smarts , former senior consulting editor for tropical fish hobbyist magazine , and the aquarist formerly known as \u201cthe salt creep . \u201d he has been an aquarium hobbyist for over 30 years and is an avid scuba diver .\nsaltwater smarts is a unique online resource created to inspire and entertain a new generation of marine aquarium hobbyists while helping them succeed with a saltwater system . learn more\nsaltwater smarts is a participant in the amazon services llc associates program , an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to amazon . com . to learn more , please check out our disclosure page .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 28 . 08 . 01 , php script by cmilitante , 04 / 03 / 10 , last modified by cmilitante , 11 / 12 / 12\ntheir coloration also makes them popular aquarium fish . however , most species feed on coral polyps and sea anemones . balancing the relative populations of prey and predator is complex , leading hobby aquarists to focus on the few generalists and specialist zooplankton feeders .\nthe family name derives from the ancient greek words , chaite (\nhair\n) and ? , odontos (\ntooth\n) . this is an allusion to the rows of brush - like teeth found in their small , protrusible mouths .\nbefore dna sequencing , the taxonomy was confused about whether to treat these as species or subspecies . also , numerous subgenera have been proposed for splitting out of chaetodon , and it is becoming clear how to subdivide the genus if that is desired . [ 4 ]\nthe fossil record of this group is marginal . their restriction to coral reefs means their carcasses are liable to be dispersed by scavengers , overgrown by corals , and any that do fossilize will not long survive erosion . however , pygaeus , a very basal fossil from the mid - to late eocene of europe , dates from around the bartonian 40 - 37 million years ago ( mya ) . thus , the chaetodontidae emerged probably in the early to mid - eocene . a crude molecular clock in combination with the evidence given by pygaeus allows placement of the initial split between the two main lineages to the middle to late eocene , and together with the few other fossils , it allows the deduction that most living genera were probably distinct by the end of the paleogene 23 mya . [ 5 ]\nthe bannerfish - coralfish lineage can be further divided in two groups ; these might be considered tribes , but have not been formally named . genera are listed in order of the presumed phylogeny , from the most ancient to the youngest : [ 3 ] froese , rainer , and daniel pauly , eds . ( 2013 ) .\nchaetodontidae\nin fishbase . february 2013 version .\npratchett , morgan s . & berumen , michael l . & kapoor , b . g . [ editors ] : biology of butterflyfishes . crc press , 2014 . isbn 978 - 1 - 4665 - 8290 - 3\n( 2007 ) : molecular phylogenetics of the butterflyfishes ( chaetodontidae ) : taxonomy and biogeography of a global coral reef fish family .\n( teleostei : chaetodontidae ) in the indo - west pacific : evolution in geminate species pairs and species groups .\nknowledge management platform . it allows users to manage learning and research . visit defaultlogic ' s other partner sites below :\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\nbody a strongly compressed oval disc ; snout short , ~ eye diameter ; mouth small , at end pointed snout ; teeth long and slender ; lateral line ends under dorsal fin ; dorsal xiii - xiv , 22 - 23 ; a iii , 21 - 22 ; pectoral 13 - 15 ; scales rough , covering head body and dorsal and anal fins ; 33 - 41 lateral line scales .\nfront half white , back half of body and fins yellow - tan ; a dark bar from forehead through eye to chest , blue above eye , black below ; a broad tan bar behind pectoral .\nattributes abundance : common . cites : not listed . climate zone : equatorial ( costa rica to ecuador + galapagos , clipperton , cocos , malpelo ) . depth range max : 60 m . depth range min : 3 m . diet : zooplankton ; benthic microalgae ; soft corals / hydroids ; pelagic fish larvae ; pelagic fish eggs . eastern pacific range : northern limit = 2 ; southern limit = - 2 ; western limit = - 93 ; eastern limit = - 90 ; latitudinal range = 4 ; longitudinal range = 3 . egg type : pelagic ; pelagic larva . feeding group : omnivore . fishbase habitat : reef associated . global endemism : all pacific ( west + central + east ) ; indo - pacific only ( indian + pacific oceans ) ; tep non - endemic ;\ntranspacific\n( east + central & / or west pacific ) ; all species . habitat : corals ; reef associated ( reef + edges - water column & soft bottom ) ; rocks ; reef ( rock & / or coral ) ; reef only . inshore offshore : inshore ; inshore only . iucn red list : not evaluated / listed . length max : 15 cm . regional endemism : island ( s ) only ; island ( s ) ; tropical eastern pacific ( tep ) non - endemic ; eastern pacific non - endemic ; all species . residency : vagrant . salinity : marine ; marine only . water column position : bottom ; near bottom ; bottom + water column ;\nbloch , m . e . , 1790 . , naturgeschichte der ausl\u00e4ndischen fische . berlin . , naturg . ausl . fische , 4 : 1 - 128 .\nhumann , p . , 1993 . , reef fish identification : galapagos . , new world publishing : 192pp .\nmccosker , j . e . , 1987 . , the fishes of the galapagos islands . , oceanus , 30 : 28 - 32 .\nsmith , m . m . and heemstra , p . , 1986 . , smith ' s sea fishes . johannesburg : macmillan south africa . 1047 pp . , macmillan south africa : 1047pp .\ni thank ashley macdonald and john pickering , university of georgia , for technical support in building this page .\ntaxon concept chaetodon _ kleinii last modified 2013 - 10 - 23 15 : 43 : 16 . 028\nsyntype ( s ) zmb 1229 ( listed as holotype by eschmeyer 1998 ) , east indies ; zmb 1231 , east indies .\nningaloo reef ( 22\u00e2\u00b000 ' s ) , rowley shoals ( 17\u00e2\u00b020 ' s ) , and scott reef ( 14\u00e2\u00b003 ' s ) , wa , ashmore reef , timor sea ( 12\u00e2\u00b015 ' s ) and northern great barrier reef , qld ( 12\u00e2\u00b000 ' s ) and holmes reef and osprey reef , coral sea to montague island , nsw ( 36\u00e2\u00b015 ' s ) , lord howe island and middleton and elizabeth reefs ; tropical , indo - west - central pacific .\n. christmas island : christmas island natural history association 2 edn , 284 pp .\nallen , g . r . & smith - vaniz , w . f . 1994 . fishes of cocos ( keeling ) islands .\nthe marine fishes of north - western australia . a field guide for anglers and divers\n. perth , wa : western australian museum vi 201 pp . , 70 pls .\n. new jersey : t . f . h . publications inc . 832 pp . figs .\nfrancis , m . p . & randall , j . e . 1993 . further additions to the fish faunas of lord howe and norfolk islands , southwest pacific ocean .\nhutchins , j . b . 2001 . biodiversity of shallow reef fish assemblages in western australia using a rapid censusing technique .\njohnson , j . w . 2010 . fishes of the moreton bay marine park and adjacent continental shelf waters , queensland , australia . pp . 299 - 353\ndavie , p . j . f . & phillips , j . a . proceedings of the thirteenth international marine biological workshop , the marine fauna and flora of moreton bay .\n. sydney , nsw , australia : new holland publishers xvii , 434 pp .\nmcculloch , a . r . 1929 . a check - list of the fishes recorded from australia . part ii .\npaepke , h . - j . 1999 . bloch ' s fish collection in the museum f\u00e3\u00bcr naturkunde der humboldt universit\u00e3\u00a4t zu berlin : an illustrated catalog and historical account .\nthe living marine resources of the western central pacific . fao species identification guide for fisheries purposes\nbody oval , deep , strongly compressed . head length about equal to head height ; preopercle smooth , without prominent spines . snout short . small protractile mouth with brush - like teeth in the jaws . dorsal fin with xiii or xiv spines , no notch between spinous and soft dorsal fin ; and 20 to 23 soft rays ; anal fin with iii spines and 17 to 20 soft rays ; pectoral fins transparent with 13 to 15 soft rays ; pelvic fins with i stout spine and 5 branched rays ; caudal fin rounded . body is yellowish brown with two broad white vertical bars running across the body , one from near the origin of the dorsal spine and the other from the middle of the back . a black bar runs vertically across the eye . there are numerous dotted horizontal stripes on the sides . the margin of caudal fin is transparent .\noccur in deeper lagoons and channels , and seaward reefs . occur singly or in pairs . common , omnivorous individuals that feed mainly on soft coral polyps , algae and zooplankton . oviparous .\nwidely distributed in tropical and subtropical waters of indo - pacific from red sea and east africa to the hawaiian islands and samoa , north to southern japan , south to new south wales , australia and new caledonia . throughout micronesia ; also reported from"]}
{"id": 334, "summary": [{"text": "cycloramphus mirandaribeiroi is a species of frog in the leptodactylidae family .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is endemic to brazil .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and rivers .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "its population is in decline . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "cycloramphus mirandaribeiroi", "paragraphs": ["cycloramphus mirandaribeiroi heyer , 1983 , arq . zool . , s\u00e3o paulo , 30 : 311 . holotype : mzusp 57809 , by original designation . type locality :\nbrasil ; paran\u00e1 , 9 km w s\u00e3o jo\u00e3o da graciosa on pr 410 to curitiba\n.\nit occurs in parque estadual serra da graciosa . given the declines of high - altitude stream - breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics , surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status , especially in view of the lack of recent records . some other cycloramphus species have declined for unexplained reasons , and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmolecular phylogenetics and evolution ( journal , magazine , 1992 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : molecular phylogenetics and evolution publisher : orlando , fla . : academic press isbn / issn : 1055 - 7903 oclc : 231794612\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\njournal of herpetology ( ejournal / emagazine , 2002 ) [ worldcat . org ]\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : journal of herpetology publisher : [ athens , ohio ] : society for the study of amphibians and reptiles . oclc : 60688590\n[ athens , ohio ] : society for the study of amphibians and reptiles .\nin bioone ( bio one ) . titre de l ' e\u0301cran - titre ( visionne\u0301 le 31 mars 2005 ) . texte inte\u0301gral .\njournal of herpetology / bioone ( organisation ) ; society for the study of amphibians and reptiles . ; ; [ athens , ohio ] : society for the study of amphibians and reptiles .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as data deficient in view of the absence of recent information on its extent of occurrence , status and ecological requirements .\nthis species is known only from the type locality , s\u00e3o jo\u00e3o da graciosa , in the serra do mar in the state of paran\u00e1 , brazil , from 50 - 150m asl .\nits population status is unknown . it has not been collected since the original collection in the late 1970s , despite survey efforts since 1986 .\nthis species occurs in fast - flowing rocky streams , in which it reproduces , in lowland forest .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .\nwill find all uses of\nhyl . . .\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hylarana , hyla , hylidae , hylinae , hylaedactyla .\nwill find all uses of\n. . . hyla\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hyla , hylidae , plectrohyla , ptychadena hylaea , adenomera hylaedactyla\nwill find all records that contain stand - alone uses of hyla : e . g . , hyla , hyla arenicolor\ninterprets this as\nlithobates or pipiens\nso will find the union of all records that contain either\nlithobates\nor\npipiens\n: e . g . , lithobates omiltemanus , hylorana pipiens\ninterprets this as\nlithobates and pipiens\nso will return all records that have the character string\nlithobates pipiens\nanywhere within a record : e . g . , all members of the lithobates pipiens complex .\nmiranda ' s button frog ( frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 71 ) .\nplease note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .\nfor access to available specimen data for this species , from over 350 scientific collections , go to vertnet .\ncopyright \u00a9 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfrost , darrel r . 2004 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 3 . 0 ( 22 august , 2004 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa\namphibian species of the world : an online reference v5 . 3 , database ( version 5 . 3 )\nfrost , darrel r . 2009 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 3 ( 12 february , 2009 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\npough , f . h . , r . m . andrews , m . l . crump , a . h . savitzky , k . d . wells , and m . c . brandley . 2015 . herpetology . fourth edition . massachusetts : sinauer .\nvitt , l . j . , and j . p . caldwell . 2013 . herpetology . an introductory biology of amphibians and reptiles . fourth edition . amsterdam : elsevier .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\ncredits - computer translations are provided by a combination of our statistical machine translator , google , microsoft , systran and worldlingo .\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience . by continuing to visit this site you agree to our use of cookies . learn more .\nthanks to institutional support and generous donors , our collection of historical artifacts , documents , photography and media , now numbers close to 37 , 000 .\nthe national museum of african american history and culture , like all other smithsonian museums , hopes to benefit from donations of historical artifacts , archival documents , and works of art . if you have an important item you believe the museum should consider for its permanent collections , start by submitting our collections information form .\na list amphibians & reptiles of brazil compiled by armas hill upper right photo : a yacare caiman photographed during a font tour in the pantanal in mato grosso do sul , brazil codes : ( bre ) : endemic to brazil ( t1 ) : threatened species , critically endangered ( t2 ) : threatened species , endangered ( t3 ) : threatened species , vulnerable ( nt ) : near - threatened species am - in amazonian brazil ig - in the area of iguazu falls mg - in mato grosso & mato grosso do sul mn - in minas gerais rs - in rio grande do sul ( ph ) : photo in the font website ( phraa : xxx ) : referring to the number of the photo of the particular species in the book :\nreptiles & amphibians of the amazon , an ecotourist ' s guide\nby r . d . bartlett & patricia bartlett , published in 2003 . links within this list :\nbarycholos ternetzi _ _ _ _ _ _ genus brachycephalus : saddlebck toads the saddleback toads are very small frogs , mostly around 1 centimeter in length . they have only three toes on each foot , and two fingers on each hand . this is in contrast to the usual five toes and four fingers of most frogs .\n+ izecksohn ' s toad ( bre ) _ _ _ _ _ _ brachycephalus didactylus the izecksohn ' s toad is said to be the smallest known frog in the southern hemisphere .\nthis genus was erected in 2005 following a major revision of the hylidae family .\nthe genus hypsiboas was resurrected in 2005 with a major revision of the hylidae family . 70 species that were previously in hyla were moved to this genus .\noccurs in open areas of the forest . it calls in low vegetation , close to the water . it lays eggs in a gelatinous mass .\nstriped treefrog _ _ _ _ _ _ ig ( recently described , in 1991 ) hypsiboas ( formerly hyla ) caingua hypsiboas caingua occurs in streams in open areas , with secondary forest growth .\nblacksmith treefrog _ _ _ _ _ _ ig hypsiboas ( formerly hyla ) faber the voice of hypsiboas faber sounds like the beating of an anvil by a hammer ( as by a\nblack - - smith\n) .\nmontevideo treefrog _ _ _ _ _ _ ig hypsiboas ( formerly hyla ) pulchellus hypsiboas pulchellus occurs in lakes , pools , and streams . it hides under the vegetation , or under bark and tree trunks .\nspeckled treefrog _ _ _ _ _ _ ig h ypsiboas ( formerly hyla ) semiguttatus hypsiboas semiguttata breeds in backwaters or shallow riverside pools in permanent or temporary streams in the forest . its eggs are laid in clusters fixed to branches or stones .\nscinax fuscovarius _ _ _ _ _ _ ig mg scinax fuscovanus is a tree dweller . it sometimes enters into human dwellings . it reproduces in temporary pools .\nscinax nasicus _ _ _ _ _ _ ig mg scinax nasicus occurs in temporary pools . it lays its eggs in gelatinous masses stick to aquatic plants .\nscinax squalirostris _ _ _ _ _ _ ig scinax squalirostris is found in the axila of leaves of eryngium ( false caraguata ) and other plants on the banks of lakes and pools . it can hibernate under tree trunks and bark . its eggs are stuck to aquatic plants .\nveined treefrog ( phraa : 67 ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ig mg ( also called pepper treefrog , or white - lipped treefrog ) trachycephalus ( formerly phrynohyas ) venulosus trachycephalus venulosus is a tree dweller , frequently in bromeliads . it lays eggs in the hollows of trees that it seals with a toxic secretion from its skin . habitat is the edge of subtropical forest , in the undergrowth . genus xenohyla\nminas gerais spinythumb frog ( bre ) _ _ _ _ _ _ crossodactylus trachystomus crossodactylus trachystomus has been known to occur only in minas gerais at lagoa santa , belo horizonte , and serra de caraca . it has not been found elsewhere . 2 of the 3 known populations disappeared in the mid - 1980s . the surviving population is at caraca , with records in 2001 , 2002 , and as of 2007 . genus hylodes\naraponga dwarf frog ( bre ) _ _ _ _ _ _ mn ( recently described , in 1999 ) physalaemus maximus physalaemus maximus occurs in minas gerais , in the serra do brigadeiro , at the fazenda neblina in the municipality of artaponga , and also in ouro preto , 120 kilometers from araponga .\naraponga\nis the brazilian name for the bare - throated bellbird . physalaemus maximus is found at the margins of temporary pools , in which it makes a foam nest , and in swampy areas in moist rainforest , and in forest edge . it is not found away from forest .\ncipo swamp frog ( bre ) _ _ _ _ _ _ mn ( recently described , in 1994 ) pseudopaludicola mineira pseudopaludicola mineira is known only from serra do cipo in minas gerais , where it occurs at more than 800 meters above sea level . its distribution is poorly known , and it may occur more widely . pseudopaludicola mineira lives in open , grassy areas around temporary ponds , in which it presumably breeds . it adapts to some anthropogenic disturbance ,"]}
{"id": 337, "summary": [{"text": "the grey-cheeked thrush ( catharus minimus ) is a medium-sized thrush .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "this species is 15 \u2013 17 cm in length , and has the white-dark-white underwing pattern characteristic of catharus thrushes .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is a member of a close-knit group of migrant species together with the veery and bicknell 's thrush ; it forms a cryptic species pair with the latter .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the grey-cheeked thrush is all but indistinguishable from bicknell 's thrush except by its slightly larger size and different song .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "the two were formerly considered conspecific .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "of all the american spotted thrushes , the gray-cheeked has the most northern breeding range . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "grey - cheeked thrush", "paragraphs": ["dave suddaby describes the remarkable discovery of ireland ' s first spring grey - cheeked thrush .\ngrey - cheeked thrush ( catharus minimus ) is a species of bird in the turdidae family .\nbering sea bicknell ' s thrush bicknelldrossel catharus bicknelli catharus fuscescens catharus guttatus catharus minimus catharus ustulatus einsiedlerdrossel gambell grauwangendrossel gray - cheeked thrush grey - cheeked thrush hermit thrush luscinia calliope northern wheatear oenanthe oenanthe pribilof islands siberian rubythroat st . lawrence island swainson ' s thrush veery wilsondrossel zwergdrossel\ngrey - cheeked thrushes produce distinctive , high - pitched songs with quick chippers .\nswainson ' s thrush has bold buffy eye rings and buffy cheeks ( not grey ) .\nthe latest sighting details and map for grey - cheeked thrush are only available to our birdguides ultimate or our birdguides pro subscribers .\nthe gray - cheeked thrush benefits humans by eating insects that annoy or harm us .\nthere are no negative affects on humans or the environment from the gray - cheeked thrush .\ngray - cheeked and bicknell ' s thrushes were only recently recognized as separate species . most of the information published in the last century on\ngray - cheeked thrush\nconcerned the bicknell ' s thrush instead of the gray - cheeked . although gray - cheeked thrush has a much larger range across north america , the bicknell ' s thrush ' s small range is closer to centers of human population , and therefore is the more accessible species .\nas similar species to the grey - cheeked thrush bicknell\u2019s thrush ( catharus bicknelli ) , swainson\u2019s thrush ( catharus ustulatus ) , hermit thrush ( catharus guttatus ) and veery ( catharus fuscescens ) are possible and might give you a hard job to id . swainson\u2019s thrush has similar markings and coloring , but the face is buffy with a distinct buffy eye - ring . the hermit thrush has a distinct rusty tail and the veery is usually more reddish overall but shows some comparable features as the plain face and the spotting on the breast .\ni think you\u2019re fooling yourself if you think you can reliably separate migrant bicknell\u2019s from gray - cheeked ( or grey - cheeked , if you adhere strictly to gill and wright ) without having the bird firmly in hand .\ngrey - cheeked thrushes generally only produce one brood in a season ; however , if the first one fails early in the season , they may have a second .\nuntil recently , the grey - cheeked and bicknell ' s thrushes were considered conspecific ( one and the same species ) . even though the grey - cheeked thrushes have a much larger range across north america than their close relatives , the bicknell ' s thrushes are typically found closer to urban areas and are , therefore , more likely to be encountered .\nhermit thrush has a dull brown back , a distinct rusty tail and rump .\nduring the winter , the gray - cheeked thrush migrates to the northern part of south america into colombia , venezuela , south to peru , and into northwest brazil .\nlaughlin , s . , d . kibbe . 1985 .\ngray - cheeked thrush catharus minimus\n( on - line ) . accessed october 8 , 2000 at urltoken .\nthe breeding territory of the grey - cheeked thrushes extends from northeast siberia across northern alaska east to northern canada to north - central quebec , labrador and newfoundland ; and west to northern ontario , manitoba , saskatchewan and northern british columbia .\nit is said , that the grey - cheeked thrush is quite a shy species , especially during migration . this thrush is the least well studies of the spotted thrushes ( catharus sp . ) , and has the most northern breeding range stretching across the taiga from newfoundland to eastern siberia . the non - breeding range is not well known , but includes parts of northern south america east of the andes from colombia to northwestern brazil .\nveery thrush is smaller in size ( 6 . 5 - 7 . 75 inches or 17 - 20 cm in length ) , has a uniformly brown / more reddish plumage , lacks the grey cheeks and with only faint spotting on the chest .\nthe oldest recorded gray - cheeked thrush was at least 6 years , 11 months old when it was recaptured and rereleased during banding operations in ontario in 2005 . it had been banded in florida in 1999 .\nduring the winter , the gray - cheeked thrush migrates to the northern part of south america into colombia , venezuela , south to peru , and into northwest brazil . ( chipper woods bird observatory , 2000 )\nchipper woods bird observatory , 2000 .\ngray - cheeked thrush\n( on - line ) . accessed october 3 , 2000 at http : / / www . wbu . com . / chipperwoods / photos / grthrush . htm .\nsong : some claim that these birds are easier to distinguish in the dark due to significant vocal differences . their shared song consists of a jumbled series of notes , usually four phrases . in bicknell\u2019s , the song ends on a rising note , while the gray - cheek slurs that final note downward . bicknell\u2019s songs are typically longer than those of grey - cheeked , averaging 2 . 45 seconds vs . 1 . 99 . also , grey - cheeked do not typically sing a song type twice in succession . here is a graphic comparison of the song of the two birds .\na trip to the tiny village of gambell on the north - western tip of the big st . lawrence island in the middle of the bering sea yielded grey - cheeked thrush as the only representative of catharus \u2013 thrushes . some tough birders flew in from the end of may to observe mainly the seabird migration . but during our seven - day stay on the gambell\u2013 led by a guide from high lonesome tours \u2013 we could\nwood thrush : upper plumage is brown with a bright rusty - colored head . plumage below is whitish with large dark spots .\n17\u201318\u00b75 cm ; 26\u201350 g . nominate race is olive - tinged grey - brown above , dull whitish below , with slightly greyish face , indistinct pale eyering , dark brown . . .\ncollar , n . & christie , d . a . ( 2018 ) . grey - cheeked thrush ( catharus minimus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe gray - cheeked thrush eats mostly insects such as beetles , weevils , ants , wasps , and caterpillars . they may also consume spiders , crayfish , sow bugs , and earthworms . they also eat grapes , wild cherries , blackberries , and raspberries . (\ngray - cheeked thrushes have a large range and large population size . they are protected by the u . s . migratory bird act .\nthe gray - cheeked thrush eats mostly insects such as beetles , weevils , ants , wasps , and caterpillars . they may also consume spiders , crayfish , sow bugs , and earthworms . they also eat grapes , wild cherries , blackberries , and raspberries . ( barker , 2000 )\nbicknell\u2019s thrush ( catharus bicknelli ) was discovered as distinct from the established gray - cheeked thrush ( c . minimus ) back in 1881 when eugene p . bicknell visited new york\u2019s catskill mountains . considered merely a subspecies , bicknell\u2019s was finally peeled off gray - cheeked by the american ornithologists\u2019 union ( aou ) in 1995 . the birds were separated on the basis of differing songs , ranges , and physical characteristics , but dna testing was most convincing , establishing that they probably diverged from a common ancestor about one million years ago . still , these birds are so similar that most authorities state the two are not separable in the field . that\u2019s not going to stop you though , is it ? here are some tips to tell bicknell\u2019s and gray - cheeked thrushes apart .\nthis might be the least - studied north american thrush . except by range and song , it can be tough to distinguish from its cousin , the bicknell\u2019s thrush . the song is lovely , flute - like and burry , rising in the middle and then ending on a downward slur . another of wc\u2019s favorites in alpine terrain .\nidentity theft occurs with astonishing regularity in the avian world where all too often , species share so many overlapping traits as to appear virtually indistinguishable . empidonax flycatchers are an excellent example of this phenomenon in north america , as are scaup . more esoteric , but no more simplistic , is the difference between gray - cheeked and bicknell\u2019s thrush .\nthe length of the gray - cheeked thrush is about 16 centimeters . the sexes are similar and have a distinctive song which is very high pitched with quick chippers . they have olive - brown upper parts , gray cheeks , and pink legs . the under parts are white with grayish flanks . it also has a gray , indistinct eye ring .\neven in hand it can be tough to distinguish bicknell\u2019s from gray - cheeked . i\u2019ve had birds in the hand that had a tail that contrasted with the body , but they\u2019ve measured out to be gray - cheeked , and i\u2019ve had one bird i was sure to be gray - cheeked that i could only record as gcbt ( a code used when you can not differentiate between the 2 ) because there too much overlap in the measurements ( except for p8 - p1 ) , although it looked very much gray - cheeked ( no contrast between tail and body ) . i\u2019ve come to the conclussion that most people who \u201cconfirm\u201d bicknell\u2019s by sight are just trying to pad their lists .\nthe length of the gray - cheeked thrush is about 16 centimeters . the sexes are similar and have a distinctive song which is very high pitched with quick chippers . they have olive - brown upper parts , gray cheeks , and pink legs . the under parts are white with grayish flanks . it also has a gray , indistinct eye ring . ( laughlin , 1985 )\nof all the american spotted thrushes , the gray - cheeked has the most northern breeding range . consequently this shy skulker of the underbrush is not well known and is rather infrequently seen .\ntaking multiple refueling breaks helps some birds fare better during migration . but for gray - cheeked thrushes , a two - week binge session in colombia can be all they need to reach north america .\nwe rely on sound and location for those tricky flycatchers , and although i would love to see a bicknell\u2019s thrush i am almost glad we are not within their range . all part of the fun , yeah ?\nbicknell ' s thrush very similar in appearance , except for smaller size ( average length 2 . 9 inches or 7 . 5 centimeters ) , shorter wings , buffier face and chest , and more noticeable eye rings . otherwise very similar markings and very difficult to id in the field . most easily separated by their different ranges and vocalizations . the bicknell ' s thrush is found in the northeast us and canada - typically spruce - fir habitat above 900 meters or 3 , 000 feet .\ni\u2019m not all that confident separating a bicknell\u2019s thrush outside of its breeding range . it seems to me that the differences are very subtle , and may not be apparent in the woods . if i ever get one to sing , it might be a different story .\nthe gray - cheeked thrush usually has one brood per season . they will lay a second brood if the first nest fails early in the season . the female builds the nest which normally consists of dried grasses mixed with a supporting layer of mud . the incubation period is thirteen to fourteen days . they incubate between three to five eggs , but usually only four . the eggs are light greenish - blue , marked with light brown dots or splotches , and are oval to short - oval in shape . the young are initially dependent on their parents for food .\naltitude : this is actually a pretty fair way to distinguish between the two in the areas they overlap . bicknell\u2019s thrush prefers mountaintop forests above 3000 feet . if you run into one of these birds high up in , say , the adirondacks , chances are good that you\u2019ve got a bicknell\u2019s .\nthe gray - cheeked thrush usually has one brood per season . they will lay a second brood if the first nest fails early in the season . the female builds the nest which normally consists of dried grasses mixed with a supporting layer of mud . the incubation period is thirteen to fourteen days . they incubate between three to five eggs , but usually only four . the eggs are light greenish - blue , marked with light brown dots or splotches , and are oval to short - oval in shape . the young are initially dependent on their parents for food . ( barker , 2000 )\nthe gray - cheeked thrushes ( catharus minimus ) are strongly migratory songbirds that breed as far north as siberia , alaska and northern canada and migrate to south america for the winter . these greyest of all north american thrushes have the most northern breeding range and migrate the longest distance of all small thrushes .\nthe passerine birds we encountered on gambell might be not as spectacular as the siberian rubythroat ( luscinia calliope ) and the 2 northern wheatear ( oenanthe oenanthe ) we observed on the pribilof islands some days before . but for the sole wp - birder of the group this was a perfect situation to twitch this beautiful but inconspicuous thrush .\n* first ebird record for jamaica . singing & seen on the edge of logwood ii near l 10 ! singing whisper song almost continuously for 15 minutes while i was in the area , i viewed it at close range ( about 25 feet ) for 2 minutes straight ; obvious catharus thrush , clearly gray - cheeked / bicknell ' s due to overall brown coloration ( w some slight reddish on tail and wings , but very slight ) , clean grayish wash on cheeks , and no buffy lores as swainson ' s would show ; song a descending cascade of whistles , very much reminded me of veery , but higher - pitched , more nasal ; bicknell ' s ruled out based on song differences & i don ' t believe bicknell ' s winters at low elevations in jamaica - also , this sighting seems to align with migration timing of gray - cheeked through the u . s . ; i have a lot of experience with this species during spring migration in the u . s .\nsize : one prominent physical distinction is that bicknell\u2019s is noticeably smaller than gray - cheeked . a difference of 10 % translates into almost an inch separating them , but since the birds are highly unlikely to stand shoulder to shoulder for you , compare to other available species . bicknell\u2019s also shows shorter wings with a shorter primary projection .\nboth of these catharus thrushes are olive - brown above with dark spots on a white breast washed with buff . this coloration extends through the underparts , though the spots do not . gray flanks and pink legs round out the common description . if you encounter one of these birds in the field , distinguish it from the other spotted thrushes by plumage and face patterning . the veery is cinnamon overall , while hermit thrushes flaunt those fetching rufous tails . swainson\u2019s thrush is notable for its buffy eye ring and cheeks .\nrange : gray - cheeked thrushes range widely , wintering in south america . they migrate through central america as well as the greater antilles up into much of the eastern united states on their way to upper canada and alaska . they\u2019ve even been spotted in europe . bicknell\u2019s , on the other hand , is considered primarily a new england bird , though its breeding range actually extends from the catskills where they were initially discovered up to the northern gulf of the st . lawrence . bicknell\u2019s also spends the colder months in the greater antilles with an estimated 90 % of them wintering on hispaniola .\nall the brown - backed thrushes can be shy and hard to see , but the gray - cheek is perhaps the most elusive . during migration it hides in dense woods , slipping away when a birder approaches . on its far northern nesting grounds it may be more easily seen , especially in late evening , when it sings from treetops .\nboreal forest , tundra scrub ; in migration , other woodlands . breeds in northern spruce forest , often rather open and stunted , and north of treeline in thickets of willow and alder on tundra . winters in tropical forest .\nforages mostly on the ground , hopping about under cover of dense thickets . sometimes seen feeding on berries up in shrubs or trees .\n4 , sometimes 3 - 5 , perhaps rarely 6 . pale blue , with vague brown spots , sometimes almost unmarked . incubation is by female , 12 - 14 days . young : both parents feed nestlings . young leave nest about 11 - 13 days after hatching .\nboth parents feed nestlings . young leave nest about 11 - 13 days after hatching .\nmostly insects and berries . diet through the year is not known in detail . in north america , feeds on a variety of insects , including beetles , caterpillars , ants , wasps , fly larvae , and many others ; also spiders and some other invertebrates . also eats many berries and wild fruits . winter diet in tropics poorly known .\nmale arrives first on breeding grounds and establishes territory , defending it by singing . in courtship , male pursues female in swift flight among the trees . nest : often placed very low or even on the ground ; usually less than 10 ' up , sometimes up to 24 ' . ground nests are often among bases of willow or alder shoots , while higher nests may be against trunk of conifer at base of branches . nest ( built by female ) is a well - made open cup of grass , moss , twigs , weeds , strips of bark , sometimes with some mud added ; lined with fine grass and rootlets .\nmigrates mostly at night . birds from alaska ( and eastern siberia ) apparently migrate far east in fall before turning south . many probably make a nonstop flight from northeastern north america to northern south america .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\nin the broadest and most detailed study of its kind , audubon scientists have used hundreds of thousands of citizen - science observations and sophisticated climate models to predict how birds in the u . s . and canada will react to climate change .\nthe darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season .\neach map is a visual guide to where a particular bird species may find the climate conditions it needs to survive in the future . we call this the bird\u2019s \u201cclimatic range . \u201d\nthe darker the shaded area , the more likely it is the bird species will find suitable climate conditions to survive there .\nthe outline of the approximate current range for each season remains fixed in each frame , allowing you to compare how the range will expand , contract , or shift in the future .\nthe first frame of the animation shows where the bird can find a suitable climate today ( based on data from 2000 ) . the next three frames predict where this bird\u2019s suitable climate may shift in the future\u2014one frame each for 2020 , 2050 , and 2080 .\nyou can play or pause the animation with the orange button in the lower left , or select an individual frame to study by clicking on its year .\nthe darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season . more on reading these maps .\ntell congress to oppose a harmful rider that threatens sage - grouse and other wildlife .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\naerc tac . 2003 . aerc tac checklist of bird taxa occurring in western palearctic region , 15th draft . available at : urltoken _ the _ wp15 . xls # .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend is not known , but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nkeith and lynn youngs , robert schaefer , dennis arendt , josep del hoyo , bill wayman , keith blomerley , richard garrigues .\nmarvinhyett , hal and kirsten snyder , phillip edwards , guy poisson , miriam bauman , gustavo a . rodr\u00edguez , david m . gascoigne , eduardo freitez gassan , alan tate , juan fdo . alvarez castro , stu elsom , lee hunter , r\u00f3ger rodr\u00edguez , lars petersson .\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nclean recording , no editing other than trimming ends . small island in the yukon of mostly medium sized willows . the willows had been defoliated by some type of caterpillars which i ' d been seeing off and on along much of the river . these birds were worked up because i was wandering around trying to get fox sparrow recordings . sounds like at least 3 birds in this recording . at least one male . the rest are unknown . it seemed like birds in general were singing later in the summer than normal . i theorized that it had something to do with all the caterpillars ( although they had vanished at this point and did not seem to turn into anything ) . hot , muggy ( 80 + f ) , calm .\nnatural vocalization ; ' seer ' calls from one of a pair moving low through a dense willow carr surrounded by tundra . these birds seemed quite alarmed by my presence , and i suspect i was near a nest . as far as i know this represents the first recording of the ' seer ' call for this species .\nnatural vocalization ; chatter calls from one of a pair moving low through a dense willow carr surrounded by tundra . these birds seemed quite alarmed by my presence , and i suspect i was near a nest . as far as i know this represents the first recording of this rare vocalization .\nsong and two chatter calls from the same bird as in xc139585 in response to playback .\nnatural vocalization ; song from a bird perched near the top of a 2m tall willow in a dense willow carr surrounded by tundra .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\ncombined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend is not known , but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : catharus minimus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nnortheast siberia across alaska and northern canada to north - central quebec , labrador , and newfoundland . south to northern british columbia , saskatchewan , manitoba , and ontario . ( barker , 2000 )\noccupant of the boreal forest of northern canada and alaska . little is known about their winter habitat . ( laughlin , s . b . , 1985 )\nthey will seek cover under large rocks in sparsely vegetated arctic regions . ( barker , 2000 )\nmales sing from the top of a low tree or shrub . they sing mainly during dawn or dusk . they will sometimes sing during the day except during the breeding season . ( barker , 2000 )\ntheir habit of eating berries contributes to the propagation of plants as undigested seeds are transported to other locations . ( chipper woods bird observatory , 2000 )\ndayna baillo ( author ) , milford high school , george campbell ( editor ) , milford high school .\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthis terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains , either without vegetation or covered by low , tundra - like vegetation .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nreproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .\nrainforests , both temperate and tropical , are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground . epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant . precipitation is typically not limiting , but may be somewhat seasonal .\nconiferous or boreal forest , located in a band across northern north america , europe , and asia . this terrestrial biome also occurs at high elevations . long , cold winters and short , wet summers . few species of trees are present ; these are primarily conifers that grow in dense stands with little undergrowth . some deciduous trees also may be present .\na terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .\na grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .\na terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5\u00b0 n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .\na terrestrial biome with low , shrubby or mat - like vegetation found at extremely high latitudes or elevations , near the limit of plant growth . soils usually subject to permafrost . plant diversity is typically low and the growing season is short .\nbarker , s . 2000 .\nbirds in forested landscape\n( on - line ) . accessed october 15 , 2000 at urltoken .\nto cite this page : baillo , d . 2001 .\ncatharus minimus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nobserve many more species migrating to their breeding grounds in the tundra landscape of eastern siberia and alaska .\nto cope with the growing demand for top shots of the rarer species of the palearctic bird - lens is keen to enrich the range of pictures of birds you can find in the western palearctic . trips to remote places or to common \u2013 but underestimated locations as described above \u2013 to capture images of rare birds of western palearctic were very successful . the nice images you find in the gallery are only a first impression , what you will find in the gallery in the \u201c picture shop \u201d very soon . just give me a message , if urltoken could serve you with an image needed before the new pictures are online .\nsave my name , email , and website in this browser for the next time i comment .\nthis site uses akismet to reduce spam . learn how your comment data is processed .\nerfahrungsbericht sigma 120 - 300 f 2 . 8 apo ex dg os hsm \u2013 vorg\u00e4nger vom s\nnational park service u . s . department of the interior natural resource stewardship and science\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nanother bird that visits alaska to breed , prefering brushy habitats . wc has seen it most often near tree line in near - alpine country . very shy and elusive , except during the start of breeding season when the males sing from the tops of bushes and the dwarf spruce .\ncamera geek stuff : f5 . 6 , 1 / 800 , iso2500 , + 0 . 33ev .\nresponsible wingnut gun owners acting responsible about their guns . good for a laugh .\nmfi\u2026 . everyone i have talked to is very happy about denali . . thank you president obama . also , sen . sullivan was first against the name change , then changed his mind . 32 degrees in tok , light snow . . tok school has inservice for 2 days . . the kids and i are enjoying the fun times outside . yipee\u2026\nmy green beans got frost bit overnight . supposed to be colder in the morning . i just picked some apples for a friend right before dark and the skeeters was everywhere . gonna be back in the 60s tomorrow and for the next several days . farmers couldn\u2019t ask for nicer harvest conditions . you can keep the snow if you\u2019d like to .\nthe black guy in the white house named denali , denali . has alaska imploded yet . ? curious iowan would like to know .\nhad no idea sperm whales swam that far north . always figured they were denizens of the south pacific around the south pole . thank you , ms pi . ps we are supposed to get first frost friday .\nforgot to mention it is supposed to be sunny , windy and in the low 90s this day . unusual for iowa in fall . if someone\u2019s corn fiels catches on fire it could get real interesting around her real fast . corn is in an advanced state of dryness and harvest is in full swing .\nwe are warmer than normal here too but only in low 50s with lots of wind and rain . some snow up high . no fires there ! would scare me to be surrounded by all that dry stuff\u2026\npuny looking li\u2019l thing for alaska\u2019s environment . has anyone figured out what was causing all them there whales to pass away off the coast of alaska ? haven\u2019t heard anything from landlocked iowa .\nwe have lots of lil bitty critters here mikey . the alaskan red squirrel here is 11 - 13 inches long including tail whereas most squirrels outside are 16 - 27 inches overall ( except the lil douglas squirrel )\nin fall , these birds migrate south for the winter . during the migration , they travel mostly through eastern two thirds of the united states . they migrate mainly at night .\nthey winter in the northern part of south america , specifically colombia , venezuela , south to peru and northwestern brazil . other populations spend the winter on islands of the west indies .\nrange : breed in extreme northeastern siberia , alaska and canada . winter in northern south america ( including colombia , venezuela , peru and brazil ) , mainly east of the andes mountain range .\nrange : breed in southeastern canada . winter in the west indies ( an island group that stretches from florida southward , then west along the north coast of the south american country of venezuela )\nthe open cup nest is constructed by the female out of dried grasses , twigs , moss , stems and other plant material and the nest is reinforced with mud .\ntheir nests are typically placed on the ground at the base of a shrub or low in branches of shrubs .\na nest may contain 3 - 5 pale blue - green , eggs ( average 4 ) with fine brown spotting . the eggs are incubated by the female for about 13 - 14 days .\nchinese : ? ? ? ? . . . czech : drozd \u0161edol\u00edc\u00ed . . . danish : gr\u00e5kindet skovdrossel . . . dutch : grijswang dwerglijster . . . estonian : tundrar\u00e4stas . . . finnish : tundrarastas . . . faroese : vangagr\u00e1ur tr\u00f8stur . . . french : grive \u00e0 joues grises . . . german : braunkopf - musendrossel , grauwangendrossel . . . irish : sm\u00f3lach glasleicneach . . . hebrew : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . icelandic : hl\u00fdra\u00fer\u00f6stur . . . italian : tordo di baird , tordo guancegrigie , tordo usignolo minimo . . . japanese : haiirochatsugumi , haiirokotsugumi . . . lithuanian : bly\u0161kiaskruotis strazdas . . . norwegian : gr\u00e5kinnskogtrost . . . polish : drozdek szarolicy . . . portuguese : sabia - de - cara - cinza , tordo - de - faces - cinzentas . . . russian : maly drozd , ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? , ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? , ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . slovak : drozd sivol\u00edci . . . slovenian : alja\u0161ki cikovtnik . . . spanish : tordo de cara gris , tordo de mejillas grises , zorzal cara gris , zorzal carigris , zorzal de mejilla gris , zorzal migratorio , zorzalito carigris . . . swedish : gr\u00e5kindad skogstrast . . . turkish : gri yanakl ? ard ? \u00e7 , gri - yanakl ? ard ? \u00e7\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nioc world bird list ( v7 . 1 ) , gill , f and d donsker ( eds ) . 2017 .\nbrowse all of today ' s sightings . to submit your own reports , you can complete the online submissions form , email sightings @ urltoken , phone us on 0333 577 2473 , or text birds rpt followed by your message to 07786 200505 . these details are only for submitting bird news \u2013 for everything else , go to the contact us page .\nmap details of sightings are only available to our birdguides ultimate or our birdguides pro subscribers .\nin the past placed in genus hylocichla . formerly treated as conspecific with c . bicknelli ; intermediates between the two occur , and newfoundland population of present species approaches c . bicknelli in size and coloration . range of nominate race debatable ; race aliciae only slightly different , and species sometimes treated as monotypic . two subspecies currently recognized .\n( s . f . baird , 1858 ) \u2013 ne siberia ( e from r kolyma ) , alaska and canada ; non - breeding mainly n south america e of andes , scarce in greater antilles .\n( lafresnaye , 1848 ) \u2013 e canada ( newfoundland , possibly also n quebec ) ; non - breeding n south america e of andes .\nsong , rarely in winter quarters and generally limited to 6 - week period on breeding grounds , a . . .\nbreeds in taiga and adjacent tundra , where found in areas of medium - height shrubs with dense woody . . .\ninvertebrates , with some fruit . stomachs of birds mostly on spring and autumn passages held 75 % animal and 25 % vegetable matter : beetles . . .\nmid - may to early aug in north america and jun\u2013jul in siberia ; single - brooded . monogamous . no data on territory size , but recorded . . .\nlong - distance migrant . departure from breeding grounds begins mid - aug , mostly complete by early . . .\n, given ratios of 1 : 5 ( ringing records , wisconsin ) , 1 : 4 ( . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\n2003 windsor , trelawny 3 banded - 2003 / 10 ; 1 banded - 2005 / 6 ; 5 banded - 2007 / 10 ; 1 banded - 2008 / 10 ; 1 banded - 2009 / 9 ; 2 banded - 2009 / 10 . susan koenig\n2003 b / s windsor , portland . nov 8 , 2003 . 1 netted & photographed in hand ; wing chord = 103 mm . gary graves\n2004 font hill w / life sanctuary , st . elizabeth . apr 16 , 2004 . 1 obsv\u2019d . h . davis & lynn duda\n2004 long mtn , st . andrew . banded . s . koenig & c . levy .\n2013 / 04 / 01 1 font hill nature res . st . elizabeth garrett mcdonald *\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nformerly included in an outsize muscicapidae . genetic studies show present family to be sister to a more narrowly defined muscicapidae # r # r # r # r ; in line with this proximity , many genera traditionally grouped herein have recently been transferred to muscicapidae , although some placements remain provisional .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\noccupant of the boreal forest of northern canada and alaska . little is known about their winter habitat .\nnortheast siberia across alaska and northern canada to north - central quebec , labrador , and newfoundland . south to northern british columbia , saskatchewan , manitoba , and ontario .\nthis species has a large range , with an estimated global extent of occurrence of 4 , 100 , 000 km\u0113 . it has a large global population estimated to be 12 , 000 , 000 individuals ( rich et al . 2003 ) . global population trends have not been quantified , but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the iucn red list ( i . e . declining more than 30 % in ten years or three generations ) . for these reasons , the species is evaluated as least concern . [ conservation status from urltoken ]\navibirds , almere , netherlands 2001 - 2012 - your source to the birds of europe . contact ? mail us : info { @ } avibirds . com\nface : both birds have gray cheeks , but bicknell\u2019s has more of an eye ring as well as brighter yellow at the base of the lower bill .\nmike is a leading authority in the field of standardized test preparation , but he ' s also a traveler who fully expects to see every bird in the world . besides founding 10 , 000 birds , mike has also created a number of other entertaining but now extirpated nature blog resources , particularly the nature blog network and i and the bird .\nfrankly , i know that i am unlikely to differentiate these birds even if one was sitting on my knee . but with enough environmental , vocal , and physical cues , it can be done . as birdfreak points out , birders already rely on such subtleties to distinguish empids and a host of other birds .\nwelcome to 10 , 000 birds , just the place for people who love birds , pictures of birds , and people who write about birds , birding , conservation , and much more .\nget 10 , 000 birds in your email inbox every day . sign up for our free email newsletter !\nfb , by james hogg : i always seem to end up at a se . . .\ntempted to buy this beer just for the design , love it ! . . .\nstill going strong . bravo ! i know where you are coming fro . . .\n\u00a9 2013 10 , 000 birds . all words , images , and opinions are the property of their respective authors unless stated otherwise ."]}
{"id": 340, "summary": [{"text": "neptunea heros , common name : the heros neptune , is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family buccinidae , the true whelks . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "neptunea heros", "paragraphs": ["175 170\u00e2\u00b0 165 ^ ^ 160\u00e2\u00b0 figure 65 - 7 . distribution and biomass of the whelk neptunea heros in the southeastern bering sea .\nspecies neptunea taeniata ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1880 ) accepted as neptunea cumingii crosse , 1862\n\u00bb species neptunea ( neptunea ) intersculpta ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1899 ) represented as neptunea intersculpta ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1899 )\n- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : neptunea heros ( j . e . gray , 1850 ) - id : 1922950075\nspecies neptunea lurida a . adams , 1863 accepted as barbitonia arthritica ( valenciennes , 1858 ) accepted as neptunea ( barbitonia ) arthritica ( valenciennes , 1858 ) represented as neptunea arthritica ( valenciennes , 1858 )\nfraussen k . & terryn y . ( 2007 ) . the family buccinidae . genus neptunea . in : a conchological iconography [ directed by guido t . poppe & klaus groh ] . conchbooks , hackenheim . 159 pp . , 154 pls . note : synonymized with neptunea heros [ details ]\nsave neptunea to get e - mail alerts and updates on your ebay feed .\nneptunea lyrata 80 . 07mm beautiful rare specimen off san juan is . , washington\nneptunea lyrata 99 . 57mm beautiful rare specimen off san juan is . , washington\nneptunea lyrata 94 . 45mm beautiful rare specimen off san juan is . , washington\nformosa / shells / neptunea polycostata 167 . 5mm . w / o . ja pan\nneptunea aino w / o 221 . 0mm fully intact wrs huge monster golden aperture beauty\n, d . wt ) with 95 % of the thg present as mmhg in n . heros , the highest trophic level organism in this study as determined using data for delta\nspecies representatives : some of the more abundant large gastropods in the se bering sea are neptunea pribiloffensis , n . heros , n . ventricosa , n . lyrata , fusitriton oregonensis , pyrulofusus deformis , volutopsius fragilis , buccinum angulosum , b . scalariforme , and b . polare .\ndry weight ( d . wt . ) with 33 % of the thg present as mmhg . the highest average values for thg were identified for the whelks n . heros ( 195\u00b129 ng g\n( of neptunea ( neptunea ) r\u00f6ding , 179 ) nakano t . , kurihara y . , miyoshi h . & higuchi s . ( 2010 ) . molecular phylogeny of neptunea ( gastropoda : buccinidae ) inferred from mitochondrial dna sequences , with description of a new species . venus . 68 ( 3 - 4 ) : 121 - 137 . [ details ]\n69 - 170\u00e2\u00b0 165\u00e2\u00b0 160\u00e2\u00b0 155\u00e2\u00b0 69\u00e2\u00b0 iveptunea heros chukch . sea biomass ( q / mm _ j i ^ ^ ^ bi kb h ^ ^ f ~ - - \u00e2 n \u00e2\u00a2 < 0 . 2 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 1 30 jo 40 so < \u00e2\u00ab\u00e2 0 . 2 s o < 0 , 4 0 . 4 < o < 0 6 0 . 6 \u00e2\u00a2 ; q j l ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ l ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ h 1 . - j ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 1 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ h ^ m \u00e2 ^ h 68\nm . ct ^ ^ hi i 1 68 ' 67 * e\n0 0 = 0 p . h ^ s m 1 67\u00e2\u00b0 66 * ^ i ^ 1 1 66\u00e2\u00b0 170\n165\u00e2\u00b0 160\u00e2\u00b0 figure 65 - 8 . distribution and biomass of the whelk neptunea heros in the northeastern bering sea . figure 65 - 9 . distribution and biomass of the whelk neptunea heros in the southeastern chukchi sea .\nmacintosh , r . a . , paul , a . j . ( 1977 ) the relation of shell length to total weight , edible - meat weight , and reproductive organ weight of the gastropods neptunea heros , n . lyrata , n . pribiloffensis , and n . ventricosa of the eastern bering sea . proc , natl , shellfish assoc . , 67 : 103 - 112 .\nspecies neptunea regula ( r . b . watson , 1882 ) accepted as pareuthria regulus ( r . b . watson , 1882 )\nfujinaga , k . ( 1987 ) on the growth pattern of the neptune whelk , neptunea arthritica bernardi . bull fac fish hokkaido univ , 38 : 191 - 202 .\n( of neptunea ( barbitonia ) dall , 1916 ) nakano t . , kurihara y . , miyoshi h . & higuchi s . ( 2010 ) . molecular phylogeny of neptunea ( gastropoda : buccinidae ) inferred from mitochondrial dna sequences , with description of a new species . venus . 68 ( 3 - 4 ) : 121 - 137 . [ details ]\n( of neptunea ( golikovia ) habe & sato , 1973 ) nakano t . , kurihara y . , miyoshi h . & higuchi s . ( 2010 ) . molecular phylogeny of neptunea ( gastropoda : buccinidae ) inferred from mitochondrial dna sequences , with description of a new species . venus . 68 ( 3 - 4 ) : 121 - 137 . [ details ]\npearce , j . and thorson , g . ( 1967 ) the feeding and reproductive biology of the red whelk , neptunea antiqua ( l ) . ( gastropoda , prosobranchia ) . ophelia , 4 : 277 - 314 .\n. . . e chukchi shelf were at background values ( o1600 ng / g ) based on a mixture of compounds that represent pyrogenic , petrogenic and biogenic sources . the distribution of aliphatic n - alkanes in surface sediments was linked to natural background and petroleum hydrocarbon sources with significant inputs of vascular plant debris from the alaskan shoreline . harvey et al . ( 2014 ) also found that concentrations of pahs in muscle tissue from the gastropod neptunea decreased in larger size specimens per unit weight whereas aliphatic n - alkanes in neptunea gastropod muscle increased in larger organisms ( fig . 3 ) . based on this study , neptunea represents a potential indicator species for monitoring changes in the loadi . . .\nfraussen k . & terryn y . ( 2007 ) . the family buccinidae . genus neptunea . in : a conchological iconography [ directed by guido t . poppe & klaus groh ] . conchbooks , hackenheim . 159 pp . , 154 pls . [ details ]\nito , h . and tachizawa , s . ( 1981 ) an estimation of the density of the available stock of a sea snail , neptunea arthritica , by trap fishing . bull . hokkaido reg . fish res . lab . , 46 : 113 - 119 .\nsuzuki , k . , hiraishi , t . , yamamoto , k . and nashimoto , k . ( 1996 ) age determination and growth analysis based on sizefrequency histograms of whelk neptunea arthritica in shiriuchi , hokkaido . nippon suisan gakkaishi , 62 : 225 - 229 .\nito , h . ( 1982 ) distribution of a sea snail , neptunea arthritica , and its surroundings in the lagoon furen - ko . reports of the engineering research on all - round constructions of fishing grounds in the region of nemuro bay 107 - 114 . [ in japanese ]\n( of costaria golikov , 1977 ) fraussen k . & terryn y . ( 2007 ) . the family buccinidae . genus neptunea . in : a conchological iconography [ directed by guido t . poppe & klaus groh ] . conchbooks , hackenheim . 159 pp . , 154 pls . [ details ]\n( of fusus fornicatus ( gray , 1839 ) ) fraussen k . & terryn y . ( 2007 ) . the family buccinidae . genus neptunea . in : a conchological iconography [ directed by guido t . poppe & klaus groh ] . conchbooks , hackenheim . 159 pp . , 154 pls . [ details ]\n( of chrysodomus saturus var . tabularis dall , 1919 ) fraussen k . & terryn y . ( 2007 ) . the family buccinidae . genus neptunea . in : a conchological iconography [ directed by guido t . poppe & klaus groh ] . conchbooks , hackenheim . 159 pp . , 154 pls . [ details ]\nchung , e . y . , kim , s . y . , park , g . m . and yoon , j . m . ( 2006 ) germ cell differentiation and sexual maturation of the female neptunea ( barbitonia ) arthritica cumingii ( crosse , 1883 ) ( gastropoda : buccinidse ) . malacologia , 48 ( 1 - 2 ) : 65 - 76 .\n. . . previous work documented concentrations of pahs and alkanes hydrocarbons from the foot muscle in 35 individuals of the neptunea whelk which had been pooled into three size classes based on shell length ( 0 - 5 , 5 - 8 , and > 8 cm ) in the southern chukchi sea ( see harvey et al . , 2014 ) . that analysis showed a diversity of pahs in muscle tissues with alkyl - substituted compounds dominating over parent species among all size classes . . . .\nthe age and growth of neptunea ( barbitonia ) arthritica cumingii sampled from the west sea of korea were determined from 1 , 062 operculums from october 2007 to september 2008 . age of neptunea ( barbitonia ) arthritica cumingii was determined from the rings on the operculum . the relationship between shell height ( sh ; mm ) and shell width ( sw ; mm ) was expressed by the following equation : sw = 0 . 5757 sh + 0 . 222 ( = 0 . 8723 ) , and shell height ( sh ; mm ) and total weight ( tw ; g ) was highly correlated by the equation : tw = 0 . 0002 ( = 0 . 9121 ) . the main spawning periods was estimated june to july through fatness index analysis . the relationship between shell height and ring radius of operculum in each ring group was expressed as a regression line . therefore , there is a correspondence in each ring formation . based on the monthly variations in the marginal index ( mi ) of the operculum , it is assumed that the ring of this species was formed once a year during the period of july to august . growth curves for shell height ( sh ) and total weight ( tw ) fitted to the von bertalanffy ' s equation were expressed as follows :\nturgeon , d . ; quinn , j . f . ; bogan , a . e . ; coan , e . v . ; hochberg , f . g . ; lyons , w . g . ; mikkelsen , p . m . ; neves , r . j . ; roper , c . f . e . ; rosenberg , g . ; roth , b . ; scheltema , a . ; thompson , f . g . ; vecchione , m . ; williams , j . d . ( 1998 ) . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks . 2nd ed . american fisheries society special publication , 26 . american fisheries society : bethesda , md ( usa ) . isbn 1 - 888569 - 01 - 8 . ix , 526 + cd - rom pp . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 96 [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nturgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , et al .\ncommon and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks , 2nd ed .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 001 seconds . )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nin : okutani , t . ( ed . ) , marine mollusks in japan . tokai university press , tokyo , 453 - 499 ( in japanese ) .\noccurrence record in darwincore format ( elements of obis schema and some of dwc1 . 4 )\nversion 43 . 0 went live 11 / 6 / 2018 - i hope that the majority of issues have been fixed . my email address is on the home page if you see anything wrong .\nfusus fornicatus normalis ( var . ) aurivillius , c . w . s . , 1885 : n atlantic\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nmacginitie n . ( 1959 ) marine mollusca of point barrow , alaska . proceedings of the united states national museum 109 : 59 - 208 . [ published 18 september 1959 ] page ( s ) : 124 [ details ]\nclark r . n . ( 2016 ) . notes on some little known arctic alaskan mollusks . the festivus . 48 ( 2 ) : 73 - 83 . [ details ]\nr\u00f6ding p . f . ( 1798 ) . museum boltenianum sive catalogus cimeliorum e tribus regnis naturae quae olim collegerat joa . fried . bolten m . d . p . d . pars secunda continens conchylia sive testacea univalvia , bivalvia et multivalvia . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 115 [ details ]\n( of chrysodomus ( sulcosipho ) dall , 1916 ) dall w . h . ( 1916 ) . prodrome of a revision of the chrysodomoid whelks of the boreal and arctic regions . proceedings of the biological society of washington . 29 : 7 - 8 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 7 [ details ]\n( of chrysodomus ( barbitonia ) dall , 1916 ) dall w . h . ( 1916 ) . prodrome of a revision of the chrysodomoid whelks of the boreal and arctic regions . proceedings of the biological society of washington . 29 : 7 - 8 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 7 [ details ]\n( of costaria golikov , 1977 ) bouchet p . & war\u00e9n a . ( 1986 [\n1985\n] ) . mollusca gastropoda : taxonomical notes on tropical deep water buccinidae with descriptions of new taxa . in : forest , j . ( ed . ) r\u00e9sultats des campagnes musorstom i et ii philippines ( 1976 , 1980 ) . tome 2 . m\u00e9moires du mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle . s\u00e9rie a , zoologie . 133 : 457 - 499 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of golikovia habe & sato , 1973 ) obis indo - pacific molluscan database . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nfraussen k . & terryn y . ( 2007 ) . the family buccinidae . genus\n: a conchological iconography [ directed by guido t . poppe & klaus groh ] . conchbooks , hackenheim . 159 pp . , 154 pls .\nour new search experience requires javascript to be enabled . please enable javascript on your browser , then try again .\nebay determines this price through a machine - learned model of the product ' s sale prices within the last 90 days .\ncopyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 ebay inc . all rights reserved . user agreement , privacy , cookies and adchoice\namounts shown in italicized text are for items listed in currency other than canadian dollars and are approximate conversions to canadian dollars based upon bloomberg ' s conversion rates . for more recent exchange rates , please use the universal currency converter\nthis page was last updated : 09 - jul 16 : 03 . number of bids and bid amounts may be slightly out of date . see each listing for international shipping options and costs .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\n. . . although anthropogenic emission from asia may contribute a sig - nificant part of soot - bc to the chukchi and bering shelf region , emis - sions from north america and europe ( koch and hansen , 2005 ) can also influence the soot - bc abundance in sediment in the study area . indeed , the pah ratios indicated a mixed pyrogenic , petrogenic and biogenic source to the chukchi shelf sediment ( yunker et al . , 2011 ; harvey et al . , 2014 ) . since the relative contribution of each bc source varied with time , the variability in both soot - bc content and soot - bc \u03b4 13 c in chukchi / bering shelf sediments would depend on the intensity of each source term ( figs . 5 and 6 ) . . . .\n. . . 2017 . 08 . 011 2012dunton et al . , 2014 and references therein ) . a portion of that program established inventories of important organic molecules and their possible sources including measures of aliphatic n - alkane and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ( pahs ) and their toxicological impact on one fish species ( harvey et al . , 2014 ) . the combination of aliphatic alkanes and pah ' s as the two hydrocarbon classes of focus were based on their ability to trace specific sources of anthropogenic contamination ( i . e . . . .\n. . . fossil fuel combustion ) and natural inputs ( i . e . oil seeps , terrestrial debris ) and to establish the baseline of toxicologic responses to the native fish b . saida . results of that work in the southern region of the chukchi sea observed low levels of pah and alkane hydrocarbons and only minor toxicological responses ( harvey et al . , 2014 ) . this study was designed to compare measures of the suite of organic molecules in surface sediments in the southern chukchi sea with the more northern hanna shoal region to document sources of hydrocarbon biomarkers across important areas of whale migration and increased benthic pelagic coupling . . . .\n. . . fossil fuel vs . biomass combustion ) and natural inputs ( i . e . oil seeps , forest fires and terrestrial debris ) to marine systems ( jaward et al . , 2004 ; nizzetto et al . , 2008 ; yunker et al . , 2002ayunker et al . , , 2002b ) . although pahs represent only a small fraction ( 0 . 2e7 % ) of the total composition of crude oil , their relative persistence in the environment and potential toxicity to marine organisms warrants research into their sources and fate in marine systems ( harvey et al . , 2014 ) . . . .\n. . . previous studies indicate that the alkylsubstituted pahs in sediment are likely derived from petrogenic inputs and this is clearly apparent in temperate ocean sediments in regions like the gulf of mexico ( adhikari et al . , 2015adhikari et al . , , 2016 . the dominance of alkyl - pahs in parts of the arctic / sub - arctic has also been previously reported in sediments collected from the northeastern chukchi and beaufort sea shelves ( harvey et al . , 2014 ; yunker et al . , 1996 ) . . . .\n. . . the dominance of the two alkyl pahs ( 1 - mn and 2 - mn ) also support the petrogenic influence on the pahs observed in these sediments ( fig . 2 ) . the chukchi sea , for example , is estimated to contain 15 billion barrels of recoverable oil , with potential for this region to serve as a significant source of oil and natural gas in the future given that drilling rights have now been permitted ( harvey et al . , 2014 ) . pah petrogenic markers might originate in oil from naturally occurring seeps on the chukchi shelf , although this petrogenic signal might be localized and not extend to sediments in the continental shelf regions of the canada basin or central arctic ocean ( gautier et al . , 2009 ) . . . .\nto provide an historic perspective on the current presence of microplastic particulates in chesapeake bay using archived sediment cores .\nalkane and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments and benthic invertebrates of the northern c . . .\nthe hanna shoal region represents an important northern gateway for transport and deposition in the chukchi sea . this study determined the concentration and distribution of organic contaminants ( aliphatic hydrocarbon and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons , pahs ) in surface sediments from 34 sites across hanna shoal . up to 31 total pahs , including parent and alkyl homologues were detected with . . . [ show full abstract ]\nbacterial hopanoids as tracers of organic carbon sources and processing across the western arctic co . . .\ntracing the inputs of bacterial organic carbon to marine systems has been constrained by the lack of distinguishing geochemical tracers and limited contribution in sediments compared to other sources of organic matter . bacteriohopanepolyols ( bhps ) provide a direct means to identify bacterial inputs which also reflect potential bacterial groups and their activities in aquatic systems . we . . . [ show full abstract ]\ninvestigating physiological , cellular and molecular effects in juvenile blue crab , callinectus sapid . . .\njuvenile blue crabs , callinectus sapidus , were exposed for 31days to six different sediments collected within the pass a loutre state wildlife management area approximately 6months or 1 . 5years post - capping of the macondo - 252 well - head following the deepwater horizon ( dwh ) incident . based on forensic analysis to fingerprint for dwh oil , these sediments differed in their levels of dwh oil . . . [ show full abstract ]\np64 - mo molecular and isotopic tracers of terrigenous organic carbon delivery to the deep arctic ocea . . .\nthe carbon cycle in the arctic ocean is complicated by the delivery and redistribution of terrigenous material through large rivers , sea - ice , and coastal erosion . although annual inputs of the estimated 12 mt / yr of terrestrial particulate organic carbon ( poc ) ( rachold et al . , 2003 ) , are dwarfed by the 250 mt / yr poc from marine primary production ( sakshaug , 2003 ) , evidence suggests substantial . . . [ show full abstract ]\ngastropod shell is important both as cover for motile ( free - living ) organisms , and attachment substrate for sessile ( attached ) organisms . the 16 species ( kessler , 1985 ) of hermit crabs in the nmfs se bering sea survey area are particularly dependant on gastropod shell . many other se bering sea invertebrates , including polychaetes , slipper shells , tunicates , hydroids , bryozoans , sponges , and anemones commonly live in and on gastropod shell . gastropod egg cases are also commonly laid on gastropod shell .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nclick on an image to view all the information : family , species , author , date , and full locality .\nbuccinidae a large family , with a worldwide distribution . most of the larger species live near the arctic . their rough shells , often with a heavy periostracum are appealing because they remind the collector of the cold atmosphere of very northern beaches . their data reminisce of the time of the great discoveries : barentz sea bering strait , spitzbergen , nova zembla , are all romantic names linked to great ships and explorers such as the victoria and perry . nowadays buccinidae are more collected than ever . warm water species may have beautiful colours and are usually smaller than their northern relatives . especially the genera siphonalia and babylonia are a pleasure to collect and to build up a complete set . about 800 species .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 362 seconds . )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfox , austin l . ; hughes , emily a . ; trocine , robert p . ; trefry , john h . ; schonberg , susan v . ; mctigue , nathan d . ; lasorsa , brenda k . ; konar , brenda ; cooper , lee w .\ndeep - sea research part ii , volume 102 , p . 56 - 67 .\n) averaged ( \u00b1standard deviation ) 2 . 8\u00b11 . 4 pm in the necs , ~ 2 times greater than values of 1 . 5\u00b10 . 5 pm for the bering strait . overall , consistently lower concentrations of thg\nwere found at depths with markedly higher concentrations of chlorophyll a . concentrations of total hg ( thg ) in sediments from the necs averaged 31\u00b110 ng g\n, correlated well with silt + clay , al and toc , and showed a long - term record consistent with the natural , background environment . very localized occurrences of sediment with elevated thg concentrations were identified near two exploratory drilling sites where drilling mud and formation cuttings were discharged in 1989 . concentrations of sediment monomethylmercury ( mmhg ) averaged 0 . 15\u00b10 . 07 ng g\nand accounted for only 0 . 43\u00b10 . 17 % of the sediment thg . the lowest average value ( \u00b1 standard error ) for thg in biota was found for a . borealis at 44\u00b14 ng g\nn . biomagnification of mmhg was observed in this benthic food web with the following relationship : log [ mmhg ] = 0 . 19 [ delta\nimage from page 526 of\nthe eastern bering sea shelf : oceanography and resources / edited by donald w . hood and john a . calder\n( 1981 )\ntitle : the eastern bering sea shelf : oceanography and resources / edited by donald w . hood and john a . calder\nauthors : hood , d . w . ( donald wilbur ) , 1918 - ; calder , john a ; united states . office of marine pollution assessment ; united states . bureau of land management\npublisher : [ rockville , md . ? ] : u . s . dept . of commerce , national oceanic and atmospheric administration , office of marine pollution assessment ; seattle , wash . : distributed by the university of washington press\nclick here to view book online to see this illustration in context in a browseable online version of this book .\nplease note that these images are extracted from scanned page images that may have been digitally enhanced for readability - coloration and appearance of these illustrations may not perfectly resemble the original work .\namio , m . ( 1963 ) a comparative embryology of marine gastropods , with ecological emphasis . j . shimonoseki coll . fish . , 12 : 229 - 253 .\nbertalanffy , l . von ( 1938 ) a quantitative theory of organic growth ( inquiries on growth laws , ii ) . human biology , 10 ( 2 ) : 181 - 213 .\nchang , d . s . ( 1991 ) age and growth of sebastiscus marmoratus ( cuvier et valenciennes ) . bull . nat ' l fish . res . dev . agency , korea , 18 ( 2 ) : 179 - 193 .\nchoe , b . l . , park , m . s . , jeon , l . g . , park , s . r . and kim , h . t . ( 1999 ) commercial molluscs from the freshwater and continental shelf in korea . national fisheries research and development institute . pusan . pp . 80 .\nchoi , j . d . and ryu , d . k . ( 2007 ) age and growth of purple whelk , rapana venosa ( gastropoda : muricidae ) in the west sea of korea . korean journal of malacology , 25 ( 3 ) : [ in korea ]\nhong , s . y . ( 2006 ) marine invertbrates in korean coastes . academy publishing company , inc . , seoul . pp . 191 .\nkim , y . h . , chung , e . y . and shin , m . s . ( 2007 ) reproductive ecology of netunea ( barbitonia ) arthritica cumingii . dev . reprod . , 11 ( 3 ) : 155 - 165 .\nking , m . ( 1995 ) fisheries biology , assessment and management . blackwell , oxford , pp . 341 .\nkubo , i . and kondo , k . ( 1953 ) age determination of the babylonia japonica ( reeve ) an edible marine gastropod , basing on the operculum . j . tokyo univ . fish , 39 : 199 - 207 .\nkubo , i . and yoshinara , t . ( 1970 ) fisheries biology . kyoritsu shuppan co . ltd . , tokyo , pp . 482 .\nkwon , o . k . , park , g . m . and lee , s . u . ( 1993 ) colored shells of korea . academy publishing company , seoul , pp . 285 .\nweatherley , a . h . and gill , h . s . ( 1987 ) the biology of fish growth . academmic press inc . , london , pp . 443 .\nyoo , j . s . ( 1976 ) korean shells in colour . iljisa , seoul , pp . 78 . [ in korean ]\nzhang , c . i . ( 1991 ) fisheries resources ecology . woosung publishing company , seoul . pp . 199 . [ in korean ]"]}
{"id": 341, "summary": [{"text": "the tentacled flathead ( papilloculiceps longiceps ) or crocodilefish is a member of the order scorpaeniformes , an order which also includes the scorpionfishes and stonefishes .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is found in the western indian ocean ; the red sea .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the species now also occurs in the mediterranean , having invaded as a lessepsian migrant through the suez canal . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "tentacled flathead", "paragraphs": ["a tentacled flathead ( crocodilefish ) sits on the sand , waiting for prey to swim by .\ncrocodile fish carpet flathead underwater red sea . amazing relax video about marine tropical animals carpet flathead in world of wildlife .\nmacro of the eye of a tentacled flathead ( papilloculiceps longiceps ) , . . stock photo , picture and royalty free image . image 8932203 .\nmacro of the eye of a tentacled flathead ( papilloculiceps longiceps ) , also known as a crocodile fish . taken in the wakatobi , indonesia .\nunderwater close up flathead scorpion fish . picture of flathead scorpion fish in the tropical reef of the red sea , dahab , egypt .\nstock photo - macro of the eye of a tentacled flathead ( papilloculiceps longiceps ) , also known as a crocodile fish . taken in the wakatobi , indonesia .\ntentacled flathead ( papilloculiceps longiceps ) , also known as a crocodile fish , camouflaged on a coral reef while looking into the camera . taken in the wakatobi , indonesia .\ncrocodile fish underwater red sea . amazing relax video about marine tropical animals carpet flathead in world of wildlife .\ncrocodile fish carpet flathead underwater red sea . amazing relax video about marine tropical animals papilloculiceps longiceps in world of wildlife .\ncrocodile fish underwater red sea . amazing relax video about marine tropical animals carpet flathead papilloculiceps longiceps in world of wildlife .\ncrocodile fish carpet flathead papilloculiceps longiceps underwater red sea . amazing relax video about marine tropical animals in world of wildlife .\ncrocodile fish carpet flathead close - up underwater red sea . amazing relax video about marine tropical animals papilloculiceps longiceps in world of wildlife .\nflathead fish in coral underwater red sea . colorful world of wild marine nature on background of beautiful lagoon . awesome video of wildlife in egypt .\nhigh definition crocodilefish tentacled flathead background from aquatic collection for desktop , multi - monitor , apple ios and google android devices in full hd , widescreen , 2k qhd , 4k uhd , 5k , 8k ultra hd resolutions . if you can ' t find the exact resolution you are looking for , go for\ndownload your resolution\nit will perfectly fit your desktop . this background is absolutely free for personal use .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ngilberto rodr\u00edguez . marine biologist . m . sc . , university of miami , usa . ph . d . , university of wales , uk . emeritus researcher , instituto venezolano de investigaciones cient\u00edficas ( ivic ) . address : centro de ecolog\u00eda , ivic , apartado 21827 , caracas 1020 - a , venezuela . e - mail : grodrigu @ urltoken\nh\u00e9ctor su\u00e1rez . biologist , universidad de oriente , venezuela . research associate , ivic .\nla dispersi\u00f3n antropog\u00e9nica de crust\u00e1ceos dec\u00e1podos es parte de un fen\u00f3meno que actualmente adquiere caracter\u00edsticas de un cambio ambiental global . de las 10000 especies conocidas de dec\u00e1podos se han registrado 58 especies marinas , 8 dulceacu\u00edcolas - estuarinas y 21 cangrejos de r\u00edos ( astacura ) que se han desplazado de sus \u00e1reas originales de distribuci\u00f3n . las migraciones lessepsianas a trav\u00e9s de canales , la introducci\u00f3n accidental por transporte mar\u00edtimo y la importaci\u00f3n para acuicultura son los mecanismos responsables de esta dispersi\u00f3n . en venezuela se han introducido 4 especies de camarones pene\u00eddeos , el camar\u00f3n de r\u00edo\ny 3 especies de brachiuros . los crust\u00e1ceos dec\u00e1podos est\u00e1n particularmente bien adaptados por su anatom\u00eda y fecundidad para colonizar nuevas \u00e1reas y establecer poblaciones explosivas .\nthe anthropogenic dispersal of decapod crustaceans is part of an event that in recent years has acquired characteristics of a global environmental change . from the 10000 species of decapods so far recorded in the world , 58 marine species , 8 freshwater - estuarine species and 21 river crabs ( astacura ) have been recorded outside their original areas of distribution . lessepsian ms through channels , accidental maritime transport and introduction for aquaculture have been the mechanisms responsible for these dispersals . four penaeid species , the freshwater shrimp\n, and 3 brachyuran crabs have been introduced in venezuela . due to their characteristic anatomy and high fecundity the decapod crustaceans are particularly apt for the colonization of new areas and the establishment of explosive populations .\na dispers\u00e3o antropog\u00eanica de crust\u00e1ceos dec\u00e1podes \u00e9 parte de um fen\u00f4meno que atualmente adquire caracter\u00edsticas de uma mudan\u00e7a ambiental global . das 10000 esp\u00e9cies conhecidas de dec\u00e1podes foram registradas 58 esp\u00e9cies marinhas , 8 doceacu\u00edcolas - estuarinas e 21 caranguejos de rios ( astacura ) que foram deslocados de suas \u00e1reas originais de distribui\u00e7\u00e3o . as migra\u00e7\u00f5es lessepsianas atrav\u00e9s de canais , a introdu\u00e7\u00e3o acidental por transporte mar\u00edtimo e a importa\u00e7\u00e3o para aq\u00fcicultura s\u00e3o os mecanismos respons\u00e1veis desta dispers\u00e3o . na venezuela foram introduzidas quatro esp\u00e9cies de camar\u00f5es , pene\u00eddeos , o camar\u00e3o de rio\ne 3 esp\u00e9cies de brachiuros . os crust\u00e1ceos dec\u00e1podes est\u00e3o particularmente bem adaptados por sua anatomia e fecundidade para colonizar novas \u00e1reas e estabelecer popula\u00e7\u00f5es explosivas .\nthe suez canal is an unparalleled situation where two biogeographical provinces , previously totally separated , enter into contact and interpenetrate . the pharaonic connection between the red and mediterranean seas from the 13th to the 8th centuries bc , allowed the migration of very few species due to the low salinity there prevailing ( por , 1971 ) . the present canal , projected and built by ferdinand - marie de lesseps ( 1805 - 1894 ) was inaugurated on november 1869 . the channel spans 160 km , from the bay of suez in the red sea to port said in the mediterranean , using the intermediate manzala , timsah and bitter lakes .\nthere are at present 40 species of decapods in the mediterranean accounted for as lessepsian migrants ( table i ) while , on the contrary , the number of species dispersed in the area through ships ballast water is considered negligible . the occasional presence of the lobster thennus orientalis , first recorded in 1896 in fiume , italy ( elton , 1958 ) , can be explained by transport on ships\u0092 hulls .\nthe kiel canal , built between 1887 and 1895 in an extent of 98 km , links the north sea with the baltic sea , from the mouth of the elbe river to the kiel bay , bypassing the detour along the danish peninsula . it is possible that the estuarine mud crab rhithropanopeus harrisii found its way to the baltic through the kiel canal , after its introduction in the netherlands , since its first record in that sea , in 1936 , was from the baltic end of the canal ( wolff , 1954 ) . in other respects , this canal is of little biogeographical relevance .\nthe panama canal spans 64 km from coast to coast . although its lake - lock design and the presence of a wide freshwater zone supplied by the chagres river precludes any lessepsian migration , at both ends of the present canal several fouling and perforating organisms ( pholadid bivalves , teredos , cirripeds , bryozoans , and other ) usually considered as natives of the opposing ocean , can be observed . these are euryhaline forms that can withstand transport through the freshwater section attached to the hulls of local vessels that have been moored for a long time ( carlton , 1985 ) .\nit has been extensively debated whether it is possible that the ballast water discharged at opposite sides of the canal , since its aperture in 1914 , could be an\nactive\nmechanism for the transport . carlton ( 1985 ) recorded 9 invertebrates and 4 fishes for which this mechanism is possible and 5 invertebrates and 2 fishes for which it is probable . among the decapod species , transport in ballast water is considered a possible mechanism for rhithropanopeus harrisii and the freshwater crab neorhynchus alcocki found in pedro miguel lock . eurypanopeus dissimilis , found in the third lock , ranges from florida to brazil and its presence in the panama canal is not unusual .\nseveral species of crabs , such as pachygrapsus transversus , plagusia chabrus , p . depressa , p . tuberculata , planes minutus , carcinides maenas , menippe convexa , etc . , have been observed attached to ship\u0092s hulls ( wolff , 1954 ) . this was a convenient means of dispersal for crabs when the old wooden hulls were in use , but it became unavailable with the modern metallic hulls , antifouling paints and reduced stowage time . no decapods were detected during a two - year survey of 89 vessels of different types that moored at new zealand ports , although 45 species of sessile invertebrates were found ( skerman , 1960 ) .\nballast water offers the most effective mechanism for the introduction of exotic decapod species , although it has been confirmed only in a few instances ( carlton , 1985 ) . larval stages of decapod crustaceans have been recovered from ballast tanks in viable conditions ( chu et al . , 1997 ) . rees and catley ( 1949 ) proposed this mechanism for the introduction of the larvae of processa equimana , living in the north sea plankton , into the mediterranean and red sea , but carlton ( 1985 ) considered this unlikely . furthermore , the north sea form has been described as a different species , p . modica , with the subspecies p . modica carolii in the mediterranean .\npeters and panning ( 1933 ) reviewed the available evidence for the first implant of the chinese crab eriocheir sinensis in the north sea , from 1912 , via ballast water . subsequently large populations of this crab have colonized the european brackish waters and have extended to california and canada , apparently using the same transport mechanism ( cohen and carlton , 1997 ) .\nship cargo also seems to play a role in the transport of organisms . the saber crab platychirograpsus spectabilis was transported in a cargo of cedar logs from tabasco state , mexico , to hillsborough ( st . petersburg ) , florida , where it has become permanently established ( marchand , 1946 ) .\nthese and similar structures can be slowly towed across the ocean , with the submersed parts unprotected by antifouling paints , and stay anchored for extended periods of time in different parts of the world . in this way was transported the japanese shore crab plagusia dentipes , observed alive in california after a trans - pacific cruise of 61 days on a self - powered drilling platform , which had been working for four years between japan and malaysia ( benech , 1978 ) . similar circumstances are mentioned for the transport of plagusia tuberculata , together with an encrusting community of cirripeds , on an oil platform built in japan and transported to new zealand , after a voyage of 68 days ( foster and williams , 1979 ) .\naccording to zenkevitch ( 1963 ) two mediterranean shrimps , palaemon adspersus and p . elegans , were accidentally introduced into the aral sea with species of mullets . we have already mentioned the possible introduction of rhithropanopeus harrisii along the atlantic coast of the united states , with oysters , and of carcinus maenas , into san francisco bay , with algae used for packing of living bait ( cohen and carlton , 1997 ) . the dispersal of several species of crayfish throughout the united states , orconectes rusticus for instance ( table iii ) , is attributed to their escape from containers of living bait used by sport fishermen ( taylor and redmer , 1996 ) .\ncohen and carlton ( 1997 ) recorded 16 cases of interception of living specimens of eriocheir sinensis at san francisco airport between 1989 and 1995 , with the confiscation of 10 to 50 specimens on each occasion . this species is sold alive in asian food markets in the united states ( lemaitre , 1995 ) .\nthe trade of organisms for aquaria is another means of dispersal . living specimens of atya scabra and procambarus clarkii can be observed frequently at the pet shops in caracas .\nthe species of peneaidae most frequently cultured are marsupenaeus japonicus and penaeus monodon , but the possibility exists of an increase in the culture of nine other species , p . semisulcatus , farfantepenaeus aztecus , fenneropenaeus indicus , f . penicillatus , sergestes orientalis , litopenaeus schmitti , l . setiferus , l . stylirostris and l . vannamei ( liao and huang , 1982 ) . farfantepenaeus aztecus is already under experimental culture in aquacop station , in tahiti , since 1975 , and l . stylirostris in corpus christy , texas , and crystal river , florida , from approximately the same date . m . japonicus was the first species cultured in the world after the research by hudinaga in 1934 . by 1942 its full culture had been achieved , but only after world war ii it was established on a commercial basis . in the united states shrimp culture began by the native species l . setiferus and f . aztecus in 1963 , and f . duorarum in 1968 . this same year liao began the culture of p . monodon in taiwan .\nalthough the penaeids have being cultured in shrimp farms for an extended period of time , there is little information in the literature on the escape of these species and its effects on the natural ecosystems . the information available on the dispersal of m . japonicus in the mediterranean sea indicates that , at least under conditions of biological poverty , the species is able to propagate rapidly into the recipient communities .\na vibriosis producing bacterial hemorragic septicemia is frequently found in penaeid cultures in asia and south america . the ethiological agent , vibrio harveyi , has been detected in shrimp farms in venezuela , infesting l . vanamei vanamei and l . stylyrostris , but it is also present in feral populations of l . schmitti and several species of marine and estuarine fishes ( alvarez et al . , 1998 ) .\n) . it has been introduced through all the american continent , except in nicaragua , belize , chile , paraguay and bolivia . in the caribbean it is farmed in the dominican republic , puerto rico , dominica , guadalupe , martinica , saint lucia and trinidad - tobago ( fao , 1995 ) .\nthe crayfishes of the families astacidae and parastacidae are strictly freshwater organisms . according to hobbs et al . ( 1989 ) it would be impossible to mention all the introductions of astacids since in many cases , or in the majority , they have not been recorded ( table iii ) . the largest diversity of species occurs in north america , where hobbs ( 1989 ) reported 271 species and subspecies native to canada , usa and mexico . several species have been transplanted within north america itself . this is the case of orconectes rusticus , which has displaced two other native species of orconectes in illinois ( taylor and redmer , 1996 ) . these displacements can affect the ecosystem through the reduction in the density of macrophytes ( lodge and lorman , 1987 ) and benthonic macroinvertebrates ( houghton et al . , 1998 ) .\nanother species that has extended its intracontinental distribution is cherax destructor , from australia , which has furthermore reached intercontinentally to washington state . the most notable case of intercontinental expansion is presented by procambarus clarkii , which has spread out to all continents , except australia and antarctica . laurent and forest ( 1979 ) summarized the damages produced by this species as follows :\nin japan it was introduced since 1930 ( from 18 specimens ) . a short time afterwards it pullulated , destroying rice fields and ditches , producing populations of 2000 k / hectare and not been used by the people [ as food ] in kenya it produced rapidly enormous populations not exploited by the natives breaking the fishing gears and interfering with the breeding of tilapia\n.\nauthorization for the introduction of marsupenaeus japonicus , p . monodon , litopenaeus stylirostris and l . vannamei was granted by the ministry of agriculture of venezuela on november 1984 . the original areas of distribution of the two former species are in the indian ocean and the western pacific , and of the other two on the pacific coast of america .\nthis species was introduced in 1980 , into a small shrimp farm in margarita island , by la salle foundation . although its culture in the country has been unsuccessful , pereira et al . ( 1996 ) found a wild population in the orinoco delta in 1996 . they considered that this species passed into the natural environment between 1991 and 1993 .\none specimen of this crayfish ( total length 8 . 2 cm , ivic reference collection ) was captured in a pond of the officers club ( circulo militar ) in caracas . as mentioned before , the species is available at pet shops in the city .\n, a species from the indopacific and red sea regions that has migrated to the mediterranean and several localities in the caribbean , has been recorded by hern\u00e1ndez and bola\u00f1os ( 1995 ) from eastern venezuela . ( 2 )\n, recorded by hern\u00e1ndez and bola\u00f1os ( 1995 ) from eastern venezuela , had not been previously observed outside its original area of distribution , between california and peru , and a misidentification by these authors cannot be ruled out . ( 3 )\nwas observed by the first time in 1957 in several localities of the tablazo and strait of maracaibo ( rodr\u00edguez , 1963 ; rodr\u00edguez and morales , 2000 ) . as the species was already very abundant in this estuary in 1957 , it should have been introduced several years before , possibly in the ballast water of oil tankers involved in the intense traffic between the local oil terminals and the eastern coast of the united states .\nfrom approximately 10000 species of decapod crustaceans described in the world , 88 are recorded in the present contribution as migrants - 58 from marine environments , 8 from freshwater - estuarine habitats and 21 are freshwater crayfishes - but still there may be others not yet recorded in the literature . these species have migrated through navigation channels , have been accidentally transported by ships , inadvertently imported with fishery products or introduced for aquaculture . it might be expected that the list would increase in the future .\nthe effect of invading species on recipient communities could be direct , by displacement of native species or predation on other members of the community . indirectly they could affect the native species through introduction of diseases . up to the present severe damages have been rarely observed , for instance the destruction of rice fields in japan by procambarus clarkii ( laurent and forest , 1979 ) . but as the invasion into coastal zones , rivers and lakes progresses , we can expect the gradual displacement of native forms , with results impossible to foresee at present .\nthe authors are grateful to jesus eloy conde and jon paul rodr\u00edguez for critically reading the manuscript .\n2 . abele lg ( 1972 ) introductions of two freshwater decapod crustaceans ( hymenosomatidae and atydae ) into central and north america .\n4 . aron wi , smith sh ( 1971 ) ship canals and aquatic ecosystems .\n5 . balss h ( 1927 ) bericht \u00fcber die crustacea decapoda ( natantia und anomura ) . zoological results of the cambridge expedition to the suez canal , 1924 . xiv .\n6 . balss h ( 1936 ) decapoda . in : the fishery grounds near alexandria . vii .\n8 . ben - tuvia a ( 1966 ) red sea fishes recently found in the mediterranean .\n10 . carlton jt ( 1985 ) transoceanic and interoceanic dispersal of coastal marine organisms : the biology of ballast water .\n11 . chu kh , tam pf , fung ch , chen qc ( 1997 ) a biological survey of ballast water in container ships entering hong kong .\n14 . dall w , hill bj , rothlisberg pc , sharples dj ( 1990 ) the biology of the penaeidae .\n15 . enzenross r , enzenross l ( 2000 ) nichmediterrane crustacea - arten in tunesischen gew\u00e4ssern ( decapoda , macrura und brachyura ) .\n18 . foster ba , willan c ( 1979 ) foreign barnacles transported to new zealand on an oil platform .\n19 . fox hm ( 1926 ) zoological results of the cambridge expedition to the suez canal , 1924 . i . general part .\n20 . galil bs ( 1992 ) eritrean decapods in the levant : biogeography in motion .\n21 . galil bs ( 1997 ) two lessepsian migrant decapods from the eastern mediterranean .\n22 . galil bs , golani d ( 1990 ) two new migrant decapods from the eastern mediterranean .\n( fabricius , 1798 ) ( crustacea : decapoda ) a new lessepsian migrant to the eastern mediterranean .\n24 . garc\u00eda s , le reste l ( 1981 ) life cycles , dynamics , exploitation and management of coastal peneid shrimp stocks .\n( gould ) an american crab in the estuary of the mondego river , portugal .\n27 . gorgy s ( 1966 ) les p\u00eacheries et le milieu marin dans le secteur m\u00e9diterraneen de la r\u00e9publique arabe unie .\n30 . gruvel a ( 1928 ) r\u00e9partition g\u00e9ographique de quelques crustac\u00e9s comestibles sur les c\u00f4tes d\u0092\u00e9gipte et syrie .\n32 . hobbs jr hh ( 1989 ) an illustrated checklist of the american crayfishes ( decapoda : astacidae , cambaridae and parastacidae ) .\n33 . hobbs iii hh , jas jp , huner jv ( 1989 ) a review of global crayfish introductions with particular emphasis on two north american species ( decapoda , cambaridae ) .\n34 . hern\u00e1ndez g , bola\u00f1os j ( 1995 ) additions to the anomuran and brachyuran fauna of northeastern venezuela . the crustacean society summer meeting , may 25 - 27 , 1995 [ links ] [ abstract ]\n35 . holthuis lb ( 1961 ) report on a collection of crustacea decapoda and stomatopoda from turkey and the balkans .\n36 . holthuis lb ( 1980 ) fao species catalogue . shrimps and prawns of the world . an annotated catalogue of species of interest to fisheries .\n37 . holthuis lb , gottlieb e ( 1958 ) an annotated list of the decapod crustacea of the mediterranean coast of israel with an appendix listing the decapoda of the eastern mediterranean .\n( linneaus ) , to british columbia , canada , and washington , usa .\n40 . laurent pj , forest j ( 1979 ) donne\u00e9 sur les \u00e9crevisses q\u0092on peut rencontrer en france .\n( milne edwards , 1867 ) , a nonindigenous portunid crab ( crustacea : decapoda : brachyura ) discovered in the indian river lagoon system of florida .\n42 . lewinsohn c , holthuis lb ( 1964 ) new records of decapod crustacea from the mediterranean coast of israel and the eastern mediterranean .\n44 . liao c , huang tl ( 1982 ) status and prospect of the culture of two important penaeid prawns in asia .\n49 . mccosker je , dawson ce ( 1975 ) biotic passage through the panama canal , with particular reference to fishes .\n: grapsidae ) , in its new habitat along the atlantic coast of the united states : geographic distribution and ecology .\n51 . monod t ( 1930 ) ueber einige indo - pazifische decapoden der meeresfauna syriens .\n53 . naylor e ( 1960 ) a north american xanthoid crab new to britain .\n54 . newman wa ( 1963 ) on the introduction of an edible oriental shrimp ( caridea , palaemonidae ) to san francisco bay .\n57 . por fd ( 1971 ) one hundred years of suez canal - a century of lessepian m : retrospect and viewpoints .\n58 . ramadan se , dowidar nm ( 1972 ) brachyura ( decapoda , crustacea ) from the mediterranean waters of egypt .\n60 . rodr\u00edguez g ( 1963 ) the intertidal estuarine communities of lake maracaibo , venezuela .\n61 . rodr\u00edguez g , morales f ( 2000 ) las comunidades bent\u00f3nicas del sistema de maracaibo . in : rodr\u00edguez g ( ed )\n62 . skerman tm ( 1960 ) ship - fouling in new zealand waters : a survey of marine fouling organisms from vessels of the coastal and overseas trades .\n63 . steinitz h ( 1967 ) a tentative list of immigrants via the suez canal .\n67 . wolff t ( 1954 ) occurrence of two east american species of crabs in european waters .\n68 . zenkevitch l ( 1963 ) biology of the seas of the u . s . s . r . interscience publishers . new york . 955 pp . [ links ]\ncalle vera cruz , residencia la hacienda apto . 31 - m las mercedes , caracas 1080 . venezuela telefonos : ( 58 - 0212 ) 992 - 32 - 24 , 991 - 75 - 25 interciencia @ urltoken\nlatin , papillo , papula = any little like protuberance + greek , kylix , - ikos = cup + latin , ceps = head ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; non - migratory ; depth range 1 - 15 m ( ref . 9710 ) . tropical\nwestern indian ocean : red sea , including the gulf of aqaba to south africa and madagascar .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 70 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 4315 ) ; common length : 50 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3476 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 9 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 11 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 11 . body mottled with brownish or greenish above , whitish below ; caudal fin with 3 - 4 dark bands , other fins with large dark blotches ( ref . 4315 ) .\nknapp , l . w . , 1984 . platycephalidae . in w . fischer and g . bianchi ( eds . ) fao species identification sheets for fishery purposes . western indian ocean ( fishing area 51 ) . vol . 3 . fao , rome . pag . var . ( ref . 3476 )\n) : 24 . 7 - 29 . 2 , mean 28 . 1 ( based on 1815 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00513 ( 0 . 00222 - 0 . 01187 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 83 - 3 . 25 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 0 \u00b10 . 7 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 46 of 100 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nlike most websites we use cookies . this is to ensure that we give you the best experience possible .\ncontinuing to use urltoken means you agree to our use of cookies . if you would like to , you can learn more about the cookies we use .\nwe\u2019d value your feedback on the tool . our survey takes only five minutes to complete .\nthe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .\none or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using .\nplease consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser .\nthank you , your comment was made . and is published after the approval of the site manager .\n1998 - 2018 urltoken \u00a9 original content belongs to vadim savchenko . all rights reserved . unauthorized copying of materials prohibited . with consistent use of materials the reference to the resource . advertising : divingisrael @ urltoken + 972 - 52 - 6555558\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\nover 10 , 961 , 690 royalty - free video clips with 76 , 299 new stock clips added weekly .\nweather loach urltoken ( changes behaviour based on pressure ( i . e . predicts the weather ) )\nsilver redhorse urltoken ( three redhorses , chosen for the obvious metallurgical link . )\nthese guys don ' t seem to be very popular ( in terms of wikipedia at least ) , but with the rainbow minnow and the torrent stone carp , these guys seem like they should have representation , if not for their names alone .\nthis page was last modified on 5 september 2011 , at 17 : 36 .\nstock images of crocodilefish ( papilloculiceps longiceps ) resting on reef . woodhouse reef , sharm el sheikh , south sinai , red sea , egypt . u17515486 - search stock photography , poster photos , pictures , and photo clip art - u17515486 . jpg\nstock image of crocodilefish ( papilloculiceps longiceps ) resting on reef . woodhouse reef , sharm el sheikh , south sinai , red sea , egypt .\ncrocodilefish ( papilloculiceps longiceps ) resting on reef . woodhouse reef , sharm el sheikh , south sinai , red sea , egypt .\ncrocodile fish ( papilloculiceps longiceps ) . jackson reef , sharm el sheikh , south sinai , red sea , egypt\nsoft coral ( dendronephthya klunzingeri ) . woodhouse reef , sharm el sheikh , south sinai , red sea , egypt .\nrisso ' s dolphin ( grampus griseus ) sunbathing on the surface . woodhouse reef , sharm el sheikh , south sinai , red sea , egypt .\nbluespotted stingray ( taeniura lymma ) resting in the sand . jackson reef , sharm el sheikh , south sinai , red sea , egypt .\nrisso ' s dolphins ( grampus griseus ) sunbathing on the surface . woodhouse reef , sharm el sheikh , south sinai , red sea , egypt .\nhawksbill turtle ( eretmochelys imbricata ) species critically endangered . woodhouse reef ; sharm el sheikh ; south sinai ; red sea ; egypt\nblacktip grouper ( epinephelus fasciatus ) . tower , sharm el sheikh , south sinai , red sea , egypt .\nstarry puffer ( arothron stellatus ) resting on a mooring drum . na ' ama bay , sharm el sheikh , south sinai , red sea , egypt .\nzebra shark ( stegostoma fasciatum ) resting on sandy slope . species near threatened . sha ' ab cano\u00ee , ras mohamed national park , sharm el sheikh , south sinai , red sea , egypt .\ndave , the famous hawksbill turtle ( eretmochelys imbricata ) from sharm el sheikh , rescued after a boat propellor accident , enjoying a meal with his partially fiber cast fixed shell . critically endangered species . shark and yolanda , ras mohamed national par\nthe best online search engine for stock photo images , digital illustrations and artwork , map clipart , picture clip art , and stock footage clips . buy photographs and get immediate downloads , or get fast , cheap delivery on cd - rom .\npour t\u00e9l\u00e9charger plusieurs produits , activez un ou plusieurs filtres associ\u00e9 ( s ) \u00e0 des options de votre contrat ( colonne de gauche ) .\nde getty images . remarque : les images embarqu\u00e9es ne peuvent pas \u00eatre utilis\u00e9es \u00e0 des fins commerciales .\nthe ibm strategic repository for digital assets such as images and videos is located at urltoken . this repository is populated with tens of thousands of assets and should be your first stop for asset selection .\nwe\u2019ve partnered with invision to make it easier to search and download our images in sketch and adobe\u00ae photoshop\u00ae .\n{ { t ( ' more _ than _ one _ credit ' , { zero : calc . totalcreditcost } ) } }\nonce this video clip is done converting , you ' ll be able to download it from your video conversion queue or download history .\neditorial use only photos don ' t have any model or property releases , which means they can ' t be used for commercial , promotional , advertorial or endorsement purposes . this type of content is intended to be used in connection with events that are newsworthy or of general interest ( for example , in a blog , textbook , newspaper or magazine article ) .\nthis format requires a quick conversion ( usually under 5 mins ) before download begins , or you can get the largest and smallest formats immediately .\ncrop for social , add text and more with istock editor . open in editor\nby clicking\nconfirm download\nyou agree that you ' ve read and agree to all applicable license agreements for this download .\nbooks category represents a place holder for books , procedures and reports by experts in the group .\nvideo client : patricia martin cabrera review : abdel rahman el gamal ( founder of the video channel ) the video was filmed in damaniyat island ( al batinah region ) , sultanate of oman . the honeycomb moray eel , gymnothorax favagineus shown in the video is a species of marine fish in the family muraenidae and is one of the largest of indo - pacific morays and \u2026\nphoto credit : sherif sadek ( egypt ) review : abdel rahman el gamal ( founder of the website ) the inserted picture of a brown shrimp specimen was taken in a fish farm in egypt . introduction : brown shrimp ( farfantepenaeus aztecus ) is a species of marine penaeid shrimps which has an important commercial species in the usa . the species has several common \u2026\nbrown shrimp , brown shrimp and environmental conditions , brown shrimp in the mediterranean sea , description , egypt . , farfantepenaeus aztecus , feeding habits , northern brown shrimp , reproduction habits , usa , utilization\nreview : abdel rahman el gamal ( founder of the video channel ) this video was filmed in a retail shop located in monterey , california ( usa ) where different fish species and crabs are sold . the dungeness crab is the crab species shown in this video whether sold iced or displayed live . the dungeness crab , metacarcinus magister ( formerly : cancer magister ) , is \u2026\nvideo courtesy : the state archives of florida , usa the title of this video : \u201cflorida silent sirens : manatees in peril\u201d and was filmed during 1980s the caption of the video states : \u201cthis is an excellent film about the plight of the endangered manatee . it is narrated by leonard nimoy and is full of beautiful underwater \u2026\nvideo credit : patricia martin cabrera ( united arab emirates ) review : abdel rahman el gamal ( founder of the video channel ) introduction : the emperor angelfish ( pomacanthus imperator ) , is a reef - associated marine angelfish and is also called the imperator angelfish or imperial angelfish . the species is one of the most stunning underwater fish . their color and graceful shape make them one \u2026\ncredit : ajith kumara ( srilanka ) review : abdel rahman el gamal ( founder of the website ) mud crab ( scylla serrata ) which is also called mangrove crab belongs to the family of swimming crabs ( portunidae ) . this is an economically important species of crabs and considered highly esteemed as food whereas the flesh from its claws and walking legs \u2026\nvideo credit : patricia martin cabrera ( united arab emirates ) review : abdel rahman el gamal ( founder of the video channel ) source : urltoken this video was filmed at ras muhammad , sharm el sheikh ( egypt ) . introduction : the video was filmed is the premise of the british navy ship \u201cthistlegorm\u201d which was built in 1940 and got sunk \u2026\nphoto credit : : patricia martin cabrera ( united arab emirates ) review : abdel rahman el gamal ( founder of the website ) the inserted picture was taken in sharm el sheikh ( egypt ) introduction : blue spotted ribbon tail ray ( taeniura lymma ) is a species of stingray in the family dasyatidae . it is also known as aka blue - spotted fantail rays , blue spotted stingrays , blue spotted rays , and ribbontail \u2026\nthis video was filmed in the sea world , san diego , usa source : urltoken giant grouper ( epinephelus lanceolatus ) the giant grouper ( epinephelus lanceolatus ) , which belongs to the family serranidae is also known as brindle bass , brown spotted cod , or bumblebee grouper and as the queensland giant grouper in australia . the species is the largest reef - dwelling bony \u2026\ncopyright \u00a9\n2000 - 2012\nfish consulting group , all rights reserved .\njungledragon is a nature and wildlife community for photographers , travellers and anyone who loves nature . we ' re genuine , free , ad - free and beautiful .\nuploaded jul 23 , 2017 . captured in unnamed road , mambor , napan , kabupaten nabire , papua 98861 , indonesia .\nwe ' ve sent an email to please follow the instructions to reset your password .\nenter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .\nif is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .\negypt , sinai peninsula , gulf of tiran , sharm el - 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sheikh , egypt . 26th october , 2016 . egyptian president abdel fattah al - sisi takes photo with people following the peace marathon in the red sea resort of sharm al - sheikh , in the south sinai governorate , south of cairo , egypt , on oct . 26 , 2016 credit : egyptian president office / apa images / zuma wire / alamy live news\nel - sheikh , egypt . 7th nov , 2015 . tourists have fun on yachts along a coast in the resort of sharm al - sheikh , egypt , on nov . 7 , 2015 . russia on friday suspended all flights to egypt as speculation rose over possible terrorist attacks on the russian plane that crashed over sinai peninsula last saturday . credit : xinhua / alamy live news\nsharm al - sheikh , egypt . 26th october , 2016 . egyptian president abdel fattah al - sisi rides a bicycle at the street in the red sea resort of sharm al - sheikh , in the south sinai governorate , south of cairo , egypt , on oct . 26 , 2016 credit : egyptian president office / apa images / zuma wire / alamy live news\nu . s . secretary of state john kerry sits with egyptian president abdel fattah al - sisi at the congress center in sharm el - sheikh , egypt , on march 13 , 2015 , before a bilateral meeting and their attendance at an egyptian development conference .\nsharm al - sheikh , egypt . 26th october , 2016 . egyptian president abdel fattah al - sisi speaks during the peace marathon in the red sea resort of sharm al - sheikh , in the south sinai governorate , south of cairo , egypt , on oct . 26 , 2016 credit : egyptian president office / apa images / zuma wire / alamy live news\negypt , sinai peninsula , gulf of tiran , sharm el - sheikh . snorkeling in the red sea ' s ras mohamed national marine park .\nsharm el sheikh , egypt . 8th dec , 2017 . egyptian president abdel - fattah al - sisi ( 2nd r , front ) attends the official opening ceremony of the africa 2017 forum in sharm el sheikh , egypt , on dec . 8 , 2017 . credit : zhao dingzhe / xinhua / alamy live news\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsearch 123rf with an image instead of text . try dragging an image to the search box .\nuse on websites and for limited audiences in social media , apps , or live performances .\nunidentified tun snail walking on cold water upwelling coral reef , tonna sp . 4k ultrahd , up37763\nsoccer ball in goal net with slowmotion . slowmotion football ball in the net .\nstage lights and different shapes art gallery . series 3 + version from 1 to 26 + orange - 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crowned ( tattersall ' s ) sifaka , andranotsimaty , daraina , madagascar . ( propithecus tattersalli )\ncrested coua ( coua cristata ) , very attractive madagascar birds . ankarafantsika national park , madagascar wildlife and wilderness\nclose - up of a ring - tailed lemur ( lemur catta ) licking its paw . sunny blue sky and foliage background\nmadagascar lynx spider ( peucetia madagascariensis ) resting on a leaf in antsirabe , central madagascar . august 2010 .\nmale panther chameleon stalking prey in beach side vegetation , bay of antongil , masoala peninsula national park , madagascar .\ninfant ring - tailed lemur ( 6 - 8 weeks ) clinging to mother . berenty private reserve , southern madagascar"]}
{"id": 343, "summary": [{"text": "pamizinisaurus is a genus of sphenodontian reptile known from lower cretaceous ( albian ) tlay\u00faa formation of mexico .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "a crushed skeleon of a juvenile reptile was found in tlayua quarry , in central mexico .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it was named pamizinsaurus tlayuaensis by reynoso in 1997 , after the name of the quarry of which it was found .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "its skull length is 16 millimetres ( 0.63 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the fossil was covered in small round osteoderms that could have protected it from predators . ", "topic": 10}], "title": "pamizinsaurus", "paragraphs": ["pamizinsaurus was a genus of the subfamily sphenodontinae ; grouping it with the modern sphenodon ( better known as the tuatara ) , zapatadon , cynosphenodon , homoeosaurus , sapheosaurus , and ankylosphenodon .\npamizinsaurus was a genus of the subfamily sphenodontinae ; grouping it with the modern sphenodon ( better known as the tuatara ) , zapatadon , cynosphenodon , homoeosaurus , sapheosaurus , and ankylosphenodon .\nthe taxon pamizinsaurus from the early cretaceous of mexico ( reynoso 1997 ) was identified as a wildcard taxon that strongly influenced the results . this may partially be due to high amounts of missing data ( 64 % ) in this taxon ; however , that several other taxa have even higher amounts of missing data ( eilenodon 68 % ; cynosphenodon : 73 % ; toxolophosaurus : 79 % ) but proved to be less problematic , indicates that the wildcard status of pamizinsaurus might also be due to some character conflict .\nreduced strict consensus ( after removing pamizinsaurus ) of sphenodontian interrelationships from 24 most parsimonious trees of 186 steps showing the phylogenetic position of sphenocondor gracilis gen . et sp . nov . bremer support and frequency differences ( gc ) , calculated by symmetric resampling , are indicated above the nodes .\nthis page is based on the copyrighted wikipedia article pamizinsaurus ; it is used under the creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license ( cc - by - sa ) . you may redistribute it , verbatim or modified , providing that you comply with the terms of the cc - by - sa\nin the strict consensus of the present analysis , the inter - relationships within recovered groupings of derived sphenodontians are poorly resolved , as in other analyses with somewhat similar taxon sampling ( e . g . reynoso , 2000 , 2005 ) . however , this is mainly because of the unstable position of pamizinsaurus , which might be a consequence of the immature condition of the sole known specimen and its peculiar combination of character states ( reynoso , 1997 ) . therefore , pamizinsaurus was excluded from the strict consensus ( but not from the analysis ) , rendering a more resolved topology in the reduced strict consensus ( fig . 5 ) .\nin a next step , we thus removed pamizinsaurus from the matrix and ran a second analysis with the same settings as above . the analysis resulted in only two most parsimonious trees with a length of 184 steps ( ci 0 . 473 , ri 0 . 654 , rc 0 . 309 ) . the strict consensus tree of these two trees (\nvs - m size . see clevosaurs entry for basic skull structure . $ teeth fused to jaw margin ( fully acrodont ) and not replaced ; less than 4 ( 7 ? ) premaxillary teeth ; $ marginal teeth added posteriorly as jaw grows ; dentary fits between maxillary teeth and parallel row of palatal teeth ; meckelian canal runs along midline of jaw & is at least partially open ; broad mandibular symphysis ; prominent coronoid process of dentary , posterior process of dentary ends posterior to coronoid ; with posterior surangular facet ; frontals not fused ? ? ) ; $ lacrimal absent ; large upper temporal fenestra ; complete lower temporal bar ; quadratojugal retained ; rigid quadrate ; well - developed posterior tubercle on posterior margin of ischium ; epiphyses present with determinate growth ; may have osteoderms ( pamizinsaurus ) ; food crushed thoroughly ( insects & birds ) .\nin a next step , we thus removed pamizinsaurus from the matrix and ran a second analysis with the same settings as above . the analysis resulted in only two most parsimonious trees with a length of 184 steps ( ci 0 . 473 , ri 0 . 654 , rc 0 . 309 ) . the strict consensus tree of these two trees ( fig . 3 and information s1 ) is considerably better resolved than that resulting from the full analysis , but , importantly , it does not contradict the results of the latter , neither in the strict consensus , nor in any reduced consensus tree . thus , we chose these results to illustrate and further explore the relationships of oenosaurus . bootstrap ( 10000 replicates ) and bremer support analyses were carried out on the pruned matrix , and the following list of synapomorphies is based on the strict consensus tree resulting from the pruned analysis .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nfull reference : v . h . reynoso . 1997 . a ' beaded ' sphenodontian ( diapsida : lepidosauria ) from the early cretaceous of central mexico . journal of vertebrate paleontology 17 : 52 - 59\ntype specimen : instituto de geolog\u00e3\u00ada , universidad nacional aut\u00e3\u00b3noma de m\u00e3\u00a9xico , a partial skeleton ( severaly crushed skeleton of a juvenile ) . its type locality is tlayua formation , which is in an albian lagoonal / restricted shallow subtidal lime mudstone in the tlayua formation of mexico .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nsphenodontia : diphydontosaurus + ( planocephalosaurus + * : clevosauridae + stem group sphenodontinae ) .\ncomments : cladistically , this taxon ( equivalent to the standard linnean taxonomic sphenodontidae ) should perhaps be called something like sphenodontoidea , as it includes clevosauridae , pleurosauridae , . crown group sphenodontidae , etc\nintroduction to the sphenodontidae ; turtle , tuatara , crocodile checklist - - 3 ; jurassic page ' s gallery : the terrestrial wildlife ( sapheosaurus ) ; lebende fossilien , intro , teil 2 ( homoeosaurus ) .\nreferences : evans & sigogneau - russell ( 1997 ) ; reynoso 1996 ) ; reynoso ( 1997 ) ; reynoso & clark ( 1998 ) .\nimage : kallimodon among a very good collection of fossil photos ) from herbert krause . reproduced by permission .\nnote : the nomenclature of sphenodont taxa tends to be rather confused . the scheme used here is adopted from the sensible system of mikko haaramo , who credits wu , x - c ( 1994 ) , late triassic - early jurassic sphenodontians from china and the phylogeny of the sphenodontia , in fraser , nc & h - d sues ( eds . ) , in the shadow of the dinosaurs , cambridge univ . press . atw001117 .\n1 or more robust\nincisor\nteeth forming chisel edge ankylosed to premaxilla ; palatine dentition ; marginal dentition acrodont or absent ; shearing ( not crushing or piercing ) bite with simple orthal up - and - down ) jaw motion ; $ long thin posterior process of premaxilla excludes maxilla from margin of nares ; $ lacrimal absent ; may have dentine\nlips\n; $ antorbital skull very short ( < 25 % of total skull ) ; triradiate postfrontal broadly contacts frontal ; complete lower temporal bar formed by jugal loosely contacting slim quadratojugal ; $ dorsal process of jugal elongate ; $ large ( > 25 % skull length ) lower temporal fenestra ; gap between jugal and quadratojugal small ; proximal caudal vertebrae have large transverse processes ; caudal autotomy septa may be present distally ; humerus strongly bent and expanded at both ends ; femur gently s - shaped .\nnote : for reasons i have not been able to determine , no one seems to have gotten around to giving this group a latinized family name . atw . update : this has now been rectified . on the basis of new material arantes et al 2009 formalises the family clevosauridae , composed of clevosaurus , brachyrhinodon and polysphenodon . mak101016\nlinks : diapsida ; clevosaurus bairdi ( but server is frequently reduced or absent ! ) ; autapomorphies of diapsid clades ; untitled document ; lecture 12 - early jurassic .\nreynoso 1996 ) ; reynoso & clark 1998 ) ; sues et al . ( 1994 ) .\nshort snout like brachyrhinodon , multiple rows of teeth on the palate . it shows sphenodontian characters such as a groove between the maxilla and palatine for the dentary\ncomments : known from a partial skull and skeleton . the only known specimen went missing in the 1930s , but a number of casts and plaster moulds are available ( fraser & benton 1989 p . 416 . )\nbrachyrhinodon taylori , skull in ventral ( a ) , dorsal ( b ) and lateral ( c ) view . from fraser & benton 1989 p . 416 . scale bar 1 cm . note palatal teeth in ( a ) ; teeth on the upper palate ( roof of the mouth ) are a primitive feature found in most basal amniotes\nsmall ( c . 15 cm long ) , short - snouted skull with premaxillary beak . benton 1985\nkallimodon pulchellus ( zittel ) , 1887 . late jurassic ; kelheim , bavaria . ventral aspect . from zittel / eastman / woodward 1902 p . 151 . this represents a type similar to or intermediate between homoeosaurus and sapheosaurus\nsphenodontoidea : clevosaurinae + * : homoeosaurus + pleurosauridae + ( sapheosaurus + sphenodontinae ) .\nvertebrae amphicoelous , sometimes with persistent notochord ; intercentra present in cervical ( neck ) and caudal ( tail ) regions . external nares separated ; interclavicle t - shaped ; dermal scales subrectangular . greatiy enlarged postfrontal bone extending far posteriorly ( to the rear ) on parietal . except for a few teeth on the vomer in juveniles and the palatine row , all other palatal teeth absent ( i . e . teeth on the roof of the mouth , in contrast to primitive amniotes ) . premaxillae each with a small pointed tooth . a single series of enlarged , depressed , triangular , acrodont teeth present on maxillae , mandibles , and outer edge of the palatines ; vomer toothless . pattern of tooth wear facets , tooth ultrastructure , and anteroposterior length of the mandibular articulation , all of which indicate development of the propalinal masticatory movements ( front to rear chewing ) as with the recent sphenodon zittel / eastman / woodward 1902 , gauthier et al 1988 p . 25\nkimmeridgian ( lithographic stone ) of bavaria , and cerin , france . kimmeridgian of hanover , and purbeckian ( tithonian ) of england .\nfrom zittel / eastman / woodward 1902 ( copyright expired ) :\nattaining a length of between 20 and 40 cm . , and differing from the recent sphenodon in that intercentra are absent between the dorsal vertebrae ribs without uncinate processes , and humerus not pierced by entepicondylar foramen . mandibular rami united at the symphysis by ligaments ; second sacral rib bifid distally .\napplies also to sapheosaurus and kallimodon gauthier et al 1988 p . 26 : compared to sphenodontines and sapheosaurs , homoeosaurus is distinguished by smaller size , gracile and elongate limbs , and a broad parietal table ( skull roof above the orbits ( eye holes ) ) , all of which , with the possible exception of the limb proportions , are plesiomorphic ( shared ancestral ) features .\nusing this material . all material by atw is public domain and may be freely used in any way ( also any material jointly written by atw and mak ) . all material by mak is licensed creative commons attribution license version 3 . 0 , and may be freely used provided acknowedgement is given . all wikipedia material is either gnu open source or creative commons ( see original wikipedia page for details ) . other graphics are copyright their respective owners\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nearly cretaceous lepidosaurs ( reptilia : d . . . - pdf document ( 15 m )\nall items in escholarship @ mcgill are protected by copyright with all rights reserved unless otherwise indicated .\ntoday were then held by sphenodontians . there were even several successful groups of aquatic sphenodontians such as\n( loss of the tail - tip when threatened ) , and have transverse cloacal slits .\nr . l . ditmars , litt . d , says ;\nthe tuatara resembles in form stout - bodies modern lizards , which we might call iguanas ; this resemblance is further intensified by a row of spines upon the back . it is dark olive , the sides sprinkled with pale dots . the eye has a cat - like pupil . large specimens are two and a half feet long . while superficial resemblance might tend to group this reptile with lizards , its skeleton and anatomy show it to belong to a different part of a technical classification .\nof the british museum noted features similar to birds , turtles , and crocodiles . he proposed the order rhynchocephalia ( meaning\nbeak head\n) for the tuatara and its fossil relatives .\nproposed the sphenodontia to include only tuatara and their closest fossil relatives in 1925 .\nditmars , raymond l . ,\nreptiles of the world\nthe macmillan co . , new york , 1936 , p . xii\nv . h . reynoso . 2000 . an unusual aquatic sphenodontian ( reptilia : diapsida ) from the tlayua formation ( albian ) , central mexico . journal of paleontology 74 : 133 - 148\ncree , alison . 2002 . tuatara . in : halliday , tim and adler , kraig ( eds . ) , the new encyclopedia of reptiles and amphibians , oxford university press , oxford , pp . 210\u2013211 . isbn 0 - 19 - 852507 - 9\nfraser , nicholas ; sues , hans - dieter ; ( eds ) ( 1994 ) .\nevans , s . e . , prasad , g . v . r . & manhas , b . k . , 2001 : rhynchocephalians ( diapsida : lepidosauria ) from the jurassic kota formation of india . zoological journal of the linnean society : vol . 133 , # 3 , pp . 309 - 334\nrauhut , o . w . m . ; heyng , a . m . ; l\u00f3pez - arbarello , a . ; hecker , a . ( 2012 ) . farke , andrew a , ed .\na new rhynchocephalian from the late jurassic of germany with a dentition that is unique amongst tetrapods\n.\ndaugherty , ch ; cree , a ; hay , jm ; thompson , mb ( 1990 ) .\nneglected taxonomy and continuing extinctions of tuatara (\nevans , se ( 2003 ) .\nat the feet of the dinosaurs : the early history and radiation of lizards\n.\njones meh . 2009 . dentary tooth shape in sphenodon and its fossil relatives ( diapsida : lepidosauria : rhynchocephalia ) . in koppe t , meyer g , alt kw , eds . interdisciplinary dental morphology , frontiers of oral biology ( vol 13 ) . greifswald , germany ; karger . 9\u201315 .\nevans se , jones meh ( 2010 ) the origin , early history and diversification of lepidosauromorph reptiles . in bandyopadhyay s . ( ed . ) , new aspects of mesozoic biodiversity , 27 lecture notes in earth sciences 132 , 27 - 44 .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 11 / 25 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\nrhynchocephalians , the sister group of squamates ( lizards and snakes ) , are only represented by the single genus sphenodon today . this taxon is often considered to represent a very conservative lineage . however , rhynchocephalians were common during the late triassic to latest jurassic periods , but rapidly declined afterwards , which is generally attributed to their supposedly adaptive inferiority to squamates and / or mesozoic mammals , which radiated at that time . new finds of mesozoic rhynchocephalians can thus provide important new information on the evolutionary history of the group .\na new fossil relative of sphenodon from the latest jurassic of southern germany , oenosaurus muehlheimensis gen . et sp . nov . , presents a dentition that is unique amongst tetrapods . the dentition of this taxon consists of massive , continuously growing tooth plates , probably indicating a crushing dentition , thus representing a previously unknown trophic adaptation in rhynchocephalians .\nthe evolution of the extraordinary dentition of oenosaurus from the already highly specialized zahnanlage generally present in derived rhynchocephalians demonstrates an unexpected evolutionary plasticity of these animals . together with other lines of evidence , this seriously casts doubts on the assumption that rhynchocephalians are a conservative and adaptively inferior lineage . furthermore , the new taxon underlines the high morphological and ecological diversity of rhynchocephalians in the latest jurassic of europe , just before the decline of this lineage on this continent . thus , selection pressure by radiating squamates or mesozoic mammals alone might not be sufficient to explain the demise of the clade in the late mesozoic , and climate change in the course of the fragmentation of the supercontinent of pangaea might have played a major role .\ncitation : rauhut owm , heyng am , l\u00f3pez - arbarello a , hecker a ( 2012 ) a new rhynchocephalian from the late jurassic of germany with a dentition that is unique amongst tetrapods . plos one 7 ( 10 ) : e46839 . urltoken\neditor : andrew a . farke , raymond m . alf museum of paleontology , united states of america\ncopyright : \u00a9 2012 rauhut et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nthe recent genus sphenodon is the only living representative of the rhynchocephalia , the sister taxon of the squamata ( lizards and snakes ) within the lepidosauria [ 1 ] . due to the long history of the group , reaching back to at least the middle triassic ( \u223c235 million years ) , and the supposedly primitive morphology of the genus , sphenodon is often regarded as a \u201cliving fossil\u201d . thus , this taxon is frequently used as a model organism for a basal diapsid in investigations dealing with the evolution of reptiles , even in recent studies ranging from the structure of the pineal organ [ 2 ] to tetrapod locomotion [ 3 ] .\nrhynchocephalians were a common component of mesozoic small vertebrate faunas [ 4 ] , [ 5 ] , and research in the past thirty years has shown that they were not only taxonomically and ecologically diverse during this time , but also showed a remarkable morphological variability [ 6 ] . indeed , several of the features that were thought to represent the plesiomorphic condition in sphenodon , such as the closed lower temporal arcade , were recently demonstrated to be apomorphic reversals to a condition resembling the ancestral morphology instead ( e . g . [ 7 ] , [ 8 ] ) . nevertheless , all rhynchocephalians but the most basal forms are characterized by a very specialized dentition pattern , in which the teeth are fully acrodont , no tooth replacement is present in post - hatchling individuals , and additional teeth are added at the posterior end of the tooth row during ontogeny [ 9 ] . although tooth shape itself is quite variable in rhynchocephalians [ 10 ] , this special type of tooth development was thought to limit their adaptive potential [ 11 ] . consequently , the demise of the group in the later mesozoic has been linked to the adaptive radiation of squamates and / or mammals ( see [ 5 ] ) .\nhere we report on a new taxon of rhynchocephalian from the late jurassic of southern germany that further underlines the morphological and ecological diversity of rhynchocephalians and indicates high adaptive plasticity even in the dentitions of these animals . the specimen was found in the middle parts of the moernsheim formation exposed at m\u00fchlheim ( fig . 1 ) , in a section of platy , siliceous limestones overlying lime bank b - h - 5 ( \u201ckrebs - bank\u201d ) . the marine tithonian ( upper jurassic ) moernsheim formation covers the famous solnhofen lithographic limestones in the western region of the franconian alb in northern bavaria . in contrast to the underlying solnhofen formation , the sediments of the moernsheim formation are more heterogeneous , consisting of mainly siliceous limestones in alternate bedding with marly and limey sections , and with intercalated banks particularly in the lower parts of the formation .\nthe data matrix was analysed with paup 4 . 0b10 ( swofford 2003 ) , using a branch and bound search . the initial analyses resulted in 119 trees with a length of 187 steps ( ci 0 . 465 , ri 0 . 649 , rc 0 . 302 ) . the strict consensus tree of these trees showed poor resolution , with oenosaurus representing a member of a polytomy of rhynchocephalians more derived than planocephalosaurus ( information s1 ) ; only pleurosaurs and eilenodontines showed up as monophyletic clades within this polytomy . however , reduced consensus trees of these 119 trees recovered a monophyletic sphenodontinae , including oenosaurus , but without further resolution within this clade ( information s1 ) .\nthe electronic edition of this article conforms to the requirements of the amended international code of zoological nomenclature , and hence the new names contained herein are available under that code from the electronic edition of this article . this published work and the nomenclatural acts it contains have been registered in zoobank , the online registration system for the iczn . the zoobank lsids ( life science identifiers ) can be resolved and the associated information viewed through any standard web browser by appending the lsid to the prefix \u201c urltoken \u201d . the lsid for this publication is : urn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 4a00d064 - a136 - 4944 - af8e - 427b941fb38c . the electronic edition of this work was published in a journal with an issn , and has been archived and is available from the following digital repositories : pubmed central , lockss .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 48c1ba32 - bc6d - 407d - 81e0 - 7ecff22d77a3\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 6648c44f - fdc0 - 48b2 - a6a9 - 399b17e07d38\noenos , [ oinos ] greek , wine , referring to the franconian alb , a famous wine area , where the specimen was found , and saurus , [ sauros ] greek , lizard . species name refers to the village of m\u00fchlheim , close to m\u00f6rnsheim , at the rim of the valley of the altm\u00fchl in bavaria .\nbayerische staatssammlung f\u00fcr pal\u00e4ontologie und geologie , munich , germany , bspg 2009 i 23 ; partial skull and complete mandibles ( figs . 2 , 3 , 4 ) .\n( a ) \u2013skull in dorsal view . ( b ) \u2013skull in ventral view . ( c\u2013d ) \u2013right mandible in lateral ( c ) and medial ( d ) views . ( e ) \u2013left mandible in lateral view . ( f ) \u2013stereophotographs of the skull in ventral view . abbreviations : a , angular ; ar , articular ; bsp , basisphenoid ; bt , basal tubera ; co , coronoid ; cos , coronoid shelf ; d , dentary ; ect , ectopterygoid ; eo , exoccipital / opisthotic ; f , frontal ; fo , foramen ; j , jugal ; m , maxilla ; mf , mandibular foramen ; mg , meckelian groove ; oc , occipital condyle ; pa , parietal ; pal , palatine ; po , postorbital ; pof , postfrontal ; prf , prefrontal ; pt , pterygoid ; sa , surangular ; sy , symphysis ; tp , tooth plate . scale bars are 10 mm .\n( a ) \u2013left maxillary tooth plate in ventral view ( anterior is to the left ) . ( b ) \u2013enlargement of posterior part of left maxillary tooth plate , showing compound structure of the plate . ( c ) \u2013further enlargement of left maxillary tooth plate , showing closely packed , worn teeth with central pulp cavities . scale bars are 1 mm ( a , b ) and 0 . 5 mm ( c ) .\nposterior is to the right . abbreviations : bc , basal cavity ; f , foramen . small arrows point to bifurcating dentine channels . scale bar is 5 mm .\nm\u00f6rnsheim formation ( lower tithonian ) [ 16 ] , \u201ckrautworst naturstein\u201d quarry in m\u00fchlheim near m\u00f6rnsheim , central bavaria , germany ( fig . 1 ) .\nsmall rhynchocephalian with the following autapomorphic characters : maxilla with a medial process at the posterior end ; ectopterygoid with a secondary lateral process that contacts the medial side of the maxilla ; palatines with a midline contact in ventral view ; strongly pronounced lateral longitudinal groove on the dentaries , housing several large foramina ; very high coronoid process , the anterior border of which forms an angle of approximately 90\u00b0 with the tooth row ; coronoid with a pronounced shoulder medially ; dentition composed of extensive tooth plates formed by a multitude of fused , small , pencil - like teeth .\nthe skull of oenosaurus was preserved in ventral view , with the mandibles slightly displaced from the upper jaws . the skull is diagenetically dorsoventrally compressed and much of the dorsal skull roof is missing , as is the roof of the braincase . however , enough is preserved to record the general shape of the skull and the position and size of the orbitae ( fig . 2a ) .\nthe ectopterygoid attaches anterolaterally to the pterygoid wing . it is unusual in that it has two lateral processes , one that contacts the posterior end of the maxilla , as in other rhynchocephalians , and a more anterior one that extends anterolaterally lateral to the palatine and contacts the medial side of the maxilla ( fig . 2b , f ) . this process forms the posterior border of the suborbital fenestra , which is surrounded by the palatine , maxilla , and ectopterygoid . thus , the pterygoid is excluded from the rim of this fenestra , as in many other sphenodontids , but not more basal rhynchocephalians . in contrast to clevosaurs [ 21 ] , [ 22 ] , [ 23 ] there is no contact between the palatine and the ectopterygoid lateral to the fenestra . together with the medial process of the maxilla , the secondary anterolateral process frames a large foramen lateral to the palatine ridge .\nonly the floor of the braincase and the ventral parts of the occiput are preserved . the basisphenoid is narrow at the basicranial articulation , but rapidly widens posteriorly . the basipterygoid processes seem to be stout and short , but are mostly hidden by the pterygoids . the basisphenoid has a broad , shallow depression on the ventral side between the basipterygoid processes and the low , widely separated basal tubera . the occipital condyle is broad and not separated from the basioccipital body by a constricted neck , similar to the situation in the modern sphenodon .\nthe lower jaw is 33 mm long and is especially notable for its high coronoid process , which exceeds the tooth row by approximately 8 . 7 mm in the right mandible and is thus almost 1 . 5 times higher than the body of the dentary ( fig . 2c , d ) . the dentary accounts for most of the length of the mandible , and , as in all rhynchocephalians , a posteroventral process of the dentary reaches posteriorly beyond the coronoid process to the level of the anterior margin of the mandibular articulation . a large incision in the posterodorsal margin of the dentary marks the enlarged mandibular foramen ( fig . 2c , e ) . a pronounced groove with several large foramina is present on the lateral side of the dentary , and its dorsal margin seems to be formed by a secondary bone skirt [ 5 ] , [ 23 ] , which probably accounts at least partially for the strong transverse thickening of the tooth - bearing part of the dentary . anteriorly , the ventral margin of the bone extends ventrally to form a small , triangular \u201cchin\u201d , as it is present in many rhynchocephalians ( e . g . [ 20 ] , [ 24 ] \u2013 [ 26 ] ) . there is no splenial .\nthe postdentary bones are entirely restricted to the posterior half of the mandible . the surangular makes up the posterior margin of the ventral part of the coronoid process and continues posteriorly to the end of the mandible . the mandibular articulation is developed as a longitudinal dorsal ridge on the articular . the ridge is sharp - edged dorsally and slightly displaced to the lateral side . medially , it is flanked by a slightly anteroposteriorly concave medial bulge that becomes more pronounced posteriorly . this morphology is similar to the condition in derived rhynchocephalians , possibly indicating a propalinal movement of the lower jaw . the retroarticular process is short and stout . the medial side of the coronoid is thickened and forms a pronounced shelf below the tip of the coronoid process .\nthe most unusual character of the new taxon is the dentition . unlike the situation in any other rhynchocephalian , broad tooth plates are present in both the maxillaries and dentaries . the maxillary tooth plates ( fig . 2b , f , 3a ) are broad posteriorly and narrow in their anterior half . they are 13 mm long and 4 mm wide at their widest part . the lateral edge of the tooth plates is slightly raised and shows a few small bumps . the dentary tooth plates are elongate and oval to subrectangular in outline , with a length of 13 mm and a maximum width of 3 . 5 mm . ct data shows that the central part of the tooth plate is placed in a broad depression on the dorsal surface of the mandible , though the tooth implantation can still be regarded as acrodont rather than protothecodont , as it is the case in some basal rhynchocephalians [ 27 ] .\nunder closer inspection , the surfaces of the tooth plates show small , but clearly defined , round , oval , or angular subunits , made up of concentric dentine layers with a small central cavity ( fig . 3 ) . fine striations radiate outwards from the central cavity . micro ct - images of the dentary tooth plate show that these dentine tubes extend over the entire height of the plate ( fig . 4 ) . in the basal part , the central cavities become larger and form large , elongate cavities at the base of the tooth plate . in some instances , the central cavities of the dentine tubes bifurcate in their course from the base to the occlusal surface . tooth enamel seems to be absent , but the dentine tubes are tightly cemented together towards the occlusal surface . at the occlusal surface , the central cavities of the tubes also seem to be filled with cement . the dentine tubes are generally somewhat larger in the central parts of the tooth plate , but become smaller towards the margins ( fig . 3a ) . the dentine tubes reach further ventrally in the anterior part of the dentary than in the posterior part , which might indicate a later addition of posterior dentine tubes during ontogeny , as it is the case with individual teeth in other rhynchocephalians [ 9 ] .\ndespite its apomorphic cranial morphology and highly unusual dentition , cladistic analysis ( see information s1 ) places oenosaurus well within the rhynchocephalia ( fig . 5 ) , because the taxon shows numerous synapomorphies of this clade and more exclusive ingroups , such s sphenodontia and sphenodontidae . these characters include a pronounced ridge or tooth row laterally on the palatine , a high coronoid process in the mandible , a posterior process of the dentary that extends posterior to the coronoid process , an enlarged mandibular foramen , the lack of a splenial , and an acrodont dentition [ 18 ] , [ 22 ] , [ 26 ] , [ 28 ] \u2013 [ 30 ] . within rhynchocephalians , oenosaurus even falls within the clade that includes the recent form , the sphenodontinae [ 5 ] , [ 24 ] , though support for this placement is weak ( see information s1 ) , and further material of this taxon ( and others , which , with the exception of sphenodon , are generally poorly known [ 5 ] ) might lead to changes in this part of the tree . nevertheless , the phylogenetic position of the new taxon within sphenodontidae ( sensu [ 24 ] ) is well supported .\ncladistic analysis of 70 osteological characters in 19 rhynchocephalian and two outgroup taxa resulted in the recovery of 2 trees with 184 steps ( see information s1 ) . a strict consensus tree shows oenosaurus well nested within sphenodontine rhynchocephalians , as a close relative to the recent sphenodon . 1 , rhynchocephalia ; 2 , sphenodontinae .\nan interesting problem is the evolution of these tooth plates . the phylogenetic position of oenosaurus shows that this taxon is well nested within taxa that have the specialized acrodont dentition typical for sphenodontids . the very peculiar plates are therefore derived from such a dentition and demonstrate a surprising evolutionary plasticity of such a seemingly highly specialized tooth anlage [ 9 ] . a possible , but currently untestable , hypothesis of the evolution of these tooth plates might be that they formed by fusion and modification of the hatchling dentition , which consists of small , peg - like teeth with active tooth replacement in several rhynchocephalians [ 41 ] , including the modern sphenodon [ 42 ] , [ 43 ] . however , further studies and , possibly , further discoveries of this or other taxa with similar dentitions are necessary to test this hypothesis .\ndespite their specialized dentition , rhynchocephalians are quite variable in their tooth morphology . rhynchocephalian teeth can be referred to three basic functional types [ 10 ] : basal forms usually have small , conical teeth that are mainly used for piercing , most sphenodontids have anteroposteriorly elongate teeth that are used for cutting and slicing , and opisthodontians [ 18 ] have transversely expanded teeth capable of grinding and shredding . these different tooth types can roughly be equated with insectivory , generalized carnivory ( or piscivory , in the marine pleurosaurs ) , and herbivory , respectively [ 10 ] . the tooth plates of oenosaurus now demonstrate a further type of dentition in rhynchocephalians , a crushing dentition , indicating a durophagous diet . therefore , the new taxon adds a further trophic adaptation and a previously unknown ecotype to the already recognized ecological diversity of mesozoic rhynchocephalians [ 10 ] .\ncharacter list , data matrix , analytical procedures , consensus trees , and list of synapomorphies at internal nodes for the cladistic analysis mentioned in the text .\nwe thank roland p\u00f6schl , who found the fossil , and the owners and operators of the krautworst naturstein quarry , ulrich leonhardt , roland p\u00f6schl and uwe krautworst , for donating the specimen to the bspg . ulrich leonhardt , stefan s\u00f3nyi , and renate liebreich are thanked for preparation of the fossil . the paper benefited from discussions with marc jones and alexander n\u00fctzel . furthermore , critical comments by marc jones and nick fraser considerably helped to improve the paper . ct scans were carried out at the steinmann institute of the university of bonn with the help of irina ruf , which is greatly appreciated .\nconceived and designed the experiments : owmr amh ala ah . performed the experiments : owmr ala . analyzed the data : owmr ala . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : amh ah . wrote the paper : owmr amh ala .\nevans se , jones meh ( 2010 ) the origins , early history and diversification of lepidosauromorph reptiles . in bandyopadhyay s , editor . new aspects of mesozoic biodiversity . lecture notes in earth sciences . springer berlin / heidelberg . pp . 22\u201344 .\nung cy - 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radiography . geological magazine 125 : 117\u2013122 .\nand the relationships of the sphenodontids . zoological journal of the linnean society 96 : 413\u2013445 .\nwu x - c ( 1994 ) late triassic - early jurassic sphenodontians from china and the phylogeny of the sphenodontia . in : fraser nc , sues h - d , editors . in the shadow of the dinosaurs : early mesozoic tetrapods . cambridge : cambridge university press . pp . 38\u201369 .\ndupret v ( 2004 ) the pleurosaurs : anatomy and phylogeny . revue de pal\u00e9obiologie , vol sp\u00e9c 9 : 61\u201380 .\nbenton mj ( 1984 ) tooth form , growth , and function in triassic rhynchosaurs ( reptilia , diapsida ) . palaeontology 27 : 737\u2013776 .\nbell pr , snively e , shychoski l ( 2009 ) a comparison of the jaw mechanics in hadrosaurid and ceratopsid dinosaurs using finite element analysis . the anatomical record 292 : 1338\u20131351 .\npeyer b ( 1968 ) comparative odontology . chicago : the university of chicago press . 458 p .\n\u00f8rvig t ( 1985 ) histologic studies of ostracoderms , placoderms and fossil elasmobranchs 5 . ptyctodontid tooth plates and their bearing on holocephalan ancestry : the condition of chimaerids . zoologica scripta 14 : 55\u201379 .\nfrom new south wales , australia , and the dentition of primitive dipnoans . pal\u00e4ontologische zeitschrift 81 : 146\u2013159 .\nlund r , bartholomew p , kemp a ( 1992 ) the composition of the dental hard tissues of fishes . in : smith p , tchernov e , editors . structure function and evolution of teeth . london and tel aviv : freund publishing house ltd . pp . 35\u201372 .\nkalthoff dc ( 2011 ) microstructure of dental hard tissues in fossil and recent xenarthrans ( mammalia : folivora and cingulata ) . journal of morphology 272 : 641\u2013661 .\nreynoso vh ( 2000 ) an unusual aquatic sphenodontian ( reptilia : diapsida ) from the tlay\u00faa formation ( albian ) , central m\u00e9xico . journal of paleontolology 74 : 133\u2013148 .\nquarry ( upper triassic : apachean ) , rock point formation , new mexico , usa . palaeontology 51 : 827\u2013845 .\npough fh ( 1973 ) lizard energetics and diet . ecology 54 : 837\u2013844 .\nespinoza re , wiens jj , tracy cr ( 2004 ) recurrent evolution of herbivory in small , cold climate lizards : braking the ecophysiological rules of reptilian herbivory . pnas 101 : 16819\u201316824 .\nmeiri s ( 2008 ) evolution and ecology of lizard body sizes . global ecology and biogeography 17 : 724\u2013734 .\ndaudin 1802 ( reptilia , lacertilla , teiidae ) . journal of herpetology 13 : 303\u2013311 .\napestegu\u00eda s ( 2007 ) la evoluci\u00f3n de los lepidosaurios . investigaci\u00f3n y ciencia 367 : 54\u201363 .\ncocude - michel m ( 1963 ) les rhynchoc\u00e9phales et les sauriens des calcaires lithographiques ( jurassique sup\u00e9rieur ) d ' europe occidentale . nouvelles archives du mus\u00e9um d ' histoire naturelle de lyon 7 : 1\u2013187 .\nluo z - x ( 2007 ) transformation and diversification in early mammal evolution . nature 450 : 1011\u20131019 .\nmilner ac , milner ar , evans se ( 2000 ) global changes and biota : amphibians , reptiles and birds . in : culver s , rawson p , editors . biotic response to global change : the last 145 million years . cambridge , uk : cambridge university press . pp . 316\u2013332\nevans se ( 1998 ) lepidosaurian faunas from the early cretaceous : a clade in transition . new mexico museum of natural history and science bulletin 14 : 195\u2013200 .\nhallam a ( 1984 ) continental humid and arid zones during the jurassic and cretaceous . palaeogeography , palaeoclimatology , palaeoecology 47 : 195\u2013223 .\nl\u00f3pez - arbarello a , sferco e ( 2011 ) new semionotiform ( actinopterygii : neopterygii ) from the late jurassic of southern germany . journal of systematic palaeontology 9 ( 2 ) 197\u2013215 .\nf\u00fcrsich ft , werner w , schneider s , m\u00e4user m ( 2007 ) sedimentology , taphonomy , and palaeoecology of a laminated plattenkalk from the kimmeridgian of the northern franconian alb ( southern germany ) . palaeogeography , palaeoclimatology , palaeoecology 243 : 92\u2013117 .\ndo these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\noliver w . m . rauhut , 1 , 2 , * alexander m . heyng , 2 adriana l\u00f3pez - arbarello , 1 and andreas hecker 3\n* e - mail : ed . nehcneum - inu . zrl @ tuhuar . o\nthis is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are properly credited .\nhere we report on a new taxon of rhynchocephalian from the late jurassic of southern germany that further underlines the morphological and ecological diversity of rhynchocephalians and indicates high adaptive plasticity even in the dentitions of these animals . the specimen was found in the middle parts of the moernsheim formation exposed at m\u00fchlheim (\n) , in a section of platy , siliceous limestones overlying lime bank b - h - 5 ( \u201ckrebs - bank\u201d ) . the marine tithonian ( upper jurassic ) moernsheim formation covers the famous solnhofen lithographic limestones in the western region of the franconian alb in northern bavaria . in contrast to the underlying solnhofen formation , the sediments of the moernsheim formation are more heterogeneous , consisting of mainly siliceous limestones in alternate bedding with marly and limey sections , and with intercalated banks particularly in the lower parts of the formation .\n) is considerably better resolved than that resulting from the full analysis , but , importantly , it does not contradict the results of the latter , neither in the strict consensus , nor in any reduced consensus tree . thus , we chose these results to illustrate and further explore the relationships of oenosaurus . bootstrap ( 10000 replicates ) and bremer support analyses were carried out on the pruned matrix , and the following list of synapomorphies is based on the strict consensus tree resulting from the pruned analysis .\nwas preserved in ventral view , with the mandibles slightly displaced from the upper jaws . the skull is diagenetically dorsoventrally compressed and much of the dorsal skull roof is missing , as is the roof of the braincase . however , enough is preserved to record the general shape of the skull and the position and size of the orbitae (\nthe skull seems to have been rather robust . as preserved , it is 24 . 3 mm long . unfortunately , the exact skull length cannot be determined , since the premaxillae are missing , but these bones probably did not account for more than an additional 2\u20133 mm . thus , the skull was slightly broader ( 28 mm ) than long , as in many rhynchocephalians , but unlike the slender , elongate skull of the marine pleurosaurs\n. premaxillae and nasals are missing . the frontals are elongate and narrow , and flanked by the prefrontals anterolaterally (\n) . there is no trace of a lacrimal , though it cannot be ruled out completely that this might be due to preservation . the posterior part of the skull roof is poorly preserved and nothing can be said about the shape and size of the temporal fenestrae . a small fragment of the parietals shows that these bones were fused and formed a narrow sagittal crest medially . the postfrontals and postorbitals formed a broad shelf anterior to the dorsal temporal fenestra . the jugal was broad and reached anteriorly to almost half - length of the orbit . the maxillae are massive and broad , but rapidly narrow anteriorly . posteriorly , the maxilla has a stout lateral process for the contact with the jugal and a smaller medial process that slots into the forked lateral process of the ectopterygoid .\n) . the vomers were small . their posterior ends separate the anterior ends of the palatines , but do not reach the pterygoids posteriorly , so that the palatines meet at the midline . such a midline contact of the palatines was illustrated for the marine pleurosaurs by carroll and wild\n, but not described in the text , and the line of contact is dotted in their reconstruction , so that some uncertainty of the condition in these animals remains . the palatines contact the maxillae laterally in a broad suture at about one third of the length of the latter bone , and form the posterior border of the internal choanae . the bones flank the pterygoids laterally over most of the length of the anterior process of the latter bone , taper posteriorly , and end a short way posterior to the posterior end of the maxillae . as in all sphenodontids , there is a raised ridge along the lateral edge of the posterior half of the palatines , but , due to preservation , it is uncertain if this ridge bore teeth , as it is the case in most taxa\n, the ridge diverges from the maxillary posteriorly and is more or less parallel to the midline of the skull . the pterygoids taper anteriorly and broaden abruptly posteriorly towards the ventrolaterally extending pterygoid wings . there is no interpterygoid vacuity , but the pterygoids form a midline suture up to the basicranial articulation . posteriorly , the slender , but well - developed , quadrate wings of the pterygoids diverge away from the ventral side of the braincase . a small fragment of bone lateral to the remnants of the left quadrate wing of the pterygoid might represent a remain of the pterygoid wing of the quadrate . unlike basal rhynchocephalians , there are no teeth on the pterygoid . no suture between the quadrate wing of the pterygoid and the pterygoid wing of the quadrate is visible in the preserved portions , so the latter bone , which is not preserved , might have had a rather short pterygoid wing .\nthe ectopterygoid attaches anterolaterally to the pterygoid wing . it is unusual in that it has two lateral processes , one that contacts the posterior end of the maxilla , as in other rhynchocephalians , and a more anterior one that extends anterolaterally lateral to the palatine and contacts the medial side of the maxilla (\n) . this process forms the posterior border of the suborbital fenestra , which is surrounded by the palatine , maxilla , and ectopterygoid . thus , the pterygoid is excluded from the rim of this fenestra , as in many other sphenodontids , but not more basal rhynchocephalians . in contrast to clevosaurs\nthere is no contact between the palatine and the ectopterygoid lateral to the fenestra . together with the medial process of the maxilla , the secondary anterolateral process frames a large foramen lateral to the palatine ridge .\nthe lower jaw is 33 mm long and is especially notable for its high coronoid process , which exceeds the tooth row by approximately 8 . 7 mm in the right mandible and is thus almost 1 . 5 times higher than the body of the dentary (\n) . the dentary accounts for most of the length of the mandible , and , as in all rhynchocephalians , a posteroventral process of the dentary reaches posteriorly beyond the coronoid process to the level of the anterior margin of the mandibular articulation . a large incision in the posterodorsal margin of the dentary marks the enlarged mandibular foramen ("]}
{"id": 345, "summary": [{"text": "the gatekeeper or hedge brown ( pyronia tithonus ) is most commonly found in southern and eastern britain and coastal areas of south and south-east ireland .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is also found in the channel islands , but not in scotland nor the isle of man .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "given its preference for warmer weather , it can be assumed that the restriction of range expansion is due to climate .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "colonies vary in size depending on the available habitat , and can range from a few dozen to several thousand butterflies . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "gatekeeper ( butterfly )", "paragraphs": ["meant for each other . great camourflage . the gatekeeper butterfly on a marigold .\nthere are 23 photographs of the gatekeeper in our stock photo library . view more photographs of the gatekeeper as a thumbnail gallery or as a slideshow .\npingback : garden pollinators for paw no . 4 \u2013 gatekeeper butterfly ( pyronia tithonus ) | jeff ollerton ' s biodiversity blog\nthe gatekeeper has a single brood , flying between mid - july and late august .\nthere are 14 named aberrant forms of the gatekeeper currently listed . find out more about aberrants\ngatekeeper feeding on late season meadowsweet ( filipendula ulmaria ) . photo \u00a9 c . young .\nthe once abundant gatekeeper has declined by 44 % since 1976 , despite its habitat not being threatened . photograph : mark searle / butterfly conservation\nthe gatekeeper butterfly can be found in a number of locations including : europe , united kingdom . find out more about these places and what else lives there .\nthe following habitats are found across the gatekeeper butterfly distribution range . find out more about these environments , what it takes to live there and what else inhabits them .\ncorbet sa ( 2000 ) butterfly nectaring flowers : butterfly morphology and flower form . entomol exp appl 96 : 289\u2013298\nspot gatekeeper butterflies in grassland , hedgerows and along woodland rides throughout england and wales . ( photo : p . roper / wtml )\n) listed and ranked \u201cthe 100 best butterfly nectar plants in order of attraction\u201d . five of these are featured on the butterfly conservation website (\nin total , gatekeeper has been recorded from 799 transects in the butterfly monitoring scheme . of these , annual indices of abundance have been calculated from 914 sites , with an average index of 176 individuals per site .\nclearly , in order to exist in an urban setting the gatekeeper must have its basic requirements met by the habitat in which it finds itself .\nscientists hope the data gathered will help solve riddles such as the mysterious decline of the once - common gatekeeper . despite its caterpillars feeding on common grasses , this abundant hedgerow butterfly has declined by 44 % since 1976 .\nfor 438 of these sites , gatekeeper has been recorded well enough to calculate annual indices of abundance in more years , allowing trends to be calculated .\nbutterflies have mesmerising qualities , heightened when they are complemented with equally flamboyant flowers . their names are endearing too , skipper , gatekeeper and painted lady .\nthe gatekeeper is a widespread and common butterfly in the southern half of britain and has extended its range northwards during recent years . if frequents lanes and hedgerows , woodland rides and scrubby downland and heaths where tall grasses occur .\nwe performed a principal components analysis ( pca ) of the butterfly visits to characterise the structure of the butterfly community\u2019s choices of plant species . we used the\n( 2007 ) new red list of british butterflies . butterfly conservation , wareham .\nare enough to divert a bird attack away from the butterfly ' s body .\nvickery ml ( 1998 ) gardening for butterflies . british butterfly conservation society , dorset\ntwo monarch butterfly ( danaus plexippus ) mating on the underside of a leaf .\nthe gatekeeper or hedge brown as many people prefer to call it is most often found as these names suggest in gateways and hedgerows . it is often seen in association with\nthe nbn gateway records are shown on the map right . ( see terms and conditions ) . more data is available on the gatekeeper on the nbn gateway web site .\nthe trend away from too much \u2018tidying up\u2019 in the countryside has boosted gatekeeper numbers \u2013 they need long grass and the kind of scrub that thrives when old woods regenerate .\nbutterfly teaches us that the soul is beautifully fragile and should be valued as such .\nautomeris bullseye moths , smerinthus eyed hawkmoths and the peacock butterfly inachis io . in others\ndrag and drop each butterfly onto the plant where its caterpillars are most commonly found .\n) , although probably not all butterfly populations are nectar limited ( thomas et al .\nuk butterfly monitoring scheme ( 2006 ) urltoken ( accessed february 7 , 2007 ) .\n) have also found that warmer spring weather is associated with earlier butterfly flight timing .\nget it right and the butterfly stays there , get it wrong and it flies back .\nwidespread in britain except northern scotland . the peacock butterfly lays its eggs on stinging nettles .\nasher j , fox r , warren ms . british butterfly distributions and the 2010 target .\nbritain ' s most striking butterfly , the swallowtail , with its fanned tails and distinctive red spots has suffered the largest decline with numbers down 65 % since 2014 . the gatekeeper , once a common sight in the countryside , has also experienced a decline ( 44 % ) .\nwijnandr93 and claudias , a close competition , but i think bayucca has come up with the correct id . now i have 3 varieties of gatekeeper ! thank you all for your input .\nthe butterfly conservation is not entirely sure why the uk is experiencing a butterfly decline but they think it might be due to climate change altering their habitats and the increased use of pesticides .\nnot a new post , but a post about raising monarchs from egg to butterfly . . urltoken\nrichard fox of butterfly conservation on denbies hillside , surrey . photograph : sonja horsman for the observer\nthe role of the north atlantic oscillation in controlling u . k . butterfly population size and phenology\nthe old - gold gatekeeper got its name patrolling hedges , verges and woodland rides \u2013 aided , you might fancy , by the sharp black eyespots on its forewings , which have two white pupils .\nso far , early results from this year\u2019s survey suggest the comma butterfly \u2013 which has been spreading northwards for years \u2013 is continuing to thrive in higher and higher latitudes while the gatekeeper butterfly , which is found in the southern half of england and has declined by 44 % in abundance recently , may now be seeing an increase in numbers . common whites , by contrast , continue to suffer declines .\n* large white , speckled wood , small white , holly blue , red admiral , cinnabar , large skipper , meadow brown , peacock , gatekeeper , comma , brimstone , orange tip , small tortoiseshell .\nthe gatekeeper is a common species of sheltered grassland such as adjacent to scrub , along hedgerows , woodland edges and rides where its larvae feed on a range of fine and medium - leaved grasses . the butterfly is expanding its range in britain . ( for further details on this species see urltoken ) .\n) which included information on its assembly . however , even this list provides little information on how its recommendations were derived , or which butterfly species are attracted to which plants . one of butterfly conservation\u2019s (\n2 . go on to the garden butterfly survey website and log your results on a regular basis .\nthe lifecycle and flight charts should be regarded as approximate guides to the gatekeeper in britain . specific lifecycle states , adult emergence and peak flight times vary from year to year due to variations in weather conditions .\nmatson ck , murphy mw , griswold md , yoshida s , bardwell vj , et al . the mammalian doublesex homolog dmrt1 is a transcriptional gatekeeper that controls the mitosis versus meiosis decision in male germ cells .\nand that ' s where we come in . the butterfly conservation need our help to get to the bottom of this butterfly mystery so that they can determine what we need to do to up the numbers .\ncommon in britain except parts of scotland . the small copper butterfly lays its eggs on docks and sorrels .\nour results show that butterfly species composition varied greatly among ornamental garden flowers . each plant attracted only a subset of the butterfly community and no one plant was attractive to the majority of species . this was epitomised by\nthe analysis so far has concentrated on the effect of the winter nao on butterfly abundance , based on collated indices . however , the nao may also affect the timing , or phenology , of butterfly flight periods .\nwallisdevries mf , van swaay cam . global warming and excess nitrogen may induce butterfly decline by microclimatic cooling .\ncommon in england , wales and parts of ireland . caterpillars of the brimstone butterfly live on the buckthorn tree .\ndownload our handy butterfly chart or free app for ios and android to identify and record the butterflies you spot .\nsuch are the discomforts of involvement in the big butterfly count . the national survey has seen thousands of members of the british public counting butterfly species across the nation . it has been a damp and cold process on occasion .\na butterfly\u2019s average life span is about a month , although smaller butterflies will usually only live about a week .\ncommon in england and wales . the orange tip butterfly lays its eggs on garlic mustard and lady ' s smock .\nto record butterfly activity , i used a hybrid of several established butterfly recording approaches . recording time frames and environmental limitations were adopted from pollard and yates ' s ( 1993 ) standard butterfly monitoring scheme ( bms ) transect method . the practicalities of recording the movements of an individual visitor were adapted from the botanic garden method used by wood and samways ( 1991 ) , and the method for recording and transcribing observations of butterfly behavior was adapted from dover ( 1989 ) .\nunited kingdom butterfly monitoring scheme . 2010 . ) [ www document ] . url urltoken [ accessed on march 2011 ]\nunlike the meadow brown , the gatekeeper has orange patches on both fore and rear wings . it also has the double white pupils in the eye spot which distinguishes it from both meadow brown and small heath ( which only have one ) .\nthe gatekeeper has gold wings on a brown background . the black eye spot on the upper wings has two characteristic white ' pupils ' . this butterfly spends much of its time basking with wings open , when the sexes are easy to tell apart - only the male has the distinctive sex brands on the forewings ( dark smudgy patches on the orange upperwings ) .\nthe gatekeeper occurs anywhere where tall grasses grow close to hedges trees or scrub , especially along hedgerows and woodland rides where there is a plentiful nectar source . it tends to avoid open grassland with short vegetation and areas where bramble does not occur .\nthis butterfly is relatively stable in terms of both distribution and population and it is not currently a species of conservation concern .\nthe common blue butterfly occurs in most areas of britain and ireland . the caterpillars feed on bird ' s foot trefoil .\n1 . when you get the chance , monitor any butterfly activity in your garden throughout the year and make a note .\n4 . the nao influences the timing of u . k . butterfly flight seasons more strongly than it influences population size .\nwestgarth - smith ar , leroy sag , collins pef . the north atlantic oscillation and u . k . butterfly populations .\nhowever , had the highest diversity of butterfly visits as it attracted more even numbers of pieridae and nymphalinae . plant rank ( vickery\nthere are 59 species of butterfly and 2 , 500 species of moth in the uk . they are found from shorelines to mountain tops , in all habitats . butterfly caterpillars feed mainly on plants , but some moth species feed on roots , lichens and algae .\nthe signs are good this year with butterfly spotters reporting \u201cclouds of butterflies\u201d on nature reserves and meadows in southern england , according to fox . marbled whites and ringlets are particularly numerous and some regular butterfly recorders have counted 1 , 000 butterflies on their weekly counts .\nthis butterfly is found throughout most of england and wales , being common in the south of its range and becoming scarcer further north .\nall data were collected between 09 : 00 and 18 : 00 in from 8 to 13 august 2013 during dry , sunny weather at temperatures of 17\u201325 \u00b0c with zero or light wind when butterflies were most likely to be active . the survey was carried out during the period of the big butterfly count , an annual citizen science and participation survey organized by butterfly conservation in the uk ( big butterfly count\n1 . the north atlantic oscillation ( nao ) exerts considerable control on u . k . weather . this study investigates the impact of the nao on butterfly abundance and phenology using 34 years of data from the u . k . butterfly monitoring scheme ( ukbms ) .\nexample 2 - the two butterflies known to early entomologists as the selvedged heath eye and the golden heath eye were later discovered to be the male and female of a single species which was initially called the gatekeeper but is now called the small heath . the original name gatekeeper is now applied to an entirely different species which has variously been known as the hedge brown , hedge eye and large heath . the name large heath however is now used for an entirely different species that was previously known as the manchester argus , or marsh ringlet !\n[ \u2026 ] the end of each month the transmutational garden hosts a butterfly bucket list event . it is a great excuse [ \u2026 ]\nwhich was visited predominantly by satyrine but not nymphaline species , with little overlap between the two plants . for example , the peacock butterfly ,\nwallisdevries mf , swaay camv ( 2012 ) changes in nectar supply : a possible cause of widespread butterfly decline . curr zool 20 : 384\u2013391\ndover , j . w . 1989 . a method for recording and transcribing observations of butterfly behaviour . entomologists ' gazette 40 : 95\u2013100 .\ngatekeeper butterflies take to the wing in the height of summer when blackberry flowers are at their best . the nectar provides a valuable food source for these butterflies , which are commonly found around hedgerows and field gates , giving a clue to the origin of their common names : gatekeeper and hedge brown . the males have a dark brown patch of scent - producing scales on the forewing , used to attract females during courtship . gatekeepers are common and widespread in europe , and the british isles has its own subspecies ( britanniae ) . how to identify common garden butterflies .\nit is found around the coast as far north as southern scotland . inland , it is more widespread in northern england and southern scotland . it is a similar size and colour to the gatekeeper , but the wall is much more heavily patterned and sometimes confused with small fritillary butterflies .\ncrow has many spiritual gifts and abilities . across global cultures they are seen as tricksters , prophets , messengers , warriors , guardians and creator spirit . crow invites the energy of magic , of personal transformation and because he feeds on death , is a gatekeeper of the spirit world .\n) . the aim was not to compare overall attractiveness to butterflies , but to determine differences among plant species in the butterfly species they attract .\nit is important for scientists investigating wildlife gardening disseminate their findings in order to assist the gardening public in encouraging wildlife . the use of citizen science is one possible route to achieving this , and much infrastructure is already in place . butterfly conservation\u2019s most recent survey , the big butterfly count (\nhaddad , n . 2000 . corridor length and patch colonization by a butterfly , junonia coenia . conservation biology 14 ( 3 ) : 738\u2013745 .\nthe nao influenced the timing , or phenology , of the butterfly flight season for all six species studied in detail . the peak flight weeks for\nwelcome to my butterfly bucket list for july 2015 . this month i\u2019m highlighting the pearl crescent ( phyciodes tharos ) , a small butterfly that\u2019s been flitting about in my garden since late spring . its average wingspan is about 1 . 5 inches ( approximately 3 . 8 cm ) . the pearl crescent is an orange and black butterfly , colors which appear to be very common in this part of the country as far as butterflies are concerned !\nthe ukbms is based on a well - established and enjoyable recording method listed above and has produced important insights into almost all aspects of butterfly ecology .\nthis pearl crescent butterfly looks like he may have escaped the clutches of a predator at one point . he\u2019s lost bits and pieces of his wings .\n) . lack of an adequate nectar supply is potentially a limiting factor to butterfly populations and has been linked to population declines ( murphy et al .\nand other european species of large blue butterfly . in : pullin as ( ed ) ecology and conservation of butterflies , springer , netherlands . pp 180\u2013197\nalmost every garden has a patch of grass that could feed up to nine species of our commoner local butterfly caterpillars and maybe 40 moth species\u2019 caterpillars .\nfigure 5 : all butterfly visit flight paths in the observation season of 2000 . distinct corridors of activity are noticeable both across and along the garden .\nin our garden in newquay , we have seen this summer : large white , speckled wood , small white , holly blue , red admiral , meadow brown , peacock , gatekeeper , comma , small tortoiseshell , common blue , wall and humming - bird hawk moth ( i know , not a butterfly ) . suburban , i guess , rather than urban . i grow as many plants as i can to attract pollinators ; we have a lot of buff - tailed , carder , and red tailed bumblebees ; many hover flies , wasps etc . not many of each kind of butterfly , but some .\nthe gatekeeper is also known by the name hedge brown , and at various stages in history has been called ' small meadow brown ' , ' hedge eye ' and ' large heath ' - the latter name now being applied to a different species coenonympha tullia . for more information see british vernacular names .\nmevi - sch\u00fctz j , erhardt a ( 2005 ) amino acids in nectar enhance butterfly fecundity : a long - awaited link . am nat 165 : 411\u2013419\npeacock butterfly on blackthorn flowers , which provide an excellent nectar supply early in the year . the leaves are the foodplant of several species of garden moth .\nbrereton t , roy db , middlebrook i , botham m , warren m . the development of butterfly indicators in the united kingdom and assessments in 2010 .\nas its english names suggest , the gatekeeper ( also known as the hedge brown ) is often encountered where clumps of flowers grow in gateways and along hedgerows and field edges . it is often seen together with the meadow brown and ringlet , from which it is easily distinguished when basking or nectaring with open wings .\nsince moving into our house in january 2012 i\u2019ve been keeping a list of butterflies and day - flying moths seen in the garden ( as well as birds and bees , of course ) . that list currently contains 14 species * , one of the most interesting of which is the gatekeeper ( pyronia tithonus ) .\nalong the wild , pristine coast , ugo was taking landscape images of the area he grew up in . glancing down to look for an interesting foreground he saw a splash of pale orange among the white salt crystals of a small rock pool . it was a southern gatekeeper butterfly , mummified by the highly concentrated salt water and entombed in a coffin of salt . these salt deposits form in rocky crevices along the coast . the seawater pools there during rough weather , then evaporates under the strong summer sun , leaving layers of crystallised salt . this female butterfly likely fell , exhausted , and became trapped by the surface tension of the water .\nevery known taxon is designated a binomial ( two - word ) name derived from latin or greek roots . an example is the common blue butterfly polyommatus icarus :\n) . therefore , the six species peak at different times and hence should provide an indication of how the nao affects butterfly populations throughout the spring and summer .\nbutterflies such as the meadow brown , gatekeeper and the essex skipper can be spotted among the grasses , especially in the junction where the longer grasses meet the shorter . the more modern grasses such as italian rye are not the grasses they need , rather the native grasses such as timothy , the fescues , foxtails and quaking grass .\nbutterfly conservation is a registered charity and non - profit - making company , limited by guarantee . registered in england no . 2206468 . registered charity no . 254937 .\na butterfly starts life as a very small egg usually laid on leaves . when the egg hatches , the emerging caterpillar will eat the leaf it is on . as soon as it has finished growing , it forms a pupa or chrysalis . the old body parts of the caterpillar undergo metamorphosis and become parts of the future butterfly .\nbutterfly life history information , including the typical number of generations per year and the usual months when adults fly , was obtained from pollard and yates ( 1993 ) .\nwestgarth - smith ar , leroy sag , collins pef , roy db . mechanisms for the control of u . k . butterfly abundance by the north atlantic oscillation .\n. of these three butterflies , the gatekeeper is probably the most attractive with its bright orange / brown wings fringed with a wide earthy / grey brown and distinctive black and white eyespot . the colour and patterning of the wings can be very variable and there are several named aberrations . they are particularly fond of feeding on bramble and ragwort .\nthe gatekeeper may be confused with the duller meadow brown , but is distinguished by the notably brighter colouring with distinctive orange and chocolate patterning on both wings , its twin white dots in the eye spots of the forewings , and the uneven line of white spots on the underside hindwing . the male has a bold dark scent brand across each forewing .\nbutterfly aberrations occur for a variety of reasons , generally , extreme temperature changes especially while the butterfly is developing during the pupal ( chrysalis ) stage may cause aberrations to occur . very cold conditions can produce very dark forms of some species while heat shock ( sudden temperature changes or extreme temperature ) may cause dramatic changes in wing pattern and colouration .\nhelenor which has a brilliant iridescent blue upperside that makes it highly visible to predators as well as to potential mates . if alarmed , the butterfly will immediately land , snapping it ' s wings shut so that only the dark brown underside is visible . after landing however there is always the possibility that it might be spotted at rest by a pursuing bird , so then the secondary decoy - ocelli defence may help the butterfly to escape by diverting the birds beak away from the butterfly ' s body and towards the wing edges .\nroy db , rothery p , moss d , pollard e , thomas ja . butterfly numbers and weather : predicting historical trends in abundance and the future effects of climate change .\n2 . the study uses a multi - species indicator to show that the nao does not affect overall u . k . butterfly population size . however , the abundance of bivoltine butterfly species , which have longer flight seasons , were found to be more likely to respond positively to the nao compared with univoltine species , which show little or a negative response .\ni\u2019m especially intrigued by the butterfly\u2019s antennae . the colors seem to alternate black and white . they\u2019re very attractive ! they also come in very handy . according to gardens with wings :\nwith the free smartphone app for big butterfly count you can carry out and submit your count all in one go while out and about watching butterflies . available for ios and android .\n\u201cwe find that what looks like a good year nowadays is only an average year back in the 1980s , \u201d warned richard fox of butterfly conservation , which runs the annual survey .\nbutterfly dispersal is related to habitat quality between sites . populations separated by more suitable habitat tend to show increased similarity in the yearly fluctuations in butterfly population counts . powney et al . ( 2011 ) in methods in ecology and evolution ( doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 2041 - 210x . 2011 . 00098 . x ) + video ? ( urltoken )\nan attacking bird always tries to anticipate the escape route of it ' s prey , so it aims it ' s attack at a point fractionally in front of the head . the false head fools the bird into aiming behind the butterfly instead . the butterfly then darts off in the opposite direction to that which the bird expects , and makes it ' s escape .\nthis is actually a page i have at the top of the blog . i never raised a butterfly until 2011 and haven\u2019t raised many . but there is something magical about it . .\ncurtis rj , brereton tm , dennis rlh , carbone c , isaac njb ( 2015 ) . butterfly abundance is determined by food availability and is mediated by species traits . j appl ecol\no\u2019brien dm , boggs cl , fogel ml ( 2004 ) making eggs from nectar : the role of life history and dietary carbon turnover in butterfly reproductive resource allocation . oikos 105 : 279\u2013291\nwestgarth - smith ar , leroy sag , collins pef , roy db . the north atlantic oscillation and u . k . butterfly life cycles , pigmentation , morphology , behaviour and conservation .\nlandscape structure affects the recovery of butterfly populations after extreme events . the ringlet butterfly shows population crashes after severe droughts . these crashes are reduced , and the recovery thereafter increased , in larger and more connected patches of woodland habitat . oliver et al . ( 2012 ) in ecography ( doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1600 - 0587 . 2012 . 07665 . x )\n( rottemburg ) were less abundant , both making up less than 0 . 02 % of individuals . similarly , six of the plant species received over 95 % of butterfly visits ( fig .\npolus e , vandewoestijne s , choutt j , baguette m ( 2007 ) tracking the effects of one century of habitat loss and fragmentation on calcareous grassland butterfly communities . biodivers conserv 16 : 3423\u20133436\n\u201cwhat is encouraging is the number of people who take part in the big butterfly count , \u201d said fox . \u201ca total of 189 , 000 have been involved at various times . not only does the count they provide give us great data , but the involvement of these people raises public awareness of the plight of the butterfly \u2013 and that is becoming more and more important . \u201d\nbutterflies and moths are one of the most threatened wildlife groups in the uk . in the past 150 years , nearly 70 species have become extinct : 4 butterfly species and 65 moth species .\nclouds of butterflies have been sighted in southern britain this summer but wildlife lovers are being urged to help scientifically assess whether our insects are really bouncing back by joining the world\u2019s largest butterfly survey .\nblair , r . b . , and a . e . launer . 1997 . butterfly diversity and human land use : species assemblages along an urban gradient . biological conservation 80 : 113\u2013125 .\nbutterfly data for 1976\u20132009 are available as a multi - species annual collated index , calculated from u . k . abundance data for 49 species ( brereton et al . , 2011 ) and annual collated indices for each species . these collated indices are calculated from all ukbms sites in the u . k . and represent a national annual index of abundance . weekly butterfly counts are also available for each ukbms transect site ( u . k . butterfly monitoring scheme , 2010 ) . the peak flight week is the week in the national dataset during which the greatest number of butterflies is seen .\nour study was limited in scope given the time period over which it was conducted . furthermore , the first two principal components explained 34 . 8 % of the variation , a relatively low amount , suggesting resource use outside of our study plants . however , our results show clear patterns consistent with the existing data on butterfly nectar use . the short time span makes the data easier to interpret and removes interactions such as a plant which bloomed early being visited by a butterfly which is on the wing early . further research is needed , both to bolster our conclusions with regards to butterfly nectaring and how gardens can provide other butterfly resources such as larval host plants and shelter . in particular , it is important to investigate the role gardens can play in helping rarer , more specialist butterflies .\nas our knowledge grows and relationships between different taxa are more clearly understood it sometimes becomes necessary for a butterfly to be reclassified under a different genus , or even under a different subfamily or family .\n) , ornamental flowers are likely to be of less value . for example , it would be unrealistic for gardeners to attempt to create the unique set of environmental conditions suitable for the large blue butterfly (\nmarney ' s perfect wildlife and butterfly garden will shortly be on full public view . she is creating her idyllic garden with an office in it for the 2011 chelsea flowers show ( see urltoken ) .\nsee which butterflies and moths other people have spotted near you and across the uk on our big butterfly count 2018 results map . you can also read all the analysis and results of the 2017 count .\n) . in effect , the nao index is a synthesis of a range of weather features that interact to affect organisms . the nao exerts most of its control on weather before the butterfly flight season (\nthe u . k . butterfly monitoring scheme ( ukbms ) was piloted in monks wood in cambridgeshire , u . k . , during 1973\u20131975 , and was then extended nationally from 1976 to include a steadily expanding number of survey sites in the u . k . the monitoring technique involves walking a standardised line transect on a weekly basis from the start of april to the end of september when weather conditions are suitable for butterfly activity . all butterflies seen by the observer in a strip 5 m wide are identified and counted ( pollard & yates , 1993 ; u . k . butterfly monitoring scheme , 2010 ) .\nschneider , c . , and g . fry . 2005 . estimating the consequences of land - use changes on butterfly diversity in a marginal agricultural landscape in sweden . journal of nature conservation 13 : 247\u2013256 .\nwhat triggered this alarm was the fact that in england the summer of 2016 had been warmer and drier than average \u2013 conditions that tend to boost butterfly populations . instead their numbers dropped dramatically , with once common garden butterflies , such as the small tortoiseshell , declining by 47 % compared with the previous year , and the peacock butterfly falling by 42 % . given previous drops in numbers , these new figures are especially disturbing .\nruszczyk , a . , and a . m . de araujo . 1992 . gradients in butterfly species diversity in an urban area in brazil . journal of the lepidopterists ' society 46 ( 4 ) : 255\u2013264 .\nthe conservation want us to help them get a better idea of our country ' s butterfly population by submitting our own sightings . this will reveal whether our gardens can offer this magnificent creature a much needed home .\nclimate change is affecting u . k . butterfly populations ; the northern distribution limits of some species are moving northwards ( asher et al . , 2001 , 2011 ; hill et al . , 2002 ) and most species are flying earlier ( sparks & yates , 1997 ; roy & sparks , 2000 ) . it is predicted that projected climate change may cause future population changes ( roy et al . , 2001 ) . insects are excellent organisms through which to investigate the influence of weather as they are poikilothermic and are therefore strongly influenced by climatic conditions . the present study investigates the effect of the north atlantic oscillation ( nao ) on butterfly ecology , using data from the u . k . butterfly monitoring scheme ( 2010 ) , which currently contains 16 . 4 million butterfly records and is one of the best long - term biodiversity datasets in the world .\nas to the cause , biologists believe they have now identified a new threat to the butterfly : warm winters . britain experienced a particularly mild few months in 2015 - 16 . \u201cit was one of the warmest winters on record and we now believe that the unseasonably high temperatures had a grim impact on butterfly larvae , pupae and overwintering adults , \u201d said fox . \u201cthat is probably why we saw such bad figures last year . \u201d\nmeadow brown , gatekeeper and marbled white all bred in 2016 but i suspect small heath didn ' t , although it has in the past . my ' tiny ' wildflower meadow plays a very small part in the complex of grass meadows that surround our garden and with these meadows evolving ( in ways which i won ' t go into in this article ) we may well lose small heath as a breeding species . we shall see .\nsix butterfly species were chosen to investigate the association between the nao and peak flight week . data for these species were available and of sufficiently high quality throughout the entire time period studied . these included four univoltine species : anthocharis cardamines ( lepidoptera : pieridae ) ( orange tip ) ; melanargia galathea ( lepidoptera : nymphalidae ) ( marbled white ) ; aphantopus hyperantus ( lepidoptera : nymphalidae ) ( ringlet ) ; and pyronia tithonus ( lepidoptera : nymphalidae ) ( gatekeeper or hedge brown ) . the other two species were bivoltine : lasiommata megera ( lepidoptera : nymphalidae ) ( wall brown ) ; and polyommatus icarus ( lepidoptera : lycaenidae ) ( common blue ) .\ndennis , r . l . h . 2004 . butterfly habitats , broad - scale biotope affiliations , and structural exploitation of vegetation at finer scales : the matrix revisited . ecological entomology 29 ( 6 ) : 744\u2013752 .\nvanreusel , w . , and h . van dyck . 2007 . when functional habitat does not match vegetation types : a resource - based approach to map butterfly habitat . biological conservation 135 ( 2 ) : 202\u2013211 .\nobserving butterfly behaviour often reveals the answer to such riddles . the swallowtail normally rests with it ' s wings closed , but if it is disturbed it suddenly flicks them open in exactly the same manner as adopted by the peacock and other ocelli - equipped species such as bullseye silkmoths or eyed hawkmoths . furthermore , when alarmed the butterfly often moves the outspread wings in a jerky and almost threatening motion , as if to deliberately draw attention to itself .\nto enhance a garden\u2019s value as a nectar source for butterflies , our results indicate that planting multiple plant varieties which attract distinct subsets of the butterfly community would be beneficial . at its most basic this could be to plant both\nthe butterfly conservation is calling upon us gardeners to help boost the population of winged insects living in the areas around our homes because , although we are a nation of horticulturalists , it seems we know very little about butterflies .\n) . one pivotal resource is floral nectar , which is the primary energy source for adults of most butterfly species and can enhance reproduction as nectar amino acids may compensate for a nutrient - poor larval diet ( o\u2019brien et al .\na total of 2659 lepidoptera visits were recorded in the study , made by 14 butterfly and one moth species ( see supplementary table a for a full summary ) . the recorded species are relatively common , and with the exception of\nwood , p . a . , and m . j . samways . 1991 . landscape element pattern and continuity of butterfly flight paths in an ecologically landscaped botanic garden , natal , south africa . biological conservation 58 : 149\u2013166 .\ntemperature had a greater effect on flight timing than precipitation . warmer temperatures during the period april\u2013july resulted in the earlier flight of all six species of butterfly ; temperatures in later months are associated with later flying species . previous studies (\nin the uk butterfly monitoring scheme ( ukbms ) , annual data on the population status of butterflies is derived from a wide - scale program of site - based monitoring and sampling in randomly selected 1km squares . the sampling framework comprises : ( 1 ) weekly butterfly transects ( pollard walks ) ; ( 2 ) reduced effort surveys of habitat specialist species ( including timed counts of adults , single species transects , and egg and larval counts ) ; and ( 3 ) the wider countryside butterfly survey ( wcbs ) . the resulting ukbms dataset is one of the most important resources for understanding changes in insect populations and answering policy questions relating to status and trends in biodiversity . . . [ more ]\nheikkinen , r . k . , m . luoto , m . kuussaari , and t . toivonen . in press . modelling the spatial distribution of a threatened butterfly : impacts of scale and statistical technique . landscape and urban planning .\n) , which makes it potentially more useful than mean annual temperature to explain butterfly ecology because mean annual temperature is the mean of temperatures over all 12 months , including months that come later in the year after butterflies have finished flying .\nflight seasons of four univoltine butterfly species , anthocharis cardamines , melanargia galathea , aphantopus hyperantus and pyronia tithonus , and two bivoltine species , lasiommata megera and polyommatus icarus . data show the annual mean number of each species counted per week at all u . k . butterfly monitoring scheme ( ukbms ) sites for 1976\u20132009 . the week numbers are those used by the ukbms and thus week 1 is the first week of april and week 14 is the first week of july .\nfound where tall grasses grow close to hedges , trees or scrub . typical habitats are along hedgerows and in woodland rides . the butterfly can also occur in habitats such as ; undercliffs , heathland and downland where there are patches of scrub .\nif butterfly has come into your life , it is because you are undergoing a transformation . the period between life changes are usually chaotic , stagnant or in some way markedly uncanny . accept butterfly medicine and try to be still as the world passes , the more we can passively accept the situations we face the easier we move from them . the old self , emotional and mental is dying , becoming a mere cocoon while the soul regenerates and will fly into the summer sunshine .\noften the frightening effect of diematic markings is only temporary . having gotten over the initial shock a bird may resume it ' s attack . in such circumstances the ocelli on the butterfly ' s wings take on a secondary defence role , diverting\nthe overall effect is to create the illusion of a\nfalse head\n, and to give the butterfly a back - to - front appearance . this is further enhanced by the butterfly ' s habit of immediately turning to face the other way as soon as it lands on a flower or leaf . it is also likely to dip it ' s real head , and raise the false head . periodically , it oscillates the hindwings , causing the false - antennae tails to wriggle .\nsutcliffe , o . l . , v . bakkestuen , g . fry , and o . e . stabbetorp . 2003 . modelling the benefits of farmland restoration : methodology and application to butterfly movement . landscape and urban planning 63 : 15\u201331 .\nthe aims of the present study were to investigate whether the nao influences butterfly abundance and phenology , and whether there is an interaction with life history variables , including the number of generations and duration of flight season . the study sought to establish whether it is possible to identify a mechanism whereby weather associated with the nao in specific months influences butterfly phenology and , if so , whether the mechanism differs for univoltine ( one generation per year ) and bivoltine ( two generations per year ) species .\nhypothesise that climate warming combined with high nitrogen deposition can advance spring plant growth , leading to microclimatic cooling , which can affect butterfly species that hibernate as eggs or larvae . such suggestions indicate that the relationship between weather and butterflies can be complex .\npersonal experience in the field has shown that some aberrant forms occur where butterflies appear to have deformed / damaged wings as a result of the pupa becoming damaged as the butterfly developed inside or by a minor bacterial / fungal infection during the pupal stage .\naccording to research conducted by the wildlife charity , 76 % of common butterfly species have suffered widespread decline across the countryside over the last 40 years . the results of their most recent survey hope to determine if this trend applies to our gardens too .\nforister ml , mccall ac , sanders nj , fordyce ja , thorne jh , o\u2019brien j , waetjen dp , shapiro am ( 2010 ) compounded effects of climate change and habitat alteration shift patterns of butterfly diversity . proc natl acad sci usa 107 : 2088\u20132092\nthe big butterfly count begins on friday with reports of an unusually good year for butterflies but ecologists warn this could be a mistaken perception , and 2017 is simply a modest improvement on last summer \u2013 the fourth worst year for butterflies since scientific monitoring began .\nseptember is the last month of the year when butterflies are counted by the u . k . butterfly monitoring scheme and thus the table runs from october of the previous year ( dataset for 1975\u20132008 ) to september of the current year ( dataset for 1976\u20132009 ) .\nyour personal guide to british butterflies . this 8 - panel laminated chart is designed for speedy butterfly identification in the field . ideal for anyone interested in identifying butterflies , perfect for children and adults and ideal for outdoor use , laminated , shower - proof and robust .\nthe origin of scientific names varies enormously . some species are named after greek gods , some are named after the place where the butterfly was discovered or named in honour of some eminent entomologist . names can also be descriptive of the colour , pattern or wing shape .\nno one plant was good at attracting all species of butterflies . buddleia , the \u201cbutterfly bush\u201d , attracted mostly the large and brightly coloured nymphalines , but few other species . would buddleia have received its reputation and name if it attracted the same subset of brown satyrines which visit origanum ? to attract common species of butterflies , a vast variety of plants is probably not required . rather , a few good varieties which collectively attract the majority of butterfly species . in britain during summer , buddleia , origanum and eupatorium would be a good start .\ncolonisation of newly restored habitats has been shown to take several years , and is related to a species\u2019 mobility and diet , with less mobile species and those with localised host plants taking longest . models have shown the potential importance of \u2013landscape - versus site - scale conservation . habitat heterogeneity has been show to be important for enhancing and stabilising butterfly populations . the habitat connecting butterfly populations affects species\u2019 ability to disperse to new sites and their ability to recovery after population crashes ( e . g . caused by extreme events such as drought ) .\nthe chart ( s ) above have been correlated with the phenology plot below , taken from the uk butterfly monitoring scheme . the blue line gives average counts over the full data set from 1976 to date , and the red line gives the average for the last year .\nthe scheme has monitored changes in the abundance of butterflies throughout the united kingdom since 1976 . forty years later , trends in butterfly populations were compiled from a network of over 4 , 000 locations across all years , with nearly 2 , 500 sample locations monitored in 2015 .\nexample 1 - the butterfly known in britain as the camberwell beauty has in past times been called the grand surprise , the willow beauty and the white petticoat . in the usa it is called the mourning cloak . in europe it has common names in several different languages .\nthe total abundance of common butterfly species has fallen by a quarter since monitoring began in 1976 , with drastic declines for once - familiar butterflies such as small tortoiseshells , peacocks and gatekeepers . recent research has also revealed pronounced declines in urban butterflies over the past 20 years .\nfor participants in the big butterfly count \u2013 where people take 15 minutes to count butterflies in their local park , woodland or garden \u2013 the sightings offer hope that they will count more than in 2016 , which was the worst year in the seven - year count\u2019s history .\ncroxton , p . j . , j . p . hann , j . n . greatorex - davies , and t . h . sparks . 2005 . linear hotspots ? the floral and butterfly diversity of green lanes . biological conservation 121 ( 4 ) : 579\u2013584 .\ndover , j . w . , and g . l . a . fry . 2001 . experimental simulation of some visual and physical components of a hedge and the effects on butterfly behaviour in an agricultural landscape . entomologia experimentalis et applicata 100 ( 2 ) : 221\u2013233 .\n\u201ccan be found wherever shrubs grow close to rough grassland . \u2026\u2026some of the largest colonies can be found at field edges and along hedgerows and we can expect to find this butterfly in scrubby grassland , woodland rides , country lanes , hedgerows and the like anywhere within its range\u201d .\ncant , e . t . , a . d . smith , d . r . reynolds , and j . l . osborne . 2005 . tracking butterfly flight paths across the landscape with harmonic radar . proceedings of the royal society b 272 ( 1565 ) : 785\u2013790 .\nwiklund , c . , karlsson , b . and leimar , o . ( 2001 ) . sexual conflict and cooperation in butterfly reproduction : a comparative study of polyandry and female fitness . proc . r . soc . lond . ( b ) 268 : 1661 - 667 .\nit seems likely therefore that the pattern acts either to make the butterfly appear too large to eat , or that it simply confuses the bird - causing it ' s eyes to wander all over the pattern while the bird tries to fathom out what it all means - is it edible ? is it dangerous ? is it small enough to eat ? which bit of it should i aim my beak at ? the bird may be so confused that it decides to abandon the attack , or the attack may simply be delayed long enough to allow the butterfly to escape .\nchoose a place and spot butterflies and moths for 15 minutes . good places include your garden , a park , or in a wood . use our id chart to make a note of which species you see . click to watch a video of nick baker introduce the big butterfly count .\ni had joined richard fox of butterfly conservation , which runs the big count , on thursday to try to spot silver - spotted skippers , a relatively rare species that has recently bucked long - term decline and enjoyed a revival in numbers on southern england\u2019s chalkland heaths . we saw none .\nthese results are broadly comparable to the data found in peter hardy\u2019s butterfly database ( university of staffordshire , accessed 09 / 09 / 2015 ) which contains over 13 , 000 butterfly feeding records . considering visits to our 11 plant species , 81 % of peacock butterflies were observed on buddleia versus only 1 . 5 % on origanum . by contrast 15 % of gatekeepers were observed on buddleia ( 0 % in the present study ) but was still more common on origanum ( 23 % ) despite there being far more records made on buddleia than origanum in the database as a whole ."]}
{"id": 346, "summary": [{"text": "cyprinus fuxianensis is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus cyprinus .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "the species is only known from fuxian lake in yunnan .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it has been impacted by habitat degradation , overfishing , and introduced species .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it has declined by over 80 % in the past 21 years .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it was not recorded in a survey in 1995 ; iucn considers it as critically endangered and possibly extinct . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "cyprinus fuxianensis", "paragraphs": ["cyprinus fuxianensis is a species of ray - finned fish in the genus cyprinus .\norder : cypriniformes family : cyprinidae genus : cyprinus species : cyprinus fuxianensis authority : yang et al . , 1977\nthe following term was not found in genome : cyprinus fuxianensis [ orgn ] .\nc . fuxianensis is endemic to fuxian lake ( 198 km\u00b2 ) , yunan provence , china .\nfuxian lake is heavily impacted by overfishing and pollution from domestic and industrial sources , which became major threats in the 1980s . tourism is one of the major industries around the lake . cyprinus carpio was introduced into the lake in the 1980s to improve fishery catches , and has hybridised with and outcompeted c . fuxanensis .\nc . fuxianensis is very rare , possibly extinct , in the lake since population declines as a result of competition and hybridisation with introduced species , overfishing and pollution . during survey work in 1995 no specimens were caught ( f . fang , pers . comm . ) . it is suspected that the population has declined by over 80 % in the past 21 years .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nit is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nis endemic to fuxian lake ( 198 km ) , yunan provence , china .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nchinese academy of fishery sciences ( 2003 ) chinese aquatic germplasm resources database . : urltoken\nluo , y . and p . yue ( 2000 ) cyprinidae : cyprininae . : p . 391 - 433 . in p . yue et al . ( eds ) . fauna sinica . osteichthyes . cypriniformes iii . science press . beijing . 1 - 661 .\nwu , h . l . , k . - t . shao and c . f . lai ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) latin - chinese dictionary of fishes names . : the sueichan press , taiwan . 1028 p .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . ."]}
{"id": 352, "summary": [{"text": "appias ada , the rare albatross , is a butterfly of the family pieridae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found on the moluccas , new guinea , indonesia and in australia and the solomon islands . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "appias ada", "paragraphs": ["maggie whitson selected\nappias lyncida\nto show in overview on\nappias lyncida ( cramer , [ 1779 ] )\n.\nmaggie whitson set\nimage of appias lyncida\nas an exemplar on\nappias lyncida ( cramer , [ 1779 ] )\n.\nmaggie whitson added the english common name\nchocolate albatross ( butterfly )\nto\nappias lyncida ( cramer , [ 1779 ] )\n.\nmaggie whitson marked the classification from\nspecies 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013\nas preferred for\nappias lyncida ( cramer , [ 1779 ] )\n.\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 3f105413 - 953d - 4407 - 98e7 - 138e58e925bd\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 4d6d0115 - 28a2 - 4248 - b3ea - 9a92fa0f2d95\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 9cfdb039 - a41f - 459a - bfa9 - 0819530c5960\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : ba201eaf - 326a - 46fb - a50a - 5b2ada03eec8\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : d8e687e6 - 6cdb - 42f2 - b6f7 - ab7d4fc0b371\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 28d13af8 - ae46 - 4cb2 - 88aa - ec33ba75c0cb\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 258103\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 29a6f6d0 - c595 - 4641 - 9879 - 77bb996fd717\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nthe caterpillar of this species is bluish - green and covered in small blue tubercles . it has a yellow line along the back . it grows to a length of about 3 . 5 cms . it feeds only on young shoots of :\nthe adult butterflies of this species have a wingspan of about 5 cms . the upper surfaces of the forewings are white , each with a black\nand black spots along the margins . the hindwings are pale yellow with black margins .\nthe undersides of the males and females are very similar . the undersides forewings are white with a black\nthe eggs are laid singly on young shoots of a foodplant . they are spindle shaped , and initially white but changing to orange as they near hatching . they have a height of about 0 . 1 cm .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 07e14312 - 8b32 - 47d2 - a80b - 51c760820905\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 6e9ee450 - 417a - 4278 - b316 - 4c711b9f6d77\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 9b2f2ba2 - 1a52 - 4b37 - 89a2 - 424d2f8147ec\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : ac1bcb7a - 4b55 - 4f29 - b8b1 - dcf1585ef0b6\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : ca7f3a92 - 0bca - 458a - 8525 - ac83a290f488\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : e412382e - d7d9 - 4add - 88e0 - 1ac03bcca722\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 45adc42c - e61b - 49c1 - b0b1 - f1c4f17d76d0\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 307998\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n[ home ] [ catalogue ] [ rarities & aberrations ] [ new arrivals ] [ quantity list ] [ terms & contacts ] [ info updates ] [ events ] [ links ] [ about us ] copyright \u00a9 2001 - 2012 thorne ' s insect shoppe ltd . . all rights reserved .\npoint radius ( mm ) 0 . 1 0 . 2 0 . 3 0 . 4 0 . 5 0 . 6 0 . 7 0 . 8 0 . 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the ala .\nthe ala is made possible by contributions from its partners , is supported by ncris and hosted by csiro .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nstatus : a common species which is widely distributed from the moluccas to the solomon islands . subspecies thasia is restricted to new guinea .\npapua localities : supiori island ; japen island : waropen ; numfor island : namber ; pulau wakde ; pulau anus ; new guinea : akimuga , arbuejo , borme , dabra , fakfak , jayapura , manokwari , mokwam , nabire , timika , topo , ubrub , waena , yongsu . details in gazetteer .\nparsons , m . , 1998 . the butterflies of papua new guinea . their systematics and biology : 736 pp . , 136 colour plates , 26 bw plates with genitalia . academic press , san diego , london , boston , new york , sydney , tokyo , toronto .\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\ncrowd sourced content that is contributed to world heritage encyclopedia is peer reviewed and edited by our editorial staff to ensure quality scholarly research articles .\nby using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy . world heritage encyclopedia\u2122 is a registered trademark of the world public library association , a non - profit organization .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from world ebook library are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\nnote : wildlife statistics are based on information that has been submitted to the des wildnet database and converted to a 10km\u00b2 grid . the grid information has been intersected with the mapping polygons to determine the species lists . click here to view the species grid metadata .\ndisclaimer : while every care is taken to ensure the accuracy of this product , the queensland government and australian government make no representations or warranties about its accuracy , reliability , completeness or suitability for any particular purpose and disclaim all responsibility and all liability ( including without limitation , liability in negligence ) for all expenses , losses , damages ( including indirect or consequential damage ) and costs which might be incurred as a consequence of reliance on the product , or as a result of the product being inaccurate or incomplete in any way and for any reason .\n, commonly called the eastern striped albatross , is found in many parts of south east asia .\nwhere it is locally common . in the northern parts of peninsular india it extends into\nin india , the northern race of the butterfly is common , while it is local and scarce in other parts of its range .\nthe chocolate albatross has a wingspan of 55 to 70mm . the male is white above with chocolate - brown or black margins , and , bright lemon - yellow below with chocolate - coloured markings . the female is white and densely clouded with dark - brown .\n- white above , with bluish costa and termen inwardly - edged with black teeth - like markings on the forewing . the hindwing is similarly toothed on the termen , which has a bluish inward border . the unh is bright yellow and is outwardly bordered with dark chocolate .\n- black upf with four white streaks on the disc . blackish uph except for the whitish discal area . the unh may be yellowish or whitish and have broad dark band at the termen .\nthe chocolate albatross is a forest butterfly and prefers rainy highlands , up to a level of 3000 ft . flying strongly and swiftly close to the ground , the albatross is frequently found in jungle clearings and along stream banks . the males are often found circling around trees and bushes . the chocolate albatross often mudpuddles , sometimes in large numbers . the butterfly occasionally visits flowers and has been recorded to visit\nmale ( dry season form ) at jayanti in buxa tiger reserve in jalpaiguri district of west bengal , india .\nfemale ( dry season form ) at jayanti in buxa tiger reserve in jalpaiguri district of west bengal , india .\nwynter - blyth , m . a . ( 1957 ) butterflies of the indian region , pg 428 - 429 .\nkunte , krushnamegh . ( 2000 ) butterflies of peninsular india and china , ser no 23 , pp 100 - 101 .\nevans , w . h . ( 1932 ) the identification of indian butterflies . ( 2nd ed ) , bombay natural history society , mumbai , india\ngaonkar , harish ( 1996 ) butterflies of the western ghats , india ( including sri lanka ) - a biodiversity assessment of a threatened mountain system . journal of the bombay natural history society .\nkunte , krushnamegh ( 2005 ) butterflies of peninsular india . universities press , hyderabad , india .\nwynter - blyth , m . a . ( 1957 ) butterflies of the indian region , bombay natural history society , mumbai , india .\narun , p . r . ( 2000 ) seasonality and abundance of insects with special reference to butterflies ( lepidoptera : rhopalocera ) in a moist deciduous forest of siruvani , nilgiri biosphere reserve , southindia ph . d thesis , bharathiar university , coimbatore . 236p .\nharibal , m . ( 1992 ) the butterflies of sikkim himalaya and their natural history , 217 , sikkim nature conservation foundation , gangtok , sikkim .\nclassification from species 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013 selected by maggie whitson - see more .\nplease note that pictured specimens are representative of specimens available . usda interstate movement permits may be required for some live species .\nitems shipping internationally may be subject to customs processing depending on the item ' s declared value .\nsellers set the item ' s declared value and must comply with customs declaration laws .\nthis amount includes applicable customs duties , taxes , brokerage and other fees . this amount is subject to change until you make payment . for additional information , see the global shipping program terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab\nthis amount includes applicable customs duties , taxes , brokerage and other fees . this amount is subject to change until you make payment . if you reside in an eu member state besides uk , import vat on this purchase is not recoverable . for additional information , see the global shipping program terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab\nestimated delivery dates - opens in a new window or tab include seller ' s handling time , origin zip code , destination zip code and time of acceptance and will depend on shipping service selected and receipt of cleared payment - opens in a new window or tab . delivery times may vary , especially during peak periods .\nany international shipping and import charges are paid in part to pitney bowes inc . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\ninternational shipping and import charges paid to pitney bowes inc . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\ninternational shipping paid to pitney bowes inc . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\nany international shipping is paid in part to pitney bowes inc . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\n$ 0 . 00 shipping for each additional eligible item you buy from reisenpanama .\nthis item will be shipped through the global shipping program and includes international tracking . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\nthere are 9 items available . please enter a number less than or equal to 9 .\n* estimated delivery dates - opens in a new window or tab include seller ' s handling time , origin zip code , destination zip code and time of acceptance and will depend on shipping service selected and receipt of cleared payment - opens in a new window or tab . delivery times may vary , especially during peak periods .\nwill usually ship within 1 business day of receiving cleared payment - opens in a new window or tab .\nqualifying purchases could enjoy no interest if paid in full in 6 months on purchases of $ 99 or more . other offers may also be available .\ninterest will be charged to your account from the purchase date if the balance is not paid in full within 6 months . minimum monthly payments are required . subject to credit approval . see terms - opens in a new window or tab\ncopyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 ebay inc . all rights reserved . accessibility , user agreement , privacy , cookies and adchoice\nabout us | contact us | terms \u00a9 2008 - 2018 wildiaries , owned by aes applied ecology solutions pl . all rights reserved ."]}
{"id": 355, "summary": [{"text": "meiacanthus atrodorsalis , the forktail blenny , is a species of combtooth blenny found in coral reefs in the western pacific ocean .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this species grows to a length of 11 centimetres ( 4.3 in ) tl .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this venomous species can also be found in the aquarium trade .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it is also known as the eyelash harptail-blenny , poison-fang blenny or the yellowtail poison-fang blenny . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "meiacanthus atrodorsalis", "paragraphs": ["c . michael hogan changed the thumbnail image of\nimage of meiacanthus atrodorsalis\n.\njennifer hammock split the classifications by inventaire national du patrimoine naturel from meiacanthus atrodorsalis ( g\u00fcnther , 1877 ) to their own page .\nan eyelash fangblenny , meiacanthus atrodorsalis , at apo island zamboanguita , central visayas , philippines . source : klaus stiefel / flickr . license : cc by attribution - noncommercial\nspecificationsmpnf91 0007 0353manufacturerthat fish placecommon nameforktail blenny scientific namemeiacanthus atrodorsalis difficultymoderate reef sa . . .\nthe forktail blenny ( meiacanthus atrodorsalis ) is characterized by the long , yellow edges of its caudal fin . the front half its body is blue - grey whi . . .\npetroscirtes atrodorsalis , g\u00fcnther , 1877 , andrew garrett ' s fische der s\u00fcdsee bd 2 ( heft 6 ) : 198 , pl . 115 ( fig . b ) . type locality : samoa\nthe species has a lunate caudal fin and an enormous curved , venomous fang on each side of the lower jar . the fangs , which are used for defence , are characteristic of the genus meiacanthus .\nwestern pacific : bali and the philippines east to samoa , north to ryukyu islands , south to rowley shoals , the southern great barrier reef , and new caledonia ; throughout micronesia . replaced by the uniformly yellow species ovalauensis in fiji , and by meiacanthus tongaensis in tonga ( ref . 37816 ) .\nthis species occurs in the western pacific , from bali and the philippines east to samoa , north to ryukyu islands , south to rowley shoals , along the southern great barrier reef , to new caledonia and throughout micronesia . it is replaced by the uniformly yellow species ovalauensis in fiji , and by meiacanthus tongaensis in tonga ( smith - vaniz 1987 ) .\ngreek , meion = less = lessen + greek , akantha = thorn ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 1 - 30 m ( ref . 1602 ) . tropical ; 30\u00b0n - 24\u00b0s\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 11 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 9710 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 4 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 25 - 28 ; anal spines : 2 ; anal soft rays : 15 - 18 . identified by the blue - edged diagonal black line from the eye and yellow dorsal fin or back . adults have long filaments on the caudal fin tips ; length without filaments ( ref . 48636 ) .\nadults are found solitary or in pairs ( ref . 90102 ) in lagoon and seaward reefs below the surge zone to 30 m depth ( ref . 9710 ) . a common species , often seen along slopes and drop - offs , adults sometimes in small groups ( ref . 48636 ) . feed on zooplankton and also on small benthic invertebrates . inoffensive , but immune from predation ( ref . 9710 ) . oviparous . eggs are demersal and adhesive ( ref . 205 ) , and are attached to the substrate via a filamentous , adhesive pad or pedestal ( ref . 94114 ) . larvae are planktonic , often found in shallow , coastal waters ( ref . 94114 ) . mimicked by ecsenius bicolor and plagiotremus laudanus ( ref . 90102 ) .\nmyers , r . f . , 1991 . micronesian reef fishes . second ed . coral graphics , barrigada , guam . 298 p . ( ref . 1602 )\n) : 25 . 6 - 29 . 3 , mean 28 . 5 ( based on 1837 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 5 \u00b10 . 41 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 23 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) . 2014 . catalog of fishes . updated 27 august 2014 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 august 2014 ) .\njustification : this is a widespread species that is locally abundant with no known threats and occurs in marine protected areas in parts of its range . it is listed as least concern .\nthis species is common and locally abundant ( w . smith - vaniz pers comm . ) .\n- - - other purpose text - - - this species may be collected for the aquarium trade .\nthere are no specific conservation measures in place for this species . its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n6cm okinawa miyako is . coral residents back to index - 500 fishes : urltoken music : hiro ' s original one man music : urltoken\njavascript is disabled on your browser . to view this site , you must enable javascript or upgrade to a javascript - capable browser .\nthe yellowtail fang blenny is a distintively coloured fish that has an enormous curved , venomous fang on either side of the lower jaw .\nthe yellowtail fang blenny is blue anteriorly and yellow posteriorly . there is a diagonal black stripe through the eye .\nthe yellowtail fang blenny is mimicked by the bicolor blenny , ecsenius bicolor and the bicolor fangblenny , plagiotremus laudandus .\nthe species occurs in tropical marine waters of the indo - west and central pacific , from the red sea , north to japan , throughout micronesia , south to australia and east to marquesas islands .\nin australia the yellowtail fang blenny is known from the north - western coast of western australia , around the tropical north of the country and south to the southern coast of new south wales .\nthe map below shows the australian distribution of the species based on public sightings and specimens in australian museums . click on the map for detailed information . source : atlas of living australia .\nit is found on seaward reefs and lagoons at depths of 1m to 30m .\nthe yellowtail fang blenny is a solitary species that is usually seen hovering above the bottom feeding on zooplankton . it also feeds on benthic invertebrates .\nallen , g . r . 1997 . marine fishes of tropical australia and south - east asia . western australian museum . pp . 292 .\nallen , g . r . & r . swainston . 1988 . the marine fishes of north - western australia . a field guide for anglers and divers . western australian museum . pp . 201 .\nmyers , r . f . 1999 . micronesian reef fishes . coral graphics . pp . 330 .\nrandall , j . e . , allen , g . r . & r . c . steene . 1997 . fishes of the great barrier reef and coral sea . crawford house press . pp . 251 .\nadults are found solitary or in pairs ( ref . 90102 ) in lagoon and seaward reefs below the surge zone to 30 m depth ( ref . 9710 ) . a common species , often seen along slopes and drop - offs , adults sometimes in small groups ( ref . 48636 ) . feed on zooplankton and also on small benthic invertebrates . inoffensive , but immune from predation ( ref . 9710 ) . oviparous . eggs are demersal and adhesive ( ref . 205 ) , and are attached to the substrate via a filamentous , adhesive pad or pedestal ( ref . 94114 ) . larvae are planktonic , often found in shallow , coastal waters ( ref . 94114 ) . mimicked by ecsenius bicolor and plagiotremus laudanus ( ref . 90102 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\na fangblenny with a greyish - blue head and anterior body that becomes pale yellow to whitish , a yellowish caudal fin , a black basal stripe along the dorsal - fin base and a diagonal blue - edged black band through the eye . the eyelash fangblenny has large venomous canines in the lower jaw that are used for defense and aggressive interactions with other eyelash fangblennies , not for feeding . potential predators quickly learn to avoid these small venomous fishes , allowing the blennies to forage out in open water . this species is mimicked by the bicolor fangblenny , plagiotremus laudandus , and possibly by the bicolor combtooth blenny , ecsenius bicolor . video of eyelash fangblennies at miyako island , okinawa\nrecorded in australia from rowley shoals , wa , to ashmore reef , timor sea , and north of cape york , qld , to sydney , nsw ; also at islands and reefs in the coral sea and at lord howe island , in the tasman sea . elsewhere , the species is widespread in the western pacific from australia to japan and eastwards to samoa .\nwhen the fangblenny bites a predator , the pressure forces venom to be secreted from a gland at the base of the groove to the tip of the canine in the lower jaw . potential predators quickly learn to avoid these small venomous fishes , allowing the blennies to forage out in open water . a number of other fishes , often as juveniles , mimic sabre - toothed blennies to avoid predation .\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1877 . andrew garrett ' s fische der s\u00fcdsee . heft 6 .\n. sydney , nsw , australia : new holland publishers xvii , 434 pp .\npictorial guide to indonesian reef fishes . part 2 . fusiliers - dragonets , caesionidae - callionymidae\nreef and shore fishes of the south pacific . new caledonia to tahiti and the pitcairn islands\nsmith - vaniz , w . f . 1976 . the saber - toothed blennies , tribe nemophini ( pisces : blenniidae ) .\nsmith - vaniz , w . f . 1987 . the saber - toothed blennies , tribe nemophini ( pisces : bleniidae ) : an update .\nsmith - vaniz , w . f . & g . r . allen . 2011 . three new species of the fangblenny genus\nfrom indonesia , with color photographs and comments on other species ( teleostei : blenniidae : nemophini ) .\nsmith - vaniz , w . f . , u . satapoomin & g . r . allen . 2001 .\nspringer , v . g . 2001 . blenniidae . pp . 3538 - 3546 in carpenter , k . e . & niem , t . h . ( eds ) .\nthe living marine resources of the western central pacific . fao species identification guide for fisheries purposes\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nif order under $ 350 shipping charge will be calculated base on the actual shipping weight . all livestock orders are shipped via next day air . if other shipping method is chosen we will modify the shipping method . live rock and sand are ship using 2nd day service . drygoods , aquarium supplies , and reptile supplies are ship using ground service unless specified . all livestock orders must be shipped overnight via ups or fedex priority overnight to reduce transit time . orders generally ship within 1 - 2 business shipping days . all livestock are shipped wednesday and will be deliver thursday morning . you will receive a confirmation email with your tracking number when your order has shipped .\nsaturday delivery must be made by special request by email or phone . saturday delivery is an extra $ 26 charge .\nin the interest of meeting your schedule , if 70 % of your order is in stock , it will be shipped . any missing items or substitutions will be marked on your order and your total will be adjusted accordingly . if you would prefer to be contacted if we are missing items , please let us know when placing your order in the comment field . however , this may delay your order . due to the nature of our products , we cannot backorder live animals .\nif your shipping address is different from your credit card billing address , please make sure your card issuer has listed this shipping address as an\nauthorized\naddress . we verify all addresses with visa , mastercard , discover and american express .\nups generally requires a signature for delivery . you or someone authorized by you , must be present to sign for a shipment if you choose to have it delivered to your home or office .\norders not held for pick up at the fedex / ups facility when temperatures are greater than 90 degrees or lower than 40 degrees .\norders placed during extreme weather will not be cover under our alive arrive guarenteed .\nif the weather delay a flight , or closes an airport , you live stock will be delayed . fedex has no control over the weather , nor does freshmarine . com .\nif your live stock is delay , damaged , or never delivered due to severe weather condition , fedex will not honor guarantees , and therefore neither can freshmarine . com .\nurltoken only ships within the continental u . s . excludes hawaii , alaska , and puerto rico"]}
{"id": 361, "summary": [{"text": "triops longicaudatus ( commonly called longtail tadpole shrimp , american tadpole shrimp , or rice tadpole shrimp ) is a freshwater crustacean of the order notostraca , resembling a miniature horseshoe crab .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is characterized by an elongated , segmented body , a flattened shield-like brownish carapace covering two thirds of the thorax , and two long filaments on the abdomen .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "triops refers to its three eyes , and longicaudatus refers to the elongated tail structures .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "triops longicaudatus is found in freshwater ponds and pools , often in places where few higher forms of life can exist .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "like its relative triops cancriformis , the longtail tadpole shrimp is considered a living fossil because its basic prehistoric morphology has changed little in the last 70 million years , exactly matching their ancient fossils .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "triops longicaudatus is one of the oldest animal species still in existence . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "triops longicaudatus", "paragraphs": ["katja schulz selected\ntriops longicaudatus\nto show in overview on\ntriops longicaudatus ( leconte , 1846 )\n.\ntriops longicaudatus family triopsidae taxonomy triops longicaudatus leconte , 1846 , united states . some authors recognize two subspecies : triops longicaudatus longicaudatus and triops longicaudatus intermedius , but these have not been officially accepted . other common names english : rice tadpole shrimp , american tadpole shrimp ; spanish : tortugueta ( \u201clittle turtle\u201d ) .\nyan wong changed the thumbnail image of\nfile : triops - longicaudatus - group . jpg\n.\nprey - size selection by triops longicaudatus ( notostraca : triopsidae ) feeding on immature stages of culex quinquefasciatus .\njennifer hammock split the classifications by urltoken import from triops longicaudatus ( leconte , 1846 ) to their own page .\ninfluence of tadpole shrimp , triops longicaudatus ( notostraca : triopsidae ) , stocking rate on culex ta . . .\nprey - size selection by triops longicaudatus ( notostraca : triopsidae ) feeding on immature stages of c . . .\nyolk protein synthesis in the riceland tadpole shrimp , triops longicaudatus , measured by in vitro incorporation of 3h - leucine .\nurltoken > triops - collection of information with pictures and videos of triops and other branchiopoda .\nfunctional and phylogenetic analyses of phenoloxidases from brachyuran ( cancer magister ) and branchiopod ( artemia franciscana , triops longicaudatus ) crustaceans .\noptimal conditions for rearing the tadpole shrimp , triops longicaudatus ( notostraca : triopsidae ) , a biological control agent against mosquitoes .\nprey - size selection by triops longicaudatus ( notostraca : triopsidae ) feeding on immature stages of culex quinquefasciatus . - pubmed - ncbi\ntranscriptome analysis of the tadpole shrimp ( triops longicaudatus ) by illumina paired - end sequencing : assembly , annotation , and marker discovery .\ntriops longicaudatus is one of the oldest animal species still in existence . these strange and hyperactive fresh water creatures from the devonian \u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nyolk protein synthesis in the riceland tadpole shrimp , triops longicaudatus , measured by in vitro incorporation of 3h - leucine . - pubmed - ncbi\nhasbun , e . 2014 .\ntriops longicaudatus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nfunctional and phylogenetic analyses of phenoloxidases from brachyuran ( cancer magister ) and branchiopod ( artemia franciscana , triops longicaudatus . . . - pubmed - ncbi\noptimal conditions for rearing the tadpole shrimp , triops longicaudatus ( notostraca : triopsidae ) , a biological control agent against mosquitoes . - pubmed - ncbi\npreferred habiat ( ephemeral pool ) of triops longicaudatus . the selected reproductive adaptations of the notostraca are heavily dependent on the preservation of such habitat types .\ntranscriptome analysis of the tadpole shrimp ( triops longicaudatus ) by illumina paired - end sequencing : assembly , annotation , and marker discovery . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe number of ssrs discovered in the unigenes from t . longicaudatus based on motif sequence types .\ngo annotation of unigenes from t . longicaudatus based on biological processes , molecular functions and cellular components .\nto cite this page : hasbun , e . 2014 .\ntriops longicaudatus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nthe sequence annotation profile of t . longicaudatus unigenes against panm - db , unigene db and kog db .\ndon ' t quote me on this but i think the queensland triops are a cross between australiensis and longicaudatus . maybe it ' s possible that that these are crosses too .\nno ! remember that triops are carnivores and they may eat your fish ! if the fish are larger , they may eat your triops .\nthree weeks old and 6 . 5 cm long triops . judging from their body proportions it seems to be triops longicaudatus but they have a marmorate pattern on their carapace . please help me if you know the exact species i . e . subspecies .\nscholnick , d . a . 1995 . sensitivity of metabolic rate , growth , and fecundity of tadepole shrimp triops longicaudatus to eviromental variation . biol . bull . 189 , 22 - 28 .\nthe species is considered a human ally against the west nile virus , as the individuals consume culex mosquito larvae . they also are used as a biological agent in japan , eating weeds in rice paddies . in wyoming , the presence of triops longicaudatus usually indicates a good chance of the hatching of spadefoot frogs . dried eggs of triops longicaudatus are sold in kits to be raised as aquarium pets , sold under the name of\naquasaurs\nor\ntriops\n.\nno . triops is the scientific name of the creature . therefore , it is always called a triops and is always spelled with a capital t !\ntriops longicaudatus , originally collected from the u . s . northwest and presently grown in a lab setting to avoid disturbing the environment and destroying an important food source to many animals , including birds .\na working hypothesis exists , proposing that triops longicaudatus may continue its trend of longevity as a species and , if humans do not devastate its habitat , the species may survive for another 500 million years .\ntriops longicaudatus and t . cancriformis are considered pests of rice fields in countries where rice is directly planted . these tadpole shrimps may occur in enormous numbers , and they expose and eat the roots of rice seedlings while paddling through the mud in search of food . in japan , however , the rice is planted as plantlets and t . longicaudatus is considered a biological control agent of weeds . dormant cysts of some species of triops are sold throughout the world in kits for rearing as aquatic pets . 1 . vernal pool tadpole shrimp ( lepidurus packardi ) ; 2 . longtail tadpole shrimp ( triops longicaudatus ) .\nthe species is considered a human ally against the west nile virus , as the individuals consume culex mosquito larvae . they also are used as a biological agent in japan , eating weeds in rice paddies . in wyoming , the presence of triops longicaudatus usually indicates a good chance of the hatching of spadefoot frogs . dried eggs of triops longicaudatus are sold in kits to be raised as aquarium pets , sold under the name of\naquasaurs\n,\ntrigons\nor\ntriops\n.\nweeks , s . c . and c . sassaman . 1990 . competition phenotypically variable and uniform populations of the tadpole shrimp triops longicaudatus ( notostraca : triopsidae ) . oecologia . 82 , 552 - 559 .\ntriops subadult at 6 days . carapace and exoskeleton thickening and deposited with calcium carbonate\ni noticed newly hatched triops in my tank weeks after i added my original eggs . is it possible that one of my triops laid eggs and they hatched ?\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30ab\u30d6\u30c8\u30a8\u30d3\u5c5e\nto\ntriops\n.\ntietze n s , mulla m s ( 1991 ) . biologicalcontrol of culex mosquitoes ( diptera : culicidae ) by the tadpole shrimp , triops longicaudatus ( notostraca : triopsidae ) . journal ofmedical entomology , 28 : 24\u201531\n. . . wberryi and the different forms of t . longicaudatus ( macdonald et al . , 2011 ) should be incorporated with the genome data in order to determine the identity of the t . longicaudatus already sequenced . there was also little difference between the t . l .\nshort\nfrom new mexico and the t . longicaudatus originating in south korea ( ryu and hwang , 2010 ) . baek et al . ( 2013 ) determined that the t . longicaudatus that occur in south korea are actually t . l .\nshort\nusing both morphological and molecular data , including sequences of the co1 and nd1 mitochondrial genes . the mitochondrial genome sequence for the korean t . longicaudatus ( ryu and hwang , 2010 ) is most likely the\nshort\nform of t . longicaudatus . . .\ntietze n s , mulla m s ( 1989 ) . prey - sizeselection by triops longicaudatus ( notostraca : triopsidae ) feeding on immature stages of culex quinquefasciatus . journal of the american mosquito control association , 5 : 392\u2015396\n8 . triops eggs can lay dormant for decades , and then hatch in water .\njennifer hammock split the classifications by urltoken import from triops australiensis to their own page .\nexpression pattern in the triops epipod appears to provide additional support for this hypothesis . the\nthe monophyletic t . longicaudatus - newberryi clade is largely endemic to the americas , while presumed t . longicaudatus populations on pacific islands such as the gal\u00e1pagos , hawaii and new caledonia [ 21 ] , [ 36 ] may reflect efficient long distance dispersal , presumably by avian vectors , as discussed above . japanese records of t . longicaudatus , on the other hand , are attributed to recent anthropogenic introductions as a biological control agent in rice fields [ 48 ] . based on our analyses we confirm the monophyly of north american triops populations but not the monophyly of the species t . newberryi and t . longicaudatus . t . newberryi differed only by 0 . 0\u20135 . 2 % at coi and 1 . 0 % at 12s from t . longicaudatus . the sequenced specimens , hence , should probably be considered conspecific . these findings support the need for a morphological taxonomic revision of triops across north america [ 51 ] .\ni ordered the scholastic triops and the egg capsule was crushed . what should i do ?\ntwo days after hatching , the triops has essentially completely taken the appearance of an adult .\ntriops longicaudatus is also known as the rice tadpole shrimp and is considered a pest species of rice fields where the rice is germinated in the field ( mainly in the united states and spain ) . t . longicaudatus damages the roots and leaves of seedling rice plants and also muddies the water , impeding the access of sunlight to the developing plants . in japan , where the rice is transplanted , the long tail tadpole shrimp cannot harm the rice because it is too big and resistant to its attack . instead , japanese rice farmers use t . longicaudatus as a biological control agent against weeds . dried cysts of t . longicaudatus are sold in kits to be bred as aquatic pets .\nharper , s . l . and c . l . reiber . 2006 . metabolic , respiratory and cardiovascular responses to acute and chronic hypoxic exposure in tadpole shrimp triops longicaudatus . j . exp . biol . 209 , 1639 - 1650 .\ntietze n s , mulla m s ( 1990 ) . influenceof tadpole shrimp , triops longicaudatus ( notostraca : triopsidae ) , stocking rate on culex tarsalis development in experimental field microcosms . journal of the american mosquito control association , 6 : 265\u2015269\nthe hatching of triops can take up to 3 to 5 days more when the weather is cooler . therefore , triops must have a bright , warm light during these cooler days . please allow this extra time before inquiring about a replacement for non - hatching of your triops eggs\nsize distribution of contigs ( blue ) and unigenes ( red ) after assembly and clustering of the quality reads from the transcriptome of t . longicaudatus .\nthey ' re found in seasonal ponds , pools , and puddles all over the world . triops were around before the break - up of the last supercontinent , which helps explain why they live on every continent except antarctica . triops longicaudatus , a rather fancy critter with a long tail , frequents all but the colder regions of north america , while triops newberryi prefers the milder climate of the pacific northwest and parts of california . triops granarius is found throughout much of africa , the middle east , and parts of asia . triops australiensis calls , you guessed it , australia home . triops cancriformis , the oldest species , hails from europe , the middle east , and india , and is considered endangered in the uk .\nthis is basically the triops kit you get from craft stores but they remove the original box .\nwarranty parts include a bag with triops eggs and triops baby food . this allows for parts to be shipped as efficiently as possible and helps keep our warranty cost at $ 2 . 00 .\ni live overseas and purchased my triops overseas , too . how do i submit my warranty ?\n1 . triops are often called\nliving fossils , \u201d but that ' s a misnomer .\nchen b , chen x ( 1999 ) . triops - the living fossil in songnen plain .\nlater . however , the proctodeal staining can be clearly distinguished from the terminal ring in triops .\nhomology searches of t . longicaudatus unigenes against the panm - db . ( a ) e - value distribution ; ( b ) top - hit species distribution .\nour triassic brand triops are the only triops products on the market that contain lab - raised triops eggs . we do not take triops or their eggs from their natural habitat . this means that we give you eggs in \u201cpure\u201d form and guarantee that you receive the highest quality products on the market . it is the only kit where you can easily inspect your eggs . remember they are tiny and easy to lose .\nthe extraordinary adaptations of triops longicaudatus , from its uniquely resilient eggs to its indiscriminate appetite , have allowed it to thrive since the time of the dinosaurs . the basic design of these creatures has changed little in more than 70 million years , making it a living fossil .\nyoon , s . m . , w . kim , and h . s . kim . 1992 . redescription of triops longicaudatus ( leconte , 1846 ) ( notostraca , triopsidae ) from korea . korean j . syst . zool . special issue 3 , 59 - 66 .\n11 : 00 am : we added our triops eggs to the water we prepared in a plastic container .\nas the pool dries up , many matured triops will die . since the lifespan of these small creatures is for twenty to ninety days , the triops will eventually die even if the pool does not completely dry up .\nwhen we started the triops , we also started a log of what they were doing . this is it :\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30e8\u30fc\u30ed\u30c3\u30d1\u30ab\u30d6\u30c8\u30a8\u30d3\nto\ntriops cancriformis ( bosc , 1801 )\n.\nfry - obrien , l . l . and m . s . mulla . 1996 . optimal conditions for rearing the tadpole shrimp , triops longicaudatus ( notostraca : triopsidae ) , a biological control agent against mosquitoes . j . american control association 12 ( part 1 ) , 446 - 453 .\nif you purchased your triops from one of our overseas distributors , your triops are warranted , but they are warranted by that distributor . the distributor\u2019s address should be on the warranty form . please follow their instructions to claim your warranty .\norientation responses of triops granarius ( lucas ) ( branchiopoda : notostraca ) and streptocephalus spp . ( branchiopoda : anostraca )\nonce your triops hatch , you will need to feed them . place a thin slice of crushed peeled carrot into your hatching dish as a constant supply of food and follow the feeding directions provided in your instruction sheet . be careful and don ' t over feed your triops . overfeeding can cause high bacteria levels , which can lead to drastically lowered oxygen levels , causing your triops to die . if you hatch your triops in your own aquarium be sure it holds one - half to one liter of water only . triops will starve trying to find food if the tank is too large .\nthe tadpole shrimp ( scientific name = triops longicaudatus , which are in the order notostraca in the class branchiopoda ) inhabits freshwater , ephemeral ponds ranging from 50\u00ban latitude in western north america through central america and into south america . in the u . s . , triops are found in desert habitats ( see figure 1 ) . they live in small pools that accumulate after flash floods in the summer . since these pools are rather short - lived , the triops consequently have short lifespans , completing their life cycles in a mere 20 - 40 days ! -\ntests on the international space station ( iss ) prove this hardiness . those findings led to a nasa high school experiment last year that sent triops longicaudatus back to the iss to test whether it could be grown in space and serve as a high - protein food source for astronauts on future long - term missions .\nkwon , s . j . , h . y . kwon , y . c . jun . j . e . lee , and d . h . won . 2009 . effect of temperature on hatching rate of triops longicaudatus ( triopsidae , notostraca ) . korean j . limnol . 42 , 32 - 38 .\nthiel , h . 1963 . zur entwicklung von triops cancriformis bosc . zool . anz . 170 , 62 - 68 .\nstudents can hatch and observe their own 1 to 2\nliving fossils\nwith this easy - to - use kit . study the life cycle of the tadpole shrimp , triops longicaudatus , an animal resembling the extinct trilobite . kit includes a vial containing triops eggs . the eggs hatch within 24 to 36 hr after water is added , and adults will be present in 2 to 3 weeks . kit also includes plastic container , food , and instructions .\ncarlisle , d . b . 1968 . triops ( entomostraca ) eggs killed only by boiling . science . 161 : 279\u2013280 .\ndo not change the water before the 8th day after hatching . otherwise , you run the risk of pouring out the tiny new triops\ntriops have a varied diet , from mosquito larvae to aquatic plants and tiny invertebrates to , um , other triops . yes , to support their rapid growth , larger triops will cannibalize smaller ones if food supplies run low . hey , when your home is perpetually in danger of drying up , you have to eat as much as you can so you can grow and breed before it\u2019s too late .\nt . longicaudatus is known to exhibit several major reproductive strategies : individuals can be sexual ( either male or female with populations that are either half male and half female or are female - biased ) , parthenogenetic , or hermaphroditic . what is interesting about t . longicaudatus is that different populations exhibit a different reproductive strategy or combination of strategies . this fact suggests that these different reproducing populations might be considered different subspecies or species in the future .\nthe obvious characters such as carapace shape , body ring number , and appendage number often vary significantly within defined species . you may have two triops of very similar appearance that are regarded as different species while two very different looking triops are considered the same species to an expert .\ntriops eggs are only 1mm in diameter . please open the egg dish over a white sheet of paper even if the dish appears empty .\nto help your triops grow larger , supplement their diet with pet / fish food such as brine shrimp or small pieces of fish or shrimp .\nthe triops will hatch 18 hours after you put them in . when they do , you shouldn ' t feed them for another 24 hours .\ngo term classification for t . longicaudatus . ( a ) predicted functional interpretation of unigenes into represented biological process , cellular component , and molecular function ; ( b ) number of unigene sequences annotated with numbers of go terms per sequence .\nkwon , s . j . , y . c . jun . j . h . park , d . h . won , e . w . seo , and j . e . lee . 2010 . distribution and habitat characteristics of tadpole shrimp ( crustacea : notostraca : triops longicaudatus ( leconte ) ) in korea . korean j . limnol . 43 , 142 - 149 .\n8 : 00 pm : we spotted another triops swimming around ( we never saw him again , and presumed that the bigger one ate him . )\n9 : 40 am : we fed the triops . ( a quarter of one of the green and brown pellets that came with the package . )\ntriops can be found in asia , south america , and in some parts of north america where the climate is right . some eggs stay unhatched from the previous group and hatch when rain soaks the area . triops are fond of dirty , warm water filled with bacteria , of which they eat .\nchen b , chen x ( 1999 ) . triops - theliving fossil in songnen plain . fossils , ( 3 ) : 2\u20153 ( in chinese )\ntranscripts was unexpected and suggests that there is a difference in the way in which ventral versus dorsal tissue is patterned in triops . the phenotype of drosophila\nthere is a wide assortment of triops starter kits out there to choose from . they\u2019re low - commitment , too : triops only live for 1\u20133 months ( less if they eat each other ) . and when one batch dies out , you can dry out the soil or sand in the tank and transfer it to fresh water . if resting eggs are in the sand , with the proper care , you ' ll soon have another group of triops .\nby the end of each instar , the exoskeleton will shed . the appendages and segments will increase as the triops grow . the color will also change from orange to grayish brown . the triops will reach their maturity in a matter of 8 days and by that time they are ready to lay eggs .\nthe tadpole shrimp , triops longicaudatus , was found to be a size - dependent predator of culex quinquefasciatus larvae in the laboratory . however , changes in tadpole shrimp size were accompanied by changes in prey - size preference : larger - sized predators consumed an increasing proportion of larger prey items . very large tadpole shrimp may be nonselective predators of this mosquito species . . . . [ show full abstract ]\nuse distilled or spring water ( avoid using tap water ) . put in some sand or small gravel after 11 days . it use for lay eggs in the substrate . if you can\u2019t see triops after 18 hours , be patience and not to overfeed triops because it will make the water dirty and reduce oxygen\nhi , i\u2019m ranger kenny , here with you on the slickrock of zion national park . even on a planet where life seemingly thrives in all environments , few creatures dare to call this alien terrain home . but in this most bizarre setting lurks an equally bizarre creature . triops longicaudatus , also known as the tadpole shrimp , depends on the temporary waters of desert potholes to live out its unique life cycle .\ntadpole shrimps ( order notostraca ) have 25 to 44 pairs of legs , which are mostly hidden under the horseshoe - shaped carapace . six species of tadpole shrimp exist in north america . one of these , triops longicaudatus , is common in texas . a large specimen might measure an inch and a half from the tip of the carapace to the end of the \u201ctails , \u201d which are properly called cercopods .\nanalyses confirm the monophyly of five main evolutionary lineages within the genus triops : t . granarius , t . cancriformis , t . mauritanicus and a fourth lineage containing t . longicaudatus and t . newberryi . the fifth lineage comprised haplotypes belonging to a recently discovered triops sp . population from the saline lake carey in western australia . the monophyly of the various australian lineages identified as t . australiensis , however , could not be confirmed although there was weak support for this clade in the coi dataset . as a result , this taxon could be paraphyletic . within triops , t . cancriformis and t . mauritanicus emerged as two sister groups . the minimum genetic distance between these two clades ( 11 . 0 % ) was smaller than the genetic distances to the other main triops lineages ( 17 . 9\u201323 . 8 % ) . the triops population from lake carey in western australia did not cluster together with other australian populations but instead emerged as a distinct lineage . coi and 12s sequences diverged 12 . 3\u201317 . 9 % and 7 . 4\u201311 . 1 % between haplotypes from lake carey and t . australiensis specimens , respectively . in the 12s analysis , bi , ml , nj and qp trees place the american triops clade , which contains specimens morphologically identified as t . longicaudatus and t . newberryi , as an evolutionary sister of the australian t . sp . clade from lake carey . k2p values further justify this position . maximum genetic divergences between lake carey and t . australiensis haplotypes of 17 . 9 % and 11 . 1 % in the coi and 12s gene , respectively , were higher than the divergences of 16 . 3 % and 8 . 6 % identified between the lake carey species and t . longicaudatus .\nuse approximately 20 eggs for each hatching . your egg dish contains enough eggs for 2 - 3 hatchings . you should get 1 - 3 triops per hatching .\nthe average life span is 20 - 90 days . the triops natural habitat is in temporary ponds . since the ponds are temporary , the triops have evolved a survival method of hatching and laying eggs quickly before the ponds dry up . the warmer it is , the faster they grow , and the quicker they vanish .\ntriops longicaudatus displays several reproductive strategies . individuals may reproduce sexually , but this is rare , as most populations are highly male - or female - biased . parthenogenesis ( development from unfertilized eggs ) is the most common reproductive strategy . some populations , however , consist of hermaphrodites who fertilize each other . different populations display different strategies or combinations of strategies , and may therefore , be considered separate species or subspecies in the future .\nsupporting tables . table s1 . gps coordinates of each sampled playa location . table s2 . amova results . table s3 . triops newberryi mitochondrial control region genetic distances .\nmembers of the order notostraca ( colloquially referred to as notostracans , called triops , tadpole shrimp or shield shrimp ) are small crustaceans in the class branchiopoda . triops have two internal compound eyes and one naupliar eye in - between , a flattened carapace covering its head and leg - bearing segments of the body . the order contains a single family , with only two extant genera . their external morphology has apparently not changed since the triassic appearance of triops cancriformis around 220 million years ago . triops cancriformis may therefore be the\noldest living animal species on earth .\nthe members of the extinct order kazacharthra are closely related , having been descended from notostracans . -\nis restricted to an anteroventral portion of most of the ventral branches : en is posterior and dll is detected in each of the developing limb branches . thus , triops\nmind you , i was reading their faqs in more detail , and found this :\nfish , axolotls and turtles will all eat billabong bugs ( triops )\n.\nonce the water temperatures are the same , you can gently pour your triops into a temporary disposable container . then pour all the tank water into the toilet and rinse the tank with the bottled spring or drinking water . next , add the bottled spring or drinking water to your tank , and then gently pour your triops back into the tank .\nafter the eggs hatch , they will begin to feed on invertebrates like the fairy shrimps . the metanauplius is the very first larval stage and at this point , the triops are still orange in color . the triops only has six legs and one eye during the first stage and will soon develop in the next growth stages or also called instars .\nboth analyses of a relatively rapid ( coi ) and a more slowly evolving mitochondrial marker ( 12srdna ) , consistently recovered a comb - like tree depicting hypothetical phylogenetic relations among the four main triops lineages ( t . granarius , t . australiensis , t . cancriformis - mauritanicus , t . longicaudatus - newberryi ) . the possibility of radiation , as suggested for other branchiopod crustaceans [ 40 ] and rapid diversification in triops early in its evolutionary history , hence , cannot be excluded . intercontinental dispersal and subsequent isolation followed by genetic differentiation under limited gene flow almost certainly led to speciation in the four main triops lineages , which are largely restricted to different biogeographic regions . divergence of the fifth lineage , t . sp . , in turn , presumably results from a unique habitat shift from freshwater to saline habitats .\n. these are species that , although classified together , have been distinct lineages for millions of years and are reproductively isolated . the indication is that many triops species are actually be composed of multiple subspecies that currently remain undefined . only with time and more research will a more complete picture of the the number and variety of triops species be accurately known .\nall triops products include warranty instructions . please mail your proof of purchase , self - addressed stamped envelope ( $ 0 . 52 ) , and $ 1 . 00 to :\ntakahashi f ( 1977a ) . pioneer life of the tadpole shrimps , triops spp . ( notostraca : triopsidae ) . applied entomology and zoology , 12 ( 2 ) : 104\u2015117\nexpression has now been observed in drosophila , tribolium and triops . the drosophila terminal ring expression has always been attributed to the precursor cells to the proctodeum , which also stain with\nthe second major problem with making any definitive statements on the notostracan species is that modern genetic analysis is calling even the agreed species classifications into question . the triops are remarkably similar in\nyes , triops are cannibals and known to eat the weakest , smallest or sick . be sure that you are feeding them often enough and supplementing their diet to try and curb this behavior . the only fail - proof way to get them to stop eating each other is to move your triops into separate tanks or to a much larger tank on day 8 .\n8 : 50 am : fed her ( same as days 3 & 5 ) we noted that at this point , our remaining triops was 3 / 4 of an inch long .\nzierold t , montero - pau j , hanfling b , gomez a ( 2009 ) sex ratio , reproductive mode and genetic diversity in triops cancriformis . freshwater biology 54 : 1392\u20131405 .\ntakahashi , f . 1977b . high water temperature prevents egg hatching in triops granarius ( notostracea : triopsidae ) . appl . ent . zool . 12 ( 2 ) : 196\u2013197 .\nexpression dorsally suggests that it does not play a role in either the delineation or direction of dorsal cell fates in triops . the dorsal cells may employ a different development mechanism in order to grow and / or maintain segment polarity . in this regard , it will be interesting to determine whether other triops wnt family members have dorsal expression patterns ( nulsen , 1999 ) .\ntakahashi , f . 1977 . pioneer life of the tadpole shrimps , triops spp . ( notostraca : triopsidae ) . appl . entomol . and zool . 12 , 104 - 117 .\nordered this kit as a summer project for kids ; it worked exactly as they said in the info . triops grew bigger as you keep feeding them . good project for its price !\ntakahashi , f . 1977a . pioneer life of the tadpole shrimps , triops spp . ( notostraca : triopsidae ) . appl . ent . zool . 12 ( 2 ) : 104\u2013117 .\ntakahashi , f . 1975 . effect of light on the hatching of eggs in triops granarius ( notostraca : triopsidae ) . environ . control in biol . 13 ( 1 ) : 29\u201333 .\na preliminary attempt to resolve phylogenetic relations in the notostraca based on 12s and 16s rdna markers was performed by mantovani and coworkers [ 26 ] . splitting the genus triops as suggested by these authors , however , is likely to be unjustified since in our results the monophyly of both genera is confirmed . as a result , the main morphological difference between lepidurus and triops , the presence of a supra - anal plate ( a posteriorly directed median extension of the telson which is present in lepidurus but never in triops ; figure 1a , b ) , is supported as a systematically informative character .\nwhile tiny bits of organic debris compose the bulk of triops\u2019 diet , these creatures also play a critical part in pest control by feeding on mosquito eggs and larvae that inhabit the same ephemeral pools .\nmaffi m ( 1962 ) . triops granaries ( lucas ) ( crustacea ) as a natural enemy of mosquito larvae . nature , 195 ( 4842 ) : 722 doi : 10 . 1038 / 195722a0\nwell no , most triops are females , which can reproduce without males , however there is sometimes males , which if im right in thinking you can tell are male byt the difference in the body shape , well the hard shell and the male has a shorter tail . . . . . anyway ! im growing a triops right now in a 25 litre tank , he is growning great ! !\nif the triops are large , you can gently pour off 1 / 3 of the water directly into the toilet and replace . repeat this step every 3 - 5 minutes until the tank appears clean .\nphylogenetic reconstruction yielded no statistical support for monophyly of the nominal genus triops nor for an alternative positioning of its lineages . only ml ( 52 % ) , nj ( 40 % ) and bi ( posterior probability of 80 ) analyses of the coi gene provide weak support for the monophyly of triops . in the absence of a resolved topology , we resorted to constraint analyses to formally test the hypothesis of monophyly .\nexpression in each segment becomes ventrolaterally restricted into a series of shorter stripes . some but not all of these shorter stripes correspond to what becomes the ventral side of a developing limb branch . it is concluded that the drosophila model of limb development cannot explain all types of arthropod proximodistal outgrowths , and that the multi - branched limb of triops develops from an early reorganization of the ventral body wall . in triops ,\nmany of the previous studies have focused on triops populations that are separated by distances of hundreds or thousands of kilometers between sampled ponds [ 21 ] , [ 27 ] , [ 31 ] . large geographic distances between populations makes it difficult to determine if it is the mating system influencing the genetic structure and diversity of triops populations or if dispersal of encysted embryos is simply limited over long distances . the current study is designed to aid in differentiating between the influence of founding events , dispersal and mating systems by using nine triops populations located within 30 km and encompassing two putative species with different presumed reproductive modes . two of the species of triops in the northern chihuahuan desert are t . longicaudatus \u201cshort\u201d and t . newberryi [ 27 ] , [ 32 ] . different reproductive modes are presumed for t . l . \u201cshort\u201d and t . newberryi based on the male ( absence of a brood pouch ) to female ( presence of a brood pouch ) ratio within populations ; t . l . \u201cshort\u201d is comprised of all females and is assumed to reproduce via parthenogenesis or hermaphroditism whereas t . newberryi is thought to be androdioecious , with populations comprised of hermaphrodites that outcross with males [ 27 ] . a recent phylogeny of triops showed that t . l . \u201cshort\u201d and t . newberryi are not monophyletic , calling into question whether species status is warranted [ 33 ] .\njust how many species of triops there are is a good question , and one that in spite of researching several papers on them i certainly don ' t feel confident to answer with any authority . there are a number of problems involved with a definitive list of who ' s who in the triops world . first , it ' s now been close to 50 years since anyone has attempted a serious review of the\n. . . genetic lineages in triops , however , have more recently evolved despite conserved morphology ( mathers et al . , 2013a ) and there is increasing evidence for cryptic species diversification within the genus ( sassaman et al . , 1997 ; korn and hundsdoerfer , 2006 ; korn et al . , 2006 ) . genetic resources , including sequenced genes ( suno - uchi et al . , 1997 ; murugan et al . , 2002 ; korn and hundsdoerfer , 2006 ; korn et al . , 2006 korn et al . , , 2010 stenderup et al . , 2006 ; zierold et al . , 2007 ; mantovani et al . , 2008 ; macdonald et al . , 2011 ; vanschoenwinkel et al . , 2012 ; baek et al . , 2013 ) , microsatellites ( cesari et al . , 2004 ; velon\u00e0 et al . , 2009 ; zierold et al . , 2009 ; stoeckle et al . , 2013 ) and whole genomes ( umetsu et al . , 2002 ; cook et al . , 2005 ; ryu and hwang , 2010 ) , have been essential for elucidating the phylogenetic relationships between the species of triops and identifying cryptic species . cryptic species of triops have been identified in the southwestern united states , where a single species of triops , triops longicaudatus ( leconte , 1846 ) , has been split into at least three putative species ( t . . . .\nall warranty replacements are shipped by our warranty group that collect requests from the po box listed . the $ 2 . 00 covers postage and handling . the replacement triops eggs and baby food are free of charge .\ntriops kits come with a well - balanced , nutritional mix of pellets . please feed as directed in your instruction manual . if you run out of food , you can purchase any pellet fish food from a local pet store . you can also supplement the triops diet with freeze - dried bloodworms and brine shrimp , with tiny bits of raw / cooked fish or shrimp ( hold the spice ! ) and with peeled carrot .\nin addition to sexual reproduction , some eggs are capable of developing without fertilization . other triops are hermaphrodites . this means an entire population can develop from just one egg . no wonder they\u2019ve survived for so long .\nnewly hatched triops remain tiny for the first 5 days . feed according to the directions even if you don ' t see them . if after 6 days you don ' t see any young triops swimming about , follow the warranty instructions in your kit . if you followed the directions carefully , try changing the brand of water you used for hatching and review your instructions for any possible errors that were made the first time around .\nkelber , k . p . 1999 . triops cancriformis ( crustacea , notostraca ) : einbemerkenswertes fossil aus der trias mitteleuropas . trias , eine ganz andere welt : mitteleuropa im fruhen erdmittelalter , pp . 383 - 394 .\nread your instruction sheet and helpful hints again . insure your night time water temperature stays above 73\u00b0f . make sure your triops received either natural or fluorescent light . change the type or brand of water used and insure the water contains calcium ( use natural spring water ) . hatch in a small amount of water ( less than 1 liter ) . if your triops did not grow , change the brand of water prior to hatching additional eggs .\nplease read this urltoken and think by yourself before asking any questions . if you want to successfully keep some triops by your own you should know some important things about them and particularly about their habits and their natural environment .\nthe white powder in the egg capsule is corn starch . your eggs are not damaged . follow the instructions and place the corn starch containing the triops eggs in a glass of water to separate the corn starch and eggs .\nthe life span of the triops is short . in order to complete the lives of these tadpole shrimps , they have to depend on the ever changing temperatures of temporary waters that serve as their primary habitat . during summer and fall ( dry season ) , you can find lots of triops eggs . during winter and spring , more rainwater will come which will soon fill up the pools . by this time , the eggs will start to hatch .\n( a\u2013b ) examples of tadpole shrimp representatives belonging to the genera lepidurus and triops , respectively , illustrating the supra anal plate : a posterior extension of the telson characteristic for lepidurus . ( a ) lepidurus apus ( photo : jacques pages ) , ( b ) triops cancriformis ( photo : aline waterkeyn ) , scale bar = 2 cm ; ( c ) geographic distribution of investigated notostraca populations . locality numbers correspond with population entries in table s1 .\nin the nature , hatching rate is approx 10 - 60 % , triops naturally live in puddles , so they don\u2019t need clean water like aquarium fish . cleaning the tank weekly or when the water get too dirty or smelly .\neating a fish pellet , briefly shows the\nback swimming\nfeeding behavior . video also shows some younger triops in a floating tub . used my phone for the video so the white balance settings are all over the place .\ntry to picture a tiny , transparent crustacean that looks like a hybrid of a centipede and a horseshoe crab with a zillion writhing legs . while they\u2019re not likely to win any beauty contests , triops are impressive little critters . the genus triops has been around for as long as 300 million years \u2014that\u2019s about 200 million years older than t . rex \u2014making them the oldest known animals on the planet . here are some other fun facts about these resilient creatures .\nat the center of the disc , where it promotes proximodistal outgrowth . the interaction between these genes has led to a model of limb development in drosophila termed the uniramous paradigm . during the development of the multibranched limbs of triops ,\nyour triops will die if you shake or stir up the bottom gravel while water changing . make sure you change the water several times or until water is crystal clear to your vision . do not start water changes until day 8 .\nan overview of the 89 triops and lepidurus populations included in our analyses and their localities is provided in table s1 and plotted in figure 1 . detailed information about the known distribution of different notostracan lineages can be consulted in text s1 .\nhuixian wu , junzeng xue . analysis of the diet of the tadpole shrimp , triops sinensis , in paddy fields of shouchang river watershed [ j ] . front . biol . , 2009 , 4 ( 4 ) : 569 - 573 .\nis a growth factor known to play a role in proliferation in the notum of the wing and the formation of malphigian tubules in drosophila . it is reasonable to expect that it plays a similar role in the proliferation of segments from posterior in triops . triops segments become delineated from the posterior of the larva in the region of the posterior ring . similar to the ' progress zone ' model in the chick limb bud , cells may be actively proliferating from the posterior . the posterior\nexpression during ' late ' appendage development exhibits parallels to the drosophila uniramous paradigm . expression patterns of several genes are conserved in the development of branches of the multibranched limb of triops and the uniramous limb of drosophila . in drosophila limb development ,\nargues that innovation in limb form found in triops is likely due to an early change in d / v patterning . the drosophila paradigm relies on an initial specification of the imaginal primordia via an early interaction between d / v and a / p patterning genes . how does triops establish multiple branches from one set of a / p and d / v coordinates ? it is proposed that limbs with many branches , such as those seen in the trunk swimming appendages of the branchiopod crustacean\nnew trace fossils found in the late pleistocene glaciolacustrine varves of the connecticut river valley , vermont , usa represent the first known notostracan presence in glacial lake hitchcock . these unique trace fossils warrant a new ichnogenus and ichnospecies surculichnus bifurcauda . the new england varve chronology ( nevc ) constrains the initial presence of s . bifurcauda at \u223c 13 . 3\u201313 . 2 kyr . the morphology of s . bifurcauda correlates well with notostracan characteristics and behavior . sieving of bedding planes that contained s . bifurcauda produced one chitinous fossil that is suggestive of a notostracan telson . neoichnological experimentation was conducted with the species triops longicaudatus . during the subadult stage , t . longicaudatus produced traces representative of locomotion and feeding behaviors , and at the adult stage reproduced s . bifurcauda , as well as rusophycus . possible explanations for the productions of these traces are egg laying or predation behaviors that are both related to maturity . further research in the paleo - and modern ecology of glacial and nearctic lakes may shed more light on the maker of s . bifurcauda .\nthe first objective of this study is to assess the genetic structure of each triops species and determine what factors ( founding events or contemporary dispersal ) influence population differentiation . secondly , we compare the effect of different presumed reproductive modes and the degree of inbreeding to the genetic diversity and structure of the triops populations . we hypothesize , based on population genetic theory , that the androdioecious species will have more alleles , higher allelic richness , fewer private alleles , higher observed heterozygosity , lower f is and f st , and relatively greater genetic variance within as opposed to between populations . the last objective is to evaluate whether the two putative species of triops in southern new mexico are reproductively isolated in the ponds in which they co - occur .\nrain - pool habitats are gradually disappearing in israel as a result of agricultural and urban development . present and past records of notostracan distribution here reveal a difference in the occurrence of triops cancriformis and lepidurus apus lubbocki , the former rather rare , and support the suggestion that species of triops are more thermophilic than lepidurus , with optimal hatching temperature 8\u201312\u00b0c higher . the limited distribution of t . cancriformis in israel may be partly attributed to sub - optimal temperatures ( < 20\u00b0c ) in early winter .\nin the usa , the top selling waters ( dansani , wal - mart tru - value brand and aquafina ) have labeling indicating the water is purified and for that reason they fail to grow triops . you need to avoid all water labeled distilled , reverse osmosis or deionized . read the back of the label or call the manufacturer to determine how it is purified . do not use mineral water . mineral waters\u2019 like evian have too high of a mineral content and will fail to grow triops .\nthe tadpole shrimp , triops longicaudatus , was found to be a size - dependent predator of culex quinquefasciatus larvae in the laboratory . however , changes in tadpole shrimp size were accompanied by changes in prey - size preference : larger - sized predators consumed an increasing proportion of larger prey items . very large tadpole shrimp may be nonselective predators of this mosquito species . quantified behavioral observations indicated that while second instar mosquito larvae were encountered significantly less frequently than were fourth instar larvae or pupae , they were captured at significantly greater rates and with shorter handling times . it is hypothesized that prey vulnerability has an important influence on tadpole shrimp prey size\npreferences .\n. . . triops newberryi ( packard ) , formerly called triops longicaudatus le conte , the predominant species of tadpole shrimp in the southwestern united states , including the states of washington , oregon , and california ( sassaman et al . 1997 , su and mulla 2002a ) , was considered as a natural enemy of immature mosquitoes in temporary waters decades ago ( maffi 1962 ) . however , their potential utility in mosquito control was not available until recent publications by tietze and mulla ( 1989 , 1990 , 1991 ) and fry and mulla ( 1994 ) . the characteristics of fast nymphal growth , early maturation , high reproduction capacity ( fry - o ' brien and mulla 1996 , su and mulla 2002b ) , and their predation on immature mosquitoes ( tietze and mulla 1989 , 1990 , 1991 ) make them suitable for regulating mosquito populations that share the same ephemeral or semipermanent habitats with tps . . . .\nand locate your triops kit . here you will find the most recent version of the instructions for each kit . these can be downloaded to your computer in a pdf format . to view these files , you will need a copy of adobe reader .\nwe have moved our triops to a bigger tank . it might be a good idea to pour as much of the old water into the new tank as you can ( as long as its clean ) to avoid a sudden shock to the system .\ntadpole shrimp ( crustacea , notostraca ) comprise one living family , the triopsidae , including two genera : triops schrank , 1803 and lepidurus leach , 1819 . members of this group are often considered prime examples of evolutionary stasis [ 1 ] \u2013 [ 3 ] with the oldest confirmed notostracan fossils dating back as far as the upper carboniferous period [ 4 ] . alleged to have remained virtually unchanged during an evolutionary timeframe of more than 250 million years , some surviving members of this ancient crustacean order are frequently referred to as living fossils . the contemporary triops cancriformis ( bosc , 1801 ) , for instance , is regularly cited as the oldest living species because of its striking resemblance to late permian [ 5 ] and early triassic fossils [ 6 ] \u2013 [ 10 ] . similarly , fossils from the late cretaceous have been identified as the living species triops longicaudatus ( le conte , 1846 ) while other fossils from similar deposits of the same age were classified in the extant genus lepidurus [ 11 ] , [ 12 ] . the long evolutionary history of the group , together with its presumed \u2018living fossil\u2019 status and wide current distribution ranges , are suggestive of an ancient radiation ."]}
{"id": 365, "summary": [{"text": "millerosaurus is an extinct genus of millerettid parareptile from the late permian ( changhsingian stage ) of south africa.it was a small animal which reached a length of 30 cm .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "unlike many other parareptiles , it had holes ( fenestrae ) behind the eyesockets in the skull .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it had a slabsided body , a long tail , and a narrow but triangular skull ( about 2 inches long ) with large eyes , and is thought to have been insectivorous . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "millerosaurus", "paragraphs": ["millerosaurus was a small reptile that lived in the late permian period , about 250 million years ago . outwardly it resembled a lizard , and probably had a lifestyle similar to them , feeding on insects , but it was not closely related to them - millerosaurus is actually part of the anapsid group of reptiles ( the group which also includes turtles ) .\nwatson dms 1957 . on millerosaurus and the early history of the sauropsida . philosophical transactions of the royal society of london series b 240 ( 673 ) : 325 - 400 .\ngenerally speaking , most anapsid reptiles do not have holes (\nfenestrae\n) in the skull , but millerosaurus was unusual in that it did have these , behind its eye socket .\n. . . loss of the fifth distal tarsal occurs as independent autapomorphies in parareptilia , sauria , and he clade including gorgonopsians and cynodonts . millerettidae watson 1957 definition . the most recent common ancestor of milleretta , milleropsis , and millerosaurus , and all its descendants . . . .\n. . . the stapes of\nmillerosaurus\nnuffieldi , however , is different . the shaft is straight and there is a clearer separation between the dorsal and hyoid processes ( watson 1957 ) . there is a weak contact between the paroccipital process and the squamosal , which contributes to the dorsal half of the otic notch for the attachment of the tympanic membrane . . . .\n. . . none of the preserved vertebrae possess a transversely thin median ventral keel , contrasting with the condition commonly found among the cervico\u2013dorsal vertebrae of some basal parareptiles ( e . g . millerosaurus pricei [ 129 ] ; procolophon trigoniceps [ 135 ] ) , some ' ' pelycosaurian ' ' synapsids ( e . g . apsisaurus witteri [ 73 ] ; varanops brevirostris [ 172 ] ) , araeoscelidians ( e . g . . . .\n. . . these dissimilar humeral morphologies between these owenettid taxa highlight the diversity within the family . nonetheless , both taxa lack an entepicondylar foramen , a synapomorphy of the family , unlike in other basal parareptiles ( e . g . , millerosaurus ; watson , 1957 ; gow , 1972 ) and procolophonids ( e . g . , procolophon ; debraga , 2003 ) . compared to humeri figured and described by mecker ( 1995 ) , the humeri here described from germany are similar in structure ( fig . 5 ) to barasaurus , rather than owenetta . . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\na simplified picture of the history of the anapsida , showing the ranges of constituent groups . some of these groups are argued to be elsewhere within reptilia : see the note below . note that most of the groups originated in , and went extinct at the end of , the permian . time periods : pen , pennsylvanian ( carboniferous ) ; per , permian ; tri , triassic ; jur , jurassic . used with permission : ucmp\nthe millerittids originated by the upper permian in south africa . they were small and lightly built , with sharp conical teeth suggesting an insectivorous or carnivorous diet . their hearing was still rather basic . some millerittids possessed temporal fenestrae .\n, a millerittid . the skull is around 50mm long , with temporal fenestrae . it would have lived somewhat like a modern lizard .\nthis is the earliest known anapsid , from the lower permian of north america . it was small in size , and already showed signs of being quite advanced , but its teeth were still fairly simple .\nsee figure a below . it is most closely related to the lanthanosuchids . it therefore is not an ancestral form for the anapsids , indicating an earlier origin for the group - probably in the mid to late carboniferous .\nthis is an enigmatic group from the late permian of russia . they are closely related to\n, but distant relatives of turtles . because of their strange anatomy , their position within anapsida has been debated : they could be part of a more ancient group of early tetrapods . their skulls were broad ( around 15cm wide by 20cm long ) , and possessed temporal fenestrae , and bony ridges to add strength . they were also very flat , so flat that the jaw musculature did not fit in the skull and had to be attached outside it , through special openings behind the eyes . they may have used their flat skulls to push through leaf litter , feeding on insects and grubs , or they could have been aquatic .\nthis group is poorly known . they may be the group from which the procolophonoidae evolved , as they appear to be quite primitive .\n. they are a well known and diverse group from the upper permian , and have been found in europe , asia and africa . they included the largest terrestrial anapsids that ever lived , typically 2 - 3m long . the russian\nwith bumps and frills , characteristic of the pareiasaurs . all pareiasaurs had bony scales ( ' scutes ' ) over at least part of their bodies , and these have been suggested to be the beginnings of the turtle shell . they also had advanced hearing , and multi - cusped , leaf shaped teeth , indicating herbivory .\nthe procolophonids are the only extinct group to have survived the end permian extinction , suviving from late permian , for 50 million years through to the end of the triassic . they are possibly , if not the pareiasaurs , the closest relative of the turtles . they were very diverse , and have been found on nearly every continent . procolophonids were quite small , and had well developed hearing . most had sharp teeth for eating meat and insects , but later forms , in the late triassic , had more bulbous teeth suggesting herbivory ( see c below ) .\nfrom the upper jurassic , by which time the teeth , common to all previous anapsids , had been lost , and the familiar shell had been gained . its\nforms have been placed in the anapsida , largely based upon the lack of temporal fenestration . as this is a primitive ( ancestral ) character for amniotes and cannot be used to constrain them , they are technically an\nthis has caused many problems when new characters of the members of anapsida have come to light : they may be moved within the group , or out of it altogether . when a basal group undergoes cladistic ( relational ) reshuffling , this inevitably has wide reaching consequences - for anything inferred to have evolved from it , i . e . the turtles , and in parallel to it , i . e . the rest of the reptiles , and even beyond .\n, depending on which characteristics are used to define these relationships , and how much importance is placed upon them . this has resulted in controversy on whether groups in the subclass ,\n- either the archosaurs ( crocodiles and birds ) , or lepidosuars ( lizards and snakes ) . there is as yet no consensus on where they truly belong . ( if turtles are excluded from anapsida , the alternative term of parareptilia is sometimes used for the remaining members of the group . )\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nfull reference : r . broom . 1948 . a contribution to our knowledge of the vertebrates of the karroo beds of south africa . transactions of the royal society of edinburgh 61 ( 2 ) : 577 - 629\ndinosaur jungle dinosaur crosswords dinosaur facts amazing dinosaurs classification ornithischia ankylosaurs ceratopsians marginocephalia ornithopods pachycephalosaurs stegosaurs saurischia prosauropods sauropods theropods definition diet eggs extinction family tree fossils footprints life span living dinosaurs ? myths timeline triassic period jurassic period cretaceous period world african dinosaurs antarctic dinosaurs asian dinosaurs australian dinosaurs european dinosaurs indian dinosaurs n . american dinosaurs s . american dinosaurs dinosaur jokes dinosaur museums australia dinosaur museums canada dinosaur museums uk dinosaur museums usa dinosaur museums dinosaur names dinosaur pictures dinosaur scientists charles darwin mary anning sir richard owen more dinosaur scientists dinosaur types allosaurus ankylosaurus apatosaurus baryonyx brachiosaurus centrosaurus ceratosaurus coelophysis deinonychus dilophosaurus diplodocus euoplocephalus iguanodon kentrosaurus lambeosaurus maiasaura megalosaurus microraptor monoclonius pachycephalosaurus parasaurolophus pentaceratops protoceratops saltopus saurolophus seismosaurus spinosaurus stegosaurus styracosaurus supersaurus triceratops tyrannosaurus rex velociraptor more dinosaur types dinosaur word search other prehistoric animals aetosaurs ambulocetus ammonites andrewsarchus archaeopteryx basilosaurus belemnites brontotheres chalicotheres champsosaurs coelacanth cynodonts dicynodonts dimetrodon gastornis\nwe do hope that you find this site useful . we welcome people linking to this website or citing us .\nurltoken is copyright \u00a9 2006 - 2018 , answers 2000 limited disclosure : our company ' s websites ' content ( including this website ' s content ) includes advertisements for our own company ' s websites , products , and services , and for other organization ' s websites , products , and services . in the case of links to other organization ' s websites , our company may receive a payment , ( 1 ) if you purchase products or services , or ( 2 ) if you sign - up for third party offers , after following links from this website . unless specifically otherwise stated , information about other organization ' s products and services , is based on information provided by that organization , the product / service vendor , and / or publicly available information - and should not be taken to mean that we have used the product / service in question . additionally , our company ' s websites contain some adverts which we are paid to display , but whose content is not selected by us , such as google adsense ads . for more detailed information , please see advertising / endorsements disclosures our sites use cookies , some of which may already be set on your computer . use of our site constitutes consent for this . for details , please see privacy . click privacy for information about our company ' s privacy , data collection and data retention policies , and your rights . contact us privacy terms of use advertising / endorsements disclosures\nthis text was harvested from a scanned image of the original document using optical character recognition ( ocr ) software . as such , it may contain errors . please contact the royal society if you find an error you would like to see corrected . mathematical notations produced through infty ocr .\nyou may be able to gain access using your login credentials for your institution . contact your library if you do not have a username and password .\npay per article - you may access this article or this issue ( from the computer you are currently using ) for 30 days .\nregain access - you can regain access to a recent pay per article or pay per issue purchase if your access period has not yet expired .\nthank you for your interest in spreading the word on philosophical transactions of the royal society b : biological sciences .\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see the philosophical transactions of the royal society b : biological sciences web site .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmilleropsis pricei ( gow 1972 ) early permian ~ 290 mya , ~ 20 cm in length , was originally considered a milleretid close to milleretta and a captorhinid ( close to captorhinus ) . here milleropsis was derived from a sister taxon to heleosaurus and it phylogenetically preceded eudibamus and petrolacosaurus at the base of the diapsida . the fossil is poorly known , but the skull , manus and pes provide many of the diagnostic characters .\ndistinct from heleosaurus , the skull of milleropsis had a wider set of parietals and a smaller parietal opening . the lower temporal arch was missing by reduction of the quadratojugal . the maxilla does not appear to disconnect the lacrimal and naris , but that part of the fossil is damaged or the interpretation of heleosaurus may be mistaken . the naris was probably closer to the jaw tips . the mandible had a slightly higher coronoid process . the transverse process of the pterygoid leaned anteriorly . the anterior pterygoids were separated along with the posterior vomers .\nthe vertebral column is not well known , but the caudal series is very long attenuated with little to no trace of any chevrons .\nthe scapula was distinct from the coracoid and dorsally was reduced to a thin strap . metacarpal 3 was longer than mc4 . the manus was larger with digits 3 and 4 subequal .\nthe ilium has a small anterior process and a reduced posterior process . the pubis and ischium were not separated . the pubis had a dorsal process .\nthe calcaneum was elongated , producing a pseudo tuber . metatarsals 3 and 4 were subequal . the penultimate phalanges were short . metatarsal v was elongated .\n( broom 1948 , watson 1957 ) late permian ( changhsingian , 30 cm est length ) is based on a chimaera of over a dozen skeletons with many common elements distinct from one another .\ngow ce . 1972 . the osteology and relationships of the millerettidae ( reptilia : cotylosauria ) . journal of zoology , london 167 : 219 - 264 .\n( not a bolosaur parareptile as originally described , modesto et al . 2015b ) . and\nif this is too confusing , let me know and i\u2019ll walk you through it .\nhas already been published as a paper ( modesto et al . 2015b ) .\nfigure 1 . click to enlarge . when you put the hands and feet and skull back together , you find erpetonyx nests close to eudibamus , but closer to milleropsis .\n\u201c erpetonyx arsenaultorum was recently erected for a single , nearly complete , and mostly articulated skeleton of a bolosaurian * parareptile * * collected from the gzhelian - age egmont bay formation of prince edward island . erpetonyx arsenaultorum is autapomorphic in possessing 29 presacral vertebrae and a relatively small radiale , fifth distal carpal , and pisiform . the skull is characterized by the presence of plicidentine and by the absence of caniniform maxillary teeth . the neural arches closely resemble those of the early permian lanthanosuchian\nin their broadly tongue - shaped zygapophyses , in which the lateral edges of the anterior zygapophyses pass posteriorly onto the lateral surface of the arch and form a conspicuous shelves , emphasized by an anteroventral pocket . the right carpus is well ossified . the preserved unguals are also well ossified , with a prominent flexor tubercle , a suboval proximal portion , and a stout , slightly ventrally curved tip . together with the observation that the unguals are longer than their respective proximal phalanges , ungual morphology suggests adaptation to a fossorial or semi - fossorial lifestyle . erpetonyx arsenaultorum is the oldest known amniote with digging adaptations , appearing ca . 3\udbc0\udcb14 million years after the demise of th coal - swamp forests\n* not a bolosaurian , but a milleropsid . * * parareptile is an outmoded name based on traditional cladograms that have been falsified by the large reptile tree .\nthe osteology and relationships of the millerettidae ( reptilia : cotylosauria ) . journal of zoology , london 167 : 219 - 264 .\nskeletal anatomy of the oldest known parareptile from the upper carboniferous of priince edward island , canada . journal of vertebrate paleontology abstacts\nmodesto sp , scott dm , macdougall mj , sues h - d , evans dc , reisz rr 2015b .\nthe oldest parareptile and the early diversification of reptiles . proceedings of the royal society b 282 : 20141912 .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\n. . . the inclusion of crilar - pv 499 within archosauromorpha is supported by the presence of a non - notochordal vertebra ( fig . 4 ) . this character is present in several basal reptiliomorphs ( e . g . , tseajaia campi vaughn , 1964 : moss , 1972 ) , parareptiles ( e . g . , milleropsis pricei ( watson , 1957 reisz , 1981 ; araeoscelis gracilis williston , 1910 : vaughn , 1955 acerosodontosaurus piveteaui currie , 1980 broom , 1905b : sam - pk - 5886 ) among basal archosauromorphs in the presence of a squared posterior projection of the bifurcated distal end of the rib ( fig . 4 ) pv 499 as sister - taxon of trilophosaurus buettneri , and two additional steps to force it as a more basal archosauromorph or to place it outside archosauromorpha ( e . g . , as the sister - taxon of sauria ) . the low number of additional steps to move crilar - pv 499 to a more basal position among diapsids is expected because of its fragmentary condition and the low number of characters scored for the specimen ( four scorings , see supplementary online information ) . . . .\n. . . in addition , the neurocentral suture is obliterated , suggesting that the animal was not a juvenile at the time of its death [ 110 ] , and that the presence of an open notochordal canal is therefore not a result of an early ontogenetic stage . the persistence of an open notochordal canal in a non - juvenile individual resembles the condition in multiple lineages of basal reptiliomorphs , parareptiles , basal synapsids , basal sauropsids , basal lepidosauromorphs , and the new archosauromorph species aenigmastropheus parringtoni from the late permian of tanzania ( [ 48 , 70 , 119 , 128 129 130131132133134 , see below ) . the anterior and posterior articular surfaces of the centrum are wider than tall . . . .\n. . . the former nomen has seen slightly less usage ( e . g . watson , 1957 ; kuhn - schnyder , 1962 ; kitching , 1977 ; tatarinov , 1978 ; rieppel & gronowski , 1981 ) compared with the latter ( e . g . romer , 1966 ; benton , 1985 ; evans , 1986 ; benton & allen , 1997 ; jalil , 1997 ; renesto & dalla vecchia , 2000 ) . . . .\n. . . these marine reptiles characterized by the upper temporal fenestra , the temporal arch , and an incisure in the postorbital part of the skull were previously referred to as the subclass synaptosauria . the ancestors of sauropterygians were proposed to belong to the areoscelidia , small terrestrial lizardlike synaptosaurians ( saint - seine , 1955 ; tatarinov , 1964a ; etc . ) ; or to early diapsids , such as eosuchians ( kuhn - schnyder , 1963 ) ; or they were considered to be of uncertain origin ( watson , 1957 ) . the hypotheses of the origin of sauropterygians from theromorph reptiles ( huene , 1944huene , , 1956 ) or directly from labyrinthodonts or even crossopterygians ( kuhn - schnyder , 1961 ) are not generally accepted today . . . .\n. . . a laterosphenoid is absent in mesosuchus . watson ( 1912a ) described a laterosphenoid under the term epipterygoid with a deep notch for the optic nerve on the holotype , an observation that he maintained 45 years later ( watson 1957 ) . given the fragmented nature of the holotype and partial preparation of most of the bones cranial to the braincase , it is likely that he mistook some portion of the palate , perhaps the combination of the ectopterygoid and pterygoid ( \u00a2gure 7c ) , for a laterosphenoid . . . .\n. . . huxley ( 1864 ) erected sauropsida to include reptiles and birds . this taxon has not been widely used , but its meaning has been fairly constant ( baur , 1887 ; watson , 1957 ) . the redefinition of reptilia as a monophyletic group including birds ( gauthier et al . , 1988b ) would make sauropsida redundant if the latter were restricted to the last common ancestor of testudines and diapsids and all its descendants . . . .\npalacrodon browni broom 1906 ( = fremouwsaurus geludens gow 1992 ) is a small enigmatic diapsid reptile from the cynognathus assemblage zone of south africa and antarctica whose dentition is very similar to that of coeval procolophonids .\na new dicynodont reptile from the tapinocephalus zone ( karoo system , beaufort series ) of south afric . . .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nnomenclator zoologicus . a list of the names of genera and subgenera in zoology from the tenth edition of linnaeus , 1758 to the end of 2004 . digitised by ubio from vols . 1 - 9 of neave ( ed . ) , 1939 - 1996 plus supplementary digital - only volume . urltoken ( as at 2006 ) ."]}
{"id": 369, "summary": [{"text": "fairy footsteps ( 15 january 1978 \u2013 1996 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse and broodmare best known for winning the classic 1000 guineas in 1981 .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "she showed promise in her first two races as a two-year-old before establishing herself as one of the best fillies of her generation with an emphatic win in the waterford candelabra stakes .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in the spring of 1981 she was heavily backed for the 1000 guineas before and after a win in the nell gwyn stakes .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "she won the 1000 guineas by leading all the way and was considered highly likely to follow up with a win in the epsom oaks but was retired after a disappointing defeat in the musidora stakes .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "she had some success as a broodmare . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "fairy footsteps", "paragraphs": ["cartoon scene with a snowman - with footsteps - background for different fairy tales . drawing , painting .\nwas fairy footsteps\u2019 first foal . having won the 1981 1 , 000 guineas , fairy footsteps retired to childwick bury at the end of that year . the following spring she was covered by the 1974 st leger winner\n, won the st . leger in 1980 ; while fairy footsteps , a daughter of \u2018the brigadier\u2019s 2 , 000 guineas victim\nkaufman , a . c . j . fairy footsteps . white & goullaud , boston , monographic , 1874 . notated music . urltoken\n, fairy footsteps , light cavalry , welsh pageant , west side story , picture play , photo flash , selhurst and main reef .\nhalm , frederic j . memory bells and fairy footsteps . halm , f . j . , hagerstown , monographic , 1883 . notated music . urltoken\npalmer , s . fairy footsteps schottische . gordon & son , s . t . , new york , monographic , 1881 . notated music . urltoken\n' fairy footsteps ' _ ' fairy footsteps ' is a half - hardy , mat - forming , evergreen , woody - based perennial , often grown as an annual , with slender , erect , branched stems bearing small , ovate , mid - green leaves and star - shaped , light blue flowers from late spring into autumn .\ncecil\u2019s second win came with piggott in 1981 when fairy footsteps was successful \u2013 but the extraordinary thing was that piggott was able to ride at all . he had been dragged under the starting stalls in a horrific incident days earlier which had almost torn his ear off . bandaged up the maestro saddled up on fairy footsteps and dictated the pace in vintage style .\nwe can surely expect some fireworks , \u00e0 la fairy footsteps , among the juddmonte part - dispersal , and no doubt there will unsuspected bargains to compare with regal beauty as well .\nkaufman , a . c . j . ( 1874 ) fairy footsteps . white & goullaud , boston , monographic . [ notated music ] retrieved from the library of congress , urltoken\nkaufman , a . c . j . fairy footsteps . white & goullaud , boston , monographic , 1874 . notated music . retrieved from the library of congress , < urltoken > .\npalmer , s . ( 1881 ) fairy footsteps schottische . gordon & son , s . t . , new york , monographic . [ notated music ] retrieved from the library of congress , urltoken\nhalm , f . j . ( 1883 ) memory bells and fairy footsteps . halm , f . j . , hagerstown , monographic . [ notated music ] retrieved from the library of congress , urltoken\nhalm , frederic j . memory bells and fairy footsteps . halm , f . j . , hagerstown , monographic , 1883 . notated music . retrieved from the library of congress , < urltoken > .\npalmer , s . fairy footsteps schottische . gordon & son , s . t . , new york , monographic , 1881 . notated music . retrieved from the library of congress , < urltoken > .\n1st \u2013 palermo clasico benito villanueva , gr . 2 , 1600m , beating star plus and fairy magic .\ncurie ' s daughter ir\u00e9ne followed in her mother ' s footsteps , winning the nobel prize in chemistry in 1935 .\nwe have been hinting for weeks that we . . . - in the footsteps of the group of seven | facebook\nmy little girl has been going to fairy footsteps for about 6 months ( just turned 2 ) . today she has taken part in the pretty much whole class for the first time and really enjoyed it . amy has a wonde\n) but , thanks to flying fairy , she does at least rank as grand - dam of one true top - liner . desert prince was flying fairy\u2019s fifth foal and , although she subsequently produced the 2002 anglesey stakes winner\n1998 , and are not to be used in violation of the terms set out by the graphic designer . graphics used in setup of fairy ' s footsteps graphic design are not available for public use . your cooperation in this is greatly appreciated .\nintensive treatment saw him return to action on the eve of the big race , and although still very stiff and sore he mustered all his fabled strength and judgement of pace to get fairy footsteps home by a neck :\nthat eased the discomfort .\nphoto\ncartoon winter background - with footsteps - scene for different fairy tales\ncan be used for personal and commercial purposes according to the conditions of the purchased royalty - free license . the image is available for download in high resolution quality up to 5906x4028 .\na saint - cloud maiden winner for trainer john cunnington as a two - year - old in 1980 , grecian sea was not disgraced when - having been switched to dick hern the following season - she finished a close 10th of 14 to fairy footsteps in the 1000 guineas .\na leading authority on the artists of the heidelberg school and the concept creator of the heidelberg school artists trail . in the artist ' s footsteps\n' 81 , fairy footsteps , ridden by lester piggott , tolmi , go leasing , marwell . a few days before this race lester piggott nearly lost his ear in a starting stall incident , and was riding with his ear sewn back on , and bandages under his riding helmet . . .\nfairy footsteps ( ire ) b . f , 1978 { 1 - s } dp = 9 - 6 - 13 - 20 - 0 ( 48 ) di = 0 . 81 cd = 0 . 08 - 6 starts , 3 wins , ? places , ? shows career earnings : $ 119 , 679\nthank you so very much for another wonderful term of fairy dance ! cordelia dances every day at home and that can only be because of you .\nfairy king ( northern dancer - fairy bridge by bold reason ) is a year - younger brother to 14 times champion uk - ireland sire and gr . 1 winner sadler\u2019s wells and a three - quarter brother to outstanding sire nureyev , also a son of northern dancer and from fairy bridge\u2019s dam special ( forli - thong by nantallah ) . fairy king started his stud career in very modest circumstances in ireland and pulled himself up by the bootstraps to eventually join his brother at coolmore headquarters , becoming champion sire in france in 1996 when his son helissio won the arc and was european horse of the year .\nsire stravinskys yearlings averaged over $ 169 , 000 at the 2008 karaka yearling sales . the sire of 39 individual stakes winners and 11 . 6 % stakes winners worldwide . recently sire of the g1 stradbroke handicap winner mr baritone . . out of fabulous fairy , an alydar mare out of fairy footsteps a 1000 guiness winner , the grand dam of champion race horse and successful sire desert prince . further back the family includes successful sires in light cavalry , royale palace and welsh pagaent .\n\u201ci believe that science has great beauty . a scientist in his laboratory is not a mere technician ; he is also a child confronting natural phenomena that impress him as though they were fairy tales . \u201d\ncartoon scene with a snowman - with footsteps - background for different fairy tales cute cartoon safari animal scene landscape easter cartoon scene with cute rabbit and chicken cute cartoon dinosaur scene landscape cave with cave drawings . cartoon mountain scene background primitive cave paintings . ancient petroglyphs . vector cartoon urban street house and shop scene background illustration cartoon nativity scene with shooting star cartoon scene with cat greeting royal pair by the castle cartoon happy scene with cat helping young boy getting out of water\nan unbeaten superstar on the track , husson was champion 2yo of argentina in 2006 and champion miler at three , before embarking on a stud career in australia following in the footsteps of his champion sire hussonet , a popular member of the arrowfield stud roster for many years .\nprovided artist biographies for in the artist ' s footsteps website , established in 2000 , including an updated biography of albert namatjira , and a listing of the major exhibition catalogues of his works , as well as the first biography of sir william dargie , launched in celebration of dargie ' s 90th birthday .\nno current trainer can match the record of henry cecil in the urltoken 1000 guineas , who has six victories to his name courtesy of one in a million ( 1979 ) , fairy footsteps ( 1981 ) , oh so sharp ( 1985 ) , bosra sham ( 1996 ) , sleepytime ( 1997 ) and wince ( 1999 ) . there are five entries from warren place this year , including aviate , who like last year\u2019s heroine ghanaati won a polytrack maiden at kempton on her latest start , yarmouth maiden victor principal role and timepiece , successful in the listed montrose stakes over the course and distance on october 31 .\nin 1897 marie and pierre curie welcomed a daughter , ir\u00e8ne . the couple had a second daughter , \u00e8ve , in 1904 . ir\u00e8ne joliot - curie followed in her mother & apos ; s footsteps , winning the nobel prize in chemistry in 1935 . joliot - curie shared the honor with her husband , fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric joliot , for their work on the synthesis of new radioactive elements .\nthe next book is a fairy tale also about a princess except she is being married off . it\u2019s called the runaway princess . meg doesn\u2019t want to get married off but , her dad the king needs her to cooperate . naturally he locks her in a tower but , she escapes . this book is about how girls can do anything girls can do .\nwhen fairy king ( usa ) bowed off the track after only one unplaced run , having broken a bone in his hoof during the race , few could have realised the impact he would have in the breeding barn . he is the great - grandsire of this month\u2019s stallion profile subject zoustar , a son of northern meteor and grandson of encosta de lago .\nat egerton stud , just outside newmarket , and flying fairy was duly born in 1983 . sent into training with henry cecil , she raced a few times but failed to trouble the judge . at the end of her three - year - old career in 1986 , she was sold at the december sale as part of mr . joel\u2019s dispersal , fetching 90 , 000 gns .\ntitle memory bells [ and ] fairy footsteps contributor names halm , frederic j . created / published halm , f . j . , hagerstown , 1883 , monographic . genre sheet music notes - from : music copyright deposits , 1870 - 1885 ( microfilm m 3500 ) - also available through the library of congress web site as facsimile page images . ( additional physical form ) form print electronic resource remote extent 1 score repository library of congress . music division . lc classification microfilm m 3500 m2 . 3 . u6a44 online format image description sheet music . print | 1 score | from : music copyright deposits , 1870 - 1885 ( microfilm m 3500 ) also available through the library of congress web site as facsimile page images . ( additional physical form ) . print ( form ) . electronic resource ( form ) . remote ( form ) . additional metadata formats metsxml record\ntitle fairy footsteps contributor names kaufman , a . c . j . created / published white & goullaud , boston , 1874 , monographic . subject headings - morceau - piano music genre sheet music notes - from : music copyright deposits , 1870 - 1885 ( microfilm m 3500 ) - also available through the library of congress web site as facsimile page images . ( additional physical form ) form print electronic resource remote extent 1 score repository library of congress . music division . lc classification microfilm m 3500 m2 . 3 . u6a44 online format image description sheet music . print | 1 score | from : music copyright deposits , 1870 - 1885 ( microfilm m 3500 ) also available through the library of congress web site as facsimile page images . ( additional physical form ) . print ( form ) . electronic resource ( form ) . remote ( form ) . additional metadata formats metsxml record\ntitle fairy footsteps schottische contributor names palmer , s . created / published gordon & son , s . t . , new york , 1881 , monographic . subject headings - schottisches - piano music genre sheet music notes - from : music copyright deposits , 1870 - 1885 ( microfilm m 3500 ) - also available through the library of congress web site as facsimile page images . ( additional physical form ) form print electronic resource remote extent 1 score repository library of congress . music division . lc classification microfilm m 3500 m2 . 3 . u6a44 online format image description sheet music . print | 1 score | from : music copyright deposits , 1870 - 1885 ( microfilm m 3500 ) also available through the library of congress web site as facsimile page images . ( additional physical form ) . print ( form ) . electronic resource ( form ) . remote ( form ) . additional metadata formats metsxml record\nmore recently , the dewar dispersal of 1954 resulted in prices at unprecedented levels , including festoon at 36 , 000gns and refreshed at 30 , 000gns , and ten years later ten of 19 mares to realise five - figure sums at the december sales came from drafts from the national stud , which was withdrawing from breeding to become \u2013 temporarily , as it turned out \u2013 just a base for stallions . one dispersal that will be readily recalled by many was that of mares and fillies submitted by jim joel . that featured a 720 , 000gns bid for fairy footsteps and other massive sums for magic slipper ( 700 , 000gns ) and lady moon ( 600 , 000gns ) . the lowest price in the draft was 5 , 200gns for five - year - old barren mare regal beauty , who became rather more valuable later as dam of two - year - old champion high estate and king george victor king\u2019s theatre .\n1987 snugglepot & cuddlepie and other fairy folk of the australian bush written with robert holden , and published by james hardie . this catalogue was written to accompany the exhibition that was curated by robert holden and andrew mackenzie in the herbarium in the royal botanic gardens in melbourne and also in canberra . organized as a free exhibition for children throughout victoria and the act , over a ten - week period , more than one hundred thousand children visited the exhibition .\nthe first book is an interesting version of the original fairy tale . rose is a princess cursed at birth by a wicked witch . rose is kind , pretty , and really everything you want in a princess . the prince is normal for the most part , except his mom has some ogre blood . the story is being told in two parts , the prince and the princess . eventually the story intertwine with one another . the story is really about finding yourself .\nthat fairy king , who was bred by robert sangster\u2019s swettenham stud and partners , was given a chance at all was due to his illustrious breeding . he became one of the very best examples of the old saying \u201cblood will out\u201d with progeny ranging from arc de triomphe and english derby winners in the northern hemisphere to gr . 1 winner and champion sire encosta de lago , born from a cover in the first of his two southern shuttle seasons , 1992 and 1996 .\n\u201che\u2019s a horse we\u2019ve been following since day one and it\u2019s been very exciting to watch his career unfold from a debut win at two to being the best three year - old sprinting colt of his generation , \u201d widden owner antony thompson said after the colt\u2019s second gr . 1 success . \u201cnorthern meteor made such a huge impact for us in the short time that we were lucky enough to have him , so it seems only right that his best son should follow in his footsteps and join us at widden . \u201d\nother articles and papers included a paper in 1984 on\nmanuscript and collection development\nas a guide for the state library of victoria , a teacher ' s resource kit in 1987 for the\nsnugglepot and cuddlepie and other fairy folk of the australian bush\nexhibition , also in 1987 an article on the\nmanifold estate panels\nand in 1993 a major paper entitled ,\nvictoria : birthplace of the arts in australia\n. a more recent 11 page paper ,\nthe story of the heidelberg school artists trail\nwas produced in 2012 .\nhowever just one major son in australia has been enough to give the fairy king line a chance to shine here with the invitation stakes ( vichealth cup ) - gr . 1 ( 1400m ) winner encosta de lao ( ex shoal creek by star way ( gb ) ) , also winner of the ascot vale - gr . 2 ( now coolmore ) and the bill stutt stakes - gr . 2 and three times third ( caulfield guineas - gr . 1 , maribyrnong plate - gr . 2 and debutante stakes - lr ) becoming an instant success here , despite starting off with middle range mares in victoria in 1997 .\nspecial is a daughter of thong , while scuff is a daughter of moccasin ( nantallah - rough shod by gold bridge ) . special is the second dam of fairy king ( as well as being the dam of nureyev ) and special / scuff appear 4x2 in northern meteor\u2019s pedigree . he is also 4fx3m to mr . prospector and linebred to that horse\u2019s grandsire native dancer . northern meteor won three races including the ascot vale - gr . 1 ( coolmore ) over the flemington straight 1200m and was runner - up in the t . j . smith - gr . 1 ( 1200m ) at randwick and fourth in the vrc newmarket - gr . 1 , also at flemington .\ntowards the end of the 2013 - 14 season , the loss of northern meteor becomes even more apparent as his 83 winners ( 63 . 4 % ) of $ 7 . 5m include 10 stakes winners ( 7 . 6 % ) led of course by dual gr . 1 winner zoustar and also including his most recent gr . 1 winner cosmic endeavour ( danehill ) , who won the $ 500 , 000 tatts tiara - gr . 1 at eagle farm in late june and is also a dual gr . 2 winner ( six wins and earnings topping $ 1m ) , gr . 2 winner and gr . 1 runner - up eurozone ( don\u2019t say halo ) , who also retires to stud in 2014 , gr . 2 winner and gr . 1 placed bound for earth ( belong to me ) , gr . 3 winner the voice ( king\u2019s theatre ; has brothers fairy king / sadler\u2019s wells 3x3 ) and listed winners atmospherical ( flying spur ; inbred 4fx3m rolls , plus has sisters thong , moccasin and lisadell 6 , 4x5 ) , fighting sun ( ivory\u2019s irish , inbred 6 , 4x4 to sisters moccasin and thong ) , also retiring to stud in 2014 and veuvelicious ( medicean ) along with stakes placed northern glory ( viscount ) , gr . 1 third equator ( desert sun ) , mr jackman ( general nediym ) , mount zero ( royal academy ) , swing vote ( danehill dancer ) and mr bogart ( snippets ) . his progeny have a winning distance index of 1271m .\ni suppose they had the obituaries written already , had they ?\nintimations of mortality sit uneasily with a sporting immortal , and lester piggott ' s reaction to his heart scare , which sent a shiver through the racing world in may , is characteristically laconic .\njust as the seemingly indestructible 71 - year - old had shrugged off the regular death threats which came with the territory throughout his long riding career - first winner aged 12 , last aged 58 - so piggott plays down his week in the intensive care unit of a lausanne hospital :\nit just shows that it can happen to anyone . it ' s taken a long time to get back to normal , but i ' m fine again now .\nan immediate consequence of the heart scare was the postponement of lester piggott day at newmarket , his local racecourse , scheduled for a few days after he was taken into hospital . this now takes place on saturday , sponsored by bookmaker victor chandler and with proceeds going to piggott ' s chosen charities . the seven races on the programme are named after his guineas winners at the track but one in particular illustrates piggott ' s mind - boggling resilience . a week before the 1 , 000 guineas in 1981 he had been dragged under the front gates of the epsom starting stalls by a horse named winsor boy .\nmy right ear was practically severed ,\nhe recalls ,\nand it took 32 stitches to keep it in place . worse , i ' d pulled all the ligaments in my back .\npiggott devotees will be able to meet the great man in person on saturday . if you join the queue because you just have to tell him how he saved your dad from the poorhouse when getting up in the last stride to beat charlie smirke at the now defunct alexandra palace , do expect a broad grin but not a lengthy conversation .\nfor lester piggott has always been a reluctant icon , inclined to take the line of least resistance when meeting his public . he told me of one hot summer afternoon in the 1960s when he stopped to buy an ice cream from a kiosk on the finchley road , and the girl serving asked ,\naren ' t you wilson pickett ?\nalthough his resemblance to the soul singer was far from obvious , piggott said he was . it was simpler that way .\nthe level as well as the longevity of piggott ' s place in the public eye is unmatched by any other sportsman . which other sporting icon has appeared in a van morrison lyric , in a howard brenton play , and on spitting image ? and his admirers have been distinctly a - list . fred astaire praised his riding of sir ivor in the controversial 1968 washington international . ronnie wood was a major purchaser at a sale of piggott memorabilia in 1998 . beatles ' manager brian epstein approached him about handling his business affairs , but the famously careful jockey declined :\ni did not really want to be managed .\nsince his second retirement in 1990 , five years after he first quit the saddle , piggott ' s incomparable affinity with the racehorse has been deployed in his association with the cheval court stud in surrey , where he owns shares in several high - class mares .\nlester has a unique eye for a horse ,\nsays tony hirschfeld , owner of the stud .\nhis experience is invaluable in selecting the stallions to which we send our mares , in deciding which of the offspring we sell and which we keep , and in targeting races for the horses we have in training .\nmont etoile , whose victory in 2006 returned piggott as co - owner to the royal ascot winner ' s enclosure he had reached so often as the royal meeting ' s greatest jockey , runs today at yarmouth .\nthe wax model of lester piggott was removed from permanent exhibition at madame tussaud s only five years ago , after 40 years on display . the body has been recycled , but the head remains stored , pending another comeback . when that happens - and with lester piggott anything is possible - the obituaries will need updating yet again .\n\u00b7 the following clarification was printed in the guardian ' s corrections and clarifications column , thursday september 27 2007 . lester piggott did not retire for the second time in 1990 . he retired for the second and final time in 1994 .\n\u00a9 2018 guardian news and media limited or its affiliated companies . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na place where little fairies can come to life in a fun and exciting environment .\ni have always had a love for ballet as long as i can remember . i trained at a ballet school in south africa and went on to dance professionally . following an injury i left the ballet company but still wanted to be part of it all . i decided to train as a teacher ( qualifying as a cechhetti ballet teacher in 2013 ) so i would have the ability to pass on my love and knowledge of this wonderful art form to others .\nmy 3 year old little girl has just started and loves jessica\u2019s classes \u2013 full of fun and imagination . i wish we had started sooner !\nthank you also for the last few years of dance , helping to prepare her for school by making her confident , bubbly and secure away from me \u2013 that means so very much to us .\njosie absolutely loves her ballet classes . she is so excited each week and has so much fun when she is there ! you are an amazing teacher and really connect with the children . you make each class enjoyable for both children and adults . the classes are full of really imaginative activities , which all of the children love . thanks for making our tuesdays !\nmisusing or omitting the apostrophe is one of the commonest punctuation errors . showing possession the apostrophe ( \u2019 ) is used to show that something belongs to someone . it is usually added to the en . . .\nimpress your friends , family and colleagues with this unusual collection of football lingo .\ncatch up on the latest words in the news this june with robert groves .\nall the latest wordy news , linguistic insights , offers and competitions every month .\nowner : mr . h . j . joel breeder : mr . h . j . joel winnings : 6 starts : 3 - ? - ? , $ 119 , 679 1st nell gwyn s . gr . 3 ( gb ) , 1000 guineas s . gr . 1 ( gb ) 8f , waterford candelabra s . ( gb ) . 3rd musidora s . gr . 3 ( gb ) . sent to us 1987 , died 1996 ( close )\nfriendship house , elm grove , southsea ( 5 , 378 . 91 mi ) portsmouth po5 1jt\ncherry loves her ballet classes , amy is fantastic and seems to genuinely love the children , would recommend this ballet school to anyone . our whole family where so impressed with the recent show .\nmy eldest daughter has had lessons with amy since she was 2 and still adores her just as much at 9yrs ; my 3 yr old enjoys her classes just as much . amy is a gifted teacher and a lovely lady ! x\nrful way with the girls and i ' m very pleased we ' ve found this class . she ' s been talking about ' amy ' and her ballet moves most the day so thank you and see you next week \ufffd x\nmy little girl loves the class and her teacher couldn\u2019t ask for any better . she\u2019s improving all the time .\nboth my daughters have been going to ballet with amy for some time . she is a lovely approachab\nwe are very happy of our ballet classes . my daughter of 6 and her friends enjoy a lot to learn ballet with amy . big thank you , dear ! p . s . it was lovely to see amy ' s son today , he is gorgeous baby - boy !\namy is a lovely ballet teacher , and makes the classes fun for little ones . my daughter and her friend love the classes and have made lots of progress in a short space of time . 100 % recommend these classes . \ufffd\nfantastic classes , amy is so good with the little ones . my daughter has grown in confidence\nand skills . love the pay as you go approach too , it ' s just lovely .\nwe started ballet with amy when holly was two , she ' s now 5 and wouldn ' t want to go anywhere else . my youngest started this year and thinks amy is the best ever . . . and\nloves it . along with ballet and tap she loves amy . couldn ' t recommend enough xx\namy bought the love and passion of ballet back into bryony ' s world . bryony was taught by amy in the best kind of way . . . , through kindness and love !\nal , engaging and great with the children . highly recommend to any mums thinking about taking their children .\namy is a superb teacher , she is patient and kind and brings the best out of the budding dancers .\nthank you so much for being such a great teacher for my little girl . she loved her first lesson . she is excited about coming again next week ! x\nmy daughter has been with amy over a year . she makes the lessons fun and interactiv\ne . the children learn so well . my daughter loves going and learns to do the moves well . amy is a lovely teacher . top\n\u2b50\ufe0fgrade 2 ballet exam children\u2b50\ufe0f here is one of the longer dances for you to practice at home . dance b \u2018hide & seek\u2019 thanks chantelle ! \ud83d\ude1c ( character dance to follow on saturday )\nenter your details below and click ' subscribe ' and you ' ll have a free shoot account .\nwill reach a height of 0 . 1m and a spread of 0 . 3m after 5 - 10 years .\ngrow in moderately fertile , moist but well - drained neutral to acid soil in full sun . in frost - prone areas , plant out after last frost . under glass , grow in loam - based compost in full light . water moderately & feed monthly ; sparingly in winter .\ncreate your free shoot garden and make a record of the plants in your garden .\nadd your own photos , notes , get monthly email reminders on how to care for your plants , and connect with other gardeners . get started now .\ncreate a free shoot account and get instant access to expert care advice for this and other plants in your garden .\nyou ' ll also receive handy monthly email reminders of what needs doing . create your free account .\nin order to add a note on this plant , please add this plant to your plant lists .\nto add notes for this plant login to your account or register for a new account .\nto add images for this plant login to your account or register for a new account .\nto check if this plant is suitable for your garden first login to your account or subscribe .\nget expert info and easy to follow monthly care reminders for the plants in your garden by signing up for a free shoot account .\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\nto provide you with additional information about how we collect and use your personal data , we ' ve recently updated our privacy policy and terms of service . please review these pages now , as they apply to your continued use of our website .\ncurrent page requires javascript , this web browser either does not support javascript , or scripts are being blocked . please turn on javascript or use different browser .\n\u00a9 2009 - 2018 . depositphotos , inc . usa . all rights reserved .\npresented here is the online version of the special collections session created by the latin american library for the 2018 cast session , tulane treasures . in this hands - on exhibit , we highlight examples from the latin american library ' s image archive of stereoscopic photography taken in various locations and time periods within latin america and the caribbean . with these and other examples we trace our the technical and commercial development of latin american stereographs from the earliest beginnings of photography ( c . 1838 ) to the latest trends in digital formats that presage today ' s cutting - edge technologies for producing 3d images and vr ( virtual reality ) simulations . a second objective of this session is to demonstrate the potential for scholarship that stereographs hold from a variety of perspectives including historical , artistic , communications , and business marketing , to name just a few .\nthis exhibit examines early new world textual encounters between europeans and amerindians through selected rare books and original manuscripts from the latin american library\u2019s special collections . we focus specifically on how disparate conceptions of language and writing played out as ideological and discursive features within key texts . reflecting the library\u2019s collection strengths , the exhibit focuses most prominently on mesoamerica .\nan exploration of italian influence on new orleans opera from the late 18th century to modern times .\nwhile no scientific field has ever been an easy profession for women , botany was for many centuries one of the . . .\n\u00a9 2016 howard - tilton memorial library , tulane university | 7001 freret st . , new orleans , la 70118 | ( 504 ) 865 - 5605 |\n\u201cone never notices what has been done ; one can only see what remains to be done . \u201d\n\u201cin science , we must be interested in things , not in persons . \u201d\n\u201call my life through , the new sights of nature made me rejoice like a child . \u201d\n\u201cin the education of children the requirement of their growth and physical evolution should be respected , and that some time should be left for their artistic culture . \u201d\n\u201cnothing in life is to be feared , it is only to be understood . \u201d\n\u201ci was taught that the way of progress was neither swift nor easy . \u201d\n\u201clife is not easy for any of us . but what of that ? we must have perseverance and above all confidence in ourselves . \u201d\n\u201cit is important to make a dream of life and a dream reality . \u201d\n\u201cthere are sadistic scientists who hurry to hunt down errors instead of establishing the truth . \u201d\nmarie curie was the first woman to win a nobel prize , in physics , and with her later win , in chemistry , she became the first person to claim nobel honors twice .\nborn maria sklodowska on november 7 , 1867 , marie curie became the first woman to win a nobel prize and the first person\u2014man or woman\u2014to win the award twice . curie & apos ; s efforts , with her husband pierre curie , led to the discovery of polonium and radium and , after pierre & apos ; s death , the further development of x - rays . the famed scientist died on july 4 , 1934 .\nmarie curie working in her laboratory at the university of paris in 1925 . ( afp / getty images . )\nmarie curie discovered radioactivity , and , together with her husband pierre , the radioactive elements polonium and radium , while working with the mineral pitchblende .\nfascinated with the work of henri becquerel , a french physicist who discovered that uranium casts off rays weaker than the x - rays found by wilhelm conrad roentgen , marie curie took his work a few steps further . curie conducted her own experiments on uranium rays and discovered that they remained constant , no matter the condition or form of the uranium . the rays , she theorized , came from the element & apos ; s atomic structure . this revolutionary idea created the field of atomic physics . curie herself coined the word\nradioactivity\nto describe the phenomena .\nfollowing marie\u2019s discovery of radioactivity , she continued her research with her husband . working with the mineral pitchblende , the pair discovered a new radioactive element in 1898 . they named the element polonium , after marie & apos ; s native country of poland . they also detected the presence of another radioactive material in the pitchblende , and called that radium . in 1902 , the curies announced that they had produced a decigram of pure radium , demonstrating its existence as a unique chemical element .\nmarie married french physicist pierre curie on july 26 , 1895 . they were introduced by a colleague of marie\u2019s after she graduated from the university of sorbonne ; marie had received a commission to perform a study on different types of steel and their magnetic properties and needed a lab to work in . a romance developed between the brilliant pair , and they became a scientific dynamic duo who were completely devoted to one another . at first marie and pierre worked on separate projects . but after marie discovered radioactivity , pierre put aside his own work to help her with her research .\nmarie suffered a tremendous loss in 1906 , when pierre was killed in paris after accidentally stepping in front of a horse - drawn wagon . despite her tremendous grief , she took over his teaching post at the sorbonne , becoming the institution & apos ; s first female professor .\nin 1911 , marie curie\u2019s relationship with her husband & apos ; s former student , paul langevin , became public . curie was derided in the press for breaking up langevin & apos ; s marriage , the negativity in part stemming from rising xenophobia in france .\nmarie curie , was born in warsaw in modern - day poland on november 7 , 1867 .\nboth of marie curie\u2019s parents were teachers , and she was the youngest of five children , following siblings zosia , j\u00f3zef , bronya and hela . as a child curie took after her father , wladyslaw , a math and physics instructor . she had a bright and curious mind and excelled at school . however , tragedy struck early : when she was only 10 , curie lost her mother , bronislawa , to tuberculosis .\na top student in her secondary school , curie could not attend the men & apos ; s - only university of warsaw . she instead continued her education in warsaw & apos ; s\nfloating university ,\na set of underground , informal classes held in secret . both curie and her sister bronya dreamed of going abroad to earn an official degree , but they lacked the financial resources to pay for more schooling . undeterred , curie worked out a deal with her sister . she would work to support bronya while she was in school and bronya would return the favor after she completed her studies . for roughly five years , curie worked as a tutor and a governess . she used her spare time to study , reading about physics , chemistry and math .\nin 1891 , curie finally made her way to paris and enrolled at the sorbonne . she threw herself into her studies , but this dedication had a personal cost . with little money , curie survived on buttered bread and tea , and her health sometimes suffered because of her poor diet . curie completed her master & apos ; s degree in physics in 1893 and earned another degree in mathematics the following year .\nmarie curie was the first woman to win a nobel prize and the first person\u2014man or woman\u2014to win the prestigious award twice . she remains the only one to be honored for accomplishments in two separate sciences .\nin 1903 , curie received the nobel prize in physics , along with her husband and henri becquerel , for their work on radioactivity . with their win , the curies developed an international reputation for their scientific efforts , and they used their prize money to continue their research .\nin 1911 , curie won her second nobel prize , this time in chemistry , for her discovery of radium and polonium . while she received the prize alone , she shared the honor jointly with her late husband in her acceptance lecture . around this time , curie joined with other famous scientists , including albert einstein and max planck , to attend the first solvay congress in physics and discuss the many groundbreaking discoveries in their field .\nwhen world war i broke out in 1914 , curie devoted her time and resources to helping the cause . she championed the use of portable x - ray machines in the field , and these medical vehicles earned the nickname\nlittle curies .\nafter the war , curie used her celebrity to advance her research . she traveled to the united states twice\u2014in 1921 and in 1929\u2014to raise funds to buy radium and to establish a radium research institute in warsaw .\n\u201cthe use of the x - rays during the war saved the lives of many wounded men ; it also saved many from long suffering and lasting infirmity . \u201d \u2014 marie curie\nmarie curie died on july 4 , 1934 , of aplastic anemia , believed to be caused by prolonged exposure to radiation . she was known to carry test tubes of radium around in the pocket of her lab coat , and her many years working with radioactive materials took a toll on her health .\nmarie curie made many breakthroughs in her lifetime . remembered as a leading figure in science and a role model for women , she has received numerous posthumous honors . several educational and research institutions and medical centers bear the curie name , including the curie institute and pierre and marie curie university , later renamed upmc .\nin 1995 , marie and pierre curie\u2019s remains were interred in the panth\u00e9on in paris , the final resting place of france & apos ; s greatest minds . curie became the first and one of only five women to be laid to rest there . in late 2017 , the panth\u00e9on hosted an exhibition to honor the 150th birthday of the pioneering scientist .\nin 1937 , \u00e8ve curie wrote the first of many biographies devoted to her famous mother , madame curie , which became a feature film a few years later . the story of the nobel laureate was back on the big screen in 2017 with marie curie : the courage of knowledge , featuring polish actress karolina gruszka . in 2018 , it was announced that amazon prime video was developing another biopic of curie , with british actress rosamund pike in the starring role .\nwe strive for accuracy and fairness . if you see something that doesn ' t look right , contact us !\nmarie m . daly is best known for being the first african - american woman to receive a ph . d . in chemistry in the united states .\nfrench physicist pierre curie was one of the founding fathers of modern physics and is best known for being a pioneer in radioactive studies .\nmary mahoney became the first black woman to complete nurse ' s training in 1879 .\nphysicist joseph rotblat participated in the manhattan project . after the world war ii , he devoted himself to peaceful applications of nuclear physics .\nmarie dressler is best known for her acting in the theater and film , winning an oscar .\nalbert einstein\u2019s newly revealed diaries on his asia and the middle east travels in the 1920s reveal racist , xenophobic views , insulting in particular the chinese as\nindustrious , filthy , obtuse people .\nlater in life the physicist advocated for u . s . civil rights and joined the naacp .\nmarie antoinette helped provoke the popular unrest that led to the french revolution and to the overthrow of the monarchy in august 1792 .\nmary leakey was a paleoanthropologist who , along with husband louis , made several prominent scientific discoveries . skull fossils found by the leakeys advanced our understanding of human evolution .\n\u00a9 2018 bio and the bio logo are registered trademarks of a & e ; television networks , llc .\nshe was not the greatest filly ever to sport the pale blue and yellow silks shared by lord weinstock , his son simon and father - in - law sir michael sobell , but grecian sea could scarcely have made a greater contribution to the trio ' s breeding operation .\ndespite her death in 1998 , the mare ' s legacy has been felt more keenly than ever after two of her grandchildren made a big impression at royal ascot this season .\nmont etoile was a cosy winner of the group two ribblesdale stakes , while sir michael stoute has big hopes for mountain high , out of grecian sea ' s outstanding broodmare daughter hellenic , after a head defeat in the group two hardwicke stakes .\nher first foal , new trojan ( by the sobell / weinstock 1979 derby hero troy ) , was trained by hern to finish second in the 1986 king edward vii stakes , golden wave picked up black type with a vintage stakes placing at goodwood and celtic river was placed in listed company .\nthere were nine winners in total and none better than hellenic , a daughter of darshaan who won the 1990 yorkshire oaks and ribblesdale stakes as well as finishing runner - up in that season ' s st leger .\nhellenic has been to sadler ' s wells for 10 of her 14 coverings to date , including this year after foaling a colt by the 14 - times champion , and it is a proven formula that has produced gold cup third election day , now a sire in colombia , german group one winner greek dance and the brilliant islington , whose cv featured a breeders ' cup filly & mare in addition to three british group 1 successes .\nnew morning , sold privately to nicholas springer , won last year ' s brigadier gerard stakes while mountain high , who joined the coolmore team without appearing at public auction , is the product of a mating with danehill .\ngrecian sea ' s daughter troyes - who made just 13 , 000gns at the 1998 december sales - produced mont etoile and is also the grand - dam of 1999 french derby second nowhere to exit . three other daughters of grecian sea - desert beauty , olympienne and sea picture - as well as the granddaughters desert bloom and islington are currently breeding at ballymacoll , continuing a dynasty begun by a purchase at tattersalls in 1938 .\nthe co meath stud ' s then famously eccentric owner dorothy paget bought a hyperion filly she was to name coventry belle from esmond harmsworth for 2 , 300gns at the december foal sale 65 years before her descendant mont etoile made 60 , 000gns at the same fixture .\ncoventry belle ' s year - older full - sister godiva went on to win the 1000 guineas and oaks , and her granddaughter country house , a three - time winner when trained by sir gordon richards , produced the great miler and champion sire reform .\nfollowing paget ' s death , michael sobell and the weinstocks purchased ballymacoll and its bloodlines in 1960 , six years later producing reform ' s full - sister knighton house , who - also trained by richards - finished second in the coronation stakes and is grecian sea ' s grand - dam .\nother descendants of coventry belle have delivered such luminaries as derby winner north light and golan to ballymacoll and with grecian sea ' s line proving such efficient breeders , it will be surprising if the family does not yield more stars in years to come .\nthe - racehorse is an online horse racing and breeding magazine with information on horse racing and breeding statistics .\nran ten times and won three races . as a two - year - old , pourparler won two important races in england and finished third in the prix robert papin in france . in the following spring , she was beaten in her first two races before winning the 1000 guineas at\n. she was beaten in her two subsequent races before being retired to stud , where she had limited success as a broodmare .\n, ireland , by peter fitzgerald . she was sired by hugh lupus , a french - bred stallion who won the\nas a yearling , pourparler was sold to beatrice , lady granard , and sent into training with paddy prendergast at his stable at the curragh in county kildare .\npourparler ran five times as a two - year - old and won twice . in may , having been beaten in her first two races , she was sent to england for the national stakes over five\n. she finished third behind the french colts djel and yours . in august prendergast sent the filly back to england for the\n, she won at odds of 7 / 2 from the english fillies flattering and gwen .\neight pounds below the top - rated colt talahasse and three behind the leading filly mesopotamia .\non 17 march , when she finished fourth in the spring plate over seven furlongs . she was then sent to england , where she started favourite for the 1000 guineas trial stakes at\nat newmarket racecourse , pourparler started at odds of 11 / 2 for the 1000 guineas in a field of eighteen fillies , with gwen being made the 9 / 10 favourite .\nand was one of a series of wins by foreign horses in major races which led to the 1964 season being described as a particularly depressing one for british racing .\n, for which she was made odds - on favourite . she finished third of the six runners behind ocean , a filly who was carrying seven pounds less than the guineas winner ."]}
{"id": 373, "summary": [{"text": "an electrolithoautotroph is an organism which feeds on electricity .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "these organisms use electricity to convert carbon dioxide to organic matters by using electrons directly taken from solid-inorganic electron donors .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "electrolithoautotrophs are microorganisms which are found in the deep crevices of the ocean .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the warm , mineral-rich environment provides a rich source of nutrients .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the electron source for carbon assimilation from diffusible fe ( 2 + ) ions to an electrode under the condition that electrical current is the only source of energy and electrons .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "electrolithoautotrophs form a third metabolic pathway compared to photosynthesis ( plants converting light into sugar ) and chemosynthesis ( animals consuming food )", "topic": 4}], "title": "electrolithoautotroph", "paragraphs": ["html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nresearchers at the riken center for sustainable resource science and the university of tokyo have demonstrated that the bacterium acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans can take electrons needed for growth directly from an electrode power source when iron\u2014its already known source of energy\u2014is absent . the study , published in frontiers in microbiology , shows that a . ferrooxidans can use direct uptake of electrons from an electrode to fuel the same metabolic pathway that is activated by the oxidation of diffusible iron ions .\njust as plants with chlorophyll use photosynthesis to convert energy from light into sugars needed for growth , other organisms\u2014like animals\u2014gain energy for the manufacture of sugars by taking electrons from substances in their surrounding environments\u2014a process called chemosynthesis . organisms that gain their energy this way are called chemotrophs , and those that get their electrons through oxidation of inorganic substances are called chemolithoautotrophs . phototrophs and chemotrophs make up two interconnected ecosystems .\n\u201cwe are investigating the possibility of a third type of ecosystem , \u201d explains group leader ryuhei nakamura . \u201cwe call it the electro - ecosystem because microbial activity is sustained primarily by direct electrical current . \u201d\nrecently , his team has discovered geo - electric currents across the walls of black - smoker chimneys formed by hydrothermanl vents , suggesting that some deep - sea microbes might double as a electrolithoautotrophs , organisms that can use electrical potential\u2014meaning that they simply eat electrons\u2014as an energy source instead of light or surrounding inorganic substances .\nbecause access to microbes in this environment is not easy , and to verify their hypothesis that being able to switch energy sources from inorganic substances to electricity is not unique in the microbial world , the team experimented with a . ferrooxidans , a chemolithoautotrophic bacterium known to oxidize iron ions ( fe 2 + ) .\nthe team cultured a . ferrooxidans in an fe 2 + - free environment and supplied an electrode with an electrical potential of + 0 . 4 v , carbon - dioxide as a carbon source , and oxygen as an electron acceptor . they found that these conditions created a current that originated from the electrode , and that the strength of the current depended on how many cells were attached to the electrode . killing the cells with uv light immediately suppressed the current .\nto determine how this current was being generated , they used an artificial photochemical reaction . normally , carbon monoxide attaches to heme proteins in a . ferrooxidans outer membranes and prevents oxidation . but , when exposed to light , this bond is broken and oxidation continues as usual . when tested , carbon - monoxide also prevented the current formed between the electrode and a . ferrooxidans cells and exposure to light reversed this block and allowed the current to flow . this suggested that a heme protein is needed for the electrosynthesis exhibited by a . ferrooxidans .\nfurther analysis showed that the responsible heme protein is the aa3 complex which is known to play a role in down - hill electron transfer in a . ferrooxidans that generates atp and the proton - motive - force that allows uphill electron transfer and carbon fixation\u2014the hallmarks of sugar production . inhibition of a protein complex that is part of the uphill - transfer process suppressed the current , showing that the proton - motive - forces being generated were indeed used for up - hill electron transport . additionally , the optical density of cells cultured with the electrode for eight days increased over time , indicating growth and that the current generated by electrons flowing from the electrode to the cells was being used for carbon fixation .\n\u201cnow that we have identified the metabolic pathway for electrolithoautotrophs in a . ferrooxidans , we will be able to apply this knowledge to bacteria we find in the deep sea vent , \u201d says nakamura . \u201cthe next step is to prove the existence of electro - ecosystems in on - site deep - sea experiments . \u201d\nunderstanding electro - ecosystems and how electrical currents can support life could lead to a blueprint for sustainable human ecosystems , using technology such as fuel cells , batteries , and thermoelectric converters . \u201d\nwe will be provided with an authorization token ( please note : passwords are not shared with us ) and will sync your accounts for you . this means that you will not need to remember your user name and password in the future and you will be able to login with the account you choose to sync , with the click of a button .\nto examine the validity of the hypothetical metabolic pathway for electrolithoautotrophic carbon assimilation , herein we cultivated the chemolithoautotrophic fe ( ii ) - oxidizing bacterium , acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans , in fe 2 + - ions free electrochemical reactors . using site - specific chemical marking for intracellular electron - transfer chains involved in carbon assimilation , we demonstrate the previously unaccounted ability of an fe ( ii ) - oxidizing bacterium to switch the metabolic mode from chemosynthesis to hypothetical electrolithoautotrophic carbon assimilation under the conditions that electrical current is the only source of energy and electrons for their carbon assimilation .\nacidithiobacillus ferrooxidans ( atcc23270 ) was cultured in dsmz medium 882 ( 132 mg l - 1 ( nh 4 ) 2 so 4 , 53 mg l - 1 mgcl 2 6h 2 o , 27 mg l - 1 kh 2 po 4 , 147 mg l - 1 cacl 2 2h 2 o , and trace elements ) supplemented with ferrous iron ( 66 mm ) as an electron source and incubated aerobically at 30\u00b0c with shaking at 150 rpm in erlenmeyer flask ( volume of medium : 150 ml ) . the ph of solutions was adjusted to 1 . 8 using 5 m h 2 so 4 . subsequently , the culture was centrifuged at 15000 rpm for 10 min , and the pelleted cells were washed vigorously with a fresh medium at ph 1 . 8 . this process was repeated more than three times to remove soluble fe 2 + ions and insoluble iron oxides from the cell culture prior to being used for electrochemical experiments .\na single - chamber three - electrode system equipped with the working electrode on the bottom surface of the reactor was used for the electrochemical analysis of intact cells . a conducting glass substrate [ fluorine - doped tin oxide ( fto ) - coated glass electrode , resistance : 20 \u03c9 / square , size : 30 mm \u00d7 30 mm ; spd laboratory , inc . ] was used as the working electrode . the reference and counter electrodes were ag / agcl ( kcl sat . ) and a platinum wire , respectively . an air - exposed dsmz medium 882 was used as an electrolyte . the ph of solutions was adjusted to 1 . 8 using 5 m h 2 so 4 . the head space of the reactor was purged with air which is the source of n 2 , o 2 , and co 2 .\ncoordination of co to heme proteins in living cells was carried out by bubbling the cell suspension of a . ferrooxidans with co gas for 10 min in the electrochemical reactor ( shibanuma et al . , 2011 ) . for the photocurrent measurements , a 1000 - w xe lamp ( ushio ) equipped with a monochromator with a band width of 10 nm was used as an excitation source to irradiate light from the bottom of the electrochemical cell . for the inhibitor experiment of a bc1 complex , 1 v / v % antimycin a solubilized in methanol was added in the electrochemical reactor . the final concentration of antimycin a was 100 \u03bcm .\nscheme 1 . bifurcated electron and proton transfer model of fe ( ii ) oxidation in acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans ( sugio et al . , 1981 ; ingledew , 1982 ; elbehti et al . , 1999 , 2000 ; brasseur et al . , 2004 ; vald\u00e9s et al . , 2008 ; quatrini et al . , 2009 ; bird et al . , 2011 ) . a small periplasmic blue copper protein ( rusticyanin , rus ) has been proposed as a branch point to switch an electron flow between nad + and o 2 . proton circuit for a down - hill and an up - hill electron - transfer reaction is indicated by blue and red dotted line , respectively . electron and energy delivery to the cells for carbon fixation is based on the diffusion and / or convection of soluble fe 2 + ions .\nfigure 1a shows current vs . time curves for a . ferrooxidans cultivated in the absence of fe 2 + ions . in the present system , a conducting glass electrode ( fto ) poised at + 0 . 4 v ( vs . she ) acts as a sole source of electrons , and dissolved o 2 and co 2 are an electron acceptor and a carbon source , respectively . in the absence of bacteria , we detected no electrical current generation ( broken line , figure 1a ) . on the other hand , in the reactors containing cells , the cathodic current gradually increased to approximately 7 \u03bca after 20 h of cultivation ( solid line , figure 1a ) . the marked difference in current density depending on the presence of cells indicates that the cathodic current was derived from the metabolic activity of cells . furthermore , in - situ sterilization of cells with the deep - uv ( 254 nm ) irradiation immediately suppressed the cathodic current generation ( figure 1b ) . almost no electrical response was observed after 6 h of sterilization , confirming the strong coupling of metabolic activity to electrical current generation .\nfigure 1 . ( a ) current vs . time measurements for microbial current generation by acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans cells on an fluorine - doped tin oxide ( fto ) electrode in the absence of fe 2 + ions ( solid line ) at + 0 . 4 v ( vs . she ) . current vs . time measurements without cells at + 0 . 4 v was also depicted as a reference ( broken line ) ( b ) effects of the deep - uv ( 254 nm ) irradiation to the microbial current generation by the cells in the absence of fe 2 + ions at + 0 . 4 v ( solid line ) . current vs . time measurements without cells at + 0 . 4 v was also depicted as a reference ( broken line ) . ( c ) in - situ optical microscope observation of an fto electrode surface at the indicated time ( panel a ) after cell inoculation . ( d ) plot of microbial current against cell number attached on an electrode surface obtained from in - situ optical microscope observation ( panels a and b ) . the squares of the correlation coefficients were estimated by the addition of the point of origin to the obtained data . the geometric area of the fto electrode was 3 . 14 cm 2 . initial od 500 was 0 . 02 .\nfigure 2 . linear sweep ( ls ) voltammograms for a . ferrooxidans cultivated in the presence ( broken line ) and absence ( solid line ) of fe 2 + ions ( 66 mm ) . a scan rate was 0 . 1 mv s - 1 . initial od 500 was 0 . 02 .\nfigure 3a shows time courses of microbial current at an electrode potential of + 0 . 4 v under co atmospheres . upon the treatment of the cells with co , the microbial current decreased , suggesting that the formation of co - ligated heme in living cells inhibited the extracellular electron - transfer reactions of a . ferrooxidans . the drop in the microbial current caused by co was recovered upon visible - light irradiation ; in contrast , visible - light irradiation induced little change in the current generation under n 2 atmospheres ( figure 3b ) .\nfigure 3 . ( a ) time courses of microbial current generation in the absence of fe 2 + ions under co atmospheres . white and black bars indicate the period for light irradiation and dark conditions , respectively . an electrode potential was + 0 . 4 v ( vs . she ) . ( b ) time courses of microbial current at an electrode potential of + 0 . 4 v under air and co atmospheres . ( c ) diffuse transmission uv - vis spectrum of whole cells of a . ferrooxidans suspended in a dsmz medium containing na 2 s 2 o 4 as a reductant under co atmospheres . ( d ) an action spectrum of the microbial current recovered by visible - light irradiation under a co atmosphere . initial od 500 was 0 . 02 .\nfigure 4 . effects adding a bc1 complex inhibitor , antimycin a , on microbial current generation for a . ferrooxidans cultivated in the absence of fe 2 + ions at an electrode potential of + 0 . 4 v ( vs . she ) . antimycin a solubilized in methanol ( final concentration of antimycin a is 100 \u03bcm ) was added into electrochemical reactors at the time points indicated with an arrow ( solid line ) . methanol lacking antimycin a was also added into electrochemical reactors as a control experiment ( broken line ) . initial od 500 was 0 . 02 .\nin a . ferrooxidans , the pmf - dependent up - hill electron transfer is a physiologically important phenomenon , since carbon dioxide fixation via the calvin cycle is coupled to this process . figure 5 shows the time course of optical cell density at 500 nm ( od 500 ) obtained for a . ferrooxidans cells inoculated in an fe 2 + - ion - free electrochemical reactor for 8 days . under the condition that the electrode potential was poised at + 0 . 4 v , od 500 increased with incubation time . in contrast , when the cell was incubated under the same condition with the exception that no external potential was applied to the fto electrode ( open circuit condition ) , no growth of the cells was observed . here , we should emphasize that under the open circuit condition , the electron flow from the fto electrode to the cells was fully ceased and thus the electrode no longer functioned as an electron source for microbial growth . therefore , the clear potential dependency of the cell growth indicates that the cathodic current was being used not only for pmf generation , but also for carbon dioxide fixation and cellular maintenance via an endergonic electron - transfer reaction .\nfigure 5 . changes in the optical cell density at 500 nm of a . ferrooxidans inoculated in an fe 2 + - ion free electrochemical rector under the potential static condition at + 0 . 4 v vs . she ( open triangle ) and the open circuit condition ( open square ) . error bars indicate the standard error of the means calculated with data obtained from three individual experiments for the potential static condition and two individual experiments for the open circuit condition , respectively .\nscheme 2 . energy diagram for pmf - dependent electrolithoautotrophic carbon fixation in a . ferrooxidans . a . ferrooxidans cell extracts electrons directly from solid electron sources such as conductive minerals and electrodes at a potential of + 0 . 82 v vs . she . electrons are used for o 2 reduction via a down - hill pathway , which in turn generates pmf that is used to elevate the energy of electrons to reduce nad + to nadh , therefore triggering calvin cycle . from the energy difference between the input electron and the midpoint potential of nad + / nadh redox at cytoplasmic ph , it is estimated that a . ferrooxidans elevates the energy of electrons using pmf by 1 . 14 ev .\nthe authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest .\nthe authors thank drs . k . takai , m . yamamoto , and h . makita of the japan agency for marine - earth science and technology ( jamstec ) for discussions about microbiological and biogeochemical aspects of deep - sea hydrothermal ecosystems , and ms . t . minami of riken for the careful reading of the manuscript . this work was financially supported by a grant - in - aid for specially promoted research from the japan society for promotion of science ( jsps ) kakenhi grant number 24000010 , and by a grant - in - aid for challenging exploratory research on priority areas from the ministry of education , culture , sports , science , technology ( mext ) , japan ( 24655167 ) and the canon foundation .\nbaaske , p . , weinert , f . m . , duhr , s . , lemke , k . h . , russell , m . j . , and braun , d . 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( 1986 ) . enhancement of growth and ferrous iron oxidation rates of t . ferrooxidans by electrochemical reduction of ferric iron . biotechnol . bioeng . 28 , 1867\u20131875 . doi : 10 . 1002 / bit . 260281214\nfixation by fe ( ii ) - oxidizing bacteria coupled with direct uptake of electrons from solid electron sources .\n\u00a9 2015 ishii , kawaichi , nakagawa , hashimoto and nakamura . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the\n. the use , distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted , provided the original author ( s ) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited , in accordance with accepted academic practice . no use , distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms .\nkazuhito hashimoto , department of applied chemistry , school of engineering , the university of tokyo , 7 - 3 - 1 hongo , bunkyo - ku , tokyo 113 - 8656 , japan , hashimoto @ urltoken ; ryuhei nakamura , biofunctional catalyst research team , riken center for sustainable resource science , 2 - 1 hirosawa , wako , saitama 351 - 0198 , japan , ryuhei . nakamura @ urltoken\ni am a scientist - turned writer and editor , who loves to read and write ( more than doing experiments ) . i have a phd in biochemistry and molecular biology , with a specialization in structural biology . my interests range widely , from life sciences to pop culture and arts to music . i am bilingual in english and japanese .\nenter your email address to subscribe to this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ni am a physical chemist and the electron is the key word for my field . i am trying to understand the trials of nature in the course of becoming accustomed to different environments from the view point of \u201celectron flow\n( fig . 1 ) . this history of geological and biological electron flow is a great textbook , a blueprint for us to predict the future . we can learn a lot from the evolution , and it takes the field of biology and geology together . i think overall understanding of nature\u2019s evolution is needed , rather than trying to understand each specific step in detail , and such a comprehensive approach will provide the new guiding principle for us to design the catalysts and develop the technology for energy and environmental conservation in human society .\nfig . 1 electron flow & evolution of life our target is to find the role of electrical current for emergence and evolution of life ; how nature has utilized the electrical current from billion years ago , and its relevance in our modem technology , such as fuel cell , battery , voltage amplifier , and thermoelectric conversion . knowing the evolution of this in nature would be a nice guidance to realize sustainable human ecosystems . \u00a9 r . nakamura\ni joined the center in april 2013 , as one of the new principal investigators at csrs from outside of riken . the topic of sustainability was the attraction for me . here in my lab , we have about 10 people in our team . with the members who have the diverse backgrounds from physical chemistry to microbiology , i am trying to combine those areas to understand the fundamental mechanisms of nature to organize the robust and efficient energy cycle . i am sure its sustainability is relevant to modern technologies in human society .\nriken is a very special place , with so many outstanding scientists . there is a great freedom of what to research and we can focus basic subjects and cultivate frontier science . in our center , distinguished researchers of plant science , chemical biology , biomass , and chemistry work together . especially for young scientists , collaborating between the different fields and heavyweight experienced researchers is a very great incentive , since it helps them a lot to come up with the brand - new ideas , and they can even make their own field . also for me this collaboration is quite attractive , and has encouraged me a lot to establish my own vision .\nwe work on the development of biologically inspired catalysts and their application for energy harvesting and environmental conservation systems . specifically , we attempt to exploit the nature\u2019s ingenuities of multi - electron catalytic reaction , electron / proton transport , metabolic regulation , flexible response to external stimuli , and the robust energy management in a deep sea environment to develop the novel materials and systems necessary for the effective management of renewable energy sources . there are three areas for our research :\nfig . 2 chimney : giant electrochemical fuel cell sustained by magmatic activity ? the chemical potential and temperature gradient across the chimney generates electrical current , which trigger abiotic co 2 reduction and may sustain the ecosystems of the chimney .\nin 2010 we published the first paper about electricity generation in the deep sea hydrothermal vent ( ref . 1 ) . we were the first to propose and demonstrate that a black smoker chimney acts as an electrochemical fuel cell that can convert the energy stored in the earth\u2019s interior to electricity ( fig . 2 ) .\nour research has also inspired another field of the origin of life ( ref . 2 ) . this field has a quite long history , and the difficult point of this field is that we always have to investigate about the past events occurred billions of years ago . so , in order to get to the conclusive point of view , a broad range of understanding in physical chemistry , biology , and geology are required to understand the framework .\nbut always the problem has been that for some ( sub ) surface regions in the deep sea there is no recognizable energy input . there is no sunlight . there is no energy to sustain the bacterial activity we see . so people are looking for what is the energy source to sustain such an abundant biomass in the sub sea floor . so i am quite sure that this source has become the electron . now in the field of earth science people started to recognize electro - microbiology , and the electrochemical fuel cell in the deep ocean as a kind of power and engine to maintain the microbial activity .\nwe think that this energy creation found in the deep sea electro - ecosystem could have been one of the sources to kick - off the origin of life . the gradient of redox and temperature around a chimney creates electrical energy , which could kick off chemical evolution . this type of electrical energy might be the third type of ecosystem , in addition to chemosynthesis and photosynthesis , to drive microbial life ( fig . 3 / ref . 4 ) .\nfig . 3 ecosystems sustained by geo - electricity decoupling of electron and heat transfer can generate the high energy electron that has almost the same electrochemical potential generatedby photosynthesis .\ni want to know how nature got accustomed to the different environments , and how organisms in nature overcame such quite difficult situations by changing their metabolism or changing their genome . for example , it is as if chimney minerals have such an advanced knowledge of physics : they can convert chemical energy to electricity , and electricity to chemical energy . such an amazing function can be a key to generate high energy electrons , for triggering co 2 fixation , and nitrogen fixation in the ancient deep sea .\nwe also found another amazing aspect of chimney minerals : by analyzing the samples of minerals from the deep sea and investigating the function of them with dr . takao mori of national institute for materials science , we found that they transfer electrons efficiently , but not heat energy ( ref . 3 ) . it represents a newly recognized system for energy - harvesting in nature , based on the decoupling of electron transfer and heat transfer . no one would imagine this ! i would say that at the hydrothermal vent the difference of chemical potential and temperature is converted to electrical current , and if proton motive force exists , a hydrothermal vent can generate reductive energy almost identical with that of photo - excited photosynthesis ii . this is a new scenario to bridge deep - sea ecosystem and photosynthesis in terms of energetics for carbon fixation , and recently published in a book chapter ( ref . 4 ) . this is one of our original discoveries and can be a basis for examining the relationship between modern technology and ancient one in respect to heat and electrical use .\nthe next challenge for us is to test our hypothesis on the newly understood type of bacteria called \u201celectrotrophs\u201d in which co 2 fixation is triggered by electrons taken from minerals or electrodes .\nscientists in the usa ( prof . kenneth nealson and prof . derek lovely ) noticed that certain bacteria transferred electron from some minerals like iron oxide or manganese oxide , as a process for their respiration . those findings were the starting point of the new field of electro - microbiology . usually we need oxygen for respiration , and mitochondria plays a role . but even without oxygen some bacteria eat minerals to maintain their atp synthesis . some portion of bacteria , archaea and animals depend on this kind of energy metabolism .\nthe current goal of our research is to prove the concept of such \u201celectro - ecosystems\u201d both by lab experiments and on - site deep - sea experiments ( fig . 4 /\n) . people will recognize the importance of this field soon . electron life might be a nice running title - the field of electron life .\nnakamura , r . , takashima , t . , kato , s . , takai , k . , yamamoto , m . , hashimoto , k . electrical current generation across a black smoker chimney . angew . chem . int . ed . 49 , 7692 - 7694 ( 2010 ) * selected to hot topics in sustainable chemistry doi : 10 . 1002 / anie . 201003311\nyamaguchi , a . , yamamoto , m . , takai , k . , ishii , t . , hashimoto , k . , nakamura , r . electrochemical co 2 reduction by ni - containing iron sulfides : how is co 2 electrochemically reduced at bisulfide - bearing deep - sea hydrothermal precipitates ? electrochemica acta 141 , 311 - 318 ( 2014 ) doi : 10 . 1016 / j . electacta . 2014 . 07 . 078\nang , r . , khan , a . , tsujii , n . , takai , k . , nakamura , r . , mori , t . thermoelectricity generation and electron - magnon scattering in a natural chalcopyrite mineral from a deep - sea hydrothermal vent . angew . chem . 54 , 12909 - 12913 ( 2015 ) doi : 10 . 1002 / anie . 201505517\nyamaguchi , a . , li , y . , takashima , t . , hashimoto , k . , nakamura , r . co 2 reduction using an electrochemical approach from chemical , biological , and geological aspects in the ancient and modern earth . solar to chemical energy conversion , 32 , 213 - 228 ( 2016 )\nishii , t . , kawaichi , s . , nakagawa , h . , hashimoto , k . , nakamura , r . from chemolithoautotrophs to electrolithoautotrophs : co 2 fixation by fe ( ii ) - oxidizing bacteria coupled with direct uptake of electrons from solid electron sources . front . microbiol . , 6 , 994 ( 2015 ) doi : 10 . 3389 / fmicb . 2015 . 00994\nriken news : a bacteria ' s double life : living off both iron and electricity ( dec . 2015 )\nat deep - sea vent systems , hydrothermal emissions rich in reductive chemicals replace solar energy as fuels to support microbial carbon assimilation . until recently , all the microbial components at vent systems have been assumed to be fostered by the primary production of chemolithoautotrophs ; however , both the laboratory and on - site studies demonstrated\u2026\nfirst evidence for existence of an uphill electron transfer through the bc ( 1 ) and nadh - q oxidoreductase complexes of the acidophilic obligate chemolithotrophic ferrous ion - oxidizing bacterium thiobacillus ferrooxidans .\nredox components of cytochrome bc - type enzymes in acidophilic prokaryotes . i . characterization of the cytochrome bc1 - type complex of the acidophilic ferrous ion - oxidizing bacterium thiobacillus ferrooxidans .\nproudly built by ai2 with the help of our collaborators using these sources . terms of service \u2022 privacy policy .\narticles relating to biological processes . a phenomenon marked by changes that lead to a particular result , mediated by one or more gene products .\nthe following 37 pages are in this category , out of 37 total . this list may not reflect recent changes ( learn more ) .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . , a non - profit organization ."]}
{"id": 374, "summary": [{"text": "the red-faced turtle , emydura victoriae ( gray , 1842 ) , is a species of medium-sized aquatic turtle in the family chelidae .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "the species inhabits rivers , streams and permanent water bodies across much of northern australia . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "red - faced turtle", "paragraphs": ["northern yellow - faced turtle ( emydura tanybaraga ) in the finniss river catchment , nt .\ncann , j . 1997 . the northern yellow - faced turtle . monitor 9 ( 1 ) : 24 - 29 , 34 - 35 .\nthe red - bellied short - necked turtle , also known as the jardine river turtle ( emydura subglobosa ) , is a species of australian short - necked turtle indigenous to australia and papua new guinea ; in the former location , they are considered highly endangered .\nthe party had said that the turtle\u2019s limbs had been hacked off and the perpetrators had then sprayed the dead animal\u2019s shell with red paint , an act of \u201ca sick mind\u201d .\na green party announcement condemning the brutal torturing and killing of a sea turtle at a paphos beach caused confusion on social media on tuesday , after it emerged that the turtle had been washed ashore dead and marked as counted with red paint by a government official .\nhowever , local daily phileleftheros later reported that the turtle had been washed ashore and bathers who found it informed the government\u2019s marine turtle protection programme .\npost - ocular stripe typically bright red , fading with age ; iris without leading and trailing dark spots ; macrocephaly in adults common .\nemydura : ' turtle - tail ' . victoriae : after the victoria river , northern territory .\nthe following morning , a programme official went to the beach , recorded the turtle\u2019s species , dimensions , and condition , obtained tissue samples for dna testing , and spray - painted its shell red so that it wouldn\u2019t be counted again \u2013 and also to prevent use of the shell by anyone .\nafter being informed of a dead turtle at the yeroskipou beach on sunday night , the department said , it notified the cyprus wildlife society , which implements the turtle protection programme in collaboration with the fisheries department .\nchelonoidis chilensis gray , 1870 ( turtle ) the type specimen was labeled\nvalparaiso\n( a port in chile ) , so gray named the turtle chilensis . however , valparaiso was only the ship ' s point of departure . that species of turtle is found only in paraguay and argentina , east of the andes .\nms pearce says freshwater turtle shells can become soft and susceptible to damage if animals are not cared for correctly .\nmeanwhile , news of the turtle\u2019s \u2018brutal killing\u2019 reached the green party and prompted their statement on monday , which claimed that the fisheries department couldn\u2019t be bothered to find the people who carried out the killing and sprayed the turtle .\naccording to the fisheries department , the dead female turtle was a caretta caretta , measured at 70 by 68 centimetres .\ntortoises of australia . angus and robertson , sydney . cann , j . ( 1997a ) georges short - necked turtle\nthey prefer to spend a majority of their time in shallow , muddy waters . the coloration of hatchlings and juveniles are stunningly red or orange , hence their name , though these vibrant colors will fade as they age .\ngeorges , a . , doody , j . s . , eisemberg , c . , alacs , a . a . & rose , m . ( 2008 ) carettochelys insculpta ramsay 1886 - - pignosed turtle , fly river turtle . chelonian research monographs , 5 , in press .\nhydromedusa wagler , 1830 ( snake - necked turtle ) unrelated to the cnidarian hydromedusa , known also as anthomedusa , athecate hydroids , and other names .\nturtle taxonomy working group [ van dijk , p . p . , j . iverson , a . rhodin , h . shaffer , and r . bour ]\nwells , r . w . ( 2007c ) some taxonomic and nomenclatural considerations on the class reptilia in australia . some comments on the elseya dentata ( gray , 1863 ) complex with redescriptions of the johnstone river snapping turtle , elseya stirlingi wells and wellington , 1985 and the alligator river snapping turtle , elseya jukesi wells 2002 .\nmeiolania owen , 1886 ( oligocene - to - holocene turtle ) it was named meiolania (\nsmall roamer\n) in reference to megalania (\nlarge roamer\n) , a monitor lizard which it was first thought to be a smaller relative of . when more remains were found , it was realized that it was a turtle .\nwebb , r . g . ( 2002 [ 2003 ] ) observations on the giant softshell turtle , pelochelys cantorii , with description of a new species . hamadryad , 27 , 99\u00ad107 .\nencyclopedia of turtles . tfh publications , new jersey . ramsay , e . p . ( 1886 ) on a new genus and species of fresh water turtle from the fly river , new guinea\nin a statement , the department expressed surprise at the \u201cfalse reports\u201d alleging the \u201cbrutal torturing of a turtle\u201d , which reproduce claims made in a misleading statement by the paphos branch of the green party .\nrhodin , a . , ibarrondo , b . r . & kuchling , g . ( 2008a ) chelodina mccordi , rhodin 1994 - - roti island snake necked turtle , mccord ' s snake necked turtle , kura kura rote . chelonian conservation and biology , 5 , 008 . 1 - 008 . 8 , doi : 10 . 3854 / crm . 5 . 008 . mccordi . v1 . 2008 .\ngeorges , a . , doody , j . s . , young , j . & cann , j . ( 2000 ) the pig - nosed turtle . cooperative research centre for freshwater ecology , canberra .\nalacs , a . a . ( 2008 ) forensics , phylogeography and population genetics : a case study using the northern snake - necked turtle , chelodina rugosa . phd thesis , university of canberra , canberra , australia .\nthomson , s . & georges , a . ( 2009 ) myuchelys gen . nov . \u2014a new genus for elseya latisternum and related forms of australian freshwater turtle ( testudines : pleurodira : chelidae ) zootaxa 2053 : 32\u201342 .\naccording to the reports , an officer then went to the beach and painted the dead turtle , to make sure it wouldn\u2019t be counted twice . the officer then informed the municipality so they could remove the animal from the beach .\nstegosaurus marsh 1877 ( dinosaur ) when o . c . marsh described the dinosaur , he thought that its distinctive triangular plates covered the creature like a giant turtle , so he named it stegosaurus , or\nroof lizard\n.\nthomson , s . & georges , a . ( 2009 ) myuchelys gen . nov . - - a new genus for elseya latisternum and related forms of australian freshwater turtle ( testudines : pleurodira : chelidae ) . zootaxa , in press .\nnatural hybridization and evolution . oxford university press , oxford . artner , h . ( 2003 ) die rezenten schildkr\u00f6tenarten der erde . emys , 10 ( 6 ) , iv\u00adxxxviii . artner , h . ( 2008 ) the world ' s extant turtle species , part 1\nemmott ' s short - neck turtle , emydura macquarii emmotti ssp . nov . pp . 60\u00ad61 in mccord , w . , cann , j . & joseph - ouni , m . ( ed . ) a taxonomic assessment of emydura ( testudines : chelidae ) with descriptions of new subspecies from queensland , australia\nwells , r . w . ( 2009 ) some taxonomic and nomenclatural considerations on the class reptilia in australia . a new species of freshwater turtle in the genus wollumbinia wells 2007 ( reptilia : chelidae ) from eastern australia .\naustralian biodiversity record\n, 2009 ( 1 ) , 1\u00ad12 [ privately produced , available from the author ] .\nthomson , s . , kennett , r . , tucker , a . d . , fitzsimmons , n . n . , featherstoni , p . , alacs , a . a . & georges , a . ( 2009 ) chelodina burrungandjii thomson , kennett and georges 2000 - - sandstone snake - necked turtle . chelonian monographs , 5 , in press .\nwells , r . w . ( 2007b ) some taxonomic and nomenclatural considerations on the class reptilia in australia . notes on the recently described freshwater turtle chelodina canni mccord and thomson , 2002 and a redescription of chelodina rankini wells and wellington , 1985 .\naustralian biodiversity record\n, 2007 ( 1 ) , 1\u00ad5 [ privately produced , available from the author ] .\nturtle taxonomy working group [ van dijk , p . p . , iverson , j . b . , rhodin , a . g . j . , shaffer , h . b . , and bour , r . ] . 2014 . turtles of the world , 7th edition : annotated checklist of taxonomy , synonymy , distribution with maps , and conservation status . in : rhodin , a . g . j . , pritchard , p . c . h . , van dijk , p . p . , saumure , r . a . , buhlmann , k . a . , iverson , j . b . , and mittermeier , r . a . ( eds . ) . conservation biology of freshwater turtles and tortoises : a compilation project of the iucn / ssc tortoise and freshwater turtle specialist group . chelonian research monographs 5 ( 7 ) : 000 . 329\u2013479 , doi : 10 . 3854 / crm . 5 . 000 . checklist . v7 . 2014 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 frameset / / en\nurltoken\naustralian reptile photos , distribution maps and information covering snakes and lizards , crocodiles and turtles , including colubrid snakes , pythons , elapids ( called cobras or coral snakes in some countries ) , sea snakes , file snakes , blind ( or worm ) snakes , sea turtles , freshwater turtles ( or tortoises ) dragon lizards ( agamas ) , gecko ' s , legless lizards , monitor lizards ( often called goanna ' s in australia ) , skinks and crocodilia .\n\u00a92018 john fowler and john hollister . all rights reserved . reproduction or re - use of information or materials from this web site is strictly prohibited and against international law . ( note : - no permission is needed to link to this web page ) this site is supported by investor friendly agents , buy australian businesses ,\nif you have inside knowledge of a topic in the news , contact the abc .\nabc teams share the story behind the story and insights into the making of digital , tv and radio content .\nthis service may include material from agence france - presse ( afp ) , aptn , reuters , aap , cnn and the bbc world service which is copyright and cannot be reproduced .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nsyntypes : bmnh 1947 . 3 . 5 . 95 and 1947 . 3 . 5 . 96 ; wells and wellington ( 1985 : 14 ) designated bmnh 1947 . 3 . 5 . 95 lectotype .\nbeolens , bo ; michael watkins , and michael grayson 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , usa - get paper here\nbonin , f . , devaux , b . & dupr\u00e9 , a . 2006 . turtles of the world . english translation by p . c . h . pritchard . johns hopkins university press , 416 pp .\nbour , r . 2008 . global diversity of turtles ( chelonii ; reptilia ) in freshwater . hydrobiologia 595 : 593\u2013598\ncogger , h . g . 2014 . reptiles and amphibians of australia , 7th ed . csiro publishing , xxx + 1033 pp .\ncogger , h . g . 2000 . reptiles and amphibians of australia , 6th ed . ralph curtis publishing , sanibel island , 808 pp .\ngeorges , a . 1996 . electrophoretic delineation of species boundaries within the short - necked freshwater turtles of australia ( testudines : chelidae ) . zoological journal of the linnean society ( 1996 ) , 118 : 241\u2013260 .\ngray , j . e . 1842 . description of some new species of reptiles , chiefly from the british museum collection . zoological miscellany 2 : 57 - 59 . - get paper here\nmccord , w . p . ; joseph - ouni , m . & cann , j . 2003 . chelonian illustrations # 7 . short - neck , western swamp , and pig - nose turtles from australia and new guinea . reptilia ( gb ) ( 27 ) : 64 - 68 - get paper here\nwells , r . w . and wellington , c . r . 1985 . a classification of the amphibia and reptilia of australia . australian journal of herpetology , supplementary series , ( 1 ) : 1 - 61 . - get paper here\nwilson , s . & swan , g . 2010 . a complete guide to reptiles of australia , 3rd ed . chatswood : new holland , 558 pp .\nworrell , e . 1963 . reptiles of australia . angus & robertson ( sydney ) , xv + 207 pp\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\ncomments on social media charged that the green party rushed to politically exploit the incident without bothering to check the facts .\nthen , the municipal authorities were notified to collect and bury the dead animal , the statement said .\nits body had started to decompose , hence the decayed limbs , but showed no signs of abuse .\nhe does though \u2013 never hear his voice protesting the shooting , netting and lime sticking of european migrating birds , many of whom are protected or endangered in their host countries . . social media has a thread calling a boycott after three hundred song thrushes shot in cyprus in just three days by a couple of hunters who thoughtfully provided a picture . they are protected and prized for their song in the uk .\nby continuing to use the cyprus mail , you agree to the use of cookies . more information accept\nthe cookie settings on this website are set to\nallow cookies\nto give you the best browsing experience possible . if you continue to use this website without changing your cookie settings or you click\naccept\nbelow then you are consenting to this .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nyou appear to have javascript disabled . some parts of this site won ' t work properly .\ntriturating surfaces of the maxillary sheath expanded , meeting medially to form a crushing plate on the roof of the mouth ; length of mandibular symphysis in adults about 1 . 5 times the horizontal diameter of the tympanum .\n- georges & thomson ( 2010 ) . diversity of australasian freshwater turtles , with an annotated synonymy and keys to species . zootaxa , 2496 : 1 - 37 .\nnorthern australia , extending across the kimberley region of western australia to the fitzroy drainage in the west .\nnote : these are general threats and may not apply to this particular species .\nthere are many ways you can help our reptiles . here are my top three suggestions :\ngeorges , a . & thomson , s . ( 2010 ) . diversity of australasian freshwater turtles , with an annotated synonymy and keys to species . zootaxa , 2496 : 1 - 37 . - search web for this article\nnote : the links below are automatically generated . some may not take you to useful information .\nnotes and disclaimer this information may not be complete . while all care is taken to ensure the accuracy of the information in this page , primary sources should always be consulted for definitive information . animals have an endearing habit of disobeying the rules , so the information on this page should be interpreted with a degree of flexibility . the author and site operator accepts no responsibility for any losses or damages incurred through using this web site or the information contained herein . don ' t get bitten by anything ! this page may be cited as : emydura victoriae at the australian reptile online database . last updated 2013 - 10 - 02 22 : 20 : 11 . retrieved from urltoken on the 10th of july , 2018 . before citing information contained in arod , please read our citing arod page . copyright notice this page , its content and layout are copyright \u00a9 2007 - 2018 stewart macdonald / ug media , unless otherwise stated . all photographs in the australian reptile online database are \u00a9 the photographer and may not be reproduced in any form without the express written consent of the photographer . no part of the australian reptile online database may be reproduced without written permission from stewart macdonald .\n- home - - rules - - etymology - - puns - - wordplay - - gene names - - misc . - - references - - feedback -\nacinonyx ( cheetah ) from gk . akineo ( no movement ) + onyx ( claw ) , referring to the popular belief that cheetahs have non - retractable claws . this is not true . cheetahs ' claws are fully retractable , but their retracted claws remain exposed because , unlike other cats , they lack a skin sheath to cover them .\nalligator ( alligator ) misspelling of\nel lagarto ,\nspanish for\nthe lizard .\nambrosia l . ( ragweed ) named after the food of the gods , this genus is a major cause of allergies . linnaeus was probably considering that ancient herbals recommended a . maritima to treat upset stomachs .\napidium ( early oligocene primate , from egypt ) the name means\nlittle bull\n( from apis and mnevis , a pair of bulls mentioned on the rosetta stone as being used in egyptian rites ) ; the fossil was orginally thought to be a hoofed animal .\napus apus ( common swift ) from greek for\nfootless\n( see also paradisaea apoda below ) . the swift ' s feet are small but far from absent .\narctocephalos pusillus ( seal )\npusillus\nmeans\nvery little\n, but the seal grows to about 3 meters and one tonne . the type specimen was a juvenile not recognized as such at the time .\narrhinoceratops parks , 1921 ( ceratopsian dinosaur ) name means\nwithout a nose horn face\n. parks interpreted the fossil as having\nno trace of a horn core\nnor even a vestige of one . in 1981 helen tyson restudied it , stating ,\nto deny the presence of a horn core in arrhinoceratops , which . . . possesses a distinct horn - like organ , contributes neither to the homology of this structure nor to an accurate characterization of the genus .\nbarbus viviparus weber , 1897 ( bowstripe barb ) not viviparous but egg - laying , like most fish .\nbasilosaurus harlan , 1834 ( eocene whale ) not a\nking lizard\n, and unrelated to dinosaurs . the original misidentified remains of several animals were combined and sent on a tour as a 130 - ft . extinct sea serpent . [ transactions of the american philosophical society 4 : 379 - 403 ]\nbufo marinus ( cane toad ) the toad is adaptable to many habitats , but it is not marine .\ncolumbicola extinctus malcolmson , 1937 ( flight - feather louse ) both these lice were reported from the passenger pigeon and were thought to have gone extinct with it , hence their names , but both are still living on other pigeons . c . defectus turned out to be a previously described species c . flavens .\ncephalopentandra echirrosa ( cogniaux ) jeffrey , 1896 ( african plant ) generic name means\nhead - with - five - stamens without - tendrils\n, but the flower has only three stamens , and the plant has tendrils .\nchaeropus ecaudatus ogilby , 1838 ( pig - footed bandicoot ) the name of this extinct marsupial literally means\npig - foot tailless ,\nbut it had the longest tail of any bandicoot . it was described from a specimen which had lost its tail , though accounts differ whether the loss happened during the animal ' s life or during taxidermy .\ncuniculus brisson , 1762 ( paca ) the name means\nrabbit\nin latin , but the paca is a rodent , not a lagomorph .\ndinosauria owen , 1842 means\nfearfully great lizard\n( or , as often quoted ,\nterrible lizard ,\nbut terrible in the sense of\nawesome\n) , but many were small and inoffensive , and none were lizards . it should be noted , however , that there is no latin word for\nreptile ,\nso\nsaur\nhad to stand in .\neonessa anaticula wetmore , 1938 ( eocene bird ) literally\ndawn - duck duckling\n, the fossil was first described as a primitive duck . the fossil has too little detail to determine its order , but more detailed work shows that it has little similarity to ducks .\nepilachna vigintisexpunctata vigintisexpunctata ( 28 - spotted potato ladybird )\nvigintisexpunctata\nmeans 26 - spotted .\nepilachna vigintioctopunctata pardalis ( 26 - spotted potato ladybird ) .\nvigintioctopunctata\nmeans 28 - spotted .\nfelis lacustris gazin , 1933 (\nlake cat\n) the name lacustris ( latin ,\nlake\n) does not indicate that this cat had aquatic habits , but indicates its place of origin , the hagerman lake beds . however , the sediments there are now interpreted as a flood plain rather than an ancient lake .\nfregata minor ( greater frigate bird ) it was originally named pelecanus minor , the little pelican ; when moved to a new genus , priority demanded that it still be called minor . the lesser frigate is f . ariel .\ngelidiophycus freshwateri boo , park , & boo , 2013 ( marine alga ) named after dr . d . wilson freshwater , who provided the first molecular systematic study of the gelidiales and showed that a new genus may be warrented . the alga is not found in fresh water itself . [ taxon 62 : 1105 - 1116 ]\ngeosaurus cuvier , 1824 ( late jurassic to early cretaceous marine crocodile ) means\nearth lizard\n, but it was strictly aquatic .\nglobicephala macrorhynchus gray , 1846 ( pilot whale ) john gray , working from skeletal materials only , guessed this whale had a large beak , or macrorhynchus in greek . but the pilot whale ' s head is quite rounded , suggesting anything but a beak .\nhaemophilus influenzae ( bacterium ) so named because it was thought to be the cause of influenza , until the virus was discovered in the 1930s .\nhydrangea serratifolia ( hook . & arn . ) f . phil . ( hydrangea ) literally ,\nwith serrated leaves\n, but leaf edges are typically smooth . the specimen hooker received from darwin had apparently been nibbled by pests .\nhyracotherium owen , 1841 ( extinct equid ) the name means\nhyrax - like beast ,\nbut it is a primitive horse , not a hyrax .\nixobrychus billberg , 1828 ( dwarf bittern ) the name means\nmistletoe - roarer\n. at that time , it was a common belief that bitterns blew into a reed in order to produce their booming call . billberg was not only mistaken about that , he also confused ixios ( reed ) with ixos ( mistletoe ) .\nlawsonia inermis ( henna ) originally , henna was called by three names , lawsonia inermis , l . spinosa , and l . alba , referring respectively to a young spineless plant , an adult spiny plant , and a white - flowered variety . when botanists realized that these were the same species , they chose the name inermis (\nunarmed\n) for it , even though henna does have spines .\nlibycosaurus bonnarelli , 1947 ( miocene anthracothere ) the name means\nlizard of libya\n, but it is an artiodactyl mammal .\nlobodon carcinophagus hombron & jacquinot , 1842 ( crabeater seal ) the scientists who discovered this seal , finding soft shell remains in its mouth , inferred that it fed on crabs and named it accordingly , but in fact it eats krill . crabs are not even found in its antarctic environment .\nlygistorrhina sanctaecatharinae thompson 1975 ( fungus gnat ) described from a specimen from st . catherine ' s island , ga , so it should be spelled l . sanctaecatherinae .\nmegarachne hunicken , 1980 ( fossil terrestrial eurypterid ) named\nbig spider\nbased on its interpretation as an enormous upper carboniferous therophosid spider , and formerly listed by guinness as the world ' s largest spider . it is now shown to be a eurypterid , or sea scorpion .\nmetaspriggina simonetta & insom ( cambrian chordate ) named after , but unrelated to , the ediacaran organism spriggina .\nmiohippus marsh , 1874 and pliohippus marsh , 1874 ( fossil horses ) these names refer to the miocene and pliocene epochs , respectively . however , most miohippus are found in the oligocene , and all pliohippus are from the miocene . marsh believed that his miohippus fossils were from the miocene , but later work showed him mistaken . since pliohippus was first described , the genus was split in two , with the later pliocene horses reclassified as dinohippus , and the date of the pliocene epoch itself has shrunk . eohippus is still from the eocene , but it is not the scientific name because hyracotherium takes prescedence .\nmyrmecobius waterhouse , 1836 ( numbat ) the name means\nlives on ants\n, but this marsupial lives on termites , eating ants only incidentally .\nmyrmecophaga tridactyla linnaeus , 1758 ( giant anteater ) the specific name means\nthree fingers\n, but it has five on each foot . four fingers on each front foot have claws , two of which are particularly elongate . the anteater does , at least , eat ants .\nmyxobolus cerebralis hofer , 1903 ( myxosporean parasite ) this parasite , the cause of whirling disease in salmon , was originally thought to infect fish brains . in fact , it is primarily a disease of cartilage .\nnaashoibitosaurus hunt and lucas , 1993 ( cretaceous hadrosaur ) so named because the type specimen was collected from what was thought to be naashoibito member of the kirtland formation , but in fact it came from an older member .\nnavicula antonii lange - bertalot ( diatom ) as stated in the paper ' s protologue , the name was intended to honor the late diatomist a . grunow ( the name navicula grunowii was already taken ) . but grunow ' s first name was albert , not anton . ( lange - bertalot later determined this name to be a synonym of n . menisculus var . grunowii . )\nneoleptoneta myopica gertsch ( tooth cave spider ) the name implies near - sightedness , but the spider is blind .\nneomylodon listai ameghino ( ground sloth ) ground sloths were thought to be still extant in south america during the 19th century . explorer ramon lista once shot at an animal which matched a crude description of one . when fresh - appearing dung and swatches of skin complete with reddish - brown fur and dermal ossicles turned up in an argentinean cave in 1888 , the animal was dubbed\nlista ' s new mylodon .\n20th century carbon dating revealed the hide to be roughly 13 , 500 years old .\nnephanes titan newman , 1834 ( beetle ) this beetle is 0 . 4mm long .\nodocoileus virginianus clavium ( key deer ) the subspecies name is from latin clavis , meaning\nkey ( as for a lock )\n, but the florida keys to which the name refers are a completely different kind of key , derived from spanish cayo ,\nshoal , reef .\na better latinization would be\ncajorum .\nthe genus , which means\nhollow tooth\n, is also verges on being misnamed ; the type specimen had tooth cavities , but not moreso than other deer .\nornithocheiroidea ( a subgroup of pterosaurs ) british palaeontologist harry grovier seely was convinced that pterosaurs were the ancestors of birds , though , after much criticism , he altered his position to birds and pterosaurs having a close common ancestor . seely bolstered his arguments by making reference to birds whenever he coined the name for a newly described pterosaur : ornithocheirus (\nbird hand\n) , ornithostoma (\nbird mouth\n) , ornithodesmus (\nbird link\n) - - all within the ornithocheiroidea . seely even proposed replacing pterosauria with\nornithosauria .\nin 1993 , ornithodesmus was recognized as a small theropod dinosaur and renamed istiodactylus howse , milner , & martill , 2001 . ornithocheirus and ornithostoma are still valid taxa .\nornithopoda and theropoda ( both dinosaur suborders ) the names mean\nbird feet\nand\nbeast feet\nrespectively . yet theropods are very bird - like ( indeed , birds evolved from this group ) , including their feet , and ornithopods are more beast - like . ornithopods were so - named for their three - toed feet , but those feet are still less birdlike than the three - toed feet of theropods .\nontocetus leidy , 1859 ( miocene walrus ) the - cetus means\nwhale\n, but the tooth it was named for belonged to a walrus . onto - probably was intended to mean\nexisting\n( it can also mean\ndung\n) , adding to the error .\noviraptor philoceratops osborn , 1924 ( theropod dinosaur ) the name means\nceratopsian - loving egg raider\nbecause the first fossil was found with what was thought to be protoceratops eggs , but the eggs turned out to be its own ; most likely , it was guarding its own nest . ( osborn did note that the name could\nentirely mislead us as to its feeding habits and belie its character ,\nbut he went with the name anyway . )\npan troglodytes ( linnaeus ) ( chimpanzee ) linnaeus , relying on unreliable stories , named a species homo troglodytes . it is not entirely certain which species , since he had no type specimen , but it was probably the chimpanzee , which carries the name today . but\ntroglodytes\nmeans\ncave dweller ,\nand chimps do not live in caves .\nparadisaea apoda linnaeus , 1760 ( greater bird of paradise )\nfootless one from paradise\n; it was described from two skins brought to seville in 1522 by the victoria , the surviving ship from magellan ' s circumnavigational voyage . the native papuans had removed the specimens ' legs , and the europeans therefore assumed that the birds remained airborne their entire lives ( with the female laying and brooding eggs in a groove between the male ' s wings ) . a live individual captured in 1824 finally revealed that the bird spends most of its life standing on rather massive feet .\nparadoxurus cuvier 1821 ( asian palm civet ) . the type specimen , at france ' s vincennes zoo , had a deformed tail , leading cuvier to think it was prehensile ( paradoxurus = ' with a strange tail ' ) . he called the type species p . hermaphroditus , misnaming it on both counts .\npelorovis ( extinct african cattle ) the name means\nmonstrous sheep\n, but it is closely related to cows and buffalo .\npeponocephala nishiwaki & norris , 1966 ( melon - headed whale ) the name was supposed to mean\nmelon head ,\nbut pepo does not actually mean\nmelon ,\nand\npumpkin - headed whale\nhas not caught on in popular usage .\nphytosauridae jaeger , 1828 ( triassic semi - aquatic reptiles ) name means\nplant lizard\nbecause the petrified mud fillings in the jaw of the first specimen found were thought to be herbivore teeth , but the creatures were wholly carnivorous .\npicrophilus schleper et al . 1996 ( archaea ) this microbe is an extreme acidophile . the genus description says it derives from\ngr . adj . pikros , acidic ,\nbut greek pikros means\nbitter\n, which is more often associated with alkaloids . [ ijsem 46 : 814 ]\npicus awokera temminck , 1836 ( japanese green woodpecker ) its epithet is almost but not quite a tranliteration of its japanese name , aogera .\nprimobucco brodkorb 1970 ( fossil bird ) bucco is a genus of puffbird , and primobucco , from its name , should be a primitive bird of that kind , as it was once thought to be . primobucco ' s status is not entirely clear yet , but a puffbird it isn ' t .\nprocyon storr , 1780 ( raccoon ) the name means\ndoglike\n, but raccoons are more closely related to bears .\nprosauropoda von huene , 1920 ( group of long - necked dinosaurs ) mistakenly thought to be ancestral to the sauropods .\nraphus cucullatus linnaeus , 1758 ( dodo )\nraphus\ncomes from a vulgar term for\nrump .\nthe dodo ' s common name and former scientific name ( didus ineptus l . ) are also perjorative . however , study of fossils show that wild dodos were sleeker and active ; their modern image came from overfed obese captive specimens and / or overstuffed specimens .\nsilphium l . ( 1753 ) ( rosinweed ) in classical antiquity ,\nsilphium\nreferred to a plant , valuable for seasonings and medicine , in the umbellifer family , probably a now - extinct member of the genus ferula . the genus silphium is in the asteraceae family .\nsirenia ( manatees and dugongs ) columbus wrote in his log entry of 9 january 1493 ,\ni saw three sirens that came up very high out of the sea . they are not as beautiful as they are painted , since in some ways , they have a face like a man .\ncolumbus and many explorers who followed him thought these inoffensive , rotund , placid , aquatic vegetarians were the deadly sirens or mermaids of fable whose haunting songs lured sailors to their deaths .\nspeothos venaticus lund , 1842 ( bush dog ) named by danish naturalist peter wilhelm lund as a fossil from caves in brazil , thus its generic name meaning\ncave wolf\n. it was first described in living form in 1843 by the same person , but he failed to realise they were the same animal and named the living dogs icticyon , which name was used for speothos until well into the 20th century .\nsynthliboramphus wumizusume temminck , 1836 ( japanese murrelet ) the epithet is a mis - transliteration of the bird ' s japanese name , umi - suzumi .\nthalassodromeus sethi kellner & campos , 2002 ( cretaceous pterosaur ) the genus name means\nsea runner ,\nreferring to presumed skimming behavior , but further analysis shows the pterosaur was most likely a terrestrial forager . the pterosaur ' s large crest inspired the name\nsethi\n, after the egyptian god seth , but kellner probably confused seth with amun , who is depicted with a headdress shaped remarkably like the pterosaur ' s crest .\ntoninia aromatica ( turner ex sm . ) a . massal . ( lichen ) the lichen is odorless , but turner sent it to smith in a perfumed envelope .\ntsaagan mangas norell et al . , 2006 ( cretaceous maniraptor )\ntsaagan , mongolian for white ; mangas , mongolian for monster\n, except mongolian for white is tsagaan . [ am . mus . nov . 3545 : 2 ]\ntupinambis l . ( tegu ) linnaeus apparently got the name from piso & marcgrave ' s historia naturalis brasiliae ( 1648 ) , which , describing the lizard , begins ,\nteivgvacv & temapara tupinambis\n, or\n[ it is called by the ] tupinambas ' teiuguacu ' and ' temapara ' .\nrather than using a tupi name for the lizard , though , linnaeus took the name for the tupi ethnic group .\nteiu - guacu\nmeans literally\nlizard - big\n; there is another genus of south american lizard , teius , derived from the tupinamba name .\nvulcanodon raath , 1972 ( sauropod dinosaur ) vulcanodon (\nvolcano tooth\n) was described from teeth and a headless partial skeleton found in rocks of volcanic origin . it was later found that the teeth were from another ( non - sauropod ) animal . the skeleton called\nvolcano tooth\nhas no known teeth .\nzoraptera silvestri , 1913 ( insect ) the name ( from greek ) means\npure wingless\n, but some forms , discovered after the family was described , have four wings .\napterocyclus honoluluensis waterhouse , 1871 ( kauai flightless stag beetle ) . named at the british natural history museum from a specimen that was mailed in a package postmarked\nhonolulu\n( on the island of oahu ) . its geographic restriction to the high elevation forests of the island of kauai was not realized until later .\nblattella germanica linnaeus , 1767 ( german cockroach ) native to the great lakes region of east africa . carried across the mediterranean to europe over 1000 years ago .\nbucco capensis ( collared puffbird ) : from south america , not the cape region of africa .\ncapsicum chinense although it is used in chinese cooking , it comes , like all other capsica , from the americas .\ntodus mexicanus lesson , 1838 ( puerto rican tody ) the bird is endemic to puerto rico , not mexico .\nchrysolina americana linnaeus , 1758 ( rosemary beetle ) native to the mediterranean region , not america .\ncupressus lusitanica mill . ( mexican white cedar )\nlusitanica\nmeans\nfrom portugal ,\nbut the tree is native to central america . apparently it was described from portuguese cultivated trees . [ lorenzi , h . et al . 2003 . \u00e1rvores ex\u00f3ticas no brasil , p . 30 . ]\ncyclamen persicum ( persian cyclamen ) this primrose relative grows in many areas of the middle east , but it is not native to persia .\ndacelo novaeguineae ( hermann 1783 ) ( common or laughing kookaburra ) . for novaeguineae = new guinea . sonnerat pictured this solely - australian bird in his new guinea book and claimed to have collected it there . he had in fact probably been given it by joseph banks , whom he met in south africa in 1770 .\neriobotrya japonica ( loquat ) originally from china , though grown in japan for 1000 years .\nhibiscus syriacus ( rose of sharon ) from eastern asia ( it is the national flower of south korea ) , not from the levant .\nhildewintera polonica ( cactus )\npolonica\nmeans\nfrom poland .\nthe cactus is from bolivia .\nhoplias malabaricus ( tiger tetra , a freshwater fish ) pieter bleeker , a dutch medical doctor and ichthyologist , stationed in java between 1848 and 1860 , had a wide network of outposts from where he received his specimens . in 1858 a fish he received was said to originate from\nthe west ,\nwhich he interpreted as from the malabar coast ( india ' s west coast ) . now we know it came from much farther west , from the rio grande do sul area in brazil .\nhoplodactylus duvaucelii ( dumeril and bibron 1836 ) ( duvaucel ' s gecko ) it is from new zealand , but the type specimen was believed to have come from india and so was named after french naturalist alfred duvaucel ( 1796 - 1824 ) who spent much of his life collecting in india .\nlagerstroemia indica linnaeus ( crepe myrtle ) from china , not india . lagerstr\u00f6m visited several asian countries , and linnaeus got this plant ' s origin wrong when he named it . also , it is a loosestrife , not a myrtle .\nlilaeopsis chinensis ( l . ) kuntze ( eastern grasswort ) native to eastern north america , not china .\nlodoicea maldivica ( double coconut or coco - de - mer ) native of the seychelles , but first thought to come from the maldives . for centuries , its giant seeds ( up to 44 lbs . ) had been found floating in the indian ocean , but the seeds cannot stand long immersion in sea water . the seychelles is their only home .\nnerine sarniensis herb . ( guernsey lily ) sarniensis refers to guernsey (\nsarnia\nto the romans ) , one of the channel islands between england and france , but the lily is native to southern africa . one story is that a dutch ship carrying bulbs of the lily ran aground on guernsey , and the bulbs washed ashore and took root . another story is that the shipwrecked dutch sailors used the bulbs to barter with the natives , representing them as having come from japan . william herbert named the genus after the nereids , sea nymphs , treating the plant as a gift of the sea goddesses .\nnumenius madagascariensis ( linnaeus , 1766 ) ( eastern curlew ) linnaeus thought the type specimen came from madagascar . neumann ( 1932 ) presumed the skin arrived from makassar ( a portugal colony in sulavesi is . ) , whose name got confused with the better known name\nmadagascar\n. however , stresemann ( 1941 ) has found that the specimen really was taken in the philippines . the species nests in ne asia and winters from philippines to australia .\nopuntia ( cactus ) named after opus , a city in greece , although the cactus is native to the new world only . it is named after opus because pliny said it grew there , but he must have been referring to something else .\npanthera pardus japonensis gray , 1862 ( north chinese leopard ) from china , not from japan , where there are no leopards .\npelargopsis ( halcyon ) capensis ( stork - billed kingfisher ) from southern asia , not the cape region of africa .\nperiplaneta americana linnaeus , 1758 ( american cockroach ) it hails from west africa and was spread worldwide by maritime commerce , reaching north america around 1625 .\npygoscelis papua forster 1781 ( gentoo penguin ) named for papua = new guinea . in his 1776 book on new guinea , pierre sonnerat claimed to have discovered three species of penguin on the island , so this species was named accordingly . in fact sonnerat had stolen the skins from the collection of fellow naturalist philippe commerson . there have never been penguins in new guinea , and sonnerat never travelled as far east as new guinea .\nquercus canariensis wild . ( oak ) native to the iberian peninsula and northern africa ; not found naturally in the canary islands .\nrattus norvegicus berkenhout , 1769 ( norway rat ) from east asia , not norway .\nsalvia hispanica l . 1753 ( spanish sage , chia ) described by linnaeus from a specimen apparently growing wild in spain , but it had been introduced from central america by an unknown person , probably for its nutritious seeds .\nscilla peruviana ( lily ) from the mediterranean . it was named after a ship , the peru , which brought it from spain to england .\ntangara mexicana ( linnaeus , 1766 ) ( turquoise tanager ) found in northern south america , not mexico .\nteucrium asiaticum l . ( germander ) grows on the balearic islands in the mediterranean , not in asia .\nturnagra capensis sparrman , 1787 . ( piopio , an extinct new zealand bird )\ncapensis\nmeans\nfrom the cape .\nsparrman , who had sailed with captain cook , apparently did not remember the localities where his specimens had been collected and thought the piopio came from south africa . the bird also has a common name of new zealand thrush , although it is unrelated to the thrushes .\nvaranus indicus ( mangrove monitor ) : from northern australia , new guinea and sulawesi , not india .\nzenaida asiatica ( white - winged dove ) from central america and southwest u . s . , not asia .\nzonotrichia capensis ( bird , emberizidae ) it lives in south and central america , but was thought to be taken from cape town in south africa .\ncorydalis mediterranea z . y . su & lid\u00e9n , 2007 ( herb ) this name is not wrong but may be misleading . mediterranea =\nfrom the middle land\n, which in this case is zhongguo , china . [ novon 17 : 490 . ]\nechidna forster , 1777 ( eel ) not the echidna . here , the monotreme might more reasonably be considered misnamed , since latin echidna , from greek ekhidna , means\nviper\n. the monotreme echidna comes from the same word , but may have been influenced by greek ekhinos ,\nhedgehog , sea urchin .\nerithacus akahige ( robin ) common japanese name : komadori . reputedly , their skins got switched en route to the national natural history museum at leiden , netherlands .\nfossa fossa ( fanaloka , or madagascan civet ) the civet with the common name\nfossa\nis cryptoprocta ferox .\nfungia fungites ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ( coral ) it is , if not a fungus , at least a\nmushroom coral .\ngallinuloides eastman , 1900 ( eocene bird ) named after , but not closely related to , the gallinules ( various aquatic birds in the family rallidae ) .\nhilsa regan , 1917 ( shad ) the fish with the common name of hilsa ( also ilish ) is tenualosa ilisha ( f . hamilton , 1822 ) . hilsa kelee , the only species in its genus , has common names of kelee shad , razorbelly , and fivespot herring .\nlotus l . ( trefoil ) the common name usually refers to flowers of aquatic plants in the genus nelumbo or nymphaea . the mythical forgetfulness - inducing plant in homer ' s odyssey is thought to be ziziphus lotus , a buckthorn .\nnasturtium ( watercress ) not the nasturtium ( tropaeolum ) . the common name came later , so it should be considered the misnamed one .\nphoebe ( laurel tree or shrub ) not the phoebe birds , which are genus sayornis .\npinguinus bonnaterre , 1790 ( auk ) not a penguin . the name\npenguin\nwas originally applied to the great auk and later to the antarctic birds . it came to apply exclusively to the latter as the auks were driven to extinction .\nplatypus herbst 1793 ( a beetle , family platypodidae ) not a platypus ( which is ornithorhynchus shaw 1799 ) .\npuffinus puffinus ( manx shearwater ) not the puffin . it was described from a chick by a scientist who thought it was a puffin .\nsequoia endl . ( redwood ) the tree with common name sequoia is sequoiadendron giganteum . both , incidentally , were named after sequoyah , a cherokee silversmith who invented a written form for the cherokee language .\nthunnus albacares bonnaterre 1788 ( yellowfin , not albacore , tuna ) albacore tuna is t . alalunga . bonnaterre got his specimens mixed up .\n< < - home - - rules - - etymology - - puns - - wordplay - - gene names - - misc . - - references - - feedback - > >\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\nthe page you are looking for has been removed as a result of server decommissioning .\nplestiodon is derived from the greek words pleistos meaning\nmost\nand odontos meaning\nteeth\n. plestiodon = toothy skinks .\nlaticeps is derived from the latin word latus meaning\nbroad\nand latin suffix ceps meaning\nhead\n.\ndescription : a large skink reaching a maximum snout - vent length ( svl ) of 143 mm ( 5 . 6 inches ) and a maximum total length of 324 mm ( 12 . 8 inches ) ( conant and collins , 1991 ) . in virginia , maximum known svl is 122 mm ( 4 . 8 inches ) and maximum total length is 287 mm ( 11 . 3 inches ) . tail length in the virginia sample was 44 . 1 - 62 . 4 % ( ave . = 58 . 3 \u00b1 4 . 2 , n = 18 ) of total length .\nscutellation : body scales smooth , shiny , and overlapping ; scale rows around midbody 28 - 32 ( ave . = 30 . 8 \u00b11 . 2 , n = 21 ) ; scale rows around tail 10 scales posterior to anal opening 16 - 20 ( ave . = 17 . 4 \u00b11 . 0 , n = 19 ) , 84 . 2 % of sample is > 16 ; mid - ventral row of subcaudal scales wider than long relative to adjacent scales ; supralabials 8 / 8 ( 52 . 2 % , n = 23 ) , 8 / 7 ( 40 . 4 % ) , or 7 / 7 ( 17 . 4 % ) ; posterior labial scale touching crescent - shaped temporal scale located above ear opening ( 38 . 6 % , n = 44 ; sides counted separately ) , separated from it by 1 or 2 small scales ( 52 . 3 % ) , or separated from it by another temporal scale ( 9 . 1 % ) ; labial scales between rostral and first supralabial entering eye ( = preorbital supralabials ) 5 / 5 ( 53 . 1 % , n = 49 ) , 4 / 5 ( 34 . 7 % ) , or 4 / 4 ( 12 . 2 % ) ; postnasals present ; mental single ; postmentals 2\nsexual dimorphism : adult males ( 103 . 3 \u00b1 12 . 5 mm svl , 76 - 122 , n = 26 ) averaged significantly larger than females ( 94 . 9 \u00b18 . 6 mm svl , 80 - 112 , n = 15 ) . sexual dimorphism index was - 0 . 09 . the heads of adult males were wider ( 13 . 3 - 26 . 6 mm , ave . = 20 . 9 \u00b1 3 . 9 , n = 26 ) than those of adult females ( 12 . 7 - 20 . 3 mm , ave . = 15 . 4 \u00b1 1 . 8 , n = 13 ) . vitt and cooper ( 1985a ) demonstrated that this difference remained after the covariation due to body size was removed . tail length relative to total length ( males 54 . 7 - 61 . 5 % , ave . = 59 . 2 \u00b1 2 . 4 , n = 9 ; females 44 . 1 - 61 . 1 % , ave . = 55 . 3 \u00b1 6 . 6 , n = 5 ) , scale rows around midbody ( males 30 - 32 , ave . = 30 . 6 \u00b1 0 . 7 , n = 8 ; females 29 - 32 , ave . = 31 . 1 \u00b1 1 . 2 , n = 9 ) , and scale rows around the tail 10 scales posterior to the anal plate ( males 16 - 19 , ave . = 17 . 0 \u00b1 1 . 0 , n = 8 ; females 17 - 20 , ave . - 17 . 7 \u00b1 1 . 0 , n = 9 ) were not sexually dimorphic .\nadult males lose the body and tail stripes with age , becoming uniformly brown with a brownish - gray tail . the head in males becomes bright orange and enlarged in the temporal region during the mating season ( spring ) but fades and reduces in size in other times of the year . females lack the enlarged orange heads and retain the stripes for life , although they do fade somewhat .\njuveniles : juveniles are black to dark brown at hatching , with light - orange head stripes and cream - to - orange - tinted body stripes . sublateral light stripes may be present . the stripes on the tail are blue . the blue tail color is usually retained until sexual maturity is reached ( about 75 - 80 mm svl ) . size at hatching in virginia p . laticeps averaged 32 . 1 \u00b1 2 . 2 mm svl ( 28 - 35 , n = 14 ) and 75 . 9 \u00b1 5 . 2 mm total length ( 65 - 82 , n = 10 ) . body mass at hatching is unknown .\ngeographic variation : the small sample sizes available from virginia preclude analyses of geographic variation in this species . davis ( 1968 ) examined large samples and noted several differences in scale characters among broad regions .\nbiology : broad - headed skinks are largely arboreal and , in virginia , inhabit open forested areas . they are most common in open , mature pine stands and in open stands of mixed hardwood - mostly live and turkey oak and loblolly and virginia pines . they have also been found on houses and barns in wooded areas . in south carolina , these skinks were most abundant in stands of live oak ( vitt and cooper , 1985a , 1985b ) . this skink prefers a more xeric habitat than p . fasciatus . all of the known virginia specimens were collected april through august . winter aggregations in underground retreats were found in alabama ( cooper and garstka , 1987 ) . the seasonal activity of this skink and the nature of its changes in habitat use between seasons are unknown .\nthe population ecology of this species is unknown . large adult males in south carolina guard their territories and the females within them , chasing smaller males away ( vitt and cooper , 1985a ) . this behavior suggests that territory placement is dependent on the availability and spacial distribution of appropriate trees and perch and nesting sites . thus , population sizes may be regulated by the structure of the habitat . adults of this species are probably the longest lived of any virginia lizard . cooper and vitt ( 1987a ) noted a male they collected in south carolina had a potential life span of over 8 years .\nremarks : other common names in virginia are big scorpion lizard ( dunn , 1936 ) and greater five - lined skink ( carroll , 1950 ; schmidt , 1953 ; reed , 1957b ) .\nconservation and management : plestiodon laticeps is not a species of special concern in virginia because of its wide distribution . in areas of urban development , however , this lizard will have difficulty surviving because of the loss of open wooded stands large enough to support viable populations , and because of mortality from humans and domestic cats . conservation of this element of virginia ' s biodiversity is best approached by the management of large , open wooded areas with mature and dead trees within them , and by control of predation by cats .\nbroad - headed skink ( top ) vs . five - lined skink ( bottom )\naccomack county albemarle county alleghany county botetourt county buckingham county campbell county caroline county charles city county charlotte county chesapeake city chesterfield county clifton forge city cumberland county fairfax county fauquier county fluvanna county greensville county halifax county hanover county henrico county henry county james city county king george county loudoun county montgomery county northampton county northumberland county patrick county pittsylvania county prince william county rockbridge county stafford county suffolk city surry county virginia beach city warren county westmoreland county york county verified in 38 counties / cities ."]}
{"id": 388, "summary": [{"text": "the froghoppers , or the superfamily cercopoidea , are a group of hemipteran insects , in the suborder auchenorrhyncha .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "adults are capable of jumping many times their height and length , giving the group their common name , but they are best known for their plant-sucking nymphs which encase themselves in froth in springtime . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "froghopper", "paragraphs": ["froghopper is miniature bug that can reach around 0 . 25 inches in length .\n) . morphology and action of the hind leg joints controlling jumping in froghopper insects .\nmouth apparatus of froghopper is designed for stabbing and extraction of the sap from the plant tissue .\nfroghopper is herbivore ( plant - eater ) . it eats sap of various species of plants .\nwatch the steady stream of honeydew droplets excreted by this beautiful froghopper as it sucks plant sap .\nname\nfroghopper\nrefers to the frog - shaped head of this insect and its ability to jump .\ndriggers bf ; pepper bb , 1935 . the spittle insect or froghopper . new jersey agricultural experiment station bulletin 593 .\nan adult froghopper ( aphrophora alni ) reaches a body length of under a half inch and can jump to heights of 28 inches .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - common froghopper ( philaenus spumarius )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - common froghopper ( philaenus spumarius )\ntitle =\narkive species - common froghopper ( philaenus spumarius )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nfroghopper can jump 27 inches into the air . even though it is heavier than flea , it can jump higher thanks to strong , well - developed muscles of the hind legs .\nsecond , does a froghopper have to anticipate the possible need to jump and thus hold its hind legs in readiness ? this would explain the cocked position adopted by the hind legs during walking .\nfroghopper is an insect that belongs to the group of true bugs . froghopper can be found around the world . it inhabits densely vegetated areas such as meadows , parks and gardens . froghoppers are numerous and widespread in the wild . several species of froghoppers are classified as agricultural pest due to ability to decrease the yield of commercially important species of plants ( such as sugar cane ) .\nhind legs of froghopper generate g - force of 400 gravities , when it prepares to jump . this force is 80 times greater than g - force generated during the launching of the rockets into the space .\nburrows , whose primary research interest is in how animals use the individual cells in their brains to generate movement , stumbled upon the froghopper ' s leaping agility while looking for an insect model to clear the next hurdle in his work .\nphilaenus spumarius , commonly known as a froghopper or spittle bug , is a mere 0 . 2 inches ( 6 millimeters ) long , but employs a novel catapult mechanism to launch itself upwards of 28 inches ( 70 centimeters ) into the air .\nlife cycle of froghopper consists of three developmental stages : egg , nymph and adult insect . nymph is often green colored and it looks like miniature , wingless version of adult . it molts several times until it reaches the size of an adult insect .\nfroghopper has two pairs of wings and three pairs of legs . first pair of wings covers the body like a tent . wings of some froghoppers form false head at the end of the body .\ntwo headed - body\nis designed to confuse the predators .\nwhen disturbed , the adults can jump as high as 70 cm with enormous force using their powerful back legs . recent research has shown that within a millisecond they can accelerate to over 14 km / h ! very few potential predators could catch the common froghopper once it has jumped .\nthe adult common froghopper is not often seen by the casual observer . although it is 6 mm long , it can move so quickly when disturbed that it seems just to \u2018disappear . \u2019 it is also not distinctively coloured : indeed , its pattern of coloration is very variable , often being various shades of mottled pale and dark brown , but also ranging from pure sandy brown to dull black . however , the nymph of the common froghopper is well - known for the distinctive white frothy \u2018cuckoo - spit\u2019 it produces \u2013 and hides within \u2013 on the stems of its food plants .\na sallow bush at the edge of the wood is home to a great many variegated willow froghoppers ( aphrophora pectoralis ) . like their more familiar smaller relative , the common froghopper ( philaenus spumariu s ) , their soft young live in \u201ccuckoo - spit\u201d , though these feed only on willows .\nthe common froghopper is found in a variety of habitats , but it is perhaps most abundant on waste ground and road - side verges where its weedy herbaceous food plants , such as thistles and mugwort , are often plentiful . within the \u2018cuckoo - spit\u2019 , the nymph of this species feeds by sucking sap from the food plant .\nwhich of the five species of froghoppers examined is the best jumper ? the answer lies in which aspects of jumping performance are considered and how they are related to body mass and volume . the five species of froghopper analysed have a tenfold range of body masses ( 3 . 2 mg in neophilaenus to 32 . 9 mg in cercopis ) , and vary in length from 4 . 0 mm in neophilaenus to 9 . 8 mm in aphrophora .\na brief report on the kinematics of the jumping movements of a froghopper , philaenus spumarius ( burrows , 2003 ) , has demonstrated its jumping prowess , and a mechanism for jumping has been proposed for cercopis vulnerata ( gorb , 2004 ) . this paper analyses the detailed jumping performance of froghoppers and shows that in a jump they are airborne in less than 1 ms from the first propulsive movement of the hind legs . the enormous acceleration needed to achieve take - off velocities of over 4 . 7 m s - 1 in this short time is equivalent to 550 g .\nspittlebugs are first noticed in late spring within white frothy masses of bubbles on grasses , herbaceous plants , shrubs and conifers . small nymphs of the spittlebug are mostly greenish with conspicuous red eyes ; different species may have different coloration . in most landscape gardens , there may be some wrinkling of the leaf or stem where the young spittlebugs are feeding . froghopper adults are found later in spring and summer . they look like leafhopper adults , but froghoppers are shorter and wider . one diagnostic feature is that the hind legs of froghoppers lack spines . damage from adults is slight .\nspittlebugs are first noticed in late spring within white frothy masses of bubbles on grasses , herbaceous plants , shrubs and conifers . small nymphs of the spittlebug are mostly greenish with conspicuous red eyes ; different species may have different coloration . in most landscape gardens , there may be some wrinkling of the leaf or stem where the young spittlebugs are feeding , but generally their damage to plants is insignificant . froghopper adults are found later in spring and summer . they look similar to leafhopper adults , but froghoppers are shorter and wider . one diagnostic feature is that the hind legs of froghoppers lack spines . damage from adults is slight .\nfirst , at what distance and with what sense does a froghopper detect an approaching predator ? a vibratory sense could give advanced warning of an approaching danger by detecting footfalls or movements of the plant on which it is feeding . this would allow the necessary time for developing the forces needed to jump ( burrows , 2007 ) . related families of auchenorrhyncha use this sense to communicate with each other on the same plant ( claridge , 1985 ; cocroft et al . , 2000 ; cokl and virant - doberlet , 2003 ) and cercopis appears to signal by vibrating its wings while remaining stationary on a plant ( kehlmaier , 2000 ) .\nthese are the bugs that in the summer you see as a nymph on bushes surrounded by what looks like spit ( hence the name ) . this is the adult , quite boring looking and uninspiring at first glance , but this teeny insect has one of the fastest movements in the terrestrial animal kingdom . considering its small size a froghopper can move at 4 metres per second , and can jump 70 times there own length ! i tried to film the jump on my sony avchd camcorder , but even after slowing the footage down to a fraction of its speed the jump is invisible . it looks like the insect just vanishes into thin air ! i would need a camera capable of shooting 1000 frames per second to show this behaviour in full slow mo .\nfrom the start of the first visible movements of the hind legs to a froghopper becoming airborne takes no more than 0 . 875 ms in philaenus and a maximum of 1 . 5 ms in the heavier cercopis or aphrophora . in this short time , the body is accelerated to a take - off velocity of 4 . 7 m s - 1 in the best jumps by philaenus . in the best jumps by the different species , the applied acceleration ranged from 2267 - 5400 m s - 2 . philaenus experiences the equivalent of 550 g at take - off and the others from 231 - 428 g . the best jumps by philaenus require an energy output of 136 \u03bcj , a power output of 155 mw and exert a force of 66 mn . these forces and accelerations generated in jumping could not be produced by direct contractions of the muscles and indicate that muscular force must be generated in advance of the movement , energy stored and then released rapidly .\nthe head of froghoppers is flattened dorso - ventrally and has short antennae . its dorsal cuticle , and that of the prothorax , has many small indentations and its ventral cuticle is ribbed . the mouthparts point backwards and in aphrophora extend to the coxae of the hind legs . the folded fore wings cover the body , extend beyond the abdomen posteriorly and cover most of the hind legs when viewed from the side . the five species of froghopper analysed have a tenfold range of body mass , from 3 . 2\u00b10 . 08 mg ( n = 7 ) in neophilaenus to 32 . 9\u00b11 . 0 mg ( n = 16 ) in cercopis ( table 1 ) . their body lengths have a 2 . 5 fold range from 4 . 0\u00b10 . 03 mm ( n = 7 ) in neophilaenus to 9 . 8\u00b10 . 24 mm ( n = 23 ) in aphrophora . philaenus is toward the middle of this range with a body mass of 12 . 3\u00b10 . 41 mg ( n = 34 ) and a body length of 6 . 1\u00b10 . 08 mm .\ngraphs of leg and body movements during a jump by philaenus captured at 8000 s - 1 . ( a ) five points on the body ( see cartoon inset ) are plotted against time . take - off is indicated by the right arrow and vertical yellow bar . the first movement of a hind leg occurred 0 . 875 ms before take - off ( left arrow and yellow bar ) . the tarsi of the front and middle legs left the ground 0 . 5 ms before take - off ( middle arrow and yellow bar ) . velocity , measured as the movement of the centre of an ellipse representing the overall shape of the body , is plotted as a two - point average of successive frames ( blue line ) . ( b ) sequential movements of the five points on the body as the insect moved through the field of view of the stationary camera , superimposed on an image of the froghopper in its starting position . the black arrowheads and the linking black lines show the position of these five points at take - off . the corresponding positions of these points at different times during the jump can be read frame - by - frame from these positions at take - off .\nhave you noticed spit on your plants ? did you immediately think it was one of your kids or your spouse who did that ? before you go blaming your kids or partner , check your plants for spittlebugs first .\nspittlebug drinks about 300 times its body weight in plant fluids in one hour ' s time . as a result of all the drinking , they produce a lot of waste , and that\u2019s what causes all the spit on your plants .\nbecause of all the spit on your plants , you probably want to get rid of these spittlebugs , but spit aside , spittlebugs can also harm your precious plants ! they not only will feed on your plants , but your plants may undergo stunted development and can also lose some of its vitality .\nbut don ' t panic just yet ! after some thorough research and several readings , we\u2019ve chosen 7 efficient ways to help you get rid of these nasty bugs .\nlook around your\ufeff\ufeff \ufeff\ufeffgarden and keep your eyes peeled for spittlebug patches . when you find them , use your hand to physically remove them off of your plant . if you don ' t want to touch them , you can knock them off by spraying water directly on the spittlebug patch . this is one of the easiest methods of how to get rid of spittlebugs ; however , i would only recommend doing this for light and easily accessible infestations only .\nanother option that is becoming popular nowadays is using a bug zapper . a bug zapper is an insect control system , also called an electrocutor trap device , which kills bugs , mosquitoes , and other flying insects through electrical discharge . although using a bug zapper offers an easy way of controlling pests in your garden , including spittlebugs , this method is only suitable to mild insect infestation . for severe infestations , you already need the help of insect - killer chemicals .\nspittlebug eggs will form in and around garden debris and other similar areas . you need to clean up your garden now and then to get rid of old plant matter . cleaning up your garde\ufeffn is another method of how to get rid of spittlebugs .\nwith religious cleaning , you\u2019ll get rid of the eggs and will , thereby limit , the number of spittlebugs that will hatch .\nrow covers are made of lightweight fabric or plastic and can be used to protect your crops from spittlebugs and other pests . they are an effective and cheap method to get rid of spittlebugs .\nunlike plastic row covers , fabric row covers have tiny holes in them which allow the rain to come in and heat to go out . i would definitely recommend the fabric variety over the plastic ones .\nalthough there are a lot of commercial pesticide sprays available on the market , these are very harmful to you and your plants .\npesticide , when ingested or inhaled , is toxic and very hazardous to your health . similarly , putting these chemicals on your plants would get rid of the pests but will change your plants and taint the flowers and fruits .\ni would recommend making a homemade pesticide spray as the way to go on how to get rid of spittlebugs .\ni would suggest using garlic or something spicy as your base for your organic homemade pesticide . you can even mix garlic and peppers with water to make it twice as effective .\nthe spittlebug is usually a bright yellow color and tends to blend in with your leaves . [ via : flickr . com ]\ncover your nose and mouth with the face mask to protect your airways from the strong - smelling fumes of the pepper and garlic .\npour 1 cup of water in the blender along with the garlic cloves and the peppers . add the cayenne pepper and blend this mixture on high until the mixture is pureed .\nusing the cheesecloth or coffee filter , strain the mixture into the large jar .\nadd the dish detergent or the castile soap little by little . gradually stir it completely in using the wooden spoon .\nplace the lid on the jar , then let it sit in a cool , dark place for 24 to 48 hours .\nfirst , you ' ll want to wipe all the spit off of your plants then spray away . be sure to test your pesticide on a small portion of your plant to make sure that you don ' t do any serious harm to it .\nalso , only do this on gloomy and rainy days because your spicy pesticide could burn your plant and kill it .\npraying mantises tend to prey on most insects and pests . you could try ordering a few and releasing them onto your pest - laden plants and monitor the results after a week .\nthis method is a more drastic means regarding how to get rid of spittlebugs and only try this when the others have failed .\nplant - based essential oils are a great way to deter spittlebug feeding patterns and can help disrupt their normal activities . i would recommend trying neem oil or any citrus - based oil such as lemon or orange oil to control and prevent spittlebug infestation .\nthere are a lot of organic insecticidal soaps available in the market . these insecticidal soaps help control and rid your plants of pests like spittlebugs .\nthey contain potassium salts of fatty acids which can break down the pests ' outer shells and cause them to become dehydrated and lose body fluids .\nspittlebugs are really a nuisance in any garden . not only do they spit on your plants , they will harm your plants too . don\u2019t let spittlebugs ruin your plants ! plan accordingly and follow the 7 tips and tricks above detailing how to get rid of spittlebugs .\nplease let me know if you have any other comments or suggestions or your own tips and tricks for getting rid of spittlebugs . i\u2019d love to hear your thoughts !\nhi there ! i\u2019m lucy , and i\u2019m a self - confessed garden fanatic . gardening has always been a passion of mine and will always be my favorite pastime . now that i am married and have one adorable son , i have the time to write and share my personal experiences with other garden enthusiasts like me .\nsave my name , email , and website in this browser for the next time i comment .\nhi everyone ! i\u2019m glad you found your way to my gardening blog . i\u2019m lucy m . clark . i started gardening sometime in the early 2006 . back then , i was a total gardening neophyte . i was living in florida , i had my own little yard , and i knew that i wanted to have a lush and beautiful garden .\nsadly , i had no idea what i was doing . with no green thumb and no experience with gardening at all , i really struggled . my yard was in poor shape and a lot of my plants didn\u2019t make it . however , i didn\u2019t give up . i knew that i wanted to have my own garden and with enough patience and dedication , i could develop my own green thumb and have my dream garden !\nearnings disclaimer : when you buy certain products from some of the sites which we link to , garden ambition receives a commission .\nurltoken is a participant in the amazon services llc associates program , an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to urltoken . * amazon and the amazon logo are trademarks of urltoken , inc . , or its affiliates . additionally , urltoken participates in various other affiliate programs , and we sometimes get a commission through purchases made through our links .\nurltoken does not intend to provide agricultural advice . we go to great lengths and do thorough research to help users better understand their gardens ; however , the content on this blog is not a substitute for agricultural guidance . for more information , please read our privacy policy\nthis website uses cookies to ensure you get the best experience on our website . more info\nin the best jumps by philaenus , take - off occurs within 0 . 875 ms of the start of movements of the hind legs at a peak velocity of 4 . 7 m s - 1 and involves an acceleration of 5400 m s - 2 , equivalent to 550 times gravity . this jumping performance requires an energy output of 136 \u03bcj , a power output of 155 mw and exerts a force of 66 mn .\ninsects have evolved many different mechanisms for jumping so that they may increase the speed of their locomotion , launch themselves into flight , or escape rapidly from a potential predator . the repeatable nature of these movements has enabled detailed analyses of the underlying neuronal mechanisms ( burrows , 1996 ) and determination of the mechanical and muscular solutions to these extreme locomotory demands . click beetles ( elateridae ) jack - knife a joint in their thorax ( evans , 1972 ; evans , 1973 ) , bristletails ( archaeognatha ) ( evans , 1975 ) , springtails ( collembola ) ( brackenbury and hunt , 1993 ) and the larvae of some flies ( maitland , 1992 ) use movements of their abdomens . particular ants ( baroni et al . , 1994 ; tautz et al . , 1994 ) and the stick insect sipyloidea sp . ( burrows and morris , 2002 ) combine forward movements of their abdomens with movements of their legs .\nfive species of froghoppers were analysed : aphrophora alni ( fall\u00e9n 1805 ) , cercopis vulnerata ( rossi 1807 ) , lepyronia coleoptrata ( linnaeus 1758 ) , philaenus spumarius ( linnaeus 1758 ) , and neophilaenus exclamationis ( thunberg 1784 ) . neophilaenus were collected near wells - next - the - sea in norfolk , uk and lepyronia from the nanus region of slovenia and near ljubljana . the other species were collected near wells - next - the - sea and around cambridge , uk . observations on live insects were made on the same day of collection , or after they had been in the laboratory for no more than a few days feeding on live chrysanthemum plants .\nsequential images of jumps were captured at rates of 1000 or 2000 s - 1 with a high speed camera ( redlake imaging , san diego , ca , usa ) and associated computer , or at 4000 - 8000 s - 1 with a photron fastcam 512 or 1024pci camera [ photron ( europe ) ltd , marlow , bucks . , uk ] and with exposure times of 0 . 05 - 0 . 25 ms . spontaneous jumps , or jumps encouraged by delicate mechanical stimulation with a fine paintbrush or a 100 \u03bcm silver wire , were performed in a chamber of optical quality glass 80 mm wide , 80 mm tall and 25 mm deep with a floor of high density foam . selected image files were analysed with motionscope camera software ( redlake imaging ) or with canvas ( acd systems of america ) . jumps were aligned by designating the point of take - off as time t = 0 ms .\ndrawing of the anterior part of philaenus , viewed from the side , to show the orientation of the proximal parts of its three pairs of legs . each leg is shown in its most anterior position ( black ) and in its most posterior position ( grey ) . the pivots of the coxae with the thorax are indicated by black dots and vertical arrows . the plane of movement is not orthogonal to the plane of the drawing .\nhigher temporal resolution of the movements of a hind leg of a restrained aphrophora was obtained by gluing a 0 . 2 mm disc of reflective tape to a hind femur close to the femoro - tibial joint . a modified single lens reflex camera with a concentric light around the lens was focussed on the disc and the light it reflected was captured by a photocell in the film plane of the camera ( hedwig , 2000 ) . this method recorded the movement of the femur and was combined with sequential images of the hind legs captured by a high speed camera .\nseventy nine jumps by 19 aphrophora , 92 jumps by 19 philaenus , 47 jumps by 13 cercopis , 8 jumps by 5 neophilaenus and 16 jumps by 4 lepyronia were captured and analysed . data are given as means \u00b1 standard error of the mean ( s . e . m . ) . temperatures ranged from 24 - 30\u00b0c .\nsequential images of a jump by philaenus captured at 7500 s - 1 and with an exposure time for each of 0 . 05 ms . the images are arranged vertically in two columns and are timed from the image at take - off ( 0 ms ) . the first movements of the right hind leg ( white arrow ) occurred 1 . 04 ms before take - off .\nthe hind legs are only just over half the length of the body , ranging from 52 . 3\u00b11 . 24 % ( n = 23 ) of body length in aphrophora to 66 % in philaenus and neophilaenus ( table 1 ) . in all species the front and middle legs are of similar length , but the hind legs are about one and half times longer so that the ratio of leg lengths ranges from 1 ( front ) : 1 ( middle ) : 1 . 4 - 1 . 6 ( hind legs ) in the different species . the increased length of a hind leg is due to its longer tibia . by contrast , the femur of a hind leg is the same length and shape as those of the other legs . the mass of the two hind legs of aphrophora , including the trochanter and all the more distal segments , represents only 2 . 0\u00b10 . 11 % ( n = 7 ) of the total body mass .\nthe coxae of the three pairs of legs articulate with the thorax at different angles ( fig . 1 ) . in its most forward position the coxa of a hind leg subtends an angle of 155\u00b0 to the longitudinal axis of the body and rotates , as determined by imposed movements , backwards and upwards in one plane about its paired pivots by only a further 20 - 25\u00b0 . movements of segments distal to the coxa are in this plane . by contrast , in their most forward positions the coxae of the front and middle legs subtend angles of 80 - 90\u00b0 and can rotate backwards through an angle of about 40\u00b0 , or almost twice the range of a hind leg .\nthe same rapid movements of the hind legs propelled jumping by all species but the following analysis focuses on philaenus , with information from other species illustrating particular features .\nin preparation for a jump from a horizontal surface , the front of the body was raised or lowered by movements of the front and middle legs to give a mean attitude of the body relative to the ground at take - off of 28\u00b11 . 9\u00b0 ( n = 20 ) . after adjustment of the body attitude was complete , the hind legs then remained still for 1 - 2 s with only the distal tips of their tarsi in contact with the ground . a rapid and simultaneous depression of both hind legs then powered an explosive take - off . no differences could be detected in the timing of the movements of the two hind legs and both left the ground at the same time .\nthe first movement of a hind leg in a jump was a downward and backward thrust of the trochanter and femur ( their individual movements cannot be distinguished in these images viewed from the side ) which , as transmitted through the tibia , forced the whole ventral surface of the tarsus to the ground ( fig . 2 , fig . 3a ) . images captured at 8000 s - 1 showed that this first movement of a hind leg occurred only 0 . 875 ms ( 7 frames ) before the insect became airborne . the force from the continuing backwards movement of the hind legs began to lift the body because their tarsi were now directly applied to the ground ( fig . 2 , fig . 3a , b ) . the body continued to be raised as the hind femora were further depressed and the hind tibiae were extended so that the tarsi of the front and middle legs were raised from the ground before take - off . the velocity of the insect followed these movements of the legs . the first surge in velocity corresponded to the initial movement of the femur ( fig . 3a ) and after a short pause of 0 . 25 ms was followed by a rapid acceleration to a peak velocity of 4 . 7 m s - 1 at take - off .\njump by aphrophora viewed ventrally and captured at 5000 s - 1 with an exposure time of 0 . 05 ms . ( a ) sequence of four images from the jump . ( b ) drawings to show the joint positions of the hind legs before ( - 0 . 4 ms , fully levated ) and after ( 0 ms , fully depressed ) their rapid movements .\nthe same sequence of movements of the joints of a hind leg were also seen in philaenus jumping from a horizontal position toward the camera and therefore moving out of its focal plane . ( fig . 5a - c ) . the first movement of a hind leg was a downward movement of the femur resulting from a depression of the trochanter about the coxa , accompanied by an extension of the tibia . with the tarsus pushed fully to the ground , further depression of the femur and extension of the tibia resulted in an upward movement of the body . at take - off the coxo - trochanteral joint had been depressed through its full range at angular velocities of 75 500 deg . s - 1 and the femoro - tibial joint extended at an angular velocity of 105 000 deg . s - 1 .\n( a ) sequential images captured at 5000 s - 1 and with an exposure of 0 . 05 ms of philaenus jumping toward and to the right of the camera to show the leg movements . movements of the right hind femur are indicated by the arrows . ( b ) graphs of changes in the angle between the femur and the longitudinal axis of the body and of the femoro - tibial joint ( see inset drawings ) in a jump by another philaenus captured at 4000 s - 1 . ( c ) movements of four points on the body ( see cartoon ) and of the angular changes of the femur and tibia ( coloured lines ) . the changes in the femoro - tibial angle at the times indicated ( ms ) are shown in detail on the right .\nhind leg movements of a restrained aphrophora recorded simultaneously by a camera capturing images at 1000 s - 1 and with an exposure of 0 . 25 ms and by a photoelectric device ( see materials and methods ) . ( a ) two sequential images , the first showing the hind legs fully levated before the attempted jump and the second after the rapid movement . the inset drawings show the position of the hind legs in these two frames . note the small piece of reflective tape on the hind femur . the outputs of the photoelectric device during six jumps were captured at a sampling rate of 45 khz and low - pass filtered at 2 khz . one trace in blue shows the unfiltered recording . the leg movements were complete in 0 . 3 ms . ( b ) seven attempted jumps by a second aphrophora show that the movement was again complete in 0 . 3 ms .\nfurther detail of the joint movements was obtained by fixing aphrophora ventral surface uppermost in plasticene\u2122 with the hind legs free to move ( fig . 6 ) . rapid and simultaneous movements of both hind legs occasionally occurred spontaneously or could be evoked by gently tickling hairs on the abdomen with a fine paintbrush . no differences in the form of these attempted jump movements could be discerned compared with those in free jumping . they were , however , much faster and were completed in 0 . 3 ms because they did not lift the mass of the body . the key movement was again a simultaneous depression of both trochantera about the coxae which occurred at 267 000 deg . s - 1 , almost three times faster than in a real jump . the speed of these movements was consistent in 6 attempted jumps by one aphrophora and in 7 by a second ( fig . 6a , b ) .\nin the smallest of the froghoppers , neophilaenus , take - off was also achieved within 1 ms of the first movements of the hind legs ( fig . 7a , b ) . the first and key movements of the hind legs were again a rapid depression of the trochanter , with an accompanying extension of the tibia . before take - off in some jumps , the tarsi of the front and middle legs had already lost contact with the ground ( fig . 7b ) .\nin the heaviest of the froghoppers , cercopis , the body was accelerated for a longer period to achieve take - off , with the movements of the hind legs beginning 1 . 5 ms before take - off ( fig . 8a , b ) . the whole jumping sequence began with the front and middle legs adjusting the attitude of the body , which , in this example was only 16\u00b0 . both front and middle pairs of legs were again off the ground before take - off ( fig . 8b , c ) . movements of the hind legs led to the head being raised while the posterior of the body was lowered , giving a take - off angle of 45\u00b0 despite the initial shallow body attitude .\nin some jumps when lepyronia took off almost vertically the middle legs were already off the ground and the front legs were fully depressed and extended even before the first movements of the hind legs began ( fig . 9 ) . at 1 ms before take - off , the front and middle legs were clear of the ground but the take - off velocity of 4 . 0 m s - 1 was , nevertheless , as great as that achieved at take - off angles closer to the mean of 45\u00b0 when the front and middle legs remained in contact with the ground for a longer period .\nimages from two jumps by neophilaenus captured at 2000 s - 1 with an exposure of 0 . 25 s . ( a ) a jump in which the take - off occurred within 1 ms of the first movements of the hind legs : body angle , 36\u00b0 ; take - off angle , 55\u00b0 ; take - off velocity , 4 . 2m s - 1 . ( b ) a jump toward and to the right of the camera in which the body was raised by the front and middle legs to assume a higher take - off angle : body angle , 50\u00b0 ; take - off angle , 72\u00b0 ; take - off velocity , 4 . 0 m s - 1 ; body mass , 3 . 2 mg .\nphilaenus had a mean take - off angle of 46 . 8\u00b12 . 0\u00b0 ( range 18\u00b0 to 90\u00b0 , n = 50 ) and a mode of 45\u00b0 ( fig . 10a ) . in the first few milliseconds after take - off the insect typically maintained a stable orientation , and in many jumps this continued until a landing feet - first on a vertical or horizontal surface . in other jumps , however , the body rotated about its long or transverse axes and occasionally about both axes ( fig . 10b ) . in the example shown , philaenus spun through four complete cycles during the first 50 ms after take - off . in a second jump , the abdomen started to rotate forward about the transverse axis 10 ms after take - off so that it rather than the head pointed forwards . in a third jump , the body began to rotate about its long axis after 10 ms and after 19 ms had rotated by 180\u00b0 so that the legs were pointed upwards . the rotation was completed 28 ms after take - off and then the next cycle of rotation began . in a fourth jump , the body first started to rotate about its long axis and then some 5 ms later also began to rotate about its transverse axis .\nin all species the wings remained folded during take - off , so that the movement was a pure jump powered by the hind legs and not assisted by active wing movements . occasionally , however , the wings were opened after take - off , and flapping flight was assumed though this did not always lead to sustained flight or even to maintaining the height attained by the initial jump ( fig . 11 ) .\njump by cercopis . ( a ) sequential frames from the jump viewed from the side and captured at 2000 s - 1 with an exposure of 0 . 25 ms . ( b ) graph of the movements of six points on the body ( see cartoon inset ) during this jump . ( c ) sequential movements of the same six points superimposed on an image of cercopis in its starting position to show their vertical and horizontal displacement . the yellow arrows show the direction of the initial movements of the femoro - tibial joint . body angle at take - off , 16\u00b0 ; take - off angle , 45\u00b0 ; take - off velocity , 3 . 8m s - 1 ; body mass , 41 . 9 mg .\nthe energy required to achieve this performance depends on body mass . in the heavier species such as cercopis the best jumps required 238\u03bc j but in the much lighter neophilaenus this fell to 28 \u03bcj ; philaenus required 136 \u03bcj . the power output in a jump depends on the time during which the energy is expended . in the 0 . 875 ms that philaenus took to accelerate its body the power output was thus 155 mw . the force exerted during the best jumps by philaenus was 66 mn . for the heavier cercopis the force was highest at 83 mn and for the lighter neophilaenus was lowest at 13 mn .\njump by lepyronia . ( a ) two columns of sequential images from a jump captured at 4000 s - 1 and with an exposure of 0 . 25 ms . at the start , the body was raised at an angle of 61\u00b0 to the ground so that only the tips of the tarsi of the front and middle legs were in contact with the ground . ( b ) movements of five points on the body ( see image in c ) against time . ( c ) movements of the same body points to show their vertical and horizontal displacement . the black curved arrows show the direction of the initial movements of the femoro - tibial joint . body angle at take - off , 61\u00b0 ; take - off angle , 90\u00b0 ; take - off velocity , 4 . 0 m s - 1 ; body mass , 17 mg ; temperature , 36\u00b0c .\nin a laboratory chamber at a temperature of 25\u00b0c and in still air , the average height jumped by philaenus was 428\u00b126 mm ( n = 17 insects ) with the highest jumps reaching 700 mm , or 115 times its body length . none of the other species bettered these performances ; for example , in the same conditions aphrophora reached an average height of 263\u00b120 mm ( n = 13 ) . in a particular individual , jumping performance declined with increasing attempts to encourage jumping with the consequence that averaged values are likely to have underestimated the true jumping performance of these insects . the best indication of ability came by taking the maximal performance of particular individuals , which under laboratory conditions and temperatures may still be an underestimate .\nthe orientation of the hind legs , and their key role in powering jumping , raised the question of whether this compromised their ability to contribute to walking . the striking feature of horizontal walking was that the hind legs did not show rhythmic movements in the walking pattern and were not sequentially placed on the ground and then lifted ( fig . 12a ) . instead they were held in the cocked position with the trochantera fully levated about the coxae so that the tarsi did not contact the ground . the hind legs were , however , used when climbing on a vertical surface on which there was limited traction ( fig . 12b ) . they moved rhythmically and were placed on the ground in time with the walking pattern so that they might therefore be expected to contribute thrust to the movement .\n( a ) trajectories of five jumps by the same philaenus . take - off angles are the average over the first 10 ms after take - off . ( b ) rotation of the body during a single jump by philaenus . a fixed point on the head in the vertical or in the horizontal plane was plotted against time . the body spins about its longitudinal ( y axis ) and transverse ( x ) axis undergoing five cycles of rotation in the first 70 ms that it is airborne . images were captured at 1000 s - 1 ; body mass , 12 mg .\na jump in which aphrophora flapped its wings after take - off . the selected images captured at 1000 s - 1 and with an exposure of 0 . 25 ms are arranged in two columns . at take - off ( time 0 ms ) the wings were not opened . 5 ms later it started to lose height and 8 ms after take - off opened its hind wings and flapped them .\nthe main thrust for jumping is provided by the hind legs . any contribution from the front and middle legs is limited as they are often lifted from the ground before movements of the hind legs begin . their primary responsibilities are therefore to provide a stable platform and to set the angle of the body and the take - off trajectory , by raising or lowering the anterior part of the body . the critical movement of the hind legs in generating the thrust for a jump is the depression of the trochantera about the coxae . before take - off , the hind legs are levated forwards at the coxo - trochanteral joints so that that the femora are tucked between the thorax and the middle legs and are apposed to the lateral and ventral surfaces of the coxae . the tibiae are also flexed about the femora . by contrast , the front and middle tibiae are held in their most forward positions at angles of 80 - 90\u00b0 to the longitudinal axis of the body . these critical actions of the hind legs in jumping are at the expense of their ability to contribute to the propulsion of the body in horizontal walking .\nin terms of the height jumped then philaenus comes out on top . its average height jumped was 428 mm with the best jumps attaining heights of 700 mm , or 115 times its body length . by contrast , in the same conditions aphrophora reached an average height of only 263 mm , or 27 times its body length . distance and height achieved will be determined by take - off velocity , take - off angle and by the drag . all the froghoppers achieve high take - off velocities ranging from 3 . 4 to 4 . 7 m s - 1 and average take - off angles are close to 45\u00b0 . drag will , however , be different because of the different body sizes and masses ( bennet - clark and alder , 1979 ) . the distance lost due to drag by philaenus is estimated to be about 25 % ( vogel , 2005 ) based on my data . the smaller neophilaenus would be expected to experience greater drag while the larger froghoppers should experience less .\nin terms of velocity , acceleration and force relative to body mass generated at take - off , then philaenus again comes out on top . it accelerates its body in less than 1 ms to achieve an average velocity over the first 3 ms of the jump of 4 . 7 m s - 1 . both neophilaenus and lepyronia approach but never better these velocities at take - off , but the heavier aphrophora and cercopis both take longer ( 1 . 5 ms ) to accelerate their bodies and achieve lower velocities .\ncontribution of the hind legs of philaenus in walking . images were captured at 1000 s - 1 with an exposure of 0 . 5 ms . selected images , viewed ventrally , are shown at the times indicated . ( a ) horizontal walking . the middle and front legs were lifted in a sequence to perform a swing phase of similar duration ( thick black bars ) and contact the ground during a stance phase of variable duration ( thin blue bars ) . the hind legs did not move . ( b ) vertical walking in which the hind legs did contribute .\nfleas have been considered the best jumpers amongst the insects , accelerating their body within 1 ms to a take - off velocity of 1 m s - 1 ( bennet - clark and lucey , 1967 ; rothschild et al . , 1975 ; rothschild et al . , 1972 ) . froghoppers produce a substantially better jumping performance . philaenus accelerates its body to a take - off velocity that is more than 4 . 7 times faster than a flea despite having a body mass that is 27 times greater and a body that is four times longer . once airborne , however , the flea is likely to have its jumping distance reduced by 80 % due to drag compared to the 25 % reduction experienced by philaenus ( vogel , 2005 ) . heavier orthopteran insects such as locusts ( schistocerca gregaria ) with a mass of 1 - 2 g take 20 - 30 ms to extend their hind legs and accelerate their body ( brown , 1967 ) to a take - off velocity of 3 m s - 1 ( bennet - clark , 1975 ) while prosarthria teretrirostris with a mass of 280 mg takes 30 ms of acceleration to achieve a take - off velocity of 2 . 5 m s - 1 ( burrows and wolf , 2002 ) . the jumping distance of these larger insects is likely to be curtailed by only some 6 % due to drag ( vogel , 2005 ) . if jumping performance is expressed as the force exerted relative to body mass , then froghoppers again outperform other insects and other jumping animals . the force that froghoppers exert at take - off is more than 400 times their body weight and is , therefore , much higher than in other jumpers such as the flea ( \u223c135 times ) ( bennet - clark and lucey , 1967 ) , locust ( \u223c8 ) ( bennet - clark , 1975 ) and humans ( \u223c2 - 3 ) ( dowling and vamos , 1993 ) .\npotential predators of froghoppers are many and include birds , solitary wasps that provision their nests with froghoppers , and predatory social wasps or flies . parasitoids such as pipunculidae attack the pre - adult stages which are unable to jump . a further major danger may be unwitting predation by grazing mammals . they share this danger with all the other insects that live or feed on vegetation , but a rapid and long jump out of harm ' s way becomes advantageous . it may be that froghoppers are vulnerable while airborne and thus need to minimise exposure time in the air by jumping rapidly . this assessment of the value of jumping , however , poses further questions .\nthe structural specialisations of the joints and the sequence of muscle actions that enable this remarkable jumping performance is analysed in two subsequent papers ( burrows , 2006 ; burrows , 2007 ) and further papers will explore the evolution of the particular jumping mechanisms in other families of these plant sucking bugs .\ni thank my cambridge colleagues for their help in collecting these bugs , for their constructive suggestions during the course of this work , and for their comments on the manuscript . this work was initiated at the wells field study centre , wells - next - the - sea , norfolk , england during an undergraduate field course , and i am most grateful to the warden christine marshall for the use of these facilities . some experiments were also carried out at the department of entomology , national institute of biology , ljubljana , slovenia and i am most grateful to dr meta virant and her colleagues for their support ."]}
{"id": 407, "summary": [{"text": "herotilapia multispinosa also known as the rainbow cichlid is a tropical freshwater central american fish of the cichlid family .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is found in atlantic slope of honduras , nicaragua , and costa rica from patuca river ( honduras ) south to matina river ( costa rica ) , and the pacific slope of nicaragua and costa rica from guasaule river south to tempisque river .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "specimens are also reported from the choluteca river in the pacific of honduras .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "this species is found in lakes and swamps with muddy bottoms , where it uses its specialized teeth and only 3.5 % jaw protrusion to feed mostly on algae .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is commercially important as an aquarium fish .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the rainbow cichlid prefers a ph range of 7.0 \u2013 8.0 , water hardness of 9-20 dgh and a temperature range of 21 \u2013 36 \u00b0c . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "rainbow cichlid", "paragraphs": ["central america ; rainbow cichlid is to be found in the honduras and nicaragua .\nbooks for sale cichlid books and dvds for sale at the cichlid room companion .\nrelatively common in the hobby , the rainbow cichlid makes an ideal ca cichlid for those who do not wish to manage the challenge of the more aggressive ca species .\nnorton , 1975 . the black - trim rainbow cichlid . buntbarsche bull . ( 51 ) : 10 - 12 .\nthe rainbow cichlid is unique in that it possesses tricuspid teeth , specifically enhancing its ability to eat filamentous algae which is its main source of food . the rainbow cichlid is capable of changing its coloration as its mood changes . the rainbow cichlid is an excellent choice for a chance to experience and observe a unique and wonderful fish species without a lot of special requirements and necessary equipment .\nabove : one of the two rainbow cichlids i have owned . my avatar , of course .\nschwarz , 1977 . archocentrus centrarchus ( gill and bransford 1877 ) . amer . cichlid assoc . cichlid index 2 ( 9 ) : 1 - 2 .\nthe kribensis ( pelvicachromis pulcher ) , also known as the krib , the rainbow krib and the rainbow cichlid , is a small freshwater fish native to africa . while mainly found in the rivers of nigeria and cameroon , they are also listed as an invasive species in hawaii .\nmost cichlids have a classical fish - shaped body design and they come in a rainbow of colors .\nin the wild rainbow cichlids eat algae of rocks , but in aquaria they will gladly eat any kind of food offered . i fed mine spectrum , tetra cichlid sticks , and hbh graze . the tetra cichlid sticks kept the females in very good breeding condition .\ntrade section the master list of cichlid offers ordered by area and species name .\npam chin has been replying to cichlid questions for over twenty years . highly respected and experienced aquarist , pam has visited cichlid habitats around the world , and bred in her ' s and her husband gary fish house hundreds of cichlid species . besides her job , she still devotes time to help any person with a cichlid question !\ni have rainbow cichlids kept with convicts . both are comfortable at cooler tempretures . article is factually accurate .\nthe rainbow cichlid is a popular , not - too - large cichlid that is relatively peaceful and full of personality . has unique tricuspid teeth , which it uses to rasp filamentous algae , a major part of its diet in the wild , from rockwork and other aquarium decor .\nherotilapia multispinosa ( some - times referred to as the\nrainbow\ncichlid in the pet trade ) is a hardy and colorful central american cichlid . it makes a great addition to community tanks , but is also worthy of a showy species - only tank , even safely placed in tanks containing certain livebearers , tetras , and other fish usually not easily placed in the cichlid aquarium .\nthe rainbow cichlid is an omnivore ; it will accept quality flake and cichlid pellets . blood worms and brine shrimp will also be accepted as treats . the diet should be supplemented with other treats such as spirulina which is classed as vegetable matter and they are often seen to be grazing on any algae present in the aquarium .\ne - books for sale pdf copies of popular cichlid books offered for sale at the best price .\nh . multispinosa is a territorial , but peaceful , cichlid that is rarely aggressive except during spawning .\nrainbow cichlid is a great cichlid to keep , especially for beginners . this easy hardy , relatively small , and peaceful cichlid is not demanding and is colorful . this fish , first typed by g\u00fcnther in 1867 , belonged in its own genus herotilapia . after schmitter - soto ' s 2007 reclassification of the central american fishes this fish was moved to the genus archocentrus . although it may be a representative of this genus , very little is known on rainbow cichlids scientifically and i believe more research should be done before it is considered a representative of this genus . this fish was first brought into the hobby back in 1961 and is a favorite with many cichlid fanatics .\n: 4 . a robust cichlid recommended for a community tank with other similarly - sized central american cichlids .\nloiselle , p . v . 1982b . cichlid potpouri . fama 5 ( 9 ) : et seq .\nbaylis , j . r . 1976 . a rainbow in muddy water . tropical fish world 3 ( l ) : 8 - 14 .\nalgal browsing by this sexually quiescent male los chiles herotilapia multispinissa is facilitated by the distinctive jaw teeth that define the genus . even outside of periods of sexual activity , the rainbow cichlid is a very attractively colored fish . photo by paul v . loiselle .\ndescription : rainbow cichlid have bright orange base color with variable black markings along the length of the body . fins - excluding pectorals - are edged in bright blue . the fish can quickly change colors according to mood . they have orange eyes . debatably the smallest central american cichlid , it is closely related to the genus cichlasoma differing only by its three - pointed teeth . archocentrus multispinosus has tricuspid teeth , which greatly enhances the ability to feed on filamentous algae , making up a large portion of its natural diet . these three specialized teeth have earned multispinosa its own genus , herotilapia . the rainbow cichlid is an ideal fish to keep and breed for the beginner .\ndr . phillip lobel recently reviewed the relatively scant literature on this topic ( 2001 . \u201cacoustic behavior of cichlid fishes . \u201d\nladich f , schulz - mirbach t ( 2013 ) hearing in cichlid fish under noise conditions . plos one 8 : e57588\nthe rainbow cichlid should be housed in an aquarium of at least 45 gallons and should be provided with plenty of rock structure ( caves ) and / or driftwood for shelter ; they prefer a sand or fine gravel substrate and appreciate live plants , which help them feel more at home .\nthe rainbow cichlid is a brightly colored , monotypic fish commonly found in the lakes and rivers on the atlantic and pacific slopes of central america . it makes an excellent addition to semi - aggressive cichlid aquariums as well as peaceful community setups ; because of this the species is very popular among hobbyists looking for a few larger\ncommunity\nfish that also fit the bill for the adding some color to their tanks .\nthe rainbow cichlid is an ideal fish to keep and breed for the beginner , and certainly possesses the traits to earn a place with hobbyists . with its ease of care , wonderful behaviors and coloration , i am confident that anyone who decides to try keeping h . multispinosa will not be disappointed .\nsuch a life history pattern requires of its practitioners a specialized suite of adaptations . the physiological characteristics the rainbow cichlid must possess to prosper in such habitats are obvious enough . tolerance of high concentrations of dissolved metabolites and indifference to short term fluctuations in temperature and water chemistry head the list . experiments ( baylis , 1974 ) have demonstrated this species ' ability to tolerate the sort of hypoxic conditions likely to occur in the presence or large - scale decomposition of organic matter . i have already alluded to the dental modifications that allow herotilapia to collect vegetable foods efficiently . parallel digestive specialization must accompany such dental features as well . there are no data on the digestive physiology of this species , but the rainbow cichlid does possess the same sort of elongate intestine characteristic of such other herbivorous cichlids as sarotherodon , tilapia and many of the mbuna . withal , the rainbow cichlid as well equipped to survive in seasonally flooded habitats .\nthe rainbow cichlid is not characterized by extreme sexual dimorphism . females such as this one are best recognized by their plumper appearance and somewhat shorter , more rounded dorsal and anal fins . among sibs of the same age , females are also typically slightly smaller than their brothers . photo by paul v . loiselle .\nsand subtrate should be used , although this fish would actually prefer a muddy bottom which would pose a challenge to the aquarist . other tank decor is not critical , although the rainbow cichlid will appreciate areas of planting in which it can take cover . water flow should be slow to moderate and lighting not overly strong .\nranging along the atlantic & pacific slopes , the rainbow cichlid can be found from honduras to costa rica where the fish is likely to be found seeking refuge among the submerged logs , tangled roots and overhead cover of muddy lake shores and swampy bogs . it is often found foraging through the muddy substrate in pursuit of anything edible .\na sexually quiescent male archocentrus centrarchus . in the past , this species was confused with h . multispinosa by aquarists . like the rainbow cichlid , this species has elevated dorsal and anal fin spines counts , but differs dramatically in its coloration and uniformity conical jaw teeth . photographed at shedd aquarium . photo by paul v . loiselle .\nit can be difficult to determine the sex of a rainbow cichlid , but the male ' s anal and dorsal fins are usually more pointed ; the females are commonly smaller and have a short ovipositor . pairs will form a nuclear family and they will care for the fry and defend them ( in a community tank as well ) .\nomnivore . because a good portion of the rainbow cichlid\u2019s diet in the wild is filamentous algae , be sure to provide sufficient plant matter in their diets , including commercial spirulina foods . also provide a variety of commercial foods designed for cichlids , as well as live , frozen and freeze - dried foods , such as brine shrimp or bloodworms .\nfor those who want to try something big and have a minimum of a 48 - inch aquarium , the jaguar cichlid ( parachromis managuensis ) from central america and tilapia mariae ( west africa ) are possibilities ; in the case of the jaguar cichlid , start with young adults , not full - grown fish .\n: captive bred specimen have lost much of their coloration . this fish has the ability to rapidly change colors according to its mood . the rear and lower parts can change from whitish - gold to black . the rainbow cichlid belongs to a monotypic genus , meaning that it is the only fish included . this fish is sexually mature at 3\n( 8 cm ) .\nas mentioned above they are classed as a peaceful species compared to the other cichlid species available so can be housed with other species of fish with a similar disposition .\nloiselle , v . 1980a . cichlasoma septemfasciatum \u00ad a new color form of a central american cichlid . fama 3 ( 1 ) : 44 - 49 et seq .\nall of these cichlid fish will do very well and breed in a well - planted aquarium with a few flowerpot caves . they thrive in virtually any water chemistry .\nrainbow cichlid does not usually dig into the substrate or redecorate its environment so live plants and structures should remain unmolested . it ' s a good idea to provide them with adequate water movement although they have no special requirements above standard , efficient water filtration and lighting . they are a peaceful species that rarely show aggression , although they can become territorial and show aggressive behavior when spawning .\nmost cichlid fish are easy to breed , provided you have a male and a female , offer them suitable conditions and can manage their territorial behaviors . via brad / flickr\nmoving up a size bracket and to a 36 - inch aquarium minimum , we have the jack dempsey ( \u201ccichlasoma\u201d octofasciatum ) , the rainbow cichlid ( herotilapia multispinosa ) and hypsophrys nicaraguensis , all from central america . then there\u2019s the blue acara ( aequidens pulcher ) and the port acara ( cichlasoma portalegrense ) from south america . all of these will do well in any but acidic conditions .\nherotilapia multispinosa ( some - times referred to as the\nrainbow\ncichlid in the pet trade ) is a hardy and colorful central american cichlid . it makes a great addition to community tanks , but is also worthy of a showy species - only tank , even safely placed in tanks containing certain livebearers , tetras , and other fish usually not easily placed in the cichlid aquarium . debatably the smallest central american cichlid , h . multispinosa is also unique in that it possesses tricuspid teeth , which greatly enhances the ability to feed on filamentous algae , making up a large portion of its natural diet . these three specialized teeth have earned multispinosa its own genus , herotilapia . its characteristic golden coloration along with the orange eyes , black markings , and subtle blue hues make it a truly stunning aquarium occupant . it can mature at a size of just 3\n, and is often not noted to grow much larger .\nloiselle , p . v . 1982a . our national cichlid \u00ad cichlasoma cyanoqunatum ( baird and girard 1854 ) . fama 5 ( 5 ) : 6 - 11 et seq .\nthese cichlid fish are best kept in a species aquarium of their own , with just one pair of the chosen species . they are likely to fight constantly with other cichlid fish , whether their own kind or different species . this behavior is tied to their need to occupy a safe , private territory for raising a family . fish intruding into their territory are seen as a threat to the brood ( usually with justification ) , and other cichlid fish in particular are seen as competitors for resources ( breeding sites and food supply ) .\nmany would - be cichlid fish breeders have a typical community of fish and want to try their hand at adding cichlids to this environment . as it turns out , there are a number of small substrate - spawning cichlid fish that will fit well into such a setup , and they will not destroy a pleasant underwater scene by digging excessively and / or eating plants .\ndue in large measure to the efforts of dr . jeffrey r . baylis , a great deal more is known about the natural history - of the h . multispinosa than is typically the case for a neotropical cichlid . during his graduate program at berkeley , jeff had an opportunity to supplement laboratory work on this species ' behavior with field studies . the knowledge he gained about the ecology of the rainbow cichlid allowed him to meaningfully interpret much of the behavioral data derived from his laboratory observations . though this species has attracted the attention of subsequent workers ( smith - grayron and keenleyside , 1978 ) , the results of his research ( baylis , 1974 ) remain a model of the successful integration of field observation and laboratory studies to which any aspiring student of cichlid behavior can profitably turn for inspiration .\nsome species grow to only 4 cm ( 2 in . ) , but the largest cichlid , boulengerochromis microlepis , can reach a size up to 90 cm ( 3 ft . ) .\nhowever , it is important to remember that these cichlid fish look after their eggs and fry , and thus will inevitably occupy an area of territory \u2014 a \u201cnursery . \u201d these cichlid fish should be kept only if the aquarium is large enough to accommodate this territory need and still leave plenty of living space for the other occupants to go about their business without constant harassment .\nin 1970 , a color mutant of the rainbow cichlid characterized by a novel distribution of black pigment on the body and fins was first discovered . this new color form made its appearance in an aquarium shop in waterloo , iowa , among a population of tank - reared herotilapia being held for sale . this heteromelanic color variety is generally known as the norton black - trim rainbow cichlid , in honor of dr . joanne norton , who worked out the genetics of this phenotype and was largely responsible for distributing it among interested cichlid keepers . according to norton ( 1975 ) , the mutant gene behaves as a simple mendelian recessive . it would be interesting to know if the black trim phenotype exists in nature . given the degree to which the normal color pattern of this species is adapted to its optical environment , one would predict with a fair degree of confidence that the mutant form would be at a considerable disadvantage in all pre - reproductive and reproductive interactions relative to the normal form . the black trim rainbow is as easily maintained in captivity as the wild , or as norton ( 1975 ) refers to it , the\ndrab\nform . from the perspective of one who has kept both , i find myself in disagreement with norton ' s assessment of the relative attractiveness of the two fish . i find the normal form a much more colorful cichlid . fortunately , in such matters one can be guided by one ' s personal taste . trahit sua quemque voluptas !\nthat the ideal result of completely eliminating this source of mortality goes unattained is evinced by the steady attrition of the swarm of fry when rainbow cichlids spawn in a community situation in captivity . no less than by the simple observation that the inhabitants of nicaragua and costa rica are not up to their armpits in herotilapia ! i have no idea what percentage of a successful spawning survives to independence in nature . in captivity , however , given a tank of 200 1 capacity or larger , it is not unusual for ten to fifteen percent of a brood to attain this point under community conditions . given the fecundity of the rainbow cichlid , this is a most impressive performance .\n( editor note : the present article , written in 1982 , lacks all the recent modifications in central american cichlid taxonomy . in an attempt to make it current i have updated dr . loiselle ' s article to include all the curently accepted cichlid genus . i have followed kullander paper ( kullander 1996 ) on heroines with comments for cichlasomines systematics for this end . may - 1997 . )\nfood is also no problem in captivity . any of the usual live and prepared foods will satisfy the rainbow cichlid ' s healthy appetite . the intense golden base coloration is at its best when their keeper sees fit to offer his fish a fair amount of plant matter in their diet . herotilapia will take any of the usual leafy vegetables enthusiastically , provided they are presoftened by a quick dip into boiling water . if one fails to provide them with supplementary plant matter , the fish are capable of making up for this deficiency by nibbling any rooted plants in their aquarium . duckweed is also likely to come in for such attention , though floating fern ( ceratopteris ) is effectively immune . assuming their appetite for vegetable food is otherwise satisfied , h . multispinosa is no danger to rooted plants . unlike many heroine species , the rainbow cichlid confines its digging strictly to periods of reproductive activity .\nthe seasonality of reproduction in nature also places a premium on the ability to respawn promptly should anything disrupt a previous spawning effort . according to baylis ( 1974 ) , a female rainbow cichlid can respawn from 10 to 14 days after the loss of a clutch of eggs . this reduced recycling time , combined with the extreme fecundity of h . multispinosa has led some killifish and betta fanciers to reverse the usual polarity of trophic interactions in their fish rooms . many breeders of these fish like to keep a single large cichlid around as a sort of biological garbage disposal for the numerous culls any program of selective breeding is likely to engender . however , in situations where winter scarcity of live food is a real problem , astute breeders have discovered that a pair of rainbow cichlids constitutes a convenient and highly reliable means of upgrading dried food into an abundant supply of high quality live food for the main objects of their attentions !\nrainbow cichlids are great . i highly recommend them to the cichlid lover who has never tried them , but also to anyone who wants to try cichlids as they are a very nice and peaceful species to start with . this fish is occasionally found in shops and hobbyists . although it is generally cheap , it tends to disappear from time to time . if you don ' t have much room and want a nice central american , give these guys a try .\nmy fish have laid eggs twice now , but they ate them . i have three adult rainbow cichlids and two bala sharks , should i remove the fish once the eggs have been laid ? the mother protects them , but the male tries to eat them !\nanton lamboj ( 2004 ) : pelvicachromis signatus and pelvicachromis rubrolabiatus , two new cichlid species ( teleostei , perciformes ) from guinea , west africa . zootaxa 454 , 1 - 12 : 12 - 12 , urltoken\nloiselle , paul v . ( may 16 , 1997 ) .\nthose other central american cichlids - part one : herotilapia multispinossa\n. cichlid room companion . retrieved on july 09 , 2018 , from : urltoken\ncompared to other central american cichlids , rainbow cichlids are fairly peaceful and generally easy to keep in the home aquarium . this makes them a great choice for beginners or for those who simply want a central american cichlid without the typical aggressiveness . this species is not demanding when it comes to tank conditions and generally a very hardy fish , but they do prefer hard , slightly alkaline water . rainbow cichlids are also smaller than some central american cichlids , so they do not require as much tank space . in the wild , they are found in vegetated areas of still or slow - moving waters . mimic this in the aquarium by providing plants for hiding places and gentle filtration to minimize water flow . floating plants would be a good idea to help diffuse the light .\ni commented on the blue acara page about the introduction of a pair of rainbow cichlids . i did take one of two male blue acaras back to a shop and brought home two more rainbow cichlids , making the cichlid population in my tank = 4 rainbow cichlids and 1 blue acara ( male ) . they all seem to get along fine , no fighting or indeed , no sexual activity what - so - ever . i know one of the rainbows is definitely male as he has a slight nuchal bump on his head . he also happens to have red eyes and is much more orange than the other three ? as for the remaining three , i have no idea what sex they are , it seems impossible to tell but they don\u2019t seem interested in the male at all . i have researched that these cichlids are really easy to breed so i wonder if they are either all male , the acara is putting them off or they are too young still . they are approx 6cm ( excluding tail fin ) and the acara about 7cm .\na peaceful cichlid , especially by central american standards , which will appreciate tankmates of a similar disposition . tetras barbs and other smaller peaceful cichlids can all be considered . small plecs and doradids make suitable bottom - dwellers .\nfor this reason , the novice cichlid breeder \u2014 or perhaps i should say cichlid keeper ( because keeping them successfully usually results in breeding , planned or not ) \u2014 will do well to stick to species that have been in captivity for some time and are hardy . such fish will do well in the water conditions you are able to provide and do not have any other specialized environmental conditions . plus , they are reasonably well behaved .\nthis parental female archocentrus centrarchus displays the same sort of reverse countershading that can be seen in comparably motivated rainbow cichlids . reverse countershading is characteristic of the breeding dress of all representatives of the genus archocentrus and of many other heroine species as well . photo by paul v . loiselle .\nlowe - mcconnell , r . h . 1969 . the cichlid fishes of guyana , south america , with notes on their ecology and breeding behavior . zool . j . linn . soc . 48 : 255 - 302 .\ni would not advise trying to keep even these small cichlid fish in any community aquarium with a length less than 36 inches , and then keep only one pair of a single species . when breeding , a pair will occupy about half the aquarium , leaving the other half for the other fish . in a community smaller than noted , even peaceful dwarf cichlid fish are best kept by themselves in a species aquarium ( more on this later ) .\nin a more recent article by amorim and associates ( amorim , m . , m . knight , y . stratoudakis , and g . turner , 2004 . \u201cdifferences in sounds made by courting males of three closely related lake malawi cichlid species . \u201d journal of fish biology 65 : 1358 - 1371 ) sounds from three malawi mbuna are recorded and analyzed , and the results suggest that sound may play a larger role in cichlid species recognition than we thought .\n9 : 167 - 186 ) . lobel believes the mechanism of sound production in cichlids involves the jaw apparatus , with sounds amplified by the swimbladder . indeed , a variety of sounds have been recorded from a number of cichlid species including\nbottom dwelling species run a considerably greater risk of injury . herotilapia will systematically persecute individuals of the lurking eleotrid predator gobiomorus dormitor , attacking individuals even beyond the boundaries of its territory . according to baylis ( 1974 ) , such predators will not survive such attentions unless furnished with shelter such as a length of pvc pipe which the cichlids cannot penetrate . such behavior is understandable enough , given that dormitor is a major source of danger to sympatrically occurring cichlid fry in central america . however , the average aquarist is usually less than forgiving when this sort of selective obliteration is directed at the catfishes and loaches sharing a tank with a reproductively inclined pair of rainbow cichlids . heavily armored loricariid catfishes are effectively immune to the consequences of herotilapia harassment , but prudence dictates removing any other bottom dwellers as soon as a pair of rainbow cichlids begins defending a breeding site .\nwhen not engaged in courtship or spawning , herotilapia is an excellent community resident . while it will eat fish up to the size of a male guppy , such an eventuality is unlikely to occur in large aquaria . the rainbow cichlid is a most inept predator , lacking both the morphological and behavorial characteristics of a successful piscivore . the response of sexually active herotilapia towards other fish varies with the species concerned and the size of the breeding tank . other cichlids and mid - water living fishes are simply interdicted from the pair ' s territory . in a tank of 100 1 capacity or larger , they run little danger of serious injury . as mentioned earlier , rainbow cichlids can , and typically will , make do with a restricted breeding territory , while in a spacious tank , the other residents have adequate space to move into when the prospective parents begin feeling their oats .\ni have a little rainbow cichlid a little over 2 inches , housed with a blue acara , firemouth and ( 2 ) jaguar catfish . this fish fits in well with my little community tank . its a nice curious , feisty little fish and i like it alot . occasionally it will charge or give a short chase to my firemouth , but nothing serious . the colors of this fish are nice , mostly yellow and black , sometimes the colors alternate with mood . i believe mine is a female , its chubby and has short dorsal and anal fins .\nnovel object ( no ) test in cichlid fish . time spent freezing and exploring the no in the three social contexts ; different letters represent significant differences between treatments ( wilcoxon matched - pairs test with bonferroni correction , p < 0 . 0167 ) .\nthe rainbow cichlid is omnivorous and commonly feeds on filamentous algae , small invertebrates , and various insects within its native habitat . in the aquarium , they will consume algae , but should also be provided with meaty foods as well as vitamin - enriched , frozen and prepared food items ; live , frozen or freeze - dried brine shrimp , small insects , bloodworms , chopped earthworms , and a variety of small pellet and flake foods would make for a well balanced and healthy menu . feed once or twice a day and only what they will consume in a few minutes .\nin my opinion , most cichlid fish are easy to breed , provided you have a male and a female , offer them suitable conditions and can manage their territorial behaviors . after all , given that cichlid fish look after their young , they do most of the work for you . the reason some appear to be difficult to breed is because they have more or less specialized environmental requirements that not everyone can meet , or because serious problems develop between male and female unless you are an expert at behavioral management .\nkribensis are a relatively short lived cichlid , and usually only live for five years in an aquarium . there are reports of some living longer , but five years seems to be about the maximum age \u2013 even for ones that are well taken care of .\nit should be fairly obvious from the foregoing why h . multispinosa is such a superb beginner ' s cichlid . the same abilities that allow this species to prosper in highly eutrophic habitats in nature also allow it to shrug off a good deal of accidental mismanagement in captivity . this is not to say that the basic principles of good cichlid keeping should not be applied to this species . like other abuse - resistant species , the rainbow cichlid does much better and certainly shows up more satisfactorily when housed under suitable conditions . a temperature range of 21\u00b0 - 25\u00b0c . suffices for ordinary maintenance , with a rise to 30\u00b0c . advisable for breeding . dropping the temperature gradually down to 23\u00b0c . once the fry are mobile will reduce the likelihood of precocious respawning and its attendant complications , a contingency to which this species is otherwise quite susceptible in captivity ( baylis , 1974 ; loiselle , 1982b ) . so long as obvious extremes in either direction are avoided , herotilapia is indifferent to ph and hardness . while resistant to mismanagement of the nitrogen cycle , it does appreciate regular partial water changes , to which it responds with enhanced coloration .\nin the wild , rainbow cichlids feed on algae that grows on the rocks and substrate in their native environment . in the home aquarium , these fish will feed on algae growths , but can also be offered a variety of foods including algae wafers , pellets and flake foods . feed a regular varied diet for best health and coloration .\ncentral america is extremely rich in cichlid species but remarkably poor in cichlid genera . a single representative of the genus geophagus , g . crassilabrus , occurs as far north as central panama , while the genus aequidens , widespread in south america , is represented here only by ae . caerulopunctatus , which barely manages to squeak into southern costa rica . the remaining mesoamerican cichlids are either representatives of the heroine group or of genera derived from it . one of these heroine derivatives , the large piscivore petenia splendida , i have discussed in a previous article ( loiselle , 1980b ) . i intend to devote this essay to the remaining cichlid genera endemic to this region , herotilapia and neetroplus . both are attractive cichlids of modest dimensions , whose behavior makes them as interesting to scientists as they are to aquarists .\nfinally , to make a success of such a life history pattern , its practitioners must be highly fecund . entry into a suitable breeding habitat during the dispersal phase is essentially a matter of chance . thus the more offspring a pair produces per spawning effort , the greater the likelihood that a few of them will penetrate suitable habitats and in turn spawn successfully in the future . the need to channel as much of its available energy to spawning as possible is another reason why selection has favored adaptations that reduce intraspecific in the rainbow cichlid . herotilapia rises to this challenge by producing the largest spawns of any cichlid in its size range to date studied . baylis ( 1974 ) reports spawns of up to 1500 eggs from a female 10 . 0 cm sl . in my experience , clutches of up to 2500 eggs are not at all unusual from females in that size range .\naccording to guy jordan ( pers . comm . ) , the successful introduction of the rainbow cichlid , as h . multispinosa came to be called , was due not to bussing ' s efforts but rather the result of an importation of this species sometime afterwards by a private party in dallas , texas . the sporadic export of wild amphilophus . labiatum from nicaragua at that time suggests the rio san juan basin as the focus of the original aquarium strain of this species . marie mccann , a correspondent who was aware of his interest in unusual cichlids , sent guy a pair of these fish in 1964 . he had no difficulty in inducing the fish to spawn and distributed fry among his extensive network of contacts . his success was apparently far from unique , for by 1970 h . multispinosa had become so generally available in the united states that it was widely regarded as the quintessential beginner ' s cichlid !\nalthough many medium and large cichlid fish are best kept in species aquariums , not all are suitable for beginners . in some species , there can be serious aggression problems between the male and female even after they have paired and spawned , and these require specialized management to prevent one partner , usually the female , from being badly injured or even killed . some require very large aquariums that a beginner is unlikely to want to devote to just two cichlid fish . some must have very specific water chemistry ( very soft and acid , or in the case of a species like the green chromide , etroplus suratensis , a brackish aquarium ) or a diet of live fish , which may be difficult or distasteful for the novice to provide . some cichlid fish simply appear reluctant to breed in the limited amount of space we can offer .\nkullander , sven 1996 ,\nheroina isonycterina , a new genus and species of cichlid fish from western amazonia , with comments on cichlasomine systematics .\nichthyological explorations of freshwaters , vol 7 , no . 2 , pp 149 - 172 , 13 figs . , 5 tabs .\nall animals were housed in stock aquaria of 240 l in groups of eight animals each ( three males and five females ) at 26 \u00b1 2\u00b0c , with a photoperiod of 12 l : 12 d . fish were daily fed ad libitum with commercial cichlid sticks ( astra ) .\nthis article is intended only as a basic guide to what the novice should consider , and i would advise that you make a preliminary choice of species and then read up on it before actually buying any fish . you\u2019ll want some of the finer details before making a commitment . remember that the trick is to set up the aquarium to suit the cichlid fish , feed them a suitable diet and be patient . avoid tinkering with the setup . as long as you have provided the right conditions , it should be simply a matter of time before your cichlid fish are breeding .\nfeeds mainly on detritus in nature , including a great deal of algae and other plant matter . not a fussy eater in captivity . feed a high quality cichlid pellet as staple and vary often with frozen and livefoods . will especially appreciate brineshrimp . vegetable / spirulina flakes or similar will also be accepted .\nsuitable small cichlid fish for breeding in the general community ( whatever its water chemistry ) include a number of south american and west african dwarfs . from south america there are the \u201cdwarf acaras\u201d laetacara ( formerly part of aequidens ) and nannacara . there is also the keyhole cichlid ( cleithracara maronii ) and the bolivian ram ( mikrogeophagus altispinosa ) . from west africa are the krib ( pelvicachromis pulcher ) and the blockhead ( steatocranus casuarius ) . the latter nominally comes from a specialized biotope ( rapids ) and is rather larger than the rest , but is peaceful and will do very well in a typical aquarium .\nhowever , a successful life history pattern based on the use of peripheral habitats as breeding sites requires that its practitioners be capable of more than mere survival under extreme environmental conditions . they must be able to reproduce successfully under such circumstances as well . the foregoing adaptations are obviously necessary preconditions to any reproductive effort . however , they do not directly address the reproductive process itself . survival assured , the essential difficulty herotilapia must surmount is that of breeding successfully under crowded conditions . according to baylis ( l974 ) , space in isolated pools is limited , while rainbow cichlid populations are often dense . to breed successfully under these conditions requires a special set of behavioral adaptations to complement the physiological specializations considered above .\nbreeding rainbow cichlids is considered to be fairly easy . these fish are substrate spawners and when they are ready for breeding , they often turn completely black . the average brood size for this species is between 150 and 500 eggs and the parent fish will guard the nest until the eggs hatch . these cichlids display a great deal of parental care in guarding the nest but also in caring for the fry after they have hatched .\ncommon name ( s ) : blue neon goby , rainbow goby , cobalt blue goby scientific name : stiphodon semoni family : gobiidae origin : new caledonia , indonesia , papua new guinea , philippines , and solomon islands temperament / behavior : peaceful conspecific behavior : males are territorial towards there own species , they can be kept together only in larger tanks max size : 2 inches min tank size : 20 gallons tank . . .\naccording to jeff , h . multispinosa is essentially a fish of seasonally inundated marshes and potholes . juveniles and sexually inactive adults can be found in the shallow , usually vegetated peripheral waters of large lakes and rivers or in the small creeks flowing into them . sexually active adults and very small fry , however , are to be found only in seasonally flooded habitats . at los chiles , costa rica , jeff ' s main study site , the only other fishes regularly found sharing such habitats with rainbow cichlids were the ubiquitous characin astyanax mexicanus , a member of the poecilia mexicana complex of short - finned mollies , and juvenile parachromis managuense . no other cichlid breeds in such habitats . indeed , aside from the molly , no other representative of the local ichthyofauna reproduces therein .\nrainbow cichlids are very peaceful and will rarely go after tank mates . the only aggression i saw from mine was during spawning . the pair bond for this fish is usually strong , so you could keep a pair in a 20 gallon tank , although a 40 breeder would be better . as far as tank mates go , use rainbows or giant danios as these fish can be shy . they also mix well with milder new world cichlids and docile malawians .\nas the authors point out , while their current results are tantalizing , it remains to be demonstrated whether cichlids\u2014females of these cichlids in particular\u2014can actually differentiate among males based on these courtship calls , as is the case for frogs and insects . though amorim et al . wisely choose to interpret their results conservatively , they suggest that courtship signals involving sensory modalities other than vision , including acoustic ( sound ) and possibly olfactory ( smell ) may well be involved in cichlid species recognition and mate choice , and may have contributed to cichlid speciation . these suggestions await experimental confirmation , but i won\u2019t be surprised when it is demonstrated that female cichlids can and do choose mates on the basis not just of color , but also sound and smell .\nfor those who want a larger mouthbrooder , there are various sarotherodon and oreochromis , mouthbrooding tilapiines from africa , the best known being the mozambique mouthbrooder or mozzie ( o . mossambicus ) . these cichlid fish seem nearly indestructible , are great characters , eat anything ( including plants ) and are very easy to breed , but they will re - arrange gravel with gusto .\nrainbow cichlids are central american cichlids , native to a variety of lakes and swamps in costa rica , nicaragua and honduras . this species tends to inhabit bodies of water with muddy bottoms where it feeds primarily on algae . these fish are named for their vibrant coloration - they typically have an overall gold or orange coloration that is often iridescent in appearance . many specimens exhibit a dark band running along the lateral line and the fins are often colored to match the body .\nrainbow cichlids are super easy to breed . the fish are substrate spawners and will lay eggs on any solid surface in the tank . i like to use rocks and flower pots as breeding sites . when rainbow cichlids breed the fish turn jet black with a little bit of orange dorsally . this is awesome to see and as they start to change , exciting because you know they are going to breed . the fish lay 150 - 500 eggs on a flat surface . the nest is usually well guarded by the parents . if you have these fish spawn in a community tank , i recommend pulling the eggs and artificially hatching them . these fish have trouble defending against larger , more aggressive fish . the fry hatch in about 5 days , and are free swimming by 8 - 9 . the fry are small but will gladly eat brine shrimp . growth is relatively well paced . the fry grow up to about 1 inch in 2 months .\nh . multispinosa seems to be capable of holding a territory without over aggression and may be kept with other similar sized cichlids as well as larger livebearers . some aquarists have noted their ability to survive in a cichlid aquarium along with larger and more aggressive fish due to their non - competitive status . as with any fish , carefully observe aquarium occupants and remove as necessary .\nthe rainbow cichlid keeps the cost of aggression at a minimum by combining an extremely complex but highly unambiguous visual signaling system with a marked tendency to habituate to the presence of territorial neighbors . the color patterns of herotilapia allows an individual to communicate its motivational state with great precision . this reduces the likelihood of accidental conflict by minimizing the ambiguity in any exchange of information between two potential combatants . should physical conflict arise , however , ritualization of the resulting interaction keeps risk of injury minimal . attacks are directed not at vulnerable targets such as the eyes , but rather towards specific elements in the color pattern located well away from such sensitive areas ( baylis , 1974 ) . combat between two neighboring males of this species is , to paraphrase shakespeare , an affair of sound and fury , whose level of significance is quite disproportionate to its relative lack of substance .\nwill change colouration according to its moods . a peaceful species compared to other american cichlids , it is also tolerant of water conditions . the rainbow cichlid inhabits muddy waters in the wild but this would be very hard to re - create in the aquarium . the best a keeper could do in reality is to keep the lighting dim and add plenty of plants to diffuse the light even further . these fish like to dig do use sand for the substrate and as they occupy inland waters in their natural habitat , it is best to keep the water flow low . they will require some swimming space in the aquarium so make sure that the minimum size for the aquarium is at least 36 inches ( 91 . 44 cm ) , the depth is not critical but obviously the larger the water volume , the easier it is to control the water quality and parameters .\nspawn defense is also made easier if the parents can signal their motivational state unambiguously to potential predators . fry predators that learn to associate the physical abuse they receive from parental cichlids with a specific color pattern are likely to avoid their vicinity in the future . by so doing , they also avoid the vicinity of the pair ' s mobile fry . many cichlids practice this sort of aversive conditioning of potential fry predators , but few of them are faced with the problem herotilapia must overcome in transmitting the necessary signal . the intense golden ochre and black spawning colors that aquarists find so attractive is the rainbow cichlid ' s solution to the challenge of visual signaling in an extremely turbid environment . research on underwater optics ( luria and kinney , 1970 ; lythgoe , 1979 ) has shown that this combination of colors is maximally visible in such environments , and thus best suited for transmitting a signal unambiguously and over a considerable distance .\nmaybe you\u2019d like to try a mouthbrooding species as your first cichlid fish . if so , the egyptian mouthbrooder ( pseudocrenilabrus multicolor ) is suitable for any community aquarium of 30 inches or more , and you can also try the slightly larger p . philander from southern africa in larger communities . it is best to have two or more females per male . these species are not fussy about water conditions and diet .\nthe rainbow cichlid exploits these difficult but rewarding habitats with a two - phase life history . reproduction occurs in seasonally flooded habitats during their dry season isolation from their parent bodies . while physical conditions are extreme at this time , their isolation assures the breeding herotilapia of a greatly reduced complement of fry predators with which to contend . an abundance of food and a dearth of competitors promote rapid growth of their progeny in the bargain . when the rains come , the rising water level of the adjacent rivers brings them into contact with previously isolated pools and marshes . this triggers the dispersal phase of the life cycle , in which the previously impounded rainbow cichlids can move into new habitats . a certain proportion of the fish will enter suitable breeding habitat prior to its isolation by receding waters at the end of the rainy season . these fish will compromise the coming dry season ' s reproductive population . those not fortunate enough to colonize such habitats will remain behind in the river shallows , their chance at reproduction lost for another year . such a life history pattern can be likened to an evolutionary lottery . to succeed , players must disperse into a peripheral habitat suitable for spawning that will persist through the dry season . losers , defined as fish that either fail to colonize a suitable breeding habitat or else colonize one that proves a fatal trap are penalized a year ' s reproductive output , or in the extreme case , their lives . the payoff for winners is a disproportionate contribution to the next year class of juveniles ."]}
{"id": 418, "summary": [{"text": "mylochromis obtusus is a species of cichlid endemic to lake malawi where it is currently only known from sandy areas in the southern portion of the lake .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this species can reach a length of 22 centimetres ( 8.7 in ) tl . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "mylochromis obtusus", "paragraphs": ["a male of mylochromis obtusus in the aquarium . photo by ad konings . determiner ad konings\nconservation : mylochromis obtusus is evaluated by the international union for the conservation of nature in the iucn red list of threatened species as ( lc ) least concern ( 2006 ) .\nmylochromis obtusus fatal error : call to undefined function session _ is _ registered ( ) in / var / www / vhosts / malawimayhem . com / httpdocs / profile _ show2 . php on line 48\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\ngreek , mylo = mill + greek , chromis = a fish without identification , perhaps a perch ( ref . 45335 )\nafrica : endemic to lake malawi . known only from the holotype taken from the south - east arm between the bar and nkhudzi .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 22 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 4986 )\nmar\u00e9chal , c . , 1991 . maravichromis . p . 252 - 257 . in j . daget , j . - p . gosse , g . g . teugels and d . f . e . thys van den audenaerde ( eds . ) check - list of the freshwater fishes of africa ( cloffa ) . isnb , brussels ; mrac , tervuren ; and orstom , paris . vol . 4 . ( ref . 4986 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 6 \u00b10 . 6 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 24 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nsnoeks , j . ( freshwater fish red list authority ) & darwall , w . ( freshwater biodiversity assessment programme )\njustification : endemic to lake malawi where it is thought to be restricted to the southeastern arm . possibly more widespread . no major widespread threats identified .\nendemic to lake malawi . recorded in the southern part of lake malawi ( south eastern arm ) . possibly more widespread .\nsand dwelling cichlid , occurring along sandy shores . reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade ( 1990 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\neccles , d . h . and trewavas , e . 1989 . malawian cichlid fishes . the classification of some haplochromine genera . lake fish movies , herten , germany .\nkonings , a . 1990 . konings ' s book of cichlids and all the other fishes of lake malawi . t . f . h . publications , inc . , neptune city new jersey .\nkonings , a . 1995 . malawi cichlids in their natural habitat . second edition . cichlid press , st . leon - rot , germany .\ntrewavas , e . 1935 . a synopsis of the cichlid fishes of lake nyasa annals and magazine of natural history ( 10 ) 16 : 65\u2013118 .\npam chin has been replying to cichlid questions for over twenty years . highly respected and experienced aquarist , pam has visited cichlid habitats around the world , and bred in her ' s and her husband gary fish house hundreds of cichlid species . besides her job , she still devotes time to help any person with a cichlid question !\narticles for sale beautifully formatted and wonderfully illustrated pdf articles about all matters relative to cichlids .\nbooks for sale cichlid books and dvds for sale at the cichlid room companion .\ne - books for sale pdf copies of popular cichlid books offered for sale at the best price .\ntrade section the master list of cichlid offers ordered by area and species name .\ntrewavas , ethelwynn . 1935 .\na synopsis of the cichlid fishes of lake nyasa\n. annals and magazine of natural history . series 10 ; pp . 65 - 118 ( crc00118 )\nto view the full profile . see this and all other species profiles , pictures and videos by becoming a\nof the cichlid room companion . become a subscriber and get a free book the same value of your membership ! you can also open the full profile for everyone to see by\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\ndesigned for internet explorer 6 . 0 + , netscape 6 . 0 + , opera , mozilla , and safari use sitemap if you have any problems viewing the new drop - down menus .\nspecies profiles presents in depth studies , articles , and information surrounding the numerous species of lake malawi cichlids .\neschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 419, "summary": [{"text": "the tenkile ( dendrolagus scottae ) , also known as scott 's tree-kangaroo , is a species of tree-kangaroo in the family macropodidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is endemic to a very small area of the torricelli mountains of papua new guinea .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss and by hunting .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the tenkile , are listed as endangered due to hunting and logging activities in papua new guinea .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the tenkile is hunted for its meat , tenkile is the main protein source for the residents of papua new guinea .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the population of papua new guinea has increased in recent years due to improvements in healthcare ; therefore increasing need in tenkile meat which means that more tenkiles are being hunted .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "additionally , tenkiles are poached for their fur and are captured and sold as a part of the illegal pet trade .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "domesticated dogs also hunt tenkiles .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "deforestation in papua new guinea affects all tree-kangaroos , however industrial logging that occurs in the torricelli mountain range decreases the already small habitat of the tenkile .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the torricelli mountain range faces additional deforestation due to the timber industry , and the production of coffee , rice and wheat . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "tenkile", "paragraphs": ["picture : tenkile ( 12 kb jpeg ) ( tenkile cons . all . )\ntenkile conservation alliance , inc . 2003 .\ntenkile info\n( on - line ) . accessed 04 / 11 / 03 at urltoken .\nthe diet of the tenkile includes tree leaves , ferns , and soft vines .\nthe tenkile conservation alliance ( tca ) aims to save the critically endangered tenkile , or scott ' s tree kangaroo ( dendrolagus scottae ) , from becoming extinct .\ncontinuation of the hunting moratorium for the 18 tenkile villages and 21 weimang villages . there has been no significant hunting of any fauna within the tenkile habitat since 2004 .\nsince the tenkile\u0092s discovery a recovery plan has been written for the species and is being implemented by the tenkile conservation alliance ( tca ) . local villagers are aware of the need to conserve the tree kangaroo and in 1999 a hunting moratorium was agreed between the tenkile conservation alliance and the fourteen villages that have ownership over tenkile habitat .\ndiet : vines , ferns and leaves . work still required for diet of tenkile .\nthe tenkile conservation alliance is a non - government organisation based in papua new guinea .\nthe tenkile is one of the most endangered mammal species in the world with as few as one hundred individuals remaining . so it is really now or never to save the tenkile .\nthe tenkile is diurnal and mainly terrestrial , although it climbs trees to rest and escape predators .\n\u201c before the establishment of this program , our grand parents , parents and even my family killed tenkile for meat . but since the signing of the moratorium , tenkile numbers have increased \u201d .\neveryone knows if you have killed a tenkile . they call smell it on your hands for at least a week . there is no way to wash off the scent of tenkile . . .\nhumans use tenkile tree kangaroos as a source of food and fur and sometimes keep them as pets .\nestablishment of chicken farms in all villages . distribution of 100 half caste austrolops chickens to tenkile villages .\nthe tenkile is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\n- - peter , an olo hunter of wilbeitei describing the musty odour of tenkile , february 1990 .\nestablishment and maintenance of seven tenkile research sites and one weimang research site ( more to be completed ) .\ninformation on the tenkile ( dendrolagus scottae ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\neuan ritchie spoke to urltoken about the tenkile ' s decline , and his new project to conserve the species .\nlocal names : tenkile ( olo ) , rengile ( one ) , teklel ( elke ) and tikisir ( yel ) .\nthe success and future conservation goals of the tenkile conservation alliance are the subjects of a new documentary , into the jungle .\nmajor improvements in the rabbit farming success in several tenkile villages , one village having bred more than 300 rabbits since 2004 .\nthe tenkile conservation alliance is a non - profit organization promoting public awareness and conservation of tree kangaroos in papua new guinea .\ncontinuation of the hunting moratorium for all participating villages which has increased to 20\ntenkile\nvillages and 30\nweimang\nvillages . there has been no significant hunting of any fauna within the tenkile habitat since 2004 or in the weimang habitat since 2007 .\nconservation area management committees established in all tenkile villages and significant capacity building conducted for all committee members in scientific knowledge and management .\ntwenty transects have been prepared with 206 survey points in tenkile habitat . gps locations for base line and some point stations obtained .\nflannery 1995 , iucn 1994 , iucn 1996 , iucn 2000 , iucn 2003a , iucn 2004 , kennedy 1992 , tenkile cons . all .\nthe tenkile , or the scott ' s tree kangaroo ( dendrolagus scottae ) could be a cross between a koala bear and a puppy . with it ' s fuzzy dark fur , long tail and snout , and tiny ears , it ' s difficult to imagine a more adorable animal . it ' s also difficult to imagine that the tenkile is one of the most endangered species on earth : only an estimated 300 remain . according to the tenkile conservation alliance ( tca ) , the tenkile ' s trouble stems from a sharp increase of human settlements in the torricelli mountain range . once relatively isolated , the tenkile now struggles to avoid hunters and towns while still having sufficient range to live in .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - tenkile ( dendrolagus scottae )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - tenkile ( dendrolagus scottae )\ntitle =\narkive species - tenkile ( dendrolagus scottae )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nmassicot , p . 2002 .\nanimal info\n( on - line ) . tenkile . accessed 04 / 11 / 03 at urltoken .\npreliminary results from distance sampling research indicate a significant increase in the population of tenkile . approximately 160 ( 2004 ) to 307 ( 2008 ) .\nsince the pair starting working with communities in png , jim says the number of tenkile have trebled from a disastrously low 100 to approximately 300 .\ni undertook a study of tenkile between 1990 and 1992 . an important component of that study was radio - tracking . this proved to be very difficult , for the habitat of the remaining tenkile is very steep , wet and covered in dense , sometimes almost impenetrable , mossy scrub . because of high hunting pressure , tenkile is also extremely wary . during our radio - tracking work we saw a tenkile only once . at other times all we heard was a crash as a tracked animal fled down a gully , or else we tracked it to a tree but could not sight it .\nconservation area management committees established in all tenkile and weimang villages and significant capacity building conducted for all committee members in scientific knowledge and natural resources management .\ntenkile tree kangaroos impact plant communities in the ecosystems in which they live through their predation on plants . little is known of other impacts they may have .\npreliminary results from distance sampling research indicate a significant increase in the population of tenkile from approximately 160 ( in 2004 ) to 240 ( in 2006 ) .\nhabitat : tenkile is found between 900 - 1 , 700 meters above sea level in the torricelli mountain range . the total habitat area probably does not exceed 125 square kilometers . the vegetation is mid - montane rainforest containing podocarpous , libocedrus , auraucaria , rapanea and syzygium species . tenkile is thought to feed on vines including the scaveola and tetracera species , epiphytic ferns and leaves from various forest plants . however , no studies have been done on the diet of the tenkile . at present a tenkile ' s diet is being compiled via the knowledge of the local people and a herbarium of these plant species is being prepared .\neuan ritchie , an ecology lecturer at deakin university in queensland , has united with the tenkile conservation alliance to begin a camera survey in papua new guinea ' s ( png ) torricelli mountains , where the tenkile and other critically endangered animals persist . as the first comprehensive wildlife camera trap study in the torricelli range , the joint study endeavors to estimate population numbers and habitat of the tenkile , as well as other critically endangered species to discover their population numbers and habits .\nthere are presently thought to be two subspecies of dendrolagus scottae - tenkile and fiwo . fiwo is yet to receive a latin name . tenkile is restricted to the torricelli mountain range whilst fiwo is located in the adjacent bewani mountain range . little data has been collected on fiwo , however it is thought that it could reside in much of the bewani mountains with a range greater than 250 square kilometers . fiwo appears to be smaller than tenkile , an adult male weighed 9 . 5kg ( compared to adult male tenkile = 11 . 5kg ) and an adult female weighed 6 . 8kg ( compared to adult female tenkile = 9 . 5kg ) . a lot more work is required on fiwo . presently , fiwo is not under threat due to hunting because , unlike tenkile , it is not surrounded by a large human population . fiwo has a small distribution and has therfore been classified as vulnerable . tca aims to conduct surveys for fiwo when funding becomes available .\ncause of decline : it is thought the population of tenkile could have been as low as 100 individividuals when tca was established in 2001 . results from distance sampling research estimate the population to be now over 200 ( october 2006 ) . this makes the tenkile one of the most endangered mammals in the world . the cause of their decline is predominantly due to an increase of human population in the vicinity of the torricelli mountains and consequently an increase of hunting pressure on the animal . in the past hunters recall seeing tenkile in groups of four ( possibly a pair with two young ) and historically found them closer to their villages . now tenkile is rarely seen by the villagers . when people are lucky enough to see a tenkile there is usually only one animal or very occasionally a pair . hunters believe it has drastically reduced in number and in range compared to 50 years ago . even some hunters remember killing as many as six tenkile in a day less than 30 years ago .\nthe rainforest canopy on the southern side of mount somoro is now the only home to tenkile tree kangaroos . this habitat is at elevations of 900 to 1500 meters .\nwhilst conducting distance sampling at bibane , villagers from tolgete and sarbute came across three tenkile in the same tree . the team were able to successfully capture one of these animals . the other two were too fast for the team . the captured tenkile was a female weighing 7 . 7kg and has been named\nsuna\nby the landowners .\nthe conservation of the tenkile has been recognised as a high priority by the waza in situ conservation workshop held at the khaow kheow open zoo , thailand , in 2001 .\nmany species here occur nowhere else on earth . one such species is the tenkile , or scott\u2019s tree kangaroo , the tca\u2019s namesake and a critically endangered marsupial first described in1989 .\nthe successful breeding of rabbits in tenkile villages has led to two people being trained as \u201crabbit farming trainers\u201d . these trainers have successfully completed rabbit courses to all 21 weimang villages .\nthe tenkile conservation alliance was originally established by a network of zoos , the png museum , local government and individuals that wanted to work towards the recovery of the critically endangered scott\u2019s tree kangaroo ( dendrolagus scottae ) locally known as tenkile . a hunting moratorium was established with 13 villages in 1999 and this has grown to include 20 villages that have tenkile on their land . a further 30 villages that have the critically endangered weimang , or golden - mantled tree kangaroo , ( dendrolagus pulcherrimus ) have also joined the alliance and now comprises over 12 , 000 people .\nthe successful breeding of rabbits in tenkile villages has led to two people being trained as\nrabbit farming trainers\n. these trainers have successfully completed rabbit training courses to 24 weimang villages .\n* * * the tenkile has a powerful odor which persists for up to a week on the hands of someone who has picked up one of the animals . * * * in 1990 , flannery discovered another population of the tenkile to the west of the main population . animals from this newly found subpopulation were much smaller and may represent an undescribed subspecies . ( flannery 1995 )\nthe ultimate goal of the tenkile conservation alliance is : to improve health , provide education and so relieve poverty as well as protect biodiversity and the cultures of rainforest communities in papua new guinea .\njim thomas tenkile conservation alliance p . o box 1304 wewak east sepik province n / a papua new guinea tel : n / a mob : + 675 7651 3448 fax : n / a\nmr jim thomas , director of tca , said \u201c the tenkile conservation alliance applied for membership to iucn to increase its network within the fields of conservation , animal classification and human development . \u201d\na sense of pride among communities \u2013 men cried when they saw the tenkile photo taken from a camera trap and when the animals were seen on peoples land for the first time in 20 years .\ntim flannery was the first scientist to describe the tenkile in 1989 . he has been a very important scientist for discovering and naming many species of fauna within png , west papua and the surrounding islands .\nthere are eight species of tree kangaroos living in papua new guinea . one of them , the tenkile , or scott ' s tree kangaroo ( dendrolagus scottae ) , was discovered as late as 1989 .\nthe tenkile , or the scott\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s tree kangaroo ( dendrolagus scottae ) could be a cross between a koala bear and a puppy . with it ' s fuzzy dark fur , long tail and snout , and tiny ears , it ' s difficult to imagine a more adorable animal . it ' s also difficult to imagine that the tenkile is one of the most endangered species on earth : only an estimated 300 remain .\nmathew was born in the torricelli mountains and witnessed first hand the decline in the region\u2019s fauna . in 1999 he led a group of stakeholders from 13 villages from across the region to stop the hunting of tenkile .\naccording to the tenkile conservation alliance ( tca ) , the tenkile ' s trouble stems from a sharp increase of human settlements in the torricelli mountain range . once relatively isolated , the tenkile now struggles to avoid hunters and towns while still having sufficient range to live in . the tca also suggests the cultural shift in papua new guinea\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s torricelli natives could contribute to the animal ' s decline : an influx of catholic missionaries lead to a mass conversion of many of the natives . while the tenkile\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s habitat was traditionally off limits for hunting for fear of spirits , the natives now hunt there regularly ; instead of bows and arrows , they use guns .\nunfortunately , the combination of all these factors has strongly affected the tenkile population . when the conservation programme was first proposed in 1998 , as few as 100 individuals were estimated to remain in the wild . this made the tenkile one of the most endangered mammals in the world . the cause for the decline was predominantly the increase in human population and consequently increased hunting pressure on the animals , which is now only rarely seen by the villagers\nthe tenkile conservation alliance ( tca ) has become the first organisation from papua new guinea to join iucn . today iucn welcomed the tca into the union following their membership approval at the 82nd meeting of the iucn council .\ntca is in the process of establishing the torricelli mountain range as a legally protected area . over 185 , 000 hectares of rainforest and biodiversity will be protected including critically endangered species such as the tenkile and weimang tree kangaroos .\nrecognised as the most threatened of all tree kangaroo species , the tenkile\u2019s range is today restricted to only 150 km 2 of rainforest . like many marsupials , tenkiles are slow breeding . growing human population has led to significant increases in the hunting of wild species for food and tenkile have declined dramatically over the past 30 years as a result . their decline also compromises the wellbeing of local communities who traditionally depend on wildlife for protein , with low levels of nutrition now common .\npapua new guinean , mathew akon is senior project officer of the tenkile conservation alliance ( tca ) , an ngo established in 2001 dedicated to the conservation of the remote torricelli mountain range , a 250 , 000 ha area rich in wildlife .\nsignificant capacity building implemented to ensure local ownership and management of tenkile and other wildlife in the research sites across the torricelli mountain range . all scientific data are collected by tca\u2019s research and distance sampling officers , independent of the tca project manager .\ntenkile is a large , black , aromatic tree - kangaroo which is restricted to a small area on the summit of the torricelli mountains in northwestern papua new guinea . it is rather similar in appearance to doria ' s tree - kangaroo (\nbravo & congratulations to all of the @ fpa2 2018 awardees , and thank you for your commitment to a # sustainable world . # victorpochat @ tenkile \u2019s jim thomas @ ipcc _ ch @ profterryhughes # biodiversity # climatechange # fpa2018 # monacomoments urltoken\ni work with tca to save my environment in the torricelli mountain range - png . i am proud of the animals we have here such as tenkile . conservation is the way to save all the environment and animals for my children .\nthe tenkile is a marsupial that weighs about 10 kg ( 22 lb ) . it is found in mossy mountain forests from 900 - 1500 m ( 3000 - 5000 ' ) . the diet of the tenkile includes tree leaves , ferns , and soft vines . this tree kangaroo is diurnal and mainly terrestrial . it probably breeds throughout the year , with females giving birth at 12 month intervals . in the past , family groups of up to 4 individuals were seen . however , most recent sightings have been of solitary individuals or a female and young pair . the tenkile was apparently more common and widespread in the past . it is currently found in three locations in sandaun province in northwestern papua new guinea . hunting is its main threat .\nthere are many valuable ways in which you can contribute to the tenkile conservation alliance\u2019s vision \u2013 which is , the people of png value and protect their natural resources , their community and their culture . click ' contribute ' button above to learn more .\ntenkile tree kangaroos are found only papua new guinea , and only in sandaun province along the torricelli mountains in the rainforests on the southern side of mount sumoro . today , the total area occupied by these tree kangaroos is only about 50 square kilometers .\nthe torricelli mountains on png\u2019s north coast are home to the scotts tree kangaroo \u2013 known locally as the tenkile - which is the biggest of the attractive and elusive animals . \u201cthey get to about 14 kilos , the big males . \u201d says jim thomas .\nsignificant capacity building implemented to ensure local ownership and management of tenkile , weimang and other wildlife in the research sites across the torricelli mountain range . since 2007 all scientific data was collected by tca\u2019s research officers and distance sampling officers , independent of the tca director .\ni worked with the tca as a village representative from 2004 - 2007 . since 2008 i have been a local project officer . i really love the program because in no other part of the world can you find the tenkile and weimang tree kangaroos .\ntca works directly with the local people representing 13 different language groups and unique cultures from 50 villages within two provinces of remote papua new guinea . together we form the tenkile conservation alliance . to find out more about this amazing organisation watch the 10 minute video below .\nlandowner agreement to establish a conservation area within the torricelli mountain range with the 20 tenkile villages and 30 weimang villages . all these villages have designated hunting areas from non - hunting areas and written their own rules and penalties for the long - term management of the area .\nspecies . wild populations are rapidly declining , and is now thought to be less than 200 individuals . this is about a 75 % reduction since the species was first discovered . the main reason for these falling numbers is hunting by the increasing human population and habitat loss . to deal with this unfortunate population decline , the tenkile conservation alliance was formed in 1999 . this conservation group is working to maintain the failing habitat of this rare species . if action is not taken soon , the tenkile population is likely to be extinct within just a few years .\nthe tenkile conservation alliance ( tca ) , was originally established in 2001 , to protect the unique biodiversity of the torricelli mountain range ; png . tca uses the tree kangaroos as flagship species for achieving broad forest conservation outcomes with a main objective to establish this mountain range as a legislated conservation area .\nthe tenkile conservation alliance was formed after villagers noticed the number of tree kangaroos was plummeting . \u201cthe people had signed an agreement not to hunt , and then soon after we came in and started realising that it wasn\u2019t just a matter of getting people not to hunt the animals , \u201d says thomas .\nlandowner agreement to establish a conservation area within the torricelli mountain range with the 18 tenkile villages and 21 weimang villages . all these villages have designated hunting areas from non - hunting areas and written their own rules and penalties for the long - term management of the area except for six weimang villages .\nthe aim of this project has been to determine the effect of the two year hunting moratorium and assess current population status and trends for tenkile in the torricelli mountains using skilled png nationals . a pacific biological foundation grant has been pivotal in engaging villagers in the design and delivery of this conservation activity .\njim\u2019s wife jean has been a crucial partner in the tenkile conservation alliance . for two years the pair walked the steep mountainous tracks between villages , learnt to speak tok pisin and consulted with communities about how they could help to save the species . jean also introduced a conservation program into the local schools .\nthe northern slopes of the torricelli mountains are steep and abrupt . today , these slopes are the last refuge of tenkile . the southern slopes , however , extend gently towards the sepik plain , and here there are extensive , flat , fertile areas lying between about 600 and 900 metres elevation . these areas were always well - populated , but today they support a very dense concentration of people . this largely catholic area has seen a trebling of its population since the second world war . large villages are now situated only about four hours ' walk from tenkile ' s habitat , and human hunting pressure is intense .\nthe tenkile after which the organisation is called , also known as scott\u2019s tree kangaroo , is endemic to papua new guinea and restricted to a small area . they are threatened by hunting for food and by destruction of their forest habitat , as are the weimang , black - spotted cuscus and the northern glider .\nthe difficulties facing tenkile are compounded by the abandonment of many traditional practices and beliefs among the olo . the termination of warfare means that intertribal boundaries are no longer such dangerous places to visit and hunters can spend days there with impunity ( in earlier times , only fleeting , secretive visits were made ) . belief in forest\none curious feature of tenkile ' s behaviour , well known to local hunters , is that it is much easier to find in april - may . this is the wet season , when it migrates out of the steep , inaccessible gullies and up onto the ridgetops and mountain summits , where it is more easily located .\ndue to high topographical constraints in the torricelli mountains eg much of the terrain within d . scottae \u0092s estimated range is too precipitous for dung surveys , the transect lines could not be extended as far as planned . this is likely to lead to the failure of applying the methods used in the remainder of tenkile\u0092s range .\nnow that an initial estimate of the population density of tenkile has been achieved , the tca are in a position to begin to assess the impact of the hunting moratorium and incorporate this into the extension and development of further field research and conservation efforts . the work undertaken so far has confirmed that the population size is critically low . without a continuing input from the tca and generous supporters like apbf , the chances for the long - term survival of the species are certainly low . coupled with this program , an intrinsic part of the tenkile recovery will be improved levels of trust and understanding between the people of the torricelli mountains and external organisations involved .\nyou might find it hard to believe , but some kangaroos live in trees ! tree kangaroos are one of the world\u2019s best kept wildlife secrets . but in papua new guinea , they are struggling for survival : they are being hunted to extinction . a few years ago , the entire world population of the tenkile , one of . . .\nwaza conservation project 04016 is implemented by the tenkile conservation alliance with 11 full - time employees , led by jim and jean thomas from melbourne , australia . the project ' s major partners previously were zoos victoria and australian volunteers international , with additional annual support from perth zoo and grants from other donors , including saint louis zoo ' s wildcare institute .\nthe tenkile was apparently more common and widespread in the past . it is currently found in sandaun province in northwestern papua new guinea , in three locations along the summits of the torricelli mountains in the region between yonkeitei and wigotei villages in the fatima area . its total habitat area probably does not exceed 50 sq km ( 19 sq mi ) . ( flannery 1995 )\nthere is no doubt that tenkile has declined dramatically over the past 50 years . old men recalled having hunted it on the lower northern slopes in areas that today are adjacent to gardens . the total present - clay population may be little more than a few hundred . if it is not protected soon it may be lost , just as the golden - mantled tree - kangaroo (\nthe island of new guinea contains 7 % of the world\u2019s biodiversity and is the third largest expanse of tropical rainforest following the amazon and congo . the torricelli mountain range , north - west papua new guinea ( png ) , is unique in that it is the only place known that is home to three species of tree kangaroo , the scott\u2019s tree kangaroo ( tenkile ) , the golden - mantled tree kangaroo ( weimang ) and the grizzled tree kangaroo ( yongi ) . other endemic species include the black - spotted cuscus ( png\u2019s largest cuscus ) and the northern glider . the tenkile , weimang , black - spotted cuscus and northern glider are all classified as critically endangered by the iucn . the torricelli\u2019s , therefore have a high level of endemism and biodiversity significance .\n\u201c having iucn status will mean tca can be more aligned with governments and therefore be able to make a greater impact on the people , their environment and the unique species that tca was established to protect , such as the critically endangered tenkile ( dendrolagus scottae ) , weimang ( d . pulcherrimus ) , black - spotted cuscus ( spilocuscus rufoniger ) and northern glider ( petaurus abidi ) , \u201d mr thomas said .\nsuccessful research teams have been established with 18 villages since 2003 , with more than 100 people employed each year through tca\u2019s tenkile distance sampling research . now the goal is to establish a 96 , 000ha protected conservation area at the core of the torricelli range . mathew and tca are working directly with the region\u2019s 39 villages to inspire support for the project , using tenkiles and another critically endangered tree kangaroo species , the weimang , as flagship species . training will then enable the communities to effectively manage the conservation area themselves .\nhas also broken down , and people now feel free to hunt in areas where previously no - one would enter for fear of the spirits . sweipini , one of the most important of these refuges , lost its status as a sacred place in 1990 . within a few months , many tree - kangaroos had been killed there . i visited sweipini a few months afterwards , accompanied by kaspar seiko , a village elder and the only man previously allowed to visit the area . he commented sadly that the tenkile were now all gone . the only signs i could find were a few old scratches on tree trunks .\nindividuals have a strong odor , which can last for up to a week on items that an animal comes in contact with ( e . g . a handler ' s hands ) . another interesting tidbit about these animals is how they received the common name ' scott ' s tree kangaroo ' . the story is that there was a trust fund named after a man called winifred scott . after his death in 1985 , the permanent trustee company , a co - trustee of the scott trust , donated the trust income to an australian museum research program . participants in this program discovered the tenkile . in honor of winifred , this species of tree kangaroo was given the name scott ' s tree kangaroo .\nsince the introduction of catholic missions 50 years ago , the local people have access to better medical supplies and improved hygiene . consequently the human population has trebled since world war 2 . missionaries have also been responsible for altering traditional beliefs and customs , which have affected or increased the hunting pressure on certain species within the torricelli mountains . for example the traditional conservation areas known as\nples masalai\nwere strictly off - limits for fear of evil spirits . the traditional land boundaries are no longer heavily fought over and people feel free to hunt on other people\u2019s land . the introduction of guns and torches has made hunting much easier than the traditional bow and arrow . unfortunately the combination of all these factors have taken its toll on the population of the tenkile .\njean began her career with animals by breeding laboratory mice for medical research and then moved into the zoo industry working with native fauna at both healesville sanctuary and melbourne zoo . she has a bachelor of science and a diploma of education and over the years has also worked with other endangered species such as the eastern barred bandicoot and new holland mouse . jean spent her honey moon with jim banding orange - bellied parrots in the wilds of tasmania and after a year of teaching in a high school she now works with her husband managing the tenkile conservation alliance . jean ' s role with tca is very broad including the development and implementation of most of tca\u2019s training programs , staff professional and personal development , administration , accounting , operations , pr and social media updates .\njim is a passionate and concerned conservationist with a strong work ethic who is determined and motivated to succeed in protecting endangered species and their habitats . an independent self - motivated person , culturally sensitive and internationally travelled . jim is fluent in pidgin english or tok pisin and experienced in papua new guinea culture . he has excellent common sense and decision making ability . having a gregarious nature and working well either within a team environment , solo or in a capacity of teaching or leadership are all qualities that enable him to excel as the director of the tenkile conservation alliance . jim is a la trobe university distinguished alumni award winner ( 2012 ) , deakin university adjunct fellow and was rated highly commended for the peter rawlinson conservation hero award in 2013 . he was awarded the australian geographic conservationist of the year award in 2013 with his wife jean .\njean is a hard - working , goal orientated person who is self - motivated and energized when given a task . an influential speaker who is culturally sensitive and internationally travelled . fluent in pidgin english and experienced in papua new guinea culture . she has an ability to transform complicated text and higher thinking concepts into a simple format that has been a key strength in her teaching capabilities . jean has been responsible for the capacity building of the tenkile conservation alliance , designed , produced and conducted various training programs including village drama , teacher training , natural resources management , project management , health ( water / sanitation / hygiene / nutrition / hiv / family planning ) and livestock husbandry . this has lead to community engagement and mobilization among 50 villages and the protection of 200 , 000 hectares of rainforest . consequently jean was awarded the future for nature award in 2010 , the age magazine top 100 most influential and interesting people in 2010 , australian geographic conservationist of the year in 2013 and telstra business women award for social and purpose enterprise in victoria 2015 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nreproduction : possibly breeds year round with perhaps a young born each year . young become independent after 2 years . a lot more work required in this area .\nreferences : mammals of new guinea \u2013 tim flannery ( 1995 ) and tree kangaroos - a curious natural history \u2013 tim flannery , roger martin and alexandra szalay ( 1996 ) . illustrations peter schouten . urltoken\naverages 10 kg . tree kangaroos have bodies that are built for climbing up and down trees and for moving along tree branches . the tail is similar to that of other macropods , but the tenkiles are more adapted for maneuvering through the upper levels of the rainforest . good balance and agility are needed to be able to jump or move from tree to tree without falling to the forest floor . these qualities are enhanced by the tenkiles ' floppy tails . large foreclaws enable these animals to grasp tree branches and climb through the canopy with ease . their fur is a dark brown color and , like many other marsupials , they have a pouch used in the development of offspring .\nresearch on scott ' s tree kangaroos suggests that these animals breed throughout most of the year . females will give birth to young at 12 month intervals . like most macropods , scott ' s tree kangaroos give birth to one offspring at a time .\nspecies , gestation lasts about 32 days , young emerge from the pouch at about 305 days , and cease to crawl into the pouch to suckle at 408 days .\nlike other kangaroos , female scott ' s tree kangaroos carry their young in a pouch until the joey is large enough and old enough to emerge . this time period is usually ten to twelve months . the young are nursed from birth until the young are more than a year old .\ntenkiles or scott ' s tree kangaroos are diurnal and mainly terrestrial , though they can climb to escape predators and danger . native people report that they were previously encountered mainly in groups of 4 animals , including a male , female , and their young , but are more commonly found as solitary females and young in recent years , this may be the result of severe population declines in recent years . in the wild , females may have a few acres as their territory , while males maintain a much larger territory .\nspecies are mainly arboreal . they are capable of large leaps from the ground into the trees and from tree to tree . on the ground they move with small hops . on the ground the tail is held arched over their back and the head leans far forward . related females may form social groups that cooperate in defense against unfamiliar males .\nlittle is known about how tenkiles communicate , however it is likely that they use the full suite of available senses to communicate and perceive their environment , including vision , chemical cues , touch , and hearing .\ntenkiles , or scott ' s tree kangaroos , are mainly herbivorous . their primary diet consists of tree leaves , ferns , and soft vines . they may forage in the trees or on the ground .\nthe main predator of scott ' s tree kangaroos is humans . tribal hunters in the areas of the torricelli mountains are hunting these animals resulting in rapidly decreasing populations . they are used for meat and skins . the young are also being killed for their skins , or they are being captured and kept as pets . little is known about any anti - predator adaptations in this species .\nlindsay cosens ( author ) , michigan state university , barbara lundrigan ( editor ) , michigan state university .\nliving in australia , new zealand , tasmania , new guinea and associated islands .\nyoung are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets .\nrainforests , both temperate and tropical , are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground . epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant . precipitation is typically not limiting , but may be somewhat seasonal .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\nzoological parks and gardens board . 1998 .\nmelbourne zoo\n( on - line ) . scott ' s tree kangaroo . accessed 04 / 11 / 03 at urltoken .\npermanent trustee company , ltd . 2003 .\nwills , trusts , and estate planning\n( on - line ) . media releases . accessed 04 / 11 / 03 at . urltoken .\nto cite this page : cosens , l . 2004 .\ndendrolagus scottae\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\n1 . profile ( picture ) 2 . tidbits 3 . status and trends ( iucn status , countries where currently found , history of distribution , threats and reasons for decline ) 4 . data on biology and ecology ( weight , habitat , birth season , birth rate , diet , behavior , social organization ) 5 . references\nit is found in mossy mountain forests from 900 - 1500 m ( 3000 - 5000 ' ) .\nin the past , hunters reported encountering groups of up to 4 individuals ( consisting of an adult male , female and 1 - 2 young ) . however , most recent encounters have been with solitary individuals or a female and young pair . ( flannery 1995 )\n\u00a9 1999 - 2014 animal info . endangered animals of the world . sj contact us .\ntca\u2019s vision is for the people of papua new guinea to value and protect their natural resources , communities and cultures in the context of advancing the overall well being of their communities and their places .\nprovide urgent and necessary services to rainforest communities in papua new guinea that result in the relief of poverty and improve health .\nfacilitate processes that provide opportunity for rainforest communities in papua new guinea to govern , manage and protect their biological and cultural richness from exploitation .\nimplement a bottom up approach to achieving all of tca\u2019s goals and objectives . to ensure rainforest communities are enabled with their own freedom of choice , as they advance into the 21st century , working towards self - determination of their communities .\nunderpinning the primary goal are five objectives with clear activities or projects to be delivered in order to move towards achieving our ultimate goal . these are detailed below .\ndevelop alternate livelihood strategies within rainforest communities to alleviate poverty and hunger to improve health as well as minimise the existing hunting pressure on wildlife , enabling the sustainable use of their natural resources . read more .\ndevelop sustainable sources of income for the organisation and local stakeholders . complementing the organisation\u2019s mission , benefitting the people of papua new guinea and the sustainability of their communities and country . papua new guineans to successfully lead , manage and administer their own projects and organisations , with current , solid and transparent governance .\nestablish the torricelli mountain range as a legislated protected area to ensure the protection of all biodiversity and culture . read more .\nimplement a monitoring and evaluation program to assess the effectiveness of the above activities in conserving biodiversity within the torricelli mountain range . read more .\nparticipate in redd + ( reduced emissions from avoided deforestation and degradation ) & pes ( payment for environmental services ) - to combat global warming & climate change , relieve poverty and improve health . read more .\nit was quickly realised that in order to protect the tree kangaroos the tca needed to work very closely with the local communities that hunted the animals for food . alternative protein sources were established in the form of rabbit farming , chicken farming and fish farming . the tca also realised that sustainable development and success of these projects required basic service delivery to the village communities . since 2004 the tca has delivered water , sanitation , hygiene and health projects throughout the 50 participating communities \u2018providing tangible health benefits\u2019 . . tca embeds training and capacity building activities into all of its programs to ensure long term sustainability and community ownership .\ncomplete handover of rabbit and chicken farming projects to local stakeholders . leadership in rabbit farming identified ( vincent kelele \u2013 wigote village ) and supported by tca as required .\nlocal capacity built with the training and supervision of 16 project officers to implement the water , sanitation and hygiene project .\nsuccessful installation of 350 x 1000 gallon tuffa tanks and 303 vip toilets throughout 50 participating villages .\ndelivery of health and hygiene education program to 50 villages including community led total sanitation ( clts ) , participatory health and sanitation transformation ( phast ) and tca\u2019s own interactive hiv / aids and family planning awareness program .\ndelivery of water and sanitation project management course focusing on managing attitudes and behaviour among participating communities to ensure project success .\npartnership with wateraid ( australia ) in place to continue improving water and sanitation throughout project area .\nlocal project supervisors employed and significant management responsibilities delegated to ensure future sustainability of tca project management .\nsignificant improvements to tca base - lumi including community accommodation , staff accommodation and research station .\ntraining manual produced and workshops held to build capacity among local research officers and distance sampling officers in point transect distance sampling techniques .\ninitial work on camera trapping , since 2011 , has recorded the three tree kangaroos , many mammals and birds . some species recorded are new species to science .\ncommunity conservation education programs conducted since 2003 \u2013 school visits , teacher training , puppet shows , radio programs , drama education programs have all been implemented throughout the project area , motivating and engaging thousands of people leading to the participation of 50 moratorium villages .\ntca has identified that the local communities are very much in tune with their environmental , social and economic needs . people know exactly what they want . the tca has worked very closely with 50 village communities at the foothills of the torricelli mountain range for over a decade . during this time we have developed a very strong relationship built on trust , integrity , transparency and accountability . at the heart of our work is an amalgamation and mutual respect of combining scientific and traditional knowledge . we work towards the protection of natural resources , building community cohesiveness and respecting traditional cultures within png .\ncommitment from local communities \u2013 there has been no hunting of the tree kangaroos for over a decade .\nvillage cohesiveness \u2013 communities have worked together despite prior disputes in order to deliver water tanks by foot into the villages .\nthis program is an outstanding model of how effective conservation outcomes may be achieved and assessed in developing communities when they are coupled with development of sustainable resource , economic and social alternatives .\nthe wwf is run at a local level by the following offices . . .\ntree kangaroos are unique macropods who have adapted to a life in trees . loss of habitat and uncontrolled hunting have forced many species close to extinction .\nunlike their close cousins , the tree kangaroo ' s arms and legs are approximately the same length . tree kangaroos also have much stronger fore - limbs to help in climbing the trees they inhabit . size length : 41 - 77cm tail length : 40 - 87cm weight : up to 14 . 5kg habitat montane tropical foresst range states : indonesia , papua new guinea , australia population & distribution tree kangaroos have suffered from loss of habitat , and many species have suffered severe reductions in their range . the wondiwoi tree kangaroo is critically endangered ( possibly extinct ) with as few as 50 individuals remaining . similarly , the critically endangered dingiso has suffered a population decline in excess of 80 % over the last 30 years . diet living in the trees , the tree kangaroo eats mostly leaves and fruit , although they will also collect fruit that has fallen to the ground . the animals will also eat other items such as grains , flowers , sap , eggs , young birds , and even bark .\nbennett ' s tree - kangaroo ( dendrolagus bennettianus ) on the branch of a tree . the bennett ' s tree - kangaroo is a rare and vulnerable arboreal marsupial , australia .\nthe major threats facing tree kangaroo species are hunting and habitat loss . tree kangaroos have been hunted for food by indigenous communities across their range . for a number of species , this factor alone has contributed to a sharp decline in population numbers . habitat loss and degradation means that many species now inhabit a restricted range . habitat has been removed for logging and timber production , or converted to coffee , rice or wheat production . this loss of habitat can also expose tree kangaroos to predation by domestic dogs ."]}
{"id": 425, "summary": [{"text": "caridina dennerli is a small species of freshwater shrimp from sulawesi ( indonesia ) that grows up to 2.5 centimetres ( 1.0 in ) in length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it takes its name from the german company dennerle , which supported the expedition that led to the scientific description of the species .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "it is popularly known as the ' cardinal shrimp ' in the aquarium trade . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "caridina dennerli", "paragraphs": ["common name : cardinal shrimp , white glove shrimp , dennerli shrimp scientific name : caridina dennerli wild origin : indonesia \u2013 endemic to lake matano maximum size : 2 . 5cm or 1 inches\nhi i have a number of caridina dennerli for sale looking for \u00a310 each as v . rarely found , would be a lot more in retail shops .\nharlequin sulawesi shrimp - caridina cf . spongicola - bucephalandra - export import plants & fish indonesia\ncaridina dennerli is one of the most amazing shrimp in our hobby . it is no breeding form but from the wild . their natural habitat is at the indonesian island of sulawesi . view\ndancing dennerlis\nand get some advices to keep and breed these shrimp .\ndennerle supports this work , true to the motto\nexperience nature\nand in return sponsors the species name for the cardinal shrimp which has only just been described scientifically . in memory of the spiritual father of natural aquatics , ludwig dennerle , it has the scientific species name\ncaridina dennerli\n.\ndennerle supports them in this work true to the motto\nexperience nature\nand in return sponsors the species name for the cardinal shrimp , which has only just been described scientifically . in memory of the spiritual father of natural aquatics , ludwig dennerle , it has the scientific species name\ncaridina dennerli\n.\ncaridina dennerli shrimp is\ndifficult\nto keep as specific water parameters has to be provided . you may keep it alive or breed in almost any hard water but for best please see water parameters below . this is also very timid shrimp and does best in high numbers , only then shrimp will become brave enough to get out of cover . shrimp is very sensitive and can die from stress during transport or sudden temperature drop therefore this is pick up only shrimp !\nthe larvae of certain varieties grow up in the sea . these need salt water to develop . breeding these varieties in an aquarium is considerably more difficult , and in some cases impossible . the best known example here is the \u201camano shrimp\u201d , caridina multidentata .\nvon rintelen , k . ; and cai , y . ( 2009 ) . radiation of endemic species flocks in ancient lakes : systematic revision of the freshwater shrimp caridina h . milne edawrds , 1837 ( crustacea : decapoda : atyidae ) from the ancient lakes of sulawesi , indonesia , with the description of eight new species . raffles bulletin of zoology 57 : 343 - 352 .\ncaridina spongicola is endemic to lake towuti , [ 6 ] the largest and southernmost lake in the malili complex of the island of sulawesi , fed by a river that flows from the lake to the boni bay . it is only known from the northwestern arm of lake towuti , but it can be locally common , with as many as 137 individuals recorded on a single sponge and one study finding an average of about 29 individuals per sponge . this soft - tissued , undescribed species of sponge is also restricted to the northwestern arm of the lake and reaches up to about 20 cm ( 8 in ) in diameter . [ 4 ] the similar shrimp caridina woltereckae is restricted to the same lake , but it is found throughout it and not associated with sponges . [ 7 ]\nthe fire shrimp is considered one of the most attractive fresh water shrimps belonging to the caridina genus . the fire shrimp has only recently been discovered . it lives in lake matano on the indonesian island of sulawesi . as a rock dweller it spends most of its life between and under the rocks . the lake has a high water quality , clear and with low nutrient content . the water values do not fluctuate to any substantial degree .\nthe popular fresh water shrimps belong to the family of ten - legged crabs ( decapods ) which also includes crabs and shrimps in fresh water and sea water . many shrimp varieties are excellent algae - eaters and are thus able to keep many an aquarium free of algae problems on a lasting basis . shrimps actually first came to prominence by virtue of this capacity for devouring algae . the famous japanese aquarium photographer takashi amano always used large numbers of caridina multidentata ( formerly japonica ) to keep his renowned aquascapes clean .\nplenty of hiding places , such as densely planted , shaded areas , foliage , and above all cave - like retreats , are of great importance to their well - being . shrimps are gregarious animals . many of the most popular shrimp varieties reproduce regularly in the aquarium \u2013 e . g . members of the attractive bee shrimp family , caridina cf . cantonensis , and first and foremost the well - known \u201ccrystal red\u201d variety . we thus recommend limiting the initial stock to 5 shrimps per 10 l of water .\ncaridina spongicola is a\ncomplex breeder\n, meaning that young are hatched as miniature adults with the same coloration ( although not as intense ) , with no need to transfer from salt and / or brackish water to freshwater as they develop through larval stages . [ 2 ] [ 6 ] eggs are black in color , are roughly 10 - 15 in number , 0 . 8 - 0 . 9 x 0 . 4 - 0 . 6 mm in size , and are carried by the female for 20\u201330 days before hatching . [ 2 ] [ 6 ] when not carrying eggs , there is no known , proven way to distinguish females of this species from the males . [ 9 ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nendangered b1ab ( iii , v ) + 2ab ( iii , v ) ver 3 . 1\nwowor , d . , de grave , s . & klotz , w .\nthe species is endemic to lake matano ( = danau matano ) ( sulawesi ) , a small lake ( 164 . 1 km\n) which counts as a single location for assessment purposes . current threats to the species are nickel mining ( specifically polluting lake matano ) and hydro - electric power installations on the southern shore of lake matano . nile perch and\nhave been introduced to nearby lake towuti ( which is connected to lake matano ) , and there is the possibility of pollution from organic effluents from the rapidly expanding human population .\nthis species is assessed as endangered in view of the small population size , restricted distribution , and plausible threats .\nthe species is endemic to lake matano ( 164 . 1 km 2 ) in sulawesi ( von rintelen and cai 2009 ) .\nno information is known , but it is considered abundant ( von rintelen and cai 2009 ) .\nis generally found on rocks and gravel , from shallow water to approx . 10 m depth .\nis available in the aquarium trade , but some ( estimated 20 % ) of the trade is from captive breeding in europe , the rest is still wild caught though the current levels of harvesting are thought not to have a considerable impact .\ncurrent threats to the species are nickel mining ( specifically polluting danau matano ) and hydro - electric power installations on the southern shore of danau matano . also , introduced species ( nile perch and\n) have been introduced to towuti a connected lake ) and organic effluents from the rapidly expanding human population .\nwowor , d . , de grave , s . & klotz , w . 2013 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\naqua ! nano & more\n- fachgesch\u00e4ft f\u00fcr nano - aquaristik , aquascaping und zierfischrarit\u00e4ten .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ninformation on this very popular shrimp . its name comes from takashi amano , the creator of ada , who used these shrimp for algae eating purposes . it cannot breed in pure freshwater .\ninformation on this wild caught species which is a filter feeder . it is very common to find in most pet stores and online . it is not possible to breed this species in pure freshwater .\ninformation on this elusive all black color variation of the common tiger shrimp . its all black coloration is from selective breeding to widen the black stripes of the common tiger shrimp .\ninformation on this newly introduced species to the hobby . not much is known and they are caught in the wild . captive breeding is possible .\ninformation on this beautiful blue colored species of the wild n . zhangjiajiensis shrimp .\ninformation on this blue coloration variation on the common tiger shrimp . it is expensive and sometimes hard to find .\ninformation on this variation on the common tiger shrimp . easy to keep and a beautiful shrimp\ninformation on the very popular shrimp from sulawesi indonesia . its colors are awesome .\ninformation on this extremely popular , difficult , expensive , and complex shrimp species . selectively bred for coloration and other features .\ninformation on this beautiful dark green colored shrimp . its eggs are a nice lime green which really make this shrimp stand out . its true scientic name and genus are in question .\ninformation on this wild caught and extremely cheap freshwater shrimp . it carries many different names and can be found in most pet stores . it is considered a feeder shrimp for freshwater aquarium fish .\ninformation on this all white relative of the crystal red shrimp , bee shrimp , orange bee shrimp and others . it is nicely colored but little is known as to its origin .\ninformation on this wild caught grandfather of the selectively bred species red cherry shrimp and yellow shrimp . there may be other selectively bred color variations unknown to the hobby at the moment .\ninformation on this wild species and the grandfather of the crystal red shrimp , bee shrimp and others . can be rare and hard to find .\ninformation on this wild caught species . unfortunately it cannot breed in pure freshwater and has slowly disappeared from the hobby as a result .\ninformation on the most common and most popular shrimp in the hobby . this is the ultimate beginners shrimp and most hobbyists begin with this species before venturing into more difficult / expensive shrimp .\nthis is a variant of the red cherry shrimp , it is bred for a deep red color and has several grades .\ninformation on this red color variation of the common tiger shrimp . this color variation is apparently found in the wild and not selectively bred .\ninformation on this very rare and almost impossible to find shrimp in the hobby . hopefully it will someday become more available .\ninformation on this beautiful all white selectively bred shrimp . its name comes from its eggs which are all white resembling snowballs .\na gallery of photos of many different kinds of sulawesi shrimp from indonesia . newly introduced to the hobby in late 2007 .\ninformation on this somewhat common shrimp . it is the less rare variation than its cousins : blue tiger , red tiger , golden eye and others .\ninformation on this elusive and very rare species of bee shrimp . it is definitely a cool looking shrimp .\ninformation on this selectively bred shrimp from the wild n . heteropoda species . it breeds very well .\ninformation on care and breeding of this popular crayfish species which comes in several different colors .\ninformation of the most common snail found in pet stores , the apple snail . are they good or bad for a shrimp tank ?\ninformation on the common malaysian trumpet snail . they are great for all aquariums given several reasons .\ninformation on the common pond snail . they are not bad snails and are in fact good for any kind of tank especially shrimp - only tanks .\nphotos of the various species of sulawesi snails . there are more species than are pictured as well .\nspecies info on care and breeding of this non - crab , non - shrimp creature .\ninformation on the unwelcomed hydra in the freshwater aquarium including ways to prevent and remove them .\ninformation on this wild species and the many selectively bred color morphs that have evolved from it .\ninformation on how to successfully pack shrimp for a wintertime shipment . keeping the shrimp warm is very important .\na rare photographic glimpse of a baby red cherry shrimp hatching from an egg .\ninformation on how to successfully hatch isolated eggs . great method if you have a pregnant female die who has eggs .\ninformation on how to successfully breed shrimp that require soft water . tips and advice from user kenshin .\ninformation on how the babaulti shrimp variety is commonly mislabeled as different types of shrimp which vary in color . good to know .\ninformation on grading the crystal red shrimp . includes information on how to identify specific features and what makes the grade .\na how - to for making a homemade shrimp trap . instead of chasing your shrimp with a net , let them do the work themselves .\nan article about dosing fertilizers in a tank with shrimp . what is too much ? what will kill them ? is it ok ?\nan experiment conducted to see if imported shrimp are naturally colored or dyed by the supplier . great article .\ninformation regarding what tankmates are safe for shrimp and what will definitely eat your shrimp . very important .\ninformation about setting up a new shrimp tank including details on exactly what should and shouldn ' t be used . great info for beginners .\ngeneral information about shipping inverts . proper packaging , insulation , heatpacks , etc . great info for all hobbyists .\ninformation about using leaf litter in a shrimp tank . do shrimp do better with leaf litter ? what leaves to use ?\nwhat is true and what is false about shrimp keeping and everything related to the hobby . there are a lot of false statements out there so it is important to quell them .\ntwo journals on setting up a shrimp rack for keeping multiple tanks using smaller space . great tutorials with both journals by both ryan and pedro .\na journal on the expedition conducted by mimbon aquarium from germany . photos and information about sulawesi indonesia as well as underwater photos of the habitat .\ngreat information by kenshin about changing the water during wintertime . you do not want very cold water to shock the shrimp . this is a great article for those in cold weather climates .\ninformation on the many creatures found inside a tank including planaria , hydra , and many others . superb article by satu in finland .\ninformation about what shrimp are ok to house together in the same tank , and which ones will interbreed creating a hybrid . great chart for easy comparision .\ninformation about why it is better to ship young shrimp and why it is better to buy young shrimp vs adults . size is important when introducing shrimp to a new tank .\nawesome macro photos by peter maquire . these are some of the best out there !\ninformation for the newcomer to the hobby . how to start , what to use , what not to do .\nwhat is it about shrimp thats makes the hobbyist love them so much ? great editorial .\nquick tutorial on taking macro shots with a simple everyday camera and not professional equipment .\nan editorial on why sometimes its best to let things stay the way they are .\ninformation on this rapid multi - color changing\nninja\n. many colors including black , red , brown , and more .\nnew to the shrimp hobby , the cardinal shrimp is fast becoming one of the most sought after shrimp . it is magnificent in person with either a dark rose red coloration or a lighter red coloration with white dots running along the side of the shrimp . photos do not do justice , you must see this species in person . it is not a beginner ' s species and only experienced hobbyists should attempt to keep this species .\nthe cardinal shrimp is from sulawesi , indonesia . sulawesi is one of the islands encompassing the country of indonesia . the cardinal shrimp is caught in one of several lakes in sulawesi . i highly suggest that you read the article sulawesi expedition for detailed information on sulawesi as well as more information on is habitat . there are also underwater photos of the lake system .\nas with all sulawesi shrimp it is highly recommended that you keep the cardinal shrimp in a temperature of at least 78f . anything lower can kill this species . it is also recommended that you keep this species in a tank with hard water and a ph of no less than 7 . 0 .\ni am currently keeping the cardinal shrimp in the same tank with a few other species from sulawesi . the tank consists of ada amazonia substrate , a temperature of 84f and a ph of 7 . 0 . some have stated that the low ph of 7 . 0 due to the ada amazonia is not good for this species . right now i disagree . all of the sulawesi shrimp that i currently house are doing very well in this setup and so far even the babies are doing very well . the babies are constantly picking away for food which is of course a good sign .\na lot of hobbyists attempt to replicate the environment of the cardinal shrimp by using rocks for aesthetics and algae surfaces . if you read the article sulawesi expedition you will notice that the cardinal shrimp lives in the rocks and picks at them for food . there are also those who use coral chips or similar to raise the water hardness . sand is also a common choice to use in the aquarium .\nbreeding is done in complete freshwater , not salt or brackish water is required whatsoever . there is no larval stage . the adult females carry the eggs until they hatch , producing miniature shrimp . there have been hobbyists that have had pregnant cardinal shrimp in captivity and some have had the eggs hatch successfully as well . several breeders have had good success breeding the cardinal shrimp and it is apparently not as difficult as some may think .\nthe females carry roughly 10 - 15 eggs . it takes approximately 20 - 30 days for the eggs to hatch . the babies immediately show the same color as the adults . the growth rate of the babies is fast as well . if the tank is in good shape then the babies will grow almost as fast as some of the neocaridina shrimp . for more information on the reproduction cycle of freshwater aquarium shrimp please read the article shrimp reproduction .\ni was lucky to receive some pregnant cardinal shrimp from overseas . the pregnant ones from the wild hatched their eggs and now i have baby cardinals all over the place . they are doing very well and i hope to have them grow to adulthood and reproduce in pure captivity . i will update as time progresses .\nthe cardinal shrimp can have different shades of red , from dark to light red . the darkness of the red coloration is variable and is not an indicator of health , sex , or anything else . the red coloration is also contrasted by white dots throughout the body . some of the white dots appear to have a blue outline to them . one of the coolest features of the cardinal shrimp is its front white legs . the white legs move rapidly when the shrimp is feeding and also sets this species apart from the other sulawesi shrimp . the photo below show a more zoomed in look at their white legs . the video below also shows the white legs in motion .\nthe cardinal shrimp is not a shy species at all . it will constantly forage on the bottom and seems to prefer scraping rocks . the majority of the cardinal shrimp i have observed seem spend almost all of their time on the algae covered rocks or sides of the glass picking away . it is not an agressive species whatsoever and seem to enjoy other species in the same tank . some breeders have also reported that the cardinal shrimp seem to be more active when sulawesi snails are introduced to the tank . perhaps this makes them feel more at home with the snails found in their wild environment . they will also pick at the snails ' shell .\ni feed all of the sulawesi shrimp , including the cardinal shrimp , the same as i feed all of the other shrimp i keep . i feed mostly shirakura food and the occasional algae water or other invert food . this species will eat at all times of the day but i believe that they prefer to eat at night when they feel safe . i have noticed that when the lights are off they will come out and eat better than when the lights are on .\nfeeding is best done once a day . only feed an amount of food that the shrimp can finish within 2 - 3 hours maximum . it is not good to feed in excess and have food sitting for too long . overfeeding is a known cause of death and can also cause water quality issues . remember that shrimp are scavengers in the wild . they will eat whatever they find and are not used to a constant food source 24 / 7 . not feeding for one or two days is fine and will not harm this species at all . sometimes i will not feed for a couple of days in order to let the shrimp cleanse their systems and keep the water clean at the same time .\nsexing of the cardinal shrimp is difficult and so far no one has fully figured out how to do so with the naked eye . the females have a saddle showing eggs underneath the carapace but the only way to actually see the saddle is with an infrared light . the outside shell of the cardinal shrimp is so dark that you cannot possibly see the saddle without special equipment . as far as using the principle of the other shrimps species , meaning females are larger and have a curved underbelly , does not apply to the cardinal shrimp unfortunately . males and females seem to look exactly the same .\nthe species has a red - and white - patterned body that has made it popular in the tropical fish industry . legs and feelers have bands of both red and white along their lengths , eye stalks are red , and the eyes themselves are black and fairly large in size ( 0 . 8 - 0 . 9 x 0 . 4 - 0 . 6 mm ) . the carapace of the species has three red stripes running along it , the final one at the base of the tail , with red coloration running halfway along the top of the head , from the tip . the tail is red along the top and bottom , with a white band along each side . [ 6 ]\nhome to many endemic fishes , the lake ' s natural temperature is 26 - 29 \u00b0c with a ph of 7 . 5 - 8 . 5 , a gh of 4 - 8 , and a kh of 4 - 6 . [ 6 ] as many as 137 individuals can be found living on a single sponge . [ 6 ] they are said to hide between small rocks in shallow water , as well as between large rocks in deeper waters . [ 8 ] they are known to be intolerant of temperatures lower than 25 . 5 \u00b0c , which can kill them , to require hard water , and also to require water ph levels no less than 7 . 0 . [ 2 ] [ 9 ]\nde grave , s . ; cai , y . ; amnker , a . ( 2008 ) .\nglobal diversity of shrimps ( crustacea : decapoda : caridea ) in freshwater\n. hydrobiologia . 595 : 287\u2013293 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s10750 - 007 - 9024 - 2 .\nvon rintelen ; von rintelen ; meixner ; l\u00fcter ; cai ; and glaubrecht ( 2007 ) .\nfreshwater shrimp\u2013sponge association from an ancient lake\n. biol lett . 3 ( 3 ) : 262\u2013264 . doi : 10 . 1098 / rsbl . 2006 . 0613 .\nthis page is based on a wikipedia article written by authors ( here ) . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 license ; additional terms may apply . images , videos and audio are available under their respective licenses .\nthese lively little invertebrates are highly robust animals which flourish when kept in the right conditions , much to the delight of the nano aquarium enthusiast . the adults measure 3 cm on average . most shrimp varieties have a relatively large tolerance range with regard to water values . a good supply of oxygen is particularly important . if the oxygen level drops too low , this will have an adverse effect on their health .\nmany varieties thrive at a room temperature of 20 - 22 \u00b0c . tropical varieties prefer slightly warmer temperatures , in some instances up to 28 \u00b0c . in this case an additional heater is necessary , such as the nano adjustable heater . shrimps will become inactive if the water is too cold .\nshrimps are generally omnivores , with a special preference for vegetable - based foods . in addition to algae , their natural diet also includes animal plankton , detritus ( dead vegetable matter , rotting foliage , etc . ) and even carrion . these natural source of nutrition are usually lacking in an aquarium . a high - quality aquarium sind diese nat\u00fcrlichen nahrungsquellen meist nicht ausreichend vorhanden . als ern\u00e4hrungsbasis dient hier ein hochwertiges garnelenfutter , wie zum beispiel dennerle crustagran .\ndifferent types of frozen feed ( midge larvae , artemia ) dennerle algae wafers , fresh vegetables ( spinach , courgettes ) dennerle catappa leaves or herbs ( stinging nettles ) should be added to the diet on a regular basis as supplements and to provide a touch of variety .\nlike all crustaceans , shrimps continue to grow throughout their lives . they thus moult at regular intervals , in order to discard their old shells which have become too small for them . as the body is very soft and extremely vulnerable during moulting , they withdraw to the safety of a hideout . after a few days the new shell has hardened and the shrimps return to their normal lives .\nthe \u201ccrystal red\u201d is the acknowledged king of the dwarf shrimps , its brilliant red shell adding a striking and attractive dash of colour to any nano aquarium .\nthe \u201cblue tigers\u201d are among the most popular members of this highly colourful shrimp variety . the unusual blue colouring lends them a particularly bizarre appearance .\nthe bumble bee shrimp is easily confused with the bee shrimp , but it lacks the latter\u2019s orange colouring . an extremely gregarious shrimp variety .\nthe snow - white eggs of this transparent shrimp variety look like tiny pearls . while one generation of eggs develops in the belly , the next generation is already evolving in the neck area ( egg spot ) .\nthe red fire shrimp lacks the white component of the above - stated crystal red bee shrimp . the intensive red colouring of this highly fertile shrimp can be teased out to even greater effect with carotenoid - rich feed .\ndennerle sponsors the species name for the cardinal shrimp , which has only just been described scientifically .\nat the museum for natural history at humboldt university , the systemic biologists - the\nsurveyors of nature\nas it were - describe new species ( taxonomy ) , their family relationships ( systematics ) , their geographical distribution and their ecology , in taxonomic and systematic research projects .\ntransfer the shrimps together with the water from the transport bag to a large , clean bucket . caution : some shrimp varieties are good jumpers \u2013 for safety\u2019s sake , cover the bucket with a cloth . add 1 / 4 litre of aquarium water every 10 - 15 minutes over approx . 2 hours or use an air hose to drip - feed the water into the bucket . the final ratio of transport water to aquarium water should be around 1 : 3 . after acclimatising the shrimps in this way , carefully transfer them to the aquarium with a net .\ndennerle supports the online portal which was brought to life by the expert group for wholesale ornamental fish and aquatic plants in the german pet trade & industry association ( zzf ) [ zentralverband zoologischer fachbetriebe deutschlands ] . the intention of the portal is to enable new and advanced aquarists to create functioning aquatics and to achieve aquatic diversity by breeding in their aquarium .\nthe portal provides information for the aquatics beginner and offers the opportunity to take part in a unique breeding programme for ornamental fish . the platform also includes a knowledge database with species descriptions for fish , invertebrates and plants , as well as the opportunity to exchange ideas in the community and a blog . schools can obtain extensive teaching material here .\nexperience nature \u2013 to ensure that this remains possible , dennerle is supporting the mare - mundi project for scientific research and the ecological protection of the mediterranean sea . the aquatics company sponsors the yellow cluster anemones living wild there . their smaller tropical siblings thrive extremely well in the small saltwater aquaria from the nano marinus range .\nby doing this we want to pay back some of our success with the nano marinus cubes to its origins ,\nsays thomas feierabend , director of marketing & sales at dennerle . with its support of the mare - mundi project , dennerle is following its philosophy of natural aquatics , which has been the focus since the company was founded almost 45 years ago .\ndennerle sponsors the species name for the cardinal shrimp which has only just been described scientifically .\nat the museum for natural history at humboldt university , berlin , the systemic biologists \u2013 the\nsurveyors of nature\nas it were \u2013 describe new species ( taxonomy ) , their family relationships ( systematics ) , their geographical distribution and their ecology , in taxonomic and systematic research projects .\nthe german pet trade & industry association ( zentralverband zoologischer fachbetriebe e . v . )\ndennerle is a member of the zzf . the zzf advises , informs and promotes the pet industry in specialist and professional matters and provides opportunities for professionalisation and for the exchange of experiences beyond organisation boundaries .\nat the same time the zzf is committed to the responsible and species - appropriate handling of pets and its aim is to actively present the positive effects of caring for pets in accordance with animal welfare , to the public , the media and government as well as other opinion leaders .\nassociation for the promotion of life with pets ( f\u00f6rdergemeinschaft leben mit heimtieren e . v . )\ndennerle supports the flh , an industry wide amalgamation of a variety of companies from aquatics and terraristics . the main aim of the association is to actively carry out public relations work to promote the hobbies of aquatics and terraristics . aquatics and terraristics are exciting , modern and very interesting hobbies that deserve more of the limelight .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nvery deep red color with white dots . some specimen may differ in red intensity depends on mood and genes .\nomnivore with majority of vegetable content . overfeeding of protein can cause health issues . very little feeding required this shimp will feed mostly on microflora or microalgae but will accept some classic shrimp food as well when other food is scarse .\nsurprisignly breeds well once settled and water parameters are right . female will carry around 15 - 20 eggs for around 3 - 4 weeks .\nother sulawesi shrimp tank mates only . can be tried with small fish which can tolerate high ph but not recommended .\n24 - 28c degrees , ph range 7 . 5 - 8 . 5 , tds 100 - 120 , gh5 , kh2\ufeff\nph 7 . 2 - 8 tds 220 - 240 gh 4 ~ 6 kh 2 ~ 4 temp . 26 ~ 27c\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncardinal shrimp care : tank parameters required : ph \u2013 7 . 2 - 8 . 0 gh \u2013 5 - 8 kh \u2013 2 - 5 tds \u2013 150 - 200 temperature \u2013 27 - 31c or 78 \u2013 84f\n* all pictures shown are for illustration purposes only . actual product may vary due to natural variation with livestock *\ni am so pleased with my order from shrimpfever . com . my order arrived very quickly , and all the shrimp were alive and active . these are by far the finest shrimp i have seen , and i couldn\u2019t be happier with them or the other products i received . i loved the personal and friendly service , and my questions were addressed [ read more\u2026 ]\ni purchased some shrimp , and was very quick to respond . shipping was very fast , and they were packaged really well , thick foam surrounding all sides of the box . has a very reasonable d . o . a . policy although it wasn\u2019t needed for this transaction , i will definitely order from urltoken again when i want more , would recommend to everyone . 5 [ read more\u2026 ]\ni used shrimp fever for all my aquarium needs , and they shipped my products with great care and arrived early ! \u2013 james c . ( toronto ) , january 2012\nsimilar to keeping any of the asian shrimps , with the exception of a ph greater than 7 . 5 being needed and a temp around 28c , otherwise easy to care for ."]}
{"id": 432, "summary": [{"text": "protomelas similis is a species of cichlid endemic to lake malawi where it prefers shallow waters with plentiful vegetation .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this species can reach a length of 18 centimetres ( 7.1 in ) tl .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this species can also be found in the aquarium trade . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "protomelas similis", "paragraphs": ["mar\u00e9chal , c . , 1991 . protomelas . p . 387 - 393 . in j . daget , j . - p . gosse , g . g . teugels and d . f . e . thys van den audenaerde ( eds . ) check - list of the freshwater fishes of africa ( cloffa ) . isnb , brussels ; mrac , tervuren ; and orstom , paris . vol . 4 . ( ref . 4996 )\noccurs in shallow vegetated ( vallisernia ) areas where mouth brooding females hide among the weeds . herbivorous , feeding on plant material ( leaves of higher plants ) . territorial males clear a circular area among the weeds exposing the sand below , making a spawning site . known as\nhaplochromis similis\nin the aquarium trade . max . size : 17 cm .\nbreeding males are characterized by a bright blue color with a reddish patch behind the gill plate . the anal fin is dark with an orange edge & has light - colored streaks . p . similis is often found in vallisneria beds where it feeds on these plants by biting out pieces of the leaves with the aid of its very sharp & closely packed teeth . males build cone bowers in the middle of these plant beds , where they have cleared room .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsnoeks , j . ( freshwater fish red list authority ) & darwall , w . ( freshwater biodiversity assessment programme )\njustification : widespread throughout lakes malawi and malombe with no major widespread threats identified .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\ngreek , protos = the first + greek , melas , melanos = black ( ref . 45335 )\nafrica : endemic to lake malawi ; widespread in shallow vegetated areas ( ref . 267 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 18 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 4996 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 16 - 17 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 9 - 11 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 8 - 10 ; vertebrae : 31 . differs from other species of the genus in the structure of the lower pharyngeal bone , which is somewhat inflated posteriorly , with numerous small bicuspid teeth .\ninhabits shallow vegetated areas ; feeds on macrophytes and algae ( ref . 267 ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01514 ( 0 . 00700 - 0 . 03275 ) , b = 2 . 97 ( 2 . 80 - 3 . 14 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 0 \u00b10 . 00 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 21 of 100 ) .\npronunciation : refer to our pronunciation key for an explanation of the phonetic symbols .\nhabitat : this is the primary location where the cichlid is found and is a generalization . this does not mean a fish cannot be found in other habitats .\ndiet : many cichlids specialize in eating one type of food ; notwithstanding , some of these specialized feeders are flexible and can be opportunistic feeders .\ntemperament : this describes the overall demeanor of a cichlid toward other tankmates that are of a different species . consider that there is variability in temperament due to various factors , including aquarium size , tankmates of similar appearance , stocking levels , and order of introduction . there may even be some variability among individual specimens .\nconspecific temperament : this describes the overall demeanor of a cichlid toward other tank - mates of the same species . consider that there is variability in temperament due to such factors as aquarium size , stocking levels and order of introduction . there may even be some variability among individual specimens .\nmaximum size : this is in regards to total length ( including the tail ) of typical aquarium specimens . wild specimens may not attain this size , or may in fact grow larger than aquarium raised individuals due to various factors . also consider that this is the typical maximum size and there are exceptional individuals that will exceed it .\ndifficulty : this measure is a relative value , comparing a single species against all other cichlids . this only accounts for maintanence in the aquarium and not breeding considerations . 1 = easy and forgiving , 5 = extremely challenging .\nthis is a mild - mannered malawi cichlid that reaches a size of up to 15 cm . the female is silver with a black bar running laterally the length of her body . the male has a similar black bar that disappears almost entirely when he is sexually active . the male ' s colouring is irridescent blues and greens and can be very striking when he is in his full glory . in some texts this fish is referred to as a\nred empress\nbut i think that this is a different species ,\nat last ! i stumbled onto this fish about 2 years ago at petsmart ( of all places ) . they had no idea what he was . someone had just dropped him off . he is about 15 cm now and downright stunning . he almost never fights with the other tankmates . he tears around and displays his dominance , but never nips . he lives with a n . venustus of about the same size , an electric blue hap ( 10 cm ) , a red empress and an a . jacobfriebergi ( both about 3 . 5 cm ) . all in a 265 l . for a large male , he really is a puppydog .\ngot some experience to share for this page ? no registration necessary to contribute ! your privacy is respected : your e - mail is published only if you wish so . all submissions are reviewed before addition . write based on your personal experiences , with no abbreviations , no chat lingo , and using proper punctuation and capitalization . ready ? then send your comments !\ncopyright \u00a9 1997 - 2011 marcos a . avila . all rights reserved . reproduction of any portion of this website ' s content is strictly forbidden without written permission .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\ninhabits shallow vegetated areas ; feeds on macrophytes and algae ( ref . 267 ) .\nafrica : endemic to lake malawi ; widespread in shallow vegetated areas ( ref . 267 )\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 ."]}
{"id": 433, "summary": [{"text": "sabella is a genus of marine polychaete worm .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "members of this genus are filter feeders and there are about ninety species .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they live in tubes made of mud that project from the sand surface .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "they have a crown of feathery tentacles that protrude when the animal is submerged but are retracted when the animal is above water . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "sabella ( genus )", "paragraphs": ["have a fact about sabella ( genus ) ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for sabella ( genus ) ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nspecies sabella pavonia [ auct . lapsus ] accepted as sabella pavonina savigny , 1822 ( misspelling for pavonina )\nspecies sabella penicillum [ auct . misspelling ] accepted as sabella penicillus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) accepted as sabella spallanzanii ( gmelin , 1791 ) ( lapsus for penicillus )\netymology according to brown ( 1954 : 679 ) sabella , as in sabella penicillus , comes from latin sabellum , neuter , a diminutive of . . .\netymology according to brown ( 1954 : 679 ) sabella , as in sabella penicillus , comes from latin sabellum , neuter , a diminutive of sabulum , neuter , meaning coarse sand . linnaeus appears to treat sabella as feminine [ details ]\nsabella in the century dictionary , the century co . , new york , 1911\ntype species type species sabella penicillus linnaeus 1767 as in fauchald , 1977 : 140 is incorrect for genus and date , but is derivative of the original name , serpula penicillus 1758 ) . knight - jones & perkins ( 1998 ) : 391 discuss whether the errors in spelling and authority in the designation by chenu ( 1859 ) are fatal to regarding that designation ( of sabella penicillus ) as the first type designation . they point out that as serpula penicillus ( as sabella ) is the only remaining taxon of those included by linnaeus ( 1767 ) it must be the only possible type . [ details ]\nspecies sabella euplacana [ auct . misspelling ] accepted as sabella euplaeana delle chiaje , 1822 [ 1828 ? ] accepted as hydroides euplaeana ( delle chiaje , 1822 [ 1828 ? ] ) ( lapsus for s . euplaeana in mcintosh , 1923 )\nwhat made you want to look up sabella ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nstatus named in a footnote on sabella in which cuvier includes both sabellids and serpulids ( 1829 / 1830 : 192 ) . he refers to\nsabelle bispiralis ( amphitrite volutacornis , trans . linn . , vii\na reference to montagu ( 1804 ) . also quoted by morch ( 1863 : 354 ) in a discussion on the status of the genus protula risso . hartman ( 1959 : 558 ) referred this name to protula sp . in serpulidae . however , amphitrite volutacornis montagu , 1804 belongs in the sabellid genus bispira . unless cuvier ' s name was available prior to montagu ' s it is difficult to see a relevance for\nsabelle bispiralis\nas a binomial under iczn code . it appears to be a gratuitous new name . [ details ]\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - peacock worm ( sabella pavonina )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - peacock worm ( sabella pavonina )\ntitle =\narkive species - peacock worm ( sabella pavonina )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nstatus named in a footnote on sabella in which cuvier includes both sabellids and serpulids ( 1829 / 1830 : 192 ) . he refers to . . .\nspecies sabella octocirrata sars , 1835 accepted as sabellides octocirrata ( m . sars , 1835 ) accepted as ampharete octocirrata ( sars , 1835 ) ( superseded original combination )\n\u2026such as the fan worm sabella , have ciliated tentacles near the mouth , which entrap passing food particles . the limbs of certain crustaceans , including the brine shrimp artemia , bear hairlike setae that filter tiny organisms as the animal swims . \u2026\nknight - jones , phyllis and perkins , thomas h . 1998 . a revision of sabella , bispira and stylomma ( polychaeta : sabellidae ) . zoological journal of the linnean society , london , 123 : 385 - 467 , 31 figures . [ details ]\navant , p . ( 2002 ) sabella pavonia . peacock worm . marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information sub - programme [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom . ( november , 2002 ) urltoken\n\u202650 cm ; examples of genera : sabella , eudistylia , serpula , hydroides . order archiannelida minute , primitive , with ciliated epidermis ; prostomium small , with or without appendages ; parapodia absent ; septa reduced or absent ; size , minute . contains 4 groups of poorly known\u2026\n( of spirographis viviani , 1805 ) knight - jones , phyllis and perkins , thomas h . 1998 . a revision of sabella , bispira and stylomma ( polychaeta : sabellidae ) . zoological journal of the linnean society , london , 123 : 385 - 467 , 31 figures . [ details ]\nlinnaeus c . ( 1767 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae : secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . ed . 12 . 1 . , regnum animale . 1 & 2 . holmiae , laurentii salvii . holmiae [ stockholm ] , laurentii salvii . pp . 1 - 532 [ 1766 ] pp . 533 - 1327 [ 1767 ] . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 1 268 [ details ]\nread , g . ; fauchald , k . ( ed . ) ( 2018 ) . world polychaeta database .\n( of penicillus [ rondelet , 1555 ] ) rondelet , guillaume [ rondeletius ] . ( 1554 - 1555 ) . [ vol . 1 ] libri de piscibus marinis : in quibus verae piscium effigies expressae sunt : quae in tota piscium historia continentur , indicat elenchus pagina nona et decima : postremo accesserunt indices necessarij . [ vol . 2 ( 1555 ) ] . . . universae aquatilium histori\u00e6 pars altera , cum veris ipsorum imaginibus . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 111 ; note : pre - linnaean name as\npenicillo marino\n[ details ]\nfauchald , k . ( 1977 ) . the polychaete worms , definitions and keys to the orders , families and genera . natural history museum of los angeles county : los angeles , ca ( usa ) , science series . 28 : 1 - 188 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nbellan , gerard . ( 2001 ) . polychaeta , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels . 50 : pp . 214 - 231 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nday , j . h . ( 1967 ) . [ sedentaria ] a monograph on the polychaeta of southern africa . part 2 . sedentaria . british museum ( natural history ) , london . pp . 459\u2013842 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of spirographis viviani , 1805 ) fauchald , k . ( 1977 ) . the polychaete worms , definitions and keys to the orders , families and genera . natural history museum of los angeles county : los angeles , ca ( usa ) , science series . 28 : 1 - 188 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of penicillus [ rondelet , 1555 ] ) mcintosh , w . c . 1922 . a monograph of the british marine annelids . polychaeta : hermellidae to sabellidae . london , ray society vol . 4 ( 1 ) pp . 1 - 250 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 224 ; note : usage as\npenicillus marinus\nin a synonymy [ details ]\n( of sabellata quatrefages , 1850 ) fauchald , k . ( 2007 ) . world register of polychaeta . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of sabellata quatrefages , 1850 ) hartman , olga . ( 1959 ) . catalogue of the polychaetous annelids of the world . parts 1 and 2 . allan hancock foundation occasional paper . 23 : 1 - 628 . page ( s ) : 566 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nm\u00f6rch , o . a . l . ( 1863 ) . revisio critica serpulidarum . et bidrag til r\u00f8rormenes naturhistorie . naturhistorisk tidsskrift . k\u00f8benhavn , ser . 3 , 1 : 347 - 470 , pl . 11 [ also issued as a separate , 1\u2013124 , pl . 11 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhartman , olga . ( 1959 ) . catalogue of the polychaetous annelids of the world . parts 1 and 2 . allan hancock foundation occasional paper . 23 : 1 - 628 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nthe peacock worm ( also known as the fan worm ) ( 1 ) lives in a tough , membranous tube , which is covered in particles of mud ( 3 ) . this flexible tube may reach up to 10cm above the sand ( 2 ) . the head of the worm emerges from the tube in order to feed ; a beautiful crown of feathery tentacles banded with purple , brown or red ( 3 ) is extended during feeding ( 2 ) . the body of the worm , hidden by the tube , is greyish - purple or yellowish orange in colour ( 3 ) .\npeacock worms often occur in large numbers . they provide habitats for other marine species , and may be found with sponges , seaweeds and ascidians ( sea squirts ) attached to them ( 3 ) . tiny hair - like structures on the tentacles known as ' cilia ' filter suspended particles from the water . these particles are then sorted according to size ; small ones are eaten , large ones are discarded and medium - sized particles are added to the top of the tube with mucus in order to increase its length ( 3 ) .\nin this species , the sexes are separate ( some worms are ' hermaphroditic ' ) , and breeding takes place in spring and summer ( 3 ) . unlike the sedentary , attached adults , the larval stage is planktonic , drifting in the sea for a time before settling on the substrate ( 3 ) .\nhas a wide distribution and is common in many areas around the coastline of britain ( 2 ) . it is also widely distributed around the coasts of north - west europe ( 3 ) .\nyou can view distribution information for this species at the national biodiversity network atlas .\noccurs on stones in mud and sand ( 2 ) on the lower shore and below ( 3 ) .\nthere may be further information about this species available via the national biodiversity network atlas .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nhermaphroditic possessing both male and female sex organs . larval of the stage in an animal ' s lifecycle after it hatches from the egg . larvae are typically very different in appearance to adults ; they are able to feed and move around but usually are unable to reproduce . planktonic aquatic organisms that drift with water movements ; may be either phytoplankton ( plants ) , or zooplankton ( animals ) .\nfish , j . d . and fish , s . ( 1996 ) a student ' s guide to the seashore . second edition . cambridge university press , cambridge .\ngetty images 101 bayham street london nw1 0ag united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 800 376 7981 sales @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis is a uk sandy shore species . visit our habitat page to learn more .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nthis page was last edited on 29 may 2018 , at 11 : 07 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nlives in a tube about 30 to 40 centimetres ( 12 to 16 inches ) long that is open at one end and constructed of mud particles cemented together by mucus . all but the top few centimetres of the tube is buried in the substratum . the front end of the\nhas a fan of striped feathery tentacles , used for feeding and respiration , that protrudes from the tube into the overlying seawater . inorganic and organic particles suspended in the water are trapped in mucus secreted by the tentacles . they are then transported down the tentacles by beating cilia and used either for tube building or passed into the mouth as food . peacock worms rapidly withdraw their tentacles into the safety of the tube when predators approach . these worms are found both in the\nfeather - duster worm , any large , segmented marine worm of the family sabellidae ( class polychaeta , phylum annelida ) . the name is also occasionally applied to members of the closely related polychaete family serpulidae . sabellids live in long tubes constructed of mud or sand cemented by mucus , \u2026\ntube worm , any of a number of tube - dwelling marine worms belonging to the annelid class polychaeta ( see polychaete ; feather - duster worm ; tentacle worm ) . other tube - dwelling worms include the horseshoe worm ( phylum phoronida ) and the beardworm ( phylum\u2026\npolychaete , any worm of the class polychaeta ( phylum annelida ) . about 8 , 000 living species are known . polychaetes , which include rag worms , lugworms , bloodworms , sea mice , and others , are marine worms notable for well - defined segmentation of the body . unique among annelids , most polychaete body\u2026\nwe welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles . you can make it easier for us to review and , hopefully , publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind .\nencyclop\u00e6dia britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience .\nyou may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered .\nat the bottom of the article , feel free to list any sources that support your changes , so that we can fully understand their context . ( internet urls are the best . )\nyour contribution may be further edited by our staff , and its publication is subject to our final approval . unfortunately , our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions .\nour editors will review what you ' ve submitted , and if it meets our criteria , we ' ll add it to the article .\nplease note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors , and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed .\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\nhorse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , \u2026\ncorrections ? updates ? omissions ? let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article ( requires login ) .\nif you prefer to suggest your own revision of the article , you can go to edit mode ( requires login ) .\nour editors will review what you\u2019ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nlove words ? you must \u2014 there are over 200 , 000 words in our free online dictionary , but you are looking for one that\u2019s only in the merriam - webster unabridged dictionary .\nthe story of an imaginary word that managed to sneak past our editors and enter the dictionary .\ntake this quiz and discover 12 words for things you didn ' t know had words .\nwikinow lets you discover the news you care about , follow the topics that matter to you and share your favourite stories with your friends .\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation ."]}
{"id": 436, "summary": [{"text": "the pipits are a cosmopolitan genus , anthus , of small passerine birds with medium to long tails .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "along with the wagtails and longclaws , the pipits make up the family motacillidae .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "the genus is widespread , occurring across most of the world , except the driest deserts , rainforests and the mainland of antarctica .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "they are slender , often drab , ground-feeding insectivores of open country .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "like their relatives in the family , the pipits are monogamous and territorial .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "pipits are ground nesters , laying up to six speckled eggs . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "pipit", "paragraphs": ["pipit information . . . pipit index of species . . . pipit species photos\nthe back of the sprague ' s pipit is more strongly marked , almost scaly appearance in good light . underparts generally paler than american pipit . outer tail feathers have more extensive white . not as common as american pipit .\nrevising environment canada\u2019s timelines of the action planning for the sprague ' s pipit .\neleven species of the motacillidae in two genera have been recorded in north america . included among these eleven species are the yellow wagtail , american pipit , and sprague\u2019s pipit .\namerican pipit in basic plumage , subspecies pacificus , sunnyvale , ca , 30 october .\n) . mortality and egg production of the meadow pipit with special references to altitude .\nwhen first discovered it contained two pipit ' s eggs and the egg of a cuckoo .\nthe food of this pipit is composed of insects , and worms , and small seeds .\nsprague ' s pipit is all in streaks of brown and gray , and lighter below .\nthe rock pipit is the most inconspicuous of the pipits . they are closely related to the\ngeographical variation : four subspecies , all extant : new zealand pipit a . n . novaeseelandiae ( at risk / declining ) ; chatham island pipit a . n . chathamensis ( at risk / naturally uncommon ) ; auckland island pipit a . n . aucklandicus ( at risk / recovering ) ; antipodes island pipit a . n . steindachneri ( at risk / naturally uncommon ) .\n. the eurasian rock pipit is a much more approachable bird than the water pipit . if startled , it flies a fairly short distance , close to the ground , before it lands again .\ngin they had a ' fouchten as he pipit , there wad hae been anither tale to tell .\nthe paddyfield pipit ( anthus rufulus ) is a small passerine bird in the pipits and wagtail family .\nit was formerly included within its putative sister species , the water pipit ( a . spinoletta ) , as was their slightly more distinct pacific relative the buff - bellied pipit ( a . rubescens ) .\nnew zealand pipit . adult . whangaehu river estuary , december 2010 . image \u00a9 ormond torr by ormond torr\n\u201c pipit \u201d in le tr\u00e9sor de la langue fran\u00e7aise informatis\u00e9 ( the digitized treasury of the french language ) .\nsome of the species have declined even more : meadow pipit populations , for example , fell by 68 percent .\nbreeding and wintering ranges of the american pipit . where the two ranges seemingly overlap they are separated by altitude .\nidentifying sprague ' s pipit critical habitat . research and analysis of information gathered regarding critical habitat for sprague\u2019s pipit have advanced since the posting of the final recovery strategy for this species in 2008 , allowing partial identification of critical habitat .\n90 - day finding on a petition to list sprague\u2019s pipit as threatened or endangered ( dec . 3 , 2009 )\nthe american pipit was at least 4 years old , when it was recaptured and rereleased during a banding operation in new hampshire .\nthe eurasian rock pipit ( anthus petrosus ) is a small species of passerine bird which breeds on rocky coasts of western europe .\nthe part \u2018swampy\u2019 field , originally with a pair of paddyfield pipit , now has two pairs with the success of this breeding .\n. paddyfield pipit is smaller and dumpier , has shorter looking tail and has a weaker fluttering flight . the usually uttered characteristic\nchip - chip - chip\ncall is quite different from usual calls of richard ' s pipit ( explosive\nshreep\n) and\n12 - month finding on a petition to list sprague\u2019s pipit as endangered or threatened throughout its range ( sept . 15 , 2010 )\npipit is an elegant , clean , modern and responsive wordpress blog theme . amaze your visitors with pipit\u2019s great out of the box features like full screen image , video and slider hero , slick featured posts slider , unique layouts , full width media feed and so on .\nthe sprague ' s pipit was named by audubon for isaac sprague , an artist who accompanied him on his trip up the missouri river .\nthe australasian pipit resembles the introduced skylark , alauda arvensis , and is adapted to a similar ecological niche , with both species being well - camoflaged birds that forage on the ground . the australasian pipit lacks the skylark ' s small crest and has more creamy white underparts and eyebrows .\nwhat made you want to look up pipit ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\n) or of allopatric speciation processes . indeed although tree and water pipits are closest extant relatives , they are not sister species and their respective lineages have originated in different palearctic zones , western for the species group including the water pipit , and eastern for that of the tree pipit ( voelker ,\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - sokoke pipit feeding on forest floor\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - sokoke pipit feeding on forest floor\ntitle =\narkive photo - sokoke pipit feeding on forest floor\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\npavel v , bure\u0161 s ( 2001 ) offspring age and nest defence : test of feedback hypothesis in the meadow pipit . anim behav 61 : 297\u2013303\nliversidge , r . ( 1996 ) a new species of pipit in southern africa . bull . brit . ornithol . club 116 : 211 - 215 .\nthe australasian pipit is found across australia . it is also found in new guinea , new zealand , as well as being widespread across africa and asia .\nyesterday i came across this news item on the site if the belgian society for the protection of birds , it is from last year . in a rehab centre a young meadow pipit and a young cuckoo were placed together in a cage , after a while the cuckoo began begging for food and to the astonishment of the people who work there the meadow pipit started feeding the cuckoo . in the third picture the pipit feeds the cuckoo while sitting on its back . urltoken\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - yellow - breasted pipit ( anthus chloris )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - yellow - breasted pipit ( anthus chloris )\ntitle =\narkive species - yellow - breasted pipit ( anthus chloris )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe sprague\u2019s pipit has been listed as a vulnerable species . like many grassland birds , this formerly common species has suffered from destruction of its short grass habitat .\nbeauchamp , a . j . 1995 . the status of the new zealand pipit ( anthus novaeseelandiae ) in the wellington region . notornis 42 : 117 - 125 .\n) . the auc of the best jsdm for pipits was 0 . 75 for the tree pipit and 0 . 83 for the water pipit , representing a good to very good predictive discrimination between occupied and unoccupied sites . the range of shared environmental correlations was negative for pipits , thus suggesting that species had different environmental requirements ( figure\nin north america , members of this family breed in alaska , northern canada , and the northern great plains ( the sprague\u2019s pipit ) . they are all non - forest species , many with an affinity for wetlands . the most numerous species is the american pipit . a bird of the far northern tundra and alpine meadows in the summer , it also occurs along the coast and other open habitats in much of canada and the united states during the winter . aside from the sprague\u2019s pipit , the other pipit species occur as asian vagrants to the west coast . the wagtails also show up as vagrants from asia , or breed in alaska and winter in asia .\n) . its congener water pipit also occupies the euro\u2010siberian region and some areas of the central system but systematically above 700 m a . s . l . ( vasquez ,\n[ habitat selection and metapopulation structure : a multi - year study of distribution of the hodgson ' s pipit , anthus hodgsoni richm . ( aves , passeriformes ) ] .\nother synonyms afrikaans : bergkoester arabic : \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0634\u0646\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0628\u064a\u0631\u0629 asturian : chis de richard bulgarian : \u0434\u044a\u043b\u0433\u043e\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0448\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u0431\u044a\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0446\u0430 catalan : piula grossa czech : lindu\u0161ka velk\u00e1 welsh : corhedydd richard danish : new zealand - storpiber , storpiber german : australspornpieper , hochlandpieper , spornpieper greek : \u03b3\u03b1\u03ca\u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03bf\u03ba\u03b5\u03bb\u03ac\u03b4\u03b1 english : australasian pipit , common pipit , new zealand or australian pipit , new zealand pipit , paddyfield pipit , richard ' s pipit spanish : bisbita de richard , bisbita neozeland\u00e9s spanish ( spain ) : bisbita neozeland\u00e9s estonian : l\u00f5una - niidukiur , niidukiur finnish : isokirvinen faroese : st\u00f3rt\u00edtlingur french : pipit austral , pipit de nouvelle - z\u00e9lande , pipit de nouvelle - z\u00e9lande ou p . austral , pipit de richard irish : riabh\u00f3g richard galician : pica de richard hebrew : \u05e4\u05e4\u05d9\u05d5\u05df \u05d0\u05e8\u05da \u05e8\u05d2\u05dc\u05d9\u05d9\u05dd hungarian : sarkanty\u00fas pityer indonesian : apung tanah icelandic : vingultittlingur italian : calandro maggiore , pispola australasiatica japanese : mamijirotahibari , mamijiro - tahibari , oasutorariamamijirotahibari japanese : \u30aa\u30a2\u30b9\u30c8\u30e9\u30ea\u30a2\u30de\u30df\u30b8\u30ed\u30bf\u30d2\u30d0\u30ea , \u30de\u30df\u30c2\u30ed\u30bf\u30d2\u30d0\u30ea kazakh : \u0434\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0436\u0430\u0434\u044b\u0440\u0430\u0493\u044b korean : \ud070\ubc2d\uc885\ub2e4\ub9ac latin : alauda novae seelandiae , anthus [ novaeseelandiae or australis ] , anthus novaeseelandiae , anthus novaeseelandiae novaeseelandiae , anthus richardi lithuanian : stepinis kalviukas maori : pihoihoi , pi - hoihoi malayalam : \u0d35\u0d2f\u0d32\u0d4d\u200d \u0d35\u0d30\u0d2e\u0d4d\u0d2a\u0d28\u0d4d\u200d maltese : bilblun prim dutch : grote pieper , nieuw - zeelandse pieper norwegian : australpiplerke , tartarpiplerke polish : swiergotek nowozelandzki , \u015bwiergotek nowozelandzki , \u015bwiergotek szponiasty portuguese : petinha de richard portuguese ( portugal ) : petinha - australiana romansh : pivet zelandais russian : \u0441\u0442\u0435\u043f\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0451\u043a slovak : \u013eabtu\u0161ka dlhoprst\u00e1 albanian : drenja e ri\u00e7ardit serbian : velika trepteljka swedish : australisk pipl\u00e4rka / nyazeelandpipl\u00e4rka , nya zeelandpipl\u00e4rka , st\u00f6rre pipl\u00e4rka swahili : kipimanjia - mbuga thai : \u0e19\u0e01\u0e40\u0e14\u0e49\u0e32\u0e14\u0e34\u0e19\u0e17\u0e38\u0e48\u0e07\u0e43\u0e2b\u0e0d\u0e48 turkish : mahmuzlu incirku\u015fu , mahmuzlu i\u0307ncirku\u015fu , mahmuzlu \u015fncirku\u015fu chinese : \u6fb3\u6d32\u9e68 , \u7530 \u9e68 , \u7530\u9e68 chinese ( traditional ) : \u7530\u9dda\u3014\u7d10\u897f\u862d\u7530\u9dda\u3015\nbeauchamp , a . j . 2013 [ updated 2017 ] . new zealand pipit . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken\namended recovery strategy for the sprague\u2019s pipit ( anthus spragueii ) in canada\n( 2012 - 11 - 30 ) ( pdf format , 1 , 329 . 56 kb )\nrecovery strategy for the sprague\u2019s pipit ( anthus spragueii ) in canada [ proposed ]\n( 2008 - 01 - 18 ) ( pdf format , 515 . 87 kb )\nplots representing the highest posterior density mean of the coefficients ( intercepts and slopes ) , their lower ( 2 . 5 % ) and the upper ( 97 . 5 % ) credible intervals , for of jsdm with the highest auc in pipits and buntings ( tp = tree pipit ; wp = water pipit ; yh = yellowhammer ; ob = ortolan bunting )\nrecovery strategy for the sprague\u2019s pipit ( anthus spragueii ) in canada [ final version ]\n( 2008 - 05 - 02 ) ( pdf format , 454 . 48 kb )\nliversidge , r . and voelker , g . ( 2002 ) the kimberley pipit : a new african species . bull . brit . ornithol . club 122 : 93 - 108 .\nthe american pipit\u2019s nest is a cup of grasses and weeds and is lined with finer materials . it is placed on the ground under the shelter of vegetation or a rock ledge .\npipits occur on all continents , except antarctica , with many species that are often difficult to distinguish from each other . the american pipit was long known as the water pipit ( anthus spinoletta ) , a wide - ranging species with seven subspecies occurring from the shores of great britain and scandinavia , and the high mountains of europe and central asia , to north america . recent taxonomic studies , however , have shown that the three north american subspecies and the most eastern asiatic subspecies are best regarded as a distinct species , now referred to as the american pipit ( a . rubescens ) . nevertheless , because of the close similarity between spinoletta and rubescens , the old world literature sheds much light on the biology of the american pipit .\n[ habitat selection and metapopulation structure : a multi - year study of distribution of the hodgson ' s pipit , anthus hodgsoni richm . ( aves , passerifo . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nbeauchamp , a . j . 2013 . new zealand pipit ( anthus novaeseelandiae ) presence and breeding status using car and walk surveys near whangarei , new zealand . notornis 60 : 125 - 133 .\nthe american pipit is a small , slender , drab bird of open country . although it appears similar to sparrows , it can be distinguished by its thin bill and its habit of bobbing its tail .\nthe american pipit was long known as the water pipit ( anthus spinoletta ) , a wide ranging species with seven subspecies occurring from the shores of great britain and scandinavia , and the high mountains of europe and central asia , to north america . recent taxonomic studies , however , have shown that the three north american subspecies , along with the most eastern asiatic one , are best regarded as a distinct species .\nbeauchamp , a . j . 2007 . notes on new zealand pipit ( anthus n . novaeseelandiae ) home ranges , parental care , and the behaviour of dependent young . notornis 54 : 112 - 114 .\nthe yellow - breasted pipit spends much of the year at elevations above 1 , 500 metres in the lush , expansive grasslands found upon the undulating slopes of the drakensberg mountains ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nthe recovery strategy for the sprague\u2019s pipit ( anthus spragueii ) in canada ( environment canada 2008 ) was posted on the species at risk public registry in may 2008 . under section 45 of the species at risk act ( sara ) , the minister of the environment may amend a recovery strategy at any time . this amendment to the recovery strategy for the sprague\u2019s pipit ( anthus spragueii ) in canada is for the purpose of :\ndistribution of the tree pipit , water pipit , yellowhammer , and ortolan bunting in spain . the shaded areas depict the distributions of pipits and buntings species . modified from mart\u00ed and del moral ( 2003 ) . atlas de las aves reproductoras de espa\u00f1a . direcci\u00f3n general de conservaci\u00f3n de la naturaleza\u2010sociedad espa\u00f1ola de ornitolog\u00eda . madrid . the rectangles enclose the study area for species ' survey ; the experiment was performed in the contact zone only\n) . these species show therefore a noticeable elevational partitioning . in the cantabrian mountains , the tree pipit reproduces in low\u2010 and medium\u2010elevation grasslands ( average elevation \u00b1 sd : 1230 . 39 \u00b1 416 . 60 m a . s . l . ) . conversely , the water pipit reproduces in medium and high elevations ( average elevation \u00b1 sd : 1726 . 63 \u00b1 341 . 35 m a . s . l . ; figure\nthese example sentences are selected automatically from various online news sources to reflect current usage of the word ' pipit . ' views expressed in the examples do not represent the opinion of merriam - webster or its editors . send us feedback .\nin an alpine population in the beartooth mountains of wyoming , a snow storm buried 17 american pipit nests for 24 hours . all of the nestlings that were 11 days or older survived , but only a few of the younger ones did .\nthompson , d . r . ; bearhop , s . ; ross , b . 2005 . spread of australasian pipit ( anthus novaeseelandiae ) onto campbell island following the eradication of norway rats ( rattus novegicus ) . notornis 52 : 43 - 46 .\nvocalizations : the song of the american pipit is low series of variable , jingling phrases ,\ntseewl , tseewl , tseewl\nor\npleetr , pleetr , pleetr .\nduring regular flight , their call is a high , squeaky\nslip\nor , when flushed , a higher\npipit .\ndownward spiralling aerial displays during the breeding season are accompanied by incessant\ntseep , tseep , tseep\ncalls . on the nest , their call is a lower but rising\npwisp .\naskenmo c . , and neergaard r . ( 1990 ) . polygyny and nest predation in the rock pipit : do females trade male assistance against safety ? in \u2018population biology of passerine birds\u2019 . ( ed . j . blondel . ) pp . 331\u2013343 . nato asi series , vol . g 24 . ( springer - verlag : berlin . ) askenmo , c . , and unger , u . ( 1986 ) . how to be double - brooded : trends and timing of breeding performance in the rock pipit . ornis scandinavica 17 , 237\u2013244 .\nhendricks , paul and n . a . verbeek . 2012 . american pipit ( anthus rubescens ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\namendment to the final recovery strategy for the sprague\u2019s pipit ( anthus spragueii ) in canada re : partial identification of critical habitat in alberta and saskatchewan and action planning [ proposed ]\n( 2011 - 03 - 09 ) ( pdf format , 1 , 119 . 94 kb )\nthe australasian pipit is a well - camoflaged brown ground - dwelling bird . it has darker brown streaks above , and has pale creamy white stripes on the eyebrows and below the cheeks . the underparts are creamy white , spotted and streaked dark on the breast . the wings and tail are dark brown , with the outermost tail feathers white . the eye is brown and the bill and feet are pale pink - grey . seen on the ground in open country , this species often wags its tail up and down while foraging . it was previously called richard ' s pipit .\na small , brown , streaky bird , the meadow pipit is the most common songbird in upland areas . its high , piping call is a familiar sound . in flight it shows white outer tail feathers and in the breeding season it has a fluttering ' parachute ' display flight . in winter , they are quite gregarious and gather in small flocks , often invisible among the vegetation , suddenly flying up with typical jerky flight . meadow pipit numbers in the uk have been declining since the mid - 1970s , resulting in this species being included on the amber list of conservation concern .\nsome of the subspecies in the group were formerly treated as a subspecies of the australasian pipit anthus novaeseelandiae and the grouping has been in state of flux . considerable colour and morphological variation with age and latitude make the species difficult to identify museum specimens . six subspecies are now included in this species .\nthe wagtails and pipits are small birds with fairly long , strong legs adapted to a terrestrial lifestyle . members of this family are also for the most part slim birds with long tails ( although tails of some pipit species are fairly short ) , fairly long , pointed wings , and longish , thin bills .\nthe american pipit has brownish - gray to gray upperparts with faint streaks , a bold , pale eyeline , variably streaked , whitish to buffy underparts , and a white eye ring . it has an upright posture , and frequently bobs its tail . a number of subspecies account for the plumage variation within the species .\nwe used presence / absence survey dataset but excluded survey plots characterized by high forest cover , as such surveyed areas were unsuitable and , consequently , they would contain no useful information for the modelling . for pipits , we considered only survey plots where the percent tree cover is less than 80 % of the area ( n = 1 , 874 plots ) , because the tree pipit is an ecotone species that utilizes a mixture of open grasslands and scattered trees ( laiolo , dondero , ciliento , & rolando , 2004 ) . for buntings , we selected survey plots where the tree percent cover is < 60 % of the area of the plot ( n = 1 , 790 plots ) , being both species less dependent on tree cover ( dale & manceau , 2003 ) . our sample size corresponds to 192 presences for the tree pipit , 655 presences for the water pipit , 161 presences for the yellowhammer , and 52 presences for the ortolan bunting .\nthe sprague\u2019s pipit is a small bird which breeds in the great plains of north america . nesting grounds are found in the peace river district of alberta , turtleford , prince albert and shoal lake , saskatchewan , central manitoba , north dakota , montana , south dakota and minnesota . they may also be found in british columbia occasionally . this species winters in the southwestern united states and northern mexico , including california , arizona , new mexico , texas , kansas , oklahoma , missouri , tennessee , mississippi , arkansas and louisiana . typical diets consist of insects , spiders and seeds . the conservation status of the sprague\u2019s pipit is least concern .\nsprague ' s pipit : this species breeds from central alberta east to manitoba and south from montana to south dakota . it may breed as far west as british columbia . it spends winters along the southwestern and southern states from california to florida and throughout much of mexico . its preferred habitats include short - grass fields .\ntree pipit , water pipit , yellowhammer , and ortolan bunting inhabit montane , alpine , and subalpine open habitats in our study area and present relatively overlapping trophic niches , being pipits more strictly insectivorous and buntings granivorous outside the breeding period ( brodmann , reyer , bollmann , schl\u00e4pfer , & rauter , 1997 ; dale & manceau , 2003 ; loske , 1987 ) . tree pipit and ortolan bunting are trans\u2010saharan migrants ( dale & manceau , 2003 ; loske , 1987 ) . all species are territorial , mostly monogamous , and they nest on the ground . they actively defend territories in the breeding period , and males sing to mark territories and attract females . these species served as models in studies on homo\u2010 or heterospecific territoriality , as they reliably respond to playbacks simulating territorial intrusion ( bastianelli , seoane , \u00e1lvarez\u2010blanco , & laiolo , 2015 ; osiejuk , raty\u0144ska , & cygan , 2004 ; petruskov\u00e1 et al . , 2014 ; skierczynski , czarnecka , & osiejuk , 2007 ) .\nthe american pipit is an inconspicuous , slender , migratory songbird that occurs throughout north america and south to el salvador . it is one of a very few species of ground - inhabiting songbirds that breed at high altitudes in alpine meadows and on the arctic tundra . despite its generally inhospitable habitat , this species has been relatively well studied . its alpine and arctic environment is ecologically relatively simple , so interactions among species are easier to understand . in addition , short summers and climatic extremes impose restrictions on the timing of this pipit ' s breeding cycle . how this species , and other pipits , have adapted to such extremes is a question worth investigating .\nfound only in south africa and lesotho , the yellow - breasted pipit mainly occupies the drakensberg mountain range within the south african provinces of kwazulu - natal and mpumalanga , and the margins of lesotho . additional small populations are found in the north - east of the eastern cape and eastern parts of the free state ( 2 ) .\nits call is an explosive fit . the song , as in many pipits , is a series of\nblocks\nof repeated more or less shrill cheeping single or double notes ; it ends on a trill and has usually fewer , but longer - lasting\nblocks\n( a dozen repetitions or more ) than in the water pipit .\nhistorically , the yellow - breasted pipit was far more abundant and widespread than it is today . sadly , the effects of intense grazing , commercial forest planting , and agricultural practices that involve the burning of grasslands , have greatly reduced and fragmented this species\u2019 habitat . such practices are only increasing in intensity ; for example , in the wakkerstroom district , a region which supports a large number of yellow - breasted pipits , over 100 , 000 hectares of grassland has been targeted for conversion to forest plantations . if this conversion goes ahead , it could prove to be catastrophic for the yellow - breasted pipit , as the land would no longer be suitable for it to breed ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nthe yellow - breasted pipit is a rare and secretive bird found in the high - altitude grasslands of south africa and lesotho ( 3 ) . this species is most striking when in its breeding plumage , developing bright yellow underparts and wing linings ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ; in contrast , outside the breeding period , the underparts are brown or dull white with dark streaks ( 2 ) . the upperparts , which remain greyish - brown throughout the year , are boldly dappled with dark spots and patches , giving a distinctive scaled appearance . the juvenile is generally pale brown and lacks the adult\u2019s bright yellow colouring , having creamy brown underparts instead . the characteristic calls of the yellow - breasted pipit consist of a rapid , continuous chip chip chip and a quieter suwiep ( 4 ) .\namerican pipit numbers may be declining . partners in flight estimates a global breeding population of 20 million birds , with 52 % spending some part of the year in the u . s . , 87 % in canada , and 36 % wintering in mexico . they rate a 9 out of 20 on the continental concern score and are not on the 2014 state of the birds watch list . back to top\nthe yellow - breasted pipit occurs within a number of public nature reserves , but the populations that they support are generally small . currently , only natal drakensberg park holds a significant population ( 2 ) ( 3 ) , but plans are underway to create a one million hectare grassland biosphere reserve in the threatened region around wakkerstroom that will protect and conserve a much larger proportion of this species\u2019 total population ( 6 ) . should the reserve be created it will need careful management , so that the livelihoods of the local people and the population of the yellow - breasted pipit can both be preserved . this is also true of the other areas supporting populations of this species , where the landowners must be given incentives to manage the grassland beneficially , rather than opt for the plantation of commercially valuable forests ( 3 ) ( 6 ) .\nthe nsw national parks and wildlife service provided permission to study pipits in kosciuszko national park . pipits were banded under australian bird and bat banding scheme banding authority no . 2408 , environment australia . logistical support was provided by nsw national parks and wildlife service , and billy and marilyn james . financial support was provided by the state university college of new york at brockport . pipit clutch - size data from the birds australia nest records scheme were furnished by rory poulter , birds australia . robert palmer provided access to pipit specimens in the australian national wildlife collection , canberra . thanks to snowy hydro for spencers creek snowcourse data . david little supplied several nest records . nancy fitzsimmons and tony tucker helped in the field , while melissa norment assisted in many ways . paul hendricks and two anonymous reviewers commented on a draft of the manuscript .\n) : effect size = m1\u2013m2 / pooled standard deviation , where m1 is the mean of the response to the conspecific and m2 is the mean of the response to the control . the power for the comparison among heterospecifics , based on the sample size for this level and the correction of the effect size for homospecifics by the c\u2010score , was high . for the closest distance of approach , we obtained a power of 0 . 89 and 0 . 96 in tree pipit and water pipit , respectively . for the same variable , we obtained a power of 0 . 91 and 0 . 76 for yellowhammer and ortolan bunting . for the latency of approach , we obtained a power of 0 . 70 and 0 . 83 in pipits . for the same variable , we obtained a power of 0 . 88 and 0 . 83 in yellowhammer and ortolan bunting , respectively .\nwells ( 2007 ) reports that the paddyfield pipit nests can be shallow cups to fully domed , with variations in between . in this field the nest was dome - shaped ( below right ) , built in a small unburnt area ( below left ) . at the time of observation the dome was already built : width 12cm , length 13 - 15cm ( longer than wide ) , height 9 - 10cm and oval opening 3 - 4cm diameter .\non 20th february 2010 dato\u2019 dr amar - singh hss chanced upon a pair of paddyfield pipit ( anthus rufulus malayensis ) nest building ( above ) in a burnt grassy field around ipoh in the malaysian state of perak . for two hours in the hot sun he made discreet observations from a distance of about 10m , using his camera mounted with a 500 mm lens to document the activities . no tripod was used so as not to unnecessarily distract the birds .\npipits of the family motacillidae ( meaning\nmoving tail\n) are plain , sparrow - sized , insectivorous birds with slender bills . although highly terrestrial , their flight is strong and undulating . pipits walk upright along the ground with dainty steps , rather than hops . as they feed , they habitually pump their tails and bob their heads , much like a pigeon . their common name ,\npipit\n( latin for\nchirp\n) , imitates the sounds of their distinctive calls .\n14 . 5 - 15 cm . small streaked pipit , earth - brown / greenish orange - brown with broad brownish - black streaks on top of head , mantle , scapulars and back . wings darker . tail dark brown . underparts white / grey / yellow - buff . throat side , breast and flanks streaked black - brown . juvenile more buff - brown with more obvious streaking . voice aerial song a series of segments of uniform notes . call a thin high - pitched squeak often repeated .\nthe new zealand pipit is a small brown - and - white songbird that resembles a lark , but has longer legs , and walks rather than hops . they are birds of open country , including the tideline of sandy beaches , rough pasture , river beds and above the tree - line . pipits are members of the wagtail family , and frequently flick their long tails as they walk . in flight their tails have narrow white sides \u2013 a character shared with skylarks , chaffinches , yellowhammers and cirl buntings .\npipits probably benefitted initially from forest clearance , but have declined in density as land - use has intensified . heavily grazed pasture and drained wetlands hold fewer pipits than rough pasture with patches of fern , and marshes or bogs . pipits have declined from drought - prone regions , and have disappeared from many islands where rats are present . while pipits use clear - felled pine forest blocks in the central north island , they are preferentially hunted by new zealand falcons there , compared to introduced passerines . pipit have greatly benefitted from rat eradication on some islands , most spectacularly on 11 , 000 ha campbell island in the new zealand subantarctic .\nthis is a large pipit at 15cm , but is otherwise an undistinguished looking bird , mainly streaked grey - brown above and pale below with breast streaking . it is long legged with a long tail and a long dark bill . males and females look alike . summer and winter plumages are similar . young birds are more richly colored below than adults and have the pale edges to the feather ' s of the upper parts more conspicuous with more prominent spotting on the breast . the population waitei from northwestern india and pakistan is pale while the population malayensis from the western ghats is larger , darker and more heavily streaked with nominate rufulus intermediate .\ndistribution : the american pipit winters in flocks from the southern united states to the fields and muddy shores of guatemala and el salvador . they breed throughout alaska , yukon , and british columbia , across the northern edge of canada to newfoundland , coastal greenland and their associated islands , and in spotty locations in the western united states . within yukon - charley rivers national preserve , these birds were detected in several ecological units , as determined during the yukon - charley rivers national preserve bird inventory , june 1999 and 2000 . they occur at their highest densities within the montane tundra of the upper charley mountain tundra ( mt ) , snowy domes ( sd ) and ogilive lime / dolostone mountains ( om ) ecological units .\nwe performed a preliminary analysis to test whether the month , the time of the day in which a test was performed , and their interaction could affect bird behavioral patterns . in no species we found such effects on the closest distance of approach or on the latency of the approach ( linear models : all p \u2265 . 10 ) . therefore , we did not account for temporal covariates in further analyses . in order to assess the differences in the minimum distance of approach between the three playback levels ( conspecific , congeneric , and control song ) , we performed a one\u2010way analysis of variance ( anova ) after transforming the variable by means of a box\u2010cox transformation to meet the assumptions of normality ( tree pipit : \u03bb = 0 . 30 , water pipit : \u03bb = 0 . 26 , yellowhammer : \u03bb = 0 . 30 ; ortolan bunting : \u03bb = 0 . 51 ) . we performed multiple comparisons ( tukey contrasts ) to assess the significance of the differences between pairwise playback types . as the latency of approach did not meet the normality assumption , we carried a kruskal\u2013wallis test to analyze playback effects . we performed multiple comparisons by means of dunn test . we performed power tests in the case of detecting no significant differences in the behavioral response between pairwise playback types , and we based our expectations of interference on the local spatial segregation patterns ( c\u2010score ) observed in each species pairs . a power \u22650 . 80 was considered as a good power ( cohen , 1992 ) . we performed the analysis with r v 3 . 2 . 2 ( r development core team , 2015 ) and g power v . 3 ( faul , erdfelder , lang , & buchner , 2007 ) .\nnests : assembled by both parents , the cup - shaped nests of the american pipit are built in ground - hollows and partially concealed by overhanging rock or vegetation . constructed in 4 - 5 days of plant stems , grasses and mosses , the nests are softly lined with fine grasses , fibers and hair . a clutch consists of 4 - 7 , smooth and glossy 21mm eggs . the cryptic , ground - colored ( whitish gray ) eggs are heavily spotted in brown and pale gray and may be finely streaked , wreathed or capped in black at the larger ends . although the female alone incubates the clutch for 14 days , the male feeds her during this time . offspring fledge in another 14 - 16 days and are tended by both parents . young birds are completely independent by 29 days post - hatching and aggregate together in large , late - summer flocks .\nwe performed playback experiments simulating territorial intrusion in replacement areas , that is where congeners were located \u22642 km from each other ( appendix s1 ) . the study was performed during breeding , which is the sole phase of species phenology in which birds are strongly territorial and in which their ranges overlap ( one member of each pair is migratory and spends the winter elsewhere ) . during playbacks , we broadcast the songs of a conspecific male , or a congeneric male , or of a control species . overall , we tested 148 pipit males and 112 bunting males ; each individual was tested once and was randomly submitted to a playback of one of three categories mentioned above ( conspecific , congener , or control ; appendix s6 ) . we selected as controls species of a different family and that largely co\u2010occurred with the target species , which we assumed were no competitors . yellowhammer and whinchat ( saxicola rubetra ) were selected as the control species for pipits and buntings , respectively . similar to other playback studies , we considered that interspecific territoriality occurred if the behavioral response did not differ between conspecific and congeneric playbacks and / or if the response to the congeneric playback was stronger than to the control playback ( jankowski et al . , 2010 ; laiolo , 2013 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\nstattersfield , a . , o ' brien , a . , taylor , j .\nthis species is classed as near threatened owing to its small population and small range on one island , which remains susceptible to the introduction of rats . should any immediate threat arise , this species should be uplisted as a matter of urgency .\n. it is confined to c . 20 small , rat - free offshore islands and islets , and to a few mainland areas ( < 10 % of total habitat ) , enclosed by sea - level glaciers , in which brown rat\nthe population has been estimated at 3000 - 4000 pairs , equivalent to 6 , 000 - 8 , 000 mature individuals and c . 9 , 000 - 12 , 000 individuals in total . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\n. it feeds on insects in tussock habitat , and insects and crustaceans along tidelines ( j . p . croxall\n. in typical habitat it is common and productive , but winter survival of juveniles is low . it has almost no natural predators , remains of birds very occasionally turning up at middens of brown skua\nthe projected continuing recession of glaciers at south georgia threaten its remaining mainland habitats with invasion by rats ( j . p . croxall\nalthough precautions are taken to prevent the introduction of rats to several important sites , their remote location renders regulation of all visitors to all sites impossible in practice ( j . p . croxall\ncarry out surveys to obtain an up - to - date population estimate . monitor population trends through regular surveys . maintain measures to prevent the introduction of rats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nnew zealand pipits are slender , small to medium - sized , long - tailed songbirds that are predominantly streaked grey - brown above and off - white below , with brown streaking on the breast . they have a prominent pale eyebrow stripe , and white outer tail feathers . their crown is streaked grey - brown , lacking any crest ( cf . skylark ) the bill is fine and dark , and the legs long , slender and pale brown . pipits are often confiding , allowing closer approach than most open country songbirds . they walk or run , characteristically flicking their tail up and down whenever they stop walking , or when perched .\nvoice : the main call given all year is a strident tzweep . song given in air with arched fluttering flight over home ranges . tswee call given from fence posts and on the ground when gathering large invertebrates to feed young on the nest .\nsimilar species : skylarks are tawnier , more likely to fly when disturbed , are shorter legged , hop rather than walk , and have a small erectile crest on the back of the crown . female house sparrows and chaffinches have conical bills , and white wing - bars on the inner upperwing .\nnew zealand pipits are widespread in rough open habitats from the coastline to alpine shrublands at c . 1900 m . they are often seen along coastlines and rivers , in alpine areas in the south island , and coastal margins and alpine areas on stewart island . pipits are present within felled compartments of pine forests in the central north island , and around remaining wetlands in the central north island . they have declined in nearby subalpine habitats that have been taken over by heather . pipits are common in farmland and open shrublands on chatham and pitt islands , and in tussock grasslands and open habitats on the auckland island , campbell island and antipodes islands .\nfarmland population estimates for pipits were 0 . 37 pairs / per ha on chatham island , and 0 . 036 pairs / ha at waipu caves , whangarei .\nnew zealand pipits breed during august - march . the nest is a sizable cup of woven grass under tussocks and grass clumps within fern , and partly or fully covered with vegetation . clutch size is typically 2 - 4 ( average 3 ) eggs . both sexes feed young on the nest . incubation takes 14 - 16 days and chicks fledge at 14 days . adults land and take concealed routes to nests . chicks are noisy during and after feeding . chicks do not congregate after fledging , and parents and fledglings can end up hundreds of meters from nest sites . the number of clutches per annum is unknown .\npipits are approachable , often running a short distance in front of people , and walking , rather than flying away . some home ranges are occupied all year and others are deserted in the late summer . flocks of first - year pipits and adults are seen in areas where there was no breeding population . flock sizes are generally indicative of the population size . flocks of tens to hundreds of pipits fanned out either sides of moving locomotives before the volcanic plateau was converted from swamp and shrubland to farms and plantation forests .\npipits are omnivorous , consuming grains , seeds , and small invertebrates . flying invertebrates taken include flies , mayflies , small butterflies and cicadas . foraging methods adapt to the types of prey being targeted . they range from pecking at mat plants , to dashing along the ground and into short flights when after flies , to rising up into the wind over lakes to catch mayflies passing overhead .\nbeauchamp , a . j . 2009 . distribution and habitat use by new zealand pipits ( anthus n . novaeseelandiae ) on the volcanic plateau . notornis 56 : 183 - 189 .\nhiggins , p . j . ; peter , j . m . ; cowling , s . j . ( eds . ) 2006 . handbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds . vol . 7 , boatbill to starlings . oxford university press , melbourne .\na slender small - medium long - tailed songbird streaked grey - brown above and off - white below , with brown streaking on the breast , a pale eyebrow stripe , white outer tail feathers . the crown is streaked grey - brown , the bill fine and dark , and the legs long , slender and pale brown .\nof the family motacillidae , resembling the larks in coloration , structure , and habits .\nurltoken unabridged based on the random house unabridged dictionary , \u00a9 random house , inc . 2018\ncollins english dictionary - complete & unabridged 2012 digital edition \u00a9 william collins sons & co . ltd . 1979 , 1986 \u00a9 harpercollins publishers 1998 , 2000 , 2003 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 , 2009 , 2012\nany of various small passerine birds , mainly from the genus anthus , that are often drab , ground feeding insectivores of open country .\nthis page was last edited on 10 june 2018 , at 00 : 09 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nvisitors to manchester city centre have just two weeks left to get up close to the cities\u2019 popular pair of peregrine falcons .\nthe rspb wants to bring back the colour to the roadsides of east riding by returning verges to their former glory .\nfind out how you can help the birds in your garden in this summer heat .\na small , dark goose - the same size as a mallard . it has a black head and neck and grey - brown back .\na nocturnal bird that can be seen hawking for food at dusk and dawn .\nmale ring ouzels are particularly distinctive with their black plumage with a pale wing panel and striking white breast band .\nthere ' s so much to see and hear at minsmere , from rare birds and otters to stunning woodland and coastal scenery .\nthis is a delightful oak woodland to walk through \u2013 especially in spring and early summer .\nnature is an adventure waiting to be had . get out , get busy and get wild !\nexplore the little pools of amazing sea life that are left by the tide on the rocks around our coast .\nmeadow pipits are found across the uk but are most common in the west and north . in winter it moves south , to more lowland areas and becomes much commoner in the southern half of the uk . they are found in open country - upland moors to saltmarshes in summer , more agricultural land and marshes in winter . they will even come to suburban parks and playing fields .\n* this map is intended as a guide . it shows general distribution rather than detailed , localised populations .\nyou can see meadow pipits all year round . in summer , they are most common in upland areas which become deserted in winter as birds move to more lowland habitats , with some migrating to continental europe .\ncreate a multi - storey hotel , full of all sorts of natural materials , providing hidey - holes for creatures galore .\nyou can give nature the space it needs to survive and thrive . . .\nthe rspb is a member of birdlife international . find out more about the partnership\n\u00a9 the royal society for the protection of birds ( rspb ) is a registered charity : england and wales no . 207076 , scotland no . sc037654\nwe use cookies on our website to help give you the best online experience . tell me more\nbut since the rats were killed , the pipits have already responded , their numbers exploding now that their eggs and chicks are safe .\nthe story of an imaginary word that managed to sneak past our editors and enter the dictionary .\ntake this quiz and discover 12 words for things you didn ' t know had words .\nnesting in the far north and on mountaintops , american pipits can be found throughout the continent during migration or winter . at those seasons they are usually in flocks , walking on shores or plowed fields , wagging their tails as they go . often they are detected first as they fly over high , giving sharp pi - pit calls .\nsome analyses of christmas bird counts have suggested declining numbers ; however , species is still widespread and common .\ntundra , alpine slopes ; in migration and winter , plains , bare fields , shores . breeds on tundra , both in far north and in high mountains above treeline , in areas with very low growth such as sedges , grass , and dwarf willows . in migration and winter found on flat open ground such as plowed fields , short - grass prairie , mudflats , shores , river sandbars .\nforages by walking on the ground , taking insects from the ground or from low plants . sometimes forages while walking in very shallow water . except in the breeding season , usually forages in flocks .\n4 - 6 , sometimes 3 - 7 . whitish to pale buff , heavily spotted with brown and gray . incubation is by female only , 13 - 16 days . male feeds female during incubation period . young : both parents feed nestlings . female broods young much of the time during first few days ; male may bring food for her and for young . young usually leave nest at about 14 days , are fed by parents for about another 2 weeks .\nboth parents feed nestlings . female broods young much of the time during first few days ; male may bring food for her and for young . young usually leave nest at about 14 days , are fed by parents for about another 2 weeks .\nmostly insects , also some seeds . insects make up great majority of summer diet ; included are many flies , true bugs , beetles , caterpillars , moths , and others . also eats some spiders , millipedes , ticks . migrants along coast may eat tiny crustaceans and marine worms . inland in fall and winter , seeds of grasses and weeds may make up close to half of diet .\nmale performs song - flight display to defend nesting territory and attract a mate . in display , male begins singing on ground , flies up ( often to 100 ' or more ) , then glides or parachutes down again with wings fully opened , singing all the way . nest site is on ground in sheltered spot , usually protected under overhanging grass , small rock ledge , or piece of sod . nest ( built by female only ) is a cup of grass , sedges , and weeds , lined with finer grass and sometimes with animal hair or feathers .\nflight song a weak and tinkling trill ; call a paired , high - pitched pip - pip .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\nin the broadest and most detailed study of its kind , audubon scientists have used hundreds of thousands of citizen - science observations and sophisticated climate models to predict how birds in the u . s . and canada will react to climate change ."]}
{"id": 440, "summary": [{"text": "the magazine mountain middle-toothed snail also known as the magazine mountain shagreen , scientific name inflectarius magazinensis , is a species of small , air-breathing , land snails , terrestrial pulmonate gastropod molluscs in the family polygyridae . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "magazine mountain middle - toothed snail", "paragraphs": ["mount magazine shagreen snail ( inflectarius magazinensis ( ) , also known as the magazine mountain middle - toothed snail .\nwikipedia article copyright notice : this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . it uses material from the wikipedia article\nmagazine mountain middle - toothed snail\n.\nglenn , c . r . 2006 .\nearth ' s endangered creatures - magazine mountain middle - toothed snail facts\n( online ) - licensed article from wikipedia : the free encyclopedia . accessed\ncaldwell , r . s . 1986 .\nstatus of mesodon magazinensis , the magazine mountain middle - toothed snail .\nreport for grant no . 84 - 1 . arkanasas nongame species preservation program , little rock .\nfacts summary : the magazine mountain middle - toothed snail ( inflectarius magazinensis ) is a species of concern belonging in the species group\nsnails\nand found in the following area ( s ) : arkansas . this species is also known by the following name ( s ) : mesodon magazinensis , magazine mountain shagreen .\ncaldwell , r . s . 1986 . status of mesodon magazinensis ( pilsbry and ferriss ) , the magazine mountain middle - toothed snail . unpublished report for grant number 84 - 1 for arkansas nongame species preservation program , arkansas . 18 pp .\nthis page is based on the copyrighted wikipedia article magazine mountain middle - toothed snail ; it is used under the creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license ( cc - by - sa ) . you may redistribute it , verbatim or modified , providing that you comply with the terms of the cc - by - sa\nthis species is known only from a single location on magazine mountain in logan county , arkansas . magazine mountain is relatively separate from other mountains in the region and is considered an\nisland\necosystem\nalso known as the magazine mountain middle - toothed snail , the magazine mountain shagreen , mesodon magazinensis , is a dusky brown or buff - colored medium - sized land snail , 0 . 5 in ( 13 mm ) wide and 0 . 3 in ( 7 mm ) high . the shell surface is roughened by half - moon shaped scales . the outer lip of the aperture has a small triangular tooth , while the inner side has a single blade - like tooth . it is similar in appearance to the more common m . infectus .\nin rock slides , at base of cliff on north side of magazine mountain at around 2 , 800 ft .\nrare arkansas animals most of the rare invertebrate animals that are listed as rare in arkansas are endemic to the ouachita and ozark mountains . many , such as crayfish and amphipods , live in caves or cave streams . several rare snails have limited ranges , such as the magazine mountain middle - toothed land snail , which is found only on that mountain . detailed mussel research documents several rare species , such as the arkansas fatmucket and speckled pocketbook mussels .\nmagazine mountain shagreen .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\n( < 100 square km ( less than about 40 square miles ) ) restricted to one slope of magazine mountain in logan county , arkansas .\nthis snail is only known to occur on one mountain slope in the ozark national forest in western arkansas . its limited range makes it particularly sensitive to any habitat alteration .\nglobal range : ( < 100 square km ( less than about 40 square miles ) ) restricted to one slope of magazine mountain in logan county , arkansas .\nreasons : this snail is only known to occur on one mountain slope in the ozark national forest in western arkansas . its limited range makes it particularly sensitive to any habitat alteration .\nmagazine mountain shagreen .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\narkansas river valley magazine mountain\u2019s rocky outcrops are home to leadplant and the locally endemic maple - leaved oak . small - headed pipewort and bottle gentian occur in areas of natural seepage .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 1994 . recovery plan for magazine mountain shagreen . u . s . fish and wildlife service , jackson , mississippi . 26 pp .\nthe shagreen ' s known range is included within the ozark national forest and is classified as a special interest area . magazine mountain was recently proposed as a candidate for designation as a research natural area .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 1989 .\ndetermination of the magazine mountain shagreen , mesodon magazinensis , as an endangered species .\nfederal register 54 ( 72 ) : 15286 - 15287 .\nu . s . army training exercises planned for the vicinity of magazine mountain will be permitted by the fws if troop , vehicle , and artillery movements do not disturb the north slope of the mountain . under provisions of the endangered species act , the army is required to consult with the fws before any exercises are undertaken . such a consultation might allow exercises to be held , so long as conditions to protect the snail ' s habitat are met .\nthe magazine mountain shagreen was listed as threatened on april 17 , 1989 . [ 2 ] thanks to efforts from the u . s . forest service , us fish and wildlife service , and the arkansas department of parks and tourism , the snail was removed from the endangered list in may of 2013 . [ 3 ] the shagreen is the first invertebrate ever removed from the federal endangered species list . [ 4 ]\nbecause of this snail ' s extremely limited range , it is vulnerable to any land use change or other activity that might disrupt the habitat ' s fragile ecological balance . in 1989 the arkansas department of parks and tourism applied for a special use permit from the forest service to develop a state park on magazine mountain . the u . s . fish and wildlife service ( fws ) has expressed the opinion that construction of access roads , buildings , pipelines , and trails would adversely affect the snail if these activities disrupted rock slide rubble on the north slope . the fws , the forest service , and the state are currently negotiating to determine the feasibility of the proposed state park .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 1989g . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; determination of threatened status for the magazine mountain shagreen ( mesodon magazinensis ) . final rule . federal register . department of the interior . vol . 54 , no . 72 : 15206 - 15208 .\nthere is thought to be only one extant population ; on the north slope of magazine mountain , logan co . , arkansas ( usfws , 1989 ; 2004 ) . a single dead specimen was found on the south slope in 1903 ( pilsbry and ferriss , 1906 ) but a population has never been discovered there ( usfws , 1994 ) .\na single population inhabits a rock slide ( in rock debris ) on the north side only of a mountain on an approximately 60 % slope . the snail prefers a cool moist climate and will move deeper into rock crevasses in warmer dry weather ( usfws , 1989 ) . caldwell ( 1986 ) hypothesized that drier and warmer conditions on the south slope made conditions inhospitable for the species .\ncomments : there is thought to be only one extant population ; on the north slope of magazine mountain , logan co . , arkansas ( usfws , 1989 ; 2004 ) . a single dead specimen was found on the south slope in 1903 ( pilsbry and ferriss , 1906 ) but a population has never been discovered there ( usfws , 1994 ) .\ncomments : a single population inhabits a rock slide ( in rock debris ) on the north side only of a mountain on an approximately 60 % slope . the snail prefers a cool moist climate and will move deeper into rock crevasses in warmer dry weather ( usfws , 1989 ) . caldwell ( 1986 ) hypothesized that drier and warmer conditions on the south slope made conditions inhospitable for the species .\nthis mountain shagreen is active above the surface on cool , damp or wet days and retreats into the rock crevices as the weather warms . during july and august it never surfaces .\nouachita mountains many endemic plants live in the ouachitas , including a twistflower that is found only in arkansas and oklahoma . rich mountain has the state\u2019s only example of ofer hollow reed grass .\nseveral rare fish species are found only in arkansas , including the ouachita madtom , the caddo madtom , the yellowcheek darter , the paleback darter , and the strawberry river darter . the ozark cavefish and the leopard darter are found only in a few caves in arkansas , missouri , and oklahoma . arkansas also supports several salamanders endemic to the ozark and ouachita mountains . two that occur only in arkansas are the caddo mountain salamander and the fourche mountain salamander .\nthis snail has been collected from rock slide rubble at the base of a north - facing rocky escarpment . it prefers cool , moist conditions and burrows far back into crevices in the cliffs , during the hottest part of summer . habitat elevation ranges from 2 , 000 - 2 , 600 ft ( 600 - 790 m ) .\n1 . endemics are known to occur only in a relatively small area . several plant and animal species occur only in arkansas . the caddo mountain salamander ( plethodon caddoensis ) is found only in certain areas of the state\u2019s ouachita mountains .\nseveral reptiles listed as rare in the state are on the edge of the ranges , such as the cornsnake and the louisiana milk snake . other snakes represent disjunct populations , such as the dusty hognose on rich mountain . the conversion of prairies to agriculture has reduced the ornate box turtle population drastically and confined it to a few prairie remnants in the state .\nin arkansas , twenty animals are endangered , eight are threatened , and four are candidates . the endangered animals are two types of crayfish , one type of beetle , eight mussels , one fish , four birds , three bats , and the florida panther . the threatened animals are a snail , a mussel , three fish , a reptile , and two birds . a look at the numbers highlights the fact that the list is based on current knowledge and that scientists do not know everything about all species that live here . for instance , eight mussels are listed . that does not mean arkansas is a repository for rare mussels . it simply means someone has collected a lot of data on the mussels in the state . on the other hand , only one insect is listed . ninety - five percent of the world\u2019s animals are insects . that only one is listed means more inventory and study need to be done . in these cases , not enough data exist for some species . in other cases , the data may be old and not recently verified . the florida panther ( puma concolor coryi ) was one of the first species in arkansas added to the endangered species list , in 1967 . an exhaustive statewide search has not been conducted for the panther recently , and the listing carries a footnote that indicates it may be a historic occurrence in arkansas . the bachman\u2019s warbler and two mussels also carry this footnote .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nvariously cited as a species , subspecies of cryptomastix mullani , or synonym of cryptomastix sanburni . the problem was not effectively addressed in the literature until recently . was listed in 1996 under the name mesodon magazinenses .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nitis reports - - itis ( the integrated taxonomic information system ) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\nthis article is only an excerpt . if it appears incomplete or if you wish to see article references , visit the rest of its contents here .\nfor the first time in history , a captive cheetah has successfully given birth to eight healthy cubs . it is said that only around 10 , 000 cheetahs remain in the wild in africa along with 100 or fewer in iran .\nlist of all endangered animals . list of all endangered plants . list of all endangered species ( animals & plants ) . by species group ( mammal , birds , etc ) . . . united states endangered species list . browse by country , island , us state . . . search for an endangered species profile .\nare you inspired by endangered animals ? check out our games and coloring pages ! more to come soon .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service regional office , division of endangered species 1875 century blvd . , suite 200 atlanta , georgia 30345 urltoken\nhubricht , l . 1972 .\nthe land snails of arkansas .\nsterkiana 46 : 15 - 16 .\nurltoken gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the modern language association ( mla ) , the chicago manual of style , and the american psychological association ( apa ) .\nwithin the \u201ccite this article\u201d tool , pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style . then , copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list .\nbecause each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article , urltoken cannot guarantee each citation it generates . therefore , it\u2019s best to use urltoken citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication\u2019s requirements and the most - recent information available at these sites :\nmost online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers . therefore , that information is unavailable for most urltoken content . however , the date of retrieval is often important . refer to each style\u2019s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates .\nin addition to the mla , chicago , and apa styles , your school , university , publication , or institution may have its own requirements for citations . therefore , be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nevi , an amazon company , was founded in 2005 under the name true knowledge . the team started out with a mission to make it possible to access the world ' s knowledge simply by asking for information using natural language .\nwe\u2019re part of the amazon alexa team based in amazon ' s innovative cambridge development centre , alongside other amazon teams including prime air , core machine learning , amazon devices and amazon web services .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nnon - migrant : no . all populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations .\nlocally migrant : no . no populations of this species make local extended movements ( generally less than 200 km ) at particular times of the year ( e . g . , to breeding or wintering grounds , to hibernation sites ) .\nlocally migrant : no . no populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km .\nnote : for many non - migratory species , occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations .\ncomments : the restricted range makes it vulnerable to any land use change or activity that would have an adverse effect on the talus slopes where it is found . toxic chemical application , runoff , or drift ( i . e . , herbicides , pesticides , fire - retardant slurries ) may have a detrimental impact on the species ( usfws , 1994 ) .\ncomments : potential threats include the proposed development of a nearby state park and use by the u . s . army for training exercises ( usfws , 1989 ) . currently , the u . s . army is no longer considering this option ( usfws , 1994 ) . recreational activities ( hiking , camping ) might potentially pose a threat to the species but this has not been confirmed ( usfws , 1994 ) . toxic chemical application , runoff , or drift ( i . e . , herbicides , pesticides , fire - retardant slurries ) may have a detrimental impact on the species ( usfws , 1994 ) .\ncomments : entire range is within the ozark national forest and is classified as a special interest area ( usfws , 1989 ; 1994 ) .\nthis species is endemic to arkansas in the united states . its natural habitat is rocky areas .\nthanks to efforts from the u . s . forest service , us fish and wildlife service , and the\nmollusc specialist group 2000 . inflectarius magazinensis . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 07 august 2007 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nturgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , p . m . mikkelsen , r . j . neves , c . f . e . roper , g . rosenberg , b . roth , a . scheltema , f . g . thompson , m . vecchione , and j . d . williams . 1998 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks . 2nd edition . american fisheries society special publication 26 , bethesda , maryland : 526 pp .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\npotential threats include the proposed development of a nearby state park and use by the u . s . army for training exercises ( usfws , 1989 ) . currently , the u . s . army is no longer considering this option ( usfws , 1994 ) . recreational activities ( hiking , camping ) might potentially pose a threat to the species but this has not been confirmed ( usfws , 1994 ) . toxic chemical application , runoff , or drift ( i . e . , herbicides , pesticides , fire - retardant slurries ) may have a detrimental impact on the species ( usfws , 1994 ) .\nthe restricted range makes it vulnerable to any land use change or activity that would have an adverse effect on the talus slopes where it is found . toxic chemical application , runoff , or drift ( i . e . , herbicides , pesticides , fire - retardant slurries ) may have a detrimental impact on the species ( usfws , 1994 ) .\noccurrences are based on some evidence of historical or current presence of single or multiple specimens , including live specimens or recently dead shells ( i . e . , soft tissue still attached without signs of external weathering or staining ) , at a given location with potentially recurring existence . weathered shells constitute a historic occurrence . evidence is derived from reliable published observation or collection data ; unpublished , though documented ( i . e . government or agency reports , web sites , etc . ) observation or collection data ; or museum specimen information .\nbarriers include barriers to dispersal such as the presence of permanent water bodies greater than 30 m in width , permanently frozen areas ( e . g . mountaintop glaciers ) which generally lack land snails ( frest and johannes , 1995 ) , or dry , xeric areas with less than six inches precipitation annually , as moisture is required for respiration and often hatching of eggs . for the various slugs and slug - like species ( families arionidae , philomycidae , limacidae , milacidae , testacellidae , veronicellidae ) , absence of suitable moisture , except for the most ubiquitous of species such as deroceras reticulatum ( m\u00fcller , 1774 ) , can serve as a barrier to movement ( frest and johannes , 1995 ) . members of these groups tend to have greater difficulty crossing areas of little moisture than other pulmonates . for tree snails ( family bulimulidae [ = orthalicidae ] ) , lack of appropriate arboreal habitat ( e . g . distance of greater than 500 m ) also serves as a separation barrier .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nemberton , k . c . 1991 . the genetic , allozymic and conchological evolution of the tribe mesodontini ( pulmonata : stylommatophora : polygyridae ) . malacologia , 33 ( 1 - 2 ) : 71 - 178 .\npilsbry , h . a . and j . ferriss . 1906 . mollusca of the ozarkian fauna . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 1906 : 529 - 567 .\nrobison , h . w . and r . t . allen . 1995 . only in arkansas : a study of the endemic plants and animals of the state . university of arkansas press , fayetteville , arkansas .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nsea turtles are graceful saltwater reptiles , well adapted to life at sea . unlike turtles on land , sea turtles cannot retract their legs and head . but with streamlined bodies and flipper - like limbs , they are graceful swimmers able to navigate across the oceans of the world .\nhere , we look at the seven species that can be found today , all of which are said to have been around since the time of the dinosaurs .\nfile : status iucn2 . 3 cr . svg critically endangered ( iucn 2 . 3 ) [ 1 ]\nlua error in package . lua at line 80 : module ' module : buffer ' not found .\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\ncrowd sourced content that is contributed to world heritage encyclopedia is peer reviewed and edited by our editorial staff to ensure quality scholarly research articles .\nby using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy . world heritage encyclopedia\u2122 is a registered trademark of the world public library association , a non - profit organization .\n, author of\nthe isle of palms ,\netc . wm . maginn , ll . d . j . g . lockh . . . . . . tum mare ; and shuns the forum and the gay potentiorum limina . blackwood ' s\nwas rapidly making way , at this time , and it has been stated by a . . . . . . and a vow to god made he , vovebat , diis iratis , tliat he would hunt in the\nvenare inter dies tres of cheviot within days three , in montibus . . . . . . mages ! in the interval , maginu continued to contribute extensively to the\n. the quantity , variety , spirit , and value of his articles made him . . . . . . es , the other breathes empyrean air remote from the hum of man , m rural\u2014or\n\u2014solitude . north . whew ! ambrose [ enthusiastically ) . for poetical in . . . . . . how different\n\u2014and awakes a passing sigh for the far - off highlands , whose\n- tops rise before you in a visionary dream . you know the wellington . . . . . . orth . people in trade\u2014and in a small way\u2014in the soft or hard line\u2014sugar or\nof natural history : including zoology , botany and geology : vol . 5 ( series 2 )\nof natural history , vol . v - second series author : w . jardine langu . . . . . . . . . . . . story , including zoology , botany , and geology . ( being a continuation of the '\nof botany and zoology , ' and of loudon and charlesworth ' s ' magazi . . . . . . nd odorous branches at our feet ; the nymphs that press with nimble step the\nthyme and purple heath - flower come not empty - handed , but scatter . . . . . . ars to me to be a mere variety of v . serpylli - folia , l . it differs from the\nform of that plant , known to the scotch botanists as v . humifusa . . . . . . of a dull dirty brown colour , and the texture to resemble the most beautiful\n. major parlby and mr . fox having jointly purchased the fish , pro . . . . . . state of the latter plant which i found abundantly in cultivated land in the\nregion of northern catalonia , has larger fruit than it is usu . . . . . . 10 . ] \u2014 t caudonia , n . g . , _ \u00ab r . fern . head and chest convex , very finely\n: head thick , a little broader than the chest : feelers slende . . . . . . et metatibiis viridibus , alis limpidis . head and chest convex , green , finely\n, rather thickly mr . f . walker on some new species of clialcid . . .\nof natural history , vol . x author : w . jardine language : english . . . . . . . . . . . . story . including zoology , botany , and geology . ( being a continuation of the '\nof botany and zoology , ' and of loudon and charlesworth ' s ' magazi . . . . . . wild specimen of alchemilla , gathered by the late mr . g . don upon the clova\n, in scotland , manyyears since , and con - sidered by him as a spe . . . . . . lly at the latter end of the month of march . in 18 ' 28 several were seen in a\nsituation near belfast by mr . wm . sinclaire and myself , on the . . . . . . ience , and to belong to a group , of the occurrence of which , either in these\nor in the plains at their base , i know of no other instance , sa . . . . . . rspersed erect spiny hairs ; punctate - striated , the interstices very finely\n; the third , fifth , and the seventh from the suture , raised ; . . . . . . irregular ridges , depressions , and vascular foramina , which give it a rough\n- like character . the lower jaw , which is preserved in the present . . . . . . nd crowded at the extremities , where , under a magnifier , the surface appears\nby minute wrinkles of the striae ; epidermis very thin , browni . . .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from world journals , database of academic research journals are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\narkansas has many plant and animal species , partly because of varied topography and a temperate climate . an abundance of wildlife and rich soils for planting crops drew many of the early european settlers to the state . many resources have been harvested or depleted . earlier generations did not take steps to ensure that certain species were protected as their numbers decreased , and today several plants and animals are classified as endangered , threatened , or rare .\nthe fish and wildlife service also maintains a list of \u201ccandidate\u201d species , which have enough information and scientific data to warrant proposing them for listing but have not been proposed . in some cases , conservation actions are taken to reduce or remove the threats to those species . the preventive approach is taken for species that can benefit from early recovery efforts .\nthe list is dynamic . species are added and removed , as well as reclassified or moved between endangered and threatened . as of june 2005 , 389 animals and 599 plants were listed as endangered , along with 129 animals and 147 plants listed as threatened , in the united states . an additional 286 plant and animal species are listed as candidates .\nfour plants from arkansas are listed as endangered , and one is listed as threatened . the four endangered plants are missouri bladderpod , pondberry , harperella , and running buffalo clover . the threatened plant is geocarpon . all of these were listed in the late 1980s . additional research and fieldwork supports the continued listing of all except the running buffalo clover , which also carries the footnote that it may be a historic occurrence in arkansas .\n2 . disjuncts are species whose populations occur in widely separated areas . an example is the sand cherry ( prunus pumila ) , a plant found primarily in the northern united states . isolated populations also occur in arkansas\u2019s grand prairie .\n3 . relics are plants and animals that probably were more common when the state\u2019s climate was much different . as the climate changed , populations of these species died out , but small populations of some species continue to cling to appropriate habitat in the state . the deep ravines and protected slopes of the boston mountains provide areas rich in relict flora . some of the key plants include shining clubmoss , french\u2019s shooting star , interrupted fern , and butternut .\n4 . peripherals are species reaching the edge of their range . they tend to become less common and ultimately may qualify as rare . the plains harvest mouse ( reithrodontomys montanus ) , found throughout the great plains , becomes progressively rare southward into arkansas .\n5 . habitat specificity includes certain species that are limited geographically by habitat requirements . for instance , the filmy fern ( trichomanes boschianum ) is found only in damp limestone grottoes or sandstone overhangs in deep canyons of the state\u2019sboston mountains .\n6 . human - induced rarity includes species that become rare as a result of human activities . loss of native habitat to such things as agricultural production and urban development has resulted in the decline of several species that were once more common in arkansas . the prairie mole cricket ( gryllotalpa major ) depends on tallgrass prairie . as prairies in arkansas were plowed for crop production , this species became progressively rare and is now restricted to isolated fragments of remaining habitat .\nbesides habitat loss , degradation of habitat from pollution can lead to species\u2019 declining to the point of becoming rare . many freshwater mussel species that occur in arkansas rivers and streams depend on high water quality . alterations of river courses through channelization , urban and agricultural runoff , and increased sediment loads have had a negative effect on many species .\nozark mountains the limestone glades of the ozarks support a variety of rare plants , including a yellow coneflower , a skullcap , and a phlox . the springfield plateau contains arkansas\u2019s only known location for white - flowered trillium , running strawberry bush , and lady\u2019s slipper .\nwest gulf coastal plain arkansas oak grows in the sandy soils where the gulf of mexico once reached . the area\u2019s alkaline soils have sodium levels that would be toxic to most plants but support the tiny herbaceous plant geocarpon in this area and a few sites in missouri .\nmississippi alluvial plain what could easily be considered arkansas\u2019s rarest plant occurs only in the grand prairie region of this plain . stern\u2019s medlar is a large flowering shrub that produces clusters of white flowers . this plant was first described to science ( that is , described in a written form recognized by the appropriate scientific community ) in 1990 and is known to occur nowhere else .\ncrowley \u2019s ridge crowley\u2019s ridge has several species , such as the tulip tree , that are found elsewhere only in the appalachians . among the rarest are the bigleaf magnolia , the climbing magnolia , and two species of turtlehead .\narkansas lists nineteen marsh and shore birds as rare , including the interior least tern , the great egret , the snowy egret , the wood stork , and the least bittern . the list includes seven sparrows and seven warblers . other birds include the anhinga , the black - billed cuckoo , the willow flycatcher , and the rusty blackbird .\nseven bat species dominate the list of rare mammals . several rodents , such as shrews and harvest mice , are listed . larger mammals on the edge of their range are the eastern spotted skunk and the american badger .\nfoti , thomas , and gerald hanson . arkansas and the land . fayetteville : university of arkansas press , 1992 .\n\u201cthreatened and endangered species . \u201d arkansas game and fish commission . urltoken ( accessed january 13 , 2015 ) .\n\u00a92018 the central arkansas library system - all rights reserved - web services by aristotle web design .\nfinal determination that seven eastern u . s . land snails are endangered or threatened species\ninitiation of a 5 - year review of nine northeastern species . notice of initiation of reviews ; request for information ."]}
{"id": 443, "summary": [{"text": "nassarius distortus , common name : the distorted nassa , is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family nassariidae , the nassa mud snails or dog whelks . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "nassarius distortus", "paragraphs": ["explore what eol knows about nassarius distortus ( a . adams , 1852 ) .\nnassarius monile ( kiener , 1834 ) : synonym of nassarius distortus ( a . adams , 1852 )\nworms - world register of marine species - nassarius distortus ( a . adams , 1852 )\ndistorted nassa - nassarius distortus ( a . adams , 1852 ) - overview - encyclopedia of life\nworms - world register of marine species - nassarius ( niotha ) distortus ( a . adams , 1852 )\nnassarius distortus - nassariidae - philippines seashell - 19 . 5mm - lot 2 on ebid united states | 136937286\nnassarius plicatellus adams : synonym of nassarius niveus ( a . adams , 1852 )\nnassarius weyersi craven : synonym of nassarius pumilio ( e . a . smith , 1872 )\nnassarius ( nassodonta ) h . adams , 1867 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nlarge speckled nassarius snail ( nassarius sp ) common name : large speckled nassarius snails scientific name : nassarius sp size available : ~ 1 . 5 - 2 inch minimum tank . . .\nnassarius ( tritia ) a . adams , 1853 : synonym of nassarius ( hinia ) gray , 1847 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( niotha ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 accepted as nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nlike other invertebrates , nassarius distortus is very sensitive to copper - based medications and high nitrate levels . the super tongan nassarius snail requires a gradual acclimation period , preferably the drip acclimation method , since it is intolerant of even the smallest fluctuations in water parameters . the super nassarius snail is extremely difficult to breed in captivity .\nnassarius fenestratus ( marratt , 1877 ) : synonym of nassarius albescens gemmuliferus ( a . adams , 1852 )\nnassarius gemmuliferus a . adams , 1852 : synonym of nassarius albescens gemmuliferus ( a . adams , 1852 )\nnassarius ( cryptonassarius ) watson , r . b . , 1882 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( hima ) gray , 1852 ex leach , ms . : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( naytia ) h . adams & a . adams 1853 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( reticunassa ) iredale , 1936 : synonym of nassarius ( hima ) gray , 1852 ex leach , ms . alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( mirua ) marwick , 1931 : synonym of nassarius ( hima ) gray , 1852 ex leach , ms . ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( caesia ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( niotha ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( phrontis ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( telasco ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( uzita ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( zeuxis ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( austronassaria ) c . laseron & j . laseron , 1956 : synonym of nassarius ( plicarcularia ) thiele , 1929 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( bathynassa ) ladd , 1976 : synonym of nassarius ( zeuxis ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( demondia ) addicott , 1956 : synonym of nassarius ( caesia ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( glabrinassa ) shuto , 1969 : synonym of nassarius ( zeuxis ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( schizopyga ) conrad , 1856 : synonym of nassarius ( caesia ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( tarazeuxis ) iredale , 1936 : synonym of nassarius ( telasco ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( tavanothia ) iredale , 1936 : synonym of nassarius ( niotha ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( usita ) noszky , 1936 : synonym of nassarius ( uzita ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( venassa ) martens , 1881 : synonym of nassarius ( zeuxis ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius unicolor kiener , l . c . , 1834 : synonym of nassarius micans ( a . adams , 1852 )\nnassarius ( tritonella ) a . adams , 1852 : synonym of nassarius ( hima ) gray , 1852 ex leach , ms . ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( amycla ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : synonym of nassarius ( gussonea ) monterosato , 1912\n( of nassarius ( niotha ) distortus ( a . adams , 1852 ) ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]\nnassarius ( zaphon ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : synonym of nassarius ( caesia ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius snail ( nassarius vibex ) the nassarius snail has a little body with a big appetite - going around your tank foraging for any decaying waste , leftover food and nasty fish excrement in your . . .\n( of nassarius ( niotha ) distortus ( a . adams , 1852 ) ) tsuchiya k . ( 2017 ) . family nassariidae . pp . 910 - 917 , in : t . okutani ( ed . ) , marine mollusks in japan , ed . 2 . 2 vols . tokai university press . 1375 pp . [ details ]\nthe super nassarius snail from tonga combines unique beauty with unparalleled scavenging abilities . its oval , spiral shell is often said to resemble an olive pit , but it is much more ornate and elegant in its beauty . the most striking physical characteristic , however , is the long , tube - like siphon that protrudes from one end of the shell . this siphon is used to breathe while the super nassarius snail is buried in the substrate foraging for food . in addition to beauty , the nassarius distortus is an ideal detritus eater that also helps maintain adequate oxygen levels in the substrate as they burrow and sift through the sand .\nnassa tegula reeve , 1853 : synonym of nassarius striatus ( c . b . adams , 1852 )\nnassa miser ( dall , 1908 ) : synonym of nassarius coppingeri ( e . a . smith , 1881 )\nthe super nassarius snail from tonga combines unique beauty with unparalleled scavenging abilities . its oval , spiral shell is often said to resemble an olive pit , but it is much more ornate and elegant in its beauty . the most striking physical characteristic , however , is the long , tube - like siphon that protrudes from one end of the shell . this siphon is used to breathe while the super nassarius snail is buried in the substrate foraging for food . in addition to beauty , the nassarius distortus is an ideal detritus eater that also helps maintain adequate oxygen levels in the substrate as they burrow and sift through the sand . shop now : urltoken looking for expert information on all types of pets ? visit urltoken\nnassarius ( polinices , nassarius ) is prey of : pagurus cancer myoxocephalus tautogolabrus pseudopleuronectes asterias based on studies in : usa : massachusetts , cape ann ( littoral , mudflat ) this list may not be complete but is based on published studies .\nglowing marginella snail marginella plumiosum . 25 - . 5 inch in length sand sifting like nassarius snails very pretty - glassy shells\nnassarius ( polinices , nassarius ) preys on : solemya ensis macoma mya gemma onoba littorina littorea based on studies in : usa : massachusetts , cape ann ( littoral , mudflat ) this list may not be complete but is based on published studies .\nthe shells of various species of nassarius are popular with shell collectors , and are sometimes used in jewelry and other forms of decoration .\nnassarius vibex is a species which is often selected for marine aquaria . it is often confused with nassarius obsoletus , a cooler water snail less suited to tropical marine aquarium temperatures . in aquaria , the nassarius is considered nearly indispensable for keeping sand beds clean and healthy , as these snails tend to burrow and plow through the upper layer in a conch - like fashion , keeping algae and detritus from building up visibly on the surface .\nnassa lamarck , 1799 : established for the species buccinum mutabile linnaeus , 1758 , which is now classified as a synonym of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 in the family nassariidae .\nthe super tongan nassarius snail has an acute sense of smell and can quickly detect food when added to your aquarium . it is definitely fun to watch the sand boil with activity as the super tongan nassarius snail emerges from the substrate in search for the source of the scent . super tongan nassarius snails can typically find enough food in most marine aquariums with well - established sand beds . however , if food levels are not adequate , supplement their diet with frozen meaty foods , such as brine or mysis shrimp or pieces of fish or scallops .\naccording to van regteren altena et al . ( 1965 ) and van aartsen et al . ( 1984 ) hinia gray , 1847 is considered as a subgenus of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1806 .\nthe name is derived from the latin word\nnassa\n, meaning a wickerbasket with a narrow neck , for catching fish . nassarius would then mean\nsomeone who uses such a wickerbasket for catching fish\n.\nmost nassarius species are very active scavengers , feeding on crabs and carrion as dead fish , etc . they often burrow into marine substrates and then wait with only their siphon protruding , until they smell nearby food .\n( of nassarius monilis ( kiener , 1834 ) ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]\namong the many species of nassarius snails found in the coastal zones of most oceans , the super nassarius snail is one of the largest and can grow up to 1\nin size . this size advantage over their much smaller relatives makes them ideal inhabitants in larger marine reef systems . however , since they spend most of their time buried in your aquarium substrate feeding on waste , uneaten food , and other detritus , they require a well - established aquarium with live rock and sufficient sand substrate .\na scavenging snail that eats dead organisms in the aquarium and helps to keep nitrite levels down . they like to burrow into the sand and search for food . the tonga nassarius snail has a very acute sense of smell and can find a dead creature to eat in moments .\nbouchet , p . ; gofas , s . ( 2010 ) . nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1806 . in : bouchet , p . ; gofas , s . ; rosenberg , g . ( 2010 ) world marine mollusca database . accessed through : world register of marine species at urltoken on 2010 - 11 - 30\n( of nassarius monilis ( kiener , 1834 ) ) dautzenberg , ph . ( 1929 ) . contribution \u00e0 l ' \u00e9tude de la faune de madagascar : mollusca marina testacea . faune des colonies fran\u00e7aises , iii ( fasc . 4 ) . soci\u00e9t\u00e9 d ' editions g\u00e9ographiques , maritimes et coloniales : paris . 321 - 636 , plates iv - vii pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nhaitao li ( \u674e\u6d77\u6d9b ) , duan lin ( \u6797\u7aef ) , hongda fang ( \u65b9\u5b8f\u8fbe ) , aijia zhu ( \u6731\u827e\u5609 ) and yang gao ( \u9ad8\u9633 ) , species identification and phylogenetic analysis of genus nassarius ( nassariidae ) based on mitochondrial genes , chinese journal of oceanology and limnology , volume 28 , number 3 / may , 2010 , pp . 565 - 572 , doi 10 . 1007 / s00343 - 010 - 9031 - 4\nto biodiversity heritage library ( 11 publications ) ( from synonym nassa distorta a . adams , 1852 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 2 publications ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 48 publications ) ( from synonym buccinum coronatum quoy & gaimard , 1833 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 9 publications ) ( from synonym buccinum monile kiener , 1834 ) to encyclopedia of life to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection ( from synonym nassarius monilis ( kiener , 1834 ) )\n( of buccinum coronatum quoy & gaimard , 1833 ) quoy j . r . c . & gaimard j . p . ( 1832 - 1835 ) . voyage de d\u00e9couvertes de l '\nastrolabe\nex\u00e9cut\u00e9 par ordre du roi , pendant les ann\u00e9es 1826 - 1829 , sous le commandement de m . j . dumont d ' urville . zoologie . paris : tastu . 1 : i - l 1 - 264 ; 2 ( 1 ) : 1 - 321 [ 1832 ] ; 2 ( 2 ) : 321 - 686 [ 1833 ] ; 3 ( 1 ) : 1 - 366 [ 1834 ] ; 3 ( 2 ) : 367 - 954 [ 1835 ] ; atlas ( mollusques ) : pls 1 - 93 [ 1833 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ncernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of buccinum coronatum quoy & gaimard , 1833 ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]\n( of nassa distorta a . adams , 1852 ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]\n( of nassa lachrymosa reeve , 1853 ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]\n( of nassa ( alectrion ) monilis ( kiener , 1834 ) ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]\n( of nassa ( alectryon ) monilis ( kiener , 1834 ) ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]\n( of nassa monile ( kiener , 1834 ) ) dautzenberg , ph . ( 1929 ) . contribution \u00e0 l ' \u00e9tude de la faune de madagascar : mollusca marina testacea . faune des colonies fran\u00e7aises , iii ( fasc . 4 ) . soci\u00e9t\u00e9 d ' editions g\u00e9ographiques , maritimes et coloniales : paris . 321 - 636 , plates iv - vii pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of nassa monile ( kiener , 1834 ) ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]\n( of buccinum monile kiener , 1834 ) dautzenberg , ph . ( 1929 ) . contribution \u00e0 l ' \u00e9tude de la faune de madagascar : mollusca marina testacea . faune des colonies fran\u00e7aises , iii ( fasc . 4 ) . soci\u00e9t\u00e9 d ' editions g\u00e9ographiques , maritimes et coloniales : paris . 321 - 636 , plates iv - vii pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of buccinum monile kiener , 1834 ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]\ntsuchiya k . ( 2017 ) . family nassariidae . pp . 910 - 917 , in : t . okutani ( ed . ) , marine mollusks in japan , ed . 2 . 2 vols . tokai university press . 1375 pp . [ details ]\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\ncernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . < i > bulletin of the auckland institute and museum < / i > 14 : 1 - 356 .\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) ( 2008 ) checklist of marine biota of china seas : china science press . 1267 pp\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . < em > china science press . < / em > 1267 pp .\ntsuchiya k . ( 2017 ) . family nassariidae . pp . 910 - 917 , in : t . okutani ( ed . ) , < i > marine mollusks in japan < / i > , ed . 2 . 2 vols . tokai university press . 1375 pp .\nnew super mario bros . u - layer - cake desert ( complete world 2 )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nversion 43 . 0 went live 11 / 6 / 2018 - i hope that the majority of issues have been fixed . my email address is on the home page if you see anything wrong .\nbuccinum coronatum quoy , h . e . t . & j . p . gaimard , 1833\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\nthank you for your contribution to the improvement of the inpn . the information submitted has been sent to an expert for verification and correction .\nwarning : the data available reflects the progression status of knowledge or the availability of the inventories . it should never be considered as comprehensive .\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ntiger sand conch strombus spp despite their name , they are peaceful toward other tank mates . they are excellent sand sifters , and are very beneficial in the reef aquarium . as they . . .\nlive copepods for sale & amphipods make great fish and coral food * * * * * * please note - this item does not ship free by itself . you must purchase a package that comes with free . . .\ncerith snail ( cerithiidae sp . ) this all around fantastic saltwater snail is a favorite among aquarists . cerith snails eat detritus , fish waste , algae , and uneaten food . cerith snails will scale . . .\nthe saltwater peppermint shrimp ( lysmata wurdemanni ) is also known as veined shrimp and caribbean cleaner shrimp . it is a natural predator of the nuisance anemone - aiptasia , while some peppermint . . .\nthe blueberry gorgonian is a filter feeder which requires strong non lateral flow and phytoplankton / zooplankton to be fed to the tank at least once per week . due to the fact it is non . . .\ntapestry nerite snail ( nerita sp . ) common name : tapestry nerite snail scientific name : nerita sp size available : ~ 1 / 4 inch minimum tank size : 20 gallons food / diet : . . .\nthe blue leg hermit crab ( clibanarius tricolor ) is a nice addition to any saltwater reef tank because it is extremely good detritus eater and will aid in the removal of excess food , waste and algae . . .\ndepth range based on 3605 specimens in 218 taxa . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 1024 samples . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 0 - 80000 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 4 . 888 - 28 . 540 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 033 - 33 . 876 salinity ( pps ) : 18 . 065 - 38 . 201 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 0 . 907 - 6 . 964 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 063 - 2 . 633 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 380 - 83 . 712 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : 0 - 80000 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 4 . 888 - 28 . 540 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 033 - 33 . 876 salinity ( pps ) : 18 . 065 - 38 . 201 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 0 . 907 - 6 . 964 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 063 - 2 . 633 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 380 - 83 . 712 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\nr . w . dexter , the marine communities of a tidal inlet at cape ann , massachusetts : a study in bio - ecology , ecol . monogr . 17 : 263 - 294 , from p . 284 ( 1947 ) .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . no available public dna sequences . download fasta file\nspecies within this genus are found worldwide . these snails usually live on mud flats or sand flats , intertidally or subtidally .\nthe shells of species in this genus have a relatively high cyrtoconoid ( approaching a conical shape but with convex sides ) spire and a siphonal notch .\nis believed to be 90 , 000 years old . a further group of pierced shells , some with red\n) . these beads had previously been thought to be the oldest examples of jewelry .\n. however , this division is difficult to define , resulting in much confusion . even\nshows that the division into these subgenera appears to be uncertain and unreliable . there seem to be two groups within the genus\n. in the end , the molecular phylogeny did not match the previous morphological phylogeny .\n, most of which have become synonyms . the following species are accepted names according to the\nbouzouggar , a . , barton , n . , vanhaeren , m . , d ' errico , f . , collcutt , s . , higham , t . , hodge , e . , parfitt , s . , rhodes , e . , schwenninger , j . - l . , stringer , c . , turner , e . , ward , s . , moutmir , a . and stambouli , a . 2007 .\n82 , 000 - year - old shell beads from north africa and implications for the origins of modern human behavior\nproceedings of the national academy of sciences , june 4 , 2007 ; urltoken\ncernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356\nbernard , p . a . ( ed . ) ( 1984 ) . coquillages du gabon [ shells of gabon ] . pierre a . bernard : libreville , gabon . 140 , 75 plates pp\nkay c . vaught ( 1989 ) . classification of the living mollusca . isbn 978 - 0 - 915826 - 22 - 3 .\nwolff , w . j . ; duiven , p . ; esselink , p . ; gueve , a . ( 1993 ) . biomass of macrobenthic tidal flat fauna of the banc d ' arguin , mauritania . hydrobiologia 258 ( 1 - 3 ) : 151 - 163\nnassa r\u00f6ding , 1798 for mainly muricid species with the type species : nassa picta r\u00f6ding , 1798 ( = nassa serta ( brugui\u00e8re , 1798 ) .\nin the 19th and much of the 20th century , all species that were added to the genus nassa were nassa mud snails belonging to the family nassariidae . after the rediscovery of r\u00f6ding ' s catalogue of his collection museum boltenianum sive catalogus cimeliorum e tribus regnis natur\u00e6 qu\u00e6 olim collegerat joa . fried bolten , m . d . p . d . per xl . annos proto physicus hamburgensis . pars secunda continens conchylia sive testacea univalvia , bivalvia & multivalvia , the muricid genus nassa r\u00f6ding , 1798 was given priority over the genus nassa named by lamarck .\nnassa r\u00f6ding , 1798 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 24 february 2011 .\nnassa francolina ( brugui\u00e8re , 1789 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa serta ( brugui\u00e8re , 1789 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa situla ( reeve , 1846 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa tuamotuensis houart , 1996 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa kraussiana dunker . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa lathraia . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa munda . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa obockensis . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa optima sowerby , 1903 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa pulla ( linnaeus , 1758 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa steindachneri . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa stiphra . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa xesta . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nhouart r . ( 1996 ) the genus nassa r\u00f6ding 1798 in the indo - west pacific ( gastropoda : prosobranchia : muricidae : rapaninae ) . archiv f\u00fcr molluskenkunde 126 ( 1 - 2 ) : 51 - 63\nitem is from australia , bids are aud ( a $ ) , usd ( $ ) prices are estimates .\naustralian customers can pay by direct bank deposit ( preferred ) , paypal or cheque . overseas customers please pay by paypal unless other arrangements have been made\nprices quoted below are for regular airmail . please note that we can register and / or insure on larger orders . please enquire .\ncombining items in the one package is the most economical way to buy as postage stays the same up to 500grams .\nas postage figures vary dramatically from state to state and country to country please message us if you need an accurate quote .\nwe offer a money - back guarantee if not happy with the item . money will be refunded once the item has been returned in its original condition . return postage is the buyers responsibility .\nthis is a single item listing . if an auction is running , the winning bidder will be the highest bidder .\nso open for only 17 days in february - 232 items sold . over \u00a3400 worth sold\n41 created mon 09 jul 2018 13 : 52 : 52 ( edt ) . copyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 ebid ltd"]}
{"id": 446, "summary": [{"text": "hungerford 's crawling water beetle ( brychius hungerfordi ) is a critically endangered member of the haliplidae family of water beetles .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the us fish and wildlife service draft recovery plan for the species published august 2004 estimates roughly 1000 individuals are present in the wild .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "in 2010 , a five-year summary report by the united states fish and wildlife service found the population to be essentially unchanged .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the species was first discovered by paul j. spangler in 1954 . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "hungerford ' s crawling water beetle", "paragraphs": ["the hungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle and its habitat are protected under ontario\u2019s endangered species act .\nno critical habitat rules have been published for the hungerford ' s crawling water beetle .\nthe hungerford ' s crawling water beetle physical description hungerford ' s crawling water beetles are small ( less than \u00bc inch long ) yellowish brown water beetles with irregular dark markings and stripes along the back . natural habitat step 3 step 4 step 5\nhungerford ' s crawling water beetle was added to the list of endangered and threatened wildlife and plants on april 6 , 1994 .\nhungerford ' s crawling water beetle .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nmichigan dnr fisheries biologist tim cwalinski examines the endangered hungerford ' s crawling water beetle . at 4 mm . in length it is sometimes hard to spot .\nas an adult , hungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle is a small yellowish - brown insect , about four millimetres long , with irregular dark stripes on its back .\nhaack , r . a . 1993 . hungerford ' s crawling water beetle , brychius hungerfordi spangler . fish and wildlife serv . status summary . 3pp .\nhungerford ' s crawling water beetles are small ( less than \u00bc inch long ) yellowish brown water beetles with irregular dark markings and stripes along the back .\nfootnote 23 hine\u2019s emerald , hungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle , skillet clubtail , blue felt lichen , spring salamander ( adirondack / appalachian population ) , jefferson salamander , butler\u2019s gartersnake , pitcher\u2019s thistle , dwarf lake iris and purple twayblade .\nhungerford ' s crawling water beetle .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nthe primary threat to hungerford\u0092s crawling water beetle is modification of its habitat . actions that are potentially harmful include dredging , channelization , bank stabilization , and impoundment .\none comment was received supporting the listing of all species included in the december 2011 consultation document , but no comments specific to hungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle were received .\nhungerford ' s crawling water beetles are found in the cool riffles of clean , slightly alkaline streams . all streams where this beetle has been found have moderate to fast water flow , good stream aeration , inorganic substrate , and alkaline water conditions . the highest densities of hungerford ' s crawling water beetles have been found below beaver dams or immediately below structures that provide similar conditions .\nmichigan department of natural resources ,\nhungerford ' s crawling water beetle ( * brychius hungerfordi * )\n( on - line ) . accessed february 20 , 2003 at urltoken .\nu . s . fish & wildlife service , 1994 .\ndetermination of endangered status for hungerford ' s crawling water beetle\n( on - line ) . accessed feb . 15 , 2001 at urltoken .\nalthough the hungerford ' s crawling water beetle was categorized as endangered on march 7 , 1994 , under the provisions of the u . s . endangered species act , it is currently not protected in canada .\nhyde , d , and m . smar . 2000 . special animal abstract for brychius hungerfordi ( hungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle ) . michigan natural features inventory , lansing , mi . 4pp .\ncosewic assessment and status report on the hungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle brychius hungerfordi in canada\n( 2011 - 09 - 09 ) ( pdf format , 2 , 127 . 45 kb )\nhungerford\u2019s crawling water beetles live in small and medium - sized streams that have cool , fast - flowing water . they are often found immediately downstream from beaver dams , culverts and artificial barriers .\nthe hungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle is on wildlife preservation canada\u2019s priority list for potential future action . find out how we are currently saving other canadian insects , such as the taylor\u2019s checkerspot butterfly and yellow - banded bumble bee , and how you can make a difference .\nfollowing the publication of the proposed order in the canada gazette , part i , one comment was received supporting the listing of all the species . no comments specific to the hungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle were received .\nresearch on the hungerford\u0092s crawling water beetle will be conducted on its distribution , life history , and threats to survival . this information is needed so that occupied sites can be managed and suitable unoccupied sites identified for potential reintroductions .\nlearn more about the hungerford\u0092s crawling water beetle and other endangered and threatened species . understand how the destruction of habitat leads to loss of endangered and threatened species and plant and animal diversity . tell others about what you have learned .\nlisting the hungerford\u0092s crawling water beetle required the u . s . fish & wildlife service to prepare a recovery plan to identify and prioritize conservation measures that are needed to bring this species back from the brink of extinction . a recovery plan was published september 2006 .\nthe east branch of the maple river , which is the site of the largest population of hungerford ' s crawling water beetle , is a small stream surrounded by forest with a partially - open canopy so sunlight reaches the water . the stream is cool ( 59 - 68\nthe hungerford ' s crawling water beetle is protected under the federal species at risk act ( sara ) . more information about sara , including how it protects individual species , is available in the species at risk act : a guide .\na short stretch of the north saugeen river just over the bruce county border at the chatsworth community of scone is home to one of the most critically endangered of all insects : the hungerford ' s crawling water beetle . the only known population of hungerford ' s crawling water beetles outside of the united states was discovered near there in 1986 when 42 beetles were identified at a site downstream from the community ' s dam . an unspecified number of beetles were last recorded in 2001 , but surveys in 2002 uncovered no specimens . as a result , the status of this population of hungerford ' s crawling water beetles is uncertain at present . in 2011 , there were no signs of the beetle .\nremoving beaver dams may remove habitat for the beetle . the downstream side of beaver dams provide riffles and highly aerated water that are key components of the hungerford\u0092s habitat . because so few populations of this beetle remain , dam removal could cause local extinctions . ironically , new impoundments caused by beaver dams could also eliminate hungerford\u0092s habitat .\nthe ministry of natural resources tracks species at risk such as hungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle . you can use a handy online form to report your sightings to the natural heritage information centre . photographs with specific locations or mapping coordinates are always helpful . urltoken\nprivate land owners have a very important role to play in species recovery . if you find hungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle on your property , you may be eligible for stewardship programs that support the protection and recovery of species at risk and their habitats .\nthe provincial recovery strategy for hungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle calls for a number of conservation measures , including identifying threats to existing populations , working with farmers to reduce agricultural runoff , working with landowners to steward aquatic habitat and investigating the possibility of translocating beetles .\nhungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle is likely a glacial relict \u2014 a species that survived from the ice age in an isolated habitat \u2014 found only in a few rivers in ontario and michigan . small changes to their aquatic homes could have big impacts on this globally rare insect .\nhungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle is a small insect which is 3 . 7\u20134 . 4 mm in length and yellowish - brown in colour with irregular dark stripes on the back . the larvae are long and slender with a distinctive curved hook at the tip of the abdomen .\nwe , the u . s . fish and wildlife service ( service ) , announce availability of the approved recovery plan for the hungerford ' s crawling water beetle ( brychius hungerfordi ) , a species that is federally listed as endangered under the endangered species act of 1973 , as amended ( act ) .\nhungerford ' s crawling water beetles are found in only five isolated locations in michigan and ontario , canada . the disjunct distribution of this species suggests that it is a relict from glacial periods when cool , fast moving streams were more prevalent and the beetle was more widespread .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 7 march 1994\nendangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; determination of endangered status for hunger - ford ' s crawling water beetle .\nfederal register 59 ( 44 ) : 10580 - 10584 .\nspangler , p . 1954 . a new species of water beetle from michigan ( coleoptera : haliplidae ) .\nhungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle is a specialist of small to medium - sized streams characterized by a moderate to fast flow , good stream aeration , cool temperatures ( 15\u00b0c to 25\u00b0c ) , inorganic substrate , and alkaline water conditions . the presence of the alga dichotomosiphon may be a critical component of the habitat because the beetle larvae appear to be very dependent upon it as a food source .\nalthough the habitat requirements of hungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle are not fully understood , it is likely that threats to this species include any activities that degrade water quality or remove or disrupt the pools and riffle environment of streams in which this species lives . such threats may include stream modification ( e . g . , channelization , dredging , bank stabilization , erosion control , and impoundment ) , pollution , impacts to the groundwater quality and quantity and invasive alien species . alternations to stream flow as a result of waterpower development , waterpower management regimes , permits to take water ( either surface water directly from the stream or groundwater that may feed the stream ) , discharge of storm water and other activities may also impact hungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle populations by altering the hydrology , temperature , substrate and water chemistry of the stream . these activities all currently occur in the three canadian watersheds where hungerford\u2019s crawling water beetles are found . such activities and the resulting changes to stream flow could also impact the shoreline pupation sites of this beetle ( e . g . , through erosion and / or flooding ) . one canadian location is adjacent to lands where an expansion to a landfill site is proposed . such an expansion could have impacts on groundwater quality which may result in negative direct or indirect effects upon the hungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle population at this location . ( updated 2017 / 08 / 30 )\nprotection of the existing sites that support the hungerford\u0092s is essential because so few populations of the species remain .\nalthough streams in the great lakes states , especially michigan , wisconsin and minnesota , have been extensively surveyed during the past 30 years , no additional populations of hungerford ' s crawling water beetle have been discovered . the survey resulted in the discovery of the only known population in canada .\nhungerford ' s crawling water beetle is a small ( 0 . 2 in or 4 . 2 mm ) , distinctive , yellowish brown beetle with irregular dark markings and longitudinal stripes over the elytra , each of which is comprised of a series of fine , closely - spaced and darkly - pigmented punctures . males tend to be smaller than females .\nbrychius hungerfordi , or hungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle , is a small insect 3 . 7 - 4 . 4 mm long and yellowish - brown in colour with irregular dark stripes on the back . the larvae are long and slender with a distinctive curved hook at the tip of the abdomen .\nhyde , d . , m . smar . 2000 .\nspecial animal abstract for * brychius hungerfordi * ( hungerford ' s crawling water beetle ) . michigan natural features inventory , mi . 4 pp .\n( on - line ) . accessed february 20 , 2003 at urltoken .\nbrychius hungerfordi , or hungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle , is a small insect 3 . 7 - 4 . 4 mm long and yellowish - brown in colour with irregular dark stripes on the back . the larvae are long and slender with a distinctive curved hook at the tip of the abdomen .\nthe hungerford\u0092s crawling water beetle ( brychius hungerfordi ) is an endangered species . endangered species are animals and plants that are in danger of becoming extinct . threatened species are animals and plants that are likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future . identifying , protecting and restoring endangered and threatened species is the objective of the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s endangered species program .\nthe hungerford ' s crawling water beetle is a small , yellowish brown beetle ( 3 . 8 - 4 . 3 mm long ) with irregular dark markings and narrow , longitudinal , finely perforated stripes on the elytra ( wing coverings ) . in addition , the sides of the pronotum ( dorsal plate behind the head ) are nearly parallel for the basal two - thirds and are widened laterally .\nthe following species have not been found on federal lands , were not previously listed in schedule 1 of sara and were assessed by cosewic as endangered , threatened or extirpated : american burying beetle , eastern baccharis , hine\u2019s emerald , hungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle , and northern dusky salamander ( carolinian population ) . one species \u2014 the spring salamander \u2014 is being divided into two populations and the newly recognized adirondack / appalachian population will be designated as threatened .\nbrychius hungerfordi , or hungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle , is a small insect 3 . 7 - 4 . 4 mm long and yellowish - brown in colour with irregular dark stripes on the back . the larvae are long and slender with a distinctive curved hook at the tip of the abdomen . ( updated 2017 / 08 / 30 )\nthe objective of the recovery plan is to provide a framework for the recovery of hungerford ' s crawling water beetle so that protection by the act is no longer necessary . we may consider hungerford ' s crawling water beetle for reclassification from endangered to threatened status when the likelihood of the species becoming extinct in the foreseeable future has been eliminated by achievement of the following interim criteria : ( 1 ) life history , ecology , population biology , and habitat requirements are understood well enough to fully evaluate threats ; and ( 2 ) a minimum of five u . s . populations , in at least three different watersheds , have had stable or increasing populations for at least 10 years , and at least one population is considered viable .\nhungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle has four life stages : egg , larva , pupa and adult . the egg stage has not been described nor has egg - laying been observed for hungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle , but based upon studies of closely related species , females probably lay their eggs in spring or early summer on or in aquatic plants . the larvae are herbivorous and a recent study suggests that they may specialize upon the filamentous alga dichotomosiphon tuberosus . the larvae probably feed and grow until the fall when they then move from the water to damp soil along the edge of the river where they probably remain over the winter . the following spring , they likely transform from larvae to adults before returning to the water . the adult beetles may live as long as 18 months . ( updated 2017 / 08 / 30 )\ndespite their aquatic habitat , hungerford\u2019s crawling water beetles are actually clumsy swimmers , preferring to crawl when possible . the tiny beetle was first documented in canada in 1986 and measures about four millimetres long , adding to the difficulty of locating it . studies show that the larvae feed on an algae called dichotomosiphon . adults may live up to 18 months .\nthreats to this wildlife species include any activities that degrade water quality , or remove or disrupt the pools and the shallow rapids in streams in which it lives . other threats include alternations to stream flow as a result of waterpower development and management ; removal of large amounts of water ; discharge of storm water ; and other activities that will alter the hydrology , temperature , substrate and water chemistry of the stream . in addition , a proposed landfill expansion near the saugeen river location could have impacts on groundwater quality , which may result in negative direct or indirect effects upon the hungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle population at this location .\nthe most important regulatory control for protecting this species is the issuance of permits that would modify the beetle ' s habitat .\nkeller , t . a . , m . grant , b . ebbers and r . vande kopple . 1998 . new record for the endangered crawling water beetle , brychius hungerfordi ( coleoptera : haliplidae ) in michigan including water chemistry data . great lakes entomologist 31 : 137 - 139 .\nthe survival of hungerford\u2019s crawling water beetles is intimately tied with the streams they occupy . as such , agricultural runoff may threaten this species . waterpower development projects , permits to take water and other projects that alter the streams\u2019 flow , temperature and chemistry could also have an impact , while non - native fish such as brown trout may prey on the beetles .\nhungerford ' s crawling water beetle is thought to live longer than one year and to overwinter as larvae in the dense aquatic vegetation at the stream ' s edge . as with other halipilidae , larvae probably go through three instar phases and pupate in the moist soil above the water line . adults and larvae are seldom captured together , and they appear to inhabit different microhabitats in the stream . adults are more apt to be found in stronger currents , foraging for algae on gravel and stone .\nsara\u2019s general prohibitions are not applicable ( sara\u2019s general prohibitions do not apply for species of special concern ) .\nbeutel , rolf georg , frank h\u00fcnefeld , and bernhard van vondel . 2011 . haliplidae . crawling water beetles . version 08 february 2011 ( under construction ) .\nthe hungerford ' s crawling water beetle inhabits relatively cool ( 15 - 25 degrees c ) , fast flowing alkaline streams with sand and gravel substrates , often occurring in reaches with an open to partially open canopy just below beaver dams or similar human - made structures . adults prefer gravel and cobble riffles while larvae occupy areas with slower current and dense growth of microalgae , especially chara .\na globally rare species , this beetle was first documented in canada in 1986 .\nin ontario , this beetle\u2019s range is restricted to three rivers in bruce county . it has also been found in five rivers in northern michigan . these are the only places in the world where this beetle is found .\ngiven the rate of recreational development and the demands for fish , wildlife , and forest management in northern michigan , unknown populations of hungerford ' s crawling water beetle could be easily extirpated before they are discovered , increasing the need to protect existing populations . because only three populations of this species are known to exist , loss of even a few individuals could severely affect the continued existence of the species .\nspangler , p . j . 1954 . a new species of water beetle from michigan ( coleoptera , haliplidae ) . entomological news 65 : 113 - 117 .\nhilsenhoff , w . l . and w . u . brigham . 1978 . crawling water beetles of wisconsin . great lakes entomologist 6 ( 1 ) : 1 - 14 .\nthreats to this beetle are believed to include activities that harm its habitat , such as agricultural practices that degrade water quality , alterations to stream flow , and beaver control and dam removal . the beetle may also be preyed on by introduced fish such as brown trout .\nfish introductions or removals may pose a threat to the hungerford\u0092s . the introduction of brown trout , for example , can result in increased predation of the beetle . other management practices , such as the use of chemical treatments , may also be harmful to this rare species .\nhungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle is endemic to the great lakes region , with approximately 40 % of its distribution in canada , all in ontario . the species is restricted to five streams in three counties ( emmet , montmorency and presque isle ) in northern michigan and to three rivers ( the rankin , the north saugeen and the saugeen ) in bruce county , ontario . over the last 10 years , the possible loss of one of three locations in ontario has been documented .\ngrant , m . , r . vande kopple and b . ebbers . 2000 . new distribution record for the endangered crawling water beetle , brychius hungerfordi ( coleoptera : haliplidae ) and notes on seasonal abundance and food preferences . great lakes entomologist 33 ( 3 - 4 ) : 165 - 168 .\nbecause of its limited numbers , the beetle faces reduced reproductive vigor and the possibility of stochastic extinction .\nfootnote 24 american burying beetle , northern dusky salamander ( carolinian population ) , eastern baccharis , goldencrest .\nhungerford\u2019s crawling water beetle is endemic to the great lakes region with approximately 40 % of its distribution in canada . all canadian populations are found within ontario . the species is restricted to five streams in three counties ( emmet , montmorency and presque isle ) in northern michigan and to three rivers ( the rankin , the north saugeen and the saugeen ) in bruce county , ontario . over the last 10 years the possible loss of one of three locations has been documented . ( updated 2017 / 08 / 30 )\nlittle is known about the hungerford\u0092s life history , but it is thought that its life cycle is similar to other closely related beetles . eggs of the hungerford\u0092s crawling water beetle are probably laid in spring and early summer . the larvae may go through three stages and pupate in the moist soil above the water line . both adults and larvae are herbivorous ( plant eaters ) but are seldom found together because they use different stream microhabitats . the larvae are found along stream edges in dense aquatic vegetation which protects them from predators and provides food . adults are usually found in areas with stronger currents where they feed on algae that grows on rocks and stones . adults are unusually reluctant to fly , so it is unlikely that they disperse by flight . instead , dispersal is probably by moving within the stream system .\nlarvae probably go through three instar phases and pupate in the moist soil above the water line .\nthe american burying beetle is a carrion - feeding beetle . it is one of the most striking beetle species in canada due to its large size and the brilliant orange markings on its otherwise black body . the species\u2019 reproduction is completely dependent upon the availability of a carcass which can be entombed in a manner suitable for feeding larvae .\nthis beetle is likely a \u201cglacial relict , \u201d a species that survived from the ice age in an isolated habitat .\nwe will consider hungerford ' s crawling water beetle for delisting when the likelihood of the species becoming threatened in the foreseeable future has been eliminated by the achievement of the following interim criteria : ( 1 ) habitat necessary for long - term survival and recovery has been identified and conserved ; and ( 2 ) a minimum of five u . s . populations , in at least three different watersheds , are sufficiently secure and adequately managed to assure long - term viability . the recovery criteria are interim because further research is needed to make them fully measurable . as new information about the species becomes available , and if new populations of the species are discovered , the recovery criteria will be revised . additional details on downlisting and delisting criteria are available in the recovery plan .\nbrychius hungerfordi is located in isolated locations in michigan ' s northern lower peninsula in the cheboygan river watershed and ontario ' s bruce peninsula in the north saugeen river ( hyde and smar , 2000 ) .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service home page | department of the interior | urltoken | about the u . s . fish and wildlife service | accessibility | privacy | notices | disclaimer | foia\nthis beetle is found in small to medium - sized streams with cool , high quality , fast - flowing water , often immediately downstream from beaver dams , culverts and man - made barriers . as larvae , they may require a specific kind of algae ( dichotomosiphon ) to eat .\nthis beetle is only found in three rivers in ontario\u2019s bruce county and five rivers in northern michigan . the number of beetles in canada is unknown , although the population in a single pool in michigan was estimated to have approximately 1 , 100 individuals .\nfish , tadpoles and other aquatic insects prey on adult b . hungerfordi . they are most vulnerable to these predators when they must swim to the water surface for air . otherwise , b . hungerfordi avoids predators by hiding among plants and filamentous algae and by preferring habitats in shallow swiftly flowing water which places them out of harms way of mid - water and benthic predators ( hyde and smar , 2000 ) .\nsurveyors use an aquatic d - frame net to vigorously sweep the water just above the bottom to create a rapid current to dislodge the beetles from their substrate . also , set the d - frame net downstream and stamp around to dislodge the substrate . dislodged materials will be caught in the net . do this in several areas within a stream reach . empty contents of the net into an enamel pan filled with stream water . pick up rocks to search for the beetle or its larvae . adults are collected from among plant roots under approximately 2 ft of water .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\nthree species will be reclassified between threatened and endangered designations : butler\u2019s gartersnake , jefferson salamander and purple twayblade .\nfour comments were received supporting the listing of all species included in the december 2012 consultation document , but no comments specific to the american burying beetle were received .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service regional office federal building ft . snelling twin cities , minnesota 55111 urltoken\narnott ' s location has not been shown on road maps since 1976 when highway 10 was surveyed and rerouted .\nthe haliplidae or crawling water beetles are a comparatively small group of inconspicuous , small water dwelling insects . they belong to the coleopteran suborder adephaga , but differ from all other families of this taxon in several important characters . the strictly algophagous habit of haliplid larvae is a feature not found in any other taxon of the almost exclusively carnivorous adephaga . the extremely enlarged hind coxal plates of adults are also a highly unusual feature of haliplidae . they function as an accessory breathing air storage and physical lung .\nthis water beetle appears to have a restricted range and despite several survey attempts , it is only known to occur within six streams . the status of the species is uncertain for several of the known streams . the population in the east branch of the maple river has the highest known population and appears stable ( usfws , 2006 ) . this species apparently has specific habitat requirements that are vulnerable to changes in hydrology , predation by introduced fish , and degradation of water quality .\na yellowish - brown beetle with distinctive black spots on the elytra ( wing covers ) and an elongate or fusiform body shape ( roughley pers . comm . 1994 ) .\n2 . u . s . mail or in - person pickup : field supervisor , u . s . fish and wildlife service , ecological services field office , 2651 coolidge road , suite 101 , east lansing , mi 48823 - 6316 .\nfour species will be listed or reclassified as special concern : blue felt lichen , dwarf lake iris , goldencrest and pitcher\u2019s thistle .\nthe wildlife species\u2019 habitat is threatened by several kinds of development that may alter water availability in the streams . similarly , forestry activities affect the salamander\u2019s habitat by reducing shade , altering stream temperatures and increasing silt . introduction of predatory game fish is also a severe threat to the species\u2019 larvae and adults .\na probable early postglacial relict , this water beetle is endemic to the upper great lakes and is endangered in the us . in canada , it is restricted to a small area and is known from only 3 locations in ontario . this species has declined and may be extirpated at the north saugeen river . it is threatened by further planned developments at the north saugeen and saugeen river locations , by hydrological alterations at the rankin river location , and by continuing declines in water quality due to events associated with increasing human population at all locations .\nlearn the history of turning michigan ' s non - renewable resources ( oil , gas and minerals ) into recreation opportunities for all .\na probable early postglacial relict , this water beetle is endemic to the upper great lakes and is listed as endangered in the united states . in canada , it is restricted to a small area and is known from only three locations in ontario . this species has declined and may be extirpated at the north saugeen river . it is threatened by further planned developments at the north saugeen and saugeen river locations , by hydrological alterations at the rankin river location , and by continuing declines in water quality due to events associated with increasing human population at all locations .\ncompared to other halipilidae , the adults are strong swimmers , and they obtain oxygen by swimming to the surface or crawling to the water line at the edge of the stream . larvae obtain oxygen directly from the water and are found in association with dense mats of vegetation which offer protection and foraging . the growth form of this vegetative cover may be more important than the plant composition . both adults and larvae are herbivorous but little is known about their specific dietary requirements or feeding adaptations . however , it is likely that they scrape food material from rocks by grasping with their tarsal claws and scraping with their distally flattened and singled notched mandibles which are slightly medially - cupped . this speculation is based on observations of the beetles crawling from rock to rock stopping occasionally to grip a rock for varying lengths of time .\npitcher\u2019s thistle is found only on sand dunes and sandy beaches . optimal pitcher\u2019s thistle habitat is open , dry , loose sand with sparse or no vegetation immediately surrounding or shading the thistles . the habitat is dynamic due to effects from wind , water , and ice that move sand , causing the build - up of mounds , burial of vegetation , exposure of roots , and blowouts . natural succession may cause habitat to become unsuitable when vegetation becomes too dense .\nhine\u2019s emerald is restricted to calcareous wetlands ( marshes , sedge meadows , and fens ) dominated by graminoid vegetation and fed primarily by groundwater from intermittent seeps . the presence of crayfish burrows likely represents a critical component of hine\u2019s emerald habitat and may be a factor limiting its distribution .\na probable early postglacial relict , this water beetle is endemic to the upper great lakes and is endangered in the us . in canada , it is restricted to a small area and is known from only 3 locations in ontario . this species has declined and may be extirpated at the north saugeen river . it is threatened by further planned developments at the north saugeen and saugeen river locations , by hydrological alterations at the rankin river location , and by continuing declines in water quality due to events associated with increasing human population at all locations . designated endangered in may 2011 .\nurltoken needs javascript to function properly and provide you with a fast , stable experience . please enable javascript or check your browser ' s settings .\nclifford , s . 2003 .\nbrychius hungerfordi\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nit appears that human activity in or near the habitat may be speeding up the loss of the species . the removal of existing beaver dams upstream poses a significant threat to the beetle : the downstream side of the beaver dams serve as a riffle and aeration site because they retain sediments and organic material , raise water temperature , and modify nutrient cycling , decomposition dynamics , and riparian zone structure and composition .\none comment was received supporting the listing of all species included in the december 2011 consultation document , but no comments specific to butler\u2019s gartersnake were received .\none comment was received supporting the listing of all species included in the december 2011 consultation document , but no comments specific to hine\u2019s emerald were received .\none comment was received supporting the listing of all species included in the december 2011 consultation document , but no comments specific to pitcher\u2019s thistle were received .\nfootnote 3 bamosky , a . d . , et al . 2011 . has the earth\u2019s sixth mass extinction already arrived ? nature 471 : 51\u201357 .\nlogging , beaver control management , pollution and other human stream modifications have likely contributed to the reduction of b . hungerfordi habitat ( u . s . f . w . s . 1994 ) . introduction of sport fish which may prey on b . hungerfordi may have also contributed to its decline ( hyde and smar , 2000 ) . this species is listed as endangered by the u . s . fish and wildlife service and by the state of michigan .\nthe authority for this action is section 4 ( f ) of the endangered species act , 16 u . s . c . 1533 ( f ) .\nfootnote 5 the governor in council is the governor general of canada acting by and with the advice of the queen\u2019s privy council of canada ( cabinet ) .\nprotect water quality by minimizing use of lawn chemicals ( i . e . , fertilizers , herbicides , and insecticides ) , recycling used car oil , and properly disposing of paint and other toxic household products .\nbrychius hungerfordi lives in cool ( 15 to 25 deg c ) , clean , well - aerated , slightly alkaline streams with open to partially open canopy . flows where b . hungerfordi are found are moderate to fast ( hyde and smar , 2000 ; u . s . f . w . s . 1994 ) .\nfootnote 2 butchart , s . m . h . , et al . 2010 . global biodiversity : indicators of recent declines . science . 328 : 1164\u20131168 .\nfootnote 25 butchart , s . m . h . , et al . 2010 . global biodiversity : indicators of recent declines . science . 328 : 1164\u20131168 .\none provincial government department opposed the proposal for the spring salamander ( adirondack / appalachian population ) and the american burying beetle . in their view , these species are already sufficiently protected . the department of the environment notes that , in their assessment report of the spring salamander ( adirondack / appalachian population ) , cosewic stated that the species\u2019 habitat is threatened by several kinds of development that may alter either the water availability in the streams where this species occurs or affect its habitat by reducing shade , altering stream temperatures and increasing silt . in the case of the american burying beetle , this species is proposed for listing as extirpated , meaning that no individuals of this species remain alive in canada .\nin the mid - 1850s , john walter also set up the feed mill which is still in operation as walters falls milling ltd . , still operating on water driven machinery most of the year with a diesel engine .\nadults and larvae occupy different microhabitats . adults are usually found on gravel and stones in fast moving currents and well - aerated riffles . larvae were observed in the slower currents of the stream where chara or other macroalgae are dense ( hyde and smar , 2000 ; u . s . f . w . s . 1994 ) .\nfollowing the publication of the proposed order in the canada gazette , part i , one comment was received supporting the listing of all the species . one opposing comment was received from a provincial government department concerning the proposal for the american burying beetle .\n4 . a minimum of five u . s . populations , in at least three different watersheds , are sufficiently secure and adequately managed to assure long - term viability .\nhabitat loss from coastal development , primarily for cottages or residences , is the only imminent threat to the species . its habitat along the margin of coastal forest makes it especially prone to clearance by landowners seeking water views or access .\nthe species is threatened by changes in surface and sub - surface hydrology as it may reduce or eliminate potential larval habitat . proposed housing developments in the uplands where the only known canadian population of hine\u2019s emerald is found are expected to reduce the baseflow of water to the wetlands , thus impacting larval habitat . contamination of groundwater by agricultural pesticides and nutrient management , faulty or degraded septic beds and potential future development pressures are also potential threats to hine\u2019s emerald habitat . another threat is the likely invasion of european common reed , which forms dense stands in fens , virtually eliminating native biodiversity .\nhinz and wiley ( 1999 ) characterized known locations of b . hungerfordi by using the michigan valley segment ecological classification system ( mi - vsec ) ( seelbach et al 1997 ) . the beetle was found in rivers with hardwater oligotrophic ( low in nutrients ) chemistries . base flows in localities where b . hungerfordi was found were fair , and peak flows were low to moderate . water temperatures were characterized as cold to cool july temperatures with moderate daily temperature fluctuations . valley slope was low .\nbecause each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article , urltoken cannot guarantee each citation it generates . therefore , it\u2019s best to use urltoken citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication\u2019s requirements and the most - recent information available at these sites :\nbutler\u2019s gartersnake was listed as threatened in schedule 1 of sara in june 2003 . cosewic re - assessed its status in november 2010 and proposed to up - list the species to endangered .\nthe extant global range of hine\u2019s emerald includes ontario and four states in the united states : wisconsin , michigan , illinois and missouri . historically , it was also known from ohio , indiana and alabama , where it is now thought to be extirpated . in ontario , hine\u2019s emerald is known from only a single site : the minesing wetlands in simcoe county , west of barrie .\nfollowing the publication of the proposed order in the canada gazette , part i , one comment was received supporting the listing of all the species . no comments specific to butler\u2019s gartersnake were received .\npitcher\u2019s thistle was listed as threatened in schedule 1 of sara in june 2003 . cosewic re - assessed the species in november 2010 and proposed to down - list its status to special concern .\nthe northern dusky salamander inhabits the vicinity of springs , seepages , and small tributaries of clear headwater streams in forested habitats . the species takes refuge under protective cover ( rocks , logs , moss or leaf litter ) or in cool subterranean retreats near stream edges . it forages along the streamside , mostly in terrestrial habitat . the larvae are limited to aquatic micro - environments between rocks in the streambed . during winter , the larvae remain in shallow running water while the adults stay in subterranean refuges with constant water flow .\nfollowing the publication of the proposed order in the canada gazette , part i , one comment was received supporting the listing of all the species . no comments specific to the hine\u2019s emerald were received .\nfollowing the publication of the proposed order in the canada gazette , part i , one comment was received supporting the listing of all the species . no comments specific to the pitcher\u2019s thistle were received .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\nc ) with a relatively fast - flowing current and a substrate of limestone gravel and rock . the forest is intact , the beaver populations are healthy , and their dams function to stabilize water levels so the riffles below the dams remain predictable from year to year .\nand was still utilizing a water - driven turbine up to that point to provide one - third of its energy . the fire was likely caused by an electrical accident . a new facility was rebuilt on the outskirts of the village and started operations in march 1986 .\nbeutel , r . g . & s . ruhnau 1990 . phylogenetic analysis of the genera of haliplidae ( coleoptera ) based on characters of adults . aquatic insects 12 ( 1 ) : 1 - 17 .\nupdated 5 / 15 / 2018 . information is summarized from mnfi ' s database of rare species and community occurrences . data may not reflect true distribution since much of the state has not been thoroughly surveyed .\nbecause adult beetles must swim to the surface for air , they are vulnerable to predation by fish , tad - poles , and other aquatic insects . the warmer summer water temperatures force the trout population to deeper waters in lake kathleen , giving the beetles an opportunity to repopulate .\nthe hine\u2019s emerald is a dragonfly in the family corduliidae , the emeralds . adults have brilliant green eyes , a metallic green thorax with two lateral yellow stripes , and a blackish - brown abdomen . it undergoes incomplete metamorphosis involving three stages : egg , larva ( nymph ) and adult . mated females lay eggs in muck and / or shallow water and the eggs hatch into aquatic larvae that live in the wetland for 3\u20135 years before emerging as adults . it is a globally rare species .\nboth adult and larval b . hungerfordi are herbivorous , probably feeding on algae and periphyton by scraping gravel and stones with their mandibles ( hyde and smar , 2000 ; u . s . fws , 1994 ) .\n2 . a minimum of five u . s . populations , in at least three different watersheds , have had stable or increasing populations for at least 10 years , and at least one population is considered viable .\nin the spring and early summer months , b . hungerfordi probably lays eggs on filamentous algae and aquatic plants . the larvae are believed to go through three instars before finally pupating to adults . although the time between oviposition and final emergence of the adult depends on temperature , it generally takes about seven weeks ( hyde and smar , 2000 ; u . s . f . w . s . 1994 ) . larvae may overwinter .\nclover - shaped body of water which was named after the williams family that owned a large portion of the lake . it has a distinctive clover shape and features a public beach with boat launch which is located amongst the approximately 60 homes and cottages built on the shore of the lake .\nthis species has specific habitat needs , which can be easily impacted by introduction of exotic species , removal of beaver and degradation of water quality . the occurrences of this species are geographically isolated and therefore vulnerable to localized destructive events which may cause local extinctions with little chance of subsequent natural recolonization .\nthe primary protection need at this time , is to protect those habitats with known occurrences of this species . any land uses that could potentially impact water quality or hydrology should be discouraged . riparian buffer strips should be maintained . introductions of non - native fish and other ecological alterations within the habitat should be prevented .\nthe public inspection page on urltoken offers a preview of documents scheduled to appear in the next day ' s federal register issue . the public inspection page may also include documents scheduled for later issues , at the request of the issuing agency .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nthe objective of the order amending schedule 1 to the species at risk act ( the order ) is to help maintain canada\u2019s biodiversity and the health of canadian ecosystems by preventing wildlife species from becoming extirpated or extinct from canada and contribute to their recovery .\nthe department of the environment\u2019s assessment of the order indicated that the cost impacts will be low . this is because each species falls within at least one of four groups associated with minimal costs and impacts on indigenous peoples and stakeholders , as described below .\narnott had a population of 70 in 1864 ; it was approximately 50 in 1887 . the hamlet was originally called\nmurray ' s corner\nbut was renamed\narnott\nafter a francis arnott who was given a grant to settle the area .\nbutler\u2019s gartersnake is restricted to north america , in areas between and below the lower great lakes . the entire canadian range of the extant species is restricted to four geographically isolated regions of southwestern ontario . this population in ontario represents 16 % of its global distribution . more specifically , this wildlife species has been found in windsor\u2013sarnia ( essex , chatham - kent and lambton counties ) , skunk\u2019s misery ( middlesex and lambton counties ) , luther marsh ( dufferin and wellington counties ) , and parkhill ( middlesex county ) .\nmost online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers . therefore , that information is unavailable for most urltoken content . however , the date of retrieval is often important . refer to each style\u2019s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates .\nms . carrie tansy , by u . s . mail ( see addresses ) , or by telephone at ( 517 ) 351 - 2555 , extension 289 . tty users may contact ms . tansy through the federal relay service at ( 800 ) 877 - 8339 .\nwatts , c . h . s . & mcrae , j . 2010 . the identity of haliplus ( coleoptera : haliplidae ) from the pilbara region of australia , including the description of four new species . records of the western australian museum 25 : 387 - 398 .\nthere is ongoing discussion regarding the cause of the decline in the range and abundance of the american burying beetle . habitat alteration and fragmentation is generally considered to be the primary cause for decline . fragmentation increases the need for species\u2019 movement across unsuitable habitats and over roads . the development of dense understory in cleared forest areas increases the difficulty of burying the brood carcass , making the species more vulnerable to predation .\ncanada\u2019s natural heritage is an integral part of its national identity and history . wildlife is valued by canadians for aesthetic , cultural , spiritual , recreational , educational , historical , subsistence , medical , ecological and scientific reasons . canadian wildlife species and ecosystems are also part of the world\u2019s heritage . ( see footnote 6 ) part of the department of the environment\u2019s mandate is to preserve and enhance the quality of the natural environment , including flora and fauna . although the responsibility for the conservation of wildlife in canada is shared among governments , the department of the environment plays a leadership role as federal regulator in order to prevent species from becoming extinct ( see footnote 7 ) or extirpated ( see footnote 8 ) from canada . the parks canada agency contributes to the protection and conservation of these species within its network of protected heritage places , ( see footnote 9 ) including national parks and national marine conservation areas .\na railroad was built to williams lake in 1899 in order to dig up the grey muck known as ' marl ' which is prominent at the lake . the marl was excavated for the use of three cement plants in nearby owen sound as an ingredient for their product . the process of excavating the marl caused the water supply to dry up and several wells had to be dug on nearby farms by the excavation company .\nit is also important to note that preventing the extirpation of a given species is an integral part of maintaining biodiversity in canada and conserving canada\u2019s natural heritage . more diverse ecosystems are generally more stable , and thus the benefits ( goods and services ) they provide are also more stable over time . ( see footnote 20 )"]}
{"id": 453, "summary": [{"text": "eupanacra variolosa is a moth of the family sphingidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from north-eastern india , bangladesh , south-western china , thailand , malaysia ( peninsular , sarawak ) and indonesia ( sumatra , java , kalimantan ) .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the wingspan is 56 \u2013 80 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "it is similar to eupanacra busiris atima except for differences in the forewing outer margin and the trajectory of the antemedian lines on the forewing upperside .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is a short , narrow and pale median band on the hindwing upperside .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on scindapsus pictus and scindapsus aureus in thailand . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "eupanacra variolosa", "paragraphs": ["eupanacra variolosa , female . indonesia , sumatra , lebong tandai , benkoelen dist .\nhave a fact about eupanacra variolosa ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for eupanacra variolosa ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nuncus similar to eupanacra regularis regularis . gnathos similar eupanacra regularis regularis but more pointed . valve with more than 8 stridulatory scales . harpe similar to eupanacra automedon but more spatulate . aedeagus most similar to eupanacra sinuata , apical process with left lobe broader than in eupanacra regularis regularis , obliquely rounded proximally ; right lobe intermediate between eupanacra regularis regularis and eupanacra automedon .\neupanacra variolosa , aedeagus . thailand , chiang mai , doi inthanon n . p . , km 38 , upper checkpoint\neupanacra variolosa , aedeagus detail . thailand , chiang mai , doi inthanon n . p . , km 38 , upper checkpoint\npanacra variolosa walker , 1856 , list specimens lepid . insects colln br . mus . 8 : 156 . type locality : [ bangladesh , ] silhet [ sylhet ] .\nwingspan : 56 - - 80mm . similar in general appearance to eupanacra busiris atima but forewing outer margin evenly curved , not angulate on m2 . forewing upperside very similar to eupanacra busiris atima but most distal of antemedian lines almost reaching the discal spot before recurving strongly basad towards the costa . hindwing upperside with pale median band short and narrow .\nerroneously synonymized with panacra orpheus by distant , 1899 , ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 3 : 180 . reinstated as a species by rothschild & jordan , 1903 , novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 534 ( key ) , 539 . transferred to eupanacra by cadiou & holloway , 1989 , lambillionea 89 : 139 . erroneously returned to panacra by bridges , 1993 , cat . fam . gen . spec . sphingidae of the world : viii . 19 . returned to eupanacra by kitching & spitzer , 1995 , tinea 14 : 186 . implicitly transferred to panacra by zhu & wang , 1997 , fauna sinica insecta 11 : 335 ( key ) , 340 . implicitly transferred back to eupanacra by kitching & cadiou , 2000 , hawkmoths of the world : 46 .\nlarval hostplants . unknown in china , but in thailand , recorded from scindapsus pictus and scindapsus aureus ( eitschberger & ihle , 2010 ) .\nbhutan , northeastern india , bangladesh , southwestern china , thailand , malaysia ( peninsular , sarawak ) , indonesia ( sumatra , java , kalimantan ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\ndistribution : bhutan , northeastern india , bangladesh , southwestern china , thailand , malaysia ( peninsular , sarawak ) , indonesia ( sumatra , java , kalimantan ) .\nno part of this website or any of its contents may be reproduced , copied , modified or adapted , without the prior written consent of the author .\nne . himalayas - borneo , sumatra , sulawesi , hong kong . see [ maps ]\npanacra busiris walker , 1856 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 8 : 158\npanacra busiris atima rothschild & jordan , 1915 ; novit . zool . 22 ( 2 ) : 292 ; tl : karwar , south india\npanacra busiris marina rothschild & jordan , 1915 ; novit . zool . 22 ( 2 ) : 287 ; tl : andaman is .\npanacra mydon elegantulus f . brunnea closs , 1916 ; lepidoptera niepeltiana ( 2 ) : 3 , pl . 16 , f . 8 ; tl : java\noriental tropics - philippines , sundaland , sulawesi , sumba , hong kong . see [ maps ]\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nwalker , 1856 list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 8 : 1 - 271 ( 1856 )\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncopyright \u00a9 2013 www . sphingidae - museum . com . all rights reserved ."]}
{"id": 460, "summary": [{"text": "tenuibranchiurus is a genus of diminutive freshwater crayfish that live in the australian state of queensland .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "only one species has been described , the swamp crayfish , t. glypticus .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "t. glypticus is reportedly the smallest species of crayfish in the world .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is distinguished from other crayfish by its small size , adults being only around 25 millimetres ( 1.0 in ) long , and its claws which open vertically rather than horizontally or obliquely .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "tenuibranchiurus lives in coastal wallum swamps , and stays among the sedges rather than in more open water .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "its habitat is highly fragmented , as land is used for the expansion of brisbane and the sunshine coast , and tenuibranchiurus glypticus is therefore listed as an endangered species on the iucn red list .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "additional populations have been found at the periphery of its range , but these are thought to represent new , undescribed species . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "tenuibranchiurus", "paragraphs": ["existing and putative species identified within tenuibranchiurus and the newly proposed gen . nov . .\nrt @ thepeerj : a novel genus and cryptic species harboured within the monotypic freshwater crayfish genus tenuibranchiurus riek https : / / t . co\u2026\nnumber of tenuibranchiurus specimens analysed for each gene fragment from each of the sampled localities , as well as outgroup sequences included ( see table s1 for sequence details ) .\nbased on our results , the genus tenuibranchiurus is represented only by specimens collected from queensland . as such , tenuibranchiurus glypticus remains a valid species and it is represented by populations grouped with samples from the type locality . five new putative species were identified within tenuibranchiurus ( table 8 ) . specimens collected from new south wales belong to a putative newly - proposed genus with two new putative species ( table 8 ) . until a formal description is completed , the new genus will be referred to as gen . nov .\nalthough genetic diversity within tenuibranchiurus has previously been reported , no quantification of this diversity had been undertaken . the multi - gene approach taken by this study and use of several different analytical methods has identified not only several putative species within the formerly monotypic tenuibranchiurus , but a new genus with two putative species . although species identification of freshwater crayfish has traditionally been made through morphological methods , the use of molecular methods in this study allowed the potential pitfalls of plastic and / or cryptic morphological forms within crayfish to be avoided , and will contribute in the development of a standardised method for dealing with species identification within other freshwater crayfish .\nthere is no population information available for this species . tenuibranchiurus spp . are extremely rare and this species appears to have been extirpated at two of the sites it was known from ( one of which was developed for housing ) and one of the two remaining sites is at victoria point ( davie 2007 ) , a heavily urbanized area with some light industry on the outskirts of brisbane ( j . coughran , k . l . dawkins and j . m . furse pers . comm . 2008 ) .\na total of 127 tenuibranchiurus samples were sequenced for the coi gene fragment , 59 for 16s , 95 for gapdh , 58 for h3 , and 47 for ak ( table 2 ) . additional specimens from the genera gramastacus , geocharax , engaeus , engaewa , and cherax were also sequenced for inclusion as outgroups . where sequences from these outgroups could not be obtained ( i . e . , due to non - amplification ) , alternative sequences were retrieved from genbank ( details in table s1 ) . sequences obtained in this study were deposited in genbank under accession numbers kx669691 \u2013 kx670093 , kx753349 .\nthis species has a maximum length of 25 mm , and is the smallest known species of crayfish found in australia . it inhabits coastal wallum swamps and is found among sedges rather than in more open water ( harding and williamson 2003 ) . there is very little suitable habitat remaining within its range , as most has been cleared for the development of brisbane and the sunshine coast ( j . coughran , k . l . dawkins and j . m . furse pers . comm . 2008 ) . the habitat of other tenuibranchiurus species has recently been recorded ( dawkins et al . in prep ) and the biology of this genus is poorly understood .\ntwo types of analyses were used to obtain a best - estimate of the species - level lineages present within tenuibranchiurus ; namely , groupings identified through use of a concatenated alignment phylogeny ( referred to henceforth as the \u2018combined gene tree\u2019 ) , and intra - versus inter - cluster variation through \u03d5 st analysis . a combined gene tree analysis was chosen over individual gene trees because , although preliminary phylogenetic analyses performed on the individual gene regions suggested that there were multiple genetic groups within t . glypticus , statistical support was not always strong for all genes . therefore , in order to increase the strength of the phylogenetic signal , and thus support for branching patterns , the five gene alignments were concatenated and analysed as a single data set for phylogenetic reconstructions .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nlivingston , f . , livingston , f . , soulsby , a . - m . , batchelor , a . , dyer , e . , whitton , f . , milligan , h . t . , smith , j . , lutz , m . l . , de silva , r . , mcguinness , s . , kasthala , g . , jopling , b . , sullivan , k . & cryer , g .\nhas been assessed as endangered using criteria b1ab ( iii , iv ) . this species has an estimated extent of occurrence ( eoo ) of 1 , 700 km\nand is only known from two locations . there is an ongoing decline in both the eoo of this species and the quality of habitat , with very little suitable habitat remaining . this species has strict habitat requirements which are being compromised by urbanisation , industry , pollution and salt water intrusion . the area in which this species is found is one of rapid human population growth ( davie 2007 ) . site protection for this species is urgently needed as this species faces an extremely high risk of extinction .\n. the species was described from specimens collected in brisbane ( mt . gravatt ) and caloundra ( riek 1951 ) . however , the species has not been recorded in metropolitan\nto the northeast ( harding and williamson 2003 ) . recent research ( dawkins 2008 , dawkins\nto caloundra , a distance of approximately 100 km north - south . this species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 1 , 700 km\n. however , this area has been very heavily developed ( i . e . includes\n) and the actual area of occupancy is likely to be a small fraction of this . this species is now only known from two sites ( j . coughran , k . l . dawkins and j . m . furse pers . comm . 2008 ) .\nthere are no species specific conservation measures in place for t . glypticus . research should be urgently initiated to establish the species\u2019 area of occupancy , and should also include population assessment and monitoring , biological and life history information , habitat requirements ( including salinity tolerance ) , investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species . in addition , genetic and / or morphological analysis should be undertaken to elucidate any distinction between populations from the two extant localities , victoria point ( on the mainland ) and bribie island ( j . coughran , k . l . dawkins , j . m . furse pers . comm . 2008 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nreportedly world ' s smallest crayfish , being fully grown at 25 mm . unlike other crayflish in south - east queensland , fingers of claws open and close vertically rather than horizontally or obliquely . body greyish - brown . difficult to find due to small size , cryptic colouration and well - developed burrowing habits .\npaperbark swamps and shallow drainage channels . prefers to burrow into damp clay but is occasionally found in peaty sand . woodgate , qld , south to at least southern brisbane area .\noriginally recorded from bulimba creek , mt gravatt , it has not been recorded in metropolitan brisbane for more than 60 years , though it has been found at victoria point . habitat loss is probably a significant threat to the survival of this unique species .\nqueensland museum ' s find out about . . . is proudly supported by the thyne reid foundation and the tim fairfax family foundation .\n9 . 30am to 5 . 00pm . sciencentre is currently closed for redevelopment . perception deception will be temporarily closed from monday 22 january to relocate to level 2 , opening friday 26 january . | public holiday opening hours\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , reproduction and adaptation in any medium and for any purpose provided that it is properly attributed . for attribution , the original author ( s ) , title , publication source ( peerj ) and either doi or url of the article must be cited .\nspecies are the fundamental unit of biodiversity , yet there has always been disagreement about criteria by which they should be recognised and the methods by which they should be delineated , with no general consensus reached thus far . the lack of one clearly accepted definition of a \u201cspecies\u201d creates obvious limitations , as what one person regards as a species may not be regarded as being so by another person , which is often further exacerbated by differences of opinion between fields of study . employing the general lineage concept ( glc ; de queiroz , 1998 ) , where a species is defined as a metapopulation lineage evolving separately from other lineages , somewhat unites the various species concepts by allowing any evidence of lineage separation ( and thus any property emphasised by the alternative concepts ) to be used as evidence for species delimitation ( de queiroz , 2007 ) . not only does this concept allow multiple lines of evidence to be used , but it also allows the evolutionary processes that have caused divergence between lineages to be examined .\nonce a species tree has been inferred , additional testing is often undertaken to provide support for the proposed species\u2019 groups . a range of statistical analyses are available for testing species boundaries and , as there is currently no universally accepted way to define species , there are also a range of critiques on these methods ( e . g . , blaxter , 2004 ; brower , 1999 ; ebach & holdrege , 2005 ; lipscomb , platnick & wheeler , 2003 ; seberg et al . , 2003 ; sites & marshall , 2003 ; sneath & sokal , 1973 ; tautz et al . , 2002 ; tautz et al . , 2003 ; wiens & penkrot , 2002 ; wiens & servedio , 2000 ; will , mischler & wheeler , 2005 ; yang & rannala , 2010 ) . under the glc , any evidence of lineage separation can be evidence for the existence of different species ( de queiroz , 2007 ) ; as such , the identification of numerous corroborating lines of evidence ( through the use of multiple tests ) can be seen as lending support to any species boundaries that are defined . therefore , although no single test is currently universally accepted , the apparent need to choose a particular method is circumvented by using a selection of techniques and multiple gene regions as , under the glc , concordance between multiple lines of evidence is seen as increasing the rigour of species delimitation .\nthe triangle and bolded name denotes the type locality . grey lines denote drainage boundaries , and the black line denotes the border between queensland and new south wales . refer to table 2 for collection details .\na total of 133 specimens were collected across 16 field localities , including the type locality for t . glypticus . all specimens from this study were collected under permits witk08599510 , wisp08599610 , and twb / 01 / 2011 issued by the department of environment and resource management . dna was extracted from specimens preserved in 70 % ethanol using a variation of the cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide / phenol - chloroform extraction protocol ( doyle & doyle , 1987 ) . two mitochondrial gene regions ( cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi ) and 16s rdna ( 16s ) ) and three nuclear gene regions ( glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate dehydrogenase ( gapdh ) , histone - 3 ( h3 ) , and arginine kinase ( ak ) ) were amplified ( see table 1 for primer list ) . sequences were edited using sequencher 4 . 9 ( genecodes , 2009 ) and aligned using the muscle addition in mega5 ( edgar , 2004 ) . alignments were then checked and edited by hand if necessary .\npreliminary analyses of both individual and combined gene trees showed a prominent separation between qld and nsw populations . in light of this , genetic distances between qld and nsw populations , distances between these two groups and the outgroups , and distances between the outgroups were calculated using both coi and 16s data to compare the degree of separation . these distances were calculated in mega5 ( tamura et al . , 2011 ) using the net between group mean distances with 1 , 000 bootstrap replicates ( gamma distribution with shape parameter = 1 , maximum composite likelihood ( mcl ) model ; positions containing gaps and missing data were eliminated ) .\nan analysis of molecular variance ( amova ) was used to calculate variation within and among clusters of sequences , as implemented in arlequin v . 3 . 1 ( excoffier , laval & schneider , 2005 ) . to determine what the most likely lineages were , the clades identified by the combined gene tree analysis , as well as additional splits evident within the tree that were deemed to plausibly represent lineages , were also tested , as well as groups based on the geographic division of populations ( i . e . , collection locality ; see table s2 ) . the amova calculates three statistics ; \u03d5 st , \u03d5 sc , and \u03d5 ct , all of which are based on both the haplotype frequency and genetic divergence . \u03d5 st measures variation among all populations , and \u03d5 sc measures variation among populations within groups , and \u03d5 ct estimates variation among groups . it has been suggested that an f ct value > 0 . 95 can represent evidence for accurate species groupings ( i . e . , > 95 % of the genetic variation can be attributed to differences among groups ) ( monaghan et al . , 2005 ) . using the \u03d5 ct estimate as a surrogate for f ct ( as this estimate includes genetic divergence as well as haplotype frequency ) , this can provide an approach to delineate taxa based on population genetic analyses by interpreting the amova results used to calculate intra - versus inter - cluster variation in a way analogous to f - statistics ( wright , 1978 ) . the criterion to determine the appropriate number of lineages using this method is where an increase in the number of suggested lineages does not appreciably increase the \u03d5 ct estimate for those lineages .\nin order to validate the lineages that were identified using the species discovery approaches for species - status , two methods were used ; barcoding gap identification ( sensu hebert et al . , 2004 ) , and the k \u2215\u03b8 method ( sensu birky , 2013 ) . these two methods were chosen as they both test species boundaries by comparison of intra - and inter - lineage differences , but do so in different ways ; thus allowing the results of each method to be tested and validated by the other . only the mitochondrial data were used to validate the species hypotheses , as the nuclear gene sample sizes were limited and individually were not very informative ; for instance , most of the nuclear gene trees contained numerous polytomies and thus could not be used to identify genetically divergent groups .\nthe genetic distances between the hypothesised lineages and between specimens for both coi and 16s were calculated and visualised to determine whether a barcoding gap existed . as the intent of this method was to provide support for , or refutation of , the lineage hypotheses formed through the species discovery approaches , lineages were pre - defined based on those results and genetic distances categorised as representing either intra - or inter - lineage distances . for the purposes of this study , a barcoding gap was defined as a clear separation ( or \u2018gap\u2019 ) between the highest intra - lineage and lowest inter - lineage genetic distances measured between the suggested lineages . although a standard threshold has been suggested by hebert et al . ( 2004 ) for recognising distinct species ( 10\u00d7 average intraspecific difference ) , this approach was not followed as it has been shown that there are vastly different rates of divergence for both different taxa and different genetic markers ( avise , 2009 ) . rather , a recognisable distinction between the inter - and intra - lineage distances was considered potential evidence for distinct species . analyses were undertaken for qld and nsw specimens separately .\nrelative divergences between genetic groups were calculated in mega5 . to determine inter - lineage divergence , the number of base substitutions per site was estimated from the net average between groups of sequences and the diversity between specimens was determined by calculating the number of base substitutions per site between each pair of sequences , both using a mcl model with 1 , 000 bootstrap replicates . the rate variation among sites was modelled with a gamma distribution with a shape parameter of 1 , with positions containing gaps and missing data eliminated . this was performed separately for both coi and 16s , with all unique haplotypes included .\nthe species discovery hypotheses were also tested using the k \u2215\u03b8 method ( birky et al . , 2010 ; birky & barraclough , 2009 ; birky et al . , 2005 ) . although this method was originally developed for asexually - reproducing organisms and termed the 4x rule , it has been further developed and shown to be effective for the mtdna region for sexually - reproducing organisms ( birky , 2013 ) . this method provides a simple way of defining species groups based on specimens / populations that form clusters ( i . e . , clades ) that are separated by genetic gaps too deep to be ascribed to random genetic drift within a species and , therefore , must be due to diversifying selection or long - term physical isolation ( apte , smith & wallis , 2007 ) .\nusing the groups from the species discovery hypotheses , sister clades were identified and statistical support for these was tested . sequence divergences were estimated within ( d ) and between each sister clade using uncorrected p - distances calculated in mega5 . nucleotide diversity ( \u03c0 ) was then calculated using \u03c0 = dn \u2215 ( n \u2212 1 ) , where n is the number of samples per clade . theta ( \u03b8 ) was then estimated as \u03b8 = 2 ne\u03bc ( where ne is the effective populations size and \u03bc is mutation rate per base pair per generation ) by calculating \u03c0\u2215 ( 1 \u2212 4\u03c0\u22153 ) within each clade . if d = 0 ( as it did for one clade in this study ) , then \u03c0 can alternatively be calculated as 2\u2215 ln ( n \u2212 1 ) , where l is the length of the sequence . k was then calculated for each sister - clade comparison ( using mega5 ) as the uncorrected net between group mean distance , with this divided by the highest \u03b8 in the comparison ( as this is the more conservative approach ) to provide k \u2215\u03b8 . where sister clades were poorly defined in the tree , k was estimated between all potential sister clades in the polytomy , with the clade of the lowest k considered to be the sister clade . finally , following the method of birky ( 2013 ) , if the k \u2215\u03b8 value was greater than 4 , then the sister clades were accepted as different lineages .\nthe genetic distances calculated between the qld and nsw groups using coi and 16s were 16 . 0 % and 12 . 7 % , respectively ( table 3 ) . these distances were as large as , or in some cases larger than , the distances calculated between these two groups and other closely related genera . furthermore , some distances between pairs of the other genera were smaller than those between the qld and nsw groups for both coi and 16s ( e . g . , geocharax versus engaeus = 13 . 7 % and 6 . 7 % , gramastacus versus engaeus = 11 . 7 % and 8 . 1 % ; table 3 ) .\nestimates of net evolutionary divergence between groups of coi ( below diagonal ) and 16s ( above diagonal ) sequences with a mcl model .\ngroups that are identified as potentially representing distinct species will be referred to herein as lineages , and will form the groups to be analysed through lineage validation methods .\nalthough not all groupings were statistically supported , both the ml and bayesian combined gene trees suggested the presence of multiple groups within qld and nsw , and displayed the same topologies ( fig . 2 ) . six clades were evident within the qld populations , with the monophyly of all but two highly supported ( as these were represented by single specimens ) . the first clade included maryborough and some tuan state forest specimens ( lineage 1 ; bs 90 % , pp 1 ) , and the second contained the remaining tuan state forest specimens as well as bribie island , type locality , and some beerburrum specimens ( lineage 2 ; bs 96 % , pp 1 ) . the two groups for which monophyly could not be established were represented by the remaining beerburrum specimens ( lineage 3 ) and hervey bay ( lineage 4 ) . the final two clades consisted of tewantin and lake weyba specimens ( lineage 5 ; bs 100 % , pp 1 ) and gold coast specimens ( lineage 6 ; bs 100 % , pp 1 ) . there was also some geographic structuring evident within each of the clades .\nmaximum likelihood phylogeny showing the proposed lineages for queensland ( lineages 1 through 6 ) and new south wales ( lineages 7 and 8 ) .\nbootstrap values from the maximum likelihood analysis are shown above the branches , and posterior probabilities from the bayesian analysis are shown below branches for the major nodes , as both analyses produced identical topologies for the major nodes .\nthe two monophyletic clades evident within the nsw populations were strongly supported , and form lineage 7 ( lennox head ) and lineage 8 ( lake hiawatha , broadwater national park 1 & 2 ) ( fig . 2 ) . although there was some structuring evident within lineage 8 , the branching patterns were very shallow and were therefore not explored as potential distinct lineages .\nsummary of possible lineages based on \u03d5 - statistics for qld specimens using coi and 16s data .\nsee table s2 for explanation of how potential lineages were determined . where specimens from the same collection locality are split into two or more groups , details are included below the table for clarification .\na total of eight lineage arrangements was deemed plausible based on apparent genetic groupings and collection localities , and were tested using amovas ( table 4 ) . the process of assigning the potential lineages is outlined in table s2 , where a hierarchical approach was taken to split the tree into major genetic groups , minor genetic groups , and geographic localities . as there was no logical reason for combining the nsw lineages for the amova analysis based on either the phylogenetic or geographic information , the nsw populations were considered to consist of the lh lineage and the lakeh / bnp lineage . further testing , however , was considered appropriate to determine the lineages present within qld . figure 3 shows an increase in the \u03d5 ct estimate , with a plateau reached at six lineages for both the coi and 16s estimates . these six qld lineages represent the most parsimonious arrangement of the specimens into lineages .\nvalues for potential lineages for both coi ( open circles ) and 16s ( black circles ) for queensland specimens .\nas the combined gene tree was inferred using only specimens that were successfully sequenced for at least four of the five genes , not all collection localities were represented on the tree ( i . e . , tsfn , knp , moo , eu ) . of these localities , only tsfn was represented in the amova analysis , as the remaining localities were represented by a single sequence and therefore could not be included in the amova . in order to assign these populations to a lineage for further testing , the individual gene trees and haplotype networks were examined and the localities were designated through the closest phylogenetic connection ( data not shown ) . both of the species discovery approaches suggested the presence of eight lineages ( six in qld and two in nsw ; table 5 ) , and formed the lineages to be validated .\nlineages assigned through two species discovery approaches and the final lineage hypothesis , for queensland and new south wales localities .\nthe coi data showed some overlap of the intra - and inter - lineage estimates within qld , resulting in no usable barcoding gap for lineage separation ( fig . 4a ) . where the overlap occurred , the low inter - lineage estimates were attributable to the lineage 1 vs . lineage 2 comparison , and the high intra - lineage estimates were seen between specimens within lineage 1 . however , many estimates between these two lineages fell in the higher range of the inter - lineage estimates as well as the low range .\nthe 16s data for qld populations showed a clearer relationship between lineages ( fig . 4c ) . although there was a very small overlap between the intra - and inter - lineage distances ( occurring between two specimens from lineage 1 ) , this represented an overlap of less than 0 . 01 % . when the existence of this overlap was disregarded , there was a small gap at 2 . 8\u20133 . 0 % . however , despite there not being a distinguishable gap due to the overlap , identification of the majority of lineages through the comparison of intra - and inter - lineage distances was clear and distinguishable .\nintra - and inter - lineage genetic distance estimates ( white and grey , respectively ) for queensland lineages showing ( a ) coi estimates for all lineages , ( b ) coi estimates without comparisons between lineage 1 and 2 , ( c ) 16s estimates for all lineages , and ( d ) 16s estimates without comparisons between lineage 1 and 2 .\nwhen the estimates within and between lineage 1 and 2 specimens were removed from both the coi and 16s data ( with the comparison between these two lineages and all other lineages remaining ) , a clear barcoding gap was seen in both data sets ( fig . 4b , fig . 4d ) . for coi , the gap occurred between 1 . 7\u20134 . 7 % , and between 0 . 9\u20133 . 5 % for 16s . this shows that all other qld groups ( i . e . , lineage 3 through 6 ) represent clear lineages based on the barcoding approach using both coi and 16s data .\nfor nsw populations , there was a clear barcoding gap between the two lineages ( i . e . , lineage 7 and 8 ) , occurring between 1 . 5 and 6 . 6 % for the coi data and 0 . 7\u20133 . 0 % for the 16s data ( fig . 5 ) .\nintra - and inter - lineage genetic distance estimates ( white and grey , respectively ) for new south wales lineages showing ( a ) coi and ( b ) 16s estimates for all lineages .\nthe sister clades within qld and nsw were tested using the k \u2215\u03b8 method for a delimitation of eight lineages ( six from qld , two from nsw ) using both coi and 16s data ( table 6 ) . in some instances , sister clades that were defined by the lowest k - distance ( as they were ambiguous based on the combined gene tree ) differed between the coi and 16s datasets . in these cases , only the relevant k \u2215\u03b8 comparison for the applicable gene was calculated .\nk \u2215\u03b8 values for both coi and 16s for comparisons between sister clades within queensland and new south wales .\nwhere specimens from the same collection locality are split into two or more lineages , details are included below the table for clarification . dashes are used where sister clades differ between coi and 16s .\nlineage 1 = mar & tsfn & tsfsa ( specimen 4 ) & tsfsc ( specimens 8 , 17 , 22 ) .\nlineage 2 = tsfsa - h ( specimens 1 - 3 , 5 - 7 , 9 - 12 , 14 , 16 , 18 - 21 , 23 - 30 ) & brb & tl & ber ( specimens 1 , 2 , 5 ) .\nlineage 3 = ber ( specimens 3 , 4 , 6 , 7 ) .\nalthough there was some ambiguity in the barcoding analysis of the qld coi data regarding the separation of lineage 1 and 2 , the 16s data showed support for the species discovery lineage hypothesis . because of the deeper phylogenetic inferences provided by 16s in addition to the fact that there were many genetic distances within and between lineage 1 and 2 falling within the expected distributions , the lineage hypothesis for qld populations was considered supported by this analysis ( table 7 ) . the two nsw lineages were clearly separate based on both the coi and 16s data and were therefore also supported ( table 7 ) . in the k \u2215\u03b8 analysis , all lineages were supported by both genes with the exception of the split between lineage 1 and 2 ( both genes ) , and lineage 1 and 3 ( 16s ) ( table 7 ) .\nthe species discovery lineage hypothesis and two lineage validation methods , with the final assignment of lineages for queensland and new south wales localities .\nalthough it is difficult to define what degree of separation is necessary between genera at a molecular level ( rach et al . , 2008 ) , based on the genetic distances presented in this study there is strong support for division at genus level . for instance , the genetic distance between qld and nsw populations is larger than that seen between engaeus and both geocharax and gramastacus for the coi and 16s gene fragments , and between engaewa and both geocharax and engaeus for coi . other genera also show smaller genetic distances when compared to either qld or nsw than these two groups do with each other . regardless of which genera were genetically closer to each other , the distance between qld and nsw is at least as large as those between existing genera ( table 3 ) , thereby supporting their separation into two distinct genera .\nall samples used in this study to infer the individual gene trees . * indicates samples obtained from genbank , qb indicates samples obtained from q . burnham unpublished data , and all others are from this study . where samples have more than one id name , the first is the identification used in this study , and the second is the identifier from genbank .\nmany thanks are given to the volunteers that helped with the field work ; dr seanan wild , amanda dawson , dr dianna virkki , and shane howard . we are also grateful for additional genetic material provided by dr andrew bentley and dr quinton burnham .\nkathryn l . dawkins conceived and designed the experiments , performed the experiments , analyzed the data , wrote the paper , prepared figures and / or tables , reviewed drafts of the paper .\njames m . furse conceived and designed the experiments , reviewed drafts of the paper .\njane m . hughes conceived and designed the experiments , contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools , reviewed drafts of the paper .\nthe following information was supplied relating to field study approvals ( i . e . , approving body and any reference numbers ) :\nall specimens from this study were collected under permits witk08599510 , wisp08599610 , and twb / 01 / 2011 issue by the department of environment and resource management .\nsequences obtained in this study were deposited in genbank under accession numbers kx669691 \u2013 kx670093 , kx753349 .\nthis project was completed as part of a phd project undertaken by the principal author , funded by an australian postgraduate award ( 2009 ) and the griffith school of environment , gold coast campus , queensland , australia . there was no additional external funding received for this study . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\na preliminary key to the species of decapoda ( crustacea : malacostraca ) found in australian inland waters .\nevolution and the genetics of populations . variability within and among natural populations . vol . 4 .\nour promise peerj promises to address all issues as quickly and professionally as possible . we thank you in advance for your patience and understanding .\nfollowing\nis like subscribing to any updates related to a publication . these updates will appear in your home dashboard each time you visit peerj .\nyou can also choose to receive updates via daily or weekly email digests . if you are following multiple publications then we will send you no more than one email per day or week based on your preferences .\nnote : you are now also subscribed to the subject areas of this publication and will receive updates in the daily or weekly email digests if turned on . you can add specific subject areas through your profile settings .\npeerj feeds - atom | rss 1 . 0 | rss 2 . 0 | json peerj computer science feeds - atom | rss 1 . 0 | rss 2 . 0 | json peerj preprint feeds - atom | rss 1 . 0 | rss 2 . 0 | json archives - peerj | peerj computer science | peerj preprints\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 0b100ae7 - a19d - 4347 - aef6 - 7231474928fa\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 24275bcb - 2a3a - 4129 - a84a - a4f3461d0d69\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 45d8cb37 - 93b8 - 4c05 - 9d0e - b1dce9a6b9d8\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 2bdb9597 - 6c0e - 4924 - 84c7 - be74235a4d76\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 448864\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\n> stream x\u009c\u00bdxqo\u00fb6\u0010 ~ \u00f7\u00af\u00e0\u00fb6 \u00a1i\u008a\u0014\u00e9a\u0018\u009086\u00f6 \u00e5\u00f6\u00ee\u00e0 \u00b6 = \u00a8\u0016m\u00a9s $ \u0097\u0092\u001b\u00e4\u00df\u00ef ( \u00f1\u00b1\u0092 \\ l\u0001 \u0086\u0014\u00b1s\n\u00ef\u00be\u00fb\u00ee\u00bb # \u00f5 / \u0013n\u0018\u00fc \\ \u0086\u000f # 95\u00e6\u0092\u00f5\u00fd\u00e4k\u00b4sb\u0014e\u0089 % * \u00a5\u00a9\u0015\u00e1\u00f1\u0087\u0097\u000f5 | r\u00ab _ yz\u00fc \u008ft\u00fa\u00e7s\u00e1\u00b7h ( \u0013\u00e6\u00fa . \u00e4\u00f4\u00fd\u009d 75x ` d3\u00b9 ^ \u000e\u0091ii\u00b9\u0010\u008c\u00f1t\u0091\u00e5 \u0099 . \u0004 ' \\ \u0092\u00e5z\u0012\u0096 , \u00f3\u00e9o\u008c\u00b1\u00e4g\u00b2\u00fc < \u00e1\u009c a\u008ev\u00f9y % \u00b5 * = \u001aug\u00f4\u0014 | < \u00fa\u00f2\u00b8\u00f0\u00f0\u00e1b\u00fd\u0019 ! \u0001 ! \u00ee\u00b84\u009d\u00f1p\u00ad\u008e6\u008b\u00f8\u00f00\u00a8\u00e7\u00ab\u00b8\u009b c _ # . ygk\u00e8\u00e04\u008b\u00ebxzf\u00ef\u00ed8\u007fsd\u0019\u008a\u000f [ \u0088\u00f1\u00b0\u00e02fq\u00ff / \u0084q\u0016\u0097i } \u00b4\u00f1\u0091\u00fe\u00f0 \u00a3qs\u0011\u00f5h\u00ec ` ; & q ; \u00a40x\u00ee < \u00e1\u00f8a6c\u0010\u00b9 \u009b\u00e078 | \u00ec + \u00a1\u00e5\u0099 ( \u00a35\u00f1\u008d\u00e5\u00ea\u001ba0s , \u00a3vpk5\u00f3a\u00e6\u00b03\u00f4\u008e\u00ef\b\u00a9 , j\u00ba : \u00ec3\u00ae\u00df\u008e\u000f & \u00f6\u000f\u00a8 & \u00f1\u00ed\u00b3\u00b82e\u0083\u00e4\u00f3\u0018 ; \u0019\u0002by\u001b ; \u009fq\u0019\u00bdq # \u00a3\u0093j \\ # r } \u00e8x\u00997 < \u00fa\u00989q\u0096\u00f3 ' \u0000zi\u0094l\u0014\u000f\u0006 \\ g\u008fl\u008a7\u00a1\u00f6 ` \u0093\u0014 = \u00edq\u00e2q - 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@ \u009cs\u00b1\u00e8\u0083m \u001a\u00ef\u00b9\u0084\u00fed\u00b5\u00f5\u00b2\u00e3\u00e9\u0080 $ \u00a5\u00fb\u00ab\u0095\u00ee\u00f9 ' \u00f0\u00a9b\u00aa\u0089\u008c\u00f6\u0084\u008fs\u0012 / p2\u00b2\u00f1\u00fe\u00e0\u00a3\u00f4\u00ed \u00a2\u00f4\u0002 } \u0007i\u009env\u00eb\u0084b\u009ee\u00af [ \u008b\u00e7\u0098s\u00f2\u0013\u00ea - \u0091\u00bc * sj \\ \u00fe , \u00a8xk ' \u00efl6d\u008bo \u00ef\u0090\u00ae\u00fbp\u00fa91\u00f4\u00a4\u00f1\u00ec j # \u00e4t ! s\u00b59\u00ad\u00e06f\u009a\u00e6\u00bfx\u00e2\u00e9p\u0004n\u0006\u0000\u00e0\u008ba : \u0019edi\u00edv\u00bbf < \u00f1\u00e7\u009b\b\u0084\u00fb ; \u00ec\u00a3\u00a7 g\u009a ' \u0003\u0092\u0010\u00df\u008au\u00ee\u00f9 ' ( \u0099\u00e5t\u009brr\u00fc\u00fc - $ p2r\u00e1 _ \u00f3\u0083m\u00e4 $ \u00fa : \u0081\u00bd\n\u00fai\u0018\u00ef\u00bb \u008a . \u00e6\u00f6i : \u00ef2\u00b3 ! \u008bncl\u0012 ! \u0013\u00fd\u00ea\u00b3k\u00ffy\u0091x\u00bf\u0093\u00f5\u00fe\u00f0\u00e3\u00f6\u0092qt\u0087n\nv\u008c < , : _ \\ \u00eez\u0093\u00f6 [ \u00ef\u008e ~ \u0080l\u00fc\u0006 . \u0013\u00fd\u008cv ; } \u00d7h\u00b7 / \u00b6\u00f3\u001a\u0003p2 \u0081\u0093\u0001\u0000\u00f0b\u0098n\u00e6\u0012\u00fd\u0019\u00a2\u00fd\u0091 ' e o\n\u00f0\u00f1\u00f8\u00f3\u00ea\u00f0 \u0088p2 \u0089\u0088d\u00a2kc\u0016 ) y % \u00f4s3 \u00f4\u00a2\u00039\u0003 ' # \u000f\u0011\u00bf\u00bfv\u00e7\u00fdi\u00b7\u0017 = _ \u00a6\u00e3\u00f9 ) 3c\u00f5 \u00a2k2\u0014\u008d\u00e7 ^ * ` \u00b3\u0089\u00f8\u00f0\u0017\u00f8v\u0007\u00f6\u00e7\u00f8\u00b1\u009e\u00f6\u00fb\u00fee\u00e6\u00fe\u00fa\u00bc\u00e0v\u00fb ( \u0019e\u008e ] \u000f\u0088\u0004\u00f8l\u0095\u007f\u00ed\u008f\u00f6\u00f2q2 , \u00e2t\u00f2 \u001b\u00ef\u00f6n ! : \u009c g\u00e0d\u0000\u0000\u00bc ` p2 ) & \u00f7q\u008be o\n\u00e0\u00fc { \u00ae\u0092 ^ 8\u00ac\u009a\u00e3\u00e9\u0080\u00e4 g\u00a7\u00922\njcrac\u00b4\b\u009c\u008c < 4 ] v\u00edpv\u00b3j\u0092j\u00bau\u00f9\u00fc\u00ebe\u0097dp\u00a2b\u00e6\u0098 \\ b\u00e6dnjn\u00e3\u0092\u0018\u00bf\u00f2l . s\u00ba\u00e3 + \u00a7b | c\u00f4 yj\u00b4 , \u00bd\u0089\u00b5 , \u00ae\u0003\u008f\u00a4\u00a3 _ \u0019 $ u\u00fe\u00e8\u001ac\u00b6\u00e7\u00e5\u00d7b ; \u00bf\u00ac\u00e0\u00e9p\u0004n\u0006\u0000\u00e0\u008b\u00e1 ; \u0019kn\u00a5b\u00ac\u00e8 ^ \u00b1j\u00f4 ! \u00eb\u001b\u00df7kz\u008a9\u009c\u009a\u00e3\u00e9\u0080\u0084 ' \u00f4\u00f0\u00f0r\u00fd\u00adj & \u00f6\u00e6h 8\u0019i\b\u00f4 ( \u0096\u00e21\u0016\u00a34s\u00e6\u00fcjsza\u00f7\u00e7\u00ff\u0013 ] \u0098\u0001h < \u00f7\u00f2\u001a\u0083q | \u00894\u008e\u00b1\u00fcv = 9\u00f0s , \u008bd\u00fa\u00e8 \u0019s\u0002 \u0019k\u00f4\u0017\u00e3\u00ee / \u00beb * k\u00eb ? \u00ee\u00a1k\u00add \u00f9\u00e6 ( \u00e9e\u00ee\u00fd\u000f\u00fc\u0010 \u00e5p\u008ay\u0081\u0093\u00e1\b\u009c \u0000\u0080\u0017 n & : \u0086o\u00b9\u00eef\u00f1\u0087\u00aco\u001a\u00ef\u00bc ` \u00f87p8\u0019\u0090\u00e0d | \u00fe\u00f6\u009bn\u008f ~ si\u00e4\u0087f\u0092 > p2\u0092\u00f0t\u00f1\u0095\u00b2\u008d\u00ea\u00e9\u00b2\u00f8\u0005\u008bd\u0017fs\u001a\u00ef\u00bd $ \u00e9\u00b6 , \u00f5 ^ \u00aa\u00e6\u00f6 [ \u00ef\u008e\u00a1b \u00ff ~ \u008e\u000e\u00f0\u0012z\u00e8\u0090\u00b9\u00bc } \u00e2\u008cpc\u00e3\u00f0\u00ebb\u00b7 n\u0099\u00a9\u008c ( \u0011 ~ \u00f0\u00fd\u00eer\u00aa\u00e9\u00b3l\u008b\u00a52p2 \u0081\u0093\u0001\u0000\u00f0\u0082\u00e9\u00e9\u00f0g\u00df6 ; 0 = \u00fb @ _ \u00e2\u00ad\u00ad\u00f6i3\u0094\u00ac\u00e1\u00ee _ \u0086\u0093\u0001\u0089j\u00d7 ; \u00b8\u00f69\u0094\u00ec\u00b0d\u00f8\u00ee\u009f\u009c\u0081\u0093\u0091\u0081pg\u0087m\u00f4t\u00f9\u00ae\u0002\u00e5xn\u001b9 ) \u00e4\u00aa\u0013 ] \u009emx\u0096\u00bf\u0019\u00fd\u00b2\u0094 | \u00f26\u00a7\u00e2b\u001a\u00e5 _ \u00b7\u009e\u00b5ba\u00e5j\u00dfv\u0007 % \u00b3x | \u0013\u00f4\u008c\u0092q\u00e4\u00fag . se\u00bc \u007ff\u0087a\u0092\u00f5 % % \u00bd\u00f0\u00b9\u00e7\u0081\u00acg9\u0006\u00e0d8\u0002 ' \u0003\u0000\u00e0\u0005\u0093\u0093\u00b1d - \u0081g\u00f9\u001b\u00a2\u008fz\u00af\u00b4\u00fd\u00f3 / \u00a6\u00e5\u00b2p2 \u00f1\b9 ] \u008d\u00e7 \\ jn ; \u00e6\u00e1\u00bdu q ) p22\u00e0y\u00f6\u009a\u0092v ( \u00fb\u00f40\u00fa = \u00f2z\u00ae\u00bfutyz\u00e9\u00fe\u00f2kk\u00f1h\u00fa\u0095 % \u00f1e\u0011r\n\u001a\u00efb\u007f\u0093l $ \u00e2\u00fc\u00ed\u0000y\u00fe\u0097\u00a2r } \u00fa x\u0094\u00a96u\u00f3\u008e\u00a3 [ ee \u00f9\u00e6\u00e9\u00a9\u00b0\u0014\u008e\u00f6\u00ff\u00f43\u00f3\u00b9f\u0004n\u0086 # p2\u0000\u0000 ^ \u00b0 : \u0019 % \u00bd\u00a8\u00ee\u00f0cd \u00b5 ^ ! \u00a5s\u00f2\u0018 p2 \u00e1\u00f0\u00bc\u00f2\u0086 } \u00eal\u00b3 ! [ \u00f8\u00b8\u0005\u0081\u0093\u0091\u0081\u0086s\u00ee\u00a6\u00af\u00fb\u0010\u00fd\u0019\u00b6\u008c\u0092v\u00e8\u009as\u00b8\u00e8\u00f2p\n\u00fen\u00d7\u0001\u0087\u00f3w ' \u00ba ^ \u0018 9\u0095\u00f6\u00e2\u00b11\u00bci\u00a6\u00e5\u00ba [ \u00e4\u00ecw\u00fcc\u00eec o = ? \u00fc\u00ea\u0004m\u00b5\u00b6\u00aair\u00fa = zo\u00be\u00f7 _ \u00ac\u00e7\u009a\u00158\u0019\u008e\u00e0\u00e9\u0000\u0000x\u00e1\u00ead\u00e8\u009d3\u00ab4\u00b0\u00fe\u0017\u00f1\u0007\u00ae ? \u00bc \u007f\u00aad\u00b0\u00fd ' \u0003\u0012\u0086p { g\u00e3\u00a9g + # \u008a\u0095\u008c\u00a2d\u009c [ \u00e9\u00178\u0019\u0019p\u00ec\u00bc\u0097\u00a4\u00bbk\u008c\u0015\u00b6\u0091\u0093\u0082v\u009b\u00e8 mh\u00bb\u00e3 ^ \u00b3 ! + 9o\u001ajza\u00fd\u00e1\u00e7\u00b1v\u00ec\u00f7\u00f5jk\u00f1\u0018ej\u00ed\u00e09\u00b9\u0095\u0016c\u00b9\u00f7\u00bf\u009f \u00bf8\u00fd _ \u00ae\u0090q\u0091l\u00ef\u00e9n / r\u00ed { \u0018\u00eb\u00e9f\u0005n\u0086 # p2\u0000\u0000 ^ 0 ; \u0099\u00e8\u00fb\u00ffz\u00ae\u00b9q\u00f4\u0081\u00eb\u008f\u00e6 + \u00afe . 5\u009c h\b | + \u00bf ! cm\u00ba\n\u00a1\u00ae\u0014\u00f0\u00b6\u00f9\u00e9 ' g\u009d\u008cn\u00ab\u0016\u00bd \u00f6\u0006\u00b4\u009c\u0000 ? x\u00984j\u00b9w\u009d\u0000\u00bf\u0081\u0003\u00fa\u00bd\u00f3\u00ee\u00ea\u00e8\u00e8 ( g\u00aab0\u00a2\u00a2\n\u0097 , y\u00f4 ~ \u00a8f\u00a5\b\u0010\u00a3\u00b9\u00e2c\u0005u\u0007\u00f5\u00d7 * \u00ac\u00e5 { \u00ef\u00bdc\u0097\u0003\u00e1\u00ec\u0095 + wl > \u009b\u0090\u00b1f \u00eb\u00fb\u00e9d\u0098 ` \u00b3n\u0012\u00bdm \u0019\u0006 _ \u00fd \u0081\u0003 \u00ae \u00f8\u00ea \u0019 < \b > \u0088\u0084\u00ed 4\u00a4\u00ee _ \u007f\u00fde\u00ef & \u008b\u00ef\u00fc\u00f9\u00f3\b _ h\u00f0\u001a [ 4oz\u00eb\u0016\u00f1\u00e7\u00e5\u0019a ' # \u00e10\u00ea\u0094yb\u00af ` j 7e\u00b0\u00fas ^ ' c\u0094 ) r\u00e7 , \u00a4\u0095sn\u00e4 | \u00fd sk \u00a9\b\u0014\u00bd\u00fdr\u00a8 = t2\u00e2\u0083n\u00e6\u00e1\u0010\u00eb\u00e9\u0004\u009b\u00b5\u008c\u00fc\u00fbs\u00e9\u00f2\u00d7h\u00a5 . \u0005 \\ \u00e6\u00e9\u0000\u00df } \u00f7 ? \u00bdnc\u00f2k8 \\ \u007f\u00b4\u008bn , \u00b7\u00b0d\u00f1\n\u0095rn\u00b3 4j\u00e5\u00ec\u00f9\u00b3\b\u00af\u0089n\u0086\u0003n\u00ead * \u0006\nriek , e . f . ( 1951 ) . the freshwater crayfish ( family parastacidae ) of queensland . records of the australian museum . 22 ( 4 ) : 368 - 388 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ncrandall , k . a . & s . de grave . ( 2017 ) . an updated classification of the freshwater crayfishes ( decapoda : astacidea ) of the world , with a complete species list . journal of crustacean biology . page ( s ) : 381 [ details ]\nkathryn l . dawkins a d , james m . furse b , clyde h . wild b and jane m . hughes c\na australian rivers institute , griffith university , gold coast , qld 4222 , australia .\nb environmental futures centre , griffith university , gold coast , qld 4222 , australia .\nc australian rivers institute , griffith university , nathan , qld 4111 , australia .\nthis study was conducted as a major part of a b . sc . ( hons ) by kathryn dawkins under the supervision of james furse , professor jane hughes and professor clyde wild . funding for this study was provided by both the australian rivers institute and the griffith school of environment , griffith university . additional funding for genetic analysis was also provided by rob mccormack and his company \u2018aabio\u2019 and was greatly appreciated . the authors would like to thank the two anonymous reviewers and the associate editor for their helpful comments , michael arthur for statistical guidance and rob mccormack , jason coughran and many other volunteers for field assistance . crayfish were collected under nsw scientific collection permit p05 / 0077 - 3 . 1 and qld general fisheries permit # 91210 .\naustin , c . m . , and ryan , s . g . ( 2002 ) . allozyme evidence for a new species of freshwater crayfish of the genus cherax erichson ( decapoda : parastacidae ) from the south - west of western australia . invertebrate systematics 16 , 357\u2013367 . | crossref |\nbaker , a . m . , williams , s . a . , and hughes , j . m . ( 2003\nbaker , a . m . , hughes , j . m . , dean , j . c . , and bunn , s . e . ( 2004\n) . mitochondrial dna reveals phylogenetic structuring and cryptic diversity in australian freshwater macroinvertebrate assemblages .\n( decapoda : parastacidae ) on the mainland and islands of southeast queensland . bsc ( hons ) thesis , griffith university , nathan .\nbentley , a . i . , schmidt , d . j . , and hughes , j . m . ( 2010\n) . extensive intraspecific genetic diversity of a freshwater crayfish in a biodiversity hotspot .\n( decapoda : palaemonidae ) in western queensland , australia : the role of contemporary and historical processes .\nchenoweth , s . f . , and hughes , j . m . ( 2003\nclement , m . , posada , d . , and crandall , k . a . ( 2000\ncook , b . d . , baker , a . m . , page , t . j . , grant , c . , and fawcett , j . h . , et al . ( 2006\ncook , b . d . , page , t . j . , and hughes , j . m . ( 2008\n) . importance of cryptic species for identifying \u2018representative\u2019 units of biodiversity for freshwater conservation .\ncook , b . d . , pringle , c . m . , and hughes , j . m . ( 2008\n) . molecular evidence for sequential colonization and taxon cycling in freshwater decapod shrimps on a caribbean island .\ncrandall , k . a . , fetzner , j . w . , lawler , s . h . , kinnersley , m . , and austin , c . m . ( 1999\n) . phylogenetic relationships among the australian and new zealand genera of freshwater crayfishes ( decapoda : parastacidae ) .\nde bruyn , m . , wilson , j . a . , and mather , p . b . ( 2004\ndieguez - uribeondo , j . , royo , f . , souty - grosset , c . , ropiquet , a . , and grandjean , f . ( 2008\n) . low genetic variability of the white - clawed crayfish in the iberian peninsula : its origin and management implications .\ndoyle , j . j . , and doyle , j . l . ( 1987\nexcoffier , l . , laval , g . , and schneider , s . ( 2005\n) . arlequin ver . 3 . 0 : an integrated software package for population genetics data analysis .\nfratini , s . , zaccara , s . , barbaresi , s . , grandjean , f . , and souty - grosset , c . , et al . ( 2005\nfu , y . - x . , and li , w . - l . ( 1993\ngenecodes ( 2000 ) . \u2018sequencher ( version 4 . 1 . 2 ) . \u2019 ( gene codes corporation : ann arbor , mi . )\ngouin , n . , grandjean , f . , and souty - grosset , c . ( 2006\n) . a note on the habitat requirements of the swamp crayfish on bribie island , southeastern queensland .\n) . the influence of light phase and predators on the behaviour of swamp crayfish .\n( 2007 ) . \u2018principles of population genetics . \u2019 4th edn . ( sinauer associates inc . publishers : sunderland , ma . )\n( 1995 ) . a preliminary key to the species of decapoda ( crustacea : malacostraca ) found in australian inland waters . co - operative research centre for freshwater ecology , albury , australia .\nhughes , j . m . , and hillyer , m . j . ( 2003\nhughes , j . m . , ponniah , m . , hurwood , d . a . , chenoweth , s . f . , and arthington , a . ( 1999\n( 2006 ) . \u2018wetland management profile : coastal melaleuca swamp wetlands . \u2019 ( ecosystem conservation branch , epa : brisbane , queensland . )\nkatoh , k . , kuma , k . - i . , toh , h . , and miyata , t . ( 2005\nknight , j . t . , nock , c . j . , elphinstone , m . s . , and baverstock , p . r . ( 2009\n( 1999 ) . life history characteristics of crayfish : what makes some of them good colonizers ? in \u2018biotic interactions and global change\u2019 . ( eds p . kareiva , j . kingsolver and r . huey . ) pp . 23\u201330 . ( sinauer associates inc . : sunderland , ma . )\n( 2002 ) . \u2018living . the planetary report , 2002 . \u2019 ( world wide fund for nature international : gland , switzerland . )\nmargules , c . r . , and pressey , r . l . ( 2000\nmills , c . e . , hadwen , w . l . , and hughes , j . m . ( 2008\nmorrison , c . l . , rios , r . , and duffy , j . e . ( 2004\nnguyen , t . t . t . , meewan , m . , ryan , s . , and austin , c . m . ( 2002\npage , t . j . , and hughes , j . m . ( 2007\n) . phylogeographic structure in an australian freshwater shrimp largely pre - dates the geological origins of its landscape .\npage , t . j . , sharma , s . , and hughes , j . m . ( 2004\n( 1991 ) . \u2018the simple fool\u2019s guide to pcr . \u2019 ( university of hawaii press : honolulu . )\n) . the freshwater crayfish ( family parastacidae ) of queensland , with an appendix describing other australian species .\n) . the australian freshwater crayfish ( crustacea : decapoda : parastacidae ) , with descriptions of new species .\nrode , a . l . , and babcock , l . e . ( 2003\n) . phylogeny of fossil and extant freshwater crayfish and some closely related nephropid lobsters .\nschubart , c . d . , diesel , r . , and hedges , s . b . ( 1998\nschultz , m . b . , smith , s . a . , richardson , a . m . m . , horwitz , p . , and crandall , k . a . , et al . ( 2007\nschultz , m . b . , smith , s . a . , horwitz , p . , richardson , a . m . m . , and crandall , k . a . , et al . ( 2009\n) . raxml - vi - hpc : maximum likelihood - based phylogenetic analyses with thousands of taxa and mixed models .\nstillman , j . h . , and reeb , c . a . ( 2001\nsturmbauer , c . , leninton , j . s . , and christy , j . ( 1996\n) . molecular phylogeny analysis of fiddler crabs : test of the hypothesis of increasing behavioral complexity in evolution .\n( 2003 ) . \u2018paup * . phylogenetic analysis using parsimony ( * and other methods ) ( version 4 ) . \u2019 ( sinauer associates : sunderland , ma . )\ntamura , k . , dudley , j . , nei , m . , and kumar , s . ( 2007\n) . mega 4 : molecular evolutionary genetics analysis ( mega ) software version 4 . 0 .\ntaylor , c . a . , schuster , g . a . , cooper , j . e . , distefano , r . j . , and eversole , a . g . , et al . ( 2007\n) . a reassessment of the conservation status of crayfishes of the united states and canada after 10 + years of increased awareness .\nwares , j . p . , and cunningham , c . w . ( 2001\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nkathryn l . dawkins , 1 james m . furse , 2 , 3 clyde h . wild , 2 and jane m . hughes 4\nthe parastacid crayfish genera are generally highly speciose , with novel species and genetically diverse groups commonly found ( e . g . ,\n, which contains the species with the smallest body size in the parastacidae huxley , 1879 . although it has previously been highlighted as containing genetically diverse groups ( see\n, on the basis of electrophoretic and geographical differences , that previously unrecognised genetic diversity existed within the genus . subsequently , two genetically divergent groups were identified within this region by\n, both of which showed considerable internal genetic variability . the two identified groups aligned with populations from qld and nsw , respectively , and were suggested to represent species that diverged as a result of long - term historical geographic isolation (\n, utilising molecular data across several gene regions and employing multiple species delimitation methods in order to determine the most likely species groups .\nthe triangle and bolded name denotes the type locality . grey lines denote drainage boundaries , and the black line denotes the border between queensland and new south wales . refer to\n. all specimens from this study were collected under permits witk08599510 , wisp08599610 , and twb / 01 / 2011 issued by the department of environment and resource management . dna was extracted from specimens preserved in 70 % ethanol using a variation of the cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide / phenol - chloroform extraction protocol (\nwere also sequenced for inclusion as outgroups . where sequences from these outgroups could not be obtained ( i . e . , due to non - amplification ) , alternative sequences were retrieved from genbank ( details in\nthe genetic distances calculated between the qld and nsw groups using coi and 16s were 16 . 0 % and 12 . 7 % , respectively (\n) . these distances were as large as , or in some cases larger than , the distances calculated between these two groups and other closely related genera . furthermore , some distances between pairs of the other genera were smaller than those between the qld and nsw groups for both coi and 16s ( e . g . ,\n) . six clades were evident within the qld populations , with the monophyly of all but two highly supported ( as these were represented by single specimens ) . the first clade included maryborough and some tuan state forest specimens ( lineage 1 ; bs 90 % , pp 1 ) , and the second contained the remaining tuan state forest specimens as well as bribie island , type locality , and some beerburrum specimens ( lineage 2 ; bs 96 % , pp 1 ) . the two groups for which monophyly could not be established were represented by the remaining beerburrum specimens ( lineage 3 ) and hervey bay ( lineage 4 ) . the final two clades consisted of tewantin and lake weyba specimens ( lineage 5 ; bs 100 % , pp 1 ) and gold coast specimens ( lineage 6 ; bs 100 % , pp 1 ) . there was also some geographic structuring evident within each of the clades ."]}
{"id": 480, "summary": [{"text": "skara is a genus of maxillopod crustacean known from the upper cambrian orsten deposit of sweden and similarly aged deposits in china .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is the only genus in the order skaracarida , and contains three species : skara anulata m\u00fcller , 1983 skara minuta m\u00fcller & walossek , 1985 skara huanensis liu & dong , 2007 the feeding system of skara resembles those of copepods and derocheilocaris , and the three taxa are accordingly grouped together as the clade copepodoida .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "skara is likely to have scraped or brushed the substrate to release food . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "skaracarida", "paragraphs": ["skaracarida , a new order of crustacea from the upper cambrian of vastergotland , sweden : klaus j . muller : 9788200074984\nm\u00fcller , klaus j . skaracarida , a new order of crustacea from the upper cambrian of v\u00e4sterg\u00f6tland , sweden . oslo : universitetsforlaget , 1985 .\nm\u00fcller , klaus j . skaracarida , a new order of crustacea from the upper cambrian of v\u00e4sterg\u00f6tland , sweden . oslo : universitetsforlaget , 1985 . print .\nm\u00fcller , klaus j . ( 1985 ) . skaracarida , a new order of crustacea from the upper cambrian of v\u00e4sterg\u00f6tland , sweden . oslo : universitetsforlaget ,\nm\u00fcller kj , walossek d ( 1985 ) skaracarida , a new order of crustacea from the upper cambrian of v\u00e4sterg\u00f6tland , sweden . fossils and strata 17 : 1\u201365 .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncitation : eriksson me , terfelt f , elofsson r , marone f ( 2012 ) internal soft - tissue anatomy of cambrian \u2018orsten\u2019 arthropods as revealed by synchrotron x - ray tomographic microscopy . plos one 7 ( 8 ) : e42582 . urltoken\neditor : richard j . butler , ludwig - maximilians - universit\u00e4t m\u00fcnchen , germany\ncopyright : \u00a9 eriksson et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : this research was financed by grants to mee and ft from the swedish research council , the royal physiographic society , lund , and the faculty of science , lund university . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nthe \u2018orsten\u2019 lagerst\u00e4tte from kinnekulle , on the southern border of lake v\u00e4nern , sweden , contains remarkably well - preserved minute fossils from bituminous limestones ( \u2018orsten\u2019 ) of uppermost mid - cambrian through furongian ( upper cambrian ) age ( e . g . [ 1 ] \u2013 [ 6 ] ) . the discovery of these remarkable fossils in the mid - 1970s has been followed by a sequence of investigations revealing , among other things , morphological details of exceptional interest for understanding the evolution of , and relationships among , early arthropods . the famous \u2018orsten\u2019 taxa have provided significant insights into the cambrian biota and early phanerozoic metazoan evolution .\nthe \u2018orsten\u2019 metazoans are represented by ecdysozoans ( moulting animals ) , including the scalidophoran nemathelminths and arthropods , all in the size range of 2 mm or less ( e . g . [ 3 ] \u2013 [ 5 ] , [ 7 ] ) . most of the fossils are arthropods ; they include lobopodians , tardigrades , pentastomids , chelicerates , agnostoids , phosphatocopines and skaracarids [ 4 ] .\nby contrast to the phosphatised \u2018orsten\u2019 taxa , the conventional record of shelly fossils in the uppermost mid - cambrian through furongian of sweden is dominated by agnostoids and polymerid ( in particular olenid ) trilobites ( e . g . [ 8 ] \u2013 [ 11 ] ) , commonly occurring in great abundance in shales and limestones . although approximately one hundred fairly well - preserved , juvenile specimens of the agnostoid agnostus pisiformis have been recovered in \u2018orsten\u2019 - type preservation [ 2 ] , only one specimen interpreted as a polymerid trilobite hypostome with associated soft tissues has hitherto been discovered [ 12 ] . this collectively suggests that the arthropod faunas of this age are taphonomically biased and that the dominance of polymerids and agnostoids in the conventional fossil record does not necessarily represent the true , original faunal composition of arthropods .\nthe external morphology of the \u2018orsten\u2019 species has been thoroughly described ( e . g . [ 1 ] \u2013 [ 7 ] and references therein ) . however , the internal organs and tissues ( such as intestines and muscles ) of these fossils have rarely been addressed [ 4 ] . m\u00fcller and walossek ( [ 13 ] : pl . 1 , fig . 8 ) noted that a preserved \u2018steinkern\u2019 of skara might represent the gut , an assumption that is confirmed in the present investigation . moreover , maas et al . ( [ 4 ] : fig . 4e , f ) noted the preservation of guts , which they observed in skaracarids with a cracked - open cuticula . in the same paper , maas et al . documented a pentastomid arthropod with exposed muscle strands in the head region ( [ 4 ] : fig . 4g ) , which they referred to as the only known example of unequivocally internal matter in \u2018orsten\u2019 - type preservation .\nthe limited knowledge of internal anatomy is a tantalizing drawback of the \u2018orsten\u2019 fossils and limits the extent to which palaeobiological conclusions can be drawn . the present investigation provides , by using synchrotron radiation x - ray tomographic microscopy ( srxtm ) , a chance to at least partly overcome that problem . our use of srxtm and 3d - rendering techniques applied to specimens of well known \u2018orsten\u2019 taxa from the cambrian of sweden has enabled internal structures to be revealed , a task that would be difficult with conventional techniques such as scanning electron microscopy ( sem ) . moreover , being a non - invasive technique , srxtm allows for internal structures of unique fossils to be studied without destroying the specimens . our work therefore provides a promising approach to understand the internal anatomy and functional morphology of these exceptionally well - preserved microscopic animals .\nmount kinnekulle is an erosional outlier in the province of v\u00e4sterg\u00f6tland , south - central sweden , comprising cambrian to silurian strata capped by dolerite intruded as sills during carboniferous through permian times [ 14 ] , [ 15 ] . the uppermost middle cambrian through furongian ( uppermost cambrian ) strata of mount kinnekulle crop out in a few natural exposures and a number of abandoned alum shale quarries ( e . g . [ 3 ] : fig . 2 ; [ 8 ] : fig . 18 ; [ 16 ] : fig . 2 ) . these strata consist of interfingering beds and layers of black alum shale and bituminous limestone ( colloquially referred to as \u2018stinkstone\u2019 or \u2018orsten\u2019 ) . agnostoids and polymerid trilobites , predominantly olenids , occur frequently in the succession . biostratigraphically , the exposed succession spans the lejopyge laevigata zone through the peltura lobata zone of the alum shale formation [ 17 ] ; however , several stratigraphic gaps occur within the succession [ 14 ] .\nthe material reported herein was collected from the \u2018transformatorstationen\u2019 locality at blomberg , on the southwestern part of mount kinnekulle ( n58\u00b032 . 558\u2032 ; e13\u00b019 . 910\u2032 ) . this locality exposes less than 2 m of bituminous limestones with a few , thin alum shale beds . all \u2018orsten\u2019 samples were collected from the lowermost part of the exposure and belong to the agnostus pisiformis zone ( guzhangian stage , or uppermost mid - cambrian ) . the required permits for the described field studies were obtained from the land owner .\nin the search for phosphatised \u2018orsten\u2019 fossils we followed the results of maeda et al . [ 6 ] and targeted coprolite - rich beds . slabs of such lithology , weighing approximately 0 . 5\u20134 kg each , were digested in ph - monitored buffered acetic acid , following the techniques described by jeppsson et al . [ 18 ] . the ph was adjusted to > 3 . 6 in order to avoid corrosion of phosphatic fossils . after digestion the resulting residue was rinsed through a 63 \u00b5m sieve cloth . subsequently , the residue was gently washed into a glass vial with deionized water in order to prevent growth of mould and algae . the residue was carefully investigated for exceptionally preserved microfossils under a binocular light microscope . specimens of interest were handpicked using a fine brush and stored submerged in water , to avoid damage prior to analyses .\nthe \u2019orsten\u2019 arthropods analysed and discussed herein include one specimen ( the only one recovered from our sample residues ) of skara minuta , two phosphatocopines assigned to hesslandona sp . , and one phosphatocopine assigned to hesslandona trituberculata ( see [ 3 ] ) . approximately 15 phosphatocopines with ventral body details were recovered from our residues . for this pilot study , the three most complete and well - preserved specimens were selected for analysis , in order to increase the chance of finding internal soft - tissue structures .\nall figured \u2018orsten\u2019 specimens are stored at the department of geology , lund university , lund , sweden , with repository number lo ( for lund original ) .\nthe transmission electron microscope ( tem ) micrographs of the extant mystacocarid derocheilocaris typica were prepared at the department of biology , lund university , sweden , using the procedure described in detail by elofsson and hessler [ 19 ] . the scanning electron microscope ( sem ) methods , including fixation techniques , and set - up for the same extant crustaceans were described by elofsson and hessler [ 20 ] . complementary sem studies of fossil specimens were performed using a hitachi s - 3400n instrument at the department of geology , lund university , sweden .\ndiagenetic phosphatisation can produce a variety of shapes and textures that may be mistaken for fossilised soft tissues [ 24 ] \u2013 [ 26 ] . herein , criteria such as symmetry , position within the body cavity , continuity and , perhaps most importantly , comparisons with equivalent structures in extant crustaceans with a similar degree of development , have formed the basis for our assessments and allowed structures to be distinguished from taphonomic and / or diagenetic artefacts ( cf . [ 4 ] , [ 13 ] ) .\nthe skara minuta specimen ( lo 11408t ) measures 400 \u00b5m in length ( note , however , that the posterior portion is lacking ) and 130 \u00b5m in width and is preserved in minute detail ( fig . 1a\u2013e ) . in addition to the cephalothorax and the first two thoracic segments , the specimen includes the proximal portions of the first and second antennae , mandibles , first and second maxillae , and maxillipeds ( fig . 1b , c , e ) . for a detailed description of s . minuta , as well as the other known skaracarid species from sweden , skara anulata , see m\u00fcller and walossek [ 13 ] . herein , we focus on the preserved internal tissues .\n( a ) dorsal , ( b ) lateral , ( c ) anterior , ( d ) posterior , and ( e ) ventral views . abbreviations : a1 , first antenna ; a2 , second antenna ; am , arthrodial membrane ; ct , cephalothorax ; la , labrum ; md , mandible ; mx1 , first maxilla ; mx2 , second maxilla ; mxp , maxilliped ; r , rostrum ; som , site of mouth ; ts1 , first thoracic segment ; ts2 , second thoracic segment .\nthe central space of the animal contains structures interpreted as the digestive system , which is composed of the oesophagus ( or foregut ) and the midgut ( figs . 1d , 2a\u2013c ) . the oesophagus is a uniform structure approximately 100 \u00b5m long and 20 \u00b5m in diameter . it has a fairly straight course from the mouth to the midgut due to the forwardly positioned and ventrally directed mouth ( figs . 1e , 2a ) . the short transition zone from oesophagus to midgut is indistinct ( collapsed ) in our specimen and we cannot establish whether it is an oesophagus telescoping into the midgut ( see below ) or a widened portion of the posterior oesophagus . therefore , the simplified schematic drawing ( fig . 3 ) merely shows the transition zone as a simple tube . on the other hand , the midgut appears rather well preserved in the animal and distinct from the oesophagus , as judged also by the size and similarity to those structures in extant crustaceans . the midgut is approximately 40 \u00b5m in diameter and the irregular lumen is clearly visible in cross - section ( fig . 2b , c ) . midgut glands are not observed in our specimen .\n( a ) ventral view ( cropped isosurface ) showing the oesophagus , parts of the midgut and a dorsal transverse tendon . ( b ) transverse cross - section ( cropped volrender ) showing the midgut and dorsal transverse tendon . ( c ) transverse cross - section ( cropped volrender ) showing the midgut and gut lumen . ( d ) ventral view ( volrender ) showing the internal plate and muscles extending into the appendages . ( e ) dorsal view ( volrender ) showing the prominent second antennal muscles . ( f ) anterior view ( cropped isosurface ) showing the second antennal muscle and its insertion on the inner wall of the antennal coxa . ( g ) isosurface in outer lateral view of the second antennal coxa showing the corresponding muscle scar . ( h ) isosurface of right mandible with its protruding muscle exposed . ( i ) cropped isosurface in ventral view of the labrum showing the prominent labral muscle and the approximate site of the mouth . abbreviations : a2 , second antenna ; ac , antennal coxa ; dtt , dorsal transverse tendons ; gl , gut lumen ; m , muscle ; md , mandible ; mg , midgut ; ms , muscle scar ; oe , oesophagus ; som , site of mouth .\ninterpretation of the general architecture of the digestive ( green ) and muscular systems ( red ) .\nventrally within the cephalothorax , below the digestive system , tissues from the antennae , mandibles and the two maxillae connect to form a plate , which follows the slanting contour of the ventral face of the animal ( fig . 2a , d , e ) . these tissues are here interpreted as phosphatised muscles and endoskeleton . the muscles of the thin first antenna leading to the plate are somewhat indistinct . by contrast , the muscles to each of the second antennae are prominent and fan out from the antero - lateral rim of the plate and enter the hollow entrance to the second antennae ( fig . 2a , e ) . one of the second antennal muscles can be followed to its insertion on the inner wall of the antennal coxa ( fig . 2f ) . the corresponding muscle scar on the outside is clearly visible ( fig . 2g ) . further posteriorly , muscles to the mandibles and maxillae project from the plate to these appendages ( fig . 2d , h ) . the endoskeleton , serving as the internal insertion of the muscle tissue , cannot be separated from the muscles in our specimen . they are , however , not formed as cuticular ingrowths .\nthere is no doubt that longitudinal muscles span the length of the thorax and abdomen both ventrally and dorsally in fossil crustaceans , as well as in living relatives [ 27 ] . these muscles insert on tendons on the segmental borders . in the analysed specimen of s . minuta , c . 15 \u00b5m thick rod - like structures occur in the dorsal part of the body cavity below the arthrodial membranes . they follow the outline of , and appear to be associated with , the segment borders ( fig . 2a , b ) .\nwithin the labrum , along the inner walls , we observed c . 8 \u00b5m thick strings identified as prominent labral muscles ( fig . 2i ) . they attach at the base of the labrum and can be followed along its inner wall .\n( a ) ventral view ( isosurface ) of hesslandona sp . ( lo 11409 t ) showing the internal anatomy . ( b\u2013d ) close - up ( isosurface ) of labrum of the same specimen , showing external surface ( b ) and labral muscle bundles in different views ; c in same view as b , d with apex of labrum pointing upwards ( see also video s1 ) . ( e , f ) isosurface in antero - ventral ( f ) and ventral ( g ) views of hesslandona sp . ( lo 11410 t ) . ( g ) close - up and cross section of labrum of that same specimen , revealing the labral muscles . apex of labrum pointing downwards and muscles viewed from the posterior . ( h ) specimen lo 11410 t showing the plane of orientation ( y - plane ) . ( i ) sem - micrograph of hesslandona trituberculata ( lo 11411 t ) . ( j ) 3d - rendering of a tomographic dataset ( cropped isosurface ) showing the internal anatomy and labrum of the same specimen . ( k ) internal virtual cross - section ( cropped volrender ) of the same specimen , showing numerous structures . ( l ) close - up of the labrum of the same specimen , showing the labral muscles . abbreviations : a1 , first antenna ; a2 , second antenna ; la , labrum ; m , muscle ; me , median eye ; ps , paragnaths ; st , sternum .\nthe fossils of the \u2018orsten\u2019 konservat - lagerst\u00e4tte are preserved by means of phosphate encrustation and impregnation of both external and , as shown in this study , internal organs of animals during early diagenesis , producing pristine three - dimensional preservation of fossils ( [ 4 ] , [ 6 ] and references therein ) . the \u2018orsten\u2019 type preservation can be expected to vary between different samples , but also between specimens and different structures within a single specimen . the fixation of histological preparations of extant arthropods provides an interesting analogue . the requirements for a good fixation of internal structures depend on a number of variables , a crucial one being rapid penetration of the tissues by suitable chemicals . an external cuticle delays the absorption of fixation liquids . in the case described here , the cuticle was probably partly ripped up and the animal was rapidly submerged in phosphate - rich fluids .\nour results indicate that some internal structures preserve fairly well whereas others deteriorate fast . those which seem to withstand destruction best are the muscles and tendons . their cell content of a \u201cskeleton\u201d of myosin and actin fibres ( fig . 5 ) probably contributes to the resistance to decay . in the same way , tight units of microvilli and cells may resist deterioration better . the remaining tissue is probably attached to the more resistant organs as an amorphous substance , giving them a fuzzy appearance and also contributing to a slight increase in size . the sometimes coarse , \u2018bubble - like\u2019 appearance of the internal matter could also result from diagenetic overgrowth and / or bacterially - mediated remnants of soft tissue [ 4 ] .\n( a ) sem micrograph showing the external morphology of d . typica in lateral view . ( b ) tem micrograph showing the ventral endoskeletal - muscle plate in the mandibular region in high magnification . the asterisk ( * ) labels the tendinous muscle attachment . muscle cells approach the tendon from different directions . muscle fibers are sectioned longitudinally ( l ) and transversely ( t ) . note that the muscle fibers fill most of the muscle cells . the ventral nerve chain is labelled ( n ) . anterior is to the left . ( c ) tem micrograph ; midsagittal section through the telescoping transition between oesophagus ( oe ) and the midgut ( m ) . the dashed blue line follows the contour of the midgut whereas the red dashed line follows that of the oesophagus . the oesophagus ends inside the midgut with a valve ( v ) .\nconsidering that the few specimens analysed herein contain remains of internal tissues and organs , albeit in variable detail and state of preservation , our results suggest that internal soft - tissue preservation in \u2018orsten\u2019 fossils is more common than previously thought and demonstrate significant potential for future studies .\nskaracarids are maxillopod crustaceans , closely related to the extant copepoda and mystacocarida ( figure 5 ) [ 28 ] , whereas phosphatocopines are regarded as the sister - group of the eucrustacea within the labrophora sensu siveter et al . [ 29 ] ( see also [ 3 ] , [ 30 ] ) . the internal structures in our specimens are compared to similar relevant structures in extant crustacean relatives .\ndahl [ 31 ] investigated the topography of the crustacean head . in crustaceans filtering food particles from a current produced by the appendages , the mouth opening is ventral and directed backwards and the oesophagus makes a curve in the back of the head to meet the midgut . with other modes of feeding , exemplified as browsing and gnawing , the mouth is more anterior in position and the oesophagus is more or less straight . dahl [ 31 ] concluded that there is a correlation between the mode of feeding and the topography of the anterior head region . he also postulated that filter - feeding was the ancestral feeding mode of crustaceans .\nthe simplest form of intestine in crustaceans , such as cephalocarids and mystacocarids ( fig . 5 ) , consists of an oesophagus that joins the midgut without intervening structures [ 19 ] , [ 33 ] , a condition normally occurring in filter - feeding animals . skara minuta has a similarly simple structure although in this case with a presumed alternative mode of feeding .\nm\u00fcller and walossek ( [ 13 ] : 22 ) noted that numerous external muscle scars observed on various parts of the body of skara indicate a great number of muscles . however , because no internal structures were preserved , m\u00fcller and walossek [ 13 ] found it speculative to reconstruct or interpret internal features based only on the muscle scars . in this study , we are able to address some of these issues .\narthropods develop specific internal attachments for muscles . in extant taxa they are connective , i . e . formed by muscle tendons ( figure 5 ) , or cuticular formed by invaginations from the cuticle ( apodemes ) , or a combination of both . the attachment sites can detach from the cuticle and epidermis and form an internal skeleton . the endoskeletal variation is considerable within arthropod taxa [ 34 ] . the attachment sites can be both intersegmental and intrasegmental . trunk segments are usually equipped with dorsal and ventral transverse structures for the insertion of dorsal and ventral longitudinal muscles as well as dorso - ventral and extrinsic limb muscles ( e . g . [ 27 ] ) . more complicated endoskeletal bars and plates are found in the head region where intersegmental and intrasegmental elements coalesce . the latter are situated above and close to the ventral nerve cord .\nin the s . minuta specimen analysed , two structures are interpreted as endoskeletal remains . dorsally , in the trunk segments below the arthrodial membrane ( fig . 1d ) , transverse thickenings , or tendons ( fig . 2a , b ) , indicate longitudinal muscles of a size that would allow great flexibility , similar to those of the highly movable cephalocarids [ 27 ] .\nthe head plate consists of a combination of endoskeleton and muscles . the fossil material does not allow a separation between the two . since no apodemes were found in our specimen it is likely that the endoskeletal structures were tendon - like and thus not particularly elaborate . the muscles to the head appendages are large , especially those associated with the second antennae and mandibles . this indicates muscle strength and a good capacity to handle food in a mode described above .\nthe labral muscle equipment has been investigated in some extant crustaceans . a highly movable labrum was described for species belonging to the conchostracan phyllopod genus caenesteriella by larink [ 35 ] . six pairs of essentially dorso - ventral muscles line up along the long axis of the labrum . the distal swelling of the labrum contains a network of muscles . a pair of longitudinal muscles insert proximally in the ventral portion of the labrum and in the head behind the compound eyes . the dorso - ventral muscles flatten the labrum and the longitudinal muscles open the buccal cavity . together , these two functions aid in the collection of food .\nsimilar functions are found in the cephalocarid crustacean hutchinsoniella macracantha [ 32 ] . two groups of dorso - ventral muscles widen the labrum and the buccal cavity . one longitudinal muscle pair spans the ventral length of the labrum and one other muscle pair , which is dorso - ventrally inserted into the ventral labral surface and into the dorsal head - shield , opens the buccal cavity . a transverse muscle pair counters the movement of the dorso - ventral muscles .\nthe functional pattern is repeated in the mystacocarid crustacean derocheilocaris remanei [ 33 ] which has three pairs of dorso - ventral muscles inside the labrum and two pairs for operating the labrum . one pair inserts longitudinally into the middle of the dorsal surface of the labrum and into the head , and the other pair extends from the labrum to the dorsal head capsule .\nthe musculature of the labrum of extant crustaceans can serve as a template only in a functional context . a strict morphological pattern serving all crustacean taxa is not present .\nthe longitudinal muscle pair found in the phosphatocopine specimens fulfils one of the above - discussed functions , namely moving the labrum up and down , thus opening the buccal cavity . a speculative explanation for the appearance of musculature in the labrum from an evolutionary point of view is that opening of the buccal cavity could take preference over a more sophisticated armament , allowing also a flattening of the labrum . the lack of dorso - ventral muscles in the investigated phosphatocopines may imply that these muscles appeared at a later stage in the evolution of crustaceans ; however , it could also simply be a preservational artefact .\nvideo clip showing the labrum of hesslandona sp . ( lo 11409 t ) . rotation showing the internal labral muscles .\nwe would like to dedicate this work to dieter waloszek , who has worked intensively on the \u2018orsten\u2019 fossils of sweden . his achievement has opened a highway to the understanding of arthropod evolution . we owe robert r . hessler thanks for valuable discussions and loren e . babcock for critically reading a draft of the manuscript . andreas maas and one anonymous referee significantly improved the manuscript . carsten tell helped with picking the residues for \u2018orsten\u2019 fossils . we are grateful also to landowner arne j\u00f6nsson for permitting the field work . srxtm analyses were performed on the tomcat beamline , the swiss light source , psi , switzerland , and we are particularly grateful to beamline manager marco stampanoni .\nconceived and designed the experiments : mee ft . performed the experiments : mee ft fm . analyzed the data : mee ft re . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : mee ft fm . wrote the paper : mee ft re .\nm\u00fcller kj ( 1979 ) phosphatocopine ostracodes with preserved appendages from the upper cambrian of sweden . lethaia 12 : 1\u201327 .\nmaas a , waloszek d , m\u00fcller kj ( 2003 ) morphology , ontogeny and phylogeny of the phosphatocopina ( crustacea ) from the upper cambrian \u201corsten\u201d of sweden . fossils and strata 49 : 1\u2013238 .\nmaas a , braun a , dong xp , donoghue pcj , m\u00fcller kj , et al . ( 2006 ) the \u2018orsten\u2019\u2014more than a cambrian konservat - lagerst\u00e4tte yielding exceptional preservation . palaeoworld 15 : 266\u2013282 .\nwaloszek d ( 2003 ) the \u2018orsten\u2019 window\u2014a three - dimensionally preserved upper cambrian meiofauna and its contribution to our understanding of the evolution of arthropoda . paleontol res 7 : 71\u201388 .\nmaeda h , tanaka g , shimobayashi n , ohno t , matsuoka h ( 2011 ) cambrian orsten lagerst\u00e4tte from the alum shale formation : fecal pellets as a probable source of phosphorous preservation . palaios 26 : 225\u2013231 .\nm\u00fcller , 1983 , and the phylogeny of branchiopoda and crustacea . fossils and strata 32 : 1\u2013202 .\nwesterg\u00e5rd ah ( 1922 ) sveriges olenidskiffer . sver geol unders ca 18 : 1\u2013205 .\nhenningsmoen g ( 1957 ) the trilobite family olenidae with description of norwegian material and remarks on the olenid and tremadocian series . skrifter utgitt av det norske videnskaps - akademi i oslo , i . matematisk - naturvidenskapelig klasse 1957 ( 1 ) 1\u2013303 .\nterfelt f , eriksson me , ahlberg p , babcock le ( 2008 ) furongian series ( cambrian ) biostratigraphy of scandinavia \u2013 a revision . norwegian j geol 88 : 73\u201387 .\nterfelt f , ahlberg p , eriksson me ( 2011 ) complete record of furongian polymerid trilobites and agnostoids of scandinavia \u2013 a biostratigraphical scheme . lethaia 44 : 8\u201314 .\neriksson me , terfelt f ( 2012 ) exceptionally preserved cambrian trilobite digestive system revealed in 3d by synchrotron - radiation x - ray tomographic microscopy . plos one 7 ( 4 ) e35625 ( doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0035625 ) . .\nmartinsson a ( 1974 ) the cambrian of norden . in : lower palaeozoic rocks of the world . 2 . cambrian of the british isles , norden , and spitsbergen . holland ch , editor . london : john wiley & sons . 185\u2013283 .\nandersson a , dahlman b , gee dg , sn\u00e4ll s ( 1985 ) the scandinavian alum shales . sver geol unders ca 56 : 1\u201350 .\nm\u00fcller kj , hintz i ( 1991 ) upper cambrian conodonts from sweden . fossils and strata 28 : 1\u2013153 .\nwesterg\u00e5rd ah ( 1947 ) supplementary notes on the upper cambrian trilobites of sweden . sver geol unders c 489 : 1\u201334 .\njeppsson l , anehus r , fredholm d ( 1999 ) the optimal acetate buffered acetic acid technique for extracting phosphatic fossils . j paleontol 73 : 957\u2013965 .\n( crustacea , mystacocarida ) \u2013 a different and unique pattern . arthropod struct dev 39 : 242\u2013250 .\nelofsson r , hessler rr ( 2008 ) two microvillar organs , new to crustacea , in the mystacocarida . arthropod struct dev 37 : 522\u2013534 .\nstampanoni m , groso a , isenegger a , mikuljan g , chen q , et al . ( 2006 ) trends in synchrotronbased tomographic imaging : the sls experience . spie proceedings \u201cdevelopments in x - ray tomography v\u201d 6318 : 63180m ( doi : 10 . 1117 / 12 . 679497 ) .\nalwmark c , schmitz b , holm s , marone f , stampanoni m ( 2011 ) a 3 - d study of mineral inclusions in chromite from ordinary chondrites using synchrotron radiation x - ray tomographic microscopy\u2014method and applications . meteorit planet sci 46 : 1071\u20131081 .\nmarone f , m\u00fcnch b , stampanoni m ( 2010 ) fast reconstruction algorithm dealing with tomography artifacts . spie proceedings \u201cdevelopments in x - ray tomography vii\u201d 7804 : 780410 ( doi : 10 . 1117 / 12 . 859703 ) .\nchen j - y , bottjer dj , oliveri p , dornbos sq , gao f , et al . ( 2004 ) small bilaterian fossils from 40 to 55 million years before the cambrian . science 305 : 218\u2013222 .\nbengtson s , budd g ( 2004 ) comment on \u201csmall bilaterian fossils from 40 to 55 million years before the cambrian . science 306 : 1291a .\ncunningham ja , thomas c - w , bengtson s , kearns sl , xiao s , et al . ( 2012 ) distinguishing geology from biology in the ediacaran doushantuo biota relaxes constrains on the timing of the origin of bilaterians . proc r soc b 279 : 2369\u20132376 .\nhessler rr ( 1964 ) the cephalocarida \u2013 comparative skeletomusculature . mem connecticut acad arts sci 16 : 1\u201397 .\nwalossek d , m\u00fcller kj ( 1998 ) early arthropod phylogeny in light of the cambrian \u201corsten\u201d fossils . in : arthropod fossils and phylogeny . edgecombe g , editor . new york : colombia university press . 185\u2013231 .\nsiveter dj , waloszek d , williams m ( 2003 ) an early cambrian phosphatocopid crustacean with three - dimensionally preserved soft parts from shropshire , england . spec paper palaeontol 70 : 9\u201330 .\nmaas a , waloszek d ( 2005 ) phosphatocopina \u2013 ostracode - like sister group of eucrustacea . in : evolution and diversity of ostracoda . hydrobiologia . ikeya n , tsukagoshi a , horne dj , editors . 538 : 139\u2013152 .\ndahl e ( 1956 ) on the differentiation of the topography of the crustacean head . acta zool 37 : 123\u2013192 .\nbitsch c , bitsch j ( 2002 ) the endoskeletal structures in arthropods : cytology , morphology and evolution . arthropod struct dev 30 : 159\u2013177 .\nlarink o ( 1972 ) labrum und kopfdr\u00fcsen eines conchostracen ( crustacea , phyllopoda ) . z morph tiere 72 : 341\u2013348 .\ndo these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nwe use cookies to give you the best possible experience . by using our website you agree to our use of cookies .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nskara is a genus of maxillopod crustacean known from the upper cambrian orsten deposit of sweden and similarly aged deposits in china .\nnote : these citations are software generated and may contain errors . to verify accuracy , check the appropriate style guide ."]}
{"id": 485, "summary": [{"text": "kentrochrysalis sieversi is a species of moth of the family sphingidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from the southern part of the russian far east , north-eastern china and south korea .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the wingspan is 88 \u2013 90 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing from mid may to mid august in korea .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae have been recorded feeding on fraxinus species in primorskiy kray . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "kentrochrysalis sieversi", "paragraphs": ["note . visually , apart from size , kentrochrysalis sieversi can be very difficult to separate from kentrochrysalis heberti haxaire & melichar , 2010 . records of one may be of the other species .\nthe records from fujian , hubei and sichuan may be miss - labelled specimens which have been at some time confused with kentrochrysalis sieversi .\nkentrochrysalis sieversi , female , upperside . china , shaanxi , tai bai shan - mts . ( s ) , tsinling - mts . , houzbenzi\nin the male genitalia , uncus suddenly narrowed to a short , pointed hook . gnathos divided into 2 triangular lobes . valve similar to that of kentrochrysalis sieversi , broadest near the base . harpe similar to that of kentrochrysalis sieversi , but the ventral process shorter ; in addition there are 5 or 6 further processes , which vary in form and position between specimens , but the most ventral is always large . aedeagus as in kentrochrysalis sieversi .\nkentrochrysalis sieversi alph\u00e9raky , 1897 , in romanoff ( ed . ) , m\u00e9m . l\u00e9pid . 9 : 164 . type locality : corea [ korea ] .\nas it is very difficult to visually separate kentrochrysalis sieversi from kentrochrysalis heberti haxaire & melichar , 2010 , the records from zhejiang , sichuan , yunnan , hunan and fujian may be of the latter . the record from hainan , however , is correct .\nwingspan : 88 - - 90mm . hindwing with vein m2 arising before centre of cell ( cross - vein m1 - m2 shorter than m2 - m3 ) ; veins rs , m1 longer stalked than in kentrochrysalis streckeri . antenna without a large brown patch as in kentrochrysalis streckeri , the segments only weakly dilated laterally compared with kentrochrysalis streckeri ; fasciculated cilia of distal segments shorter than in kentrochrysalis streckeri . pilifer with scales and some bristles . palpus not hairy , unlike kentrochrysalis streckeri .\nkentrochrysalis havelki holotype ( china , shaanxi , qinling mts . , s from baoji ) ( smcr ) male upperside\nantennae of both sexes with a large brown patch on the upperside , and with fasciculated cilia on all segments , the cilia long on the terminal segments in the male ; segments rounded - dilated dorso - laterally in both sexes , especially the middle ones . pilifer with a brush of scales and a few bristles . palpus , especially the first segment , rough with hairs , unlike kentrochrysalis sieversi .\nendemic to japan . records from mainland asia are erroneous and are of misidentified individuals of kentrochrysalis streckeri , as demonstrated by kim , kim , choi , cho & kim ( 2016 ) for south korea .\nwingspan : 62 - - 72mm . most similar in appearance to kentrochrysalis streckeri , but differs in having the forewing upperside discal lines less dentate ; the two antemedian lines distinct , ending at the inner margin in a blackish patch that is prolonged basad .\nin the male genitalia , uncus more abruptly narrowed and curved than in kentrochrysalis streckeri . gnathos very broad , truncate , the sides obtusely dentate . valve widest near base , the inner surface with long , thin scales . harpe very large , basally reaching close to the dorsal margin of the valve , and ventro distally to its apex ; the ventral finger - like process short , above it is a pointed triangular , upcurved process ; the baso - dorsal part of the harpe has large teeth . aedeagus similar to that of kentrochrysalis streckeri , but the hook longer .\nsynonym . hyloicus houlberti oberth\u00fcr , 1920 , etudes de l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8rologie compar\u00e9e 17 : 1 - 24 . type locality : thibet , t\u00e2 - tsien - lo\u00fb [ china , sichuan , kangding ] .\nchina : v - viii ( zhejiang ) ; vii ( liaoning ) . russia : 6 . vii ( primorskiy kray ) .\npark et al . ( 1999 ) give mid may until mid august as the flight period in korea .\nlarval hostplants . recorded in primorskiy kray , russia , on fraxinus ( derzhavets , 1984 ) .\nchina : heilongjiang ; jilin ( changbai shan ) ; liaoning ( changhai , dachangshan island ) ; hebei ; beijing ( sanbao ; baihua shan ) ; zhejiang ( tianmu shan , 1500 - 1600m ) ; sichuan ( kangding ; pengshui ) ; yunnan ( yanmen ) ; ? hunan ; fujian ( longqi shan ) ; hainan ( wuzhi shan ) .\nsouth korea : kyonggi prov . ( gwangleung ; chukryong - san ; cheongpyong ; myungji - san ) ; kangwon prov . ( samak - san ; seolak - san ; chiak - san ; chuncheon ; jeombong - san ; bangtae - san ; odae - san ; jungseon ; bongmyung - ri ; pyungchang ) ; north chungchong prov . ( mungyungsaejae ; songni - san ) ; north cholla prov . ( deokyu - san ) ; north kyongsang prov . ( cheongyang - san ) ; south kyongsang prov . ( gaji - san ) .\nkentochrysalis [ sic ] consimilis rothschild & jordan , 1903 , novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 163 ( key ) , 164 . type locality : japan , [ honshu , tochigi , near nikko , ] chinzengi [ chuzenji - ko ] ; japan , [ honshu , ] tokei [ tokyo ] ; japan , [ honshu , tochigi , ] nikko .\njapan : honshu ( chiuzenji ; schirane ; karuizawa ; nikko ; hoppo ; mt . daisen ; tokei - ji ; mt . mitake , tokyo ; kirizumi spa , 1080m ; yunotaira spa ; gozaishodake ; kisojihara ; mitsumine ; kiyosato , 1300m ) ; shikoku ; kyushu .\nsphinx streckeri staudinger , [ nov . 15 ] 1880 , ent . nachr . 6 : 252 . type locality : [ russia , primorskiy kray , ] wladiwostok [ vladivostok ] .\nin the male genitalia , uncus triangular , about twice as long as broad basally , pointed , flat dorsally , downcurved , prismatically compressed distally , carinate ventrally . gnathos broad , short truncate - sinuate , angles rounded . valve with dorso - distal margin very oblique . harpe with a broad , almost flat , dentate , sinuate upper lobe , and a slender , cylindrical , obtuse ventro - distal process . aedagus terminating in a long , slender , pointed hook curving proximad and sinstrad . in the female genitalia , ostial plate weakly sinuate . ostial cavity covered proximally by a broad , rounded lobe .\nchina : 16 . iv ( baihua shan , beijing ) ; 13 . v ( baihua shan , beijing ) ; urltoken ( nei mongol ) ; vii ( heilongjiang ) . north korea : vii ( jueul , 1500m ) . russia : 13 . v - 20 . vii ( khabarovskiy kray ) ; v - viii ( primorskiy kray ) ; 23 . viii ( khabarovskiy kray ) .\npark et al . ( 1999 ) give late april until early august as the flight period in korea .\nat khabarovsk , russia , there is a full generation in may / june / july , with a partial second generation in august in some years ( dubatolov , pers . comm . 2010 )\novum : pale yellow when first laid , almost spherical ( 2 . 1 x 1 . 9mm ) , shiny and smooth . after 3 - 4 days turns brownish - purple if fertile . becomes transparent just before hatching , with the green and purple larva visible within . laid singly on the underside of a leaf of the hostplant .\nlarva : full - fed 60 - - 65mm . on hatching , the 7mm larva is peppermint green with a purple ' core ' , particularly for the anterior segments . this purple pigmentation appears to be derived from eating the eggshell as it quickly vanishes after feeding on foliage , the body then becoming a uniform translucent peppermint green . however , the thoracic segments acquire a yellowish tint with growth , and a faint , pale , dorso - lateral line appears . the head is spherical and peppermint green , the horn blackish - purple , paler laterally , with a bifurcated tip . ( very similar to that of sphinx ligustri , apart from the purple coloration . )\nsettles down very quickly under a leaf after hatching , resting along the midrib and eating the leaf from it ' s tip backwards .\nthe larva remains basically peppermint green in the second instar , but becomes more yellowish dorsally , more greyish ventrally . with growth , the pale dorso - lateral line fades away except for on the thoracic segments . pale yellow oblique streaks appear laterally , that from the anal horn more pronounced . the peppermint green head becomes more triangular and develops yellow cheek stripes . the horn remains blackish dorsally and ventrally , but becomes pale yellowish - red laterally . the true legs are translucent pale yellow , the spiracles pale . final size : 20mm .\nin the third instar the basic body colour becomes more apple green , yellowish dorsally , greyish ventrally , and is sparsely covered with raised yellow tubercles , some of which are sharp . the lateral oblique stripes and thoracic dorso - lateral stripe become lemon yellow , the oblique stripe from the horn is bold . the head is broadly oval - triangular , apple green , with pale yellow cheek stripes which may be edged behind with black in some . the large , conical , mainly straight horn is now more or less pale orange , with some blue dorsally , but with black tubercles along both dorsal and ventral surfaces . final size : 31mm .\nin the fourth instar , which is the last for most , the basic body colour remains the same , i . e . apple green , yellowish dorsally , greyish ventrally . the now lemon yellow body tubercles , which may be raised or mere spots , are arranged in concentric rings , and are paler and smaller ventrally . the lateral oblique stripes and thoracic dorso - lateral stripe are still lemon yellow , but are now ' edged ' frontad with clear green . the oblique stripe from the horn is very bold and more creamy , and is often edged along the front with carmine red , as are some of the others . this carmine colour may also appear in many as a diffuse flush around the spiracles , this sometimes joining up below and around the base of the oblique lateral stripes to form an irregular band . the head is still broadly oval - triangular , but now with a blue - green face and creamy - white cheek stripes , which may be edged behind with black in some . both black and cream stripes are broken at the indented vertex . the long , conical , mainly straight horn is now more orange - to - carmine red , with some blue dorsally , but still with black tubercles along both dorsal and ventral surfaces . the true legs are orange edged with yellow , and darker at the base . feet of claspers paler than body ; anal clasper edged with black above foot . spiracles orange with a yellow vertical bar centrally . prior to pupation the dorsal surface becomes plum brown . final size : 60 - - 65mm .\npupa : 42 - - 47mm . mid to dark mahogany brown , and rugose , i . e . not glossy ; elongate . head with a pair of forward - projecting ridges , and with tubercular knobs over the eyes and tongue base . antennae carinate , with a ridge of fine , sharp , backward - pointing spines along their entire length . wing - cases ribbed . abdomen weakly carinate dorsally and with spiny tubercles at the shoulders and wing bases . first and second mobile abdominal segments ( i . e . abdominal segments 5 and 6 ) with a twin pair of broad - based spines ventro - laterad . cremaster long ( 4mm ) , conical , sharply pointed , with three pairs of lateral spines and two sharp tubercles at the base ventrally . formed in an almost silk - free cell in the soil . the overwintering stage .\nlarval hostplants . recorded in primorskiy kray , russia , on fraxinus , ligustrum and syringa ( derzhavets , 1984 ) ; izerskiy ( 1999b ) gives fraxinus mandshurica ; streltzov , osipov & malikova ( 2003 ) give syringa reticulata subsp . amurensis . recorded in korea on ligustrum obtusifolium ( park et al . , 1999 ) .\nchina : nei mongol ( zalantun / butha qi ) ; heilongjiang ( zhaodong ; harbin ; yichun ) ; jilin ( changbai shan ) ; beijing ( baihua shan ) ; shanxi ( wutai shan ) ; ? fujian ( longqi shan ) ; ? hubei ( lichuan ) ; ? sichuan ( kangding ) .\nnorth korea : north hamgyong prov . ( jueul , 1500m ) ; south hamgyong prov . ( seokwang temple ) .\nsouth korea : kyonggi prov . ( gwangleung ; soyo - san ; myungji - san ) ; kangwon prov . ( gwangduk - san ; samak - san ; daeryong - san ; geonbongryong ; seolak - san ; bangtae - san ; chiak - san ; baekduk - san ; taebek - san ; chuncheon ; geonbong temple ; bongmyung - ri ; jeombong - san ; odae - san ; yangyang ; hongcheon ; yaksu - san ; jiam - ri ) ; north chungchong prov . ( songni - san ) ; north cholla prov . ( jiri - san ) ; south cholla prov . ( baekyang temple ) ; north kyongsang prov . ( sobaek - san ; tonggo - san ; youngcheon ) ; south kyongsang prov . ( hamyang ; geoje - do ; namhae ; milyang ; sancheong ; ulsan ; hapcheon ) ; cheju prov . ( cheju - do ; topyung ; youngsil ; hare - ri ) .\nrussia : amurskaya ( uril area ; blagoveshchensk ) ; yevreyskaya ( bastak ) ; khabarovskiy kray ( bolshekhekhtsyrskii nature reserve , khabarovsk suburbs ; komsomolsk - na - amure ; kiselevka ) ; primorskiy kray ( andreevka ; askold island ; vladivostok ; narva ; novoselskiy , lake chanka ; kedrovaya pad nature reserve ; barabash ; anuchino ; novovladimirovka ; ussuriysk ; kravtsovka ) .\nmongolia , russian far east , northeastern china , north korea and south korea .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nsyntypes 7\u2642 corea [ korea ] ( m . jankowski ) [ zisp ] .\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nstaudinger , 1892 die macrolepidopteren des amurgebiets . i . theil . rhopalocera , sphinges , bombyces , noctuae in romanoff , m\u00e9m . l\u00e9pid . 6 : 83 - 658 , pl . 4 - 14\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncopyright \u00a9 2013 www . sphingidae - museum . com . all rights reserved ."]}
{"id": 498, "summary": [{"text": "the central american river turtle ( dermatemys mawii ) , also known locally as the hickatee or tortuga blanca ( white turtle ) , is the only living species in the family dermatemydidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "its closest relatives are only known from fossils with some 19 genera described from a worldwide distribution from the jurassic and cretaceous .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the species is currently found in the atlantic drainages of central america , specifically southern mexico , belize and guatemala .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is a relatively large-bodied species , with historical records of 60 cm ( 24 in ) and weights of 22 kg ( 49 lb ) ; however , more recent records have found few individuals over 14 kg ( 31 lb ) in mexico or 11 kg ( 24 lb ) in guatemala . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "central american river turtle", "paragraphs": ["the central american river turtle is found in mexico , belize , and guatemala .\na recent survey of the critically endangered central american river turtle ( dermatemys mawii ) in belize .\ninformation on the central american river turtle is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nsadly , central american river turtles are critically endangered due to human over - consumption .\na herbivorous species , the central american river turtle feeds on a variety of aquatic vegetation and fallen fruits .\nmillburn , naomi .\ncentral american wood turtle care\naccessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken\nsyed , gracia p . 2004 . population recovery program for the central american river turtle dermatemys mawi ( testudines : dermatemydidae ) .\nthe main threat to the central american river turtle is hunting by humans . the turtle is very easy to catch and both its meat and eggs are valued by\nsyed , gracia p . 2005 . a program of phylogeography , conservation and management for the critically endangered central american river turtle dermatemys mawii .\nfound in rivers and lakes , central american river turtles are fast swimmers , and are able to swim up rapids .\nrestrictions on the hunting of the turtles exist , but they are poorly enforced . programs to raise and manage the central american river turtle as a\nmillburn , naomi .\ncentral american wood turtle care .\nanimals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / central - american - wood - turtle - care - 1989 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .\ncentral american river turtle .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nmillburn , naomi . ( n . d . ) . central american wood turtle care . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / central - american - wood - turtle - care - 1989 . html\nkonstant , william . 2000 .\nfeatured reptile : central american river turtle .\nconservation international foundation . urltoken . [ accessed 4 august 2000 ] .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - central american river turtle ( dermatemys mawii )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - central american river turtle ( dermatemys mawii )\ntitle =\narkive species - central american river turtle ( dermatemys mawii )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nsyed , gracia patricia . 2008 . genetic characterization and conservation of the critically endangered central american river turtle dermatemys mawii . ( quintana roo and belize populations ) .\ncentral american river turtles inhabit large , open rivers and permanent lakes . although they prefer clear freshwater , the turtles are sometimes found in brackish\ncentral american river turtles ( dermatemydidae ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\noliva , milena , brad lock and daniel ariano . 2010 . evaluation of the distribution , population density and habitat quality of the central american river turtle ( dermatemys mawii ) on the sarstun river , izabal .\ncentral american river turtle .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nthe central american river turtle is found only in the coastal lowlands of the western caribbean . its range extends from the mexican state of veracruz southeast through guatemala and belize .\ncentral america from southern mexico as far south as northern and eastern central guatemala , excluding the yucatan peninsula .\nthe central american river turtle is the largest freshwater turtle in its range . an average adult measures 24 inches ( 61 centimeters ) long and weighs almost 50 pounds ( 23 kilograms ) . the turtle has webbed feet , forcing it to move awkwardly on land .\ncentral american river turtles ( dermatemydidae ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nrainwater , thomas r . , steve g . platt , and rick hudson . 2009 . status , distribution , and exploitation of the critically endangered central american river turtle ( dermatemys mawii ) in belize .\nheather barrett presented \u201ccountry - wide efforts to promote the conservation of the critically endangered central american river turtle ( dermatemys mawii ) in belize , central america . \u201d she outlined the recent history of conservation outreach for the hicatee including the formation of the hicatee conservation network and the\nthe central american river turtle generally eats plants either submerged below the water or those that rise just above the water ' s surface . typically , these include russell river grass ( paspalum paniculatum ) , and fallen leaves and fruits from branches growing over the water .\nis a high quality food source that can be obtained in high quantity from one turtle . central american river turtles eat aquatic plants that are of no use to humans and use them to produce turtle protein for human consumption . not only could central american river turtles supply a valuable protein source if farmed successfully , they could also supply a valuable source of income for humans living near their habitat ( ernst and barbour 1989 ) .\nin april and december , after having mated , a female central american river turtle digs a hole in sand , clay , or mud within a few feet of the water\u2019s edge . she then lays a clutch (\ncentral american river turtles are intensively exploited for food by indigenous peoples throughout their range , even in areas where the species is legally protected . the flesh is considered a delicacy .\ncentral american wood turtle ( rhinoclemmys pulcherrima manni ) is a turtle species of which a number of species and subspecies come from central america , with a distribution range from mexico to northern ecuador and northern brazil . it lives on the savannahs , in forests and on riverbanks .\nreed , renae and adam gilles . 2013 . quantifying an active population of central america\u2019s rarest turtle , kinosternon angustipons .\nnoureen , uzma ; and khan , ahmad . 2007 . freshwater turtle conservation initiative along the central indus in pakistan .\nterrapene - ( new latin ) from the native american word for turtle ; carolina - ( new latin ) for carolina .\nforero - medina , german , and camila r . ferrara . 2013 . 1 st workshop for developing a regional monitoring program for the giant south american river turtle , podocnemis expansa .\ngarc\u00eda anleu , rony ; soto shoender , jos\u00e9 roberto ; and espejel g . , ver\u00f3nica e . 2005 . distribution and ecology of wild populations of the central american river turtle ( dermatemys mawii : dermatemydidae ) in the corridor of the maya forest in guatemala .\nhaislip , nathan . 2014 . cuora complex construction at the turtle survival alliance turtle survival center .\n, can be found in central america from southern mexico as far south as northern and eastern central guatemala , excluding the yucatan peninsula . there have also been sightings of\n3 . 1 . 1 podocnemis expansa and podocnemis unifilis ( south american river turtles ) 3 . 1 . 2 geochelone carbonaria and geochelone denticulata ( tortoises )\ncalder\u00f3n - mandujano rr , hern\u00e1ndez - arana ha , flores - villela oa 2017 . distribution and abundance of the central american river turtle , dermatemys mawii , in southern quintana roo , mexico : implications for a regional conservation strategy . j biodivers endanger species 5 : 198 . - get paper here\n. american museum of natural history , new york , usa . assessed 07 july 2016 .\niverson j b ; mittermeier r a 1980 . dermatemydidae . river turtles . catalogue of american amphibians and reptiles ( 237 : 1 - 4 - get paper here\nthe turtle is not found on mexico\u2019s yucat\u00e1n peninsula . biologists ( people who study living organisms ) are unable to estimate the total number of central\nlight is a must for any healthy central american wood turtle living environment . give your turtle access to uvb rays via fluorescent lighting for approximately half of the day . if your turtle lives outdoors and has access to natural light , extra lighting is unnecessary . in times of inclement weather , however , it is very important to ensure that your outdoor turtle has a secondary living space inside , as well .\netymology : terrapene - ( new latin ) from the native american ( algonquin ) word for turtle ; ornata - ( latin ) meaning embellishment , fancy .\nconservation international : : tortoise & freshwater turtle specialist group : : turtle survival alliance : : turtle conservancy : : chelonian research foundation : : european assoc . zoos & aquaria\nfree - roaming wild central american wood turtles are herbivorous creatures to the core , consuming mostly only plant matter . however , when necessary , these turtles also occasionally do eat worms and bugs , making them essentially omnivorous . if you have a central american wood turtle as a pet , commercial rehydrated turtle chow is a strong foundation to the diet , along with occasional fresh veggies and fruit . some suitable fruits and vegetables for these turtles include apples , peaches , carrots , dandelions , banana , green beans , raspberries , kale , blueberries and mangoes . to add much - needed protein into your turtle ' s diet , feed him earthworms , mealworms , red worms and crickets , as well . feed fully mature central american wood turtles 3 or 4 times a week . skip one day between feedings . in cases of juvenile wood turtles , however , daily feedings are vital . regular vitamin and calcium supplementation also is crucial for central american wood turtles .\nbuhlmann , k . , m . vaughan . 1991 . ecology of the turtle pseudemys concinna in the new river , west virginia .\nrainwater , thomas r . ; thomas pop , octavio cal , anthony garel , steven g . platt , and rick hudson 2012 . a recent countrywide status survey of the critically endangered central american river turtle ( dermatemys mawii ) in belize . chelonian conservation and biology 11 ( 1 ) : 97 - 107 . - get paper here\nriver cooter turtles are predominantly herbivorous , feeding primarily on aquatic vegetation . while both adult and juvenile river cooters occasionally consume crayfish ( e . g . ,\nspecies occurring within south american chelonian hosts . however , this must be further confirmed from genetic analyses of the\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\nproduction of a documentary film . heather\u2019s session was followed by a special film screening of \u201chope for belize\u2019s hicatee : central american river turtle . \u201d this was the first time the new documentary by richard and carol foster was shown publicly . \u201chope for belize\u2019s hicatee , \u201d was well received by the audience who was eager to view rare underwater footage of the turtle and appreciated the breadth of information covered in the short film .\nalthough central american wood turtle is an omnivore , this does not mean that all food is suitable . the animals will eat insects , worms , snails , nest mice and to a lesser extent meal . uncooked shrimp and small parts of freshwater fish are also valuable food additions .\nthese river turtles ( dermatemys mawii ) are most closely related to the mud and musk turtles ( family kinosternidae ) . the fossil record of this family is extensive , with the earliest material being from the lower cretaceous in asia , and abundant remains in north and central america , europe , and africa during the tertiary . the central american river turtle is also commonly known as hickety ( belize ) , jicotea , tortuga aplanada ( mexico ) , tortuga blanca ( mexico , guatemala ) , and tortuga plana ( mexico ) . no subfamilies are recognized .\nscarcity makes the sarst\u00fan river population critical , but there is another reason to study the hickatee : two genetically separate hickatee populations in the sarst\u00fan river may be separate species .\nif you ' ve ever wondered how to take care of a pet turtle , or you already have one but want to brush up on your turtle parenting skills , consider this your turtle tutorial .\nthe central american river turtle , known colloquially as hickatee or tortuga blanca , is one of the ten most endangered freshwater turtles on earth and as its closest relatives only exist as fossils , it is the sole living species in its previously widespread family dermatemydidae . very small numbers of d . mawii can be found in mexico and guatemala , with its largest population in belize\u2019s coastal lowlands .\naresco , m . , j . dobie . 2000 . variation in shell arching and sexual size dimorphism of river cooters , pseudemys concinna , from two river systems in alabama .\nk\u00f6hler , g . 2008 . reptiles of central america . 2nd ed . herpeton - verlag , 400 pp .\ngonz\u00e1lez - porter gp , maldonado je , flores - villela o , vogt rc , janke a , et al . 2013 . cryptic population structuring and the role of the isthmus of tehuantepec as a gene flow barrier in the critically endangered central american river turtle . plos one 8 ( 9 ) : e71668 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0071668 - get paper here\ncaspian pond turtle : a semi - aquatic omnivore turtle that requires both land and water , it can grow up to be nine inches .\nmoll , d . 1986 . the distribution , status , and level of exploitation of freshwater turtle dermatemys mawii in belize , central america . biol . cons . 35 : 87 - 96\nturtle meat and eggs were basic items in the diet of amazon and orinoco river dwellers . for indigenous peoples , the main products were the sun - dried eggs of\nhamish campbell , andrew mcdougall , and adrian ros . 2015 . determine if a community driven nest protection initiative has resulted in increased recruitment for the mary river turtle (\nborder collies are well known for their ability to herd sheep , but milena mendez has another job in mind for fenix , her 10 - month - old companion . mendez , who graduated from university of valle in guatemala in march with a degree in biology , is studying the rare turtle dermatemys mawii , known as the central american river turtle and colloquially as the hickatee . but to study them she has to find them , and that ' s where she hopes fenix will help .\nthe results the phva generated increased information about wild turtle populations and led to recommended conservation actions that were incorporated into turtle conservation programs in mexico and informed similar efforts in guatemala . claudia zenteno , head researcher of the central american turtle conservation program in tabasco , was appointed as the state of tabasco\u2019s secretary of natural resources and environmental protection in january 2013 . from that position , claudia is boosting actions that are part of the conservation strategy , the workshop\u2019s main product .\nwere also found in american hosts that had never been recorded in the european freshwater environments of investigation . meyer et al . [\nchen , pelf - nyok . 2012 . research and conservation of southern river terrapin ( batagur affinis\npelf - nyok chen , and eng - heng chan . 2010 . determining the performance of head - started southern river terrapins ( batagur affinis ) in the setiu river , terengganu , malaysia .\ndharwadkar , sneha and shailendra singh . 2016 . sustaining the distribution mapping and threat assessment of leith\u2019s softshell turtle ( nilssonia leithii ) along the river kali , karnataka , india .\nmccormack , tim ; hendrie , douglas ; and nguyen xan thuan . 2008 . ensuring a future for the vietnamese pond turtle : establishing the mauremys annamensis conservation project ( map ) , in central vietnam .\nthe mellow central american wood turtle ( rhinoclemmys pulcherrima manni ) is a relatively low - maintenance exotic pet option . the pet turtles , which are prevalent in regions of costa rica , nicaragua and southern mexico , are semi - aquatic animals that typically display rather meek and quiet dispositions . these turtles typically roam throughout scrublands and moist forest .\nheather barrett and peter paul van dijk at the turtle survival center . peter paul was honored during the symposium with the john l . behler turtle conservation award\nminh le , and tim mccormack . 2010 . population survey to safeguard the critically endangered cuora galbinifrons in northern and central vietnam .\ndawson , j . 1998 .\nthe turtle pages - anatomy of a turtle\n( on - line ) . accessed november 3 , 2000 at urltoken .\nmccormack , tim ; ha , hoang van ; and nhan , nguyen chi . 2009 . ensuring a future for the vietnamese pond turtle : establishing the mauremys annamensis conservation project ( map ) , in central vietnam .\n( bour 1973 ) ( testudines , chelidae ) , from central brazil . panam j aquat sci . 2010 ; 5 : 478\u201380 .\nriyanto , awal . 2009 . habitat characteristic , distribution , natural history and current status of leucocephalon yuwonoi in central sulawesi , indonesia .\naiello , b . , r . blob , m . butcher . 2013 . correlation of muscle function and bone strain in the hindlimb of the river cooter turtle ( pseudemys concinna ) .\nbock , brian c and vivian p . p\u00e1ez . 2016 . protection of nesting females and quantification of re - nesting frequency in the critically endangered magdalena river turtle ( podocnemis lewyana ) .\nrestrepo , adriana and l\u00f3pez , catalina . 2008 . demographic structure of the population of the endangered turtle podocnemis lewyana ( podocnemididae ) in the chicagua branch of the magdalena river , colombia .\nabout the species the central american river turtle is an aquatic species found in lakes and deep rivers of the atlantic lowlands of southeastern mexico , belize , and northern guatemala . genetic and archaeological evidence indicates that river turtles were harvested and transported by the ancient mayans , suggesting that it has economic significance that dates back thousands of years . the principle threat to this species is intensive harvesting for human consumption . river turtles have been so overharvested that they now can only be found in remote areas that are difficult for people to access . the population is also affected by habitat loss due to human activities related to agriculture and urban growth . since the sex of young turtles is determined by egg incubation temperature , loss of riverbank vegetation in river turtle habitat and climate change are affecting the ratio of female and male turtles in the wild . this can lead to problems with mating and reproduction .\n, are native to north america . they are most commonly found in eastern and central parts of the united states . they are found as far north as northern ohio and extend as far south as northern florida in the florida panhandle . the distribution of these turtles is from eastern virginia , westward to eastern texas . disjunct populations of river cooters can be found in the new river in virginia and west virginia , and the tennessee river in tennessee and eastern kentucky .\nhabitat : sand prairies of central and northern illinois , southern tillplain prairies ( clay soil outlier prairies ) and open fields in former prairie .\nrangel - mendoza , judith a . , iris a . s\u00e1nchez - gonz\u00e1lez , marco . a . l\u00f3pez - luna , and manuel weber 2014 . health and aquatic environment assessment of captive central american river turtles , dermatemys mawii , at two farms in tabasco , mexico . chelonian conservation and biology jul 2014 , vol . 13 , no . 1 : 96 - 109 . - get paper here\nmaintaining your turtle\u2019s environment is very important to stay on top of . if something is going to go wrong after you get a turtle or tortoise , it\u2019ll be here .\n) at two important turtle survival alliance sites in southern madagascar : ampotaka and antsakoamasy .\nshepherd , loretta ann . 2011 . freshwater turtle and tortoise rescue centre , malaysia .\ncuc phuong turtle conservation center ; douglas b . hendrie . 2004 . operational support .\nsingh , shailendra and ashutosh tripathi . 2013 . evaluating and refining conservation interventions for the endangered indian narrow - headed softshell turtle ( chitra indica ) along the chambal \u2013 yamuna river system , india .\nhorne , brian d . 2010 . a workshop on the conservation of large river turtles in the genus batagur .\ncentre for coastal environmental conservation ; rahman , mowdudur . 2005 . river terrapin conservation in the sundarban reserved forest .\nconservation of the chaco tortoise ( chelonoidis chilensis ) in central argentina : evaluation of commercial use and population studies as baseline for implementing management actions .\nthe habitat area of central american wood turtle is situated between 10 - 13 degrees n . l . and could be described as dry tropical woods , it is a low - lying area ( 0 - 1000 m ) with annually 1500 mm rainfall , this is dry for central america . they range between sonora , mexico , and costa rica . they are semi - aquatic and live along forested rivers and streams , usually in cool , upland areas of deciduous woodland , marshy meadow , red maple swamp , and farmland habitats .\nin captivity , river cooter turtles are known to live for an average of about 20 years , with the maximum age of captive river cooter turtles being 44 years . in the wild , these turtles often live approximately 40 years .\npolisar , j . and horwich , r . 1994 .\nconservation of the large , economically important river turtle dermatemys mawii in belize .\nconservation biology 8 ( 2 ) : 338 - 342 .\nturtle does not bask in the sunlight on logs or river banks like other freshwater turtles . it occasionally floats on the water\u2019s surface and is able to remain underwater for long periods without surfacing for air .\nsingh , shailendra ; and horne , brian . 2007 . development of \u201cgreen\u201d headstarting facilities in the national chambal river sanctuary , india : the last stronghold for the red crowned roof turtle , batagur kachuga .\ndreslik , m . 1997 . ecology of the river cooter ( pseudemys concinna ) in a southern illinois floodplain lake .\niverson , j . 2001 . reproduction of the river cooter , pseudemys concinna , in arkansas and across its range .\nvargas - ram\u00edrez , mario ; and casta\u00f1o - mora , olga victoria . 2007 . actions towards the conservation of the endangered - endemic fresh water turtle podocnemis lewyana , in the upper magdalena river , colombia .\n) , 13 freshwater species were from the usa , central america , asia and africa . a similar situation was found on the online reptimania society (\ncadi a , joly p . competition for basking places between the endangered european pond turtle (\nthis highly endangered turtle has been part of the jacksonville zoo and gardens collection since 2003 .\nvargas - ram\u00edrez , mario alfonso ; and casta\u00f1o - mora , olga victoria . 2006 . participatory research towards the conservation of the endangered - endemic fresh water turtle podocnemis lewyana in the upper magdalena river , colombia .\nbecause of a highly adaptive breathing mechanism , it is only necessary for a central american river turtle to surface periodically for air . it sucks water in through its mouth and draws out dissolved oxygen from the water by means of a highly perforated pharyngeal lining ( just behind the nasal cavity ) . the used water is then expelled back through its nostrils . in muddy or cloudy water , the motion of the water moving in the mouth and out the nose is visible . this species of turtle is very passive and has a mild disposition . when handled , it will thrash its tail and limbs around vigorously but rarely bites .\nit\u2019s also best if your turtle can get some sunlight , too , said susan tellem , of american tortoise rescue in malibu , california . the sunlight , she says , helps their shells develop property ; without it , they can get metabolic bone disease .\nmake sure always to monitor your central american wood turtle ' s habitat temperature closely . always maintain a temperature range of 76 to 86 degrees fahrenheit . keep these turtles ' pens away from windows that have drafts . high humidity levels , between 75 and 90 percent , are beneficial for these turtles , so it is important to use a mister every day . a hygrometer may be useful for monitoring these levels .\nthey do not bask on logs or river banks like other freshwater turtles , their webbed feet create awkward movement on land .\nmoll , e . , m . morris . 1991 . status of the river cooter , pseudemys concinna , in illinois .\nlikes to sun in groups on tree - trunks or stones in the middle of the river and occasionally along the shore .\npolisar , j . , and r . h . horwich .\nconservation of the large , economically important river turtle dermatemys mawii in belize .\nconservation biology 8 , no . 2 ( 1994 ) : 338\u2013340 .\ncentral american wood turtle is best kept in a terrarium on a 10 - 15 cm thick layer of moisture keeping substrate , with a basking spot producing temperature of 35 - 40\u00bac . especially during colder rainy days , this is a must . transparent fences are not recognized by the animals , the turtle will constantly try to brake out , which can lead to stress and disease . furthermore , the place of the outside enclosure should be chosen in such a way that there will be sunshine for most of the day .\nyou\u2019ll likely want a terrarium for your turtle , and it\u2019s better not to skimp on size .\nplatt , kalyar , steven g . platt and me me soe ( wildlife conservation society and turtle survival alliance ) . 2011 . technical assistance for the turtle rescue facility in lashio , myanmar .\ndiesmos , arvin c . 2003 . unraveling the myth of the philippine pond turtle heosemys leytensis .\nn . sp . is a novelty as it is the first statement of polystomes from the bladder and conjunctival sacs of south american turtles . although avila et al . [\nbreeding interval river cooter turtles 2 to 6 times a year , and time between clutches can be from 2 - 12 months .\nwin ko ko , khin myo myo and kyaw moe ( wildlife conservation society ) . 2010 . study on the present status of batagur trivittata and other endemic chelonian species in the shweli river , a tributary of the ayeyarwady river in the shan state , myanmar .\n\u00a9 2018 american association for the advancement of science . all rights reserved . aaas is a partner of hinari , agora , oare , chorus , clockss , crossref and counter .\nbelkin , d . 1964 . variations in heart rate during voluntary diving in the turtle pseudemys concinna .\nyoeung sun , doug tangkor , and sean kin . 2012 . cantor\u2019s giant softhsell turtle conservation project .\nkyaw moe , kalyar platt , khin myo myo , win ko ko , me me soe , and steven g . platt . 2013 . conservation of the burmese roofed turtle ( batagur trivittata ) along the upper chindwin river of myanmar .\nhorne , brian d . 2013 . a trial release of head - started southern river terrapin , batagur affinis , in southern cambodia .\nvelosoa , juliette . 2012 . post - release monitoring of erymnochelys madagascariensis in lake ankomakoma and the andranohobaka river , ankarafantsika national park .\nmccormack , timothy , nguyen thi thu thuy , and pham thi thu hien . 2012 . initiatives to increase enforcement and awareness to protect the endemic turtles of central vietnam .\ngarcia , natalia gallego . 2010 . home range and habitat use of podocnemis lewyana as baseline for new management actions in the sinu river .\nkhin myo myo , win ko ko and kyaw moe . 2008 . preliminary survey on the status of kachuga trivittata and other endemic species occurring between the nampoke hka stream and upper chindwin river . awareness raising school programs at the upper chindwin river between htamanthi village and khamti town .\nsom , sitha ; chey , koulang ; sun , yoeung ; kim , chamnan ; kheng , sokhorn ; and sitha , prum . tremors psp 2009 . community - based nest protection for cantor\u2019s giant softshell turtle in the mekong river , cambodia .\nthe turtle seems to be very laid back . he reminds me of someone i know . : - )\narnold , k . , c . neumeyer . 1987 . wavelength discrimination in the turtle pseudemys scripta elegans .\nmeyer l , du preez l , bonneau e , h\u00e9ritier l , quintana mf , valde\u00f3n a , et al . parasite host - switching from the invasive american red - eared slider ,\nrhodin , a . & van dijk , p . p . ( tortoise & freshwater turtle red list authority )\nin its range . although large populations of the turtle remain in belize , it is hunted in great numbers .\nsouth american wildlife includes 45 species of turtles ( order chelonia ) : four are land turtles ( tortoises ) , six marine turtles and the remainder freshwater turtles . various other species , particularly of the\ngonz\u00e1lez - z\u00e1rate , adriana ; montenegro - diaz , olga lucia ; and casta\u00f1o - mora , olga victoria . 2008 . habitat characterization , resources use and conservation state of the river turtle podocnemis lewyana , waters down of the hidroprado dam , tolima , colombia .\nkuchling , gerald , rao dingqi , and lu shunqing . 2013 . trapping and rescuing rafetus swinhoei in the upper red river , yunnan , china .\nthe majority of the fleshy parts of the central american river turtle are olive gray , the undersides being white or pale gray . near its upper surface , the organism is reddish brown to yellow in color while its sides typically remain the olive - gray of the shell . adult male turtles have a triangular patch covering the whole upper section of the head that is golden yellow in color , as well as yellow markings on each side of the head . females and turtles that have not yet reached maturity , have dull patches and side markings that are barely visible . juveniles , however , display a yellow stripe extending backwards from the eye . the tail of\nsnapping turtles can be harvested in connecticut . regulations passed in 2013 and updated in 2016 established specific protections for snapping turtles by designating seasons , size / bag limits , gear restrictions , and other measures designed to ensure the long - term viability of connecticut turtle populations . turtle eggs cannot be taken and turtle nests cannot be disturbed without deep authorization .\n] . currently , 16 polystomes are known from anurans , three from caecilians and six from chelonians . turtle polystomes include\nminh le and tim mccormack . 2014 . a survey of the critically endangered vietnam pond turtle using environmental dna approach .\nzhang fang . 2010 . action plan for the conservation of the golden - headed box turtle under the community participation .\ngarcia , rony ; balas , roan ; moreira , jos\u00e9 ; and ponce , gabriela . 2008 . where do they go ? determining the spatial and habitat requirements of the ca river turtle ( dermatemys mawii : dermatemidae ) in el per\u00fa lagoon , selva maya of guatemala .\nthe home range of river cooter turtles is very dependent on location . the approximate home range of river cooter turtles that live in ponds is 122 square meters . in riverine locations the turtles tend to have a larger home range of approximately 340 square meters . males tend to move greater distances than females daily .\ndreslik , m . 1999 . dietary notes on the red - eared slider ( trachemys scripta ) and river cooter ( pseudemys concinna ) from southern illinois .\nprefers sandy beaches close to the water for nesting but may also use clay soil beaches , steep river banks , and even areas covered with leaf litter .\nkuchling , gerald , rao dingqi , and lu shunqing . 2014 . continuing the trapping of rafetus swinhoei in the upper red river , yunnan , china .\nchan , eng heng ; soh , chong leng ; and wong , chee ho . 2004 . the setiu river terrapin research and conservation program in malaysia .\nrange snapping turtles range across the eastern united states to the rocky mountains , from southern canada to the gulf of mexico , and into central america . they have been introduced in some western states .\ndiagne , tomas . 2013 . exploring the ecology and population biology of two declining turtles , cyclanorbis elegans , cyclanorbis senegalensis in west - central nigeria and south sudan ( sub - saharan africa ) .\nurltoken gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the modern language association ( mla ) , the chicago manual of style , and the american psychological association ( apa ) .\navila rw , brito es , barrella th , strussmann c , silva rj . endoparasites new to the neotropical freshwater turtle ,\nrivera , g . 2008 . ecomorphological variation in shell shape of the freshwater turtle pseudemys concinna inhabiting different aquatic flow regimes .\nbawa , sulemana . 2015 . current status and distribution of the nubian flapshell turtle in mole national park , northern ghana .\nsingh , shailendra . 2015 . conserving black - softshell turtle species , nilssonia nigricans in assam , north - east india .\nminh duc le ; and pritchard , peter . 2007 . genetic variability of the critically endangered softshell turtle , rafetus swinhoei .\ninternational center for conservation of turtles , allwetterzoo m\u00fcnster ; martina raffel . 2003 . conservation of critically endangered asian turtle species .\neisemberg , carla , keith christian , and bertanizo guro . 2013 . assessment of chelodina mccordi current status and community awareness along the irasequiro river , timor leste .\nred - eared sliders : a water turtle ( though it does require land ) that can grow to be as long as 11 inches , the red - eared slider is the most popular type of turtle to have as a pet throughout the world .\nplatt , steven , kalyar platt , win ko ko and khin myo myo ( wildlife conservation society ) . 2010 . a proposal to assess the potential for reintroducing geochelone platynota at three sites in central myanmar .\npierce , d . , j . avise . 2001 . turtle mating systems : behavior , sperm storage , and genetic paternity .\nrahman , shahriar caesar . 2015 . ecoguardian program : a model for turtle hunting mitigation in the chittagong hill tracts , bangladesh .\nibarrondo , bonggi r . 2005 . rote snake - necked turtle ( chelodina mccordi ) : the action plan for its preservation .\nthe original range of both species embraces the amazon and orinoco river basins and includes brazil , colombia , peru , the bolivian amazon and the colombian and venezuelan orinoco basin .\nthe central american river turtle , dermatemys mawii , has a very short tail and a wide plastron which is connected to the upper part of the shell by a wide bridge . adult shells are about 12 - 24 in ( 30 - 60 cm ) long and are an olive green color above and a yellowish color below . the scutes are thin and are easily worn away ; if the bone is exposed it can also be damaged . this turtle ' s head is speckled on the sides . anatomical features make movement on land extremely difficult for this species . this species is almost entirely aquatic , generally only leaving the water to lay their eggs . nesting occurs during the wet season when flooding carries or allows the turtles to move into backwater areas or small tributaries . eggs are buried in the banks just above the water level . clutch sizes are an average of 20 eggs . d . mawii is also referred to by the common name\ntortuga blanca\nwhich means white turtle in spanish . the mexicans , when giving the turtle this name , were referring to the species ' white meat which is considered a delicacy by many locals .\ngray , j . e . 1864 . additional observations on dermatemys , a genus of emydidae from central america . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 3 ) 14 : 391 - 392 - get paper here\nthe central american river turtle ( dermatemys mawii ) , also known locally as\nhicatee\nor\ntortuga blanca\n, has declined throughout its native range of mexico , guatemala and belize . they are extremely rare in mexico and guatemala , but there are a few scattered stable populations left in belize . it is listed as critically endangered by iucn and it is an appendix 2 species under cites . although there are existing regulations in belize for the harvest and possession of this species , there is little enforcement of these laws throughout its range . overharvesting and illegal poaching are the main contributing factors for its current status . with a mean generation time estimated to be between 15 and 20 years , poachers can decimate an entire waterway in just a few nights .\nif you don\u2019t have a filter , change your baby turtle\u2019s water daily . if you do , change it two to three days .\nn box turtle ( terrapene carolina yucatana ) : a multidisciplinary collaboration at the community and landscape level , phase i proposal : 2014 .\nparham , james f . ; wilson , byron s . ; parra - olea , gabriela ; and papenfuss , theodore j . 2006 . assessment of caribbean slider turtle populations : a neglected turtle fauna under threat of genetic pollution , human exploitation , and habitat destruction .\nibarrondo , bonggi . 2004 . rote snake - necked turtle ( chelodina mccordi rhodin 1994 ) : the action plan for its preservation .\nchen , pelf - nyok and eng - heng chan . 2011 . production and distribution of awareness posters and various educational materials for the critically endangered southern river terrapin ( batagur affinis\nandrews , harry v . 2005 . hatching and headstarting programmes for endangered chelonians in the national chambal river sanctuary : implementing recommendations from the conservation action plan for india\u2019s freshwater turtles .\nwin ko ko , khin myo myo , myint myint oo and kyaw moe ( wildlife conservation society ) . 2010 . integration of the education activities of the turtle team with the mobile education team of the hukaung tiger reserve for a collaborative conservation education program on the upper chindwin river between htamanthi village and khamti town .\njungwirth n , bodewes r , osterhaus adme , baumg\u00e4rtner w , wohlsein p . first report of a new alphaherpesvirus in a freshwater turtle (\nin the southern mexican state of chiapas , newly built roads have opened up formerly remote areas , giving hunters greater access to turtle populations .\nmake sure your terrarium\u2019s water and air temperature is about 86 degrees fahrenheit and that your baby turtle has access to both land and water .\n\u201cit is work , and you ' ve got to pay attention to your turtle , \u201d nesci said . \u201c [ buy a turtle ] because you absolutely love turtles . don\u2019t buy one on a whim . you need to have the desire and a love for animals .\nin the wild , they eat aquatic vegetation ; in the zoo they are fed a proprietary gel - based turtle food and fresh produce .\nrahman , shahriar caesar . 2014 . mro tortoise guardian program : a model for turtle hunting mitigation in the chittagong hill tracts , bangladesh .\nriver cooter turtles are occasionally consumed as food and traded as pets . their meat , eggs , and skin can be sold as commodities and used to make products for human consumption .\nheng sovannara . 2005 . batagur baska conservation project : a program to protect and conserve the last known wild population of the critically endangered river terrapin , batagur baska , in indochina .\nmendez ' s work with the hickatee started when she was an undergraduate , after an internship at zoo atlanta led to an interest in turtles and an invitation the following year to attend a turtle survival alliance meeting . the alliance\u2019s director learned that she was from guatemala and approached her about studying the sarst\u00fan river ' s dermatemys .\ncountless turtles are killed or injured on roads during their terrestrial treks . the presence of a large turtle on a busy road can be a safety hazard for motorists . by driving defensively and keeping alert to conditions on the road , motorists should be able to avoid hitting a turtle .\nyou\u2019ll want thermometers for both the air and water in order to maintain an environment similar to whatever your turtle or tortoise would find in the wild . do your research to determine exactly what temperature your type of turtle will need , as just guessing at what seems like a good temperature can create health problems . if your turtle is constantly in air that\u2019s the wrong temperature , they may stop eating or get a respiratory infection .\nwilson , john - james , cheah men how , chen pelf nyok , and alexandra zieritz . 2015 . tracking the critically endangered southern river terrapin ( batagur affinis ) through environmental dna .\ngrupo herpetologico de antioquia ; vivian p . p\u00e1ez , brian c . bock . 2003 . assessment of the distribution and reproductive ecology of populations of podocnemis lewyana in the magdalena river drainage .\nunlike other pets you might have , turtles don\u2019t need to be fed every day . as a general rule of thumb , feeding your turtle four to five times a week will be fine , unless you have a young water turtle , in which case they should be fed every day .\nmccormack , tim and pham van thong . 2011 . new surveys for swinhoe\u2019s softshell turtle in laos and conservation action at sites in northern vietnam .\nagassiz , l . 1857 . contributions to the natural history of the united states of america . first monograph . vol . 1 , part 2 . north american testudinidae . little , brown , & co . , boston . p . 233 - 452d .\nis found throughout amazonia and in brazil , bolivia , ecuador , guianas , peru and venezuela . both species present some individual and geographic variation , but there are no recognized subspecies ( 484 , 632 ) . the other south american species of this genus are\nstuart , l . c . 1935 . a contribution to a knowledge of the herpetology of a portion of the savanna region of central peten , guatemala . university of michigan museum of zoology miscellaneous publications 29 : 1 - 56 - get paper here\nlescher , timothy c . 2012 . the distribution , movement , and conservation of the critically endangered southeast asian narrow - headed softshell turtle ( chitra chitra\nplatt , kalyar , me me soe and khin myo myo ( turtle survival alliance and wildlife conservation society ) . 2011 . population assessment of batagur baska\narbel\u00e1ez , fernando and vargas - ram\u00edrez , mario . 2008 . program towards conservation of three species of endangered river turtles by colombian and peruvian indigenous communities of the amazon \u2013 nests translocation pilot program .\nis rather small , its skull lacking several features present in most turtles . the turtle ' s slightly upturned nose is large , and shaped like a tube with wide nostrils . it is a rather prominent feature of the turtle ' s face because it projects rather strongly from the front of the head .\nyou\u2019ll also want to add calcium to your turtle ' s diet . you can get a calcium supplement and \u201cdust\u201d their food with it twice a year .\nkyaw moe , khin myo myo , win ko ko , and steven g . platt . 2012 . integrated conservation of the burmese roofed turtle , batagur trivittata\nforero - medina , german ; and moreno , luis eladio renteria . 2007 . distribution and conservation status of the endemic mud turtle kinosternon dunni in colombia .\ntraffic southeast asia ; chris shepherd , noorainie awang anak , james compton . 2004 . protecting the roti island snake - necked turtle chelodina mccordi from extinction .\nis the biggest latin american river turtle , with strong sexual dimorphism by size . the carapace length of adult females measured along the natural curve of the shell varies from 50 - 79 cm , with reported averages of 64 - 71 cm and an apparent top size of 89 cm . carapace width ranges from 43 - 55 cm and the total weight 1 5 . 7 to 46 kg ( average 23 - 26 kg ) . the record weight is 73 kg ( 491 ) . adult males measure 40 - 50 cm in carapace length and 30 - 38 cm in width ( 13 , 437 , 439 , 459 , 591 , 593 ) .\nsirsi , shashwat , gowri mallapur , and shailendra singh . 2012 . distribution mapping and status assessment of leith\u2019s softshell turtle ( nilssonia leithii ) in peninsular india .\nand other threatened turtle species at yinggeling nature reserve , hainan island , china ; and to adopt effective protection measures and awareness raising outreach activities in surrounding communities .\nfidenci , pierre . 2005 . inventory , distribution , status , and conservation action of the critically endangered philippine forest turtle , heosemys leytensis , palawan , philippines .\ngonz\u00e1lez - porter is developing an international plan for conserving dermatemys in mexico , belize , and guatemala . mendez is working with the sarst\u00fan river population and applying for funding from the turtle survival alliance and fundaeco , a nonprofit foundation for ecological development and conservation that is heavily involved in the sarst\u00fan region . she hopes to put together a conservation plan to protect this dermatemys population .\nfinding the turtles isn ' t easy . her fieldwork takes place in the remote sarst\u00fan river on the border between guatemala and belize . just getting there from her home in guatemala city requires multiple buses and boats .\nkyaw moe , win ko ko and khin myo myo . 2009 . in - situ conservation of batagur trivittata in upper chindwin river and survey and threat assessment for chelonian species in adjoining areas of htamanthi wildlife sanctuary .\n, is generally larger , has a more domed carapace with a vertebral keel , and has a plain plastron without straight yellow lines . the blanding ' s turtle ,\npraschag , peter ; and reza , ali . 2005 . genetic verification of the identity of the black soft - shell turtle aspideretes nigricans ( anderson , 1875 ) .\nlittle is known about the natural history of this iconic turtle of central america . as a result , it is difficult to formulate effective laws to allow sustainable harvesting and protect important habitat . lack of knowledge of dietary , life history , reproduction and crucial habitat requirements may impede successful captive propagation attempts . through a long - term mark - recapture and radio - telemetry program , our collaborative group hopes to shed light on some of these knowledge gaps .\namong river cooter turtles , neither parent provides parental care beyond nesting . in this relationship , the single contribution of males is the use of his sperm for fertilization and the indirect impact he has on the genetics of his offspring . in nesting , females use their hind claws to dig a hole about 12 cm deep with an opening of about 7 cm in diameter , in which to deposit their eggs . the eggs are laid , covered in mud or soil , and the female river cooters return to the water . after approximately 90 to 100 days , typically around august and september , the turtle eggs hatch .\npolo - cavia n , l\u00f3pez p , martin j . competitive interactions during basking between native and invasive freshwater turtle species . biol invasions . 2010 ; 12 : 2141\u201352 .\nhoang van ha , pham van thong , and nguyen tai thang . 2016 . intensive survey at priority sites to confirm additional individuals of the world ' s rarest turtle .\nkuchling , gerald , nantarika chansue , and lu shunqing . 2011 . reproductive evaluation of the last male and artificial insemination of the last female yangtze giant softshell turtle rafetus swinhoei\nkuchling , gerald . 2003 . preliminary status survey of the critically endangered endemic roti snake - neck turtle ( chelodina mccordi rhodin , 1994 ) , roti island , indonesia .\nstacy , b . , d . wolf , j . wellehan . 2014 . large - scale predation by river otters ( lontra canadensis ) on florida cooter ( pseudemys floridana ) and florida softshell turtles ( apalone ferox ) .\ndrummond , glaucia moreira , marcos eduardo coutinho and carla c . eisemberg . 2010 . investigation of the occurrence of mesoclemmys hogei ( testudines : chelidae ) in the para\u00edba do sul river basin ( rio de janeiro , brazil .\nsubspecies : two subspecies are currently recognized , eastern box turtle , t . c . carolina and three - toed box turtle , t . c . triunguis ( agassiz , 1857 ) . although the mississippi river has been the presumed barrier separating the two subspecies ( carolina on the east side ) , specimens that are unquestionably tringuis ( three toes and little patterning ) have been found along the illinois side of the mississippi river . smith ( 1961 ) considered the possibility that these may be waifs or represent intergradation between the two subspecies . tucker & hatcher ( 1994 . trans . ill . state acad . sci . 87 ( 3 & 4 ) : 201 - 206 ) reviewed the occurrence of triunguis specimens from western illinois and proposed that the subspecies be added to the list of herpetofauna of illinois .\nis the sole living member of the primitive family dermatemyidae , which first showed up in asia during the cretaceous period . by the tertiary period , this family had spread into europe , africa , and north and central america but eventually died out to the point that only one species remains .\nin 2001 , iucn red list classified river cooter turtles as g5 , or a species of \u201cleast concern . \u201d the conservation status of river cooters is not listed on the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna or flora ( cites ) or the united states endangered species act ( us esa ) . although they are not a species of high concern globally , these turtles are endangered in illinois , and a species of special concern in florida ."]}
{"id": 499, "summary": [{"text": "the blastobasidae are a family of moths in the superfamily gelechioidea .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "its species can be found almost anywhere in the world , though in some places they are not native but introduced by humans .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "in some arrangements , these moths are included in the case-bearer family ( coleophoridae ) as subfamily blastobasinae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the symmocidae are sometimes included in the blastobasidae ( particularly if both are included in coleophoridae ) as subfamily or tribe .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "in addition , the group around holcocera is often separated as subfamily holcocerinae ( or tribe holcocerini ) from the blastobasis lineage ( which correspondingly become a subfamily , or a tribe blastobasini ) .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "while this seems far more reasonable than some of the more extreme arrangements sometimes seen in gelechioidea taxonomy and systematics , the relationships among blastobasidae genera are not yet sufficiently studied to allow a well-supported subdivision of this family . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "blastobasidae", "paragraphs": ["how can i put and write and define blastobasidae in a sentence and how is the word blastobasidae used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528blastobasidae\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528blastobasidae\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528blastobasidae\u9020\u53e5 , blastobasidae meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\nadamski d ( 1995 ) review of the blastobasidae of the republic of the seychelles ( lepidoptera : gelechioidea ) . proc entomol soc washington 97 : 489\u2013499\nbatrachedridae , oecophoridae , ethmiidae , autostichidae , blastobasidae , agronoxenidae , momphidae , cosmopterigidae and scythrididae : batrachedridae , . . . and butterflies of great britain and ireland\nadamski d , brown rl ( 1989 ) morphology and systematics of north american blastobasidae ( lepidoptera : gelechioidea ) . mississippi agr forest exp stat tech bull 165 : 1\u201370\nbuszko j ( 1978 ) blastobasidae . in klucze do oznaczania owad\u00f3w polski . 27 . motyle & lepidoptera , 36 : 22\u201332 . polskie towardzystwo entomologiczne [ in polish ]\nthe monophyly of this genus & ndash ; the largest of its family , containing at present about half the described blastobasidae species & ndash ; is seriously in doubt .\nthe blastobasidae , momphidae ( mompha moths ) , pterolonchidae , and symmocidae have formerly been included in the coleophoridae as subfamilies , but are more often considered separate families today .\nheppner j . b . ( 2008 ) scavenger moths ( lepidoptera : blastobasidae ) . in : capinera j . l . ( eds ) encyclopedia of entomology . springer , dordrecht\nthe moths and butterflies of great britain and ireland . vol . 4 , pt . 1 : oecophoridae , ethmiidae , autostichidae , blastobasidae , batrachedridae , agonoxenidae , momphidae , cosmopterigidae and scythrididae\n9780946589661 : batrachedridae , oecophoridae , ethmiidae , autostichidae , blastobasidae , agronoxenidae , momphidae , cosmopterigidae and scythrididae : batrachedridae , . . . and butterflies of great britain and ireland - abebooks : 0946589666\nrecorded as a parasitoid of tortricidae , pyralidae , blastobasidae , carposinidae , noctuidae , gelechiidae and cossidae , but no reared material seen by us and such a wide host range seems most improbable .\nit is also known as the\n' acorn moth\n' , but this can also refer to\nblastobasis glandulella\nfrom north america , which belongs to the more primitive family blastobasidae .\nwhile this seems far more reasonable than some of the more extreme arrangements sometimes seen in gelechioidea taxonomy and systematics , the relationships among blastobasidae genera are not yet sufficiently studied to allow a well - supported subdivision of this family .\nneoblastobasis kuznetsov & sinev , a genus of the family blastobasidae , has been known with three species in korea . in this study , a new species of the genus , neoblastobasis songi park , sp . nov . , is described , and n . camelliae is newly recorded in korea . a key for the species and a tentative catalog of the genus in korea are provided .\nthe blastobasidae are members of the superfamily gelechioidea . blastobasids occur worldwide , but are most diverse in north and south america , with more than 275 described species and possibly five to 10 times that many yet to be studied . blastobasids are small , nocturnal moths with narrow wings . most species are uniformly dull colored , usually gray , sometimes tan or yellowish . larvae are typically slender and cylindrical , and many species feed on detritus associated with the nests and galleries of other insect species .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nformerly considered a subfamily of coleophoridae ; treated as a full family by heikkil\u00e4 et al . ( 2013 )\nheikkil\u00e4 , m . , mutanen , m . , kekkonen , m . and kaila , l . 2013 . morphology reinforces proposed molecular phylogenetic affinities : a revised classification for gelechioidea ( lepidoptera ) . cladistics 1 - 27 . ( abstract )\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nadamski d ( 2002 ) a synopsis of described neotropical blastobasinae ( lepidoptera : gelechioidea ; coleophoridae ) . entomological society of america , lanham , md ( thomas say monograph ) , 150 pp\nadamski d , hodges rw ( 1996 ) an annotated list of north american blastobasinae ( lepidoptera : gelechioidea : coleophoridae ) . proc entomol soc washington 98 : 708\u2013740\nsix of the seven north american genera occur in illinois . this group is well represented in north america , with 69 described ( and possibly a considerable number of undescribed ) species , but life histories are known for only a very few . larvae of some species are known or suspected to be\nscavengers\nor to feed on roots of composites ( asteraceae ) ; others are known to feed internally on seeds of pines , pinus spp . ( pinaceae ) or on acorns of oaks , quercus spp . ( fagaceae ) . a substantial contribution to our knowledge of nearctic microlepidoptera could be made by working out life histories of a good representation of blastobasinae species .\nblastobasine forewing coloration most commonly involves shades of gray and / or brown , overlaid with paler scaling , and frequently showing either a contrastingly pale band at about one third of the wing length from the base , or an abrupt color change from paler to darker in the same position , depending upon species ( this particular combination of coloration and pattern is reminiscent , analogously , of that of many species of phycitine pyralidae ) . color pattern in blastobasinae is not diagnostic ; as can be observed in the illustrations below , a similar pattern can be seen in more than one genus .\nspecimens of adult blastobasinae are recognized most easily by their having a transverse row of small spines at the posterior margin of each segment on the dorsum of the abdomen ( fig . 1 ) .\nfigure 1 . abdomen of blastobasinae , dorsal aspect , showing the characteristic transverse rows of small spinelike structures at the posterior margin of each segment , a distinctive character of the group .\nhave a distinctive\nnotch\non the first antennal flagellomere ( fig . 2 ) .\nfigure 2 . antennae of blastobasinae belonging to genera in which the basal flagellomere of the male moth forms a characteristic\nnotch\n; blastobasis sp . ( left panel ) , holcocera sp . ( right panel ) .\nbeyond the characters of labial palpi ( for pigritia , see below ) and antennal morphology ( given above ) , there are reliable characters of wing venation and genital morphology that can be used to determine blastobasine adults to genus ( see adamski and brown 1989 ) .\namong genera occurring in illinois , pigritia can be recognized by its markedly reduced labial palpi ( fig . 8 ) .\nfigure 8 . heads of pigritia spp . , ventral aspect , showing reduction of the labial palpi , from vestigial ( left panel ) to indiscernible ( right panel ) . as noted by dietz ( 1900 ) , some species display sexual dimorphism in which the labial palpi of the male moth are more reduced in size than are those of the female .\nto enlarge images simply click on them . you will see a control bar on the image that you can use to scroll through images before and after . click on and image twice and it will close . you can open more than one image if you wish to compare moths and you can even use the cross arrow icon to move the images . click on a name to learn more about a particular moth . enjoy !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nall images on this website have been taken in leicestershire and rutland by naturespot members . we welcome new contributions - just register and use the submit records form to post your photos . click on any image below to visit the species page . the red / amber / green dots indicate how easy it is to identify the species , particularly from a photo . see our photo id page for more information .\nthe galleries below lead you to information pages for every species recorded on naturespot .\nif needed , after selecting from the menu below , click on the small arrow beside the group entry to see a submenu of families .\nbagworth & thornton barlestone barwell blaby bottesford braunstone broughton astley burbage burton on the wolds cadeby carlton clawson , hose and harby cotes desford earl shilton glen parva glenfield great glen groby hathern higham on the hill hugglescote and donington l . . . kibworth knighton ward market bosworth markfield nailstone newbold verdon osbaston osgathorpe peckleton prestwold quorndon ratby sapcote shackerstone sheepy stanton - under - bardon stoke golding sutton cheney thurlaston twycross welham witherley woodhouse wymeswold go\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\neach volume in the very well known series the moths and butterflies of great britain and ireland contains special introductory chapters on important aspects of the study of british lepidoptera ; keys to families and species ; a systematic section consisting of a full description , details of the life history , and a distribution map for each species , as well as structural drawings where nessesary . in addition , all species and significant variants are illustrated in colour . also available in paperback ( isbn 978 - 09 - 46 - 58972 - 2 ) .\nthis is part one of volume four of\nthe moths and butterflies of great britain and ireland .\ndue to its extent , the volume is published in two parts , and this text contains a special chapter followed by a systematic account of the oecophoridae and the smaller families - a total of 147 species .\nharley , 2002 . condition : new . 326 , 7 col plates , 6 col photos , 95 text figs , 146 maps . 265x210mm . hb . new . . 147 species . includes introductory chapter on\nthe ecology and evolution of lepidopteran defence against bats\n, by jens rydell and mark young . [ 9780946589661 ] .\nbrill . hardback . condition : new . new copy - usually dispatched within 2 working days .\nbrill , netherlands , 2002 . hardback . condition : new . language : english . brand new book . each volume in the very well known series the moths and butterflies of great britain and irelandcontains special introductory chapters on important aspects of the study of british lepidoptera ; keys to families and species ; a systematic section consisting of a full description , details of the life history , and a distribution map for each species , as well as structural drawings where nessesary . in addition , all species and significant variants are illustrated in colour . also available in paperback ( isbn 978 - 09 - 46 - 58972 - 2 ) .\nbrill , 2002 . hardback . condition : new . 9780946589661 this listing is a new book , a title currently in - print which we order directly and immediately from the publisher . for all enquiries , please contact herb tandree philosophy books directly - customer service is our primary goal .\nharley books , 2002 . hardcover . condition : brand new . 326 pages . 10 . 75x8 . 75x1 . 00 inches . in stock .\nby using the web site , you confirm that you have read , understood , and agreed to be bound by the terms and conditions . copyright \u00a9 1996 - 2018 abebooks inc . & abebooks europe gmbh . all rights reserved .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ncorresponding author : cornelis van achterberg ( ln . silarutanbcn @ grebrethcanav . seec ) .\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nthe species of seventeen genera of agathidinae ( braconidae ) from vietnam are revised : agathis latreille , 1804 , bassus fabricius , 1804 ; biroia sz\u00e9pligeti , 1900 ; braunsia kriechbaumer , 1894 ; camptothlipsis enderlein , 1920 ; coccygidium de saussure , 1892 ; coronagathis gen . n . ( type species : coronagathis cornifera sp . n . ) ; cremnops foerster , 1862 ; disophrys foerster , 1862 ; earinus wesmael , 1837 ; euagathis sz\u00e9pligeti , 1900 ; gyragathis gen . n . ( type species : gyragathis quyi sp . n . ) , gyrochus enderlein , 1920 ; lytopylus foerster , 1862 ; therophilus wesmael , 1837 ; troticus brull\u00e9 , 1846 , and zelodia gen . n . ( type species : zelomorpha varipes van achterberg & maet\u00f4 , 1990 ) . keys to the vietnamese species are given .\nsixty - five species are recognised , of which twelve species are newly recorded for vietnam : bassus albifasciatus ( watanabe , 1934 ) , coccygidium angostura ( bhat & gupta , 1977 ) , cremnops atricornis ( smith , 1874 ) , stat . n . , disophrys erythrocephala cameron , 1900 , gyrochus yunnanensis wang , 1984 , lytopylus romani ( shestakov , 1940 ) , comb . n . , therophilus festivus ( muesebeck , 1953 ) , comb . n . , therophilus javanus ( bhat & gupta , 1977 ) , comb . n . , therophilus lienhuachihensis ( chou & sharkey , 1989 ) , comb . n . , therophilus marshi ( bhat & gupta , 1977 ) , comb . n . , zelodia absoluta ( chen & yang , 1998 ) , comb . n . and zelodia longidorsata ( bhat & gupta , 1977 ) , comb . n .\nforty - two species are new to science : agathis citrinisoma sp . n . , bassus albobasalis sp . n . , bassus albozonatus sp . n . , biroia soror sp . n . , braunsia bicolorata sp . n . , braunsia devriesi sp . n . , braunsia maculifera sp . n . , braunsia nigrapiculata sp . n . , braunsia pumatica sp . n . , camptothlipsis hanoiensis sp . n . , coronagathis cornifera sp . n . , earinus aurantius sp . n . , earinus brevistigmus sp . n . , euagathis flavosoma sp . n . , disophrys maculifera sp . n . , disophrys quymanhi sp . n . , disophrys rhinoides sp . n . , gyragathis quyi sp . n . , therophilus annuliferus sp . n . , therophilus cattienensis sp . n . , therophilus contrastus sp . n . , therophilus crenulisulcatus sp . n . , therophilus depressiferus sp . n . , therophilus elongator sp . n . , therophilus levisoma sp . n . , therophilus marucae sp . n . , therophilus mellisoma sp . n . , therophilus nigrolineatus sp . n . , therophilus nuichuaensis sp . n . , therophilus parasper sp . n . , therophilus planifrons sp . n . , therophilus punctiscutum sp . n . , therophilus robustus sp . n . , therophilus rugosiferus sp . n . , therophilus scutellatus sp . n . , troticus alloflavus sp . n . , troticus giganteus sp . n . , zelodia albobasalis sp . n . , zelodia anginota sp . n . , zelodia bicoloristigma sp . n . , zelodia brevifemoralis sp . n . and zelodia flavistigma sp . n .\nthe following new synonyms are proposed : euagathis nigrithorax bhat & gupta , 1977 , euagathis variabilis enderlein , 1920 , euagathis variabilis var . tibialis enderlein , 1920 , euagathis variabilis var . melanopleura enderlein , 1920 and euagathis variabilis var . sucarandana enderlein , 1920 with euagathis abbotti ( ashmead , 1900 ) ; euagathis jinshanensis chen & yang , 2006 and euagathis sharkeyi chen & yang , 2006 , with euagathis forticarinata ( cameron , 1899 ) . the genus amputostypos sharkey , 2009 , is synonymised with coccygidium de saussure , 1892 , syn . n .\nthe biology of most species is unknown , but in general agathidines are koinobiont endoparasitoids of larvae of lepidoptera . the species with a short ovipositor select exposed larvae and those with a long ovipositor use larvae with a concealed way of life .\ncollection in the institute of ecology & biological resources ( iebr ) at hanoi ( assembled by the second author ) and the ncb naturalis collection ( rmnh ) at leiden ( assembled during five rmnh - iebr expeditions in vietnam ) . for identification of the subfamily\n. additional non - exclusive characters in the key are between brackets . in the keys to species sometimes notes to similar species unknown from vietnam are included because they may occur in vietnam . putative apomorphies were determined through outgroup comparison making assumptions about the placement of certain taxa in\nbraunsia bicolorata sp . n . , female , holotype . 45 mesosoma lateral 46 mesosoma dorsal 47 first - third metasomal tergites dorsal 48 wings 49 hind femur lateral 50 ovipositor sheath lateral 51 head lateral 52 head dorsal 53 head anterior .\nbraunsia devriesi sp . n . , female , holotype . 55 mesosoma lateral 56 mesosoma dorsal 57 first - third metasomal tergites dorsal 58 wings 59 hind femur lateral 60 head lateral 61 head anterior 62 head dorsal .\ndisophrys erythrocephala cameron , female , thailand . 115 head dorsal 116 head lateral 117 mesosoma dorsal 118 wings 119 first - third metasomal tergites dorsal 120 mesosoma lateral .\nearinus brevistigmus sp . n . , female , holotype . 152 mesosoma lateral 153 mesosoma dorsal 154 first - third metasomal tergites dorsal 155 wings 156 hind femur and tibia lateral 157 head anterior 158 head dorsal 159 head lateral .\ninner spur of middle tibia 0 . 8\u20131 . 1 times as long as middle basitarsus ( a ) ; apex of antenna with short to medium - sized spine ( b ) , sometimes minute ; ovipositor sheath short , about as long as apical height of metasoma , hardly or not protruding ; hind trochantellus usually with a distinct ventral carina on its outer edge ( c ) or edge distinctly angulate ; [ apex of the ovipositor sheath blunt apically and with numerous ampulliform papillae ] ; coccygidium complex\ninner spur of middle tibia 0 . 4\u20130 . 7 times as long as middle basitarsus ( aa ) ; apex of antenna without spine ( bb ) ; relative length of ovipositor sheath vari able ; ventral carina of hind trochantellus often ( about two - thirds ) absent or obsolescent ( cc )\nfrons without lateral carinae ( a ) ; vein m + cu of hind wing at most 0 . 8 times vein 1 - m ( b ) ; labio - maxillary complex only slightly protruding ( c )\nfrons with lateral carinae ( aa ) ; vein m + cu of hind wing longer than vein 1 - m or subequal ( up to 0 . 9 times ; bb ) ; labio - maxillary complex usually rather protruding ( cc , but not in oreba )\nvertical axis [ v ] of malar triangle 1 . 7\u20136 . 0 times its horizontal axis [ h ] and the part of head below eyes only gradually narrowed ventrally ( a ) to parallel - sided ; clypeus strongly convex ( b ) ; mouth - parts more or less lengthened in form of a beak , galea nearly always distinctly longer than 1 . 3 times its width , longer than labial palp ( c ) ; [ mainly holarctic , but some species reach the northern oriental region ]\nvertical axis [ v ] of malar triangle 1 . 0\u20131 . 5 times its horizontal axis [ h ] and the part of head below eyes directly narrowed ventrally ( aa ) ; clypeus usually at least partly flattened ( bb ) , only in therophilus mediator - group distinctly convex ( bbb ) ; mouth - parts normal , galea not longer than wide , shorter than labial palp and usually hardly or not visible in lateral view ( cc )\nfore and middle tarsal claws simple and comparatively robust ( a ) ; area behind antennal sockets deeply impressed ( b ) ; [ vein 1 - m of hind wing 1 . 1\u20131 . 6 times as long as vein m + cu ]\nfore and middle tarsal claws nearly always with a distinct basal lobe and comparatively slender ( aa ) ; area behind antennal sockets nearly always moderately to shallowly impressed ( bb ) ; [ vein 1 - m of hind wing 0 . 6\u20131 . 4 times as long as vein m + cu ]\nvein r - m of fore wing absent ( a ) ; first metasomal tergite and often also metapleuron granulate and dull and tergite distinctly convex medially and dorsal carinae absent ( b ) ; precoxal sulcus about 0 . 6 times as long as mesopleuron and sculptured ( c ) or superficially impressed and smooth\nvein r - m of fore wing present ( aa ) , rarely obsolescent ; sculpture of first tergite and metapleuron variable ( bb ) , if granulate then first tergite less convex medially and with dorsal carinae ( bbb ) ; precoxal sulcus longer than 0 . 6 times length of mesopleuron and sculptured ( cc ) or absent\nfirst metasomal tergite 5\u20136 times as long as wide apically ( a ) and 1 . 6\u20131 . 7 times as long as hind coxa ( b ) ; frons flattened anteriorly except for a short median depression ( c ) ; hind femur short compared to hind coxa ( d ) ; hind basitarsus with numerous spiny setae ventrally ( e ) ; [ not yet found in vietnam but expected to occur ; synonymised with lytopylus foerster by sharkey et al . ( 2009 ) , but it runs in their key to therophilus wesmael . provisionally retained as separate genus because of the synapomorphous character states ( a - d ) listed above ]\nagathis citrinisoma sp . n . , female , holotype . 2 head lateral 3 mesosoma lateral 4 mesosoma dorsal 5 fore wing 6 hind tarsal claw 7 head dorsal 8 head anterior 9 first - third metasomal tergites dorsal 10 hind femur lateral .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 6f759ee8 - dc7c - 49aa - adb0 - bafa83eed7e9\nholotype , \u2640 ( rmnh ) , \u201cs . vietnam : dak lak , chu yang sin n . p . , n [ ea ] r dam , 800\u2013940 m , 2\u201310 . vi . 2007 , mal traps , c . v . achterberg & r . de vries , rmnh\u201907\u201d .\nagathis citrinisoma runs in the key by sharkey ( 1996 ) to agathis asternaulica sharkey , 1996 , from japan ; however , this species has the metasoma largely black ( citrinisoma : yellow ) , no trace of vein 1 - sr + m of the fore wing ( citrinisoma : partly developed ) and the notauli are smooth posteriorly ( citrinisoma : crenulate ) .\nholotype , \u2640 , length of body 4 . 0 mm , of fore wing 3 . 7 mm , of ovipositor sheath 2 . 0 mm .\nantennal segments 34 , length of third segment 1 . 5 times fourth segment , length of third , fourth and penultimate segments 3 . 7 , 2 . 8 and 1 . 7 times their width , respectively ; length of apical antennal segment 1 . 6 times as long as penultimate segment ; maxillary palp 0 . 7 times height of head ; malar space 2 . 8 times as long as basal width of mandible ; in dorsal view temple short , length of eye 5 . 3 times temple ; temple directly narrowed posteriorly (\nlength of mesosoma 1 . 5 times its height ; pronotum reticulate - rugose ventrally , setose and finely punctate dorsally ; area near lateral carina of mesoscutum crenulate ; mesoscutum dull , with irregular punctures and setae ; notauli completely crenulate , united posteriorly forming a groove near scutellar sulcus ; scutellar sulcus with 4 carinae (\n) ; scutellum distinctly convex with sparse fine punctures ; precoxal sulcus short , similar to a wide groove ; mesopleuron largely smooth with sparse fine punctures anteriorly ; propodeum rugose .\n) ; vein sr1 straight ; r : 3 - sr + sr1 = 3 : 49 ; vein cu - a distinctly postfurcal . hind wing : vein m + cu 1 . 3 times as long as vein 1 - m .\nlength of hind femur , tibia and basitarsus 2 . 8 , 4 . 7 and 6 . 5 times their width , respectively ; hind femur ( as remainder of legs ) with short setae ; length of outer and inner spur of middle tibia 0 . 3 and 0 . 4 times middle basitarsus , respectively ; outer side of middle tibia with 2 pegs , apex with 2 pegs ; length of outer and inner spur of hind tibia 0 . 3 and 0 . 5 times hind basitarsus ; tarsal claws with lobe (\nblack ; palpi pale yellow ; clypeus , galea , fore leg , middle leg ( but coxa brown and femur yellowish - brown ) and metasoma yellow ; pterostigma and veins dark brown ; wing membrane rather infuscate .\nfrom \u201ccitrinus\u201d ( latin for \u201cof citron\u201d ) and \u201csoma\u201d ( greek for \u201cbody\u201d ) , because of the yellow metasoma .\nhemiogaster enderlein 1920 , syn . n . the type species , hemiogaster subrasa enderlein , 1920 , from sumatra is a new combination in bassus fabricius .\nbassus albifasciatus ( watanabe ) , female , cuc phuong national park , but 13 of dark female from cat tien national park . 11 habitus lateral 12 hind tarsal claw 13 , 14 first - third metasomal tergites dorsal 15 head anterior .\n) ; length of first metasomal tergite about 1 . 4 times as long as wide apically\n) ; length of first tergite 1 . 5\u20132 . 0 times as long as wide apically\nne vietnam : ha giang , ninh binh and s vietnam : dong nai . new record . outside vietnam known from china ( hubei ; ningxia ; taiwan ) , japan ( okinawa ) and korea .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : f36ad4c6 - fb86 - 4581 - b52b - 2de9bdb1df45\nbassus albobasalis sp . n . , female , holotype . 17 mesosoma dorsal 18 mesosoma lateral 19 first - third metasomal tergites dorsal 20 antenna 21 wings 22 head lateral 23 head anterior 24 head dorsal 25 hind femur lateral .\nholotype , \u2640 ( rmnh ) \u201cs . vietnam : dak lak , chu yang sin n . p . , nr dam , 800\u20131000 m , 2\u201310 . vi . 2007 , mal . traps 9\u201311 , c . v . achterberg & r . de vries , rmnh\u201907\u201d . paratypes ( 7 \u2640 ) : 1 \u2640 ( rmnh ) , id . , but 800\u2013940 m ; 5 \u2640 ( rmnh , iebr ) \u201cs . vietnam : dak lak , chu yang sin n . p . , krong k\u2019mar , mal . traps , 840\u2013940 m or 740\u2013900 m , 2\u201310 . vi . 2007 , c . van achterberg & r . de vries , rmnh\u201907\u201d ; 1 \u2640 ( rmnh ) \u201cn . vietnam : thua thien - hue , phong dien n . r . n [ ea ] r base - camp , 15 km w phong my , c 60 m , 22 . iii - 6 . iv . 2001 , mal . traps 1\u20133 , c . v . achterberg & r . de vries , rmnh\u201901\u201d .\nthe new species is similar to bassus lineaticollis ( cameron , 1910 ) from sri lanka , but has the scutellum sparsely finely punctate ( in bassus lineaticollis densely rugulose - punctate ) and the first tergite 1 . 4 times ( twice ) as long as its apical width . the new species is also similar to bassus cancellatus ( enderlein , 1920 ) from china ( taiwan ) , but differs by having the first and second tergites ivory ( black ) , the body smaller ( 3\u20135 mm versus 6\u201310 mm ) , fewer antennal segments ( 29\u201331 versus 42\u201346 ) , the first tergite ( 1 . 4 times versus 1 . 7\u20131 . 8 times ) and the ovipositor sheath shorter ( 0 . 7 times versus 1 . 1 times as long as fore wing ) . bassus subrasa ( enderlein , 1920 ) comb . n . from indonesia ( sumatra ) is similar but has the head dorsally , propodeum , hind coxa and femur brownish - yellow , first and second tergites coarsely striate and the eye about 3 times longer than the temple . bassus canaliculatus yang & chen , 2006 , from china ( hubei ) has the ovipositor sheath about 1 . 3 times as long as the fore wing , the dorsal carinae of the first tergite lamelliform and nearly complete , the first tergite with a medio - longitudinal depression and both basal tergites of the metasoma black .\nholotype , \u2640 , length of body 5 . 2 mm , of fore wing 4 . 6 mm , of ovipositor sheath 3 . 3 mm .\nantennal segments 31 , length of third segment 1 . 3 times fourth segment ; third , fourth and penultimate segments 3 . 6 , 3 . 3 and 1 . 4 times their width , respectively ; length of apical segment 1 . 2 times as long as penultimate segment ; length of maxillary palp 0 . 7 times height of head ; malar space 2 . 7 times as long as basal width of mandible ; temple short (\n) , in dorsal view length of eye 4 . 6 times temple ; ocelli in low triangle , pol : od : ool = 9 : 7 : 18 (\nlength of mesosoma 1 . 5 times its height ; subpronope shallow ; pronotum largely smooth laterally , with sparse fine punctures dorsally ; area near lateral carina of mesoscutumsparsely crenulate ; lateral and middle lobes of mesoscutum sparsely and distinctly punctate , flat and smooth posteriorly ; notauli complete , moderately crenulate anteriorly and narrowly crenulate posteriorly ; scutellar sulcus 0 . 4 times as long as dorsal face of scutellum and with 4 carinae ; scutellum slightly convex and distinctly narrowed with lateral carina , shiny with sparse fine punctures , subposterior crest curved (\n) ; mesopleuron below precoxal sulcus with sparse fine punctures ; mesopleuron above precoxal sulcus largely smooth ; metapleuron with large sparse punctures ; propodeum closely reticulate - rugose ; propodeal spiracle small , as long as wide .\n) ; vein sr1 straight ; r : 3 - sr + sr1 = 6 : 63 . hind wing : vein m + cu 0 . 6 times as long as vein 1 - m (\nlength of hind femur , tibia and basitarsus 3 . 2 , 6 . 8 and 10 . 0 times their width , respectively ; hind femur ( as remainder of legs ) with bristly setae ; length of outer and inner spur of middle tibia 0 . 3 and 0 . 5 times middle basitarsus , respectively ; apex of outer side of hind tibia with a cluster of 8 pegs ; length of outer and inner spur of hind tibia 0 . 3 and 0 . 5 times hind basitarsus , respectively ; tarsal claws without lobe ( cf .\norange brown ; mouthparts yellow ; antenna , frons and vertex dark brown ; propodeum , third - eighth metasomal segments , hind coxa , trochantellus and femur black ; hind tibial spurs yellow ; first and second tergites ivory dorsally and white ventrally ; hind tibia and tarsus dark brown , except yellow basal ring ; veins and pterostigma dark brown , but pterostigma basally narrowly pale brownish ; apical 0 . 4 of fore wing distinctly infuscate and remainder of wings slightly infuscate or subhyaline .\nantennal segments 29\u201331 ; second submarginal cell of fore wing with vein r - m absent or present ; vein m + cu of hind wing 0 . 6\u20130 . 8 times as long as vein 1 - m ; second tergite with smooth or striate transverse groove ; apical segment of antenna 1 . 0\u20131 . 2 times as long as penultimate segment ; length of body 3 . 2\u20135 . 2 mm .\nfrom \u201calbus\u201d ( latin for \u201cwhite\u201d ) and \u201cbasis\u201d ( latin for \u201cfoundation , base\u201d ) , because of the white base of the metasoma .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 7e9f1682 - 3c25 - 40aa - 8cee - 50c371e2d051\nbassus albozonatus sp . n . , male , holotype . 27 mesosoma lateral 28 mesosoma dorsal 29 first - third metasomal tergites dorsal 30 wings 31 hind femur lateral 32 head lateral 33 head anterior 34 head dorsal 35 hind tarsal claw .\nholotype , \u2642 ( rmnh ) , aga . 282 , \u201cne vietnam : ninh binh , cuc phuong n . p . , mt , 20\u00b023 ' n ; 105\u00b034 ' e , 5\u201310 . v . 2002 , k . d . long\u201d . paratypes : 1 \u2642 ( iebr ) , aga . 283 , same data as holotype ; 1 \u2642 ( rmnh ) , aga . 234 , \u201cs . vietnam : dac lak , cu n\u2019ga forest , 10 . vi . 2005 . k . d . long\u201d .\nthe new species is similar to bassus albifasciatus ( watanabe , 1934 ) , but differs by having the malar space twice ( 2 . 6\u20132 . 8 times in bassus albifasciatus ) as long as basal width of mandible , the precoxal sulcus short and shallow ( distinct and 0 . 8 times as long as mesopleuron ) , the propodeum with three complete apical carinae ( evenly reticulate - rugose ) and ( except more or less posteriorly ) brownish - yellow ( brown to black ) , the notauli more widely crenulate ( rather narrowly crenulate ) , the mesoscutum flattened medio - posteriorly ( rather convex ) and the hind tibial spurs pale yellowish and distinctly contrasting with the blackish hind basitarsus ( brownish and less contrasting ) . because of the colour of the head and of the first tergite the new species is similar to bassus subrasa ( enderlein , 1920 ) comb . n . from indonesia . however , the latter has the eye about 3 times as long as the temple ( 2 . 3 times in bassus albozonatus ) , the second tergite distinctly costate ( only partly striate ) , the notauli smooth ( finely crenulate ) and vein cu - a of the fore wing distinctly postfurcal ( interstitial ) .\nholotype , \u2642 , length of body 6 . 5 mm , of fore wing 6 . 0 mm .\nantennal segments 36 , length of third segment 1 . 1 times fourth segment , length of third , fourth and penultimate segments 4 . 4 , 4 . 0 and 2 . 3 times their width , respectively ; length of apical antennal segment 1 . 6 times as long as penultimate segment ; maxillary palp 0 . 7 times height of head ; malar space twice as long as basal width of mandible ; in dorsal view length of eye 2 . 3 times temple ; ocelli in low triangle , pol : od : ool = 8 : 7 : 21 (\nlength of mesosoma 1 . 4 times its height ; subpronope shallow ; pronotum largely smooth with sparse fine punctures dorsally ; area near lateral carina of mesoscutum sparsely crenulate ; lateral lobes of mesoscutum shiny with fine punctures anteriorly , flat and smooth posteriorly ; middle lobe of mesoscutum with sparse punctures and largely smooth posteriorly (\n) ; notauli complete and finely crenulate ; scutellar sulcus 0 . 4 times as long as dorsal face of scutellum and with 3 carinae ; scutellum convex , rather long and narrowed posteriorly , without subposterior crest (\n) ; propodeal spiracle rather small elliptical , 1 . 5 times as long as wide .\n) ; vein sr1 sinuate ; r : 3 - sr + sr1 = 4 : 61 . hind wing : vein m + cu 0 . 7 times as long as vein 1 - m (\nlength of hind femur , tibia and basitarsus 3 . 9 , 7 . 5 and 10 . 4 times their width , respectively ; hind femur ( as remainder of legs ) with short setae ; length of outer and inner spur of middle tibia 0 . 4 and 0 . 5 times middle basitarsus , respectively ; outer apex of middle tibia with a cluster of 10 pegs ; outer apex of hind tibia with a cluster of 12 pegs ; length of outer and inner spur of hind tibia 0 . 4 and 0 . 5 times hind basitarsus , respectively ; outer side of hind coxa with sparse punctures , of hind femur with distinct punctures ; tarsal claws without lobe (\nlength of first tergite 1 . 5 times its apical width , with dorsal and dorso - lateral carinae coarsely developed , dorsal carinae convergent , costate medially and posteriorly nearly up to apex of tergite (\n) ; first tergite sparsely but coarsely striate ; second tergite 1 . 4 times as long as third tergite , large basal area on two thirds of tergite partly smooth , rugose - punctate and remainder densely striate (\nbrownish - yellow ; antenna ( but scapus yellow ) brown ; hind leg ( but tibia with pale yellow basal ring ) and metasoma dark brown or black ( but basal area of second tergite ivory and first and second tergites white ventrally ) ; pterostigma ( except small pale brownish patch basally ) and veins dark brown ; wing membrane slightly infuscate or subhyaline , but apical 0 . 4 of fore wing rather infuscate .\nlength of body 6 . 5\u20137 . 0 mm , of fore wing 6 . 0\u20136 . 1 mm ; penultimate antennal segment subequal to apical segment ; vein m + cu of hind wing 0 . 7\u20130 . 8 times as long as 1 - m ; pol : od : ool = 8 : 6\u20137 : 21 ; outer apex of hind tibia with 9\u201312 pegs .\nfrom \u201calbus\u201d ( latin for \u201cwhite\u201d ) and \u201czona\u201d ( latin for \u201cgirdle\u201d ) , because of the white part of the second metasomal tergite .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : c7fe6ab0 - 4c62 - 4e25 - 85a1 - 8809847bc928\nbiroia soror sp . n . , female , holotype . 37 mesosoma lateral 38 head anterior 39 first - third metasomal tergites dorsal 40 head lateral 41 head dorsal 42 mesosoma dorsal 43 wings .\nholotype , \u2640 ( rmnh ) , \u201cs . vietnam : dong nai , cat tien n . p . , dong trail , mal . traps 13\u201316 , c 100 m , 1\u20139 . x . 2005 , c . v . achterberg & r . de vries , rmnh\u201905\u201d . paratypes ( 6 \u2640 ) : 2 \u2640 ( rmnh , iebr ) , id . but ficus trail , mal . traps 1\u20138 ; 1 \u2640 ( rmnh ) , id . but bird trail , mal . traps 9\u201312 ; 3 \u2640 ( rmnh , iebr ) , id . but ficus trail , 9\u201310 . iv . 2007 , m . p . quy & n . t . manh .\n, but often the head and the anterior part of the mesosoma are orange - brown ) .\nholotype , \u2640 , length of body 8 . 8 mm , of fore wing 7 . 2 mm , ovipositor sheath 6 . 3 mm .\nantennal segments 45 , length of third segment 1 . 5 times fourth segment , length of third , fourth and penultimate segments 1 . 7 , 1 . 7 and 1 . 7 times their width , respectively ; apical antennal segment 1 . 6 times as long as penultimate segment ; length of maxillary palp 0 . 5 times height of head ; in dorsal view length of eye 4 . 7 times temple ; temple gradually narrowed posteriorly (\nlength of mesosoma 1 . 6 times its height ; pronotal trough smooth medially , with sparse fine punctures dorsally and crenulate posteriorly ; area near lateral carina of mesoscutum smooth anteriorly , crenulate posteriorly ; mesoscutum shiny with very sparse minute punctures ; notauli completely absent ; scutellar sulcus 0 . 5 times as long as dorsal face of scutellum and with 3 strong carinae (\n) ; mesopleuron above precoxal sulcus shiny and nearly smooth with very sparse fine punctures ; mesopleuron below precoxal sulcus with sparse distinct punctures ; metapleuron setose with sparse distinct punctures dorsally , largely areolate - rugose ventrally ; propodeum with a large areola and costulae developed , area of areola with 3 transverse carinae ; propodeal spiracle large medium - sided , 1 . 75 times as long as wide .\n) ; vein sr1 straight ; r : 3 - sr : sr1 = 4 : 10 : 64 ; r : 2 - sr : 3 - sr : r - m = 4 : 11 : 10 : 8 . hind wing : vein m + cu 0 . 6 times as long as vein 1 - m .\nlength of hind femur , tibia and basitarsus 4 . 0 , 6 . 0 and 9 . 3 times their width , respectively ; hind femur ( as remainder of legs ) with strong setae ; length of outer and inner spur of middle tibia 0 . 4 and 0 . 7 times middle basitarsus , respectively ; length of outer and inner spur of hind tibia 0 . 3 and 0 . 5 times hind basitarsus ; fore and middle tarsi slender (\nshiny smooth ; first tergite distinctly widened subposteriorly and then narrowed apically ; length of first tergite 1 . 4 times as long as its apical width (\n) , area near groove with two rows of sparse setae ; latero - posterior corners of third tergite with a dense cluster of setae ; ovipositor sheath 0 . 9 times as long as fore wing .\nblack ; galea , palpi , mandible , fore legs and tarsus yellow ; wing membrane black but hyaline on apical third of fore wing and on one fourth of hind wing .\nlength of body 8 . 5\u201310 . 0 mm , and of fore wing 6 . 8\u20138 . 0 mm ; ratio of vein r : 3 - sr : sr1 = 3\u20134 : 11\u201312 : 71\u201382 ; vein m + cu of hind wing 0 . 5\u20130 . 7 times as long as vein 1 - m ; first tergite 1 . 4\u20131 . 7 times as long as its apical width .\nfrom \u201csoror\u201d ( latin for \u201csister\u201d ) , because of its close similarity to bassus abdominalis ( enderlein ) .\nbraunsia maculifera sp . n . notes . if pol 0 . 5 times ool and vein cu - a of fore wing distinctly postfurcal , cf . braunsia pappi chen & yang , 2006 , from china . if the areola of the propodeum is wider , the apical quarter of the hind tibia infuscate and the hind tarsus blackish , the anterior transverse carina is incomplete , the antenna is yellowish , the pterostigma is dark brown except for the yellow basal third , the frons deeply concave near the antennal sockets , no isolated stigmal spot of the fore wing , the ovipositor sheath about as long as body and the first tergite is more robust , cf . braunsia margaroniae nixon , 1950 , from india .\nbraunsia devriesi sp . n . notes . braunsia pappi chen & yang , 2006 , from china differs from braunsia devriesi by having the fore wing darkened apically with a distinct dark brown band below the stigmal spot and by the smooth basal half of the first metasomal tergite .\n) ; outer side of apical third of middle tibia with row of 5 pegs ; eye medium - sized , in dorsal view length of eye 2 . 1 times as long as temple (\n) ; outer side of apical third of middle tibia with row of 4\u20136 pegs ; eye rather large , in dorsal view length of eye 2 . 7 times as long as temple (\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 4951d986 - c862 - 46d2 - b8c2 - 1d1e24c4a657\nholotype , \u2640 ( rmnh ) , aga . 119 , \u201cne vietnam : hoa binh , mai chau , pa co n . r , 1200 m , 24 . iv . 2002 , k . d . long\u201d . paratypes : 1 \u2642 ( iebr ) , aga . 120 and 1 \u2642 ( rmnh ) , aga . 121 , same data as holotype ; 1 \u2640 ( iebr ) , aga . 276 , id . , but 21 . iv . 2002 , k . d . long ; 2 \u2642 ( iebr ) , aga . 216 , aga . 219 and 1 \u2642 ( rmnh ) , aga . 220 , \u201cn . w vietnam : lao cai , sa pa , bushes , 8 . x . 2004 , k . d . long\u201d .\nthe new species is morphologically similar to braunsia latisocreata bhat & gupta , 1977 , from india , but differs by having the first tergite about 3 . 7 times as long as its apical width ( in braunsia latisocreata 1 . 5 times ) ; the second tergite about twice as long as wide apically ( 1 . 5 times ) ; the second submarginal cell of the fore wing with a rather long ( i . e . distinctly longer than vein r of fore wing ) ramellus ( short ) and the metasoma entirely reddish yellow ( black ) .\nholotype , \u2640 , length of body 9 . 0 mm , of fore wing 7 . 8 mm , ovipositor 8 . 0 mm .\nantennal segments 47 , length of third segment 1 . 2 times fourth segment , length of third , fourth and penultimate segments 3 . 7 , 3 . 3 and 2 . 0 times their width , respectively ; length of maxillary palp 0 . 7 times height of head ; in dorsal view head transverse and 1 . 3 times as wide as mesonotum ; length of eye 2 . 1 times temple (\n) ; pol : od : ool = 7 : 4 : 11 ; antennal sockets not tubular ; occipital flange sharp ; malar space 1 . 8 times as long as basal width of mandible ; face shiny with sparse fine punctures , frons and vertex smooth .\nlength of mesosoma 1 . 5 times its height ; subpronope large and deep ; side of pronotum smooth ; area near lateral carina of mesoscutum crenulate ; lateral lobes of mesoscutum smooth ; middle lobe with sparse fine punctures ; notauli deep , crenulate (\n) ; metapleuron mainly smooth with long setae ; propodeum setose , with a strong transverse carina subbasally , rugose posteriorly ; spiracle medium - sized , round , 1 . 8 times as long as wide .\nfore wing : second submarginal cell pentagonal , narrow anteriorly , with rather long ramellus , 1 . 1 times as long as vein 2 - sr ( 17 : 15 ) (\n) ; r : 3 - sr : sr1 = 4 : 3 : 65 ; 2 - sr : 3 - sr : r - m = 11 : 3 : 11 ; vein cu - a slightly antefurcal . hind wing : vein 2 - sr + m transverse ; vein m + cu 0 . 6 times as long as 1 - m ( 28 : 50 ) ; surroundings of cu - a glabrous .\nlength of hind femur , tibia and basitarsus 5 . 7 , 10 . 0 and 10 . 6 times their width , respectively ; hind coxa smooth ; hind femur with short and sparse setosity (\n) ; outer side of apical third of middle tibia with a row of 5 pegs ; outer side of apex of hind tibia with a cluster of 8 pegs ; length of outer and inner spurs of middle tibia 0 . 4 and 0 . 5 times middle basitarsus , respectively ; length of outer and inner spurs of hind tibia 0 . 3 and 0 . 4 times hind basitarsus .\n) ; length of first tergite 3 . 7 times its apical width ; dorsal carinae of first tergite divergent and on three fourth of the tergite ; second tergite 2 . 1 times as long as wide apically and with posteriorly diverging striae , on apical third of second tergite with transverse furrow ; dorsal half of third tergite with striae , apical half finely granulate ; remainder of metasoma smooth (\nfemale : second submarginal cell of fore wing triangular or pentagonal ; vein m + cu of hind wing 0 . 5\u20130 . 6 times as long as 1 - m ; outer side of hind tibial apex with cluster of 8\u201310 pegs . male : antenna with 45 or 48 segments ; vein cu - a of fore wing interstitial ; outer side of hind tibial apex with 7 pegs ; hind coxa and first tergite apically dark brown .\nfrom \u201cbi\u201d ( latin for \u201ctwo\u201d ) , and \u201ccoloris\u201d ( latin for \u201chue , tint\u201d ) , because of the bicoloured body .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 585c9ac9 - b17a - 4ce4 - b250 - a84de8bf7e32\nholotype , \u2640 ( rmnh ) , \u201cn . vietnam : viet tri , n [ ea ] r thanh son , thuong cuu , 20\u00b059 ' n ; 105\u00b08 ' e , 350\u2013400 m , 11\u201316 . x . 1999 , malaise traps , r . de vries , rmnh\u201999\u201d .\nthe new species is morphologically similar to braunsia bipunctata enderlein , 1906 , from indonesia , but differs by having the propodeum with a complete and regular basal transverse carina ( braunsia bipunctata : transverse carina partly weakly developed and irregular ) ; and the anterior half of the first tergite coarsely striate medially ( bipunctata : smooth except for a median carina ) .\nholotype , \u2640 , length of body 10 . 5 mm , of fore wing 9 . 3 mm , ovipositor 7 . 3 mm .\nantennal segments 45 ; length of third segment times fourth segment , length of third , fourth and penultimate segments 3 . 3 , 2 . 3 and 1 . 3 times their width , respectively ; length of maxillary palp 0 . 7 times height of head ; in dorsal view length of eye twice temple (\n) ; face shiny smooth with sparse punctures ; frons and vertex shiny and smooth .\nlength of mesosoma 1 . 5 times its height ; subpronope large and deep ; side of pronotum smooth ; area near lateral carina of mesoscutum smooth ; side of mesoscutum largely smooth with sparse setae and fine punctures ; notauli deep and smooth (\n) ; scutellar sulcus short , 0 . 4 times as long as dorsal face of scutellum and with 4 carinae ; scutellum convex , smooth , sparsely setose ; mesopleuron above and below precoxal sulcus shiny and smooth ; precoxal sulcus narrow and shallow similar to a smooth groove (\n) ; metapleuron smooth ; propodeum with basal and transverse carinae , two longitudinal carinae forming a large areola ; spiracle medium - sized , subelliptical and 2 . 3 times as long as wide .\nfore wing : second submarginal cell pentagonal , narrow anteriorly , with rather long ramellus , 0 . 8 times as long as vein 2 - sr (\n) ; r : 3 - sr : sr1 = 6 : 2 : 55 ; 2 - sr : 3 - sr : r - m = 9 : 2 : 9 ; vein cu - a distinctly postfurcal . hind wing : vein 2 - sr + m slightly vertical ; vein m + cu 0 . 8 times as long as 1 - m ; surroundings of cu - a sparsely setose .\nlength of hind femur , tibia and basitarsus 5 . 1 , 9 . 7 and 11 . 6 times their width , respectively ; hind femur ( as remainder of legs ) with short and dense setosity ; outer side of apical third of middle tibia with a row of 5 pegs and a cluster of 3 pegs at apex ; outer side of apex of hind tibia with a cluster of 9 pegs ; length of outer and inner spurs of middle tibia 0 . 4 and 0 . 6 times middle basitarsus , respectively ; length of outer and inner spurs of hind tibia 0 . 3 and 0 . 4 times hind basitarsus , respectively .\nfirst tergite rather long , widened apically , 2 . 3 times as long as its apical width (\nit is a pleasure to name this species after mr rob de vries , who participated in all vietnam expeditions and prepared the specimens . he plays an important role in the success of the expeditions .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 8f7ea4fe - e092 - 4ac3 - 973b - 64110615f11a\nbraunsia maculifera sp . n . , female , holotype . 64 mesosoma lateral 65 mesosoma dorsal 66 first - third metasomal tergites dorsal 67 wings 68 hind femur lateral 69 head anterior 70 head lateral 71 head dorsal .\nholotype , \u2640 ( rmnh ) , aga . 162 , \u201cne vietnam : phu tho , xuan son n . p . , 6 . vii . 2003 , tr . x . lam\u201d .\nthe new species is morphologically similar to braunsia margaroniae nixon , 1950 , from india , but differs by having the sides of the propodeal areola slightly curved ( distinctly curved in braunsia margaroniae ) , the pterostigma completely yellow ( apical two thirds brown ) , the hind tibia yellowish apically ( brown ) and the hind tarsus infuscate ( brown ) , frons shallowly depressed near antennal sockets ( distinctly concave ) , the antenna ( except scapus and pedicellus ) dark brown ( brown ) , the first tergite 1 . 4 times ( 1 . 6 times ) as long as its apical width , the fore wing without an isolated dark brown stigmal spot ( present ) and the ovipositor sheath about 0 . 6 times ( 1 . 0\u20131 . 1 times ) as long as body .\nholotype , \u2640 , length of body 8 . 7 mm , of fore wing 7 . 8 mm , ovipositor 4 . 8 mm .\nantennal segments 42 ; length of third segment 1 . 1 times fourth segment , length of third , fourth and penultimate segments 2 . 9 , 2 . 6 and 1 . 4 times their width , respectively ; apical antennal segment 1 . 7 times as long as penultimate segment ; length of maxillary palp 0 . 7 times height of head ; in dorsal view length of eye 2 . 2 times temple (\n) ; length of malar space 1 . 9 times basal width of mandible ; face setose and punctulate ; frons smooth , moderately concave near antennal sockets ; vertex slightly punctulate and sparsely setose .\nlength of mesosoma 1 . 4 times its height ; subpronope large and deep ; side of pronotum smooth ; area near lateral carina of mesoscutum smooth ; side of mesoscutum largely smooth , moderately setose and punctulate ; notauli deep and nearly completely smooth (\n) ; scutellar sulcus deep , 0 . 4 times as long as dorsal face of scutellum and with two short crenulae ; scutellum smooth , distinctly convex and rather steep posteriorly ; mesopleuron shiny and smooth ; precoxal sulcus narrow , deep ( but absent anteriorly ) and with few short crenulae ("]}
{"id": 501, "summary": [{"text": "the spiny butterfly ray or giant butterfly ray ( gymnura altavela ) is a species of butterfly ray , family gymnuridae , native to the shallow coastal waters of the atlantic ocean .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "a large ray that can measure over 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) across , it may be distinguished from the sympatric smooth butterfly ray ( g. micrura ) by the spine at the base of its tail and by a small tentacular structure on the margin of each spiracle .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "slow-reproducing and valued for its meat , in recent decades its population has experienced a decline of over 30 % , and it has become critically endangered in certain parts of its range . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "spiny butterfly ray", "paragraphs": ["rays of paradise : ecology and distribution of spiny butterfly ray in gran canaria , canary island .\nthe juvenile spiny butterfly ray has paler skin , which darkens to brown as it matures ( 4 ) .\nthe spiny butterfly ray may be infected by parasites , most notably by the tapeworm anthobothrium altavelae ( 7 ) .\nthe spiny butterfly ray reproduces annually . this species is ovoviviparous , and the gestation period lasts between four and nine months . the litter size of the spiny butterfly ray is between two and eight , depending on location ( 1 ) .\nthe spiny butterfly ray is less threatened in us waters , where fishing levels are are lower . however , in the mediterranean sea , there is much higher demand for the spiny butterfly ray\u2019s meat . it is now so rare in the mediterranean , the spiny butterfly ray has been absent from the mediterranean international trawl survey ( medits ) records since they began in 1994 ( 1 ) .\ndespite the rapidly declining numbers of the spiny butterfly ray , there are currently no specific conservation management programmes in place , and intensive trawling continues throughout this species\u2019 range . however , the spiny butterfly ray is fully protected in the banc d ' arguin national park in mauritania . monitoring of spiny butterfly ray populations and protection in areas where it is heavily fished are needed ( 1 ) .\nthe spiny butterfly ray is patchily distributed across continental shelf waters of the mediterranean sea ( mceachran and fechhelm 1998 , serena 2005 ) .\nthe spiny butterfly ray can be found over sandy and muddy sea floors in shallow coastal waters , normally around depths of 50 to 55 metres . its patchy distribution means that the spiny butterfly ray is abundant in some areas , and scarcely found in others ( 1 ) .\nsuresh tv , raffi sm . pectoral fin anomalies in the long - tailed butterfly ray ,\nexpand the existing knowledge of the spiny butterfly rain the canary islands , focusing on the island of gran canaria .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - spiny butterfly ray ( gymnura altavela )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - spiny butterfly ray ( gymnura altavela )\ntitle =\narkive species - spiny butterfly ray ( gymnura altavela )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nalong the coast of west africa , large mesh bottom gillnets are used to target the spiny butterfly ray in huge numbers . even in protected marine areas , the average size of caught spiny butterfly rays has reduced as larger adults from the population are removed ( 1 ) .\nlittle is known about the biology of the spiny butterfly ray . however , it is known that this species\u2019 sharp pectoral fins are used to stun prey such as crustaceans , molluscs , plankton and small fishes . the spiny butterfly ray also may predate small sharks and squids , and may in turn be preyed upon by larger sharks ( 7 ) .\nhenningsen , a . ( 1998 ) captive husbandry and bioenergetics of the spiny butterfly ray , gymnura altavela ( linnaeus ) . zoo biology , 15 ( 2 ) : 135 - 142 .\nthe complete report is available at biomed central v\u00eda doi 10 . 1186 / s41200 - 016 - 0085 - 7 \u201c morphological and functional abnormality in the spiny butterfly ray gymnura altavela \u201d .\nthe upperparts of the spiny butterfly ray are usually brown to grey , sometimes with reddish - brown shading at the margins of the \u2018wings\u2019 . small dark or light spots and blotches may produce a marbling effect across the back . the colouration of the spiny butterfly ray , along with its wide , flat , disc - shaped body enable it to effectively camouflage itself in sand beds ( 5 ) ( 6 ) . the underside is generally white , brown or rosy - coloured . the spiny butterfly ray has a blunt snout , and the jaws contain many rows of teeth ( 4 ) ( 5 ) .\nthe spiny butterfly ray is under great pressure from fishing in the canary islands , a paradise in the atlantic ocean . david will work with citizen scientists to expand our knowledge about the lives of these vulnerable rays .\na female spiny butterfly ray g . altavela with an unfused anterior part of the right pectoral fin to the neurocranium was observed in the port of sardina del norte ( gran canaria island ) during a visual scuba diving census .\nintense fishing in the southwest atlantic , particularly around the coast of brazil has led to declines in spiny butterfly ray populations . in 23 years , the percentage of trawl catches has reduced by an estimated 99 percent ( 1 ) .\nthe spiny butterfly ray gymnura altavela is one of 10 species of butterfly rays known worldwide ( 1 ) . this species has a broad distribution range and is present along the eastern and western coast of the atlantic ocean , including the mediterranean sea , the black sea and the madeira and canary islands ( 2 ) .\nthe spiny butterfly ray ( gymnura altavela ) gets its name from its wide , characteristically wing - like pectoral fins , and its short , sharp tail , which has serrated spines on both sides , used to stun prey ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .\nthe first case of a morphologic abnormality in the spiny butterfly ray is reported for an individual in the canary islands . this is also the first time that an anomaly is reported for an elasmobranch species in its natural environment and for this class of fishes in the canary islands .\nthe exact causes for the anomaly are unknown to us , but they might have a genetic origin or due to an obstruction during the embryonic development . however , there is insufficient knowledge about the early development processes of butterfly rays and the factors that can affect it . no matter how , the reported case is remarkable for its striking similarity with the one from a butterfly ray species from india ; the long - tailed butterfly ray g . poecilura .\nthis ray can be distinguished from the spiny butterfly ray ( g . altavela ) by the absence of both a tentacle like structure protruding from the inner posterior margin of the spiracle and a caudal fin spine . the absence of a tail spine and the presence of a keel on the upper surface of the tail separates g . micrura from g . hirundo .\nthe smooth butterfly ray prefers neritic waters of the continental shelf and is usually found on soft bottoms . this species is known to enter brackish estuaries or hyper - saline lagoons .\nspotted eagle ray\nflying\nthrough open waters . image courtesy national park service\ncommon english names for this species include : lesser butterfly ray , diamond skate , butterfly ray , short - tailed lesser butterfly ray , and skeete . other names include arraia ( portuguese ) , gladde vlinderrog ( dutch ) , korthalet sommerfuglerokke ( danish ) , kr\u00eddloun hladk\u00fd ( czech ) , mot\u00fdlovec hladk\u00fdpari ( czech ) , gampret ( malay ) , perhosrausku ( finnish ) , raie - papillon glabre ( french ) , raya guayanesa ( spanish ) , raya mariposa menor ( spanish ) , togenashi - tsubakuro - ei ( japanese ) , and uge - borboleta ( portuguese ) .\nsimilar species sharing distribution ranges with the spotted eagle ray include the southern eagle ray ( myliobatis goodei ) and the bullnose ray ( m . freminvillii ) . the southern eagle ray has a dorsal fin originating well behind the level of the rear edges of the pelvic fins while this fin originates just behind the pelvic fin insertion point in the spotted eagle ray . in contrast , the bullnose ray has a dorsal fin origin close to the level of the rear margins of the pelvic fins . also the bullnose ray is absent from the gulf of mexico and the majority of the caribbean sea . the coloration of both of the southern eagle ray and the bullnose ray ranges from a uniform gray to reddish - brown with diffuse white spots on the dorsal surface . another species that closely resembles the spotted eagle ray is the longheaded eagle ray ( aetobatus flagellum ) . however the uniform coloration of the dorsal side of the longheaded eagle easily distinguishes it from spotted eagle ray which has a spot pattern on the topside of its body .\nan adult female spiny butterfly ray with an incomplete developed rostrum was observed in the port of sardina ( g\u00e1ldar , gran canaria ) during 2 consecutive years . this anomaly was caused by the by the lack of fusion of its right pectoral fin to the cranium , leaving an opening in the anterior part of the disc which is normally closed .\noccasionally spiny butterfly rays attend the organized ray feeds at los gigantes on tenerife ( where the featured specimen was seen ) . los gigantes diving offers freestyle feeds once or twice per week . the divemaster takes a huge barrel of fish scraps to 60ft and offers them to the eagerly gathering ray species . after a while the human participants usually help themselves to some fish and wander off to interact with the rays on their own . the feed can be rather chaotic but the ray action is almost guaranteed . attending species include common eagle rays , common stingrays , roughtail rays , round stingrays and occasionally angel sharks , butterfly rays , and marbled torpedo rays .\nthe spiny butterfly ray has a very patchy distribution in the coastal tropical and temperate waters of the atlantic ocean , the mediterranean and the black sea . this species can be found in areas on both sides of the atlantic , in the western coastal waters of north and south america , and in eastern coastal waters from portugal to angola ( 1 ) .\na variety of abnormalities have been described for sharks , rays and skates across different ecoregions . morphological and functional anomalies in these species , however , were not yet documented in distributions from the canary islands , the spiny butterfly ray gymnura altavela ( linnaeus , 1758 ) and from in situ observations . the aim of the present study is to fill these knowledge gaps .\nreports of cases with disorders in elasmobranch species from the canary islands , the spiny butterfly ray gymnura altavela ( linnaeus , 1758 ) and from in situ observations were not collected so far . in this sense , the present communication is a novel report of an abnormality in an elasmobranch species in this region based on data from g . altavela during a visual scuba diving census .\nbloch and schneider first described the smooth butterfly ray in 1801 . the genus gymnura of the currently accepted scientific name is derived from the greek word gymnos meaning naked . synonyms for gymnura micrura include pteroplatea micrura , raja micrura and gymnura micura .\nthe spotted eagle ray is a popular display aquarium specimen and is often seen in public aquaria facilities .\nthis is a small ray that does not possess a spine . therefore it represents little danger to humans .\nlays motionless for much of the time under a thin covering of sand . butterfly ray footprints or beds ( indentations left in the sand ) can often be seen days after the animal has moved on . feeds on fishes , crustaceans , mollusks and plankton .\nspotted eagle ray subrostral lobe and spiracles ( left ) and pelvic fins and tail base . image \u00a9 george burgess\nspotted eagle ray : notice the ringed color pattern across the dorsal surface . image courtesy florida keys national marine sanctuary\nspotted eagle ray dentition : open mouth showing tooth bands and floor and roof of mouth . image \u00a9 cathleen bester\nbennet sp . on an abnormal ray from vizhinjam . j mar biol assoc india . 1964 ; 6 : 316\u20137 .\nthe spiny butterfly ray was listed in appendix ii of the barcelona convention . parties to the barcelona convention agreed in 2012 that all elasmobranch species listed in annex ii of the protocol concerning specially protected areas and biological diversity in the mediterranean sea ( which includes recommendation gfcm / 36 / 2012 / 1 ) cannot be retained on board , transshipped , landed , transferred , stored , sold or displayed or offered for sale , and must be released unharmed and alive , to the extent possible .\nthe dorsal surface of this ray varies greatly in color , either gray , brown , or light green . photo \u00a9 christina conrath\novoviviparous . 4 - 7 embryos . gestation lasts for about 6 months . once the unborn spiny butterfly rays have completely used up the reserves in the yolk sac , the mother secretes uterine milk . long villi ( filaments ) grow from the uterus walls into the embryo ' s spiracles . milk can then be directed more efficiently into the embryo ' s mouth and throat .\nguida l , walker ti , reina rd . first record of a bicephalic chondrichthyan found in australian waters ; the southern fiddler ray ,\neaswaran cr . on an abnormal ray from the gulf of kutch . j mar biol assoc india . 1967 ; 9 ( 1 ) : 198\u2013200 .\ndenticles the smooth skin surface of the spotted eagle ray lacks denticles and thorns . the tail spines are not smooth , but instead have lateral teeth and a barbed tip .\nthe smooth butterfly ray is found in the western and eastern atlantic ocean and in the gulf of mexico . in the western atlantic it occurs from maryland to brazil . it occurs in the gulf of mexico and northern south america to brazil . it also occurs in the eastern atlantic off the coasts of senegal , gambia , sierra leone , cameroon and democratic republic of the congo ( to the mouth of congo river ) .\nmetin g , i\u0307lkyaz at , kinacigil ht . morphologic deformation in a ray : a case report . turk j vet anim sci . 2009 ; 33 ( 3 ) : 261\u20133 .\nlittle is known of the spiny butterfly ray ' s biology . maximum size may reach 400 cm dw , but usually up to 200 cm dw ( stehmann 1981 ) . size at maturity is reported as 155 cm dw in males and 102 cm dw in females ( daiber and booth 1960 ) . reproduction is aplacental yolk - sac viviparous , with one to three pups per litter in the mediterranean sea ( tortonese 1956 ) . it reproduces annually and reported gestation time is four to nine months ( capap\u00e9 et al . 1992 ) . size at birth ranges from 38\u201344 cm dw ( bigelow and schroeder 1953 , mceachran and carvalho 2002 ) . generation length is inferred from similar species as approximately six to seven years .\ngallagher mj , nolan cp , jeal f ( 2004 ) age , growth and maturity of the commercial ray species from the irish sea . j northwest atl fish sci 35 : 47\u201366 .\nfood habits clams , oysters , shrimp , octopus , squid and sea urchins as well as bony fishes provide prey for the spotted eagle ray . this ray is well adapted with its shovel - shaped snout and duck - like bill for searching in the mud for benthic invertebrates . when a prey item is found , the ray crushes it with its plate - like teeth and uses the papillae located in the mouth to separate the shells from the flesh . upon scientific observation , the stomach contents of spotted eagle rays contained intact prey items lacking any remnants of shells .\n, a new genus and species of electric ray from the east coast of south africa ( rajiformes : torpedinoidei : narkidae ) , with a review of torpedinoid taxonomy . smithiana bull 7 : 15\u201319 .\nthe spotted eagle ray is commonly observed in bays and over coral reefs as well as the occasional foray into estuarine habitats . although it occurs in inshore waters to depths of approximately 200 feet ( 60 m ) , the spotted eagle ray spends most of its time swimming in schools in open water . in open waters , spotted eagle rays often form large schools and swim close to the surface . it is known to swim long distances across open waters as evidenced by its presence in bermuda . this species is capable of leaping completely out of the water when pursued . it swims by\nflying\ngracefully through the water via the undulation of the pectoral fins . when this ray is caught and taken out of the water , it produces loud sounds . although much research is still needed on the life history of the spotted eagle ray , it is known that this species shows high site fidelity ( individuals often stay in or return to the same location ) . this ray also interacts socially with other individuals within its own species .\nthe spotted eagle ray is considered of minor commercial fisheries importance . presently , fishing grounds are primarily found within inshore surface waters throughout this species range . methods of capture include trawls , trammelnets , and longlines . it is also fished as a gamefish and provides a good fight when captured on a line . this ray is rarely eaten due to the poor quality of the flesh . instead , it is used for fishmeal and oil .\nthe spotted eagle ray is distributed worldwide in tropical and warm temperate waters . in the western atlantic ocean , it is found in waters off north carolina and florida ( u . s . ) , gulf of mexico , caribbean and bermuda south to brazil . this ray can be found from mauritania to angola in the eastern atlantic ocean . in the indo - west pacific , it occurs in the red sea and from south africa to hawaii , including north to japan and south to australia . the spotted eagle ray also resides in the waters of the eastern pacific ocean from the gulf of california south to puerto pizarro , peru , including the galapagos islands ( ecuador ) .\ncapap\u00e9 c , ali m , saad a , reynaud c . tail abnormalities in thornback ray raja clavata ( chondrichthyes : rajidae ) from the coast of syria ( eastern mediterranean ) . cah biol mar . 2015b ; 56 ( 2 ) : 155\u201361 .\nthis is a broad , diamond - shaped ray with a very short tail lacking a dorsal spine and a protruding snout . the front edges of the disk are concave . the tail has low dorsal and ventral finfolds and three to four dark crossbars .\npredators sharks , including the silvertip shark ( carcharhinus albimarginatus ) and great hammerhead ( sphyrna mokarran ) , are predators of the spotted eagle ray . sharks have also been reported to follow spotted eagle rays during the birthing season , feeding on newborn pups .\nparasites trematodes , including thaumatocotyle pseudodasybatis , commonly infect the skin of the spotted eagle ray . clemacotyle australis was reported in the branchial cavity of an individual caught in australian waters and decacotyle octona n . comb was found on the gills on another individual .\nthis diamond - shaped ray is much wider than it is long , usually 3 to 4 feet wide , and its short tail lacks the ray ' s usual spine . it can vary from light brown to gray to greenish , with lighter or darker spots , and can manipulate its shading to blend better into its background . it is tolerant of a variety of salt content , from brackish river mouths to highly saline lagoons , as long as there is a muddy or sandy bottom to hunt small fish and invertebrates .\nacanthobothrium monski n . sp . and a . nicoyaense n . sp . , both tapeworms , also parasitize the spotted eagle ray . in addition , a marine leech , branchellion torpedinis , has been recorded on the pelvic fins of a specimen from venezuelan waters .\nhistorically , the spiny butterfly ray was not uncommon in the catch of demersal trawl and set net fisheries throughout the mediterranean sea , the southern part in particular . it is still regularly present in some parts of the southern and eastern mediterranean sea ( bariche 2012 ) . there have been no records of the species from the medits surveys since 1994 ( baino et al . 2001 ) , indicating that it is perhaps absent from most of the northern mediterranean sea . the cod - end mesh size of the medits gear of 20 mm is sufficient to catch this species , and the surveys occur throughout its depth range and habitat - type , ruling out the possibility that it may not be susceptible to this survey equipment . occasional specimens turn up in the catch of demersal fisheries ; for example , one adult male was captured recently near anzio , italy ( psomadakis et al . 2005 ) and another specimen in the southern adriatic sea in 2000 ( dulcic et al . 2003 ) , confirming that it is not yet locally extinct in the central mediterranean sea .\n, bishop ray , bonnet skate , duckbill ray , eagle ray , lady ray , leopard ray , mottled eagle ray , skate , spotted bonnetray , spotted duckbill ray , spotted stingray , spotted eagleray , spotted whipray , sunfish , whip , whip ray , and white - spotted eagle ray . other common names include aigle de mer ( french ) , arendskoprog ( dutch ) , arraia - morcego ( portuguese ) , arraia - pintada ( portuguese ) , bagtau ( bikol ) , banagun ( bikol ) , banagon ( bikol ) , bolad ( marathi ) , bulik ( cebuano ) , chili ( oriya ) , chucho ( spanish ) , chucho pintado ( spanish ) , chuchu agila ( papiamento ) , curooway - tiriki ( tamil ) , dalimanok ( tagalog ) , eel - tenkee ( telugu ) , faaiy ( carolinian ) , fai manu ( tahitian ) , fai sikota ( tongan ) , fai - manu ( samoan ) , gavilan pintado ( spanish ) , gefleckter adlerrochen ( german ) , gevlekte adelaarsrog ( dutch ) , gharabi ( arabic ) , imil ( marshallese ) , jimojo ( marshallese ) , kakkathirandi ( malayam ) , kipungu ( swahili ) , kurivi thirukai ( tamil ) , lamburu jangang ( makassarese ) , leik - kyauh - sun ( burmese ) , leopardrocka ( swedish ) , madara - tobi - ei ( japanese ) , madi ( mahl ) , maylan ( somali ) , narinari ( portuguese ) , nek yorany ( kumak ) , obispo ( spanish ) , orlen centkowany ( polish ) , pagi ( tagalog ) , paging paul ( tagalog ) , papagaio ( portuguese ) , pari burung ( malay ) , pari lang ( malay ) , pe manuk ( ( javanese ) , pintada ( portuguese ) , pungo piju ( ( swahili ) , raia - chita ( portuguese ) , raia - leopardo ( portuguese ) , raie chauve - souris ( french ) , raie noire ( french ) , ramak - e - khaldar ( farsi ) , ratau ponteado ( portuguese ) , raya ( spanish ) , raya aguila ( spanish ) , rayo pico de pato ( spanish ) , spikkel - arendrog ( afrikaans ) , taachui ( swahili ) , tagabobon ( banton ) , taligmanok ( bikol ) , tiss ( arabic ) , tubaq ( arabic ) , vai tonotono ( fijian ) , vali lovo ( gela ) , vaval ( malayalam ) , wakawa ( spanish ) , and walbuulbul ( spanish ) .\nthe spotted eagle ray has a very angular disc and a long , broad snout with a v - shaped internasal flap . the ventrally located mouth is well - adapted for feeding on benthic prey . the flattened body disc is broad and short , measuring about twice as wide as long .\ncoloration the dorsal surface of this ray is gray , brown or light green , dotted and vermiculated with paler and darker spots . the tail has three to four dark crossbars . the ventral surface is white . this species has some ability to adapt it ' s shade to that of the bottom .\nit might be expected that the feeding strategies and diets of species within the torpedinoidei would be similar . these differences with respect to the type of prey targeted presumably relates to whether a ray species relies on its electric organs to subdue potential prey , or can forage effectively without recourse to producing electrical discharges .\nthe spotted eagle ray was originally described in 1790 as raja narinari ( euphrasen 1790 ) . the name was changed to stoasodon narinari and later to the currently valid name aetobatus narinari ( euphrasen , 1790 ) . the genus name aetobatus is derived from the greek aetos meaning\neagle\nand batis meaning\nray\n. synonyms referring to this species in past scientific literature include raia quinqueaculeata quoy and gaimard 1824 , myliobatis eeltenkee r\u00fcppell , 1837 , myliobatis macroptera mcclelland 1841 , and aetobatis latirostris dum\u00e9ril , 1861 . a . narinari , sometimes considered a species complex rather than a single species , is currently under review .\nsize , age , and growth the spotted eagle ray reaches a maximum length of 8 . 2 feet ( 2 . 5 m ) not including the tail , with the total length including an unbroken tail reaching close to 16 . 4 feet ( 5 m ) . the maximum disc width is 9 . 8 feet ( 3 m ) and maximum published weight is 507 pounds ( 230 kg ) .\nat 3 . 90 ( \u00b10 . 12 ) the mean t l for the torpedinoidei was slightly higher than that of the myliobatoidei ( table 3 ) . at the family level the torpedinidae ( t l = 4 . 24 ) and hypnidae ( t l = 4 . 21 ) had the highest t l values of this study ; the subfamily mobulinae had the lowest average t l value at 3 . 25 ( table 3 ) . the majority of species in the myliobatoidei and torpedinoidei ( 84 % , 63 spp . ) were identified as secondary consumers with a t l of < 4 . 0 ; the majority of which had a t l value of between 3 . 50 and 3 . 99 ( table s1 ) . the remaining 12 species ( 16 % ) were identified as tertiary consumers ( t l values \u22654 . 0 ) and included species from the families gymnuridae ( n = 4 ) , torpedinidae ( n = 3 ) , dasyatidae ( n = 2 ) , potamotrygonidae ( n = 2 ) , and hypnidae ( n = 1 ) . the longheaded eagle ray aetobatus flagellum ( bloch & schneider , 1801 ) and the largespot river stingray potamotrygon falkneri castex & maciel , 1963 had the lowest individual trophic level value of the study at t l = 3 . 10 . the australian butterfly ray g . australis and two species of torpedo had the highest individual t l value of 4 . 24 ( table s1 ) .\ndietary studies involving the myliobatoidei and torpedinoidei are often restricted to individual species with interspecific comparisons focusing principally on results obtained from shared analytical techniques i . e . comparisons of index of relative importance ( i ri ) values . as a consequence , there is limited understanding of how the diets of ray species relate to each other and to the diets of other marine predators . the following study provides standardised dietary compositions and t l estimates for a wide range of species from the suborders myliobatoidei and torpedinoidei . designed to augment previous studies [ 1 ] \u2013 [ 3 ] , the results obtained provide a significant contribution to the overall understanding of what trophic levels elasmobranchs occupy and how these relate to other marine predators . the study also provides a comprehensive overview of the available dietary data for each of the suborders and represents the first detailed t l analysis involving multiple electric ray species .\nhabitat , biology , and fisheries : butterfly rays are cosmopolitan in tropical and warm - temperate waters , usually inhabiting sandy and muddy bottoms in shallow coastal waters , including estuaries and river mouths . benthic in shallow water to 55 m . because they have very short tails compared to whiptailed stingrays ( dasyatidae ) , they pose little threat to people ( some species even lack a caudal serrated spine ) . they are viviparous without placenta and feed primarily on crustaceans and clams . species are often caught in bottom gill nets . large specimens are marketed fresh and salted . dorsal surface dark brown to lighter brown , with small darker or lighter spots and blotches scattered on disc ; ventrally creamy white .\nreproduction mating behavior often includes the pursuit of a female by one or more males . these males grab her dorsum with their upper tooth plate . one male then grasps the edge of the female ' s pectoral fin and rolls to her ventral side . the male then inserts a clasper into the female ray . the actual mating lasts 30 - 90 seconds while the pair are positioned venter - to - venter . females have been observed to mate in this manner with up to four males over a short time period .\nin comparison to the previous studies of shark and skate diets [ 1 ] , [ 2 ] , rays of the myliobatoidei and torpedinoidei averaged 1 . 69\u00b10 . 12 dietary studies per species compared to 2 . 98\u00b10 . 24 for sharks [ 1 ] and 2 . 07\u00b10 . 23 for skates [ 2 ] . the difference in study effort is also markedly different , with the majority of ray species\u2019 diets characterised through a single study and a maximum of five dietary studies for a single species ( d . pastinaca ) . this is in contrast to nine studies for both the thornback skate raja clavata linnaeus , 1758 and thorny skate amblyraja radiata ( donovan , 1808 ) and 17 for the spiny dogfish squalus acanthias linnaeus , 1758 [ 1 ] , [ 2 ] . similarly , the maximum number of stomachs sampled for a single species was 1 , 265 for d . pastinaca ( current study ) ; compared with 19 , 259 for s . acanthias [ 1 ] and 19 , 738 for the little skate leucoraja erincea ( mitchill , 1825 ) [ 2 ] . it is noted though that all three studies contained a relatively high proportion of species with samples of fewer than 100 stomachs ; 42 . 7 % , present study ; 51 . 0 % sharks [ 1 ] ; 38 . 3 % , skates [ 2 ] .\nthe pelvic fins are narrowly rounded and the dorsal fin is small with its origin just posterior to the pelvic fin insertion point . there is no caudal fin on the spotted eagle ray . the tail is very long and whip - like , reaching lengths of 2 . 5 - 3x the width of the disc when undamaged . the stinging spines , originating just behind the dorsal fin , are short and number from 2 - 6 . they have a barbed tip and recurved lateral teeth along with a forked root . these venomous spines can deliver a nasty sting when used in defense against potential threats .\nthis ray is a bycatch of coastal demersal fisheries but not targeted . towards the end of the 20 th century , benthic trawl effort in the mediterranean sea increased both numerically and technologically . for example , the gulf of lions area was initially exploited by small - scale benthic trawl fisheries comprising 27 small low - powered boats ( total nominal horse power of 2 , 700 hp ) , but effort increased seven - fold to a total of 19 , 940 hp between 1974 and 1987 . following this , half of the benthic trawl fishing effort was displaced to target small pelagic fishes ( aldebert 1997 ) . the adriatic sea is subject to trawling mainly by italian , croatian , slovenian , and albanian fleets but landings data are not available ( jukic - peladic et al . 2001 ) . coastal development , pollution , and anthropogenic disturbance through tourism activities are also a threat to the shallow coastal habitat of this species .\nthe standardised diets of most species ( 56 . 0 % ) were characterised by use of a single dietary data set , with a further 26 . 7 % based on two data sets ( table 2 ) . the standardised diet of the common stingray dasyatis pastinaca ( linnaeus , 1758 ) was based on the highest number of dietary studies ( n = 5 ) and the largest stomach sample size ( n = 1265 , table s1 ) . the common eagle ray myliobatis aquila ( linnaeus , 1758 ) was the only other species whose standardised diet was based on analysis of over 1000 stomachs . six species ( 8 . 0 % ) had 500\u20131000 stomach samples ; 35 species ( 46 . 7 % ) between 100 and 500 stomachs , 32 species ( 42 . 7 % ) had fewer than 100 stomachs and the standardised diet of nine species were based on less than 20 stomachs . a full species list including standardised prey contributions and individual t l estimates is provided in table s1 .\nas one of the most beautiful rays , the spotted eagle ray has a dramatic spotted pattern across the dorsal side of the body . the small white , bluish - white , greenish , pearly , or yellow spots are distinct against the black , dark gray , or brown body color . a variation on this pattern includes larger white rings each with a black center , and these rings sometimes join to form lines and circles . the ventral surface is white in color , making it easy to see them underwater as they flap their pectoral fins during swimming . the disc and fin outer margins as well as the tail are darkly shaded or black . the tail has a white base and in freshly caught specimens , there may be crossbars on the tail . the upper sides of the pelvic fins are a similar color to the background color of the body along with dark posterior edges and 6 - 10 spots . the dorsal fin is either uniformly dark or has a blotch on the front edge .\nwhen compared , no significant relationship was observed between t l estimates and the dominate descriptors of body size . a weak , negative correlation was detected between t l and maximum disc width for the myliobatoidei species ( spearman rank correlation coefficient , r s = \u22120 . 1167 , p > 0 . 05 , n = 64 ) . similarly a weak but positive correlation was detected between t l and torpedinoidei total length ( spearman rank correlation coefficient , r s = 0 . 1071 , p > 0 . 05 , n = 8 ) . removal of filter - feeding species from the myliobatoidei sample resulted in a marginal increase in the spearman rank correlation coefficient ( r s = 0 . 1509 , p > 0 . 05 , n = 61 ) . the thorny round stingray urotrygon chilensis ( g\u00fcnther , 1872 ) , dwarf round stingray u . nana miyake & mceachran , 1998 and munda round ray u . munda gill , 1863 were not included in the myliobatoidei analysis due to the unavailability of an accurate measurement of maximum disc width .\ncontinuous feeding , as defined above , is the strategy most frequently employed by stingrays and skates [ 3 ] , [ 35 ] . these species typically ingest prey living on the surface of the substrate or utilise inertial suction to target prey buried in the immediate subsurface layer [ 33 ] , [ 36 ] , with larger species able to ingest larger , more mobile prey [ 37 ] . it is interesting that the diet of species within the narcinidae and narkidae appears to be more consistent with continuous feeding species , whereas species within the torpedinidae and hypnidae have a prey contribution profile consistent with that of the ambush predators ( table 2 , fig . 1 ) . as all of these species possess two well - developed electrical organs [ 12 ] , [ 38 ] it might be expected that the feeding strategies and diets of species within the torpedinoidei would be similar . these differences with respect to the type of prey targeted presumably relates to whether a ray species relies on its electric organs to subdue potential prey , or can forage effectively without recourse to producing electrical discharges .\nin contrast , the principal commercial markets for stingray species in the indo - pacific region tend to be artisinal fisheries [ 29 ] , [ 30 ] . the most notable of these occur in the indonesian archipelago which is home to the largest chondrichthyan fishery in the world [ 31 ] . dietary studies in these areas are often impeded by sampling costs , an inability to obtain fresh samples or an inability to adequately process samples e . g . freeze specimens for subsequent analysis . furthermore , the indonesian archipelago has significant problems with respect to illegal , unreported and unregulated shark and ray fishing activity [ 29 ] . as a consequence , dietary studies have a low priority when compared to the quantification of catch rates , determination of population trends [ 29 ] , [ 31 ] and enhancement of baseline biological information , such as growth rates and reproductive parameters [ 32 ] . while stingrays and electric rays are caught in commercial fisheries in australia , their retention is often limited by legislation or low market demand [ 12 ] , and thus this also affects the availability of specimens . further , the collection of specimens for species that do not form part of a commercial catch is generally time consuming and costly .\nfigure 3 . histological sections of the vesicles of savi on the ventral surface of the lesser electric ray , narcine brasiliensis . a \u2013 vesicles of savi are located in sub - epidermal pouches ( p ) below epidermal ( e ) , stratum spongiosum ( ss ) , stratum compactum ( sc ) and loose connective tissue ( ct ) skin layers . scale bar = 200 \u03bc m . b \u2013 each vesicle of savi consists of a large central neuromast ( cn ) and two smaller peripheral neuromasts ( pn ) , all innervated by nerve fibers ( ne ) . the cupula ( cu ) of the central neuromast is dense with a striated appearance , while the cupula ( arrowhead ) of the smaller peripheral neuromasts is gelatinous and similar in structure to canal neuromast cupulae . scale bar = 200 \u03bc m . c \u2013 vesicles of savi are closely associated with cartilaginous skeletal elements ( cse ) at their base . scale bar = 200 \u03bc m . d \u2013 vesicles of savi are located in distinct rows along the ventral rostrum . lumina of adjacent vesicles ( arrows ) do not appear connected but lie approximately 100 \u03bc m apart below loose connective tissue ( ct ) . scale bar = 200 \u03bc m . ventral side is up .\nfrequency of prey occurrence ( i . e . presence / absence ) , standardised diets and individual t l estimates were calculated for all 75 stingray and electric ray species . an average t l and standardised diet was also calculated for each of the respective families and suborders . calculation of a precision estimate to determine sample size sufficiency for the inclusion of a species in family and suborder level calculations was generally compromised by insufficient information in the source literature [ 2 ] , [ 21 ] . further , restricting the scope of the analyses to studies where sample size had been demonstrated to be sufficient through precision estimates ( i . e . through cumulative prey curves ) [ 21 ] would have resulted in a significant amount of data being omitted from the analysis . given this , the approach taken by cort\u00e9s [ 1 ] and ebert & bizzarro [ 2 ] was adopted with a minimum sample limit of 20 stomachs set for the inclusion of a species in family and order level calculations . the 20 stomach limit has been used successfully in previous elasmobranch trophic level analyses [ 1 ] , [ 2 ] and is designed to enhance the robustness of conclusions drawn and minimise the influence of species with smaller sample sizes [ 1 ] . of the 75 species , 66 had 20 or more stomachs sampled and were subsequently included in the family and suborder average diet and trophic level calculations .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nvooren , c . m . , piercy , a . n . , snelson jr . , f . f . , grubbs , r . d . , notarbartolo di sciara , g . & serena , s .\npatchily distributed in tropical and warm temperate continental shelf waters on the eastern ( portugal to ambriz , angola ) and western ( from massachusetts state , usa ( 42\u00b0n ) to buenos aires province , argentina ( ~ 38\u00b0s ) ) sides of the atlantic ocean , including the mediterranean sea , the black sea and the madeira and canary islands ( mceachran and fechhelm 1998 ) . rarely reported from the gulf of mexico ( mceachran and carvalho 2002 ) . it has a very patchy distribution in the northwest and western atlantic , where it can be locally abundant and appears to be habitat dependent . adults are common in the mouths of tidal creeks along the virginia coast , usa ( musick et al . unpublished data ) . in the 1980s gymnura altavela was common and abundant throughout the year on the continental shelf of southern brazil at depths of 10 to 150 m , being classified as a breeding resident species ( vooren 1997 ) .\nalbania ; algeria ; angola ; argentina ; belize ; benin ; bosnia and herzegovina ; brazil ; cameroon ; colombia ; costa rica ; c\u00f4te d ' ivoire ; croatia ; cyprus ; egypt ; equatorial guinea ; france ; french guiana ; gabon ; gambia ; ghana ; greece ; guinea - bissau ; guyana ; honduras ; israel ; italy ; lebanon ; liberia ; libya ; malta ; mauritania ; mexico ; monaco ; morocco ; nicaragua ; nigeria ; panama ; portugal ; senegal ; sierra leone ; slovenia ; spain ( canary is . ) ; suriname ; syrian arab republic ; togo ; tunisia ; turkey ; united states ; uruguay ; venezuela , bolivarian republic of ; western sahara\na large , locally abundant , but overall unabundant , inshore batoid with a patchy and discontinuous distribution , found in shallow coastal waters over sand and mud generally to depths of 50 to 55 m ( bini 1967 , mceachran and felchman 1998 ) , although it has been recorded from depths of 10 to 150 m off southern brazil ( vooren 1997 ) . little is known of its biology . maximum size is reported as 220 cm disc width ( musick et al . unpub . data ) in the northwest atlantic ; sizes exceeding 400 cm dw reported off the coast of west africa ( bini 1967 ) may be erroneous . size at maturity is reported as 155 cm dw in males and 102 cm dw in females ( daiber and booth 1960 ) . aplacental yolksac viviparous reproduction with litter size varying from 2 to 8 depending on geographic location ( four pups / litter reported by bigelow and schroeder ( 1953 ) and bini ( 1967 ) ; 2 - 6 by capap\u00e9 et al . ( 1992 ) and 1 - 3 by tortonese ( 1956 ) for the mediterranean ; up to five per litter in southern brazil ( vooren unpub . data ) ; and , up to eight by musick et . al . ( unpub . data ) for the northwest atlantic ) . reproduces annually and gestation time is reported as 4 to 9 months ( capap\u00e9 et al . 1992 ) . size at birth is reported as 38 to 44 cm dw ( bigelow and schroeder 1953 , mceachran and carvalho 2002 ) . age at maturity , longevity , average reproductive age , annual rate of population increase and natural mortality are all unknown .\nno species specific management or protection is currently in place for this species , except for in the banc d ' arguin national park , mauritania where it is protected .\nvooren , c . m . , piercy , a . n . , snelson jr . , f . f . , grubbs , r . d . , notarbartolo di sciara , g . & serena , s . 2007 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nat the florida museum of natural history we strive to fulfill our mission of understanding , preserving and interpreting florida ' s biological diversity and cultural heritage . we depend on people like you to help us realize this mission .\nclassified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nfiliz , h and blige , g . ( 2004 ) length - weight relationships of 24 fish species from the north aegean sea , turkey . journal of applied ichthyology , 20 ( 5 ) : 431 - 432 .\ncampbell , a . and dawes , j . ( 2004 ) encyclopedia of underwater life . oxford university press , oxford .\nmceachran , j . d . and fechhelm , j . d . ( 1998 ) fishes of the gulf of mexico : myxiniformes to gasterosteiformes . university of texas press , austin , usa .\nstill pictures ltd . 1 glen cottages sandy lane abbots leigh bristol bs8 3se united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 1275 375 520 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 705 061 3938 research @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\ngreek , gymnos = naked + greek , oura = tail ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; brackish ; demersal ; depth range 5 - 100 m ( ref . 6808 ) . subtropical ; 47\u00b0n - 39\u00b0s , 98\u00b0w - 42\u00b0e\nwestern atlantic : southern new england , usa , brazil ( ref . 7251 ) to argentina ( ref . 58839 ) . eastern atlantic : portugal to ambriz , angola ( including the mediterranean , black sea , and the madeira and canary islands ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 400 cm wd male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3709 ) ; common length : 200 cm wd male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3709 ) ; max . published weight : 60 . 0 kg ( ref . 4699 )\ntail short armed with spine . disk very broad . very low dorsal and ventral finfolds on tail ( ref . 7251 ) . disk dark brown to grayish , lower surface of disc and of pelvic fins white , brownish , rosy or rusty cast . tail white or rosy white below ( ref . 6902 ) .\nmaximum length measured is 140 cm ( ref . 5377 ) . occurs over sand and mud . feeds on fishes , crustaceans , mollusks and plankton . ovoviviparous , gestation lasting about 6 months with 4 to 7 embryos produced per female ( ref . 6676 ) .\nexhibit ovoviparity ( aplacental viviparity ) , with embryos feeding initially on yolk , then receiving additional nourishment from the mother by indirect absorption of uterine fluid enriched with mucus , fat or protein through specialised structures ( ref . 50449 ) . distinct pairing with embrace ( ref . 205 ) .\nbauchot , m . - l . , 1987 . raies et autres batoides . p . 845 - 886 . in w . fischer , m . l . bauchot and m . schneider ( eds . ) fiches fao d ' identificationpour les besoins de la p\u00eache . ( rev . 1 ) . m\u00e8diterran\u00e9e et mer noire . zone de p\u00eache 37 . vol . ii . commission des communaut\u00e9s europ\u00e9ennes and fao , rome . ( ref . 3261 )\n) : 14 . 9 - 27 . 8 , mean 23 . 6 ( based on 860 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01445 ( 0 . 00696 - 0 . 03003 ) , b = 3 . 01 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 21 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 5 \u00b10 . 1 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : very low , minimum population doubling time more than 14 years ( fec 4 - 7 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 51 of 100 ) .\nthe size and the observation of the activities swimming , burying and preying confirmed the adaption of the specimen for the anomaly and underdeveloped electrosensory system in its survival . the limited knowledge of teratogens and their triggering factors , and the striking similarity with an anomaly reported for g . poecilura ( shaw , 1804 ) from south india , suggest genetic expression aberrations or mechanical obstructions during gestation as origin for the disorder .\noccurrences of abnormalities have been widely reported for various elasmobranch species in different ecoregions . records for skates and rays include bicephalism in the magdalena transition ( castro aguirre and torres villegas\n) , aberrant appendages in the patagonian shelf ( deli - antoni et al .\n) , lack of gill - slit and underweight in brackish waters from the tunisian plateau ( el kamel et al .\n) , incomplete rostrum in the southwestern caribbean ( ram\u00edrez - hernandez et al .\n) and have been reported in , e . g the adriatic sea ( valle\nis distributed from tropical to warm temperate continental shelf waters on both sides of the atlantic ocean , including the mediterranean sea , the black sea and the madeira and canary islands . maximum size is assumed to be 200 cm disc width . its limiting life history , patchy and discontinuous distribution , and habitat dependent characteristics make it intrinsically vulnerable to population depletion . this species was classified as \u2018vulnerable\u2019 on the basis of a suspected continuing decline of at least 30 % ( vooren et al .\non 22 and 28 july 2007 , and 6 july 2008 , during underwater visual census in the port of sardina del norte ( 28\u00b009\u2032 n and 15\u00b041\u2032 o ) , gran canaria island , an unusual female individual g . altavela with 137 cm disc width was observed . size , activity , depth , water temperature and behaviour were recorded .\nthe interior margin of the specimens\u2019 right pectoral fin was detached from the braincase and the rostral ridge . it appeared as a free lobe slightly projecting forward from the disc plane , with the lateral margin pointed towards the exterior margin of the disc . the anterior margin of the disc was incomplete from the rostral ridge up to the lateral extreme of the spiracle . at the proximal end , the disc was absent up to the neurocranium , extending from the rostral ridge to behind the posterior margin of the spiracle . epidermis pigmentation was absent at the proximal part of the lobe with a similar appearance , in colour and texture , of the white epidermis from the ventral side ( fig ."]}
{"id": 504, "summary": [{"text": "comber ( / \u02c8k\u0252mb\u0259r / ) ( serranus cabrilla ) , is a species of fish in the family serranidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it lives in the mediterranean sea , the black sea and the atlantic coast from the british isles to the cape of good hope , including the azores , madeira and the canary islands .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the habitat are rocky or sandy sounding-deeps at depths of 0 \u2013 200 metres ( 0 \u2013 656 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "size can vary from 5 \u2013 25 centimetres ( 2.0 \u2013 9.8 in ) in normal individual to up to 40 cm ( 16 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the comber feeds on other fish , cephalopods and crustaceans . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "comber ( fish )", "paragraphs": ["beach comber star fish earring with worn gold plating and faux fresh water pearl .\ncomber , serranus cabrilla . lateral view on ship wreck . azores , portugal .\ngreen wrasse & comber . labrus viridis , serranus cabrilla . couch , print 1862\ncomber gaper ( serranus cabrilla ) swimming through water , callelongue creek , marseille , france .\ncomber ( serranus cabrilla ) swimming in the waters of riou island , moyades , marseille , france .\nalso known as rockcods , cods , hinds , trouts , pointed comber , redfish , lettered perch .\nquinn ' s fish cafe is a locally owned fish & chip sit - in and takeaway . our ethos is to provide you with the highest quality food at it ' s freshest .\nlatin , serran , serranus , saw and a fish of genus serranus ( ref . 45335 )\ndescription : quinn ' s fish cafe is a locally owned fish & chip sit - in and takeaway . our ethos is to provide you with the highest quality food at it ' s freshest .\nthese fish are hermaphrodites and can fertilize themselves . spawning is seasonal and controlled by the moon\u2019s phase .\ncreated to help individuals around the world identify tropical fish found during their scuba dive and snorkelling excursions .\nlovely crisp battered fish and freshly cooked chips . the helpings are huge and served by pleasant staff .\nserranus scriba , the painted comber , is a subtropical marine fish found in the eastern atlantic ocean , the mediterranean sea , and the black sea . confusingly , a synonym of this species is perca marina , but that name ( as sebastes marinus ) has incorrectly been used for a separate species , the rose fish .\na fresh catch of various fish species laying on the bottom of a plastic bucket . lemnos island , greece\ncomber ( serranus cabrilla ) with sea louse ( anilocra sp . ) , cala montg\u00f3 , costa brava , catalonia , spain\nmy family and i got lovely fish and chips out of here , great chip shop , lovely batter and chips where also very nice , came with mushy peas which was a nice extra and offered tartar sauce . good addition to comber take outs .\nsquirrelfish , holocentrus adscensionis , comber , serranus cabrilla , and redcoat , sargocentron rubrum . handcoloured copperplate engraving after an illustration by jean - gabriel pretre from bernard germain de lacepede ' s natural history of oviparous quadrupeds , snakes , fish and cetaceans , eymery , paris , 1825 .\ncomber , serranus cabrilla . swimming in front of diver . is widely distributed in the eastern atlantic and is known from the straits of gibraltar to an\ni have seen lots of this fish almost under every rock along turkey ' s mediterrenean coast . they are so friendly and curious : )\ni had wanted to try quinn ' s for sometime . my grandfathers were both north sea fishermen and i love great fish and chips . when in london i like to go to the north sea fish restaurant near st . pancras which is wonderful but when i am . . .\nmy daughter suggested we try quinn ' s the next time we were in comber . we arrived around 6 . 00 and while the carry out was very busy there were many tables available in the sit - in section . the staff were friendly and attentive . we order two fish and . . .\nthe painted comber spends much of its time in rocky caves . it is usually solitary or in small groups . it comes out of hiding around dusk to feed on various crustaceans , fishes , and worms . indeed , this fish tends to give away a well hidden octopus nest , since it lies in waiting outside the octopus nest to feed on the left - over bits of shellfish .\nthe photo of this painted comber was taken at a depth of 30m outside of the blue hole , a natural feature at dwejra , not far from the famous azure window , on gozo \u2019s west coast .\ncomber , serranus cabrilla ( greenish holocentrus , holocentrus virescens ) . illustration drawn and engraved by richard polydore nodder . handcoloured copperplate engraving from george shaw and frederick nodder ' s the naturalist ' s miscellany , london , 1806 .\nmy wife and i always go here for chips in comber . we make it in at least once a fortnight . great fish , great chicken goujons and brilliant chips ! big portions , too . the beef and bird burger was a force to be reckoned with when i got it . staff are friendly and everything is cooked in front of you - can ; t get fresher than that . see you tomorrow night . . .\nalso known as rockcods , cods , hinds , trouts , pointed comber , redfish and lettered perch . found in murky waters of lagoons and seaward reefs , on rocky bottoms and in seagrass beds . colour varies . they feed on small fish and invertebrates . length - 30cm depth - 5 - 150m widespread eastern atlantic , mediterranean & black sea . sea bass are solitary carnivores that hunt near the bottom usually at dusk . food is drawn into their mouths by a powerful suction when they open their overly large mouths and then swallowed whole . spawning is seasonal and controlled by the moons phase .\nhi ken , many thanks for your review and i ' m glad you enjoyed your fish . i was however disappointed that you found the chips to be poor . i can assure you that we do cook all our food fresh and that the chips you had were . . .\nvery pleasant couple serving excellent fare . fish and mushrooms battered before my eyes , then cooked before being nicely presented on white square plates , with the nice touch of fake newspaper on top . this was actually greaseproof , and had\nheadlines\nabout the caf\u00e9 . sadly , deserted at . . .\nis widely distributed in the eastern atlantic and is known from the straits of gibraltar to angola , madeira and canary and cape verde isalnds , sao tome and prncipe . it also inhabits the mediterranean and black seas , eastern atlantic to british isles , azores , and the red sea . this fish is common and abundant .\ngot a carry out of fish , pastie & chips along with a portion of gravy . the produce was good quality but very greasy , so much so we didn ' t finish what we got and the gravy was really lumpy . if they could sort the grease problem out i think it would be very good . disappointed .\nserranus cabrilla inhabits rocky and soft bottoms from shore to 450 m depth . it feeds on cephalopods , crustaceans and fish ( heemstra and anderson in prep ) . this species is a synchronous hermaphrodite . the spawning season ranges from february to july with a peak in may . it matures at 152 mm ( garcia - diaz et al . 1997 ) .\nserranus scriba grows to a length of 28 centimetres . this grouper has a squat body , a large head and a mouth very large in proportion to the body size . jaws are filled with sharp teeth . the painted comber is orange to red in colour , with bluish to dark brown vertical stripes that are wider and darker towards the tail . the caudal fin is dark yellow to orange , the dorsal fins are yellow with orange dots and lines . the pelvic fins and pectoral fins are usually monochromatic light yellow . the head shows many reddish - brown lines that resemble arabic writing ( hence the latin name of the species ) . on both sides of the abdomen there is a large , bright blue area .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ninhabits rocky and soft bottoms from shore to 450 m depth . this species is caught on hand lines and bottoms trawls . it is used for human consumption as well as fishmeal . there are no major threats at present time and no indication of population declines at either global or regional scales . no species - specific measures are currently in place , however , several marine protected areas are found within its range . it is therefore listed as least concern .\nserranus cabrilla ranges from the straits of gibraltar to angola , madeira and canary and cape verde islands , sao tome and principe . it also inhabits the mediterranean and black seas , eastern atlantic to british isles including the azores and is also know to occur off south africa . possible occurrences in the red sea are mediterranean sea immigrants . this species can be found in waters up to 450 m deep ( heemstra and anderson in press ) and has been recorded from ~ 40 m ( t . iwamoto pers . comm . 2013 ) .\nalbania ; algeria ; angola ; benin ; bosnia and herzegovina ; bulgaria ; cameroon ; cape verde ; congo ; congo , the democratic republic of the ; c\u00f4te d ' ivoire ; croatia ; cyprus ; egypt ; equatorial guinea ; france ( corsica , france ( mainland ) ) ; gabon ; gambia ; georgia ; ghana ; greece ; guernsey ; guinea ; guinea - bissau ; israel ; italy ; jersey ; lebanon ; liberia ; libya ; malta ; mauritania ; monaco ; montenegro ; morocco ; nigeria ; portugal ( azores , madeira , portugal ( mainland ) , selvagens ) ; romania ; russian federation ; sao tom\u00e9 and principe ; senegal ; sierra leone ; slovenia ; south africa ; spain ( baleares , canary is . , spain ( mainland ) , spanish north african territories ) ; syrian arab republic ; togo ; tunisia ; turkey ; ukraine ; united kingdom ; western sahara\nis common and abundant . there are 136 museum records found with a maximum count of 21 individuals in a single lot ( fishnet2 2013 ) .\nserranus cabrilla is caught on handlines and bottoms trawls . it is used for human consumption as well as fishmeal ( heemstra and anderson in press ) . this species is a component of small scale fisheries in parts of its range .\nthere are no major threats at present time and no indication of population declines at either global or regional scales .\nno species specific measures are currently in place , however , several marine protected areas are found within its range ( world database on protected areas 2010 ) .\nsmith - vaniz , w . f . & iwamoto , t . 2015 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 5 - 500 m ( ref . 5506 ) . deep - water ; 57\u00b0n - 35\u00b0s , 32\u00b0w - 36\u00b0e\neastern atlantic : english channel southward round the cape of good hope to natal , south africa ( ref . 4319 ) , including azores , madeira and the canary islands ( ref . 5506 ) . also in the mediterranean and western black sea and possibly in the red sea ( ref . 5506 ) .\nmaturity : l m 17 . 5 range ? - ? cm max length : 40 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5506 ) ; common length : 25 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 36731 )\nfound on the shelf and upper slope on rocks , posidonia beds , sand and mud bottoms ( ref . 5506 ) . feed on fishes , cephalopods and crustaceans ( ref . 27121 ) .\ntortonese , e . , 1986 . serranidae . p . 780 - 792 . in p . j . p . whitehead , m . - l . bauchot , j . - c . hureau , j . nielsen and e . tortonese ( eds . ) fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean . unesco , paris . vol . 2 . ( ref . 5506 )\n) : 11 . 2 - 18 , mean 14 . 4 ( based on 327 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00933 ( 0 . 00811 - 0 . 01073 ) , b = 2 . 98 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 02 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 \u00b10 . 3 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 0 . 1 - 0 . 3 ; tmax = 6 ) .\nprior r = 0 . 93 , 2 sd range = 0 . 49 - 1 . 77 , log ( r ) = - 0 . 07 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 32 , based on : 1 m , 15 k , 3 tmax , records\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 36 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwe ' ve sent an email to please follow the instructions to reset your password .\nenter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .\nif is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .\nthe genus serranus belongs to the family serranidae ( the family of groupers and sea basses ) , order perciformes , class actinopterygii , phylum chordata and kingdom animalia .\nelysia timida , the green elysia , is a species of sacoglossan sea slug , a marine opisthobranch gastropod mollusk endemic to the . . .\nbothus podas , the wide - eyed flounder , is a type of flatfish and is native to the mediterranean sea and the eastern . . .\nastropecten aranciacus , the red comb starfish , is a type of sea star and is native to the mediterranean sea and . . .\ndie gruppe um stephania und brian ist echt super . wir hatten eine woche mit h\u00f6hen und tiefen aber waren hier echt super gut aufgehoben und betreut . ich komme gerne wieder . super gutes team und echt sch\u00f6ne tauchpl\u00e4tze .\nprofessional , attention to every detail , friendly , helpful where needed . thank you for the 2 amazing dives guys at the blue hole and the reqqa point . special thanks to dennis , dennis - dennis , georgia & stephania !\ni was there a couple of years ago . diving with brian was just like diving with a good friend .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 atlantis diving center . all rights reserved . privacy policy | terms & conditions | refund policy\noctober 06 , 2014 at 06 : 18 am - 1 person found this useful .\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\nquinn ' s is a real treat . the shop is always immaculate , the staff are friendly and welcoming , and the food is always of the highest quality .\nwe had the cod and chips . great service , friendly staff and lovely food , what more do you want from a chip shop .\nfriendly and fast service . . . portion size large and could be shared easily . . . would recommend this for a tasty treat . and try the fried mars bars . . .\nlove this very clean professional restaurant . the staff are very friendly and the service is excellent . love the pasties they are fantastic and the chips the best . we love sitting in as a family such a treat !\nfriendly staff and warm welcome . order was taken quickly . food was lovely and would come back here anytime .\nhad never eaten here but this will be our first choice for a chippy tea from now on . we sat in . the food was cooked to order so we expected a bit of a wait and didn ' t mind . the service was good and the . . .\nmany thanks for your review ! we ' re glad you enjoyed your meal . look forward to seeing you again soon ! stuart\nafter a long saterday working decided i wanted a chippy . called in here for the 1st time in a while . shop was busy , service was with a smile and the guy working the fryer ' s went out of his way to do me exactly what i . . .\nhi glenn , many thanks for your review . i ' m glad you enjoyed your kebab ! hope to see you again soon ! thanks again stuart ( the guy working the fryer ' s )\nnote : your question will be posted publicly on the questions & answers page .\nown or manage this property ? claim your listing for free to respond to reviews , update your profile and much more . claim your listing\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content .\ntake a look at what you can get upgrading to our premium dictionary for a very low fee . click here for premium dictionary preview\nthis word is part of our premium dictionary version contents . these contents include thousands of difficult , technical , and special - use words and word phrases , including their translations , synonyms and definitions .\nfor a very low fee , gain access to these contents and to the vast lexicon of word magic software , completely ad - free .\nword usage ( idiomatic , slang , colloquial , figurative , formal , etc . . )\nthank you for subscribing to the free trial . please check your email and click on the confirmation link to start your trial .\nthere was an error when trying to login . please be sure to have an active account with us .\nthe email entered is not valid . please enter a valid format email like [ email protected ]\nwelcome to the trial version of our premium online dictionary . you have now limited access to our vast dictionary - engine . enjoy it and make the best use of it ! for full dictionary feature use , register to our premium online dictionary .\nwe must explain that this free online bilingual dictionary includes all : word magic dictionary & tools professional ( general reference english - spanish bilingual dictionary ) , our unabridged medical dictionary , the law dictionary , the business & finance dictionary and the computer & it dictionary . you can purchase these separately to install in your pc and also as add - ons for your microsoft word and excel . click here to purchase our general dictionary pack , which includes images , definitions and usage examples .\nthe online bilingual dictionary application here provided is a free service of word magic software inc . you will find that it is the most complete online bilingual and bidirectional english - spanish dictionary on the web , showing not only direct translations but synonyms , complete definitions , set phrases , idioms , proverbs , usage examples , famous quotes and compound entries as well , all related to your entry word . on top of that , it offers english and spanish pronunciation , separation into syllables and grammar attributes . it also accepts conjugated verbs and spanish feminine and plural forms as valid entries .\nthe advantage of acquiring them as your personal software is that you will enjoy a better , even friendlier interface with many , many more features including word tagging , bilingual verb conjugation , double - window synonyms , idiom search facilities plus a unique collection of 40 , 000 color pictures associated with noun entries .\nenter conjugated entries , even spanish enclitic verb conjugations ( i . e . hazlo ; c\u00f3metelo , etc . )\nwe offer you several types of english - spanish translators , the best of which combine automatic , context - sensitive translation plus interactive , user - guided translation . our top version , the translator professional plus 5 , comprises the following features : images for easier meaning selection , a translation options module using a multiple - choice wizard that lets you choose among all possible variations for your translation , voice recognition for dictation capabilities and voice commands that allow you to call out the tasks you need without using mouse or keyboard . download a test trial version below !\n* english definitions from : wordnet 2 . 0 copyright 2003 by princeton university . all rights reserved .\nif you need english to spanish or spanish to english translation software , dictionaries or professional translation services , you ' ve come to the right place .\ni have got a take away a few times from here . the food is nice and reasonable . the few times i have been in have waiting abit long especially when ur the only one else in\nhi , thank you for taking the time to send us a review . i am really sorry that your visit didn ' t quite match your expectations . we appreciate your comments and have taken everything on board . we pride ourselves on the quality of our food and value every customer ' s feedback . if you could contact me on 02891874557 i would like to discuss your concerns with you and rectify them . ( sorry this reply has taken a while , i didn ' t know we were on tripadvisor ) . regards , stuart\nown or manage this property ? claim your listing for free to respond to reviews , update your profile and much more ."]}
{"id": 509, "summary": [{"text": "stephensia brunnichella is a moth of the elachistidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is widespread throughout europe .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "in the north , the distribution extends up to southern sweden and finland and in the east it ranges as far as asia minor and the crimea .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the wingspan is 8 \u2013 9 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the larvae feed on calamintha nepeta , clinopodium vulgare and satureja calamintha .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they mine the leaves of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the mine starts as a long , narrow , full depth gallery running toward the leaf tip .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the frass is found in a narrow central line .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "after reaching the leaf tip , the mine becomes a large , full depth , brown blotch .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "here , the frass is deposited in black lumps .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the larvae may vacate the mine and start elsewhere .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "larvae of the first generation hibernate in the mine .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "pupation takes place outside of the mine , in a white spinning , mostly between the leaves of the host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the larvae have a greenish body with a black head .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they can be found from autumn to april and again in july . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "stephensia brunnichella", "paragraphs": ["stephensia brunnichella ( basil dwarf ) - norfolk micro moths - the micro moths of norfolk .\nphalaena brunnichella linnaeus , 1767 . syst . nat . ( ed . 12 ) 1 : 898 . stephensia brunnichella ( linnaeus , 1767 ) .\nenter the name or part of a name you wish to search for . the asterisk character * can be used as wildcard . e . g . ' papilio * ' . keep in mind that the search is only based on the full taxon name .\nwe are still having problems with the search feature . unfortunately we cannot give a timeline when the advanced search will be fixed .\nthe id resolving service for stable taxon ids is currently under maintenance . meanwhile , please use the name search in order to find the taxon page .\nmuseum f\u00fcr naturkunde leibniz - institut f\u00fcr evolutions - und biodiversit\u00e4tsforschung invalidenstr . 43 10115 berlin germany e - mail : fauna - eu ( at ) mfn - berlin . de website : urltoken\nif you would like to help ukmoths by writing a short description for this species , it would be very much appreciated .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 07 - 05 04 : 17 : 01 page render time : 0 . 2518s total w / procache : 0 . 2897s\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\negg at the underside of the leaf , in the basal part , near the midrib . the mine begins as a long , narrow , full depth gallery running towards the leaf tip ; frass here in a narrow central line . after the leaf tip has been reached a large , full depth , brown blotch is made . much silk is deposited within , strongly contracting the mine and making it opaque . frass lies in big black lumps here either in the oldest part , or in the centre , of the blotch . the larvae are capable of leaving their mine and restarting elsewhere , in which case the initial corridor is missing . larvae of the first generation hibernate in the mine . pupation external , in a white spinning , often between the leaves of the hostplant ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\nlarva : the larvae of moths have a head capsule and chewing mouthparts with opposable mandibles ( see video of a gracillarid larva feeding ) , six thoracic legs and abdominal legs ( see examples ) .\nsee steuer ( 1987a ) ; body greenish , head and thoracic plate black ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\npupa : the pupae of moths have visible head appendages , wings and legs which lie in sheaths ( see examples ) .\nsee patocka ( 1999a ) , patocka and turc\u00e1ni ( 2005a ) ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\nadult : the adult is not illustrated in ukmoths ( check for update ) . the species is included in urltoken .\nautumn up to april , and then in july ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\ndistribution in great britain and ireland : britain including bedfordshire , derbyshire , east gloucestershire , east kent , east suffolk , glamorgan , herefordshire , north essex , north hampshire , north somerset , north wiltshire , south wiltshire , stafford , west gloucestershire , west norfolk , west suffolk and worcestershire ( nbn atlas ) .\nalso recorded in the republic of ireland ( karsholt and van nieukerken in fauna europaea ) .\ndistribution elsewhere : widespread in continental europe including austria , belgium , bulgaria , czech republic , danish mainland , european turkey , finland , french mainland , germany , hungary , italian mainland , kaliningrad region , latvia , lithuania , norwegian mainland , poland , portuguese mainland , romania , russia - north , slovakia , sweden , switzerland , the netherlands and ukraine ( karsholt and van nieukerken in fauna europaea ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nnotes : nationally scarce ( nb ) in deciduous woodland and woodland margins , on chalky soils , in england from the wash - mersey line southwards and also in the north ; in wales from glamorgan ( mbgbi vol 3 ) . in hampshire and on the isle of wight this species occurs along the borders of woods on calcareous downland , and has been found in several localities in the county , notably at leckford and stockbridge down in the north , and portsdown nr and oxenbourne in the south . not recorded from the isle of wight since 1938 . wingspan 8 - 9 mm . imago similar to many of the elachista species , although the white band on the antenna at three - quarters is distinctive . larva mines leaves of wild basil .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nleafmine found at alderford common in 2017 ( s . wright , 30 / 09 / 17 ) only modern - day norfolk record .\nrecorded in 3 ( 4 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1874 . last recorded in 2017 .\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\nresident but scarce in both vice - counties with records from just three sites in recent times . double - brooded , flying in may and june and again in august and september . the larvae feed on wild basil ( pratt , 2011 ) .\na maximum of five species may be selected . the data for each species can be then viewed on the same page . tick the box below to select this species .\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nrarely observed ; on the common wild - basil . beaten from oak in bentley woods in mid - august ( morley ) ; leiston ( grey ) ; brandon ( barrett ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nthe copyright \u00a9 for this image is with the picture credit given above and it may be used in any non - commercial way provided this is stated , together with the given permalink as source . all other rights reserved .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice ."]}
{"id": 511, "summary": [{"text": "the black-capped petrel ( pterodroma hasitata ) is a small seabird in the gadfly petrel genus , pterodroma .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is also known as the diablot\u00edn .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is a long-winged petrel with a grey-brown back and wings , with a white nape and rump .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "underparts are mainly white apart from a black cap ( that in some individuals extends to cover the eye ) and some dark underwing markings .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it picks food items such as squid from the ocean surface . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "black - capped petrel", "paragraphs": ["black - capped petrel \u201ctet kay jak\u201d meets biologist adam brown , photo courtesy of epic .\nw0w , rediscovering populations of the black - capped petrel would be amazing . but what\u2019s threatening its survival ?\nblack - capped petrel off of hatteras , north carolina , photograph by patrick coin ( wikimedia commons ) .\nbehind the scenes : first - ever black - capped petrel satellite tracking . june 2014 . american bird conservancy blog .\nradar surveys for the endangered black - capped petrel on dominica , west indies . submitted april 2015 . report by adam brown .\nradar surveys , nest monitoring and conservation of the black - capped petrel on hispaniola : february 2017 by adam brown , march 2017 .\na black - capped petrel at haiti\u2019s central bank . 2012 . the happy story of a young petrel\u2019s rescue in port - au - prince . see also a timeline of events .\nacoustic surveys for black - capped petrel valle nuevo , hispaniola \u2013 2016 / 17 by abram fleishman , 2017 , conservation metrics , inc .\none of the first - ever images of a black - capped petrel chick in the nest . photo by j . v\u00f3lquez , grupo jaragua\nacoustic surveys for black - capped petrel on hispaniola and dominica ( 2015 / 2016 ) . late 2016 . analysis of songmeter data by conservation metrics .\na new nesting location for black - capped petrel pterodroma hasitata has been discovered in haiti by the efforts of a joint dominican \u2013 haitian field team .\ngadfly petrel with a silvery grey rump area . bears little resemblence to the black - capped petrel that has a gleaming white ventral plumage and a white forehead , neck rign , and rump area . so - called\ndark phase\nblack - capped petrels have a reduced or absent neck collar . similarly dark brown\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - black - capped petrel ( pterodroma hasitata )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - black - capped petrel ( pterodroma hasitata )\ntitle =\narkive species - black - capped petrel ( pterodroma hasitata )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\none of the world\u2019s rarest seabirds , the endangered black - capped petrel , is breeding on the island of dominica for the first time in over 150 years .\nblack - capped petrel conservation 2017 ; interim report # 1715 c : dated august 2017 by ernst rupp . includes information on the first nest found in valle nuevo .\nplans / goals for hispaniola field work for the coming breeding season ( 2013 ) of the black - capped petrel ( pdf ) and images showing the landscape relevant to black - capped petrel conservation . powerpoints prepared by ernst rupp / esteban garrido and james goetz , respectively , for december 2012 webinar . see also working group notes .\nradar surveys for black - capped petrels on hispaniola : january \u2013 march 2014 . report prepared by adam brown .\ncapturing black\u2010capped petrels at sea : report from the august 2012 expeditions . prepared by george e wallace to document the first attempt to capture black - capped petrels at sea . image of floating mist - net created for the expedition .\nthe taxonomic relationship of this petrel for decades remained unclear with many authors considering it to be a dark form of the black - capped petrel . recent evaluations however have shown the jamaica petrel to be a distinct smaller species more closely related to the cape verde petrel . this is further supported by the bird\u2019s feather lice which show considerable differences with those of black - capped petrels . dna analysis is warranted but there is little question that this is a distinct species .\nthey thought the species was extinct until the 1960s , when david wingate \u2013 who is credited with single \u2013 handedly saving the bermuda petrel from extinction \u2013 found the black - capped petrel way up in the mountains in the middle of nowhere .\nblack - capped petrels in dominica and elsewhere , a narrative made up of 2010 emails clarifying sightings on or near dominica .\ntrip report : 2017 black - capped petrel technical exchange ( which occurred late april 2017 ) . report dated 7 / 19 / 2017 by ernst rupp , hannah nevins and stephen durand .\nexceptionally difficult to study , black - capped petrel comes to shore for only a few months of the year , and it nests in underground burrows , which it approaches only at night .\n( birdlife in the dominican republic ) spearheaded an initiative to search for black - capped petrel nests early in 2011 . the searches were a natural extension of the support provided to james goetz (\n\u201cfinding this colony of petrels on dominica is a real game - changer for black - capped petrel conservation , \u201d said scientist adam brown , the leader of the expedition that discovered the birds .\nblack - capped petrel is a distinctive gadfly petrel with a clearly defined black cap separated from the dark mantle by a white collar and with conspicuous white uppertail coverts that form a broad u shape . discrete variation among individuals , mostly in the extent of dark\ncap ,\nsuggests that black - capped petrel might be a complex of multiple species with different nesting seasons ; more research is needed to determine the taxonomic status of these different types . although black - capped petrel can be seen readily off the coast of the southeastern united states , particularly in gulf stream waters from north carolina to florida , the global population is in fact quite small and faces threats both at the caribbean nesting colonies and at sea .\nradar surveys conducted in dominica in january 2015 strongly suggest that black - capped petrels persist there ; hundreds of petrel - like targets were recorded over 17 separate coastal and inland flight corridors , and eight individual black - capped petrels were observed over 5 locations ( brown 2015 ) . these data , when coupled with recent observations of downed black - capped petrels on the island , suggests that there are still petrels breeding on the island , although the last confirmed nesting date was 1862 .\nhowell , s . n . g . and patteson , j . b . ( 2008 ) variation in the black - capped petrel : one species or more ? . alula , 14 : 70 - 83 .\nhaney , j . c . ( 1987 ) aspects of the pelagic ecology of and behaviour of the black - capped petrel ( pterodroma hasitata ) . wilson bulletin , 99 ( 2 ) : 153 - 168 .\ntreatment and rehabilitation of a black - capped petrel stranded in destin , florida . a write - up with photos of a bird treated in the emerald coast wildlife refuge rehabilitation center , september to november , 2011 .\nblack - capped petrels project . september 2014 . interim report to the u . s . fish and wildlife service submitted by american bird conservancy .\ngoetz j . ( 2009 ) interim report , march 2009 : study and conservation of black - capped petrel ( pterodroma hasitata ) at parc national la visite , haiti . unpublished report submitted to fondation seguin , haiti .\nwingate , d . b . ( 1964 ) discovery of breeding black - capped petrels on hispaniola . the auk , 81 : 147 - 159 .\nlee , d . s . and vina , n . ( 1993 ) a re - evaluation of the status of the endangered black - capped petrel , pterodroma hasitata , in cuba . ornitologia neotropical , 4 : 99 - 101 .\nsummary of black - capped petrel ( pterodroma hasitata ) nesting activity during the 2011 / 2012 nesting season at loma del toro and morne vincent , hispaniola . 2012 . report prepared by ernst rupp , esteban garrido , and george wallace .\n40 cm . medium - sized , long - winged gadfly petrel . brownish - black cap extending to eye , nape and towards upper breast where forms partial collar . white hindneck . brownish - grey mantle and upperwing . white rump and uppertail - coverts . dark brown tail . entirely white underparts . white underwing with narrow black trailing edge , black tip , broad black edge between primaries and carpal joint . band extends weakly towards centre of wing from joint . black bill . pink legs , and feet pink proximally , black distally .\nthis dull - colored family is plumaged in dark browns , black , white , and gray . some species such as the sooty shearwater are all dark with silvery wing linings , while others such as the great shearwater are dark above and light below . the black - capped petrel and related species have gray and white plumage with bold black markings on the head , back , and wings .\nthe black - capped petrel breeds in a few , small areas in the mountains of hispaniola , and probably breeds in cuba and one or two other islands in the caribbean sea . it ranges in waters of the caribbean and the western atlantic ocean north to the gulf stream off the coast of virginia . the jamaican petrel , an extinct species , was formerly considered a subspecies of this bird . the black - capped petrel is threatened by introduced predators , hunting in haiti , and collisions with buildings and towers . this species has a conservation rating of endangered .\ninterim report on black - \u00adcapped petrel : field research on hispaniola , 2008 - \u00ad2009 by jim goetz , conservation science program , cornell lab of ornithology , 30 april 2009 . informal report on field research in hispaniola in 2008 and 2009 .\nblack - capped petrels in dominica and elsewhere , a narrative made up of 2010 emails includes references to 2010 and much older at - sea sightings in the caribbean .\non september 1 , 2011 , wildearth guardians submitted a petition to protect the black - capped petrel under the endangered species act because of its low population and threats to its survival . the endangered species act required the service to determine whether listing the black - capped petrel as threatened or endangered was warranted no later than one year after it received the petition , or sept . 13 , 2012 . to date \u2014 more than two years after that response was due \u2014 the service has not made a decision .\ndouglas , l . 2000 . status of the jamaican petrel in the west indies .\n90 - day finding for petition to list under the us endangered species act . june 12 , 2012 . the u . s . fish and wildlife service found that the petition presented substantial information indicating that listing the black - capped petrel may be warranted .\nthey are now working with local people to save the black - capped petrel from the edge of extinction . one of their greatest challenges in trying to understand and meet the needs of poor , rural communities while ensuring the long - term survival of the species .\nin north american waters , thirty - five species of shearwaters in six genera have been identified . included among these are the thin - winged pterodrama species of the deep waters such as the black - capped petrel , and the stocky , gull - like northern fulmar .\nst . petersburg , fla . \u2014 the center for biological diversity today filed a notice of its intent to sue the u . s . fish and wildlife service over the agency\u2019s failure to determine if endangered species protections for the black - capped petrel are warranted . black - capped petrels are seabirds that forage off the atlantic coast from north carolina to florida ; they were once believed to be extinct , but a few breeding colonies remain in the caribbean .\nit may fly inland for about 50 kilometres and it nests in a burrow 3 meters underground . this makes it terribly difficult to find and once you have it\u2019s difficult to monitor . because of this people lost track of what was going on with the black - capped petrel .\nnew discoveries of the endangered black - capped petrel ( pterodroma hasitata ) in massif de la selle , haiti by anderson jean , joel timyan and enold louis - jean , soci\u00e9t\u00e9 audubon ha\u00efti , describing results of a november 2011 field expedition . see also birdlife news story on this topic .\n, but found no jamaica petrels . some scientists have interpreted flight of petrels at dusk towards the jamaican coastline to indicate that that species nest on jamaica , but there is no evidence of nesting there and there has never been a report or specimen of black - capped petrel on jamaica .\ngreat - winged petrel ( ptrerodroma macroptera ) : a recent paper supported this split and recognizes gray - faced petrel ( pterodroma gouldi ) , which breeds on islands off the north island of new zealand , as distinct from great - winged petrel ( pterodroma macroptera ) , which breeds on islands in the southern oceans . only gray - faced petrel has occurred ( as a vagrant ) in north america , where there are several california records . in south america , there is one record of gray - faced petrel from chile and at least one record of great - winged petrel from brazil .\nit is a truly fascinating time to study the black - capped petrel . this working group is currently using multiple methods to learn more about the nesting sites and nesting behavior of this species . this information will be used to guide conservation plans and help ensure the survival of this remarkable seabird .\nbirds disperse over the caribbean and atlantic from the north - east usa to north - east brazil , but the at - sea range has contracted in the north and west . occasionally birds are entrained in hurricanes and deposited far inland - for example , hurricane fran displaced what was probably many tens of black - capped petrels into the great lakes in the northeastern us . generally , in temperate summer months of june - september , black - capped petrel frequents the western edge of the gulf stream .\nthe black - capped petrel , known as the little devil by locals , is struggling for survival on the caribbean island of hispaniola . but how do you convince people to care about a bird when their children are starving ? this is the challenge facing adam brown and his conservation group , epic .\nblack - capped petrels are also known as diablot\u00edn , or\nlittle devil\u201d because of its night - time habits and odd - sounding mating calls , which reminded villagers of the sounds of evil spirits .\nthe monograph \u201cdiablotin pterodroma hasitata : a biography of the endangered black - capped petrel . marine ornithology vol 41 ( special issue issn 1018 - 3337 ) : s3 - s43 by t . simons , d . s . lee and j . c . haney\u201d is now available at no cost online at urltoken .\ni\u2019m working with a species called the black - capped petrel . it\u2019s a very difficult species to study because of a couple of unique things about it . it\u2019s a seabird so it spends all of its day on the ocean feeding , but at night it comes into the centre of the island to nest .\nnests are typically found along forested mountain slopes and cliffs at elevations from 1 , 500 metres up to 2 , 300 metres . during the non - breeding season , from approximately may to november , the black - capped petrel lives and forages permanently at sea with the largest numbers concentrated around areas of nutrient rich upwelling\nblack bill , occasionally with slight pinkish or grayish pink color visible at the base of maxilla and mandible ( age related or environment related ? ) . dull pink legs ; feet pink proximally but becoming black distally .\nresults of search for black - capped petrel ( pterodroma hasitata ) in dominica : report for 2000 - 2001 by brown , a . c . , and n . s . collier . 2001 . epic report no . 1 . unpublished report to the ministry of agriculture and the environment , forestry and wildlife division ; roseau , dominica .\nnot wanting to admit defeat , jairo isaa arache \u2013 a field assistant trained by grupo jaragua in the use of camera traps and telemetry \u2013 decided to search an adjacent ( as yet un - surveyed ) hill on his own . from somewhere up on the hill , the team heard jairo shout \u201ci think i have found the bird ! \u201d inside a small cave an adult black - capped petrel was sitting motionless on a nest of dry pine needles and fern leaves . nothing seemed to disturb the bird , and each team member took turns to have a short look at this miraculous find . the first ever active nest of a black - capped petrel had been discovered !\nblack - capped petrels and communication towers . poster by adam brown , ernst rupp , anderson jean and holly freifeld , given july 2013 at the regional meeting of the society for the conservation and study of caribbean birds , grenada .\nrecent sightings of black - capped petrels , by theodore r . simons , john gerwin , jaime collazo , and rebecca a . hylton , 31 december 2006 ( chap 6 . from simons et al . 2006 compendium prepared for usfws )\nto distinguish a jamaica petrel from the trinidade petrel , the dark morph trinidade would have white on the leading edge of the underwing , white in the tips of the primary and secondary underwing coverts , and white in the bases of the underside of the primaries and secondaries . the jamaica petrel lacked this white underwing feathering . similarly , a dark - morph kermadec petrel has white in the underside of the primaries , on the face adjacent to the bill , around the eyes , and on the leading edge of the underwing . the only light coloration on the jamaica petrel was the silvery rump .\nfinding this colony of petrels on dominica is a real game - changer for black - capped petrel conservation ,\nsays biologist adam brown from environmental protection in the caribbean , which carried out the survey . dominica ' s forests are well - protected , giving conservationists a\nhuge new opportunity\nto try to secure the birds ' survival , he says .\nnests are typically found along forested mountain slopes and cliffs at elevations from 1 , 500 metres up to 2 , 300 metres . during the non - breeding season , from approximately may to november , the black - capped petrel lives and forages at sea with the largest numbers concentrated around areas of nutrient rich upwelling ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 13 ) .\nblack - capped petrels previously nested on guadeloupe and martinique , but have not been documented there since before 1900 . however , hope persists for rediscovery on guadeloupe ( a . chabrolle in litt . ) based on offshore observations and the presence of inaccessible island peaks . likewise , hope persists for cuba . though there is no documentation of black - capped petrels nesting in cuba in the past or currently , there have been observations of birds flying inland at dusk from a known foraging area .\nbelieved to be extinct . no evidence of occurrence after 1891 - 1892 reports of mongooses found in the empty petrel burrows .\nbut a re - discovery on the tiny island of dominica not only offers a huge ray of hope to a beleaguered population , but is also a statement about that nation\u2019s established environmental movement , and the success that is within the reach of other caribbean nations . the black - capped petrel is once again confirmed to nest there , for the first time since 1862 .\n) . threats in dominica are unknown . threats at sea are not well - known , but there are concerns about mercury loads and offshore energy development in the key foraging area of black - capped petrels off the coast of north carolina ( simons\nstatus of and conservation priorities for black - capped petrels in the west indies by david s . lee in schreiber and lee 2000 , society of caribbean ornithology , special publication no . 1 [ available in hard - copy , contact jim wiley ]\ntracking the devil : radar surveys for black - capped petrels . presentation by adam brown , given july 2013 at the regional meeting of the society for the conservationa and study of caribbean birds , grenada . written report by epic , march 2013 .\nblack - capped petrel : occurs at sea from northern south america to the southeastern u . s . currently , the only known breeding colonies are located in the highlands of hispaniola , haiti and loma del toro in the dominican republic . the total population is small , and a mere handful drift northward along the gulf stream in summer and fall , after the breeding season .\nis larger , darker and less contrasting above , lacks black edge to underwing and has slower wingbeats and less erratic flight .\nsuggested citation : lee , d . s . , w . a . mackin , zonfrillo , b . 2014 . jamaica petrel .\nband - rumped storm - petrel ( oceanodroma castro ) : see above ; sacc and nacc use the same taxonomy for this species .\n- published conservation action plan for the black - capped petrel . the action plan details three main objectives that will be the focus of work in the near future : defining distribution and abundance ; understanding the breeding ecology ; and working with local communities to conserve the species . the grupo jaragua team is already preparing for the 2012 season , and their part in the implementation of the conservation action plan .\nnesting birds commute long distances from breeding to foraging sites , typically feeding in flocks . it is primarily nocturnal and crepuscular , feeding on squid , fish , crustaceans , and sargassum . in its primary foraging range , the black - capped petrel is most influenced by the position of the gulf stream , a dynamic current system , and not sea surface temperature or depth . ( simons et al . 2013 ) .\nthe jamaica petrel pelagic expedition . a pelagic expedition off jamaica , and off the islands of guadeloupe and dominica , november - december 2009 .\nblack - capped petrels are highly pelagic and undertake long - distance foraging trips . a compendium of about 5 , 000 at - sea observations indicates that waters in or adjacent to the florida current and the gulf stream between north florida and southern virginia provide a distinct and relatively confined foraging range of black - capped petrels , with concentrations observed there throughout the year . in the caribbean sea , black - capped petrels can occur within the inter - island regions , straits and offshore zones of both the greater and lesser antilles but still primarily east of 80\u00b0w . the first satellite tracking of this species ( three individuals ) suggest a similar but more spatially expansive range , including regular occurrence in the caribbean sea between hispaniola and south america and regular occurrence east of primary foraging area indicated by the at - sea observations ( jodice et al . 2015 ) .\nno details known . in bermuda petrel , both parents feed young , and young bird flies out to sea 90 - 100 days after hatching .\na recently formed jamaican petrel research group has undertaken surveys of the adjacent ocean , offshore islets and local mountains in hopes of finding extant populations .\nan international black - capped petrel conservation group has formed and facilitates communication and coordination among researchers and conservationists concerned about the species . partners have greatly advanced understanding of occurrence , abundance , threats , and breeding ecology and continue to undertake research as they embark on conservation strategies to reduce threats . community engagement to improve socioeconomic conditions and reduce unsustainable agriculture is underway adjacent to nesting sites on the haitian - dominican republic border ( ibcpcg 2016 ) .\none . white . incubation period unknown ; in the closely related bermuda petrel , incubation is by both parents , 51 - 54 days . young : no details known . in bermuda petrel , both parents feed young , and young bird flies out to sea 90 - 100 days after hatching .\nthe black - capped petrel forages predominantly in multispecies flocks throughout the night but with peak activity at dawn and dusk ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 13 ) . while some time is spent foraging on the ocean surface , the preferred technique is to snatch items with their bills whilst in flight ( 3 ) ( 13 ) . fish , squid and invertebrates all form part of the petrel\u2019s diet , with fauna associated with sargassum seaweed reefs being particularly popular . in addition , these birds are not averse to occasionally scavenge behind fishing vessels ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 13 ) .\nthe black - capped petrel ( pterodroma hasitata ) , also known as the diablotin , is one of the caribbean\u2019s most fascinating seabirds , and one of its most threatened . spending most of its life at sea , this species comes to land only to breed , nesting in burrows or crevices which they visit only in cover of darkness . almost wiped out by overhunting , the species only persists in remote mountain areas of a few caribbean nations .\nimber , m . j . 1991 . the jamaican petrel \u2013 dead or alive . gosse bird club broadsheet no . 57 : 4 - 9 .\nas its name suggests , this species has a clearly defined cap , separated from the dark mantle by a weak white collar . the conspicuous white ' rump ' ( uppertail coverts ) forms a broad ' u ' shape . distinctive black and white underwing pattern , comprising a broad black trailing edge and diagonal black bar across the secondary coverts . throat and underparts snowy white . darker upperparts intrude at the shoulder , forming a weak half collar . sexes similar . in general , upperparts appear dark or blackish , with the exception of variable white or whitish patches on the uppertail coverts , nape and forehead . the white on the nape accentuates the brownish black cap ; dark coloration extends from cap to eye , nape and towards upper breast , forming partial collar . brownish grey mantle and upperwing . white rump and uppertail coverts . dark brown tail . entirely white underparts . white underwing with narrow black trailing edge , black tip , broad black edge between primaries and carpal joint . band extends towards center of wing .\nrecently , through the pioneering use of new techniques like radar observation and old - fashioned field work , great strides have been made in understanding this bird . nesting sites have been located on hispaniola and individual nests have been located and studied . on the island of dominica , a breeding population was confirmed for the first time in over 150 years . and the black - capped petrel was recently featured in zing magazine , liat airlines in - flight magazine .\nconservation status of black - capped petrels ( pterodroma hasitata ) : colony surveys at sierra de bahoruco , dominican republic , january 2002 by theodore r . simons , jaime collazo , david lee , and john gerwin , december 2002 ( chap 3 . from simons et al . 2006 compendium prepared for usfws )\nthis important discovery is the result of a huge collaborative effort on behalf of the black - capped petrel for which grupo jaragua and james goetz would like to sincerely thank the support of many individuals and organizations including : abdel abellard , jesus almonte , j . hart , anderson jean , miguel landestoy , enold louis jean , t . mejia , ren\u00e9 jeune , evanita sanon , djeff alexis , markus kleber , jerbin volquez , u . s . fish and wildlife service ,\nthe atlantic seabird tracking website provides background and maps for the petrel tracking project . results are reported in the journal endangered species research at this open access link .\nrecent sightings of black - capped petrels , by theodore r . simons , john gerwin , jaime collazo , and rebecca a . hylton , 31 december 2006 ( chap 6 . from simons et al . 2006 compendium prepared for usfws ) . contact brian patteson trip reports from seabird trips off cape hatteras , north carolina .\nsimons , t . r . , collazo , j . , lee , d . and gerwin , j . ( 2002 ) conservation status of black - capped petrels ( pterodroma hasitata ) : colony surveys at sierra de baoruco , dominican republic , january 2002 , unpublished report . north carolina state university , raleigh , nc .\nin january 2015 , epic teamed up with scientists from dominica\u2019s ministry of agriculture and fisheries to conduct a systematic survey of the island aimed at determining the petrel\u2019s status .\nthe endangered black - capped petrel was last confirmed as nesting on the island in 1862 . but a survey that started in january recorded 968 of the birds over the mountains , where they could potentially be making nests , the birds caribbean organisation says . until now , the only known colonies were on the island of hispaniola - now divided between haiti and the dominican republic . only 1 , 000 to 2 , 000 breeding pairs are estimated to live there , and their habitat is under threat .\na relatively large , distinctive , long - winged pterodroma (\ngadfly\n) petrel . the clearly defined black cap , separated from the dark mantle by a weak white collar , and the conspicuous white ' rump ' ( uppertail coverts ) forming a broad ' u ' shape , are unmistakable , even from substantial distances .\nconsequently , brown\u2019s team of researchers adopted a technique developed to study petrels on hispaniola : they employed a portable marine - radar array and nightvision scopes to locate and identify birds as they flew to and from potential nest areas in the island\u2019s highest peaks . and the biologists were successful , counting no fewer than 968 black - capped petrels .\nthe presumed breeding season of the black - capped petrel was already underway when the grupo jaragua team ( of ernst rupp , jairo issa arache , gerson feliz , and jos\u00e9 luis castillo ) started the expedition to search for nests on 3 rd march . the team was joined by two members ( djeff alexis and evanita sanon ) of ojaa \u2013 a youth organization in anse - \u00e0 - pitres , haiti \u2013 who have been involved with grupo jaragua - led conservation efforts for the critically endangered ricord\u2019s iguana cyclura ricordi .\nmonitoring breeding black - capped petrels at morne vincent , haiti and loma del toro , dominican republic . presentation by esteban garrido , ernst rupp , adam brown , james e . goetz , given july 2013 at the regional meeting of the society for the conservation and study of caribbean birds , grenada . written report by grupo jaragua , may 2013 .\npresentation on how the conservation of the petrel is being undertaken through human poverty alleviation , given at the birdscaribbean international conference in cuba , july 2017 . presented by anderson jean .\ncarte , a . 1866 . on an undescribed species of petrel from the blue mountains of jamaica . proceedings of the zoological society of london . 1866 : 93 - 95 .\nit is primarily nocturnal and crepuscular , feeding on fish , invertebrate swarms , fauna associated with sargassum seaweed reefs , and squid . it is attracted to localised upwellings , where the mixing of surface and deep oceanic waters produces nutrient - rich areas . the black - capped petrel forages predominantly in multispecies flocks throughout the night but with peak activity at dawn and dusk . while some time is spent foraging on the ocean surface , the preferred technique is to snatch items with their bills whilst in flight . fish , squid and invertebrates all form part of the petrel ' s diet , with fauna associated with sargassum seaweed reefs being particularly popular . in addition , these birds are not averse to occasionally scavenge behind fishing vessels\nfor pelagic birders on the east coast , it doesn\u2019t get much better than a black - capped petrel in a breeze . like all pterodroma s , they cruise on the wind like a fine italian sportscar on a mountain road , effortlessly and with breathtaking abandon . for decades the only known nest sites of this charismatic seabird were in patches of high mountain forest on the island of hispaniola \u2013 including some of the last remaining patches of native forest in haiti \u2013 where rampant destruction of natural resources continue to make their long - term survival uncertain .\ndue to their prevalence off the coast of the u . s . some researchers believe that there are other breeding colonies not yet accounted for . expeditions to find breeding birds in cuba have been made , but no colonies have been found thus far . likewise , reports of black - capped petrels in dominica have not been followed by the discovery of other nesting sites .\nadam brown , co - founder and lead scientist at epic states , \u201cfinding this colony of petrels on dominica is a real game - changer for black - capped petrel conservation . for years we thought the only remaining colonies of petrels were on hispaniola , where nesting habitat is diminishing at an alarming rate and pressures of human activity are significant . dominica is an island - nation where nature conservation is a high priority and forests needed by petrels are well protected , so we now have a huge new opportunity to undertake conservation efforts to preserve this imperiled species . \u201d\npresentation on recent five years of research , monitoring and conservation of the petrel on hispaniola , given at the given at the birdscaribbean international conference in cuba , july 2017 . presented by hector andujar .\nblack - capped petrels presumably bred historically in the sierra maestra mountain range of southeastern cuba ( nicasio vi\u00f1a , personal communication ) . this area shares its name with a nearby town , as well as an adjacent point of land also named la bruja where the petrels are known to feed at night . locals in the area reported hearing strange nocturnal sounds in 1976 which n . vi\u00f1a assured residents were birds , not demons or witches ( garrido 1985 ) . cuban ornithologists affiliated with the havana national museum of natural history collected six specimens of black - capped petrels as the petrels were coming ashore at dusk . although this potential breeding colony was never found , as the cliffs within the sierra maestra range are largely inaccessible , there is additional recent evidence to suggest that a stronger survey effort in this area is warranted .\nhowell and patteson ( 2008 ) suggest that variation in black - capped petrels may reflect multiple cryptic species , as evidenced by different plumage characters and different molt sequence and timing . their discussion is the most extensive and comprehensive treatment to date for this species , but even they suggest that additional information is needed to understand whether this variation is a functional of subpopulations , geographic variation , multiple cryptic species , molt timing , or some combination of these .\nthis species may seem variable in appearance , but at least one recent treatment of the species suggests that such variation may be more discrete than previously thought ( howell and patteson 2008 ) .\nblack - faced\nand\nwhite - faced\nindividuals form discrete plumage and morphological clusters :\nblack - faced\nbirds tend to show dark or black cheeks and auricular areas , with larger and more obvious dark collar , more extensive dark cap , and darker plumage on the nape ;\nwhite - faced\nbirds are primarily opposite of these patterns , in showing substantially reduced dark coloration in these areas . note , however , that this variation is not particularly well understood , nor is it completely discrete - intermediate plumages exist .\nthe only known extant black - capped petrel breeding populations are located in the highlands of hispaniola , predominantly in southern haiti but also in low numbers across the border in the dominican republic ( 7 ) ( 8 ) ( 9 ) ( 10 ) . historically , breeding populations were also recorded on several other caribbean islands , including martinique , guadeloupe , dominica and cuba ( 4 ) ( 10 ) ( 11 ) . it is almost certainly extinct on martinique and guadeloupe ( 4 ) but recent reports suggest the presence of breeding birds on cuba ( 12 ) . its foraging range extends throughout the caribbean and the atlantic , but is observed most frequently on the western edge of the gulf stream from northeast south america to northeast usa ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nis actually a cryptic complex of several species . only cape verde storm - petrel ( o . jabejabe ) and monteiro ' s storm - petrel ( o . monteiroi ) have been recognized thus far , but ultimately at least one other atlantic taxon is likely to be split from band - rumped . the form , band - rumped storm - petrel ( grant ' s ) is yet undescribed , but increasingly well - known in its east atlantic breeding areas and its vocal differences have been described by the sound approach team . in addition , at least two and maybe more pacific taxa ( including the galapagos form , also available in ebird ) surely will be split . debate continues about which form ( s ) occur ( s ) in united states waters . while this has no effect on current lists ( since only nominate and the undescribed taxa are yet documented or believed to visit north american waters ) , it is worth keeping in mind that the ebird / clements definition of band - rumped storm - petrel is different from that of the aou .\nnot only is this a fantastic conservation story , but there\u2019s an interesting taxonomic angle as well . birders in the gulf stream have long noted that black - capped petrels come in two varieties , \u201clight - faced\u201d and \u201cdark - faced\u201d . these two forms not only look different , but they have different molt timing and , as a study using museum specimens published in 2013 found , significant genetic distance as well . known breeding populations on hispaniola consist of dark - faced birds so the breeding grounds of the light individuals was long suspected to be dominica .\nto be honest , i\u2019m a biologist , i\u2019m not a humanitarian so this not my area of expertise . but i know these things need to be done for the petrel to survive on haiti . there\u2019s a delicate balance between the poverty of the people and the success of the bird .\nthis is not unique in the world ; if it\u2019s not the petrel , than it\u2019s the elephant or the bengal tiger . it\u2019s that poor , rural communities live next to areas where there are endangered species . i know programmes like this have had success , so i know this one can too .\n\u201cthis is a nocturnal seabird with a deadly attraction to oily surfaces , so an oil spill in the petrel\u2019s habitat could drive it to extinction , \u201d said jacki lopez , florida director at the center . \u201cthis cliff - dwelling bird urgently needs protection from imminent plans to open its fishing grounds to oil drilling . \u201d\nfield investigations on hispaniola suggest that black - capped petrels are laying eggs in mid - to late january , chicks are hatching in mid - to late march and fledglings are departing the colony sites in mid - june to early july ( simons et al . 2013 ) . all nests located to date are at high elevations ( > 1500 m ) and while most are in inaccessible areas ( steep slopes , heavily forested ) some are not ( e . rupp , in litt . ) nesting success from monitoring over 4 years was 70 - 77 % ( n = 47 nests ) with abandonment and predation causing most failures ( e . rupp , in litt . )\ni feel optimists about it . being in dominica , where i am right now , where the conservation challenges are different helps with that . if the petrels are here on dominica \u2013 where the forests are really protected and the people care a lot about keeping the island the same \u2013 then i feel really good about the future of the petrel .\nthere are only 13 known breeding colonies in haiti and the dominican republic and fewer than 2 , 000 breeding pairs . the petrel is considered endangered by the international union for conservation of nature , the international authority on endangered species ; it is threatened by the destruction of its breeding habitat through deforestation , as well as contamination and oil and gas development .\npresident obama recently opened the atlantic coast to seismic exploration activities for oil and gas , and the department of the interior is reviewing 10 applications for permits . additionally , the administration proposed a plan to offer an area off the mid - atlantic for drilling in its five - year plan for offshore oil leases . these industrial activities threaten the petrel and its habitat .\n, of south trinidade island has been documented in summer from the outer continental shelf of the southeastern united states and this species is also expected to occur in the west indies region . although the two species are not closely related , its size and dark phased plumage are superficially similar to that of the jamaica petrel . at sea sightings of reported jamaica petrels need to be evaluated with caution .\nwe have made an effort to include many known hybrids that occur in the wild . while this is not a list of every single hybrid combination reported , we have tried to include those that are frequent enough and distinctive enough that they might be reported by birders . these range from the common combinations like\namerican black duck x mallard\nand\nwestern x glaucous - winged gull\nto considerably rarer combinations like\nas such , the petrel is highly vulnerable to threats of anthropogenic - related mortality ( including disorientation by artificial lighting and collision with tall structures ) and rampant habitat destruction . as a result of these activities and events , and the potential for increasing activities that expose these petrels to risks , this species is seriously threatened . it ' s conservation status is rated by birdlife international as endangered ; birdlife international estimates that the total population is 5 , 000 individuals , and that the population is in decline .\nthe black - and - white bird was once a common sight on the island , but was wiped out in the late 1800s by hunting and the introduction of predators . they are notoriously hard to spot , spending only a few months on land each year , and flying to their underground burrows at night . biologists used radar and night - vision scopes to count those discovered in dominica . they now plan to trek into the mountains early next year to look for nests , to confirm that the birds are breeding .\nwestern swamphen ( porphyrio porphyrio ) ; african swamphen ( porphyrio madagascariensis ) ; gray - headed swamphen ( porphyrio poliocephalus ) ; black - backed swamphen ( porphyrio indicus ) ; philippine swamphen ( porphyrio pulverulentus ) ; and australasian swamphen ( porphyrio melanotus ) . the species was recently added to the north american list because of an established , introduced population of gray - headed swamphen in florida . since that time , a vagrant african swamphen has also appeared on bermuda . the nacc considered this split in 2016 but chose not to split purple swamphen at this time .\nmass : females range from 347 - 545 grams , with substantial clustering into three different classes of mass that relate to black - , white - , and intermediate - face color patterns ; males of the same mass classes range from 349 - 591 grams . wing chord : females range from 268 - 305 mm ; males range from 279 - 317 mm . exposed culmen : females range from 28 . 8 . 39 . 9 mm ; males range from 30 . 1 - 34 . 7 mm . all data summarized from howell and patteson ( 2008 ) .\nunlike many species of seabird that are critically threatened or highly endangered ,\nconsiderably more is known about the petrel ' s marine ecology than its breeding biology\n( simons et al . 2006 ) . this species has a small , fragmented and declining breeding range and population and has been extirpated from a number of sites ; declines are likely to continue as a result of habitat loss and degradation , hunting and invasive predators ( e . g . norway rat , indian mongoose ) . these factors remain key threats in haiti . birds are also predated by introduced mammals , and urbanization and increases in artificial lights may disorient birds into colliding with trees , wires and buildings . a telecommunications mast with guy wires erected in 1995 in the dominican republic poses a major , potential collision hazard .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nbrooke , m . de l . 2004 . albatrosses and petrels across the world . oxford university press , oxford .\nis smaller and usually lacks white hindneck and rump , but separation may sometimes be impossible . great shearwater\nthis species is classified as endangered because it has a very small , fragmented and declining breeding range and population . it has already been extirpated from some sites , and declines are likely to continue as a result of habitat loss and degradation , hunting and invasive predators .\npterodroma hasitata is confirmed as breeding in hispaniola ( comprising the nations of haiti and the dominican republic ) . the population there is estimated as no more than 1 000 breeding pairs , perhaps as few as 500 , and a total population of 2 000\u20134 000 birds . the highest density of nests and most of the population occurs on la visite ridge in the western extent of the massif de la selle , haiti . smaller populations occur eastward along the massif de la selle and across the border in the sierra de bahoruco of the dominican republic , as well as around pic macaya in massif de la hotte in western haiti . radar surveys and aural observations indicate that small populations occur in other areas to the north and east in the dominican republic but nests have yet to be located ( e . rupp , in litt . ) taking into account each of these known and suspected breeding sites , all of which are quite small , an area of occurrence estimate of 20 km 2 is reasonable ( e . rupp , in litt . ) .\nanguilla ; antigua and barbuda ; aruba ; bahamas ; barbados ; bermuda ; bonaire , sint eustatius and saba ; cayman islands ; colombia ; cura\u00e7ao ; nicaragua ; puerto rico ; sint maarten ( dutch part ) ; virgin islands , british ; virgin islands , u . s .\nthe population undoubtedly declined through the 19th and 20th centuries during which time breeding populations on guadeloupe , dominica and martinique may have been entirely extirpated . this decline is thought to have continued during recent years but requires confirmation .\n2013 ) . the most significant current threat on haiti is loss of habitat from encroachment of humans for agriculture and forest product collection . habitat loss from fire , and fatal attraction to lights ( flames , cities , communication towers ) are threats for all populations in hispaniola . collection by humans and predation do account for some mortality , but burrow monitoring by camera trap and nest success rates indicate that these are not significant drivers of population decline . ( e . rupp\ndevelop and undertake conservation strategies to halt encroachment in haiti and improve park management ( e . g . fire control ) in haiti and the dominican republic . continue surveys to determine distribution on hispaniola , dominica and at - sea and to determine presence on cuba , jamaica and guadeloupe . research key threats in order to reduce and / or mitigate them , and monitor population status throughout range . ( goetz et al . 2012 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\na colony of one of the world ' s rarest seabirds has been found on the caribbean island of dominica , according to scientists .\nuse # newsfromelsewhere to stay up - to - date with our reports via twitter .\nthere are no reviews yet . be the first one to write a review .\n\u201cwhen it comes to protecting endangered species like this seafaring bird , delay can mean death , \u201d said lopez .\nthe center for biological diversity is a national , nonprofit conservation organization with more than 825 , 000 members and online activists dedicated to the protection of endangered species and wild places .\nat one time , this bird was known in north america only from scattered waifs blown inland by hurricanes . now it is known to occur regularly in the gulf stream , far offshore from the southeastern states . it breeds only in the west indies , and has disappeared from most former nesting areas ; should be considered at risk of extinction .\nformerly an abundant nester on several islands , but numbers dropped sharply in middle of 19th century . decline often blamed on introduction of mongoose , but that occurred in 1870s , after decline already apparent . introduced rats more likely responsible , along with humans catching petrels for food . now known to nest in mountains in haiti , dominican republic , and cuba , and vulnerable in these few spots .\nopen ocean . forages over warm deep water far off southeastern coast of north america , especially over western edge of gulf stream . also over seamounts or submarine ridges where turbulence may bring food nearer surface . nests around steep forested cliffs in west indies ; may have nested in burrows on more level ground before exotic predators were introduced there .\noften in loose small flocks , associated with other seabirds . forages by dipping to surface of water , with feet down and pattering on water , or by settling briefly on water with wings upstretched ; sometimes feeds while swimming . may do most feeding early morning and late evening , when some prey items are closer to surface ."]}
{"id": 515, "summary": [{"text": "the pale-capped pigeon ( columba punicea ) also known as the purple wood pigeon is a species of large pigeon that is found patchily distributed in parts of the indian subcontinent and southeast asia .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "it has a slow flight and spends a lot of time sitting still in the foliage of large fruiting trees , often in riverine forest on the plains .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is mainly brown above and chestnut below with the a sheen of green or amethyst .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "males have a whitish grey cap while females have a brownish grey cap and less gloss on the feathers .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they are frugivores , foraging in small groups in the canopy of trees but sometimes descending to the ground for seeds and fallen fruit . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "pale - capped pigeon", "paragraphs": ["select an image : 1 . pale - capped pigeon 2 . pale - capped pigeon 3 . pale - capped pigeon > > adult 4 . pale - capped pigeon > > adult 5 . pale - capped pigeon 6 . pale - capped pigeon 7 . pale - capped pigeon 8 . pale - capped pigeon 9 . pale - capped pigeon 10 . pale - capped pigeon 11 . pale - capped pigeon 12 . pale - capped pigeon > > adults 13 . pale - capped pigeon > > adult 14 . pale - capped pigeon > > adult 15 . pale - capped pigeon > > adult 16 . pale - capped pigeon > > adult 17 . pale - capped pigeon > > adult 18 . pale - capped pigeon > > adult 19 . pale - capped pigeon > > adult 20 . pale - capped pigeon 21 . pale - capped pigeon 22 . pale - capped pigeon 23 . pale - capped pigeon > > adult 24 . pale - capped pigeon > > adult 25 . pale - capped pigeon > > adult and juvenile 26 . pale - capped pigeon > > adult 27 . pale - capped pigeon > > flock 28 . pale - capped pigeon > > adults 29 . pale - capped pigeon > > adult 30 . pale - capped pigeon > > adult 31 . pale - capped pigeon > > adult male in flight from below 32 . pale - capped pigeon > > adult 33 . pale - capped pigeon > > adult 34 . pale - capped pigeon > > pair 35 . pale - capped pigeon > > pair 36 . pale - capped pigeon 37 . pale - capped pigeon 38 . pale - capped pigeon 39 . pale - capped pigeon 40 . pale - capped pigeon > > female 41 . pale - capped pigeon > > male 42 . pale - capped pigeon > > male\npale - capped pigeon ( columba punicea ) is a species of bird in the columbidae family .\nanother threat to the pale - capped pigeon is hunting by humans . in many of the countries in which the pale - capped pigeon occurs , pigeon hunting is a popular sport and part of a traditional way of life ( 4 ) .\nthe pale - capped pigeon is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\npale - capped pigeon ( columba punicea ) is a local resident in eastern ghats and north - east india . more\nthe pale - capped pigeon species are moderately forest dependent . these species occur in altitudes from 0 to 1600 meters . the pale - capped pigeons inhabit artificial ecosystems like arable lands , agricultural fields and plantations .\nscientific name : columba punicea blyth , 1842 common names : english \u2013 pale - capped pigeon , purple wood - pigeon , chestnut pigeon french : pigeon marron german : kupfertaube spanish : paloma purp\u00farea taxonomy : columba ( alsocomus ) puniceus blyth , 1842 , chyebassa .\npale - capped pigeon , purple wood pigeon common names in french : pigeon marron common names in german : kupfertaube description - family columbidae stout - bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills with a fleshy cere . more\nthe pale - capped pigeon is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) , considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - pale - capped pigeon ( columba punicea )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - pale - capped pigeon ( columba punicea )\ntitle =\narkive species - pale - capped pigeon ( columba punicea )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nhistorical records indicate that the pale capped pigeon was once also found in china , but there are no recent records of this species occurring there ( 3 ) .\nsome conservation measures are already in place to protect the pale - capped pigeon . it is protected by law in india and myanmar , and it is known to occur in many reserves and conservation areas ( 4 ) . however , due to the pale - capped pigeon\u2019s nomadic habits , it is not known how well these reserves help to protect this species . it is likely that protected areas will only help to increase pale - capped pigeon numbers if populations are able to follow the seasonal ripening of fruit within these protected sites ( 3 ) .\noriginal file name : columba . punicea . pigeons - pale - capped pigeon , purple wood pigeon ( columba punicea ) . jpg resolution : 706x1032 file size : 86959 bytes upload time : 2017 : 02 : 21 16 : 18 : 07\nfurther conservation measures for the pale - capped pigeon have been recommended , including protecting key sites where this species occurs , and improving management of exsting protected areas ( 3 ) . hunting bans also need to be enforced within protected sites , while education campaigns are needed to reduce hunting levels by highlighting the importance of the pale - capped pigeon ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .\na strong , swift flier ( 2 ) , the pale - capped pigeon ( columba punicea ) was once common throughout much of southeast asia , but is now in decline ( 3 ) .\nthe pale - capped pigeon occurs in scattered populations in southeast asia . its range includes parts of northern india , bangladesh , myanmar , thailand , laos , cambodia and vietnam ( 3 ) .\nthe iba of the pale - capped pigeon species in vietnam are tuyen lam , phuoc binh , ea so , dak dam , bi dup and a yun pa . the iba in thailand are thung kha , mu ko similan , ko phra thong and hat nopharat thara - mu ko phi phi . the iba of pale - capped pigeon in myanmar are hlawga wildlife park and hlawga lake .\nthese pigeon species are distributed in india , bangladesh and southeast asian countries . the current population of the pale - capped pigeon species is estimated to be less than 10 , 000 birds and is under decline . these pigeon species are listed as\nvulnerable\nto extinction by the iucn . these birds are monotypic species .\nthe pale - capped pigeon species are distributed in india , bangladesh , myanmar , thailand , cambodia , laos , vietnam , sri lanka and malaysia . the population in mainland china is possibly extinct .\nthe important bird and biodiversity areas ( iba ) of the pale - capped pigeon species in bangladesh are lawachara and west bhanugach reserved forest . the iba in china are diaoluoshan , jianfengling and yinggeling .\nthe pale - capped pigeon occurs in a large variety of habitats , from coastal lowland areas , to high mountainous regions at elevations of up to 1 , 600 metres above sea level ( 4 ) .\nas the pale - capped pigeon is a forest inhabitant , heavy deforestation has been a major factor in this species\u2019 scarcity . huge areas of forest have disappeared throughout its range , which has reduced and fragmented this species\u2019 population . threats to the habitat of the pale - capped pigeon include commercial and illegal logging , clearance for tea cultivation , encroachment of settlements into the forest , and fuel wood collection ( 4 ) .\nin india , these pale - capped pigeon species occur in the states of maharashtra , telangana , andhra pradesh , odisha , jharkhand , west bengal , meghalaya , assam , arunachal pradesh , nagaland and manipur .\nthe iucn ( international union for conservation of nature ) has categorized and evaluated the pigeon species and has listed it as\nvulnerable\n. cites ( the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ) status is \u2018not evaluated\u2019 for the pale - capped pigeon (\nthe female pale - capped pigeon is smaller than the male and , like the juvenile , is much duller . the plumage is browner all over , and the head is a much darker brown - grey ( 2 ) .\nthe site supports a population of the globally threatened pale - capped pigeon columba punicea . it also supports the globally near - threatened nicobar pigeon caloenas nicobarica , which in thailand is restricted to a few archipelagos in the andaman sea . in addition , the site supports populations of several nationally threatened and near - threatened species , including pied imperial pigeon ducula bicolor , green imperial pigeon d . aenea , roseate tern sterna dougallii and white - bellied sea eagle haliaeetus leucogaster .\nthe natural ecosystems of pale - capped pigeon include primary or secondary evergreen forests , tropical and subtropical dry deciduous forests , tropical and subtropical mangrove vegetation , tropical and subtropical moist lowlands , tropical and subtropical montane forests and tropical and subtropical moist shrublands .\nthe diet of these pale - capped pigeon species is mostly fruits . wild fruits , berries , figs , bamboo seeds and grains are their primary food . these species forage in the mornings and evenings and rest in the heat of the day .\nof small numbers of pale - capped pigeon roosting on the islands . we arrived by car and as i was waiting for srasri to change into her swimsuit i watched the ubiquitous eurasian tree sparrows jumping around in the company of a few common mynas . more\nthe pale - capped pigeon species have purplish - maroon plumage on the upperparts . the underparts , ear - coverts and throat are pinkish chestnut in color . the side of the neck is slaty gray and has faint green gloss . the undertail is slaty gray .\n) has approached the thresholds for being vulnerable , under the range size criterion , under the population trend criterion and also under the population size criterion . loss of habitat and hunting pressure are the main threats that may endanger the survival of these pale - capped pigeon species .\nforaging for food both in the trees and on the ground , the main component of the pale - capped pigeon\u2019s diet is fruit found within the forest , such as figs and berries ( 4 ) . seeds and grain are also important ( 3 ) , and it can be seen feeding in rice fields after the harvest ( 2 ) . it has also been known to eat grit , which helps to grind up food in the stomach ( 4 ) . the pale - capped pigeon is typically observed individually , or in very small flocks ( 2 ) .\nthe plumage of the male pale - capped pigeon includes the pale grey crown that gives rise to this species\u2019 common name . the upperparts are generally deep purplish - maroon , changing to a faint green on the neck . the wings and tail are largely blackish , and the underparts are light brown . the eyes and the base of the bill are ringed with vibrant red ( 3 ) .\nthroughout much of its range , the pale - capped pigeon is thought to be seasonally nomadic , living in some regions for only part of the year before migrating elsewhere to breed ( 4 ) . this could be due to the seasonal availability of food in different areas throughout the year ( 3 ) .\nthe irises are yellowish and the eye ring is red . the base of the bill and legs are crimson . the male pale - capped pigeon have whitish gray crown . the rump , flight feathers and uppertail are dark blackish gray . the females have more grayish crown . their call is a repetitive\nrhuhu\nsound .\npost breeding , the juvenile pale - capped pigeons may disperse and establish in new locations within the range . they may make local movements for feeding and breeding within their range . in response to food availability sometimes they become nomadic .\npale - capped pigeon is by no means the only species of note here . as at many coastal locations in southern thailand , both white - bellied sea eagle and brahminy kite are commonly seen and are both spectacular sights . collared kingfisher can be found calling from coastal vegetation and provides a splash of colour as it flies away . more\nthe breeding season of these pale - capped pigeon species is from may to august in india . peak breeding takes place in july . the nest is a flimsy platform made of twigs . it is usually located on lower branches of trees or on tall bushes . the typical clutch contains one egg . very rarely two eggs have been observed .\nthe iba of pale - capped pigeon in india are chandaka - dampara wildlife sanctuary , dibru - saikhowa complex , upper dihing ( west ) complex , upper dihing ( east ) complex , dichu reserve forest , simlipal national park , namsangmukh - borduria , kaziranga national park , nameri national park , magu thingbu , nagzira wildlife sanctuary and mehao wildlife sanctuary .\n) is a large pigeon , measuring about 35 to 40 cm in length and weighing 370 to 510 grams .\nthe population of pale - capped pigeons is estimated to be less than 10 , 000 individuals ( birdlife international 2001 , 2014 ) , probably continuing to decline and consequently classified as vulnerable ; today it is one of the more sought - after asian pigeons .\nthe pale - capped pigeon ( columba punicea ) is a local resident bird in the eastern ghats and north - east india . it is a 36 - 40 . 5 cm long , large , all - dark pigeon with a contrasting pale crown . the male has whitish - grey crown , purplish - maroon upperparts with faint green gloss on neck , more strongly iridescent mantle and back , dark slate - coloured rump and uppertail - coverts , vinous - brown ear - coverts , throat and underparts , slaty - grey undertail - coverts , blackish tail and flight feathers . red eye - ring and base of bill . female has more greyish crown . more\npale - capped pigeon almost a stake - out for this species . oriental plover was high on our wish list , and the reason why we choose march rather than february for this trip . it is almost guaranteed south - east of the village of roluos ( kompong thom ) . other targets should be easy to score . the trip we arrived at siem reap on 5 march at 4 . 00 pm after endless flights . more\nthe pale - capped pigeon ( columba punicea ) is a locally resident species in india that largely inhabits forest habitats , chiefly , primary or secondary evergreen forests , and bamboo and agricultural fields in close proximity to forests , its range extending from lowlands to 1600 msl . it had a wide distribution in the past but is now reported as uncommon and rare throughout much of its range ( read detailed species account ) . it is listed as vulnerable by iucn and birdlife international .\nthis pigeon has a small population , which is inferred to be in decline owing to habitat destruction and hunting pressure . it therefore qualifies as vulnerable .\nthe pale - capped pigeon lays eggs between may and june in india and myanmar , and a few months earlier in laos and vietnam ( 4 ) . the nest is constructed in a small bush or tree , about two to three metres off the ground , and is made from twigs and sticks picked from the forest floor ( 2 ) . only a single egg is normally laid , occasionally there may be two ( 2 ) . both the male and female bird incubate the eggs ( 4 ) .\nthis article is part of project columbiformes , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each pigeon and dove , including made - up species .\nbaptista , l . f . , trail , p . w . , horblit , h . m . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . pale - capped pigeon ( columba punicea ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\n36 - 40 . 5 cm . large , all - dark pigeon with contrasting pale crown . male has whitish - grey crown , purplish - maroon upperparts with faint green gloss on neck , more strongly iridescent mantle and back , dark slate - coloured rump and uppertail - coverts , vinous - brown ear - coverts , throat and underparts , slaty - grey undertail - coverts , blackish tail and flight feathers . red eye - ring and base of bill . female has more greyish crown . juvenile initially has crown colour as with mantle , duller wing - coverts and scapulars with rufous fringes , much reduced gloss on upperparts and greyer underparts .\nit is a 36 - 40 . 5 cm long , large , all - dark pigeon with a contrasting pale crown . the male has whitish - grey crown , purplish - maroon upperparts with faint green gloss on neck , more strongly iridescent mantle and back , dark slate - coloured rump and uppertail - coverts , vinous - brown ear - coverts , throat and underparts , slaty - grey undertail - coverts , blackish tail and flight feathers . red eye - ring and base of bill . female has more greyish crown . juvenile initially has crown colour as with mantle , duller wing - coverts and scapulars with rufous fringes , much reduced gloss on upperparts and greyer underparts .\n\u201ci spent my weekend with a wonderful \u2018flock\u2019 of 8 - 10 mugimaki flycatchers ( ficedula mugimaki ) ( above , below ) . i am certain of two adult males , two adult females , two 1st winter males and two other very pale 1st winter birds . \u201cfeeding was & # 8230 ; < a href =\nurltoken\n> continued < / a >\ndestructive fishing practices , including use of explosives , are one of the main threats to biodiversity at the site . another source of threat is tourism development , including pollution , unsustainable use of freshwater resources and damage to coral reefs from anchoring boats . dogs are also perceived to be a threat to the population of nicobar pigeon on the islands .\n2016 ] ) , to clarify its current distribution , seasonal movements and population status . conduct research into its ecological requirements and the relative effects of various threats operating across its range . identify and protect , where appropriate , sites supporting key populations . promote improved management and establish / increase buffer zones around protected areas supporting key populations . enforce strict hunting controls within all protected areas and devise awareness campaigns to reduce pigeon hunting wherever this is possible .\nbaptista , l . f . , trail , p . w . , horblit , h . m . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . afep pigeon ( columba unicincta ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nbaptista , l . f . , trail , p . w . , horblit , h . m . , kirwan , g . m . , boesman , p . & garcia , e . f . j . ( 2018 ) . spot - winged pigeon ( patagioenas maculosa ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nthe bookreader requires javascript to be enabled . please check that your browser supports javascript and that it is enabled in the browser settings . you can also try one of the other formats of the book .\nprobably related to c . pulchricollis and allied species , and perhaps also to c . argentina . monotypic .\ne & ne india in ne ghats , w bengal , assam valley and s assam hills # r ; locally in myanmar , thailand , laos , cambodia and vietnam . formerly in se tibet and hainan .\n36\u201341 cm ; 370\u2013510 g . forehead , crown and nape silvery grey , forehead notably sloping in profile ; throat and neck brown with coppery iridescence merging into . . .\nvoice almost unknown . in groups , individuals give very faint contact calls rendered \u201crhuhuhuhu\u201d .\na forest species , occurring from the plains up to 1600 m ; in se asia recorded only up to 1280 m . . . .\n, bamboo seeds and various kinds of grain . usually observed as single . . .\nmay\u2013aug , with a peak in jul . nest is a flimsy structure of twigs placed low down , usually less than 6 m above ground , in a tall bush . . .\nhabits not well understood ; species appears essentially to be resident , though may make seasonal . . .\nvulnerable . widespread but extremely locally distributed ; always reported as being uncommon and is now rare throughout much of range . appears still to be locally frequent in . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\na few individuals still reported from tripura ( from hills south of brahmaputra ) .\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nphylogenetic study of species genera columba and streptopelia led to extensive reorganization ; all new world species traditionally included within present genus were transferred to a separate genus , patagioenas # r , a split supported by previously described differences in morphology , serology and behaviour # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\nbenstead , p . , bird , j . , davidson , p . , peet , n . , taylor , j . , tobias , j . , allinson , t , westrip , j .\n( birdlife international 2001 ) . it appears to have been locally abundant in the early 20th century , but has declined markedly in many areas . scattered recent records indicate that it now only occurs rarely and erratically throughout its range , although a roosting flock of 174 individuals was recorded at don mamuang , thailand in 2002\n. 2002 ) . there are no recent records from china , where it was previously recorded on hainan island and in south - east tibet , and it has occurred as a vagrant in peninsular malaysia . in vietnam it is very rare and local with small numbers recently reported from mang den / kon plong , kontum province in 2010 and from magrove forest at ho tram , approx 100 km south - east of ho chi minh city , in 2011 ( r . craik\n. 2012 ) . however , large flocks were reported in the past from near da lat ( c . robson\n2012 ) and it is regarded as uncommon but resident on some islands in bai tu lam bay ( s . mahood\n. 2012 ) . in cambodia most records come from southern mondolkiri and an individuals site in preah vihear ( goes 2013 ) . in india , it is a rare resident in odisha and northeast india , with most recent records from the similipal hills . here birds have been encountered throughout the year with the highest count involving a flock of 17 birds in the upper barakamura range ( m . nair\nin ekamra kanan , bhubaneswar , and elsewhere in odisha ( panda 2013 , sreenivasan 2014 , p . m . ukil\nthe population is estimated to number fewer than 10 , 000 individuals by birdlife international ( 2001 ) , based on available records and surveys . it is placed in the band 2 , 500 - 9 , 999 mature individuals , equating to 3 , 750 - 14 , 999 individuals , rounded here to 3 , 500 - 15 , 000 individuals . trend justification : although this species ' s population trends are poorly known , it is suspected to be declining at a moderate rate , owing to the on - going conversion of habitat .\nit frequents a wide variety of habitats from the lowlands up to 1 , 600 m , chiefly primary or secondary evergreen forest , but also open , deciduous dipterocarp forest , bamboo , and agricultural fields , particularly in close proximity to forest . recent records from deciduous dipterocarp forest in cambodia indicate an association with riverine corridors of bamboo forest (\n. 2007 ) . some records also originate from small forested islands and other coastal habitats . it is mainly frugivorous , although seeds and grain form important dietary components in some areas . its breeding range and seasonal movements are poorly understood , but in places it appears to be semi - nomadic , perhaps in response to food availability .\nits decline is poorly understood but is suspected to be the result of hunting and habitat loss and fragmentation owing to commercial logging , small - scale timber collection , and clearance of forests for plantation agriculture , cash - crops , charcoal production and shifting cultivation .\nalthough it has been recorded from numerous protected areas , their contribution to its conservation is not known , especially given its seasonal and nomadic movements . indeed , site - based conservation strategies are unlikely to be successful unless populations are able to follow seasonal patterns of fruit - ripening within secure protected sites .\n, india ; myanmar ; and areas where it is known to have occurred in reasonable numbers at certain times of year ( e . g .\nedited geographic range and conservation actions information text , with a subsequent change to the ' research needed ' box . new references were added as well as new contributors and a new facilitator / compiler .\n( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22690191a110100779 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nit occurs mainly in primary and secondary evergreen forest ( 4 ) , although it has also been seen in deciduous forest , bamboo and agricultural fields ( 3 ) . it has been recorded close to rivers ( 5 ) , in mangrove forest , and on small forested islands ( 3 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\ndeciduous forest forest consisting mainly of deciduous trees , which shed their leaves at the end of the growing season . evergreen forest forest consisting mainly of evergreen trees , which retain leaves all year round . this is in contrast to deciduous trees , which completely lose their leaves for part of the year . incubate to keep eggs warm so that development is possible . nomadic a species which roams irregularly from place to place in search of food and water , without returning to a fixed location . primary forest forest that has remained undisturbed for a long time and has reached a mature condition . secondary forest forest that has re - grown after a major disturbance , such as fire or timber harvest , but has not yet reached the mature state of primary forest .\nstuart parker , m . j . ( 1913 ) indian pigeons and doves . witherby and co . , london , uk .\nbirdlife international ( november , 2011 ) http : / / 83 . 138 . 144 . 95 / datazone / speciesfactsheet . php ? id = 2466\nbirdlife international ( 2001 ) threatened birds of asia : the birdlife international red data book . birdlife international , cambridge , uk .\njerdon , t . c . ( 1864 ) the birds of india , vol iii . george wyman and co . , calcutta .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\ncolumba punicea : s tibet to e india , myanmar , thailand and hainan i . ( s china )\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 289 , 586 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\n) is estimated to be around 3 , 500 to 15 , 000 individual birds . the overall population trend of these species is considered to be under decline . throughout its range it is reported to be uncommon to rare . the generation length is 5 . 6 years . their distribution size is about 3 , 050 , 000 sq . km .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nmost recent indian records are from odisha where birds have been seen year - round in the simlipal hills , a 2750 sq km tiger reserve in mayurbhanj district . indian forestry service officer manoj nair has reported the species extensively in the park ( m . nair in litt . 2012 ) with the highest count being a flock of 17 birds in the upper barakamura range . the birds pictured here were found in the chahala area , and a group of 37 birds were counted at a salt lick in the sal forest ( shorea robusta ) that predominates in the area . it was thought that some birds had already left the lick and there were more birds still in the surrounding trees . it is believed that there were several individual groups that congregated in the vicinity at dawn and dusk .\ni had earlier looked for this bird in several parts of eastern odisha ( bhubaneswar city and satkosia tiger reserve ) as well as northeast india . of late , the bird has been seasonally sighted in the regional plant resources centre ( rprc ) campus in bhubaneswar city .\nci is a non - profit , non - commercial portal that aims to facilitate wildlife and nature conservation by providing reliable information and the tools needed to campaign effectively . we define conservation as knowledge - driven actions that lead to the effective management and recovery of wildlife . that means giving priority to meeting the ecological needs of wildlife populations in decline , and to the recovery and expansion of their habitats . read more\nci is a non - profit , non - commercial portal that aims to facilitate wildlife and nature conservation by providing reliable information and the tools needed to campaign effectively . we define conservation as knowledge - driven actions that lead to the effective management and recovery of wildlife . that means giving priority to meeting the ecological needs of wildlife populations in decline , and to the recovery and expansion of their habitats . read more \u00bb\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nname ( e - mail ) : wiki photos ( - - - @ - - - . - - - )\nurltoken does not have the copyright for this image . this photograph or artwork is copyright by the photographer or the original artist . if you are to use this photograph , please contact the copyright owner or the poster .\ncopyleft \u00a9 since 1995 , animal pictures archive . all rights may be reserved .\nthe iba comprises mu ko similan national park , in the andaman sea , c . 70 km off the west coast of peninsular thailand . the site encompasses nine small islands plus several smaller islets and semi - submerged rocks . the islands are composed of coarse - grained crystalline rocks on a north - south axis ; the highest point , ko similan ( 244 m asl ) , is in the north . sandy beaches occur along the northern and eastern coasts of some of the islands . the vegetation at the site is dominated by relatively species - poor lowland forest formations , with few large trees . the site includes a marine component of c . 12 , 800 ha , and supports a rich diversity of coral reefs .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) important bird areas factsheet : mu ko similan . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : columba punicea . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nodisha has emerged as a stronghold for this vulnerable species and regular sightings in bhubaneswar are encouraging . however the species is under constant threat due to depleting forest cover and habitat fragmentation .\nrecent sightings have been reported from assam , arunachal pradesh , odisha ( simlipal and satkosia tiger reserves ) , and significantly from the regional plant resource centre ( rprc ) in bhubaneswar , odisha .\nthe bhubaneswar bird walks have been reporting regular sightings since 2013 at ekamra kanan in regional plant resource centre ( rprc ) campus adjoining the chandaka forest in bhubaneswar . ekamra kanan is an urban park in the densely populated nayapalli area of bhubaneswar . it is a favourite haunt of morning walkers and approximately 200 morning walkers frequent this park every morning . in ekamra kanan , the birds usually perch on ornamental trees like glircidia sepium . they feed on the berries of fruiting trees like litsea glutonisa and trema orientalis . rprc campus has many such fruiting trees that fruit at different times of the year , thereby seeming to provide substantial feeding opportunities for this forest - dwelling species . this may be the reason why the shy forest birds have chosen to inhabit the campus despite hectic human activity . the birds have been observed in the campus from august to march in 2013 and 2014 .\nodisha has emerged as a stronghold for this vulnerable species and regular sightings in bhubaneswar are encouraging . however the species is under constant threat due to depleting forest cover and habitat fragmentation . while it is a protected species under schedule iv of the wildlife protection act , 1972 , any recommended site - based conservation strategies cannot be successfully implemented unless there is a constant monitoring of the movement of the species across seasons in the ibas , protected areas , and other habitats where the species is found . this needs a habitat - specific planned strategy and combined effort by government departments and ngos who are actively involved in documentation of avian species .\npanchami manoo ukil panchami is a birdwatcher from bhubaneswar , odisha , who initiated the concept of community birdwatching in odisha with her group , the bhubaneswar bird walks ( tbbw ) .\nthis article is part of project aves , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each bird , including made - up species .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nhitherto treated as conspecific with p . albipennis but here given species status since it lacks the broad white wingband of albipennis formed by broad white edges to outer wing - coverts ( 3 ) ; has darker brown - grey wing - coverts with more pronounced white spotting ( 2 ) ; shorter bill , effect size 2 . 39 ( 2 ) ; in addition , iris may be darker ( nhmuk label data ) . the two probably also differ in ecology since maculosa only occurs below 1000 m . and this species is only encountered above 2000 m . related to p . picazuro . monotypic .\nse bolivia ( santa cruz , tarija ) , paraguay , s brazil ( s rio grande do sul ) and uruguay s to sc argentina .\n32\u201333 cm ; 308\u2013347 g . forehead , crown , nape , hindneck and breast predominantly dull purplish pink ; rest of head and underparts grey , slightly tinged purplish pink . . .\n, but more \u2018throaty\u2019 . song is a rhythmic series of very . . .\nfeeds mostly on seeds , including rice ; one observer reported seeing birds eat fruit and greenery ; in argentina regarded as a pest of . . .\nin brazil recorded in oct , nov , feb and may , but probably nests year - round , as in argentina ; late sept in paraguay . male performs display - . . .\nisolated records in s brazil , from santa catarina and cw paran\u00e1 , hint at some dispersal or . . .\nnot globally threatened . may be increasing . widespread and common in lowland s of range . in argentina , is currently expanding its range and is considered a pest to . . .\nrecently split from columba on basis of genetic differences # r , supporting previously described differences in morphology , serology and behaviour # r .\npart of the c . palumbus species - group also including c . trocaz and c . bollii , and probably c . junoniae . monotypic .\nsierra leone to ghana , and se nigeria to gabon , congo and n angola , whence e through drcongo to uganda .\n35\u201336 cm ; 356\u2013490 g . crown and hindneck silvery grey ; upperparts and wings slate grey ; feathers of mantle , back and rump have silver grey edges , narrower on outer . . .\nadvertising call a series of some 7\u201314 low - pitched , drawn - out , cooing notes at flat pitch . . .\ninhabits forest , typically in canopy , but sometimes forages along the forest edge ; occupies montane . . .\nlimited data available suggest breeding in the dry season jan\u2013sept . nest of sticks is placed high in a tree . single white egg . no . . .\nnot globally threatened . details on population lacking for most of range , and biology remains very poorly known . in w african portion of range , populations appear to be . . .\nthreatened birds of maharashtra is the third in the threatened birds series published by the bnhs and oup . threatened birds of maharashtra brings information about the globally threatened bird species that are presently reported from maharashtra state . threatened birds of maharashtra will help to assess the present status and distribution of the threatened bird species found in maharashtra , and the recommendations for each species show the way ahead .\nthere are currently no reviews for this book . be the first to review this book !\nthe shipment arrived , beautifully packaged , in perfect condition . thanks for your exceptional service .\nit ' s @ solitarybeeweek - a week of action and education , raising awareness about solitary bees . if you ' d like to lea\u2026 urltoken\n\u201ci paid a visit to australian mulberry ( pipturus argenteus ) trees that i posted some time back to look for new visitors link . observed the asian brown flycatcher ( muscicapa dauurica ) feeding on the fruit . tried to get image documentation for 45 & # 8230 ; < a href =\nurltoken\n> continued < / a >\n\u201cwent back to observe the native / australian mulberry ( pipturus argenteus ) and watch which birds feed on the fruit . i saw more species of birds feeding on the fruit and have suspicions about other birds that were harder to watch . \u201cbirds & # 8230 ; < a href =\nurltoken\n> continued < / a >\n\u201con 31st august 2017 , i witnessed a joint mobbing by 4 bird species on a male wrangler pit viper ( tropidolaemus wagleri ) at dairy farm nature park ( below ) . the 4 bird species were the crimson sunbird ( aethopyga siparaja ) , olive - backed sunbird ( cinnyris & # 8230 ; < a href =\nurltoken\n> continued < / a >\n\u201ci was watching birds feed at one of my favourite trees , the blue mahang ( macaranga heynei , formerly known as m . javanica ) . the fruit of this tree is favourite of a number of species ( see list below ) , especially the plain sunbird . & # 8230 ; < a href =\nurltoken\n> continued < / a >\njohnny wee documented a pair of adult ashy tailorbirds ( orthotomus ruficeps ) feeding a recently fledged plaintive cuckoo ( cacomantis merulinus ) at singapore\u2019s pasir ris farmway1 in mid - july 2013 . it must have been a strange sight to witness a pair of small & # 8230 ; < a href =\nurltoken\n> continued < / a >\nwe have accumulated a collection of more than 200 bird calls and songs link since our earlier posts urging for birdsound documentation link 1 and link 2 . even then only a small number of bird species found in singapore and & # 8230 ; < a href =\nurltoken\n> continued < / a >\n& # 8220 ; a flock of four pin - striped tit - babblers ( macronus gularis ) was encountered foraging together in dense foliage . the unfavourable lighting condition under heavy shade , obscured view due to vegetation , and the birds & # 8217 ; constant flitting movement from stem to stem , was quite a & # 8230 ; < a href =\nurltoken\n> continued < / a >\nthe drongo cuckoo ( surniculus lugubris ) is a nest parasite , with the female laying her eggs in the nest of the pin - striped tit - babbler ( macronus gularis ) . the former is about twice the size of the latter . within a few days of hatching , & # 8230 ; < a href =\nurltoken\n> continued < / a >\nmany species of birds exhibit \u2018mobbing\u2019 tendencies , especially when they find predator birds resting alone or in small groups . even those that are predominantly scavengers or fish - eaters are similarly mobbed . such harassing behaviour is aimed at driving the predators off & # 8230 ; < a href =\nurltoken\n> continued < / a >"]}
{"id": 516, "summary": [{"text": "the silvery gibbon ( hylobates moloch ) is a primate in the gibbon family , hylobatidae .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "its coat is bluish-grey in colour , with a dark grey or black cap .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "like all gibbons , silvery gibbons lack external tails , have dorsally placed scapulae , and reduced flexibility in their lumbar regions .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they have long , curved fingers and very long forelimbs relative to their hind limbs .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "on average , they reach 8 kg in weight .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the silvery gibbon lives exclusively on the island of java ( indonesia ) , where it inhabits deeply hidden portions of the rain forests .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is diurnal and arboreal , climbing trees skilfully and brachiating through the forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "brachiation is aided by the possession of mobile wrist joints , full rotation of the upper arm , and the ability to lock elbows in suspension .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "its diet consists of fruits , leaves , and flowers .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "every three years , on average , the female gives birth to a single young , after a seven-month gestation .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the offspring is nursed for about 18 months and lives with the family group until it is fully mature at about eight to ten years old . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "silvery gibbon", "paragraphs": ["pictures : silvery gibbon # 1 ( 7 kb jpeg ) ( kids ecol . corps ) ; silvery gibbon # 2 ( 20 kb jpeg ) ( gibbon research lab )\nthroughout the silvery gibbon ' s region , variations occur with different individuals , allowing females and their territories to be recognized . only the female silvery gibbon sings . (\nsilvery javan gibbon ( h . moloch , 2 subspecies , endemic to west and central java )\nthe silvery gibbon ( hylobates moloch ) , is a primate in the family \u2018hylobatidae\u2019 or gibbon family . the silvery gibbon is only found on the island of java in indonesia . because of their isolated location , it is estimated that there are less than 2000 of these animals currently living in the wild . the silvery gibbon is both diurnal and arboreal .\nthe silvery gibbon is one of the species that live in the sundaland biodiversity hotspot ( cons . intl . ) .\nthe silvery gibbon only occurs on the indonesian island of java . the species has already lost 98 % of its original habitat . only few relict forests remain in west and central java . depending on the estimate only about 4 ' 000 bis 4 ' 500 silvery gibbons survive . the silvery gibbon is endangered by extinction .\nall gibbons are arboreal and diurnal . the silvery gibbon appears to prefer the taller trees for resting , foraging and locomotion .\nalthough indonesia has laws protecting the silvery gibbon , they are not strictly enforced , and silvery gibbons continue to be killed for meat , sport and the pet trade . logging and farming are claiming the last of the primal rainforest which are the silvery gibbon ' s last hold out . money is being raised to build a javan gibbon rescue and rehabilitation center . the project would place donated or confiscated silvery gibbons in a program that would rescue , rehabilitate , breed and possibly reintroduce them to the wild .\nconservation at perth zoo : perth zoo is one of only six institutions in the world successfully breeding javan gibbons . the zoo also works closely with the silvery gibbon project in its efforts to protect this species in the wild . to find out more about the silvery gibbon project , visit urltoken .\nhylobates , their scientific name , means \u2018dweller in the trees\u2019 . silvery gibbons spend most of their lives in the tree tops . they prefer the dense and close canopy of undisturbed primary forest . the silvery gibbon inhabits deeply hidden portions of the rainforests , climbing trees skillfully and swinging through the forests . silvery gibbons travel in small family groups that consist of a mated pair and their offspring in various stages of development .\ncalling in wild silvery gibbons ( hylobates moloch ) in java ( indonesia ) : behavior , phylogeny , and conservation .\nabstract 1 . introduction 2 . gibbon systematics 3 . adopting a systematic framework 4 . gibbon distribution 5 . identifikation key 6 . references\nevery morning , the female silvery gibbon will arise and announce her presence to the forest by shrieking and calling . these calls can be heard for at least one kilometre in all directions .\nthe silvery gibbon has declined and continues to be threatened due to habitat loss because of expanding human populations on java . only 4 % of its original habitat remains ( kool 1992 ) .\nsilvery gibbons are not found in mangrove rainforest , or above 4 , 800 feet ( 1600 metres ) above sea level .\nunlike other gibbon species , the javan gibbon does not sing \u2018duets\u2019 . the female is the dominant vocalist while the male sings only occasionally .\njava is one of the most heavily human populated islands of indonesia and primary rainforest are rapidly disappearing . only 4 % of the silvery gibbon ' s habitat remains . except for gunung halimun national park , which can support a population of 1 , 000 gibbons or more , the remaining population is discontinuous and exists in small isolated remnants which can ' t support a viable gene pool . fewer than 2 , 000 wild silvery gibbons remain . of the 33 silvery gibbons held in zoos around the world , only 6 breeding pairs are having offspring . it has been recommended that the indonesian zoos become more involved in breeding programs to ensure a long - term survival of the silvery gibbon .\ngibbon species western hoolock gibbon ( hoolock hoolock ) , eastern hoolock gibbon ( hoolock leuconedys ) , bornean agile gibbon ( hylobates albobarbis ) , mountain agile gibbon ( hylobates agilis agilis ) , lowland agile gibbon ( hylobates agilis unko ) , kloss ' s or mentawai gibbon ( hylobates klossii ) , white - handed gibbon ( hylobates la r ; four subspecies : h . l . carpenter , h . l . entelloides , h . l . lar , h . l . vestitus , h . l . yunnanensis ) , javan silvery gibbon ( hylobates moloch ; two subspecies : h . m . moloch , h . m . pongoalsoni ) , grey gibbon ( hylobates muelleri ; three subspecies : h . m . abbotti , h . m . funereus , h . m . muelleri ) , pileated or capped gibbon ( hylobates pileatus ) , black crested gibbon ( nomascus concolor ; four subspecies : n . c . concolor , n . c . furvogaster , n . c . jingdongensis , n . c . lu ) , northern white - cheeked crested gibbon ( nomascus leucogenys ) , yellow - cheeked crested gibbon ( nomascus gabriellae ) , hainan black crested gibbon ( nomascus hainanus ) , cao - vit black crested gibbon ( nomascus nasutus ) , southern white - cheeked crested gibbon ( nomascus siki ) and siamang ( symphalangus syndactylus ; 2 subspecies : s . s . continentis , s . s . syndactylus ) .\ncalling in wild silvery gibbons ( hylobates moloch ) in java ( indonesia ) : behavior , phylogeny , and conservation . - pubmed - ncbi\nagile gibbon ( h . agilis , middle and eastern sumatra , malay peninsula )\nbornean white - bearded gibbon ( h . albibaris , endemic to southwestern borneo )\nthe silvery gibbon occupies a specialized niche in the forest canopy . they need the continuous canopy of a primary forest to move around in since they don ' t travel on the forest floor . the foliage needs to be thick , with horizontal growth to allow for the gibbon ' s brachiated form of movement . the silvery gibbons also need a wide variety of tree species which bear fruit at different times of the year , since its diet consists mainly of fruit . secondary forests , or new growth forests have gaps in the canopy , and the growth is sparse , which restricts the gibbon ' s ability to move around . there is also less of a variety of fruiting trees in new growth forest , which can ' t support the dietary needs of the silvery gibbon . silvery gibbons are not found in mangrove rainforest , or above 4 , 800 feet ( 1600 m ) above sea level .\npileated gibbon ( h . pileatus , southeast thailand , western cambodia and southwest laos )\ncowlishaw , g . 1996 . sexual selection and information content in gibbon song bouts .\nthe silvery gibbons primarily diet is fruit . since fruit - bearing trees are usually scattered in the rainforests , they must travel extensively to find food and each gibbon family usually has a territory that they travel through that averages about 42 acres . sometimes these territories will overlap , allowing several families to share the same fruit trees . silvery gibbons have also been known to eat flowers and leaves .\nthe silvery gibbon has a long , dense and shaggy fur . the colour is silvery grey in both sexes and all ages . the cap and chest are darker grey than the rest or even black . both sexes have a pale brow - band . the face is black and naked , the ears are also black and not hidden in the fur . the weight is about 5 . 9 kg .\n1995 : gibbon systematics and species identification . international zoo news 42 , 467 - 501 .\nthe silvery gibbons only live in the scattered remains of rainforest on the western side of the indonesian island of java . they are listed on the iucn\nred list of threatened animals\nas critically endangered , and have a 50 % or better chance of going extinct in the next 10 years . habitat loss , hunting and capture of infants for the pet trade have contributed heavily to the silvery gibbon ' s decline .\nm\u00fcller\u00b4s bornean gibbon ( h . muelleri , 3 subspecies , endemic to north and east borneo )\nsilvery gibbons are fluffy with greyish - white fur with a dark grey or black cap on their heads . silvery gibbons have a white or light grey fringe that surrounds their rather dark face . their fur is very long and dark grey on the top of their round heads . like all gibbons , they have no tail and their arms are long compared to their body which span at least twice their height . silvery gibbons have lean bodies which are specially adapted to swing below the branches suspended by their arms . they hook their fingers over a branch , not actually grabbing it , and sometimes make long swings and let go of the branches entirely . the average weight for an adult silvery gibbon is approximately 13 pounds ( 6 kilograms ) and the males and females are very similar in appearance and size .\nthe javan gibbon is endemic to the western half of the island of java , indonesia ( 3 ) .\nagile gibbon : 4479 individuals in sumatra + a few thousand in thailand ( o\u00b4brien et al . 2004 )\nsilvery gibbons , like most gibbon species , are monogamous and mate for life . there is no breeding season and a female will come into oestrus at any time of the year . the female will produce offspring about every 2 to 3 years . gestation usually lasts 7 to 8 months and only one baby gibbon is born at a time . the infant silvery gibbon is hairless with only some fluff on its head . it is kept close to its mother for warmth and nursed for about a year . the infant lives with the family group until it is fully mature at about 8 years and until they are ready to go off on their own and find a mate . gibbon families are usually very closely linked and they stay close together when traveling . if threatened in their territories , the gibbon female will sing and scream while the male chases off the intruder , usually with a lot of noise and crashing through branches .\nthe silvery gibbon has already lost 98 % of its original habitat and the pressure on the remaining forest is extreme . only an estimated 400 to 3000 silvery gibbons now exist in some 21 discontinuous forest patches . the current fragmented sub - populations are not sufficiently large to be considered evolutionally viable and will require active conservation management for long term survival . ex situ breeding programmes established under an international studbook ( 1991 ) also have a vital role to play in the survival of the species . currently only a few silvery gibbons are held in zoos outside indonesia in coordinated breeding programmes . these zoos participate also in in situ conservation projects . it is highly recommended that indonesia establish such programmes within its zoos .\nbornean white - bearded gibbon : 19 , 000 individuals ( buckley , 2004 ; buckley et al . 2006 )\nhigh in the treetops of the scattered remains of the island of java ' s rainforests , a silvery gibbon female sings a morning song before she and her family move off to spend the day foraging for fruit . her hauntingly plaintive song can be heard over a distance of almost one mile ( 1500 m ) .\nsilvery gibbons travel by swinging from branch to branch , using their long fingers to hook the branches as they swing forward for the next branch . at times , their swings are so powerful that it allows them to be completely airborne and reach greater distances in one swing . silvery gibbons are able to walk on the ground if they need to and they can walk on two legs , holding their arms up above their heads to help balance . in each familys territory , there are trees that are used for specific purposes , like sleeping and calling . silvery gibbons repeatedly use the same trees for these activities .\nlar gibbon ( h . lar , 5 subspecies , yunnan , eastern myanmar , thailand , malay peninsula , sumatra )\nthe gibbon species survival plan \u00ae manages the genetic and demographic health and oversees the care of gibbons in aza zoos .\ngeissmann , t . 2006b . gibbon systematics and species identification . gibbons . de . retrieved april 13 , 2006 .\nin the distinctive gibbon - song of this species , females sing the lead to advertise their territory for all to hear .\ngeissmann , t . 2006a . hoolock gibbons get a new genus name . gibbon journal . retrieved march 12 , 2007 .\nthe silvery gibbon ( hylobates moloch ) is currently listed as critically endangered on the 2007 iucn red list of threatened species . habitat destruction on densely populated java continues to reduce the natural range of the species . many gibbons are also lost to the illegal pet trade , when adult gibbons are slaughtered so that their babies can be sold in the markets as pets . it is estimated that only 4 % of their original native habitat is still available to the species . they are , of course , in danger from poachers who sell their meat , pelts and take the babies for pets . several zoos operate silvery gibbon breeding programs . despite these efforts , the future survival of this species is in question .\nthe silvery gibbon weighs about 6 kg ( 13 lb ) . it is found in lowland , hill and montane forests and eats mostly fruit and leaves . . in the dieng mountains of central java , its habitat consisted of secondary forest with a rather dense and close canopy , and undisturbed primary forest . all gibbons are arboreal and diurnal . the silvery gibbon appears to prefer the taller trees for resting , foraging and locomotion . in a study in the dieng mountains of central java , gibbons were seen on three occasions : a single adult , two adults and a group of seven . an average group size of 3 . 3 individuals has been reported . the silvery gibbon is endemic to the western half of java , indonesia . most populations can be found in the western province , but a few remain in central java . it has declined and continues to be threatened due to habitat loss because of expanding human populations on java . only 4 % of its original habitat remains . remaining populations occur in about 20 forested areas mainly scattered over west java .\nthe taxonomy of the gibbons has changed in recent years ( geissmann , 1995 ) . in the past all gibbon species were considered\ngibbons it is generally accepted that there are 16 to 17 gibbon species in the family hylobatidae . they are divided into four groups ( genera ) : hylobates , hoolock , symphalangus , and nomascus . click here for a list of all the individual gibbon species .\n5 / 1 / 94 .\ngibbon fact sheet\n( on - line ) . accessed september 12 , 1999 at urltoken .\ndescription : javan gibbons have a fluffy appearance because of their very dense and long silvery - grey fur . they have very long forelimbs , long fingers and shorter thumbs which make them great brachiators ( use their arms to swing between branches ) .\nm\u00fcller\u00b4s bornean gibbon : 250 , 000 - 375 , 000 individuals ( meijaard & nijman ( unpubl . data ) , cf . iucn redlist )\ngibbon groups are usually small , consisting of the mated pair , an infant and a juvenile , making the average group size about four individuals .\nthe silvery gibbon is found in lowland , hill and montane forests . in the dieng mountains of central java , its habitat consisted of secondary forest with a rather dense and close canopy , and undisturbed primary forest . although 1600 m is considered to be the upper limit of the species , it has been reported from altitudes up to 2400 ' . ( kool 1992 ; nijman & van balen 1998 )\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - javan gibbon ( hylobates moloch )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - javan gibbon ( hylobates moloch )\ntitle =\narkive species - javan gibbon ( hylobates moloch )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthomas geissmann ' s gibbon research lab . : an introduction to systematics , classification , taxonomy and distribution of the gibbons or small apes ( hylobatidae )\nasquith , n . m . ( 1995 ) javan gibbon conservation : why habitat protection is crucial . tropical biodiversity , 3 : 63 - 65 .\ngeissmann ( 2006a ) noted that it was determined that the molecular distances among these four subgenera are in the same range as seen between humans and chimpanzees , which are in their own genera , and thus the gibbon subgenera should be raised to the genus rank . this has now become widespread . furthermore , the former extant subgroup bunopithecus , whose only living member was the hoolock gibbon , was replaced by the genus hoolock . the bunopithecus sericus is an extinct gibbon or gibbon - like ape that , until recently , was thought to be closely related to the hoolock gibbons ( mootnick and groves 2005 ) .\nthe javan gibbon is classified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , and listed on appendix i of cites ( 7 ) .\nthe silvery gibbons are known as \u2018lesser apes\u2019 . lesser apes differ from great apes ( chimpanzees , gorillas , orangutans and humans ) in being smaller and pair - bonded , in not making nests , and in certain anatomical details in which they superficially more closely resemble monkeys than great apes do .\ndid you know ? that all gibbon species are monogamous ? family groups consist of mated pair and offspring . they establish small , stable home ranges which they will defend .\nsilvery gibbon ( hylobates moloch ) * family : hylobatidae , * genus : hylobates , * species : h . moloch , * phylum : chordata , * class : mammalia , * order : primates , * size : 45 - 64 cm , * type : mammal , * diet : herbivore , * average life span in the wild : about 10 to 20 years , * weight : reach 8 kg , * * hylobates moloch is a primate in the hylobatidae or gibbon family . their skin is bluish grey in colour , with a dark grey or black cap . more info : urltoken or urltoken or http : / / animaldiversity . ummz . umich . edu . . .\nmootnick , a . , and c . p . groves . 2005 . a new generic name for the hoolock gibbon ( hylobatidae ) . international journal of primatology 26 : 971\u2013976 .\nhardly any behavioral data are available for the silvery gibbon ( hylobates moloch ) , an endangered primate that is endemic to the island of java , indonesia . we studied the singing behavior of the easternmost population of this species in the dieng mountains , central java , in 1998 - 1999 . we aimed to document the timing of singing , quantify the amount of singing by the respective sexes , and explore the role of bioacoustics in density estimation . a total of 122 song bouts in at least 12 groups were monitored . no duet songs were heard . most of the song bouts ( 91 . 5 % ) were female solo song bouts or female scream bouts . in contrast to an earlier study on the westernmost population of silvery gibbons , during which few if any male songs were heard , at least 8 . 5 % of the song bouts in our study were male solo song bouts . they were significantly longer in duration than the female songs . all male song bouts uttered before dawn ( 0520 hr ) were produced in a chorus fashion , with at least three individuals participating . choruses occurred about once every 8 . 5 days , and lasted longer and occurred earlier than female solo song bouts . most male songs ( 60 % ) started between 0355 - 0440 hr , when it was still dark . all female songs , in contrast , started after 0500 hr , and female singing activity peaked around 0600 . regular male singing , male chorusing , and regular predawn singing have not previously been reported for silvery gibbons . similarly separated periods of male and female solo songs and the absence of duetting have been observed in kloss ' s gibbons ( h . klossii ) on the mentawai islands , and may represent synapomorphies shared by both species . the pronounced individual - specific song characteristics of silvery gibbons allow accurate mapping of groups . the density of gibbons at our study site was established to be 1 . 9 - 3 . 7 groups / km2 , corresponding to 6 . 7 - 13 . 1 individuals / km2 . we reassess the suitability of gibbon songs as a means of estimating the density and size of gibbon populations , and discuss the proximate causes for the absence of duetting in silvery gibbons .\n\u2191 mootnick , a . , and c . p . groves . 2005 . a new generic name for the hoolock gibbon ( hylobatidae ) . international journal of primatology 26 : 971\u2013976 .\nmost species are threatened or endangered , most importantly from degradation or loss of their forest habitat . gibbon species include the siamang , the white - handed or lar gibbon , and the hoolock gibbons . the siamang , which is the largest of the 13 species , is distinguished by having two fingers on each hand stuck together , hence the generic and species names symphalangus and syndactylus .\nfor example , in the traditional classification of groves ( 1997 ) , the black - crested gibbon was listed as hylobates concolor . in more recent classifications , it is listed as nomascus concolor .\nin a study of the silvery gibbon in gunung halimun reserve in western java , a group density of 2 . 6 groups / sq km ( 6 . 8 groups / sq mi ) was derived . using a reported average group size of 3 . 3 individuals / group ( kappeler 1984b cited in kool 1992 ) , density , within the altitudinal range censused in gunung halimun ( 700 - 1075 m ( 2300 - 3500 ' ) ) , was determined as 8 . 6 individuals / sq km ( 22 individuals / sq mi ) . this is higher than a previous estimate of 2 - 7 individuals / sq km ( 5 - 20 individuals / sq mi ) for hill rain forest ( 500 - 1000 m altitude ( 1600 - 3300 ' altitude ) ) ( kappeler 1984a cited in kool 1992 ) . at higher elevations , the density of the silvery gibbon is lower and has been estimated at 1 - 3 individuals / sq km ( 3 - 8 individuals / sq mi ) for lower montane forest ( kappeler 1984a cited in kool 1992 ) . ( kool 1992 )\nthe silvery or javan gibbon ( hylobates moloch ) has long fluffy silver - grey fur ( 2 ) , with darker markings on the chest and cap ( 4 ) . it has long arms and legs , long fingers and reduced thumbs , all of which are adaptations for brachiation ( swinging through the trees from arm to arm ) ( 2 ) . males produce simple \u2018hoot\u2019 calls , whilst the calls of females are more variable , ending in a \u2018bubble\u2019 . ( 4 ) . both sexes also give a \u2018scream\u2019 alarm call ( 8 ) .\nthe silvery gibbon is endemic to the western half of java , indonesia . most populations can be found in the western province , but a few remain in central java ( nijman & van balen 1998 ) . they occur in about 20 forested areas mainly scattered over west java . many of these smaller populations are considered non - viable in the long term . although recent discoveries show that the central javan population may be larger than previously assumed , population estimates still suggest that intervention will be necessary in order to conserve the species . ( gates 2002 )\nthe available data on gibbons show no birth seasonality . a mated gibbon pair will produce an average of 5 to 6 offspring over their reproductive lifespan of about 10 to 20 years . like most primates ,\nthis taxon is monotypic ( geissman et al . 2002 ; t . geissmann pers . comm . ) , although it has been suggested that there is evidence for two genetically distinct silvery gibbon populations ( andayani et al . 2001 ) , leading to the subsequent recognition of two subspecies by several authors ( hilton - taylor 2000 , supriatna 2006 , supriatna and wahyono 2000 ) , a recent review of the molecular evidence and a comparison of morphological and vocal data casts doubt on this claim ( geissman et al . 2002 , t . geissmann pers . comm . ) .\nsilvery gibbons , like most gibbon species , are monogamous . they live in small family groups of mated pairs and several sub - adult offspring . of all the apes , only singing primates are monogamous . territories of neighboring groups overlap at their borders and are defended by the great calls of the females and the aggressive charges of the male . groups will not contest the common zone unless both groups arrive at a fruiting tree at the same time . the offspring will not join in , but will watch intently as their parents call and scream , and crash through the tree tops .\nthis section offers a comprehensive review of gibbon systematics . parts of the following text have previously been published in the following papers , but the text has been ( and continues being ) updated for the web version .\ninhabits tropical lowland , hill and montane rainforests ( 3 ) between sea level and 1500 metres ( 2 ) . the javan gibbon shows a preference for taller trees for resting , foraging and locomotion ( 3 ) .\nthe historical deforestation that affected java in colonial times still maintains an overriding presence on the landscape , effectively restricting the arboreal silvery gibbon to continuous tracks of forest around mountain and volcano tops . however , habitat disturbance today is relatively slow , and populations of gibbons , while isolated , are substantial in size . wildlife trade exerts an as yet un - quantified effect on hylobates moloch ( nijman 2005 ) . populations seem to have become more or less stabilized in recent years as overall loss of habitat reached a climax some time ago . though habitat loss continues , it is at a much slower rate today .\nasquith , n . , martarinza , m . and sinaga , r . m . ( 1995 ) the javan gibbon ( hylobates moloch ) : status and conservation recommendations . tropical biodiversity , 3 : 1 - 14 .\ncastle - smith , emma : investigation into acoustic variation in javan gibbon ( hylobates moloch ) vocalisations . master ' s thesis , university of plymouth , england . e - mail : emma . castle - smith @ urltoken\nhomepage of yoichi inoue e . g . behavioral observations on wild gray gibbons ( hylobates muelleri ) in northern borneo and study on the cognitive development of a young white - handed gibbon ( h . lar ) . urltoken\nlar gibbon : 15 , 000 - 20 , 000 individuals in indonesia , malaysia and myanmar , probably extinct in china ( geissmann et al . 2006 ; guo & wang 1995 ; lan & wang 2000 ; boonratana 1997 )\nthreats and conservation nearly all gibbon species are classified as endangered by the international union for the conservation of nature ( iucn ) . some species have been reduced to a few hundred individuals . the major threats to gibbons include habitat loss and destruction due to logging , clearing of land for agriculture , palm oil plantations and other forms of human development . hunting for food and for the pet trade is also having a negative impact on wild gibbon populations .\nclarke , e . , u . h . reichard , and k . zuberb\u00fchler . 2006 . the syntax and meaning of wild gibbon songs . plos one 1 ( 1 ) : e73 . retrieved january 18 , 2007 .\nin a study in the dieng mountains of central java , assuming the same reported average group size of 3 . 3 individuals / group as mentioned above ( kappeler 1984b cited in kool 1992 ) , the density of silvery gibbons was estimated to be 3 . 0 - 3 . 6 individuals / sq km ( 7 . 8 - 9 . 4 individuals / sq mi ) ( nijman & van balen 1998 )\nfrom 1994 - 2002 , nijman ( 2004 ) assessed the entirety of the silvery gibbon\u2019s population in its known areas of occurrence by using fixed - point counts and forest transect walks , as well as by a review of literature . their presence was detected by listening for gibbon song , and affirmed by local park officers and residents . he estimates that between 4 , 000\u20134 , 500 individuals remain in over 15 different locations . over 95 % of the gibbons are in populations of more than 100 individuals , and the four largest areas support populations of more than 500 individuals each ( nijman 2004 ) . asquith ( 2001 ) reported that in 1995 nine local populations had gone extinct , though nijman found two of these locales to still harbor silvery gibbons . this is attributed to the effects of habitat disturbance and low population density on calling frequency , and suggests an under - representation of gibbon abundance and number of remaining populations ( nijman 2004 ) . small populations of the species are likely to go extinct ; however , this will not impact the overall population estimate in the immediate future ( nijman pers . comm . ) . median population density ranges are 2 . 7 groups / km 2 or 9 . 0 individuals / km 2 in lowland forest ( < 500 m ) , 2 . 6 groups / km 2 or 8 . 6 individuals / km 2 for hill forest ( 500 - 1 , 000 m ) , and 0 . 6 groups / km 2 or 1 . 5 individuals / km 2 for lower montane forest ( 1000 - 1 , 750 m ) ( geissmann and nijman 2006 ; nijman 2004 ) .\nthe western black crested gibbon occurs in southwestern china , northwestern laos and nothern vietnam . only few relict populations still occur in this region , and only about 1 ' 300 - 2 ' 000 individuals survive . this species is critically endangered of extinction .\nthe javan gibbon has undergone a dramatic population decline principally as a result of habitat destruction ( 6 ) , and also from the trapping of juveniles for the pet trade ( 2 ) . the native forests of java have been cleared for logging , agriculture and development , and the species has declined to fewer than 1 , 000 individuals over the last 25 years ( 4 ) . this gibbon appears to be on the very brink of extinction with only a handful of isolated viable populations remaining ( 6 ) .\nthe hainan crested gibbon only occurs on the island of hainan in the south - chinese sea . as in all crested gibbons ( genus nomascus ) the fur of adult males is black , that of adult females is yellowish . the species has already lost more than 99 % of its original habitat . about 25 indiviudals of this species survive in the bawangling national nature reserve , i . e . in the last forest where this species is known to occur . this gibbon is , therefore , the rarest primate species of the world .\nthere are some protected forest areas , but often they are poorly managed and wildlife laws are not enforced effectively . rural poverty and lack of awareness of the threats facing the gibbons and their forests are additional causes for inadequate gibbon protection . lack of information is not just a local problem - the threats faced by the gibbons are largely unknown on an international level . their current status is extremely alarming ( see below ) , for example the rarest species of ape in the world is the hainan crested gibbon , of which there are less than 30 individuals remaining .\nvocal communication is prevalent in all gibbon species . mated pairs use duets to mark their territory and announce their presence to conspecifics . in addition to vocalizations , gibbons use facial expressions and body postures in communication . tactile communication is of some importance between mates , as well as between parents and their offspring .\naisquith 2001 , burton & pearson 1987 , cons . intl . , gates 2002 , gibbon research lab , iucn 1994 , iucn 1996 , iucn 2000 , iucn 2003a , iucn 2004 , kids ecol . corps , kool 1992 , macdonald 1984 , nijman & van balen 1998 , nowak & paradiso 1983 , schuhmacher 1967\ncheyne , susan m . : gibbon behaviour , feeding ecology and sociobiology . the orangutan tropical peatland project , cimtrop , kampus unpar , tanjung nyaho , jalan yos sudarso , palangka raya , central kalimantan , indonesia , 73112 . study site : sebangau national park , central kalimantan . project website : urltoken project blog : urltoken\nlike all gibbon genera hylobates are threatened with extinction and iucn states that the population trend of all hylobates species is negative . their classification as \u201cendangered\u201d indicates a reduction in population size of more than 50 % in the last 45 years ( 3 generations ) and also shows that populations are expected to decline further in the near future .\npileated gibbon : perhaps more than 35 , 000 in cambodia , smaller population in lao pdr , 13 , 000 - 14 , 000 in thailand ( traeholt et al . 2005 ; duckworth et al . 1999 ; tunhikorn et al . 1994 ; brockelman & srikosamatara 1993 ; phoonjampa & brockelman unpub . data ( cf . iucn redlist ) )\nhylobates means\ndweller in the trees\n. silvery gibbons spend most of their lives in the tree tops . they prefer the dense and close canopy of undisturbed primary forest . their diet consists mainly of fruit , although it will also eat flowers and young leaves . they need a wide variety of tree species which will fruit at different times of the year to support them . they spend their day on the move , foraging through their territory , sometimes stopping to eat at a tree with fruit . they move quietly through the canopy , the only sign that they are there is a moving branch or a piece of falling fruit .\ngibbons produce amazing songs that can be heard up to 2 miles away . these songs are the most complex of all land mammals and are thought to be used to establish territory boundaries as well as for attracting a mate . mated pairs also sing together in beautiful duets that can advertise and even strengthen their bond . gibbon pairs can be identified by their particular song .\nthe silvery gibbons are small apes , weighing 13 pounds ( 6 kg ) , have no tail , and are known as lesser apes . they have long arms and fingers , and lean bodies which are specially adapted to swing below the branches suspended by their arms . they hook their fingers over a branch , not grabbing it , and sometimes make long swings and let go of the branches entirely . their dense , silver - grey fur is quite long , giving them a fluffy look . both males and females have the same coloring . a white or light grey fringe surrounds their rather dark face , and both have a dark gray to black cap .\nthe eastern black crested gibbons only survives in one forest area extending from northeastern vietnam ( cao bang province ) to neigbouring china ( guangxi province ) . the species has already lost more than 99 % of its original habitat . only about 100 individuals survive in the last piece of remaining habitat . this gibbon is , therefore , the second - rarest primate species of the world .\nthey are masters of brachiation , swinging from branch to branch for airborne distances of up to 15 meters ( 50 ft ) and achieving speeds as high as 56 km / h ( 35 mph ) . they can also walk bipedally with their arms raised for balance . one unique aspect of gibbon physiology is the ball and socket joint forming the wrist connecting the hand with the forearm . in comparison with the wrist of humans as an aid for swinging from hand to hand , the gibbon ' s ball - joint wrist greatly reduces both the amount of energy needed in the upper arm and torso and the stress on the shoulder joint . brachiation in gibbons is further aided by their long hands and feet , with a deep cleft between the first and second digits of their hands .\nthe northern white - cheeked crested gibbon is distributed in northern vietnam and northern laos . it orignally occured in the southernmost part of china ' s yunnan province , too , but became extinct there around the year 2000 . although no population estimate is available for this species , it is continuously disapearing from one known locality of its distribution area after another . this species is critically endangered of extinction .\nsilvery gibbons have small , stable territories of about 42 acres ( 17 ha ) and the female will sing her song bout several times during the day to declare their territory . she will climb to the top of one of several singing trees to give her great call . the male of the mated pair will sit quietly , scanning the surrounding forest for intruders , while a sub - adult female may join her mother in a softer , high - pitched voice . strangers , hearing the great call of the resident female , hurry off in the opposite direction . if spotted , it is the resident male ' s duty to chase them off with a great show of crashing branches and incessant loud single screams .\nthis species is endangered . the biggest threat to gibbons is deforestation of the tropical rainforests . habitats are disappearing at an astonishing rate due to logging and agricultural demands . without a sufficient range , gibbon species , along with other tropical species , are finding it much harder to exist . in an effort to help save these primates , reserves and parks are created , but there is no conservation program specifically for\nseveral gibbon species are threatened by imminent extinction in the very near future . gibbons not only include the most endangered apes but also the most endangered primate species of the world . the main reasons for this are habitat loss and degradation , hunting and illegal trade . preservation of the tropical forest is imperative to gibbon survival - if it disappears , so do the gibbons . in china , for instance , the gibbons have already lost 99 % of their habitat . in addition , they are hunted for food and for use in local medicine . also , the illegal pet trade is thriving across the whole of southeast asia . young gibbons are popular pets , but in order to obtain a young animal , its mother must be shot down from the tree tops . often both mother and infant are killed in this process .\nthe major threats to the gibbons are deforestation , habitat loss and hunting . habitat is greatly reduced by deforestation and drainage of swamps ; and coffee , oil palm , rubber and other crop plantations are all expanding industries . the rising price of coffee at the end of the 1990\u00b4s led to the increased development of coffee plantations and this aggravated the decline of the agile gibbon in sumatra . agricultural conversion and infrastructural development in general have led to the building of roads , even in protected areas , and also to the creation of new human settlements . consequently forest clearing takes place , leading to defragmentation and strip building , while simultaneously increasing access for hunters into gibbon habitat . gibbons are hunted for subsistence and also for illegal trade in the pet market ( especially young animals ) and this results in a loss of mature individuals , further exacerbating the problem .\none unique aspect of gibbon physiology contributing significantly to its remarkable brachiation capabilities is the ball and socket joint forming the wrist connecting the hand with the forearm . in comparison with the wrist of humans as an aid for swinging from hand to hand , the gibbon ' s ball - joint wrist greatly reduces both the amount of energy needed in the upper arm and torso and the stress on the shoulder joint . brachiation in gibbons is further aided by their long hands and feet , with a deep cleft between the first and second digits of their hands . their fur is usually black , gray , or brownish , often with white markings on hands , feet , and face . some species have an enlarged throat sac , which inflates and serves as a resonating chamber when the animals call . this structure is enormous in a few species , equaling the size of the animal ' s head .\ngibbons reach maturity at approximately 6 - 8 years of age . they produce offspring about once every two to three years after a gestation period of 7 to 8 months . females generally give birth to a single offspring . infants have the ability to cling to their mothers immediately after birth , which allows females complete range of motion while moving through the forest . males of most gibbon species will participate in caring for the offspring once they are weaned .\ngibbon taxonomy has undergone a number of revisions in recent years . traditionally , they have been placed in the genus hylobates as can be seen in the taxonomies of groves ( 1997 ) , goodman ( 1999 ) , wilson and reeder ( 1993 ) , nowark and walker ( 1991 ) , and napier and napier ( 1985 ) . goodman ( 1999 ) further separated the siamangs into their own genus , symphalangus , but the other taxonomies all included the siamangs in the genus hylobates .\nin light of the status of this species in the wild , a javan gibbon rescue and rehabilitation workshop was conducted in 1997 hosted by conservation international and the university of indonesia ( 2 ) . it was agreed that a rescue and rehabilitation centre was needed and education programmes were proposed ( 5 ) . currently , the only viable protected population is found within the gunung halimun national park ; if this attractive primate is to survive it is vital that protection both within the park and in other areas is increased ( 6 ) .\ngibbon skulls resemble those of the great apes , with very short rostra , enlarged braincases , and large orbits that face forward . gibbons have the typical nose of catarrhine primates with nostrils that are close together and face forward and slightly downward . they lack cheek pouches and their stomach is not sacculated . their teeth also are similar to the great apes , with molars that are bunodont and lack lophs . the upper molars usually have a cingulum , which is sometimes large . the canines are prominent but not sexually dimorphic . the dental formula is :\njavan gibbons have been protected throughout their range by indonesian law since 1924 , and are listed under cites appendix i . three of the 15 locales that support the largest populations of silvery gibbons surveyed by nijman are in national parks , while five are part of , or the entirety of , so - called \u201cstrict nature reserves\u201d . the remaining seven locales are unprotected ; approximately half of the remaining populations collectively reside here . in the interest of this species , it is these areas that require some level of increased protection ( nijman 2004 ) . the second largest population of this species ( for example in the dieng mountains ) is not in a protected area . in 2003 , 56 javan gibbons were maintained at eight indonesian zoos , 15 at four indonesian wildlife rescue centers , with five potential breeding pairs . there is no evidence that the species has bred successfully in captivity in indonesia . outside the range country , 48 javan gibbons were maintained at ten institutions in nine countries , with six breeding pairs . the total ex - situ population is some 120 individuals , the majority of which are wild - caught ( nijman 2006 ) .\nthe protection status of the seven species and their habitats is very different . there are a number of protected areas but not all populations live within these areas and the actual level of protection and law enforcement , especially in remote areas , is questionable ( cf . threads ) . multiple actions are necessary to halt the decline of the hylobates populations . firstly , management of protected areas needs to be improved and conservation activities must be enlarged to control logging ( legal and illegal ) and development activities in protected areas . further , better land management should be implemented , for example community based management programs together with educational efforts could help to change the hunting behaviour of local villagers and to better integrate human needs and habitat protection . gibbon breeding centres have also been suggested as a way to increase population numbers . survey efforts are also of great importance since one of the current issues is a lack of survey data and reliable population estimates . these data could also be used to help establish public awareness campaigns and inform the broader public about the alarming situation of the hylobates .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\n1994 : systematik der gibbons . zeitschrift des k\u00f6lner zoo 37 , 65 - 77 .\n, 1 species ) . a key for the identification of adult gibbons based on visual characteristics is presented , together with distribution maps of all recognised species . a detailed description of fur colour variation and colour photographs of all species are presented in the\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as endangered because its population size is estimated to number fewer than 2 , 500 mature individuals , there is an observed continuing decline in the number of mature individuals , and no subpopulation contains more than 250 mature individuals . the change in status from critically endangered to endangered reflects the availability of better information and does not suggest that the threats have decreased ; in fact , threats continue to increase but do not yet reach the level necessary to be classified as critically endangered . there is concern about the legal status of the largest populations ; this species , therefore , should be periodically reassessed so that current status and persistent threats are monitored .\nhylobates moloch is endemic to java ( indonesia ) . it is mostly confined to java\u2019s western provinces ( banten and west java ) , but is also present in central java ( as far east as the dieng mountains ) .\nhylobates moloch resides in floristically rich patches of relatively undisturbed lowland to lower montane rainforest mostly below 1 , 600 m , but sometimes up to 2 , 000\u20132 , 400 m ( nijman 2004 ) . it can also tolerate moderately disturbed forest . the species is strictly arboreal and diurnal , and mainly frugivorous ( kappeler 1981 , 1984 ) . home ranges in ujung kulon cover about 17 ha ( kappeler 1981 , 1984 ) . inter - birth intervals in wild gibbons are typically 3 - 3 . 5 years ( leighton 1987 ; palombit 1992 ) , and age of sexual maturity and / or the age of dispersal in wild gibbons is about 8 - 10 years ( brockelman et al . 1998 ; geissmann 1991 ) , but the age at first reproduction may be about 10 - 12 years ( brockelman et al . 1998 )\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352"]}
{"id": 518, "summary": [{"text": "the arizona night lizard ( xantusia arizonae ) is a small smooth-skinned gray-brown lizard with dark spots that sometimes form partial lines down the back .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the lizard has a slightly flattened head .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the scales of the underside and tail are larger than those of the upper side .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the lizard grows to a length of 6 to 10 cm .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "despite its name , the arizona night lizard is primarily active during the day .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the lizard 's range extends across west-central arizona .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is usually found in rock crevices or under plant debris .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "its diet consists of insects and spiders .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the young of the lizard are born live , usually one or two around august or september .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "as the lizard tends not to move about and generally avoids humans , not much is known about it . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "arizona night lizard", "paragraphs": ["x . henshawi - granite night lizard x . gracilis - sandstone night lizard x . vigilis - desert night lizard x . r . reticulata - san clemente night lizard\nx . henshawi - granite night lizard x . gracilis - sandstone night lizard x . sierrae - sierra night lizard x . r . reticulata - san clemente night lizard x . wigginsi - baja california night lizard\nwelcome to our desert night lizard webpage for owners and desert night lizard enthusiasts . desert night lizard information - it is a secretive lizard of arid and semi - arid locales . more\narizona night lizard by lambert m . surhone , mariam t . tennoe , susan f . henssonow\narizona night lizard ( xantusia arizonae ) arizona | united states of america , ( usa or u . s . a . ) | pinterest | lizards and reptiles\nthe desert night lizard xantusia vigilis is a night lizard native to southern california east of the sierras and san gabriel mountains into baja california , southern nevada , southwestern utah and extreme western arizona . more\nthe desert night lizard , xantusia vigilis , is a night lizard native to southern california east of the sierras and san gabriel mountains into baja california , southern nevada , southwestern utah and extreme western arizona .\nusa ( w / c arizona ) type locality : yarnell , yavapai county , arizona .\nthis desert night lizard is diligently looking for food . page 1 subscribe to the lizard lounge rss feed subscribe bookmark and share more\na funny thing about me is that i love to be out and about during the day even though i am called the arizona night lizard .\nthe desert night lizard is rarely found outside cover . feeding ecology and diet the desert night lizard is insectivorous , feeding primarily on ants and beetles within the confines of yucca logs and agaves . more\nthe durango night lizard is a diminutive lizard found in the mexican state of durango . it is usually found in niches of agave and yucca plants .\nhi , i ' m the arizona night lizard or sometimes i am called xantusia arizonae . i am commonly found in yavapai county in arizona . i love to explore rocky terrain and hide under boulders or dead dry plants .\ngoldberg , stephen r . and robert l . bezy . 2014 . xantusia arizonae ( arizona night lizard ) reproduction . herpetological review 45 ( 3 ) : 508 - 509\nthe desert night lizard feeds on ants , flies , beetles , a variety of other insects , and spiders .\nbezy , r . l . 1967 . variation , distribution , and taxonomic status of the arizona night lizard ( xantusia arizonae ) . copeia 1967 ( 3 ) : 653 - 661 - get paper here\nsome of the endemic reptiles are the southern alligator lizard ( elgaria multicarinata ) and the yucca night lizard ( xantusia vigilis ) . other reptilian taxa found in the sierra de la laguna pine - oak forests include the baja california rock lizard ( petrosaurus thalassinus ) , baja california rattlesnake ( crotalus enyo ) and the baja california brush lizard ( urosaurus nigricaudus ) .\nbezy , r . l . , 2005 . the night lizards ( xantusia ) of arizona . sonoran herpetologist . 18 ( 2 ) 14 - 19 .\nthe vertical pupil of desert night lizards , like cat ' s eyes , give them away as creatures of the night and dark places . night lizards are live - bearing , with one to three young per brood . more\nthe desert night lizard is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\nbezy , r . l . 2005 . the night lizards ( xantusia ) of arizona . sonoran herpetologist 18 ( 2 ) : 14 - 19 . - get paper here\nthe desert night lizard is small ( maximum snout - vent length , 1 . 5 in ) and has vertically elliptical pupils lacking eyelids . the lizard is covered with small , granular dorsal scales and 12 longitudinal rows of ventral scales . more\ndesert night lizard elsewhere on the web * wikipedia edit and show details add or delete facts , download data in json or rdf formats , and explore topic metadata . more\nnabhan , gary p . gathering the desert . tucson : university of arizona press , 1985 .\ndesert night lizard xantusia vigilis description : a small ( up to 57 mm or 2 . 25\nfrom snout to vent ) , soft - skinned lizard with small , dark spots or flecks on a light tan , gray - brown , olive gray , or dark gray background . more\ncomments : inactive in cold temperatures and extreme heat . may be active at night during the summer .\nhanson , roseann beggy and jonathan hanson . southern arizona nature almanac . boulder : pruett publishing co , 1996 .\nlike all night lizards , the desert night lizard is viviparous , giving birth to live young and producing 1 to 3 young from august to december . the desert night lizard attains a snout - to - vent length ( svl ) of 1 . 5 to 2 . 75 in ( 3 . 8 to 7 . 0 cm ) with a tail roughly the same length . the lizard ' s coloring is usually gray , yellow - brownish , or olive . despite their name , night lizards are active during the day . they are known to easily to change their color , from light olive ( usually during the evening ) to dark brown during the day . it is a good climber and usually eats termites , small insects , spiders and other arthropods .\nthe night lizards , genus xantusia , have small granular scales on soft skin . xantusia henshawi is shown here .\nhelminths of night lizards in the genus xantusia ( squamata : xantusiidae ) and the effects of host eco . . .\nthe desert night lizard is from the order squamata . species from this order are amphisbaenians , lizards or snakes . there are over 6 , 000 living species belonging to the squamata order - it is the largest order of all reptiles . more\na view of some desert night lizards , discovered underneath dead joshua tree branches in the desert , close up and in motion .\nthe tail breaks off easily and continues wriggling to distract would - be predators long enough for the lizard to run away .\npapenfuss , t . j . , macey , j . r . & schulte ii , j . a . 2001 . a new lizard in the genus xantusia from arizona . scientific papers of the natural history museum , university of kansas ( 23 ) : 1 - 9\nseveral subspecies of xantusia vigilis are traditionally recognized , including two in california - x . v . vigilis , and x . v . sierrae . using nuclear dna studies , leavitt et al , 2007 , provide support for the recognition of new species within the x . vigilis complex , including x . wigginsi in california , but they continue to recognize the subspecies x . v . vigilis and x . v . sierrae . in addition , they identify several major clades , four of which occur in california - x . vigilis , x . wigginsi ( now a full species ) , a yucca valley clade , and a san jacinto clade . the 2008 society for the study of amphibians and reptiles standard names list uses x . vigilis based on sinclair et . al ( 2004 , am . nat . 164 : 396 - 141 ) . alternate and previous names ( synonyms ) xantusia vigilis vigilis - yucca night lizard ( stebbins 2003 ) xantusia vigilis vigilis - common night lizard ( stebbins 1985 ) xantusia vigilis vigilis - desert night lizard ( stebbins 1966 ) xantusia vigilis - yucca night lizard ( stebbins 1954 )\nthe detached tail of a desert night lizard wriggles on the ground . ( it kept wriggling for almost 4 minutes . ) many species of lizards release their tail when they want to escape from a potential predator . the tail then continues to wriggle like a living creature . more\nbowers , janice e . a full life in a small place and other essays from a desert garden . tucson , university of arizona press , 1993 .\nthe following status listings are copied from the april 2018 special animals list and the 2017 endangered and threatened animals list , both of which are published by the california department of fish and wildlife . if no status is listed here , the animal is not included on either cdfw list . this most likely indicates that there are no serious conservation concerns for the animal . to find out more about an animal ' s status , you can go to the natureserve and iucn websites to check their rankings . check here to see the most current complete lists . formerly listed as the subspecies xantusia vigilis sierrae - sierra night lizard , this lizard is now listed as the full species xantusia sierrae - sierra night lizard .\nnorthwestern border , up the western grand canyon to the vicinity of powell plateau , and down into several mountain ranges in southwestern arizona . it occurs at elevations ranging from about 150 m ( 500 ' ) in southwestern arizona to nearly 2 , 000 m ( 7 , 000 ' ) on the peaks of our northwestern ranges .\nthis adult lizard dropped its tail as a defesive measure . ( you can see the tail wriggling after it was dropped off in the video below . )\nthe detached tail of a desert night lizard wriggles on the ground . ( it kept wriggling for almost 4 minutes . ) many species of lizards release their tail when they want to escape from a potential predator . the tail then continues to wriggle like a living creature . the aim is to momentarily distract the predator away from the lizard ' s vulnerable body , allowing it to escape , while the predator is left holding or trying to catch the expendable tail . this tail dropping is called\nautotomy .\nlosing the tail does not seriously harm the lizard , and may save its life , but the loss of a tail might have a negative effect on the lizard ' s social standing . dropped tails do grow back , but these regenerated tails are often not as long or as perfect as the original .\ndue to its small range , the sierra night lizard is very suceptible to any habitat alteration . this lizard needs exfoliated and fissured granite outcrops to survive . it takes thousands of years for this exfoliation and fissuring to occur , so this habitat will not be replaced for many centuries . when flakes and slabs are torn off rock outcrops by someone searching for this lizard or other reptiles , the habitat is irreparably damaged . such rock destruction is illegal in california :\nit is unlawful to use any method or means of collecting that involves breaking apart of rocks , granite flakes , logs or other shelters in or under which reptiles may be found .\n( 2007 regulations 5 . 60 . 4 . ) however , this does not protect the lizard from other sources of rock destruction including human development of its habitat .\nleavitt , dean h . ; robert l . bezy , keith a . crandall and jack w . sites jr 2007 . multi - locus dna sequence data reveal a history of deep cryptic vicariance and habitat - driven convergence in the desert night lizard xantusia vigilis species complex ( squamata : xantusiidae ) . molecular ecology 16 : 4455\u20134481 - get paper here\nthere is a smaller group of annual species that grow only in response to summer rains . annual devil\u2019s claw ( proboscidea parviflora ) and arizona poppy ( kallstroemia grandiflora ) are among the few showy ones .\nlittle is known about this lizard ' s reproduction . related california xantusiids breed in late spring and the young are born live , 1 - 3 per brood , from august to october .\njones , k . b . ; abbas , d . r . & bergstedt , t . 1981 . herpetological records from central and northeastern arizona . herpetological review 12 ( 1 ) : 16 - get paper here\nis found in several mountain ranges within sonoran desertscrub . it inhabits rugged slopes and boulder fields and shelters under dead plants such as agave , yucca , and prickly pear and , in northwestern arizona , in rock crevices .\na small thin lizard with soft skin with fine granular scales on most of the body , a head covered with large plates , lidless eyes with vertical pupils , a gular fold , and a detachable tail . the head and body tend to be flattened , an adaptation to this lizard ' s rock - crevice habitat . dorsal scales in 40 - 44 lengthwise rows at mid - body .\nklauber , laurence m . 1931 . a new species of xantusia from arizona , with a synopsis of the genus . transactions of the san diego society of natural history 7 ( 1 ) : 1 - 16 - get paper here\nlittle is known about the diet of this lizard . presumably it is similar to other related california xantusiids , which eat small invertebrates such as ants , termites , beetles , caterpillars , crickets , and spiders .\ni am commonly found in the yavapai county of arizona . i love rocky terrain with big boulders to build my home under . i also can find shelter in small crevices between rocks or under dead plants like a prickly pear or yucca .\nunusually for a lizard it forms family social groups with a father - mother pair and offspring , which may delay dispersing for years . the young are capable of feeding themselves but will huddle together with their relatives .\nthis species is endemic to the southwestern united states . the range includes only a small area in arizona ; a recent taxonomic change that recognized x . arizonae as a distinct species and that described a new species ( x . bezyi ) in arizona ( papenfuss et al . 2001 ) did not precisely define the range of x . arizonae . a phylogeographic analysis of xantusia by sinclair et al . ( 2004 ) determined that x . arizonae has a smaller range than depicted by stebbins ( 2003 ) .\nwhen frightened , runs away quickly and dashes under cover . the tail breaks off easily and continues wriggling to distract would - be predators as the lizard runs away as you can see in this video . this does not hurt the lizard , although it might suffer from the stress of attempted predation , the loss of fatty energy that is stored in the tail , and have difficulties finding a mate during breeding season due to a less healthy appearance .\nthe range extends from southern utah , western and central arizona , southern nevada , and southern california south to southwestern sonora and throughout most of baja california , mexico ( grismer 2002 , stebbins 2003 ) . some arizona populations formerly included in this species are now regarded as x . arizonae and x . bezyi ( papenfuss et al . 2001 ) . a population in northern durango is now recognized as x . extorrus . see feldman et al . ( 2003 ) for discussion of distribution in the southern sierra nevada region of california .\nin the spring it is time for me to think about having new little night lizards . i will mate in the spring and then in the late summer i will have one or maybe two babies . wow , they can keep me busy !\nvicario , saverio ; adalgisa caccone and jacques gauthier 2003 . xantusiid\nnight\nlizards : a puzzling phylogenetic problem revisited using likelihood - based bayesian methods on mtdna sequences . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 26 ( 2 ) : 243 - 261 - get paper here\ndesert night lizards have a lot of personality , and stalk their insect prey with a cat - like twitching tail . take care if you must handle them , for they may try to escape your grasp , and can be very wiggly . . . more\np rotection stored water in an arid environment requires protection from thirsty animals . most succulent plants are spiny , bitter , or toxic , and often all three . some unarmed , nontoxic species are restricted to inaccessible locations . smooth prickly pear ( opuntia phaeacantha var . laevis ) and live - forever ( dudleya spp . ) grow on vertical cliffs or within the canopies of armored plants . still others rely on camouflage ; arizona night - blooming cereus ( peniocereus greggii ) closely resembles the dry stems of the shrubs in which it grows .\n\u00a9 2018 arizona - sonora desert museum 2021 n . kinney rd . , tucson az 85743 u . s . a . directions \u00b7 hours & rates \u00b7 520 . 883 . 2702 \u00b7 info @ urltoken jobs & volunteers \u00b7 contact \u00b7 faq \u00b7 privacy \u00b7 terms & conditions \u00b7 accessibility\nfirst locality records for mono county were published in 2016 ( herpetological review 47 ( 3 ) , 2016 ) extending the range to the northernmost localities for the species west of utah . the range extends east of california into nevada , arizona , and extreme southwest utah and south barely into mexico .\ni am a petite lizard that can fit in the palm of your hand . i spend my days sunbathing on rocks very close to dwelling to keep warm throughout the day . i will hide under rocks to keep my safe from predators that want to eat me .\na small thin lizard with soft skin with fine granular scales on most of the body , a head covered with large plates , lidless eyes with vertical pupils , a gular fold , and a detachable tail . dorsal scales in 30 - 50 lengthwise rows at mid - body .\nit is a secretive lizard of arid and semi - arid locales . during the day it may be found under fallen debris of desert plants and in rock crevices . it is usually associated with varieties of yucca such as the joshua tree , spanish dagger , and spanish bayonet .\nxantusia vigilis - baird , 1858 - proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , vol . 10 , p . 255 xantusia vigilis sierrae - bezy , 1967 - journ . arizona acad . sci . , vol . 4 , p . 163 from original description citations for the reptiles and amphibians of north america \u00a9 ellin beltz\ncontinent : middle - america north - america distribution : usa ( s california , s nevada , s utah , w / c arizona ) , mexico ( e durango , baja california ) extorris : durango , zacatecas gilberti : mexico ( baja california sur ) ; type locality : san francisquito , sierra laguna , lower california . type locality : fort tejon , california .\nthis lizard lives in arid and semi - arid habitats among fallen leaves and trunks of yuccas , agaves , cacti , and other large plants , also in crevices of rock outcroppings and under logs and bark of foothill pines ; it ranges locally into pinyon - juniper , sagebrush - blackbrush , and chaparral - oak ( stebbins 2003 ) .\ncomments : this lizard lives in arid and semiarid habitats among fallen leaves and trunks of yuccas , agaves , cacti , and other large plants , also in crevices of rock outcroppings and under logs and bark of foothill pines ; it ranges locally into pinyon - juniper , sagebrush - blackbrush , and chaparral - oak ( stebbins 2003 ) .\nglobal range : ( 20 , 000 - 2 , 500 , 000 square km ( about 8000 - 1 , 000 , 000 square miles ) ) the range extends from southern utah , western arizona , southern nevada , and southern california south to southwestern sonora and baja california ( grismer 2002 , stebbins 2003 ) . some arizona populations formerly included in this species are now regarded as x . arizonae , x . bezyi , and x . wigginsi ( papenfuss et al . 2001 , sinclair et al . 2004 , leavitt et al . 2007 ) . a population in northern durango is of uncertain taxonomic status ( bezy and flores villela 1999 ) . see feldman et al . ( 2003 , herpetol . rev . 34 : 167 ) for discussion of distribution in the southern sierra nevada region of california .\nlittle is known about this lizard . presumably it is similar to other california xantusiids , being diurnal ( contrary to the common name ) and crepuscular . it is certainly secretive - spending most of its life undercover , and a specialized rock - crevice dweller , living under flakes of granite on rocky outcrops and in rock crevices . it is not typically active on the surface away from cover .\nnoonan , brice p . ; jennifer b . pramuk , robert l . bezy , elizabeth a . sinclair , kevin de queiroz , jack w . sites jr . 2013 . phylogenetic relationships within the lizard clade xantusiidae : using trees and divergence times to address evolutionary questions at multiple levels . molecular phylogenetics and evolution , volume 69 , issue 1 , october 2013 , pages 109\u2013122 - get paper here\nwater scarcity is the most important\u2014but not the only\u2014environmental challenge to desert organisms . the aridity allows the sun to shine unfiltered through the clear atmosphere continuously from sunrise to sunset . this intense solar radiation produces very high summer temperatures which are lethal to nonadapted plants . at night much of the accumulated heat radiates through the same clear atmosphere and the temperature drops dramatically . daily fluctuations of 40\u00b0f ( 22\u00b0c ) are not uncommon when the humidity is very low .\ni am a petite lizard that can fit in the palm of your hand . i have little rectangular scales that cover my body . i have small blotches on soft light olive or yellow skin . i enjoy sunbathing on the rocks very close to my shelter to keep warm during the day . my diet includes a variety of spiders and insects . in the late summer i will have one or two babies to keep me busy .\ndescribed by bezy in 1967 . several subspecies of xantusia vigilis are traditionally recognized , including two in california - x . v . vigilis x . v . sierrae using nuclear dna studies , leavitt et al , 2007 , provide support for the recognition of new species within the x . vigilis complex , including x . wigginsi in california , but they continue to recognize the subspecies x . v . vigilis and x . v . sierrae . in addition , they identify several major clades , four of which occur in california - x . vigilis , x . wigginsi ( now a full species ) , a yucca valley clade , and a san jacinto clade . the 2008 society for the study of amphibians and reptiles standard names list uses x . sierrae based on sinclair et . al ( 2004 , am . nat . 164 : 396 - 141 ) . alternate and previous names ( synonyms ) xantusia vigilis sierrae - sierra night lizard ( stebbins 1985 , 2003 )\nmany succulents possess a water - efficient variant of photosynthesis called cam , an acronym for crassulacean acid metabolism . the first word refers to the stonecrop family ( crassulaceae ) in which the phenomenon was first discovered . ( dudleya is in this family , as are hen - and - chickens and jade plant . ) cam plants open their stomates for gas exchange at night and store carbon dioxide in the form of an organic acid . during the day the stomates are closed and the plants are nearly completely sealed against water loss ; photosynthesis is conducted using the stored carbon dioxide . at night the temperatures are lower and humidity higher than during the day , so less water is lost through transpiration . plants using cam lose about one - tenth as much water per unit of carbohydrate synthesized as do those using standard c3 photosynthesis . but there is a trade - off : the overall rate of photosynthesis is slower , so cam plants grow more slowly than most c3 plants . ( an additional limitation is the reduced photosynthetic surface area of most succulents compared with \u201cordinary\u201d plants . )\nwildflower spectacles like the one described above are rare events . mass germination and prolific growth depend on rains that are both earlier and more plentiful than normal . the dazzling displays featured in photographic journals and on postcards occur about once a decade in a given place . in the six decades between 1940 and 1998 there have been only four documented drop - everything - and - go - see - it displays in southern arizona : 1941 , 1978 , 1979 , and 1998 . during that period only the displays of 1978 and 1998 were widespread throughout both the sonoran and mohave deserts .\nwinter annuals provide most of the color for our famous wildflower shows . woody perennials and succulents can be individually beautiful , but their adaptive strategies require them to be widely - spaced , so they usually don\u2019t create masses of color . a couple of exceptions are brittlebush when it occurs in pure stands , and exten sive woodlands of foothill palo verde ( cercidium microphyllum ) . the most common of the showy winter annuals that contribute to these displays in southern arizona are mexican gold poppy ( eschscholtzia mexicana ) , lupine ( lupinus sparsiflorus ) , and owl - clover ( castilleja exserta , formerly orthocarpus purpurascens ) .\ni conducted a wildlife survey in the lower colorado river valley in the 1970s . the site had received almost no biologically effective rainfall for three years . creosote bushes were almost the only plants present ; they were widely - spaced and had shed most of their leaves . yet in the kilometer ( 6 / 10 mile ) long by fifty meter ( 150 foot ) wide transect i trapped one pocket mouse overnight , and in the morning observed a whiptail lizard , a rock wren , and two black - throated sparrows . these are all resident species ; not transitory migrants . what were they living on ?\nt rees and large shrubs are fairly dependable bloomers , though flowers will be sparse in dry years . creosote bush ( larrea tridentata ) and whitethorn acacia ( acacia constricta , shown here ) both bloom mainly in spring and sometimes again in summer . blue palo verde ( cercidium floridum ) turns bright yellow in late april , followed two weeks later by the much more abundant but paler yellow foothills palo verde ( c . microphyllum ) . desert ironwood trees ( olneya tesota ) bloom heavily about every other year with masses of lavender flowers , usually in late may . the abundant ocotillo reliably produces spikes of red flowers throughout april . these species bloom about two weeks earlier in western arizona .\nthe spring flowering season in the arizona upland subdivision spans from mid february to mid june with a peak from mid march to late april depending on rainfall and temperatures during the growing season . in the warmest areas of the lower colorado river valley subdivision it is normally a couple of weeks earlier , though it sometimes starts as early as november . the different life forms which dominate at different times vary in their showyness and reliability . the early - blooming winter annuals can create an incredible display , but do so only rarely . later - blooming species bloom more dependably , but mostly not in great masses of color . the progression of spring bloom described below is for average years near tucson . it may be three weeks earlier or later depending on weather , elevation , and latitude .\npapenfuss et al . ( 2001 ) examined genetic and morphological variation of xantusia and reviewed allozyme data from bezy and sites ( 1987 ) . they concluded that three species are represented in arizona : xantusia vigilis , a yucca - dwelling species ; x . arizonae , a granite - adapted species ; and x . bezyi ( newly described ) , another granite - associated species . crother et al . ( 2003 ) listed x . bezyi and x . vigilis as distinct species but included arizonae as a subspecies of x . vigilis . stebbins ( 2003 ) mentioned the taxonomic changes proposed by papenfuss et al . but did not adopt them . sinclair et al . ( 2004 ) examined phylogeographic patterns in xantusia and concluded that x . bezyi is a valid species ( but more widely distributed than previously known ) and that x . arizonae has a smaller range than previously understood .\nanother diversity - promoting phenomenon is temporal niche separation : the mix of species at the same location changes from year to year . seeds of the various species have different germination requirements . the time of the season ( which influences temperature ) and quantity of the first germination - triggering rain determines which species will dominate , or even be present at all in that year . of the three most common annuals of southern arizona listed above , any one may occur in a nearly pure stand on a given hillside in different years , and occasionally all three are nearly equally abundant . this interpretation of the cause of these year - to - year variations is a hypothesis based on decades of empirical observation . much more research is needed to discover the ecological requirements of most species of desert annuals . and of course the sonoran desert\u2019s two rainy seasons provide two major temporal niches . summer and winter annuals almost never overlap .\nthe annual habit is a very successful strategy for warm - arid climates . there are no annual plants in the polar regions or the wet tropics . in the polar zones the growing season is too short to complete a life cycle . in both habitats the intense competition for suitable growing sites favors longevity . ( once you\u2019ve got it , you should hang onto it . ) annuals become common only in communities that have dry seasons , where the perennials are widely spaced because they must command a large soil area to survive the drier years . in the occasional wetter years , both open space and moisture are available to be exploited by plants that can do so rapidly . the more arid the habitat , the greater the proportion of annual species in north america . ( the percentage decreases in the extremely arid parts of the saharan - arabian region . ) half of the sonoran desert\u2019s flora is comprised of annual species . in the driest habitats , such as the sandy flats near yuma , arizona , up to ninety percent of the plants are annuals .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category ( its populations are probably stable ) .\nthis species is represented by at least several distinct occuurrences or subpopulations . sinclair et al . ( 2004 ) mapped six collection sites . the total adult population size is unknown . population trends have not been documented but presumably are relatively stable .\nthis species is found under exfoliating rock in granite outcrops ( pappenfuss et al . 2001 ) .\nthe level of protection is uncertain , but the rocky habitat is not readily convertible to destructive human uses . better information is needed on the current conservation status of this species .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\nwe request that if you make use of the textual contents of this site in reports , publications , etc . that you cite and credit the author ( s ) and photographer ( s ) . all photos on this website are copyrighted . however , those found in the species account and habitat sections may be used for any noncommercial scientific , educational , or conservation purposes provided that photographs are not altered and continue to bear the copyright symbol and name of the photographer . please contact the photographer regarding commercial use of copyrighted photographs .\ndaytime activity takes place under the cover of rocks or plant debris . crevice - dwelling individuals thermoregulate by basking near the sun - warmed edge of the crevice or under sun - warmed rocks .\nlive bearing . mating presumably takes place in spring and a brood of 1\u20133 young is born in summer .\nstebbins , r . c . 2003 . a field guide to western reptiles and amphibians , third edition . houghton mifflin company , boston , ma .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmy favorite things to eat are spiders and insects . my diet includes juicy beetles , ants and flies if i can catch them . yum ! ! !\ni have small blotches that cover my body like tiny freckles . my skin is soft to the touch and is usually a light olive or yellow background . this helps me to blend in with the rocks and helps me hide from predators . i can grow anywhere between 6 and 10 cm in length . my head is slightly flat and wide and it almost looks like a plate . my eyes do not have lids and my pupils are vertical .\nyou did a great job working on this lesson today . i hope that you had a wonderful time learning about me . so , let\u2019s have fun doing an activity about me . you can work with your friends , parents or teacher . i want you to create a clay model of me . try to include as many of my features that you learned about in the model . after you let your model dry you may paint it too . have fun ! ! !\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nitis reports - - itis ( the integrated taxonomic information system ) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\nxantusia arizonae klauber 1931 xantusia arizonae \u2014 klauber 1938 xantusia vigilis arizonae \u2014 bezy 1967 xantusia vigilis arizonae \u2014 stebbins 1985 xantusia arizonae \u2014 papenfuss et al . 2001 xantusia arizonae \u2014 vicario et al . 2003 xantusia arizonae \u2014 sinclair et al . 2004 xantusia arizonae \u2014 leavitt et al . 2007\ncrother , b . i . ( ed . ) 2012 . standard common and current scientific names for north american amphibians , turtles , reptiles , and crocodilians , seventh edition . herpetological circular 39 : 1 - 92\njones , l . l . & lovich , r . e . 2009 . lizards of the american southwest . a photographic field guide . rio nuevo publishers , tucson , az , 568 pp . [ review in reptilia 86 : 84 ] - get paper here\nklauber , laurence m . 1938 . notes from a herpetological diary , i . copeia 1938 ( 4 ) : 191 - 197 - get paper here\nklauber , laurence m . 1940 . notes from a herpetological diary , ii . copeia 1940 ( 1 ) : 15 - 18 - get paper here\nsinclair , elizabeth a . ; robert l . bezy ; kathryn bolles ; jose l . camarillo r . ; keith a . crandall and < br / > jack w . sites , jr . 2004 . testing species boundaries in an ancient species complex with deep phylogeographic history : genus xantusia ( squamata : xantusiidae ) . american naturalist 164 ( 3 ) : 396 - 414 - get paper here\nstebbins , r . c . 1985 . a field guide to western reptiles and amphibians , 2nd ed . houghton mifflin , boston\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfor additional information on this species , please see the following volumes and pages in the sonoran herpetologist : 2003 apr : 26 - 29 ; 2005 february : 14 - 19 ; 2008 may : 50 - 53 ; 2009 dec : 132 - 133 .\nadult , scissors crossing , san diego county \u00a9 jeff nordland ( xantusia wigginsi has been found at scissors crossing and since appearance alone cannot determine the species , so this could be x . wigginsi . )\n1 . 5 - 2 . 75 inches long from snout to vent ( 3 . 8 - 7 cm ) . ( stebbins 2003 )\ncolor is olive , grayish , or brown with light brown or black spots , sometimes forming narrow stripes . a narrow beige stripe , edged in black , extends from the eye to the shoulder . the underside is whitish and made up of large square scales , usually in 12 rows .\neats small invertebrates inhabiting the decaying vegetation in which it lives including ants , termites , beetles , caterpillars , crickets , and spiders .\nbreeds in late spring . bears live young , 1 - 3 per brood , from august to october .\nutilizes a variety of habitats in arid and semi - arid areas , including those grown with joshua tree , desert scrub , pinon - juniper , basin sagebrush , chaparral , pine - oak woodland , and yucca .\nfound on the desert slopes of the peninsular ranges , throughout the mojave desert , along the east slopes of the sierra nevada mountains north to west of bishop , the inyo and panamint mountains , the greenhorn and piute mountains and upper kern river canyon in the southern sierra nevada mountains , the coastal side of the mountains in upper santa clara river drainage , the headwaters of big tujunga and the upper san gabriel river drainage , and the inner coast ranges at the panoche hills and pinnacles national monument .\nfrom sea level to 9 , 300 ft . ( 2 , 830 m ) . ( stebbins 2003 )\nxantusia vigilis - baird , 1858 - proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , vol . 10 , p . 255 from original description citations for the reptiles and amphibians of north america \u00a9 ellin beltz\nthe following status listings are copied from the april 2018 special animals list and the 2017 endangered and threatened animals list , both of which are published by the california department of fish and wildlife . if no status is listed here , the animal is not included on either cdfw list . this most likely indicates that there are no serious conservation concerns for the animal . to find out more about an animal ' s status , you can go to the natureserve and iucn websites to check their rankings . check here to see the most current complete lists . this animal is not included on the special animals list , which indicates that there are no significant conservation concerns for it in california .\ncolor is olive , grayish , or brown with light brown or black spots which tend to be interconnected , forming a dark net - like pattern . a broad and conspicuous stripe extends from the eye to the shoulder . the underside is whitish and made up of large square scales , usually in 12 rows .\ninhabits rocky outcrops around granite station in open grassland with scattered oak woodland and low shrubs .\nendemic to california . found only in the southwestern foothills of the sierra nevada mountains along the western edge of the greenhorn mountains around granite station , in kern co .\ncalifornia department of fish and wildlife stebbins , robert c . , and mcginnis , samuel m . field guide to amphibians and reptiles of california : revised edition ( california natural history guides ) university of california press , 2012 . stebbins , robert c . california amphibians and reptiles . the university of california press , 1972 . stebbins , robert c . a field guide to western reptiles and amphibians . 3rd edition . houghton mifflin company , 2003 . behler , john l . , and f . wayne king . the audubon society field guide to north american reptiles and amphibians . alfred a . knopf , 1992 . powell , robert . , joseph t . collins , and errol d . hooper jr . a key to amphibians and reptiles of the continental united states and canada . the university press of kansas , 1998 . bartlett , r . d . & patricia p . bartlett . guide and reference to the turtles and lizards of western north america ( north of mexico ) and hawaii . university press of florida , 2009 . jones , lawrence , rob lovich , editors . lizards of the american southwest : a photographic field guide . rio nuevo publishers , 2009 . smith , hobart m . handbook of lizards , lizards of the united states and of canada . cornell university press , 1946 .\nsecure\u2014common ; widespread and abundant . [ this ranking apparently refers to the full species that this taxa formerly belonged to , xantusia vigilis , and indicates that the status of the species is secure , not the subspecies . ]\ncritically imperiled in the state because of extreme rarity ( often 5 or fewer populations ) orbecause of factor ( s ) such as very steep declines making it especially vulnerable to extirpation from the state .\nsyntype : baird , s . f . 1858 . proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia . 10 : 254 .\nthis taxon is found in the sierra de la laguna pine - oak forest , a mountainous ecoregion which rises from the arid baja california sur , creating islands of unique vegetative communities . there are approximately 694 plant species , approximately 85 of which are endemic to this ecoregion . overall species richness is low to moderate , with a total of only 231 vertebrate taxa . the ecoregion is classified in the tropical and subtropical coniferous forests biome . much of the pine - oak association remains intact due to the inaccessibility of the rugged and inaccessible terrain .\nthe topographical features and geological events that gave rise to this particular region are responsible for the diversity of climates and vegetation in the same area . the highest strata of mountains , situated at 1600 to 2000 metres ( m ) in elevation , are composed of pine - oak forests that transform into oak - pine forests ( 1200 m ) and oak forests ( 800 m ) as elevation decreases . the climate is temperate sub - humid with summer rains and occasional winter rains .\nthese pine - oak forests constitute the wettest portions in the state of baja california sur ( 760 millimetres of precipitation annually ) . slight variations in climatic conditions make up three different vegetation assemblages in the temperate forest . pine forests at the highest elevations are dominated by pinus cembroides ssp . lagunae , and understory taxa such as muhlenbergia spp . and festuca spp . pine - oak forests dominated by associations of pinus cembroides subsp . lagunae with quercus devia , arbutus peninsularis , and quercus tuberculata , and a variety of trees of smaller stature such as calliandra peninsularis and mimosa tricephala , with associated shrubs to complement the landscape .\nonly two amphibian taxa are found in the sierra de la laguna pine - oak forests . the red - spotted toad ( anaxyrus punctatus ) is one anuran found here . the widely distributed california chorus frog ( pseudacris cadaverina ) is another resident of the ecoregion . one other anuran , pseudacris regilla , was previously recognized in the ecoregion , but erecent dna analysis has rendered this taxon of unclear distribution .\nof the approximately 30 mammalian species of mammals present , one of them ( an endemic bat ) lives only in pine - oak forests . the level of endemism is high , and this is well demonstrated by the proportion of endemic species with respect to total recorded species . more than ten percent of the mammalian species found at sierra de la laguna are endemic . one notable mammal found along the far west coast , including california and baja , is the ornate shrew ( sorex ornatus ) . there are several threatened mammals found in the sierra de la laguna pine - oak forests , including : the mexican long - tongued bat ( choeronycteris mexicana nt ) . the isolation of this region has contributed to the scarcity of predators , and to the poor competitive ability of some animals . rodents and lagomorphs are virtually absent from the region\nthe avifauna inhabiting these pine - oak forests is important because half of the bird species breeding at sierra de la laguna only utilize pine - oak forests as breeding habitat . the endemic baja pygmy owl ( glaucidium gnoma hoskinsii ) , along with the white - winged dove ( zenaida asiatica ) and golden eagle ( aquila chrysaetos ) are only a few of the avian species found in this ecoregion . other notable birds in this and the gulf of california xeric scrub ecoregion include the xantus ' s hummingbird ( hylocharis xantusii ) and the endangered peninsular yellowthroat ( geothlypis beldingi en ) . .\nnon - migrant : yes . at least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations . juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration .\nlocally migrant : no . no populations of this species make local extended movements ( generally less than 200 km ) at particular times of the year ( e . g . , to breeding or wintering grounds , to hibernation sites ) .\nlocally migrant : no . no populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km .\ncomments : eats insects ( e . g . , termites , ants , beetles , and flies ) , spiders , and other arthropods ( behler and king 1979 ; stebbins 1985 ) .\nnote : for many non - migratory species , occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations .\ncomments : this species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations ( e . g . , see map in bezy 1982 ) .\ncomments : total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10 , 000 and probably exceeds 100 , 000 .\nbreeding occurs may to june ( behler and king 1979 ) . female gives birth to 1 - 3 young / brood , august - october ( stebbins 1985 ) .\nhammerson , g . a . , frost , d . r . & santos - barrera , g .\nlisted as least concern in view of the probably relatively stable extent of occurrence , area of occupancy , number of subpopulations , and population size . no major threats are known .\nthis species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations ( e . g . , see map in bezy 1982 ) . the total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10 , 000 and probably exceeds 100 , 000 . no evidence of a significant overall decline has been reported . the species is common in mexico .\nno major threats have been identified , but locally the species likely is locally declining where its habitat has been degraded by commercial and residential development .\ncomments : no major threats have been identified , but locally the species likely is declining where its habitat has been degraded by commerical and residential development .\nat least several occurrences are in national parks . other than some general research activities , no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole .\nthey do not receive any direct care from their parents and older siblings and it is not yet known what the advantages of staying with their parents are .\nthe baby lizards are well - camouflaged and are not much bigger than a toothpick .\nbaird sf . 1859 . description of new genera and species of north american lizards in the museum of the smithsonian institution . proc . acad . nat . sci . phildelphia 10 : 253 - 256 . ( xantusia vigilis , new species , p . 255 ) .\nbehler jl , king fw . 1979 . the audubon society field guide to north american reptiles and amphibians . new york : alfred a . knopf . 743 pp . isbn 0 - 394 - 50824 - 6 . ( xantusia vigilis , pp . 551 - 552 + plate 406 ) .\nboulenger ga . 1885 . catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( natural history ) . second edition . volume ii . . . . xantusiid\u00e6 . london : trustees of the british museum ( natural history ) . ( taylor and francis , printers ) . xiii + 497 pp . + plates i - xxiv . ( xantusia vigilis , pp . 327 - 328 ) .\ngoin cj , goin ob , zug gr . 1978 . introduction to herpetology , third edition . san francisco : w . h . freeman and company . xi + 378 pp . isbn 0 - 7167 - 0020 - 4 . ( xantusia vigilis , pp . 129 , 132 , 148 , 286 ) .\nsmith hm , brodie ed jr . 1982 . reptiles of north america : a guide to field identification . new york : golden press . 240 pp . isbn 0 - 307 - 13666 - 3 . ( xantusia vigilis , pp . 84 - 85 ) .\nstebbins rc . a field guide to western reptiles and amphibians , third edition . the peterson field guide series \u00ae . boston and new york : houghton mifflin company . xiii + 533 pp . isbn 978 - 0 - 395 - 98272 - 3 . ( xantusia vigilis , pp . 307 - 309 + plate 35 + map 76 ) .\ngadsden . h . & santos - barrera , g . ( 2007 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >"]}
{"id": 519, "summary": [{"text": "turridae is a taxonomic family name for a number of predatory sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the superfamily conoidea .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the family name turridae was originally given to a very large group of several thousand sea snail species that were thought to be closely related .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "however , that original grouping was discovered to be polyphyletic .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "in recent years , the family turridae has been much reduced in size , because a number of other families were created to contain the monophyletic lineages that had previously been thought to belong in the same family .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the common name \" turrids \" is still used informally to refer to the polyphyletic group . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "turridae", "paragraphs": ["the family turridae in the indo - pacific . part 1 . the subfamily turrinae\narticle : the family turridae in the indo - pacific . part 1 . the subfamily turrinae\npowell awb . the family turridae in the indo - pacific : part 1 - the subfamily turrinae .\nworms - world register of marine species - turridae h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( 1838 )\ndetails - the family turridae in the indo - pacific . part 1 . the subfamily turrinae - biodiversity heritage library\nsunderland , k . ( 1991 ) atlantic and caribbean turridae . american conchologist , 19 ( 1 ) , 14\u201315 .\nlaseron , c . f . 1954 . the new south wales turridae . royal zoological society nsw . zool . handbook 56 pp .\nsunderland , k & sunderland , l . ( 1999 ) western atlantic turridae . american conchologist , 27 ( 3 ) , 16\u201317 .\nhedley , charles . 1922 . a revision of the australian turridae . records of the australian museum 13 ( 6 ) : 213 - 359\nsunderland , k & sunderland , l . ( 1993 ) atlantic and caribbean turridae . american conchologist , 21 ( 2 ) , 14\u201315 .\nhedley , c . ( 1922 ) a revision of the australian turridae . records of the australian museum , 13 ( 6 ) , 213\u2013359 . urltoken\nwilliams , m . a . s . ( 2005 ) shallow - water turridae of florida and the caribbean . williams , tallevast , florida , 223 pp .\ntippett , d . l . ( 1995 ) taxonomic notes on the western atlantic turridae ( gastropoda : conoidea ) . the nautilus , 109 ( 4 ) , 127\u2013138 .\nwilliams , m . a . s . ( 2006 ) shallow - water turridae of florida and the caribbean , version 3 . williams , tallevast , florida , 233 pp .\nwilliams , m . a . s . ( 2009 ) shallow - water turridae of florida and the caribbean , version 3 . williams , tallevast , florida , 230 pp .\nwells , f . e . 1990 . revision of the recent australian turridae referred to the genera splendrillia and austrodrillia . journal of the malacological society of australi a 11 : 73 - 117 .\nlyons , w . g . ( 1972 ) new turridae ( gastropoda : toxoglossa ) from south florida and the eastern gulf of mexico . the nautilus , 86 ( 1 ) , 3\u20137 .\ntippett , d . l . ( 2007 ) two new gastropod species ( neogastropoda : drilliidae , turridae ) from the western atlantic ocean . the nautilus , 121 ( 4 ) , 210\u2013213 .\npowell , a . w . b . 1964 . the family turridae in the indo - pacific . part 1 . the subfamily turrinae . indo - pacific mollusca 1 ( 5 ) : 227 - 345\npowell , a . w . b . 1969 . the family turridae in the indo - pacific . part 2 . the subfamily turriculinae . indo - pacific mollusca 2 ( 10 ) : 207 - 415\nfargo , w . g . ( 1953 ) part ii . the pliocene turridae of saint petersburg , florida . academy of natural sciences of philadelphia , monograph , 8 , 361\u2013409 , pls . 16\u201324 .\npowell , a . w . b . 1967 . the family turridae in the indo - pacific . part 1a . the subfamily turrinae concluded . indo - pacific mollusca 1 ( 7 ) : 409 - 431\nkaicher , s . d . ( 1984 ) card catalogue of world - wide shells . pack 39 \u2013 turridae . s . d . kaicher , st . petersburg , florida , cards i\u2013ii + 3882\u20133987 .\nod\u00e9 , h . ( 1993 ) distribution and records of the marine mollusca in the northwest gulf of mexico : family turridae figures . texas conchologist , 29 ( 3 & 4 ) , 68 \u2013 72 .\ngibson , t . g . ( 1962 ) revision of the turridae of the miocene st . mary ' s formation of maryland . journal of paleontology , 36 ( 2 ) , 225\u2013246 , pls . 40\u201342 .\nod\u00e9 , h . ( 1991 ) distribution and records of the marine mollusca in the northwest gulf of mexico ( a continuing monograph ) , family turridae . texas conchologist , 28 ( 1 ) , 13 \u2013 34 .\nwells , f . e . 1993 . new records of splendrillia ( gastropoda : turridae ) from northwestern australia , with the description of a new species . journal of the malacological society of australia 14 : 113 - 117 .\nmclean , j . h . ( 1971 ) a revised classification of the family turridae , with the proposal of new subfamilies , genera , and subgenera from the eastern pacific . the veliger , 14 ( 1 ) , 114\u2013130 .\nkilburn , r . n . ( 1988 ) turridae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) of southern africa and mozambique . part 4 . subfamilies drilliinae , crassispirinae and strictispirinae . annals of the natal museum , 29 ( 1 ) , 167\u2013320 .\nmelvill , j . c . ( 1923 ) descriptions of twenty - one species of turridae ( pleurotomidae ) from various localities in the collection of mr . e . r . sykes . proceedings of the malacological society of london , 15 , 162\u2013171 .\nrol\u00e1n , e . & espinosa , j . ( 1999 ) el complejo brachycythara biconica ( c . b . adams , 1850 ) ( mollusca : gastropoda : turridae ) en cuba , con la descripcion de una nueva especie . bollettino malacologico , 34 , 43\u201349 .\npowell , a . w . b . ( 1966 ) the molluscan families speightiidae and turridae : an evaluation of the valid taxa , both recent and fossil , with lists of characteristics species . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum , 5 , 1\u2013184 . , 23 pls .\nfigueira , r . m . a . & absal\u00e3o , r . s . ( 2010 ) deep - water drilliinae , cochlespirinae , and oenopotinae ( mollusca : gastropoda : turridae ) from the campos basin , southeast brazil . scientia marina , 74 ( 3 ) , 471\u2013481 . urltoken\nturridae one of the larger families in shelled molluscs . about 1700 species are found in recent literature . needless to say , their taxonomy is complicated and nomenclature is more than confusing . many species are known only by the types and live on the continental shelves , in bathyal and even abyssal waters .\nabsal\u00e3o , r . s . , pimenta , a . d . & caetano , c . h . s . ( 2005 ) turridae ( mollusca , neogastropoda , conoidea ) coletados no litoral sudeste do brasil , programa revizee\nscore\ncentral . bioci\u00eancias , porto alegre , 13 ( 1 ) , 19\u201347 .\nmelvill , j . c . ( 1917 ) a revision of the turridae ( pleurotomidae ) occurring in the persian gulf , gulf of oman and north arabian sea as evidenced mostly through the results of dredgings carried out by mr . f . w . townsend , 1893\u20131914 . proceedings of the malacological society of london , 12 , 140\u2013201 .\nthe morphology of some deep - sea turridae lacking radulae was studied . the main features of their digestive system are the absence of a radula sac , venom and salivary glands and the reduction or absence of a proboscis . a new genus teretiopsis including 3 new species and t . thaumastopsis ( dautzenberg and fischer , 1896 ) is described . on the basis of differences of the digestive system when compared with other turrids lacking radulae the monotypical subfamily taraninae casey , 1904 new status ( type genus taranis jeffreys , 1870 ) is considered . it is shown that the process of radula reduction has occurred independently in different phylogenetic lines of toxoglossa\u2014the subfamilies daphnellinae and taraninae among turridae and the family terebridae .\nthe turridae ( in the traditional , widest sense ) is so large that one strategy might be to identify your species to the appropriate family using bouchet et al . 2011 ( j . molluscan studies , 77 : 273 - 308 ) . then use that family / subfamily or included genera as search terms in your web browser to see who has published on these taxa in recent years . then approach those researchers directly .\nty - jour ti - the family turridae in the indo - pacific . part 1 . the subfamily turrinae t2 - indo - pacific mollusca . vl - 1 ur - urltoken pb - delaware museum of natural history , etc . cy - greenville , del . , etc . , py - 1964 - 03 - 31 sp - 227 ep - 346 sn - 0073 - 7240 au - powell , a w b er -\nbarros , j . c . n . , de lima , s . f . b . , da silva , s . v . , santos , m . c . f . & cabrel , e . ( 2005 ) sobre fam\u00edlia turridae swainson , 1840 em dep\u00f3sito no labor\u00e1t\u00f3rio de malacologia da ufrpe e os tipos brasileiros presentes na cole\u00e7\u00e3o malacol\u00f3gica do national museum of natural history - smithsonian institution . boletim t\u00e9cnico cient\u00edfico do cepene , 13 , 143\u2013149 .\n@ article { bhlpart201044 , title = { the family turridae in the indo - pacific . part 1 . the subfamily turrinae } , journal = { indo - pacific mollusca . } , volume = { 1 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder } , url = urltoken publisher = { greenville , del . , etc . , delaware museum of natural history , etc . } , author = { powell , a w b } , year = { 1964 - 03 - 31 } , pages = { 227 - - 346 } , }\nthere are over 4 , 000 ( described ) living species of turrids worldwide with much of this species diversity in the tropics . ( turridae in the usual sense comprises about 16 living families ) . however , there are probably several thousand unnamed extant species in existing museum collections . in the worst cases , even those genera with large body sizes can comprise a hundred or more undescribed living species - usually misidentified under a few published names - within a single biogeographic region . snaller species ( less than say 10 mm ) usually have a much smaller percentage of their species described and smaller species dominate ' turrid ' faunas .\nthe classification of the turridae is in a flux . a number of families and / or sub - families have been used , but there is not general agreement upon use of these names by specialists . classification at the generic level is still fluid , and the limited specimens available often make decisions on species boundaries difficult . our knowledge of the nsw fauna is the result of hedley ' s monograph of the australian species ( 1922 ) , and laseron revision of the nsw fauna in 1954 , in which he dealt with 142 species . the monographs of powell ( 1964 , 1967 , 1969 ) also refined nsw turrid systematics .\nthe biology , feeding ecology and phylogenetic relationships of marine snails in the family turridae remain poorly understood . here we report our study on four deep - water species in the genus gemmula , a major group in this family . the four species g . speciosa ( reeve 1843 ) , g . sogodensis ( olivera 2005 ) , g . kieneri ( doumet 1940 ) and g . diomedea ( powell 1964 ) were collected at five different sites in the philippines , and their pattern of distribution in the sites , their feeding behaviour as well as their phylogenetic relationships with each other and with other members of the subfamily turrinae were investigated . the radular morphology ( of two gemmula species ) and potential prey ( for one gemmula species ) were also examined . actual feeding observations were also conducted for gemmula speciosa and compared with two turrids from other genera .\n< mods xmlns : xlink =\nurltoken\nversion =\n3 . 0\nxmlns : xsi =\nurltoken\nxmlns =\nurltoken\nxsi : schemalocation =\nurltoken urltoken\n> < titleinfo > < title > the family turridae in the indo - pacific . part 1 . the subfamily turrinae < / title > < / titleinfo > < name > < namepart > powell , a w b < / namepart > < / name > < typeofresource > text < / typeofresource > < genre authority =\nmarcgt\n> < / genre > < note type =\ncontent\n> 1 < / note > < relateditem type =\nhost\n> < titleinfo > < title > indo - pacific mollusca . < / title > < / titleinfo > < origininfo > < place > < placeterm type =\ntext\n> greenville , del . , etc . , < / placeterm > < / place > < publisher > delaware museum of natural history , etc . < / publisher > < / origininfo > < part > < detail type =\nvolume\n> < number > 1 < / number > < / detail > < extent unit =\npages\n> < start > 227 < / start > < end > 346 < / end > < / extent > < date > 1964 - 03 - 31 < / date > < / part > < / relateditem > < identifier type =\nuri\n> urltoken < / identifier > < accesscondition type =\nuseandreproduction\n> in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder < / accesscondition > < / mods >\nnomenclature family names cited with two dates ( the second one in parentheses ) are those ruled by article 40 ( 2 ) of iczn .\nif . . . a . . .\nnomenclature family names cited with two dates ( the second one in parentheses ) are those ruled by article 40 ( 2 ) of iczn .\nif . . . a family - group name was replaced before 1961 because of the synonymy of the type genus , the replacement name is to be maintained if it is in prevailing usage . a name maintained by virtue of this article retains its own author [ and date , the first date cited ] but takes the priority of the replaced name [ the date cited in parentheses , here alluding to pleurotominae gray , 1838 ] [ details ]\nbouchet p . & rocroi j . - p . ( 2005 ) . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia . 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 isbn 3 - 925919 - 72 - 4 . [ details ]\n( of pleurotomidae ) bouchet p . & rocroi j . - p . ( 2005 ) . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia . 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 isbn 3 - 925919 - 72 - 4 . [ details ]\nclassification the taxonomy of this family has to be reconsiderd . backeljau ( 1986 ) follows nordsieck ( 1968 , 1977 ) and van aartsen et al . ( 1984 ) [ details ]\nthis is by far one of the largest families among marine molluscs , containing a great number of species . the family hallmark is a notch or sinus in the upper part of the outer lip , but species are very difficult to identify because of wide variety in speciation . many shells are tapered at both ends ( i . e . ,\nfusiform\n) , like the babylon turrid shown below . others show variable proportions in lengths between their spire and siphonal canal , while the japanese wonder shell is so unusual as to have been sometimes placed in a family of its own ( thatcheriidae ) . the shells vary widely in both colors and textures .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\nclick on an image to view all the information : family , species , author , date , and full locality .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 005 seconds . )\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 006 seconds . )\nthe turrids are the largest family of marine gastropods , numbering more than 4 , 000 described species . in a recent paper , bouchet et . al . ( 2004 ) said\nturrids sing a hymn to specialisation , rarity and evolutionary innovation\n. they reported that 20 years of sampling off new caledonia from the intertidal to 3 , 700 m had turned up 1 , 726 turrid species , as many as 30 % of these species being represented by single specimens . a similar situation no doubt applies to the australian and new south wales fauna , with many species being rarely obtained and a high proportion un - named .\nturrids shells show a diversity of shell shapes ; some look like cones , others resemble mitrids , fasciolarids or buccinids . the one feature they have in common is a sinus - an indentation or slit at the upper end of the outer lip , which accommodates the exhalent canal . the sinus sometimes is only a weak depression , sometimes a deep slit , but most commonly a deep , rounded v shaped indentation . turrids are carnivorous , probably all being predatory ; polychaete worms are the major prey of the species of which the diet has been studied . some have a radula and associated poison gland similar to the harpoon - like structure of the cone shells , while others have lost the radula and poison gland . .\nthe family is represented in nsw by about 150 named species , only a few of which are common , and many of which are quite rare . a few small species occur intertidally under rocks on rocky shores , some occupy the shallow subtidal , down to about 20 metres and are occasionally washed up on beaches , but most occur in deeper water . about a dozen species exceed 20 mm in size , but the majority are quite small , many being under 5 mm in length .\nthe primary identification feature of turrids is the sinus , the indentation at the top of the outer lip . its shape and position are important for classification . the sinus may be narrow and deep , broad and shallow , or a mere indentation as in members of the subfamily mangelliinae . the apex of the sinus may be on the periphery of the last whorl , at the suture , or on the shoulder slope between suture and periphery . development of the sinus proceeds as the shell matures , being only a shallow indentation in juvenile shells ( see fig . 1 , showing sinus development with maturity in vexitomina coxi ) . some species have a callous nodule at the top of the inner lip of the aperture , opposite the sinus , which also increases in size with maturity .\nwells , f . e . 1991 . a revision of the recent australian species of the turrid genera clavus , plagiostropha and tylotiella ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . journal of the malacological society of australia 12 : 1 - 33\nwells , f . e . 1991 . a new species of splendrillia , with comments on two other species in the genus . journal of the malacological society of australia 12 : 63 - 67 .\nwells , f . e . 1994 . a revision of the recent australian species of the turrid genera inquisitor and ptychobela . molluscan research 14 : 71 - 103 .\nof the 150 or so nsw species only those which reach over 15 mm in length are described here . for information on the remaining species , see laseron ' s treatment mentioned above .\ngreenville , del . , etc . , delaware museum of natural history , etc .\nbiodivlibrary july is # nationalblueberrymonth ! the w . a . cox nursery co . of mississippi ' s 1920s catalog proclaimed # blueberries to\u2026 urltoken\nbiodivlibrary @ jzed _ trees @ kew _ laa awesome ! we ' re so honored to have this treasure in # bhlib . thanks @ kew _ laa ! now we can enjoy p\u2026 urltoken\nturgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , et al .\ncommon and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks , 2nd ed .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nit ' s very useful in pharmacology and i survey the distribution of turrids along the indian coast . can anyone advise of identification of this species ? i ' ve identified some of the species and i request to verify the identification in the morphological level with malacologist .\nwithout an image of the shell it is impossible to identify it . there are hundreds of turrid species , now recognized in multiple families .\nok if you want the image of the turrids species i will send you through your mail id but i like to want clear identification of turrids species . because its difficult to identify the species\nspecies - level identifications of species - rich groups are liable to be misidentified by all except the specialist for that group . and of course many of these groups do not have any specialists . sorry to sound negative but it is important to be realistic to what level one can identify a species . it is important not to try to put a species name on every morphotype that you delimit - because this will result in misidentifications in all but the most common and well known species . in my opinion it is important to sort your putative ' species ' into the smallest morphologically consistent groupings that you can ( these are most likley to correspond to ' true ' species and then seek specialist help ) .\nan expert in the anatomy and identification of turrids is yuri kantor kantor @ urltoken . in the identification - although basing mainly in shell characters - you can also contact bilal ozturk . you can contact him through researchgate . hope it helps .\nelaiya , i don ' t know of anyone currently working with the expertise you need . as others have pointed out the group is so large that just gather the literature you ' ll need will be a major problem , but the internet will help - start there . i would advise you to take high quality digital pictures of your specimens and post them on some of the facebook groups that deal with marine mollusks . there are some very educated people there and someone may be able to help you . good luck .\nit is found in presumablly upper eocen - lower oligocene clay sediments in sw bulgaria . given the size of the fossil and the facies feature of the . . .\nhi all , i am looking for help in identifying a gastropod from an archaeological site in the gobi desert in southern mongolia . the site is centred . . .\nseveral poorly known species lack common names due to the lack of familiarity of the non - scientific community with them . however , it can be . . .\nour lab has observed this feature on presumed naticid drill holes penetrating shells of saxolucina ( megaxinus ) anodonta ( say ) from the miocene . . .\ndear colleagues , in recent days an article was published in the washington post trying to sell the idea that we , humans , should not work towards . . .\nin a recent critique of our paper on the third orangutan species , the author of a blog wrote that :\na \u201cspecies\u201d is not an arbitrary segment of . . .\nhi all , these three specimens were also collected from mumbai coast of india . i thought these belongs to the genus agaronia and bufonaria . please . . .\nwhat is the name of this green insect . i noticed on its carapace the presence of another small insect ? it is visible in the three photos . is this . . .\nbook review : marine gastropoda prosobranchiata . the zoology of iceland , volume iv , part 60 . g . thorson\nthis translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nflickr photos above were identified by the individual photographers but not reviewed by eops . contact us to report errors .\nbackeljau , t . ( 1986 ) . lijst van de recente mariene mollusken van belgi\u00eb [ list of the recent marine molluscs of belgium ] . koninklijk belgisch instituut voor natuurwetenschappen : brussels , belgium . 106 pp .\nthe taxonomy of this family has to be reconsiderd . backeljau ( 1986 ) follows nordsieck ( 1968 , 1977 ) and van aartsen et al . ( 1984 )\nutilizing double quotes for exact terms can narrow your search results . ex . a common name search of northwestern sedge matches ' northwestern sedge ' and ' northwestern showy sedge ' . typing\nnorthwestern sedge\nreturn only ' northwestern sedge ' .\n\u00a9 2012 - 2018 . encyclopedia of puget sound is published by the puget sound institute at the uw tacoma center for urban waters .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nshells of the turritellidae are elongate with many whorls , similar in shape to the terebridae . the family consists of about a thousand species , world wide in distribution , but more speciose in temperate seas . they generally live subtidally , down to at least 1500 metres , but a few occur in the lower intertidal . the family is well represented in australia , with about 27 species occurring here .\nanimals of this family are ciliary deposit feeders with limited crawling ability . they lay upon or are partly buried in the substrate , usually soft muddy - sand , and filter minute particles from the sea water as it is drawn over their gills . the particles are then fed in a mucous string to the mouth . the australian species gazameda gunnii supplements its food during times of low plankton availability by scavenging , and this may occur in other members of the family .\nin this family some species are dioecious , meaning they exist as male or female throughout their life , while others are protandric hermaphrodites , meaning that animals start life as males and change to females . sperm may be transferred from male to female in packets , or broadcast into the water by males and captured by females in the inhalant water stream . in some species fertilized eggs are brooded in the mantle cavity of the female , with juveniles either being released into the plankton or released onto the substrate as crawling juveniles . other species attach the egg mass to wood , rocks or other solid substrate , from whence they hatch .\nthere are 18 species of this family in nsw , varying in size from 6 . 5 to 90 mm in length . they all occur subtidally , some in relatively shallow water down to about 100 m , while others are among the deepest living molluscs in the nsw fauna , occurring down to at least 1500 m . they are do not live intertidally in nsw ; shells are occasionally washed up on beaches , more commonly in the far south of the state . of the 18 species , all except one has an eastern or southern australian distribution . the exception is haustator cingulifer , which occurs in the tropical indo - west pacific and just reaches southwards to sydney . one species , maoricolpus roseus , is introduced from new zealand , and is spreading northwards up the nsw coast .\ngarrard , t . a . 1972 . a revision of australian recent and tertiary turritellidae ( gastropoda : mollusca ) . journal of the malacological society of australia , 2 ( 3 ) : 267 - 338 .\nturritellids are elongate , many whorled shells , similar to the terebrids in general shape but distinguished by not having either an anterior or a posterior canal . the outer lip bears a large sinus , but the lip in the sinus area is very thin and usually broken , even in life . the shape of the sinus is best seen in the growth lines behind the growing edge . there is strong spiral sculpture , but axial sculpture is restricted to growth lines of the shape of the outer lip . there is a smooth protoconch of 1\u00bd - 2 \u00bd whorls in the nsw species , after which the adult , or teleoconch , whorls begin . the teleoconch whorl on which spiral ribs begin , and the sequence in which they commence , is diagnostic for the species , but has not been used here as it requires close microscopic examination of specimens in good condition . instead , the sculpture of the last few whorls is described .\nmuch use is made in the species descriptions of the terms rib , riblet , and thread . these are imprecise comparative terms to describe sculpture on the surface of the shells ; ribs are larger than riblets which are in turn larger than threads . a keel is a type of rib which is tall and parallel - sided .\nthe following table arranges the nsw species by maximum shell length , as an aid to identification . note that the abundance and beach washup information is specific to nsw . some species are much more common outside nsw , such as\nf + , rare ! ! ! from deep water ! ! ! fresh collected ! we got it wrongly as b . biconica\nf + , rare ! trawled off rio de janeiro . has a small drill\nf + + , rare ! beautiful specimen that we had dredged 24 years ago ! sold to a floridian collector and later p . williams got the shell !\nf + , rare species ! found in 1971 ! from p . williams collection !\nf + + , milky white with dark pink - rose areas ! from p . williams collection !\nf + + , topotype found by gary mackintosh in 1997 ! ex . coll . p . williams !\nf + , rare recently named species ! peggy williams had that as clathodrillia cf . tryoni\nf + + , not really sure it this is the rare recently named species ! peggy williams had that as clathodrillia cf . tryoni ! looks different of most of the new species described by p . fallon\nf + , rare ! very knobby orange specimen ! from p . williams collection !\nf + + , gorgeous shell but i am not convinced if is this species ! it has the same color pattern but this is really a drillidae ! p . williams had that under clavus bilineatus !\nf + , superb orange and white shell ! p . williams had that as clavus bilineatus !\nf + , beautiful specimen ! from unusual area ! from p . williams collection !\nf + , specimen found in 1971 ! from p . williams collection ! not sure about id !\nf + + , gorgeous specimen from p . williams collection ! not 100 % sure about id !\nf + + , very slender shell ! finely ribbed ! from p . williams collection !\nf + + , inflated shell ! uncommon ribbed shell with a dark brown blotch on the last whorl . ex . coll . peggy williams\nf + , very rare ! deep water ! beautiful specimen from p . williams collection ! ! w / o\nf + , very rare ! deep water ! beautiful specimen from p . williams collection ! we had only 3 specimens before ! w / o\nf + , nice nodulose shell ! nicely colored ! from p . willimas ( she had bought from us in 1996 ! ! )\nf + , very nice specimen from a hard place to go , ant lagoon off the main island ! w / o - ex . coll . homer rhode\nf + + + , gorgeous ! very unusual ! not sure about id ! from p . williams collection !\nf + + , gorgeous species ! often confused with c . bilieatus , rare !\nf + , gorgeous black - brown knobby specimen from p . williams collection !\nf + + , banded species from deep water ! from p . williams collection !\nf + + , great specimen ! from peggy williams collection ( labeled as c . fulvus )\nf + + , very large specimen from unusual area ! special ! from p . williams collection !\nf + , very unusual specimen found by p . williams ! it was labeled as c . bilineatus but it is quite different !\nf + , rare species ! banded brown and grey ! from p . williams collection\nf , the rarest clionella ! deep water species ! ! from p . williams collection - has damaged lip !\nf + + , extremely rare water species ! from p . williams collection !\nthe photos in our gallery are in most cases just a sample from our stock , except when only one specimen is offered . we try to match the original color but it can vary if your screen is not correctly adjusted ( gamma correction ) .\nf + + , elongated nodulose species ! very rare ! id according b . cook\nf + , nice specimen dredged off oahu in 1987 - ex . coll . peggy williams\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\nyou could not be signed in . please check your email address / username and password and try again .\nmost users should sign in with their email address . if you originally registered with a username please use that to sign in .\nto purchase short term access , please sign in to your oxford academic account above .\noxford university press is a department of the university of oxford . it furthers the university ' s objective of excellence in research , scholarship , and education by publishing worldwide\nfor full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription .\nusing cookies on urltoken shellauction uses cookies only for technical reasons and to facilitate and speed up your site navigation . by continuing to browse , you accept the use of cookies ; if you do not wish to receive them please disable them or not navigate this website further . more info cookies on urltoken\nutilizzo dei cookies su urltoken shellauction utilizza i cookies esclusivamente per ragioni tecniche e per facilitare e velocizzare la navigazione del sito . continuando a navigare accetti l ' utilizzo dei cookies , se non desideri riceverli ti invitiamo a disabilitarli oppure a non navigare questo sito ulteriormente . altre informazioni sui cookies di urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthanks to institutional support and generous donors , our collection of historical artifacts , documents , photography and media , now numbers close to 37 , 000 .\nthe national museum of african american history and culture , like all other smithsonian museums , hopes to benefit from donations of historical artifacts , archival documents , and works of art . if you have an important item you believe the museum should consider for its permanent collections , start by submitting our collections information form .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nfrancisco m . heralde , iii , 1 , * yuri i . kantor , 2 mary anne q . astilla , 3 arturo o . lluisma , 3 rollan geronimo , 3 porfirio m . ali\u00f1o , 3 maren watkins , 4 patrice showers corneli , 5 baldomero m . olivera , 5 ameurfina d . santos , 1 and gisela p . concepcion 3\n4 department of pathology , university of utah , 421 wakara way , suite 3323 , 84108 , u . s . a\n5 department of biology , 257 s 1400 e , room 201 , university of utah , salt lake city , utah , 84112 , u . s . a\n* current address : department of biochemistry and molecular biology , college of medicine , university of the philippines , manila 1000 , philippines , moc . liamg @ edlarehmf tel / fax : + 632 - 526 - 4197\nall four gemmula species showed strikingly different patterns of distribution ; each species was found to be relatively much more abundant at one site but not at the other sites . molecular phylogenetic analysis based on 16s sequences correlated with previously reported 12s sequences and revealed that the four species all belong to a well - supported gemmula clade within the subfamily turrinae ; and that this clade appeared more closely related to the clades xenuroturris , turris and lophiotoma than to the other clades in the subfamily ( i . e . , turridrupa , unedogemmula and polystira ) . morphological analysis of the radula of both g . speciosa and g . sogodensis revealed that the radulae of the two species were similar but differed from the other turrids , lophiotoma acuta and unedogemmula bisaya , by the absence of central teeth , consistent with the separation of the gemmula clade from the lophiotoma and unedogemmula clade .\nto identify the polychaete group that is targeted as prey by species of gemmula , analysis of regurgitated food fragments was made ; phylogenetic analysis of an mtcoi gene fragment that was pcr - amplified from the regurgitated tissue of one specimen ( g . diomedea ) indicated close affinity of the prey to the terebellid polychaete amphitritides . specimens of gemmula speciosa , when challenged with the terebellid polychaete loimia sp . , were observed to attack the worm suggesting that gemmula species feed on terebellid polychaetes . lophiotoma acuta were also observed to feed on the same species of terebellid but were usually group - feeding in contrast to the solitary feeding of g . speciosa . unedogemmula bisaya did not feed on the terebellid which also supports the separation of the gemmula and unedogemmula clade .\ntwo lines of proof ( i . e . the molecular phylogenetic analysis and the feeding challenge ) supporting the toxin homology findings previously reported , provide consistent evidence that gemmula is a distinct clade of worm - hunting turrinae that feeds on terebellidae .\nhave been collected in relatively large numbers in philippine waters . in this study , we particularly focused on four deep - water\n) . we investigated their distribution and phylogeny , as information on the pattern of their distribution is scant and the phylogeny of these species has not yet been elucidated . in the superfamily conoidae , most previous investigations of molecular phylogeny have been carried out on\n) are still poorly understood . so far , only one study has been carried out (\nshells of gemmula species . top to bottom , gemmula speciosa , gemmula diomedea , gemmula sogodensis , gemmula kieneri .\nto further discriminate the species , we examined and compared the foregut anatomy , i . e . , radula , of three species . because their habitats are inaccessible , little is also known of their feeding biology . although turrids in general are known to feed on polychaetes , there are no available data on which species of polychaetes are preyed on by gemmula ( or any turrid ) species . we therefore collected new data on feeding behavior and potential prey preferences .\nsnails were purchased from local fishermen as by - catch in trawl nets along the mouth of manila bay ( from bataan to cavite and batangas ) and tangle nets in the seas of cebu and bohol . live snails were kept in seawater until they were processed for anatomical or molecular work . the relative distribution and abundance of gemmula speciosa along the periphery of manila bay was initially assessed by monitoring the collections per trawl of selected boats in august 2005 and from october 2005 to january 2006 . the abundance in all the sampling sites was monitored from the snails collected by the fishermen from february to may 2006 .\nthe snails were segregated by putative species and preserved for various uses . the snails were cracked and tissue samples ( hepatopancreas and foot ) were obtained and preserved in approximately 10 volumes of rnalater . voucher specimens were kept in 70 % ethanol . dna extraction was performed in fifty mg tissue samples ( hepatopancreas or foot ) using the puregene dna kit ( invitrogen ) or the dneasy tissue kit ( qiagen ) and aliquots were prepared . .\nthe 16s mitochondrial rrna gene was amplified using the primers 16sl ( 5\u2032 - gtttaccaaaaacatggcttc - 3\u2032 ) and 16sh ( 5\u2032 - ccggtctgaactcagatc acgt - 3\u2032 ) with uracil adaptor sequences . a pcr mix containing 20\u201340 ng genomic dna , 2\u03bcm of each primer , 2\u03bcm of dntp and 2\u03bcm of taq polymerase was prepared and cycled with the following profile : 95\u00b0c 1 min initial denaturation ; 40 cycles of 95\u00b0c 20 sec denaturation , 55\u00b0c 20 sec annealing and 72\u00b0c 30 sec extension ; and 72\u00b0c 5 min final extension . the pcr product was ligated to pneb206a ( user friendly cloning , new england biolabs ) and introduced into e . coli ( dh5a ) through chemical transformation . plasmids from transformants with inserts were sequenced through the abi 377 dna sequencer or submitted to the university of utah sequencing facility .\n) . a minimum evolution - based phylogenetic reconstruction was made using mega 3 . 1 (\n) . bootstrap values were calculated and putative clades were marked accordingly . the genetic distances were computed using the kimura - 2 - parameter model to determine the range of distances of the specimens that belong to a food type cluster .\nnote : the gu series of accession numbers are sequences obtained in this paper .\na second phylogenetic analysis was made using the combined 12s rdna and 16s rdna ( 12s previously reported in heralde et al . 2007 ) sequences . the concatenated sequences were aligned using clustal x . the alignments were refined manually using macclade 4 . 08 . the process was repeated for some highly variable regions as long as further refinement by eye seemed possible .\ntrees were optimized using the individual rrna gene sequence alignments and the concatenated alignments ( presented herein ) . final analyses were restricted to model - based maximum likelihood ( paup4b10 ) and bayesian inference ( mrbayes 3 . 1 . 2 ) to account for the complexity of sequence evolution . sequence evolution parameters were optimized by a gtr + i + g model that includes six possible substitution types ( gtr ) , allows some sites to be invariant ( i ) , allows across - site rate heterogeneity ( g ) and allows unequal base frequencies .\nthe maximum likelihood optimization used tbr branch swapping with 10 searches , each using a random addition of taxa . the analysis ended when the paup default criteria for convergence of the log - likelihood were met .\nthe bayesian analysis was run for two million generations with the first 500 , 000 generations discarded as burn - in trees . two mcmcmc runs ( metropolis - coupled markov - chain monte - carlo ) , using four chains each , were used to thoroughly explore tree space . convergence of the likelihoods was judged adequate by monitoring the ased ( average standard error of the difference ) in split frequencies between the two runs and by comparing plots of the tree log - likelihood trees from generation 500 , 000 to 2 million . by the last generation , average standard error was 0 . 0039 ; the plot of likelihoods versus generation had stabilized . furthermore , the psrf ( potential scale reduction factor ) reached 1 . 00 for the total tree length and for each model parameter .\nsince maximum likelihood and bayesian analyses converged to the same tree , only the bayesian results are presented below ( ml results are available from psc ) .\nspecies in the phylogenetic analysis included the following : turrinae : gemmula speciosa , gemmula diomedea , gemmula . kieneri , gemmula sogodensis , lophiotoma albina , lophiotoma acuta , lophiotoma cerithiformis , lophiotoma olangoensis , lophiotoma cingulifera , lophiotoma kingae , lophiotoma jickelli , lophiotoma polytropa , turris gamonsii , turris babylonia , turris spectabilis , turris normandavidsoni , turris grandis , turridrupa elongata , turridrupa bijubata , unedogemmula bisaya , unedogemmula leucotropis , unedogemmula tayabasensis , unedogemmula indica , unedogemmula panglaoensis , polystira oxytropis , polystira picta ; and terebridae : hastula hectica and terebra guttata , .\nlive snails were relaxed in 1 % cold magnesium chloride ( mgcl 2 ) for 2\u20133 hours and preserved in 95 % ethanol ; the sem of their radulae was carried out as described previously ( imperial et al . 2007 ) .\nsix samples of gemmula diomedea caught by trawling at depths of 231\u2013271 meters in the panglao 2005 expedition were relaxed in cold 1 % magnesium chloride for at least 2 hours and regurgitated tissues were recovered . genomic dna was extracted from the tissues using the dneasy tissue kit ( qiagen ) . an aliquot was prepared as template for mtcoi amplification using modified universal primers with user adaptor sequences ( simison 2000 ) . subsequent cloning into pneb206a , transformant screening and plasmid sequencing were as described above . the mtcoi sequence obtained was searched in the genbank database using blast ( basic local alignment search tool ) .\nthe snails used for the feeding experiments were maintained indoor using a 56 - liter aquarium containing seawater with salinity maintained at a range between 35\u201337 ppt . a filtration system and an aerator were in place while the feeding behavior of g . speciosa and other turrids was observed . the snails used in the experiment had been in the tanks for a period of 2\u20134 weeks with artificial lighting following a 12 hour light - dark cycle . the introduction of live terebellid worms into the tank was done at night .\nwere obtained from two different biogeographic regions . the first three sites came from manila bay in the south china sea region : site 1 is close to the bataan peninsula , site 2 is off corregidor island and site 3 is off the batangas coast . at these three sites ,\nspecimens were obtained as by - catch of commercial fish trawlers operating in these areas . the only larger\nwas only rarely collected at the southern sites within the visayan seas biogeographic region ( off sogod , cebu and off the island of panglao in bohol ) . the primary method for collection at the latter sites was tangle nets mostly laid at greater depths . at the sogod , cebu site , the major\ncollected per trawl was 20\u00b19 or a mean catch rate of 1 . 3\u00b10 . 6 per trawl - hour . the specimens ranged in length from 2 . 0 to 6 . 7 centimeters ( mean : 4 . 0\u00b11 . 1 cm . ) and collected at night . it must be noted that the fishing gear used effectively captured only those organisms that were either on or close to the surface of the substrate ( unlike dredges that go deeper ) .\nclade . this clade is where the food type / preference analysis is focused . the occurrence of\n) is also well - supported as indicated by a high bootstrap value ( 82 % ) .\nclades which have similar food type / preference ( i . e . , among worm - hunting cone species ) (\n) . we selected three clades of worm - hunting coniids ( i . e . s1 \u2013 sedentary polychaete feeders , mainly terebellidae , s2 \u2013 sedentary polychaete feeders , mainly capitellidae and e6 \u2013 errant polychaete feeders , mainly eunicidae ) based on the clade grouping of\n) . the largest distance range occurs among terebellidae feeders ( i . e . , the s1 clade ) , thus in\ncomparison of genetic distance between 16s rrna gene sequences of gemmula species and selected vermivorous cone clades . clade s1 , sedentary polychaete feeders , mainly terebellidae ; clade s2 , sedentary polychaete feeders , mainly capitellidae ; and clade e6 , errant polychaete feeders , mainly eunicidae .\n) with each other and with other forms in the subfamily turrinae was further inferred from the 12s and 16s mitochondrial rrna gene sequences . both bayesian and maximum likelihood methods , as described under experimental procedures , were used . the phylogenetic tree , shown in\nclade ) , separate from other groups in the subfamily turrinae that were included in the analysis . furthermore , the analysis suggests that the sister group of the\n) form a major monophyletic group within the turrinae , which is strongly supported by the analysis .\nand their relatives based on bayesian inference . ( an identical tree was returned by a full maximum likelihood analysis of the sequence data . ) branches are labeled with bayesian confidence values expressed as percentages . for clarity , some of the outgroup species used in the analysis have been pruned from this figure ( see methods for the full list ) . shown are various forms in the subfamily turrinae , including the four species that are the subject of this article ( shells of these species are shown in\n) . the seven clades identified by roman numerals all have 100 % support based on both bayesian and maximum likelihood analysis and have the following generic / subgeneric assignments within the subfamily turrinae : i .\nthere were significant morphological variations in the shells of g . speciosa specimens collected ( i . e . , gemmule shape , inter - gemmule distance , length and diameter ratio , etc ) . however , when molecular analysis was done to evaluate the specimens with different shell morphotypes , no significant differences could be detected in the rrna gene sequences of the morphological variants . thus , the shell morphological variation does not appear to be correlated with any significant genetic ( 12s and 16s rrna gene ) divergence .\n) the radula had type 2 wishbone teeth that were robust , short and curved , sometimes with a knifelike cutting edge on the main limb and a large accessory limb with a formula of 1 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 1 ( following powell\u2019s system ) . an analysis of the radular structure of\nradular morphology . scanning electron microscopy images of the radula of gemmula speciosa ( a\u2013b ) . gemmula sogodensis ( c\u2013d ) , unedogemmula bisaya ( e\u2013f ) and lophiotoma acuta ( g\u2013h ) . . the central tooth is prominent in both gemmula species and absent in u . bisaya and l . acuta"]}
{"id": 524, "summary": [{"text": "one of the larger species of tarantula , the chaco golden knee ( grammostola pulchripes ) , formerly known by grammostola aureostriata , can be expected to reach between 20 \u2013 22 cm ( 8.5 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the chaco golden knee tends to be one of the more docile and calm species of tarantula and therefore makes an attractive first pet .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the chaco is an opportunistic burrowing terrestrial tarantula : they tend to burrow while younger and adopt a pre-existing hide as its home when it begins to mature .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it is quite flashy in appearance , bearing long light-colored hairs all over its body and gold stripes on its legs , particularly at the \" knees \" .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this is a good display species as it often sits in plain view .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "when it was first imported into the pet trade , it was thought to be a variant of the pink zebra beauty species , but it is significantly larger and can easily be distinguished by those familiar with both species . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "grammostola pulchripes", "paragraphs": ["grammostola pulchripes ( formerly grammostola aureostriata ) is also a good ground - dwelling beginner tarantula .\ngrammostola pulchripes are also cool and big if you don ' t completely hate the idea of a grammostola sp .\ncommon name : chaco golden knee tarantula scientific name : grammostola pulchripes ( formerly g . aureostriata )\ngrammostola pulchripes a . k . a chaco golden knee sling . . | my pets | pinterest\ntanya higgins added the english common name\nchaco tarantula\nto\ngrammostola pulchripes ( simon 1891 )\n.\nthe chaco gold knee ( grammostola pulchripes ) formally ( grammostola aureostriata ) is one of my favorite species and exceedingly docile . never had a\nhissy fit\nonce .\ntanya higgins added the english common name\ngolden knee tarantula\nto\ngrammostola pulchripes ( simon 1891 )\n.\ntanya higgins added the english common name\nchaco golden stripe tarantula\nto\ngrammostola pulchripes ( simon 1891 )\n.\ntanya higgins added the english common name\nchaco golden knee tarantula\nto\ngrammostola pulchripes ( simon 1891 )\n.\ngabriel , r , 2009 , notes on the taxonomic placement of eurypelma borellii ( simon 1892 ) and grammostola pulchripes simon 1892 ( araneae : theraphosidae ) , exotiske insekter no . 73 . 7 - 13 the species avicularia borelli is moved to the genus grammostola , grammostola auriostriata is the junior synonym of g . pulchripes . ray\nthe chaco golden knee , grammostola pulchripes , had a different species name a few years ago , which was aureostriata . why the name change ?\nso is this saying the g . mollicoma is really a g . pulchripes ?\ntarantula mythbuster vid 20 : detailed vid on g . pulchripes ( chaco golden knee )\nmy grammostola pulchripes ( chaco golden knee ) tarantula . in pre - molt , so her colours aren ' t too showy at the moment , but still an awesome tarantul\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nfirst of all , another tarantula has that name already : h . pulchripes , the golden blue - legged baboon .\nwhat about g . mollicoma ( ausserer , 1875 ) ? wasn ' t g . pulchripes supposed to be synonim for g . mollicoma ?\nthis molt belonged to my female g . pulchripes , notice that there is a tiny tongue - like flap just between the upper booklungs .\ngrammostola rosea is the most common first tarantula . this is because it is docile and generally easy to care for . this specie are ground - dwellers .\ngrammostola pulchripes is definitely not one of the faster growing tarantulas . i don ' t think storm76 was saying they ' re not slow growers , he was saying it won ' t necessarily take 6 - 10 years to mature . 4 years to 6\nis still slow , just not g . rosea or some aphonopelma slow .\neven if i can ' t acquire a grammostola or brachypelma in exchange . . . . i ' ll be happy knowing my c . darlingi will be in more capable hands .\ngrammostola rosea are common in most pet stores but i recommend that you buy from breeders or private users of this forum for an example . look for a female in a relative young age .\ncheers , does this mean that g . aureostriata is no longer a valid name and that it ' s now pulchripes ? i only have a limited understanding of taxonomy terms .\nthe chaco golden knee tarantula ( grammostola pulchripes ) , bristling with hair and boasting leg spans of up to 8 inches , may appear formidable , but they are among the calmest spiders in the pet trade . their needs are simple , and they live for a long time - - 15 years or more . bear that in mind before rushing to add one to your menagerie .\nfor the time being , my main goal is finding someone willing to take my c . darlingi . a trade for either b . albopilosum , b . vagans or g . pulchripes is secondary .\n+ 1 for the growing not slow . i ' ve read numerous reports online , in books , and from the pros on here , that g . pulchripes is one of the faster growing tarantulas .\nmy opinion : a very large , attractive , docile tarantula . they are popular with beginners but often not as readily available as other starter tarantulas such as the mexican red knee and chile rose . they were formally known as grammostola aureostriata .\ni have an a adult female g . pulchripes and she now at 6 inch rather that all . i have been used this caresheet as basis on how to care on her . really great job this one helps me a lot : )\nnice care sheet . so comprehensive and in - depth . the only thing i ' ve done differently with my g pulchripes is that i gave mine a water dish right from the start . have you written ones for any other species ?\ni got one of my new 1 / 4\ng . pulchripes slings out to let it walk around on my hand a little bit . almost immediatley i felt pressure and when i went to put it back in the deli cup i realized it was anchored to my finger by it ' s fangs . there was a little pain at the bite location and i think it may have swollen a little bit . i was very surprised that a g . pulchripes sling was my first bite .\ng . pulchripes are easy to keep . any random ( appropriately sized ) jar will work for slings . idk if a viv would be ideal , as ime g . pulchripes like it pretty dry . i just use cocofiber substrate , a well ventilated lid and nothin else for my sling . when its bigger i may place it in a decorated tank . unless your home gets below high 60 ' s or 70 degrees ( comfort zone ) no additional heat is needed . see how i house mine here >\ngrammostola species can be predictable sometimes . one day they can be all sweet and cuddly , and downright evil the next . i think being in post molt is also a factor . give it a few weeks . feed it some more . if her attitude doesnt change , than theres nothing we can do about it .\nthis species is one of the best species suitable for any beginner tarantula owner . the reason for this statement is because g . pulchripes ( formerly g . aureostriata ) has a very pleasing demeanour . they have a docile , calm and hardy nature which are essential characteristics for a starter tarantula .\nhi al , my name is jessica ( as well ) and i am about to receive my grammostola and a l . klugi . i am very excited and will definitely be giving you a shout if i need any advice . but thank you kindly for sharing this awesome care sheet with us ! your knowledge and research is greatly appreciated .\ni wouldn ' t bother with the isopods as g . pulchripes are a dry environment species the isopods will just die . also i think a sling would take about 6 - 10 years to mature depending on your feeding ( powerfeeding makes it grow quicker but will reduce its lifespan drastically from what i ' ve read )\nit ' s the fastest growing specie in the grammostola genus and it can grow up to be over 20 cm ( 8 inches ) and live up to 5 + years ( male ) or 20 + years ( female ) which is desirable for beginners . it ' s also a very docile tarantula and it rarely flick hairs . you can feed it with crickets , coackroaches etc .\nmy collection : - support captive breeding 0 . 1 . 0 grammostola rosea 0 . 1 . 0 aphonopelma sp . new river 0 . 0 . 1 ephobopus murinus 0 . 1 . 0 avicularia versicolor 0 . 1 . 0 brachypelma smithi 1 . 0 . 0 brachypelma albopilosum 0 . 0 . 1 haplopelma albostriatum 0 . 0 . 1 lasiodora parahybana 0 . 0 . 1 avicularia avic .\nyou can feed them with crickets or smaller cockroaches or other insects ( see links below ) . an adult grammostola rosea has a tendency to stop eating for a long period of time so dont freak out if it just suddenly stops eating ! they can grow to be 15 cm ( 6 inches ) and live up to be 5 + years ( male ) or 20 + years ( female ) .\nmy g . pulchripes 4 . 5 - 5inches hasn ' t been eating for 2 weeks now , i ' m really worried . i haven ' t experience this with my other t ' s . i even think she shrunk : ( she ' s not in pre - molt , her abdomen is not even big yet . reply please , i don ' t know what to do .\nand just for the record again , the tend to take some time before they get used to their\nnew\nsurroundings . i ' ve tried feeding my g . pulchripes tonight , with no luck . she just moved away from it , so i took the cricket out again and won ' t try before the weekend . she ' s well - fed anyways , so no big deal .\ni had a similar experience with an obt . i just realized that it ' s not really necessary . what happens is , you psyche yourself out . . . often for nothing . yes , c . darlingi is fast , especially at this size . and it , like most new worlds , are a bit on the aggressive side . of course , any tarantula in the hobby can be unpredictable . and that includes brachypelma and grammostola species .\nchaco golden knee tarantulas can easily be identified by the striking golden stripes on each knee . they can grow leg spans up to 8 inches measured diagonally , which makes them more desirable for beginners . they also are the fastest growing of the grammostola genus and have a lifespan of over 5 years for males and over 15 years for females . and unlike most beginner tarantula species which has very little activity , this specie will keep itself busy . these little critters are mini - bulldozers .\nobviously there will be some mechanical damage due to the puncture wound , depending on the size of your tarantula . fortunately , the venom from this specie isnt that potent . i have had a bite from a grammostola rosea ( chillean rose tarantula ) which is closely related to the chaco golden knee . it got swollen , a bit itchy and numb , and it went away within the day . best be careful , theres a very slim chance that you might be allergic to the venom . very rare cases .\nthanks . glad you liked it . they dont call it g . auriostriata anymore . now its g . pulchripes . and i believe its the same specie . you see , people who make a business out of selling these pets come up with\nmarketing\nstrategies such as making up a completely outrageous names and sell them as a completely\nnew\nor\nrare\nspecie . if youre new to the hobby i suggest learning the binomial names for each specie you encounter . dont be intimidated . make it a hobby to use binomial names . it helps a lot .\nand since i ' ll be sticking with these two genus from now on . . . my 5 t wishlist became a whole lot easier . maybe a bit pricier , but oh well . 1 . g . rosea 2 . b . boehmei 3 . g . pulchripes 4 . b . albopilosum 5 . b . vagans so the last 3 are relatively common and inexpensive . if i am to extend my list to 5 more eventually , g . pulchra , b . smithi , b . emilia , b . klaasi and b . auratum are what i ' d be really looking into . - luc\nso , i have an emp scorp and want to add a good t to my home . i ' ve settled on getting a g . pulchripes and want to know general advice for sling care . as well , i ' m going to a reptile show in indianapolis to find a good specimen , ( trying to find a cb preferably ) and i want to know what you guys think i should look for / avoid . also , what should i do for heating ? i ' m going to use a custom made glass vivarium i ' m currently building ( pics later ) . thanx all in advance .\nhi , i have an emergency question about a t . other than the g . pulchripes . i put in a superworm in my a . seemanni cage and she had a nice little burrow going on . i didn ' t crush the superworms head before i put it in the cage which now was an afterthought . i believe she is in premolt and didn ' t bother to eat it and then the superworm just rolled down the burrow . i need help as far as if i should dig up her cage to get the superworm out before it becomes a beetle and a bigger problem . help please ! ! !\nthis is where people will tell you to get g . pulchripes , g . rosea , g . pulchra , avic avic , and many many others the h . lividum i have is very fast but it hasn ' t tried to bite yet . all you need to remember is that some t ' s will be good and some t ' s will be nasty , t ' s can be fine one second and flip out the next . if i was to give you a suggestion try to look at a avic , they are arboreal , good size , they might be able for you to get used to the speed of the t .\ni ' ve become too afraid of my c . darlingi sling . i should ' ve known i was way over my head when i ordered that . i can ' t even muster the courage to open the kk lid and pick up cricket remains . it ' s that bad . didn ' t get a threat pose yet . . . but i know the chances of it bolting out when i least expect it are pretty high . therefore i ' ve chosen to trade it off for another brachypelma or grammostola . i ' m simply afraid of either killing it by accident while trying to get it back into the enclosure or being bitten and causing harm to the hobby should the incident be reported to the media . i feel so embarassed , but i can ' t help it . . . it ' s dawning upon me now that old world species aren ' t for me . i ' m even thinking of merely\nspecialising\nwith the brachypelma and grammostola genus , mostly because of their somewhat docile temperament , slow speed , low toxicity , ease of care and extreme hardiness . surely i can ' t be the only one that feels like this . i ' ve posted an ad in the respective forum . this would be interesting and worthwhile mostly to eastern atlantic canadian members . just let me know i ' m not alone in feeling that old worlds are completely out of my league . - luc\nwhen i first time had my g . pulchripes sling , i put her in a pretty big container ( for her size ) which is 20 x 15 cm , then she looks so stressed out , she always hanging on the top of the cage , i was thinking that the substrate is too wet , but after i change the substrate , there ' s still no much different . at the end i tried to change the cage to a smaller one , just a pretty small plastic container , and guess what . . she looks so calm and never hanging on the top of the container anymore , some people said that a big container will make a ts feel unsafe . guess that it ' s true\n2 inches is still considered a sling , 3 inches is considered as a juvenile . it is measured in diagonal leg span . from leg no . 1 on one side to leg no . 4 on the other side . usually for a chaco of that size they eat 3 - 5 days after molting . what are you feeding it ? whats the size of the prey items ? as i have said , chaco and other tarantulas of the grammostola genus sometimes go on fasts which can last from a couple of weeks to over half a year . just keep on offering it food every 3 days . dont disturb it too much . tarantulas who are stressed out will often refuse food . i have noticed that if you handle your tarantula before feeding it , it will refuse the food . it is best not to bother it before feeding it .\nso i shouldnt expect him / her to jump at a meal ? as well , i bought a slate rock that makes a pretty nice hide since i read that they prefer rocks due to the fact that burrowing in their natural habitat is typically difficult , so they hide under rocks , i have three containers for three potential size , a pill bottle if i get a sling w nothing but air holes and substrate i will moisten , a small tupperware container with substrate , holes for good ventilation , and a small small bit of cork bark , and then i have a good sized but short plastic kritter keeper on the off hand chance i get a mature g . pulchripes . i was going to get isopods for keeping it all nice and clean . thoughts ? oh , also , that big slate rock is in the container i have if i get an adult .\ngood day everyone a while back i sold my entire collection and yes i was rather depressed but nothing i could do about it at the time . however , i have recently decided to start up again so i ' m searching for the following : avic avic ( pinktoe ) p . irminia ( suntiger ) t . cupreus ( violet tree spider ) p . fasinata ( sri - laken ornimental ) l . klugi - ( scarlet birdeater ) l . parahybana ( salmon pink ) g . pulchripes ( golden knee ) c . cyaneopub ( green bottle blue ) those are the ones i would like to buy first before i get into the p . metallic and m . bal ect i would ideally prefer spiderlings ( 2 - 3cm ) in size as i have a certain way of raising them ( if you can call it that ) . thanks in advance splurge read more . . .\nmy collection : - support captive breeding 0 . 0 . 1 haplopelma minax 0 . 0 . 1 haplopelma hainanum 1 . 0 . 1 cyriopagopus schioedtei 0 . 0 . 1 poecilotheria rufilata 0 . 1 . 0 heteroscoda maculata 0 . 1 . 2 haplopelma lividum 0 . 1 . 0 grammostola rosea 0 . 1 . 1 haplopelma longipes 0 . 0 . 1 brachypelma vagans 0 . 0 . 5 aphonopelma iodius 0 . 1 . 0 ornithoctonus aureotibialis / sp ' nakorn ' 0 . 1 . 0 ornithoctonus aureotibialis 0 . 0 . 4 haplopelma albostriatum 0 . 0 . 1 aphonopelma abberans 0 . 0 . 1 ornithoctonus sp ' koh samui ' 0 . 0 . 1 chromatopelma cyaneopubescens 1 . 0 . 0 poecilotheria striata 0 . 0 . 1 chilobrachys dyscolus 0 . 0 . 1 haplopelma schmidti 0 . 0 . 2 yamia sp koh samui 0 . 0 . 1 psalmopeus cambridgei 0 . 0 . 1 chilobrachys sp aladdin 0 . 1 . 0 lampropelma violaceopes 0 . 0 . 1 lampropelma nigerrimum\nour privacy / cookie policy contains detailed information about the types of cookies & related technology on our site , and some ways to opt out . by using the site , you agree to the uses of cookies and other technology as outlined in our policy , and to our terms of use .\nnative to the grasslands of argentina and paraguay , the chaco golden knee tarantula is a ground - living species that burrows when he can . the chaco golden knee ' s natural habitat remains warm throughout the year , with dry spells alternating with periods of heavy rainfall .\ntarantulas don\u2019t need enormous tanks , but chaco golden knees are large specimens , so you\u2019ll need a habitat with capacity of at least 15 gallons . they\u2019ll feel more secure with a shelter , such as a large piece of bark or a plastic hut . provide a thick layer , at least 6 inches , of a safe substrate such as coconut fiber or chemical - free potting compost , and a shallow water dish . keep the tank in a warm room and out of direct sunlight ; if the room ' s not warm year - round , you may have to invest in supplemental heat - - but this creature doesn ' t need a particularly warm habitat that would necessitate a heat source , generally .\nlike other tarantulas , the chaco golden knee subsists on a diet of smaller invertebrates , mostly arthropods , in the wild . feed your captive tarantula crickets , roaches , grasshoppers and similar nontoxic insects . she probably won\u2019t eat that often , about once or twice a week . remove any insect parts afterward . if she hasn\u2019t eaten a prey item after a few hours , she\u2019s not hungry . remove it from the tank and feed her again after a day or so - - unless she starts to molt , in which case don\u2019t feed her anything until the process is over .\nkeep the substrate fairly dry - - it doesn\u2019t need to be dry as dessicated dust , but don\u2019t let it become soggy , except perhaps under the water bowl . tarantulas produce very little waste and do not appreciate their habitat being disturbed , so limit cleaning out the tank to once or twice a year .\nalthough generally sweet - natured , the chaco golden knee , like many other tarantulas , may flick irritating hairs at people when alarmed . avoid scaring your pet with sudden movements or by picking her up with your bare hands , especially early on . the hairs and venom of this species should cause only minor irritation in most people , but if you are prone to allergies , talk to your doctor before acquiring any tarantula as a pet . never handle or feed your golden knee while she is molting - - your hands or a prey insect could do immense damage at this vulnerable time .\njudith willson has been writing since 2009 , specializing in environmental and scientific topics . she has written content for school websites and worked for a glasgow newspaper . willson has a master of arts in english from the university of aberdeen , scotland .\nwillson , judith .\nthe needs & habitat of the chaco golden knee tarantula .\nanimals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / needs - habitat - chaco - golden - knee - tarantula - 5814 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .\nwillson , judith . ( n . d . ) . the needs & habitat of the chaco golden knee tarantula . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / needs - habitat - chaco - golden - knee - tarantula - 5814 . html\nwillson , judith .\nthe needs & habitat of the chaco golden knee tarantula\naccessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken\nnote : depending on which text editor you ' re pasting into , you might have to add the italics to the site name .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nif this is your first visit , be sure to check out the faq by clicking the link above . you may have to register before you can post : click the register link above to proceed . to start viewing messages , please register with your real full name as per the rules and regulations , select the forum that you want to visit from the selection below .\nhi craig yep that is what it means . the paper is available as a download from the downloads section of this site . ray\n. mr gabriel in his paper rejects this synonymy , i . e . treats\nspider myths | curious taxonomy | the world spider catalog - theraphosidae\nwe are all taxonomists .\n- judith winston\nthe laws of biology are written in the language of diversity .\n- edward osborne wilson\nprinciple of priority - the oldest fool is always right !\n- h . segers & y . samyn\npowered by vbulletin\u00ae version 4 . 2 . 2 copyright \u00a9 2018 vbulletin solutions , inc . all rights reserved .\nlightning speed from a big 6\ntarantula . you ' re looking at some nice kills , hope you enjoy the video ! music : vivaldi - the four seasons - summer - presto for more tarantula videos you can visit my channel ; )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nhabitat : the climate of paraguay is subtropical . at asunci\u00f3n average temperatures range from about 17\u00b0c ( about 63\u00b0f ) in july to about 27\u00b0c ( about 80\u00b0f ) in january . in the chaco and other points to the north temperatures often reach 38\u00b0c ( 100\u00b0f ) . annual rainfall averages some 1 , 120 mm ( 44 in ) in the asunci\u00f3n area , some 815 mm ( 32 in ) in the gran chaco , and some 1 , 525 mm ( 60 in ) in the eastern forest regions . the chaco has heavy rainfall in the summer and almost no rain in the winter .\ntemp / humidity : 65 \u00b0 - 78 \u00b0 / 55 % - 65 % humidity i keep this species temperature at 78 \u00b0 degrees and the humidity at 65 % .\nsubstrate : i use four inches of substrate . ( i use a mixture of peat moss , vermiculite , coconut fiber and dirt for firmness , as the substrate ) .\nretreat / hide : this is an opportunistic burrower , therefore i placed a bark for a starter burrow hide .\nfood consumption : i fed the new born spiderling fruit flies , then when they reached 1 / 2\ni introduced baby crickets . i feed my adult chaco stripe knee two ( 2 ) one - inch b . dubia roaches or 7 adult crickets weekly . this species is a laid back eater . the only time this tarantula refuses food is when it is near a molt .\nwater requirements : i keep a water dish in the tank . i have never seen mine drink . i keep the substrate in the terrarium dry .\ngrowth rate : the growth rate of this species is medium . i purchased this tarantula as a juvenile .\nadult size : i read that they get seven - eight inches ( 17 . 78 - 20 . 32cm ) . after eight years my chaco has grown to a solid seven inches ( 17 . 78cm ) , easily .\ntemperament : this is a laid back , easy to handle species . it has never kicked hair at me nor given a threat pose . she is always out in the open and is friendly .\ncomments : this is one of my favorite tarantulas . she is large and is a beautiful display specimen . the larger it gets , the more colorful it becomes . check the pictures out and the colors . the colors are natural not enhanced . she always accompany me when i do events . this spider has a personality , and i believe it likes attention . every hobbiest must have this species .\nall photos on this website are courtesy of mike basic tarantula unless stated otherwise . it ' s prohibited to copy without permission of author .\nthis site uses cookies . by continuing to use this site , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . learn more .\nthe review & report forums are closed to new posts . please use our new reviews & reports section to leave reviews & reports . if you do not see a review item for a seller , please contact them and request they create their own review item . if you would like to leave a breeding / bite / sting report , please contact an administrator with the species name that you would like to report and what type of report you would like to leave . we will create an item for you . the seller / buyer / shop inquiries / warnings forum is still open for new posts .\ntoday . unpacking a sling order and they were pretty active and my gf wanted to hold one . next thing i know she is like oh ! ow ! holy _ _ _ _ ! that hurts . ( no i did not step on her foot ! ) this sling is about 1 / 4\nand she felt no pain other than the bite , there was no swelling and no redness . medical attention was : i had to give her a hug to make her feel better . symptoms lasted less time than it took her to say\nouch that hurt , get him back in his container\nthis happened sometime in early december . this t has been finally been proven to be a chaco and i ' m certain it was a bite .\ni was putting the chaco back into the container , while i was wearing gloves ( i react to the urticating hairs ) . it had walked on to the back of my right hand . the chaco was three inches at the time . unforunately , even though i was being quite careful , it started to slip a little bit as i was putting it back in it ' s container . it panicked and apparently used it ' s fangs to help hold on .\ni was not sure i had been bitten until after i washed my hands and sat back down at the computer . i later pulled out the gloves and examined them for a bite mark . there were two tiny little holes in the gloves . right hand ring finger was bitten . right ring finger turned slightly reddish , and was slightly swollen . i don ' t recall much , if any pain . i did have a strong itching burning sensation however . about an hour or two later i went to bed without any problems . no swelling in the finger the next day , and no burning sensation .\ni was rather concerned for a couple of days , about the tarantula having bitten latex but it was ( and is ) fine . so there you go , there ' s my stupid newbie bite experience .\nyou never know , i have a 7 in . female chaco . have handled her many times and so have my sons , 6 and 12 . i saw her on the screen top of her cage and as usual i took her out . sitting at the computer , all of a sudden i felt some pressure . she had her fangs out , about 1 / 2 in long , and was hanging on with them . not biting but gripping . one fang did lightly pierce skin . if she really wanted to , i would have two large holes in my hand .\nmy little 2\nchaco was my first tarantula , and it had just molted . . . i missed this , but knew it was imminent , so of course i wanted to check in on the spider because i had read somewhere that problems can occur with molting and was way too overconcerned . i saw something crumpled with its legs under it in the corner of the webbed in burrow area and freaked out , so go diving in to discover the old skeleton and brush my hand against the shiny new ultra defensive soft spider in the process . it nailed me on the inside of the left wrist with both fangs , i barely felt the bite , i noticed the venom a few minutes later as the area became warm and itchy . this continued for a half hour or so before being joined by pain in the joints of my wrist and hand , the pain wasn ' t bad , but just kindof there . this lasted about 3 hours with minor swelling , but really wasnt nearly as bad as i had expected .\nneedless to say , i wont go rushing in with a just molted spider again .\nwas bitten last night by my sub adult male . my own fault though , he had hooked himself onto my shirt and wouldn ' t let go anymore . trying to get him of resulted in being bitten ( plus getting him loose ) . he didn ' t get a very good grip , only one fang was inserted and it wasn ' t a dry bite ( substance could clearly be seen around the place of insertion ) . had no reaction at all , only that my hands were itchy cause of urticating bristles ( possibly from working inside the aureo ' s exo - terra .\nnot much to report , but i figured i would anyway cause i did have some symptoms , and i believe any info is useful .\ni got a 1 / 2\ng . aureostriata today and was handling it to get some pics , and i thought\noh , i think it may have bit me\ncause it was so small that i couldnt feel it walking on me , but definitely felt a small prik . well i got it on the third knuckle , no pain , slight local swelling and redness , and ichyness . 15 min after my hand felt a little like it just woke up from being asleep , all tingly , and that went away in 5 min . not bad at all , there really isnt much to expect from a 1 / 2\nsling .\nsp . , here is a bit of first - hand experience . this is se7en , my new 7 - legged\nduring se7en ' s initial handling session , i apparently got tagged . . . . . twice ! ! ! ! she must have fanged me during that session , because the itchyness started about an hour afterwords . i didn ' t even notice the two bite marks until the next day , though the webbing between my right middle and ring finger was experiencing small bouts of being itchy as hell . i thought she haired me at first , but the sensation was more like a mild bee sting that would come and go . when i saw the bite marks the next day , that ' s when i put it together that i had been tagged .\nsecond , the bite is nothing to worry about . i didn ' t feel it when it happened ( 2 bites delivered without any indication i had been fanged ) , and the symptoms were\nbetween the time i was bitten , and the time i realized it , i had handled my girl three times , pinch - grabbed her for a ventral shot , and fed her . she has been handled since , and without incident or protest . because of the mild effects of the venom , and the fact that her temperament is really calm , i am not frightened in the least to take another hit from her . love her lots , though ! ! !\ni got bit about 3 hours ago by an chaco golden knee . it jumped at me and bit my thumb while i was transferring her to a new enclosure . it only bit me for a second but the pain was real intense . it was burning pretty bad and my whole hand and arm have started cramping . it only got me with one fang since i only see one puncture wound .\nregistration is free , and dedicated forums exist for the discussion of tarantulas , true spiders , centipedes & scorpions . we also have classifieds , reviews , bite / sting / breeding reports and more ! .\nthis very popular tarantula has some fantastic qualities . it makes a great display spider because of the beautiful patterns and coloration it sports , it stays out in the open most of the time , and it is one of the more active tarantulas . it is known to move things around and rearrange its habitat , especially as a juvenile . this species is also one of the most docile tarantulas available . its calm demeanor , slower movements , and hardiness make it appealing to beginner and advanced collectors alike .\nnew world . opportunistic burrower size : 7 - 8\u201d growth rate : medium natural habitat : argentina , paraguay , uraguay housing needs : terrestrial setup with burrow or hide available . temperament : calm and docile .\netudes arachnologiques . 23e m\u00e9moire . xxxviii . descriptions d ' esp\u00e8ces et de genres nouveaux de la famille des aviculariidae .\ntwo new species of guyruita guadanucci et al . , 2007 ( araneae , theraphosidae ) from brazil\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nget the facts , not the hype !\nvisit urltoken stay informed and join the fight to keep your pets ! this is extremely important right now , there are several new laws being passed and many states are jumping on the anti - reptile bandwagon . if you enjoy being able to keep your pets you need to keep up to date on what is going on . you also may be asked to do something as simple as write some letters . we can ' t stress enough how important it is to do this !\ncopyright \u00a9 - twin cities reptiles - all rights reserved . proudly presented by , nativ3 , a minneapolis web development agency !\n. why the name change ? i couldn ' t find any information on the web , and it just makes no sense . first of all , another tarantula has that name already :\nif there are multiple possible names , the oldest one will generally take precedence . it doesn ' t matter if the newer name sounds cooler or has a more descriptive meaning .\nonly the binomial ( genus + species ) must be unique . you can find lots of examples where the species component of the name is used more than once . ( this is especially common when species are named after people or places . )\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nit is difficult to give a size for the spiders as stock is constantly changing . generally , the small size is a spiderling up to 1 . 5cm body length ( small will be small ) , juvenile is a grown on spiderling with a body length of about 1 . 5cm , medium 2cm to 4cm and a large is 4cm to fully adult ( but a lot depends on the species ! )\nif you would like me to measure the body length of any medium or large spider , please send me an email . i cannot measure the body length of small and juvenile size spiders as they are constantly changing .\ncockroaches ( species & sizes will vary ) i sometimes only have one species of cockroach av . .\ncommon name : ghost porcelain cockroach scientific name : gyna caffrorum size : vari . .\ncommon name : headlight cockroach scientific name : lucihormetica subcincta size : adult . .\ncommon name : black beauty stick insectscientific name : peruphasma schulteisize : adult / sub - adultstat . .\ncommon name : hissing cockroach scientific name : gromphadorhina species size : adult / s . .\nthe chaco golden knee tarantula is a ground - living species that burrows where it can . the chaco golden knee\u2019s natural habitat remains warm throughout the year , with dry spells alternating with periods of heavy rainfall .\nthe chaco golden knee tarantula can be expected to reach between 20\u201322 cm ( 8 . 5 in ) . it bears long light - colored hairs all over its body and gold stripes on its legs , particularly at the \u201cknees\u201d .\nno human is ever known to have died from a tarantula bite ! a tarantula bite is no worse than a bee sting in terms of toxicity .\nleast concern : the chaco golden knee tarantula is common or abundant and is likely to survive in the wild .\nadoption is simple . show how much you care about animals all year round by selecting your favorite animal from our adoption list .\nthe diet of a tarantula is typically crickets , grass - hoppers , locusts , moths , mealworms , and cockroaches with the occasional small animal . in a zoo environment , they are fed one cricket per week .\nevery visit to the zoo is a unique experience that awakens your senses . with a buffalo zoo membership you may visit the zoo as often as you like \u2013 and your admission is absolutely free .\n10 : 00 a . m . - 4 : 00 p . m . ( grounds close at 5 : 00 p . m . ) reptile house is closed until the spring of 2019\nthis is a care sheet dedicated to the chaco golden knee tarantula , a medium - large sized specie from argentina , paraguay & uraguay . this is also a standard care sheet applicable to most terrestrial tarantula species .\nthis care sheet is based on books , articles and information that i have gathered and my personal opinion , observations and experiences dealing with this specie . some information may be incorrect or insufficient . this care sheet is , and will always be a work in progress . if the reader finds any misinformation and have any corrections or suggestions , please feel free to leave a comment so i may address your concerns .\nit is advisable for 1 st time tarantula keepers to talk to someone who owns tarantulas before getting one . research about the tarantula you want and never hesitate to ask questions .\nkeeping of this species is fairly easy . spiderlings , or often referred to as\nslings\nare more suitable for beginners , because slings will almost never bite , the mere size of your hand is enough to intimidate them . by the time your tarantula is juvenile - sized , you will already have an idea of its personality .\nif you are getting adult specimen then a female is recommended since they live longer and grow larger than the males . males , after reaching maturity will have the tendencies to turn aggressive and defensive , this is because mature males aim on securing a mate . males will also have about a year or two left to live after reaching maturity .\nit is also wise to check the health and temperament of a potential tarantula . adult tarantulas should have abdomens bigger than its carapace or cephalothorax . how it stands or walks will also give you an idea of the tarantula\u2019s health ; healthy tarantulas should stand and walk on the tips of their toes like ballerinas , their abdomens shouldn\u2019t be dragged on the substrate ( ground ) when they walk . looking at the back of the abdomen will also tell you about their temperaments . hair - flickers will have bald spots on their abdomens . this specie rarely flicks . a tarantula\u2019s temperament can be checked by gently touching the back of its abdomen or hind legs with a paintbrush / stick , if it simply walks away , then it can be handled , if it runs away , then it might be a little nervous or skittish so exercise caution if you want to handle this tarantula , if it raises its fangs and its 1 st and 2 nd pairs of legs , then its aggressive . the latter reaction is known as the threat posture , any tarantula that is sporting this position will readily strike . they shouldn\u2019t be handled . if a tarantula turns towards the point where you made contact , it might be hungry or irritated .\nsexing tarantulas is a very tricky business . even experts have a hard time sexing a tarantula . a male tarantula could easily be taken for a female if it gets too big .\nthe best and accurate way to sex your tarantula is to wait until they are fully mature . females can be identified by looking into their molts for their ovaries . female specimens will have a skin - like flap in their sexual opening also called the epigastric furrow , just between the upper booklungs , this is called spermathecae . females will store a male\u2019s sperm in the spermathecae . female tarantulas are bulkier and have larger abdomens compared to the males .\nmale tarantulas have smaller bodies and the tips of their pedipalps ( short leg - like appendages located next to the fangs ) will look like boxing gloves . also males of this specie will develop tibial hooks or spurs on their 1st legs when they reach maturity ( tibial hooks are not present in some of the species ) . these hooks are used mainly to hold the female\u2019s fangs while mating .\nslings can easily be kept in small deli containers . be sure to have air wholes on the sides . the container should be big enough for your sling to walk around but not too big for it to get lost . most tarantulas prefer smaller enclosures . enclosures shouldn\u2019t be too high as this specie lives on the ground . 1inch ( or more ) substrate should be provided . 1 sling per enclosure .\njuveniles and adults should be kept in either low tanks or critter keepers or shoebox sized containers . be sure that there are air holes on the sides and on the top . an ideal tank cover would be glass / plexi - glass with air holes on it . for larger tanks , a hide should be provided . emptied coconut shells , hollowed tree barks and other hollowed ornaments will be suitable for the job . at least 3 inches of substrate should be provided for juveniles and 5 inches of substrate for adults ; more is appreciated since this specie likes to dig . do not put more than one tarantula in a single enclosure .\nto avoid ants , you can coat the legs of the table where you keep your enclosures or the bottom part of the sides of the enclosures with a generous amount of petroleum gel . just wipe clean and reapply every month or as needed . a swarm of ants can easily kill your tarantula . there are also other methods to avoid ants but from my experience , petroleum gel works best .\n1 . feed your tarantula before rehousing or transferring it to a new enclosure . tarantulas will not eat for days when transferred to a new enclosure . they need time to acclimate to the new environment .\n2 . do not feed your tarantula for a few days to a week after rehousing or transferring it .\n3 . if your tarantula stops being inactive or starts pacing around the enclosure or keeps on sticking to the sides of the enclosure , it is a sign that the tarantula is uncomfortable with the enclosure . you may need to change the whole enclosure or provide it with dryer substrate .\norganic potting soil , coconut fibre mulch , peat moss or any combination of 2 or more of these will be ideal . perlyte or vermiculite can optionally be added to help retain humidity .\nmoist your substrate with water and squeeze out the water , if the substrate holds the shape after its squeezed then it is perfect . never use wood shavings as they are highly abrasive and may contain oils that may be toxic to your tarantula , particularly oils from cedar .\nsubstrate should be replaced twice or thrice a year . to treat substrate , simply pour a generous amount of boiling water on it and let it sit for 10 minutes before draining . another way is to put dampen the substrate and put it in an oven at 350 degrees for 10 minutes .\nmost pet shops sell blocks of substrate . they are simple to use , affordable , and since they are heat treated to compress , they are sterile . all you need to do is soak the blocks in water and wait a few minutes , then break them off and squeeze the water out . if possible , use fresh substrate rather than recycled\ntreated\nsubstrate .\nnote : be sure that your substrate can retain water and hold humidity , but be sure your enclosure will not be overly damp as tarantulas don\u2019t like wet substrate .\ntip : always have dry substrate handy . if your tarantula is rejecting your substrate , try adding a layer of dry substrate over the damp one .\nadult and juveniles will need a hide if they are kept in a larger enclosure . a hollowed bark is perfect since it provides both shelter and climbing spots for your tarantula . for this specie , it is recommended to set the hollowed log horizontally . if flora should be added , use fake ones . real plants will attract mites and other pests . leave the real plants to the hardcore experts . also , do not put too much flora since this will only create hiding spots for the prey . rocks are also optional to add beauty , just be sure that there are no sharp edges . other accessories may be added as d\u00e9cor .\ncaution : in setting up your enclosure , be sure that everything will stay into place . things that might get knocked down or fall or roll out of place could potentially hurt and kill your tarantula . remember that this specie likes to dig . accessories should be rooted in place ."]}
{"id": 525, "summary": [{"text": "the salt marsh common yellowthroat , ( geothlypis trichas sinuosa ) , is a subspecies of the common yellowthroat , a new world warbler .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "the salt marsh common yellowthroat has experienced a dramatic 80 % decline from the early 20th century through 1976 .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is a species of concern for protection in efforts to restore chelsea wetlands in hercules , california . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "salt marsh common yellowthroat", "paragraphs": ["this species exhibits a wide range of geographic variation in plumage and taxonomists have described many subspecies in their struggle to categorize this variation . it is a migrant through much of its range , although some populations are partially migratory or sedentary . two sedentary populations , the san francisco or salt marsh yellowthroat and the brownsville yellowthroat (\nfoster , m . l . 1977 . a breeding season study of the salt marsh yellowthroat ( geothlypis trichas sinuosa ) of the san francisco bay area , california . master ' s thesis , san jose state univ . , san jose , ca . close\nhsu , a . 1993 . habitat use and singing activity of the common yellowthroat . master ' s thesis , univ . of rhode island , providence . close\nkowalski , m . p . 1983a . factors affecting the performance of flight songs and perch songs in the common yellowthroat . wilson bull . no . 95 : 140 - 142 . close\nzink , r . m . and j . t . klicka . 1990 . genetic variation in the common yellowthroat and some allies . wilson bull . no . 102 : 514 - 520 . close\nmenges , t . 1998 . common yellowthroat ( geothlypis trichas ) . in the riparian bird conservation plan : a strategy for reversing the decline of riparian - associated birds in california . california partners in flight . urltoken\nsalt , g . w . 1957 . an analysis of avifaunas in the teton mountains and jackson hole , wyoming . condor . 59 : 373 - 393 .\ngeothlypis trichas sinuosa female arrowhead marsh , martin luther king , jr . , regional shoreline , alameda county , california , usa 25 november 2007\nchen , p . 1993 . a study of the possible functions of the black mask in the male common yellowthroat : is the mask a badge signifying fitness ? master ' s thesis , univ . of wisconsin , milwaukee . close\nalthough this species primarily uses marsh habitats , riparian habitat may be important as a corridor and for other activities ( birds of north america ) .\ncardiff , e . a . 1989 . breeding bird census 1988 : desert riparian - freshwater marsh . journal of field ornithology 60 : 63 .\ncardiff , e . a . 1992 . breeding bird census 1991 : desert riparian - freshwater marsh . journal of field ornithology 63 : 96 - 97 .\nstewart , r . e . 1953 . a life history study of the yellowthroat . wilson bull . no . 65 : 99 - 115 . close\nritchison , g . 1991 . the flight songs of common yellowthroats : description and causation . condor no . 93 : 12 - 18 . close\nhofslund , p . b . 1959 . a life history study of the yellowthroat , geothlypis trichas . proc . minn . acad . sci . no . 27 : 144 - 174 . close\nklicka , j . t . 1994 . the biological and taxonomic status of the brownsville yellowthroat ( geothlypis trichas insperata ) . master ' s thesis , univ . of minnesota , minneapolis . close\nritchison , g . 1995 . characteristics , use and possible functions of the perch songs and chatter calls of male common yellowthroats . condor no . 97 : 27 - 38 . close\nsouth coast and colorado desert bioregion : according to maps data , bbs routes , and expert opinion ( b . kus and p . unit ) , coye is common in this area .\ncardiff , e . a . 1996 . breeding bird census 1995 : desert riparian - freshwater marsh . journal of field ornithology 67 : 75 . chapman , f . m . 1968 . warblers of north america . dover publications inc . ny .\ntable 1 . latitude and longitude of current breeding status of common yellowthroats at maps locations throughout california from 1989 - 1996 ( ibp 1997 ) . this is based on birds captured in mist nets only . refer to ibp for interpretation of breeding status codes .\ncoye is a common brown - headed cowbird host . a study in michigan reported 10 of 22 nests parasitized ( stewart 1953 ) . in the central valley of california , 7 of 14 nests were parasitized ( geupel et al . 1995 - 1997 , draft progress reports ) .\nsan joaquin valley ( sjv ) bioregion : coye has been recorded on bbs routes in the northern sjv , but not in the southern portion . approximately 15 breeding territories were recorded along the san joaquin river and salt slough ( prbo 1997 ) . coye also was detected on incidental surveys as far south as the mendota wildlife area , fresno county . the status of coye in the southern portion of the sjv needs further investigation .\nthis inhabitant of thick , tangled vegetation ( particularly in wet areas ) is one of north america ' s most widespread warblers , breeding throughout the continental united states ( including part of alaska ) and in parts of all canadian provinces . the male ' s distinctive black mask and wich - i - ty wich - i - ty wich - i - ty song make it an easily identified warbler . first collected in what is now maryland , and described by carl von linn\u00e9 ( linnaeus ) in 1766 , the common yellowthroat was one of the earliest species of birds tobe described from the new world .\nsierra nevada bioregion : bbs routes and reports of coye in inyo county indicate that it is a common migrant and breeder ( heindel unpublished ) . coye appear absent from the northern portion of this region . however , bbs routes have detected coye in the southern portion of this bioregion ( peterjohn ) .\npacific northwest bioregion : coye appears to be historically more common . they were recorded on 17 bbs routes from 1966 - 1985 whereas from 1986 - 1996 only 10 routes recorded coye . mist netting data indicates coye as a transient in this region and a fall migrant ( c . j . ralph , ibp ) .\ni reviewed point count surveys ( provided by b . peterjohn ) from 1966 - 1985 and 1986 - 1996 to determine if differences existed in distribution . common yellowthroat ( coye ) were either seen or heard singing / calling during the breeding season at many locations throughout the state . coye were recorded in at least one location within each of the 10 bioregions in california . however , only one location in the sacramento valley bioregion had recorded coye . all other regions had > 2 locations . this is a compilation of all bbs routes in the state of ca . review rough maps with coye detected at stations . i highlighted all of the historic and current routes that detected coye ( see very rough maps with bioregion in black ) .\nwe have an opportunity in hercules to preserve the 12 acre chelsea wetlands near chelsea by the bay and hercules by the bay communities . the wetland is a vital part of our ecosystem . egrets once nested there and it remains the habitat of some endangered species . the past century took its toll on the chelsea wetland . as the area was developed , tons of soil was dumped in the wetland . a similar practice occurred throughout the country . by 1950 , an estimated 45 million acres , or 35 % , of all wetlands in america had been drained .\nrestoring the chelsea wetland has several benefits . by removing the unnatural soil in chelsea wetland , the water storage capacity will increase by four feet , thus helping to reduce flooding in nearby neighborhoods , as happened in pinole in 2006 . this is particularly important to the communities of chelsea by the bay and hercules by the bay .\na healthy wetland also prevents pollutants from running into the bay . ecologists call wetlands \u201cthe kidney\u201d of the ecosystem because of the natural cleansing functions they perform . they do this by retaining sediments and toxic pollutants attached to the sediments . wetland plants also reduce algae blooms and fish kills .\nrestoring the chelsea wetland currently , the chelsea wetland turns dry and brown in the summer . a healthy wetland and creek would cycle water year round , providing a place for wildlife . native vegetation would return naturally or be reintroduced . some of the current goals of the restoration project include :\nthe city of hercules has committed to reviewing the county\u2019s work on flood control to make sure that we are protected and that future efforts will not aggravate what is currently in place .\n2012 update last year , the city of hercules finalized grant agreements with the california natural resources agency and the environmental protection agency and association of bay area governments . in all , the chelsea wetlands project has recieved several grants : $ 1 . 83 million from the proposition 84 is the california river parkways program ; $ 145 , 000 from the green infill clean storm water initiative ( epa / abag ) , $ 56 , 200 from the contra costa county fish and wildlife propagation fund and $ 40 , 000 from the san francisco foundation . the city of hercules has also contributed $ 128 , 000 , bringing the project total to over $ 2 . 1 million .\nin februrary of 2012 , the city solicited request for proposals for ceqa and permit regulatory compliance for for the project . a request for proposals for final engineering design will also be made available in february .\nthe list of all grant recipients can be found on the natural resources agency website at : urltoken .\nthe city of hercules and their consultants have presented plans and answered question on the chelsea wetlands restoration at community workshops sponsored by the friends of pinole creek watershed . and the chelsea by the bay homeowners association has been actively involved with the city on this project . community involvement is a critical component of success for projects like this .\ndraft initial study and proposed mitigated negative declaration ( is / mnd ) for the chelsea wetlands restoration project ( appendices joined to final document ) draft conceptual restoration plan ( 11 . 7 mb pdf ) . this report describes the details of the project .\nbiological evaluation report ( 10 . 3 mb pdf ) this report identifies special status plant and wildlife and habitat restored by the project .\ncontours map ( 1 . 92 mb cad file ) contours map ( 1 . 44 mb pdf file )\nif you are interested in getting more involved in the wetland restoration , contact holly smyth for the chelsea wetland restoration project at ( 510 ) 245 - 6531 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\nmanagement status : ( g . t . sinuosa ) california species of special concern\nthis review is based on mist - netting information , bbs data , and expert opinion ( sources noted individually ) .\nthe following is a compilation of maps stations from 1989 - 1996 where coye have been recorded with accompanying breeding status ( institute for bird populations , d . desante , h . smith ) - lat / long of maps sites with coye breeding status ( table 1 ) . 25 of the 70 maps stations have captured coye ( ibp 1997 ) . coye attempted to breed at only 10 of these stations , and an occasional breeder at 3 stations ( ibp 1997 ) .\nnortheast bioregion : coye was recorded in five areas in the northeast bioregion from 1966 - 1996 . mist netting data confirms that coye breeds in this area . however , coye has not been recorded on bbs routes in the southwest portion of this bioregion ( this may be due to the topography ) . further investigation is warranted .\nsacramento valley bioregion : coye is a confirmed breeder in this region . however , in the upper and lower sacramento and feather rivers , coye populations have decreased ( gains 1974 ) . data are inconclusive for the southern portion of this region .\nbay / delta bioregion : confirmed breeder in the western portion of this region . also recorded on bbs routes throughout this region . the bay / delta bioregion supports the listed g . t . sinuosa subspecies .\ncentral coast bioregion : according to recent bbs surveys , coye seem to be absent from the northern portion of this region . historically , bbs routes detected coye , but have failed in recent years . however , coye have been captured in mist nets in this area ( see table 1 ) .\nmojave bioregion : coye seems to be absent from the eastern section of this region , whereas the western region reports numerous observations . b . kus indicated that only a few coye in highly optimal habitat exist near victorville along the mojave river . further investigation is warranted in this area .\nevens et al . ( 1997 ) report 1 . 04 territories per hectare and 5 . 48 territories per km when design data is pooled ( i . e . , burned and unburned plots ) for g . t . sinuosa at point reyes national seashore . in michigan , home ranges vary from 0 . 3 - 0 . 7 ha ( stewart 1953 ) . in new york , coye were spaced 2 . 0 - 2 . 4 ha . in the san francisco bay , 0 . 2 - 2 . 0 ha spacing reported by foster ( 1977 ) .\nwoodrey and chandler ( 1997 ) indicate no significant difference between adults and immatures in timing of passage at any site studied . however , this varied between year and site . grinnell and miller ( 1944 ) indicate coye is a summer resident from mid - april until september in northern ca , and is a winter resident in central and southern ca . nevertheless , they are uncommon in ca during the winter months ( grinnell and miller 1944 ) .\nsally and gleaner of insects , spiders , and caterpillers ( bent 1953 ) .\nground level to 3 m , but most commonly found between ground level and 0 . 6 m .\nthe nest contains dead grasses , leaves , ferns , etc . , and is lined with fine grasses and hair ( harrison 1978 , zeiner et al . 1990 ) .\nthe coye is found from sea level to at least 450 m in bishop , california . more information needed .\nterritory / home range size is reported as 0 . 4 - 1 . 2 hectares , suggesting there may be a minimum wetland size for breeding . however , more information is needed .\nlivestock grazing intensity , loss and destruction of wetland habitats ( airola 1990 ) . coyes are sensitive to destruction of wetlands and grazing , especially in certain parts of california . however , more data are needed to fully assess this issue , perhaps concentrating on the central valley where wetland loss is documented .\nstudies in the northern prairies of canada and north dakota have shown that incidental depredation may be harmful to ground - nesting birds ( vickery et al . 1992 ) . snakes , accipiters , and small mammals are known predators . coyes also are parasitized frequently ( bent 1953 , ehrlich et al . 1988 ) .\nairola , d . a . 1986 . brown - headed cowbird parasitism and habitat disturbance in the sierra nevada . journal of wildlife management . 50 ( 4 ) : 571 - 575 .\namerican ornithologists ' union . 1983 . check - list of north american birds . 6th ed . am . ornithol . union , washington , d . c .\natwood , j . l . 1994 . endangered small landbirds of the western united states . studies in avian biology 15 : 328 - 339 .\nbeal , f . e . l . 1907 . birds of california in relation to the fruit industry ( part 1 ) . u . s . dept . agri . biol . surv . bull . 30 .\nbeedy , e . c . and s . l . granholm . 1985 . discovering sierra birds : western slope . yosemite natural history association and sequoia natural history association , usa .\nbeer , j . r . , l . d . frenzel and n . hansen . 1956 . minimum space requirements of some nesting passerine birds . wilson bulletin . 68 ( 3 ) : 200 - 209 .\nbent , a . c . 1963 . life histories of north american wood warblers . dover publications inc . , ny .\nbierman , g . c . and s . g . sealy . 1982 . parental feeding of nestling yellow warblers in relation to brood size and prey availability . auk . 99 : 332 - 341 .\nblakesley , j . a . and k . r . peese . 1988 . avian use of campground and noncampground sites in riparian zones . journal of wildlife management 52 ( 3 ) : 399 - 402 .\nbriskie , j . v . 1995 . nesting biology of the yellow warbler at the northern limits of its range . journal of field ornithology . 66 : 531 - 543 .\nburridge , b . 1995 . sonoma county breeding bird atlas : detailed maps and accounts for our nesting birds . madrone audubon society , santa rosa , ca .\nbusby , d . g . and s . g . sealy . 1979 . feeding ecology of nesting yellow warblers . can . j . zool . 57 : 1670 - 1681 .\nclark , k . l . , and r . j . robertson . 1981 . cowbird parasitism and evolution of anti - parasite strategies in the yellow warbler . wilson bulletin . 93 ( 2 ) : 249 - 258 .\ncollins , s . l . 1981 . a comparison of nest - site and perch - site vegetation structure for seven species of warbler . wilson bulletin . 93 : 542 - 547 .\ndawson , w . l . 1923 . birds of california . south moulton co . , san diego , los angeles , san francisco .\ndellasala , d . a . 1986 . polygyny in the yellow warbler . wilson bulletin 98 ( 1 ) : 152 - 154 .\ndesante , d . and d . g . ainley . 1980 . the avifauna of the south farallon islands , california . studies in avian biology no . 4 . cooper ornithological society ,\ndixon , j . b . 1934 . records of the nesting of certain birds in eastern california . condor . 36 : 35 - 36 .\ndunn , j . l . , and k . l . garrett . 1997 . a field guide to the warblers of north america . houghton mifflin co . , new york 656pp .\nevens , j . g . , and r . w . stallcup . 1992 . breeding bird census 1991 : coastal riparianmarsh . journal of field ornithology 63 : 95 - 96 .\nehrlich , p . r . , d . s . dobkin , and d . wheye . 1988 . the birder ' s handbook : a field guide to the natural history of north american birds . simon and schusterinc . , new york , ny .\nficken , m . s . and r . w . ficken . 1966 . notes on the male and habitat selection in the yellow warbler . wilson bulletin . 78 : 232 - 233 .\nfatooh , j . 1996 . preliminary results of 1995 breeding bird censuses in riparian areas , bishop ra . unpublished report to the bureau of land management , bishop resource area .\nfatooh , j . 1997 . breeding birds of wilson creek . unpublished report to the bureau of land management , bishop resource area .\ngaines , d . 197 ? . the nesting riparian avifauna of the sacramento valley , california and the status of the yellow - billed cuckoo . ms thesis , university of california , davis .\ngaines , d . 1977 . birds of the yosemite sierra . grt book printing , oakland , ca .\ngaines , d . 1974 . a new look at the nesting riparian avifauna of the sacramento river valley , california . western birds . 5 : 61 - 84 .\ngaines , d . 1988 . birds of yosemite and the east slope . artemesia press , lee vining , ca .\ngardali , t . and g . r . geupel . 1997 . songbird inventory and monitoring at golden gate national recreation area . prbo unpublished report . stinson beach , ca .\ngarrett , k . and j . dunn . 1981 . birds of southern california : status and distribution . l . a . audubon , artisan press , los angeles , ca .\ngeupel , g . r . and n . nur . 1993 . evaluation of migration monitoring at the palomarin field station : population trends in california and the west , 1980 - 1992 . paper presented at the\nworkshop to develop a north american monitoring program for landbird species nesting in northern canada and alaska .\nsimcoe , ontario . september 1993 .\ngeupel , g , r . , g . ballard . 1995 . status and distribution of the landbird avifauna along riparian corridors of the sacramento river national wildlife refuge : results of the 1994 field season . prbo report to the u . s . fish and wildlife . stinson beach , ca .\ngeupel , g , r . , g . ballard , a . kiener . 1996a . songbird monitoring within the san luis national wildlife refuge : results from the 1995 field season . prbo report to the us fish and wildlife . stinson beach , ca .\ngeupel , g , r . , g . ballard , n . nur , a . king . 1996b . population status and habitat associations of songbirds along riparian corridors of the lower sacramento river : results from 1995 field season and summary of results 1993 to 1995 . prbo report to the us fish and wildlife and the nature conservancy . stinson beach , ca .\ngeupel , g , r . , g . ballard , a . king . 1997a . songbird monitoring on the cosumnes river preserve : results from the 1995 field season . prbo report to the nature conservancy . stinson beach , ca .\ngeupel , g , r . , a . king , g . ballard . 1997b . songbird monitoring within the san luis national wildlife refuge : results from the 1996 field season . prbo report to the us fish and wildlife . stinson beach , ca .\ngoosen , p . j . and s . g . sealy . 1982 . production of young in a dense nesting population of yellow warblers , dendroica petechia , in manitoba . can . field - nat . 96 : 189 - 199 .\ngraham , d . s . 1988 . responses of five host species to cowbird parasitism . condor . 90 : 588 - 591 .\ngreenberg , r . , and j . s . ortiz . 1994 . interspecific defense of pasture trees by wintering yellow warblers . auk . 111 ( 3 ) : 672 - 682 .\ngrinnell , j . 1914 . an account of the mammals and birds of the lower colorado valley with especial reference to the distributional problems presented . university of california publications in zoology 12 ( 4 ) : 51 - 294 .\ngrinnell , j . 1915 . a distributional list of the birds of california . pac . coast avifauna 11 . cooper ornithological club , hollywood , ca .\ngrinnell , j . , and m . w . wythe . 1927 . directory to the bird life of the san francisco bay region . pac . coast avifauna 18 . cooper ornithological club , berkeley , ca .\ngrinnell , j . , j . dixon , and j . m . linsdale . 1930 . vertebrate natural history of a section of northern california through the lassen peak region . univ . cal . publ . zool . 35 ( 5 ) : 1 - 594 .\ngrinnell , j . , and a . h . miller . 1944 . the distribution of the birds of california . pacific coast avifauna 27 . cooper ornithological club , berkeley , ca .\ngrisom , l . and a . sprunt jr . 1979 . the warblers of america . doubleday and company , inc . , garden city , ny .\nharris , s . w . 1991 . northwestern california birds : a guide to the status , distribution , and habitats for the birds of del norte , humboldt , trinity , northern mendocino , and western siskiyou counties california . humboldt state university press , arcata , ca .\nharrison , c . j . o . and p . j . baicich . 1997 . a guide to the nests , eggs , and nestlings of north american birds . 2nd edition . academic press , san diego , ca .\nhebart , p . n . and s . g . sealy . 1993 . hatching asynchrony and feeding rates in yellow warblers : a test of the sexual conflict hypothesis . am . nat . 142 ( 5 ) : 881 - 892 .\nhilty , s . l . and w . l . brown . 1986 . a guide to the birds of columbia . princeton university press . princeton , nj .\nhowell , a . b . 1917 . birds of the islands off the coast of southern california . pacific coast avifauna 12 .\nhowell , s . n . g . and s . webb . 1995 . a guide to the birds of mexico and northern central america . oxford university press . ny .\nhunter , w . c . 1984 . status of nine bird species of special concern along the colorado river . california dept . fish and game . wildlife management branch administrative report no . 84 - 2 .\nhutto , r . l . 1981 . seasonal variation in the foraging behavior of some migratory western wood warblers . auk 98 : 765 - 777 .\nkatibah , e . f . 1984 . a brief history of riparian forests in the central valley of california . in california riparian systems : ecology , conservation , and productive management . r . e . warner and k . m . hendrix eds . university of california press ltd . london , england .\nkendeigh , s . c . 1941b . birds of a prairie community . condor 43 : 165 - 174 .\nking , a . and g . r . geupel . 1997a . songbird response to revegetation efforts along the sacramento river : results from the 1996 field season . prbo unpublished report . stinson beach , ca .\nking , a . , and g . r . geupel . 1997b . songbird monitoring on the san luis national wildlife refuge : progress report on the 1997 field season . prbo unnpublished report to fws region 1 nongame program and slnwr , stinson beach , ca .\nknopf , f . l . , j . sedgwick , and r . w . cannon . 1980 . guild structure of a riparian avifauna relative to seasonal cattle grazing . journal of wildlife management . 52 ( 2 ) : 280 - 290 .\nknopf , f . l . , and j . a . sedgwick . 1992 . an experimental study of nest - site selection by yellow warblers . condor . 94 : 734 - 742 .\nlaymon , s . a . 1981 . avifauna of an island of lowland riparian woodland : dog island city park , red bluff , california . ms thesis , california state university , chico .\nlaymon , s . a . 1984 . riparian bird community structure and dynamics : dog island , red bluff , california . pp 587 - 597 in california riparian systems : ecology , conservation , and productive management ( r . e . warner and k . m . hendrix eds . ) . university of california press , berkeley , ca .\nlehman , p . e . 1994 . the birds of santa barbara county , california . vertebrate museum university of california , santa barbara , ca .\nlozano , g . a . and r . e . lemon . 1996 . male plumage , paternal care and reproductive success in yellow warblers ( dendroica petechia ) . anim . behav . 51 ( 2 ) : 265 - 272 .\nmailliard , j . 1900 . land birds of marin county , california . condor 2 : 62 - 68 .\nmartinsen , g . d . and t . g . whitham . more birds nest in hybrid cottonwood trees . wilson bulletin . 106 : 474 - 481 .\nmonson , g . , and a . phillips . 1981 . revised checklist of arizona birds . university of arizona press , tucson , az .\nmorse , d . h . 1973 . the foraging of small populations of yellow warblers and american redstarts . ecology . 54 ( 2 ) : 347 - 355 .\nmorton , e . s . 1975 . the adaptive significance of dull coloration in yellow warblers .\nmowbray , m . v . 1947 . notes on the birds of the upper salinas valley , california . condor 49 : 173 - 174 .\nneff , j . a . 1930 . cowbirds in the sacramento valley . condor 32 : 250 - 252 .\nnur , n . , g . r . geupel , and grant ballard . 1993 . assessing the impact of the cantara spill on terrestrial bird populations along the riparian corridors of the sacramento river : results from the 1992 field season and comparison to 1991 . prbo report to california fish and game . stinson beach , ca .\nnur , n . , g . r . geupel , and grant ballard . 1994 . assessing the impact of the cantara spill on terrestrial bird populations along the sacramento river : results from the 1993 field season . prbo report to calif . dept . of fish and game .\nnur , n . , g . r . geupel , and grant ballard . 1995 . assessing the impact of the cantara spill on terrestrial bird populations along the sacramento river : results from the 1994 field season and comparison with results , 1991 - 1994 . prbo report to calif . dept . fish and game . stinson beach , ca .\nnur , n . , c . j . ralph , s . laymon , g . r . geupel , d . evans . 1996a . save our songbirds songbird conservation in california ' s riparian habitats : population assessments and management recommendations . prbo report to the national fish and wildlife foundation . project no , 94 - 232 . stinson beach , ca .\nnur , n . , g . r . geupel , and grant ballard . 1996b . assessing the impact of the cantara spill on terrestrial bird populations along the sacramento river : results from the 1995 field season and comparison with results , 1991 - 1994 . prbo report to calif . dept . fish and game . stinson beach , ca .\nnur , n . , g . r . geupel , and grant ballard . 1997 . assessing the impact of the cantara spill on terrestrial bird populations along the sacramento river : results from the 1996 field season and comparison with results , 1992 - 1996 . prbo report to calif . dept . fish and game . stinson beach , ca .\nohmart , r . d . 1994 . the effects of human - induced changes on the avifauna of western riparian habitats . studies in avian biology 15 : 273 - 285 .\npetit , d . r . , k . e . petit , and l . j . petit . 1990 . geographic variation in foraging ecology of north american insectivorous birds . studies in avian biology 13 : 254 - 263 .\nremsen , j . v . jr . 1978 . bird species of special concern in california . cal . dept . fish and game . wildlife management branch admin . report no . 78 - 1 . 54pp .\nriensche , d . 1992 . breeding bird census 1991 : western sycamore woodland with scattered oaks . journal of field ornithology . 63 : 36 .\nriensche , d . , m . morrow , and c . garcia . 1996 . breeding bird census 1995 : willow riparian woodland and edge . journal of field ornithology 67 : 29 - 30 .\nroberson , d . 1985 . monterey birds . monterey peninsula audubon society , carmel , ca .\nroberson , d . and c . tenney . 1993 . atlas of the breeding birds of monterey county , california . monterey peninsula audubon society , carmel , ca .\nrogers , c . m . 1994 . avian nest success , brood parasitism and edge - independent reproduction in an alaskan wetland . journal of field ortnithology . 65 : 433 - 440 .\nrosenberg , k . v . , r . d . ohmart , w . c . hunter , b . w . anderson . 1991 . birds of the lower colorado river valley . university of arizona press .\nrothstein , s . i . , j . verner , and e . stevens . 1980 . range expansion and diurnal changes in dispersion of the brown - headed cowbird in the sierra nevada . auk 97 : 253 - 267 .\nrowley , j . s . 1939 . breeding birds of mono county , california . condor . 41 : 247 - 254 .\nschrantz , f . g . 1943 . nest life of the eastern yellow warbler . auk . 60 : 367 - 387 .\nshuford , w . d . 1993 . the marin county breeding bird atlas : a distributional and natural history of coastal california . bushtit books , bolinas , ca .\nsmall , a . 1994 . california birds : their status and distribution . ibis , vista , ca .\nsmyth , m . , and h . n . coulumbe . 1971 . notes on the use of desert springs by birds in california . condor 73 : 240 - 243 . stauffer , d . f . and l . b . best . 1980 . habitat selection by birds of riparian communities : evaluating effects of habitat alterations . journal of wildlife mangement . 44 ( 1 ) : 1 - 14 .\nstephens , l . a . and c . c . pringle . 1933 . birds of marin county , california . gull 18 , no . 6 .\nstudd , m . v . and r . j . robertson . 1985a . sexual selection and variation in reproductive strategy in male yellow warblers ( dendroica petechia ) . behav . ecol . sociobiol . 17 : 101 - 109 .\nstudd , m . v . and r . j . robertson . 1985b . evidence for reliable badges of status in territorial yellow warblers ( dendroica petechia ) . anim . behav . 133 : 1102 - 1113 .\nstudd , m . v . and r . j . robertson . 1985c . life span , competition , and delayed plumage maturation in male passerines : the breeding threshold hypothesis . am . nat . 126 : 101 - 115 .\nstudd , m . v . and r . j . robertson . 1988 . different allocation of reproductive effort to territorial establishment and maintenance by male yellow warblers ( dendroica petechia ) . behav . ecol . sociobiol . 23 :\nstudd , m . v . and r . j . robertson . 1989 . influence of age and territory quality on the reproductive behavior of male yellow warblers . can . j . zool . 67 : 268 - 273 .\ntaylor , d . m . and c . d . littlefield . 1986 . willow flycatcher and yellow warbler response to cattle grazing . american birds . 40 : 1169 - 1173 .\ntyler , j . g . 1913 . some birds of the fresno district , california . pacific coast avifauna 9 : 99 .\nusda . 1994 . neotropical migratory bird reference book . usda , usfs , pac . sw region , fisheries , wildlife , and rare plants staff .\nverner , j . and a . s . boss . 1980 . california wildlife and their habitats : western sierra nevada . gen . tech . rep . psw - 37 . pacific southwest forest and range exp . stn . , usfs , u . s . dept . agric . , berkeley , ca .\nverner , j . and l . v . ritter . 1983 . current status of the brown - headed cowbird in the sierra national forest . auk . 100 : 355 - 368 .\nweaver , k . l . 1992 . breeding bird census 1991 : riparian woodland . journal of field ornithology 63 : 35 - 36 .\nweston , h . g . 1948 . spring arrival of summer residents in the berkeley area , california . condor . 50 : 81 .\nwillett , g . 1912 . birds of the pacific slope of southern california . pacific coast avifauna 7 : 95 - 96 .\nwillett , g . 1933 . a revised list of the birds of southwest california . pacific coast avifauna # 7 . cooper ornithological club , berkeley , ca .\nyezerinac , s . m . 1995 . extra - pair mating in yellow warblers : sexual selection in a socially monogamous bird ( dendroica petechia ) . behav . ecol . sociobiol . 37 : 179 - 188 .\nyezerinac , s . m . , p . j . weatherhead , p . t . boag , 1996 . cuckoldry and lack of parentage - dependant paternal care in yellow warblers : a cost - benefit approach . anim . behav . 52 ( 4 ) : 821 - 832 .\nzeiner , d . et al . 1990 . california ' s wildlife vol . 3 . birds . california statewide wildlife habitat relationships system . dept . fish and game . sacramento , ca .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nthe introduction article is just the first of 11 articles in each species account that provide life history information for the species . the remaining articles provide detailed information regarding distribution , migration , habitat , diet , sounds , behavior , breeding , current population status and conservation . each species account also includes a multimedia section that displays the latest photos , audio selections and videos from macaulay library\u2019s extensive galleries . written and continually updated by acknowledged experts on each species , birds of north america accounts include a comprehensive bibliography of published research on the species .\na subscription is needed to access the remaining account articles and multimedia content . rates start at $ 5 usd for 30 days of complete access .\nthis species breeds locally from northern portions of california , nevada , utah , and colorado south , and also winters in the eastern caribbean . map adapted from godfrey 1986 , howell and webb 1995 , dunn and garrett 1997 , and raffaele et al . 1998 . see text for details .\n) , have undergone severe declines in this century because of habitat loss and alteration . despite the widespread occurrence and abundance of yellowthroats , few studies ( none of which are long - term ) of the breeding biology or behavior of this species have been conducted . two detailed studies of breeding behavior have been published for populations in minnesota (\n) . only song and singing behavior have received recent attention in the literature ( e . g . ,\nescalante - pliego , b . p . 1978 . genetic differentiation in yellow - throats ( parulina : geothlypis ) . acta xx congr . int . ornithol . : 333 - 341 . close\nescalante - pliego , b . p . 1991 . phylogenetic relationships of geothlypis ( aves : parulinae ) . ph . d . diss . , city univ . of new york , new york . close\n) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( a . f . poole and f . b . gill , editors ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\ncanon eos 40d , canon ef 100 - 400mm f / 4 . 5 - 5 . 6l is usm\ncopyright property of glen tepke . all rights reserved . no unauthorized use . email g . tepke ( at ) comcast ( dot ) net to request use ."]}
{"id": 527, "summary": [{"text": "hagfish , the class myxini ( also known as hyperotreti ) , are eel-shaped , slime-producing marine fish ( occasionally called slime eels ) .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "they are the only known living animals that have a skull but no vertebral column , although hagfish do have rudimentary vertebrae .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "along with lampreys , hagfish are jawless ; they are the sister group to vertebrates , and living hagfish remain similar to hagfish from around 300 million years ago .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "the classification of hagfish had been controversial .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the issue was whether the hagfish was a degenerate type of vertebrate-fish that through evolution had lost its vertebra ( the original scheme ) and was most closely related to lampreys , or whether hagfish represent a stage that precedes the evolution of the vertebral column ( the alternative scheme ) as is the case with lancelets .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "recent dna evidence has supported the original scheme .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the original scheme groups hagfish and lampreys together as cyclostomes ( or historically , agnatha ) , as the oldest surviving class of vertebrates alongside gnathostomes ( the now-ubiquitous jawed vertebrates ) .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the alternative scheme proposed that jawed vertebrates are more closely related to lampreys than to hagfish ( i.e. , that vertebrates include lampreys but exclude hagfish ) , and introduces the category craniata to group vertebrates near hagfish . ", "topic": 10}], "title": "hagfish", "paragraphs": ["6 . hagfish are ancient . the only known fossil hagfish , which is 330 million years old , looks very similar to modern hagfish .\npacific hagfish hatch into fully functional , small hagfish . there is no parental involvement after egg - laying .\nprobably diverged from hagfish approximately 530 million years ago . hagfish can go several months without eating . one adult pacific hagfish can fill a seven - liter bucket with slime in minutes .\nkogot , a biochemist , displays a sample of synthetic hagfish slime recreated from alpha and gamma proteins of the pacific hagfish .\na mature pacific hagfish female will produce between 20 - 30 eggs per reproductive cycle . there is no known reproductive season or cycle length for hagfish .\nthe discovery of sophisticated eyes in a fossilized hagfish has dethroned the modern blind hagfish as the only observable so - called intermediate form in eye evolution .\nsimilarly , hagfish slime is not necessarily all about lubrication during knotting . there is evidence that hagfish sometimes actively hunt other fish , and in this case the slime helps the hagfish clog the gills of their prey and kill it .\nhagfish are normally deep - sea dwellers , scavenging on\u2014and sometimes living in\u2014dead bodies .\nas discussed by hagfish expert dr . douglas fudge , associate professor of integrative biology , university of guelph , in \u201cfun with silly string & hagfish\u201d at urltoken .\nuse golgi labelling of hagfish retina to investigate the connectivity of different cell classes .\nwicht h , northcutt rg . retinofugal and retinopetal projections in the pacific hagfish ,\nwicht h , northcutt rg . ontogeny of the head of the pacific hagfish (\nhagfish , they say , bite through tough flesh by tying themselves in knots .\nhagfish have guts , but they also absorb nutrients through their skin and gills .\nof course , in its natural environment on the seafloor , the hagfish has other uses for this secret weapon . ( read seven reasons why hagfish are amazing . )\n8 . hagfish can go months without eating . hagfish have slow metabolisms and can survive months between feedings . they can also absorb nutrients across their skin and gills .\ncontroversy has long surrounded the interrelationship between hagfish , lampreys and jawed vertebrates . one view is that hagfish are basal , having diverged before lampreys split from gnathostomes , whereas an alternative view is that hagfish have degenerated from a lamprey - like ancestor , with hagfish and lampreys forming an agnathan clade , the cyclostomes ( round mouths ) (\nas for their status as a delicacy , fudge says he\u2019s never tried hagfish meat .\naccording to thaler , the pacific northwest has a pretty active hagfish fishery . this particular shipment of hagfish was bound for south korea , where they are considered a delicacy .\nsupport for cyclostome monophyly ( i . e . hagfish and lampreys as a clade )\nextant hagfish display the vertebrate characteristic of delaminating neural - crest - like cells 142 , but this does not distinguish whether hagfish are basal or a sister group of lampreys .\n. first fossil hagfish ( myxinoidea ) : a record from the pennsylvanian of illinois .\npacific hagfish produce large amounts of mucilaginous slime , and can tie and untie knots in their body to evade predators . the primary predators of pacific hagfish are harbor seals (\nthe idea that some features of hagfish biology are best viewed through the point of view of hagfish feeding makes sense to chris glover at athabasca university in alberta , canada .\npacific hagfish have two pair of primitive , yet effective , rasps on the tongue used primarily for grasping . after establishing a firm hold on a food source , the hagfish ties and unties a knot within its own body to generate a ripping force . pacific hagfish feed on a variety of dead or dying organisms , including fish and mammals , but also probably include marine invertebrates in their diet . male hagfish may eat hagfish eggs .\nour studies examining reproductive cycles in hagfish are a good start in our understanding of the growth and reproduction of atlantic hagfish . these data along with future extensive studies on hagfish reproduction are needed in our understanding to prevent the exploitation of the atlantic hagfish off the new england coastline so that the fishery and the resource can be managed for the long term .\nthe hagfish is preyed upon by some marine mammals and large sea living invertebrates . most animals do however stay away from the hagfish since they risk being suffocated by the slime .\npacific hagfish are crucial for eliminating dead and dying organsims , and the effect of large - scale removal on the ecosystem could be significant as hagfish are important for recycling nutrients .\nhagfish slime isn ' t actually slime\u2014it ' s more like a gel made of filaments .\npacific hagfish are not currently exhibited . this information is supplied for use as a reference .\nevolutionists have long seen hagfish as a living transitional form in the story of eye evolution .\ndiscovery of complex eyes in an ancient hagfish fossil robs evolutionists of their supposed intermediate form .\nnow in light of new discoveries in the fossil record , evolutionists must abandon the hagfish as the last living candidate for an intermediate , evolutionary form of eyes . why ? because careful study of fossilized hagfish reveals hagfish once had nicely developed eyes ! evolutionists must regroup and imagine that hagfish and lampreys shared an even more ancient eyeless ancestor for which there is no living or fossil evidence at all . thanks to the vision of ancient hagfish , what evolutionists once thought they could demonstrate using hagfish blindness has changed in the proverbial blink of an eye .\n. 4 . ( a ) gonadal developmental stages identified in the medium hagfish ( 35\u201345 cm ) . ( b ) gonadal developmental stages identified in large hagfish ( 45\u201355 + cm )\n. development of a northwest atlantic hagfish fishery . a final report national marine fisheries service .\nthe idea suggests that body knotting is no mere hagfish party trick . instead , the ability to tie itself in knots is a vital component of the hagfish ' s feeding behaviour .\n) . first fossil hagfish ( myxinoidea ) \u2013 a record from the pennsylvanian of illinois .\ntheir bodies , too , are simple , resembling tubes . hagfish are also largely blind .\nrecent studies on estimates of population density of atlantic hagfish indicate that hagfish populations are high in certain areas in the gulf of maine . however , a decline in abundance and a decrease in catch per unit effort with intense fishing activity has been reported for pacific hagfish ( eptatretids ) off the coast of california and for atlantic hagfish within the gulf of maine . thus , there is an urgent need for basic research on the reproductive biology and ecology of hagfish .\nhagfish are not easily eaten or attacked by other animals . this is because the hagfish secretes a sticky slime that stops the predator in catching the hagfish and consuming it . the sticky slime is called as mucus which reacts with water to form a micro fibrous slime . this makes the hagfish body to be slippery and it also confuses the predator . by making themselves into a knot position the hagfish get rid of their slime and then return back to their original position\nthe most common species of hagfish is myxine glutinosa , but there are about 60 identified species , including the pacific hagfish , eptatretus stoutii , which is also known as the slime eel .\ninterpretation of the molecular\u2013genetic differences will be greatly assisted once the entire genome of a hagfish is available . in the meantime , the identification of hagfish opsin genes might resolve the phylogenetic positioning .\n, with the exception that the hagfish eye is arranged bilaterally . behaviourally , the hagfish seems to be almost blind , and its weak response to light is unaffected by removal of its eyes\nlittle is known about hagfish embryology or juvenile hagfish due to the remarkably low numbers of hagfish embryos available for study . no fertilized hagfish embryos of eptatretus have been collected for study since 1905 ( gorbman , 1997 ) . developing eggs in their natural environment have never been observed ( gorbman , 1997 ) . in addition , there is little known about how the hagfish feed , grow , or sexually mature ( martini , 1998 ) . due to these and other factors , it is imperative that further research be conducted to understand the basic reproduction and ecology of hagfish .\ncurrently , there are no regulations governing the harvesting of hagfish on the east coast . since there is little or no information on age determination , age and time of reproduction , seasonality of reproduction and growth of atlantic hagfish , the level at which a sustainable fisheries for this species can be maintained is unknown . in order for fisheries management to manage its hagfish stocks and develop a sustainable commercial hagfish fishery , an information base is needed for optimum use of the hagfish resource .\nhagfish - it would probably scare people off a little bit !\nlaughs tim winegard .\nsouth koreans drink in front of hagfish before it is broiled at a seafood restaurant in seoul .\nso what happens to the sea if there are too few hagfish ? no one is sure .\nforster , m . e . ( 1990 ) confirmation of the low metabolic rate of hagfish .\nmallatt , j . and paulsen , c . ( 1986 ) gill ultrastructure of the pacific hagfish\nthe hagfish is a jawless fish . modern hagfish are blind , and their eyes are missing so many parts that they hardly qualify as eyes . but ancient hagfish , scientists recently learned , had complex eyes like a lamprey\u2019s . this discovery means that hagfish can no longer be used as an example of an intermediate evolutionary step in eye evolution . image by pbsouthwood , via wikimedia commons .\nholmberg k , \u00f6hman p . fine structure of retinal synaptic organelles in lamprey and hagfish photoreceptors .\nthe metabolism of the hagfish is remarkably slow and up to seven months can pass between meals .\n\u201c atlantic hagfish \u201d , sea and sky . retrieved on 2008 - 03 - 28 . urltoken\nchapter 2 . reproductive neuroanatomy and gnrh in the primitive vertebrate order myxiniformes ( hagfish spp . )\nimmunohistochemical detection of gonadotropin - like material in the pituitary of brown hagfish ( param . . .\nmorphology and kinematics of feeding in hagfish : possible functional advantages of jaws . - pubmed - ncbi\nevidence supporting the presence of gth in the hagfish is not conclusive . matty et al . ( 1976 ) identified only limited abnormalities in the testes and ovaries of 150 hypophysectomized hagfish during a 7 month study . gametogenesis appeared to be unaffected by hypophysectomy suggesting that the hagfish gonad was independent of hypophysial gonadotropic control . however , patzner and ichikawa ( 1977 ) observed a decrease in the number of follicles containing spermatocytes and only a few follicles containing spermatides in hypophysectomized hagfish when compared to sham operated hagfish . these results suggested that the development of the hagfish gonad was under hypophysial gonadotropic control .\nonce a month for 18 months , 200 - 300 hagfish will be caught off the new england coast . total length , body weight , egg size and gonadal weight of hagfish will be recorded . forty hagfish will be subsampled for brains and gonads . gonads will be prepared for histological evaluation .\ncurrently , there are no regulations governing the harvesting of hagfish on the east coast . a decline in abundance and a decrease in catch per unit effort with intense fishing activity has been reported for pacific hagfish ( eptatretids ) off the coast of california and for atlantic hagfish within the gulf of maine . since there is little or no information on age determination , age and time of reproduction , seasonality of reproduction and growth of atlantic hagfish , the level at which a sustainable fisheries for this species can be maintained is unknown . in order for fisheries management to manage its hagfish stocks and develop a sustainable commercial hagfish fishery , an information base is needed for optimum use of the hagfish resource .\n. thus , the hagfish \u2018eye\u2019 seems not to subserve vision ; instead , it seems more likely to function as a circadian organ , similar to the gnathostome pineal complex ( which hagfish lack ) .\nhere at benthic labs , we are hagfish crazy ! there aren\u2019t many like us as hagfish are widely considered to be the most disgusting animals on earth . don\u2019t believe us ? see for yourself !\nhagfish feed on other fishes that are living as well as death fishes . the feeding of hagfish is quite different from other types of creatures . the hagfish enters the fish body through the mouth , gills or anus and start eating the prey after feeding they exit the corpse . this different eating habit hagfish can live for months without feeding . they also prey on small fish , crabs , and shrimps . the hagfish eat only the soft parts of the prey and leaves the bones and skin .\nan east coast fishery for atlantic hagfish , myxine glutinosa , started in 1992 . the landings for hagfish off the coast of maine and massachusetts have ranged from one to three million pounds each year during 1996 - 1999 . however , there is little known about reproduction and the reproductive success in hagfish .\na hagfish has no jaws , and its slime serves as a valuable form of self - defence .\nbut despite their small size , a single hagfish has hundreds of kilometres of slime thread inside it .\ninstead , scientists hope to make proteins like the ones found in hagfish slime artificially in the lab .\nno - one has made a spool of hagfish thread yet , but scientists are working on it .\n, has been tentatively included with the hagfish , but lacks the distinctive tentacles of all other species .\n\u201chagfish are slime - spewing monsters ! that ' s part of what makes them so wonderful . \u201d\nscientists and some fishermen fear that , without solving the mystery of hagfish reproduction , the us and other countries could unwittingly follow korea and japan in blotting out their hagfish populations . ( there\u2019s some concern that this already might be underway in new england , where hagfish catches collapsed after their 2000 peak . )\nfor these hagfish in oregon , though , it looks like they\u2019ve hit the end of the road .\nhannah waters , \u201c14 fun facts about hagfish , \u201d smithsonian , october 17 , 2012 , urltoken .\nin asia , over fishing has led to a significant decrease in the local hagfish population and asian fisheries have therefore begun to show an interest in the hagfish populations in the atlantic . while this might be beneficial for local economies along the atlantic coasts , it could also pose a threat to the atlantic hagfish population . care and caution must be exercised unless we wish to see the atlantic hagfish population go the same way as the asian one . as mentioned above , studies indicate that the hagfish female only produces a low number of eggs each breeding period and hagfish are therefore extra sensitive to over - fishing .\nestimated life span of pacific hagfish in the wild is 40 years , and 17 years in captivity .\nbiologists have known for decades that hagfish will sometimes tie their long rope - like body into a knot . an illustration of a knotted hagfish even made it onto the cover of scientific american in 1966 .\nthis developmental progression is explained most parsimoniously if we assume that lampreys inherited their eyes from an ancestor that they had in common with hagfish , and that this hagfish - like larval eye is present in the larva but transforms to a vertebrate - like eye in the adult , and thus that lampreys arose from a hagfish - like ancestor . alternatively , it is possible that extant hagfish correspond to an arrested form of lamprey development , and that hagfish are effectively a neotenous sister group to lampreys ( box 1 ) .\nwhen studied , hagfish females have produce up to 30 yolky one inch long eggs with tough shells . if this low number is true for all hagfish , it means that it might take a long time for a hagfish population to recover when harmed , e . g . by over - fishing or pollution .\nin most parts of the world hagfish is viewed as a useless by - catch , but there are a few countries in south east asia where hagfish is appreciated on the dinner table . nearly 5 million pounds ( 2 268 000 kg ) of hagfish meat is for instance consumed in south korea each year .\nauthor\u2019s note : october 15 th is hagfish day , a holiday created by urltoken to remind people that even the ugliest creatures need our conservation efforts . whether you decide that the best way to celebrate hagfish day is by eating a hagfish or by not eating one is up to you . i won\u2019t judge .\nwe know very little about hagfish reproduction , and no - one has ever gotten hagfish to breed in captivity - amazing as that sounds ,\nsays douglas fudge , who heads the guelph research project .\nother examples of simplicity are : that the semicircular canals of the labyrinth number just one in hagfish , but two in lampreys and three in jawed vertebrates 140 , and that the hagfish heart is not innervated .\nthat ' s right \u2014 a new study has shown that hagfish can absorb nutrients through their skin and gills . and once inside a carcass , the hagfish is surrounded by a high concentration of dissolved nutrients .\nother members of the team are trying to make threads using genetically engineered bacteria , bypassing the hagfish entirely .\nprofessor collin said the researchers studied a very primitive fish , the hagfish , to discover the missing link .\nwhile the recent hagfish slime ordeal may seem surreal to the average bystander , thaler wasn\u2019t all that fazed .\nhagfish do not have a larval stage , in contrast to lampreys , which have a long larval phase .\nhagfish secrete their mucus from lines of slime glands that run the length of their body . \u201cthere\u2019s really no place where you can bite a hagfish without having slime come shooting out at you , \u201d fudge says .\nfernholm , b . and holmberg , k . ( 1975 ) the eyes in three genera of hagfish (\nview image of an inshore hagfish ( eptatretus burgeri ) ( credit : nature production / naturepl . com )\nview image of a pacific hagfish ( eptatretus stoutii ) ( credit : brandon cole / naturepl . com )\nview image of an atlantic hagfish ( myxine glutinosa ) ( credit : florian graner / naturepl . com )\nbut first , the experts need to work out how to increase the slime production . it ' s unlikely that we will ever see massive hagfish farms . hagfish don ' t seem to respond well in these conditions .\ncorrection : this story initially identified hagfish as invertebrates because they don\u2019t have vertebrae . verge commenter bennyfactor pointed out that hagfish are in fact considered \u201codd\u201d or \u201cdegenerate\u201d vertebrates . he\u2019s correct , and the story has been updated .\nthe hagfish needs the salinity in its habitat to be stable , because these fishes have virtually no osmoregulation and are therefore highly vulnerable to salinity changes . the hagfish is the only known vertebrate with body fluids isosomotic with seawater . this means that the body fluids of the hagfish have the same total osmotic pressure or osmolality as seawater .\n, but because of their slow metabolism , hagfish may go for up to seven months without eating any food .\n1 . hagfish are scaleless with soft skin . the skin of the hagfish has been described as covering its body like a loosely fitting sock . colors vary with the species , and range from pink to blue - gray .\nextant hagfish are placed in the family myxinidae within the order myxiniformes ( hyperotreti ) and subphylum or class myxini .\njohn bocskay , \u201cthe good , the bad , and the hagfish , \u201d sweet pickles and corn , urltoken .\nprediction 1 : the phototransduction cascade components of tunicate ocelli should be homologous with those of hagfish and lamprey photoreceptors .\nidentify the g protein of ciona intestinalis photoreceptors and compare it with those of hagfish , lampreys and jawed vertebrates .\nmeasure the electrical light responses and light adaptation of hagfish photoreceptors , and compare these with cone and rod responses .\nota kg , kuraku s , kuratani s . hagfish embryology with reference to the evolution of the neural crest .\nthis study presented a remarkable breakthrough in the investigation of hagfish embryology that provided unequivocal evidence for neural crest cells .\nbullock th , moore jk , fields rd . evolution of myelin sheaths : both lamprey and hagfish lack myelin .\nmore than 99 % of living vertebrates possess opposable jaws ,\nsays clark . but hagfish do not .\nview image of some of the slime from a pacific hagfish ( credit : brandon cole / naturepl . com )\ngross as the goo may be , the highway hagfish catastrophe highlights a nagging problem . hagfish serve an important ecological role : by gnawing apart animal carcasses like dead whales , hagfish are crucial to keeping sea floors clean and ocean ecosystems in balance . so we want to make sure to keep them around . there\u2019s just one problem . much about hagfish existence mystifies scientists\u2014and has for centuries , making it hard to know whether their numbers are shrinking . and that happens to explain why 7 , 500 pounds of oregonian hagfish came to be cruising down highway 101 last week .\nus fishermen used to freeze their hagfish catches at sea before shipping them across the pacific . but as asian hagfish populations have dwindled into nothingness , koreans will pay a lot more for live hagfish that can be grilled fresh on demand . so pacific northwest fishermen have taken to capturing , and transporting , their slimy quarry to port alive ( pdf , p . 7 ) . though volumes are still relatively small , the returns on hagfish landing have climbed steadily .\nhagfish are found in temperate seas in both hemispheres , but hagfish has not been found in the red sea . a majority of the species live in rather cold environments where the water is at least 20 meters ( 66 feet ) deep . when hagfish live in warmer parts of the world , they are normally only found in really deep waters . hagfish can survive at remarkable depths and have been found 1700 metres ( 5600 feet ) down into the ocean .\nhagfish are referred to as \u201cliving fossils\u201d as they strongly resemble fossils of their 300 million year old ancestors . this does not mean that hagfish have stopped evolving , rather that their body plan and strategy is still very successful today .\nhagfish appear to have branched off from the chordates before the vertebral column appeared ( lee 2002 ) . a single fossil of hagfish shows that there has been little evolutionary change in the last 300 million years ( marshall 2001 ) . there have been claims that the hagfish eye is significant to the evolution of more complex eyes ( uq 2003 ) .\nthe inshore hagfish , eptatretus burge , is listed on the iucn red list as near threatened . this hagfish species is commonly found in the western north pacific off the coasts of southern japan , south korea , northern , and northwestern taiwan . in these geographic locations hagfish is a native ( endemic ) species . they are very heavily fished in the china sea for their skin and for food . approximately five million pounds of hagfish meat is eaten yearly in korea .\nanother hagfish species that may occur in california is the black hagfish ( eptatretus deani ) ; it is found in deeper water , is darker in coloration ( purplish black ) , and has a shorter head in proportion to the body .\nan adult hagfish can secrete enough slime to turn a large bucket of water into gel in a matter of minutes .\nfrank , t . 2004 . disgusting hagfish and magnificent sharks . noaa ocean explorer . retrieved may 31 , 2008 .\nwhile the recent hagfish slime ordeal may seem surreal to the average bystander , thaler wasn ' t all that fazed .\nmunz , f . w . and morris , r . w . ( 1965 ) metabolic rate of the hagfish ,\nsome living hagfish have light - detecting , pigmented eyespots , but they do not have the equipment to resolve images .\nit is possible that the role of \u2018long - branch attractions\u2019 might have been underestimated in previous molecular phylogenies of hagfish .\nthere is insufficient evidence to determine whether the hagfish eye has degenerated from a lamprey - like ancestor or is basal .\ndelarbre c , gallut c , barriel v , janvier p , gachelin g . complete mitochondrial dna of the hagfish ,\nhagfish reproduction is poorly understood , but evidence has been found indicating sequential hermaphroditic periods thought to arise from population pressures .\nhagfish are often called \u201cslime eels\u201d . however they are in the class agnatha along with lampreys . this class of animals incorporates jawless fish . there are 76 species of hagfish the world over and approximately 100 species in the class agnatha .\nvery little is known about hagfish reproduction . only one of the 76 species has been successfully bred in captivity . hagfish are thought to be hermaphroditic with a sex ratio of 100 : 1 in favour of females observed in many species .\nview image of hagfish are some of the most unusual fish alive ( credit : visuals unlimited / naturepl . com )\nother pressures might have led hagfish to lose their backbone - like structures , says barley .\npredation springs to mind . to escape predators , hagfish have become adept burrowers and display unusual anti - predator ' coiling ' behaviour .\ncoiled like sleeping snakes in the bottom of live tanks at carvalho ' s waterfront dock , the hagfish are peaceful .\natlantic hagfish are considered an important species in the gulf of maine for the following reasons as summarized by martini et al . ( 1997 ) : 1 ) hagfish play a significant role in the benthic ecosystem throughout the gulf of maine ; 2 ) hagfish have both important direct and indirect effects on commercial fisheries in the gulf of maine , and 3 ) atlantic hagfish are targeted by american and canadian fishermen to meet the south korean demand for \u201ceelskin\u201d used to manufacture leather goods .\nhagfish have no jaws . in fact , hagfish are in a very primitive division within the entire chordate classification scheme . while they have a skull , they have no vertebral column . recent literature suggests that hagfish might rather be classified as non - vertebrates . while chordates , they are often put into the sub - phylum craniata . despite the classification , and where scientists place them , hagfish are remarkable aquatic animals . in total there are about 60 species in 5 genera .\nif hagfish did once have a primitive spine - like structure , they must have lost it a very long time ago . in 1991 a palaeontologist described a 300 - million - year - old fossil found in illinois , which looks remarkably like a living hagfish . as far as external appearances go , hagfish have hardly changed through that vast expanse of time .\nas a deep - sea ecologist , andrew thaler says hagfish are common visitors anywhere there\u2019s free food , like whale carcasses .\na sketch by bashford dean of a hagfish caught on the line . in the slime that surrounds it lies five eggs .\ntoo few hagfish could also be bad for the food chain . while hagfish eat huge quantities of deep - sea worms , they also serve as tasty meals for seals and other marine mammals ( which apparently don\u2019t mind a mouthful of slime ) .\ndirtsailor2003 , ' slime eels ! ! ! ! aka hagfish , ' via flickr . cc by - nd 2 . 0\na hagfish usually swims slowly along the seafloor in a snake - like fashion although it may have occasional bursts of speed .\nhagfish have one of the animal kingdom ' s gooiest secret weapons : they shoot gill - clogging slime at their enemies .\njosh kogot , michelle kincer and ryan kincer demonstrate the elasticity of the slime secreted from a pacific hagfish in a lab .\nthe hagfish \u2018eye\u2019 and retina are very simple , and resemble the pineal organ of vertebrates ( see main text ) . furthermore , during lamprey metamorphosis , the eye develops from a simple hagfish - like form to a vertebrate - like adult form .\nkuraku s , kuratani s . time scale for cyclostome evolution inferred with a phylogenetic diagnosis of hagfish and lamprey cdna sequences .\n. the occurrence and distribution of gnrh in the brain of atlantic hagfish , an agnatha , determined by chromatography and immunocytochemistry .\nthe tough and soft skin of the hagfish is also a popular commodity and is used to make wallets , purses , handbags , boots and similar items . the skin is normally market under the name \u201ceelskin\u201d or \u201ceel skin\u201d , not hagfish skin .\n( pacific hagfish ) are found in cold marine waters of the antitropical north and south pacific ocean on muddy sea floors .\npacific hagfish are found typically on muddy bottoms to depths of 633 meters , but can also be found occasionally on rocky bottoms . they are more common at shallower depths , from 40 to 100 meters . pacific hagfish may make small migrations from shallow waters in the fall into deeper water . although this is unconfirmed , it is consistent with seasonal migrations in other hagfish .\nhagfish have slime glands along their body - length which allow them to produce a slimy solution that aids in deterring predators . sometimes hagfish have been called slime eels because of this ( even though they are not related to the true eels ) . hagfish are able to get themselves out of the slime they produce by tying themselves in a knot and squeezing away the slime .\nthe obvious question here is , what\u2019s up with all that mucous ? do hagfish hate modern highway infrastructure or harbor some sort of vendetta against priuses ? apparently , the hagfish uses slime for self - defense against predators or alternatively , for hunting prey .\nthe fish leather market began to flounder when it became apparent that many pacific hagfish had inferior skins . buyers looked to the east coast , whose hagfish skins were of higher quality . the atlantic - side fishery now supplies 80 percent of the market .\nhagfish represent the oldest extant craniates and are an important link between invertebrates and vertebrates . however , key elements of the reproductive system have not been elucidated in hagfish . there is new evidence from our recent studies that atlantic hagfish may have a seasonal reproductive cycle . these data include seasonal changes in gonadotropin - releasing hormone , gonadal steroids , . . . [ show full abstract ]\nscientists believe hagfish slime or similar proteins could be turned into tights or breathable athletic wear , or even bullet - proof vests .\nhagfish eggs are approximately one inch long , and encased in a tough shell . these eggs are large for a fish , and a female can therefore not produce very many . despite the low number of eggs laid , hagfish exist in large numbers , with populations of up to 15 , 000 occurring in a relatively small area . this suggests that hagfish have a low mortality rate .\nin a truly sci - fi scenario , thousands of mucus - spewing hagfish\u2014destined for dinner plates in asia\u2014coated a road in oregon .\nit is estimated that hagfish may live 40 years in the ocean and 17 years in a protected environment such as an aquarium .\nidentify the ciliary opsin ( or opsins ) of hagfish and determine its ( or their ) phylogenetic relationship to other ciliary opsins .\na jawless fish within the chordate phylum ( agnatha is greek for \u2018no jaw\u2019 ) . the two extant groups are hagfish and lampreys\nholmberg , k . and \u00f6hman , p . ( 1976 ) fine structure of retinal synaptic organelles in lamprey and hagfish photoreceptors .\n\u201d disgusting hagfish and magnificent sharks \u201d , tammy frank , noaa ocean explorer . retrieved on 2008 - 03 - 28 . urltoken\npacific hagfish hatch from an egg in fully functional form without any intermediate larval stage . determining the sex of pacific hagfish below 35 cm in length is difficult as a copulatory organ is absent . despite over a century of searching , only 200 fertilized eggs of\ntable 1 : list of predatory fish species , recorded and observed in video footage , whose gills were clogged by hagfish slime .\nsome people call hagfish the\nvultures of the sea\n, because they seem to get most of their food by scavenging .\nafter plenty of careful observation , uyeno , clark and their colleagues think they can explain how hagfish get the job done . what ' s more , their idea might go a long way towards explaining many of the hagfish ' s other unusual biological features .\nthat is speculative for now . but if it ever does come to pass , one day a hagfish could save your life .\n10 . hagfish slime could be the fiber of the future . hagfish slime contains tens of thousands of very thin ( 100 times smaller than a human hair ) protein threads . the threads are extremely strong , and when stretched and dried out they resemble spider silk . like spider silk , scientists think hagfish slime could be woven together to produce super - strong fabrics . potentially , hagfish slime could be used to create material with the strength of nylon or plastic , and applications range from bulletproof vests to artificial tissues .\nthere\u2019s still much and more we don\u2019t know about hagfish and their slime , but the closer you look , the more weirdness you\u2019ll find . hagfish can tie themselves into knots , they sometimes take up residence in dead bodies , and their hearts beat without oxygen .\nthe obvious question here is , what ' s up with all that mucus ? do hagfish hate modern highway infrastructure or harbour some sort of vendetta against priuses ? apparently , the hagfish uses slime for self - defence against predators or alternatively , for hunting prey .\nthe hagfish is famous for its ability to emit mucus and even its scientific name is derived from the greek word for slime . one single hagfish can fill a milk jug with slime in no time . the slime is probably a way for the hagfish to fend of predators , since the slime can be used to form a protective slime - cocoon . if a fish tries to eat the cocoon , the slime can clog its gills and make it suffocate . if you try to chew hagfish slime , it will expand .\n. . . commercial interest in the hagfish has increased as traditional fishery stock harvests have receded in some regions . while attention has recently turned to the hagfish as a potential source of edible meat and skin , there are no regulations on hagfish harvesting throughout america ' s eastern seaboard at present ( powell et al . , 2005 ) . as fascinating as hagfish may be in their abstract and conceptual role in supplying missing pieces to the vertebrate evolutionary puzzle , there are important practical reasons to study them , too . . . .\nthe largest species of hagfish can reach about 4ft ( 1 . 2m ) , though most are around 1ft ( 30cm ) long .\nto protect hagfish populations in the face of all the unknowns , several us states have made moves ( pdf , p . 7 ) to monitor their fairly unregulated hagfish fisheries . in the meantime , they might want to think about some tiny seat belts , too .\nhagfish are also known as slime eels , thought they are not eels . they belong to the class agnatha , fish without jaws .\nthe largest hagfish , eptatretus goliath , can grow to more than four feet , while the smallest species reach only several inches long .\nto wipe its slime away , the hagfish will tie itself into a knot and work the knot from its head to its tail , scraping off the slime as it goes . if its nostril fills with slime , the hagfish will \u201csneeze\u201d to clear out the clog .\nwe show hagfish diverging either before the divergence of lampreys or else after lampreys separated from the line that would become the jawed vertebrates .\na system of sensory organs resembling taste buds , called schreiner organs , are found throughout the epidermis . the distribution of these organs is more extensive than taste buds in nearly any vertebrate , giving hagfish the ability to sense prey in dark and muddy habitats . this sensory system has no direct homologue in vertebrates and seems specific to hagfish . hagfish also have well - developed nasal organs used in olfaction .\nyou can argue quite strongly that hagfish are ' designed to dine ' ,\nsays glover .\ni think that uyeno and clark have provided robust evidence that the loose skin of hagfish certainly does appear to be a critical component facilitating the knotting behaviour .\nwhen they ' re comfortable , they curl up ,\nchu said , gently drawing a net through the mass of hagfish .\nhagfish have no external sex organs , which means they probably don\u2019t do internal fertilization ( but then again , they might be like coelacanths , which pull it off without the usual equipment ) . but we\u2019re not sure ; attempts to observe mating in captivity have proven similarly futile . one hagfish authority compares hagfish to giant pandas , in that they refuse to get it on in captivity , reported the wsj .\n\u201c [ hagfish ] are primitive jawless fishes with an eel - like body , \u201d deep sea ecologist andrew david thaler told gizmodo . \u201cyou can immediately tell you\u2019re dealing with a hagfish if , rather than a jaw , it has a horrifying tooth - lined rasping opening where its mouth would be that looks like something out of hr geiger\u2019s sketchbook . also , if there\u2019s slime , it\u2019s a hagfish . \u201d\ndean\u2019s hagfish egg collection came from monterey bay fishermen who spent a summer dangling baited lines from rowboats . in their alarm at having been hooked , the hagfish released slime , encasing them as they struggled on the line . stuck within those gobs of slime were the eggs .\n\u201cbut our research suggests hagfish did not degenerate from lamprey - like ancestors , but are instead the remnants of an earlier sister group . \u201d\nhagfish originally had good eyes and lost them , but this is not reverse evolution because eye complexity did not evolve in the first place .\nprediction 5 : if hagfish are monophyletic with lampreys , then they might represent a form with arrested development , rather than a degenerate form .\ngroups . pacific hagfish have changed little over the past 330 million years , and closely resemble the first craniates . the evolutionary path leading to\nbut glover says it is less clear whether there are clear links between body knotting and some of the other strange features of hagfish biology .\na modern hagfish , the pacific hagfish eptatretus ( top ) , shows some of the diagnostic features of the group : the tentacles surrounding the snout , the left oesophagocutaneous opening ( in the rear of the gill openings ) , and the series of large , ventrolateral slime glands . the earliest known fossil hagfish , myxinikela , from the late carboniferous of illinois , had a much stouter body shape but clearly shows the tentacles .\nonly little information is known about the reproduction of hagfish . at present the sex ratio of hag fish is found to be 100 : 1 favor of females . in some species of hagfish they have both the ovaries and testes and the female gonads do not function until the individual has attained the particular lifecycle stage . the female hagfish lay 20 to 30 eggs which are yolky and the eggs do not have a larval stage\nif there\u2019s one thing you really don\u2019t want scattered across a highway , it\u2019s live hagfish . but last week , five vehicles collided on an oregon highway , flinging 7 , 500 pounds of hagfish\u2014also known as \u201csnot snakes\u201d and \u201cslime eels\u201d\u2014across the blacktop , and making a very unusual mess .\nthe hagfish family , myxinidae , is the only family in the order myxiniformes ( also known as hyperotreti ) , which itself is the only order in the class myxini . thus , hagfish is variously used for any of the three taxonomic levels ( itis 2003 ; nelson 1994 ) .\nbecause of their inaccessibility , hagfish reproduction and early development have escaped observation . the reproductive patterns of most species of hagfish are unknown . to date , no one has been able to successfully reproduce any hagfish species in captivity . there is limited information on reproduction in one hagfish species in japan . the japanese hagfish , e . burgeri , is the only known species of hagfish that has a regular annual reproductive cycle and undergoes an annual migration ( ichikawa et al . , 2000 ; kobayashi et al . , 1972 ; nozaki et al . , 2000 ) . a study by martini et al . ( 1997 ) suggested that atlantic hagfish have limited reproductive potential based on the small number of eggs produced ( less than 30 per female ) , about 25 % of the animals examined did not have visible gonadal tissue and the small number of males ( less than 6 % of the population ) , gravid females ( less than 1 % ) and postovulatory females ( less than 5 % ) .\ncurrently , there are no regulations governing the harvesting of hagfish along the east coast . discard rates of hagfish from the fishery reach up to 50 to 60 % ( noaa / nmfs ) ( martini , 1998 ) . since there has been little or no information about the life history of hagfish including growth rate , age determination , reproductive biology , life span , and larval size at hatching , the level at which a sustainable fisheries for this species can be maintained is unknown . in order for fisheries management to manage its hagfish stocks and develop a sustainable commercial hagfish fishery , an information base is needed for optimum use of the hagfish resource ( barss , 1993 ) . to address these issues , the new england fishery council has begun the process of developing regulations in 2003 although it will likely take a few years to develop a fisheries management plan .\nthis is the part where we talk about hagfish : a wormlike creature , neither vertebrate nor invertebrate , that survives by secreting a special kind of fibrous slime that effectively closes up attackers ' gills ; a single hagfish can produce quarts of the stuff . when hagfish are hungry \u2014 they can survive for as long without food as a bedbug \u2014 they are fond of burrowing into the bellies of their victims and consuming them from the inside out . if a fisherman is unlucky enough to pull up hagfish in his or her net , the other fish in the catch will be ruined . how does a hagfish clear away excess slime ? it quite literally ties itself into a knot , which moves along its horrible length .\nit ' s actually a thin film of hagfish proteins . this skin collapses , forming a short fibre . she twirls it between her fingers .\nscientists have been studying hagfish for centuries - darwin even took notes on them . but there are many basic facts they still don ' t know . we are still in the dark on how they reproduce and how to tell how old a hagfish is . bony fish usually have otoliths , which act like tree rings , and are used as a way of telling how old they are - but hagfish don ' t have these .\nactually , thaler adds , \u201cslime\u201d isn\u2019t even really the right word . ( see\nhagfish slime could be eco - friendly fabric .\n)\nthese fish are affected by the trash and chemicals that we put into the ocean . pacific hagfish are a crucial part of the cycle of life as they eliminate dead and dying organisms . there could be a significant impact on the ecosystem should there be a large scale removal of hagfish .\nscientists have demonstrated that they can use mild conditions to convert artificial hagfish slime into one of the stiffest protein - based fibres ever reported . 1\nmolecular\u2013genetic analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear genes has provided strong support for the notion that hagfish and lampreys are sister taxa 56 , 135 \u2013 139 .\nprediction 4 : the hagfish retina should not contain bipolar cells , and its photoreceptors should synapse directly onto the projection neurons ( ganglion cells ) .\nexamine the phylogenetic relationship between cyclostome genes ; in particular , examine the relationship between the opsin genes to estimate the stage at which hagfish diverged .\nthat realisation encouraged uyeno to reassess what drove the evolution of the other unusual features of hagfish biology , in a paper published in june 2016 .\nthe hagfish has been called the nastiest and most disgusting creature in the sea . in south korea , it\u2019s called dinner . check it out :\nthe condition of hagfish eyes has proved particularly influential in scenarios of eye evolution . in contrast to lampreys , which possess a sophisticated eye with a lens , iris and eye muscles , hagfish eyes lack such structures and , unlike almost all other vertebrates , including lampreys , the retinal epithelium of hagfish is devoid of pigment granules . this condition has been interpreted to reflect a rudimentary intermediate evolutionary grade in the gradual assembly of the vertebrate eye .\nthere has been long discussion in scientific literature about the hagfish being classified as vertebrates versus invertebrates . given their classification as agnatha , hagfish are seen as an elementary vertebrate in between prevertebrate and gnathostome . they tend to be classified either under the subphylum vertebrata or as an invertebrate within subphylum craniata .\nbecause it is so deficient in necessary parts , \u201cit has been postulated that the hagfish eye reflects a failure in eye development to proceed beyond that of an earlier stage in vertebrate eye evolution , \u201d gabbott\u2019s team writes . 10 they recall the commonly accepted contribution of the hagfish to evolutionary understanding :\nd . bardack . 1991 . first fossil hagfish ( myxinoidea ) : a record from the pennsylvanian of illinois . science 254 : 701 - 703 .\nhanson , c . a . and sidell , b . d . ( 1983 ) atlantic hagfish cardiac muscle : metabolic basis of tolerance to anoxia .\nhagfish with complex eyes were designed by a wise creator god , but they have degenerated like so many other things in this sin - cursed world .\n) , with rather poorly organized outer - segment membranes . in each of these respects the hagfish eye resembles the pineal organ of non - mammalian vertebrates\nthe resulting paired lateral photoreceptive organs would have resembled the \u2018eyes\u2019 of extant hagfish , lacking any image - forming apparatus and subserving non - visual functions .\nas late as 2006 , a new member was added to the hagfish family myxinidae when the goliath hagfish was scientifically described by mincarone & stewart and given the name eptatretus goliath . eptatretus goliath was described from a specimen caught at a dept of 811 metres ( 2 , 661 feet ) at the head of the hauraki canyon off the northeast north island in new zealand . the species was named goliath since it was a true giant in the world of hagfish ; the specimen measured an astonishing 127 , 5 cm ( approximately 50 inches ) . this makes eptatretus goliath the largest known species of hagfish ."]}
{"id": 536, "summary": [{"text": "the grey-crowned babbler ( pomatostomus temporalis ) is a species of bird in the family pomatostomidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in australia , indonesia , and papua new guinea .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitats are temperate forests and subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "grey - crowned babbler", "paragraphs": ["grey - crowned babbler - bird watching in australia with ej - birdwatching . . grey crowned babbler\ngrey - crowned babbler - bird watching in australia with ej - birdwatching . . grey crowned babbler - youtube\ngrey - crowned babbler ( pomatostomus temporalis ) grey - crowned babbler female duntroon , act . photo by martin butterfield grey - crowned babbler female duntroon , act . photo by martin butterfield grey - crowned babbler duntroon , act . photo by anthony overs grey - crowned babbler duntroon , act . more\ngrey crowned babbler & the apostle bird - antique b . . . grey crowned babbler & the apostle bird - antique b . . .\nnobody uploaded sound recordings for grey - crowned babbler ( pomatostomus temporalis ) yet .\ndescription : grey - crowned babbler is the largest of the four australian babblers .\nrobinson d ( 2008 ) grey - crowned babbler in : olsen p , editor .\nfrontal view of a juvenile grey - crowned babbler preening ( photo courtesy of r . druce )\ngrey - crowned babbler has some predators such as corvids . grey - crowned babbler is in decline , and disappeared from large parts of its range . next time , this species would become classified as vulnerable .\ngrey - crowned babbler taking a bath ( photo courtesy of r . russell ) [ mt . molloy , qld ]\nthe grey - crowned babbler lacks the dark crown of other babblers and has a yellow rather than a dark eye .\ngrey - crowned babbler is sedentary . family groups defend the territory all year round . territory ranges up to ten hectares .\n. grey - crowned babblers are found in australia and in southern new guinea .\nobserved counts of grey - crowned babblers in sites surveyed in 1995 and 2008 .\ngrey - crowned babbler , pomatostomus temporlis , is a medium to large sized 25cm to 29cm . the grey - crowned babbler has a light grey crown with a broad white eyebrow , yellow eye in black mask , long down - curved black bill . throat and breast white . the body is shades of grey / brown , tail tipped white . the young grey - crowned babbler have brown eyes for two years . generally found in close family groups of up to 15 birds .\nstereo\ngrey - crowned babbler tlc ( photo courtesy of r . russell ) [ mount molloy , qld , may 2013 ]\na grey - crowned babbler , race\nrubeculus\n, was heard by us calling at pine creek , nt , in august 2014 .\nlateral view of an immature grey - crowned babbler ( photo courtesy of p . brown ) [ adelaide river , nt , april 2018 ]\ngrey - crowned babbler peeking out of its nest ( photo courtesy of r . russell ) [ mount molloy , qld , january 2011 ]\n* the grey - crowned babbler is listed as threatened on the victorian flora and fauna guarantee act ( 1988 ) . under this act , an action statement for the recovery and future management of this species has been prepared . on the 2007 advisory list of threatened vertebrate fauna in victoria , the grey - crowned babbler is listed as endangered . * the eastern subspecies of the grey - crowned babbler ( p . t . more\ngrey - crowned babbler preening the underside of its wing ( photo courtesy of r . russell ) [ mount molloy , qld , july 2011 ]\nfamily of grey - crowned babblers taking a bath ( photo courtesy of r . druce )\ngrey - crowned babblers are gregarious and inquisitive birds ( photo courtesy of r . druce )\nlateral view of a grey - crowned babbler ( photo courtesy of m . eaton ) [ bowra station , near cunnamulla , qld , september 2017 ]\nnear - lateral view of an immature grey - crowned babbler ( photo courtesy of p . brown ) [ adelaide river , nt , april 2018 ]\nthe grey - crowned babbler is widespread throughout north - western , northern , central and eastern australia . it is also found in papua new guinea .\nblackmore cj , heinsohn r ( 2007 ) reproductive success and helper effects in the cooperatively breeding grey - crowned babbler . journal of zoology 273 : 326\u2013332 .\nnear - frontal view of a grey - crowned babbler ( photo courtesy of m . eaton ) [ bowra station , near cunnamulla , qld , september 2017 ]\nnear - lateral view of a grey - crowned babbler ( photo courtesy of m . eaton ) [ bowra station , near cunnamulla , qld , september 2017 ]\nlateral view of a grey - crowned babbler foraging on the ground ( photo courtesy of m . eaton ) [ near st . george , qld , september 2017 ]\nrobinson d ( 2006 ) is revegetation in the sheep pen creek area , victoria , improving grey - crowned babbler habitat ? ecological management & restoration 7 : 93\u2013104 .\nthe grey - crowned babbler is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\ngrey - crowned babblerthe grey - crowned babbler is the largest of australia ' s four babbler species . it is dark brown - grey above , with a distinctive grey crown stripe and a dark face mask that contrasts with a white eyebrow . the chin and throat are white , running into a pale grey lower breast . it has a long , curved bill , short rounded wings with cinnamon brown wing patches and a long tail tipped white . the eye is pale yellow in adults . more\ngrey - crowned babbler ( pomatostomus temporalis ) filmed at rush creek , se qld april 1996 using canon ex1 hi8 & sigma 400mm lens . grey - crowned babbler ( pomatostomus temporalis ) filmed at rush creek , se qld april 1996 using canon ex1 hi8 & sigma 400mm lens . all \u00bb grey - crowned babbler ( pomatostomus temporalis ) filmed at rush creek , se qld april 1996 using canon ex1 hi8 & sigma 400mm lens . \u00ab download video - ipod / pspdownload is starting . save file to your computer . more\nparameter estimates from the group size submodel of grey - crowned babblers , conditional upon occupancy at a site .\nthis grey - crowned babbler nest was pinched by a pair of blue - faced honeyeaters ( photo courtesy of r . russell ) [ mount molloy , qld , june 2008 ]\nrobinson d ( 2008 ) grey - crowned babbler . in : olsen p , editor . the state of australia\u2019s birds 2008 . melbourne : birds australia . pp . 37 .\ndiet : grey - crowned babbler is insectivorous , foraging as on ground or in trees . it feeds mainly on insects and other invertebrates . it also may consume some seeds .\n@ clare : oh geez , jangling keys ? \ud83d\ude42 i\u2019ll have to google them , i am afraid . or better yet , i\u2019ll have to visit broome without telling you , go hear a grey crowned babbler and then know on your door with a surprise visit . \u201chello clare , great to meet you ! i am jochen and the grey crowned babbler goes \u2026\u201d\nrange : grey - crowned babbler is widespread in its range , in north - western , northern , central and eastern australia . it also can be found in papua new guinea .\nparameter estimates from the occupancy submodel of grey - crowned babblers for sites at which babblers were detected in 1995 .\nalternative parameter estimates from the group size submodel of grey - crowned babblers , conditional upon occupancy at a site .\ngrey - crowned babbler captured by our team of bird watchers at www . ej - birdwatching . com . learn from the pro ' s and start ticking off that list of lifers .\ngrey - crowned babbler retention plan = last modified : may 15 , 2010 - 4 : 03 pm protection of biodiversity is a key element of ecologically sustainable development and gloucester shire council recognises the need to make informed planning decisions with regards to threatened species . the grey - crowned babbler is a species of bird found in suitable habitat in and around the township of gloucester . more\nr . russell reports finding grey - crowned babblers , race\ntemporalis\n, regularly at mount molloy , qld .\nalternative parameter estimates from the occupancy submodel of grey - crowned babblers for sites at which babblers were detected in 1995 .\ndavidson , i . and robinson , d . ( 1992 ) . ' grey - crowned babbler , pomatostomus temporalis : action statement no . 34 . ' department of conservation and environment : victoria .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto grey - crowned babbler utters loud scolding calls and chattering \u201cwee - oo\u201d . breeding male and female perform duets . female calls \u201cyah\u201d and male \u201cahoo\u201d . these sounds may be repeated several times . grey - crowned babbler is sometimes named \u201cyahoo\u201d , due to these calls . they are used to maintain pair - bonds between mates , but also as territorial calls .\ni was tempted to add nganganghnganga to the \u201cnaming\u201d section for the grey - crowned babbler at wikipedia . all those boring english names and not a single indigenous name ! but i doubt it would fit wikipedia guidelines\u2026\nthis grey - crowned babblers is fanning its tail , displaying the conspicuous white terminal band ( photo courtesy of r . druce )\ns2 fig . alternative parameter estimates from the group size submodel of grey - crowned babblers , conditional upon occupancy at a site .\ngrey - crowned babblers in southeast queensland , 2009 = a project of birds queensland - during 2009 birds queensland is undertaking this project to establish the present status of grey - crowned babblers in southeast queensland , and to compare this with their previous distribution . more\nbrown jl , dow dd , brown er , brown sd ( 1983 ) socio - ecology of the grey - crowned babbler\u2014population - structure , unit size and vegetation correlates . behavioral ecology and sociobiology 13 : 115\u2013124 .\n1 . the eastern form of the grey - crowned babbler pomatostomus temporalis temporalis , formerly ranged throughout eastern australia from south australia , through victoria and broadly through nsw and central queensland up into southern new guinea . the grey - crowned babbler is now extinct in south australia , coastal victoria and the act . in nsw , the grey - crowned babbler occurs on the western slopes and plains but was less common at the higher altitudes of the tablelands . isolated populations are known from coastal woodlands on the north coast , in the hunter valley and from the south coast near nowra ( blakers et al . 1984 , schodde & mason 1999 ) .\nflight : grey - crowned babbler performs laborious flight and it is unable to fly over large open area . it prefers to hop in order to reach the treetop , and then it glides down to other tree .\np . brown reports finding grey - crowned babblers , race\nrubeculus\n, at adelaide river , nt , in april 2018 .\ns1 fig . alternative parameter estimates from the occupancy submodel of grey - crowned babblers for sites at which babblers were detected in 1995 .\nalthough listed as vulnerable , we have found grey - crowned babblers , race\ntemporalis\n, in many different locations in inland nsw .\nm . mearns reports spotting grey - crowned babblers , race\ntemporalis\n, at bunya mountains np , qld , in december 2015 .\nclan of grey - crowned babblers building a nest ( photo courtesy of r . russell ) [ mount molloy , qld , december 2011 ]\nlike all other babblers of the pomatostomus family , grey - crowned babblers hunt for insects and their larvae in trees and on the ground .\nj . greaves reports spotting grey - crowned babblers , race\nrubeculus\n, at boolardy station , murchison , wa , in august 2016 .\nprotection / threats / status : grey - crowned babbler is threatened by clearing and fragmentation of its habitat , and removal of dead timber . its habitat is regularly cleared for agriculture . weed invasion and grazing by stock degrades the habitat .\nthe grey - crowned babbler received no consideration whatsoever by studies for the initial eis . however , as it is a recently - listed species , some work has now had to be undertaken by cumberland ecology ( ce ) for this sis . nevertheless the work achieved for this species is extremely limited . ce ' s records of sightings of grey - crowned babbler appear to have been gleaned by a simple check of the nsw wildlife atlas , and by even more simple guesswork . more\nbehaviour : grey - crowned babbler is very active and nervous . these birds live in family groups , up to 12 individuals . they defend communal territory . each group includes one pair or a trio , with the young of previous year .\nthe grey - crowned babbler is a large ( 23\u201329 cm long , c . 80g ) , sedentary , cooperatively breeding species of woodland bird [ 29 , 30 , 31 ] that was once found throughout much of australia [ 32 ] . however , like many species of woodland birds in australia [ 33 , 34 ] , the grey - crowned babbler has declined in extent and abundance through much of its former range due to extensive clearing of woodland for agriculture [ 35 , 36 ] . these declines have been most evident in the southern part of their range , where land clearing has been most intensive . as a consequence , the grey - crowned babbler is regionally extinct through much of its former range in south - eastern australia [ 35 , 37 ] .\ngrey - crowned babblers are the only australian babblers with a light - coloured crown . they are also the only australian babblers that do not have black eyes .\ngrey - crowned babblers , race\ntemporalis\n, are the most common species of babbler in our area , in the north - west slopes and plains of nsw . they are usually found in family clans of 10 - 12 birds , often in roadside vegetation .\nwith the recent , generous donation from alcoa and birdlife melbourne to assist friends of the grey - crowned babbler with their conservation efforts , it is timely to reflect on what has been achieved with regards to this species\u2019 conservation in victoria and what remains to be done .\nfriends of the grey - crowned babbler assisted with repeat surveys of babbler sites in 2008 and 2009 and also contributed significantly to the habitat restoration works over the past decade . kelly arbon from trust for nature and jill smith from the department of environment and primary industries generously assisted with gis analyses . thanks to jose lahoz - montfort and will morris for model and code suggestions . david duncan , andrew bennett , martine maron and several anonymous reviewers made pertinent comments on the manuscript . finally , thanks to the many landholders and other land managers whose habitat restoration works over the past decade have contributed significantly to grey - crowned babbler survival in victoria .\nland clearing left grey - crowned babblers trying to survive in small , isolated patches of habitat where they are often subjected to the added pressures of stock grazing , rabbits , weeds and feral animals . food , shelter and breeding places became scarce and contributed to the bird\u2019s declining numbers . signs of recovery efforts across victoria to restore grey - crowned babbler habitat are showing early signs that it is possible to bring species back from extinction . more\nhabitat : grey - crowned babbler lives in wooded areas and open forests with mature eucalypts . it frequents inland plains with open shrub layer and intact ground cover of grass , fallen timber and leaf litter . it also can be found around farms , roadsides and sometimes golf courses .\ncitation : vesk pa , robinson d , van der ree r , wilson cm , saywell s , mccarthy ma ( 2015 ) demographic effects of habitat restoration for the grey - crowned babbler pomatostomus temporalis , in victoria , australia . plos one 10 ( 7 ) : e0130153 . urltoken\ngrey - crowned babblers are gregarious birds that are almost always on the move and busy with something . quite often they are seen by us together with a mob of apostlebirds .\nthe grey - crowned babbler is found in open forests and woodlands , favouring inland plains with an open shrub layer , little ground cover and plenty of fallen timber and leaf litter . may be seen along roadsides and around farms . in south - east melbourne , small populations survive on golf courses .\nclan of grey - crowned babblers giving a tree trunk a good working over in search of food ( photo courtesy of r . russell ) [ mount molloy , qld , november 2010 ]\nit is now more than twenty years since birds australia initiated its grey - crowned babbler ( babbler ) conservation project in victoria , thanks to a one - year grant from the australian government\u2019s national estate funding program . it is also twenty years since birds australia and other community organisations first applied for funding to do on - ground works to assist with the babblers\u2019 survival . so how is this charismatic and sociable bird faring ?\nlateral view of a grey - crowned babbler - note the reddish tint on the bird ' s breast giving this race its name ; this is one of the birds whose calls were recorded on 6 august 2016 ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ boolardy station , murchison , wa , august 2016 ]\n\u201cwe have already established that the grey - crowned babbler no longer occurs in this region and the scarlet robin is now mainly restricted to french island , the southern emu wren now occurs in only a few localities and is rarely reported , \u201d he stated in an article in the september mornington peninsula birdlife magazine .\ngrey - crowned babblers can be found in relatively dry forest and more open woodland , often also under ( even single ) trees with dense shrubs around / under them , including roadside vegetation .\ngrey - crowned babblers were detected at 58 % and 74 % of the 117 sites in 1995 and 2008 , respectively . observed group sizes during all surveys ranged from one to ten birds (\ngregarious , noisy and active , the grey - crowned babbler usually lives and forages in groups of 4\u201312 birds which are often first detected by their loud harsh or whistled calls . though usually terrestrial , they also occasionally feed in shrubs and the lower levels of trees , tending to be more arboreal than other babblers . more\n8 . in view of the above points , the scientific committee is of the opinion that the grey - crowned babbler ( eastern subspecies ) pomatostomus temporalis temporalis , is likely to become endangered unless the circumstances and factors threatening its survival or evolutionary development cease to operate , and is therefore eligible for listing as a vulnerable species .\nthe nominate race , temporalis , found in the eastern states of australia has a grey lower breast .\nm . eaton reports spotting grey - crowned babblers , race\ntemporalis\n, at gatton , qld , in july 2017 , and at bowra station , near cunnamulla , qld , in september 2017 .\nexpected group size for grey - crowned babblers at average sites for restored and unrestored sites in 1995 and 2008 , the change in group size over that period and the effect of restoration on that change .\nit\u2019s not that long ago bird watchers were confronted by the local extinction of the grey - crowned babbler . probably not a bird on everyone\u2019s easily identifiable list , but a loss that was sadly added to the 40 or so species of birds that have disappeared from around frankston and on the mornington peninsula since the arrival of europeans .\nrace rubeculus ,\nred - breasted babbler\n, of the northern territory and western australia has an orange - tinted breast .\n2 . grey - crowned babblers occupy open woodlands dominated by mature eucalypts , with regenerating trees , tall shrubs , and an intact ground cover of grass and forbs . the species builds conspicuous dome - shaped nests and breeds co - operatively in sedentary family groups of 2 - 13 birds ( davidson and robinson 1992 ) . grey - crowned babblers are insectivorous and forage in leaf litter and on bark of trees .\nalternative expected group sizes for grey - crowned babblers at average sites for restored and unrestored sites in 1995 and 2008 , the change in group size over that period and the effect of restoration on that change .\nwe live in gin gin qld and today for the first time we had at least eight of these grey crowned babblers ! ! we were very excited to have a new family visiting us . nancy de george\nthe scientific committee , established by the threatened species conservation act , has made a final determination to list the grey - crowned babbler ( eastern subspecies ) , pomatostomus temporalis temporalis ( vigors and horsfield , 1827 ) , as a vulnerable species on schedule 2 of the act . listing of vulnerable species is provided for by part 2 of the act .\n7 . habitat degradation threatens grey - crowned babblers , particularly as a result of weed invasion and grazing by stock . in addition , it is likely that increased abundance of competitors , such as noisy miners , and nest predators , including the pied currawong and australian raven ( major et al . 1996 ) threaten babbler foraging efficiency and breeding success .\ngrey - crowned babblers ' nest in unusual surroundings , namely in a plane tree in a garden ; the location of this nest was kindly reported to us by j . faris [ narrabri , nsw , march 2009 ]\ns3 fig . alternative expected group sizes for grey - crowned babblers at average sites for restored and unrestored sites in 1995 and 2008 , the change in group size over that period and the effect of restoration on that change .\nlateral view of grey - crowned babblers ; note the dark iris of the bird on the right , indicating that it is a juvenile ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ boolardy station , murchison , wa , august 2016 ]\nthe grey - crowned babbler is the largest of the four australian babblers , reaching to 30 cm long . its distinctive bill is scimitar - shaped , long and heavy . the broad white eyebrow and a pale grey crown - stripe are other distinguishing characters . a dark band passes from the bill through the eye , separating the pale throat and brow to giving a ' masked ' look . it has dark greyish - brown upperparts and is paler brown on the underparts , grading to a whitish throat . more\nbased on these findings , friends of the grey - crowned babbler continue to implement or support the implementation of their key conservation actions for babblers across these districts . since the project began , twenty years ago , the friends group , working with local landcare groups , conservation agencies and trust for nature has protected and restored more than 2 000 ha of habitat through the euroa - violet town districts .\ngrey - crowned babblers , race\ntemporalis\n, are seen by us regularly , but infrequently in various locations around narrabri , e . g . 20 km south of narrabri , leard state forest and also at eulah creek , 20 km east of narrabri .\nbabbler group size decreased over the survey period at sites without restoration works , but restoration works were effective in stemming declines where they were done . restoration was responsible for a difference of about one bird per group of 3 - 5 individuals ; this is an important effect on the reproductive success of the social group . effectiveness of restoration works targeted at the grey - crowned babbler was only demonstrable by sampling through time and including control sites without restoration works . this work demonstrates that while calls for better monitoring of restoration are valid , scope exists to recover a signal of effectiveness from opportunistic retrospective analyses .\npicture of the grey - crowned babbler has been licensed under a creative commons attribution - share alike . original source : own work author : avicedapermission ( reusing this file ) i , the copyright holder of this work , hereby publish it under the following license : this file is licensed under the creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 unported license . you are free : to share \u2013 to copy , distribute and transmit the work\nmatthew , j . & christie , d . a . ( 2018 ) . grey - crowned babbler ( pomatostomus temporalis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ncale pg ( 1999 ) the spatial dynamics of the white - browed babbler in a fragmented agricultural landscape [ phd thesis ] . armidale , nsw : university of new england .\ngrey - crowned babblers feed on insects and other invertebrates and sometimes eat seeds . they forage in groups of two to fifteen birds on the ground among leaf litter , around fallen trees and from the bark of shrubs and trees ( they tend to use trees more than other babblers ) .\nreproduction : grey - crowned babbler nests in tree , shrubs and saplings . a group includes usually one dominant pair and several non - breeding birds . each family group builds several nests which will be used as communal roosts at night . these large nests are situated at about six metres above the ground . they are dome - shaped , made with twigs , more or less thick and spherical , with lateral entrance . old nest may be renovated and reused year after year .\n4 . there are probably no grey - crowned babblers left on the new england tableland ( h . ford , pers . comm . ) and they are now very uncommon in the hunter valley with most family groups reduced to two or four members ( p . cowper , pers . comm . )\ngrey - crowned babblers sometimes nest in the lower part of a larger bird ' s nest ( e . g . a raven ' s or a raptor ' s ) . they are known to be communal breeders . when building their own nest , we have found them to have a preference for cypress pines .\nthe grey - crowned babbler is sometimes known as the \u2018yahoo - bird\u2019 . this strange name stems from one of the most common calls given by the species . the call is known as \u2018antiphonal\u2019 , meaning that it is given by two birds almost in unison , with the \u2018ya\u2019 part given by the female , closely followed by the \u2018hoo\u2019 given by the male . it is so closely co - ordinated that it sounds as though it is being given by a single bird , and it may be repeated for up to 23 times .\n5 . in southern nsw , the size of grey - crowned babbler family groups is also reduced . in a three year study of 15 family groups near west wyalong , the mean number of birds in each group was four ( a . overs , unpubl . ) . such groups are much smaller than those recorded further north near peak hill , where groups averaged 8 - 13 birds ( a . overs , unpubl . ) . the impact of reduced family groups on breeding success is unknown , although it is likely to be detrimental .\ngrey - crowned babblers live in family groups that consist of a breeding pair and young from previous breeding seasons . a group may consist of up to fifteen birds . an extended family is valuable in the cooperative feeding of young and predator avoidance . all members of the family group remain close to each other when foraging . a soft more\nthe major cause of the babbler\u2019s decline in victoria has been the loss of their preferred woodland habitat . over the past 150 years these woodlands have been largely cleared for agriculture , mining , urban development and firewood collection . as a consequence , babbler populations have shrunk in size and become isolated from each other . the number of birds in each family group has also declined , because smaller populations of babblers produce fewer young . for this highly social species , therefore , habitat fragmentation has caused major social disruption .\ngrey - crowned babblers were detected at 58 % and 74 % of the 117 sites in 1995 and 2008 , respectively . observed group sizes during all surveys ranged from one to ten birds ( fig 1 ) . observed counts suggest that at sites with restoration works , fewer sites yielded counts of zero in 2008 , and more groups increased in numbers , than at sites without restoration works ( fig 1 ) .\nfemale lays 2 to 3 brown eggs , with fine markings . incubation lasts about 23 days , by female . several females may lay in the same nest , and all members of the group feed her , and then , help for feeding the young . larger groups raise more young , and this species may produce two broods per year . young fledge at about 23 days after hatching . young birds may stay about one year after fledging with family group , and sometimes , they remain for two or three more years . at this moment , even if they are able to breed , they act as helpers . that is very important for grey - crowned babbler long - term survival .\nof our covariates , large trees had the greatest positive effect on babbler group size ( fig 4 ) . larger groups occurred where the density of large trees was higher . babbler group size declined ~ 15 % between 1995 and 2008 at sites without restoration . the presence of restoration works was associated with about 22 % larger groups in 2008 , effectively offsetting the reduction through time . there was a possible small , but uncertain effect of distance , such that the further groups were from the next nearest group , the smaller the group size .\ngrey - crowned babblers are the most common babblers in our area , around narrabri , new south wales . like all babblers , they come in groups or families and forage in trees or paddocks while continuously communicating with each other . seen regularly in bushland , but also more open country and along roadsides . many family units are happy to live in very little dense vegetation by roadsides , often with only one sufficiently large tree to provide them with shelter . more\nthe old nests of grey - crowned babblers are used by a variety of other birds : blue - faced honeyeaters sometimes nest on top of the dome . yellow - rumped thornbills may nest underneath and are even tolerated in active nests . facts and figures research species : yes minimum size : 25 cm maximum size : 29 cm average size : 27 cm average weight : 81 g breeding season : july to february clutch size : usually two to three , up to five if more than one female . more\nadult has greyish - brown upperparts . long tail is darker , tipped with white . wings are short and rounded with orange - buff wing patches . underparts are paler , with chestnut - brown lower breast , belly and vent . chin and throat are white . on the head , forehead , crown and nape are pale greyish - white , with indistinct grey band in the centre of crown . we can see dark grey band from lores , through the eye , and joining the mantel , giving a \u201cmasked\u201d appearance . bill is thin , pointed and down curved . it is black , with pale base on lower mandible . eyes are yellow . legs and feet are grey . both sexes are similar . juvenile has dark eyes . they turn yellow when they are about three years old .\nbased on unpublished research into the effects of distance to other babbler groups on likelihood of site occupancy ( d . robinson unpubl . data ) , [ 47 ] , we also measured on a gis the straight - line distance from the mid - point of each site to the nearest known group of babblers ( during 2005\u20132008 ) to reflect the capacity of babblers to leave or colonize the site .\nthe data presented in this study from two primary surveys separated by 13 years demonstrate that the average number of birds in babbler social groups has declined without restoration , but habitat restoration works have stemmed declines at sites where they have been carried out . because we have sampled through time , included controls , accounted for potential pre - existing differences , we assert that habitat restoration has been effective locally .\ni agree that some bird guides are not the most effective to translate bird calls and songs into words . even more , i think that , sometimes , authors are not doing their best into this essential part of the bird description . how to explain that david sibley righfully describes the call of the golden - crowned kinglet as \u201ca very high , thin , slighly buzzing zee zee zee\u201d ( for me it\u2019s more like tssee tssee tssee ) , without mentioning the similar call of the creeper ? on the creeper side , though , the similarity between the calls is noted , with \u201ca very high sree similar to golden crowned kinglet , but single and with a relaxed liquid quality\u201d .\n) . larger groups occurred where the density of large trees was higher . babbler group size declined ~ 15 % between 1995 and 2008 at sites without restoration . the presence of restoration works was associated with about 22 % larger groups in 2008 , effectively offsetting the reduction through time . there was a possible small , but uncertain effect of distance , such that the further groups were from the next nearest group , the smaller the group size .\nin response to the rapid decline of this species in the state of victoria , a habitat restoration program began in 1994 , when the estimated victorian population consisted of only 260 family groups and was still declining [ 38 ] . subsequent studies have suggested the number of babblers and average family group size have increased in the project areas since habitat restoration works began [ 39 , 40 ] . in none of these examples , however , was it possible to demonstrate robust relationships between the restoration works and the demographic or population responses of the species . the aim of this study thus was to quantify the effectiveness of a targeted habitat restoration program aimed at reversing declines in the occupancy and abundance of grey - crowned babblers .\n) . in 2008 at sites that had not been restored , this had fallen by 0 . 6 birds ( - 1 . 5 , 0 . 3 ) to 3 . 9 ( 3 . 1 , 5 . 0 ) . by contrast , sites that were restored had babbler groups averaging 4 . 6 birds ( 3 . 9 , 6 . 0 ) in 2008 . the difference in the change between 1995 to 2008 due to restoration was on average 0 . 8 bird per group ( - 0 . 1 , 1 . 8 ) .\nof the two races of grey - crowned babblers , nominate race\ntemporalis\nis found in qld and nsw eastward of a line connecting the southern tip of the gulf of carpentaria with bourke , nsw . they also live in the hill ranges of vic , but not along the southern coastal fringe in vic and nsw , up to the hunter river valley . they are also not found on the coastal fringe around townsville , qld . race\nrubeculus\n, which is endemic to australia , is found to the west of the tip of the gulf of carpentaria , roughly north of the tropic of capricorn into the eastern nt . they also populate the entire top end of the nt and the kimberley in wa , plus an area around alice springs . their range includes a large area of western wa , along the gascoyne to fitzroy rivers and farther inland from there , to halfway to the nt border .\n] , coupled with the generally open habitats , suggest that counts of zero from sites included in babbler home ranges are dominated by the babblers being unavailable during a survey rather than observers failing to detect all birds of the group when they are in fact present at the survey site . therefore we consider this process the availability of the group to be surveyed conditional upon the site being within the group\u2019s home range . we only allow for false negatives , i . e . missed birds , and not false positives\u2014double counting or misidentification seems unlikely for this distinctive species . thus , we write :\nthe mean group size at occupied sites in 1995 was 4 . 5 ( 3 . 8 , 5 . 5 ) ( fig 5 ) . in 2008 at sites that had not been restored , this had fallen by 0 . 6 birds ( - 1 . 5 , 0 . 3 ) to 3 . 9 ( 3 . 1 , 5 . 0 ) . by contrast , sites that were restored had babbler groups averaging 4 . 6 birds ( 3 . 9 , 6 . 0 ) in 2008 . the difference in the change between 1995 to 2008 due to restoration was on average 0 . 8 bird per group ( - 0 . 1 , 1 . 8 ) .\nit is my fear that the field guides of the next generation ( applications on portable devices such as iphones ) will reduce the analysis of the bird song to a simple ( or , say , a serie of ) recordings of it , without explaining or pointing out the diagnostic part of the song . the song of the ruby crowned kinglet , for instance , eluded me for 2 years ( mind you , i am a rookie , as you know ) , until i discover \u201cbirding by ear\u201d , pointing out the diagnostic introductory 2 notes .\njochen roeder was born in germany and raised to be a birder . he also spent a number of years abroad , just so he could see more birds . one of his most astounding achievements is the comprehension that yellow - crowned night - herons do not exist , as he failed to see any despite birding in north america for more than two years . he currently lives near heidelberg , one of the most boring places for a birder to live , a fact about which he likes to whinge a lot . when he is not birding or trying to convince his young son that patiently scanning some fields for migrants is more fun than working the jungle gym of a playground , he enjoys contemplating the reasoning behind the common names of birds . he first became famous in the bird blog world on bell tower birding .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nchristidis , l . and boles , w . e . 2008 . systematics and taxonomy of australian birds . csiro publishing , collingwood , australia .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be locally common ( coates 1990 , flegg and madge 1995 ) . trend justification : this population is in decline owing to ongoing habitat loss and degradation and perhaps introduced predators and herbivores ( del hoyo et al . 2007 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : pomatostomus temporalis . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\npomatostomus temporalis temporalis : e australia ( cape york pen . to c victoria and se s australia )\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 296 , 974 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\n\u2013 s new guinea ( trans - fly region ) and e & se australia .\n23\u201327 cm ; 60\u201385 g . distinctive large pomatostomid with broad supercilium , white or rufous breast , and prominent rufous patch on wing ( concealed when wing closedt . . .\nvarious harsh chattering contact notes ; distinctive \u201cya - hoo\u201d antiphonal duet by . . .\nmainly insects , including weevils ( curculionidae ) and other beetles ( coleoptera ) , grasshoppers ( orthoptera ) , bugs ( hemiptera ) , butterfly . . .\nrecorded in dec and feb in new guinea and in all months , but mainly jul\u2013feb , in australia . breeds co - operatively , in groups . . .\nsedentary , but some evidence for local movements or nomadism . almost all recoveries are from within . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . fairly common to scarce . estimated population densities 0\u00b708\u20130\u00b76 birds / ha ; in se queensland , 33 groups recorded . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\na bird feeding on what seems to be a caterpillar before calling once and stretching its wings and tail .\na group of seven birds calling from roadside vegetation . eastern rosellas can also be heard calling .\npieter de groot boersma , aviceda , peter nash , nick talbot , fred forssell , keith and lynn youngs , stephen wallace , phil gregory , eldert groenewoud .\ndavid taylor , holger teichmann , lindsay hansch , mark broomhall , greg griffith , gustavo a . rodr\u00edguez , hal and kirsten snyder , paul van giersbergen , marco valentini , arthur grosset , megan , les george , samantha klein , carlos n . g . bocos , nick talbot .\nbirds of new guinea including bismarck archipelago and bougainville all of the 943 species known to occur are covered , including the extraordinarily high total of 456 endemics , as well as 5 introduced species , 2 species yet to be formally described and a separate appendix with 75 vagrants . subspecies are listed also to give a comprehensive overview of the remarkable regional avifauna .\n\u2190 click inside , copy the code and then paste it into your web page code .\nhome | biography | resources | photo library | top shots | contact copyright \u00a9 2005 - 2016 graeme chapman . all rights reserved .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\ntaxonomic source ( s ) christidis , l . and boles , w . e . 2008 . systematics and taxonomy of australian birds . csiro publishing , collingwood , australia . christidis , l . ; boles , w . e . 2008 . systematics and taxonomy of australian birds . csiro publishing , collingwood , australia . del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\npopulation justification : the global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be locally common ( coates 1990 , flegg and madge 1995 ) .\ntrend justification : this population is in decline owing to ongoing habitat loss and degradation and perhaps introduced predators and herbivores ( del hoyo et al . 2007 ) .\npreviously published on avocet as av5536 . certainty : 100 % . id determined by : not specifically indicated ; recordist normally sees birds recorded and indicates if any question ; matches cut in fgab . gps : geohack . the nasal wok work calls\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\naust birds bird names news 1 - 26 habitats key plants glossary plumage nests tips thumbnails gen . info sponsors photos for sale\nthe overall distribution of this species can be assessed based on sighting reports submitted by birdwatchers to urltoken .\nthey are often found by us in roadside vegetation , mostly along relatively quiet country roads .\nmany family units are happy to live in very little dense vegetation by roadsides , often with only one sufficiently large tree to provide them with shelter . in late october 2005 we spotted six separate groups in the area of yarrie lake and bohena , west to south - west of narrabri , along roadsides over a distance of only 20 km .\nfor this species we have recorded the following call ( s ) / song . the interpretation of their meaning is our own ; comments and suggestions for improvement are welcome .\nthese pages are largely based on our own observations and those of our contributors . the structure of these bird pages is explained here . for more salient facts on any bird species please refer to a field guide .\nwould you like to contribute photos or sound recordings to this site ? if interested , please click here . credits to contributors are given here ."]}
{"id": 538, "summary": [{"text": "the yellowhead jawfish ( opistognathus aurifrons ) is a species of jawfish native to coral reefs in the caribbean sea .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is found at depths of from 3 to 40 metres ( 9.8 to 131.2 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the head and upper body are a light , but brilliant , yellow color slowly fading to a pearlescent blue hue .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it can reach a length of 10 centimetres ( 3.9 in ) tl .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it remains near its relatively small territory , and is typically seen with only the head and upper section of its body protruding from its burrow , although it sometimes can be found hovering nearby .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is able to arrange material using its mouth , carrying sand , shells , or small rocks from one location to another .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it is a mouthbrooder , with the male carrying the eggs in its mouth until they hatch . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "yellowhead jawfish", "paragraphs": ["stratton , richard f . 1993 . the yellowhead jawfish . tfh 3 / 93 .\nthe species opistognathus aurifrons is known under several different names in english , including yellowhead jawfish , yellow - head jawfish , yellow - headed jawfish , pearly jawfish , and yellow headed pearly jawfish .\nthe largest scientifically measured yellowhead jawfish was 10 . 0 cm / 3 . 9 in .\nseveral other species of jawfish changes colour during the period period , but this is not the case for the yellowhead jawfish .\nthe depth range for the yellowhead jawfish is 3 - 40 meters / 10 - 131 feet .\nlobel , phil s . 1982 . the yellowhead jawfish ; opistognathus aurifrons . fama 4 / 82 .\nnoyes , john c . 1974 . yellowhead jawfish . marine aquarist 5 ( 2 ) : 74 .\nthe yellowhead jawfish can be bred in captivity , with the yellowhead jawfish being the easiest jawfish to breed . however the survival rate of their fry in the home aquarium is fairly low . first off you will need to get a pair .\na yellowhead jawfish peeks out of its burrow in a home aquarium . ( image credit : robert harman )\nyoung , forrest a . 1982 . the yellowhead jawfish ; breeding the marine mouthbrooder in captivity . fama 4 / 82 .\nthe yellowhead jawfish is easy to feed , as they will accept prepared foods without hesitation . there is however a different issue to face when feeding\nyoung , forrest a . 1982 . the yellowhead jawfish : breeding in captivity . freshwater and marine aquarium magazine , 5 : 4 , april 1982 .\nthe yellowhead jawfish is generally a peaceful species that can be kept with other peaceful species of similar size in the community aquarium . aggressive species should be avoided and it is also safest to avoid other burrowing fishes that may bully the docile jawfish . as mentioned above , you can find large colonies of yellowhead jawfish in the wild and you can keep a colony if your aquarium is big enough . an entire colony of yellowhead jawfish hovering above their burrows is a fascinating sight . sticking to one species of jawfish is safer than trying to combine several species .\nyellowhead jawfish are found in the shallow seas of florida , the caribbean and elsewhere in the western central atlantic ocean , and are often seen in the aquarium trade .\nsince i first set eyes on a wild specimen while scuba diving in the florida keys , i\u2019ve been enamored with the yellowhead , a . k . a . pearly , jawfish (\nif you\u2019re going to maintain large saltwater aquarium tank then yellowhead jawfish is one good choice . it is one beautiful fish that burrows in the aquarium sand . you\u2019ll find this fish a good tank - mate with other non - aggressive saltwater fishes . yellowhead jawfish is usually found in sandy and rubble - strewn reef environments . they make a perfect pet for saltwater aquarium .\nthe yellowhead jawfish may nip at and even eat small crustaceans in the aquarium . the recommended water temperature when keeping yellowhead jawfish is 75 - 82\u00b0 f / 25 - 28\u00b0 c . the ph - value should be in the 8 . 1 - 8 . 4 range , the carbonate hardness at 8 - 12\u00b0 dkh , and the specific gravity at 1 . 020 - 1 . 023 .\nbeing a relatively small , burrowing species , the yellowhead jawfish does not require an especially large aquarium . a 30 - gallon tank will more than suffice provided enough open bottom real estate is available .\nthe yellowhead jawfish is not typically aggressive towards its own species , however territorial disputes can occur if the tank is too small . i would recommend at least 30 gallons per jawfish , with 3 - 4 jawfish being the limit on how many you should have . keeping additional jawfish is typically an attempt to form a mated pair , so more than a few should not be necessary .\ncolin , pl . 1971 . interspecific relationships of the yellowhead jawfish , opistognathus aurifrons ( pisces , opistognathidae ) . copeia 1971 ( 3 ) : 469 - 473 . doi : 10 . 2307 / 1442443\nany fishes that share your yellowhead jawfish\u2019s tank must be relatively small , peaceful , and sedate . large or highly energetic species constantly swooping overhead will keep your jawfish perpetually concealed in its burrow , so all you\u2019ll ever see is a pair of bulging eyes glancing nervously about .\nthe yellowhead jawfish is a small carnivore who creates a small cavern underneath the sand bed . they fortify their new burrow with larger pieces of rock , sand and miscellaneous debris , creating a solid tunnel for their home .\ncolin , patrick l . 1972 . daily activity patterns and effects of environmental conditions on the behavior of the yellowhead jawfish opistognathus aurifrons , with notes on its ecology . zoologica 57 ( 4 ) : 37 - 169 .\nthe yellowhead jawfish is a pushover when it comes to other fish . they are not suited to tanks with any aggressive tank mates and are easy targets as they create a burrow from which they cannot escape . be wary of any opportunistic feeders , such as emerald crabs who can easily corner the jawfish .\nbeing a bottom dweller and more of burrower and peaceful fish they\u2019re preferred for non - aggressive saltwater tank . so if you\u2019re keeping non - aggressive fishes in your saltwater tank consider getting atleast 2 - 3 yellowhead jawfish for your tank .\nthe deep sandbed required is the main topic here . the yellowhead jawfish requires no less than 5\u2033 of sand . this can create plenty of toxic air traps , meaning your filtration , flow and sand sifting become twice as essential as the normal tank .\nsize & color : yellowhead jawfish can grow upto size of 10cm and has lifespan of about 5 years or more . yellowhead jawfish has bright yellow head and light blue or white body . on the chin you can see the pair of black dots . ph & temperature : you need to maintain ph range of about 8 . 1 \u2013 8 . 4 . yellowheads jawfish requires temperature in the range 25\u00b0c \u2013 28\u00b0c that means they require normal room temperature . hardness in the range of 8 \u2013 12dkh should be maintained . you need atleast 30 gallons of tank and it should be at least 90cm in length .\nfood : yellowhead jawfish can accept itamin enriched flake foods , frozen and live foods . being a carnivore , it requires meaty food in the aquarium . you can occasionally give them brine shrimp , mysis shrimp , bloodworms and small pieces of clam flesh . food rich with vitamins is suggested for them so you can give them flake food or fresh food regularly other than live food . many times yellowhead jawfish don\u2019t leave it\u2019s home and that\u2019s why it is necessary to drop food that can sink to the bottom and they can catch it .\njawfish are named for their humorously large mouths , which serve several important functions .\nthe yellowhead jawfish is an egg - laying species where the male fish broods the offspring inside his mouth . this is called paternal mouth - brooding . the eggs will hatch inside his mouth and the offspring will not be released until they are large enough to be free swimming .\nthe yellow - headed jaw is hard to distinguish as male / female , but other species ( blue - spotted , the atlantic yellowhead opistognathus gilberti ) males show marked color changes at breeding times .\nthe yellowhead jawfish is a carnivore that in the wild feeds on detrius and plankton . in the home aquarium , it feeds on meaty foods including brine shrimp , mysis , and even flake an pellet once it realizes that those are food items . if your jawfish refuses to come out to eat , food can be placed near it ' s burrow using a pipette .\nif you wish to keep yellowhead jawfish , you need an aquarium of at least 30 gallons / 115 litres . the aquariums should ideally be at least 3 feet / 90 cm in length . a secure lid is strongly recommended since this fish is an agile jumper , especially if frightened .\nthe yellowhead jawfish is a wonderful looking fish with a bright yellow head and a white or light blue body . the yellowhead jawfish likes to burrow in the substrate and prefer a deeper sand bed with crushed coral and various grades of sand , at least 3 to 5 inches . they have the incredible ability to quickly dart back into their burrow tail first when spooked . you usually won ' t see them swimming around alot . they like to hang vertically above the burrow or in the burrow with only their yellow heads poking out . it ' s really neat to see a colony of them in a tank hanging vertically above their holes watching you .\nthe shy yellowhead jawfish doesn\u2019t like to venture far from its burrow , especially not when newly introduced to a new aquarium , and it is therefore advisable to place the food near the opening of the burrow . when it feels safer in the aquarium it will dare to swim further and further away from its home to find food .\nthe yellowhead jawfish should do well with other peaceful marine fish and you should be able to keep multiple yellow jawheads in the same tank , provided that there is enough territory for each . however , the different jawfish species may not co - exist peacefully in the same tank . they have been known to jump out of tanks when first introduced , so you ' ll need a good tight fitting hood with no possible escape points .\nopistognathus sp . u2 gold specs jawfish . mabul malaysia . a male with a mouthful of eggs .\nnoyes , john c . 1987 . the dusky jawfish , opistognathus whitehurstii . fama 4 / 87 .\nthe yellowhead jawfish\u2019s natural diet consists primarily of zooplankton that drifts close to its burrow . in captivity , it will accept a wide range of fare . items such as mysis shrimp , plankton , chopped clams or shrimp , and other small , meaty foods will be accepted with gusto . your specimen may even learn to accept dry pellets and flakes .\nthe yellowhead jawfish is primarily a carnivore and need meaty foods in their diet . at first , you may need to deposit the food near the burrow opening to entice them to eat . after they become acclimated they may become less shy and may come out of the burrow to eat . be warned , they may nip at and eat small crustaceans .\nbut jawfish are also mouthbrooders , meaning a parent fish will use their mouth to hold eggs until they hatch . yellowhead jawfish are known to be monogamous , with pairs digging adjacent burrows and sometimes sharing or switching burrows ( hess 1993 ) . males are the responsible brooder , and will hold a clutch of eggs in their mouth for 5 to 7 days ( hess 1993 ) \u2014 all the while looking like a chump with a mouth full of sticky marbles .\nwith their bug - like eyes and bucket - like mouths , jawfish win their way into most hobbyists ' hearts . their personality and hardiness are commendable . all too often , however , jawfish take the rap for destructive tendencies . in most cases the destructive habits are the fault of the hobbyist ignoring the needs of the jawfish .\njawfish have slender bodies that let them slink in and out of their burrows . ( image credit : unknown )\nthere are other species collected for the hobby from the atlantic like the mottled jawfish ( opistognathus maxillosus ) that are generally offered as\nmiscellaneous\njawfish . i have yet to find any that did not do well in captivity .\nthe yellowhead jawfish will gladly accept frozen foods and can be trained to eat pellets with relative ease . simply introduce pellets along with the frozen foods . they will pick on the food , as they understand you are feeding them . after this they will either ignore the food for now or eat it . continue doing this , scooping out any excess food to prevent an algae bloom .\nstraughan , robert p . l . 1965 . the pearly jawfish , a sea nymph . tfh 1 / 65 .\npublished on aug 27 , 2012 a most cooperative , friendly , entertaining and beautiful yellowhead jawfish at the blue heron bridge on august 25 , 2012 . the\nautofocus\non a digital rebel isn ' t yet ready for prime time , so using a macro lens for something like this leaves a bit to be desired . sorry about that . : - ) a new one from jan 2013 : urltoken\nwhen the fish is not hiding , you can see it hover vertically in close vicinity to its burrow , often straight above it . if anything frightens it , it will instantly dart back to its protective burrow tail first . this fish will not swim around much , because it wants to stay close to its burrow at all times . in the wild , you can find large colonies of yellowhead jawfish .\nmating , spawning , and the rearing of jawfish fry has been successful in home aquariums . a 4 ' tank is recommended for the pair in so much as natural territories of jawfish range from 1 - 3 ' . in spawning season ( spring through fall ) , sexual dichromatism is present in some species . the yellow head jawfish gains black spots on the ventral side of the head , while the blue spot jawfish ' s posterior becomes white . outside of spawning season there is no sexual dichromatism .\nwhen the jawfish is not comfortable with their environment , they will be unlikely to leave the burrow , sitting inside with their head poking out like an eel . comfortable jawfish will dart out of their burrow for feeding time , have their fill and then return to business as usual . uncomfortable jawfish , on the other hand , will need the food to be delivered to their home .\nkerstitch , alex . 1979 . the first record of the courtship behavior of the blue spot jawfish . fama 9 / 79 .\njawfish will only spawn in the middle of their life span . those too young or too old will not attempt to spawn , with the age of two being the average time where spawning no longer occurs . this is frighteningly early for those looking to keep a bloodline of jawfish running in their tank . likewise those with well established jawfish may have missed their chance to breed the fish .\nthe blue spot jawfish . one look and you can understand why some hobbyist don ' t balk at the $ 200 price tag .\nthe yellowhead jawfish inhabits the western central atlantic . its native range stretches from florida , usa down to the northern parts of south america . this is a reef associated species that live inside burrows made of crushed coral and sand . it is typically found in sandy and rubble - strewn reef environments . these fishes enter the burrow tail first and you can often see their head stick up from the whole while the rest of the body remains hidden .\nthe jawfish should be some of the first fishes introduced , especially if you are crowding them population wise ; and introduced all at once .\nif you\u2019ve heard that the yellowhead jawfish is a good jumper , you\u2019ve not been misinformed ! this species is a true acrobat ! once while giving a specimen a freshwater dip , i watched in disbelief as it \u201ctail walked\u201d like a dolphin across the water surface and flipped right out of the container . fortunately , i was right there on hand to pick it up and return it . needless to say , a good tank cover is a must if you plan to keep this species .\nthis is helpful when large predators try to flush them out of their burrows . nassau groupers ( ephinephelus striatus ) have been observed to fan their tails to cover jawfish burrows with sand , in hopes of forcing the jawfish to burrow back out and show their heads\u2026 and get eaten . but the jawfish seem to be able to play the waiting game , and can wait up to 10 hours before attempting to reopen their burrows ( colin 1971 ) .\nthe family opistognathidae , otherwise commonly known as jawfish , is comprised of three genera and nearly 40 described species with possibly another 30 un - described .\nthe bottom of the aquarium should be covered in a deep ( at least 3 in / 7 . 5 cm ) layer of sand since the yellowhead jawfish needs to dig out a burrow . ideally use various grades of sand ( not only soft sand ) and include crushed corals . also use large amounts of rock for the set up to mimic the natural environment of this species . various size rocks among the soft substrate can be necessary to help reinforce the burrows and rockpiles will be highly appreciated .\nyellowhead jawfish stkg . 12 / 27 / 07 dear crew , thank you for all the help you have i given me in the past . you don ' t know how much you have helped me . unfortunately a new problem arises . i have been interested in opistognathus aurifrons for some time now and have been planning to convert my 55 gallon freshwater tank into a saltwater tank for the soul purpose of keeping these jawfish . my question is if i kept nothing but jawfish and some liverock in this tank could i fit four ? < mmm , possibly . . . but all would be happier / better with just two or three . . . > the reason i would like four is because i would like to obtain a pair for breeding purposes . any suggestions ? thanks , tuscan thompson < take a bit of time reading accounts of jawfish spawning , aquaculture . . . maybe start at the breeders registry ( . com ) . bob fenner >\nto : henry c . schultz iii hi henry , my name is loong fat ho and i am an undergraduate marine biology student at roger williams university . i work as a project leader in rwu\u00e3\u00a2\u00e2\u0082\u00ac\u00e2\u0084\u00a2s marine ornamentals research laboratory . i am in the process of starting a new project involving the captive breeding yellowhead jawfish . there is very little information out there on jawfish and one of the articles published by fresh and marine aquarium magazine is very important for my project . this is the article : young , forrest a . 1982 . the yellowhead jawfish : breeding in captivity . freshwater and marine aquarium magazine , 5 : 4 , april 1982 . i ' ve read your article\nlets jaw about jawfish\nand ive seen that you ' ve cited this article . i have gone through our university ' s inter - library loan system and they could nopt deliver . i can ' t get a hold of fma magazine . is there any posibility that you might still acces to this specific article ? they referencing is extemly important to my research proposal , without it i can hardly substantiate any of my experiments . how can i get a hold of this article and how much will it cost ? i need it as soon as possible as it is crucial to my experiment . thank you , loong fat ho\nthe two most commonly kept jawfish are o . rosenblatti and o . aurifrons . i will concentrate my discussion on these two fish . from here on in the discussion , when i refer to\njawfish ,\ni will mean these two species . i will touch on a few additional species at the end .\njawfish are very difficult to sex , with the most reliable method being the shape of their head . those with more pointy heads and smaller bodies are typically female while the larger , flat large headed jawfish are much more likely to be male . additionally females will frequently have a more rounded abdomen than their male counterparts .\nopistognathus whitehursti ( longley 1927 ) , the dusky jawfish . to 14 cm . western atlantic : southern florida , usa and bahamas to northern south america . urltoken\ndusky jawfish , opistognathus whitehurstii are camouflaged beauties that deserve more attention . their brown mottled bodies are accentuated with glowing red to aqua eyes . to 3 . 2 inches .\nthe substrate must be at least four inches deep to accommodate this species\u2019 burrowing behavior , and it should include material of varying grain sizes as well as larger rubble pieces that your jawfish can use to stabilize its home . burrows constructed in substrate consisting entirely of fine - grain sand are likely to collapse ( on top of your jawfish ! ) .\ndefinitely , these are the species you want to keep it you ' re into studying overt intra - species behavior ; and it should be just one jawfish species per system .\nseveral jawfish are commonly referred to as\ndusky jawfish .\nthese would include opistognathus macrognathus , opistognathus maxillosus , opistognathus scops , and opistognathus whitehursti . unlike the jawfishes discussed above , these are not planktonic feeders . they will consume small fish or shrimp if they fit into their mouths . also , unlike their cousins , they lack attractive patterns or colors .\nchoosing the appropriate tank mates for your jawfish is a task not to be taken lightly . with the wrong mix , you ' ll either kill the fish or never see it .\nanother jawfish commonly referred to as the\ndusky\nis o . whitehursti . it is the smallest opistognathus at 3\nand thus requires a quieter tank than the others . like all other jawfish sold under the\ndusky\nname , it is not a planktonic feeder . shrimp should probably not be added to their aquarium unless they are intended as a meal .\nkeep a close eye when the jawfish is first building their home , as their digging can easily cause rock slides . once their burrow is complete this should no longer be an issue .\nwhile this may seem silly on its own , there is a lot of reasoning behind it . first off the jawfish loves to eat small crustaceans such as copepods and amphipods . these however are hard to keep in stock in the tank . to replicate them you can simply freeze a table shrimp , without its shell , and grind it with a grater . this will produce small shrimp pieces which are close enough to copepods for the jawfish to attack . using this method you will easily be able to get any picky jawfish back on track to a healthy diet .\nlately , it seems there has been a lot of confusion about jawfish in reef aquariums . with the advent of live sand substrates and today ' s popularity of oolitic or\nsouthdown\nsand , many hobbyists are left with a feeling that jawfish are no longer a great reef community fish . i completely disagree with this notion , and will explain why as this article progresses .\ndusky jawfish like this one rarely hover above their burrow . instead , they sit with just their head exposed , watching the world go by , and waiting for a meal to pass overhead .\nwhen appropriate conditions prevail , a den in the open substrate will be formed . this is obviously a good sign that your jawfish is acclimating well and that you have supplied a suitable habitat .\nbreeding : yellowfish is known to be one of the mouth brooder , it means that they keep eggs in their mouth till they hatch . once fry is ready to swim it is released from the mouth . variety of jawfish are known to change the color during the period of spawning . many aquarist report that jawfish can breed in captivity so you can breed them in your home aquarium .\nthe yellowhead jawfish feeds chiefly on zooplankton and detritus in the wild . since it is primarily a carnivore , it needs to be provided with meaty foods in the aquarium . you can for instance give it brine shrimp , mysis shrimp , bloodworms and small pieces of clam flesh . it can be trained to accept fresh , frozen and dried food in addition to live food . to make sure it gets everything they need , it is recommended to feed it high - quality flake food ( with vitamins ) as well . most specimens will start eating dry food eventually but it can take some time for the fish to realise that it is actually food .\nfirst the jawfish must be given adequate room . this means a large tank with a fair amount of room around their burrows . this is more easily obtained using a breeder than a standard fish tank .\nopistognathus rhomaleus jordan & gilbert 1882 , the giant jawfish . eastern central pacific ; baja to the islas revillagigedos . to eighteen inches in length . here at the birch aquarium , san diego , california .\nthis is the most common caribbean jawfish in the aquarium trade , however , it is not in great demand and only small numbers are collected ( w . smith - vaniz pers . comm . 2012 ) .\nbehavior : they go quite well with other peaceful saltwater aquarium fish . they don\u2019t usually fight with their own kind as well so you can keep multiple jawfish in the same tank as well if you\u2019ve lot of space in the tank . yellowhead jawfish is also known for jumping out of the tank so you need to keep the tank sealed just to ensure that they don\u2019t jump out . they enter the burrow tail first and you\u2019ll find their head while rest of the body remained in the sand . they\u2019re bottom dwellers so you can find them dwelling near sand or stone , marbles etc if they\u2019re not hiding . if they get frightened they immediately get to the burrow and often don\u2019t come out unless they need food . you can add various grades of sand and coral for them to burrow easily . also rocks , marbles and small stones can be placed inside the tank in order to let them have natural environment .\nas noted above , a jawfish prefers to have a 360\u00b0 view of its surroundings . given the confines of our small tanks , this is rarely possible . as a result , one of two types of dens is constructed :\nbaensch , h . a . , 1994 . jawfish . pp . 1158 - 1167 . baensch marine atlas , volume 1 . microcosm . shelburne . 1215 pp . burgess , w . e . , et al , 1991 . jawfish . pp . 507 - 509 . dr . burgess ' s mini - atlas of marine aquarium fishes mini - edition . t . f . h . publications . neptune city . 1023 pp . lieske , e . and myers , r . , 1996 . jawfish . pp . 113 & 167 . coral reef fishes . princeton university press . princeton . 400 pp . michael , s . w . , 1999 . jawfish . pp . 131 - 134 . marine fishes : 500 + essential - to - know aquarium species . microcosm . shelburne . 447 pp . michael , s . w . , 2000 . the whimsical jawfishes . aquarium fish monthly , 12 : 8 , august 2000\nsecond you will need to keep the jawfish well fed and stress free . when the male is stressed he will not call out to the female for mating . likewise a stressed female will ignore any mating rituals started by the male .\nalso called a spotfin , o . scops is imported from the east pacific , baja california , and the galapagos . overall , it is brown , with white spots throughout the body and a black spot encircled with white on the dorsal fin . these jawfish can get larger , up to 6\n. if you ' re looking for a jawfish to house with moderately more aggressive fish than that of the yellow head or blue spot , then this one is for you .\nassuming we are planning ahead , the ideal sandbed for a jawfish will be at least 10 - 12\ndeep . emphasis on\nideal .\nsometimes\nideal\nis not always realistic . in such cases when 12\nof sandbed is not realistic , i would consider 6\nas being the absolute minimum . this is a personal observation only . others have recommended a 3\nsandbed as a minimum ( fenner , wet web media ) . when you take into consideration that the minimum depth for a jawfish ' s den in the wild is 4\n, a 3\nsandbed seems extremely inadequate . you can use fine grain , or\nsouthdown\nsand , but be prepared for the jawfish to clear away a large area on his first night . when i say ,\nbe prepared ,\ni mean with appropriately sized rubble for the jawfish to use in building its den . this includes most any rubble larger than 10mm in width . don ' t forget to include plenty of broken coral branches , pieces of coral limestone , bivalve and snail shells . as time goes by the jawfish will construct a den for itself , slowly using the rubble you supply to build its new home . as the rubble gets used , keep replacing it with more . soon enough , you ' ll have your sandbed back in order , and the jawfish will have it ' s home constructed . a nice finishing touch on the den is usually a snail shell or its equivalent being used as a\nroof\nof sorts . the jawfish will pull this\nroof\nover the den entrance when it retires for the evening , and remove it when it wakes in the morning !\nfast or active swimming fish should also be avoided . all surgeonfish , angelfish , and butterflies fit into this category . additionally , certain wrasses will fall into this category . any larger fish that darts or becomes hyperactive during feeding may potentially cause problems . if you want to keep your jawfish with any fish that fit into this category , it is highly recommended that you never remove your cover from the aquarium . otherwise , in time , you will find your jawfish on the floor .\none common myth regarding jawfish care in our tanks , is that strong lighting should be avoided . since jawfishes are found throughout reef flat depths , most any aquarium lighting will be sufficient . it is improbable that strong lighting has any negative effects .\nopistognathus aurifrons ( jordan & thompson 1905 ) , the pearly or yellow head jawfish is one of the most popular aquarium fishes collected in the tropical west atlantic . it deserves it ' s status as the most collected and used jawfish species ; being a light blue anteriorly , grading to creamy white and yellow toward the rear half , and spending more time outside of it ' s tunnels than other jaws once established . to four inches in length . note gravel at wholesalers in this image .\nafter i settled down on the seafloor and stopped moving , the jawfish would slink out of its burrow and resuming its vertical pose , hovering just above its \u201cdoorstep\u201d , revealing the rest of its petite body , just shy of 4 inches ( 10 cm ) .\n[ \u2026 ] here is a little link i found a little while back when doing my tank stocking research . urltoken \u2026 - overview - 608 / 90 gallon tank fish : skunk clowns , starry blenny , 6 firefish , bullseye jawfish , blue gudgeon [ \u2026 ]\njawfish exhibit oblong body shapes , long continuous dorsal and anal fins and way - too big mouths (\nopisto\n= behind ,\ngnath\n= mouth , is in reference to their receding jaws ) and enormous , all - seeing eyes make them unmistakable .\nsince the jawfish consumes a great deal of zooplankton , feeding is easy . enriched brine , mysis , plankton , and formula i should be readily accepted . if newcomers are finicky eaters , it may take live brine or live blackworms to entice a feeding response . in passive tanks the jawfish will become an aggressive eater , actively roaming around the tank in search of its next tasty morsel . however , in a tank with active fish , especially those that are hyperactive at feeding time , spot feeding with a turkey baster is most likely going to be required .\npicky eaters : we have all been here . our fish should be eating . the tank is stress free , there are no predators and the fish is happy in their home . yet for some reason the fish completely avoids our foods . for jawfish there is an easy fix .\nnearly an identical twin to o . rosenblatti is opistognathus panamensis , or the panamanian jawfish . it differs from o . rosenblatti only by the blue spots and locale . in most cases , these spots are actually stripes , and , as the name suggests , it originates from panama .\nsmall gobies might be best kept in a different tank unless they establish a homestead and don ' t wander far from it . a jawfish does like to keep a perimeter around its den , and will usually defend this perimeter against small gobies . in my own observations , this occurred with my white - rayed shrimp goby , ( stonogobiops , sp . ) . occasionally , my shrimp goby would venture nearby the den of my jawfish . each time , the jawfish would delicately grab the goby in its mouth and remove it from his territory . usually , this was roughly 12\naway from the opening of the den . the first time i saw this , i was astounded , fearing the un - timely death of my rare goby ! when the goby swam away , i began to breath easier . this wasn ' t any easier to watch the second , third , or fourth time , either . eventually , it grew on me , and i found it comical . although not as often , yet often enough to note , the jawfish would grab mouthfuls of sand and spit them at the\nattacking\ngoby . again , no harm was done .\nopistognathus macrognathus poey 1863 , the banded jawfish . tropical west atlantic . to eight inches in length . here doing what the family does most all the time . lie in wait for a food item or territorial challenger to come / happen by . photo taken in st . lucia , caribbean .\nso what fish make good tank mates for jawfish ? cardinalfish , anthias , assessors , blennies , pipefish , and dragonettes will do well . most gobies and some wrasses will also do well . the general criteria would be a passive , slow moving fish that is nearly equal in size or smaller .\nbreeding jawfish dear mr . fenner , < john > recently , i noticed one of my jawfish carrying eggs in its mouth . i have read the faq ' s page discussing jawfish breeding but still have many questions . my questions are geared toward the raising of the yellowheaded jawfish ( opistognathus aurifrons ) from eggs to larva to adults . currently the pair is being housed in a 90 gallon display tank , with wet / dry filtration , powerheads , and a skimmer . i don ' t think the larva will survive the display tank but i ' ve been thinking of setting up a twenty gallon species tank , for the purpose of breeding . i would appreciate any thoughts and recommendations on equipment for this set - up . < a twenty might do . . . you should ( quickly ) read through frank hoff ' s works on food culture , start your gear going for same . . . see florida aquafarm ' s site re > also , i have no idea what the requirements for caring for and feeding the larva and on to the fry ( hoping they make it that far ) should be . i would appreciate any advice you can give me , and any references to web sites or books where this may be discussed . also , i was wondering if many people have had success raising jawfish to adulthood . thank you for your time , john < there are a few protocols . take a look on the\nbreeder ' s registry\n. . . bob fenner >\nwhen the jawfish is happy and free of predators and other stressors you can expect them to swim around the tank a little bit and spend the rest of their time peeking out of their burrow and watching other fish . their faces are highly expressive and they will often interact with any passing tank mates .\na major concern for the newly acquired jawfish is their tendency to jump from open top aquariums . it is absolutely imperative that the home of a newly acquired jawfish is covered ! some will use glass tops , but this is usually frowned upon in the hobby for various reasons . so some others , myself included , will use egg crate fitted over the top of the tank . egg crate can be found in the lighting department of most any home improvement store . since the holes in the egg crate are large enough for a jawfish to slip through , it is necessary for you to use some sort of screening or netting laid over the egg crate . i use window screening , though most any type of screen or net could work . if your tank has appropriately selected tankmates , this is only temporary . if you have a full canopy that covers the tank , then additional measures are not required . just make sure there are not even the smallest of holes available for it to slip out of . most enclosed canopies still have an open back . make sure this is covered . once the jawfish ' s burrow is constructed , the likelihood of jumping dramatically decreases , and with the appropriate tankmates , it is virtually non - existent .\nit\u2019s important to ensure that any foods you offer actually drift within reach of your jawfish , however , as this species prefers to dine fairly close to home . target feeding ( e . g . , with a turkey baster ) just \u201cupstream\u201d from a specimen may be necessary to ensure it\u2019s getting enough to eat .\nopistognathus sp . u1 . one of many as - yet undescribed jawfish species . dr . randall ( pers . corr . ) told me once that he had backlogged at least a dozen or so in this family . . . let ' s hope he gets around to them soon . n . sulawesi pix .\nnatural predators should be avoided at all costs . this includes groupers , lionfish , adult tilefish , and any large piscivore . immature tilefish , halichoeres gamoti , and h . bivittatus will all pester and steal from the jawfish ( michael , coral realm ) . all predatory starfish should be avoided , including the genus ophiarachna .\nso what does all this mean ? plan ahead . jawfish should be the first fish added to the home aquarium . it is harder to get them acclimated once other fish are established . this does not mean if your aquarium already has inhabitants that you cannot keep these fish , but it does make it tougher to acclimate them .\nif you do not keep a cover on your tank , just take the jawfish and throw it on the floor because thats where it will be tomorrow . i have had many of them and besides being easy to keep alive ( as long as they stay submerged ) they have all bought a ticket and flew out of the tank .\nsexing jawfishes 2 / 6 / 04 hi ( love you ' re site ! ) i was wondering if you new how to tell how to tell the difference of the yellowheaded jawfish . < the one that won ' t stop to ask for directions is the male . . . > i couldn ' t find it on your fish articles all it says is that it ' s hard to tell the with the yellowheaded jawfish . < true . its not reliable , and best done with a group to compare to . males have larger skulls , thicker lips and larger buccal cavities ( chin - pouch so - to - speak ) . rather like sexing fw cichlids . anthony >\nlately , jawfish have been getting a bad rap when it comes to the current trend of a deep , live sand bed . many hobbyists complain of these fish constantly moving sand , always building new borrows , digging to the bottom of the tank , clearing the sand away from \u00bd of a tank , or even eating the life of the sandbed . the latter is a completely unfounded belief , and simply not true . when added to a sandbed comprised of sand < 5mm in diameter , a jawfish will do exactly as hobbyists otherwise complain . the hobbyist is left in buyer ' s remorse because the fish wreaks havoc on the sandbed , largely due to the hobbyist not supplying the fish with adequate den building materials .\nthank - you , i was getting a bit concerned , you have put my mind at ease . < ah good > i am looking at rearing the young when i have mastered culturing rotifers and brine shrimp ! < i see > have you any advise on raising the young ? your help is appreciated . < just what is posted on wwm . cheers , bobf > re : yellow headed jawfish\nthe blue - spotted jawfish , opistognathus rosenblatti allen & robertson 1991 , of mexico ' s sea of cortez ( gulf of california in older , less pc texts ) is a real striker , with brilliant blue dots over it ' s overall dark brownish body . the males become bright white in the front half of their bodies during spawning and courtship . to six inches total length . this one in captivity .\nto properly house these fish you must have a large , clear space in the tank , preferably in the center , where the jawfish can create a cave . additionally they will need a sandbed substrate , along with small rocks , rubble or crushed coral . these will be the building bricks of the jawfishes new home . i highly recommend crushed coral , as it is the easiest to obtain without spending a whole lot .\nsecond to o . aurifrons in popularity only because of price , is the blue spot jawfish , opistognathus rosenblatti . in general , expect a $ 100 price tag or more for these beauties . the blue spot is found in the gulf of california , usually at the base of cliffs . they reach 4\nin length . the mating ritual of these jawfish begins when the posterior half of the fish becomes white . the male makes repeated dashes into its den . to the on - looking diver , only bright white flashes are seen . when not in spawning season , the background color of the fish is generally brown , and in some cases , a dirty yellow . blue spots adorn the entire length of the fish . these species are slightly more aggressive towards each other , and a larger aquarium is recommended if you ' re trying to keep a pair . in the wild , the pair can be up to 10 ' apart from each other .\nyour deep sandbed is ready , rockwork is stable and supported , and you have plenty of excess rubble on hand . once you have the fish , follow typical acclimation procedures . if you introduce the fish during the daylight photoperiod , you can expect the fish to dart for rockwork . it will usually remain hidden in the rocks for the first day , though on occasion the daring jawfish will begin its burrow construction . this is more common when it is the first fish into the tank .\nthe other type of den , what i like to call a\nsecurity den ,\noccurs when the jawfish digs under some rocks and usually remains tucked into his hole with only his head or half of its body showing . this results from any number of factors ranging from : inadequate sand and rubble composition , not enough open sandbed , or even inappropriate tank mates . when this type of den occurs it is best to re - evaluate the habitat you ' re supplying and make sure you are not overlooking something .\na source for brachionus rotundiformis for feeding pearly jawfish larvae . - 10 / 06 / 2009 hi , i have been searching for a source for brachionus rotundiformis , the s - type rotifer strain . all of the online vendors seem to only sell the l - type strain ( brachionus plicatilis ) . do you happen to know a place i could order the s / ss strain from ? < mmm , yes : urltoken > i am using them to feed opistognathus aurifrons ( pearly / yellowheaded jawfish ) larvae . also , would you suggest any particular enrichment to feed the rotifers ? < do ask the folks at seahorsesource re . . . i would do a bit more looking about in the scientific literature if this is an important project > i lost my first batch of larvae either to fact that l type rotifers are to big for them to eat , lack of nutritional value , or rotifer culture contamination / crash . thanks , landon < do keep good records . . . consider making your results , investigations more widely known . bob fenner >\nroughly 23 described species bear the opistognathus name . opisto comes from the greek word opisthen , meaning ' behind , ' and gnathus meaning jaw . these species are the ones that are most often of interest to the hobbyist due to size , availability , and coloration . opistognathids can be found in the western and central atlantic , indian , and both coasts of the pacific oceans . they sport a long , continuous dorsal fin of 9 - 12 spines , and a spine made of three weak - branched inner rays and two stout , un - branched rays on either end . all jawfish are mouth brooders , and all live in a den that they dig with their mouths .\nas noted earlier , opistognathus aurifrons , or the yellow head jawfish , is the most popular among hobbyists . they are , after all , attractive , hardy , and inexpensive . the attractiveness comes from the baby blue coloration throughout their body and their beautiful yellow head . reaching a maximum size of 4\n, they originate from the tip of florida and are found throughout the caribbean . in most cases they will not bother invertebrates , although smaller ornamental shrimp may be eaten . when spawning , the male will hover in the open water and spread his fins wide and arch his body . perhaps to show his readiness to the female , he opens his large mouth , and his head enlarges .\ncaptive care should mirror their natural environment as much as possible . this is not possible in most home aquariums due to size restraints , but with good planning , a close replica can be achieved . jawfish are always located on reef flats at depths ranging from 10 feet to 150 feet . they prefer to hover up to 5 ' above their den , always having a 360\u00b0 view of their surroundings . without an extensive view in all directions , they will hang lower than usual or may only extend their head outside their den . this reclusive behavior also occurs when actively swimming fish are present . their dens range from 4 - 9\ndeep , extend nearly 9\nwide , are 2 . 5\ntall , and are comprised of mostly broken coral branches , pieces of coral limestone , bivalve and snail shells , and assorted pieces of hard material ( michael , coral realm ) . they feed entirely from the water column with roughly 85 % of their diet being zooplankton ( randall , ' 67 ) .\nthe mating ritual is different in each species . however , the process usually begins in the dawn or dusk of a full or new moon , with the male gaining the attention of the female ( michael , coral realm ) . if accepted , the female will follow her male counterpart into his cave , or in some cases a third , neutral cave built for the mating ritual . the egg clutch is first laid by the female , then fertilized by the male . much like banggai cardinals ( pterapogon kauderni ) , male jawfish are mouth brooders . the eggs are easily seen bulging from the male ' s mouth . when opistognathus aurifrons was studied , the eggs were roughly . 8mm in size , with an estimated 300 - 500 eggs in the male ' s mouth . he incubates these eggs in his mouth for 7 - 9 days , after which time he releases the 4mm long fry . shortly after the male releases the fry , the ritual can be repeated . at 15 days from release and 1 . 5cm long , the fry take to the sand and begin digging their den . within one year they are full grown ( baensch , ' 94 ) ."]}
{"id": 549, "summary": [{"text": "the northern zigzag salamander ( plethodon dorsalis ) is a species of salamander in the family plethodontidae .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "it is endemic to the united states .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is one of 55 species in the genus plethodon .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "its natural habitats are temperate forests , rocky areas , and caves .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "northern zigzag salamander", "paragraphs": ["eastern red - backed salamander has a straight - edged dorsal stripe . southern zigzag salamander distinguished from identical northern zigzag salamander by range and genetic analysis .\noccurs in the eastern two - thirds of tn below 2500 ft . zigzag salamander fairly recently split into northern and southern zigzag ( p . ventralis ) salamander , which appear identical .\nthis species was once considered a subspecies of the northern zigzag salamander ( p . dorsalis ) . but the ozark zigzag salamander is both geographically isolated and genetically divergent from that species , so scientists elevated it to full species status .\na little different from my other videos , this is just some plain footage of northern zigzag salamanders .\nn . feeding behavior . spiders and beetles comprised most of the diet of a fall and winter sample of northern zigzag salamander adults ( holman , 1955 ) .\nk . interspecific associations / exclusions . in areas of syntopy , there is habitat separation between northern zigzag salamanders and eastern red - backed salamanders ( reinbold , 1979 ) . minton ( 2001 ) notes segregation between these species in indiana , with northern zigzag salamanders exhibiting a preference for moist rocky habitats . bausmann and whitaker ( 1987 ) note more earthworms ( annelida ) and fewer beetles ( insecta : coleoptera ) in the stomachs of northern zigzag salamanders when compared to eastern red - backed salamanders .\n4 . conservation . northern zigzag salamanders are listed as a species of special concern in north carolina , at the eastern edge of their distribution ( levell , 1997 ) . as with other members of the plethodon dorsalis complex , comprehensive life history and natural history studies of northern zigzag salamanders are necessary to obtain the knowledge required to make informed and effective management decisions .\nnorthern zigzag salamanders breed terrestrially during the fall and spring . females lay 3 - 9 eggs in underground cavities or in cave entrances during the spring and summer . females remain with the eggs until hatching in the fall .\ni . seasonal migrations . unknown . however , in arkansas , closely related ozark zigzag salamander adults migrate to sandstone cedar glades from the forest during the courting season . immature individuals are not found on the glade ( meshaka and trauth , 1995 ) .\nsimilar species : the dorsal stripe of the southern red - backed salamander ( p . serratus ) is uniform in width , wider , and has serrated ( toothed ) edges . its range overlaps but mostly occurs north and east of the ozark zigzag\u2019s range .\nl . age / size at reproductive maturity . mature female northern zigzag salamanders in indiana measure at least 35 . 6 mm svl ( sever , 1978b ; minton , 2001 ) . both sexes of closely related ozark zigzag salamanders are mature at 35 mm svl and reproduce for the first time in the winter of their third year of life ( meshaka and trauth , 1995 ) .\na small , dark - colored salamander ( 2 . 5 to 3 . 5 inches in length ) with a red or orangish wavy pattern , or \u201czigzag\u201d , extending from the neck down the back to the base of the tail where it straightens out . this species also occurs\n2 . historical versus current abundance . northern zigzag salamanders are seasonally abundant under moist leaf litter and flat rocks , often on wooded hillsides and ravines , along shale banks , and associated with sinkholes ( minton , 2001 ) . they have also been found in caves ( miller et al . , 1998 ) .\nin a brownish - gray color morph without the zigzag . small white flecks occur on back and sides giving a metallic appearance . belly is gray or black with orange or reddish speckles .\nlike other amphibians in our state , this salamander depends on humans to restrain from destroying , degrading , and fragmenting their native habitat . salamanders are both literally and figuratively voiceless . people who care about their survival must speak up for them when it comes to public policy .\nusually occurs in or near caves in the ozark highlands . it hides in or under rotten logs , under rocks , and under leaf litter in seepages near small streams and on steep hillsides . it seems to prefer cooler and damper habitats than the closely related southern red - backed salamander .\ncourtship and breeding may occur in autumn , winter , and early spring . from may through august , females deposit eggs deep underground , in places where accumulated small rocks create many small cavities or in other cool , damp niches . there are 2\u20135 eggs per clutch . females remain with the eggs until they hatch . like all other species of their genus , ozark zigzag salamanders go through complete development in the egg and hatch as tiny replicas of the adults , less than 1 inch long .\na small , dark , slender , woodland salamander with a narrow , somewhat lobed mid - dorsal stripe . the dorsal stripe is thin , usually has irregular or wavy edges , and may be yellow , yellow orange , orange , or red . dark brown or black pigment may invade the dorsal stripe , making it look lobed , or it may cover a large part of the stripe . the dorsal stripe is usually less than 1 / 3 the width of the body ; it is widest near the hind limbs . sometimes there is no dorsal stripe . the belly has white and black mottling . the sides are dark or brownish gray with some orange or red , and small white flecks . there are 17\u201319 costal grooves ( vertical grooves on the sides of the body ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfrost , d . r . 2014 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 ( 27 january 2014 ) . new york , usa . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 january 2014 ) .\nplethodon ventralis and p . angusticlavius were formerly included in p . dorsalis ( see highton 1997 ) .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution and presumed large population .\nthis species can be found in the central united states from illinois and indiana southward through western and central kentucky to central tennessee ( conant and collins 1991 , highton 1997 ) .\nit can be found in the vicinity of moist rocky crevices in ravines , canyons , rubble , seepages , caves , and wooded slopes . under rocks , logs , or leaves during day . it is a terrestrial breeder with direct development .\nthere are no known threats to the global population . some subpopulations are locally impacted by deforestation .\nit occurs in many protected areas . habitat protection of locally impacted subpopulations may be required .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nthe following account is modified from amphibian declines : the conservation status of united states species , edited by michael lannoo ( \u00a92005 by the regents of the university of california ) , used with permission of university of california press . the book is available from uc press .\nii . breeding habitat . same as adult habitat . in indiana , spermatozoa are present in vasa deferentia in october and april ( sever , 1978a ) , and sperm are present in females in november and march ( minton , 2001 ) and in april ( sever , 1978b ) . egg laying in indiana occurs in the spring , collections indicate from april\u2013june ( sever , 1978b ) .\ni . egg deposition sites . clutches are deposited within rock crevices , subterranean cavities , and in caves ( mohr , 1952 ; smith , 1961 ; mount , 1975 ; miller et al . , 1998 ) . logs appear to be avoided as nesting sites . eggs rest on the substrate and are attended by the female ( mohr , 1952 ; miller et al . , 1998 ) .\nii . clutch size . clutches of closely related ozark salamanders in arkansas average 5 . 3 eggs ( range = 3\u20139 ) and are produced annually ( meshaka and trauth , 1995 ) .\nii . parental care . females attend the nest during the summer , at which time they are absent from foraging sites ( wilkinson et al . , 1993 ; meshaka and trauth , 1995 ) . hatchlings appear in the fall ( wilkinson et al . , 1993 ; meshaka and trauth , 1995 ) .\nh . aestivation / avoiding dessication . aestivation is unknown , however under dessicating conditions animals likely move under cover objects or into burrows .\no . predators . centipedes in the genus scolopendra sp . are likely predators of the closely related ozark salamanders ( personal observations ) .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmoist habitat of rocky hillsides , forested slopes , leaf litter , and entrances to caves .\nduring the warmer months of the summer , these salamanders retreat to the mouths of caves and to underground burrows where it is cooler and moist .\nconant , r . and collins , j . 1998 . peterson field guides : reptiles and amphibians ( eastern / central north america ) . houghton mifflin company , new york . 616pp .\ndodd , jr . , c . k . 2004 . the amphibians of great smoky mountains national park . university of tennessee press , knoxville tn .\njensen , j . b . , camp c . d . , gibbons , w . , and elliot , m . j . 2008 . amphibians and reptiles of georgia , university of georgia press , athens , ga . 575pp .\ncookie policy : we use cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience on our website . if you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with these terms .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhome to 138 species of salamanders , frogs , turtles , lizards , and snakes .\nall information found on this site falls under the inhs ' s internet license agreement .\nreddish or yellowish back stripe broadly zig - zagged , or narrow and straight edged ; orange marks around bases of front legs .\nangusticlavius , grobman , 1944 ( ann . new york acad . sci . , 45 : 302 ) , which was later elevated to full species .\nmoist , rocky forests . seasonally abundant in woodlands around rocky springs and cave entrances .\nnatural history : in late autumn and spring , during rainy periods , it may be abundant under rocks on forested hillsides . during mid - summer , individuals move deeper into soil , sometimes encountering moist cave passages where they accumulate in large numbers . females have been observed brooding eggs in rock crevices in a southern illinois cave june through september .\ndistribution notes : only two specimens are known from vermilion co . , il , both in the collection of the university of illinois museum of natural history , and both collected by alvin cahn in 1926 from\nstrip mines near danville\n. repeated attempts to find more specimens in this area have failed . however , the species is known from parke co . , indiana , two counties due east .\ncope , e . d . 1889 . batrachia of north america . bulletin of the united states national museum 34 : 5 - 525 ( p . 138 ) .\ntype specimen : syntypes are usnm 3776a - d ; usnm 3776a was designated the lectotype by highton ( 1962 . bull . florida state mus . , biol . sci . , 6 : 277 )\n* nomen nudum is latin for\nnaked name\n. this means that the name was published without an acceptable description .\n\u00a9 2018 university of illinois board of trustees . all rights reserved . for permissions information , contact the illinois natural history survey .\n\u00a9 2018 ( natural history on the net ) . all rights reserved . reproduction in whole or in part without permission is prohibited .\nfind local mdc conservation agents , consultants , education specialists , and regional offices .\nvery small arthropods , including insects , spiders , and other joint - legged invertebrates .\noccurs in the south and southwestern portion of the missouri ozarks , mainly southwestern counties along the arkansas border .\nthese and other lungless salamanders are integral parts of the caves and forested streams , springs , and seeps they occupy . as predators , they help control the numbers of the insects and other creatures they eat . as prey , the adults , eggs , and young help feed larger predators .\nmissouri\u2019s herptiles comprise 43 amphibians and 75 reptiles . amphibians , including salamanders , toads , and frogs , are vertebrate animals that spend at least part of their life cycle in water . they usually have moist skin , lack scales or claws , and are ectothermal ( cold - blooded ) , so they do not produce their own body heat the way birds and mammals do . reptiles , including turtles , lizards , and snakes , are also vertebrates , and most are ectothermal , but unlike amphibians , reptiles have dry skin with scales , the ones with legs have claws , and they do not have to live part of their lives in water .\nwe protect and manage the fish , forest , and wildlife of the state . we facilitate and provide opportunity for all citizens to use , enjoy , and learn about these resources ."]}
{"id": 555, "summary": [{"text": "coimbra filho 's titi ( callicebus coimbrai ) or just coimbra 's titi is a species of titi , a type of new world monkey , endemic to forests in the brazilian states of bahia and sergipe .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it was first discovered by shuji kobayashi .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is considered one of the most endangered of all neotropical primates .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is named after adelmar f. coimbra-filho , founder and former director of the rio de janeiro primate centre , in honor of his work in the field of brazilian primatology and biology . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "coimbra filho ' s titi", "paragraphs": ["the coimbra filho\u2019s titi monkey or just coimbra\u2019s titi monkey ( callicebus coimbrai ) , is a species of titi monkey endemic to brazil . the coimbra filho\u2019s titi monkey is endemic to deciduous woodlands in the brazilian state of sergipe . conservation status \u2013 critically endangered .\na primate at risk in northeast brazil : local extinctions of coimbra filho ' s titi ( callicebus coimbrai ) .\na primate at risk in northeast brazil : local extinctions of coimbra filho ' s titi ( callicebus coimbrai ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nglenn , c . r . 2006 .\nearth ' s endangered creatures - coimbra - filho ' s titi monkey facts\n( online ) . accessed\nfacts summary : the coimbra - filho ' s titi monkey ( callicebus coimbrai ) is a species of concern belonging in the species group\nmammals\nand found in the following area ( s ) : brazil .\ncheracebus medemi ( hershkovitz , 1963 ) . black - handed titi , medem\u2019s titi\n. in : coimbra - filho a , mittermeier ra ( eds ) ecology and behavior of neotropical primates , vol 1 . academia brasileira de ci\u00eancias , rio de janeiro , pp 241\u2013276\nsouza - alves , j . p . ( 2013 ) ecology and life - history of coimbra - filho ' s titi monkeys ( callicebus coimbrai ) in the brazilian atlantic forest . phd thesis , universidade federal da para\u00edba , jo\u00e3o pessoa , para\u00edba , brazil . ( pdf )\nthe stephen nash\u2019s titi monkey or nash\u2019s titi monkey ( callicebus stephennashi ) , is a species of titi , a type of new world monkey , endemic to brazil . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nplecturocebus vieirai ( gualda - barros , nascimento & amaral , 2012 ) . vieira\u2019s titi\n. in : coimbra - filho af , mittermeier ra , editors . ecology and behavior of neotropical primates , vol . 1 . rio de janeiro , brazil : academia brasileira de ci\u00eancias ; 1981 . p . 241\u201376 .\nmittermeier ra , coimbra - filho af , kierulff mcm , rylands ab , mendes sl , pissinatti a , almeida lm ( 2007 ) monkeys of the atlantic forest of eastern brazil : pocket identification guide . conservation international , arlington\ncheracebus torquatus ( hoffmannsegg , 1807 ) . collared titi , white - collared titi\nthe hoffmann\u2019s titi monkey ( callicebus hoffmannsi ) , is a species of titi monkey endemic to brazil . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nplecturocebus miltoni ( dalponte , silva & silva - j\u00fanior , 2014 ) . milton ' s titi\nthe hershkovitz\u2019s titi monkey ( callicebus dubius ) , is a species of titi , a type of new world monkey , from south america . hershkovitz\u2019s titi monkey is found in bolivia , brazil and peru . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nthe barbara brown\u2019s titi monkey ( callicebus barbarabrownae ) , is a species of titi monkey endemic to brazil . conservation status \u2013 critically endangered .\n( spix , 1823 ) . msc . thesis , pontif\u00edcia universidade cat\u00f3lica de minas gerais , puc minas , brasil . souza - alves , j . p . ( 2010 ) ecologia alimentar de um grupo de guig\u00f3 - de - coimbra - filho (\nthe atlantic titi or masked titi , callicebus personatus , is a species of titi , a type of new world monkey , endemic to brazil .\nthe prince bernhard\u2019s titi monkey ( callicebus bernhardi ) is a species of titi monkey endemic to brazil . the prince bernhard\u2019s titi monkey was discovered in 2002 by marc van roosmalen and russell mittermeier and named after prince bernard of the netherlands . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nthe white - eared titi ' s fluffy tail is longer than the length of its head and body together .\nkinzey , w . g . ( 1981 ) .\nthe titi monkeys , genus callicebus : i . description of the species\n. in coimbra - filho , a . f . ; mittermeier , r . a . ecology and behavior of neotropical primates . volume 1 . rio de janeiro : academia brasileira de ci\u00eancias . pp . 241\u2013276 .\nthe white - eared titi monkey ( callicebus donacophilus ) , also known as the bolivian titi monkey or bolivian grey titi monkey , is a species of titi monkey from south america . the white - eared titi monkey is found in bolivia , brazil and paraguay . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nplecturocebus bernhardi ( m . g . m . van roosmalen , t . van roosmalen & mittermeier , 2002 ) . prince bernhard\u2019s titi\nplecturocebus stephennashi ( m . g . m . van roosmalen , t . van roosmalen & mittermeier , 2002 ) . stephen nash\u2019s titi\nthe ornate titi monkey ( callicebus ornatus ) , is a species of titi monkey endemic to colombia . conservation status \u2013 vulnerable .\nthe brown titi monkey ( callicebus brunneus ) , is a species of titi monkey from south america . the brown titi monkey is found in brazil and peru . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nthe atlantic titi monkey ( callicebus personatus ) , is a species of titi monkey endemic to brazil . conservation status \u2013 vulnerable .\nthe collared titi monkey ( callicebus torquatus ) , is a species of titi monkey from south america . the collared titi monkey if found in brazil and colombia . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nthe red - bellied titi or dusky titi , callicebus moloch , is a species of titi , a type of new world monkey , endemic to brazil . it lives in forests and thickets .\n163 : 161 - 163 . heiduck , s . ( 2013 ) costs of foraging in the southern bahian masked titi monkey ( callicebus melanochir ) .\nthe ollala brothers titi monkey ( callicebus olallae ) , is a species of titi monkey endemic to bolivia . conservation status \u2013 vulnerable .\nthe rio beni titi monkey ( callicebus modestus ) , is a species of titi monkey endemic to bolivia . conservation status \u2013 vulnerable .\nthe rio mayo titi monkey ( callicebus oenanthe ) , is a species of titi monkey endemic to peru . conservation status \u2013 vulnerable .\nthe black titi monkey ( callicebus lugens ) , is a species of titi monkey from south america . the black titi monkey is found in brazil , colombia and venezuela . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nthe lucifer titi monkey ( callicebus lucifer ) , is a species of titi monkey from south america . the lucifer titi monkey is found in brazil , colombia and peru . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nthe ashy black titi monkey ( callicebus cinerascens ) , is a species of titi monkey endemic to brazil . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nthe baptista lake titi monkey ( callicebus baptista ) , is a species of titi monkey endemic to brazil . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nthe rio purus titi monkey ( callicebus purinus ) , is a species of titi monkey endemic to brazil . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nobservation to monitor the monkey ' s population , is less effective . instead , other methods of calculating the titi monkey ' s density in certain areas have been taken , such as research into the species - specific calls endemic to a certain area .\nthe chestnut - bellied titi monkey ( callicebus caligatus ) , is a species of titi monkey endemic to brazil . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nthe red - bellied titi monkey ( callicebus moloch ) , is a species of titi monkey endemic to brazil . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nthe black - fronted titi monkey ( callicebus nigrifrons ) , is a species of titi monkey endemic to brazil . conservation status \u2013 near threatened .\nthe coastal black - handed titi monkey ( callicebus melanochir ) , is a species of titi monkey endemic to brazil . conservation status \u2013 vulnerable .\nthe red - headed titi monkey ( callicebus regulus ) , is a species of titi monkey endemic to brazil . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nthe white - tailed titi monkey ( callicebus discolor ) , is a species of titi monkey , from south america . the white - tailed titi monkey is found in ecuador and peru . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nthe white - coated titi monkey ( callicebus pallescens ) , is a species of titi monkey from south america . the white - coated titi monkey is found in bolivia , brazil and paraguay . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nthe colombian black - handed titi monkey ( callicebus medemi ) , is a species of titi monkey endemic to colombia . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\njones c , anderson s . callicebus moloch . mamm species . 1978 ; 112 : 1\u20135 .\nragen , b . j . , s . p . mendoza , w . a . mason , and k . l . bales ( 2012 ) differences in titi monkey (\nfor many years , researchers believed that geophagy might be have been used by the masked titi ' s as a sodium supplement as their high foliage diets were quite low in sodium .\ncheracebus lugens ( humboldt , 1811 ) . widow monkey , white - chested titi\ncallicebus personatus ( \u00e9 . geoffroy saint - hilaire , 1812 ) . masked titi\nplecturocebus urubambensis ( vermeer & tello - alvorado , 2015 ) . urubamba brown titi\nbicca - marques jc , heymann ew . ecology and behavior of titi monkeys (\nveiga , l . m . , sousa , m . c . , jerusalinsky , l . , ferrari , s . f . , de oliveira , m . m . , santos , s . s . d . , valente , m . c . m . & printes , r . c .\nveiga , l . m . , sousa , m . c . , jerusalinsky , l . , ferrari , s . f . , de oliveira , m . m . , santos , s . s . d . , valente , m . c . m . & printes , r . c . 2008 .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\nmasked titis occasionally feed with geoffroy\u2019s tufted - eared marmosets ( callithrix geoffroyi ) ( rowe , 1996 ) .\n] morphological species groups . below , we review changes to the taxonomy of the titis since hershkovitz\u2019s reviews [\n, the canines of titi monkeys are relatively short and their molars are fairly simple .\nbolivian titi monkeys may play a part in drawing tourists to forested areas of bolivia .\nvermeer j , tello - alvarado jc . the distribution and taxonomy of titi monkeys (\nthe coppery titi monkey ( callicebus cupreus ) , is a species of titi , a type of new world monkey , from south america . the coppery titi monkey is found in bolivia , brazil and colombia , ecuador and peru . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nvon spix jb . simiarum et vespertiliarum brasiliensis species novae . f . s . h\u00fcbschmann : munich ; 1823 .\n2005 . belo horizonte : puc minas , p . 255 - 268 . sousa , m . c . , s . s . sampaio and m . c . m . valente ( 2008 ) distribui\u00e7\u00e3o e varia\u00e7\u00e3o na pelagem de\nbolivian titi monkeys inhabit riparian zones and gallery forests near swampy grasslands and other open areas .\nbecause they are frugivores , bolivian titi monkeys may play a small role in seed dispersal .\nthe titi monkey is a fairly inconspicuous creature , making observation and research difficult to obtain .\n] listed 22\u201334 titi monkeys , of which 22 are considered valid taxa today . hershkovitz [\ntiti monkeys , the donacophilus group of plecturocebus . illustrations by stephen d . nash \u00a9conservation international\ntiti monkeys , the moloch group of plecturocebus . illustrations by stephen d . nash \u00a9conservation international\nheiduck , s . ( 1997 ) . food choice in masked titi monkeys ( callicebus personatus melanochir ) : selectivity or opportunism ? the international journal of primatology , 18 ( 4 ) , 487 - 502 .\nfernandez - duque , e . , w . a . mason , and s . p . mendoza ( 1997 ) effects of duration of separation on responses to mates and strangers in the monogamous titi monkey (\nferrari , s . , s . iwanga , m . messias , e . ramos , p . ramos , e . da cruz neto , p . coutinho . 2000 . titi monkeys ( callicebus spp . , atelidae : platyrrhini ) in the brazilian state of rond\u00f4nia . primates , 41 ( 2 ) : 229 - 234 .\nmart\u00ednez , j . and r . b . wallace ( 2011 ) first observations of terrestrial travel for olalla ' s titi monkey ( callicebus olallae ) . neotropical primates 18 : 49 - 52 . ( pdf )\nin captivity , the white - eared titi has been known to live for over 25 years .\nand regarded it as the most primitive titi monkey species . because of this , he created the\ndalponte jc , silva fe , silva - j\u00fanior js . new species of titi monkey , genus\nheiduck , s . ( 2002 ) . the use of disturbed and undisturbed forest by masked titi monkeys callicebus personatus melanochir is proportional to food availability . oryx , the international journal of conservation , 36 , 133 - 139 .\ntiti monkeys sleep on branches at least 15 metres ( 49 ft ) above the ground . in the same manner as resting during the day , titi monkeys huddle together and twine tails to sleep .\neiga , l . m . , a . a . barnett , s . f . ferrari , and m . a .\nplease visit the iucn and all the world ' s primates sites for the most - recent version of species - specific assessments .\nplecturocebus discolor ( i . geoffroy saint - hilaire & deville , 1848 ) . red - crowned titi\ncallicebus personatus barbarabrownae hershkovitz , p . 1990 . fieldiana , zool . , n . s . , ( 55 ) : 77 .\nthe white - eared titi is found in tropical humid forests , preferring drier regions to more humid ones .\nvan roosmalen mgm , van roosmalen t , mittermeier ra . a taxonomic review of the titi monkeys , genus\nmyers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2006 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed february 16 , 2011 at urltoken . urltoken\nmason , w . a . ; mendoza , s . p . ( 1993 ) .\ncontrasting life modes in cebidae : titi monkeys ( callicebus ) and squirrel monkeys ( saimiri )\n. aazpa regional conference proceedings . pp . 715\u2013722 .\ncallicebus coimbrai kobayashi , s . & langguth , a . 1999 . revta . bras . zool . 16 ( 2 ) : 534 .\nthe different titi monkey species vary substantially in size and colouring but resemble each other in most other physical ways .\ndiurnal and arboreal , titi monkeys prefer dense forests near water . titi monkeys easily jump from branch to branch , earning them their german name , \u2018jumping monkey\u2019 . they sleep at night , but also take a midday nap .\nwallace rb , g\u00f3mez h , felton a , felton am . on a new species of titi monkey , genus\nsouza - alves , j . p . and s . f . ferrari ( 2010 ) responses of wild titi monkeys , callicebus coimbrai ( primates : platyrrhini : pitheciidae ) , to the habituation process . zoologia 27 : 861 - 866 . ( pdf )\narroyo - rodr\u00edguez v , mandujano s ( 2009 ) conceptualization and measurement of habitat fragmentation from the primates\u2019 perspective . int j primatol 30 : 497\u2013514\nferrari , s . ; iwanga , s . ; messias , m . ; ramos , e . ; ramos , p . ; da cruz neto , e . ; coutinho , p . ( 2000 ) .\ntiti monkeys ( callicebus spp . , atelidae : platyrrhini ) in the brazilian state of rond\u00f4nia\n. primates 41 ( 2 ) : 229\u2013234 . doi : 10 . 1007 / bf02557805 .\n. however , some of these larger species often chase titi monkeys away from fruit trees and other sources of food . because titi monkeys prefer to remain isolated within their social group , they attempt to avoid contact with other primates .\nvaleggia , c . , s . mendoza , e . fernandez - duque , w . mason , b . lasley . 1999 . reproductive biology of female titi monkeys ( callicebus moloch ) in captivity . american journal of primatology , 47 : 183 - 195 .\n49 : 146 - 148 . c\u00e4sar , c . , e . s . franco , g . c . n . soares and r . j . young ( 2008 ) observed case of maternal infanticide in a wild group of black - fronted titi monkeys ,\ntiti monkeys are known to be monogamous and live in small family groups . in the first long - term study of\nplecturocebus aureipalatii ( wallace , g\u00f3mez , a . m . felton & a . felton , 2006 ) . madidi titi\n: a new and critically endangered titi monkey from southern caquet\u00e1 . colombia primate conserv . 2010 ; 25 : 1\u20139 .\n. this view of titi monkey diversity prevailed until hershkovitz\u2019s revisions in 1988 and 1990 . his analysis of around 1 , 200 museum specimens resulted in the recognition of 25 taxa across five polytypic and eight monotypic species , which he arranged in four clusters that he labelled the\n; the male ' s head and body length averages 311 millimetres ( 12 . 2 in ) while females average 340 millimetres ( 13 in ) .\ntiti monkeys vocalise synchronously early in the morning , probably to announce their presence in their territory . their grooming and communication is important for the co - operation of the group . titi monkeys can typically be seen in pairs sitting or sleeping .\nparthasarathy n , muthuramkumar s , reddy ms ( 2004 ) patterns of liana diversity in tropical evergreen forests of peninsular india . forest ecol manag 190 : 15\u201331\n( hoffmannsegg , 1807 ) , as the type species . as pointed out by groves himself ( in litt . ) , goodman et al . \u2019s [\ndepartment of biology , universidade federal de sergipe , av . marechal rondon s / n\u2013rosa elze 49 , s\u00e3o crist\u00f3v\u00e3o - se , brazil . ferrari @ urltoken\nsouza - alves , j . p . , i . p . fontes , and s . f . ferrari ( 2011 ) use of sleeping sites by a titi group ( callicebus coimbrai ) in the brazilian atlantic forest . primates 52 : 155 - 161 . ( pdf )\nkobayashi and langguth 1999 : new localities for an endangered titi monkey in eastern sergipe , brazil . check list 9 : 696\u2013699\nforest corridors to connect fragmented forests have been proposed as an effective means to help ensure the survival of the titi monkey .\nveiga , l . m . , ferrari , s . f . , kierulff , c . m . , de oliveira , m . m . & mendes , s . l . ( 2008 ) . callicebus personatus . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . retrieved 3 january 2009 .\nfarmland may surround and isolate areas of titi habitat which occasionally has positive benefits to the monkey . farmers may prevent hunters on the land , thereby inadvertently protecting the species . it also appears that the titi monkey can cross open ground between forest fragments ,\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nlawler , r . r . ; ford , s . m . ; wright , p . c . ; easley , s . p . ( 2006 ) .\nthe locomotor behavior of callicebus brunneus and callicebus torquatus\n. folia primatologica 77 ( 3 ) : 228\u2013239 . doi : 10 . 1159 / 000091232 .\nmoynihan , m . 1966 . communication in the titi monkey , callicebus . journal of zoology , 150 : 77 - 127 .\n, from all other titi monkeys . he described the diagnostic characters as follows : \u201caverage size larger than that of other species except\nheymann ew , encarnaci\u00f3n cf , soini p . on the diagnostic characters and geographic distribution of the \u201cyellow - handed\u201d titi monkey ,\nreeder , d . m . , s . p . mendoza and w . a . mason ( 1998 ) social behavior and sexual motivation across the reproductive cycle in titi monkeys ( callicebus moloch ) : concealment or communication of ovulation ? american jour nal of primatology 45 : 202 - 203 .\nkobayashi & langguth , 1999 ) : perspectivas para a conserva\u00e7\u00e3o da esp\u00e9cie na paisagem fragmentada do sul de sergipe , master\u2019s thesis . universidade federal de sergipe , s\u00e3o crist\u00f3v\u00e3o\n] . there is , as such , a lack of clarity regarding its diagnostic characteristics , its distribution , and even its validity as a taxon . humboldt\u2019s anecdote about\nfood availability may influence activity times ; if there is an abundance of food in the warmer months when plants are fruiting titi monkeys may start earlier , or if there is a lack of food , titi monkeys may remain at the feeding tree into the evening .\n47 : 235 - 240 . mercado , n . and r . b . wallace ( 2010 ) distribuci\u00f3n de primates en bolivia y \u00e1reas prioritarias para su conservaci\u00f3n . tropical conservation science 3 : 200 - 217 . ( pdf ) mon\u00e7\u00e2o , g . r . , v . selhorst and j . a . r soares - filho ( 2008 ) expans\u00e3o da dstribui\u00e7\u00e3o geogr\u00e1fica de\nalvarez , s . j . and e . w . heymann ( 2012 ) a preliminary study on the influence of physical fruit traits on fruit handling and seed fate by white - handed titi monkeys ( callicebus lugens ) . american journal of physical anthropology 147 : 482 - 488 . ( pdf )\nand few studies have focused on the white - eared titi . it is diurnal , commencing activity around sunrise and continuing until sunset .\nvaleggia , c . r . , s . p . menoza , e . fernandez - duque , w . a . mason and b . lasley ( 1999 ) reproductive biology of female titi monkeys ( callicebus moloch ) in captivity . american journal of primatology 47 : 183 - 195 . ( pdf )\nhil\u00e1rio rr 1 , 2 , 3 , jerusalinsky l 4 , 5 , santos s 6 , beltr\u00e3o - mendes r 4 , 7 , ferrari sf 7 , 8 .\nfelton a , felton am , wallace rb , g\u00f3mez h . identification , behavioral observations , and notes on the distribution of the titi monkeys\nguindon s , gascuel o . a simple , fast , and accurate algorithm to estimate large phylogenies by maximum likelihood . syst biol . 2003 ; 52 ( 5 ) : 696\u2013704 .\nchen , e . c . , s . yagi , k . r . kelly , s . p . mendoza , n . maniger , a . rosenthal , a . spinner , k . l . bales , d . p . schnurr , n . w . lerche , and c . y . chiu ( 2011 ) cross - species transmission of a novel adenovirus associated with a fulminant pneumonia outbreak in a titi monkey colony . plos pathogens 7 : e1002155 . dacier , a . , a . g . de luna , e . fernandez - duque and a . di fiore ( 2011 ) . estimating population density of amazonian titi monkeys (\nspecies included in this study are represented by multiple wild - caught specimens of known provenance and taxonomic identification . taking into account the results from our phylogenetic analyses , as well as morphological and biogeographic evidence , we suggest a revised taxonomy that recognises three genera of titi monkey in the subfamily callicebinae that are largely coherent with kobayashi\u2019s [\nspecies and , consequently , the evolutionary history of titi monkeys remains poorly studied . the current taxonomy has yet to be tested using molecular evidence .\nmarques , e . l . n . , r . beltr\u00e3o - mendes , and s . f . ferrari ( 2013 ) primates , pitheciidae , callicebus barbarabrownae hershkovitz , 1990 : new localities for the critically endangered titi monkey in the s\u00e3o francisco basin , state of sergipe , brazil . check list 9 : 113 - 115 .\nragen , b . j . , n . maninger , s . p . mendoza , m . r . jarcho , and k . l . bales ( 2013 ) presence of a pair - mate regulates the behavioral and physiological effects of opioid manipulation in the monogamous titi monkey ( callicebus cupreus ) . psychoneuroendocrinology 38 : 2448 - 2461 .\nspix , 1823 na rppn do santu\u00e1rio do cara\u00e7a . in : w . lobato , c . v . s . sabino and j . f . de abreu . ( orgs . ) .\npelzeln a von . brasilische s\u00e4ugethiere : resultate von johann natterer\u2019s reisen in den jahren 1817 bis 1835 . verhandlungen 33 . vienna , austria : kaiserlich - k\u00f6niglichen zoologisch - botanischen gesellschaft ; 1883 .\nmendoza , s . , d . reeder , w . mason . 2002 . nature of proximate mechanisms underlying primate social systems : simplicity and redundancy . evolutionary anthropology , 11 : 112 - 116 .\nmendoza , s . , w . mason . 1986 . contrasting responses to intruders and to involuntary separation by monogamous and polygynous new world monkeys . physiology and behavior , 38 : 795 - 801 .\nalthough populations are declining , bolivian titi monkeys are listed by the iucn as a species of least concern . they have a relatively wide range and a slowly declining population . bolivian titi monkeys have proven fairly adaptable , and they have a low number of natural predators . their main threat is attributed to habitat loss due to agriculture . bolivian titi monkeys are one of three primate species that survive within and around the borders of cities and rural human establishments in this region .\nthe white - eared titi ' s main threat is deforestation and habitat loss due to agriculture . the area of greatest habitat loss is around the city of santa cruz de la sierra , but it still survives within the city limits and on the edges of many rural establishments . it has few natural predators and is proven to be adaptable to habitat disturbance .\nveiga , l . m . & ferrari , s . f . ( 2008 ) . callicebus moloch . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 3 january 2009 .\nthe titi monkey prefers branches which are less than 5 centimetres ( 2 . 0 in ) in diameter and its tail never touches the support it is on .\nfreeman , s . m . , h . walum , k . inoue , a . l . smith , m . m . goodman , k . l . bales , and l . j . young ( 2014 ) neuroanatomical distribution of oxytocin and vasopressin 1a receptors in the socially monogamous coppery titi monkey ( callicebus cupreus ) . neuroscience 273 : 12 - 23 .\nperes ca ( 2008 ) soil fertility and arboreal mammal biomass in tropical forests . in : carson w , schnitzer s ( eds ) tropical forest community ecology . wiley - blackwell , new york , pp 349\u2013364\ntype locality : campamento roco roco , r\u00edo hondo , madid national park and natural area of integrated management , la paz department , bolivia ( 14\u00b037 ' 30\ns , 67\u00b043 ' 06\nw ) .\nlanfear r , calcott b , ho syw , guindon s . partitionfinder : combined selection of partitioning schemes and substitution models for phylogenetic analyses . mol biol evol . 2012 ; 29 ( 6 ) : 1695\u2013701 .\nrobinson , j . 1979 . vocal regulation of use of space by groups of titi monkeys callicebus moloch . behavioral ecology and sociobiology , 5 : 1 - 15 .\nwallace , r . b . , h . gomez , a . felton , and a . felton ( 2006 ) on a new species of titi monkey , genus\nin captivity , bolivian titi monkeys breed throughout the year . in the wild , a breeding season is predicted , perhaps in the spring preceding the rainy season in bolivia . in captivity , female titi monkeys give birth approximately one year after finding a mate . after a gestation period of about 18 weeks , females give birth to a single offspring , though twins are uncommon . although female bolivian titi monkeys reach sexual maturity at 2 years of age , the mean age of first birth is 4 years .\nem resposta \u00e0 introdu\u00e7\u00e3o de indiv\u00edduos para forma\u00e7\u00e3o de novos grupos em cativeiro . in : w . lobato , c . v . s . sabino & j . f . de abreu . ( orgs . ) .\nmenescal l . a . , e . c . goncalves , a . silva , s . f . ferrari and m . p . c . schneider ( 2009 ) genetic diversity of red - bellied titis (\nward rd , zemlak ts , innes bh , last pr , hebert pdn . dna barcoding australia ' s fish species . proc r soc lond b biol sci . 2005 ; 360 ( 1462 ) : 1847\u201357 .\nkinzey , w . g . ( 1983 ) . activity pattern of the masked titi monkey , callicebus personatus . primates , 24 ( 3 ) , 337 - 343 .\nit has been classified as vulnerable but due to major habitat loss and restricted living space , it is better classified as critically endangered . in october 2012 , it was included in the world ' s 25 most endangered primates list . an increase in deforestation is leading to the decrease in available living space for the titi monkey , forcing it to live in sympatry with another species of callicebus .\nthe oldest bolivian titi in captivity reached 24 . 8 years of age . little information is available regarding the lifespan of this species in the wild . other members of the genus\ntiti monkeys will also eat small insects ( ants , moths , butterflies , and their cocoons ) , spiders , and can catch flying prey if it comes close to them .\noates jf , whitesides gh , davies ag , waterman pg , green sm , dasilva gl , mole s ( 1990 ) determinants of variation in tropical forest primate biomass : new evidence from west africa . ecology 71 : 328\u2013343\njarcho , m . r . , w . a . mason , s . p . mendoza and k . l . bales ( 2009 ) hormonal and experiential predictors of infant survivorship and maternal behavior in a monogamous primate (\nthe titi monkey usually rests during the middle of the day and has two main feeding periods , in the morning and in the afternoon . it has an increased period of feeding towards the end of the day . in total , the titi monkey is active for an average of 11 . 5 hours , 2 . 7 hours of which is spent feeding .\nmale bolivian titi monkeys play a dominant role in the care of their young . although females nurse their offspring , males are the principal carriers and protectors of their young . during the first week of life , mother bolivian titi monkeys carry their infants only 20 % of the time , and after the first month , maternal contact is scarce . infants experience more stress and elevated heart rates when separated from their father than from their mother , with few exceptions . bollivian titi monkeys experience a stronger bond with their mate than with their offspring .\nplecturocebus miltoni dalponte , j . c . , silva , f . e . & silva - j\u00fanior , j . de s . 2014 . pap . avuls . zool . , s\u00e3o paulo 54 ( 32 ) : 462 .\nyet in some areas , such drastic deforestation has resulted in extremely high population density . the titi monkey is better adapted to moderately populated areas , thus overpopulation negatively impacts the species .\ntype locality : yahuas , n . of loreto , about 2\u00b040 ' s , 70\u00b030 ' w , alt . 500 ft . ( thomas , 1914 ) . yahuas territory , near pebas , loreto , peru , about 125 m [\nmuller , k . h . ( 1997 ) . geophagy in masked titi monkeys ( callicebus personatus melanochir ) in sbrazil . primates\n, 38 ( 1 ) , 69 - 77 .\nfernandez - duque , c . valeggia , and w . a . mason ( 2000 ) effects of pair - bond and social context on male - female interactions in captive titi monkeys (\nmarques , e . l . n . , l . jerusalinsky , j . c . a . g . rocha , p . m . santos , r . beltr\u00e3o - mendes , and s . f . ferrari ( 2013 ) primates , pitheciidae , callicebus coimbrai kobayashi and langguth , 1999 : new localities for an endangered titi monkey in eastern sergipe , brazil . check list 9 : 696 - 699 . ( pdf )\ntiti monkeys are found in wet or inundated forests , especially in dense underbrush , and in gallery forests . they live in south america , from colombia to brazil , peru and north paraguay .\nthey have one offspring per year . it is difficult to distinguish between the sexes externally , however atlantic titi family dynamics indicate that the father carries the infant at all times during the nursing .\nrobinson , j . g . ( 1977 ) .\nvocal regulation of spacing in the titi monkey ( callicebus moloch )\n. phd dissertation . university of north carolina - chapel hill .\nrobinson , j . g . ( 1979 ) .\nan analysis of the organization of vocal communication in the titi monkey callicebus moloch\n. zeitschrift fur tierzuchtung und zuchtungsbiologie 49 : 381\u2013405 .\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\ntype locality : peru : near the colonia penal del sepa , on the southern bank of the r\u00edo sepa , a western tributary of the r\u00edo urubamba ( 10\u00b048 ' 50\ns , 73\u00b017 ' 80\nw ) . altitude 280 m .\ntype locality : rio tahuamanu , northeast peru [ sic ] near bolivian boundary . about 12\u00b020 ' s , 68\u00b045 ' w . the rio tahuamanu and the bolivian border are in fact in southeast peru , not northeast ; evidently a lapsus calami .\nalfaro me , zoller s , lutzoni f . bayes or bootstrap ? a simulation study comparing the performance of bayesian markov chain monte carlo sampling and bootstrapping in assessing phylogenetic confidence . mol biol evol . 2003 ; 20 ( 2 ) : 255\u201366 .\nmittermeier ra , rylands ab , schwitzer c , taylor la , chiozza f , williamson ea ( 2012 ) primates in peril : the world\u2019s 25 most endangered primates 2010\u20132012 . iucn / ssc primate specialist group , international primatological society , conservation international , arlington\nanzenberger , g . , s . mendoza , w . mason . 1986 . comparative studies of social behavior in callicebus and saimiri : behavioral and physiological responses of established pairs to unfamiliar pairs . american journal of primatology , 11 : 37 - 51 .\ntiti monkeys also use physical communication , including grooming and tail entwining . male and female mates show a strong preference for grooming and entwining with each other rather than with other members of their group .\nm\u00fcller , a . , g . anzenberger . 2002 . duetting in the titi monkey callicebus cupreus : structure , pair specificity and development of duets . folia primatologica , 73 : 1 - 12 .\ngron , k . 2007 .\nprimate factsheets : dusky titi ( callicebus moloch ) taxonomy , morphology , & ecology\n( on - line ) . accessed april 18 , 2011 at urltoken .\nlawrence , j . m . ( 2007 ) .\nunderstanding the pair bond in brown titi monkeys ( callicebus brunneus ) : male and female reproductive interests\n. phd dissertation . columbia university .\nterrones ru\u00edz , w . i . , d . m . vea diaz , c . flores amasifu\u00e9n and e . w . heymann ( 2004 ) diurnal birth of a wild red titi monkey ,\nthe red - bellied titi has an average head and body length of 333 mm ( 13 . 1 in ) for males and 331 mm ( 13 . 0 in ) for females , showing no\ntiti monkeys are well known for their vocal communication , and have a complex repertoire of calls . the calls can be divided into two categories : high - pitched quiet calls and low - pitched loud calls .\nveiga , l . , r . wallace , s . ferrari . 2008 .\ncallicebus donacophilus\n( on - line ) . in : iucn 2010 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2010 . 4 . accessed april 25 , 2011 at urltoken .\nhershkovitz , p . origin , speciation , and distribution of south american titi monkeys , genus callicebus ( family cebidae , platyrrhini ) . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia , 140 ( 1 ) .\nbossuyt , f . ( 2002 ) .\nnatal dispersal of titi monkeys ( callicebus moloch ) at cocha cashu , manu national park , peru\n34 . american journal of physical anthropology . p . 47 .\nhorvath je , weisrock dw , embry sl , fiorentino i , balhoff jp , kappeler p , et al . development and application of a phylogenomic toolkit : resolving the evolutionary history of madagascar ' s lemurs . genome res . 2008 ; 18 ( 3 ) : 489\u201399 .\n] . as with the tamarins and capuchins , this new classification will undoubtedly make for a taxonomy that reflects more clearly titi monkey evolutionary history . the lack of available genetic data for many of the species , however , limits our ability to make novel taxonomic and phylogenetic inferences about these taxa . it is evident that questions remain regarding the species - level taxonomy of the callicebinae , and thus phylogenetic hypotheses will be modified with the availability of sequence data for remaining titi species . taken together , our work illustrates the value of a molecular phylogenetic approach to taxonomic classification and here provides a basis for future studies on the evolutionary history and taxonomy of titi monkeys\ntiti monkeys are territorial monkeys . they live in family groups which consist of parents and their offspring , about 3 to 7 other members . they defend their territory by shouting and chasing off intruders . both male and female\nc\u00e4sar , c . , k . zuberb\u00fchler , r . j . young , and r . w . byrne ( 2013 ) titi monkey call sequences vary with predator location and type . biology letters 9 : 20130535 .\ntype locality : rio renato , tributary of rio teles pires ( right bank ) , nearby the city of cl\u00e1udia , state of mato grosso brazil ( 11\u00b033 ' 00 . 15\ns , 55\u00b010 ' 59 . 98\nw ) ; c . 370 m above sea level .\nronquist f , teslenko m , van der mark p , ayres dl , darling a , h\u00f6hna s , et al . mrbayes 3 . 2 : efficient bayesian phylogenetic inference and model choice across a large model space . syst biol . 2012 ; 61 ( 3 ) : 539\u201342 .\nrobinson , j . g . ( 1979 ) .\nvocal regulation of use of space by groups of titi monkeys callicebus moloch\n. behavioral ecology and sociobiology 5 : 1\u201315 . doi : 10 . 1007 / bf00302691 .\nmart\u00ednez , j . and r . b . wallace ( 2007 ) further notes on the distribution of the bolivian endemic titi monkeys , callicebus modestus and callicebus olallae . neotropical primates 14 : 47 - 54 . ( pdf )\n21 : 25 - 32 . laugero , k . d . , j . t . smilowitz , j . b . german , m . r . jarcho , s . p . mendoza , and k . l . bales ( 2011 ) plasma omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acid status and monounsaturated fatty acids are altered by chronic social stress and predict endocrine responses to acute stress in titi monkeys . prostaglandins , leukotrienes , and essential fatty acids 84 : 71 - 78 . l\u00f3pez - str auss , h . and r . b . wallace ( 2013 ) density estimates of two bolivian primate endemics , callicebus olallae and c . modestu s . mastozoologia neo tropical . in press . marcolino , c . p . , r . j . young and c . c\u00e4sar ( 2006 ) avalia\u00e7\u00e3o comportamental de\nin : veiga , l . m . , a . a . barnett , s . f . ferrari and m . a . norconk ( eds . ) . evolutionary biology and conservation of titis , sakis and uacaris cambridge university press : cambridge , uk , pp . 196 - 207\nin : veiga , l . m . , a . a . barnett , s . f . ferrari and m . a . norconk ( eds . ) . evolutionary biology and conservation of titis , sakis and uacaris cambridge university press : cambridge , uk , pp . 295 - 302\nin : veiga , l . m . , a . a . barnett , s . f . ferrari and m . a . norconk ( eds . ) . evolutionary biology and conservation of titis , sakis and uacaris cambridge university press : cambridge , uk , pp . 215 - 224\n) . american journal primatology 74 : 462 - 470 . jerusalinsky , l . , m . m . oliveira , r . f . pereira , v . santana , p . c . bastos and s . f . ferrari . ( 2006 ) preliminary evaluation of the conservation status of\nin : veiga , l . m . , a . a . barnett , s . f . ferrari and m . a . norconk ( eds . ) . evolutionary biology and conservation of titis , sakis and uacaris cambridge university press : cambridge , uk , pp . 225 - 231\nin : veiga , l . m . , a . a . barnett , s . f . ferrari and m . a . norconk ( eds . ) . evolutionary biology and conservation of titis , sakis and uacaris cambridge university press : cambridge , uk , pp . 43 - 49\nfernandez - duque , e . ; mason , w . a . ; mendoza , s . p . ( 1997 ) .\neffects of duration of separation on responses to mates and strangers in the monogamous titi monkey ( callicebus moloch )\n. american journal of primatology 43 ( 3 ) : 225\u2013237 . doi : 10 . 1002 / ( sici ) 1098 - 2345 ( 1997 ) 43 : 3 < 225 : : aid - ajp3 > 3 . 0 . co ; 2 - z . pmid 9359966 .\nmoynihan , m . ( 1966 ) .\ncommunication in the titi monkey , callicebus\n. journal of zoology 150 : 77\u2013127 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1469 - 7998 . 1966 . tb02999 . x .\ndefler , t . r . , m . l . bueno and j . garc\u00eda ( 2010 ) callicebus caquetensis : a new and critically endangered titi monkey from southern caquet\u00e1 , colombia . primate conservation 25 : 1 - 9 .\ndeluycker , a . m . ( 2010 ) observations of a daytime birth in the wild of a titi monkey ( callicebus oenanthe ) and subsequent male parental care . xxiii congress of the international primatological society , kyoto , japan .\n] . after purification , pcr products were sequenced directly in two reactions with forward and reverse primers . sequencing reactions were carried out using the bigdye terminator v3 . 1 cycle sequencing kit ( life technologies ) . for 10 \u03bcl sequencing reactions we used 0 . 5 \u03bcl of bigdye ; 1 . 5 \u03bcl of 5x sequencing buffer ; 1 . 0 \u03bcl of each primer ( 0 . 8 \u03bcm ) ; and 2 \u03bcl of pcr product . sequencing reactions were performed as follows : 96 \u00b0c for 2 min ; followed by 35 cycles of 96 \u00b0c for 15 s , 50 \u00b0c for 15 s , 60 \u00b0c for 2 . 5 min . the sequencing products were analysed using an abi 3500xl ( life technologies ) automatic sequencer following the manufacturer\u2019s instructions . consensus sequences for each individual were generated from sequences in forward and reverse directions using geneious r7 . 1 ( biomatters ) .\nraboy be , neves lg , zeigler s , saraiva na , cardoso n , santos gr , ballou jd , leimgruber p ( 2010 ) strength of habitat and landscape metrics in predicting golden - headed lion tamarin presence or absence in forest patches in southern bahia , brazil . biotropica 42 : 388\u2013397\nin : veiga , l . m . , a . a . barnett , s . f . ferrari and m . a . norconk ( eds . ) . evolutionary biology and conservation of titis , sakis and uacaris cambridge university press : cambridge , uk , pp . 208 - 214 .\ntype locality : proximity of the small village of arag\u00e3o , in the region of santana dos frades about 11 . 0 km sw of pacatuba , south of the estuary of the rio s\u00e3o francisco , state of sergipe , brazil . 10\u00b032 ' s , 36\u00b041 ' w , altitude 90 m .\ntype locality : west bank of the lower rio aripuan\u00e3 , at the edge of the settlement of nova olinda , 41 km southwest of the town of novo aripuan\u00e3 , amazonas state , brazil . 05\u00b030 ' 63\ns , 60\u00b024 ' 61\nw , altitude 45 m above sea level .\n) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided you give appropriate credit to the original author ( s ) and the source , provide a link to the creative commons license , and indicate if changes were made . the creative commons public domain dedication waiver (\nin : veiga , l . m . , a . a . barnett , s . f . ferrari and m . a . norconk ( eds . ) . evolutionary biology and conservation of titis , sakis and uacaris . cambridge university press : cambridge , uk , pp . 232 - 239 .\ntype locality : curva do cotovelo ( 08\u00b059 ' 45 . 21\ns , 60\u00b043 ' 42 . 72\nw ) , region of the mouth of the pombal stream , reserva extrativista guariba - roosevelt , right bank of the upper roosevelt river , municipality of colniza , mato grosso , brazil .\nextends far south of the amazon basin and they have the most disjunct set of species distributions of the titi monkey clades . they occupy forest patches and gallery forests in the savannah floodplains of bolivia , paraguay and brazil , with the range of\nmendoza , s . p . ; reeder , d . m . ; mason , w . a . ( 2002 ) .\nnature of proximate mechanisms underlying primate social systems : simplicity and redundancy\n. evolutionary anthropology 11 ( 1 ) : 112\u2013116 . doi : 10 . 1002 / evan . 10071 .\nthe titi monkeys fur is long and soft and it is usually reddish , brownish or black and with a lighter underside . some species have a bright collar or black stripes at the head . their tail is always furry and is not prehensile .\nregardless of the presence of humans in brazilian forests , titi monkeys customarily venture to dwell in\ndisturbed\nforests ( forests that have been cut down or invaded by humans ) as long as the food availability is higher than in undisturbed forests .\nbicca - marques , j . c . , p . a . garber and m . a . o . azevedo lopes ( 2002 ) evidence of three resident adult male group members in a species of monogamous primate , the red titi monkey (\ndeluycker , a . m . ( 2006 ) preliminary report and conservation status of the r\u00edo mayo titi monkey , callicebus oenanthe ( thomas , 1924 ) , in the alto mayo valley , northeastern peru . primate conservation 21 : 33 - 39 .\nproyecto mono tocn , started in 2007 as an initiative of le conservatoire pour la protection des primates , french foundation created by the park primates la valle des singes . the main objective of this project is the conservation of san martin titi monkey (\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\njarcho , m . r . , s . p . mendoza , w . a . mason , x . yang , and k . l . bales ( 2011 ) intranasal vasopressin affects pair - bonding and peripheral gene expression in male callicebus cupreus . genes , brain , and behavior 10 : 375 - 383 .\nbolivian titi monkeys are primarily frugivorous , and it is estimated that their diet consists of over 70 % fruit . they also eat leaves , seeds , and insects . much of the day is spent resting in order to digest their mostly herbivorous diet .\naldrich ( 2006 ) undertook a song - based survey of a population at tarangue ( a 74 ha private reserve near moyobamba ) and estimated a population density of 1 . 4 individuals per ha . group sizes were unusually large for titi monkeys , with 20 % of groups containing six to eight individuals . rowe and martinez ( 2003 ) carried out a four - day survey , and although they did not observe the species in the wild , they heard several groups of titi monkeys ( presumed to be\nclades . however , most specimens were of captive origin and rather few titi species were included in these studies , limiting their usefulness in inferring species - level relationships . to date , there has been no explicit molecular investigation of the phylogenetic relationships of the\nmendoza , s . p . ; mason , w . a . ( 1986 ) .\ncontrasting responses to intruders and to involuntary separation by monogamous and polygynous new world monkeys\n. physiological behavior 38 ( 6 ) : 795\u2013801 . doi : 10 . 1016 / 0031 - 9384 ( 86 ) 90045 - 4 .\nthe chest and belly of bolivian titi monkeys is completely orange to brown - orange while the dorsal side and extremities range from grey to orange agouti in color . the tail may include black or grey coloring , and they have white tufts on their ears .\nferrari , s . f . , e . m . santos junior , e . b . freitas , i . p . fontes , j . p . souza - alves , l . jerusalinksy , r . beltr\u00e3o - mendes , r . r . d . chagas , r . r . hil\u00e1rio , and s . a . a . bai\u00e3o ( 2013 ) living on the edge : habitat fragmentation at the interface of the semiarid zone in the brazilian northeast . in : marsh , l . k . and c . a . chapman , primates in fragments : complexity and resilience , springer : new york , pp . 121 - 135 .\n2009 ) . while titis monkeys may not be a particularly lucrative source of protein , hunting pressure is likely to increase as preferred game become scarce and fragmentation facilitates access . these titi monkeys are popular as pets ( mark 2003 , deluycker 2006 , bveda - penalba\nferrari sf , iwanaga s , ravetta al , freitas fc , sousa bar , souza ll , costa cg , coutinho peg ( 2003 ) dynamics of primate communities along the santarem\u2013cuiaba highway in south - central brazilian amazonia . in : marsh l ( ed ) primates in fragments : ecology and conservation . springer , new york , pp 123\u2013144\n( 2013 ) country - by - country conservation fact sheet : bolivia . in : v eiga , l . m . , a . a . barnett , s . f . ferrari , and m . a . norconk ( eds . ) evolutionary biology and conservation of titis , sakis and uacaris . cambridge : cambridge university press .\ndeluycker , a . m . ( 2007 ) activity pattern and habitat use of the r\u00edo mayo titi monkey ( callicebus oenanthe ) in a premontane forest in the alto mayo , northern peru . american journal of physical anthropology 132 ( suppl 44 ) : 96 - 97 .\nfelton , a . , a . m . felton , r . b . wallace , and h . gomez ( 2006 ) identification , distribution and behavioural observations of the titi monkeys callicebus modestus l\u00f6nnberg 1939 , and callicebus olallae l\u00f6nnberg 1939 . primate conservation 20 : 41 - 46 ( pdf ) fernandez - duque , e . , a . di fiore , and a . g . de luna ( 2013 ) pair - mate relationships and parenting in equatorial saki monkeys ( pithecia aequatorialis ) and red titi monkeys ( callicebus discolor ) of ecuador .\ntiti monkeys , callicebus , comprise the most species - rich primate genus\u201434 species are currently recognised , five of them described since 2005 . the lack of molecular data for titi monkeys has meant that little is known of their phylogenetic relationships and divergence times . to clarify their evolutionary history , we assembled a large molecular dataset by sequencing 20 nuclear and two mitochondrial loci for 15 species , including representatives from all recognised species groups . phylogenetic relationships were inferred using concatenated maximum likelihood and bayesian analyses , allowing us to evaluate the current taxonomic hypothesis for the genus .\nanzenberger , g . ; mendoza , s . p . ; mason , w . a . ( 1986 ) .\ncomparative studies of social behavior in callicebus and saimiri : behavioral and physiological responses of established pairs to unfamiliar pairs\n. american journal of primatology 11 ( 1 ) : 37\u201351 . doi : 10 . 1002 / ajp . 1350110105 .\naldrich , b . c . , l . molleson and k . a . i . nekaris ( 2009 ) vocalizations as a conservation tool : an auditory survey of the andean titi monkey callicebus oenanthe thomas , 1924 ( mammalia : primates : pitheciidae ) at tarangue , northern peru .\nit can move quite fast if necessary but rarely does so and generally stays within a fairly small area , feeding on fruit , insects , spiders , small birds , and bird ' s eggs . it is diurnal and moves in pairs or family groups , which communicate by means of a wide repertoire of sounds . the female gives birth to a single offspring .\nkinzey , w . g . ( 1978 ) .\nfeeding behaviour and molar features in two species of titi monkey\n. in chivers , d . j . ; herbert , j . recent advances in primatology . 1 : behaviour . london : academic press . pp . 373\u2013385 .\nil s ' agit en 3 minutes de trouver le plus grand nombre de mots possibles de trois lettres et plus dans une grille de 16 lettres . il est aussi possible de jouer avec la grille de 25 cases . les lettres doivent \u00eatre adjacentes et les mots les plus longs sont les meilleurs . participer au concours et enregistrer votre nom dans la liste de meilleurs joueurs ! jouer"]}
{"id": 557, "summary": [{"text": "ceriomicrodon is a genus of hoverflies .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the only one known species , ceriomicrodon petiolatus , lives in mato grosso , brazil .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "only three specimens have ever been collected .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "its biology is poorly known , but the larvae are assumed to feed as scavengers in the nests of ants . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "ceriomicrodon", "paragraphs": ["ceriomicrodon is a genus of hoverflies . the only one known species , ceriomicrodon petiolatus , lives in mato grosso , brazil .\nceriomicrodon petiolatus hull , 1937 ( diptera , syrphidae , microdontinae ) : redescription and new records .\nmiranda gf . ceriomicrodon petiolatus hull , 1937 ( diptera , syrphidae , microdontinae ) : redescription and new records . zootaxa . 2014 ; 3846 : 584 - 90\nmiranda gf . ceriomicrodon petiolatus hull , 1937 ( diptera , syrphidae , microdontinae ) : redescription and new records . zootaxa 2014 ; 3846 ( 4 ) : 584 - 90 urltoken accessed july 9 , 2018 .\nmiranda gf :\nceriomicrodon petiolatus hull , 1937 ( diptera , syrphidae , microdontinae ) : redescription and new records .\nzootaxa , vol . 3846 , no . 4 , 2014 , pp . 584 - 90 , urltoken accessed july 9 , 2018 .\nmiranda gf . ( 2014 ) . ceriomicrodon petiolatus hull , 1937 ( diptera , syrphidae , microdontinae ) : redescription and new records . zootaxa , 3846 , pp . 584 - 90 . doi : 10 . 11646 / zootaxa . 3846 . 4 . 7\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncheng , x . y . & thompson , f . c . ( 2008 ) a generic conspectus of the microdontinae ( diptera : syrphidae ) with the description of two new genera from africa and china . zootaxa , 1879 , 21\u201348 .\ncumming , j . m . & wood , d . m . ( 2009 ) adult morphology and terminology . in : brown , b . v . , borkent , a . , cumming , j . m . , wood , d . m . , woodley , n . e . & zumbado , m . a . ( eds . ) , manual of central american diptera . vol . 1 . nrc research press , ottawa , canada , pp . 9\u201350 .\nfluke , c . l . ( 1957 ) catalogue of the family syrphidae in the neotropical region ( diptera ) . revista brasileira de entomologia , 7 , 1\u2013181 .\ngiglio - t\u00f3s , e . ( 1891 ) diagnosi di quarto nuovi generi di ditteri . bollettino dei musei di zoologia ed anatomia comparata , 6 , 1\u20137 .\nhull , f . m . ( 1937 ) new species of exotic syrphid flies . psyche , 44 , 12\u201332 . urltoken\nhull , f . m . ( 1949 ) the morphology and inter - relationship of the genera of syrphid flies , recent and fossil . transactions of the zoological society of london , 26 , 257\u2013408 . urltoken\nmacquart , p . j . ( 1842 ) dipteres exotiques nouveaux ou peu connus . tome deuxi\u00e8me . 2e partie . memoirs de la societe royale des sciences , de l\u2019agriculture et des arts , de lille , 1 , 65\u2013200 .\nmeigen , j . w . ( 1803 ) versuch einer neuen gattungs - eintheilung der europ\u00e4ischen zweifl\u00fcgligen insekten . magazin f\u00fcr insektenkunde , 2 , 259\u2013281 .\nreemer , m . & st\u00e5hls , g . ( 2013a ) generic revision and species classification of the microdontinae ( diptera , syrphidae ) . zookeys , 288 , 1\u2013213 . urltoken\nreemer , m . & st\u00e5hls , g . ( 2013b ) phylogenetic relationships of microdontinae ( diptera : syrphidae ) based on molecular and morphological characters . systematic entomology , 38 , 661\u2013688 . urltoken\nthompson , f . c . , vockeroth , j . r . & sedman , y . s . ( 1976 ) family syrphidae . in : papavero , n . ( ed . ) , a catalogue of the diptera of the americas south of the united states . edanee , s\u00e3o paulo , brasil , pp . 1\u2013195 .\ntrougakos , i . p . & margaritis , l . k . ( 2002 ) novel morphological and physiological aspects of insect eggs . in : hiker , m . & meiners , t . ( eds . ) , chemoecology of insect eggs . blackwell publishing , oxford , uk , pp . 3\u201336 .\nyou need to log in or sign up for an account to be able to comment .\nrevision of the genus macrostomus wiedemann ( diptera , empididae , empidinae ) . iv . the amazonensis species - group .\nrevision of the genus pelecinobaccha shannon , description of relictanum gen . nov . , and redescription of atylobaccha flukiella ( curran , 1941 ) ( diptera : syrphidae ) .\ntaxonomic revision of the neotropical genus pityocera giglio - tos , 1896 ( diptera : tabanidae : scionini ) .\ndescription of evandromyia ( aldamyia ) orcyi , a new phlebotomine species ( diptera : psychodidae : phlebotominae ) from the state of mato grosso do sul , brazil .\na new species of dendroblatta rehn , 1916 from northern brazil ( blattaria : ectobiidae ) collected in wasp nests .\nfirst record of amblyomma scalpturatum neumann ( acari : ixodidae ) in the states of paran\u00e1 and roraima , brazil .\ndescription of new species of surimyia reemer and carreramyia doesburg ( diptera : syrphidae ) from the brazilian amazon .\nlongivena , a new robber - fly genus from brazil ( diptera , asilidae , asilinae ) .\nuse read by qxmd to access full text via your institution or open access sources .\nread also provides personalized recommendations to keep you up to date in your field .\nread by qxmd is copyright \u00a9 2018 qxmd software inc . all rights reserved . by using this service , you agree to our terms of use and privacy policy .\nwe use cookies to give you the best possible experience . by using our website you agree to our use of cookies .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nlaborat\u00f3rio de entomologia sistem\u00e1tica , urbana e forense / instituto nacional de pesquisas da amaz\u00f4nia , manaus , am , brazil ; email : gilfgm @ gmail . com .\npreimaginal morphology of the genera salpingogaster schiner , 1868 and eosalpingogaster hull , 1949 ( diptera : syrphidae ) , with its systematic implications .\na new species of furciseta ( diptera , ctenostylidae ) from the brazilian amazon .\na new species of the rare neotropical genus auloceromyia lindner , 1969 < br / > ( diptera : stratiomyidae ) and the first record of the male of a . pedunculata pimentel & pujol - luz , 2000 .\nrevision of cerozodus bigot , 1857 ( diptera , asilidae , asilinae ) with description of a new species from brazil .\nthe neotropical chloropine genus ischnochlorops paganelli 2002 ( diptera : chloropidae ) , with the description of a new species ."]}
{"id": 567, "summary": [{"text": "mesocnemis is a genus of african damselflies in the white-legged damselfly family ( platycnemididae ) .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they are commonly known as riverjacks .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the genus contains the following species : mesocnemis dupuyi legrand , 1982 - gambia riverjack mesocnemis robusta ( selys , 1886 ) mesocnemis saralisa dijkstra , 2008 mesocnemis singularis karsch , 1891 - common riverjack , savanna brook-damsel , savanna stream-damsel mesocnemis tisi lempert , 1992 - liberian riverjack", "topic": 26}], "title": "mesocnemis", "paragraphs": ["mesocnemis is a genus of african damselflies in the white - legged damselfly family ( platycnemididae ) . they are commonly known as riverjacks . the genus contains the following species :\njustification : mesocnemis singularis is assessed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a threatened category .\nlegrand , j . ( 1982 ) . elattoneura pluotae spec . nov . ( protoneuridae ) et mesocnemis dupuyi spec . nov . ( platycnemididae ) , zygopteres nouveaux du senegal . odonatologica , 11 , 153 - 158 . [ pdf file ]\njustification : this is a widespread species with no known major widespread threats that is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a threatened category . therefore , it is assessed as least concern . in central , northern and western africa , the species is listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a threatened category . in northern africa , out of the two localities recorded for mesocnemis robusta in egypt , one probably became extinct through the construction of the aswan high dam and barrage lake . the single remaining locality for this species is included in the agricultural area of the nile delta , which suffers from inundation of increasing levels of polluted water ( e . g . , salts , sewage water , heavy metals ) . this population is now separated from the nearest ( sudanese ) locality by a river stretch of about 1 , 600 km as well as by the assouan barrage lake , therefore no spontaneous immigration is expected . it is currently listed as critically endangered based on its restricted range , occurrence at only one known location and ongoing declines .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is short - listed by dijkstra and vick ( 2004 ) as western african odonate requiring special attention . it is known from one locality , the sinoe river and a tributary , within a 5 , 000 km\u00b2 area of forest habitat , which is expected to deteriorate in the future due to selective logging and clearing for agriculture . it is therefore listed as endangered .\nthe species is only known from two sites near juarzon in south eastern liberia , the sinoe river and a tributary ( lempert 1988 , 1992 ) .\nrainforest rivers , preferring shaded sections unlike the sympatric m . singularis , which perches in the sun .\nthere is a potential threat of logging for wood extraction and agriculture within the species range .\nno information available but research into population numbers and range , biology and ecology , habitat status , threats , and trends / monitoring of this species would be valuable .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ndijkstra , k . - d . b . , clausnitzer , v . , suhling , f . , samways , m . , samraoui , b . , boudot , j . p . , kipping , j . ( odonata red list authority ) & allen , d . ( iucn freshwater biodiversity unit )\n1998 ) . although records show two disjunct populations , the species is likely to be present in between .\nit has not been recorded from central africa region yet , but likely to occur in the northern zones of democratic republic of congo , congo , cameroon and central african republic .\nin northern africa , the species is endemic to the river nile system , ranging from ethiopia to the nile delta .\nno information available . in northern africa , two records are known from egypt ( one from the lower nile ( 1988 ) , and one from assouan in upper egypt ( 1912 ) , which is possibly now extinct due to the assouan dam ) , and five from sudan . some records are dated 1980 - 1988\nthe main threats to the species are over - irrigation , water pollution , stream management and infrastructure development . it is inferred that it would be affected by drought in the future .\npreservation of stream water quality and conservation of the natural structure of stream systems using policy - based actions and increasing education and awareness . information on taxonomy , population ecology , habitat status and population trends , and habitat / site based conservation is also required .\nthe species is widespread in sub - saharan africa , ranging from sierra leone to south sudan and southwards to south africa .\nthe habitat of this species is mostly rivers , but also streams and large lakes , mostly shaded by gallery forest , but also in open landscapes and open areas in forest . at rivers it prefers faster sections ( rapids , falls ) with emergent vegetation , submerged roots , rocks and / or probably overhanging branches .\nno diagnosis of this species endemic to the gambia catchment is presently available . please refer to the references provided .\nnot known well , but probably rivers in open landscapes . probably especially faster sections with emergent vegetation , submerged roots and / or rocks . inferred to occur from 0 to 200 m above sea level .\nmap citation : clausnitzer , v . , k . - d . b . dijkstra , r . koch , j . - p . boudot , w . r . t . darwall , j . kipping , b . samraoui , m . j . samways , j . p . simaika & f . suhling , 2012 . focus on african freshwaters : hotspots of dragonfly diversity and conservation concern . frontiers in ecology and the environment 10 : 129 - 134 .\ncitation : dijkstra , k . - d . b ( editor ) . african dragonflies and damselflies online . urltoken [ 2018 - 07 - 09 ] .\nafrican dragonflies and damselflies online is a collaboration between consent ( stellenbosch ) and adu ( cape town ) funded by the jrs biodiversity foundation . addo brings all available knowledge together of africa ' s 770 known species of odonata . read more . . .\nby combining conservation ecology and entomology , our department at stellenbosch university brings together a considerable body of teaching and research expertise in the rapidly growing important field of conservation in agricultural and development landscapes . read more . . .\nthe adu aims to contribute to the understanding of biodiversity and its conservation . we achieve this through programmes that involve citizen scientists , long - term monitoring , research and innovative statistical modelling . read more . . .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nsorry , the species or group that you asked for is not on the onezoom tree .\nthe open tree contains additional species not on the onezoom tree ( particularly subspecies and fossils ) . to check if this is why we cannot find your species or group , you can\n, then chances are you have entered a wrong number or a misspelt name .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe iucn red list of threatened species\u2122 map viewer will open in its own new tab / window . this may be further explored or the tab / window closed ."]}
{"id": 570, "summary": [{"text": "the northern shoveler ( / \u02c8\u0283\u028cv\u0259l\u0259r / ; spatula clypeata ) , or northern shoveller in british english , sometimes known simply as the shoveler , is a common and widespread duck .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it breeds in northern areas of europe and asia and across most of north america , wintering in southern europe , africa , the indian subcontinent , southeast asia , and central , and northern south america .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is a rare vagrant to australia .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "in north america , it breeds along the southern edge of hudson bay and west of this body of water , and as far south as the great lakes west to colorado , nevada , and oregon .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the northern shoveler is one of the species to which the agreement on the conservation of african-eurasian migratory waterbirds ( aewa ) applies .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the conservation status of this bird is least concern . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "northern shoveler", "paragraphs": ["the northern shoveler was first described in 1758 by carolus linnaeus , swedish botanist , physician and zoologist .\nbattley , p . f . 1991 . northern shoveler near wanganui . notornis 38 : 48 - 50 .\nwhen flushed off the nest , a female northern shoveler often defecates on its eggs , apparently to deter predators .\nthe northern shoveler can be found in marshes and prairie potholes . it needs habitats with shallow water with muddy bottoms .\nnot to be outdone by the drake , here is a close up of the female northern shoveler in all her radiance .\nliving in the northern part of the old world . in otherwords , europe and asia and northern africa .\nthe oldest recorded northern shoveler was a male , and at least 16 years , 7 months old when he was found in nevada .\nand why are they called northern shovelers ? well , that is because they are not the only species of shoveler in the world , though they are the only ones living in the northern hemisphere .\nthe northern shoveler is a long - distance migrant , that breeds across the entire northern hemisphere . it spends the northern winter mainly in the northern tropics and warm temperate areas immediately to the north . asian populations winter throughout east asia south to thailand , with occasional records further south including borneo and australia . the east asian population is estimated at 500 , 000 birds .\nthe video above showing the pair bonding and precopulatory behavior of the northern shoveler ( anas clypeata ) was shot from the photography bind at colusa national wildlife refuge , one of the refuges of the sacramento national wildlife refuge complex in northern california .\nmelville , d . s . 2013 [ updated 2017 ] . northern shoveler . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken\nthe northern shoveler breeds from alaska east to northern manitoba and south to california and the great lakes region . it winters from oregon south to california and east across the southern united states and up the east coast to new jersey . it also winters in mexico , central america , northern south america , and the caribbean .\nduring the heat of the day , the shoveler often rests on the mud next to the water .\nthe other main foraging technique employed by the northern shoveler using that rather large spatulate bill is filtering the open water surface as they swim , seen in this video filmed at sacramento nwr .\nnorthern shoveler : this is a medium - sized dabbling duck with a large spoon - shaped bill . males have a dark green head , dark bill , orange legs , yellow eyes , white\nnorthern shoveler populations have remained fairly steady since 1955 , but 2007 and 2009 brought peak numbers and the numbers have remained high , most likely due to favorable habitat conditions for breeding , migrating , and wintering northern shovelers ( u . s . fish and wildlife service , 2009 ) .\ndue to their highly specialized bills and consequent habitat requirements , the northern shoveler appears to be less affected by drought and food scarcity than other dabblers . this may explain how this species has maintained long - term stable populations .\nnorthern shoveler . adult male in breeding plumage . texas , december 2006 . image \u00a9 jim denny by jim denny http : / / www . kauaibirds . comhttp : / / www . flickr . com / photos / hawaiibirds /\nmitchell , c . 2005 . northern shoveler anas clypeata . pp . 560 - 564 in kear , j . ( ed . ) . bird families of the world . ducks , geese and swans . oxforduniversity press : oxford .\nthe drake northern shoveler is readily identifiable in breeding plumage . it has a dark green head , white breast and a large chestnut patch on the flanks . in flight the upper forewing is pale blue - grey , with a dark green speculum on the trailing margin of the wing , similar to the wing pattern of the australasian shoveler . female northern shovelers , and males in eclipse , would be very similar to australasian shovelers . no characters have been identified to separate the species in these plumages . northern shovelers of both sexes have dark grey bills ( as do australasian shovelers ) .\ndubowy , paul j . 1996 . northern shoveler ( spatula clypeata ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\nthe northern shoveler is a common holarctic duck with a high degree of morphological and feeding specializations . unlike most dabbling ducks ( genus anas ) , it has a bill ideally suited for straining small swimming crustaceans from the water . previous studies have shown that northern shovelers feed primarily by holding their bills in the water while swimming , straining out small invertebrates by continually dabbling .\nthe northern shoveler has a large range , estimated globally at 10 , 000 , 000 square kilometers . native to the americas , europe , asia and africa and introduced to australia , this bird prefers grassland , wetland and marine ecosystems . the global population of this bird is estimated at 5 , 000 , 000 to 6 , 400 , 000 individuals and does not show signs of decline that would necessitate inclusion on the iucn red list . for this reason , the current evaluation status of the northern shoveler is least concern .\nnorthern shoveler : breeds from alaska and northern manitoba south to california , nebraska , and wisconsin ; local and uncommon in the great lakes area and the northeast . winters from oregon across the southern half of the u . s . to the gulf coast , north to new jersey , and south to central america . prefers marshes and prairie potholes ; sometimes found on salt or brackish marshes .\nthe northern shoveler is a common breeder throughout washington ' s lowland ponds and wetlands ( although some birds sighted in summer on the west side of the cascades are non - breeders ) . it is also a common winter resident . northern shovelers are more common breeders on the east side of the cascades than on the west side , but more common wintering on the west side in appropriate habitat .\nthe northern shoveler is a migratory duck that breeds in temperate regions across the entire northern hemisphere . a few birds stray south of the equator when on migration , including 10 - 14 records from new zealand . all the new zealand records are of males in their distinctive white - and - chestnut plumage with bottle - green head , with several of these birds shot by duck hunters . the drab females would be very difficult to separate from female australasian shovelers , and so it is likely that many northern shovelers are overlooked in new zealand .\ndubowy , p . j . 1996 . northern shoveler . the birds of north america . no . 217 . ( a . poole and f . gill , eds . ) . philadelphia : the academy of natural sciences ; washington , d . c . : the american ornithologists ' union .\nthe bill of the shoveler is ideally suited for straining small swimming invertebrates from the water and mud . seeds and aquatic plants are also important food items , especially during winter .\nnorthern shovelers feed from the surface , filtering items from the water with fine comb - like ridges on the inside of their bills .\ndubowy , p . j . 1997 . long - term foraging optimization in northern shovelers . ecological modelling 95 : 119 - 132 .\nthe bill of the northern shoveler is big ( about 2 . 5 inches long ) and shaped like a shovel , but that odd - shaped bill also has about 110 fine projections ( called lamellae ) along the edges that act like a colander , filtering out tiny crustaceans , seeds , and aquatic invertebrates from the water .\nsimilar species ( adult males only ) : the australasian shoveler is similar in size and shape . the drake australasian shoveler has a blue - grey head with a vertical white crescent at the base of bill . but note that male northern shovelers in \u2018eclipse\u2019 plumage ( a plumage attained for a short time after the breeding season ) also may show a pale crescent on the face , as well as a speckled breast . the drake mallard has a similarly green head but has a dark maroon - brown breast and yellow bill .\nworld ' s last male northern white rhino , sudan , dies the world ' s last male northern white rhino , sudan , has died after\nage - related complications ,\nresearchers announced tuesday , saying he\nstole the heart of many with his dignity and strength .\nduring winter , the northern shoveler will use virtually any wetland as long as it has muddy edges . it can then be found on coastal brackish lagoons , tidal mudflats , estuaries , coastal shorelines , fresh and brackish estuarine marshes , swamps , inland seas and brackish or saline inland waters , and flooded areas in savanna , grassland or forest . the northern shoveler will even forage in sewage ponds and stagnant or polluted waters avoided by other species of ducks . it may occasionally briefly occur on marine waters during migration , yet it generally avoids very saline habitats . general habits : northern shovelers are usually found in pairs or in small parties , but they tend to congregate when feeding and roosting , and flocks of 20 , 30 or even several hundreds of individuals occur in favoured areas in africa . they may also travel in large numbers during migration and large concentrations then form , especially at stop - over sites . this species is highly migratory , flying south to overwinter in tropical and subtropical regions , although it may be present all year round in parts of europe . the northern shoveler migrates in flocks in a prolonged migration period in both the spring and the fall .\nnorthern shovelers don ' t just occur in the americas , they also breed across europe and spend the winter throughout europe , africa , and india .\nnorthern shovelers migrate in flocks in a prolonged migration period in both the spring and the fall . the spring migration is relatively late , usually peaking about the end of april . the fall migration begins in august , peaks in september , and continues into november . many northern shovelers winter in washington .\nnorthern shovelers are very popular with aviculturists , are rather easy to propagate , and can be found in almost any waterfowl collection . ( todd 1979 . )\nthe northern shoveler appears quite large , though it is its disproportionately large head that gives this impression . in body size , it is appreciably smaller than either the mallard or the spot - billed duck . its plumage is distinctive . the male has an iridescent blue - green head , its chest is pure white and its flanks are chestnut , making it a very smart bird indeed . like the other dabbling ducks , however , the shoveler has what is known as an eclipse plumage . the bright colors of the male serve the significant purpose of advertising , to compete with other males for the attention of females .\nfemale northern shovelers have mottled brown , black and white feathers and a blue patch on their wings . their eyes are brown and their bill is a brownish green .\nnorthern shovelers are monogamous and remain together longer than pairs of most other dabbling ducks . they form bonds on the wintering grounds and stay together until just before fall migration .\nthe northern shoveler is a medium - sized dabbling duck . its most unique feature is its large shovel - shaped bill . during the breeding season , male shovelers have shiny green heads , a white body , rusty - red undersides , and black wings . in non - breeding season their color is a little duller and their head and breast are brown . male shovelers have yellow eyes and a black bill .\nduring the breeding season , northern shovelers are widely distributed throughout north america , europe and northern asia . they normally inhabit open , shallow and muddy freshwater wetlands that house a large abundance of submergent vegetation . these wetlands are usually adjacent to open grassy areas , which provide sufficient cover for nests . similar habitats are used during spring and fall migration .\nnorthern shovelers fly from the prairie pothole region through the pacific or central flyways , with major stopover areas in the great salt lake , malheur basin and carson sink . they winter in california ; coastal louisiana , texas , and mexico ; and the north and central highlands of mexico . wintering habitat includes fresh and brackish coastal marshes , and ponds . saltwater wetlands are generally avoided . northern shovelers are common winter visitors to central america , the caribbean and northern colombia , and are found occasionally in trinidad ( scott and carbonell , 1986 ) .\ncarboneras , c . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . northern shoveler ( spatula clypeata ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe very large , spatulate bill is the most distinguishing feature of the aptly named northern shoveler . the male in breeding plumage has bright wings , a bright iridescent - green head with a yellow eye , bold white breast , and chestnut sides . females , juveniles , and males in eclipse plumage ( from may through august ) are mottled brown with orange legs and a green - black iridescent speculum with a blue patch on the forewing .\nhovelers have an entirely different approach . the bill of the shoveler is a large affair , both longer and broader than those of any of their relatives . the japanese name for this bird , hibiro - gamo , lects the noticeable broadness of its characteristic beak .\npay a visit to one of the major city parks , or to almost any major river mouth between now and april , and you will find flocks of slender - necked northern pintail , compact eurasian wigeon , stocky mallard or solid and bulky spot - billed duck . the pintail and wigeon in particular occur in huge flocks often numbered in the thousands . among them , there are often smaller numbers of a rather different - looking bird : the shoveler .\nnorthern shovelers breed in the parklands , short - and mixed - grass prairies of canada , and the grasslands of the north - central united states . they prefer shallow marshes that are mud - bottomed and rich in invertebrate life . nest sites are generally located on the ground in grassy areas lacking woody cover and away from open water . female northern shovelers lay an average of 9 eggs .\ncheck out my latest west coast beat writer post over at 10000 birds ! i\u2019ve got this video plus two others and several photos of the beautiful northern shovelers that were taken at our national wildlife refuges .\nthere are 10 accepted northern shoveler records from new zealand , and several other sightings that have not been assessed . all but two records were from the north island ( particularly the bay of plenty and horowhenua ) , and all but one were of the readily recognisable drake ( there was a pair at pauri lake , whanganui , in august 1989 ) . all new zealand records were during the southern winter ( march to august ) , when northern shovelers should be on their breeding grounds . the preponderance of records in may , and particularly the first week of may , has more to do with the timing of the duck - shooting season in new zealand than the migratory behaviour of the birds .\nso , if your travels should take you to places such as izunuma , in miyagi prefecture , to see the great winter goose gathering there , do look out for these very special extras among the main cast . and don\u2019t forget to look out for the shoveler among the other dabbling ducks .\nmany of the dabbling ducks use their flat bills to strain food items from the water , but the big spatulate bill of the northern shoveler is adapted to take this habit to the extreme . flocks of shovelers often swim along with their big bills barely submerged in front of them , straining food from the muddy soup of shallow waters . despite their heavy - set build , shovelers are good fliers ; at large gatherings , groups often are seen taking off , circling the area repeatedly , then alighting again .\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\nnorthern shovelers stay in small groups of up to twenty , but they may travel in larger numbers during migration . they are quiet birds that tolerate human presence and can be relatively tame . ( todd , 1979 . )\nperhaps the most outwardly distinctive of the dabbling ducks thanks to its large spoon - shaped bill , the northern shoveler busily forages head down in shallow wetlands . its uniquely shaped bill has comblike projections along its edges , which filter out tiny crustaceans and seeds from the water . if the bill doesn\u2019t catch your eye , the male ' s blocky color palette sure will , with its bright white chest , rusty sides , and green head . the female is no less interesting with a giant orange bill and mottled brown plumage .\nperhaps the most visible diagnostic characteristic of the northern shoveler is its large spoon - shaped bill , which widens towards the tip and creates a shape unique among north american waterfowl . male northern shovelers have an iridescent green head and neck , white chest and breast and chestnut belly and sides . they have a white stripe extending from the breast along the margin of the gray - brown back , and white flank spots . the wings have a gray - blue shoulder patch , which is separated from a brilliant green speculum by a tapered white stripe . the bill is black in breeding plumage and the legs and feet are orange . female northern shovelers have a light brownish head with a blackish crown and a brownish speckled body . the upper wing coverts are grayish - blue , the greater secondary coverts are tipped with white and the secondaries are brown with a slight greenish sheen . the bill is olive green with fleshy orange in the gape area and speckled with black dots .\none of the coolest things about northern shovelers are their feeding habits . they are dabbling ducks which feed by upending and , you guessed it , dabbling . unlike most other dabbling ducks however , the northern shovelers strain aquatic vegetation , plankton , and tiny invertebrates through the comb - like edges of their shovel - shaped bill . you can see these comb - like structures called lamellae in this photo of the drake ( click on photos for full sized images ) .\nthis bird favors broad , shallow marshes where it can use the comb - like teeth along the edges of its large bill to strain aquatic animals , plants , and seeds from the water . like the two teal , male shovelers wear eclipse plumage until february , much later than ducks whose courtship begins in the fall . though less numerous than in ancient times , the northern shoveler and other marsh ducks have lately become relatively abundant because game departments and private organizations in canada , the united states , and mexico have purchased wetland habitat to ensure their survival .\nduring the breeding season , northern shovelers are found in shallow pools and marshes that have good cover and dry areas nearby for nesting . in the winter they can be found near freshwater marshes , swamps , and flooded areas . ( johnsgard 1965 . )\nnorthern shovelers use shallow wetlands with submerged vegetation during the breeding season , nesting along the margins and in the neighboring grassy fields . outside of the breeding season they forage in saltmarshes , estuaries , lakes , flooded fields , wetlands , agricultural ponds , and wastewater ponds .\nas with other species of dabbling ducks , the northern shoveler is found in a variety of wetland habitats , including prairie potholes , saline wetlands , and lacustrine margins in summer , and in playas , coastal marshes , and rice prairies in winter . although its courtship , nesting behavior , postbreeding biology , and migration are generally similar to that observed in other dabbling ducks , it differs in other aspects of its life history . for example , this is the most territorial of all north american dabbling ducks , and males remain paired with females longer than in other species , in turn affecting life - history parameters such as the mating system and courtship .\nin the fall , northern shovelers migrate to the southern regions of north america , south america , north africa and southern asia to over winter . freshwater and saline marshes , industrial cooling ponds , agricultural wastewater ponds , coastal lagoons , estuaries and mangrove swamps provide wintering habitat .\nnorthern shovelers are a game bird . hunters often shoot them due to their resemblance to mallards . they are often referred to as\nneighbor ' s mallards ,\nbecause some hunters give them to their neighbors and keep the more tasty mallards for themselves . ( todd , 1979 . )\nnorthern shovelers feed by dabbling and sifting in shallow water . seeds of sedges , bulrushes , saw grass , smartweeds , pondweeds , algae and duckweeds , as well as aquatic insects , mollusks and crustaceans , are consumed by filtering water which is taken in at the bill tip and jetted out at the base .\nnorthern shovelers are common and their populations were stable between 1966 and 2015 , according to the north american breeding bird survey . partners in flight estimates the global breeding population at 4 . 5 million . the species rates an 8 out of 20 on the continental concern score , which means it is not on the partners in flight watch list and is a species of low conservation concern . the u . s . fish and wildlife service carefully manages duck hunting , and limits the number of individuals hunters can take every year based on population size . from 2012\u20132016 , hunters have taken an average of 705 , 533 northern shovelers per year .\nlarry , as always \u2014 great post , photo and vids over at 10 , 000 birds ! i had no idea about the lamellae . i mean , i\u2019ve seen them but didn\u2019t understand the full function , nor would i have recognized all of these behaviors as courtship ones . i absolutely love seeing northern shovelers and appreciated knowing more about them .\nit is likely that shovelers are suffering from habitat loss and degradation in asia . they are reported as not good to eat as they have a poor flavour compared to other surface feeding ducks , thus hunting pressure is comparatively low . as for all vagrant bird species , northern shovelers are fully protected in new zealand . this apparently makes little difference come the first weekend of may .\nthe coolest shoveler experience i ever had was at coyote hills in the bay area . scores of shovelers were flying in over the hills to land on one of the big ponds . as they flew over us , they produced a sound that was just like fighter jets . i\u2019ve asked a number of people about that but no one yet has heard it . it must have been a combination of their flight path and wind direction . so odd but so evocative when i remember that moment of standing under their beautiful flight .\nnorthern shovelers inhabit shallow , marshy ponds and wetlands at low elevations . breeding habitat is in open country ( prairie or tundra ) , or lowland woodlands and clearings , always near shallow water . during winter and migration they will use virtually any wetland as long as it has muddy edges . shovelers will forage in sewage ponds and stagnant or polluted waters avoided by other species of ducks .\nnorthern shovelers rarely tip up , but filter mud through their bills , swimming with their heads outstretched , bills skimming the water ' s surface , sifting out food . in flight they stay in tight bunches , weaving to and fro like shorebirds . shovelers are the most territorial of all the north american dabblers , and pair bonds remain intact through incubation , unlike most other species of ducks .\nnorthern shovelers migrate in small isolated flocks of 10 - 25 individuals and travel both day and night . in north america , 2 main migration corridors are favored . one passage extends along the mississippi and missouri valleys , through the central plains to the gulf coast and central mexico . the second migration corridor extends from western canada through the intermountain regions of california and down to the west coast of mexico .\nmembers of the anatidae flock together after breeding in large , multi - species groups at sites with good , safe foraging . at such sites , scoters , canvasbacks , and other diving ducks dive for mussels in the deep sections while dabblers such as gadwall and northern shovelers forage on the surface and in the shallows . on the shore , grazers such as geese and the american widgeon forage on grass .\nit arrives on the breeding grounds from march ( with a migration peak around the end of april ) where it breeds in solitary pairs or loose groups in the northern spring ( chiefly from mid - april to june ) . males undergo a post - breeding moult migration from early - may to early - june ( females moulting one month later ) during which they are flightless for 3 - 4 weeks .\nthe breeding season for northern shovelers begins on the wintering grounds in december , where courtship of hens by a group of drakes commences . by january , the majority of individuals have paired before they start their spring migration and most return to the same breeding grounds they used the previous year . once on the breeding grounds , males defend their females and territory strenuously while the females locate nest sites and begin nest construction .\nthanks for this timely post , and congratulations on the great photos and videos ! i love watching northern shovelers here on the olympic peninsula . until this week , i\u2019d only observed their skimming on the surface and upending foraging behaviors . this week i watched a pair swimming in a circle , each one spinning , with the circle creating a funnel effect . it was fascinating , and i wondered ever since what they were doing .\nmales weigh 17 to 38 ounces ( 470 to 1000g ) and their wingspans are usually around 31 inches ( 227 to 251mm ) . females are 17 to 28 ounces ( 470 to 800g ) . northern shovelers are sexually dimorphic . the males head , neck , and speculum are iridescent green , their chests are white , and the remaining underparts are a bright chestnut . the females are mainly a pattern of buffs and browns . both sexes have pale blue inner forewings and orange - yellow legs and feet . the most distinctive feature is their large spatulate bill . it is twice as wide at the tip than it is at the base . this uniquely shaped bill gives rise to northern shovelers also being called\nspoonbills\n. the ducklings hatch with a typical duckbill that enlarges as the duckling matures . ( goodes and boyer , 1986 ; todd , 1979 )\nmost duck species migrate north of japan to breed , and the shoveler is no exception . it is only rarely encountered during summer . now that autumn is here , however , and migration is underway , more and more shovelers are arriving to join the wigeon and pintail flocks . from early september to november , they are fairly common in hokkaido , passing through on their southbound migration . then , from mid - october onward they become more common in honshu . having spent the winter here , they seem much scarcer in spring , so perhaps they migrate northwards again by way of the continent .\na northern shoveler feeds mainly by drawing water into its bill and then pumping it out through the sides with their tongue , filtering out minute food particles with long comb - like lamellae that line the edge of the bill . the particles mainly consist of tiny crustaceans , molluscs , insects , and their larvae as well as seeds and pieces of leaves and stems of plants . in addition to the food particles they also eat water beetles , small minnows , and snails . social feeding is common . the shovelers are drawn to feeding areas by other birds feeding in an area . shovelers take advantage of the food particles churned to the surface by the other birds swimming or wading in the area . single birds may swim in a tight circle to create a whirlpool to cause food to come to the surface . shovelers are also known to upend or dabble , usually for lengthier periods than other surface feeders , and also dive using their wings to swim underwater in shallow marshes . ( gooders and boyer , 1986 , johnsgard , 1969 , todd , 1979 )\nwith vegetation constituting 60 % its diet , northern shovelers tend to forage on water bodies that are high in plant diversity . vegetated water bodies provide seed from various plants including pondweed , bulrush , various grasses , sedges and algae . the remainder of its diet consists of mollusks , aquatic insects and zooplankton . more specifically , they prefer to forage on animals such as fingernail clams , water boatmans , midge and caddis fly larvae , and copepods and ostracods .\nthe edges of its beak are ridged , and these ridges have a very distinctive function . they serve to filter out food from the surface of the water . although these are very small ridges , they function as sieves , similar to the way the baleen does for some of the whales . whereas most of the dabbling ducks are almost exclusively vegetarian , the shoveler\u2019s diet includes far more animal matter than any of its close relatives . they are able to sieve the surface waters of wet rice fields , marshes , ponds and lakes , and so catch a range of animal matter too , which can include insects , mollusks , crustaceans and even small fish .\nalthough easily recognizable , this species is less well known than other dabbling ducks such as the mallard ( anas platyrhynchos ) , northern pintail ( a . acuta ) , or green - winged teal ( a . crecca ) . even among waterfowl hunters , it rates a low standing , perhaps as much from ignorance of this species as from experience . although this duck has been well studied in north america and the western palearctic , less is known about its biology and habits in asia .\nnorthern shovelers are by no means the only waterfowl to look out for this season . the wild swans , the whooper and bewick\u2019s are already here , working their way into the country from the north , as are the flocks of geese . large numbers of white - fronted and bean geese are already pausing at their traditional sites in hokkaido , and in another week or so they will be heading south for honshu . with them this year are several rarities in the shape of snow geese and swan geese .\nthe unique bill morphology of northern shovelers allows this species to exhibit one of the most unusual feeding behaviors of any duck . its large spoon shaped bill is adapted for sifting large amounts of muddy water . their tongues are highly specialized with extensive comb - like teeth called lamellae , which help filter food items from the water . moving its head side to side , water is drawn in at the tip of the bill , filtered through the lamellae to pick up any food particulate and then expelled at the base .\nnational wildlife refuges are a great place to look for northern shovelers from migration throughout the winter months ( august\u2013april ) . look around the fringes of shallow areas for groups of ducks with their heads down foraging intently . they tend to use more stagnant pools of water than other ducks , so you may also find them in smaller and murkier pools of water . the male ' s bright white chest will surely attract your attention if you don ' t immediately see their giant bill . shovelers are a little less wary than other ducks , sometimes affording closer looks without the need of a spotting scope .\nnorthern shovelers , related to the blue - winged and cinnamon teal , are often referred to as the\nspoonbill\nor\nspoony\nbecause of their unique spatulate shaped bill . breeding males are distinguished by a green / black head , white belly , rufous flanks and black bill . females show similar body patterns as males but tend to be more gray and their bills are orange , speckled with black . at a casual glance , individuals can easily be mistaken for mallards but can be distinguished from them by the large blue patch they display on their shoulder and their iridescent green speculum ( a lustrous colored patch on the wing ) as opposed to the absence of a shoulder patch and violet blue speculum of the mallard\nlarry jordan was introduced to birding after moving to northern california where he was overwhelmed by the local wildlife , forcing him to buy his first field guide just to be able to identify all the species visiting his yard . building birdhouses and putting up feeders brought the avian fauna even closer and he was hooked . larry wanted to share his passion for birds and conservation and hatched the birder ' s report in september of 2007 . his recent focus is on bringing the western burrowing owl back to life in california where he also monitors several bluebird trails . he is a birdlife species champion and contributes to several other conservation efforts , being the webmaster for wintu audubon society and the director of strategic initiatives for the urban bird foundation . he is now co - founder of a movement to create a new revenue stream for our national wildlife refuges with a wildlife conservation pass .\nnorthern shovelers swim through wetlands , often with their bills down in the water , swinging them side to side to filter out tiny crustacean prey . sometimes large groups swim in circles to stir up food . they don ' t forage on land regularly , but they do rest on land and walk along wetland edges . they are fairly social ducks , occurring in groups with shovelers and other dabbling ducks , especially during the winter . during the breeding season , they are less tolerant of other shovelers encroaching on their territory . defensive males often chase intruders on the water and in the air . males court females on the wintering grounds with turns , dips , wing flaps , and head pumping . pairs stay together during the breeding season , although males will occasionally mate with a second female . after breeding , males group together in small flocks before and after molting . males molt their flight feathers before migrating south , becoming flightless for a brief period , when they tend to stay hidden in vegetation especially at night .\ndistribution : this species have a very broad geographic ranges estimated at around 10 , 000 , 000 km2 .\nthis duck is especially found in water bodies rich in aquatic vegetation and in plankton . suitable habitats include well - vegetated lakes , ponds and marshes with muddy shores and substrates in open country - such as grasslands or even tundra - or lowland woodlands and clearings for nesting , as well as oxbow lakes , channels and swamps , notably in the former u . s . s . r . . it also frequents artificial waters bordered by lush grassland such as sewage farms , rice - fields and fish ponds .\nthe autumn migration begins in august , peaks in september , and continues into november . the species is then likely to travel on a broad front , with the western european populations spreading across arabia and into africa .\nbirds of eden in plettenberg bay , south africa is a world - class free flight bird sanctuary that aims to create a safe environment in which to release a large collection of free - flight african birds and miniature monkeys .\n\u00a9 copyright 2016 birds of eden . all rights reserved . hosting by urltoken site development by handmade connections .\ncombined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : spatula clypeata . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nmonval , j - y . and pirot , j - y . 1989 . results of the [ more ]\nscott , d . a . and rose , p . m . 1996 . atlas of anatidae [ more ]\ntrolliet , b , girard , o , benmergui , m . , schricke , [ more ]\naverage weight : m 1 . 5 lbs . , f 1 . 4 lbs .\namong the smaller waterfowl , there are basically two types : there are ducks that dive , and there are those that dabble . diving ducks , such as the tufted duck , scaup , scoter , harlequin and long - tailed duck , are birds of open , deep water , birds of lakes , coasts and the open ocean . dabbling ducks , on the other hand , are birds of ponds and streams , shallow lakes and marshes . some of them can be seen in considerable concentrations in japan during the winter .\nthe females in turn are camouflaged with fine patterning in brown , so that when confined to their nests incubating their eggs they blend in well with marshland vegetation . that camouflage is important in reducing the chances that they may be found by predators \u2014 so you can imagine that the boldly marked males are highly conspicuous in contrast . once the mating game has been played ( and won or lost ) , the males quickly lose their brighter plumes and adopt a drabber version . this is more like the camouflage of the females . they spend several months during the middle and latter part of summer , even into autumn , in this guise , but once winter approaches they start shifting back into brighter colors again .\nthey change their colors and their behavior too , two characteristics that may indeed be linked in some important way . during winter , shovelers and other ducks are most often found in flocks , often very large ones , and in these numbers there is safety . the confusion factor is considerable , because when startled they all take wing together , and the rush of thousands of birds into the air is enough to stall the attack of many a predator . the individual that may have been the focus of the predator\u2019s attentions is suddenly lost in the crowd , and if the predator switches its attentions to another , that too may quickly disappear into the melee .\nsometimes , peregrine falcons are drawn to these wintering sites of duck . however , if any of you have watched a peregrine attacking , you will have noticed that it is more than likely to try its luck on a bird that has for some reason become isolated from the flock , rather than one within the flock itself . from the predator\u2019s perspective it must also consider safety . flying at very high speed into a dense flock of slow - moving , heavy ducks is not a sensible approach . the risks of collision and injury to the predator\u2019s own flying equipment \u2014 its feathers and wings \u2014 are too great .\nrhaps it is that safety - in - numbers aspect of winter flock - life that means the dabbling duck males are able to return to their bright plumage at this time of year , rather than wait for spring . on the other hand , could it be perhaps that there are females among those wintering flocks to be wooed in readiness for the next breeding season ?\neither way , shovelers and other dabbling ducks are steadily assuming their best plumage of the year . wait for a clear , crisp winter\u2019s day , when the sun is low and bright , and you will find that their iridescent colors seem to glow .\nit is worthwhile to take a closer look at the flocks of wintering duck . their bright plumage is inevitably the first feature that catches the eye . however , settle in and wait a while and you will find that their behavior is interesting and an equally effective way of telling them apart .\nmallard and spot - billed ducks are heavily built ducks that dabble away at the surface most of the time . their stubby bills are suited to sieving pond weed from the surface of the water . the pintails , in contrast , have slender , longer necks and they use them to good effect reaching submerged plant food . they often lean forward , submerging their heads and necks to reach the vegetation lower down , while their long pointed tails rise vertically .\nover 2 , 000 volunteers take part in hong kong beach cleanup to help turtles more than 2 , 000 volunteers hit the beaches on an outlying island of hong kong for a mass cleanup sunday as environmental campaigners warned plastic is killing sea turtles and other wildlife . . . .\na wetland works wonders in battered tohoku between the ages of 13 and 17 , i went to cheltenham grammar school for boys in that picturesque spa town on the edge of the cotswold hills in gloucestershire , england . back then my favor . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nioc _ names _ file _ plus - 8 . 2g : 8 . 2\nlandfowl ( galliformes ) and waterfowl ( anseriformes ) together ( galloanseres ) are sister to all other extant non - paleognath birds ( neoaves ) .\nbering i . , n kurile is . ( ne russia ) and aleutian is . ( usa )\nchange english name from mascarene sheldgoose to mauritius sheldgoose with recognition of reunion sheldgoose as a separate species .\nalso called spectacled duck ( sacc ) . bronze - winged duck is the long established name in aviculture .\n( gonzalez et al . 2009 , h & m4 , nacc 2017 - b - 10 )\nand resequence ( gonzalez et al . 2009 , h & m4 , nacc 2017 - b - 10 )\nand resequenced ( gonzalez et al . 2009 , h & m4 , nacc 2017 - b - 10 ) .\nis related to black and mottled ducks and should be recognized ( mccracken et al . 2001 ) ; lump by aou cites only hubbard ( 1977 )\n. treat as monotypic . clinal . sangster et al 2001 , carboneras et al 2017 .\n( livezey 1995 ; collinson et al . 2006 , sangster 2009 ) ; accepted by bou ( sangster et al . 2005 ) & aou ( 2010 , nacc supplement 51 , but english names were mixed up )\nformerly auckland merganser . although limited to auckland island in historical times , fossil record shows that this species was also formerly present on north , south and stewart islands . gill et al 2010 .\n. here treated as a subspecies of hybrid origin . see lozano - jaramillo et al , 2018 . assigned to\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncramp , s . and simmons , k . e . l . ( eds ) . 1977 - 1994 . handbook of the birds of europe , the middle east and africa . the birds of the western palearctic . oxford university press , oxford .\nspatula clypeata ( del hoyo and collar 2014 ) was previously placed in the genus anas .\nashpole , j , butchart , s . , ekstrom , j . , malpas , l .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\naustralia ; bermuda ; botswana ; brunei darussalam ; cameroon ; ecuador ; faroe islands ; french polynesia ; greenland ; guinea ; jamaica ; mozambique ; namibia ; new zealand ; rwanda ; saint pierre and miquelon ; seychelles ; south africa ; svalbard and jan mayen ; venezuela , bolivarian republic of ; virgin islands , british ; virgin islands , u . s . ; zimbabwe\nthe global population is estimated to number c . 6 , 500 , 000 - 7 , 000 , 000 individuals ( wetlands international 2015 ) . the european population is estimated at 170 , 000 - 233 , 000 pairs , which equates to 340 , 000 - 466 , 000 mature individuals ( birdlife international 2015 ) . trend justification : the overall population trend is decreasing , although some populations may be increasing and others have unknown trends ( wetlands international 2015 ) . this species has undergone a small or statistically insignificant increase over the last 40 years in north america ( data from breeding bird survey and / or christmas bird count : butcher and niven 2007 ) . the european population trend is estimated to be stable ( birdlife international 2015 ) .\n. the autumn migration chiefly occurs between september and october ( western europe ) , during which the species is likely to travel on a broad front ( e . g . across arabia and into africa ) ( scott and rose 1996 )\n, as well as oxbow lakes , channels and swamps ( former u . s . s . r . ) ( flint\n, annelids , amphibian spawn , tadpoles , spiders , fish and the vegetative parts of aquatic plants ( e . g . duckweeds ) ( johnsgard 1978 , brown\na study in the czech republic found that fish ponds with a fish stock density of less than 400 kg / ha , water transparency of more than 50 cm , mixed fish stocks ( e . g . tench and pike or perch ) rather than monospecific stocks ( e . g . of carp ) , and systems that include ponds with fish fry ( to provide areas with low fish competition and high invertebrate availability ) are more successful in supporting breeding pairs of this species ( musil 2006 )\n2002 , bartoszewicz and zalewski 2003 ) . it is susceptible to avian influenza ( melville and shortridge 2006 , gaidet\nso may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases . the species may suffer from reproductive impairment as a result of selenium ( se ) accumulation in liver tissues ( selenium contained in sub - surface agricultural drain - water used for wetland management in california led to bioaccumulation of the element in the food chain ) ( paveglio\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nshovelers eat tiny crustaceans , other aquatic invertebrates , and seeds which they filter out of the water with comblike projections ( called lamellae ) along the edge of the bill .\nfemales make a small depression on the ground , generally in areas with short vegetation within 150 feet of water .\nfemales use their body , feet , and bill to make a small depression on the ground about 8 inches wide . the nest scrape is usually surrounded on at least three sides by vegetation and lined with downy feathers .\ndunne , p . ( 2006 ) . pete dunne ' s essential field guide companion . houghton mifflin harcourt , new york , usa .\nehrlich , p . r . , d . s . dobkin and d . wheye ( 1988 ) . the birder ' s handbook . a field guide to the natural history of north american birds , including all species that regularly breed north of mexico . simon and schuster inc . , new york , usa ."]}
{"id": 571, "summary": [{"text": "microsynodontis notata is a species of upside-down catfish endemic to gabon where it occurs in the ogowe river .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it was first described in 2004 by ng heok hee . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "microsynodontis notata", "paragraphs": ["consisted of nine distinct species , eight of which are undescribed . this study reviews the microsynodontis\njustification : microsynodontis notata is only known from the type locality the ezanga river , about midway between lake ezanga and the lower ogowe mainstream in gabon ( ng 2004 ) . the species has recently ( 2004 ) been described and may be more widespread than is currently known . more information is needed on the species distribution before an assessment can be made .\nfroese , rainer , and daniel pauly , eds . ( 2013 ) . species of microsynodontis in fishbase . april 2013 version .\nmicrosynodontis : from the greek mikros , meaning small , and synodontis ; in reference to the small size of members of this genus .\nmicrosynodontis used to be one species microsynodontis batesi . it has been split into nine species . according to brummett , r . it is almost impossible to tell them apart and it is doubtful regarding their species status ( pers . comm . brummett , r . and reid , g . mcg . ) .\nis only known from the lower guinea region ( in the campo , ivindo , ntem , nyong and sanaga river drainages ) . very little material of microsynodontis\nnot found in the lower guinea region are given in table 10 ) . however , the numbers of oral teeth , a character considered diagnostic in other mochokid genera , are not useful in diagnosing species of microsynodontis\nng , heok hee ( 2004 ) .\nthe microsynodontis ( teleostei : siluriformes : mochokidae ) of the lower guinea region , west central africa , with the description of eight new species\n. zootaxa 531 : 1\u201352 .\nthe genus microsynodontis has an interrupted lateral line . the caudal fin is usually rounded or truncate , sometimes with a slight indent . there is a long adipose fin with no fin ray . three pairs of barbels with the mandibular barbels branched .\nheok hee ng ( 2004 ) : the microsynodontis ( teleostei : siluriformes : mochokidae ) of the lower guinea region , west central africa , with the description of eight new species . zootaxa 531 , 1 - 52 : 43 - 50 , urltoken\nheok hee ng ( 2004 ) : the microsynodontis ( teleostei : siluriformes : mochokidae ) of the lower guinea region , west central africa , with the description of eight new species . zootaxa 531 , 1 - 52 : 2 - 2 , urltoken\nng , h . h . , 2004 . the microsynodontis ( teleostei : siluriformes : mochokidae ) of the lower guinea region , west central africa , with the description of eight new species . zootaxa 531 : 1 - 52 . ( ref . 52369 )\n6b . eyes without free orbital margin ; 12 to 14 principal caudal - fin rays ; tail truncate or rounded ; 6 or 7 pectoral - fin rays ( typically 6 ) ; lateral mandibular barbels with single , gracile branches at each point along length ( fig . 27a ) \u2026 microsynodontis\nmicrosynodontis species express sexual dimorphism . males can be distinguished by the presence of a conical genital papilla immediately posterior to the anus ; in females , this papilla is smaller and has a flattened tip . males also have a much denser aggregation of tubercles on the head . in m . hirsutus these tubercles are longer than in the other species .\n( fide matthes , 1964 ) , but is a valid species . the freshwater ichthyofauna of the lower guinea region ( here defined as the portion of west central africa delineated by the cross river drainage to the north and the chiloango river drainage to the south ; fide roberts , 1975 ) is one of the least explored in africa ( teugels & gu\u00e9gan , 1994 ) . microsynodontis batesii\n) from within several closely situated localities within the ntem river drainage in northern gabon and southern cameroon leads me to conclude that although intraspecific variation in color ( and certainly in biometrics ) exists , color patterns are useful diagnostic characters once the degree of intraspecific variation is understood . furthermore , diagnostic characters not previously identified , some of which have been used in other mochokid genera , were found to be useful for distinguishing species of microsynodontis\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe root of the current tree connects the organisms featured in this tree to their containing group and the rest of the tree of life . the basal branching point in the tree represents the ancestor of the other groups in the tree . this ancestor diversified over time into several descendent subgroups , which are represented as internal nodes and terminal taxa to the right .\nyou can click on the root to travel down the tree of life all the way to the root of all life , and you can click on the names of descendent subgroups to travel up the tree of life all the way to individual species .\nfor more information on tol tree formatting , please see interpreting the tree or classification . to learn more about phylogenetic trees , please visit our phylogenetic biology pages .\nthe mochokidae are a family of african catfishes known commonly as \u2018squeakers\u2019 and \u2018upside - down catfishes . \u2019 these common names refer to some unusual habits of certain members of the large genus synodontis . the name squeaker refers to the fact that , when agitated , many species in the genus are capable of making a squeaking noise by stridulation of the pectoral spine against the pectoral girdle ( jubb , 1967 ) ; stridulation is also apparent in mochokiella paynei and some species of atopochilus .\nfossil mochokids , of the genus synodontis , have been found in deposits from eastern and northern africa dating to at least the early miocene ( at least 20 mya ) ( stewart , 2001 ) . interestingly , fragments of pectoral spines of synodontis dating from the early oligocene have been found in oman , an area where mochokids do not exist today ( otero & gayet , 2001 ) . fossil mochokids outside of the genus synodontis are presently unknown .\nlittle is known about the ecology of most mochokids . what is known pertains mostly to diet and is biased towards species of synodontis . stomach contents from synodontis have included insects , nematodes , crustaceans , mollusks , annelids , seeds , algae , diatoms , fish scales and , incidentally , sand ( bishai & abu gideiri , 1965a ; bishai & abu gideiri , 1965b ; winemiller & kelso - winemiller , 1996 ; sanyanga , 1998 ) . from observations of stomach contents , the diet of most mochokids is probably very similar ; that is , they are omnivores . for some of the larger sucker - mouthed species ( i . e . , atopochilus and euchilichthys ) the stomach contents contain a high proportion of silt , algae and detritus . for these taxa it seems likely that scraping or grazing is the predominant method of feeding .\nlateral view of atopochilus vogti , illustrating typical body shape in sucker - mouthed mochokids ; cu 93752 . \u00a9\npigmentation and patterning of mochokid skin is also diverse . mochokids are popular in the pet trade because they have showy colors , sharply contrasting patterns like stripes and polka - dots and , quite often , extravagant fins . as some of the largest and most active mochokids , species of synodontis display an amazing array of patterns and pigmentation that may , in some cases , serve as visual cues to conspecifics . it might also be true that the bright , contrasting coloration found in some species serves as a warning to predators . like many catfishes , some mochokids possess specialized poison glands for delivering offensive chemicals along with a \u2018stick\u2019 by the pectoral spine ; anecdotal accounts indicate that these wounds can be very painful . however , field studies that might demonstrate function of these varied patterns have not been done .\nlateral view of synodontis ornatipinnis , illustrating the striking patterns seen in some species of synodontis ; cu 91403 . \u00a9\nmany mochokid species exhibit obvious sexual dimorphism . for example , many species in the genus chiloglanis show dimorphism of the caudal and anal fins ( roberts , 1989 ; seegers , 1996 ; friel & vigliotta , 2006 ) ; some chiloglanis also display sexual dimorphism of the cleithral process , wherein males possess a greatly enlarged process shielding the flank . in the closely related genus atopochilus , sexual dimorphism of the anal fin is sometimes evident . some mochokids exhibit spiny ornamentation of the skull roof bones , opercular series and pectoral girdle ( friel & vigliotta , 2006 ) . in the case of synodontis acanthoperca , a spine found at the rear of the opercle is , itself , sexually dimorphic . the spines of males are much larger than those of females . this is also true for mochokiella paynei ( personal observation ) , which was previously unknown to possess opercular spines or exhibit sexual dimorphism .\ndorsal view of heads illustrating sexual dimorphism of the opercular spine in synodontis acanthoperca : a . cu 89005 , male holotype , 44 . 1 mm sl ; b . cu 89006 , female paratype , 40 . 4 mm sl . the pectoral spines in both specimens have been removed from the images to make the margins of the head more distinct against the background . scale bar equals 1 mm . \u00a9\nvigliotta ( 2008 ) provides several synapomorphies as diagnostic features for the mochokidae including : absense of the ascending process of meckel\u2019s cartilage ; a shortened horizontal process of meckel\u2019s cartilage ; coronomeckalian extremely reduced or even absent ; absence of a coronoid process ; absence of an interhyal ; presence of a pectoral locking foramen ( absence / reversal in most suckermouthed species ) ; seven pelvic - fin rays ; fusion of upper caudal - fin elements ( absence / reversal in atopochilus and euchilichthys ) ; a reduced number of mandibular sensory canal pores ( 3 or fewer ) ; and distinctive , ramified inner and outer mandibular barbels ( absence / reversal in suckermouthed mochokids where these barbels are partially or completely incorporated into an expanded lower lip ) .\n1a . lips and barbels modified into oral disc ( fig . 27c ) ; postcleithral process short ( fig . 22c ) ; 5 infraorbitals ( figs . 2c , 4b ) ; pelvic - fin origin at vertical at end of dorsal - fin base . . . 2\n1b . lips and barbels not modified into oral disc ; postcleithral process quite long ( fig . 22b ) ; 4 infraorbitals figs . 2b , 4a ) ; pelvic - fin origin beyond end of dorsal - fin base . . . 5\n2a . mandibular teeth bunched ( in bouquet ) at midline ( fig . 3d in friel and vigliotta , 2008 ) in or spread across mouth opening in one or two discrete rows ( fig . 3e\u2013f in friel and vigliotta , 2008 ) ; eyes without free orbital margin ; mandibular sensory - canal absent ; 4 to 6 dorsalfin rays ( typically 5 ) ; 5 to 7 branchiostegal rays ( typically 5 or 6 ) \u2026 chiloglanis\n2b . mandibular teeth spread across mouth opening in more than two discrete rows ( fig . 3a\u2013c in friel and vigliotta , 2008 ) ; eyes with free orbital margin ; mandibular sensory canal present , with 2 pores on each side ; 6 to 7 dorsal - fin rays ; 7 to 8 branchiostegal rays . . . 3\n3a . small anteriorly directed pocket underneath lower lip produced by folds of skin ( fig . 4a in friel and vigliotta , 2008 ) ; width of mandibular tooth rows less than 66 % width of paired premaxillae ( fig . 3a in friel and vigliotta , 2008 ) ; caudal fin emarginate ; gas bladder extremely reduced to two small bulbs ( fig . 5 ) \u2026 atopodontus\n3b . small anteriorly directed pocket underneath lower lip absent ( fig . 4b in friel and vigliotta , 2008 ) ; width of mandibular tooth rows more than 66 % width of paired premaxillae ( fig . 3b\u2013c in friel and vigliotta , 2008 ) ; caudal fin forked ; gas bladder only modestly reduced ( fig . 3c ) . . . 4\n4a . mandibular teeth spatulate and unicuspid ( fig . 10c ) ; large posterior pectoral - spine serrae ; one or only a few pores at sites along the cephalic sensory canals ; fewer than 40 vertebrae \u2026 atopochilus\n4b . mandibular teeth with lengthwise keel creating trowel shape and sometimes bicuspid from wear ( fig . 10a ) ; small posterior pectoral - spine serrae ; several pores at various sites along the cephalic sensory canals ; more than 40 vertebrae \u2026 euchilichthys\n5a . s - shaped auxiliary dentary teeth present ( fig . 10a , c\u2013f ) ; premaxillary teeth differentiated by shape and size front to back ; lips plicate ( with folds at corners of mouth ) . . . 6\n5b . s - shaped auxiliary dentary teeth absent ( fig . 10b ) ; premaxillary teeth showing little , if any , differentiation from front to back ; lips papillose , but not plicate ( without folds ) . . . 7\n6a . eyes with free orbital margin ; 17 principal caudal - fin rays ( only 13 in synodontis contracta ) ; tail forked ; 6 to 10 pectoral - fin rays ( usually 8 or 9 ) ; lateral mandibular barbels with single , gracile branches at each point along length or doubly branched ( fig . 27a\u2013b ) \u2026 synodontis\n7a . dorsal surface of the head and nuchal shield covered by large ridges and spinous projections ; cleithrum bearing spine in males ; rounded , blunt postcleithral process ; anus and urogenital opening distant ; free orbital margin present ; gill openings open to isthmus ; tips of mandibular teeth spatulate ; medial mandibular barbels with multiple , thick branches at each point along length ( fig . 27b ) ; 8 to 9 pectoral - fin rays ; 17 caudal - fin rays ; more than 40 vertebrae \u2026 acanthocliethron\n7b . dorsal surface of the head and nuchal shield without ridges and spinous projections ; cleithrum without spine in males ; pointed postcleithral process ; anus and urogenital opening very close ; free orbital margin absent ; gill openings restricted to sides of the head ; tips of mandibular teeth pointed ; medial mandibular barbels with single , gracile branches at each point along length ( fig . 27a ) ; 5 to 7 pectoral - fin rays ; 13 or 15 caudal - fin rays ; fewer than 36 vertebrae . . . 8\nbishai h . m . and y . b . abu gideiri . 1965a . studies on the biology of genus synodontis at khartoum . i . age and growth . hydrobiologia 26 : 85\u009697 .\nbishai h . m . and y . b . abu gideiri . 1965b . studies on the biology of genus synodontis at khartoum . ii . food and feeding habits . hydrobiologia 26 : 98\u0096113 .\nbishai h . m . and y . b . abu gideiri . 1968 . studies on the biology of genus synodontis at khartoum . iii . reproduction . hydrobiologia 31 : 193\u0096202 .\nchapman , l . j . , l . kaufman , and c . a . chapman . 1994 . why swim upside - down - a comparative study of 2 mochokid catfishes . copeia 1994 : 130\u0096135 .\nday , j . j . , and m . wilkinson . 2006 . on the origin of the synodontis catfish species flock from lake tanganyika . biology letters 2 : 548\u0096552 .\nde weirdt , d . , e . vreven , and y . fermon . 2008 . synodontis ngouniensis , a new species ( siluriformes : mochikidae ) from ngouni\u00e9 and nyanga basins , gabon and republic of congo . ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 19 ( 2 ) : 121\u0096128 .\nferraris , c . j . , jr . 2007 . checklist of catfishes , recent and fossil ( osteichthyes : siluriformes ) , and catalogue of siluriform primary types . zootaxa 1418 : 1\u0096628 .\nfriel , j . p . , and j . p . sullivan . 2008 . synodontis woleuensis ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) , a new species of catfish from gabon and equatorial guinea , africa . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 157 : 3\u009612 .\nfriel , j . p . and t . r . vigliotta . 2006 . synodontis acanthoperca , a new species from the og\u00f4ou\u00e9 river system , gabon with comments on spiny ornamentation and sexual dimorphism in mochokid catfishes ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) . zootaxa 1125 : 45\u009656 .\nfriel , j . p . and t . r . vigliotta . 2008 . atopodontus adriaensi , a new genus and species of african suckermouth catfish from the og\u00f4ou\u00e9 and nyanga river systems of gabon ( siluriformes mochokidae ) . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 157 : 13\u009623 .\njubb , r . a . 1967 . freshwater fishes of southern africa . cape town , amsterdam , balkema , 248 pp .\nkoblm\u00fcller , s . , c . sturmbauer , e . verheyen , a . meyer , and w . salzburger . 2006 . mitochondrial phylogeny and phylogeography of east african squeaker catfishes ( siluriformes : synodontis ) . bmc evolutionary biology 6 : 49 .\nmusschoot , t . , and p . lal\u00e8y\u00e8 . 2008 . designation of a neotype for synodontis schall ( bloch and schneider , 1801 ) and description of two new species of synodontis ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) . journal of natural history 42 ( 17 - 18 ) : 1303\u00961331 .\nng , h . h . and r . m . bailey . 2006 . chiloglanis productus , a new species of suckermouth catfish ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) from zambia . occasional papers of the university of michigan museum of zoology 738 : 1\u009613 .\notero , o . and m . gayet . 2001 . palaeoichthyofaunas from the lower oligocene and miocene of the arabian plate : palaeoecological and palaeobiogeographical implications . palaeogeography palaeoclimatology palaeoecology 165 : 141\u0096169 .\nroberts , t . r . 1989 . systematic revision and description of new species of suckermouth catfishes ( chiloglanis , mochokidae ) from cameroun . proceedings of the california academy of sciences series 4 , 46 : 151\u0096178 .\nsanyanga , r . a . 1998 . food composition and selectivity of synodontis zambezensis ( pisces : mochokidae ) in lake kariba , and the ecological implications . hydrobiologia 361 : 89\u009699 .\nsato , t . 1986 . a brood parasitic catfish of mouthbrooding cichlid fishes in lake tanganyika . nature 323 : 58\u009659 .\nseegers , l . 1996 . the fishes of the lake rukwa drainage . mus\u00e9e royal de l\u0092afrique centrale , annales , sciences zoologiques 278 : 1\u0096407 .\nseegers , l . 2008 . the catfishes of africa . a handbook for identification and maintenance . aqualog verlag , rodgau , germany . 604 pp .\nstewart , k . m . 2001 . the freshwater fish of neogene africa ( miocene - pleistocene ) : systematics and biogeography . fish and fisheries ( oxford ) 2 : 177\u0096230\nvigliotta , t . r . 2008 . a phylogenetic study of the african catfish family mochokidae ( osteichthyes , ostariophysi , siluriformes ) , with a key to genera . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 157 : 73\u0096136 .\nwinemiller , k . o . , and l . c . kelso - winemiller . 1996 . comparative ecology of catfishes of the upper zambezi river floodplain . journal of fish biology 49 : 1043\u00961061 .\nwisenden , b . d . 1999 . alloparental care in fishes . reviews in fish biology and fisheries 9 : 45\u009670 .\nwright , j . j . and l . m . page . 2006 . taxonomic revision of the lake tanganyikan synodontis ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) . the bulletin of the florida museum of natural history 46 : 99\u0096154 .\nwright , j . j . and l . m . page . 2008 . a new species of synodontis ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) from tributaries of the kasai river in northern angola . copeia 2008 ( 2 ) : 294\u0096300 .\nthis media file is licensed under the creative commons attribution - noncommercial license - version 3 . 0 .\ncorrespondence regarding this page should be directed to john p . friel at and thomas r . vigliotta at\n. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the\n. african squeaker and suckermouth catfishes . version 02 march 2009 ( under construction ) .\neach tol branch page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a branch of the tree of life . the major distinction between a branch and a leaf of the tree of life is that each branch can be further subdivided into descendent branches , that is , subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\ngreek , mikros = small + greek , synodon = with the teeth growing all together ( ref . 45335 )\nspecies name from the latin notatus , meaning marked , in reference to the dark elongate spots frequently present in this species ( ref . 52369 )\nafrica : endemic to the lower ogowe river in gabon ( ref . 52369 , 81251 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 5 . 4 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 52369 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 2 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 6 - 7 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 10 - 12 ; vertebrae : 35 - 37 . diagnosis : body with numerous dark brown elongate spots ; caudal peduncle deep , 9 . 6 - 11 . 9 % sl ; anterior edge of pectoral spine with anteriorly directed serrations ; caudal fin rounded ; body moderately slender , adipose fin moderately long , its base 28 . 5 - 34 . 5 % sl ; snout length 38 . 3 - 48 . 4 % sl ; eye diameter 17 . 2 - 25 . 7 % sl ; both sexes with short ( < 0 . 1 mm ) tubercles on dorsal and lateral surfaces of head ; supracleithral process not reaching to vertical through posterior - most tip of nuchal shield ; dorsal spine curved ( ref . 81251 ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5002 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01318 ( 0 . 00577 - 0 . 03011 ) , b = 2 . 96 ( 2 . 77 - 3 . 15 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 0 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\neschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nsmallest 27mm , largest 100mm , average 52mm , most commonly 60mm . all sl .\nhas this page been useful ? please donate to our monthly hosting costs and keep us free for everyone to enjoy ! explore our youtube channel , facebook page or follow us on twitter .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 urltoken , part of the aquatic republic network group of websites . all rights reserved . cite this website . by accessing this site you agree to our terms and conditions of use . our privacy policy .\nsmallest 27mm , largest 760mm , average 198mm , most commonly 100mm . all sl .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\n. for further details on possible inaccuracies in the list see sources & caveats .\neschmeyer , w . n . and r . fricke , and r . van der laan ( eds ) .\n. the freshwater fish lists are based on an electronic version downloaded 3 december 2015 . the current version can be accessed\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 / / en\n- a project to provide indexing and links for all known species as the baseline dataset for studies of global biodiversity . all links below take you to pages on the urltoken site .\npage created by : eli , 15 . 08 . 07 , last modified by : lei , 20 . 11 . 08\nwhat ' s new | tropical fish home | rainforests | news | search | about | contact copyright rhett butler 1994 - 2013 the copy for urltoken was written in 1994 - 1995 . therefore some information such as scientific names may be out of date . for this , i apologize . feel free to send corrections to me .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nbrummett , r . , mbe tawe , a . n . , dening touokong , c . , reid , g . m . , snoeks , j . staissny , m . , moelants , t . , mamonekene , v . , ndodet , b . , ifuta , s . n . b . , chilala , a . , monsembula , r . , ibala zamba , a . , opoye itoua , o . , pouomogne , v . , darwall , w . & smith , k .\na lower guinea endemic , only known from the type locality the ezanga river , about midway between lake ezanga and the lower ogowe mainstream in gabon ( ng 2004 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nspecies is often difficult , primarily because of the large amounts of purported variation observed in biometrics and color ( poll & gosse , 1963 ; matthes , 1964 ) ; one outcome of this observation was the synonymy of m . christyi\nby matthes ( 1964 ) . these conclusions were drawn without the examination of large series from a single locality ( or at least multiple closely situated localities within the same drainage ) , and the high degree of variation reported is due to confusion between intraspecific and interspecific differences . however , after examining a large series of m . batesii\nthe variation in color is largely of an ontogenetic nature , and its use as a more reliable diagnostic character is possible once the limits of variation are understood . the ontogenetic change in color pattern is most marked for m . batesii\n, and consists of changes in both the pigmentation pattern of the abdomen and the shape of the light - colored markings on the body . in the former case , many juvenile specimens have a dense aggregation of melanophores concentrated in a series of evenly distributed large spots on the abdomen that fade with age ( fig . 1c ) , and in the latter case , the dorsal and ventral light - colored markings may coalesce to form complete bands encircling the body , especially in the region of the caudal peduncle ( fig . 1c ) . the light - colored markings on the ventral third of the body in juvenile specimens are also more vermiform ( fig . 1c ) . in any case , m . batesii\n( and all other species from the lower guinea region ) of all sizes always possess a light - colored band encircling the nape , which is absent in m . christyi\nof all sizes examined , even in preserved material . therefore , the absence of this band is a useful diagnostic character for distinguishing m . christyi\nin having a deeper caudal peduncle ( 10 . 0 - 11 . 8 % sl vs . 5 . 8 - 9 . 2 ) . the distributions of the two species also suggest that they are different : m . christyi\nfrom the middle congo river drainage was available for study , but the examination of all material available suggests that there are no species in common between the middle congo river drainage and those of the lower guinea region . this is so even when the tributaries of the congo and the smaller coastal drainages of the lower guinea region are immediately adjacent , as in the case of the material identified as m . batesii\nfrom the dja river ( a tributary of the congo river flowing approximately southwest in southern cameroon and located adjacent to the ntem river drainage ) , which is not conspecific with m . batesii\nthis study reveals the importance of some biometric measurements as diagnostic characters . in particular , two of the species described here , m . nannoculus\n, are distinguished from congeners chiefly by biometric measurements . bivariate analyses ( ancova ) of the regression lines of eye diameter ( fig . 17 ) , snout length ( fig . 18 ) , caudal peduncle depth ( fig . 19 ) , adipose basal length ( fig . 20 ) and caudal - fin length ( fig . 21 ) on sl are significantly different ( given the number of taxa used in the analysis , it was not possible to display all of them on the biplots without obscuring key patterns and only the key taxa for each biometric value are used in figs . 17 - 21 ) . the p values of the analyses are given in table 11 , and it can be seen that regression lines are all significantly different for the eye diameter of m . nannoculus\nspecies can be distinguished from females by the presence of a conical genital papilla immediately posterior to the anus ( females have a smaller papilla that is distally flattened ) and ( especially in mature adults of all lower guinea species except for m . emarginatus\n) by a much denser aggregation of tubercles on the dorsal and lateral surfaces of the head , especially in the region on the sides of the head from the snout to the preopercle . the presence of tubercles has been used as a diagnostic character in the mochokidae , e . g . in synodontis\n. the results of this study indicate that tubercle shape is useful in diagnosing at least one species , m . hirsutus\n, from its congeners . although the number and density of tubercles differ both sexually and ontogenetically , the tubercles retain their characteristic shape in specimens of both sexes and all sizes in m . hirsutus\nspecies are occasionally imported for the aquarium trade and are not considered rare , very little is known of their biology , from either field or aquarium observations . this is probably because these fishes , like many other small fishes in ichthyological expeditions , are often overlooked and are thus not particularly well represented in collections . with the number of species identified in this study , it is clear that this element of the ichthyofauna ( the miniature species ) is in need of further study .\n1 . caudal fin emarginate ( fig . 9a ) ( ogoou\u00e9 river drainage ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m . emarginatus\n- caudal fin rounded or truncate ( figs . 9b - c ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2\n2 . anterior edge of pectoral spine smooth ( ivindo river drainage ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m . laevigatus\n- anterior edge of pectoral spine serrated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3\n3 . body always without numerous dark brown elongate spots ; caudal peduncle slender ( 5 . 8 - 9 . 8 % sl ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4\n- body frequently with numerous dark brown elongate spots ; caudal peduncle deep ( 9 . 6 - 11 . 9 % sl ) ( ogoou\u00e9 river drainage ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m . notatus\n4 . adipose - fin base long ( 34 . 4 - 41 . 6 % sl ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5\n- adipose fin - base short ( 21 . 3 - 33 . 8 % sl ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6\n5 . dorsal and lateral surfaces of head with long tubercles in both sexes ( up to 0 . 3 mm long ) ; dorsal spine straight ( ntem river drainage ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m . hirsutus\n- dorsal and lateral surfaces of head with small rounded tubercles in both sexes ( not more than 0 . 1 mm long ) ; dorsal spine gently curved ( campo , ivindo , ntem , nyong , ogoou\u00e9 and sanaga river drainages ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m . batesii\n6 . supracleithral process reaching to vertical through posteriormost tip of nuchal shield ; eye large ( 19 . 3 - 25 . 0 % hl ) ( ogoou\u00e9 river drainage ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m . vigilis\n- supracleithral process not reaching to vertical through posteriormost tip of nuchal shield ; eye small ( 10 . 6 - 19 . 6 % hl ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7\n7 . snout long ( 50 . 0 - 53 . 3 % hl ) ( okano river drainage ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m . nasutus\n8 . body slender ( 13 . 7 - 15 . 0 % sl ) ; anterior edge of pectoral spine with retrorse ( proximally directed ) serrations along proximal half ; eye larger ( 13 . 9 - 19 . 6 % hl ) ( ivindo river drainage ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m . armatus\n- body deep ( 17 . 6 - 19 . 9 % sl ) ; anterior edge of pectoral spine with anteriorly directed serrations along proximal half ; eye smaller ( 10 . 6 - 12 . 2 % hl ) ( ntem river drainage ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m . nannoculus\nno known copyright restrictions apply . see agosti , d . , egloff , w . , 2009 . taxonomic information exchange and copyright : the plazi approach . bmc research notes 2009 , 2 : 53 for further explanation .\nis restricted to the rivers of western africa ( from the saint paul river drainage south and east to the congo river drainage ) , and is comprised of small mochokid catfishes diagnosed by the following synapomorphies : a narrow mesethmoid , lack of free orbital margin , transverse ventral fold of branchiostegal membranes , slender cleithral process , and a rounded or truncate caudal fin ( howes , 1980 ) .\nfor a forthcoming publication on the fishes of the lower guinea region ( ng , in prep . ) , it was found that material from the region previously identified as m . batesii\nas their coloration can be highly variable within each species , and color patterns may even change as a fish grows ; to identify based on coloration , an understanding of the limits of variation is necessary .\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution , share alike cc by - sa licence .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\ncrowd sourced content that is contributed to world heritage encyclopedia is peer reviewed and edited by our editorial staff to ensure quality scholarly research articles .\nby using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy . world heritage encyclopedia\u2122 is a registered trademark of the world public library association , a non - profit organization .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\nplusieurs esp\u00e8ces de la famille mochokidae sont import\u00e9es pour les aquariums , mais peu se reproduisent r\u00e9guli\u00e8rement en captivit\u00e9 . de nouvelles et rares esp\u00e8ces de la famille mochokidae sont fr\u00e9quemment introduites sur le march\u00e9 .\ndistribution : l\u2019afrique . nageoire adipeuse g\u00e9n\u00e9ralement tr\u00e8s grande ; anale \u00e0 moins de 10 rayons ; les \u00e9pines des nageoires dorsale et pectorale sont g\u00e9n\u00e9ralement forte , trois paires de barbillons sensitifs tactiles , barbeaux nasales barbillons absents et le mandibulaire peut avoir de nombreuses branches , d\u2019autres esp\u00e8ces poss\u00e8dent des l\u00e8vres et une partie de barbillons modifi\u00e9 dans une ventouse orale ( atopochilus , chiloglanis et euchilichthys ) , longueur maximale 72 cm .\n209 esp\u00e8ces dans la famille mochokidae . liste nominale des esp\u00e8ces appartenant \u00e0 la famille mochokidae\n6 synodontis petricola ' dwarf ' 1\n- 1 . 5\naquarium fish $ 52 . 99\n3 synodontis ocellifer 1 - 1 . 5 inch aquarium catfish $ 19 . 99\n2 3 / 4\n- 3 1 / 4\ninch ! ! ! synodontis petricola tanganyika catfish $ 36 . 95\n3 synodontis decorus 1 - 1 . 5 inch aquarium catfish $ 19 . 99\n( 1 ) synodontis angelicas x eupterus catfish 1 . 0 inch african cichlid $ 9 . 99\n3 synodontis eupterus 1 - 1 . 5 inch aquarium catfish $ 19 . 99\nsynodontis petricolas - 1 - 1 . 5 inch - live rare fish $ 10 . 99\n12 synodontis petricola ' dwarf ' 1\n- 1 . 5\naquarium fish $ 79 . 99\n2 synodontis multipunctatus 3\n( 1 m , 1 f ) aquarium catfish $ 49 . 99\n( 1 ) lace synodontis cat 1 . 0 inch malawi african cichlid guaranteed $ 9 . 99\n3 upside - down synodontis 1 - 1 . 5inch aquarium catfish $ 19 . 99\n2 synodontis petricola 3\n( 1 m , 1 f ) aquarium catfish $ 44 . 99\n6 upside - down synodontis 1 - 1 . 5inch aquarium catfish $ 39 . 99\n6 synodontis eupterus 1 - 1 . 5 inch aquarium catfish $ 39 . 99\n( 1 ) 2 - 3\nsynodontis schoutedeni wild live freshwater tropical african catfish $ 30 . 00\n( 1 ) 1 - 1 . 5\ndwarf petricola tr synodontis lucipinnis live freshwater tropical $ 15 . 00\n6 synodontis decorus 1 - 1 . 5 inch aquarium catfish $ 39 . 99\n( 1 ) 3 - 5\nsynodontis pardalis wild rare live freshwater tropical african catfish $ 135 . 00\n6 synodontis ocellifer 1 - 1 . 5 inch aquarium catfish $ 39 . 99\n( 1 ) 2 - 3\nscissortail syno wild synodontis soloni live freshwater tropical fish $ 35 . 00\n7 synodontis petricola ' dwarf ' 1\n- 1 . 5\naquarium fish $ 59 . 99\ngiant synodontis eupterus - 8 - 10 inch - live rare fish $ 99 . 99\n5 x synodontis nigriventris - 2 - 2 . 5 inch - school of blotched upside down fish ! $ 39 . 99\nsynodontis eupterus - 1 - 1 . 5 inch - live rare fish $ 8 . 99\nsynodontis nigriventris - 2 - 2 . 5 inch - blotched upside down fish ! $ 9 . 99\nsynodontis eupterus - 4 - 5 inch - live rare fish $ 24 . 99\nrare dabola bichir 2 . 5\n- 3\n! ! ! polypterus sp . dabola $ 40 . 00\n( 3 pack ) synodontis ocellifer catfish 1 . 5\n$ 18 . 00\nx20 assorted catfish package - freshwater live fish * free shipping $ 159 . 99\nx25 african cichlid assorted / x5 pleco assorted / x5 catfish assorted * package * $ 159 . 99\nx25 african cichlid assorted / x10 catfish assorted - freshwater live - free shi $ 159 . 50\nx20 assorted catfish 1\n- 2\neach + x10 assorted plants - freshwater package $ 159 . 50\nx12 upside down cat fish 1\n- 2\neach - fresh water live fish - free shipping $ 76 . 99\nx50 african cichlid assorted / x12 pleco assorted / x12 catfish assorted package * $ 238 . 99\nx50 african cichlid assorted / x20 pleco assorted / x20 catfish assorted package * $ 278 . 99\nx50 african cichlid assorted / x5 pleco assorted / x5 catfish assorted * package * $ 199 . 99\nx25 african cichlid assorted - x8 figure eight puffer - x10 assorted catfish $ 179 . 50\ncompare prices with our new price comparison engine ! just type in a specific synodontis names below and we ' ll show you prices from some of the leading retailers on the internet ."]}
{"id": 573, "summary": [{"text": "hypselobarbus thomassi ( the red canarese barb ) is a critically endangered species of ray-finned fish in the genus hypselobarbus .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is endemic to the western ghats in karnataka and kerala , india .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this species is potentially a very large fish , growing to 100 cm ( 39 in ) tl , possibly even larger . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "hypselobarbus thomassi", "paragraphs": ["no one has contributed data records for hypselobarbus thomassi yet . learn how to contribute .\nthe red canarese barb , hypselobarbus thomassi ( day , 1874 ) is an endemic cyprinid fish of the rivers . . .\ntaxonomic notes : hypselobarbus thomassi was described by day ( 1874 ) from south canara ( dakshin kannada ) , karnataka state , india .\ntaxonomic notes : hypselobarbus thomassi was described by day ( 1874 ) from south canara ( dakshin kannada ) , karnataka state , india .\ndistribution , threats and conservation status of < i > hypselobarbus thomassi < / i > ( day , 1874 ) , a poorly k . . .\nin recent times , though the genus hypselobarbus has been studied substantially , the identities of i . . .\nhypselobarbus pulchellus , is a poorly known species , with very few verifiable records since its des . . .\n{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . hypselobarbus thomassi ( day , 1874 ) . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 10 , 2018 ] .\nrediscovery of < i > hypselobarbus pulchellus < / i > , an endemic and threatened barb ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) . . .\ncepf western ghats special series : re - description of < i > hypselobarbus lithopidos < / i > ( teleostei : cypri . . .\nidentity of < i > hypselobarbus pulchellus < / i > ( day , 1870 ) - an addendum to knight et al . ( 2013 a and b )\na species of hypselobarbus with a moderately elongate body ; two pairs of barbels ; 31\u201334 scales lateral line scales ; last unbranched dorsal fin ray weak , articulated ; each scale with a red lunule and dark base ; no bands on body .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nwas described by day ( 1874 ) from south canara ( dakshin kannada ) , karnataka state , india .\n2004 ) . there seems to be a uncertainty regarding the exact distribution of this species . apart from nethravati river ( which is around the type locality ) ( menon 2004 ) ,\nfrom this river are not correct and are cases of misidentifications ( robin abraham pers . comm ) . given the taxonomic ambiguities existing within the genus\n, nor are they any recent records from anywhere in kerala or karnataka . it is also known that an extensive search in south canara turned up only one specimen ( menon 2004 ) .\nit inhabits fast - flowing streams and rivers below the ghats , in forested areas ( menon 1999 ) .\nno information on use or trade . however like all large barbs within the genus\n. as there are no recent records of this species , it is to determined whether these are attributed to large scale population declines throughout its range or taxonomic issues . the nethravati and kabini rivers of karnataka and kerala , where the species might be existing , needs to be surveyed extensively .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngreek , hypselos = high + latin , barbus = barbel ( ref . 45335 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 100 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 4832 )\nknight , j . d . m . , a . rai and r . k . p . d ' souza , 2013 . on the identities of barbus mussullah sykes and cyprinus curmuca hamilton with notes on the status of gobio canarensis jerdon ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) . zootaxa 3750 ( 3 ) : 201 - 215 . ( ref . 94728 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00933 ( 0 . 00431 - 0 . 02019 ) , b = 3 . 02 ( 2 . 85 - 3 . 19 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( assuming tm > 4 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high to very high vulnerability ( 68 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nrecords by other methods ( net , hand line , spear , bow fishing etc . )\n' ; document . write ( amazon ) ; document . write ( google ) ; } / / - - >\n\u00a9 2017 fishing world urltoken e . u . | world records freshwater fishing\u00ae is a registered trademark | realization : grafikbyfilters\nworld records freshwater fishing by heinz machacek is licensed under a creative common attribution - noncommercial - noderivs 3 . 0 unported license .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nfroese , r . and d . pauly . editors . 2011 . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . < a href = ' urltoken ' target = ' _ blank ' > www . fishbase . org , version ( 10 / 2011 ) . < / a >\n< a target = ' _ blank ' href = ' urltoken ' > iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . exported on 12 january 2012 < / a >\nred list category & criteria : least concern ver 3 . 1 year assessed : 2010 conservation actions : currently there is no specific action plan directed towards ambassis dussumieri . research on the population status , ecology and threats to the species is essential .\na general description , with any kind of information about the taxon . its main goal is summarize the most relevant or attractive characteristics of this taxon to the general public .\ns . s . mishra , laishram kosygin , p . t . rajan and k . c . gopi , zoological survey of india in venkataraman , k . , chattopadhyay , a . and subramanian , k . a . ( editors ) . 2013 . endemic animals of india ( vertebrates ) : 1\u2013235 + 26 plates . ( published by the director , zoological survey of india , kolkata )\ngeneral description of the sites where the species is found ( ecosystem , forest , environment or microhabitat ) . includes realm ( e . g terrestrial etc ) and climatic information ( e . g boreal ) ; also includes requirements and tolerances ; horizontal and vertical ( altitudinal ) distribution . also includes information referring to territorial extension of the individual or group in terms of its activities ( feeding , mating , etc . ) , associated mostly to vertebrates .\nenumerates geographic entities where the taxon lives . covers ranges , e . g . , a global range , or a narrower one ; may be biogeographical , political or other ( e . g . , managed areas like conservencies ) ; endemism ; native or exotic . does not include altitudinal distribution , which is covered under habitat .\ndescribes the likelihood of the species becoming extinct in the present day or in the near future . population size is treated under population biology , and trends in population sizes are treated under trends . however , this is the preferred element if an object includes all of these things and details about conservation listings .\nbibliography : abraham , r . k . , rajesh , r & kelkar , n . 2010 . do protected areas of india\u2019s western ghats conserve fish diversity ? final report submitted to the conservation leadership program .\nmenon , a . g . k . 1999 . check list - fresh water fishes of india . .\nkurup , b . m . , radhakrishnan , k . v . and manojkumar , t . g . 2004 . biodiversity status of fishes inhabiting rivers of kerala ( south india ) with special reference to endemism , threats and conservation measures . in : r . l . welcomme and t . petr ( eds ) , proceedings of the second international symposium on the management of large rivers for fisheries 2 : 316 . cambodia .\nmenon , a . g . k . 2004 . threatened fishes of india and their conservation .\ndahanukar , n . , raut , r . and bhat , a . 2004 . distribution , endemism and threat status of freshwater fishes in the western ghats of india . journal of biogeography 31 : 123 - 136 .\nabraham , r . k . , rajesh , r & kelkar , n . 2010 . do protected areas of india\u2019s western ghats conserve fish diversity ? final report submitted to the conservation leadership program .\nshaji , c . p . and easa , p . s . ( eds ) . 2003 . freshwater fishes of kerala . pp . 125 . kerala forest research research institute ( kfri ) , thrissur .\niucn . 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species ( ver . 2011 . 1 ) . available at : http : / / www . iucnredlist . org . ( accessed : 16 june 2011 ) .\nthomas , r . k . 2004 . habitat and distribution of hill stream fishes of southern kerala ( south of palghat gap ) . zoology , mahatma gandhi university .\nday , f . 1874 . on some new or little - known fishes of india . proceedings of the general meetings for scientific business of the zoological society of london 1873 ( 3 ) : 704 - 710 .\na checklist of the fishes of kerala state is presented , along with their scientific and common name . . .\n< i > pethia lutea < / i > , a new species of barb ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) and new records of p . punctata from . . .\na new species of barb pethia lutea is described from the kundalika river in the northern part of th . . .\ndistribution , threats and conservation status of the wayanad mahseer , < i > neolissochilus wynaadensis < / i . . .\nthe wayanad mahseer neolissochilus wynaadensis ( day , 1873 ) is an endemic cyprinid fish that occurs . . .\nreply to the response given by n . basavaraja to knight et al . 2013 a and b\nreply to \u201cneed for further research on the freshwater fish fauna of the ashambu hills landscape : a resp . . .\nappendix 1 paper on phylogenetic position and osteology of pethia setnai , an endemic barb of the weste . . .\nkulathupuzha temple is widely known for its fish feeding ( meenuttu ) of fishes known as thirumak . . .\nappendix 2 short notes in min newsletter of the iucn - sscwi freshwater fish specialist group south asia . . .\nusing freshwater kbas for informing conservation and development policy and action in kerala and tamil . . .\n| | best supported on google chrome , firefox 3 . 0 + , internet explorer 8 . 0 + , safari 4 . 0 + , opera 10 + . powered by the open source biodiversity informatics platform . technology partner strand life sciences\nthe members of this forum have come together to share our knowledge and experiences of fish keeping . we want to answer your questions , offer advice and fill the galleries with pictures of the fish we have all grown to love . we are a unique community of fish keepers who seriously take our hobby to extremes and the next level . the majority of our fish collections include rare & exotic species of all sizes , big fish with big appetites and big tanks . it ' s not easy for most people or other\nregular\nfish keepers to understand why we maintain this type of collection and spare no expense on this fascinating hobby . hopefully , through this site and discussion forums we can encourage the next generation of monster fish keepers to have the same passion and love we have for the hobby and our monster fish . as one of the founding members , i personally invite you to register and join us today . currently you are viewing this site as our guest which only gives you limited access to view most discussions , articles and photo galleries . registration is free and very easy ! when you register , you ' ll have instant access to . . . .\nwe ' re constantly striving to improve our community to help make your monster fish keeping hobby fulfilling and interesting . comments are welcome .\nlove the fish , congrats on having the worst title thread in mfk history . . . lol\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 581, "summary": [{"text": "fragum fragum is a species of cockle , a marine bivalve mollusc in the family cardiidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is commonly known as the white strawberry cockle and is found in the western indo-pacific ocean .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is the type species of the genus fragum . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "fragum fragum", "paragraphs": ["variety hemicardium ( fragum ) fragum var . carinata lynge , 1909 accepted as fragum scruposum ( deshayes , 1855 ) ( synonym )\nfavia fragum . brazil . variation in corallite shape and colour . charlie veron .\nfavia fragum . caribbean . variation in corallite shape and colour . charlie veron .\nfavia fragum . south - eastern usa . showing colony deformed by environmental conditions .\nfavia fragum ( esper 1797 ) coralpedia . retrieved 2012 - 02 - 20 .\nfavia fragum . brazil . in intertidal habitats this species develops submeandriod corallites . charlie veron .\ngolfball coral ( favia fragum ) marine species identification portal . retrieved 2012 - 02 - 20 .\n( of hemicardium ( fragum ) fragum ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) vine , p . ( 1986 ) . red sea invertebrates . immel publishing , london . 224 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nfavia fragum . south - eastern usa . corallites are sometimes protuberant and can be almost phaceloid . julian sprung .\ndrupella fragum ( blainville , 1832 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 24 april 2010 .\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\ngolfballkoralle\nto\nfavia fragum ( esper , 1795 )\n.\nsexual recruitment of the corals favia fragum and agaricia humilis in a 30 - m ( 3 ) exhibit aquarium : species - specific limitations and implications on reproductive ecology .\nsexual recruitment of the corals favia fragum and agaricia humilis in a 30 - m ( 3 ) exhibit aquarium : species - specific limitations and implications on . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nsequencing the genome of a coral\nlab rat\n( favia fragum ) meyer , eli , katherine dziedzic , and constance rogers lowery . . oregon state university , 8 aug 2016 . experiment\n( of corculum ( fragum ) bannoi otuka , 1937 ) otuka , y . ( 1937b ) notes on some shells from southern taiwan ( iii ) . venus , 7 , 128\u2013143 . [ details ]\ncitation : hoadley kd , szmant am , pyott sj ( 2011 ) circadian clock gene expression in the coral favia fragum over diel and lunar reproductive cycles . plos one 6 ( 5 ) : e19755 . urltoken\nin this study , we investigated whether the brooding coral , favia fragum , had diel or lunar cycles of cry1 , cry2 , clock , and cycle transcript abundance that correlated with diel sunlight cycle and / or key events in the monthly reproductive cycle of f . fragum . f . fragum is a small caribbean reef coral that reproduces monthly throughout the year in a predictable lunar pattern [ 23 ] , in contrast to a . millepora and many other broadcast spawning corals that reproduce annually [ 13 ] , [ 24 ] . understanding the patterns of expression of these genes will help elucidate the circadian molecular clock mechanism in corals and the evolution of clock mechanisms within the metazoan lineage .\n( of hemicardium ( fragum ) fragum var . carinata lynge , 1909 ) lynge h . 1909 . the danish expedition to siam 1899 - 1900 . iv . marine lamellibranchiata . det kongelige danske videnskabernes selskabs skrifter , naturvidenskabelig og mathematisk afdeling , ( 7 ) 5 ( 3 ) : 97 - 299 , pl . 1 - 5 , 1 map . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 261 , pl . 5 fig . 20 [ details ]\nfavia fragum . brazil . two colonies left with other brazilian corals having small corallites . stephanocoenia michelini ( top right ) and sideratstrea stellata ( bottom right ) . note the variation of corallite shape from circular to submeandroid . charlie veron .\n( of fragum loochooanum kira , 1959 ) poorten , j . j . ter , 2005 . outline of a systematic index - recent cardiidae ( lamarck , 1809 ) . visaya net . ( updated 2009 for worms ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ncitation :\ngolfball corals , favia fragum ~ marinebio . org .\nmarinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 1 / 14 / 2010 2 : 22 : 00 pm ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio\nreverse transcription pcr with degenerate primers was used to identify and sequence partial cdnas encoding the genes cry1 , cry2 , clock , and cycle within the f . fragum transcriptome . gene identity was initially confirmed using blastn and tblastx searches in ncbi . phylogenetic analyses using the neighbor joining method through mega 4 were also used to confirm gene identity and also identify cnidarian orthologs ( figure 1 and figure 2 ; table s1 ) . these analyses identify inconsistency with regard to the attribution and naming of the cry1 and cry2 gene sequences in the two cnidarians that have been previously studied ( n . vectensis [ 25 ] and a . millepora [ 19 ] ) , and , in this work , we use the designation originally published for a . millepora [ 19 ] . the resulting analyses suggest f . fragum cry1 is most similar to a . millepora cry1 and n . vectensis cry2 ( genbank accession : hq687760 ) , f . fragum cry2 is most similar to a . millepora cry2 and n . vectensis cry1a and cry1b ( genbank accession : hq687761 ) , and f . fragum clock and cycle are most similar to n . vectensis clock ( genbank accession : hq687758 ) and cycle ( genbank accession : hq687759 ) respectively .\nthe future of coral biology . the image shows a single recruit of favia fragum at ~ 12 hours post - settlement . the recruit is shown under white light ( left ) , then under fluorescence microscopy to show the corals ' natural green fluorescent protein ( middle ) and autofluorescence from the photosynthetic pigments in symbiotic algae ( right ) .\n( of cardium fragum linnaeus , 1758 ) linnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\na translated sequence for f . fragum cycle ( genbank accession : hq687759 ) was queried under blastp in ncbi for the top 500 sequence hits . similarly , the translated sequence for f . fragum cry1 ( genbank accession : hq687760 ) was also queried using blastp in ncbi for the top 250 sequence hits . both clock and cry1 results were then reduced to a total of 54 and 37 sequences respectively to reflect a diverse range of taxa and genes identified from the blastp query . for the clock alignment , translated sequences for a . millepora ( gi | 222781555 , gi | 222807278 ) , f . fragum clock ( genbank accession : hq687758 ) and n . vectensis ( gi | 156359347 , gi | 156373864 , gi | 156402728 , gi | 156397887 , gi | 156392022 ) were also included . for the cryptochrome alignment , translated sequences for f . fragum cry2 ( genbank accession : hq687761 ) , a . millepora ( gi | 145881071 , gi | 145881069 ) and n . vectensis ( gi | 156353900 , gi | 156383457 , gi | 156378195 , gi | 156383455 ) were added . both sets were aligned using clustalx 2 . 0 . 11 software . phylogenetic analyses were then performed using the neighbor - joining method with pair - wise deletions in mega 4 . sequences were analyzed with all four models , p - distance , poisson correction , dayhoff and jjt ( 1000 bootstrap replicates ) .\n( of fragum loochooanum kira , 1959 ) kira , t . ( 1959 ) coloured illustrations of the shells of japan . enlarged and revised edition . hoikusha , osaka , japan , [ 6 ] + vii + [ 1 ] + 239 pp . [ second edition , first printing . ] page ( s ) : 137 , pl . 54 fig . 13 [ details ]\n( of cardium fragum linnaeus , 1758 ) dautzenberg , ph . ( 1929 ) . contribution \u00e0 l ' \u00e9tude de la faune de madagascar : mollusca marina testacea . faune des colonies fran\u00e7aises , iii ( fasc . 4 ) . soci\u00e9t\u00e9 d ' editions g\u00e9ographiques , maritimes et coloniales : paris . 321 - 636 , plates iv - vii pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nour colonies of favia fragum have reproduced ! these pictures may not look exciting without context , but what you are looking at is nothing less than the future of coral biology : a laboratory genetic model for corals . interested in reading more or getting involved ? see our crowdfunding page where we are raising money to sequence the genome of this emerging model . even if you arent in a position to donate please consider passing this along to your social networks !\nto investigate the possible involvement of cry1 , cry2 , clock and cycle genes in the monthly spawning cycle of f . fragum , relative transcript abundances were measured using qpcr in samples collected every eight hours ( three samples per diel cycle ) on each of five days , and two time points on a sixth day . sampling days were strategically chosen to include specific reproductive events , especially spawning and onset of embryogenesis ( days 15\u201320 ) , in the f . fragum life cycle [ 23 ] . as expected from the diel cycle data , levels of expression for cry1 and cry2 were elevated in corals collected at 1400 h compared to those collected at 0600 h and 2200 h ( figure 6a , b ) . expression levels of clock , but not cycle , were elevated in corals collected at 1400 and 2200 h over those at 0600 h ( figure 6c , d ) . thus , for detection of lunar cycles of gene expression , comparison among lunar days was done independently for the 1400 h and 2200 h sample times .\nresearch favia fragum \u00bb barcode of life ~ bioone ~ biodiversity heritage library ~ cites ~ cornell macaulay library [ audio / video ] ~ encyclopedia of life ( eol ) ~ esa online journals ~ fishbase ~ florida museum of natural history ichthyology department ~ gbif ~ google scholar ~ itis ~ iucn redlist ( threatened status ) ~ marine species identification portal ~ ncbi ( pubmed , genbank , etc . ) ~ ocean biogeographic information system ~ plos ~ siris ~ tree of life web project ~ unep - wcmc species database ~ worms\nthere was no significant difference in expansion - contraction behavior between the two groups of corals at 1400 and 0200 h during the pre - treatment monitoring period ( p > 0 . 05 ) . corals in the normal light : dark treatment continued the expected nighttime polyp expansion and daytime contraction pattern throughout the experimental period ( figure 4a ) . in contrast , colonies transferred to the constant dark treatment initially showed a prolonged period of expanded and partially expanded polyps , followed by a less synchronized and longer cycle of polyp contraction and expansion ( figure 4c ) . polyp expansion - contraction behaviors at 0200 and 1400 h were significantly different between treatment groups ( p < 0 . 01 ) . these data suggest that normal polyp expansion - contraction behavior is light dependent in f . fragum ( figure 4a and c ) .\nto confirm that the f . fragum colonies sampled during the lunar sampling schedule were undergoing the expected monthly pattern of reproduction , histology was used to detect the presence of mature oocytes and spermaries in a subset of the samples analyzed by qpcr . decalcified coral tissues were processed and stained using methods described previously [ 23 ] . briefly , samples were dehydrated in ethanol , cleared with xylene and embedded in paraplast - plus . 7 \u00b5m thick sections were stained with heidenhain ' s azocarmine - aniline blue . the presence of mature spermaries and oocytes within each colony was determined by examining 4 to 8 polyps per colony . the data are presented as the proportion of colonies on any given sampling day with mature gametes ( n = 5 to 12 colonies ) . mature oocytes were identified by their large size ( > 250 \u00b5m ) , distinctive indentation of the nuclei , and dark red coloration . mature spermaries were identified by the distinctive bouquets of tails .\nf . fragum samples were collected between august 5 and 6 , 2009 ( gray circles ) and may 31 and june 2 , 2010 ( black circles ) . horizontal gray bars indicate nighttime . relative expression of cry1 ( a ) , cry2 ( b ) , clock ( c ) , and cycle ( d ) normalized to total rna and ef1 \u03b1 expression ( as described in the materials and methods ) are shown as the mean \u00b1 s . e . m . & plusmns . e . m . ( ( ( ( n = 5 ) . natural light levels ( in lx ) were measured every 5 min at a depth of 0 . 5 m ( e ) . dunn ' s method post - hoc analysis of may 2010 diel rhythms indicate the following significant ( p < 0 . 05 ) differences among times : c ry1 expression at 1000 and 1400 h was significantly elevated compared to expression at 2200 , 0200 , and 0600 h , and expression at 1000 was also significantly elevated compared to expression at 1800 h ; c ry2 expression at 1400 and 1800 h were significantly elevated compared to expression at 0200 , 0600 , and 1000 h , and expression at 1800 h was also significantly elevated compared to expression at 2200 h ; c lock expression at 1800 h was significantly elevated compared to expression at 0200 , 0600 , 1000 , 1400 , and 2200 h ; c ycle expression showed no significant differences among sampling times ( p = 0 . 364 ) . statisical analyses of the diel data collected august 2009 is provided in table s3 ) .\nto investigate the diel expression of cry1 , cry2 , clock , and cycle in field - collected f . fragum colonies , relative transcript abundances were measured using qpcr on samples collected over a 24 h period ( august 2009 ) and repeated over a 60 h period ( may 2010 ) . significant diel peaks in expression were observed for cry1 at 1000 h for both the august 2009 and may 2010 collection periods ( figure 3 ) . compared to expression levels measured at dawn ( 0600 h ) , dusk ( 1800 h ) , and nighttime ( 2200 h and 0200 h ) , cry1 relative expression at ( 1000 h ) was always elevated ( p < 0 . 05 ; figure 3a ) . cry2 showed a similar pattern of cyclic expression , but with expression peaking at dusk ( 1800 h ) and significantly elevated compared to transcript levels measured at night time ( 0200 h ) and dawn ( 0600 h ; p < 0 . 05 ; figure 3b ) . like cry2 , clock expression peaked at 1800 h ( dusk ) and was significantly elevated compared to levels measured at dawn ( 0600 h ) and morning ( 1000 h ) ( p < 0 . 05 ; figure 3c ) . although cycle showed significantly increased relative expression at night ( 2200 h ) compared to dawn ( 0600 h ) and midday ( 1000 h and 1400 h ) during the august 2009 period ( p < 0 . 05 ; figure 3d gray symbols ) , no significant diel variation was observed during the more extensive may 2010 sampling period ( p = 0 . 129 ; figure 3d black symbols ) .\n( of cardium imbricatum born , 1778 ) born i . von ( 1778 ) index rerum naturalium musei c\u00e6sarei vindobonensis . pars i . ma . testacea . verzeichni\u00df der nat\u00fcrlichen seltenheiten des k . k . naturalien cabinets zu wien . erster theil . schalthiere . - pp . [ 1 - 40 ] , 1 - 458 , [ 1 - 82 ] . vindobon\u00e6 . ( kraus ) . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 29 - 30 [ details ]\npoorten , j . j . ter , 2005 . outline of a systematic index - recent cardiidae ( lamarck , 1809 ) . visaya net . ( updated 2009 for worms ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\npoorten , j . j . ter , 2009 . the cardiidae of the panglao marine biodiversity project 2004 and the panglao 2005 deep - sea cruise with descriptions of four new species ( bivalvia ) . vita malacologica 8 : 9 - 96 [ 21 november 2009 ] . available online at urltoken available online at urltoken [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nspry , j . f . ( 1964 ) . the sea shells of dar es salaam : part 2 : pelecypoda ( bivalves ) . tanganyika notes and records . 63 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of cardium imbricatum born , 1778 ) poorten , j . j . ter , 2005 . outline of a systematic index - recent cardiidae ( lamarck , 1809 ) . visaya net . ( updated 2009 for worms ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cardium flavum r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) poorten , j . j . ter , 2005 . outline of a systematic index - recent cardiidae ( lamarck , 1809 ) . visaya net . ( updated 2009 for worms ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ntai , k . k . ( 2005 ) ecological status and conservation value of soft shore habitats in hong kong . mphil thesis . city university of hong kong . [ details ]\nvine , p . ( 1986 ) . red sea invertebrates . immel publishing , london . 224 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nthis page was last edited on 6 june 2017 , at 23 : 24 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 001 seconds . )\nshells for sale , shells online \u00ab shells for sale , conchology , inc .\nclick on an image to view all the information : family , species , author , date , and full locality .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 004 seconds . )\ncolonies are small ( usually less than 50 mm across ) and hemispherical to encrusting . corallites have very variable shapes ranging from immersed to conical ( plocoid ) to tubular ( subphaceloid ) and may be circular with one mouth , to elongate with many mouths . encrusting colonies in intertidal habitats may be submeandroid . spherical colonies with unrestricted growing space commonly develop tubular corallites . corallites or valleys are seldom more than 5 millimetres across . whatever the corallite shape , the walls are neatly rounded . septo - costae are exsert and evenly spaced .\ncolour : usually tan to light orange - brown with pale green tentacles . walls and calices may have contrasting colours .\ntaxonomic note : taxonomic note : this species is usually called favia gravida in brazil after laborel ( 1969 ) . brazilian colonies are usually more meandroid but all characters overlap . source reference : veron ( 2000 ) . taxonomic references : roos ( 1971 ) , zlatarski and estalella ( 1982 ) . additional identification guides : colin ( 1978 ) , humann ( 1993 ) .\n\u00a9 2011 - 2012 australian institute of marine science and crr cc by - nc 3 . 0\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthis species occurs in the caribbean , southern gulf of mexico , florida , the bahamas , and bermuda . this species is also known from the eastern atlantic .\nthere is no species specific population information available for this species . however , there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined , and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species . this species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only ( wilkinson 2004 ) . we assume that most , if not all , mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average , the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs . reef losses throughout the species ' range have been estimated over three generations , two in the past and one projected into the future .\nthe age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years ( wallace 1999 ) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years . furthermore , based on average sizes and growth rates , we assume that average generation length is 10 years , unless otherwise stated . total longevity is not known , but likely to be more than ten years . therefore any population decline rates for the red list assessment are measured over at least 30 years .\nthis species is found in most fore reef and back reef environments , and in seagrass beds provided there is suitable substrate for them to settle on . recorded from 0 . 5 - 20 m depth , though most common from 0 . 5 - 5 m .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\n( of cardium unedo linnaeus , 1758 ) linnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cardium cruentum perry , 1811 ) perry , g . ( 1811 ) . conchology , or the natural history of shells : containing a new arrangement of the genera and species , illustrated by coloured engravings executed from the natural specimens , and including the latest discoveries . 1 - 4 , plates 1 - 61 . london . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hemicardium tegulatum dautzenberg , 1900 ) dautzenberg , ph . ( 1900 ) . description d ' une esp\u00e8ce nouvelle appartenant au genre hemicardium . j . conchyliol . xlviii : 5 - 8 , plate i ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of cardium cruentum perry , 1811 ) poorten , j . j . ter , 2005 . outline of a systematic index - recent cardiidae ( lamarck , 1809 ) . visaya net . ( updated 2009 for worms ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hemicardium tegulatum dautzenberg , 1900 ) poorten , j . j . ter , 2005 . outline of a systematic index - recent cardiidae ( lamarck , 1809 ) . visaya net . ( updated 2009 for worms ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ndeshayes , g . p . ( 1855 ) . descriptions of new shells from the collection of hugh cuming , esq . proceedings of the zoological society of london . part 22 ( 1854 ) : 317 - 371 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 333 [ details ]\nnote malacca [ malaysia , strait of malacca ] . coll . . . .\ntype locality malacca [ malaysia , strait of malacca ] . coll . cuming [ details ]\n( of corculum bannoi otuka , 1937 ) otuka , y . ( 1937b ) notes on some shells from southern taiwan ( iii ) . venus , 7 , 128\u2013143 . page ( s ) : 138 - 139 , figs 54a - b [ details ]\n( of corculum bannoi otuka , 1937 ) poorten , j . j . ter , 2005 . outline of a systematic index - recent cardiidae ( lamarck , 1809 ) . visaya net . ( updated 2009 for worms ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cardium sueziense issel , 1869 ) issel , a . ( 1869 ) . malacologia del mar rosso . ricerche zoologiche e paleontologiche . biblioteca malacologica , pisa . xi + 387 pp . , pls 1 - 5 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 76 , pl 3 , fig . 4 [ details ]\n( of cardium omanense melvill in mellvill & standen , 1907 ) melvill , j . c . and standen , r . 1907 [ 11 april ] . the mollusca of the persian gulf , gulf of oman and arabian sea , as evidenced mainly through the collections of mr . f . w . townsend , 1893 - 1906 ; with descriptions of new species . 2 pelecypoda . proceedings of the zoological society of london 783 - 848 , pls 53 - 56 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cardium transclathratum viader , 1951 ) viader r . ( 1951 ) . new or unrecorded shells from mauritius and its dependencies . mauritius institute bulletin . 3 ( 2 ) : 127 - 153 . page ( s ) : 143 , pl . 3 fig . 7 [ details ]\n( of cardium omanense melvill in mellvill & standen , 1907 ) poorten , j . j . ter , 2005 . outline of a systematic index - recent cardiidae ( lamarck , 1809 ) . visaya net . ( updated 2009 for worms ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of laevicardium sueziense ) vine , p . ( 1986 ) . red sea invertebrates . immel publishing , london . 224 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of parvicardium suezensis issel ) sheppard , a ( 1984 ) . the molluscan fauna of chagos ( indian ocean ) and an analysis ot its broad distribution patterns . coral reefs 3 : 43 - 50 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of cardium transclathratum viader , 1951 ) poorten , j . j . ter , 2005 . outline of a systematic index - recent cardiidae ( lamarck , 1809 ) . visaya net . ( updated 2009 for worms ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cardium sueziensis [ sic ] ) issel , a . ( 1869 ) . malacologia del mar rosso . ricerche zoologiche e paleontologiche . biblioteca malacologica , pisa . xi + 387 pp . , pls 1 - 5 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 76 [ details ]\n( of parvicardium transclathratum ( viader , 1951 ) ) de boer , w . & prins , h . 2002 . human exploitation and benthic community structure on a tropical intertidal flat . journal of sea research 48 : 225 - 240 . [ details ]\nm . de kluijver , g . gijswijt , r . de leon & i . da cunda\ncolonies massive ; usually forming hemispherical domes , but occasionally forming small encrustations on the substrate .\nwith 1 to 3 polyps , oval with protruding rims of less than 2 mm high .\nhumann , p . , 1993 . reef coral identification - florida caribbean bahamas , ( ed . n . deloach ) . new world publications , inc . , paramount miller graphics , inc . , jacksonville , florida .\nroos , p . j . , 1964 . the distribution of reef corals in curacao . stud . fauna curacao , 20 : 1 - 51 .\nroos , p . j . , 1971 . the shallow - water stony corals of the netherlands antilles . studies on the fauna of cura\u00e7ao and other caribbean islands , 130 .\nsorry , there are no other images or audio / video clips available for this species .\nwrigley institute for environmental studies , university of southern california , p . o . box 5069 , avalon , california 90704 , usa . dbcarlon @ urltoken\nresearch support , u . s . gov ' t , non - p . h . s .\nspecies : cyclocardia ventricosa montereyensis ( a . g . smith & gordon , 1948 )\ndescription : f + , hard to get ! southern form , collected by e . w . boerstler in 1950 !\nspecimen details : image description : sui 100217 . image view : colony surface . locality : la parguerto rico . - enlarge image -\nspecimen details : image description : sui 100217 . image view : sem . locality : la parguerto rico . - enlarge image -\nspecimen details : image description : sui 100217 . image view : thin section . locality : la parguerto rico . - enlarge image -\ndepth range based on 306 specimens in 1 taxon . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 282 samples . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 0 - 80 . 5 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 25 . 995 - 27 . 944 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 115 - 2 . 147 salinity ( pps ) : 35 . 179 - 36 . 533 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 4 . 330 - 4 . 746 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 034 - 0 . 239 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 866 - 3 . 566 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : 0 - 80 . 5 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 25 . 995 - 27 . 944 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 115 - 2 . 147 salinity ( pps ) : 35 . 179 - 36 . 533 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 4 . 330 - 4 . 746 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 034 - 0 . 239 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 866 - 3 . 566 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there are 4 barcode sequences available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is a sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\nfavia fragrum is a species of colonial stony coral in the family faviidae . it is commonly known as the golfball coral and is found in tropical waters on either side of the atlantic ocean .\npacked closely together , but it can occur in groups or may occasionally grow as an encrusting coral . the corallites contain one to three\nand are normally round but can become elongated into an oval shape when the polyps are budding and a new corallite is being formed . the corallite walls usually consist of four complete whorls of septa and do not project appreciably from the surface of the coral . the costae of different corallites are distinct from one another . the colour is usually yellow or pale brown .\nthe golfball coral is found in the tropical atlantic ocean at depths down to 30 metres ( 98 ft ) with its range extending from the west coast of equatorial africa to south america , the caribbean sea and the southern united states . it is an inconspicuous species and occurs on\nthe iucn red list of threatened species lists it as being of\nleast concern\n. this is because it is widespread and common and a loss of habitat from coral reef destruction is unlikely to impact it significantly .\nfavia fragrum iucn red list of threatened species . retrieved 2012 - 02 - 20 .\ndescription : whorls straight sided , sharply angled at the base . spiral sculpture of about 5 beaded ribs on each whorl and about 8 on the base , with finer ribs between on larger specimens ; ribs immediately above and below the suture frequently larger than the rest . outer lip and columella smooth , umbilicus closed . colour mottled brown and white , sometimes as axial white streaks on a brown background . interior white , nacreous . normally eroded .\ndistribution : endemic to australia ; southport , qld , to mallacoota , vic .\ncomparison : odontotrochus marginata ( tenison - woods , 1880 ) is a very similar species which occurs in southern queensland and northwards .\nfigs . 1 , 2 : kurnell , botany bay , nsw ( c . 326563 )\nyou came across this error because the pageyou were trying to visit does not exist .\nwe ' ve recently redesigned the site so old links may not work . have a look at some of these changes .\nyou may want to update your bookmarks or try to find the updated information using the links below . if you are still unable to find the information you are looking for , please contact the webmaster using the information below .\nfaculties / academics - find links to all faculties , departments and other academic resources e . g . handbooks , prospectus\nmedia centre - find media relations information here eg . news releases , events and announcements information\nprogrammes - view the faculty booklets containing the programmes available at the st . augustine campus\nresearch & innovation - view the cutting - edge research being done at the st . augustine campus\ncopyright 2015 the university of the west indies st . augustine , trinidad and tobago\nour 7 faculties , professional schools offer more than 200 programs to some 15 , 000 graduate , undergraduate and continuing studies students .\nthe uwi , st . augustine ranks first in trinidad and tobago among accredited tertiary - level programmes .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\nthe distribution , nature and extent of microbial deposits in hamelin pool , shark bay have been investigated and mapped with emphasis on the occurrence , external morphologies , internal fabrics , constructional mechanisms , microbial communities , growth rates and sediment associations in the intertidal and previously little researched subtidal zone .\ndetailed georeferenced substrate mapping revealed extensive subtidal microbial deposits occupying approximately 300 km 2 of the total holocene 1400 km 2 area of hamelin pool . the microbial pavement covers 227 km 2 of the subtidal substrate that together with columnar structures reveals a subtidal microbial habitat which occupies an area 10 times larger than the area of the intertidal deposits . microbial carbonate is composed of aragonite ( 80\u201398 % ) that reveals high positive values of \u03b4 13 c ( + 4 . 46 to + 5 . 88 ) and \u03b4 18 o ( + 3 . 06 to + 3 . 88 ) as a characteristic of the highly evaporative environment with extensive microbial activity . oldest dated heads are 1915 and 1680 14 c years bp , and the overall system was deposited in two stages ; the first between 2000 and 1200 and the last from 900 years bp to the present . slow growth rates vary from less than 0 . 1 mm / year to 0 . 5 mm / year .\ndifferent internal fabrics were constructed according to their position in relation to the littoral zone by distinct microbial communities , and lateral fabric relations have been established . evidence of shallowing - upward fabric sequences of microbial origin reflects relative falling sea levels during the late holocene and is likely useful in ancient environmental interpretation . a sequence of events and mechanisms are described emphasizing differences between the stromatolitic , thrombolitic and cryptomicrobial deposits in shark bay . the new substrate map and depositional history for this distinctive and peculiar microbial habitat establish the significance of subtidal structures and emphasize the geoscientific importance of hamelin pool , especially with respect to early life studies and ancient analogues for understanding microbial activity , deposit characteristics , fenestral fabrics and distribution .\n\u25ba new georeferenced detailed map of microbial substrate in hamelin pool , australia . \u25ba new information on dating and microbial structures sedimentation rates . \u25ba deeper microbial structures with a cerebroid morphology and non laminated fabric . \u25ba microbial pavement extends as deep as - 6m in area of 230 km 2 of the 1400 km 2 . \u25ba new characterization of taxonomic groups of dominant cyanobacteria .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\ndepth range based on 1 specimen in 1 taxon . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 1 sample . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 18 - 18 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 24 . 522 - 24 . 522 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 160 - 0 . 160 salinity ( pps ) : 35 . 555 - 35 . 555 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 4 . 853 - 4 . 853 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 169 - 0 . 169 silicate ( umol / l ) : 1 . 466 - 1 . 466 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . no available public dna sequences . download fasta file\nthis section is empty . you can help by adding to it . ( april 2010 )\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\neditor : christian r . voolstra , king abdullah university of science and technology , saudi arabia\ncopyright : \u00a9 2011 hoadley et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : the authors acknowledge the following funding sources : unc wilmington center for marine science pilot project to sjp and ams ; unc wilmington academic affairs funding to ams for support of coral reef research ; friends of unc wilmington to sjp ; project aware foundation grant to kdh ; and funding from unc wilmington to sjp . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\npredictable and cyclic diel patterns of sunlight and monthly cycles of moonlight occur in most geographic locations around the globe . accordingly , many species have evolved mechanisms to entrain behaviors to these environmental light patterns [ 1 ] , [ 2 ] , [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 5 ] . scleractinian corals display behavioral and reproductive changes corresponding to both diel solar and monthly lunar light cycles . many reef corals retract their tentacles during the day and extend them at night to feed [ 6 ] , [ 7 ] , [ 8 ] , [ 9 ] . diel light cycles may also be involved with determining the time of day of coral spawning [ 10 ] . over longer periods of time , the lunar cycle provides a light cue that is thought to play a role in synchronization of reproductive events such as gametogenesis , spawning or larval release in some scleractinian coral species [ 11 ] , [ 12 ] . within a given geographic region , spawning time occurs simultaneously for all corals of a particular species . this precise and simultaneous release of gametes is thought to be an adaptation for increasing the probability of successful fertilization [ 13 ] .\nalthough rhythmic coral behaviors such as diel tentacle expansion - contraction and synchronous spawning have been well characterized , little is known about the molecular signaling pathways responsible for these behaviors . in model systems such as fruit flies and mice , circadian behaviors are maintained by a well - studied core molecular \u201cclock\u201d composed of the transcriptional activators clock and cycle ( orthologus to bmal1 in vertebrates ) and other positive and negative regulatory components including period , timeless and cryptochrome [ 14 ] , [ 15 ] , [ 16 ] . molecular clock components , including the cryptochrome genes , are also thought to play fundamental roles in the timing of reproductive processes in these taxa [ 17 ] .\ntree depicts a radial consensus of 1000 bootstrap replicates using the neighbor - joining method with pairwise deletions and poisson control . analyses with 1000 bootstrap replicates under dayhoff or jtt models were also run and resulted in similar phylogenetic relationships ( data not shown ) . thin lines represent nodes where less than 70 % of the 1000 bootstrap replicates show support for the topology depicted above . gray lines represent cnidarian lineages .\ntree depicts a consensus of 1000 bootstrap replicates using the neighbor - joining method with pairwise deletions and poisson control . analyses with 1000 bootstrap replicates under dayhoff or jtt models were also run and resulted in similar phylogenetic relationships ( data not shown ) . gray lines represent cnidarian lineages .\nto examine the light - dependence of diel patterns of gene expression , clock gene expression measured in corals maintained in the laboratory under normal light : dark conditions ( control treatment ) were compared to expression measured in corals maintained in constant darkness ( dark treatment ) . polyp expansion - contraction behaviors were also monitored during the first three days of the experiment before sampling for gene expression .\nduring an initial 24 h normal light : dark period , all experimental corals exhibited normal polyp expansion at night and contraction during the day ( figures 4a\u2013c ) . after collection of these baseline behavioral data , half of the corals remained in the normal light : dark treatment while the other half was transferred to a constant dark treatment . given the variable levels of gene expression over the normal diel light cycle demonstrated for the field samples ( figure 3 ) , we selected 1400 h and 0200 h of each day to perform statistical comparisons between treatments as representative of daylight and nighttime conditions .\nthe fraction of colonies with contracted ( white ) , partially expanded ( gray ) , or fully expanded ( black ) in light : dark ( a ; n = 29 ) and constant dark ( c , n = 31 ) treatments . light levels ( lx ) were measured every 5 min for light : dark ( b ) and constant dark treatments ( d ) . horizontal gray bars indicate dark periods .\nrelative expression of cry1 , cry2 , and clock in corals maintained in the light : dark treatment for three days prior to sampling showed peaks in transcript abundance that matched those times observed in the field ( compare figure 5a\u2013c with figure 3a\u2013c ) : cry1 expression was elevated at 1000 h and cry2 and clock expression was elevated at 1800 h over nighttime ( 0200 h ) and dawn ( 0600 h ) expression levels ( p < 0 . 05 ) . in contrast , the relative expression of cry1 , cry2 , and clock in corals in the constant dark treatment showed no pattern of expression over the dark sampling period ( p > 0 . 05 , figure 5a\u2013c ) . peak levels in transcript abundance for cry1 ( 1000 h , for both diel cycles ) , cry2 ( at 1800 h for the first diel cycle ) , and clock ( at 1800 h for both diel cycles ) observed in corals maintained in normal light : dark were significantly elevated compared to expression at those time points in corals maintained in the dark ( p < 0 . 001 ) . although there was no rhythmic pattern of expression for cry1 throughout the dark treatment , levels of expression were elevated compared to normal nighttime ( 0200 h ) levels ( p < 0 . 001 ; figure 5a ) . only cycle showed no statistically significant difference in expression between corals maintained in normal light : dark compared to those in the dark ( p = 0 . 52 ; figure 5d ) . however , statistical analyses indicated that there was a small but significant increase in cycle expression for both light : dark and dark treatments at 1400 h compared to 0200 h ( p < 0 . 05 ; figure 5d ) . this increase was not repeated at 1400 h on the second day and is likely due to the large , arrhythmic variation observed in cycle expression .\nrelative expression of cry1 ( a ) , cry2 ( b ) , clock ( c ) , and cycle ( d ) normalized to total rna and ef1 \u03b1 expression ( as described in the materials and methods ) are shown as the mean \u00b1 s . e . m . ( n = 4 ) for light : dark ( white circles ) and constant dark ( black circles ) treatments . light levels ( lx ) were measured every 5 min for light : dark ( e , white circles ) and constant dark treatments ( e , black circles ) . * indicates statistically significant ( p < 0 . 05 ) differences in gene expression between light : dark and constant dark treatments .\ndiel sampling : on 5 august 2009 , the day of the full moon , five colonies were collected every 4 h over a 24 h period at 1400 , 1800 , 2200 , 0200 , 0600 , 1000 , and 1400 h local time . a second series of samples were collected every 4 h over a 60 h period starting on 31 may 2010 at 1000 h local time , spanning days 19 through 21 of that lunar month .\nlunar cycle : sample dates were 29 july and 3 , 5 , 7 , 10 , and 15 august 2009 , which encompass days 7 through 25 of the lunar cycle . on each sampling date , five colonies were collected every 8 h at 0600 , 1400 , and 2200 local time for a total of 15 total collected colonies .\ncoral colonies were cleaved in half . one half was immediately flash frozen in liquid nitrogen for future rna extraction . the other half was prepared for histology by fixing in zenker ' s formaldehyde [ 23 ] for 5 h , decalcifying in 10 % hcl for approximately 24 to 48 h , and storing the tissue sample in 70 % ethanol for transportation back to unc wilmington .\nfrozen coral samples were ground into a powder using a mortar and pestle chilled on a bed of dry ice . total rna was extracted and purified from each sample using trizol reagent ( invitrogen ) and pure link ( invitrogen ) clean up kits and a modified version of the manufacturer ' s protocols that included an additional chloroform extraction and sodium acetate precipitation step . purified rna samples were then analyzed using a nanodrop 2000 spectrophotometer ( thermoscientific ) and a 2100 bioanalyzer ( agilent technologies ) to assess rna quantity and quality . rna integrity numbers were on average 9 . 2 and always > 8 . 4 . only samples with concentrations greater than 50 ng \u00b5l \u22121 were used for subsequent analyses .\ndegenerate primer sets . degenerate primers were based on alignments using a . millepora and n . vectensis sequences using sequencher software . primers were selected using primerexpress software .\nstatistical analyses of august 2009 diel expression data . groups showing statistically significant ( p < 0 . 05 ) differences in gene expression as determined using a kruskal - wallis one - way analysis on ranks with a dunn ' s method post - hoc .\nwe would like to thank dr . sean lema , dr . thomas shafer and dr . marcel van tuinen at unc wilmington and dr . christian voolstra at uc merced for discussion and technical assistance throughout the project . we also thank dr . mary alice coffroth for supplying us with cultures of symbiodinium for cdna and genomic dna analyses . finally , we thank the university of puerto rico and especially dr . ernesto weil for help in logistics and collection of field samples .\nconceived and designed the experiments : kdh ams sjp . performed the experiments : kdh ams sjp . analyzed the data : kdh ams sjp . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : kdh ams sjp . wrote the paper : kdh ams sjp .\nchallet e ( 2010 ) interactions between light , mealtime and calorie restriction to control daily timing in mammals . journal of comparative physiology b - biochemical systemic and environmental physiology 180 : 631\u2013644 .\nchallet e , caldelas i , graff c , pevet p ( 2003 ) synchronization of the molecular clockwork by light - and food - related cues in mammals . biological chemistry 384 : 711\u2013719 .\nxu y , mori t , johnson ch ( 2003 ) cyanobacterial circadian clockwork : roles of kaia , kaib and the kaibc promoter in regulating kaic . embo journal 22 : 2117\u20132126 .\npanda s , hogenesch jb , kay sa ( 2002 ) circadian rhythms from flies to human . nature 417 : 329\u2013335 .\nvollmers c , gill s , ditacchio l , pulivarthy sr , le hd , et al . ( 2009 ) time of feeding and the intrinsic circadian clock drive rhythms in hepatic gene expression . proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america 106 : 21453\u201321458 .\nsweeney bm ( 1976 ) circadian rhythms in corals , particularly fungiidae . biological bulletin 151 : 236\u2013246 .\nyonge cm ( 1940 ) the biology of reef - building corals . great barrier reef expedition ( 1928 - 1929 ) : british museum of natural history . 353\u2013391 .\nsebens kp , deriemer k ( 1977 ) diel cycles of expansion and contraction in coral reef anthozoans . marine biology 43 : 247\u2013256 .\nbrady ak , hilton jd , vize pd ( 2009 ) coral spawn timing is a direct response to solar light cycles and is not an entrained circadian response . coral reefs 28 : 677\u2013680 .\nbaird ah , guest jr , willis bl ( 2009 ) systematic and biogeographical patterns in the reproductive biology of scleractinian corals . annual review of ecology evolution and systematics 40 : 551\u2013571 .\nlin ct , todo t ( 2005 ) the cryptochromes . genome biology 6 :\nlooby p , loudon asi ( 2005 ) gene duplication and complex circadian clocks in mammals . trends in genetics 21 : 46\u201353 .\ndolatshad h , davis fc , johnson mh ( 2009 ) circadian clock genes in reproductive tissues and the developing conceptus . reproduction fertility and development 21 : 1\u20139 .\nlevy o , appelbaum l , leggat w , gothlif y , hayward dc , et al . ( 2007 ) light - responsive cryptochromes from a simple multicellular animal , the coral\ndolatshad h , campbell ea , o ' hara l , maywood es , hastings mh , et al . ( 2006 ) developmental and reproductive performance in circadian mutant mice . human reproduction 21 : 68\u201379 .\nboden mj , kennaway dj ( 2006 ) circadian rhythms and reproduction . reproduction 132 : 379\u2013392 .\nsandrelli f , costa r , kyriacou cp , rosato e ( 2008 ) comparative analysis of circadian clock genes in insects . insect molecular biology 17 : 447\u2013463 .\n( esper ) : lunar patterns of gametogenesis , embryogenesis and planulation in puerto - rico . bulletin of marine science 37 : 880\u2013892 .\nharrison pl , babcock rc , bull gd , oliver jk , wallace cc , et al . ( 1984 ) mass spawning in tropical reef corals . science 223 : 1186\u20131189 .\nkawaguti s , sakaumoto d ( 1948 ) bull oceanogr inst taiwan 4 : 65\u201370 .\nkume k , zylka mj , sriram s , shearman lp , weaver dr , et al . ( 1999 ) mcry1 and mcry2 are essential components of the negative limb of the circadian clock feedback loop . cell 98 : 193\u2013205 .\ncaldelas i , poirel vj , sicard b , pevet p , challet e ( 2003 ) circadian profile and photic regulation of clock genes in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of a diurnal mammal arvicanthis ansorgei . neuroscience 116 : 583\u2013591 .\nthresher rj , vitaterna mh , miyamoto y , kazantsev a , hsu ds , et al . ( 1998 ) role of mouse cryptochrome blue - light photoreceptor in circadian photoresponses . science 282 : 1490\u20131494 .\nchong nw , chaurasia ss , haque r , klein dc , iuvone pm ( 2003 ) temporal - spatial characterization of chicken clock genes : circadian expression in retina , pineal gland , and peripheral tissues . journal of neurochemistry 85 : 851\u2013860 .\nhonma s , ikeda m , abe h , tanahashi y , namihira m , et al . ( 1998 ) circadian oscillation of bmal1 , a partner of a mammalian clock gene clock , in rat suprachiasmatic nucleus . biochemical and biophysical research communications 250 : 83\u201387 .\nzheng bh , albrecht u , kaasik k , sage m , lu wq , et al . ( 2001 ) nonredundant roles of the mper1 and mper2 genes in the mammalian circadian clock . cell 105 : 683\u2013694 .\nhardin pe , hall jc , rosbash m ( 1992 ) circadian oscillations in period gene messenger rna levels are transcriptionally regulated . proceedings of the national academy of sciences 89 : 11711\u201311715 .\nko ch , takahashi js ( 2006 ) molecular components of the mammalian circadian clock . human molecular genetics 15 : r271\u2013r277 ."]}
{"id": 584, "summary": [{"text": "cliniodes ostreonalis , the oystershell metrea moth , is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by grote in 1882 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from connecticut , indiana , kentucky , maine , maryland , michigan , new brunswick , new york , ohio , ontario , pennsylvania , quebec , vermont , west virginia and wisconsin .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 13 \u2013 16 mm for males and 15 \u2013 17 mm for females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are very light yellow with a nebulous , blackish mesial band .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are white with a pruplish iridescence .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults have been recorded on wing from may to august .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "larvae have been recorded feeding on rhamnus frangula .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the create a web mixed with dead leaves and excrement .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "pupation takes place in a yellowish cocoon , mixed with debris and leaves .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the species overwinters in the pupal stage . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "cliniodes ostreonalis", "paragraphs": ["species cliniodes ostreonalis - oystershell metrea moth - hodges # 4789 - bugguide . net\ncliniodes euphrosinalis m\u00f6schler , 1886 ; abh . senckenb . nat . ges . 14 ( 3 ) : 80 ; tl : jamaica\ncliniodes ostreonalis , the oystershell metrea moth , is a moth in the crambidae family . it was described by grote in 1882 . it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from connecticut , indiana , kentucky , maine , maryland , michigan , new brunswick , new york , ohio , ontario , pennsylvania , quebec , vermont , west virginia and wisconsin .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nfyles , t . w . 1894 : botys urticaloides , n . s . . \u2013 the canadian entomologist , ottawa 26 : 184 .\ngrote , a . r . 1882 c : on certain pyralidae . \u2013 papilio , new york and philadelphia 2 : 73 .\nthe information below is based on images submitted and identified by contributors . range and date information may be incomplete , overinclusive , or just plain wrong .\nhover over black occurrence boxes to see number of images submitted . log in to make states , months and boxes clickable .\none moth can look completely different depending on how it places its wings ! i noticed its colouring and the big yellowish eyes with black spots ( if they are eyes ? ) .\ncontributed by ilze v - g . on 19 august , 2011 - 1 : 40pm last updated 4 july , 2013 - 12 : 51pm\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\nsudbury , ontario , canada july 4 , 2014 size : ws approx 3 . 2cm\nattracted to the lights at night it was resting on the glass in the pathway of the wgmc at laurentian university .\ncontributed by ilze v - g . on 4 july , 2014 - 10 : 55am last updated 8 july , 2014 - 12 : 41pm\nexarcha ineptalis lederer , 1863 ; wien . ent . monats . 7 ( 10 ) : 340 , ( 12 ) pl . 7 , f . 8 ; tl : venezuela\npyrausta glaucescens hampson , 1899 ; proc . zool . soc . london 1899 : 260 ; tl : ecuador\nniphostola punctata swinhoe , 1904 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1904 ( 1 ) : 156 ; tl : santubong\nbasonga paradisalis m\u00f6schler , 1886 ; abh . senckenb . nat . ges . 14 ( 3 ) : 79 ; tl : jamaica\nthis information is not automatically synchronized with globiz and can sometimes be lagging behind .\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nhistoire naturelle des insectes . species g\u00e9n\u00e9ral des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e9res . tome huiti\u00e9me . deltoides et pyralites\na revision of the moths of the subfamily pyraustinae and family pyralidae . part 1\na revision of the moths of the subfamily pyraustinae and family pyralidae . part 2\nwalker , 1859 list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . supplement list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 16 : 1 - 253 ( [ 1859 ] ) , 17 : 255 - 508 ( 1859 ) , 18 : 509 - 798 ( 1859 ) , 19 : 799 - 1036 ( 1859 )\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nto view a subset of photographs , use any combination of filters and search boxes . the search boxes can accept full or partial names . all filters are applied together .\nclick on a photograph to view full size , or click on a scientific name to go to a species profile .\n- any - barbados belize bermuda bonaire canada cayman islands costa rica cuba dominican republic el salvador guatemala haiti honduras jamaica mexico nicaragua panama puerto rico st . kitts the bahamas united states"]}
{"id": 595, "summary": [{"text": "southern halo ( 1983 \u2013 2009 ) was an american-bred thoroughbred racehorse and sire .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in his racing career he ran twenty-four times winning five races and finishing second in the grade i swaps stakes and super derby .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he is chiefly notable for his remarkable career at stud where he was leading sire in argentina on ten occasions and the sire of 170 stakes winners , 56 of them group/grade i winners , and 16 of them were champions . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "southern halo", "paragraphs": ["original southern halo song co - written by natalia morris of southern halo and melissa bollea rowe .\nit all started when . . . | we are halo | southern halo season 1 preview\nofficial twitter page for sister trio country pop band southern halo . new album # justlikeinthemovies available now !\nnineteen - year - old southern halo ( halo - - northern sea , by northern dancer ) stands for $ 15 , 000 .\ntake a look at the official music video for\nrewind\nby southern halo directed by : james & heather mathews written by : c . neal , g ' . o ' brien and c . gravitt copyright 2016 - southern halo\ntake a look at the official music video for\nrewind\nby southern halo directed by : james & heather mathews written by : c . neal , g ' . o ' brien and c . gravitt copyright 2016 - southern halo show less\nthe latter , like former equus champion entisaar , is a son of outstanding shuttle sire more than ready ( himself a son of the halo stallion southern halo ) .\nleading sire kantharos ( lion heart\u2013contessa halo , by southern halo ) is moving from ocala stud in florida to hill \u2018n\u2019 dale farms in lexington , kentucky , stonestreet stables announced thursday .\nwe are proud to introduce our music video for\nlittle white dress\nour debut single off the self titled album southern halo ! take a look and be sure to check back each week for new videos and don ' t forget to subscribe ! published on august 25 , 2015 . music video by southern halo performing little white dress . produced by james matthews films . ( c ) 2015 southern halo publishing .\ncangon stud farm owner jamie mackay has announced that snapy halo , a group 1 winning son of southern halo , has been retired to stand at his hunter valley based property in 2011 .\n\u201ci think it ' s pretty fair to say that snapy halo is the best bred son of southern halo to ever stand in australasia which certainly bodes well for his chances , \u201d said mackay .\nsouthern halo also stood at john magnier and partners\u2019 ashford stud near versailles , ky . , and in japan . his kentucky - bred stakes winners include millionaire\nsouthern halo won or placed in 15 of 22 races and earned $ 344 , 875 in north america for owner stavros niarchos while trained by d . wayne lukas . southern halo\u2019s five stakes - placings included runner - up efforts in the super derby ( gr . i ) and the swaps stakes ( gr . i ) .\nhalo became a sire - of - sires which besides sunday silence , included saint ballado and southern halo who died aged 26 after a very successful career at stud in argentina - being a leading sire for eight years .\nthe most influential and successful argentine stallion of the past generation , southern halo was a son of halo and the northern dancer mare northern sea . bred by e . p . taylor , southern halo sold for $ 600 , 000 as a yearling to stavros niarchos , who raced him in the u . s . second in both the g1 super derby and swaps stakes as a 3 - year - old in 1986 but not a stakes winner during his racing career , southern halo had to sail afar to find stallion success when niarchos sold him for export as a stallion prospect .\nit\u2019s hard , it\u2019s between kitchen notes at the omni , they have the best buffet , but then there\u2019s the southern .\nmarkedly back at the knee , upright in the pasterns and a non - stakes winner to boot , southern halo was always going to be a marginal stud prospect in kentucky . however , prominent argentine stud farm haras la quebrada gave recognition to his impeccable breeding and southern halo was despatched to a stallion career in argentina , where he would rewrite the record books .\nhalo surface brightnesses that are generally in reasonable agreement with those inferred from the best - fit halo models in this paper . however , the halo temperatures inferred from the o\n, we showed that the halo emission measure tends to increase from the outer to the inner galaxy , at least in the southern galactic hemisphere . we previously noted a similar trend for the\nsouthern halo will be buried at haras la quebrada near another north american - bred stallion , solazo , sire of the second dam of north america\u2019s two - time horse of the year cigar .\ncentral kentucky stallion southern halo entered into the history books by becoming the 14th stallion to top the 100 mark by number of stakes winners among those stallions who stood at least one season in north america . southern halo , who began his stallion career in south america and now has 102 stakes winners , has held court at ashford stud near versailles , ky . , starting in 1996 .\nnot so long afterward , southern halo was restricted solely to covering in the southern hemisphere , and his production of top racers in argentina has continued . the stallion ' s influence in the northern hemisphere has enjoyed a renewal of success as more than ready has steadily earned respect as one of the best stallions in the world .\nnone of the estrellas is so closely linked to the giant reputation of southern halo than the sprint , which went to offspring of the stallion six times in seven year from 1995 through 2001 . three of those were , however , the years that the wonderful wally dominated speed in the southern hemisphere to a degree that is unrivaled . the extraordinary daughter of southern halo out of the logical mare welcome won the sprint in 1995 through 1997 , when she was pretty much the fastest thing to wear plates in the racing world .\nthis entry was posted in bloodlines archive and tagged buster ' s ready , estrellas classic , more than ready , mother goose stakes , southern halo , star runner by frank mitchell . bookmark the permalink .\nwatch southern halo\u2019s \u201clittle white dress\u201d video and let us know what you think of country music\u2019s emerging sibling trio . also , make sure to follow the girls on twitter , facebook , and by checking out their website !\nhalo\u2019s close relationship to northern dancer offered breeders many opportunities to inbreed to their shared grandam , almahmoud , a combination that has resulted in innumerable top horses , including champions serena\u2019s song , fantastic light , ashado , daiwa major , and singspiel , but one of the best racehorses to emerge from the direct cross of halo and a northern dancer mare was southern halo .\ntoday , other sons of halo , including saint ballado and southern halo , are commanding prestige in the breeding sheds as well . as a broodmare sire , halo is equally sensational , with daughters or granddaughters producing champions victory gallop , machiavellian , singspiel , and coup de genie ; classic winners fusaichi pegasus and pine bluff ; and sires such as rahy and silver ghost .\nthat disappointment , added to the rather academic attitude of sales buyers ' rejecting some of southern halo ' s stock as imperfect , produced a cooling off of the love affair with kentucky breeders that had so quickly sprung around the stallion .\nsnapy halo is by one of the best sire of sires in the world , southern halo , who was argentina ' s leading sire from 1994 to 2000 , and in 2004 and 2007 . he sired more than 100 stakes winners including 50 winners at the group 1 level , 16 of which were champions .\nmore than ready\u2019s flying start proved a perfect catalyst for collingrove stud in victoria to import another us - bred sprinting son of southern halo . halo homewrecker hadn\u2019t been as good as sprinter as more than ready , but don\u2019t say halo and more than ready had paved the way for his importation , and the timing was excellent for his arrival at collingrove in advance of the 2005 stud season .\nthat r\u00e9sum\u00e9 omission , combined with the fact that he was markedly back at the knee and upright in his pasterns , made him a marginal stud prospect in kentucky , so southern halo was sold to haras la quebrada near buenos aires , argentina . southern halo quickly proved himself the most successful sire of the modern era in argentina , winning seven sire championships and siring 18 argentine champions among his career total of 175 stakes winners from 1 , 828 foals ( 9 . 6 percent ) .\nin summary , our observations suggest that the halo is concentrated toward the galactic center . other than that , the morphology of the hot halo remains uncertain . however , our observed emission measures do not vary with latitude in the way expected for a disk - like halo morphology . the patchiness of the halo emission makes it difficult to determine the halo ' s underlying global morphology .\ncolumn densities when calculating the attenuation of the halo emission . the details of the morphology of the halo remain uncertain , but the variation of the emission measure with longitude suggests that the halo is concentrated toward the galactic center ( section\nin part due to the massive impression that wally made , along with a series of champion juveniles , southern halo became associated with the speed to an inordinate degree . but as star runner and numerous other fine athletes like el compinche and miss linda ( spinster stakes ) have shown , speed was a benefit of breeding to southern halo , not a limitation . many of the stallions ' offspring have excelled at eight , nine , or 10 furlongs , as well as many at the shorter distances .\nsouthern halo , the most successful sire in argentine history , died in his paddock at haras la quebrada near buenos aires from complications from the infirmities of old age , according to gustavo gonzalez . the 24 - year - old maryland - bred son of halo out of the northern dancer mare northern sea had been pensioned this year .\n\u201ci ( told ) him goodbye the last weekend . he didn\u2019t suffer or feel pain\u201d , said hernan ceriani cernadas iii , son of the late hernan ceriani cernadas and owner of la quebrada with his family . \u201ca few days ago , when someone said that southern halo was the sadler\u2019s wells of argentina , john magnier said , \u2018southern halo has joined around him people of the class of robert sangster ( of coolmore ) , e . p . taylor , d . wayne lukas , hern\u00e1n ceriani cernadas . \u2019 \u201d\n( b ) , in which the halo temperature was fixed at 2 . 5\nintensity , it may also be due to the fact that the halo likely has a complicated temperature and ionization structure , so different methods of characterizing the halo emission may yield different temperatures . despite this , such temperature measurements are still useful for testing halo models , provided the predicted halo emission is treated like the true halo emission . this involves creating synthetic observations from the predicted halo spectra , which are then analyzed with the same sxrb model as the real observations ( hskjm ) .\nhalo - a horse with the reputation for being anything but angelic . . .\nsouthern halo was argentina\u2019s leading sire from 1994 to 2000 , and in 2004 and 2007 . he topped the broodmare sire\u2019s list from 2004 to 2008 and ranks as the current leader . his 167 stakes winners include 56 group / grade i winners and 16 champions .\nwe are southern halo ! welcome to our channel ! here you will see our latest interviews , music videos , and . . . . coming in may our new series where we let cameras into our life and show you guys , what h . . .\nbuenos aires \u2014 the victor in the group 1 estrellas classic on saturday at san isidro racecourse in buenos aires was the bay colt star runner , a son of the great us - bred and argentine - based stallion southern halo , who died in november 2009 .\nthe combination of the stallion ' s immediate success in argentina , internationally recognizable pedigree , and the versatility in his offspring made coolmore reach out and acquire southern halo as a reverse shuttle horse for their burgeoning operation in kentucky at ashford stud in the early 1990s .\nas a premium stallion in the argentine , southern halo made his mark from the beginning , and the carreras de las estrellas , renewed for the 21st time this weekend , have proven to be a showcase for the talents and versatility of the stallion and his offspring .\nbesides snapy halo , esnaola is also the dam of exciting young group 1 winning stallion sebi halo and the champion older mare , halo ola . she has also produced a further three black type placed runners and all this has come from just nine foals .\nbred by e . p . taylor , southern halo went through the 1984 keeneland july yearling sale , where he was purchased for $ 600 , 000 by the irish branch of the british bloodstock agency . he initially raced in ireland , where he was unplaced in two starts .\nsouthern halo , who has shuttled back and forth between ashford and argentine the last several years , is represented by several stakes winners from his u . s . crops . the group is led by grade i winner more than ready , who stands at stud at vinery near lexington .\nintensity , thus biasing the halo measurements . alternatively , the discrepancy may be due to the halo having a complex multitemperature , multi - ionization - state structure , meaning that the o\ndespite being a gr1 winner on turf , however , it was through his top class dirt performers sunday silence , devil\u2019s bag , sunny\u2019s halo and glorious song , that halo largely made his mark \u2013a mark potent enough to score halo a pair of us sires titles ( in 1983 and 1989 ) and both sunny\u2019s halo and sunday silence won the gr1 kentucky derby .\na full brother to snapy halo , sebi halo has kicked off his stallion career in great order having produced a group 2 winner among 8 stakes winners in his first two crops .\nsouthern halo ( usa ) b . h , 1983 { 16 - g } dp = 18 - 5 - 23 - 4 - 0 ( 50 ) di = 2 . 23 cd = 0 . 74 - 24 starts , 5 wins , 7 places , 3 shows career earnings : $ 344 , 875\nthe halo and extragalactic components were both subject to absorption . for this purpose we used the xspec\nkzn breeders : halo - a horse with the reputation for being anything but angelic . . .\nsadly , halo homewrecker died after only one season at collingrove , but time has shown that he would have had enough potential to write his own ( admittedly small ) chapter in halo\u2019s story .\nsouthern halo also was represented by major north american winners miss linda and edenwold . an argentine - bred champion , miss linda won the 2001 overbrook spinster stakes ( gr . i ) at keeneland . edenwold was voted canada\u2019s 2005 champion 2 - year - old male . he won the following year\u2019s classic queen\u2019s plate stakes .\n) . similarly , column 13 contains the best - fit halo emission measure . as noted in section\nbred by northern dancer\u2019s breeder , e . p . taylor , out of 1977 grade 3 test stakes winner northern sea from the great family of lea lark , southern halo clearly possessed plenty of racing ability . purchased for $ 600 , 000 at the 1984 keeneland july sale by stavros niarchos , he failed to place at 2 in ireland but won 5 of 22 starts for trainer d . wayne lukas over the next two years in america . southern halo was beaten only a head by clear choice in the 1986 grade 1 swaps stakes and finished second in the grade 1 super derby to wise times , but he never managed to win a stakes race .\ncolumn density used to attenuate the halo and extragalactic components . column 12 contains the best - fit halo temperature , along with the statistical error ( 90 % confidence interval for one interesting parameter ; lampton et al .\nmeasurements suggests that , in fact , our choice of foreground model is not adversely affecting our halo measurements .\nsouthern halo , made up of natalia ( pronounced natalie - uh ) , christina , and hannah , a trio of sisters from the mississippi delta , recently released its debut single , \u201c little white dress , \u201d to radio . the track marks the lead single off the group\u2019s self - titled debut album and is already receiving spins across the country .\nglorious song was by no means the only daughter of halo to leave behind a top sire son \u2013halo matriarch coup de folies produced three gr1 winners , including champion 2yo colt and outstanding sire machiavellian ( mr prospector ) .\nas a stallion , halo\u2019s image ( halo - - sugar\u2019s image , by valid appeal ) is represented by 39 stakes horses and the earners of $ 20 . 5 million . the best of his 17 stakes winners ,\n) , we find that this leads to an uncertainty in the halo surface brightness typically of only \u00b10 . 3\nto say that the halo male line has enjoyed its most success outside the states , would be an understatement .\nemission from the outer to the inner galaxy , in agreement with the halo measurements presented here . these results argue against the hot halo having a simple plane - parallel disk - like morphology , in which case the emission measure would be independent of galactic longitude . instead , these results suggest a halo that is concentrated toward the galactic center .\nthe majority of southern halo ' s stakes winners have come from his argentine crops . he is represented by some 35 argentine group i winners , including miss linda . a champion in argentina who was imported to the u . s . in 2000 , miss linda won a u . s . grade i stakes last year and is a grade iii winner this year .\nan xmm - newton survey of the soft x - ray background . iii . the galactic halo x - ray emission\npensioned from stud duty at stone farm in 1997 , halo passed away at the age of 31 late in 2000 .\nour halo emission measures do not decrease with increasing galactic latitude , contrary to what is expected for a plane - parallel disk - like halo morphology . this result appears not to be an artifact of soft proton contamination , nor of our using h\nhalo spent most of his career at stone farm and produced a number of champions , amongst them devil ' s bag - who happens to be a full brother to glorious song and sunny ' s halo - winner of the 1983 kentucky derby .\nfigure 7 . 0 . 5\u20132 . 0 kev halo surface brightnesses against halo temperatures . sight lines on which the original target of the xmm - newton observation was a galaxy cluster are colored orange . the triangles indicate upper limits on the surface brightnesses .\nthe halo male line in america suffered another serious blow seven years ago when 2005 horse of the year saint liam , the best son of halo\u2019s leading sire son saint ballado , died after only one season at stud without leaving an obvious male heir .\n2nd super derby invitational ( g1 ) , swaps s ( g1 ) , silver screen h . ( g2 ) , el cajon s . ; 3rd kensington h . leading sire in argentina 8 times . southern halo is the sire of 120 stakes winners , including 88 graded / group winners , and 12 champions , according to jockey club records . he currently stands exclusively at haras la quebrada , argentina .\nfigure 5 . halo emission measure against ( a ) b for the northern galactic hemisphere , ( b ) b for the southern galactic hemisphere , ( c ) | l | for the northern galactic hemisphere ( see equation ( 2 ) ) , and ( d ) | l | for the southern galactic hemisphere . panels ( a ) and ( d ) show the only two examples of statistically significant correlations in table 3 ; the other two panels are shown for comparison . detections are shown with crosses and error bars ; upper limits are shown with triangles . the red data points indicate emission measures from sight lines for which the temperature was fixed at 2 . 1 \u00d7 10 6 k .\nan xmm - newton survey of the soft x - ray background . iii . the galactic halo x - ray emission - iopscience\n, respectively . they subsequently used a foreground model with these oxygen intensities to obtain their halo measurements . gupta et al . (\nhalo\u2019s image stood this season for a fee of $ 4 , 000 . his 10 - year - old half - brother ,\n, won the 2004 santa anita handicap ( gr . i ) and pimlico special ( gr . i ) and the $ 1 million barretts / ctba classic stakes the year he was florida\u2019s horse of the year . southern image earned a career total of $ 1 , 843 , 750 .\nhalo sired seven champions and 62 stakes winners , and led the leading sire list twice . standout runners sired by halo included goodbye halo , who counted the kentucky oaks among her seven gr 1 victories , strodes creek , who was second in the 1994 kentucky derby and third in the belmont stakes gr 1 , and millionaire lively one , whose long list of accomplishments included the swaps stakes gr 1 . halo ' s progeny earned over $ 44 million on the racetrack and have netted far more in the breeding shed .\nin only two cases is the correlation statistically significant at the 5 % level . the halo emission measure is positively correlated with | b | in the northern hemisphere ( i . e . , the emission measure tends to increase from low latitudes to the pole ; see figure 5 ( a ) ) . there is no correlation between emission measure and | b | in the southern hemisphere ( see figure 5 ( b ) ) . however , the emission measure is negatively correlated with | l | in the southern hemisphere ( i . e . , the emission measure tends to increase from the outer galaxy to the inner galaxy , as noted in the previous section ; see figure 5 ( d ) ) .\ntoday , the late sunday silence is immortalized as the greatest sire and sire of sires in japanese history , a horse so good that even less - accomplished sons like silent name and hat trick are making a positive contribution in the land of their father\u2019s birth . another unheralded son of halo , the beautifully bred southern halo , became one of the greatest sires in argentine history , and his best american son , more than ready , is the sire of current kentucky derby favorite verrazano , who is exactly the type of horse that will make breeders salivate .\nand the number of degrees of freedom . column 15 contains the intrinsic 0 . 5\u20132 . 0 kev surface brightness of the halo ,\nhalo developed into a good grass horse at 3 , winning the lawrence realization , which attracted a bid from english breeder irving allen . when allen\u2019s representatives discovered that halo was a cribber ( a horse that clings to objects with his teeth and sucks air into his stomach ) \u2013 then considered a disqualifying flaw by old - fashioned english breeders \u2013 the sale was rescinded and halo returned to the barn of trainer mackenzie miller . halo improved further as a 5 - year - old , winning the grade 1 united nations handicap and grade 2 tidal handicap , earning a place at windfields farm alongside his \u201ccousin\u201d northern dancer , a son of a half - sister to halo\u2019s dam .\nalthough a stallion ' s success at stud is usually defined by statistics , his true legacy carries far deeper than mere numbers . halo , one of only 18 stallions in history to sire more than one derby winner , certainly has impressive statistics , but to stone farm , halo represents more than sheer numbers . halo meant the world to stone farm , partly because he gave stone farm 1989 horse of the year sunday silence .\nwhile roberto horses ended up excelling all around the world , the influence of hail to reason\u2019s other extremely influential son , halo , has largely been much more localized . halo wasn\u2019t as good a racehorse as roberto ( whose derby victory was only his second greatest triumph , as his defeat of\nthe latest chapter in the halo success story can be seen in south africa \u2013thanks to the exploits of last season\u2019s leading first crop sire gimmethegreenlight .\nthat overwhelming success led to ashford stud re - importing him as a shuttle sire in 1996 , but he did not meet the same success in the land of his birth . southern halo sired canadian champion edenwold , but by far his most important north american - conceived offspring was more than ready . out of the woodman mare woodman\u2019s girl , more than ready was bred by woodlynn farm and sold for $ 187 , 000 to edward rosen as agent for james scatuorchio .\nintensity in our spectral fitting , and thus overestimating the halo temperature . however , d . b . henley & r . l . shelton ( in preparation ) also point out that the halo emission likely originates from plasma with a range of temperatures and in a range of ionization states . if this is the case , the spectral fitting described here will not necessarily arrive at the same best - fit halo temperature as that inferred from the o\ncolumn densities to attenuate the halo emission . by using such column densities , we could potentially be neglecting the contributions to the absorption from regions containing h\nwe defer a detailed comparison of our observations to models of the hot halo to a follow - up paper ( d . b . henley et al . , in preparation ) . however , here we make some general comments on the implications of our results for the origin of the hot halo .\nin the spring of 1983 , the northern dancer mare northern sea foaled a halo colt at windfields whose pedigree featured a coupling of the half - sisters cosmah and natalma ( the dam of northern dancer ) . sent to the keeneland yearling sale , he was purchased by the bba on behalf of stavros niarchos for $ 600 , 000 . unplaced in two starts in europe , the colt , now named southern halo , returned to the states to join the american stable of master trainer d wayne lukas , for whom he won five times and ran second in both the gr . 1 swaps stakes and the gr . 1 super derby .\nwe are unable to distinguish between extragalactic accretion and outflows from the disk as the source of the ~ ( 2\u20133 ) \u00d7 10 6 k halo plasma . both processes have more than enough energy to maintain the halo ' s surface brightness , and other aspects of the halo emission ( such as the increase in emission measure toward the inner galaxy and the general patchiness of the emission ) could plausibly be explained by either scenario ( section 5 . 5 ) . a detailed comparison of our measurements with the predictions of hydrodynamical models of the halo is needed to distinguish between different scenarios for the heating of the halo . we will carry out such a comparison in a follow - up paper ( d . b . henley et al . , in preparation ) .\n; d . b . henley & r . l . shelton , in preparation ) , we conclude that our choice of foreground model is not seriously biasing our measurements of the halo surface brightness . similarly , our halo temperatures agree with those from other studies that use spectral fitting ( yoshino et al .\nspectra , which requires us to fix the normalization of the extragalactic background , potentially introduces some uncertainty in the normalization of the halo x - ray emission .\nnow , with the emergence of potent young sire gimmethegreenlight , the spotlight has fallen on a lesser known son of hail to reason , the fiery halo .\nin the following subsections , we compare our measurements with those from previous studies , we discuss the effect of our assumed foreground model on our halo measurements , and we consider sources of contamination that could be affecting our halo measurements ( sections 5 . 1 \u2013 5 . 3 , respectively ) . we conclude that contamination and our choice of foreground model are , in general , not adversely affecting our halo measurements . then , in section 5 . 4 , we discuss the morphology of the hot halo . finally , in section 5 . 5 , we comment on the implications of our measurements for the origin of the hot halo ( deferring a more detailed study of this issue to a follow - up paper ; d . b . henley et al . , in preparation ) .\nas noted in section 2 . 1 , our sample of xmm - newton observations includes 20 that were analyzed in the hskjm . the halo temperatures that we have measured for these sight lines are generally in good agreement with those measured in hskjm , and there is no systematic difference in the halo temperatures ( although it should be noted that for five of these sight lines we had to fix the halo temperature at 2 . 1 \u00d7 10 6 k for the current analysis ) .\nin 1984 , texas oilman tom tatham purchased 25 of the 40 shares in halo ' s syndicate and moved the stallion to kentucky to stand at stone farm .\nalthough most of his stallion career was spent at stone farm , halo originally entered stud in 1975 at windfields in maryland where his first crop yielded glorious song , the canadian horse of the year . subsequent champions included devil ' s bag ( full brother to glorious song ) , sunny ' s halo ( winner of the 1983 kentucky derby - g1 ) , and of course , sunday silence ( derby , preakness s . - g1 , and breeders ' cup classic - g1 winner ) , who was conceived during halo ' s second breeding season at stone farm . in all , halo sired seven champions , 62 stakes winners , and led the leading sire list twice in the 1980s . standout runners sired by halo included goodbye halo , who counted the kentucky oaks among her seven g1 victories , strodes creek , who was second in the 1994 kentucky derby and third in the belmont s . - g1 , and millionaire lively one , whose long list of accomplishments included the swaps s . - g1 . halo ' s progeny earned over $ 44 million on the racetrack and have netted far more in the breeding shed .\nand just as he had with his initial mares in argentina , southern halo scored a big hit early in the bluegrass . the star he sired in kentucky is one of lasting brilliance : more than ready . as a high - class 2 - year - old , more than ready won five of his seven starts , including the flash , tremont , and sanford . the dark brown colt added victories in the g1 king ' s bishop and g2 hutcheson the following year but was not a star for the triple crown .\nuniformly better regarded at his southern hemisphere shuttle base in australia than in kentucky , more than ready has done his part to make believers of northern hemisphere breeders too . in last year ' s breeders ' cup , the stallion had both the juvenile turf winners , and this weekend , his daughter buster ' s ready won the g1 mother goose stakes at belmont .\n, whose excellent season in 1990 / \u201991 ( in which he won the blue diamond and finished second in the golden slipper ) saw don\u2019t say halo crowned the country\u2019s leading sire of two - year - olds . ultimately , don\u2019t say halo became a very good broodmare sire , his daughters breeding the likes of ajc derby winner\nalter added : \u201cthe combination of his racing career and his breeding career put him into a select group of florida horses . i trained his mother , sugar\u2019s image , who was the winningest valid appeal mare , and we chose to breed her to halo . all my expectations became true when halo\u2019s image hit the racetrack . \u201d\nstar winner earned the fifth estrellas classic trophy for his sire , who also won with el compinche ( 1996 and 1998 ) , manpower ( 2003 ) , and fairy magic ( 2007 ) . over the years , offspring of southern halo have won 17 of the previous grand premios that make up the estrellas program , and the stallion has had a winner of each of the seven races that make up the bulk of the card : the classic , distaff , sprint , junior sprint , mile , juvenile , and juvenile fillies .\nobservation . they then combine this prior with oxygen intensities from other directions to constrain the posterior probability distribution for the intrinsic halo emission . this new technique yields combined o\nand the number of degrees of freedom . column 15 contains the intrinsic 0 . 5\u20132 . 0 kev surface brightness of the halo , calculated using the best - fit 1\nhalo sired sunday silence , the defining horse who has continued his legacy . sunday silence was exported to japan and has become the top sire in history in that country .\nsnapy halo will stand his first season at a fee of $ 6 , 500 plus gst . a lifetime breeding right is priced at $ 10 , 000 plus gst .\npensioned from stud duty in 1997 , halo passed away at the age of 31 late in 2000 .\nyou have to rejoice that halo lived to be almost 32 ,\narthur b . hancock iii , owner of stone farm , told the blood - horse at the time .\nwe were so grateful to have had him .\nwe typically used a 1 t raymond & smith ( 1977 and updates ) model to model the galactic halo emission , assuming that the halo plasma is in collisional ionization equilibrium , and assuming anders & grevesse ( 1989 ) solar abundances . although the true halo emission is likely from plasma at a range of temperatures ( yao & wang 2007 ; shelton et al . 2007 ; lei et al . 2009 ; yao et al . 2009 ) , a 1 t model is generally adequate to characterize the x - ray emission in the xmm - newton band . we used a raymond & smith model in order to match the code used to calculate x - ray emission from hydrodynamical models of the halo ( hskjm ; d . b . henley et al . , in preparation ) . in general , the temperature and emission measure of this component were free parameters in the fitting . in some cases , typically when the halo emission was faint , xspec ' s error command was unable to determine the statistical error on the halo temperature . in a few additional cases , the best - fit temperature was > 5 \u00d7 10 6 k , but very poorly constrained . in such cases , we fixed the halo temperature at 2 . 1 \u00d7 10 6 k , and redid the fit . this temperature was chosen as it was the median halo temperature resulting from our preliminary analysis of our data set .\nin the breeders\u2019 cup sprint over six furlongs at churchill downs . retiring to vinery stud in kentucky in 2001 , more than ready was an obvious candidate to be shuttled to vinery\u2019s southern hemisphere outpost , the former segenhoe stud at scone in new south wales , so that was what he did later that year \u2013 and such has been his success there ( most notably with the golden slipper winners\nthe distinct talents and personalities of the sisters of southern halo blend together on its debut effort , \u201clittle white dress , \u201d providing country music fans with an energetic , beautifully performed piece of art . though the title of the track gives the impression that a love song is ahead , the tune is actually about putting the brakes on a relationship before it gets too far too fast . considering the girls are eighteen , sixteen , and fifteen , respectively , the lyrics are age appropriate , while also speaking to anybody who isn\u2019t necessarily ready for that next big step .\nwere not contaminating the hskjm halo measurements ) . instead , the difference is most likely due to our using a lower normalization for the extragalactic background ( the extragalactic normalization used in\nthe variation ( or lack thereof ) of the halo emission measure with latitude is also different from that expected for a plane - parallel disk - like halo morphology . in such a morphology , the emission measure is expected to decrease with latitude as 1 / sin | b | . instead , we find the halo emission measure to weakly increase with latitude in the north , and to be uncorrelated with latitude in the south ( see table 3 , and figures 5 ( a ) and ( b ) ) . similarly , we previously found that our sxrb oxygen intensity measurements argued against a plane - parallel halo model in the northern galactic hemisphere ( see hs12 , section 4 . 3 . 3 ) .\ncolumn densities is unlikely to be responsible for our emission measure measurements not following the trend expected for a disk - like halo morphology . note also that yoshino et al . (\n. somewhat surprisingly , increasing the brightness of the extragalactic background from its nominal value generally leads to an increase in the halo surface brightness . this is because increasing the brightness of the extragalactic background causes the soft proton component to decrease in brightness to compensate , and the combination of these effects leads to more flux being attributed to the halo emission ( see section\nin the grade two woody stephens handicap at belmont the following month . unfortunately , he failed to progress from this , although he did finish second in a six - furlong listed race at colonial downs the following year . by the end of 2004 , though , he hadn\u2019t really done enough to make him particularly appealing to the american stallion market \u2013 but the success of more than ready meant that by 2005 the time was right for another fast son of southern halo to be imported into australia . halo homewrecker was fast , had won three of his 15 starts including one graded stake , and was closely related to several very good horses , so collingrove stud in victoria snapped him up , offering his services to breeders in 2005 for $ 6 , 600 ( inc . gst ) .\nit should be noted that our best - fit halo models attribute somewhat less r45 ( 3 / 4 kev ) emission to the galactic halo than kuntz & snowden ' s ( 2000 ) analysis of the rosat all - sky survey . for sight lines on which emission is detected , our best - fit models typically imply observed halo r45 count rates of ( 18\u201349 ) \u00d7 10 \u22126 counts s \u22121 arcmin \u22122 ( median = 27 \u00d7 10 \u22126 counts s \u22121 arcmin \u22122 ) . in contrast , kuntz & snowden ( 2000 ) inferred an observed halo r45 count rate of 38 . 6 \u00d7 10 \u22126 counts s \u22121 arcmin \u22122 in the vicinity of the northern galactic pole ( their table 2 :\nremainder\n\u2212\nstars\n) . however , the uncertainty on the kuntz & snowden ( 2000 ) halo r45 count rate is not stated , so we are unable to determine whether or not this discrepancy is significant .\nhalo\u2019s 60 plus stakes winners included a string of champions , and his son sunday silence was named us horse of the year in 1989 . other champions sired by him included devil\u2019s bag and glorious song , while his daughter goodbye halo surely rates as one of the best horses never named a champion \u2013she won 11 races , with her 7 gr1 victories including the kentucky oaks .\nfigure 4 shows maps of the measured halo temperatures and emission measures . from a visual inspection of figures 4 ( a ) and ( c ) , it appears that the halo temperature is in general rather uniform . figures 4 ( b ) and ( d ) , meanwhile , show that there is considerable variation in the emission measure of the halo plasma . in the northern hemisphere , no clear trends are apparent from figure 4 ( b ) ( although see section 4 . 1 ) . from figure 4 ( d ) , it appears that the halo emission measure in the south tends to increase from the outer galaxy ( l = 180\u00b0 ) to the inner galaxy ( l = 0\u00b0 ) , a trend which we will confirm in the following section .\nwe noted in section 4 that the halo emission measure and intrinsic surface brightness vary by an order of magnitude over the sky , while the temperature is fairly uniform ( see figure 3 ) . figures 4 ( b ) and ( d ) show that the halo emission is patchy ( yoshino et al . 2009 ; hs10 ; hskjm ) . such patchiness may favor a stochastic , inhomogeneous energy source , such as sne , as the source of the hot halo ( hskjm ) . however , if accreting extragalactic material fragments as it accretes , it too could lead to patchy emission .\nin 1984 , texas oilman tom tatham purchased 25 of the 40 shares in halo ' s syndicate and moved the stallion to kentucky to stand at stone farm . while at stone farm , halo sired sunday silence , the defining horse who will carry on his legacy . sunday silence is known as the\nnorthern dancer of japan\nand has become the top sire in history in that country .\nto estimate the systematic errors due to our fixing the foreground normalization , we reanalyzed each sight line with a foreground normalization corresponding to an r12 count rate of 610 counts s \u22121 arcmin \u22122 ( this is the median of the values in column 10 of table 1 ) . we then used the median differences between the original halo parameters and these new halo parameters to estimate the systematic errors due to our fixing the foreground normalization , yielding \u00b10 . 046 \u00d7 10 6 k and \u00b10 . 027 dex for the halo temperature and emission measure , respectively . we applied these systematic errors to all sight lines .\nhalo raced for four years and in 1974 , at age five , won the grade i united nations handicap . he achieved nine wins from 31 starts and earned over a quarter of a million dollars .\nof all the numerous high class athletes and sires descended from the great tap root mare almahmoud ( mahmoud ) , few have enjoyed more influence worldwide than the famously evil tempered halo , writes sarah whitelaw .\nabove , we noted that the presence of the soft proton contamination in the xmm - newton spectra potentially introduces some uncertainty in the normalization of the halo x - ray emission . in general , our halo measurements and those obtained with suzaku ( which does not suffer from soft proton contamination ) are in reasonable agreement . this suggests that , in practice , soft proton contamination is not a major source of bias .\nwe detected emission from ~ ( 2\u20133 ) \u00d7 10 6 k plasma on 87 of our sight lines ( 79 % ) , with typical emission measures of ( 1 . 4\u20133 . 0 ) \u00d7 10 \u22123 cm \u22126 pc , and typical intrinsic 0 . 5\u20132 . 0 kev surface brightnesses of ( 1 . 1\u20132 . 3 ) \u00d7 10 \u221212 erg cm \u22122 s \u22121 deg \u22122 ( section 4 ) . the halo emission measure tends to increase from the outer to the inner galaxy in the southern galactic hemisphere ( section 4 . 1 ) . there is some evidence that the halo is hotter and has a larger emission measure in the southern hemisphere than in the north ( section 4 . 2 ) . however , the differences may be partly due to the fact that we are not comparing equivalent regions in both hemispheres . because of the presence of the sco - cen superbubble , we excluded the region toward the inner galaxy in the northern hemisphere but not in the south , and , as noted above , the emission measure increases toward the inner galaxy in the south . in addition , it should be noted that the difference in the median temperature between the hemispheres ( ~ 0 . 2 \u00d7 10 6 k ) is less than the typical error on the temperature ( ~ \u00b1 0 . 4 \u00d7 10 6 k ) .\nthe winner of 6 races from 19 starts , snapy halo was an exceptionally fast horse , winning races from 1000m to 1600m in the sort of times that stamp him as a horse of the highest calibre .\nswcx emission is also unlikely to be adversely affecting our halo measurements : our observations were selected from hs12 ' s catalog as they were expected to be the least contaminated by swcx emission ( section 2 . 1 ) , and in section 5 . 2 we argued that our choice of foreground model is not seriously biasing our measurements of the halo surface brightness . in this subsection , we consider other potential sources of contamination .\nwe have presented measurements of the galactic halo ' s x - ray emission on 110 xmm - newton sight lines . this is an approximately fourfold increase in the number of sight lines over the previous largest study of the galactic halo with ccd - resolution x - ray spectra ( hskjm ) . our sample of observations is drawn from an xmm - newton survey of the sxrb ( hs12 ) . we selected these observations as they should be the least contaminated by charge exchange emission from within the solar system . we analyzed the spectra with a standard sxrb model , with components representing the foreground , galactic halo , and extragalactic background emission .\nfigure 3 . ( a ) halo emission measure and ( b ) intrinsic 0 . 5\u20132 . 0 kev halo surface brightness against halo temperature , from our spectral modeling . black : the temperature was free to vary , and is well constrained . gray : the temperature was free to vary , but is poorly constrained ( combined statistical and systematic confidence interval spans more than 4 \u00d7 10 6 k ) . red : the temperature was fixed at t = 2 . 1 \u00d7 10 6 k ( see section 3 . 1 . 2 ) . the red triangles indicate upper limits on the emission measures and surface brightnesses . note that to avoid clutter , the red data points have been randomly displaced by small amounts in the horizontal direction from t = 2 . 1 \u00d7 10 6 k . top panel : histogram of halo temperatures . the sight lines on which the temperature was fixed have been omitted . side panels : histograms of halo emission measures ( upper panel ) and intrinsic surface brightnesses ( lower panel ) . black : detections ; red : upper limits .\nhalo was no northern dancer as a stallion , but he developed into a terrific sire , with six champions and seven grade 1 winners among his 63 stakes winners from 749 foals ( 8 . 4 percent ) .\nin summary , there is some evidence that the halo temperature and emission measure tend to be somewhat higher in the south than in the north . however , these differences may in part be due to the fact that we do not have data from equivalent regions of the halo in the two hemispheres , as the region toward the inner galaxy is excluded in the north ( because of the presence of the sco - cen superbubble ) .\nhenley et al . ( 2010 , hereafter hskjm ) tested models of the hot halo gas using a sample of 26 sxrb spectra extracted from archival xmm - newton observations between l = 120\u00b0 and 240\u00b0 ( henley & shelton 2010 , hereafter hs10 ) . they compared the observed x - ray temperatures and emission measures of the hot halo with the distributions expected from different physical models . hskjm ' s analysis favored fountains of hot gas ( joung & mac low 2006 ) as a major , possibly dominant , contributor to the halo x - ray emission in the xmm - newton band over extraplanar sn remnants ( shelton 2006 ) . however , in the absence of x - ray surface brightness predictions from disk galaxy formation models , they were unable to rule out the possibility that an extended halo of accreted material also contributed to the observed emission ( crain et al . 2010 ) .\nyoshino et al . ( 2009 ) did find that the halo emission measure decreased with latitude . however , the decrease with latitude is steeper than that expected for a plane - parallel model ( see their figure 7 ; em \u00d7 sin | b | is expected to be constant for a plane - parallel model ) . note also that the yoshino et al . ( 2009 ) data set contains far fewer sight lines than ours . the fact that our halo emission measures do not decrease with increasing latitude , contrary to what is expected for a disk - like halo morphology , and contrary to the yoshino et al . ( 2009 ) suzaku results , is unlikely to be due to soft proton contamination ( a problem from which suzaku does not suffer ) . we argued in sections 5 . 1 and 5 . 3 that such contamination does not seriously bias our halo emission measures ."]}
{"id": 599, "summary": [{"text": "the wrybill or ( in m\u0101ori ) ngutuparore ( anarhynchus frontalis ) is a species of plover endemic to new zealand .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is special since it is one of the two species of bird in the world with a beak that is bent sideways ( it is always to the right for wrybill , and the other species is loxia pytyopsittacus ) .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "a 2015 study found it to actually be within the charadrius clade , with its closest relatives other plovers found in new zealand , the nearest the new zealand plover or new zealand dotterel ( charadrius obscurus ) , and then the double-banded plover or banded dotterel ( charadrius bicinctus ) .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it lays its eggs among the rocks along rivers and distracts intruders by pretending to be in distress and moving away from its \" nest \" . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "wrybill", "paragraphs": ["miranda is an amazing shorebird location , and we spend time here looking for wrybill and other migrant shorebirds .\nrange : the wrybill is found in new zealand . it breeds in c south i and winters in n north i .\nwith it ' s bill curved to the right the wrybill is an uncommon visitor / resident of awarua bay , new zealand .\nwrybill breed on large braided rivers in central south island from august - january . they prefer large dynamic rivers that will not become overgrown with weeds . once prevalent on smaller rivers , the wrybill\u2019s range as contracted to about 60 % of its estimated original habitat (\nwrybill ( anarhynchus frontalis ) feeding and walking head on showing the bent bill . manawatu estuary , manawatu , new zealand . september .\nthe wrybill became fully protected in new zealand in 1940 ( 2 ) . research is currently being undertaken into the impact of predation on wrybill population numbers ( 2 ) . long - term monitoring is vital in determining the overall trends in this threatened species ( 2 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - wrybill ( anarhynchus frontalis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - wrybill ( anarhynchus frontalis )\ntitle =\narkive species - wrybill ( anarhynchus frontalis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nwrybill . front view of adult male in breeding plumage . ohau river delta , mackenzie country , november 2006 . image \u00a9 craig mckenzie by craig mckenzie\nhay , j . r . 1984 . the behavioural ecology of the wrybill plover anarhynchus frontalis . unpublished phd thesis , university of auckland , auckland . urltoken\npierce , r . j . 1979 . foods and feeding of the wrybill ( anarhynchus frontalis ) on its riverbed breeding grounds . notornis 26 : 1 - 21 .\ndowding , j . e . 2013 [ updated 2017 ] . wrybill . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken\nno other bird in the world has a bill like new zealand\u2019s wrybill . its bill curves to the right , allowing it to probe for insects under river stones .\ncalls and songs : sounds by xeno - canto the wrybill gives short , high - pitched \u201ctweeps\u201d in flight , before landing . this bird does not call frequently .\ndavies , s . j . 1997 . population structure , morphometrics , moult , migration , and wintering of the wrybill ( anarhynchus frontalis ) . notornis 44 : 1 - 14 .\nprotection / threats / status : the wrybill has small population estimated at 3 , 000 / 3 , 300 mature individuals . it is threatened by deterioration of the habitat due to the encroachment of weeds with reduction of the water flow . predation by gulls , stoats and cats is probably substantial too . the increasing use of riverbeds for recreational purposes and floods are also important threats . the wrybill is currently listed as vulnerable .\nriegen , a . c . ; dowding , j . e . 2003 . the wrybill anarhynchus frontalis : a brief review of status , threats and work in progress . wader study group bulletin 100 : 20 - 24 .\nthe wrybill or ngutuparore ( m\u0101ori ) anarhynchus frontalis is a species of plover endemic to new zealand . it is unique in that it is the only species of bird in the world with an asymmetrically bent bill , which it uses to dig around river stones for freshwater invertebrates . measuring 20\u201321cm long and weighing between 43\u201371gm , the wrybill is slightly sexually dimorphic . the most distinctive feature of the bird is the long black bill , which is always curved to the right .\ntheir normal call is a high\u2013pitched staccato whistle resembling that of the banded dotterel , though it is rather more musical . the wrybill does not , however , call nearly so frequently as the dotterel , either when on the ground or in flight .\nintroduction : the wrybill is the only bird in the world with the bill tip curving to the right . this \u201ctool\u201d is adapted to the feeding behaviour of this species when the bird extracts insects and aquatic preys from rock crevices and under stones . the maori name is ngutuparore .\nbirds begin to leave the breeding grounds by late december ; this species is one of the first of the season to begin its migration ( 4 ) . using its specially adapted beak , the wrybill is able to forage under stones for invertebrates such as mayfly larvae ( 3 ) .\nin those localities on the river - beds , where a diminishing stream leaves large shingle , there the bent bill is of some use . in such situations i have seen wrybill peck under a stone on its left , and then turn around to get the same stone on its right , and peck under it again . it must be admitted , however , that i have often seen banded dotterel act similarly , and , i daresay , just as often as i have seen wrybills do it , so that any advantage the wrybill has would seem to be very slight .\nbehaviour in the wild : the wrybill feeds on aquatic invertebrates during the breeding season such as worms , annelids and gastropods , and also mites , spiders , and eggs , larvae and pupae of numerous insects , including the adults . it also feeds on crustaceans , fish and their eggs .\nthe recently rediscovered new zealand storm - petrel , refound for the first time in 150 + years by brent stephenson and sav saville from wrybill birding tours , nz is a key target species . our hauraki gulf pelagic not only finds several other endemic breeding seabirds , but specifically targets this species .\nthe wrybill is migratory . it breeds in c south i and moves after the breeding season to the mudflats of estuaries and harbours on n north i . they migrate along the e coast of south i and the w coasts of north i . the adults show strong site - fidelity to their wintering grounds .\nbut on intertidal mudflats , the wrybill tilts the head to the left and performs sideways sweeps with the bill , usually from right to left , in order to sieve preys from water and mud . it often forages in shallow pools , in shallow water in shingle riverbed , on intertidal mudflats and along riverbanks .\nthe wrybill is an internal migrant . after breeding , almost the entire population migrates north to winter in the harbours of the northern north island , notably the firth of thames and manukau harbour . on their wintering grounds , wrybills form dense flocks at high - water roosts ; the highly - coordinated aerial manoeuvres of these flocks have been described as resembling a flung scarf .\nin most writings on the wrybill , the greatest emphasis is laid on the importance of its peculiar bill , but , in my opinion , its colouration is far more important , for this harmonises so perfectly with that of rounded stones among which it breeds that if the bird remains stationary ( and it has a habit of doing so ) it becomes exceedingly difficult to detect .\nhabitat : the wrybill breeds inland on large , fast - flowing rivers running in bare beds of shingle and sand . occasionally , it may breeds in smaller , slower - running rivers . outside the breeding season , it frequents shallow estuaries and sheltered coasts with large mudflats and muddy lagoons . it may occasionally frequent ploughed areas and muddy shores of small lakes and ponds in mountains .\nthis site is maintained and copyrighted by wrybill birding tours , nz \u00a9 2016 . all photos ( unless otherwise stated ) were taken by brent stephenson @ eco - vista and are copyrighted . the use of any image without permission is not allowed . however , all photos on this site are for sale , please email brent for more information or check out eco - vista ' s website for details .\nreproduction of this species : the laying starts in mid - september and continues throughout october . a second clutch may occur from november to late december . the wrybill\u2019s nest is on the ground , in sand , among large , smooth , rounded stones . it is protected by a piece of wood or a larger stone . occasionally , small pebbles are added around the edges of the nest , as lining for the eggs .\nwiersma , p . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . wrybill ( anarhynchus frontalis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nas to the wrybill\u2019s chances of survival , one would say that they are good , at any rate on those rivers whose beds among the hills above the gorges are sufficiently wide to be of the bird\u2019s liking , for there the winter temperature seems to have prevented the yellow lupin from getting a foothold . but the open shingle must be a quarter of a mile wide before the wrybill would make their home on it . they were never numerous , and even thirty years ago i should think two to three pairs to the square mile on the rakaia was their maximum population , and , since the lupin has filled the river bed , below the bridge , their numbers have certainly been much reduced . their chief bird enemies are harriers and black\u2013backed gulls , yet the toll that both these take would not equal that of stoats and weasels during the birds\u2019 breeding season .\nthe wrybill is a small pale plover which breeds only in braided rivers of the south island . it is the only bird in the world with a laterally - curved bill ( always curved to the right ) , which it uses to reach insect larvae under rounded riverbed stones . wrybills are completely dependent on braided rivers for breeding ; all their life stages are predominantly grey , and highly cryptic among the greywacke shingle of the riverbeds .\nthe wrybill is a distinctive wading bird , which possesses a uniquely bent bill . the tip of the black bill is curved to the right , this adaptation allows these birds to forage under stones for insect larvae ( 3 ) . the plumage is ash - grey above with white underparts . during the breeding season , individuals have a black band across the upper chest and males also have a band on the forehead ( 2 ) .\nwrybill birding tours , nz \u2026\u2026 . started out as a couple of birding mates making the decision to set up their own independent bird - guiding business . we felt there was a need for real birders , who were passionate about birding , really knew their new zealand birds and birding sites inside out , and were based in new zealand , with access to up - to - date information on the new zealand birding scene . sure we know our natural history as well , but we are birders , the name says it all !\nthe wrybill is monogamous . nesting and feeding territories are usually strongly defended . the mating season starts when the birds return to south i . they are very active , chasing each other in the air and on the ground . if the pair is disturbed during the courtship displays by another bird , the intruder is driven away by the bird of the same sex . it runs after it with outstretched neck among the stones , while maintaining its balance by slightly opening the wings . the female shows great submission to the male once mated . they nest solitary in loose colonies with nests at least 400 metres apart , and never less than 40 metres .\nin the wrybill , however , the bill , which is one and a quarter inches long , is bent to the right in the middle , the end being offset at an angle of 12 degrees to the base . this is claimed to be an adaptation to its existence on the shingle river - beds of canterbury , where it nests , the bent bill supposedly enabling it to get its food the more readily from under stones . and no doubt it does this , when the occasion demands , but there can be very few occasions when this peculiarity is of any decided benefit to its possessor , for over nearly all the river - beds on which the bird feeds , the stones are so much buried in sand as to make the bill quite unnecessary . moreover . the bird spends less than half the year on shingle river\u2013beds , living for the remaining months on mud\u2013flats , and sea beaches , where its abnormality can be of no benefit .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\namong new zealand\u2019s many bird curiosities , writes edgar stead , the wry - billed plover is often not included , but it certainly ought to be , for it is the only bird in the world which has its bill bent sideways . the crossbills of the northern hemisphere might claim that they share in this distinction , but their bills are symmetrical , the upper mandible being bent one way , and the lower , the other .\nit has to be taken into account also , that while the bill , bent as it is to the right , gives the bird some advantage when feeding under stones on its right , this structure is a very distinct disadvantage to the bird when it wishes to feed on its left . a bill with an upwards curve , one would have thought , would have been of greater use .\nwrybills are in their full mating plumage when they return south , the black band across the chest being very conspicuous ; the narrow white frontal band , with the brownish band behind it , not showing up at all except at very close range . the whole of the upper parts are blue\u2013grey , but with age the feathers lose a certain amount of their blue tint , and also , particularly in the case of scapulars , become much frayed at the edges . it has been stated by some writers that the black chest band is wider on one side than the other , but this is not the case , either in fact or in appearance .\nwrybills nest on high shingle spits , choosing a place where the stones are rather large , and clear of all growths and drift . a mere scratching in the sand , occasionally with a few small pebbles added around its edges , serves as a receptacle for the two eggs , which are wonderfully like the stones among which they are laid .\nboth birds take their turn at incubation , and sit very close , so that they will often allow a person to pass within twenty yards of them without getting off the eggs . owing to the remarkable similarity of their colouring to that of the surroundings , wrybills are easily passed when they keep still , and nests would certainly remain undetected if the birds did not move . but if the bird does get off the nest , and run towards an intruder ( wrybills do not fly around intruders in the same way that banded dotterel do ) , the latter has only to stand still for a few moments , when the bird will , as a rule , run straight back , and sit on its nest , even though it be in full view , and not fifteen yards away .\nlaying commences about the middle of september and continues throughout october . i have found eggs in november , but i think it probable that they were second clutches , the first having been destroyed . the young when hatched are thickly covered with down , white on the breast and underparts , the whole of the upper surface being stone grey , faintly marked with smoky black . when they are hatched , and even as an embryo in the egg , they have the bend in the bill well defined . they leave the nest within a day of hatching , and follow their parents about in search of food . by the time the young are full grown , the old birds are moulting into their winter plumage , when they closely resemble the young \u2014 having no black chest band , and no frontal bands \u2014 and then old and young leave the river\u2013beds . the earliest families have left by the end of december , and all of them have gone by the end of february . sometimes they stay awhile on the coastal lagoons , and i have several times seem them on the shores of lake ellesmere in january and february , but they are the first birds to go north , migrating nearly two months earlier than the main body of dotterel and stilts . they spend the winter on the sea coast of the north island , frequenting the mouths of rivers , and the mud\u2013flats of the big harbours of the far north . so far as my information goes , it would seem they travel up the west coast of the north island in greater numbers than they do up the east .\nwrybills always display when their eggs or young are handled , running around with the wing near the intruder trailing on the ground , the other lifted in the air ; the feathers of the rump are raised ; the tail spread fanwise , and depressed so that the tip is almost on the ground ; and the bird all the time makes a continuous purring noise .\nit is sincerely to be hoped that this most interesting little bird does survive , for , on its nesting ground , it exhibits in all its stages \u2014 adults , eggs and young \u2014 the most amazingly perfect protective colouration that there is among new zealand birds .\n20 cm . , 55 g . , pale grey upper parts , black bill , legs grey green , white forehead tinged with black in breeding plumage , breeding adult underparts white except for black band across the chest .\nthe main breeding rivers in the south island are the rakaia , rangitata , waimakariri , and upper waitaki . after breeding the head to the tidal harbours of northland , auckland , and south auckland , the firth of thames .\nibis , 1869 . buller , walter lawry , birds of new zealand , 1888 .\nheather , b . , & robertson , h . , field guide to the birds of new zealand , 2000 . stead , edgar f . , life histories of new zealand birds , 1932 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nturbott , e . g . 1990 . checklist of the birds of new zealand . ornithological society of new zealand , wellington .\n20 cm . stocky , pale grey plover , tip of black bill turned to right . ash - grey crown , nape , upperparts . white underparts . black band across upper chest thick in breeding male , thinner in breeding female , sometimes absent in non - breeding birds . black frontal band above white forehead in male , absent in female . juvenile breast - band absent , back feathers tinged with white .\nthis species is listed as vulnerable because it has a small population , which is undergoing a continuing decline owing to habitat degradation and the impacts of introduced predators .\n. it is found on over 26 riverbeds , but is only common on 10 . it winters mainly north of 38\u00b0s in the north island . in the last 40 years , population counts have varied between 3 , 000 and 5 , 000 individuals ( sagar\n, probably reflecting the difficulty in surveying the species ( j . e . dowding\n, which is supported by preliminary results from a long - term demographic study ( j . e . dowding\nthe population is estimated to number 4 , 500 - 5 , 000 individuals , roughly equating to 3 , 000 - 3 , 300 mature individuals .\nanalysis of wintering flocks indicates a slow decline over the last 40 years ( veitch and habraken 1999 ) , which is supported by preliminary results from a long - term demographic study ( j . e . dowding\nit breeds on braided riverbeds , and frequents sheltered estuaries and coasts over the non - breeding season . nests are built within 250 m of running water , and are usually hollows in bare shingle , lined with more than 100 small pebbles ( marchant and higgins 1993 , j . e . dowding\n. it lays two eggs . young usually begin to breed at two or three years of age ( marchant and higgins 1993 )\n, the average adult life expectancy is c . 5 . 4 years ( hay 1984 )\n. 2012 ) . land intensification in the high country will have similar effects on reducing water flow , as well as increasing the concentration of nutrients in rivers , further encouraging weed growth ( rebergen 2011 ) . the extent of predation by stoats\n. the recent illegal introduction of rabbit haemorrhagic disease has resulted in the localised switching of some predators to a diet containing proportionately more birds . predation by kelp gulls\nmay pose an increasing threat as they become more numerous in association with human activities ( j . e . dowding\n. increasing use of riverbeds for recreational purposes and floods are also threats ( marchant and higgins 1993 , a . grant\n1999 ) . water quality deterioration and disturbance pose threats at the species ' s wintering grounds in auckland and northland ( rebergen 2011 ) . further threats may include the conversion of coastal habitat for aquaculture , development of wind farms , and the spread of mangroves ( d . melville\n. research on the impact of predation and prey - switching is being undertaken . predator control for black stilt\n. project river recovery carries out habitat restoration and predator research in the mckenzie basin ( a . grant\n. continue to monitor wintering aggregations . control introduced predators and invasive plants at important sites . control the recreational use of riverbeds , perhaps by delimiting areas where humans are excluded . identify and monitor key areas of habitat ( rebergen 2011 ) . increase awareness of river - dwelling birds as part of the current government policy formulation on freshwater resource management ( d . melville\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nwrybills are small , pale plovers that are much more approachable than most new zealand waders . their underparts are white , with a black upper breast band from mid - winter to the end of the breeding season . the upper parts and sides of the face are pale grey , and the forehead white . the bill is long and black , with the distal third curved 12 - 26\u00b0 to the right . the legs are dark grey to black . the sexes are alike in eclipse plumage ; juveniles lack the black breast band . in breeding plumage , males are distinguishable by a black line above the forehead ; this is highly variable however , and difficult to see in some individuals .\nvoice : the most common call is a ' chip ' that appears to indicate alertness . rapid ' churring ' is used when chasing intruding banded dotterels or other wrybills , and very quiet ' grating ' call used to communicate with chicks . flocks in flight ( and sometimes when milling on the ground ) may indulge in excited high - pitched ' chattering ' .\nsimilar species : wrybills are unlikely to be mistaken for other species in breeding plumage or if the bill is seen well . in eclipse plumage the banded dotterel is superficially similar , but has browner upper parts and short straight bill . confusion is possible with some rare transequatorial migrant waders , notably sanderling and terek sandpiper , but these lack the black breast band , and their bill shapes differ .\nwrybills breed only in the south island , east of the main divide . the large majority of the population breeds in canterbury between the waimakariri river in the north , and the rivers of the upper waitaki ( mackenzie ) basin in the south . main strongholds are the rakaia , upper rangitata , and mackenzie basin . four rivers in otago ( hunter , makarora , matukituki , and dart ) and two in north canterbury ( ashley and waiau ) have small populations . wrybills previously bred in marlborough , but their breeding range has contracted southwards over the past 120 years .\nfrom january to july , wrybills are present in harbours of the northern north island , mainly manukau and firth of thames , smaller flocks elsewhere . during migration , small flocks are often seen briefly at south island east coast lakes and estuaries , and flocks may settle at rivermouths in the southwestern north island .\nwrybills breed exclusively on braided riverbeds . on their wintering grounds , they feed on inter - tidal mudflats in harbours and estuaries . high - water roosts are usually near foraging areas , commonly on local shellbanks and beaches ; occasionally on pasture . in the upper manukau harbour , birds regularly roost on roofs of large buildings ; occasionally on tarmac at auckland airport . on migration , flocks generally follow coastlines , but are not averse to flying overland . a high proportion of the population passes through lake ellesmere on both migrations .\ncounts on breeding grounds are impractical \u2013 wrybills are highly cryptic and widely dispersed . combined counts from wintering flocks suggest a total population of 5000 - 5500 . counts show high variability ( which obscures trends ) , but the population is thought to be declining slowly .\nthe main threats faced by wrybills are predation ( by introduced mammals and native birds ) , flooding of nests , and loss or degradation of breeding habitat . threats vary temporally and spatially , and their relative importance overall is unclear . actual and potential threats to habitat include loss to hydro - electric power schemes , abstraction of water for irrigation , weed growth , and disturbance caused by a wide range of recreational and commercial activities . on wintering grounds , predation of adults has been recorded , and some loss of roosting habitat is likely as mangroves encroach . wrybills appear to be prone to collision with man - made objects . occasional significant strikes have occurred at auckland airport , and collisions with fencelines and powerlines have been recorded .\na small proportion of the population is managed through predator control programmes . the largest such area covers the whole tasman river catchment , but benefits are equivocal to date . a few small areas are managed by community groups ( e . g . the lower ashley river ) .\nwrybills breed in monogamous dispersed pairs . territories may overlap with those of other species ( e . g . banded dotterel , black - fronted tern , pied stilt ) , but are vigorously defended against other wrybills . the nest is a shallow scrape in the gravel , lined with many small stones . the normal clutch is 2 ; first clutches are laid in september or october . replacement clutches laid after loss may occur through to january . some pairs will double - brood if they are successful early . incubation is shared and is protracted ; accurate data are few , but values from 30 - 36 days recorded . chicks fledge after 35 - 40 days ; chicks are guarded by one or both parents during their first 3 weeks at least , often becoming increasingly independent before fledging .\nwrybills usually allow a close approach . when incubating , they rely on camouflage to avoid detection , and flush from the nest very late . distraction displays are used to defend nests ; banded dotterels are aggressively chased if close to eggs or chicks . chicks freeze to escape detection ( especially when small ) , and swim well from a few days old . away from the breeding grounds , wrybills are highly gregarious and form dense flocks , normally also very approachable .\nnorthward migration typically begins in late december , and peaks in january . southward migration is mainly in august and early september ( adults ) , with some first - year birds ( which will not breed ) following in october - november .\non the breeding grounds , wrybills consume a wide range of aquatic invertebrates , but predominantly mayfly and caddisfly larvae . on wintering grounds , a range of small marine and littoral invertebrates are taken ( including annelid and polychaete worms , small molluscs , and insects ) , and the occasional small fish .\ndowding , j . e . ; moore , s . j . 2006 . habitat networks of indigenous shorebirds in new zealand . science for conservation 261 . department of conservation , wellington .\nheather , b . d . ; robertson , h . a . 2005 . the field guide to the birds of new zealand . 2nd edition . penguin : rosedale , auckland .\nmarchant , s . ; higgins , p . j . ( eds ) 1993 . handbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds . vol . 2 , raptors to lapwings . oxford university press , melbourne .\nincubation behaviour shared incubation length ( mean ) 30 - 36 days nestling type precocial nestling period ( mean ) leave nest within 24 hours of hatching of second egg age at fledging ( mean ) 35 - 40 days age at independence ( mean ) 30 - 50 days age at first breeding ( typical ) 2 plus years age at first breeding ( min ) 1 years maximum longevity 22 plus years maximum dispersal migrate annually 700 - 1000km each way .\na relatively small pale plover with a long black bill curving to the right , dark grey to black legs and , in breeding males , a black line above the white forehead . the underparts are white , with a black upper breast band from mid - winter to the end of the breeding season , and the upperparts and sides of the face are pale grey .\nthe laying season runs between september and october ; a clutch of two eggs is laid into a slight depression amongst the gravel . both parents take it in turn to incubate the eggs that are well camouflaged against the shingle , resembling the stones around them ( 4 ) . the parents also rely on camouflage to remain undetected with their ash - grey plumage barely visible amongst the stones ( 4 ) . the chicks are able to leave their nest within a day of hatching and follow their parents on foraging trips ( 4 ) .\nendemic to new zealand , wrybills migrate annually from breeding grounds in canterbury and otago ( on south island ) , to spend the winter in northern areas of north island ( 2 ) .\nbreeding occurs on rivers where there are large amounts of bare shingle . the wintering sites to the north tend to consist of mudflats at the mouths of large rivers ( 4 ) .\nclassified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list 2006 ( 1 ) .\nlarge flocks of wrybills were recorded in the early 19th century but the species has since undergone a long - term decline , principally as a result of habitat loss at breeding sites ( 2 ) . the shingle beds that comprise the nesting habitat of this species have decreased in size due to the encroachment of weeds , and altered river flooding regimes caused by hydroelectric schemes ( 2 ) . it is also likely that predation by introduced stoats ( mustela erminea ) and cats has played a large part in the decline of this ground - nesting bird ( 2 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nendemic a species or taxonomic group that is only found in one particular country or geographic area . invertebrates animals with no backbone . larvae stage in an animal\u2019s lifecycle after it hatches from the egg . larvae are typically very different in appearance to adults ; they are able to feed and move around but usually are unable to reproduce .\ngetty images 101 bayham street london nw1 0ag united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 800 376 7981 sales @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nwe also try and see as many marine mammal species as possible on our tours , with the tiny hector ' s dolphin highly likely to be seen .\nfor our pelagics we use small charter boats that are specifically certified for taking passengers . the operators we are use are people we know and trust and provide the best pelagic experienced based on working with us over many years .\nthe new zealand breeding endemic black ( parkinson ' s ) petrel is generally seen on several of the north island pelagics .\nnear okarito we will spend an evening in search of the rarest of the kiwi species - the okarito brown kiwi . we have a chance of seeing four species , plus great - spotted kiwi which is unlikely to be seen , but generally heard .\nthe new zealand forest can be extremely beautiful , but with all this moss in a south island nothofagus beech forest it means there can sometimes be rain .\nalthough not specifically a photographic tour , our 21 - day birding tours allow excellent photographic opportunities .\nwe target three species of penguin during the tour , with the largest being the yellow - eyed penguin . we generally find this bird both at sea and near its breeding sites on land .\nsmall group sizes and relaxed travel times generally allow us to stop and make the most of birding locations we are enjoying .\na courting pair of dusky dolphins ( lagenorhynchus obscurus ) leap from the water . kaikoura , canterbury , new zealand .\nas large as the wandering albatross , the southern royal albatross is likely to be seen on at least a couple of our pelagic opportunities .\nthe ancient looking takahe is a flightless endemic rail , considered extinct for almost 50 years , and now found on several predator free offshore islands .\nthe south island is renowned for its spectacular scenery , and rightly so . this is franz josef glacier on the west coast of the south island and a place we stay near and stop at .\none of the worlds rarest shorebirds , the black stilt , is a key endemic we aim to see .\nwe use clean and tidy accomodation around the country . some such as this spot we use on our first night are in beautiful scenic locations and birding around the accomodations can often be good .\na male south island wren ( xenicus gilviventris ) perched on a rock in its alpine habitat . homer tunnel , fiordland national park , new zealand . january .\nbuller ' s albatross is surely one of the most beautiful of the albatrosses , and one on our target list .\nthe south island is renowned for its spectacular scenery , and rightly so , with this being part of the road through to the famous milford sound , which we visit if time allows .\nthe endemic blue duck can be difficult to find , but we visit the best location ( and several others ) for this species in the north island , and also try to find it in the south island .\nsouthern brown kiwi ( apteryx australis ) feeding for crustaceans on a sandy beach . no flash used , just dim flashlight . ocean beach , stewart island , new zealand .\nnew zealand dotterel ( charadrius obscurus ) , sometimes known as red - breasted plover , feeding on the shoreline . waipu estuary , northland , new zealand .\nthe south island is renowned for its spectacular scenery , and rightly so , with views like this of mount cook ( nzs highest peak ) sometimes being possible .\nit is not only about birding , but having a great time as well .\nthe alpine kea makes for a strange parrot , but will be seen in several places on the south island . an incredibly curious bird they provide much entertainment .\nnorth island kokako ( callaeas wilsoni ) feeding on leaves in the sub - canopy . tiritiri matangi island , auckland , new zealand .\nwe generally grab lunch from a cafe or bakery as we travel , and then enjoy it in a place where we will maximise our birding or scenic opportunities .\nwe generally grab lunch from a cafe or bakery as we tarvel , and then enjoy it in a place where we will maximise our birding or scenic opportunities .\nthe largest flying bird in the world , the wandering albatross , can be seen almost at arms length off kaikoura and possibly also during our other pelagic opportunities .\nadult male yellowhead ( mohoua ochrocephala ) peering into moss whilst foraging . haast pass , west coast , new zealand . january . endangered .\na cook ' s petrel ( pterodroma cookii ) in flight , showing the underwing pattern . hauraki gulf , auckland , new zealand .\ngenerally we dine at cafes and resturants , choosing from the normal menu , however on some nights we take the opportunity to get a little more personal , with catered meals providing an introduction to real kiwi food .\nnew zealand falcon is our only endemic diurnal raptor , and we have excellent opportunities to see this species both in the north and south islands .\nthe white - capped albatross , one of the larger ' small ' abatrosses is frequently very common during our stewart island pelagic .\nour pelagic out of kaikoura offers unrivalled close views of several species of albatross and other tube - nosed seabirds - not to be missed .\nbuller ' s shearwater is a new zealand endemic breeder , and will be seen commonly during several of our north island pelagics .\npelagic birding trips are just one of our specialties , with unrivalled knowledge within new zealand . our rediscovery of the supposedly extinct new zealand storm - petrel in 2003 , as we were just starting to operate our business , was an amazing sign that we were really doing the right thing . however , we also know our land - birds just as well and know you will enjoy your new zealand birding experience with us !\nso here we are\u2026\u2026 . sav saville and brent stephenson , and recently due to being so popular , and restricting our group sizes to just 8 people , we have had to enlist the help of three other great new zealand birders \u2013 phil hammond , matt jones , and neil robertson . the decision to hire other guides was not one we took lightly , but as their clients have told us , they are excellent and fit well within our team ! our list of services can be found here , with anything from pre - trip planning advice , to a full north and south island organised tour ( including stewart island ) , and anything in between . as sav , brent , phil , matt , and neil live in different parts of the country , we are also able to offer guided trips around our \u2018neck - of - the - woods\u2019 for one or more days , and make custom itineraries . trip reports from our pelagics , personal birding trips , and guided trips can be found here . if you are visiting new zealand , then email us to let us know how we can help .\nwe must be doing something right if pelagic experts and overseas field leaders think we do a good job ! check out endorsements from world class seabirders here and see our testimonials page here .\nwe only operate in new zealand , choosing to run tours on our home turf where we know things best . that doesn\u2019t mean we don\u2019t travel and bird overseas though !\nour 21 - day tours are only run by birders we know and trust ! sav & brent have been running tours by themselves since 2002 , but have now enlisted the help of phil hammond , matt jones , and neil robertson . both phil , matt , and neil are excellent guides and birders and we have no hesitation bringing them both onboard as guides .\nd\u2019s conservation estate . this means some of your fee goes towards ensuring the conservation of the birds you will see . we also hold concessions for many of the\nwe love getting out and about birding , we are birders through and through \u2013 we even go birding on the weekend ! but , we are also keen on plants , invertebrates , and other new zealand wildlife . so a tour with us is not just hardcore birding , we take time to see the country and other things of interest during our 21 - day tours .\nplus we love showing new zealand and its fantastic birds to overseas birders ! read client testimonials here .\nwe are pleased to announce that we will again be at the british birdwatching fair in 2018 ! we will be sharing a stand with our good friends from albatross encounter - marquee 2 , stands 46 & 47 . so come and see both brent and sav there during the weekend of 17 - 19 . . .\nwell our last places are filling on this upcoming seasons tours - 2018 - 2019 summer . we have just just three places left in five 21 - day tours confirmed in late 2018 , and just a couple of places left in the three confirmed tours in early 2019 . there have been recent . . .\nwell it is the start of the new year - happy 2018 every one ! we are gearing up for our early 2018 21 - day tours which kick off in a week or so . looking forward to some excellent birding . we have also just added dates for our pelagics in warkworth ( into the hauraki . . .\nwell our tours in november and december 2017 went really well , with both tours run getting almost all of the ' gettable ' endemics . low numbers of the less common arctic shorebirds accounted for lower numbers than usual on these tours , but these really are additional . . .\nsav will be attending the american birding expo , which is being held this weekend - 29 september to 1 october 2017 , in philadelphia . it is being held at the greater philadelphia expo centre , and sav will be around all weekend . so if you are in the area and wanting . . .\nwrybills are classified as a threatened species due to their low and declining numbers .\nbirds on braided rivers have evolved to feed in distinct ways . specialisation minimises competition for food between the bird species .\nwrybills feed in shallow channels , riffles and the edges of pools . their bent bill is specially adapted to allow them to reach under stones for mayfly larvae .\nwhen food is scarce , they move into stableside channels and pond areas to find food . in winter , wrybills migrate to north island harbours and feed in flocks on the mudflats .\neach pair of wrybills , stilts , dotterels and oystercatchers defends a territory and nests alone . the chicks are active soon after hatching , following the parents as they forage for food . within hours , newly - hatched chicks can hunt for food and swim if necessary .\nbreeding on a riverbed is a risky business . many eggs and chicks do not survive . riverbed birds have adapted to cope with floods and are able to renest if eggs or chicks are lost .\nbirds with good nesting sites are more likely to raise chicks successfully . the best nest sites have :\nswamp harriers / k\u0101hu and black - backed gulls / karoro are natural predators of braided river birds . these avian predators have taken advantage of changes made by humans and their numbers have increased dramatically .\nbraided river birds have good camouflage and use distraction to cope with avian predators . wrybills , oystercatchers and dotterels often pretend to have a broken wing to lead predators away . terns , gulls and oystercatchers may dive - bomb and call loudly .\nhowever these defences against avian predators are little use against introduced predators such as cats , stoats , ferrets , rats and hedgehogs . these are the main threats .\nensuring the survival of the birds ' natural open habitat is important in combating predation .\nthe fragile ecology of the braided river system is being destroyed by the invasion of weeds .\nhuman activity including land development and recreational activities disturb nesting birds . birds may abandon their nests if disturbed .\ncall 0800 doc hot ( 0800 362 468 ) immediately if you see anyone catching , harming or killing native wildlife .\nonly take dogs to areas that allow them , and keep them under control .\ndon ' t drive on riverbeds , or keep to formed tracks if you have to .\nbraided rivers are important features of the upper waitaki basin . their distinctive wildlife and plant communities make them unique worldwide .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : anarhynchus frontalis . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nthe male has a white forehead and pale grey crown , nape , back , wings and tail and a white throat , breast , belly and rump , with a thin black band across the breast . this band is thinner in the female , and much less distinct in both sexes in the non - breeding season . males have a small black bar between the white forehead and the grey crown . as with the breast band , this is reduced in the non - breeding season .\ntheir eggs are blue - grey and lightly speckled , making them well camouflaged against river stones and pebbles , which generally make up the main structure of a very simple nest .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\na bird walking slowly to detect prey , catching a worm , cleaning and eating it .\na bird looking for food , catching a worm , cleaning it on water and swallowing it .\njosep del hoyo , doug and denise norris , pieter de groot boersma , greg baker , nick talbot , mkennewell , mauriravasini , brooke clibbon .\nnick talbot , glenda rees , pluvius , josep del hoyo , greg baker , georges olioso , marco valentini , rick and elis simpson , r\u00e9mi bigonneau , alex berryman , fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric pelsy , ken havard , tomas grim , martin fr\u00e4mke .\nnew zealand : breeds in c south i ( canterbury and otago riverbeds ) ; winters mainly in n north i .\n20\u201321 cm ; 43\u201368 g . rather plump , greyish plover with conspicuous long bill curved to the right ; male has black frontal bar and breastband . female has duller , . . .\nbreeds inland on large braided rivers , occupying large bare beds of shingle and sand , with . . .\nduring breeding season takes aquatic invertebrates , including flatworms , annelids , gastropods , mites , spiders , and eggs , larvae , pupae and . . .\nlays late aug to late oct , with second clutch late oct to late dec . monogamous on long - term basis . solitary ; holds vigorously defended . . .\nmigratory . moves from breeding grounds in c south i to mudflats of estuaries and harbours on n end . . .\nvulnerable . hunted prior to 1940 ; after hunting ceased , population increased , but stabilized by early 1960s , with c . 5000 birds . in 1994 , total of 5111 birds counted , with c . . ."]}
{"id": 604, "summary": [{"text": "scrobipalpa sinica is a moth in the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by bidzilya and li in 2010 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in china ( inner mongolia ) and mongolia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 11 \u2013 12 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are covered with light grey , brown-tipped scales .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the veins are slightly mottled yellow , especially in the basal part of the forewing and there is an indistinct small black spot at the base and at the corner of the cell .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are light grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing in august . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "scrobipalpa sinica", "paragraphs": ["scrobipalpa ochrostigma bidzilya & li , 2010 , sp . n . - plazi treatmentbank\nscrobipalpa flavinerva bidzilya & li , 2010 , sp . n . - plazi treatmentbank\nfigures 50 \u2013 53 . female genitalia of scrobipalpa spp . 50 , s . caryocoloides povoln\u00fd ( slide no . l 06140 ) ; 51 , s . sinica sp . n . ( pt , slide no . 258 / 08 ) ; 52 , s . chinensis povoln\u00fd ( slide no . 98 / 08 ) ; 53 , s . ochrostigma sp . n . ( ht , slide no . 87 / 08 ) .\nfigures 33\u201340 . male genitalia of scrobipalpa spp . 33 , s . reiprichi povoln\u00fd ( slide no . l06011 ) ; 34 , s . ochrostigma sp . n . ( pt , slide no . l06039 ) ; 35 , s . chinensis povoln\u00fd ( slide no . 106 / 08 ) ; 36 , s . sinica sp . n . ( ht , slide no . 208 / 08 ) ; 37 , s . sinica sp . n . ( pt , slide no . l07023 ) ; 38 , s . flavinerva sp . n . ( pt , slide no . 194 / 07 ) ; 39 , s . hoenei sp . n . ( ht , slide no . 91 / 08 ) ; 40 , s . paradoxa piskunov ( slide no . l07047 ) .\nfigures 33 \u2013 40 . male genitalia of scrobipalpa spp . 33 , s . reiprichi povoln\u00fd ( slide no . l 06011 ) ; 34 , s . ochrostigma sp . n . ( pt , slide no . l 06039 ) ; 35 , s . chinensis povoln\u00fd ( slide no . 106 / 08 ) ; 36 , s . sinica sp . n . ( ht , slide no . 208 / 08 ) ; 37 , s . sinica sp . n . ( pt , slide no . l 07023 ) ; 38 , s . flavinerva sp . n . ( pt , slide no . 194 / 07 ) ; 39 , s . hoenei sp . n . ( ht , slide no . 91 / 08 ) ; 40 , s . paradoxa piskunov ( slide no . l 07047 ) .\nbidzilya , oleksiy & li , houhun , 2010 , the genus scrobipalpa janse ( lepidoptera , gelechiidae ) in china , with descriptions of 13 new species , zootaxa 2513 , pp . 1 - 26 : 23 - 24\nbidzilya , oleksiy & li , houhun , 2010 , the genus scrobipalpa janse ( lepidoptera , gelechiidae ) in china , with descriptions of 13 new species , zootaxa 2513 , pp . 1 - 26 : 16 - 17\nfigures 9 \u2013 16 . adults of scrobipalpa spp . 9 , s . nigripuncta sp . n . ( ht ) ; 10 , s . strictella sp . n . ( ht ) ; 11 , s . flavidinigra sp . n . ( ht ) ; 12 , s . ochrostigma sp . n . ( ht ) ; 13 , s . chinensis povoln\u00fd ; 14 , s . sinica sp . n . ( pt ) ; 15 , s . flavinerva sp . n . ( pt ) ; 16 , s . hoenei sp . n . ( ht ) .\ntwo new species of gelechiidae , teleiopsis motleella , sp . nov . , and sitotroga pseudopsacasta , sp . nov . , are described from korea . illustrations of adults and male genitalia are provided . scrobipalpa spumata ( povoln\u00fd , 2001 ) , comb , n . , is newly recorded from korea . it was described from the female , and the male genitalia are described and illustrated for the first time .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na new species of fish , pseudoliparis swirei , published in zootaxa ( 4358 : 161 - 177 ) by gerringer , m . e et al . was voted among top 10 new species described in 2017 .\na new species of madagascan crickets described by mustafa \u00fcnal and george beccaloni in zootaxa was featured in a national geographic story . well done mustafa and george !\na new species of wolf spider , lycosa aragogi , is named after aragog\u2014the famous fictional spider from \u201charry potter\u201d book series by j . k . rowling . the new species is similar to the animatronic puppet version of the character used in the film \u201charry potter and the chamber of secrets\u201d , which is actually based on a wolf spider . the naming of the new species is dedicated to the 20th anniversary of harry potter book series .\nmariah o . pfleger , r . dean grubbs , charles f . cotton , toby s . daly - engel\nidentification of nipaecoccus ( hemiptera : coccomorpha : pseudococcidae ) species in the united states , with descriptions of nipaecoccus bromelicola sp . n . and the male of n . floridensis beardsley\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\n. . . with regard to taxonomic perspective , the nymphalidae along with other butterflies occurring in south korea were further welllisted by several important earlier studies since the beginning work by foreign scientists ( see kim , 2012 ) . the subsequent majority of nymphalidae research in south korea has focused on introduction of individual species in illustrated books ( e . g . , kim , 2002 ) , finding and listing new species through morphological analysis ( e . g . , joo et al . , 1997 ; lee and takakura , 1981 ; park , 1987 ) , and ecological investigation of a limited number of species ( e . g . , kim , 2012 ) . . . .\na new species of parastenolechia kanazawa ( lepidoptera : gelechiidae ) from korea , with a check list o . . .\nparastenolechia suriensis , sp . nov . , is described and illustrated , and p . asymmetrica kanazawa is reported from korea for the first time . a check list of the species of the genus is given .\ntwo new species of gelechiidae ( lepidoptera ) from korea , with notes on the taxonomic status of telph . . .\ntwo new species of the family gelechiidae , concubina trigonalis park and ponomarenko , n . sp . and teleiodes gangwonensis park and ponomarenko , n . sp . are described from korea . telphusa euryzeucta meyrick , 1922 , is transferred to concubina : concubina euryzeucta ( meyrick 1922 ) , n . comb . concubina subita n . omelko and m . omelko , 2004 is considered a new junior synonym of c . euryzeucta .\nsix species of the genus anarsia zeller were recognized from siberia and far east . two of the species are described as new to science ( anarsia gajiensis sp . n . and a . sibirica sp . n . ) , and a . bipinnata meyrick is reported from the primorye territory ( russian far east ) for the first time . key to the species is given .\nnew faunistic data for the family gelechiidae in the korean peninsula and ne china ( lepidoptera : gel . . .\nfrom the result of identification of gelechiids collected in the korean peninsula or mt . changbai - shan , ne china and preserved in the center for insect systematics , korea , 25 species of the family gelechiidae are reported for the first time from korea and three species of them are first known from china . a new synonymy of teleiodes sattler , 1960 ( = dubitationis m . omelko & n . omelko , 1998 , . . . [ show full abstract ]\na new subfamily crocanthinae of lecithoceridae ( lepidoptera ) for the genus crocanthes meyrick and it . . .\na new subfamily , crocanthinae n . subf . , is proposed for crocanthes meyrick and its allies , which have been considered as a monophyletic group with a unique genital character\u2014an absent or remarkably reduced gnathos in the male genitalia . the subfamily includes aprosoesta turner , lamprista park , pacificulla park , hannara park , and gonaepa walker . aprosoesta turner st . rev . is resurrected as a . . . [ show full abstract ]\ntype material . holotype , \u01a5 , china : mt . xinglong , yuzhong county ( 35 \u00b0 53 ' n , 104 \u00b006 ' e ) , gansu province , 2120 m , 4 . viii . 1993 , leg . houhun li , genitalia slide no . 87 / 08 . paratype : 1 3 , dahua , huangyuan county ( 36 \u00b0 43 ' n , 101 \u00b0 17 ' e ) , qinghai province 16 . viii . 1995 , leg . lanfang zhu , genitalia slide no . l06039 .\n) : wingspan 13 . 5 mm . head grey , frons off - white . labial palpus recurved ; segment 2 twice width of segment 3 , underside and outer surface covered with white , black - tipped scales , inner surface white ; segment 3 thin , acute , grey , inner surface with white medial ring . antennal segments black , grey - ringed basally . thorax and tegula grey mottled brown . forewing light brown , posterior margin black from base to half length and in subapical area ; narrow black strip along costal margin from base to twothirds ; ochreous spot at base , at one - third and at two - thirds , respectively ; cilia yellowish - grey . hindwing and cilia grey .\n) : uncus large , broad , more or less widened distally . gnathos basally broad , distal portion narrow , slightly curved . tegumen prolonged . valva digitate , comparatively broad , distinctly shorter than uncus . sacculus about one - fifth length of valva , moderately narrow , curved inwards . paired processes on posterior margin of vinculum broad , sub - triangular , slightly curved outwards apically , about as long as length of sacculus ; medial excision deep , v - shaped . saccus narrow , apex slightly dilated , rounded . aedeagus short , broadened basally , distal portion straight , with distinct apical cornutus .\n) : papilla analis prolonged , sub - oval . segment viii quadrangular . lobes of vaginal plates narrow , broadly separated , weakly sclerotized . postvaginal plates weakly sclerotized . apophysis anterioris about 1 . 5 length of segment viii . ductus bursae moderately narrow . corpus bursae small , rounded , without signum .\nsp . n . is well recognizable externally by the yellowish - brown forewing with three distinct ochreous spots and black posterior margin . the male genitalia are characterized by the broad , prolonged uncus far exceeding the tip of the valva in combination with the broad paired processes on the posterior margin of vinculum and the relatively narrow sacculus . the female genitalia differ from most other\nspecies in the membranous , weakly sclerotized periostial lobes and the absence of signum . the last character has not been observed earlier in the genus\nbiology . host - plant unknown . adults occur in august at 2120 m altitude .\netymology . the specific name is derived from greek ochra \u2013 ochreous , stigma \u2013 marks , in reference to the wing pattern .\nno known copyright restrictions apply . see agosti , d . , egloff , w . , 2009 . taxonomic information exchange and copyright : the plazi approach . bmc research notes 2009 , 2 : 53 for further explanation .\ntype material . holotype , 3 , china : zhaohe , damao qi , baotou ( 40 \u00b0 39 ' n , 109 \u00b0 49 ' e ) , inner mongolia , 1700 m , 11 . viii . 2007 , leg . houhun li and bidzilya . paratypes : 1 3 , same data as holotype , gen . prep . 194 / 07 ; 1 3 , same data as holotype except dated 10 . viii . 2007 , leg . houhun li , genitalia slide no . l06123 ; mongolia : 1 3 , vostochnyi aimak , oz . khuh - nur , 25 . vi . [ 1 ] 976 , leg . kerzhner ( zin\n) ; 1 3 , vostochnyi aimak , tamsag - bulak , 25 . vii . [ 1 ] 976 , leg . kerzhner ( zin\n) : wingspan 14 . 0\u201315 . 0 mm . head , thorax and tegula grey . labial palpus recurved ; segment 2 light grey mottled brown on outer surface ; segment 3 grey , pointed . forewing grey , veins cream , yellowish - white ; fresh specimens with small dark stripe at two - thirds length and small black dot at corner of cell ; cilia light grey . hindwing light grey , with dark veins .\n) : uncus prolonged , about two times longer than wide , sub - triangular distally . gnathos basally broad ; distal sclerite small , slender , weakly curved . tegumen comparatively long and narrow . valva slender , dilated distally , not exceeding top of uncus . sacculus digitate , about one - quarter length of valva ; outer margin weakly curved , inner margin almost straight , apex pointed . paired processes on posterior margin of vinculum very short and narrow , pointed apically ; medial excision deep , v - shaped . saccus triangular , but very broad at base in paratype from mongolia . aedaegus short , slightly inflated at base ; distal portion moderately broad , with distinct down - curved apical cornutus .\nspecies by the grey forewing with distinct cream - coloured veins . the male genitalia are characterized by the very short , narrow , pointed vinculum processes in combination with prolonged uncus and tegumen , as well as digitiform sacculus .\nbiology . host - plant unknown . adults occur from the end of june to middle of august .\netymology . the specific name is derived from the latin flavus \u2013 yellow , nervus \u2013 vein , referring to the wing pattern .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more"]}
{"id": 606, "summary": [{"text": "formica obscuripes ( the western thatching ant ) is a species of ant in the family formicidae .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it is native to north america .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it produces large mounds covered by small pieces of plant material .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the number of adult workers per colony may be as high as 40,000 .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "f. obscuripes feeds upon a number of insect species , consumes nectar from homopterous insects they tend , and occasionally eats plant tissue .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "in the blue mountains of oregon , f. obscuripes has demonstrated the capacity for polydomy .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "a supercolony in a four-hectare study area near lehman hot springs consisted of 210 active nests with an estimated population in excess of 56 million ants . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "formica obscuripes", "paragraphs": ["formica obscuripes , also known as the ' western thatching ant ' is found throughout the central and western us , and western canada . f . obscuripes inhabits semi - arid sagebrush scrub lands , prairies , and various forest ecosystems .\nto cite this page : miner , a . 2014 .\nformica obscuripes\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nweber , n . a . 1935 . the biology of the thatching ant , formica rufa obscuripes forel , in north dakota . ecological monographs 5 : 165 - 206 .\nsenior synonym of formica aggerans : forel , 1914c pdf : 619 ; creighton , 1940a pdf : 1 ; of formica melanotica : creighton , 1950a pdf : 492 .\nmaterial of the unavailable name formica rubiginosa referred here by creighton , 1940a pdf : 1 .\n31 times thatch mound , 11 times thatch mound nest , 3 times large formica thatch mound , 5 times foragers , 3 times nest under dead wood , 5 times mound nest , 3 times ex thatch mound , 5 times under stone , 4 times under dead wood , 2 times nest in dead wood , 2 times formica obscuripes mound , . . .\n31 times thatch mound , 11 times thatch mound nest , 3 times large formica thatch mound , 5 times foragers , 3 times ex thatch mound , 3 times nest under dead wood , 5 times mound nest , 5 times under stone , 4 times under dead wood , 2 times nest in dead wood , 2 times formica obscuripes mound , . . .\nthere are some similar critters in formica : the experts will let you know if i ' m anywhere close . : )\n\u00b7cole , a . c . 1932 . the thatching ant , formica obscuripes forel . psyche 39 : 30 - 33 , 1932 . \u00b7conway , j . r . 1996 . nuptial , pre - , and postnuptial activity of the thatching ant , formica obscuripes forel , in colorado . great basin naturalist , 56 ( 1 ) , 1996 , pp . 54 - 58 \u00b7jurgensen , m . f . , storer , a . j . & risch , a . c . 2005 . red wood ants in north america . ann . zool . fennici 42 : 235 - 242 , helsinki , 28 june , 2005 \u00b7mciver , j . d . , torgersen , t . r . & cimon , n . j . 1997 . a supercolony of the thatch ant formica obscuripes forel ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) from the blue mountains of oregon . northwest science , vol . 71 . no . 1 , 1997 \u00b7weber , n . a . 1935 . the biology of the thatching ant , formica obscuripes forel , in north dakota . ecological monographs , vol . 5 , no . 2 , pp . 165 - 206\nthes are predators of a variety of other arthropods and avid collectors of honeydew and extrafloral nectar . may attack and prey on other ants , particularly other formica .\nthe founding of new colonies is usually carried out by the process of ' temporary social parasitism ' . an inseminated f . obscuripes queen will enter the nest of another formica species , and gain the acceptance of the ' host ' workers . at some point the host queen is killed or driven off , and the host workers raise the brood of the invading queen . eventually , only the invading species remains , as the original host workers die off . many , if not most f . obscuripes nests eventually house more than one queen .\nformica obscuripes , like other formica in the rufa - species group , is a social parasite . you won ' t be able to start a colony from a single queen by herself , as she lacks the body reserves and instincts that queens of non - parasitic species have . instead , queens of rufa - group ants normally found colonies by integrating themselves into colonies of other species of formica , killing the resident queen , and assuming her role . what you ' d need to do is set up a starter colony fragment of your local host species , like f . podzolica , and introduce your obscuripes queen to it ( once you catch one , that is ) . i suspect you won ' t need this host colony to be fully - functioning - even a pile of pupae might do it . queens you catch on the mound themselves likely won ' t have mated . you ' ll do well to look for de - alated queens running around on the ground .\nactually , for formica it ' s likely the males are larger then the queens . formica is one of the few genera of ants that has fair developed males , where in most other genera they tend to be smaller then the workers . ( we should mention this in the faq someone . ) a formica queen will be about the size of the workers if not a little bigger / longer . she should look similar to these . urltoken urltoken urltoken urltoken notice the developed thorax that gives them a hunch - back look . and the slightly larger abdomen . urltoken of course i ' m going all over the genus of formica but you can see they all have that in common . it sounds like your description of the males and the formica obscuripes are correct . if this is a recent thing then perhaps the queens haven ' t yet matured , or only emerge form the nest later in the day . another issue , maybe the colony you ' re looking at hasn ' t produced new queens this year . and finally it ' s possible they are a different formica that might gather their swarms low to the ground in other locations . i imagen this would be in forest land , where you can see other nests of this species . in either case , finding a location where there are more nests of these ants may increase your odds of finding a queen .\naha ! i ' ve got it ! here ' s a photo of a formica obscuripes queen , and she ' s red and black , rather than all black like the males . so i need to find a red and black winged ant . photo ( i also need to locate an appropriate starter set of minions , but that ' s another question . ) thanks for all your help , ant experts !\nthis is the most widely distributed and abundant member of the boreal and subboreal formica rufa - group in north america ( group named for a widely distributed euarasian species ) . on some individuals in the image , the diagnostic bristles on the outer surfaces of the middle and hind tibiae can be detected .\nfood is obtained primarily by scavenging or preying upon insects and other arthropods , and by harvesting honeydew from aphids . in addition to food - gathering activities on the ground ( and in shrubs ) , f . obscuripes workers forage high in the foliage of trees , and are important predators of western spruce budworm , and other forest ' pests ' .\nthis is the second time you ' ve tried to talk me into messing with a f . obscuripes mound . ( you wanted me to check if the alates overwinter , before . ) i ' m afraid of these guys ! i don ' t know how i ' d get pupae without being bitten half to death . maybe i ' ll drive over to yetuyetu ' s house if it turns out he hasn ' t got a queen in his bucket .\nthe western thatching ant , formica obscuripes , is a relatively large mound - building ant . its distribution reportedly extends from northern indiana and michigan westward across the northern united states and southern canada to oregon and british columbia . this ant also is found in an area extending southward including utah , colorado , northern new mexico and california . the host range of the western thatching ant includes various vegetation types , such as forested areas , grasslands , and sagebrush . the dome - shaped nests may vary considerably depending on age of the colony and the habitat ; however , they are typically 0 . 5 m in height and 1 . 0\u20131 . 5 m in diameter . the main brood chambers typically extend to a depth of 1 m or more below the soil surface , and the thatch to a depth of one - third of a meter or less . the thatch nests are constructed from dry plant materials found in the area , such as pine needles and twigs in a pine forest or sagebrush twigs and grass in a semi - arid region . the . . .\ni ' ll second what myrmecos has written about a pile of pupae . i have started colonies of several formica rufa and sanguinea group species with a young queen found running about just after her mating flight , a pile of f . fusca group pupae , and some tlc . nevertheless , once started , the parasite species are nervous and fussy about nest conditions and food , and\nfail to thrive\n, so i ' ve always released them with no more than a few dozen workers .\nin some western us states , mounds can reach over one meter in height , with tunnels and galleries extending several feet into the soil below the mound . the large nest - mounds collect solar radiation , warming the ants during cooler periods . the large mass of organic material may also help to generally moderate temperatures and humidity levels within the nest ' s interior . workers are constantly adding bits of twigs , cut grass stems , conifer needles , and other material to the mound . damage caused by high winds , rain , or even predators , is repaired by hordes of workers . nests of formica rufa , a closely - related european species , have been observed to be active for as long as forty years .\n, the western thatching ant , is native to the nearctic region . it is widespread across the western half of canada and the united states . its range extends as far south as arizona and new mexico , and as far east as michigan and missouri . in the southern half of canada , it can be found from british columbia to manitoba . it is especially prevalent in the pacific northwest .\n( crutsinger and sanders , 2005 ; higgins and lindgren , 2012 ; risch , et al . , 2008 ; tilman , 1978 ; weber , 1935 )\nbuilds its nests in semi - arid regions , such as dry grasslands , including shrub - steppe habitats and sagebrush , prairies , coniferous forests , dunes , and alpine meadows . nests are also often found in areas of secondary succession .\ncan live in a large range of altitudes . nests have been found as low as 800 m and as high as 3 , 194 m , though the most common altitudes are between 1 , 524 to 2 , 743 m . nests are built into the ground , often around a structure , such as the main stem of a sagebrush plant or even a fence post . nests can extend up to 4 feet into the ground and are typically constructed out in the open . the western thatching ant gets its name from a mound of\nthatch\nthat the workers assemble on top of the nest . this thatch consists of twigs , grasses , plant parts , and soil , and can be anywhere from a few centimeters to a meter high . the thermoregulatory abilities of the thatch allow the nests to be exposed to a variety of temperatures , humidity , and weather conditions . secondary nests are often constructed at the base of plants where\n( beattie and culver , 1977 ; conway , 1996a ; crutsinger and sanders , 2005 ; higgins and lindgren , 2012 ; mciver and steen , 1994 ; mico , et al . , 2000 ; risch , et al . , 2008 ; tilman , 1978 ; weber , 1935 )\nhas one petiole and colony members may have a variety of colors and sizes . there is a continuous size distribution in workers , generally ranging from 4 . 0 to 7 . 5 mm in length , making it difficult to group the workers by size . head width ranges from 0 . 94 to 2 . 1 mm , showing significant variation . workers can be grouped into major and minor or major , media , and minor workers . due to the large variation in size , these ants are likely polymorphic . workers typically have a reddish - orange head , the thorax can be either reddish - orange or black , and the abdomen is black . legs and antennae can be reddish - orange or black . reproductive forms also follow this coloring . smaller workers can also be all black or dark brown . eggs are creamy white , and elliptical shaped . they are about 0 . 6 mm long and 0 . 31 mm wide . larvae are the same size as the egg when they hatch and grow to about 6 . 0 mm in length . reproductive pupae are 9 mm in length , while worker pupae are 3 . 5 to 7 . 0 mm in length .\n( billick and carter , 2007 ; fraser , et al . , 2001 ; herbers , 1979 ; weber , 1935 )\nis holometabolous . the first batch of eggs is laid in april . eggs are laid throughout the summer , until as late as the middle of august . eggs are laid in a brood chamber , as well as other soil chambers , where they develop and are tended to by adult workers . eggs hatch after 23 to 53 days . larvae can be found in brood chambers of the nests from the beginning of june to the end of august , and pupate after 7 to 33 days . pupae that develop into sexual forms are not present in the nests after june , but those that develop into workers can be found into early september . they remain pupae for 31 to 93 days , before developing into adults . by fall , the brood chamber has emptied . total time of development from egg to adult takes 61 to 122 days .\n, very little is known about what occurs afterwards . since colonies move nests or grow by budding , it is uncertain where females that have recently mated in the nuptial flights go next . they likely return to already established nests to lay their eggs . colonies of\ntypically have two or more wingless queens that lay eggs . the number of queens present may vary significantly , as one colony was recorded as having 198 queens . the first brood of eggs is laid in the nest in april by queens already present in the nest . the eggs are laid in special brood chambers where they undergo metamorphosis and are cared for by workers .\nbreeding interval females mate once during the nuptial flight , while males may mate several times .\nexhibit significant brood care . during the summer , a large brood chamber is constructed near the base of the thatch . this chamber is divided by twigs that are poked through at all angles and is well insulated . pupae can be found in the upper part of the chamber , while eggs and larvae are in the lower part of the chamber , as well as in lower chambers in the soil . the smallest workers remain in the nest to care for and feed the brood . once they reach adulthood , ants become independent and join the colony as workers or sexual forms . the entire brood has left the chamber by the beginning of fall and the chamber is then filled with thatch . there is also provisioning in the eggs provided by the queen .\nmost workers live 19 to 44 days after reaching adulthood , an average of 31 . 6 days , though some overwinter and live more than a year .\nlives in large colonies . a large colony may have anywhere from 10 , 000 to 40 , 000 individuals . it is diurnal and forages during the day . in the warmer parts of its range ,\nis active year round , while in the northern regions it overwinters in its nest and is active from april until october or november . the sexual males and females are able to fly , while workers are wingless . there are conflicting reports about the role of discrete worker castes in the colony . some researchers say\nlacks discrete castes , while others have observed 2 or 3 distinct castes . in size , workers are on a continuous scale , with a large variety of sizes , though there are no obvious groupings . workers are often grouped into major , media , and minor workers . major workers repair the nest and thatch , as well as forage for insect prey to bring back to the nest . majors often work together to take down large insects . these attacks may last as long as 30 minutes . when attacking prey singly , major workers snatch the insect in their mandibles and immediately return to the nest . media workers transport broods between nests , forage for vegetation , and farm aphids . minors are rarely seen outside the nest and likely take part in brood care and tend the queens . all castes clean the nest . none of these tasks are exclusively performed by any one caste and all sizes contribute when necessary , which likely supports the idea that there are no discrete castes .\nwestern thatching ants get their name from the piles of thatch they constructs to cover their nest mounds . the thatch is created from seeds , twigs , plant stems , grass , and soil . piles of thatch can be several centimeters to a meter deep and several centimeters to 1 . 5 m across . this thatch keeps nests at a constant temperature throughout the day , even though nests are typically constructed out in the open in dry , warm regions . workers are constantly repairing and adding to the thatch . many mounds are also built around the main stem of plants such as sagebrush . ants chew the bark on the stem and spray formic acid at it until it dies , at which point it can be removed , creating a central passage in the center of the nest .\nis polydomous , with one colony typically living in several mounds . colonies often switch primary nests . new colonies are formed by budding . secondary mounds may become primary nests , or new mounds may be created nearby , with workers moving between the mounds .\n( conway , 1996a ; conway , 1997 ; herbers , 1979 ; mciver and steen , 1994 ; mico , et al . , 2000 ; weber , 1935 )\nmound usage by the colony can change throughout the day and year . a nest can have anywhere from 1 to 52 entrances , and these entrances constantly change . during warmer parts of the day , ants use entrances that are under cover and use entrances that are in the sun during the morning and evening . the same principle applies to trail usage . most trails are constructed under cover of vegetation , rarely veering out into the open . ants will also remain in the nest or secondary nest during the hottest part of the day , with most foraging taking place during the morning and evening . many colonies have secondary nests . these nests are typically constructed at the base of the plants where workers farm aphids . workers use this secondary nest throughout the day , the largest number take shelter in the mid - afternoon during the warmest temperatures . there are two types of workers involved in honeydew farming , tenders and transporters . transporters spend much of the day in the secondary nest , while the tenders farm honeydew and bring the honeydew to the transporters . the transporters collect the honeydew in their crop from the tenders and return to the nest with the honeydew .\ntends to stay close to the nest ; one study showed that plants farther than 20 m away from the nest were not visited by the ants . mound density in some areas is 115 mounds / ha . in one study , the closest mounds were 2 . 36 m , while another study showed nests were usually separated by more than 100 m .\nantennae are one of their most important sensory organs , used for olfaction , chemical detection , and tactile perception .\ncommunicates with other workers by antennation and also perceives their environment with their antennae . ant crickets (\nnests and have learned to mimic their antennae movements , which allows crickets to antennate with ants and remain undetected as non - colony members . when foraging at extra floral nectaries , ants can communicate with other foragers . if an ant finds a depleted nectary , it leaves a drop of liquid at the junction of the main stem and the stem to the depleted nectary . when another ant moves along the stem , it will antennate the drop of liquid and move past the depleted nectary without having to investigate itself . females release pheromones into the air during mating to attract males . as males swarm over the plants where the females wait , females also move their body and antennae to signal their location , indicating that vision is important in perceiving other individuals .\n. it also scavenges dead insects and other invertebrates . foraging ants bring both living and dead insects back to the nest .\nalso eats organic matter , nectar from extra floral nectaries , and plant tissues including leaves , galls , and flowers . it has been recorded scavenging seeds , eating the edible part and storing the rest in the nest . occasionally , these ants also feed on carrion , such as dead rattlesnakes , birds , and small mammals . ants typically collect liquid from the carcasses and store it in their crops , returning to the nest and regurgitating the liquid via trophallaxis .\n. honeydew is an important component of their diet , as a significant source of amino acids , carbohydrates , and water . it provides energy for the workers , and nutrients for the brood and queen . these ants occasionally also prey on the insects that they tend .\n( beattie and culver , 1977 ; billick and carter , 2007 ; clark and blom , 1991 ; conway , 1997 ; erickson , et al . , 2012 ; heikkinen , 1999 ; mciver and yandell , 1998 ; mciver , et al . , 1997 ; tilman , 1978 )\n. as predators themselves , they are aggressive and defend their brood and the aphids that they tend . they can spray formic acid when threatened or attacked . other insects that gain entry to the nest can pose a threat to the brood .\nusually live peacefully in the nest , but have been observed attacking larvae . another ant species ,\n, may eat larvae if it gets in the nests and will also attack and eat isolated workers . many species of spiders are also predators . many bird species , including\n( conway , 1996a ; conway , 1997 ; heikkinen , 1999 ; henderson and akre , 1986 ; mciver , et al . , 1997 ; weber , 1935 )\nis a mutualist with many species . honeydew plays a significant role in this species ' diet . in exchange for collecting and eating honeydew from the insects that it tends , it protects the insects from other predators and parasitoids . it also destroys insects that have been parasitized before the parasitoid completes development . the\n. all life stages of this beetle can be found within the thatch . the exact relationship is uncertain , as the ants do not seem to get anything out of the beetles presence and do not even seem to notice them . the beetles can also survive in the thatch without the ants . other\nspecies . larvae of these arthropods often use the thatch or chambers in the nest for hibernation or development and feed on decaying matter . the ants largely ignore them .\n( conway , 1997 ; erickson , et al . , 2012 ; grinath , et al . , 2012 ; henderson and akre , 1986 ; mico , et al . , 2000 ; risch , et al . , 2008 ; seibert , 1992 ; seibert , 1993 )\nnests . ants are aggressive toward the crickets and will attack if they realize the crickets are there . however , crickets have learned to imitate the way ants use their antennae to identify other individuals and trick the ants into allowing the crickets to stay . crickets even participate in trophallaxis with the ants . the ants do not seem to gain any benefits from the crickets ' presence , while the crickets get shelter , food , and will even attempt to eat larvae if given access . other ant species have also been documented living in the nests of\n( conway , 1996a ; henderson and akre , 1986 ; mico , et al . , 2000 ; risch , et al . , 2008 )\nplays a variety of other roles in the ecosystem . it is prey to a variety of insects and bird species . it also feeds on a large number of other insect species . ectoparasitic mites of genus\nare often found on both workers and sexuals , often in the joints of the legs . the wasp\nworkers . the wasp lays eggs in the abdomens of worker ants , killing the ants upon hatching . as a significant aphid - tending ant species ,\ncan play a role in determining the density of other arthropods and herbivores in their habitat . in some habitats , such as a coastal dune habitat ,\nis a keystone species . it reduces competing herbivores on the aphid - infested plants , while also increasing arthropod density by creating new shelters by rolling leaves on which the aphids live .\nis also known to collect seeds and bring them back to the nest . it eats the edible part and stores the rest of the seed in chambers of the nest . these chambers can often be a good habitat for the plant to grow and develop , allowing the ant to aid in seed dispersal .\ncolonies likely eat insects and other arthropods that can be pests to their habitat ( particularly forest defoliators ) , as well as insects that could be pests to humans .\nangela miner ( author ) , animal diversity web staff , leila siciliano martina ( editor ) , animal diversity web staff .\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nused loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies . more specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits ( a continuous , modular society ) - as in clonal organisms .\nin deserts low ( less than 30 cm per year ) and unpredictable rainfall results in landscapes dominated by plants and animals adapted to aridity . vegetation is typically sparse , though spectacular blooms may occur following rain . deserts can be cold or warm and daily temperates typically fluctuate . in dune areas vegetation is also sparse and conditions are dry . this is because sand does not hold water well so little is available to plants . in dunes near seas and oceans this is compounded by the influence of salt in the air and soil . salt limits the ability of plants to take up water through their roots .\nparticles of organic material from dead and decomposing organisms . detritus is the result of the activity of decomposers ( organisms that decompose organic material ) .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\nhaving a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment ; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature .\nthe state that some animals enter during winter in which normal physiological processes are significantly reduced , thus lowering the animal ' s energy requirements . the act or condition of passing winter in a torpid or resting state , typically involving the abandonment of homoiothermy in mammals .\na species whose presence or absence strongly affects populations of other species in that area such that the extirpation of the keystone species in an area will result in the ultimate extirpation of many more species in that area ( example : sea otter ) .\na large change in the shape or structure of an animal that happens as the animal grows . in insects ,\nincomplete metamorphosis\nis when young animals are similar to adults and change gradually into the adult form , and\ncomplete metamorphosis\nis when there is a profound change between larval and adult forms . butterflies have complete metamorphosis , grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nreproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .\nmany forms .\na species is polymorphic if its individuals can be divided into two or more easily recognized groups , based on structure , color , or other similar characteristics . the term only applies when the distinct groups can be found in the same area ; graded or clinal variation throughout the range of a species ( e . g . a north - to - south decrease in size ) is not polymorphism . polymorphic characteristics may be inherited because the differences have a genetic basis , or they may be the result of environmental influences . we do not consider sexual differences ( i . e . sexual dimorphism ) , seasonal changes ( e . g . change in fur color ) , or age - related changes to be polymorphic . polymorphism in a local population can be an adaptation to prevent density - dependent predation , where predators preferentially prey on the most common morph .\nthat region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .\na terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .\na grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .\na terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5\u00b0 n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .\nberg - binder , m . , a . suarez . 2012 . testing the directed dispersal hypothesis : are native ant mounds (\nfraser , a . , a . axen , n . pierce . 2001 . assessing the quality of different ant species as partners of a myrmecophilous butterfly .\ngrinath , j . , b . inouye , n . underwood , i . billick . 2012 . the indirect consequences of a mutualism : comparing positive and negative components of the net interaction between honeydew - tending ants and host plants .\nherbers , j . 1979 . caste - biased polyethism in a mound - building ant species .\n) with a key to the known larvae and a review of the larval biology .\nseibert , t . 1993 . a nectar - secreting gall wasp and ant mutualism - selection and counter - selection shaping gall wasp phenology , fecundity , and persistence .\ntilman , d . 1978 . cherries , ants and tent caterpillars : timing of nectar production in relation to susceptibility of caterpillars to ant predation .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nyou must log in to access this functionality . you may create an account , or log in anonymously , here .\nemery , 1893k pdf : 650 ( q . m . ) ; wheeler & wheeler , 1953c pdf : 165 ( l . ) ; hung , 1969 pdf : 456 ( k . ) .\nward , p . s . , 2005 , a synoptic review of the ants of california ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . , zootaxa 936 , pp . 1 - 68\n12 times found in shrub steppe , 2 times found in sagebrush , 6 times found in conifer forest , 5 times found in aspen forest , 2 times found in lodgepole pine forest , 0 times found in pinyon - cedar woodland , 0 times found in shortgrass prairie , 3 times found in riparian willow in sagebrush desert , 2 times found in aspen grove , 0 times found in black oak dunes , . . .\n101 times search , 0 times thatched nest , 11 times hand collecting , 1 times under rock , 0 times roadside , 0 times thached nest , 0 times thatch nest of pine needles , 0 times nest in thatch mound , 1 times observation , 0 times on sand by anthill , 0 times thatched log , . . .\nantweb content is licensed under a creative commons attribution license . we encourage use of antweb images . in print , each image must include attribution to its photographer and\nfrom urltoken\nin the figure caption . for websites , images must be clearly identified as coming from urltoken , with a backward link to the respective source page . see how to cite antweb .\nantweb is funded from private donations and from grants from the national science foundation , deb - 0344731 , ef - 0431330 and deb - 0842395 . c : 1\n12 times found in shrub steppe , 2 times found in sagebrush , 6 times found in conifer forest , 5 times found in aspen forest , 2 times found in lodgepole pine forest , 0 times found in pinyon - cedar woodland , 0 times found in shortgrass prairie , 0 times found in black oak dunes , 2 times found in shrub steppe / aspen , 4 times found in sparse conifer woods , . . .\n101 times search , 0 times thatched nest , 11 times hand collecting , 1 times under rock , 0 times roadside , 0 times thatch nest of pine needles , 0 times thached nest , 1 times observation , 0 times on sand by anthill , 0 times thatched log , 0 times grassy bench , . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\n- bristles on all surfaces of hind tibiae ( but few or none on scapes ( cf . f . oreas )\n- cross section of clypeus gently curved or curved with broadly obtuse medial angle ( cf . trapezoidal cross section of f . obscuriventris clypeus )\nhabitat changes from east to west - - sandy prairie and oak savanna ( michigan to minnesota , also iowa and way - northern missouri ) , dry - mesic tallgrass prairie ( nebraska , dakotas , canadian prairie provinces ) , mid - grass prairie , usually + / - riparian grassland ( western dakotas to new mexico ) , sagebrush / rabbitbrush steppe ( alberta to new mexico and great basin ) , conifer woodland and forest ( northern , incl . canadian rockies to washington and british columbia ) .\nwheeler , g . c . ; wheeler , j . 1963 . the ants of north dakota . grand forks , north dakota : university of north dakota press , viii + 326 pp .\ncontributed by robin mcleod on 12 september , 2005 - 3 : 12am additional contributions by james c . trager last updated 19 august , 2014 - 11 : 22am\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nthat would be my guess as well , but i ' m not an ant expert .\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\nbradley ga , hinks jd ( 1968 ) ants , aphids , and jack pine in manitoba . can entomol 100 : 40\u201350\n( forel ) and its influence on arthropoda of jack pine . m . s . thesis . michigan state university , east lansing , michigan , 117 pp ( unpublished )\nholldobler b , wilson e ( 1990 ) the ants . the belknap press of harvard university press , cambridge , massachusetts , 732 pp\nwilson eo ( 1971 ) the insect societies . the belknap press of harvard university press , cambridge , massachusetts , 548 pp\n( forel ) ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . in : capinera j . l . ( eds ) encyclopedia of entomology . springer , dordrecht\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nwe ' ve updated our privacy policy and by continuing you ' re agreeing to the updated terms .\nwhen you visit our site , preselected companies may use cookies or other certain information on your device to serve relevant ads and for analytics purposes . learn more\ndiscuss anything related to ants from keeping them as pets to removing them as pests .\nthis area contains observers ' notes , photographs / pictures , and / or videos detailing field observations on ants . think of this as a collection of diaries / journals / logs ( please put exact date and location in the thread titles ) for observation . put locality information of the ant occurrences . any additional details on habitat ( soil , vegetation ) , microhabitat ( nest site ) , prey , other species interactions , weather conditions , etc . will also be welcome . basically , post details ! use keeping ants area for documenting on keeping ants . also , this area includes all kinds of sightings like nuptial flight , ant identifications , and even on the television ( tv ) , movie screens , and internet .\nhello . welcome to the message board . wonderful post ( very clean ) .\n? also , be sure to search and read the other forum threads . your questions might had been answered already .\nstill we live meanly , like ants ; . . . like pygmies we fight with cranes ; . . . our life is frittered away by detail . simplify . . . simplify . . .\n- - henry thoreau\n/ \\ _ _ _ / \\ / / \\ / \\ \\ ant ( aka antdude ) , your host & fearless overlord | | o o | | \\ _ / < ! - - ezcode link start - - > < a href =\nurltoken\n> the ant farm < / a > < ! - - ezcode link end - - > , < ! - - ezcode link start - - > < a href =\nurltoken\n> ant ' s quality foraged links ( aqfl ) < / a > < ! - - ezcode link end - - > , and this < ! - - ezcode link start - - > < a href =\nurltoken\n> forum < / a > < ! - - ezcode link end - - > . ( )\nant ( dude ) @ the ant farm ( urltoken / urltoken ) and here ( urltoken ) . quote of the week :\ni got worms ! that ' s what we ' re going to call it . we ' re going to specialize in selling worm farms . you know like ant farms . what ' s the matter , a little tense about the flight ?\n- - lloyd christmas ( dumb and dumber movie )\nwell , the faq does tell me that the queens should be larger than the males , and have wider gasters . but i didn ' t find there whether i ' d have better luck looking on the nest or if i have to search out their nuptial ground .\ni wouldn ' t keep your eyes out for just one species , odds are you wont find that 1 species . ive been looking for pheidole alates , for the past year and a half , but never can find them . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ my website tetramorium caespitum blog\ni was going to start my queen with a couple dozen workers from the big nest - - they ' re polygynous and the fertilized queens often return to the nest . the nests also bud into satellite colonies .\nactually , you need to find one that has shed her wings . otherwise , it is unlikely she will be fertile .\nthis area contains general tricks and information on ant rearing . also included are people ' s journals / diaries / logs on raising their ant colonies . some of them even have pictures and videos .\nlast edited by engwinner on june 3rd , 2010 , 1 : 12 am , edited 4 times in total .\nbig , healthy ant colonies . shipping worldwide since 2009 , we are creators of premium , museum standard formicariums and products .\ni agree , such detailed observations ! looking forward to the next episode . ( :\nawesome work , adoption successful so far ! they are pretty ants too . i ' ll be waiting with popcorn handy on your next entry .\nvery cool ! i myself just dug up an entire colony and have them in a bucket currently . i ' d like to do the same thing with another colony but put them in a clear fish tank instead . i purchased some fluon that works really well in keeping them in . if you ' re interested i could give you some one of these days ( you were in the puget sound region no ? ) .\ni can ' t believe it ! i just caught a queen of the same species ( just posted here : urltoken i live in surrey - bc . i had no clue these queens did not start their own colonies . it appears my test tube setup will be futile . hmmm , perhaps i should release her ? or i could try what you did . so after they accept her as a queen , will you move them to another nest ? when do you think she will begin producing offspring ? i often see these ants build nests out of bark , and chips - do you think they would like a plaster mold ? cheers ,\nthe oil may or may not have helped , engwinner , but i certainly wouldn ' t leave the ants in it , as it could gunk up their integuments . adding pupae from a nest of this species may be the fastest way to increase colony size , until the queen starts laying .\ndoctorant wrote : adding pupae from a nest of this species may be the fastest way to increase colony size , until the queen starts laying .\ndont thatch ants place hard tree sap on there mounds to keep them ' clean ' ? . maybe they might show interest in small bits . and half needles . i would suspect they would use other material then needles to make there nest also . take a small amount of the large wild nest and see what its fully composed of . unless you already haven ' t ! lol . good luck i really hope they work out . this species is really fascinating .\nto receive news and publication updates for psyche : a journal of entomology , enter your email address in the box below .\nthese ants are obvious because of their large size , sometimes very large , organic nest - mounds , and colony populations in the tens , or hundreds of thousands . the worker caste is polymorphic , so large and small individuals ( majors and minors ) can be observed foraging , and performing other tasks .\nin some cases , groupings of related nests form enormous supercolonies . one of these assemblages in oregon , usa , included 201 active nests , and an estimated population of over 56 million ants ."]}
{"id": 610, "summary": [{"text": "millepora tenera is a species of fire coral in the family milleporidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is native to the red sea and the western indo-pacific region and is a zooxanthellate species with a calcareous skeleton .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it was first described in 1949 by the dutch zoologist hilbrand boschma . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "millepora tenera", "paragraphs": ["stinging coral ( millepora tenera ) toxin : a comparison of crude extracts with isolated nematocyst extracts .\ntarget species millepora platyphylla ( p , red ) and non - target species ; millepora intricata ( i , green ) , millepora dichotoma ( d , pink ) , millepora tenera ( t , purple ) , millepora complanata ( c , blue ) and millepora exaesa ( e , yellow ) .\nnick hope added the english common name\nfire coral\nto\nmillepora tenera boschma , 1948\n.\nstinging coral ( millepora tenera ) toxin : a comparison of crude extracts with isolated nematocyst extracts . - pubmed - ncbi\n( 1974 ) . stinging coral ( millepora tenera ) toxin : a comparison of crude extracts with isolated nematocyst extracts . toxicon\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - fire coral ( millepora tenera )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - fire coral ( millepora tenera )\ntitle =\narkive species - fire coral ( millepora tenera )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nmillepora tenera is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 2 ) .\nthe distinctive pores of millepora boschmai , which distinguish it from reef - building corals .\n7 . wittle lw , tscura ed , middlebrook re . stinging coral ( millepora tenera ) toxin : a comparison of the crude extracts with isolated nematocyst extracts . toxicon . 1974 ; 12 ( 5 ) : 481 - 6 . [ links ]\nglobally , millepora boschmai is critically endangered and the only remaining populations occur in indonesia . the status of millepora boschmai in australia is unknown and currently there are no records of it occurring in australian waters .\nthere are another 14 species of _ millepora _ known to exist worldwide . two of these species are listed by the iucn as endangered and two are listed as data deficient . numerous millepora species are restricted to the atlantic ocean however six species are known to occur in australia ( m . dischotoma , m . exaesa , m . foveolata , m . intricata , m . platyphylla , and m . tenera ) .\ncharacterisation of de novo microsatellite loci and genetic diversity in the target species millepora platyphylla collected in moorea , french polynesia .\n( of millepora cruzi nemenzo , 1975 ) razak , t . b . & b . w . hoeksema , 2003 . the hydrocoral genus millepora ( hydrozoa : capitata : milleporidae ) in indonesia . zoologische verhandelingen leiden 345 : 313 - 336 . [ details ]\nnevertheless , the exact status of all millepora species in australia is unknown and further research is needed to identify species and population status .\n( of millepora tortuosa dana , 1848 ) boschma , h . 1948a . the species problem in millepora . zoologische verhandelingen , leiden 1 : 1 - 115 , pls . 1 - 15 . page ( s ) : 41 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - fire coral ( millepora alcicornis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - fire coral ( millepora alcicornis )\ntitle =\narkive species - fire coral ( millepora alcicornis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\n( of millepora tenella ortmann , 1892 ) razak , t . b . , hoeksema b . w . , 2003 . the hydrocoral genus millepora ( hydrozoa : capitata : milleporidae ) in indonesia . zool . verh . leiden 345 : 313 - 336 . page ( s ) : 323 [ details ]\nmillepora alcicornis is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 2 ) .\n23 . grajales a , s\u00e1nchez ja . discharged nematocysts of millepora alcicornis . coral reefs . 2006 ; 25 ( 4 ) : 671 . [ links ]\nsummary of genetic distances ( gd ) based on the 16s gene between the target species and other millepora species together with indices indicating microsatellite transferability and genetic diversity .\n21 . lewis jb . biology and ecology of the hydrocoral millepora on coral reefs . adv mar biol . 2006 ; 50 : 1 - 55 . [ links ]\n5 . wittle lw , middlebrook r , lane c . isolation and partial purification of a toxin from millepora alcicornis . toxicon . 1971 ; 9 ( 4 ) : 327 - 31 . [ links ]\nmillepora boschmai is a type of hydrocoral , related to jellyfish , anemones and the true corals that build reefs . all corals are animals , and not plants . they have bodies made of many cells without cell walls , which distinguishes them from plants and fungi . the tiny bodies of corals are hidden in a calcium skeleton , and it is the thousands of pores in millepora skeletons that distinguish this type of coral .\n6 . middlebrook re , wittle lw , scura ed , lane ce . isolation and partial purification of a toxin from millepora dichotoma . toxicon . 1971 ; 9 ( 4 ) : 333 - 6 . [ links ]\n( of millepora tenella ortmann , 1892 ) s . d . cairns & j . van der land , 2000 - 2007 , as a contribution to unesco - ioc register of marine organisms ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n3 . prasad r , vincent l , hamilton r , lim k . minimal change disease in association with fire coral ( millepora species ) exposure . am j kidney dis . 2005 ; 47 ( 1 ) : e15 - 6 . [ links ]\n9 . radwan ffy . comparative toxinological and immunological studies on the nematocyst venoms of the red sea fire corals millepora dichotoma and m . platyphylla . comp biochem physiol c pharmacol . 2002 ; 131 ( 3 ) : 323 - 34 . [ links ]\nboschma , h . 1949c . notes on specimens of the genus millepora in the collection of the british museum . proceedings of the zoological society of london 119 : 661 - 672 , pls 1 - 2 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nhydrozoan cnidarians of the genus millepora are commonly denominated fire corals since contact with them immediately causes burning pain , erythema and pustule formation on human skin ( 1 - 3 ) . these hydrocorals are able to induce their damaging effects due to the presence of nematocysts , the characteristic stinging organelles used by all cnidarians for defense and capturing prey ( 4 ) . several studies have shown that the venom contained in the nematocysts from millepora species display lethal , hemolytic , dermonecrotic , and antigenic properties ( 5 - 10 ) .\nrazak , t . b . , hoeksema b . w . , 2003 . the hydrocoral genus millepora ( hydrozoa : capitata : milleporidae ) in indonesia . zool . verh . leiden 345 : 313 - 336 . page ( s ) : 323 [ details ]\nthis genus is generally not found in the aquarium trade , but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade . crown - of - thorns starfish are a major threat to corals in australia , but according to observations in fiji , millepora is not a target .\nparts of the distributions of several millepora species fall within australian marine protected areas and it is likely they will benefit from those reserves . nevertheless , recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy , population , abundance and trends , ecology and habitat status .\nstructural characteristics of discharged and undischarged nematocysts from the hydrozoans millepora alcicornis and millepora complanata , two fire corals collected in the mexican caribbean , were examined using transmission electron , scanning and light microscopy . in this study , we report for the first time images of the nematocysts found in these mexican caribbean venomous species . two types of nematocysts were observed in both species , the more abundant identified as macrobasic mastigophore and the other a stenotele type . macrobasic mastigophores were present in medium and large size classes while stenoteles appeared in only one size .\n1 . sagi a , rosenberg l , ben - meir p , hauben dj . the\nfire coral\n( millepora dichotoma ) as a cause of burns : a case report . burns incl therm inj . 1987 ; 13 ( 4 ) : 325 - 6 . [ links ]\npropagation is rather simple for millepora corals . breaking and cementing the pieces onto plugs or rock is a typical way to frag this coral . rubber banding to a plug or rock is another way that has been used . however , there is another way that is quite ingenious . place rubble rock around the\nthe fire coral ( millepora boschmai ) is one of the rarest species of coral in the world . it is known only from a small number of locations in the pacific ocean , panama and indonesia , and it appears this species got into hot water almost a decade before it was even known to science .\n10 . ibarra - alvarado c , alejandro garc\u00eda j , aguilar mb , rojas a , falc\u00f3n a , heimer de la cotera ep . biochemical and pharmacological characterizations obtained from the fire coral millepora complanata . comp biochem physiol c toxicol pharmacol . 2007 ; 146 ( 4 ) : 511 - 8 . [ links ]\nthe millepora genus is very aggressive . these hydrocorals will encrust and take over other corals , so keep your eye on their growth rate . make sure you space them at least 6\u201d from other corals . possibly place them on a rock in the sand away from the main rock work to keep them from encrusting on to the main rock formation .\n( of millepora tortuosa dana , 1848 ) dana , j . d . , 1848 . zoophytes . in : narrative of the u . s . exploring expedition , during the years 1838 - 1842 , by ch . wilkes , 7 , zoophytes . 7 : vi + 740 pp . . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 545 [ details ]\nin australia , millepora species occur in a variety of habitats to at least 30 metres deep . they can be found in inshore areas such as the kimberley coastal reefs , and also in the clear waters offshore . some of these species are found abundance . m . intricata , for example , is a dominant species in the lizard island lagoon on the great barrier reef .\nthe fire coral , millepora alcicornis , while immune to the crown of thorns can succumb to predatory polychaetes and nudibranchs from the phyllidia genus . many critters like this crab will find safety in it ' s branches . hawkfish , who do not have any tissue on their pelvic fins will perch between the branches and will not be stung as they enjoy the protection of the fire coral .\ncaring for a millepora coral in the aquarium requires that you be very careful . these hydrocorals have a potent sting . it can just be a mild sting for some , but for others it can be all the way up to anaphylactic shock . needless to say , wear gloves when you are handling them or are anywhere near the coral . don\u2019t be dissuaded from keeping them because of their sting , however since they are hardy and easy to propagate . just be careful and wear gloves .\nthe fire coral , millepora alcicornis has earned the name\nfire\nfor good reason ! it is strong enough to put some people into anaphylactic shock , however most of the time it is a bad sting . the positive thing is that they grow so slow , less than 1\nper year , that they can be kept in a nano tank , without the risk of over growing everything so fast . they also will hold their own and other corals will generally stay away from them !\nthe millepora corals are found at depths from 0 to 148 feet ( 45 m ) in areas of high current and light . they inhabit reef slopes and projected parts of the reef that have strong wave and current action . these include tidal inlets , sheltered bays , mangrove shores , exposed bay areas and ledges at the entrance of these bays as well as in sounds , shallow reefs and shallow coastal benthic habitats . they are occasionally found on mangrove roots and in the shallow protected areas where there are solid beds .\nassignment analyses based on bayesian clustering analysis using structure ( pritchard , stephens & donnelly , 2000 ) for five of the six studied species : ( 1 ) m . platyphylla , ( 2 ) m . exaesa , ( 3 ) m . intricata , ( 4 ) m . dichotoma and ( 5 ) m . tenera . the x - axis shows species identification and y - axis shows the cluster membership ( k = 2 ) . initial structure runs were used to determine the most likely number of clusters ( k ) . runs were performed with the default setting , a burn - in period of 50000 , 50000 mcmc repeats and 10 iterations per k . the results were uploaded to structure harvester ( earl & vonholdt , 2011 ) and the most likely k was retained for a second run in structure with a burn - in period of 500000 , 500000 mcmc repeats , 10 iterations and uniform prior setting .\ngenus has been propagated in captivity , yet are not always available . millepora hydrocorals have two principle forms ; the predominant body type is the polyp and the other is bell - shaped or the shape of a thin disk . their life cycle originates as a sessile polyp , and in this stage it multiplies asexually . animals in the polyp stage are known as \u201chydroids\u201d . the polyp stage can then bud , forming a free - swimming , planktonic animal , like the jellyfish . in this stage they are known as \u201cmedusa\u201d and can produce eggs or sperm .\nmillepora complanata is a plate - like fire coral common throughout the caribbean . contact with this species usually provokes burning pain , erythema and urticariform lesions . our previous study suggested that the aqueous extract of m . complanata contains non - protein hemolysins that are soluble in water and ethanol . in general , the local damage induced by cnidarian venoms has been associated with hemolysins . the characterization of the effects of these components is important for the understanding of the defense mechanisms of fire corals . in addition , this information could lead to better care for victims of envenomation accidents .\nmillepora alcicornis is a branching hydrocoral common throughout the caribbean sea . like other members of this genus , this species is capable of inducing skin eruptions and blisters with severe pain after contact . in the present study , we investigated the toxicity of the m . alcicornis aqueous extract on several animal models . considering that some cnidarian hemolysins have been associated to local tissue damage , since they also induce lysis of other cell types , we also made a partial characterization of the hemolytic activity of m . alcicornis aqueous extract . this information is important for understanding the defense mechanisms of the \u201cfire corals\u201d .\nin this study , two types of nematocysts were observed in both caribbean millepora species . these nematocysts were identified as stenoteles and macrobasic mastigosphores according to weill ' s classification ( 16 , 17 ) . measurements of the capsule size of the nematocysts , made from the sem photographs , showed that in both species the macrobasic mastigophores were present in medium ( 10 . 6 - 13 . 0 x 18 . 1 - 21 . 6 \u00b5m ) and large ( 17 . 5 - 21 . 8 x 25 . 0 - 33 . 1 \u00b5m ) size classes , while stenoteles were present in only one size ( 10 . 5 - 15 . 6 x 18 . 7 - 25 . 0 \u00b5m ) .\nthe most abundant nematocyst type found in both millepora species was the macrobasic mastigophore . the structure of the undischarged form consists of an egg - shaped capsule with an inverted tubule coiled with an amorphous arrangement , which can be observed in the lm photographs ( figure 3 - a ) . the operculum , located in the apical part of the capsule , has a diameter of approximately 2 . 5 \u00b5m in both large and medium size classes ( figure 3 - b ) . in the discharged form of this nematocyst type one observes that the everted tubule is armed with three helically coiled bands of spines extended throughout the length of the tubule ( figure 3 - c to f ) . figure 3 - e shows a macrobasic mastigophore with the everted tubule completely extended ; this tubule has a diameter of 1 . 6 \u00b5m while the shaft , an enlarged portion in the middle of the tubule , has a diameter of 2 . 3 \u00b5m .\nadditionally , a 461 bp portion of the mitochondrial 16s gene was amplified for 30 specimens ( five colonies per species ) and used to estimate the genetic distances among the six millepora species . the pcr amplifications were performed using the primers 16s - sha and 16s - shb ( cunningham & buss , 1993 ) in 20 \u00b5l reactions containing : 1 . 5 mm of mgcl 2 , 0 . 2 mm of each dntp , 1\u00d7 final concentration of buffer , 0 . 5 \u00b5m of each primer , 0 . 25 unit of red hot taq polymerase , 2 \u00b5l of dna template ( 80\u2013100 ng / \u00b5l ) and sterilised water up to 20 \u00b5l . the cycling parameters were as follows : an initial denaturation step of 5 min at 94 \u00b0c , followed by 35 cycles of 1 min at 94 \u00b0c , 1 min at 50 \u00b0c , 1 . 5 min at 72 \u00b0c and a final elongation step of 5 min at 72 \u00b0c . sequencing of the pcr products was performed by genoscreen ( lille , france ) .\nstenoteles are penetrating nematocysts limited to the class hydrozoa and are found mostly in hydras ( 20 , 21 ) . in this study , we found the presence of few stenoteles in both millepora species . calder ( 22 ) reported that the gastrozooids of m . alcicornis , collected in bermuda , contained stenoteles of small ( 5 . 7 - 6 . 6 x 8 . 3 - 8 . 9 \u00b5m ) , medium ( 12 . 9 - 14 . 2 x 15 . 9 - 17 . 6 \u00b5m ) and large ( 15 . 9 - 18 . 7 x 21 . 6 - 24 . 7 \u00b5m ) sizes , whereas the dactylozooids only contained small stenoteles ( 5 . 9 - 6 . 5 x 8 . 3 - 8 . 6 \u00b5m ) . the capsule of the undischarged form of this nematocyst type has a characteristic lime shape with pointed ends ( figure 1 - a , b ) , one of these ends consists of an aperture closed by a cover known as an operculum , whose diameter is approximately 4 . 5 \u00b5m while the other extreme has a diameter of approximately 2 \u00b5m ( figure 1 - b ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nm . tenella is considered a synonym of this species ( randall and cheng 1984 ) .\nthis species is widespread in the indo - pacific . it is found from the red sea and east africa to the mariana islands and american samoa , including australia and japan . specific records : red sea , gulf of aden , arabian sea ( socotra ) , madagascar , lakshadweep , west thailand , northwest australia , vietnam , indonesia , philippines , pohnpei ( micronesia ) , papua new guinea , bismarck sea - solomon islands , great barrier reef , fiji ( devantier and turak pers . comm . ) . randall and cheng ( 1984 ) give western indian ocean to samoa and great barrier reef to japan .\nthis species is considered relatively common throughout its range . there is no species specific population information available for this species . however , there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined , and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species . this species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only ( wilkinson 2004 ) . we assume that most , if not all , mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average , the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs . reef losses throughout the species ' range have been estimated over three generations , two in the past and one projected into the future . the age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years ( wallace 1999 ) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years . furthermore , based on average sizes and growth rates , we assume that average generation length is 10 years , unless otherwise stated . total longevity is not known , but likely to be more than ten years . therefore any population decline rates for the red list assessment are measured over at least 30 years . see the supplementary material for further details on population decline and generation length estimates .\nthis species is most abundant in shallow reef habitat at depths of less than 15 m .\nspecies are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity , and exhibit a tolerance for siltation . they often occur in clear offshore sites ( lovell pers . comm . )\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nbest , w . g . , g . faure & m . pichon ( 1980 ) . contribution to the knowledge of the stony corals from the seychelles and eastern africa . rev . zool . afr . 94 , 3 : 600 - 627 . [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nfire corals get their common name from the painful stings they inflict on divers ( 3 ) . approximately 50 species of fire coral have been described , which express an array of growth forms . growth forms range from colonies composed of tree - like branches , solid colonies that are typically dome - shaped , or colonies that adhere closely to the substrate ( 3 ) . these reef - building ( hermatypic ) corals can be green , cream or yellow , and those species with branches have hollow cores , containing oxygen , that can be easily broken ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . other species form thick and sturdy colonies capable of withstanding the strongest wave action ( 4 ) .\nreproduction in fire corals is more complex than in other reef - building corals . the polyps reproduce asexually , producing jellyfish - like medusae , which are released into the water from special cup - like structures known as ampullae . the medusae contain the reproductive organs that release eggs and sperm into the water . fertilised eggs develop into free - swimming larvae that will eventually settle on the substrate and form new colonies . fire corals can also reproduce asexually by fragmentation ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .\nfire corals form extensive outcrops on projecting parts of the reef where the tidal currents are strong . they are also abundant on upper reef slopes and in lagoons ( 4 ) , and occur down to depths of 40 metres ( 5 ) .\nfire corals face the many threats that are impacting coral reefs globally . it is estimated that 20 percent of the world\u2019s coral reefs have already been effectively destroyed and show no immediate prospects of recovery , and 24 percent of the world\u2019s reefs are under imminent risk of collapse due to human pressures . these human impacts include poor land management practices that are releasing more sediment , nutrients and pollutants into the oceans and stressing the fragile reef ecosystem . overfishing has \u2018knock - on\u2019 effects that result in the increase of macro - algae that can out - compete and smother corals , and fishing using destructive methods physically devastates the reef . a further potential threat is the increase of coral bleaching events , as a result of global climate change ( 7 ) .\nmost fire coral species have brittle skeletons that can easily be broken , for example , during storms , or by divers ( 3 ) . divers can easily break the branches of fire corals when diving for leisure , or when collecting fish for the aquarium trade . for instance , the yellowtail damselfish tends to dwell close to the branching fire coral colonies , and retreats into its branches when threatened . in brazil , fire coral colonies are extensively damaged when harvesting the yellowtail damselfish , as the corals are often deliberately smashed and fishes hiding amongst the branches are \u2018shaken out\u2019 into plastic bags ( 8 ) .\nfire corals are listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) , which means that trade in these species should be carefully regulated ( 2 ) . indonesia and fiji both have quota systems for corals , monitored though cites ( 2 ) . the aim of the quotas are to ensure harvests are kept at a sustainable level , but in reality they are hard to set at the right level due to a lack of knowledge regarding coral biology . fire corals will form part of the marine community in many marine protected areas ( mpas ) , which offer coral reefs a degree of protection , and there are many calls from non - governmental organisations for larger mpas to ensure the persistence of these unique and fascinating ecosystems ( 7 ) .\nfor further information on this species see veron , j . e . n . ( 1986 ) corals of australia and the indo - pacific . angus and robertson publishers , uk .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nveron , j . e . n . ( 2000 ) corals of the world . vol . 3 . australian institute of marine sciences , townsville , australia .\nveron , j . e . n . ( 1986 ) corals of australia and the indo - pacific . angus and robertson publishers , uk .\nborneman , e . h . ( 2001 ) aquarium corals ; selection , husbandry and natural history . t . f . h . publications , new jersey , usa .\nwood , e . m . ( 1983 ) reef corals of the world : biology and field guide . t . f . h . publications , new jersey , usa .\nwilkinson , c . ( 2004 ) status of coral reefs of the world . australian institute of marine science , townsville , australia .\ngasparini , j . l . , floeter , s . r . , ferreira , c . e . l . and sazima , i . ( 2005 ) marine ornamental trade in brazil . biodiversity and conservation , 14 : 2883 - 2899 .\nanimals animals / earth scenes 17 railroad avenue chatham ny 12037 united states of america tel : + 01 ( 518 ) 3925500 fax : + 01 ( 518 ) 3925550 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is affected by global climate change . to learn about climate change and the species that are affected , visit our climate change pages .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nthis species is widespread in the indo - pacific . it is found from the red sea and east africa to the mariana islands and american samoa , including australia and japan .\nspecific records : red sea , gulf of aden , arabian sea ( socotra ) , madagascar , lakshadweep , west thailand , northwest australia , vietnam , indonesia , philippines , pohnpei ( micronesia ) , papua new guinea , bismarck sea - solomon islands , great barrier reef , fiji ( devantier and turak pers . comm . ) .\nrandall and cheng ( 1984 ) give western indian ocean to samoa and great barrier reef to japan .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\nnematocysts free of extra - nematocyst material is described . the toxic material from the nematocysts had an\nin mice of 40 \u03bcg protein per kg body weight and displayed hemolytic and dermonecrotic properties . comparison of nematocyst extract and crude extract of whole specimens of\nby electrophoresis and double diffusion tests indicated the toxin in crude extract is of nematocyst origin and not from extra - nematocyst material .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nresearch support , u . s . gov ' t , non - p . h . s .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nin : schuchert , p . ( 2015 ) world hydrozoa database . accessed through : world register of marine species at urltoken on 2016 - 08 - 30 .\nin : schuchert , p . ( 2015 ) world hydrozoa database . accessed through : world register of marine species at urltoken on 2016 - 10 - 11 .\ncatalogue of materials deposited in ryukyu university museum ( fujukan ) , no . 9 . ryukyu university museum ( fujukan ) , nishihara , 5 - 32 ( in japanese ) .\noccurrence record in darwincore format ( elements of obis schema and some of dwc1 . 4 )\nmini reef aquarium guide . reef aquarium setup for large reef tanks , nano reef tanks , pico reef or micro reef aquariums with reef tank lighting , filtration , choosing coral reef animals , and problem solving !\nsetting up a saltwater aquarium . guide to marine supplies , putting the aquarium together , cycling the aquarium water and adding fish !\nenter your freshwater aquarium enter parameters for your freshwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nenter your saltwater aquarium enter parameters for your saltwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nfish finder search our database for compatible pets ! enter characteristics of what you are looking for and find them instantly .\ndr . jungle ' s pets and animal speak - newsletter featured pet of the week and more . . .\ni ' d love to give your clam a new house . i have 110g reef tank set up 25 hrs . he ' d love it !\ni would like to purchase a quantity of aiptasia for my berghia nudibranch . if you have some available , please respond . bobtc100 @ urltoken\nbelongs to the class hydrozoa , and are known as hydrocorals . this species is just one of the many members in the\ngenus . this genus contains the common\nfire coral\nor\nstinging coral\nspecies that have a potent sting , causing a burning sensation if touched . usually it is just a mild sting , but for some people the reaction can be all the way up to anaphylactic shock . divers , snorkelers , and aquarists need to wear gloves when handling these corals or are anywhere near them .\nfire corals could be described as very hardy \u201csoft\u201d corals . they have a similar appearance to stony corals , and are found in similar habitats . but the\ngenus are not considered stony corals due to their internal structure . like the stony corals , they do produce a hard aragonite skeleton and aid in reef building , yet inside their structure are canals that house all of their polyps and aid in food distribution . this makes them no where near as dense and hard as a stony coral .\ngenus can take many forms including arborescent ( treelike ) , plate - like , encrusting , lace - like , box - like or columnar . these different forms develop in conjunction with the water flow where they are found . encrusting colonies are the initial growth form of these hydrocorals . in areas of strong water flow they will continue to encrust , but in a low water flow area they will develop into a lacy branching form similar to the\n, but not on a single plane . their branches can become leaf - like , blade - like , or even box - like in areas where the water flow increases in strength . thus the common names they are known for besides fire coral and stinging coral are branching fire coral , box coral , bladed fire coral , finger coral , ginger coral , and wello fire coral .\ndon\u2019t be dissuaded from keeping fire corals because of their sting . they are interesting corals that are hardy and easy to propagate , just be careful and wear gloves . in the wild they are adaptable to many environments , thus contributing to their hardy nature . they let you know their lighting needs by their color , with yellow indicating perfect light and brown being \u201cnot enough . \u201d they also need strong water movement or they will not grow as much .\ngenus was described by linnaeus in 1758 . this is the only genus in the milleporidae family . there are at least 48 species with a few being\ngenus are found from the red sea , south to madagascar , then east toward australia ' s west coast in the houtman abrolhos island area . they are also found from the great barrier reef all the way around australia ' s north coast and mid way down the east coast . from new caledonia they occur all the way to the tuamotu islands then north to the hawaiian islands , circling back to the southern tip of japan . then they are found westward including all of indonesia and back to the red sea . some are also found in the atlantic oceans including the gulf of mexico and up to canada via north america\u2019s east coast .\nthe fire coral is on the iucn red list for endangered species under least concerned . this is due to population reduction from habitat loss and reef degradation , however they recover quickly . in 10 years , if climate changes and ocean acidification persists , this will change the classification . the\ngenus is commonly one of the first corals on the scene of a new reef and the last ones to leave when a reef is dying . they cover 10 % to 50 % of reefs , as well as being a small part of all reef building corals .\nsome common names these hydrocorals are known for are bladed fire coral , wello fire coral , fire coral , box coral , firecoral , stinging coral , finger coral , ginger coral , and wello fire coral . the\nfacing into a strong currents , they can make use of the passing plankton , small floating invertebrates , and other prey . they use the venomous cells ( nematocysts ) found in their tentacles to catch prey in these nutrient rich waters , but also to sting and deflect any possible threats or attacks .\nlc - least concern - they have experienced some habitat loss , however they recover quickly .\ngenus grows in many formations , all dependent on water movement . they can form branching , laminar , encrusting and massive colonies . this genus is not considered a stony coral due to its internal structure . they do produce a hard aragonite skeleton , yet inside are canals that house all of the polyps and aid in food distribution . this makes them no where near as dense and hard as a stony coral . the smooth surface is densely dotted with mouths that look like small pores . the colors of the\nare usually a mustard yellow to dark brown and cream with white or lighter colored tips , with some rarer species being green or pink .\nat first glance this doesn ' t look anything like a typical fire coral . most are highly branched like small bushes . as it turns out though , there is an encrusting type of fire coral and this is it !\non the smooth surface , the dense populations of pores are called called gastropores and they contain polyps in two sizes . the larger polyps are called gastrozooid polyps . they tend to stay within the corallum , ( not extending outward past the surface of the coral ) , and help to digest food and pass it through the colony within the skeletal structure . the smaller polyps surrounding this gastrozooid polyp are called dactylozooids , and they number between 5 to 7 . the dactylozooids look like tiny hairs that stick up beyond the surface , giving these hydrocorals a fuzzy appearance .\nthe dactylozooids polyps have a strong toxin to sting prey . once stung , these polyps will then bring the food inward to the gastrozooid polyp in the middle , which will engulf the prey and digest it . these corals will burn your skin if you are not careful . they are a bane to divers and it is best to look and not touch in the wild .\ncan grow up to 12\n( 30 cm ) in height . encrusting forms can sense nearby corals and will grow towards them and then encrust over them , using their structure as a base .\nis found in several areas that do not have strong wave action , and so are generally the branching form . this coral will typically overgrow and take the shape of any coral it gets near , especially gorgonians .\nis from the atlantic and are usually pink to cream with white or lighter colored tips . they tend to grow in a box - like formation from an encrusting base .\nthese hydrocorals are found in surge areas with strong waves and generally form heavier leaf - like , fanlike or vertical plate - like structures .\n10 years - may live longer . maturity is reached at 3 to 8 years after a hydroid plants itself .\nthe fire corals can be easy to care for as long as lighting and water flow are strong . they will turn brown under inadequate lighting . they adjust themselves to the water flow in your tank as they grow , so once established try not to move them if you can . they will cease to grow very much at it there is weak water movement .\nif you experience a sting , applying ammonia and warm water are two suggestions . however keeping powdered meat tenderizer around is a good idea if you own , or will be purchasing one of these corals . meat tenderizer seems to be a constant as a relief cure . this will alleviate the burn and itch of their sting . these items are a neutralizer for these particular forms of nematocyst stings , but will not necessarily work for jellyfish stings or other types of nematocyst stings .\nfire corals depend on light and photosynthesis for about 75 % of their growth , they also do well being fed plankton . these \u201chungry hydrocorals\u201d will eat live brine shrimp as well , or any defrosted foods like mysis , etc . that get into their \u201chairy\u201d stingers . turning the pumps off while they feed is a good idea .\ngenus . although similar to a\nsoft coral\n, they do have calcareous skeletons and need parameters similar to hard corals . do typical water changes of 20 % a month , 10 % biweekly , or 5 % weekly . it has been noted that 5 % weekly water changes replenish many of the needed additives .\npurigen and poly - fiber are great products to help in maintaining water quality . purigen is a synthetic polymer that removes soluble and insoluble impurities from water at an exceptionally high rate and capacity , helping to control ammonia , nitrites and nitrates . additions of iodine and and trace elements are suggested .\nweekly - changing 5 % of the water weekly is best , or 10 % bi - weekly . a 20 % monthly water change will work if additives are provided .\na typical reef environment is what is needed for your fire coral . this is a great nano tank coral , and it will also do fine in a larger tank due to its slow growing nature . a mature tank ( well over a year old ) is advised to increase the chance of successfully keeping\nthey need strong lighting , though not necessarily metal halide . they can be placed in the middle of the tank with t5s , and on the bottom of the tank with metal halides and strong led . these corals prefer a strong water flow that is turbulent and surging , but not linear . provide an average salinity of 1 . 026 and normal temperatures .\nhigh - strong lighting - t5s are sufficient if the corals are placed in the middle of the tank rather than on the bottom .\n1 . 025 - 1 . 027 sg - 1 . 026 is the best .\nmiddle - middle of the tank if lighting witht5s , but on the bottom if using metal halides .\nfire corals generally grow slowly at a rate of 1 / 16\nto over 3 / 4\n( 4 to 20 mm ) per year . however when other corals are present they will actually grow faster in their direction , at a whopping 1\u201d or more a month . they are especially fond of gorgonians from the\ngenus . they can actually sense a gorgonian , overtake it , and assume its shape . ironically a strong , swift water current can snap this overgrown structure in half since the gorgonian is now dead and brittle underneath .\nhawkfish are often found on these corals , and use them for protection . they can do this because their tissue - less pectoral fins are immune to the sting . the crown of thorns seastar will also not bother this strong stinging coral .\nmonitor - safe as long as they are no closer than 6 to 12\n.\nsafe - safe as long as they are no closer than 6 to 12\n.\nmay be aggressive - safe as long as they are no closer than 6 to 12\n.\nfire corals primarily consist of hydroid colonies . these usually have separate sexes consisting of either male or female members . thus each colony can produce only one type of gamete , either eggs or sperm . there is not usually both sexes in the same colony .\nthe gametes of fire corals are sexually mature in about 20 - 30 days , much sooner than the months it can take for stony corals . in the wild , the\ngenus is not dependent on lunar cycles and will release free swimming medusae at the same time as other fire corals . their medusae do not live for very long , only a few hours .\n, and let their encrusting tendency take over and cover the rubble . then simply break away a piece of rubble as a frag .\neasy - to propagate , fragments are cut and glued on to plug or live rock .\ngenus , although not susceptible to many things , does have few areas that can lead to its demise . having zooxanthellae algae makes them susceptible to bleaching . higher temperatures than they are used to will cause this too , along with their being too close to a metal halide lamp .\n, will also eat these hydrocorals , even thought they are stung in the process .\nnudibranchs . these feed on fire corals but can ingest the stinging nematocysts without digesting them . they then use these same nematocysts as defense by transporting them through their intestines to their dorsal appendages . when the sea slug feels threatened , it will then fire the stinging nematocysts at the predator !\ngenus is very hard to find at pet shops and on line . these corals can sometimes be sold under \u201chydrocorals\u201d or \u201cfire corals\u201d . they may possibly be special ordered from a local fish store .\ncopyright \u00a9 [ animal - world ] 1998 - 2015 . all rights reserved .\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , reproduction and adaptation in any medium and for any purpose provided that it is properly attributed . for attribution , the original author ( s ) , title , publication source ( peerj ) and either doi or url of the article must be cited .\ncolonies was used to optimise pcr amplification and identify polymorphic loci . small fragments of tissue - covered skeleton ( < 2cm\n) were incubated at 55 \u00b0c for 1 h in 450 \u00b5l of digest buffer with proteinase k ( qiagen , hilden , germany ) . genomic dna was extracted using a qiaxtractor automated genomic dna extraction instrument , according to manufacturer\u2019s instructions . pcrs were performed in a final volume of 10 \u00b5l including 5 \u00b5l type - it multiplex pcr master mix ( 1\u00d7 ) ( qiagen , hilden , germany ) , 3 \u00b5l rnase - free water , 1 \u00b5l primers ( 2 \u00b5m for both forward and reverse primers diluted in te buffer ) and 1 \u00b5l of template ( 10\u201350 ng / \u00b5l ) . the pcr program included an initial denaturing step of 5 min at 95 \u00b0c , followed by 40 cycles of 30 s at 95 \u00b0c , 90 s at optimal temperature ( 57\u201360 \u00b0c ) depending on the microsatellite locus ( see\n) , and 30 s at 72 \u00b0c , followed by a final 30 min elongation step at 60 \u00b0c . the pcr products were electrophoresed on 2 % agarose gels . for loci with high - quality and consistent amplification , the pcr was repeated on dna template isolated from\n, the forward primer was fluorescently labelled with the g5 dye set including 6 - fam , vic , ned and pet ( applied biosystems , foster city , ca ) . amplified fragments were visualised on an applied biosystems 3730 sequencer using a genescan 500 liz ladder .\nsignificant values of f is are indicated by bold values with \u2217 p < 0 . 05 and \u2217\u2217 p < 0 . 001 .\nspecies to test for their transferability . for the characterisation of newly developed microsatellites , small fragments ( < 2 cm\ncolonies were collected on the reefs of moorea in french polynesia ( cites - fr1298700028 - e ) . for cross - species amplification transferability tests , samples were collected from various locations in the indo - pacific and the caribbean for five other species of fire corals : 11\n) . pcrs ( 10 \u00b5l ) were performed with 2 \u00b5m of labelled forward primer and reverse primer with the same amplification conditions described above . pcr products were sent to genoscreen ( lille , france ) for fragment analysis and were visualised using an applied biosystems 3730 sequencer . an internal size ladder ( genescan 500 liz , applied biosystems ) was used for accurate sizing and alleles were scored and checked manually using genemapper v . 4 . 0 ( applied biosystems , foster city , ca ) . samples that were ambiguous in scoring were re - amplified and re - scored . all peak profiles that were faint or ambiguous ( i . e . , multiple peaks ) were considered as missing data .\ncontrol for the presence of null alleles , scoring errors and large allele dropout were performed with microchecker v . 3 . 7 ( van oosterhout et al . , 2004 ) . to assess the discriminative power of the microsatellite markers , the genotype probability ( gp ) was estimated for each locus and for a combination of all loci using genalex v . 6 . 5 ( peakall & smouse , 2006 ) . repeated multilocus genotypes ( mlgs ) were also identified in genalex and were considered as clone mates at gp < 0 . 001 . the probability of identity , p ( id ) , was computed to evaluate the power of our microsatellites to accurately distinguish closely related genotypes from those produced by asexual reproduction ( waits , luikart & taberlet , 2001 ) . population genetic analyses were then performed after the removal of all clonal replicates ."]}
{"id": 612, "summary": [{"text": "preuss 's red colobus ( procolobus preussi ) is a red colobus primate species endemic to the cross-sanaga rivers ecoregion .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "an important population occurs in korup national park , southwest province , cameroon , but the species ' distribution is localized ( groups are frequently encountered near the main tourist camps ) .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the species is considered present in adjacent cross river national park - oban division in nigeria and hunter reports suggest that few groups remain in nkwende hills and nta ali forest reserve in the broader korup region .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "a population is also present in ebo forest , littoral province of cameroon . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "preuss ' s red colobus", "paragraphs": ["photo : \u201c tourist view : preuss ' s red colobus monkeys in flight . \u201d\ninformation on preuss ' s red colobus is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\ntourist view : preuss ' s red colobus monkeys in flight . - picture of korup national park , korup national park\ntourist view : preuss ' s red colobus monkeys in flight . - picture of korup national park , korup national park - tripadvisor\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - preuss ' s red colobus sitting\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - preuss ' s red colobus sitting\ntitle =\narkive photo - preuss ' s red colobus sitting\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nattempted predation by nigeria - cameroon chimpanzees ( pan troglodytes ellioti ) on preuss ' s red colobus ( procolobus preussi ) in the ebo forest , cameroon .\nfemale preuss ' s red colobus with infant , in korup national park , cameroon . critically endangered . | endangered species board | pinterest | endangered species , \u2026\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - preuss ' s red colobus ( procolobus preussi )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - preuss ' s red colobus ( procolobus preussi )\ntitle =\narkive species - preuss ' s red colobus ( procolobus preussi )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nattempted predation by nigeria - cameroon chimpanzees ( pan troglodytes ellioti ) on preuss ' s red colobus ( procolobus preussi ) in the ebo forest , camer . . . - pubmed - ncbi\npreuss ' s red colobus monkey consumes immature leaves , shoots , fruits of the leguminosae , fungi , and sometimes termite clay . this species likes to forage for leaves in the upper strata of the forest ( estes , 1991 ) . pennant ' s colobus monkey is a\nmcgraw , w . s . and j . f . oates . 2002 . evidence for a surviving population of miss waldron\u2019s red colobus . oryx 36 : 223\u2013226 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - male preuss ' s red colobus on a branch , korup national park , cameroon\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - male preuss ' s red colobus on a branch , korup national park , cameroon\ntitle =\narkive photo - male preuss ' s red colobus on a branch , korup national park , cameroon\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nupdate on habitat loss and conservation status of the endangered zanzibar red colobus on uzi and vun . . .\nmcgraw , w . s . 2005 . update on the search for miss waldron\u2019s red colobus monkey ( procolobus badius waldroni ) . int . j . primatol . 26 ( 3 ) : 605\u2013619 .\npreuss ' s red colobus monkey has two kinds of groups , one multimale - multifemale , and the other all - male . for this species both males and females leave their natal group ( estes , 1991 ) . the red colobus is a nonterritorial species , but larger groups will supplant smaller ones in feeding areas ( estes , 1991 ) .\nin ghana , very recent surveys ( oates 2006 ) support earlier suspicions that this monkey is almost certainly extinct in that country ( oates et al . 1996 / 1997 ; struhsaker and oates 1995 ) . if any animals have managed to survive , the numbers must be very small and it will take heroic efforts to preserve them . many forms of red colobus are endangered , including three other forms in west africa : pennant\u2019s red colobus ( procolobus pennantii pennantii ) of bioko island ( see profile in this report ) , preuss\u2019s red colobus ( p . p . preussi ) of cameroon , and the niger river delta red colobus ( p . p . epieni ) . in addition , bouvier\u2019s red colobus ( p . p . bouvieri ) from the congo republic has not been seen by scientists for at least 30 years .\noates , j . f . , t . t . struhsaker and g . h . whitesides . 1996 / 1997 . extinction faces ghana\u2019s red colobus and other locally endemic subspecies . primate conserv . ( 17 ) : 138\u2013144 .\nwe describe the first observation of a predation attempt by nigerian - cameroon chimpanzees ( pan troglodytes ellioti ) on preuss ' s red colobus ( procolobus preussi ) in the ebo forest , cameroon . the activity , which was observed for 15 min , primarily involved 1 chimpanzee and 1 red colobus individual , with a further 2 chimpanzees observing the event . although the behaviour was interrupted when we were detected by the chimpanzees , we believe that this is the first recorded observation of hunting behaviour in nigeria - cameroon chimpanzees .\nover the following months , patrols began intercepting a variety of illegal activities and making their presence known , all while conducting surveys in search of preuss\u2019s red colobus . delivering results on both fronts so quickly is an encouraging sign for the project . \u201cconservation thrives well where there is effective collaboration\u201d , summarizes andrew \u201cand this project is demonstrating that almost on a daily basis\u201d .\nthe plight of these monkeys highlights threats faced by red colobus generally ; they have patchy distributions , have suffered extensive habitat degradation and are particularly vulnerable to hunters ( wolfheim 1983 ; oates 1996 ; grubb and powell 1999 ; oates et al . 2000 ; struhsaker 2005 ) . implementation of a red colobus action plan should be a high conservation priority in africa .\nclassified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe conservation status of each species is based on assessment summaries provided by the iucn red list . the red list website offers more information on the threat categories listed here .\nstruhsaker , t . t . 2005 . the conservation of red colobus monkeys ( procolobus ) and their habitats . int . j . primatol . 26 ( 3 ) : 525\u2013538 .\nhowever , there has been no proper knowledge or documentation about the presence , distribution and population status of preuss ' s red colobus in the area before . being an internationally - recognized biodiversity hotspot and an important site for rare and threatened primates , oban is now receiving attention after years of neglect , with an effective law enforcement programme implemented by the project team in coordination with the nigerian government .\noates , j . f . , m . abedi - lartey , w . s . mcgraw , t . t . struhsaker and g . h . whitesides . 2000 . extinction of a west african red colobus monkey . conserv . biol . 14 : 1526\u20131532 .\nmodern taxonomic arrangements of the colobus monkeys either divide the red colobus and the olive colobus into two genera , piliocolobus and procolobus , respectively ( e . g . , kingdon 1997 , groves 2005 ) , or consider them to belong to one genus , procolobus , with two subgenera ( procolobus for the olive colobus and piliocolubus for the red colobus ) ( grubb et al . 2003 [ followed in the 2008 iucn red list ] , grubb et al . 2013 ) . the arrangement of using two separate genera in groves ( 2001 , 2005 , 2007 ) is followed here . here treated as a distinct species from p . pennantii following kingdon and butynski ( 2013 ) ; this species has , in the past , also been considered a subspecies of p . badius . this is an updated assessment to reflect the change in genus name .\nmcgraw , w . s . and oates , j . f . 2007 . miss waldron ' s red colobus , procolobus badius waldroni ( hayman , 1936 ) . in : primates in peril : the world\u2019s 25 most endangered primates 2006\u20132008 , r . a . mittermeier et al . ( compilers ) , p . 10 . unpublished report , iucn / ssc primate specialist group ( psg ) , international primatological society ( ips ) , and conservation international ( ci ) , arlington , va .\nn1 : the iucn red list has evaluated the nominate form of the silver galago under the classification otolemur crassicaudatus monteiri .\ngrubb , p . and c . b . powell . 1999 . discovery of red colobus monkeys ( procolobus badius ) in the niger delta with the description of a new and geographically isolated subspecies . j . zool . , lond . 248 : 67\u201373 .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\nhrdy , s . b . and whitten p . l . 1987 . patterning of sexual activity . in\ngartlan , s . 1989 . la conservation des ecosyst\u00e9mes forestiers du cameroun . iucn , gland and cambridge .\n\u201cpersistence in anti - poaching patrolling pays off\u201d according to inaoyom imong , director of the cross river landscape for iucn member and sos grantee , the wildlife conservation society ( wcs ) . in 1 year , patrols through the oban division of the cross river national park ( crnp ) nigeria , have cleared almost 1 , 000 snares and hundreds of empty shotgun cartridges , discovered 45 hunting camps and arrested half a dozen poachers . but perhaps the cherry on the cake has been the visual confirmation of critically endangered preuss\u2019s red colobus ( procolobus preussi ) living in the oban .\nthe forest adjacent to the ehy lagoon has not been surveyed since 2002 , when no red colobus were found . however , the ehy forest seems to be the only place in c\u00f4te d\u2019ivoire where a small population of miss waldron\u2019s red colobus might hang on . the forest is under heavy poaching pressure from ivorian and ghanaian hunters , and it is being logged , but kone et al . ( 2007 ) have begun an awareness and education campaign in the villages there . their plans are to build a community - based conservation system centered on the eight villages surrounding the lagoon . a thorough survey of the forest is needed as a matter of urgency .\nkone , i . , d . coulibaly , k . bene , a . bitty , a . koffi , a . boko and r . kouadio . 2007 . initiation of a community based conservation system in southeastern cote d ' ivoire for the probable last refuge for the miss waldron ' s red colobus . report , west african primates conservation action , abidjan , c\u00f4te d\u2019ivoire .\npersistence in anti - poaching patrolling pays off\u201d according to inaoyom imong , director of the cross river landscape for iucn member and sos grantee , the wildlife conservation society ( wcs ) . in 1 year , patrols through the oban division of the cross river national park ( crnp ) nigeria , have cleared almost 1 , 000 snares and hundreds of empty shotgun cartridges , discovered 45 hunting camps and arrested half a dozen poachers . but perhaps the cherry on the cake has been the visual confirmation of critically endangered preuss\u2019s red colobus ( procolobus preussi ) living in the oban .\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthrough a partnership of conservation des esp\u00e8ces et des populations animales ( cepa ) and the centre suisse de recherches scientifiques en c\u00f4te d\u2019ivoire ( csrs ) , kone et al . ( 2007 ) surveyed 14 forest reserves in c\u00f4te d\u2019ivoire between 2004 and 2006 , including isles ehotiles national park . these surveys failed to provide any sightings of miss waldron\u2019s red colobus , only a claim of a single vocalization in ehotiles in 2006 .\nhilton - taylor , c . 2000 . 2000 iucn red list of threatened species . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , united kingdom .\nmiss waldron\u2019s red colobus , p . badius waldroni , of western ghana and eastern c\u00f4te d\u2019ivoire is teetering on the very brink of extinction ( struhsaker 1999 ; oates et al . 2000 ; groves 2001 ; grubb et al . 2003 ) . primatologists have searched its known range since 1993 , but have failed to see a living animal ( oates et al . 1996 / 1997 ; mcgraw 1998 , 2005 ; mcgraw and oates 2002 ) . a single skin found in the possession of a hunter near the ehy lagoon in southeastern c\u00f4te d\u2019ivoire in early 2002 raised hopes that at least one population of miss waldron\u2019s red colobus still hangs on , but subsequent fieldwork in this region , including several forest reserves and nearby isles ehotiles national park , has yielded no evidence of living individuals ( kone 2004 ; kone and akpatou 2005 ; mcgraw 2005 ; kone et al . 2007 ) .\nfurthermore , an office with storage space and limited visitor accommodations is available in mundemba , 10 km driving from the park\u2019s border .\nmcgraw , w . s . 1998 . three monkeys nearing extinction in the forest reserves of eastern cote d\u2019ivoire . oryx 32 : 233\u2013236 .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nsayer , j . a . , c . s . harcourt , and n . m . collins . 1992 . the conservation atlas of tropical forests : africa . iucn and simon & schuster , cambridge .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nbowen - jones , e . , and s . pendry . 1999 . the threat to primates and other mammals from the bushmeat trade in africa , and how this threat could be diminished . oryx 33 : 233 - 246 .\nalthough more then 10 percent of the ecoregion is officially protected in national parks , in reality , these parks do not adequately protecte fauna and flora because of low staffing , inadequate budgets and lack of political will . some species of larger mammals in the korup and cross river national parks are severely threatened and populations of elephant , drill and red colobus have been seriously reduced . the national and international conservation community has not been effective in protecting fauna in this ecoregion , especially the primates and other large forest mammals ( e . g . oates 1995 , oates 1999b ) .\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nthe herpetofauna is highly diverse and contains a some endemic species ; korup alone contains 174 species of reptiles and amphibians . among the reptiles , the forest chameleon ( chamaeleo camurunensis ) and two worm lizards ( cynisca schaeferi and c . gansi ) are strictly endemic . the amphibian fauna is exceptionally diverse , but contains few endemics . strict endemic species include schneider ' s banana frog ( afrixalus schneideri ) , dizangue reed frog ( hyperolius bopeleti ) and werner ' s river frog ( phrynobatrachus werneri ) .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\ngrubb , p . , t . m . butynski , j . f . oates , s . k . bearder , t . r . disotell , c . p . groves and t . t . struhsaker . 2003 . an assessment of the diversity of african primates . int . j . primatol . 24 : 1301\u20131357 .\nkorup has experienced intense poaching in the past , which has caused drastic declines of mammal populations . forest elephants were hunted almost to extinction in the 1960s and 1970s . poaching has been reduced to moderate levels with the creation of the park and anti - poaching programs . animal abundance also remains naturally low because of the forest\u2019s low productivity .\nthe hair around the pubic area is white colored . juveniles of both sexes have perineal organs that mimics the adult female ' s sexual swelling ( estes , 1991 ) . it is thought that this functions for the males to keep adult males from evicting them because the adult would think that this may be a female ( estes , 1991 ) .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\nn2 : see jones , t . , ehardt , c . l . , butynski , t . m . , davenport , t . r . b . , mpunga , n . e . , machaga , s . j . and de luca , d . w . 2005 . the highland mangabey lophocebus kipunji : a new species of african monkey . science 308 : 1161\u20131164 . due to the lack of a type specimen , the validity of the description was contested , arguing that the name is a nomen nudum . timm , r . m . , ramy ii , r . r . and the nomenclature committee of the american society of mammalogists . 2005 . what constitutes a proper description ? science 309 : 2163 - 2164 . landry , s . o . 2005 . untitled letter . science 309 : 2164 . polaszek , a . , grubb , p . , groves , c . , ehardt , c . l . and butynski , t . m . 2005 . response . science 309 : 2164 - 2165 . davenport et al . ( 2006 ) placed the highland mangabey in its own genus , rungwecebus davenport , t . r . b . , stanley , w . t . , sargis , e . , de luca , d . w . , mpunga , n e . , machaga , s . j . and olson , l . 2006 . a new genus of african monkey , rungwecebus : morphology , ecology and molecular phylogenetics . science 312 : 1378\u20131381 .\ncheek , m . , s . cable , f . n . hepper , n . ndam , and j . watts . 1994 . mapping plant biodiversity on mount cameroon . pp . 110 - 210 . in . van der masen , l . j . g . , van der burgt , x . m . and van medenbach de rooy , j . m . ( eds . ) . the biodiversity of african plants . proceedings xivth aetfat congress , wageningen , the netherlands . kluwer academic press , dordrecht .\ngeologically , the majority of the ecoregion is found on the precambrian african shield . these basement rocks have been weathered for millions of years and are now overlain by thick layers of heavily leached , red earth soils . seawards of the shield rocks , silt and sand deposition has led to formation of beaches and mud banks that can be quite extensive . mt . cameroon and bioko are volcanoes , and in consequence adjacent parts of the ecoregion have soils , rocks and black sand beaches derived from pyroclastic lava and ash . bioko was most recently separated from the mainland some 12 , 000 years ago when rising sea levels following the end of the last ice age isolated it .\nwwf . 2003 . biological priorities for conservation in the guinean - congolian forest and freshwater region . proceedings of workshop held on march 30 - april 2 , 2000 in libreville , gabon . kamdem toham , a . , d . olson , r . abell , j . d ' amico , n . burgess , m . thieme , a . blom , r . w . carroll , s . gartlan , o . langrand , r . mikala mussavu , d . o ' hara , h . strand , and l . trowbridge ( editors ) . available from urltoken\nin cameroon ' s korup national park 1 , 700 species of vascular plants have been recorded , as many as 5 percent of which are narrow endemics . it is estimated that the park may eventually be found to include as many as 3 , 500 vascular plants . although floral inventories are incomplete for the cross river national park , the lowland forests are similar to korup , and likely to share the same level of diversity . on bioko , over 1 , 000 vascular plant species and 49 site endemics have been recorded in the lowland forests ( wwf and iucn 1994 ) .\njustification of ecoregion delineation this forest ecoregion is a part of the guineo - congolian regional centre of endemism ( white 1983 ) . the biogeographical barriers of the sanaga river in cameroon and the cross river in nigeria define the mainland boundaries of this ecoregion . these rivers are particularly important barriers for primates ( e . g . drill ( mandrillus leucophaeus ) and red - eared guenon ( cercopithicus eurythrotis ) ) and amphibians ( e . g . dizangue reed frog ( hyperolius bopeleti ) . the bioko lowland forest shares close biological affinities with the adjacent mainland forests because it was connected to the mainland during lower sea levels towards the end of the last ice age , and thus is included in this ecoregion .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nmittermeier , r . a . , rylands , a . b . and wilson d . e . 2013 . handbook of the mammals of the world : volume 3 primates . lynx edicions , barcelona .\njustification : listed as critically endangered as this species is estimated to have undergone a decline of more than 80 % over the past three generations ( ca . 30 years ) , due to high levels of hunting and habitat loss . it is now confined mainly to korup national park .\np . preussi is present in southeastern nigeria in the cross river national park ( oban division ) extending into the adjacent korup national park and surrounds in southwestern cameroon ; they also occur in ebo forest just north of the sanaga river ( grubb et al . 2000 , dowsett - lemaire and dowsett 2001 ) , and at least until fairly recently still persisted in makombe forest to the north of ebo where the were heard in 2003 ( b . morgan pers . comm . ) .\nbetween 10 , 000 and 15 , 000 p . preussi may be present in korup national park , the stronghold for the taxon ( oates 1996 ) . edwards ( 1992 ) estimated group densities in northeastern korup at 0 . 52 - 0 . 56 groups / km\u00b2 , which is not too dissimilar from more recent estimates by j . linder ( pers . comm . ) in the same area ( 0 . 46 grps / sq . km ) . no absolute density is available for southern korup , but j . linder ( pers . comm . ) encountered 12 groups in 243 km walked .\nan inhabitant of lowland and mid - altitude moist forest up to 1 , 400 m ( butynski and kingdon 2013 ) . edwards ( 1992 ) recorded group sizes of 20 - 64 animals for p . preussi , similar to those recorded by j . linder ( pers . comm . ) .\nthe major threat to this species is hunting ( e . g . , dowsett - lemaire and dowsett 2001 ) and habitat degradation . p . preussi made up a relatively large proportion of the total primate offtake in korup national park , especially in the northeast ( 22 % of carcasses ) ( j . linder pers . comm . ) .\nthis taxon is listed on appendix ii of cites and on class b of the african convention on the conservation of nature and natural resources . p . preussi is present in korup national park ( 1 , 260 km\u00b2 ) and its perimeter in cameroon , with a small number residing in the adjacent oban division of cross river national park ( nigeria ) . it is also recorded from ebo wildlife reserve , just north of the sanaga river , which has been proposed as a new national park .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nprimate info net is maintained by the wisconsin primate research center ( wprc ) library at the university of wisconsin - madison . wprc programs are supported by grant numbers rr000167 and rr015311 , national primate centers program , national center for research resources , the national institutes of health .\ndisclaimer : the wisconsin primate research center provides primate info net as an informational service . we are not responsible for the content of linked sites , nor does inclusion of a link imply endorsement of the views expressed in that content .\n\u201cthis is a huge discovery , and highlights the critical need for effective conservation in the area\u201d explains andrew dunn , wcs country director for nigeria . geographical distribution of this rare primate is limited to western cameroon and a small patch of the southeastern sector of the oban division of crnp . cross river national park consists of two separate divisions : oban and okwangwo . the oban division covers an area of roughly 3000 km\u00b2 and is contiguous with korup national park in cameroon .\nthis attention took the shape of multi - day patrols starting one year ago . it began with a group of six crnp rangers being trained by wcs on new techniques including the use of cybertracker and smart technologies to support data collection , monitoring and patrol effectiveness . following the success of the subsequent nine - day pilot patrol the project ramped up activities implementing daily patrols in the oban starting in january 2015 .\na joint initiative to conserve threatened species , their habitats and the people who depend on them .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nfolia primatol ( basel ) . 2012 ; 83 ( 3 - 6 ) : 329 - 31 . doi : 10 . 1159 / 000339813 . epub 2013 jan 28 .\ndivision of behavioral biology , institute for conservation research , san diego zoo global , escondido , calif . , usa . bmorgan @ urltoken\ndouble - check spelling , grammar , punctuation . translators work best when there are no errors or typos .\nif words are different , search our dictionary to understand why and pick the right word .\nif phrases are different , try searching our examples to help pick the right phrase .\nwe ' ve combined the most accurate english to spanish translations , dictionary , verb conjugations , and spanish to english translators into one very powerful search box .\nspanishdict is devoted to improving our site based on user feedback and introducing new and innovative features that will continue to help people learn and love the spanish language . have a suggestion , idea , or comment ? send us your feedback .\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\ni just returned from a trip to korup ( jan 2013 ) . spent three days in the park , camping at iriba , chimpanzee and renge . being a biologist , i had a strong interest in animals in the park and expected to see several mammal , bird and reptile species . i arrived at mundemba at 12h00 on a sunday with only a telephone number on . . .\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\ncites is an international agreement between governments , aimed to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\ngroves , c . p . 2001 . primate taxonomy . smithsonian institution press , washington , dc .\nkone , i . 2004 . report on recent primate surveys in the southeast of ivory coast . report , conservation des esp\u00e8ces et des populations animales ( cepa ) , schlierbach , france .\nkone , i . and k . b . akpatou . 2005 . identification des sites abritant encore les singes cercopithecus diana roloway , cercocebus atys lunulatus et piliocolobus badius waldroni en cote d ' ivoire . report , conservation des esp\u00e8ces et populations animales ( cepa ) , schlierbach , france .\noates , j . f . 1996 . african primates : status survey and conservation action plan . revised edition . iucn / ssc primate specialist group , gland , switzerland . 80pp .\noates , j . f . 2006 . primate conservation in the forests of western ghana : field survey results , 2005\u20132006 . report to the wildlife division , forestry commission , ghana .\nstruhsaker , t . t . 1999 . primate communities in africa : the consequence of long - term evolution or the artifact of recent hunting ? in : primate communities , j . g . fleagle , c . janson and k . e . reed ( eds . ) , pp . 289\u2013294 . cambridge university press , cambridge , uk .\nstruhsaker , t . t . and j . f . oates . 1995 . the biodiversity crisis in southwestern ghana . african primates 1 : 5\u20136 .\nwolfheim , j . h . 1983 . primates of the world . university of washington press , seattle .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\n( fleagle , 1988 ) . this species also is capable of leaping where it uses this in communication and to avoid predators ( estes , 1991 ) .\nthe performer of this stands and resembles a sexual mount and is done by all except small infants ( estes , 1991 ) . this often occurs before\nthis is when one individual grooms another and is used to reinforce the bonds between individuals . in this species it occurs more frequently in the presence of another troop ( estes , 1991 ) . parasites and dead skin is removed with lips and / or tongue ( estes , 1991 ) .\nthis behavior is performed by the female to elicit copulation from the male ; this pattern tells the male that she is ready for copulation ( estes , 1991 ) .\n. eds . b . b . smuts , d . l . cheney , r . m . seyfarth , r . w . wrangham , and t . t . struhsaker . university of chicago press .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nimpact of livelihood improvement on the conservation of large mammals in the bakossi landscape , sout . . .\nrehabilitation and reintroduction of wild born orphan chimpanzee ( pan troglodytes ) within the pongo . . .\nkorup national park ( knp ) , located in southwest cameroon , covers 126 , 900 ha of forest , most of which is evergreen forest . the forest has never been logged . the park was created in 1986 and includes the former korup forest reserve , established under british mandate in the 1930s . it is now under the administration of the department of wildlife and protected areas in the ministry of environment and forests ( minef ) . korup became part of the team network in 2011 .\nthe korup national park has a number of camps , two of which harbour scientists . the camps are in the phase of rebuilding , as all buildings were destroyed by villagers in 2008 in a conflict over poaching . the team project operates from the chimpanzee camp . the current facilities are very basic , with partial housing in tents . there is no electricity and all materials have to be carried to the camps by porters .\nkorup was part of a pleistocene refugium . the forests are very ancient , rich in endemics , and highly diverse . the forest canopy is generally 15 - 25 m tall , with emergents up to 50 m tall . a typical large tree , second - most common in terms of basal area , is lecomtedoxa klaineana with huge boles and impressive buttresses . one unusual characteristic is the abundance of small , unbranched trees with large leaves placed in terminal rosettes that trap litter .\naccess to korup is from the isolated village of mundemba , which is located 5 hours driving from buea , and about 6 hours from douala international airport . the road to mundemba is in poor shape , and access can be very problematic in the wet season , especially in july - november . access to korup national park is via 10 km of dirt roads through extensive oil - palm plantations , and passage of a large suspension foot bridge across the mana river . it takes 10 km of hiking to get to chimpanzee camp from the mana bridge .\nkorup national park ( 04 . 01 . 2017 to 06 . 30 . 2017 )\nkorup national park ( 01 . 01 . 2017 to 03 . 31 . 2017 )\nkorup national park ( 10 . 01 . 2016 to 12 . 31 . 2016 )\nkorup national park ( 07 . 01 . 2016 to 09 . 30 . 2016 )\nkorup national park ( 04 . 01 . 2016 to 06 . 30 . 2016 )\nkorup national park ( 01 . 01 . 2016 to 03 . 31 . 2016 )\nkorup national park ( 10 . 01 . 2015 to 12 . 31 . 2015 )\nkorup national park ( 07 . 01 . 2015 to 09 . 30 . 2015 )\nkorup national park ( 04 . 01 . 2015 to 06 . 30 . 2015 )\nkorup national park ( 01 . 01 . 2015 to 03 . 31 . 2015 )\nkorup national park ( 10 . 01 . 2014 to 12 . 31 . 2014 )\nkorup national park ( 07 . 01 . 2014 to 09 . 30 . 2014 )\nkorup national park ( 04 . 01 . 2014 to 06 . 30 . 2014 )\nkorup national park ( 01 . 01 . 2014 to 03 . 31 . 2014 )\nkorup national park ( 10 . 01 . 2013 to 12 . 31 . 2013 )\nkorup national park ( 07 . 01 . 2013 to 09 . 30 . 2013 )\nkorup national park ( 04 . 01 . 2013 to 06 . 30 . 2013 )\nkorup national park ( 01 . 01 . 2013 to 03 . 31 . 2013 )\nkorup national park ( 10 . 01 . 2012 to 12 . 31 . 2012 )\nkorup national park ( 07 . 01 . 2012 to 09 . 30 . 2012 )\nkorup national park ( 04 . 01 . 2012 to 06 . 30 . 2012 )\nkorup national park ( 01 . 01 . 2011 to 09 . 30 . 2011 )\nkorup national park ( 01 . 01 . 2012 to 03 . 31 . 2012 )\nkorup national park ( 10 . 01 . 2011 to 12 . 31 . 2011 )\n\u00a9 team network . all rights reserved . terms of use privacy policy partners support team contact us visit team on facebook or twitter\nmt . kilimanjaro guereza dodinga hills guereza djaffa mountains guereza omo river guereza mt . kenya guereza mau forest guereza western guereza mt . uaraguess guereza\nthe cross - sanaga - bioko coastal forests ecoregion comprises the lowland and coastal forests of southeastern nigeria , southwestern cameroon , and the lowlands of the island of bioko . the flora includes high numbers of endemic genera , indicating a long history of forest cover . these forests contain some of the highest rates of animal species richness of any african forest , especially in terms of forest - restricted mammals , birds and butterflies . many of these animals are endemic to this ecoregion or to the continguous atlantic coastal forests ecoregion , but others are found more widely across the congo basin . the ecoregion is heavily impacted by human use , including logging and plantation agriculture .\ndescription location and general description geographically this ecoregion extends from the left bank of the cross river in southeastern nigeria , follows the coast as far south as the sanaga river in cameroon , and extends inland up to 300 km . it also includes the lowland forests of the island of bioko . the forests above 800 m on mount cameroon and bioko , and above 900 m on other inland cameroon mountains are placed in the mount cameroon and bioko montane forests [ 9 ] and the cameroon highlands forests [ 10 ] ecoregions , respectively .\nthe area is one of low topographic relief at the eastern and western margins , but of increasingly rugged topography in the foothills of the nigerian - cameroonian mountains . mangroves occur in two large and distinct patches on the coasts at the two extremities of the ecoregion , and are included in the central african mangroves ecoregion [ 116 ] .\nthis entire ecoregion falls within the humid tropics . in the southwestern foothills of mt . cameroon and on southwest bioko , rainfall can exceed 10 , 000 mm per annum with little seasonal variation . away from the montane influence however , rainfall averages 3 , 000 mm per annum along the coast falling to around 2 , 000 mm inland and there can be a short but sometimes severe dry season of two to three months . humidity is always high , rarely dropping below 90 percent . temperatures range from a maximum of 27 to 33 oc , to a minimum of 15 to 21o c , with very minor seasonal differences . as in the atlantic equatorial coastal ecoregion , diurnal temperature ranges often exceed annual variations .\na number of river systems drain from this ecoregion into the atlantic ocean . notable among these are the cross river , the northern boundary of the ecoregion , and the sanaga river , its southern boundary . other important rivers include the meme , wouri , kwa , ndian and nyong rivers .\naccording to the phytogeographic vegetation classification by white ( 1983 ) , this lowland forest ecoregion falls within the lower guinea block of the guineo - congolian regional center of endemism . the principal vegetation is hygrophilous coastal evergreen rain forest , with mixed moist semi - evergreen rain forest further inland in the drier regions ( white 1983 ) . forest trees reach up to 50 m in height , and there are several distinct vegetation layers . the flora here shares affinities with other forest types in the lower and upper guinea blocks of the guineo - congolian lowland forest ( white 1979 ) . the most important families ( in terms of number of species ) are annonaceae , leguminosae , euphorbiaceae , rubiaceae and sterculiaceae . in general the forests are mixed , but tend to be dominated by caesalpinoid legumes .\nbiodiversity features there is exceptional species richness in the rain forests of this ecoregion . combined with the atlantic equatorial coastal forests to the south , these two ecoregions support about 50 percent of the 7 , 000 to 8 , 000 plants endemic to tropical west africa ( cheek et al . 1994 ) , mainly in the coastal portion of cameroon . this ecoregion is a center of diversity for the genera cola ( sterculiaceae ) , diospyros ( ebenaceae ) , dorstenia ( moraceae ) , and garcinia ( guttiferae ) . there are also many endemic trees in these lowland forests , including : camplyospermum dusenii , deinbollia angustifolia , d . saligna , hymenostegia bakeri , medusandra richardsiana , and soyauxia talbotii . among large trees , the endemic microberlinia bisulcata is regarded as critically endangered . these biological features , especially the presence of endemic families and genera ( cheek et al . 1994 ) indicates a long evolutionary past .\nthe forests of the cameroon - nigerian border are also known for harboring the highest forest butterfly species richness in africa ( larsen in prep ) , a finding that may be reflected in other invertebrate groups as well . this area also has very high vertebrate species richness , and contains the highest figures for forest restricted birds and mammals in africa ( burgess et al . 2000 ) .\nno bird species are endemic in this lowland ecoregion , but eighteen bird species are shared only with adjacent ecoregions . six of these were used to define an endemic bird area in the coastal portion of the congo basin forests ( stattersfield et al . 1998 ) .\nthe biodiversity and management issues on bioko are summarized in fa ( 1991 ) . information on the lowland forests of cameroon is summarized by gartlan ( 1989 ) and iucn ( 1989 ) , and the area at the base of mount cameroon is summarized by cheek et al . ( 1994 ) . there is also a great deal of information on the biological values of korup and cross river national parks ( e . g . wwf and iucn 1994 , urltoken ) .\ncurrent status despite much deforestation , there are still extensive areas of rain forest remaining in this ecoregion , particularly in the border region between cameroon and nigeria . sayer et al . ( 1992 ) present a map of the remaining forest cover from the late 1980s . at that time the main habitat blocks were between oban and obubra in southeastern nigeria , and northeast along the border between cameroon and nigeria . an update of this work ( wwf 2003 ) confirms that the same areas still have the largest remaining patches of forest .\nthere are also a number of forest blocks around korup national park , which is itself one of the largest protected areas in this ecoregion at 1 , 259 km2 . the cross river national park in nigeria ( 4 , 000 km2 ) is made up of the oban and okwango divisions , with the afi river forest reserve nearby . part of the gashaka gumti national park in nigeria also contains lowland forest ( estimated at 200 km2 ) . additionally , there are a number of important forest reserves in the ecoregion . the most significant is the takamanda forest reserve in cameroon , which is contiguous with the okwangwo division of the cross river national park ( wwf and iucn 1994 ) .\na number of spectacular primate species in this ecoregion could make suitable flagships for conservation investment , most notably the isolated population of lowland gorilla ( oates 1996a , b , oates 1998 , oates 1999a , sarmiento and oates 2000 ) and the drill .\ntypes and severity of threats over the past 100 - 200 years , commercial logging and plantation agriculture have been the main causes of deforestation on the mainland , followed by subsistence agriculture , which often occurs after the logging has opened up an area . lowland forest habitats on bioko have also been lost through conversion to plantations , and farming activities \u2013 except in the southern sector where they are inaccessible due to rugged topography . despite these losses there is still much more forest remaining than in the adjacent cross - niger transition forest ecoregion [ 6 ] , and other forest ecoregions further west . while the original forest is now highly fragmented in many areas , some large habitat blocks remain , and in the border region between nigeria and cameroon these blocks are still well connected .\na major threat to the fauna of the area is the overhunting of larger mammal species for bushmeat ( bowen - jones and pendry 1999 ) . in some areas , this trade is fully commercialized , and supplies protein to major towns . in other areas , certain species such as lowland gorillas are hunted for their religious , magical , and supposed medicinal properties . the wildlife trade is also a cause of species depletion of reptiles . another threat is the pressure to establish rubber , wood pulp , oil and palm plantations in the forest zone of nigeria .\nreferences aeccg 1991 . the african elephant conservation review . african elephant conservation coordinating group , unep , iucn , wwf , oxford , uk .\nblom , a . , a . kamdem toham , j . d ' amico , d . o ' hara , r . abell , and d . olson in prep . assessment of biological priorirties for conservation in the guinean - congolian forest region . washington , dc : world wildlife fund\nburgess , n . d . , h . de klerk , j . fjelds\u00e5 , t . crowe , and c . rahbek . 2000 . a preliminary assessment of congruence between biodiversity patterns in afrotropical forest birds and forest mammals . ostrich 71 : 286\u2013290 .\nfa , j . e . 1991 . conservaci\u00f3n de los ecosistemas forestales de guinea ecuatorial . iucn , gland and cambridge .\nhappold , d . c . d . 1994 . mammals of the guinea - congo rain forest . pp . 243 - 284 . in . alexander , i . j . , swaine , m . d . , and watling , r . ( eds . ) . essays on the ecology of the guinea - congo rain forest . proceedings of the royal society of edinburgh series b 104 .\niucn 1986 . review of the protected areas system in the afrotropical realm . iucn , gland and cambridge .\niucn 1989 . la conservation des ecosystems forestiers d ' afrique centrale . iucn , gland and cambridge .\nlarsen , t . b . in prep . the butterflies of west africa .\noates , j . 1995 . the dangers of conservation by rural development - a case - study from the forests of nigeria . oryx 29 : 115 - 122 .\noates , j . f . 1996a . habitat alteration , hunting and the conservation of folivorous primates in african forests . african journal of ecology 21 : 1 - 9 .\noates , j . f . 1996b . african primates : status survey and conservation action plan : revised edition : iucn / ssc primate specialist group .\noates , j . 1998 . the gorilla population in the nigeria - cameroon border region . gorilla conservation news ( 12 ) :\noates , j . 1999a . update on nigeria , 1998 . gorilla conservation news ( 13 ) :\noates , j . 1999b . myth and reality in the rainforest . university of california press , berkeley .\nsarmiento , e . e . , and j . f . oates . 2000 . the cross river gorillas : a distinct subspecies , gorilla gorilla diehli matchie 1904 . american museum novitates 3304 : 55\nstattersfield , a . j . , m . j . crosby , a . j . long , and d . c . wege . 1998 . endemic bird areas of the world : priorities for biodiveristy conservation . birdlife conservation series no . 7 . , birdlife international , cambridge , uk .\nwhite , f . 1979 . the guineo - congolian region and its relationships to other phytochoria . bull . jard . bot . nat . belg . / bull . nat . plantentuin belg . 49 : 11 - 55 .\nwhite , f . 1983 . the vegetation of africa , a descriptive memoir to accompany the unesco / aetfat / unso vegetation map of africa ( 3 plates , northwestern africa , northeastern africa , and southern africa , 1 : 5 , 000 , 000 ) . unesco , paris .\nwwf and iucn . 1994 . centers of plant diversity , a guide and strategy for their conservation . wwf and iucn , oxford , uk .\nworld wildlife fund 1250 24th street , n . w . washington , dc 20037\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >"]}
{"id": 614, "summary": [{"text": "the copper redhorse ( moxostoma hubbsi ) is a north american species of freshwater fish in the catostomidae family .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is found only in canada .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its extremely small range , which is restricted to a few rivers in the lowlands of southwestern quebec , has contracted significantly in the past few decades .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "confirmed populations currently exist in the st. lawrence and richelieu rivers .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "rivi\u00e8re des mille \u00eeles likely supports a remnant population .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the copper redhorse is one of seven species of the genus moxostoma ( family catostomidae ) occurring in canada .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "its discovery has been attributed to vianney legendre in 1942 , but it appears to have been first described by pierre fortin in 1866 as an already known species of the genus moxostoma . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "copper redhorse", "paragraphs": ["figure 5 . critical spawning habitat of the copper redhorse at the chambly dam .\nmaintaining the area , in km 2 , of the copper redhorse distribution range .\n2 . habitats are available to permit the growth and reproduction of the copper redhorse .\neffects of nonylphenol and ethinylestradiol on copper redhorse ( moxostoma hubbsi ) , an endangered species .\nfigure 4 . critical spawning habitat of the copper redhorse at the saint - ours dam .\nspecies at risk other than copper redhorse will be measured and released back into the water .\nfigure 1 . pharyngeal apparatus of the adult copper redhorse . photo : yves chagnon , mrnf\nobjective 4 . reduce the impact of anthropogenic pressures on the copper redhorse and its habitat .\nthe copper redhorse lives in shallow grass - beds around the islands in the st . lawrence river and its lakes . these grass - beds provide plenty of gastropods , which represent 90 % of the copper redhorse\u2019s food resources .\neffects of nonylphenol and ethinylestradiol on copper redhorse ( moxostoma hubbsi ) , an endangered species . - pubmed - ncbi\nrecovery of the copper redhorse is considered possible because it meets the four criteria of technical and biological recovery feasibility .\nmany studies carried out since the early 1990s demonstrate that the copper redhorse has difficulties reproducing naturally and that the population is aging .\nobjective 2 . support the copper redhorse population through stocking until natural reproduction can ensure the long - term stability of the population .\nthe copper redhorse is the only fish species with a distribution range entirely in quebec . it is found nowhere else in the world .\nthe copper redhorse is the only fish living exclusively in quebec . weighing more than 5 kg and with a length generally greater than 50 cm , it is the largest of quebec\u2019s redhorses . it also lives the longest , reaching thirty years of age . this copper tinted fish with large scales has robust teeth , particularly well adapted to crush the shells of its preys . copper redhorse population size estimates remain uncertain , numbering them at the most a few hundred individuals .\nrecovery strategy for the copper redhorse ( moxostoma hubbsi ) in canada [ proposed ]\n( 2012 - 03 - 02 ) ( pdf format , 1 , 419 . 42 kb )\ndescription of critical habitat of the copper redhorse in \u00eeles de contrecoeur national wildlife area\n( 2016 - 10 - 15 ) ( pdf format , 1 , 116 . 09 kb )\nidentify the grass beds in lac saint - pierre , lac saint - louis and in the de la prairie basin which exhibit the necessary attributes of critical feeding habitat for adult copper redhorse .\nrecovery strategy for the copper redhorse ( moxostoma hubbsi ) in canada [ final version ]\n( 2012 - 06 - 20 ) ( pdf format , 1 , 477 . 75 kb )\nspawning habitat spawning critical habitat includes the only two known spawning grounds of the copper redhorse , located in the richelieu river , below the saint - ours dam ( figure 4 ) and in the chambly rapids ( figure 5 ) . the spawning grounds are used by the copper redhorse during the months of may , june and july . the attributes of these spawning grounds are listed in table 3 .\nobjective 3 . promote further research into the sub - adult component of the population ( 100\u2013500 mm ) to fill the gaps in our current knowledge of this stage of the copper redhorse life cycle .\nthe copper redhorse\u2019s identified critical habitat includes three features supporting specific vital functions of the life cycle : the grass beds , the littoral zone , and the rapids . their attributes are listed in table 3 .\nfurthermore , several characteristics of the species\u2019 biology and ecology increase its vulnerability . for example , spawning activity takes place late in the season , exposing the copper redhorse to lower water levels and a shorter growing season for fry which are consequently smaller in size when facing their first winter . the spawning period of the copper redhorse also coincides with the pesticide application period and therefore to peaks in concentrations of these pollutants in rivers .\nfisheries although fishing for copper redhorse is prohibited in quebec , incidental captures occur in the commercial and sport fisheries . the immediate release of this fish is mandatory , according to the quebec fishery regulations ( 1990 ) , sor / 90 - 214 of the fisheries act , r . s . c . , 1985 , c . f - 14 . as mentioned in the \u201cthreats\u201d section , the risk of accidental mortalities caused by commercial fisheries is very low . an outreach project aimed at commercial fishermen in lac saint - pierre to assess copper redhorse bycatch , determined that no copper redhorse was incidentally caught by these fishermen ( comit\u00e9 zip du lac saint - pierre , 2010 ) . the mortality risk owing to commercial fisheries in the river stretches upstream of the lake is not considered detrimental to the copper redhorse because the only permit for fyke nets will be bought back ( p . dumont , mrnf , personal communication ) and gill nets used for fishing sturgeon and carp are unlikely to capture copper redhorse ( vachon and chagnon , 2004 ; chagnon , 2006c , b , a ) .\nfinally , flood control structures and hydroelectric installations which modify water input into the critical habitats of the copper redhorse may alter or destroy these habitats . structures which present obstacles to both upstream and downstream migration may destroy critical habitat .\nthe copper redhorse population is in decline . several threats to the recovery of the species have been identified : habitat degradation ( sedimentation , degradation of riparian environment , eutrophication , organic pollution ) , construction of dams , contaminants , exotic or introduced species , recreational activities , commercial fishery , and low water levels . certain biological characteristics of the copper redhorse such as the late age of sexual maturity , late spawning activities and specialized diet contribute to its vulnerability .\nknown spawning grounds are located in the richelieu river , below the saint - ours dam and in the chambly rapids . after hatching , the copper redhorse fry will find shelter and food in the grass - beds along the river .\nthe distribution range of the copper redhorse is restricted to the st . lawrence river , from lake saint - louis to lake saint - pierre , and to the milles \u00eeles , des prairies and richelieu rivers . gilles fortin , dfo\nrecommended citation : dfo . 2012 . recovery strategy for the copper redhorse ( moxostoma hubbsi ) in canada [ proposed ] . species at risk act recovery strategy series . fisheries and oceans canada , ottawa . xi + 60 pp .\nnotice is hereby given that , pursuant to subsection 58 ( 2 ) of the species at risk act , subsection 58 ( 1 ) of the species at risk act applies , 90 days after the date of publication of this description , to the critical habitat of the copper redhorse ( moxostoma hubbsi ) population that is located in the \u00eeles de contrecoeur national wildlife area and is identified in section 2 of the recovery strategy for the copper redhorse ( moxostoma hubbsi ) in canada .\nduring two workshops held in 2009 and 2010 , with the participation of the minist\u00e8re des ressources naturelles et de la faune du qu\u00e9bec , fisheries and oceans canada reviewed the information and used the new data to identify habitat use by the copper redhorse in the st . lawrence and richelieu rivers ( dfo , 2010a ) . in october 2010 , the copper redhorse recovery team recommended , that the habitat used by the copper redhorse in the rivi\u00e8re des prairies and rivi\u00e8re des milles \u00eeles be identified as critical habitat . these two rivers were not discussed during the workshops due to a lack of time . the identification of critical habitat in the recovery strategy is based on the information gathered during these workshops ( summarized below ) and the recovery team recommendation .\nany person who accidentally captures a copper redhorse while fishing shall without delay return the fish to the waters in which it was caught and , if the fish is alive , release it in a manner that causes the least harm to the fish .\nthe competent minister for the copper redhorse under the species at risk act ( sara ) is the minister of fisheries and oceans canada ( dfo ) . because this species makes use of the vianney - legendre fish ladder , the minister responsible for the parks canada agency ( parks canada ) is the competent minister for individuals located in the ladder . section 37 of sara requires the competent minister to prepare recovery strategies for listed extirpated , endangered or threatened species . the copper redhorse was listed as endangered under sara in december 2007 . fisheries and oceans canada \u2013 quebec region led the development of this recovery strategy in close collaboration with the copper redhorse recovery team . this strategy meets sara requirements in terms of content and process ( sections 39 - 41 ) .\ndespite the considerable effort made to gather information on such a rare species , knowledge gaps subsist and have been identified . this lack of knowledge must be addressed before the development of a comprehensive and adequate strategy for the recovery of the copper redhorse is possible .\nalthough many aquatic grass beds have been degraded , the protection of available habitat , together with bank restoration and other measures for the improvement of water quality , will increase the quantity of available habitats for the copper redhorse and consequently the chances of its recovery .\nshowing page 1 . found 281 sentences matching phrase\ncopper redhorse\n. found in 0 ms . translation memories are created by human , but computer aligned , which might cause mistakes . they come from many sources and are not checked . be warned .\nthe enlarged , molariform pharyngeal teeth of this species are adapted for crushing the shells of mussels , snails and crayfishes ( eastman 1977 ; jenkins and burkhead 1993 ) . stomach analysis performed by hackney et al . ( 1967 ) of cahaba river , alabama specimens , found that river redhorse fed largely on bivalve molluscs . smaller quantities of insect larvae were also taken . the adult diet of sympatric moxostoma species from the richelieu river was compared by mongeau et al . ( 1986 , 1992 ) . stomach contents of the river redhorse were dominated by ephemeroptera ( 54 % ) and trichoptera ( 15 % ) larvae . diet ovelap was very low and gut contents varied according to the development of pharyngeal teeth . copper redhorse had the highest preference for molluscs ( 99 % of prey observed ) while molluscs represented about 25 % of the river redhorse diet and less than 15 % of the diet of the greater redhorse , shorthead redhorse and silver redhorse .\nin addition to sucker and redhorse species , competition for food may occur with other native ( mongeau et al . 1986 , 1992 ) and non - native fish species . freshwater drum has pharyngeal teeth adapted for crushing mussels and snails ( jenkins and burkhead 1993 ) . common carp ( cyprinus carpio ) , which was introduced into north america in 1831 , also feeds on molluscs ( scott and crossman 1973 ) . common carp has been associated with copper redhorse and river redhorse in the experimental catch of the 1960s and 1970s in the yamaska - noire system and in the richelieu river ( mongeau et al . 1992 ) . the recent introduction of tench ( tinca tinca ) in the upper richelieu and its capacity to rapidly spread into the st . lawrence river system also adds a potential competitor to the copper redhorse and river redhorse ( dumont et al . 2002 ) .\nthis species\u2019 habitat is under great pressure from agriculture , urbanisation and recreational activities . habitat degradation is related to the majority of the threats to the recovery of the copper redhorse . this degradation can be caused by erosion and increased suspended matter owing to agriculture , deforestation and urbanisation , by contamination of water with pollutants disrupting the reproduction process , and by the premature aging of the rivers . dams that fragment habitat and represent obstacles to migration , decreased water levels and disturbance by boaters and anglers are other threats to the copper redhorse .\nseveral actions have been taken to promote the recovery of the copper redhorse . the vianney - legendre fish ladder was constructed in 2001 so that the copper redhorse can move up the richelieu river to spawning grounds in the chambly rapids . this fish ladder is operated by parks canada . the chambly rapids spawning grounds are protected by the pierre - \u00e9tienne - fortin wildlife preserve , created in 2002 by the minist\u00e8re des ressources naturelles et de la faune du qu\u00e9bec in order to ensure a peaceful reproduction period . an awareness campaign is also taking place in the wildlife preserve , in order to educate boaters and the public about the copper redhorse . this campaign , carried out by the comit\u00e9 de concertation et de valorisation du bassin versant de la rivi\u00e8re richelieu , is financed in part by the habitat stewardship program for species at risk .\nin quebec , river redhorse occurrence has been related to the presence of the copper redhorse , showing an affinity for lowlands rivers of medium size characterized by abrupt banks and uniformely deep channels ( 4 - 7 m ) flowing over a solid clay , sand or gravel bottom exposed to rather slow currents and interspersed by sections of rapids suitable for spawning ( mongeau et al . 1986 , 1992 ) .\ndespite these knowledge gaps , the available information on the copper redhorse is significant and of high quality considering how rare the species is . further efforts to collect more information should avoid manipulation of specimens as much as possible as this presents a threat to the survival of the species .\nquebec legislation also provides general protection of fish habitat under the environment quality act . the act respecting the conservation and development of wildlife , under articles 128 . 1 to 128 . 18 , controls activities that could modify biological , physical and chemical components peculiar to fish habitat . the act respecting threatened or vulnerable species makes additional provision for the protection of the habitat of threatened or vulnerable species . finally , the pierre - \u00e9tienne - fortin wildlife refuge , created in 2002 for the protection of the copper redhorse spawning grounds in the chambly rapids ( richelieu river ) , also protects river redhorse habitat from activities that could disturb the river bed and flow characteristics . access to the refuge sectors where the copper redhorse and river redhorse spawn is forbidden between june 20 and july 20 ( gendron and branchaud 2001 ) .\nmany questions still remain concerning the distribution range and habitat of immature copper redhorse , particularly about the downstream migration and survival of larvae , the presence of sites in the richelieu river where juveniles congregate , habitat characteristics , and the threats to the habitat and survival of sub - adult fish .\nthe copper redhorse is the focus of increasing interest on the part of the general public and different organizations . this recovery strategy aims to coordinate the various actions that must be taken to complete the work already accomplished to prevent the disappearance of this species which is endemic to canada . it also includes the identification of the critical habitat of the species : grass bed inhabited by adult copper redhorse in the st . lawrence river , the littoral area along the richelieu river used by juveniles and for migration , and the rapids of the chambly and saint - ours dams , used for spawning .\nspawning habitat in order to identify the critical spawning habitat of the copper redhorse , experts have studied the needs and behaviour of the species , the use of the rapids below the chambly and saint - ours dams and the size of potential spawning habitat in the richelieu river ( dfo , 2010b ) . the spawning behaviour of the copper redhorse involves two or more males for each female . the copper redhorse appears to use the same sites as the other redhorse species , and apparently experiences reduced levels of competition at these sites due to the late onset of spawning . it adapts to environmental conditions and remains relatively faithful to spawning sites . the area required for spawning was estimated to be 1 m2 per female ( trio ) which corresponds to a minimum required area of 2 , 000 m2 for 2 , 000 females ( to meet the objective of 4 , 000 mature individuals ) . this value was extrapolated from known data from other redhorse species . the size of the potential spawning sites in the richelieu river is estimated at 583 , 064 m2 ( chambly : 488 , 364 m2 and saint - ours : 94 , 700 m2 ) . this potential area has been calculated based on the location of the spawning grounds , the drifting of eggs , resting places for spawners and the variability of the substrate and hydraulic conditions . thus , the critical spawning habitat identified in this recovery strategy appears sufficient to meet the objective of a recovered population of 4 , 000 copper redhorse spawners .\nthe copper redhorse , moxostoma hubbsi , is an endangered species endemic to quebec . the presence of contaminants , in particular endocrine disrupting chemicals ( edcs ) , in its habitat has been advanced as partly responsible for the reproductive difficulties encountered by the species . in the present study , immature copper redhorse were exposed to the estrogenic surfactant nonylphenol ( np ; 1 , 10 and 50\u00b5g / l ) and the synthetic estrogen 17\u03b1 - ethinylestradiol ( ee2 ; 10ng / l ) for 21 days in a flow - through system . the endpoints investigated included general health indicators ( hepatosomatic index and hematocrit ) , thyroid hormones , sex steroids , brain aromatase activity , plasma and mucus vitellogenin ( vtg ) , cytochrome p4501a protein expression and ethoxyresorufin - o - deethylase activity , heat shock protein 70 ( hsp70 ) and muscle acetylcholinesterase . exposure to 10ng ee2 / l significantly increased brain aromatase activity . exposure to 50\u00b5g np / l resulted in a significant reduction of plasma testosterone concentrations and a significant induction of hepatic hsp70 protein expression . np at 50\u00b5g / l also induced plasma and mucus vtg . the presence of elevated vtg levels in the surface mucus of immature copper redhorse exposed to np , and its correlation to plasma vtg , supports the use of mucus vtg as a non - invasive biomarker to evaluate copper redhorse exposure to edcs in the environment and contribute to restoration efforts of the species . the results of the present study indicate that exposure to high environmentally relevant concentrations of np and ee2 can affect molecular endpoints related to reproduction in the copper redhorse .\ndue to restrictive spawning habitat ( water depth and substrate ) preferences , river redhorse recruitment is vulnerable to changes in the flow regime and siltation of spawning habitats . large increases in discharge during the spawning period have been observed to prevent the spawning of other redhorse species ( bowman 1970 ; cooke and bunt 1999 ) . river redhorse is also a late spring spawner and as such is significantly smaller at the end of the first growing season than earlier spawning redhorse species ( vachon 1999a ) . as over - winter survival of yoy is size - selective ( sogard 1997 ) , yoy river redhorse are less likely to survive than earlier spawning species . lastly , river flows during spawning are lower compared to earlier spawning redhorse species and the river\u2019s capacity to dilute chemicals is reduced . in the richelieu river , late spring spawning coincides with period of peak pesticide application . in the yamaska and richelieu rivers , gendron and branchaud ( 1997 ) provide evidence that the final steps of sexual maturation by copper redhorse ( another late spawner ) in these rivers is disrupted by exposure to agricultural , urban and industrial toxins as they congregate to spawn . in the mid - 1990s , poor river redhorse gonadal condition was observed in specimens collected from this area .\nthe copper redhorse ( moxostoma hubbsi ) is the only fish whose distribution is exclusively restricted to quebec . this range is restricted even further to the st . lawrence river and some of its tributaries . at the present time , the richelieu river is the only body of water in which reproductive activity has been confirmed .\nin november 2004 , the copper redhorse population was designated endangered by the committee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada . in december 2007 , the population was listed as endangered in schedule i of the species at risk act . in 1999 , it was designated threatened under the quebec act respecting threatened or vulnerable species .\nwhen invasive exotic species such as the tench , round goby , zebra mussel , european water chestnut and common water reed establish themselves in an environment , they bring changes to the physical environment and to the food chain . however , the effects of these introduced species on the copper redhorse population have not been sufficiently well documented .\nriver redhorse populations may be at risk due to recreational angling activity , in particular the grand river population where angling for redhorse is reported to occur ( portt et al . 2003 ) . during spring spawning runs , congregative behaviour likely increases the susceptibility of river redhorse to recreational angling or spearfishing . the river redhorse is not afforded protection by catch limits , minimum size restrictions , or spearfishing regulations ( mcallister et al . 1985 ; ontario fishing regulations 1989 ) . due to lack of regulation and vulnerability during the spawn , populations may be affected to a degree . additionally , confusion with other sucker species may result in unknown harvesting and be a factor in decline of local populations ( parker and mckee 1984 ) . this potential threat has not been quantified . in quebec , to prevent accidental catch of the copper redhorse and river redhorse , sportfishing is prohibited for sucker species in the sectors of the richelieu , des mille iles , yamaska and noire rivers where both species cohabit . commercial catch of these two species is also prohibited in quebec .\ncosewic ( 2004 ) provided the following summary : the copper redhorse and its habitat receive a level of protection under the federal fisheries act , the quebec act respecting the conservation and development of wildlife , and environment quality act . additional measures include amendments to the sport fishing regulations in a number of sectors used by the copper redhorse and the creation of the pierre - \u00e9tienne - fortin wildlife preserve at chambly in october 2002 . the objective of the wildlife preserve is to protect the integrity of the largest spawning site and prevent disturbances of spawners and encroachment on spawning sites during the spawning period . the copper redhorse was designated threatened in 1987 by the committee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada ( cosewic ) . in april 1999 , it was designated threatened under the quebec act respecting threatened or vulnerable species . this is the most critical status that can be applied to a species under quebec legislation and is used when the loss of the species is feared . currently , the survival of the species hinges essentially on protection and reintroduction efforts .\nexcept for quebec rivers supporting copper redhorse , the river redhorse is the last of the moxostoma species to spawn each year ( mongeau et al . 1992 ) . american populations of river redhorse begin spawning in mid - april to mid - may at water temperatures between 18\u00b0and 24\u00b0 c ( jenkins and burkhead 1993 ) . canadian populations spawn later in the year , usually beginning in late may or early june and ending in late june ( reid 2003 ) . in the chambly rapids of the richelieu river , spawning typically occurs between the second and last week of june at temperatures between 17\u00b0 and 20\u00b0 c . this period overlaps with the spawning period of the greater redhorse and copper redhorse ( mongeau et al . 1992 ; la haye et al . 1992 ) . both sexes were observed in spawning condition once water temperatures reached 15 . 5\u00b0 c ( early june ) in the trent river ( reid 2003 ) . spawning - ready river redhorse were captured in the grand river in late may 2002 at temperatures of 18 . 5\u00b0 c . similarly , the gatineau river population began spawning at water temperatures between 17 . 5\u00b0and 19\u00b0 c ( campbell 2001 ) . males have been found to be in spawning - ready condition at temperatures of 4 . 5\u00b0 c colder than females ( campbell 2001 ) .\nthe copper redhorse , moxostoma hubbsi , is a species of fish that only exists in qu\u00e9bec and is in danger of extinction . the critical situation prompted the minist\u00e8re du d\u00e9veloppement durable , de l ' environnement , de la faune et des parcs du qu\u00e9bec to develop an artificial reprodution technique , in collaboration with the biod\u00f4me and the universit\u00e9 du qu\u00e9bec \u00e0 montr\u00e9al .\nin the richelieu river , backcalculated tl at age 3 , 6 , 9 , 12 , 15 and 18 are 229 , 410 , 533 , 586 , 659 and 680 mm , respectively ; and corresponding weights are 223 , 950 , 1833 , 2317 , 3107 and 3360 g ( mongeau et al . 1986 , 1992 ) . compared to other north american populations , growth rate in the richelieu river is relatively high ( mongeau et al . 1986 ) . in september and early october , yoy river redhorse collected from the richelieu river averaged between 48 and 67 mm tl . these specimens were smaller than earlier spawning shorthead redhorse , silver redhorse and greater redhorse . fall tl of age 1 + river redhorse ranged from 114 to 131 . 5 mm . yoy examined by jenkins ( 1970 ) from the southern half of its distribution averaged 50 mm standard length ( sl ) in september with a maximum of 70 mm sl . as reported for the richelieu river population , yoy river redhorse were smaller than other earlier spawning redhorse species ( m . erythrurum and m . duquesnei ) .\nmethods of hormonal induction , egg incubation and raising the young were developed . more specifically , the biod\u00f4me has played an important role in developing a shelter network ( genitarium ) to conserve the species\u2019 genetic variability . as of 1994 , young copper redhorse males crossbred from different parents are kept at the biod\u00f4me , the qu\u00e9bec aquarium and the baldwin mills provincial fish hatchery .\nfigure 2 . distribution area of the copper redhorse . it ranges in the richelieu river , rivi\u00e8re yamaska , rivi\u00e8re noire , rivi\u00e8re l\u2019acadie , rivi\u00e8re des prairies and rivi\u00e8re des mille \u00eeles , at the mouth of the rivi\u00e8re maskinong\u00e9 and rivi\u00e8re saint - fran\u00e7ois , and in a few stretches of the st . lawrence river , between vaudreuil and the downstream sector of lac saint - pierre\nthe copper redhorse is listed an endangered species and is protected by the species at risk act since 2007 . a recovery team developed a recovery strategy , which was published in 2012 by fisheries and oceans canada . since 1995 , three five - year intervention plans , developed by the government of quebec , helped acquire data on the basic biology of the species and the threats affecting it .\nrearing and migration habitat critical habitat in the richelieu river includes the littoral zone of the river , with a depth of 0 to 4 m , from the chambly basin , to the mouth of the river ( figure 6 and figure 7 ) . submerged aquatic vegetation is found in this area ( table 3 ) . the richelieu river is the only watercourse in which larvae and young copper redhorse of the year have been observed . juvenile redhorse , such as the copper redhorse , ( less than 100 mm ) are confined to the grass beds of the littoral zone . habitat for the growth of juveniles is in the grass beds in the littoral zone of the richelieu river , identified as critical habitat . these grass beds , which play a key role during the rearing stage ( growth , food and shelter ) , are not only an important habitat for juveniles , but also for adults who frequent the river or use it as a migration corridor .\nthe saint - ours canal national historic site on the richelieu river , together with the bridge - dam and fish ladder , the adjacent west bank and l ' \u00eele darvard fall under the jurisdiction of the parks canada agency . the tailrace of the dam is a known spawning ground , while the fish ladder represents a necessary stage in the migration of copper redhorse towards the chambly spawning ground .\nthe minister of fisheries and oceans invites all interested canadians to submit comments on the potential use of a s . 58 order to protect the critical habitat of the copper redhorse as soon as possible . please note that , pursuant to s . 58 , any such order must be operational within 180 days of the posting of the final version of the recovery strategy , or action plan , that identifies critical habitat .\nseveral conservation and outreach measures have already been implemented and various projects can be undertaken to mitigate the threats facing this species . agricultural practices can be modified to diminish the effects of fertilizers and pesticides , soil erosion and sedimentation . the treatment of wastewater can be improved to reduce the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment . important copper redhorse distribution areas can be protected from disturbance caused by pleasure boaters and fishermen .\naccess to spawning habitat is essential for the continued existence of the river redhorse . during the spring , redhorse species migrate to spawning habitats ( jenkins 1970 ; mongeau et al . 1986 , 1992 ) . hackney et al . ( 1967 ) documented tagged river redhorse to travel more than 15 km upstream along the cahaba river , alabama to spawn . along the trent and gatineau rivers , large increases in river redhorse abundance have been measured at spawning habitats during may and june ( campbell 2001 ; reid 2003 ) . in 2002 , the river redhorse was present in the vianney - legendre fish ladder during almost the entire observation period , from may 16 to june 18 ( fleury and desrochers 2003 ) . in 2003 , between may 22 and june 24 , 555 river redhorse were observed at the outlet of the ladder , and 444 were counted during four peaks of migration , on may 26 ( n = 54 ) and 30 ( n = 128 ) and on june 5 ( n = 155 ) and 7 ( n = 107 ) ( fleury and desrochers 2004 ) .\nin addition to adverse effects on spawning habitats , siltation can also result in decreased production of benthic macroinvertebrates and freshwater molluscs , the primary components of the river redhorse diet ( waters 1995 ; vachon 2003a ) . french ( 1993 ) suggested that declines in mollusc populations caused by pollution and siltation of habitat will likely factor in the decline of mollusc\u2013feeding catostomids such as the river redhorse .\nlittle information is available on the physiological tolerances of catostomids found in eastern north america other than the white sucker ( catostomus commersoni ) . walsh et al . ( 1998 ) reported physiological tolerances for juvenile robust redhorse ( m . robustum ) , a sister taxon of the river redhorse . critical thermal maxima were identified to be between 35 and 37 o c . at dissolved oxygen concentrations between 0 . 7 and 0 . 8 mgo 2 l - 1 , juvenile robust redhorse switched to aquatic surface respiration and lost equilibrium at 0 . 54 to 0 . 57 mgo 2 l - 1 . hatching success of robust redhorse eggs has been observed to decline above 23 o c along with an increase in the incidence of larval and juvenile deformities at temperatures above 25\u00b0 c .\na protocol for the monitoring of redhorse young - of - the - year recruitment in the richelieu river has been designed and implemented on an almost yearly basis . the objective of this project is to develop a performance index with which to evaluate present and future conservation and support measures . certain preliminary trends have been detected in population abundance , young - of - the - year growth and the climatic and hydrological conditions of the environment ( vachon , 1999b , 2002 , 2007 ) . these efforts have also confirmed the short - term survival of juvenile copper redhorse introduced into the environment as part of the stocking program and have added to our knowledge of older juveniles .\nthe river redhorse is a late - maturing , long - lived and large - bodied sucker that requires large interconnected riverine habitat to fulfill the need of all life stages . generally , specimens are greater than 500 mm tl ( campbell 2001 ; reid 2003 ) . the largest river redhorse recorded to date was 812 mm tl ( jenkins et al . 1999 ) . males are usually shorter and lighter than females ; however , both sexes can attain sizes in excess of 700 mm tl ( mongeau et al . 1992 ; campbell 2001 ; fleury and desrochers 2004 ) . the maximum weight recorded for river redhorse was a gravid female , 7 , 938 g ( jenkins et al . 1999 ; campbell 2001 ) . maximum ages recorded for river redhorse are 27 ( trent river ) and 28 years ( mississippi river ) ( reid unpubl . data and campbell 2001 ) . campbell ( 2001 ) characterized growth using the following the equation :\nit has been reported that river redhorse excavate spawning redds ( hackney et al . 1967 ) . parker ( 1988 ) observed shallow swept depressions 10 - 15 cm deep and 50\u201175 cm long at the base of shallow rapids in the mississippi river . similarly sized areas of cleaned spawning substrate have been observed during river redhorse spawning along the trent river ( s . reid unpubl . data ) . jenkins ( 1970 ) suggests that these apparent redds are merely an artifact of aggressive mating and not a depression dug prior to spawning . further investigation is required to confirm if river redhorse construct redds as this has implications for spawning habitat requirements . although redd formation is not definite , the river redhorse does exhibit ritualized spawning displays . hackney et al . ( 1967 ) described this process for river redhorse in the cahaba river , alabama : \u201cthe female approaches the nest as the male performs a nuptial dance , darting back and forth , then a second male joins in . once the second male is present the female swims between them . at this point the males press tightly against the female and all three vibrate across the bottom , releasing eggs and milt and burying the eggs in one sweeping pass . \u201d aggregations of two or three river redhorse were observed at the trent river spawning locations ( reid 2003 ) supporting previous observations of hackney et al . ( 1967 ) and parker and mckee ( 1984 ) .\nthe present recovery strategy includes the critical habitat identified to the extent possible , based on the best available information . the quantity and quality of habitat suitable for the growth of adults identified for the purposes of this recovery strategy does not appear sufficient to provide an adequate environment for a population containing 4 , 000 mature individuals . the fluvial lakes may offer adequate habitat for the copper redhorse , but their use by this species is not well documented . studies need to be conducted to identify the entire critical habitat necessary to attain the population and distribution objectives ( table 4 ) .\npharyngeal arch and teeth are present in yoy river redhorse ( vachon 1999a , 2003b ) . however , during the first growing season , young river redhorse feed mostly on microcrustaceans . the diet of 31 yoy river redhorse ( 32 \u2264 tl \u226463 mm ) caught from the richelieu river was composed of chydorid cladocerans ( 22 % in number ) , algae ( diatoms ) ( 21 % ) , nematodes ( 15 % ) , harpacticoid copepods ( 12 . 5 % ) , protozoans ( 6 % ) and chironomid larvae ( 4 % ) ( vachon 1999a ) . in contrast to adults , there was a high degree of overlap among the diets of yoy moxostoma ( vachon 1999a ) . mcallister et al . ( 1985 ) examined the gut contents of 10 ontario specimens . river redhorse ranging between 100 - 150 mm tl fed primarily on chironomid larvae and pupae . larger individuals ( 200 - 250 mm tl ) consumed chironomids , crustaceans , trichopterans and coleopterans . the diet from an age 2 + specimen ( tl = 140 . 5 mm ) caught in the richelieu river on june 10 was principally composed of chironomid larvae ( 57 % in number ) and chydorid cladocerans ( 26 % ) ( vachon 1999a ) . larger river redhorse consumed molluscs , insect larvae and crayfishes .\nwhile there are many species of sucker found in quebec , the copper redhorse is quebec ' s only indigenous fish species . unfortunately , it is also one of quebec ' s endangered fish species . its range is limited to certain portions of the st . lawrence river drainage system : lac st . louis , lac des deux - montagnes , lac st . pierre , the ottawa river , the richelieu river , and the yamaska river system . nowhere within its range is it considered abundant . in addition , these watersheds are heavily impacted by industrial and domestic pollution . the future of this fish is highly uncertain .\nin 1987 , the committee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada ( cosewic ) , initially designated the copper redhorse ( moxostoma hubbsi ) as threatened ; in november 2004 cosewic changed the designation to endangered . in december 2007 , this species was listed as endangered in schedule i of the species at risk act . in 1999 , it was designated threatened under the quebec act respecting threatened or vulnerable species . the present recovery strategy was developed following three five - year intervention plans ( 1995 , 1999 , 2004 ) developed and implemented by the minist\u00e8re des ressources naturelles et de la faune ( mrnf ) and its partners .\nthe habitat of the river redhorse is protected under the habitat provisions of the federal fisheries act , particularly section 35 ( 1 ) which states that a development proposal must not cause a \u201charmful alteration , disruption , or destruction\u201d of fish habitat . habitat may also receive protection by other federal legislation , including the environmental assessment act , environmental protection act and water act . in ontario , river redhorse may also receive protection under the lakes and rivers improvement act , ontario environmental protection act , ontario environmental assessment act , ontario planning act and ontario water resources act .\nthe river redhorse is at the northern limit of its distribution in canada with low numbers and disjunct distributions . tolerance for a narrow range of habitat characteristics , and a limited amount of suitable habitat restricts the distribution of river redhorse . it is an inhabitant of medium to large - sized rivers and intolerant of high turbidity levels , siltation and pollution ( trautman 1981 ; jenkins and burkhead 1993 ; mongeau et al . 1986 , 1992 ; vachon 2003a ) and likely disappeared from watersheds highly developed for intensive industrial agriculture , such as the yamaska and ch\u00e2teauguay rivers in quebec .\nlarval drift is important for the dispersion of moxostoma species to suitable rearing habitats ( d ' amours et al . 2001 ) . for example , the nursery habitat for yoy river redhorse in the richelieu river is 21 km downstream from the spawning site in the bassin of chambly ( vachon 1999a ) .\nintrogression among catostomid species due to habitat alteration has been identified as a conservation concern in western north america where hybridization between catostomid species is often common . however , hybridization is unknown or rare in most eastern suckers ( jenkins and burkhead 1993 ) . of thousands of moxostoma specimens examined , only two cases of hybridization have been reported ( jenkins 1970 ; jenkins and burkhead 1993 ) . this included a single river redhorse hybrid with either a shorthead or greater redhorse . barriers to hybridization among moxostoma species include aggressive behaviour and differences in spawning time , temperature and habitat ( curry and spacie 1984 ; kwak and skelly 1992 ) .\nthe regulation respecting the pierre - \u00e9tienne - fortin wildlife preserve , r . q . c . c - 61 . 1 , r . 3 . 01 . 3 . 3 , provides protection measures for the spawning ground at the chambly rapids . the land on which the wildlife preserve is located is owned by hydro - qu\u00e9bec and the municipality of richelieu . according to sections 3 and 4 of the regulation , \u201cfrom 20 june to 20 july , no person may enter , stay in , travel about or engage in any activity in sectors b and c of the wildlife preserve\u201d and \u201cno person may , in the wildlife preserve , engage in an activity that may alter any biological , physical or chemical element of the habitat of the copper redhorse , the river redhorse or the channel darter ( percina copelandi ) . \u201d ( c . c - 61 . 1 , r . 46 , sections 3 and 4 ) . for critical habitat to be adequately protected , the preserve will need to be extended to include all the spawning grounds .\ncanadian river redhorse populations reach sexual maturity at an older age and a larger size than their american counterparts . in southern populations , river redhorse have been speculated to reach sexual maturity between the ages of 3 and 5 years ( tatum and hackney 1970 ; huston 1999 ) . more northerly populations of river redhorse do not achieve sexual maturity until a relatively late age . in the richelieu river , mongeau et al . ( 1986 , 1992 ) observed mature male and female near or on the spawning sites between age 10 and 20 ( 543 - 713 mm tl ) . along the trent river , males in spawning condition were 5 to 16 years old while females were 7 to 16 years old . spawning - ready males captured from both the trent river and grand river were smaller than females ( trent river : \u2642mean tl = 603 mm ; \u2640mean tl = 641 mm . grand river : \u2642mean tl = 627mm ; \u2640mean tl = 662 mm ) ( s . reid unpubl . data ) .\nriverine habitat in canada is also threatened by the construction of hydroelectric dams and other barriers . increased energy demands in ontario and quebec may result in the construction of new hydroelectric facilities , or the conversion of run - of - river facilities to peaking facilities . dam construction has already heavily fragmented the madawaska , mississippi , ottawa , trent , yamaska , richelieu , and ch\u00e2teauguay rivers and the lower reaches of the grand river , increasing the risk of local extirpation due to limited immigration or emigration of the river redhorse population . suitable spawning habitat is primarily limited to the tailwater areas downstream of these locks and dams . maintenance of sufficient flows through these habitats during spawning is necessary for successful river redhorse reproduction ( reid 2002 ) . in addition , due to the number of barriers , available habitat becomes limiting as movement between habitats and populations is restricted . recovery of river redhorse populations after disturbances through emigration is expected to be limited by the number of dams along the rivers it inhabits ( reid 2002 ) .\nrearing and migration habitat the habitats frequented by young - of - the - year and sub - adults may be generally described as shallow littoral zones exposed to weak currents and with aquatic - grass beds . these habitats are relatively evenly distributed all along the richelieu river and the size of the grass beds available in the richelieu river remains unknown . this is why a bathymetric approach has been recommended to identify critical juvenile rearing habitat . given the current hydrological conditions of the richelieu river , restoration of lost grass beds would be problematic . the littoral zone frequented by juvenile copper redhorse is between 0 and 3 m deep . however , the critical habitat which has been identified in the richelieu river covers the littoral zone which is 0 to 4 m deep in order to include the migration corridor used by spawners .\nriver redhorse has the potential to re - establish populations in waters where they have been extirpated when other populations exist nearby ( jenkins and burkhead 1993 ) . however , in many of the rivers in which they reside , low population sizes and the presence of barriers to immigration ( i . e . dams ) reduce their ability to recover from disturbances .\nit is possible that the methods used to gather information on the total distribution range skewed the results partially to the detriment of lac saint - louis . the information obtained through an analysis of the commercial fishery in lac saint - pierre is based on incidental catches , while research activity itself is concentrated on the portion of the population located in the richelieu river and st . lawrence river , downstream of montr\u00e9al . moreover , no sampling program has been carried out in the rivi\u00e8re noire and rivi\u00e8re yamaska since 1995 . though these environments have been severely degraded and minimum water flow within them greatly reduced , neither the presence nor absence of the species in these rivers can be confirmed . questions also remain concerning factors ( e . g . inadequate grass beds ) which could explain why some areas of potential summer habitat in the fluvial lakes are less frequented by copper redhorse .\ncritical habitat for the copper redhorse has been identified to the extent possible , based on the best available information . this critical habitat consists of aquatic grass beds in the st . lawrence river , the littoral zone of the richelieu river and the rapids below the saint - ours and chambly dams ( figures 4 to 9 ) . the grass beds provide rearing and feeding habitats while the rapids are used as spawning grounds . critical habitat identified in the littoral zone of the richelieu river is used for rearing and by adults to migrate to the spawning grounds . the critical habitat identified in the present recovery strategy is essential for the survival and recovery of the species but it is insufficient to reach the population objectives . the schedule of studies presented in section 7 . 2 outlines the research deemed necessary to complete the identification of critical habitat in order to meet population and distribution objectives .\nthe anatomical specialization of the river redhorse for feeding on molluscs may increase this species\u2019 susceptibility to extirpation . over much of the north american range of this species the molluscan fauna has declined ( williams et al . 1993 ) . the invasion of the great lakes and st . lawrence river by zebra mussels ( dreissena polymorpha ) has reduced the availability of the native species of molluscs and changed the bioaccumulation process of contaminants . it is not known to what extent river redhorse are consuming the large biomass of the newly established zebra mussel or its effect on growth rate . likely the result of poor caloric value , french and bur ( 1996 ) reported that zebra mussel - dominated diets reduced growth rate of adult freshwater drum ( aplodinotus grunniens ) in lake erie .\nthe successful recovery of the copper redhorse will depend on the commitment and cooperation of the many concerned parties who will participate in the implementation of the recommendations put forward in this strategy . success will not depend solely on fisheries and oceans canada or any one jurisdiction . in the spirit of the accord for the protection of species at risk , the ministers of fisheries and oceans canada and parks canada invite all canadians to join with fisheries and oceans canada and parks canada in supporting and implementing the strategy , for the good of the species and of canadian society as a whole . fisheries and oceans canada and parks canada are committed to providing support for the implementation of the strategy , subject to the availability of resources and the various priorities regarding the conservation of species at risk . other jurisdictions and agencies will participate in implementing the strategy according to their respective policies , allocated resources , priorities , and budgetary constraints .\nwhile the river redhorse has been reported from both lakes and rivers within its canadian range , the persistence of this species relies upon access to suitable riverine spawning habitat . past studies have indicated a preference for habitats with moderate to swift current , riffle - run habitat and clean coarse substrates ( hackney et al . 1967 ; scott and crossman 1973 ; becker 1983 ; yoder and beaumier 1986 ; parker 1988 ; campbell 2001 ; reid 2002 ; 2003 ) . yoder and beaumier ( 1986 ) observed densities eight times greater in locations of preferred habitat than at pooled and impoundment locations in an ohio river . summer trap - net sampling on the mississippi river resulted in the capture of river redhorse in run habitat , suggesting that its habitat requirements may be more extensive than previously thought ( campbell 2001 ) . summer sampling of river redhorse resulted in capture in areas of abundant aquatic vegetation , fairly slow current and soft substrates ( campbell 2001 ) . compared to the spawning period ( june ) , lower catch per unit effort numbers in fall sampling of fastwater habitats along the trent river suggest that deeper run / pool habitats are used during other periods of the year ( reid 2003 ) ."]}
{"id": 616, "summary": [{"text": "the dwarf jay ( cyanolyca nanus ) is a species of bird in the family corvidae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is endemic to mexico .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "as its name would imply , this is the smallest member of the family corvidae at 20 \u2013 23 cm long and weighing 41 g .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "dwarf jay", "paragraphs": ["the dwarf jay often appears in flocks with steller\u2019s jay ( cyanocitta stelleri ) but the dwarf jay can be easily distinguished by its smaller size , lighter plumage and the lack of a prominent crest of feathers on top of the head ( 6 ) .\nthe dwarf jay is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe greatest threat to the dwarf jay is habitat loss , due to human activities such as logging , agriculture , firewood gathering , road construction and cattle grazing . the dwarf jay is particularly sensitive to human presence , and any disturbance typically leads to the dwarf jay abandoning its nest ( 7 ) ( 9 ) .\nit is thought that the grey - barred wren ( campylorhynchus megalopterus ) and steller\u2019s jay ( cyanocitta stelleri ) may prey on the eggs and chicks of the dwarf jay , and a sharp - shinned hawk ( accipiter striatus ) has been observed attacking an adult dwarf jay ( 6 ) .\nthe dwarf jay has a small and fragmented distribution in south - eastern mexico . it was once thought to be restricted to southern veracruz and northern oaxaca , but recent surveys have also found small numbers of the dwarf jay in northern hidalgo , eastern quer\u00e9taro and central veracruz ( 7 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - dwarf jay ( cyanolyca nana )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - dwarf jay ( cyanolyca nana )\ntitle =\narkive species - dwarf jay ( cyanolyca nana )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nhardy , j . w . ( 1971 ) habitat and habits of the dwarf jay , aphelicoma nana . wilson bulletin , 83 : 5 - 30 .\nthe dwarf jay inhabits humid pine , oak and fir forest ( 8 ) , at elevations between 1 , 400 and 3 , 200 metres ( 7 ) .\nthe dwarf jay is a small , rare species of corvid . it is endemic to the mountains of southeastern mexico , where it occupies pine - oak - fir forests . although the dwarf jay is locally common within its range , it is a poorly known species . it is threatened by ongoing habitat loss , and its conservation status is rated as vulnerable .\ncompared with other jay species , the dwarf jay has a fairly small vocal repertoire , with just two main , nasal - sounding calls , either a \u201c shree - up \u201d in units of two or three or a single cry of \u201c shiev - a shiev - a \u201d ( 2 ) .\nthought to be a largely insectivorous bird , the dwarf jay is known to feed on weevils , bark beetles , crane flies and wasps , but it may also consume some plant fibre ( 8 ) .\nfoote , d . ( 2010 ) dwarf jay ( cyanolyca nana ) . in : schulenberg , t . s . ( ed . ) neotropical birds online . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca . available at : urltoken\nthis endangered species is not currently known to be the focus of any specific conservation action . it has been recorded in benito ju\u00e1rez national park , but this is believed to offer the dwarf jay little protection in practice ( 7 ) .\nin march , the male dwarf jay presents food to the female as part of the courtship ritual . once a pair has formed , a tightly woven cup - shaped nest of mosses and lichen , lined with pine needles , is usually constructed in an oak tree at a height of about seven metres . the female dwarf jay typically lays two to three eggs , which are a pale greenish - blue , marked with olive spots . the eggs are incubated for around 20 days by the female alone , but the newborn chicks are fed by both parents ( 6 ) .\nclimate change poses a long - term threat to this species , as it is likely to alter the dwarf jay ' s preferred habitat ( 7 ) . for example , it has been predicted that climate change will result in tropical forest in southern mexico being replaced by savanna ( 10 ) .\nthe small , slender dwarf jay ( cyanolyca nana ) is an attractive bird , with greyish - blue plumage and a distinct black \u2018face mask\u2019 ( 4 ) . a whitish \u2018eyebrow\u2019 stripe extends above each reddish - brown eye and the bill is black ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . the throat is whitish and is separated from the rest of the underparts by a darker line . juvenile dwarf jays have a much smaller , less defined throat patch , which blends gradually into the rest of the plumage ( 4 ) .\n20 - 23 cm . small , slender and agile , blue jay . slate - blue except for black mask bordered by slight , whitish supercilium and whitish throat highlighted by diffuse breast - band .\nthe dwarf jay forages in groups containing between four and ten individuals , often in a flock with other bird species . it is an agile bird and may be seen hanging upside down as it searches amongst vegetation for food . it also investigates tree stumps , searches under peeling bark , and will break open plant galls in search of hidden larvae , as well as pursuing slow flying insects ( 8 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\ncyanolyca armillata and c . quindiuna ( del hoyo and collar 2016 ) were previously lumped as c . armillata following sacc ( 2005 & updates ) , sibley & monroe ( 1990 , 1993 ) and stotz et al . ( 1996 ) .\nthis species is considered vulnerable because it is believed to be declining rapidly in response to habitat loss .\n. it was feared extinct throughout this range except for the cerro san felipe in the sierra aloapaneca , where it remains quite common . however , it is now known to be more widespread . there are records from tangoj\u00f3 in extreme east quer\u00e9taro , north - east hidalgo , central veracruz and la chinantla in north oaxaca , and it may be locally common where suitable habitat persists ( m . angel mart\u00ednez , e . ruelas and r . sanchez pers . comm . to a . g . navarro\nin hidalgo the population density has been estimated at 4 . 4 individuals per km 2 ( m . mart\u00ednez - morales in litt . 2016 ) . assuming that this is representative and that only a proportion of its range is occupied , this would equate to a population of c . 4 , 100 individuals ; roughly equating to 2 , 750 mature individuals . trend justification : no quantitative data are available for the calculation of population trends ; however , the species is suspected to be declining rapidly in line with habitat degradation within its range .\nit has been observed in several humid montane forest - associations , but most abundantly in pine - oak - fir associations and areas with an even mix of pine and oak . laurel and abundant epiphytic growth are characteristic of these associations . lower densities occur in oak - dominated forest , and its occurrence in secondary growth depends on the predominance of the preferred tree - associations and nearby tracts of primary forest . suitable breeding habitat has a sufficiently open canopy to allow the development of a dense subcanopy . it forages mostly from the lower subcanopy to the higher shrub layer , where it gleans invertebrates from and around epiphytes . it occurs at elevations of 1 , 400 - 3 , 200 m ( rojas - soto\n, but only above 1 , 670 m in the centre and south of its range . this is plausibly a natural altitudinal distribution , but it may have been extirpated from the lower elevations in the south of its range . the breeding season begins at cerro san felipe in early april .\n. it is prone to nest - desertion following human disturbance , suggesting that there are few predators of adult birds . the continuing spread of west nile virus is not thought to pose a serious threat , and no related mortality has been detected in this species ( p . escalante\nclimate change is also expected to be an additional factor of habitat loss ( ponce - reyes et al . 2012 ) .\nbenito ju\u00e1rez national park . cerro san felipe is officially within benito ju\u00e1rez national park , but the boundaries of this relatively small reserve have never been demarcated ( salas\nsurvey to assess more precisely the extent of its distribution . demarcate and effectively protect the boundaries of benito ju\u00e1rez national park . protect sites where the species has been recently recorded .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\neffective protection of this national park has been recommended , as has the protection of other sites where this attractive bird has recently been recorded ( 7 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nincubated kept warm so that development is possible . insectivorous feeds primarily on insects . larvae stage in an animal\u2019s lifecycle after it hatches from the egg . larvae are typically very different in appearance to adults ; they are able to feed and move around but usually are unable to reproduce . plant galls abnormal outgrowths of plant tissues caused by various parasites , such as fungi , bacteria , and insects .\nhowell , s . n . g . and webb , s . ( 1995 ) a guide to the birds of mexico and northern central america . oxford university press , oxford .\ndunning , j . b . ( 2008 ) crc handbook of avian body masses . crc press , boca raton , florida .\nridgway , r . ( 1904 ) the birds of north and middle america . part iii . bulletin of the united states national museum 50 , government printing office , washington .\nmadge , s . and burn , h . ( 1994 ) crows and jays . a guide to the crows , jays and magpies of the world . houghton mifflin company , new york .\ncollar , n . j . , gonzaga , l . p . , krabbe , n . , madro\u00f1o nieto , a . , naranjo , l . g . , parker , t . a . and wege , d . c . ( 1992 ) threatened birds of the americas : the icbp / iucn red data book . international council for bird preservation , cambridge , u . k .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is affected by global climate change and has been profiled with the support of bank of america merrill lynch . to learn more visit our climate change pages .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : cyanolyca nanus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 293 , 287 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nnatural vocalization ; calls from one of a pair of birds moving high through tall pine forest with a dense oak understory .\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 125 side b track 7 seq . a )\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 125 side b track 4 seq . a )\na single bird responding aggressively to playback . poor photo of the same bird in this recording :\nnatural vocalization from one of several in mixed - species flock in pine - oak - dougfir forest . an unusual extended vocalization i ' d not heard before . the pecking was from a picoides villosus nearby .\nnatural vocalizations , possibly some soft - song . flock of several ( 5 - 7 ? ) individuals . in humid pine - oak forest .\nnatural vocalization ; extremely quiet whisper song from a bird perched part way up a tall pine tree in pine forest . an unfortunate amount of wind noise in this cut .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\na small blue - crested bird living in temperate woodlands , known for its harsh chirps .\nblue jays are a type of above ground vermin . they are found in any temperate area with trees . they may be captured in animal traps and turned into pets . all blue jays possess legendary skill in climbing .\nthis page was last modified on 20 january 2018 , at 21 : 49 ."]}
{"id": 621, "summary": [{"text": "the damara woolly bat ( kerivoula argentata ) is a nocturnal insectivorous species of vesper bat in the family vespertilionidae found in africa .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "this species typically has reddish brown fur on its back and white fur on its abdomen .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "its natural habitat is moist savanna , although it has also been shown to inhabit woodlands and coastal forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "these bats typically weight about 10 g , and have a low aspect ratio , as well as low wing loading . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "damara woolly bat", "paragraphs": ["a young / baby of a damara woolly bat is called a ' pup ' . a damara woolly bat group is called a ' colony or cloud ' .\nmay remain associated with the female and offspring . however , there is no direct information about reproduction in the damara woolly bat\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - damara woolly bat ( kerivoula argentata )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - damara woolly bat ( kerivoula argentata )\ntitle =\narkive species - damara woolly bat ( kerivoula argentata )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nintroduction : as its name implies , the lesser woolly bat ( kerivoula lanosa ) is a smaller version of the damara woolly bat . it is an extremely rare species . their broad ears , with inner and outer edges curling inwards , give it a funnel - shaped appearance . they are associated with forests and riverine vegetation . the lesser woolly bat roost in weavers ' nests .\nintroduction : as it ' s name implies , the lesser woolly bat ( kerivoula lanosa ) is a smaller version of the damara woolly bat . it is an extremely rare species . their broad ears , with inner and outer edges curling inwards , give it a funnel - shaped appearance . they are associated with forests and riverine vegetation . the lesser woolly bat roost in weavers ' nests .\nthe damara woolly bat is listed as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category , on the iucn red list of threatened species\nintroduction : the damara woolly bat is recognized by it ' s soft , woolly fur that grows away from the body as the paler tips curl up and give it a ' grizzly appearance ' . a braincase that rises to a high dome over the long rostrum and a fringe of hair along the edge of the interfemoral membrane are other significant characteristics of this species . it is larger than other woolly bat species .\nintroduction : the damara woolly bat is recognized by it ' s soft , woolly fur that grows away from the body as the paler tips curl up and give it a ' grizzly appearance ' . a braincase that rises to a high dome over the long rostrum and a fringe of hair along the edge of the interfemoral membrane are other significant characteristics of this species . it is larger than other woolly bat species . visitors on a guided tour or self drive safari in namibia may occasionally see this bat around dawn and dusk .\nthe damara woolly bat is a small member of the vespertillidonae , the largest and most widespread family of bats . covered in long , soft hair with curly tips , the woolly bats are most easily recognised by their grizzly appearance and by a fringe of hair which sits around the hind edge of the naked , reddish - brown interfemoral membrane , which stretches between the legs ( 3 )\nalong with schreibers ' s long - fingered bat and the egyptian slit - faced bat , dent ' s horseshoe bat can also be found in arnhem cave and rest camp .\nmany details of the damara woolly bat ' s biology and life history remain sketchy but there are a number of facts that researchers have identified . this bat is nocturnal and relies on echolocation to navigate and catch its insect prey . it has a low intensity call which lasts for around two millisecondswith a moderately high peak frequency ( 90 to 118 khz ) ( 4 ) .\nwhilst rare , the range of the damara woolly bat is vast , stretching across much of africa . countries in which it has been identified include angola , cote d ' ivoire , democratic republic of the congo , kenya , malawi , mozambique , namibia , senegal , south africa , swaziland , tanzania , uganda , zambia and zimbabwe ( 2 ) ( 4 )\ncoloring : off - white to predominately dark grayish - brown long , woolly fur with a lighter shade on the abdomen to that of the back .\ncoloring : externally they are similar in size and appearance to the angolan epauletted fruit bat .\nefforts are being made to collect and record bat species throughout southern africa . by documenting bat species and numbers it is hoped that specific threats to rare species can be identified and controlled ( 5 )\ndistribution : the banana bat favors plantations near permanent sources of water which also provide appropriate roosting places .\nkunz , t . h . and fenton , m . b . ( 2003 ) bat ecology . chicage university press , chicago .\nintroduction : the angola free - tailed bat ( mops condylura ) roost in crevices , caves , attics and expansion joints in bridges . they are common in their distribution range , occurring in colonies ranging from a few individuals to several hundred , often in co - existence with the little free - tailed bat . at bridges , the angola free - tailed bat uses it ' s wings as air brakes prior to landing .\nintroduction : the angolan epauletted fruit bat is slightly larger in size to peters ' s epauletted fruit bat . many of their species have ' prominent transverse ridges in the soft palate ' to compress fruit pulp against the tongue . this enables them to withdraw juices and then throw away the pulp .\nintroduction : this small bat is known to emerge at dusk . small colonies take refuge during the day under crevices and loose bark from tall trees .\ndiet : the egyptian slit - faced bat hunts favourite insects and spiders , swooping from their perches once their flight path has been cleared by air - traffic control .\nintroduction : r\u00fcppells horseshoe bat occur in small colonies of about 12 , mainly in open woodland savannah and depends on a selection of shelters that include caves and hollow trees , ideal roosting places that protect them from the extremes of daily weather conditions . a characteristic of the horseshoe bat is the complicated nose structure which assists their extremely sensitive echolocation abilities .\nintroduction : the flat - headed free - tailed bat is a free - tailed bat , differing to others of the species by an extraordinary flattened skull . this is not apparent when the bat is alive . studies have discovered it has the ability to roost in the narrowest of rock crevices , impossible roosting destinations for other bats . another distinguishing feature is the lack of a sheathed tail membrane . they also have wrinkled upper lips and ' complex ears ' . their narrow , elongated wings enable them to fly fast and straight .\ndistribution : the flat - headed free - tailed bat head for open seasonal waters in the rainy season , specifically in the namib desert and at rosh pinah in southern namibia .\nintroduction : commerson ' s leaf - nosed bat is the largest insectivorous bat in southern africa . it has long hind legs and sharp , prominent dark claws . its well - developed canines are capable of inflicting a nasty bite . these features have lent some experts to believe that this bat may be carnivorous , although only preying on insects disproves this theory . colonies ranging from a few to several hundred roost in caves or in the hollows of trees . they are lone foragers at night and travel considerable distances to rest , groom and listen for prey .\nthis particular species often congregate in large colonies , numbering hundreds . a feature is the interaction between neighboring bat colonies , resulting in a fair amount of noise , centering around roosting space .\nintroduction : the cape serotine bat is one of the most widespread of the african species of bat . variations in size and appearance are considerable within serotine bats , but for the chiropterologists , the cape serotine bat is characterized by its 32 chromosomes . a feature of the serotine is its distinctive ' helmet ' on the skull . it can be found in a wide range of habitats , including desert s , as long as sufficient water , food and shelter exist . small colonies of around 6 roost under thick concentrations of leaves and in sheltered nooks of houses and barns .\nbreeding : schlieffen ' s bat mate in april / may and females store sperm until august when she gives birth to twin pups , who can fly and fend for themselves within a month .\nintroduction : the lesser yellow house bat ( scotophilus borbonicus ) is more common than the yellow house bat , but has a smaller distribution range . as its name suggests , it is the smallest version of yellow house bats . they are found in areas of tall mopane woodland , seeking refuge in the cracks and hollows of dead tree trunks , resting and roosting individually or in small groups .\nintroduction : yellow house bats have bulldog type facial features and are slightly larger than the lesser yellow house bat . it is associated with habitats such as woodland savannah . by day they roost in hollows and cracks in large trees and by night in isolated sections of roofing and cracks in walls . colonies of roosting yellow house bat are so quiet , occupants inside are usually not aware of their presence .\nintroduction : the aloe serotine bat ( neoromicia zuluensis ) is the smallest of namibia ' s 3 species of serotine bats , similar in size to the cape serotine bat . it is known to live in woodland savannahs and hunts in areas of permanent water . the name aloe refers to the ornithologist aus tin roberts collecting the species from the leaves of aloes . they roost in other retreats as well though , such as the roofs of buildings .\nintroduction : the common name of the straw - coloured fruit bat ( eidolon helvum ) refers to the fur colour on the shoulders and back . it is the largest bat in the southern sub region . it is common throughout the equatorial forests of africa and because of it ' s size , individuals have a migratory range that covers all of southern africa , including namibia . this is accounted for by their ' highly developed nomadic urge ' .\nlike many other species of leaf - nosed bat , they are cave dwellers . they also inhabit in the sanctuary of rock fissures , culverts , the dark interiors of desert ed buildings , disused mine adits and hollow trees .\nintroduction : the most remarkable aspect of the schreibers ' s long - fingered bat is the colossal colonies that are found in deep , dark , moist caves . at times over 300 , 000 individuals have been recorded , a feature that can be witnessed in namibia whilst staying at arnhem cave s and rest camp . the heat emitted from such numbers has been known to change the temperature of a cave . an insectivorous bat , it may live for at least 20 years .\nintroduction : the pale free - tailed bat ( chaerephon chapini ) like all other free - tailed bats , has wrinkled upper lips and a complex ear structure and long , narrow wings . a distinguishing feature of the pale free - tailed bat is the pale coloration of the fur , ( hence the name ) . it also owns an unusually long tuft of reddish and white erectile hair against the neck , where a fold of skin behind , joins the ears on the top of the head .\nintroduction : peter ' s epauletted bat is mostly found where indigenous fruit - bearing trees grow in particular fig - trees . the dense riverine forests that are found along the okavango and chobe rivers , as well as the kwando river are such areas .\ndiet : the egyptian slit - faced bat hunts favourite insects and spiders , swooping from their perches once their flight path has been cleared by air - traffic control . coloring : buffy - brown silky fur with slate - grey bases and buffy or off - white under parts .\ndiet : small soft - bodied insects living under the canopies of tall trees . coloring : the rusty bat is so called due to its reddish - brown colour of the upper parts , in contrast to its light grayish - brown under parts . it has completely black wing membranes .\nintroduction : information on this species is very scarce indeed . it is believed that it forages along river beds were greater concentrations of insect can be found . loose bark of the acacia trees , common along the kuiseb river are a favored roosting places for the namib long - eared bat .\nintroduction : the sundevall ' s leaf - nosed bat has best been described as small and fragile . it occurs widely in wooded savannahs . colonies are restricted to from just a few to several hundred and are one of the 6 species that can be found in arnhem cave and rest camp .\nintroduction : the egyptian slit - faced bat is one of the most common bats in southern africa and the most widely found of the slit - faced bats . they can occur from a few individuals up to colonies of some 600 and are one of the 6 species that can be found in arnhem cave rest camp . as with schreibers ' s long - fingered bat they inhabit deep , dark caves and hollow trees as a daytime destination . they are known to use regular night roosts for grooming and resting between feeding forays . after dark they hunt and feed ' on the wing ' .\nintroduction : darling ' s horseshoe bat ( rhinolophus darlingi ) like others of the species , are competent and active hunters mainly due to their broader wings and superior echolocation abilities . colonies normally number a few dozen . the species was named after a mining engineer j . darling who collected his initial specimens from mazoe in zimbabwe .\nintroduction : the hairy slit - faced bat ( nycteris hispida ) is a fragile creature and is characterized by 3 - lobed upper incisors . skin folds on the snout form a deep slit between the nostrils reaching up to the forehead . the importance of this feature is that sensitive organs connected to echolocation are safeguarded within this slit .\nintroduction : as populations of r\u00fcppells bat ( pipistrellus rueppellii ) are small in southern africa , they are not often seen and considered rare . subsequently information is low . what is known is their dental features , the shape of the tragi and their size . they roost in small groups in holes and crevices of trees in the day .\ntaylor , p . j . , cotterill , f . p . d . , van der merwe , m . , white , w . and jacobs , d . s . ( 2004 ) new biogeographical records of five rare bat species ( chiroptera : rhinolophidae and vespertilionidae ) from south africa . durban museum novitates , 29 : 104 - 108 .\nintroduction : dent ' s horseshoe bat is one of the smallest bats in southern africa . as it occurs in hot , dry regions they are dependant on deep caves that offer , cool , humid but stable interior living conditions . colonies vary from a few to several hundred . they roost on cave ceilings and cling to the walls of caves or from stalactites .\nintroduction : the egyptian slit - faced bat is one of the most common bats in southern africa and the most widely found of the slit - faced bats . they can occur from a few individuals up to colonies of some 600 and are one of the 6 species that can be found in arnhem cave rest camp . as with schreibers ' s long - fingered bat they inhabit deep , dark caves and hollow trees as a daytime destination . they are known to use regular night roosts for grooming and resting between feeding forays . after dark they hunt and feed ' on the wing ' . distribution : all over namibia but seldom found in forested areas . it is usually found in open woodland savannah and in the kalahari and namib desert s .\nintroduction : the little free - tailed bat ( tadarida pumila ) is the smallest of namibia ' s free - tailed bats . they roost in roof structures of buildings , taking as much as 80 % of the roof space to hide from predators . they are noisy tenants , present throughout the year and the smell of their body odor combined with guano makes them a most unpleasant visitor .\nintroduction : the common name of the mauritian tomb bat ( taphozous mauritianus ) was derived when the original specimen was collected from ' under the eaves of a tomb in mauritius ' . the afrikaans name is witlyfvlermuis , referring to the pure white belly . they are migrants and will move away in the colder , winter months , returning to the same roosting places when they return in summer .\nintroduction : schlieffen ' s bat is one of the smallest bats in southern africa . it is named after the collector count wilhelm von schlieffen - schlieffenburg . they roost individually or in small groups under protruding bark and crevices of holes in trees or rocks . this is one of the first bats out hunting at dusk . it has a labored and erratic flight pattern , manoeuvring around the skies to catch as many insects as it can in one sortie , especially by flying into insect swarms at night .\nintroduction : geoffroy ' s horseshoe bats are highly gregarious creatures that occur in colonies of several thousand if suitable roosting sites exist . one such site is at arnhem cave and rest camp . as with other rhinolophids they have the ability to hibernate in temperate regions and roost from ceiling sanctuaries . this allows them to tolerate colder conditions , especially with an associated lack of resident insect prey . during the summer months , geoffroy ' s horseshoe bat accumulates body fat , providing fuel to survive the colder winter months . they can then reduce body functions and lower heartbeat levels as low as 2 pulses per minute .\necholocation detecting objects by reflected sound . used by bats and odontocete cetaceans ( toothed whales , dolphins and porpoises ) for orientation and to detect and locate prey . genus a category used in taxonomy , which is below \u2018family\u2019 and above \u2018species\u2019 . a genus tends to contain species that have characteristics in common . the genus forms the first part of a \u2018binomial\u2019 latin species name ; the second part is the specific name . gestation the state of being pregnant ; the period from conception to birth . interfemoral membrane the skin that stretches between the hind legs and tail of a bat , used in flight . nocturnal active at night .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis species is distributed in east africa and southern africa , with some records in southern parts of the democratic republic of the congo and possibly northern angola in central africa ( records are uncertain from this country ) . in east africa it has been recorded from kenya and tanzania in the north , through zambia , malawi and mozambique . in southern africa , it appears to be widespread in zimbabwe , with additional scattered records from northeastern south africa and central namibia .\nalthough this species is rarely encountered , it is not thought to be especially uncommon .\nthis species is generally associated with moist savanna habitats ( including bushveld ) ( taylor 2000 ) . roosting sites include deserted weaver bird nests , among clusters of leaves , on the bark of trees , and on traditional houses ( rondavels ) ( roberts 1951 ; smithers and wilson 1979 ; skinner and chimimba 2005 ) .\nthere appear to be no direct conservation measures in place . it has been recorded from the kambai forest reserve in tanzania by cunneyworth ( 1996 ) , and seems likely to be present in a number of protected areas within its range . further studies are needed to determine if the species is truly present in angola .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\n, and the ears are large and funnel - shaped , ending in rounded tips . the tragus , a fleshy projection covering the inner ear , is long and pointed\nperiod of 40 to 100 days . the female takes the bulk of the parental responsibility , but males of the\nclassified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\napps , p . ( 2000 ) smither ' s mammals of southern africa : a field guide . struik publishers , cape town .\nstuart , s . and stuart , t . ( 2007 ) field guide to mammals of southern africa . struik publishers , cape town .\nmonadjem , a . , taylor p . j . , cotterill , f . p . d . and corrie schoeman . m . ( in press ) bats of southern & central africa : a biogeographic and taxonomic synthesis . university of witwatersrand press , johannesburg .\nfullard , j . h . and thomas , d . w . ( 1981 ) detection of certain african , insectivorous bats by sympatric , tympanate moths . journal of comparative physiology , 143 : 363 - 368 .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nclassification from integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) selected by jakob fahr - see more .\njakob fahr marked the classification from\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis )\nas preferred for\nkerivoula argentata tomes , 1861\n.\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\netel\u00e4afrikanvillakko\nto\nkerivoula argentata tomes , 1861\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsorry , we just need to make sure you ' re not a robot . for best results , please make sure your browser is accepting cookies .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncolouring : silvery - topped , reddish - brown fur on the upperparts and greyish - brown underparts and brown wings .\nthis remote lodge is a truly unique destination . stunning scenery , award winning conservation and highly personal service are just some of the reasons that just about everyone who knows namibia rates this as one of it ' s finest destinations\na small private lodge , with attentive management . activities centre on the huab river which attracts game and a wonderful variety of birdlife . this is the perfect destination to relax for a few days and enjoy the tranquility of the bush .\na non - profit organisation aimed at conserving namibia ' s cheetah population . the lodge offers superb photographic opportunities at scheduled cheetah feedings , and also offers guided game drives to view wild cheetah .\nthis lodge is such an institution that palmwag , which is no more than the lodge and a petrol station , is marked on every namibian map . an excellent location to explore the remote conservancies of north western namibia - and perhaps encounter some of the rare rhino or desert adapted elephant which the area is famous for\na mobile camp , specialising in finding desert rhino . offers a luxurious and exclusive experience .\nan upmarket lodge and spa on the banks of the kavango river . the only traditional luxury lodge on this stretch of river\na few kilometers east of rundu a nice functional lodge that more than adequately serves as an overnight stop while travelling through the kavango and zambezi region . the rooms , bar and restaurant area offer lovely views of the kavango river .\na rustic river side campsite and lodge offering excellent value for money . a lively bar and restaurant ensures this appeals to the younger or more socially inclined traveller\nrefreshingly , and surprisingly for the area , this lodge does not have the word ' river ' as part of its name . do not be misled it is situated on the banks of the river opposite the caprivi game park ( bwabwata national park )\nnear the village of divundu , this small but wonderfully managed lodge is a perennial favourite of ours . lovely wooden chalets , with large decks overlook the river . those wanting to experience the river can choose from fishing and sunset river cruises\na small lodge a short distance west of rundu . the rooms have river views and guests can choose from a range of activities\ni dream africa provides a comprehensive directory of activities , hot spots , top locations etc . in namibia . combined with the directory , i dream africa also provides tour packages allowing clients to experience namibia at its best .\ndistribution : erongo mountains in damaraland . baynes , omavandaberge and otjihipa mountains , and the black hills , all in kaokoland .\ndiet : small soft - bodied insects . coloring : yellowish - brown hair with white under parts . the wings are blackish - brown .\nbreeding : females normally give birth to twins around late november and early december .\nsize : males 80mm , females 90mm . weight : males 5 . 9g , females 7 . 3g .\ncoloring : yellowish - brown hair with white under parts . the wings are blackish - brown .\ncoloring : a rich dark brown fur with lighter under parts , a tawny throat colour with a grey - brown chest and a whitish belly . the wings are brown .\nintroduction : this species is so called due to its habit of small colonies ( of less than 10 bats ) roosting by day in the rolled - up leaves of the banana plant . small groups can also roost in the nooks and crannies in buildings and in the leaves of palms , due to its sucker pads on the thumb and soles of the rear feet .\ncoloring : various shades of brown fur on the back with lighter under parts . the wing membranes are brown .\nintroduction : butterfly bats are associated with open plant vegetation , semi - arid regions and riverine forests . they prefer thatched roofs , a feature of accommodation and lodges in northern namibia and are known to huddle in small groups of 10 in nearby thick vegetation .\ndistribution : north ern namibia n areas such as etosha national park , caprivi strip and further west along the kavango river regions reaching as far as epupa falls on the kunene river .\ncoloring : a dark , reticulated pattern ( similar to that of a giraffe ) opposite to its light yellow base wing colour .\ndiet : insect s over or on water or under the canopies of tall trees .\ncoloring : black - based fur , with yellowish - brown white tips . the wings are blackish - brown .\nbreeding : the female usually gives birth to twin pups during late november and early december . newly born off - spring cling on to the mother ' s fur and nipples on hunting expeditions .\ndistribution : widespread from windhoek , north to the angolan border , including etosha national park and as far east as the caprivi strip and victoria falls .\ndiet : small to large insects ( termite s to beetles ) with hard skeletons .\ncoloring : short , thick fawn fur , lighter on the head and back and light tawny undersides .\ncoloring : silvery - topped , reddish - brown fur on the upperparts and grayish - brown under parts and brown wings .\ncoloring : drab grey fur with a lighter shade of grey on the undersides . the wings are light grey - brown with light brown pointed ears .\nbreeding : female darling ' s horseshoe bats give birth to a single offspring , normally during the warmer , wetter early summer months .\ncoloring : pale grey to pale brown to pale cream soft and long hair .\ncoloring : buffy - brown silky fur with slate - grey bases and buffy or off - white under parts .\ndistribution : all over namibia but seldom found in forested areas . it is usually found in open woodland savannah and in the kalahari and namib desert s .\ncoloring : fur coloration varies from region to region and within a colony . in namibia they are tawny - olive to brownish - grey to dark seal - brown with lighter under parts in shades of grayish to white .\ndiet : moth s and small beetles and any ground insect can be caught due to their wing design . their flying ability permits them to land on the ground .\nindividuals or small colonies of up to 20 roost in dense bushes , houses and buildings , caves and ant bear burrows on a permanent basis .\ndistribution : tropical forests of the far - eastern caprivi strip , specifically zambezi river valley areas .\ncoloring : sepia brown fur , lighter on the undersides and dark blackish - brown ears and wings .\ncoloring : light to dark yellowish - brown smooth , short , silky fur with white or grayish - white under parts .\ndiet : little free - tailed bats consume an enormous amount of insects . they hunt flying insects above vegetation at speed in open air space .\ncoloring : brown or deep blackish - brown fur with light brown under parts with a characteristic variable median broad white band of fur from the chest to the anus .\nbreeding : female little free - tailed bats can have 3 pregnancies in one summer , giving birth to one pup per pregnancy .\nsize : total head and body length 90mm . weight : 11 . 5g .\nintroduction : this is the largest member of its genus in the southern region . only up to 6 long - tailed serotine bats are found at a time , roosting in places of refuge such as rock crevices , caves , mines and sheltered areas in buildings .\ndistribution : from the orange river in the south of namibia through the central highlands as far north as omaruru .\ncoloring : fawn upper parts in desert regions . a darker brown or blackish in areas of higher rainfall . the under parts are lighter but greyer and the ears and wings are dark brown .\nmauritian tomb bats can be identified by their elongated face with a pointed muzzle and short , broad ears . another prominent feature is their eyes , larger than other species of the same size . it is believed that they communicate by smell , as the glandular sac on the throat of the male excretes an aromatic substance .\nmauritian tomb bats occur in small harem groups of up to 12 , consisting of a mature male with mature females and their young . they roost by day in large trees . their grey fur blends in with the background of the bark making them hard to see . they also rest under thatched eaves of cottages , with individuals remaining on sentry duty throughout the day .\ncoloring : grey grizzled with white fur on the back with a pure white belly .\nintroduction : midas free - tailed bats ( mops midas ) are a gregarious species , occurring in colonies ranging from a few dozen to several hundred . they roost in variety of locations , ranging from hollows in dead trees , buildings and expansion joints in bridges , occupying these locations throughout the year .\ncoloring : short dark brown fur , ' sparsely flecked ' with white hair with paler under parts . wings are dark brown with a narrow band of white , silky hair at the base .\nsize : average body length 140mm . weight : 48 . 5g . the males are larger and heavier than the females .\ndistribution : water holes in the kuiseb river bed at the namib desert research station .\ncoloring : light fur consistent with desert animals . light fluffy - brown fur with olive - brown wing membranes .\ndistribution : dry woodland areas of northern namibia , living in small colonies not far from ruacana falls and mahango national park .\ncoloring : the fur on the back is a pale cinnamon - brown with off - white individual hairs at the base . the under parts of the body are grayish - brown with a whitish brown from the throat to the sternum . the wings are mainly white .\nintroduction : serotine bats roost in small groups in any nook or cranny of buildings , rocks and trees . they have been described as ' small , drab and unobtrusive creatures ' that frequent woodland savannah areas with permanent water .\ndistribution : caprivi strip especially bwabwata national park , chobe and zambezi river areas .\ndiet : rendall ' s serotine bats hunt for insects hovering around trees and shrubs , 2m above the ground .\ncoloring : it ' s most distinguishing feature from other serotine bats is a white , translucent wing membrane . fur is dark , chocolate brown at the base , changing to reddish - brown tips . the under parts are grayish - white , with pure white anal fur .\nsize : no more than 90mm in length . weight : adults weigh around 6 - 7 . 5g\ncoloring : the fur on the sides and back are grey . the pure white fur on the under parts makes it easily identifiable from other pipistrelles .\ndistribution : a very wide distribution in namibia less the namib desert and the extreme eastern kalahari flanks of the central highlands .\nbreeding : the female almost without fail gives birth to twins at the end of november or early december .\nweight : 3 - 4g . the females are always slightly larger than the male .\ndistribution : north ern namibia from the epupa falls region , etosha national park , caprivi strip to victoria falls .\ndiet : small soft - bodied insects at or near permanent sources of water .\ncoloring : short light fawn fur on the back with a paler fur on the abdomen . the wings are dark brown .\ndistribution : widespread in namibia from windhoek north to the kunene river and caprivi strip , less for the skeleton coast area .\ndiet : small , soft bodied insects , especially over concentrations of water at night .\ndistribution : from central namibia north to the angolan border including etosha park , the kavango region , kalahari desert and in isolated regions at the mouth of the orange river .\ndiet : individuals emerge at dusk to hunt . they have a keen sense of echolocation and catch small insects in their wings in flight .\ndistribution : north ern namibia from etosha national park stretching to epupa falls and the kunene river , along the kavango river , caprivi strip to victoria falls .\ndiet : individuals normally take 2hr night - time feeding sessions , catching insects in their wings .\ncoloring : adults have a bright yellow belly with short brown fur tinged with olive , red or grey . the wings are translucent and brown .\nsize : average body length 130mm . weight : 27g . megachiroptera ( large bats or megabats ) found in namibia :\ndistribution : in the far north of namibia , specifically from epupa falls to oshakati regions to the angolan border .\ndiet : mainly larger fruits such as papayas , flowers , buds and nectar .\ndiet : mangoes , paw - paws , avocados , figs , bananas and passion fruit and other soft , pulpy fruits .\ncoloring : straw - coloured fur on the shoulders and back with darker brown hair on the rump and lighter under parts .\nbreeding : a single young is born in november and carried by the mother until it can fend for itself . ( but only in the tropical forest region of their range ) .\nsize : total body length 190mm . weight : 240 - 280g . wingspan : 750mm .\nwhy do so many people travel to namibia ? one key reason is certainly the country ' s outstanding wildlife . there are 192 mammal species . . . read more > >\nwhat is the real namibia ? how do you best see it ? the real namibia is slightly different to the one described in marketing brochures and . . . read more > >\nnamibia is a perfect starting point for anyone who has never self driven in africa before . you can cover huge distances on self drive in . . . read more > >\nwelcome to the magnificent sun - baked land of contrasts and geographical extremes wedged between the kalahari and the chilly south atlanti . . . read more > >\nthese small non - game animals live in burrows , either in colonies or small families . they all forage during daytime . some species , like th . . . read more > >\njoin this additional challenge to get a broader adventure perspective of a extraordinary country , rich of contrasts . this challenge is es . . . read more > >\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nthe journal of animal ecology is a peer - reviewed scientific journal publishing research in all areas of animal ecology . it began publication in 1932 , and as such is the second oldest journal of the british ecological society ( after the journal of ecology ) . it is available both in print and online .\nthe journal is abstracted and indexed in cambridge scientific abstracts , biobase / current awareness in biological sciences , current contents , geobase , and the science citation index . according to the journal citation reports , the journal has a 2012 impact factor of 4 . 841 , ranking it 1st out of 149 journals in the category\nzoology\n[ 2 ] and 20th out of 131 journals in the category\necology\n. [ 3 ]\nthis article was sourced from creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . world heritage encyclopedia content is assembled from numerous content providers , open access publishing , and in compliance with the fair access to science and technology research act ( fastr ) , wikimedia foundation , inc . , public library of science , the encyclopedia of life , open book publishers ( obp ) , pubmed , u . s . national library of medicine , national center for biotechnology information , u . s . national library of medicine , national institutes of health ( nih ) , u . s . department of health & human services , and urltoken , which sources content from all federal , state , local , tribal , and territorial government publication portals ( . gov , . mil , . edu ) . funding for urltoken and content contributors is made possible from the u . s . congress , e - government act of 2002 .\ncrowd sourced content that is contributed to world heritage encyclopedia is peer reviewed and edited by our editorial staff to ensure quality scholarly research articles .\nby using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy . world heritage encyclopedia\u2122 is a registered trademark of the world public library association , a non - profit organization .\nkabbalah rav michael laitman , phd translation : chaim ratz editor : c . . . . . . m chaos to harmony the solution to the global crisis according to the wisdom\nkabbalah copyright \u00a9 2006 by michael laitman all rights reserved p . . . . . . uentin rd , 2nd floor , brooklyn , new york , 11223 , usa printed in canada no part\nthis book may be used or reproduced in any manner without written p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 a communal society among\n. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 interdependenc . . . . . . here the will to exist is greater than in the vegetative . for the most part ,\nlive in groups , packs . they are very mobile and must constantl . . . . . . le and must constantly roam in search\nor other plants , and relate to them as a sou . . . . . . ay , the evolutionary origin\nmolecular biology and evolution . 14 from the biological poi . . . . . . m , the evolution\neco - nomic perspectives . volume 16 , number 2 . spring 2002 : p . . . . . . ool\nthis book may be used or reproduced in any manner without written . . . . . . this book may be used or reproduced in any manner without written permission\ncongress cataloging - in - publication data laitman , michael . kabbalah . . . . . . nviron - ment so they could fulfill their wishes . unlike minerals , plants , and\n, people constantly evolve . for every generation , and for each . . . . . . we are seeing in the world . ev - erything else in nature\u2014minerals , plants , and\n\u2014 instinctively follow nature\u2019s altruistic law . only human beha . . . . . . ourselves from egoism to altruism , everything else will be corrected , as well\u2014\n, famine , war , and soci - ety at large . enhanced perception there . . . . . . are five levels to our desires , divided into three groups . the first group is\ndesires ( food , reproduc - tion , and home ) ; the second is human de . . . . . . by doing so , we will be able to de - escalate the crisis and bring society and\nto a positive , constructive outcome . we will talk more about s . . . . . . italism , is failing to make its citizens happy . ac - cording to the new england\nmedicine , \u201cannu - ally , more than 46 million americans , ages . . .\nthis book may be used or reproduced in any manner without written perm . . . . . . book may be used or reproduced in any manner without written permission\ncongress cataloging - in - publication data laitman , michael . kabbalah for . . . . . . l in our world is the least broken ( egoistic ) ; plants are more egoistic ,\n, and some minerals . the spiritual level isn\u2019t a separate level in i . . . . . . the smallest level\ndesires , and finally hu - - mans . . . . . . oing so , we will be able to de - escalate the crisis and bring society and\nto a positive , constructive outcome . we will talk more about such . . . . . . sm is failing to make its citizens happy . ac - - cording to the new england\nmedicine , \u201cannu - - ally , more than 46 million americans , ages 15 . . .\nutopia\u2014 book 4 a look at human values 1 \u2015 . . . . . . . . . uman values 1 \u2015 . . . and gulliver returns\u2016 - - in search\nutopia - - book 4 a look at human values by lemuel gulliver xvi . . . . . . r \u00a9 2008 isbn 978 - 0 - 9823076 - 3 - 2 2 table\ncontents in the hotel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285\nshould not have rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . worked fewer hours per year than workers in any other country . norwegian\nsaid it was because they worked harder\u2014this got a big laugh fr . . . . . . \u2015russia has about 5000 contract killings a year . fearless investigative\nanna politkovskaya\u2018s murder in 2006 was a sensation because it . . . . . . d interest in euthanasia , and had written a number\n. he then invented a machine by which seriously ill patients could . . .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\npacific coast avifauna , vol . 2 : a distributional list of the birds of california ( classic reprint )\nthe fauna of british india , vol . 3 : including ceylon and burma ( classic reprint )\nhardwicke ' s science - gossip , vol . 26 : an illustrated medium of interchange and gossip for students and lovers of nature ( classic reprint )\nthe annals and magazine of natural history , vol . 15 : zoology , botany , and geology ( being a continuation of the ' annals ' combined with loudon and charl\nproceedings of the boston society of natural history , vol . 6 : 1856 to 1859 ( classic reprint )\na history of british william , vol . 4 of 4 ( classic reprint )\nproceedings of the united states national museum , vol . 86 ( classic reprint )\nproceedings of the united states national museum , vol . 77 ( classic reprint )\nbolet\u00edn de la real sociedad espa\u00f1ola de historia natural , vol . 19 : 1919 ( classic reprint )\nurltoken & reg2000 - 2018 ; | webster srl - p . iva it03556440281 - all rights reserved"]}
{"id": 622, "summary": [{"text": "the trillers ( lalage ) are a genus of passerine birds belonging to the cuckoo-shrike family campephagidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "their name comes from the loud trilling calls of the males .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "there are about 12 species which occur in southern asia and australasia with a number of species on pacific islands .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "they feed mainly on insects and fruit .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they build a neat cup-shaped nest high in a tree .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "they are fairly small birds , about 15 to 20 cm long .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they are mainly black , grey and white in colour .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "most species are fairly common but the samoan triller is considered to be near threatened and the norfolk island subspecies of the long-tailed triller has become extinct . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "triller", "paragraphs": ["when entering my new aus sighting , i noticed that variable triller was split and a subsp was named m . triller - but the variable triller no longer appears in the new c / c tax - i am attaching a screen shot .\npolynesian triller ( lalage maculosa ) is a species of bird in the campephagidae family .\ncommon name : norfolk island long - tailed triller the norfolk island long - tailed triller , lalage leucopyga leucopyga , is a conventionally accepted subspecies of the long - tailed triller , lalage leucopyga ( christidis & boles 1994 ; higgins et al . 2006 ; schodde & mason 1999 ) .\nrufous - bellied triller ( lalage aurea ) is a species of bird in the campephagidae family .\n, elevate a subspecies of varied triller ( lalage leucomela conjuncta ) to species rank as mussau triller ( lalage conjuncta ) , following taylor ( 2005 ) . [ ioc : st . matthias is . in the bismarck arch . : ioc ]\nthe varied triller still exists in clements 6 . 7 along with the all of its former subspecies ; minus the one above .\nfind out why 25 million people , including stars like kevin hart , vanessa hudgens and the victoria ' s secret models , are using triller .\nthe norfolk island long - tailed triller was the only subspecies of the long - tailed triller to occur in australia ( higgins et al . 2006a ; schodde & mason 1999 ) . the norfolk island long - tailed triller was restricted to norfolk island in the south - western pacific ocean ( schodde & mason 1999 ) . it was last recorded in 1942 ( schodde et al . 1983 ) and is , thus , presently extinct .\ninitially , triller was just focused on allowing users to create the videos \u2014 you\u2019d make them in the app , then share and watch them elsewhere .\nmobile app triller isn\u2019t just a simple way to make music videos anymore \u2014 it recently added social features that allow users to follow other users and explore their videos .\ntriller is a fantastic video editing app that offers some really fun results . the interface is simple and clean , allowing you to create your masterpiece in only five minutes or less .\nwith the latest update , triller is becoming more of a full - fledged social network , with the ability to follow and be followed . you might follow people you know , or people you discovered through triller famous \u2014 then you can toggle back and forth between the famous feed and your own customized feed . plus , everyone gets a profile showcasing all their publicly shared videos .\ntriller is the easiest way to create flawless video . make celeb - quality music videos , shoot beautiful films , and collaborate with friends to make group videos in seconds . millions have made triller videos on the fly including selena gomez , rita ora , justin bieber , kevin hart + more . just shoot a few takes , tap the triller button , and we quickly edit everything together into an impressive , shareable video . use triller to : * create a professional - looking video with the help of our unique auto - editing algorithm . * look your best with 50 + filters . new filters drop every week . * capture your life from the best angles , or pick from the hottest songs to make your own music video . * personalize your videos with text , drawings , and emojis . * collaborate with friends in group video . * share videos via instagram , twitter , facebook , text , e - mail or save to your camera roll . * * * * * * * * * * * questions ? feedback ? we love it . please write us at : feedback @ triller . co . triller terms : urltoken\ntriller is a video editing app that lets you create spectacular videos in just a few seconds . the only thing you need is your android device , since the app itself offers hundreds of different songs from all genres .\nmanagement documents relevant to the long - tailed triller are at the start of the profile . in addition , the action plan for australian birds ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) summarises critical ecological and conservation data for the subspecies .\nthe only food the norfolk island long - tailed triller was known to take were insects ( hull 1909 ) . the other subspecies eat insects ( both adults and larvae , including caterpillars ) as well as small fruits ( mayr 1945 ) . the norfolk island long - tailed triller foraged on terrestrial insects by pouncing onto them from a suitable perch , such as a stump or fence - post , and took flying insects on the wing ( hull 1909 ) .\nthere is no information on the home ranges or territories of the norfolk island long - tailed triller ( higgins et al . 2006a ) . the other subspecies maintain well - defined territories which are vigorously defended during the breeding season ( bregulla 1992 ) .\ntriller is the simplest way to create flawless videos . make celeb - quality music videos , shoot beautiful films , and collaborate with friends to make group videos in seconds . with triller , it ' s all about capturing the greatest moments in your life and impressing the world with your extraordinary talent . millions have made triller videos on the fly including selena gomez , rita ora , justin bieber , kevin hart , and more . shoot a few takes , tap the triller button , and triller app can quickly edit everything together into an impressive , shareable video for you . use triller to : \u2022 easily create immersive full - screen music videos pick your favorite soundtrack from trending artists and featured genres , record up to a duration of 30 seconds or upload your own videos , and create a professional - looking music video using our unique auto - editing algorithm . \u2022 express your true self capture your life from the best angles . tell your story by singing , dancing and performing in your own style . the world will love you as long as you are enjoying yourself ! \u2022 personalize your videos adjust , trim and edit your videos with text , drawings , and emojis . add cool effects from the selection of 50 + filters . new filters drop every week . \u2022 be creative and have fun together shoot a video with multiple takes , shuffle for the best edit and collaborate with friends in group video . \u2022 go social ! chat , comment , and follow the most talented people in the world . share videos via instagram , twitter , facebook , text , e - mail or save to your camera roll . * * * * * * * * * * * questions ? feedback ? we love it . please write us at : feedback @ triller . co .\nthe long - tailed triller would have been quite distinctive on norfolk island , as it was the only black and white passerine to occur on the island . even during non - breeding , the blackish - brown and white plumage would have allowed easy identification .\nif you only record one take , this will be the final music video . however , if you record several takes , triller can edit all of them together , and create a more professional - looking video . you can also apply different filters to further customize the overall look .\nbut that started to change with the launch of triller famous , a section that highlights a curated selection of user - submitted videos . leiberman said the response was pretty encouraging , with nearly a million users signing up to submit ( he said the app has seen 10 million downloads overall ) .\nthe norfolk island long - tailed triller formed a distinct population separated , geographically , from all other subspecies ( higgins et al . 2006a ; schodde & mason 1999 ) . the subspecies was formerly considered abundant ( schodde et al . 1983 ) , and was reported to occur in ' considerable numbers ' ( hull 1909 ) . however , no population estimates were available . the norfolk island long - tailed triller became extinct by the mid - twentieth century . the other subspecies are assumed to be stable and secure , as they are not listed as declining or threatened ( birdlife international 2000 ; collar et al . 1994 ) .\nthere have not been any comprehensive surveys for the species . there have , however , been a number of ornithological surveys on norfolk island since the extinction of the norfolk island long - tailed triller ( e . g . schodde et al . 1983 ; robinson 1988 ; bell 1990a ) , resulting in no sign of the subspecies .\ntaylor , b . ( 2018 ) . long - tailed triller ( lalage leucopyga ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ni should probably back up a second and explain what triller is . it\u2019s an iphone and android app that allows you to create a video by taking a snippet of your favorite song , adding a video filter and singing along . co - founder and ceo david leiberman said the app is easy to use , but at the same time , \u201cwe still preserve the illusion of glamour that\u2019s often destroyed in video . \u201d\nthe species as a whole , currently , occurs in five populations , each considered a separate subspecies ( higgins et al . 2006a ; mayr & ripley 1941 ) . consequently , the other extant subspecies of the long - tailed triller occur on islands in the south - western pacific ocean : new caledonia ; vanuatu ; and the solomon islands ( higgins et al . 2006a ; mayr 1945 ; schodde & mason 1999 ; sibley & monroe 1990 ) .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . biak triller ( lalage leucoptera ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe extinction of the norfolk island long - tailed triller is thought to have resulted from predation by the black rat ( rattus rattus ) , which arrived on the island in the 1940s ( garnett & crowley 2000 ; robinson 1988 ) . this also coincided with the clearing of a large area of native forest for the construction of an airport ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) . though it was last recorded in 1942 ( schodde et al . 1983 ) , the subspecies was said to have been abundant just a year before ( schodde et al . 1983 ) .\nthe breeding biology is the only aspect of the ecology of the norfolk island long - tailed triller that is reasonably well known . it was recorded breeding between september and february , when it built a shallow , cup - shaped nest of moss , lichen and root - fibres , and laid a clutch of two pale green eggs with olive - brown speckles ( hull 1909 ; north 1899 ) . norfolk island long - tailed trillers were said to have laid a second clutch of eggs after heavy rainfall , which resulted in an abundance of food ( hull 1909 ) .\nthe norfolk island long - tailed triller is known to have inhabited rainforest ( de ravin 1975 ) , and is thought to have occurred in all wooded habitats on norfolk island ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) . the other subspecies occur in open country with tall trees and shrubs in which to perch , rather than in ' solid forest ' . the species is more likely to be seen at the edge of the forest or in secondary regrowth and it is often recorded in plantations or gardens in villages and towns ( bregulla 1992 ; doughty et al . 1999 ; mayr 1945 ) .\nthe norfolk island subspecies was said to have been bright and lively ( hull 1909 ) , so it was probably readily detectable . the other subspecies of the long - tailed trillers feed quietly in the outer branches of trees , often perching conspicuously in the tops of trees and shrubs , not obscured by the foliage ( bregulla 1992 ; mayr 1945 ) . though the norfolk island long - tailed triller has been extinct since the mid - 20th century , if a presence / absence survey were to be conducted , it should consist of diurnal area searches within a radius of 500 m at various sites , or transect - point surveys ( magrath et al . 2004 ) .\nthe extinct norfolk island long - tailed triller was a small black and white or dark brown and white passerine with a long tail . it was 17 - 18 centimetres long . the male , when in breeding plumage , was glossy black on the top of the head and neck , and off white or pale buff on the face , below the eye . most of the rest of the upperparts were black , except for a white shoulder patch and rump , and a white tip to the tail . the underparts were white or pale buff . plumage of both non - breeding males and females was similar to males ' breeding plumage , except for the glossy black upperparts which were blackish brown ( bregulla 1992 ; higgins et al . 2006 ; mayr 1945 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 935 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\navibase has been visited 263 , 293 , 933 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nlogin with instagram , improved performance for downloading & playing videos , improved app activity when it returns from background and many bugfixes to improve user\u2019s experience .\nmy friend told me about this app , so i listened and got it . i like musically , they\u2019re fun to make , and she said it\u2019s like that . when i got it . . it was just confusing . i had no clue how to make a video , and when i finally figured how to make one , it looked super bad and it just was not that fun . i mean looking at others trillers are fun , but making your own and being proud of it is what i wanted to do . i\u2019d recommend musically over this . more simple and way easier to figure out . i give this a two because the only part i enjoyed was watching other people who were actually good at them . not the best app , prefer musically and i think you\u2019d prefer it too . \ud83d\udcaf\nsooo i updated the app and my camera isn\u2019t working when i start to record . . i didn\u2019t know if it was the app or my phone so i went to the camera app and my camera worked perfectly fine so then i went back to the app to see if it worked and it didn\u2019t \ud83d\ude44 so i restarted the app and my phone but yet it still didn\u2019t work soo i dont know what\u2019s wrong . . . like i dont know if it\u2019s bug but i don\u2019t want to delete the app and put it back on there cuz i\u2019m scared it\u2019s gonna delete my stuff so . but it seems like i\u2019m not the only \ud83d\ude2d\nhi . i just got back on this app since last year i think and i\u2019m having trouble with posting . when i try to post it says i need to confirm my email address before i can post . i tell it to send me a confirmation email and i never receive them ( my main problem ) . i have checked the email i registered with many times and it is correct . this has stumped me and i\u2019m really sad i cannot post . if you could tell me how to fix this problem or if you could fix it that would be great ! thank you , plz reply asap ! ! !\nrequires ios 10 . 0 or later . compatible with iphone , ipad , and ipod touch . apple tv .\nwith family sharing set up , up to six family members can use this app .\n+ use android shortcuts to quickly make vlogs and music videos ( needs android 7 . 1 + )\nby purchasing this item , you are transacting with google payments and agreeing to the google payments terms of service and privacy notice .\nthe process of creating a video is really simple . to choose a song , you can use the search box to look it up by artist , album , or song title . you can also import one from your device ' s memory .\nonce you choose the song , you need to select 15 seconds of it , which will be the duration of your video . after that , you can start recording . you can use the front or back camera , as well as the zoom to add interesting effects .\nwe ' ve detected that javascript is disabled in your browser . would you like to proceed to legacy twitter ?\ndo you have a sister & brother song like mawee . bulma ? grab your siblings and dance to that song of yours tonight !\niews - tracks - from - possible - ep - with - jeremih - pnb - rock - and - swizz - beatz - news . 54376 . html\ntwitter may be over capacity or experiencing a momentary hiccup . try again or visit twitter status for more information .\nyou can add location information to your tweets , such as your city or precise location , from the web and via third - party applications . you always have the option to delete your tweet location history . learn more\nhere ' s the url for this tweet . copy it to easily share with friends .\nby embedding twitter content in your website or app , you are agreeing to the twitter developer agreement and developer policy .\nnot on twitter ? sign up , tune into the things you care about , and get updates as they happen .\nthis timeline is where you\u2019ll spend most of your time , getting instant updates about what matters to you .\nhover over the profile pic and click the following button to unfollow any account .\nwhen you see a tweet you love , tap the heart \u2014 it lets the person who wrote it know you shared the love .\nthe fastest way to share someone else\u2019s tweet with your followers is with a retweet . tap the icon to send it instantly .\nadd your thoughts about any tweet with a reply . find a topic you\u2019re passionate about , and jump right in .\n\u201cwe\u2019re giving people the opportunity to make a video that doesn\u2019t look like a bad bar mitzvah video , \u201d he added .\nand if you\u2019re like me and not quite ready to show off your lip - syncing / dancing skills , this gives you a reason to browse the app .\n( tristram , 1879 ) \u2013 makira ( san cristobal ) and uki , in se solomons .\nj . p . verreaux & des murs , 1860 \u2013 new caledonia and i of pines .\n17\u201318 cm ; 16\u00b75\u201321 g . male nominate race breeding with forehead , lores , crown , upper ear - coverts and upperparts glossy greenish - black , indistinct white spots on . . .\ngives a short , rasping call note ; loud , melodious song , \u201ctee - zeeia - tee - zeeia - tee - zeeia\u201d . nominate . . .\nlowland and mountain forest ; commoner at forest edges and in open areas . probably occurred in all . . .\nno current information available . on norfolk i ( nominate race , extinct ) foraged in trees , but also seen to forage in wet grass , perching on . . .\nno current information . on norfolk i bred in sept , dec and feb , feb clutches apparently second breeding attempt in response to food . . .\nnot globally threatened . restricted - range species : present in the solomon group eba , vanuatu and temotu eba and new caledonia eba ; extinct in norfolk island eba . common . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nthis page refers only to birds that have gone extinct since the year 1500 and usually were subject to scientific study while alive .\nsince 1500 , over 190 species of birds have become extinct , and this rate of extinction seems to be increasing . the situation is exemplified by hawaii , where 30 % of all known recently extinct bird taxa originally lived . other areas , such as guam , have also been hit hard ; guam has lost over 60 % of its native bird taxa in the last 30 years , many of them due to the introduced brown tree snake .\ncurrently there are approximately 10 , 000 species of birds , with an estimated 1 , 200 considered to be under threat of extinction .\nisland species in general , and flightless island species in particular are most at risk . the disproportionate number of rails in the list reflects the tendency of that family to lose the ability to fly when geographically isolated . even more rails became extinct before they could be described by scientists ; these taxa are listed in late quaternary prehistoric birds .\ngiven below are usually approximations of the actual date of extinction . in some cases , more exact dates are given as it is sometimes possible to pinpoint the date of extinction to a specific year or even day ( the\nits extinction could be timed with an accuracy of maybe half an hour ) . extinction dates in the literature are usually the dates of the last verified record ( credible observation or specimen taken ) ; in many pacific birds which became extinct shortly after european contact , however , this leaves an uncertainty period of over a century because the islands on which they used to occur were only rarely visited by scientists .\nelephant bird , aepyornis maximus and / or a . medius ( madagascar , 16th century ? ) the taxonomy of the elephant birds is not fully resolved ; it is certain that at least one taxon survived until some 1000 years ago at least . judging from geographical data , a . maximus and the smaller a . medius are possibilities .\nupland moa , megalapteryx didinus ( south island , new zealand , late 15th century ? ) generally believed to have been extinct by 1500 , this is the only moa species that according to current knowledge might have survived until later times , possibly as late as the 1830s .\ncrested shelduck , tadorna cristata ( northeast asia , late 20th century ? ) a relict species from northeast asia . officially critically endangered due to recent unconfirmed reports .\namsterdam duck , anas marecula ( amsterdam island , south indian ocean , c . 1800 )\nsaint paul island duck , anas sp . ( saint paul island , south indian ocean , c . 1800 ) only known by a painting from 1793 . might be identical with the amsterdam island duck or a distinct species or subspecies .\npink - headed duck , rhodonessa caryophyllacea ( east india , bangladesh , north myanmar , 1945 ? ) \u2013 a reclassification into the genus netta is recommended but not generally accepted . officially critically endangered ; recent surveys have failed to rediscover it .\nr\u00e9union pochard , aythya cf . innotata ( r\u00e9union , mascarenes , c . 1690s ) a bone of a pochard found on r\u00e9union seems to resolve the reports of canards other than the mauritian duck having occurred on the island . the taxonomic status of this form cannot be resolved until more material is found , however .\nauckland merganser , mergus australis ( auckland islands , southwest pacific , c . 1902 )\nthe pile - builder megapode , megapodius molistructor may have survived on new caledonia to the late 18th century as evidenced by descriptions of the bird named\ntetrao australis\nand later\nmegapodius andersoni\n.\nthe viti levu scrubfowl , megapodius amissus of viti levu and possibly kadavu , fiji , may have survived to the early 19th or even the 20th century as suggested by circumstantial evidence .\nraoul island scrubfowl , megapodius sp . ( raoul , kermadec islands , 1876 ) a megapode is said to have inhabited raoul island until the population was wiped out in a volcanic eruption . it is not clear whether the birds represent a distinct taxon or derive from a prehistoric introduction by polynesian seafarers .\nhimalayan quail , ophrysia superciliosa ( north india , late 19th century ? ) officially critically endangered . not recorded with certainty since 1876 , but thorough surveys are still required , and there was a recent set of possible ( though unlikely ) sightings around naini tal in 2003 . a little - known native name from western nepal probably refers to this bird , but for various reasons , no survey for ophrysia has ever been conducted in that country , nor is it generally assumed to occur there ( due to the native name being overlooked ) .\njavan lapwing , vanellus macropterus ( java , indonesia , mid - 20th century ) officially classified as critically endangered , but as this conspicuous bird has not been recorded since 1940 , it is almost certainly extinct .\nwhite - winged sandpiper , prosobonia ellisi ( moorea , society islands , 19th century ) doubtfully distinct from p . leucoptera .\neskimo curlew , numenius borealis ( northern north america , late 20th century ? ) may still exist ; officially classified as critically endangered , possibly extinct .\nslender - billed curlew , numenius tenuirostris ( western siberia , early first decade of the 21st century ? ) may still exist ; officially classified as critically endangered . a few birds were recorded in 2004 , following several decades of increasing rarity . there was an unconfirmed sighting in albania in 2007 . a survey to find out whether this bird still exists is currently being undertaken by the rspb ( birdlife in the uk ) .\nleguat ' s giant\nor g\u00e9ant , a hypothetical giant rail from the mascarenes described as leguatia gigantea , is based on his descriptions of flamingos , as leguat was not familiar with their french name flamand or thought that it referred to other birds ( it was in his time sometimes used for spoonbills , for example ) .\nantillean cave rail , nesotrochis debooyi known by pre - columbian bones from puerto rico and the virgin islands . stories of an easy - to - catch bird named carrao heard by alexander wetmore in 1912 on puerto rico might refer to this species .\n, the last records were in 1984 and it seems that all available habitat is overrun by feral pigs and dogs , which prey on this bird .\nvava ' u rail , gallirallus cf . vekamatolu ( vava ' u , tonga , early 19th century ? ) this bird is known only from a drawing by the 1793 malaspina expedition , apparently depicting a species of gallirallus . the ' eua rail , gallirallus vekamatolu , is known from prehistoric bones found on ' eua , but this species is almost certainly not g . vekamatolu , as that bird was flightless and hence is unlikely to have settled 3 distant islands . however , it probably was a close relative .\nnorfolk rail , gallirallus sp . may be the bird shown on a bad watercolor illustration made around 1800 .\nkosrae crake , porzana monasa ( kosrae , carolines , c . mid - late 19th century )\nr\u00e9union swamphen or oiseau bleu , porphyrio coerulescens ( r\u00e9union , mascarenes , 18th century ) known only from descriptions . former existence of a porphyrio on r\u00e9union is fairly certain , but not proven to date .\nthe north island takah\u0113 , porphyrio mantelli known from subfossil bones found on north island , new zealand , may have survived to 1894 or later .\nnew caledonian gallinule , porphyrio kukwiedei from new caledonia , melanesia , may have survived into historic times . the native name n ' dino is thought to refer to this bird .\nsamoan wood rail , gallinula pacifica ( savai ' i , samoa , 1907 ? ) probably better placed in the genus pareudiastes , unconfirmed reports from the late 20th century suggest it still survives in small numbers , and therefore it is officially classified as critically endangered .\nmakira woodhen , gallinula silvestris ( makira , solomon islands , mid - 20th century ? ) only known from a single specimen , this rail is probably better placed in its own genus , edithornis . there are some unconfirmed recent records that suggest it still survives , and thus it is officially classified as critically endangered .\nfernando de noronha rail , rallidae gen . et sp . indet . ( fernando de noronha , w . atlantic , 16th century ? ) a distinct species of rail inhabited fernando de noronha island , but it has not been formally described yet . probably was extant at first western contact .\ntahitian\ngoose\n, rallidae gen . et sp . indet . ( tahiti , late 18th century ? ) early travelers to tahiti reported a\ngoose\nthat was found in the mountains . altogether , a species of the rail genus porphyrio seems the most likely choice .\nbokaak\nbustard\n, rallidae ? gen . et sp . indet . ' bokaak '\nan unidentified terrestrial bird is mentioned in an early report from bokaak in the marshall islands . it is described as a\n. in the former case it may have been a vagrant of some still - extant species ; in any case , no bird that could be described as\nbustard - like\nis found on bokaak today .\nrallidae gen . et sp . indet . ' amsterdam island ' unknown rail from amsterdam island , one specimen found but not recovered . extinct by 1800 or may have been straggler of extant species .\nalaotra grebe , tachybaptus rufolavatus ( lake alaotra , madagascar , 1985 ) officially declared extinct in 2010 , 25 years after the last official sighting . declined through habitat destruction and hybridization with the little grebe . disappeared from only known location in the 1980s .\nthe\npainted vulture\n, sarcoramphus sacra , a floridian bird supposedly similar to the king vulture , seems based on a misidentification of the northern caracara . see king vulture article for discussion .\nascension night heron , nycticorax olsoni ( ascension island , atlantic , late 16th century ? ) known only from subfossil bones , but the description of a flightless ascension bird by andr\u00e9 th\u00e9vet cannot be identified with anything other than this species .\nnew zealand little bittern , ixobrychus novaezelandiae ( new zealand , late 19th century ) long considered to be vagrant individuals of the australian little bittern , bones recovered from holocene deposits indicate that this was indeed a distinct taxon , but it might not be a separate species .\nr\u00e9union ibis , threskiornis solitarius ( r\u00e9union , mascarenes , early 18th century ) this species was the basis of the\nr\u00e9union solitaire\n, a supposed relative of the dodo and the rodrigues solitaire . given the fact that ibis ( but no dodo - like ) bones were found on r\u00e9union and that old descriptions match a flightless sacred ibis quite well , the\nr\u00e9union solitaire\nhypothesis has been refuted .\njamaica petrel , pterodroma caribbaea ( jamaica , caribbean ) possibly a subspecies of the black - capped petrel ; unconfirmed reports suggest it might survive . officially classified as critically endangered , possibly extinct .\npterodroma cf . leucoptera ( mangareva , gambier islands , 20th century ? ) a wing of a carcass similar to gould ' s petrel was recovered on mangareva in 1922 , where it possibly bred . no such birds are known to exist there today .\nguadalupe storm petrel , oceanodroma macrodacyla ( guadalupe , east pacific , 1910s ) officially critically endangered , possibly extinct , but a thorough survey in 2000 concluded the species was certainly extinct .\nimber ' s petrel , pterodroma imberi described from subfossil remains from the chatham islands , became apparently extinct in the early 19th century .\nthe chatham penguin , eudyptes sp . ( chatham islands , sw pacific ) , is only known from subfossil bones , but a bird kept captive at some time between 1867 and 1872 might refer to this taxon .\npigeons , doves and dodos for the\nr\u00e9union solitaire\n, see r\u00e9union sacred ibis .\npassenger pigeon , ectopistes migratorius ( eastern north america , 1914 ) the passenger pigeon was once among the most common birds in the world , a single flock numbering up to 2 . 2 billion birds . it was hunted close to extinction for food and sport in the late 19th century . the last individual died in the cincinnati zoo in 1914 .\n) , but bones have not yet been found . it disappeared at the same time .\nrodrigues pigeon , nesoenas rodericana ( rodrigues , mascarenes , before 1690 ? ) formerly in streptopelia . a possible subspecies of the madagascar turtle dove ( n . picturata ) , this seems not to be the bird observed by leguat . introduced rats might have killed it off in the late 17th century .\nliverpool pigeon ,\ncaloenas\nmaculata also known as the spotted green pigeon , the only known specimen has been in liverpool museum since 1851 and was probably collected on a pacific island for edward stanley , 13th earl of derby . it has been suggested that this bird came from tahiti based on native lore about a somewhat similar extinct bird called the titi , but this has not been verified .\nsulu bleeding - heart , gallicolumba menagei ( tawitawi , philippines , late 1990s ? ) officially listed as critically endangered . only known from two specimens taken in 1891 . there have been a number of unconfirmed reports from all over the sulu archipelago in 1995 , however , these reports stated that the bird had suddenly undergone a massive decline , and by now , habitat destruction is almost complete . if not extinct , this species is very rare , but the ongoing civil war prevents comprehensive surveys .\ntanna ground dove , gallicolumba ferruginea ( tanna , vanuatu , late 18th - 19th century ) only known from descriptions of two now - lost specimens .\nthick - billed ground dove , gallicolumba salamonis ( makira and ramos , solomon islands , mid - 20th century ? ) last recorded in 1927 , only two specimens exist . declared extinct in 2005 .\nred - moustached fruit dove , ptilinopus mercierii ( nuku hiva and hiva oa , marquesas , mid - 20th century ) two subspecies , the little - known p . m . mercierii of nuku hiva ( extinct mid - late 19th century ) and p . m . tristrami of hiva oa .\nnegros fruit dove , ptilinopus arcanus ( negros , philippines , late 20th century ? ) known only from one specimen taken at the only documented sighting in 1953 , the validity of this species has been questioned , but no good alternative to distinct species status has been proposed . officially critically endangered , it might occur on panay , but no survey has located it . one possible record in 2002 does not seem to have been repeated .\nfarquhar blue pigeon , alectroenas sp . ( farquhar group , seychelles , 19th century ) only known from early reports ; possibly a subspecies of the comoro or seychelles blue pigeon .\nrodrigues grey pigeon ,\nalectroenas\nrodericana ( rodrigues , mascarenes , mid - 18th century ) a mysterious bird of unknown affinities , known from a few bones and , as it seems , two historical reports .\ndodo , raphus cucullatus ( mauritius , mascarenes , late 17th century ) called didus ineptus by linnaeus . a metre - high flightless bird found on mauritius . its forest habitat was lost when dutch settlers moved to the island and the dodo ' s nests were destroyed by the monkeys , pigs , and cats the dutch brought with them . the last specimen was killed in 1681 , only 80 years after the arrival of the new predators .\nnew caledonian lorikeet , charmosyna diadema ( new caledonia , melanesia , mid - 20th century ? ) officially critically endangered , there have been no reliable reports of this bird since the early 20th century . it is , however , small and inconspicuous .\nwhich also occurred there . it is possible but unlikely that the species survived on \u02bbeua until the 19th century .\nmascarene grey parakeet , psittacula bensoni ( mauritius , possible r\u00e9union as psittacula cf bensoni ) . formerly described as mauritius grey parrot , lophopsittacus bensoni . known from a 1602 sketch by captain willem van westzanen and by subfossil bones described by david thomas holyoak in 1973 . might have survived to the mid - 18th century .\nmascarene parrot , mascarinus mascarinus ( r\u00e9union and possibly mauritius , mascarenes , 1834 ? ) last known individual was a captive bird which was alive before 1834 .\nbroad - billed parrot , lophopsittacus mauritianus ( mauritius , mascarenes , 1680 ? ) may have survived to the late 18th century .\nrodrigues parrot , necropsittacus rodericanus ( rodrigues , mascarenes , late 18th century ) the species n . francicus is fictional , n . borbonicus most likely so .\nglaucous macaw , anodorhynchus glaucus ( n argentina , early 20th century ) officially critically endangered due to persistent rumors of wild birds , but probably extinct .\ncuban macaw , ara tricolor ( cuba , west indies , late 19th century ) a number of related species have been described from the west indies , but are not based on good evidence . several prehistoric forms are now known to have existed in the region , however .\ncarolina parakeet , conuropsis carolinensis ( se north america , c . 1930 ? ) although the date of the last captive bird ' s death in the cincinnati zoo , 1918 , is generally given as its extinction date , there are convincing reports of some wild populations persisting until later . two subspecies , c . c . carolinensis ( east and south of the appalachian range\u2013 extinct 1918 or c . 1930 ) and c . c . ludovicianus ( louisiana parakeet , west of the appalachian range\u2013 extinct early 1910s ) .\nguadeloupe parakeet , aratinga labati ( guadeloupe , west indies , late 18th century ) only known from descriptions , the former existence of this bird is likely for biogeographic reasons and because details as described cannot be referred to known species .\nguadeloupe amazon , amazona violacea ( guadeloupe , west indies , mid - 18th century ) the extinct amazon parrots were originally described after travelers ' descriptions . both are now considered valid extinct species closely related to the imperial amazon .\nrodrigues owl , mascarenotus murivorus ( rodrigues , mascarenes , mid - 18th century ) the preceding two species were variously placed in bubo , athene ,\nscops\n( = otus ) , strix , and tyto before their true affinity was realized .\nnew caledonian boobook , ninox cf . novaeseelandiae ( new caledonia , melanesia ) known only from prehistoric bones , but might still survive .\n1870s ? ) \u2013 circumstantial evidence suggests small remnants survived until the early / mid - 20th century .\nthe puerto rican barn owl , tyto cavatica , known from prehistoric remains found in caves of puerto rico , west indies , may still have existed in 1912 given reports of the presence of cave - roosting owls .\nthe bahaman barn owl , tyto pollens , known from prehistoric remains found on andros ( bahamas ) , may have survived to the 16th century as indicated by the\nchickcharnie\nlegend .\nsiau scops owl otus siaoensis ( 20th century ? ) only known from the holotype collected in 1866 . endemic to the small volcanic island of siau north of sulawesi in indonesia . might still survive as there are ongoing rumors of scops - owls at siau .\ncaprimulgidae - nightjars and nighthawks reclusive ground - nesting birds that sally out at night to hunt for large insects and similar prey . they are easily located by the males ' song , but this is not given all year . habitat destruction represents currently the biggest threat , while island populations are threatened by introduced mammalian predators , notably dogs , cats , pigs and mongoose .\njamaican poorwill , siphonorhis americana ( jamaica , west indies , late 19th century ? ) reports of unidentifiable nightjars from the 1980s in habitat appropriate for s . americana suggest that this cryptic species may still exist . research into this possibility is currently underway ; pending further information , it is classified as critically endangered , possibly extinct .\ncuban pauraque , siphonorhis daiquiri ( cuba , west indies , prehistoric ? ) described from subfossil bones in 1985 . there are persistent rumors that this bird , which was never seen alive by scientists , may still survive . compare puerto rican nightjar and preceding .\nvaurie ' s nightjar ( caprimulgus centralasicus ) is only known from a single 1929 specimen from xinjiang , china . it has never been found again , but the validity of this supposed species is seriously disputed . it was never refuted to be an immature female desert european nightjar .\ncoppery thorntail , discosura letitiae ( bolivia ? ) known only from three trade specimens of unknown origin . might still exist .\nbogota sunangel , heliangelus zusii ( colombia ? ) a mysterious bird known only from a single specimen of unknown origin . long considered a hybrid but confirmed as a valid species in 2009 through dna analysis .\nturquoise - throated puffleg , eriocnemis godini ( ecuador , 20th century ? ) officially classified as critically endangered , possibly extinct . known only from six pre - 1900 specimens , the habitat at the only known site where it occurred has been destroyed . however , the bird ' s distribution remains unresolved .\nimperial woodpecker , campephilus imperialis ( mexico , late 20th century ) this 60 - centimetre - long woodpecker is officially listed as critically endangered , possibly extinct . occasional unconfirmed reports come up , the most recent in late 2005 .\nthe ivory - billed woodpecker ( campephilus principalis principalis ) is most likely extinct , but there is uncertainty on whether or not it was rediscovered in the white river national wildlife refuge of arkansas in 2004 , as intensive searching in the five following years has failed to confirm its survival . the cuban ivory - billed woodpecker ( campephilus principalis bairdii ) was last seen in 1987 and is generally considered extinct , but a few patches of unsurveyed potential habitat remain .\nstephens island wren , xenicus lyalli ( new zealand , 1895 ? ) the species famously ( but erroneously ) claimed to have been made extinct by a single cat named\ntibbles\n.\nbushwren , xenicus longipes ( new zealand , 1972 ) three subspecies : x . l . stokesi ( north island , extinct 1955 ) ; x . l . longipes ( south island , extinct 1968 ) ; x . l . variabilis ( stewart island , extinct 1972 ) .\n, this species has not been recorded since 1956 and although some habitat still exists , it was not found in dedicated searches in the 1990s . nevertheless , its voice\nthe identity of\nstrigiceps leucopogon\n( an invalid name ) , described by lesson in 1840 , is unclear . apart from the holotype supposedly from\nnew holland\n, a second specimen from the\nhimalaya\nmay have existed ( or still exist ) . lesson tentatively allied it to the meliphagidae , and rothschild felt reminded of the kioea .\nmangarevan whistler , ? pachycephala gambierana ( mangareva , gambier islands , late 19th century ? ) tentatively placed here . a mysterious bird of which no specimens exist today . it was initially described as a shrike , then classified as an eopsalteria\nrobin\n, and may actually be an acrocephalus warbler .\neiao monarch , pomarea fluxa ( eiao , marquesas , late 1970s ) previously considered a subspecies of the iphis monarch , this is an early offspring of the marquesan stock .\nnuku hiva monarch , pomarea nukuhivae ( nuku hiva , marquesas , mid - late 20th century ) previously considered a subspecies of the marquesas monarch , this is another early offspring of the marquesan stock .\nwhite - eyed river martin , pseudochelidon sirintarae ( thailand , late 1980s ? ) officially classified as critically endangered , this enigmatic species is only known from migrating birds and it was last seen in 1986 at its former roost site . recent unconfirmed reports suggest it may occur in cambodia .\nred sea cliff swallow , petrochelidon perdita ( red sea area , late 20th century ? ) known from a single specimen , this enigmatic swallow probably still exists , but the lack of recent records is puzzling . it is alternatively placed in the genus hirundo .\nmangareva reed warbler , acrocephalus astrolabii ( marianas ? , mid - 19th century ? ) known from just two specimens found from mangareva island in the western pacific .\nr\u00fcck ' s blue flycatcher , cyornis ruckii ( malaysia or indochina , 20th century ? ) an enigmatic bird known from two or four possibly migrant specimens , last recorded in 1918 . might exist in northeast indochina and might be a subspecies of the hainan blue flycatcher .\ntana river cisticola , cisticola restrictus ( kenya , 1970s ? ) a mysterious bird , found in the tana river basin in small numbers at various dates , but not since 1972 . probably invalid , based on aberrant or hybrid specimens . an unconfirmed sighting was apparently made in 2007 in the tana river delta .\nblack - browed babbler , malacocincla perspicillata ( borneo ? , indonesia , 20th century ? ) known from a single mid - 19th century specimen , this bird may be extinct or could still exist . if the specimen label , usually considered erroneous in claiming\njava\nas the bird ' s origin , is correct , it may have gone extinct earlier .\nrodrigues bulbul , hypsipetes cowlesi ( rodrigues , mascarenes , extinction date unknown , 17th century or 18th century might be possible ) known only from subfossil bones .\nrodrigues\nbabbler\n( rodrigues , mascarenes , 17th century ? ) known from subfossil bones . provisionally assigned to timaliidae , but placement highly doubtful .\nonly one reliable record since 1956 , in 1995 , leaves the species ' survival seriously in doubt .\nbay starling , aplonis ? ulietensis ( raiatea , society islands , between 1774 and 1850 ) usually called\nbay thrush\n( turdus ulietensis ) ; a mysterious bird from raiatea , now only known from a painting and some descriptions of a ( now lost ) specimen . its taxonomic position is thus unresolvable at present , although for biogeographic reasons and because of the surviving description , it has been suggested to have been a honeyeater . however , with the discovery of fossils of the prehistorically extinct starling aplonis diluvialis on neighboring huahine , it seems likely that this bird also belonged to this genus .\nrodrigues starling , necropsar rodericanus ( rodrigues , mascarenes , mid - 18th century ? ) tentatively assigned to sturnidae . the bird variously described as necropsar leguati or orphanopsar leguati and considered to be identical with n . rodericanus ( which is only known from subfossil bones ) was found to be based on a misidentified albinistic specimen of the martinique trembler ( cinclocerthia gutturalis )\noloma\u02bbo , myadestes lanaiensis ( hawaiian islands , 1980s ? ) officially classified as critically endangered because a possible location on moloka\u02bbi remains unsurveyed . two subspecies are known from lana\u02bbi ( m . l . lanaiensis , extinct early 1930s ) , moloka\u02bbi ( m . l . rutha , extinct 1980s ? ) and a possible third subspecies from maui ( extinct before late 19th century ) .\ncozumel thrasher , toxostoma guttatum ( cozumel , caribbean , early first decade of the 21st century ? ) it is still unknown whether the tiny population rediscovered in 2004 survived hurricanes emily and wilma in 2005 . unconfirmed records in april 2006 and october and december 2007 ."]}
{"id": 632, "summary": [{"text": "the drab whistler ( pachycephala griseonota ) is a species of bird in the family pachycephalidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in the maluku islands .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "drab whistler", "paragraphs": ["select an image : 1 . drab whistler > > female 2 . drab whistler > > adult 3 . drab whistler > > adult 4 . drab whistler > > male 5 . drab whistler > > male 6 . drab whistler > > male 7 . drab whistler 8 . drab whistler > > adult 9 . drab whistler\nthe cinnamon - breasted whistler ( pachycephala johni ) is endemic to the maluku islands in indonesia . it has been considered a subspecies of the drab whistler ( pachycephala griseonota )\nmangrove whistler at pulau hantu on 11 may 2014 . photo credit : francis yap\nmangrove whistler at changi reclaimed land on 31 january 2015 . photo credit : francis yap\nmangrove whistler at pulau tekong on 16 dec 2012 . photo credit : lim kim chuah\nidentification : told apart from other similarly sized flycatchers by thick black bill , no obvious head / wing markings or rufous tones in plumage . drab brown upperparts with slaty grey crown , white underparts with duller throat and greyish washed breast . song is distinct .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : although this species may have a restricted range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be common to uncommon ( coates et al . 1997 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\n( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22705525a118688786 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 300 , 446 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nthe ioc world bird list is an open access resource of the international community of ornithologists . our goal is to facilitate worldwide communication in ornithology and conservation based on an up - to - date classification of world birds and a set of english names that follows explicit guidelines for spelling and construction ( gill & wright 2006 ) .\nthe ioc editorial team and advisors update the web - based list quarterly . the updates include changes of recommended names or classification , additions of newly described species , corrections of nomenclature , and updates of species taxonomy .\nthe ioc world bird list complements other primary world bird lists that differ slightly in their primary goals and taxonomic philosophy , i . e . the clements checklist of the birds of the world , the howard & moore complete checklist of the birds of the world , 4 th edition , and hbw alive / bird life international . improved alignment of these independent taxonomic works is a goal of the newly structured international ornithologists union , including a round table discussion at the 2018 meeting in vancouver , british columbia .\nioc world bird list 8 . 1 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 8 . 1\nioc world bird list 8 . 2 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 8 . 2\nioc world bird list 7 . 1 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 7 . 1\nioc world bird list 7 . 2 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 7 . 2\nioc world bird list 7 . 3 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 7 . 3\nioc world bird list 6 . 4 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 6 . 4\nioc world bird list 6 . 3 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 6 . 3\nioc world bird list 6 . 2 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 6 . 2\nioc world bird list 6 . 1 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 6 . 1\nioc world bird list 5 . 4 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 5 . 4\nioc world bird list 5 . 3 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 5 . 3\nioc world bird list 5 . 2 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 5 . 2\nioc world bird list 5 . 1 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 5 . 1\nioc world bird list 4 . 4 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 4 . 4\nioc world bird list 4 . 3 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 4 . 3\nioc world bird list 4 . 2 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 4 . 2\nioc world bird list 4 . 1 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 4 . 1\nioc world bird list 3 . 5 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 3 . 5\nioc world bird list 3 . 4 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 3 . 4\nioc world bird list 3 . 3 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 3 . 3\nioc world bird list 3 . 2 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 3 . 2\nioc world bird list 3 . 1 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 3 . 1\ngill f & d donsker ( eds ) . 2016 . ioc world bird list ( v 6 . 2 ) . doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 6 . 2\nfollowed this bird into the woods where i recorded the first part of this song . i tried to cut out the motorcycle in the middle so this is about four recordings of the same bird in one . when i played it back i got very little change in song or movement of the bird .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nalthough this species may have a restricted range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : pachycephala griseonota . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\navibase has been visited 263 , 294 , 504 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\ndid you know ? all our dictionaries are bidirectional , meaning that you can look up words in both languages at the same time .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nenglish spanish online dictionary term bank , where you can search in more than 2 million words in categories and different pronunciation options .\nonly subscribers have complete access to the families of the hbw alive . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nsmall to medium - sized passerines , generally with short broad wings , square - ended or slightly notched tail of variable length , most with sturdy bill with pronounced tomial notch and terminal hook , two species with bill laterally compressed and disproportionately deep , many with robust legs ; plumage mostly various combinations of grey , black , brown , white , rufous , greenish and olive , some bright yellow below , a few streaked .\nsouth asia and wallacea east to australasia and islands of central and south pacific .\nthe pachycephalidae as presently constituted consists of 56 species in twelve genera . the latter are made up of a central cluster of three genera , containing the whistlers ( pachycephala ) , the shrike - . . .\nonly members are able to see the rest of the text . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now .\non account of the large rounded head , a number of these birds used to be known as \u201cthickheads\u201d , in a literal translation of the genus name pachycephala . they are now known , equally distinctively but more attractively , as whistlers . members of this family range from small - bodied . . .\nall members of this family occupy wooded habitats . rainforest is home to the highest number of species , a tendency stemming from forms occurring in new guinea and the pacific , wallacean and philippine islands . within australia , the situation is markedly different , with most wooded habitats , . . .\na few members of this family are shy , but the majority are curious and tame , and readily respond to an observer\u2019s whistles and squeaks by approaching closely and answering with songs of their own . the grey shrike - . . .\nwhistlers are well named . together with other members of the family , they constitute some of australasia\u2019s most outstanding songsters . their . . .\nthe primary foods of these birds are invertebrates , mainly insects , but including also spiders ( araneae ) and occasionally worms . . .\nlittle or nothing is known about the breeding of many species in this family , and there are substantial gaps in information on even several of the relatively common australian species . that which does exist is often largely anecdotal in nature . only a few species have been studied in detail . . . .\nfor most species in this family , there is little evidence of any regular seasonal movements being undertaken . the distributions of new guinea species are rather strongly altitudinally stratified , and any shifts would occur within the respective elevational zones . two notable exceptions are the . . .\nthe loud , musical voices of these birds ensure that their songs , at least , are noticed by many people . a number of species are not particularly shy , but often will not be seen unless a particular effort is made to locate them . indigenous peoples are much more aware of these birds . their . . .\ndisregarding the now extinct piopio , which may , in any case , not be a member of the pachycephalidae ( see systematics ) , the most precarious conservation status of any species in this family is that of the sangihe . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to access to a lot of extra features !\nlist of species of the whistlers ( pachycephalidae ) family . each species provides information on taxonomy , descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation and bibliography .\na detailed list of the species of the family is displayed to our subscribers , showing the following columns : genus , species , common name , conservation status , figure , and the check mark . above the table , a tiny search engine is displayed to facilitate the filtering of the species .\nyou don ' t have any subscription to the hbw alive . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nboles , w . ( 2018 ) . whistlers ( pachycephalidae ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\na singing bird in roadside forest , bout 12 km . east of sidangoli .\njosep del hoyo , phillip edwards , david beadle , paul van giersbergen , james eaton .\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nhabitat : mangroves and adjacent coastal vegetation . also local plantations and wooded gardens , island forest , local freshwater swamp forest and similar vegetation inland .\nbehaviour / ecology : unobtrusive and rather inactive . sits still for long period amongst foliage .\nlocation : southern islands , especially pulau hantu besar and pulau semakau , changi reclaimed land , sungei buloh wetland reserve , pulau tekong and pulau ubin . last seen at changi reclaimed land on 31 january 2015 .\nenter your email address to follow this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email .\nhome | biography | resources | photo library | top shots | contact copyright \u00a9 2005 - 2016 graeme chapman . all rights reserved ."]}
{"id": 638, "summary": [{"text": "the red-throated alethe ( pseudalethe poliophrys ) is a species of bird in the family muscicapidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is native to the albertine rift montane forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "red - throated alethe", "paragraphs": ["bird call identified as red - throated alethe by alfred twinomujuni . id discussed in forum .\nred - throated alethe ( pseudalethe poliophrys ) is a species of bird in the muscicapidae family .\ncollar , n . ( 2018 ) . red - throated alethe ( chamaetylas poliophrys ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\npreviously placed in pseudalethe ( as in hbw ) but this is a junior synonym of present genus name # r ; alternatively placed in alethe # r # r # r .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : chamaetylas poliophrys . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as common within its restricted range ( del hoyo et al . 2005 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be in decline owing to ongoing habitat destruction and predation by introduced species .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n( sharpe , 1902 ) \u2013 ne & e drcongo ( n to rwenzori mts ) , w uganda ( rwenzori mts , bwindi impenetrable forest , echuya forest reserve ) , w rwanda and w burundi .\n15 cm ; 30\u201345 g . nominate race has black crown encircled by broad grey line from forehead through supercilium to nape ; mantle to rump rufous - chestnut , wings and tail . . .\nsong , given noisily and monotonously , consists of single downslurred whistle , \u201cpiiiyuu\u201d ( pure ) or \u201c . . .\nmontane forest , high - altitude gallery forest and wooded ravines , at lower edge of bamboo zone , 1300 . . .\ninvertebrates , including insects such as beetles , flies and army ants , spiders , earthworms and snails . forages on ground in short rushes at . . .\nsept\u2013oct in rwanda ; mar in uganda ; sept\u2013jul , probably all year , in drcongo . nest a cup of green moss lined with dry moss stems . . .\nnot globally threatened . restricted - range species : present in albertine rift mountains eba . common within restricted range .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nchamaetylas poliophrys kaboboensis : montane forests of e democratic republic of the congo ( mt . kabobo )\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 298 , 174 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\none ( two ? ) individual calling from logs and low branches in open understorey . habitat : primary montane forest .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nenglish french online dictionary term bank , where you can search in more than 2 million words in categories and different pronunciation options .\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content ."]}
{"id": 640, "summary": [{"text": "elachista thallophora is a moth in the elachistidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by meyrick in 1889 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in new zealand .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 8 \u2013 15 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are pearly white with an ochreous-brown longitudinal streak from the base of the costa , and another from the base in the middle , converging to a point in the disc at four-fifths , where they terminate .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is an ochreous-brown streak along the inner margin from the base to the anal angle .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "in males , these markings are thicker , darker , and more suffused , and the posterior half of the costa is also suffused with brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are grey . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "elachista thallophora", "paragraphs": ["this is the place for thallophora definition . you find here thallophora meaning , synonyms of thallophora and images for thallophora copyright 2017 \u00a9 urltoken\nspecies examined : elachista thallophora meyr . , e . archaeonoma meyr . , e . exaula meyr .\nhere you will find one or more explanations in english for the word thallophora . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word thallophora and , of course , thallophora synonyms and on the right images related to the word thallophora .\nsegments are globular , and in elachista thallophora meyr . there are two of these , but in e . archaeonoma meyr . and e . exaula meyr . only one remains .\ntaranaki , palmerston , napier , and masterton ; from january to march , in some places exceedingly plentiful , but apparently not found everywhere . around taranaki i found it swarming in grassy places ; it has quite the habits of an elachista , and is probably a grass - feeder . it is very widely - distributed through australia from east to west , but there also is local , and abundant in some places only .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n[ read before the philosophical institute of canterbury , 1st nov . , 1888 . ]\nfollowing descriptions include all the material remaining undescribed in my hands of these groups . it is for resident collectors to obtain fresh material and information on the habits of described species , and i shall at all times welcome any communication from those who have the opportunity of doing so , and will gladly determine any species sent to me .\n( scopula daiclesalis ( rect . daiclealis ) , walk . , 1017 . )\n[ the section below cannot be correctly rendered as it contains complex formatting . see the image of the page for a more accurate rendering . ]\n\u201cwellington and dunedin . i am indebted , for the opportunity of describing this species to the liberality of mr . g . v . hudson , who states that it is attracted by fight , and is scarce .\nsecond line slightly paler than ground - colour , darker - margined , forming a whitish dot on costa , becoming obsolete on the white blotch , but its margins partially indicated by fuscous scales ; an erect wedge - shaped white subapical spot ; a white entire hindmarginal line : cilia ochreons - whitish , with an interrupted dark - grey line , and on upper half of hindmargin with obscure light - grey bars . hindwings 1\u00bc ; pale grey ; indications of a faint paler postmedian line ; cilia ochreous - whitish , with an interrupted grey line .\nwellington ; one specimen received from mr . g . v . hudson , who bred it from a larva feeding on moss . it is a conspicuously - distinct species , at once recognised by the peculiar white blotch ; its nearest known ally is s . minusculalis .\n\u2642 . 16\u201322mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , thorax , abdomen , and legs pale whitish - ochreous ; palpi long ; anterior legs infuscated . forewings elongate - triangular ; costa strongly arched , apex obtuse , hindmargin slightly sinuate , somewhat oblique , costal fold short ; whitish - ochreous , with a few fine scattered black scales ; a small black dot in dise before middle , a second in disc at \u2154 ( in tasmanian specimen absent ) , a third beneath costa at \u2154 , a fourth in disc at \u215a , and a fifth towards inner margin at \u2154 : cilia pale whitish - ochreous . hindwings whitish , with a few scattered light - grey speckles ; cilia whitish .\nwellington ; one specimen received from mr . g . v . hudson . i took a specimen also at deloraine , tasmania , in november ; the species is very distinct , and i have no doubt of their identity .\n\u2642 . 14\u201315mm . head , palpi , and thorax dark reddish - ochreous - brown . antenn\u00e6 brownish - ochreous , ringed with dark fascous . abdomen dark fuscous . legs dark fuscous , apex of joints pale yellowish , posterior tibi\u00e6 pale greyish - ochreous . forewings oblong , posteriorly scarcely dilated , costa on basal half rather strongly arched , then straight , apex obtuse , hindmargin slightly sinuate , somewhat oblique ; dark reddish - ochreous - brown ; a somewhat darker but very ill - defined central fascia from before middle of costa to inner margin before anal angle , narrow on costa , suddenly dilated above middle , thence to inner margin rather broad : cilia dark reddish - ochreous - brown , terminal half pale reddish - ochreous , on costa barred with dark brown . hindwings and cilia dark\notira river ( 3 , 000ft . ) , amongst forest , in january ; four specimens . a distinct species , perhaps nearest p . zatrophana .\n\u2640 . 16\u201317mm . head , palpi , thorax , and abdomen dark fuscous , slightly sprinkled with yellowish . antenn\u00e6 and legs dark fuscous , posterior tibi\u00e6 yellow - whitish . forewings elongate , moderate , costa gently arched , apex rounded , hind - margin obliquely rounded ; dark fuscous , strewn with ochreous - yellow hair - scales in irregular patches ; a leaden - metallic line from \u2153 of costa to \u2156 of inner margin , angulated outwards in middle ; a sinuate leaden - metallic line from above middle of disc to anal angle ; a leaden - metallic line from middle of costa - obliquely outwards more than half across wing , thence curved round to touch a whitish dot on costa at \u00be , and continued in a strong curve near and parallel to costa and hindmargins to anal angle ; space between first and second lines , and within first curve of third line , less strewn with yellow scales and therefore darker than rest of wing : cilia light grey , rather shining . hindwings rather dark fuscous , somewhat bronzy ; cilia light shining grey .\nmount arthur ( 4 , 700ft . ) , in january ; two specimens . very distinct .\nhead smooth , sidetufts projecting over forehead ; ocelli absent ; tongue well - developed . antenn\u00e6 \u2158 , in male serrate , shortly ciliated ( \u00bc\u2013\u2153 ) , basal joint moderately long , without pecten . labial palpi long , curved , ascending , second joint thickened with dense appressed scales , terminal joint shorter than second , slender , acute . maxillary palpi very short , drooping . posterior tibi\u00e6 clothed with hairs above . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from very near angle , 6 to apex , 7 and 8 stalked , 11 from before middle . hindwings almost or quite as broad as forewings , elongate - ovate or broadly lanceolate , cilia 1\u2153 ; all veins separate , 5 bent .\napproaches most nearly to compsistis , from which it differs mainly in the antenn\u00e6 not being as long as forewings , and in veins 3 and 4 of the hindwings being separate . besides the two following species i have several australian , which are closely allied to them : \u2014\ncastle hill ( 2 , 500ft . ) , dunedin , lake wakatipu , and invercargill ; in december and january , rather common .\nwhangarei , hamilton , palmerston , napier , christchurch , dunedin , and invercargill ; from december to march , common .\nhead with loosely - appressed hairs ; ocelli present ; tongue developed . antenn\u00e6 \u00be , in male serrate , pubescent , basal joint moderate , without pecten . labial palpi moderately long , curved , ascending , second joint with rough projecting scales towards apex beneath and two or three apical bristles above , terminal joint shorter than second , somewhat loosely scaled , laterally compressed , obtuse . maxillary palpi rather short , appressed to face . posterior tibi\u00e6 clothed with long hairs above and beneath . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from angle of cell , 7 and 8 stalked , 7 to costa , 11 from middle . hindwings 1 , elongate - oblong , apex round - pointed , hind - margin very oblique , cilia 1 ; with an ill - defined hyaline patch towards base ; veins 2 , 3 , 4 remote and parallel , 5 and 6 stalked , 6 to close below apex , 7 approximated to 6 at base .\nnearly allied to lysiphragama , but separable by the stalking of veins 7 and 8 of forewings , absence of scaletufts on surface , and hyaline patch of hindwings .\n\u2642 16mm . head fuscous - whitish , more fuscous between , antennas . palpi dark fuscous , terminal joint whitish . antenn\u00e6 fuscous . thorax fuscous , posteriorly mixed with whitish . abdomen fuscous . anterior legs dark fuscous ringed with whitish , middle legs ochreous - white banded with black , posterior legs ochreous - whitish banded with fuscous . forewings very elongate , narrow , costa moderately arched , apex round - pointed , hindmargin extremely obliquely rounded ; white , irregularly transversely strigulated with grey , and more or less suffused with pale brownish - ochreous except towards inner margin and base , and on costal edge ; numerous irregular incomplete transverse dark fuscous strigul\u00e6 , tending to partially coalesce in pairs : cilia grey - whitish , base white , round apex with a black median line and barred with fuscous . hindwings - bronzy - fuscous ; cilia whitish - grey .\nhead smooth ; ocelli present ; tongue developed . antenn\u00e6 \u2158 , in male strongly ciliated ( 2\u00bd ) , basal joint moderate , with pecten . labial palpi long , curved , ascending , with appressed scales , terminal joint somewhat shorter than second , acute . maxillary palpi very short , appressed to tongue .\nposterior tibi\u00e6 clothed with long hairs above . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from \u00be of cell , 4 and 5 approximated at base , 7 and 8 stalked , 7 to costa , 11 from before middle . hindwings somewhat narrower than forewings , elongate , long - pointed , tolerably acute , cilia 29 ; with an ill - defined hyaline patch towards base ; veins 3 and 4 stalked , 5 absent , 6 and 7 parallel .\nonly the one species is known . stainton and wocke both state the ocelli to be absent ; they are , however , distinct , but placed close beneath the root of the antenn\u00e6 , and therefore easy to be overlooked . a more singular and unaccountable error is that both these writers describe the antenn\u00e6 as not ciliated , whereas the ciliations are unusually long for this group .\n( gelechia subditella , walk . , 657 ; ( ? ) g . adapertella , ib . , 653 . )\n\u2642 \u2640 . 13\u201318mm . head and thorax white . palpi white , terminal joint with base and a subapical band black . forewings elongate , narrow , pointed ; pale greyish - ochreous , sprinkled with dark fuscous and a few white scales ; a white basal dot ; a basal patch enclosing this , a patch along costa towards middle , a small cloud on middle of inner margin , one at anal angle , and another at apex fuscous ; a black dot beneath costa at \u00bc , a second , longitudinally elongate , rather obliquely beyond it on fold , a third beneath middle of costa , and a fourth in disc at \u2157 : cilia pale whitish - ochreous , basal half sprinkled with dark fuscous . hindwings whitish - grey ; cilia pale whitish - ochreous .\nwhangarei , napier , taranaki , palmerston , wellington , christchurch , bealey river , and invercargill , probably therefore universally distributed ; in houses , from october to march . accidentally introduced from europe , and common in australia also ; the larva feeds on seeds , dried foods , & c . walker ' s type of gelechia adapertella is much damaged , and its identification not quite certain .\nhead smooth ; ocelli present ; tongue well - developed . antenn\u00e6 \u2158 , in male filiform , shortly ciliated ( \u00bd\u20131 ) , basal joint moderate , without pecten . labial palpi moderately long , curved , ascending , with appressed scales , terminal joint shorter than second , pointed . maxillary palpi very short , slender , drooping . posterior tibi\u00e6 clothed with long hairs above . forewings with vein 1 simple or rarely shortly furcate , 2 from angle of cell , 3 absent , 7 and 8 stalked , 7 to hindmargin , 11 from about middle . hindwings \u00bd to almost 1 , lanceolate , cilia 1\u20134 ; veins all separate , and tolerably parallel .\napparently most developed in europe . the single new zealand species approaches most to some of the australian .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 10\u201311mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , thorax , abdomen , and legs rather dark grey , slightly bronzy - tinged , generally somewhat sprinkled with whitish ; antennal ciliations \u00bd ; abdomen in female whitish beneath . forewings lanceolate ; rather dark bronzy - grey , more or less densely strewn with whitish scales ; in paler specimens there are indications of two very ill - defined inwardly oblique darker streaks on anterior half , more distinctly spotted with darker on fold , and two less perceptible outwardly oblique streaks on posterior half ; an obscure round dark fuscous dot in disc at \u00be : cilia pale bronzy - grey . hindwings \u2154 grey ; cilia 2 , pale bronzy - grey .\nchristchurch ( on the lyttelton volcanic hills ) and mount arthur ( 4 , 500ft . ) , in january ; locally common .\nhead shortly rough - haired ; ocelli present ; tongue short . antenn\u00e6 in male\u2014 ( ? ) , filiform , basal joint moderately long , with strong pecten . labial palpi long , slightly curved , somewhat ascending , second joint beneath with short , dense , rough , projecting tuft of scales towards apex ; terminal joint much shorter than second , somewhat loosely scaled , tolerably obtuse . maxillary palpi moderate , loosely scaled , folded . posterior tibi\u00e6 with a few hairs beneath . forewings with vein 1 simple , 2 from \u00be of cell , 5 and 6 approximated at base , 7 and 8 approximated at base , 7 to costa , 11 from before middle . hindwings \u2154 , lanceolate , cilia 2\u00bd ; veins 2 , 3 , 4 , remote and parallel , 5 and 6 stalked , 6 to hindmargin , 7 remote .\nallied to endophthora . the single specimen has the apex of both antenn\u00e6 broken , and their length is uncertain .\n\u2640 . 11mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , and thorax whitish - ochreous , with a few dark fuscous scales . abdomen ochreous - whitish . legs pale whitish - ochreous , anterior pair infuscated . forewings very elongate , narrow , parallel - sided , short - pointed ; whitish - ochreous , suffusedly irrorated with dark fuscous , less towards base ; costa marked with blackish - fuscous ; a blackish dot on inner margin almost at base ; an irregular series of blackish scales along fold ; a small whitish spot on costa at \u2155 ; a large oblique subquadrate white spot on costa slightly before middle , reaching nearly half across wing ; a small round black spot in disc before \u00be , preceded by some blue - metallic scales ;\nposterior half of wing suffused with golden - fuscous , crossed posteriorly by two slender angulated leaden - blue - metallic fasci\u00e6 , margined by series of white dots ; hindmargin dotted with blackish and white : cilia ochreous - grey - whitish . hindwings whitish - grey ; cilia grey - whitish .\nmount arthur ( 4 , 000ft . ) , in january ; one specimen .\nhead more or less rough on crown , face smooth . antenn\u00e6 in male simple . maxillary palpi obsolete . forewings usually with a rough space on costa between veins 11 and 12 .\nthe family is fairly well represented in australia . i have only five new zealand species , of which perhaps three are scarcely indigenous , but of australian or exotic origin .\nhead rough on crown , face smooth ; ocelli present ; tongue developed . antenn\u00e6 \u00be , in male simple , subserrate , basal joint moderate , with pecten . labial palpi moderately long , slightly curved , drooping , filiform , somewhat loosely scaled beneath , terminal joint shorter than second , sometimes more loosely scaled , tolerably pointed . maxillary palpi obsolete . posterior tibi\u00e6 smooth - scaled . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from near angle of cell , 7 to hindmargin , 9 and 10 sometimes from a point , 11 from about middle . hindwings 1 , lanceolate , cilia 2 ; vein 4 absent , 5 and 6 rather approximated , 6 to hindmargin .\n\u2642 . 13mm . head and antenn\u00e6 light ochreous - grey . palpi grey . thorax light ochreous . abdomen whitish - ochreous . legs fuscous , posterior pair ochreous - whitish . forewings very elongate , very narrow , parallel - sided , long - pointed , acute ; pale ochreous , thinly and irregularly sprinkled with dark fuscous and whitish ; basal half of costa dotted with black ; a moderately - broad ill - defined cloudy - white streak along inner margin from base to anal angle , pointed at extremities , interrupted at \u2154 by a small spot of ground - colour ; a cloudy inwardly - oblique dark fuscous mark at \u2153 from near costa to near inner margin : cilia ochreous - grey - whitish , round apex ochreous , with base white , a grey line , and three cloudy dark grey bars . hindwings pale whitish - grey ; cilia ochreous - grey - whitish .\nchristchurch ; one specimen amongst bush , in august . this species closely approaches an australian form , and , my material being scanty , i am not sure that they are not to be regarded as local races only ; however , at present i am disposed to consider them as distinct .\nhead loosely scaled , rather rough behind , face smooth ; ocelli present ; tongue developed . antenn\u00e6 \u00be , in male simple , filiform , basal joint moderate , with pecten of two or three fugitive scales . labial palpi moderately long , curved , somewhat ascending , second joint with loose rough scales beneath towards apex , terminal joint somewhat shorter than second , loosely rough - scaled anteriorly , pointed . maxillary palpi obsolete . posterior tibi\u00e6 smooth - scaled . forewings with vein 1 simple , 2 from \u2158 of cell , 7 and 8 stalked , 7 to hind - margin , 11 from \u2153 . hindwings 1 , lanceolate , hindmargin sinuate beneath apex , cilia 1\u2154 ; vein 4 absent , 5 and 6 rather approximated , 6 to hindmargin .\nintermediate in some respects between zelleria and argyresthia . the head is less rough than in any other genus of the family . only the one species is known to me .\nnelson , wellington , otira river ( 1 , 500ft . ) , and lake wakatipu ( 1 , 200ft . ) , in december and january ; rather common amongst forest .\nhead rough on crown , face smooth ; ocelli present ; tongue developed . antenn\u00e6 \u2158 , in male simple , serrate , basal joint\nmoderately elongate , with large , dense , strong pecten . labial palpi very short , filiform , drooping . maxillary palpi obsolete . posterior tibi\u00e6 densely clothed with very long hairs above and beneath . forewings with vein 1 simple , 2 , 3 , and 4 almost from a point , 5 and 6 absent , cell open between 4 and 7 , 7 and 8 stalked , 7 to hindmargin , 10 absent , 11 from middle . hindwings \u2154 , lanceolate , cilia 3 ; veins 3 , 4 , 5 absent , cell open between 2 and 6 , 6 and 7 stalked , 6 to hindmargin .\nthe natural group to which this and the following genus belong i formerly regarded as a distinct family ( bedelliad\u00e6 ) , separable from the argyresthiad\u00e6 proper by the hairy posterior tibi\u00e6 and degraded neuration of hindwings ; but from a study of more extensive material i think it better to unite them . the structure of the head is characteristic and identical , and the change of neuration is gradual .\n\u2642 . 10\u201311mm . head and thorax white , face grey . palpi dark fuscous . antenn\u00e6 whitish - grey . abdomen grey . legs dark grey , tarsi ringed with white , middle and posterior tibi\u00e6 grey - whitish . forewings lanceolate ; snow - white ; costa slenderly dark fuscous from about \u00bc to \u00be : cilia light grey , towards base whiter , round apex wholly white or ochreous - white , with a grey dot . hindwings and cilia light grey .\nchristchuruch ; one specimen amongst bush , in december . also from tasmania ; the specimens from these two localities are absolutely similar .\nhead densely rough - haired above , face smooth ; ocelli present ; tongue short . antenn\u00e6 1 , in male filiform , simple , basal joint rather stout , with large dense pecten . labial palpi short , porrected , slender , pointed . maxillary palpi obsolete . posterior tibi\u00e6 clothed with hairs above . forewings with vein 1 simple , 2 from angle of cell , 3 from point with 2 or absent , 4 and 5 absent , 6 out of 8 or absent , 7 out of 8 , running to hindmargin , 9 from point with 8 , 11 from middle of cell . hindwings \u00bd , linear - lanceolate , cilia 6 ; no cell , veins 2 , 3 , 4 on a common stalk , 4 to apex , 5 , 6 , 7 absent .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 8\u20139mm . head whitish - ochreous , somewhat mixed with fuscous . thorax whitish ochreous , in front fuscous . forewings lanceolate ; vein 3 absent , 6 out of 8 ; pale greyish - ochreous , suffusedly irrorated with fuscous except on a streak along inner margin : cilia light ochreous - grey , on costa ochreous - whitish . hindwings grey ; cilia light ochreous - grey .\nlarva mining blotches in leaves of convolvulus and ipom\u0153a ; pupa naked , suspended .\ndunedin ; bred freely from the larva by mr . a . purdie . occurs usually from september to november . probably an introduced species , found in europe , north america , and throughout australia .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 9\u201310mm . head light ochreous , crown mixed with dark fuscous . palpi fuscous . antenn\u00e6 fuscous - whitish . thorax and abdomen pale ochreous . legs whitish - ochreous , anterior and middle pair infuscated . forewings lanceolate ; vein 3 present , 6 absent ; pale brownish - ochreous , with a few minute black irrorations towards costa posteriorly ; a small black dot on inner margin at \u2153 of wing : cilia pale brownish - ochreous . hindwings light grey ; cilia pale ochreous - grey .\ntaranaki , christchurch , and dunedin , in september , and from december to february ; common .\nhead smooth . labial palpi curved , ascending , pointed . maxillary palpi rudimentary . hindwings lanceolate or linear .\nin this family , as in the preceding , there is a strong tendency to degradation in the neuration . where this exists , the neuration must not in all instances be considered of equal importance ; in some cases the disappearance of one or two veins must be regarded as insufficient to warrant generic separation , where no variations appear in the other structure . the new zealand indigenous species seem to be entirely of an australian or south pacific character .\nhead smooth ; ocelli present ; tongue developed . antenn\u00e6 almost 1 , in male serrate , with very long fine ciliations ( 4 ) , basal joint very broadly dilated and excavated beneath to form a large eyecap , with small pecten . labial palpi long , curved , ascending , second joint smooth - scaled , terminal joint somewhat roughened above , as long as second , acute . maxillary palpi very short , drooping . anterior tibi\u00e6 and tarsi rather dilated with scales ; posterior tibi\u00e6 and basal joint of tarsi clothed with stiff rough spines above , inner middle - spur spinose above on basal half , two basal joints of tarsi with short apical spines . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from \u2154 of cell , 7 to costa , 7 and 8 approximated at base , 11 from \u2154 of cell . hindwings \u00bd , linear , cilia 6 ; veins 2 , 3 , 4 parallel , 5 , 6 , 7 approximated at base .\na curious genus , allied to stathmopoda , but very distinct . in repose the dilated anterior legs are extended in front ; the posterior legs are not erected , but appear to be usually appressed to the abdomen , without touching the surface on which the insect rests . only the two species are known to me .\n17 . van . disjunctella , walk . ( vanicela disjunctella , walk . , 1 , 039 . )\n\u2642 \u2640 . 13\u201315mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , and abdomen white . thorax white , posterior half dark bronzy - fuscous . legs white , base of tarsal joints spotted with dark fuscous . forewings linear , long - pointed ; shining white , slightly yellowish - tinged ; a dark bronzy - fuscous streak occupying dorsal half of wing , its upper margin notched at \u00bc , with a short oblique indentation in middle , opposite which is a white dot on inner margin , and with a short projection at \u00be ; beyond \u00be are one or two very fine dark fuscous longitudinal lines ; apex irrorated or spotted with dark fuscous : cilia grey , with a black apical hook . hindwings and cilia grey .\nwhangarei , auckland , taranaki , palmerston , nelson , masterton , and wellington ; apparently , therefore , universal throughout the north island , but not yet met with in the south : common from december to march , amongst forest . the following undoubtedly distinct australian species is so extremely similar that i describe it here for purposes of comparison .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 12\u201315mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , and abdomen white . thorax white , posterior half dark bronzy - fuscous . legs white , base of tarsal joints obliquely streaked with dark fuscous . forewings linear , long - pointed ; shining white , faintly yellowish - tinged ; a dark bronzy - fuscous streak occupying\ndorsal half of wing , its upper margin not notched , cut in middle by a slender inwards - angulated white line reaching inner margin , and with a very minute projection at \u00be ; a white dot on inner margin at \u00bc ; a fine black longitudinal line in disc towards apex : cilia grey , with a black apical hook . hindwings and cilia grey .\nsydney , new south wales ; only on the fence of the botanical gardens , where it is common from september to december . readily distinguished from the preceding by the white dot on inner margin of forewings at \u00bc , the absence of the notch on dorsal streak , the junction of the central indentation and dot into an angulated line , and the minuteness of the projection at \u00be ; these , differences are entirely constant .\nhead smooth ; ocelli present ; tongue developed . antenn\u00e6 \u00be , in male with very long fine ciliations ( 4\u20135 ) , basal joint elongate , without pecten . labial palpi very long , recurved , slender , smooth - scaled , terminal joint as long as second , acute . maxillary palpi very short , drooping . posterior tibi\u00e6 clothed with rough hairs above , posterior tarsi with projecting bristles at apex of two basal joints . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from near angle of cell , 2 and 3 sometimes partially obsolete , 7 and 8 stalked , 7 to costa , 11 from beyond \u00be . hindwings \u00bd , linear - lanceolate , cilia 6 ; veins 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 tolerably parallel , cell open between 5 and 6 , 6 and 7 from a point .\nantennal ciliations of the male . i may add that the european and north american genus schreckensteinia , hb . ( chrysocorys , curt . ) , belongs to this group .\n\u2640 . 14mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , and abdomen pale whitish - ochreous . thorax whitish - ochreous , slightly reddish - tinged . legs pale whitish - ochreous . forewings elongate , very narrow , broadest near base , long - pointed ; pale reddish - ochreous , unicolorous : cilia pale whitish - ochreous - grey . hindwings pale whitish - grey , posteriorly ochreous - tinged ; cilia pale whitish - ochreous - grey .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 12\u201316mm . head , palpi , and antenn\u00e6 whitish - ochreous . thorax ochreous - yellowish , shoulders and a central spot sometimes greyish - tinged . abdomen pale whitish - ochreous , greyish - tinged . legs pale whitish - ochreous , anterior pair dark fuscous . forewings elongate , very narrow , broadest near base , long - pointed ; deep ochreous - yellow ; a rather broad ashy - grey streak along costa from base to near apex ; a short indistinct streak on fold at \u2153 , an irregular spot in disc before middle , and a short irregular longitudinal streak in disc about \u2154 , fuscous or grey , tending to be variously suffused together or with costal streak , or frequently more or less wholly obsolete : cilia light grey . hindwings and cilia light grey .\nauckland , taranaki , palmerston , and wellington ; common amongst forest , from january to march . it is a variable species , but always recognisable by the deep ochreous - yellow ground - colour .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 12\u201314mm . head and thorax whitish - ochreous , somewhat metallic - shining . palpi and antenn\u00e6 pale whitish - ochreous . abdomen grey . legs whitish - ochreous , greyish - tinged , anterior pair dark grey , posterior tibi\u00e6 with dark - grey scales at origin of spurs . forewings elongate , very narrow ,\nbroadest near base , long - pointed ; whitish - ochreous ; an ochreous - fuscous or dark fuscous streak along costa from base to \u00be , sometimes almost obsolete ; an ochreous - fuscous or dark fuscous broadly v - shaped mark before middle , more or less suffused , variable in thickness , its angle resting on inner margin , extremities nearly reaching costa ; a longitudinal line in posterior half of disc , a spot at apex , and an elongate spot at anal angle ochreous - fuscous or ochreous , sometimes partially connected : cilia grey . hindwings rather dark grey ; cilia grey .\nwellington and dunedin ; five specimens in january and february , amongst forest . also variable ; in addition to the conspicuous dark v - shaped mark of the forewings , the darker grey hindwings and grey abdomen are good distinguishing characters .\n22 . stath . skelloni , butl . ( boocara skelloni , butl . , \u201ccist . ent . , \u201d ii . , 562 . )\n\u2642 \u2640 . 12\u201315mm . head , palpi , and antenn\u00e6 pale whitish - ochreous . thorax whitish - ochreous . abdomen pale whitish - ochreous , greyish - tinged . legs pale whitish - ochreous , anterior pair infuscated , apex of posterior tibi\u00e6 grey . forewings elongate , very narrow , broadest near base , long - pointed ; whitish - ochreous , sometimes yellowish - tinged ; markings grey , very variable , sometimes partially margined by an ochreous suffusion ; normally an elongate spot on inner margin at \u2153 , a second beneath costa in middle , a third in disc at \u2154 , a fourth before apex , and a slender subcostal line from second spot to costa near apex , but these tend to be variously connected and confused ; sometimes a streak along fold , or along anterior part of costa ; rarely a dark ochreous - fuscous suffusion towards base of inner margin : cilia light grey , sometimes ochreous - tinged . hindwings and cilia light grey .\ntaranaki , wellington , blenheim , nelson , christchurch , dunedin , lake wakatipu , and invercargill ; common amongst bush , from december to march , but seeming to disappear towards the north . butler failed to recognise the genus ; but it is fortunately unnecessary to consider how to treat his grotesquely solecistic generic name .\n\u2640 . 9\u201311mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , thorax , abdomen , and legs whitish ; anterior legs blackish in front , posterior tibi\u00e6 with a sharp black apical ring of scales , preceded above by some grey hairs . forewings elongate , very narrow , broadest near base , long - pointed ; whitish , more or less mixed with ochreous or grey in disc ; markings rather dark fuscous , but cloudy and ill - defined ; a small spot oil inner margin at \u2153 , a second more conspicuous on inner margin beyond middle , and\nan angulated fascia - like spot towards apex : cilia whitish - grey . eindwings and cilia whitish - grey .\nauckland , wellington , and the otira river ( 1 , 500ft . ) ; six specimens amongst forest , in december and january . a distinct but inconspicuous species .\nhead smooth ; ocelli present ; tongue rudimentary . antenn\u00e6 \u00be , in male rather stout , filiform , basal joint broadly dilated , excavated beneath to form an eyecap , rough - scaled on posterior edge , without pecten . labial palpi long , curved , ascending , smooth - scaled , terminal joint shorter than second , acute . maxillary palpi obsolete . middle tarsi with long projecting spines at apex of two basal joints ; posterior tibi\u00e6 clothed with dense long rough hairs above and beneath , posterior tarsi with whorls of long projecting spines at apex of all joints . forewings with vein 1 simple , 2 and 3 absent , 4 from angle of cell , 7 and 8 stalked , 7 to costa , 11 from \u215a of cell . hindwings \u00bd , linear , cilia 7 ; vein 4 absent , cell open between 3 and 6 , 5 free rising from base , 6 and 7 from a point .\nallied to stathmopoda , but differing especially by the greatly dilated and excavated basal joint of antenn\u00e6 , and by the entire absence of the long antennal ciliations . in repose the imago bends the posterior legs to form an angular arch , and extends them horizontally at right angles to the body . the habits of the larva are known , and interesting .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 9\u201312mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , thorax , abdomen , and legs very pale whitish - ochreous ; terminal joint of palpi with a dark fuscous line on outer edge ; anterior legs suffused with blackish in front , posterior legs spotted with black on apex of joints . forewings elongate , very narrow , broadest near base , long - pointed ; ochreous - whitish , more or less irregularly suffused or blotched with ochreous ; a small cloudy dark fuscous spot on inner margin near base , and another on costa slightly before middle , both in female sometimes almost obsolete ; an apical black dot : cilia grey - whitish . hindwings whitish - grey ; cilia grey - whitish .\nlarva 16 - legged , moderately stout , cylindrical , active ; whitish flesh - colour , or whitish ; head pale whitish - brown . feeds on platycerium grande ( a large parasitic fern , growing on tree - trunks ) , burrowing amongst the ripe fructification beneath the fronds , forming galleries of loose refuse ; found in march ,\ntaranaki and palmerston , in february and march ; common amongst its food . the species occurs also plentifully in the botanical gardens at sydney , but i have not yet met\nwith it in native forest in australia , and it is therefore at least possible that it was introduced into sydney with ferns from new zealand . the food - plant is , however , considered native in both countries .\nhead smooth ; ocelli present ; tongue developed . antenn\u00e6 \u215a , in male stout , very shortly ciliated ( \u00bd ) , basal joint moderate , without pecten . labial palpi very long , slender , recurved , smooth - scaled , terminal joint as long as second , acute . maxillary palpi obsolete . posterior tibi\u00e6 with long hairs above , with a large dense triangular tuft of long scales covering terminal half above , tarsi with long projecting spines at apex of two basal joints . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from \u2154 of cell , 3 from angle , 7 to costa , 11 from \u00be of cell . hindwings \u00bd , linear - lanceolate , cilia 6 ; veins 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 tolerrably parallel , 6 and 7 approximated at base .\nallied to stathmpoda ; sufficiently distinguished by the very short antennal ciliations , and peculiar tuft of tibi\u00e6 , apart from the neuration ; the latter , i believe , i have made out correctly , but cannot be sure on my single specimen , which proved difficult of examination . in repose the imago holds the posterior legs so as to project behind and rest on the surface , but with the tibi\u00e6 and tarsi bent so as to form an erect triangle with the surface on which it rests ; hence with much the superficial appearance of the hindlegs of a grasshopper .\n\u2642 . 11mm . head and palpi light yellowish - ochreous . antenn\u00e6 whitish - fuscous , base yellowish . thorax fuscous . abdomen grey . anterior legs dark fuscous ; middle legs ochreous - yellowish ; posterior legs ochreous - whitish , tibi\u00e6 with a black apical ring , and tuft of posterior half dark grey . forewings elongate , very narrow , broadest near base , long - pointed ; fuscous , somewhat unevenly shaded , but without markings : cilia light fuscous . hindwings fuscous - grey ; cilia light fuscous .\nhead smooth ; ocelli present ; tongue developed . antenn\u00e6 \u2158 , in male subserrate , slightly thickened towards apex , basal joint elongate , obconical , without pecten . labial palpi moderate , curved , ascending , slender , smooth , terminal joint shorter than second , acute . maxillary palpi rudimentary . posterior tibi\u00e6 thinly haired above on basal half and at apex . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from rather near angle of\ncell , 7 and 8 stalked , 7 to costa , 10 from near angle , 11 absent . hindwings \u00bd , linear - lanceolate , cilia 5 ; veins 2 , 3 , 4 parallel , cell open between 4 and 5 , 5 and 6 stalked , 6 to close below apex , 7 approximated to 6 at base .\nallied to the european genus chrysoclista , from which it differs principally in the neuration of forewings . the group of laverna , to which it belongs , although extensively represented in australia , has probably no truly indigenous representatives in new zealand ; the present species , common to both countries , is in all probability really australian , and has found its way over within comparatively recent times .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 5\u20138mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , thorax , abdomen , and legs dark shining bronze , face whitish - bronze , legs spotted with white . forewings lanceolate ; bright dark golden - bronze ; markings pale violet - golden - metallic ; a fascia near base , often ill - defined ; a nearly perpendicular fascia before middle ; a dot in disc beyond middle , beneath which is a black dot or small spot on fold ; an inwardly - oblique fascia at \u00be ; a small spot on anal angle ; a streak along hindmargin from apex ; a triangular snow - white spot on costa near apex : cilia fuscous - grey , round apex with two blackish lines , and a minute white dot above apex . hindwings dark fuscous ; cilia fuscous - grey .\nchristchurch and the bealey river ; rather common from december to february , frequenting leptospermum , on which the larva must certainly feed . the species is common also in new south wales and tasmania , frequenting the same plant , from september to april .\nhead smooth ; ocelli absent ; tongue developed . antenn\u00e6 \u00be , in male serrate , moderately ciliated ( 1 ) , basal joint very elongate , dilated towards apex , with one or two hair - scales at base . labial palpi very long , recurved , second joint thickened with appressed scales , terminal joint longer than second , acute . maxillary palpi rudimentary . thorax in male with a long fine curved pencil of hairs from each side beneath , directed backwards . posterior tibi\u00e6 clothed with long hairs above . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from \u2154 of cell , 7 and 8 stalked , 7 to costa , 11 from before middle of cell . hindwings \u2154 , elongate - lanceolate , cilia 2 ; veins all separate and tolerably parallel .\nstainton was undoubtedly mistaken in reuniting this genus to laverna , to which it is by no means closely allied , differing in several essential points .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 15\u201321mm . head and thorax pale ochreous . palpi whitish - ochreous , terminal joint with a longitudinal dark fuscous line . forewings elongate , very narrow , long - pointed ; whitish - ochreous , brownish - tinged ; a round dark fuscous dot in disc before middle , and a second at \u2154 , tending to be ringed with ochreous - whitish , and connected by an obscure streak of ochreous - whitish scales somewhat mixed with fuscous ; beyond the second dot is generally a small fuscous spot : cilia whitish - ochreous . hindwings pale grey , ochreous - tinged ; cilia whitish - ochreous .\nlarva yellow - whitish , with five brownish longitudinal lines ; feeding in seedheads of typha angustifolia , burrowing amongst the seeds , and causing the down to hang out in loose masses , exactly in the manner of scieropepla typhicola .\nhamilton ; one specimen in january , amongst the swamps of the waikato . i have also taken it in new south wales . the species occurs in central europe , but is not very widely known , probably owing to the retired habits of the imago . my specimens are the only ones taken outside europe ; yet , as it is hardly conceivable that the species should have been artificially introduced , and as the typha is thought to be indigenous in suitable localities all round the world , i conjecture that the insect may be truly cosmopolitan . the light down of the seedheads , carrying the seeds of the plant and the ova of the insect , must be exceedingly susceptible of dissemination by the wind .\nhead smooth ; ocelli absent ; tongue developed . antenn\u00e6 \u00be , in male serrate , pubescent , basal joint very elongate , with pecten . labial palpi moderately long , curved , ascending , second joint with loose rough scales beneath towards apex , terminal joint as long as second , slightly roughened anteriorly , acute . maxillary palpi very short , appressed to tongue . thorax in male with some very long fine hairs beneath from posterior extremity . posterior tibi\u00e6 clothed with long hairs above . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from angle of cell , 5 and 6 out of 7 , 7 to costa , 8 out of 7 before 6 , 11 from middle . hindwings \u00bd , linear - lanceolate , cilia 6 ; veins 2 , 3 , 4 parallel , 5 from a point with 6 , 6 and 7 stalked .\nallied to the group of laverna , but not very closely approaching any particular genus .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 11\u201312mm . head ochreous - white . palpi white , second joint with basal half black , and apical and subapical ochreous rings , terminal joint with basal half black . antenn\u00e6 whitish ,\nobscurely ringed with blackish . thorax white , or whitish - ochreous . abdomen pale yellowish - ochreous , posteriorly greyer . legs blackish , ringed with ochreous - white . forewings very elongate , narrow , long - pointed ; greyish - ochreous , coarsely and irregularly irrorated with dark fuscous ; markings white , tending to be margined by a black suffusion ; a triangular spot on costa before \u00bc , its apex sometimes almost reaching inner margin ; an irregular somewhat oblique blotch beyond middle , touching costa anteriorly , and almost reaching inner margin ; a small ill - defined , irregular , transverse spot near apex , most distinct on costa : cilia pale ochreous - greyish , round apex somewhat mixed with fuscous . hindwings grey ; cilia pale ochreous - grey .\nchristchurch and invercargill in december , february , and march ; six specimens , amongst bush .\nhead smooth ; ocelli present or absent ; tongue developed . antenn\u00e6 \u2158 to 1 , in male serrate , pubescent or simple ; basal joint elongate , with pecten . labial palpi very long , recurved , smooth , slender , terminal joint longer than second , acute . maxillary palpi rudimentary . posterior tibi\u00e6 clothed with hairs above . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from \u2158 of cell , 5 sometimes out of 7 , 6 out of 7 or absent , 7 to costa , 8 out of 7 , 11 from before middle . hindwings about \u00bd , linear - lanceolate , cilia 3 to 6 ; veins 2 , 3 , 4 parallel , 5 approximated to 4 , 6 and 7 from a point , or stalked , or rarely coincident .\nthis interesting genus , which is rather an old type of the family , and indicates the origin of some more widely - distributed forms , is rather extensively distributed in australia , and i have also described several species from the south pacific islands . of the three new zealand species , the first two are endemic , but markedly allied to australian forms , the third is widely distributed in australia .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 9\u201313mm . head and thorax golden - ochreous , face white , eyes crimson . palpi ochreous , more or less suffused with white , terminal joint white with anterior edge and often apex black . antenn\u00e6 white , ringed with black . abdomen whitish - ochreous . legs whitish , banded with dark fuscous , posterior pair pale whitish - ochreous . forewings elongate , very narrow , long - pointed ; vein 5 separate , 6 present ; golden -\nochreous , paler towards costa posteriorly ; markings snow - white , finely black - margined ; a very slender median line from base to \u00bc ; a slender oblique line from costa at \u2155 , terminating in a moderate triangular spot on inner margin before , middle , which is either wholly white , or white with an ochreous centre ; or wholly ochreous and scarcely paler than ground - colour ; a line from \u2156 of costa almost perpendicularly half across wing , thence abruptly rectangularly bent outwards to middle of disc , and again rectangularly bent to inner margin ; a fine , extremely oblique line from middle of costa to disc at \u00be , thence acutely angulated to anal angle , sinuate inwards beneath costa , connected with preceding line on costa by a fine white line , and on inner margin by a streak which is either white , or ochreous hardly paler than ground - colour ; a whitish - ochreous or white , posteriorly black - margined , mark on costa at \u2158 , whence proceeds a black sometimes ill - defined line to apex ; sometimes an irregular short white streak along hindmargin to apex : cilia light greyish - ochreous , round apex more golden - ochreous , with a black dot at base on apex . hindwings with veins 6 and 7 stalked ; costa in male with long loose hairs at base ; grey ; cilia light ochreous - greyish .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 10\u201312mm . head and thorax reddish - ochreous ; face ochreous - whitish . palpi white , second joint with three ochreous rings , terminal joint with three black rings . antenn\u00e6 white , ringed with black . abdomen grey , towards base pale - ochreous . legs whitish , banded with blackish . forewings elongate , very narrow , long - pointed ; vein 5 separate , 6 present ; reddish - ochreous , tending to become whitish - ochreous round markings and towards base of inner margin ; markings ochreous - white , closely irrorated with black ; an irregular oblique fascia from \u00bc of costa , not reaching inner margin , emitting a short streak from posterior edge above middle ; an irregular somewhat 8 - shaped spot in middle of disc , from upper part of which proceeds an irregular streak to costa before apex ; an irregular ochreous - whitish streak along hindmargin from apex to anal angle ; a black apical dot : cilia light ochreous - greyish , round apex reddish - ochreous , with a blackish basal line and two blackish apical hooks . hindwings with veins 6 and 7 stalked ; grey ; cilia pale - grey , ochreous - tinged .\n\u2642 \u2640 , 7\u201310mm . head and thorax brownish - ochreous , face ochreous - whitish . palpi ochreous - whitish , second joint with\nbasal half and a subapical ring suffusedly irrorated with black , terminal joint irrorated with dark fuscous . antenn\u00e6 whitish - ochreous , ringed with dark fuscous . abdomen grey - whitish , or grey . legs dark grey , suffusedly ringed with whitish . forewings lanceolate ; vein 5 separate , 6 present ; brownish - ochreous , sometimes more or less sprinkled with dark fuscous ; a black dot on base of costa , sometimes obsolete , a second on costa near base , a third in disc beneath second , a fourth on base of inner margin , often obsolete , a fifth in disc before middle , a sixth on fold rather obliquely beyond fifth , and a seventh in disc at \u2154 ; generally two small indistinct whitish - ochreous spots on costa and inner margin opposite seventh dot : cilia light grey , darker round apex . hindwings with veins 6 and 7 from a point ; grey ; cilia light - grey .\nhead smooth ; ocelli present ; tongue developed . antenn\u00e6 \u00be , in male simple , filiform or serrulate , basal joint moderate , with or without pecten . labial palpi long , recurved , slender , smooth - scaled , terminal joint shorter than second , acute . maxillary palpi obsolete . posterior tibi\u00e6 clothed with long hairs above and beneath . forewings with vein 1 simple , 2 from angle of cell , 4 sometimes absent , 5 absent , 6 out of 7 , 7 to costa , 8 out of 7 or absent , 9 approximated to or from point with or out of 7 , 11 from middle . hindwings about \u00bd , narrow lanceolate , cilia 3 to 5 ; vein 4 sometimes absent , 5 absent , cell sometimes open below 6 , 6 and 7 stalked .\na genus of considerable extent , and probably cosmopolitan , but from the obscurity of the species hitherto not much noticed outside europe . besides the seven new zealand species , i have about fifteen australian . all known larv\u00e6 of the genus mine in leaves of grasses or sedges . wocke separates the species in which vein 4 of both wings is absent ( it appears to change in both wings simultaneously ) as a distinct genus , under the name p\u00e6ciloptilia ; but , after careful consideration , this appears to me unnecessary : there is no other difference whatever , and , as i have remarked above , in this family the disappearance of a vein is not of great importance , and the neuration of many of its genera is liable to vary to that extent . i have therefore retained all in one genus , but used the character to separate it into sections .\n\u2642 . 13mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , and thorax whitish - grey . abdomen ochreous - whitish , with a dense black apical exsertible tuft . legs dark fuscous , posterior pair ochreous - whitish . forewings lanceolate ; whitish - grey , somewhat irrorated with darker ; an elongate black dot on fold before middle , a second in disc above middle , and a third in disc at \u2154 : cilia grey - whitish , with a spot of black scales at base round apex , and tips sprinkled with black . hindwings and cilia pale whitish - grey .\nhamilton ; one specimen in january . i have two specimens from australia which closely resemble this , and which agree in possessing the characteristic and highly peculiar black anal tuft ; but , as they differ considerably from the new zealand specimen , and also from one another , in the position of the black dots on the forewings , i have not felt justified at present in uniting them , although i think it very probable that a longer series of specimens may prove this character to be variable .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 9\u201314mm . head whitish . palpi grey , terminal joint and apex of second white . antenn\u00e6 grey . thorax whitish - grey . abdomen grey - whitish , anal tuft in male more or less ochreous - tinged . legs dark grey , posterior pair grey - whitish . forewings lanceolate ; light grey or rarely grey - whitish ; a black dot on fold in middle , and an elongate black dot in disc at \u2154 : cilia grey , with indications of two black lines for a short distance below apex . hindwings and cilia grey .\nhamilton , makatoku , and invercargill ; common in swampy places , in december , january , and march .\nchristchurch ( on sandhills ) and mount arthur ( 4 , 000ft . ) , in january and march ; locally abundant . the variation in size is noteworthy , some of the largest females being twice as large as the males . the species is a remarkably distinct one , but recalls e . rufocinerea , to which it has probably some real relationship .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 8\u201310mm . head and thorax ochreous - whitish , sprinkled with ochreous . palpi white . antenn\u00e6 fuscous . abdomen grey - whitish , anal tuft ochreous - whitish . legs dark fuscous , posterior pair ochreous - whitish . forewings lanceolate ; whitish , more or less irrorated with ochreous , especially on dorsal half ; a slender ochreous - fuscous median longitudinal streak from near base to middle , and a second from above extremity of first to near apex ; a fuscous dot beneath apex of first streak , sometimes obsolete ; inner margin more or less obscurely brownish towards base : cilia grey - whitish . hindwings pale grey ; cilia grey - whitish .\nchristchurch , on the port hills ; in january and march , abundant amongst the tussock - grass , to which it appears attached .\n\u2642 . 9\u201310mm . head and palpi ochreous - whitish . antenn\u00e6 fuscous . thorax whitish - ochreous irrorated with grey . abdomen grey , anal tuft whitish - ochreous . legs dark grey , ringed with whitish , posterior tibi\u00e6 whitish . forewings lanceolate ; pale whitish - ochreous , irrorated with grey , more closely and suffusedly on costa , more yellowish - tinged in disc ; a slender black median streak from near base to before middle ; a black elongate dot in disc above middle , and a second , larger"]}
{"id": 646, "summary": [{"text": "the moustached antpitta ( grallaria alleni ) is a species of bird placed in the family grallariidae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is found in colombia and ecuador .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "moustached antpitta", "paragraphs": ["information on the moustached antpitta is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nthe rare moustached antpitta comes to worms . - picture of paz de las aves bird refuge , mindo\nthe rare moustached antpitta comes to worms . - picture of paz de las aves bird refuge , mindo - tripadvisor\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - moustached antpitta ( grallaria alleni )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - moustached antpitta ( grallaria alleni )\ntitle =\narkive species - moustached antpitta ( grallaria alleni )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nweek of 14 - 20 february 2010 : best birds observed and reported include plumbeous hawk along road , rufescent screech - owl behind guest house , spot - fronted swifts , white - faced nunbird photographed along nunbird ridge trail , yellow - breasted antpitta along sr . tim\u00b4s trail , moustached antpitta photographed nest , two eggs and adult on nest , giant antpitta calling , tyrannine woodcreeper , beautiful jay ( 3 observed ) , toucan barbet daily , plate - billed mountain - toucan daily , powerful woodpecker daily .\ngiant , moustached and yellow - breasted antpittas heard regularly and the latter two seen along sister\u00b4s loop and se\u00f1or tim\u00b4s trails ; giant antpitta photographed in the lower part of the reserve ; chestnut - crowned antpitta vocal and abundant on the upper part of the reserve ; ocellated tapaculo heard occasionally ; scaled fruiteater and olivaceous piha seen near the guest houses ; beautiful jays seen every few days near the guest houses .\nweek of 8 - 15 january 2010 : 2 hoary pufflegs at guest house feeders , green - fronted lancebill near banana feeders , spot - fronted swifts seen daily , rufescent ( colombian ) screech - owl seen and photographed on two separate nights , olivaceous piha , 5 beautiful jays , yellow - breasted antpitta , 2 moustached antpitta observed on canyons trail and sr . tim\u00b4s trail , plus many fledgling birds .\non 25 february at 6am a beautiful male lyre - tailed nightjar was seen perched on the entry wall at the guest house . active nests of moustached and yellow - breasted antpitta were found and 3 species of tapaculo were heard behind the guest house , 3 species of woodpecker were regulars while scaled fruiteater and beautiful jay were vocal early in the morning .\nweek of 14 - 20 march 2010 : best mammal : spectacled bear observed on guan gulch trail at lucy\u00b4s creek behind the guest house on 15 march at 10 . 15am ! ! best birds included rufescent screech - owl ( heard ) , moustached antpitta adult feeding nestlings in the nest plus a second adult observed in a different territory ( observed ) , yellow - breasted and chestnut - crowned antpitta ( heard ) , tyrannine woodcreeper ( heard ) , white - faced nunbird ( heard ) , scaled fruiteater ( observed ) , beautiful jay ( observed ) , black - chinned mountain - tanager ( observed ) .\nkrabbe , n . k . & schulenberg , t . s . ( 2018 ) . moustached antpitta ( grallaria alleni ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\neders ; common potoo photographed along brothers trail ; rufescent ( colombian ) screech - owl behind guest house ; cloud - forest pygmy - owl seen on the trail ; hook - billed kites adult pair plus juvenile seen daily near guest house ; powerful woodpecker ; plate - billed mountain - toucan - family of 3 seen daily at guest house ; yellow - breasted and moustached antpitta seen on the trails ; western hemispingus , scaled fruiteater , chestnut - capped brush - finch eating bananas at banana feeders .\npygmy - owl ( heard along road ) , mottled owl ( vocal at guest house ) , white - tailed hillstar ( at feeders ) , hoary puffleg ( at feeders ) , crested quetzal ( along guan gulch ) , yellow - vented woodpecker ( pair around guest houses ) , yellow - breasted antpitta ( observed along sr . tim\u00b4s trail ) , moustached antpitta ( observed on sister\u00b4s loop trail ) , club - winged manakin ( heard along parrot hill loop ) , golden - winged manakin ( vocal along entry trail ) , scaled fruiteater ( singing at fruit feeders ) , plushcap ( in flock behind the guest house ) , yellow - bellied siskin ( vocal around guest houses ) , plus 16 additional hummingbird species at the feeders .\ndecember 2010 : best birds included hoary puffleg continues to be a regular at our feeders , white - tailed hillstar also at the feeders but not regularly ; total hummingbirds seen at the feeders = up to 19 species ! plate - billed mountain - toucans regularly seen and photographed from the guest house patio ; moustached and yellow - breasted antpitta very vocal throughout the reserve ; bronze - olive pygmy - tyrant , rufous - headed pygmy - tyrant and rufous - crowned tody - flycatcher abundant along trails ; as many as 4 beautiful jays seen near guest house .\nblack - and - chestnut eagle flying low over the upper site ; wattled guan vocal along canyons trail and santa rosa river trail ; dusky pigeon calling at lower site ; large flocks of red - pilled parrots ; crested quetzal vocal in various parts of the reserve ; group of 3 yellow - vented woodpecker near banana feeders ; tyrannine woodcreeper very vocal ; giant and yellow - breasted antpitta seen regularly ; 1 ochre - breasted antpitta seen on lower trail ; large and very active club - winged manakin lek from 1800m - 2300m ; beautiful jay seen regularly along canyons and sisters loop trails and near guest houses .\non a day of sun , cloud and mist the total number of bird species recorded at rlg was 163 species \u2013 38 % of all the species in the entire mindo - tandayapa count area . the three new bird species for the reserve were found by the team led by marcelo quipo . the species were brown - billed scythebill , scarlet - rumped cacique and the rare , endemic and beautiful indigo flower - piercer . the team also found other rarities for the reserve including 1 scaled antpitta , ochre - breasted antpitta ( adult with fledgling ) , 1 pacific tuftedcheek , 4 orange - breasted fruiteater and 1 black - billed peppershrike . ( and a few weeks later marcelo added southern nightingale wren to our rlg bird list . )\n18 cm . medium to large antpitta with white malar stripe . dark rufescent - brown above . slaty - grey crown and nape . dark brown sides of head . broad , white malar narrowly scaled black . russet throat bordered by white chest - band . olive - brown breast with few narrow white streaks . buffy - white belly . cinnamon washed flanks and undertail - coverts .\nour white - faced nunbirds back to the upper part of puma trail . frog researcher jaime garc\u00eda found an active nest of slaty - backed chat - tyrant near the river and scaled fruiteaters were heard frequently throughout the upper part of the reserve . almost every day at 5 . 50am we had a pair of very raucous beautful jays at the guest houses , while yellow - vented woodpecker and yellow - bellied siskins were also regular in the nearby trees . our star birds were the several pairs of yellow - breasted antpitta , including a fledgling being fed by an adult , right on the walkways of the guest houses .\nseptember - october 2013 : the end of summer brought enough rain to keep many birds active . best birds included : regular low fly - overs of barred parakeet , a small flock of blue - fronted parrotlet , large noisy flocks of red - billed parrot , cloud - forest pygmy - owl nesting activity , 16 species of hummingbirds at our feeders , crested quetzal nesting along parrot hill loop , vocal toucan barbets , yellow - vented woodpecker nesting near the guest house , regular views of yellow - breasted antpitta near the guest house , olivaceous piha seen regularly along sr . tim\u2019s trail , and 14 species of tanagers at our feeding stations and bird baths .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\nwhistles over 2 . 5 - 3 seconds , rapidly increasing in amplitude , then trailing off at end .\n. the nominate subspecies was collected near salento , quind\u00edo , in 1911 , and has been recorded in nearby ucumar\u00ed regional park , risaralda , colombia , several times during 1994 - 2000 ( p . g . w . salaman\n. 1999 , c . downing verbally 2000 , krabbe and coopmans 2000 ) . the subspecies\n. 1998 ) , but it is unclear how much of this is occupied . recent surveys in ecuador found at least 4 - 6 territories along three 1 km transects ( j . f . freile\n. there are several new localities where the species has been recorded in ecuador , mostly concentrated on the western slopes of pichincha province ( j . f . freile\n. 2004 , 2008 ) , and the species has recently been discovered to be much commoner and more extensively distributed in colombia than previously thought ( f . g . stiles\n. the paucity of earlier records is related to the fact that its vocalisations were unknown until recently .\nthis species is described as rare and essentially unknown ; its population is placed in the band 2 , 500 - 9 , 999 individuals . this equates to 1 , 667 - 6 , 666 mature individuals , rounded here to 1 , 500 - 7 , 000 mature individuals . trend justification : this species ' s population is suspected to be declining slowly , in line with rates of habitat loss within its range .\nit occurs in wet , mossy cloud - forest , usually at 1 , 800 - 2 , 500 m in ravines or on steep slopes ( krabbe and coopmans 2000 ) . it has been seen on the ground and perched up to 3 m in the understorey ( krabbe and coopmans 2000 ) . nests with nestlings have been found in march and december ( i . e . during the wet season ) ( freile and renjifo 2003 , greeney and gelis 2006 )\nand the central andes , colombia , has been logged , settled and converted to agriculture . the west andean slopes in ecuador have also been altered and fragmented , particularly in pichincha ( krabbe\n. 2004 , 2008 ) . a large area of intact habitat exists on volc\u00e1n sumaco in napo but , in 1990 , the human population was growing and forest clearance for agriculture was having an impact at c . 1 , 000 m and above . cueva de los gu\u00e1charos is increasingly threatened by encroaching human settlement and opium production ( wege and long 1995 )\n. however , the species has been shown to use secondary forest freely within parts of its colombian range and occurs in mature secondary forest at cotopaxi ( j . f . freile\nis known from maquipucuna reserve ( pichincha ) , mindo protected forest , rio guajalito , cof\u00e1n - bermejo and la otonga reserves , and cueva de los gu\u00e1charos and possibly sumaco - napo galeras national park ( krabbe and coopmans 2000 , j . f . freile\n. 2010 ) . the recently created sumaco - napo galeras national park should prevent habitat loss from reaching the altitudes inhabited by the species in napo . ucumar\u00ed regional park holds a population of the nominate subspecies and it may occur in the adjacent ot\u00fan - quimbaya fauna and flora sanctuary and alto quind\u00edo acaime natural reserve , both in quind\u00edo ( krabbe and coopmans 2000 )\n. on the east slope of the andes in ecuador its range is fairly well covered ( c . 60 % ) by five protected areas ( cofan - bermejo , cayambe - coca and antisana ecological reserves , and sumaco - napo galeras and llanganates national parks ) ( j . f . freile\nsurvey ( with knowledge of its vocalisations ) areas of suitable habitat , perhaps especially on the east slope of the andes from tungurahua , ecuador north to caquet\u00e1 , colombia , and also in central ecuador in the large and extensively forested sangay national park ( j . f . freile\n( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22703252a110970852 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\nsalento , 7000 feet [ c . 2130 m ] , central andes , cauca , colombia\nmay be closely related to g . chthonia ( but see below ) . race andaquiensis browner , less grey , than nominate , with ochraceous vs whitish belly , but voice identical . two subspecies recognized .\n) and w slope of c andes ( risaralda , quind\u00edo , cauca ) .\nhern\u00e1ndez & rodr\u00edguez , 1979 \u2013 head of magdalena valley , in colombia , and both slopes in n ecuador ( s to cotopaxi and napo ) .\n16\u00b75 cm ; two males 64 g and 77 g . adult has light olive - brown fore\u00adcrown and slate - grey crown and nape , fea\u00adthers narrowly edged blackish , white lores narrowly . . .\nsong 1\u00b78\u20133 seconds long , given at intervals of 7\u201313 seconds , a series of 17 . . .\nfloor and dense undergrowth within 3 m of ground in wet ( mossy ) primary forest , mainly in ravines . . .\nforages on the ground . in nw ecuador two adults were recorded feeding nestlings with arthropods captured on the ground on trails and forest . . .\nsings from perch 0\u00b75\u20133 m above ground . two nests found in the central andes of colombia and in nw ecuador were bulky . . .\nvulnerable . previously listed as endangered . restricted - range species : present in colombian inter - andean slopes eba . until 1990 known from only two specimens , and feared . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\npreviously included in formicariidae , but dna studies indicate that the four genera currently included herein form a monophyletic group , whereas current members of formicariidae may be closer to some members of rhinocryptidae # r # r .\non basis of dna analysis , sister to the other three genera in this family # r # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nclassified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\ngreg & yvonne dean tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 1932 223827 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 296 , 579 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nbirdlife is reviewing the status of this species for the 2018 red list . please click here to join the discussion\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : grallaria alleni . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\nmany years ago , angel paz , figured out how to coax antpittas in to a feeding station to take worms . until then , these shy denizens of the mountain forest were just about impossible to see . angel is built a modest business of showing people his beloved birds , and he puts on an excellent show . for the best chance of seeing all . . .\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content .\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\ndid you know ? all our dictionaries are bidirectional , meaning that you can look up words in both languages at the same time .\na pair of plain - breasted hawks plus a tiny hawk pestered our feeder birds and caught at least some birds . most of the feeder birds quickly shifted to alert mode and have stayed hidden and / or moving quickly with mixed species flocks which come through our gardens . the birds stop only briefly to feed and especially seem to want to bathe ( including the first foliage - gleaner i have ever seen bathing in our bird baths ) .\nlate may - early june 2017 : at least 3 different male wattled guans heard calling a lot both in the parrot hill area and nearer the river . it is nice to know our three species of guans ( sickle - winged , wattled and crested ) are all doing well at rlg .\nmay 2016 : marcelo quipo documented another new bird species for rlg ( his 5th ! ) , guayaquil woodpecker , plus documented an elevational record of tawny - throated leaftosser at 2100 m ! ! ( photos below . )\nlots of bird activity even with rainy season conditions \u2013 a beautiful but wet and bedraggled plate - billed mountain - toucan ( photo by marcelo quipo ) ; a female powerful woodpecker on a mossy trunk ( photo by carlos c . solano ) ; a family of hungry blue - winged mountain - tanagers at our banana feeders ( photo by carlos c . solano ) ; a colombian screech - owl in the rain ( photo by marcelo quipo ) .\nour 2016 christmas bird count was amazing ! on the evening of 16 december 2016 a group of 9 birders met at reserva las gralarias for our annual christmas bird count ( cbc ) . that evening the group heard 2 mottled owls , 1 colombian screech - owl , 1 black - and - white owl , and 1 rufous - banded owl near the area around the guest houses . the next morning at 4 . 30am they saw our resident male lyre - tailed nightjar perched outside the guest house and also counted 1 common potoo and 2 parauques . the rest of the day continued with amazing records , including 3 new bird species for the reserve plus a new mammal record !\nplus we had rather astonishing spectacled bear activity between mid - oct and end of the year , with 4 trailcam photos and numerous chewed palmito trees and other bear sign along various trails .\ntrail cam photo of a male spectacled bear at 1 . 12pm in the afternoon on 21 december 2016 along puma hideout trail\nearly spring is always a busy time on the equator and this year has been no exception .\nin february - march barred hawks were vocal and observed regularly , one wattled guan was heard in the lower section of the reserve near santa rosa river , 18 species of hummers plus 10 species of tanagers , 2 species of brush - finch , 2 species of thrush , 6 sickle - winged guans and family groups of toucan barbet were regulars at our banana feeders as were 3 tayras .\nbut the very best bird was on 6 march a beautiful black solitaire feeding on small purple fruits in a large melastome along with a pair of green - and - black fruiteater .\nvery rare in this area we only have 5 records of this solitaire being seen on the reserve .\nfinally , it was fun watching a family of two adult and two young slaty - backed nightingale - thrush during the month - long fledgling period .\nthe adults very surreptitiously fed their young bits of bananas at our feeders and eventually the young birds began to hang around the feeders even without the adults nearby .\nby 10 april the adult male was singing again and probably ready to commence another nesting period .\n17 species of hummers at our hummingbird feeders , and 9 species of tanager at our fruit feaders as well as sickle - winged guans , chestnut - capped brush - finch , kinkajous and bats .\nswallow - tailed kites returned for their breeding season and we had small flocks of maroon - tailed parakeets feeding in the trees near the guest houses . cloud - forest pygmy - owl called occasionally while two very vocal common potoos serenaded us almost every night . on sunny mornings we had large flocks of white - collared and spot - fronted swifts overhead while late april brought\negular visits to our feeders by the spectacular white - tailed hillstar ; continuing hoary pufflegs at the feeders ; common potoo on day roost along oso verde trail ; regular sightings of beautiful jay , also olivaceous piha , scaled fruiteater and a trio of yellow - vented woodpecker ; family of sickle - winged guans regular at the banana feeders .\n2 march - just - fledged velvet - purple coronet appears on one of our feeders , then 4 days later . photos by jane lyons\nreturning crested quetzal first heard on 26 april at guan gulch ; golden - headed quetzals very vocal and active behind the guest houses ; white - faced nunbird vocal along mr . weasel\u00b4s trail during the first week of april ;\nflammulated treehunter nest in the upper section ; beautiful jays regular at guest house ; 17 hummer species at the feeders ; sickle - winged guans and 8 species of tanagers at the fruit feeders .\nthis rare , endangered species spectacled bear made an appearance at the las gralarias guest houses on 26 october 2010 .\n( juv male at guest house ) , tyrannine woodcreeper ( banded 11 august 2006 ) . best mammals : numerous kinkajous seen along santa rosa river trail .\n24 june 2010 : nest with nestling of hoary puffleg found on canyon\u00b4s trail .\n15 september 2009 : 2 upland sandpipers seen walking along the road at las gralarias and numerous heard flying over at night ."]}
{"id": 647, "summary": [{"text": "the lowland tiny greenbul ( phyllastrephus debilis ) , is a species of songbird in the bulbul family , pycnonotidae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is found in eastern africa .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist shrubland . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "lowland tiny greenbul", "paragraphs": ["montane tiny greenbul is split from { lowland ] tiny greenbul [ fuchs et al . 2011a ]\nlowland tiny greenbul ( phyllastrephus debilis ) is a species of bird in the pycnonotidae family .\ndiversification across an altitudinal gradient in the tiny greenbul ( phyllastrephus debilis ) from the eastern arc mountains of africa .\ndiversification across an altitudinal gradient in the tiny greenbul ( phyllastrephus debilis ) from the eastern arc mountains of africa . - pubmed - ncbi\nnow considered to be a plumage variant of icterine greenbul ( collinson et al . 2017 )\nfuchs j , fjelds\u00e5 j , bowie rck . 2011 . diversification across an altitudinal gradient in the tiny greenbul ( phyllastrephus debilis ) from the eastern arc mountains of africa . bmc evol biol , 11 : 117 .\nlowland evergreen forest , forest - woodland mosaic , thick coastal scrub , gallery forest ; sometimes . . .\nthe clear altitudinal segregation in morphology found within the tiny greenbul is the result of secondary contact of two highly differentiated lineages rather than disruptive selection in plumage pattern across an altitudinal gradient . based on our results , we recommend albigula be elevated to species rank .\nfishpool , l . , tobias , j . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . lowland tiny greenbul ( phyllastrephus debilis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nmarks bd . ? 2010 . are lowland rainforests really evolutionary museums ? phylogeography of the green hylia ( hylia prasina ) in the afrotropics . mol phylogen evol , 55 : 178\u2013184 .\nexperiences with species i had seen this small greenbul in mozambique on two previous occasions , but 2011 was the first time i got him in the lens . other names : -\nwe found significant biometric differences between the lowland ( rabai ) and montane ( albigula ) populations in tanzania . the differences in shape are coupled with discrete differences in the coloration of the underparts . using multi - locus data gathered from 124 individuals , we show that lowland and montane birds form two distinct genetic lineages . the divergence between the two forms occurred between 2 . 4 and 3 . 1 myrs ago . our coalescent analyses suggest that limited gene flow , mostly from the subspecies rabai to albigula , is taking place at three mid - altitude localities , where lowland and montane rainforest directly abut . the extent of this introgression appears to be limited and is likely a consequence of the recent expansion of rabai further inland .\nsheldon fh , oliveros ch , taylor ss , mckay b , lim hc , rahman ma , mays h , moyle rg . 2012 . molecular phylogeny and insular biogeography of the lowland tailorbirds of southeast asia ( cisticolidae : orthotomus ) . mol phylogenet evol , 65 : 54\u201363 .\nassignment of individuals to genetic cluster using the structure algorithm for k = 2 ( mean loglikelihood across three runs , - ln = 595 . 9 ) . the red color corresponds to the individuals sampled in the nguru and usambara mts ( albigula ) . green corresponds to individuals sampled in the tanzanian lowland ( rabai ) and mozambique / zimbabwe ( debilis ) . evidence for admixture involves five individuals sampled in the nguru mts , usambara mts and on mt kanga .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwe appreciate the many constructive comments received , and we will continue to revisit problematic english names on a case by case basis . we also refine and adjust english names as required by changes of species taxonomy .\nenglish name updates \u2013 ioc version 2 . 11 ( jan 2 , 2012 )\ncrested hawk - eagle ( used for n . limnaetus , if split ) was incorrectly applied to n . cirrhatus sensu lato , when lumped in version 2 . 0 . correct to changeable hawk - eagle as used by other primary world lists . thanks to frank lambert for advising us of this error\nadopt name established in other major lists . ioc alone in dropping the modifier , the bird\u2019s most distinguishing feature .\nshorter name without \u201cpied\u201d adopted for thai checklist ( p round comm ) . spot - breasted woodpecker is preoccupied by colaptes punctigula\nenglish name updates \u2013 ioc version 2 . 10 ( oct 18 , 2011 )\nenglish name updates \u2013 ioc version 2 . 9 ( july 10 , 2011 )\nwe acknowledge widespread opposition to ioc 1 . 0 proposal of common pigeon to avoid conflict with petrophassa \u201d rock pigeons\u201d ; accept bou choice of classic rock dove for this species native to british isles . feral pigeon is available for populations introduced worldwide .\nenglish name updates \u2013 ioc version 2 . 8 ( mar 31 , 2011 )\nfollows split of c . pampa ; english names follow ridgway , sibley & monroe 1993 , aou 1998\nenglish nam e updates \u2013 ioc version 2 . 7 ( dec 29 , 2010 )\nenglish name updates \u2013 ioc version 2 . 6 ( oct 23 , 2010 )\nonly one species and the simpler name conforms to other leading works ( hbw , inskipp ) .\nshrike - babblers are not babblers , but vireo relatives ; hence lower case .\nenglish name updates \u2013 ioc version 2 . 5 ( july 4 , 2010 )\ncorrect name for amboinensis ; brown cuckoo - dove is used for m . phasianella\nbamboo flatbill of hilty ( 2003 ) is better name , but \u201clarge - headed\u201d prevails .\nioc _ names _ file _ plus - 8 . 2g : 8 . 2\nis a recently described species ( woxvold et al . 2009 ) . it is sister to\nfrom\nblack - crested bulbul\nto\nblack - capped bulbul , with split of multiple species . ( rasmussen & anderton 2005 , fishpool & tobias 2005 )\nthe rare blue - wattled bulbul may be a hybrid ( williams 2002 ) , but more evidence needed ( dickinson and dekker 2002 ) .\nis in prevailing usage . based on\nturdo\u00efde de gourdin\nof homblon & jacquinot , 1844 referenced in gray , 1847 . see mayr & greenway , 1960 ( peters checklist , ix )\nnigeria to s sudan , w kenya . s drcongo , nw zambia and n angola\nrwenzori mts , itombwe and mt . kabobo ( e drcongo ) , w uganda , w rwanda and n burundi\nbased on genetic studies . but genetic divergence may support species status . manawatthana et al . 2017\nas a junior synonym . fishpool & tobias , 2005 . the population from sabah is vocally and genetically distinct and likely represents an unnamed taxon . the subspecies epithet\n( type speciemen from e kalimantan ) has been erroneously applied to this population . eaton et al 2016 , rheindt in . litt . ( see manawatthana et al . 2017 ) .\nkuroda , 1922 as a synonym . permanently invalid . dickinson & christidis , 2014 .\ndalupiri , calayan and fuga is . ( n of luzon in n philippines )\nis a member of the afrotropical clade of bulbuls ( pycnonotidae ( johansson et al . 2008 , zuccon & ericson 2010 )\nbarrera et al . 2010 , carant\u00f3n - ayala and certuche - cubillos 2010 , cadena & stiles 2010 . sacc 479\nc . aeruginosus ( currently treated as a ssp of c . rubiginosus ) is sister to c . auricularis ; rubiginosus is sister to c . atricollis ( moore et al 2010 )\nxingu scale - backed antbird , including subspecies vidua and nigrigula is split from scale - backed antbird ( isler and whitney 2011 ) ; sacc proposal badly needed . shorter english name preferred ? ?\nking 1997 ; drovetski et al 2004 ; alstrom et al 2011 , obc ; cf dickinson 2003 , hbw 11 w comments .\ntreat this virtually unknown holdover from sibley & monroe as ssp of black - eared ground thrush g . cameronensis as do other major lists ( p gregory comm ) .\nuntil recently considered conspecific with p . albigula ( which see ) . race rabai has grey vs green crown ( recent published illustration # r misses this point ) and approaches nominate to within 200 km ( based on published map # r ) . study of voices of these two taxa and p . albigula needed . two subspecies recognized .\ne . j . o . hartert & van someren , 1921 \u2013 c & s coastal kenya and ne coastal tanzania ( s to r rufiji ) .\n( w . l . sclater , 1899 ) \u2013 se tanzania , s mozambique and extreme e zimbabwe ( haroni\u2013rusitu ) .\n12\u00b78\u201313\u00b78 cm ; male 13\u00b73\u201317 g , female 12\u00b75\u201314\u00b79 g ( nominate ) , male 13\u00b75\u201317 g , female , 11\u00b76\u201315 g . . .\ninsectivorous . usually seen in pairs or in small parties of up to c . 10 individuals , sometimes singly ; often joins mixed - species parties . . . .\nnesting recorded in dec and may ; birds in breeding condition in oct\u2013may in coastal tanzania and oct\u2013jan in zimbabwe . monogamous . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . generally common ; apparent declines in n & s parts of range , implying that it is less common than it used to be in parts of kenya . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nif you have videos , photographs or sound recordings you can share them on the internet bird collection . it ' s free and easy to do .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nmixed flock , observed moving through tangled undergrowth for several minutes . recording amplified . iphone 5s .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : phyllastrephus debilis . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 297 , 160 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 langenscheidt digital gmbh & co . kg , all rights reserved .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nmuseum of vertebrate zoology and department of integrative biology , 3101 valley life science building , university of california , berkeley , ca 94720 - 3160 , usa . jeromefuchs @ urltoken\npmid : 21539741 pmcid : pmc3097164 doi : 10 . 1186 / 1471 - 2148 - 11 - 117\ndistribution of phyllastrephus debilis ; dots represent our sampling localities ( blue : albigula ; green , rabai ; red , debilis ) . the painting depicts the typical plumage of p . d . albigula and p . d . rabai / debilis , respectively .\n50 % majority consensus rule tree obtained from the bayesian analyses of nd2 . values close to nodes represent bootstrap values ( above node ; if > 75 % ) and bayesian posterior probabilities ( below node ; if > 0 . 95 ) . mean genetic distances among the primary groups are indicated . the haplotype networks were constructed using the statistical parsimony algorithm implemented in tcs .\nmulti - locus network obtained using standardized genetic distances of the three nuclear loci . only individuals that could be sequenced and phased with a posterior probability greater than 0 . 75 for all three loci ( n = 80 ) are included .\nbiplot of the first two components of the bioclimatic variables extracted from our sampling locality co - ordinates . note the rather disparate environmental conditions for the albigula sampling points . all sites where gene flow was recorded ( e . g . mt . kanga ) are characterized by reduced seasonality ( variable 4 ) .\nenglish spanish online dictionary term bank , where you can search in more than 2 million words in categories and different pronunciation options .\nthis article is part of project aves , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each bird , including made - up species .\nthis article is part of project passeriformes , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each passerine , including made - up species .\nthis article is part of project pycnonotidae , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each bulbul , including made - up species .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nchinese birds 2013 , 4 ( 2 ) 99 - 131 doi : 10 . 5122 / cbirds . 2013 . 0016 issn : 1674 - 7674 cn : 11 - 5870 / q\naleixo a , pacheco jf . 2006 . a family name for the monotypic oscine passerine genus donacobius . rev brasil ornitol , 14 : 172\u2013173 .\nalstr\u00f6m p , barnes kn , olsson u , barker fk , bloomer p , khan aa , qureshi ma , guillaumet a , crochet p - a , ryan pg . 2013 . multilocus phylogeny of the avian family alaudidae ( larks ) reveals complex morphological evolution , non - monophyletic genera and hidden species diversity . mol phylogenet evol . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . ympev . 2013 . 06 . 005 .\nalstr\u00f6m p , davidson p , duckworth jw , eames jc , le tt , nguyen c , olsson u , robson c , timmins rj . 2010 . description of a new species of phylloscopus warbler from vietnam and laos . ibis , 152 : 145\u2013168 .\nalstr\u00f6m p , fregin s , norman ja , ericson pgp , christidis l , olsson u . 2011a . multilocus analysis of a taxonomically densely sampled dataset reveal extensive non - monophyly in the avian family locustellidae . mol phylogenet evol , 38 : 381\u2013397 .\nalstr\u00f6m p , h\u00f6hna s , gelang m , ericson pgp , olsson u . 2011b . non - monophyly and intricate morphological evolution within the avian family cettiidae revealed by multilocus analysis of a taxonomically densely sampled dataset . bmc evol biol , 11 : 352 .\nalstr\u00f6m p , fjelds\u00e5 j , fregin s , olsson u . 2011c . gross morphology betrays phylogeny : the scrub warbler scotocerca inquieta is not a cisticolid . ibis , 153 : 87\u201397 .\nalstr\u00f6m p , saitoh t , williams d , nishiumi i , shigeta y , ueda k , irestedt m , bj\u00f6rklund m , olsson u . 2011d . the arctic warbler phylloscopus borealis \u2013 three anciently separated cryptic species revealed . ibis , 153 : 395\u2013410 .\nalstr\u00f6m p , olsson u , colston p . 1997 . re - 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{"id": 649, "summary": [{"text": "nassarius hirtus , common name the rough nassa , is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family nassariidae , the nassa mud snails or dog whelks . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "nassarius hirtus", "paragraphs": ["nassariidae \u00bb nassarius hirtus , id : 176674 , shell detail \u00ab shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc .\n- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : nassarius hirtus ( l . c . kiener , 1834 ) - id : 1950000570\nnassarius plicatellus adams : synonym of nassarius niveus ( a . adams , 1852 )\nnassarius weyersi craven : synonym of nassarius pumilio ( e . a . smith , 1872 )\nnassarius ( nassodonta ) h . adams , 1867 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( tritia ) a . adams , 1853 : synonym of nassarius ( hinia ) gray , 1847 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius monile ( kiener , 1834 ) : synonym of nassarius distortus ( a . adams , 1852 )\nnassarius fenestratus ( marratt , 1877 ) : synonym of nassarius albescens gemmuliferus ( a . adams , 1852 )\nnassarius gemmuliferus a . adams , 1852 : synonym of nassarius albescens gemmuliferus ( a . adams , 1852 )\nnassarius ( cryptonassarius ) watson , r . b . , 1882 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( hima ) gray , 1852 ex leach , ms . : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( naytia ) h . adams & a . adams 1853 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( reticunassa ) iredale , 1936 : synonym of nassarius ( hima ) gray , 1852 ex leach , ms . alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( mirua ) marwick , 1931 : synonym of nassarius ( hima ) gray , 1852 ex leach , ms . ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\n( of nassarius ( alectrion ) hirtus ( kiener , 1834 ) ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]\nnassarius ( caesia ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( niotha ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( phrontis ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( telasco ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( uzita ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( zeuxis ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius hirtus ( kiener , 1834 ) : tr\u00f6ndl\u00e9 & boutet ( 2009 ) [ source de l ' enregistrement ] tr\u00f6ndl\u00e9 , j . & boutet , m . 2009 . inventory of marine molluscs of french polynesia . atoll research bulletin , 570 : 1 - 87 .\nnassarius ( austronassaria ) c . laseron & j . laseron , 1956 : synonym of nassarius ( plicarcularia ) thiele , 1929 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( bathynassa ) ladd , 1976 : synonym of nassarius ( zeuxis ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( demondia ) addicott , 1956 : synonym of nassarius ( caesia ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( glabrinassa ) shuto , 1969 : synonym of nassarius ( zeuxis ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( schizopyga ) conrad , 1856 : synonym of nassarius ( caesia ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( tarazeuxis ) iredale , 1936 : synonym of nassarius ( telasco ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( tavanothia ) iredale , 1936 : synonym of nassarius ( niotha ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( usita ) noszky , 1936 : synonym of nassarius ( uzita ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( venassa ) martens , 1881 : synonym of nassarius ( zeuxis ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius unicolor kiener , l . c . , 1834 : synonym of nassarius micans ( a . adams , 1852 )\nnassarius ( tritonella ) a . adams , 1852 : synonym of nassarius ( hima ) gray , 1852 ex leach , ms . ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( amycla ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : synonym of nassarius ( gussonea ) monterosato , 1912\nnassarius ( zaphon ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : synonym of nassarius ( caesia ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nid : 101289 original name : nassarius _ hirtus [ jdg1 ] . jpg size 423x750 - 24818 bytes image manager : jan delsing directory : 1081 created : 2009 - 09 - 21 00 : 20 : 15 - user jan delsing url : urltoken text function : [ [ i : 101289 ; image ] ] , [ [ it : 101289 ] ] ( thumbnail )\n( of nassarius ( alectrion ) hirtus ( kiener , 1834 ) ) galindo , l . a . ; puillandre , n . ; utge , j . ; lozouet , p . ; bouchet , p . ( 2016 ) . the phylogeny and systematics of the nassariidae revisited ( gastropoda , buccinoidea ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution . 99 : 337 - 353 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nnassa tegula reeve , 1853 : synonym of nassarius striatus ( c . b . adams , 1852 )\nnassa miser ( dall , 1908 ) : synonym of nassarius coppingeri ( e . a . smith , 1881 )\nnassarius ( polinices , nassarius ) is prey of : pagurus cancer myoxocephalus tautogolabrus pseudopleuronectes asterias based on studies in : usa : massachusetts , cape ann ( littoral , mudflat ) this list may not be complete but is based on published studies .\nnassarius ( polinices , nassarius ) preys on : solemya ensis macoma mya gemma onoba littorina littorea based on studies in : usa : massachusetts , cape ann ( littoral , mudflat ) this list may not be complete but is based on published studies .\nthe shells of various species of nassarius are popular with shell collectors , and are sometimes used in jewelry and other forms of decoration .\nnassarius vibex is a species which is often selected for marine aquaria . it is often confused with nassarius obsoletus , a cooler water snail less suited to tropical marine aquarium temperatures . in aquaria , the nassarius is considered nearly indispensable for keeping sand beds clean and healthy , as these snails tend to burrow and plow through the upper layer in a conch - like fashion , keeping algae and detritus from building up visibly on the surface .\nnassa lamarck , 1799 : established for the species buccinum mutabile linnaeus , 1758 , which is now classified as a synonym of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 in the family nassariidae .\naccording to van regteren altena et al . ( 1965 ) and van aartsen et al . ( 1984 ) hinia gray , 1847 is considered as a subgenus of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1806 .\nthe name is derived from the latin word\nnassa\n, meaning a wickerbasket with a narrow neck , for catching fish . nassarius would then mean\nsomeone who uses such a wickerbasket for catching fish\n.\nmost nassarius species are very active scavengers , feeding on crabs and carrion as dead fish , etc . they often burrow into marine substrates and then wait with only their siphon protruding , until they smell nearby food .\nbouchet , p . ; gofas , s . ( 2010 ) . nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1806 . in : bouchet , p . ; gofas , s . ; rosenberg , g . ( 2010 ) world marine mollusca database . accessed through : world register of marine species at urltoken on 2010 - 11 - 30\nhaitao li ( \u674e\u6d77\u6d9b ) , duan lin ( \u6797\u7aef ) , hongda fang ( \u65b9\u5b8f\u8fbe ) , aijia zhu ( \u6731\u827e\u5609 ) and yang gao ( \u9ad8\u9633 ) , species identification and phylogenetic analysis of genus nassarius ( nassariidae ) based on mitochondrial genes , chinese journal of oceanology and limnology , volume 28 , number 3 / may , 2010 , pp . 565 - 572 , doi 10 . 1007 / s00343 - 010 - 9031 - 4\ncernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]\nseverns , m . ( 2011 ) . shells of the hawaiian islands - the sea shells . conchbooks , hackenheim . 564 pp . [ details ]\n( of buccinum hirtum kiener , 1834 ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]\n( of nassa ( alectrion ) seminodosa a . adams , 1852 ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\nsingapore . tmft , changi . during low tide on sand flat . february 10 , 2001 .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 002 seconds . )\nlocally common in silty sand under stones in shallow water . attains 1 . 25 inch . hawaii , tuamotus , marquesas , and the solomon islands .\n- note : several protected species are illustrated here only for identification purposes . they are not for sale . - the photos in our gallery are in most cases just a sample from our stock , except when only one specimen is offered . we try to match the original color but it can vary if your screen is not correctly adjusted ( gamma correction ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n* image is also available in higher resolution : 101289 . jpg ( 751x1331 - 149 kb ) .\nown collection . hawaii . sharks cove . on 2 feet in tide pools at night .\nfor every image in gallery , either accepted or unconfirmed , you can add , change or verify determination ( identification ) , or write comments .\ngalindo , l . a . ; puillandre , n . ; utge , j . ; lozouet , p . ; bouchet , p . ( 2016 ) . the phylogeny and systematics of the nassariidae revisited ( gastropoda , buccinoidea ) .\ndepth range based on 3605 specimens in 218 taxa . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 1024 samples . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 0 - 80000 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 4 . 888 - 28 . 540 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 033 - 33 . 876 salinity ( pps ) : 18 . 065 - 38 . 201 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 0 . 907 - 6 . 964 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 063 - 2 . 633 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 380 - 83 . 712 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : 0 - 80000 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 4 . 888 - 28 . 540 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 033 - 33 . 876 salinity ( pps ) : 18 . 065 - 38 . 201 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 0 . 907 - 6 . 964 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 063 - 2 . 633 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 380 - 83 . 712 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\nr . w . dexter , the marine communities of a tidal inlet at cape ann , massachusetts : a study in bio - ecology , ecol . monogr . 17 : 263 - 294 , from p . 284 ( 1947 ) .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . no available public dna sequences . download fasta file\nspecies within this genus are found worldwide . these snails usually live on mud flats or sand flats , intertidally or subtidally .\nthe shells of species in this genus have a relatively high cyrtoconoid ( approaching a conical shape but with convex sides ) spire and a siphonal notch .\nis believed to be 90 , 000 years old . a further group of pierced shells , some with red\n) . these beads had previously been thought to be the oldest examples of jewelry .\n. however , this division is difficult to define , resulting in much confusion . even\nshows that the division into these subgenera appears to be uncertain and unreliable . there seem to be two groups within the genus\n. in the end , the molecular phylogeny did not match the previous morphological phylogeny .\n, most of which have become synonyms . the following species are accepted names according to the\nbouzouggar , a . , barton , n . , vanhaeren , m . , d ' errico , f . , collcutt , s . , higham , t . , hodge , e . , parfitt , s . , rhodes , e . , schwenninger , j . - l . , stringer , c . , turner , e . , ward , s . , moutmir , a . and stambouli , a . 2007 .\n82 , 000 - year - old shell beads from north africa and implications for the origins of modern human behavior\nproceedings of the national academy of sciences , june 4 , 2007 ; urltoken\ncernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356\nbernard , p . a . ( ed . ) ( 1984 ) . coquillages du gabon [ shells of gabon ] . pierre a . bernard : libreville , gabon . 140 , 75 plates pp\nkay c . vaught ( 1989 ) . classification of the living mollusca . isbn 978 - 0 - 915826 - 22 - 3 .\nwolff , w . j . ; duiven , p . ; esselink , p . ; gueve , a . ( 1993 ) . biomass of macrobenthic tidal flat fauna of the banc d ' arguin , mauritania . hydrobiologia 258 ( 1 - 3 ) : 151 - 163\nnassa r\u00f6ding , 1798 for mainly muricid species with the type species : nassa picta r\u00f6ding , 1798 ( = nassa serta ( brugui\u00e8re , 1798 ) .\nin the 19th and much of the 20th century , all species that were added to the genus nassa were nassa mud snails belonging to the family nassariidae . after the rediscovery of r\u00f6ding ' s catalogue of his collection museum boltenianum sive catalogus cimeliorum e tribus regnis natur\u00e6 qu\u00e6 olim collegerat joa . fried bolten , m . d . p . d . per xl . annos proto physicus hamburgensis . pars secunda continens conchylia sive testacea univalvia , bivalvia & multivalvia , the muricid genus nassa r\u00f6ding , 1798 was given priority over the genus nassa named by lamarck .\nnassa r\u00f6ding , 1798 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 24 february 2011 .\nnassa francolina ( brugui\u00e8re , 1789 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa serta ( brugui\u00e8re , 1789 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa situla ( reeve , 1846 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa tuamotuensis houart , 1996 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa kraussiana dunker . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa lathraia . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa munda . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa obockensis . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa optima sowerby , 1903 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa pulla ( linnaeus , 1758 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa steindachneri . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa stiphra . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa xesta . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nhouart r . ( 1996 ) the genus nassa r\u00f6ding 1798 in the indo - west pacific ( gastropoda : prosobranchia : muricidae : rapaninae ) . archiv f\u00fcr molluskenkunde 126 ( 1 - 2 ) : 51 - 63\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nsorry , preview is currently unavailable . you can download the paper by clicking the button above .\nenter the email address you signed up with and we ' ll email you a reset link ."]}
{"id": 653, "summary": [{"text": "perophora japonica is a species of colonial sea squirt in the genus perophora , native to the north indo-pacific .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it has spread to several other parts of the world including the south coast of britain , france , the netherlands and the west coast of the united states . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "perophora japonica", "paragraphs": ["perophora japonica , with stolons photographer : richard lord . publisher : frey , melissa .\nperophora _ japonica _ w _ stolons _ richard _ lord _ guernsey _ uk . jpg\nin the northeast pacific , perophora japonica is most similar to p . annectens ritter , 1893 .\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30de\u30e1\u30dc\u30e4\nto\nperophora japonica oka , 1927\n.\nhome \u00bb perophora _ japonica _ w _ stolons _ richard _ lord _ guernsey _ uk . jpg\nperophora _ japonica _ w _ stolons _ richard _ lord _ guernsey _ uk . jpg | marine invaders of the ne pacific\nintroduced species remark in japan ( nation ) : in japan , where perophora japonica is native , it has been reported to foul cultured oysters ( arakawa 1990 , cited by da rocha et al . 2009 ) . [ details ]\nmonniot , c . & monniot , f , 1985 . apparition de l ' ascidie perophora japonica sur les c\u00f4tes et dans les ports de la manche . compte rendu de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de biog\u00e9ographie , 61 , 111 - 116 .\nbaldock , b . & bishop , j . d . d . , 2001 . occurrence of the non - native ascidian perophora japonica in the fleet , southern england . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , 81 , 1067 .\nnishikawa , t . bishop , j . d . d . & sommerfeldt , a . d . , 2000 . occurrence of the alien ascidian perophora japonica at plymouth . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , 80 , 955 - 956 .\noka , a . ( 1927 ) . uber eine perophora aus japan . proc . imp . acad . 2 ( 8 ) : 588 - 560 . [ details ]\nbishop , j . 2005 . perophora japonica a sea squirt . in tyler - walters h . and hiscock k . ( eds ) marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information reviews , [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom . [ cited 09 - 07 - 2018 ] . available from : urltoken\nimage courtesy of john bishop , marine biological association , plymouth , uk . image shows ( a ) a colony overgrowing the bryozoan membranipora membranacea on kelp and ( b ) the characteristic bright yellow terminal buds of p . japonica .\nshenkar , n . ; gittenberger , a . ; lambert , g . ; rius , m . ; moreira da rocha , r . ; swalla , b . j . ; turon , x . ( 2018 ) . ascidiacea world database .\nmonniot , c . ( 2001 ) . ascidiacea & sorberacea . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels . 50 : pp . 352 - 355 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nstreftaris , n . ; zenetos , a . ; papathanassiou , e . ( 2005 ) . globalisation in marine ecosystems : the story of non - indigenous marine species across european seas . oceanogr . mar . biol . ann . rev . 43 : 419 - 453 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nnishikawa , t . ( 1991 ) . the ascidians of the japan sea 2 . publ . seto mar . biol . lab . 35 ( 1 / 3 ) : 25 - 170 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nvan der land , j . ( ed ) . ( 2008 ) . unesco - ioc register of marine organisms ( urmo ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nkatsanevakis , s . ; bogucarskis , k . ; gatto , f . ; vandekerkhove , j . ; deriu , i . ; cardoso a . s . ( 2012 ) . building the european alien species information network ( easin ) : a novel approach for the exploration of distributed alien species data . bioinvasions records . 1 : 235 - 245 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis is some default tab content , embedded directly inside this space and not via ajax . it can be shown when no tabs are automatically selected , or associated with a certain tab , in this case , the first tab .\nfofonoff pw , ruiz gm , steves b , simkanin c , & carlton jt . . national exotic marine and estuarine species information system . urltoken . access date :\ncolonies of small , translucent zooids ( approximately 4 mm long ) budded from stolons and generally rather closely packed . young parts of colony are yellow or greenish - yellow . stolons may bear angular , often star - shaped , terminal buds , which are bright yellow .\nrecorded in queen anne ' s battery marina , plymouth sound ; the fleet , dorset approximately 130 km from plymouth , and in guernsey .\nalso recorded from the english channel coast of france . originally described in japan , and reported from korea .\nat plymouth , it grows on fucoid algae , hydroids and artificial settlement panels on the underside of a floating pontoon . in france , it is reported growing on\nspp . , sponges , solitary ascidians , oysters , and directly on floating pontoons .\nin the fleet , dorset approximately 130 km from plymouth . it was recorded in guernsey in 2003 ( richard lord pers comm . ) .\nhowson , c . m . & picton , b . e . , 1997 . the species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the british isles and surrounding seas . belfast : ulster museum . [ ulster museum publication , no . 276 . ]\nmarine life information network ( marlin ) , the marine biological association of the uk ( see contact us ) \u00a9 2018 the marine biological association of the uk , all rights reserved .\nthe information ( text only ) provided by the marine life information network ( marlin ) is licensed under a creative commons attribution - non - commercial - share alike 2 . 0 uk : england & wales license . note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own terms and conditions and they may or may not be available for reuse . permissions beyond the scope of this license are available here . based on a work at urltoken\nthis species is a social ascidian , with individual zooids connected basally by stolons . together , zooids and stolons often form a dense mass similar to a tiny bunch of grapes . individual zooids are globular in shape , measure 2 - 4 mm in diameter , and covered by a pale green tunic . stolons are characterized by distinct , star - shaped flattened terminal buds , yellow in color .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nto download an image please click on the thumbnail . please click here for guidance on using the nnss web gallery .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nlike most websites we use cookies . this is to ensure that we give you the best experience possible .\ncontinuing to use urltoken means you agree to our use of cookies . if you would like to , you can learn more about the cookies we use .\nwe\u2019d value your feedback on the tool . our survey takes only five minutes to complete .\nthe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .\none or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using .\nplease consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwe\u2019ve been improving urltoken to help you find and use open government data . discover what\u2019s changed and get in touch to give us your feedback .\nfull resolution data layer for use only within the mb0102 contract . permission required from data originators for use in any other context , or by non mb0102 partners . 10km resolution data layer freely available under open government licence\nall content is available under the open government licence v3 . 0 , except where otherwise stated\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nof tissue . the vaselike individuals are only slightly taller than they are wide , and are a translucent yellowish or grayish - green . the\nhave 5 - 6 lobes . the ovary and testis are within the curve of the gut . individual\nare about 2 - 3 mm wide x 3 - 5 mm tall ; colony up to 10 cm or more across . colony may resemble a cluster of tiny green seedless grapes .\nof this species may be well separated , or may be fairly closely packed together or their tunics may even be partially fused together . this species broods its larvae . some of the darker yellow spots on the individuals above are likely larvae .\nthe zooids of a colony are genetically identical , formed by budding of the stolons . individual zooids are hermaphroditic . in a related species the hormone thyroxin has been shown to enhance growth of the stolons while inhibiting formation of buds , which would presumably result in a colony of individuals which are more spread out from each other . thiourea , on the other hand , inhibits stolon growth but stimulates bud formation . growth of the stolons seems to be strongly affected by local electrical charges . in p . orientalis , stimulation of the neural ganglion alters the heartbeat . this alteration is passed on to neighboring zooids by the blood .\nthis species concentrates vanadium up to 9 ppt dry weight , mainly in blood cells .\nin california these colonies grow rapidly in spring , sexually reproduce in summer or early fall , and degenerate over winter .\nthough small , this translucent species is excellent for studying heartbeat , blood flow , ciliary beating on the pharyngeal basket , and characteristics of stolon growth .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nservice level agreements and service management information in place between land registry information systems and external suppliers .\neach year ofqual commissions a survey of public perceptions of a levels and gcses in england . the survey covers teachers , parents and students , and addresses confidence in the general examinations . . .\nservice level agreements and service management information in place between land registry information systems and internal business customers .\nprovides information on the overall achievements of young people in a level and as level and other equivalent examinations . source agency : education designation : national statistics language : . . .\nindicators of regional energy use compared with a variety of socio - economic variables source agency : energy and climate change designation : official statistics not designated as national . . .\nreport contains data that can be used under open government licence . following publication of the uk national ecosystem assessment in june 2011 , and defra\u2019s promotion of taking an ecosystems . . .\ncolumn ozone levels at lerwick , camborne , reading and manchester note : camborne closed in december 2003 . for the baseline measurement and analysis of uk ozone and uv - 2012 click on web . . .\nin response to widespread concern that air pollution could affect forest condition , the international co - operative programme on the assessment and monitoring of air pollution effects on forests . . .\nthis dataset shows all of the consultation directions , third party requests to intervene , compulsory purchase orders and environmental impact assessments the npcu has considered for the years . . .\nupdates to this release can now be found in the dataset green deal / eco and home insulation levels in great britain statistics . estimates of the number of homes with loft insulation and cavity . . .\ncoroners data . the existing database provides information on the blood alcohol concentrations ( bacs ) of road traffic accident fatalities .\ncrime data and neighbourhood policing information from all forces in england and wales to the public . this data is what is behind the urltoken website . the police api allows you to retrieve . . .\nthis metadata record is for afa product afa188 - 1 . extreme sea level values is part of coastal design / extreme sea levels , a gis dataset and supporting information providing design / extreme sea level . . .\nenvironment & amp ; business - land and water . historical groundwater levels dataset .\nthis census is a statutory annual collection of data from independent schools and covers approximately 2 , 400 registered schools . it takes place every year in january . the purpose of the collection . . .\nthis information covers fires , false alarms and other incidents attended by firecrews , and the statistics include the numbers of incidents , fires , fatalities and casualties as well as information . . .\nchildren aged 16 and over who ceased to be looked after during the year by level of qualification achieved source : department for education and skills ( dfes ) publisher : department for . . .\nthis land dataset includes land parcel boundaries for e - pims records marked on the register . this may be extended to other land records in the future . currently it provides information on the . . .\nthe register provides information on the availability of surplus land for those government departments and their sponsored bodies which fall under the responsibility of english ministers . the . . .\ncountryside stewardship ( cs ) was launched in 2015 and is a rural development programme for england ( rdpe ) grant scheme . it will contribute around \u00a3900 million over six years to help farmers and . . .\nthis dataset is a subset of\nwfd classification status cycle 2\nand contains classification data for salinity in lakes . salinity is a supporting element and is an ecological factor of considerable . . .\nthis dataset is a subset of the\nwfd classification status cycle 2\ndataset . water bodies classified at high ecological status undergo an additional check for the presence of invasive non - native . . .\narticle 4 directions mean that certain permitted development ( pd ) rights normally enjoyed by residents have been removed in order that the council can exercise greater control over how features . . .\nhigher level penalty charge notices are a result of non payment within the initial payment window when issued . further details about the north essex parking partnership and its annual report can . . .\nmerthyr tydfil article 4 area . an article 4 direction enables local planning authorities to remove permitted development rights from properties . they commonly include removing the right to change . . .\nthe coastline within the survey area is bordered by the heavily industrialised mersey to the east and the more unspoilt north wales coast to the west . the shores within the survey area are backed . . .\nthis dataset shows estimated condition backlog by cyc maintained school , ' condition element ' ( roofs , windows etc ) , condition grading and priority grading . condition and priority gradings , which are . . .\nthe predominantly wild and unspoilt coastline within the survey area lies on the north - eastern side of the irish sea , between the expansive sediment shores of morecambe bay in the south and the . . .\nthis article 4 direction layer describes areas that have special planning regulations adopted by a local planning authority to provide additional powers of planning control in those particular . . .\nthe ribble , duddon and ravenglass estuary systems drain into the eastern basin of the irish sea . these estuaries have general west to east orientation which gives rise to a marked gradient of . . .\nthe solway firth straddles the western border between scotland and england , the southern shores lying in cumbria , the northern shores in dumfries and galloway . the shores contrast with the . . .\nthe inner solway is an area of predominantly sedimentary substrata , with large expanses of mobile sediment and constantly migrating river channels from the rivers esk and eden which enter the firth . . .\nthe principals were invited to the uk as guests of her majesty the queen ( state visits ) or guests of government at the invitation of the prime minister or foreign secretary . for such visits the fco . . .\nstate pension claimants source : department for work and pensions ( dwp ) publisher : department for work and pensions ( dwp ) geographies : lower layer super output area ( lsoa ) , middle layer super . . .\nthe state of calderdale assembly was held on thursday 9 february 2017 . it was hosted by calderdale council to bring together key representatives from the public , private , and voluntary and . . .\ndatabase of inward state visits and guest of government visits to the uk . this dataset gives details of the principals who were invited to the uk as guests of hm the queen ( state visits ) or guest . . .\nclaimants who either a ) were claiming the state pension ( stocks ) on the count date , b ) ended a claim ( off - flows ) during the previous accounting month or c ) started a new claim ( on - flows ) during the . . .\nthe state of the cities database provides access to a broad range of statistical data and information at several geographic levels source : communities and local government ( clg ) publisher : . . .\npresents statistical information that illustrated the factors that contributed to regional competitiveness . source agency : business , innovation and skills designation : national . . .\ncontract documentation is only available for contracts with a value of over \u00a310 , 000 which have been agreed after 1st july 2010 ( it contracts ) and 1st jan 2011 ( all other contracts ) .\ndata held in association with a person who provides services to land registry under terms specified in a contract .\nthis spreadsheet lists all our current information and communications technology ( ict ) contracts . details of new ict contracts will be published as they are signed .\ndetails of central government tenders and contracts , including those for the national archives , will be published on contracts finder urltoken contracts finder is . . .\ncontracts entered into with land registry relating to facilities management including tenders , awards , transactional data , contract variations and performance against key performance indicators . . .\ninformation relating to contracts managed by hmrc for the provision of property and services . updated : monthly .\nthe total supply of social rent housing and intermediate housing . source : communities and local government ( clg ) publisher : dclg floor targets interactive geographic coverage : england time . . .\ncalderdale council delivers a national standard bikeability cycle training to year 5 and year 6 school children as part of a series of training courses for each year group . the funded two day . . .\nprovides information on savings in adult and junior individual savings accounts - the number of individuals subscribing to isas and market values of isas . source agency : hm revenue and . . .\nthis indicator is part of the council ' s corporate indicator set - ki h2 these figures are published every 6 months , at the half year and year end the 3 year target was to deliver 400 affordable . . .\nthe national archives provides information about the number of records delivered to the public in our reading rooms within 60 minutes . this information is available here .\nprovides information on the distributions of savings in individual savings accounts ( isa ) by income , age , gender and region source agency : hm revenue and customs designation : national . . .\nprovides general information on all hmrc taxes , including tax receipts , the number of taxpayers , personal tax credits , child benefit and estimates of the cost of tax expenditures and structural . . .\nhere you can find data on each of the arts council ' s music education hubs . information includes the address , name and type of every school within reach of a music education hub .\na tree preservation order ( tpo ) is an order made by the local planning authority in respect of trees or woodlands . the prinicpal effect of a tpo is to prohibit the - cutting down , uprooting , . . .\ndata details the results of the confirmation dry run ( cdr ) , a test of the confirmation process which will be the first step in transition to individual electoral registration . the full evaluation . . .\ninformation on weekly incomes by family type , source of income , age , marital status , and employment status . source agency : social development ( northern ireland ) designation : national . . .\npresents statistics on iva outcomes - completions , failures and ongoing cases - since their introduction in england and wales source agency : business , innovation and skills designation : official . . ."]}
{"id": 662, "summary": [{"text": "tropidurus is a genus of reptiles .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the genus tropidurus includes many species of neotropical ground lizards ( subfamily tropidurinae ) .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "tropidurus is the type genus of the subfamily tropidurinae , which is a subfamily of iguanid lizards . ", "topic": 29}], "title": "tropidurus", "paragraphs": ["stellio torquatus wied - neuwied 1820 : 106 agama operculata \u2014 lichtenstein 1822 agama brasiliensis \u2014 raddi 1823 : 59 tropidurus torquatus \u2014 wied 1824 agama hispida sive tuberculata spix 1825 ( fide rodrigues 1987 ) tropidurus torquatus \u2014 wied - neuwied 1825 taraguira darwinii gray 1845 : 220 ( fide boulenger 1885 ) steironotus ( strobilurus ) sp . \u2014 fitzinger 1843 tropidurus torquatus \u2014 boulenger 1885 : 176 tropidurus torquatus \u2014 frost 1992 tropidurus hispida ( fide burt & burt 1930 ) tropidurus hygomi ( fide burt & burt 1931 ) tropidurus torquatus \u2014 harvey gutberlet 2000 tropidurus torquatus \u2014 kunz & borges - martins 2013\nthe limited range of tropidurus lagunablanca means the species may already be in dire straits .\nlocomotor performance of closely related tropidurus species : relationships with physiological parameters and ecological divergence .\nkey words : activity times , habitat use , home range , total range , tropidurus .\nfirst records of tropidurus callathelys and t . chromatops ( reptilia : squamata : tropiduridae ) in brazil\npalabras clave : area de vida , dominio vital , horarios de actividad , tropidurus , utilizaci\u00f3n del habitat .\nlocomotor performance of closely related tropidurus species : relationships with physiological parameters and ecological divergence . - pubmed - ncbi\nkunz , tobias saraiva & m\u00e1rcio borges - martins 2013 . a new microendemic species of tropidurus ( squamata : tropiduridae ) from southern brazil and revalidation of tropidurus catalanensis gudynas & skuk , 1983 . zootaxa 3681 : 413\u2013439 - get paper here\ncarpenter , c . 1977 . the aggressive displays of three species of south american iguanid lizards of the genus tropidurus .\nphylogenetic analysis and taxonomy of the tropidurus group of lizards ( iguania , tropiduridae ) . american museum novitates ; no . 3033\nfirst records of tropidurus callathelys and t . chromatops ( reptilia : squamata : tropiduridae ) in brazil | morais | check list\nprieto , a . , j . leon , o . lara . 1976 . reproduction in the tropical lizard , tropidurus hispidus .\nthree new species of the tropidurus spinulosus group ( squamata , tropiduridae ) from eastern paraguay . ( american museum novitates , no . 3853 )\nyellow dots represent collection points of tropidurus confirmed through the analysis of voucher specimens and literature ( for additional information see ref . [ 5 ] ) .\nafter analyzing the evolutionary relationships of tropidurus , carvalho was able to identify several new species , four of which are discussed in the recent publications . in the caatinga , he discovered tropidurus sertanejo . he named it for the people who live in the sert\u00e3o , the region where he found the lizard .\nminden pictures stock photos - marine iguana ( amblyrhynchus cristatus ) with lava lizards ( tropidurus albemarlensis ) on head and back , cape douglas , fe . . .\nkohlsdorf t , garland t jr , navas ca ( 2001 ) limb and tail lengths in relation to substrate usage in tropidurus lizards . j morphol 248 : 151\u2013164 .\nstebbins , r . , j . lowenstein , n . cohen . 1967 . a field study of the lava lizard ( tropidurus albemarlensis ) in the galapagos islands .\nvan sluys , m . 1998 . growth and body condition of the saxicolous lizard tropidurus itambere in southeastern brazil . journal of herpetology 32 ( 3 ) : 359\u2013365 .\nkunz , t . s . and m . borges - martins . 2013 . a new microendemic species of tropidurus ( squamata : tropiduridae ) from southern brazil and revalidation of tropidurus catalanensis gudynas & skuk , 1983 . zootaxa 3681 ( 4 ) : 413\u2013439 ( doi : 10 . 11646 / zootaxa . 3681 . 4 . 6 ) .\nvan sluys , m . 1993 . the reproductive cycle of tropidurus itambere ( sauria , tropiduridae ) in southeastern brazil . journal of herpetology 27 ( 1 ) : 28\u201332 .\nluttermann , j . 2011 . haltung und vermehrung des halsband - kielschwanzleguans , tropidurus torquatus . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 16 ( 92 ) : 60 - 63 - get paper here\njustification : tropidurus torquatus has been assessed as least concern because it has a large distribution and is not being impacted by any major widespread threats , or undergoing significant population declines .\nribeiro , l . b . and e . m . x . freire . 2011 . trophic ecology and foraging behavior of tropidurus hispidus and tropidurus semitaeniatus ( squamata , tropiduridae ) in a caatinga area of northeastern brazil . iheringia , s\u00e9rie zoologia , porto alegre 101 ( 3 ) : 225\u2013232 ( doi : 10 . 1590 / s0073 - 47212011000200010 ) .\nvan sluys , m . , h . m . a . mendes , v . b . assis and m . c . kiefer . 2002 . reproduction of tropidurus montanus rodrigues , 1987 ( tropiduridae ) , a lizard from a seasonal habitat of south - eastern brazil , and a comparison with other tropidurus species . herpetological journal 12 ( 3 ) : 89\u201397 .\nfrost , darrel r . 1992 . phylogenetic analysis and taxonomy of the tropidurus group of lizards ( iguania : tropidurudae ) . american museum novitates ( 3033 ) : 1 - 68 - get paper here\ngudynas e ; skuk g 1983 . a new species of the iguanid lizard genus tropidurus from temperate south america ( lacertilia : iguanidae ) . centro educativo don orione contribuciones en biologia 10 : 1 - 10\nver\u00edssimo , c . j . , d\u2019agostino , s . m . & katiki , l . m . 2017 . tropidurus torquatus ( amazon lava lizard ) diet . herpetological review 48 ( 3 ) : 663 .\ncarvalho , andre\u0301 luiz gomes de 2013 . on the distribution and conservation of the south american lizard genus tropidurus wied - neuwied , 1825 ( squamata : tropiduridae ) . zootaxa 3640 ( 1 ) : 042\u2013056 - get paper here\nrodrigues m t 1987 . sistematica , ecologia e zoogeografia dos tropidurus do grupo torquatus ao sul do rio amazonas ( sauria , iguanidae ) . arquivos de zoologia 31 ( 3 ) 1987 : 105 - 230 - get paper here\nvanzolini , p . e . & gomes , n . 1979 . on tropidurus hygomi : redescription , ecological notes , distribution and history ( sauria , iguanidae ) . pap . avuls . zool . 32 : 243 - 260\nrand , a . stanley ; rand , patricia j . 1966 . aspects of the ecology of the iguanid lizard tropidurus torquatus at bel\u00e9m , par\u00e1 . smithsonian miscellaneous collections 151 ( 2 ) : 1 - 16 - get paper here\ndomingos fmcb , colli gr , lemmon a , lemmon em , beheregaray lb ( 2016 ) data from : in the shadows : phylogenomics and coalescent species delimitation unveil cryptic diversity in a cerrado endemic lizard ( squamata : tropidurus ) .\nvan sluys , m . 2000 . population dynamics of the saxicolous lizard tropidurus itambere ( tropiduridae ) in a seasonal habitat of southeastern brazil . herpetologica 56 ( 1 ) : 55\u201362 ( doi : 10 . 2307 / 3893127 ) .\nda silva , jos\u00e9 nilton , silva - soares , thiago and de azevedo , cristiano schetini 2016 . ameivula nativo ( linhare ' s lizard ) and tropidurus torquatus ( amazon lava lizard ) predation herpetological review 47 ( 4 ) : 664\nkohlsdorf t . ; ribeiro j . m . & navas c . a . 2006 . territory quality and male dominance in tropidurus torquatus ( squamata , tropiduridae ) . phyllomedusa 5 ( 2 ) : 109 - 118 - get paper here\nkoski , diogo andrade 2015 . predation on tropidurus torquatus ( squamata : tropiduridae ) by the guira cuckoo guira guira ( cuculiformes : aves ) in state of esp\u00edrito santo , southeastern brazil herpetology notes 8 : 35 - 37 - get paper here\nvitt , l . j . and s . r . goldberg . 1983 . reproductive ecology of two tropical iguanid lizards : tropidurus torquatus and platynotus semitaeniatus . copeia ( 1 ) : 131\u2013141 ( doi : 10 . 2307 / 1444707 ) .\nembert , d . and l . dirksen . 2010 . tropidurus chromatops . iucn 2013 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2013 . 2 . accessible at http : / / www . iucnredlist . org . captured on 12 april 2014 .\n\u201c tropidurus sertanejo is differentiated from other species by its magnificent coloration , \u201d carvalho said . \u201cthe people are like the lizard \u2013 colorful , brave , and thriving . i admire them greatly and named the beautiful species in this way to honor them . \u201d\nvitt , l . j . 1993 . ecology of isolated open - formation tropidurus ( reptilia : tropiduridae ) in amazonian lowland rain forest . canadian journal of zoology 71 ( 12 ) : 2370\u20132390 ( doi : 10 . 1139 / z93 - 333 ) .\ndomingos fmcb , colli gr , lemmon a , lemmon em , beheregaray lb ( 2017 ) in the shadows : phylogenomics and coalescent species delimitation unveil cryptic diversity in a cerrado endemic lizard ( squamata : tropidurus ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 107 : 455\u2013465 . urltoken\npassos , d . c . , d . c . lima and d . m . borges - nojosa . 2011 . a new species of tropidurus ( squamata , tropiduridae ) of the semitaeniatus group from a semiarid area in northeastern brazil . zootaxa 2930 : 60\u201368 urltoken\npinto , adriana c . s . ; wiederhecker , helga c . ; colli , guarino r . 2005 . sexual dimorphism in the neotropical lizard , tropidurus torquatus ( squamata , tropiduridae ) . amphibia - reptilia 26 ( 2 ) : 127 - 137 - get paper here\nwe present the first records of tropidurus callathelys and t . chromatops in brazil , at parque estadual serra ricardo franco , mato grosso . the two species are largely syntopic and associated with rock outcrops on the plateaus of the serran\u00eda de huanchaca , bolivia and brazil . tropidurus callathelys is more abundant , more heliophilous and uses vertical surfaces more often than t . chromatops . in brazil , they are apparently restricted to serra de ricardo franco , a protected area threatened by cattle raising , logging and agriculture , still in need of demarcation and a management plan .\njustification : tropidurus semitaeniatus has been assessed as least concern as the species has a large distribution with no known widespread threats . the species may , however , be locally threatened by agricultural expansion which is causing degradation of the caatinga habitat . no conservation measures are recommended at present .\nkasahara , sanae ; pelligrino , k\u00dftia cristina machado ; rodrigues , miguel trefaut ; yonenaga - yassuda , y . 1996 . comparative cytogenetic studies of eleven species of the tropidurus torquatus group ( sauria , tropiduridae ) with banding patterns . hereditas 125 : 37 - 46 - get paper here\ncitation : de carvalho alg , de britto mr , fernandes ds ( 2013 ) biogeography of the lizard genus tropidurus wied - neuwied , 1825 ( squamata : tropiduridae ) : distribution , endemism , and area relationships in south america . plos one 8 ( 3 ) : e59736 . urltoken\njustification : although tropidurus chromatops has a small distribution , this species is not under any major threat and cannot be considered threatened . this species is known to occur within protected areas and is reported to be common within its range . the species has therefore been assessed as least concern .\nvitt , l . j . , p . a . zani and j . p . caldwell . 1996 . behavioural ecology of tropidurus hispidus on isolated rock outcrops in amazonia . journal of tropical ecology 12 ( 1 ) : 81\u2013101 ( doi : 10 . 1017 / s0266467400009329 ) .\nwiederhecker , h . c . , a . c . s . pinto and g . r . colli . 2002 . reproductive ecology of tropidurus torquatus ( squamata : tropiduridae ) in the highly seasonal cerrado biome of central brazil . journal of herpetology 36 ( 1 ) : 82\u201391 .\ncarvalho , a . l . g . 2013 . on the distribution and conservation of the south american lizard genus tropidurus wied - neuwied , 1825 ( squamata : tropiduridae ) . zootaxa 3640 ( 1 ) : 42\u201356 ( doi : 10 . 11646 / zootaxa . 3640 . 1 . 3 ) .\ncolli , g . r . , a . f . b . de ara\u00fajo , r . da silveira and f . roma . 1992 . niche partitioning and morphology of two syntopic tropidurus ( sauria : tropiduridae ) in mato grosso , brazil . journal of herpetology 26 ( 1 ) : 66\u201369 .\nrodrigues , m . t . 1987 . sistem\u00e1tica , ecologia e zoogeografia dos tropidurus do grupo torquatus ao sul do rio amazonas ( sauria , iguanidae ) . arquivos de zoologia 31 ( 3 ) : 105\u2013230 ( doi : 10 . 11606 / issn . 2176 - 7793 . v31i3p105 - 230 ) .\nwiederhecker , h . c . , a . c . s . pinto , m . s . paiva and g . r . colli . 2003 . the demography of the lizard tropidurus torquatus ( squamata , tropiduridae ) in a highly seasonal neotropical savanna . phyllomedusa 2 ( 1 ) : 9\u201319 urltoken\nsena - santos , arthur de ; afonso santiago de oliveira meneses , gabriel de freitas horta , pedro guilherme alves rodrigues , reuber albuquerque brand\u00e3o 2017 . predation attempt of tropidurus torquatus ( squamata , tropiduridae ) on phalotris matogrossensis ( serpentes , dipsadidae ) herpetology notes 10 : 341 - 343 - get paper here\nvan sluys , monique ; martelotte , sandra b . ; kiefer , mara c\u00edntia ; rocha , carlos f . d . 2010 . reproduction in neotropical tropidurus lizards ( tropiduridae ) : evaluating the effect of environmental factors on t . torquatus . amphibia - reptilia 31 : 117 - 126 - get paper here\ncardoso - vieira , renata ; j\u00e9ssica francine felappi , rodrigo caruccio , and laura verrastro 2012 . population dynamics of tropidurus torquatus ( wied , 1820 ) ( squamata , tropiduridae ) in southern brazil . south american j . herp . 6 ( 3 ) : 215 - 222 [ 2011 ] - get paper here\nfreitas , a . m . , r . l . teixeira & r . b . ferreira 2012 . food partitioning between the sympatric lizards tropidurus torquatus and ameiva ameiva in the atlantic rainforest , northeastern brazil . pp . 63 - 70 . salamandra 48 ( 2 ) : 63 - 70 - get paper here\nfaria , r . g . and a . f . b . araujo . 2004 . sintopy of two tropidurus lizard species ( squamata : tropiduridae ) in a rocky cerrado habitat in central brazil . brazilian journal of biology 64 ( 4 ) : 775\u2013786 ( doi : 10 . 1590 / s1519 - 69842004000500007 ) .\nmatos , naiana brito de ; milena ferreira , fernando de jesus silva , miguel trefaut rodrigues , elinaira santos da silva , and caroline garcia 2016 . taxonomy and evolution of tropidurus ( iguania , tropiduridae ) based on chromosomal and dna barcoding analysis journal of herpetology 50 ( 2 ) : 316 - 326 - get paper here\nvieira , gustavo h . c . ; helga c . wiederhecker , guarino r . colli , s\u00f4nia n . b\u00e1o 2001 . spermiogenesis and testicular cycle of the lizard tropidurus torquatus ( squamata , tropiduridae ) in the cerrado of central brazil . amphibia - reptilia 22 ( 2 ) : 217 - 233 - get paper here\ngandolfi , s . m . and c . f . d . rocha . 1998 . orientation of thermoregulating tropidurus torquatus ( sauria : tropiduridae ) on termite mounds in an open area of south - eastern brazil . amphibia - reptilia 19 ( 3 ) : 319\u2013 323 ( doi : 10 . 1163 / 156853898x00223 ) .\nrocha , c . f . d . and h . g . bergallo . 1990 . thermal biology and flight distance of tropidurus oreadicus ( sauria , iguanidae ) in an area of amazonian brazil . ethology ecology & evolution 2 ( 3 ) : 263\u2013268 ( doi : 10 . 1080 / 08927014 . 1990 . 9525411 ) .\nwiederhecker , h . c . ; pinto , a . c . s . ; paiva , m . s . & colli , g . r . 2003 . the demography of the lizard tropidurus torquatus ( squamata , tropiduridae ) in a highly seasonal neotropical savanna . phyllomedusa 2 ( 1 ) : 9 - 20 - get paper here\nharvey , m . b . and r . l . gutberlet . 1998 . lizards of the genus tropidurus ( iguania : tropiduridae ) from the serrania de huanchaca , bolivia : new species , natural history , and a key to the genus . herpetologica 54 ( 4 ) : 493\u2013520 ( doi : 10 . 2307 / 3893443 ) .\nrodrigues , m . t . 1988 . distribution of lizards of the genus tropidurus in brazil ( sauria , iguanidae ) ; pp . 305\u2013315 , in : w . r . heyer and p . e . vanzolini ( ed . ) . proceedings of a workshop on neotropical distribution patterns . rio de janeiro : academia brasileira de ci\u00eancias .\nfrost , darrel r . , miguel t . rodrigues , taran grant , and tom a . titus 2001 . phylogenetics of the lizard genus tropidurus ( squamata : tropiduridae : tropidurinae ) : direct optimization , descriptive efficiency , and sensitivity analysis of congruence between molecular data and morphology . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 21 ( 3 ) : 352\u2013371 - get paper here\nribeiro , l . b . , s . c . gomides , a . o . santos and b . m . sousa . 2008 . thermoregulatory behavior of the saxicolous lizard , tropidurus torquatus ( squamata , tropiduridae ) , in a rocky outcrop in minas gerais , brazil . herpetological conservation and biology 3 ( 1 ) : 63\u201370 urltoken pdf ) .\nvan sluys , m . , c . f . d . rocha , d . vrcibradic , c . aleksander , b . galdino and a . f . fontes . 2004 . diet , activity and microhabitat use of two syntopic tropidurus species ( lacertilia : tropiduridae ) in minas gerais , brazil . journal of herpetology 38 ( 4 ) : 606\u2013611 .\nribeiro , l . b . , s . c . gomides , a . o . santos , and b . m . sousa . 2008 . thermoregulatory behavior of the saxicolous lizard , tropidurus torquatus ( squamata , tropiduridae ) , in a rocky outcrop in minas gerais , brazil . herp . cons . biol . 3 : 63 - 70 - get paper here\ntropidurus bogerti is endemic to auyantepui , bol\u00edvar state , venezuela . it has an elevation range between 1 , 700 and 2 , 200 m . the elevation of 1 , 100 cited for the holotype may be an error , because no other specimen of the species has been collected at this altitude ( myers and donnelly 2008 , rivas et al . 2012 ) .\nbergallo , h . g . and c . f . d . rocha . 1994 . spatial and trophic niche differentiation in two sympatric lizards ( tropidurus torquatus and cnemidophorus ocellifer ) with different foraging tactics . australian journal of ecology 19 ( 1 ) : 72\u201375 ( doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1442 - 9993 . 1994 . tb01545 . x ) .\nribeiro , l . b . ; gomides , s . c . ; santos , a . o . & sousa , b . m . 2007 . thermoregulatory behavior of the saxicolous lizard , tropidurus torquatus ( squamata , tropiduridae ) , in a rocky outcrop in minas gerais , brazil . herp . cons . biol . 3 ( 1 ) : 63 - 70 - get paper here\nkiefer , m . c . , m . van sluys and c . f . d . rocha . 2005 . body temperatures of tropidurus torquatus ( squamata , tropiduridae ) from coastal populations : do body temperatures vary along their geographic range ? journal of thermal biology 30 ( 6 ) : 449\u2013456 ( doi : 10 . 1016 / j . jtherbio . 2005 . 05 . 004 ) .\nkiefer , m . c . , m . van sluys and c . f . d . rocha . 2007 . thermoregulatory behaviour in tropidurus torquatus ( squamata , tropiduridae ) from brazilian coastal populations : an estimate of passive and active thermoregulation in lizards . acta zoologica 88 ( 1 ) : 81\u201387 ( doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1463 - 6395 . 2007 . 00254 . x ) .\nfrost , d . r . , m . t . rodrigues , t . grant and t . a . titus . 2001 . phylogenetics of the lizard genus tropidurus ( squamata : tropiduridae : tropidurinae ) : direct optimization , descriptive efficiency , and sensitivity analysis of congruence between molecular data and morphology . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 21 ( 3 ) : 352\u2013371 ( doi : 10 . 1006 / mpev . 2001 . 1015 ) .\ntropidurus callathelys and t . xanthochilus are not directly related phylogenetically and display distinct ecologies [ 4 ] , [ 9 ] . the first species inhabits rock outcrops in the serran\u00eda de huanchaca , while the second is arboricolous and associated with seasonally dry forests [ 4 ] , [ 121 ] . tropidurus xanthochilus and its sister species widely distributed in the chaco , t . spinulosus , were previously suggested to have parapatric distribution where the forests of the tarvo and paragu\u00e1 rivers intergrade with the semideciduous chiquitano dry forest [ 4 ] . however , the closest known populations of t . spinulosus is located 350 km south of the type locality of t . xanthochilus [ 4 ] , and despite the distributional data are scarce , the range of these species as currently known still define allopatric distributions [ 5 ] . tropidurus callathelys is also allopatric in relation to its sister species , t . melanopleurus , which occupies the andean foothills from northern argentina to southern peru [ 5 ] . indeed , the distribution and phylogenetic relationships of both species pairs effectively suggest a single vicariant event as responsible for the origin of the species endemic to huanchaca . however , no data is currently available to provide an effective test of the temporal congruence between speciation events . to assess the timing of these events is not only essential to properly test the hypothesis of a common diversification history , but also to identify the vicariant processes involved .\ncarvalho , a . l . g . , h . r . silva , a . f . b . ara\u00fajo , r . alves - silva and r . r . silva - leite . 2007 . feeding ecology of tropidurus torquatus ( wied ) ( squamata , tropiduridae ) in two areas with different degrees of conservation in marambaia island , rio de janeiro , southeastern brazil . revista brasileira de zoologia 24 ( 1 ) : 222\u2013227 ( doi : 10 . 1590 / s0101 - 81752007000100029 ) .\njustification : tropidurus erythrocephalus has been assessed as near threatened . it is restricted to the northern section of the serra do espinhaco , in bahia state . its quality of habitat is continually being degraded because of urban expansion and agricultural expansion . its extent of occurrence is estimated to be approximately 25 , 500 km\u00b2 and it is found in less than ten locations . therefore an assessment of near threatened has been made as this species almost meets the requirements for listing as vulnerable under criterion b1ab ( iii ) .\nnous avons \u00e9tudi\u00e9 quelques param\u00e8tres du parasitisme par les larves de l\u2019acarien eutrombicula alfreddugesi sur quatre esp\u00e8ces sympatriques de l\u00e9zards du genre tropidurus \u00e0 morro do chap\u00e9u , \u00e9tat de bahia , br\u00e9sil : t . hispidus , t . cocorobensis , t . semitaeniatus et t . erythrocephalus . pour chaque esp\u00e8ce , nous avons \u00e9tudi\u00e9 les types d\u2019infestation et leur variation parmi les h\u00f4tes . nous avons calcul\u00e9 l\u2019amplitude de la niche spatiale de l\u2019acarien sur les h\u00f4tes , l\u2019intensit\u00e9 d\u2019infestation et les microhabitats pr\u00e9f\u00e9r\u00e9s de l\u2019acarien sur le corps des l\u00e9zards . toutes les esp\u00e8ces de l\u00e9zard \u00e9tudi\u00e9es \u00e9taient parasit\u00e9es , avec des fr\u00e9quences \u00e9lev\u00e9es ( 97 - 100 % ) . la taille du corps des l\u00e9zards explique l\u2019intensit\u00e9 parasitaire pour toutes les esp\u00e8ces , \u00e0 l\u2019exception de t . erythrocephalus . les r\u00e9gions de plus grande intensit\u00e9 parasitaire , sur les quatre esp\u00e8ces de l\u00e9zards , \u00e9taient les bourses des acariens . la largeur de la niche spatiale des acariens varie entre les quatre esp\u00e8ces de l\u00e9zard \u00e9tudi\u00e9es , plus grande sur le corps de t . erytrocephalus et mineure sur le corps de t . cocorobensis . nous concluons que la distribution et l\u2019intensit\u00e9 avec laquelle les l\u00e9zards du genre tropidurus sont infest\u00e9s par les larves d\u2019 eutrombicula alfreddugesi r\u00e9sultent de l\u2019interaction entre des aspects de la morphologie et de l\u2019\u00e9cologie des l\u00e9zards .\naunque tropidurus es un g\u00e9nero de lagarto extensamente distribuido en sudam\u00e9rica y en las islas gal\u00e1pagos , son escasos los estudios sobre uso del espacio y distribuci\u00f3n espacial . en este trabajo se estudi\u00f3 la organizaci\u00f3n espacial del lagarto sax\u00edcola tropidurus torquatus basado en la poblaci\u00f3n interiorana de uno afloramiento rocoso en el estado de minas gerais , sudeste del brasil . los lagartos fueron individualmente marcados y observados durante las estaciones reproductiva y no reproductiva . con el m\u00e9todo del m\u00ednimo pol\u00edgono convexo fue encontrado que el tama\u00f1o promedio del dominio vital de los machos durante la estaci\u00f3n reproductiva fue m\u00e1s grande que el de las hembras y en la estaci\u00f3n no reproductiva hembras y machos mantuvieron dominios vitales similares en el tama\u00f1o . el m\u00e9todo de la media arm\u00f3nica mostr\u00f3 que el tama\u00f1o promedio del area de vida de machos fue mayor que el area de las hembras en ambas estaciones . como esperado para una especie polig\u00ednica , el n\u00famero medio de machos con dominios vitales sobrepuestos a los de las hembras tendi\u00f3 a ser m\u00e1s grande en la estaci\u00f3n reproductiva . intrasexualmente , el n\u00famero de hembras con sus dominios vitales asociados a los de otras hembras tambi\u00e9n fue mayor en la estaci\u00f3n reproductiva . para los machos , este n\u00famero permaneci\u00f3 bajo en ambas estaciones , lo que sugiere que los machos usan areas m\u00e1s exclusivas , mientras los dominios vitales m\u00e1s peque\u00f1os de las hembras al parecer sostengan una mayor densidad de individuos durante la estaci\u00f3n reproductiva . la frecuencia de uso de los microh\u00e1bitats relacionados a la vegetaci\u00f3n aument\u00f3 en la estaci\u00f3n no reproductiva y el padr\u00f3n de actividad de los lagartos cambi\u00f3 del bimodal en la estaci\u00f3n reproductiva ( per\u00edodo lluvioso ) para unimodal en la no reproductiva ( per\u00edodo seco ) . as\u00ed la organizaci\u00f3n espacial , la utilizaci\u00f3n de los microh\u00e1bitats y los padrones de actividad de t . torquatus aqu\u00ed observados fueron todos influenciados por el per\u00edodo de tiempo afectando la ecolog\u00eda espacial de los lagartos .\n< mods xmlns : xlink =\nurltoken\nversion =\n3 . 0\nxmlns : xsi =\nurltoken\nxmlns =\nurltoken\nxsi : schemalocation =\nurltoken urltoken\n> < titleinfo > < title > variation in the diet of the lizard tropidurus torquatus along its coastal range in brazil < / title > < / titleinfo > < name > < namepart > siqueira , carla costa < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > kiefer , mara cintia < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > sluys , monique van < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > rocha , carlos frederico duarte < / namepart > < / name > < typeofresource > text < / typeofresource > < genre authority =\nmarcgt\n> < / genre > < subject > < topic > feeding ecology < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > geographic variation < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > restinga habitat < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > tropical lizard < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > tropiduridae < / topic > < / subject > < relateditem type =\nhost\n> < titleinfo > < title > biota neotropica < / title > < / titleinfo > < part > < date > 2013 - 09 - 01 < / date > < / part > < / relateditem > < identifier type =\nuri\n> urltoken < / identifier > < / mods >\n> stream h\u00fe\u00ecv } lsu\u0014\u00bf\u00ef\u00f6c\u00fdzy\u00adk\u00d7a\u00e1\u00f5\u00f1 - ] i\u00eafal\u008a\u00b1\u00f42\u00ba fs7 | \u00e0\u00f0\u00a6\u00ee \\ b : \u00e6\u0087\u0011\u0090\u0096q\u00e9\u0006h\u00e3 ` s c \u0090\u0014 & \u00b0e\u00a7\u00fd @ m\u00e7\u00a6l\n8 \u0006i\u00b7 \u0088 \u0099\u0089d # \u0089\u00f1\u00be\u00be\u00d7 / \u009d\u00e1 ? \u00bdis\u00ef9\u00f7 | \u00fc\u00ee\u00ef\u009c\u00f7\u00fa\u0000\u0000\u0010\u00006\u0007\u00f0\u0000\u00e0\u008a\u0080\u0004 $ \u0096\u0004p @ \u001a ` 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\u0091\u0082 me\u00e5\u009a\u00b5k\u009ex | \u0093\u00fdb\u00ee\u00fb\u00ebq\u00fe\u00e6f { mm\u008dg\u000eis { < ^ \u009f\u000fev\u00880 : \u00e9\u00f4\u00a6 > e = \u0006 ) ze @ \u00f4ly\u00f0l ^ \u0004\u00b9\u00ae\u00ae\u00fe\u00e2 \u00b5\u00b5\u00b58\u00ac\u0019\u00fdwi\u00e9\u00a7\u009f\u0096uuu544\u0018\u00b3\u0084\u00e5\u00e3\u00e9 ] \u0004h \u0018 \u00e0 \\ \u00b1\u00eb\u0012\u0089\u0004\u00a7 = \u00f2\u00f6\u00bb , s\u0095 < \u00af\u00e9nq4\u0014\u0019\u0004\u00be87 @ 6\u0018\u0089\u00e4e\u00b3\u00fb ' \u00f3iu\u00bb0vf\u0099 _ 7\u00b59 \u00e4\u00a6 \u00a1\u0083 = t8z\u00ec6\u001b\u00ed\u00f9d\u00a2\u00f8\u00afg7l\u0098\u00fbr\u00ecd2\u00bf ~ \u00f5\u00f5 _ \u00ed\u00fa\u0095l & \u0094\u008b ; _ ye\u00e1\u00d7\u00ec1\u009ah\u00fe } \u00d7\u00fd\u00ef < \u00fd\u00f4m\u00f9ui2\u00b5 : \u00b7\u00eb\u0095\u008f\u00eae\u008a\u00e2\u00f5 _ = \u0014xb\u00d7 | c\u00e2\u00ad7\u00df , \u00f9\u00e4\u0013\u00b5\u00b3 ( \u009c\b\u00f8\u00fd\u00efn\u00df ^ \u00b4b\u00e5\u00f1\u00e3\u0087\u0017\u00a8 | \u00e2\u00f3\u00f4\u00f4\u0088\u0088i\u00bb\u00fb\u00f2 % \u00bb\u00ed\u008a\bs ] \u00fc\u0090j\u00a5hg2\u00e9k2\u00b9\u00f2\u00e9\u00b4\u00f2 , \u00a7\u00e3c\u0083pl , wv . \u00f6\u0003\u00f5\u00f0j\u00b5\u00bc\u0093\u00bf\u00a52\u00a7 \u00f5\u00e9s\u00a78d [ \u00e1wyy\u0099n\u00ab\u00edr\u001b\u00e4\u0005\u00a4\u00fe\u0092\b\u00e8\u00fe\u00a7 { hh\u00f0\u009a $ \u0083\u00e9\u00e1\u00e1\b\u00f8\u0012 ? ~ \u0081\u00b6t * i # \u0016 \u00e6\u00a2pd\u00d7\u00ed3 \u009e\u00f7nw2 & y ; & \u0093\u0081\u00a8\u00e8\u00a6 \u000f24\u0099l6\u00ab\u0015\u008a\u00b9 \\ . \u00e3 \\ y * \u00fc\u0017\u00fcz\u00f2\u00f1ms [ \u0087 & \u0083a\u00f5\u00ea\u0095o\u00ec\u00fd\u00fb\u00fb\u00fd\u00bb\u00df = t ( \u009d\u0096\u00ea\u00a7\u0097 _ \u00fa\u00f1aqq . \u008f3\u00f9w - yrs ~ \u0089\u00f1\u00b6\u00b5\u00b5\u00ed\u00fbk\u007f\u0015\u00f0\u00eb ? \u007f , \u00f1\u00ebg ? - $ ~ \u00b1\u00ad ( s\u00b3j\u00d7\u00e2\u008ej\u008d\u00e6\u008d\u00d7 _ \u00fff\u00f8\u00ed\u00fb\u0010 ; \u0006\u00bc ^ \u00fe\u00f1cl\u00e2\u0002u\u00e1\u00fa\u0004 @ lm\u00ac\u0010\u008e\u0089\u0006\u00fe\u00a1\u00a3\u00a3\u00fd\u00e7\u00f5 & f ; \u00e3\u00e2\u0086\u0081\u00fe\u00fe\u0001\u0019g\u00a4\u0081\u008f\u00a1\u0001\n\u00e1\u00f0\u00e8\u00e8h < \u00e7\u00f2\u0088rv\u00b2 \u008f\u00fdn\u0017\u001a\u00e8\u00df\u00fa\u00fa : urzz ^ \u00fe\u00bf\u009a\u00ea\u00ea\u00f3\u00a7omua ' kj\u00aa\u00aa\u00ee ! } y \u00f3\u00f4h\u00e2u\u00b7\u00a4\u0002\u00fd\u00fd\u009fg\u0087\u00a5\u00e4\u00f8q = = _ \u00b1h\u00fa\u0083\u00e4\u00e0 ` \u00e6\u00ea\u0095 @ o\u0080z\u0012\u0016o\u009f\u00ech $ \u00ac / \u00f7\u0010j\u00e5\u0097c\u00ee\u00a1k \\ \u0087\u0086n\u00a7\u0013\u009d\u00e4\u00af\u00ea\u0084\u00ea\u00e5\u00f0\u00eb\u00f5\u008d & \u0013e\u0083\u00e7\u00f3j\u00fas @ \u0098\u00e4\u00bf $ ~ \u00fd\u00f3\u00e4\u00a69\u00f2\u008bi ; \u00fe\u00f1gg\u008a\u008b\u008b\u00df { \u00af\u00f4\u00e4i\u00ec\u0018\u0017\u009bl\u00a6 . \u00af7\u0097\u00e7s\u00e4\u0017ggg\u0087rq\u00e5 % b\u00e1\u00f0\u00bf > \u00fcp\u00e5\u00aau\u00bf\u00fc\u00f9n\u00b6ia\u00f0\u008b - \u0014\b\u0004\u0016nv\u0016g e\n{ v\u00ef\u00b6y\u00ecj ' r \u00f1\u00ef\u00bf\u00bf\u00fb\u00fd\u0007 \u00fc\u00f3\u0081\u0003 \u00fak | d\u00a4\u00bb\u00eb\u00d7\u00f4\u00f8x _ _ \u00af\u0093\u00ed\u008f\u00f5b\u0081b\u0014\u0093\u00a2\u00fa\u0092\u00a1\u0080\u0091\u0019\u0006d\u0002\u00130\u00ab\u00af / \b\u000e\u00a4\u00eb\u00e3c\u0081ia\u0080\u0002 ] ] ] - - \u00edb + p\u00e5\u00ea\u00ea\u00ea\u0093 ' ob\u00ab \u0017 . \u00e0\u00e7 , vw [ \u00ab\u00f0k\u00e8 & \u00b6\u00e5\u00e9t\u00fc\u0092\u00e2 \u0018\u00e1 ` \u0080 \u00e6\u00e4\u00e2\u0089l\u0015\u0018\u00b1 \u00f9\u0089b > \u0099lr\u001b\u00d7a\u0015\u00f7 $ \u0093\u0089\u00ec\u0095\u00ec\u00f8\u00f8\u0098\u0098\u0001le\u007f _ \u0090\u00b1\u00fc\u00a4\u00a3\u00eb\u00fbmm \u0098\u0005\u00b2 [ [ [ i\u00f8\u00e7\u00f3\u00ba\u00fdn ~ \u0082\u00fet\u00f8\u00fc\u0005\u00e5\u00b3k\u00e9\u00e29 $ \u0086\u00e9tn\u00b7\u008b\u00ec\u001b\u00af\u00af ( r\u00e5\u00d7y\u00e9\u007f\u00ed\u0099 _ \u00f3\u008c \\ \u00f8\u00e5\u0000\u00f9\n\u00bd\u00f9\u00e6\u00eb @ ( \u00f4\u00fao\u007f\u00b3\u00bc\u00a8\u00e8\u00ef\u00ef\u00bc\u0013\u000e\u0087\u00f3\u00fbr\u00b5\u0082\u00bd0\u001a\u008f\u00ab\u00f2 ) \u00f5\u008d\u00a3\u0087\u000f\u00ff\u00fb\u00f81\u00b5\u00b3 ( \u0090\u00b8xw\u00bbn\u00fd\u00ba\u00a7\u00b7l\u00f1\u00b8 ] \u00fd\u0017f\u008a\u00f2\u0094 \u00eer9\u0011\u0000\u00af\u00d7\u00eb\n\u0089\u00e5\u00a4\u009f\u00a2q\u00f63\u00b4\u0002 w\u00affx\u00f8\u00b1x \u00e7 c\u00a9oe \u00b7\u00e1\u00afv\u00b7 [ h\u0088\u00f1h\u00ac\u00af\u00ab + / \u00af8u\u00ea\u0014\u00fc\u00e2\u00e2\u0095\u0094\u0094 @ . n\u00e1\u0018m\u008df\u0083p ^ \u0092\u00f5\u0013\u00f8\u0099 \u0086 [ \u00e5\u0017 = b\u00a9fbq\u00fe \u00fa\u0092\u0018h\u00eb\u00b9\u00fe\u0086 ^ \u00f9 c\b\u0087b\u00f0 * = 11 < 4\u00e8\u009d\u00e0xp / 4\u00f0\u007f\u00f3\u008e\u0018\u009a4 ^ \u00bf\u009f\u00e9\u00b1z\u00ec . 9\u009a\u009b\u009b } > \u009a\u00e8\u00ed\u00ec\u0000e\u00fc \u00f4 \u00b8\u00fdfe , 9\u00b2cu ~ ii\u00e8\u0018b\u0098\u00ed\u00edm\n\u00a5\u009b & \u00e6 \u0094 = \u00f8l > \u00f4\u00f9\u009a\u001au\u00f9\u00b5\u00e4\u00ee ; g\u00e1\u0097\u0018 . \u00bf\u00fcb\u00a12 ] \u00fb\u00b7m [ \u00bf ~ } \u00e3g\u009f\u0005\u0083\u00e1 < \u00be \\ \u00e5\u0088\u00e5\u00a2\u00aa | g\u00f5\u00e3 \u00f3 x\u00fb\u00edl & \u00adv\n\u0005\u0012\u00fb\u00f6\u00ec\u00f9\u00ee\u00b2eo\u00ee\u00fbw\u001b\u00fa\u00e2\u00a4\u00e0b\u00e0\u0094\u00e3\u00f1\u0082 & #\nbrazil ( rio grande do sul , goias , mato grosso , minas gerais , pernambuco , espi\u0301rito santo , rio de janeiro , s\u00e3o paulo , bahia ) , guyana , suriname , french guiana , colombia [ castro , f . ( pers . comm . ) ] , bolivia ? , argentina ( corrientes etc . )\ntype locality : brazil , rio de janeiro , lagoa do paulista [ neotype locality ] . lat - 22 . 2352 , - 41 . 5481 .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nneotypes : mzusp 54907 ( rodrigues 1987 ) ; original description doesn\u2019t mention type specimens .\navila , l . j . ; martinez , l . e . ; morando , m . 2010 . lista de las lagartijas y anfisbaenas de argentina : una actualizacio\u0301n [ en li\u0301nea ] . ver . 1 . 0 . 1 diciembre 2010 [ checklist of lizards and amphisbaenians of argentina : an update ] . centro nacional patago\u0301nico cenpat - conicet . puerto madryn , chubut , argentina . - get paper here\navila , luciano javier ; lorena elizabeth martinez & mariana morando 2013 . checklist of lizards and amphisbaenians of argentina : an update . zootaxa 3616 ( 3 ) : 201\u2013238\nbertolotto , c . e . v . ; k . c . m . pellegrino and y . yonenaga - yassuda 2004 . occurrence of b chromosomes in lizards : a review . cytogenet genome res 106 : 243\u2013246\nboulenger , g . a . 1888 . on some reptiles and batrachians from iguarasse , pernambuco . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 6 ) 2 : 40\u201443 - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1885 . catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( natural history ) . vol . 2 , second edition . london , xiii + 497 pp . - get paper here\ncaldeira costa , h . ; dias fernandes , v . ; castro rodrigues , a . & neves feio , r . 2009 . lizards and amphisbaenians , municipality of vi\u00e7osa , state of minas gerais , southeastern brazil . check list 5 ( 3 ) : 732\u2013745 - get paper here\ncarvalho ribas , s . et al . 2004 . structure of claws and toes of two tropidurid lizard species of restinga from southeastern brazil : adaptations to the vertical use of the habitat . revista chilena de historia natural 77 : 599 - 606\ncei , j . m . 1993 . reptiles del noroeste , nordeste y este de la argentina . museo regionale sci . naturale torino , monografie 14 : 1 - 949\ncei , j . m . 2003 . specific supraocular scutellation patterns as significant diagnostic characters : a taxonomic inter and intrageneric\nfinger - print\nin lacertilia . facena 19 : 129 - 135 - get paper here\ndum\u00e9ril , a . m . c . and g . bibron . 1837 . erp\u00e9tologie g\u00e9n\u00e9rale ou histoire naturelle complete des reptiles . vol . 4 . libr . encyclop\u00e9dique roret , paris , 570 pp . - get paper here\ndutra , guilherme f ; carla c siqueira , davor vrcibradic , mara c kiefer , and carlos frederico d rocha 2010 . plant consumption of insular and mainland populations of a tropical lizard . herpetologica 67 ( 1 ) : 32 - 45 . - get paper here\netheridge , richard 1968 . a review of the iguanid lizard genera uracentron and strobilurus . bulletin of the british museum ( natural history ) , zoology 17 ( 2 ) : 47 - 64 - get paper here\nfeio , r . n . & caramaschi , u . 2003 . contribui\u00e7\u00e3o ao conhecimento da herpetofauna do nordeste do estado de minas gerais , brasil . phyllomedusa 1 ( 2 ) : 105 - 111 [ 2002 ] - get paper here\nfreitas , marco antonio de 2014 . squamate reptiles of the atlantic forest of northern bahia , brazil . check list 10 ( 5 ) : 1020 - 1030 - get paper here\ngravenhorst , j . l . c . 1838 . beitr\u00e4ge zur genaueren kenntniss einiger eidechsengattungen . nova acta acad . caes . leop . - carol . 18 : 712 - 784 [ 1837 ]\ngray , j . e . 1845 . catalogue of the specimens of lizards in the collection of the british museum . trustees of die british museum / edward newman , london : xxvii + 289 pp . - get paper here\nharvey , michael b . & ronald l . gutberlet jr 2000 . a phylogenetic analysis of the tropidurine lizards ( squamata : tropiduridae ) , including new characters of squamation and epidermal microstructure . zoological journal of the linnean society 128 : 189\u2013233 .\nhummelinck , p . w . 1940 . studies on the fauna of curacao , aruba , bonaire and the venezuelan islands : no . 2 . a survey of the mammals , lizards and mollusks . [ ' gymnophthalmus laevicaudus : 80 ] . studies on the fauna of curacao and other caribbean islands . 1 : 59\u2014108\ningaramo , mar\u00eda del rosario ; marangoni , federico ; cajade , rodrigo 2015 . herpetofauna de la reserva paleontol\u00f3gica del arroyo torop\u00ed , bella vista , corrientes , argentina . cuad . herpetol . 29 ( 1 ) : - get paper here\noliveira lula salles , r . de & silva - soares , t . 2010 . re\u0301pteis do munici\u0301pio de duque de caxias , baixada fluminense , rio de janeiro , sudeste do brasil . biotemas , 23 ( 2 ) : 135 - 144\noliveira lula salles , r . de ; weber , l . n . & silva - soares , t . 2010 . reptiles , squamata , parque natural municipal da taquara , municipality of duque de caxias , state of rio de janeiro , southeastern brazil . check list 6 ( 2 ) : 280 - 286 - get paper here\nraddi , g . 1823 . continuazione della descrizione dei rettili brasiliani . accademia nazionale dei quaranta , memorie delle societ\u00e0 italiana scienze , modena , italy , 19 : 58\u201473 . - get paper here\nrocha , carlos frederico d . ; helena g . bergallo , jos\u00e9 p . pombal jr . , lena geise , monique van sluys , ronaldo fernandes , ulisses caramaschi 2004 . fauna de anf\u00edbios , r\u00e9pteis e mam\u00edferos do estado do rio de janeiro , sudeste do brasil publ . avul . mus . nac . , rio de janeiro ( 104 ) : 3 - 23 - get paper here\nsantos , d . l . ; s . p . andrade ; e . p . victor - jr . ; w . vaz - silva 2014 . amphibians and reptiles from southeastern goi\u00e1s , central brazil . check list 10 ( 1 ) : 131 - 148 - get paper here\nsiebenrock , friedrich 1892 . ueber wirbelassimilation bei den sauriern . annalen des k\u00f6niglichen kaiserlichen naturhistorischen hofmuseum in wien 7 : 373 - 378\nsilva , m . c . da , r . h . de oliveira , d . h . morais , r . a . kawashita - ribeiro , e . s . de brito & r . w . \u00e1vila 2015 . amphibians and reptiles of a cerrado area in primavera do leste municipality , mato grosso state , central brazil . salamandra 51 ( 2 ) : 187 - 194 - get paper here\nsilva - soares , t . ; r . b . ferreira ; r . o . l . salles ; c . f . d . rocha . 2011 . continental , insular and coastal marine reptiles from the municipality of vit\u00f3ria , state of esp\u00edrito santo , southeastern brazil . check list 7 ( 3 ) : 290 - 298 - get paper here\nvanzolini , p . e . 1974 . ecological and geographical distribution of lizards in pernambuco , northeastern brasil ( sauria ) . papeis avulsos de zool . 28 ( 4 ) : 61 - 90 .\nwied - neuwied , m . 1824 . verzeichniss der amphibien , welche im zweyten bande der naturgeschichte brasiliens vom prinz max von neuwied werden beschrieben werden . isis von oken 14 : 661\u2014673 [ columns ] - get paper here\nwied - neuwied , m . prinz zu 1820 . reise nach brasilien in den jahren 1815 bis 1817 . vol . 1 . heinrich ludwig bronner , frankfurt . - get paper here\nzaracho , v\u00edctor hugo ; ingaramo , mar\u00eda del rosario ; semhan , romina valeria ; etchepare , eduardo ; acosta , jos\u00e9 luis ; falcione , ana camila ; \u00e1lvarez , blanca 2014 . herpetofauna de la reserva natural provincial isla apip\u00e9 grande ( corrientes , argentina ) cuad . herpetol . 28 ( 2 ) : 153 - 160 - get paper here\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncopyright : \u00a9 2013 carvalho et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : this work was partially supported by a doctoral fellowship from the national council for scientific and technological development - brazil ( cnpq process 200798 / 2010 - 3 ) to algc . the funding agency had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nin addition to the investigation of patterns of area relationships , pae is a biogeographical method able to detect areas of endemism [ 45 ] . these areas represent hypotheses of natural entities essentially adopted as operational geographic units during historical biogeographic reconstructions [ 45 ] \u2013 [ 48 ] . areas of endemism originate through the fragmentation of an ancestral biota by the appearance of a geographic barrier that promotes spatially concordant events of allopatric speciation in different groups of organisms , responsible for the emergence of two new biotas [ 48 ] \u2013 [ 54 ] . similar responses of different taxa to the same vicariant event generate similar phylogenetic patterns . it is then expected that organisms composing the same biota , subjected to the same vicariant events , display congruent phylogenetic patterns [ 49 ] \u2013 [ 52 ] , [ 55 ] \u2013 [ 56 ] . therefore , through the analysis of the levels of distributional and phylogenetic congruence among different taxa , it is possible to reconstruct the history of diversification ( in a spatial and temporal perspective ) of the areas occupied by these organisms .\n[ 9 ] ) with hypothetical ancestors ( represented by numbers 1\u201319 ) defined for implementation of bpa ( see also table 3 ) .\ntree searches were carried out in tnt version 3 . 1 [ 69 ] . traditional heuristic searches were based on 100 replicates and 10 , 000 trees were saved per replicate , using the stepwise addition algorithm and rearrangement of branches through tree bisection - reconnection [ 70 ] . all analyses were repeated using new technologies to improve the exploration of tree space and to guarantee the robustness of the results previously found using tbr . sectorial search [ 71 ] , ratchet [ 72 ] , and tree fusing [ 71 ] were associated under driven search , with initial addseqs = 10 , until the best scoring tree was found 100 , 000 times .\nthe area of endemism located within the quadrat 24 ( enlarged in figure 4 ) comprises the noel kempf mercado national park ( including the serran\u00eda de huanchaca ) and el refugio biological station , in the department of santa cruz , eastern bolivia , and was supported by the occurrence of t . callathelys ( yellow star ) , t . chromatops ( red triangles ) , and t . xanthochilus ( black cross ) . the area of endemism located within the quadrat 28 ( enlarged ) comprises the southern portion of the caatinga province , northeastern brazil , and was supported by the endemics t . erythrocephalus ( yellow dots ) , t . mucujensis ( orange dot ) , and t . psammonastes ( white dots ) .\nconsensus of the area cladograms generated by ( a ) parsimony analysis of endemicity ( 15 trees , l = 38 steps , ci = 0 . 605 , ri = 0 . 643 ) and ( b ) brooks parsimony analysis ( 2 trees , l = 69 steps , ci = 0 . 565 , ri = 0 . 694 ) based on the distribution\ncontributed with edits to the to manuscript : mrb dsf . conceived and designed the experiments : alc mrb dsf . performed the experiments : alc . analyzed the data : alc . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : alc mrb . wrote the paper : alc .\ndo grupo torquatus ao sul do rio amazonas ( sauria , iguanidae ) . arq zool 31 : 105\u2013230 .\nin brazil ( sauria , iguanidae ) . in : vanzolini pe , heyer wr , editors . proceedings of a workshop on neotropical distribution patterns . rio de janeiro : academia brasileira de ci\u00eancias . 305\u2013315 .\n\u00e1vila - pires tcs ( 1995 ) lizards of brazilian amazonia ( reptilia : squamata ) . zool verhand 299 : 1\u2013706 .\n( iguania : tropiduridae ) from the serrania de huanchaca , bolivia : new species , natural history , and a key to the genus . herpetologica 54 : 493\u2013520 .\nwied - neuwied , 1825 ( squamata : tropiduridae ) . zootaxa : in press .\ngroup of lizards ( iguania : tropidurudae ) . am mus novit 3033 : 1\u201368 .\nharvey mb , gutberlet rl jr ( 2000 ) a phylogenetic analysis of the tropidurine lizards ( squamata : tropiduridae ) , including new characters of squamation and epidermal microstructure . biol j linn soc 128 : 189\u2013233 .\n( squamata : tropiduridae : tropidurinae ) : direct optimization , descriptive efficiency , and sensitivity analysis of congruence between molecular data and morphology . mol phyl evol 21 : 352\u2013371 .\nhaffer j ( 1969 ) speciation in amazonian forest birds . science 165 : 131\u2013137 .\nvanzolini pe , williams ee ( 1981 ) the vanishing refuge : a mechanism for ecogeographic speciation . pap avul zool 34 : 251\u2013255 .\nprance gt ( 1973 ) phytogeographic support for the theory of pleistocene forest refuges in the amazon basin , based on evidence from distribution patterns in caryocaraceae , chrysobalanaceae , dichapetalaceae and lecythidaceae . acta amazon 3 : 5\u201325 .\nbigarella jj , lima da , richs pj ( 1975 ) considera\u00e7\u00f5es a respeito das mudan\u00e7as paleoambientais na distribui\u00e7\u00e3o de algumas esp\u00e9cies vegetais e animais do brasil . an acad bras cienc 47 ( supl . ) : 411\u2013464 .\nbrown ks , ab\u2019saber na ( 1979 ) ice - age forest refuges and evolution in neotropics : correlation of paleoclimatological , geomorphological and pedological data with biological endemism . paleoclimas 5 : 1\u201330 .\nhaffer j , prance gt ( 2001 ) climatic forcing of evolution in amazonia during the cenozoic : on the refuge theory of biotic differentiation . amazoniana 16 : 579\u2013608 .\nknapp s , mallet j ( 2003 ) refuting refugia ? science 300 ( 5616 ) : 71\u201372 .\nbush mb , oliveira pe ( 2006 ) the rise and fall of the refugial hypothesis of amazonian speciation : a paleoecological perspective . biota neotrop 6 : 1 .\nvanzolini pe , heyer wr ( 1988 ) proceedings of a workshop on neotropical distribution patterns . rio de janeiro : academia brasileira de ci\u00eancias . 488 p .\ngainsbury am , colli gr ( 2003 ) lizard assemblages from natural cerrado enclaves in southwestern amazonia : the role of stochastic extinctions and isolation . biotropica 35 : 503\u2013519 .\nde vivo m , carmignotto ap ( 2004 ) holocene vegetation change and the mammal faunas of south america and africa . j biogeogr 31 : 943\u2013957 .\nborges - nojosa dm , caramaschi u ( 2005 ) composi\u00e7\u00e3o e an\u00e1lise comparativa da diversidade e das afinidades biogeogr\u00e1ficas dos lagartos e anfisben\u00eddeos ( squamata ) dos brejos nordestinos . in : ara\u00fajo , fs , rodal , mjn , barbosa , mrv , editors . an\u00e1lise das varia\u00e7\u00f5es da biodiversidade do bioma caatinga : suporte a estrat\u00e9gias regionais de conserva\u00e7\u00e3o . bras\u00edlia : minist\u00e9rio do meio ambiente . 463\u2013512 .\nwerneck fp , colli gr ( 2006 ) the lizard assemblage from seasonally dry tropical forest enclaves in the cerrado biome , brazil , and its association with the pleistocenic arc . j biogeogr 33 : 1983\u20131992 .\n( rodentia , sigmodontinae ) : implications for the biogeography of an endemic genus of the open / dry biomes of south america . mol phyl evol 42 : 449\u2013466 .\nlundberg jg , marshall lg , guerrero j , horton b , malabarba mcsl , et al . . ( 1998 ) the stage for neotropical fish diversification : a history of tropical south american rivers . in : malabarba lr , reis re , vari rp , lucena zm , lucena cas , editors . phylogeny and classification of neotropical fishes . porto alegre : editora puc rio grande do sul . 13\u201348 .\ncort\u00e9s - ortiz l , bermingham e , rico c , rodr\u00edguez - luna e , sampaio i , et al . ( 2003 ) molecular systematics and biogeography of the neotropical monkey genus\nrull v ( 2008 ) speciation timing and neotropical biodiversity : the tertiary - quaternary debate in the light of molecular phylogenetic evidence . mol ecol 17 : 2722\u20132729 .\nantonelli a , quijada - mascare\u00f1as a , crawford aj , bates jm , velazco pm , et al . . ( 2010 ) molecular studies and phylogeography of amazonian tetrapods and their relation to geological and climatic models . in : hoorn c , wesselingh fp , editors . amazonia , landscapes and species evolution : a look into the past . 1st ed . oxford : blackwell . 386\u2013404 .\ncracraft j ( 1985 ) historical biogeography and the patterns of differentiation within the south american avifauna : areas of endemism . ornithol monogr 36 : 49\u201384 ."]}
{"id": 668, "summary": [{"text": "notoacmea turbatrix is a species of sea snail , a true limpet , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family lottiidae , one of the families of true limpets . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "notoacmea turbatrix", "paragraphs": ["notoacmea turbatrix a . c . f . e . intertidal , grows to 9mm .\nspecies notoacmea turbatrix nakano , b . a . marshall , m . kennedy & spencer , 2009\nspecies notoacmea helmsi ( e . a . smith , 1894 ) accepted as notoacmea elongata ( quoy & gaimard , 1834 )\nspecies notoacmea virescens w . r . b . oliver , 1926 accepted as notoacmea elongata ( quoy & gaimard , 1834 ) ( synonym )\nnotoacmea badia f . e . in clean tide pools , grows to 11mm .\nnotoacmea elongata a . c . f . e . intertidal , grows to 9mm .\nnotoacmea daedala a . c . f . e . intertidal , grows to 10mm .\nnotoacmea potae a . c . f . e . intertidal , grows to 13mm .\nnotoacmea scopulina a . c . e . at high tide , grows to 20mm .\nspecies notoacmea potae nakano , b . a . marshall , m . kennedy & spencer , 2009\nspecies notoacmea rapida nakano , b . a . marshall , m . kennedy & spencer , 2009\nnotoacmea parviconoidea a . c . f . m . e . intertidal , grows to 15mm .\nnotoacmea pileopsis a . c . e . on rocks above high tide , grows to 32mm .\nnotoacmea sturnus f . an . e . at high tide and splash zone , grows to 32mm .\nnotoacmea cellanoides a . c . f . e . at high tide and splash zone , grows to 25mm .\nnotoacmea is a southern genus of true limpets , marine gastropod molluscs in the family lottiidae , the true limpets .\nspecies notoacmea testudinalis ( o . f . m\u00fcller , 1776 ) accepted as testudinalia testudinalis ( o . f . m\u00fcller , 1776 )\nnotoacmea testudinalis ( o . f . m\u00fcller , 1776 ) : synonym of testudinalia testudinalis ( o . f . m\u00fcller , 1776 )\nponder w . f . & creese r . g . 1980 . a revision of the australian species of notoacmea , collisella and patelloida ( mollusca : gastropoda : acmaeidae ) . journal of the malacological society of australia , 4 ( 4 ) : 167 - 208 . [ details ]\nnakano t . , marshall b . a . , kennedy m . , spencer h . g . ( 2009 ) . the phylogeny and taxonomy of new zealand notoacmea and patelloida species ( mollusca : patellogastropoda : lottiidae ) inferred from dna sequences . molluscan research 29 : 33 - 59 . [ details ]\nnakano , t . , marshall , b . a . , kennedy , m . , spencer , h . g . 2009 : the phylogeny and taxonomy of new zealand notoacmea and patelloida species ( mollusca : patellogastropoda : lottiidae ) inferred from dna sequences , molluscan research , 29 ( 1 ) ( p . 56 )\nafter more than 2 years of preparations , the diatombase portal is now officially launched . . . .\nlast week - on may 30 and 31st \u2013 8 thematic experts on talitridae came together for the first time during a lifewatch - worms sponsored workshop . the workshop took place at the hellenic centre for marine research in crete , where it was organized back - to - back with the 8th international sandy beaches symposium ( isbs ) . the group focused on identifying relevant traits for the talitridae , and adding this data through the amphipoda species database . . . .\non 23 april 2018 , a number of editors of the world register of introduced species ( wrims ) started a three day workshop in the flanders marine institute ( vliz ) . these three days were used to evaluate , complete and improve the content of this worms thematic register ( tsd ) . . . .\nthe 2nd worms early career researchers and 3rd worms achievement award were granted respectively to fran\u00e7ois le coze and geoff read . congratulations ! . . .\nin 2018 , to celebrate a decade of worms ' existence , it was decided to compile a list of our top marine species , both for 2017 and for the previous decade . . . .\nthe scleractinian corals are now accessible though their own list portal . this world list contains over 1 500 accepted names of extant species and is one of the most complete existing resources for scleractinian taxa . . .\nthe symbols k . a . c . f . m . an . are used to indicate the geographical range of the species . they have been adopted to give an approxomation of the range of each species within new zealand .\nnorth and south islands . low tide , on rocks and shells in exposed rock pools\nnote : localities are approximate , and represent only some of the known localities for the species .\ndistinguishing characteristics an endemic limpet of new zealand and is quite variable in shell shape and colour pattern .\ndistribution found in the low tide zone attached to smooth rocks and other shells in sheltered positions ( eg . tide pools ) on open coasts throughout new zealand .\n( c ) peter poortman , www . nzshells . net . nz , some rights reserved ( cc by - nc ) , uploaded by tangatawhenua , urltoken\nyou can copy this taxon into another guide . if you are one of the editors of this guide it should copy everything , but if you ' re not , it will only copy the licensed content .\nclick the thumbnail to see the image full size , and use ctrl - f to search for any text .\ntenagodus weldii a . c . m . e . from 60 - 240m , grows to 73mm .\ntenagodus maoria a . c . e . from 40 - 300m , grows to 50mm .\nstephopoma roseum a . c . e . at and below low tide , tube width to 5mm .\nnovastoa lamellosa a . c . m . e . intertidal , tube width to 8mm .\nthylacodes zelandicus a . e . below low tide to 50m , grows to 100mm .\ndendropoma squamiferum a . e . from 25 - 80m , grows to 60mm .\npatelloida corticata a . c . f . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 32mm .\npatelloida corticata ( corallina form ) a . c . f . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 32mm .\npatelloida corticata ( pseudocorticata form ) a . c . f . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 16mm .\ntrimusculus conicus k . a . c . f . m . on rocks at low tide , grows to 29mm .\nradiacmea inconspicua a . c . f . m . e . on rocks at low tide and on haliotis iris , grows to 19mm .\natalacmea fragilis a . c . f . e . at low tide , grows to 16mm .\nactinoleuca campbelli campbelli an . e . from 0 - 30m , grows to 6mm .\ncellana strigilis c . f . an . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 79mm .\ncellana strigilis ( redimiculum form ) c . f . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 46mm .\ncellana strigilis ( flemingi form ) an . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 45mm .\ncellana oliveri m . an . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 73mm .\ncellana oliveri ( chathamensis form ) m . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 54mm .\ncellana oliveri ( bollonsi form ) an . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 55mm .\ncellana radians a . c . f . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 71mm .\ncellana radians ( perana form ) c . f . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 50mm .\ncellana radians ( earlii form ) c . f . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 40mm .\ncellana ornata a . c . f . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 54mm .\ncellana stellifera a . c . f . e . on low tide rocks , grows to 64mm .\ncellana stellifera ( phymatius form ) a . c . f . e . on low tide rocks , grows to 42mm .\ncellana denticulata a . c . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 84mm .\ncellana flava c . f . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 72mm .\nscutellastra kermadecensis k . e . on rocks at low tide and below , grows to 174mm .\npectinodonta aupouria a . c . m . e . below 800m , grows to 20mm .\npectinodonta morioria a . c . f . e . below 360m , grows to 15mm .\ncoccopigya hispida a . c . f . e . below 800m , grows to 9mm .\numbraculum umbraculum k . a . c . at low tide and below , shell to 100mm .\naplysia parvula k . a . c . f . below low tide , shell to 30mm .\naplysia juliana a . c . f . at and below low tide , shell to 30mm .\nberthella medietas a . c . f . m . an . below low tide , shell to 13mm .\nberthella ornata a . c . f . e . intertidal , shell to 20mm .\ndolabrifera brazieri k . a . at and below low tide , shell to 20mm .\nsiphonaria australis a . c . f . m . e . on mid and high tide rocks , grows to 32mm .\nsiphonaria australis ( zelandica form ) a . c . f . m . e . on mid and high tide rocks , grows to 32mm .\nsiphonaria propria a . c . f . m . e . on rocks at low tide , grows to 19mm .\nsiphonaria obliquata c . f . an . e . on high tide rocks , grows to 66mm .\nsiphonaria stewartiana f . an . e . on high tide rocks , grows to 20mm .\nwilliamia radiata nutata k . a . from 10 - 50m , grows to 7mm .\nemarginula striatula a . c . f . m . an . e . below low tide to 220m , grows to 33mm .\nscutus breviculus a . c . f . e . intertidal , grows to 81mm .\ntugali elegans a . c . f . m . e . at and below low tide , grows to 55mm .\ntugali suteri suteri a . c . m . e . under rocks at low tide , grows to 18mm .\ntugali stewartiana f . e . from 20 - 100m , grows to 28mm .\nmontfortula chathamensis c . m . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 20mm .\nmonodilepas diemenensis a . e . from 10 - 800m , grows to 20mm .\nmonodilepas monilifera monilifera f . e . from 40 - 150m , grows to 33mm .\nmonodilepas otagoensis f . e . from 40 - 150m , grows to 30mm .\nhaliotis iris a . c . f . m . e . at and below low tide , grows to 181mm .\nhaliotis virginea crispata a . c . e . at and below low tide , grows to 46mm .\nhaliotis virginea virginea a . c . f . e . at and below low tide , grows to 72mm .\nhaliotis australis a . c . f . m . an . e . at and below low tide , grows to 110mm .\nhaliotis virginea morioria m . e . at and below low tide , grows to 75mm .\nhaliotis virginea huttoni an . e . at and below low tide , grows to 69mm .\nbulla quoyii k . a . c . on intertidal mudflats , grows to 66mm .\nhaminoea zelandiae a . c . e . on intertidal mudflats , grows to 29mm .\ncylichna zealandica a . c . e . from 5 - 80m , grows to 13mm .\ncylichna thetidis k . a . from 10 - 70m , grows to 13mm .\nretusa oruaensis a . c . f . m . e . from 5 - 230m , grows to 4 . 5mm .\nrelichna pachys a . c . f . m . e . from 300 - 1500m , grows to 7mm .\nscaphander otagoensis f . e . from 200 - 800m , grows to 39mm .\nphiline auriformis a . c . f . from 5 - 25m , grows to 16mm .\nmelanochlamys lorrainae a . c . e . from 0 - 10m , grows to 9mm .\nellatrivia merces a . c . from 0 - 25m , grows to 16mm .\nerosaria cernica k . a . from 15 - 25m , grows to 30mm .\nconus lischkeanus k . a . e . at low tide and below , grows to 62mm .\nmesoginella koma a . c . e . from 0 - 5m , grows to 7mm .\nserrata fasciata a . c . e . at and below low tide , grows to 9mm .\nserrata fasciata ( albino form ) a . c . e . at and below low tide , grows to 9mm .\nserrata maoriana a . e . from 10 - 40m , grows to 9mm .\ndentimargo cairoma a . c . m . e . from 0 - 30m , grows to 5mm .\nmesoginella pisinna a . c . e . from 10 - 50m , grows to 5mm .\nmesoginella larochei a . c . e . from 20 - 50m , grows to 4mm .\namalda australis a . c . e . at low tide and below , grows to 52mm .\namalda depressa a . c . e . at low tide and below , grows to 20mm .\namalda mucronata a . c . e . from 5 - 600m , grows to 63mm .\namalda novaezelandiae a . c . m . e . from 5 - 700m , grows to 16mm .\namalda novaezelandiae ( crystallina form ) a . c . m . e . from 5 - 700m , grows to 16mm .\namalda bathamae f . e . from 300 - 700m , grows to 48mm .\namalda benthicola f . m . an . e . from 300 - 1000m , grows to 21mm .\namalda cf . benthicola f . m . an . e . from 300 - 1000m , grows to 21mm .\naustromitra rubiginosa a . c . f . m . e . from 5 - 100m , grows to 11mm .\naustromitra rubiginosa ( rubiradix form ) a . c . f . m . e . from 5 - 100m , grows to 11mm .\naustromitra rubiginosa ( antipoda form ) a . c . f . m . e . from 5 - 100m , grows to 11mm .\naustromitra rubiginosa ( brunneacincta form ) a . c . f . m . e . from 5 - 100m , grows to 11mm .\naustromitra rubiginosa ( planatella form ) a . c . f . m . e . from 5 - 100m , grows to 11mm .\nmitra carbonaria k . a . c . at low tide and below , grows to 77mm .\nvolutomitra obscura ( mortenseni form ) a . c . below low tide , grows to 28mm .\nvolutomitra banksi c . f . m . an . e . from 150 - 650m , grows to 42mm .\npeculator hedleyi a . e . from 5 - 260m , grows to 8mm .\negestas waitei c . f . an . e . from 100 - 500m , grows to 7mm .\nexilia expeditionis c . f . m . e . from 400 - 2500m , grows to 42mm .\nmetzgeria shirleyi a . e . from 360 - 650m , grows to 52mm .\nmetzgeria problematica f . e . from 100 - 300m , grows to 33mm .\nzygomelon zodion m . e . from 700 - 1400m , grows to 50mm .\nprovocator mirabilis a . c . f . m . an . e . from 80 - 800m , grows to 150mm .\nprovocator mirabilis ( aurantia form ) c . f . an . e . from 80 - 800m , grows to 130mm .\nprovocator mirabilis ( large form ) an . e . from 400 - 500m , grows to 180mm .\nprovocator mirabilis ( albino form ) an . e . from 200 - 500m , grows to 130mm .\nalcithoe wilsonae c . f . m . an . e . from 40 - 500m , grows to 110mm .\nalcithoe wilsonae ( smithi form ) c . f . an . e . from 100 - 510m , grows to 120mm .\nalcithoe wilsonae ( acuminata form ) c . m . e . from 300 - 500m , grows to 130mm .\nalcithoe wilsonae ( knoxi form ) c . f . an . e . from 400 - 700m , grows to 86mm .\nalcithoe cf . wilsonae c . f . m . an . e . from 40 - 500m , grows to 110mm .\nalcithoe fusus a . c . f . e . from 5 - 200m , grows to 85mm .\nalcithoe fusus ( haurakiensis form ) a . e . from 5 - 200m , grows to 85mm .\nalcithoe fusus ( hedleyi form ) a . e . from 5 - 600m , grows to 95mm .\nalcithoe davegibbsi a . e . from 30 - 80m , grows to 60mm .\nalcithoe jaculoides ( typical form ) a . c . f . e . from 30 - 600m , grows to 150mm .\nalcithoe jaculoides a . c . f . e . from 30 - 600m , grows to 190mm .\nalcithoe jaculoides ( johnstoni form ) a . c . f . e . from 30 - 600m , grows to 180mm .\nalcithoe jaculoides ( calva form ) c . f . e . from 30 - 600m , grows to 180mm .\nalcithoe cf . jaculoides a . c . f . e . from 30 - 600m , grows to 190mm .\nalcithoe arabica a . c . f . e . from 0 - 100m , grows to 236mm .\nalcithoe arabica ( depressa form ) a . e . from 0 - 100m , grows to 100mm .\nalcithoe arabica ( swainsoni form ) a . c . f . e . from 0 - 100m , grows to 180mm .\nalcithoe arabica ( swainsoni southern form ) a . c . f . e . from 0 - 100m , grows to 180mm .\nalcithoe arabica ( motutaraensis form ) a . c . f . e . from 0 - 100m , grows to 160mm .\nalcithoe arabica ( three kings form ) a . e . from 50 - 100m ; three kings area , grows to 170mm .\nalcithoe arabica ( three kings extinct swainsoni form ) a . e . from 50 - 100m ; three kings area , grows to 190mm .\nalcithoe seelyeorum ( knobby form ) a . e . from 50 - 250m ; three kings to north cape , grows to 229mm .\nalcithoe seelyeorum ( dwarf form ) a . e . from 50 - 250m ; three kings to north cape , grows to 140mm .\nalcithoe cf . seelyeorum a . e . from 50 - 250m ; three kings to north cape , grows to 200mm .\nalcithoe cf . seelyeorum ( smooth form ) a . e . from 50 - 250m ; three kings to north cape , grows to 200mm .\nalcithoe fissurata fissurata a . e . from 300 - 700m , grows to 238mm .\nalcithoe fissurata crassa a . e . from 50 - 250m ; three kings area , grows to 214mm .\nalcithoe fissurata elegans a . e . from 250 - 400m , grows to 190mm .\nalcithoe fissurata ssp . a . e . from deep water ; three kings area , grows to 181mm .\nalcithoe cf . fissurata c . e . from deep water , grows to 120mm .\nalcithoe tigrina a . e . from 100 - 500m , grows to 140mm .\nalcithoe pseudolutea a . c . m . e . from 300 - 500m , grows to 135mm .\nalcithoe lutea c . e . from 400 - 600m , grows to 150mm .\nalcithoe larochei larochei a . c . e . from 50 - 700m , grows to 170mm .\nalcithoe larochei ostenfeldi c . e . from 10 - 100m ; west of upper south island , grows to 222mm .\nalcithoe benthicola a . e . from 400 - 800m , grows to 267mm .\nalcithoe benthicola ( dwarf form ) a . e . from around 700m , grows to 140mm .\nalcithoe flemingi f . m . an . e . from 450 - 1100m , grows to 106mm .\ntonna tankervillii a . c . from 0 - 200m , grows to 252mm .\nsemicassis pyrum a . c . f . m . from 0 - 100m , grows to 118mm .\nsemicassis pyrum ( powelli form ) a . e . from 0 - 100m , grows to 60mm .\nsemicassis pyrum ( stadiale form ) f . m . from 0 - 100m , grows to 110mm .\nsemicassis pyrum ( hamiltoni form ) c . e . from 0 - 100m , grows to 87mm .\nsemicassis pyrum ( harrisoni form ) f . e . from 0 - 100m , grows to 90mm .\nsemicassis pyrum ( matai form ) f . e . from 0 - 100m , grows to 60mm .\nsemicassis pyrum ( abernethyi form ) c . e . from 0 - 100m , grows to 75mm .\nsemicassis pyrum ( ericanum form ) a . e . from 0 - 100m , grows to 110mm .\nsemicassis pyrum ( other form ) a . e . from 0 - 100m , grows to 110mm .\nsemicassis cf . pyrum a . c . f . m . from 0 - 100m , grows to 118mm .\nsemicassis labiata a . c . from 0 - 100m , grows to 93mm .\nsemicassis labiata ( insperatum form ) a . from 0 - 100m , grows to 93mm .\ncasmaria perryi k . a . from 0 - 100m , grows to 64mm .\nsemicassis royana k . a . from 10 - 100m , grows to 155mm .\ngaleodea triganceae a . c . f . m . e . from 100 - 900m , grows to 56mm .\nnassarius spiratus k . a . from 0 - 10m , grows to 25mm .\nnassarius aoteanus a . e . from 2 - 120m , grows to 37mm .\ntritia ephamilla k . a . c . f . m . from 400 - 2500m , grows to 22mm .\nadmetula superstes a . c . e . from 50 - 250m , grows to 15mm .\nnassaria miriamae k . a . from 500 - 1500m , grows to 45mm .\ncominella otagoensis f . e . from 100 - 500m , grows to 27mm .\ncominella mirabilis canturiensis c . m . e . from 300 - 620m , grows to 31mm .\ncominella mirabilis powelli f . e . from 20 - 220m , grows to 17mm .\ncominella alertae c . m . e . from 300 - 500m , grows to 31mm .\ncominella olsoni c . e . from 75 - 100m , grows to 64mm .\ncominella nassoides nassoides f . e . on mud flats , grows to 75mm .\ncominella nassoides nassoides ( foveauxana form ) f . e . from 0 - 50m , grows to 75mm .\ncominella nassoides iredalei m . e . from 10 - 20m , grows to 56mm .\ncominella nassoides otakauica f . e . from 40 - 100m , grows to 75mm .\ncominella nassoides nodicincta an . e . from 70 - 80m , grows to 56mm .\ncominella nassoides haroldi f . e . from 30 - 70m , grows to 38mm .\ncominella aff . nassoides haroldi f . e . from 30 - 70m , grows to 38mm .\ncominella glandiformis a . c . f . m . e . on mud flats , grows to 44mm .\ncominella virgata virgata a . c . e . intertidal , grows to 43mm .\ncominella virgata brookesi a . c . e . at low tide , grows to 34mm .\ncominella virgata brookesi ( eroded ) a . c . e . at low tide , grows to 34mm .\ncominella quoyana a . c . e . from 0 - 60m , grows to 26mm .\ncominella quoyana ( youngi form ) a . c . e . from 0 - 60m , grows to 26mm .\ncominella accuminata a . e . from 5 - 50m , grows to 23mm .\ncominella maculosa a . c . m . e . intertidal , grows to 58mm .\ncominella adspersa a . c . m . e . from 0 - 5m , grows to 74mm .\ncominella adspersa ( melo form ) a . c . m . e . from 0 - 5m , grows to 74mm .\ncominella regalis a . e . from 20 - 50m , grows to 21mm .\nbuccinulum vittatum vittatum a . c . f . an . e . under low tide rocks , grows to 35mm .\nbuccinulum vittatum vittatum ( heteromorphum form ) a . c . f . an . e . under low tide rocks , grows to 35mm .\nbuccinulum vittatum vittatum ( maketuense form ) a . c . f . an . e . under low tide rocks , grows to 35mm .\nbuccinulum vittatum vittatum ( motutaraense form ) a . c . f . an . e . under low tide rocks , grows to 35mm .\nbuccinulum vittatum bicinctum m . e . at and below low tide , grows to 33mm .\nbuccinulum vittatum vittatum ( littorinoides form ) a . c . f . an . e . under low tide rocks , grows to 35mm .\nbuccinulum vittatum vittatum ( littorinoides flavescens form ) a . c . f . an . e . under low tide rocks , grows to 35mm .\nbuccinulum vittatum vittatum ( littorinoides kaikouraense form ) a . c . f . an . e . under low tide rocks , grows to 35mm .\nbuccinulum vittatum ( littorinoides mestayerae form ) m . e . at and below low tide , grows to 33mm .\nbuccinulum vittatum ( littorinoides strebeli form ) m . e . at and below low tide , grows to 33mm .\nbuccinulum linea a . c . f . m . e . at and below low tide , grows to 49mm .\nbuccinulum linea ( sufflatum form ) a . c . f . m . e . below low tide , grows to 49mm .\nbuccinulum linea ( waitangiensis form ) a . c . f . m . e . below low tide , grows to 49mm .\nbuccinulum linea ( deep water form ) a . c . f . m . e . below low tide , grows to 49mm .\nbuccinulum cf . linea a . c . f . m . e . below low tide , grows to 49mm .\nbuccinulum fuscozonatum c . e . from 0 - 50m , grows to 31mm .\nbuccinulum pallidum pallidum c . f . m . e . at and below low tide , grows to 47mm .\nbuccinulum pallidum pallidum ( tenuistriatum form ) c . f . m . e . at and below low tide , grows to 47mm .\nbuccinulum pallidum powelli a . e . at and below low tide , grows to 45mm .\nbuccinulum pertinax pertinax f . m . an . e . at and below low tide , grows to 55mm .\nbuccinulum pertinax pertinax ( marwicki form ) f . m . an . e . at and below low tide , grows to 55mm .\nbuccinulum pertinax pertinax ( mutabile form ) f . m . an . e . at and below low tide , grows to 55mm .\nbuccinulum pertinax pertinax ( stewartianum form ) f . m . an . e . at and below low tide , grows to 55mm .\nbuccinulum pertinax finlayi c . f . e . from 100 - 200m , grows to 40mm .\nbuccinulum colensoi a . c . e . at and below low tide , grows to 26mm .\nbuccinulum robustum a . e . from 0 - 120m , grows to 21mm .\nbuccinulum robustum ( suteri form ) a . e . from 0 - 120m , grows to 21mm .\nbuccinulum flexicostatum f . m . e . from 20 - 620m , grows to 32mm .\naeneator comptus a . c . e . from 40 - 120m , grows to 60mm .\naeneator otagoensis c . f . e . from 40 - 240m , grows to 93mm .\naeneator marshalli separabilis a . e . from 50 - 100m , grows to 50mm .\naeneator attenuatus a . e . from 50 - 250m , grows to 70mm .\naeneator recens k . c . f . m . e . from 150 - 700m , grows to 61mm .\naeneator benthicolus a . e . from 200 - 600m , grows to 84mm .\naeneator valedictus c . f . m . e . from 300 - 1000m , grows to 55mm .\nantarctoneptunea benthicola a . c . f . m . an . e . from 360 - 1700m , grows to 130mm .\nantarctoneptunea benthicola ( delli form ) a . e . from 300 - 500m , grows to 102mm .\npenion sulcatus a . c . e . from 0 - 150m , grows to 165mm .\npenion cf . sulcatus a . e . at and below low tide , grows to 52mm .\npenion cuvierianus cuvierianus a . c . e . from 0 - 250m , grows to 256mm .\npenion cuvierianus cuvierianus ( heavy form ) a . c . e . from 0 - 250m , grows to 256mm .\npenion cuvierianus jeakingsi c . e . from 5 - 100m , grows to 154mm .\npenion fairfieldae f . e . from 110 - 125m , grows to 156mm .\npenion chathamensis m . e . from 300 - 500m , grows to 244mm .\npenion lineatus a . e . from 77 - 246m , grows to 172mm .\npenion ormesi a . c . e . from 50 - 200m , grows to 206mm .\naustrofusus glans a . c . f . m . e . from 0 - 650m , grows to 88mm .\naustrofusus glans ( agrestior form ) a . c . f . m . e . from 0 - 650m , grows to 88mm .\naustrofusus chathamensis c . m . e . from 5 - 250m , grows to 60mm .\ntaron dubius a . c . e . on stones at mid tide , grows to 22mm .\nglaphyrina caudata ( northern form ) a . c . f . e . from 5 - 150m , grows to 60mm .\nglaphyrina caudata ( southern form ) a . c . f . e . from 5 - 150m , grows to 88mm .\nglaphyrina plicata a . e . from 80 - 160m , grows to 50mm .\nfusinus genticus k . a . from 20 - 100m , grows to 171mm .\nfusinus genticus ( galathae form ) k . a . from 20 - 100m , grows to 171mm .\ncoluzea spiralis a . c . e . from 30 - 350m , grows to 135mm .\ncoluzea mariae c . f . m . an . e . from 100 - 1000m , grows to 107mm .\ncoluzea mariae ( wide form ) c . f . m . an . e . from 100 - 1000m , grows to 107mm .\ncoluzea wormaldi a . c . e . from 100 - 700m , grows to 110mm .\ncoluzea altocanalis c . f . m . e . from 400 - 1000m , grows to 127mm .\nfulgurofusus maxwelli c . f . m . an . e . from 476 to 1386m , grows to 86mm .\nfulgurofusus cf . maxwelli c . f . m . an . e . from 476 to 1386m , grows to 86mm .\niredalula alticincta ( striata form ) a . c . e . from 50 - 150m , grows to 27mm .\niredalula alticincta a . c . e . from 100 - 500m , grows to 22mm .\nbelomitra aoteana f . m . from 340 - 1500m , grows to 20mm .\ndaphnella cancellata a . e . from 0 - 50m , grows to 22mm .\nveprecula cooperi a . e . from 40 - 300m , grows to 7mm .\nxanthodaphne membranacea c . e . from 350 - 2500m , grows to 25mm .\nmurexsul octogonus a . c . e . from 0 - 500m , grows to 90mm .\nmurexsul octogonus ( cuvierensis form ) a . c . e . from 50 - 500m , grows to 90mm .\nrolandiella scotti a . e . from 10 - 50m , grows to 61mm .\nmurexsul mariae a . e . from 0 - 230m , grows to 29mm .\nmurexsul cf . mariae a . e . below low tide , grows to 20mm .\nmurexsul espinosus a . c . from 10 - 160m , grows to 35mm .\npoirieria zelandica a . c . f . m . e . from 10 - 200m , grows to 89mm .\npoirieria cf . zelandica a . c . f . m . e . from 10 - 200m , grows to 89mm .\npoirieria syrinx a . c . e . from 480 - 800m , grows to 45mm .\npoirieria kopua c . f . m . e . from 500 - 1000m , grows to 19mm .\ntimbellus flemingi a . c . e . from 300 - 900m , grows to 45mm .\nphyllocoma speciosa virginalis a . e . from 10 - 50m , grows to 16mm .\nponderia zealandica c . e . from 300 - 900m , grows to 20mm .\nprototyphis eos a . c . e . from 0 - 40m , grows to 37mm .\nprototyphis eos ( pink form ) a . c . e . from 0 - 40m , grows to 37mm .\nprototyphis eos paupereques a . e . from 5 - 20m , grows to 30mm .\nbabelomurex lischkeanus k . a . from 50 - 400m , grows to 62mm .\ncoralliophila squamosissima k . a . from 0 - 20m , grows to 30mm .\ncoralliophila sertata k . a . from 0 - 800m , grows to 19mm .\ncoralliophila sp . aff . sertata k . a . e . from 0 - 800m , grows to 13mm .\nhaustrum scobina a . c . m . e . on mid tide rocks , grows to 41mm .\nhaustrum albomarginatum a . c . f . m . e . on mid tide rocks , grows to 30mm .\nhaustrum scobina ( rutila form ) a . c . m . e . on mid tide rocks , grows to 41mm .\nhaustrum lacunosum c . f . m . an . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 52mm .\nhaustrum lacunosum ( youngi form ) c . f . m . an . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 52mm .\nhaustrum haustorium a . c . f . m . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 81mm .\ndicathais orbita k . a . c . m . at and below low tide , grows to 120mm .\ndicathais orbita ( smooth form ) k . a . c . m . at and below low tide , grows to 120mm .\nneothais smithi k . a . on low tide rocks , grows to 34mm .\nagnewia tritoniformis a . c . on low tide rocks , grows to 29mm .\nmorula palmeri k . a . from 20 - 50m , grows to 26mm .\nuttleya ahiparana ( sculptured form ) a . e . from 30 - 60m , grows to 20mm .\nuttleya ahiparana ( smooth form ) a . e . from 30 - 60m , grows to 20mm .\nuttleya williamsi a . e . from 20 - 40m , grows to 12mm .\nuttleya marwicki a . c . e . from 10 - 50m , grows to 20mm .\nparatrophon quoyi a . c . e . on low tide rocks , grows to 34mm .\nparatrophon cheesemani cheesemani a . c . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 19mm .\nparatrophon cheesemani exsculptus c . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 20mm .\nparatrophon patens c . f . e . on low tide rocks , grows to 29mm .\nzeatrophon ambiguus a . c . f . m . e . from 0 - 120m , grows to 64mm .\nzeatrophon pulcherrimus c . f . m . e . from 100 - 600m , grows to 18mm .\nzeatrophon mortenseni caudatinus a . c . f . m . e . from 20 - 200m , grows to 23mm .\nenixotrophon latus k . a . c . f . m . from 450 - 1400m , grows to 55mm .\nenixotrophon maxwelli c . f . m . e . from 850 - 2700m , grows to 53mm .\nenixotrophon venustus k . a . c . m . an . from 850 - 1250m , grows to 55mm .\nxymene plebeius a . c . f . m . e . intertidal , grows to 23mm .\nxymene cf . plebeius a . c . f . m . e . intertidal , grows to 23mm .\naxymene traversi a . c . f . m . e . intertidal and sublittoral , grows to 20mm .\naxymene aucklandicus c . f . an . e . from 0 - 600m , grows to 15mm .\nxymenella pusilla a . c . f . e . from 0 - 50m , grows to 12mm .\nxymene huttonii a . c . f . an . e . from 0 - 600m , grows to 18mm .\nxymene pumilus c . f . an . e . from 0 - 600m , grows to 25mm .\ncomptella curta f . an . e . from 10 - 110m , grows to 7mm .\ntutufa bufo k . a . from 0 - 250m , grows to 132mm .\nbursa verrucosa k . a . from 10 - 50m , grows to 45mm .\nhinea brasiliana k . a . on rocks at low tide , grows to 20mm .\nargobuccinum pustulosum a . c . f . m . an . from 0 - 200m , grows to 136mm .\nranella australasia k . a . c . f . from 0 - 110m , grows to 123mm .\nranella olearium a . c . f . from 50 - 150m , grows to 220mm .\nfusitriton laudandus a . c . f . m . an . from 50 - 750m , grows to 157mm .\ncabestana spengleri k . a . c . f . m . from 0 - 40m , grows to 188mm .\ncabestana spengleri ( bolteniana form ) k . a . c . f . m . from 0 - 10m , grows to 70mm .\ncabestana tabulata k . a . c . f . from 0 - 45m , grows to 91mm .\ncharonia lampas ( capax form ) k . a . c . f . m . from 0 - 200m , grows to 300mm .\ncharonia lampas ( rubicunda form ) a . from 0 - 200m , grows to 200mm .\nmonoplex parthenopeus k . a . c . from 0 - 70m , grows to 130mm .\nmonoplex exaratus k . a . c . from 5 - 60m , grows to 61mm .\nturritriton labiosus k . a . from 5 - 60m , grows to 33mm .\nsassia parkinsonia k . a . c . from 5 - 30m , grows to 58mm .\nsassia palmeri k . a . e . from 5 - 60m , grows to 73mm .\nsassia kampyla a . c . f . m . an . from 300 - 900m , grows to 54mm .\nneoguraleus sinclairi a . c . f . m . e . from 0 - 50m , grows to 12mm .\nneoguraleus lyallensis a . c . f . e . from 0 - 20m , grows to 15mm .\nneoguraleus lyallensis ( tenebrosus form ) a . c . f . e . from 0 - 20m , grows to 15mm .\nneoguraleus interruptus a . c . e . from 0 - 50m , grows to 10mm .\nneoguraleus murdochi a . c . f . e . from 5 - 30m , grows to 12mm .\nneoguraleus manukauensis c . e . from 0 - 20m , grows to 15mm .\nneoguraleus sandersonae a . e . from 5 - 20m , grows to 15mm .\nneoguraleus amoenus a . c . e . from 5 - 50m , grows to 15mm .\nscrinium neozelanicum a . e . from 5 - 180m , grows to 12mm .\nliratilia subnodosa a . e . at and below low tide , grows to 7mm .\nmacrozafra subabnormis ( saxatilis form ) a . c . m . e . at and below low tide , grows to 7mm .\nzemitrella stephanophora a . c . e . at and below low tide , grows to 8mm .\npaxula allani m . e . from 0 - 10m , grows to 8mm .\nphenatoma rosea a . c . f . m . e . from 0 - 150m , grows to 37mm .\nphenatoma zealandica a . c . f . e . from 0 - 50m , grows to 34mm .\nmaoritomella albula a . c . f . e . from 0 - 50m , grows to 10mm .\nbathytoma murdochi murdochi a . e . from 80 - 500m , grows to 22mm .\nbathytoma cf . murdochi murdochi a . e . from 80 - 500m , grows to 22mm .\nbathytoma parengonia a . c . f . m . e . from 400 - 1600m , grows to 50mm .\nsplendrillia aoteana a . c . f . e . from 10 - 150m , grows to 18mm .\nsplendrillia roseacincta f . m . e . from 100 - 300m , grows to 20mm .\nsplendrillia benthicola c . f . m . e . from 120 - 600m , grows to 26mm .\nkuroshioturris angustata a . c . m . e . from 50 - 700m , grows to 16mm .\nkuroshioturris cf . angustata a . c . m . e . from 50 - 700m , grows to 16mm .\naustrodrillia rawitensis a . c . e . below low tide , grows to 15mm .\naoteadrillia wanganuiensis a . c . f . e . from 10 - 120m , grows to 20mm .\nantimelatoma buchanani ( maorum form ) a . e . from 10 - 50m , grows to 21mm .\nantimelatoma buchanani ( ahiparana form ) a . c . f . e . from 5 - 50m , grows to 22mm .\nantimelatoma buchanani ( benthicola form ) a . c . f . e . from 100 - 200m , grows to 21mm .\ncomitas onokeana vivens a . c . f . m . e . from 400 - 800m , grows to 74mm .\ncomitas trailli f . e . from 30 - 130m , grows to 30mm .\nmonophorus fascelinus a . c . f . an . e . from 5 - 100m , grows to 9mm .\nnototriphora aupouria k . a . c . e . from 10 - 300m , grows to 4 . 5mm .\nbouchetriphora pallida k . a . c . from 25 - 230m , grows to 9mm .\nseila cincta a . c . m . e . from 0 - 30m , grows to 11mm .\nseila terebelloides a . c . f . an . e . from 10 - 150m , grows to 13mm .\nataxocerithium huttoni a . c . f . e . from 10 - 300m , grows to 13mm .\nzeacumantus subcarinatus a . c . f . m . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 19mm .\nzeacumantus lutulentus a . c . e . on tidal mudflats , grows to 36mm .\neuterebra tristis a . c . from 0 - 100m , grows to 24mm .\neuterebra tristis ( flexicostata form ) a . c . from 0 - 100m , grows to 24mm .\neuterebra tristis ( mariae form ) a . c . from 0 - 100m , grows to 24mm .\nperirhoe circumcincta k . a . from 5 - 50m , grows to 40mm .\nmaoricolpus roseus a . c . f . m . e . from 0 - 110m , grows to 94mm .\nmaoricolpus roseus ( manukauensis form ) c . e . from 0 - 10m , grows to 70mm .\nmaoricolpus finlayi a . e . from 5 - 80m , grows to 40mm .\nzeacolpus vittatus a . c . e . from 0 - 250m , grows to 98mm .\nstiracolpus pagoda a . c . f . m . e . from 0 - 100m , grows to 41mm .\nstiracolpus pagoda ( blacki form ) c . e . below low tide to 200m , grows to 27mm .\nstiracolpus symmetricus f . e . below low tide to 132m , grows to 22mm .\nstiracolpus ahiparanus a . c . e . below low tide to 60m , grows to 33mm .\nmurdochella levifoliata a . c . m . an . e . from 40 - 230m , grows to 6mm .\nmurdochella alacer a . e . from 40 - 160m , grows to 5mm .\ntrichosirius inornatus a . c . f . m . e . from 0 - 10m , grows to 22mm .\ntrichosirius cavatocarinatus c . f . m . an . e . from 95 - 640m , grows to 18mm .\ntrichosirius octocarinatus m . an . e . from 100 - 250m , grows to 7mm .\nzelippistes benhami a . e . from 20 - 600m , grows to 20mm .\nmalluvium calcareum a . c . m . e . from 75 - 450m , grows to 22mm .\nleptonotis perplexus a . c . f . m . an . from 40 - 600m , grows to 20mm .\nmaoricrypta costata a . c . e . from 0 - 147m , grows to 55mm .\nmaoricrypta youngi a . c . e . from 0 - 88m , grows to 29mm .\nmaoricrypta monoxyla a . c . e . from 0 - 15m , grows to 27mm .\nmaoricrypta sodalis a . c . f . e . from 0 - 925m , grows to 42mm .\nsigapatella novaezelandiae a . c . f . m . an . e . from 0 - 420m , grows to 42mm .\nsigapatella spadicea a . c . f . e . from 4 - 533m , grows to 21mm .\nsigapatella superstes a . e . from 0 - 805m , grows to 27mm .\nsigapatella terraenovae a . e . from 0 - 622m , grows to 34mm .\nsigapatella tenuis a . c . f . m . e . from 0 - 604m , grows to 24mm .\nlamellaria ophione k . a . c . e . below low tide , grows to 20mm .\nlamellaria cerebroides a . c . f . e . from 20 - 100m , grows to 32mm .\nmysticoncha harrisonae c . f . e . from 20 - 150m , grows to 25mm .\nglobisinum drewi a . c . f . m . e . from 10 - 800m , grows to 50mm .\npolinices tawhitirahia k . a . from 10 - 90m , grows to 34mm .\nuberella vitrea f . m . an . e . from 0 - 200m , grows to 8mm .\nfalsilunatia ambigua c . f . m . e . from 400 - 650m , grows to 15mm .\nfalsilunatia ambigua ( powelli form ) c . f . m . e . from 400 - 650m , grows to 21mm .\nfriginatica conjuncta a . c . f . m . e . from 250 - 1500m , grows to 9mm .\ntanea zelandica a . c . f . m . e . from 5 - 650m , grows to 35mm .\negg collar of notocochlis gualtieriana k . a . at low tide , grows to 60mm .\nproxiuber australe a . e . from 10 - 100m , grows to 8mm .\nproxiuber hulmei a . e . from 10 - 100m , grows to 7mm .\ncirsotrema zelebori a . c . f . m . e . from 5 - 250m , grows to 33mm .\nepitonium bucknilli a . c . e . from 10 - 50m , grows to 17mm .\njanthina exigua a . c . f . m . pelagic , grows to 23mm .\njanthina janthina a . c . f . m . pelagic , grows to 38mm .\nturbonilla zealandica c . f . an . e . from 4 - 10m , grows to 8mm .\nhypermastus bulbulus a . e . from 20 - 250m , grows to 13mm .\nmelanella vegrandis a . e . from 40 - 250m , grows to 8mm .\nrissoina zonata a . e . from 0 - 5m , grows to 12mm .\nagatha georgiana a . c . f . m . e . from 5 - 130m , grows to 15mm .\npupa affinis a . c . from 5 - 250m , grows to 18mm .\nmaxacteon milleri a . e . from 40 - 80m , grows to 21mm .\nmaxacteon cratericulatus a . c . e . from 50 - 250m , grows to 20mm .\nmaxacteon flammeus k . a . from 40 - 80m , grows to 20mm .\nbullina lineata k . a . at low tide and below , grows to 21mm .\nbullina lineata ( lauta form ) a . from 0 - 10m , grows to 20mm .\nbullina lineata ( melior form ) a . from 0 - 10m , grows to 20mm .\nmarinula filholi a . c . f . m . e . above high tide , grows to 11mm .\nmarinula striata f . an . e . under stones at high tide , grows to 8mm .\nleuconopsis obsoleta a . c . f . m . an . e . under stones at high tide , grows to 3mm .\nherpetopoma bellum a . c . m . e . under stones at low tide , grows to 7mm .\nherpetopoma larochei a . c . e . from 5 - 50m , grows to 5mm .\nherpetopoma alacerrimum c . e . from 5 - 230m , grows to 6mm .\nherpetopoma mariae a . e . from 10 - 50m , grows to 17mm .\ndiloma subrostratum a . c . f . e . in intertidal muddy areas , grows to 30mm .\ndiloma subrostratum ( corrosa form ) f . e . in intertidal muddy areas , grows to 30mm .\ndiloma nigerrimum a . c . f . m . an . in the upper tidal zone , grows to 30mm .\ndiloma nigerrimum ( digna form ) f . e . in the upper tidal zone , grows to 30mm .\ndiloma aridum a . c . f . m . an . e . in the upper tidal zone , grows to 17mm .\ndiloma durvillaea c . f . an . e . in bull kelp holdfasts , grows to 20mm .\ndiloma aethiops a . c . f . m . e . on rocks at and below low tide , grows to 38mm .\ndiloma zelandicum a . c . f . e . intertidal on rocky ground , grows to 32mm .\ndiloma coracinum a . c . f . e . on open coast rock , grows to 12mm .\ndiloma bicanaliculatum a . c . f . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 20mm .\ndiloma bicanaliculatum ( lenior form ) c . f . e . on intertidal rocks , grows to 18mm .\nrisellopsis varia a . c . f . m . e . on high tide rocks , grows to 8mm .\naustrolittorina antipodum k . a . c . f . m . e . at high tide and splash zone , grows to 19mm .\naustrolittorina cincta a . c . f . m . an . e . at high tide and splash zone , grows to 24mm .\neatoniella flammulata a . c . e . from 0 - 10m , grows to 7mm .\ncantharidus dilatatus a . c . f . m . e . from 0 - 73m , grows to 12mm .\ncantharidus opalus a . c . f . m . e . from 0 - 10m , grows to 52mm .\ncantharidus opalus ( cannoni form ) m . e . on giant kelp , grows to 50mm .\ncantharidus antipodum f . an . e . in rock pools , grows to 9mm .\ncantharidus antipodum ( roseus form ) f . an . e . under kelp holdfasts , grows to 13mm .\ncantharidus turneri f . e . on seaweed covered rocks at low tide , grows to 9mm .\ncantharidus puysegurensis f . e . on seaweed in tidal pools , grows to 6mm .\ncantharidus fulminatus m . e . on seaweed from 0 - 5m , grows to 9mm .\nmicrelenchus sanguineus a . c . f . e . on algae from 0 - 13m , grows to 11mm .\nmicrelenchus sanguineus ( cryptus form ) a . c . f . e . on algae from 0 - 13m , grows to 11mm .\nmicrelenchus tesselatus a . c . f . e . from 0 - 20m , grows to 9mm .\nmicrelenchus huttonii a . c . f . e . intertidal 0 - 7m , grows to 15mm .\nmicrelenchus tenebrosus a . c . f . e . from 0 - 450m , grows to 12mm .\nmicrelenchus purpureus a . c . e . at low tide , grows to 35mm .\nmicrelenchus cf . purpureus a . c . e . at low tide , grows to 35mm .\nmicrelenchus burchorum a . e . from 0 - 15m , grows to 28mm .\nroseaplagis rufozona a . c . e . from 0 - 94m , grows to 9mm .\nroseaplagis artizona c . f . e . from 0 - 585m , grows to 10mm .\nroseaplagis mortenseni c . f . m . an . e . from 10 - 250m , grows to 8mm .\nroseaplagis caelatus f . e . from 15 - 420m , grows to 6mm .\nmaurea punctulata a . c . f . e . from 0 - 274m , grows to 51mm .\nmaurea punctulata ( stewartianum form ) a . c . f . e . from 0 - 274m , grows to 51mm .\nmaurea osbornei a . c . e . from 0 - 102m , grows to 37mm .\nmaurea granti c . f . m . an . e . from 0 - 220m , grows to 58mm .\nmaurea granti ( multigemmata form ) c . f . m . an . e . from 0 - 220m , grows to 58mm .\nmaurea benthicola c . e . from 75 - 129m , grows to 33mm .\nmaurea blacki c . f . m . an . e . from 73 - 549m , grows to 56mm .\nmaurea jamiesoni a . e . from 5 - 128m , grows to 33mm .\nmaurea spectabilis an . e . from 5 - 146m , grows to 56mm .\nmaurea foveauxana f . e . from 73 - 549m , grows to 64mm .\nmaurea eminens an . e . from 13 - 123m , grows to 55mm .\nmaurea pellucida a . c . f . e . from 0 - 187m , grows to 48mm .\nmaurea pellucida ( spirata form ) a . c . f . e . from 0 - 187m , grows to 48mm .\nmaurea selecta a . c . f . m . e . from 0 - 293m , grows to 67mm .\nmaurea selecta ( pagoda form ) a . c . f . m . e . from 0 - 293m , grows to 67mm .\nmaurea waikanae a . c . f . m . e . from 0 - 549m , grows to 57mm .\nmaurea waikanae ( fosteriana form ) a . c . f . m . e . from 0 - 549m , grows to 57mm .\nmaurea turnerarum a . e . from 186 - 805m , grows to 80mm .\nmaurea simulans c . f . m . an . e . from 183 - 1006m , grows to 61mm .\nmaurea simulans ( albino form ) c . f . m . an . e . from 183 - 1006m , grows to 61mm .\nmaurea simulans ( light form ) c . f . m . an . e . from 183 - 1006m , grows to 61mm .\nmaurea antipodensis an . e . from 18 - 500m , grows to 55mm .\nmaurea cf . antipodensis an . e . from 18 - 500m , grows to 55mm .\nmaurea tigris a . c . f . m . e . from 0 - 211m , grows to 101mm .\nmaurea penniketi a . e . from 55 - 622m , grows to 60mm .\nmaurea maui c . m . e . from 140 - 490m , grows to 53mm .\nmaurea alertae a . c . f . m . an . e . from 280 - 861m , grows to 30mm .\ncarinastele kristelleae c . an . e . from 15 - 270m , grows to 10mm .\nselastele onustum a . e . from 55 - 310m , grows to 10mm .\ncrosseola bollonsi a . e . from 25 - 150m , grows to 6mm .\nzeradina producta a . e . from 50 - 180m , grows to 4mm .\nnaricava neozelanica a . e . from 5 - 100m , grows to 5mm .\ncoelotrochus oppressus a . c . e . from 0 - 5m , grows to 6mm .\ncoelotrochus viridis a . c . f . m . e . at low tide , grows to 32mm .\ncoelotrochus tiaratus a . c . f . e . from 0 - 60m , grows to 19mm .\ncoelotrochus chathamensis c . f . m . an . e . intertidal under stones , grows to 10mm .\ncoelotrochus chathamensis ( dunedinensis form ) c . f . m . an . e . intertidal under stones , grows to 10mm .\ncoelotrochus chathamensis ( aucklandicum form ) c . f . m . an . e . intertidal under stones , grows to 10mm .\ncoelotrochus carmesinus a . e . from 0 - 10m , grows to 9mm .\nclanculus peccatus a . e . from 0 - 30m , grows to 13mm .\nsolariella tryphenensis a . e . from 10 - 200m , grows to 7mm .\nsolariella plicatula a . c . e . from 35 - 250m , grows to 7mm .\narchiminolia cf . meridiana a . c . f . m . e . from 220 - 1000m , grows to 15mm .\nbathymophila alabida k . a . e . from 500 - 1400m , grows to 12mm .\nantisolarium egenum a . c . f . m . e . from 0 - 200m , grows to 8mm .\nzethalia zelandica a . c . f . m . e . at and below low tide , grows to 26mm .\nfossarina rimata a . c . e . on low tide rocks , grows to 5mm .\nphilippia lutea a . c . from 0 - 10m , grows to 13mm .\nlunella smaragda a . c . f . e . intertidal , grows to 91mm .\ncookia sulcata a . c . f . m . e . from 0 - 10m , grows to 119mm .\nmodelia granosa a . c . f . m . e . from 0 - 50m , grows to 92mm .\nastraea heliotropium a . c . f . m . e . from 0 - 150m , grows to 129mm .\nxenophora neozelanica neozelanica a . e . from 20 - 120m , grows to 104mm .\nnerita melanotragus k . a . c . on mid to high tide rocks , grows to 33mm .\namphibola crenata a . c . f . e . on high tide mudflats , grows to 39mm .\npelicaria vermis a . c . f . e . from 0 - 120m , grows to 59mm .\npelicaria vermis ( flemingi form ) a . e . from 0 - 80m , grows to 50mm .\nstruthiolaria papulosa a . c . f . e . from 0 - 10m , grows to 106mm .\nstruthiolaria papulosa ( gigas form ) c . f . e . from 0 - 10m , grows to 100mm .\ncavolinia tridentata k . a . c . f . m . an . from 95 - 260m , grows to 15mm .\ncavolinia inflexa a . c . from 95 - 260m , grows to 7mm .\ndiacria trispinosa k . a . c . f . m . an . from 95 - 260m , grows to 7mm .\ndiacavolinia cf . longirostris a . from 95 - 260m , grows to 9mm .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\ncrowd sourced content that is contributed to world heritage encyclopedia is peer reviewed and edited by our editorial staff to ensure quality scholarly research articles .\nby using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy . world heritage encyclopedia\u2122 is a registered trademark of the world public library association , a non - profit organization .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg central are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department ."]}
{"id": 679, "summary": [{"text": "the basa fish ( pangasius bocourti ) is a species of catfish in the family pangasiidae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "basa are native to the mekong and chao phraya basins in indochina .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "these fish are important food fish with an international market .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "they are often labeled in north america and australia as \" basa fish \" , \" swai \" , or \" bocourti \" .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in the uk all species of pangasius may legally be described as \" river cobbler \" , \" cobbler \" , \" basa \" , \" pangasius \" , \" panga \" , or any of these with the addition of \" catfish \" .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in the rest of europe , these fish are commonly marketed as \" pangasius \" or \" panga \" .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "other related shark catfish may occasionally be incorrectly labeled as basa fish , including p. hypophthalmus ( iridescent shark ) and p. pangasius ( yellowtail catfish ) . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "basa fish", "paragraphs": ["our range of products include fish basa fillet , frozen basa fillets and vietnam frozen basa fillet .\nsweet & sour breaded basa fish . - picture of thai orchid , salisbury - tripadvisor\nwhile advances in basa farming are underway , ongoing concerns around the environmental cost of basa production results in a red rating for basa overall . while amcs maintains concerns around all basa production , the major retailers in australia have committed to sourcing all of their basa product from certified sources , which is a step in the right direction .\ni know people that have reactions to ling and basa . i feed it to my fish only .\nbasa fish\u2026let say fish only . . its nutritional value and health impact depends on the environment in which it is reared\u2026being fed and transported\u2026 .\nand if the claims about basa are true ? then okay . but atleast they are being sold as basa , and not as beef .\nthe body of a basa fish is stout and heavy . the rounded head is broader than it is long , the blunt snout having a white band on its muzzle . basa fish can be found in large rivers , in rapids and in deep , slower reaches . basa fish feed on plants . these fish spawn at the onset of the rainy season .\ndear eric : just recently i ate a white fish called basa . it was very delicious and no bones .\na popular frozen fish product imported from vietnam called basa fish just made the \u201cdo not consume\u201d list . basa fish ( known in the uk as vietnamese river cobbler ) is a type of catfish that is farmed in pens along the mekong river . basa fish is known for its mild taste and flaky white meat and is becoming the preferred type of fish among consumers because of its \u201ccleaner\u201d and almost bland taste compared to other types of farm - raised fish .\nthe basa fish \u2013 pangasius hypopthalmus , is a type of catfish in the family pangasiidae . basa are native to the mekong river delta in vietnam and chao phraya basin . basa is now farmed in large quantities . it is the most popular fish in vietnam and consumed in increasing quantities around the world .\nbasa is an omnivorous species of fish that requires some fish protein in its diet . some farms use wild caught fish processed into fish - feed pellets and others use a combination of home - made feed made from , for example , rice bran and ground up small fish caught in the mekong river . as there are numerous small , medium and large - scale basa operators , it is not possible to assess the dependence of the basa - farming producers on wild caught fish resources individually . however , available research indicates basa farming remains dependent on highly unsustainable wild caught fisheries , with a greater volume of fish removed from the ocean than is produced through basa farming .\nthe basa grows three times faster than the tilapia , which , in essence , means more weight for the farmers and more fish for the consumers . the basa is very economical and very viable fish ,\nricardo reynolds added .\nthe basa fish available in india is typically frozen and exported , because , basa is a fish available in vietnam . while i do have faith in frozen goods , most fish while being exported are treated to make sure they last for a certain amount of time . so while basa as a fish is good for you , i would suggest if you have an option to eating a fresher fish than basa , then , you\u2019s better have that . if not basa will do you no harm , but it is not as good as the surmai , rawas , prawns or mackarel available freshly in india .\nit is white , pinkish and is available year round . basa is a tender , mild and fine - flaked fish .\nmany lies getting spread around about this fish , mainly starting from european fish farmers .\nthat low price plus the taste and versatility have made basa a popular fish in australia and europe as well as north america .\nyour article regarding the \u201cbasa\u201d was very enlightening . thank you for this information . i will never eat fish again without asking .\ni spoke with him about the basa . he said that generally , if the fish are healthy then they are safe to eat . he said that he has had basa for meals and that they are delicious fish . he has no problem with eating them .\nfarmed basa fish are not fed their natural foods . they are fed the bones and remnants of dead fish usually after a period of time after the fishes\u2019 deaths\u2014giving time for bacteria to grow and infect the \u201cbasa fish food . \u201d these farmed fish are also often injected with dehydrated urine of pregnant women forcing female basa fish to grow and produce eggs quicker and the injection of hormones , imported from a pharmaceutical company in china , increases the speed of the growth and production processes of the fish . farmers of these fish are only concerned with the progression rates and the income these fish bring in with no concern for the consumers .\nhopefully from now on , you will be aware of the potential risks basa fish poses to your health . it\u2019s easy enough when you\u2019re shopping for fresh fish , but be especially aware when buying packaged seafood like imitation crab , fish sticks , fish terrines , and even pet food . simply flip the package to the back and check the list of ingredients to make sure that basa fish isn\u2019t an ingredient .\nbasa fillet , with onions , peppers , basil , pineapple in a sweet chilli sauce .\nvietnam is proud of its basa , though , and vietnamese fish farmers are fighting back . the wwf fears that current basa farming practices are environmentally unfriendly , a charge that vietnam has not yet been able to answer effectively . on the safety of basa , though , your platter should be relatively risk - free ; it still remains among the healthier fish you can eat .\nphan has switched from basa to domestic catfish at his restaurant because he couldn ' t get whole basa at an affordable price and wants to use fish with bones that won ' t fall apart in clay pot cooking , he said .\nbasa fish is a type of catfish native to vietnam and thailand and sometimes referred to as the river cobbler , swai , pangasius or bocourti . as with other types of catfish , basa are rich in protein but not as lean as tilapia and some other low - fat fish . basa can still be a healthy addition to your diet , but you should note that different methods of cooking will alter the nutritional characteristics . when choosing imported basa , the monterey bay aquarium seafood watch advises looking for fillets from farmed fish . farmed imported basa is low in contaminants like mercury and raised in an environmentally friendly manner .\nthe seafood importers association of australasia , which represents companies importing fish and shellfish into australia , is a strong advocate for vietnamese basa , encouraging increased consumption of and public confidence in these fish .\n\u201cwhat about fish sticks and fast food sandwiches ? \u201d fish sticks and \u201cfast - food\u201d sandwiches are commonly made from fish that are low in mercury .\nurltoken / life / ask - eric - is - it - safe - to - eat - imported - basa - fish - 1 . 87907\nconsumers in the united states were introduced to basa fish in 1994 after the trade embargo with vietnam was finally lifted . it was not a popular choice at first , but now it is a great competition for domestic catfish farmers . this is because basa fish is cheaper than catfish , has similar taste , and the quality of it is not any less . the quick rise in the basa fish\u2019s popularity created the \u201ccatfish war\u201d in the united states .\nthe mekong delta is known to be dangerously polluted . fish farms are created with waters from the delta . this fish is now banned in three states ; louisiana , mississippi and alabama . the vancouver aquarian ocean wise program , via their web site , recommends that people avoid the basa fish as it is associated with disease outbreaks and infection of wild basa populations .\na few years after the spike in popularity of basa fish , scientists discovered the danger of its consumption . basa fish are farmed along the mekong river\u2014one of the most polluted rivers in the world . large manufacturers planted along this river frequently dump extremely toxic and dangerous chemicals and industrial waste directly into it . in june of 2001 , the us food and drug administration imposed increased and more thorough testing on southeast asian farm - raised seafood including the basa fish after repeatedly discovering fish contaminated with heavy metals and banned antibiotics .\nhere\u2019s one american that shot a video in viet nam at one of their basa fish farms . it\u2019s a bit long , but you\u2019ll get the idea .\nas to the pangasius or basa fish , one sexually mature female weighing three kilogrammes ( approximately 6 . 6 lbs ) can produce 150 , 000 eggs per kilogramme \u2014 that is 450 , 000 eggs from a three - kilogramme fish . so a 10 - kilogramme basa produces well over a million eggs .\nthe real issue for indian consumers is the issue that crops up with many varieties of farmed fish \u2014 depending on where your restaurant is sourcing from , the taste of basa can vary from complex ( if the fish comes from the certified farms approved by the vietnam fisheries council ) or bland and boring ( if the fish comes from farms that practice overfishing or use too many chemicals in the fish feed ) . bland basa is instantly recognisable \u2014 it combines a cottony texture with a watery feel , and sourcing inferior basa is the kind of culinary misdemeanour that puts consumers off fish in general . ask your restaurant where they get their basa from , and if the answer is reassuring , go ahead and tuck into your basa yellow kari . if not , order the lamb .\nwhile the production of basa is new to jamaica , the importation is not , as at least two of the country\u2019s major importers of fish stock carry basa , especially the boneless , skinless fillets , or portions in different sizes and shapes cut from fillets .\nbasa ' s sharp rise in popularity alarmed members of the catfish farmers of america , who estimated last year that basa has taken 12 percent of the united states ' $ 590 million market for catfish .\npangasius bocourti \u2013 commonly known as basa \u2013 has lean and bright white flesh and offers a delicate texture and mild flavour . basa flesh is considered superior in quality to its close cousin \u2013 pangasius hypophthalmus .\nthe fish and wildife branch of new brunswick ' s department of natural resources and energy published provincial fish advisories in the manual fish 2010 . mercury contamination of freshwater fish is located under for further information on page 43 .\nanother strong attribute of basa is that it doesn\u2019t smell , which puts it in a sweet spot . indian sea fish such as mackerel or king fish are less bony than fresh water varieties , but are smellier . fresh water fish such as carps smell less than sea fish but have many bones . visually too , basa scores . the premium grade of basa imported into india , is unblemished white . \u201cpeople like to see white meat when they cut into it . whiteness is always associated with good quality , \u201d says reddy .\nadditionally , fass said , price rises for importers , wholesalers and distributors could cut into demand for basa , eventually disrupting supplies of the succulent , bewhiskered fish .\nhowever , there are some caveats . questions about the health of mekong river and the practices used to farm basa will affect your decision to buy the fish .\ngood fish guide the latest advice , top tips and recipes for buying and cooking fish that is sustainably sourced .\ni found some cheap fish called\nbasa fillet \u2013 fishermans choice\n. the brand is kinda low quality anyway but there is a lot of warning on the internet about eating this type of imported fish from vietnam .\nit is disgusting , don ' t touch it . and i refuse to go to any fish and chip shop that serves basa as their standard grilled fish and chips and charge any more than $ 5 for it .\nu . s . catfish producers characterize vietnamese basa as an unclean bottom - feeder bred in polluted water .\nadding to basa\u2019s appeal is that it is a low - fat source of protein and is also very budget - friendly . at one supermarket , i saw frozen basa fillets for just 88 cents per 100 grams .\nit took me a good two hours of internet research to figure this all out ) , particularly as basa is used internationally for both pangasius bocourti and pangasius hypophthalmus , and the same is true for panga in europe . however , since 2010 vietnam has instituted legislation to label all basa and tra for export consistently as basa .\nbasa fillets are relatively low in sodium , with 50 mg per fillet . the daily recommended intake of sodium is 2 , 300 mg , so a 100 - gram basa fillet contains just 2 percent of this amount .\nbasa is growing in popularity in many bay area restaurants , but some chefs are not sold on the fish . robert lam , the vietnam - born chef at butterfly in san francisco , said he doesn ' t cook with basa because fish farming is not closely regulated in vietnam for environmental quality . he also prefers seasonal , local ingredients .\nin the united states , basa from vietnam has been banned in louisiana , mississippi and alabama after it was claimed that illegal antibiotics turned up in samples of the fish .\nbut basa ' s supporters - - among them fass , who said he has inspected vietnamese fish farms - - say basa are raised in fast - flowing waters in cages at the surface of the mekong river and not at the murky bottom , like pond - raised american catfish .\nthe first commercial crop of basa is expected to be reaped in september of this year , and the expectation of aqua - culturalist and managing director of algix , maurice reynolds , is that basa is going to replace the tilapia as the fish of choice for freshwater cultivators and consumers .\nfilleted basa was retailing for $ 8 . 99 a pound earlier this week at the whole foods market in san ramon , where anthony colombini laid out fleshy , slightly pink strips of basa on a bed of crushed ice .\nbasa is a river catfish and one of 28 species in the pangasiidae family . in comparison to its cousin \u2013 pangasius hypophthalmus - basa are more difficult to farm , more costly to raise and slower to grow . consequently - basa commands a higher price . both basa and swai are scale - less fish and have stout and heavy bodies . they have round , broad heads with blunt snouts that have a white band on the muzzle . both species are usually harvested when they are about 2 to 3 pounds .\nthe experts are purporting that the female basa has the ability to produce much more eggs than any other fish ever farmed commercially in jamaica . another claim is that at full maturity the basa weighs an average of 88 - 90 lbs , making it much easier for the cutting of fillets .\nthe basa is a special fish . it is a native of southeast asia , particularly vietnam , cambodia and neighbouring nations ,\nreynolds told the jamaica observer last thursday .\nthere\u2019s a reason chefs like basa . it lacks the boniness of hilsa , the fishiness of pabda and other strong - flavoured fish , and it is far less bland than sole or even bhekti . sole and bhekti , to my mind , are the chicken of fish dishes \u2014 intrinsically uninteresting , but great vehicles for subtle sauces . basa has a subtle flavour all its own , interesting texture \u2014 catfish can flex its muscles , though purists sometimes complain that it\u2019s too thin - flavoured and watery . but by and large , basa is cheap , good fish \u2014 a classic \u201crecession\u201d fish for chefs .\nish , t . & doctor , k . 2005 . tra and basa : tra ( pangasius hypophthalmus ) and basa ( pangasius bocourti ) . seafood watch , seafood report , monterey bay aquarium , california , usa . 29 pp .\nselect fish lower on the food chain\u2014anchovies , mackerel and sardines , for example . as larger predatory fish eat smaller fish , contaminants are concentrated and accumulated . another benefit is that these smaller fish tend to have higher levels of omega - 3 fats .\nnext time you\u2019re at a seafood restaurant where you are tempted to order a fish sandwich , or fish and chips ( usually fried ) ask the server what kind of fish that is . if they say cod , mahi or pollock , enjoy your meal . if they say basa , take a pass . basa has become a popular white fish which restaurants substitute as cheaper meat than free - caught ocean fishes . what the restaurant doesn\u2019t tell you is that basa is a bottom - dwelling catfish variety farmed in the mekong delta regions of viet nam , frozen and shipped at low prices to the u . s .\nbasa fish fillets are low in calories , as a 100 - gram fillet contains 90 calories . this amount comprises just 4 . 5 percent of the daily suggested calorie intake of 2 , 000 . if you ' re dieting , basa fillets can be a good choice , as it would take less than 10 minutes of jogging or less than 11 minutes of swimming to burn the calories in a 100 - gram basa fillet .\nhowever , the seafood watch folk do rate basa as a \u201cgood alternative\u201d with some caveats . they say commercial farming of basa , which they call river catfish , in southeast asia has increased rapidly in recent years . they say basa has a strong potential to be a sustainable aquaculture species , but there are conservation concerns with the current practice of open cage aquaculture combined with little or no management of these fish farming operations in asia .\nyes , tassal . too much fish poo in the bay . is a a bay , so the ocean is unable to flush out the fish poo under the fish farms . and they have way too many fish net pods . wish they lose their asc .\nbut basa isn\u2019t without controversies . nothing that successful ever is . in 2002 , the us department of commerce upheld the appeal of american catfish farmers and slapped a dumping duty on the fish . later , the us food and drug administration ( fda ) launched an investigation into the farming practices of basa . vietnamese fish farmers were accused of using unhealthy antibiotics to increase its yield .\nthe owner of a leicestershire fish and chip shop has admitted selling imported freshwater fish as cod after random dna tests by trading standards .\nchef caroline rye , the urban fishwife , tells us her experiences using mcs\u2019 good fish guide to make informed choices when buying fish .\ni recently did a natural bodybuilding competition in australia . for 11 weeks prior i ate 5x 200g cooked basa fillet meals per day . that\u2019s 1kg basa every day for 11 weeks . that\u2019s 77kg basa that i personally ate over 11 weeks . i loved it . i still eat it now . it tastes great with pepper & chilli on the bbq . i didn\u2019t get sick at all . if anyone should have gotten sick from eating basa , surely the guy who ate 80kg in 3 months would have , wouldn\u2019t he ?\nhowever , the price of basa in markets and restaurants is sure to jump if the preliminary duties are made permanent , said matt fass , vice president of marine products international , a virginia fish importer .\nfor better performance . it is well - known in the markets as basa fish or dory in fillet products ( imitating marine dory zeus spp . ) . fry for aquaculture is taken from the wild .\nthe pangasius species of freshwater fish , known locally as basa , is now being produced in jamaica and is being trumpeted as the natural successor to the tried and tested tilapia on the plates of jamaicans .\nwhat is the secret of such high yield of basa ? \u201cthere is no other fish that can be as easily de - scaled and de - boned , \u201d says p . b . reddy , director , castlerock fisheries . basa has just one , long , central bone and once that is taken out , making the fillet is easy .\nanother fish from mekon delta is the swai fish\u2026comes from the same waters and is also a catfish ! sells for very cheap at wal mart .\ni am from pakistan have been eating this fish once almost every month . this fish is used by many restaurants here to make different fish recipes including fish burgers , cutlets and fish n chips . we love it due to it being easy to eat and tastefully delicious . no one in my family ever had any problem after consuming this fish . i would recommend it to anyone for its taste , convinience , price and safety .\nwhat about the taste of this fish ? basa adapts very well to indian and other asian cuisines such as chinese and thai . chefs concur that it can easily be tava - cooked or masala - grilled . \u201cit gels well with the kind of palate indians have . it is softer [ than other indian fish ] , \u201d says chef anirudhoya roy of taj land\u2019s end , who pioneered the use of this fish in indian hotels . today , roy uses 600 kgs of basa a month .\nthe ngos began importing small quantities of basa and a related fish called tra . they sold the fish to distributors and wholesalers and a handful of restaurants and markets , such as the seafood center on san francisco ' s clement street , which is run by members of the ngos ' extended family . since then , basa\nhas really taken off , now many other importers handle it too ,\nchristine ngo said .\nis frozen mekong catfish from vietnam . if is not frozen , it has been freshly ' thawed for your convenience ' . food is food ; but looking at my sustainable fish wall chart in my office right now , it says we should ' eat less ' basa fish species . my hotel chefs will never purchase this fish to serve in our restaurants .\n. . . i have a friend that has been eating about 4 killos of basa every week for the last year . . . .\ni love basa fish and eat it every week . it is cheap , it has a very bland taste and smell ( that ' s a good thing for me ) and it is extremely easy to cook .\nseveral environmental organizations concerned with marine ecosystems have raised concerns about basa . oceanwise , an environmental organization associated has flagged farmed basa for its potential pollution of ecosystems and interference with wild species . it writes , \u201copen cage farming in southeast asia is associated with disease transfer to wild basa . there are also concerns about feed quality , farm operating standards and the biological impact of using wild stock for culturing . \u201d it as also commonly heard that these fish are being fed human excretory products in poor countries .\nbasa is described as having large , white fillets with no bones , and flesh that is moist with a light , firm texture and a mild fish flavour . this makes basa , which is often sold frozen or thawed from frozen , a versatile species that can be used in a multitude of recipes and cooking styles , whether in a home or restaurant kitchen .\nall of these fish are produced by aquaculture . wild harvest is possible but very limited , and the wild fish are subject to considerable variation in quality .\nbasa fillets contain no carbohydrates , so you can eat this fish on a low - carbohydrate diet . while low - carbohydrate diets can help you lose weight , you don ' t need to restrict carbohydrates to diet successfully .\ni prefer to eat locally caught fish . if i were going to purchase basa , i would do a thorough check of the importing company and garner as much information as i could about how the fish they are selling are farmed . if they are proud of their product , they will supply details .\nhowever , their joy didn\u2019t last long because the vietnamese retaliated by rebranding their catfish as basa . \u201cbasa\u201d is simply the vietnamese word for the fish in question . first they didn\u2019t have a coherent strategy and so other names also proliferated , including tra , bocourti , panga and swai . panga , which is mostly used in europe , derives from the latin family name pangasiidae . basa and tra are different subfamilies \u2013 basa is technically known as pangasius bocourti ( hence the trade name bocourti ) and tra is technically known as pangasius hypophthalmus . the vietnamese word for pangasius hypophthalmus is tra and the thai word for it is swai ( hence the trade names tra and swai ) .\nit ' s a little more delicate than domestic catfish ,\nsaid charles phan , the vietnam - born chef at the slanted door , who described basa as a mild , white - fleshed fish with a pleasant flavor .\nto him , the issue is simple . vietnam should stop labeling imported basa fish as catfish and thereby end what he calls its unfair piggybacking on an industry built from scratch by farmers here and in alabama , louisiana and mississippi .\nthe farming of basa has started in eastern india\u2019s fresh waters as well . the region produced 30 , 000 tonnes of the fish in 2010 and it is being served all over the north ( including delhi ) and the east .\ndear al : with the name basa , one might think it\u2019s related to bass , a fish canadians cast for in local rivers and lakes . like bass , it is a freshwater fish , but it\u2019s not related to that species . it is a type of catfish and its latin name is pangasius bocourti .\n( also called , pangasius , vietnamese river cobbler , basa fish and white catfish , tra , gray sole ) . it was a reminder to tell you about the dangers of this strange but increasingly popular fish . i learned about them and how they\u2019re raised a while ago on an informative documentary online here :\nso we have more eggs from the female brood stock than any other fish ever farmed in jamaica . this is the main reason why the basa industry is nearly a us $ 2 - billion industry in asia . the best a female tilapia can produce is 500 eggs at any one time . right now , the basa is the sixth most eaten fish in the world and the 10th in the united states , according to independent publications ,\nhe explained .\ni love this fish and believe that there is a \u201cfish war\u201d which has led to the media trying to blacklist it . it is in competition with other farm fished products in the usa and other countries and perhaps this is the origin of these scare tactics . if we put any food products under the microscope it might put most of us off\u2026growth hormones , chemicals etc etc the australian board on fish importing has all good things to say about basa fish and i believe it :\nfirst time there and we ordered the fish and chips and calamari and chips - the calamari was very well done in my opinion , chips were ok . . . . . but the fish was dreadful . to be fair , the waitress did ask if we were ok with basa fish since it wasn ' t for everyone ( we had never had it ) which we agreed to . . .\nfor example , on canadian importer bay point trading\u2019s website , baypointtrading . ca , you\u2019ll find many pages of information about the vietnamese basa the company sells .\nwhy is basa pouring into the indian market ? because of the after - effects of the catfish war . spurred by reports that vietnamese catfish were being overfarmed \u2014 a very real danger \u2014 the world wildlife fund for nature recently advised consumers not to buy basa . the wwf\u2019s red list is influential , especially in europe , and could hurt exports of basa or panga \u2014 and us catfish farmers are still waging war against vietnamese \u201ccobbler\u201d , as it\u2019s widely known in the states .\n\u201cis there methylmercury in all fish and shellfish ? \u201d nearly all fish and shellfish contain traces of methylmercury . however , larger fish that have lived longer have the highest levels of methylmercury because they\u2019ve had more time to accumulate it . these large fish ( swordfish , shark , king mackerel and tilefish ) pose the greatest risk . other types of fish and shellfish may be eaten in the amounts recommended by fda and epa .\nwife cooks basa in batter and serves it up with a few slices of fried potato and a bit of green veg . just had some tonight \u2013 yum !\nindian accent serves it , blue ginger in bangalore features it among its signature dishes , and every upscale thai or vietnamese restaurant seems to have basa on the menu , replacing sole , bhekti and singara fillets . but the story behind basa , perhaps 2010\u2019s fish of the year , is a long and complex one . there aren\u2019t too many catfish that can claim responsibility for a second us - vietnam conflict .\nnot usually a good sign . fresh fish does not have an extreme fishy smell .\nplease read this link to studies made on these fish . it is quite surprising !\nit is your call but i don ' t see why people hate it so much . if you are looking for a\nbetter\nfish with omega 3 and such , there are better choices like salom and codfish , but if you just want to a quick fix of fish that is super easy to make get the basa .\nbasa is said to be inexpensive because it grows fast , it\u2019s easily harvested and it\u2019s processed in factories near the farm . being able to get the fish to market without the expense of maintaining a fleet of fishing boats helps keep the price low .\nindian fishery experts think that in a few years aquaculture within the country will start delivering quality basa . and they would not be the only ones . apparently , the chinese have taken a shine to this fish and have started ramping up its production .\nhowever , nearly all fish contain traces of mercury . for most people , the risk from mercury by eating fish is not a health concern . yet , some fish contain higher levels of mercury that may harm an unborn baby or young child\u2019s developing nervous system .\nbasa fillets are rich in protein , as a 100 - gram fillet contains 14 grams . this amount is more than twice the protein in an egg , but a basa fillet contains 50 fewer calories than two eggs would provide . your body needs protein to maintain the integrity of your existing cells and tissues and build new tissues .\nwhile i ' m aware of basa hazards in the past , i ' m inclined to trust coles standards for healthy sanitary food , although like much of their fruit , basa hasn ' t much taste . but after egging , breadcrumbing and pan frying it ' s a nice dish we eat regularly and at an excellent price .\nusually i don ' t mind and just eat it anyway , but for some reason these fillets have no fishy smell . i ' ve had many types of fish and often opening the bag i ' m met with a extreme fishy smell . these basa fish however don ' t have that at all . more like a chemical smell .\nthere\u2019s nothing wrong with the fish . i\u2019m also a fish and fish processing expert . these fish are fed with commercial pelletized feeds similar to what they feed salmon , tilapia etc . the \u201curine\u201d thing must be hcg ( human chorionic gonadotriopin ) hormones used to induce spawning . people use hcg in a weight loss program these days\u2026google it and find out .\ncorrection : january 21 , 2002 , monday a chart on wednesday with a front - page article about a dispute over the designation of basa fish from vietnam as catfish mislabeled figures comparing domestic catfish production with imports . the figures denoted pounds , not tons .\nto understand how economical the process is , compare the rates that indian hotels have to pay for a kilogramme of fish of different varieties , along with the yield of meat they get from each . there is hardly a contest because basa wins hands down .\nanswer : \u201cthe farmed fish is cross - eyed from staring up at the outhouse . \u201d\nwe don\u2019t fish for it in canada . basa , also called swai and a few other names , is native to southeast asia . it is farmed in large numbers in pens around the mekong river system of vietnam , as well as in china and cambodia .\nalgix jamaica , a company with investors from the united states and jamaica , is now breeding , stocking and producing basa on its farm at barton isle in st elizabeth .\nthe u . s . catfish industry initially pressed congress to prohibit labeling \u201cbasa\u201d as catfish . the first antidumping duties against \u201ccertain frozen fish fillets from vietnam\u201d went into effect in 2003 . they have not been lifted . more recently , vietnam has been angered by an attempt to reclassify \u201cbasa\u201d as catfish , which could lead to stricter united states department of agriculture inspection standards . where are joseph heller and \u201ccatch - 22\u201d when you need them ?\ni have a friend that has been eating about 4 killos of basa every week for the last year . he is a bodybuilder so he eats about 1 kg of fish , chicken or other proteins every day . he is healthy and not having absolutely any issues .\nmajor retailers in australia and internationally tend to require sustainability certification of farms that produce basa , and only sell product from these sources . this market initiative has driven significant improvements in basa production , such as managing the waste produced in fish farming . vietnam has also introduced a standard to which all farms must operate in order to export product ; however , the standard is not considered high enough to allow access to the us and eu markets .\namericans say it comes from the polluted mekong river , while the australians say that the fish comes from fish farms near the mekong river and is highly recommended . we need your advice .\nthe weight just kills it ,\nphan said of the costs to fly fresh basa - - heads , tails , bones and all - - by air from vietnam .\nbut , where look and taste is concerned , indian basa is yet to make the cut . its colour is dimmer and the bloodstreams running across the flesh are visible . for these reasons the price of indian basa is lower , at rs . 170 to rs . 210 a kg , while the vietnamese variety sells for rs . 240 to rs . 270 a kg . \u201cbetween september and november 2010 , there was so much basa produced locally , that the price fell to rs . 35 per kg , \u201d says reddy .\ni doubt my wife would ' ve wanted basa in the house forty years ago , when we had anklebiters running rampant . nowadays , though , she ' s more relaxed .\nthese guidelines are developed based on data from fish that have been tested for chemical contamination and are found to be safe to eat . like fish consumption advisories safe eating guidelines are issued for specific fish species from specific water bodies or types of water bodies by state and local agencies .\nperhaps the biggest virtue that the vietnamese bring with this fish is the promise of reliable supplies . in india , sea fish is seasonally available between september and may . for instance , mumbaiites love bombay duck , but it is available from february to may and the indian mackerel is available from september to november . \u201cthe price of fish such as king fish [ surmai ] and the others are quite high due to their seasonality and only a small section of the population can eat it regularly , \u201d says reddy . with basa , all this is overcome .\nthe risks from mercury in fish depends on the amount eaten and the levels of mercury in the fish . therefore , the food and drug administration ( fda ) and the environmental protection agency ( epa ) advise women who may become pregnant , pregnant women , nursing mothers , and young children to avoid some types of fish and eat fish and shellfish that are lower in mercury .\nthe vietnamese strategy of market differentiation worked . in the past decade , basa has come to be seen as an imported premium product and has been doing well in a range of export markets , including the usa . consequently , us catfish lobbyists changed their strategy : they went to lobby for basa to be treated as a \u201clike product\u201d \u2013 i . e . completely reversing their earlier strategy which had been to argue that vietnamese catfish was different from american catfish . they were successful again and vietnamese basa has been subjected to heavy import tariffs .\n7 . the companies who sells the fish doesn\u2019t make me sick . your baseless accusations do .\non its website , oceanwise . ca , the vancouver aquarium\u2019s ocean wise program does not recommend consumers buy basa . aquarium experts say open - cage farming in southeast asia is associated with disease outbreaks and infection of wild basa populations . they also note there are also concerns about feed quality , farm operating standards and the biological impact of using wild stock for culturing .\nmanaged correctly and sustainably , fish farming has the potential to increase fisheries productivity and provide food for hungry people . if fishers collect too many baby fish , wild populations decline . but , if fishers harvest sustainably , then the young fish can be raised to provide extra food . and , in fact , since aquaculture for this species is dependent on healthy fish populations and a healthy river ecosystem , the economic benefit gained from wild fish harvests provides an indirect incentive to protect the environment .\nbasa , which are farmed in the waters of the mekong river delta , were virtually unknown in the united states before the late 1990s , when h & n food international of san francisco began importing and wholesaling the fish , said the company ' s vice president , christine ngo .\nwhy would you need to look them up when there have been so many documentaries on their production . even rick stein has covered their production in pens beneath homes on the mekong river . basa or vietnamese catfish , is not a fish that you would\nchoose\nto eat .\nour oceans have become so depleted of wild fish stocks , and so polluted with industrial contaminants , that trying to figure out the fish that are both safe and sustainable can make your head spin .\ngood fish\nlists can change year after year , because stocks rebound or get depleted every few years , but there are some fish that , no matter what , you can always decline .\nif you are familiar with fish , i\u2019ve been fishing since 5 years old . old pier # 5 , now a shopping mall : the holy grail was to not buy a fish that did not had the head still attached . if you know your fish that\u2019s one thing , but even with that you learn to tell how fresh the fish is by the clarity and texture on the eye .\nthe bangla adage mache bhate bengali \u2013 \u2018fish and rice make a bengali\u2019 \u2013 sums up the importance of fish in the diet of bangladeshis . but with capture fisheries in decline , bangladesh is increasingly lo\u2026\nvarious provincial fish consumption advisories have been issued for water bodies in newfoundland and labrador . at the following locations it is recommended that the designated fish species be consumed no more than once per week :\nanyways , back on topic \u2013 i personally wouldn ' t choose to eat basa voluntarily . not that impressed with how or where it ' s farmed to be comfortable with eating it .\nwe strongly believe that with the expertise we have been able to acquire , the basa will become the dominant force in freshwater cultivation in jamaica ,\nthe algix managing director said .\nbasa , a type of catfish , can be cooked in myriad ways , such as pan - frying . experts at the vancouver aquarium ' s ocean wise program and the monterey bay aquarium seafood watch in the u . s . stress that while some farmed basa from vietnam or cambodia is excellent , some is of poor quality and it behooves consumers to ask questions before buying .\napproximately 2 . 6 to 6 . 7 percent of the fat content of a serving of basa consists of omega - 3 fatty acids . a high intake of these fatty acids - - particularly dha , or docosahexaenoic acid , and epa , or eicosapentaenoic acid - - are linked to a decreased risk of heart disease . to get enough , the american heart association recommends that you should have at least two 3 . 5 - oz . servings of fish like basa each week .\nif the river cobbler had been described as fish , there would have been no problem .\neat this instead : pacific halibut seems to be doing well , but the group also recommends replacing these fish with other mild - flavored white - fleshed fish , such as domestically farmed catfish or tilapia .\nfollow these same recommendations when feeding fish and shellfish to your young child , but serve smaller portions .\nfor additional inquiries , contact the fish and wildlife general information line at 506 - 453 - 2440 .\nan advisory about fish from a specific waterbody or type of waterbody may address more than one affected fish species or chemical contaminant . advisories can be issued by federal , state , local or tribal agencies .\nwe are restoring the world\u2019s wild fish populations to serve as a sustainable source of protein for people .\nnot terribly impressed . . have eaten basa and it\u2019s cousin swai for years and enjoyed it . i travel a good deal and can\u2019t honestly say that farming conditions for salmon , talapia and other fish in the us are any worse than they are for basa or swai in the mekong delta . i think we as us residents are a bit ethnocentric . . but hey\u2026 i get my medical care out of the us as well . we are a self - important group i fear .\nbasa being a low fat source of protein is good for health . having said that , the farming method and water ( pollution ) they were caught from need to be taken into account .\n\u201ccountry of origin labeling\u201d ( cool ) regulations , which went into effect in 2005 , can help you identify the source of seafood . they require supermarkets\u2014but not restaurants , processed fish products , or , oddly enough , fish markets\u2014to indicate where their fish come from and whether they were farmed or wild - caught .\na better question would be whether basa is the best fish choice to eat . there ' s nothing wrong with it safety wise , but it ' s not the tastiest , best quality or healthiest fish to eat . it ' s cheap for a reason . it ' s sort of like domino ' s pizza . not the best or highest quality pizza around , but for the cheap price it is it will do . also , have you ever had frozen marinara mix ? if yes , then you ' ve eaten basa and survived , so it ' s good . don ' t overdo it though , if you want quality fish buy the local more expensive versions which are far better .\nby translating the name of its ' ' tra ' ' fish as ' ' catfish ' ' rather than ' ' basa , ' ' the common english name of that species , the vietnamese have captured 20 percent of the american catfish market . tra looks like catfish ; tra tastes like catfish .\nontario ' s ministry of the environment published provincial fish consumption advisories in the 2009 - 2010 guide to eating ontario sport fish . notices for mercury and other contaminants are located on page 16 of the guide .\nseriously , we ' re well aware of the negatives about basa . it ' s a matter of two 70 + folks weighing up the risks and deciding it ' s not worth worrying about .\ncoles is where we get our frozen basa , at $ 7 kg . . . and impressed with the separate four pack two fillet wrapping , though we don ' t eat that . . .\nbasa is imported from south - east asia , where it is predominantly farmed along vietnam ' s mekong river in ponds , tanks and cages close to or in the mekong . farms discharge wastewater to the river , which likely cause localised pollution . however , the effect of basa aquaculture on waterways is minor when compared with the degradation of the mekong river by runoff from agriculture and other human activities .\nsupermarkets are making it easier for consumers to choose fish by providing more detailed information on their labels about where and how fish have been caught . make sure you look out for the\nblue tick\nlogo from the marine stewardship council which certifies that the fish has come from a sustainable and well - managed fishery .\nmanitoba conservation has a website about mercury in fish , where you will find a pamphlet on\nmercury in fish and guidelines for the consumption of recreationally angled fish in manitoba\n. for further information on recommended consumption rates , contact a manitoba water stewardship office or phone the resource information service at 204 - 945 - 6784 .\nso , women and young children in particular should include fish in their diets due to the many nutritional benefits .\nby following these three recommendations for selecting and eating fish or shellfish , women and young children will receive the benefits of eating fish and shellfish and be confident that they have reduced their exposure to the harmful effects of mercury .\n( 3 ) check local advisories about the safety of fish caught by family and friends in your local lakes , rivers , and coastal areas . if no advice is available , eat up to 6 ounces ( one average meal ) per week of fish you catch from local waters , but don\u2019t consume any other fish during that week .\nhowever , some fish and shellfish may contain chemicals that could pose health risks . when contaminant levels are unsafe , consumption advisories may recommend that people limit or avoid eating certain species of fish and shellfish caught in certain places ."]}
{"id": 684, "summary": [{"text": "the olive-brown oriole ( oriolus melanotis ) , or sunda oriole , is a species of bird in the family oriolidae .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is endemic to the islands of the lesser sundas .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests and subtropical or tropical mangrove forests . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "olive - brown oriole", "paragraphs": ["select an image : 1 . olive - brown oriole 2 . olive - brown oriole > > male 3 . olive - brown oriole 4 . olive - brown oriole > > female 5 . olive - brown oriole > > male 6 . olive - brown oriole > > male 7 . olive - brown oriole > > male 8 . olive - brown oriole > > male\nolive - brown oriole ( oriolus melanotis ) is a species of bird in the oriolidae family .\nthe olive - brown oriole is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\n* olive - brown oriole ( oriolus melanotis melanotis ) - image . * olive - brown oriole ( oriolus melanotis ) - text . * orchard oriole ( icterus spurius ) - image . * oriolus chinensis - images . * oriolus cruentus - image . * oriolus flavocinctus - image . * oriolus oriolus - images . * oriolus oriolus - pirol - text und abbildung . * oriolus xanthornus - image . more\nof eastern and central north america , having bright orange and black plumage in the male and olive brown plumage in the female . it was formerly considered a subspecies of the northern oriole .\nolive - brown oriole is quite similar to the local helmeted friarbird but the male is less so , while on timor , where the nominate race of this oriole occurs , the female is again quite similar to the helmeted friarbird but the male is not . in australia , however , where both the olive - backed oriole and the green oriole overlap in range with the helmeted friarbird , there is no mimicry . it seems clear that the orioles mimic the friarbirds , rather than vice versa . more\nshowing page 1 . found 0 sentences matching phrase\nolive - brown oriole\n. found in 0 ms . translation memories are created by human , but computer aligned , which might cause mistakes . they come from many sources and are not checked . be warned .\nthe alternative genus xanthonotus , originally described by c . l . bonaparte , in 1854 , has been used to group the dark - throated oriole ( oriolus xanthonotus ) , the philippine oriole and the isabela oriole , the first two of which were considered by sibley and monroe to be sister - species . the subspecies albilorus of the philippine oriole has sometimes been elevated to the rank of a full species , but in other treatments the philippine oriole , including albiloris , has been considered a subspecies of the dark - throated oriole .\nrelationship with man several oriolids , among them the eurasian golden oriole , the eastern black - headed oriole and the australasian figbird , occasionally cause damage to fruit crops in gardens and orchards , and have consequently been persecuted . it is very likely that other oriole species have met the same fate .\noriole clutches vary from one egg to six , but the average is about two to three eggs , usually laid at intervals of 1\u20132 days . the eggs measure approximately 2 \u00d7 3 cm and weigh 5\u201310 g . they are sometimes white or pinkish - white but mostly some sort of creamy colour , with reddish , brownish , purplish , greyish and blackish spots and streaks , these markings usually concentrated at the obtuse end . the eggs of figbirds , however , are duller , having a greyish - green to olive - brown ground colour .\nwetar oriole ( o . m . finschi ) - hartert , 1904 : originally described as a separate species . found on wetar and atauro islands\ntimor oriole ( o . m . melanotis ) - bonaparte , 1850 : originally described as a separate species . found on timor , rote and semau islands\nnestlings of the eurasian golden oriole begin to preen and to exercise their wings when they are about 10\u201312 days old , which is the time when most down feathers start to be replaced with adult feathers . a few days later , some leave the nest and perch in the immediate surroundings , including the ground . they start to fly when 16\u201320 days old , after which the young stay with the parents in family groups for a few weeks , or perhaps even months , feeding by the parents eventually ceasing altogether . orioles probably breed for the first time at the age of 2\u20133 years , as demonstrated for the eurasian golden oriole .\nstudies of eurasian golden orioles have revealed that this species can exhibit site - fidelity over several years . in a few cases , ringing has confirmed that both male and female returned to the same territory year after year . usually the pair chooses a new nesting site , but occasionally it will occupy the same nesting tree or , indeed , the same branch , and it may even reuse materials from the previous year\u2019s nest or , rarely , the orioles will use the old nest , merely repairing it with some new material . both the eastern black - headed oriole and the eurasian golden oriole have on rare occasions been recorded as using the same nest a year later .\norioles must drink , and they may do so in various ways . the eurasian golden oriole , for example , may pump or suck water , as well as nectar , upwards into its downward - pointed beak , or it may use a sequence of alternately pumping and raising its beak , a \u201csuck - and - tilt\u201d process . usually , this species drinks from tree hollows , takes dew or raindrops from branches or leaves , or flies closely above the surface of a waterbody and quickly dips its bill . in rare instances , it will also drink from rain puddles .\nalthough , with some members of the family , it appears that both sexes build the nest , incubate the eggs , and brood and feed the nestlings , this is the exception . more usually , it is exclusively or almost exclusively the female that incubates , for a period of 2\u20133 weeks , and that broods the nestlings , again for 2\u20133 weeks . while incubating , the female of the eurasian golden oriole leaves the nest to feed herself only for brief periods of about ten minutes , and rarely up to 38 minutes , but she leaves for longer foraging trips after the eggs have hatched . meanwhile , the male may feed her and he may also incubate or brood for short periods .\ntelemetric studies of the eurasian golden oriole in northern germany showed that , during the breeding season , the adults foraged for 45 % of the time within 200 m of the nest and for 80 % of the time within 700 m of the nest , but they would travel 1\u20133 km for especially abundant food sources , such as plants infested with caterpillars . their foraging ranges increased significantly after the hatching of the eggs . sometimes , up to three immature or adult orioles , presumably previous offspring of the nesting pair , helped in the feeding of the young , especially in habitats with poor food availability . a similar phenomenon has been recorded for the australasian figbird , the nestlings of which are occasionally brooded and fed by extra males and females .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe ioc world bird list is an open access resource of the international community of ornithologists . our goal is to facilitate worldwide communication in ornithology and conservation based on an up - to - date classification of world birds and a set of english names that follows explicit guidelines for spelling and construction ( gill & wright 2006 ) .\nthe ioc editorial team and advisors update the web - based list quarterly . the updates include changes of recommended names or classification , additions of newly described species , corrections of nomenclature , and updates of species taxonomy .\nthe ioc world bird list complements other primary world bird lists that differ slightly in their primary goals and taxonomic philosophy , i . e . the clements checklist of the birds of the world , the howard & moore complete checklist of the birds of the world , 4 th edition , and hbw alive / bird life international . improved alignment of these independent taxonomic works is a goal of the newly structured international ornithologists union , including a round table discussion at the 2018 meeting in vancouver , british columbia .\nioc world bird list 8 . 1 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 8 . 1\nioc world bird list 8 . 2 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 8 . 2\nioc world bird list 7 . 1 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 7 . 1\nioc world bird list 7 . 2 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 7 . 2\nioc world bird list 7 . 3 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 7 . 3\nioc world bird list 6 . 4 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 6 . 4\nioc world bird list 6 . 3 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 6 . 3\nioc world bird list 6 . 2 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 6 . 2\nioc world bird list 6 . 1 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 6 . 1\nioc world bird list 5 . 4 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 5 . 4\nioc world bird list 5 . 3 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 5 . 3\nioc world bird list 5 . 2 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 5 . 2\nioc world bird list 5 . 1 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 5 . 1\nioc world bird list 4 . 4 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 4 . 4\nioc world bird list 4 . 3 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 4 . 3\nioc world bird list 4 . 2 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 4 . 2\nioc world bird list 4 . 1 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 4 . 1\nioc world bird list 3 . 5 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 3 . 5\nioc world bird list 3 . 4 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 3 . 4\nioc world bird list 3 . 3 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 3 . 3\nioc world bird list 3 . 2 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 3 . 2\nioc world bird list 3 . 1 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 3 . 1\ngill f & d donsker ( eds ) . 2016 . ioc world bird list ( v 6 . 2 ) . doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 6 . 2\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\ndouble - check spelling , grammar , punctuation . translators work best when there are no errors or typos .\nif words are different , search our dictionary to understand why and pick the right word .\nif phrases are different , try searching our examples to help pick the right phrase .\nwe ' ve combined the most accurate english to spanish translations , dictionary , verb conjugations , and spanish to english translators into one very powerful search box .\nspanishdict is devoted to improving our site based on user feedback and introducing new and innovative features that will continue to help people learn and love the spanish language . have a suggestion , idea , or comment ? send us your feedback .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nmedium - sized passerines with relatively large , long and pointed wings , short to medium - length tail ; many species very colourful in yellow to golden and black , some more green .\nhabitat orioles are primarily canopy feeders ( see general habits ) . almost all members of the family have been recorded in primary forest habitats of various kinds : dry , closed - canopy african woodlands , evergreen and semi - evergreen broadleaf forests , including monsoon forest , damp highland and moss forests , eucalypt ( eucalyptus ) woodland , and deciduous and coniferous forests , as well as mixed forests such as pine\u2013oak ( pinus \u2013 quercus ) forest .\nan intriguing anti - predator response is exhibited by adult eurasian golden orioles , which , when threatened , adopt a stiff posture with beak turned upwards , similar to that of a bittern ( botaurus ) when disturbed or alarmed . this behaviour is demonstrated also by fledglings when warned by their parents , and it is already evident even among nestlings ; the latter , if a parent gives a warning call , press themselves flat into the bottom of the nest but keep the bill pointing upwards . dodging all dangers , ringed eurasian golden orioles reached a maximum age of eight years , with an average of 1\u00b75 years for ringed nestlings and 3\u20134 years for individuals that had reached adulthood .\nadverse weather decreases nesting success by depleting food resources , particularly invertebrates , or by directly killing nestlings or destroying nests . after such events , depending on circumstances , pairs may quickly make a new breeding attempt , or they may forgo breeding for the year in question . exceptionally bad weather , such as hailstorms , can even kill adults .\nvol 13 - handbook of the birds of the world , del hoyo j . , elliott a . christie d .\nioc world bird list ( v7 . 1 ) , gill , f and d donsker ( eds ) . 2017 .\ncookies help us deliver our services . by using our services , you agree to our use of cookies .\nrecording av # 4262 . timor - leste : about 5 - 6 km from the indonesian border on the south coast ( - 9 . 415 , 125 . 118 ) recorded by frank r . lambert\ntimor - leste : about 5 - 6 km from the indonesian border on the south coast ( - 9 . 415 , 125 . 118 )\nbirds of the indonesian archipelago greater sundas and wallacea the first ornithological field guide covering the vast chain of the indonesian archipelago , with over 2 , 500 illustrations , describes all 1 , 417 bird species known to occur in the region , including 601 endemics , 98 vagrants , eight introduced species and 18 species yet to be formally described . together these represent over 13 % of global bird diversity .\n\u2190 click inside , copy the code and then paste it into your web page code .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 292 , 593 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nto look up an entry in the american heritage dictionary of the english language , use the search window above . for best results , after typing in the word , click on the \u201csearch\u201d button instead of using the \u201center\u201d key .\nsome compound words ( like bus rapid transit , dog whistle , or identity theft ) don\u2019t appear on the drop - down list when you type them in the search bar . for best results with compound words , place a quotation mark before the compound word in the search window .\nthe usage panel is a group of nearly 200 prominent scholars , creative writers , journalists , diplomats , and others in occupations requiring mastery of language . annual surveys have gauged the acceptability of particular usages and grammatical constructions .\ngo to our crossword puzzle solver and type in the letters that you know , and the solver will produce a list of possible solutions .\nthe articles in our blog examine new words , revised definitions , interesting images from the fifth edition , discussions of usage , and more .\nthe american heritage\u00ae dictionary of the english language , fifth edition copyright \u00a92018 by houghton mifflin harcourt publishing company . all rights reserved .\nthousands of entries in the dictionary include etymologies that trace their origins back to reconstructed proto - languages . you can obtain more information about these forms in our online appendices :\nthe indo - european appendix covers nearly half of the indo - european roots that have left their mark on english words . a more complete treatment of indo - european roots and the english words derived from them is available in our dictionary of indo - european roots .\nthis website is best viewed in chrome , firefox , microsoft edge , or safari . some characters in pronunciations and etymologies cannot be displayed properly in internet explorer .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\nthis page was last edited on 28 march 2018 , at 15 : 34 .\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .\nzoonomen - zoological nomenclature resource , 2011 . 01 . 25 , website ( version 25 - jan - 11 )\nzoonomen - zoological nomenclature resource\nmaintained by alan p . peterson at urltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nspecial thanks to tropical birding for outstanding photo contributions to the bird data family of apps .\nthis application is created by interactive maps . you can also have your visited countries map on your site . if you see this message , you need to upgrade your flash player ."]}
{"id": 686, "summary": [{"text": "astroscopus guttatus ( northern stargazer ) is a fish that can reach lengths of 22 inches ( 56 cm ) and are located on the eastern shores between the states of north carolina and new york in the united states .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the northern stargazer can be found up to depths of 120 feet ( 37 m ) .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "stargazers have a flat forehead with a lot of body mass up front near the mouth . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "astroscopus guttatus", "paragraphs": ["known data sets that contain ( astroscopus guttatus ) . this may include sibling taxa data sources .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\ns\u00e4hk\u00f6t\u00e4hyst\u00e4j\u00e4\nto\nastroscopus guttatus abbott , 1860\n.\nkari pihlaviita marked the finnish common name\ntaivaant\u00e4hyst\u00e4j\u00e4\nfrom\nastroscopus guttatus abbott , 1860\nas untrusted .\nstarry \u2013 eyed : the eyes of the northern stargazer are unusual and very important ; as a . guttatus is primarily a visual\nthis odd looking face , something out of a hollywood horror movie , belongs to a very unique marine creature - the northern stargazer ( astroscopus guttatus ) . unique to this strange looking fish are a pair of organs located behind the eyes that can produce up to 50 volts of electricity . it is believed this electrical charge is used as a means of protection as it is not powerful enough to stun a fish the northern stargazer might be predating on . read more about the northern stargazer ( astroscopus guttatus ) here .\ncitation :\nnorthern stargazers , astroscopus guttatus ~ marinebio . org .\nmarinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 1 / 14 / 2013 2 : 22 : 00 pm ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio\npart of the stargazer ' s scientific name , astrocopus , means\none who aims at the stars ,\nand guttatus means\nspeckled .\nchapter 64 of the book\nthe first year in the life of estuarine fishes in the middle atlantic bight\nis presented . the chapter offers information about the first year of the life cycle of the fish astroscopus guttatus , commonly known as northern stargazer . it is noted that the fish is considered as endemic to the middle atlantic bight .\nnone the less , once dinner is close , astroscopus has another amazing ocular trick . depending upon which side the prey species approaches , astroscopus will rotate the contralateral eye in a semicircle a few times to further tease the prey into thinking there is small burrowing organism there . this curiosity attracts the prey to cross the body of the fish towards the moving eye . once the prey is within range , astroscopus will lunge upward and literally suck the prey into its rather generous mouth as it creates a vacuum by opening its mouth . the electric organ has been shown to discharge simultaneously and it may have some role in confusing the prey , but does not have enough current to kill . nevertheless , the discharge does seem to be part of the capture process .\nresearch astroscopus guttatus \u00bb barcode of life ~ bioone ~ biodiversity heritage library ~ cites ~ cornell macaulay library [ audio / video ] ~ encyclopedia of life ( eol ) ~ esa online journals ~ fishbase ~ florida museum of natural history ichthyology department ~ gbif ~ google scholar ~ itis ~ iucn redlist ( threatened status ) ~ marine species identification portal ~ ncbi ( pubmed , genbank , etc . ) ~ ocean biogeographic information system ~ plos ~ siris ~ tree of life web project ~ unep - wcmc species database ~ worms\na northern stargazer ( astroscopus guttatus ) at the blue heron bridge , phil foster state park , 11 / 13 / 2015 , a 4k video . it really does make a difference if you have a 4k monitor to view the video . these fish are capable of delivering up to 50 volts at the base of the head , so hands - off is a sensible policy . as you can see , they bury in the sand to become hidden predators . only the eyes and mouth are visible to the careful observer .\nit may not be the brightest star in the ocean , but the northern stargazer is a remarkable organism ; with some very unique and interesting adaptations . the northern stargazer , astroscopus guttatus , is well adept to spending life buried in the sand , waiting to ambush its prey . it has evolved unusual and most shocking uses for its extraocular muscles . a . guttatus , is unique among teleosts , as it alone is the only marine species which has an electric organ . this species of stargazer is distributed around the western atlantic ocean , ranging from new york to north carolina , the northern stargazer is native to the bahamas . being a benthic dweller , the northern stargazer spends a lot if its life buried within the sandy surf zones and deeper sand \u2013 mud environments of inshore waters . the northern stargazer usually resides at depths of approximately 36m .\nthis electric organ , located behind each eye , is innervated by only the oculomotor nerve and is capable of discharging up to 50 v . in astroscopus it consists of approximately 200 layers , although electorphorus may have 30 times that . some believed that astroscopus is capable of stunning a prey species of fish with the discharge , but it does not appear to be strong enough to do that , nor does it appear to be discharged at the right time for that effect . rather , the electric organ is used for defence to frighten off a potential predator , or perhaps to direct or attract prey .\nthe fish will then wait quietly and watch until a small prey species approaches . it has at least one mechanism of attracting small fish if necessary . astroscopus has unique gill slits that discharge sea water that has passed over the gills . the water exits adjacent to the pectoral fin causing the sand just above the discharge to dance as if there were a small creature there . potential prey fish will come to investigate . some closely related fish have lingual lures , meaning that they have appendages extending from their tongue that resemble wriggling worms bringing prey species directly to the mouth to investigate , but astroscopus does not have such accoutrement .\na withering glance can change the dynamic of a conversation , but imagine just such a glance having the capability to frighten or stun another . astroscopus ( latin \u201cstar seer\u201d ) can do just that . the northern stargazer lives off the east coast of north america and has evolved extraordinary and shocking uses for its extraocular muscles .\nbeing buried up to its eyes in sand may mean that the eyes must be proptosed above the body plane in order for the fish to see , and astroscopus must be able to do this since it is entirely a visual predator . the fish has an opercular cavity behind the eye that can be filled with fluid causing proptosis , raising the eyes above the level of the sand .\nstill , astroscopus does often use its eyes for prey capture . as an adult , it captures smaller fish by stealth and decoy . these fish possess large , square heads and spend their lives buried up their eyes in sand . since , in the larval stage , the eyes are placed laterally on the body , the eyes must migrate towards the dorsal aspects of the head by the 50 mm stage , and by this stage , the fish has adopted a benthic , burrowing lifestyle . it is , in essence , a digger .\nthe easy life : a . guttatus is quite lazy , spending most of its life lying under the sand waiting for the moment to ambush its unsuspecting prey . it is well adapted to life under the seabed \u2013 with modified pectoral fins that act as shovels , allowing this fish to bury itself within seconds , which can be seen in the video . one would expect living in such an environment would mean getting sand in all sorts of places , but does this matter to the northern stargazer ? no . the eyes and nostrils of this teleost are somewhat strategically positioned on the top of the head , so that they are always above the sand surface when the rest of the body is hidden in plain sight .\nonce the prey item in in close proximity , the northern stargazer will start to put an end to the enticement with its an ocular tease . as the prey is approaching , a . guttatus will use its protruding eyes and move them in a semi circle to deceive the prey into thinking there is a tiny organism burrowing in that location . being curious creatures , the prey will come closer to investigate further , in doing so the organism must swim over the body of the northern stargazer towards the contralateral eyes . once the northern stargazer has its prey where it wants them , it will strike forwards and upwards , engulfing the whole of the prey ; as the opening of the mouth induces a vacuum , sucking in the prey . as one would say , curiosity killed the cat .\nthe electric organ of a guttatus is not as powerful as that of electrophorus but is composed of portions of four extraocular muscles including the analogue for the superior , medial , and temporal recti as well as the superior oblique . the larval stage of this animal hatches from an egg deposited on the sea floor . the electric organ begins to develop when the larva is 12\u201315 mm long . at this stage the outer cells of these muscles begin to change into larger cells with multiple nuclei until these cells become six times the size of the normal extraocular muscle cells . these four muscles mentioned above contribute their outer layers to form a syncytium distinct from the extraocular muscles . the electric organ , then , resembles an organ separate from and external to the muscles and is histologically different from other electric organs in other fish .\npredator . the eyes are capable of protruding outwards for a short period of time . this feature allows the ambush predator to gaze over the immediate vicinity and scope for any nearby prey . the stargazer fills the opercular cavity behind each eye with fluid thus causing the eyes to proptose . breathing under water : being buried under the sand proves difficult when it comes to breathing , as the gills are covered however the northern stargazer has adapted to overcome this problem . unlike other teleost fish that use their gills to \u201cbreathe\u201d the northern stargazer uses nostrils to do so . similar to the eyes , the nostrils are located on the top of the head so that they don\u2019t get buried within the sand . fleshy comb \u2013 like fringes also help protect the nostrils from particles of sand from being breathed in . an intriguing date : the northern stargazer has a few tricks to entice prey to come closer before it strikes them down . one of which is using the unique gill slits to discharge water , causing the sand to mimic the action of a small critter moving . to the unaware victim , this movement of water and particles of sand will intrigue them and encourage them to go investigate further ; tricking them into thinking there is a potential for food and ushering the oblivious fish into the striking zone of a . guttatus .\nby continuing to browse the site you are agreeing to our use of cookies . find out more here\nelectric fish are found in at least five orders , including torpediniformes ( electrogenic rays and skates ) gymnotiformes ( electric eel and others ) , siluriformes ( electric catfish ) , osteoglossiformes ( knifefishes ) and perciformes . perciformes has but one , albeit interesting , creature to contribute to this strange m\u00e9nage .\nmost electric fish generate their charge from electroplaxes , which are collections of modified , stacked , and flattened muscle cells with a nerve leading to one side of this complex . the muscle cells are polarised in the same direction and generate their charge through the serial stacking and summation of these cells . they function more like a capacitor than a battery . with nervous stimulus , an electric discharge of these muscles cells can be generated . some , such as the electric eel ( electorphorus ) , can generate up to 500 v , capable of stunning , if not killing most fish it contacts . such a discharge can render a human unconscious or dead .\nfor such a lifestyle , even the nostrils must be modified so that the fish can breathe through them while buried . the narial passages open on the dorsal surface , connect to the pharynx , and contain flaps and fimbrae to filter sand and prevent regurgitation .\nthanks to david b snyder for his comments on the essay and for the photographs .\nif you wish to reuse any or all of this article please use the link below which will take you to the copyright clearance center\u2019s rightslink service . you will be able to get a quick price and instant permission to reuse the content in many different ways .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . and fricke , r . ( eds ) . 2015 . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . updated 1 october 2015 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 1 october 2015 ) .\ncox , n . a . , santa cruz , a . & polidoro , b .\njustification : this species is widely distributed and somewhat common where it occurs in coastal waters over shallow soft bottom . there are no known major threats , therefore it is assessed as least concern .\nthis species is distributed in the western atlantic ocean from new york south along the u . s . to southeastern florida . it does not occur in the gulf of mexico ( r . robertson pers . comm . 2014 ) .\nthere are 90 nominal records in fishnet2 , with up to 19 individuals in a single lot . in a survey conducted in seagrass beds in the chesapeake bay its abundance increased between the 1977 - 2011 ( sobocinski et al . 2013 ) . it was captured in 17 out of 600 trawls between 2002 - 2011 in the chesapeake bay ( buchheister et al . 2013 ) . in a surf zone beach seine survey conducted off new jersey it was somewhat commonly captured ( able et al . 2011 ) .\nthis demersal species occurs over soft bottoms from nearshore to 37 m depth . it conceals itself in the sediment with only the top of its head exposed and uses an electric organ to stun prey . its maximum total length is 59 cm ( robins and ray 1986 ) .\nthis species occurs rarely as bycatch in bottom trawls ( buchheister et al . 2013 ) . it is not utilized .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 lazaro ruda : : thelivingsea . all rights reserved . reproduction of images , text , or media are strictly prohibited .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ndistribution western atlantic : n . y . to n . c . [ details ]\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nrobins , c . r . , g . c . ray , j . douglass and r . freund . 1986 . a field guide to atlantic coast fishes of north america . houghton mifflin co . boston . 354 p . [ details ]\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nthe northern stargazer has a dark , flattened body with white spots that gradually get bigger from the head tot the tail . ( david snyder / fishwise )\nthe stargazer ' s mouth and eyes are located on the top of its large head , facing upward . ( image courtesy canvasman21 / wikimedia )\nnorthern stargazers can deliver an electric charge that stuns and confuses prey and helps ward off predators . ( image by peter leahy / shutterstock )\nfound mostly in the lower chesapeake bay , but sometimes travels to the upper bay in autumn . ranges along the atlantic coast between new york and north carolina .\nthe northern stargazer is a strange - looking fish with a speckled , flattened body and a large head . it lives at the bottom of the lower chesapeake bay\u2019s deep , open waters .\nthe northern stargazer has a blackish - brown body with white spots that gradually get bigger from its head to its tail . it ' s flattened body can grow to 22 inches in length , but it averages 8 to 18 inches in length . its mouth and eyes are located on the top of its large head , facing upward . three dark , horizontal lines appear on its tail .\nnorthern stargazers eat small fish , crabs and other crustaceans . they hunt by burying themselves in the sand with their eyes and mouth sticking out just enough to search for prey . once something tasty swims by , the stargazer uses its large mouth to create a vacuum to suck its prey in .\nspawning occurs in may to june . females lay small , transparent eggs on the bottom of the bay . eggs eventually float to the surface and hatch . larvae grow rapidly , feeding from a yolk sac until it is completely absorbed . once they grow to about 12 to 15 millimeters long , larvae swim to the bottom of the bay , where they mature into adults . at this time their electric organ also begins to form .\nthe stargazer uses its side fins as shovels to quickly burrow below the sand in a matter of seconds .\nnorthern stargazers have an organ on their heads that can deliver an electric charge that stuns and confuses prey and helps ward off predators .\nfishes of chesapeake bay by edward o . murdy , ray s . birdsong and john a . musick\nthe chesapeake bay program is a unique regional partnership that has led and directed the restoration of the chesapeake bay since 1983 .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nuniversity of california , davis , sacramento , ca , usa ; ude . sivadcu @ bawhcsri\nbrowse all records of this species or download video in mp4 or webm format .\ndata content compiled and maintained by hendrickson lab / ichthyology collection at the university of texas at austin and licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license , however , some images are separately copyrighted ( see documentation / digital library ) .\nsponsors : ut , tpwd , tceq , us doi ( gplcc , dlcc ) . host : texas advanced computing center\nthis home page section for this species is currently being developed and will be completed asap ! if you would like to help out or know of a great video , photo or site about this species , let us know and we ' ll notify you as soon as it is finished . our current project plan is to have all marine species home pages finished before christmas this year . if you ' d like to find out more about our ongoing projects here at marinebio , check out our marinebio projects page .\nstart or join a discussion about this species below or send us an email to report any errors or submit suggestions for this page . we greatly appreciate all feedback !\nhelp us protect and restore marine life by supporting our various online community - centered marine conservation projects that are effectively sharing the wonders of the ocean with millions each year around the world , raising a balanced awareness of the increasingly troubling and often very complex marine conservation issues that affect marine life and ourselves directly , providing support to marine conservation groups on the frontlines that are making real differences today , and the scientists , teachers and students involved in the marine life sciences .\nwith your support , most marine life and their ocean habitats can be protected , if not restored to their former natural levels of biodiversity . we sincerely thank our thousands of members , donors and sponsors , who have decided to get involved and support the marinebio conservation society .\nblue sites academic earth arctic photo arkive biodiversity heritage library census of marine life cites species database clay coleman coml plos collections david hall ' s galleries deep - sea photography deep sea expeditions doubilet gallery encyclopedia of life espen rekdal nova evolution fishbase fl museum of natural history harbor branch iucn iucn red list khan academy marine planktonic copepods marine species gallery ( david harasti ) marine species identification portal marinexplore mbari mit opencourseware monterey bay aquarium mote marine lab noaa ' s aquarius noaa marine sanctuaries noaa national ocean service noaa ocean noaa ocean explorer noaa photo library ocean conservancy oceana oceanus pangaea project seahorse urltoken reefbase rolf hicker photography siris scripps institution of oceanography scripps ( explorations now ) scubabob galleries the scyphozoan seafood watch program seapics seaweb sharks slaughtered society for conservation biology the ocean - conservation international the ocean sunfish thelivingsea woods hole oceanographic institution world biodiversity database ( wbd ) world list of amphipoda . . . ascidiacea . . . asteroidea . . . brachiopoda . . . cetacea . . . copepoda . . . cumacea . . . echinoidea . . . foraminifera . . . hemichordata . . . hydrozoa . . . isopoda . . . lophogastrida , stygiomysida and mysida . . . mangroves . . . littoral myriapoda . . . free - living marine nematodes . . . ophiuroidea . . . ostracoda . . . phoronida < . . . placozoa . . . polychaeta . . . porifera . . . proseriata and kalyptorhynchia - rhabditophora . . . pycnogonida . . . remipedia youdive tv\ndeep music digitally imported urltoken proton radio * radio paradise radiotunes somafm wers 88 . 9 fm\n~ sharing the wonders of the ocean to inspire conservation , education , research , and a sea ethic ~ marinebio . org , inc . is a u . s . 501 ( c ) 3 charitable , nonprofit organization . contact : info @ urltoken all marinebio conservation society memberships and donations are tax deductible in the united states . > < ( ( ( ( \u00b0 > \u00a9 1998 - 2017 marinebio copyright & terms of use . privacy policy . > - < \u00b0\u00b0 > - <\nfor all at last returns to the sea \u2014 to oceanus , the ocean river , like the everflowing stream of time , the beginning and the end .\n- rachel carson\nin the upper map above , the red dots indicate locations of quantitative data ( ~ 0 obs globally ) , while gray dots indicate locations of\npresence / absence\n( non - quantitative ) observation data . blue stars show locations of any time series reporting this taxa or group ( ~ 0 sites globally ) . in the lower map , the blue - shaded regions represent temperature - salinity realms that match the conditions where the taxa were observed . the dark - to - light shading indicates\ntheoretical niches\ncorresponding to temperature - salinity ranges that were associated with 75 % / 90 % / 95 % / 99 % of the original taxa observations .\nstargazers bury into the sand with shovel like pectoral fins . they can look straight up waiting for prey to swim by and breathe through nostrils on their head . they have an organ just above the eyes that can produce an electrical charge for defense against predators . not a good idea to touch them there by any means . they have a blackish brown body covered with white spots that increase gradually in size towards the rear of the body . the white spots are widely spaced on top of the head and body . there are . . .\n\u00a9 2018 - delaware - surf - fishing . com . all rights reserved .\ngreek , astra = ray + greek , skopeo = to look , to watch ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range ? - 36 m ( ref . 55313 ) . temperate , preferred ? ; 42\u00b0n - 31\u00b0n , 80\u00b0w - 71\u00b0w ( ref . 55313 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 59 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 40637 ) ; max . published weight : 9 . 1 kg ( ref . 7251 )\ncleithral spine with venom gland ( ref . 57406 ) . found inshore , at depths to 36 m ( ref . 55313 ) .\nrobins , c . r . and g . c . ray , 1986 . a field guide to atlantic coast fishes of north america . houghton mifflin company , boston , u . s . a . 354 p . ( ref . 7251 )\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range ? - 36 m ( ref . 55313 ) . temperate ; 42\u00b0n - 31\u00b0n , 80\u00b0w - 71\u00b0w ( ref . 55313 )\n) : 11 . 3 - 24 . 3 , mean 16 . 9 ( based on 92 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5625 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 5 \u00b10 . 80 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 52 of 100 ) .\noops . a firewall is blocking access to prezi content . check out this article to learn more or contact your system administrator .\nneither you , nor the coeditors you shared it with will be able to recover it again .\nreset share links resets both viewing and editing links ( coeditors shown below are not affected ) .\nable , kenneth w . ; fahay , michael p . / / first year in the life of estuarine fishes in the middle atlanti ; 1998 , p200\nchapter 60 of the book\nthe first year in the life of estuarine fishes in the middle atlantic bight\nis presented . the chapter offers information about the first year of the life cycle of the fish sphyraena borealis , commonly known as northern sennet . it is noted that the fish is usually found . . .\nable , kenneth w . ; fahay , michael p . / / first year in the life of estuarine fishes in the middle atlanti ; 1998 , p166\nchapter 50 of the book\nthe first year in the life of estuarine fishes in the middle atlantic bight\nis presented . the chapter offers information about the fish stenotomus chrysops , commonly known as scup . it is noted that the fish is found usually in large and deep estuaries such as delaware . . .\nable , kenneth w . ; fahay , michael p . / / first year in the life of estuarine fishes in the middle atlanti ; 1998 , p185\nchapter 55 of the book\nthe first year in the life of estuarine fishes in the middle atlantic bight\nis presented . the chapter offers information about the first year of the life cycle of the fish micropogonias undulatus , commonly known as atlantic croaker . it is noted that the bottom - feeding . . .\nable , kenneth w . ; fahay , michael p . / / first year in the life of estuarine fishes in the middle atlanti ; 1998 , p191\nchapter 57 of the book\nthe first year in the life of estuarine fishes in the middle atlantic bight\nis presented . the chapter offers information about the first year of the life cycle of the fish chaetodon ocellatus , commonly known as spotfin butterflyfish . it is noted that the fish is found . . .\nable , kenneth w . ; fahay , michael p . / / first year in the life of estuarine fishes in the middle atlanti ; 1998 , p197\nchapter 59 of the book\nthe first year in the life of estuarine fishes in the middle atlantic bight\nis presented . the chapter offers information about the first year of the life cycle of the fish mugil curema , commonly known as white mullet . it is noted that the fish is found in estuaries in . . .\nable , kenneth w . ; fahay , michael p . / / first year in the life of estuarine fishes in the middle atlanti ; 1998 , p206\nchapter 62 of the book\nthe first year in the life of estuarine fishes in the middle atlantic bight\nis presented . the chapter offers information about the first year of the life cycle of the fish tautogolabrus adspersus , commonly known as cunner . it is noted that the fish is usually found . . .\nable , kenneth w . ; fahay , michael p . / / first year in the life of estuarine fishes in the middle atlanti ; 1998 , p210\nchapter 63 of the book\nthe first year in the life of estuarine fishes in the middle atlantic bight\nis presented . the chapter offers information about the first year of the life cycle of the fish pholis gunnellus , commonly known as rock gunnel . it is noted that the fish is usually found in the . . .\nable , kenneth w . ; fahay , michael p . / / first year in the life of estuarine fishes in the middle atlanti ; 1998 , p128\nchapter 38 from the book\nthe first year in the life of estuarine fishes in the middle atlantic bight ,\nis presented . it focuses on hippocampus erectus or lined seahorse . the fish is commonly found in estuaries and the inner continental shelf from nova scotia to uruguay . it describes the . . .\nable , kenneth w . ; fahay , michael p . / / first year in the life of estuarine fishes in the middle atlanti ; 1998 , p27\nchapter 4 of the book\nthe first year in the life of estuarine fishes in the middle atlantic bight ,\nis presented . it focuses on the characteristics of the ichthyofauna of the middle atlantic bight . information is provided on the migration of estuarine fauna . it describes the patterns of . . .\nterekeme ( karapapak ) t\u00e3\u00bcrkleri ve m\u00e3\u00a2nileri ( bayat\u00e4\u00b1lar\u00e4\u00b1 / mahn\u00e4\u00b1lar\u00e4\u00b1 ) : mus - bulan\u00e4\u00b1k \u00e3\u2021evresi .\nfrom\nmiss lou\nto [ star trek ' s ] zulu : the multiple communities of nalo hopkirisonh .\n\u00a9 2018 by ebsco publishing . all rights reserved . privacy policy | terms of use\nthe name may be romantic , but the appearance of the northern stargazer doesn\u2019t quite live up to standards .\nall in all , it is safe to say that the act of deception and teasing is the chosen tactic of the northern stargazer . romance however , not so much , so one shouldn\u2019t be fooled by its name .\nextreme marine habitats is a site dedicated to those habitats that are simply extreme ! written by students , we aim to provide detailed and insightful information on a variety of marine science subjects .\nis it land or is it sea ? salt marshes the border between two worlds .\n9 . marine neritic - > 9 . 4 . marine neritic - subtidal sandy suitability : suitable season : resident major importance : yes 9 . marine neritic - > 9 . 5 . marine neritic - subtidal sandy - mud suitability : suitable season : resident major importance : yes 9 . marine neritic - > 9 . 6 . marine neritic - subtidal muddy suitability : suitable season : resident major importance : yes\nable , k . w . , grothues , t . m . , rowe , p . m . , wuenschel , m . j . , & vasslides , j . m . 2011 . near - surface larval and juvenile fish in coastal habitats : comparisons between the inner shelf and an estuary in the new york bight during summer and fall . estuaries and coasts 34 ( 4 ) : 726 - 738 .\nbuchheister , a . , bonzek , c . f . , gartland , j . , & latour , r . j . 2013 . patterns and drivers of the demersal fish community of chesapeake bay . marine ecology progress series 481 : 161 - 180 .\ncarpenter , k . e . 2002 . uranoscopidae : stargazers . in : carpenter , k . e . ( ed . ) , the living marine resources of the western central atlantic , pp . 1746 - 1747 . food and agricultural organization , rome .\niucn . 2015 . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2015 - 4 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 19 november 2015 ) .\nrobins , c . r . and ray , g . c . 1986 . a field guide to atlantic coast fishes of north america . houghton mifflin company , boston , u . s . a .\nsobocinski , k . l . , orth , r . j . , fabrizio , m . c . , & latour , r . j . 2013 . historical comparison of fish community structure in lower chesapeake bay seagrass habitats . estuaries and coasts 36 ( 4 ) : 775 - 794 .\neschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]"]}
{"id": 692, "summary": [{"text": "mystus atrifasciatus ( known locally as trey kanchos chhnoht ) is a species of catfish endemic to cambodia , laos , thailand and vietnam , known from mekong river , chao phraya river and mae klong river and was described from phitsanulok , thailand .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it inhabits rivers , streams and reservoirs and moves to floodplains when the water level increases and can also be found near submerged woody vegetation .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it feeds on crustaceans and zooplankton along with some algae and fish scales .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it is commonly fished and marketed and is also found in the aquarium trade .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it may be threatened by pollution and overfishing and more research is needed about the species . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "mystus atrifasciatus", "paragraphs": ["type : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 30866 . jpg [ 2532102 ] approved = yes submission by : lopez , john on 2004 - 06 - 30 photographed by : luckenbill , kyle mystus atrifasciatus ansp 67907 holotype 1 of 1 standard length : 86 . 5 mm ventral view copyright 2003 kyle luckenbill , academy of natural sciences , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 30865 . jpg [ 1685243 ] approved = yes submission by : lopez , john on 2004 - 06 - 30 photographed by : luckenbill , kyle mystus atrifasciatus ansp 67907 holotype 1 of 1 standard length : 86 . 5 mm lateral view copyright 2003 kyle luckenbill , academy of natural sciences , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 30864 . jpg [ 3222095 ] approved = yes submission by : lopez , john on 2004 - 06 - 30 photographed by : luckenbill , kyle mystus atrifasciatus ansp 67907 holotype 1 of 1 standard length : 86 . 5 mm dorsal view copyright 2003 kyle luckenbill , academy of natural sciences , all rights reserved .\nfeeds mainly on crustaceans and zooplankton along with small bits of algae and fish scales . may forage in schools like the other small striped species of mystus . moves into floodplains during periods of high water and is often found in places with submerged woody vegetation .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 134824 . jpg [ 851706 ] approved = yes submission by : hautecoeur , m\u00e3\u00a9lyne on 2005 - 10 - 31 photographed by : hautecoeur , m\u00e3\u00a9lyne mystus aubentoni mnhn 1974 - 0039 holotype standard length : 0 mm dorsal view copyright\u00a9mnhn , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 134826 . jpg [ 788440 ] approved = yes submission by : hautecoeur , m\u00e3\u00a9lyne on 2005 - 10 - 31 photographed by : hautecoeur , m\u00e3\u00a9lyne mystus aubentoni mnhn 1974 - 0039 holotype standard length : 0 mm ventral view copyright\u00a9mnhn , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 83099 . jpg [ 661707 ] approved = yes submission by : allen , mark on 2005 - 02 - 06 photographed by : allen , mark mystus canarensis ams b . 7624 neotype standard length : 112 mm ventral view copyright\u00a9mark allen , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 83098 . jpg [ 654813 ] approved = yes submission by : allen , mark on 2005 - 02 - 06 photographed by : allen , mark mystus canarensis ams b . 7624 neotype standard length : 112 mm lateral view copyright\u00a9mark allen , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 83096 . jpg [ 586593 ] approved = yes submission by : allen , mark on 2005 - 02 - 06 photographed by : allen , mark mystus canarensis ams b . 7624 neotype standard length : 112 mm dorsal view copyright\u00a9mark allen , all rights reserved .\nfishes of the genus mystus scopoli are small to medium - sized bagrid catfishes occurring in south asia . roberts ( 1994 ) recognized mystus to have an elongate cranial fontanel reaching up to the base of the occipital process , long maxillary barbel , very long adipose fin , 11\u201330 gill rakers on the first gill arch and 37\u201346 total vertebrae , about equally divided between abdominal and caudal regions . he included only eight species under the genus . mo ( 1991 ) characterized the genus to have a thin needle - like first infraorbital , twisted and thickened metapterygoid loosely attached to the quadrate by means of ligament or a small extent of cartilage . jayaram & sanyal ( 2003 ) and ferraris ( 2007 ) respectively listed 44 and 33 species of mystus as valid . has three faint dark and two whitish stripes on the sides ; adipose fin longer than anal fin and almost contiguous with the dorsal fin ; eyes not visible when head is viewed from below .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 83715 . jpg [ 857677 ] approved = yes submission by : allen , mark on 2005 - 02 - 10 photographed by : allen , mark mystus canarensis ams b . 7624 neotype standard length : 112 mm x - ray copyright\u00a9mark allen , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] upl _ 200849 . tif [ 3931520 ] approved = yes submission by : sabaj , mark henry on 2006 - 05 - 01 photographed by : strecker , ulrike mystus maydelli zmh 2180 holotype 1 of 1 standard length : 0 mm xray copyright\u00a9zoologisches institut und zoologisches museum , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 134829 . jpg [ 1455240 ] approved = yes submission by : hautecoeur , m\u00e3\u00a9lyne on 2005 - 10 - 31 photographed by : hautecoeur , m\u00e3\u00a9lyne mystus aubentoni mnhn 1974 - 0039 holotype standard length : 0 mm x - ray , tail copyright\u00a9mnhn , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 134827 . jpg [ 799054 ] approved = yes submission by : hautecoeur , m\u00e3\u00a9lyne on 2005 - 10 - 31 photographed by : hautecoeur , m\u00e3\u00a9lyne mystus aubentoni mnhn 1974 - 0039 holotype standard length : 0 mm lateral view , left side copyright\u00a9mnhn , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 134828 . jpg [ 747181 ] approved = yes submission by : hautecoeur , m\u00e3\u00a9lyne on 2005 - 10 - 31 photographed by : hautecoeur , m\u00e3\u00a9lyne mystus aubentoni mnhn 1974 - 0039 holotype standard length : 0 mm x - ray , head copyright\u00a9mnhn , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 200847 . jpg [ 1844918 ] approved = yes submission by : sabaj , mark henry on 2006 - 05 - 01 photographed by : strecker , ulrike mystus maydelli zmh 2180 holotype 1 of 1 standard length : 0 mm lateral view copyright\u00a9zoologisches institut und zoologisches museum , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 200845 . jpg [ 1653669 ] approved = yes submission by : sabaj , mark henry on 2006 - 05 - 01 photographed by : strecker , ulrike mystus maydelli zmh 2180 holotype 1 of 1 standard length : 0 mm dorsal view copyright\u00a9zoologisches institut und zoologisches museum , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 200848 . jpg [ 2019003 ] approved = yes submission by : sabaj , mark henry on 2006 - 05 - 01 photographed by : strecker , ulrike mystus maydelli zmh 2180 holotype 1 of 1 standard length : 0 mm ventral view copyright\u00a9zoologisches institut und zoologisches museum , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 104598 . jpg [ 1071901 ] approved = yes submission by : littmann , mike w . on 2005 - 06 - 02 photographed by : littmann , mike w . mystus sabanus fmnh 68088 holotype standard length : 119 . 72 mm lateral view copyright\u00a9fmnh division of fishes , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 104595 . jpg [ 947833 ] approved = yes submission by : littmann , mike w . on 2005 - 06 - 02 photographed by : littmann , mike w . mystus sabanus fmnh 68088 holotype standard length : 119 . 72 mm dorsoventral view copyright\u00a9fmnh division of fishes , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 29845 . jpg [ 305503 ] approved = yes submission by : littmann , mike w . on 2004 - 05 - 28 photographed by : littmann , mike w . mystus sabanus fmnh 68088 holotype standard length : 119 . 72 mm ventral view copyright fmnh division of fishes , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 104596 . jpg [ 1832944 ] approved = yes submission by : littmann , mike w . on 2005 - 06 - 02 photographed by : littmann , mike w . mystus sabanus fmnh 68088 holotype standard length : 119 . 72 mm dorsoventral head view copyright\u00a9fmnh division of fishes , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 104597 . jpg [ 1848925 ] approved = yes submission by : littmann , mike w . on 2005 - 06 - 02 photographed by : littmann , mike w . mystus sabanus fmnh 68088 holotype standard length : 119 . 72 mm lateral head view copyright\u00a9fmnh division of fishes , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 104593 . jpg [ 1998657 ] approved = yes submission by : littmann , mike w . on 2005 - 06 - 02 photographed by : littmann , mike w . mystus sabanus fmnh 68088 holotype standard length : 119 . 72 mm anal fin view copyright\u00a9fmnh division of fishes , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 29844 . jpg [ 301059 ] approved = yes submission by : littmann , mike w . on 2004 - 05 - 28 photographed by : littmann , mike w . mystus sabanus fmnh 68088 holotype standard length : 119 . 72 mm dorsal view copyright fmnh division of fishes , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 29846 . jpg [ 386518 ] approved = yes submission by : littmann , mike w . on 2004 - 05 - 28 photographed by : littmann , mike w . mystus sabanus fmnh 68088 holotype standard length : 119 . 72 mm lateral view copyright fmnh division of fishes , all rights reserved .\nno voucher : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 465405 . jpg [ 1273926 ] approved = yes submission by : manimekalan , a . on 2006 - 09 - 20 photographed by : manimekalan , a . mystus gulio standard length : 147 mm locality : pointcalimere , tamil nadu , india field work collection copyright\u00a9a . manimekalan , all rights reserved .\nno voucher : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 465403 . jpg [ 323540 ] approved = yes submission by : manimekalan , a . on 2006 - 09 - 20 photographed by : manimekalan , a . mystus bleekeri standard length : 132 mm locality : muthupet , mangrove , tamil nadu , india field work collection copyright\u00a9a . manimekalan , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 30870 . jpg [ 1771222 ] approved = yes submission by : lopez , john on 2004 - 06 - 30 photographed by : luckenbill , kyle mystus stigmaturus ansp 59338 holotype 1 of 1 standard length : 60 . 1 mm dorsal view copyright 2003 kyle luckenbill , academy of natural sciences , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 30872 . jpg [ 1977072 ] approved = yes submission by : lopez , john on 2004 - 06 - 30 photographed by : luckenbill , kyle mystus stigmaturus ansp 59338 holotype 1 of 1 standard length : 60 . 1 mm ventral view copyright 2003 kyle luckenbill , academy of natural sciences , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 30871 . jpg [ 2082304 ] approved = yes submission by : lopez , john on 2004 - 06 - 30 photographed by : luckenbill , kyle mystus stigmaturus ansp 59338 holotype 1 of 1 standard length : 60 . 1 mm lateral view copyright 2003 kyle luckenbill , academy of natural sciences , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 30867 . jpg [ 2071593 ] approved = yes submission by : lopez , john on 2004 - 06 - 30 photographed by : luckenbill , kyle mystus rhegma ansp 61748 holotype 1 of 1 ( unique ) standard length : 49 . 5 mm dorsal view copyright 2003 kyle luckenbill , academy of natural sciences , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 30868 . jpg [ 2406689 ] approved = yes submission by : lopez , john on 2004 - 06 - 30 photographed by : luckenbill , kyle mystus rhegma ansp 61748 holotype 1 of 1 ( unique ) standard length : 49 . 5 mm lateral view copyright 2003 kyle luckenbill , academy of natural sciences , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 30869 . jpg [ 2102284 ] approved = yes submission by : lopez , john on 2004 - 06 - 30 photographed by : luckenbill , kyle mystus rhegma ansp 61748 holotype 1 of 1 ( unique ) standard length : 49 . 5 mm ventral view copyright 2003 kyle luckenbill , academy of natural sciences , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] upl _ 105290 . tif [ 2315420 ] approved = yes submission by : raredon , sandra j . on 2005 - 06 - 08 photographed by : raredon , sandra j . mystus havmolleri usnm 90304 holotype standard length : 36 . 8 mm xray , dorsal view copyright\u00a9div . fishes , nat . mus . natural hist . , si , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] upl _ 105288 . tif [ 2574032 ] approved = yes submission by : raredon , sandra j . on 2005 - 06 - 08 photographed by : raredon , sandra j . mystus havmolleri usnm 90304 holotype standard length : 36 . 8 mm xray , lateral view copyright\u00a9div . fishes , nat . mus . natural hist . , si , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 648545 . jpg [ 694564 ] approved = yes submission by : sabaj , mark henry on 2006 - 12 - 14 photographed by : raredon , sandra j . mystus havmolleri usnm 90304 holotype standard length : 36 . 8 mm photo , ventral view copyright\u00a9div . fishes , nat . mus . natural hist . , si , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 648547 . jpg [ 1565067 ] approved = yes submission by : sabaj , mark henry on 2006 - 12 - 14 photographed by : raredon , sandra j . mystus havmolleri usnm 90304 holotype standard length : 36 . 8 mm photo , lateral view copyright\u00a9div . fishes , nat . mus . natural hist . , si , all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 648548 . jpg [ 670779 ] approved = yes submission by : sabaj , mark henry on 2006 - 12 - 14 photographed by : raredon , sandra j . mystus havmolleri usnm 90304 holotype standard length : 36 . 8 mm photo , dorsal view copyright\u00a9div . fishes , nat . mus . natural hist . , si , all rights reserved .\nno voucher : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 97183 . jpg [ 582461 ] approved = yes submission by : sabaj , mark henry on 2005 - 05 - 11 photographed by : helias , jean - francois mystus mysticetus standard length : 0 mm photo taken april 1 , 2005\u00e2 at thai fisheries dept . aquarium of kasersart university , bangkok , thailand copyright\u00a9jean - francois helias , all rights reserved .\nspecimen : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 1228678 . jpg [ 1057100 ] approved = yes submission by : lumbantobing , daniel n . on 2007 - 07 - 22 photographed by : lumbantobing , daniel n . mystus punctifer usnm standard length : 0 mm locality : kluet river , lawe sawah , province of nanggroe aceh darussalam collected : 2006 - 07 - 15 copyright\u00a9daniel lumbantobing , all rights reserved .\nspecimen : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 29110 . jpg [ 83505 ] approved = yes submission by : manimekalan , a . on 2004 - 02 - 17 photographed by : manimekalan , a . on 2003 / 05 / 20 mystus armatus pers . coll . 102m locality : india ( dry season ) specimen in personal collection of a . manimekalan . copyright a . manimekalan , all rights reserved .\nno voucher : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 97181 . jpg [ 472589 ] approved = yes submission by : sabaj , mark henry on 2005 - 05 - 11 photographed by : helias , jean - francois mystus wolffii standard length : 0 mm locality : bang kanat , prachinburi\u00e2 river , thailand , may 10 , 2005 angler : jean - francois helias copyright \u00a9 jean - francois helias , all rights reserved .\nno voucher : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 97179 . jpg [ 443631 ] approved = yes submission by : sabaj , mark henry on 2005 - 05 - 11 photographed by : helias , jean - francois mystus wolffii standard length : 0 mm locality : bang kanat , prachinburi\u00e2 river , thailand , may 10 , 2005 angler : jean - francois helias copyright \u00a9 jean - francois helias , all rights reserved .\nno voucher : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 97182 . jpg [ 433947 ] approved = yes submission by : sabaj , mark henry on 2005 - 05 - 11 photographed by : helias , jean - francois mystus wolffii standard length : 0 mm locality : bang kanat , prachinburi\u00e2 river , thailand , may 10 , 2005 angler : jean - francois helias copyright \u00a9 jean - francois helias , all rights reserved .\nspecimen : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 29143 . jpg [ 164231 ] approved = yes submission by : manimekalan , a . on 2004 - 02 - 19 photographed by : manimekalan , a . on 2003 / 12 / 27 mystus montanus pers . coll . 287 locality : hill stream ( medium flow ) , india specimen in personal collection of a . manimekalan . copyright a . manimekalan , all rights reserved .\nspecimen : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 29111 . jpg [ 136048 ] approved = yes submission by : manimekalan , a . on 2004 - 02 - 17 photographed by : manimekalan , a . on 2003 / 05 / 6 mystus cavasius pers . coll . 204 locality : indira gandhi wildlife sanctuary , india ( dry season ) specimen in personal collection of a . manimekalan . copyright a . manimekalan , all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nmekong , chao phraya and maeklong basins in southeast asia . it is considered least concern at present based on its wide distribution , but further information on threats and population trends is required and it should be reassessed if further information becomes available .\nthis species was described from a specimen collected from pitsanulok , thailand . it is recorded from the\nadults inhabit rivers , streams and reservoirs . the species moves into floodplains during periods of high water and is often found in places with submerged woody vegetation ( rainboth 1996 ) . it feeds mainly on crustaceans and zooplankton along with small bits of algae and fish scales , and it may forage in schools like the other small striped species of\n. the species is usually marketed fresh and may also be sold smoked ( froese and pauly 2010 ) .\nthis fish is found in commercial and subsistence fisheries . occasionally it is found in the aquarium trade .\nit is likely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by pollution and overfishing . more species - specific information is needed .\nresearch into population trends and threats to the species and its habitats is needed .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthe generic name is probably derived from the latin mystax , meaning moustache , in reference to the long barbels . it was first used by scopoli in 1777 making it a very old genus that has included many catfishes from throughout the world at one time or another .\n150mm or 5 . 9\nsl . find near , nearer or same sized spp .\n( 1 ) marisco1729 . click on a username above to see all that persons registered catfish species . you can also view all\nmy cats\ndata for this species .\nget or print a qr code for this species profile , or try our beta label creator .\nhas this page been useful ? please donate to our monthly hosting costs and keep us free for everyone to enjoy ! explore our youtube channel , facebook page or follow us on twitter .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 urltoken , part of the aquatic republic network group of websites . all rights reserved . cite this website . by accessing this site you agree to our terms and conditions of use . our privacy policy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nwelcome to our website . if you continue to browse and use this website you are agreeing to comply with and be bound by the following terms and conditions of use . 1 . the content of the pages of this website is for your general information and use only . it is subject to change without notice . 2 . neither we nor any third parties provide any warranty or guarantee as to the accuracy , timeliness , performance , completeness or suitability of the information and materials found or offered on this website for any particular purpose . you acknowledge that such information and materials may contain inaccuracies or errors and we expressly exclude liability for any such inaccuracies or errors to the fullest extent permitted by law . 3 . the fish photos in this website are all under the cc ( creative commons ) license . you should denote\nurltoken\nif you use our photos in your books , websites , etc .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ndescription max size : 21 . 0 cm sl . color : color in life varies with age ; generally delicate gray - silvery to shining golden , with several ( about 5 ) pale blue or dark brown to deep black longitudinal bands on side . a narrow dusky spot often present on the shoulder . the fins glass , with dark tips . dorsal spines ( total ) : 1 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 6 - 7 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 12 - 13 ; vertebrae : 31 - 37 . body elongate and slightly compressed . maxillary barbels extending beyond the pelvic fins , often to the end of the anal fin . dorsal spine weak , finely serrated on its inner edge . adipose fin small , inserted much behind rayed dorsal fin but anterior to the anal fin . dioecious , external fertilization , oviparous , non - guarders , open water / substratum egg scatterers . makes sounds during spawning .\necology habitat : estuarine prey : plants , shrimps , insects , mollusks and fish .\nmenon , agk ( 1999 ) checklist : fresh water fishes of india occasional paper no . 175 zsi , kolkata 366 pp available at - ncl , pune\nsingh , df and yazdani , gm ( 1993 ) ichthyofauna of konkan region of maharashtra ( india ) records of the zoological survey of india . occasional paper no 145 zsi , calcutta 46 available at - nio , goa\nnandi , nc ; das , sr ; bhuinya , s and dasgupta , jm ( 1993 ) wetland faunal resources of west bengal , i . , north and south 24 - parganas districts occasional paper no 150 records of the zoological survey of india zsi 18264"]}
{"id": 705, "summary": [{"text": "brookesia lambertoni , commonly known as the fito leaf chameleon , is a species of chameleon endemic to fito in eastern madagascar .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it was first described in 1970 by \u00e9douard-raoul brygoo and charles antoine domergue .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is rated as data deficient ( dd ) by the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) , as not enough data on the species have been collected to judge its conservation status . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "brookesia lambertoni", "paragraphs": ["- - p . , 1968 brookesia thieli brygoo er , domergue ch . a . , 1969 brookesia lambertoni\n- there are 37 species of chameleon that have been assessed as endangered ( en ) . species assessed as en are considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild . the chameleon species assessed as en are : archaius tigris , bradypodion caffer , bradypodion taeniabronchum , brookesia bekolosy , brookesia decaryi , brookesia dentata , brookesia exarmata , brookesia karchei , brookesia lineata , brookesia minima , brookesia perarmata , brookesia peyrierasi , brookesia ramanantsoai , brookesia tristis , brookesia valerieae , calumma andringitraense , calumma furcifer , calumma gallus , calumma glawi , calumma globifer , calumma hilleniusi , calumma vencesi , calumma vohibola , furcifer balteatus , furcifer minor , furcifer nicosiai , kinyongia magomberae , kinyongia matschiei , kinyongia multituberculata , kinyongia tenuis , kinyongia vosseleri , nadzikambia mlanjensis , rhampholeon platyceps , rhampholeon spinosus , rhampholeon temporalis , rhampholeon viridis and trioceros laterispinis .\n- there are 37 species of chameleon that have been assessed as endangered ( en ) . species assessed as en are considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild . the chameleon species assessed as en are : archaius tigris , bradypodion caffer , bradypodion taeniabronchum , brookesia bekolosy , brookesia decaryi , brookesia dentata , brookesia exarmata , brookesia karchei , brookesia lineata , brookesia minima , brookesia perarmata , brookesia peyrierasi , brookesia ramanantsoai , brookesia tristis , brookesia valerieae , calumma andringitraense , calumma furcifer , calumma gallus , calumma glawi , calumma globifer , calumma hilleniusi , calumma vencesi , calumma vohibola , furcifer balteatus , furcifer minor , furcifer nicosiai , kinyongia magomberae , kinyongia matschiei , kinyongia multituberculata , kinyongia tenuis , kinyongia vosseleri , nadzikambia mlanjensis , rhampholeon platyceps , rhampholeon spinosus , rhampholeon temporalis , rhampholeon viridis and trioceros laterispinis .\nthe generic name brookesia is in honor of british naturalist joshua brookes . [ 1 ]\nthe generic name brookesia is in honor of british naturalist joshua brookes . [ 1 ]\nbrygoo , e . r . & c . a . domergue 1970 . notes sur les brookesia de madagascar . v . description de deux esp\u00e9ces nouvelles : b . lambertoni n . sp . et b . therezieni n . sp . ( chamaeleonidae ) . bull . mus . nat . hist . nat . , paris 41 ( 5 ) : 1091 - 1096 .\nthe mount d ' ambre leaf chameleon ( brookesia tuberculata ) is a diminutive chameleon from far northern madagascar .\nnota bene : a binomial authority in parentheses indicates that the species was originally described in a genus other than brookesia .\nchameleon ( brookesia ) in the ' r\u00e9serve sp\u00e9ciale d ' analamazotra ' , madagascar . either b . ramanantsoai or b . thieli\nbrookesia peyrierasi is a diminutive chameleon from north - eastern madagascar . it is known commonly as peyrieras ' pygmy chameleon , named after the herpetologist andr\u00e9 peyri\u00e9ras . [ 2 ]\nthe brown leaf chameleon ( brookesia superciliaris ) is a small chameleon found on a small island off the eastern coast of madagascar . its appearance mimics that of a dead leaf .\nbrookesia is a smallest reptiles . members of the genus brookesia are largely brown and most are essentially terrestrial . a significant percentage of the species in the genus were only identified to science within the last three decades , and a number of species that still have not received a scientific name are known to exist . most inhabit very small ranges in areas that are difficult to access , and due to their small size and secretive nature , they have been relatively poorly studied compared to their larger relatives .\nbeolens b , watkins m , grayson m . 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . xiii + 296 pp . isbn 978 - 1 - 4214 - 0135 - 5 . ( genus brookesia , p . 40 ) .\nbeolens b , watkins m , grayson m . 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . xiii + 296 pp . isbn 978 - 1 - 4214 - 0135 - 5 . ( genus brookesia , p . 40 ) .\nmost species of brookesia have very small distribution ranges [ raselimanana ap , rakotomalala d ( 2003 ) ] , [ raxworthy cj , nussbaum ra ( 1995 ) ] ; indeed , almost 50 % of the species are known from single localities [ carpenter ai , robson o ( 2005 ) ] . within brookesia , both species diversity and levels of endemism are highest in northern madagascar , and are correlated with elevational and environmental heterogeneity in this area [ townsend tm , vieites dr , glaw f , vences m ( 2009 ) ] .\nbrookesia is a genus of chameleons endemic to madagascar , that range from small to very small in size , and are known collectively as leaf chameleons ( though this name also commonly is used for species in the genera rieppeleon and rhampholeon ) . brookesia includes species considered to be the world ' s smallest chameleons which are also among the smallest reptiles . members of the genus brookesia are largely brown and most are essentially terrestrial . a significant percentage of the species in the genus were only identified to science within the last three decades , and a number of species that still have not received a scientific name are known to exist . most inhabit very small ranges in areas that are difficult to access , and due to their small size and secretive nature , they have been relatively poorly studied compared to their larger relatives .\ngray je . 1864 . revision of the genera and species of cham\u00e6leonid\u00e6 , with the description of some new species . proc . zool . soc . london 1864 : 465 - 477 + plates xxxi & xxxii . ( brookesia , new genus , pp . 476 - 477 ) .\nmales ( left ) and females ( right ) of four brookesia species described in 2012 , all belonging to the b . minima species group : a - b b . tristis , c - d b . confidens , e - f b . micra , g - h b . desperata [ 2 ]\nmost brookesia are on cites appendix ii , the only exception being b . perarmata on appendix i ( a species also listed as endangered by iucn ) . consequently , a special permit is required to import any of the below species from their native madagascar , and typically no permit is issued for b . perarmata .\nmost brookesia are on cites appendix ii , the only exception being b . perarmata on appendix i ( a species also listed as endangered by iucn ) . consequently , a special permit is required to import any of the below species from their native madagascar , and typically no permit is issued for b . perarmata .\nglaw , f . ; k\u00f6hler , j . r . ; townsend , t . m . ; vences , m . ( 2012 ) . salamin , nicolas , ed .\nrivaling the world ' s smallest reptiles : discovery of miniaturized and microendemic new species of leaf chameleons ( brookesia ) from northern madagascar\n.\nglaw f , k\u00f6hler j , townsend tm , vences m . ( 2012 ) .\nrivaling the world ' s smallest reptiles : discovery of miniaturized and microendemic new species of leaf chameleons ( brookesia ) from northern madagascar\n. plos one 7 ( 2 ) : e31314 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0031314 .\nbrookesia is a genus of chameleons endemic to madagascar , that range from small to very small in size , and are known collectively asleaf chameleons ( though this name also commonly is used for species in the genera rieppeleon and rhampholeon ) . brookesia includes species considered to be the world ' s smallest chameleons which are also among the smallest reptiles . members of the genus brookesiaare largely brown and most are essentially terrestrial . a significant percentage of the species in the genus were only identified to science within the last three decades , and a number of species that still have not received a scientific name are known to exist . most inhabit very small ranges in areas that are difficult to access , and due to their small size and secretive nature , they have been relatively poorly studied compared to their larger relatives .\nlike other brookesia chameleons , the brown leaf chameleon is threatened primarily by habitat destruction , [ 2 ] which is the result of agricultural expansion , timber extraction , and small - scale mining . [ 8 ] harvesting for the international pet trade does occur , but is unlikely to be threatening its survival . [ 9 ] since 2005 , export quotas have been set at 200 individuals per year . [ 10 ]\nchameleon ( brookesia ) in the ' r\u00e9serve sp\u00e9ciale d ' analamazotra ' , madagascar . either b . ramanantsoai or b . thieli family & scientific name : chameleonidae ; brookesia superciliaris and b . perarmata identifying features : small chameleons with barely prehensile tails . they have scaly spines and spiny rosettes on the sides and back and spinous lateral crests and fringed occipital lobes . brown leaf chameleons are found foraging among dead leaves on the forest floor during the day . they have independently moving , protruding eyes and a long sticky tong that they catch prey with . they use their remarkable camouflage when threatened and will stay still for a long period . they also freeze and roll over , folding its legs underneath the belly and lay on its side , mimicking a dead leaf on the forest floor . alternatively , the brown leaf chameleon may also thrust its spines to ward off predators .\nglaw , f . ; k\u00f6hler , j . r . ; townsend , t . m . ; vences , m . ( 2012 ) . salamin , nicolas , ed .\nrivaling the world ' s smallest reptiles : discovery of miniaturized and microendemic new species of leaf chameleons ( brookesia ) from northern madagascar\n. plos one 7 ( 2 ) : e31314 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0031314 . pmc 3279364 . pmid 22348069 .\nthe 26 currently recognized species of brookesia typically dwell and forage on the ground , often within the leaf litter on the floor of rainforest and dry deciduous forest , and climb at night to low perches in the vegetation for sleeping . they are characterized by a typically dull brown or ( rarely ) greenish colour , a short non - prehensile tail that is used as \u201cfifth leg\u201d in walking [ boistel r , herrel a , daghfous g , libourel p - a , boller e , et al . ( 2011 ) ] .\nin some areas malagasy fear chameleons . they are also the subject of some well - known local proverbs including \u201cmanaova toy ny dian - tana jerena ny aloha , todihina ny afara , \u201d which translates to\nlike the chameleon , one eye on the future , one eye on the past\n;\nratsy karaha kandrondro ,\nmeaning\nugly as a chameleon\n;\nmahatsidia vokon ' anjava kely izy fa mafoaka ,\na warning to walk carefully so as not to step on a brookesia , which would bring great misfortune .\nthe brown leaf chameleon occurs in eastern madagascar ( including the island of nosy boraha ) , [ 2 ] from sea level up to altitudes of over 1 , 250 metres ( 4 , 100 ft ) . [ 3 ] the floor of evergreen primary forest is the preferred habitat of the brown leaf chameleon , but it may also be found in secondary forest and adjacent overgrown plantations . [ 4 ] it seems to prefer closed - canopy forest , and climbs higher in the forest ( up to 1 . 5 m ( 4 . 9 ft ) ) , more often than other species of brookesia . [ 1 ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as data deficient as the species is known only from two specimens collected nearly a century ago from an imprecise locality . there is no current information on its population status . there are threats operating within the area in which it occurs , and so with further information on the range of the species it will require immediate reassessment .\nthis chameleon is poorly known . it has been recorded from\nfito\nin the east ; it is , however , unclear whether this name refers to the town , a forest , or the administrative area ( r . jenkins pers . comm . june 2011 ) and recent surveys in this general area have not found the species ( rabibisoa\n. 2005 ) . no estimate of the extent of occurrence is possible , as only two individuals have ever been found and , without knowledge of the precise collecting locality , the extent of suitable habitat cannot be established .\nthis species is known only from two specimens that were collected prior to 1921 ( brygoo 1978 ) .\nthe area in which this species has been recorded was moist lowland forest . forest still exists in this region , however , without knowledge of the precise locality the extent of this habitat is unclear .\nthreats operating in the area include slash and burn agriculture and logging for building materials .\nthe only site from which this species has been recorded is now included within a conservation area , the zahamena - ankeniheny corridor . efforts are needed to relocate this species , and to identify the limits of its distribution , its ecological requirements and its exposure to threatening processes .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nabundance : only known from its original description ( meiri et al . 2017 ) .\nglaw , f . & vences , m . 1994 . a fieldguide to the amphibians and reptiles of madagascar . vences & glaw verlag , k\u00f6ln ( isbn 3 - 929449 - 01 - 3 )\nglaw , f . 2015 . taxonomic checklist of chameleons ( squamata : chamaeleonidae ) . vertebrate zoology 65 ( 2 ) : 167\u2013246 - get paper here\nmeiri , shai ; aaron m . bauer , allen allison , fernando castro - herrera , laurent chirio , guarino colli , indraneil das , tiffany m . doan , frank glaw , lee l . grismer , marinus hoogmoed , fred kraus , matthew lebreton , danny meirte , zolta\u0301n t . nagy , cristiano d 2017 . extinct , obscure or imaginary : the lizard species with the smallest ranges . diversity and distributions - get paper here\nnecas , p . & schmidt , w . 2004 . stump - tailed chameleons . miniature dragons of the rainforest . edition chimaira , frankfurt , 256 pp . [ review in elaphe 14 ( 1 ) : 24 ]\nnecas , petr 1999 . chameleons - nature ' s hidden jewels . edition chimaira , frankfurt ; 348 pp . ; isbn 3 - 930612 - 04 - 6 ( europe ) < br / > isbn 1 - 57524 - 137 - 4 ( usa , canada )\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nuetz , p . & jir\u00ed hosek ( eds . ) , the reptile database , ( http : / / www . reptile - database . org )\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\nhome | photos index | search | about | contact unless otherwise noted , all content and images are the property of rhett butler , content copyright 2004 - 2008 . all rights reserved .\nhow do chameleons change colors ? chameleons have two layers of specialized cells that lie just beneath the lizard ' s transparent outer skin . wikipedia explains the structure as follows :\nthe cells in the upper layer , which are called chromatophores , contain yellow and red pigments . below these chromatophores is a another cell layer . cells of this layer are called guanophores and they contain the colorless crystalline substance guanin . these guanophores reflect among others the blue part of incident light . if the upper layer of chromatophores is yellow , the reflected light becomes green ( blue plus yellow ) . a layer of dark melanin containing melanophores is situated even deeper under these blue and white light - reflecting guanophores . these melanophores influence the lightness of the reflected light . all these different pigment cells can relocate their pigments , thereby influencing the color of light which is reflected .\nmadagascar is home to about half the world ' s 150 or so species of chameleons , including both subfamilies , typical chameleons ( chamaeleoninae ) and dwarf chameleons ( brookesiinae ) .\n) . contrary to popular belief , a chameleon typically does not change colors to match its surroundings . instead , color is usually used to convey emotions , defend territories , and communicate with mates .\nother easily noted characteristics of chameleons include bulging eyes that move independently of one another , feet fixed in a grasping position , and the existence of horns or crests on the heads of many species . additionally , arboreal species have prehensile tails used for grasping objects when climbing and moving . finally , some species have long extensile tongues for catching insects or small vertebrates at a distance sometimes greater than the length of the chameleon .\nchameleons are diurnal , solitary , and often aggressive towards members of their own species ( marked by rapid color change and aggressive posturing ) . they are opportunistic hunters that wait for prey to pass within range of their long tongues . chameleons have a bizarre way of moving in which they slowly rock back and forth between each step taken , often in time with the movement of nearby leaves being blown by the wind . most chameleons lay eggs .\nthe name\nchameleon\nis derived from the greek words chamai ( on the ground , on the earth ) and leon ( lion ) so their name means\nearth lion .\nthis portable guide offers a full survey of all madagascar ' s mammals , both endemic and introduced , including many newly identified species . with vivid color photographs , line illustrations , and maps , mammals of madagascar : a complete guide\nhome | photos index | search | about | contact unless otherwise noted , all content and images are the property of rhett butler , content copyright 2004 - 2012 . all rights reserved .\nmales ( left ) and females ( right ) of four brookesiaspecies described in 2012 , all belonging to the b . minima species group : a - b b . tristis , c - d b . confidens , e - f b . micra , g - h b . desperata [ 2 ]\nthe brown leaf chameleon is distinguished by its elongated , high , laterally squashed body that resembles a rolled - up , dead leaf . the size and appearance of this chameleon varies considerably over its vast range , and it may be any shade of brown , beige , grey , olive , green , or dark red , but usually display colours and patterns that mimic a dead leaf . despite its tiny size , the brown leaf chameleon has an imposing appearance due to two pronounced horns that protrude from the head above each eye and four spiny scales that jut from the throat . [ 1 ]\nthe brown leaf chameleon spends its days foraging among dead leaves on the forest floor , [ 1 ] searching for prey with its independently moving , protruding eyes and catching insects with its long , sticky tongue . [ 5 ] if threatened , the lizard ' s first reaction is to stay still and rely on its remarkable camouflage , but it may also exhibit other defence behaviours . this includes the ' freeze - and - roll ' technique , in which the chameleon folds its legs underneath its belly , rolls over to one side and remains very still , mimicking a dead leaf on the forest floor . [ 6 ] alternatively , the brown leaf chameleon may also thrust its spines to ward off predators . [ 7 ]\nbrown leaf chameleons have an interesting courtship ritual in which a male approaches a female with pronounced nodding and rocking movements . an unreceptive female repels a male by reacting with jerky movements , while a receptive female walks with the male . after some time walking together , and before dusk , the male mounts the female and is carried on her back until the pair copulates in the late evening or at night . this species is known to store sperm . [ 1 ] between 30 and 45 days after copulation , the female lays two to five eggs , which she hides under dead leaves , moss , and pieces of bark on the forest floor . sometimes , a true nest is excavated and the clutch is laid on to the ground . the eggs hatch after 59 to 70 days ; the brown leaf chameleon reaching sexual maturity within one year . [ 1 ]\nthe brown leaf chameleon is listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) , meaning that trade in this species should be carefully controlled to be compatible with their survival . [ 11 ] it is also known to occur in a number of protected areas , including befotaka - midongy national park , [ 12 ] mantadia national park , [ 4 ] analamazoatra special reserve , [ 4 ] and kalambatitra special reserve . [ 13 ] although illegal harvesting and other activities that degrade the forest habitat may lessen any benefits this bestows , this species is more tolerant of forest disturbance than other leaf chameleons .\none - eighth inch grown crickets , tiny mealworms , nymphal grasshoppers , newly hatched silkworms and ants are accepted . dust insects with vitamin d3 - calcium powder twice weekly for baby chameleons and ovulating females , once weekly otherwise . potential problems : very little is yet known about the chameleons in this genus . providing food an water requirements are met , they seem hardy .\nreferences : bartlett , r . d . , and patricia bartlett . the new chameleon handbook . hauppage , ny : barron ' s education series . the new chameleon handbook .\na 1999 paper in the journal of zoology disputed a 1995 paper which considered this species and b . peyrierasi to be the same species asb . minima . the later paper discussed the same details as the first \u2013 subtle morphological differences in the hemipenises of the respective species and determined they were not conspecific . they also found differences in the arrangement of head crests and in minute spines above the eyes . [ 2 ]\na 1999 paper in the journal of zoology disputed a 1995 paper which considered this species and b . tuberculata to be the same species asb . minima . the later paper discussed the same details as the first \u2013 subtle morphological differences in the hemipenises of the respective species and determined they were not conspecific . they also found differences in the arrangement of head crests and in minute spines above the eyes . [ 3 ]\nis the international standard for assessing the extent to which species are facing extinction . these assessments provide a cornerstone for conservation action and are invaluable summaries of our knowledge on the status and biology of different species , with the potential to reveal trends that indicate whether conservation efforts are effective or not .\nan analysis published last year revealed that nearly one in five reptile species ( 19 % ) are threatened with extinction , with an additional 7 % being estimated as near threatened ( b\u00f6hme et al . , 2013 , biological conservation 157 , 372 - 385 ) . at that time , just over half of all chameleon species had been assessed by the iucn red list , but these assessments suggested that in contrast to this global trend of all reptiles , the majority of chameleon species ( 63 % ) were threatened or near threatened ( i . e . , critically endangered , endangered , vulnerable , or near threatened ) , indicating that chameleons may be under a disproportionately large level of threat .\npledged to undertake the assessment of more than 60 additional species , primarily from east africa ( the largest major gap in finished assessments ) in order to help understand the conservation status of not only the remaining species , but the family as a whole . with the help of the chameleon community , and in no small part to the members of chameleon forums (\nwebsite . these assessments , however , have revealed a number of troubling trends regarding the conservation status of chameleons . among these :\n. there is also quite a bit of information on the distribution and conservation status of each species in their respective assessments . i definitely encourage people to look over them and educate themselves about the conservation status of these animals !\nobviously these assessments show that there is a lot of work that needs to be done to conserve chameleons in the wild . the csg will be announcing its first efforts to address specific conservation needs illuminated by these assessments later today . i will be sure to post a thread on this and how everyone can help make it happen as soon as the effort goes live .\ni see a lot of effort and work has been done to get this data , but i have a question .\nthanks for posting this . i see a lot of effort and work has been done to get this data , but i have a question . on the government levels , and i mean east africa and madagascar , what action is actually taken to preserve and protect these red list species ?\nit really varies on the country and species in question . in many areas , it comes down to protection of habitat that these species occur in . in other areas , the species can be protected at various levels .\nas promised , the first efforts to address specific conservation needs illuminated by these assessments by the iucn chameleon specialist group ( csg ) have been announced . please visit this thread for more information and to help :\nthese two were surprises to me to be on this list as endangered species . kinyongia matschiei coming from the east usambara has always been documented as a rare species from people in the hobby . however their availability recently in the states ( wild caught and captive bred ) plus being protected by a couple preserves the amani and nile nature reserves made this assessment a somewhat surprise not an impossibility .\nkinyongia multituberculata however with a much larger range and being documented in primary and secondary habitat is a huge surprise .\nadapts to anthropogenic habitats . relatively common in disturbed , non - forest habitats . shrubs and trees by roadsides . posted by janstipala over 1 year ago 18494 - thumb\ni agree with jan stipala , k . multituberculata are very common in shrubs and trees along roadways . they can also occasionally be found in tea plantations ( which for some reason are less intensively farmed in the west usambaras than in the east usambaras : in the west there is often space between each tea plant with grass and weeds growing , while in the east the tea plants are tightly packed together ) and invasive eucalyptus trees . in 3 evenings of recreational surveys in mazumbai forest , i did not see any k . multituberculata in the forest interior , but dozens along road and forest edges . posted by filups about 1 year ago 19432 - thumb\ni ' ve only spent a short time in the west usambara ' s ( 2 or 3 nights ) but there were lots in the forests , and they werent that hard to observed . my impression is tha they are more common in the forest than in the transformed landscape . so i would agree they can utlise the forest edges , but given my own observations , plus talking to others who ' ve spend a significant amout of time there , the forest is the primary habitat .\nthe people i have talked too that have seem kinyongia multituberculata in there native habitat stated that kingongia multituberculata are the fucifer pardalis of tanzania west usambara mountains along with the observation quotes / reports from inaturalist . they have got high fecundity and can thrive in primary ( furcifer pardalis does not even thrive in primary dense forest that well they live in forest edge habitat ) and secondary habitats . plus that the species is the most imported out of all the species that were once grouped together as the species called kinyongia fischeri . that pick for me as an endangered species is a huge surprise . i have looked for the justification for kingonig matschiei and kingongia multituberculata and only found the justification posted for kinyongia matschiei . what is going on with the justification for kinyongia multituberculata being listed as an endangered species ? they even live in eucalyptus trees ?\nif you pull up any iucn red list assessment , the second section of the assessment is the\nassessment information\nsection . the first subsection of this section is\nred list category & criteria\n, which outlines the specific criteria by which the species was assigned to a given category level . the last subsection of this same section is\njustification\nwhich is a section of text explaining those criteria specific to the species in question .\n. this means that the species was assessed as endangered under criteria b1ab ( iii ) and b2ab ( iii ) . if you click the\nver . 3 . 1\n, it takes you to the explanation of the criteria for assessing a species to these categories . for being assessed as endangered , the specified categories for\na . severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than five locations .\n( i ) extent of occurrence ( ii ) area of occupancy ( iii ) area , extent and / or quality of habitat ( iv ) number of locations or subpopulations ( v ) number of mature individuals . \u200b\n( i ) extent of occurrence ( ii ) area of occupancy ( iii ) number of locations or subpopulations ( iv ) number of mature individuals . \u200b\n, an iucn red list category of endangered was assigned because the species has an extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 5000 km2 and an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 500 km2 , with estimates indicating its distribution is severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than five locations , and with estimates indicating continuing decline , observed , inferred or projected , in the area , extent and / or quality of habitat . the\njustification\nsubsection of\nthis species is listed as endangered applying criteria b1ab ( iii ) + 2ab ( iii ) because it occurs as a severely fragmented population restricted to highly fragmented forest patches and their immediate surroundings , a habitat that is undergoing a continuing decline in both extent and quality due to the impacts of timber removal , resource utilization , and encroachment and transformation for agriculture . this species is also one of the most heavily exported from east africa for the pet trade . it is not clear whether current levels of export are sustainable , and research is needed to determine whether offtake is contributing to suspected population declines . although it is observed in transformed landscapes , these observations are close to forested areas and on vegetation that is thick and structurally complex , and it will not tolerance heavy disturbance .\nthere are a number of other more specific explanations on the range , population , habitat , trade and use , major threats and conservation recommendations in the full assessment for the species .\nthis species is listed as endangered on the basis that it has an extent of occurrence of only 800 km2 , and an area of occupancy less than 300 km2 . it occurs as a severely fragmented population , and the forest fragments where it occurs are experiencing continuing declines in their extent and quality as a result of agricultural encroachment and resource extraction .\nhope that helps clarify how these two species ended up being classified as endangered . happy to help try to clarify any specifics though .\nhope that helps clarify how these two species ended up being classified as endangered . happy to help try to clarify any specifics though . chris\nthe link to the iucn red list page for kinyongia multituberculata was mostly all i was looking for . for the last couple days i could raise the iucn red list page for kinyongia matschiei and not kinyongia multituberculata which is strange .\ni understand assessing how big a population is by determining how much optimum habitat there is and approximating / determining how many chameleons there are in optimum habitat by using transect studies for unit areas . however from my readings it is a surprise that kinyongia multituberculata does not live in secondary habitat more as reported in my previous posts and other readings i have done .\nwhen i search for the kinyongia multituberculata iucn red list page it is not showing on my search engine . thanks for the link .\nthe iucn posted a press release today about some of the findings of the latest iucn red list update . included is comment on\nthe iucn posted a press release today about some of the findings of the latest iucn red list update . included is comment on kinyongia matschiei : urltoken chris\nnow endangered , no big surprise there . even if they issue a zero quota , any bets on how many come in to the usa next year ?\nkinyongia matschiei now endangered , no big surprise there . even if they issue a zero quota , any bets on how many come in to the usa next year ?\nwe ' ll see what happens . tanzania is in the middle of the review of significant trade for\n, and the mislabeling of these species has been highlighted . it will be interesting to see what happens as a result .\nwe ' ll see what happens . tanzania is in the middle of the review of significant trade for k . fischeri , and the mislabeling of these species has been highlighted . it will be interesting to see what happens as a result . chris\nmight be beneficial to the whole complex . if i were in a country that didn ' t have resources to id each species exported within the fischeri complex , i would recommend that they all be red listed ( en ) in order to protect the one or two that were actually endangered . especially as k . multi is the fischeri species most commonly exported .\ni ' m wondering if the new red list ( en ) classification of kinyongia multituberculata might be beneficial to the whole complex . if i were in a country that didn ' t have resources to id each species exported within the fischeri complex , i would recommend that they all be red listed ( en ) in order to protect the one or two that were actually endangered . especially as k . multi is the fischeri species most commonly exported . shotgun approach . just thinking out loud here . . . . .\nthey wouldn ' t be able to adjust the iucn red list category for this reason ( there are strict criteria for each category and species assessment ) , but cites quota levels could potentially be adjusted for different species to account for difficulty in differentiating species . the differentiation of these species was one of the things the tanzanian management authority was told to address as a result of the cites review of significant trade , and i provided them with feedback on how to do so , so we ' ll see what happens .\nhere is another news article , this time focusing on r . chapmanorum specifically :\n) . at the time 184 of the 200 ( 92 % ) recognized chameleon species had been assessed . i wanted to post an update to let everyone know that 193 ( 95 . 5 % ) of the 202 recognized chameleon species have now had their assessments completed by the\nand their assessments have been published in the latest updated to the iucn red list .\ncalumma linotum , chamaeleo anchietae , kinyongia mulyai , rhampholeon hattinghi , trioceros oweni , t . perreti , t . pfefferi , t . quadricornis ,\nthanks for posting this chris . sad to see so many on the lists .\n- almost 2 / 3 ( 63 % ) of rhampholeon spp . are threatened , but the genus is not cites listed ! some of these threatened rhampholeon spp . , however , are currently being harvested heavily for the pet trade . i definitely encourage people to look over them and educate themselves about the conservation status of these animals ! \u200b\nthis is one way we can make a difference . do not feed the need !\nchris , do you think this is caused from lack of habitat or from exporting ? probably both but it ' s very sad either way .\nthis is a situation that is not just seen from chameleon conservation however populations can be harmed from loss of habitat and and in certain situations exporting . if you want a good example there is the scarlet macaw ' s of mexico . the populations there were over collected and habitat was lost to the that the populations had to be reintroduced to restore these macaws to a large part of their range . the worst is where you have both over collecting and habitat loss . if you have an endangered or critically endangered species that lives in an exceedingly small fragmented habitat then you add collecting for the hobby you put that species in eminent danger of extinction . that is with or without the intervention of people . meaning habitat has to be conserved for these species to live and people cannot over collect these species that have a precarious existance as is if you want them to live on to future decades and centuries .\ni guess collection for conservation would be necessary to an extent , but collection for the pet trade is generally done for profit and can be devastating .\nto parts of mexico . i actually got the opportunity with my family to visit one of these large forest fragments / reintroduction sites for scarlet macaws a couple years ago . i have got picture .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nglaw f , k\u00f6hler j , townsend tm , vences m . ( 2012 ) .\nrivaling the world ' s smallest reptiles : discovery of miniaturized and microendemic new species of leaf chameleons (\ncites : appendices i , ii and iii . accessed 23 - 01 - 2009 .\nglaw , f . , & vences , m . ( 2007 ) . a field guide to the amphibians and reptiles of madagascar , 3d edition . cologne , germany : vences & glaw verlag . 496 pp . isbn 978 - 3 - 929449 - 03 - 7 .\nthis article was sourced from creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . world heritage encyclopedia content is assembled from numerous content providers , open access publishing , and in compliance with the fair access to science and technology research act ( fastr ) , wikimedia foundation , inc . , public library of science , the encyclopedia of life , open book publishers ( obp ) , pubmed , u . s . national library of medicine , national center for biotechnology information , u . s . national library of medicine , national institutes of health ( nih ) , u . s . department of health & human services , and urltoken , which sources content from all federal , state , local , tribal , and territorial government publication portals ( . gov , . mil , . edu ) . funding for urltoken and content contributors is made possible from the u . s . congress , e - government act of 2002 .\ncrowd sourced content that is contributed to world heritage encyclopedia is peer reviewed and edited by our editorial staff to ensure quality scholarly research articles .\nby using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy . world heritage encyclopedia\u2122 is a registered trademark of the world public library association , a non - profit organization .\nthe annals and magazine of natural history ; zoology , botany , and geology : volume 3rd ser . volume 15 ( 1865 )\n. . . mbique ; ensirostris melleri to eastern africa ; c . auratus to arabia ; c . granulosus ,\nsuperciliaris , and c . senegalensis tow . africa ; c . i . . . . . . and chin rounded , not dentated . b . nose simple ; orbit angularly produced infront . 8 .\n. c . nose and orbit ivith cylindrical horns , covered w . . . . . . ve ( at page 346 ) as c . monachus . b . nose simple ; orbit angularly produced infront . 8 .\n. nose of both sexes simple . the eyebrows produced abo . . . . . . ith an arched series , of subulate erect scales . tail short , compressed at the base . 1 .\nsuperciliaris . b . m . chamceleo superciliaris , kuhl . c . . . .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from world library are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user"]}
{"id": 709, "summary": [{"text": "the hardyhead silverside ( atherinomorus lacunosus ) , also known as the broad-banded hardyhead , broad-banded silverside , capricorn hardyhead , pitted hardyhead , robust hardyhead , robust silverside , slender hardyhead and wide-banded hardyhead silverside , is a silverside of the family atherinidae .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it occurs in the indo-pacific near the surfaceas well as in the mediterranean , having invaded as a lessepsian migrant through the suez canal . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "hardyhead silverside", "paragraphs": ["also known as baitfish , greybacks , atherinomorus ogilbyi , hardyhead silverside , broad - banded silverside , red sea silverside , slender hardyhead , whitebait .\nwhat does hardyhead silverside mean ? this page is about the various possible meanings of the acronym , abbreviation , shorthand or slang term : hardyhead silverside .\nthe hardyhead silverside , atherinomorus lacunosus , is a silverside of the family atherinidae , found in the indo - pacific near the surface . its length is up to 25 cm .\njurgen freund / hardyhead silverside ( atherinomorus lacunosus ) fish shoal in the reef . raja ampat , west papua , indonesia\nalso known as baitfish , greybacks , atherinomorus ogilbyi , hardyhead silverside , broad - banded silverside , red sea silverside , slender hardyhead and whitebait . found in large schools on sheltered sandy shorelines and mangrove areas . they feed on zooplankton . length - 14cm depth - 1 - 39m widespread indo pacific these fish are common on shorelines , important food for larger fish species although no commercial value .\na new silverside , atherinomorus aetholepis sp . nov . , from the west pacific\ntony wu / hardyhead silversides ( atherinomorus lacunosus ) swarming under the jetty at samarai island in milne bay , papua new guinea .\nlike other species of silverside , it is likely that this species is abundant and common throughout its range in areas of appropriate habitat .\nthe flyspecked hardyhead eats mainly mosquito larvae and aquatic insects . it will also eat crustaceans and has been observed eating algae in aquaria .\na greenish - grey hardyhead with an iridescent blue line running along the upper edge of the broad silver midlateral stripe along the side .\ntony wu / hardyhead silversides ( atherinomorus lacunosus ) huge shoal swarming under the jetty at samarai island in milne bay , papua new guinea .\njustification : the bearded silverside , atherion elymus , has been assessed as least concern . this wide - ranging species is found in a number of habitats and is not known to be under any major threat . like other species of silverside , this species is likely to be abundant and common throughout much of its range .\nthe video clip\ncommon lionfish or red lion fish - pterois miles , swimming next to large school of fish hardyhead silverside - atherinomorus lacunosus , red sea , marsa alam , abu dabab , egypt\nfrom andriy nekrasov is available on fotolia under a royalty - free license from 30 credits ( credit from $ 0 . 74 ) .\nthe flyspecked hardyhead has a slender body covered with black dots . the species is endemic to australia . it occurs in some freshwater streams of the northern territory to southern queensland .\nthe bearded silverside , atherion elymus , is distributed from southern japan , south to northern queensland . it has also been collected from localities close to islands in micronesia , melanesia , fiji and new guinea .\nthe related unspecked hardyhead , craterocephalus fulvus , was originally described as a subspecies of c . stercusmuscarum . this species occurs in coastal drainages from southern queensland to northern new south wales and the murray - darling river system .\nbearded silverside occur in loose aggregations in the photic zone and are found in tidepools , rocky reefs , along rocky shorelines and reef margins . eggs of this species are large and self adhesive . this species has a depth profile of 0 - 6 m .\nthe flyspecked hardyhead has a slender body covered with black dots . this pattern gave rise to the common name . the fish is golden yellow to deep green above , changing to white below . a dusky to silver stripe runs from the snout to the caudal peduncle .\nivantsoff , w . and l . e . l . m . crowley0 review of the australian silverside fishes of the genus atherinomorus ( atherinidae ) . aust . j . mar . freshwat . res . 42 ( 5 ) : 479 - 505 . ( ref . 2909 )\nfinrays iv - vii , i - ii + 9 - 10 ; anal finrays 1 - 11 + 12 - 17 . scales in longitudinal series 40 .\nscientific synonyms and common names atherinomorus lacunosus forster , 1801 synonyms : pranesus pinguis lacep\u00e8de , 1803 atherina pinguis lacep\u00e8de , 1803 , hist . nat . poiss . , 5 : 372 , pl . 11 ( fig . 1 ) ( \u00eele maurice ) . type : lost . atherina pectoralis valenciennes , 1835 , in cuv . val . , hist . nat . poiss . , 10 : 447 . syntypes : mnhn no . a 962 ( red sea ) , a 4395 ( suez ) . atherina forskalii r\u00fcppell , 1835a , fische des rothen meeres , pl . 33 ( fig . 1 ) ( red sea ) . atherina pinguis : klunzinger , 1884 : 130 , pl . 11 ( fig . 2 ) . atherina forskalii : klunzinger , 1884 , 130 , pl . 11 ( fig . 3 ) jordan & hubbs , 1917 : 462 , pl . 46 roux - est\u00e8ve & fourmanoir , 1955 : 196 . hepsetia pinguis : jordan & hubbs , 1919 : 32 gruvel & chabanaud , 1937 : 11 ben - tuvia , 1953a : 16 , fig . 9 . alanetta forskali : steinitz & ben - tuvia , 1955 : 5 . pranesus pinguis : smith , 1965 : 616 , pl . 99 ( fig . a , b , c ) . common names : ' abou zoubara ' and ' cachcouch ' , given by gruvel & chabanaud in the suez canal .\n* lacep\u00e8de , b . 1798 - 1803 . histoire naturelle des poissons , 5 vol . in - 4 , paris . i : 1798 , 8 + cxlvii + 532 p . , 25 pl . , 1 tabl . ( inset ) ; ii : 1800 , ixiv + 632 p . , 20 pl . ; iii : 1801 , 558 p . , 34 pl . ; iv : 1802 , xliv + 728 p . , 16 pl . ; v : 1803 , xlviii + 803 p . , 21 pl .\nben - tuvia , a . 1955 . two indo - pacific fishes , dasyatis uarnak and upeneus rnoluccensis in the eastern mediterranean . nature , lond . , 176 ( 4494 ) : 1177 - 1178 .\ngruvel , a . ; chabanaud , p . 1937 . missions a . gruvel dans le canal de suez . ii . poissons . m\u00e9m . inst . \u00e9gypt . , 35 : 1 - 30 . , 29 fig .\njordan , d . s . ; hubbs , c . l . 1917 . notes on a collection of fishes from port said , egypt . ann . carneg . mus . , 11 : 461 - 468 .\njordan , d . s . ; hubbs , c . l . 1919 . a monographic review of the family of atherinidae or silversides . stanford univ . publs . , biol . sci . , 87 p . , 12 pl .\nklunzinger , c . b . 1884 . die fische des rothen meeres . eine kritische revision mit bestimmungstabellen . i . acanthopteri veri . stuttgart : 133 p . , fig . , 13 pl .\nroux - est\u00e8ve , r . ; fourmanoir , p . 1955 . poissons in r\u00e9sultats scientifiques des campagnes de la ' calypso ' . campagne 1951 - 52 en mer rouge . annls inst . oc\u00e9anogr . monaco , 30 : 195 - 203 , 2 fig .\nr\u00fcppell , e . 1835a . fische des rothen meeres , ( 4 ) : 148 p . , 33 pl . , in neue wirbelthiere zu der fauna von abyssinien geh\u00f6rig . frankfurt am main , 1835 - 1840 .\nsmith , j . l . b . 1965b . fishes of the family atherinidae of the red sea and the western indian ocean . ichthyol . bull . rhodes univ . , ( 31 ) : 615 .\nsteinitz , h . ; ben - tuvia , a . 1955 . fishes from eylath ( gulf of agaba ) , red sea . 2nd rep . bull . sea fish . res . stn israel , ( 11 ) : 3 - 15 .\natherinomorus forskalii . a holotype , smf 1898 , 109 mm sl , from jiddah , saudi arabia ( red sea ) . b non - type material , huj 5292 , 113 mm sl , from elat , israel ( red sea ) . ( for a color version of this figure , see electronic supplementary material , fig . s1 )\natherinomorus lacunosus . a holotype , mnhn a . 4400 , 75 mm sl , from new caledonia . b holotype of atherina morrisi , cas - su 9354 , 102 mm sl , from yaku i . , kagoshima , japan . c holotype of hepsetia pinguis mineri , amnh 19519 , 79 mm sl , from pago pago , samoa ( photographed by t . fukuhara ) . d holotype of pranesus capricornensis , qm i . 8201 , 93 mm sl , from heron i . , capricorn group , queensland , australia . e holotype of pranesus maculatus , ams ib . 5238 , 81 mm sl , from gulf of carpentaria , northern territory , australia . f holotype of pranesus pinguis ruppelli , smf 6856 , 87 mm sl , from jidda , saudi arabia . g non - type material , frlm 26461 , 106 mm sl , from bitung , north sulawesi , indonesia ( fresh condition ) . ( for a color version of this figure , see electronic supplementary material , fig . s2 )\natherinomorus pinguis . a neotype , saiab 5682 , 105 mm sl , from mauritius . b lectotype of atherina pectoralis , mnhn a 4305 , 103 mm sl , mauritius . c non - type material , frlm 28706 , 86 mm sl , from libong i . , trang , thailand ( fresh condition ) . ( for a color version of this figure , see electronic supplementary material , fig . s3 )\nobservations on a collection of fishes from the mauritius , presented by mr . telfair , with characters of new genera and species\ncharacters of two new species of fishes , from the mauritius , presented by mr . telfair\ncatalogue critique des types de poissons du mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle . ( suite ) ( mugiliformes et polyn\u00e9miformes )\nbloch me , schneider jo ( 1801 ) m . e . blochii , systema ichthyologiae iconibus cx illustratum . post obitum auctoris opus inchoatum absolvit , correxit , interpolavit jo . gottlob schneider saxo . berolini . sumtibus austoris impressum et bibliopolio sanderiano commissum , berlin\nfricke r ( 1999 ) fishes of the mascarene islands ( r\u00e9union , mauritius , rodriguez ) . an annotated checklist , with descriptions of new species . koeltz , k\u00f6nigstein\nivantsoff w ( 1984 ) atherinidae . in : fischer w , bianchi g ( eds ) fao species identification sheets for fishery purposes . western indian ocean ( fishing area 51 ) , vol 2 . fao , rome , pp \u201cather ather 1\u201d to \u201cather ter 1\u201d\neds . fao species identification guide for fishery purposes . the living marine resources of the western central pacific , vol 4\na monographic review of the family of atherinidae or silversides . leland stanford junior university publications\nredescriptions of the indo - west pacific atherinid fishes , atherinomorus endrachtensis ( quoy and gaimard , 1825 ) and a . duodecimalis ( valenciennes in cuvier and valenciennes , 1835 )\neds . fishes of bitung , northern tip of sulawesi , indonesia . ocean research institute\ndie fische des rothen meeres . eine kritische revision mit bestimmungstabellen . i . teil\nstandards in herpetology and ichthyology . part 1 . standard symbolic codes for institutional resource collections in herpetology and ichthyology\nquoy jrc , gaimard jp ( 1824\u20131825 ) chapter ix . description des poissons . in : de freycinet l ( ed ) voyage autour du monde \u2026 ex\u00e9cut\u00e9 sur les corvettes de l . m . \u201cl ' uranie\u201d et \u201cla physicienne , \u201d pendant les ann\u00e9es 1817 , 1818 , 1819 et 1820 , vol 3 . pillet a\u00een\u00e9 , paris , pp 192\u2013401 , pls 43\u201365\nr\u00fcppell e ( 1835\u20131838 ) neue wirbelthiere zu der fauna von abyssinien geh\u00f6rig , entdeckt und beschrieben . fische des rothen meeres . commission bei siegmund schmerber , frankfurt am main\nfishes of the marshall and marianas islands , vol i . families from asymmetrontidae through siganidae\ngreek , atherina , the greek name for the eperlane + greek , moros = silly , stupid ( ref . 45335 )\nwestern indian ocean : endemic to the red sea and has invaded the eastern mediterranean through the suez canal .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 13 . 3 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 58474 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 5 - 7 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 8 - 10 ; anal spines : 1 ; anal soft rays : 11 - 15 ; vertebrae : 40 - 44 . this species is distinguished by the following set of characters : lateral process of premaxilla very low and wide ; upper margin of dentary almost flat distally , no distinct tubercle at the posterior end ; posterior tip of the upper jaw reaching to or exceeding a vertical through anterior margin of the pupil , and not reaching to a vertical through center of the pupil ; teeth on endopterygoids large , forming distinct ridges ; anus located around posterior tip of the pelvic fin ; lower gill rakers 20 - 23 ; midlateral scale count 39 - 43 ; lower margin of midlateral band reaching to or just below ventral end of the midlateral ( third ) scale row at the level of the anal fin origin ( ref . 58474 ) .\nfeeds on zooplankton , small bottom - living invertebrates ( ref . 5980 ) .\nkimura , s . , d . golani , y . iwatsuki , m . tabuchi and t . yoshino , 2007 . redescriptions of the indo - pacific atherinid fishes atherinomorus forskalii , atherinomorus lacunosus , and atherinomorus pinguis . ichthyol . res . 54 ( 2 ) : 145 - 159 . ( ref . 58474 )\n) : 24 . 7 - 29 . 4 , mean 27 . 1 ( based on 78 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5005 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01122 ( 0 . 00514 - 0 . 02450 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 87 - 3 . 21 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 37 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nmarine ; freshwater ; brackish ; reef - associated ; depth range 1 - 39 m ( ref . 11897 ) . subtropical ; 32\u00b0n - 23\u00b0s , 38\u00b0e - 154\u00b0w\nindo - pacific : from east africa to tonga , north to southern japan , and south to northern australia ; except andaman sea . replaced by atherinomorus insularum in the hawaiian islands ( ref . 37816 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 25 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 48635 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 5 - 8 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 9 - 10 ; anal spines : 1 ; anal soft rays : 12 - 17 ; vertebrae : 43 - 44 . this species is distinguished by the following characters : lateral process of premaxilla very low and wide ; upper margin of the dentary almost flat distally , no distinct tubercle at the posterior end ; posterior tip of the upper jaw reaching to or beyond a vertical through anterior margin of the pupil , sometimes reaching to the center of pupil ; small teeth on endopterygoids , not forming obvious ridges ; the anus is near or usually behind the posterior tip of the pelvic fin ; lower gill rakers 18 - 24 ; midlateral scale count 40 - 44 ; lower margin of midlateral band reaching below ventral end of the midlateral ( third ) scale row and reaching to almost the center of the fourth scale row at level of the anal fin origin ( ref . 58474 ) .\ncommon in large schools along sandy shorelines and reef margins . reported to be mainly a nocturnal species which usually forms schools ( from several hundred to more than 100 m long and 20 m wide ) ( ref . 9760 ) . feeds mostly at night when the school disperse . feeds on a variety of planktonic crustaceans . preyed upon by sharks , tunas , long toms , and amberjacks which swim alongside the school . among its other predators are crested terns , gannets , sea - gulls and herons . slow moving and not well regarded as bait . extremely important as forage fish for larger species ( ref . 3302 ) . sold fresh , or salted and dried ( ref . 12484 ) . minimum depth reported taken from ref . 57178 .\n) : 24 . 9 - 29 . 1 , mean 28 ( based on 1080 cells ) .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00741 ( 0 . 00412 - 0 . 01333 ) , b = 3 . 17 ( 3 . 00 - 3 . 34 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 \u00b10 . 2 se ; based on diet studies .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 39 of 100 ) .\ncommon in large schools along sandy shorelines and reef margins . reported to be mainly a nocturnal species which usually forms schools ( from several hundred to more than 100 m long and 20 m wide ) ( ref . 9760 ) . feeds mostly at night when the school disperse . feeds on a variety of planktonic crustaceans . preyed upon by sharks , tunas , long toms , and amberjacks which swim alongside the school . among its other predators are crested terns , gannets , sea - gulls and herons . slow moving and not well regarded as bait . extremely important as forage fish for larger species ( ref . 3302 ) . sold fresh , or salted and dried ( ref . 12484 ) . minimum depth reported taken from ref . 57178 .\nworms and fishbase have the current accepted taxon for this fish as\natherinomorus lacunosus\nand\npranesus maculatus\nas a synonym .\njeff holmes set\nimage of atherinomorus lacunosus\nas an exemplar on\natherinomorus\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis fish is often mistaken for anchovies . they look pretty similar and can be caught on small feathered jigs . the difference is that they have much larger eyes and harder body compared to the indian anchovies . they can often be sighted swimming near surface in schools near covers such as jetties or piers .\nthey can be caught using small shrimps or prawn meat or simply feathered jig if they ' re in the feeding mood . they ' re not known to be an effective bait for fishing compared to herrings and anchovies .\ndescription common in large schools along sandy shorelines and reef margins . slow moving and not well regarded as bait . feeds on . . .\ndescription common in large schools along sandy shorelines and reef margins . slow moving and not well regarded as bait . feeds on zooplankton , small bottom - living invertebrates ( ref . 5980 ) . extremely important as forage fish for larger species ( ref . 3302 ) . [ details ]\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nvan der land , j . ; costello , m . j . ; zavodnik , d . ; santos , r . s . ; porteiro , f . m . ; bailly , n . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; froese , r . ( 2001 ) . pisces , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 357 - 374 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nstreftaris , n . ; zenetos , a . ; papathanassiou , e . ( 2005 ) . globalisation in marine ecosystems : the story of non - indigenous marine species across european seas . oceanogr . mar . biol . ann . rev . 43 : 419 - 453 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nzenetos , a . , m . e . \u00e7inar , m . a . pancucci - papadopoulou , j . g . harmelin , g . furnari , f . andaloro , n . bellou , n . streftaris & h . zibrowius . ( 2005 ) . annotated list of marine alien species in the mediterranean with records of the worst invasive species . mediterranean marine science 6 ( 2 ) : 63 - 118 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nking , c . m . ; roberts , c . d . ; bell , b . d . ; fordyce , r . e . ; nicoll , r . s . ; worthy , t . h . ; paulin , c . d . ; hitchmough , r . a . ; keyes , i . w . ; baker , a . n . ; stewart , a . l . ; hiller , n . ; mcdowall , r . m . ; holdaway , r . n . ; mcphee , r . p . ; schwarzhans , w . w . ; tennyson , a . j . d . ; rust , s . ; macadie , i . ( 2009 ) . phylum chordata : lancelets , fishes , amphibians , reptiles , birds , mammals , in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) ( 2009 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity : 1 . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . pp . 431 - 554 . [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\ngalil , b . ( 2007 ) . seeing red : alien species along the mediterranean coast of israel . aquatic invasions . 2 ( 4 ) : 281 - 312 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nben rais lasram , f . ; mouillot , d . ( 2008 ) . increasing southern invasion enhances congruence between endemic and exotic mediterranean fish fauna . biological invasions . 11 ( 3 ) : 697 - 711 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina forskali r\u00fcppell , 1838 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hapsetia pinguis ( lacep\u00e8de , 1803 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina affinis bennett , 1832 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina lacunosa forster , 1801 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina morrisi jordan & starks , 1906 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina punctata bennett , 1833 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherinomorus lacunosa ( forster , 1801 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherion morrisi ( jordan & starks , 1906 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hepsetia morrisi ( jordan & starks , 1906 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hepsetia pinguis ( lacep\u00e8de , 1803 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of pranesus capricornensis woodland , 1961 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of pranesus forskalii ( r\u00fcppell , 1838 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of pranesus lacunosus ( forster , 1801 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of pranesus maculatus taylor , 1964 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of pranesus morrisi ( jordan & starks , 1906 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of pranesus pinguis ( lacep\u00e8de , 1803 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of pranesus pinguis r\u00fcppelli smith , 1965 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina puntata bennett , 1833 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina forskalli r\u00fcppell , 1838 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of allanetta forskali ( r\u00fcppell , 1838 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherinomorous lacunosus ( forster , 1801 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of pranesus pinguis ruppelli smith , 1965 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of pranesus pinguis mineri nichols & roemhild , 1951 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhong kong marine fish database . afcd . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nalex mustard / pair of bar jacks ( caranx ruber ) hunting silversides ( atherinidae ) inside cave . devil & apos ; s grotto , george town , grand cayman , cayman islands , british west indies . caribbean sea .\nalex mustard / silversides ( atherinomorus lacunosus ) school just below surface in evening light , berenice jetty , aqaba , jordan . gulf of aqaba , jordan .\nalex mustard / soft corals ( dendronephthya hemprichi ) growing in very shallow water in the shade provided by a jetty , while a school of silversides ( atherinomorus lacunosus ) circle . berenice jetty , aqaba , jordan . gulf of aqaba , jordan .\nalex mustard / school of silversides ( atherinomorus lacunosus ) mass below a jetty , creating a false ceiling of fish . berenice jetty , aqaba , jordan . gulf of aqaba , jordan .\njurgen freund / large school of silversides ( atherinomorus lacunosa ) around the reef , moluccas islands , indonesia .\ncitation : use the citation options below to add these abbreviations to your bibliography .\ncreated to help individuals around the world identify tropical fish found during their scuba dive and snorkelling excursions .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nde silva , r . , milligan , h . , lutz , m . , batchelor , a . , jopling , b . , kemp , k . , lewis , s . , lintott , p . , sears , j . , wilson , p . , smith , j . & livingston , f .\nthere is no directed commercial fishery for this species . it is infrequently collected for use as bait , however this is unlikely to be driving a significant population decline . this species is likely to be undergoing localised declines in areas of coastal development and urban pollution discharge .\nthere are no species - specific conservation measures in place , or needed , for this species . however its distribution is likely to coincide with a number of marine protected areas .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthe following bibliography has been generated by bringing together all references provided by our content partners . there may be duplication .\nacu\u00f1a , r . e . , a . e . openiano and a . b . apongan0 finfish resources . in resource and ecological assessment of panguil bay - terminal report vol . 3 resources of panguil bay . mindanao state university at naawan . ( ref . 47691 )\nallen , g . r . and m . v . erdmann0 reef fishes of the east indies . perth , australia : universitiy of hawai ' i press , volumes i - iii . tropical reef research . ( ref . 90102 )\nallen , g . r . 0 reef fishes of milne bay province , papua new guinea . in t . werner and g . allen ( eds ) . a rapid biodiversity assessment of the coral reefs of milne bay province , papua new guinea . rap working papers 11 , conservation international , washington , d . c . ( ref . 41464 )\nanonymous0 fish collection database of the american museum of natural history . american museum of natural history , central park west , ny 10024 - 5192 , usa . ( ref . 41414 )\nanonymous0 fish collection database of the bernice p . bishop museum ( bpbm ) . bishop museum , 1525 bernice street , honolulu , hawai ` i , 96817 - 0916 usa . ( ref . 31667 )\nanonymous0 fish collection database of the gulf coast research laboratory ( gcrl ) . the gulf coast research laboratory ( gcrl ) , ocean springs , mississippi , usa . ( ref . 34634 )\nanonymous0 fish collection database of the j . l . b . smith institute of ichthyology , grahamstown , south africa . j . l . b . smith institute of ichthyology , grahamstown , south africa . ( ref . 36670 )\nanonymous0 fish collection database of the national museum of natural history ( smithsonian institution ) . smithsonian institution - division of fishes . ( ref . 38732 )\nanonymous0 fish collection database of the national museums of kenya . national museums of kenya , p . o . box 40658 , nairobi , kenya . ( ref . 31740 )\nanonymous0 fish collection database of the natural history museum , london ( formerly british museum of natural history ( bmnh ) ) . natural history museum , london ( formerly british museum of natural history ( bmnh ) ) . ( ref . 31982 )\nanonymous0 fish collection database of the zoological museum , university of copenhagen . zoological museum , university of copenhagen . ( ref . 40919 )\nanonymous0 fish collection of the royal ontario museum . royal ontario museum . ( ref . 47438 )\nanonymous0 fish collection of the university of the philippines in the visayas museum . upv museum . ( ref . 43309 )\nanonymous0 fish registrations within the museum database of the vertebrate section of the royal museum for central africa . mrac , tervuren , belgium . ( ref . 12818 )\nanonymous0 the icthyological collection of the zoological museum hamburg ( zmh ) . division of ichthyology and herpetology , zoological museum hamburg ( zmh ) . ( ref . 35508 )\nbaissac , j . de b . 0 swiop / wp / 54 - checklist of the marine fishes of mauritius . raf / 87 / 008 / wp / 54 / 90 regional project for the development & management of fisheries in the southwest indian ocean . ( ref . 58078 )\nbasmayor , l . o . , r . d . dioneda and v . s . soliman0 the fishes and invertebrates of san miguel bay . p . 36 - 47 . in v . s . soliman and r . d . dioneda ( eds . ) capture fisheries assessment of san miguel bay , post - resource and ecological assessment of san miguel bay , phil . , vol . 1 . bfar , fish . sect . prog . and bicol univ . coll . of fish . smb post - rea tech . rep . 1 , 60 p . ( ref . 45161 )\nbianchi , g . 0 fao species identification sheets for fishery purposes . field guide to the commercial marine and brackish - water species of tanzania . prepared and published with the support of tcp / urt / 4406 and fao ( firm ) regular programme . fao , rome . 199 p . ( ref . 2871 )\nbilecenoglu , m . 0 alien marine fishes of turkey - an updated review . p . 189 - 217 . in golani , d . and b . appelbaum - golani ( eds . ) . fish invasions in the mediterranean sea : change and renewal . pensoft . sofia - moscow . ( ref . 94612 )\nbundesanstalt f\u00fcr landwirtschaft und ern\u00e4hrung0 verzeichnis der handelsbezeichnungen f\u00fcr erzeugnisse der fischerei und der aquakultur . retrieved 17 june 2003 , from urltoken . ( ref . 47487 )\ncarl , h . 0 danish fish names . zoological museum of copenhagen . unpublished . ( ref . 51471 )\nchen , c . - h . 0 checklist of the fishes of penghu . fri special publication no . 4 . 175 p . ( ref . 55073 )\nchilika development authority0 fishes of lake chilika . letter from s . k . mohanty , fishery consultant . chilika development authority . ( march 2014 ) . ( ref . 95460 )\nchinese academy of fishery sciences0 chinese aquatic germplasm resources database . urltoken ( ref . 58108 )\ncinco , e . and j . diaz jr . 0 length - weight relationship of fishes caught in san miguel bay , philippines . in g . silvestre , c . luna and j . padilla ( eds . ) multidisciplinary assessment of the fisheries in san miguel bay , philippines ( 1992 - 1993 ) . iclarm technical report 47 . international center for living aquatic resources management , makati , philippines . ( ref . 45187 )\ncinco , e . a . , j . c . diaz , q . p . sia iii and g . t . silvestre0 a checklist of fishes caught in san miguel bay , philippines . in g . silvestre , c . luna and j . padilla ( eds . ) multidisciplinary assessment of the fisheries in san miguel bay , philippines ( 1992 - 1993 ) . iclarm technical report 47 . international center for living aquatic resources management , makati , philippines . ( ref . 43275 )\ncinco , e . a . , p . r . confiado , g . c . trono and d . j . r . mendoza0 resource and ecological assessment of sorsogon bay , philippines - technical reports vol . 5 inputs to an integrated coastal resources management plan of sorsogon bay . fisheries sector program department of agriculture - asian development bank , united business technologies , inc . , pasig , philippines . ( ref . 47565 )\ncinco , e . a . 0 resource and ecological assessment of sorsogon bay , philippines - technical reports vol . 3 capture fisheries assessment . fisheries sector program department of agriculture - asian development bank , united business technologies , inc . , pasig philippines . 158 p . ( ref . 47531 )\ncorsini - foka , m . 0 current status of alien species in greek seas . p . 219 - 253 . in golani , d . and b . appelbaum - golani ( eds . ) . fish invasions in the mediterranean sea : change and renewal . pensoft . sofia - moscow . ( ref . 93646 )\nde bruin , g . h . p . , b . c . russell and a . bogusch0 fao species identification field guide for fishery purposes . the marine fishery resources of sri lanka . rome , fao . 400 p . ( ref . 11298 )\nde la paz , r . m . , n . aragones and d . agulto0 coral - reef fishes off western calatagan , batangas ( luzon island , philippines ) with notes on new and rare captures and controversial taxa . philipp . j . sci . 117 : 237 - 318 . ( ref . 6956 )\ndepartment of fisheries malaysia0 valid local name of malaysian marine fishes . department of fisheries malaysia . ministry of agriculture and agro - based industry . 180 p . ( ref . 85449 )\neconomidis , p . s . and e . koutrakis0 common names of comercially important hellenic marine organisms . aristotle university , unpublished technical report . ( ref . 41475 )\neconomidis , p . s . 0 common names of hellenic marine fishes . aristotle university , unpublished technical report . ( ref . 41474 )\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) 0 catalog of fishes . updated database version of 2 july 2009 . catalog databases of cas cited in fishbase ( website ) . ( ref . 81932 )\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) 0 catalog of fishes . updated database version of december 2001 . catalog databases as made available to fishbase in december 2001 . ( ref . 40966 )\neschmeyer , w . n . 0 catalog of the genera of recent fishes . california academy of sciences , san francisco , usa . 697 p . ( ref . 1830 )\neschmeyer , william n . , ed . 1998 . catalog of fishes . special publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3 . 2905\nfao - fies0 aquatic sciences and fisheries information system ( asfis ) species list . retrieved from urltoken , april 2014 . ( ref . 95632 )\nfao - fies0 aquatic sciences and fisheries information system ( asfis ) species list . retrieved from urltoken , march 2012 . ( ref . 90062 )\nfao - fies0 aquatic sciences and fisheries information system ( asfis ) species list . retrieved from urltoken , [ accessed 13 / 04 / 2015 ] . ( ref . 101110 )\nfischer , w . , i . sousa , c . silva , a . de freitas , j . m . poutiers , w . schneider , t . c . borges , j . p . feral and a . massinga0 fichas fao de identifica\u00e7ao de esp\u00e9cies para actividades de pesca . guia de campo das esp\u00e9cies comerciais marinhas e de \u00e1guas salobras de mo\u00e7ambique . publica\u00e7ao preparada em collabora\u00e7ao com o instituto de investiga\u00e7ao pesquiera de mo\u00e7ambique , com financiamento do projecto pnud / fao moz / 86 / 030 e de norad . roma , fao . 1990 . 424 p . ( ref . 5213 )\nfouda , m . m . and g . v . hermosa jr . 0 a checklist of oman fishes . sultan qaboos university press , sultanate of oman . 42 p . ( ref . 6365 )\nfourmanoir , p . 0 ichthyologie et p\u00eache aux comores . m\u00e9m . inst . sci . madagascar , s\u00e9r . a , 9 : 187 - 238 . ( ref . 13510 )\nfricke , r . 1999 . fishes of the mascarene islands ( r\u00e9union , mauritius , rodriguez ) : an annotated checklist , with descriptions of new species . koeltz scientific books , koenigstein , theses zoologicae , vol . 31 : 759 p .\nfricke , r . , m . kulbicki and l . wantiez0 checklist of the fishes of new caledonia , and their distribution in the southwest pacific ocean ( pisces ) . stuttgarter beitr\u00e4ge zur naturkunde a , neue serie 4 : 341 - 463 . ( ref . 86942 )\nfricke , r . 0 fishes of the mascarene islands ( r\u00e9union , mauritius , rodriguez ) : an annotated checklist , with descriptions of new species . koeltz scientific books , koenigstein , theses zoologicae , vol . 31 : 759 p . ( ref . 33390 )\nfroese r . & pauly d . ( eds ) ( 2015 ) . fishbase ( version jan 2015 ) . in : species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 26th august 2015 ( roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , kunze t . , flann c . , bailly n . , kirk p . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , eds ) . digital resource at urltoken . species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .\nganaden , s . r . and f . lavapie - gonzales0 common and local names of marine fishes of the philippines . bureau of fisheries and aquatic resources , philippines . 385 p . ( ref . 31411 )\ngell , f . r . and m . w . whittington0 diversity of fishes in seagrass beds in the quirimba archipelago , northern mozambique . mar . freshwat . res . 53 : 115 - 121 . ( ref . 41878 )\ngoeden , g . b . 0 a monograph of the coral trout , plectropomus leopardus ( lacep\u00e8de ) . queensland fish . serv . res . bull . 1 : 1 - 42 . ( ref . 2160 )\ngolani , d . and s . v . bogorodsky0 the fishes of the red sea - reappraisal and updated checklist . zootaxa 2463 : 1 - 135 . ( ref . 84159 )\ngrabda , e . and t . heese0 polskie nazewnictwo popularne kraglouste i ryby . cyclostomata et pisces . wyzsza szkola inzynierska w koszalinie . koszalin , poland . 171 p . ( in polish ) . ( ref . 6313 )\nhardy , j . d . jr . ( comp . ) 0 coral reef fish species . noaanational oceanographic data center . nodc coral reef data and information management system . usa . 537 p . ( ref . 48497 )\nhaudricourt , a . - g . and f . ozanne - rivierre0 dictionnaire th\u00e9matique des langues de la r\u00e9gion de hiengh\u00e8ne ( nouvelle - cal\u00e9donie ) . lacito - documents . asie - austron\u00e9sie . selaf , paris , france . ( ref . 5970 )\nhelfman , g . s . and j . e . randall0 palauan fish names . pac . sci . 27 ( 2 ) : 136 - 153 . ( ref . 10494 )\nherre , a . w . c . t . and a . f . umali0 english and local common names of philippine fishes . u . s . dept . of interior and fish and wildl . serv . circular no . 14 , u . s . gov ' t printing office , washington . 128 p . ( ref . 2857 )\nhiatt , r . w . and d . w . strasburg0 ecological relationships of the fish fauna on coral reefs of the marshall islands . ecol . monogr . 30 ( 1 ) : 65 - 127 . ( ref . 275 )\nhla win , u . 0 checklist of fishes of burma . ministry of livestock breeding and fisheries , department of fisheries , burma . ( ref . 5736 )\nhobson , e . s . and j . r . chess0 feeding oriented movements of the atherinid fish praneus pinguis at majuro atoll , marshall islands . fish . bull . 71 ( 3 ) : 777 - 786 . ( ref . 13784 )\nhoese , d . f . , d . j . bray , j . r . paxton and g . r . allen0 fishes . in beasley , o . l . and a . wells ( eds . ) zoological catalogue of australia . volume 35 . 2 australia : abrs & csiro publishing , 1472 p . ( ref . 75154 )\nhuang , z . 0 marine species and their distribution in china ' s seas . p . 404 - 463 . vertebrata . smithsonian institution , florida , usa . 598 p . ( ref . 47843 )\nhureau , j . - c . 0 la base de donn\u00e9es gicim : gestion informatis\u00e9e des collections ichthyologiques du mus\u00e9um . p . 225 - 227 . in atlas pr\u00e9liminaire des poissons d ' eau douce de france . conseil sup\u00e9rieur de la p\u00eache , minist\u00e8re de l ' environnement , cemagref et mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle , paris . ( ref . 4517 )\nivantsoff , w . and l . e . l . m . crowley0 atherinidae . silversides ( or hardyheads ) . p . 2113 - 2139 . in k . e . carpenter and v . h . niem ( eds . ) fao species identification guide for fishery purposes . the living marine resources of the western central pacific . volume 4 . bony fishes part 2 ( mugilidae to carangidae ) . fao , rome . ( ref . 9760 )\nivantsoff , w . 0 atherinidae . in w . fischer and g . bianchi ( eds . ) fao species identification sheets for fishery purposes . western indian ocean fishing area 51 . vol . 1 . ( ref . 3302 )\nkailola , p . j . 0 the fishes of papua new guinea . a revised and annotated checklist . vol . 1 . myxinidae to synbranchidae . research bulletin no . 41 . department of fisheries and marine resources , port moresby , papua new guinea . 194 p . ( ref . 6993 )\nkapoor , d . , r . dayal and a . g . ponniah0 fish biodiversity of india . national bureau of fish genetic resources lucknow , india . 775 p . ( ref . 45255 )\nkatsanevakis , s . , k . tsiamis , g . ioannou , n . michailidis and a . zenetos0 inventory of alien marine species of cyprus ( 2009 ) . mediterranean marine science 10 ( 2 ) : 109 - 133 . ( ref . 95695 )\nkhalaf , m . a . and a . m . disi0 fishes of the gulf of aqaba . marine science station , aqaba , jordan . 252 p . ( ref . 48643 )\nkimura , s . , d . golani , y . iwatsuki , m . tabuchi and t . yoshino0 redescriptions of the indo - pacific atherinid fishes atherinomorus forskalii , atherinomorus lacunosus , and atherinomorus pinguis . ichthyol . res . 54 ( 2 ) : 145 - 159 . ( ref . 58474 )\nkimura , s . 0 a check list of the marine fishes collected around northern palawan and calauit islands , philippines . p . 158 - 167 . in pawikan conservation project - pawb , denr , philippines and toba aquarium , japan . dugongs dugong dugon ( m\u00fcller 1776 ) of the philippines . a report of the joint dugong research and conservation program . may 1995 . ( ref . 10558 )\nkottelat , m . , a . j . whitten , s . n . kartikasari and s . wirjoatmodjo0 freshwater fishes of western indonesia and sulawesi . periplus editions , hong kong . 221 p . ( ref . 7050 )\nkuiter , r . h . and t . tonozuka0 pictorial guide to indonesian reef fishes . part 1 . eels - snappers , muraenidae - lutjanidae . zoonetics , australia . 1 - 302 . ( ref . 48635 )\nkulbicki , m . and j . t . williams0 checklist of the shorefishes of ouvea atoll , new caledonia . atoll res . bull . 444 : 26 p . ( ref . 13236 )\nkulbicki , m . , g . mou tham , p . thollot and l . wantiez0 length - weight relationships of fish from the lagoon of new caledonia . naga iclarm q . 16 ( 2 - 3 ) : 26 - 29 . ( ref . 5525 )\nkulbicki , m . , j . e . randall and j . rivaton0 checklist of the fishes of the chesterfield islands ( coral sea ) . micronesica 27 ( 1 / 2 ) : 1 - 43 . ( ref . 11897 )\nkulbicki , m . , n . guillemot and m . amand0 a general approach to length - weight relationships for new caledonian lagoon fishes . cybium 29 ( 3 ) : 235 - 252 . ( ref . 55787 )\nkumaran , m . and s . jones0 fishes of the laccadive archipelago . kerala mathrubhumi press . ( ref . 47702 )\nkuo , s . - r . and k . - t . shao0 species composition of fish in the coastal zones of the tsengwen estuary , with descriptions of five new records from taiwan . zool . stud . 38 ( 4 ) : 391 - 404 . ( ref . 36073 )\nlarson , h . k . and b . pidgeon0 new records of freshwater fishes from east timor . the beagle , records of the museums and art galleries of the northern territory vol . 20 : 195 - 198 . ( ref . 78572 )\nleblic , i . and m . - h . teuli\u00e8res0 systemes techniques et sociaux d ' exploitation traditionnelle des ressources marines des p\u00eacheurs kanaks du nord et du sud de la cal\u00e9donie . rapport pour les appels d ' offre appartenance r\u00e9gionale et identit\u00e9 culturelle 1983 . transmission des savoirs 1984 . ( ref . 6026 )\nletourneur , y . , m . kulbicki and p . labrosse0 length - weight relationships of fish from coral reefs and lagoons of new caledonia , southwestern pacific ocean : an update . naga iclarm q . 21 ( 4 ) : 39 - 46 . ( ref . 26587 )\nletourneur , y . , p . chabanet , p . durville , m . taquet , e . teissier , m . parmentier , j . - c . qu\u00e9ro and k . pothin0 an updated checklist of the marine fish fauna of reunion island , south - western indian ocean . cybium 28 ( 3 ) : 199 - 216 . ( ref . 53568 )\nlewis , a . d . , b . r . smith and c . p . ellway0 a guide to the common tuna baitfishes of the south pacific commission area . south pacific commission , handbook no . 23 , noumea , new caledonia . ( ref . 6822 )\nlieske , e . and r . myers0 collins pocket guide . coral reef fishes . indo - pacific & caribbean including the red sea . haper collins publishers , 400 p . ( ref . 9710 )\nmasuda , h . and g . r . allen0 meeresfische der welt - gro\u00df - indopazifische region . tetra verlag , herrenteich , melle . 528 p . ( ref . 9137 )\nmasuda , h . , k . amaoka , c . araga , t . uyeno and t . yoshino0 the fishes of the japanese archipelago . vol . 1 . tokai university press , tokyo , japan . 437 p . ( text ) . ( ref . 559 )\nmccormack , g . 0 cook islands biodiversity and natural heritage database . sent by gerald mccormack as rtf document in may 2000 for use in fishbase . ( ref . 34027 )\nmercene , e . c . 0 freshwater fishes of the philippines . p . 81 - 105 . in r . guerrero iii , a . calpe , and l . darvin ( eds . ) . aquatic biology research and development in the philippines ( proceedings of the first nat ' l symposium - workshop on aquatic biology r & d ; , nov . 28 - 29 , 1995 , los ba\u00f1os , laguna ) . pcamrd bk . ser . 20 . ( ref . 13446 )\nmohsin , a . k . m . and m . a . ambak0 marine fishes and fisheries of malaysia and neighbouring countries . university of pertanian malaysia press , serdang , malaysia . 744 p . ( ref . 27550 )\nmohsin , a . k . m . , m . a . ambak and m . n . a . salam0 malay , english , and scientific names of the fishes of malaysia . occas . publ . fac . fish . mar . sci . univ . pertanian malays . 11 : 226 p . ( ref . 5756 )\nmonkolprasit , s . , s . sontirat , s . vimollohakarn and t . songsirikul0 checklist of fishes in thailand . office of environmental policy and planning , bangkok , thailand . 353 p . ( ref . 37773 )\nmorton , b . 0 the coastal seafood of hong kong . p . 125 - 150 . in b . s . morton ( ed . ) the future of the hong kong seashore oxford university press , news building , nort point , hong kong . ( ref . 12087 )\nmutia , m . t . m . , m . d . l . magistrado and m . c . muyot0 status of sardinella tawilis in taal lake , batangas , philippines . proceedings of the 8th zonal research and development review , october 6 - 7 , 2004 , de la salle university , taft avenue , manila . cd - rom . philippine council for aquatic and marine r & d ; and southern luzon zonal center for aquatic and marine r & d : los ba\u00f1os , laguna . ( ref . 81494 )\nmyers , r . f . 0 micronesian reef fishes . second ed . coral graphics , barrigada , guam . 298 p . ( ref . 1602 )\nmyers , r . f . 0 micronesian reef fishes : a practical guide to the identification of the inshore marine fishes of the tropical central and western pacific . first edition . coral graphics , barrigada , guam . 298 p . ( ref . 4538 )\nmyers , r . f . 0 micronesian reef fishes : a comprehensive guide to the coral reef fishes of micronesia , 3rd revised and expanded edition . coral graphics , barrigada , guam . 330 p . ( ref . 37816 )\nng , h . h . , h . h . tan and k . k . p . lim0 the inland fishes of pulau tioman , peninsular malaysia . raffles bull . zool . 1999 ( suppl . 6 ) : 169 - 187 . ( ref . 41184 )\nnguyen , h . p . and n . t . nguyen0 checklist of marine fishes in vietnam . vol . 2 . osteichthyes , from elopiformes to mugiliformes . science and technics publishing house , vietnam . ( ref . 9706 )\nnguyen , n . t . and v . q . nguyen0 biodiversity and living resources of the coral reef fishes in vietnam marine waters . science and technology publishing house , hanoi . ( ref . 58534 )\nni , i . - h . and k . - y . kwok0 marine fish fauna in hong kong waters . zool . stud . 38 ( 2 ) : 130 - 152 . ( ref . 31075 )\nnorman , j . r . 0 xxv . report on fishes . cambridge expedition to the suez canal , 1924 . trans . zool . soc . lond . 22 : 375 - 390 . ( ref . 12829 )\nnurettin meri\u00e7 , l\u00fctfiye eryilmaz , m\u00fcfit \u00f6zulug ( 2007 ) : a catalogue of the fishes held in the istanbul university , science faculty , hydrobiology museum . zootaxa 1472 , 29 - 54 : 40 - 40 , urltoken\nokiyama , m . 0 an atlas of the early stage fishes in japan . koeltz scientific books , germany . 1154 p . ( ref . 9902 )\npapaconstantinou , c . 0 check - list of marine fishes of greece . fauna graeciae iv , 257 p . ( ref . 48657 )\nparatype : taylor , w . r . 1964 . records of the american - australian scientific expedition to arnhem land . 4 : 140 , pl . 26 .\npaulin , c . , a . stewart , c . roberts and p . mcmillan0 new zealand fish : a complete guide . national museum of new zealand miscellaneous series no . 19 . 279 p . ( ref . 5755 )\npaxton , j . r . , d . f . hoese , g . r . allen and j . e . hanley0 pisces . petromyzontidae to carangidae . zoological catalogue of australia , vol . 7 . australian government publishing service , canberra , 665 p . ( ref . 7300 )\npereira , m . a . m . 0 preliminary checklist of reef - associated fishes of mozambique . maputo , ministtry for the coordination of environmental affairs ( micoa ) . 21 pp . ( ref . 57683 )\npsomadakis , p . n . , s . giustino and m . vacchi0 mediterranean fish biodiversity : an updated inventory with focus on the ligurian and tyrrhenian seas . zootaxa 3263 : 1 - 46 . ( ref . 95871 )\nrajan , p . t . , c . r . sreeraj and t . immanuel0 fish fauna of coral reef , mangrove , freshwater , offshore and seagrass beds of andaman and nicobar islands . zoological survey of india , andaman and nicobar regional centre , haddo , port blair . ( ref . 87596 )\nrandall , j . e . and c . anderson0 annotated checklist of the epipelagic and shore fishes of the maldives islands . ichthyol . bull . of the j . l . b . smith inst . of ichthyol . ( 59 ) : 1 - 47 . ( ref . 11303 )\nrandall , j . e . and k . k . p . lim ( eds . ) 0 a checklist of the fishes of the south china sea . raffles bull . zool . suppl . ( 8 ) : 569 - 667 . ( ref . 36648 )\nrandall , j . e . , g . r . allen and r . c . steene0 fishes of the great barrier reef and coral sea . university of hawaii press , honolulu , hawaii . 506 p . ( ref . 2334 )\nrandall , j . e . , h . ida , k . kato , r . l . pyle and j . l . earle0 annotated checklist of inshore fishes of the ogasawara islands . nat . sci . mus . monogr . ( 11 ) : 1 - 74 . ( ref . 26066 )\nrandall , j . e . , j . l . earle , t . hayes , c . pittman , m . severns and r . l . f . smith0 eleven new records and validations of shore fishes from the hawaiian islands . pac . sci . 47 ( 3 ) : 222 - 239 . ( ref . 7490 )\nrandall , j . e . 0 coastal fishes of oman . university of hawaii press , honolulu , hawaii . 439 p . ( ref . 11441 )\nrandall , j . e . 0 randall ' s tank photos . collection of 10 , 000 large - format photos ( slides ) of dead fishes . unpublished . ( ref . 28618 )"]}
{"id": 714, "summary": [{"text": "the short-billed canastero ( asthenes baeri ) is a species of bird in the furnariidae family .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is found in argentina , bolivia , brazil , paraguay , and uruguay .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry shrubland .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "three subspecies are recognized : a. b. chacoensis brodkorb , 1938 - bolivia and paraguay a. b. baeri ( berlepsch , 1906 ) - argentina , bolivia , brazil , paraguay , and uruguay a. b. neiffi ( contreras , 1980 ) - argentina", "topic": 29}], "title": "short - billed canastero", "paragraphs": ["remsen , j . v . , jr ( 2018 ) . short - billed canastero ( asthenes baeri ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ncopyright and usage info : this file is licensed under creative commons attribution sharealike 2 . 0 license ( cc - by - sa - 2 . 0 ) . in short : you are free to share and make derivative works of the file under the conditions that you appropriately attribute it , and that you distribute it under this or a similar cc - by - sa license .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' fairly common ' ( stotz et al . ( 1996 ) . trend justification : this population is suspected to be in decline owing to ongoing habitat degradation ( del hoyo et al . 2003 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : asthenes baeri . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nvoice , nest structure , plumage and tail morphology all indicate that this species is part of a group formed by a . dorbignyi and a . berlepschi . races chacoensis and neiffi perhaps no more than extremes in clinal variation , and species may be better treated as monotypic ; reassessment needed . three subspecies tentatively recognized .\nbrodkorb , 1938 \u2013 extreme sc bolivia ( sc santa cruz ) and nw paraguay .\n( berlepsch , 1906 ) \u2013 s bolivia ( e tarija ) , w paraguay , n & c argentina ( salta , w formosa and w corrientes s to e mendoza , la pampa , ne r\u00edo negro and s buenos aires ) , extreme se brazil ( sw rio grande do sul ) and w uruguay .\n( contreras , 1980 ) \u2013 w argentina ( nw & c mendoza , w c\u00f3rdoba , n & c san luis ) .\nsong a few introductory notes followed by long , fast trill of mechanical , dry notes ; terminal trill . . .\nrecorded items include ants , orthoptera ( including acrididae ) , diptera , coleoptera ( including cerambycidae ) , hymenoptera , dermaptera . . . .\nseason during austral spring - summer ; eggs in oct\u2013jan and nestlings in oct . presumably monogamous . nest an oval mass c . 24\u201335 \u00d7 . . .\nnot globally threatened . uncommon to fairly common . occurs in several protected areas . habitat occupied by this species is subject to at least moderate disturbance and . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nrecent phylogenetic work supports subdivision into 5\u20136 clades ( herein tribes ) , depending on inclusion or exclusion of xenopini # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 289 , 521 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\njavascript has been deactivated in your browser . reactivation will enable you to use the vocabulary trainer and any other programs .\nyou are not signed in . please sign in or register for free if you want to use this function .\nwe are using the following form field to detect spammers . please do leave them untouched . otherwise your message will be regarded as spam . we are sorry for the inconvenience .\nthank you ! your message has now been forwarded to the pons editorial department .\ncollect the vocabulary that you want to remember while using the dictionary . the items that you have collected will be displayed under\nvocabulary list\n.\nif you want to copy vocabulary items to the vocabulary trainer , click on\nimport\nin the vocabulary list .\nplease note that the vocabulary items in this list are only available in this browser . once you have copied them to the vocabulary trainer , they are available from everywhere .\nunique : the editorially approved pons online dictionary with text translation tool now includes a database with hundreds of millions of real translations from the internet . see how foreign - language expressions are used in real life . real language usage will help your translations to gain in accuracy and idiomaticity !\nenter a word ( \u201cnewspaper\u201d ) , a word combination ( \u201cexciting trip\u201d ) or a phrase ( \u201cwith all good wishes\u201d ) into the search box . the search engine displays hits in the dictionary entries plus translation examples , which contain the exact or a similar word or phrase .\nthis new feature displays references to sentence pairs from translated texts , which we have found for you on the internet , directly within many of our pons dictionary entries .\na click on the tab \u201cusage examples\u201d displays a full inventory of translations to all of the senses of the headword . usage examples present in the pons dictionary will be displayed first .\nthe pons dictionary delivers the reliability of a dictionary which has been editorially reviewed and expanded over the course of decades . in addition , the dictionary is now supplemented with millions of real - life translation examples from external sources . so , now you can see how a concept is translated in specific contexts . you can find the answers to questions like \u201ccan you really say \u2026 in german ? \u201d and so , you will produce more stylistically sophisticated translations .\nthe \u201cexamples from the internet\u201d do , in fact , come from the internet . we are able to identify trustworthy translations with the aid of automated processes . the main sources we used are professionally translated company , and academic , websites . in addition , we have included websites of international organizations such as the european union . because of the overwhelming data volume , it has not been possible to carry out a manual editorial check on all of these documents . so , we logically cannot guarantee the quality of each and every translation . this is why they are marked \u201cnot verified by pons editors\u201d .\nwe are working on continually optimizing the quality of our usage examples by improving their relevance as well as the translations . in addition , we have begun to apply this technology to further languages in order to build up usage - example databases for other language pairs . we also aim to integrate these usage examples into our mobile applications ( mobile website , apps ) as quickly as possible .\nthe examples come from the entire data collection of the pons dictionary and are all editorially certified .\ndid you know ? all our dictionaries are bidirectional , meaning that you can look up words in both languages at the same time .\n2 . savanna - > 2 . 2 . savanna - moist suitability : suitable season : resident major importance : no 3 . shrubland - > 3 . 5 . shrubland - subtropical / tropical dry suitability : suitable season : resident major importance : yes\niucn . 2016 . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2016 - 3 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 07 december 2016 ) .\nstotz , d . f . , fitzpatrick , j . w . , parker , t . a . and moskovits , d . k . 1996 . neotropical birds : ecology and conservation . university of chicago press , chicago .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nspecial thanks to tropical birding for outstanding photo contributions to the bird data family of apps ."]}
{"id": 719, "summary": [{"text": "the striated babbler ( turdoides earlei ) is a species of bird in the family leiothrichidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in southern asia from pakistan to myanmar . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "striated babbler", "paragraphs": ["striated babbler : many types of calls given by an early morning foraging party of about 10 individuals .\nbabbler , nondescript in shades of pale brown and buff with heavy streaking above , lighter below . . . .\ncollar , n . & robson , c . ( 2018 ) . striated babbler ( argya earlei ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be locally common ( grewal et al . 2002 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be in decline owing to ongoing habitat destruction and fragmentation .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n( koelz , 1954 ) \u2013 pakistan ( r indus plains ) and nw india ( punjab ) .\n( blyth , 1844 ) \u2013 n india ( haryana e to n bihar and from west bengal s to ne odisha , also in assam and manipur ) , s nepal , bangladesh and sw , c & s myanmar .\nsong thought to be a loud , repeated series of \u201ctiew - tiew - tiew - tiew\u201d , interspersed with \u201cquip - quip - . . .\ninsects , snails and some vegetable matter . found in flocks of 7\u201310 or more individuals , even during breeding season . does not descend . . .\nall year , mainly mar\u2013oct ; multi - brooded . co - operative breeder . nest a rather massive but neat and compact cup ( smaller and more . . .\nnot globally threatened . common and widespread in pakistan , including in dera ismail khan district . locally common in e nepal , uncommon elsewhere in country . locally common . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\ntentatively separated from turdoides # r ; genetic screening of at least some component taxa required .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nmkennewell , pieter de groot boersma , alok tewari , josep del hoyo , keith and lynn youngs .\nlars petersson , stefan helming , alok tewari , santa tamang , paul van giersbergen , ken havard , jugal tiwari , sharad , biplab kr . mukhopadhyay , kavi nanda , gilgit2 .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 292 , 741 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : argya earlei . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\ndouble - check spelling , grammar , punctuation . translators work best when there are no errors or typos .\nif words are different , search our dictionary to understand why and pick the right word .\nif phrases are different , try searching our examples to help pick the right phrase .\nwe ' ve combined the most accurate english to spanish translations , dictionary , verb conjugations , and spanish to english translators into one very powerful search box .\nspanishdict is devoted to improving our site based on user feedback and introducing new and innovative features that will continue to help people learn and love the spanish language . have a suggestion , idea , or comment ? send us your feedback ."]}
{"id": 735, "summary": [{"text": "sibon sanniolus , commonly known as the pygmy snail sucker or pygmy snail-eating snake , is a species of small snake which is found in mexico , belize , and guatemala . ", "topic": 16}], "title": "sibon sanniolus", "paragraphs": ["mesopeltis sanniolus cope 1866 : 318 leptognathus sanniola \u2014 bocourt 1908 sibynomorphus sanniola \u2014 schmidt & andrews 1936 sibynomorphus sanniolus \u2014 gaige 1936 sibon neilli henderson , hoevers & wilson 1977 sibon sanniola \u2014 lee 2000 : 329 sibon sanniolus \u2014 liner 1994 sibon sanniola \u2014 campbell 1998 sibon sanniolus \u2014 mccranie 2006 sibon sanniolus \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 669 sibon sanniola \u2014 heimes 2016 : 309\npigmy snail sucker ( sibon sanniolus ) on oth\u00f3n p . blanco check list \u00b7 urltoken\nsibon perissostichon k\u00f6hler , lotzkat & hertz 2010 sibon perrisostichon \u2014 rovito et al . 2012 ( in error ) sibon perissostichon \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 669\ncloudy snail - eating snake ( snail sucker ) - sibon nebulata . . . photo\nk\u00f6hler , gunther , j . rogelio cede\u00f1o - v\u00e1zquez , till kirstein and pablo beutelspacher - garc\u00eda . 2016 . the chetumal snake census : generating biological data from road - killed snakes . part 2 . dipsas brevifacies , sibon sanniolus , and tropidodipsas sartorii . mesoamerican herpetology 3 ( 3 ) : 689\u2013705\na new species of sibon , placed in the sibon annulatus species group , is described from the mosquitia region of northeastern honduras . within this group , the new species appears most closely related to sibon dimidiatus . by comparison to s . dimidiatus , the new species can be distinguished by its fewer ventrals , subcaudals , total number of ventrals plus subcaudals , and smaller adult size .\nmccranie , james r . ( 2006 ) new species of sibon ( squamata : colubridae ) from northeastern honduras . : journal of herpetology 40 ( 1 ) : 16 - 21\nmccranie , james r . 2006 . new species of sibon ( squamata : colubridae ) from northeastern honduras . journal of herpetology 40 ( 1 ) : 16 - 21 - get paper here\nrovito , sean m . ; theodore j . papenfuss ( 2012 ) a new species of sibon ( squamata : colubridae ) from the mountains of eastern guatemala . : zootaxa 3266 : 62\u201368\nsmith , hobart m . , 1982 : the gender of the nominal snake genus sibon . bulletin of the maryland herpetological society , vol . 18 , no . 4 . 192 - 193 .\ngenus sibon fitzinger , 1826 has been variously treated in literature as masculine , feminine , and neuter ; as the gender of a variable name should be considered masculine unless the original author implies otherwise ( iczn art . 30a2 ) , and as fitzinger treated all the adjectival epithets initially placed in the genus as masculine , masculine is the proper gender assignable to sibon ( smith , 1982 )\nrovito , sean m . ; theodore j . papenfuss 2012 . a new species of sibon ( squamata : colubridae ) from the mountains of eastern guatemala . zootaxa 3266 : 62\u201368 - get paper here\nmccranie , j . r . ( 2007 ) a second new species of sibon ( squamata : colubridae ) from la mosquitia , northeastern honduras . : herpetologica 63 ( 2 ) : 213 - 218\nmccranie , j . r . 2007 . a second new species of sibon ( squamata : colubridae ) from la mosquitia , northeastern honduras . herpetologica 63 ( 2 ) : 213 - 218 - get paper here\nk\u00f6hler , gunther , sebastian lotzkat and andreas hertz . 2010 . a new species of sibon ( squamata : colubridae ) from western panama . herpetologica 66 ( 1 ) : 80 - 85 - get paper here\nkofron , c . p . ( 1990 ) systematics of neotropical gastropod - eating snakes : the dimidiata group of the genus sibon , with comments on the nebulata group . : amphibia - reptilia 11 : 207 - 223\nkofron , c . p . 1990 . systematics of neotropical gastropod - eating snakes : the dimidiata group of the genus sibon , with comments on the nebulata group . amphibia - reptilia 11 : 207 - 223 - get paper here\nmccoy , c . j . 1986 . results of the carnegie museum of natural history expeditions to belize . i . systematic status and geographic distribution of sibon neilli ( reptilia , serpentes ) . annals of the carnegie museum 55 : 117 - 123 .\nmccoy , c . j . ( 1986 ) results of the carnegie museum of natural history expeditions to belize . i . systematic status and geographic distribution of sibon neilli ( reptilia , serpentes ) . : annals of the carnegie museum 55 : 117 - 123 .\nhenderson , r . w . , hoevers , l . g . , & wilson , l . d . ( 1977 ) a new species of sibon ( reptilia , serpentes , colubridae ) from belize , central america . : journal of herpetology 11 ( 1 ) : 77 - 79 .\nlotzkat , s . ; a . hertz ; g . k\u00f6hler . 2012 . a new species of sibon ( squamata : colubroidea : dipsadidae ) from the cordillera central of western panama , with comments on other species of the genus in the area . zootaxa 3485 : 26\u201340 - get paper here\nhenderson , r . w . , hoevers , l . g . , & wilson , l . d . 1977 . a new species of sibon ( reptilia , serpentes , colubridae ) from belize , central america . journal of herpetology 11 ( 1 ) : 77 - 79 . - get paper here\np\u00e9rez - higareda , gonzalo , marco a . l\u00f3pez - luna , and hobart m . smith ( 2002 ) a new snake related to sibon sanniola ( serpentes : dipsadidae ) from los tuxtlas , veracruz , mexico . : bull . maryland herp . soc . 38 ( 2 ) : 62 - 65\np\u00e9rez - higareda , gonzalo , marco a . l\u00f3pez - luna , and hobart m . smith 2002 . a new snake related to sibon sanniola ( serpentes : dipsadidae ) from los tuxtlas , veracruz , mexico . bull . maryland herp . soc . 38 ( 2 ) : 62 - 65 - get paper here\na new species of sibon in the s . annulatus species group is described from the mosquitia region of northeastern honduras . the new species differs from all other members in the group in ventral and dorsal coloration . within this group , the new species appears to be most closely related to s . dimidiatus and s . miskitus .\nthe number of species increased from 10 , 711 to 10 , 793 , i . e . an increase of 82 species . 66 new species have been described , 9 species have been revalidated from synonymy and 16 subspecies were elevated to full species . . .\nover the past 4 months , the number of species increased from 10 , 639 to 10 , 711 .\nthe number of species has grown from 10 , 544 in the may release to now 10 , 639 ( + 95 species ) .\noverall , 212 new taxa have been added or changed their status or name .\nthe reptile database is a taxonomic database that provides basic information about all living reptile species , such as turtles , snakes , lizards , and crocodiles , as well as tuataras and amphisbaenians , but does not include dinosaurs .\ncurrently there are more than 10 , 000 species and an additional 2 , 700 subspecies . this is making reptiles the largest vertebrate group after fish ( ~ 25 , 000 species ) and birds ( ~ 10 , 000 species ) , and significantly larger than mammals ( ~ 5 , 000 species ) or amphibians ( ~ 6 , 000 species ) .\nthe reptile database provides taxonomic information for the catalogue of life and the encyclopedia of life . our taxonomic information has also been used by genbank and many other resources and is the only comprehensive reptile database on the web .\nthe reptile database can be used to find all species within a certain geographic area ( e . g . all snakes of egypt ) . its collection of more than 2 , 500 images allow users to identify a species or at least get an idea how the species or genus may look like . more than 30 , 000 references provide a guide to further information .\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nbarbour , t . , and l . j . cole . 1906 . vertebrata from yucatan . reptilia , amphibia and pisces . bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard 50 : 146 - 159 - get paper here\ncalderon , r . ; cede\u00f1o - v\u00e1zquez , j . r . & pozo , c . 2003 . new distributional records for amphibians and reptiles from campeche , mexico . herpetological review 34 ( 3 ) : 269 - 272 - get paper here\ncampbell , j . a . 1998 . amphibians and reptiles of northern guatemala , the yucat\u00e1n , and belize . norman : university of oklahoma press , xiii + 380 pp . - get paper here\ncope , e . d . 1867 . fifth contribution lo the herpetology of tropical america . proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , 18 [ 1866 ] : 317 - 323 - get paper here\ngaige , h . 1936 . some reptiles and amphibians from yucatan and campeche , mexico . carnegie inst . wash . publ . , ( 457 ) : 289 - 304 .\nharvey , michael b . ; gilson rivas fuenmayor , jos\u00e9 rances caicedo - portilla , and jos\u00e9 vicente rueda - almonacid 2009 . systematics of the enigmatic dipsadine snake tropidodipsas perijanensis alem\u00e1n ( serpentes : colubridae ) and review of morphological characters of dipsadini . herpetological monographs 22 ( 1 ) : 106 - 132 - get paper here\nheimes , p . 2016 . snakes of mexico . chimaira , frankfurt , 572 pp\nk\u00f6hler , g . 2008 . reptiles of central america . 2nd ed . herpeton - verlag , 400 pp .\nlee , j . c . 2000 . a field guide to the amphibians and reptiles of the maya world . cornell university press , ithaca ,\nlee , j . c . 1996 . the amphibians and reptiles of the yucat\u00e1n peninsula . comstock , cornell university press , ithaca , 500 pp .\nmccoy , c . j . , censky , e . j . , & van de vender , r . r . 1986 . distribution records for amphibians and reptiles in belize , central america . herpetological review 17 : 28 - 29 . - get paper here\npeters , j . a . 1960 . the snakes of the subfamily dipsadinae . misc . publ . mus . zool . , univ . michigan ( 114 ) : 224 pp . - get paper here\npizzatto , l\u00edgia ; maur\u00edcio cantor , juliana lima de oliveira , otavio a . v . marques , vinicius capovilla , and marcio martins 2008 . reproductive ecology of dipsadine snakes , with emphasis on south american species . herpetologica 64 ( 2 ) : 168 - 179 - get paper here\nschmidt , k . p , & andrews , e . w . 1936 . notes on snakes from yucat\u00e1n . field mus . nat hist . zool . ser . 20 : 167 - 187 . - get paper here\nwallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nflores - villela , oscar / mccoy , c . j . , ed .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nbarbour , t . , and l . j . cole . ( 1906 ) vertebrata from yucatan . reptilia , amphibia and pisces . : bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard 50 : 146 - 159\ncalderon , r . ; cede\u00f1o - v\u00e1zquez , j . r . & pozo , c . ( 2003 ) new distributional records for amphibians and reptiles from campeche , mexico . : herpetological review 34 ( 3 ) : 269 - 272\ncope , e . d . ( 1867 ) fifth contribution lo the herpetology of tropical america . : proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , 18 [ 1866 ] : 317 - 323\nflores - villela , oscar / mccoy , c . j . , ed . , 1993 : herpetofauna mexicana : lista anotada de las especies de anfibios y reptiles de m\u00e9xico , cambios taxon\u00f3micos recientes , y nuevas especies . carnegie museum of natural history special publication , no . 17 . iv + 73 .\nfrank , norman & ramus , erica ( 1995 ) a complete guide to scientific and common names of reptiles and amphibians of the world . : pottsville : n g publishing inc . , 377 pp .\nharvey , michael b . ; gilson rivas fuenmayor , jos\u00e9 rances caicedo - portilla , and jos\u00e9 vicente rueda - almonacid ( 2009 ) systematics of the enigmatic dipsadine snake tropidodipsas perijanensis alem\u00e1n ( serpentes : colubridae ) and review of morphological characters of dipsadini . : herpetological monographs 22 ( 1 ) : 106 - 132\nlee , j . c . ( 2000 ) a field guide to the amphibians and reptiles of the maya world . : cornell university press , ithaca ,\nlee , j . c . ( 1996 ) the amphibians and reptiles of the yucat\u00e1n peninsula . : comstock , cornell university press , ithaca , 500 pp .\nmccoy , c . j . , censky , e . j . , & van de vender , r . r . ( 1986 ) distribution records for amphibians and reptiles in belize , central america . : herpetological review 17 : 28 - 29 .\npeters , j . a . ( 1960 ) the snakes of the subfamily dipsadinae . : misc . publ . mus . zool . , univ . michigan ( 114 ) : 224 pp .\npizzatto , l\u00edgia ; maur\u00edcio cantor , juliana lima de oliveira , otavio a . v . marques , vinicius capovilla , and marcio martins ( 2008 ) reproductive ecology of dipsadine snakes , with emphasis on south american species . : herpetologica 64 ( 2 ) : 168 - 179\nschmidt , k . p , & andrews , e . w . ( 1936 ) notes on snakes from yucat\u00e1n . : field mus . nat hist . zool . ser . 20 : 167 - 187 .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\neleutherodactylus operosus savage , mccranie , and wilson , 1999 : a synonym of eleutherodactylus cerasi . . .\neleutherodactylus operosus is placed in the synonymy of eleutherodactylus cerasinus , based on the collection of new specimens from eastern honduras .\nnew species of snake of the colubrid genus rhadinaea ( godmani group ) from parque nacional el cusuco , . . .\nse describe una nueva especie de rhadinaea del grupo godmani en una localidad de bosque nublado en la sierra de omoa , en el noroeste de honduras . se diferencia de las otras especies del grupo por las siguientes caracter\u00edsticas : las superficies ventral y subcaudal rojas , la presencia de 21\u201321\u201321 filas de escamas dorsales , rayas vertebrales y laterales bien definidas y las rayas suplementarias . . . [ show full abstract ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nthat inhabit its rich and ideal natural habitat . a diverse reptile population , from sea turtles to boa constrictors , can be found in all parts of the equally diverse habitat . while some might not be easy to see , all leave their distinct footprint on the yucatan peninsula .\ntropical milksnake - lampropeltis triangulum blanchard ' s or yucatan milk snake is the subspecies that is endemic to the yucatan .\ngreen - headed treesnake ( mexican parrot snake ) - leptophis mexicanus . . . photo\nsalmon - bellied racer - mastigodryas melanolomus . . . photo1 . . . photo2\ncentral american ( yellow - red ) rat snake - pseudelaphe flavirufus ( elaphe / pantherophis flavirufa ) . . . photo\nbird - eating tree snake ( neotropical bird snake , puffing snake ) - pseustes poecilonotus . . . photo\nadorned graceful brown ( striped forest ) snake - rhadinaea decorata . . . photo\nguatemala neckband snake ( shovel - toothed ) snake - scaphiodontophis annulatus . . . photo\nyucatan white - lipped snake - symphimus ( opheodrys ) mayae . . . photo\nyucatan neotropical rattlesnake ( cascabel ) - crotalus tzabcan ( durissus ) . . . photo\nnote : many of the location details are from focus on nature tours list of reptiles . . . link\na posting on urltoken with lots of photos of anoles and a discussion on identification of the species in the photos , june 2008 . . . . link\nfollow - up on the decline in hawksbills of the yucatan region , from wwf ' s latin american and caribbean marine turtle programme , 2005 . . . . link\nthe campeche\nescorpion\n, an unknown mexican reptile , by peter heimes , m\u00e9xico desconocido , may 2000 . a great article about the discovery ( in 1994 ) and ecology of the campeche spiny - tailed iguana - ctenosaura alfredschmidti . . . . link\nmorelet ' s crocodile at yucatan peninsula ; crocodile specialist group ( wwf ) newsletter ; jan - mar 2002 . . . . link\niucn 2010 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2010 . 4 . urltoken downloaded march 2011 .\noccurence status describes how common or rare a taxon is in a given area . see darwincore for more information on terminology .\nestablishment means describes how the taxon came to be established in an area . see darwincore for more information on terminology .\ngroup ( serpentes : colubridae ) . \u2014robert w . hansen and gerard t . salmon .\nthe chetumal snake census : generating biological data from road - killed snakes . part 5 .\n. \u2014gunther k\u00f6hler , j . rogelio cede\u00f1o - v\u00e1zquez , elias darius kraus , pablo m . beutelspacher - garc\u00eda , and juan alonso dom\u00ednguez - lepe\nthe herpetofauna of puebla , mexico : composition , distribution , and conservation status . \u2014guillermo a . woolrich - pi\u00f1a , el\u00ed garc\u00eda - padilla , dominic l . desantis , jerry d . johnson , vicente mata - silva , and larry david wilson\n) nest sites at la reserva de la biosfera de janos , chihuahua , mexico . \u2014david lazcano , erika bail\u00f3n - cuellar , gabriel ruiz - ayma , roberto mercado - hern\u00e1ndez , bryan navarro - vel\u00e1zquez , larry david wilson , g . lawrence powell , and anthony p . russell\na system for categorizing the distribution of the mesoamerican herpetofauna . \u2014larry david wilson , jerry d . johnson , louis w . porras , vicente mata - silva , and el\u00ed garc\u00eda - padilla\nhe chetumal snake census : generating biological data from road - killed snakes . part 4 .\n. \u2014 gunther k\u00f6hler , j . rogelio cede\u00f1o - v\u00e1zquez , akary myat tun , and pablo m . beutelspacher - garc\u00eda\nthe endemic herpetofauna of mexico : organisms of global significance in severe peril . \u2014 jerry d . johnson , larry david wilson , vicente mata - silva , el\u00ed garc\u00eda - padilla , and dominic l . desantis\n( serpentes : dipsadidae ) from the sierra de agalta , honduras . \u2014 james r . mccranie\nthe herpetofauna of the mexican yucatan peninsula : composition , distribution , and conservation status . \u2014 victor hugo gonz\u00e1lez - s\u00e1nchez , jerry d . johnson , el\u00ed garc\u00eda - padilla , vicente mata - silva , dominic l . desantis , and larry david wilson\n) in chiquibul forest , belize . \u2014 marisa tellez , boris arevalo , isabelle paquet - durand , and shawn heflick\nthe herpetofauna of jalisco , mexico : composition , distribution , and conservation status . \u2014 daniel cruz - s\u00e1enz , francisco javier mu\u00f1oz - nolasco , vicente mata - silva , jerry d . johnson , el\u00ed garc\u00eda - padilla , and larry david wilson\n\u2014 ross furbush , itzue w . caviedes - solis , fausto r . m\u00e9ndez - de la cruz , and adam d . leach\u00e9\n( anura : craugastoridae ) in costa rica . \u2014 jonathan e . twining and john o . cossel , jr .\nsouthern distributional limits of the sonoran desert herpetofauna along the mainland coast of northwestern mexico .\n\u2014 robert l . bezy , philip c . rosen , thomas r . van devender , and erik f . enderson\nthe herpetofauna of islands in the golfo de fonseca and adjacent waters , honduras .\n( boulenger , 1896 ) from mid - elevation forests in the valle de orosi , costa rica .\namphibians of the cordillera nombre de dios , honduras : coi barcoding suggests underestimated taxonomic richness in a threatened endemic fauna .\nthe chetumal snake census : generating biological data from road - killed snakes . part 3 .\ngunther k\u00f6hler , j . rogelio cede\u00f1o - v\u00e1zquez , manuela spaeth , and pablo m . beutelspacher - garc\u00eda\nidentification uncertainty and proposed best - practices for documenting herpetofaunal geographic distributions , with applied examples from southern mexico .\n\u2014 adam g . clause , carlos j . pav\u00f3n - v\u00e1zquez , peter a . scott , chris m . murphy , eric w . schaad , and levi n . gray\na survey of tadpoles and adult anurans in the sierra madre del sur in oaxaca , mexico ( amphibia : anura ) .\nthe chetumal snake census : generating biological data from road - killed snakes . part 1 . introduction .\nthe chetumal snake census : generating biological data from road - killed snakes . part 2 .\nthe herpetofauna of nayarit , mexico : composition , distribution , and conservation status . \u2014 guillermo a . woolrich - pi\u00f1a , paulino ponce - campos , jes\u00fas loc - barrag\u00e1n , juan pablo ram\u00edrez - silva , vicente mata - silva , jerry d . johnson , el\u00ed garc\u00eda - padilla , and larry david wilson\npopulation status of the american crocodile ( crocodylus acutus ) in caye caulker , belize . \u2014 marisa tellez , miriam boucher , and karl kohlman\nsmith , 1956 ) and the description of two new species . \u2014 gunther k\u00f6hler ,\nthe herpetofauna of tamaulipas , mexico : composition , distribution , and conservation status . \u2014 sergio a . ter\u00e1n - ju\u00e1rez , el\u00ed garc\u00eda padilla , vicente mata - silva , jerry d . johnson , and larry david wilson\nnew distribution record and reproductive data for the chocoan bushmaster , lachesis acrochorda ( serpentes : viperidae ) , in panama . \u2014 rogemif daniel fuentes and greivin corrales\na checklist and key to the snakes of the tantilla clade ( squamata : colubridae ) , with comments on distribution and conservation . \u2014 larry david wilson and vicente mata - silva\nbody size , humeral spine size , and aggressive interactions in the emerald glass frog , espadarana prosoblepon ( anura : centrolenidae ) in costa rica . \u2014 hayden d . hedman and myra c . hughey\nreproduction of the zebra - tailed lizard , callisaurus draconoides ( squamata : phrynosomatidae ) , from baja california sur , mexico . \u2014 stephen r . goldberg\nmexican hylid frogs . \u2014 itzue w . caviedes - solis , luis f . v\u00e1zquez - vega , israel\nsolano - zavaleta , edmundo p\u00e9rez - ramos , sean m . rovito , tom j . devitt , peter heimes , oscar a . flores - villela , jonathan a . campbell , and adri\u00e1n nieto montes de oca\nin nuevo le\u00f3n , mexico . \u2014 william l . farr , manuel nev\u00e1rez de los reyes ,\ndumeril\u2019s coralsnake ( micrurus dumerilii jan , 1858 ) in panama . \u2014 aaron prairie , kathryn chandler , patty ruback , and\nmorphology and ecology of the mexican cave anole anolis alvarezdeltoroi . \u2014 simon scarpetta , levi gray , adrian nieto\nthe herpetofauna of chiapas , mexico : composition , distribution , and conservation . \u2014 jerry d . johnson , vicente mata - silva ,\n( duellman , 1968 ) ( amphibia : anura : hylidae ) . \u2014 gunther k\u00f6hler , ra\u00fal gomez trejo p\u00e9rez , luis canseco - m\u00e1rquez , fausto m\u00e9ndez de la cruz , and arne\ndum\u00e9ril & bibron , 1841 ( anura : rhinophrynidae ) . \u2014 luis sandoval , gilbert barrantes , diego ocampo , and catalina s\u00e1nchez - quir\u00f3s\nupdated checklists of snakes for the provinces of panam\u00e1 and panam\u00e1 oeste , republic of panama .\nthe herpetofauna of oaxaca , mexico : composition , physiographic distribution , and conservation status . \u2014 vicente mata - silva , jerry d . johnson , larry david wilson , and el\u00ed garc\u00eda - padilla\n( sauria : helodermatidae ) , in a tropical dry forest of the motagua valley , guatemala . \u2014 daniel ariano - s\u00e1nchez and gilberto salazar\n( anura : hylidae ) , in the caribbean foothills of southeastern costa rica . \u2014 brian kubicki and stanley salazar\n( sauria : anguidae ) . \u2014 william w . lamar , c\u00e9sar l . barrio - amor\u00f3s , quetzal dwyer , juan g . abarca , and roel de plecker\ntitle pages \u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013 cover , table of contents , board members , social media team and country representatives view / download articles \u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2013\u2013\u2014\u2014\u2013\u2014\u2014 - an updated checklist of the amphibians and reptiles of nicaragua . \u2014 javier sunyer view / download \u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013 characterizing the chort\u00eds block biogeographic province : geological , physiographic , and ecological associations and herpetofaunal diversity . \u2014 josiah h . townsend view / download \u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013 two new species of the norops pachypus complex ( squamata , dactyloidae ) from costa rica . \u2014 gunther k\u00f6hler , joseph vargas , and sebastian lotzkat view / download other contributions \u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2014 - - \u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013 nature notes , distribution notes , and miscellaneous notes view / download\ngroup from eastern panama . \u2014 abel batista , gunther k\u00f6hler , konrad mebert , and milan vesely\nan updated list of the amphibians and reptiles of honduras , with comments on their nomenclature . \u2014 jos\u00e9 m . solis ,\nsnake species of the world , vol . undetermined , manuscript ( version 2004 )\nworking manuscript of follow - up volumes to mcdiarmid et al . ( 1999 ) ,\nsnake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , vol . 1\nsnakes - part 1 . revised edition with new material by p . e . vanzolini\ntype locality : near lost and found ecohostel , reserva forestal la fortuna , 8\u00b0 40 . 47\u2019 n , 82\u00b0 12 . 97\u2019 w , 1434 m elevation .\nholotype : smf 88716 , adult female as judged by the shape of the base of the tail , collected by sebastian lotzkat on 14 may 2008 . original field number sl 145 .\nthe name perissostichon is a noun in apposition and is derived from the greek words perissos ( beyond the regular number or size ) and stichos ( row , line ) , referring to the high number of dorsal scale rows in this species .\nslideshare uses cookies to improve functionality and performance , and to provide you with relevant advertising . if you continue browsing the site , you agree to the use of cookies on this website . see our user agreement and privacy policy .\nslideshare uses cookies to improve functionality and performance , and to provide you with relevant advertising . if you continue browsing the site , you agree to the use of cookies on this website . see our privacy policy and user agreement for details .\nwe use your linkedin profile and activity data to personalize ads and to show you more relevant ads . you can change your ad preferences anytime .\naspectos cl\u00ednico quir\u00fargicos de la hidatidosis hep\u00e1tica , una zoonosis de crec . . .\nclipping is a handy way to collect important slides you want to go back to later . now customize the name of a clipboard to store your clips ."]}
{"id": 738, "summary": [{"text": "phalanx ( 1944 \u2013 1971 ) was an american champion thoroughbred racehorse .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in 1947 , he won the belmont stakes and was voted american champion three-year-old male horse . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "phalanx ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["the middle phalanx is half the length of the proximal phalanx , its proximal articular surface is ridged so it can articulate with proximal phalanx and the distal end resembles that of the proximal phalanx .\n2 . 4 phalanx\nhorse vs demon who win\n( 2 new item ( 2 . 4 )\ndorsoventral radiograph of the foot demonstrating a fracture of the wing of the third phalanx .\ndorsoventral radiograph of the foot demonstrating a sagittal fracture through the center of the third phalanx .\nkey horse a single horse used in multiple combinations in an exotic wager . l\nthe lateral cartilage is securely attached to the second and third phalanx ( short pastern and p3 ) .\nhelm - warhelm of kassar : reduce the cooldown and increase the damage of phalanx by 60 % .\ndorsoventral radiograph of the foot demonstrating a fracture of the wing of the third phalanx with articular involvement .\n2 . 4 phalanx\nhorse vs demon who win\n( 2 new item ( 2 . 4 ) - crusader - diablo iii builds - diablofans\nnear side left side of a horse . side on which a horse is mounted .\nthe proximal phalanx is shaped like an hourglass and is wider proximally than distally . proximally , it has two shallow articular surfaces separated by a small sagittal groove ; the medial cavity is larger than the lateral cavity . the saggital groove accepts the saggital ridge of the distal third metacarpal ( cannon ) bone . distally there are two convex areas separated by a sagittal groove to accept the proximal articulation of the middle phalanx . the proximal phalanx is approximately twice the length of the middle phalanx .\nbreakdown when a horse suffers a potentially career - ending injury , usually to the leg : the horse suffered a breakdown . the horse broke down .\nthis particular discussion will focus on the equine terminal phalanx , also known as the third phalanx , or coffin bone . we will discuss some of the structural features that it has which are common to all bones , as well as its unique features .\nsensitive laminae cover the distal phalanx . the coronary corium lies across many soft tissues such as the extensor tendon and lateral cartilages .\nexamples of fully closed growth plates . a ) horse aged 22 . 8 months . fully closed growth plates at the proximal second phalanx , proximal first phalanx and distal metacarpus . b ) horse aged 50 . 8 months . fully closed growth plates at the proximal radius and distal humerus . note the absence of any radiolucency and diffuse opacity in the region of the previous growth plate .\ncut down horse suffering from injuries from being struck by the shoes of another horse . or , due to a faulty stride , a horse may cut itself down . d\ngrandsire the grandfather of a horse ; father (\nsire\n) of the horse ' s dam or sire .\nimproper conditioning : such as working a horse at an intensity that it has not yet been conditioned for , working an unfit horse , and continuing to work an extremely fatigued horse .\nin the very young horse , the distal phalanx correlates well with the hoof shape . foals are born with balanced , symmetrical pedal bones , but bone is very dynamic and is influenced by all kinds of forces .\naccompanied into the parade ring by a phalanx of policemen , the great colt looked far more relaxed than either his trainer or his jockey , tom queally .\nthe coffin bone ( third phalanx ) provides structural support and an internal mold for the hoof . it also transmits weight up the axial skeleton of the legs .\nhorse when reference is made to sex , a\nhorse\nis an ungelded male five - years - old or older .\nin the photo above , the short pastern bone ( second phalanx ) has been removed . a small portion of the lateral cartilage was attached to the short pastern .\nfractures of the third phalanx are not unusual radiographic findings . while some of the changes seen in the third phalanx are compatible with the radiographic appearance of a fracture , they may be the result of other physiologic processes . in figure 8 , there is a radiolucent line along the caudal most aspect of one of the wings of the third phalanx , which probably represents a congenital aberration , the result of a separate ossification center in this region . i do not attach any radiographic significance to this change .\n( 1 ) scenes of airplane crashes ( 2 ) memorial to anzio dead ( 3 ) polish girls to canada in labor exchange ( 4 ) phalanx wins belmont horse race ( 5 ) indy 500 auto race ( partial newsreel ) .\nschooling process of familiarizing a horse with the starting gate and teaching it racing practices . a horse may also be schooled in the paddock . in steeplechasing , more particularly to teach a horse to jump .\nlateral radiograph of the foot demonstrating a pseudo fracture of the wing of the third phalanx ; i consider this within normal limits and probably the result of a separate ossification center .\nlunge 1 ) horse rearing and plunging . 2 ) a method of exercising a horse on a tether (\nlunge line\n) . m\na branch from each collateral sesamoidean ligament originates at the palmar process ( angle ) of the distal phalanx ( pedal bone ) and inserts on the axial surface of the hoof cartilage .\ncoffin bone the third phalanx ( p3 ) . the major bone that is within the confines of the hoof . also called the\npedal [ pee - dal ] bone .\nfractures of the distal phalanx are an important cause of lameness referrable to the foot . depending on the fracture configuration and articular involvement , conservative or surgical treatment may be required . fractures of the distal phalanx have been divided into six categories based on fracture configuration . discussion of clinical features , management , and prognosis for horses with distal phalangeal fractures is presented for each fracture type .\ntrip an individual horse ' s race , with specific reference to the difficulty ( or lack of difficulty ) the horse had during competition , e . g . , whether the horse was repeatedly blocked or had an unobstructed run .\nconsolation double a payoff to holders of daily double tickets combining the winning horse in the first race of the double with a scratched horse in the second .\nfire a burst of acceleration by a horse in a race . for example ,\nthe horse did ( didn ' t ) fire when asked .\ngraduate 1 ) winning for the first time , horse or rider . 2 ) a horse that has moved up to allowance , stakes or handicap racing .\nphalanx organization . the greek phalanx was a column formation of heavy infantry carrying long spears , or pikes , and swords . the pikes were six to twelve feet long , much longer than spears of the past . men in the phalanx carried a round shield called a hoplon , from which the infantry took their name , hoplites . the hoplites wore metal armor on their chests , forearms , and shins at least , plus a metal helmet that covered the head down to the neck . the addition of armor classified the hoplites as heavy infantry , as opposed to light infantry that wore little or no armor . a typical phalanx unit was ten men across the front rank and ten men deep , but many such units were combined into one larger unit . the phalanx in battle . the phalanx was an offensive infantry formation for hand - to - hand shock combat . it usually fought without light troop or cavalry support , which should have been an important disadvantage , but the greeks largely ignored these auxiliary troops . as long as they fought among themselves , lack of missile troops and cavalry was not a problem . the heavy infantry on each side in a battle would close with each other at a deliberate pace , maintaining formation . # army # farmation # greek # heavy # heavy _ infantry # helmet # horse # infantry # macedonians # phalanx # philip _ the _ great # roman # romania # sheild # spartans # spears # unit # \u014b\u06be\u0111\u043e\u0123\nfault weak points of a horse ' s conformation or character as a racehorse .\nmuzzle 1 ) nose and lips of a horse . 2 ) a guard placed over a horse ' s mouth to prevent it from biting or eating . n\nsecond dam grandmother of a horse . also known as a\ngranddam .\nshort a horse in need of more work or racing to reach winning form .\nsnip small patch of white hairs on the nose or lips of a horse .\nstall walker horse that moves about its stall constantly and frets rather than rests .\nstud 1 ) male horse used for breeding . 2 ) a breeding farm .\ntimber topper jumper or steeplechase horse . more properly horses jumping over timber fences .\nunderlay a horse racing at shorter odds than seems warranted by its past performances .\naction 1 ) a horse ' s manner of moving . 2 ) a term meaning wagering , for example ,\nthe horse took a lot of action .\ndeclared in the united states , a horse withdrawn from a stakes race in advance of scratch time . in europe , a horse confirmed to start in a race .\nreserve a minimum price , set by the consignor , for a horse in a public auction . for example ,\nthe horse did not reach its reserve .\nspit the bit a term referring to a tired horse that begins to run less aggressively , backing off on the\npull\na rider normally feels on the reins from an eager horse . also used as a generic term for an exhausted horse .\nthe distal sesamoid in horses is known as the navicular bone . it is elongated transversely and articulates with both the distal and middle phalanx , lying palmar to the distal interphalangeal joint . dorsally , the articular surface is covered by hyaline cartilage . it articulates with the palmar aspect of the middle phalanx . the palmar flexor surface is characterised by a prominent sagittal ridge and is covered by fibrocartilage ; providing a smooth surface for the deep digital flexor tendon to glide during weightbearing . the distal border contains a small articular facet of hyaline cartilage for articulation with the distal phalanx . the distal border contains numerous , synovium - lined , nutrient foraminae .\nbottom 1 ) stamina in a horse . 2 ) subsurface of a racing strip .\ncolt an ungelded ( entire ) male horse four - years - old or younger .\ndigestible energy the amount of energy a horse is able to digest from a feedstuff .\nentry fee money paid by an owner to enter a horse in a stakes race .\nexercise rider rider who is licensed to exercise a horse during its morning training session .\nnose smallest advantage a horse can win by . called a short head in britain .\nprop when a horse suddenly stops moving by digging its front feet into the ground .\npull up to stop or slow a horse during or after a race or workout .\nshow bet wager on a horse to finish in the money ; third or better .\nbreak ( a horse ) 1 ) to train a young horse to wear a bridle and saddle , carry a rider and respond to a rider ' s commands . almost always done when the horse is a yearling . 2 ) to leave from the starting gate .\nsuperficial digital flexor : runs down the back of the leg , behind the carpus and cannon , branches below the fetlock and inserts into the distal side of the 1st phalanx and proximal side of the 2nd phalanx . flexes the elbow , carpus and lower joints . additionally , the superior check ligament inserts into this tendon from the caudal side of the radius . the sdft is the most commonly injured tendon , and appears oval or flattened in cross section .\nfigure 11 indicates a fracture ( sagittal ) through the center of the third phalanx , which i consider to be a serious radiographic finding . until this time we have only discussed the purchase exam in relationship to soundness and usefulness in work . one might be considering the purchase of a broodmare or stallion with this type of fracture of the third phalanx . therefore , the evaluation becomes somewhat different as compared to a horse that will be used for competition . however , i would still have to be very pessimistic about the future of an individual with this type of third phalangeal fracture , even if the horse were going to the stud .\nthe deep digital flexor tendon and common extensor tendon allows the horse to move the leg .\nbrace ( or bracer ) rubdown liniment used on a horse after a race or workout .\nbreeze ( breezing ) working a horse at a moderate speed , less effort than handily .\nconformation the physical makeup of and bodily proportions of a horse how it is put together .\ndriving a horse that is all out to win and under strong urging from its jockey .\ngrass slip used in some areas , permission to exercise a horse on the turf course .\nhead a margin between horses . one horse leading another by the length of its head .\nmudder horse that races well on muddy tracks . also known as a\nmudlark .\noverweight surplus weight carried by a horse when the rider cannot make the required weight . p\nshank rope or strap attached to a halter or bridle by which a horse is led .\n( a ) silky sullivan a horse that makes a big run from far back . named for the horse silky sullivan , who once made up 41 lengths to win a race .\ntaken up a horse pulled up sharply by its rider because of being in close quarters .\nthe distal phalanx is rounded to a point distally ; articulating with another bone only at the proximal end . it does not have a cortex or medullary cavity , but has three surfaces : articular surface , parietal surface and solar surface .\ncup 1 ) refers to the irregular occlusal surface of the tooth ( the surfaces that meet when a horse closes its mouth ) and is used as a visual method of determining age in a horse . 2 ) trophy awarded to winning horse owners , usually in a stakes race .\ncheck ( ed ) when a jockey slows a horse due to other horses impeding its progress .\nconnections persons identified with a horse , such as owner , trainer , rider and stable employees .\nmorning glory horse that performs well in morning workouts but fails to reproduce that form in races .\nrabbit a speed horse running as an entry with another , usually come - from - behind horse . the rabbit is expected to set a fast pace to help the chances of its stablemate .\nridden out a horse that finishes a race under mild urging , not as severe as driving .\nwhite a horse color , extremely rare , in which all the hairs are white . the horse ' s eyes are brown , not pink , as would be the case for an albino .\npaired collateral sesamoidean ligaments : originate from depressions on either side of the distal aspect of the proximal phalanx . they extend in a palmar direction to insert on the extremities and proximal border of the navicular bone ; thereby acting to suspend the navicular bone .\ncarpus a joint in the horse ' s front leg , more commonly referred to as the knee .\ncryptorchid a\nunilateral cryptorchid\nis a male horse of any age that has one testicle undescended . a\nbilateral cryptorchid\nis a male horse of any age that has both testicles undescended . the jockey club defines\ncryptorchid\nas a male horse of any age that has both testicles undescended .\nfeather light weight . usually refers to the weight a horse is assigned to carry in a race .\nhung a horse that does not advance its position in a race when called upon by its jockey .\nnominator one who owns a horse at the time it is named to compete in a stakes race .\noverlay a horse going off at higher odds than it appears to warrant based on its past performances .\nsteadied a horse being taken in hand by its rider , usually because of being in close quarters .\ntattoo a permanent , indelible mark on the inside of the upper lip used to identify the horse .\n\u00e1rnason th , van vleck ld : genetic improvement of the horse . genetics of the horse . edited by : bowling at , ruvinsky a . 2000 , new york : gabi publishing , 473 - 497 .\nscratch to be taken out of a race before it starts . trainers usually scratch horses due to adverse track conditions or a horse ' s adverse health . a veterinarian can scratch a horse at any time .\nof the distal phalanx is that which conforms to the hoof wall . it is convex , rough , porous and has processes on each side heading in a palmar direction . there are many foramina and grooves on this surface for vasculature and nerves to pass . the\nfractures of the first / proximal phalanx ( p1 ) may occur in any type of horse used for performance . they may be small osteochondral \u201cchip\u201d fractures along the dorsal margin of the proximal joint surface , sagittal ( complete or incomplete ) , or comminuted . another category involves fragments of the palmar or plantar proximal aspect of p1 , which may be associated with osteochondrosis .\nthe growth plates in the first and second distal phalanges and the proximal third phalanx as well as the proximal mt3 and mc3 were all fully closed in the youngest horses in this study . the time of closure of the sixteen other growth plates examined are listed in table\nclimbing when a horse lifts its front legs abnormally high as it gallops , causing it to run inefficiently .\ncloser a horse that runs best in the latter part of the race , coming from off the pace .\nconditioner 1 ) a trainer . 2 ) a workout or race to enable a horse to attain fitness .\ncuppy ( track ) a dry and loose racing surface that breaks away under a horse ' s hooves .\ndrop ( ed ) down a horse meeting a lower class of rival than it had been running against .\nearmuffs a piece of equipment that covers a horse ' s ears to prevent it from hearing distracting sounds .\nleg up 1 ) to help a jockey mount a horse . 2 ) a jockey having a mount .\non the bit when a horse is eager to run . also known as\nin the bridle .\nprep ( race ) a workout ( or race ) used to prepare a horse for a future engagement .\nteaser a male horse used at breeding farms to determine whether a mare is ready to receive a stallion .\ndirect trauma to a tendon : such as when a horse hits its front leg with a hind hoof .\ngreen , b . k . ( 1969 ) horse conformation as to soundness and performance , northland press .\nthe icelandic horse has developed as an isolated breed since the settlement of the country in the 8th and 9th century . it originates from the medieval horse population of norway and probably other countries in scandinavia and the british isles [\nbad doer a horse with a poor appetite , a condition that may be due to nervousness or other causes .\nfalse favorite horse that is a race favorite despite being outclassed by other competition in the field . see underlay .\npast performances a horse ' s racing record , earnings , bloodlines and other data , presented in composite form .\nmcllwraith , c . w . ( 1986 ) . in : american quarter horse association developmental orthopaedic disease symposium .\nstashak , t . s . ( 1995 ) horse owner ' s guide to lameness , williams and wilkins .\nfigures 9 and 10 illustrate fractures of the wings of the third phalanx . these fractures are significant , even if the horse is clinically sound , and a neurectomy could have been performed . because it involves a larger portion of the articular surface , i consider the fracture in figure 10 more serious than that in figure 9 . again , it is necessary to discuss these changes with the purchaser , indicating the possibility of future problems related to the fractures . the previous history and current use of the horse would certainly influence me in advising a potential buyer . if the fracture is years old and the horse has been sound and in continual work , i would be much more optimistic about the horse ' s future than if this were not\nblood - typing a way to verify a horse ' s parentage . blood - typing is usually completed within the first year of a horse ' s life and is necessary before registration papers will be issued by the jockey club .\nbreak maiden horse or rider winning the first race of its career . also known as\nearning a diploma .\ngate card a card , issued by the starter , stating that a horse is properly schooled in starting gate procedures .\ngelding a male horse of any age that has been neutered by having both testicles removed (\ngelded\n) .\nmorning line probable odds on each horse in a race , as determined by a mathematical formula used by the track handicapper , who tries to gauge both the ability of the horse and the likely final odds as determined by the bettors .\novergirth an elastic band that goes completely around a horse , over the saddle , to keep the saddle from slipping .\nrun - out bit a special type of bit to prevent a horse from bearing out ( or in ) . s\nspeed figure a handicapping tool used to assign a numerical value to a horse ' s performance . see beyer number .\nsubscription fee paid by owner to nominate a horse for a stakes race or to maintain eligibility for a stakes race .\ntubing inserting a nasogastric tube through a horse ' s nostril into its stomach for the purpose of providing oral medication .\nwheel betting all possible combinations in an exotic wager using at least one horse as the key . see part wheel .\nyearling a horse in its second calendar year of life , beginning jan . 1 of the year following its birth .\nthe distal sesamoidean ( impar ) ligament originates from the distal margin of the navicular bone and deep digital flexor tendon . it extends from the navicular bone proximally for 1 . 0 - 1 . 5cm and distally to the insertion of the deep digital flexor tendon on the distal phalanx ( pedal bone ) .\nfor every one - degree increase in the radiometacarpal angle , the risk of a fracture in the front proximal phalanx increased ( odds ratio 1 . 36 ) . for every degree increase in the radiometacarpal angle , the risk of physeal enlargement in the front fetlock increased by a factor of 1 . 52 .\nwhat implications should therefore be drawn from the application of the principles of bone remodeling to the pathology of the equine terminal phalanx ? first of all , although little in the way of biomechanical studies have been done regarding the influence of horseshoes on the normal physiology of the terminal phalanx ( coffin bone ) , it is clear from many human studies that there is likely dramatic alteration in the stresses received by the coffin bone during standing and walking . this undoubtedly causes architectural changes within the bone , and possibly overall loss of bone stock which cannot be replaced . the additional changes affecting the laminar connections are described elsewhere .\nbreather easing off on a horse for a short distance in a race to permit it to conserve or renew its strength .\ngastric ulcers ulceration of a horse ' s stomach . often causes symptoms of abdominal distress ( colic ) and general unthriftiness .\nhood a ( usually ) nylon covering which goes over a horse ' s head to which blinkers or earmuffs are attached .\npart wheel using a key horse or horses in different , but not all possible , exotic wagering combinations . see wheel .\nstate - bred a horse bred in a particular state and thus eligible to compete in races restricted to state - breds .\nswayback horse with a prominent concave shape of the backbone , usually just behind the withers ( saddle area ) . scoliosis .\nthe icelandic horse is a pristine breed of horse which has a pure gene pool established more than a thousand years ago , and is approximately the same size as living and extinct wild breeds of horses . this study was performed to compare the length of the skeletal growth period of the\nprimitive\nicelandic horse relative to that reported for large horse breeds developed over the recent centuries . this information would provide practical guidance to owners and veterinarians as to when the skeleton is mature enough to commence training , and would be potentially interesting to those scientists investigating the pathogenesis of osteochondrosis . interestingly , osteochondrosis has not been documented in the icelandic horse .\nthe icelandic horse is relatively small . growth and development of the icelandic horse was studied in the period 1970 \u2013 1980 where the average height at the withers , measured by rod , was found to be 133 cm for five - year - old horses [\nadded weight a horse carrying more weight than the conditions of the race require , usually because the jockey exceeds the stated limit .\ncast a horse , positioned on its side or back , and wedged against a wall , such that it cannot get up .\nmaiden 1 ) a horse or rider that has not won a race . 2 ) a female that has never been bred .\nrefuse 1 ) when a horse will not break from the gate . 2 ) in jumping races , balking at a jump .\nstripe a white marking running down a horse ' s face , starting under an imaginary line connecting the tops of the eyes .\ngoubaux , a . and g . barrier . ( 1904 ) the exterior of the horse . london , jb lippincott company .\nflank area between the horse ' s ribs and hip . lacking heavy musculature and the site of important internal organs , the flank is a very sensitive region on the horse ' s body and cannot be touched by a jockey ' s whip during a race .\njail refers to the requirement that a horse which has been claimed that next runs in a claiming race must run for a claiming price 25 percent higher for the next 30 days . commonly used in the phrase the horse is in ( out of ) jail .\ntwitch a restraining device usually consisting of a stick with a loop of rope or chain at one end , which is placed around a horse ' s upper lip and twisted , releasing endorphins that relax a horse and curb its fractiousness while it is being handled .\nwhen does a horse begin to develop osteoarthritis ? typically the onset of osteoarthritis ( oa ) in adult horses is 4 to 6 years old , but that can vary a great deal due to breed of the horse and its use . conformation is also a very important consideration leading to oa . a poorly conformed horse is more likely to be predisposed to an arthritic condition that would affect them earlier in life . predisposing radiographic factors that are present in a young horse can also indicate possible future issues . age for onset of osteoarthritis\nthese same results are listed together with published data from other horse breeds . the growth plates of the icelandic horses were subjectively characterized as narrow in most of the regions studied , relative to those present in large horse breeds , although the width was not objectively measured .\nacross the board a bet on a horse to win , place and show . if the horse wins , the player collects three ways ; if second , two ways ; and if third , one way , losing the win and place bets . actually three wagers .\nblack a horse color which is black , including the muzzle , flanks , mane , tail and legs unless white markings are present .\ngroom a person who cares for a horse in a stable . known as a\nlad\nor\ngirl\nin britain .\nneck unit of measurement . about the length of a horse ' s neck ; a little less than a quarter of a length .\nrattle used in the expression ,\nhe likes to hear his feet rattle ,\na horse that likes a firm turf course .\nreins long straps , usually made of leather , that are connected to the bit and used by the jockey to control the horse .\nheird , j . c . ( 1971 ) growth parameters in the quarter horse . thesis . animal science , university of tennessee .\nwilloughby , d . p . ( 1975 ) growth and nutrition in the horse . ny , a . s . bames & co\nlateral digital extensor : the lateral digital extensor muscle becomes the lateral digital extensor tendon at the proximal portion of the metacarpus . the tendon continues down the front of the leg and inserts into the proximal portion of the first phalanx . important in the treatment of stringhalt in the hindlimb . extends the carpal , pastern , and coffin joints .\ngirth 1 ) an elastic and leather band , sometimes covered with sheepskin , that passes under a horse ' s belly and is connected to both sides of the saddle . 2 ) deepest point of the horse ' s midsection , around which the saddle girth is tightened .\nyoshida k , ueda y , masumitsu h : radiological studies on the ossification of the thoroughbreds 2 . closure process in the distal epiphyseal lines of the radius and the 3rd metacarpal bone and the proximal epiphyseal line of the proximal phalanx and an assessment system of bone maturity . bull equine res inst . 1982 , 19 : 18 - 29 .\ncribber a horse that clings to objects with its teeth and sucks air into its stomach . also known as a\nwind sucker .\nforelock lock of mane hair that falls forward from the poll ( top of the head ) to just above the horse ' s eyes .\nunder wraps horse under stout restraint in a race or workout to keep it from pulling away from the competition by too large a margin .\npoor footing : working a horse on uneven or slippery footing can cause tendon strain , as well as deep ,\nthick\nfooting .\na blow or bang to the point of the hock usually from horse kicking a wall or from lying down on a hard concrete surface .\nclaiming process by which a licensed person may purchase a horse entered in a designated race for a predetermined price . when a horse has been claimed , its new owner assumes title after the starting gate opens although the former owner is entitled to all purse money earned in that race .\ndistanced horse so far behind the rest of the field of runners that it is out of contact and unable to regain a position of contention .\nrank a horse that refuses to settle under a jockey ' s handling in a race , running in a headstrong manner without respect to pace .\nwashed out a horse that becomes so nervous that it sweats profusely . also known as\nwashy\nor\nlathered ( up ) .\nclaiming race a race in which each horse entered is eligible to be purchased at a set price . claims must be made before the race and only by licensed owners or their agents who have a horse registered to race at that meeting or who have received a claim certificate from the stewards .\ntongue tie strip of cloth - type material used to stabilize a horse ' s tongue to prevent it from\nchoking down\nin a race or workout or to keep the tongue from sliding up over the bit , rendering the horse uncontrollable . also known as a\ntongue strap .\nbutler ja , colles cm , dyson sj , kold se , poulos pw : clinical radiology of the horse . 2000 , oxford : blackwell science ltd\nalso - eligible a horse officially entered for a race , but not permitted to start unless the field is reduced by scratches below a specified number .\ndosage index ( di ) a mathematical reduction of the dosage profile to a number reflecting a horse ' s potential for speed or stamina . the higher the number , the more likely the horse is suited to be a sprinter . the average dosage index of all horses is about 4 . 0 .\nsheets a handicapping tool assigning a numerical value to each race run by a horse to enable different horses running at different racetracks to be objectively compared .\npreviously published reports of closure times ( months ) of the appendicular growth plates in different horse breeds together with the results for icelandic horses in this study .\nfontana safety rail an aluminum rail , in use since 1981 , designed to help reduce injuries to horse and rider . it has more of an offset ( slant ) to provide greater clearance between the rail and the vertical posts as well as a protective cover to keep horse and rider from striking the posts .\nnod lowering of head . to win by a nod , a horse extends its head with its nose touching the finish line ahead of a close competitor .\ntightener 1 ) a race used to give a horse a level of fitness that cannot be obtained through morning exercises alone . 2 ) a leg brace .\ntop line 1 ) a thoroughbred ' s breeding on its sire ' s side . 2 ) the visual line presented by the horse ' s back .\npony any horse or pony that leads the parade of the field from paddock to starting gate . also , a horse or pony which accompanies a starter to the starting gate . also can be used as a verb he was ponied to the gate . also known as a\nlead [ leed ] pony .\ncooling out restoring a horse to normal temperature , usually by walking , after it has become overheated during exercise . all horses that are exercised are cooled out .\nentire an ungelded horse . in europe , where geldings are not permitted to enter certain races , the race conditions might read\nentire colts and fillies .\nhandily 1 ) working in the morning with maximum effort . compare with , 2 ) a horse racing well within itself , with little exertion from the jockey .\npoor trimming and shoeing : such as a farrier that causes a hoof shape that predisposed the horse to tendon injuries ( such as a long - toe and low - heel ) , or one that shoes a horse with toe grabs , which artificially create a long - toe and low heel by lifting the toe up .\nhoof the foot of the horse . consists of several parts that play an integral role in supporting the weight of the horse . see\nhoof\nsubsection of\nmusculoskeletal system\nin veterinary supplement xtuqdturuqvtvuxdduvt for a more detailed explanation . for hoof injuries , see cracked hoof ; heel crack ; quarter crack ; toe crack .\nset down 1 ) a suspension . for example ,\nthe jockey was set down five days for careless riding .\n2 ) when a jockey assumes a lower crouch in the saddle while urging the horse to pick up speed . for example ,\nthe horse was set down for the drive to the wire .\nfracture of the distal phalanx is a fairly common injury that occurs most commonly at high speed ( ie , during a race ) or less commonly from kicking a firm object ( eg , a stall wall ) . the fracture is caused by concussion and produces a sudden onset of lameness . the lameness is severe if the fracture is intra - articular but may be less severe if only a wing ( or solar margin of the distal phalanx ) is fractured with no articular component . distal phalangeal fractures occur more frequently in the forelimb but are also common in the hindlimb . intra - articular fractures may be easily isolated to the foot ; lameness is commonly associated with joint effusion . nonarticular fractures may require compression of the foot with hoof testers and possibly unilateral palmar digital nerve anesthesia for localization . lameness is exacerbated by turning the horse or making it pivot on the affected leg . if the fracture does not extend into the joint , the lameness may improve considerably after 48 hr of stall rest .\ndeworming the use of drugs ( anthelmintics ) to kill internal parasites , often performed by oral paste or by passing a nasogastric tube into the horse ' s stomach .\nfee 1 ) amount paid to a jockey for riding in a race . 2 ) the cost of nominating , entering or starting a horse in a stakes race .\ngait the characteristic footfall pattern of a horse in motion . thoroughbreds have four natural gaits - walk , trot , canter and gallop . thoroughbreds compete at a gallop .\nmonorchid a male horse of any age that has only one testicle in his scrotum - the other testicle was either removed or is undescended . see cryptorchid ; ridgling .\nbattery a term for an illegal electrical device used by a jockey to stimulate a horse during a race . also known as a\nmachine\nor\njoint .\nlength a measurement approximating the length of a horse , used to denote distance between horses in a race for example ,\nsecretariat won the belmont by 31 lengths .\nmane long hairs growing on the crest of the horse ' s neck , which are usually kept clipped to about six inches in length for neatness , or decoratively braided .\nsigur\u00f0sson \u00e1 , fr\u00f3\u00f0ad\u00f3ttir h , j\u00f3hannsd\u00f3ttir lb : sk\u00fdrsluhaldi\u00f0 \u00ed hrossar\u00e6kt 2001 . ( annual report on horse breeding 2001 ) . freyr . 2002 , 1 : 47 - 50 .\nfretz pb , cymbaluk nf , pharr jw : quantitative analysis of long - bone growth in the horse . am j vet res . 1984 , 45 : 1602 - 1609 .\nallowance race a race for which the racing secretary drafts certain conditions to determine weights to be carried based on the horse ' s age , sex and / or past performance .\nfront - runner a horse whose running style is to attempt to get on or near the lead at the start of the race and to continue there as long as possible .\nsaddle cloth a cotton cloth which goes under the saddle to absorb sweat . it usually has the horse ' s program number and sometimes , in major races , its name .\nthis study provides practical information for trainers and veterinarians working with the icelandic horse . traditionally , demanding ridden training of icelandic horses commences at the age of 4 years at the earliest . according to the current study , the appendicular skeleton should be ready for increased load at 3 years of age , as most appendicular growth plates are closed by then . the results also suggest that the icelandic horse , with its gene pool established over 1000 years ago , has approximately the same growth period as breeds of horses which have been especially selected for size during the past few centuries . in our study the icelandic horse was also subjectively evaluated to have relatively narrow growth plates , relative to large horse breeds , in all age groups suggesting a slower growth rate . the growth rate of the icelandic horse needs to be investigated further , as well as the association between growth rate and developmental orthopaedic abnormalities .\n] , accelerating the genetic improvement of the breed . the icelandic horse is characterized by its ability to perform 4 or 5 gaits , and by its good health , and durability [\ncolors ( horse ) colors accepted by the jockey club are bay , black , chestnut , dark bay or brown , gray , roan and white . see individual entries for definitions .\nflatten out a very tired horse that slows considerably , dropping its head on a straight line with its body . some horses , however , like to run with their heads lowered .\nblack , j . b . ( i 992 ) hind limb lameness of the western working stock horse . in : the 37th annual conference of the american association of equine practitioners .\ndeep digital flexor : 3 tendons of the deep digital flexor muscle travel distally and join at the carpus , were they pass through the carpal canal , and travel distally along the back of the leg , finally inserting into the palmar side of the third phalanx . below the knee / hock , the tendon is superficial to the suspensory ligament , but deep to the sdft . fairly commonly injured by horses doing fast work , the ddft is round in cross section .\np\u00e1lsson pa : er \u00edslenski hesturinn hreinr\u00e6kta\u00f0ur \u00ed 1000 \u00e1r ? ( is the icelandic horse pure bred for a thousand years ? ) . ei\u00f0faxi . 1996 , 2 : 18 - 19 .\nroan a horse color where the majority of the coat of the horse is a mixture of red and white hairs or brown and white hairs . the mane , tail and legs may be black , chestnut or roan unless white markings are present . starting with foals of 1993 , the color classifications gray and roan were combined as\nroan or gray .\nsee gray .\n] . the history of intense artificial selection of icelandic horses is relatively short . organized horse breeding based on different traits of conformation and performance under saddle has only been practised for one century [\n] . radiographic closure has occurred when there is no radiolucent line visible in the physeal area . the closure time of selected growth plates of the limbs has been determined for some horse breeds [\nfield horse ( or mutuel field ) two or more starters running as a single betting unit ( entry ) , when there are more starters in a race than positions on the totalizator board .\nthor\u00e9n - tolling k : serum alkaline phosphatase isonezymes in the horse \u2013 variation with age , training and in different pathological conditions . j vet med a . 1988 , 35 : 13 - 23 .\nbay a horse color that varies from a yellow - tan to a bright auburn . the mane , tail and lower portion of the legs are always black , except where white markings are present .\nbearing in ( or out ) deviating from a straight course . may be due to weariness , infirmity , inexperience or the rider overusing the whip or reins to make a horse alter its course .\nbred 1 ) a horse is considered to have been bred in the state or country of its birth : secretariat was a virginia - bred . 2 ) the past tense of\nbreed .\npoint ( s ) of call a horse ' s position at various locations on the racetrack where its running position is noted on a chart . the locations vary with the distance of the race .\nshadow roll a ( usually sheepskin ) roll that is secured over the bridge of a horse ' s nose to keep it from seeing shadows on the track and shying away from or jumping them .\nthermography diagnostic technique utilizing instrumentation that measures temperature differences . records the surface temperature of a horse . unusually hot or cold areas may be indicative of some underlying pathology ( deviation from the normal ) .\ncunningham , k . and s . h . fowler . ( 1961 ) a study of growth and development in the quarter horse , louisiana state university and agricultural and mechanical college agricultural experiment station .\nbridle a piece of equipment , usually made of leather or nylon , which fits on a horse ' s head and is where other equipment , such as a bit and the reins , are attached .\nblaze a generic term describing a large , white vertical marking on a horse ' s face . the jockey club doesn ' t use blaze , preferring more descriptive words . see snip ; star ; stripe .\nbobble a bad step away from the starting gate , usually caused by the track surface breaking away from under a horse ' s hooves , causing it to duck its head or nearly go to his knees .\nnose band a leather strap that goes over the bridge of a horse ' s nose to help secure the bridle . a\nfigure eight\nnose band goes over the bridge of the nose and under the rings of the bit to help keep the horse ' s mouth closed . this keeps the tongue from sliding up over the bit and is used on horses that do not like having a tongue tie used . o\nas the horse ages , the environment and load on the foot influence the hoof capsule and the bone . the hoof capsule distorts to counteract the various forces . the pedal bone adapts by changing shape and density .\nthe radiographic closure time of the appendicular growth plates was studied in 64 young icelandic horses . the results were compared with previously published closure times reported for other , larger horse breeds . the radiographs were also examined for any signs of developmental orthopaedic diseases . in order to describe further the growth pattern of the icelandic horse , the total serum alkaline phosphatase ( alp ) activity was determined and the height at the withers was measured .\ncroup along the horse ' s topline , the area between the back and the tail . a straight , level croup provides maximum outreach of the thoroughbred ' s hindquarters as it gallops , producing a longer stride .\ntout person who professes to have , and sells , advance information on a race . also used as a verb meaning to sell or advertise . for example ,\nhe ' s touting the four horse .\nblow - out a short , timed workout , usually a day or two before a race , designed to sharpen a horse ' s speed . usually three - eighths or one - half of a mile in distance .\nspeedy cut - an injury to the hock caused by the over reaching gait of a rear leg . related terms may be brush , cut down , grab a quarter . this is a common occurrence in horse racing .\na hock angle and occasionally pastern angle were measured from a rear view of the horse . a hock greater than 180\u00b0 represents \u2018in at the hock\u2019 ( cow hock ) and less than 180\u00b0 represents bow - legged conformation .\ngoodman , n . l . and baker , b . k . ( 1990 ) lameness diagnosis and treatment in the quarter horse racehorse . veterinary clinics of north america : equine practice . 6 , 85 - 107 .\nbill daly ( on the ) taking a horse to the front at the start and remaining there to the finish . term stems from\nfather bill\ndaly , famous old - time horseman , who developed many great jockeys .\nicing 1 ) a physical therapy procedure , properly known as\ncryotherapy .\n2 ) when a horse is stood in a tub of ice or ice packs are applied to the legs to reduce inflammation and / or swelling .\nlead [ led ] lead weights carried in pockets on both sides of the saddle , used to make up the difference between the actual weight of the jockey and the weight the horse has been assigned to carry during the race ."]}
{"id": 739, "summary": [{"text": "pastoral pursuits ( foaled 24 april 2000 ) is a british thoroughbred racehorse and sire .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "he was bred in newmarket and sold for 24,000 guineas as a yearling .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "as a two-year-old he finished second on his debut but won his three remaining races including the group three sirenia stakes .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "his three-year-old campaign was abbreviated by injury but he added two major wins in the hackwood stakes and the park stakes .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in 2005 he made only two appearances but recorded his most important victory when winning the group one july cup at newmarket racecourse .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "his racing career was ended by injury shortly afterwards and he was retired to stud .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he has had some success as a sire of winners . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "pastoral pursuits", "paragraphs": ["bbc sport | other sport . . . | horse racing | pastoral pursuits bags july cup\npastoral pursuits won six times , and was runner - up twice , in 10 runs .\npastoral pursuits has been retired to stud just weeks after winning the darley july cup at newmarket .\npastoral pursuits , ridden by john egan , sprang a 22 - 1 surprise in the darley july cup at newmarket .\nlimato was the impressive winner in 2015 and emulated pastoral pursuits by going on to win the group 1 july cup the following year at newmarket .\nnot only are we busy foaling but as a four stallion stud we\u2019re also covering mares . this is mick easterby\u2019s el molino blanco who has had a morning date with pastoral pursuits . pastoral pursuits has sired two of mick easterby\u2019s most successful sprinters in recent years , perfect pasture and hoofalong .\nbobby joe leg , a son of norton grove stallion pastoral pursuits , was an 8 / 1 winner at wolverhampton this evening for trainer ruth carr .\nthe best horse he has so far handled is the top class pastoral pursuits who was a top class juvenile who progressed through to winning the 2005 july cup .\nracquet , trained by ruth carr , was a winner for norton grove stallion pastoral pursuits at wetherby this afternoon . the four year old was recording his fourth career victory .\nbbc sport | other sport . . . | horse racing | july cup hero pursuits is retired\nhughie morrison saddled the 2004 winner , pastoral pursuits . the 5 / 1 shot went on to group one glory with a storming victory in the group 1 july cup at newmarket the next year .\nroderick , a two year old colt by pastoral pursuits , was a debut winner at musselburgh this afternoon for trainer richard fahey . staying on strongly at the finish he looks a horse to follow in coming months .\nmajor crispies scored in style for norton grove stallion pastoral pursuits at beverley tonight . the david o\u2019meara trained gelding won the seller by ten lengths and the performance saw him purchased for 6 , 200 guineas after the race .\nthe purpose of the centre is to provide training in order to equip people for service in pastoral care .\npastoral pursuits had collected a group two at doncaster last season but there was no blinding light suggesting he was a contender as the 22 - 1 shot was just one of many outsiders as the field scattered on leaving the stalls .\n( on whom he was to win the prix de l ' abbaye three months later ) . john egan stepped into the breach and got pastoral pursuits home by a length and a half in what timeform described as\nthe best sprinting performance of the year in europe\n. sadly , pastoral pursuits was unable to provide any further demonstrations of his merit , as later that month it was announced that he had sustained another leg injury , and was to retire to the national stud .\neveryone , therefore , was happy , apart from those who like to believe that horses are bred to be raced , rather than raced to be bred from . morristown lattin presumably became even happier when dark angel ' s younger pastoral pursuits half - brother\nlast page , a three year old son of norton grove\u2019s pastoral pursuits , was a winner at wolverhampton today . trained by david evans and ridden by adam kirby he showed grit in battling back to regain the lead in the final furlong to record his first career win .\njuly cup : 1 . pastoral pursuits ( j f egan ) 22 - 1 2 . avonbridge ( s drowne ) 40 - 1 3 . etlaala ( r hills ) 40 - 1 19 ran 4 - 1 jt fav soldier ' s tale , somnus non runner : 6\nthen there is the top class handicapper intrepid jack who was a close second on unsuitable ground in this season ' s wokingham and the most exciting prospect since pastoral pursuits , sakhee ' s secret , unbeaten in three outings this season and going for gold in the july cup .\npastoral pursuits is a proven sire who will stand at norton grove stud in 2018 . he has sired the winners of almost 500 races and over \u00a34 . 5 million of prize - money and we are delighted to be able to offer him to breeders in the coming season .\nas of the start of derby week , pastoral pursuits was leading the first - season sires ' list for britain and ireland on both individual winners ( five ) and races won ( six ) . furthermore , he already appears to have produced the good horse necessary for a stallion to be regarded as a source of stakes performers , rather than merely of winners . there is , admittedly , a colossal gap in class between a maiden race at hamilton in western scotland and a group race , but pastoral pursuits ' daughter rose blossom impresses as a filly capable of making such a transition .\nthe first horse through the ring on wednesday is lot 236 by morpheus out of red rosanna ( by bertolini ) . a winner at two and three , she is a half - sister to group three winner rose blossom ( by pastoral pursuits ) and has produced two winners from two runners so far .\nnow , less than four years later , pastoral pursuits is already confirming that he will be an asset to england ' s ranks of sprinting stallions . as with any other first - season stallion , he does , of course , still have much to prove , but the signs at present are very encouraging .\ncolonized the island in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ; pastoral pursuits and agriculture served as the basis of the economy . for the first three centuries after the conquest , the island remained a neglected stopping point for the spanish fleet , which visited the new world and returned to spain with the mineral wealth of continental america .\nthe hughie morrison trained pastoral pursuits is another familiar name for sprint lovers . he won this as a three - year - old in 2004 and won the july cup 12 months later . he too has had a sparkling career at stud . high standing , regal parade and deacon blues are other high class speedsters to have captured this popular prize .\nit would be easy to identify this as a freak result , but pastoral pursuits won , going away , by a length and a half in a respectable time on the softish going . we will learn more about the horse , who goes to the national stud next season , when he runs next month in deauville ' s prix maurice du gheest .\npastoral girl ( gb ) ( elusive quality ( usa ) : second in juddmonte princess margaret stakes , ascot , gr . 3 , ebf weatherbys kilvington stakes , nottingham , l . ) .\noh so rosie ( windsor , 3 . 00 ) was stopped in her run at bath on tuesday but looks in the sort of form that she showed at this time last year when she won three from four . she has dropped 27lb in the handicap since her final outing last season . pastoral pursuits can follow up an easy chepstow win in the best race on the card at 3 . 30 .\nthe decisive move appeared to have been made at halfway , when steve drowne and avonbridge made a surge , but the truly crucial manoeuvres were going on in behind as john egan pointed his mount at the leader . the irishman did not genuinely know how his partner would react as he had thrown a leg over pastoral pursuits for the very first time in the parade ring . but he did recognise that his ally was moving rather well .\nbahamian bounty duly turned out to be a very fast horse , winning two group one races at approximately six furlongs ( the prix morny and the middle park stakes ) as a two - year - old . he has proved a reliable sire of sprinters since his retirement to the national stud in 1998 , with the average winning distance of his progeny currently standing at 6 . 6 furlongs . pastoral pursuits can be regarded as his best son so far .\nthe centre offers classes and seminars to assist volunteers and professionals who provide pastoral care in congregations , hospitals , care facilities , hospice and other contexts of ministry in developing their skills and understanding for the vital roles they fill .\nit should be no surprise that pastoral pursuits is now producing fast horses , because he seems almost certain to justify categorization as a sprinting stallion , a member of a group which in europe sometimes seems nowadays to be an endangered species . the northern dancer sire - line which dominates modern breeding tends to be more of an influence for class than for specialization at a specific distance , and thus rarely produces a stallion whose overwhelming forte is the production of sprinters . furthermore , the fact that a stallion has to be capable of producing horses who can excel at distances beyond a mile if he is to make his mark in the upper reaches of the general sires ' table means that , even if a stallion really is an influence for short distances , it is often the case that his owners feel obliged to disguise the fact . pastoral pursuits , though , is a son of one of england ' s few specialist sires of sprinters -\nit was , indeed , a rather peculiar july cup . sprinting has been a shabby division in these islands for some time now and its summer gala on the july course yesterday featured 19 eager if not particularly well qualified prospectors . this included the queerness of one of the favourites , iffraaj , being a handicapper , while the crown was also contested by the creaking limbs of quito and bahamian pirate , respectively eight and 10 years of age . and then there was the story of pastoral pursuits .\nwhile in parliament he took a great interest in the land question , and he was instrumental in stopping the large auction land sales proposed by the robertson ministry . the clause embodied in the act limiting the area put up to auction owes in a great measure its existence to him . he was a strong supporter of the stuart ministry and their land bill . mr . campbell has been chieflyengaged in pastoral pursuits and he is a great admirer of all manly sports . he was captain of the first parliamentary team in the parliament v . press cricket matches . \u201d\none of the key goals of the centre is to provide basic training to volunteers so that they can be effective in providing pastoral care . the centre intends to offer a program that is recognized by alberta health , so volunteers will be qualified to serve within institutions as well as within facilities and homes of their local parishes and congregations .\non his arrival he moved to sausalito from san francisco , near the towering mount tamalpais in wh at is now marin county . he moved from job to job until the gold rush , when he found a profitable business in transporting miners to sutter ' s fort , where gold had been found . he even tried mining himself , with some success . he started to purchase land in san francisco and other places in northern california . but in 1850 he found the farmland in southern alameda county and purchased 425 acres . he built a majestic house and was close to his early friends like simeon stivers , who traveled with him on the brooklyn . he became very wealthy with his agricultural and pastoral pursuits . he marred in 1854 and had four child , marion , joseph , frederick and abbie .\npastoral player ( gb ) ( lion cavern ( usa ) : timeform jury john of gaunt stakes , haydock park , gr . 3 , second in olbg park stakes , doncaster , gr . 2 , transformers & rectifiers summer mile , ascot , gr . 2 , timeform jury john of gaunt stakes , haydock park , gr . 3 , third in bet365 criterion stakes , newmarket , gr . 3 ) .\nultimately , lion cavern proved himself to be a decent stallion , even if not nearly as distinguished as his full - brother gone west . he had been a precocious racehorse himself , but at stud he suffered from the fact that his best horses took significantly longer to hit their best form than he himself had done . sadly , he is no longer in a position to produce more good sons and daughters , but at least his grandchildren are doing well , the aforementioned pastoral player ( successful in a group three seven furlong race at haydock in june ) being one of nine group / graded stakes winners so far produced by daughters of lion cavern . these also include the group / grade one winners\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhughie morrison ' s four - year - old got up to take the lead inside the final furlong to beat 40 - 1 shot avonbridge .\netlaala , also a 40 - 1 outsider , was third as all the fancied runners were left trailing in the group one sprint over six furlongs .\nsoldier ' s tale , one of the 4 - 1 joint favourites for the race , stayed on to finish fourth .\ni knew two and a half down that he was going to win ,\negan commented .\ni can ' t believe he travelled so well in a group one , it was amazing .\na delighted morrison said :\nwe always thought he was a bloody good horse and he proved it today .\nhe didn ' t have a hard race at york in the queen anne , he slipped on the ground and just never found his footing , but it ' s a credit to the horse that he could come back to run here .\nit ' s unbelievable . i can ' t believe it . i have to thank all my staff , especially my assistant gerry gracey , who said to me that we should run him and that we would win a group one .\nsport homepage | football | cricket | rugby union | rugby league | tennis | golf | motorsport | boxing | athletics | snooker | horse racing | cycling | disability sport | olympics 2012 | sport relief | other sport . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ni have discovered some detailed information on mr w . r . campbell from an article in the town and country journal of 24th may 1890 as follows ;\n\u201cthe hon . william robert campbell , m . l . c . , is one of four gentlemen recently appointed to the legislative council . mr . campbell was born in sydney in 1838 , and is the son of the late robert campbell , who was colonial treasurer in the cowper ministry , and one of the family well known as the proprietors of campbell\u2019s wharf .\nhe was educated at king\u2019s school , parramatta , under the rev . robert forrest , and subsequently resided with his father in sydney until 1860 . in that year he went to europe , and travelled that continent until 1863 , when he returned to sydney . in 1868 he entered the legislative assembly to represent west maitland .\nagain visited the old country in 1873 , and remained there until 1975 . in 1880 he was elected for the gwydir , and sat for that electorate until he resigned in 1886 . he married in 1881 the youngest daughter of the late sir edward deas - thomson , c . b . , k . c . m . g .\nwhile we don\u2019t know why he resigned in 1886 , it would appear he was still interested in politics and made the move to legislative council in 1890 .\ncampbell bridge \u2013 125th anniversary ( 4 - nov - 11 ) [ read more\u2026 ] the bridge finally opens the following extracts are from the report by the bingera correspondent , dated 8th november , which appeared in the maitland mercury & hunter river advertiser on 19th november 1886 . the correspondent was present on the opening day and gives a very detailed account of proceedings ;\nthere are two bridges at bingara , the main bridge over the gwydir river , ( campbell bridge ) and the smaller over halls creek . they are generally known collectively as \u2018campbell bridge\u2019 .\nthomas hartwell\u2019s recollections ( 3 - nov - 11 ) [ read more\u2026 ] thomas hartwell worked on campbell bridge and supplied timber for its construction . his recollections of the bridge construction appeared in the bingara advocate , june , 26 1935 . as you will see even he has the bridge opening details incorrect , which would seem very surprising as you would expect he was there for the opening .\ncrist\u00f3bal col\u00f3n ( christopher columbus ) claims the new world . on 27 october 1492 columbus sighted cuba , he named the island juana .\nbegan with the arrival of christopher columbus in 1492 and the subsequent invasion of the island by the spaniards . aboriginal groups\u2014the guanahatabey , ciboney , and ta\u00edno\u2014inhabited the island but were soon eliminated or died as a result of diseases or the shock of conquest . thus , the impact of indigenous groups on subsequent cuban society was limited , and spanish culture , institutions , language , and religion prevailed . colonial society developed slowly after\njos\u00e9 mart\u00ed ( 28 january 1853\u201319 may 1895 ) cuban independence leader and national hero . through his writings and political activity , he became a symbol for cuba ' s bid for independence against spain in the 19th century .\nas a sugar - producing colony , spanish protective policies , and the ingenuity of cuba\u2019s creole business class all converged to produce a sugar revolution on the island . in a scant few years , cuba was transformed from a sleepy , unimportant island into the major sugar producer in the world . slaves arrived in increasing numbers ; large estates squeezed out smaller ones ; sugar supplanted tobacco , agriculture , and cattle as the main occupation ; prosperity replaced poverty ; and spain\u2019s attention replaced neglect . these factors , especially the latter two , delayed a move toward independence in the early nineteenth century . while most of latin america was breaking with spain , cuba remained loyal .\ntoward the end of the nineteenth century , cuban loyalty began to change as a result of creole rivalry with spaniards for the governing of the island , increased spanish despotism and taxation , and the growth of cuban nationalism . these developments combined to produce a prolonged and bloody war , the ten years\u2019 war against spain ( 1868\u201378 ) , but it failed to win independence for cuba . at the outset of the second independence war ( 1895\u201398 ) , cuban independence leader jos\u00e9 mart\u00ed was killed . as a result of increasingly strained relations between spain and the united states , the americans entered the conflict in 1898 . already concerned about its economic interests on the island and its strategic interest in a future\ncanal , the united states was aroused by an alarmist \u201cyellow\u201d press after the uss maine sank in havana harbor on february 15 as the result of an explosion of undetermined origin . in december 1898 , with the treaty of\n, the united states emerged as the victorious power in the spanish - american war , thereby ensuring the expulsion of spain and u . s . tutelage over cuban affairs .\n, after almost five years of u . s . military occupation , cuba launched into nationhood with fewer problems than most latin american nations . prosperity increased during the early years . militarism seemed curtailed . social tensions were not profound . yet corruption , violence , and political irresponsibility grew . invoking the 1901 platt amendment , which was named after senator orville h . platt and stipulated the right of the united states to intervene in cuba\u2019s internal affairs and to lease an area for a naval base in cuba , the united states intervened militarily in cuba in 1906\u20139 , 1917 , and 1921 . u . s . economic involvement also weakened the growth of cuba as a nation and made the island more dependent on its northern neighbor .\nu . s . - backed dictator fulgencio batista , leader of cuba from 1933 - 1944 , and from 1952 - 1959 , before being overthrown as a result of the cuban revolution .\nduring world war ii was followed by an era of democratic government , respect for human rights , and accelerated prosperity under the inheritors of the 1933 revolution\u2014grau san mart\u00edn ( president , 1944\u201348 ) and carlos pr\u00edo socarr\u00e1s ( president , 1948\u201352 ) . yet political violence and corruption increased . many saw these administrations of the cuban revolutionary party ( partido revolucionario cubano\u2014prc ) , more commonly known as the authentic party ( partido aut\u00e9ntico ) , as having failed to live up to the ideals of the revolution . others still supported the aut\u00e9nticos and hoped for new leadership that could correct the vices of the past . a few conspired to take power by force .\nbatista\u2019s coup d\u2019\u00e9tat on march 10 , 1952 , had a profound effect on cuban society , leading to doubts about the ability of the cubans to govern themselves . it also began a brutal right - wing dictatorship that resulted in the polarization of society , civil war , the overthrow of batista , and the destruction of the military and most other cuban institutions . fidel castro ruz , a charismatic , anti - u . s . revolutionary , seized power on january 1 , 1959 , following his successful revolt against the u . s . - backed batista government . as the castro regime expropriated u . s . properties and investments and began , officially , on april 16 , 1961 , to convert cuba into a one - party communist system , relations between the united states and cuba deteriorated rapidly . the united states imposed an embargo on cuba on october 19 , 1960 , and broke diplomatic relations on january 3 , 1961 , in response to castro\u2019s expropriations without compensation and other provocations , such as arrests of u . s . citizens . the failure of the central intelligence agency ( cia ) \u2013sponsored invasion by cuban exiles in april 1961 ( the infamous bay of pigs invasion ) allowed the castro regime to destroy the entire cuban underground and to emerge strengthened and consolidated , basking in the huge propaganda value of having defeated the \u201cyankees . \u201d\nernesto\nche\nguevara ( 14 june 1928 \u2013 9 october 1967 ) a key figure of the cuban revolution in its struggle against monopoly capitalism , neo - colonialism , and imperialism . che was executed on 9 october 1967 ( aged 39 ) at the instigation of ren\u00e9 barrientos , then president of bolivia who came to power in the aftermath of the overthrow of the government of paz estenssoro in a united states of america ' s cia - backed coup .\ntensions between the two governments peaked during the cuban missile crisis of october 1962 after the united states revealed the presence of soviet missiles in cuba . following the imposition of a u . s . naval blockade , the weapons were withdrawn and the missile bases dismantled , thus resolving one of the most serious international crises since world war ii . a u . s . - soviet agreement that ended the cuban missile crisis assured cuba\u2019s protection from military attack by the united states .\nprovided a protective umbrella that propelled castro onto the international scene . cuba\u2019s support of anti - u . s . guerrilla and terrorist groups in latin america and other countries of the developing world , military intervention in africa , and unrestricted soviet weapons deliveries to cuba suddenly made castro an important international contender . cuba\u2019s role in bringing to power a marxist regime in\n\u2019s anastasio somoza debayle in july 1979 perhaps stand out as castro\u2019s most significant accomplishments in foreign policy . in the 1980s , the u . s . military expulsion of the cubans from\nand central america showed the limits of cuba\u2019s influence and \u201cinternationalism\u201d ( cuban missions to support governments or insurgencies in the developing world ) .\nthe collapse of communism in the early 1990s had a profound effect on cuba . soviet economic subsidies to cuba ended as of january 1 , 1991 . without soviet support , cuba was submerged in a major economic crisis . the gross national product contracted by as much as one - half between 1989 and 1993 , exports fell by 79 percent and imports by 75 percent , the budget deficit tripled , and the standard of living of the population declined sharply . the cuban government refers to the economic crisis of the 1990s and the austerity measures put in place to try to overcome it euphemistically as the \u201cspecial period in peacetime . \u201d minor adjustments , such as more liberalized foreign investment laws and the opening of private ( but highly regulated ) small businesses and agricultural stands , were introduced . yet the regime continued to cling to an outdated marxist and caudillista ( dictatorial ) system , refusing to open the political process or the economy .\nhostility between cuba and the united states continued unabated during the 1990s , and illegal cuban immigration to the united states and human rights violations in cuba remained sensitive issues . as the post - soviet cuban economy imploded for lack of once - generous soviet subsidies , illegal emigration became a growing problem . the 1994 balsero crisis ( named after the makeshift rafts or other unseaworthy vessels used by thousands of cubans ) constituted the most significant wave of cuban illegal emigrants since the mariel boatlift of 1980 , when 125 , 000 left the island . a cuban - u . s . agreement to limit illegal emigration had the unintended effect of making alien smuggling of cubans into the united states a major business .\npassed the so - called helms\u2013burton law , introducing tougher rules for u . s . dealings with cuba and deepening economic sanctions . the most controversial part of this law , which led to international condemnation of u . s . policy toward cuba , involved sanctions against third - party nations , corporations , or individuals that trade with cuba . the u . s . stance toward cuba became progressively more hard - line , as demonstrated by the appointment of several prominent cuban - americans to the administration of george w . bush . nevertheless , as a result of pressure from european countries , particularly spain , the bush administration continued the clinton administration\u2019s policy of suspending a provision in the helms\u2013burton act that would allow u . s . citizens and companies to sue foreign firms using property confiscated from them in cuba during the 1959 revolution . instead , the bush administration sought to increase pressure on the castro regime through increased support for domestic dissidents and new efforts to broadcast pro - u . s . messages to cubans and to bypass cuba\u2019s jamming of u . s . television and radio broadcasts to cuba .\nfidel alejandro castro ruz ( born 13 august 1926 ) was until july 2006 cuba ' s president of the council of state , commander in chief of the armed forces , president of the council of ministers , and first secretary of the cuban communist party .\ninvolving cuban spies also underscored the continuing cuban - u . s . cold war . in addition , in early 2002 the bush administration began to make a concerted effort to isolate cuba from traditionally sympathetic latin american countries such as\n, but cuba has continued to have diplomatic and trade relations with latin america . although the successful visit to havana in may 2002 by former u . s . president jimmy carter brought renewed efforts in congress to lift the embargo , president bush reaffirmed his support for it and sought to more strictly enforce the u . s . ban on travel by americans to cuba . in january 2004 , he canceled immigration talks with havana that had been held biannually for a decade . in may 2004 , he endorsed new proposals to reduce the amount of remittances \u00e9migr\u00e9s can send back to cuba and further restrict the number of visits cubans living in the united states can make to their homeland . cuba responded by cultivating closer relations with\na crack opened in the cuban system in may 2002 , when a petition with 11 , 000 signatures\u2014part of an unusual dissident initiative known as the varela project\u2014was submitted to the national assembly of popular power ( hereafter , national assembly ) . started by oswaldo jos\u00e9 pay\u00e1 sadinas , now cuba\u2019s most prominent dissident leader , the varela project called for a referendum on basic civil and political liberties and a new electoral law . in the following month , however , the government responded by initiating a drive to mobilize popular support for an amendment to the constitution , subsequently adopted unanimously by the national assembly , declaring the socialist system to be \u201cuntouchable , \u201d permanent , and \u201cirrevocable . \u201d\ncuban politics have been dominated by a government campaign targeting negative characteristics of the socialist system , such as \u201cindiscipline\u201d ( for example , theft of public and private property , absenteeism , and delinquency ) , corruption , and negligence . under the campaign , unspecified indiscipline - related charges were brought against a member of the cuban communist party and its political bureau , resulting in his dismissal from these positions in april 2006 .\ncastro , hospitalized by an illness , transferred power provisionally to his brother , general ra\u00fal castro ruz , first vice president of the council of state and council of ministers and minister of the revolutionary armed forces on july 31 , 2006 . fidel castro\u2019s unprecedented transfer of power and his prolonged recovery appeared to augur the end of the castro era .\none world - nations online . : . let ' s care for this planet actually , it ' s impossible to simulate freedom - - - or ? nations online project is made to improve cross - cultural understanding and global awareness . more signal - less noise\norigin mowry arrived in the san francisco bay area in 1846 with his parents and bro ther , rinaldo . they were part of the historic voyage of the brooklyn , which brought mormons to this area . he was born in providence county , rhode island on july 3 , 1825 where he learned his trade of mason , while helping on the family farm .\nmowry landing which was at the source of mowry slough was close to the railway station of the south pacific coast railroad company , which was on mowry ' s land . this probably provided origin mowry with access to a larger market for his agricultural goods . according to an earlier map ( 1878 ) mowry slough is more extensive . sediment and fill from humans over the last 100 years shaped mowry slough of today .\nexplore your faith and understand the background and inspiration of the bible , its history and composition , the overarching themes and message .\nwe want to share with you our excitement for a new way of learning at rocky mountain college .\npathways is our new \u201cdistributed learning\u201d model . it is taking our classroom courses out of the box , and down the road to where you are .\nwith our focus on discipleship , leadership and social care , pathways now enables students , professionals , and life - long learners , to take advantage of our programs and courses no matter where they are .\ncourses are available to anyone . anywhere . anytime . often times god speaks to us and we yearn for a richer life . but obstacles appear .\npathways is about removing obstacles and allowing access to quality learning experiences . we foster changed lives both locally and globally .\nit is our hope that we can show you a new pathway to learning , ministry and a richer , more meaningful life . thank you for exploring rmc\u2019s pathways program .\nat least two of this season ' s leading european first - season sires raced only as two - year - olds . and were each top - class and super - tough two - year - olds . each never raced again after his first season . each is now shaping up as a very promising stallion , with each already having sired his first stakes winner . teofilo ' s first black - type winner came with the success of in the listed three fillies sprint stakes at naas on 6th june , while dark angel ' s first stakes success came 19 days later when his daughter won the empress stakes at newmarket . while common sense suggests that , as the racecourse is the testing ground for the breeding stock of the future , it is preferable to breed only from stallions who have proved their durability prior to retiring to stud , these results suggest that such a credential , though desirable , is not necessarily essential , writes john berry\nbloodstock history books , of course , provide numerous examples of stallions who never raced at the ages of three or above . while dark angel and teofilo were top - class and very tough two - year - olds , they were not in the same league in these respects as\n, whose profile remains that of the perfect two - year - old . the tetrarch raced seven times as a two - year - old in 1913 , winning on all seven occasions . after making a winning debut at newmarket on 17th april , he won all his remaining six starts : the woodcote stakes at epsom , the coventry stakes ( then run over five furlongs ) at ascot by ten lengths , the national breeders ' produce stakes at sandown , the rous memorial at goodwood , the champion breeders ' foal stakes at derby , and the champagne stakes at doncaster . the national breeders ' produce stakes was the only race in which he came under any pressure at all , and that was only because he had been badly left at the start . by the autumn , he had more than earned his position as red - hot favourite for the following year ' s derby ( and his pedigree suggested that stamina would not be a concern , as he was by the good two - miler\n, whose wins had all come between nine and 11 furlongs and who had already bred , strange though it may seem , a russian oaks winner ) . however , the tetrarch had to miss his engagement in october in the imperial produce stakes at kempton park because he struck into himself while cantering the day before the race \u2013 and when he did the same the following spring , he gave himself what proved to be a career - ending injury . the tetrarch proved to be a champion sire . poor fertility ( the 11 seasons which he spent covering at ballylinch stud before he was pensioned yielded only 130 foals , with the 22 foals in his 1918 crop being the most he ever produced in one year ) was not enough to prevent him from making a massive impression as a stallion . he was champion sire of britain and ireland in 1919 ( with his oldest offspring aged only three ) and he sired both a great stallion (\nthe gist of the tetrarch ' s tale is that racing only as a juvenile does not necessarily preclude subsequent success at stud . in fact , not racing at all does not necessarily preclude that , although obviously few horses are given any chance at stud at all without first having compiled a worthwhile racing record . the success , though , in new zealand of the champion sires\nit should , however , be remembered that the tetrarch failed to race as a three - year - old because of misadventure ( striking into himself ) rather than because of any innate inability to withstand the rigours of training and racing per se . that is very different from the case of teofilo who appeared to stand up very well to a tough campaign as a two - year - old in 2006 ( when he won all his five starts including the national stakes at the curragh and the dewhurst stakes at newmarket ) but who , perhaps as a result of the wear and tear inevitably resultant from a tough preparation in his first season , suffered from soreness in his knees during his classic year which meant that , while he was in training , he never made it to the races as a three - year - old before retiring to kildangan stud aged four in 2008 . teofilo ' s failure to race as a three - year - old in 2007 resulted in the unusual situation of neither of the previous year ' s dewhurst stakes principals ever running again after that race , the runner - up\nwas infertile , the pretext for premature retirement being that holy roman emperor was thus required at the stud to cover the mares whom george washington could not help .\nholy roman emperor thus found himself at stud during the spring of his three - year - old year ( 2007 ) . he has subsequently proved himself to be a useful source of satisfactory racehorses , even if the terrific qualities displayed by his super - tough royal ascot - winning first - crop three - year - old daughter\nare not necessarily shared by all of his stock . while , though , there was seemingly a semi - valid reason for holy roman emperor not even being in training during his three - year - old season , such an excuse could not be used in the case of dark angel , who was still more than a month away from his actual third birthday when he began covering mares at morristown lattin stud in february 2008 . history does not relate whether any of dark angel ' s connections were glib enough to claim that he had been retired to stud because he had\nnothing more to prove\n- a phrase which , like\nonly following orders\n, has much to answer for . however , what his premature retirement did prove is that the old maxims that one bred to race , and raced to improve the breed , have nowadays been submerged under a tidal wave of modern financial ' reality ' .\n. acclamation was a very good two - year - old in 2001 and a group two winner of the six - furlong diadem stakes at ascot as a four - year - old in 2003 . he retired to rathbarry stud as a five - year - old in 2004 having finished in the first three in 13 of his 16 starts , and his first yearlings justifiably proved popular at the sales in the autumn of 2006 . ( acclamation has subsequently proved himself to be a consistently good sire of sprinters thanks to the successes of the likes of dual king ' s stand stakes winner\nin the group two railway stakes over six furlongs at the curragh on 26th june - a race , incidentally , in which his son dark angel sired the runner - up and holy roman emperor sired the third ) .\nbred by yeomanstown stud , dark angel was offered as a yearling at doncaster in august 2006 . although his family is far from a regular supplier of high - class horses , he was a strong , imposing colt sired by a fast horse who , thanks to never having yet sired a runner , could still at that time be dreamed about as being the ' next big thing ' . he duly fetched 61 , 000 gns , bought by the bba ireland on behalf of patrons of barry hills ' stable . as he was destined to carry the colours of catherine corbett , famous for having owned good grey horses such as the group one\u2013winning fillies\n, the fact that he was a grey would have probably helped to clinch the deal .\n, whose breeding record at the time was far from impressive . she herself had inherited that grey coat from her dam\n. the omens , therefore , were that dark angel might be a decent sprinter , even if it seemed unlikely that he could rise to the highest class . that , though , is what he would do in little over a year .\nafter joining barry hills ' stable , dark angel soon proved himself to be abnormally precocious . he was , therefore , duly dispatched to the craven meeting at newmarket in april 2007 , where he finished runner - up on debut to the julia fielden - trained\n( who , in marked contrast to dark angel , is still racing now and who has to date won seven of his 45 starts , his most recent success having come in a listed race over seven furlongs at kempton last december ) . this run was good enough to see dark angel sent off the 2 / 5 favourite for a five - furlong maiden race at the chester may meeting ( where his trainer ' s outstanding course record over the years would have further increased confidence in his chances ) . he duly won comfortably by two lengths , ridden by the trainer ' s son michael , who was to partner him in all his races .\nlike most promising early two - year - olds , dark angel ran at royal ascot , but his run there in the 2007 windsor castle stakes gave little hint of the success he was shortly afterwards to enjoy : he finished 11th , albeit beaten less than four lengths in a blanket finish . thereafter , dark angel never looked back . raised in class at newmarket ' s july meeting , he belied his 20 / 1 sp when running a bold race to finish fourth to\nin the world ' s oldest two - year - old race , the july stakes , a group two contest over six furlongs . a smooth victory in a very valuable sales race at the york august meeting followed and , although he was unplaced in the flying childers stakes at doncaster ' s st leger meeting , dark angel then rattled off a group race double , landing the group two mill reef stakes at newbury and the group one middle park stakes at newmarket , beating the richmond stakes winner\non each occasion . his connections then took the bold step of sending him out to contest an exceptionally competitive dewhurst two weeks later . while he probably found the seven furlongs too far , the strength of the opposition was probably also a major factor in his moderate ninth place in a 10 - runner field , well beaten by the likes of the subsequent derby winner\nin a three - year - olds ' listed sprint at newbury last year , and then became happier still when dark angel ' s first yearlings sold well last autumn . the joy will have been increased further by the swag of winners which dark angel has already sired , headed by the admirable\n, winner to date of four of her six races . so no real harm has been done , even if , surely , we don ' t want this trend to develop - and the fact that two of last season ' s fastest two - year - olds in britain ( flying childers winner\n) were covering big books of mares as three - year - olds in ireland this year ( at tally - ho stud and morristown lattin stud respectively ) is not a good sign in that respect .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwebsite programmed in coldfusion \u2122 and maintained and updated by tara ' s art .\nhigh chaparra makes his comeback after injury in the royal whip stakes ( 2 . 55 ) at the curragh and should see off five rivals even if short of his best . he beat in time ' s eye convincingly at leopardstown before winning the derby last year , so the danger could be imperial dancer , especially if a strong pace brings his finish into play .\nthe most astonishing two - year - old performance at royal ascot came from three valleys , who stormed away with the coventry stakes by eight lengths in a very fast time . one cool cat is highly thought of by aidan o ' brien but he will have to be exceedingly smart to beat roger charlton ' s youngster in the phoenix stakes at 3 . 55 .\ncharlton may also strike in the prix maurice de gheest ( 2 . 50 ) at deauville with avonbridge , whose beating of ashdown express and resplendent cee at salisbury in june has been boosted by that pair ' s recent wins . nayyir may not be suited by a drop in trip .\nas usual , the racing in britain is on a much more mundane level . frascati is my best bet of the day in the sprint handicap at windsor ( 5 . 00 ) . she has a 15lb pull for a three - quarters of a length beating by musical fair at redcar last month when two more of today ' s rivals , playtime blue and blessed place , finished down the field .\ncoustou ( 3 . 20 ) and miss mirasol ( 3 . 50 ) look best at leicester .\nyou ' ve read the piece , now have your say . email your comments , be as frank as you like , we can take it , to sport . editor @ urltoken , or mail the observer direct at sport @ urltoken\n\u00a9 2018 guardian news and media limited or its affiliated companies . all rights reserved .\nhowever , it helps . all concerned with the running of the english national stud , where\nresides , must therefore be delighted to see their stallion currently sitting on top of the first - season sires ' list for britain and ireland .\nin an era when the times for races are continually getting faster and when the majority of track records are only a small amount of years old , it was remarkable that the track record for hamilton ' s five - furlong course should have remained at 58 seconds since 1972 . in fact , the surprise shouldn ' t be that no horse had run under 58 seconds in that period , more that such a quick time should have been set in the first place , because the stiff uphill finish at hamilton makes that a remarkably fast time . however , in making a winning debut at hamilton on may 30 , rose blossom won by four - and - a - half lengths in a time of 57 . 95 , thus breaking the all - aged record as well as the juveniles ' figure . she is clearly a young sprinter of huge potential , and it was no surprise after the race to hear vicky fahey , wife of the winning trainer richard , declare ,\nrichard thinks she is the best filly he has trained , and said that if she didn ' t win today he ' d give up training . she will now head straight to royal ascot for the queen mary\n.\n- and it would be no surprise if he were duly to follow in his father ' s footsteps . ( he would , in fact , actually follow in them closely , because the two stallions stand alongside each other at the national stud ) .\n, bahamian bounty combines two proven sprinting sire - lines . it is somewhat ironic that cadeaux genereux is currently the most distinguished male - line descendant of\nat stud in europe , because sprinting certainly was not the main claim to fame of hyperion and his descendants , notwithstanding hyperion ' s five - furlong success in the new ( now norfolk ) stakes as a two - year - old at royal ascot . however , the branch of hyperion ' s sire - line which came via the 1947 2 , 000 guineas winner\ndefinitely proved to be one which excelled at short distances . tudor minstrel ' s son\n, winners of the prix de l ' abbaye and the cork and orrery ( now golden jubilee ) stakes respectively . sadly balidar ' s son\nwas one of several very fast horses which he left prior to his premature demise .\nboasted a similarly distinguished sprinting tradition . the dominant sprinter in ireland in the 1970s , ballad rock won the greenlands stakes at the curragh in 1978 with ten stone but even more meritorious was his victory in the previous year ' s rockingham handicap under 9 stone 12 lb , a massive weight for a three - year - old in what was historically regarded as ireland ' s most prestigious sprint . his main achievement at stud was breeding the july cup and sussex stakes winner\n, winner of the 1966 coventry , champagne and middle park stakes , and subsequently responsible for numerous very fast horses during his career at kildangan stud in ireland .\nlanded the haydock park sprint cup . unsurprisingly , these siblings have speed on both sides of their pedigree , star ( who won over five furlongs as a two - year - old ) being a daughter of the mansingh mare marista , whose other offspring include"]}
{"id": 750, "summary": [{"text": "the coast horned lizard ( phrynosoma coronatum ) is a species of phrynosomatid lizard which can be found in baja california sur .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the old classification included all three current species p. blainvillii , p. cerroense , and p. coronatum as a single species ( p. coronatum ) ranging from baja california north to california 's sacramento valley .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it was previously considered to be a widely divergent species with over 6 subspecies in their relatively small range but is now classified as three distinct species .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "as a defense the lizard can shoot high pressure streams of blood out of its eyes if threatened . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "coast horned lizard", "paragraphs": ["montanucci presented evidence in 2004 that the group of horned lizards formerly known as phrynosoma coronatum ( coast horned lizard ) comprised four separate species . this evidence was accepted by the ssar names book that i follow on this site .\ncaitanya tells us about a horned lizard she found then lets it go . \u00a9 robert de vico\nthe horned lizard eats arthropods , including ants , beetles , and spiders . ants seem to be their favorites . they usually are observed in close proximity to ant hills . many non native ant species have moved into their habitats displacing or eradicating the native ant species that the coast horned lizard feeds on .\nthere is , however , some conjecture about the taxonomy of the baja horned lizards starting with the ones found directly south of the san diego subspecies , and they may actually be one or more different species / subspecies related to the coast horned lizard .\ni returned a week later with my horned - lizard - loving friends jackson and fred , and their horned - lizard - admiring wives mela and angie , to see if we could repeat my luck . a horned lizard bonanza ensued . note that ol ' curly horn from the previous week put in another appearance .\nwe saw another horned lizard a little while later , which had one of its head horns curled back .\nhabitat , riverside county . the bare spot in the foreground is the entrance to a nest of harvester ants , a primary food source for coast horned lizards .\nthe coast horned lizard ( phrynosoma coronatum ) , which is found in coastal and cismontane california , crosses to the east side of the baja peninsula , actually making contact with the desert horned lizard in the vicinity of bah\u00eda de los angeles . the two live sympatrically for a distance along the east coast . as the coastal form has taken over the balance of the peninsula , it could also be considered a desert form since it does live in the deserts of baja right down to cabo san lucas .\nthe most common horned lizard in the western deserts is aptly named the desert horned lizard ( phrynosoma platyrhinos ) consisting of two subspecies : the northern ( p . p . platyrhinos ) which inhabits the great basin desert , and the southern ( p . p . calidiarum ) which inhabits the sonoran and mojave deserts including a finger of the east coast of northern baja california .\nsome do diverge from the ant diet at certain times of the year such as the regal horned lizard , which gorges itself on tiny beetles and eschews ants altogether when the beetles are abundant . also , the coast horned lizard can survive on inverts other than ants . but the flattail and shorthorned , as well as the desert horned lizards , are closely tied to ants and will die if those are not supplied in quantity .\nthe coast horned lizard is presently listed as a federal special concern species ( fsc ) and a california special concern species ( dfg - csc ) . so don ' t collect them ! they are much happier outside than in a terrarium in your living room .\nthe short - horned lizard is a one - reptile wrecking crew with a bizarre self - defense strategy . when defending its own life , this lizard squirts blood from the thin blood vessels around its eyes that rupture under pressure .\nharvester ants are a primary source of food for blainville ' s horned lizards and other species of horned lizards .\nthe horned lizard is an odd looking lizard . its body is covered in horny scales the longest being around its head . it is often called a horned toad because of its squat toad like appearance . of coarse , these guys can tolerate much hotter and drier environments than any bufo boreas .\nat pinnacles national monument , i finally found success in a rocky riverbed . the first horned lizard of the day was mildly agitated by our insistent photography and jumped up onto a rock in a feeble , horned - lizard - style attempt to get away . the rock was previously occupied by a\nthe short - horned lizard is often referred to as a \u201chorned toad\u201d or \u201chorny toad\u201d because its squat , flattened shape and short , blunt snout give it a toad - ish look . there are over a dozen recognized horned - lizard species found in the deserts and semi - arid environments of north and central america , from southern canada to guatemala .\ncomments : in california , this species formerly was known as the coast horned lizard , phrynosoma coronatum . populations south of northern baja california are now recognized as one or two distinct species , whereas the northern segment of the former p . coronatum is now p . blainvillii ( see leach\u00e9 et al . 2009 ) .\n, who seemed to take some offense at this incursion and , rather than giving ground immediately , initiated a head - bobbing display . the horned lizard responded with head - bobbing of its own . this is the first time i ' ve seen such obvious inter - species communication in lizards . after a brief but no doubt tense standoff , the horned lizard moved forward a little and the side - blotched lizard raced off .\ncoast horned lizard traditional bath goats feast in puerto de la cruz cow walking on the sand on colva beach in south goa . cow walking on the sand on colva beach in south goa . cow walking on the sand on colva beach in south goa . cow walking on the sand on colva beach in south goa . sculpture of deer on the riverside volga\nthe coast horned lizard is now absent from much of its former southern californian range due to urbanization , agricultural development , and over - collecting ( jennings 1987 , 1988 ) . in some areas , the non - native argentine ant is displacing native ant species upon which this lizard feeds ( stebbins 2003 ) . in baja california , the expansion of intensive agriculture is also a threat , in particular in the vizca\u00edno desert , the magdalena plain , and the isthmus of la paz .\ntwo different blainville ' s horned lizards are shown running quickly for a short distance then stopping to hide by blending in with the background , typical behavior for this type of lizard .\nhorned lizards are found only in the western portions of the united states and mexico . there are 14 recognized species . they range from arkansas to the pacific coast , and from british columbia south to guatemala . these lizards are creatures of hot , dry , sandy environments .\nrange and habitat : texas horned lizards occur naturally range from louisiana to arizona , but were once commonly sold as pets and have been introduced in several locations in the southeast . most established populations in south carolina and georgia are near the coast where sand dunes mimic their natural desert habitat .\nprey : horned lizards prey almost exclusively on ants but may eat other small insects .\ni had searched for phrynosoma blainvillii at pinnacles national monument , in the ventana wilderness , and at fort ord public lands at least 10 times in the past two years with nary a horned lizard sighting to show for it . finally , after a friendly bureau of land management ranger told me where he had seen them , i came across these two youngsters on a sandy trail . there ' s nothing cuter than a pouty little horned lizard , i say .\nblainville ' s horned lizards are covered with small granular scales interspersed with larger pointed scales .\ndesert horned lizards have only 1 row of slightly enlarged scales on each side of the throat .\ncomments : this lizard is now absent from much of its former southern california range due to urbanization , agricultural development , and over - collecting ( jennings 1987 , 1988 ) . in some areas , the non - native argentine ant is displacing native ant species upon which this lizard feeds ( stebbins 2003 ) .\neric pianka and wendy hodge ' s excellent article on horned lizards , from the university of texas .\naccording to dumas ( 1964 ) the lower limit of p . douglassi is set in part by predation by the leopard lizard and the whiptail . wherever these potential predators of p . douglassi are found , the short - horned lizard itself is scarce or , more often , absent . p . platyrhinos is apparently to much for the leopard lizard or the whiptail because of its larger spines and overall larger size . in field and laboratory experiments by dumas ( 1964 ) , adult p . douglassi were quickly eaten by leopard lizards and whiptails in areas where leopard lizards , whiptails , and desert horned lizards were abundant . both leopard lizards and whiptails released p . platyrhinos individuals without permanent injury .\nat long last an adult blainville ' s horned lizard put in an appearance for me , along the same trail where i had seen youngsters several times . the top photo here is in fact another youngster , but that second one is a full - grown adult .\nadult , santa cruz mountains \u00a9 jackson shedd this lizard squirted blood from its eyes just before the photographs were made , which explains the reddish coloring on its head .\ni arrived at about 9 am to discover that this was to be a blisteringly hot day ; it was already at least 90 degrees . i searched carefully for horned lizards for an hour or so with no luck . i didn ' t even see any ( very recognizable ) horned lizard poops , which was making me worry that this population had died out . but my worries were dispelled when this half - sized lizard dashed across the trail in front of me . did i say\ndashed\n? i meant\nwaddled determinedly\n.\nmore very young horned lizards awaited me on a return trip to the same site more than four months later . i was surprised to still discover no adults , but this time i saw five youngsters . the second one pictured above is the smallest horned lizard i ' ve ever seen , no more than an inch long from its pouty little snout to the tip of its tail .\nblainsville ' s horned lizards have 2 or 3 rows of enlarged pointed scales on each side of the throat .\nsherbrooke , wade c . horned lizards , unique reptiles of western north america . southwest parks and monuments association , 1981 . sherbrooke , wade c . introduction to horned lizards of north america . university of california press , 2003 .\nto the uninitiated , their dragon - like appearance is quite formidable . the squat form and head armor has given rise to the name\nhorny toad ,\nhorned toad\nand\nhorned lizards .\nhowever , since there is a true toad with horns , it is best that we speak of this genus as the\nhorned lizards .\nhabitat destruction and ant destruction have placed several species of horned lizards in danger . after all , the first thing people do when they move into the desert is kill the pesky ants , thereby depriving horned lizards of their only dependable diet .\nthe horned lizard needs bare soil ; they cannot tolerate weeds at all ( yellow star thistle , bromus and other nasties ) . it is very hard for them to move around in this stuff , probably because of their width , and they need clean loose soil to lay their eggs and to hide in .\nblainville ' s horned lizards have 2 rows of pointed fringe scales on the lower part of each side of the body .\nover recent decades short - horn lizard populations have been in decline throughout their range . destruction of their native habitat , efforts to eradicate ants\u2014their staple food\u2014and the pet trade have all contributed to this .\nlike all lizards , phrynosoma are able to lose their tails . as mentioned earlier , they have few land predators and because of this it is rare to find a horned lizard with a broken tail . in studies done by pianka and parker ( 1975 ) only about 5 % of phrynosoma had tails which had been broken .\nhorned lizards are the most fearsome - looking and distinctive by virtue of the pointed , protruding\nhorns\nabove their eyes .\nto ensure that i wouldn ' t wait four years between visits to pinnacles , i headed back three weeks later , this time with my friend andrew . andrew hadn ' t seen a horned lizard in thirteen or fourteen years , and so was rightfully delighted when he flushed this well - camouflaged fellow out of its plain - sight hiding place .\nmy periodic phrynosoma pilgrimage to pinnacles was particularly successful . i found four of these little beauties in an hour or so . note that the last picture shows some dried blood below the eye . this lizard must have recently tried to scare off a predator by squirting blood from its eye , as several species of horned lizards are wont to do .\nthe day was considerably less hot than july 3 had been , and we found three horned lizard poops fairly quickly before finding this guy . so now i ' m thinking that the local population is probably just fine , thankyouverymuch , and my difficulty in finding any sign of phrynosoma on july 3 had been primarily due to that day ' s blistering heat .\ndescription : 2 . 5 - 4 in ( 6 . 5 - 10 cm ) . horned lizards or\nhorny toads\nare small lizards with bodies so flattened that they are almost circular in shape . true to their name , horned lizards also have a row of enlarged scales around their head that resemble horns . generally brownish or sandy in coloration , horned lizards often have darker spots or mottling that helps them to blend into their environment .\nhabits : horned lizards are always found on the ground are fond of hot , sandy habitats . they often sit close to anthills and pick off each ant as it walks by . horned lizards are masters of camouflage , generally relying on their coloration for protection and sometimes even partially burying themselves in sand . if their camouflage fails , horned lizards have a final defense ; they can squirt droplets of blood from their eyes , potentially confusing a predator and allowing them to escape .\nsherbrooke , w . c . , 1995 . collecting and feeding harvester ants to captive horned lizards . herpetelogical review 26 ( 1 ) : 25 - 26 .\nthe horned lizard escapes predation by staying still and blending into their back ground . they look just like decomposed granite ! when a predator is too close they will run very fast and then abruptly stop and stand still . when they are threatened , they are able to squirt blood from their eyes ( at most only a few feet , usually not even that ) . this has a tendency to distract predators especially squeamish humans .\nthreatened and eliminated from many areas due to habitat destruction from human development and agriculture , and the spread of nonnative ants , such as argentine ants ( ridomyrmex humilis ) which displace the native ant food source . before commercial collecting was banned in 1981 , this lizard was extensively exploited by the pet trade and the curio trade . ( at the turn of the century , horned lizards were coated with varnish and sold to tourists . )\ncalifa and caitanya de vico ( aka gypsettwins ) show off some of the horned lizards they saw on a fun spring hike in the los angeles county hills . \u00a9 robert de vico\ntaken from their native surroundings and offered an improper diet and an inadequate place to live , horned lizards soon die . consequently , the department of fish and game has been given the authority to limit the take and possession of horned lizards . it is best to simply examine one carefully , then release it where found , for that is where it rightfully belongs .\npianka e . r . and w . s . parker , 1975 . ecology of horned lizards : a review with special reference to phrynosoma platyrhinos . copeia 1975 ( 1 ) : 141 - 162 .\nheath , j . e . , 1965 . temperature regulation and diurnal activity in horned lizards . university of california publications in zoology . university of california press 64 ( 3 ) : 97 - 136 .\npowell , g . l . and a . p . russell , 1991 . partuition and clutch characteristics of short - horned lizards from alberta . canadian journal of zoology 69 ( 11 ) : 2759 - 2764 .\nmontanucci , r . r . , 1987 . a phylogenetic study of the horned lizards , genus phrynosoma , based on skeletal and external morphology . contributions in science : natural history museum of los angeles county 18 dec . ( 390 ) .\nthis is a pair of mating blainville ' s horned lizards in los angeles county . it ' s interesting that they are belly to belly . with all those horns and spines , it ' s probably safer that way . \u00a9 huck triggs\nhistorically found in california along the pacific coast from the baja california border west of the deserts and the sierra nevada , north to the bay area , and inland as far north as shasta reservoir , and south into baja california . ranges up onto the kern plateau east of the crest of the sierra nevada . the range has now been severely fragmented due to land alteration . some sources still mention the range extending to grasshopper flats in siskiyou county , but this was listed as dubious in rober stebbins ' 1985 field guide , and dropped from his 2003 field guide . the record farthest north at kennett is from a location that was flooded with the construction of shasta dam and shasta reservoir .\nthis injured adult from a backyard in san luis obispo county shows blood above one eye . when threatened , horned lizards will often spurt blood from a pore near the eyelid to deter the attacker , in this case , a dog . \u00a9 martha lindl\nwe chose to visit , and then hike at , la purisima mission state historic park due to its dog - friendly nature . the scrubby chaparral reminded monica of fort ord , and she speculated that perhaps there would be horned lizards . a few minutes later this charming fellow waddled across the trail in front of me , as if on cue . it ' s missing the tip of its tail . unlike many types of lizards , horned lizards don ' t regenerate their tails , so this guy will be stubby - tailed for the rest of its days .\ndespite their spiky features , short - horned lizards are preyed upon by a number of creatures , including hawks , roadrunners , snakes , lizards , dogs , wolves , and coyotes . consequently , beyond their natural camouflage , they have adapted a pair of remarkable talents . in order to ward off hungry predators , short - horned lizards are capable of inflating their bodies up to twice their size , resembling a spiny balloon . and if this proves insufficient , some species employ one of the animal kingdom\u2019s most bizarre defensive mechanisms : they shoot blood from their eyes .\ni hadn ' t spent much time herping locally this year , and so was really looking forward to spending a day at pinnacles . i chose to start in the same area where i had seen a number of horned lizards four years earlier ( four years ! i haven ' t been to pinnacles in\nbecause they are so fearsome in appearance , yet quite harmless , desert visitors tend to collect them to show the folks back home . horned lizards are neat creatures but hard to keep because most of them are obligate ant eaters and , at that , eat a very limited number of species of ants .\nin early april of 2007 , becky trask sent me these pictures of breeding adult horned lizards found at 5 , 200 ft . in los angeles county . in mid april of 2008 she discovered a juvenile at the same location ( shown below ) which could be the result of the previous year ' s breeding . \u00a9 becky trask\na flat - bodied lizard with a wide oval - shaped body , scattered enlarged pointed scales on the upper body and tail , and a large crown of horns or spines on the head . the two center horns are the longest . males have enlarged postanal scales and a swollen tail base during the breeding season . each side of the body has two rows of pointed fringe scales . ( stebbins , 2003 ) each side of the throat has two or three rows of enlarged pointed scales . ( stebbins , 2003 )\ni spotted my first , second , and third mexican horned lizards as lorrie smith , matt cage , and i drove up the dirt road leading to the mellifluously - named parque nacional constituci\u00f3n de 1857 . the second one evaded us , but the first one ( large adult ) and second one ( youngster ) were reasonably willing to pose .\nthe upper limit ( both elevation and latitude ) to both species of phrynosoma is temperature . the body temperature at which normal activity takes place is the same for both lizards , however p . platyrhinos takes twice as long to\nwarm - up\nbecause of its much larger body size ( dumas , 1964 ) . in order for any lizard to feed normally it must reach an optimal body temperature for a certain amount of time . in mountainous regions p . douglassi is able to do this while p . platyrhinos cannot . more detailed coverage on this topic in included under thermoregulation .\nthis lizard ranges throughout most of west - central and southwestern california ( united states ) as well as most of baja california ( mexico ) ( except the northeastern portion ) . in california , it ranges north to shasta county , though a disjunct population occurs farther north at grasshopper flat , siskiyou county , california ( jennings 1988 , grismer 2002 , stebbins 2003 ) . the elevational range extends from near sea level to around 2 , 438 m ( 8 , 000 feet ) ( stebbins 2003 ) . attempted introductions at yosemite valley and san clemente island ( california ) , and in hawaii , colombia , and guatemala have failed ( jennings 1988 ) .\ncomments : this lizard occurs in a variety of habitats , including scrubland , grassland , coniferous woods , and broadleaf woodlands ; typically it is found in areas with sandy soil , scattered shrubs , and ant colonies , such as along the edges of arroyo bottoms or dirt roads ( grismer 2002 , stebbins 2003 ) . in southern california , it was most common in areas with native ants and few or no argentine ants , in areas with native chaparral vegetation , and in sites with porous soils relatively free of organic debris ( fisher et al . 2002 ) . individuals bury themselves in loose soil . eggs are laid in a nest dug in the soil or in a burrow .\nglobal range : this lizard ranges throughout most of west - central and southwestern california ( west of the cascade - sierra nevada highlands and southeastern desert ) as well as northwestern baja california ( leache et al . 2009 ) ; in california , it ranges north to shasta county , though a disjunct population occurs farther north at grasshopper flat , siskiyou county , california ( jennings 1988 , grismer 2002 , stebbins 2003 ) . the elevational range extends from near sea level to around 2 , 438 meters ( 8 , 000 feet ) ( stebbins 2003 ) . attempted introductions at yosemite valley and san clemente island ( california ) , and in hawaii , colombia , and guatemala have failed ( jennings 1988 ) .\nreproductive tactics of horned lizards are , like many of their characteristics , somewhat unusual among lizards . they have a very high reproductive potential , expending large amounts of matter and energy on their clutch or litter ( pianka and parker , 1975 ) . phrynosoma produce large numbers of eggs or offspring in order to compensate for a relatively high mortality of the young ( pianka and parker , 1975 ) . as adults however , survivorship is very high ( powell and russell , 1991 ) .\nthe numerous species of horned lizards , all members of the genus phrynosoma , have very wide , flattened , toad - like bodies . the tail is short but broad at the base . in most species , the back of the head and temples are crowned with a prominent row of sharp , pointed horns . the tail and sides are fringed with sharp spines . on some species the sides are adorned with a double fringe of spines . on the back , there are rows of short conical spines .\nalthough many of the defenses to predation have been touched on previously , there are some that have not been discussed or not been discussed with any detail . it has been noted that the main defense against predation for phrynosoma is it ' s near perfect camouflage and subsequent reluctance to move ( pianka and parker , 1975 ) . if spotted by a possible land predator , such as another lizard or a snake , the horns of phrynosoma often prove to be too much , except of course in the case of p . douglassi which has much smaller horns but very few land predators ( dumas , 1964 ) . the only predators phrynosoma really need to be wary of are birds ( pianka and parker , 1975 ) . sometimes the camouflage isn ' t enough , and since phrynosoma are reluctant to move and often out in the open they are an easy target from the air when spotted .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhome checklist range maps student projects field trip gallery about dr . titus informational links\nbreeding characteristics also allow for p . douglassi to live at higher elevations . p . douglassi is ovoviviparous which is characteristic of reptiles living in cold or wet conditions . p . platyrhinos is oviparous and because of this would not be a very successful breeder in the harsher conditions in the range of p . douglassi . more detailed coverage of breeding of the two lizards can be found further , under reproduction .\ncooling in these two species also takes place at a different rate . p . douglassi cools much more slowly than p . platyrhinos , again , because of the smaller body size of p . douglassi ( dumas , 1964 ) . a more compact body reduces surface area for radiation of heat ( dumas , 1964 ) . the ability of p . douglassi to warm up more quickly and cool down more slowly could be a limiting factor to its distribution in the hotter regions inhabited by p . platyrhinos . the opposite pattern of temperature regulation and related distribution seems to be true for p . platyrhinos .\ndumas , p . c . , 1964 . species - pair allopatry in the genera rana and phrynosoma . ecology 45 ( 1 ) : 178 - 181 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nadult male , 3 , 000 ft . , san gabriel mountains , los angeles county\nadult male , from coastal dunes , san luis obispo county , partially buried in loose sand on the right . ( the two slo dunes lizards shown here both have nice bright white side fringe and markings on the back . )\nadult with a patternless pale ground color that matches the sand on the beach where it was found in san diego county . \u00a9 john andermann\nnewly - hatched juvenile next to u . s . quarter to show how small it is , contra costa county . \u00a9 jerry l . boyer\nthis san diego county juvenile shows how easily it can blend into the background to avoid detection . \u00a9 tim valentine\nthis riverside county adult is covered with blood after using its blood - squirting defense behavior . \u00a9 curtis croulet\na pair of mating adults , los angeles county \u00a9 huck triggs ( a short video of them . )\nadults are 2 . 5 - 4 . 5 inches long from snout to vent ( 6 . 3 - 11 . 4 cm )\ncolor is reddish , brown , yellow , or gray , with dark blotches on the back and large dark spots on the sides of the neck . the belly is cream , beige , or yellow , usually with dark spots , and the belly scales are smooth .\ndiurnal . active during periods of warm weather , retreating underground and becoming inactive during extended periods of low temperatures or extreme heat .\nknown to live up to 10 years in captivity , but captive animals normally do not live very long at all due to the difficulties of feeding them a proper diet .\neats mainly ants , especially harvester ants , but also consumes other small invertebrates such as spiders , beetles , termites , flies , honeybees , moth larvae , and grasshoppers .\nlays 6 - 21 eggs ( averaging around 12 ) from may to june . eggs hatch from august to september . some females may lay two clutches of eggs in a year .\ninhabits open areas of sandy soil and low vegetation in valleys , foothills and semiarid mountains . found in grasslands , coniferous forests , woodlands , and chaparral , with open areas and patches of loose soil . often found in lowlands along sandy washes with scattered shrubs and along dirt roads , and frequently found near ant hills .\nfound at elevations from sea level to 8 , 000 ft . ( 2 , 438 m ) .\nphrynosoma coronatum - ( blainville , 1835 ) - nouv . ann . mus . hist . nat . paris , vol . 4 , p . 284 , pl . 25 , fig . 1 from original description citations for the reptiles and amphibians of north america \u00a9 ellin beltz\nphrynosoma - greek - phrynos - toad and soma - body - refers to the squat , toad - like appearance coronatum - latin - crowned - ref . joining of two large occipital plates from scientific and common names of the reptiles and amphibians of north america - explained \u00a9 ellin beltz\npowell , robert . , joseph t . collins , and errol d . hooper jr .\nthe following status listings are copied from the april 2018 special animals list and the 2017 endangered and threatened animals list , both of which are published by the california department of fish and wildlife . if no status is listed here , the animal is not included on either cdfw list . this most likely indicates that there are no serious conservation concerns for the animal . to find out more about an animal ' s status , you can go to the natureserve and iucn websites to check their rankings . check here to see the most current complete lists .\nthis website is dedicated to bert wilson . his genius continues to inspire us .\nthey are very hard to see as they blend into the soil so well . they are able to change color to match the surrounding environment ( cryptic coloration ) . they usually are only visible when they move ( when you almost step on them ) .\nwhen temperatures get too hot ( the middle of the day ) they will burrow into loose soil or sand to escape the heat . in the winter they will hibernate under rocks or logs or in someone else ' s abandoned hole .\nthey like clean chaparral ( uninfected with european weeds ) with loose areas of soil . they also burrow in loose soil .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , tolerance of a broad range of habitats , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a threatened category .\nthis species is known from hundreds of collection sites in california and well over 100 in baja california ( jennings 1988 ) , but many of these sites no longer support substantial populations . the total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10 , 000 and may exceed 100 , 000 . the species is common in parts of baja california ( grismer 2002 ) . the area of occupancy and population size appear to have declined significantly in california but much less so in baja california . its area of occupancy and population size are probably still declining , but the rate of decline is unknown ( probably it is substantially less than 30 % over the past three generations ) .\nit is presumably present in a number of protected areas . it is listed on cites appendix ii . further research employing genetic methods is needed to determine the taxonomic status of the named subspecies . then further consideration should be given to the conservation status of the identified valid taxa . the impact of collecting for the pet trade needs to be assessed .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ni still haven ' t seen an adult , but i found four more of the cute little tykes on the first hot day of spring . the one in front was a feisty little critter . it puffed up with air and kept its back held toward me to look as big as possible ( which isn ' t very big when your total length is a maybe two and a half inches ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ntheir colors are pleasing . the back and head are soft desert gray . the markings are in pastel shades of tan , brown , red or yellow . the underparts are pale , yellowish gray . the overall colors are generally close to the predominant color of the soil . color changes from light to dark ( or reverse ) can occur within a few minutes .\nsome of the species inhabit the deserts proper where the sun , beating on the arid landscape , produces ground heat that is almost unbearable to humans . others enter mountainous areas and are found as high as 10 , 000 feet .\nregardless of where they occur , there is a similarity in their habits . in the fall , they hibernate by burying themselves in the sand . they emerge in the spring when the sun ' s rays have reached a certain temperature . the first few hours of the day are spent basking , usually flattened against a rock or on slanting soil , so their back is exposed to the sun . at times , while warming up , they may flatten and tilt their bodies toward the sun to obtain maximum radiation .\nas soon as their body temperature rises to a specific degree , they begin foraging for food . as the heat of the day increases , they become more active . they feed on slow - moving , ground - dwelling insects , spiders , sow bugs , an occasional tick and even items as large as the butterfly and sphynx moth larvae .\nants seem to be their major food source . they do not pursue their victim hastily , like some lizards , but poise over it and methodically take it , in toad - like fashion , with a flick of their long , sticky tongue . the toad - like action ceases if disturbed , for they will flee as rapidly as a startled mouse .\nafter feeding , when ground temperature becomes too hot , they seek the shade of a shrub , partially concealing themselves . there they spend the remainder of the day . in the evening , while it is still warm , they\ndig in\nfor the night .\nthis is a curious process . they stick their nose in the sand like the blade of a plow and wriggle forward to create a short furrow . after flattening the body , they use the spiny border of the sides in a shovel - like fashion to scoop and dig their way into the sand . sometimes they bury themselves 3 or 4 inches deep , and other times they just leave the top of the head and eyes exposed .\ntheir coloration is such that they blend readily into their surroundings , making them difficult to find . however , when found partially covered with sand , they are rather easily captured . their defense mechanisms are quite limited . when caught by hand , they may distend their bodies by filling their lungs with air and twist their head in a futile attempt to scratch you with their horns . on occasion they spurt blood from the corners of their eyes , which is startling , to say the least .\nmating occurs in late april , peaks in june and stops abruptly in july . egg laying starts a few weeks later , usually in late july and early august . the farther north , the later the eggs are laid . in some species the eggs are retained , and the young are hatched just before , during or shortly after laying . other species bury their eggs in the sand where they require several weeks for further development before the eggs hatch . the egg shells are white and flexible and average about one - half inch in diameter . the number of eggs varies with the species . some have from 10 to 30 eggs , with an average of about 15 .\nt he young are called hatchlings . they are about 7 / 8 to 1 - 1 / 8 inches long , snout to vent . the young have been observed to bury themselves in the sand immediately upon hatching . the babies receive no parental care , so when they emerge , they start to hunt for food . the young are cute , the horns on their head are apparent , although the rest of their skin , while well marked , is relatively smooth .\nthey grow most rapidly in late summer and early spring when there is an abundance of food . there is no evidence that they reproduce the first year , but they are classed as young adults by the end of the second summer and probably reach full growth in three years . some species reach a snout - to - vent length of 6 inches . most species are less than 5 inches in length . they have a life expectancy of from 5 to 8 years in the deserts of north america .\n- - george seymour & a . r . royo - - additional material provided by jerrold j . feldne r\ndesertusa newsletter - - we send articles on hiking , camping and places to explore , as well as animals , wildflower reports , plant information and much more . sign up below or read more about the desertusa newsletter here . ( it ' s free . )\ncopyright \u00a9 1996 - 2018 urltoken and digital west media , inc . - -\ncontinent : middle - america north - america distribution : usa ( california ) , mexico ( baja california ) type locality : \u201ccalifornia\u201d . restricted to cape san lucas , baja california by smith & taylor 1950 .\ndiffers from p . platyrhinos in having a more pointed snout , longer head spines and body spines , more than 1 row of well - developed fringe scales on each side of the body , and more than one row of enlarged scales on each side of the throat ( stebbins 1985 ) .\nnon - migrant : yes . at least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations . juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration .\nlocally migrant : no . no populations of this species make local extended movements ( generally less than 200 km ) at particular times of the year ( e . g . , to breeding or wintering grounds , to hibernation sites ) .\nlocally migrant : no . no populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km .\ncomments : ants comprise a large portion of its diet ; also eats other insect prey ( e . g . , wasps , beetles , grasshoppers , flies , caterpillars ) .\nnote : for many non - migratory species , occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations .\ncomments : this species is known from hundreds of collection sites in california and additional sites in baja california ( jennings 1988 ) , but many of these sites no longer support substantial populations .\ncomments : total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10 , 000 and may exceed 100 , 000 .\nrangewide , eggs are laid late april - june . clutch size 6 - 21 ( average about 11 - 13 . some females possibly may produce 2 clutches per year . earliest hatchlings appear in early august ( goldberg 1983 ) . the wide latitudinal range of this species suggests that there is more variation than indicated by the foregoing information .\ncomments : area of occupancy and population size likely are still declining , but the rate of decline is unknown ( probably it is substantially less than 30 % over the past three generations ) .\ncomments : area of occupancy and population size appear to have declined significantly in california .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\noops . a firewall is blocking access to prezi content . check out this article to learn more or contact your system administrator .\nneither you , nor the coeditors you shared it with will be able to recover it again .\nreset share links resets both viewing and editing links ( coeditors shown below are not affected ) .\nspecies are distinguishable by the formidable crown of horns adorning their head and the numerous spines across their back . their coloring can be yellowish , gray , or reddish - brown depending on the environment they inhabit , and , combined with their shape , affords them considerable camouflage on the surface . they feed primarily on ants , waiting for one to unsuspectingly crawl by before snapping it in and swallowing it whole . they are also known to eat grasshoppers , beetles , and spiders .\nthe ominous squirting blood emanates from ducts in the corners of their eyes and can travel a distance of up to three feet . it\u2019s meant to confuse would - be predators , but also contains a chemical that is noxious to dogs , wolves , and coyotes .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nreproduction : although the reproduction of this species in our area is unknown , females in western populations generally lay 14 - 37 eggs in the spring .\nabundance : only a few established populations of this species are known in the southeast . these populations are small and very isolated .\nnotes : although several breeding populations of this species are known , they do not seem to be spreading and it seems unlikely that this species will become invasive .\nto provide you with additional information about how we collect and use your personal data , we ' ve recently updated our privacy policy and terms of service . please review these pages now , as they apply to your continued use of our website ."]}
{"id": 765, "summary": [{"text": "pasiphila excisa is a moth in the geometridae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by butler in 1878 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in russia , japan and korea .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the larvae feed on the flowers of rhododendron species and eurya japonica . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "pasiphila excisa", "paragraphs": ["no one has contributed data records for pasiphila excisa yet . learn how to contribute .\npasiphila excisa is a moth in the family geometridae . it is found in russia , japan and korea .\nthe green pug ( pasiphila rectangulata ) is a moth of the family geometridae .\nthe sloe pug ( pasiphila chloerata ) is a species of moth of the family geometridae .\npasiphila debiliata , the bilberry pug , is a species of moth of the geometridae family .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nto date 683 species of macro - moth along with 1159 species of micro - moth have been recorded in norfolk since records began in victorian times . this site aims to provide full details of all the species that occur ( or once occurred ) in norfolk , with photographs , descriptions , flight graphs , latest records , distribution maps and more !\nif you have photos of any moths featured on this site , and would like them displayed along with your name and comments . . . please send them in ( any size . jpg images ) .\nplease consider helping with the running costs of norfolk moths . thank you : - )\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\np . talyshensis ( nomen nudum ) - p . hyrcanica ( viidalepp & mironov , 2006 )\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\nthere are no photos of this species on the website yet . you can offer your photo by logging into your account\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more"]}
{"id": 779, "summary": [{"text": "the ash meadows killifish ( empetrichthys merriami ) was first documented by c. h. gilbert in 1893 and historically occupied numerous springs near ash meadows , nye county , nevada , united states .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this species was last seen in 1948 and is believed to have gone extinct in the early 1950s , likely as a result of habitat alteration and competition with and predation by introduced crayfish procambarus clarkii , mosquitofish ( gambusia affinis ) , black mollies ( poecilia sphenops ) , and bullfrogs ( rana catesbeiana ) .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the common name of the genus empetrichthys has since been changed from killifish to poolfish . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "ash meadows killifish", "paragraphs": ["the common name of the genus empetrichthys has since been changed from killifish to poolfish .\nsprings at ash meadows , nevada , u . s . a . [ extinct ] .\nthe holotype comes from kings spring , ash meadows , amargosa desert , on the boundary between california and nevada , nye county , nevada , usa .\nin 1984 , much too late for empetrichthys merriami , the ash meadows national wildlife refuge was established to protect the endangered plant and animal species of this area . four species of plants and animals are endemic , including the endangered pupfishes cyprinodon diabolis , cyprinodon nevadensis mionectes , cyprinodon nevadensis pectoralis and the ash meadows speckled dace , rhinichthys osculus nevadensis .\nhistorically occurred in five springs at ash meadows , nevada ; extinct in late 1940s or early 1950s , apparently as a result of habitat alterations and predation from exotic bullfrogs and crayfish .\nreasons : historically occurred in five springs at ash meadows , nevada ; extinct in late 1940s or early 1950s , apparently as a result of habitat alterations and predation from exotic bullfrogs and crayfish .\nrange included ash meadows , amargosa desert , nye county , nevada , near the nevada / california border . this species was known only from five separated springs ( lee et al . 1980 ) .\nits range included ash meadows , amargosa desert , nye county , nevada , near the nevada / california border . this species was known only from five separated springs ( lee et al . 1980 ) .\n( zero ( no occurrences believed extant ) ) range included ash meadows , amargosa desert , nye county , nevada , near the nevada / california border . this species was known only from five separated springs ( lee et al . 1980 ) .\nthis species was endemic to springs in ash meadows , nye county , nevada , usa . at this location , over a length of 12 miles many springs are spread out on the valley ground . empetrichthys merriami cannot be found there anymore and is likely extinct .\nglobal range : ( zero ( no occurrences believed extant ) ) range included ash meadows , amargosa desert , nye county , nevada , near the nevada / california border . this species was known only from five separated springs ( lee et al . 1980 ) .\ncotype for empetrichthys merriami catalog number : usnm 46102 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of fishes collector ( s ) : t . palmer year collected : 1891 locality : ash meadows , nevada , nevada , united states , north america\ncotype for empetrichthys merriami catalog number : usnm 46102 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of fishes collector ( s ) : t . palmer year collected : 1891 locality : ash meadows , nev . , nevada , united states , north america\nc . h . merriam and v . bailey collected this species - at least they thought to have collected only one species - in several specimens in the ash meadows spring and one specimen in the pahrump valley . this one fish from pahrump belonged to another species , the later described empetrichthys latos .\ncotype for empetrichthys merriami catalog number : usnm 46101 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of fishes preparation : illustration collector ( s ) : a . fisher year collected : 1891 locality : ash meadows , nev . , nevada , united states , north america\nthe species of crenichthys and empetrichthys were removed from the family cyprinodontidae ( order atheriniformes ) and placed in the family goodeidae ( order cyprinodontiformes ) by parenti ( 1986 ) . crenichthys and empetrichthys were assigned to the family empetrichthyidae by miller and smith ( 1986 ) . the 1991 afs checklist ( robins et al . 1991 ) retained these genera in the cyprinodontidae , pending confirmatory evidence for change based on additional character suites . mtdna data of grant and riddle ( 1995 ) indicate that the phylogenetic affinity of crenichthys and empetrichthys is with the family goodeidae rather than with the representative fundulines , poeciliids , or cyprinodontines . formerly known as the ash meadows killifish .\ncomments : the species of crenichthys and empetrichthys were removed from the family cyprinodontidae ( order atheriniformes ) and placed in the family goodeidae ( order cyprinodontiformes ) by parenti ( 1986 ) . crenichthys and empetrichthys were assigned to the family empetrichthyidae by miller and smith ( 1986 ) . the 1991 afs checklist ( robins et al . 1991 ) retained these genera in the cyprinodontidae , pending confirmatory evidence for change based on additional character suites . mtdna data of grant and riddle ( 1995 ) indicate that the phylogenetic affinity of crenichthys and empetrichthys is with the family goodeidae rather than with the representative fundulines , poeciliids , or cyprinodontines . formerly known as the ash meadows killifish .\nash meadows encompasses a number of springfed ponds and wetlands at the edge of the mojave desert . the springs ' s temperatures range from 21 to 33\u00b0c , though annual fluctuations of temperature are only 2 - 7\u00b0c within each spring . the submerge vegetation consists of stoneworts of the genus chara and filamentous algae . most of the pools are lined with emergent cattails ( typha spp . )\ntype for empetrichthys merriami catalog number : usnm 131151 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of fishes collector ( s ) : t . palmer year collected : 1891 locality : nevada : ( king ' s spring = point of rocks spring . ) ash meadows , nye county , nye county , nevada , united states , north america\ntype for empetrichthys merriami catalog number : usnm 131151 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of fishes collector ( s ) : t . palmer year collected : 1891 locality : nevada : ( king ' s spr . = point of rocks spr . ) ash meadows , nye co . , nye county , nevada , united states , north america\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is listed as extinct because no individuals have been found in more than 50 years , despite intensive surveys .\nthis species is extinct . formerly it occurred in 5 springs in nevada ( lee et al . 1980 ) .\nthis species went extinct in the late 1940s or early 1950s as a result of severe habitat alterations , possibly exacerbated by predation from exotic bullfrogs and crayfish ( miller et al . 1989 ) .\nthis species is extinct , so it does not require additional protection or major management , monitoring , or research action .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\ngilbert , c . h . ( 1893 ) : report on the fishes of the death valley expedition collected in southern california and nevada in 1891 , with descriptions of new species . north american fauna nr . 7 , part ii , washington : pp 229 - 384\nthis species is named in honour of one of the collectors , c . h . merriam .\ncollection - number : united states national museum , cat . no . usnm - 131151 .\nthe holotype is an adult female of 67mm sl . numbers of paratypes are : su 766 ( 2 ) , usnm 46101 - 03 ( 3 , 2 , 1 ) . the types (\nseveral specimens\n) have been sampled by c . h . merriam and v . bailey in 05 . 1891 .\nempetrichthys latos gilbert , 1893 ( one specimen of the types of merriami referred to e . latos , but has not been recognized by gilbert )\nthe karyotype describes the number and appearance of chromosomes during the phase of condensation , classified by the position of the centromere ( levan et al . , 1964 ) .\nempetrichthys merriami preffered deeper pools ( ~ 2m ) and was rarely seen in shallower areas .\nthere is no description of the colouration of live animals known . gilbert wrote 1893 :\nin spirits the color is dark brown above , sides and below lighter , often irregularly blotched with brown and white . the belly often appears checkered , having centers of scales brown and margins white , or the reverse . fins all dusky , the basal portions of dorsal and caudal with elongated brown spots on the interradial membranes .\nregarding the habitat and the feeding habits of related inhabitants of thermal springs , empetrichthys merriami probably had been an opportunistic omnivore , feeding on algae and invertebrates . taking in consideration a relatively short intestine ( about 1 1 / 2 times of tl ) , the biserial conical teeth with the outer series enlarged , this species seems to had been rather carnivorous .\nspecies of the subfamily empetrichthyinae are oviparous fishes . parenti ( 1981 ) proposed this subfamily as sister group to the goodeinae and used the family name goodeidae to encompass the two subfamilies . this narrow relationship has been supported by several studies since the 1980 ' s ( webb , dominguez ) .\n5 . 0 cm tl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 27139 ) )\ncotype for empetrichthys merriami catalog number : usnm 46103 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of fishes collector ( s ) : e . nelson year collected : 1891 locality : papump val . , nev . , nevada , united states , north america\ncomments : this fish inhabited deeper holes in springs ( la rivers 1962 ) .\nnon - migrant : yes . at least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations . juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration .\nlocally migrant : no . no populations of this species make local extended movements ( generally less than 200 km ) at particular times of the year ( e . g . , to breeding or wintering grounds , to hibernation sites ) .\nlocally migrant : no . no populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km .\ncomments : apparently omnivorous , based on an examination of a single stomach , the structure of the teeth , and the length of the intestines ( la rivers 1962 ) .\nnote : for many non - migratory species , occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations .\ncomments : this species is extinct . formerly it occurred in 5 springs in nevada ( lee et al . 1980 ) .\nlittle information reported ( lee et al . 1980 ) . occurred historically with cyprinodon nevadensis mionectes and rhinichthys osculus nevadensis .\nthis species is listed as extinct because no individuals have been found in more than 50 years , despite intensive surveys .\ncomments : this species went extinct in the late 1940s or early 1950s as a result of severe habitat alterations , possibly exacerbated by predation from exotic bullfrogs and crayfish ( miller et al . 1989 ) .\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2012 ) .\nempetrichthys merriami\nin fishbase . august 2012 version .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nresearch curator of fishes , north carolina state museum of natural sciences , research laboratory , 4301 reedy creek rd . , raleigh , nc , 27607 , usa\nbanks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , a . l . gardner , and w . c . starnes\nchecklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada\nnelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .\nfull author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h\u00e9ctor espinosa - p\u00e9rez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams\nbulletin of the american museum of natural history , vol . 168 , pt . 4\nrobins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nrobins , c . r . , r . m . bailey , c . e . bond , j . r . brooker , e . a . lachner , r . n . lea , and w . b . scott . 1991 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada . american fisheries society , special publication 20 . 183 pp .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\napparently omnivorous , based on an examination of a single stomach , the structure of the teeth , and the length of the intestines ( la rivers 1962 ) .\noccurrences are based on evidence of historical presence , or current and likely recurring presence , at a given location . such evidence minimally includes collection or reliable observation and documentation of one or more individuals ( including eggs and larvae ) in appropriate habitat .\neach spring system that is undivided by a barrier constitutes a single distinct occurrence . otherwise , use a separation distance of 10 km for any type of aquatic habitat .\nseparation distance is arbitrary . because of the difficulty in defining suitable versus unsuitable habitat , especially with respect to dispersal , and to simplify the delineation of occurrences , a single separation distance is used regardless of habitat quality .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\ngrant , e . c . , and b . r . riddle . 1995 . are the endangered springfish ( crenichthys hubbs ) and poolfish ( empetrichthys gilbert ) fundulines or goodeids ? : a mitochondrial dna assessment . copeia 1995 : 209 - 212 .\njelks , h . l . , s . j . walsh , n . m . burkhead , s . contreras - balderas , e . d\u00edaz - pardo , d . a . hendrickson , j . lyons , n . e . mandrak , f . mccormick , j . s . nelson , s . p . platania , b . a . porter , c . b . renaud , j . jacobo schmitter - soto , e . b . taylor , and m . l . warren , jr . 2008 . conservation status of imperiled north american freshwater and diadromous fishes . fisheries 33 ( 8 ) : 372 - 407 .\nla rivers , i . 1962 . fishes and fisheries of nevada . nevada state fish and game commission , carson city , nevada . 782 pp .\nlee , d . s . , c . r . gilbert , c . h . hocutt , r . e . jenkins , d . e . mcallister , and j . r . stauffer , jr . 1980 . atlas of north american freshwater fishes . north carolina state museum of natural history , raleigh , north carolina . i - x + 854 pp .\nmiller , r . r . , j . d . williams , and j . e . williams . 1989 . extinctions of north american fishes during the past century . fisheries 14 ( 6 ) : 22 - 38 .\nmiller , r . r . , and m . l . smith . 1986 . origin and geography of fishes on central mexico . pages 487 - 517 in c . h . hocutt and e . o . wiley , editors . the zoogeography of north american freshwater fishes . john wiley and sons , new york , new york . xiii + 866 pp .\nminckley , w . l . , g . k . meffe , and d . l . soltz . 1991a . conservation and management of short - lived fishes : the cyprinodontoids . pages 247 - 82 in w . l . minckley and j . e . deacon ( editors ) . battle against extinction : native fish management in the american west . university of arizona press , tucson , arizona .\nnelson , j . s . , e . j . crossman , h . espinosa - perez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , and j . d . williams . 2004 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . american fisheries society , special publication 29 , bethesda , maryland . 386 pp .\npage , l . m . , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , n . e . mandrak , r . l . mayden , and j . s . nelson . 2013 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . seventh edition . american fisheries society , special publication 34 , bethesda , maryland .\npage , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 1991 . a field guide to freshwater fishes : north america north of mexico . houghton mifflin company , boston , massachusetts . 432 pp .\npage , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 2011 . peterson field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . second edition . houghton mifflin harcourt , boston . xix + 663 pp .\nparenti , l . r . 1981 . a phylogenetic and biogeographic analysis of cyprinodontiform fishes ( teleostei , atherinomorpha ) . bulletin of the american museum natural history 168 : 335 - 557 .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? 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{"id": 805, "summary": [{"text": "the african dormice , genus graphiurus , are dormice that live throughout sub-saharan africa in a variety of habitats .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "they are very agile climbers and have bushy tails .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they eat invertebrates and small vertebrates . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "graphiurus", "paragraphs": ["species graphiurus monardi ( st . leger , 1936 ) - monard ' s dormouse\nwhittington - jones , c . , c . brown . 1999 . thermoregulatory capabilities of the woodland dormouse , graphiurus murinus .\nfood preferences of glis glis ( l . ) , dryomys nitedula ( pallas ) , and graphiurus murinus ( smuts ) kept in captivity\nellison , g . , j . skinner . 1991 . thermoregulation and torpor in african woodland dormice , graphiurus murinus , following cold acclimation .\nholden , m . , r . levine . 2009 . systematic revision of sub - saharan african dormice ( rodentia : gliridae : graphiurus ) part ll : description of a new speices of graphiurus from the central congo basin , including morphological and ecological niche comparisons with g . crassicaudatus and g . lorraineus .\nhaberl , w . 1999 .\nthe dormouse hollow : graphiurus\n( on - line ) . the dormouse hollow . accessed july 30 , 2010 at urltoken .\nto cite this page : lodel , j . 2011 .\ngraphiurus murinus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nas the first description of optimization of housing and production of graphiurus kelleni , this report illustrates many of the considerations that arise when seeking to adapt a novel research species to a defined laboratory environment .\nmadikiza , z . , s . bertolino , r . baxter , e . san . 2010 . nest box use by woodland dormice ( graphiurus murinus ) : the influence of life cycle and nest box placement .\nnowakowski , w . , m . remisiewicz , j . kosowska . 2006 . food preferences of glis glis ( l . ) , dryomys nitedula ( pallas ) , and graphiurus murinus ( smuts ) kept in captivity .\nafrican dormice ( graphiurus spp . ) are small nocturnal rodents . much of the current research involving dormice revolves around field studies and the ongoing taxonomic characterization of the family . 2 , 3 , 5 - 7 , 9 because visual speciation of graphiurus is difficult , speciation usually is accomplished by using karyotypic and anatomic variation . 5 african dormice are the only members of the gliridae family that are located solely in subsaharan africa . 5 the other members of the gliridae family , the glirinae and leithiinae , are widely distributed geographically and more commonly used in research . 7 , 9\nnone of the localities from which this species has been recorded are within protected areas . additional studies are needed to determine the taxonomic relationship between this species in and graphiurus rupicola . further studies are needed into the distribution , abundance , ecology , and threats to this poorly - known species .\nthis report is the first description of optimization of housing and production of graphiurus kelleni . the husbandry we provided for african dormice initially was based on what was feasible within the parameters of the animal facility . this plan was refined as we learned more about the requirements for captive gliridae from the scientific literature and websites describing the care of pet dormice .\nthis species has been recorded from liberia , c\u00f4te d ' ivoire ( in mount nimba reserve ) , ghana , togo , nigeria and cameroon ; it was mentioned from bioko island by rosevear ( 1969 ) . it has yet to be recorded from sierra leone . there is an unidentified specimen of graphiurus in the british museum from southern democratic republic of the congo that is often thought to be this species , but likely represents a distinct species ( p . grubb pers . comm ) .\ncomments : subgenus graphiurus . the synonyms included here under g . murinus represent populations inhabiting forests ( predominantly on plateaus and mountains ) in c , e and southern africa . as with the g . microtis group , significant variation in pelage color and skull morphology exists among populations of the g . murinus group , and it is likely that more than one species comprises this group . the selindensis and collaris populations are distinctive , as are populations from rwanda and burundi , and severa . . .\nthe revision of graphiurus by genest - villard ( 1978 ) , based mostly on size grades , underestimated species diversity , particularly in the g . murinus group . subsequently , species limits were defined in reports covering different african regions ( e . g . , ansell and dowsett , 1988 ; holden , 1996 b ; robbins and schlitter , 1981 ) the species recognized below reflect information in the literature , as well as myexamination of museum specimens and preliminary , mostly unpublished multivariate analyses of cranial and dental measurements .\ngraphiurus spp . imported from ghana were associated with the human monkeypox outbreak in 2003 . eight of the 40 african dormice from this shipment had infectious virus in visceral tissues and other indications of a productive viremia . 4 apart from the spontaneous fatality of several infected animals , the dormice did not display clinical signs or lesions indicative of monkeypox . 4 to minimize the potential for human disease from infected african dormice , the centers for disease control and prevention has banned the importation of african dormice . 1 dormice are being used currently to study monkeypox virus . 11\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ng . angolensis is considered as a valid species and distinct from g . platyops and g . rupicola ( holden 2013 ) . the relationship between g . angolensi s and g . microtis is not clear ( monadjem et al . 2015 ) .\njustification : listed as data deficient in view of continuing uncertainty as to its taxonomic status , extent of occurrence , natural history , threats and conservation status .\nthis little - known species has been recorded from seven localities in the escarpment zone of central and northern angola and from western zambia . it has been found from 1 , 000 to 2 , 000 m asl .\nthis species is generally associated with woodland savanna , with collecting sites in angola in or near wetter miombo woodland and sites in zambia in zambezian dry evergreen forest ( holden 2013 ) . it has also been captured in human dwellings ( holden 2013 ) . there is little additional information available on the species ' natural history .\nthe threats to this species are not known and it is possible that there are no major threats to this species within its known range . in angola there has been an increase in agriculture and deforestation of miombo ( schneibel et al . 2016 ; cabral et al . 2010 ) and savanization of the landscape ( cabral et al . 2010 ) . bodart et al . ( 2013 ) note forest loss in zambezian region has been high , with large areas of loss in angola and zambia due to agriculture expansion and fuel wood extraction . forests of kabompo district remain relatively intact , they are under increasing pressure ( chomba et al . 2012 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , it occurs in a number of protected areas , has a tolerance of a degree of habitat modification , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis species is widely distributed in much of east africa and southern africa . it ranges from ethiopia , through much of east africa ( and marginally in western central africa ) to south africa ( reaching as far west as the western cape ) and lesotho .\ndensities have been estimated at about 10 animals per hectare , especially in riverine forest ( where they can be the dominant small mammal ) ( r . baxter pers . comm . ) .\nthis species is found in woodland , savanna , grassland and rocky areas ( skinner and chimimba 2005 ) . in parts of its range it is foun in either afromontane forest or riverine forest dominated by combretum . the can persist in secondary habitats , and are sometimes found in various types of buildings .\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t9487a115093727 .\nwoodland dormice occur throughout ethiopian region . they are widely distributed throughout africa , from the southern edge of the sahara desert to cape province , south africa .\nwoodland dormice are generalists and can be found in a broad range of habitats . although they commonly nest in acacia trees , their nests can also be found in tree hollows , rock crevices , on tree branches , in shrubs and even in abandoned bird nests and bee hives .\n( fitzherbert , et al . , 2006 ; skinner and chimimba , 2005 ; webb and skinner , 1994 )\nlimited information is available on the mating system of woodland dormice . at the onset of breeding season , however , males are very territorial and aggressive towards one another , suggesting polygyny . once they emerge from their hibernacula , many species of dormice call out to alert potential mates of their presence . once mated , males are likely to leave prior mates to search for additional estrous females .\nalthough most breeding occurs during the summer ( october through february ) , woodland dormice commonly breed throughout the year ( i . e . , seasonal polyestry ) . females have 1 to 2 litters per year . gestation is thought to last for approximately 24 days , resulting in 3 to 4 altricial pups per litter ; however , as many as 6 pups per litter may be possible . pups weigh approximately 3 . 5 g at birth , and they are not reproductively mature until the summer after their first hibernation .\nlittle information is available on the parental investments of woodland dormice . however , newborns are altricial and independence from the mother most likely occurs between 4 and 6 weeks of age . mothers provide protection , grooming , and nourishment ( e . g . , nursing ) until pups reach independence . pups are cared for in nests lined with moss , which are often found in tree hollows , rock crevices , on tree branches , in shrubs and even in abandoned bird nests and bee hives . detailed information on paternal investment has not been reported .\nwoodland dormice live for approximately 5 . 5 years in the wild and may live 5 to 6 years in captivity .\nwoodland dormice are nocturnal and highly arboreal . they forage alone at night , mostly for insects and vegetation . in the fall , woodland dormice increase fat reserves by eating nuts and seeds prior to hibernating . during winter ( may to august ) , when temperatures drop considerably , woodland dormice hibernate . during hibernation , they experience significant decreases in body temperature and mass . their thermal neutral zone is between 29 and 35 \u00b0c , and they begin hibernating at an ambient temperature of about 15 \u00b0c . in the summer , woodland dormice may enter torpor during periods of decreased food abundance or when low or erratic temperatures occur . woodland dormice are unique within their genus (\n) , as they are the only african dormouse species to hibernate during the winter .\nduring periods of inactivity , african dormice spend time in their nests , which are typically made of plant material and found in tree cavities , shrubs , and rock crevices . to prevent heat loss , they curl themselves into a ball and wrap their tails around their bodies . males , females , and juveniles may occupy an individual nest , and as many as 11 adults , consisting of both genders , have been found to occupy a single nest . african dormice use nests year round ; however , nest type changes in relation to season . during the winter , they use nests that are better insulated and closer to the ground , than those used during the summer .\n( grizmek , 2004 ; haberl , 1999 ; madikiza , et al . , 2010 ; skinner and chimimba , 2005 ; webb and skinner , 1994 )\nmales are territorial during the breeding season and establish a social hierarchy once they emerge from hibernation . males scent mark and make warning vocalizations to demarcate and defend nesting territories , respectively . although females scent mark territorial boundaries , they do not make warning vocalizations to ward off members of opposing groups .\n) , has an average home - range size of 13 . 9 ha for males and 8 . 5 ha for females . generally , there are about 10 woodland dormice per ha .\nwoodland dormice make a variety of vocalizations including mating calls , territorial calls , alarm squeaks , and twittering sounds , for which the meaning is unknown . in addition , woodland dormice are likely to use visual , haptic ( e . g . , sense of touch ) , and olfactory cues to communicate with one another . scent marking is likely used to establish territories and find mates , whereas vocalizations are probably used to find and defend mates , and defend territories .\nwoodland dormice are omnivores , with dietary composition changing in relation to season . during spring , they eat primarily buds and insects , but occasionally eat small rodents and the eggs and young of small birds . in summer and fall , they eat fruit , seeds , and nuts to increase fat reserves for hibernation , and when food abundance is low , they may also eat bark and twigs .\n( grizmek , 2004 ; nowakowski , et al . , 2006 ; webb and skinner , 1994 ; wirminghaus and perrin , 1992 )\n) in east africa . because they are both arboreal and nocturnal , woodland dormice have few predators .\nwoodland dormice may play a role in the population dynamics of arthropods , which constitutes a significant proportion of their diet . because they forage on various types of fruits and nuts , they may also be important seed dispersers . finally , they are an important prey species for owls .\nafrican dormice have no documented economic effect on humans . however , due to their high fat content , they are a preferred source of protein in some cultures . human consumption of dormice is a well documented global phenomenon .\nwoodland dormice are sometimes thought of as nuisances , as they occasionally make their nests in old furniture , roofs , electrical switch boxes , water pumps , and transformers . they can cause agricultural damage by raiding poultry farms and foraging on crops .\nwoodland dormice are potential vectors for bubonic plague and monkeypox . a 2007 study in northern tanzania found woodland dormice that were positive for\nwoodland dormice exhibit stable population trends and currently , there are no major threats to this species . the iucn lists woodland dormice as a species of\nleast concern\n.\njeanna lodel ( author ) , university of wisconsin - stevens point , stefanie stainton ( editor ) , university of wisconsin - stevens point , christopher yahnke ( editor ) , university of wisconsin - stevens point , john berini ( editor ) , animal diversity web staff , tanya dewey ( editor ) , university of michigan - ann arbor .\nliving in sub - saharan africa ( south of 30 degrees north ) and madagascar .\nyoung are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nhaving markings , coloration , shapes , or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment ; being difficult to see or otherwise detect .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\nthe state that some animals enter during winter in which normal physiological processes are significantly reduced , thus lowering the animal ' s energy requirements . the act or condition of passing winter in a torpid or resting state , typically involving the abandonment of homoiothermy in mammals .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nthat region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\na terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .\na grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .\na terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5\u00b0 n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\n2010 .\ninternational union for conservation of nature and natural resources ( iucn )\n( on - line ) . the iucn red list of threatened species ( on - line ) . accessed july 27 , 2010 at urltoken .\nfitzherbert , e . , t . gardner , t . caro , p . jenkins . 2006 . habitat preferences of small mammals in the katavi ecosystem of western tanzania .\nmakundi , r . 2008 . potential mammalian reservoirs in a bubonic plague outbreak focus in mbulu district , northern tanzania , in 2007 .\nrodel , h . , w . scholze , d . kock . 2002 . diet of mackinder ' s eagle owl bubo capensis mackinderi in the alpine zone of mount kenya .\nwebb , p . , j . skinner . 1994 . the dormice ( myoxidae ) of southern africa .\nwirminghaus , c . , m . perrin . 1993 . seasonal changes in density , demography , and body composition of small mammals in a southern temperate forest .\nwirminghaus , j . , m . perrin . 1992 . diets of small mammals in a southern african temperate forest .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nnational institutes of health , national institute of allergy and infectious diseases , comparative medicine branch . bethesda , maryland\nreceived 2009 aug 17 ; revised 2009 oct 2 ; accepted 2009 oct 12 .\n) to be used for research on orthopoxviruses . here we describe the housing and breeding of\nat our institution and discuss health and welfare concerns of this unique species . although our emphasis was on adapting our experience with\nspp . to this novel species rather than preference testing for optimization , we have produced a viable colony that is capable of reproduction . in addition , we conducted a study identifying a selection of highly palatable , high - protein foods with which to supplement the dormice ' s standard diet .\ndormice used for breeding were initially established as permanent pairs or trios of 2 female and 1 male animals . dormice were mated by using animals that were at least 4 mo old without a history of aggression or obesity . offspring were weaned at least 28 d after birth . weaned offspring were housed as littermates until they were sexed at 4 to 8 wk of age , at which point they were housed in unisex groups of 5 or fewer dormice per cage . litters of 1 or 2 dormice or small dormice were kept in the breeder cage until they were able to be sexed .\nisoflurane anesthesia was administered at 3 % in an induction chamber . dormice were transferred to a nose cone for anesthesia maintenance ( 1 . 5 % to 2 . 5 % isoflurane ) once they had begun to close their eyes and lose the toe - pinch reflex .\nall blood collections were performed in isoflurane - anesthetized dormice . mandibular blood collection was performed by using a 23 - gauge needle to pierce the skin approximately 0 . 5 to 1 cm ventral from the ear base . additional collection attempts were made when blood was not obtained or the site clotted .\n) . food was aliquoted at 2 g protein per dormouse per cage , placed on culture dishes , distributed to experimental animals in the late afternoon , and weighed after the completion of a single light : dark cycle . food remained in the cage for less than 16 h . this process was repeated 4 times with a maximum of 3 trials per week . cages contained 2 to 5 dormice with an even gender distribution . rodent diet pellets and water were available ad libitum . standard enrichment was suspended during the trials .\nto evaluate the suitability of each food option as means of protein enrichment , we adapted a published preference score system . 8 suitability was measured on a 5 - point scale ( 0 to 4 , least to most preferable ) determined by the percentage of an item that was consumed during the 16 - h feeding period . results were analyzed by using a 2 - tailed t test and a general linear model ( sas version 9 . 1 , sas institute , cary , nc ) . once a clear preference was evident , the top 5 items were retested in a series of comparison trials during which the dormice were presented with 2 food options per cage . the 10 pairings were offered to 6 cages each for a feeding period of one light - cycle .\nthe average daily census was 400 dormice . the weight of mature dormice ranged from 15 to 42 g , with an average weight of 24 . 4 g . cyclical vaginal swellings occurred in group - housed females ( at least 3 dormice per cage ) that were at least 5 mo old (\nfighting occurred in all the breeder trios ( 2 female mice with 1 male ) , with the subsequent removal of 1 female mouse and establishment of a permanent pair . of the 70 mating pairs that were established , 44 pairs ( 63 % ) weaned at least one litter . the average litter size was 3 pups born and 2 pups weaned . sexing was performed by palpation of the os penis : if a penis was not palpable by 8 wk after birth , the dormouse was considered female . the female breeder was 16 to 19 mo old when her first litter was weaned and the male breeder was 8 to 11 mo of age . although dormice were included as part of the routine sentinel program , no murine pathogens have been detected .\nthe most palatable foods identified in the diet trial were wax worm larvae , cottage cheese , soy nuts , and chicken . of the 11 food options offered , wax worm larvae proved significantly (\n) . all food options with a score of 3 or 4 were consumed in entirety within 48 h , unlike hard - boiled eggs , tofu , parmesan cheese , sunflower seeds , pistachio nuts , peanut butter , and black walnuts . direct comparison trials demonstrated that \u2018unsuitable\u2019 food items ( score , 0 to 2 ) were less palatable than items with a score of 3 or 4 (\n< 0 . 005 ) more palatable than canned chicken , soy beans , and tofu . both fat and fiber were significant (\n< 0 . 0001 ) predictors of consumption . lowfat foods ( less than 0 . 2 g fat / g ) were highly preferable . as fat content increased , there was a significant (\n< 0 . 0001 ) decline in preference . however , high - fat foods ( 0 . 5 to 0 . 7 g fat / g ) gained preference when accompanied by an increase in fiber content .\ncomparison trials between food options . dark bar , consumption of first item listed ; light bar , consumption of second item listed .\nof a total colony of 700 dormice , 122 ( fewer than 20 % of the colony ) dormice presented with clinical problems over a period of nearly 2 y , 77 ( 63 % ) of the cases were traumatic injuries in group - housed animals . the remaining 46 dormice displayed either lethargy or dehydration . dehydrated dormice tended to be younger than 3 mo ( 43 % ) , and no sex predilection was noted . treatment for dehydration consisted of twice - daily administration of subcutaneous warm lactated ringers solution ( 1 ml / 10 g ) and feed supplementation on the cage floor ; 37 of the 46 dormice responded to the treatment . the nonresponsive animals were euthanized for failure to respond to the initial treatment or for a relapse after successfully responding to treatments given for the first 24 to 48 h .\nwe would like to thank dr gerald shea for statistical analysis and the staff of the comparative medicine branch for their care of the animals . this research was supported by the intramural research program of the nih , national institute for allergy and infectious diseases .\nafrican rodents and other animals that may carry the monkeypox virus . 2003 . 42 cfr \u00a771 . 56 .\nhutson cl , lee kn , abel j , carroll ds , montgomery jm , olson va , li y , davidson w , hughes c , dillon m , spurlock p , kazmierczak jj , austin c , miser l , sorhage fe , howell j , davis jp , reynolds mg , braden z , karem kl , damon ik , regnery rl . 2007 .\nnunome m , yasuda sp , sato jj , vogel p , suzuki h . 2007 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 2nd ed . , 3rd printing\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vol . 2\nwith contributions by bernadette n . graham , adam p . potter , and mariana m . upmeyer\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\njustification : listed as data deficient in view of continuing uncertainty as to its extent of occurrence , natural history , threats and conservation status . whilst it appears to have a wide distribution , more research is required to confirm this .\nit is generally associated with lowland tropical moist forest , but may also enter cultivated areas and buildings , as reported by rosevear ( 1969 ) who summarises the little information available on this species .\nthe threats to this species are not well known . it is possibly threatened by ongoing deforestation within its range , however , it has seemingly been recorded from modified habitats such as agricultural land . in benin ( where the species is not recorded from the wild ) , this species has reportedly been found on sale in markets for medicinal purposes , but this requires confirmation .\nrecorded at least from mount nimba forest reserve in c\u00f4te d ' ivoire and okajakrom forest reserve in ghana . further field surveys are needed to better determine the distribution , natural history and possible threats to this little known species .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t9481a115093196 .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org ."]}
{"id": 809, "summary": [{"text": "the northern rocky mountain wolf ( canis lupus irremotus ) is a subspecies of gray wolf native to the northern rocky mountains in northwestern wyoming northward through western montana and eastern idaho at least to lethbridge in southern alberta .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is a light-colored , medium to large-sized subspecies with a narrow , flattened frontal bone .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the subspecies was initially listed as endangered on march 9 , 1978 , but had the classification removed in the year 2000 due to the effects of the northern rocky mountain wolf recovery plan .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "on august 6 , 2010 , the northern rocky mountain wolf was ordered to be returned under endangered species act protections by u.s. district judge donald molloy in a decision overturning a previous ruling by the u.s. fish and wildlife service .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "they were later removed on august 31 , 2012 from the list because of idaho , montana , and wyoming meeting the population quotas for the species to be considered stable .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "as of 2005 , it is considered a valid subspecies by msw3 , though it is classed as a synonym of c. l. nubilus by the united states fish and wildlife service . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "northern rocky mountain wolf", "paragraphs": ["northern rocky mountain wolf recovery team . 1980 . northern rocky mountain wolf recovery plan interagency report . 67 pp .\nfish & wildlife serv . & n . rocky mountain wolf recovery team , northern rocky mountain wolf recovery plan\npercentage of wolf mortalities in the northern rocky mountains attributable to human causes ( 2000\u20132009 ) .\nx - canis lupus youngi the southern rocky mountain wolf ; extinct by 1935 ; light buff color .\nthe bill requires the interior secretary to reissue the\n2009 rule\nwhich removed esa protections for all northern rocky mountain wolves , except those in wyoming .\nin the northern rocky mountains , wolf numbers are too low and populations too fragmented to ensure long - term survival , robinson says .\nfood habits and spatial relations of coyotes and one lone wolf in the rocky mountains .\nusfws , nez perce tribe , national park service , and usda wildlife services . rocky mountain wolf recovery 2001 annual report . usfws , helena , mt .\nusfws , nez perce tribe , national park service , and usda wildlife services . rocky mountain wolf recovery 2002 annual report . usfws , helena , mt .\ntwo previous attempts to remove protections from the wolves in the northern rocky mountains have been struck down by federal courts .\ncanis lupus irremotus a medium - sized , light - coloured wolf from the rocky mountains .\nminta , s . c . , comp . 1990 . annotated wolf bibliography for the northern rocky mountains . usda forest service and northern rockies conservation cooperative . flathead national forest , kalispell . 465 pp .\nparadoxically , the legal battle surrounding gray wolves in the northern rocky mountains began where it might once have ended : at extinction .\nmartinka , c . j . 1976 . planning guidelines for the conservation of northern rocky mountain wolves in glacier national park . unpubl . rep . , usdi national park service , glacier national park . 3 pp .\nhowever , fws issued another final rule , the 2009 rule , delisting wolves in the northern rocky mountains - - this time excluding wyoming .\nhutto , r . l . and j . s . young . 1999 . habitat relationships of landbirds in the northern region , usda forest service , rocky mountain research station rmrs - gtr - 32 . 72 p .\ncanis lupus hudsonicus a light - coloured wolf found in northern manitoba and the northwest territories .\nalthough the section 10 ( j ) compromise certainly cleared the regulatory thicket for gray wolf reintroduction in the northern rocky mountains , it hardly plucked any of the political thorns .\nin 1980 , the northern rocky mountain wolf recovery team completed a plan which would guide wolf recovery efforts for a future wolf population in the northern rockies of montana , idaho , and wyoming . the recovery plan was revised in 1987 . the plan designated three recovery areas - northwestern montana , central idaho , and the greater yellowstone - each of which included some portion of montana .\ngray wolf in the northern rockies ( photo courtesy u . s . fish and wildlife service )\nprey use strategies of sympatric wolves and coyotes in riding mountain national park , manitoba .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 2012 . northern rocky mountain wolf recovery program 2011 interagency annual report . m . d . jimenez and s . a . becker , eds . usfws , ecological services , 585 shepard way , helena , montana , 59601 .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 1988 . interim wolf control plan , northern rocky mountains of montana and wyoming . fish and wildlife enhancement office , helena . 29 pp .\n. in 2006 , censuses counted 22 breeding pairs and 283 wolves in montana , 42 breeding pairs and 650 wolves in idaho , and 25 breeding pairs and 310 wolves in wyoming , for a total of 1243 wolves in the northern rocky mountain region .\nadams , r . a . 2003 . bats of the rocky mountain west ; natural history , ecology , and conservation . boulder , co : university press of colorado . 289 p .\nbalser , d . s . , r . evans , d . l . flath , d . mcintoch , m . m . meagher , n . r . miner , k . norrie , r . r . ream , and r . k . turner , 1980 , northern rocky mountain wolf recovery plan\nfollowing an absence of more than 70 years , wolves once again run beneath the ample skies of yellowstone national park . northern rocky mountain wolves , a subspecies of the gray wolf ( canis lupus ) , were native to yellowstone when the park was established in 1872 . predator control was practiced in the park . . .\nmattson , u . , and r . r . ream . 1978 . current status of the gray wolf ( canis lupis ) in the rocky mountain front , july , 1978 . unpubl . rep . , wolf ecology project , university of montana , missoula . 18 pp .\ndiamond , s . j . , and p . finnegan . 1991 . wolf movements and food habits on the rocky mountain front : annual report 1991 . usda for . serv . , lewis and clark national forest , great falls . 17 pp .\ndiamond , s . j . , and p . finnegan . 1992 . wolf movements and food habits on the rocky mountain front : 1992 annual report . usda for . serv . , lewis and clark national forest , great falls . 10 pp .\nnorthern rocky mountain wolf recovery team . idaho . department of fish and game . montana . department of fish , wildlife , and parks . national audubon society . u . s . fish and wildlife service . united states . bureau of land management . united states . forest service . united states . national park service . university of montana .\nfor some in the west , however , the idea of peaceful wolf - human existence remains a pipe dream . \u201cnatural balance is a walt disney movie \u2013 it isn\u2019t real , \u201d david allen , president of the rocky mountain elk foundation , said recently .\nthe u . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) listed the eastern timber wolf ( canis lupus lycaon ) as endangered in 1967 , and the northern rocky mountain subspecies ( canis lupus irremotus ) as endangered in 1973 . in 1978 , the legal status of the gray wolf in north america was clarified by listing the minnesota wolf population as threatened and all other members of the species canis lupus south of canada as endangered .\nfws issues a proposed rule to delist northern rockies gray wolves from the endangered species list .\ntilt , w . , r . norris and a . s . eno . 1987 . wolf recovery in the northern rocky mountains . publ . booklet , national audubon society , national fish and wildlife foundation , washington , dc . 31 pp .\nthe approval of all three state management plans paved the path for fws to publish a final rule ( \u201c2008 rule\u201d ) delisting wolves in the northern mountain rocky mountain region from esa protections and transferring absolute authority for wolf management to the three individual states . [ fn39 ] the ink was barely dry on the 2008 rule before a coalition of environmental groups filed suit challenging the rule . [ fn40 ] in july 2008 , in defenders of wildlife v . hall , the u . s . district court for the district of montana issued a preliminary injunction enjoining the service from delisting the gray wolf and restoring esa protections in the northern rocky mountain region pending final resolution , [ fn41 ] two months later , the court granted fws ' s procedural motion to enter a vacatur of the 2008 rule and remand to the agency for further consideration . [ fn42 ]\nday , gary l . 1981 . the status and distribution of wolves in the northern rocky mountains of the united states . m . s . thesis . univ . of montana , missoula . 130 pp .\nty - book ti - northern rocky mountain wolf recovery plan / ur - urltoken pb - the team ] , cy - [ bozeman , mont . : py - 1980 n1 -\nmay 28 1980 .\nau - northern rocky mountain wolf recovery team . au - idaho . department of fish and game . au - montana . department of fish , wildlife , and parks . au - national audubon society . au - u . s . fish and wildlife service . au - united states . bureau of land management . au - united states . forest service . au - united states . national park service . au - university of montana . kw - endangered species kw - united states kw - wildlife management kw - wolves er - ty - book ti - northern rocky mountain wolf recovery plan / vl - 1980 ur - urltoken pb - the team ] , cy - [ bozeman , mont . : py - 1980 n1 -\nmay 28 1980 .\nau - northern rocky mountain wolf recovery team . au - idaho . department of fish and game . au - montana . department of fish , wildlife , and parks . au - national audubon society . au - u . s . fish and wildlife service . au - united states . bureau of land management . au - united states . forest service . au - united states . national park service . au - university of montana . kw - endangered species kw - united states kw - wildlife management kw - wolves er -\n79 ( 2004 ) . other big game animals in montana include elk , moose , black bears , and mountain lions .\nrange and habitat : the northwestern wolf , more commonly known as the rocky mountain wolf inhabits parts of the western united states , western canada , and alaska , including unimak island of the aleutians , and is the sub - species that was reintroduced into yellowstone national park ( ynp ) and central idaho in 1995 - 6 .\n. final rule to identify the northern rocky mountain population of gray wolf as a distinct population segment and to revise the list of endangered and threatened wild - life , 74 fed . reg . 15 , 123 , 15 , 125 ( apr . 2 , 2009 ) ( to be codified at 50 c . f . r . pt . 17 ) [ hereinafter 2009 rule ] .\nfurthermore , federal oversight of wolf management in the northern rockies is set to end in may 2016 . in january 2016 the center and allies petitioned for the service to continue monitoring northern rocky mountains gray wolves for another five years \u2014 crucial to ensure that the wolf population doesn ' t slip to dangerously low levels . we filed a notice of intent to sue in march after the agency failed to respond .\nfinal rule designating the northern rocky mountain population of gray wolf as a distinct population segment and removing this distinct population segment from the federal list of endangered and threatened wildlife , 73 fed . reg . 10 , 514 , 10 , 514 ( feb . 27 , 2008 ) ( to be codified at 50 c . f . r . pt . 17 ) [ hereinafter 2008 rule ] .\ndesignating the northern rocky mountain population of gray wolf as a distinct population segment and removing this distinct population segment from the federal list of endangered and threatened wildlife , 72 fed . reg . 6106 , 6106 - 07 ( proposed feb . 8 , 2007 ) ( to be codified at 50 c . f . r . pt . 17 ) [ hereinafter 2007 rule ] ; elizabeth a . schulte ,\n, jan . 12 , 2007 . one day after ifgc announced a 2009 wolf season , otter told a reporter he would buy a wolf tag and hoped to bag one during the fall hunt . rocky barker ,\nin 1974 , the remaining gray wolves in the lower 48 states were protected under the endangered species act ( esa ) . thereafter , the u . s . fish and wildlife service ( fsw ) of the u . s . department of the interior appointed a wolf recovery team , which initially recommended that natural dispersal and reintroduction be used to restore wolves to the northern rocky mountain ( nrm ) region .\ngray wolves were originally listed under the esa in 1974 . currently , gray wolves are listed as endangered throughout most of the united states . the gray wolf is listed as threatened in minnesota , and as an experimental population in wyoming . the species has been delisted due to recovery in the northern rocky mountain dps , which includes montana , idaho , eastern washington , eastern oregon and north - central utah .\ncanis lupus occidentalis a large wolf from western canada , also called the mackenzie valley wolf .\nthe gray wolf is one of north america ' s most iconic native predators . the wolf ' s incredible comeback in the northern rockies is one of our country ' s greatest wildlife success stories .\ndobkin , d . s . 1992 . neotropical migrant land birds in the northern rockies and great plains . usda forest service , northern region . publication no . r1 - 93 - 34 . missoula , mt .\nearthjustice files suit challenging the decision to remove endangered species act protections for gray wolves in the northern rockies .\nfederal district court judge donald molloy upholds the 2011 legislation removing esa protections for wolves in the northern rockies .\nthe northern rockies were once a gray wolf stronghold , but predator removal programs initiated in the 1880s essentially wiped wolves out in the region by the 1930s .\nforesman , k . r . 2012 . mammals of montana . second edition . mountain press publishing , missoula , montana . 429 pp .\n\u201cthe return of the wolf to the northern rocky mountains is a major success story , and reflects the remarkable work of states , tribes , and our many partners to bring this iconic species back from the brink of extinction ,\nfish and wildlife service director dan ashe said in a statement .\nthe final rule for delisting of the northern rockies population of gray wolves from the endangered species list is published .\n@ book { bhl200383 , title = { northern rocky mountain wolf recovery plan / } , copyright = { not provided . contact contributing library to verify copyright status . } , url = urltoken note = urltoken - - -\nmay 28 1980 .\n} , publisher = { [ bozeman , mont . : the team ] , } , author = { northern rocky mountain wolf recovery team . and idaho . department of fish and game . and montana . department of fish , wildlife , and parks . and national audubon society . and u . s . fish and wildlife service . and united states . bureau of land management . and united states . forest service . and united states . national park service . and university of montana . } , year = { } , pages = { 84 } , keywords = { endangered species | united states | wildlife management | wolves | } , } @ book { bhl137547 , title = { northern rocky mountain wolf recovery plan / } , volume = { 1980 } , copyright = { not provided . contact contributing library to verify copyright status . } , url = urltoken note = urltoken - - -\nmay 28 1980 .\n} , publisher = { [ bozeman , mont . : the team ] , } , author = { northern rocky mountain wolf recovery team . and idaho . department of fish and game . and montana . department of fish , wildlife , and parks . and national audubon society . and u . s . fish and wildlife service . and united states . bureau of land management . and united states . forest service . and united states . national park service . and university of montana . } , year = { 1980 } , pages = { 84 } , keywords = { endangered species | united states | wildlife management | wolves | } , }\na federal district court issues an order finding that the delisting of wolves in the northern rockies was likely illegal , but declined to stop wolf hunts in idaho and montana .\nboyd , d . 1982 . food habits and spatial relations of coyotes and a lone wolf in the rocky mountains . m . s . thesis . university of montana , missoula . 115 pp .\nwolves were first brought back to the west in 1995 , when 66 were brought from canada to yellowstone national park and idaho . the northern rocky mountain wolf recovery plan also allowed for the natural southern dispersal of other wolf populations from canada . since then , the species has spread to montana , wyoming , washington , and oregon , and now there\u2019s even a single pack living in northern california . the population of wolves in those states is approaching 1 , 700 \u2014a huge success story for conservationists , albeit one that\u2019s still ongoing . wolves numbered 2 million on this continent just a couple hundred years ago but were killed off as modern civilization expanded westward .\nthe return of the gray wolf continues to rivet the mountain west , where some 2 million wolves roamed before settlers drove them to extinction by the 1930s . nearly 2 , 000 animals and more than 100 breeding pairs \u2013 a tiny fraction of their original numbers \u2013 now traverse the ancestral valleys and ridgelines of their northern rockies range .\nunder an exception to the endangered species act , fish and wildlife service actions have resulted in the federal killing on behalf of the livestock industry of 931 wolves in the northern rocky mountains and at least 1 , 951 wolves in the great lakes region from 1996 through 2008 .\nream , r . r . 1984 . the wolf is at our door : population recovery in the northern rockies . western wildlands 10 ( 2 ) : 2 - 7 .\noverly aggressive management by the states is consistently reducing wolf numbers and the connectivity necessary for wolves to expand into unoccupied areas in the northern rockies and neighboring states . consequently , full recovery of the wolf in the american west is threatened .\njeremy t . bruskotter , eric toman , sherry a . enzler , robert h . schmidt ; are gray wolves endangered in the northern rocky mountains ? a role for social science in listing determinations , bioscience , volume 60 , issue 11 , 1 december 2010 , pages 941\u2013948 , urltoken\n\u201cbiologists have witnessed deer move as far down as illinois and ohio because of the overcrowding population in northern michigan and wisconsin . \u201d\nthe northern rockies gray wolves are officially removed from the endangered species list . wyoming ' s contentious state management plan takes effect .\nwolf populations in yellowstone national park and central idaho grew rapidly and soon became a source for dispersers to montana . new packs formed outside the earliest core wolf areas and overall wolf distribution expanded . wolf dispersal has been documented between and among all three federal recovery areas and the states comprising the northern rockies . by the end of 2002 , the northern rockies wolf population met the biological recovery criteria of at least 30 breeding pairs in the northern rockies for three years in a row . by the end of 2004 , there was an estimated 835 wolves and 66 breeding pairs in the tri - state area . in montana , there were about 153 wolves in 15 breeding pairs .\nwolf reintroduction and recovery in the northern rocky mountains is a conservation success story . since reintroduction in 1995 , wolf populations have increased from a few dozen to 1 , 700 . the original recovery goal of 300 wolves has been sustained in the region for almost a decade . that is why the u . s . interior department agreed to return wolf management to state of montana wildlife biologists in 2003 . the interior department re - affirmed that plan in 2009 .\na member of yellowstone ' s famed druid pack , this particular wolf was unique .\nhe was a hell of a wolf ,\nrecalled one veteran wolf watcher .\nearthjustice filed suit on behalf of 12 conservation groups , challenging the decision to delist northern rockies gray wolves from endangered species act protections .\nin fact , genetic isolation threatens all gray wolves , whose three main populations \u2014 in the northern rockies , upper midwest and southwest \u2014 are small and disconnected . to spur true , nationwide gray wolf recovery , in july 2010 the center petitioned the obama administration for a national recovery plan to establish wolf populations in suitable habitat in the pacific northwest , california , great basin , southern rocky mountains , great plains and new england .\nrust , h . j . 1946 . mammals of northern idaho . j . mammal . 27 ( 4 ) : 308 - 327 .\n. although gray wolves can live up to thirteen years , the average lifespan of reintroduced wolves in the northern rockies is just four years .\nwolves in the northern rockies are again removed from the endangered species list . the delisting rule goes into effect on may 4 , 2009 .\njust 13 years after the first releases in yellowstone , the push to remove gray wolves in the northern rockies from the endangered species list began .\na more recent study\u2014not available at the time of delisting\u2014suggests attitudes toward wolves in the northern rockies may be becoming more negative . specifically , a content analysis of news media coverage indicates that public discourse about wolves in the northern rockies became increasingly negative from 1999 to 2008 ( houston 2009 ) .\nvast areas of suitable wolf habitat remain unoccupied in national forests and national parks in the former western range of the gray wolf .\nboyd , d . k . and d . h . pletscher . 1999 .\ncharacteristics of dispersal in a colonizing wolf population in the central rocky mountains\n. the journal of wildlife management . 63 ( 4 ) : 1094 - 1108 .\nwith large swaths of undeveloped land and some of america\u2019s biggest native animals , the rocky mountains and great plains provide the last best wildlife habitat in the lower 48 for many species .\nannouncing the delisting , deputy secretary of the interior lynn scarlett said the success of gray wolf recovery efforts in the northern rockies has contributed to expanding populations of wolves that no longer require the protection of the act .\ndays before leaving office , the bush administration makes a final attempt to remove endangered species protections for wolves in the northern rockies ( excluding wyoming ) .\nwolves have recovered in the great lakes and the northern rocky mountains because of the hard work , cooperation and flexibility shown by states , tribes , conservation groups , federal agencies and citizens of both regions ,\nsaid scarlett .\nwe can all be proud of our various roles in saving this icon of the american wilderness .\nofficials in alberta and british columbia offered wolves for reintroduction . the canadian source areas were situated along the rocky mountains and had similar terrain and prey to the ynp and central idaho release locations .\nwolf watch 2 . scott\u2019s group on facebook . i think they only let you join if you can prove you shot a wolf illegally .\n, 2008 rule , 73 fed . reg . at 10 , 514 . in the northern rockies , only four or five of these pups survive the winter .\nfws proposed a rule to remove the gray wolf in wyoming from the endangered species list , claiming wyoming ' s wolf population is stable , threats will be addressed , and wyoming ' s wolf management laws are adequate .\nthe order comes a week after idaho ' s wolf hunting season opened on september 1 . montana is set to begin wolf hunting on september 15 .\nread tws\u2019 fact sheet on gray wolf populations in the conterminous united states , and position statement on wolf restoration and management in the contiguous united states .\ndiet : the prey base of the northwestern wolf includes a variety of hoofed mammals and other rodents , such as moose , bison , elk , caribou , dall sheep , sitka black - tailed deer , mountain goats , beaver , salmon , vole , lemmings , ground squirrels and snowshoe hare .\nfor northern rockies wolves to recover and assume their important role in ecosystems , states must manage wolves as an accepted and valued native species\u2014like mountain lions and black bears . states must also ensure adequate connectivity between wolf populations to allow for natural recolonization in washington , oregon , utah and colorado . education and outreach efforts are also vital to foster more tolerance for wolves and to promote the use of nonlethal methods to address conflicts and to secure a future for wolves in the region .\nmiscellaneous : legal shooting and trapping of wolves occurs throughout alaska . over the past decade 11 to 20 percent of alaska ' s wolf population has been harvested each year . studies indicate that wolves could sustain an annual harvest of 30 to 40 percent without decreasing the population . the wolf population in alaska is estimated at 7 , 500 - 11 , 000 wolves . the population in the northern rocky mountains ( greater yellowstone area , nw montana , and idaho ) is estimated to be around 1200 and increasing ( 2006 usfws pop . estimate ) .\nwerner , j . k . , b . a . maxell , p . hendricks , and d . flath . 2004 . amphibians and reptiles of montana . missoula , mt : mountain press publishing company . 262 p .\nthere are an estimated 7 , 000 to 11 , 200 gray wolves in alaska , 3 , 700 in the great lakes region and 1 , 675 in the northern rockies .\non january 14 , in what conservationists view as a last - ditch effort by the bush administration to undermine environmental protections , the u . s . fish and wildlife service announced that the northern rockies gray wolf will be taken off the endangered species list .\nsafari club and the nra jointly filed a motion for reconsideration of judge molloy\u2019s previous order denying the groups intervenor status in the litigation . asking the judge to reconsider is a procedural requirement if the groups wish to appeal to a higher court the judge\u2019s refusal to grant them intervenor status . judge molloy denied that reconsideration motion . rocky mountain elk foundation asked for a stay of the wolf delisting rider litigation pending appeal of judge molloy\u2019s decision to deny their group intervenor status . judge molloy likewise denied their motion to stay the litigation .\nyeah , it\u2019s one thing to read about it , quite another to actually see it ! . i really liked what you said , about opting for the control , not necessarily liking having to kill a wolf but when faced with certain circumstances , you are for doing what needs to be done . i think it\u2019s also fascinating to see how different things are between the wolves in the great lakes region and the wolves in the rocky mountain regions . somewhere in between the extreme positions of both sides i think is the truth .\nin 1978 , fws listed the northern rocky mountain subspecies of gray wolf ( cants lupis irremotus ) as endangered . [ fn20 ] fws first approved a recovery plan in 1980 , which called for the reintroduction of 90 to 150 gray wolves from canada into the greater yellowstone national park area ( \u201cgya\u201d ) in northwestern wyoming , central idaho , and western montana . [ fn21 ] the service determined that the region in and around yel - lowstone national park ( \u201cynp\u201d ) and the vast federally protected wilderness in central idaho were best suited for reintroduction because of a minimal interface with surrounding livestock and agricultural operations , the ample availability of wild game and native prey , and the quality of the habitat . [ fn22 ]\nmontana interagency wolf working group . 1991 . 1990 annual report . 29 pp .\ncanis lupus crassodon a medium - size , greyish wolf found on vancouver island .\necology of wolf predation admits high ungulate diversity in jasper national park , alberta .\nwolf predation of nettlesome coyotes has helped resuscitate numbers of the magnificent pronghorn antelope .\nas an example , ifgc set a wolf mortality limit of 428 wolves after the 2008 delisting - - about fifty percent of the state ' s wolf population .\nthe designation applies to all remaining wolf populations in the lower - 48 states .\nthe 2011\u20132012 montana wolf hunting and idaho wolf hunting and trapping seasons begin , during which 166 wolves are killed in montana , and 379 wolves are killed in idaho .\nthe mexican gray wolf is the rarest subspecies of gray wolf in north america . once common throughout portions of the southwestern united states , the mexican wolf was all but eliminated from the wild by the 1970s due to extensive predator control initiatives . recovery efforts for the mexican wolf began when the subspecies was listed as endangered in 1976 .\nwolf territories usually vary in size from 200 to 500 square miles , but may range from as little as 18 square miles to as much as 1 , 000 square miles . one wolf per every 10 square miles is considered ideal for wolf health .\nthe red wolf is one of the world\u2019s most endangered wolf species . once common throughout the eastern and south central united states , red wolf populations were decimated by the early part of the 20th century and reduced to coastal areas of texas and louisiana .\nsinger , f . j . 1975d . the history and status of wolves in northern glacier national park , montana . glacier national park scientific paper no . 1 , west glacier , montana .\nwith that , the agency enacted a rule establishing a nonessential experimental population of gray wolves in idaho , montana , and wyoming - - finalizing the release of wolves back into the northern rockies .\ncanis lupus baileyi the smallest north american grey wolf , originally found from mexico to the south west united states ; according to many authorities , indistinguishable from canis lupus mogollonensis and canis lupus monstrabilis . the mexican wolf ' s range originally extended from northern mexico into the mountainous parts of arizona , new mexico and texas . the most endangered wolf subspecies , the mexican wolf is extinct in the wild in the united states - - and , scientists say , probably in mexico as well . a small captive population exists in the united states .\nin february 2007 , fws issued a proposed delist rule [ fn140 ] that : ( 1 ) established a northern rocky mountain distinct population segment ( \u201cnrm dps\u201d ) , including wolves in the entireties of montana , idaho , and wyoming , the eastern one - third of washington and oregon , and a sliver of north - central utah , where episodic dispersers and one or two packs have migrated ; [ fn141 ] and ( 2 ) removed gray wolves within the nrm dps from federal esa protection . [ fn142 ] the rule would grant idaho and montana absolute authority for wolf management under the framework of the plans already approved by fws . [ fn143 ] the proposed rule preserved federally protected status for wyoming wolves until the state adopted an adequate regulatory plan . [ fn144 ]\ncanis lupus griseoalbus a large wolf found in north alberta , saskatchewan , and manitoba .\ncanis lupus mackenzii the northwest territories wolf ; not recognized as a subspecies until 1943 .\nwolves in spite of numeric management commitments in the non - binding wolf management plans .\nwyo . game & fish comm ' n , final wyoming gray wolf management . plan\nthe state policies will result in wolf deaths that undermine the recovery of the species .\nit\u2019s the wolf populations reintroduced to the american west that gop policy is directly targeting .\nwhere did the shoshone aquire a mule . had the spanish been this far north or was there a spanish fort in southern idaho or northern utah . there has been much speculation over this mule .\nthe white mountain apache tribe ( wmat ) has been an active partner in mexican wolf recovery for almost 15 years . the service provides annual funding for the tribe\u2019s mexican wolf management and monitoring program , in accordance with a service - approved management plan . the tribe\u2019s support has been extremely beneficial to the service due to the geographic location of their tribal land within our experimental population area . in addition , they have demonstrated tremendous leadership communicating the benefits and impacts of tribal wolf management to other tribes in the region .\nthroughout their range , wolves are keystone predators and have a profound effect on the ecosystems they inhabit . the wide range of habitats in which wolves can thrive reflects their adaptability as a species . in his essay titled , \u201cthinking like a mountain , \u201d the great american conservationist aldo leopold described the cascading effects of losing wolves in a forested mountain ecosystem - the resulting increase of deer , followed by overgrazing , deforestation and erosion , and then the collapse of deer after having eaten themselves out of house and home .\nfws announces plans to remove gray wolves in the northern rockies ( idaho , wyoming , montana ) from the endangered species list , but only if wyoming adopts a state management plan that fws deems appropriate .\nboyd , d . k . , r . p . ream , d . h . pletscher , and m . w . fairchild . 1993 . variation in denning and parturition dates of a wild gray wolf , canis lupus , in the rocky mountains . the canadian field - naturalist . 107 ( 3 ) : 359 - 360 .\nmostly due to federal predator control and conflicts with the livestock industry , the gray wolf was extirpated from the west by 1945 . today , after centuries of fear and superstition , research has given the wolf a new image as a social creature with an indispensible role in ecosystems \u2014 and endangered species act protection gave it a new chance to thrive . unfortunately , the beautiful carnivore is still persecuted by federal predator control and poachers , and most wolves in the northern rocky mountains ( all but those in wyoming ) have been removed from the endangered species list \u2014 even though these amazing animals have a long way to go before recovery .\nvoigt and berg ( 1987 ) noted that where prey is limited in the winter sympatric species might have overlapping diets , especially when ungulates are the primary food resource . litvaitis ( 1992 ) argued that additional quantitative information through experimentation on the extent of prey overlap is needed and that wolf recolonization of the northern rocky mountains may provide such an opportunity . we examined whether resource partitioning allowed for coexistence of coyotes with wolves in an area recently recolonized by wolves . we made 3 predictions that coyotes would avoid competing with wolves for food resources by using smaller prey items , that coyotes would have a greater diversity in their diet , and that coyotes within established wolf territories would scavenge on large mammals more than coyotes outside wolf territories .\nthe forester ought to carry you past the nf boundary there at robb creek . past that , there are a couple steep rocky pitches headed up to the notch where i wouldn\u2019t take a vehicle i cared about . nice country up there , eh ?\nsime , c . 2006 . wolf conservation and management plan , final project performance report .\nvisit urltoken for a wolf pupdevelopment chart , describing how pups mature as they grow older .\nx - canis lupus beothucus the newfoundland wolf , now extinct ; reported almost pure white .\ncanis lupus columbianus a large wolf found in the yukon , british columbia , and alberta .\nthe way the $ 35m wolf tourism economic analysis should be properly is analyzed is this .\nthe effects of wolf colonization on coyote populations , movements , behaviors , and food habits .\nallowed unregulated wolf killing in over ninety percent of the state , failed to pass muster .\nreports of ghost wolf sightings trickle in from parts of wyoming , washington , and idaho .\nwolf on glacial erratic at yellowstone ' s little america flats , february 2 , 2004 .\nwildlife biologist and wolf advocate , on witnessing the return of wolves to yellowstone national park .\nbasic facts threats what we ' re doing to help fact vs . fiction what you can do gray wolves in alaska gray wolves in the northern rockies gray wolves in the great lakes get more information success stories\nafter 12 months of study , fws rejects a petition filed by the governor of wyoming and the state game & fish commission asking that gray wolves in the northern rockies be removed from the endangered species list .\n2008 : the u . s . fish and wildlife service ( fws ) removes northern rockies wolves from the endangered species list , approving management plans that allow montana , idaho and wyoming to reduce their wolf populations to 150 wolves each , slashing the regional population from nearly 1 , 800 to 450 wolves .\nthe dire wolf was a large canine that exhibited hyena - like characteristics . like the hyena , the dire wolf hunted and scavenged for food . researchers suspect that dire wolves , due to their scavenging nature , scattered the bones of animals they killed or that were killed by other prey . the dire wolf was not quite like any animal we have today . it was similar in overall size and mass to a large modern grey wolf . ( a popular misconception is that dire wolf dwarfed the modern day grey wolf ) the dire wolf was about 1 . 5 meters ( 5 feet ) long and weighed about 50 kilograms ( 110 pounds ) on average . the dire wolf looked fairly similar to the modern grey wolf ; however , there were several important differences . the dire wolf had a larger , broader head and shorter , sturdier legs than its modern relative . the teeth of the dire wolf are much larger and more massive than those of the grey wolf . the braincase of the dire wolf is also smaller than that of a similarly - sized grey wolf . the fact that the lower part of the legs of the dire wolf are proportionally shorter than those of the grey wolf , indicates that the dire wolf was probably not a good a runner as the grey wolf . many paleontologists think that the dire wolf may have used its relatively large , massive teeth to crush bone . this idea is supported by the fact that dire wolf teeth frequently have large amounts of wear on their crowns . several people have suggested that dire wolves may have made their living in similar ways to the modern hyenas . wolves and coyotes are relatively common large carnivores found in ice age sites . in fact , several thousand dire wolves have been found in the asphalt pits at rancho la brea in los angeles , ca . the coyote , grey wolf , and dire wolf have all been found in paleontological sites in the midwestern u . s . the first specimen of a dire wolf was found at near evansville , indiana . clark kimberling of the university of evansville has traced the very interesting history of this specimen . the dire wolf , canis dirus , larger and heavier than the grey wolf , evolved earlier and the two co - existed in north america for about 400 , 000 years . as prey became extinct around 16 , 000 years ago due to climatic change , the dire wolf gradually became extinct itself . around 7 , 000 years ago the grey wolf became the prime canine predator in north america .\nrecent announcements that us fish and wildlife service will delist mid - western wolf populations follow previous efforts to delist abundant wolf mid - western wolf populations through administrative processes . conservation organizations recognize that litigation and other delay tactics are likely to be used again to challenge new delisting proposals .\nfws announced it is eliminating federal protections for wyoming ' s wolves , handing wolf management over to wyoming , which will open almost all of the state to immediate , unconditional wolf killing .\nno other species , especially one with a total population of less than a few thousand , is being managed as aggressively as northern rockies wolves . people who are unwilling or unprepared to share the landscape with wolves have unduly influenced the management of these important predators . in less than two years , more than 1 , 100 wolves were killed in the northern rockies , and states seem determined to slash wolf numbers even more . the federal delisting plan offers no mechanism to prevent idaho , montana and wyoming from killing all but 150 wolves each and requires no scientific justification that 150 wolves constitute a healthy , recovered wolf population .\nbut even as the wolf hunt is set to step up in america \u2019s wildest reaches , it\u2019s also true that ranchers , who firmly opposed federal wolf reintroduction as it gained steam in the 1980s and ' 90s , have slowly come to accept the wolf\u2019s return as inevitable and permanent .\ngray wolves range in color from grizzled gray or black to all - white . as the ancestor of the domestic dog , the gray wolf resembles german shepherds or malamutes . though they once nearly disappeared from the lower 48 states , today wolves have returned to the great lakes , northern rockies and southwestern united states .\n. defenders of wildlife , comments on montana hunting and trapping regulations for wolves ( feb . 13 , 2008 ) , urltoken policy / wiid - life _ conservation / irnperiled _ species / woives / wolf _ recovery _ efforts / northern _ rockies _ wolves / management _ and _ policy / index . php .\nx - canis lupus monstrabilis a wolf found in texas and new mexico ; extinct by 1942 .\nthe government in concert with western settlers extirpated the wolf across nearly all of its historic range .\nthe ifgc , by a four - to - three margin rejected a 430 wolf mortality limit .\n. also , the article describes the twenty - one percent increase in ynp tourism directly attributed to visitors hoping to spot a wolf , while at the same time anti - wolf memorabilia like the popular \u201cwolf management team\u201d t - shirt , showing a wolf ' s head in a rifle sight , with the slogan : \u201cshoot , shovel and shut up , \u201d sold in high numbers .\nwolf conservation and management in montana will carefully balance the interests and perspectives of a diverse public .\niran : subspecies : pallipes , campestris . status : fully viable , numbering > 1000 . range occupied : 80 % . main prey : gazelle , mountain sheep , livestock , wild boar , deer , capra sp . legal status : game species . cause of decline : persecution .\n2010 : after another lawsuit , a federal court overturns the 2009 decision to delist wolves , ruling that fws can not remove protection in only a portion of the northern rockies wolf population\u2019s core range , because conditions that support the recovery of wolves must be present in a significant portion of their entire range in the region .\nthe decision friday by the us fish and wildlife service to lift endangered species protections for the gray wolf in wyoming is a testament to the success of the 20 - year federal wolf reintroduction effort .\ngo to the international wolf center site , urltoken , and access their radio telemetry data , for wolf data . a superior national forest center section map is needed to plot where the packs are .\nearthjustice asks the federal district court reviewing the delisting challenge for an emergency injunction to halt pending fall wolf hunts in idaho and montana . earthjustice sought\u2014and won\u2014a similar injunction the last time wolf hunts began .\nthe red wolf ( currently recognized as a different species than the gray wolf ) once ranged as far north as pennsylvania and as far west as central texas . because of its wide distribution , the red wolf played an important role in a variety of ecosystems , from pocosin lowlands to forested mountains .\nrodger schlickeisen , president of defenders of wildlife , said ,\nthis blatantly political maneuver is hardly surprising . the bush administration has been trying to strip endangered species act protections from the northern rockies wolf since the day it took office - no matter the dire consequences of delisting wolves prematurely and without adequate state protections in place .\nschlickeisen said ,\nif allowed to stand , this rule would mean that the northern rockies wolf population could be slashed by as much as two - thirds , placing approximately 1 , 000 of the region\u00eds roughly 1 , 450 wolves in peril . this is a loss from which they most likely would be unable to recover .\ncanis lupus arctos the white wolf of the high arctic , found from melville island to ellesmere island .\nx - canis lupus fuscus a brownish - colored wolf from the cascade mountains ; extinct by 1940 .\ncanis lupus ligoni a small , dark - colored wolf from the alexander archipelago in the arctic islands .\nthis is a space where we\u2019ll post the various documents that wolf advocates will be filing in federal district court of their challenge of the recent wolf delisting rider that was attached to the 2011 budget bill .\nin wisconsin the last year we were under the 350 wolf plan min population , wolves depredated at a rate of $ 86 per wolf per year . in 2010 the population was double the 350 wolves\u2026 that additional 350 wolves depredated at a rate of close to $ 500 . 00 per wolf per year .\nbecause the laws allow theoretically unlimited wolf mortality , enforcement of the laws would have to be vigilant .\na\nwolf - like\nanimal sighted in hayden valley , august 7 / 8 , 1992 .\nwolves are highly social animals that live in packs . a pack is an extended family group comprised of a the breeding , or \u201calpha\u201d male and female pair and some of their subordinate offspring and current pups from one or more years . the alpha wolves decide when the pack will travel and hunt , and normally are the first to eat at a kill . the pair\u2019s offspring normally disperse into adjacent or available territories at 2 to 3 years of age . for packs studied in the northern rocky mountain region , the average dispersal distance and subsequent new pack formation is about 65 miles . for highly cursorial and very mobile wolves , this is \u201cnext - door . \u201d recent satellite - collar tracking data , however has shown that some offspring and individual wolves have dispersed more than a thousand miles in three or four months !\nlike the 2008 rule , the 2009 rule simultaneously designated an area encompassing idaho , montana , wyoming and swathes of eastern washington , oregon and northern utah as the nrm dps - - and then delisted that dps in the same action .\nnote 8 , app . 9 , at 42 ( summarizing a survey of wildlife biologists who determined a viable population of wolves in the northern rockies would need to disperse over a wide geography to defeat stagnate genetic exchange and inbreeding ) .\nin response to the earthjustice lawsuit , a federal court reinstated esa protections for gray wolves in the northern rockies , just in time to keep wolves safe from fall hunts that would have been implemented in idaho , montana , and wyoming .\nwolf wars is indeed a great book for understanding the events that led to the reintroduction . i also recommend martin nie\u2019s , beyond wolves as a great read for people interested in the politics of wolf recovery .\ni believe nine mile is a creek west of missoula where one the original montana wolf packs was located .\nthe idaho department of fish & game ( \u201cidfg\u201d ) drafted idaho ' s wolf conservation and management plan .\nream , r . r . and u . i . mattson . 1982 . wolf status in the northern rockies . pp . 362 - 381 in : harrington , f . h . and p . c . paquet , ( eds . ) , wolves of the world : perspectives of behavior , ecology , and conservation . noyes publ . , nj .\na wolf\u2019s sense of smell is up to 100 , 000 times greater than humans\u2019 . under good conditions a wolf can smell something a mile or more away . scent is a very effective means of communication for wolves .\n\u201cjerry conley , former director of idaho fish and game , states : \u201ctheir solutions are to take all the money and kill the coyotes , the wolverines , the mountain lions . they haven\u2019t had a positive thought in years . in the long run , i don\u2019t think you can sustain a group just on negativity . \u201d\nconservation scientists increasingly recognize the need to incorporate the social sciences into policy decisions . in practice , however , considerable challenges to integrating the social and natural sciences remain . in this article , we review the us fish and wildlife service ' s ( fws ) 2009 decision to remove the northern rocky mountain population of gray wolves from the federal list of endangered species . we examine the fws ' s arguments concerning the threat posed by humans ' attitudes toward wolves in light of the existing social science literature . our analysis found support for only one of four arguments underlying the fws ' s assessment of public attitudes as a potential threat to wolves . although we found an extensive literature on attitudes toward wolves , the fws cited just one empirical research article . we conclude that when listing decisions rest on assumptions about society , these assumptions should be evaluated using the best available natural and social science research .\n2011 : a legislative \u201crider\u201d attached to a must - pass budget bill ends federal protection for wolves in idaho and montana , eastern oregon and washington and northern utah , the first - ever removal of a species from the endangered species list by congress . wyoming wolves remain on the list because the state still does not have an fws - approved wolf - management plan ."]}
{"id": 810, "summary": [{"text": "the earth-colored mouse ( mus terricolor ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is found in india , possibly indonesia , nepal , and pakistan . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "earth - colored mouse", "paragraphs": ["the earth - coloured mouse ( m . terricolor ) is native to peninsular india , nepal , and pakistan , but it has been introduced into northern sumatra . the fawn - coloured mouse has a natural distribution throughout mainland southeast asia and southern china but also inhabits rice fields on sumatra and java , where it\u2026\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern as it is relatively widely distributed in south asia , where it is regarded as a pest species . it is introduced in sumatra , indonesia .\nthe species is presumably present within some protected areas . there is a need for taxonomic studies to conclusively determine the distribution of mus booduga and the similar mus booduga .\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t13987a115119298 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\nhorse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , \u2026\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmusser , guy g . , and michael d . carleton / wilson , don e . , and deeann m . reeder , eds .\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vol . 2\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 2nd ed . , 3rd printing\ncomments : subgenus mus . formerly referred to as m . dunni ( j . t . marshall , jr . , 1977b , 1986 ) , but terricolor is the older name ( j . t . marshall , jr . , 1977b , 1998 : 80 , and in litt . , 1989 ) . chromosomal results presented by sharma et al . ( 1986 , under dunni ) and boyeskorov et al . ( 1997 , as dunni ) in context of evolutionary divergence from other species of mus . closely related to mus booduga . both species have 2n = 40 , with all telocentric chromosomes , but m . booduga has a slightly smaller y chromosome . all . . .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there are 2 barcode sequences available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is a sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\namori , g . ( small nonvolant mammal red list authority ) & cox , n . ( global mammal assessment team )\nthis species is listed as least concern as it is relatively widely distributed in south asia , where it is regarded as a pest species . it is introduced in sumatra , indonesia .\nbaillie , j . 1996 . mus terricolor . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 9 july 2007 .\nmusser , g . g . ; carleton , m . d . ( 2005 ) .\nsuperfamily muroidea\n. in wilson , d . e . ; reeder , d . m . mammal species of the world ( 3rd ed . ) . johns hopkins university press . pp . 894\u20131531 . isbn 978 - 0 - 8018 - 8221 - 0 . oclc 62265494 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 813, "summary": [{"text": "raffray 's bandicoot ( peroryctes raffrayana ) is a species of marsupial in the family peroryctidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is found in indonesia and papua new guinea .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry forests . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "raffray ' s bandicoot", "paragraphs": ["raffray ' s bandicoot is hunted for food by local people throughout its range , but this is not seen as a major threat to the species .\naspects of the ecology of the kalubu bandicoot ( echymipera kalubu ) and observations on raffray\u2019s bandicoot ( perorcytes raffrayanus ) , eastern highlands province , papua new guinea - cuthbert , r . j and denny , m . j . h\nraffray ' s bandicoots have a distinct odor similar to aged cheddar cheese . the life expectancy of\nraffray ' s bandicoots are hunted and eaten by the natives of new guinea ( lawlor , 1979 ) .\nthis paper provides the first detailed description of the ecology of the kalubu bandicoot , echymipera kalubu , and observation on raffray ' s bandicoot , perorcytes raffrayanus , from a study in the eastern highlands region of papua new guinea . both are common species in png and are an important item of game for local people .\nthe raffray ' s bandicoot is listed as least concern ( lr / lc ) , lowest risk . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category , on the iucn red list of threatened species\nraffray ' s bandicoot is widespread throughout the highlands of new guinea ( indonesia and papua new guinea ) , and it is also found on yapen island ( flannery 1995a , b ) . it occurs from 60 to 3 , 900 m asl , though it is most common at around 1 , 000 m asl ( flannery 1995a ) .\nwalker ' s mammals of the world , vol . 1 , 5th ed .\nraffray ' s bandicoots have a short gestation period ( about 15 days ) , and their young mature rapidly , nursing for approximately 60 days . a true chorioallantoic placenta develops , as in all peramelidae ( vaughan , 1986 ) .\nare polyestrous , and usually have a litter of between one and six young . young raffray ' s bandicoots forage with their mothers for a few nights after weaning , then separate to lead a solitary life ( stonehouse , 1977 ) .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\nbuild ground nests of twigs , grass , and debris , often in thick vegetation . although most animals of the order peramelemorphia are territorial and solitary except during breeding seasons , female raffray ' s bandicoots have been observed nesting communally . males range widely over areas inhabited by several females . there is no association between the sexes until periods of estrus ( stonehouse , 1977 ) .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nraffray ' s bandicoots have an unpatterned , medium to dark brown coat and coarse fur . they are approximately 30 cm in length . their snout is long and narrow , and they have insectivore - like dentition , small ears , and a long non - prehensile tail . the hindfoot is highly specialized and elongated for running and hopping , with reduction in the number of digits in both the forefoot and hindfoot ( vaughan , 1986 ) .\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , lack of major threats , and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category .\nthe species occurs in montane and upper montane tropical moist forests , and montane grasslands . it is rarely found in secondary or regenerating forest , preferring undisturbed forest . animals have been recorded from secondary forests , but the species is fairly intolerant of habitat disturbance . the average litter size is one or two young ( flannery 1995a ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nusually inhabit undisturbed rainforest and are commonly found in a range of elevations from 850 - 1200 m . they also sometimes are found in higher and lower areas , with the exceptions of the woodlands and savannah of southern new guinea and extreme low - lying areas ( flannery , 1996 ) .\ncan be distinguished from other species of bandicoots by their smaller size , darker coloration , and lack of a white tail tip ( flannery , 1996 ) .\nrarely ventures into new forest or regrowth areas . they are creposcular , with most feeding taking place between 7 and 9 p . m . ( flannery , 1996 ) .\nis largely insectivorous and omnivorous , sometimes eating small vertebrates , invertebrates , and vegetation . mianmin hunters observe that the fruiting fig amomeam is a favored food ( flannery , 1996 ) .\nrothschildi , has been identified in the huon peninsula of new guinea ( flannery , 1996 ) .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\nthis terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains , either without vegetation or covered by low , tundra - like vegetation .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nislands that are not part of continental shelf areas , they are not , and have never been , connected to a continental land mass , most typically these are volcanic islands .\nflannery , t . 1996 . mammals of new guinea . robert brown and associates ptn . ltd . : carina qld , australia .\nlawlor , t . 1979 . handbook to the orders and families of living mammals . mad river press : eureka , california .\nstonehouse , b . , ed . ; gilmore , d . , ed . 1977 . the biology of maruspials . university park press : baltimore .\nto cite this page : kennedy , k . 1999 .\nperoryctes raffrayana\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30e9\u30d5\u30ec\u30fc\u30d0\u30f3\u30c7\u30a3\u30af\u30fc\u30c8\nto\nperoryctes raffrayana ( milne - edwards , 1878 )\n.\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nuudenguineanpusseli\nto\nperoryctes raffrayana ( milne - edwards , 1878 )\n.\nkari pihlaviita removed a common name in an unknown language from\nperoryctes raffrayana ( milne - edwards , 1878 )\n.\nkari pihlaviita added an unknown common name in an unknown language to\nperoryctes raffrayana ( milne - edwards , 1878 )\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 2nd ed . , 3rd printing\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vols . 1 & 2\npicture has been licensed under a creative commons attribution sharealike license original source : base map derived from file : blankmap - world . png . distribution data from iucn red list author : chermundy\n: we use the most recent data from these primary sources : who , world bank , unesco , cia and individual country databases for global health and causes of death .\nwe use the cdc , nih and individual state and county databases for verification and supplementation for usa data .\nthis translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations ."]}
{"id": 832, "summary": [{"text": "locusta migratoria migratorioides , commonly known as the african migratory locust , is a subspecies of the migratory locust ( l. migratoria ) in the family acrididae .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it occurs in most of africa south of the sahara desert , but its main breeding ground , and the original source of most plagues , is on the floodplains of the niger river in west africa .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "much of the time this locust adopts a solitary lifestyle , but under certain conditions it becomes gregarious ; the young nymphs , known as hoppers , form bands that move together and the adult insects form swarms that may reach plague proportions .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "plagues of this locust took place from 1891 to 1903 and again from 1928 to 1941 .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "after many years without outbreaks of the insects , further plagues occurred in the last two decades of the twentieth century . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "african migratory locust", "paragraphs": ["3 . taxonomy scientific name migratory locust : locusta migratoria tree locust : anacridium melanorhodon family : acrididae order : orthoptera 2 . tree locust1 . migratory locust tree locust migratory locust\nobjectives : to maintain on an international basis the preventive control of the african migratory locust and to extend such control to other species of migratory acrididae .\nin 1988 , african migratory locusts crossed the atlantic ocean and reached the american continent . but unlike migratory birds , which are capable of active navigation , the migratory locusts are mainly drifted by the wind .\nthe responses of the african migratory locust locusta migratoria migratorioides r . & f . to the chemical composition of the soil at oviposition .\nfig . 2 . distribution range of african migratory locust : outbreak area = red , invasion area = blue ; distribution range of tree locust = yellow .\n2 ) the organisation shall undertake research on the african migratory locust in order to determine the ecological factors involved in its multiplication and behaviour .\nspread of a migratory locust plague in madagascar . pp . 242 . in :\nplague and recession periods of the desert locust and of the malagasy migratory locust , 1880 - 2000 .\nprice re & brown hd ( 1992 ) . incubation and overwintering in the egg stage of the african migratory locust on the highveld of south africa .\nthe responses of the african migratory locust locusta migratoria migratorioides r . & f . to the chemical composition of the soil at oviposition . - pubmed - ncbi\nmigratory locust is not a prohibited or restricted invasive animal under the biosecurity act 2014 .\nrecent progress in desert and migratory locust management in africa . are preventative actions possible ?\n5 ) the organisation may , subject to prior approval by the council , extend its operations to any other outbreak areas of the african migratory locust that may be recognized .\n( c ) investigation of the conditions of life and of the habits of the african migratory locust , in order to define the factors determining the multiplication and phase transformations .\nare preventive actions possible ? recent progress in desert and migratory locust management in africa . . .\n, the most important and widely distributed sub - species of migratory locust in caucasus and central asia .\n( pdf ) recent progress in desert and migratory locust management in africa . are preventative actions possible ?\n( 1 ) the council shall undertake research on the african migratory locust and determine adequate methods for its control ; for these purposes it may employ such persons or organizations as it may choose .\neconomic importance : at low population densities , the migratory locust is a minor pest . although permanently solitariform in the eastern mediterranean , the behavior of occasional crowded populations is reminiscent of its gregariform subspecies , the african migratory locust , locusta migratoria migratorioides ( reiche and fairmaire ) , with which it can hybridize .\ndescamps , m . , mezzadri , d . : preliminary study of a focus of gregarization of the african migratory locust in the sudan area ( sikasso region , mali ) [ in french ] . locusta\nconvention regarding the supervision and preventive control of the african migratory locust , paris , may 15 , 1952 . cmd . 8820 . ( london : h . m . s . o . , 1952 . )\n1 ) an international administrative council for the surveillance and preventive control of the african migratory locust ( hereinafter referred to as the\ncouncil\n) is hereby established consisting of representatives designated by the contracting governments .\nthe convention on migratory species ( the bonn convention ) which provides for agreements between states to co - operate on the protection of species such as migratory raptors and waterbirds .\n3 . east african region\u2014ethiopia , djibouti , somali republic , sudan , kenya , tanzania and uganda .\na service provided by the locust and other migratory pests group to monitor the world - wide locust situation and keep affected countries and donors informed of expected developments .\n1 ) the organisation shall exercise continuous surveillance and preventive control of the african migratory locust in the outbreak area already recognized on the niger . such control operations shall include in particular the destruction of all concentrations of this locust which threaten to develop into incipient bands and swarms .\nour research group uses two different species of migratory locusts : the european migratory locust locusta migratoria and the african schistocerca gregaria . both are quite big animals with easily accessible neuromuscular structures . they are simple to handle and to breed and can be easily stimulated to move . due to the animals ' size their observation does not require considerable implementations .\npredation impact of cattle egret ( bubulcus ibis ) on migratory locust ( locusta migratoria capito ) and red locust ( nomadacris septemfasciata ) in south and southwest regions of madagascar .\n( 1 ) an international administrative council for the supervision and preventive control of the african migratory locust ( hereinafter referred to as the\ncouncil\n) is hereby established consisting of representatives designated by the contracting governments or the participating authorities , or both .\nsummary of provisions : ( a ) an international african locust organization ( art . 1 ) and an international administrative council for the surveillance and preventive control of the african migratory locust established ( art . 2 ) ; ( b ) the organization to maintain constant surveillance and control in the recognized outbreak area on the niger , to undertake research into the ecology of the locust and to develop the most economical methods of control ( art . 3 ) .\nby this convention there is established an organisation called \u201cthe international african locust organisation\nor in french\nl ' organisation internationale contre le criquet migrateur africain\n.\nproceedings of the 10th sarccus subcommittee for migratory pest control , windhoek , namibia 2 - 6 june 1997 .\nthis presentation about wild locust ( migratory locust ) . this ppt discuss the topic about taxonomy , life stages , life history , damage and controls contact email : mzeeshan _ 93 @ urltoken\n( 3 ) at the request of any participating authority whose territory is affected by the spreading beyond the outbreak areas of an invasion of the african migratory locust , the council shall assist in any measures that may become necessary for the destruction of swarms at the earliest possible stage .\n. some pictures of the recent migratory locust invasion in madagascar . swarms : a , b , c d , f ( photos m . lecoq ) and\nproceedings of the 7th sarccus subcommitteee for migratory pest control , mbabane , swaziland . 6 - 9th june , 1994 .\n. nationality , south african . schooling , durban and pretoria , qualifications : b . sc ( hons ) degree , rhodes university , grahamstown ( 1955 ) ; d . sc degree , university of stellenbosch ( 1964 ) . lifelong career as entomologist , specialising in locust and grasshopper research . internationally known acridologist specialising in southern african and madagascar locust management problems .\n5 . west african region\u2014chad , dahomey , cameroun , gambia , ivory coast , mali , mauritania , niger , senegal and upper volta .\nnative to australia , the migratory locust is a large , heavily built insect . its colour ranges from green or brown when solitary to straw - coloured when swarming .\nbarnes , o . l . : effects of food plants on the lesser migratory grasshopper . j . econ . ent .\nthere are three other plague species of locust in africa south of the sahara : the african migratory locust , the red locust and the brown locust . all these species have one important difference in common from the desert locust . whereas the desert locust can form large populations leading to plagues in several geographically separate parts of its distribution , the other african species have been shown to have more restricted outbreak areas . this knowledge has been used to prevent further plagues in the first two species by siting control organisations in or near the outbreak areas . these organisations have kept populations small and restricted . figure 7 compares the annual fluctuations in the number of countries infested from 18871 970 .\n( 2 ) the council shall exercise supervision and preventive control in outbreak areas already recognized or which will be recognized ; for this purpose one or more international services for the control of the african migratory locust ( hereinafter referred to as the\nservices\n) shall be created under the direction of the council .\nmigratory locusts are the world\u2019s most widespread locust species , and are found throughout africa , asia and australia . in australia , they are found primarily in queensland\u2019s central highlands , though smaller populations are found as far south as northern new south wales . swarms of migratory locusts damage pasture and crops .\nowing to the seasonal nature of locust outbreaks , control is undertaken by temporary staff . the low human population density , unoccupied farms and a vast breeding area of a quarter million square kilometres contribute to the fact that locusts can breed and mature unnoticed . furthermore , the development of irrigation areas close to the traditional breeding grounds of the brown locust and the african migratory locust has created a situation in which crop farmers also have problems with locust swarms .\nthe migratory locust is the most widespread locust species . they use to be common in europe but have died out and are currently found in africa , asia and australia . migratory locusts go through two phases : the solitary phase and the migratory phase . solitary larvae are green or brown and adults are brown with green markings , depending on the vegetation it feeds on . its wings are completely transparent . they often seek heated areas and colonize in steppes and savannahs with little or no tree cover . when stimulated , they change to the migratory phase . gregarious ( or migratory ) larvae are yellow with orange colors on their body covered by black spots . as adults they are brownish with yellow markings and are smaller than the solitary adults .\nalthough the desert locust is considered to be the most important species of locust due to its ability to migrate over large distances and rapidly increase its numbers , there are several other important species of locusts throughout the world : \u25e6 african migratory locust ( locusta migratoria migratorioides ) - africa ; \u25e6 oriental migratory locust ( locusta migratoria manilensis ) - south - east asia ; \u25e6 red locust ( nomadacris septemfasciata ) - eastern africa ; \u25e6 brown locust ( locustana pardalina ) - southern africa ; \u25e6 italian locust ( calliptamus italicus ) , from western europe to central asia ; \u25e6 moroccan locust ( dociostaurus maroccanus ) - north - west africa to asia ; \u25e6 bombay locust ( nomadacris succincta ) - south - west to south - east asia ; \u25e6 australian plague locust ( chortoicetes terminifera ) - australia ; \u25e6 tree locusts ( anacridium sp . ) - africa , mediterranean , near east .\nthere are 7 permanent habitat areas of migratory locust in the russian federation and in central asia countries , and the most active are balkhash - alakol lakes , amu darya river and , more recently northern caspian and dagestan regions . the migratory locust is a rather strict oligophagous , preferring wild grasses ( e . g . reed , couch - grass ) .\nserved as founder member on the southern african migratory pest control subcommittee of sadc / sarccus ( 1970 - 1997 ) . associate member transvaal museum ( 1987 - ) . since 1995 serving on fao pesticide referee group meetings in rome . technical advisor on locust trial protocols to the registrar of agricultural remedies ( act 36 / 1947 ) and scientific advisor on locust policy committee to the south african and mozambican national departments of agriculture and fisheries . invited guest speaker on numerous occasions at congresses , seminars and regional organisations like sadc / sarccus .\nthe main migrant pests which threaten food crops , are three species of locusts ( brown locust , african migratory locust , and red locust ) , a moth caterpillar - the african armyworm , and red - billed quelea birds . control of these pests before they become a serious problem is the major management strategy . another is to establish the current distribution and pest status , especially in the case of armyworm where the sudden appearance , rapid development and disappearance of the insect calls for quick action , so that the necessary preventive action can be taken immediately . effective cross - border communication is vital to containing outbreaks .\nkrall s ( 1994 ) importance of locusts and grasshoppers for african agriculture and methods for determining crop losses . in krall s , wilps h ( eds ) new trends in locust control . ro\u00dfdorf : tz - verl - ges\nwaloff z ( 1976 ) some temporal characteristics of desert locust plagues . anti - locust memoir no . 13 . anti - locust research centre , london , uk .\nbullen ft ( 1969 ) the distnbution of the damage potential of the desert locust ( schistocerca gregaria forsk ) j . anti - locust memoir 10 , anti - locust research centre , london\nthe israeli migratory locust population is similar to another population that is established in irrigated localities in central arabia . solitariform l . migratoria may occur in low numbers on field crops and grasses during summer and autumn in israel , disappearing in winter .\nwaloff , z . : the upsurges and recessions of the desert locust plague : an historical survey . anti - locust mem .\nwaloff z ( 1966 ) the upsurges and recessions of the desert locust plague : an historical survey . anti - locust memoir no . 8 . anti - locust research centre , london , uk .\nsouth africa ' s international obligations stem , in the first instance , from its responsibility to neighbouring states . swarms of migratory locusts , particularly the brown locust , are endemic to the arid regions of south africa and could cause crop and pasture losses in neighbouring states . should such a situation occur , south africa would have no alternative but to take preventative measures in the interest of maintaining its relations and fostering economic co - operation with other southern african countries .\nfew studies have examined the impacts of anti - locust insecticides on the african environment . however , it has been ascertained through studies in mali , sudan , morocco , and senegal that have determined that terrestrial and aquatic life could , depending on the insecticide , be adversely affected .\nprovincial conservation authorities and departments of agriculture must assist with the management of the locust problem by monitoring and reporting locust outbreaks within their regions .\nkrall s . , herok c . ( 1997 ) economics of desert locust control . in : new strategies in locust control . birkh\u00e4user basel\n( en ) since 1997 , madagascar suffers from a major invasion of the migratory locust that developed from the outbreak area located in the southwest of the country . significant outbreaks of the red locust also required many control measures . since 1998 the responsibility of the control operations was transferred from the department of plant protection to the\nnational committee for locust control\n. . . [ show full abstract ]\nnorth african winter . a cold 1988 - 1989 winter in north africa stopped the expected eastward movement of swarms along the mediterranean coast before they could turn south with northerly spring winds to the breeding areas of the northern sahel .\nlocust control in africa has been the focus of considerable controversy over the last 15 yean . many aspects were called into question following the last large plagues of 1987 - 88 ( desert locust ) and 1996 - 2000 ( malagasy migratory locust ) , starting with the hitherto recommended preventive strategy , along with the environmental impact of insecticides used , and even the real socioeconomic . . . [ show full abstract ]\nmigratory locust is not a prohibited or restricted invasive animal under the biosecurity act 2014 . however , by law , everyone has a general biosecurity obligation ( gbo ) to take reasonable and practical steps to minimise the risks associated with invasive plants and animals under their control .\nshowler , a . t . 1995a . desert locust control , public health , and environmental sustainability in north africa , pp . 217 - 239 . in w . d . swearingen & a . bencherifa [ eds . ] , the north african environment at risk . westview press , boulder , co .\nthe group termed\nmigratory locusts\nconsists of only about 10 species within the 20000 species of locusts worldwide . so they comprise only a small minority of locusts , but of course an important one .\nthe term\nmigratory locust\ndoes not indicate a systematic but a biological description . consequently , a great variety of more or less related species were labelled with this term . the common denominator of these species is their ability to form large swarms and to override large distances .\n4 ) the organisation may also be entrusted with surveillance , research and preventive control relating to all other species of migratory acrididae of which bands or swarms may be formed in the outbreak area on the niger .\nheifetz , y . , applebaum , s . w . , and popov , g . b . 1994 . phase characteristics of the israeli population of the migratory locust , locusta migratoria ( l . ) ( orthoptera : acrididae ) . journal of orthoptera research 2 : 15 - 20 .\ntable 2 : year wise locust upsurge data of india from 1963 to 2012 .\naccepted scientific research methodology must be adhered to in locust - control research programmes .\nmonitoring of the locust situation should be done by all states within the sadc .\nbrown hd & kieser me ( 1997 ) . locust control with deltamethrin . in\ndiallo d . ( eds ) . new strategies in locust control . birkh\u00e4user ,\njoffe s . 1995 . desert locust management : a time for change . world\npeveling r . , ba diallo d . ( eds ) new strategies in locust\npopov g . b . 1997 . atlas of desert locust breeding habitats . food\nba diallo d . ( eds ) new strategies in locust control . birkh\u00e4user ,\n( serville ) , in tanganyika and northern rhodesia . anti - locust bull .\nthe discovery of \u2018outbreak areas\u2019 of several species of locusts , and the influence of these discoveries on the setting up and organization of preventive control , have been described by uvarov 1 . for the african migratory locust , locusta migratoria migratorioides ( r . and f . ) , the outbreak area , first indicated by lean 2 , was defined in detail at the fifth international anti - locust conference 3 in 1938 . it has since been assumed that outbreaks of this species originate in this circumscribed area in which both population - increases and phase - transformation occur . on the basis of this information , a permanent international preventive control organization was formed 4 .\nknown for introducing innovative field management technologies for locust control in southern africa , compatible with global priorities . has field experience with 5 locusts ( ie . brown locust ,\nlocust survey and control are primarily the responsibility of the ministry of agriculture in locust affected countries and are operations undertaken by national locust units . there are also several regional locust organizations that assist with survey and control operations . during times of outbreaks and plagues , external assistance from the donor community and other international organizations is usually required .\nsolitarious adult occur at low density or individually , starts flying after dusk on warm evening and can migrate long distances during night . during day time they fly or flush only when disturbed and fly low , settle quickly , eats it own weight of food per day ( about 2 . 5 gm ) and are generally bigger than its gregarious counterparts . the desert locust has no fixed or static outbreak area where a swarming population can be observed and controlled , as in the case of the red locust and the african migratory locust . on the contrary , the desert locust is able to breed , when suitable conditions prevail , in any part of its distribution area . the desert locust is one of the most difficult insects to control on a national basis due to the vastness of its distribution area , pronounced adaptability to utilize wide range of environmental conditions , migratory nature and the potential ability of swarms to fly thousands of kilometers , and the speed at which they can move from one part to another . thus the presence of swarms in any country is a threat to other countries , even though these countries may be thousands of kilometers away from the source of invasion . this fact calls for the importance of international cooperation in desert locust control .\nregular outbreaks of migrant pests annually threaten the food security of the member countries of the southern african development community ( sadc ) , such as angola , botswana , drc , lesotho , namibia , malawi , mozambique , south africa , swaziland , tanzania , zambia and zimbabwe .\na gregarizing factor present in the egg pod foam of the desert locust schistocerca gregaria .\ndesert locust threat in the sahel 2012 - informal donors ' meeting presentatio . . .\nparties involved in locust control can be held liable for damage caused by control operations .\nsteedman a ( ed ) ( 1990 ) locust handbook . chatham : natural resources institute\nfao . 1994 . desert locust guidelines ( five volumes ) . rome : fao .\nferent from that of the desert locust ( fig . 2 ) ( see lecoq 1995\nkrall s . , wilps h . 1994 . new trends in locust control . deutsche\nroffey , j . : the build up of the present desert locust plague . pans\nthe desert locust remains a major threat for food safety and social stability , in particular for many rural populations living from an agriculture at high climatic risk . to control the invasions represents a high cost for the affected countries , the international community and a threat for the environment . fao and its locust and others migratory pests group play , at the international level , an . . . [ show full abstract ]\nhas worked in the field in 13 different african countries and additionally in madagascar . 40 publications to date , encompassing taxonomy , biology , ecology , chemical control , product evaluation , alternative control strategies ( baiting & use of bio - insecticides ) , mapping and forecasting locust outbreaks . technology transfer and dissemination of locust management information carried out on behalf of fao , sadc / sarccus , usaid , gtz and danida international organisations , serving as training facilitator in botswana , mozambique and namibia . has carried out consultancies for botswana , namibia , south african and malagasy governments together with numerous multi - national chemical companies . earlier experience for doctoral project included biological control and integrated pest management of wheat aphids in cereal crops in the free state province .\ncompeting pressures . outbreaks of the senegalese grasshopper across the sahel compounded the challenges posed by the desert locust plague . the sahel is periodically threatened by drought and pests , and conservation of its subsistence agriculture was imperative . similarly , north african national economies depend heavily on agricultural production ; the locust plague placed their subsistence and valuable export crops at risk . also , because north africa did not harbor major breeding areas , efforts were aimed at crop protection there .\ncontrol in north africa . swarms were controlled in north africa before they could breed and move on to the sahel . north african countries had more resources for locust control than most other locust affected countries and did not experience simultaneous grasshopper outbreaks . in the fall of 1988 alone , about one million ha were sprayed in morocco ; by november up to 81 , 0000 ha were being treated per day . algerian and tunisian control operations eliminated those swarms that escaped .\nlocust swarm in southern spain , autumn 2004 . picture provided by alvaro molina , spain .\nsymmons p ( 1992 ) strategies to combat the desert locust . crop protection 11 : 206\u2013212\nfao 1968 . desert locust project . final report . report no . fao / sf :\nherok c . a . , krall s . 1995 . economics of desert locust control .\nmanagement of the desert locust . pp . 19 . in : aaai ( ed . )\nstrategy for the control of the desert locust . pp . 467 - 473 . in :\n( 2 ) the authorities of any other territory in africa affected by the african migratory locust may be invited jointly by the signatory governments to become a participating authority by an invitation addressed through the diplomatic channel to the government responsible for the international relations of the said territory . if the said government accepts the invitation , it shall accede to the present convention so far as concerns the aforesaid territory by means of a notification addressed to the government of the french republic and the said government shall become a party to the present convention and the appropriate authorities of the aforementioned territory shall become a participating authority as from the date of receipt of that notification .\na pronounced desert locust outbreak began in late 1992 along the red sea coastal plains of sudan and eritrea following several years of drought . swarms that escaped control moved across the red sea to the tihama region of yemen and saudi arabia where breeding conditions also were favorable . during the next three months , desert locust populations increased on both sides of the red sea coast and swarms then moved to southeastern egypt . swarms from the red sea coastal lowlands moved to and bred in saudi arabia ' s interior . in may and june , 1993 , locust populations in eritrea , sudan , and yemen developed into a serious outbreak , and swarms from sudan ' s coast moved to the interior of that country where breeding continued . to complicate matters , there were concurrent outbreaks of african migratory locusts in ethiopia and northern somalia , and tree locusts in sudan and eritrea .\nprice re & brown hd ( 1997 ) . locust control by means of selective baiting . in\nbrown hd ( 1997 ) . the reappearance of the red locust in southern africa during 1996 .\nthere are basically four approaches to locust control , not all of which are desirable or practical .\nin : krall s . , wilps h . ( eds ) new trends in locust control :\nkrall s . , herok c . , 1997 . economics of desert locust control . pp .\nkrall s . , peveling r . , ba diallo d . 1997 . new strategies in locust\ns . , peveling r . , ba diallo d . ( eds ) new strategies in locust\nsymmons p . 1997 . desert locust control strategies . pp . 445 - 452 . in :\nrainey rc ( 1963 ) meteorology and the migration of desert locusts . applications of synoptic meteorology in locust control . anti - locust memoir no . 7 . anti - locust research centre , london , uk , and wmo technical note . no . 54 . world meteorological organization , geneva , switzerland .\nfigure 1 : the invasion and recession areas of the desert locust ( after waloff , 1966 ) .\nkrall s . , peveling r . , ba diallo d . ( eds ) new strategies in locust\ndesert locust threat to agricultural development and food security and fao / international role in its . . .\nuvarov bp ( 1937 ) biological and ecological basis of locust phases and their practical application . proceedings 4th international locust conference , cairo , 1936 , appendix 7 . government press , bul\u00e2q , cairo , egypt .\n2 . 6 any person who executes locust control must be in possession of a certificate issued by the national department of agriculture , which certifies that he / she has successfully completed a course in locust control .\nlocust swarms can vary from less than one square kilometre to several hundred square kilometres . there can be at least 40 million and sometimes as many as 80 million locust adults in each square kilometre of swarm .\nthe migratory locust is mainly graminivorous , occupying the grass cover near the ground . river , lake and sea banks with plantings of reeds and sedges , particularly phragmites communis , form its main habitat . such regions are often surrounded by steppe and desert areas . most outbreak areas are in the deltas of rivers flowing into the black , caspian and aral seas and into lake balkash , the danube delta being the most westerly one for this sub - species . it is known to fly at night . most migratory flights are local and oviposition takes place in same general area but occasionally , depending on weather conditions , massive movement of swarms occurs , spreading over hundreds of kilometres into the surrounding territories .\ntsyplenkov e . p . 1970 . locust pests in the ussr . leningrad : kolos . 272 pp .\nlocust control should support sustainable agriculture and therefore take into account the environment , human resources and economic constraints .\ndecisions on locust - management procedures must be made as close as possible to the beneficiaries and affected parties .\nfig . 1 . distribution range of desert locust : green = recession area , yellow = outbreak area .\nstudies on insect growth regulators for locust control , especially diflubenzuron ( dimilin ) , are being carried out .\ngunn , d . l . : the biological background of locust control . ann . rev . ent .\nvesey - fitzgerald , d . f . : the vegetation of the outbreak areas of the red locust ,\nthere have been attempts to characterize crop losses due to locusts on national or regional levels based upon hard cash harvest profits , then to arrive at the conclusion that losses are not important enough to warrant control operations . analysis of cash economics , however , is incomplete without reflecting upon the inestimable value of the subsistence farmer and the subsistence agrarian society , ramifications of damage to pastureland and fodder ( e . g . , defoliation of fodder trees ) , and the expense of additional food aid from the international donor community . care must also be taken to avoid separating the cost of locust damage from other factors that are often associated with , or even linked to , locust inflicted injury . such factors ( e . g . , drought , striga , stalkborers , grasshoppers , concurrent outbreaks of other locusts [ e . g . , african migratory , tree , and moroccan locusts ] , armyworm , and quelea birds ) compound or are compounded by locust damage ( showler 1995c ) .\na general descriptive chronology of locust movements is presented ( it is too cumbersome to provide such a chronology for the 1986 - 1989 plague ) in the following paragraphs to illustrate some ways in which locust population dynamics work .\naccording to article 8 of the agricultural pests act of 1983 ( act no . 36 of 1983 ) , the minister of agriculture can , with funding provided by parliament , adopt certain measures to control migratory locusts , hoppers and eggs . the minister delegated these functions to officials in his department in 1985 .\nthe agricultural pests act , 1983 ( act no . 36 of 1983 ) should be reviewed and amended in order to facilitate the implementation of the proposed policy , enable the publication of control measures ( annexure a ) , and incorporate the control of other migratory pests to give protection to all relevant parties .\ncontrolling desert locust outbreaks and plagues with insecticides can , of course , pose environmental hazards . in particular , reactive campaigns are neither economically desirable nor environmentally advisable . insecticide applications occur throughout a gradient of ecosystems : xeric desert , lush coastal hills , fertile mediterranean flatlands , wetlands , islands , mountains , steppes , wadis ( riverbeds ) , and oases . habitat destruction for african flora and fauna from overgrazing , deforestation , and other unsustainable practices has caused ecological disruption that could be compounded by massive emergency insecticide applications . some environments are particularly vulnerable to the introduction of toxins , especially coastal wetlands , wadis , and oases which provide critical habitats for migratory avian species in addition to more stationary indigenous species . wildlife is at risk because it cannot be excluded from sprayed areas .\n11 . it may also be noted that after the upsurge of 1978 the frequency of upsurges is declining and the period when the desert locust population did not increase to such level as to warrant any control increasing from 1 year to seven years . the upsurges during 1986 to 1990 , 1993 and in 1997 may have developed from swarm incursion from the west when the desert locust infestations were present in middle east and african countries and that india lies on the last lag of eastern breeding ground . these upsurges were promptly controlled by using organo - chlorine and organo - phosphate insecticides .\naelga ' s regional training courses generally involve an appropriate mixture of foreign ( non - african instructors ) and african experts to teach trainees from a variety of countries in a particular region . for example , in the fall of 1995 , aelga held a regional training with the international center for insect physiology and ecology ( icipe ) in nairobi , kenya , for two scientists from each of the following countries : egypt , tanzania , eritrea , ethiopia , kenya , somalia , uganda , yemen , and sudan . the course , on how to explore for , isolate , characterize , rear , formulate , and develop regulations for biological control agents , involved trainers from canada , the usa , kenya , and icipe .\na gregarizing factor present in the egg pod foam of the desert locust schistocerca gregaria . | journal of experimental biology\nmanagement of the locust problem must be transparent and the parties involved in the management process must be held accountable .\ndriver supervisors must attend the official training programme before they may be employed for the locust - control programme . only pesticides registered under act no . 36 of 1947 and approved application equipment are used for locust - control operations .\nthe commando or a similar system must be maintained and upgraded according to policy guidelines for controlling the locust problem .\nregional depots should be autonomous regarding the technology and administration at their disposal to implement effective locust - control measures .\ndesert locust forecasting . pp . 27 - 36 . in : krall s . , peveling r . , ba\nill - defined responsibilities . some sahelian countries showed little capacity for intervening in their remote northern breeding areas , arguing that breeding did not immediately threaten their own crops . such breeding , however , did pose an immediate threat to neighboring countries . adjacent countries , however , usually were not allowed to conduct cross - border survey and control operations . in particular , north african concerns for their high value cash crops arose from vulnerability to locust invasions emanating from breeding areas in the sahel .\nthe current role of organised agriculture is limited to the nomination of three individuals in a locust district , of whom one is appointed by the executive officer as district locust control officer ( dlco ) for a period of three years .\nthe national monitoring system and database regarding the occurrence of locusts and size of swarms in south africa are managed by the district locust - control officers . the information collected is analysed in south africa by the plant protection research institute of the agricultural research council and sent to neighbouring states within the southern african development community ( sadc ) . an early warning system is being developed jointly by the university of the witwatersrand and the institute for climate , soil and water of the agricultural research council .\nas a rule , the migration of l . migratoria is more limited than that of the desert locust , schistocerca gregaria ( forskal ) . isolated migratory locusts fly at night , whereas crowded adults fly mainly by day . isolated locusts have 1 - 2 more larval instars than individuals in crowded populations , but this does not prolong their development , which is more rapid than when crowded . in consequence locusts in crowded populations raise fewer generations .\n- food security program in madagascar ) . this map of the southern part of the island depicts areas that received locust\nnymph bands are the best targets for ground spraying using agricultural chemicals . migratory locusts readily form nymph bands , which can best be seen early morning and late afternoon from the air or from raised areas . large nymph bands can be sprayed with boom sprays . isolated and small areas can be sprayed using misting machines or knapsack sprayers .\none of the two major forms of migratory locusts . the swarms can only form into a swarm when the animals are in their\ngregarious\nphase . normally , the locusts live\nsolitarily\nand only meet by accident or when searching a mate . but certain conditions lead to an outbreak and a formation of such large swa\nother countries do not pass on timely information about locust activities . in most cases , cross border operations are not permitted . for example , it is very unlikely that mali or niger would allow the crop protection service of algeria to operate within their border ( though this has occurred nonetheless when algeria conducted control operations just inside the malian border during the 1986 - 1989 plague . one the other hand , regional locust survey and control organizations are allowed to operate wherever they are invited ( within their mandate countries ) . the force maghrebine , composed of north african and mauritanian teams , has carried out survey and control in mali .\none of the mandates of the food and agriculture organization ( fao ) of the united nations is to provide information on the general locust situation to all interested countries and to give timely warnings and forecasts to those countries in danger of invasion . therefore , fao operates a centralized desert locust information service within the locust group at fao headquarters , rome , italy . all locust affected countries transmit locust data to fao who in turn analyze this information in conjunction with weather and habitat data and satellite imagery in order to assess the current locust situation , provide forecasts up to six weeks in advance and issue warnings on an ad - hoc basis . fao prepares monthly bulletins and periodic updates summarizing the locust situation and forecasting migration and breeding on a country by country basis . these are distributed by email , fax , and post . all locust information is archived at fao headquarters and some of this is available on the internet . furthermore , fao provides training and prepares publications on various aspects of locusts . fao undertakes field assessment missions and coordinates survey and control operations as well as assistance during locust plagues .\nthe sterile insect technique has successfully eradicated tse - tse fly from zanzibar and successfully applied against a number of other fruit fly , moth and screwworm pests . this technology could not be applied for desert locust control due to the life cycle of the desert locust , its vast breeding ground areas and its ability to migrate long distances . the biopesticide developed from entomopathogenic fungus metarhizium acridum used for desert locust particularly hopper control in africa and australia has not been used in india for locust control .\nyou are going to email the following a gregarizing factor present in the egg pod foam of the desert locust schistocerca gregaria .\nb ) to invite any individual or representative of an anti - locust research organisation to attend its meetings as a consultant .\nmagor ji , ceccato p , dobson h . m , pender j , ritchie l et al . ( 2007 ) preparedness to prevent desert locust plagues in the central region : an historical review . desert locust technical series , no . 35 .\nlocust outbreaks must be reported in accordance with the agricultural pests act , 1983 ( act no . 36 of 1983 ) .\nalthough the national department of agriculture has a responsibility in terms of locust control , it remains the responsibility of the land user to report locust concentrations and to be of assistance during control operations , as stipulated by act no . 36 of 1983 .\nall parties must participate in controlling the locust problem to avoid conflict between agriculturists and the general public or the conservation community .\ngunn , d . l . , symmons , p . m . : forcasting locust outbreaks . nature ( lond . )\nwith or without national or regional control organizations , outbreaks became less frequent in many regions or disappeared altogether , because agricultural development destroyed the locusts ' breeding habitats . in china , this breeding habitat was eliminated after a massive engineering scheme to reclaim the flood plain between the yellow and yangtze rivers for irrigated cropping ( chen et al . , 1981 ; farrow , 1984 ) . however , routine monitoring of this region for migratory locust is still carried out . in southern mindanao , transmigration and the development of multi - cropping systems also led to the demise of the grassland habitats of migratory locust in cotobato ( roffey , 1972 ; farrow , 1974a ) . similar developments occurred in other areas , like the central niger flood plain and the deltas of the volga and danube rivers . nevertheless , outbreaks of l . migratoria have continued to arise unpredictably at widely separated locations as a result of other human activities that encourage the formation of grasslands .\nplagues of desert locust , schistocerca gregaria ( f\u00f6rskal ) , have been recognized as a threat to agricultural production in africa and western asia for thousands of years . locust scourges are referred to in the christian bible and the islamic koran , and in some places , locust plagues have been held responsible for epidemics of human pathogens , such as cholera ( this is because of the massive quantities of decomposing locust cadavers that would accumulate on beaches after swarms flew out to sea and drowned ) . published accounts of locust invasions in north africa date back to about ad 811 , but more precise records were apparently not kept until the twentieth century ( showler 1993 ) . since then , it is known that desert locust plagues have occurred sporadically up until the present .\n. . . most recent largescale outbreaks of it occurred in 1986 - 1989 and in 2003 - 2005 , mostly on the african continent [ 4 ] . current locust control operations are mainly based on organophosphorus pesticides as a result of the banning of organochlorines [ 5 ] . the widespread use of such synthetic pesticides has considerable drawbacks , such as the development of insect resistance to insecticides , increased costs , handling hazards , concerns about insecticide residues , and great threats to both human and environmental health [ 6 ] . . . .\na locust outbreak or upsurge is the vaguely defined transition from the innocuous solitary phase to the plague stage which can be localized or cross - regional . during plagues , locust swarms and bands are found on an interregional scale and originate from a number of breeding areas as part of a widespread but interrelated locust breeding and migrating dynamic that can continue for years ( showler 1995b ) .\n5 . information on desert locust migration was not made available to neighboring countries as most of them were not on good terms .\nthis document should be used by all interested parties as the accepted policy for the management of the locust problem in south africa .\nherok c . krall s ( 1995 ) economics of desert locust control . ro\u00dfdorf : tz - verl - ges , 70 pp\na - countries where locust survey and / or control were limited by armed conflict . b - some areas inaccessible because of land mines . c - eritrea was not independent from ethiopia in the 1980s . d - locust invasions occurred but were not sprayed .\nchitin is the most important constituent of the cuticle or exoskeleton of the desert locust . the production of chitin is a continuous process and increases throughout the life of a desert locust , varying from about 1 . 7 % ( of fresh weight of a locust ) during the hopper stage to 2 . 2 % in the young adult and 4 % in a two month old adult .\nthe red locust is found in the sahara desert in africa . they are also known as the ' criquet nomade ' because of its seasonal movement and called the red locust because of the color of its hind wings . the overall color of the red locust is beige and brown . they are never green . red locusts have several clear brown bands on its body . often mistaken for the bird locust , they seek moisture rich environments in seasonal flood plains and grassy lowlands . during swarming , they slowly fly with the wind during daylight hours . the female red locust can produce 70 - 90 eggs that are laid at night in sandy soil .\nduring pre - independence days , each of the princely states and provinces in india had a different administrative set up of its own and it was not possible to put up a common front against locust . there was no coordinated policy or a central coordination organization to destroy locusts , though sporadic attempts were made in restricted areas in a few states or provinces . there was no joint or concerted anti - locust action by all concerned and heavy losses to crops and other vegetation , leading or contributing to serious famines resulted . following the desert locust plague of 1926 - 31 the imperial council of agricultural research sponsored a scheme of research on the desert locust in 1931 . after the termination of the locust scheme in 1939 , the govt . of india established a permanent locust warning organisation with a nucleus staff under the supervision of the then imperial entomologist to the govt . of india . the main functions of the then locust warning organisation were to survey the locust habitats in the desert , issue warning to the states likely to be affected by locusts and to assist them in carrying out control operation in the event of the locust attack . locust control at that time was entirely the responsibility of the local governments even in the desert areas . in october 1946 , with the establishment of the directorate of plant protection , quarantine and storage under the ministry of agriculture , government of india , at new delhi , the locust warning organization was strengthened .\nupsurges are periods in which a widespread and very large increase in locust numbers initiates contemporaneous outbreaks followed by two or more successive seasons of transiens - to - gregarious breeding that occupies an expanding area in complementary breeding areas in the same or neighbouring desert locust regions .\nthe cycles in which locust swarms occur in pest proportions vary between seven and 11 years ( average eight years ) . swarm - free seasons may , however , occur during this period . during the dormant periods , locust populations may , however , erupt sporadically .\nthe policy committee realises that locust control in south africa must be executed cost effectively , with dedication and in an environmentally responsible way .\nlea , a . : natural regulation and artificical control of brown locust numbers . j . ent . soc . s . afr .\npedgley , d . e . , symmons , p . m . : weather and the locust upsurge . weather ( lond . )\nsimpson sj ( 1999 ) a behavioural analysis of phase change in the desert locust . biol rev camb philos soc 74 : 461 - 480\nfao ( 2001d ) appendices by k cressman & hm dobson . desert locust guidelines , vol . 7 . fao , rome , italy .\nvan huis a ( 1994 ) can we combat the desert locust successfully0 proc seminar wageningen , netherlands , 6 - 11 dec 1993 . 11\u201317\npedgley , d . ( ed ) . 1981 . desert locust forecasting manual . london : centre for overseas pest research . 268 pp .\nsteedman , a . ( ed ) . 1990 . locust handbook ( 3rd edition ) . chatham : natural resources institute . 204 pp .\nglobally , about 64 countries representing 20 % of land surface ( approximately 30 million square kilometers ) is subject to ravages of the desert locust during plague period . during recession when desert locust population occurs at low densities infestation is confined to 16 million square kilometers arid areas in 30 countries of north africa , middle east and northwest india . these countries were subjected to periodical invasions of locust swarms which attacked almost all varieties of natural and cultivated vegetation often resulting in famines and immense economic losses . locust invasions are dramatic , sudden , cover large areas in a short period and almost all green in their path is destroyed . it is the destructive potential which is dreaded as locusts come so suddenly in such large numbers and swarm across international boundaries and due to this reason locust invasion attract so much public attention and cause international concern . locusts are invertebrate animals with highly migratory habits , marked polymorphism and voracious feeding behavior . they are able to take rapid advantage of the climate and geography can survive in temperature range from 0 degree to 60 degree and can speed up or slow down their life cycle .\na service provided by the plant production and protection division ( agp ) to monitor locust situations in caucasus and central asia and keep partners informed .\na desert locust swarm can be 460 square miles in size and pack between 40 and 80 million locusts into less than half a square mile ."]}
{"id": 835, "summary": [{"text": "the dsinezumi shrew ( crocidura dsinezumi ) , also known as the japanese white-toothed shrew , is a species of musk shrew found in japan and on korea 's jeju island .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is widespread , and considered to be of \" least concern \" by the iucn .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "there has been a successful effort to breed c. dsinezumi as a laboratory animal . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "dsinezumi shrew", "paragraphs": ["the domestication of crocidura dsinezumi as a new laboratory animal . - pubmed - ncbi\nmanuel ruedi , tiziano maddalena , peter vogel , y . obara ; systematic and biogeographic relationships of the japanese white - toothed shrew ( crocidura dsinezumi ) , journal of mammalogy , volume 74 , issue 3 , 20 august 1993 , pages 535\u2013543 , urltoken\nshowing page 1 . found 0 sentences matching phrase\ndsinezumi shrew\n. found in 0 ms . translation memories are created by human , but computer aligned , which might cause mistakes . they come from many sources and are not checked . be warned .\nthe dsinezumi shrew ( crocidura dsinezumi ) , a small insectivore , has been bred for the first time as a laboratory animal . the original animals were captured using sherman ' s live traps and transferred into wooden cages . after several generations they were housed in plastic cages . their diet consisted of trout pellets , cat food , and water provided ad libitum . monogamous pairs were housed together for 2 - 3 weeks for mating , and the male was separated from the female during delivery and nursing . in captivity , the reproductive activity was observed throughout the year and the gestation period was estimated at 28 - 30 days with a litter size of between 1 and 4 pups . pups grew very rapidly , and reached adult body size ( mean : male , 9 . 7 g ; female , 8 . 3 g ) and sexual maturation at 6 - 8 weeks of age . the reproductive life was estimated at one and a half years , while the longevity was approximately 2 years .\ncomments : the spelling of the name was clarified by corbet ( 1978b ) and motokawa ( 1999 ) ; dsinezumi was placed on the official list of specific names ; see the international commission on zoological nomenclature ( 1983 ) . includes chisai , but not quelpartis and orii ; see corbet ( 1978c ) and iwasa et al . ( 2001 ) . the taxon hosletti described by jameson and jones ( 1977 ) from taiwan is now included in c . shantungensis ( see jiang and hoffmann , 2001 ) . geographic variation of japanese populations studied by motok . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern as the species is common and widespread , and there are no major threats .\nthis species is endemic to japan . it is found on honshu , shikoku , kyushu , mishima island , oki islands , sado island , izu islands , tane island , yaku island , nakanoshima island ( tokara islands ) , okinoshima island ( fukuoka prefecture ) and other small islands in japan . populations on hokkaido and cheju island ( republic of korea ) are introduced from northern honshu and northern kyushu , respectively ( ohdachi et al . 2004 ) . it occurs from sea level up to less than 1 , 000 m asl .\nit is found along river banks , waterfronts , and in bushes around cultivated lands at low - lying elevations ( abe et al . 2005 ) .\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t40627a115176222 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nmammalogists for helping to forge the nomenclatural mesh that holds our science together . * journal of mammalogy * to refer to this work as a checklist undervalues it and does not give sufficient credit to the authors and editors for their meticulous efforts in its production . a valuable reference work and a vital tool , particularly for researchers . * journal of natural history * by far the most convenient source for finding the correct scientific name of any mammal and should be on the reference shelf of libraries striving to have useful science sections . * science books and films * the editors and authors are to be congratulated for undertaking such an outstanding and authoritative work , and it should serve as a standard reference for mammalian species taxonomy for many years to come . * journal of mammalian evolution * the third edition adds to its reputation as an outstanding and authorative work . * national museum of natural history weekly update & forecast * impressive and elegant work . - - g . r . seamons * reference reviews * a must - have text for any professional mammalogist , and a useful and authoritative reference for scientists and students in other disciplines . * southeastern naturalist * a magnificent work important to anyone seriously interested in mammals . this work is essential for academic or special libraries supporting zoology or conservation and for large public libraries . * american reference books annual * as were many of our colleagues , we were waiting for this revised edition since 2003 . . . we can say that the wait was worth it . - - sergio solari and robert j . baker * journal of mammalogy *\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\njapan . honshu , shikoku , kyushu and several adjacent islands : sadogashima , awashima , oki islands , izu islands ( toshima , niijima , and shikinejima is . ) , mishima , goto islands , osumi islands ( yakushima , tanegashima , and kuchinoerabujima is . ) , tokara islands ( kuchinoshima and nakanoshima is .\nriver banks , bushes around cultivated fields in lowland and low montane regions ( < 1780m alt . )\ncheju is . ( south korea ) . dna sequence data suggested that the origin of the cheju population is somewhere in western japan .\nohdachi et al . ( eds ) ( 2009 ) the wild mammals of japan . shokado , kyoto .\nohdachi et a . ( 2004 ) molecular phylogenetics of crocidura shrews ( insectivora ) in east and central asia . j mammal . 85 , 396 - 403 .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nohno k 1 , niwa y , kato s , koyasu k , oda s , kondo k .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 2nd ed . , 3rd printing\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vols . 1 & 2\nwith contributions by bernadette n . graham , adam p . potter , and mariana m . upmeyer\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\ncookies help us deliver our services . by using our services , you agree to our use of cookies .\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\nyou could not be signed in . please check your email address / username and password and try again .\nmost users should sign in with their email address . if you originally registered with a username please use that to sign in .\nto purchase short term access , please sign in to your oxford academic account above .\noxford university press is a department of the university of oxford . it furthers the university ' s objective of excellence in research , scholarship , and education by publishing worldwide\nfor full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription ."]}
{"id": 841, "summary": [{"text": "the corsican giant shrew ( asoriculus corsicanus ) is an extinct shrew from the island of corsica .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is only known from fossil remains such as the ones from \" teppa di lupino \" in north corsica .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the reasons for the extinction for this poorly known species remain unknown , but competition with other shrews , as well as introduced goats might have played a role .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it died out sometime between 2.5 and 6 thousand years ago .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the corsican giant shrew was initially described by dorothea bate as nesiotites corsicanus in 1945 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "in 1999 , zoologist jan van der made from the museo nacional de ciencias naturales , spain assigned it to the genus asoriculus . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "corsican giant shrew", "paragraphs": ["have a fact about corsican giant shrew ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for corsican giant shrew ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nshowing page 1 . found 0 sentences matching phrase\ncorsican giant shrew\n. found in 0 ms . translation memories are created by human , but computer aligned , which might cause mistakes . they come from many sources and are not checked . be warned .\nthe corsican giant shrew ( asoriculus corsicanus ) is an extinct shrew from the island of corsica . it is only known from fossil remains from ` teppa di lupino ` in north corsica . the reasons for the extinction for this poorly known species remain unknown , but competition with other shrews , as well as introduced goats might have played a role . it die . . . . .\nis simply a giant list of emojis that can be used on facebook . it is also searchable , so you can quickly find what you ' re looking for .\n\u0092\u00fbi\u00feu\u00e3n\u00bf\u00e5 = \u00f8 _ \u00ff ) \u00ea _ \u00fd\u00ea { \u00f7\u00ef s\u00f8\u007f\u00fb\u00ff\u00dfi\u00f2\u00f6\u00ef\u00ff\u00efl\u00a7\u00fe\u00eb\u00ee\u00bb } \u00fa\u00ea\u00fa ] \u00ff\u00af\u00ffk\u00be\u00fd\u007f\u00ff\u00bf\u00ff\u00f6\u00bd\u00a5\u00bf\u00f6\u00bb\u00ff\u00f6\u00bf\u00efd\u00e2\u00ff\u00b4\u00bb\u00ff\u00be\u00d7\u00af\u00ef\u00d7\u00fd $ \u00fe\u00fd\u007f\u00ff\u00ef\u00fd . \u00eb\u00f5\u00ff\u00d7 ( 0k\u00a80km6\u0018 % \u0084\u0013ia \u00b0\u00bf\u00b0 ` \u00b7\u00fd\u00ec0\u0097i\u0013\u008d\u00b5\u00fd\u00f8a . \u00eb\u00ed ] \u00b4\u00fb m \u00b7\u00fd\u00b0\u0097\u00e9\u007fi\u007fnf\u00fb ^ \u00fd\u00b0\u00bba / \u00f5m ' \u00b5\u00f7\u00e1\u00a5\u00fd\u00ff\u00bf\u00ed\u00fe\u0095io\u00fbe ' z\u00ff\u00b6\u00b6\u00b6\u00f2b\u00ad\u00f8\u00ae\u0018 @ \u00f8\u00a4\u00e1 & \u00e9\u008a\u0086\u0017 ^ + \u00f3\u0095 \u008aw\u00a4\u00ec % \u00fdh = \u00ae\u00fd\u00b0e = ; oa\u0082 [ % \u00ff\u00e3 o\u00a5\u00a7l0\u0096\u00bat\u0010l0\u00ba\u00fd\u00a5\u00fa\u00eb\u00b7\u00b0\u00e2m\u007f\u00fe\u00f8k\u00f6\u00f2\u00b7\u00b7\u00fc7\u00af\u0090f\u0091 \u009b\u00a4\u009biv\u00e2 } \u00ff\u00fe\u00e3k * zi6\u00e2 } \u0082 \u00f2\u00a6 / \u00bbk [ [ \u0004\u00eb\u00a7\u00fbi6\u00f2\u00fd\u00f8\u00af\u00ef as\u009d\u0084\u000e > * \u00f5\u00f6 \u008e\u0012\u00f2u\u00b5\u00e1 \u00b5\u00ffl - \u00af\u00b0\u00e2v\u00e3 m\u00abwa / _ \u00b5\u00b5\u00f5 ^ \u00bf\u00ed { \u00dfi2v\u00a9\u00eb\u00fd - \u00a5\u00eb\u007fm\u00f6\u00b8 \u00f2 \u00fa\b\u001b\u0014\u00e2\u0004 ( 0 ` \u0090j\u00e14\u00e2m & \u0083b\u0098\u008bi\u0006\u00e3 lr\u00a6\u009d4\u009c0\u0092q\u00b1 \u00be \u008d \u009bv\u0012a\u00a6\u009cu\u00e83\u0080\u00e4h ? 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\u00ed\u00fd\u00aa\u00b6\u00af\u00e6\u00fa\u00fd\u009c\u00ffb\u0097\u00fe\u00e9s\u00b6\u0093v\u00ba\u007f\u00b6\u00b0\u00e2\u00fd\u00d7 fxa ' \u00ae\u00fd & \u001al\u001a [ z\u00be\u00b5\u00ff\u00aec : f \u00b7l0 ^ \u0093\u00be\u0018j\u00fd ? \u00b4\u00ffo\u00b0\u009b\u00f5\u0084\u00eb\u00a5\u00f6\u00f8\u00a4\u009bb\u00a2\u00ad + oz\u00ec & _ \u00e2\u00aa\u009am % \u00bc ' \u00fa\u00b5\u00a7\u00f6\u00e9\u00ea \u0012\u00f9\u0002 - \u00f9\u00e7\u00ecbb\u00bd\u00b5\u00f8\u00a6 \u00b8 [ k\u00f6\u00f2b\u00a3\u00e2\u00af\u00ef\u0089\u0002 ; \u00ad\u0084\u0093\u0090\u00ecn ! \u00b6\u0095\u0084 \u00ff\u00e7\u00e4\u0086 | \u00ab\u0006\b\u0086\u00eb { \u0012\u0019\u00fb\u0012\u001a * o\u0011\u007fi\u00f2\u00b7ok\u0014\u009ba .\n\u00f3i\u00fd\u00a6\u00f2\u00f64\u00fb\u00fe\u00b7kn\u00e5\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\ncookies help us deliver our services . by using our services , you agree to our use of cookies .\nthis tool helps you find words that are related to a specific word or phrase . also check out urltoken and urltoken .\nour algorithm is scanning multiple databases for related words . please be patient ! : )\n. you can click words for definitions . sorry if there ' s a few unusual suggestions ! the algorithm isn ' t perfect , but it does a pretty good job for common - ish words . here ' s the list of words that are related to\np . s . there are some problems that i ' m aware of , but can ' t currently fix ( because they are out of the scope of this project ) . the main one is that individual words can have many different senses ( meanings ) , so when you search for a word like\nmay be a bit ambiguous to the engine in that sense , and the related terms that are returned may reflect this . you might also be wondering :\nrelated words runs on several different algorithms which compete to get their results higher in the list . one such algorithm uses word embedding to convert words into many dimensional vectors which represent their meanings . the vectors of the words in your query are compared to a huge database of of pre - computed vectors to find similar words . another algorithm crawls through concept net to find words which have some meaningful relationship with your query . these algorithms , and several more , are what allows related words to give you . . . related words - rather than just direct synonyms .\nas well as finding words related to other words , you can enter phrases and it should give you related words and phrases , so long as the phrase / sentence you entered isn ' t too long . you will probably get some weird results every now and then - that ' s just the nature of the engine in its current state .\nthere is still lots of work to be done to get this to give consistently good results , but i think it ' s at the stage where it could be useful to people , which is why i released it .\nis a website that allows you to find words based on their definition . in other words , it turns sentences ( or phrases ) into words .\nhelps you find similar words . give the engine a seed word and it will find a huge list of related words . it allows you to do a broader search than a thesaurus allows .\nallows you to find adjectives or describing phrases and words for a particular noun or noun phrase . it helps you find inspiration for describing things .\nis an aggregation of many lists of new songs from around the internet . it inclides lists of new songs from all major genres from hip - hop to classical and everything in between .\nis a thesaurus for slang words . if you ' re looking for synonyms of a slang word , this website will help you out .\nis a simple tool to query the part - of - speech of a word .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nevi , an amazon company , was founded in 2005 under the name true knowledge . the team started out with a mission to make it possible to access the world ' s knowledge simply by asking for information using natural language .\nwe\u2019re part of the amazon alexa team based in amazon ' s innovative cambridge development centre , alongside other amazon teams including prime air , core machine learning , amazon devices and amazon web services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en"]}
{"id": 848, "summary": [{"text": "the black drum ( pogonias cromis ) , also known as \" blue drum \" for its dark and hint of blue color , is a saltwater fish similar to its cousin , the red drum .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it is the only species in the genus pogonias .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "though most specimens are generally found in the 5-30 lb ( 2 \u2013 14 kg ) range , the black drum is well known as the largest of all the drum family with some specimens reaching excesses of 90 lb ( 40 kg ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the world record black drum was just over 113 lb ( 51 kg ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they are often black and/or gray in color with juvenile fish having distinctive dark stripes over a gray body .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "their teeth are rounded and they have powerful jaws capable of crushing oysters and other shellfish .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is recommended those over 15 lb pounds ( 7 kg ) should be released .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "black drum are capable of producing tones between 100 hz and 500 hz when performing mating calls . ", "topic": 16}], "title": "black drum", "paragraphs": ["common name : black drum , sea drum , gray drum , striped drum , banded drum , oyster cracker .\nblack drum can be distinguished from the red drum by the presence of barbels . photo \u00a9 richard bejarano\nblack drum find clams and crabs by sweeping the bottom with their chin barbels .\nthe internet has many recipes and helpful hints on preparation for both black and red drum . information adapted from a brochure , black drum in texas , by joe breuer .\nevery spring , schools of black drum enter the delaware bay to feed and spawn .\nin bermitz\u2019s experience , the docks normally hold pairs and smaller groups of black drum .\nblack drum are very similar in all aspects to their cousin , the red fish .\nwe show you how to catch black drum easy on this video . we show how to put a rigg together to catch black drum step by step . and we show you whats the best bait to use to catch these black drums .\nthe black drum is one of the largest fish in the bay . young black drums that weigh less than 8 pounds are also known as puppy drums .\npredators : juvenile black drum are preyed upon by a variety of larger fishes such as seatrout and jacks . larger black drum are likely to be preyed upon by sharks ( murphy and muller 1995 )\nreaching weights of 110 pounds , black drum are one of the largest inshore species in new jersey .\nigure 2 . total black drum dollar value and percentage by county for the years 1987 - 2001 .\ntable 1 . total dollar value of irl black drum , pogonias cromis , between 1987 - 2001 .\nsharks likely feed on black drum . juveniles are preyed upon by seatrouts , jacks and other large fish .\nthe chesapeake bay record black drum , caught in 1973 off cape charles , virginia , weighed 111 pounds .\nbottom - feeders , black drum prey upon mollusks and crustaceans such as clams , oysters and crabs . black drum use their chin barbels to sense for prey and use their strong teeth plates to crush the hard shells open .\nasmfc approves first step in black drum interstate management . public input sought on new plan development ( may 2012 )\nthe black drum uses the barbels under its chin to locate food along the mud bottom of the delaware bay .\nfigure 4 . summary of the black drum recreational harvest and percentage of total by area from 1997 - 2004 .\ndrum , sea drum , common drum , banded drum , butterfly drum , gray drum , striped drum , oyster drum , oyster cracker ; french : grand tambour ; japanese : guchi , ishimochi , nibe ; portuguese : corvina ; spanish : corvin\u00f3n negro , corbina , corvina negro , corvina , roncador .\ntable 2 . by - county annual and cumulative percentages of the black drum harvest for the years 1987 - 2001 .\nas of 2005 , fishing regulations in florida state that black drum must be no less than 14 inches tl , but not more than 24 inches tl to be of legal size ; however , one black drum larger than 24 inches tl may be kept . a bag limit of 5 legal - sized black drum per person per day is in effect .\nthere is no evidence of sex - specific differences in growth rates of black drum ( beckman et al . 1990 ) .\ntable 3 . by - county cumulative dollar value and percentage of total for the black drum harvest from 1987 - 2001 .\na popular sport fish , the best time to catch a black drum is during a full moon using soft crab as bait .\nblack drum average around 2 - 5 pounds , 10 - 20 pound fish are not uncommon and the largest exceed 100 pounds .\nblack drum from 1 to 10 pounds are very common and often referred to as\npuppy drum .\nlarger fish , called\nbull drum\n, are not uncommon to 40 pounds and are occasionally even larger .\nblack drum tastes really similar to redfish and their fillets look just like redfish also . they are both part of the drum family so that is why they are so similar .\ni had heard that the bigger black drum have worms in them and are not good to eat . i was watching the weekend fisherman this morning and the show was on black drum . they were catching black drum and several times captain herb gordon said that the fish they were catching were good eating , and the fish when he was saying that seemed to be in the lower 40\nrange . i have always released black drum in the past . wondering what size anyone has tried and was it any good . thanks wes\nfigure 1 . annual dollar value of the commercial catch of black drum to the 5 - county area of the indian river lagoon .\nfigure 3 . survey data for the black drum recreational fishery showing the number of fishes harvested in east florida waters from 1997 - 2004 .\nthen again , on a blustery , cool day , open - minded anglers like capt . al bermitz are quick to praise black drum .\ndude ! that\u2019s a pair of boss black drum , and the kind of prespawn school at right is a stunning sight on some florida inshore waters . most anglers release these bigger drum .\nthe old timers say , \u201cthe drum bite begins as the dogwood blooms . \u201d they\u2019re right . the dogwoods are in full bloom , and the black drum are in delaware bay\u2014and they\u2019re hungry .\nthe black drum , pogonias cromis . illustration by diana rome peebles 1998 . courtesy of florida fish and wildlife conservation commission . used with permission .\nblack drum are not an important commercial species in florida , but are considered important recreationally . between 1987 - 2001 , the total commercial harvest of\nblack drum adults form schools and migrate in the spring to bay and river mouths for the spawning season ; in the gulf of mexico this is from february to may . larval black drum remain in shallow muddy waters until they are 4 to 5 inches long ; then they move near shore .\ntrophic mode : black drum are primarily bottom feeders , though they have been occasionally observed feeding near the surface on small finfishes such as menhaden ( ackerman 1951 ) . pearson ( 1929 ) reported black drum bottom feeding in a vertical position in waters so shallow , their tails protruded from the water .\nirl distribution : black drum are common throughout the indian river lagoon and have notably large populations in volusia and martin counties ( murphy and taylor 1995 ) .\nadults sometimes move onto near - shelf waters , but are primarily estuarine - dwelling and show little migratory behavior . simmons and breuer ( 1962 ) reported that tagged black drum in texas generally moved less than 5 miles from where they were tagged . beaumarriage ( 1969 ) reported similar results in florida black drum .\nthe most anticipated large fish of the virginia springtime fishery is the docile black drum . now is the time to try your luck for a gentle giant .\nosburn and matlock ( 1984 ) examined movements of black drum in texas , reporting that black drum less than 3 years of age showed limited movement from bay systems into the gulf of mexico . older fishes were more commonly taken in deeper waters of the gulf , leading the authors to hypothesize that permanent movement of black drum to deeper gulf waters occurs in fishes older than 4 years of age ; with bays and estuaries thus supplying young fishes to spawning stocks of older fishes .\nif you are currently without a vessel , you can still clean up on black drum at your local inlet , if there is suitable access . many anglers enjoy pulling drum up over the rails of the jetties .\nthe first coastwide benchmark stock assessment for black drum was performed in 2014 and approved for management use in 2015 . based onassessment results , black drum is not overfished and not experiencing overfishing . the median biomass is estimated to be declining slowly , though it is still estimated to be well above that necessary to produce maximum sustainable yield .\nfor those unable to catch their own , black drum are harvested commercially from texas bays throughout the year . these drum can be purchased in stores and fish markets for about half the cost of the\nchoice\nfish .\nblack drum are heavy - bodied fish with large heads . fish up to about 15 pounds have 4 or 5 wide vertical black bars set on a silver - gray body . the bars fade as the fish grow larger , eventually disappearing . all sizes of black drum can be identified by the whisker - like barbels under their chin . black drum have large heavy pharyngeal teeth in the back of their throat that they use to crush mollusk shells . young black drum under 8 inches long feed mostly on marine worms and small fish . after 8 inches , they switch their diet to mollusks such as oysters , clams , and mussels . research has shown that drum captured from oyster reef areas prefer to eat oysters over clams and mussels . research has also shown that black drum can average eating one oyster per pound of body weight per day . feeding black drum swim with their heads slightly lowered , drifting their barbels ( chin whiskers ) over possible food items . when the barbels touch a food item , the drum stops swimming and inhales in the food item by creating a suction with its gill covers and mouth . the drum slowly swims forward while crushing the food item with its massive pharyngeal teeth . as the food item is crushed , small shell particles fall from the drum ' s gills . after finishing , the drum ejects the rest of the shell from its mouth . black drum can break apart and crush oyster clusters , but seem to select singles for ease of feeding . they feed both during daylight hours and at night , but feeding is less intensive during early morning hours . while feeding , schools of black drum often dredge up the bottom , creating muddy plumes in the water which can be easily seen from the air .\ntable fare : although some anglers will eat black drum , the flesh of these fish tends to be course , and most are infested with large , long parasitic tapeworms .\ncompetitors : black drum likely compete with other drums , especially the red drum for benthic food resources , but because of their strong pharyngeal teeth , probably do not experience much competition for mollusks ( sutter et al . 1986 ) .\nlive or dead shrimp are primarily used . anglers using sandfleas and fresh clams catch drum and pompano . black drum have a habit of picking up the bait and running toward you , producing slack in the line . \u201cthat\u2019s when you know you have a drum on , \u201d says ricciardi .\nblack drum are primarily bottom feeders . young black drum feed on small fish and invertebrates , such as copepods , annelids , and amphipods . the eggs and larvae of this species were shown to be subject to high predation . as juveniles , they are prey to a wide range of estuarine fish species , such as spotted seatrout and crevalle jack .\nrecreational fishery : the black drum , especially at larger size , is not generally considered a high - quality food fish due to commonly being infested with cestodes ( spaghetti worms ) ( simmons and breuer 1962 ; etzolt and christmas 1979 ) . however , black drum measuring less than 20 inches are valued in the recreational fishery ( silverman 1979 ) .\nblack drum are found in the western atlantic ocean , from massachusetts to southern florida and across the gulf of mexico to northern mexico . they rarely occur north of new jersey .\nthe black drum is one of the most popular inshore fish for food . they are rather good up to 24\n, after which the meat looses flavor and become coarse .\n1 ) out of all the species in the drum / croaker family\u2014red drum , spotted seatrout , weakfish , whiting , spot , croaker\u2014the black drum is the only species where females and males both produce calls . the other major difference recently determined by a usf grad student , now ph . d . , jim locasio , is that the volume and intensity of sound coming from a group of black drum does not necessarily mean more eggs in the water column , as it does for species like spotted seatrout and weakfish . black drum are more complex , or\u2026um\u2026either she or he has a headache more often , wanting to put off spawning until another evening !\nthe black drum is a silvery - gray , bottom - dwelling fish that visits the chesapeake bay from spring through autumn . it is one of the largest fish in the bay .\nmike ricciardi , a sebastian inlet regular who has caught numerous black drum there , prefers the outgoing tide for black drum . \u201ci fish the surf side , and also at the end of the jetty sometimes . the incoming tide is okay , but it rips around the end of the jetty so strong you really can\u2019t keep a weight on bottom , \u201d he said .\nthe board approved addendum i to the black drum fmp in may 2018 . the addendum allows maryland to reopen its black drum commercial fishery in the chesapeake bay with a daily vessel limit of up to 10 fish and a 28 - inch minimum size . over the next year , maryland will develop a management program for the commercial fishery with implementation by april 1 , 2019 .\nmurphy , m . d . ; adams , d . h . ; tremain , d . m . ; winner , b . l . 1998 . direct validation of ages determined for adult black drum , pogonias cromis , in east - central florida with notes on black drum migration . fish . bull . ( us ) 96 ( 2 ) : 382 - 387 .\nblack drum can mature to near 100 - pounds . the virginia saltwater fishing tournament issues citations for catches of 80 pounds or more , or a release citation for 46 inches or more .\npart of the black drum ' s scientific name , pogonias , means \u201cbearded . \u201d this refers to the fish\u2019s chin barbels , which look like a beard . cromis means \u201cto croak . \u201d\nrecreational landings of black drum are significantly larger than commercial landings in all states within their range . for example , in 2003 , 757 , 867 pounds of black drum were landed in florida by commercial and recreational interests . of the total harvest , 98 % of landings were made by recreational anglers rather than by commercial fishers , with 72 % of landings occurring on the atlantic coast .\ntable 5 . by - county annual and cumulative percentages of the black drum harvest for the years 1997 - 2001 . data provided by national marine fisheries service , fisheries statistics division , noaa .\nmeans eye - like spots referring to black spots on the tail . the sciaenidae family has approximately 275 species within 70 genera .\npogonias cromis aka : drum description : black drum have short , deep bodies ( less than three times as long as deep ) with high - arched backs and flattish bellies . they have conspicuous chin barbells and make a loud grunting noise when excited . adults have dusky to black fins and are silver with a brassy luster when alive , but change to a dark gray after death . young drum possess four to six black vertical bars . size : black drum grow to 5 feet and 146 pounds . citations are given for fish weighing 35 pounds or more and for the live release of fish measuring 40 inches or longer . sometimes confused with : sheepshead , spadefish habitat : black drum are found from southern new england to mexico but are more commonly caught from new jersey southward . they prefer coastal waters of the bays , sounds and inlets , with a range of salinities . eating habits : black drum feed on the bottom and use their chin barbels to search for food . they have strong throat teeth that allow them to eat clams , mussels , oysters and crabs . they also eat worms and some fish . life cycle : black drum reach sexual maturity by age 3 . adults form schools and , in the spring , migrate to spawning grounds at sea near mouths of rivers and bays . newly hatched drum reside in estuaries for the first year of their lives , then move offshore . fishing tips : black drum are rarely caught with artificial lures since feeding is through feel and smell . anglers more commonly use conventional bottom rigs with sinkers or one or more drops with single hooks and no sinker . fishermen catch black drum fishing from banks , in the surf or from anchored boats using cut mullet , menhaden , shrimp and blood worms . larger fish are often taken on clams or pieces of crab .\nthe black drum also has the honor of being the most highly evolved , recently evolved species in our local group ( of sciaenids ) based on a variety of independent analyses , dna analyses , air bladder configurations , ear stone morphology and osteology ( skeletal characters ) . black drum live long , and carry on very loud conversations at night mostly in late fall , winter and early spring .\nthe black drum has a dark , silvery - gray body with a brassy sheen . it grows 40 to 60 inches in length and weighs between 50 to 100 pounds . it has a grayish belly , black fins and a high , rounded back . many small barbels appear on its lower chin , and it has cobblestone - like teeth plates . a deep notch appears in its dorsal fin . juveniles have four to five black vertical bars on their sides .\nmurphy , m . d . ; muller , r . g . 1995 . stock assessment of black drum pogonias cromis in florida . fmri , in - house report series ihr 1995 - 005 .\nblack drum can be caught on just about any rig . for fish intended for the table spinning or bait casting gear works well . for the larger fish heavy spinning and ocean gear is best .\ngood , especially smaller fish . the flesh of large black drum tends to be coarse . black drum , especially larger ones , often have had infestations of a larval tapeworm in their flesh . often called a\nspaghetti worm ,\nit is really a parasitic tapeworm of sharks and is using the drum as an intermediate host . if the drum is eaten by a shark , the larval worm becomes a reproducing adult in the shark . while they may look unappetizing , they are harmless to humans , even if eaten raw .\nnice day on the water in bonaparte creek , sunset beach , nc . 12 keepers on the day ! 10 black drum , 1 specked trout , 1 spot and 1 likely red drum that got away . thanks for watching and as always be sure to subscribe !\ngrowth information for black drum is relatively scarce , but some rate estimates have been produced . simmons and breuer ( 1962 ) used length - frequency analysis and tag return data to estimate growth rates in black drum , finding that black drum in texas measured approximately 160 mm ( 6 . 3 inches ) standard length ( sl ) , at the end of the first year , 310 mm ( 12 . 2 inches ) at the end of the second year , and 415 mm ( 16 . 3 inches ) by the end of the third year . older drum in their study had growth rates of approximately 50 mm ( 1 . 97 inches ) sl per year .\ntable 6 . summary of the black drum recreational harvest and percentage of total fish captured in each area from 1997 - 2004 . data provided by national marine fisheries service , fisheries statistics division , noaa .\noyster bars in al\u2019s experience , there\u2019s a rhythm to the bite . schools of juvenile black drum will feed in an area for around an hour , at which time they can be caught in numbers .\nblack drum sometimes grab artificial lures , and you can up the attraction by fishing scented baits such as the soft shrimp at right . bounce a lure like this around bridge or dock pilings in winter .\nspaghetti worms are common parasites of saltwater fish in the drum family , which include speckled and white trout , black drum , redfish , and croakers . while they look alike to most fishermen , several different worms use these fish as hosts . most common in sea trout is poecilancistrium caryophyllum . worms found in black drum are most often pseudogrillotia pieistacantha . for ease of discussion , we will dispose of these tongue - twisting latin names and refer to them all as spaghetti worms .\naverage small drum weigh 5 to 10 pounds ; large specimens commonly weigh 20 to 40 pounds . in delaware bay , fish from 40 to 70 pounds are fairly common in the spring . the all - tackle record is 113 pounds . black drum live up to 35 years .\nthe black drum , the largest species in the drum family , is both a fine eating fish and excellent sport fish , depending on the size of fish targeted . these large fish are commonly 20 - to - 50 pounds , and reach over 100 pounds when fully grown .\ntable 4 . summary data for recreational fishery in eastern florida waters for the black drum , pogonias cromis , from 1997 - 2004 . data provided by national marine fisheries service , fisheries statistics division , noaa .\nosburn , h . r . , and g . c . matlock . 1984 . black drum movement in texas bays . n . am . j . fish . manage . 4 : 523 - 530 .\nrichards , c . e . , 1973 age , growth and distribution of the black drum ( pogonias cromis ) . trans . am . fish . soc . 102 ( 3 ) : 584 - 590 .\nas one of the largest fish inhabiting the inshore waters of new jersey , the black drum is a popular target when their spring spawning migration brings them into the delaware bay . their scientific name , pogonias cromis , literally means \u201cbearded grunters , \u201d referring to the drum\u2019s whisker - like barbels and ability to create a croaking sound using its air bladder . understanding more about the black drum\u2019s habits and the bay where they live will help you find and catch more of these big booming gamefish .\nbody color in adults is a silver to black base color , highlighted with a with a coppery or brassy sheen . fins are dusky to black in color . young typically have 4 - 6 vertical black bars along their sides . coloration may change depending on habitat or age of the fish ( simmons and breuer 1962 ) . in the gulf of mexico , black drum are nearly uniformly silver in color , their vertical crossbars disappearing very early in life . fishes inhabiting bays and lagoons tend to be darker in color , typically with a bronze dorsal surface and gray - white sides ( simmons and breuer 1962 ; johnson 1978 ) .\nthis common fish is found gulfwide , from brackish estuarine waters out to nearshore offshore waters . black drum are found on mud , sand and shell bottoms and medium to large specimens are very common on oyster reefs .\nblack drum ( pogonias cromis ) can be found in nearshore waters along the atlantic coast from the gulf of maine to florida and as far south as argentina . atlantic coast black drum migrate inshore to the north in the spring , and to the south in the fall . fish can reach over 46\n, 120 pounds and 60 years of age . they grow rapidly until the age of 15 , at which time growth slows .\nlarge , captive drum were capable of feeding on more than 2 commercial - sized oysters per kilogram of body weight daily ( cave and cake 1980 ) . black drum are known to damage commercial stocks of oysters on seed reefs in lease areas in gulf of mexico waters ( benson 1982 ) .\nyoung red drum prey upon small crustaceans and marine worms . as the drum reaches lengths above 200mm , the diet shifts to incorporate small bony fishes including\nsomewhat similar to the redfish in shape , but usually distinguishable by color , and always by the fact that the drum has barbels , or feelers on the underside of the lower jaw . juvenile drum have black vertical stripes on dusky white sides . the stripes fade with age and adult drum are usually blackish above and white below , although some develop a decidedly bronze hue .\nross , j . f . , j . s . pavela , and m . e . chittenden , jr . 1983 . seasonal occurrence of black drum , pogonias cromis , and red drum , sciaenops ocellatus , off texas . northeast gulf sci . 6 ( 1 ) : 67 - 70 .\nmurphy , m . d . ; taylor , r . g . 1989 . reproduction and growth of black drum , pogonias cromis , in northeast florida . northeast gulf sci . 10 ( 2 ) : 127 - 137 .\nsilverman , m . j . 1979 . biological and fisheries data on black drum , pogonias cromis ( linnaeus ) . northeast fish . nt . sandy hook lab . tech . ser . rep . 22 . 35 pp .\nweird chin whiskers , faded stripes , utter disregard for topwater baits . for anglers in search of redfish , black drum are often regardedas a lowly consolation prize . an oddity , at best , compared to the sleek reds .\nsimmons eg ; breuer jp , 1962 . a study of redfish , sciaenops ocellata linnaeus , and black drum , pogonias cromis linnaeus . publ . inst . mar . sci . , university of texas 8 : 184 - 211 .\nadult black drum feed on crustaceans and mollusks , with a preference for blue crabs , shedder crabs , shrimp , oysters , and squid . they locate food with their chin barbels and crush and grind shells with their pharyngeal teeth .\nalthough similar in fundamental frequency and waveform , the advertisement calls of male black drum in uruguay have shorter durations than calls from the same species in the northern hemisphere . the florida black drum population has durations that are over three fold longer . to our knowledge , the history of separation between these two groups is unknown . if shorter calls evolved first , the ability to produce longer calls in florida may have been selected by females as an index of male quality .\nthe black drum , a mainstay in the commercial fishery , has never been fully accepted as game fish by sport anglers . annual harvest of black drum along the texas coast is usually more than 1 . 3 million pounds by the commercial fishery and approximately three quarters of a million pounds by the sport fishery . while some prefer flounder , red drum , snapper , or some more glamorous fish , many anglers maintain that black drum less than five pounds , cleaned and prepared properly , may be better than many of these so - called\nchoice\nfish . many coastal restaurants noted for their seafood serve drum extensively . fish taken in cold weather before spawning tend to be fatter and in better condition than those caught in summer after spawning . drum weighing more than five pounds usually have coarse flesh ; the larger the fish , the coarser the flesh . rather than eating these larger drum , anglers are encouraged to release them to spawn and fight another day .\nspaghetti worms\ncommon in spotted seatrout are present in larger drum and , while unappetizing , they are not harmful to humans .\nblack drum are sensory - oriented fish , relying more on their sense of smell and taste from their chin barbels than on sight . because of this , natural bait and cut bait are much better than artificial bait for catching drums .\nthe black drum is the largest member of the sciaenidae family ( drum and croaker ) . the common term \u201cdrum\u201d refers to the loud and distinctive \u201cdrumming\u201d noise that occurs when the fish raps a muscle against the swim bladder . this voluntary noise is assumed to be associated with locating and attracting mates , and it can sometimes be heard from a good distance , even by people above the water .\nearly june is generally the best time for drum fishing in the delaware bay .\nbermitz , who guides and fishes for sport on the indianriver lagoon near palm bay , knows that a little bait - dunking in the right spot can be just plain fun . especially when there\u2019s a school of feisty , good - eating drum passing through . so here\u2019s a basic primer on black drum fishing in florida .\nleard , r . , and ten co - authors . 1993 . the black drum fishery of the gulf of mexico , united states : a regional management plan . gulf states marine fisheries commission , number 28 , ocean springs , ms .\nblack drum are multiple spawners with continuous oocyte recruitment throughout the spawning season ( fitzhugh 1993 ) , and are capable of spawning approximately every 3 days . pearson ( 1929 ) estimated that a ripe female black drum measuring 1 . 1 m ( 43 . 3 inches ) total length ( tl ) would produce approximately 6 million eggs annually . in a more recent study , fitzhugh et al . ( 1993 ) estimated fecundity of average sized females weighing 13 . 4 pounds at 32 million eggs annually .\njoseph , e . b . , w . h . massmann , and j . j . norcross . 1964 . the pelagic eggs and early larval states of the black drum from chesapeake bay . copeia 1964 ( 2 ) : 425 - 434 .\nall the drum species are in our waters all times of the year . black drum are around all year , although they are found in different places at different times of the year , and their sizes can vary considerably . you will catch them on grass flats , in residential canals , and in deeper channels around the big bridges .\nthis fish is a member of the croaker family and is related to the atlantic croaker , red drum , and spotted seatrout . a characteristic of this family of fish is the ability to produce croaking or drumming sounds with the air bladder , which is the reason for the common names croaker and drum . this ability is most developed in the black drum and anglers can sometime hear sounds from schools passing near their boats .\na school of drum feeds like a herd of cows\u2014heads down , moving slowly and grazing along the bottom . drum move between established feeding stations scattered throughout the delaware bay .\nspawning in many species occurs around periods of maximum current flow during spring tides that best disperse the fertilized eggs . most black drum spawning occurs around the big full moon tides , with some spawning occurring during the new moon as well . drum are serial spawners , meaning that they will spawn multiple times during their stay in the delaware bay .\nthe main predator of the red drum is humans . other predators include birds of prey including ospreys , as well as larger fishes . the black tail spot is thought to be used as mechanism to confuse predators into attacking the tail instead of the head .\ni love black drum and i have eaten fish up to 80 lbs . those that are or might be\ngrossed out\nby the parasite in the fish shouldn ' t watch the cleaning as they are there but were gone when it hit theplate .\nfirst things first . about those photos of giant , breeding - size drum you begin to see this time of year in magazines and newspapers : starting in february and running through april , there are anglers who target spawning drum in deep ocean or gulf passes , usually far north florida , but sometimes tampa bay and charlotte harbor . prespawn aggregations of black drum at nearby bridges also stoke fires . big chunks of blue crab , clam and shrimp soaked on bottom attract humongous drum , some weighing close to 100 pounds .\nblack drum are a prolific species , with females producing 11 - 60 million eggs each over a 14 - week spawning season . generally , spawning takes place in or near passes , as well as in channels in open water in depths between 10 and 165 feet . the locations change with seasons and environmental conditions . black drum spawn between january and april . spawning activity takes place between 7 p . m . and 10 p . m . and at water temperatures of 59 to 75\u00b0f . black drum spawning sites are closely tied to the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water , with the more oxygen the better . during this period , each female spawns 20 to 30 times . spawning peaks seem to occur at new and full moon phases and spawning takes place in the early evening , one to two hours after sunset . after being spawned , the eggs are carried seaward by currents until they hatch . larval ( baby ) and small black drum then tend to travel inland with incoming tides where they settle out in marshes to grow . at 24 to 26 inches and 4 to 5 years of age , they become sexually mature and begin to spawn . mature black drum form large schools before the beginning of spawning season . often 20 , 000 - 60 , 000 pounds of fish will be in one of these offshore schools , frequently mixed with cownose rays and occasionally with crevalle jacks and red drum . after spawning season , these schools seem to disperse . black drum are long - lived fish , with most studies indicating a maximum age of over 40 years and one study in florida estimating a maximum of 58 years of age .\ndrum also love to feed in algae beds laden with crabs , clams , razor clams and oysters . algae can only grow in depths that receive sufficient sunlight . in the often turbid waters of the delaware bay , this usually means depths less than 45 feet . black drum will occasionally feed in water so shallow their tails wag in the air .\nthe best drum fishing takes place around the full moon . even though the drum do not feed while spawning , they will feed before and after . finding a large spawning congregation of drum could lead to fast fishing after they have completed the circle of life .\nan inshore bottom fish , the black drum prefers sandy bottoms in salt or brackish waters near jetties , breakwaters , bridge and pier pilings , clam and oyster beds , channels , estuaries , bays , high marsh areas , and shorelines . larger fish often favor shoal areas and channels . black drum can survive wide ranges of salinity and temperature . the small fish inhabit brackish and freshwater habitats ; the adults usually prefer estuaries in which salinity ranges from 9 to 26 parts per thousand and the temperature ranges from 53\u00b0 to 91\u00b0f .\nsimmons , e . g . , and j . p . breuer . 1962 . a study of redfish , sciaenops ocellata linnaeus , and black drum , pogonias cromis linnaeus . publ . inst . mar . univ . tex . 8 : 184 - 211 .\ns . ocellatus is the second largest member of the drum family in the western atlantic and gulf of mexico , reaching a maximum length of 1 . 5 m . the world record s . ocellatus weighs 42 . 7 kg . only the black dru . . .\nred drum coloration ranges from a deep cooper to an almost silvery sheen . photo courtesy fda\nlarvae feed primarily on zooplankton ( benson 1982 ) . juveniles feed on annelids , soft crustaceans , amphipods , and small fishes ( simmons and breuer 1962 ; peters and mcmichael 1990 ) . in texas , approximately 33 % of the diet in black drum measuring 21 - 50 cm ( 8 . 3 - 19 . 7 inches ) or more in length consisted of the surfclam ( mulinia sp . ) . larger drum consume mostly mollusks and crabs , while the largest specimens consumed mollusks and shrimp ( simmons and breuer 1962 ) . miles ( 1949 ) reported that black drum in texas fed primarily on shrimp , mollusks , and vegetation .\npeters , k . m . ; mcmichael , r . h . , jr . 1990 . early life history of the black drum pogonias cromis ( pisces : sciaenidae ) in tampa bay , florida . northeast gulf sci . 11 ( 1 ) : 39 - 58 .\nilar to recent years at about 1 . 3 million pounds , landed fish constituted only 27 % of all black drum caught by the fishery . the other 73 % of recreationally caught fish were released alive , making 2016 the third highest year for releases in number of fish a\ntemperature : black drum prefer waters where temperatures range from 12 - 33\u00b0c ( mcilwain 1978 ) . sudden temperature drops during the winter months cause them to migrate to deeper waters . mass mortality is somewhat common when sudden , sustained temperature drops occur ( simmons and breuer 1962 ) .\nfitzhugh , g . r . , b . a . thompson and t . g . snider iii , 1993 ovarian development , fecundity , and spawning frequency of black drum pogonias cromis in louisiana . fish . bull . , u . s . 91 : 244 - 253 .\ndrum , like many other fish , don\u2019t feed while spawning . drum seem to spawn as the sun sets , the process lasting maybe an hour or so . a congregation of spawning drum is given away by the telltale drumming sound that can be heard coming from under the boat .\nblack drum are rarely taken on artificial baits since most feeding is done by feel and smell . cut fish , squid and shrimp are used , with peeled shrimp tails ( preferably ripe and smelly ) the most popular . since feeding is done on the bottom , the basic technique is simple - put a baited hook on the bottom and wait for the drum to swallow it .\nthe black drum is a chunky , high - backed fish with many barbels or whiskers under the lower jaw . younger fish have four or five dark vertical bars on their sides but these disappear with age . the bellies of older fish are white but coloration of backs and sides can vary greatly . fish from gulf waters frequently lack color and are light gray or silvery . those living in muddy bay waters have dark gray or bronze - colored backs and sides . some are solid silvery gray or jet black . a length of six inches is reached in the first year , 12 inches the second and 16 inches the third . increases of about two inches per year occur after that . the largest black drum on record weighed 146 pounds . the texas record taken by a sport angler is 78 pounds but most bull drum caught weigh 30 to 40 pounds .\na large bodied fish of the drum family . shorter and stockier than their cousin the redfish .\ndelaware bay water is often turbid , forcing drum to rely on scent to find their food .\nthe big black drum in the channels will be oriented facing the incoming water on moving tides . make sure your baits move with the same direction as the natural flow of water with those moving tides , or else your bait will be moving toward the fish\u2019s tails instead of their mouths .\nthe reel should be loaded with 50lb braid . since braided lines have a thinner diameter and less water resistance , they provide an added advantage and allow the angler to hold bottom with lighter sinkers . the lack of stretch transmits even the softest of black drum hits back to the angler .\nwhile some prefer flounder , red drum , snapper , or some more glamorous fish , many anglers maintain that black drum less than five pounds , cleaned and prepared properly , may be better than many of these so - called\nchoice\nfish . many coastal restaurants noted for their seafood serve drum extensively . fish taken in cold weather before spawning tend to be fatter and in better condition than those caught in summer after spawning . drum weighing more than five pounds usually have coarse flesh ; the larger the fish , the coarser the flesh . rather than eating these larger drum , anglers are encouraged to release them to spawn and fight another day .\nspaghetti worms\ncommon in spotted seatrout are present in larger drum and , while unappetizing , they are not harmful to humans .\nblack drum aren\u2019t sleek , beautiful fish , and they\u2019ll probably never have the kind of following of the bronzed , spot - tail redfish . but they have mystique , and they pull hard when hooked . add great tablefare to their list of attributes and you\u2019ve got a fine catch . \u2013 fs\na day later , bermitz called to inform me that he\u2019d caught two large catch - and - release fish at the same place we had fished\u2014a 38 - inch snook and a hefty goliath grouper ! talk about great bycatch ! oh yeah , a 26 - inch black drum came aboard as well .\nrather than scale your drum , skin it . the skin contains most of the\nfishy taste ,\nso why save it ? besides , the scales of drum are tough and not easily removed .\nas stated previously above , excellent eating . they do get\nwormy\nat 25 inches plus , but so do big specks . i tend to throw them back at the 30 inch or larger range not because of the worms , but because i usually end up having to use a damn hacksaw to get through that stiff bone in filleting . in fact , though , there was a stink around la a year or so ago when it was revealed that some restaurants were serving black drum but advertising as redfish . i know this for quite some time , but i say who gives a shite . while a redfish is a beautiful , gold and at times tealish mixed in color , and a black drum is plain ugly , black drum is a very pretty white meat , while redfish is bloodier . in other words , deep fry or marinate with lemon , red pepper and salt and cook on grill . enjoy !\nbeckman , d . w . , a . l . stanley , j . h . render and c . a . wilson , 1990 age and growth of black drum in louisiana waters of the gulf of mexico . trans . am . fish . soc . 119 ( 3 ) : 537 - 544 .\nanother friend of mine , tammy burgess , has had success with black drum fishing along mangrove banks with quick dropoffs . the areas are near channels , so the trick is to go when boat traffic is light . it can be hard to entice a bite when there is a steady stream of boat noise .\n2 ) both sexes of black drum emit a disturbance call , but advertisement calls are emitted only by males . the disturbance call is a series of short pulses , typical of many sciaenid species . the long - duration advertisement call is unique among known sciaenids and is relatively rare among sonic fishes in general .\nthe black drum is found along the atlantic coast from new york south through the gulf states to mexico . it is most abundant in texas and is found in all bay and inshore waters and offshore in gulf waters . the area of greatest abundance in texas is from corpus christi to brownsville on the lower coast .\ngoodyear cp , 1989 . status of the red drum stocks of the gulf of mexico report for 1989 .\nmatlock gc , 1990 . the life history of red drum . in : red drum aquaculture , texas a & m ; university sea grant college program , college station , texas , pp . 1 - 21 .\ncody , t . j . , k . w . rice , and c . e . bryan . 1985 . distribution and gonadal development of black drum in texas gulf waters . tex . pks . wildl . dep . , coast fish . branch , manage . data ser . no . 72 . 16 pp .\nin florida totaled 1 . 6 million pounds , and was valued at $ 679 , 928 . approximately 69 . 7 % of black drum landings occurred on florida ' s west coast . east coast landings totaled approximately 484 , 600 pounds , and were valued at $ 290 , 466 . of this , the 5 county area encompassing the irl ( volusia , brevard , indian river , st . lucie and martin counties ) accounted for 94 % of east coast landings ( 272 , 514 pounds ) , and was valued at $ 131 , 995 . this ranks the black drum sixty - ninth in commercial value and fifty - ninth in pounds harvested .\nunlike spotted seatrout that spawns only in the bays , and red drum that spawns only in the gulf , black drum will spawn in either bay or gulf or in the connecting passes . free spawning ( random release of eggs ) occurs mostly in february , march , and april with some later spawning occurring in june and july . larval drum are found in the surf and along bay shorelines in march and april , and by early summer one - half to one - inch juveniles are common in shallow , muddy creeks , sloughs and boat basins .\nin general , the smaller fish taste very similar to a redfish , while the larger fish do not taste as well . black drum are a rather simple fish , but still take some time and patience to learn the tricks of the trade . here , we present the top 10 tips and tricks for catching these big drums .\nin shallow water , it may be hard to see the drum on your fish - finder . instead , use the unit to locate structure that is likely to harbor a mussel or razor clam community . besides looking for areas where drum will stop to feed , captains also look for the telltale marks of big drum on the fish - finder . experienced captains will idle around an area , keeping their distance from other boats , looking for drum marks on the fish - finder . some days the fish will be found over sandy bottoms when they are moving from one feeding area to another . they may also be found over sandy bottoms as they aggregate to spawn . however , for the greatest likelihood of finding black drum , the feeding areas should be your primary target zone .\nyoung drums feed on maritime worms , small shrimp , and crabs and small fish . larger drum eat small crabs , worms , algae , small fish and mollusks . barbels ( or whiskers ) are used to find food by feel and smell . drum often dig or root out buried mollusks and worms while feeding in a head - down position . this process is called\ntailing\nand creates small craters in the bottom which anglers call\ndrum noodles .\nexperienced anglers can detect the recent passage of a school of drum by the presence of many\nnoodles .\nthe black drum has no canine teeth like those of the spotted seatrout , but does have highly developed pharyngeal teeth ( in the pharynx or throat ) which are used to crush mollusks and crabs before swallowing .\nnatural baits are by far the best method for catching black drum . good baits include blue crabs , shrimp , clams , mussels , and anything else that puts off a good odor and taste . one trick if you\u2019re not getting bites is to break open or pinch the baits , allowing more scent to be released into the water .\ncoloration the red drum is usually a copper reddish color . coloration can also range from a deep dark copper to an almost silvery sheen . the ventral side is usually a lighter color to almost white . red drums have a distinctive black spot near the base of the tail . one spot is most common however some individuals exhibit several spots .\nholt j , 1990 . growth and development of red drum eggs and larvae . in : red drum aquaculture , texas a & m ; university sea grant college program , college station , texas , pp . 46 - 50 .\nblack drum fishing can be enjoyed by anyone at almost any time . it is a relaxing outing compared with other types of fishing which require experience , expensive tackle , boats and related equipment . anyone can catch a drum , whatever their skills or finances . tackle can be rod and reel , trotline , hand line or cane pole , and bait is inexpensive . fishing can be done from piers or from the bank and the entire family can join in ."]}
{"id": 860, "summary": [{"text": "aequidens is a genus of fish in the family cichlidae found in south america .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "formerly a wastebasket genus , as presently defined aequidens is largely restricted to the amazon basin , orinoco basin and river basins in the guianas .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "the only exceptions are a. plagiozonatus which also occurs in the paran\u00e1 basin , and a. tetramerus which also occurs in the parna\u00edba river . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "aequidens", "paragraphs": ["aequidens plagiozonatus , live specimen collected near cuiab\u00e1 , brazil . photo : a . kullander\nmatt clarke on aequidens patricki , a beautifully marked and rarely seen south american cichlid .\nmorphological aspects of henneguya aequidens n . sp . ( myxozoa : myxobolidae ) in aequidens plagiozonatus kullander , 1984 ( teleostei : cichlidae ) in the amazon region , brazil .\naequidens is a genus of the subfamily cichlasomatinae , tribe cichlasomatini , most similar to cichlasoma .\nmorphological aspects of henneguya aequidens n . sp . ( myxozoa : myxobolidae ) in aequidens plagiozonatus kullander , 1984 ( teleostei : cichlidae ) in the . . . - pubmed - ncbi\na new species of tripartiella ( ciliophora : trichodinidae ) from aequidens tetramerus ( perciformes : cichlidae ) in north brazil .\na new species of tripartiella ( ciliophora : trichodinidae ) from aequidens tetramerus ( perciformes : cichlidae ) in north brazil . - pubmed - ncbi\naequidens was long a catch - all group for south american cichlids with three anal fin spines and lacking conspicuous characters . the genus was reviewed by kullander ( 1983 ) , who distinguished a number of species groups . most of these species groups have since been recognized as genera : bujurquina , tahuantinsuyoa and laetacara in kullander ( 1986 ) , and krobia and cleithracara in kullander & nijssen ( 1989 ) . also guianacara species have traditionally been included in aequidens . nonetheless , aequidens ' sensu stricto ' , remains vaguely diagnosed .\ndespite this considerable splitting aequidens as currently recognised continues to present taxonomical problems , with recent phylogenetic analyses failing to agree on how best to resolve them . musilov\u00e1 et al . ( 2009 ) recovered the a . tetramerus group as sister to cichlasoma with the a . didema group sister to that clade and recommended synonymising aequidens with cichlasoma while moving two species , a . potaroensis and a . paloemeuensis , into krobia .\navailability : this aequidens is very rarely seen in the aquarium trade . these ones were imported by maidenhead aquatics @ iver . captive bred fish are sometimes available from europe , but they are normally wild caught .\n( of otolithus aequidens cuvier , 1830 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ni hadn ' t heard of ' ae . ' sapayensis before , so my first step was to pull out my copy of die buntbarsche der neuen welt : s\u00fcdamerika . sure enough , there they were , in the chapter entitled\nder buntbarsche der . . aequidens\n- pulcher - gruppe .\nthere was a page of text , and pair of pictures , no less . all this told me three things : ( 1 ) sapayensis is valid species , ( 2 ) they are ' aequidens ' sapayensis until they are assigned to some genus ( as aequidens has been restricted to exclude this group of species ) , and ( 3 ) my fish resembling blue acaras as they did , stood a chance of being ' ae . ' sapayensis .\naquarium : i \\ ' ve never kept patricki , but if it \\ ' s anything like its close relatives in the aequidens genus , it could get a little feisty as it matures . most are pretty simple to keep , but should only be mixed with fish of equal size or larger who are capable of sticking up for themselves . many of the similar - looking aequidens can also be wife - beaters , so make sure you provide plenty of hiding places , or consider bringing the female into condition and then reintroducing the male to her tank using a divider .\neigenmann , c . h . & w . l . bray . 1894 . a revision of the american cichlidae . ann . n . y . acad . sci . 7 : 607 - 624 . kullander , s . o . 1986 . cichlid fishes of the amazon river drainage of peru . swedish museum of natural history , stockholm , 431 pp . kullander , s . o . 1995 . three new cichlid species from southern amazonia : aequidens gerciliae , a . epae and a . michaeli . ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 6 : 149 - 170 . kullander , s . o . & e . j . g . ferreira . 1991 . a new aequidens species from the rio trombetas , brasil , and redescription of aequidens pallidus . zool . scr . 19 : 425 - 433 . kullander , s . o . & h . nijssen . 1989 . the cichlids of surinam . e . j . brill , leiden and other cities , xxxiii + 256 pp .\nthe genus aequidens itself also has a complex history , having previously comprised a much larger grouping which contained members of the currently valid genera andinoacara , bujurquina , krobia , cleithracara and laetacara . all of these are usually placed within the subfamily cichlasomatinae alongside members of cichlasoma , ivanacara , nannacara , tahuantinsuyoa and acaronia following kullander ( 1998 ) and subsequent works .\nfurther , the published meristics for the various species are quite similar ; the dorsal and anal fm spine / ray counts of ' ae . ' ; coeruleopunctatus and ' ae . ' sapayensis overlap entirely . ( see table . ) the case is probably even worse than suggested by the numbers in the original descriptions . now that many more specimens are generally examined when describing a species , it is recognized that spine and ray counts can vary widely within a species . in the recently described ' ae . ' patricki , to chose an example from the true aequidens , specimens are recorded with dorsal counts of 14 - 18 hard spines and 10 - 12 soft rays . 2 if these sorts of variances are found in species of ' aequidens ' as well , it might well be impossible to assign an individual fish to any of these species on the basis of spine and ray counts alone .\nthis is the type species of the genus aequidens and has the widest distribution of any member species . it exists in various colour forms depending on locality with variants from ecuador and peru being particularly sought after since they develop striking red ( ecuador ) or orange ( peru ) colouration on the lower part of the jaw , head and anterior portion of the belly whereas those from brazil tend to have an overall grey / blue / green colouration , for example .\nnonetheless , i examined photos of two specimens of gold acaras ( a female from the original purchase and a male from two generations later ) to obtain dorsal and anal counts . the counts of these two fish agreed with each other ( not surprisingly ) but do not match those from the descriptions of any similar ' aequidens ' species . ( see table . ) they are closest to those of ' ae . ' latifrons but ( as per the discussion above ) this may well be insignificant .\na new species of tripartiella is described from the gills of the wild saddle cichlid aequidens tetramerus in north brazil . wet smears of skin and gills of examined fish were air - dried at room temperature and impregnated with klein ' s dry silver method for examination of the adhesive disc ' s structures and denticles . total prevalence of parasitism was 65 % . this ciliate is characterized as a small - sized trichodinid , body diameter 37 . 03 \u00b1 4 . 9 \u03bcm , adhesive disc 30 . 50 \u00b1 2 . 71 \u03bcm , denticulate ring 13 . 28 \u00b1 0 . 8 \u03bcm and 24 \u00b1 2 . 0 denticles . taxonomic and morphometric data for the new species are discussed .\nthe auctioneer took my bid , looked for another , and sold me the fish . i don ' t remember exactly how much i paid , but i thought they were quite the bargain . they could have been $ 200 . 00 , for all i knew when i bid on them , but fortunately they weren ' t . they were more along the lines of what you might pay for blue acaras in a store . interestingly enough , that ' s just what they looked like : three young blue acaras . ( blue acaras are supposedly ' aequidens ' pulcher , but they have been bred commercially for so long that it is difficult to ascertain what wild stock they might have originated from . ) hmmn .\naequidens sapayensis . probable trio ,\nthe bag read . well , one was larger than the other two , but it seemed a bit premature to be sexing them at 1\nlong . still , if these really were what they were said to be , i hoped that the size difference really did reflect a sex difference as well . the auction was in chicago , so it was late the next evening before they were placed in a tank at my home in minneapolis . i had changed some of their water at the hotel the evening of the auction and again the next morning , but the water looked rather foul in their bag when i got them home . the seemed to adjust well to their new tank , however .\nno change in behavior was noted when the divider was removed , but a couple of weeks later the male was found dead . i imagine that he was killed by the female , but this is only speculation . in any case , this ended my attempts at spawning ' aequidens ' sapayensis , for the time being . i still have the female and the one of her offspring that grew up beside her . the remaining fry were all sold or given away to friends , local aquarists , or those attending the 1994 aca convention . i know that at least one aquarist has bred the gold acaras he got from me ( vinny kutty , pers . comm . ) and now has fry from them . also , considering the information provided by dr . wayne leibel ( above ) , it might be worthwhile to look for\ngreen terrors\nthat really aren ' t .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by cmilitante , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by cmilitante , 14 / 03 / 2013\nlatin , aequus , equal , equally + latin , dens , dentis = teeth ( ref . 45335 )\nfreshwater ; benthopelagic ; ph range : 4 . 9 - 7 . 5 ; dh range : 1 - 13 . 5 . tropical ; 24\u00b0c - 26\u00b0c ( ref . 1672 )\nsouth america : widely distributed in the amazon river basin in peru , colombia , ecuador , brazil and bolivia . also in the tocantins and parna\u00edba rivers , french guiana , suriname , guyana , and in the orinoco river basin of venezuela and colombia .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 16 . 2 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 36377 )\none of the most colorful species of the genus , especially during its reproductive period . frequently occurs in zones with little current and over a substrate covered with vegetal debris ( ref . 27188 ) . caught frequently but not abundantly in most varied biotopes - in small creeks and flooded zones with clear , shallow and slow flowing water . feeds primarily on insects , secondarily on fishes and plants . very territorial . during reproduction , males attain a deeper coloration . about 1 , 000 eggs are released during spawning . spawning takes place on stone or wood . parents take care of juveniles ( ref . 35237 ) . maximum length 25 cm tl ( ref . 1672 ) .\nkullander , s . o . and h . nijssen , 1989 . the cichlids of surinam : teleostei , labroidei . e . j . brill , leiden , the netherlands . 256 p . ( ref . 26372 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01622 ( 0 . 00890 - 0 . 02956 ) , b = 3 . 07 ( 2 . 90 - 3 . 24 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 2 \u00b10 . 50 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( fec = 1 , 000 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 23 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nin naked dorsal and anal fins and long caudal peduncle including 2 - 3 vertebrae instead of none .\nthe type species , a . tetramerus , which attains 160 mm sl , is one of the most widespread south american cichlids , and is recorded from most of the amazon , tocantins , and orinoco basins , and guianan rivers . it was recently redescribed by kullander ( 1986 ) on the basis of western amazonian material , by kullander & nijssen ( 1989 ) on surinamese material , and by kullander ( 1995 ) on specimens from the aripuan\u00e3 drainage . the other species reach 100 - 120 mm sl and are much more limited in distribution .\nthere is no published key available . please refer to kullander ( 1986 ) , kullander & nijssen ( 1989 ) , kullander & ferreira ( 1991 ) , and kullander ( 1995 ) for identification guides . more than half a dozen undescribed species are known from museum material .\ntropical cis - andean south america , including the guianas , the orinoco drainage , the tocantins drainage , the parna\u00edba drainage , the amazon drainage and the uppermost paraguay drainage .\ndescribed from the rio branco in northern brazil but as currently recognised is widely - distributed throughout much of northern south america including the amazon system in peru , colombia , ecuador , brazil ( where it\u2019s also been recorded from the rio tocantins and rio parnaiba ) and bolivia , plus various drainages in french guiana , suriname and guyana , and the rio orinoco basin in venezuela and colombia .\nthis species is essentially a habitat generalist exhibiting a preference for biotopes containing slow - moving or still water with well - structured substrates including submerged tree roots , branches , leaf litter , etc . like many species it often moves into flooded zones during periods of high water and can also be found in flood plain lakes and oxbows . it\u2019s more frequently recorded in quieter tributary drainages than major river channels and at some localities aquatic plants grow thickly . the water itself may be black , clear or white though the former pair are apparently favoured .\nin the belmont stream , a tributary of the lower rio madeira in rond\u00f4nia state , western brazil a . tetramerus has been recorded to occur sympatrically alongside numerous other fish species including laemolyta taeniata , leporinus fasciatus , triportheus angulatus , tetragonopterus argenteus , mylossoma aureum , semaprochilodus taeniurus , biotodoma cupido , cichla monoculus , crenicichla johanna , centromochlus heckelii , hypoptopoma gulare , peckoltia bachi , squaliforma emarginata , sorubim lima and leiarius pictus .\na tank with base dimensions of 120 cm x 45 cm should be the smallest considered and something significantly larger is likely to be required should you wish to maintain more than a single pair .\nideally a soft , sandy substrate should be employed though it is not essential . additional furnishings are as much a case of personal taste as anything else but the most favoured set - ups tend to feature relatively dim lighting plus some chunks of driftwood and scattered roots / branches . one or two flattish , water - worn rocks can also be included to provide potential spawning sites if you wish .\nwater quality is of the utmost importance since these cichlids are susceptible to deteriorating water quality and should never be introduced to a biologically immature aquarium . the best way to achieve the desired stability is to over - filter the tank using a combination of external canister filters and / or a sump system and perform minimum weekly water changes of 50 - 70 % . if the maintenance regime and / or diet is insufficient individuals may develop health problems such as head and lateral line erosion or exhibit stunted growth . mechanical filtration should be tailored to trap small particles stirred up by the fish as sand can cause blockages / wearing issues with filter mechanisms if allowed to continually run through the system . high flow rates should be avoided so position filter returns accordingly .\nph : 4 . 5 \u2013 7 . 5 depending on collection locality . wild specimens collected from black water regions may require acidic water on a mandatory basis .\nomnivorous but the diet of wild specimens is apparently dominated by invertebrates . in the aquarium offer good quality , sinking dry foods as staple alongside regular meals of live or frozen bloodworm , artemia , etc .\nmales are territorial , particularly when spawning , while very small tankmates may be predated upon . can be maintained alongside other cichlids provided there is sufficient space available .\nmales grow larger than females and usually develop extensions to the unpaired fins as they mature . when in spawning condition they are also much the more colourful gender .\nbiparental substrate spawner and relatively simple to breed . the most proven method is to buy a group of 6 or more young specimens to be grown on together , removing the excess once pairs begin to form .\ndespite its type status it\u2019s long been hypothesised that a . tetramerus as currently recognised is likely to represent a group of related fishes rather than a single taxon , meaning if a detailed analysis were to be conducted some of the populations may be described as distinct species .\nthese conclusions have not achieved general acceptance to date with the results of subsequent molecular research by h . l\u00f3pez - fern\u00e1ndez et al . suggesting that the a . diadema and a . tetramerus groups in fact form a putatively monophyletic groupings . both sets of authors agree that additional research is required in order to diagnose which species belong where .\nkullander , s . o . 1986 - department of vertebrate zoology , research division , swedish museum of natural history , stockholm , sweden , 394 p . cichlid fishes of the amazon river drainage of peru .\nkullander , s . o . and h . nijssen . 1989 - e . j . brill , leiden , the netherlands . 256 p . the cichlids of surinam : teleostei , labroidei .\nl\u00f3pez - fern\u00e1ndez , h . , k . o . winemiller and r . l . honeycutt . 2010 - molecular phylogenetics and evolution 55 : 1070\u20131086 multilocus phylogeny and rapid radiations in neotropical cichlid fishes ( perciformes : cichlidae : cichlinae ) .\nmusilov\u00e1 , z . , o . \u0159\u00ed\u010dan and j . nov\u00e1k . 2009 - journal of zoological systematics and evolutionary research 47 ( 3 ) : 234 - 247 phylogeny of the neotropical cichlid fish tribe cichlasomatini ( teleostei : cichlidae ) based on morphological and molecular data , with the description of a new genus .\norigin : this species is only known from a couple of river systems in peru - the rio aguaytia and rio pachitea .\nsize : males can reach around 12cm / 5 \\\n, but females are a little smaller .\nwater : i \\ ' ve heard of these being kept in hard water without problems , but if you want to get them looking at their best , soft and slightly acidic water is best . i \\ ' d keep them warm at about 27 - 29c .\nidentification : according to sven kullander , who described it , a . patricki is a member of the \\\ntrue acaras \\\ngroup . a few other representatives such as diadema , tetramerus , metae and pallidus also enter the trade , but there are about another seven or eight rarer species , and several that haven \\ ' t been described yet .\nnotes : this species is named after patrick de rham , a swiss fishkeeper who is perhaps best known for his work on malagasy cichlids .\n\u00a9 1955 - 2016 bauer consumer media limited are authorised and regulated by the financial conduct authority ( firm reference no . 710067 ) media house , peterborough business park , peterborough , pe2 6ea .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspecial publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . 2013 . catalog of fishes . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 9 sep 2013 ) .\nthis species is recorded from arguin bank ( mauritania ) and from the gulf of guinea southwards to cape agulhas ( south africa ) , and eastward to southern mozambique and the gulf of aden . in the western pacific ocean , it occurs off the coasts of new south wales and southern queensland , australia ( griffiths and hecht 1995 ) . the distribution of this species is very disjunct occurring in three oceans and two continents ( sasaki 2001 , hoese et al . 2006 , scandol et al . 2008 ) .\nboth south african and australian stocks are significantly depleted ( hutton et al . 2001 , scandol et al . 2008 ) . in south africa the spawning component of the stock has been reduced by approximately 95 % from pristine levels . catch per boat / year in the 1980s had declined to approximately 3 % of the catches ( of equivalent unit ) in the 1900s ( hutton et al . 2001 ) . total catch along the south african coastline for the period 1985 - 1997 reported total catch landings of 500 t . however , it does not indicate the current status of the stock ( hutton et al . 2001 ) . in australia , annual commercial catches have been moderate and sporadic , but have declined ( e . g . from over 200 t in the 1950s to 35 t in 1989 - 90 ) and the recreational catch is significant ( annual harvest in nsw alone is of 70 - 110 tonnes ) ( kailola et al . 1993 , scandol et al . 2008 ) . historical data are lacking . this species status of exploitation is considered ' depleted ' by the fao review of the state of world marine fishery resources .\nthis species is an important food fish throughout most of its distributional range . in south africa , it is considered a premier commercial and recreational linefish species along the entire east coast ( cape point to natal ; grififths and hecht 1995 ) . it is ranked as the sixth most important in the linefishery of south africa since it was started in the 1800s ( hutton et al . 2001 ) .\nin south africa , current catch restrictions include bag limits of 10 fish day for recreational anglers ( introduced in 1984 ) and a minimum size limit ( 60cm tl ) for both recreational and commercial fishers ( hutton et al . 2001 ) . a recent analysis of trends in cpue of linefish species in south africa indicated that many were severely overexploited during the 20th century . in order to address this and to allow the depleted stocks to recover , south africa is aiming to achieve a 70 % reduction in commercial effort in the linefishery , accompanied by stringent regulations to recreational fishing ( fao 2005 ) . in australia , with the purchase of a license , there is a minimum bag limit of five fish and a minimum legal length of 38 cm tl ( nsw dpi 2006 / 2007 ) . also this species distribution overlaps several marine reserves within its australian range ( wood 2007 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ni wasn ' t paying much attention to the auction , like most cichlid auctions , this one was dominated by overpriced african , rift - lake cichlids . the few\nsouth american\ncichlids being sold were mostly discus and angels , which had been selectively bred for many generations so that they would not resemble their beautiful ancestors . so , i was talking quietly with a friend sitting beside me while the auctioneer ran through the fish .\ntwo days later i found one of the smaller fish dead . i couldn ' t tell if the stress of the trip or one of its siblings killed it , but my probable trio was now a probable pair . i kept the label from the bag , which listed the seller ' s name and phone number , in case my probable pair turned into a definite loner .\nthat was pretty much where i let matters sit until i decided to write this article . two years had past , the fish had bred successfully ( see keeping and breeding , below ) , and i had accepted that my fish were , indeed . ' ae . ' sapayensis . as adults they still resembled blue acaras quite strongly , although they had horizontal rows of golden dots instead of the bluish dots of blue acaras . i had taken to referring to them as my\ngold acaras ,\nas i prepared to write this article , however , i became curious as to how the seller in chicago had identified his fish . while there are a few small differences between these gold acaras and the blue acaras of the aquarium hobby , these differences are assuredly not striking . i doubt that i would notice anything unusual if i came across these fish while perusing sellers ' tanks for rare fish . i doubted even more that most importers , wholesalers , or retailers would have noticed anything either .\nfortunately . i had kept the seller ' s tag from the auction , although i hadn ' t had to call him for more fish . mike brousil , the seller , told me that he got his fish from steve covolo . he also told me that steve had either received his fish from , or at least had them identified by dr . wayne leibel .\nwayne was unsure of the details ( it had been four or five years now since his role in this saga ) , but was able to confirm that he had probably identified the ancestors of my fish somewhere along the route . he told me that ' ae . ' sapayensis were sometimes found in pet shops at small sizes being sold as green terrors , having been brought in from the wild misidentified . he said that based on the fact that they were found in green terror territory and that they matched closely with good color photos published in the german aquarium literature , he was convinced they were ' ae . ' sapayensis .\ngood photos and collecting data probably provide as accurate an identification as can be reasonably had with these fish . the description of ' ae . ' sapayensis was done ninety years ago and the descriptions of the species most likely to be confused with ' ae . ' sapayensis ( which are ' ae . ' pulcher . ' ae . ' coeruleopunctatas , and ' ae . ' latifrons ) were made twenty - five to fifty years before that . as was the general case for descriptions of the time , these descriptions are brief and are made from a small number of specimens ( one in the case of ' ae . ' sapayensis ) . all but one of them lacks drawings and , of course , all of them lack photographs .\ntable . spine and ray counts from the original descriptions of ' ae . ' pulcher , ' ae . ' coeruleopunctatus . ' ae . ' latifrons , and ' ae . ' sapayensis and from two\ngold acaras .\none might tend to wonder given the similarity of meristics and general overall appearance , whether or not the species mentioned above are all valid species . this is a question that i am not qualified to answer and will not attempt to . perhaps the best that we aquarists can do is wait for a modern review of these species by an ichthyologist .\ngold acaras resemble blue acaras not only in appearance , but also in behavior and in their requirements for successful keeping and breeding . like most acaras ( but notably unlike the sympatric green terrors ) , gold acaras have a moderate temperament for a cichlid .\nmike brousil reports ( pers comm . ) that his pair were quite timid and would not spawn if there were other fish in the tank . if isolated , however , they would spawn , at which point they would become very aggressive towards ( ie : kill ) any new fish introduced into their aquarium .\nmy own pair held their own in a tank with south american cichlids such as acarichthys heckelii and cichlasoma taenia which were at the time of similar size . when they matured they were placed alone in a thirty gallon aquarium with an undergravel filter which had been \u0093cichlid proofed\nby placing a piece of plastic window screen on top of the bottom two inches of gravel . several rocks , pieces of driftwood and bark , and some homemade , plastic plants were present in the tank for hiding places and / or spawning sites . the tank was lit only by the ambient room light . a rather defective heater varied the water temperature between 70\u00b0 and 85\u00b0 f . the water was very soft ( approx . 3 dh ) , and the ph ranged from about 7 down to nearly 4 . no attempt was made to record the temperature and ph fluctuations and correlate them with behavior .\nthe larger of the fish staked out a territory at one end of the tank and the smaller fish spent most of its time hiding near the other end . the fish were fed primarily doro - min with a supplement of frozen blood worms . the larger fish ate greedily , but the smaller only caught an occasional food stick that floated near its hiding place or ventured cautiously forth after blood worms . both fish grew at about the same pace , but the larger fish grew much more robust , even fat . then one day the larger fish showed a female breeding tube .\ni was a bit surprised to see that the probable male of my probable pair was actually a female . i began to worry that i either did not have a pair ( as i thought that the smaller fish was unlikely to be a male ) or if idid have a pair , that they wouldn ' t successfully spawn ( as i doubted that such a timid male would leave hiding long enough to fertilize the eggs ) . so , i wasn ' t all that excited when i finally saw eggs . many captive female cichlids will lay eggs by themselves if a suitable mate is not available .\nthe eggs were laid on a nearly vertical piece of rock at the female ' s end of the tank . the spawning was not observed , but the behavior of the other fish on the day the eggs were found did not differ from its previous behavior . it continued to hide on the far end of the tank from the larger fish ; this helped to convince me that i did not have a breeding pair of fish .\ni was surprised then when the eggs , roughly 100 in number , did not fungus on the following days . after 3 days they hatched , but the fry soon disappeared , never to be seen again . still , i now knew i had a pair and i began to condition them with more feedings of blood worms in hopes of another spawn .\non the next spawning , there were approximately 300 eggs laid in the same location as before . this time , after the eggs hatched , the number of fry began to dwindle and the male became increasingly beaten - up . i suspected that the male was eating the fry and being attacked by the female as she attempted to defend them . i siphoned a couple of dozen fry out of the tank and set them up in a ten gallon aquarium with a sponge filter in order to raise them away from the parents . i also separated the male from the female using a piece of\neggcrate\nlight grating placed in the middle of the tank .\nthe fry in the thirty gallon with the parents grew much more quickly than those in the ten gallon tank , but their numbers continued to dwindle , although at a much slower rate than before . my guess is that now and then one of the fry in the parents ' tank would find its way to the male ' s side of the tank and be eaten by him , but i never actually witnessed this . the presence of the divider did not significantly change the general behavior of either adult fish ; the male continued to spend most of his time in hiding even though he was separated from the more outgoing female .\ni decided to remove the remaining fry ( now down to about a dozen ) from the parents ' tank . they were too big to place in with the fry previously removed from the thirty gallon , so i put them in a ten gallon tank of their own . a couple of days later i observed that there was still one young fish in the parents ' tank , but i decided to leave it there .\nin the next couple of weeks the growth of the single juvenile remaining in the parents ' tank greatly outpaced those of its siblings in the fry tanks . i decided that it could probably fend for itself with the barrier removed and i was anxious to have the adults spawn again , so i took out the egg - crate divider .\nconkel , d . 1990 .\nfishes of the balboan jungle .\ntropical fish hobbyist , 38 ( 8 ) : 74ff .\ngill , t . 1858 .\nsynopsis of the fresh water fishes of the western portion of the island of trinidad . w . r .\nannals of the lycewnofnaturalhistory of new york . 6 : 363 - 430 .\nkner . r . and f . steindachner . 1866 .\nneue gattungen und arten von fischen aus centralamertka .\nabhandlungen der mathematisch - phy sikalischen classe der koniglichbayerischen akademie der wissenschaften . 10 : 1 - 61 .\nregan . c . 1903 .\ndescrtptions of new south amertcan fishes in the collection of the british museum .\nannals and magazine of natural history . ser . 7 . vol . 12 : 621 - 630 .\nstawikowski . r . and u . werner , 1988 . die buntbarsche der neuen welt : siidamertka . essen , west germany .\nsteindachner . f . 1878 .\nzur fisch - fauna des magdalenenstromes . . . denkschriften der kaiserlichen akademie der wissenschaften . mathematischnaturwissenschajtliche classe . wien . 39 : 19 - 78\nu . s . office of geography , department of interior . 1957 gazetteer no . 36 : ecuador . washington , d . c .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nvideira m 1 , velasco m , azevedo r , silva r , gon\u00e7alves e , matos p , matos e .\nlaborat\u00f3rio de morfofisiologia e sanidade animal , universidade do estado do amap\u00e1 ( ueap ) , macap\u00e1 , ap , brazil .\ndescription found in coastal waters , over sandy and sandy mud bottom . juveniles enter estuaries . adults feed on pelagic fishes at . . .\ndescription found in coastal waters , over sandy and sandy mud bottom . juveniles enter estuaries . adults feed on pelagic fishes at night . often caught with @ umbrina canariensis @ . marketed fresh and is considered an important foodfish ( ref . 9772 ) . [ details ]\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of otolithus atelodus g\u00fcnther , 1867 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of otolithus teraglin macleay , 1880 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atractoscion stelodus ( g\u00fcnther , 1867 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nrobins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is turned off in your web browser . please turn it on to take full advantage of arctos , or try our html specimensearch option .\ntaxon name is the\nnamestring\nor\nscientific name ,\nthe\ndata\nthat is used to form identifications and the core of every taxonomy record .\ntaxon term is the data value of either a classification term (\nanimalia\n) or classification metadata ( such as name authors ) .\nterm type is the rank (\nkingdom\n) for classification terms , in which role it may be null , and the label for classification metadata (\nauthor text\n) .\nsource indicates the source of a classification ( not a taxon name ) . some classifications are local ; most come from globalnames .\ncommon names are vernacular term associated with taxon names , and are not necessarily english , correct , or common .\ninhabit streams . is rare in the aquarium trade but has been imported on occasion ( ref . 12251 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthe largest specimen collected was less than 15 cm long ( ref . 12251 ) .\nsmith - vaniz , b , robertson , r . , dominici - arosemena , a . , molina , h . , salas , e . & guzman - mora , a . g .\njustification : this deep - water species is widespread in the eastern pacific . it is not targeted by fisheries due to its small size . there are no major threats known to this species , and no indication of widespread population decline . it is listed as least concern .\nthis species is endemic to the eastern pacific , and is found from southern california and the western gulf of california to western panama , including the galapagos and cocos island .\nthis demersal species lives on soft substrata at depths of 75 to 265m . it feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans , octupus , squid , cuttlefishes , and bony fishes .\nthere are no known species specific conservation measures . however , this species ' distribution includes a number of marine protected areas in the eastern pacific region .\nsmith - vaniz , b , robertson , r . , dominici - arosemena , a . , molina , h . , salas , e . & guzman - mora , a . g . 2010 .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nmartins ml 1 , marchiori n 2 , bittencourt ls 3 , tavares - dias m 3 .\ndepartamento de aquicultura , universidade federal de santa catarina , florian\u00f3polis , sc , brazil .\nempresa de pesquisa agropecu\u00e1ria e extens\u00e3o rural de santa catarina , campo experimental de piscicultura de cambori\u00fa , cambori\u00fa , sc , brazil .\nlaborat\u00f3rio de aquicultura e pesca , embrapa amap\u00e1 , macap\u00e1 , ap , brazil .\nortega torres , h . , correa , e . & chuctaya , j .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern because its population is presumed to be stable and there are no known major threats affecting it .\nthis species is known from the peruvian amazon ( ortega et al . 2012 ) , and its type locality is a small brook from a drying pool , tributary of the aguaytia river ( 9\u00b002 ' s , 75\u00b031 ' w ) , in the coronel portillo province , peru ( kullander 1984 ) . the elevation range is between 190 and 600 m ( quezada - garcia 2009 ) .\nthis species inhabits slow to moderate streams of clear and white waters with sand , gravel or rocky bottoms ( quezada - garcia 2009 ) .\nthere are no conservation measures in place for this species . it is not present in protected areas .\nortega torres , h . , correa , e . & chuctaya , j . 2016 ."]}
{"id": 873, "summary": [{"text": "the chromodorididae , or chromodorids , are a taxonomic family of colorful , sea slugs ; dorid nudibranchs , marine gastropod mollusks in the superfamily doridoidea .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "\u201c chromodorid nudibranchs are among the most gorgeously colored of all animals . \u201d the over 360 described species are primarily found in tropical and subtropical waters , as members of coral reef communities , specifically associated with their sponge prey .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the chromodorids are the most speciose family of opisthobranchs .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they range in size from < 1 mm to over 30 cm , although most species are approximately 2 \u2013 3 cm in size .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "although , they have a worldwide distribution , most species are found in the indo-pacific region .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "a scientific paper published in 2007 , found the most widespread chromodorid genera , ( mexichromis , chromodoris , glossodoris and hypselodoris ) to be paraphyletic or polyphyletic .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the family cadlinidae bergh , 1891 has been considered a synonym of the chromodorididae . \"", "topic": 21}, {"text": "research by r.f. johnson in 2011 has shown that cadlina does not belong to the family chromodorididae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "she has therefore brought back the name cadlinidae from synonymy with chromodorididae .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "the chromodorid nudibranchs without cadlina are now monophyletic and turn out to be a possible sister to the family actinocyclidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "cadlina and aldisa are the only two genera currently classified in the cadlinidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "a comprehensive phylogeny of the chromodorid nudibranchs found every one of the 14 traditional chromodorid genera were either non-monophyletic , or rendered another genus paraphyletic .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "additionally , both the monotypic genera verconia and diversidoris are nested within clades .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the authors presented a new classification of the chromodorid nudibranchs , which used molecular data to untangle evolutionary relationships and at the same time retains a historical connection to traditional systematics by using generic names attached to type species as clade names .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "all chromodorid nudibranchs feed on sponges . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "chromodorididae", "paragraphs": ["kento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30a4\u30ed\u30a6\u30df\u30a6\u30b7\u79d1\nto\nchromodorididae\n.\n( opisthobranchia , chromodorididae ) . journal of molluscan studies 72 ( 2 ) : 214\u2013216 .\nbergh , 1898 ( doridoidea : chromodorididae ) . journal of natural history 35 : 1143\u20131171 .\nedmunds m ( 1981 ) opishtobranchiate mollusca from ghana : chromodorididae . zoological journal of the linnean society 71 : 175\u2013201 .\nbergh , 1875 ( nudibranchia : chromodorididae ) in light of phylogenetic analysis . journal of molluscan studies 65 : 33\u201345 .\nbergh , 1898 ( opisthobranchia : chromodorididae ) from patagonia , argentina . journal of molluscan studies 62 ( 3 ) : 265\u2013273 .\nortea ja ( 1988 ) molluscos opisthobranquios del archipelago de cabo verde : chromodorididae . publica\u00e7\u00f5es ocasionais da sociedade portuguesa de malacologia 11 : 1\u201316 .\nnew classification of the chromodorididae with synonyms . generic names and type species in bold and the most recent genus membership follows . listing order follows phylogeny .\ncolour group ( mollusca , nudibranchia , chromodorididae ) , with remarks on the genus brachychlanis ehrenberg , 1831 . journal of natural history 35 : 1371\u20131398 .\nstimpson , 1855 ( nudibranchia , chromodorididae ) with the description of a new species from the caribbean sea . journal of molluscan studies 72 : 189\u2013198 .\nturner lm , wilson ng ( 2008 ) polyphyly across oceans : a molecular phylogeny of the chromodorididae ( mollusca , nudibranchia ) . zoologica scripta 37 : 23\u201342 .\nrudman wb , berquist pr ( 2007 ) a review of feeding specificity in the sponge - feeding chromodorididae ( nudibranchia : mollusca ) . molluscan research 27 ( 2 ) : 60\u201388 .\n( nudibranchia : chromodorididae ) with a review of the monophyletic clade of indo - pacific species , including descriptions of twelve new species . zoological journal of the linnean society 125 : 1\u2013125 .\nrudman wb ( 1984 ) the chromodorididae ( opisthobranchia : mollusca ) of the indo - west pacific : a review of the genera . zoological journal of the linnean society 81 : 115\u2013273 .\nortea j , vald\u00e9s \u00e1 , garcia - gomez jc ( 1996 ) review of the atlantic species of the family chromodorididae ( mollusca : nudibanchia ) of the blue chromatic group . avicennia supplement .\na . \u2018phylogenetic scenario\u2019 for the chromodorid genera modified from [ 5 ] , [ 26 ] . b . morphological phylogeny of generic representatives for the chromodorididae [ 13 ] . c . combined 16s and coi phylogram of the chromodorididae from [ 27 ] . d . combined 16s and coi phylogram of the chromodorididae and cadlinidae from [ 28 ] . rudman ' s \u2018 chromodoris group\u2019 in red , \u2018 hypselodoris group\u2019 in blue , cadlinella in yellow , diversidoris ( not included in [ 5 ] , [ 13 ] , [ 26 ] ) , cadlina in grey and other dorids in black .\nrudman , w . b . ( 1984 ) the chromodorididae ( opisthobranchia : mollusca ) of the indo - west pacific : a review of the genera . zoological journal of the linnean society 81 : 115 - 273 .\nrudman , w . b . & bergquist , p . r . ( 2007 ) a review of feeding specificity in the sponge - feeding chromodorididae ( nudibranchia : mollusca ) . molluscan research , 27 ( 2 ) : 60 - 88\nrudman , w . b . ( 1986 ) the chromodorididae ( opisthobranchia : mollusca ) of the indo - west pacific : noumea purpurea and chromodoris decora colour groups . zoological journal of the linnean society 86 ( 4 ) : 309 - 353 .\nrudman , w . b . ( 1984 ) . the chromodorididae ( opisthobranchia : mollusca ) of the indo - west pacific : a review of the genera . zoological journal of the linnean society . 81 ( 2 ) : 115 - 273 . page ( s ) : 159 [ details ]\nrudman , w . b . ( 1986 ) . the chromodorididae ( ophistobranchia : mollusca ) of the indo - west pacific : noumea purpurea and chromodoris decora colour groups . zoological journal of the linnean society . 86 ( 4 ) : 309 - 353 . page ( s ) : 319 [ details ]\ngosliner , t . m . & johnson , r . f . ( 1999 ) phylogeny of hypselodoris ( nudibranchia : chromodorididae ) with a review of the monophyletic clade of indo - pacific species , including descriptions of twelve new species . zoological journal of the linnean society , 125 : 1 - 114 .\nthe goals of this contribution are : ( 1 ) generate a phylogeny that tests the species level relationships of the chromodorid nudibranchs and confirms the monophyly of the chromodorididae , ( 2 ) assess the phylogenetic validity of the chromodorid genera , and ( 3 ) propose a new classification for the chromodorid nudibranchs that reflects their relationships .\nthe family chromodorididae includes species that are often brightly colored and elaborately patterned , presumably advertising their distastefulness . most chromodorids store toxic chemicals from their sponge food in mantle glands , usually concentrated in a submarginal band on the notum , in order to repel predators . it is the largest indo - pacific nudibranch family , with more than 600 species , and it is well - represented in hawaii with about 43 species in 11 genera (\nthe enigmatic south australian species , chromodoris alternata and c . ambiguus are very different than other chromodorids . they are two of the five chromodorid species with a plesiomorphic serial reproductive system ( c . loringi , c . thompsoni , c . woddwardae ) [ 26 ] , [ 28 ] , [ 89 ] . all five of these species are found only in southeastern australia . these species were found to be more closely related to cadlina than chromodoris by wilson & lee [ 17 ] , but as part of the chromodorid grade in turner & wilson [ 27 ] . clearly further work on this group and its relationship to all cryptobranchs is needed . the addition of specimens of c . loringi , c . thompsoni and c . woodwardae [ 26 ] , [ 89 ] , [ 99 ] , the only other chromodorid species known to have a serial reproductive system may help solve this problem . these two species are always each other ' s closest relatives and are sister to the rest of the miamirainae in the all analyses . as suggested by dayrat & gosliner [ 60 ] they should be considered chromodorididae , because they are not included in a named clade . until the ambiguity of the relationship of these taxa to other chromodorids can be resolved , they should be considered chromodorididae alternata and chromodorididae ambiguous .\nthe two species of cadlinella included here , cadlinella ornatissima and cadlinellla subornatissima form a clade and are sister to the rest of the chromodorid species ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . these findings support previous results [ 27 ] , [ 28 ] and rudman ' s evolutionary scenario [ 5 ] , [ 26 ] . the widespread indo - pacific genus , cadlinella is an enigmatic taxon . it has at different times been considered it own separate family [ 64 ] , a part of the cadlininae [ 65 ] and a member of the chromodoridinae / chromodorididae [ 26 ] , [ 66 ] .\nour classification is based on our coi and 16s combined phylogeny with all specimens included ( figure s2a ) . the older name that describes this clade , ceratosomatidae gray 1857 [ 61 ] was declared nomen oblitum under art . 23 . 9 of the international code of zoological nomenclature [ 58 ] . even though it is older than the name in current usage , chromodorididae , it had not been used in over fifty years . in the phylogeny of the chromodorid nudibranchs , there are five basal clades : cadlinella , tyrinna , two clades made up of some species of noumea and verconia and one clade made up of some species of glossodoris . there is one , main , well - supported clade including species of ceratosoma , hypselodoris , and grade of clades . we will briefly introduce each clade and its member species in the context of a new classification for chromodorid nudibranchs ( figure 5 , s2a , s3 ) .\nbergh [ 90 ] was the first to suggest a separate taxonomic rank for the chromodorid nudibranchs . johnson [ 28 ] showed that the chromodorididae are only monophyletic if cadlina is removed from the family , as cadlina is more closely related to aldisa and other dorid nudibranchs . we expanded on these preliminary results and confirmed the monophyly of the chromodorids in analyses without cadlina and without including as many dorid species . gosliner and johnson [ 101 ] reviewed the genus hallaxa and presented a morphological phylogeny of hallaxa and actinocylcus . they hypothesized that the semi - serial reproductive system found in species of hallaxa and actinocyclus and all chromodorids is a synapomorphy that unites the two groups . the chromodorid nudibranchs are monophyletic in every analysis , as is their sister group relationship with actinocyclidae . these analyses confirm the hypothesis of gosliner & johnson [ 101 ] and the preliminary findings of johnson [ 28 ] and confirm the utility of this morphological synapomorphy .\nthis paper contains new feeding information on 108 species of the sponge - feeding chromodorid nudibranchs and re - evaluates published information for 63 species . the combined information for 137 species shows a clear pattern of food specificity , at both the species and genus levels . new feeding information on the related actinocyclidae is also presented . species of chromodoris and related genera prefer darwinellids ; hypselodoris and its relatives feed on dysideids , and glossodoris feed exclusively on thorectids . the ' basal ' genera , cadlina , cadlinella are less specialised but both they and species of the anatomically similar family actinocyclidae seem linked by their common choice of halisarca . exceptions to the pattern suggest the genus chromodoris is polyphyletic . the evolution of feeding in the chromodorididae is discussed , and the patterns of food specificity are shown to strongly support prevailing hypotheses on chromodorid evolution . recent taxonomic studies within the sponge orders dictyoceratida and dendroceratida have been essential to this study , enabling the re - identification of many of the food sponges , and the use of marker secondary metabolites in both the nudibranchs and their sponge prey .\nwe know from the discovery of polyphyletic and paraphyletic generic groupings in chromodoris , glossodoris , hypsleodoris , mexichromis and noumea [ 27 ] , [ 28 ] , that the current classification of the chromodorididae does not reflect the evolutionary history of the group . we cannot continue to use this current classification . we will use the resulting phylogenies to propose a new classification of the chromodorid nudibranchs . the proposed new classification is based on several fundamental tnets of phylogenetic classification . only clades are named , with two exceptions described below . each clade contains the type species of the name - bearing clade . exisiting , available names are utilized wherever possible to minimize the disruption to nomenclature , while simultaneously reflecting relationship . we will identify clades that include the type species of each chromodorid genus and delineate genera to minimize conflict with current classification and support recognition of interesting morphology . the translation of phylogenetic hypotheses into classifications is the best way to communicate results to a larger community , but even as the number of molecular phylogenies increases , the number of new classifications is decreasing [ 54 ] \u2013 [ 56 ] . the growing phylogeny / classification gap is troubling . phylogenies are hypotheses of relationship and communicating these new hypotheses is one of the main contributions systematics can make to the scientific community .\nthe resulting classification can be used to address questions of interest to a much broader community . a robust phylogeny and corresponding revised classification are necessary to conduct comparative studies in the chromodorididae . evolutionary studies of trophic specialization , color patterns and secondary metabolites , for example , will be much more robust by comparing monophyletic units that are clearly named within a new classification . we have pointed out and highlighted many areas of future research . as we detail above , there are many taxonomic , nomenclatural and species delineation problems that still require refinement within the chromodorid nudibranchs . these questions can best be answered with a detailed examination of morphology together with molecular data . the molecular data needs to be rooted in sound identifications and definitions that are always based on morphology . this phylogeny does not answer all of these issues but it will serve as a framework to more effectively tackle these questions . our classification will serve as a more refined basis for other evolutionary biologists , ecologists and natural products chemists . their results will be more informative in light of a classification based on evolutionary history rather than one based on untested hypotheses . phylogenetic systematics provides a rigorous and repeatable methodology that permits iterative approximations of relationship and our understanding of this diverse and biologically intriguing group of organisms is enhanced by these studies .\ntraditional taxonomy has obscured the patterns of diversification in the chromodorids . a new classification that properly reflects evolutionary history is required . in the new classification , we only keep existing names , for species not supported in clades if it is not disruptive to the new classification . we also hypothesize the predicted phylogenetic position of taxa that have not yet been included in the phylogenetic analysis . we used the nomenclatural standards set by the international code of zoological nomenclature [ 57 ] . names and dates for genera , families and subfamilies we taken from bouchet et al ' s review of gastropod nomenclature [ 58 ] . every name used is resurrected from synonymy and proposed because the type species of the genus is found in the clade . if more than one generic type species is found in the same clade , the older name has priority . in this way , the history of naming in the chromodorids will be maintained . if the gender of a species ' new genus changes in the new classification , the gender of the specific epithet will be changed . additionally , if the incorrect specific name gender has been used , the proper gender will be used in the new classification . the proposed phylogenetic naming code , the phylocode , recommends naming clades when type species are part of the clade to be named , as we have done here , but does not use or recognize ranks as we have by using generic , subfamily and family names for clades . in many cases there is no conflict between the phylocode and traditional nomenlclature [ 59 ] . the phylocode has not been formally adopted , so there is no official system for naming in accordance with that code . in order to maintain stability and to avoid creating names that may change with the addition of new information , we used a method advocated by dayrat & gosliner [ 60 ] . this method advocates using the most inclusive known clade name as the first part of a species binomial for species that cannot be named without creating a new name . we will use the family name chromodorididae as the name for species that would create instability if the bionomials were unchanged or if new names were given . in our proposed classification we will also include incerte sedis species in the chromodorididae . in clades that are poorly supported ( posterior probabilities below 0 . 85 ) , we have used a generic name for members of those groups with the generic name placed in quotation marks . we prefer this method as an interim solution as it does not leave these taxa in taxonomic limbo and retain the use of single names for polyphyletic groups .\nchromodorid nudibranchs ( 16 genera , 300 + species ) are beautiful , brightly colored sea slugs found primarily in tropical coral reef habitats and subtropical coastal waters . the chromodorids are the most speciose family of opisthobranchs and one of the most diverse heterobranch clades . chromodorids have the potential to be a model group with which to study diversification , color pattern evolution , are important source organisms in natural products chemistry and represent a stunning and widely compelling example of marine biodiversity . here , we present the most complete molecular phylogeny of the chromodorid nudibranchs to date , with a broad sample of 244 specimens ( 142 new ) , representing 157 ( 106 new ) chromodorid species , four actinocylcid species and four additional dorid species utilizing two mitochondrial markers ( 16s and coi ) . we confirmed the monophyly of the chromodorididae and its sister group relationship with the actinocyclidae . we were also able to , for the first time , test generic monophyly by including more than one member of all 14 of the non - monotypic chromodorid genera . every one of these 14 traditional chromodorid genera are either non - monophyletic , or render another genus paraphyletic . additionally , both the monotypic genera verconia and diversidoris are nested within clades . based on data shown here , there are three individual species and five clades limited to the eastern pacific and atlantic oceans ( or just one of these ocean regions ) , while the majority of chromodorid clades and species are strictly indo - pacific in distribution . we present a new classification of the chromodorid nudibranchs . we use molecular data to untangle evolutionary relationships and retain a historical connection to traditional systematics by using generic names attached to type species as clade names .\nwe directly sequenced 142 specimens representing 106 species . we combined these new data with all available sequences on genbank ( table s1 ) . specimens and data from johnson [ 28 ] , genbank accession numbers beginning with eu , are included with new data for figure 2 , but are not treated as new in the numbers of specimens sequenced for this study . in total , we analyzed data from 244 chromodorid specimens , four actinocyclid species and four additional dorid nudibranch species for a total of 165 species and 252 individual specimens . we used doris kerguelensis as the outgroup based on preliminary analyses [ 28 ] . the chromodorid species include at least one species from all of the genera currently classified in the family chromodorididae . the number of species included in this analysis compared to the number of described species per genus is as follows : ardeadoris ( 2 / 2 ) , cadlinella ( 2 / 3 ) , ceratosoma ( 9 / 13 , two undescribed ) , chromodoris ( 50 / 88 , two undescribed ) , digidentis ( 3 / 4 ) , diversidoris ( 1 / 1 ) , durvilledoris ( 3 / 4 ) , glossodoris ( 17 / 30 , two undescribed ) , hypselodoris ( 30 / 59 , two undescribed ) , mexichromis ( 7 / 12 ) , noumea ( 12 / 22 ) , pectenodoris ( 2 / 2 ) , risbecia ( 3 / 5 ) , thorunna ( 8 / 12 ) , tyrinna ( 2 / 2 ) and verconia ( 1 / 1 ) ( s1 ) . all sequences taken from genbank are listed with gb following the species name . we also included coi sequence from two specimens from the moorea biocode project in our analyses ( urltoken ) . we have examined all of the new specimens included here and they are deposited in natural history museums , as indicated by catalog numbers . we never combined sequences from different individuals into chimeras representing one species ; specimens included in these analyses are treated as individuals .\nthe majority of chromodorid nudibranchs are found in the indo - pacific , but there are three individual species and five clades of solely atlantic and / or eastern pacific species ( figure 4 ) . the sister group to the rest of the chromodorids , cadlinella is found only in the indo - pacific , while the sister to the chromodorididae , the actinocyclidae is found in most temperate and tropical waters . although there are other possibly scenarios , such as trans - pacific dispersal and migration around africa , the pattern uncovered here , strongly supports the simplest hypothesis that the chromodorids diversified rapidly from the tropical tethyan realm . this pattern has been found in other gastropod groups [ 104 ] \u2013 [ 108 ] ( figure 4 ) . the chromodorids were likely widely distributed and different lineages diversified in isolation following vicariant events . this scenario is further supported by the fact that goniobranchis is sister to \u2018 doriprismatica \u2019 and its closest realitves and that all the memebers of goniobranchus are indo - pacific . also in this scenario , the specimens identified as d . sedna from the atlantic and eastern pacific appear to be distinct species as indicated by coi pairwise distances of 11 . 7\u201311 . 0 % between eastern pacific and altantic specimens while the three eastern pacific specimens are 0\u20130 . 7 % different from each other . this scenario clearly supports vicariance between the indo - pacific and eastern pacific and atlantic preceding the vicariance between the eastern pacific and atlantic . in the main chromodorid grade of clades there are two individual species and three clades that are exclusively atlantic and / or eastern pacific . specimens identified as \u2018 doriprismatica\u2019 sedna found both in the eastern pacific and the western atlantic , are always sisters and are nested within a clade of exclusively indo - pacific species . this is most likely a radiation into the eastern pacific and atlantic from the indo - pacific . the remainder of the atlantic and eastern pacific species , not included in the miamirinae , are part of a polytomy including five clades , three containing only eastern pacific and atlantic species of \u2018felimida\u2019 and the indo - pacific ardeadoris and chromodoris clades . \u2018felimida\u2019 baumanni , found in the eastern pacific , is also part of this polytomy . the relationships in this grade need to be examined more closely with the addition of more specimens and more genes .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncitation : johnson rf , gosliner tm ( 2012 ) traditional taxonomic groupings mask evolutionary history : a molecular phylogeny and new classification of the chromodorid nudibranchs . plos one 7 ( 4 ) : e33479 . urltoken\neditor : jonathan h . badger , j . craig venter institute , united states of america\ncopyright : \u00a9 2012 johnson , gosliner . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : this work was supported by the california academy of sciences , the university of california santa cruz - department of ecology and evolutionary biology , the national science foundation deb 9978155 and deb 0329054 to tg , and an encyclopedia of life rubenstein fellowship to rj . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nnew collections ( from this contribution and [ 28 ] in blue . genbank specimens in red . size of circle represents number of specimens collected in each region . specimen details in supplementary table s1 ) .\nin this study and a companion study [ 28 ] , thanks to targeted collecting trips , dedicated collectors and dna extracted from museum collections , we were able to include specimens from throughout the indo - pacific ( ip ) , the eastern pacific ( ep ) and west atlantic ( wa ) ( figure 2 and table s1 ) . we use the term indo - pacific to define the biogeographic region including the tropical and subtropical regions of the indian ocean ( from the red sea to the east coast of south africa ) and both the western and central pacific , but not the tropical eastern pacific [ 40 ] . museum collections are an invaluable resource for biodiversity studies [ 41 ] . we have found existing natural history collections can reduce the need for additional collecting . our study , combined with data from [ 28 ] and genbank , is unique in its wide taxonomic and geographic sampling . because we have included both the type species of every genus and additional species of all 14 of the non - monotypic genera , we can test the monophyly every genus in the family ( table s1 ) .\nthe majority of the specimens used in this study are part of the california academy of sciences invertebrate zoology ( casiz ) collection . we had the permission of casiz to take tissue samples from specimens for dna analysis . as stated in the casiz collections policy : \u2018no specimens will be accessioned without adequate labeling , collection notes , field notes , or other locality information , nor without appropriate legal documentation ( collecting permits , export permits from country of origin , etc . ) when applicable . \u2019 we also included dna extracted for five specimens currently deposited in the museum national d ' histoire naturelle ( paris museum ) and the western australian museum . these tissues samples were collected during joint field trips under the agreement that the tissue could be sequenced at the california academy of sciences , while the specimens would remain at the respective museum . all other data used is from genbank or the moorea biocode database .\nmost of our samples were collected especially for molecular work and were preserved accordingly , either in 95 % etoh , sed buffer ( saturated nacl solution with edta and dmso ) or frozen . in addition to the specimens collected specifically for molecular study , we were also able to use museum material that was , either preserved in 70\u201375 % etoh or the original fixation method is unknown .\nwe initially used standard phenol - cholorform extractions [ 42 ] , [ 43 ] to extract genomic dna and also used the dneasy spin column extraction method ( qiagen ) to extract genomic dna from the majority of our samples . we used universal primers to amplify , using pcr , double - stranded products from both the cytochrome oxidase 1 ( coi ) and 16s mitochondrial genes . we targeted a 658 bp fragment of coi using folmer et al ' s [ 44 ] universal primers and for 16s sequences , we used palumbi ' s [ 45 ] 16sar and 16sbr primers . we carried out the polymerase chain reaction in 25 \u00b5l reactions with one \u00b5l of genomic dna template . we used the second ( 200 \u00b5l ) elution from my extractions in dneasy ae buffer as the dna template in most reactions . if the amplification was difficult we used one \u00b5l of the first elution . for the phenol - cloroform and chelex extractions , we used dilutions of 1\u223625 or 1\u223650 . no matter the extraction method used , we included 2 . 5 \u00b5l of 10\u00d7 pcr buffer , 0 . 5 \u00b5l dntps ( 10 mm stock ) , 0 . 25 \u00b5l of each primer ( 25 um stock ) , 0 . 75\u20130 . 85 \u00b5l mgcl ( 50 mm stock ) , 0 . 25 \u00b5l taq ( 5 units / \u00b5l ) - apex , biolase , usb hotstart - and 19 . 5 \u00b5l of ddh2o in each reaction tube . we ran all of the reactions on a biorad mycycler\u2122 thermocycler ( software version 1 . 065 , bio - rad laboratories ) . coi segments were amplified with the following parameters : an initial denaturation at 94\u00b0c for three minutes , then , 39 cycles of denaturation at 94\u00b0c for 30 seconds ; annealing at 46\u00b0c for 30 seconds ; extension at 72\u00b0c for 60 seconds , these cycles were followed by extension at 72\u00b0c for five minutes . partial 16s sequences were amplified with the following parameters : an initial denaturation at 94\u00b0c for three minutes , then 39 cycles of denaturation at 94\u00b0c for 30 seconds ; annealing at 50\u201352\u00b0c for 30 seconds ; extension at 72\u00b0c for 60 seconds , these cycles were followed by extension at 72\u00b0c for five minutes and 25\u00b0c for 60 seconds . we used electrophoresis to view pcr products on 0 . 8 % tbe or tae agarose gel stained with ethidium bromide . we cleaned successful pcr products with exosap - it ( usb scientific ) following each product ' s standard protocol .\nthe cleaned , pcr products were copied and labeled with fluorescently dye - terminators ( big dye 3 . 1 abi ) in 10 \u00b5l reactions . each reaction contained 0 . 5\u20132 \u00b5l of cleaned pcr product , 1 . 63 \u00b5l of 5\u00d7 reaction buffer , . 5 \u00b5l of primer ( 10 mm stock ) , 0 . 5 \u00b5l\u20130 . 75 \u00b5l of big dye and water to 10 \u00b5l . these reactions were run on a perkin elmer 9600 - geneamp pcr system or a biorad mycycler\u2122 thermocycler ( software version 1 . 065 , bio - rad laboratories ) . the resulting labeled , single stranded dna was precipitated by addition of 2 . 5 \u00b5l of edta and sequential washing and pelleting in ( centrifuge details ) with 100 % and then 70 % etoh . the pelleted dna was denautured for two minutes at 94\u00b0c in 13\u201315 \u00b5l of hidi formamide ( applied biosystems ) . the denatured , labeled dna fragments were sequenced in both directions on the abi 3100 and 3130 genetic analyzer in the center for comparative genomics ( formerly the osher laboratory for molecular systematics ) at the california academy of sciences .\nwe assembled , edited and removed primer strands from forward and reverse strands for each gene fragment sequenced using sequencher ( ver . 4 . 7 . genecodes corporation ) and genious 3 . 0 - 5 . 3 . 3 ( biomatters ) . we aligned the coi sequences by eye and translated the base pair data into amino acids to using macclade 4 . 08 [ 46 ] to confirm alignment accuracy . we aligned 16s sequences with muscle [ 47 ] . we then further optimized the alignments by eye using both macclade [ 46 ] and genious 3 . 0 - 5 . 3 . 3 ( biomatters ) .\nwe tested for saturation or multiple substitutions at the same site by plotting the absolute number of transitions and transversions at each codon position ( 1 st , 2 nd , 3 rd ) for coi and at each base pair for 16s against both uncorrected p distance and log det using paup [ 48 ] and excel ( plots not shown ) .\nsequence data for both genes was not obtained for every specimen we studied . we worked with two main data sets , because we wanted to test the effect of missing data on the resulting phylogeny : the two data sets were : 1 ) combined 16s and coi for specimens with sequence data for both genes , 2 ) all 16s and coi data for all specimens ( table s1 . ) both of these data sets were analyzed both including and excluding variable characters in the 16s alignment . for all of these analyses we used doris kerguelensis as the outgroup .\nwe determined the best - fit model of evolution for each codon position for coi ( 1 st , 2 nd 3 rd ) and the 16s fragment using the aic selection from mr . modeltest ver . 2 [ 49 ] for each dataset . we ran bayesian phylogenetic analyses using mr . bayes 3 . 1 . 2 [ 50 ] \u2013 [ 52 ] . we ran a monte carlo - metropolis simulation for 50 , 000 , 000 generations for each dataset , with trees sampled every 1000 generations . data was partitioned by gene and by codon position in all combined analyses . we ran one analysis of two runs of six chains for all data sets . all other settings remained in the default and all parameters were unlinked to allow each partition to vary independently ( mr . bayes 3 . 12 manual , urltoken ) all trees saved before convergence of the runs and stationarity of likelihood values were discarded . we determined convergence and stationarity by plotting tree number against likelihood scores for each run to find the point where the likelihood plot leveled off and began to fluctuate around a stable value using tracer 1 . 4 [ 53 ] ( plots not shown ) . in all cases , the conservative estimate of a burnin of 25 % of sampled trees was well into this plateau . the remaining 75000 trees ( 37500 from each run ) were used to construct majority rule consensus trees and calculate posterior probabilities . all clades and support values are shown in the resulting phylogenies . all posterior probabilities are mapped on all trees . as suggested by hulsenbeck [ 50 ] , clades with posterior probabilities of 0 . 95\u20131 . 00 will be considered to be very well - supported . clades with support values of 0 . 85\u20130 . 94 will be considered supported . all posterior probabilities lower than 0 . 85 are considered poorly supported and should be viewed with caution , but all posterior probabilities are mapped on all trees . although taxa may appear as sister species , we can only know true sister species relationships if we have complete taxon sampling for the family .\nthe sequenced coi fragment is 658 base pairs ( bp ) long . the edited 16s sequences are 531 bp long . the combined data sets with gaps introduced for alignment are 1189 base pairs long . all sequences are available from genbank coi ( jq727822\u2013jq727914 ) , 16s ( jq727689\u2013jq727821 ) and aligned data matrices are available upon request from the corresponding author . excluded variable 16s regions are identified as character sets in all nexus files . saturation was not found in the 16s fragment or the first or second positions of the coi fragment . there is slight saturation in the third position transitions in the coi data set ( not shown ) . the third positions were included in the bayesian analysis as the partitioning allows the parameters of this position to be estimated separately and the inclusion of the third positions did not change the resulting trees . the recommended model of evolution ( aic form mr . model test ) was used to set parameters in mr . bayes for each partition . the resulting best - fit model of evolution for each partition using the aic selection from mr . modeltest ver . 2 [ 78 ] were coi 1 st : gtr + g , coi 2nd : trn + i + g , coi 3 rd : gtr + i + g and 16s : gtr + i + g . these models correspond to the following settings in mr . bayes ; all partitions set to nst = 6 and rates = invgamma except for the coi second codon position partition which was set rates = gamma .\nthe figured trees are the resulting consensus phylograms from the bayesian analyses ( figures s1 , s2 ) . all posterior probabilities are shown above the branches on the bayesian phylograms . tree topology was not altered with the inclusion or exclusion or the 16s fragment ' s variable regions ( see figure s2 for comparison of trees with and without variable regions ) . the resulting phylogenetic hypotheses for each dataset are summarized below . we will discuss relationships in terms of posterior probabilities .\ncoi and 16s combined analysis : including only specimens with data for both genes ( figure s1 ) .\nthis data set included 164 individual chromodorids , representing 123 species , three species of actinocyclidae , four other dorids . the outgroup was doris kerguelensis . the data set included was 1189 bases long included gaps introduced to aid in alignment of variable regions . all bases are included . in the majority rule consensus phylogram resulting from the bayesian analysis , the chromodorids are monophyletic ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . they are sister ( pp = 0 . 98 ) to the monophyletic actinocyclids ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . cadlinella ornatissima is sister to the rest of the chromodorids ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . the monophyletic tyrinna ( pp = 1 . 00 ) is poorly supported as sister to the main clade of chromodorids ( pp = 0 . 82 ) . the main clade of all chromodorids , except cadlinella and tyrinna is supported ( pp = 0 . 85 ) . two clades of noumea ( both pp = 1 . 00 ) are part of a basal polytomy with the clade including the remaining chromodorid species ( pp = 0 . 89 ) . a well - supported clade ( pp = 1 . 00 ) containing some species of glossodoris is poorly supported at the base of the chromodorid grade . within this main clade of chromodorids , there is one very well supported clade , which includes all species of ceratosoma , durvilledoris , hypselodoris , mexichromis , pectenodoris , risbecia , thorunna and some digidentis ( pp = 1 . 00 ) diversidoris aurantionodulosa and noumea crocea are sister species ( pp = 1 . 00 ) and poorly supported ( pp = 0 . 78 ) as sister to a poorly supported clade ( pp = 0 . 66 ) that includes this well - supported clade and chromodoris alternata and chromodoris ambiguus ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . there is also a poorly supported clade ( or grade if the clade is collapsed ) of smaller clades made up of species of ardeadoris , chromodoris , diversidoris , glossodoris , noumea , verconia and one species of digidentis ( pp = 0 . 67 ) . of the other 12 non - monotypic traditional genera , seven ( ceratosoma , chromodoris , digidentis , glossodoris , hypselodoris , mexichromis , noumea ) are non - monophyletic and three ( durvilledoris , pectenodoris , risbecia ) are monophyletic but render another genus paraphyletic . both ardeadoris and thorunna are made paraphyletic by nested members of other genera ( noumea , glossodoris - within ardeadoris and digidentis - within thorunna ) . there are three species and five clades of eastern pacific and / or atlantic species .\nthis data set included 244 individual chromodorids , representing 157 species , four species of actinocyclidae , four other dorids . the outgroup was doris kerguelensis .\nthe complete data set included 1189 bases . the chromodorids are monophyletic ( pp = 0 . 94 ) . they are sister to the monophyletic actinocyclids ( pp = 0 . 98 ) . a clade including both species of cadlinella is sister to the rest of the chromodorids ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . the monophyletic tyrinna ( pp = 1 . 00 ) is poorly supported as sister to the main clade ( pp = 0 . 83 ) . there are two clades containing species of noumea and the one species of verconia ( pp = 1 . 00 and pp = 1 . 00 ) that form a polytomy with the clade of all of the remaining chromodorids ( pp = 0 . 85 ) . within the main clade of chromodorids , there is one very well supported clade , which includes all species of ceratosoma , durvilledoris , hypselodoris , mexichromis , pectenodoris , risbecia , thorunna and some digidentis ( pp = 1 . 00 ) and a grade of clades of species ardeadoris , chromodoris , diversidoris , glossodoris , noumea , verconia and one species of digidentis . of the other 12 non - monotypic traditional genera , seven ( ceratosoma , chromodoris , digidentis , glossodoris , hypselodoris , mexichromis , noumea ) are non - monophyletic and three ( durvilledoris , pectenodoris , risbecia ) are monophyletic but render another genus paraphyletic . both ardeadoris and thorunna are made paraphyletic by nested members of other genera ( noumea , glossodoris and digidentis ) ( figure 3 ) . more detailed results found within each clade will be discussed below . there are three individual species and five clades of eastern pacific or atlantic species ( figure 4 ) . the data set without variable regions included 1108 bases . there are only slight changes to the tree topology , including slight losses of support and changes to branching pattern in the species relationships within four clades containing species of noumea , glossodoris , chromodoris and thorunna . additionally , some clades are more well - supported in the phylogram without variable regions , most notably there is some support for the two noumea clades as sisters . all of these differences are mapped in mirrored trees ( figure s2 ) .\ntree is the same bayesian phylogram as figured in s3a . all specimens , both genes and all characters included .\ntree is the same bayesian phylogram as figured in s3a . all specimens , both genes and all characters included . blue = indo - pacific , red = atlantic and caribbean , gold = eastern pacific , green = sister group , black = outgroups . dark grey = solely eastern pacific and atlantic clades . light grey = primarily indo - pacific clades with eastern pacific members .\nof the 16 genera in the current chromodorid classficiation , only two , cadlinella and tyrinna , retain the same membership in our new classification . nine more generic names are retained ; ardeadoris , ceratosoma , chromodoris , diversidoris , glossodoris , hypselodoris , mexichromis , noumea and thorunna but their membership has changed . five names are synonymized with the names listed above : digidentis , durvilledoris , pectenodoris , risbecia and verconia . five older names : doriprismatica , felimare , felimida , goniobranchus and miamira , have been rescued from synonymy and are used to describe clades of species previously included in different genera . there are 17 generic names used in our new classification , each of which will be detailed below and in figure s3 . of these , 13 are very well supported with posterior probabilities \u22650 . 95 . mexichromis is supported with a posterior probability of 0 . 87 when variable positions are included and 0 . 95 when they are excluded . noumea consists of two separate clades ( both pp = 1 . 00 ) that are poorly supported as a combined clade in the analysis when variable positions are included ( pp = 0 . 61 ) . although , this support is not sufficient , all of the species in both of these clades are currently named noumea and will retain this name in order to maintain stability . doriprismatica is extremely poorly - supported pp = 0 . 64 with variable positions included and well - supported ( pp = 0 . 92 ) in the analysis with variable positions excluded ( figures s2 , s3 ) . we do not consider this level of support sufficient to definitively name this clade , but because continuing to use the current name , chromodoris , would add greater confusion ( as that name represents a different , well - supported monophyletic group ) we will premilinarily name these species \u2018 doriprismatica\u2019 . similarly , a group of species some of which are currently classified as chromodoris and some as glossodoris form a polytomy together with other well supported clades . as these species need a name , but lack appropriate support , they cannot be named definitively . we will preliminaryily name these species \u2018felimida\u2019 . naming these clades is much more stable than using names that now represent other well - defined and well supported clades . these names are hypotheses ; with more data the relationships of members of these clades will likely become better resolved . the completed classisifiction is listed in table s2 .\ncadlina burnayi ortea , 1988 [ 68 ] = t . nobilis [ 69 ]\nthe only two species of tyrinna : t . evelinae and t . nobilis are included here . tyrinna is always monophyletic ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . after the split from cadlinella , this clade is poorly - supported as the sister group to the main group of chromodorids ( pp = 0 . 83 ) . rudman [ 26 ] suggested that tyrinna , cadlinella and cadlina form a basal grade of primitive chromodorids . cadlina had been shown not to be a chromodorid [ 28 ] , but our results support rudman ' s suggestion that tyrinna and cadlinella are basal to the rest of the chromodorids . muniain et al [ 70 ] and schr\u00f6dl and millen [ 71 ] extensively reviewed the morphology of the two species in this clade .\nverconia verconis is well supported as part of a clade that includes n . haliclona , n . laboutei , n . romeri and n . simplex ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . noumea varians , n . purpurea and n . norba form a well - supported clade ( pp = 1 . 00 ) that is not part of a name bearing clade , but is one branch of the polytomy that includes the \u2018noumea sensu stricto\u2019 and the branch leading to the rest of the family ( pp = 0 . 88 ) . the monotypic genus verconia is nested within the noumea clade as suggested by rudman [ 75 ] and weakly supported as the sister species to another south australian species , n . haliclona , as found in the preliminary results shown by turner & wilson [ 27 ] .\ntype species : doris xantholeuca ehrenberg , 1831 [ 76 ] = g . pallida ( by subsequent designation )\nthe glossodoris clade ( pp = 1 . 00 ) includes species g . pallida and g . rufomargninata . in an important , but often overlooked detailed examination of the relationships of the species classified in the genus glossodoris , rudman identified five subgroups of this genus based on morphology [ 77 ] . the species in this glossodoris clade were considered by rudman [ 77 ] to be members of the \u2018 glossodoris pallida subgroup\u2019 . this clade also includes two species he did not include in any subgroup , g . cincta and g . hikuerenesis .\nlissodoris odhner , 1934 [ 80 ] . type species : l . mollis odhner , 1934 ( = c . aureomarginata cheeseman , 1881 [ 86 ] ( by monotypy )\nthis clade includes all of the indo - pacific species of chromodoris that are not part of the black - lined , planar egg mass clade ( pp = 1 . 00 ) , except chromodoris alternata and chromodoris ambiguus . this phylogeny is the first to find definitive support for a clade of chromodorids , first suggested by wilson [ 16 ] and turner and wilson [ 27 ] known to lay egg masses with extra - capsular yolk . when pease designated doris vibrata as the type species for the new genus goniobranchus , he should have changed the ending of vibrata to vibratus to reflect the masculine gender of the \u2013us ending . we have made that correction here and changed the gender of all of the species names that require changing ( names derived from adjectives ) in goniobranchus .\ncasella h . & a . adams , 1858 : 57 [ 84 ] . type species : c . gouldii h . & a . adams , 1858 [ 84 ] ( by monotypy )\nspecies included in the glossodoris atromarginata subgroup [ 77 ] are recovered in this clade , with the addition of g . sedna and digidentis kulonba ( pp = 0 . 95 ) .\nthis name will be used for all eastern pacific and atlantic species of chromodoris and glossodoris ( except glossodoris sedna ) . these species form a polytomy including glossodoris baumanni and three clades of atlantic and eastern pacific chromodorids .\nchromodoris clenchi , c . norrisi and c . sphoni ( pp = 1 . 00 )\nchromodoris krohni , c . luteorosea and c . purpurea ( pp = 0 . 78 )\nthese exclusively eastern pacific and atlantic clades do not form a monophyletic group , but we will provisionally name all of these species \u2018felimida\u2019 . this is the most conservative choice , the choice that requires the fewest name changes and is the least disruptive pending further information and broader taxon sampling .\nthe ardeadoris clade includes both species of ardeadoris : a . egretta and a . scottjohnsoni , five species of glossodoris ( g . averni , g . pullata , g . rubroannulata , g . tomsmithi and glossodoris undaurum ) and noumea angustolutea ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . . based on their analysis , turner and wilson [ 27 ] suggested that with more sampling it would be come clear if ardeadoris should be synonmized with glossodoris . by sampling more broadly within the family , we found the converse . four species of glossodoris and noumea angustolutea need to be included within ardeardoris because they are strongly supported as part of the clade including ardeadoris egretta and not the type species of glossodoris . three of the species , g . averni , g . undaurum and g . rubroannulata , found in this clade were part of rudman ' s glossodoris sedna subgroup [ 77 ]\nthis clade includes all of the black - lined species of chromodoris and chromodoris aspersa ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . this clade was identified by , both wilson & lee [ 17 ] and turner & wilson [ 27 ] , as the planar spawning or black - lined chromodoris clade . all of the members of this clade lay flat egg masses .\ntype species : diversidoris aurantionodulosa rudman , 1987 [ 89 ] ( by original designation ) .\nthe diversidoris includes , diversidoris aurantionodulosa , two yellow species of noumea , n . crocea and n . flava , and a new species from moorea , french polynesia - chromodoridae biocode 2937 ( pp = 0 . 95 ) .\nthe miamirinae clade includes all of the species currently classified as ceratosoma , durvilledoris , hypselodoris , mexichromis , pectenodoris , risbecia , thorunna and two species of digidentis ( pp = 1 . 00 )\nthis clade was first predicted by rudman [ 26 ] based on morphological similarities and then confirmed by rudman & berquist ' s [ 5 ] finding that all of the species in this clade feed exclusively on sponges of the family dysideaidae , although they assumed all of the genera to be monophyletic . miamirinae bergh 1891 is the oldest appropriate and available subfamily or family name for this clade . the remaining six genera ; miamira , ceratosoma , felimare , mexichromis , thorunna and hypselodoris make up the miamirinae .\nthe miamira clade includes the following species ( as currently classified ) ceratosoma alleni , ceratosoma magnificum , ceratosoma miamiranum , ceratosoma sinuatum . miamira is part of a grade with ceratosoma . the morphological phylogeny of species of ceratosoma and classified as miamira and orodoris , that was used as justification for their synonomy , predicted a sister group relationship between species of miamira and ceratosoma alleni [ 93 ] . our results confirm that c . alleni is more closely related to species of miamira , but do not find support for synonymy of miamira and ceratosoma . although , it is possible this relationship will be recovered with further sampling and by including molecular markers that will help resolve basal branches on the phylogeny .\nthe ceratosoma clade includes c . amoenum , c . gracillimum , c . ingozi , c . tenue , c . trilobatum and a new species . ( pp = 1 . 00 )"]}
{"id": 890, "summary": [{"text": "cancer johngarthi is a species of crab that lives in the eastern pacific ocean from mexico to panama .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it was separated from c. porteri in 1989 , and is the subject of a small-scale fishery off baja california . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "cancer johngarthi", "paragraphs": ["fishing time and trap ghost fishing for cancer johngarthi along the baja california peninsula ' s sout . . .\nfishing time and trap ghost fishing for cancer johngarthi along the baja california peninsula ' s sout . . .\ncarvacho , a . 1989 . cancer johngarthi , n . sp . and . . . comparisons and hypothesis . proc . biol . soc . wash . 3 ( 102 ) . 613 . -\nn x x ( dungeness crab ) s x x o x x cancer spp .\nspecies cancer aculeatus o . fabricius , 1780 accepted as lebbeus groenlandicus ( fabricius , 1775 )\nspecies cancer buso k . sakai accepted as hyas araneus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ( incorrect spelling )\nspecies cancer acantha h . milne edwards , 1834 accepted as actaea acantha ( h . milne edwards , 1834 )\nspecies cancer calculosa h . milne edwards , 1834 accepted as actaea calculosa ( h . milne edwards , 1834 )\n\u00bb species cancer ( atergatis ) frontalis de haan , 1835 accepted as atergatis latissimus ( h . milne edwards , 1834 )\n\u00bb species cancer ( eudora ) incisus de haan , 1833 accepted as ozius guttatus h . milne edwards , 1834 ( nomen nudum )\n\u00bb species cancer ( thelphusa ) tridens de haan , 1835 accepted as parathelphusa tridentata h . milne edwards , 1853 ( nomen nudum )\n. . . in soft - bottom sublittoral habitats along the coast of peru and chile ( hce ) the hairy crab romaleon polyodon ( synonymous of cancer setosus molina , 1782 and cancer polyodon poeppig , 1836 ) , and the queen crab cancer plebejus ( synonymous of cancer coronatus molina , 1782 ) ( see ng et al . , 2008 ; schram and ng , 2012 ; schweitzer and feldmann , 2000 , for an update on the systematics and nomenclature of the deca - pod family cancridae ) are conspicuous megafaunal components of the sea floor ( guti\u00e9rrez and z\u00fa\u00f1iga , 1976 ; mu\u00f1oz et al . , 2006 ; wolff and soto , 1992 ) . . . .\nduring trap - fishing investigations on the crab cancer johngarthi along baja california peninsula ' s southwestern coast , baja california sur , mexico , conducted between 2002 and 2006 , information was gathered to assess fishing efficiency in terms of the number of crabs caught per trap during one hour of operation ( catch per unit of effort , cpue = c / ht ) . as a result of vessel operation issues , . . . [ show full abstract ]\ncancer is one of the\noldest\nnames in carcinology , but like many old and familiar things it has fallen into use as a catch - all category , especially by non - taxonomists . much taxonomic revision has occurred in brachyura : cancridae [ cancer ] in recent years , and unfortunately , much of it has passed completely under the radar of biologists . a summary of that revisionary work is provided along with a list of currently accepted names for the living species of cancridae . we offer this contribution in an effort to cut off the use of old , and in many cases invalid , binomina , and to encourage the use of a modern , up - to - date classification of cancrid crabs .\nbiostor is built by @ rdmpage , code on github . page images from the biodiversity heritage library .\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nour main goal is to design a meta - database for oceanographic , ecological , economic and social data for marine ecosystems and marine - related sectors of mexico . we intend to identify the major trends\u2026\n[ more ]\nventanas de escape en trampas para la captura de la langosta roja , punulirus interruptus , en baja ca . . .\nin order to determine the effect of escape vents in traps used in the california spiny lobster , panulirus interruptus , fishery along the pacific coast of baja california sur ( mexico ) , comparative fishing operations were conducted with normal traps and traps modified with escape vents . it was found that carapace height is directly related to trap selectivity . the results show the effectiveness . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe growth of farfantepenaeus duorarum in campeche sound was analysed from length - frequency data collected from february 1984 through december 1988 . the monthly anomalies of the catch structure for commercial categories , and the monthly relative importance of small , medium , and large shrimp show that the main cohort is recruited to the fishing grounds during october . following the evolution of . . . [ show full abstract ]\nemerging fisheries in subtropical coastal lagoons : sphoeroides annulatus in magdalena - almejas bay , b . . .\nfishing is an important economic activity in baja california sur that creates thousands of jobs and provides high - quality food . magdalena - almejas bay is a highly productive region that contributes an annual average close to 50 % of state catches . it is the center of various small - scale fisheries that include the marine species commonly known as \u201cfinfish\u201d , for which information is scarce . to . . . [ show full abstract ]\nsorry , preview is currently unavailable . you can download the paper by clicking the button above .\nenter the email address you signed up with and we ' ll email you a reset link .\n, composite species based on description by brown ( 1756 ) , which referred in part to an east american species of petrochirus and one or more indo - pacific species of coenobita . linnaeus ( 1767 ) subsequently applied the specific name diogenes to the species of )\n, transferred to calcinus by holthuis ( 1977 ) as senior synonym of c . ornatus ( roux , 1830 ) )\nlinnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nt\u00fcrkay , m . ( 2001 ) . decapoda , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 284 - 292 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nadema , j . p . h . m . ( 1991 ) . de krabben van nederland en belgie ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura ) [ the crabs of the netherlands and belgium ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura ) ] . nationaal natuurhistorisch museum : leiden , the netherlands . isbn 90 - 73239 - 02 - 8 . 244 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\n. . . the red king crab accounted for the majority of the organisms found in crab pots . rarely found species included sculpins ( myoxocephalus spp . ) , southern tanner crab , and dungeness crab ( metacarcinus magister ; sensu schram and ng , 2012 ) . over the study period in womens bay , divers located 143 pots , of which 60 were found during the tracking of tagged crabs and 83 were found during other projects ( table 2 ) . . . .\na proposal for a new family : montezumellidae ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura ) and description of new genus and species moianella cervantesi from the priabonian ( late eocene ) of catalonia ( ne of iberian peninsula ) . bolet\u00edn de la sociedad geol\u00f3gica mexicana . volumen 65 , 2 , 2013 , 285 - 298 .\noreotlos latus ( borradaile , 1903 ) , a new record for taiwan , with the first description of a male and . . .\nthe poorly known leucosiid crab , oreotlos latus ( borradaile , 1903 ) is reported for the first time from taiwan . only three female specimens , including the holotype , were previously known , i . e . , from the maldives , eniwetok , and japan . the present specimen is the first male known and its characters are described and figured . a revised key to oreotlos ihle , 1918 , is also provided . french le crabe . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe identity of leptomithrax sinensis rathbun , 1916 , and the description of l . eldredgei , sp . nov . abstract . a new species of majid crab , leptomithrax eldredgei , sp . nov . is described from hong kong . the species is most similar to the poorly known l . sinensis rathbun , 1916 , described from hong kong only on the basis of a carapace . leptomithrax sinensis is fig - ured for the first time , and . . . [ show full abstract ]\na revision of the genus tiwaripotamon bott , 1970 ( decapoda : brachyura : potamidae ) , with a descriptio . . .\nthe freshwater crabs of the genus tiwaripotamon bott , 1970 ( potamidae ) are revised and the identities of two poorly known species , t . simulum ( alcock , 1909 ) and t . araneum ( rathbun , 1905 ) , are clarified after a re - examination of the types . tiwaripotamon , sensu stricto , is restricted to five species , t . annamense ( balss , 1914 ) ; t . araneum ( rathbun , 1905 ) ; t . pingguoense dai and naiyanetr , 1994 ; . . . [ show full abstract ]\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nhendrickx reners m e , ramos rivera p ( 2017 ) . addenda a la colecci\u00f3n de referencia de invertebrados de la estaci\u00f3n mazatl\u00e1n , unam y an\u00e1lisis de la fauna de crust\u00e1ceos is\u00f3podos del pac\u00edfico mexicano , julio 1996 - julio 1997 . version 1 . 3 . comisi\u00f3n nacional para el conocimiento y uso de la biodiversidad . occurrence dataset\nse incorporar\u00e1 en una base de datos material de invertebrados ya identificado ; adem\u00e1s , se recolectar\u00e1 material adicional de crust\u00e1ceos is\u00f3podos y de an\u00e9lidos poliquetos en sistemas costeros espec\u00edficos a lo largo del pac\u00edfico mexicano . se pondr\u00e1 prioridad en la exploraci\u00f3n de un n\u00famero elevado de nichos ecol\u00f3gicos ( microh\u00e1bitats ) para poder obtener una imagen , la m\u00e1s real posible , de la riqueza espec\u00edfica de las \u00e1reas visitadas ( aumentar el grado de representatividad ) .\nkinberg , j . g . h . 1855 . nya sl\u00e4gten och arter af annelider . oefv . vet . akad . stockholm , f\u00f6rh . 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( 7 ) . 30 . -\nlockington , w . n . 1878 . remarks upon the porcellanidae of the west coast of north america . ann . mag . natur . hist . 11 ( 2 ) . -\nlombardo , a . c . 1988 . paracerceis richardsoni , n . sp . di . . . delle coste pacifiche del messico . animalia . 1 - 3 ( 15 ) . 5 - 15 . -\nmalmgren , a . j . 1865 . nordiska hafs - annulater . oefv . vet . akad . stockholm , f\u00f6rh . ( 21 ) . 183 . -\nmalmgren , a . j . 1867 . annulata polychaeta spertsbegiae , groelandiae . . . hactenus cognita . oefv . k . vetensk . akad . stockholm , f\u00f6rh . ( 24 ) . -\nmarenzeller , e . von . 1879 . s\u00fcdjapanische anneliden . i and ii . akad . wiss . wien . denkschr . 2 ( 41 ) . -\nmenzies , r . j . & j . l . barnard . 1959 . marine isopoda on coastal . . . southern california : systematic and ecology . pacific . naturalist . 11 ( 1 ) . 20 - 21 . -\nmenzies , r . j . 1951 . new marine isopods chefly from . . . notes on related froms . proc . u . s . natl . mus . 3273 ( 101 ) . 114 - 118 . -\nmenzies , r . j . 1962 . the marine isopod fauna of bahia de san quintin baja california , mexico . naturalist . 11 ( 3 ) . 341 . -\nmesnil , f . 1896 . \u00e9tudes de morphologie externe chez les ann\u00e9lides . . . c\u00f4tes de la manche . bull . sci . france belg . ( 29 ) . 195 . -\nmilne edwards , a . 1861 . etudes zoologiques sur les crustaces recents . . . des portuniens . arch . mus . nat . paris . ( 10 ) . 325 . -\nmilne edwards , a . 1874 . les fonds de la mer . fisher , p . ; l . de folin & l . p\u00e8rier . 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( 3 ) . 173 . -\nbell , t . 1935b . on microrhynchus , a new genus of triangular crab . proc . zool . soc . london . ( 3 ) . 88 . -\nbenedict , j . e . 1892 . preliminary description of 37 . . . eupagurus in the u . s . national museum . proc . u . s . natl . mus . 887 ( 15 ) . 4 . -\nbenedict , j . e . 1897 . a revision of the genus synidotea . proc . acad . nat . sci . phila . 402 . -\nbenedict , j . e . 1902 . description of a new genus . . . list of know marine species . proc . u . s . natl . mus . ( 26 ) . -\nberkeley , e . & c . berkeley . 1938 . notes on polychaeta from the coast of western canada ii . syllidae . ann . mag . nat . hist . serie 11 . 3 ( 1 ) . -\nberkeley , e . & c . berkeley . 1941 . on a collection of polychaeta from southern california . bull . s . calif . acad . sci . ( 40 ) . -\nberkeley , m . j . 1828 . a short account of a new species of modiola . . . of two british serpulae . zool . j . london . 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( 3 ) . lybrairie enciclo . de roret . paris . 271 . -\nmilne edwards , h . y h . lucas . 1844 . crustaces . voyage dans l ' amerique . . . annees 1826 , 1827 , 1828 , 1829 , 1830 , 1831 , 1832 et 1833 . d ' orbigny , a . paris . -\nmonro , c . c . a . 1933 . the polychaeta sedentaria collected by dr . c . crossland at col\u00f3n in the panama r . zool . soc . london . 1048 . -\nmontagu , g . 1815 . descriptions of several new or rare animals . . . coast of devonshire . trans . linn . soc . london . ( 11 ) . -\nmoore , j . p . 1904 . new polychaeta from california . proc . acad . nat . sci . phila . ( 56 ) . -\nmoore , j . p . 1906 . additional new species of polychaeta from the north pacific . proc . acad . nat . sci . phila . ( 58 ) . -\nmoore , j . p . 1907 . descriptions of new species of spioniform annelids . proc . acad . nat . sci . phila . ( 59 ) . -\nmoore , j . p . 1909a . polychaetous annelids from monteres bay and san diego , california . proc . acad . nat . sci . phila . 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( 23 ) . -\ntreadwell , a . l . 1906 . polychaetous annelids of the hawaiian island . . .\nalbatross\nin 1902 . bull . u . s . fish com . , wash . ( 23 ) . -\ntreadwell , a . l . 1929 . new species of polychaetous . . . lower california , and british somaliland . amer . mus . novitat . n . y . ( 392 ) . 12 . -\ntreadwell , a . l . 1941 . eastern pacific expeditions . . . xxiii . polychaetous . . . and central america . zoologica . 1 ( 26 ) . -\nw\u00e4gele , j . w . 1984 . two new littoral anthuridae . . . redescription of mesanthura occidentalis . zool . scr . 1 ( 13 ) . 45 - 52 . -\nwebster , h . e . 1879 . the annelida chaetopoda of new jersey . ann . rep . n . y . state mus . nat . hist . ( 32 ) . -\nwicksten , m . k . & m . mendez . 1982 . new records and new species of . . . the eastern pacific ocean . bull . soc . calif . acad . sci . ( 81 ) . 106 . -\nwir\u00e9n , a . 1883 . chaetopoder fran sibiriska ishafvet och . under vega expeditionen 1878 - 79 . ( 2 ) . 383 - 428 . -\nuniversidad nacional aut\u00f3noma de m\u00e9xico . instituto de ciencias del mar y limnolog\u00eda . unidad acad\u00e9mica mazatl\u00e1n . laboratorio de invertebrados bent\u00f3nicos\nwe report the presence of a total of 549 decapod species for costa rican marine and coastal waters , including eight species not mentioned previously for costa rica . species number was substantially higher for the pacific ( 438 spp . ) compared to the caribbean coast ( 119 spp ) . brachyura ( 253 spp . ) , anomura ( 116 spp . ) , and caridea ( 114 spp . ) comprised the highest number of species . pacific costa rica supports 55 % and 52 % of decapoda and brachyura , respectively , known to occur in the panamic province . species diversity in the caribbean is more difficult to compare due to the lack of adequate and updated information .\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\n( crustacea : decapoda : grapsidae ) in america , with description of a new genus . smithson contr zool 527 : 1\u201359\nabele lg , kim w ( 1986 ) an illustrated guide to the marine decapod crustaceans of florida . dept environ reg tech series , florida 8 : 1\u2013326\nabele lg , kim w ( 1989 ) the decapod crustaceans of the panama canal . smithson contr zool 482 : 1\u201350\n: vonk r ( ed ) crustacean issues 14 . a . a . balkema , lisse , the netherlands , 419 p\n3b . baba k 2005 . deep - sea chirostylid and galatheid crustaceans ( decapoda : anomura ) from the indo - pacific , with a list of species . galathea rep . 20 : 1\u2013317 .\nh . milne edwards ( decapoda , anomura ) on the west coast of the americas . rev biol trop 20 : 265\u2013273\nball ee , haig j ( 1974 ) hermit crabs from the tropical eastern pacific . i . distribution , color and natural history of some common shallow - water species . bull south calif acad sci 73 : 95\u2013104\nbenedict je ( 1902 ) description of a new genus and forty - six new species of crustaceans of the family galatheidae , with a list of the known marine species . proc us nat mus 26 : 243\u2013334\n( crustacea , decapoda , callianassidae ) . ph . d . dissertation , university of miami , florida , 281 p\nboone l ( 1926 ) a new family of crustacea . preliminary technical description . zool soc bull 29 : 73\nboone l ( 1930 ) scientific results of the cruises of the yachts \u201ceagle\u201d and \u201cara\u201d , 1921\u20131928 , william k . vanderbilt , commanding . crustacea : anomura , macrura , schizopoda , isopoda , amphipoda , mysidacea , cirripedia and copepoda . bull vanderbilt mar mus 3 : 1\u2013221\nboone l ( 1932 ) the littoral crustacean fauna of the galapagos islands . part ii . anomura . zoologica 14 : 1\u201362\nboschi ee ( 2000 ) biodiversity of marine decapod brachyurans of the americas . j crust biol 20 : 337\u2013342\nboyko cb ( 2002 ) a worldwide revision of recent and fossil sand crabs of the albuneidae stimpson and blepharipodidae , new family ( crustacea : decapoda : hippoidea ) . bull am mus nat hist 272 : 1\u2013396\nbright db ( 1966 ) land crabs of costa rica . rev biol trop 14 : 183\u2013203\nbright db , hogue cl ( 1972 ) a synopsis of the burrowing land crabs of the world and list of their arthropod symbionts and burrow associates . contrib sci 220 : 1\u201358\n( bivalvia : pteridae ) , costa rica . rev biol trop 44 : 915\u2013917\ncaddy jf ( 1989 ) marine invertebrate fisheries , their assessment & management . wiley , new york , 752 p\nrathbun , 1918 ( crustacea : brachyura : pinnotheridae ) . proc biol soc wash 106 : 92\u2013101\n( decapoda : anomura : diogenidae ) from the tropical western atlantic and a comparison with other species of the genus from the region . proc biol soc wash 107 : 137\u2013150\nwicksten , 1982 ( crustacea : brachyura : pinnotheridae ) . proc biol soc wash 110 : 69\u201373\ncampos e , d\u00edaz v , gamboa - 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beach fauna of the pacific and atlantic coast of costa rica and colombia . rev biol trop 22 : 51\u201366\n( dana ) in the eastern pacific ocean ( decapoda : anomura ) . crustaceana 23 : 119\u2013122\nepifanio ce , dittel ai ( 1984 ) seasonal abundance of brachyuran crab larvae in a tropical estuary : gulf of nicoya , costa rica , central america . estuaries 7 ( 4b ) : 501\u2013505\nfaxon w ( 1893 ) preliminary descriptions of new species of crustacea . bull mus comp zool 24 : 149\u2013220\nfaxon w ( 1895 ) reports on an exploration off the west coast of mexico , central and south america , and off the galapagos islands by the u . s . fish commission steamer \u201calbatros\u201d , during 1891 . xv . the stalk - eyed crustacea . mem mus comp zool 18 : 1\u2013292\nfischer r ( 1981 ) bioerosion of basalt of the pacific coast of costa rica . senckenberg marit 13 : 1\u201341\nlatreille ( crustacea : decapoda : caridea : palaemonidae ) . zool verhandl leiden 336 : 1\u2013257\nsp . new , associated with a newly described ascidian from the pacific coast of costa rica ( decapoda , natantia , pontoniinae ) . publ seto mar biol lab 19 : 293\u2013301\n( crustacea , decapoda , paguridae ) with the description of new species from american waters . bull mar sci 33 : 10\u201354\ngarth js ( 1958 ) brachyura of the pacific coast of america . oxyrhyncha . allan hancock pac exped 854 p\ngarth js ( 1959 ) eastern pacific expedition of the new york zoological society . xliv . non - intertidal brachygnathous crabs from the west coast of tropical america part 1 : brachygnatha oxyrhyncha . zoologica 44 : 105\u2013124\ngarth js ( 1961 ) eastern pacific expeditions of the new york zoological society . xlv . non - intertidal brachygnathous crabs from the west coast of tropical america . part 2 : brachygnatha brachyrhyncha . zoologica 46 : 133\u2013159\ngarth js ( 1966 ) eastern pacific expeditions of the new york zoological society . xlvi . oxystomatus and allied crabs from the west coast of tropical america . zoologica 51 : 1\u201314\n( stimpson ) , n . comb . , a stridulating crab from the west coast of tropical america , with remarks on discontinuous distribution of some west american and west african genera of brachyrhynchous crabs . crustaceana 15 : 312\u2013318\ngarth js ( 1973 ) new taxa of brachyuran crabs from deep water off western peru and costa rica . bull south calif acad sci 72 : 1\u201312\ngarth js ( 1974 ) on the occurrence in the eastern tropical pacific of indo - west pacific decapod crustaceans commensal with reef - building corals . proc 2nd int coral reef symp , brisbane 1 : 397\u2013404\ngarth js ( 1991 ) taxonomy , distribution , and ecology of gal\u00e1pagos brachyura .\n: james mj ( ed . ) gal\u00e1pagos marine invertebrates . plenum , new york , pp 123\u2013145\ngarth js , stephenson w ( 1966 ) brachyura of the coast of america . brachyrhyncha ; portunidae . allan hancock monogr mar biol 1 : 1\u2013154\n( crustacea , anomura ) , with description of a new species from singapore . bull raffles mus 14 : 186\u2013197\n, sp . nov . with notes on the porcellanid crabs of the southern caribbean . bull mar sci 20 : 957\u2013970\ngore rh ( 1974 ) on a small collection of porcellanid crabs from the caribbean sea ( crustacea , decapoda , anomura ) . bull mar sci 24 : 700\u2013721\ngore rh ( 1982 ) porcellanid crabs from the coasts of m\u00e9xico and central america ( crustacea , decapoda , anomura ) . smithson contr zool 363 : 1\u201334\ngore rh , abele lg ( 1973 ) three new species of porcellanid crabs ( crustacea , decapoda , porcellanidae ) from the bay of panama and adjacent caribbean waters . bull mar sci 23 : 569\u2013573\ngore rh , abele lg ( 1976 ) shallow water porcelain crabs from the pacific coast of panama and adjacent caribbean waters ( crustacea , anomura , porcellanidae ) . smithson contr zool 237 : 1\u201330\n( crustacea : brachyura : pinnotheridae ) with description of three new species . bull mar sci 40 : 397\u2013422\ngruner h - e ( 1993 ) wirbellose tiere . 4 . teil . arthropoda ( ohne insecta ) . gustav fischer verlag , jena , 1 279 p\nguinot d ( 1967 ) recheches pr\u00e9liminaires sur les groupements naturels chez les crustac\u00e9s d\u00e9capodes brachyoures . ii . les anciens genres\nguinot d ( 1969 ) recherches pr\u00e9liminaires sur les groupements naturels chez les crustac\u00e9s d\u00e9capodes brachyoures . vii . les goneplacidae . bull mus nat hist nat 41 : 241\u2013265\nguinot d ( 1971 ) rechercher pr\u00e9liminaires sur les groupementes naturels chez les crustac\u00e9s d\u00e9capodes brachyoures . viii . synthese et bibliographie . bull mus nat hist nat 42 : 1063\u20131090\nhaig j ( 1956 ) the galatheidae ( crustacea : anomura ) of the allan hancock atlantic expedition with review of the porcellanidae of the western north atlantic . rep allan hancock atlant exped 8 : 1\u2013148\nhaig j ( 1957 ) four new porcellain crabs from the eastern pacific . bull south calif acad sci 56 : 31\u201341\nhaig j ( 1960 ) the porcellanidae ( crustacea : anomura ) of the eastern pacific . allan hancock pac exped 24 : 1\u2013440\nhaig j ( 1962 ) papers from dr . th . mortensen ' s pacific expedition 1914\u20131916 . lxxix . porcellanid crabs from eastern and western america . vidensk meddel dansk naturhist foren kjobenhavn 124 : 171\u2013192\nhaig j ( 1968 ) eastern pacific expeditions of the new york zoological society . porcellanid crabs ( crustacea : anomura ) from the west coast of tropical america . zoologia 53 : 57\u201374\nhaig j ( 1974 ) observations on the lithodid crabs of peru , with description of two new species . bull south calif acad sci 73 : 152\u2013164\nhaig j ( 1980 ) arthropoda : crustacea , superfamily hippoidea : families hippidae and albuneidae ( mole and sand crabs ) .\n: brusca rc ( ed . ) common intertidal invertebrates of the gulf of california . university of arizona press , tucson , pp 286\u2013291\ncomplex ( decapoda , anomura , paguridae ) from the eastern pacific . contr sci , nat hist mus los angeles county 430 : 1\u201311\nhaig j , provenzano aj ( 1965 ) a new genus and two new species of diogenid hermit crabs ( decapoda , anomura ) . crustaceana 9 : 199\u2013207\nhaig j , hopkins ts , scandand tb ( 1970 ) the shallow water anomuran crab fauna of southwestern baja california , mexico . trans san diego soc nat hist 16 : 14\u201331\ngroup ) ( crustacea , anomura , paguridae ) from the eastern pacific , with notes on their ecology . contr sci , nat hist mus los angeles county 425 : 13\u201321\nh . milne edwards ( crustacea : penaeoidea ) of the gulf of california , mexico , with a key for their identification and a note on their zoogeography . rev biol trop 32 : 279\u2013298\nn . sp . ( crustacea , decapoda , dorippidae ) , from the continental shelf of the gulf of california , mexico . bull mus nat hist nat , paris 11 ( sec a , # 2 ) : 407\u2013423\n: fischer w , krupp f , schneider w , sommer c , carpenter ke , niem uh ( eds . ) gu\u00eda fao para la identificaci\u00f3n de especies para los fines de la pesca . pac\u00edfico centro - oriental . vol . 1 . plantas e invertebrados . fao , rome , pp 417\u2013537\nhendrickx me ( 1995b ) checklist of lobster - like decapod crustaceans ( crustacea : decapoda : thalassinidea , astacidea and palinura ) from the eastern tropical pacific . anales inst biol univ nac aut\u00f3n m\u00e9xico , ser zool 66 : 151\u2013163\n: fischer w , krupp f , schneider w , sommer c , carpenter ke , niem uh ( eds . ) gu\u00eda fao para la identificaci\u00f3n de especies para los fines de la pesca . pac\u00edfico centro - oriental . vol . 1 . plantas e invertebrados . fao , rome , pp 539\u2013564\n79b . hendrickx me ( 1995d ) checklist of brachyuran crabs ( crustacea : decapoda ) from the eastern tropical pacific . bull inst roy sci nat belgique 65 : 125\u2013150\n79c . hendrickx me ( 1996 ) los camarones penaeoidea bent\u00f3nicos ( crustacea : decapoda : dendrobrachiata ) del pac\u00edfico mexicano . comisi\u00f3n nacional para el conocimiento y uso de la biodiversidad e inst . cienc . mar limnol . , unam , m\u00e9xico , 147 p\nhendrickx m ( 1997 ) los cangrejos braquiuros del pac\u00edfico mexicano ( crustacea : brachyura : dromiidae hasta leucosiidae ) . comisi\u00f3n nacional para el conocimiento y uso de la biodiversidad e inst . cienc . mar limnol . , unam , m\u00e9xico , 178p\nhendrickx me ( 1999 ) los cangrejos braquiuros del pacifico mexicano ( crustacea : brachyura : majoidea y parthenopoidea ) . comisi\u00f3n nacional para el conocimiento y uso de la biodiversidad e inst . cienc . mar limnol . , unam , m\u00e9xico , 274 p\nleach ( crustacea , decapoda , galatheidae ) in the east pacific , with the description of a new species and additional records for tropical - subtropical species . bull inst roy nat belgique 73 : 117\u2013138\nhendrickx me , estrada navarrete fd ( 1996 ) los camarones pel\u00e1gicos del pac\u00edfico mexicano ( crustacea : dendrobranchiata y caridea ) . comisi\u00f3n nacional para el conocimiento y uso de la biodiversidad e inst . cienc . mar limnol . , unam , m\u00e9xico , 157 p\nhendrickx me , harvey aw ( 1999 ) checklist of anomuran crabs ( crustacea : decapoda ) from the eastern tropical pacific . belg j zool 129 : 363\u2013389\nhendrickx me , wicksten mk ( 1989 ) los pandalidae ( crustacea : caridea ) del pac\u00edfico mexicano , con una clave para su identificaci\u00f3n . caldasia ( colombia ) 16 : 71\u201386\nhertlein lg ( 1963 ) contribution to the biogeography of cocos island , including a bibliography . proc calif acad sci 32 : 219\u2013289\nhogue cl , miller se ( 1981 ) entomofauna of cocos island , costa rica . atoll res bull 250 : 1\u201329\nholthuis lb ( 1951 ) a general revision of the palaemonidae ( crustacea : decapoda : natantia ) of the americas . i . the subfamilies euryrhynchinae and pontoniinae . occ pap allan hancock found 11 : 1\u2013332\nholthuis lb ( 1952 ) a general revision of the palaemonidae ( crustacea : decapoda : natantia ) of the americas , part . ii . the subfamily palaemoninae . occ pap allan hancock found 12 : 1\u2013396\nholthuis lb ( 1980a ) fao species catalogue . vol . 1 . shrimps and prawns of the world . an annotated catalogue of species of interest to fisheries . fao fish synop 125 ( 1 ) : 1\u2013261\nholthuis lb ( 1991 ) fao species catalogue . vol . 13 . marine lobsters of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of species of interest to fisheries known to date . fao fish synop 125 ( 13 ) : 1\u2013292\njesse s ( 1996 ) demersal crustacean assemblages along the pacific coast of costa rica . a quantitative and multivariate assessment based on the victor hensen costa rica expedition ( 1993 / 1994 ) . rev biol trop 44 ( suppl 3 ) : 115\u2013134\nfrom the eastern pacific ( decapoda : caridea : alpheidae ) . smithson contr zool 454 : 1\u2013119\nkropp rk ( 1990 ) revision of the genera of gall crabs ( crustacea : cryptochiridae ) occurring in the pacific ocean . pac sci 44 : 417\u2013448\nlemaitre r ( 1981 ) shallow - water crabs ( decapoda , brachyura ) collected in the southern caribbean near cartagena , colombia . bull mar sci 31 : 234\u2013266\n( anomura : paguroidea : parapaguridae ) , including redescription of the western atlantic species . zool verhandl 253 : 1\u2013106\na . milne edwards , 1880 ( crustacea : decapoda : paguridae ) , including description of two new species . smithson contr zool 570 : 1\u201327\nlemaitre r , alvarez - le\u00f3n r ( 1992 ) crust\u00e1ceos dec\u00e1podos del pac\u00edfico colombiano : lista de especies y consideraciones zoogeogr\u00e1ficas . an inst mar punta bet\u00edn 21 : 33\u201376\n( crustacea : anomura : paguridae ) , with the description of new genera and species . part v .\nlemaitre r , ramos ge ( 1992 ) a collection of thalassinidea ( crustacea : decapoda ) from the pacific coast of colombia , with description of a new species and a checklist of eastern pacific species . proc biol soc wash 105 : 343\u2013358"]}
{"id": 897, "summary": [{"text": "ctenosaura bakeri , also known as the utila iguana , baker 's spinytail iguana , swamper or wishiwilly del suampo , is a critically endangered species of spinytail iguana endemic to the island of utila , one of the islas de la bah\u00eda off the coast of honduras .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the utila iguana is the only species of iguana and one of only two species of lizard to exclusively inhabit brackish mangrove swamps , forced there due to competition from larger species .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is the smallest of the three species of iguana found on utila , and unique among spiny-tailed iguanas as it is born a dark color as opposed to bright green or yellow .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is arboreal and primarily herbivorous , although it can be an opportunistic carnivore .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "males may grow up to 76 centimeters ( 30 in ) in length , while females are smaller , with a length of up to 56 centimeters ( 22 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "eggs are laid in sandy beaches and hatch about 60 \u2013 76 days later , with the hatchlings returning to live in the mangrove forests .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "brought to the brink of extinction by the 1990s due to hunting , it was brought back to international attention by german herpetologist dr. gunther k\u00f6hler and his book reptiles of central america .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "although several zoos and wildlife associations have instituted programs for the iguanas on utila , the species still finds itself threatened due to overhunting and may face more of a threat in the form of habitat loss .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "extreme conservation efforts are in place to try to prevent this species from going extinct . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "ctenosaura bakeri", "paragraphs": ["the spiny - tailed iguanas are composed of the following species : ctenosaura acanthura , ctenosaura alfredschmidti , ctenosaura bakeri , ctenosaura clarki , ctenosaura conspicuosa , defensor , ctenosaura flavidorsalis , ctenosaura hemilopha , ctenosaura macrolopha , ctenosaura melanosterna , ctenosaura nolascensis , ctenosaura oaxacana , ctenosaura oedirhina , ctenosaura palearis , ctenosaura pectinata , ctenosaura praeocularis , ctenosaura quinquecarinata , and ctenosaura similis .\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30d9\u30a4\u30ab\u30fc\u30c8\u30b2\u30aa\u30a4\u30b0\u30a2\u30ca\nto\nctenosaura bakeri stejneger 1901\n.\nk\u00f6hler , g . ( 1998 ) ctenosaura bakeri stejneger , 1901 . : sauria 20 suppl . : 417\u2013420\nreproductive and dispersal behaviour of the critically endangered utila spiny - tailed iguana ctenosaura bakeri on the island of utila , honduras .\nzoerner s , k\u00f6hler g ( 2004 ) ctenosaura bakeri . in : iucn 2006 . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species .\ngutsche , a . ( 2005 ) distribution and habitat utilization of ctenosaura bakeri on utila . : iguana 12 ( 3 ) : 142\u2013151\ngutsche , a . ( 2006 ) population structure and reproduction in ctenosaura bakeri on isla de utila . : iguana 13 ( 2 ) : 109\u2013115\ngutsche , a . ( 2005 ) ctenosaura bakeri ( utila spiny - tailed iguana ) . predation . : herpetological review 36 ( 3 ) : 317\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - utila spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura bakeri )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - utila spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura bakeri )\ntitle =\narkive species - utila spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura bakeri )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ndirksen , l . & gutsche , a . ( 2006 ) beobachtungen zur saurophagie bei ctenosaura bakeri ( squamata : iguanidae ) . : elaphe 14 ( 3 ) : 51 - 52\nthis is a male san esteban island spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura conspicuosa ) .\nhallmen , m . & hallmen , s . ( 2011 ) notiz \u00fcber eine beobachtung zur saurophagie beim utila - schwarzleguan ctenosaura bakeri . : elaphe 19 ( 3 ) : 11 - 13\nmorphological and demographic analyses of the blackchested spiny - tailed iguana , ctenosaura melanoste . . .\ndiener , e . ( 2007 ) die erdspitznatter oxybelis aeneus und die lianennatter leptophis mexicanus als pr\u00e4datoren der schwarzleguane ctenosaura similis und c . bakeri . : elaphe 15 ( 3 ) : 59 - 62\ndirksen , l . ( 2004 ) beobachtung eines paarungsversuchs zwischen einem hybrid - m\u00e4nnchen ( ctenosaura bakeri x similis ) mit einem iguana iguana - weibchen . : iguana rundschreiben 17 ( 2 ) : 15 - 17\ngutsche , a . & streich , w . j . ( 2009 ) demography and endangerment of the utila island spiny - tailed iguana , ctenosaura bakeri . : journal of herpetology 43 ( 1 ) : 105\u2013113\nthe goal of the project is the long - term conservation of ctenosaura bakeri in its natural environment on utila . the primary activities of the project are to develop a broad education and information program for the local community , investigate the natural history and reproductive ecology of c . bakeri , establish and maintain a headstart program , and protect iguana habitat on utila .\ngutsche , alexander ; mutschmann , frank ; streich , wolf jurgen ; kampen , helge ( 2012 ) ectoparasites in the endangered utila spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura bakeri ) . : the herpetological journal 22 ( 3 ) : 157 - 161\nctenosaura bakeri and other ctenosaura populations are under threat from habitat destruction and the effects of overhunting . little is known of the basic biology of the species ( pasachnik et al . 2012 ) . many of the natural behaviours and reproductive habits for c . bakeri have not been documented . to date no studies have been carried out on female breeding migration routes , the natural sex ratio of hatchlings as well as wild hatchling success . this information is vital to understanding how the iguana uses the island .\nbailey jw ( 1928 ) a revision of the lizards of the genus ctenosaura . proc us nat mus 73 : 1\u201369\nnatural history of the black - chested spiny - tailed iguanas , ctenosaura melanosterna ( iguanidae ) , on c . . .\nthe utila spiny tailed \u201cswamper\u201d iguana ( ctenosaura bakeri ) lives in the mangrove forests on the honduran island of utila . the conservation work carried out at the utila iguana conservation project aims to ensure the survival of the endangered swamper iguana , which is endemic to utila .\nof the species depicted in our species chart , the yucatan spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura defensor ) comes in the smallest at roughly 10 inches whereas ctenosaura similis , commonly known as the black spiny - tailed iguana , can ascertain lengths of 5 feet .\ngutsche , a . & k\u00f6hler , g . ( 2004 ) a fertile hybrid between ctenosaura similis ( gray 1831 ) and c . bakeri stejneger 1901 ( squamata : iguanidae ) on isla de utila , honduras . : salamandra 40 ( 3 / 4 ) : 201 - 206\nsince 1994 , the frankfurt zoological society and the senckenberg nature research society have worked jointly to preserve the endangered lizard ctenosaura bakeri , the utila spiny - tailed iguana . several other organizations , e . g . honduran ngos , have pro . . . [ view charity profile ]\ndirksen , l . ; blome , t . ; p\u00e9rez , h . & k\u00f6hler , g . ( 2004 ) zur nachzucht des utila - schwarzleguans ( ctenosaura bakeri ) bei unterschiedlichen inkubationstemperaturen in der iguana research and breeding station im jahr 2004 . : iguana rundschreiben 17 ( 2 ) : 7 - 13\nthe island endemic ctenosaura bakeri was listed as critically endangered by the iucn redlist assessment in 2004 , 7 years after it was recognized as a distinct species . c . bakeri occupies a portion of utila , a small continental island located off the northern coast of honduras . habitat destruction and over - harvesting are among the top threats facing this species . in addition , morphological evidence of hybridization was recently documented , raising the concern that gene flow from the common and widely distributed c . similis could threaten the genetic distinctiveness of c . bakeri . we show that hybridization occurs only at low levels and is not a current threat to c . bakeri . all ctenosaurs captured for this study were identified to species level without difficulty ; none had intermediate or mosaic phenotypes . sequence analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear markers revealed only two individuals with introgressed genotypes . molecular analysis of the previously described hybrid showed it to be heterozygous for c . bakeri and c . similis alleles . hybridization between these two species is possible and occurs occasionally in the wild , and the rate of hybridization could increase if habitat destruction or changes in relative abundance increase the probability of interbreeding . however , the level of gene flow indicated by current data is too low to threaten c . bakeri with genetic swamping or deleterious fitness effects .\ngoals are to estimate the population size , collect biometric data and investigate the breeding behaviours of c . bakeri . the project also aims to educate local school children and increase awareness \u2026\n[ more ]\nthe \u00fatila spiny - tailed iguana is known only from the island of \u00fatila , bay islands , honduras . the extent of occurrence is 41 km 2 . however , suitable mangrove habitat available for ctenosaura bakeri estimated at less than 8 km 2 ( d . maryon , d . lee and e . higgins unpublished data 2017 ) . this iguana occurs from sea level up to 20 m asl .\nk\u00f6hler g , schroth w , streit b ( 2000 ) systematics of the ctenosaura group of lizards ( reptilia : sauris : iguanidae ) . amphib - reptil 21 : 177\u2013191 . doi :\n. . . fig . 20 . bah\u00eda , honduras ( pasachnik 2013 ; pasachnik et al . 2015 ) . comment : this species was considered part of ctenosaura bakeri ( meyer and wilson 1973 ; wilson and hahn 1973 ) , but was recognized as a separate species by de queiroz ( 1987b ) ; the two species appear to be sister taxa ( pasachnik et al . 2010 ) . . . .\nutila spiny - tailed iguanas , ctenosaura bakeri , are listed as critically endangered by the iucn redlist assessment and are listed under appendix ii of cites . this species occupies a portion of utila , a small continental island located off the northern coast of honduras , in the bay islands chain . habitat destruction and overharvesting for consumption and the pet trade are among the top threats . . . [ show full abstract ]\nonce considered one of the rarest iguanas in existence , the utila spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura bakeri ) is named after the single island it inhabits and the whorls of enlarged spiny scales that encircle the tail ( 2 ) . the colour of adult utila spiny - tailed iguanas varies from light grey to dark grey - brown , often with an attractive turquoise tinge ( 3 ) . all juveniles , however , are a uniform grey - brown ( 3 ) .\ngutsche , alexander ; frank k\u00f6hler ( 2008 ) phylogeography and hybridization in ctenosaura species ( sauria , iguanidae ) from caribbean honduras : insights from mitochondrial and nuclear dna . : zoosystematics and evolution 84 ( 2 ) : 245 - 253\nthe utila iguana ( ctenosaura bakeri ) is a large iguanid lizard that is restricted to the small caribbean island of utila ( islas de la bahia , honduras ) and threatened by extinction due to overhunting and loss of habitat . the\nresearch and conservation project utila iguana\nwas established in 1994 as a joint project by the frankfurt zoological society and the senckenberg nature research society . as originally planned , in 2008 , the responsibility and leadership of the project was transferred to the bay islands foundation .\nspiny - tail iguanas have become more popular over recent years and can be ordered online and purchased at reptile shows . some specialty reptile shops can aquire varying species upon request . occasionally the big box pet stores will carry a ctenosaura .\nctenosaura bakeri is a critically endangered iguana endemic to the island of utila . it is known to broadly occur throughout utila ( 41km\u00b2 extent of occurrence ) , however it likely occupies less than 25 % ( 10 km\u00b2 ) of the island as it is found only within certain habitat areas ( pasachnik et al . 2013 ) . the current population size is not known but estimated to be fewer than 5 , 000 individuals and is likely declining due to habitat loss and fragmentation , hunting of adults and eggs , invasive species , and predation ( pasachnik et al . 2013 ) . destruction of habitat is also linked with a reported declining body condition of iguanas in the population ( pasachnik et al . 2012 ) . ctenosaura bakeri is listed as critically endangered by the iucn since 2004 ; it is protected under honduran national law and , since 2010 , listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ( cites ) . hunting of the iguana has been banned since 1994 but is rarely enforced .\nthe least vulnerable reptilian species , by this measure , are norops tropidonotus , enulius flavitorques , imantodes cenchoa , and ninia sebae . they are 1 - 1 - 2 , 1 - 1 - 3 , or 1 - 3 - 2 species ( widespread geographically , occurring in six or eight forest formations , and semifossorial or terrestrial / arboreal , sometimes escaping human notice ) . the most vulnerable reptile is ctenosaura bakeri , 5 - 8 - 6 species ( known only from the vicinity of the type locality , in one forest formation , and used for its meat and eggs locally ) . the next most vulnerable is ctenosaura oedirhina , a 4 - 8 - 6 species ( a honduran endemic , occurring in one forest formation , and used for its meat and eggs locally ) .\nkelly paul is a hobbyist with a lifelong interest in reptiles . he has bred more than two dozen species , including six ctenosaura . he has been a guest speaker at several events , including the international herpetological symposium . email him at blueghostreptile @ urltoken .\nutila iguana ( ctenosaura bakeri ) is the only species of iguana and one of only two species of lizard to exclusively inhabit brackish mangrove swamps , due to competition from larger species . also commonly known as baker ' s spinytail iguana , swamper or wishiwilly del suampo , the species occurs to the island of utila , one of the islas de la bah\u00eda off the coast of honduras . the utila iguana is critically endagered . if you enjoy reading about weird and bizarre animals you may want to check my strange animals site and my youtube channel : urltoken urltoken\na prerequisite for breeding spiny - tailed iguanas , of course , is healthy animals . ctenosaura as young as 14 months have laid fertile eggs , but i wouldn\u2019t recommend breeding spiny - tailed iguanas that are that young . i recommend waiting until they are at least 2 years old .\nour mission is : to help the honduran community to conserve their unique natural resources so that they are protected for future generations to benefit . we will do this by : \u2022 protecting the country ' s endangered fauna and flora through conservation projects \u2022 delivering a dynamic environmental education program \u2022 developing sustainability based on scientific assessment . our general objectives is : \u2022 to contribute with the national efforts of honduras in order to achieve the human sustainable development . our main specific objectives are : \u2022 to support , guarantee and reinforce the continuity of the iguana research and breeding station . this project concentrates its efforts for the conservation of the endemic iguana of utila , ctenosaura bakeri . \u2022 cooperate with the local and national authorities in order to reinforce the conservation of flora and fauna that is endemic or is of special interest and the conservation of their natural habitats . \u2022 promote , develop and participate in formal and informal programs for environmental education . \u2022 encourage and support the scientific research with biological , ecological or social focus . \u2022 cooperate with governmental or private institutions in the management of protected terrestrial or marine areas . \u2022 enforce the respect of the honduran environmental laws and support the creation of new environmental laws . \u2022 promote and support the development of projects that improve the quality of life and living conditions of the community . date it was established : the irbs was born in 1997 with the main purpose of protecting and preserving the spiny tailed iguana of utila , ctenosaura bakeri , a species that is endemic to utila and is presently in danger of extinction due to illegal hunting and the uncontrolled development and destruction of the mangrove forest where they live . after a systematic process in the search of autonomy , since 2008 , the irbs became the main project of the bay islands foundation ( fib ) an ngo legally recognized by the honduran government as a non - profit conservation organization , that has neither political nor religious ties . our geographic area covers : utila , a 42 km\u00b2 island , located 30 km off the northern coast of honduras in the bay islands . the fib in the near future is intended to cover more geographic areas . target species : ctenosaura bakeri , which inhabit the mangrove swamps of utila island and is in the red list of the iucn .\nclutch size varies with species , size and age of the female . smaller ctenosaura and younger animals lay approximately four to 10 eggs . large , mature female mexican ( c . pectinata ) and black ( c . similis ) spiny - tailed iguanas may lay 40 to 55 eggs . the eggs of most species are about the size of bearded dragon eggs .\ncurrently , there is no species action or recovery plan in place for c . bakeri , though actions such as these were discussed at the iucn iguana specialist group meeting held on utila in 2009 . monitoring , and recovery and management plans require quantifiable ecological data . demographic data on this species have not been collected in several years ; thus an update is needed in addition to filling in the gaps of knowledge . this project will contribute to and inform these priority requirements for the species . specifically these data will provide a clearer understanding of how c . bakeri utilizes key and threatened habitats on the island , as well as how uncontrolled harvesting may be impacting the status and health of the iguanas , particularly females . this increased ecological understanding can help inform current outreach environmental awareness programs , consequently , the project will contribute directly to the survival of this critically endangered iguana and its habitats .\nspiny - tailed iguanas have been considered ill tempered , but this is not true for all ctenosaura , especially in regard to captive - born - and - bred animals that behave differently than their wild - caught counterparts . captive - born - and - bred mexican spiny - tails ( c . pectinata ) and baker\u2019s iguanas ( c . bakeri ) can make great pets with very little effort . the san esteban island spiny - tailed iguana ( c . conspicuosa ) , sonoran black iguana ( c . macrolopha ) and honduran black - chested iguana ( c . melanosterna ) can also tame down quite nicely with a little effort and patience . wild - caught guatemalan spiny - tailed ( c . palearis ) and club - tailed ( c . quinqucarinata ) iguanas can make great display animals , and with time they will often take food from your hand .\nabstract : ectoparasites of adult spiny - tailed iguanas ( ctenosaura bakeri ) from isla de utila , honduras , an endemic lizard listed as critically endangered under iucn criteria , were studied for the first time . three ectoparasitic species were identified : amblyomma dissimile , ornithodorus talaje , and hirstiella boneti ; the latter two are reported from honduras for the first time . of 125 iguanas examined , 60 % were infested : a . dissimile occurred on 2 . 4 % , o . talaje ( larvae only ) on 43 . 2 % and h . boneti on 40 % of individuals . preferred attachment sites of h . boneti were the ear openings ( 18 . 4 % ) and the limbs ( 16 % ) , while the nidicolous o . talaje larvae occurred only in the nostrils . male iguanas were significantly more often infested than females when considering all three parasites ( 77 . 2 % and 45 . 6 % , respectively ) , o . talaje ( 61 . 4 % and 28 % , respectively ) and h . boneti ( 56 . 1 % and 26 . 5 % , respectively ) ; infestation prevalence of both species increased significantly with body size in males . heavily infested animals or visual evidence for direct pathogenic effects in c . bakeri were not observed , suggesting that ectoparasites currently do not pose a serious risk to this endangered iguana .\nthere is a recorded sex ratio bias within the population , with one female to every 1 . 7 males , and female numbers are declining ( pasachnik et al . 2012 ) . this is thought to be due to illegal hunting pressure , with gravid females being specifically targeted for consumption ( pasachnik et al . 2012 , 2013 ) . while young iguanas and eggs are naturally predated on by , for example , eagles and snakes , feral dogs , cats and rats create additional predator pressures on the species ( pasachnik et al . 2013 ) . other potential threats include hybridization which has been found to occur between c . bakeri and its widespread congener , the common spiny - tailed iguana c . similis ( pasachnik et al . 2009 ) . while hybridization is not currently thought to be a major threat , increasing habitat degradation and loss will likely have an impact on the genetic health of the c . bakeri population as both species come into increased contact .\nwe examined aspects of natural history and ecology of the black - chested spiny - tailed iguana , ctenosaura melanosterna , on cayo cochino menor , honduras , over 6 years to provide baseline data to assist in management of this critically endangered species . size of territory is resource - dependent , and the species seems to prefer habitats with open canopy . mating occurred between march and june , with . . . [ show full abstract ]\nroat\u00e1n spiny - tailed iguanas , ctenosaura oedirhina , are assessed as endangered by the iucn red list of threatened species and listed in appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ( cites ) . occurring in less than 1 % of the available habitat on roat\u00e1n , due primarily to hunting pressure , this species faces severe fragmentation . herein we used . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe black - chested spiny - tailed iguana , ctenosaura melanosterna , is listed as endangered by the iucn redlist assessment and under appendix ii of cites . the species has two evolutionarily significant units ( esus ) , found in the valle de agu\u00e1n and the cayos cochinos archipelago , honduras . each esu has been shown to be genetically distinct and each is listed , for differing reasons , as critically . . . [ show full abstract ]\nspiny - tailed iguanas ( ctenosaura spp . ) are native to hot and dry areas of mexico and central america . they can make great pets or display animals . despite laws to protect them , most spiny - tailed iguana populations are declining in the wild due to hunting , loss of habitat and poaching for the pet trade . every effort should be made to purchase captive - born - and - bred animals because they generally are hardier and less skittish , and purchasing them helps take pressure off wild populations .\nthirty - five free - ranging healthy spiny - tailed iguanas ( 31 ctenosaura bakeri , 4 c . similis ) and 14 green iguanas ( iguana iguana rhinolopha ) were caught and held in captivity for 2 days . blood was collected from all animals and their sera were evaluated for antibody titres against reptilian reoviruses , reptilian paramyxoviruses , and avian paramyxovirus - 1 ( pmv - 1 ) . cloacal and pharyngeal swabs also were collected and examined for viral content by incubation on chicken embryo fibroblasts ( cef ) and terrapene heart cells ( th - 1 ) . no virus was isolated from the pharyngeal and cloacal swabs on cef and th - 1 . twenty - three ( 47 % ) of 49 sera samples tested positive for reptilian reoviruses by virus neutralization tests . twenty ( 41 % ) of 49 samples had antibodies against one reptilian pmv isolate by virus neutralization tests and 3 ( 9 % ) of 34 by hemagglutination inhibition tests . no antibodies were detected against the other pmv isolate of reptilian origin nor against avian pmv - 1 . this is the first description of serum antibodies against reptilian reoviruses and pmv in wild iguanas .\nto date no studies have been conducted to identify and quantify female migration routes between nesting and breeding sites , and how development of the island and associated habitat losses may impact these routes , and therefore the species . furthermore , nothing is known about home range , the hatchling success rates , natural sex ratio of hatchlings , and nest characteristics . population estimates of c . bakeri have varied significantly ( gutsche & streich , 2009 ; pasachnik et al . 2013 ) highlighting the need for more quantifiably robust work in this area . this information is integral to the effective and active conservation management and protection of the species .\nroatan spiny - tailed iguanas , ctenosaura oedirhina , are listed as endangered by the iucn redlist assessment and under appendix ii of convention on international trade of endangered species of wild fauna and flora ( cites ) . these iguanas occur primarily on roatan and barbaretta , off the caribbean coast of honduras . habitat destruction associated with development , small - scale agriculture , and exploitation for food and the pet trade are contributing to the decline of these iguanas . this species was described in 1987 ( de queiroz ) when it was split from the sister taxon c . bakeri , found on the island of utila , honduras . since its description little has been done to understand its biology or protect this narrow - range endemic . herein , i examined the morphology and body condition of this species across its range and report on its reproductive biology and diet . similar to many members of the iguaninae , males are larger on average and have relatively longer tails than females . likewise , reproductive and dietary data are consistent with those for closely related species . the body condition of both males and females was lower in more pristine study sites , indicating that supplemental feeding in developed areas may be having an effect . a female - biased sex ratio was found in sites protected by grassroots efforts , where the populations were large enough to be studied . conservation measures should focus on alleviating the threats of harvesting and habitat destruction through increased law enforcement , outreach , and education .\ni incubate all my ctenosaura eggs at 86 to 88 degrees fahrenheit with about 70 percent humidity . i have used perlite , vermiculite and sand as incubation mediums , though recommend vermiculite . mix it with enough water so that if you squeeze it with your hand as hard as you can , only a few drops of water will fall out . i live in phoenix , where it is hot and dry , and i check the moisture content of the incubation medium about every 15 days . if it is too dry the eggs will collapse , and if it\u2019s too wet mold and fungal growth will develop . following these guidelines , eggs should hatch after 65 to 80 days .\n. . . sexual size dimorphism of the head could be related to a social mating system ( vitt and cooper 1985 ; hews 1990 ) or sexual selection , for example , larger heads may have an advantage in male - male combat ( carothers 1984 ; gier 1997 ) . the frequency of broken tails observed in c . alfredschmidti was extremely high ( ~ 80 % ) , when compared to congenerics : < 50 % in c . oedirhina ( pasachnik 2013 ) and < 40 % in c . bakeri ( pasachnik et al . 2012b ) . in addition , there was no sex bias in tail breaks , as there was in cyclura cornuta , with 46 % and 27 % for males and females , respectively ( buitrago et al . 2010 ) . . . .\n. . . the divergence of hw as adults grow is expected because many male reptiles that exhibit male - male combat demonstrate larger head sizes than females ( alberts et al . 2002 ; gienger and beck 2007 ) . tail break frequencies for this arboreal species ( up to 7 . 3 % ) were lower than reported for terrestrial iguana species from other genera such as cyclura ( up to 64 . 5 % ; reviewed in hayes et al . 2012 ) and ctenosaura ( up to 51 . 9 % ; pasachnik et al . 2012 ; pasachnik 2013 ) and similar statistically between sexes in this study . the lower break be associated with reduced predation pressure on an arboreal insular iguana species or more resource allocation on the island ( ) . . . .\n. . . roat\u00e1n spiny - tailed iguanas , ctenosaura oedirhina ( de queiroz 1987 ) , exemplify a narrow - range insular endemic whose population may be suffering the effects of human - mediated fragmentation . these iguanas are endemic to roat\u00e1n , barbareta , and a few satellite cays located within the bay islands , honduras ( mccranie et al . 2005 ; pasachnik 2013 ) . this species has been recognized as the second most vulnerable reptile species in honduras ( wilson and mccranie 2003 ) , is endangered by the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ; ) , and listed in appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ( cites ; species in which trade must be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival ; pasachnik and ariano 2010 ) . . . .\nfeed adult spiny - tailed iguanas a wide range of food , such as mixed greens , shredded carrots , mulberry and hibiscus leaves , and edible wild plants such as purslane , clover , dandelions , greens and flowers . seasonal fruit and vegetables can also be offered ( mine love figs ) . i feed baby and juvenile spiny - tails the same as the adults , except i also give them some insects , particularly crickets about half the size of the young lizards\u2019 heads . i have also offered zoophobas , tomato hornworms and silk worms . i have never fed vertebrate prey such as mice to my ctenosaura , but know keepers who have with no harmful effect . calcium and vitamin supplements should be provided two to three times a week ( gravid females should receive supplemental calcium every day ) . dry commercial iguana diets are also available .\na great way to build trust and calm new ctenosaura is by hand - feeding them . once they are comfortable with your presence and are taking food from your fingers , you can begin to pick them up . when picking up a pet spiny - tailed iguana , it is best to approach slowly and place your hand palm side up in front of the lizard . try putting your other hand behind it and gently coax the spiny - tail onto your hand . never restrain your animal by the tail , as it can break off . every spiny - tailed iguana is different . some are so tame and inquisitive they seem to enjoy human interaction . others are a little flighty and require a bit more patience when interacting . any spiny - tailed iguana that does not like to be handled will still make a fine display animal .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncritically endangered b1ab ( i , ii , iii , v ) ver 3 . 1\njustification : the \u00fatila spiny - tailed iguana is known only from the island of \u00fatila , honduras . total known extent of occurrence is 41 km 2 . the iguana and its eggs are harvested heavily and sold both locally and on the adjacent mainland . other primary threats to the population are habitat loss and fragmentation associated with development for tourism ; decreasing quality of habitat from introduced invasive vegetation and degradation of nesting habitat due to local and oceanic pollution . the population is currently thought to be declining due to the above threats .\nthe total population size is unknown but analyses are currently underway and it is likely to be less than 6 , 000 individuals ( d . maryon and d . lee unpublished data 2017 ) . although more rigorous data are needed , observations suggest the population has continually declined in association with increased habitat degradation and destruction over the last 15 years . the population has also been severely affected by harvesting for human consumption ( d . maryon pers . obs . 2017 ) . effects of this practice are exacerbated by hunters specifically targeting gravid females , and thus dramatically impacting annual reproduction rates . genetic variation in the population does not follow a specific geographic pattern indicating that this iguana appears to have been mating randomly across the island ( pasachnik et al . 2009 ) . however , with ever - increasing habitat loss , further fragmentation of local subpopulations appears imminent , and a reassessment is currently underway to establish whether these subpopulations are becoming genetically isolated .\nthe \u00fatila spiny - tailed iguana is found primarily in mangrove forests and vegetated sandy shores , though occasionally they can be found in disturbed areas such as coastal / beachfront developments and gardens . they are typically most active during the morning , when adults can be seen basking from 0\u201315 m above ground in black ( avicennia germinans ) , white ( laguncularia racemose ) , and red ( rhizophora mangle ) mangrove trees , as well as on the ground . individuals are commonly observed hiding in the hollows of black and white mangrove trees , which they use as retreats . juveniles occur in both small and large mangrove trees , on the mangrove forest floor , and within coastal beach vegetation shortly after hatching ( schulte and k\u00f6hler 2010 , d . maryon pers . obs . 2017 ) . this iguana makes special use of mangrove roots and lagoons by diving into them and swimming or submerging themselves to avoid predation ( d . maryon pers . obs . 2017 ) . the main breeding season occurs from january to late july and mating occurs on or near the ground in the mangrove forests . females then migrate from the mangroves to beachfronts to nest in a variety of areas , including those with full sun exposure , under piles of leaf litter and oceanic litter , beneath large beachfront trees , and within short shrub vegetation ( d . maryon pers . obs . 2017 ) . nesting takes place from february to august . females lay an average of 11 to 16 eggs in nests that can be up to a few metres long but not more than 60 cm deep ( gutsche 2006 , d . maryon pers . obs . 2017 ) . double - clutching has been observed in some individuals . the incubation period is approximately 85 days and hatching occurs from april through october . upon emerging , hatchlings seem to spend little time inhabiting coastal vegetation before dispersing into the mangrove forests , where they are active on the ground , volcanic coralline rocks , and on the branches of trees as they mature ( d . maryon pers . obs . 2017 ) .\niguanas and their eggs continue to be sought for human consumption year - round and are sold both locally and on the adjacent mainland . groups of hunters with dogs are reported in mangrove habitats between february and may ( d . maryon pers . obs . 2017 ) , coinciding with the presence of gravid females which are often selectively targeted . females containing eggs are cooked and eaten as a traditional cultural delicacy , especially throughout the easter period . from 2006 to 2011 , the sex ratio of iguanas became increasingly more male - biased , which may be indicative of increasing hunting pressure on adult females ( pasachnik et al . 2012 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nmale utila spiny - tailed iguanas are not only larger than females , but also have larger spines running down the back and a small fold of loose skin hanging below the throat ( the dewlap ) ( 3 ) .\nthe utila spiny - tailed iguana feeds on plant matter and small invertebrates that inhabit the mangroves . while mangrove habitat is perfect habitat for feeding and resting , it is not ideal for nesting , and so when the time comes , female utila spiny - tailed iguanas migrate to the island\u2019s beaches , where they lay their eggs in the sand ( 3 ) .\nthe utila spiny - tailed iguana is endemic to the island of utila in the bay islands , honduras . on this island , the utila spiny - tailed iguana occurs in just one small area of mangrove forest , covering only eight square kilometres ( 1 ) .\nthe utila spiny - tailed iguana inhabits mangroves and nests on the beaches of utila , where females select areas largely free of vegetation to nest ( 1 ) ( 3 ) . adults are often found in mangrove trees , while juveniles inhabit the mangrove forest floor and smaller mangrove trees and shrubs ( 1 ) .\nthe utila spiny - tailed iguana is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe tiny distribution of the utila spiny - tailed iguana makes it incredibly vulnerable to any threats . currently , those threats come in the form of habitat degradation and hunting . as tourism on the island of utila increases , the mangrove forest habitat of the spiny - tailed iguana is being cleared for the construction of houses and marinas , and used as a garbage dump site ( 1 ) . beaches are also being affected , with some beaches being sold for the development of houses , hotels and road construction , and other beach areas becoming covered with introduced invasive plants , creating a habitat unsuitable for egg - laying ( 1 ) . in addition , despite being protected by honduran law , this rare reptile is still hunted locally for its meat ( 1 ) .\ntremendous conservation efforts have been initiated for the utila spiny - tailed iguana in an attempt to prevent its extinction . in 1994 , the frankfurt zoological society and the senckenberg nature research society together initiated work to preserve the utila spiny - tailed iguana . as well as conserving the iguana and its mangrove habitat , the project aimed to promote the sustainable development of the island and create environmental awareness among the local inhabitants ( 3 ) .\nin 1998 , the iguana station was constructed , providing a centre for environmental education efforts , ecological research and captive breeding ( 3 ) . pregnant females are brought to the iguana station to lay their eggs , which are then artificially incubated . incubation in this protected , controlled environment ensures the greatest possible number of eggs hatch . the young are raised in captivity for two years before being released back into the swamps ( 4 ) .\nthe captive breeding programme has been extended to other zoos around the world , for example , in 2007 , nine utila spiny - tailed iguanas hatched at zsl london zoo ( 5 ) . this helps ensure the long - term survival of the species , should something devastating occur in the wild . these incredible efforts need to continue if the future of this species is to be secured .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nendemic a species or taxonomic group that is only found in one particular country or geographic area . incubation incubation is the act of keeping eggs warm so that development is possible . invertebrates animals with no backbone .\nbartlett , r . d . and bartlett , p . ( 2003 ) iguanas : everything about selection , care , nutrition , diseases , breeding and behaviour . barron\u2019s educational series , new york , usa .\njulius kramer am anger 18 , petersaurach , 91580 germany julius @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nthe utila spiny - tailed iguana feeds on plant matter and small invertebrates that inhabit the mangroves ( 2 ) . while mangrove habitat is perfect habitat for feeding and resting , it is not ideal for nesting , and so when the time comes , female utila spiny - tailed iguanas migrate to the island ' s beaches , where they lay their eggs in the sand and leave them to be incubated by the sun ( 4 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\njimena castillo canales bay islands foundation bo . jerico , ctgo . jungle cafe utila bay islands n / a honduras tel : landline : 504 - 2425 - 3946 mob : mobile : 504 - 99 - 937836 fax : 504 - 2425 - 3946\nthe text and images for this case study are uploaded by the grant recipient to raise awareness of the conservation work being done . through its website the fund provides the platform , but is not responsible for text or image content of case studies .\n\u00a9 mohamed bin zayed species conservation fund 2013 , all rights reserved . website by intex digital\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nthe herpetological journal is the society ' s prestigious quarterly scientific journal . articles are listed in biological abstracts , current awareness in biological sciences , current contents , science citation index , and zoological record .\nthe latest 20 issues can be downloaded when logged in with a herpetological journal subscription membership .\nnote : as of january 2017 , all new editions of the hj are only available online via the bhs website . the bhs no longer has a commercial hosting agreement with ingenta - although editions prior to end 2016 remain accessible on ingenta . those editions are of course also accessible on the bhs website for subscribers with an active and valid membership . should you experience any difficulty accessing hj editions via the website or have any queries in this regard , please contact webmaster @ urltoken\nrt @ ausherpetology : trophic specialization drives morphological evolution in sea snakes , some convergent some not . @ aussocherp @ asihcopeia\u2026 about 2 days ago\n\u00a9 british herpetological society 2018 - registered charity no . 205666 wind powered website by aye - aye design .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\ncites is an international agreement between governments , aimed to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival .\na curated database of candidate human ageing - related genes and genes associated with longevity and / or ageing in model organisms .\na curated database of genes associated with dietary restriction in model organisms either from genetic manipulation experiments or gene expression profiling .\nprojects focused on gene expression profiling of ageing and of dietary manipulations of ageing , such as caloric restriction .\nsoftware for ageing research , including the ageing research computational tools ( arct ) perl toolkit .\na curated database of ageing and life history information in animals , including extensive longevity records .\nthe benchmark genome assembly and annotation of the long - lived , cancer - resistant naked mole - rat ( heterocephalus glaber ) .\na high - coverage genome of the bowhead whale ( balaena mysticetus ) , the longest - lived mammal .\nanalyses using the anage database to study the evolution of longevity and ageing in vertebrate lineages .\na portal of ageing changes covering different biological levels , integrating molecular , physiological and pathological age - related data .\nthe whosage database contains people and biotech companies that are contributing to increase our understanding of ageing and life - extension .\ncomments , suggestions , ideas , and bug reports are welcome . please contact us .\nmy interests focus on the conservation and management of threatened and endangered taxa and the ecosystems in which they exist . i have found that the most successful conservation programs are those that encompass a variety of different adaptive approaches , coupled with implementation from the community level . as such i create holistic programs that focus on ecology and molecular biology studies . the results of which then guide outreach and education initiatives and policy from grassroots to international levels . in order to achieve these goals flagships species , such as iguanas , have been incorporated .\ne rupp . one island , two rock iguanas : modeling potential habitats to inform conservation in hispaniola . journal of nature conservation .\n, ml miemiller , ar puente - rolonm lj revell . 2016 . ecological specialization and morphological diversification in greater antillean boas . evolution 70 : 1882 - 1895 .\nauliya , m et al . 2016 . trade in live reptiles and its impact on reptile diversity : the european pet market as a case study . biological conservation .\nr carreras de leon , ym leon . 2016 . protected only on paper ? three case studies from the dominican republic . caribbean naturalist .\n, cl stephen ( iguana taxonomy working group ) . 2016 . a checklist of the iguanas of the world ( iguanidae ; iguaninae ) . herpetological conservation and biology . pp . 4 - 46 .\n( eds . ) . 2016 . iguanas : biology , systematics , and conservation . herpetological conservation and biology 11 ( monograph 6 ) .\n) and its implications for conservation . herpetological conservation and biology . pp . 79 - 89 .\nkn hines , l pieper . 2016 . growth , coloration , and demography of an introduced population of the acklins iguana (\n) in the exuma islands , bahamas . herpetological conservation and biology . pp . 139 - 153 .\nle ruyle , ja frazier , s green . 2014 . natural history of the honduran spiny - tailed iguana ,\n, on cayos cochinos menor , honduras . southwestern naturalist 59 : 280 - 285 .\nin the valle de agu\u00e1n , honduras . herpetological conservation and biology 9 : 436 - 447 .\nb\u00f6hm , m , et al . 2013 . the conservation status of the world\u2019s reptiles . biological conservation 157 : 372 - 385 .\n, c montgomery , s hudman . 2012 . characterization of 22 polymorphic microsatellite loci for the black - chested spiny - tailed iguana (\nr carreras , vh reynoso , e rupp , ym leon , sj inchaustegui . 2012 . green iguanas ,\nin the dominican republic . reptiles and amphibians : conservation and natural history 19 : 132 - 134 .\nacross its range : implications for population level management . herpetogical biology and conservation 7 : 399 - 406 .\niguana taxonomic working group . lj buckley , k de querioz , re etheridge , bd hollingsworth , jb iverson ,\n, cl stephen . 2011 . iucn ssc iguana specialist group . iguanas of the world . version 2011 . 2 . iucn . isg . org .\n: implication for conservation and management . endangered species research 14 : 113 - 126 .\n) in monroe county , tennessee . journal of the tennessee academy of science 86 : 53 - 55 .\nclade . reptile and amphibian conservation and natural history . reptiles and amphibians : conservation and natural history 17 : 136 - 139 .\n, bm fitzpatrick , ac echternacht . 2010 . gene trees , species , and species trees in the\n, bm fitzpatrick , tj near , ac echternacht . 2009 . gene flow between an endangered endemic iguana , and its wide spread relative , on the island of utila , honduras : when is hybridization a threat ? conservation genetics 10 : 1247 - 1254 .\ng ruthig . 2004 . habitat versatility in three sympatric species of plethodontid salamanders . journal of herpetology 38 : 434 - 437 .\n, s rasalato , b thman , e seniloli , t tuamoto , t yanuya , p harlow . 2016 . captive breeding and re - introductions of the monuriki island creasted iguana in fiji . pp 76 - 81 .\n: soorae , ps ( ed . ) . global re - introduction perspectives : 2016 . case - studies from around the globe . gland , switzerland : iucn / ssc re - introduction specialist group and abu dhabi , uae : environment agency - abu dhabi . xiv + 276 pp .\nniemiller , ml , rg reynolds ( eds ) . 2012 . the amphibians of tennessee . university of tennessee press , knoxville , tn , usa . ( several species accounts )\n. 2014 . lost iguanas : trouble in paradise . reptile and amphibian conservation and natural history 21 : 1 - 8 .\n. 2011 iguana specialist group update , iguana conservation in the bay islands of honduras . species , magazine of the species survival commission 53 : 25 .\n, a reuter , p mosig , l ruyle , l fitzgerald . 2011 . survey of status , trade , and exploitation of central american iguanas . united states fish and wildlife services , washington , dc .\n. 2011 . the struggling wishwillies : the endemic iguanas make their stand on the bay islands . bay islands voice . april 2011 : 12 - 16 .\n. 2011 . on the iguana trail . reptiles australasia 1 : 21 - 23 .\n. 2010 - 2011 . wishwilly diaries . bay islands voice . monthly magazine column focusing on\n, k hines . 2009 . john iverson : researcher , teacher , friend . reptiles and amphibians : conservation and natural history 36 : 46 - 51 .\n. 2006 . ctenosaurs of honduras : notes from the field . iguana 13 : 265 - 271 .\n. 2006 . sandy echternacht : a lifetime of herpetology . iguana 13 : 138 - 144 .\n. 2002 . sun , students , and scratches : research on allen\u2019s cay iguanas . iguana times 9 : 12 - 17 ."]}
{"id": 900, "summary": [{"text": "the northern slimy salamander ( plethodon glutinosus ) is a species of terrestrial plethodontid salamander found through much of the eastern two-thirds of the united states , from new york , west to illinois , south to texas , and east to florida , with isolated populations in southern new hampshire and northwestern connecticut .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "it is one of 55 species in the genus plethodon and one of the first of its cogeners to be described .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the salamander is called \" slimy \" because it is capable of excreting a sticky , glue-like substance from its skin .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "it is also sometimes referred to as the viscid salamander , grey-spotted salamander , slippery salamander , or sticky salamander , depending on which source is consulted .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "due to its large geographic range , some taxonomic researchers have suggested splitting p. glutinosus into several distinct species , but this is not widely accepted . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "northern slimy salamander", "paragraphs": ["an adult northern slimy salamander . note the lack of white spots on this individuals regenerated tail .\noccurs in the eastern two - thirds of the state . white - spotted slimy , mississippi slimy , and northern slimy salamanders are virtually indistinguishable , and make up the slimy salamander complex .\nnorthern slimy salamander - this image , taken by todd pierson , is under an attribution - noncommercial - sharealike 2 . 0 generic license .\n( bruce , et al . , 2000 ; hickman jr . , et al . , 2009 ;\nnorthern slimy salamander\n, 2007 )\nhighton , r . 1962 . geographic variation in the life history of the slimy salamander .\nslimy salamander - chattahoochee river national recreation area ( u . s . national park service )\nthe northern slimy salamander is a member of the lungless salamander family . adult salamanders in this family do not have lungs but take in oxygen through their skin . northern slimy salamanders are smooth - skinned and are black with white or cream marbling or speckles . they can be 7 - 8 inches long .\na large female northern slimy salamander ( 65 mm svl ) was captured with the tail of a juvenile northern slimy salamander ( 27 . 5 mm svl ) protruding from its mouth ( powders , 1973 ) . o . predators . undocumented , but likely to include forest snakes , birds , and small mammals .\nenature . com . 2007 .\nnorthern slimy salamander\n( on - line ) . enature . com . accessed february 22 , 2010 at urltoken .\nnorthern slimy salamanders were found with southern zigzag salamanders ( p . ventralis ) , eastern newt efts , and northern dusky salamanders in knox county , tennessee ( powders , 1973 ) .\ndavidson , j . 1956 . notes on the food habits of the slimy salamander _ plethodon glutinosus _ .\ng . territories . northern slimy salamanders and members of their complex aggressively defend territories ( thurow , 1976 ) .\nbackground : the northern slimy salamander is a medium - large sized member of the \u201clungless\u201d salamander family ( plethodontidae ) . this salamander gets its name from a glue - like secretion it emits from glands in its skin as a defense against predetors or when disturbed . the substance is difficult to remove from hands or clothing .\nnorthern slimy salamanders are found in association with wehrle\u2019s salamanders throughout the entire range of wehrle\u2019s salamanders ( highton , 1972 ) .\nhighton , r . 1956 . the life history of the slimy salamander , _ plethodon glutinosus _ , in florida .\nj . torpor ( hibernation ) . bishop ( 1941b ) reports finding northern slimy salamanders far below the surface during the winter .\nbreeds in fall in northern areas and spring to summer in southern regions of range .\nnorthern slimy salamanders in cleburne county , alabama , are found beneath logs , rocks and occasionally beneath leaf litter ( rubenstein , 1969 ) .\ndistinguished from identical white - spotted slimy and mississippi slimy salamanders by range and genetic analysis . tellico salamander has a separate range and cumberland plateau salamanders are smaller and have a light chin . southern appalachian salamander usually has fewer and smaller white spots on back and sides .\ncompetition at the range boundary in the slimy salamander : using reciprocal transplants for studies on the role of biotic interactions in spatial distributions .\nnorthern slimy salamanders and chattahoochee slimy salamanders contact at the western edge of the blue ridge province in georgia ; there is no published information on their interactions ( highton and peabody , 2000 ) .\nk . interspecific associations / exclusions . in a series of laboratory experiments with northern slimy salamanders and cumberland plateau salamanders , there was not a significant difference in frequency of occurrences for initiator , aggressor , escaper , and biter behaviors , but northern slimy salamanders were defenders significantly more often than were cumberland plateau salamanders . cumberland plateau salamanders were appeasers and intruders significantly more often than northern slimy salamanders ( bailey , 1992 ) . cumberland plateau salamanders show an increase in territorial behavior relative to shelter availability and population density when involved in interactions with northern slimy salamanders ( marvin , 1998 ) .\nif you locate a slimy salamander , please contact the deep wildlife division at 860 - 424 - 3011 or deep . ctwildlife @ urltoken .\ndlia / atbi . 2010 .\nplethodon glutinosus ( green ) , northern slimy salamander - biodiversity of great smoky mountains national park\n( on - line ) . discover life in america . accessed april 01 , 2010 at urltoken .\nthe six isolates of northern gray - cheeked salamanders ( p . montanus ) in the valley and ridge province are widely sympatric with northern slimy salamanders . the two species also are sympatric in a small section of the roan isolate of northern gray - cheeked salamanders . there is evidence of occasional hybridization ( highton and peabody , 2000 ) .\nthe range of the northern slimy salamander is in the eastern us from southern new york and pennsylvania to northern florida . there are some isolated populations in new hampshire , louisisana and texas . they only exist on the western edge of connecticut in northwestern fairfield county . they are very rare and are listed as a threatened species in connecticut .\nnorthern slimy salamanders are reported from caves in dekalb , jackson , and marshall counties , alabama , and monroe county , illinois ( peck , 1974 ) .\nnorthern slimy salamanders are found occasionally with northern zigzag salamanders ( p . dorsalis ) , cave salamanders ( eurycea lucifuga ) , and long - tailed salamanders on rock faces in the unglaciated sections of indiana ( d . a . b . , personal observations ) .\norgan , j . 1960 . the courtship and spermatophore of the salamander _ plethodon glutinosus _ .\nnorthern slimy salamanders get their name from their defense system . a threatened salamander exudes a glue - like substance that sticks to hands or predator mouths . while the predator is trying to remove the sticky stuff , which can collect leaves and debris to make quite an annoying mess , the salamander can escape . the goo is hard to wash off of hands .\nm . longevity . northern slimy salamanders in frederick county , maryland , and bedford county , pennsylvania , live in excess of 5 yr ( semlitsch , 1980b ) .\ncompetition at the range boundary in the slimy salamander : using reciprocal transplants for studies on the role of biotic interactions in spatial d . . . - pubmed - ncbi\ninteresting facts : this nocturnal salamander emerges from its burrow at dusk and retreats at dawn . it is occasionally active on rainy days . during a drought , the slimy salamander can be found deep underground or under rotting logs . the species hibernates underground from november to march .\nif you happen to find a slimy salamander , leave it where you found it and only take photographs . you take the risk of getting\nslimed\nif you handle a slimy salamander , and the slime is difficult to remove . salamanders should never be collected from the wild . collection or removal of any slimy salamander is strictly prohibited by the connecticut endangered and threatened species act . if you lift any logs or rocks while rummaging through forests , remember to place them back exactly how you found them .\nnorthern slimy salamanders are relatively resilient to disturbances , such as those associated with timbering operations , and are found frequently in second - growth forests and relatively small , fragmented woodlots . in indiana , northern slimy salamanders are widespread and abundant in areas that had up to 99 % surface erosion 100 yr ago ( d . a . b . , personal observations ) .\naccording to the u . s . fisheries and wildlife service , the slimy salamander is considered neither a threatened nor endangered species throughout its range . however , some species within the\nhabitat and diet : the slimy salamander is restricted to old second growth deciduous or hemlock forests with steep , rocky slopes . it hides under rotten logs and thick duff layers on the forest floor . slimy salamanders require wet or moist areas for breeding purposes .\nconservation : slimy salamanders are tied to forest habitats . destruction of these habitats is the greatest threat to populations . logging of forests causes an increase in temperature and the rate of evaporation and possibly also impacts the salamander\u2019s food source . like all lungless salamanders , pollutants , including herbicides and pesticides , are easily absorbed through their porous skin and are toxic to the slimy salamander .\n873 - brodie , w . e . , g . gunter , 1958 , egg clutches and prehensilism in the slimy salamander , herpetology , vol . 13 , pg . 279 - 280\n887 - davidson , j . a . , 1956 , notes on the food habits of the slimy salamander plethodon glutinosus glutinosus , herpetology , vol . 12 , pg . 129 - 131\njuvenile northern slimy salamanders and juvenile eastern red - backed salamanders ( plethodon cinereus ) compete reciprocally when resources are limiting . interactions between adults are more obscure , but northern slimy salamanders may have reduced growth when eastern red - backed salamanders are present . in competition between these two species for territories , it appears that body size is the primary factor dictating territory ownership ( price and shield , 2002 ) .\nhighton and his colleagues ( highton , 1989 ; highton and peabody , 2000 ) recognize 16 species in the p . glutinosus complex as follows : western slimy salamanders ( p . albagula ) , tellico salamanders ( p . aureolus ) , chattahoochee slimy salamanders ( p . chattahoochee ) , atlantic coast slimy salamanders ( p . chlorobryonis ) , white - spotted slimy salamanders ( p . cylindraceus ) , northern slimy salamanders ( p . glutinosus ) , southeastern slimy salamanders ( p . grobmani ) , cumberland plateau salamanders ( p . kentucki ) , kiamichi slimy salamanders ( p . kiamichi ) , louisiana slimy salamanders ( p . kisatchie ) , mississippi slimy salamanders ( p . mississippi ) , ocmulgee slimy salamanders ( p . ocmulgee ) , savannah slimy salamanders ( p . savannah ) , sequoyah slimy salamanders ( p . sequoyah ) , southern appalachian salamanders ( p . teyahalee ) , and south carolina slimy salamanders ( p . variolatus ) . information gathered on these species has been published under the name\np . glutinosus\n( indeed , petranka [ 1998 ] recognizes only tellico salamanders , northern slimy salamanders , cumberland plateau salamanders , and southern appalachian salamanders ) . because of this , the literature on\np . glutinosus\nmust be interpreted carefully and with a consideration of locality data .\ntaggart , t . 2010 .\nwhite - spotted slimy salamander\n( on - line ) . cnah - the center for north american herpetology . accessed february 22 , 2010 at urltoken .\ngenus produce noxious skin secretions as predator defense . white - spotted slimy salamanders produce copious amounts of slime which often gum up a predator ' s mouth , giving the salamander a chance to escape .\nnorthern slimy salamanders have a largely parapatric range with tellico salamanders . they have been taken together at one site in polk county , tennessee , without any evidence of hybridization ( highton and peabody , 2000 ) .\nnorthern slimy salamanders are sympatric throughout the known range of pigeon mountain salamanders . there is some evidence that indicates hybridization may rarely take place ( wynn et al . , 1988 ; highton and peabody , 2000 ) .\nin ohio , the following species are associated with northern slimy salamanders : eastern newts ( notophthalmus viridescens ) , jefferson\u2019s salamanders ( ambystoma jeffersonianum ) , spotted salamanders ( a . maculatum ) , small - mouthed salamanders ( a . texanum ) , marbled salamanders ( a . opacum ) , mountain dusky salamanders ( desmognathus ochrophaeus ) , northern dusky salamanders ( d . fuscus ) , northern two - lined salamanders ( eurycea bislineata ) , southern two - lined salamanders , long - tailed salamanders ( e . longicauda ) , northern ravine salamanders ( p . electromorphus ) , and red - backed salamanders ( pfingsten , 1989d ) .\nthe subspecies is at its northernmost range in connecticut , with only a few populations in western fairfield and litchfield counties . with such few populations , the slimy salamander is listed as a threatened species in connecticut .\nrange and habitat : slimy salamanders are found throughout eastern north america , except for southern florida , including all of south carolina and georgia . this salamander lives in moist , undisturbed woodlands and moist wooded ravines .\n4 . conservation . northern slimy salamanders are listed as threatened in connecticut ( http : / / dep . state . ct . us ) and protected in new jersey , but are not listed in any of the other states within their range . among members of the p . glutinosus complex , northern slimy salamanders have the widest distribution . within this range , there are many federal and state properties that contain suitable habitat for these salamanders .\ndescription : a large ( up to 9\u201d ) , black colored salamander with numerous silvery white flecks on the body , tail , and head . the underside is black , but slightly lighter than the dorsum . the white sticky secretions that this species emits from its glands ( especially along the tail ) when disturbed further helps to identify the slimy salamander .\nnorthern slimy salamanders are sympatric with yonahlossee salamanders ( p . yonahlossee ) only in the vicinity of skulls gap , smyth county , virginia . a probable f1 hybrid was found at this location ( highton and peabody , 2000 ) .\nnorthern slimy salamanders occur within 0 . 4 km of jordan ' s salamanders ( p . jordani ) on parsons bald , swain county , north carolina . there is no evidence of hybridization ( highton and peabody , 2000 ) .\nii . breeding habitat . the courtship of a pair of northern slimy salamanders in giles county , virginia , was observed on the bank of a road within a bare area of about 0 . 3 m2 ( pope , 1950 ) .\nawareness and education of the slimy salamander ' s life history and habitats are invaluable tools for conservation . consider the preservation of important mature growth forests . not only are salamanders important , but their presence indicates a healthy habitat .\nat a site in randolph county , west virginia , the following salamanders have been found in close association with northern slimy salamanders : wehrle\u2019s salamanders ( p . wehrlei ) , red - backed salamanders , northern dusky salamanders , mountain dusky salamanders , spring salamanders , four - toed salamanders ( hemidactylium scutatum ) , and spotted salamanders ( d . a . b . , personal observations ) .\nh . aestivation / avoiding dessication . in new york , northern slimy salamanders disappear from their usual haunts and may be found only by digging deeply into the soil or following the crevices that extend far into banks ( bishop , 1941b ) .\nwells , kentwood d . ; wells , roger a . ; 1976 , patterns of movement in a population of the slimy salamander , plethodon glutinosus , with observations on aggregations , herpetologica , 32 ( 2 ) : 156 - 162\nvirginia department of game and inland fisheries . 2010 .\nwhite - spotted slimy salamander ( plethodon cylindraceus )\n( on - line ) . virginia department of game and inland fisheries . accessed april 01 , 2010 at urltoken .\nthe slimy salamander has an extensive range throughout the eastern and central united states . starting in central new york and the southern tip of wisconsin , the range covers much of the eastern seaboard , moving southward to central florida and the gulf coast and westward to parts of east texas and oklahoma . it is notably absent from the lower mississippi valley , presumably because flooding causes frequent disturbance to the preferred habitat of the slimy salamander in that region ( grobman 1944 ) .\nadult northern slimy salamanders are terrestial and prefer mature forest with alot of ground debris and cover . they live under leaf litter and logs . they may come to the surface to hunt when it rains . they are nocturnal . adults overwinter underground .\nnorthern slimy salamanders have a long contact with white - spotted slimy salamanders from maryland south through west virginia , virginia , and tennessee , from the potomac river to the french broad river . hybrid populations are known from washington county , maryland , and highland , washington , and smyth counties , virginia ( highton and peabody , 2000 ) .\nmembers of the plethodon glutinosus complex frequently become immobile when initially contacted . northern slimy salamanders were included in a field study on immobility ; however , it is not possible to separate their behavior from the other members of this complex in this published data set . immobility may increase survival by making the salamander less likely to be detected , especially by visually oriented predators ( dodd , 1989 ) .\njaeger , robert g . ; gabor , caitlin r . ; 1999 , salamander social behavior , reptiles magazine 7 ( 7 ) : 32 - 47\nvess , tomalei j . ; harris , reid n . ; 1997 , artificial brooding of salamander eggs , herpetological review 28 ( 2 ) : 80\nwhen threatened , the slimy salamander will lash out with its tail , secreting a sticky , gluey substance . potential predators that come into contact with this substance may experience mastication ( sticky jaw binding ) , thus reducing the movement of the jaws .\ne . adult habitat . northern slimy salamanders are 8\u201312 times denser in mature hardwood forests than in young pine monocultures ( bennett et al . , 1980 ) , and denser in old pine stands than younger pine stands ( grant et al . , 1994 ) .\nr . parasites . northern slimy salamanders are sometimes infected by the astomatous ciliate , cepedietta michiganensis ( powders , 1970 ) . for a considered list of the parasites of north carolina animals now considered to be in the glutinosus complex , see rankin ( 1937 ) .\nnorthern slimy salamanders are found with pigeon mountain salamanders ( p . petraeus ) , southern zigzag salamanders , green salamanders , long - tailed salamanders , cave salamanders , and spring salamanders on pigeon mountain , walker county , georgia ( wynn et al . , 1988 ) .\n3827 - wells , k . d . , wells , r . a . , 1976 , patterns of movement in a population of the slimy salamander , plethodon glutinosus , with observations of aggregations , herpetologica , vol . 32 , pg . 156 - 162\nconservation concerns : the major threat facing the slimy salamander is the loss of undisturbed mature forests in southwestern connecticut to urban and suburban development , road fragmentation , and habitat degradation . preservation of these habitats is crucial for the survival of this species in our state .\nthe slimy salamander is vulnerable to parasitism by some nematode worms , particularly when guarding an egg clutch , due to poor nutrition . the small activity range of the species also makes it a victim of predation by a number of snakes that occur in the geographical range or\nan unusual association consisting of three members of the plethodon glutinosus complex occurs at a site in polk county , tennessee . here , southern appalachian salamanders , tellico salamanders , and northern slimy salamanders occur sympatrically . there is no evidence of hybridization at this location ( highton , 1984 ) .\nconservation status : slimy salamanders are common throughout their range and are not protected in our region or federally .\n952 - organ , j . a . , 1960 , the courtship and spermatophore of the salamander plethodon glutinosus , copeia , vol . 1960 , pg . 34 - 40\nsever , david m . ; morphology and seasonal variation of the mental glands of the dwarf salamander , eurycea quadridigitata , herpetologica , 31 ( 3 ) : 241 - 251\nin new york , bishop ( 1941b ) reports northern slimy salamanders as commonly being found beneath logs and stones in woods , in the crevices of shale banks , and along the sides of gullies and ravines . he also reports them from under moist humus and leaf mold or in manure piles .\nmale green salamanders ( aneides aeneus ) exhibit aggressive behavior towards northern slimy salamanders ( canterbury and pauley , 1991 ) . other interactions between these two salamanders likely include competition for space , nesting sites , and food ( bailey , 1992 ; marvin , 1998 ) . green salamanders are found frequently to occupy higher crevices in rock faces than are northern slimy salamanders ( baltar , 1983 ; cliburn and porter , 1987 ; waldron , 2000 ) . this stratification may be due to superior climbing abilities of green salamanders ( cliburn and porter , 1986 ) or to competition ( canterbury and pauley , 1991 ) .\nas with all species of plethodon , northern slimy salamanders do not migrate to breeding grounds , and they do not have large home ranges . thus , they can exist in habitats of smaller size than many other amphibian species . conservation activities that promote mature closed - canopy forests should benefit this species .\n, lack the grooves running from nostrils down to lip that slimy salamanders have . there are several species in the\nnorthern slimy salamanders are sympatric throughout most of the range of cumberland plateau salamanders in the cumberland plateau of eastern kentucky and western west virginia and in areas in adjacent tennessee and virginia . there is evidence that the two species occasionally hybridize ( highton and macgregor , 1983 ; highton and peabody , 2000 ) .\ndescription : slimy salamanders were once considered one species ( p . glutinosus ) but have recently been split into 13 separate species . they all look similar and are best differentiated by range . slimy salamanders are large salamanders , reaching 6 . 75 in ( 17 cm ) , with blackish - blue color and scattered silvery - white or gold spots all over their body . its tail is round and its venter is grayish black or slightly lighter than the dorsum . the slimy salamander gets its name from the slimy secretions it produces when threatened , which stick like glue and are hard to get off . they have approximately 16 costal grooves .\nthe slimy salamander complex can be found inhabiting most of the eastern united states from connecticut south to florida and west to oklahoma and missouri . the actual locations may somewhat disjunct due to available habitat . the preferred habitat of the slimy salamander complex is moist undisturbed woodlands and moist wooded ravines . during the day , the salamanders will be located under logs , stones , and other forest floor debris , as well as in burrows . at night , after rains , or during humid moist weather , the slimy salamanders can be located while foraging for food above ground . during hot and dry weather , the salamanders will seek shelter underground in burrows , caves , in or under fallen logs , and in rock crevices .\nthe slimy salamander has mainly black skin , covered by abundant silver - white or brassy specks , or both ; the ventrum has variable shades but is generally lighter than the dorsum . the organism is distinguished from other dark salamanders in its range by the presence of a nasolabial groove . more noticeably ,\ndepending on the latitude of origin , female slimy salamanders may breed either annually or biennially , with the more southern populations breeding annually . sexual maturity is also linked to latitude , with the southern populations maturing faster . this may be due to the ability of the salamander to remain active longer and thus have a longer growing season . in southern populations , males may become sexually mature in one to two years as compared to four years in northern populations . most individuals breed the year following sexual maturity . the majority of females in the southern populations reach sexual maturity at two years and lay eggs for the first time at three years , as compared to four years for maturity and five years to oviposition in northern populations . there are also differences in size at sexual maturity between the populations . the southern populations mature at a smaller size compared to the northern populations . for example , southern males are typically 1 . 6 - 2 . 1 inches ( 40 - 53 mm ) snout to vent , while northern males are typically 2 . 1 - 2 . 8 inches ( 53 - 70 mm ) . depending upon the latitude , the timing of egg deposition can vary from late spring and early summer in the northern portions of the range to late summer and early fall in southern populations ( petranka , 1998 ) . however , courtship in the northern portions of the range can take place in the previous fall , with egg deposition taking place the following spring ( organ , 1968 ) .\nnorthern slimy salamanders from somerset county , new jersey , courted in september and october . the early stages of courtship were not observed , but the tail - straddling stage was similar to that described for white - spotted slimy salamanders from whitetop mountain , virginia ( organ , 1960a , 1968 ) . a female collected in southern illinois on 27 april had a spermatophore in her cloaca when she was preserved on 9 may ( highton , 1962b ) .\ndescription : the slimy salamander is mostly black with white flecks and blotches along the sides and top portion ( dorsum ) of the body . the belly is typically lighter in base color than the rest of the body . the slimy has 15 to 17 ( typically 16 ) costal grooves ( vertical flanks along a salamander\u2019s sides ) . the tail accounts for half or more of the total body length , which ranges between 4 . 5 to 6 . 5 inches . the tail also is cylindrical ( distinguishing it from the laterally flattened tail of the similar - looking jefferson and blue - spotted salamanders ) . juveniles look similar to adults .\na . breeding . reproduction is terrestrial . females from populations in alabama had sperm present within the spermatheca in the spring ( trauth , 1984 ; note the species identities of the specimens in this study cannot be precisely determined , as exact locality data is unknown , although it is likely that at least some were northern slimy salamanders ) .\nthe following food items were reported for northern slimy salamanders from knox county , tennessee : annelida , gastropoda , diplopoda , chilopoda , isopoda , phalangidea , pseudoscorpionida , aranae , acarina , collembola , homoptera , hemiptera , coleoptera , diptera , formicidae , and non - formicid hymenopteran and other insect larvae ( powders and tietjen , 1974 ) .\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\n1 . historical versus current distribution . northern slimy salamanders ( plethodon glutinosus ) are present throughout kentucky , west virginia , and pennsylvania , extending northwest into southern illinois , southern and western indiana , and eastern ohio , south through tennessee into northeastern alabama , northern georgia , and extreme southwestern north carolina , east into western virginia , maryland , and new jersey , and northeast into southwestern connecticut and southern new york , with a disjunct population in southern new hampshire . populations range in elevation from sea level to about 1 , 500 m ( petranka , 1998 ) .\n962 - pope , c . h . , 1950 , a statistical and ecological study of the salamander plethodon yonahlossee , bull . chicago acad . sci . , vol . 9 , pg . 79 - 106\nslimy salamanders are only occasionally available through the pet trade . additionally , slimy salamanders purchased through the pet trade may also lack the requisite locality data to ensure that hybrids are not produced . if salamanders of unknown genetic background are produced then they should be labeled as potential hybrids to prevent accidental escape and interbreeding . collecting slimy salamanders should only be accomplished after a through review of the regulations in the relevant state .\njaeger , robert g . , joseph , raymond g . , barnard , debra e . 1981 . foraging tactics of a terrestrial salamander : sustained yields in territories . animal behavior 29 ( 4 ) : 1100 - 1105\nselby , michelle f . ; winkel , scott c . ; petranka , james w . ; 1996 , geographic uniformity in agonistic behaviors of jordon ' s salamander , herpetologica , 52 ( 1 ) : 108 - 115\nnorthern slimy salamanders contact southern appalachian salamanders on the western side of the blue ridge mountains in tennessee , southwest of the french broad river . at one site in polk county , tennessee , they occur sympatrically and probably do not hybridize . however , at two other transects in monroe and sevier counties , tennessee , there are narrow hybrid zones ( highton and peabody , 2000 ) .\na large salamander ( 4 . 5 to 8 . 0 inches in length ) having black dorsum with small , white or silver spots scattered over the body . belly is lighter than the back and the tail is round .\njaeger , robert g . ; joseph , raymond g . ; barnard , debra e . ; 1981 , foraging tactics of a terrestrial salamander : sustained yields in territories , animal behavior , 29 ( 4 ) : 1100 - 1105\nmales collected in october from rochester and ithaca , new york , had vas deferens packed with sperm ( bishop , 1941b ) . the vasa deferentia from northern slimy salamanders collected in bedford county , pennsylvania , and frederick county , maryland , were enlarged during september\u2013october . one male collected in october and all those collected in march in southern illinois had large vasa deferentia . ( highton , 1962b ) .\nintensive harvest of mature forest greatly reduces salamander density in the logged area ; population recovery occurs slowly ( herbeck and larsen 1999 ) . however , logging is not considered to constitute a major threat to the security of the global population .\nthe slimy salamander complex is a group of large eastern woodland salamanders , with adults commonly reaching lengths of up to 6 . 75 inches ( 17 cm ) . depending on the author , there may be as few as three species ( petranka , 1998 ) or as many as thirteen different species ( conant and collins , 1991 ) . however , the species are generally indistinguishable in the field . the only way to tell the species apart ( except for chromosomal analysis ) is to know the locality origin of each salamander . for the purpose of this article , the different species can all be treated as the same species .\njaeger , robert g . ; fortune , deborah ; hill , gary ; palen , amy ; risher , george ; 1993 , salamander homing behavior and territorial pheromones : alternative hypotheses , journal of herpetology 27 ( 2 ) : 236 - 239\nthe slimy salamander is a territorial species , like most plethodontids . individuals , both male and female , can become very aggressive in competition for space toward members of both their own species and competitor species ( marvin 1998 ) . females fiercely guard their clutches , in some instances neglecting to forage for food , and may abandon eggs if they discover any tampering at the nest site ( highton 1956 ) .\nthe following diagram shows the approximate ranges of the species of slimy salamanders . for precise range information , please consult current published guidebooks or information available locally .\n1 . determining the factors that influence the distribution of species has been a longstanding goal in the field of ecology . new techniques such as ecological niche modelling have the potential to aid in addressing many broad questions in ecology , evolutionary biology , and behavioural ecology . 2 . this study combines broad - scale ecological niche models with fine - scaled studies of biotic interactions to examine how abiotic and biotic interactions affect the spatial distribution of the terrestrial salamander species plethodon glutinosus ( northern slimy salamander ) , in a potential contact zone shared with plethodon mississippi ( mississippi slimy salamander ) . 3 . the core habitat in the interior portion of the range of p . glutinosus and the contact zone are distributed in unique environmental niche space . 4 . the form of competition , inter - or intraspecific , significantly affected mass loss of adult salamanders . salamanders lost more mass when interacting with a heterospecific . 5 . abiotic conditions strongly influenced the impact of competition on salamanders . under stressful environmental conditions at the field site located in the contact zone , salamanders lost more mass than at the field site located in the interior of the range . 6 . furthermore , adult salamanders from range - edge populations and core populations ( from the interior of the range ) differed in their respective abilities to compete under the abiotic conditions in the contact zone .\n10812 - organ , j . a . , 1990 , salamander survey section one 1990 , prepared for the mount rogers national recreation area , jefferson national forest , 40 pgs . , dept . of bio . of the city college of new york , new york\nnorthern slimy salamanders are believed to breed in the spring and again in the fall . 4 to 12 eggs are laid under rocks , logs or in burrows . the female guards her clutch until hatching which takes about 3 months . the spring - laid eggs hatch around august . the larval stage of these salamanders occurs inside the eggs . there is no aquatic stage , the salamanders hatch out as miniature adults that will mature in 3 to 5 years .\np . anti - predator mechanisms . nocturnal . secretive . northern slimy salamanders and members of their complex produce large amounts of skin secretions that have an adhesive component ( brodie et al . , 1979 ) . these adhesives bind to potential predators and can compromise both mastication and locomotion . individuals will body flip and lash their tails when attacked by shrews ( brodie et al . , 1979 ) . they will vocalize when physically disturbed ( mansueti , 1941 ) .\nthe following salamanders were collected along with northern slimy salamanders on mount cheaha , cleburne county , alabama : spotted dusky salamanders ( desmognathus conanti ) , seepage salamanders ( d . aeneus ) , seal salamanders ( d . monticola ) , southern two - lined salamanders ( eurycea cirrigera ) , three - lined salamanders ( e . guttolineata ) , spring salamanders ( gyrinophilus porphyriticus ) , red salamanders ( pseudotriton ruber ) , and webster\u2019s salamanders ( p . websteri ; rubenstein , 1969 ) .\nhighton , r . , g . maha , l . maxson . 1989 . biochemical evolution in the slimy salamanders of the _ plethodon glutinosus _ complex in the eastern united states .\noccurs in the southern appalachian and piedmont regions of the appalachian highlands , as well as the southern coastal plain . it is found in the blue ridge and piedmont physiographic provinces of virginia and north carolina , west to the french broad river and south to the northern piedmont of south carolina . outside of that area ,\nslimy salamanders to me are somewhat misnamed , as a better name would have been sticky salamanders . the first time you try to restrain one with your bare hands is a memorable experience . the salamander will coat your hand in a seemingly never - ending supply of thick , sticky mucous that is very difficult to remove by washing . my first attempt to catch one by hand resulted in my having to spend about 10 minutes scrubbing the mucous off with sand in a nearby stream .\nhouk , lynne d . ; bell , alison m ; reagen - wallin , nancy ; feldhoff , richard c . ; 1998 , effects of experimental delivery of male courtship pheromones on the timing of courtship in a terrestrial salamander , plethodon jordani ( caudata : plethodontidae ) , copeia 1 : 214 - 219\nsexually mature slimy salamanders are easy to differentiate as the males have a large readily visible mental gland on the chin during the breeding season . additionally , male slimy salamanders have papillose cloacal glands , but this is only readily visible under a magnifying lens . in plethodontid salamanders , the mental gland secretes hormones that increase receptivity for courtship in the female salamander ( houk et al . , 1998 ) . the hormones are transferred to the females by rubbing the mental gland and its secretions on the female ' s body , head , and nasolabial grooves . adult females can be identified by the observance of eggs through the wall of the abdomen , or by the lack of a mental gland during the breeding season .\nthe slimy salamander is commonly found beneath stones and decaying logs in wooded areas and alongside streams , as well as in the crevices of shale banks and along the sides of gullies and ravines ( davidson 1956 ; grobman 1944 ) . it generally moves about underground using animal and insect burrows ( cowley 1999 ) . mean home - range area is 3 . 01 + / - . 613 sq . meters for adults and 3 . 46 + / - 1 . 851 sq . meters for juveniles ( marvin 1998 ) .\nimpact their communities with their burrowing by contributing to the dynamics of the soil . they dig and break up the soil to increase aeration . white - spotted slimy salamanders also are host to many internal parasites including :\nwhite - spotted slimy salamanders are generally solitary , but will congregate under optimal cover objects to avoid dessication during dry periods . females and juveniles are much more likely to share a cover object than multiple , territorial males .\nrange : there are at least 16 subspecies of slimy salamanders which look the same but are genetically variable . overall , this species ranges from texas to florida , north into missouri and illinois and northeast into new york and connecticut .\nthis species can be found in the usa . the complex covers southern new hampshire ( disjunctive ) , western connecticut , and new york south to central florida , west to missouri , eastern oklahoma , and south - central texas ( disjunctive ) ( petranka 1998 ) . according to highton et al . ( 1989 ) , plethodon glutinosus covers northeastern usa to central illinois , south to central alabama , central georgia , western virginia , northern maryland , and central new jersey .\nhabits : slimy salamanders prefer to stay under logs , stones , debris , or in burrows during the day and come out on moist nights forage for invertebrate prey . during the breeding season male adult slimy salamanders , unlike females , have a large mental gland on the chin , which they use to stimulate the female . they breed annually , depositing about 6 - 36 eggs under logs or dirt in the summer or early fall . these eggs will usually hatch around october and young do not have an aquatic larval stage . they mature in about 3 years .\ngravid females will retain the eggs unless a suitable nesting site and medium are provided . in the wild slimy salamanders nest underground in burrows or in rotted logs . a loose deep substrate can be provided to allow the females to dig an appropriate nesting chamber . as an alternative , small burrows can be created from small diameter pvc and buried in the substrate . if the female salamander is frequently disturbed , the eggs may be retained indefinitely or laid and then abandoned . if the female retains the eggs , egg deposition can be hormonally induced . however , hormonally induced females rarely brood the eggs . rearing of plethodontid eggs is a labor - intensive task with a high failure rate unless specialized equipment can be purchased . ( bernardo and arnold , 1999 ) .\ntakes place at the beginning of april and eggs are deposited anytime from late spring in the northern part of the range to very late summer at the range ' s southern tip . eggs are laid in moist areas such as caves or under the bark of rotting trees . clutch size ranges from 4 to 12 eggs . hatchlings emerge close to three months after eggs are deposited ( highton 1956 ) . juveniles have no aquatic stage and develop directly to adulthood , as the species is entirely terrestrial ( feder 1983 ) .\nbegins courtship and mating in the spring and fall . white spotted slimy salamanders lay six to thirty six eggs in an underground retreat such as underneath or within a log , or in a moist crevasse during late spring . the female is tasked with guarding the nest and her eggs hatch after 2 to 3 months .\nis a terrestrial species and completes its entire life cycle on land . it is also a lungless species and breaths through its skin and membranes of the mouth and throat . white - spotted slimy salamanders are named for their spotted appearance and defensive strategy of secreting a very sticky substance from its skin glands that is extremely difficult to remove .\nlife history : slimy salamanders are late spring - time breeders , much like many other connecticut amphibians . not much is known about the breeding activities of slimy salamanders . it is suspected that they are sexually mature at 5 years of age and that the females only breed every other year . unlike most other salamanders , open water is not needed for the laying of eggs . instead , the 13 to 34 eggs ( average 16 - 17 ) are usually deposited in decaying logs or attached underneath rocks . all development takes place within the eggs , including metamorphosis , so that the emerging juvenile salamanders appear as smaller versions of the adults . the juveniles may have just as many , if not more , white flecks on their bodies .\nfemale slimy salamanders do not sexually mature until they are two years old , and cannot lay eggs until approaching age three . the same is true for most males , although some have been found capable of breeding at two years of age . in regions where the growing season is short , a wait of three years is almost certain before sexual maturity is reached ( highton 1962 ) .\nlife history : reproduction occurs in the summer , with eggs being attached to the roof of an underground cavity or rock crevice . the larval stage is completed within the egg , and hatching occurs 2 - 3 months after the eggs are deposited . newly hatched slimy salamanders apparently do not emerge from their hidden retreats until the following spring . sexual maturity is reached in 3 - 5 years .\nslimy salamanders can be easily maintained in plastic shoeboxes or sweater boxes lined with moistened unbleached paper towels . the shoebox or sweater box should have several crumpled paper towels , in addition to the ones lining the bottom , for the salamanders to use as shelter . this will help alleviate any stress the animal may be undergoing . unbleached paper towels have several advantages for use besides ease of cleaning . they serve as a suitable parasite and pathogen free substrate for animals undergoing a quarantine period . additionally , the towels serve as an excellent substrate for monitoring the success of courtship by allowing the easy detection of spermatophores . the paper towels should be changed at least once a week and preferably no more than twice a week , as cleaning too frequently may stress the salamanders and depress feeding activities ( jaeger et al . , 1981 ) . care must be taken to prevent the escape of the salamander , so tight fitting lids are required . several small holes can be drilled at each corner of either the lid or shoebox to facilitate air exchange . for long - term maintenance , the salamanders can also be set up in terrariums .\nthis species is one of a group of slimy salamanders referred to as the plethodon glutinosus complex . their appearances are similar and may be impossible to distinguish in the field ; there are 13 genetically distinct species in this group . short of genetically testing animals using laboratory techniques the best way to distinguish among these species is from their distribution maps . the list of these species and their common names as noted by the peterson reptiles and amphibians field guide is as follows :\nbody usually shiny black with well scattered spots . spots may be larger or small , white , gray or yellow on sides and silvery , white or brassy flecks on head back and tail . dark colored throat . slate colored belly generally noticeably lighter than dorsal color . skin will create a sticky or slimy secretion when animal is handled . nasolabial grooves present . 16 costal grooves , although may range from 15 to 17 . the tail is round in cross - section .\nthis is a large salamander that produces sticky secretions from the tail when handled . the entire ventral surface is slate - colored ; the back and sides are darker and sprinkled with silvery - white or metallic gold markings . the total length is 11 . 5 - 20 . 5 cm . the average egg is 5 . 5 mm in diameter , creamy white , and are often suspended from the ceiling of a cavity , such as a crevice of a shale bank , but may be deposited under rotten logs or moss . in the coastal plain , the eggs are laid annually in the late summer or fall . in the mountains , the eggs are laid every other spring . this species may be found under rocks or logs during the day , or wandering the forest floor at night .\nwhite - spotted slimy salamanders may be active during the day or night , but are most active during rain events and at night . little is known regarding migratory movements , but studies have shown that individuals move no more than 90 meters . distance moved seems to correlate with age and more specifically , reproductive maturity . juveniles move less than 6 m , whereas salamanders between 55 and 65 svl moved the most . this length is most seen in individuals that have recently reached reproductive maturity and are likely moving in search of mates .\nis defined by a slimy , glue - like secretion released from its skin glands . it has 16 costal grooves , on rare occurrences 15 or 17 , and generally ranges from 4 . 75 to 6 . 75 inches in length ( conant and collins 1998 ) . hatchlings are born with only slight dark coloration on the dorsum and none on the ventrum ; melanin for the specks begins to appear on the dorsum after three days . adult females exhibit slightly larger snout - to - vent lengths than adult males , but are otherwise similar in appearance ( highton 1956 ) .\nslimy salamanders should be kept in a cool area such as a temperature - controlled room or a basement . the temperature should not be allowed to rise above 76\u00b0f ( 24 . 4\u00b0c ) as stress and potential death can result . if possible , the salamanders should be kept at a cooler temperature as opposed to a warmer temperature , as there is some evidence that salamanders kept at cooler temperatures are better able to resist sudden increases in temperature ( sealander and west , 1969 ) . cycling of the temperatures for breeding should be accomplished slowly , preferably not varying the temperature more than one degree per day .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfrost , d . r . 2014 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 ( 27 january 2014 ) . new york , usa . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 january 2014 ) .\nhighton et al . ( 1989 ) recognized many species in this complex , but petranka ( 1998 ) regarded recognition of these as premature and referred to all of them as plethodon glutinosus . a more recent study revealed that nominal p . glutinosus is not only a species complex , but also that it is not monophyletic in nature ( fisher - reid and wiens 2011 ) . for the purposes of this assessment , all of the biological populations treated as nominal p . glutinosus are considered in the assessment until such time as there is formal taxonomic resolution to the species identities involved .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution and presumed large population .\nthe total adult population size is unknown , but it probably exceeds 100 , 000 . there are hundreds of occurrences . in the southern appalachians , populations fluctuated over a 20 - year period ( early 1970s to early 1990s ) , with no apparent long - term trend ( hairston and wiley 1993 ) .\nthere are wooded slopes , ravines , floodplains , shalebanks , and cave entrances ; most often in hardwood forest , sometimes in pinelands . it is generally under or in rotting logs , stumps , or leaf - litter , or under rocks , during the day . goes underground during dry or freezing weather . eggs are laid in rotting logs , underground , or in rock crevices , where they develop directly without a larval stage .\nmaintenance of mature hardwood forest habitat is key to the long - term persistence of viable populations of this species ( petranka 1998 ) . further research on the taxonomy of this species complex is required to clarify the biological identities of the taxa involved .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nthis amphibian feeds at night on a variety of invertebrates , such as earthworms , snails , slugs , spiders , centipedes , and millipedes , as well as larval and adult insects .\navoid the use of fertilizers , herbicides , and insecticides in your yard . if you need to use these products , purchase ones that are natural and organic .\nstate of connecticut disclaimer , privacy policy , and web site accessibility policy . copyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 state of connecticut .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\npertinent references : petranka , james w . 1998 . salamanders of the united states and canada . smithsonian institute press , washington .\naccount author : anna tarter , university of georgia - revised by j . d . willson"]}
{"id": 902, "summary": [{"text": "zippy chippy ( born april 20 , 1991 ) is a thoroughbred race horse , a bay gelding , who is notable for being winless in 100 races .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "zippy chippy 's pedigree includes many famous horses , such as ben brush , buckpasser , busanda , bold ruler , count fleet , man o ' war , nasrullah , native dancer , northern dancer , round table , tom fool , war admiral and the greatest \" blue hen \" broodmare of the twentieth century , la troienne . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "zippy chippy", "paragraphs": ["owner and trainer felix monserrate and his horse , zippy chippy , in 2010 .\nmonseratte became zippy chippy ' s trainer after 20 starts . there were several close calls as zippy chippy was second eight times while earning us $ 30 , 834 .\n' that ' s the one you gotta help . that ' s zippy chippy ! '\nzippy chippy in retirement at old friends at cabin creek . ( old friends at cabin creek )\nzippy chippy even lost a 40 - yard race to minor - league baseball player jose herrera .\nthe legend of zippy chippy and millions of other books are available for amazon kindle . learn more\ntoday , zippy chippy is 25 years old and living on a retirement farm in greenfield , ny .\na long - awaited book on the life of zippy chippy may still be a year away , but the official zippy chippy ice cream , zippy chippy gelato , debuted \u2014 and sold out \u2014 last month at an event in kentucky . half - pint containers could be available at the saratoga track this summer .\n\u201ci asked where i could find a book on zippy chippy\u201d thomas says . \u201cbut there wasn\u2019t one . \u201d\nzippy chippy ( left ) seen racing at freehold raceway in freehold , n . j . in 2001 .\nthat somebody is likely to be joann pepper , zippy chippy ' s landlord and his most enthusiastic fan .\nzippy chippy has seven second - place finishes and 12 thirds for career earnings of $ 29 , 167 .\nnow - retired zippy chippy descended from champions - - but finished with a professional record of 0 for 100 .\nnot even starting the race as the betting favorite could get zippy chippy his first win in a career of futility .\na well written book about zippy chippy , the horse that loved to race , just not win . i enjoyed it .\nthe legend of zippy chippy : life lessons from horse racing ' s most lovable loser , is published by mccelland & stewart .\n\u201cwhat do you do ? ignore him ? he is the one you got to help the most . that\u2019s zippy chippy . \u201d\nfelix monserrate and his horse , zippy chippy , were possibly the two most stubborn players in thoroughbred racing . ( emily schoeneman )\nzippy chippy will enjoy retirement alongside seven other retired racehorses , most notably 1992 travers and jim dandy winner and millionaire thunder rumble .\nzippy chippy did manage to finish second eight times . he got a few thirds . his career winnings totaled $ 30 , 000 . it ' s a record that makes one wonder why his owner kept bringing zippy chippy to the track . joann pepper thinks part of the reason was that zippy came cheap .\nhey buddy , why the long face ? zippy chippy is a race horse who broke record after record \u2014 for being the losingest thoroughbred in north american history . we speak with the author of a new book about the horse that was more chippy than zippy .\nthe legend of zippy chippy : life lessons from horse racing ' s most lovable loser by william thomas will be released april 5 .\ntoronto \u2014 they ' re related but it ' s obvious zippy chippy didn ' t get grandfather northern dancer ' s racing genes .\ntoronto - they ' re related but it ' s obvious zippy chippy didn ' t get grandfather northern dancer ' s racing genes .\nwith a bridle nameplate that reads \u2018racing\u2019s biggest loser , \u2019 zippy chippy can rightly claim to be the worst racehorse of all time .\nwilliam thomas discusses his book , ' the legend of zippy chippy , ' on the agenda in the summer , july 21 , 2016 .\n\u201cthere\u2019s just something about that name , zippy chippy , \u201d said bill flynn , then a reporter for oag affiliate wxxi in rochester , n . y . , who was on the scene in 1999 for zippy chippy ' s record setting 86 th consecutive race without a win .\nhe traded a beat - up white ford pickup for the horse . for all that he lost , at least zippy chippy tried , and tried again , at least that is how monserrate saw things . \u201cfelix always believed he could turn zippy chippy into a star , \u201d schoeneman said recently .\nzippy chippy , whose horse racing record was 0 - 100 , is seen with his owner felix monserrate ( left ) . zippy ' s story will be published in a book next month ( right )\nin the legend of zippy chippy , life lessons from horse racing\u2019s most lovable loser , author and humourist william thomas chronicles zippy\u2019s ascension , or rather , decline , into the history books . thomas writes :\nzippy would go on to set his own records in his own way \u2014 by losing . his idiosyncratic story is told in william thomas\u2019 new biography \u201c the legend of zippy chippy \u201d ( mcclelland & stewart ) .\nthe legend of zippy chippy : life lessons from horse racing ' s most lovable loser , from author william thomas , is set to be released april 5 .\nthat produced groans from the crowd of about 100 people in the rickety wooden grandstand . zippy chippy had started the race as a 2 - 1 betting favorite .\nzippy chippy , 21 , the hapless horse who lost 100 consecutive races , has taken temporary residence at old friends , the scott county farm for retired thoroughbreds .\nzippy chippy , 25 , is currently at greenfield center , n . y . , farm , hanging out with best friend and fellow gelding red dawn south .\nbut zippy chippy , despite a pedigree that also includes bold ruler ( secretariat ' s father ) and u . s . triple crown winner war admiral , lost all 100 races he ran . canadian humourist william thomas chronicles the american - bred gelding ' s colourful career in his book\nthe legend of zippy chippy .\n\u201che ran good and he got tired toward the end , \u201d jockey juan rohena said of zippy chippy . \u201che was real sharp and he tried real hard . \u201d\non the occasion of only a game ' s 20 th anniversary , bill littlefield went in search of zippy chippy , to offer our apologies \u2026 and maybe a carrot .\nthis july 20 , 2012 photo shows zippy chippy , front , sharing a paddock with his pal and fellow gelding red down south , at old friends farm near georgetown , ky . they ' re related but it ' s obvious zippy chippy didn ' t get grandfather northern dancer ' s racing genes . the canadian press / ap / bruce schreiner\nwilliam thomas is the author of a new book , the legend of zippy chippy : life lessons from horse racing ' s most lovable loser . he recently sat down with as it happens host carol off to discuss zippy ' s story .\nfoaled at capritaur farm in new york , zippy chippy boasts a pedigree that includes northern dancer , buckpasser , bold ruler and round table\u2014some of the fastest horses of all time .\nbefore the race , monserrate was optimistic , despite the fact his horse was starting on the outside\u2014a position he doesn\u2019t like . he said zippy chippy was \u201crelaxed and happy . \u201d\nzippy chippy was apparently a betting favorite due to his record , not in spite of it . at one point , the odds on him winning were listed as even money .\nfans and trainers had opposite views , however , of whether zippy chippy is good for thoroughbred racing , a sport that has seen a steady decline in interest over the years .\nbut for zippy chippy , his notoriety as the most losingest thoroughbred in racehorse history is why the 25 - year - old bay gelding has legions of fans across the world .\nbut zippy had a complicated relationship with racing and training , and the happier felix got , the more zippy loved to terrorize him .\nas it happens first told the story of zippy chippy in 1998 , when he lost his 85th race . this tied him for the record for losingest horse in thoroughbred racing history .\nbut zippy chippy became a sideshow . in august 2000 he lost a 40 - yard dash to jose herrera , a centre - fielder with the triple - a rochester red wings .\nzippy chippy wasn\u2019t zippy , for despite his name he tended not to run a lot , although he wasn\u2019t lame one hundred times he entered races . never did he win and sometimes zippy just stood still , and he would not begin the call would be \u201ctheir off ! \u201d but zippy wasn\u2019t off at all he\u2019d look around as if to say , \u201clet\u2019s go back to the stall . \u201d\nby losing 100 times in 100 career starts , zippy chippy cemented his legend as a loveable loser , a rogue whose face adorns coffee mugs captioned with \u201cwinners don\u2019t always finish first . \u201d\nowner and trainer felix monserrate , who has remained optimistic despite his horse\u2019s career - long losing streak , said he would bring zippy chippy back to the three - county fair next year .\nzippy chippy was born in april 1991 in upstate new york . he was eighth in his first race on sept . 13 , 1994 , at belmont park at 15 - 1 odds .\nzippy earned a different kind of fame . in 100 starts , zippy won 0 . but winners don\u2019t always finish first . watching zippy rack up his 0 for 100 record became such a popular pastime that stories about him on the blood - horse web site got more reads than stories about kentucky derby winners , and in 2000 people magazine voted zippy chippy one of the year\u2019s \u201cmost intriguing characters . \u201d\non january 1 , 2015 zippy celebrated his twenty fourth birthday , he seems happy being the star at cabin creek and i can only assume has lasted a lot longer than that old horse van he was traded for . i had a two dollar win ticket on zippy chippy , that hung around for years , that of course , i can ' t find but i do have my original , first addition zippy chippy t - shirt from 2000 .\nand then . . . he heard laughter . marisa was standing in front of zippy chippy , wagging her finger and telling him he\u2019d been \u201ca very bad boy , \u201d over and over .\nzippy chippy runs no more . unless he wants to \u2013 say when he ' s at the far end of the corral and somebody shows up at the gate with something good to eat .\nthe 9 - year - old gelding finished third saturday in the eighth race at the three - county fair , extending zippy chippy\u2019s record as the losingest horse in american thoroughbred history to 88 races .\nzippy chippy , ridden by pedro carrasqual , finished seven lengths behind winner bidakeno in the $ 10 , 100 six - furlong race . the six other competitors were all 4 - year - olds .\nzippy chippy turned 24 years old last month . the dark brown gelding and former western new york resident is stabled at the cabin creek farm \u2014 a kind of old folks home for thoroughbred racehorses .\nzippy chippy ' s current home is at a farm called old friends at cabin creek , established 10 years ago in greenfield , n . y . , a quick run from the track in saratoga springs . well , quick for any horse but zippy . anyway , old friends , which is supported by donations , a few grants , and fundraisers , some featuring zippy , is home to 14 retired race horses , though capacity is supposed to be 12 . according to joann pepper , zippy chippy is among those ok with sharing space with a pal .\n\u201cafter waving goodbye to his van , felix went into the barn as the new and proud owner of zippy chippy , a horse that had nowhere to go but up , \u201d humorist william thomas writes in \u201cthe legend of zippy chippy : life lessons from horse racing\u2019s most lovable loser , \u201d his entertaining new book . \u201cby way of offering his opinion of the trade , the horse immediately bit him . \u201d\nuntil he was banished from finger lakes , things were pretty dull , but zippy came close to ruining his career on october 3 , 1995 when he finished with a rush to finish second in a five and one half furlong race , had the race been six furlongs , zippy chippy would just have been another horse . after his last finger lakes race , it was almost a year before zippy returned to massachusetts , at the three county fair in northampton , for his only start of 1999 . a new millennium and a new zippy chippy were on the horizon .\nzippy chippy , the gelding who became famous for losing all 100 of his lifetime starts , has been retired to the old friends retirement farm ' s bobby frankel division in greenfield center , n . y .\nthomas is an avid hiker . he was tramping through the finger lakes region a few years back when he stopped into a bar near zippy\u2019s home track . the conversation turned to secretariat , the greatest of the greats . then , the bartender mentioned zippy chippy , the anti - secretariat .\na year later , zippy was still running . and he was still slow .\nzippy chippy was born to father compliance and mother listen lady , and he can count northern dancer , man o ' war , bold ruler , and war admiral as some of his famous ancestors , it says .\nzippy chippy finally won march 17 , 2001 , beating standardbred paddy ' s laddy in a match race at freehold raceway . later that year , he defeated rochester player darnell mcdonald in a 50 - yard sprint .\npart of zippy chippy ' s problem could be that he doesn ' t get much work . some tracks banned him after he dawdled at the start of three races in 1998 at finger lakes in new york .\nloss after loss , felix would defend zippy chippy . \u201csay you have three children , \u201d he\u2019d tell local sportswriters . \u201cone is a lawyer , doing well . the other a doctor , very , very successful . but the third one , not so smart , so he\u2019s working at mcdonald\u2019s . what do you do , \u00adignore him ? \u201d no , felix would say . \u201cthat\u2019s the one you gotta help . that\u2019s zippy chippy ! \u201d\nthomas describes zippy chippy\u2019s laid - back attitude towards life and sport in glowing terms , and uses the horse\u2019s story to rail against a winning - obsessed culture that drives athletes to cheat and dope in order to get ahead .\nhe spent those two months training zippy to bolt out of he gate ; one more suspension \u2014 three was the limit \u2014 and zippy\u2019s career would be over . it went better than felix could have hoped : every single time , zippy would break clear .\nmonserrate acquired zippy in a 1995 trade with his breeder for an old horse van .\nif you want to see zippy chippy or any of his more accomplished neighbors at old friends , summer visiting hours are 11 a . m . to 4 p . m . , tuesday , thursday , friday , and saturday .\nzippy may have been forced out of professional racing , but his fans loved him all the more for it . a new jersey contingent presented zippy with an enormous hallmark card .\nzippy chippy will go down in history as one of the most famous thoroughbreds in horse racing history \u2014 for never having won a single race . one hundred races without breasting the tape . neigh , not one . zero . zip .\nzippy , according to the post , continued to be a frequently uncooperative regarding his training .\nso , in a way , it was fortuitous that zippy never won , blowen said .\ncharlie pierce is not known for going easy on athletes , and zippy was no exception .\nwhen zippy was later beaten in a 40 - yard - dash by a minor league baseball player , monserrate chalked it up to zippy allowing his opponent to win , the post reported .\npeople magazine listed him among its most interesting personalities in 2000 . he has an entry in the encyclopedia of new york and now he has his own book \u2014 the legend of zippy chippy \u2014 written by his official biographer , canadian humourist william thomas .\nit wasn\u2019t for a lack of trying . zippy chippy , who has a habit of stalling at the start of races , led out of the gate and was neck - and - neck with second - place miner\u2019s claim for much of the race .\nthe fair , where zippy chippy set the record for losingest horse last year , is the only track that hasn\u2019t banned him from racing . years of losing , bad behavior and his habit of stopping at the starting gate have soured tracks on him .\nwriting a biography of a horse reveals some interesting limitations of the life - narrative genre itself . thomas frequently gets inside zippy chippy\u2019s head , describing how his subject feels about racing , eating and taking it easy in a high - stakes world . either thomas is a telepathic horse whisperer and zippy chippy is the smartest horse in the world , or else the author has used a lot of creative licence . it makes you reflect on the fact that all biographers are probably just as imaginative with their subjects .\nold friends founder and president michael blowen saw zippy almost win a race in the late 1990s .\nshortly after a race on june 3 , 1995 , monserrate traded an old horse van with zippy ' s original breeder , for ownership of the horse . they would remain together for around 15 years , before monserrate sold zippy chippy , assured that he would spend his days at a retirement home for thoroughbred race horses , and what a fifteen years it was .\nfelix monserrate , schoeneman\u2019s spouse , saw otherwise . he was a puerto rican immigrant , an incurable dreamer and a horse trainer who typically lost more than he won at the finger lakes racetrack in upstate new york . but his affections for zippy chippy were partly justifiable .\n\u201cstupendously , at the turn of this century , a racehorse by the name of zippy chippy became america\u2019s greatest attempter . glorious was this horse in failure , tireless in the trying game . there was no winning , no cheating , no million - dollar contract for this remarkable athlete , because when all was said and done and put out to pasture , he was the great zippy chippy \u2013 a record - setting , always - struggling , full - striding scoundrel who became the best thoroughbred in professional racing at stealing people\u2019s hearts . \u201d\nzippy chippy did make some money with special appearances that drew plenty of fans , and in 2000 people magazine named him one of the year\u2019s most intriguing personalities . today , he is retired , living out his days on a farm near saratoga , n . y .\ntrouble was , each mounting loss only boosted zippy chippy ' s cult following . he was banned from finger lakes racetrack in farmington , n . y . , in 1998 for failing to leave the gate three straight times , earning him a usa today cover story .\nphiladelphia - - he couldn ' t win in traditional horse races . he couldn ' t win against a minor league baseball player . and friday night , zippy chippy showed that he couldn ' t win when competing against other horses who have never won a race .\nin 2000 , the same year he lost to the minor league player , people magazine named zippy chippy to its list of the year ' s most fascinating personalities . to his credit , the next year , zippy did beat another minor - league player , darnell mcdonald ( a former boston red sox outfielder who is now an outfielder with the new york yankees ) .\nover three years , zippy ran 70 races at finger lakes , and the more he lost , the higher his star rose . but it was the race at finger lakes on june 23 , 1998 , where zippy really set himself apart : of the six other horses bolting out of the starting gate , zippy was not among them . the bell went off , but zippy chose not to hear it .\neventually , his jockey got zippy going , but it was more of a laid - back stroll .\nso on the rainy november morning that felix\u2019s 8 - year - old daughter , marisa , went missing , his heart was in his throat . she had grown up with horses all her life , and was oddly enamored of zippy chippy . felix ran to the stall .\nmichael blowen , founder and president of old friends in scott county , feeds carrots to zippy chippy on wednesday , july 18 , 2012 . the horse is on loan to the scott county center through the month of august . photo by greg kocher | staff gkocher1 @ urltoken\nin his 86th race in september 1999 , zippy chippy broke the record for consecutive losses without a win . in his 87th race sept . 1 , he came heartbreakingly close to the winner ' s circle . he led all the way before being edged by a nose .\nin a culture whose mythology is saturated with formulaic tales of greatness and achievement , the legend of zippy chippy is a subversive celebration of failure . thomas revels in his subject\u2019s absolute lack of interest when it comes to living up to his potential . the author includes family trees showing zippy\u2019s bred - for - perfection pedigree\u2014he was related to secretariat , seabiscuit and a dozen other all - time great racehorses\u2014which make zippy seem like the wayward , layabout son of a high - achieving family .\nemily schoeneman could see what her husband couldn\u2019t . what she saw in zippy chippy , an ornery racehorse with donkey - like ears , a taste for coors light , pizza and doritos , and with zero wins in 20 career races , was a colossal error in male judgment .\nhorse lovers everywhere can agree on one thing : that horses have a lot to teach us , whether it\u2019s patience , responsibility , or in the case of the irresistible bay thoroughbred race horse named zippy chippy , that one should never give up . and always go out laughing .\nafter his retirement , zippy chippy did a short stint as an outrider pony at his home track , finger lakes in 2005 . after that he spent his day ' s with the monserrate family , who claimed he was family , until a deal was struck that sent him to cabin creek farm in greenfield , new york . cabin creek is affiliated with old friends a retirement farm for race horses in kentucky . zippy chippy , gained national attention in 2000 , when he made people magazines , list of most interesting personalities . in 2001 , zippy was involved in what were billed as a couple of\npublicity stunts\n, hey a guys gotta make a living .\nso begins william thomas\u2019 the legend of zippy chippy : life lessons from horse racing\u2019s most lovable loser . the unusual biography takes us through the life of america\u2019s most unsuccessful thoroughbred racehorse who , over the course of his 100 - race career , lost every single professional race he entered .\nover time , the more zippy lost , the more famous he became . he had a cult following among racing fans , who continued to bet on zippy , still holding out hope that he might eventually win .\nbut at approximately 2pm et all eyes turned towards the post parade for race 2 . zippy chippy was going to post ! surprisingly the crowd was abuzz with talk of zippy . the majority of patrons at this small , fair track seemed to be well aware of the story unfolding before them . zippy received a warm round of applause as the post parade passed in front of the grandstand ( almost close enough to touch ! ) . as zippy ( in the orange silks of the # 7 horse ) approached the starting gate folks were clicking away with their cameras and jockey willie belmonte winked and said ,\nfelix ' s groom owned zippy and wanted to get rid of him because he was moving to florida ,\nthomas said .\nfelix said , ' kill the zippy horse ? no way , jose . '\nhis owner , felix monserrate , has shared his tale of woe with jay leno on\nthe tonight show .\nand zippy chippy himself appeared on the pages of people magazine . last year , the magazine named the horse to its list of the year ' s 50 most fascinating personalities .\nthe new york post reported that zippy was a rebellious and uncooperative horse when it came to training - and by the time felix monserrate traded his truck so he could have zippy , the horse had already lost 20 races .\ndespite all this , zippy often went off as the favorite in the pre - race odds , blowen said .\nand zippy showed some spirit as he and red galloped together down a hill to the paddock ' s edge .\nfelix already had a scar on his back from zippy\u2019s inaugural bite . a few months later , felix and zippy were standing in front of the horse\u2019s stall , and when felix turned around , zippy grabbed his shirt by the mouth and dangled the trainer in midair . as felix flailed and yelled , his fellow track workers laughed and laughed .\nafter beginning his career amid high hopes at belmont park \u2014 home to the belmont stakes of triple crown fame \u2014 zippy chippy tumbled from lesser track to lesser track , until bottoming out in the horse - racing boondocks , where his owner planned to sell him to a slaughterhouse before monserrate intervened in 1995 .\nzippy chippy lives today upon a lovely farm and there he doesn\u2019t do a single living creature harm the people come to visit him and some of them conclude that zippy chippy is a joke , and i would find that rude if i could not image that somehow ziggy\u2019s worked it out perhaps he chose to beat the game , then beat it in a rout he did not suffer injuries . he didn\u2019t suffer fools he got himself tossed off the track because of racing\u2019s rules which say a horse that doesn\u2019t try cannot participate if ziggy figured that one out i think it would be great for zippy need not run these days , and still he gets to eat he lacks for neither food nor love , he is a horse complete\nzippy chippy ( usa ) b . g , 1991 { 23 - b } dp = 10 - 5 - 17 - 2 - 0 ( 34 ) di = 2 . 24 cd = 0 . 68 - 100 starts , 0 wins , 8 places , 12 shows career earnings : $ 30 , 834\nmonserrate described this tactic as zippy wanting \u201cto see the other horses out in front of him before he run . \u201d\nzippy , however , was friendly toward monserrate ' s daughter marisa . after searching for the girl , who ' d disappeared , monserrate saw the eight - year - old being nuzzled by zippy in a stall , the post recounted .\nwhy when other horses ran , would zippy choose to be the only one unmoved by dreams of mighty victory ? some said the zippy had not heart , and some said he was nuts . one theory had it that he was a fumble footed klutz . but what if zippy chippy had a bigger brain than most ? and if he knew winning was an empty sort of boast if all the winning did was made some wealthy guy make money ? and what if zippy found that idea sort of sad and funny ? and what if he thought , \u201cwell they\u2019re gonna to feed me anyway . why work as if without the work i wouldn\u2019t get the hay ? \u201d\n\u201cafter waving goodbye to his groom and his van , felix went into the barn as the new and proud owner of zippy chippy , a horse that had nowhere to go but up , \u201d thomas writes . \u201cby way of offering his opinion of the trade , the horse immediately bit him . just like that . \u201d\nthere , zippy was passed among owners and wound up in the hands of felix monserrate , a 52 - year - old trainer who traded his 1988 ford truck for the horse . felix knew zippy was a nonstarter \u2014 at \u00ad0 - for - 20 , his losses were unprecedented for a thoroughbred . but monserrate didn\u2019t like the way zippy\u2019s previous owner treated him .\nin his book , thomas writes of the love between horse and trainer , even though zippy seemed to enjoy tormenting monserrate .\nthe point is you don ' t have to come first to be a winner . zippy has proven that .\na week ago , zippy chippy , running against a field with a combined record of 0 - 132 , finished second by a neck . it was the best result in the career of a horse which , earlier this summer , lost a 40 - yard dash to a minor league outfielder in rochester , n . y .\nin may 2000 , people magazine named zippy among their most interesting personalities , and when zippy ran his next race \u2014 against a minor league baseball player named jos\u00e9 herrera \u2014 the national news media was there . zippy did not disappoint , losing a 40 - yard dash to the 27 - year - old center fielder for the rochester red wings in less than five seconds .\ni enjoyed this book and found it humorous , but the story was heavily added with tales of other sports . while these were amusing and analogous to zippy chippy , it broke up the flow of the story a bit . any fan of the underdog , humor or sports will find reading this a charming way to pass the time .\nall of this belies zippy chippy ' s pedigree . his sire , compliance , is a son of northern dancer , who won the kentucky derby and the preakness stakes in 1964 . his dam , listen lady , was a daughter of the stakes - winning buckfinder , who was sired by buckpasser , the 1966 horse of the year .\nowner and trainer felix monserrate bought the new york - bred compliance gelding for $ 2 , 500 and earned $ 30 , 834 with him . zippy chippy , now 19 , finished second eight times and third 12 times in his long career . when he retired in 2004 , he briefly served as a track pony at finger lakes .\nzippy was within reach of setting his own record : just two races away from notching the most losses by an american thoroughbred .\nin 2001 , zippy was last in a seven - horse field in which all the other competitors had never won , either .\n\u201ctime now for our weekly zippy chippy update , \u201d bill littlefield told only a game analyst charlie pierce in 2000 . \u201clast week the little gelding , who couldn ' t , and never has , and no doubt never will , ran his record losing streak to 87 when he finished second at a county fair right here in massachusetts . \u201d\nzippy\u2019s next race was sept . 8 , 1998 . it was a chilly day , and the stands were packed \u2014 this race would determine zippy\u2019s fate . he was placed in no . 2 position , and among bettors that day , he was a favorite .\nand so within minutes loss number 100 was in the record books and zippy was unsaddled and heading back to the barn . . .\nfelix , typically , would not concede athletic superiority . zippy , he said , \u201clet jos\u00e9 win to make him feel good . \u201d\nduring the finger lakes races , monserrate envisioned a dozen doughnuts waiting in the jockey room if zippy ever attained that elusive first win .\nzippy chippy was born on april 20 , 1991 , in upstate new york . he was the great - great - grandson of bold ruler , who fathered secretariat , and his family tree included triple crown winner war admiral , man o\u2019 war , northern dancer and native dancer , who alone sired 295 winning horses with a combined generated income of $ 183 million .\nfinally , zippy put felix down . \u201che\u2019s a strong horse , \u201d felix said . \u201che can hold you for a long time . \u201d\nzippy\u2019s story is very much an underdog\u2019s story , and i asked thomas what it is about the little guy that appeals to us . \u201ci think it\u2019s because we\u2019re all little guys . felix always said people related to zippy . they presented him with cards saying , \u2018keep going , zippy\u2019 and \u2018don\u2019t ever give up , \u2019 or \u2018zippy , i feel for you , i just lost my job today . \u2019 it was always about hope . and i can tell you , at the track on most days in those barns there\u2019s more hope than hay . \u201d\nwhile other horses won millions in their careers , zippy chippy lost 100 races and earned a paltry $ 30 , 834 in his 10 years of racing . this is despite the fact that some of his ancestors were such successes as war admiral , the 1937 triple crown winner , and northern dancer , who in 1964 was the first canadian thoroughbred to win the kentucky derby .\nfrom his earliest days , zippy was his own horse . he never really took to harnesses or saddles . told to run in one direction , zippy went the other . he stuck his tongue out at strangers and loped while other horses galloped . he terrorized trainers yet charmed children .\nthe legend of zippy chippy is the perfect antithesis of all the bullshit self - help books and rags - to - riches stories that are lionized everywhere else . in a world where everyone on instagram is having a better life than you , it\u2019s a refreshing reminder to just keep on marching\u2014or , in this case , trotting at a leisurely pace\u2014to the beat of your own drummer .\n\u201cfelix saw a lot of zippy in himself , \u201d thomas said this week in toronto . \u201cthey were both stubborn . they both never quit , and yet felix was proud to be a trainer and zippy was proud to be a racehorse , he just wasn\u2019t very good at it . \u201d\nzippy came to hate training so much that he trashed the exercise barn , kicking out part of the track\u2019s fence and smashing the electric box . if handlers found themselves late with zippy\u2019s food , they\u2019d skip delivery rather than risk his wrath . some would only feed him with a rake .\nanother : \u201ckeep trying . god knows there are millions of us who relate to your struggles . \u201d zippy\u2019s professional record : 0 - 100 .\nretired from racing in 2004 , zippy had a brief second career as an outrider\u2019s pony at his home track , finger lakes in new york .\nzippy is now 25 and resides at old friends at cabin creek , a thoroughbred retirement farm in new york state not far from saratoga springs .\n\u2018he was neither a speedster nor a steeplechaser , not a long - haul closer or a railside racer . he was zippy chippy , a free spirit at large and far from the grind of greatness , not sweating but celebrating the small stuff of life . he was at all times a professional racehorse , thriving , indeed rejoicing , in a quirky little world of his own . \u201d\nfelix monserrate couldn\u2019t curb his enthusiasm after trading his rattletrap ford van for the thoroughbred racehorse with the royal pedigree . yes , it was disconcerting that zippy chippy hadn\u2019t won any of his first 20 starts . but monserrate chalked that up to poor training . he figured a horse whose family tree included man o\u2019 war , native dancer and the father of the greatest thoroughbred of them all\u2014secretariat\u2014was destined to become as well known , perhaps even better known , than his famous ancestors . if ever there was a horse born to run , it was zippy .\nalways allowing red to eat first , zippy also refused to walk into a trailer for a summer trip to kentucky until his companion climbed on ahead .\nzippy got bumped hard twice but didn ' t go down and kept challenging black rifle for the lead before losing by a nose ,\nthomas said .\nzippy ' s jockey , juan rohena , was screaming at the stewards booth , ' foul , foul , foul , call an inquiry . '\nthe more people said zippy wouldn ' t win , the more felix said , ' he ' s going to win . you watch . '\nit was raining on the august day when i visited old friends at cabin creek . the farm was beautiful anyway . it was chilly , too , but the horses didn ' t seem to mind . i found myself wondering out loud in the presence of pepper whether zippy chippy , reluctant race horse , laughing stock , butt of the jokes of a thousand railbirds , had at last found the perfect home .\nour mission is to provide dignified retirement and to raise awareness of racehorse needs ,\nsays joann pepper . she owns and manages cabin creek with her husband , mark . they welcomed zippy chippy aboard in 2010 . negotiations to secure the horse took almost two years before monserrate settled for $ 5 , 000 , potential rights to a disney movie and the comfort of knowing that the animal was in good hands .\nwell , 10 , 000 people showed up because zippy had fans ,\nthomas said .\nas the crowd chants ,\nten , nine , eight , ' somewhere around four or five , zippy starts eating the grass and must ' ve thought , ' man , this grass is really nice . '\nfelix thought that zippy\u2019s performance and behavior were the result of poor training , but he underestimated the horse , who by turns was stubborn , playful and lazy .\nzippy chippy earned over $ 30 , 000 during his career , finishing second eight times ( once by a head , in race # 87 ) and third 12 times . he came in dead last 18 times and next to last in 24 races . monserrate admitted to keeping his horse by entering in allowance fields , which feature better talent but don ' t permit horses to be purchased as is the case in claiming races .\nsince arriving in scott county on friday , zippy has not lived up to his reputation as a biting , ill - mannered cuss . he and his paddock mate , red down south , stick close to each other . never one to do anything first , zippy watched as red took the initiative to roll in the dust .\n\u201cthey bumped along like that \u2013 the cocky , underachieving racehorse and his cockeyed , optimistic trainer \u2026 they were standing in front of the horse\u2019s stall when felix turned to pick up a bucket , and zippy turned to pick up felix . the trainer found himself suspended in midair , yelling for help and flailing his arms around behind him , trying to get zippy to release him . zippy had picked him up by the collar and was holding him a foot off the ground . felix\u2019s angry shouts at the horse to put him down were answered by the loud laughs of a few track people watching the two of them perform this shed - row slapstick act . the louder felix screamed , the more raucous the laughter of the bystanders , many of them workers now coming over from other barns . eventually zippy got tired of the gag and put his owner down . \u2018he\u2019s a strong horse , \u2019 felix said , now that his feet were back on terra firma . \u2018he can hold you up for a long time . \u2019 forget man o\u2019 war and bold ruler ; zippy chippy\u2019s most influential ancestors may have been laurel and hardy ! \u201d\nhe should have been better than he was ,\nexplains thomas , adding that zippy ' s lineage includes famous racehorses northern dancer , native dancer and war admiral .\n\u201cnot everybody can be a winner , \u201d zippy\u2019s trainer would say . \u201che wanna run . he\u2019s always ready to go . but he don\u2019t always go too good . \u201d\n\u201che had enough time to rub his itchy nose on the near pole , stop to catch his breath at the half - pole , and take a leak on the quarter pole before entering the stretch , \u201d thomas writes . \u201cwith number one on his silks and at number one in the program , zippy chippy , number one in the hearts of the faithful at trackside , had come in a disappointing last by four yards more than a football field . \u201d\nother incidents weren\u2019t as funny . there was the day zippy cornered felix in his stall for an hour . he held a monserrate relative hostage for nearly four hours . felix\u2019s partner , emily , called zippy \u201ca miserable thing who wants everything done for him when he wants it , makes faces , bites , kicks , and is not very intelligent . \u201d\non april 10 , 2004 , zippy made his 100th start at the three county fair in northampton , mass . he finished dead last and was retired in 2010 to cabin creek in greenfield center , n . y . , a satellite of the old friends organization . zippy finished second eight times and third 12 times , earning $ 30 , 572 .\n\u201che was owned primarily by felix monserrate , who got zippy in a trade for a pick - up truck , and raced him throughout his entire career , \u201d pepper said .\nzippy was eventually demoted from finger lakes to a fairground in massachusetts . his final loss came in 2004 . he broke from the starting gate , pivoted toward the grandstand and bowed to his fans , like roy rogers\u2019 horse , trigger . after stretching his winless streak ( against horses ) to 0 - 100 , zippy retired to his stall for a nap .\na few minutes prior to post time zippy was the 2 - 1 favorite , but by the time the gates opened he was the 7 - 2 second choice . on the bullring\nzippy was now also known as \u201ccellar dweller . \u201d he got a 60 - day suspension , setting off protests in the sports pages and among fans . he was their underdog .\non march 17 , 2001 , which just happened to be st . patrick ' s day , zippy raced the appropriately named paddy ' s laddy , a harness horse in a match race at freehold raceway . after spotting the pacer an eight of a mile zippy ran down the standardbred to prevail by a head and notch the first victory of his career . in august of 2001 zippy headed another promotion , this time he raced humans . it happened in rochester , at the rochester red wings baseball stadium and involved player from the team . it seems there were three , roughly forty yard dashes , the first in true zippy fashion , he dwelt at the start and was soundly beaten . the other two he reportedly won .\nthey ' re inseparable , they roll around in the mud and dirt together ,\nthomas said .\nbut zippy is still a star , bringing people to the farm .\nold friends hopes to put together a fund - raiser using zippy ' s name . there ' s a plan to challenge volunteers to raise pledges and then have those volunteers ride a zip line at the mega cavern in louisville , a former limestone mine with 17 miles of underground passageways . the event might be called\nzip for zippy\nor some such thing .\nfelix was heartened , and offered yet another explanation for zippy\u2019s late starts : \u201che just want to see the other horses out in front of him before he run , \u201d he said .\njust a month before zippy ' s arrival , another new york - bred horse , red down south , was added to cabin creek ' s stable . the pair have become inseparable .\nit\u2019s not like zippy\u2019s demeanor changed \u2014 he could still be cranky and mean , and his job performance wasn\u2019t getting better . but for felix and his family , the horse was a keeper .\nduring his time with monserrate , zippy once held his owner off the ground by his shirt , and in a different instance spent 60 minutes cornering him in a stall , according the newspaper .\nfelix grabbed him yelling , ' i don ' t want him to win this way . ' the inquiry was overturned , as most are , and zippy lost by a nose .\nhe comes out of the gate , turns to the crowd and almost does a bow before taking off ,\nthomas said .\nzippy knew he was the star of the show .\nand zippy is often called the\nlosingest horse in history ,\nbut he can ' t take the futility record title . thatt belongs to thrust , who had 105 losing starts in the 1950s .\nin the meantime , the public can come see zippy through august at old friends , where there are tours at 10 a . m . and at 1 and 3 p . m . each day .\nzippy managed to lose most of those races under the guidance of his trainer , felix monserrate , who stuck with his horse even though others suggested he send it out to pasture , sopranos - style .\nzippy chippy started his career at belmont park , he had some decent pedigree in his line and there probably was some expectation he would become a decent racehorse . his first seven races were on the nyra circuit , five at belmont and two at aqueduct , all maiden special weight races . his jockeys included the aforementioned mike smith , julio pezua , robbie davis , jose santos , jorge chavez and richard migliore . even when he shipped to finger lakes he had the services of kevin whitley and leslie hulet , two legends at the farmington oval .\nmonserrate would bear the scars from that chomping on his back for the rest of his life . ( in his never - ending quest to be a contrarian , zippy bit the back rather than the hand that fed him . ) those teeth marks would serve as reminders of the thoroughbred\u2019s legendary stubbornness , a trait that would exasperate his trainer time and time again . but zippy\u2019s desire to stop and smell the roses ( occasionally during races ) rather than run for the roses also would endear him to monserrate and the horse\u2019s legion of fans . the more zippy lost , the more people loved him . he clearly didn\u2019t subscribe to hall of fame football coach vince lombardi\u2019s mantra that \u201cwinning isn\u2019t everything ; it\u2019s the only thing . \u201d in zippy\u2019s case , winning was a never thing . and he was quite content with that .\nthe thing was , zippy was felix ' s pet , which broke every rule of horse racing . but their lives were intertwined forever and zippy became the highlight of felix ' s life ,\nsays thomas .\nit was a wonderful sort of relationship about a man and a horse , neither of which was very good a what they did , but it didn ' t stop them from trying .\nlast june , felix monserrate died from heart problems and pneumonia . he was 72 . one of his greatest wishes was to see zippy\u2019s life , like other legends of the track , memorialized in the movies .\nit was at great barrington , mass . , and zippy ' s running , and he finishes second ,\nblowen said .\nbut there ' s an inquiry into the horse that won .\n\u201chis name is red down south , and he ' s 12 , and the minute they got together , they became best friends , and they have not been separated since , \u201d pepper said . \u201cso he ' s lucky . it ' s really the truest horse relationship that i ' ve ever seen . zippy loves red and respects him , and red looks out for zippy . it ' s beautiful . \u201d\nand zippy actually has won . publicity stunts in 2001 included a 50 - yard dash win over rochester red wings baseball player darnell mcdonald and a victory in a race versus harness horse paddy ' s laddy .\nmonserrate was always able to look beyond zippy\u2019s recalcitrance and shortcomings . \u201csay you have three children , \u201d he explained . \u201cone is a lawyer , doing well . the other , a doctor , very , very successful . but the third one , not so smart , so he\u2019s working at mcdonald\u2019s . what do you do ? ignore him ? course not . he\u2019s the one who needs your help . that\u2019s zippy . \u201d"]}
{"id": 911, "summary": [{"text": "the striped red mullet or surmullet ( mullus surmuletus ) is a species of goatfish found in the mediterranean sea , eastern north atlantic ocean , and the black sea .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "they can be found in water as shallow as 5 metres ( 16 ft ) or as deep as 409 metres ( 1,342 ft ) depending upon the portion of their range that they are in .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this species can reach a length of 40 centimetres ( 16 in ) sl though most are only around 25 centimetres ( 9.8 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the greatest recorded weight for this species is 1 kilogram ( 2.2 lb ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this is a commercially important species and is also sought after as a game fish .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "mullus barbatus and it are commonly called \" red mullets \" and often are not distinguished , though they can be told apart by the striped first dorsal fin of m. surmuletus .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "despite its english name , the striped red mullet , of the goatfish family mullidae , is only very distantly related to the grey mullet and other species called \" mullet \" , classified in a different family of the order perciformes . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "striped red mullet", "paragraphs": ["add the striped red mullet fillets and cook until the meat is white and flakes away , about 5 - 10 minutes .\nstriped red mullet : : triglia di scoglio is found in the mediterranean and black seas as well as the eastern north atlantic ocean . it has been considered a delicacy since antiquity , especially among the ancient romans . if you are not able to find striped red mullet in your local grocery store you can also substitute it with red snapper .\nwant to put together an easy , yet elegant looking meal for valentine\u2019s day ? try out this recipe for striped red mullet , a delicate white fish that is stewed with juicy red tomatoes , tangy capers and salty black olives ; it\u2019s an italian specialty .\nthere is no restriction on red mullet catch . they are a non - quota species but red mullet catches to cornwall are very small , at 20 - 50 tonnes per year , compared to total eu landings of 2000 tonnes . minimum landing size for red mullet in cornish waters is 15cm . there is no eu minimum landing size . red mullet netting is controlled by eu regulations which state that the catch must be 70 % of the target species ( red mullet ) . mesh size between 70 and 90mm is prohibited in cornish waters ( cornwall inshore fisheries and conservation authority , cifca ) . a red mullet netting code of practice has been developed to ensure that red mullet netting in cornish waters is carried out responsibly , and cifca report that the level of red mullet netting has decreased in recent years , and the majority of fishermen using red mullet nets are abiding by the code of practice ( cifca 2011 ) . cifca provide support for fishermen in terms of checking gear and providing advice on legislation and they feel that this sector of netting is currently being managed appropriately ( s . cadman pers com ) .\nwant to put together a easy yet fancy looking meal for valentine\u2019s day or any special occasion ? try out this recipe for striped red mullet , a delicate white fish that is stewed with juicy red tomatoes , tangy capers and salty black olives ; it\u2019s an italian specialty .\nred mullet make up a small , but high value part of the cornish fishing industry ' s landings . red mullet stocks are not well studied in our area however across the eu ices are concerned that they are being over fished and advised a reduction in catches of 20 % for the western area . the stocks are not protected by quotas but in cornwall are protected by a minimum landing size of 15cm . red mullet are caught using specialised red mullet nets in coastal waters and are also caught in cornish trawl fisheries .\nforster . r , and smith . s , 2001 selectivity of gill nets used in the cornish red mullet fishery , fisheries science partnership , cefas lowestoft\nred mullet are also caught in demersal trawls and beam trawls , often in deeper water in the western english channel during colder times of year . forster and smith , 2011 . french trawlers using small mesh size ( 70 - 90mm ) target red mullet in the winter months in the central pit of the western channel .\nred mullet are very delicate and must be put straight onto ice as their quality deteriorates quickly . for best freshness source direct from a fisherman or specialist fish seller .\nred and yellowish scales enticed me to try something new . the fish monger was all too kind to supply me with a typical italian recipe called \u201ctriglia alla livornese . \u201d triglia , as you can imagine , means striped red mullet ; \u201calla livornese\u201d , on the other hand , basically means livorno style . ( livorno is a port city on the ligurian sea . )\nboth species mullus surmuletus ( red mullet ) and mullus barbatus ( striped red mullet ) are distinctly crimson or even orange in color \u2013 but the barbatus boasts yellowish streaks along their sides and grow larger of the two . both are caught without much distinction between the two commercially . they are typically quite small , less than 10 - 14 inches in length , and weigh about a third to a half of a pound each . the smaller the fish , it is commonly believed , the better the flavor and texture .\nred mullet are caught in cornish waters by targeted red mullet nets . static nets set on the seabed with a mesh size of 65 - 70ml and a short soak time , set in summer months specifically to target red mullet which are a high value species . it is a highly skilled method of fishing and care must be taken not to accidentally catch unwanted fish as it is illegal to catch more than 30 % of non - target species and in our waters young pollack can be difficult to avoid . there are few other by catch issues or environmental issues with this fishery .\nred mullet stocks are not well studied in our waters but there is no local evidence to suggest that stocks are declining . red mullet are a warm water species that moves into our waters in the summer months . due to a lack of evidence and taking a precautionary approach ices advises that catches should decrease by 20 % in relation to the average catch of the last three years , corresponding to catches of no more than 2000 t in 2015 . cefas list red mullet as a species that is currently underutilized and having potential for increased fishing effort in its report ( catchpole 2011 ) identifying under - utilized species .\nred mullet is a regular summer visitor to south west coasts of the uk and is caught near to shore by netters . red mullet has a unique texture somewhere between white and oily fish . its high fat content adds a richness to it ' s flavour . it ' s liver is considered a delicacy . it has all the healthy eating attributes of white fish : high in protein and vitamin rich and also has the health benefits of being a source of omega - 3 fatty acids . red mullet are very delicate and must be put straight onto ice as their quality deteriorates quickly . for best freshness source direct from a fisherman or specialist fish seller .\nwhich may confound efforts to correctly identify this species in the north sea bottom trawl surveys . additional confusion may arise from the use of the same common name ,\nred mullet\n, for both species ( uiblein 2007 ) .\nred mullet are warm water fish that are related to the tropical goat fish . they feed on worms and crustaceans which they find by rooting around with a highly sensory pair of whisker like barbels , in muddy and sandy seabeds . red mullet mature at 2 years old and at a length of 16cm . maximum length is 45 cm . juveniles are found inshore and in estuaries whilst adults are found in deeper water . in the english channel they spawn between may and july . biological vulnerability score 39 / 100 cheung et al 2005 .\nwhile the fish monger scaled the striped red mullet , he quickly told me the ingredients for this beloved dish . unfortunately , he was extremely quick at his job and finished before i could ask him the quantities : : le dosi . seeing a long line behind me , i didn\u2019t want to bother him so the recipe you find below may not be true livorno style , but dare i say the presentation is more beautiful following my recipe while the taste is equally delicious .\nrouget are better known in many areas of the world as the red mullet ( or rouget de roche , salmonette ) . but according to various sources , rouget should not be considered mullets at all . the name \u201cmullet\u201d is usually reserved for the various species of striped , grey and silver mullets , which are typically larger , longer and more streamlined in their body shape . the rouget is similar in appearance to a perch ( and is categorized under the perciformes order ) but is easily distinguished by a small set of barbels under its chin , which are used to \u201cfrisk\u201d along the sea floor for food \u2013 an attribute that has also given it the name \u201cgoatfish\u201d for their \u201cbeardlike\u201d appearance .\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nrating 5 ( red ) is associated with fish to be avoided on the basis that all or most of the criteria for sustainablilty have not been met .\nhead is less steep . barbels longer than pectoral fin . body with longitudinal red and brown stripes . first dorsal fin with dark markings ( ref . 35388 ) .\nscientific synonyms and common names mullus surmuletus linnaeus , 1758 synonyms : mullus surmuletus linnaeus , 1758 , syst . nat . , ed . x : 300 ( ' habitat in m . mediterraneo et ad cornubiam ' ) . mullus barbatus surmuletus : day , 1880 1884 : 22 , pl . 8 ( fig . 2 ) lozano rey , 1952 : 245 & 249 . mullus sunnuletus : moreau , 1881 : 244 , fig . 107 fowler , 1936 : 871 , fig . 374 poll , 1947 , fig . 157 soljan , 1948 : 174 , fig . bougis , 1952 : 57 - 174 , fig . dieuzeide et al . , 1954 : 256 , fig . wheeler , 1969 : 344 , fig . , pl . 10 . common names : mulle [ no ] mulle [ da ] meerbarbe [ de ] red mullet [ en ] salmonete de roca [ es ] rouget de roche [ fr ] barbouni [ he ] triglia di scoglio [ it ] mulit happassim [ iw ] barabulja [ ru ] striped red mullet [ en ] rouget de roche [ fr ] salmonete de roca [ es ] mul [ ne ] zeebarbeel [ ne ] koning van de poon [ ne ]\n' red improver ' ratings are assigned to seafood sources which have been assessed and rated 5 ( red ) due to significant environmental concerns with one or more aspects of their management , capture or production , yet credible efforts to improve these issues have been agreed through a fisheries or aquaculture improvement project \u2013 a fip or an aip - and work is underway . such projects are normally publicly listed at www . fisheryprogress . org . mcs wants to encourage environmental improvements in fisheries and fish farms , and so does not recommend avoiding these sources , as we normally do for seafood rated 5 ( red rated ) .\nseabream are a group of compact , medium - sized fishes known as sparidae . their firm white meat is similar in taste and texture to bass and is ideal for grilling , steaming , baking and pan - frying whole . the black bream or porgy and the red or\ndistinctive rounded shells that are slightly heart shaped . it is a bivalve ( two identical shells ) belonging to the family cardidae meaning ' heart - shaped ' . they can jump by bending and straightening the foot - the end bit - which is often coloured red and called the ' red nose ' . choose cockles harvested by sustainable methods only such as licensed hand gathering . avoid eating them during breeding season from march to july . burry inlet cockles and cockles from the dee estuary are both msc certified and provide the most sustainable options in the uk .\nuse the good fish guide to find out which fish are the most sustainable ( green rated ) , and which are the least sustainable ( red rated ) . make the right choice and reduce your impact \u2013 every purchase matters ! find out more about our seafood work , including how we develop our seafood ratings , plus sustainable seafood recipes and more .\nmarine ; demersal ; oceanodromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 5 - 409 m ( ref . 56504 ) . subtropical ; 62\u00b0n - 14\u00b0n , 19\u00b0w - 42\u00b0e\neastern atlantic : western norway , english channel ( rare in north sea ) to dakar , senegal and the canary islands , including the mediterranean and the black sea .\nmaturity : l m 16 . 1 , range 15 - 26 cm max length : 40 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3397 ) ; common length : 25 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 4845 ) ; max . published weight : 1 . 0 kg ( ref . 35388 ) ; max . reported age : 11 years ( ref . 92286 )\nadults occur on broken and rough grounds but also found over sand and soft bottoms at depths less than 100 m . depth range from 5 - 60 m ( ref . 07313 ) and from 305 - 409 m in the eastern ionian sea ( ref . 56504 ) . feed on benthic organisms such as shrimps and amphipods , polychaetes , mollusks , and benthic fishes . spawning occurs from may to july , eggs and larvae are pelagic ( ref . 4845 ) . marketed fresh and frozen for steaming , pan - frying , broiling and baking ( ref . 9988 ) .\nben - tuvia , a . , 1990 . mullidae . p . 827 - 829 . in j . c . quero , j . c . hureau , c . karrer , a . post and l . saldanha ( eds . ) check - list of the fishes of the eastern tropical atlantic ( clofeta ) . jnict , lisbon ; sei , paris ; and unesco , paris . vol . 2 . ( ref . 7313 )\n) : 7 - 16 . 1 , mean 10 . 2 ( based on 549 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5625 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00891 ( 0 . 00810 - 0 . 00980 ) , b = 3 . 11 ( 3 . 08 - 3 . 14 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 5 \u00b10 . 3 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 0 . 1 - 0 . 7 ; tm = 2 ; tmax = 10 ) .\nprior r = 0 . 85 , 2 sd range = 0 . 46 - 1 . 58 , log ( r ) = - 0 . 16 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 31 , based on : 2 m , 25 k , 9 tgen , 7 tmax , records\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 39 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nyou can play a key role in securing the future of our seas and marine wildlife by making more environmentally responsible choices when buying seafood .\nour seas face a wide range of threats . climate change , pollution , habitat and biodiversity loss are all impacting our seas ; plus 90 % of global fish stocks are either fully or over - exploited . all these factors combined mean that urgent action is needed to restore the health of our seas . fish farming ( aquaculture ) is rapidly expanding to meet increasing demand for seafood , but if this is done badly it can also damage the environment and exacerbate these other problems .\nabalone ( called ormer in france and elsewhere ) are molluscs , belonging to a group of animals known as gastropods ( the same group as whelks ) . abalone can be farmed on land in aquaculture systems that are enclosed , referred to as\nrecirculating systems\n, which means that all water and waste are contained . abalone graze on seaweeds . as there are no environmental interactions and no depletion of resources for food this makes abalone a really sustainable seafood choice . abalone can be farmed on land in aquaculture systems that are enclosed , referred to as\nrecirculating systems\n, which means that all water and waste are contained . abalone graze on seaweeds for food . as there are no environmental interactions and no depletion of resources for food this makes abalone a really sustainalbe seafood choice .\nas an oily fish , their strong flavour is used to add a kick to many dishes and sauces , including worcestershire sauce , and they are widely used in mediterranean cooking . anchovy fillets are generally packed in oil or salt and sold in jars\nor tins . often used as a topping for pizza , caesar salads or just on toast . also in paste or rolled and accompanied with other foods such as olives . anchovy can also be processed into fish meal . they are small green fish with a silver stripe that gives them a bluish hue . a relative of the herring , they are a short - lived , schooling fish feeding on small fry ( recently hatched fish ) and plankton at the bottom of the food - chain . the bay of biscay fishery is a sustainable choice . the cantabrian sea ( bay of biscay ) purse seine anchovy fishery is certified by the marine stewardship council ( msc ) as sustainable . anchovy are a species with a low vulnerability and high resilience and as such can sustain high levels of fishing pressure . however , recruitment of young fish to the stock is affected by environmental factors including climatic fluctuations . if recruitment is low and fishing pressure too high the stock becomes vulnerable to collapse . anchovy are also a species at or near the base of the food chain and the impact of their large - scale removal on the marine ecosystem is poorly understood .\nor tins . often used as a topping for pizza , caesar salads or just on toast . also in paste or rolled and accompanied with other foods such as olives . anchovy can also be processed into fish meal . they are small green fish with a silver stripe that gives them a bluish hue . a relative of the herring , they are a short - lived , schooling fish feeding on small fry ( recently hatched fish ) and plankton at the bottom of the food - chain . anchovy populations fluctuate largely because of environmental variability . it is important that their populations are maintained at an appropriate level because anchovy are a very important part of the food chain . their catches need to be appropriate to maintain an ecosystem balance . due to the last el nino , anchovy populations are low and therefore a suite of management measures have been implemented to ensure anchovy populations can rebuild . however , there needs to be more transparency in stock assessments and quotas need to be made more appropriate for predators of anchovy .\na member of the salmonidae family ( as are salmon and trout ) , arctic char ( or charr ) are both a freshwater and marine fish . they are native to the cold water of the arctic and sub - arctic , occupying coastal waters and lakes . it is also a\nnative species to scotland where is it found in deep , cold glacial lakes , as can be found in similar deep waters in the rest of the uk . it can reach sizes over 9kg but more typically are offered for sale at 1 - 2 kg . land based farmed arctic char is a good choice to make when looking for an oily fish . the use of land based production systems addresses many issues of environmental concern that can be associated with farmed fish production . artic charr has a lower requirement for fish in its diet compared to other salmonid species and in uk and icelandic production responsibly sourced feed is used .\nmethod of production \u2014 farmed production country \u2014 uk production method \u2014 land based flow through and recirculating systems .\nthe group of freshwater fish known as catfish are captured from the wild or farmed for food and displayed in public aquaria dependant on the species . this farmed species natural habitat is medium to large rivers in asian countries such as\nvietnam , where they can grow up to 44kg . there are omnivores , feeding on a diet of other fish , vegetable matter and crustacea . pangasius bocourti is one of the most important farmed species in vietnam . pangasius farmed to aquaculture stewardship council ( asc ) certified production standards is currently the best choice to make for this farmed species . the asc standard certification addresses a number of issues of environmental concern , the auditing of which requires farm inspections and standard enforcement . in general there are a number of issues of environmental concern associated with production , these include : habitat alteration ; nutrient and organic pollution ; escapes ; interactions with local wildlife and enforcement of regulations . pangasius is a an omnivore and as such is not heavily reliant on marine proteins and oils to form part of its diet , however the fish used to produce the feed is currently not certified as being responsibly managed or sustainable .\nseabass are thick - set fish with silvery - scales and a rapid swimming predator , prized by anglers and chefs alike . can be roasted , grilled , baked or barbecued , also be steamed or poached . good with rosemary , garlic or lemon .\ncan be roasted , grilled , baked or barbecued , also be steamed or poached . good with rosemary , garlic or lemon . seabass are thick - set fish with silvery - scales and a rapid swimming predator , prized by anglers and chefs alike .\nseabream are a group of compact , medium - sized fishes known as sparidae . their firm white meat is similar in taste and texture to bass and is ideal for grilling , steaming , baking and pan - frying whole . black bream or porgy are commonly found\nin northern european seas and are commercially fished . however the bulk of the seabream in the uk market comes from imports of mediterranean farmed gilthead bream . black bream is a pretty inexpensive fish to eat as it ' s not massively popular despite the fact it ' s delicious . its taste is distinctive and on the sweet side so best grilled or stuffed and baked whole ( after removing its scales ) . fascinating fact - black bream all mature as females at around 20cm ; but once they reach about 30cm they may change into males and all fish over 40cms are males ! they lay their eggs in nests which males excavate with their tails and guard against predators . black bream stocks currently appear to be in a healthy state , however there is a lack of stock assessment and appropriate management measures in force for the species . they are moderately vulnerable to fishing in terms of growth rate and fecundity and the species spawning behavioural traits make them especially vulnerable to bottom trawling . trawling for black bream can destroy both nests and eggs . black bream caught with rod and line or gillnet is a more sustainable option . cornwall , north western and sussex ifca districts , as well as north wales , have the best management for black bream and are currently the most sustainable areas to source from ( sussex has mesh regulations and closed areas for the spawning season and cornwall , sussex , north western and north wales prohibit landing of seabream below 23 cm ) . avoid eating immature black bream ( below 23 cm ) caught prior to and during their spawning season ( april and may in uk inshore waters ) , thus allowing them chance to spawn or reproduce .\nsold as whole steaks and fillets and is sometimes used as an alternative to turbot . it is similar to turbot but has slightly smaller flakes and a sweeter taste . brill belongs to a small family of left - eyed flatfish . it grows relatively\nfast and generally reaches a certain length faster ( at younger ages ) than flatfish , such as sole and plaice , in the same areas . fisheries for this species are poorly managed . due to lack of data there is no assessment of brill populations or stock . the state of the stock is unknown although abundance is estimated to be increasing . landings of brill derive mainly from the north sea where it is taken as bycatch , predominantly in beam trawl fisheries for plaice and sole . these fisheries are associated with substantial damage to seabed flora and fauna and high discarding of juvenile fish . avoid eating immature brill ( less than 30cm ) and during their breeding time in spring and summer .\nclams are versatile shellfish which you should only eat if they are from farmed sources ( e . g . manila or american hardshell clams ) or harvested from the wild ( e . g . carpet or razor clams ) using sustainable manual methods such as hand\ngathering . they can be eaten raw , boiled , baked or fried and are most popularly made into clam chowder - a brothy soup , containing potatoes and other vegetables , and often cream . clams , like many fish , were served in restaurants on fridays to provide an option for catholics who abstained from eating\nmeat ' on this day , as well as during important christian periods such as lent . all manila clams in the uk are progeny of broodstock imported from the west coast of usa . they are grown in trays on trestles in the sea before planting out in ground plots or seabed . only a small number of manila clams are farmed for the table in uk ( 5 tonnes , 2012 ) , the biggest production is seed for ongrowing . clams may be harvested by manual digging or raking , or by mechanical methods , e . g . suction or hydraulic dredge . manual harvesting methods cause less disturbance to sediment than mechanical methods . shellfish farming is a low - impact method of producing farmed seafood and high quality water standards are required for cultivation of shellfish for human consumption .\ngathering . avoid eating clams that have been harvested using illegal methods such as by electrical fishing . they can be eaten raw , boiled , baked or fried and are most popularly made into clam chowder - a brothy soup , containing potatoes and other vegetables , and often cream . clams , like many fish , were served in restaurants on fridays to provide an option for catholics who abstained from eating meat on this day , as well as during important christian periods such as lent . in scotland , razor clams are also known as spoots , a reference to the jets of water they produce when rapidly burrowing into sand when exposed at low tides . the marine conservation society fishery team is currently updating the consumer advice for this entry\nbest boiled then seasoned with malt vinegar and pepper , they are often pickled but also sold in a sealed packet to eat on the go . a traditional welsh breakfast is cockles fried with bacon and served with laver bread . cockles have\nmany of the fish listed are caught in different ways and from different areas of the sea . some species are caught in a variety of ways and this range shows that , within a species , some may be fished sustainably whilst others unsustainably .\nto find out the individual ratings for each fish click on the ratings button next to the image .\nfish to eat are rated 1 and 2 , fish to avoid are rated 5 . ratings 3 and 4 mean don\u2019t eat too often .\nfish that are being assessed are shown with a question mark icon and\nno rating\n.\nthis system has been developed by the marine conservation society to help consumers choose the most environmentally sustainable fish .\nseafood sources indicated as , ' to be assessed ' , are those that have not yet been assessed and assigned a rating or are undergoing a period of review . these include sources previously rated by mcs for which the rating has lapsed , due to changes in the market or mcs priorities and resources . given that these sources are not fully assessed , the profile should not be used to infer the current sustainability of the fishery or farmed species .\nrating 1 ( light green ) is associated with the most sustainably produced seafood .\nrating 3 ( yellow ) based on available information ; these species should probably not be considered sustainable at this time . areas requiring improvement in the current production may be significant . eat only occasionally and check urltoken for specific details .\nrating 4 ( orange ) should not be considered sustainable , and the fish is likely to have significant environmental issues associated with its production . while it may be from a deteriorating fishery , it may be one which has improved from a 5 rating , and positive steps are being taken . however , mcs would not usually recommend choosing this fish .\n' best choice ' fish are rated 1 and 2 , fish to avoid are rated 5 .\nthis system has been developed by the marine conservation society to help businesses and consumers choose the most environmentally sustainable fish .\n\u00a9 marine conservation society ( mcs ) 2017 . registered charity no : 1004005 ( england & wales ) ; sc037480 ( scotland ) . company limited by guarantee no : 2550966 . registered in england vat no : 489 1505 17 . registered office : overross house , ross park , ross - on - wye , hr9 7us .\n\u00a9 marine conservation society ( mcs ) 2017 . registered charity no : 1004005 ( england & wales ) ; sc037480 ( scotland ) . company limited by guarantee no : 2550966 . registered in england vat no : 489 1505 17 . registered office : overross house , ross park , ross - on - wye , hr9 7us . scottish office : suite 7 , cbc house , 24 canning street , edinburgh , eh3 8eg\nbeam trawls are nets with a steel beam that holds the net open . the belly of the net is made of chains and the upper surface of the net is mesh . beam trawlers pull two nets along the seabed simultaneously .\ngill nets are lightweight nets made of nylon ( monofilament ) fishing line that are anchored to the seabed and are used to catch fish by entangling the gills .\ndemersal trawls are large nets that are pulled through the water with the bottom edge of the net touching the seabed . at each edge the net is pulled open by metal \u2018trawl doors\u2019 . sometimes referred to as otter trawling .\ncornwall good seafood guide rates fish on sustainability using a scale of 1 to 5 .\n1 , 2 and 3 are recommended , fish to avoid are rated 5 .\nwe use the system devised by the marine conservation society ( mcs ) so our scores are comparable with the scores produced by mcs for the uk and fisheries from all around the world . for more information on scoring click here .\ndemersal trawling in inshore waters is carried out by licenced vessels operating under very strict criteria on vessel size and power and the majority of demersal trawlers in cornwall are using larger than mandatory mesh size over 100mm to reduce unwanted bycatch of juvenile fish .\nref - cheung , w . w . l . , t . j . pitcher and d . pauly , 2005 . a fuzzy logic expert system to estimate intrinsic extinction vulnerabilities of marine fishes to fishing . biol . conserv . 124 : 97 - 111\nthis simple dish is delicous and easy to prepair . and is best . . .\nnathan outlaw proves fish is more than a match for beef in a . . .\na delicious , creamy , spicy recipe to set off quality sustainable . . .\na great way to enjoy crab meat - brown crab claws are full of . . .\nthis is a simple but effective recipe to make the best of . . .\nthis is a lovely light lunch or starter using one of our . . .\ncornwall good seafood guide is underpinned by the marine conservation society ( mcs ) good fish guide . the first uk consumer guide to sustainable seafood . for more information visit urltoken\nif you would like to get in touch with us please feel free to contact us below or use our contact us page .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ncarpenter , k . e . , smith - vaniz , w . f . , de bruyne , g . & de morais , l .\nmadeira and the canary islands , and is found in the entire mediterranean and in the black sea . it is found at depths ranging from zero to 300 m over sandy and muddy substrates . this species was considered a valuable bycatch species prior to the 1990s , after which it became a major target for small scale and semi - industrial fisheries . it is heavily exploited in the mediterranean and northeast atlantic . in the mediterranean sea there are few spawning stock biomass ( ssb ) estimates . available information from the balaeric islands shows reductions in ssb to a series low in 2009 . all additional examined stocks are considered overexploited , with recommendations to reduce fishing effort by 40 to 60 % , depending on the region . in the northeast atlantic the population of\nappears to be increasing due to warming temperatures . this increase in abundance has led to the development of fisheries which target this species . it\nis a relatively short lived species which is capable of rapid reproductive turnover . therefore , it is listed as least concern .\nis distributed from norway and the english channel to dakar , senegal , including madeira and the canary islands , and is found in the entire mediterranean and in the black sea . it is found at depths ranging from zero to 300 metres ( golani in press , vasil ' eva 2011 ) .\nalbania ; algeria ; belgium ; bulgaria ; cape verde ; croatia ; cyprus ; denmark ; egypt ; france ; gambia ; georgia ; germany ; gibraltar ; greece ; guernsey ; israel ; italy ; jersey ; lebanon ; libya ; malta ; mauritania ; monaco ; montenegro ; morocco ; netherlands ; norway ; portugal ( madeira ) ; romania ; russian federation ; senegal ; serbia ; slovenia ; spain ( canary is . ) ; syrian arab republic ; tunisia ; turkey ; ukraine ; united kingdom ; western sahara\nhave continuously increased from 1950 ( 1 , 000 tonnes ) to a peak in 2007 ( 18 , 331 tonnes ) , gradually decreasing to 14 , 096 tonnes in 2011 . the largest landings are reported from libyan arab jamahiriya and france .\nthe most recent review of scientific advice for 2014 of the scientific , technical and economic committee for fisheries ( stecf ) provides the following insight : in most regions for which information was available , spawning stock biomass ( ssb ) estimates are not available . the majority of stocks are considered overfished . in the balaeric islands this species is overfished . ssb has declined continuously since 2000 to the lowest value of the time series in 2009 and remaining low to 2011 . stocks in the liguirian and north tyrrhenian sea are also overfished , with juveniles representing the majority of the catch . this species is among the most valuable demersal resources off the coast of egypt , and is also overfished in this area . throughout the mediterranean basin recommendations are to reduce fishing mortality ( f ) by 40 to 60 % ( stecf 2013 ) .\ncatch per unit effort ( cpue ) has steadily decreased from 1968 to 2008 in the balearic islands , western mediterranean . landings and cpue remained relatively constant from the 1990s to 2008 ( quetglas\nare considered overfished , and in some cases over - exploited , in the following mediterranean sub - regions : gsa06 , gsa07 , gsa09 , gsa05 , gsa25 ( gfcm 2011 ) . although\n2002 ) . international bottom trawl survey ( itbs ) data show fluctuating trends from 1992 to 2012 .\nm . surmuletus , suggesting that there is need to improve onboard identification using keys and training of participating scientists . this species is thought to be an indicator of climate - related temperature increase in the northern atlantic . there are recent records from 50\u00b0n along the norwegian coast , recorded just south bergen , in hardanger fjord and off coastal islands in the area . in the eastern part of the north sea , some small - scale fisheries have been started due to the increased abundance . it is also found in the kattegat area . it is still rare further north . the same trends have been reported from scotland and the shetland islands . temperature increases in the 1930s resulted in similar range expansions ( uiblein 2007 ) .\nwas considered a valuable bycatch species prior to the 1990s , after which it became a major target for small scale and semi - industrial fisheries . it is heavily exploited in the mediterranean and northeast atlantic ( vogiatzi\nis caught primarily by trammel nets and by trawl ( golani in press ) .\nis a commercial species throughout its range . it is a major target for small scale and semi - industrial fisheries , and is heavily exploited in the mediterranean and northeast atlantic ( vogiatzi\n. 2013 ) . in the mediterranean , two of the three anaged stocks are considered to be over - exploited , and recommendations have been made to not increase fishing mortality , to reduce fishing mortality , and to reduce the percentage small individuals in the catch . in the mediterranean , catches mostly consist of animals less than 15 cm tl which have not yet completed their second year of life ( tserpes\nmediterranean fisheries are concentrated along coastal areas , where biodiversity is greatest . the majority ( 80 % ) of the mediterranean fleet is comprised of vessels < 12 m , and as such mediterranean fisheries can be thought of as small - scale artisanal fisheries . additionally , fisheries tend to be multi - species . as such it is difficult and expensive to obtain data for stock assessment purposes . there are several issues of concern which include the widespread targeting of small species or larger juvenile finfish prior to maturity , the observed reduction in the mean trophic level of mediterranean catches , and high discard rates ( 40 to 56 % of the catch taken in waters < 150 m ) and the reduction in mean abundance of piscivorous species ( vassilopoulou 2010 ) .\naccording to a 2013 synthesis of the status of mediterranean and black sea resources in european waters , while the state of knowledge on the mediterranean and black sea stocks is improving rapidly , between 94 % and 95 % of stocks analysed are overexploited . recent observed reductions in nominal fishing effort have not resulted in declines in fishing mortality . overall reductions between 45 % and 51 % are needed in order to reach maximum sustainable yields ( cardinale and osio 2013 ) .\ncoastal demersal resources are very sought after in all four of the northern cecaf zone countries ( mauritania , morocco , senegal and the gambia ) . many of the commercially important demersal resources of northwest africa are heavily exploited ( fao 2011 ) . they are exploited by both national artisanal fleets and foreign industrial fleets . demersal fisheries are typically multi - purpose , and many demersal fisheries resources are by - catch of more specialized fisheries , such as the cephalopod , hake or shrimp fisheries . high fishing pressure is exerted all on demersal fish species in this region\nmorocco : demersal resources are exploited by moroccan cephalopod freezer trawlers , coastal fishing vessels , coastal trawlers and longliners , artisanal boats , leased boats and russian vessels operating under the morocco - russia fishing agreement . demersal resources are explicitly targeted by longlines and some artisanal fishing boats , other vessels catch them as bycatch .\nmauritania : demersal resources are exploited by foreign and national trawlers targeting , hake , shrimp , pelagics and demersal fishes .\nsenegal : demersal resources are mainly targeted by artisanal boats ( fleet composed of ~ 12691 canoes ) using fishing lines , but also by national and foreign trawlers operating under fishing agreements .\nto deeper waters ( golani 1994 ) , but direct impacts have not been documented . in the eastern levant ,\nis caught in large numbers but due to its small size , is not commercially important ( golani in press ) .\nis a well - researched and managed species in the mediterranean . stock assessments are performed regularly by sub - region in the mediterranean basin . it is well researched in the northeast atlantic as well , although relative to the mediterranean it has received less research attention . it is found in marine protected areas throughout its range . there is a need for more research and monitoring of population trends in this species .\ncarpenter , k . e . , smith - vaniz , w . f . , de bruyne , g . & de morais , l . 2015 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nfewer fish are prized more in the mediterranean than the rouget , for it has a flavor that is so well complimented by the region\u2019s distinctive and aromatic ingredients . whether utilized in a bouillabaisse or baked or pan - fried and featured at the center of the dish , it is a highly coveted european delicacy ( dating back to demand by the romans ! ) and often hard to source in the u . s .\nthe delicate white flesh is low in fat and high in protein . the scales are relatively large and easily removed . a favorite in european cuisine , the livers of these fish are considered a delicacy \u2013 many french recipes call for the whole , ungutted fish to be grilled , or to saut\u00e9 the livers in butter and then stuff the fish with it before preparation . broiling , pan and deep frying are typical preparations ( not recommended served raw ) as well as escabeche . browne trading imports ours directly from portugal as catch allows \u2013 usually our fish our 150 - 250 grams each .\nbrowne trading company is the premier supplier of fresh fish , fine caviar , shellfish , and smoked seafood to both elite restaurants and home kitchens across the u . s .\nwhile doing a little research on the traditional recipe , it appears that this dish is mostly served with the whole fish ( instead of fillets ) , topped with green olives ( not black ) and covered with pur\u00e8ed tomatoes ( not whole ) . feel free to try out the more traditional method , although i usually prefer eating fillets of fish since it\u2019s much less work to eat and i liked the presentation : : presentazione with the tomato pieces as you can still see the fish underneath .\ncapers : : capperi are commonly used in mediterranean dishes as they are native to the area . in this recipe they add a nice tangy burst of flavor .\nwhen making seafood dishes , i like to use few ingredients : : ingredienti to keep it healthier and quicker to prepare . just like my italian b aked sardine and easy blood orange sole recipes , this dish was on the table in under 30 minutes .\nheat the olive oil in a pan over medium heat then add the onions and garlic . saut\u00e8 them until they\u2019ve softened and have turned slightly brown .\nadd the capers and black olives , reduce the heat to low and continue cooking for 5 minutes . serve warm .\nhi thomas ! it\u2019s nice to hear from another person who has the same love for simple cooking . the fish is plated on a vegetable called \u201cagretti\u201d . you can find the recipe searching by the name or following this link : urltoken\nthis website uses cookies to improve your experience . we ' ll assume you ' re ok with this , but you can opt - out if you wish . accept read more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\non broken and rough ground but also taken in fair quantities over sand and soft bottoms at depths less than 100 m . less\nbougis , p . 1952 . recherches biom\u00e9triques sur les rougets ( mullus barbatus , mullus surmuletus ) . archs zool . exp . gen . , 89 ( 2 ) : 57 - 174 , 55 fig .\nchaine , j . 1938a . recherches sur les otolithes des poissons . . . ( suite ) . act . soc . linn . bordeaux , suppl . 89 : pp . 1 - 361 , 5 pl .\nday , f . 1880 - 1884 . the fishes of great britain and ireland . london - edinburgh , 2 vol . , cxii + 336 pp . , 5 + 7 fig . , 92 pl . and 388 pp . , 87 pl . 1880 : 1 ( 1 ) : pp . 1 - 64 , pl . i - xxvii ; 1881 : 1 ( 2 ) ( 3 ) : pp . 65 - 240 , pl . xxviii - lxviii ; 1882 : 1 ( 4 ) : pp . 241 - 336 , pl . lxix - xcii ; 2 ( 5 ) : pp . 1 - 96 , pl . xciii - cxvi ; 1883 : 2 ( 6 ) : pp . 97 - 176 , pl . cxvii - cxxxii ; 2 ( 7 ) : pp . 177 - 272 , pl . cxxxiii - cxlviii ; 1884 : 2 ( 8 ) : pp . 273 - 368 , pl . cxlix - clxxix .\ndieuzeide , r . ; novella , m . ( collab . j . roland ) , 1953 - 1955 . catalogue des poissons des c\u00f4tes alg\u00e9riennes . bull . stn aquic . p\u00each . castiglione , i ( n . s . ) , ( 4 ) , 1952 [ 1953 ] : pp . 1 - 135 , 73 fig . n . num . ; ii ( n . s . ) , ( 5 ) , 1953 [ 1954 ] : pp . 1 - 258 , 135 fig . n . num . ; iii ( n . s . ) , ( 6 ) , 1954 [ 1955 ] : pp . 1 - 384 , 202 fig . n . num .\nfowler , h . w . 1936 . the marine fishes of west africa , based on the collection of the american museum congo expedition 1909 - 1915 . bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 70 ( 1 ) , jan . 21 , 1936 : pp . vii + 1 - 606 , fig . 1 - 275 ; ( 2 ) , nov . 18 , 1936 : pp . 607 - 1493 , fig . 276 - 567 .\nkoken , e . 1884 . \u00fcber fisch - otolithen , insbesondere \u00fcber die jenigen der norddeutschen oligoc\u00e4n - ablagerungen . z . dt . geol ges . , 36 ( 3 ) : 500 - 565 , pl . ix - xii .\nlinnaeus , c . 1758 . systema naturae , ed . x , vol . 1 , 824 pp . nantes & pisces : pp . 230 - 338 . ( reprint , 1956 , london . )\nlozano y rey , l . 1952 . peces fisoclistos , subserie toracicos . mems r . acad . cienc . exact . fis . nat . madr . , ser . : cien . nat . , primate parte , 14 : pp . xv + 1 - 378 , fig . 1 - 20 , pl . i - xxx ; segunda parte , 14 : pp . 379 - 705 , fig . 21 - 31 , pl . xxi - li .\nmontalenti , g . 1937 . maenidae , mullidae , sciaenidae , cepolidae in uova , larve e stadi giovanili di teleostei . fauna flora golfo napoli , 38 : 383 - 412 , fig . 263 - 277 , pl . xxxi - xxxiii .\nmoreau , e . 1881 - 1891 . histoire naturelle des poissons de la france , paris , i , 1881 : pp . i - vii + 1 - 480 , fig . 1 - 82 ; ii , 1881 : pp . 1 - 572 , fig . 83 - 145 ; iii , 1881 : pp . 1 - 697 , fig . 146 - 220 ; suppl . , 1891 : pp . 1 - 144 , fig . 221 - 227 .\npoll , m . 1947 . poissons marins in faune de belgique . bruxelles , 452 pp . , 267 fig . , 2 pl . , 2 maps n . num . ( inset ) .\nsanz echeverria , j . 1926 . datos sobre el otolito , sagitta de los peces de espa\u00f1a . boln r . soc . esp . hist . nat . , 26 ( 1 ) : pp . 145 - 160 , 71 fig .\nsanz echeverria , j . 1936 . otolitos del genere mullus . boln r . soc . esp . hist . nat . , 36 : 345 - 361 , 2 fig . , 2 pl .\nsoljan , t . 1948 . fauna i flora jadrana . 1 . ribe inst . oceanogr . ribarst . jugoslavia . zagreb , hrvatske , 437 pp . , 1350 fig .\nwheeler , a . 1969 . the fishes of the british isles and north - west europe . macmillan , london , melbourne and toronto : pp . i - xvii + 1 - 163 , 5 + 177 fig . , 392 fig . ( princ . sp . ) , 92 n . num . fig . , 16 pl . , maps ."]}
{"id": 916, "summary": [{"text": "the caribbean dove ( leptotila jamaicensis ) is a species of bird in the family columbidae .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is found in the cayman islands , colombia ( san andr\u00e9s island ) , honduras ( bay islands ) , jamaica , and mexico ( yucat\u00e1n peninsula ) .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it has been introduced to new providence in the bahamas .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests , subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , and heavily degraded former forest . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "caribbean dove", "paragraphs": ["jamaican dove , violet dove , white - bellied dove , white - fronted dove .\ndove information . . . index of dove species . . . photos of the different dove species for identification\nthe caribbean dove is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe population of the caribbean dove is considered to be stable . there are no known conservation measures in place for this species ( 4 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - caribbean dove ( leptotila jamaicensis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - caribbean dove ( leptotila jamaicensis )\ntitle =\narkive species - caribbean dove ( leptotila jamaicensis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nhybrid pigeon . father : collared doves x laughing dove cock . mother : racing pigeon hen\npopulations also occur on the caribbean islands of caymans , jamaica , and turks and caicos .\nbreeding occurs from march to may when the female caribbean dove lays a clutch of two white eggs . the nest is typically a fragile platform of twigs , which is lined with rootlets and placed in a dense low tree or shrub , usually no more than three metres above the ground ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . the caribbean dove is also known to occasionally nest on the ground ( 2 ) .\nthe caribbean doves ( leptotila jamaicensis ) - also commonly referred to as violet doves , jamaican doves , white - fronted doves or white - bellied doves - are found in mexico and several caribbean islands .\ngenerally found in semi - arid habitat , the caribbean dove inhabits primary and secondary forest up to elevations of 2 , 000 metres . it typically favours lowland areas with shrub or tree cover , such as scrub or woodland . the caribbean dove is also found in the dry limestone forests and the montane forest of the blue mountains in jamaica , and is commonly observed in gardens and orchards throughout its range ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nthe caribbean dove feeds on seeds , small fruits , insects , larvae and small snails ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . generally , the caribbean dove is found alone or in pairs on the forest floor . it forages for prey among the leaf litter , or along the edges of woodland , and , less commonly , in more open habitats . this species shows an unusual preference for walking on the ground rather than flying , and it will typically only fly to a low perch when it is disturbed ( 3 ) .\nthey are easily identified in the caribbean region by their conspicuous iridescent purple , rosy to bronze - green feathers on the neck sides and the nape .\nconspicuous iridescent purple to bronze - green feathers on the hindneck of the caribbean dove ( leptotila jamaicensis ) make it a fairly distinctive island inhabitant in the caribbean region . the forehead , face and throat of this species are white , becoming blue - grey on the crown and back of the neck . the sides of the neck and breast are rosy pink to pinkish - white . the upperparts are typically greyish olive - brown , contrasting with white underparts and reddish - brown underwing ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . there is often a bold white band on the front of the folded wing ( 2 ) . the tail of the caribbean dove has black feathers outer feathers and a white band across the bottom , which is broken in the middle by the central pair of grey - brown tail feathers . the bill is black , slightly greyer at the base , and the legs and feet are red . the caribbean dove has dull reddish - purple skin around the eyes , and the iris is white or whitish - yellow , often with a red ring ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nthe female caribbean dove has much duller iridescence on the back of the neck compared to the male . the juvenile is also duller and lacks the iridescence . the wing - coverts and the feathers on the shoulder of the juvenile are typically edged with red , and the neck and breast have pale reddish - brown bars ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nthe caribbean doves are about 11 . 5 - 13 inches ( 29 - 33 cm ) long - including the tail ; and weigh 4 . 1 - 6 . 7 oz ( 117 - 190 g ) .\nfour subspecies of the caribbean dove are recognised . leptotila jamaicensis gaumeri is slightly smaller than the other subspecies and more olive - brown , with reduced iridescence on the hindneck and darker pink on the breast . leptotila jamaicensis collaris is slightly smaller than the nominate subspecies leptotila jamaicensis jamaicensis , but is otherwise similar in appearance , while leptotila jamaicensis neoxena also has reduced iridescence on the neck and the underparts are more deeply washed with pink ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nwhite - tipped dove ( leptotila verreauxi ) from southernmost texas in the usa through mexico and central america south to western peru and central argentina ; head is vinaceous grey with paler forehead ; the chest and flanks are pale vinaceous grey turning white on the belly .\nbaptista , l . f . , trail , p . w . , horblit , h . m . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . caribbean dove ( leptotila jamaicensis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe locally common and resident ( non - migratory ) caribbean doves inhabit the bahamas , yucat\u00e1n peninsula and several adjacent mexican offshore islands ( including cozumel ) and the countries of belize and honduras ( bay islands ) , and the colombian island of san andr\u00e9s off the nicaraguan coast .\ncaribbean doves feed on seeds , small fruits , insects , larvae and small snails . they readily take advantage of bird feeders in gardens or forage alone , in pairs or small family groups on the forest floor , but will also remove fruits and nuts from trees or shrubs .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\npartners in flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50 , 000 individuals ( a . panjabi in litt . 2008 ) , thus it is placed in the band 20 , 000 - 49 , 999 individuals here . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\ndel hoyo , j . , elliott , a . and sargatal , j . ( 1997 ) handbook of the birds of the world . volume 4 : sandgrouse to cuckoos . lynx edicions , barcelona .\ngibbs , d . , barnes , e . and cox , j . ( 2000 ) pigeons and doves : a guide to the pigeons and doves of the world . pica press , a & c black publishers ltd , london .\nflpa - images of nature pages green house wetheringsett stowmarket suffolk ip14 5qa united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 861 113 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 860 222 pictures @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 71 side a track 57 seq . a )\nthe recording was filtered to a frequency 8000hz so the background noise ( insects , leafs and wind ) wouldn ' t get in the way , since the song of the bird was barely audible .\nthe habitat was outside a mangrove , inside a patch of trees and bushes .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\n( lawrence , 1885 ) \u2013 se mexico ( n yucat\u00e1n peninsula and islands of holbox , mujeres and cozumel ) , ne belize ( ambergris cay ) , and honduran islands of barbareta , roat\u00e1n and little hog .\n( cory , 1887 ) \u2013 san andr\u00e9s i ( off ce nicaragua ) .\n29\u201333 cm ; 117\u2013190 g . forehead , face and throat white becoming grey on hindcrown and iridescent purple on nape ; mantle and sides of neck rosy vinaceous , . . .\nsong is a rather rhythmic series of four mournful monotonous notes , with emphasis on the last one \u201c . . .\ntypically in semi - arid habitat , preferring areas with some shrub or tree cover , usually in lowlands . . .\nin jamaica , seeds identified include those of orange , naseberry and red birch ; small snails also sometimes taken . forages on the ground .\nseason mar\u2013may . nest placed in tree or shrub , seldom high above ground ; in jamaica , found in logwood trees or in low bushes ; ground . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . common to fairly common in mexican part of range ; locally common in jamaica and on w side of san andr\u00e9s i ; uncommon on grand . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nrolando chavez , mikko pyh\u00e4l\u00e4 , hal and kirsten snyder , josep del hoyo , ken simonite , rich bayldon , ken havard , dave irving .\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : leptotila jamaicensis . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nleptotila jamaicensis gaumeri : n yucat\u00e1n , mujeres , holbox , cozumel and is . off honduras\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 296 , 322 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nthey are usually found on the ground in semi - arid , lowland forests up to elevations of 6 , 560 feet ( 2 , 000 meters ) . they are also common in gardens , especially with bird feeders , and orchards , where they feed on fruits .\nfound in the dry limestone and montane forest regions of jamaica . introduced to new providence in the bahamas .\nrange : southeastern mexico in the northern yucat\u00e1n peninsula , on the islands of holbox , mujeres and cozumel , northeastern belize ( ambergris cay - part of the turks and caicos islands ) , and honduran islands of barbareta , roat\u00e1n and little hog .\nid : slightly smaller ; plumage more olive - brown with reduced iridescence on the hindneck and darker pink on the chest .\nrange : western side of the san andr\u00e9s island off the central eastern coast of nicaragua .\nid : reduced iridescence on the neck ; the upper plumage is deeply washed with pink .\nthe back and wings are largely olive - brown with a grey crown and the chest is pale greyish / rosy , turning white on the abdomen and undertail feathers . the forehead , face and throat are whitish turning blue - grey on the crown and back of the neck ,\nthe irises are yellowish , often with a red ring around them . the eyes are surrounded with dull dark reddish - purple skin .\nthe bill is blackish , slightly greyer at the base . the legs and feet are red .\nsome have a white band on the front of the folded wing . the black outer tail feathers have a white band across the bottom , which is broken in the middle by the central pair of grey - brown tail feathers .\nfemales look similar to the males ; but have a duller iridescence on the back of the neck .\nimmature birds have a duller plumage and lack the iridescence of the adults . their wing - coverts ( feathers ) and the feathers on the shoulder are typically edged with red , and there are pale reddish - brown bars on the neck and chest .\nforaging is usually done on the ground among the leaf litter or along the edges of woodland .\nmost breeding occurs between march and may . pairs are monogamous . males seeking to attract females perform courtship displays during which they tilt the head and expand the feathers of the neck and chest while they softly call out to the females .\nthe nests are fairly large and generally consist of fragile platforms of fine twigs , lined with rootlets placed in a dense low tree or shrub - usually no more than 10 feet ( 3 meters ) above the ground . although , on occasion , they have nested on the ground .\nthe average clutch consists of 2 white eggs that are incubated for about 14 days .\ntheir calls are described as deep hollow ooo - wooooo - ou coo or whuhu oo ooo or hoo coo hoo - ooo vocalizations .\nchinese : ? ? ? ? ? . . . czech : holub karibsk\u00fd . . . danish : cariberjorddue . . . dutch : witbuikduif . . . estonian : kariibi manteltuvi . . . finnish : karibianjuoksukyyhky . . . french : colombe de jama\u00efque , colombe de la jama\u00efque . . . german : jamaicataube , jamaikataube . . . italian : tortora caraibica , tortora ventrebianco della giamaica . . . japanese : shiroharashakobato . . . norwegian : karibdue . . . polish : golebik duzy , go ? ? bik du ? y . . . russian : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . slovak : holubec karibsk\u00fd . . . spanish : paloma caribe\u00f1a , paloma montaraz jamaicana , paloma montaraz jamaiquina , t\u00f3rtola caribe\u00f1a . . . swedish : vitbukad duva\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms ."]}
{"id": 917, "summary": [{"text": "draco guentheri , commonly known as g\u00fcnther 's flying lizard or guenther 's flying lizard , is a species of agamid \" flying dragon \" endemic to the philippines . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "draco guentheri", "paragraphs": ["draco guentheri boulenger 1885 : 257 draco rizali wandolleck 1900 : 15 draco rizali \u2014 taylor 1922 : 115 draco volans reticulatus \u2014 hennig 1936 ( part . ) draco volans \u2014 inger 1983 : 2 ( part . ) draco reticulatus \u2014 gaulke 1993 draco guentheri \u2014 mcguire & alcala 2000 : 100 draco guentheri \u2014 mcguire & kiew 2001\ndraco lizards , draco lizard pictures , draco lizard facts - - national . . .\nthis species was originally described in 1885 by the belgian - british zoologist george albert boulenger , who named it draco guentheri .\nmcguire ja , alcala ac . 2000 . a taxonomic revision of the flying lizards ( iguania : agamidae : draco ) of the philippine islands , with a description of a new species . herpetological monographs 14 : 81 - 138 . ( draco guentheri , p . 100 ) .\nlittle is known about the natural history of draco guentheri . mcguire and alcala ( 2000 ) found this species in secondary - growth forest and on coconut trees adjacent to forest near the malagos eagle station , mindanao island .\nin 1936 hennig considered this lizard to be part of what he called a subspecies , draco volans reticulatus . in 1993 gaulke raised it to full species status . and most recently , in 2000 , mcguire and alcala once again recognized boulenger ' s original draco guentheri as a valid species .\ndraco rizali and other lesser known facts about rizal | nation , news . . .\ndraco guentheri is known from the islands of basilan , bongao , jolo , mindanao , sanga sanga , siasi , and siminul ( taylor , 1918 , 1922 ; gaulke , 1993 , 1995 ) . the species is known primarily from the zamboanga region of mindanao and from the sulu archipelago .\ndraco guentheri has been observed in sympatry with d . bimaculatus , d . cyanopterus , and d . mindanensis , but is often considered uncommon relative to d . bimaculatus and d . cyanopterus ( mcguire and alcala , 2000 ) . at san roque and cabala , widely spaced localities in the eastern half of mindanao characterized by open coconut groves , d . guentheri was not found ( mcguire and alcala , 2000 ) . taylor ( 1918 , 1922 ) indicated that d . guentheri is the common species of the sulu archipelago and because it has been collected within the confines of the city of zamboanga , it seems likely that the species does occur in open habitats such as coconut groves in the western portion of its range ( text take from mcguire and alcala , 2000 ) .\nherre , albert w . ( 1958 ) .\non the gliding of flying lizards , genus draco\n.\nhennig , w . 1936 . revision der gattung draco ( agamidae ) . temminckia , leiden 1 : 153 - 220\nnota bene : a binomial authority in parentheses indicates that the species was originally described in a genus other than draco .\nhennig , w . ( 1936 ) revision der gattung draco ( agamidae ) . : temminckia , leiden 1 : 153 - 220\nboulenger g . 1885 . catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( natural history ) . second edition . volume i . geckonid\u00e6 , eublepharid\u00e6 , uroplatid\u00e6 , pygopodid\u00e6 , agamid\u00e6 . london : trustees of the british museum ( natural history ) . ( taylor and francis , printers ) . xii + 436 pp . + plates i - xxxii . ( draco guentheri , pp . 257 - 258 + plate xx , figure 2 ) .\nherre , albert w . ( 1958 ) .\non the gliding of flying lizards , genus draco\n. copeia 1958 ( 4 ) : 338\u2013339 . jstor 1439979 .\nwandolleck , b . ( 1900 ) zur kenntnis der gattung draco l . : abhandlungen und berichte des k\u00f6niglichen zoologischen und anthropologischn - ethnologischen museums zu dresden 9 : 1 - 16\nwandolleck , b . 1900 . zur kenntnis der gattung draco l . abhandlungen und berichte des k\u00f6niglichen zoologischen und anthropologischn - ethnologischen museums zu dresden 9 : 1 - 16 - get paper here\ninger , r . f . ( 1983 ) morphological and ecological variation in the flying lizards ( genus draco ) . : fieldiana : zoology , new ser . 18 : vi , 1 - 35\ninger , r . f . 1983 . morphological and ecological variation in the flying lizards ( genus draco ) . fieldiana : zoology , new ser . 18 : vi , 1 - 35 - get paper here\ninger , robert f . ( 1983 ) . morphological and ecological variation in the flying lizards ( genus draco ) . chicago : field museum of natural history . ( fieldiana zoology , new series , no . 18 ) .\nmcguire , jimmy a . & heang , kiew bong ( 2001 ) phylogenetic systematics of southeast asian flying lizards ( iguania : agamidae : draco ) as inferred from mitochondrial dna sequence data . : biological journal of the linnean society 72 : 203\u2013229\nmcguire , jimmy a . & heang , kiew bong 2001 . phylogenetic systematics of southeast asian flying lizards ( iguania : agamidae : draco ) as inferred from mitochondrial dna sequence data . biological journal of the linnean society 72 : 203\u2013229 - get paper here\nmcguire , j . a . and heang , k . b . 2001 . phylogenetic systematics of southeast asian flying lizards ( iguania : agamidae : draco ) as inferred from mitochondrial dna sequence data . biological journal of the linnean society 72 : 203\u2013229 .\nmcguire , jimmy a . and angel c . alcala ( 2000 ) a taxonomic revision of the flying lizards ( iguania : agamidae : draco ) of the philippine islands , with a description of a new species . : herpetological monographs 14 : 81 - 138\nmcguire , j . a . and alcala , a . c . 2000 . a taxonomic revision of the flying lizards ( iguania : agamidae : draco ) of the philippine islands , with a description of a new species . herpetological monographs : 81 - 138 .\nmcguire , jimmy a . and angel c . alcala 2000 . a taxonomic revision of the flying lizards ( iguania : agamidae : draco ) of the philippine islands , with a description of a new species . herpetological monographs 14 : 81 - 138 - get paper here\nbeolens b , watkins m , grayson m . ( 2011 ) . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . xiii + 296 pp . isbn 978 - 1 - 4214 - 0135 - 5 . ( draco beccarii , p . 21 ) .\nbeolens b , watkins m , grayson m . ( 2011 ) . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . xiii + 296 pp . isbn 978 - 1 - 4214 - 0135 - 5 . ( draco beccarii , p . 21 ) .\nlinnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema natur\u00e6 per regna tria natur\u00e6 , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , diferentiis , synonymis , locis . tomus i . editio decima , reformata . stockholm : l . salvius . 824 pp . ( genus draco , p . 199 ) .\nmcguire , j . a . ; dudley , r . ( 2011 ) .\nthe biology of gliding in flying lizards ( genus draco ) and their fossil and extant analogs\n. integrative and comparative biology 51 ( 6 ) : 983\u201390 . doi : 10 . 1093 / icb / icr090 . pmid 21798987 .\ngoin cj , goin ob , zug gr . 1978 . introduction to herpetology , third edition . san francisco : w . h . freeman & company . xi + 378 pp . isbn 0 - 7167 - 0020 - 4 . ( genus draco , pp . 41 , 86 , 112 , 279 , 288 ) .\na phylogenetic framework of relationships among species was generated in 2001 . ongoing research includes biogeographical studies of the radiation , as well as flight mechanics and evolution , and prediction of gliding performance and capabilities of now extinct permian and triassic reptiles that share similar morphological adaptations for flight with the draco lizards ( mcguire and dudley 2011 ; mcguire and heang 2001 ; mcguire and dudley 2005 ) .\nnamed after albert g\u00fcnther ( 1830 - 1914 ) , german - born zoologist at the british museum .\nbeolens , bo ; michael watkins , and michael grayson 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , usa - get paper here\nbeukema , w . 2011 . herpetofauna of disturbed forest fragments on the lower mt . kitanglad rnage , mindanao isand , philippines . salamandra 47 ( 2 ) : 90 - 98 - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1885 . catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( nat . hist . ) i . geckonidae , eublepharidae , uroplatidae , pygopodidae , agamidae . london : 450 pp . - get paper here\ngaulke m . 1995 . der sulu - archipel - besiedlungsgeschichte , geologie und herpetofauna . natur und museum 125 : 217 - 226\nobst , f . j . 1977 . die herpetologische sammlung des staatlichen museums f\u00fcr tierkunde dresden und ihre typusexemplare . zool . abh . mus . tierk . dresden 34 : 171 - 186 .\ntaylor , e . h . 1922 . the lizards of the philippine islands . department of agriculture and natural resources , bureau of science , government of the philippine islands , manila , publication no . 17 : 269 pp . - get paper here\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern since , although its extent of occurrence is possibly less than 20 , 000 km\u00b2 , it is common and adaptable with a presumed large population , and it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis species is endemic to the philippines , where it has been recorded from the islands of basilan , bongao , jolo , mindanao ( including atypical specimens from malagos and mount apo ) , sanga - sanga , siasi and simunul ; and is possibly present on the island of tawi - tawi . it ranges from sea level to about 1 , 500 m asl .\nmcguire and alcala ( 2000 ) , report that this species has previously been found to be common in the sulu archipelago , and note that it is likely to remain common in view of its adaptability to modified habitats . it is a very common inhabitant of coconut groves and trees in cultivated areas of the zamboanga peninsula ( m . gaulke pers . obs . 2006 / 2007 ) , and was very common on several visited islands of the sulu - archipeligo at the beginning of 1990s ( m . gaulke pers . comm . 2008 ) . the population of this species may be increasing with the conversion of closed forest to more suitable open habitats .\npopulations of this species have been found in second growth forest and in coconut groves adjacent to secondary forest . it is an oviparous species .\nthere appear to be no major threats to this species . it is possible that some local declines have occurred through the use of pesticides , however , this requires verification .\nthis species has been recorded from the malagos watershed protected area , and may be present in additional protected areas . further taxonomic studies are needed into this species as a whole .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nlisted as least concern since , although its extent of occurrence is possibly less than 20 , 000 km , it is common and adaptable with a presumed large population , and it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nit is found on the islands of basilan , bongao , jolo , mindanao , sanga - sanga , siasi , and simunul .\n, thereby creating a synonym . rizal ' s specimens , subsequently , were destroyed during the\nfadul , jos\u00e9 a . , ed . ( 2007 ) . encyclopedia rizaliana : student edition . lulu . p . 32 . isbn 1430311428 .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nboulenger , g . a . , 1885 : null . catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( natural history ) , vol . 1 . 436 .\nbeukema , w . ( 2011 ) herpetofauna of disturbed forest fragments on the lower mt . kitanglad rnage , mindanao isand , philippines . : salamandra 47 ( 2 ) : 90 - 98\nboulenger , g . a . ( 1885 ) catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( nat . hist . ) i . geckonidae , eublepharidae , uroplatidae , pygopodidae , agamidae . : london : 450 pp .\ngaulke m . ( 1993 ) beobachtungen an flugdrachen auf dem sulu - archipel . : salamandra 28 : 251 - 257\ngaulke m . ( 1995 ) der sulu - archipel - besiedlungsgeschichte , geologie und herpetofauna . : natur und museum 125 : 217 - 226\nobst , f . j . ( 1977 ) die herpetologische sammlung des staatlichen museums f\u00fcr tierkunde dresden und ihre typusexemplare . : zool . abh . mus . tierk . dresden 34 : 171 - 186 .\ntaylor , e . h . ( 1922 ) the lizards of the philippine islands . : department of agriculture and natural resources , bureau of science , government of the philippine islands , manila , publication no . 17 : 269 pp .\n- and - other - lesser - known - facts - ab . . .\napogonia rizali ) had been named in honor of him ? that he also held . . .\njose rizal ' s huge correspondence\u2014954 letters to and from him\u2014were published chronologically in six volumes by t . m . kalaw before world . . .\nlizards with pictures , videos , photos , facts , and news from national geographic .\napogania rizali \u2014 it ' s a rare species of beetle with five horns . ri\nwandolleck on the left , rhacophorus rizalli boettger on the right , . . .\ndon ' t be shy . leave a comment below and tell the world what you think .\nif you have an interesting topic that you would like to share with the world go ahead and forward it to submit ( @ ) mycrazyemail . com . and don ' t worry your privacy will always be protected .\nmy crazy email 2018 - ( born on date : march 5 , 2012 ) . simple theme . powered by blogger .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nflying dragon\nredirects here . for other uses , see flying dragon ( disambiguation ) .\n. the ribs and their connecting membrane may be extended to create a wing , the hindlimbs are flattened and wing - like in cross - section , and a small set of flaps on the neck serve as a horizontal stabilizers .\n. while not capable of powered flight they often obtain lift in the course of their gliding flights . glides as long as\n. she descends the tree she is on and makes a nest hole by forcing her head into the soil . she then lays 2\u20135 eggs before filling the hole . she guards the eggs for approximately 24 hours , but then leaves and has nothing more to do with her offspring .\nlinnaeus derived the name of this genus from the latin term for mythological dragons .\npiper , ross ( 2007 ) , extraordinary animals : an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals , greenwood press .\n. san francisco : w . h . freeman & company . xi + 378 pp . isbn 0 - 7167 - 0020 - 4 . ( genus\nsystema natur\u00e6 per regna tria natur\u00e6 , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , diferentiis , synonymis , locis . tomus i . editio decima , reformata .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 11 / 23 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\n. while not capable of powered flight they often obtain lift in the course of their gliding flights . glides as long as 60 m ( 200 ft ) have been recorded , over which the animal loses only 10 m ( 33 ft ) in height , which is quite some distance , considering that one of these lizards is only around 20 cm ( 7 . 9 in ) in total length ( tail included ) .\n1 . forest - > 1 . 6 . forest - subtropical / tropical moist lowland suitability : suitable 1 . forest - > 1 . 9 . forest - subtropical / tropical moist montane suitability : suitable 14 . artificial / terrestrial - > 14 . 3 . artificial / terrestrial - plantations suitability : suitable 14 . artificial / terrestrial - > 14 . 4 . artificial / terrestrial - rural gardens suitability : unknown\n2 . land / water management - > 2 . 1 . site / area management\n1 . research - > 1 . 1 . taxonomy 1 . research - > 1 . 2 . population size , distribution & trends 1 . research - > 1 . 5 . threats\ngaulke , m . 1993 . beobachtungen an flugdrachen auf dem sulu - archipel . salamandra 28 ( 3 / 4 ) : 251 - 257 .\ngaulke , m . 1995 . der sulu - archipel - besiedlungsgeschichte , geologie und herpetofauna . natur and museum 125 ( 7 ) : 217 - 226 .\niucn . 2009 . iucn red list of threatened species ( ver . 2009 . 2 ) . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 3 november 2009 ) .\ntaylor , e . h . 1922 . the lizards of the philippine islands . philippines bureau of science publication 17 : 1 - 269 ."]}
{"id": 928, "summary": [{"text": "marthasterias is a genus of starfish in the family asteriidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is monotypic and the only species in the genus is marthasterias glacialis , commonly known as the spiny starfish .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is native to the eastern atlantic ocean . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "marthasterias", "paragraphs": ["fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric ducarme marked\nfile : marthasterias glacius . jpg\nas trusted on the\nmarthasterias glacialis ( linnaeus , 1758 )\npage .\nfirst report of ciguatoxins in two starfish species : ophidiaster ophidianus and marthasterias glacialis .\nfr\u00e9d\u00e9ric ducarme marked\nfile : marthasterias glacialis ( linnaeus , 1758 ) 3 . jpg\nas trusted on the\nmarthasterias glacialis ( linnaeus , 1758 )\npage .\nfr\u00e9d\u00e9ric ducarme marked\nfile : marthasterias glacialis ( linnaeus , 1758 ) 1 . jpg\nas trusted on the\nmarthasterias glacialis ( linnaeus , 1758 )\npage .\nfr\u00e9d\u00e9ric ducarme marked\nfile : marthasterias glacialis ( linnaeus , 1758 ) oeil brachial . jpg\nas trusted on the\nmarthasterias glacialis ( linnaeus , 1758 )\npage .\nfirst report of ciguatoxins in two starfish species : ophidiaster ophidianus and marthasterias glacialis . - pubmed - ncbi\nbay - nouailhat a . , september 2005 , description of marthasterias glacialis , available on line at urltoken consulted on 09 july 2018 .\nsarah miller marked\ndescription\nas hidden on the\nmarthasterias glacialis ( linnaeus , 1758 )\npage . reasons to hide : duplicate\npicton , b . e . & morrow , c . c . ( 2016 ) . marthasterias glacialis ( linnaeus , 1758 ) . [ in ] encyclopedia of marine life of britain and ireland . urltoken accessed on 2018 - 07 - 09\n( of marthasterias foliacea jullien , 1878 ) hansson , h . ( 2004 ) . north east atlantic taxa ( neat ) : nematoda . internet pdf ed . aug 1998 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of marthasterias rarispina ( perrier , 1875 ) ) clark , a . m . & courtman - stock , j . ( 1976 ) . the echinoderms of southern africa . publ . no . 766 . british museum ( nat . hist ) , london . 277 pp . [ details ]\n( of marthasterias foliacea jullien , 1878 ) jullien , j . ( 1878 ) . description d ' un nouveau genre de stelleride de la famille des asteriadees . bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 zoologique de france . 3 : 141 - 143 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 141 [ details ]\np\u00e9rez - portela , r . villamor , a . and almada , v . 2010 . phylogeography of the sea star marthasterias glacialis ( asteroidea , echinodermata ) : deep genetic divergence between mitochondrial lineages in the north - western mediterranean . marine biology , vol . 157 , issue . 9 , p . 2015 .\nager , o . e . d . 2008 . marthasterias glacialis spiny starfish . in tyler - walters h . and hiscock k . ( eds ) marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information reviews , [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom . [ cited 09 - 07 - 2018 ] . available from : urltoken\n( of marthasterias rarispina ( perrier , 1875 ) ) clark , a . m . and mah , c . ( 2001 ) . an index of names of recent asteroidea , part 4 . forcipulatida and brisingida , in : jangoux , m . ; lawrence , j . m . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . echinoderm studies , 6 : pp . 229 - 347 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of marthasterias foliacea jullien , 1878 ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nthe seastar marthasterias glacialis ( l . ) was seen to spawn in two sea inlets , lough hyne ( 9\u00b018\u2032w ; 51\u00b030\u2032n ) and mulroy bay ( 7\u00b042\u2032w ; 55\u00b012\u2032n ) , ireland . spawning occurred during the afternoon and early evening between 13 . 30 and 21 . 30 hrs british summer time ( bst ) on sunny days during july and august , 1978 . groups remained assembled for days prior to spawning . solitary and grouped seastars arched themselves and released their gametes freely . local moderate onshore winds on sunny days resulted in increases of sea temperature which often induced spawning . males observed spawning ranged from 2 . 5 to 26 cm and females from 9 to 22 cm in diameter over the period 1978\u20131985 .\nasterias angulosa abildgaard in o . f . m\u00fcller , 1788 ( synonym according to sladen ( 1889 ) )\n( of asterias glacialis linnaeus , 1758 ) linnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ndistribution from low intertidal to nearly 200 m depth , on rock and gravel , on west and southwest coasts of the british isles , devon to . . .\n( of asterias madeirensis stimpson , 1862 ) stimpson , w . ( 1862 ) . on new genera and species of starfishes of the family pycnopodidae ( asteracanthion mueller & troschel ) . proceedings of the boston society of natural history . 8 : 261 - 273 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 263 [ details ]\n( of asterias rarispina perrier , 1875 ) perrier , e . ( 1875 ) . r\u00e9vision de la collection de stell\u00e9rides du museum d\u2019histoire naturelle de paris . paris , reinwald . 384 p . , available online at urltoken ; _ esc = y page ( s ) : 62 [ details ]\n( of asterias spinosa pennant , 1777 ) pennant , t . ( 1777 ) . british zoology . london 1777 . 4th edition ( 4 ) : 36 and pages 1 - 154 , tab 24 , fig 24 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 62 [ details ]\n( of stellonia webbiana d ' orbigny , 1839 ) orbigny , a . d ' . ( 1839 ) . echinodermes et polypiers in p . b . webb & s . berthelot , . histoire naturelle des iles canaries . 2 ( 2 ) : 148 - 149 , paris . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 148 [ details ]\n( of asteracanthion webbianus ( d ' orbigny , 1839 ) ) dujardin , m . f . and hupe , m . h . ( 1862 ) . histoire naturelle des zoophytes \u00e9chinodermes : comprenant la description des crino\u00efdes , des ophiurides , des ast\u00e9rides , des \u00e9chinides et des holothurides . paris : libraire encyclopedique de roret . 627 pages , 10 plates . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 340 [ details ]\n( of stellonia angulosa l . agassiz , 1836 ) agassiz , l . ( 1836 ) . prodrome d ' une monographie des radiaires ou echinodermes . m\u00e9moires de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 des sciences naturelles de neuch\u00e2tel . 1 , 168 - 199 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 192 [ details ]\nhansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nclark , a . m . ; downey , m . e . ( 1992 ) . starfishes of the atlantic . chapman & hall identification guides , 3 . chapman & hall . london , uk . isbn 0 - 412 - 43280 - 3 . xxvi , 794 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nclark , a . m . & courtman - stock , j . ( 1976 ) . the echinoderms of southern africa . publ . no . 766 . british museum ( nat . hist ) , london . 277 pp . [ details ]\nsouthward , e . c . ; campbell , a . c . ( 2006 ) . [ echinoderms : keys and notes for the identification of british species ] . synopses of the british fauna ( new series ) , 56 . field studies council : shrewsbury , uk . isbn 1 - 85153 - 269 - 2 . 272 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\ndyntaxa . ( 2013 ) . swedish taxonomic database . accessed at urltoken [ 15 - 01 - 2013 ] . , available online at http : / / urltoken [ details ]\nhansson , h . ( 2004 ) . north east atlantic taxa ( neat ) : nematoda . internet pdf ed . aug 1998 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of stellonia webbiana d ' orbigny , 1839 ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of asterias spinosa pennant , 1777 ) hansson , h . ( 2004 ) . north east atlantic taxa ( neat ) : nematoda . internet pdf ed . aug 1998 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of asterias spinosa pennant , 1777 ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of asterias rarispina perrier , 1875 ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of asterias glacialis linnaeus , 1758 ) hansson , h . ( 2004 ) . north east atlantic taxa ( neat ) : nematoda . internet pdf ed . aug 1998 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of asterias glacialis linnaeus , 1758 ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of asterias madeirensis stimpson , 1862 ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of stellonia glacialis ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) nardo , j . d . ( 1834 ) . de asteriis . isis von oken . 1834 : 716 - 717 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 716 [ details ]\n( of coscinasterias ( stolasterias ) glacialis ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) perrier , e . ( 1894 ) . stell\u00e9rides . exp\u00e9ditions scientifique travailleur et du talisman . 3 : 1 - 431 , 26 pls . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 109 ; note : author is incorrectly attributed to linck [ details ]\n( of uraster glacialis ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) forbes , e . ( 1841 ) . a history of british starfishes and other animals of the class echinodermata . london ; john van voorst . 267 pp . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 78 [ details ]\n( of asteracanthion glacialis ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) m\u00fcller , j . and troschel , f . h . ( 1842 ) . system der asteriden . 1 . asteriae . 2 . ophiuridae . vieweg : braunschweig . xxx + 134 pp . 12 pls . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 14 [ details ]\n( of asterias angulosa abildgaard in o . f . m\u00fcller , 1788 ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\njullien , j . ( 1878 ) . description d ' un nouveau genre de stelleride de la famille des asteriadees . bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 zoologique de france . 3 : 141 - 143 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 141 [ details ]\n: 5 - 9 ; up to 350 mm in diameter ( occasionally up to 700 mm ) ; coloured yellowish , orange , reddish , brownish or greenish .\nfound in a wide range of habitats from fully exposed rockfaces to muddy sites in calm bays . remarkable size differences are commonly found . spiny starfish from sheltered waters are larger than those of exposed coasts .\nparticularly in the northern parts of the north sea , scandinavia . elsewhere it is found on the western british coasts .\nmortensen , t . h . , 1927 . handbook of the echinoderms of the british isles . humphrey milford , oxford university press : 471 pp .\nmoyse , j . & p . a . tyler , 1990 . echinodermata . in : p . j . hayward & j . s . ryland ( eds ) : the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe , volume 2 , molluscs to chordates . clarendon press , oxford : 839 - 871 .\npicton , b . e . , 1993 . a field guide to the shallow - water echinoderms of the british isles . immel publishing : 96 pp .\nis recorded from the southwest and west coast of england and the west coast of scotland . it has only been recorded at one site on the east coast ( st abbs , scotland ) and has not been recorded in the eastern english channel .\nis found from extreme low water to about 200 m . it can be found in a variety of habitats from sheltered muddy sites to wave exposed rock faces .\narms with 3 longitudinal rows of white , spines ( usually purple tipped ) .\nfish , j . d . & fish , s . , 1996 . a student ' s guide to the seashore . cambridge : cambridge university press .\nhayward , p . , nelson - smith , t . & shields , c . 1996 . collins pocket guide . sea shore of britain and northern europe . london : harpercollins .\nhayward , p . j . & ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) 1995b . handbook of the marine fauna of north - west europe . oxford : oxford university press .\nhowson , c . m . & picton , b . e . , 1997 . the species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the british isles and surrounding seas . belfast : ulster museum . [ ulster museum publication , no . 276 . ]\nhyman , l . v . , 1955 . the invertebrates : vol . iv . echinodermata . the coelomate bilateria . new york : mcgraw hill .\njncc ( joint nature conservation committee ) , 1999 . marine environment resource mapping and information database ( mermaid ) : marine nature conservation review survey database . [ on - line ] urltoken\nmortensen , t . h . , 1927 . handbook of the echinoderms of the british isles . london : humphrey milford , oxford university press .\npicton , b . e . & costello , m . j . , 1998 . biomar biotope viewer : a guide to marine habitats , fauna and flora of britain and ireland . [ cd - rom ] environmental sciences unit , trinity college , dublin . , urltoken\npicton , b . e . , 1993 . a field guide to the shallow - water echinoderms of the british isles . london : immel publishing ltd .\nmarine life information network ( marlin ) , the marine biological association of the uk ( see contact us ) \u00a9 2018 the marine biological association of the uk , all rights reserved .\nthe information ( text only ) provided by the marine life information network ( marlin ) is licensed under a creative commons attribution - non - commercial - share alike 2 . 0 uk : england & wales license . note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own terms and conditions and they may or may not be available for reuse . permissions beyond the scope of this license are available here . based on a work at urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis is our largest starfish , reaching a diameter of impressing 70 cm . the central disk is relatively small . on the tip of each arm approximately eight purple spines produce a flower like formation . the arms are covered by large , white spines . each spine is surrounded by a white cushion . and the longitudinal rows of spines and cushions form a very distinct profile . the coloration varies from pale brown to yellow or orange .\nit thrives on all kind of substrates , from the subtidal zone and down to 200 meters .\nthe spine starfish is registered widespread over the atlantic ocean , on both hemispheres .\nthis starfish is large and has five very spiny arms . each arm bears three longitudinal rows of spike - like spines surrounded by large cushions of pedicellariae . smaller spines may be scattered between these rows . the spines are white and usually purple - tipped and the animal varies in colour from dirty brown to greenish - grey with purple tips to the arms . up to 35cm or more in diameter . small individuals might be mistaken for\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nwe ' ve detected that javascript is disabled in your browser . would you like to proceed to legacy twitter ?\nantarctic researcher and general wonderer of the world . work at cefas and link with @ uniofeastanglia ( views my own ) . i like making things , and classical music\ni see you rain , you can\u2019t take it back now . so excited for the 21st , there\u2019s a 29 % chance of it being amazing . . . at 3pm . . . for one hour .\nsome great reading on nz southern right pop rebuild , and a rare ( albeit tender ) positive ocean story . . . . . yes its 2 . 20am , who knew that extracting a burp from a small bundle of warmth at this time is possibly the most rewarding sound on earth .\nas the uk heatwave continues , the shadows of ancient settlements have begun appearing in the fields . ancient ditches create lines of deeper soil , retaining more moisture and meaning the crops grow thicker . source :\nspecial issue of ' journal of fish biology ' - how about you ? needed by friday 13th july . the journal submission portal can be found at\non the 4th of june , with a bit of drizzle on the 14th . over the past 10 weeks it rained 4 times . the new normal ?\napparently , we had some midnight rain on the 14th of june , a drizzle on the 4th of june , and three times rain in may . it ' s been dry since the start of may otherwise , how is there any water left in the rivers . . . ?\nneue studie belegt : kaltwasserfische , die beispielsweise im nordpolarmeer leben , haben in den vergangenen millionen jahren doppelt so schnell neue arten ausgebildet wie tropische fische .\nis impossible to overstate . we had a hunch it was bad . report , after establishing id collection system , suggested only 4 - 11 breeding females in nz population . part 1 :\ni miss surfing the web . i miss stumbling via links onto weird homepages that link on to other weird homepages . every click led to new discoveries . i miss web 1 . 0\nscientists ! embrace the diversity in everyone . . . . and support everyone to reach their full potential . this will enrich us all\norca surfacing off sumburgh head , # shetland yesterday . thanks to @ shetlandwild traveller sofie larsson for three great days of photography ! urltoken\ncalling all fish & fisheries photographers ! ! - we are still open to last minute entries for our @ fsbi18 photographic competition . we are looking for images that illustrate the theme of\nsustainable use of fishes\n. send images to fsbi2018 @ urltoken @ fsbi18 @ cefasgovuk @ biouea urltoken\ntwitter may be over capacity or experiencing a momentary hiccup . try again or visit twitter status for more information .\nyou can add location information to your tweets , such as your city or precise location , from the web and via third - party applications . you always have the option to delete your tweet location history . learn more\nhere ' s the url for this tweet . copy it to easily share with friends .\nby embedding twitter content in your website or app , you are agreeing to the twitter developer agreement and developer policy .\nnot on twitter ? sign up , tune into the things you care about , and get updates as they happen .\nthis timeline is where you\u2019ll spend most of your time , getting instant updates about what matters to you .\nhover over the profile pic and click the following button to unfollow any account .\nwhen you see a tweet you love , tap the heart \u2014 it lets the person who wrote it know you shared the love .\nthe fastest way to share someone else\u2019s tweet with your followers is with a retweet . tap the icon to send it instantly .\nadd your thoughts about any tweet with a reply . find a topic you\u2019re passionate about , and jump right in .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\npedicellariae : minute jawed elements of sea urchins and starfish used to clean body surface and as defensive means .\n, baie de concarneau , south - brittany , west of france . depth 5 meters .\nii - on the nervous system of the starfish mathasterias glacialis ( l . ) | philosophical transactions of the royal society b : biological sciences\nii - on the nervous system of the starfish mathasterias glacialis ( l . )\nthis text was harvested from a scanned image of the original document using optical character recognition ( ocr ) software . as such , it may contain errors . please contact the royal society if you find an error you would like to see corrected . mathematical notations produced through infty ocr .\nthank you for your interest in spreading the word on philosophical transactions of the royal society b : biological sciences .\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nyou are going to email the following ii - on the nervous system of the starfish mathasterias glacialis ( l . )\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see the philosophical transactions of the royal society b : biological sciences web site .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nophrys exaltata subsp . archipelagi ( orchid ) ( ophrys arachnitiformis subsp . archipelagi ) ( 1 )\nproject description : eucalyptus globulus ( labill . ) is used for pulp and paper product ( more )\nproject description : tap - glun1 ( 840 kda and 1 . 5 mda ) , psd95 - tap ( 1 . 5 mda ) and wt ( con ( more )\nlabel free nano - lc maldi - tof - ms / ms analysis of triton x - 100 solubilized proteins from bovine brain capillary endothelial cells ( bcecs ) .\nspecies : ophrys exaltata subsp . archipelagi ( orchid ) ( ophrys arachnitiformis subsp . archipelagi ) ophrys garganica ophrys sphegodes ( early spider orchid ) ( arachnites aranifera )\ndescription : this starfish is large and has five very spiny arms . each arm bears three longitudinal rows of spike - like spines surrounded by large cushions of pedicellariae . smaller spines may be scattered between these rows . the spines are white and usually purple - tipped and the animal varies in colour from dirty brown to greenish - grey with purple tips to the arms . up to 35cm or more in diameter .\nhabitat : this species may be found in a very wide range of habitats from sheltered muddy sites to fully exposed rockfaces . specimens from sheltered sites are usually larger than those from exposed sites .\ndistribution : apparently confined to the southwest and west coasts of the british isles , also north to scandinavia .\ndistribution map from nbn : interactive map : national biodiversity network mapping facility , data for uk .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\ndownload comparative physical and biological data . the comparative tables enable a rapid comparison of the species composition and principal physical characteristics between a given set of biotopes .\ndistribution of habitat cr . lcr . bras . lgassp large solitary ascidians and erect sponges on wave - sheltered circalittoral rock , based on records on the uk marine recorder database and euseamap . red dots represent records on which the biotope is based . blue dots show other certain records , black dots show records tentatively assigned to this biotope . yellow areas show level 2 and 3 sublittoral and deep - sea habitats prediced by euseamap within uk waters .\nthis biotope is found under similar silty , wave - sheltered conditions as lgassp but with negligible tidal streams . found in sheltered sealochs , there is an impoverished faunal component with solitary ascidians dominating . it lacks the diverse sponge component which is characteristic of lgassp .\nno characteristic photos currently available . if you are able to provide a photograph of this biotope please contact email address : comment _ [ at symbol ] _ jncc _ dot _ gov _ dot _ uk ( replace _ dot _ with full stop / period and _ [ at symbol ] _ with the usual @ symbol ) .\nversion 15 . 03 of the classification adds a deep - sea section to version 04 . 05 ; therefore superseding version 04 . 05 , 97 . 06 and 03 . 02 .\njncc ( 2015 ) the marine habitat classification for britain and ireland version 15 . 03 [ online ] . [ date accessed ] . available from :\ninformation from the shallower section ( up to sublittoral sediment , taken from version 04 . 05 ) be cited as the\nconnor , d . w . , j . h . allen , n . golding , k . l . howell , l . m . lieberknecht , k . o . northen and j . b . reker ( 2004 ) the marine habitat classification for britain and ireland version 04 . 05 . in : jncc ( 2015 ) the marine habitat classification for britain and ireland version 15 . 03 [ online ] . [ date accessed ] .\nparry , m . e . v . , k . l . howell , b . e . narayanaswamy , b . j . bett , d . o . b . jones , d . j . hughes , n . piechaud , t . d . nickell , h . ellwood , n . askew , c . jenkins and e . manca ( 2015 ) a deep - sea section for the marine habitat classification of britain and ireland . jncc report 530 . in : jncc ( 2015 ) the marine habitat classification for britain and ireland version 15 . 03 [ online ] . [ date accessed ] .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nwe use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites . close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings .\nthis article has been cited by the following publications . this list is generated based on data provided by crossref .\nosse , matthew hamel , jean - fran\u00e7ois and mercier , annie 2018 . markers of oil exposure in cold - water benthic environments : insights and challenges from a study with echinoderms . ecotoxicology and environmental safety , vol . 156 , issue . , p . 56 .\nag\u00fcera , antonio and byrne , maria 2018 . a dynamic energy budget model to describe the reproduction and growth of invasive starfish asterias amurensis in southeast australia . biological invasions ,\ndams , barrie blenkinsopp , chris e . and jones , daniel o . b . 2018 . behavioural modification of local hydrodynamics by asteroids enhances reproductive success . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology , vol . 501 , issue . , p . 16 .\nhu , m . y . lein , e . bleich , m . melzner , f . and stumpp , m . 2018 . trans - life cycle acclimation to experimental ocean acidification affects gastric ph homeostasis and larval recruitment in the sea star asterias rubens . acta physiologica , p . e13075 .\np\u00e9rez - portela , r . rius , m . and villamor , a . 2017 . lineage splitting , secondary contacts and genetic admixture of a widely distributed marine invertebrate . journal of biogeography , vol . 44 , issue . 2 , p . 446 .\nparry , gregory d . 2017 . potential for biocontrol of the exotic starfish , asterias amurensis , using a native starfish . biological invasions , vol . 19 , issue . 7 , p . 2185 .\nwright , ag p\u00e9rez - portela , r and griffiths , cl 2016 . determining the correct identity of south africanmarthasterias ( echinodermata : asteroidea ) . african journal of marine science , vol . 38 , issue . 3 , p . 443 .\ncalderwood , julia o\u2019connor , nessa e . and roberts , dai 2015 . the effects of transportation stress and barnacle fouling on predation rates of starfish ( asterias rubens ) on mussels ( mytilus edulis ) . aquaculture , vol . 444 , issue . , p . 108 .\ncasties , isabel clemmesen , catriona melzner , frank and thomsen , j\u00f6rn 2015 . salinity dependence of recruitment success of the sea star asterias rubens in the brackish western baltic sea . helgoland marine research , vol . 69 , issue . 2 , p . 169 .\nhaye , pilar a . segovia , nicol\u00e1s i . mu\u00f1oz - herrera , natalia c . g\u00e1lvez , francisca e . mart\u00ednez , andrea meynard , andr\u00e9s pardo - gandarillas , mar\u00eda c . poulin , elie faugeron , sylvain and mackenzie , brian r . 2014 . phylogeographic structure in benthic marine invertebrates of the southeast pacific coast of chile with differing dispersal potential . plos one , vol . 9 , issue . 2 , p . e88613 .\nmicael , j . rodrigues , p . costa , a . c . and alves , m . j . 2014 . phylogeography and genetic diversity of ophidiaster ophidianus ( echinodermata : asteroidea ) \u2014evidence for a recent range expansion in the azores . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , vol . 94 , issue . 07 , p . 1475 .\nmicael , j . alves , m . j . and costa , a . c . 2013 . the population dynamics of ophidiaster ophidianus ( echinodermata : asteroidea ) in the azores , at the north - western periphery of its distribution . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , vol . 93 , issue . 04 , p . 1087 .\njoly - turquin , guillemette dubois , philippe leyzour , sandra pernet , philippe de ridder , fjo pintelon , rik and guillou , monique 2013 . contrasting relationships between pyloric caecum and gonad growth in the starfish asterias rubens : combined field and experimental approaches . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , vol . 93 , issue . 04 , p . 1073 .\nag\u00fcera , antonio trommelen , michel burrows , frances jansen , jeroen m . schellekens , tim and smaal , aad 2012 . winter feeding activity of the common starfish ( asterias rubens l . ) : the role of temperature and shading . journal of sea research , vol . 72 , issue . , p . 106 .\nmanzur , tatiana barahona , mario and navarrete , sergio a . 2010 . ontogenetic changes in habitat use and diet of the sea - star heliaster helianthus on the coast of central chile . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , vol . 90 , issue . 03 , p . 537 .\nli , li li , qi and kong , lingfeng 2010 . the effect of different substrates on larvae settlement in sea cucumber , apostichopus japonicusselenka . journal of the world aquaculture society , vol . 41 , issue . , p . 123 .\nmercier , annie and hamel , jean - fran\u00e7ois 2009 . endogenous and exogenous control of gametogenesis and spawning in echinoderms . vol . 55 , issue . , p . 237 .\nmercier , annie and hamel , jean\u2010fran\u00e7ois 2009 . endogenous and exogenous control of gametogenesis and spawning in echinoderms . vol . 55 , issue . , p . 7 .\ngallagher , t . richardson , c . a . seed , r . and jones , t . 2008 . the seasonal movement and abundance of the starfish , asterias rubens in relation to mussel farming practice : a case study from the menai strait , uk . journal of shellfish research , vol . 27 , issue . 5 , p . 1209 .\nhad a clearly defined reproductive cycle with spring - early summer spawning . pyloric caecum indices were inversely related to gonad indices . subtidal\nhad lower gonad indices and less seasonal variation in the pyloric caecum indices . gonad indices of\nsuggest few animals in the population studied were breeding , but it is likely that this species also spawns in summer .\n. field observations and laboratory experiments show larvae settle on a wide range of substrata . recruitment to an intertidal population of\nat hollicombe reef occurred in july 1980 and september 1981 . growth of juvenile starfish was followed for 17 months . juvenile starfish feed carnivorously at the completion of metamorphosis . early growth is rapid ; however , there is a reduction in the growth rate during winter months . feeding and growth of juvenile\ndescriptions of the larvae of stichaster australis ( verrill ) and coscinasterias calamaria ( gray ) ( echinodermata : asteroidea ) from new zealand , obtained from laboratory culture . biological bulletin\nextreme population density of the starfish asterias rubens l . on a bed of iceland scallop , chlamys islandica ( o . f . muller )\ndistribution patterns of common seastars of the middle atlantic continental shelf of the northwest atlantic ( gulf of maine to cape hatteras ) . biological bulletin\nnotes on the development of the starfishes asterias glacialis ( o . f . m ) ; cribrella oculata ( linck ) forbes ; solaster endeca ( retzius ) forbes ; stichaster roseus ( o . f . m . ) sars\nthe annual pyloric caeca cycle of asterias rubens l . ( echinodermata : asteroidea )\nthe annual reproductive cycle of oreaster reticulatus ( l . ) ( echinodermata : asteroidea ) and interpopulation differences in reproductive capacity\n. the dispersal of the larvae of shoal - water benthic invertebrate species over long distances by ocean currents . in\nobservations on an aggregation of the starfish asterias rubens l . in morecambe bay , lancashire , england\nstudies on the reproductive systems of seastars . i . the morphology and histology of the gonad of asterias vulgaris . biological bulletin\nemail your librarian or administrator to recommend adding this journal to your organisation ' s collection .\nfull text views reflects the number of pdf downloads , pdfs sent to google drive , dropbox and kindle and html full text views .\n* views captured on cambridge core between september 2016 - 9th july 2018 . this data will be updated every 24 hours .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nsilva m 1 , 2 , rodriguez i 3 , barreiro a 4 , 5 , kaufmann m 6 , 7 , 8 , isabel neto a 9 , 10 , hassouani m 11 , sabour b 12 , alfonso a 13 , botana lm 14 , vasconcelos v 15 , 16 .\ndepartment of biology , faculty of sciences , university of porto , rua do campo alegre , porto 4619 - 007 , portugal . marisasilva17 @ gmail . com .\ninterdisciplinary center of marine and environmental research - cimar / ciimar , university of porto , rua dos bragas , 289 , porto 4050 - 123 , portugal . marisasilva17 @ gmail . com .\ndepartment of pharmacology , faculty of veterinary , university of santiago of compostela , lugo 27002 , spain . ines . rodriguez . filgueiras @ usc . es .\ndepartment of biology , faculty of sciences , university of porto , rua do campo alegre , porto 4619 - 007 , portugal . aldo . barreiro @ gmail . com .\ninterdisciplinary center of marine and environmental research - cimar / ciimar , university of porto , rua dos bragas , 289 , porto 4050 - 123 , portugal . aldo . barreiro @ gmail . com .\ninterdisciplinary center of marine and environmental research - cimar / ciimar , university of porto , rua dos bragas , 289 , porto 4050 - 123 , portugal . mkaufmann @ ciimar . up . pt .\ncentre of life sciences , university of madeira , marine biology station of funchal , funchal 9000 - 107 , portugal . mkaufmann @ ciimar . up . pt .\ncenter of interdisciplinary marine and environmental research of madeira - ciimar - madeira , edif . madeira tecnopolo , caminho da penteada , funchal 9020 - 105 , portugal . mkaufmann @ ciimar . up . pt .\ninterdisciplinary center of marine and environmental research - cimar / ciimar , university of porto , rua dos bragas , 289 , porto 4050 - 123 , portugal . aneto @ uac . pt .\ndepartment of marine biology , university of azores , ponta delgada 9501 - 801 , portugal . aneto @ uac . pt .\nphycology research unit - biotechnology , ecosystems ecology and valorization laboratory . faculty of sciences el jadida , university chouaib doukkali , el jadida bp20 , morocco . hassouani @ hotmail . com .\nphycology research unit - biotechnology , ecosystems ecology and valorization laboratory . faculty of sciences el jadida , university chouaib doukkali , el jadida bp20 , morocco . sabour . b @ ucd . ac . ma .\ndepartment of pharmacology , faculty of veterinary , university of santiago of compostela , lugo 27002 , spain . amparo . alfonso @ usc . es .\ndepartment of pharmacology , faculty of veterinary , university of santiago of compostela , lugo 27002 , spain . luis . botana @ usc . es .\ndepartment of biology , faculty of sciences , university of porto , rua do campo alegre , porto 4619 - 007 , portugal . vmvascon @ fc . up . pt .\ninterdisciplinary center of marine and environmental research - cimar / ciimar , university of porto , rua dos bragas , 289 , porto 4050 - 123 , portugal . vmvascon @ fc . up . pt .\nstructures caribbean ( c ) and pacific ( p ) ctx - group toxin . the epimers , p - ctx - 2 ( 52 - epi p - ctx - 3 ) , p - ctx - 4a ( 52 - epi p - ctx - 4b ) and c - ctx - 2 ( 56 - epi c - ctx - 1 ) are indicated in parenthesis .\nlocation of the sampling points : ( a ) s\u00e3o miguel island coast , azores archipelago : 1 , cruzeiro ; 2 , mosteiros ; 3 , \u00e9tar ; 4 , s\u00e3o roque ; 5 , lagoa ; and 6 , caloura . ( b ) madeira island coast : 1 , reis magos and 2 , cani\u00e7al . ( c ) northwestern moroccan coast : 1 , casablanca corniche ; 2 , el jadida haras ; 3 , el jadida s\u00e2ada ; 4 , sidi bouzid ; 5 , mrizika ; and 6 , oualidia .\nselected ion monitoring ( sim ) chromatogram ( a ) and mass spectrum ( b ) of standard ctx - 3c . sim obtained by uplc - ms / ms and spectrum obtained by uplc - ms - it - tof .\nms2 spectrum of ctx analogue at m / z 1111 . 5 [ m + h ] + ( a ) ; ctx analogue at m / z 1109 . 5 [ m + h ] + ( b ) ; and ctx analogue m / z 1123 . 5 [ m + h ] + ( c ) . spectra obtained by ultra performance liquid chromatography - mass spectometry - ion trap - time of flight uplc - ms - it - tof .\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\nbassindale , r . , e . davenport , f . j . ebling , j . a . kitching , m . a . sleigh and j . f . stone . the ecology of lough ine rapids with special reference to water currents vi ; the effects of the rapids on the hydrography of the south basin . j . ecol .\n( l . ) in its natural habitat , 31 pp . thesis for b . a . moderations , department of zoology , trinity college dublin 1980\nebling , f . j . , a . d . hawking , j . a . kitching , l . muntz and v . m . pratt . the ecology of lough ine xvi . predation and diurnal migration in the\nebling , f . j . , m . a . sleigh , j . f . sloane and j . a . kitching : the ecology of lough ine vii . distribution of some common plants and animals of the littoral and shallow sublittoral regions . j . ecol .\n( lamark ) in lough ine , ireland . phil . trans . r . soc . ( ser . b )\nmortensen , t . : handbook of the echinoderms of the british isles , 471 pp . oxford : university press 1927\n, from plymouth sound . j . mar . biol . ass . u . k .\normond , r . f . g . , a . c . campbell , s . m . head , r . j . moore , p . s . rainbow and a . p . l . sanders : formation and breakdown of aggregations of"]}
{"id": 931, "summary": [{"text": "agathiopsis maculata is a moth of the family geometridae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in new guinea and australia ( queensland ) .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "adults are green , the forewings with a ragged broad brown margin , and a similar stripe across the hindwings , which have a scalloped margin .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "males have darker brown stripes than females . ", "topic": 9}], "title": "agathiopsis maculata", "paragraphs": ["a taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\nthe adult moths of this species are green , with a ragged broad brown margin to the forewings , and a similar stripe across each hindwing . the hindwings have a scalloped margin . the males have darker brown stripes than the females . the wingspan is about 4 cms . the males are about 10 % smaller than the females .\nnew species of drepanulidae , thyrididae , uraniidae , epilemidae , and geometridae from papuan region , collected by mr . albert s . meek\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\npagenstecher , a . f . 1900 ,\ndie lepidopteren fauna des bismarck - archipels . mit ber\u00fcckstichtigung der thiergeographischen und biologischen verh\u00e4ltnisse systematisch dargestellt . erster theil : die tagfalter\n, zoologica ( new york ) , vol . 29 , pp . 1 - 160 pp . 2 pls\nturner , a . j . 1910 ,\nrevision of australian lepidoptera . v\n, proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales , vol . 35 , pp . 555 - 653\nprout , l . b . 1933 ,\ngeometridae\n, seitz , die gross - schmetterling der erde , vol . 12 , pp . 77 - 116\nwarren , w . 1912 ,\nnew geometridae in the tring museum from new guinea\n, novitates zoologicae , vol . 19 , pp . 68 - 85\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 88959ed7 - db75 - 4d97 - af42 - 6bbdcd0251c5\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : ab525af1 - 0173 - 4203 - bc4f - 41dfc8fb198f\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : c86d9880 - c624 - 44ee - ad91 - 2b5c67621aca\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 4fb4a47d - f76f - 4b58 - 8474 - b50d22f7975f\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 372800\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more"]}
{"id": 936, "summary": [{"text": "panopea abrupta is an extinct species of large marine bivalve mollusc in the family hiatellidae .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "between 1983 and 2010 , this species of clam was confused with the pacific geoduck , panopea generosa , in the scientific literature . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "panopea abrupta", "paragraphs": ["taxonomy the name panopea abrupta ( conrad , 1849 ) has long been used for the recent , commercially harvested geoduck of the north . . .\ntaxonomy the name panopea abrupta ( conrad , 1849 ) has long been used for the recent , commercially harvested geoduck of the north pacific . however , vadopalas et al . ( 2010 ) have shown that the name should be restricted to a miocene fossil . the name panopea generosa is applicable to the recent species . [ details ]\n( of mya abrupta conrad , 1849 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of panopea tyosiensis ozaki , 1952 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\n( of panopaea tenuis wiedey , 1928 ) wiedey , l . w . ( 1928 ) . notes on the vaqueros and temblor formations of the california micoene with description of new species . transactions of the san diego society of natural history history 5 ( 10 ) : 95 - 182 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhuber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nrosenberg , g . 1992 . encyclopedia of seashells . dorset : new york . 224 pp . page ( s ) : 166 [ details ]\nturgeon , d . ; quinn , j . f . ; bogan , a . e . ; coan , e . v . ; hochberg , f . g . ; lyons , w . g . ; mikkelsen , p . m . ; neves , r . j . ; roper , c . f . e . ; rosenberg , g . ; roth , b . ; scheltema , a . ; thompson , f . g . ; vecchione , m . ; williams , j . d . ( 1998 ) . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks . 2nd ed . american fisheries society special publication , 26 . american fisheries society : bethesda , md ( usa ) . isbn 1 - 888569 - 01 - 8 . ix , 526 + cd - rom pp . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 50 [ details ]\n( of glycymeris estrellana conrad , 1857 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of panomya intermedia khomenko , 1938 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of panopaea fragilis gould , 1861 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of panopaea sagrinata gould , 1861 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of panopaea tenuis wiedey , 1928 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of panopaea vaskuchevskensis il ' ina , 1963 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nis unquestionably the proper name for the pacific geoduck clam . this clam is the largest burrowing clam in its natural range throughout alaska , british columbia , and washington . although a few individuals weigh up to 4 . 5 kg ( 10 lbs . ) , the average whole body wet weight is about 1 kg . ( 2 . 2 lbs . ) with an average shell length of about 195 mm ( 7 \u00be inches ) ( harbo 1997 ) . to the first - time observer , this clam could be considered as rather grotesque because its shell is not capable of encompassing the huge body .\nit is well established that the movement of shellfish stocks across natural geographic barriers incurs the risk of transmitting diseases that are endemic in any isolated population . in british columbia , information available on the few native shellfish species that have been examined indicate that parasites and diseases occur in stocks from some areas that are not seen in others . for example , 1 )\n) . unfortunately almost nothing is known about the disease and parasites of geoduck clams . a cautious approach to the transplantation of animals into and around the province will reduce the risks involved and maximise the possibilities of success . repercussions of the indiscriminate transplantation of geoduck clams around the province could be devastating and irreparable .\nto help reduce the risk of inadvertent transfer of diseases of aquatic animals into and within british columbia , a federal / provincial fish introductions and transfers committee was established . this committee operates under authority of section 56 of the fishery ( general ) regulations and under provincial regulations either through provisions under the provincial wildlife act or the fishery act . thus , all proposed shellfish transplants must be submitted to the committee for prior approval . further details including contact information for the committee are available via the internet at urltoken .\n) , fan seafoods ltd . ( 4645 vale court crescent , courtenay , b . c . v9n 7w6 ) , island scallops ltd . ( 5552 west island hwy . , qualicum beach , b . c . canada , v9k 2c8 , web site\n) and unique sea farms ltd . ( 3145 headland road , nanaimo , b . c . canada , v9x 1n8 ) ) and government ( diseases of shellfish program of the\n, pacific biological station , nanaimo ) with previous funding assistance from the national research council of canada industrial research assistance program research and development ( nrc / irap ) and the british columbia information , science and technology agency ' s technology assistance program ( tap ) have begun to address issues relevant to geoduck clam health .\nin 1993 , the geoduck industry in british columbia ( under water harvesters association , and fan seafoods ltd . ) in conjunction with a commercial hatchery ( island scallops ltd . ) initiated geoduck clam culture for both farming and enhancement purposes . because little is known about the biology of geoduck clams , studies were initiated in collaboration with the\nconduct experimental investigations into the cause of geoduck \u2018warts\u2019 and the fungus associated with the dark discolouration of the siphon and exposed mantle surface .\nthe web pages on this site present the results of this study and are arranged with each topic on its own page . all pages are listed in the table of contents and grouped firstly by subject . within each subject grouping , pages detailing specific features are listed with appropriate access ( link ) to the detailed description with illustrations . appropriate references are located at the bottom of each page .\nagriculture and agri - food canada - fish and seafood online . web site facts sheet on the geoduck clam : urltoken\n) in british columbia . can . tech . rep . fish . aquat . sci . 1169 : 62 p .\ncoan , e . v . , p . v . scott and f . r . bernard . 2000 . bivalve seashells of western north america . marine bivalve mollusks from arctic alaska to baja california . santa barbara museum of natural history . santa barbara , ca .\nconrad , ta . 1849 . mollusca . pp . 723 - 728 pls 17 - 21 . in : j . d . dana ( editor ) geology . united states exploring expedition . during the years 1838 . . . 1842 . under the command of charles wilkes , u . s . n . , vol . 10 : appendix 1 ( descriptions of fossils ) , iii . fossils from northwestern america . philadelphia ( sherman ) . [ as sited by coan , e . v . , p . v . scott and f . r . bernard . 2000 . bivalve seashells of western north america . marine bivalve mollusks from arctic alaska to baja california . santa barbara museum of natural history . santa barbara , ca . pp 605 . ]\nfisheries and oceans canada , fisheries management , geoduck fishery - pacific region . web site contains information on an overview of the geoduck clam fishery in british columbia , canada : urltoken .\nfitch , j . e . 1953 . common marine bivalves of california . calif . dep . fish game fish bull . 90 : 102 p .\ngoodwin , c . l . 1973 . subtidal geoducks of puget sound , washington . wash . dep . fish . tech . rep . 13 : 64 p .\nharbo , r . m . 1997 . shells & shellfish of the pacific northwest , a field guide . harbour publishing , madeira park , b . c . canada .\njamieson , g . s . , and k . francis . 1986 . geoducks , p . 18 - 22 . in g . s . jamieson and k . francis . invertebrate and marine plant fishery resources of british columbia . can . spec . publ . fish . aquat . sci . 91 .\nquayle , d . b . 1978 . the intertidal bivalves of british columbia . b . c . prov . mus . handbook 17 : 84 - 85 .\nricketts , e . f . , j . calvin , and j . w . hedgpeth . 1985 . between pacific tides . 5th ed . stanford univ . press , stanford , calif . : 325 - 328 .\nvadopalas , b . , t . w . pietsch and c . s . friedman . 2010 .\n( conrad , 1849 ) ( bivalvia : myoida : hiatellidae ) . malacologia 52 : 169 - 173 .\n) : anatomy , histology , development , pathology , parasites and symbionts : introduction .\nthe gonad is an integral part of the visceral mass positioned ventral and lateral to the digestive gland and loops of the intestine . in immature ( juvenile ) geoduck clams , the gonad makes up a small part of the total visceral mass ( see fig . 3a in the digestive system page ) . small oval or flattened gonadal acini ( follicles , tubules ) containing primordial reproductive cells ( fig . 1 ) are infrequently distributed throughout the vesicular connective tissue . until the development of gametes , the two sexes are indistinguishable histologically .\nfigure 1 . two of the gonadal acini within the connective tissue ( c ) of the viscera of a juvenile geoduck clam . at this stage of development , the internal surface of the acini is lined with strongly basophilic undifferentiated germ cells and the sex of the clam can not be determined histologically .\nas the geoduck clam matures , the gonadal acini proliferate and expand in size . the lipids or glycogen stored in vesicular connective tissue cells surrounding the acini provide nutrition to the developing gametes . in mature ( adult ) geoduck clams , the gonad occupies a significant proportion of the visceral mass ( see fig . 3b ( adult female ) and fig . 3c ( adult male ) in digestive system page ) . gametogenesis is described by anderson ( 1971 ) and closely resembles that of other bivalves . hermaphrodites were not observed . as for many bivalves , geoduck clams are broadcast spawners .\nsperm production was observed in geoduck clams as young as two years old ( fig . 2a ) . in male geoduck clams , gametogenesis involves the production of spermatogonia by mitotic division of the undifferentiated germ cells ( primary gonial cells ) located along the inner periphery of the tubular acini in the connective tissue of the viscera . the spermatogonia are the largest male germinal cells which divide by mitosis and become smaller as they move towards the center of the lumen and become spermatocytes . spermatocytes in turn divide by meiosis and become spermatids . spermiogenesis involves the differentiation of spermatids into spermatozoa without further cell division .\nfigure 2a . spermiogenesis resulting in the expansion and filling of the acini ( ac ) of a 2 year old male geoduck clam . the acini empty into a ciliated gonadal duct ( gd ) . a bundle of nerve fibers ( n ) occurs adjacent to the acini .\nfigure 2b . spermatogonia ( sg ) on the periphery of the acinus undergoing mitotic division ( md ) to form spermatocytes ( sy ) which further divide by meiosis and eventually develop into spermatozoa ( sz ) with flagella ( eosinophilic ) oriented towards the lumen of the acinus ( gl ) and eventually the gonadal duct .\nfigures 2a and 2b . gonadal development in male geoduck clams . haematoxylin and eosin stain .\nin female geoduck clams , the undifferentiated ( primordial ) germ cells transform into primary oogonia that undergo meiosis to become the developing oocytes . the oocytes usually remain attached by a stalk to the internal surface of the acinus throughout development and have associated auxiliary cells that develop from the acinar wall and provide nutrition to the developing oocytes . as they mature , the oocytes project into the lumen of the acinus and are eventually released into the lumen and exit the clam via the ciliated gonadal ducts . mature oocytes have a germinal vesicle within the nucleus that contains two nucleoli , extensive cytoplasm containing granules and a thin outer vitelline layer .\nfigure 3a . oogenesis resulting in the expansion of the acini of an adult female . note that developing oocytes are attached to the internal surface of the acini ( arrows ) .\nfigure 3b . mature oocytes entering into the ciliated gonadal duct ( gd ) from acini ( arrows ) in a ripe female during the spawning process .\nfigure 3c . mature oocytes with a germinal vesicle ( gv ) within the nucleus which contains two nucleoli ( arrows ) , granular cytoplasm and surrounded by a basophilic vitelline layer ( vl ) .\nfigures 3a to 3c . gonadal development in female geoduck clams . haematoxylin and eosin stain .\nanderson , a . v . jr . 1971 . spawning , growth , and spatial distribution of the geoduck clam , panope generosa gould , in hood canal , washington . ph . d . thesis submitted to university of washington .\nbarnes , robert d . , 1968 . invertebrate zoology , 2nd ed . w . b . saunders company , toronto , 743 pp .\nmorse , m . p . and zardus , j . d . 1997 . bivalva . microscopic anatomy of invertebrates vol . 6a mollusca ii . f . w . harrison and a . j . kohn . wiley - liss . pp . 7 - 118 .\n) : anatomy , histology , development , pathology , parasites and symbionts : normal histology - reproductive system .\nthe general anatomy of geoduck clams was established from cultured juveniles and both normal and abnormal wild adults . the cultured geoduck clams ( 6 - 25 mm in shell length ) were collected from ocean nursery sites in georgia strait , b . c . adult clams were gathered from the east and west coast of vancouver island and the central coast of british columbia during the course of the 1997 / 1998 fishery ( supplied by underwater harvesters association and fan seafoods ) .\nis generally rectangular with a rounded anterior edge . both valves are equally proportioned and are unable to enclose the muscular mantle and enormous , fused siphon .\nfigure 1 . adult geoduck clam with a valve length of 15 . 5 cm . the siphon ( si ) , at the posterior end , and the muscular mantle ( mm ) at the ventral surface could not be contained within the valves ( rv \u2013 right valve ) . thanks to rick harbo for donation of this image .\njuveniles : thin shelled , porcelaneous ; periostracum thin , tan , dehiscent ; umbonal area frequently with undulations and feeble growth lines . adults : shell heavy and ponderous ; periostracum evanescent ; external structure of irregular growth ridges that occur in a direction corresponding to the shell margin ( coan et al . 2000 , see figs . 2a and b ) .\nfigure 2a valves of fresh adult geoduck clams . illustration of the irregular growth ridges that occur in a direction corresponding to the shell margin .\nfigure 2b valves of fresh adult geoduck clams . patches of tan periostracum ( ps ) located on the anterior end of the left valve .\nthe inner surface of the valves ( shell ) is usually rough with a deeply impressed , continuous pallial line ( where the mantle was sealed to the shell ) and triangular pallial sinus ( fig . 3 ) . at the dorsal surface , the hinge ligament joins the two valves and each valve has a cardinal tooth at the hinge .\nfigure 3 internal surface of the valves of the geoduck clam showing the pallial line ( pl ) and a tooth ( t ) . the anterior shell edges are at the top of the image .\nfigure 4 . sketch of the internal organisation of the major organs of the geoduck clam . the right valve and right side of the muscular mantle and siphon have been dissected away to reveal the fused siphons and the arrangement of the internal organs . the thin mantle ( tm ) that lines the inner surface of the right valve to the pallial line has been turned over the dorsal edge of the left valve ( lv ) . other labels on the sketch are : am - anterior adductor muscle , bg - brown gland , cmm - cut surface of muscular mantle , cs - cut surface of siphon , cse - cut surface of septum , emm - external surface of muscular mantle , ex - excurrent channel , f - foot , g - gills , h - heart , ib - infrabranchial chamber , in - incurrent channel , k - kidney , lp - labial palps , lv - left valve , pa - pedal aperture , pm - posterior adductor muscle , sb - suprabranchial chamber , tm - thin mantle , vm - visceral mass .\nbarnes , r . d . , 1968 . invertebrate zoology , 2nd ed . w . b . saunders company , toronto , 743 pp .\ncoan , e . v . , p . v . scott and f . r . bernard . 2000 . bivalve seashells of western north america . marine bivalve mollusks from arctic alaska to baja california . santa barbara museum of natural history . santa barbara , ca .\nsimkiss , k . 1988 . molluscan skin ( excluding cephalopods ) . the mollusca vol . 11 form and function . e . t . truman and m . r . clarke . academic press inc . pp . 11 - 35 .\n) : anatomy , histology , development , pathology , parasites and symbionts : anatomy of the geoduck clams .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nthis shell , 19 cm long , was collected in the 1800 ' s . it was held until recently in the washington state university museum .\ncan project up to a meter from the shell and cannot be retracted into the shell . the shell is dirty white to cream with a small amount of yellow\n. each valve has one hinge tooth . the shell gapes widely on all sides except the hinge , and very widely on the posterior (\n. shell is quadrate ( approximately rectangular in outline ) , more rounded on the anterior than the posterior end , up to 23 cm long , animal to 9 kg . the single hinge teeth of the two valves do not match well .\nthis is our largest local clam . other members of family hiatellidae are smaller and have gaping\ndo not get as large and gape mainly at the posterior end . the atlantic geoduck ,\ncoast of asia down to japan ; in north america from central alaska to newport bay , ca ; mexico ; panama . in the salish sea area they are especially common in hood canal and puget sound . more common here than farther south .\nburrows very deeply ( to 1 . 3 m ) in soft bottoms in quiet waters .\nthis animal is said to be the largest burrowing clam . it does not mature until age 3 - 4 . spawning is in the spring . young clams have spiny shells and often settle on the tubes of polychaetes , where they attach for a time by byssal threads before dropping off and digging into the sediment . it is very long - lived ( up to at least 168 years ) . the copepod\n( cyclopoida : lichomologidae ) has sometimes been found as a symbiont inside the shell . adults of this species are poor diggers and do not seem to be able to dig themselves back into the mud if removed . ricketts et al . state that the shell is lightweight but the shell of the specimen above is probably 1 / 2 cm thick .\ni have never found this clam in the region right near rosario beach marine lab , except on commercial farms such as taylor shellfish farm . it is much more common in the southern reaches of the salish sea such as puget sound and hood canal . it is also found in british columbia .\nthe shell has a very well - developed pallial line and one hinge tooth in each valve . the shell of this specimen is about 1 / 2 cm thick . along the edges the shell splits into an inner and an outer shelf which diverge from each other slightly . i have not seen this divergence into shelves described for this species .\nthis view of a living individual from the right side illustrates the fact that the siphon is so large that it cannot be retracted into the shell and the shell therefore gapes widely . photo by dave cowles , august 2016 of a farmed clam at taylor shellfish farms near rosario .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nturgeon , d . d . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , w . k . emerson , w . g . lyons , w . pratt , et al .\nturgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , et al .\ncommon and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks , 2nd ed .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\narchived publications contain dated information that do not reflect current wdfw regulations or policy . these documents are provided for archival purposes only . !\nthe objective of this study was to determine if there was a significant effect of commercial geoduck fishing on dungeness crab fishing catch - per - unit - effort ( cpue ) . we sampled crabs using baited pots at one site before , during , and after commercial geoduck fishing . concurrently , we sampled crabs at a nearby unfished site . both sites were sampled 20 times over a period of 4 . 6 years . specifically , we wanted to determine if significant changes in crab cpue occurred following geoduck fishing in the treatment site , and if any such changes could be attributed to geoduck fishing .\npersons with disabilities who need to receive this information in an alternative format or who need reasonable accommodations to participate in wdfw - sponsored public meetings or other activities may contact dolores noyes by phone ( 360 - 902 - 2349 ) , tty ( 360 - 902 - 2207 ) , or email ( dolores . noyes @ urltoken ) . for more information , see https : / / w urltoken / accessibility / reasonable _ request . html .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nturgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , p . m . mikkelsen , r . j . neves , c . f . e . roper , g . rosenberg , b . roth , a . scheltema , f . g . thompson , m . vecchione , and j . d . williams . 1998 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks . 2nd edition . american fisheries society special publication 26 , bethesda , maryland : 526 pp .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users ."]}
{"id": 939, "summary": [{"text": "the red hake or squirrel hake , urophycis chuss , is a phycid hake of the genus urophycis , found in the atlantic ocean at depths between 10 and 500 m .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it grows to about 30 in ( 75 cm ) and 7 lb ( 3.2 kg ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "red hake are edible , and are sought out by recreational fisherman as a gamefish . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "red hake", "paragraphs": ["red hake prefer soft sand or muddy bottom , and feed primarily on crustaceans and rock crabs , as well as fish such as haddock , silver hake , sea robins , mackerel and small red hake . primary predators of red hake include spiny dogfish , cod , goosefish , and silver hake .\ntable 5 . 2 msy - based reference points for the northern red hake stock .\n) . based on this , the southern red hake stock is not in an overfished condition .\ntable 5 . 3 recreational and commercial landings of southern red hake ( thousand metric tons ) .\nbrodziak , j . 2001 . status of fisheries resources off of northeastern united states \u2013 red hake . urltoken\nred hake migrate seasonally , preferring temperatures between 5 and 12\u00b0 c ( 41 - 54\u00b0 f ) ( grosslein and azarovitz 1982 ) .\nthis reduction is required because the northern red hake fishery is projected to have reached or exceeded 37 . 9 percent of the total allowable landings .\nthe northern red hake commercial possession limit is reduced from 3 , 000 lbs per trip to 400 lbs per trip . effective immediately , federally permitted vessels may not possess on board or land more than 400 lb of northern red hake per trip for the remainder of the 2017 fishing year ( i . e . , through april 30 , 2018 ) .\n[ 47 ] landings of red hake at new bedford from the nantucket shoals region , mostly used in this way , were about 5 , 600 , 000 pounds in 1947 .\nthe red hake can be found from the gulf of st . lawrence to north carolina , and is most abundant from the western gulf of maine through southern new england waters . they are a member of the cod family and as such possess a distinctive barbel on their chin . red hake vary in color depending upon their environment , but tend to be a mottled red / brown to olive / brown on their upper sides with large irregular pale light brown patches becoming a dirty white to bright white underneath .\nred hake , urophycis chuss , is a demersal gadoid species distributed from the gulf of st . lawrence to north carolina , and is most abundant from the western gulf of maine through southern new england waters . red hake are separated into northern and southern stocks for management purposes . the northern stock is defined as the gulf of maine to northern georges bank region , while the southern stock is defined as the southern georges bank to mid - atlantic bight region ( figure 5 . 1 ) . both red hake stocks were last assessed in the fall of 1990 .\nhake is noted for its long , slender body and visible front teeth . only buy fish that are longer than 50cm with bright eyes and red gills . hake fillets should have firm white flesh with no discolouration , blemishing or bruising .\non the southwest part of georges bank , in late june 1951 , but only 51 white hake . reported landings also , in pounds , for 1945 , were about 100 times as great for red as for white hake from the nantucket grounds , whence all the little hake are brought in for the trash fish industry . and the discrepancy is greater still in numbers , for the white hake are much the heavier of the two , individually . red hake also predominate over white among the hake landed in new york and to the southward , as is illustrated by the catch statistics for 1947 .\nthe primary fishing gear used to catch red hake is the otter trawl . recreational catches , taken almost exclusively from the southern stock , have been of minor importance and have been negligible in recent years . in 2000 , the new england fisheries management council implemented amendment 12 to the northeast multispecies fishery management plan ( fmp ) , and placed red hake into the \u201csmall mesh multispecies\u201d management unit , along with silver hake and offshore hake . this amendment set retention limits based on net mesh size , adopted overfishing definitions for the northern and southern red hake stocks , identified essential fish habitat for all life stages , and set requirements for fishing gear ( nefmc 2000 ) . the survey indices used in this document differ from previous assessments in that vessel and door conversion coefficients have been incorporated ( nefsc 1991 ) .\ntend to be a mottled red / brown to olive / brown on their upper sides with large irregular pale light brown patches and becoming a dirty white to bright white underneath .\nduring the spring and summer months , red hake move into shallower waters to spawn , and during the winter months move offshore to deep waters in the gulf of maine and the edge of the continental shelf along southern new england and georges bank .\nbank . but this would give a wholly false picture of the actual situation , because most of the red hake that are caught on these grounds are thrown overboard because they are too small to be worth gutting and icing under present market conditions .\nred hake ( urophycis chuss ) these fish have a tall first dorsal fin followed by a much longer second dorsal fin , and long narrow ventral fins . they are reddish - brown on top and yellowish - white on the belly . they have a small barbel on their chin . the maximum length for red hakes is 20\n( 50 cm ) , but they commonly grow no larger than 16\n( 40 cm ) .\nit has only been since 1944 that the landings of white hake and of red ( i . e . , squirrel ) hake have been reported separately . taken at their face value , these would point to the white hake as by far the more plentiful member of the pair throughout the inner parts of the gulf as a whole , and on georges bank . in 1945 , for example ,\ndealers issued federal dealer permits for small - mesh multispecies may not purchase more than 400 lbs of northern red hake per trip from federally permitted vessels for trips started after august 7 , 2017 . federally permitted dealers must continue to report all fish purchased from any vessel .\nred hake are rarely known to attain weights exceeding 6 or 7 pounds , so this particular fish can truly be considered a monster hake . white hake on the other hand are very similar looking and known to attain weights of as much as 40 pounds . since the two species are so similar and the weight of the fish watson caught was more in the white hake range , marine fisheries biologists diligently examined the fish to confirm its identification and its world record status .\nsteiner , w . w . , j . j . luczkovich , and b . l . olla . 1982 . activity , shelter usage , growth and recruitment of juvenile red hake urophycis chuss . mar . ecol . prog . ser . 7 : 125 - 135 .\nthe 2003 - 2005 average fish weight of 0 . 068 kg was about half of the acceptable individual fish weight reference point , however the 2003 - 2005 recruitment index of 5 . 68 red hake less than 25 cm length per tow was above 4 . 07 , the median value\ndivision of fish and wildlife marine fisheries biologists first examined the fish and counted scale rows and the gill rakers on the upper portion of the first gill arch , which are both reported to be valid diagnostic characters . the initial examination showed the fish to be a red hake . the identification was then confirmed by ichthyologists at the academy of natural sciences in philadelphia who x - rayed the specimen to determine the number of abdominal vertebrae , another diagnostic character . this too identified the fish as a red hake and it has been added to the academy ' s extensive fish collection .\n, corresponding to the increase in landings by distant water fleets . during 1967 to 1983 , the survey index fluctuated without trend , and has since declined despite very low landings since the early 1980s . in 2005 , the stock biomass index for southern red hake was 0 . 78 kg per tow\nin 1998 the overfishing definition review panel ( applegate et al . 1998 ) concluded that msy and f reference points could not be determined for southern red hake because the time series of landings and survey biomass indices did not include a period of stable landings at high biomass levels . the panel noted that discarding could be significant , especially in the scallop and trawl fisheries . habitat destruction was also thought to be prohibiting stock recovery since juveniles rely on intact scallop beds for shelter . however , in recent years the scallop stock has been recovering , but red hake biomass indices have not increased .\nfew fishermen target red hake when they go fishing . they do not put up a fight when hooked , do not grow that large , and have a meat that deteriorates quickly if not properly handled . mostly , they are considered just one of the neat species that make up the\nby - catch\nwhen fishing for cod , haddock , or pollock . if you were to actively fish for red hake , you would find that they will accept many different kinds of bait . clam is probably the most popular but seaworms , shrimp , and chunks of herring or mackerel will also take them . in fact , those that fish at night ( when they feed most actively ) with chunks of herring on a simple dropper rig will find very good results . you want to fish wrecks and other areas of heavy structure with an 8 - 16 ounce lead sinker to hold bottom . due to the sloth - like nature of these fish , articial lures are pretty much useless . although possible to snag one on a jig , this is the exception , rather than the rule . when it comes to fishing for red hake , you are far better off to stick with the still - fishing bait approach . fishing for red hake is only moderately important for commercial fisherman , making up a portion of the by - catch that is typically ground up for fish meal . here on the south shore of massachusetts , a fair number of red hake are caught by charter and party boats that take passengers out on all - day cod trips . the flesh of the red hake is white , flaky , and with a delicate sweetness that loses much of its flavor when repeatedy frozen and thawed . it is often used in chowders and is best fresh . the meat is softer than cod or haddock and turns rather rubbery and tasteless if not handled properly .\nhake is particularly loved in spain , where it is often grilled or baked and served with chorizo , paprika or garlic . try geoffrey smeddle ' s roast hake with chorizo , chickpeas and coriander . in fact , each region in spain seems to have its own hake dish . in basque country , it is often partnered with clams ; in galicia with garlic , tomato and onion ; in catalunya , it is often served with potato in a stew . paul aussignac pan - fries his hake and serves it with a red pepper relish .\non the south shore , silver hake move inshore in numbers in the fall .\naffordable , versatile and very delicious , hake is a beautiful fish to cook .\ntypically , hake is sold fresh or frozen but is occasionally sold salted or smoked .\nsilver hake have an overall silver iridescent color on their sides with some light brown relections mixed in . color is slightly darker above and nearly pure white on the underside . fins are silver tinged with light brown . silver hake have two dorsal fins . the first being almost a perfect triangle , the second dorsal being about four times greater in size . athough a member of the cod family , they do not possess the distinctive barbel on their chin that is common with this family . it is more elongated than the cod , but not as eel - like in appearance as the red hake . it also does not share the red hakes long ventral fins . scales are very small and the head is relatively compressed . however , the mouth is large and filled with very sharp needle - like teeth .\n) . annual landings then declined sharply to 12 , 900 mt in 1970 , increased to 76 , 400 mt in 1972 , and then declined steadily with increased restrictions on distant - water fishing effort . prior to implementation of the magnuson fisheries conservation and management act ( mfcma ) in 1977 , distant - water fleets accounted for approximately 80 - 90 % of the total landings from both stocks . between 1977 and 1986 , landings generally declined due to restrictions placed on distant water fleets , and foreign landings ceased in 1987 ( brodziak 2001 ) . red hake landings continued to decline afterwards , and averaged only 1 , 100 mt per year during 1996 - 2005 . in 2005 , total red hake landings were a historic low of 300 mt\nfrom 2012 to 2015 , u . s . landings of silver hake decreased ~ 15 %\nno doubt the eggs of the white hake are bouyant like those of the squirrel hake ( p . 225 ) , but few wholly ripe females , no eggs naturally spawned , or young larvae have been seen yet .\nnorthern red hake landings and nefsc autumn survey biomass indices were relatively high until the mid - 1970s when the distant water fishery was at its maximum . landings have since declined to a historical low in 2005 . in 2005 , the exploitation index was well below the f msy proxy of 0 . 65 and the 3 - year average biomass index remained above the \u00bd b msy proxy , indicating that the stock is not overfished and overfishing is not occurring .\nthey may be from the same family but hake looks distinctly different to cod . hake are streamlined and fierce with distinctive ( and slightly scary ) pointed teeth and a silvery belly . despite its aggressive appearance , the flesh of the hake is a dream \u2013 firm , flaky and pale with a subtle flavour that is not dissimilar to cod .\nthe southern red hake stock is considered to be in an overfished condition when the three - year moving average weight per individual fish in the nmfs autumn survey falls below the 25th percentile of the 1963 - 1997 average of 0 . 12 kg and when the three - year moving average of the abundance of immature fish less than 25 cm in the fall survey is below the 1963 - 1997 median value of 4 . 07 immature fish per tow ( table 5 . 4 ) .\nwe were equally ignorant of the spawning and early stages of the squirrel hake up to the summer of 1912 . but we trawled squirrel hake with running spawn and milt in ipswich bay in that july , fertilized the eggs on board the\none of the reasons hake is so popular among chefs and home cooks is that it carries a subtle yet sweet flavour . hake , like most other white fish , can be paired with flavours as diverse as bacon , horseradish and coconut .\nred hake vary in color depending upon their environment but tend to be a mottled red / brown to olive / brown on their upper sides with large irregular pale light brown patches and becoming a dirty white to bright white underneath . a member of the cod family , they possess the distinctive barbel on their chin , common with this family . it is more elongated than the cod , with the first dorsal fin triangular in shape but the second dorsal and anal fins are long and continous like an eel , but not connected to the tail fin . it is best distinguished from other species by it ' s abnormally long ventral fins that begin at their throat and run half the length of their body . scales are very small , giving the fish a slippery feel similar to an eel . the head is relatively small but the mouth is compartitively large and filled with small , harmless teeth .\nwhen cooking hake whole , ensure that it has been gutted and the gills removed . roasting is a superb way to cook a whole hake but it can also be barbecued , cooked en papillote or poached . when cooked in the oven , it should be covered with either a tight - fitting lid or wrapped in foil . the flesh of hake absorbs flavours brilliantly so if you\u2019re roasting hake , add a generous amount of flavouring to the cavity and into slashed flesh before cooking to add flavour .\n, and thus identified the eggs . since then large numbers of squirrel - hake eggs have been hatched artificially at the gloucester hatchery .\navoid buying hake during the breeding season from february to july and check the latest sustainability information to avoid buying fish from depleted stocks .\nsilver hake , a . k . a .\nwhiting ,\nis one of several similar hake and whiting species that inhabit cold and temperate waters on both the northern and southern hemispheres . most species are identified by their geographic origin and quality among species varies significantly . similar to cod and haddock , silver hake has a softer flesh and less flakes . among hake and whiting species , silver hake has one of the firmer meats . raw flesh should appear a translucent white with a watery appearance and when cooked , coloration ranges from pure white to off - white . peak season for fresh silver hake is summer and fall . freshness of the fish can be determined by the durability of the fillet . avoid purchasing fillets that have a dull , brown , or dry appearance . because it spoils quickly , silver hake is often used for frozen , value - added seafood products , and properly handled fresh silver hake has a shelf - life of up to five days . the flavourful fish has a high degree of culinary versatility at a noticeably lower price point than its atlantic cod and haddock counterparts .\nsilver hake reach sexual maturity between ages two and three , and can live up to 14 years . recently , however , most silver hake observed in us waters are not much older than six . they grow up to 28 inches in length and weigh up to five pounds .\nundoubtedly were either white hake or squirrel hake . but the simple post anal pigment band , short , stocky bodies , and fan - like ventrals of the younger stages pictured by , him under this same name ( pl . 7 , figs . 1 - 4 ) suggest that they were rockling .\nremarks : the species was formerly confused with the white hake , u . tenuis , but musick ( 1973 , 1974 ) confirmed differences in morphometry , distribution , and life history of the two species . markle et al . ( 1982 ) compared other life history traits of the 2 sibling hake species .\nbivalve mollusks , and neither large mollusks nor echinoderms have ever been found in a hake , so far as we know . the stomach contents so far recorded\n[ 38 ] about 13 , 000 pounds of white hake were reported from maryland in 1947 , about 65 , 000 pounds from virginia , and about 4 , 000 pounds from north carolina , with no reds . but we suspect that reds were actually included as well as whites , and spotted hake also .\nthe ventral fins of the squirrel hake overlap the vent as a rule , whereas those of the white hake fall short of it , but this is not invariably the case , as already remarked ( p . 222 ) , for we have seen squirrel hakes in which the ventrals , did not reach to the vent . furthermore , the filamentous part of the third ray of the first dorsal fin is much longer ( if undamaged ) in the squirrel than in the white hake , i . e . , three to five times as long as the rest of the fin , and the nose is blunter . the color , too , is of some value in identifying these species , for while the squirrel hake is almost always reddish brown , the white hake has a decidedly purplish lustre when fresh caught .\nhave found little hake hiding in the mantle cavities of scallops in 20 fathoms off new york , and scallop fishermen have informed us that they often find little hake in the scallops that they dredge off the coast of maine . both of the common species of hake are known to use this curious refuge ( they do not feed on the scallops but merely use their shells as hiding places ) , but most of the specimens so taken have proved to be squirrel hake . and the latter adopts this form of commensalism so commonly that welsh records as many as 27 taken from 59 scallops in one haul of a scallop dredge , and 11 hake from 9 scallops in another haul , besides many others not counted off southern new england , new york , and new jersey during the summer and autumn of 1913 .\nthe mid - water trawls that target silver hake result in little bycatch , fishwatch reported in 2015 . silver hake are part of the small - mesh multispecies fishery in the united states , which can unintentionally catch squid , atlantic butterfish , and atlantic mackerel . overall , seafood watch called bycatch a moderate conservation concern in the fishery .\n~ 45 % of global landings of silver hake meet a seafood watch\ngood alternative ( yellow )\nrating ( ~ 99 % of u . s . landings )\nfigure 108 . \u2014young stages of either white hake of squirrel hake . a , larva , 2 . 2 mm . ; b , larva , 6 . 2 mm . c , larva , 9 mm . ; d , young fry , 40 mm . silvery still , and living at the surface of the water . specimens collected off woods hole .\nnoaa fisheries and the new england fishery management council manage the silver hake fishery in the us under the northeast multispecies fishery management plan ( fmp ) for small mesh multispecies . as vessels participating in this fishery use small mesh to target silver hake and other species , the fishery is managed as a series of exemptions under northeast multispecies fmp . the fmp establishes :\nthe localities where we have found eggs , provisionally identified as squirrel hake ( fig . 109 ) , show that it spawns all around the gulf from cape cod to nova scotia . and despite its rather deepwater habitat and preference for soft bottom , most of these egg stations have been in shoal water near the coast ; a haul in the eastern basin which yielded both squirrel hake and silver hake eggs ( p . 178 ) has been the only exception . this , of course , points to a movement from the basins into shoaler water for spawning .\nwhile often overlooked here in the uk , it is a much - loved staple on the continent . europe\u2019s biggest consumers of hake are spain \u2013 they get through around 6kg per year , per person . hake can be caught all around the world , but most commonly in the atlantic and north pacific from november to march , with the european variety being the most prized .\nthe spatial distribution of silver hake is highly correlated with the position of the gulf stream . changes in distribution are in response to changes in temperature on the continental shelf , which responds to circulation of the north / south paths of the gulf stream . silver hake shift geographically to remain within their preferred temperature range , and the alteration in global climate is showing a population shift northwards\nthe squirrel hake resembles its larger relative , the white hake ( p . 221 ) so closely that the one is often taken for the other . the number of scales affords the most reliable means of identification , those of the squirrel being much larger relatively than those of the white , and arranged in only about 100 to 110 oblique cross rows along the side from gill opening to base of caudal fin , and in about 9 longitudinal rows on the upper part of the sides between lateral line and dorsal fin , as against about 140 transverse rows and about 12 longitudinal rows in the white hake ( p . 222 ) . also , the upper jaw ( maxillary bone ) reaches back only as far as the rear edges of the pupil in the squirrel hake , but as far as the rear edge of the eye in the white hake ( p . 222 ) , and this difference can be relied upon , even for very small fish .\nslightly larger hake of both species , up to 8 to 12 inches long , are not only plentiful offshore , but are rather common close inshore in a fathom or two of water , in harbors , and even well up estuaries . the larger fish usually keep to deeper water , especially in summer , when hake of marketable sizes are most plentiful below 20 fathoms and when only a few large ones are caught in less than 10 fathoms of water . but this rule , like most others , has its exceptions . for instance , we once saw a white hake of about 8 pounds caught from a float in northeast harbor , maine , in about 10 feet of water , in july ( in 1922 ) . on the other hand , hake of both the species in question are to be caught in the deepest parts of the gulf , and white hake have been taken down to 545 fathoms at least , on the offshore slope of georges bank .\nboth the white hake and the squirrel hake are exclusively american , occurring in continental waters from the gulf of st . lawrence and the southern part of the grand bank of newfoundland southward to the middle atlantic states . the squirrel , though common as far south as chesapeake bay , has not been reported from farther south than virginia . but the white hake is known off north carolina ( we have seen a 30 inch specimen that was trawled off bodie i . , north carolina , lat . 35\u00b0 52 ' n . , long . 74\u00b0 51 ' w . in 70 fathoms by the\nsuch as alewives , butterfish , cunners , eels , flatfishes , tautog , herring , mackerel , menhaden , launce , silversides , silver hake , sculpins , sea robins , smelt , and tomcod .\nas of february 2018 , there is one fishery improvement project for silver hake in new england , with volume being ~ 85 % of u . s . landings and ~ 35 % of global landings\nsilver hake are migratory and also move up through the water column to feed . they are mainly fished using small - mesh multispecies trawlers . in some areas , fishermen use modified gear to catch silver hake , which reduces contact with the seafloor . the fish prefer resting on sandy and muddy ocean bottoms during the day , a habitat that isn\u2019t heavily impacted by bottom trawls , according to seafood watch .\nfisheries and oceans canada ( dfo ) manage the silver hake fishery in canada . dfo conducts research surveys and based on the results of those surveys , sets annual total allowable catch ( tac ) limits .\nat the present time ( as represented by 1946 and 1947 ) 4 to 5 times as much hake is marketed in maine and massachusetts in the form of fresh and frozen fillets as is marketed there salted , some are used for fish cakes , and a very small part [ 45 ] as smoked fillets . hake sounds ( swim bladders ) , especially of those that are caught off nova scotia in deep water , are also used to make isinglass , [ 46 ] and increasing amounts of small squirrel hake brought in from nantucket shoals , are utilized from year to year in the trash - fish industries . [ 47 ]\nthere are numerous ways to cook hake fillets . popular options are pan - frying in a little lemon juice and butter , braising with herbs and aromatics or poaching in fish stock , wine and lemon juice . they can be steamed or roasted too . if you have more time , try curing the hake for 1\u20132 hours in a sugar , salt , citrus and herb mix then cooking en papillote with dill and lemon .\n[ 33 ] contrib . canadian biol . , ( 1914 - 1915 ) 1916 , p . 87 . unfortunately , hake scales do not show the yearly growth zones as clearly as cod and haddock scales do .\nsilver hake are fast swimmers with large , sharp teeth . they are voracious predators , feeding on fish , crustaceans , and squid , and are important to the northwestern atlantic as both a predator and prey species .\n) are hooked on pieces of herring . but they also take clams on the hook greedily enough . in the northeastern part of the gulf of maine hake feed far enough off bottom to capture the pelagic euphausiid shrimps (\non the other hand , inquiries of fishermen , corroborated by our own experience , point to the white hake as the more plentiful of the two in the basin of our gulf at depths greater than 40 to 50 fathoms . the\n[ 26 ] the youngest stages of the two species are so much alike that in most cases we have been forced to list them simply as\nhake ,\nawaiting more critical examination than we have been able to give them .\nhake are plentiful in the so - called south channel also , and on the northwest slope of georges bank , whence about 2 , 000 , 000 pounds were landed in 1919 , about 1 , 500 , 000 pounds in 1947 . and it has long been known that there is an abundance of hake at depths greater than 60 to 70 fathoms all along the southern slope of georges bank . long - line fishermen , too , have told us that while it was unusual to hook a hake on the shoaler parts of georges , many were caught wherever the line was run off into deeper water on the northwest face of the bank ; i . e . , onto soft bottom . and this is borne out by the statistics of the catches , for the good trawling grounds on georges bank yield far fewer hake of marketable size than the inner parts of the gulf do , if the year 1945 can be taken as representative . [ 35 ]\nsundry small grounds outside the islands from penobscot bay to cape elizabeth and all along the western side of the gulf , also yield good numbers of hakes , especially near boon island ; the vicinity of the isles of shoals , a famous hake ground for small boat fishermen ; ipswich bay ; the lower slopes of jeffreys and stellwagen banks ; also the deeper parts of massachusetts bay , which yielded 750 , 000 pounds in 1919 when the demand for hake was better than it is now .\n, march 2 , 1931 , had small mackerel , flounders , crabs , and squid in their stomachs . and we have seen squirrel hake caught off northern new jersey with their bellies distended with launce , and with launce hanging from their mouths .\nhake , indeed , are so widespread on the lower slopes of all the banks and ledges in the inner parts of the gulf , as well as on the mud floors between them , that rich [ 34 ] listed 119 named grounds in the western side of the gulf as good haking bottoms . hake , with flounders , rosefish , and silver hake are practically the only commercially valuable fish one is likely to catch on the floors of the deep basins and channels of the gulf ; and a catch of 2 , 880 of them with 580 cusk , but no cod or haddock , by long - line fishing 15 miles southeast of monhegan on june 24 to 25 , 1913 , will illustrate how completely they may monopolize suitable bottoms .\nexcept for in and offshore movements , hake are resident throughout the year in the open gulf of maine wherever they are found , once they have taken to the bottom . and they appear to be much more stationary than either cod or haddock .\nbecause silver hake shift geographically , the alteration in global climate is showing a population shift northwards within their preferred temperature range . the change in temperature on the continental shelf also changes ocean circulation and overall temperatures , and ultimately the path of the gulf stream , which may further affect populations and migrations . spawning is also affected by temperature , with fluctuations influencing spawning peaks and juvenile growth . research is needed to further understand the long - term impacts of global climate change on silver hake populations .\nroughly two - thirds of the poundage of hake that is landed in maine and massachusetts are caught in otter trawls nowadays , roughly one - fifth in gill nets , and only a little more than one - eighth on long lines . [ 48 ]\nsilver hake are found in the atlantic ocean from south carolina in the united states to newfoundland in canada . they are primarily targeted in the u . s . atlantic . there are two silver hake stocks : a northern one in the gulf of maine and northern georges bank , and one in southern georges bank and the mid - atlantic bight coastal region . a seafood watch report from 2016 noted that , according to the most recent assessment , both stocks are not overfished and overfishing is not occurring .\nthe squirrel hake does not grow so large as the white hake , seldom reaching a greater length than 30 inches ( the largest of 780 bay of fundy fish measured by craigie was about 27 inches long ) , or a greater weight than 6 to 7 pounds , and the average of those caught will not run above 1 to 3 pounds . in fact , a fish as heavy as 5 pounds is exceptional . females are both longer and heavier than males of the same age ( p . 226 ) .\n[ 35 ] landings of hake in 1945 were about 414 , 000 pounds for georges bank ; about 12 , 700 , 000 pounds for the inner parts of the gulf by united states fishermen and about 9 , 140 , 000 pounds by canadian fishermen .\nsilver hake are widely distributed and are found throughout the northwest atlantic ocean from newfoundland to south carolina . two stocks have been identified in the united states \u2013 a northern stock inhabiting the waters of the gulf of maine and northern georges bank and a southern stock inhabiting the waters of southern georges bank and the mid - atlantic bight . silver hake are nocturnal predators and spend their days resting on sandy , muddy , and pebbly ocean floors . from dusk to midnight , they will move up in the water column to feed .\nboth of these hake haunt soft bottom chiefly , few being caught on the gravelly or shelly grounds that are so prolific of cod and haddock , or on rocky grounds . and it has been our experience that the whites are the more strictly mud fish of the pair .\nhake is a white fish which is rather grandly referred to as \u2018the king of the fish\u2019 by the spanish . it makes a good alternative choice to other white fish such as cod or haddock . due to its firm flesh , hake can be prepared in many ways from barbecuing whole to pan - frying the fillets . to check that it is cooked , the delicate flesh should feel firm to the touch and appear opaque . do not throw away the head and tail \u2013 these can be used as a base for a flavoursome fish stock .\n) , amphipods , and other small crustacea which they find on the bottom are their chief dependence at most times and in most places . they also feed as greedily on squid as others of the cod tribe do , and a variety of small fish have been found in hake stomachs at woods hole\nslows the growth of any fish ) probably does not take place until they have passed their third birthday . nothing definite is known of the rate of growth of the white hake , but it is fair to assume that it grows faster than the squirrel , to attain its greater length and weight .\nin the united states , silver hake are managed by noaa fisheries and the new england fishery management council under the northeast multispecies fishery management plan for small - mesh species . measures include permitting requirements , a cap on groundfish bycatch as well as seasonal and spatial limitations . seafood watch called the management effective .\nsilver hake are managed as two stocks in the northwest atlantic \u2013 a northern stock that ranges from the gulf of maine and northern georges bank and a southern stock that ranges from southern georges bank to cape hatteras . according to a 2014 stock assessment neither the northern nor southern stock are overfished nor subject to overfishing .\nprobably the explanation is that the adults , being cool water fish , are barred from the shallows in summer by high temperature along the coasts of massachusetts and of west - central maine , but that the low summer temperature of passamaquoddy bay allows large hake to summer there , as well as small . their reported withdrawal from\nthe hakes are such dull and inactive fish that they are of no special interest to the angler . but a good many fair - sized ones are caught hand - lining from party boats , for they bite readily , and small hake are caught from small boats in harbors and bays , along the maine coast especially .\n) encysted in the wall of its body cavity , having no doubt penetrated the hake ' s stomach after it had been swallowed . ( sumner , osburn , and cole , bull . u . s . bur . of fish . , vol . 31 , pt . 2 , 1913 , p . 768 ) .\nmore research is also needed in relation to silver hake migrations , biology , and population dynamics . habitat studies typically include location , depth , temperature , and sometimes salinity levels . future habitat studies should also include bottom type as a habitat consideration . food habits analysis is needed to determine predator - prey relationships , distribution , and abundance .\nherrick [ 31 ] has given an interesting account of the perceptions of squirrel hake kept in a tank at woods hole , where they proved to have keen sight ( though less so than pollock ) and usually caught bits of meat before these had sunk . but it seems that it was only while food was in motion that the fish recognized it by sight , and that they depend chiefly on the sense of touch for their livelihood . they exercised this by swimming close to bottom with the sensitive tips of the ventral fins dragging the ground . when a hake touched a fragment of clam in this way it immediately snapped it up , but not otherwise . and they paid no attention whatever to live clams in their shells , though they often brushed over them . these observations , applied to the conditions under which hake actually live , suggests that they recognize shrimps , crabs , and other foods by their ventral feelers , and that they snap up their victims as these dart ahead , when the feelers drag over them .\never since 1616 , when capt . john smith [ 30 ] wrote\nhake you may have when the cod failes in summer , if you will fish in the night ,\nit has been common knowledge that they bite best after dark , from which it is fair to assume they do most of their foraging between sunset and sunrise .\nthe newly hatched larvae have not been described . older fry ( identity established either as white hake or squirrel hake by comparison with young fry that have been reared in the hatchery by louella e . cable ) already show the long , slender ventral fins , the short first dorsal but long second dorsal , and the tapering body form , characteristic of the adults . these little hakes , greenish blue on the back , with silvery sides , are separable from rockling fry by their more slender form , and by their scattered pigment . older stages are separable from rocklings by their two well developed dorsal fins , while their silvery sides mark them at a glance from the dull colored fry of the cusk . [ 32 ]\n, for example , trawled about 700 white hake in the deep basins off cape cod , west of jeffreys ledge and off mount desert , in august 1936 , but only a scattering of squirrel hake . this appears to apply equally to the deeper holes in massachusetts bay at depths greater than 30 fathoms or so ( both storer and goode and bean spoke of the\nwhite\nas the more common of the two there ) , also to the bay of fundy region in general , including passamaquoddy bay , according to huntsman . and nearly all of the hakes that have been listed by name from the more easterly of the nova scotian banks , or from the southern part of the grand banks in the annual reports of the newfoundland department of natural resources , have been the white (\nthe hakes are soft - meated and have rather poor keeping qualities , but both the white and the squirrel hake are readily absorbed by the fish markets if they are large enough , and great numbers of small squirrel hake are now used for mink and poultry feed . a quarter of a century ago the yearly catch in the gulf ran between 20 and 35 million pounds , and it has been much the same of late years ( 1941 - 1946 ) , with yearly landings by canadian and united states fishermen of between 19 and 30 million pounds . in 1946 , which may serve as representative , canadian fishermen landed about 2 , 100 , 000 pounds in outer nova scotian ports ( cape sable to cape north ) , about 4 , 800 , 000 pounds along the southern shore of the gulf of st . lawrence .\nthe rate of growth during the first few months cannot be stated until many more young fry have been measured and identified as the one species or as the other . it is probable that two year classes are represented among the fry that are caught along shore in summer . some of the smaller ones ( 2 to 3 inches long ) may be from the earliest spawned eggs of that same season , but other squirrel hake of 2\nhake are very common fish in our gulf , where the two species , white and squirrel , are caught side by side regularly . in the bay of fundy there are so few toward the head that stragglers are caught , or none at all , but they are plentiful enough toward the mouth where , for example , about 6 , 400 , 000 pounds were landed on the nova scotian side by canadian fishermen in 1944 , and about 8 , 200 , 000 pounds in 1946 , while the yearly catch on the new brunswick side is about 500 , 000 to 600 , 000 pounds . other centers of abundance for them inshore are along the coast of maine between machias and mount desert island , in frenchman ' s bay ( formerly the site of an important hake fishery ) , the ground known locally as the\ngrumpy\nnear isle au haut , and off penobscot bay .\npassamaquoddy bay in autumn may be in avoidance of extreme winter chilling . but we should remind the reader that failure to catch fish on hook and line in the cold season of the year ( it is in this way that hakes are caught in the passamaquoddy region ) does not necessarily mean that they have departed . the hake may have stopped biting , as every fisherman knows by experience . the evidence of otter trawl catches is much more reliable in this respect , for ground fishes in general .\nthere is nothing in the statistical picture to suggest that hake of either species fluctuate very widely in abundance in our gulf from year to year , for the ups and downs in the amounts caught are not greater than can be charged to market conditions . neither has any attempt been made to estimate the periodic variations in the relative abundance of different year classes . earlier characterizations of the numbers of the two hakes in our waters have been in relative terms , ranging from\ncommon\nto\nin immense numbers .\nat the other extreme , all of the hakes living around the inner slopes of the gulf at depths less than 50 fathoms experience temperatures as low as 35\u00b0 to 37\u00b0 f . in late winter and early spring ; as low as 33\u00b0 to 34\u00b0 locally if they are living as shoal as 20 fathoms , which many of them do . but the fact that the bottom temperatures at the particular stations on the grand banks ( all on the southern part ) where white hake have been reported by the newfoundland fisheries research commission have all been between about 42\u00b0 and about 33\u00b0 f . ( 5 . 5\u00b0 c . and 0 . 6\u00b0 c . ) , and that they were not taken on other parts of the bank where the bottom is colder , suggests that they tend to avoid regions where the temperature is as low as 32\u00b0 f . or lower . and this finds some corroboration in the report ( see p . 228 ) that hake tend to withdraw in autumn from passamaquoddy bay , where the water chills at least as low as 32\u00b0 at some time during some winters .\nthe squirrel hake is reddish , muddy , or olive brown on sides and back , darkest above ; sometimes almost black , sometimes more or less mottled , and sometimes plain , with pale lateral line . the lower part of its sides usually are washed with yellowish , and sometimes marked with dusky dots . its belly and the lower parts of the sides , of its head are pure white , grayish , or yellowish ; its dorsal , caudal , and anal fins are of the same color as the back except that the anal is pale at the base . the ventral fins are very pale pinkish or yellowish .\nthe temperatures in which hakes of different ages are found cover the entire range proper to the gulf except perhaps the very lowest . at the one extreme many of the youngest fry that are seen swimming at the surface in the west central part of the gulf in summer are in water as warm as 68\u00b0 to 70\u00b0 f . , while young hake are in still higher temperatures west and south from cape cod if they are at the surface . and the somewhat larger fry found on our beaches a little below tide mark may be in water as warm as 60\u00b0 locally . but the great majority of the hakes living deeper are in water at least as cool as 50\u00b0 throughout their later lives , most of them in temperatures lower than 45\u00b0 f .\nsilver hake have been observed at temperatures ranging from 36 - 63\u00b0 f ( 2 - 17\u00b0 c ) and are commonly found between 45 - 50\u00b0 f ( 7 - 10\u00b0 c ) . they are found at depths ranging from 36 - 1 , 640 feet ( 11 - 500 meters ) with older , larger whiting preferring deeper waters . the fish will migrate in response to seasonal changes in water temperatures , moving into shallow , warmer waters in the spring where they will spawn in the late spring and early summer months . during the summer , portions of both the northern and southern stocks can be found on georges bank . as the water temperature cools in the autumn months , whiting will move offshore into deeper waters . during winter , fish in the northern stock will move to deep basins in the gulf of maine while the southern stock will move to the outer continental shelf and slope waters ."]}
{"id": 947, "summary": [{"text": "junius ( 15 march 1976 \u2013 1997 ) was an american-bred , irish-trained thoroughbred racehorse and sire .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "after fetching a price of $ 300,000 as a yearling he was sent to race in europe where he had his greatest success as a two-year-old in 1978 .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "following a narrow defeat on his debut he won twice in ireland before traveling to england and winning the group one middle park stakes in record time .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he failed on his only appearance in the following year and was retired from racing .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he stood as a breeding stallion in ireland and japan but had little impact as a sire of winners . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "junius ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["the junius cup was the third race on day one , and creeper won it \u201cin fine style\u201d , according to the monitor of october 8 .\nthe junius cup comes from the estate of the late richard kelynack evans of rylstone , a direct descendant of the original winning owner , robert fitzgerald .\nhis millionaire father , junius , made his fortune by investing other people\u2019s money and helped found modern investment banking . when john pierpont , or jp , is a child , junius has him handle a million dollars in cash so he knows what it feels like . jp morgan is taught early to avoid risk .\n1 lithograph : color . | george washington on horse , soldiers fighting during the battle of the monongahela .\nthe junius cup has been documented in literature including \u201caustralian silver 1800 to 1900\u201d by john hawkins , the catalogue for a 1973 exhibition held by the national trust of australia . further background has been researched by rkt\u2019s jonathan alford .\nthe decision to hold the races on october 3 and 5 in 1827 , to fit in with the parramatta fair , was taken at a meeting at parramatta\u2019s woolpack inn \u2013 which still trades today . the woolpack\u2019s licensee , andrew nash , owned the original junius , which was renowned in the colony , and even issued his own pound notes featuring an image of the horse .\nafter a grim few years of economic gloom , ireland\u2019s thoroughbred horse breeders are looking forward to bright year of the horse . my friends back home tell me forget france and red wine - lots of rich chinese are coming to visit studs and other bloodstock breeding grounds in ireland .\nrelatively humble yet functional and elegant , it is 21cm high with out - turned lip and gadrooned lower section , raised on a knopped stem , the interior being gilded . it is inscribed \u201cthe junius cup , presented to robt fitzgerald , as the winner by his horse creeper . . . \u201d while the reverse bears the wording \u201cnsw , parramatta racing fund , october meeting 1827\u201d .\nthe 3 . 3 million square metre site in panzhuang , ninghe county , tianjin is designed to meet the needs of china\u2019s new horse industry .\nas rocking horse entered the 1990s , the signs of financial distress w ere alarmingly abundant . saddled with an extremely large bank loan it could not pay , rocking horse had difficulty convincing its bank to a pprove a lease on a company vehicle . the company had a negative net w orth of $ 3 . 8 million and was reeling from the effects of successi ve annual losses . after rocking horse defaulted on its loans , the acc ounting firm of coopers lybrand issued a statement based on the child - care provider ' s 1991 results , stating that it was unsure if rocking horse had the capacity to survive .\nbooth next jumped off the stage , breaking his leg in the process , but managed to make it to his getaway horse before anyone in the shocked crowd could stop him .\ntianjin has already hosted china\u2019s richest - ever race day last autumn , which included the inaugural rmb1 million tianjin national cup . tianjin has a 150 year tradition of horse racing .\njunius ( usa ) b . h , 1976 { 3 - n } dp = 14 - 6 - 6 - 2 - 0 ( 28 ) di = 4 . 60 cd = 1 . 14 - 5 starts , 3 wins , 1 places , 0 shows career earnings : $ 64 , 664\nayr gold cup and portland handicap winner 1977 grey horse foaled : 1974 by comedy star out of romany rose jon george was another superb sprinter we trained here at sheriff hutton . foaled in 1974 he went on to complete the ayr gold cup and portland handicap at the age of three . he was a grey horse by comedy star and went on to stand as a stallion . click here for more !\na year after petrarch had won the middle park , chamant became the first horse to win both the middle park stakes and the dewhurst stakes and the following year he also added the 2 , 000 guineas .\na bay horse , raja baba stood 15 . 3 hands . he was compact , short - legged and correct with strong forearms and extremely powerful quarters . he was said to have had a kindly temperament .\nrocking horse began modestly , with a single child - care center that re corded $ 48 , 000 in revenue during its first year of operation . roc king horse did not expand until april 1986 , but once it began develop ing into a chain of day - care centers , the company did so with fervor . by the end of 1986 , the company ' s revenue total had increased mighti ly , swelling to nearly $ 3 million as it began an aggressive acqui sition campaign . between april 1986 and october 1987 , rocking horse a cquired 31 child - care centers and constructed two new facilities , ext ending its operating territory to an eight - state area . the company ' s energetic growth , however , did not translate into profitability . rock ing horse posted a net loss of $ 3 . 2 million in 1986 , $ 300 , 000 more than it collected in revenue .\non may 10 , 1838 , john wilkes booth was born near bel air , maryland . booth was the second youngest of 10 children . his father , junius brutus booth , was a well - known actor and was eccentric , with a reputation for heavy drinking . john and his siblings were raised on a farm , which was worked by the family & apos ; s slaves .\nthree years later the great bahram gave notice of his immense talent as he won the gimcrack stakes and middle park stakes . in 1935 he was a fantastic winner of the triple crown and became the last horse to accomplish this feat before nijinsky in 1970 .\nwhen clegg joined rocking horse in may 1992 , he inherited a company t hat had lost $ 10 . 2 million during the previous two years . the los ses were out of control , delivering staggering blows to a company tha t only generated roughly $ 30 million in annual sales . clegg worke d quickly to trim the company ' s liability , reducing rocking horse ' s d ebt by nearly $ 7 million within a year . he raised money for much - needed restructuring through private placements , initially raising & #\nthough his father junius believes it a fad , electric light becomes a must have modern utility for the city\u2019s elite . against his father\u2019s advice , morgan invests everything in edison to form the edison electricity company . they create the world\u2019s first power station and soon half of manhattan\u2019s connected . but every home and business lit electrically is a lost customer to rockefeller who supplies kerosene to the oil powered lamps . so he starts planting scare stories in the press .\nin 2012 reckless abandon became the latest horse to complete the prix morny - middle park stakes double , having already won the norfolk stakes and prix robert papin . he ended the year unbeaten in 5 races but ran well without winning as a 3 year old sprinter .\nthe first winner of the race was a horse called the rake in 1866 and just five years later , the 1871 winner was called prince charlie and the following years he went on to become the first colt to land the middle park - 2 , 000 guineas double .\njingle bells\nwas written by james l . pierpont , the uncle of famed financier j . p . morgan . the song , originally titled\nthe one horse open sleigh ,\nwas actually written about thanksgiving , and was considered a failure when first published in 1857 .\ndesert star holdings chairman teo ah khing\u2019s tak design has an impressive pedigree , being responsible for the design , development and delivery of the meydan grandstand and racecourse in dubai . he is also behind the china horse club , the exclusive membership group connected to the tianjin equine culture city .\ncoolmore is helping to set up the stud farm , with broodmares from ireland . the breeding programme has already started . more than a hundred mares will be sent to china over three years . stallions will follow . coolmore is hosting china\u2019s top agriculture graduates from the inner mongolia agricultural university , so they can learn how to run the equine operation . coolmore\u2019s tom magnier said :\nthis major new chinese project is great news for the world horse racing and breeding industry ,\nadding he was very excited by the continued growth in this relationship with the china horse club .\nbold lad and petingo were smart winners of the race in the 1960s but both failed to add classic glory the following season . right tack however , won the 1968 middle park stakes and the following season became the first horse to win both the english and irish 2 , 000 guineas .\nthis is the first of its kind on the mainland and is the first international joint venture into horse racing and breeding and is designed to help china to get started at the highest level . tianjin , population 12 million and close to beijing , is opening the equine centre in phases .\nindeed , ireland\u2019s famous coolmore stud has joined forces with the china horse club and last year spent almost us $ 4 million ( hk $ 31 million ) on two blue - blooded colts , sired by fastnet rock , at the inglis australian easter yearling sale . the horses are being trained by coolmore in australia . it was the start of their joint venture , destined to set the tone for china\u2019s new racehorse and breeding industry . this partnership between the globally renowned coolmore and the chinese government backed tianjin state farms agribusiness group and desert star holdings , affiliated to the china horse club , sees the establishment of a huge breeding operation . this is part of china\u2019s new world class tianjin equine culture city project .\nrobert fitzgerald , to whom the cup is dedicated , was the son of richard fitzgerald , a convict turned rich pastoralist who became a close friend of governor macquarie and his wife . aged only 20 when his horse creeper won the cup , the son went on to become one of the colony\u2019s biggest landowners , an mlc and a director of the bank of nsw .\ndespite the loss , the company continued to expand into the late 1980s . rocking horse raised $ 5 million in a public offering of stock i n october 1987 , the capital from which was used , as its president , jo hn w . quaintance , told the philadelphia business journal in th e october 12 , 1987 , issue ,\nto continue our acquisition strategy .\nby the end of 1988 , the company operated 41 of what it called\npreschoo l learning centers .\nthere were ten each in georgia and florida , eigh t in south carolina , four each in illinois and pennsylvania , three in new jersey , and one each in maine and massachusetts . rocking horse h eld licenses to accommodate 5 , 538 children , allowing an average of 13 5 children per center . the company charged between $ 43 to $ 14 0 per week for its child - care services , the nature of which represent ed the hidden and unexploited strength of the chain . to distinguish i tself from the scores of other child - care companies in existence , roc king horse used professionally developed educational and recreational programs administered by trained supervisors and teachers . by tailor ing itself as more than a traditional day - care provider , the company ' s management hoped to attract parents and their children away from th e competition , but the strategy never worked , at least not financiall y . by the end of the decade , rocking horse was a company suffering fr om profound financial problems .\n, beaten just over two lengths . he was exactly the same distance behind cockney rebel when they were again first and fourth in the irish 2 , 000 guineas three weeks later , but he had his revenge on that horse ( and on dutch art ) when finishing second in an aidan o\u2019brien - trained trifecta in the st . james\u2019s palace stakes at royal ascot , splitting\nthe 1980 middle park went to mattaboy , a colt who was narrowly defeated by to agori mou in the 1981 2 , 000 guineas . then after cajun had won the race for sir henry cecil in 1981 , the champion trainer added a second consecutive middle park stakes in 1982 , through diesis . the son of sharpen up , racing in the apricot silks of lord howard de walden , was a fully brother to kris and then won a sensational dewhurst stakes in which the long odds - on favourite and so - called \u201cwonder horse\u201d gorytus was virtually pulled up amid allegations of doping . the headlines rather robbed diesis of his achievement in winning the double and he became the last horse to win both the middle park stakes and the dewhurst stakes , although he sadly failed to reproduce his form in 1983 .\njohn pierpont morgan was born into a distinguished new england family on april 17 , 1837 , in hartford , connecticut . one of his maternal relatives , james pierpont ( 1659 - 1714 ) , was a founder of yale university ; his paternal grandfather was a founder of the aetna insurance company ; and his father , junius spencer morgan ( 1813 - 90 ) , ran a successful hartford dry - goods company before becoming a partner in a london - based merchant banking firm . after graduating from high school in boston in 1854 , pierpont , as he was known , studied in europe , where he learned french and german , then returned to new york in 1857 to begin his finance career .\nmultiple winning sprinter and successful stallion brown horse foaled : 1969 by firestreak out of silver sand wins : 6 workboy was a magnificent looking brown horse he was bred by mrs k e cooke , by the stallion firestreak out of singing sand . a very fast horse over sprint distances , workboy was a six times winner earning black type by being placed in four group races . his list of wins included the cherkley sprint at epsom , and the zetland handicap at doncaster . he was also placed seven times including the group 3 king george stakes at goodwood , the palace house stakes , the national stakes and the group 1 kings stand stakes . his career earnings were \u00a313 , 387 when he was retired . workboy went on to stand as a stallion at easthorpe hall stud , malton and also ham house stud and norton grove stud , siring many winners both on the flat , over jumps and also point to pointers . his stud book entry described him as a\nracehorse of phenomenal speed and courage\n. workboy had a successful stud career , and offspring included spriteband , beckingham ben , peacework , contact kelvin and grange hill girl . the photo shows him winning the north cave auction plate at beverley westwood on 7th may 1971 . thank you brian bivens for the photos and information .\ncesarewitch winner , newmarket 1967 bay horse foaled : 1965 by mossborough out of branches park boismoss became one of our earliest big winners when he won the cesarewitch in 1967 ridden by ernie johnson . sent off at 13 - 1 , he saw out the marathon 2m 2f trip to win the race at the age of three . he is pictured here leading the string , ridden by jock skilling . thank you to brian bivens for the photo .\nit took roughly a decade before nobel arrived at the strategy , the co rporate structure , and the leader capable of achieving consistent suc cess . the years in between were difficult , a period when nobel operat ed under a different name and pursued a different corporate mission . nobel began operating in 1984 as rocking horse child care centers of america inc . , a cherry hill , new jersey - based operator of private chi ld - care centers .\nbahamian bounty won the 1996 middle park stakes but disappointed in the dewhurst stakes and the following year david morley was back in the winners\u2019 enclosure thanks to hayil . tragically morley passed away early the next year and the horse moved to the french yard of freddie head but never made an impression . the middle park stakes really underlined the training prowess of david morley who had successfully trained national hunt horses since the early 1970s and was a hugely popular figure .\nthe next two years proved that duke of marmalade\u2019s injury had healed very well , because through the \u201907 and \u201908 seasons he proved himself a very tough horse , as well as a very good one . he was thrown straight in at the deep end first up at three : having his first run for nearly 10 months , he was one of aidan o\u2019brien\u2019s three runners in the 2 , 000 guineas . he fared the best of this trio , finishing fourth behind\nthe third and most famous woodcut from d\u00fcrer ' s series of illustrations for the apocalypse , the four horsemen presents a dramatically distilled version of the passage from the book of revelation ( 6 : 1\u20138 ) :\nand i saw , and behold , a white horse , and its rider had a bow ; and a crown was given to him , and he went out conquering and to conquer . when he opened the second seal , i heard the second living creature say , ' come ! ' and out came another horse , bright red ; its rider was permitted to take peace from the earth , so that men should slay one another ; and he was given a great sword . when he opened the third seal , i heard the third living creature say , ' come ! ' and i saw , and behold , a black horse , and its rider had a balance in his hand ; . . . when he opened the fourth seal , i heard the voice of the fourth living creature say , ' come ! ' and i saw , and behold , a pale horse , and its rider ' s name was death , and hades followed him ; and they were given great power over a fourth of the earth ; to kill with sword and with famine and with pestilence and by wild beasts of the earth .\ntransforming what was a relatively staid and unthreatening image in earlier illustrated bibles , d\u00fcrer injects motion and danger into this climactic moment through his subtle manipulation of the woodcut . the parallel lines across the image establish a basic middle tone against which the artist silhouettes and overlaps the powerful forms of the four horses and riders\u2014from left to right , death , famine , war , and plague ( or pestilence ) . their volume and strong diagonal motion enhance the impact of the image , offering an eloquent demonstration of the masterful visual effects d\u00fcrer was able to create in this medium .\nchestnut mare foaled : 1983 by junius ( usa ) out of restless lady wins : 14 catherine ' s well was bred foaled in 1983 , a bright chestnut filly by junius . she made her racecourse debut as a two year old and proved she had bags of speed . she won her first race at doncaster in september 1985 and the same season also won at newmarket and again at doncaster later in the year . her biggest win came at ripon in her three year old season when she won the great st wilfrid handicap , a season which also saw her win at beverley , newcastle and newmarket . catherine ' s well had won seven races when she was then retired to the paddocks but she failed to produce a winner from her first three foals . she returned to training in 1991 , but her second career didn ' t start well as she was left at the start in her first race at ripon in april 1991 . however , she soon got back into the racing game and that season she won at catterick and ripon . catherine ' s well raced for another two seasons winning again at doncaster ( twice ) , catterick , thirsk and york . in all she managed to win seven races between her first and her second retirements . returning to the paddocks , her second spell as a broodmare was a huge success and she will be remembered as a brilliant broodmare in her later career as well as a 14 times winner . she was to be the dam of many winning sprinters including williams well who also went on to win the great st wilfrid handicap in 2000 and other multiple winners including emperor ' s well and elvington boy .\n\u2019s st leger . this is clearly \u201ca stallions\u2019 family\u201d \u2013 but that , of course , is no guarantee that duke of marmalade will prove a good stallion . however , the most obvious clues are often the best ones \u2013 and in this case the most obvious clues are that duke of marmalade is a beautiful horse who proved himself to be close to the perfect racehorse in three testing seasons of racing . it would be a foolish man who wrote off his prospects at this very early stage .\ncertainly the middle park stakes does not hold the same sway it did 50 years ago , when it was a major pointer to the following year\u2019s classics . often the speedier early season type of horse competes in the race nowadays and it has perhaps more bearing on the following year\u2019s major sprints . however every so often a rodrigo de triano might come along and the race remains one of the big prizes of the year as one of only three group 1 races exclusively run for two year old colts in britain .\nduke of marmalade retired to coolmore stud in 2009 at a fee of 40 , 000 euros . the relatively quiet season enjoyed by his first juveniles last year proved a major factor in his foals selling badly last autumn ( averaging 8 , 856 gns , having been conceived in 2011 at a fee of 25 , 000 euros ) and in his fee being reduced to 12 , 500 euros for the current season . however , it would be extremely premature to write the horse off . he himself improved notably as he matured and , with\nanother brilliant colt appeared in the 1888 middle park stakes , which was won in terrific style by donovan . the colt had started off winning the brocklesby stakes at lincoln and later won at the royal meeting . after landing the middle park stakes donovan stepped up to 7 furlongs and became the latest horse to add the dewhurst stakes and by the season\u2019s end , had won 11 of his 13 races . as a 3 year old , donovan won the derby and st leger and was denied a triple crown by just a head in the 2 , 000 guineas .\nthe task of rescuing rocking horse fell to a new management team head ed by a . j .\njack\nclegg , whose arrival marked the beginning of a new and decidedly more successful era . clegg ' s professional background in cluded the 1979 founding of empery corporation , an operator of cable television and printing business . at empery , clegg served as chairman , president , and chief executive officer from 1979 to 1992 , but his d uties at empery represented only a fraction of his business backgroun d in the decade preceding his arrival at rocking horse . between 1983 and 1993 , clegg served as chairman and chief executive officer of tvc , inc . , a distributor of cable television components . during the same period he also held identical titles at design mark industries , a ma nufacturer of electronic senswitches . clegg served as chairman and ch ief executive officer of globe ticket and label company from 1984 to 1991 and was on the board of directors of ferguson international hold ings plc . in the academic world , he was a member of the advisory boar d of drexel university , an honor bestowed on the then - 50 - year - old cle gg in 1989 .\nbay gelding foaled : 1999 by bluebird out of suedoise races : 92 wins : 9 blue spinnaker arrived in 2002 after i bought him from john hammond in france . he had had problems with his legs but i knew i could fix him up and i knew he would be good once i had ! he showed lots of promise on his debut at pontefract where he was narrowly beaten by a head in a maiden race for older horses at odds of 100 / 1 . at that point i knew i had a serious horse on my hands . spinnaker went on to win the thirsk hunt cup and the zetland gold cup along with seven other races in 92 outings . he earned a total of \u00a3160 , 000 in prizemoney . blue spinnaker liked doncaster , winning there three times and he also won twice just up the road at york and twice at thirsk as well as at redcar and haydock . it was his fifth win , at york in 2006 , that got me into trouble . i was interviewed about how i bought him and i got pulled up for what i said on the telly . i had no idea it was a forbidden word that i ' d used , but i got a letter for me troubles and a slap on the hand . blue spinnaker was retired in 2011 . he is still with us here at the yard and now in his 18th year he provides a valuable role , babysitting the yearlings when they are out in the fields . it suits him y ' see , ' cos he ' s a bossy sort and he likes to put the youngsters in their place . a bargain horse that goes on to win some big races and wins twice on our home track at york , that ' s the sort of horse that gives me so much satisfaction . click here for more !\nin 1890 , morgan\u2019s father dies after a horse carriage accident . it instantly quadruples morgan\u2019s wealth . the 1893 world fair is to be held in chicago and organisers want the entire event lit with electricity . westinghouse underbids at a quarter of the cost offered by morgan . over 27 million people flock to see the 200 , 000 light bulbs that illuminate the event , powered by westinghouse generators . and in 1895 , it\u2019s the westinghouse ac electric generating plant that is built at niagara . it seems it will be him , not morgan who will light america . in 1897 , tesla tears up his patent claim on his ac design , reducing his rights to profits which immediately attracts investment into the westinghouse / tesla company .\ngimcrack stakes winner , york 1986 chestnut horse foaled : 1984 by thatching out of lustrine races : 13 wins : 5 wiganthorpe was foaled in ireland on 12th april 1984 . we purchased him for just 2 , 000gns as a yearling after he failed the veterinary checks at the sales with a wind infirmity . wiganthorpe was a striking bright chestnut with three white socks , making him very easy to spot in his races . he was a precocious individual and at the age of two he won the prestigious gimcrack stakes at york , ridden by the legendary willie carson . after several seasons at stud in the uk , wiganthorpe was exported to australia on 22nd september 1993 and went on to stand as a successful stallion in the southern hemisphere . he died at the age of 23 in november 2007 .\nwhile facts and figures of a stallion\u2019s first crop of two - year - olds make one tool which many people use to help themselves rush to judgement about whether or not a stallion is going to make the grade , another factor which people seem to consider important is whether or not the horse comes from \u201ca stallions\u2019 family\u201d . this , of course , is also nonsense , because it is not uncommon to find excellent stallions who have no other notable sires in their immediate family ; while there are likewise plenty of indifferent sires who are closely related to extremely successful stallions . duke of marmalade\u2019s pedigree provides a perfect example of the fact that hailing from \u201ca stallions\u2019 family\u201d means nothing : he is related seemingly to dozens of horses who have retired to stud over the past few decades , some of whom have done very well and some of whom proved bitterly disappointing .\nbay gelding foaled : 2004 by machiavellian out of magna graecia races : 94 wins : 7 ancient cross joined us in march 2008 after running just once for mark johnston . he was placed five times in his first season here , but did not win his first race until the age of five . ancient cross was a horse who got better with age . after many placed runs he won his first race at musselburgh in 2009 and won again a few weeks later at catterick . after winning at york in may 2011 he scored his biggest career win in the 2011 gosforth park cup at newcastle . ancient cross was again a winner at york ' s dante festival in 2013 and the following month he won the ayr silver cup under top weight . as time was catching up with him , it was decided to retire him in june 2016 . however , he went out with a bang and he became a popular winner at hamilton park when he came home in front for joanna mason , which was to be ancient cross ' s last race . click here for more !\nthirteen wins , including flat , hurdles and fences bay gelding foaled : 2006 by dansili out of bay shade races : 65 wins : 13 shadows lengthen came to the yard as a yearling having being bought at tattersalls for a mere 5 , 500 gns . and what a bargain for a horse that went on to become a 13 times winner ! running in the red and white colours of thomas frost , his two year old career started unspectacularly , finishing second last on his debut , and signing off his juvenile year at redcar where he finished 20th of 20 . gelded in the autumn of 2008 , his first win came at southwell in november , the first leg of an amazing six - timer as he won five times at southwell and once at wolverhampton in the space of just over two months . he became a certainly throughout the autumn on the all weather , twice sent off odds on in what should have been competitive handicaps . however , as always happens the handicapper was to put an end to the winning streak as shadows was put up 32 pounds in the ratings . the remainder of 2010 proved more difficult , and the beginning of 2011 saw shadows began his hurdling career , winning at catterick and doncaster . rated 120 , in december 2012 he was switched to jumping fences , and won at the second time of asking at sedgefield . further victories came at bangor , doncaster and haydock . shadows saved the best ' til last , and his final win proved to be his biggest when he came home in front at wetherby , winning the listed bet365 handicap chase in october 2014 . shadows lengthen was retired in october 2017 , a thirteen times winner and one of the toughest most genuine horses we have ever trained .\nclamart is recorded as a foal in volume 9 of the french stud book where his sire is given as saumur or soukaras , in that order . in all later editions his sire is given only as saumur .\nowner : s . fraser breeder : warner l . jones jr . state bred : ky winnings : 5 starts : 3 - 1 - 0 , $ 64 , 664 at 2 : won william hill middle park s . ( eng - g1 ) 1977 sent from us to ireland . 1984 sent from ireland to japan . ( close )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\nplease check the help pages if you encounter trouble with search methods or data .\nkeith hamer previews the evening cards at windsor , ripon and roscommon and has a tip for every race .\ndavid ord makes a rebecca bastiman - trained sprinter his best bet at pontefract on tuesday after he caught the eye last time .\nashley iveson fancies shenanigans to land the feature race at pontefract - and he has a tip for every race in the uk and ireland .\non april 14 , 1865 , actor john wilkes booth assassinated president abraham lincoln while he was watching our american cousin at ford theater in washington , d . c .\njohn wilkes booth was born may 10 , 1838 , near bel air , maryland . at age 17 , he made his acting debut . in the 1850s , he joined the know - nothing party . during the civil war , he was a confederate secret agent . in march of 1865 , his attempt to kidnap president abraham lincoln failed . on april 14 , 1865 , he assassinated lincoln at ford theater . booth was killed on april 26 , 1865 , in port royal , virginia .\nas a youngster , booth attended the milton boarding school for boys\u2014and later st . timothy & apos ; s hall\u2014sporadically . from a very young age , he was described as disarmingly handsome . to those who knew him , it seemed only natural that he would follow in his father & apos ; s footsteps , by gracing the stage with his charismatic presence .\nwhen he turned 17 , booth made his acting debut in baltimore , with a role in a production of shakespeare & apos ; s richard iii . his early performances were such a hit that booth was soon invited to tour all over the country with a shakespearean acting company based in richmond , virginia .\nin 1862 , booth made his new york debut , this time as the lead in richard iii . the new york herald described him as a\nveritable sensation .\nwhen describing his natural inclination for the role , booth tellingly expressed his credo with the declaration ,\ni am determined to be a villain .\nwhile on tour , he achieved national praise as an up - and - comer , but a respiratory illness in 1863 meant booth had no choice but to take temporary leave from the stage . just days prior to delivering his famed gettysburg address that same year , president abraham lincoln watched a performance by booth in a play called the marble heart at ford\u2019s theater .\nin the 1850s , booth joined the know - nothing party , which aimed to limit immigration into the united states . in 1859 , he showed his support for slavery by joining a virginia militia that aided in the capture and execution of john brown , following his raid on harpers ferry . during the civil war , booth served as a secret agent for the confederacy .\nfaced with idle time during his break from the theater , booth became involved in a conspiracy to kidnap president lincoln . the plan involved bringing lincoln to richmond and demanding either peace or the release of confederate soldiers as a ransom . booth enlisted six southern sympathizers , but their march 1865 attempt in washington , d . c . , failed when the president failed to appear where they had anticipated .\nfrustrated at seeing his plot foiled , booth resolved to go to a far greater extreme . on april 14 , 1865 , just after 10 p . m . , booth shot and killed lincoln while he was watching a performance of the play our american cousin at washington , d . c . & apos ; s ford theater . directly after the shooting , booth leaped onto the stage and yelled ,\nsic semper tyrannis ! ( thusever to tyrants ! ) the south is avenged !\nafter crossing the potomac river with some difficulty , booth and his co - conspirators arrived at richard h . garrett & apos ; s farm in port royal , virginia . investigators were in hot pursuit and on april 26 , 1865 , caught up to the criminals , who had been hiding in garrett & apos ; s barn . booth refused to surrender , which spurred his pursuers to set the barn on fire . as the blaze engulfed the barn , booth was shot by one of the investigators , thomas p .\nboston\ncorbett , a union army soldier . corbett had intended to shoot booth in the arm , but his bullet struck booth & apos ; s neck instead . the shot paralyzed him . booth was then carried from the burning barn and lay three hours on garrett & apos ; s porch before he died .\nwe strive for accuracy and fairness . if you see something that doesn ' t look right , contact us !\nedwin booth was a 19th century shakespearean actor best known for his portrayal of hamlet and as the brother of assassin john wilkes booth .\njohn dillinger was an infamous gangster and bank robber during the great depression . he was known as\njackrabbit\nand\npublic enemy no . 1 .\njohn brown was a 19th - century militant abolitionist known for his raid on harpers ferry in 1859 .\njohn forsythe was a theater , film and tv actor . he won golden globes for playing blake carrington in aaron spelling\u2019s long - running prime - time drama dynasty .\nu . s . secretary of state john hay began his career as abraham lincoln\u2019s private secretary , and was later known for promoting an\nopen door\npolicy in china .\njohn mills was an award - winning actor , dancer and producer whose career spanned eight decades with works like great expectations and ryan\u2019s daughter .\nbritish serial killer john christie murdered at least six women , including his wife , before being arrested and hanged in 1953 .\n\u00a9 2018 bio and the bio logo are registered trademarks of a & e ; television networks , llc .\nfull name : lusopakak @ urltoken user title : watcher registered since : may 20th , 2007 07 : 58 current mood : accomplished artist profile : requests : keep an eye out for such journals . however , read the journal before posting your request , alright ? trades : note me about them ! or look for trade journals commissions : 7 usd for one character , 10 for two . price may vary due to subject matter and complexity . look out for discount journals ! i have a lot of stuff in scraps as well . check that out .\n7 usd - one character , no background ( read , transparent png background ) , full color 8 usd - background added 10 usd - two characters , no background , full color 11 - background added more characters , elaborate ideas , comics are more expensive . if you want a comic / sequence , keep in mind you ' ll be paying way more . note if interested , paypal is the method of payment . ( what if you want to do art trades instead ? well here ' s the post for that !\npage generated in 0 . 025 seconds [ 31 . 6 % php , 68 . 4 % sql ] ( 23 queries )\nbig enough to bail out the us , buy in a president & build the first billion dollar company . meet jp morgan .\nmorgan escapes military service during the civil war by paying $ 300 to a substitute to fight for him . during the war he buys five thousand rifles at $ 3 . 50 each and sells them on at $ 22 apiece . the rifles are defective and some shoot off the thumbs of the soldiers firing them . later , a congressional committee notes this but a federal judge upholds the deal and morgan is exonerated .\ndominated by his father , jp is 40 before he ignores his father\u2019s business lessons . he wants to be synonymous with an industry , like rockefeller is with oil , and carnegie is with steel .\nlike the discovery of fire and the invention of the wheel , electric light will revolutionise mankind and morgan believes , make him rich , and crucially , richer than his rivals . morgan hires thomas edison , a telegraph boy turned inventor , to install electricity in his 5th avenue manhattan mansion . morgan\u2019s home becomes a lab for edison\u2019s experiments and a small generator is installed to power the home\u2019s 400 light bulbs .\nan apprentice of edison , tesla , creates alternating current , or ac , but edison believes its higher voltage unsafe , so sticks to direct current , or dc . but electrical pioneer george westinghouse invests in tesla . and to disprove suggestions that ac is dangerous , tesla stages magical light shows where electricity harmlessly crackles around him . orders for westinghouse power stations pour in . edison tries to discredit ac by using it in his new creation , the electric chair . the first execution goes horribly wrong and instead of killing the man quickly , it slowly roasts him alive . the resultant publicity damages edison , not tesla .\nthe niagara falls contract opens for bids . it could light the entire north east and the only real choice is between morgan and westinghouse . and morgan desperately wanted to replace rockefeller as the man who lit america .\nso morgan threatens westinghouse with patent infringement . few could afford to fight a lengthy lawsuit with morgan . westinghouse , stretched to breaking point is forced to sign over tesla\u2019s patents . morgan\u2019s consolidated electric company ( minus edison and operating on ac ) general electric , will become one of america\u2019s biggest corporations .\nmorgan now heads the biggest investment bank in america , and has consolidated both the electricity and rail - road industries . by 1900 , morgan controls 100 , 000 miles of railroad , half the country\u2019s mileage .\nwhen , after a two year depression , the us treasury becomes desperate , morgan , a private individual guarantees them a $ 100m ( $ 3bn today ) and bails out the federal government , effectively bailing out the country from collapse . morgan virtually single handily saves the us economy in both 1895 and 1907 .\nthe process of creating a monopoly through the elimination of competition and the maximisation of profits by slashing the workforce and reducing their wages is named after jp morgan .\nbut as profits soar , working conditions sink . pay reduces so that the average worker earns barely a dollar a day , over 90 % of americans survive on less than $ 100 per month . working hours and workplace fatalities increase .\nin a single year , more men die inside a steel mill than died at the battle of gettysburg .\nmonopolies , cartels and trusts dominate everyday life . popular disgust at such unregulated capitalism leads to the rise of politicians such as democrat williams jennings bryan . he promises an end to the excesses of big business characterising the bosses as \u2018robber barons\u2019 .\nsensing a common threat , morgan , carnegie , and rockefeller , put aside their bitter rivalry to ensure their man , william mckinley sits in the white house . bryan criss - crosses the country in the nation\u2019s first press tour giving over 500 speeches . but he can\u2019t compete against the robber barons contributions . mckinley outspends bryan by a factor of five to one .\nin the 1896 election , 90 % of the electorate vote , double today\u2019s turnouts . but back then voting was a public affair and workers know they may be fired if seen to be voting for bryan . mckinley wins . he rolls back regulations .\ncarnegie agrees to sell out to morgan for the equivalent of four hundred billion dollars nowadays ( or $ 480 back then ) . this is more than the entire budget of the us federal government . it gives carnegie the largest private fortune the world has ever seen .\nit allows morgan , in 1901 , to create us steel , the first billion dollar company in history . it will dominate the steel business for almost a hundred years . at his peak morgan will sit on the board of 48 corporations .\nbut morgan\u2019s power drew the attention of new york city police commissioner turned politician , theodore roosevelt . born into a wealthy family , roosevelt entered public life after an image makeover from new york aristocrat to man of the people . he joins the army and serves during spanish - american war . back in new york as governor , he clamps down on the abuses of big business . the robber barons hope making roosevelt into the vice president will silence him .\nthe vice presidency in those days was a place where people went to disappear . they became vice president , were never heard from again . it was almost like a modern witness protection program .\nbut in 1901 , president mckinley is shot by leon czolgosz , a factory worker who lost his job in a jp morgan takeover . czolgosz had joined the growing anarchist movement and mckinley\u2019s big business ties made him a target .\nroosevelt , impotent as mckinley\u2019s number two , now becomes president . just five months into office he targets the morgan owned railroad consortium . morgan is furious . he sees the president of the united states as just another business rival to be bested , or bought off . the government sues the rail consortium in the first antitrust case filed against a major consortium . the case goes to the supreme court . roosevelt wins and jp morgan\u2019s rail monopoly is broken .\nundaunted , morgan invests in the new canal project in panama that hopes to link the atlantic and pacific oceans . morgan acts as the middle man for the government and raises $ 40m ( $ 70billion today ) to get the project started . over 75 , 000 workers labour in brutal heat , under the threat of deadly diseases , digging a 51 mile long canal . but in 1913 , a year before it\u2019s completed , morgan dies in his sleep aged 75 . the new york stock exchange shuts down for 2 hours in remembrance ; an honour normally reserved for the passing of a president .\nset in a pawn shop in johannesburg , south africa , they receive the most unexpected items to sell .\nrick talks about keeping his promise to get to the bottom of 10 - x in this season 4 web exclusive .\nread about the tings you didn ' t know about the annual boat race .\n\u00a92018 aetn uk all rights reserved . use of this site constitutes acceptance of terms\none of the most powerful bankers of his era , j . p . ( john pierpont ) morgan ( 1837 - 1913 ) financed railroads and helped organize u . s . steel , general electric and other major corporations . the connecticut native followed his wealthy father into the banking business in the late 1850s , and in 1871 formed a partnership with philadelphia banker anthony drexel . in 1895 , their firm was reorganized as j . p . morgan & company , a predecessor of the modern - day financial giant jpmorgan chase . morgan used his influence to help stabilize american financial markets during several economic crises , including the panic of 1907 . however , he faced criticism that he had too much power and was accused of manipulating the nation\u2019s financial system for his own gain . the gilded age titan spent a significant portion of his wealth amassing a vast art collection .\nin 1861 , morgan married amelia sturges , the daughter of a wealthy new york businessman . amelia morgan died of tuberculosis four months after the couple\u2019s wedding . in 1865 , morgan married frances louisa tracy ( 1842 - 1924 ) , the daughter of a new york lawyer , and the pair eventually had four children ."]}
{"id": 949, "summary": [{"text": "trithemis annulata , known commonly as the violet dropwing , violet-marked darter , purple-blushed darter or plum-coloured dropwing , is a species of dragonfly in the family libellulidae .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "it is found in most of africa , in the middle east , in the arabian peninsula and southern europe .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "these insects are called dropwings because of their habit of immediately lowering their wings after landing on a perch .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "males of this species are violet-red with red veins in the wings while females are yellow and brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "both sexes have red eyes . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "trithemis annulata", "paragraphs": ["katja schulz marked\nviolet dropwing trithemis annulata quinta do lago\nas trusted on the\ntrithemis annulata\npage .\nvalter jacinto marked\nlibelinha / / violet dropwing ( trithemis annulata ) , female\nas trusted on the\ntrithemis annulata\npage .\njustification : trithemis annulata is assessed as least concern in northern africa due to its widespread presence across the region .\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nrotviolette segellibelle\nto\ntrithemis annulata palisot de beauvois , 1807\n.\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nvioletter sonnendeuter\nto\ntrithemis annulata palisot de beauvois , 1807\n.\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nvioletter sonnenzeiger\nto\ntrithemis annulata palisot de beauvois , 1807\n.\ntrithemis annulata is not under threat at the global scale , although local declines and extinctions may occur due to habitat destruction and water pollution .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - violet dropwing ( trithemis annulata )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - violet dropwing ( trithemis annulata )\ntitle =\narkive species - violet dropwing ( trithemis annulata )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - trithemis ( trithemis nigra )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - trithemis ( trithemis nigra )\ntitle =\narkive species - trithemis ( trithemis nigra )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ninformation on trithemis nigra is being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\ntrithemis nigra is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\ntrithemis annulata is one of the most widespread and common species in africa , arabia and in the mediterranean countries . its eastern limit is in iran , where it begins to be replaced by its asian close relative t . aurora .\njustification : european regional assessment : least concern ( lc ) eu 27 assessment : least concern ( lc ) trithemis annulata is common in a large part of the mediterranean and showed a strong expansion northwards . its habitats are not under any specific threats and the species is therefore assessed as least concern .\ntwo recently recorded dragonfly species , orthetrum trinacria and trithemis annulata , were observed over several bodies of water in gozo . the distribution of these species is documented . moreover , it is suggested that the introduction of these species could have been favoured by changes in the climate , in the light of similar observations made throughout southern europe .\ntrithemis annulata is an opportunist and ubiquitous species which is found in any type of freshwater whether standing or running . in tunisia , imagoes have been found at brackish running waters with a salinity reaching almost 0 . 9 % but it is not known whether they reproduce there . the larval period is short so that this species is able to reproduce successfully in temporary water bodies .\npinhey , e . 1970 . monographic study of the genus trithemis brauer ( odonata : libellulidae ) . memoirs of the entomological society of southern africa 11 : 1 - 159 .\npinhey , e . 1970 . monographic study of the genus trithemis brauer ( odonata : libellulidae ) . memoirs of the entomological society of southern africa 11 : 1 - 159 .\nauthor : pristurus license : attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported ( cc by - sa 3 . 0 ) urltoken description : english : unidentified dragonfly ( odonata ) ( violet dropwing ? ( trithemis annulata ? ) ) at a pool in a wadi , emirate of ra\u2019s al - chaima , united arab emirates deutsch : unidentifizierte libelle ( trithemis annulata ? ) in einem wadi an restwassert\u00fcmpel , emirat ra\u2019s al - chaima , vereinigte arabische emirate . link : urltoken title : libelle4 - 2016 - 01 - 26 . webm details of the licenses can be found on this channel ' s\nabout\npage . in this video , no changes or modifications have been made to the original material . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -\nthe violet dropwing ( trithemis annulata ) is a distinctive dragonfly that is well known for its striking violet colouration , from which it gets its common name . the male of this species appears purple , but this is due to a bright red base colour on the abdomen and thorax , which is overlaid with a blue , powdery bloom ( \u2018pruinescence\u2019 ) on the surface , creating the vibrant violet colouration ( 2 ) .\ntrithemis annulata is one of the most abundant dragonflies of tropical africa . it extends into europe along the mediterranean , where it is expanding its range . the first records of the species in spain date from late 1970s , corsica in the late 1980s , and the french and italian mainland in the early 1990s ( dijkstra and lewington 2006 ) . in northern africa , the species is fairly widespread , but is lacking some parts of egypt and libyan arab jamahiriya .\npinhey , e . c . g . ( 1970 ) . monographic study of the genus trithemis brauer ( odonata : libellulidae ) . memoirs entomological society southern africa , 11 , 1 - 159 . [ pdf file ]\ntrithemis annulata is a wide ranging afrotropical species that has expanded its range in southwestern europe rapidly in recent decades . it expanded over the whole of the iberian peninsula from 1978 onwards and was found in southwestern france for the first time in 1994 ( ferreras romero 1981 , grand 1994 ) . it is now regularly recorded from the garonne estuary to the rh\u00f4ne delta ( grand and boudot 2006 ) . the same expansion has been noted in italy and to a lesser extent in the balkan peninsula . recently the species was found at fuerteventura , canary islands ( boudot et al . 2009 ) . climate change seems to be the main driver of this expansion .\ndamm , s . , and hadrys , h . ( 2009 ) . trithemis morrisoni sp . nov . and t . palustris sp . nov . from the okavango and upper zambezi floodplains previously hidden under t . stictica ( odonata : libellulidae ) international journal of odonatology , 12 , 131\u2013145 . [ pdf file ]\nof the 16 total odonate species noted for the maltese islands , only nine taxa were recorded within the surveyed water - bodies . two species , o . trinacria and trithemis annulata ( palisot de beauvois 1807 ) , that have only been recently recorded ( ebejer et al . 2008 ) probably have established populations ( balzan 2008b ) . these two species were found associated with different types of aquatic habitats . conversely , the lack of records of species , such as orthetrum cancellatum ( l . 1758 ) and sympetrum striolatum ( charpentier 1840 ) , previously considered as common within the maltese islands , and other less abundant species such as orthetrum brunneum ( fonscolombe 1837 ) , may suggest that populations of odonata on the islands are on the decline . similar observations have been reported for several european ( sahl\u00e9n et al . 2004 ) and mediterranean ( riservato et al . 2009 ) species .\nin contrast , the female violet dropwing is not quite as vivid as the male . instead , the female has a yellow - brown body , a large yellow patch at the base of the hindwing , and no red in the wing veins ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the female violet dropwing can be distinguished from other female trithemis species by its stouter abdomen and by the black marks on top of the eighth and ninth abdomen segments . juvenile male violet dropwings first adopt a yellowish colour similar to the female , then later turn orange and red and finally the vibrant violet colour on reaching maturity ( 2 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nlibellula haematina rambur , 1842 , described from senegal and madagascar , and claimed to be occurring in la r\u00e9union , mauritius and sicily , represents the infraspecific variability and cannot be accepted as a valid taxon despite the treatment published by ris ( 1912 ) .\njustification : this is a widespread species with no known major widespread threats and it is therefore unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a threatened category . it is therefore assessed as least concern .\nalbania ; algeria ; angola ( angola ) ; bahrain ; benin ; botswana ; burkina faso ; cameroon ; cape verde ; chad ; congo , the democratic republic of the ; c\u00f4te d ' ivoire ; cyprus ; egypt ( egypt ( african part ) , sinai ) ; eritrea ; ethiopia ; france ( corsica , france ( mainland ) ) ; gabon ; gambia ; ghana ; greece ( east aegean is . , greece ( mainland ) , kriti ) ; guinea - bissau ; iran , islamic republic of ; iraq ; israel ; italy ( italy ( mainland ) , sardegna , sicilia ) ; jordan ; kenya ; kuwait ; lebanon ; liberia ; libya ; madagascar ; malawi ; mali ; malta ; mauritania ; mauritius ( mauritius ( main island ) ) ; morocco ; mozambique ; namibia ( caprivi strip , namibia ( main part ) ) ; niger ; nigeria ; oman ; palestinian territory , occupied ; portugal ( portugal ( mainland ) ) ; qatar ; r\u00e9union ; rwanda ; saudi arabia ; senegal ; sierra leone ; somalia ; south africa ( free state , gauteng , kwazulu - natal , limpopo province , mpumalanga , northern cape province , north - west province , western cape ) ; south sudan ; spain ( canary is . , spain ( mainland ) ) ; sudan ; swaziland ; syrian arab republic ; tanzania , united republic of ; togo ; tunisia ; turkey ; uganda ; united arab emirates ; yemen ; zambia ; zimbabwe\nthis species is widespread and very abundant throughout its range . it is expanding its range to the north due to the present global warming .\nthis species does not need conservation actions but new information on its genetic variability and its relation to closely related taxa would be welcome .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthe violet colouration of the male violet dropwing is actually caused by a bluish , powdery bloom overlaying a bright red background colour .\nlike other dropwings , the violet dropwing is named for its habit of lowering its wings when it lands .\nthe violet dropwing is one of the most abundant dragonfly species in tropical africa , and is extending its range into europe .\nthe violet dropwing is a small - to medium - sized dragonfly , and has a distinctly broad abdomen ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . like many other dropwing species , the violet dropwing immediately lowers its wings on landing , a behaviour which gives this group of dragonflies their common name ( 5 ) .\nthe male violet dropwing has a distinctive bright red face , red eyes , and red wing veins , and there is an amber patch at the base of each hindwing ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the abdomen has fine purple dashes along the top , with small black stripes on the top of the eighth and ninth abdomen segments ( 4 ) .\nlike other dragonflies , the violet dropwing begins its life as an egg laid in a water body by the female . after hatching , it spends the first stages of life as an aquatic larva , or nymph , which breathes through internal gills ( 3 ) ( 6 ) . the larva remains in the water as it passes through a number of developmental stages , undergoing a series of moults as it grows larger . eventually , the larva emerges from the water and moults into the adult form ( 6 ) . the adult violet dropwing then spends some time maturing until it is fully mature and capable of reproduction ( 4 ) ( 6 ) .\nin most dragonfly species , the adult male perches near the waterside waiting for a female , and may defend a territory . during mating , the male holds the female by the head using specialised appendages , known as \u2018claspers\u2019 , at the end of the abdomen . male dragonflies have secondary reproductive organs towards the front of the abdomen , from which the female receives the sperm . while being held by the male , the female dragonfly bends the tip of her abdomen forwards to receive the sperm packet , creating a shape known as a mating \u2018wheel\u2019 ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) .\nmany male dragonflies keep hold of or guard the female until the eggs are laid , to ensure no other males can mate with her ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) . as in other members of the libellulidae family , the female violet dropwing is likely to scatter the eggs over the surface of the water by dipping her abdomen into the water while flying over it ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .\nthe violet dropwing larva is an opportunistic predator , catching prey by shooting out its enlarged and modified mouthparts ( 3 ) ( 6 ) , which are armed with hooks on the end ( 6 ) . the adult violet dropwing is also an opportunistic and effective predator , using its acute vision to detect prey , and its outstretched , bristly legs as a \u2018basket\u2019 to capture insects in flight ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) .\nin the violet dropwing , adults are usually seen between november and may in south africa ( 4 ) , between may and october in parts of northern africa , and from april to october in turkey ( 2 ) . in the sahara , adults of this species may be seen year - round , and in europe they are thought to be active in all summer months ( 2 ) .\noriginally of african origin , the violet dropwing also occurs in the mediterranean region , and is expanding its range in southern europe ( 2 ) . the violet dropwing inhabits tropical africa , where it is one of the most abundant dragonfly species ( 2 ) , and is also found in the middle east , parts of southern asia , and on islands in the indian ocean ( 1 ) , including madagascar ( 1 ) ( 4 ) .\nthe violet dropwing can inhabit a range of vegetation types , as long as a suitable area of freshwater is available ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . it is typically found near still or slow - moving water , including pools , marshes and slow - moving stretches of rivers , where there are bushes or trees nearby ( 4 ) . at the edges of its range , the violet dropwing prefers warm spots such as shallow gravel pits , open lakes or lagoons ( 2 ) .\nmale violet dropwings tend to perch prominently on twigs , reeds or rocks in the sun , close to water ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) , and then move to the trees in the evening or when the sun is hidden behind clouds ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .\nthe violet dropwing is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthere are not currently believed to be any significant threats to the violet dropwing , due to its widespread distribution and increasing population ( 1 ) ( 7 ) . however , this species may potentially be affected by some of the general threats faced by dragonflies , including intensive agriculture and large - scale land conversion , the destruction and modification of water bodies , over - extraction of water for irrigation , and water pollution ( 4 ) ( 7 ) . other potential threats include global warming , which may cause water bodies to dry up during increasingly hot and dry periods ( 7 ) .\nthere are no specific conservation measures currently known to be in place for the violet dropwing . however , other conservation efforts , not directly aimed at this species , may potentially benefit its populations . for example , conservation efforts for dragonflies in europe include research , population monitoring , appropriate legislation and the protection of key habitat sites ( 7 ) .\nenvironment agency - abu dhabi is a principal sponsor of arkive . ead is working to protect and conserve the environment as well as promoting sustainable development in the emirate of abu dhabi .\nmoore , n . w . ( 1997 ) dragonflies : status survey and conservation action plan . iucn / ssc odonata specialist group , iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk . available at : urltoken\nkalkman , v . j . , boudot , j - p . , bernard , r . , conze , k . j . , de knijf , g . , dyatlova , e . , ferreira , s . , jovi\u0107 , m . , ott , j . , riservato , e . and sahl\u00e9n , g . ( 2010 ) european red list of dragonflies . publications office of the european union , luxembourg . available at : urltoken\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nabdomen in arthropods ( crustaceans , insects and arachnids ) the abdomen is the hind region of the body , which is usually segmented to a degree ( but not visibly in most spiders ) . in crustacea ( such as crabs ) , some of the limbs attach to the abdomen ; in insects the limbs are attached to the thorax ( the part of the body nearest to the head ) and not the abdomen . larva stage in an animal\u2019s lifecycle after it hatches from the egg . larvae are typically very different in appearance to adults ; they are able to feed and move around but usually are unable to reproduce . moult in insects , a stage of growth whereby the hard outer layer of the body ( the exoskeleton ) is shed and the body becomes larger . nymph stage of insect development , similar in appearance to the adult but sexually immature and without wings . the adult form is reached via a series of moults and the wings develop externally as the nymph grows . territory an area occupied and defended by an animal , a pair of animals or a colony . thorax part of the body located between the head and the abdomen in animals . in insects , the three segments between the head and the abdomen , each of which has a pair of legs .\ndijkstra k - d . b . ( 2006 ) field guide to the dragonflies of britain and europe . british wildlife publishing , dorset , uk .\npicker , m . , griffiths , c . and weaving , a . ( 2004 ) field guide to insects of south africa . struik publishers , cape town .\nsamways , m . j . ( 2008 ) dragonflies and damselflies of south africa . pensoft publishers , bulgaria .\nsilsby , j . ( 2001 ) dragonflies of the world . csiro publishing , collingwood , australia .\no ' toole , c . ( 2002 ) the new encyclopedia of insects and their allies . oxford university press , oxford .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is featured in jewels of the uae , which showcases biodiversity found in the united arab emirates in association with the environment agency \u2013 abu dhabi .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\njavascrip is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\nprivacy policy | disclaimer | accessibility policy | \u00a9 university of malta , all rights reserved .\nis one of the most widespread and common species in africa , arabia and in the mediterranean countries . its eastern limit is in iran , where it begins to be replaced by its asian close relative\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe iucn red list of threatened species\u2122 map viewer will open in its own new tab / window . this may be further explored or the tab / window closed .\nan african species that has crossed into spain and has made its way up into southern france . the male is a spectacularly coloured dragonfly , similar in shape to a crocothemis erythaea ( broad scarlet ) but vividly pink - bodied and smaller , noticeable particularly when seen together as they often are . the male\u2019s pink coloration is unmistakable in the european theater but there are similarly coloured confusion species elsewhere .\ncarol spotted our first at a distance beside our favourite lake near fanjeaux in spring , 2011 , but i missed it . we did , however , see them at close quarters at lac de lenclas later that same year . we now frequently find them in spain , too . i never tire of seeing these beauties .\nthis site uses akismet to reduce spam . learn how your comment data is processed .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : privacy policy\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nno diagnosis of this species endemic to pr\u00edncipe and close to t . aconita is presently available . please refer to that species and the references provided .\nmap citation : clausnitzer , v . , k . - d . b . dijkstra , r . koch , j . - p . boudot , w . r . t . darwall , j . kipping , b . samraoui , m . j . samways , j . p . simaika & f . suhling , 2012 . focus on african freshwaters : hotspots of dragonfly diversity and conservation concern . frontiers in ecology and the environment 10 : 129 - 134 .\nlongfield , c . ( 1936 ) . studies on african odonata , with synonymy and descriptions of new species and subspecies . transactions royal entomological society london , 85 , 467 - 498 . [ pdf file ]\ncitation : dijkstra , k . - d . b ( editor ) . african dragonflies and damselflies online . urltoken [ 2018 - 07 - 09 ] .\nafrican dragonflies and damselflies online is a collaboration between consent ( stellenbosch ) and adu ( cape town ) funded by the jrs biodiversity foundation . addo brings all available knowledge together of africa ' s 770 known species of odonata . read more . . .\nby combining conservation ecology and entomology , our department at stellenbosch university brings together a considerable body of teaching and research expertise in the rapidly growing important field of conservation in agricultural and development landscapes . read more . . .\nthe adu aims to contribute to the understanding of biodiversity and its conservation . we achieve this through programmes that involve citizen scientists , long - term monitoring , research and innovative statistical modelling . read more . . .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nde palisot de beauvois , a . - m . - f . - j . ( 1805 ) insectes receuillis en afrique et en am\u00e9rique dans les royaumes d ' oware et de benin , \u00e0 saint - domingue et dans les \u00e9tats - unis , pendant les ann\u00e9es 1786 - 1797 . [ 1805 - 1821 ] : fain et compagnies , paris : 1 - 276 , excl . pl . c 100 .\nanimal demography unit ( 2018 ) . odonatamap virtual museum . accessed at urltoken on 2018 - 07 - 09\n[ page served : july 9 , 2018 , 11 : 14 + 0200 ] animal demography unit department of biological sciences - university of cape town this work , except photographs , is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international license . copyright of images uploaded into the virtual museum remains with the photographers , these images are licenced under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 international license .\n[ page served : july 9 , 2018 , 09 : 34 + 0200 ] animal demography unit department of biological sciences - university of cape town this work , except photographs , is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international license . copyright of images uploaded into the virtual museum remains with the photographers , these images are licenced under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 international license .\nschneider , w . , ferreira , s . ( freshwater biodiversity assessment workshop , oct . 2007 ) & allen , d . ( iucn freshwater biodiversity unit )\nany sunny water in africa , favouring warm spots in the periphery of its range , such as shallow gravel pits , open lakes or lagoons ( dijkstra and lewington 2006 ) .\nde knijf , g . , ferreira , s . & riservato , e .\ncyprus ; france ( corsica , france ( mainland ) ) ; greece ( east aegean is . , greece ( mainland ) , kriti ) ; italy ( italy ( mainland ) , sardegna , sicilia ) ; malta ; portugal ( portugal ( mainland ) ) ; spain ( canary is . , spain ( mainland ) )\nthe species is common within its range and is often abundant . its populations are increasing all over its european range .\nthe species inhabits a wide range of mostly standing and unshaded waters . it favours warm conditions and is often found in ditches , gravel pits and small lakes .\nbulletin of the entomological society of malta . 2008 , vol . 1 , p . 91 - 96\nthe copyright of this work belongs to the author ( s ) / publisher . the rights of this work are as defined by the appropriate copyright legislation or as modified by any successive legislation . users may access this work and can make use of the information contained in accordance with the copyright legislation provided that the author must be properly acknowledged . further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the prior permission of the copyright holder .\ndijkstra , k . d . & suhling , f . ( odonata red list authority ) .\njustification : regional assessment : the species is listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\neastern africa distribution : the species is common and widespread in kenya , tanzania , uganda , malawi , and assumed from burundi . global distribution : the species is widespread in africa , southern europe , middle east , southern asia , indian ocean islands .\nvarious habitats in bush and woodland , usually with at least a little water current .\nkipping , j . , simaika , j . p . , samways , m . , suhling , f . ( odonata red list authority ) & pollock , c . m . ( iucn red list office )\njustification : within the southern africa region , this species has a wide distribution and it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a threatened or near threatened category . assessed as least concern in the region . its global status is also least concern .\nthis species is widespread in the southern africa region . globally , it is widespread in africa , southern europe , the middle east , southern asia , and the indian ocean islands .\nthis is a widespread species and is among the most common species found at larger perennial rivers .\noccupies a variety of habitats in bush and woodland , usually with at least a little water current . this is among the most common species at larger perennial rivers .\nno specific conservation measures are known to be in place at present or are recommended at present .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\njoin researchgate to access over 30 million figures and 118 + million publications \u2013 all in one place .\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\nthank you for your contribution to the improvement of the inpn . the information submitted has been sent to an expert for verification and correction .\nwarning : the data available reflects the progression status of knowledge or the availability of the inventories . it should never be considered as comprehensive .\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nthis is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original work is properly cited .\nthe aim of this study was to investigate how odonate assemblage structure and diversity are influenced by changes in habitat variables associated with the aquatic environment and the surrounding agricultural landscapes . all study sites were located in predominantly agricultural landscapes of the two main islands of the maltese archipelago , malta and gozo . this paper presents a multi - scale approach , which considers habitat variables ranging from the type of water body , to vegetation characteristics and landscape composition , in order to investigate the odonate - habitat relations within the maltese islands . dragonfly communities are increasingly threatened with habitat loss and degradation within the mediterranean region from factors such as water pollution from agricultural practices ( riservato et al . 2009 ) . within the semi - arid climate of the mediterranean , water resources may also be a key issue .\nin the long cultural history of the maltese archipelago , natural woodlands were transformed into mosaic - landscapes of agricultural and semi - natural habitats , making agriculture today the predominant land use , occupying around 46 . 8 % of the 316km\nthe types of water bodies and their distribution at the sites investigated during this study .\nthe pervasive role played by vegetation in the odonate life cycle makes it , a priori , likely that macrophytes are prominent among cues used for habitat selection ( corbet 1999 ) . literature suggests that odonata assemblages are influenced by the presence of aquatic plants ( clark & samways 1996 ; stewart & samways 1998 ; schindler et al . 2003 ; samways & taylor 2004 ; hofmann & mason 2005 ) , with the structure and the \u2018architecture\u2019 of the plants , or the communities they form , likely to be important for adult habitat selection ( corbet 1999 ) .\nvegetation assessment of the sites consisted of two 10 m belt transects of 1 m width over riparian vegetation at the land - water interface of the survey sites for odonate diversity , lotic water bodies , or the long side of lentic water bodies . meanwhile , four 5 m by 1 m transects were laid perpendicular to these , with the aim to provide an indication of how vegetation changed with increasing distance from the water bodies . within these transects , plant abundance , distribution data , and physiognomic characteristics , in terms of vertical stratification and characteristic life form , were obtained from a series of contiguous quadrats laid down along a transect . a square ( 1 m \u00d7 1 m ) quadrat was used for this study . the quadrat was subdivided into a number of sectors of equal area in order to increase accuracy of recording when measuring abundance ( kent & coker 1995 ) . the abundance of each species within each quadrat was assessed by counting the number of sectors within which the species was represented , either in whole or in part . this figure was expressed as a proportion of the total number of sectors in the quadrat .\nfor each quadrat , vertical stratification ( the arrangement of phytomass into vertical layers ) was measured by counting the number of interceptions per species at each height class at the centre of the quadrat . a 20vmm diameter , 4 m height wooden pole was divided into 7 height classes ( 0\u20130 . 20 , 0 . 21\u2013 0 . 50 , 0 . 51\u201310 , 1 . 01\u20131 . 50 , 1 . 51\u20132 . 00 , 2 . 01\u20132 . 50 , 2 . 51\u20133 . 25 , 3 . 25\u20134 . 00 , > 4m ) . the height of vegetation was measured from the ground to the height of the highest vegetation shoot , with vegetation > 4m considered as canopy cover . in addition to vertical stratification , the physiognomy of the vegetation may also be profoundly affected by the life form of dominant vegetation ( kuchler 1988 ) , that is the presence of common morphological features that are usually assumed to be an adjustment to important environmetnal factors ( mueller - dombois and ellenberg 1974 ; zonneveld 1988 ) . the percentage cover of the various life forms present within the site ( graminoids , forbs , subshrubs , shrubs and trees ) , as well as details relating to species composition , were collected for each quadrat .\n) . the landscape surrounding semi - natural and freshwater bodies ( n = 6 ) was surveyed through the use of orthophotos , taken in 2004 , and having a resolution of 1 pixel : 15 cm . fiddien and qlejg\u0127a form part of the same valley system and given their physical proximity only the former site was considered . different land use and land cover categories (\n) were identified and mapped as polygons . digitized data had the same level of resolution as the ortophotos . landscape metrics were derived from patch analyst 4 , an arcgis extension which enables spatial analysis of landscape patches (\n) at the landscape level , the shannon diversity index ( sdi ) was used to quantify the diversity of the agricultural landscapes . in addition , the mean perimeterarea ratio ( mpar ) , and the number of patches for the various landscapes under study , were also obtained . at the class level , the number of patches ( np ) , the proportion of the landscape ( p\n) , the mean patch size ( mps ) , and the mpar were calculated .\ngeneral patterns for odonata . because the number of sampling occasions for the sites varied , as a result of the differential availability of water at the different study sites , the data was standardized by averaging the total number of recorded individuals for each species on ten visits for each water body . renyi diversity profiles ( t\u00f3thm\u00e9r\u00e9sz 1995 ) , which provide information on richness and evenness of study sites , were used to compare the diversity of odonates between semi - natural sites and habitat types ( kindt and coe 2005 ; oksanen et al . 2010 ) . the major advantage of r\u00e9nyi diversity profiles is that sites can easily be ordered from high to low diversity . subsequently , the shannon diversity index ( h ) was used to provide a measure of relative diversity for odonata and larvae , as well as vegetation diversity . the diversity values for odonate larvae were not normally distributed ( shapiro - wilk test , w = 0 . 7551 , p = 0 . 006 ) , and subsequent analysis with these values was non - parametric .\nmultiscale habitat variation and odonata . in order to analyze the association of different species to the environmental variables at the scales studied , a principal component analysis was carried out using the vegan package in r ( oksanen et al . 2010 ) . pca is a multivariate technique based on linear assumptions , which is preferable to use when the species has low beta diversity ( lep\u0161 and smilauer 2003 ) , as was the case with the data in this study . to aid interpretation , the environmental variables were fitted onto the pca ordination plot using the vegan \u2018envfit\u2019 function ( oksanen et al . 2010 ) . on an ordination plot , this function fits a centroid of levels of a class variable , and calculates an r 2 value as a measure of separation among the different levels of that variable . additionally , a significance value for the r 2 was calculated using 1000 random permutations of the category levels . explanatory variables identified to have a p - value < were subsequently correlated with pc1 and pc2 site scores through a pearson ' s correlation ( r foundation for statistical computing 2010 ) .\ntemporal availability of water within the selected aquatic habitats varied . in one of the water bodies ( wied hesri ) , water presence was limited to the wetter months , and thus the habitat was unable to host any adult odonates . consequently , it was omitted from adult odonata monitoring . in total , 643 adult odonate individuals belonging to nine species were recorded . since water persistence varied with site , species abundance data was standardized for each water - body (\n) . these standardized data were used in subsequent data analyses , unless otherwise stated . the two sites characterised by higher salinity levels , ballut ( marsaxlokk ) marshland and ramla 1 - hamra ( gozo ) , showed the lowest level of species diversity . a comparison of the renyi profiles (\n) produced for all four types of habitats revealed that lentic and lotic semi - natural waterbodies were normally more diverse than agricultural reservoirs and semi - natural habitats with higher salinity levels . for agricultural reservoirs , two species ,\n( brull\u00e9 1832 ) , were the most abundant , with the other species only recorded on single occasions . a comparison of renyi profiles for lotic water - bodies with a perennial and ephemeral water availability did not show any difference in odonata diversity (\n) . a paired t - test , to compare the abundances of recorded odonates in both types of watercourses , suggested that they were not significantly different ( t = - 0 . 560 , p = 0 . 591 ) .\nrenyi profiles comparing adult odonata diversity of ( a ) different types of habitats , and ( b ) for the semi - natural sites of the study area . high quality figures are available online .\na comparison of the number of species and their abundance in the four different types of habitats .\nlarval sampling methodology only yielded odonates from four sites : g\u0127ajn rihana , ilfiddien , il - qattara , and ta ' sarraflu . no larval odonata were recorded along the ba\u0127rija , qlejgha , hesri , and lunzjata watercourses . similarly , larval odonata sampling in brackish waters of ballut marshland ( marsaxlokk ) and ramla 1 - \u0127amra watercourse yielded no results . higher larval diversity was not significantly associated either with higher diversity , as measured with the shannon ' s diversity index ( h ) , of the same species ( spearman ' s rho = 0 . 55 , p = 0 . 12 ) , or with higher odonata assemblage species diversity for study sites ( spearman ' s rho = 0 . 58 , p = 0 . 10 ) .\na total of 49 species were recorded during the vegetation survey performed within the nine semi - natural waterbodies investigated . the most abundant species was the giant reed (\nl . ) , an archaeophyte that has become highly invasive , with its dense monospecific stands having colonized various waterbodies within the archipelago . the graminoid life form and canopy cover classes of 3 . 25\u20134 m and > 4 m categories were globally the most abundant groups within study sites . odonata and vegetation diversity (\n) , measured through the shannon diversity index , were found to be significantly correlated ( r = 0 . 795 , p = 0 . 01 ) .\nthe pca results identified clear patterns in species composition , with the first two components explaining 78 . 9 % and 13 . 2 % of the variation respectively . pc1 was negatively weighed on the population data of\n) . lentic sites were on one end of the pc1 , while brackish and lotic sites were at the other . most of the species were more strongly correlated with the lentic sites , indicating the importance of the latter for the conservation of dragonfly species of the maltese islands . variation was in turn correlated with several environmental variables . nonetheless , some of the variables show some collinearity , as may be clearly observed from\naccounted for 55 . 8 % , and individuals in height class i ( > 4m ) show some correlation with lotic sites . similarly , tree life form abundance and the height class h ( 3 . 25\u20134m ) were associated with the ta ' sarraflu freshwater pond .\nordination graph illustrating the outcome of an indirect gradient analysis ( pca ) , followed by environmental fitting of explanatory variables ( only vectors with p - value \u2264 0 . 1 are included ) for ( a ) vegetation and ( b ) landscape variables . high quality figures are available online .\n) . a high r value for a given explanatory variable may be because the variable exerts an important control on odonata assemblages , or the variable may be correlated with another variable that influences odonates . at the water - body scale ,\n, as well as canopy cover > 4m . in contrast , they showed a positive correlation with shrub and tree life - form abundances . at the landscape level , these species were positively correlated with mps ( 200 m ) and class area ( r = 500m ) , and negatively correlated to the mpar ( r500m ) , of ecologically disturbed class cover . they were also related positively to mpar of coastal areas , and the class area of marine habitat , both of which are probably the result of the main habitats for these species within the studied sites being located in the vicinity of the coast .\n, was found to be correlated to low landscape diversity , and a lack of semi - natural freshwater habitats class area , a category which mainly consists of valleys and watercourses within the surrounding landscapes at both scales ( r = 200 , 500 m ) .\ncorrelation of pc1 and pc2 from a principal component analysis of odonata abundance data with explanatory variables .\nthe permanova results suggest that odonate assemblage similarity is significantly influenced by habitat type ( p = 0 . 0004 ) and sampling period ( p = 0 . 02 ) , thus rejecting the null hypothesis . the interaction between habitat type and sampling occasion was found to be not significant (\n) . a comparison of odonata counts with sampling period suggests that different species adopt different life - history strategies .\nthe influence of time ( date of sampling occasion ) and type of habitat ( lotic and lentic ) on odonata assemblage similarity .\nwas sporadically recorded in low abundance , abundance data for this species were not considered for this part of the data analysis . given the relative importance of habitat type on dragonfly distributions , the total odonata counts from il - qattara and ta\u2019 sarraflu were used in order to investigate assemblage structure through time (\n) . a paired t - test suggested that dragonfly counts , taken on the same days , from both sites were not significantly different ( t = 0 . 10 , p = 0 . 92 ) . this result indicates the importance of including repeated measures in similar studies , including ones aimed at assessing conservation value of habitats , and the use of odonata as biological indicators .\nodonata \u2014 time relationships according to type of functional response . high quality figures are available online .\nthe outcome of a generalised linear model ( quasi - poisson , log - link function ) of species abundance data with sampling period .\nnevertheless , the reservoirs surveyed here differ from man - made habitats described in the latter studies , and typically have a small surface - area , lack macrophytes , and are likely to host predatory fish populations ( balzan 2008a ) .\n) , most of the species recorded during adult counts within the study area were found in both lotic and lentic water - bodies . only two species ,\n, were entirely confined to lentic habitats . this may suggest that the odonata fauna of malta is mainly composed of euryoecious species that are able to utilize different aquatic habitats along a flowing - standing water continuum of habitat types . this contrasts with other studies investigating the influence of habitat characteristics on odonata assemblages that have identified particular dragonfly associations to specific habitat types (\n) . habitat associations of the recorded species obtained by pca suggest that even though most of the odonate species recorded were recorded in lotic water - bodies , nearly all species were more strongly associated with the lentic habitats . records of larval odonata were mainly confined to lentic water - bodies , confirming observations made in other studies that adult sightings may not always predict larval distribution (\n) , and indicating that standing water - bodies within the study area may be particularly important for dragonfly conservation . similar observations have been made elsewhere , where it has be suggested that in rapidly changing lotic environments , which tend to dry up during the dry season and are often fast - flowing and scouring during the wet season , larval survival following oviposition is relatively lower (\nin light of the rapid changes characterizing agricultural landscapes , an important issue is the scale at which the habitat is measured . the habitat has been defined as the collection of resources and conditions required by , and accessible to , individuals of a species at a location ( dennis et al . 2003 , 2007 ) . because the habitat is necessarily the location where an organism lives out its life - cycle , a suitable habitat must meet the ecological needs of all life - stages . the terrestrial landscape is probably as important as the aquatic habitat ( corbet 1999 ) , as it provides several conditions and resources that are required by the adult phase . previous studies have indicated that responses in abundance and / or occurrence to local waterbody and landscape characteristics differ among species ( conrad et al . 1999 ) and life - history groups ( samways 1996 ; krawchuk and taylor 2003 ; kadoya et al . 2008 ) . pca results suggest that the presence of c . erythraea and i . genei were related to disturbed areas , coastal land cover , and marine habitats , all of which characterize the landscapes of il - qattara and ta ' sarraflu water - bodies in which these two species were the most abundant . o . trinacria , which has been recently recorded in the maltese islands ( ebejer et al . 2008 ) , was recorded in all lentic water - bodies , but with a relatively higher abundance at one site that is characterized by a low landscape diversity and a lack of valley systems within the landscape . conversely , o . coerulescens anceps appeared to be related to relatively heterogeneous landscapes , and the presence of associated lotic water bodies .\nthese contrasting associations for the two orthetrum spp . may be a result of the different habitat preferences of these species , with o . coerulescens anceps normally associated with small ponds and streams with a gentle current , while o . trinacria is associated with large bodies of standing water ( askew 2004 ) . the availability of suitable habitat that is likely to maintain source populations ( sensu pulliam 1988 ) , such as gently flowing streams , is likely to determine the distribution of o . coerulescens anceps within these lanscapes . the multiscale approach adopted within this study permits the identification of unique habitat characteristics for different sites , and the influence these could potentially have on odonate community structure .\n) , a factor which is clearly related to the reproductive ecology of the surveyed species .\n( selys 1840 ) was recorded only in the spring period , with their population subsequently declining to nil . populations of"]}
{"id": 972, "summary": [{"text": "laurasiformes ( meaning \" laurasian forms \" ) is an extinct clade of sauropod dinosaurs from the late early cretaceous of europe , north and south america .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "defined in 2009 by the spanish paleontologist rafael royo-torres as a clade containing sauropods more closely related to tastavinsaurus than to saltasaurus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "genera purported to form part of this clade include aragosaurus , galvesaurus , phuwiangosaurus , venenosaurus , cedarosaurus , tehuelchesaurus , sonorasaurus and tastavinsaurus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "its exact position and validity is uncertain and varies between authors .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "a cladistics analysis found a similar grouping outside titanosauriformes , while others have placed them inside somphospondyli or brachiosauridae , consequently , it has been suggested that tehuelchesaurus along with others of the previously mentioned genera , form two different clades outside titanosaurimorfes ( carbadillo et al. , 2011 ) while a more recent cladistics analysis found no support for the existence of the clade , with a revision of its supporting features finding them problematic due to being poorly defined , not present on most of the \" laurasiforms \" or being features present in many sauropods of other clades . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "laurasiformes", "paragraphs": ["here is a list of species found with the tag\nlaurasiformes\n. click here for a full listing of all species in the paleodex .\n\u25ba description of a new specimen of the sauropod tastavinsaurus sanzi . \u25ba the newly elements confirm the inclusion of this taxon in the clade titanosauriformes . \u25ba laurasiformes is a clade inside of titanosauriformes which containing tastavinsaurus , cedarosaurus and venenosaurus .\nr . royo - torres and l . alcal\u00e1 . 2012 . a new specimen of the cretaceous sauropod tastavinsaurus sanzi from el castellar ( teruel , spain ) , and a phylogenetic analysis of the laurasiformes . cretaceous research 34 ( 1 ) : 61 - 83\n. . . alamosaurus was recovered as a member of the saltasaurinae rather than the sister taxon of opisthocoelicaudia as in wilson ( 2002 ) and gonz\u00e1lez riga et al . ( 2009 ) , or the outgroup to saltasauridae as in upchurch et al . ( 2004 ) and carballido et al . ( 2011a ) . ' laurasiformes ' several authors have found support for a clade of mostly early cretaceous laurasian sauropods , termed ' laurasiformes ' ( canudo et al . , 2008 ; barco , 2009 ; royo - torres , 2009 ; royo - torres et al . , 2012 ) . ' laurasiformes ' was defined by royo - torres ( 2009 ) as a stem - based clade containing sauropods more closely related to tastavinsaurus than saltasaurus , and has been found to include laurasian taxa such as galvesaurus , aragosaurus , tastavinsaurus , phuwiangosaurus , cedarosaurus , sonorasaurus , venenosaurus , and a single gondwanan genus , tehuelchesaurus ( carballido et al . , 2011b ) . . . .\nlaurasiformes ( meaning ` laurasian forms ` ) is an extinct clade of sauropod dinosaurs from the late early cretaceous of europe , north and south america . defined in 2009 by the spanish paleontologist rafael royo - torres as a clade containing sauropods more closely related to tastavinsaurus than to saltasaurus . genera purported to form part of this c . . . . .\nthis work describes a new specimen of the sauropod tastavinsaurus sanzi , the second of this species recovered . found at the la canaleta site ( ct - 19 ) at el castellar ( teruel , spain ) , this new specimen is partially articulated . the site lies at the base of the forcall formation ( early aptian in age ) , which is composed of clays and sand , suggesting the area to have been a very shallow , tidal , coastal environment before becoming deeper at the margin of the maestrazgo basin . the anatomical elements of t . sanzi recovered include 16 dorsal ribs , some remains of the pelvic girdle , a radius , and a complete hindlimb . the original diagnosis of t . sanzi is revised . the characters of this new specimen confirm it to be a taxon of titanosauriformes , and allow its inclusion within the clade laurasiformes , which currently has three taxa : tastavinsaurus , cedarosaurus and venenosaurus . laurasiformes might have its origin in the late jurassic of laurasia and a radiation that occurred in the early cretaceous .\nthis work describes a new specimen of the sauropod tastavinsaurus sanzi , the second of this species recovered . found at the la canaleta site ( ct - 19 ) at el castellar ( teruel , spain ) , this new specimen is partially articulated . the site lies at the base of the forcall formation ( early aptian in age ) , which is composed of clays and sand , suggesting the area to have been a very shallow , tidal , coastal environment before becoming deeper at the margin of the maestrazgo basin . the anatomical elements of t . sanzi recovered include 16 dorsal ribs , some remains of the pelvic girdle , a radius , and a complete hindlimb . the original diagnosis of t . sanzi is revised . the characters of this new specimen confirm it to be a taxon of titanosauriformes , and allow its inclusion within the clade laurasiformes , which currently has three taxa : tastavinsaurus , cedarosaurus and venenosaurus . laurasiformes might have its origin in the late jurassic of laurasia and a radiation that occurred in the early cretaceous .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nparent taxon : titanosauriformes according to r . royo - torres et al . 2012\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\n. . . there are many recent phylogenetic analyses of sauropoda , which vary greatly in number of terminal taxa and examined characters and have produced conflicting results ( curry rogers and forster , 2001 ; wilson , 2002 ; upchurch et al . , 2004 ; curry rogers , 2005 ; bonaparte et al . , 2006 ; rose , 2007 ; canudo et al . , 2008 ; gonz\u00e1 lez riga et al . , 2009chure et al . , 2010 ; ksepka and norell , 2010 ; carballido et al . , 2011acarballido et al . , , 2011bsantucci and de arruda - campos , 2011 ; whitlock , 2011 ; zaher et al . , 2011 ; royo - torres et al . , 2012 ; mannion et al . , 2013mannion et al . , , 2017carballido and sander , 2014 ; gorscak et al . , 2014 ; lacovara et al . , table 1 measurements ( in mm ) of vertebrae of sibirotitan astrosacralis nov . gen . , nov . . . .\n. . . the discovery of more material and an accurate systematic revision will be important to obtain a more precise phylogenetic approach for this taxon . more recently , the presence of more turiasaurian occurrences in spain , portugal , france , the uk , tanzania and morocco has been suggested ( mateus 2009 ; royo - torres et al . 2009 ; royo - torres and cobos 2009 ; santos et al . 2009 ; ortega et al . 2010 ; cobos et al . 2011 ; mocho et al . 2012 ; royo - torres and upchurch 2012 ; mateus et al . 2014 ; royo - torres , cobos , et al . 2014 ; su\u00f1er et al . 2014 ; xing et al . 2015 ) . from spain , an unnamed specimen from . . .\n. . . comparisons of aragosaurus with other sauropods result in the recognition of several new autapomorphies for the las zabacheras taxon . we analyse the phylogenetic relationships of aragosaurus using revised versions of the ' traditional ' data sets presented by wilson ( 2002 ) and ) that include improved sampling of iberian sauropods ( torres & upchurch , 2012 ; royo - torres , alcal\u00e1 & cobos , 2012 ) . we also discuss its position based on a recent analysis of titanosauriform interrelationships ( ) . . . .\n. . . neural spines project posterodorsally in the anteriormost caudal vertebrae , and are strongly directed posteriorly in middle caudal vertebrae . these caudal neural spine orientations represent the plesiomorphic condition , and thus differ from the derived anterodorsal orientation of the neural spines in some basal titanosauriforms such as tastavinsaurus , cedarosaurus , and venenosaurus ( d ' emic , 2012 ; royo - torres , alcal\u00e1 & cobos , 2012 ) . the ratio of the height of the neural spine to centrum height is 1 . 25 in anterior caudal vertebrae . . . .\n. . . the geographical and biochronological extension of this initial project arose in the project dinosarag\u00f3n ( 2010\u20132012 ) , from which we can highlight advances in the research on european stegosaurs in general and their new ichnospecies deltapodus ibericus in particular ( cobos et al . 2010 ) . dinosaur remains have been documented by the din\u00f3polis team in the tithonian\u2013berriasian ( jurassic\u2013cretaceous boundary ; cobos et al . 2010 ; cobos 2011 ; gasc\u00f3 et al . 2012 ) , upper hauterivian\u2013barremian ( luque et al . 2006luque et al . \u20132007 aberasturi et al . 2009 ; royotorres et al . 2011 ; cobos and gasc\u00f3 2012 ; cobos et al . 2012 ) and aptian ( royo - torres 2009 ; royo - torres et al . 2012 ) , and research interest has now moved forward to the poorly known albian age . this decision took into account the fact that valanginian and lower hauterivian sediments have never been recorded in this region because of a stratigraphical hiatus due to palaeogeographical factors . . . .\npaleogeography and evolution of coastal systems of se and nw of the iberian basin ( spain ) during the latest jurassic - lower cretaceous and its relation with the record of dinosaur remains .\nour research during the last 20 years has been chiefly concerned with aspects of the evolution of miocene - pliocene carnivora . areas of particular interest include the functional anatomy and systema\u2026\n[ more ]\nimpact of the number of lymph nodes retrieved on outcome in patients with muscle invasive bladder ca . . .\npurpose : we postulate that the number of lymph nodes examined in cystectomy specimens can have an impact on the outcome of patients with bladder cancer . materials and methods : we analyzed data on 322 patients with muscle invasive bladder cancer who underwent radical cystectomy and bilateral pelvic lymphadenectomy . we evaluated the associations of the number of lymph nodes identified by the . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe cranial anatomy of the sauropod turiasaurus riodevensis and implications for its phylogenetic re . . .\nthe skull of turiasaurus is known from a nearly complete posterior section ( e . g . braincase , skull roof , quadrates and left mandible ) and fragments of the snout ( e . g . portions of premaxilla , maxilla , nasal and lacrimal ) . skull material of the holotypic individual was discovered in close association . comparisons with other sauropods suggest that the turiasaurus skull most closely resembled those . . . [ show full abstract ]\nfossils of a giant sauropod dinosaur , turiasaurus riodevensis , have been recovered from terrestrial deposits of the villar del arzobispo formation ( jurassic - cretaceous boundary ) of riodeva ( teruel province , spain ) . its humerus length ( 1790 millimeters ) and estimated mass ( 40 to 48 metric tons ) indicate that it may have been the most massive terrestrial animal in europe and one of the largest . . . [ show full abstract ]\na new sauropod : tastavinsaurus sanzi gen . et sp . nov . from the early cretaceous ( aptian ) of spain\nthe new sauropod dinosaur tastavinsaurus sanzi , gen . et sp . nov . , from the early aptian of spain is described . the holotype is a partially articulated skeleton of an adult individual recovered from the arsis - 1 site in pe\u00f1arroya de tastavins ( teruel ) at the base of the marine xert formation . it is one of the most complete and best - preserved sauropod dinosaur skeletons from the european early . . . [ show full abstract ]\na new sauropod : tastavinsaurus sanzi gen . et sp . nov . from the early cretaceous ( aptian ) of spain\nthe new sauropod dinosaur tastavinsaurus sanzi , gen . et sp . nov . , from the early aptian of spain is described . the holotype is a partially articulated skeleton of an adult individual recovered from the arsis - 1 site in pe\u00f1arroya de tastavins ( teruel ) at the base of the marine xert formation . it is one of the most complete and bestpreserved sauropod dinosaur skeletons from the european early . . . [ show full abstract ]\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nas part our commitment to scholarly and academic excellence , all articles receive editorial review .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\ntastavinsaurus was a herbivore . it lived in the cretaceous period and inhabited europe . its fossils have been found in places such as valencian community ( spain ) .\ng . cuenca - besc\u00f3s and o . amo . 1999 . dinosaurios de arag\u00f3n [ dinosaurs of aragon ] . zub\u00eda 17 : 235 - 257\nmacronaria is a clade of sauropod dinosaurs from the middle jurassic ( bathonian ) to late cretaceous periods of what are now north america , south america , europe , asia , africa and australia . the name means ' large nostrils ' ( from scientists ' reinterpretation of greek makros , ' long , ' as ' big , ' and latin nares , ' nostrils ' ) , in reference to the large nasal openings high on the head that probably supported fleshy resonating chambers . macronaria consists of a single main group , titanosauriformes , along with several more basal taxa . titanosauriformes in turn contains the brachiosaurids and the titanosaurians and is one of the largest sauropod groups , which also contains some of the longest , tallest and most massive dinosaurs of all time .\nthe cladogram below follows jos\u00e9 l . carballido , oliver w . m . rauhut , diego pol and leonardo salgado ( 2011 ) .\np . d . mannion , p . upchurch , r . n . barnes and o . mateus . 2013 . osteology of the late jurassic portuguese sauropod dinosaur lusotitan atalaiensis ( macronaria ) and the evolutionary history of basal titanosauriforms . zoological journal of the linnean society 168 : 98 - 206\np . upchurch , p . m . barrett , and p . dodson . 2004 . sauropoda . in d . b . weishampel , h . osmolska , and p . dodson ( eds . ) , the dinosauria ( 2nd edition ) . university of california press , berkeley 259 - 322\nmocho , p . , royo\u2010torres , r . , & ortega , f . ( 2014 ) . phylogenetic reassessment of lourinhasaurus alenquerensis , a basal macronaria ( sauropoda ) from the upper jurassic of portugal . zoological journal of the linnean society , 170 ( 4 ) , 875 - 916 .\npaul m . barrett , roger b . j . benson and paul upchurch ( 2010 ) .\ndinosaurs of dorset : part ii , the sauropod dinosaurs ( saurischia , sauropoda ) with additional comments on the theropods\n.\np . d . mannion . 2010 . a revision of the sauropod dinosaur genus ' bothriospondylus ' with a redescription of the type material of the middle jurassic form ' b . madagascariensis . palaeontology 53 ( 2 ) : 277 - 296\njos\u00e9 l . carballido , oliver w . m . rauhut , diego pol and leonardo salgado ( 2011 ) .\nmateus , o . , jacobs , l . l . , schulp , a . s . , polcyn , m . j . , tavares , t . s . , buta neto , a . , . . . & antunes , m . t . ( 2011 ) . angolatitan adamastor , a new sauropod dinosaur and the first record from angola . anais da academia brasileira de ci\u00eancias , 83 ( 1 ) , 221 - 233 .\nmannion , p . d . , upchurch , p . , barnes , r . n . , & mateus , o . ( 2013 ) . osteology of the late jurassic portuguese sauropod dinosaur lusotitan atalaiensis ( macronaria ) and the evolutionary history of basal titanosauriforms . zoological journal of the linnean society , 168 ( 1 ) , 98 - 206 .\nupchurch , p . ( 1998 ) .\nthe phylogenetic relationships of sauropod dinosaurs\n.\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 11 / 12 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files ."]}
{"id": 984, "summary": [{"text": "dendrochirus biocellatus , known commonly as the twospot turkeyfish or ocellated lionfish among other vernacular names , is a species of marine fish in the family scorpaenidae .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "the twospot turkeyfish is widespread throughout the tropical waters of the indo-west pacific region , and it grows up to 13 centimetres ( 5.1 in ) in length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "in the wild , the species eats small fish as well as shrimp .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "in captivity , the fish is somewhat shy .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "furthermore , it may hide in crevices during daylight .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the species has successfully bred in an aquarium . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "dendrochirus biocellatus", "paragraphs": ["cyndy parr marked\nimage of dendrochirus biocellatus\nas trusted on the\ndendrochirus biocellatus\npage .\ncyndy parr set\nfile : dendrochirus biocellatus . jpg\nas an exemplar on\ndendrochirus biocellatus ( fowler , 1938 )\n.\ncyndy parr marked\nfile : dendrochirus biocellatus1 . jpg\nas trusted on the\ndendrochirus biocellatus\npage .\nyan wong changed the thumbnail image of\nfile : dendrochirus biocellatus . jpg\n.\ncyndy parr changed the thumbnail image of\nfile : dendrochirus biocellatus1 . jpg\n.\na twinspot lionfish , dendrochirus biocellatus , at bunaken island , manado , north sulawesi , indonesia , november 2011 . source : rob , bbm explorer / flickr / urltoken license : cc by attribution - noderivatives\nlionfish of this species , dendrochirus , are allowed to be shipped into the state of florida . only species of the genus pterois are banned .\ni have been fortunate enough to keep all the species of lionfish available in the trade . of these , my favorite is still the twinspot lionfish , dendrochirus biocellatus . this member of the subfamily is a unique species that is less frequently seen in aquarium stores than many of its kin .\nthis species is not uncommon throughout its range , but is rarely observed ( h . motomura pers . comm . 2015 ) . little is known regarding its population status . there are 109 museum records of dendrochirus biocellatus ( accessed through the fishnet2 portal , urltoken , 2015 - 04 ) .\nauthor : frank vincentz license : attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported ( cc by - sa 3 . 0 ) urltoken description : twospot turkeyfish ( dendrochirus biocellatus ) in the zoo of wuppertal , germany . link : urltoken title : wuppertal - zoo - dendrochirus biocellatus 01 ( 0 ) ies . webm details of the licenses can be found on this channel ' s\nabout\npage . in this video , no changes or modifications have been made to the original material . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -\nthere are no species specific conservation efforts in place . the distribution of d . biocellatus may overlap with some marine protected areas ( iucn and unep 2014 ) .\ndendrochirus biocellatus is a reef associated species commonly found at depths of 1 to 40 m ( lieske and myers 1994 ) . it reaches a maximum standard length of 12 cm ( poss 1999 ) . this species is very secretive , and has been found in clear waters with a high concentration of corals . it spends its days hiding in caves and sponges , and only comes out at night to feed ( kuiter and tonozuka 2001 ) .\nlionfishes are members of the family scorpaenidae ( scorpionfishes ) and the subfamily pteroinae . there are six genera in this subfamily and approximately 22 species . the two genera that you most often see in the aquarium trade belong to the genera dendrochirus and pterois . members of these two genera are easily separated by the form of their pectoral fins . in dendrochirus spp . the pectoral fin rays do not reach the base of the caudal fin , they are branched and are connected by a membrane over much of their length .\n( of nemapterois biocellatus fowler , 1938 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\njustification : dendrochirus biocellatus is widespread in the indo - west pacific and not uncommon . little is known regarding its population status , and it is rarely observed in nature . although it is associated with coral reefs , which have been declining in geographic area and quality in parts of its range , it is unknown how this might be impacting the population globally . given this species ' wide distribution , it is listed as least concern ; however , additional research on its population trend is necessary .\ndendrochirus biocellatus has a broad distribution in the indo - west pacific ( poss 1999 ) . this species ranges from the western mascaranes , maldives and sri lanka , east to the mariana and tuamotu islands , north to southern japan , south to the timor sea reefs off northwestern australia , new caledonia , and tonga ( allen and erdmann 2012 ) . it is found in shallow waters less than 40 m deep ( allen and erdmann 2012 , h . motomura pers . comm . 2015 ) .\ndespite being quite diminutive as lionfish go , d . biocellatus still possesses venomous dorsal spines that can deliver a severe sting to unwary aquarists . so , don\u2019t assume you can let down your guard when transferring these little lions or working in a tank containing one .\nnemapterois biocellatus fowler 1938 , proc . u . s . natl mus . 85 ( 3032 ) : 81 , fig . 36 . type locality : albatross station d . 15136 , off jolo light , philippines , 22 fathoms [ 6\u00b004\u00b420\nn , 120\u00b059\u00b420\ne ] .\nthe twinspot lionfish is considered to be the most difficult member of the subfamily to maintain . this is due to the fact that they can be reluctant to eat anything but live food . the best diet you can provide for d . biocellatus are ghost shrimp . you should gut pack these ( feed them a nutritious flake or frozen food ) before you feed them to you twinspot lionfish . i have yet to have an individual that would not eat these crustaceans . however , i have not had much success getting d . biocellatus to accept nonliving foods , including bits of food on the end of a feeding stick . so before you purchase a d . biocellatus , make sure you have access to ghost shrimp . juvenile twinspot lionfish will also eat live brine shrimp . you should feed your twinspot lionfish several of these shrimp every other day .\nd . biocellatus can be considered reef safe , as it will not nip at or consume sessile invertebrates . however , keep in mind that ornamental crustaceans will not be safe , and specimens may come to rest upon corals , potentially irritating them and causing them to remain in a contracted state .\nin terms of its ease of care , i would characterize d . biocellatus species as moderately difficult . so , it\u2019s not a great choice for beginners , but if you have a few years of successful fishkeeping experience under your belt and are willing to give it the specialized care it requires , you won\u2019t be disappointed !\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 13 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 9 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 5 . eye - like spots in the soft dorsal fin and feeler - like tentacles in front of the mouth ( ref . 48635 ) . mid - dorsal spines shorter than body depth . the only species of dendrochirus with a pair of distinct ocelli on the soft - rayed dorsal fin ( ref . 37816 ) .\ndendrochirus biocellatus is thought to feed mostly on crustaceans , although food habit data is lacking for this species . it exhibits an unusual behavior when it feeds . it will snap its dorsal spines and shake its head from side - to - side as it approaches its prey . this behavior may serve to distract , or possibly attract , the prey item . thaler ( 2004 ) has suggested that the fleshy barbels that extend from the upper jaw may act to attract fish into striking distance . it often stalks its quarry by slinking along the bottom or around reef structure like a cat , and moves forward , either by\nhopping\non its pelvic fins or by undulating its caudal fin . when it is about one - half a body length away from its prey , it lunges forward with amazing speed to ingest it .\nfeeding a twinspot lionfish in an aquarium that contains other aggressive feeders can be a problem . therefore , potential competitors , like groupers , soapfishes , snappers and triggerfishes do not make good d . biocellatus tankmates . this lionfish may have difficulty getting anything to eat with these more aggressive gluttons . you may have to present ghost shrimp to the twinspot lionfish in a fine meshed fish net . place the shrimp in the net and move it slowly toward the area where the lionfish is hiding . with time , this lionfish can usually be trained to swim to the net opening and snap up the shrimp inside . this method is also effective for feeding this fish in a reef aquarium . large angelfishes , triggerfishes , pufferfishes and porcupinefishes can also cause problems when kept with d . biocellatus . they have been known to nip the fins of this fish .\nd . biocellatus reaches only about 5 inches in total length and is mottled with various shades of orange , brown , black , and white . its pectoral fins are large and fan - like , and it sports two prominent ocelli , or eyespots , on the posterior of the dorsal fin . this species\u2019 other notable feature are the two elongated appendages extending from the corners of the mouth , somewhat resembling a long , droopy moustache\u2014thus the \u201cfu manchu\u201d appellation .\nthis is where the \u201cpotentially picky\u201d part comes in . one of the chief frustrations among hobbyists who keep this species is that it can be very difficult to get it to accept standard aquarium fare . in nature , d . biocellatus feeds primarily on small fish and crustaceans , and in many instances , captive specimens resist making the switch to non - living fare for prolonged periods . in these situations , items such as live ghost shrimp may be necessary to initiate a feeding response . some specimens simply refuse to eat altogether , so it\u2019s important to see a potential purchase fed before you acquire it .\nlike all the lionfishes , d . biocellatus is suitable for a reef tank if you are not interested in keeping shrimp and smaller fishes , especially benthic species like gobies and blennies . this lionfish is less of threat to more active fish species than its relatives due to its slightly smaller mouth and unique hunting behavior . do not expect to see your twinspot lionfish much if your aquarium is replete with live rock . smaller specimens tend to be more secretive than adults are and some larger individuals will come out into the open as they become more accustomed to aquarium life . the best way to view these fish in a reef aquarium is to place a red fluorescent or incandescent bulb over the tank at night .\nyou have to strike a delicate balance in choosing tankmates for d . biocellatus . on the one hand , you have to be careful to avoid aggressive predators and species prone to nipping fins / appendages , as either type of tankmate will stress the lion , outcompete it at feeding time , and likely keep it in hiding . on the other hand , you have to avoid introducing any fish small enough to be perceived as potential prey by this stealthy hunter . also , conspecifics will often squabble , so it\u2019s best to keep this species one to a tank . apart from those considerations , any peaceful , keep - to - themselves species that are at least as large as the lion should be acceptable as tankmates .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncfm script by eagbayani , 12 . 10 . 04 , php script by rolavides , 05 / 02 / 08 , last modified by cgarilao , 13 / 05 / 08\ngreek , dendron = tree + greek , cheir = hands ; with tree like marks ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 1 - 40 m ( ref . 9710 ) . tropical ; 32\u00b0n - 18\u00b0s\nindo - pacific : mauritius , reunion , maldives and sri lanka ( ref . 33390 ) to the society islands , north to southern japan , south to scott reef .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 13 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 48635 )\nan uncommon inhabitant of clear waters rich in corals to depths of 40 m or more . feeds on small fishes and crustaceans ( ref . 89972 ) . secretive and usually observed at night . during the day in caves and sponges , and usually well out of sight ( ref . 48635 ) . venomous spines .\nmyers , r . f . , 1991 . micronesian reef fishes . second ed . coral graphics , barrigada , guam . 298 p . ( ref . 1602 )\n) : 26 . 6 - 28 . 9 , mean 28 ( based on 432 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5078 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01148 ( 0 . 00449 - 0 . 02935 ) , b = 3 . 09 ( 2 . 87 - 3 . 31 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 7 \u00b10 . 6 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 29 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhave long been a fan of lionfishes . in fact , these fishes were partially responsible for baptism into the marine aquarium hobby over 30 years ago . i have been fortunate enough to keep all the species available in the trade . of these , my favorite is still\n. this member of the subfamily , which is referred to commonly as the twinspot , ocellated or fu manchu lionfish , is a unique species that is less frequently seen in aquarium stores than many of its kin . the two barbels on the upper jaw and pair of ocelli on the soft dorsal fin set\napart from all of its relatives . in this article , i would like to share some of my musings , and the observations of others , on this unusual scorpaenid .\na twinspot lionfish ( a . k . a . fu manchu lionfish ) showing the characteristic moustache .\nthe two ocelli on each side of the dorsal fin can change color depending on the lionfish ' s mood or social status .\na twinspot lionfish off batangas , philippines hanging upside down under a patch reef overhang . this is the darker color form .\na beautiful twinspot lionfish in the field . this is a reclusive species that is rarely seen in the open during the day .\nthe twinspot lionfish is known from mauritius to the society islands , north to japan and south to australia . it has been reported at depths of 1 to 40 m ( 3 . 3 to 132 ft . ) in lagoons , on coastal fringing reefs and on patch reefs . it is also found on outer reef faces and slopes . it tends to prefer microhabitats with rich stony and / or soft coral growth . it is a secretive species that spends the daytime hours hanging upside down in deeper crevices and caves . a diver might occasionally catch a glimpse of one of these fish moving from one crevice to another during the day . however , it is most readily observed during night dives , at which time it comes out to hunt .\nthe ocelli on the soft portion of the dorsal fin may serve a communicative function . they can change from black to a faded gray . this color change often occurs during aggressive interactions and courtship . in agonistic interactions the ocelli will typically fade in the dominant individual , while during courtship the spots fade in males . thaler ( 2004 ) reports that the ocelli can take on a turquoise color and that the eyespot adopts this color when the fish is excited ( whether by food , a mate or a competitor ) .\nthis lionfish will do better in a smaller tank where they are kept on their own than in a larger community tank where feeding them can be difficult . adult twinspot lionfish can be kept in tanks as small as 20 gallons . it is imperative to provide this secretive fish with caves , crevices and overhangs in order for it to properly acclimate . i have had even had specimens hang upside down under the heads of large leather corals .\nadult twinspot lionfish will eat smaller members of their own species and larger specimens ( presumably males ) will behave aggressively toward conspecifics . when displaying the fan - like pectoral fins are extended forward , the dorsal spines are erected and the body quivers . smaller individuals will usually flee when a larger individual display , but threats may escalate into fighting if both fish are similar in size and one specimen does not back down . in this case biting and dorsal fin jabbing may occur , which can result in torn fins , scale loss , damaged eyes and even death if the fish are not separated . if you keep more than one twinspot lionfish in a larger aquarium ( e . g . , 70 gallons or more ) they will usually avoid each other , but in smaller aquaria dominant specimens often stalk and injure subordinate conspecifics .\nall the lionfishes are venomous . an injection of venom from the fin spines can cause intense pain and swelling . for this reason , it is important to be very careful when ever you place your hands in your aquarium . make sure you know where your lionfish is before moving aquarium decor or equipment . if you are stung by your twinspot lionfish , immediately immerse the wound in hot , nonscalding water ( from 43 . 3 to 45 \u00bac , or 110 to 113 \u00baf , for 30 or 40 minutes or until pain has diminished ) or heat it with a hair dryer . the heat will denature the protein that constitutes the venom and prevent it from spreading through your body .\nalthough the twinspot lionfish is more demanding than some of its relatives , this fish can make a fascinating addition to the species tank or reef aquarium . happy fish - watching !\nmichael , s . w . 1998 . reef fishes . volume 1 . microcosm , shelburne , vt . 624 pp .\nthaler , e . 2004 . lionfishes - personal observations on their behaviors and suggestions for aquarium care . coral 1 ( 4 ) : 36 - 40 .\ncopyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 by pomacanthus publications , llc , all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) . 2015 . catalog of fishes . updated 7 january 2015 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 7 january 2015 ) .\namerican samoa ; australia ; china ; christmas island ; comoros ; cook islands ; disputed territory ( spratly is . ) ; fiji ; french polynesia ; guam ; india ; indonesia ; japan ; kiribati ( gilbert is . , kiribati line is . , phoenix is . ) ; malaysia ; maldives ; marshall islands ; mauritius ; mayotte ; micronesia , federated states of ; myanmar ; nauru ; new caledonia ; northern mariana islands ; palau ; papua new guinea ; philippines ; r\u00e9union ; samoa ; solomon islands ; sri lanka ; taiwan , province of china ; thailand ; timor - leste ; tokelau ; tonga ; tuvalu ; united states minor outlying islands ( howland - baker is . , us line is . ) ; vanuatu ; wallis and futuna\n. 2008 ) . of 704 zooxanthellate reef - building coral species which were assessed by using the iucn red list criteria , 32 . 8 % are in categories with elevated risk of extinction ( carpenter\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthat are small and retiring enough to be kept successfully in fairly modest - sized quarters . among these is the subject of today\u2019s post :\n, the fu manchu lionfish , also known as the twinspot lionfish , ocellated lionfish , or twospot turkeyfish .\nwith patience and persistence , though , it\u2019s often possible to train these little lions to accept non - living meaty items , such as shrimp , silversides , clam meat , and the like . the best way to achieve this is to present the item on a feeding stick or section of rigid airline tubing and give it a little jiggle so it appears lifelike .\nbecause this species is small , very shy , secretive , and typically found resting on or hopping / scooting / fluttering around the rockwork , it doesn\u2019t demand much in the way of open swimming space . it does , however , need lots of caves and hidey holes in which to refuge , so the aquarium should be large enough to allow appropriate aquascaping . i would consider 30 gallons a good minimum tank size .\nif you enjoyed this post , subscribe to get our new posts in your email .\njeff kurtz is the co - founder / editor of saltwater smarts , former senior consulting editor for tropical fish hobbyist magazine , and the aquarist formerly known as \u201cthe salt creep . \u201d he has been an aquarium hobbyist for over 30 years and is an avid scuba diver .\nsaltwater smarts is a unique online resource created to inspire and entertain a new generation of marine aquarium hobbyists while helping them succeed with a saltwater system . learn more\nsaltwater smarts is a participant in the amazon services llc associates program , an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to amazon . com . to learn more , please check out our disclosure page .\nan uncommon inhabitant of clear waters rich in corals to depths of 40 m or more . feeds on small fishes and crustaceans ( ref . 89972 ) . secretive and usually observed at night . during the day in caves and sponges , and usually well out of sight ( ref . 48635 ) . venomous spines .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nthe fu manchu lionfish gets it\u2019s name from the long mustache appendages on the front of it\u2019s mouth . this dwarf species is one of the more difficult of the lionfish to maintain as it is often difficult to adapt to a captive diet . keep with lesser aggressive tankmates . males , often noted as larger specimens , can often be aggressive toward other fu manchu lionfish and may eat them . lionfish will eat smaller fishes , ornamental shrimps and crabs . this species is venomous . the pelvic , pectoral and dorsal fins of this animal can cause extreme pain . if allergic , severe reactions can occur . if stung soak injured area in hot water and seek medical attention immediately . smaller specimens will adapt to captivity and accept captive diets more easily . lionfish will likely remain hidden in brightly lit aquariums as it prefers dimmer lighting .\nfu manchu lionfish , small : over 1 - 1 . 5\n, indo pacific\nfu manchu lionfish , medium : over 1 . 5 - 3 . 5\n, indo pacific\nfu manchu lionfish , large : over 3 . 5 - 5 . 5\n, indo pacific\ndue to availability and individuality of each species , colors and sizes may vary .\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of nemapterois biocellata fowler , 1938 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\na reddish - brown lionfish with a pair ( sometimes three ) of large black ocelli on the soft dorsal fin , three pink to yellowish bars on sides , pale and brown bands on pectoral fins , and a very long tentacle in front of the eye .\nscott reef , western australia , ashmore and hibernia reefs , timor sea , and christmas island , indian ocean . inhabits areas of rich coral growth on clear reefs , usually sheltering in caves and on ledges during the day .\ndorsal fin xiii , 9 ; anal fin iii , 5 ; pectoral fin 20 - 21 ; longitudinal scale series 48 - 51 . membranes of spinous dorsal fin deeply incised ; pectoral fins large , wing - like , upper rays fully connected by membranes , lower rays unbranched and free of membranes distally . lachrimal tentacle elongate , more than twice eye diameter .\n. christmas island : christmas island natural history association 2 edn , 284 pp .\nfowler , h . w . 1938 . descriptions of new fishes obtained by the united states bureau of fisheries steamer albatross , chiefly in philippine seas and adjacent waters .\nfricke , r . , kulbicki , m . & wantiez , l . 2011 . checklist of the fishes of new caledonia , and their distribution in the southwest pacific ocean ( pisces ) .\nmicronesian reef fishes : a comprehensive guide to the coral reef fishes of micronesia .\nposs , s . g . 1999 . families scorpaenidae , caracanthidae , aploactinidae . pp . 2291 - 2358 in carpenter , k . e . & niem , t . h . ( eds ) .\nthe living marine resources of the western central pacific . fao species identification guide for fisheries purposes"]}
{"id": 990, "summary": [{"text": "epipristis oxyodonta is a moth of the family geometridae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in australia ( western australia , the northern territory and queensland ) .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "adults are pale grey with a scalloped dark submarginal line on each wing .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the underside of the wings is pale grey with a broad dark band along the margin , and a central dark spot . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "epipristis oxyodonta", "paragraphs": ["epipristis nelearia ( guen\u00e9e , 1857 ) = hypochroma nelearia guen\u00e9e , 1857 = epipristis nelearia accessa prout , 1937 .\nepipristis truncataria ; [ mob9 ] : 205 , f . 124 - 125 , pl . 5\nepipristis nelearia ; [ mob9 ] : 205 , f . 122 , 126 , pl . 5\nthe adult moths of this species are pale grey with a scalloped dark submarginal line on each wing . underneath , each wing is pale grey with a broad dark band along the margin , and a dark spot in the middle .\nstuttgart : alfred kernen verlag , part 12 ( 1934 ) , p . 138 .\nacidalia truncataria walker , 1861 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 23 : 774\npingarmia transiens sterneck , 1927 ; dt . ent . z . iris 41 : 148\n[ \u00b2 ] this may require parentheses or not . i don ' t have the necessary information for this taxon .\nhistoire naturelle des insectes . species g\u00e9n\u00e9ral des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e9res . volume 9 . uranides et phal\u00e9nites\n( uranides & phalenides ) : pl . 1 - 10 , ( uranides ) pl . 1 ( 1858 ) ,\n( uranides , phalenides , siculides ) : pl . 12 - 22 , ( 1858 ) pl .\nwalker , 1861 list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 20 : 1 - 276 ( 1860 ) , 21 : 277 - 498 ( 1860 ) , 22 : 499 - 755 ( 1861 ) , 23 : 757 - 1020 ( 1861 ) , 24 : 1021 - 1280 ( 1862 ) , 25 : 1281 - 1477 ( 1862 ) , 26 : 1479 - 1796 ( [ 1863 ] )\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nsend mail to wvdvorst @ urltoken with questions or comments about this web site . copyright \u00a9 2015 urltoken lepidoptera of the world last modified : 01 - 03 - 15\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . ."]}
{"id": 997, "summary": [{"text": "albulidae is a family of fish , commonly known as the bonefishes , that are popular as game fish in florida , select locations in the south pacific and the bahamas ( where two bonefish are featured on the 10-cent coin ) and elsewhere .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the family is small , with 11 species in 3 genera .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "presently , the bonefishes are in their own order : albuliformes / \u02cc\u00e6lbj\u1d7fl\u1d7b\u02c8f\u0254\u02d0rmi\u02d0z / .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the families halosauridae and notacanthidae were previously classified in this order , but are now , according to fishbase , given their own order notacanthiformes .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the largest bonefish caught in the western hemisphere is a 16-pound , 3 ounce example caught off islamorada , florida , on march 19 , 2007 . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "bonefishes", "paragraphs": ["bonefishes are popular sport fishes . bonefishes are not considered a food fish in florida , and most are released when caught . halosaurs and spiny eels are of no commercial value .\nresolving evolutionary lineages and taxonomy of bonefishes ( albula spp . ) | brian bowen - urltoken\nbonefishes and people : in many areas bonefishes are important business for people who make their living running fishing trips , especially in the florida keys . fishermen like to try for bonefishes because the fish are difficult to sneak up on and fight hard when they are hooked . people who fish for bonefishes in most areas need special boats that can enter shallow water with little or no noise . bonefishes are not considered a food fish in florida , and most bonefishes are released when caught . in some areas of the world , however , people do eat bonefish .\nbonefishes are elongate , fusiform fishes with a conical snout and a subterminal mouth . like their relatives , the ladyfish and tarpon , bonefishes begin life as leptocephalus larvae and possess a gular plate . however , the gular plate of bonefishes is rudimentary and easily overlooked . bonefishes are sought by many sportsmen , but are of little value as foodfish due to the numerous small bones in the flesh . bonefishes are shallow - water , nearshore inhabitants that forage on sandy or muddy bottoms for worms , mollusks , and small fishes .\nthe evolutionary enigma of bonefishes ( albula spp . ) : cryptic species and ancient separations in a globally distributed shorefish\nthe evolutionary enigma of bonefishes ( albula spp . ) : cryptic species and ancient separations in a globally distributed shorefish .\nthe evolutionary enigma of bonefishes ( albula spp . ) : cryptic species and ancient separations in a globally distributed shorefish .\nalbuliformes ( bonefishes and relatives ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nbonefishes and relatives : albuliformes .\ngrzimek ' s student animal life resource . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nfishes of the family albulidae , order albuliformes ( bonefishes ) . see fishbase for more information on this family . ( see also :\nthe evolutionary enigma of bonefishes ( albula spp . ) : cryptic species and ancient separations in a globally distributed shorefish . - pubmed - ncbi\nhabitat : bonefishes live in tropical shallow - water areas . they are most abundant at depths of less than 115 feet ( 35 meters ) and often feed in water less than 3 . 3 feet ( 1 meter ) deep . bonefishes also can be found in shallow grass flats and sandy areas .\nalbuliformes ( bonefishes and relatives ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nbonefishes and relatives : albuliformes .\ngrzimek ' s student animal life resource . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nbonefishes live in small schools in sometimes extremely shallow water . they are ready to reproduce when they are about three and a half to four years old . the spawning areas of bonefishes , or the areas where they produce and release their eggs , are unknown . bonefishes live for at least nineteen years . spiny eel larvae ( lar - vee ) , or spiny eels in the early stage of development before becoming adults , can reach a length of 3 . 3 to 6 . 6 feet ( 1 to 2 meters ) .\ndiet : bonefishes feed on a variety of small bottom - dwelling invertebrates and fishes . feeding often takes place in shallow water , where bonefishes can be seen with their fins sticking out of the water as they seek food . as they forage ( for - ihj ) , or search for food , bonefish schools frequently dig in the bottom and disturb the mud and sand .\nb . w . bowen .\nthe evolutionary enigma of bonefishes ( albula spp . ) : cryptic species and ancient separations in a globally distributed shorefish .\nevolution 55 , no . 4 ( 2001 ) : 807\u2013820 .\nbonefishes eat fishes and small invertebrates ( in - ver - teh - brehts ) , or animals without backbones . halosaurs and spiny eels eat bottom - dwelling animals , including worms ; mollusks ( mah - lusks ) , or soft - bodied , usually hard - shelled animals such as clams ; and crustaceans ( krus - tay - shuns ) , or water - dwelling animals without a backbone and that have jointed legs . larger bonefishes also eat fish .\nthe feature shared by bonefishes and their relatives , the halosaurs ( hah - leh - sawrs ) and the spiny eels , is an open canal , or a tube - shaped passage , in the lower jaw that is an extension of the series of pores and tiny tubes along each side of a fish ' s body used for sensing vibrations ( vie - bray - shuns ) . bonefishes have a long , thin body that tapers , or gets thinner , at each end . the relatives are eel shaped with a very long anal ( ay - nuhl ) fin , the fin that runs along the bottom of the body , and no tail fin . most bonefishes and their relatives are 3 . 3 feet ( 1 meter ) long or shorter .\nbehavior and reproduction : bonefishes are remarkable because they commonly go into water that is extremely shallow for the size of the fishes . they can use their swim bladder , an internal sac usually used to control position in the water , for breathing . these fishes usually swim in small schools of five to twenty , although they sometimes swim in large schools of one hundred or more . people fishing for bonefishes often find them by spotting their tails sticking out of the water as the fishes dig in the bottom for food .\nbonefishes live in shallow tropical waters , or waters with an average annual temperature more than 68\u00b0f ( 20\u00b0c ) . halosaurs and spiny eels live at the bottom of the ocean in water that is 3 , 281\u20139843 feet ( 1 , 000\u20133 , 000 meters ) deep .\ncitation :\nbonefishes , albula vulpes ~ marinebio . org .\nmarinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 1 / 14 / 2013 2 : 22 : 00 pm ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio\nhidaka , iwatsuki & randall ( 2008 ) .\na review of the indo - pacific bonefishes of the albula argentea complex , with a description of a new species\n. ichthyological research 55 ( 1 ) : 53\u201364 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s10228 - 007 - 0010 - 5 .\ncolborn , j . , crabtree , r . e . , shakee , j . b . , pfeiler , e . and bowen , b . w . 2001 . the evolutionary enigma of bonefishes ( albula spp . ) : crytic species and ancient separations in a globally - distributed shorefish . evolution 55 : 807 - 820 .\nmale bonefishes are ready to reproduce when they are about 15 inches ( 38 centimeters ) long and about three and a half years old . females are ready at a length of about 19 inches ( 48 centimeters ) and about four years of age . spawning , or the production and release of eggs , peaks from november to may . females contain about 0 . 4 million to 1 . 7 million eggs , and the number of eggs increases with the weight of the fish . spawning areas are not known . the long , clear larvae reach a length of about 3 inches ( 8 centimeters ) . the fishes shrink during metamorphosis ( meh - tuh - mor - pho - sus ) , or the changes in form that some animals make to become adults , and the fins appear during the shrinking . in about ten to twelve days , the fishes look like miniature adults . bonefishes grow rapidly until the age of about six years , and then growth slows . bonefishes live for at least nineteen years .\nbonefishes , albula vulpes ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , are one of the most important game fishes in the world . these beautiful fish can reach weights and lengths of up to 10 kg and 104 cm respectively , though a more representative size would be about a third of that . bonefishes have 15 - 19 dorsal soft rays , 7 - 9 anal soft rays , 12 - 14 branchiostegal rays , and 69 - 74 vertebrae . bonefishes appear blue - greenish above , with bright silver scales on the sides and below . dark streaks run in between their rows of scales , predominantly on their dorsal side . their bodies are long , thin , and fusiform , with bluntly conical snouts . pectoral and pelvic axillary scales are present , as is a single long scale on each side of the membrane between each ray of their dorsal and anal fins . bonefish have a unique adaptation for tolerating oxygen - poor water ; they inhale air into a lung - like airbladder to supplement oxygen from the water . they are sometimes mistaken for ladyfishes , which look similar . linnaeus first described the bonefish in 1758 . its scientific name can be translated as\nwhite fox .\nbonefishes , albula vulpes , prefer reefs , shallows , estuaries , bays , grass flats , and other brackish areas at depths from 0 to 84 m . they are found worldwide in subtropical warm seas . in the eastern pacific , their range includes waters off california to peru ; the western atlantic range stretches from north carolina to florida , the bahamas , the gulf of mexico , the antilles and the rest of the caribbean to brazil .\na pelagic fish , bonefishes nonetheless feed on benthic creatures such as worms , crustaceans , and mollusks , rooting them out from the sandy bottom . granular teeth , forming specialized dental plates , cover the bonefish ' s tongue and upper jaw , and similar grinders are also present in the throat , helping the fish to grind up its prey . small to medium - size individuals often feed in schools . sharks and barracuda often prey on bonefish .\nthis paper is a tribute to yosi sinoto , a pioneer in the study of indigenous polynesian fishing technologies and east polynesian prehistory . it builds on his research by considering the historical role of bonefishes ( albula spp . , family albulidae ) across polynesia . bonefishes are relatively large , schooling , nearshore species which , on several grounds , constitute high - return resources as defined by foraging models , especially in relation to polynesian fishing technologies . ecological , life history , and sportfishing data is compiled in support of this claim , while their role in indigenous fisheries is assessed with linguistic , ethnographic , and archaeological evidence . the latter shows that , despite being naturally distributed across the region , and recognized by a common polynesian referent ( kiokio or a close cognate ) , only two polynesian localities ( cook and hawaiian islands ) provide unambiguous historical evidence for well - developed albula fisheries ; their historical importance also is suggested on tubuai ( austral islands ) where they have declined . in tokelau and in the tuamotu islands they play a modest role in contemporary fisheries , while the evidence compiled here suggests more incidental use elsewhere in polynesia . three hypotheses are examined to explain the disjunction between the highreturn potentials of bonefishes and the available evidence for their traditional importance : 1 ) ethnographic and archaeological preservation and / or collection biases are factors ; 2 ) bonefishing was once more widely practiced but has declined as a result of harvesting pressures , climate change , or other processes ; and / or 3 ) geographic variability in conditions favoring bonefish abundance ( e . g . , habitat , food sources ) have led to a discontinuous and uneven pattern of cultural use across polynesia . the available evidence suggests that all three factors may be relevant .\nphysical characteristics : bonefishes have a blue - green back with narrow , dark , horizontal lines . the sides are silver . the tail is deeply forked . the average weight of a bonefish is 2 to 5 pounds ( 0 . 9 to 2 . 3 kilograms ) , and its average length is 12 to 30 inches ( 30 to 76 centimeters ) , but these fishes can weigh as much as 10 pounds ( 4 . 5 kilograms ) and be 41 inches ( 104 centimeters ) long . the upper jaw juts out beyond the lower jaw and does not have teeth .\nin albulidae ( bonefishes ) the body is moderately slender . the snout is distinctively pointed and conical . the mouth is inferior , and the snout projects well beyond the tip of the lower jaw . all fins lack spines . the dorsal fin originates at about the midpoint of the body in albula . in istieus the dorsal fin origin is more forward , and the fin is elongate , extending nearly to the caudal fin . the anal fin is short and originates well behind the base of the dorsal fin . the pelvic fins are positioned below the last dorsal fin rays in albula and under the middle of the dorsal fin in istieus . scales are small . most fishes are less than 3 . 3 ft ( 1 m ) in length . the back of albula is blue - green in color , with narrow , dark horizontal lines that fade rapidly after death . the sides are silvery .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nforey , p . , d . littlewood , p . ritchie and a . meyer , 1996 | carroll , r . , 1988\nbody eel - like ; posteriorly directed spine on dorsal edge of rear of maxilla ; premaxilla and maxilla bordering upper jaw ; gill membranes separate ; pectoral fins relatively high on body ; pelvic fins abdominal , with 7 - 11 rays ( the two fins are usually connected by a membrane ) ; anal fin base long and merged with what remains of the caudal fin ; caudal fin skeleton reduced or absent ; tail easily regenerated when lost ; branchiostegal rays 5 - 23 ; swim bladder present . some have photophores .\ngreek aktis = ray , thunderbolt , beam + greek pterygion , diminutive of pteryx = wing , fin . ref . 45335 .\ngreek , noton = back + greek , akantha = thorn + latin , forma = shape ( ref . 45335 ) .\nthe order albuliformes includes three extant families : albulidae , notacanthidae , and halosauridae . the bonefish family ( albulidae ) contains two genera : albula , with possibly eight species , and istieus , with two species . the halosaur family ( halosauridae ) contains three genera : aldrovandia , with six species ; halosaurus , with nine species ; and halosauropsis , with one species . the marine spiny eel family ( notacanthidae ) contains three genera : lipogenys , with one species ; notacanthus , with six species ; and polyacanthonotus , with four species . the fossil record for this order extends back almost 100 million years .\nhalosaurs have an elongate , eel - like body , which tapers to a point . there is no caudal fin . the anal fin is elongate and extends along the posterior half of the body . there is a single short dorsal fin located just before the midpoint of the body . all fins have soft rays with no spines . the mouth is inferior , and the snout projects well beyond the tip of the lower jaw . most fishes are less than 3 . 3 ft ( 1 m ) in length . colors range from tan to black .\nthe notacanthidae , or marine spiny eels , have an elongate , eel - like body , which tapers to a point with little or no caudal fin . the anal fin is elongate and extends along the posterior half of the body . the anal fin consists of spines anteriorly grading to soft rays posteriorly . the dorsal fin in most species has from 26 to 41 isolated spines , from which the family ' s common name\nspiny eels\nderives . the mouth is inferior , and the snout projects beyond the tip of the lower jaw . most fishes are less than 3 . 3 ft ( 1 m ) in length . the coloring is typically tan .\nthis order is worldwide in distribution . the family albulidae occurs in shallow tropical waters worldwide . the notacanthidae and halosauridae are little - known families of deep - sea fishes that occur along the continental slope and rise of the world ' s oceans at depths from 3 , 281 to 9 , 843 ft ( 1 , 000\u20133 , 000 m ) . bonefish ( albula ) frequent coastal and inshore waters of tropical seas worldwide . in the western atlantic , bonefish regularly occur in the florida keys and the bahamas and throughout the caribbean . halosaurs and spiny eels are deep - sea fishes of worldwide distribution .\nbonefish are common in tropical shallow - water areas . they are most abundant at depths of less than 115 ft ( 35 m ) and often feed in water less than 3 . 3 ft ( 1 m ) deep . bonefish can be found over shallow grass flats and in sandy areas . juvenile bonefish and metamorphic larvae occur along sandy beaches with scattered patches of sea grass in water from 1\nto 4 . 3 ft ( 0 . 3\u20131 . 3 m ) deep . in southern florida bonefish larvae recruit to sandy beaches during winter and early spring and are found in water temperatures ranging from 60 . 8 to 82 . 8\u00b0f ( 16 . 0\u201328 . 2\u00b0c ) and salinity levels ranging from 10 . 4 to 37 . 0 ppt .\nhalosaurs typically are found at depths of 1 , 640\u201313 , 123 ft ( 500\u20134 , 000 m ) on the continental slope and rise . spiny eels usually are found at depths of 656\u201311 , 483 ft ( 200\u20133 , 500 m ) on the continental slope and rise . they generally hover just above the bottom .\nbonefish are remarkable because of their common presence in extremely shallow water ( less than 1 . 6 ft , or 0 . 5 m ) . the fisheries for bonefish in most areas require specialized boats capable of entering shallow water with little or no noise . fish typically swim in small schools of five to 20 individuals , although larger schools of more than 100 individuals are not uncommon . anglers searching for bonefish often detect their presence by spotting their tails protruding from the water as the fish dig in the bottom to feed .\nbonefish feed on a variety of small benthic and epibenthic invertebrates and fishes . feeding often takes place in shallow water , where foraging bonefish are seen with their fins protruding from the water . as they forage , bonefish schools frequently dig in the bottom and disturb considerable quantities of mud and sand . xanthid crabs , toadfish ( opsanus beta ) , portunid crabs , alpheid shrimp , and penaeid shrimp make up most of the diet of populations in southern florida . in some areas mollusks and small worms are important in the diet . juvenile bonefish feed on a variety of polychate worms and small crustaceans , principally copepods , amphipods , and caridean shrimp . bonefish are subject to occasional predation by sharks .\nhalosaurs feed primarily on benthic prey , including worms and small benthic and epibenthic mollusks and such crustaceans as decapods and amphipods . larger species also consume various fish . spiny eels feed mainly on small benthic macrofauna , including worms and small crustaceans , such as amphipods and mysids . species of the genus notacanthus have specialized teeth that form a continuous serrated cutting edge probably used to crop sessile invertebrates . little is known about which animals prey on halosaurs or spiny eels .\nin florida male bonefish reach sexual maturity at a fork length ( measured from the tip of the snout to the fork in the tail ) of about 15 . 7 in ( 400 mm ) and an age of about 3 . 5 years . florida females reach sexual maturity at a somewhat larger size , about 19 . 7 in ( 500 mm ) , and an age of about four . gonadal activity is seasonal and peaks from november to may . yolked oocytes are present in the ovaries in every month except august and september and are most abundant november to may . in florida juvenile bonefish and post larvae recruit to sandy beach areas during winter and spring . total fecundity ranges from 0 . 4 million to 1 . 7 million oocytes and increases with fish weight . spawning areas of bonefish are unknown . larvae reach a maximum size of about 3 in ( 76 mm ) . bonefish live for at least 19 years . growth of the bonefish is rapid until the age of about six years and then slows considerably .\nlittle is known about halosaur or spiny eel reproduction . in halosaurs spawning appears to be seasonal in some species , but others spawn year - round . it is unknown where the eggs and larvae develop . in spiny eels spawning occurs year - round . it is unknown where the eggs and larvae develop . spiny eels have remarkable leptocephalus larvae that can reach lengths of 3 . 3\u20136 . 6 ft ( 1\u20132 m ) . aside from their extremely large size , the larvae resemble those of eels in appearance .\nin many areas of the species ' range , including the waters off the florida keys , bonefish are the basis of economically important recreational fisheries , among them a for - hire charter boat fishery in the florida keys . bonefish are renowned by anglers for their wariness and fighting abilities and often are caught in water as shallow as 1 ft ( 0 . 3 m ) . in the florida keys fishing for bonefish is a year - round activity and provides a significant source of income to professional fishing guides . the commercial sale of bonefish in florida is prohibited ; the limits placed upon the recreational fishery for bonefish are a bag limit of one fish per angler per day and a minimum fish size of 18 in ( 457 mm ) in total length . bonefish are not considered a food fish in florida , and most bonefish are released when caught . halosaurs and spiny eels are of no commercial value .\nelongate , eel - like body , which tapers to a point with no caudal fin . the anal fin is elongate and extends along the posterior half of the body . there is a single short dorsal fin located just before the midpoint of the body . all fins have soft rays with no spines . the mouth is inferior , and the snout projects well beyond the tip of the lower jaw . among the largest of halosaurs , reaching a length of almost 3 . 3 ft ( 1 m ) . can be distinguished from other halosaurs by the deeply pigmented sheath of the conspicuous lateral line . black in color . occurs at depths of 3 , 281\u20139 , 843 ft ( 1 , 000\u20133 , 000 m ) in the atlantic and indian oceans . also reported from waters off new zealand .\neastern atlantic from ireland to mauritania and south africa ; western atlantic , including canada to 25\u00b0n , and off southern brazil ; western pacific , including australia , new zealand , and japan ; and western indian ocean .\nfound over the continental slope and rise . little is known regarding specific habitat requirements . appears to be widespread .\nfeeds principally on benthic prey , including worms and small benthic and epibenthic mollusks and crustaceans , such as decapods and amphipods . larger specimens also consume some fish .\nlittle is known regarding spawning . it is unknown where the eggs and larvae develop . eggs develop into leptocephalus larvae .\nnot listed by iucn . stocks probably have not been affected by human activities .\nbecause of its occurrence at great depths , the species is of no economic importance .\nelongate , eel - like body , which tapers to a point with little or no caudal fin . the anal fin is elongate and extends along the posterior half of the body . it consists of spines anteriorly grading to soft rays posteriorly . the dorsal fin in most species has 28\u201336 isolated spines . the mouth is inferior , and the snout projects beyond the tip of the lower jaw . attains a length of about 11 . 8 in ( 300 mm ) . typically tan in color . found on both sides of the north atlantic , predominantly tropical in range . occurs at depths from 1 , 969 to 6 , 562 ft ( 600\u20132 , 000 m ) ; most at 3 , 281\u20134 , 921 ft ( 1 , 000\u20131 , 500 m ) .\nfeeds principally on small benthic macrofauna , including worms and small crustaceans , such as amphipods and mysids .\nappears to spawn year - round . it is not known where the eggs and larvae develop . eggs develop into leptocephalus larvae .\nhildebrand , s . f .\nfamily albulidae .\nin fishes of the western north atlantic , edited by h . b . bigelow . vol . 3 . new haven : sears foundation for marine research , yale university , 1963 .\ncrabtree , roy e . , christopher w . harnden , derke snodgrass , and connie stevens .\nage , growth , and mortality of bonefish , albula vulpes , from the waters of the florida keys .\nfishery bulletin 94 ( 1996 ) : 442\u2013451 .\ncrabtree , roy e . , derke snodgrass , and christopher w . harnden .\nmaturation and reproductive seasonality in bonefish , albula vulpes , from the waters of the florida keys .\nfishery bulletin 95 ( 1997 ) : 456\u2013465 .\ncrabtree , roy e . , k . j . sulak , and j . a . musick .\nbiology and distribution of species of polyacanthonotus ( pisces : notacanthiformes ) in the western north atlantic .\nbulletin of marine science 36 , no . 2 ( 1985 ) : 235\u2013248 .\nurltoken gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the modern language association ( mla ) , the chicago manual of style , and the american psychological association ( apa ) .\nwithin the \u201ccite this article\u201d tool , pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style . then , copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list .\nbecause each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article , urltoken cannot guarantee each citation it generates . therefore , it\u2019s best to use urltoken citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication\u2019s requirements and the most - recent information available at these sites :\nmost online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers . therefore , that information is unavailable for most urltoken content . however , the date of retrieval is often important . refer to each style\u2019s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates .\nin addition to the mla , chicago , and apa styles , your school , university , publication , or institution may have its own requirements for citations . therefore , be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list .\ngilbert , carter rowell , and james d . williams . national audubon society field guide to fishes : north america . new york : knopf , 2002 .\nnelson , joseph s . fishes of the world . new york : wiley , 1994 .\nricciuti , edward r . fish . woodbridge , ct : blackbirch , 1993 .\nschultz , ken . ken schultz ' s field guide to saltwater fish . new york : wiley , 2004 .\nmorey , sean .\nbiological profiles : bonefish .\nichthyology at the florida museum of natural history . urltoken ( accessed on september 13 , 2004 ) .\nfast - swimming silvery fish with a single dorsal fin , deeply forked tail , and under - slung mouth designed to extract buried invertebrates . popular with light - tackle anglers for an exciting fight , the soft light flesh is best used as fishcake . two species occur in hawaii , one endemic , but are difficult to positively identify without careful examination . several others occur in warm seas worldwide .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nbonefish spawning occurs year round in deep water where currents can easily disperse the developing eggs and larvae to other locations . these fish are generally less reproductively active during the hotter summer months . sexual maturity is reached at two years and near ripe females may be as small as 23 cm . the eggs hatch into ribbon - like larvae that transform into a more fish - like form once they reach about 5 cm , at which point they move closer to shore . their minimum population doubling time is estimated to be between 1 . 4 and 4 . 4 years .\nin 1990 , scientists reported that bonefish have caused a few episodes of ciguatera poisoning .\nresearch albula vulpes \u00bb barcode of life ~ bioone ~ biodiversity heritage library ~ cites ~ cornell macaulay library [ audio / video ] ~ encyclopedia of life ( eol ) ~ esa online journals ~ fishbase ~ florida museum of natural history ichthyology department ~ gbif ~ google scholar ~ itis ~ iucn redlist ( threatened status ) ~ marine species identification portal ~ ncbi ( pubmed , genbank , etc . ) ~ ocean biogeographic information system ~ plos ~ siris ~ tree of life web project ~ unep - wcmc species database ~ worms\nstart or join a discussion about this species below or send us an email to report any errors or submit suggestions for this page . we greatly appreciate all feedback !\nhelp us protect and restore marine life by supporting our various online community - centered marine conservation projects that are effectively sharing the wonders of the ocean with millions each year around the world , raising a balanced awareness of the increasingly troubling and often very complex marine conservation issues that affect marine life and ourselves directly , providing support to marine conservation groups on the frontlines that are making real differences today , and the scientists , teachers and students involved in the marine life sciences .\nwith your support , most marine life and their ocean habitats can be protected , if not restored to their former natural levels of biodiversity . we sincerely thank our thousands of members , donors and sponsors , who have decided to get involved and support the marinebio conservation society .\nblue sites academic earth arctic photo arkive biodiversity heritage library census of marine life cites species database clay coleman coml plos collections david hall ' s galleries deep - 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living marine nematodes . . . ophiuroidea . . . ostracoda . . . phoronida < . . . placozoa . . . polychaeta . . . porifera . . . proseriata and kalyptorhynchia - rhabditophora . . . pycnogonida . . . remipedia youdive tv\ndeep music digitally imported urltoken proton radio * radio paradise radiotunes somafm wers 88 . 9 fm\n~ sharing the wonders of the ocean to inspire conservation , education , research , and a sea ethic ~ marinebio . org , inc . is a u . s . 501 ( c ) 3 charitable , nonprofit organization . contact : info @ urltoken all marinebio conservation society memberships and donations are tax deductible in the united states . > < ( ( ( ( \u00b0 > \u00a9 1998 - 2017 marinebio copyright & terms of use . privacy policy . > - < \u00b0\u00b0 > - <\nfor all at last returns to the sea \u2014 to oceanus , the ocean river , like the everflowing stream of time , the beginning and the end .\n- rachel carson\nthis page was last edited on 25 may 2017 , at 15 : 38 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nany of several silvery marine fishes of the family albulidae , especially albula vulpes , a game fish of warm shallow waters worldwide .\na silver game and food fish , albula vulpes , of warm coastal seas . also called ladyfish .\n, would certainly cast doubt on whether a purely morphological comparison of geographically isolated bonefish populations is sufficient to adequately define relationships .\ndescribed herein was supported in part by nsf grant deb - 0346773 to t .\nall content on this website , including dictionary , thesaurus , literature , geography , and other reference data is for informational purposes only . this information should not be considered complete , up to date , and is not intended to be used in place of a visit , consultation , or advice of a legal , medical , or any other professional .\ncommon name for a fish belonging to several species in the two genera of the family albulidae .\nthe bonefish , is widespread in warm , shallow marine waters ; it is the only bonefish found worldwide . most other species are found in similar waters of the african atlantic , indian , and pacific oceans ;\nthe threadfin bonefish , is found only in the west indies . the bonefish is silvery in color , with a long , deeply forked tail and a single dorsal fin ; it has a pointed head covered by a thick , transparent cartilage and a receding mouth filled with numerous small rounded teeth .\nis distinguished by two long trailing filaments , one extending from its dorsal fin and one from its anal fin . also known as ladyfish and banana fish , the bonefish may reach 3 . 5 ft ( 107 cm ) in length , and 18 lb ( 8 kg ) in weight . it is a bottom dweller of shallow , sandy areas where it feeds on crabs , shrimp , and worms . it is much prized as a game fish , despite the numerous tiny bones that limit its appeal as food . it is classified in the phylum\n, phylum of animals having a notochord , or dorsal stiffening rod , as the chief internal skeletal support at some stage of their development . most chordates are vertebrates ( animals with backbones ) , but the phylum also includes some small marine invertebrate animals .\nm . de kluijver , g . gijswijt , r . de leon & i . da cunda\nsorry , there are no images or audio / video clips available for this taxon .\npermit belong to the trinity of south florida flats fish , along with tarpon and bonefish , that help pump an estimated $ 460 million a year into the state economy .\nanglers have fought to protect this fish . so how did it wind up on a miami beach menu ? | miami herald ,\nkeoni chang , the corporate chef of foodland , a statewide supermarket chain founded by an irish immigrant in 1948 , remembers that his great - grandfather ate poke made of oio ( bonefish ) , caught on the flats , the flesh roughly scraped .\nthese example sentences are selected automatically from various online news sources to reflect current usage of the word ' bonefish . ' views expressed in the examples do not represent the opinion of merriam - webster or its editors . send us feedback .\nwhat made you want to look up bonefish ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nthe story of an imaginary word that managed to sneak past our editors and enter the dictionary .\ntake this quiz and discover 12 words for things you didn ' t know had words .\nplease set a username for yourself . people will see it as author name with your public flash cards .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ncolborn j 1 , crabtree re , shaklee jb , pfeiler e , bowen bw .\ndepartment of fisheries and aquatic sciences , university of florida , gainesville 32653 , usa .\nresearch support , u . s . gov ' t , non - p . h . s .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\nstri staff publications [ 3666 ] a collection of scientific publications by stri staff .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\n) by its more pointed lower jaw and higher vertebral and lateral - line scale counts . it is most similar to the indian ocean\ndiffers from its two related species by higher counts of pored lateral - line scales and vertebrae . it has 68\u201374 ( mode 70 ) lateral - line scales vs . 61\u201365 ( 63 ) for\nin having the pelvic fin tip reaching beyond the anus ( vs . short of or just reaching anus ) and higher numbers of scale rows above the lateral line 9\u201310 ( 9 ) vs . 7\u00bd\u20138 ( 8 ) for\nwe greatly appreciate specimen loans from m . sabaj ( ansp ) , j . maclaine ( bmnh ) , a . suzumoto ( bpbm ) , d . catania and t . iwamoto ( cas ) , i . nakamura and t . nakabo ( faku ) , m . a . rogers and k . swagel ( fmnh ) , s . kimura ( frlm ) , g . duhamel and p . pruvost ( mnhn ) , k . matsuura and g . shinohara ( msnt ) , s . l . jewett and j . t . williams ( usnm ) , m . e . anderson , p . c . heemstra , and v . mthombeni ( saiab ) , m . bougaardt and l . j . v . compagno ( sam ) , j . g . nielsen and m . tammes ( zmuc ) , and k . k . p . lim ( zrc ) . we thank g . s . hardy , ngunguru , new zealand , who read the initial manuscript and offered helpful comments . furthermore , we thank w . n . eschmeyer ( cas ) , d . g . smith ( usnm ) , and j . l . earle ( bpbm ) for their valuable comments and suggestions regarding the nomenclatural problem of albula argentea and color information of a . virgata . special thanks to m . e . anderson ( saiab ) for gifting a color transparency of albula oligolepis sp . nov . this study was financially supported in part by the sasakawa scientific research grant from the japan science society awarded to the first author and by the ministry of education , culture , sports , science and technology , japan ( nos . 1364069 and 16570079 ) to the second author .\nbauchot m - l ( 1969 ) les poissons de la collection de broussonet au mus\u00e9um national d\u2019histoire naturelle de paris . bull mus natl hist nat paris ( 2 ) 41 : 125\u2013143\nbauchot m - l ( 1994 ) les poissons d\u00e9crits et figur\u00e9s dans les manuscripts de quoy au cours du voyage de l\u2019astrolabe ( 1826\u20131829 ) . cybium 18 : 3\u2013101\nbloch me , schneider jg ( 1801 ) systema ichthyologiae iconibus cx illustratum . post obitum auctoris opus inchoatum absolvit , correxit , interpolavit j . g . schneider , saxo berolini . berolini , berlin\nspp . ) : cryptic species and ancient separations in a globally distributed shorefish . evolution 55 : 807\u2013820\ncuvier g , valenciennes a ( 1847 ) histoire naturelle des poissons , vol 19 . levrault , paris\ndavie p ( 1998 ) wild guide to moreton bay . museum of queensland , south brisbane\nforssk\u00e5l p ( 1775 ) descriptiones animalium avium , amphibiorum , piscium , insectorum , vermium ; quae in itenere orientali observavit . post mortem auctoris edidit carsten niebuhr . m\u00f6lleri , copenhagen\nfowler hw ( 1911 ) a new albuloid fish from santo domingo . proc acad nat sci phila 62 : 651\u2013654\ngloerfelt - tarp t , kailola pj ( 1984 ) trawled fishes of southern indonesia and northwestern australia . australian development assistance bureau ( adab ) , directorate general of fisheries , indonesia ( dgf ) , and german agency for technical cooperation ( gtz )\ngmelin jf ( 1789 ) caroli a linn\u00e9 . . . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species ; cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decimo tertia , aucta , reformata , 3 vols in 9 parts . lipsiae , 1788\u201393 . systema naturae linn\u00e9 1 : 1033\u20131516\ngrant em ( 1982 ) guide to fishes . the department of harbours and marine , brisbane\ngray je ( 1854 ) catalogue of fish collected and described by laurence theodore gronow , now in the british museum . cat fish gronow . natural history museum , london\ngronovius lt ( 1763 ) zoophylacium gronovianum , exhibens animalia quadrupeda , amphibia , pisces , insecta , vermes , mollusca , testacea et zoophyta , quae in museo suo adservavit , examini subjecit , systematice disposuit atque descripsit . fasciculus primus exhibens animalia quadrupeda , amphibia atque pisces , quae in museo suo adservat , rite examinavit , systematice disposuit , descripsit , atque iconibus illustravit . lugduni batavorum\nherre awct ( 1953 ) check list of philippine fishes . us fish wildl serv res rep 20 : 1\u2013977\n, from japan ( albuliformes : albulidae ) . jpn j ichthyol 51 : 61\u201366\nhildebrand sf ( 1963 ) family albulidae . in : bigelow hb ( ed ) fishes of the western north atlantic . mem sears found mar res 1 : 132\u2013147\nhubbs cl , lagler kf ( 1958 ) fishes of the great lakes region . bull cranbrook inst sci 26 : 1\u2013213\nhutchins jb ( 2001 ) checklist of the fishes of western australia . rec west aust mus suppl ( 63 ) : 9\u201350\njordan ds , jordan ek ( 1922 ) a list of the fishes of hawaii , with notes and descriptions of new species . mem carnegie mus 10 : 1\u201392\nklausewitz w , nielsen jg ( 1965 ) on forssk\u00e5l\u2019s collection of fishes in the zoological museum of copenhagen . spolia zool mus hauniensis 22 : 1\u201329\nkottelat m , whitten aj , kartikasari sn , wirjoatmodjo s ( 1993 ) freshwater fishes of western indonesia and sulawesi . periplus , jakarta\nlacep\u00e8de bge ( 1803 ) histoire naturelle des poissons , vol 5 . chez plassan , paris\nleviton ae , gibbs rh jr , heal e , dawson ce ( 1985 ) standards in herpetology and ichthyology : part i . standard symbolic codes for institutional resource collections in herpetology and ichthyology . copeia 1985 : 802\u2013832\nlinnaeus c ( 1758 ) systema naturae , vol 1 , 10th edn . laurentii salvii , holmiae\nnelson js , crossman cej , espinosa - p\u00e9rez h , findley lt , gilbert cr , lea rn , williams jd ( 2004 ) common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . special publication 29 . american fisheries society , bethesda , md\nmcdowall rm ( 1970 ) the galaxiid fishes of new zealand . bull mus comp zool 139 : 341\u2013431\nmunro isr ( 1967 ) the fishes of new guinea . department agricultural stock and fisheries , port moresby\nspp . ) from the eastern pacific ocean inferred from analyses of allozymes and mitochondrial dna . environ biol fishes 63 : 151\u2013159\nrandall je ( 1998 ) zoogeography of shore fishes of the indo - pacific region . zool stud 37 : 227\u2013268\nrandall je , allen gr , steene rc ( 1990 ) fishes of the great barrier reef and coral sea . crawford house press , bathurst\nscopoli ja ( 1777 ) introductio ad historiam naturalem , sistens genera lapidum , plantarum et animalium hactenus detecta , caracteribus essentialibus donata , in tribus divisa , subinde ad leges naturae . prague introd hist nat i\u2013x , 1\u2013506\nshaklee jb ( 1984 ) albulidae . in : fischer w , bianchi g ( eds ) fao species identification sheets for fishery purposes . western indian ocean ( fishing area 51 ) , vol 1 . fao , rome , pp \u201calbu\u201d\u2013\u201calbu albu 3\u201d\nsmith dg , crabtree re ( 2002 ) albulidae . in : carpenter ke ( ed ) fao species identification guide for fishery purposes : the living marine resources of the western central atlantic , vol 2 , bony fishes part 1 ( acipenseridae to grammatidae ) . fao , rome , pp 683\u2013684\nsmith dg , randall je ( 1999 ) albulidae . in : carpenter ke , niem vh ( eds ) fao species identification guide for fishery purposes : the living marine resources of the western central pacific , vol 3 . batoid fishes , chimeras and bony fishes part 1 ( elopidae to linophrynidae ) . fao , rome , pp 1623\u20131624\nsmith mm ( 1986 ) albulidae . in : smith mm , heemstra pc ( eds ) smith\u2019s sea fishes . springer - verlag , new york , p 157\nvan der elst r ( 1981 ) a guide to the common sea fishes of southern african . struik , cape town\nweber m , de beaufort lf ( 1913 ) the fishes of the indo - australian archipelago , vol 2 . malacopterygii , myctophoidea , ostariophysi : i siluroidea . brill , leiden\nwheeler ( 1958 ) the gronovius fish collection : a catalog and historical account . bull br mus hist ser 1 : 185\u2013249\nwhitehead pjp ( 1978 ) a guide to the dispersal of zoological material from captain cook\u2019s voyages . pac stud 2 : 52\u201393\n( linnaeus , 1758 ) ( teleostei , albulidae ) . cybium 10 : 211\u2013230\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthe nomenclature of the bonefish family albulidae is currently in a state of revision . until recently , bonefish were considered to be comprised of two species , the circumglobal\nthis species is known only from the tropical pacific and the atlantic coast of north and central america ( wallace and tringali 2010 ) .\n2008 ) . there is very little known about the life history , ecology , population status , or threats acting upon this species . therefore , it is listed as data deficient .\nthis species is known only from the tropical pacific and the atlantic coast central america ( wallace and tringali 2010 ) .\nvery little information is available on the population status of this species . there are numerous museum records , including specimens at the smithsonian\nthis species occurs in deeper waters than the typical habitat of albula species ( smith and crabtree 2002 ) . anecdotal evidence and the capture location of some museum specimens indicate an association with river outflows ( bowen et al . 2008 ) . it is mostly estuarine , especially found in estuaries of rivers along mountainous shores , on soft bottom habitats to depths of 50 m . diet studies indicate that 16 of 17 individuals collected over open sand bottom near the mouth of a river on the pacific coast of costa rica had fish in their stomachs ; one had crab remnants present ( adams unpublished data ) . the maximum size for this species is 51 cm ( tl ) ( robins and ray 1986 ) . additional information on the habitat and ecology of this species is absent .\nthere are no species - specific conservation measures in place for this species . its distribution overlaps with some marine protected areas in parts of its range .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ndepth range based on 108 specimens in 9 taxa . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 38 samples . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 0 - 205 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 16 . 796 - 28 . 006 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 087 - 7 . 486 salinity ( pps ) : 34 . 228 - 37 . 009 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 2 . 877 - 5 . 244 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 025 - 1 . 086 silicate ( umol / l ) : 1 . 259 - 12 . 679 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : 0 - 205 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 16 . 796 - 28 . 006 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 087 - 7 . 486 salinity ( pps ) : 34 . 228 - 37 . 009 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 2 . 877 - 5 . 244 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 025 - 1 . 086 silicate ( umol / l ) : 1 . 259 - 12 . 679 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\nthe bonefish frequents shallow , inshore waters including bays and estuaries . bonefish sometimes feed in water so shallow that their dorsal and caudal fins break the surface . they feed on worms , mollusks , and crustaceans that are picked ( or\ngrubbed\n) from mud and sand bottoms . bonefish spawn offshore with the leptocephalus larvae migrating inshore to nursery areas .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . no available public dna sequences . download fasta file\nfroese , rainer , and daniel pauly , eds . ( 2012 ) . species of albula in fishbase . december 2012 version .\npfeiler , e . , van der heiden , a . m . , ruboyianes , r . s . , & watts , t . ( 2011 ) . albula gilberti , a new species of bone fish ( albuliformes : albulidae ) from the eastern pacific , and a description of adults of the parapatric a . esuncula . zootaxa 3088 : 1 - 14 .\nkwun , h . j . & kim , j . k . ( 2011 ) : a new species of bonefish , albula koreana ( albuliformes : albulidae ) from korea and taiwan . zootaxa , 2903 : 57\u201363 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhawaiian archaeology , 2014 , ( special publication 4 ) , pp . 51 - 72\nname from latin words ' nemo ' meaning absence and ' ossis ' for bones ; referring to the absence of supraneural bones .\nmarine ; bathydemersal ; depth range 20 - 500 m ( ref . 3545 ) , usually 100 - 400 m ( ref . 5576 ) . deep - water ; 18\u00b0n - 35\u00b0s , 18\u00b0w - 20\u00b0e ( ref . 109573 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 40 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5576 ) ; common length : 33 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5576 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 51 - 57 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 11 - 13 ; vertebrae : 88 - 92 . this species is distinguished by the following set of characters ( counts & % in parentheses for lectotype ) : no supraneural bones ; dorsal - fin rays 51 - 57 ( mode 52 ) ; total vertebrae 88 - 92 ( 91 ) ; pored lateral - line scales 79 - 89 ( 84 ) ; pre - dorsal scale rows 3 - 8 ( 8 ) ; head length 24 - 32 % ( mean 30 % ) of sl ) ; pectoral - fin length 16 - 21 % ( 19 % ) of sl ; pre - dorsal - fin length 27 - 34 % ( 30 % ) of sl ; dorsal - fin base length 53 - 64 % ( 60 % ) of sl ; postorbital length 13 - 16 % ( 14 % ) of sl ; upper caudal - fin length 18 - 31 % ( 24 % ) of sl ( ref . 109573 ) ."]}
{"id": 1002, "summary": [{"text": "the ruby-topaz hummingbird ( chrysolampis mosquitus ) , commonly referred to simply as the ruby topaz , is a small bird that breeds in the lesser antilles and tropical northern south america from colombia , venezuela and the guyanas , south to central brazil and northern bolivia ; also from colombia into southern panama .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is the only member of the genus chrysolampis .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is a seasonal migrant , although its movements are not well understood .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "this hummingbird inhabits open country , gardens and cultivation .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is 8.1 cm long and weighs 3.5 g. compared to most other hummingbirds , the almost straight , black bill is relatively short .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the male has green-glossed dark brown upperparts .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the crown and nape are glossy red , and the throat and breast are brilliant golden-orange .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the rest of the underparts are brown , and the chestnut tail is tipped black .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the male often looks very dark , until he turns and the brilliant colours flash in the sunlight .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the female ruby-topaz hummingbird has bronze-green upperparts and pale grey underparts .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the tail is chestnut with a dark subterminal band and a white tip .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "females from trinidad typically have a greenish throat-streak ( it may appear dark ) , but this is not common elsewhere in its range .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "juvenile females are similar to adult females , but with a white-tipped dusky-brown tail .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "juvenile males resemble the juvenile female , but with a variable amount of iridescent orange to the throat .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the female ruby-topaz hummingbird lays two eggs in a tiny cup nest in the fork of a low branch .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "incubation takes 16 days , and fledging another 18 or 19 .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the food of this species is nectar , taken from a wide variety of flowers , and some small insects .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "ruby-topaz hummingbird males perch conspicuously and defend their territories aggressively .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the call of this species is a high-pitched tsip . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "ruby - topaz hummingbird", "paragraphs": ["the ruby - topaz hummingbird is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\ninformation on the ruby - topaz hummingbird ( chrysolampis mosquitus ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - ruby - topaz hummingbird ( chrysolampis mosquitus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - ruby - topaz hummingbird ( chrysolampis mosquitus )\ntitle =\narkive species - ruby - topaz hummingbird ( chrysolampis mosquitus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nflight : as all the hummingbirds , the ruby - topaz hovers forwards and backwards when feeding on nectar .\nthe beautiful ruby - topaz hummingbird can be heard in this recording from el triunfo , colombia . the buzzing and twittering sounds are similar to those of other hummingbird species . audio by paula caycedo - elkin tenorio , xc289455 . accessible at urltoken\nprotection / threats / status : the ruby - topaz hummingbird is common in lowlands and coastal regions . it accepts man - made habitats and frequents gardens and cultivated areas . after serious decline due to illegal bird trade in brazil in the 1970s , the species has now stable populations , and the ruby - topaz hummingbird is not threatened at this moment .\nthe male ruby topaz makes a series of aggressive and rapid chattering calls when another bird enters his feeding territory .\na relatively large hummingbird , bigger than the blue - tailed emerald , the other common hummingbird on bonaire . both male and female ruby - topaz hummingbirds have reddish , rounded tails unlike the blue , forked tail of the blue - tailed emerald . male ruby - topaz hummingbirds have a beautiful orange throat and reddish head , though in poor light it can look dark .\nruby - topaz hummingbird ( depicted above ) has a mostly bronze - green upper plumage and is pale grey below . she has a dark chin stripe . her tail is chestnut - colored with white tips .\ndiet : the ruby - topaz hummingbird feeds on nectar from flowers of trees , shrubs , cacti and cultivated plant species . it also catches insects by hawking in the air , and forages in foliage for arthropods .\nthe male ruby topaz performs a courtship display to attract females . he quickly circles the female , flashing his bright colors by fanning widely the chestnut tail and raising the ruby - red crown feathers .\nthe feeding territories including flowering trees , shrubs or cacti , are defended by the male which gives series of aggressive and rapid chattering . the ruby - topaz hummingbird is often seen alone at the feeding sources , and at variable heights .\nrange : the ruby - topaz hummingbird breeds in tropical northern south america , from s panama , colombia , venezuela and the guyanas , southwards to c brazil and n bolivia . it also occurs on islands , in the lesser antilles , trinidad and tobago .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto the ruby - topaz hummingbird utters high - pitched chirps and whistles . the calls are very short and given from an exposed perch as advertising sounds \u201ctliii , tliii , tliii\u2026\u201d aggressive calls are series of rapid chattering , uttered by both sexes .\nhabitat : the ruby - topaz hummingbird can be found in clearings , open country , cultivated areas and gardens where it forages from low down to treetops . it is usually seen from sea - level to shrubby arid hillsides , up to 1700 metres of elevation , but often below 500 metres .\nthe ruby - topaz hummingbird is migratory . it performs n - s migrations within brazil . it travels along the coastal regions of the guyanas , venezuela and colombia , probably doing an e - w migration , and moves southwards to colombia where it arrives in may , and leaves in september . some migratory movements are suspected on trinidad and tobago .\nbehaviour : the ruby - topaz hummingbird feeds on nectar from flowers of several plant species . it forages by hovering in front of the flower , and reaches the nectar with the bill , and mainly the tongue . it also catches insects by hawking while feeding on nectar or in the air . it may sometimes forage among the foliage , searching for arthropods .\nthe breeding season of the ruby topaz hummingbirds differs according to the range they are found in . on the islands of trinidad and tobago it starts in december and goes on until june . in brazil , they breed from september through january .\ndescription : as numerous hummingbirds , the ruby - topaz shows various appearances and colours according to the lighting . when perched in shade , this bird appears dull blackish - brown , but when the sun touches lightly its feathers , it becomes a jewel !\nthe ruby topaz hummingbirds measure between 3 . 1 - 3 . 5 inches ( ~ 8 - 9 cm ) in length ( including the tail ) and weigh between 0 . 1 - 0 . 2 oz ( 3 . 5 - 5 g ) .\nschuchmann , k . l . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . ruby - topaz hummingbird ( chrysolampis mosquitus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe ruby topazes call is described as very short , high - pitched tsii tsii tsii . they also utter chirps and whistles , and a series of rapid chattering .\nthis hummingbird shows great variances as far as the color of plumage is concerned . in poor light conditions , the plumage appears dull blackish - brown . in the right light conditions , the brilliant iridescence of its plumage can be seen .\n8\u20139\u00b75 cm ; 2\u00b75\u20135 g . male has short straight black bill ; crown and nape shining ruby red ( occasionally orange ) , back dark brown glossed dull olive ; . . .\nduring the breeding season , the male performs some displays . it revolves quickly around the female and displays its rich colours by fanning widely the chestnut tail and raising the ruby - red crown feathers .\nthe ruby - topaz hummingbirds primarily feed on nectar taken from a variety of brightly colored , scented small flowers of trees , shrubs , epiphytes and cacti . they favor flowers with the highest sugar content ( often red - colored and tubular - shaped ) and seek out , and aggressively protect , those areas containing flowers with high energy nectar . they are particularly fond of the flowers of the samaan tree and the ixora plant .\nthey may also visit local hummingbird feeders for some sugar water , or drink out of bird baths or water fountains where they will either hover and sip water as it runs over the edge ; or they will perch on the edge and drink - like all the other birds ; however , they only remain still for a short moment .\nhas an iridescent green dark / brown upper plumage with a brilliant ruby red to orangey crown ( top of the head ) and nape ( back of the neck ) and a shiny golden to emerald - green throat and chest ( depending on light conditions ) . in poor light conditions , the male often looks dark . his under plumage is brown . his chestnut - colored tail is tipped black . the wings are dark grey .\nthe adult male has dark brown body with dull olive gloss . the wings are dark grey . the tail is bright chestnut with black tip . on the underparts , throat and breast are iridescent golden , or occasionally emerald - green . the head shows shiny ruby - red forehead , crown and nape , sometimes more orange . the black bill is short and straight . the eyes are dark brown . legs and feet are blackish .\nthe average clutch consists of 1 to 3 white eggs , which she incubates alone for about 15 - 16 days , while the male defends his territory and the flowers he feeds on . the black chicks are born blind , covered in sparse brownish down on the back . the female alone protects and feeds the chicks with regurgitated food ( mostly insects since nectar is an insufficient source of protein for the growing chicks ) . as is the case with other hummingbird species , the chicks are brooded only the first week or two , and left alone even on cooler nights after about 12 days - probably due to the small nest size . the chicks leave the nest when they are about 19 - 22 days old . she usually raises on brood in a season . the young are ready to breed in their second year .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend is not known , but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' uncommon ' ( stotz et al . 1996 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthe taxon \u201c c . chlorolaema \u201d , based on a specimen supposedly from bahia ( e brazil ) , is generally considered to represent a hybrid between present species and anthracothorax nigricollis # r . monotypic .\ne panama and w , n & c colombia e through venezuela to the guianas , then s through ne & c brazil ( par\u00e1 to pernambuco and s to mato grosso ) to e bolivia ; also islands off n venezuela coast from aruba , cura\u00e7ao and bonaire e to trinidad and tobago .\nsong ( given from high perch ) is reportedly a high - pitched , doubled \u201ctliii . . . tliii . . . tliii . . .\nseason dec\u2013jun on trinidad and tobago , venezuela , guianas ; sept\u2013mar in brazil . tiny cup - shaped nest of fine plant fibre and . . .\nmigratory . arrives in s cauca valley , colombia , in may and disappears in sept ; absent or rare in . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . cites ii . common resident in the lowlands and coastal ranges , with densities of at least 6\u20138 pairs / km\u00b2 in shrub - like . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\ngenus previously thought to be very closely related to , or even congeneric with , orthorhyncus , but recent molecular analysis indicates that the two are genetically well separated # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nnatural visions 6 vicarage hill farnham surrey gu9 8hj united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 1252 716 700 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 1252 727 464 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken /\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend is not known , but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : chrysolampis mosquitus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 176 side a track 30 seq . a )\na cluster of hummingbirds around a purple - flowering bignoniaceae - type tree ( 6 - 10m tall ) . the three rich ' tew ' notes are of this species . a subadult male .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nchrysolampis mosquitus : trop . e panama to colombia , venezuela , e bolivia and brazil\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 296 , 137 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\n- - occur naturally from southern panama ( the southernmost country of central america ) south through the south american countries of colombia , venezuela and the guyanas to north - eastern and central brazil and northern bolivia .\nthey are also found on the lesser antilles island group and south on the islands of trinidad and tobago in the caribbean sea .\nthey occur from sea - level to shrubby arid hillsides , up to an altitude of ~ 5 , 600 ft ( 1700 m ) , but are most common below 1 , 600 feet ( 500 m ) .\nthese aggressive birds are commonly seen in gardens , cultivated areas , open country and along the forest edge , where they forage from low down to treetops .\nthey appear to be sedentary within parts of their range and seasonally migratory in others .\nin brazil , they perform north - south migrations ; travelling along the coastal regions of the guyanas , venezuela and colombia , where they are likely doing an east - west migration , moving southwards to colombia where they arrive in may and leave again in september .\nsome migratory movements are also suspected to occur on the islands of trinidad and tobago . however , their movements are still poorly understood .\nthe black bill is short and straight ; the eyes are dark brown , and the legs and feet are blackish .\nwhile perched , the males often spread their tail and ruffle their crown feathers in a display .\nlook like the adult females . immature males have a white spot behind the eye and the outer tail feathers are violet with white tips .\n: specimen from trinidad and tobago occasionally have a greenish - orangey stripe from the chin , down to the chest .\nhummingbirds in general are solitary and neither live nor migrate in flocks ; and there is no pair bond for this species - the male ' s only involvement in the reproductive process is the actual mating with the female .\nhe will separate from the female immediately after copulation . one male may mate with several females . in all likelihood , the female will also mate with several males . the males do not participate in choosing the nest location , building the nest or raising the chicks .\nthe female is responsible for building the cup - shaped nest out of plant fibers woven together and green moss on the outside for camouflage in a protected location in a shrub , bush or tree - usually in the fork of a small branch about 3 - 13 feet ( 1 - 4 m ) above the ground .\nshe lines the nest with soft plant fibers , animal hair and feather down , and strengthens the structure with spider webbing and other sticky material , giving it an elastic quality to allow it to stretch to double its size as the chicks grow and need more room . the outside is decorated with lichens and pieces of bark , which present a perfect camouflage for the nest .\nthey use their long , extendible , straw - like tongues to retrieve the nectar while hovering with their tails cocked upward as they are licking at the nectar up to 13 times per second . sometimes they may be seen hanging on the flower while feeding .\nmany native and cultivated plants on whose flowers these birds feed heavily rely on them for pollination . the mostly tubular - shaped flowers actually exclude most bees and butterflies from feeding on them and , subsequently , from pollinating the plants .\nthey also take some small spiders and insects - important sources of protein particularly needed during the breeding season to ensure the proper development of their young . insects are often caught in flight ( hawking ) ; snatched off leaves or branches , or are taken from spider webs . a nesting female can capture up to 2 , 000 insects a day .\nmales establish feeding territories , where they aggressively chase away other males as well as large insects - such as bumblebees and hawk moths - that want to feed in their territory . they use aerial flights and intimidating displays to defend their territories .\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\na guide to the birds of colombia by steven l . hilty and william l . brown - princeton university press \u2013 isbn 069108372x\nthe female has copper - green upperparts . the tail shows olive - green central rectrices whereas the others are bright chestnut . we can see a dark purple subterminal band and white tips . the underparts are pale grey . the birds from trinidad and tobago have sometimes a greenish - golden stripe from the chin , down to the breast .\nthe immature resembles adult female . it has a white spot behind the eye . on the tail , the outer rectrices are dark violet with white tips .\nreproduction : the breeding season varies according to the range , from december - june on trinidad and tobago , venezuela and guyanas , to september - january in brazil .\nthe tiny nest is saddled in fork of small branch , at about one to four metres above the ground . the cup - shaped nest is made with fine materials such as plant fibres and spider webs . the outside is decorated with lichens and pieces of bark .\nthe female lays two eggs , and incubates during 15 - 16 days . at hatching , the black chicks are covered in sparse brownish down on the back . they fledge about three weeks after hatching . they can breed in the second year .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 1006, "summary": [{"text": "hemiscyllium halmahera or halmahera epaulette shark is a species of bamboo shark from indonesia .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "this species is described from two specimens collected near ternate island in 2013 , off the coast of larger halmahera island .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "this species is most similar to hemiscyllium galei , found in west papua , but looks strikingly different in its pattern of spots .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "while h. galei has seven large , dark spots on each side of its body , h. halmahera has a brown color with clusters of brown or white spots in polygon configurations all over its body .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "these small sharks are like other bamboo sharks , in that they use their pectoral fins to \" walk \" along the ocean floor . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "hemiscyllium halmahera", "paragraphs": ["according to the ichthyologists , hemiscyllium halmahera is most similar in general appearance to hemiscyllium galei from cenderawasih bay , west papua .\ndr allen\u2019s team caught two specimens of hemiscyllium halmahera near the island ternate , the maluku islands , indonesia .\nit was found off the remote eastern island of halmahera , one of the maluku islands .\nthe brown spotted fish , called hemiscyllium halmahera , is a species of bamboo shark that can grow to 27 inches in length and lives on the seabed where is hunts marine invertebrates and small fish .\nthey are relatively small , with the largest species measuring about 48 inches ( 1 . 22 m ) . the newly discovered species , called hemiscyllium halmahera , reaches 28 inches ( 70 cm ) in length .\nbibliographic information : allen gr et al . 2013 . hemiscyllium halmahera , a new species of bamboo shark ( hemiscylliidae ) from indonesia . aqua , international journal of ichthyology , 19 ( 3 ) : 123 - 136\nallen , g . r . , m . v . erdmann and c . l . dudgeon , 2013 . hemiscyllium halmahera , a new species of bamboo shark ( hemiscylliidae ) from indonesia . aqua , international journal 19 ( 3 ) : 123 - 136 . ( ref . 94061 )\na species of shark that uses its fins to\nwalk\nalong the bottom of the ocean floor has been discovered off the coast of indonesia . the shark , hemiscyllium halmahera , uses its fins to wiggle along the seabed and forage for small fish and crustaceans , scientists from conservation international said on friday .\ndr gerald allen , a research associate at the western australian museum , and his colleagues from australia have described a new species of shark from eastern indonesian waters .\n\u2018walking\u2019 sharks , also known as bamboo sharks or longtail carpet sharks , belong to the family hemiscylliidae in the shark order orectolobiformes .\nrather than swim , these slender - bodied sharks \u2018walk\u2019 by wriggling their bodies and pushing with their pectoral and pelvic fins .\n\u201cits features include a general brown coloration with numerous clusters of mainly 2 - 3 dark polygonal spots , widely scattered white spots in the matrix between dark clusters , relatively few ( less than 10 ) , large dark spots on the interorbital - snout region , a pair of large dark marks on the ventral surface of the head , and a fragmented post - cephalic mark consisting of a large u - shaped dark spot with a more or less continuous white margin on the lower half , followed by a vertical row of three , smaller clusters of 2 - 3 polygonal dark marks , \u201d dr allen and his colleagues wrote in a paper published in the aqua , international journal of ichthyology .\n\u201cit differs in having 7 - 8 large , horizontally elongate dark spots on the lower side between the abdomen and caudal - fin base , a cluster of solid dark post - cephalic spots , and usually about 25 dark spots on the upper surface of the head , \u201d they wrote .\njuvenile australopithecus climbed trees , 3 . 32 - million - year - old foot fossil shows\n\u00a9 2011 - 2018 . sci - news . com . all rights reserved . | back to top\ngreek , hemi = half + greek , skylla = a kind of shark ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; pelagic - neritic ; depth range 5 - 10 m ( ref . 106604 ) . tropical\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 68 . 1 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 94061 )\nthis species is distinguished by its colour pattern , generally brown with numerous clusters of mainly 2 - 3 dark polygonal spots ; widely scattered white spots in the matrix between dark clusters ; less than 10 large dark spots on the interorbital / snout region ; a pair of large dark marks on the ventral surface of the head ; a fragmented post - cephalic mark consisting of a large u - shaped dark spot with a more or less continuous white margin on the lower half , followed by a vertical row of 3 , smaller clusters of 2 - 3 polygonal dark marks ( ref . 94061 ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5020 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00355 ( 0 . 00143 - 0 . 00879 ) , b = 3 . 14 ( 2 . 92 - 3 . 36 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 \u00b10 . 3 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 30 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nwe ' re proud to be recognized as a financially accountable and transparent organization .\nthe shark , which has wide horizontal stripes , grows to a maximum length of just 30in and is harmless to humans .\nthe conservation group said it hoped the discovery would once again demonstrate that most sharks pose no threat to humans .\nthe find also highlights the extraordinary marine diversity in indonesia whose chain of islands is home to at least 218 species of sharks and rays , and the country ' s recent efforts to protect species under threat of extinction , conservation international said .\nonce a leading source of dried shark fin and other shark products , indonesia over the last six months had dedicated new marine preserves to sharks and rays , ci said .\nindonesian scientists working with the conservation group said they hoped the new shark find would help that effort , by deepening interest in marine tourism .\nthis is the third walking shark species to be described from eastern indonesia in the past six years , which highlights our tremendous shark and ray biodiversity ,\nsaid fahmi , a shark expert at the indonesian institute of sciences .\nwe now know that six of the nine known walking shark species occur in indonesian waters , and these animals are divers ' favourites , with excellent potential to help grow our marine tourism industry .\n\u00a9 2018 guardian news and media limited or its affiliated companies . all rights reserved .\na new species of shark has been discovered by scientists in the eastern indonesian waters that can ' walk ' along the ocean floor .\ntwo specimens of the shy fish were discovered in the indonesian archipelago of muluku by biologist dr gerald allen , from conservation international , and his team .\nwriting in the international journal of ichthyology dr allen said : \u201cthe new species is clearly differentiated on the basis of colour pattern .\n\u201cits features include a general brown colouration with numerous clusters of mainly 2 - 3 dark polygonal spots , widely scattered white spots in the matrix between dark clusters . \u201d\nthe shark ' s strange walking motion may help provide clues about how early ancestors of the first animals to walk on land began evolving .\nfifa world cup andrej kramaric plots england payback with croatia in world cup 2018 semi - final after leicester city nightmare kramaric became leicester ' s record signing when he joined them for \u00a39 . 7million in january 2015 , but struggled to make an impact\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !"]}
{"id": 1008, "summary": [{"text": "the southern yellow grosbeak ( pheucticus chrysogaster ) , also known as golden-bellied grosbeak or golden grosbeak , is a species of grosbeaks in the cardinalidae family .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is very similar to , and has sometimes been considered conspecific with , the mexican yellow grosbeak .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the southern yellow grosbeak is found in colombia , ecuador , peru , trinidad and tobago , and venezuela .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , subtropical or tropical dry shrubland , and heavily degraded former forest . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "southern yellow grosbeak", "paragraphs": ["golden grosbeak ( pheucticus chrysogaster ) female of southern yellow grosbeak . | the internet bird collection | hbw alive\nthe southern yellow grosbeak , or golden bellied grosbeak is found in south america . it is a member of the cardinal species . this one was found in the dry forest of chaparri ecological reserve in peru .\nthe southern yellow grosbeak is stable in population . it is found in the tropical forests of brazil , colombia , french guiana , guyana , panama , and venezuela .\n21\u00b75 cm ; 54\u201359\u00b77 g ( peru ) . male nominate race has head and nape deep yellow with orange tinge , back black , rump yellow , uppertail - coverts black with white tips ; upperwing . . .\nbrewer , d . ( 2018 ) . golden grosbeak ( pheucticus chrysogaster ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' fairly common ' ( stotz et al . ( 1996 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nhas been treated as conspecific with p . chrysopeplus and p . tibialis , but molecular studies suggest that present species is paraphyletic with respect to p . aureoventris # r . vocal differences are small , but on average laubmanni has a greater number of simple notes in every song phrase , while nominate typically lacks such notes # r ; the two also show consistent plumage differences . two subspecies recognized .\n\u2013 n colombia ( santa marta mts ) , sierra de perij\u00e1 , and n venezuela ( discontinuously in lara , aragua , distrito federal and miranda ; also s sucre and n monagas ) .\n\u2013 andes from sw colombia ( nari\u00f1o ) to s peru ( arequipa and puno ) ; also coastal n & c peru .\nopen woodland , forest edge , areas of scattered trees , brushland ; mostly fairly arid habitats , but . . .\nfew published data . stomach contents \u201cpurplish berries\u201d and \u201cinsects and seeds\u201d . arthropod prey taken from foliage .\nbreeds during rainy season , feb\u2013may , in arid w ecuador , and birds in breeding condition in apr\u2013jul in n colombia ( santa marta and perij\u00e1 ) ; . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\npreviously included in a much broader emberizidae . limits and composition redrawn in recent years , based on extensive molecular work # r # r . as compared to hbw : granatellus is imported from parulidae , amaurospiza from passerellidae ( part of emberizidae in hbw ) , and habia ( now including chlorothraupis ) and piranga from thraupidae ; at the same time , saltator and parkerthraustes have been removed to thraupidae .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\n\u2190 click inside , copy the code and then paste it into your web page code .\n1 . forest - > 1 . 5 . forest - subtropical / tropical dry suitability : suitable season : resident major importance : no 1 . forest - > 1 . 9 . forest - subtropical / tropical moist montane suitability : suitable season : resident major importance : no 3 . shrubland - > 3 . 5 . shrubland - subtropical / tropical dry suitability : suitable season : resident major importance : no 3 . shrubland - > 3 . 7 . shrubland - subtropical / tropical high altitude suitability : suitable season : resident major importance : no 14 . artificial / terrestrial - > 14 . 1 . artificial / terrestrial - arable land suitability : suitable season : resident major importance : no 14 . artificial / terrestrial - > 14 . 5 . artificial / terrestrial - urban areas suitability : suitable season : resident major importance : no 14 . artificial / terrestrial - > 14 . 6 . artificial / terrestrial - subtropical / tropical heavily degraded former forest suitability : suitable season : resident major importance : no\niucn . 2016 . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2016 - 3 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 07 december 2016 ) .\nstotz , d . f . , fitzpatrick , j . w . , parker , t . a . and moskovits , d . k . 1996 . neotropical birds : ecology and conservation . university of chicago press , chicago .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwe ' ve sent an email to please follow the instructions to reset your password .\nenter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .\nif is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password ."]}
{"id": 1019, "summary": [{"text": "zander ( sander lucioperca ) is a species of fish from freshwater and brackish habitats in western eurasia .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "it is a popular game fish and has been introduced to a variety of localities outside its native range . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "zander", "paragraphs": ["erhardt , w . et al . der gro\u00dfe zander : enzyklop\u00e4die der pflanzennamen . 2008 ( zander ency )\nerhardt , w . et al . zander : handw\u00f6rterbuch der pflanzennamen , 16 . auflage . 2000 ( zander ed16 )\n) . moreover , both clades were significantly different from the volga zander \u2013 a close relative of zander \u2013 and perch , which were employed as outgroups .\nnicknames for zander . add your names , share with friends . click to copy\nnever miss a story from zander nethercutt , when you sign up for medium . learn more\ngene differentiated two haplotypic lineages a and b of zander described previously by kohlmann et al . (\nzander is the last person logan ever kills before dying at the hands of x - 24 .\nlucioperca lucioperca ( linnaeus 1758 ) ( zander ) syn . for sander lucioperca ( linnaeus , 1758 )\nu . s . distribution : there is an established population of zander in spiritwood lake in north dakota .\nzander , mink , american signal crayfish , giant hogweed , floating pennywort and japanese knotweed are also on the list .\nzander combines multiple layers of protection and goes beyond basic credit monitoring for 360 degrees of identity defense . we offer comprehensive protection that reviews non - credit identity records in order to protect your identity . protecting our subscriber\u2019s privacy is at the forefront of zander .\nmusic is a story . . . and it opens the emotional pores to all of life\u2019s experience .\n- benjamin zander\nbenjamin zander was put on this earth to set young people on their path to a lifelong relationship with music . - richard dyer\ncomparative description of males of two species of achtheres von nordmann , 1832 ( copepoda : siphonostomatoida : lernaeopodidae ) infecting zander and european perch .\nzander ( sander lucioperca ) , caught in cyprus on march 17 , 2007 . note matchbox , ca . 50mm length , for scale :\ndue to his weakened state , after the serum wears off , logan kills zander with a gun despite his earlier stated hatred for using guns .\ne . the site contains many of the valuable trademarks , service marks , names , titles , logos , images , designs , copyrights and other proprietary materials owned , registered and used by us and our subsidiaries , including but not limited to , the marks\nzander identity theft ,\ncyberagent\n( personal information monitoring ) ,\nprotector ,\nand others . zander identity theft solutions and the zander identity theft solutions product names referenced in the site are either trademarks , service marks or registered trademarks of zander identity theft solutions or third party service providers . any unauthorized use of same is strictly prohibited and all rights in same are reserved by us . no use of any zander insurance group trademark may be made by any third party without express written consent of zander insurance group . other products and company names mentioned in the site may be the trademarks of their respective owners .\nzander provides an instant notification when your sensitive information is at risk and sends the alert to your email address , smart phone , computer or tablet .\nmovement as a therapeutic agent did already have its proponents\u2014zander was a follower of the movement cure promoted by an earlier pioneer of exercise per henrik ling .\nzander rice was a scientist and the surgical head of alkali - transigen , gaining notoriety for being the one responsible behind the near extinction of mutants .\nborn in stockholm in 1835 , dr . zander would explore the connection between mechanics of the body and muscle building while in medical school in sweden in the early 1860s . he quickly established the therapeutic zander institute in stockholm , a state - supported institute using his machines to help workers correct physical impairments .\nfreshwater fish deadbaits such as bleak , gudgeon , roach , rudd , dace are the preferred bait for catching zander . sea fish such as herring and mackerel are not generally as successful when used as bait . zander can also be caught using a variety of lures including jigs , spoons , crankbaits and jerkbaits .\nand remember to give an extra rep for dr . gustav zander , who perhaps more than anyone else helped establish gym culture as we know it today .\ncomparative description of males of two species of achtheres von nordmann , 1832 ( copepoda : siphonostomatoida : lernaeopodidae ) infecting zander and . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nlohman , j . 1989 . biologists introduce zander into north america . the forum of fargo - moorhead . fargo , nd . july 22 : a1 , 4 .\nhe would further develop these devices , going on to win a gold medal at the 1876 centennial exhibition in philadelphia for his exercise machines . by the time the edition of his book , dr . g . zander\u2019s medico - mechanische gymnastik was published in 1892 , he was well on his way to establishing zander institutes across the globe .\nzander was added to the injurious wildlife list by the u . s . fish and wildlife service in 2016 ( 50 cfr \u00a7 16 . 13 ; dokken 2016 ) .\nwingate , p . j . 1992 . zander\u2013evaluate carefully before introducing . page 32 in in - fisherman wallye guide for 1992 . in - fisherman magazine , brainerd , mn\nzander\u2019s plan is the only one i recommend . the family plan even monitors your children\u2019s social security number and detects online fraud of their personal information at no additional cost . \u201c\neverywhere that i travel i meet musicians who began their musical journey with ben zander . they retain , gratefully , their enthusiasm , determination , and high ideals ! - john harbison\nbrown ja ; moore wm ; quabius es , 2001 . physiological effects of saline waters on zander . journal of fish biology , 59 ( 6 ) : 1544 - 1555 .\nzander is all about living in the moment and loving everything life throws at you . he gives his fans the best performance he can , so they encounter live music as it could be . touring all over the us has allowed zander to reach and cultivate an incredible fanbase . he\u2019s also performed in latin america , the caribbean , and australia . most recently , he hit the road supporting the wailers on their us national tour . zander hopes to ride this positive momentum with new ep , \u201csunshine state of mind\u201d coming june 2018 .\nzander insurance group ( \u201czander , \u201d \u201czander identity theft solutions , \u201d \u201cwe , \u201d \u201cus\u201d and \u201cour\u201d ) and our wholly - owned subsidiary , jjz insurance agency , a tn general partnership , respect individual privacy and value the confidence of our subscribers . this privacy policy sets out the privacy principles that we follow with respect to processing personal information in the course of providing our products and services . we will only collect , use and disclose personal information in a manner consistent with the laws of the countries in which we operate , for example , both relevant federal and state laws in the u . s . by using the zander identity theft solutions website , you consent to the data practices described in this privacy policy .\nin certain situations , zander identity theft solutions may be required to disclose personal data in response to lawful requests by public authorities , including to meet national security or law enforcement requirements .\nzander\u2019s music vibrates with colors of reggae , pop , funk and rock . his music takes his fans to the beach , and gives them a great experience of an endless summer .\nhickley , p . 1986 . invasion by zander and the management of fish stocks . philosophical transactions of the royal society of london : biological sciences 314 : 571 - 582 . urltoken\nd . you may not use , frame or utilize framing techniques to enclose any zander insurance group trademark , logo or other proprietary information , including the images found at the site , the content of any text or the layout / design of any page or form contained on a page without zander insurance group ' s express written consent . except as noted above , you are not conveyed any right or license by implication , estoppel , or otherwise in or under any patent , trademark , copyright , or proprietary right of zander insurance group or any third party .\nzander identity theft solutions and our clients have access to reports produced by these service providers that contain anonymized trends and statistics about website usage on zander identity theft solutions\u2019 proprietary platforms . however , neither zander identity theft solutions nor any other third parties are able to tie any of the anonymized analytics data to your personal information . at no time will this information be provided or sold to any third party affiliates for advertising or marketing purposes . the use of cookies by our partners and the third parties we engage to perform analytics services is not covered by our privacy policy .\na subset of 387 zander samples were characterized by restriction analysis . kohlmann et al . ( 2013 ) described two main haplotypes a and b for zander across europe . these can be distinguished by cutting the cyt b pcr fragment with the restriction enzyme alw26i , which yields two different restriction patterns . based on these patterns , we calculated the share of each haplotype in each of the seven catchments .\nafter hearing \u201ccinematique\u201d on one of their burger sessions at heiko\u2019s , chopstick & johnjon had a clear picture for remix and so the three of them started a session right away . as they played the cinematique remix back at their own studio fritz zander heard the piano through the door and he immediately wanted in on the project . fritz and his zander vt partner sven von th\u00fclen were given the whole remix - arrangement of the three and so zander vt went on shaping the mix further , \u00b4til in a final session with their studio - neighbours chopstick & johnjon the \u201ccinematique remix\u201d got the final touches .\nmoon crest 24 : conversed by aleck von zander , and appears to be the reason for his fallen angel status , as he preaches that vampires were forced to protect something they didn ' t believe in .\ndokken , b . 2004 . angler ' s catch likely a rare zander . grand forks herald . grand forks , nd . urltoken created on 07 / 13 / 2004 . accessed on 07 / 13 / 2004 .\nlogan is able to recognize zander rice as the son of the man who injected him with adamantium . however , logan does not have the memories of the logan who became weapon x in 1983 , during the events of\nsuch is the case of the swedish physician dr . gustav zander , who helped pioneer \u201cmechanotherapy , \u201d or the promotion of health and healing through the use the exercise apparatus . zander was likely not the first to see positivity in using machines to aid in health , but his connection of regular exertion using machines to honor health and well being was certainly a novel idea in an age when blood - letting and noxious humors were still pretty standard .\nwhile the smithsonian libraries\u2019 german version of dr . g . zander\u2019s medico - mechanische gymnastik might present a language barrier , the illustrations are worthy of a perusal for the curious sartorial choices the victorians made for their exercise wear .\nneighbour joining tree of 41 zander populations based on chord distances . populations of native areas showed catchment specific clustering and the populations of the invasion range linked the elbe - oder with the danube clade . \u2013 sample ids are explained in table\nfour generations and 80 years experience , unparalleled commitment to service , the best products on the market , and a principled commitment to debt free strategies , are just a few reasons i trust , use and strongly recommend zander insurance .\ndr . zander\u2019s contributions to this perennial gym craze began in the midst of heavy industrialization in the latter part of the 19th century . for the first time , a sizable chunk of society was now working in offices and \u201claboring\u201d without physical exertion .\ndokken , b . 2016 . u . s . fish and wildlife service list zander as injurious species . grand forks herald . grand forks , nd . urltoken . created on 10 / 02 / 2016 . accessed on 10 / 11 / 2017 .\nnovember 2009 reading in the angling times the british zander record has been broken with with a 22lb specimen caught from grafham water park by mick dolan . mick is now in the process of submitting his claim to the british record fish committee , and if accepted it will replace james benfield\u2019s record of 21lb 5oz caught from the river severn in 2007 . this was the first zander 52 year old mick had ever caught and it was also the first time he had fished the 1 , 600 - acre cambridgeshire venue\nwe investigated the contemporary invasive spreading of zander in german inland waters , and analysed how this was possibly driven by admixture of different genetic lineages after multiple human - assisted secondary contacts . analysis of nine species - specific microsatellites and the mitochondrial cyt b gene revealed conspicuous asymmetric distribution of admixed genetic ancestries indicating gene flow predominantly from the danube , elbe and oder towards rhine , weser and ems catchments . we discuss the population differentiation of zander as a result of different initial situations in the native versus the newly colonized ranges .\n) and compared with sequences of zander from geographic regions outside germany . neighbour joining analysis showed that no haplotypes other than a and b have been identified for europe to date . all sequences grouped with one of these two main types , which represented sister clades (\nunknown . concern exists that zander and walleye could hybridize . so far there has been no evidence of that happening ( l . schlueter , personal communication ) . there has been no discernible impact on native walleye or perch populations ( l . schlueter , personal communication ) .\nthis nickname maker is designed to create username for zander or to generate many other things , such as business name ideas , domain names of the website e . t . c . create ideal unique nickname with your name or generate cool funny couple names using the form below .\nspiritwood lake was been connected to the james river for three years ( 1998 - 2001 ) because of high water conditions . there is concern that zander may have escaped into the james river , althouth sampling efforts have found no evidence ( l . schlueter , personal communication ) .\nwhen you provide us with comments , suggestions , or ideas ( collectively ,\nfeedback\n) , such feedback is not considered confidential and becomes the property of zander identity theft solutions . we are free to use , copy , or distribute the feedback to others for any purpose .\nyou agree and authorize zander identity theft solutions , its agents and employees , to provide your personally identifiable information ( or information about your child that you have enrolled ) to third parties from time to time as provided in our privacy policy . you further authorize zander identity theft solutions , its agents and employees to obtain various information and reports about you ( or about your child that you have enrolled ) in order to perform the services , including , but not limited to , address history reports , name and alias reports , criminal reports , and all other relevant reports .\nsmith pa ; leah r ; eaton w , 1994 . the impact of zander , an alien piscivorous fish , on prey populations in a heavily - trafficked canal : implications for fishery management . institute of fisheries management 25th annual study course , university of lancaster , uk . 133 - 140 .\nlake and river populations exhibited no consistent patterns in their degrees of admixture , that is , there was not a clear tendency of more or less admixture in riverine or lacustrine habitats . for example , within the danube catchment , zander populations of ammersee and starnberger see ( pie chart 1 . 2 in fig .\ncollection of nicknames , cool fonts , letters , symbols and tags related to zander \u2013 zann , zan , alexander , zandros , zandro , zatistra . fancy names with the copy - paste function , reputation and popularity . create unique names for games , youtube channels , instagram accounts , companies , brands or social media .\nin the comics , zander rice is part of the scientific team that created the female clone of wolverine called x - 23 alongside dr . kinney . his father , dale , worked on the weapon x project and was killed by wolverine during his escape from the project . all of these characteristics of rice are adapted in logan .\neditor ' s note : the following is an excerpt of the graphic book ,\nevolution : the story of life on earth\n( hill and wang , 2011 ) . it was written by noted comic - book author and professor of biology jay hosler and illustrated by the award - winning duo kevin cannon and zander cannon .\nwill we send you offers of other zander products and services ? our range of identity protection products and services is constantly evolving to match the increasingly sophisticated market in which we operate . we will not send you details of other zander products or services or those of any reputable third parties without your prior consent and you can change your mind at any time by contacting us . in the limited instances we send you promotional or other informational communications , you may opt - out of receiving them by following the instructions included in each communication , by e - mailing us at the e - mail address provided below or by contacting us through one of the methods listed below .\nyour use of this service confirms that you have accepted these terms in their entirety . if you do not agree with these terms in their entirety , please terminate the service . these terms and conditions ( this\nagreement\nor\nterms and conditions\n) identify what you can expect from zander identity theft solutions and what we expect from you . these terms and conditions apply to your purchase of any identity theft products and / or services offered or provided by zander insurance group and govern the relationship between us and you , even if you have agreed to other or conflicting terms and conditions of third parties associated with this business relationship or the provision of such services and / or products .\nberg s , 2012 . zander sander lucioperca ( linnaeus , 1758 ) . ( sandart sander lucioperca ( linnaeus , 1758 ) . ) in : atlas over danske ferskvandsfisk [ ed . by carl , h . \\ m\u00f8ller , p . r . ] . copenhagen , denmark : natural history museum of denmark , university of copenhagen , 585 - 599 .\nthousand four hundred and seventy - eight fin and muscle tissue samples of zander were collected from rivers , lakes and canals in germany by commercial and recreational fishers , research organizations and state fishery authorities . samples were collected from seven main river catchments including different numbers of tributaries and lakes , with more than one sampling site at some of the larger water bodies ( table\nsmith pa ; leah rt ; eaton jw , 1998 . a review of the current knowledge on the introduction , ecology and management of zander , stizostedion lucioperca ) , in the uk . in : stocking and introduction of fish [ ed . by cowx , i . g . ] . oxford , uk : fishing news books , blackwell science ltd , 209 - 224 .\ndecades later , zander rice worked for the transigen project , which sought to curb the spread of mutants on the planet . using genetically modified food , rice spread a virus through the population that ended natural mutant births . after the success of the project , rice initiated a project to create mutant children to sell as weapons known as x - 23 and x - 24 .\nwhen you submit information to zander identity theft solutions through the relevant portal or web site , you should be aware that your information is transmitted across the internet and that no method of transmission over the internet is 100 % secure . although we take reasonable security measures to protect your information when we receive it , you also need to ensure you take appropriate steps to protect your information .\nin addition , in the event of a merger , acquisition , or any form of sale of some or all of our assets to a third party , we may also disclose your personal information to the third parties concerned or their professional advisors . in the event of such a transaction , the personal information held by zander identity theft solutions will be among the assets transferred to the buyer .\nwe have appropriate physical , technical and organizational measures in place to protect your data when held by zander identity theft solutions that comply with relevant legal and best practice requirements . when you enter sensitive information ( such as a credit card , social security number or login credentials ) as part of the enrollment process , we encrypt the transmission of that information using secure socket layer technology ( ssl ) .\nfigure s2 . neighbour joining tree based on mitochondrial cyt b sequences demonstrating the dimorphic nature of the mitochondrial gene in europe . \u2013 a , a1 , a2 , b , b1 , b2 = haplotypes identified in the current study ; accession numbers and country codes = haplotypes isolated by others from different european sites ; numbers specify bootstrap values \u226570 % ; volga zander and perch are included as outgroups .\nkr\u00f6ger n 1 , shaw b , iacobelli s , zabelina t , peggs k , shimoni a , nagler a , binder t , eiermann t , madrigal a , schwerdtfeger r , kiehl m , sayer hg , beyer j , bornh\u00e4user m , ayuk f , zander ar , marks di ; clinical trial committee of the british society of blood and marrow transplantation and the german cooperative transplant group .\na . unless otherwise explicitly stated , zander identity theft solutions , for itself and its licensors , makes no express , implied or statutory representations , warranties , or guarantees in connection with the services , relating to the quality , suitability , truth , accuracy or completeness of any information or material contained or presented in the services . unless otherwise explicitly stated , to the maximum extent permitted by applicable law , the services , and any information or material contained or presented through the services is provided to you on an\nas is ,\nas available\nand\nwhere - is\nbasis with no warranty of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose , or non - infringement of third - party rights . zander identity theft solutions does not provide any warranties against viruses , spyware or malware that may be installed on your computer .\ngenetic admixture of zander populations in german inland and coastal waters . levels of admixture were higher in the invasion ranges ( colored area ) as compared with the native ranges . the big lake ( colored blue ) at the southern borderline of germany is lake constance . black , grey and white colors in the pie charts indicate the genetic proportion of danube , elbe and oder ancestry respectively . numbers indicate pooled populations displayed in table\nzander insurance group \u00ae , dave ramsey ' s choice for term life , disability insurance , and identity theft protection , has been serving its customers for over 80 years . as one of this country ' s largest independent insurance brokerages , we are here to provide you convenient and informative access to the insurance programs you need . don ' t hesitate to call us . . . we look forward to being of service to you .\nhowever , logan could have also remembered him from the procedure from both timelines , as it was stated in x - men : days of future past that he is the only person who would know both timelines . it is possible rice ' s father assisted in the procedure in the original timeline , and logan was simply referencing that instance as well . zander himself confirms that his father was one of the men responsible for the procedure .\npresence of null alleles and large allele drop - outs were tested with microchecker 2 . 2 . 3 ( van oosterhout et al . 2004 ) . linkage disequilibrium was tested for 1476 loci combinations with bonferroni corrections in all zander populations using genepop 4 . 2 ( raymond and rousset 1995 ) . the same software was applied to test for hardy - weinberg deviations . markov chain parameters were set at 10 000 dememorizations , 20 batches and 5000 iterations per batch .\nsince it affects your use of the services , please review our privacy policy and zander insurance group website terms of use (\nwebsite terms of use\n) . we collect , use and disclose information about you as provided in our privacy policy . we will share your personal information with third parties only in the ways that are described in this privacy policy . our privacy policy and website terms of use are located on the site and are incorporated into this agreement , and you agree to the terms of the privacy policy as a condition to your acceptance of this agreement .\nthe populations of the invaded areas separated the danube clade from the elbe - oder clade . more precisely , the river main and lake constance populations ( both belonging to the rhine catchment ) appeared more closely related to the danube clade , while the other rhine populations ( rhine itself and mosel ) , together with the reservoir edersee ( weser catchment ) and the ems populations , appeared genetically closer to the elbe - oder group . most zander populations of the invaded areas formed clusters as well , for example , ems , rhine and lake constance populations , though with very low bootstrap support .\nyou understand that by accepting these terms and conditions you are providing\nwritten instructions\nto zander identity theft solutions (\nwe\nor\nus\n) and its , employees , agents , subsidiaries , affiliates , contractors , third party data providers , and all national credit reporting agencies under the fair credit reporting act ( fcra ) , as amended , including , without limitation , experian , transunion , equifax and affiliated entities , to access your credit files from each national credit reporting agency and to exchange information about you with each such national credit reporting agency in order to verify your identity and to provide the services to you .\na sophisticated sadist would be the best way to describe dr . zander rice . he talks in a smooth , collected way almost all the time in order to make the person he is talking to believe that he is affable . while he does seem genuinely nice at times , he is also often arrogant , underestimating wolverine ' s powers when he and donald pierce were torturing caliban . rice is a sadistic monster that tortures and enslaves mutant kids for monetary gain , making their lives absolute nightmares in the process . not only that , but rice is also delusional , and sees what he does as less brutal than it truly is .\nwe identified three ancestral genetic lineages with microsatellite based admixture analysis , which unambiguously coincided with the three clades harboured in the native river catchments of danube , oder and elbe . although zander populations of each of these areas exhibited signs of admixture with other genetic lineages , indicating that introgression has happened , this was much more pronounced in the non - native catchments of rhine , weser and ems . populations in these river systems were completely admixed and exhibited more or less balanced proportions of each of the three genetic lineages , meaning that fish from all native catchments must have been translocated or migrated into each of the rivers in the non - native range .\n) were less admixed than the respective river populations ( 1 ) , but chiemsee and waginger see ( 1 . 1 ) showed comparable or higher levels of admixture . similarly , within the elbe catchment lake populations of m\u00fcritz and plauer see ( 2 . 4 ) showed comparable levels of admixture to the respective river populations ( 2 ) , but populations of the spree lakes m\u00fcggelsee and gro\u00dfer kossenblatter see ( 2 . 3 ) were much more admixed . outside the native range of zander , lake constance populations ( 4 . 3 ) had a lower level of admixture compared with rhine populations ( 4 ) , but this was also true for the river populations of main ( 4 . 2 ) and mosel ( 4 . 1 ) belonging to the same catchment .\n1 we do not sell your personal information to anyone . you will not receive unsolicited , intrusive calls or emails from other agents and companies across the country . if you do provide your telephone number , a zander representative or their partners may call or text message / sms you at the phone number ( s ) above , including your wireless number if provided . normal charges may apply . this call may be generated using an automated technology and if we ' re unable to reach you when we call , we may leave you a pre - 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( sorry for the long , boring disclaimer . . . our attorney made us do it . )\nyet again another male oc ! \u2702 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - zander ' s personality : emo - ish power : dark magics likes : anything sweet fav color : black and blue sexuality : any gender ( he dont care if u boy , girl , trans ect . ) \u2702 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - yea enjoy ! don ' t forget to like !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na\ndirty dozen\nof the 12 non - native species most likely to harm native wildlife along rivers has been highlighted by british waterways .\nthey include red - eared terrapins which were introduced after the teenage mutant ninja turtle craze of the 1990s .\nbritish waterways urged people to think about the environmental impact of releasing such species into the wild .\ninvasive species can cause problems because they are normally bigger , faster growing or more aggressive than native ones and are often resistant to traditional methods of control .\nthe organisation spends \u00a31m a year dealing with the problems caused by such species .\nits national ecologist chris john said :\nwhilst not all non - native species are harmful , many pose real problems to our native wildlife , to boaters and to our historic channels , locks and bridges .\nwith no natural predators to control them they can overwhelm wildlife , channels , banks and towpaths .\nhe added :\nbritish waterways invests a large amount of time and money to protect our canals and rivers through identifying , monitoring and controlling damaging species .\nthis is very costly and diverts resources that could be used elsewhere on the waterway network .\nwe are therefore asking people to help us by disposing of non - native plants safely and carefully selecting alternative plants for gardens , ponds and aquariums .\nmost popular now | 56 , 514 people are reading stories on the site right now .\n;\nthe bbc is not responsible for the content of external sites . read more .\nthis page is best viewed in an up - to - date web browser with style sheets ( css ) enabled . while you will be able to view the content of this page in your current browser , you will not be able to get the full visual experience . please consider upgrading your browser software or enabling style sheets ( css ) if you are able to do so .\ngreat price . great service . call toll free : 800 . 356 . 4282\nprovides true white glove service by transferring the restoration work directly to a certified identity theft specialist available 24 / 7 / 365 .\nprovides early detection of fraud and dramatically reduces your risk of becoming a victim of identity theft .\ncovers expenses and legal costs for fraud , embezzlement , forgery , atm access and other id theft risks to your financial institution accounts . also , any out of pocket expenses incurred as a victim for lost wages , postage , mileage , travel .\nmonitors your child\u2019s personal information and ssn for activity on the internet or at the credit bureaus up to age 18 when enrolled in the family plan at no additional cost .\nplease read the following information carefully before using any of the products or services ( the\nservices\n) provided by this website ( this\nsite\n) . by accessing or using any of the services , you acknowledge that you have read , understood , and agree to these terms and conditions and to follow all applicable laws and regulations . please check the terms and conditions each time you visit this site as these terms and conditions may be changed by us from time to time , and you agree to abide by any such changes .\nin order for us to provide you with our identity protection service and for the prevention and detection of fraud , we will share your personal information with third parties who perform services on our behalf . depending on the service you have requested , we may share your name , email address , national identifier or social security number ( as applicable ) . we will also share your billing information with a credit card processing company in order to bill you for goods and services . these companies are authorized to use your personal information only as necessary to provide these services to you .\nb . nothing in these terms and conditions , including sections 4 and 5 , shall exclude or limit our warranty or liability for losses which may not be lawfully excluded or limited by applicable law . some jurisdictions do not allow the exclusion of certain warranties or conditions or the limitation or exclusion of liability for loss or damage caused by negligence , breach of contract or breach of implied terms , or incidental or consequential damages . accordingly , only the limitations which are lawful in your jurisdiction will apply to you and our liability will be limited to the maximum extent permitted by law .\nc . we are not a credit repair organization , or similarly regulated organization under other applicable laws , and do not provide credit repair advice .\nd . if you use the ssn trace services ( social security number monitoring ) , you represent and warrant to us that you will use such services ( or any of the information therein ) to protect against or prevent actual fraud , unauthorized transactions , claims or other liabilities , and not for any other purpose .\n( i ) any direct , indirect , incidental , special , consequential or exemplary damages which may be incurred by you , however caused and under any theory of liability . this shall include , but not be limited to , any loss of profit ( whether incurred directly or indirectly ) , any loss of goodwill or business reputation , any loss of data suffered , cost of procurement of substitute goods or services , or other intangible loss ; or\nb . the limitations on our liability to you in section 4 above or this section 5 shall apply whether or not we have been advised of or should have been aware of the possibility of any such losses arising .\nbecause you can access this site and use the services internationally , you agree to follow all local rules about the internet , data , e - 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{"id": 1020, "summary": [{"text": "the egyptian mouthbrooder ( pseudocrenilabrus multicolor ) is a species of cichlid .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "this small mouthbrooder reaches about 8 cm ( 3.1 in ) in length , and is found in rivers , lakes , and other freshwater habitats in eastern africa from egypt and as far south as tanzania .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the common name egyptian mouthbrooder is often limited to its northern nominate subspecies , in which case the southern p. m. victoriae is called the dwarf victoria mouthbrooder .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the exact distribution limit between the two subspecies is unknown . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "egyptian mouthbrooder", "paragraphs": ["the egyptian mouthbrooder ( pseudocrenilabrus multicolor ) is unique in that it is the female that does the mouthbrooding .\nthe egyptian mouthbrooder is native to north - east africa and is widespread in this area . it was first imported to europe in 1902 . this species is also known as\ndwarf victoria mouthbrooder\n. the name multicolor means \u201cmany colors\u201d .\ncommon name : egyptian mouthbrooder , dwarf victoria mouthbrooder scientific name : pseudocrenilabrus multicolour synonyms : paratilapia multicolor , haplochromis multicolor , hemihaplochromis multicolor max size : 3 . 2 inch / 8 cm temperatur : 68 - 75\u02daf / 20 - 24\u02dac ph : 6 . 5 - 7 . 5\nwelcomme , r . l . 1973 .\nobservations on hemihaplochromis multicolor , the egyptian mouthbrooder\n. buntbarsche bulletin . ( n . 37 ) , pp . 17 - 19 ( crc01542 )\none thing is certain , you must make sure you get the dwarf egyptian mouthbrooder , or they may list it mouthbreeder , the one with the mature size of 3 \u2013 3 . 5 inches .\nin summary , the egyptian mouthbrooder is probably the hardiest and most easily bred member of the entire genus pseudocrenilabrus . the ugandan mouthbrooder is somewhat more demanding , given its sensitivity to tank fouling and susceptibility to stress - induced systemic bacterial diseases . its brilliant coloration makes it well worth a little additional effort however . hopefully tank - reared fish will prove somewhat hardier than their wild progenitors , for this lovely little cichlid deserves the same wide popularity among hobbyists that its egyptian counterpart has always enjoyed .\nthe egyptian mouthbrooder , which originates from the nile river , will grow to 2 . 5 inches in length and is well suited for most community tanks . this small cichlid is very peaceful as long as its companions are too large for it to swallow .\nfor many decades , mouthbrooding in tropical fish was a limited and unique method of spawning . many thought only a few fish spawned in this manner . however , that was before the east african invasion of the 1960s and \u201870s , when the multitude of malawian mouthbrooders came into the hobby . now , when one mentions \u201ccichlid , \u201d many people think of mouthbrooders . before the 1960s , when hobbyists mentioned \u201cmouthbrooder , \u201d the little egyptian mouthbrooder ( pseudocrenilabrus multicolor ) or its close , brightly colored cousin , the southern egyptian mouthbrooder ( p . multicolor victoriae ) were the fish they were talking about . no other fishes with this behavior were commonly known to hobbyists .\nthe egyptian mouthbrooder it is also referred to as the haplochromis multicolor mouthbreeder . however , even though the descriptions of the fish are almost identical and i believe them to be the same fish , depending on the source you research , and how old that source is both names are correct .\nall other varieties are huge 14 - 24 inches full grown and will absolutely destroy your aquarium ! the beauty of breeding the dwarf egyptian mouthbrooder is just how simple it can be to breed and keep this fish compared to just about any other egg laying fish that will care for its young .\nthe egyptian mouthbrooder will accept almost all food and can be feed flake food . you should strive to give them a varied diet . they do well on a base diet of flake food but i highly recommend complementing the diet with frozen food . these fishes really appreciate live food every now and then .\nfeeding : as a rule , the egyptian mouthbrooder eats anything it is given , they can live happy healthy lives even on straight flake food . however for best results breeding , feed insect larvae such as mosquito larva , red worm , daphnia , white worms or brine shrimp to condition this feeding should be frequent and heavy to encourage breeding activity .\nthe egyptian mouthbrooder is hardy little cichlid that is very suitable for beginners . it is easy to keep and breed . this cichlid used to be very common a few decades ago but have become increasingly rare over the year . you can still find it in stores from time to time but is not a part of the standard stock in most fish stores .\negyptian mouthbrooders can be kept in relatively small aquariums and a group can be kept in a 20 gallon / 90l tank . the aquarium should be decorated with densely planted areas as well as open areas , and the fish should be provided with plenty of suitably sized caves . at least one cave per fish is required . small split clay post and coconuts make good caves . it is a good idea to create natural territorial borders since some fish can be quite aggressive and natural territorial borders can help defuse this aggressiveness . egyptian mouthbrooders are suitable for community tanks with similarly sized fish that are though enough to tolerate the temperament if the egyptian mouth brooder . do not keep egyptian mouthbrooders with timid fish .\nbehavior : surprisingly peaceful for a cichlid . the dwarf egyptian mouthbrooder can be kept in a community aquarium with fish its own size , much like angel fish , another semi - peaceful cichlid . however like all cichlids , this fish becomes territorial and aggressive at breeding time , will damage or kill its own kind if more than its mate is in the aquarium when breeding commences .\nit\u2019s surprising that you don\u2019t see the southern egyptian mouthbrooder for sale very often , considering their bright colors , peaceful demeanor and ease of spawning . if you come across this diminutive beauty , don\u2019t hesitate to pick up a small group of them to add to a planted community tank . with proper care , you\u2019ll be able to say that you\u2019ve completed another successful adventure in fish breeding .\nthe egyptian mouthbrooder has been a staple of the aquarium hobby ever since its introduction by schoeller . until quite recently it was believed that the ugandan populations of p . multicolor were identical to those native to egypt and the sudan . in the spring of 1972 , ugandan fish were imported into the united states in quantity . they had been brought in sporadically somewhat earlier by german importers and distributed under the trade names\nhaplochromis kiravira\nor\nhaplochromis kirawira .\nas reference to the accompanying illustrations will indicate , the ugandan fish differ markedly in color pattern from the egyptian fish previously available to aquarists .\ndecades before there were african cichlids clubs , websites , and stores that specialize in all things african cichlid , there was only one , the egyptian mouthbreeder . well , there were others from the congo river , but the egyptian was the first of the class that would become african cichlids . you see they actually came from the part of the lakes famous for all the fish we classify as african cichlids today .\nthe egyptian mouthbrooder can tolerate temperatures as low as 13\u00b0 c for short periods of time , while prolonged exposure to 16\u00b0 c appears to do it no harm . since this cichlid ranges as far north as the nile delta , this is hardly surprising . data are lacking on tolerable minimum temperatures for the ugandan mouthbrooder . given its exclusively tropical distribution , it seems imprudent to expect a tolerance for temperatures lower than 18\u00b0 c . both populations of p . multicolor can tolerate briefly temperatures as high as 32\u00b0 c , but a range of 24\u00b0 - 29\u00b0 c is more appropriate for their aquarium maintenance . like other haplochromines , all pseudocrenilabrus eat more heavily , behave more aggressively and have a shorter developmental interval at the upper end of their preferred temperature range .\none of my small egyptian mouthbrooders with her few days old fry . she will guard and protect them with her life , well at least for a couple of days , and on the the third day she will eat them : - )\nthe status of these distinctive populations remains to be determined . for the present , i would suggest retaining the traditional egyptian mouthbrooder as a designation for the nilotic populations and utilizing the designation of ugandan mouthbrooder for those occurring south of murchison falls and the semliki rapids . the latter have been available through commercial channels under the trade names given earlier , as well as under the very misleading name of haplochromis fasciatus , which is properly that of a morphologically distinctive haplochromine native to the lower reaches of the congo river , many thousands of miles to the west of uganda . in several recent german publications ( mayland , 1978 ; richter , 1980 ) this fish has also been discussed under the name pseudocrenilabrus philander dispersus , a very different congener native to southern africa that will be discussed in the second portion of this article .\nsoon at about 3\u20134 weeks from when the eggs were first laid , the fry will venture off into the plants throughout the breeding tank . at this point , the female should be feed back to normal size and ready to go back into your community tank or where ever you keep the rest of your egyptian\u2019s . use the breeding tank to raise the fry , 3\u20134 months later , you should have 30 or so very healthy 1 and 1 / 2 egyptian mouthbrooders ready to sell , or give to friends , and let them enjoy this wonder of nature !\nwelcomme ( 1973 ) reported that in nature , the number of free - swimming fry released by females of the ugandan mouthbrooder ranges from 17 for females in the 3 . 0 cm - 3 . 5 cm size range to 63 for females in the 5 . 6 cm - 6 . 0 cm range , a considerably smaller number than would be expected given the number of eggs typically spawned by females in these size classes . the same pattern is characteristic of the egyptian mouthbrooder in captivity . welcomme ascribes the discrepancy to wastage generated by relatively inefficient mechanisms of fertilization and brooding . insofar as partial cannibalism of her brood during incubation by an ovigerous female can be described as inefficient , i would concur with the latter hypothesis , but i consider it very unlikely that any eggs manage to escape fertilization given the combination of extra - and intra - buccal fertilization practiced by members of this genus .\nhi kfenk , i saw your post and was just wondering how you went getting your egyptian mouthbrooders ? i ' ve recently acquired a pair and am raising my first brood . i ' m not sure how well they would travel , but id be happy to send some your way .\nthe 2 - inch female is the claim to fame for the southern egyptian mouthbrooder . this plain silvery fish with no other finery takes the eggs into her mouth upon completion of the spawning act and broods them in an area of specially modified throat tissue , known as a buccal pouch , until they hatch and for a while after . this brooding period can last two weeks or even longer , during which time she does not eat . this is probably an instinctual response to her brooding , so she won\u2019t eat her own fry . her body slowly wastes away , while the growing fry in her mouth make her head look larger in proportion to her diminishing body . during the last stages of their development , the fry have grown large enough that the skin of the buccal pouch is stretched so thin and taut that you can make out the individual fry . you can see 100 small eyes looking back at you as the day of release draws close .\nthis species is very easy to breed and a perfect choice for anyone who want to breed their first cichlid or their first mouth brooder . condition the fish by giving them a good varied diet . increasing the temperature can help trigger spawning . they dig a hole in the sand where they spawn . the female will then take the eggs into her mouth where she will keep eggs and fry for about 10 days . once the fry is released they will retreat into the mothers mouth at night or when in danger during the next week or so . the female becomes very aggressive after spawning and if kept in a small aquarium the male has to be removed after spawning or the female might kill him . in larger aquariums , the male can stay but he will need good hiding places . each spawning only results in a small number of fry ; usually below 40 but in rare cases a spawning can result in up to 80 fry . egyptian mouthbrooder fry can be fed newly hatch brine shrimp from day 1 .\nthe southern egyptian mouthbrooders are diminutive cichlids that come to us from the upper reaches of the nile river and several vegetation - choked backwaters of its tributary streams just north of lake victoria . they spend their entire lives there among the stems of water lilies and other aquatic plants in shallow , slow - flowing or stagnant waters ; they are not found in open waters . keep this in mind when setting up an aquarium for them . they make excellent , colorful additions to the lower regions of a planted community tank .\nat a maximum size of about 2 . 5 inches , this fish certainly qualifies as a dwarf cichlid . however , members of the genus pseudocrenilabrus are unique among dwarf cichlids , in that they are all maternal mouthbrooders . with a few exceptions , most other known dwarf cichlids are cave spawners . the colors of the male southern egyptian mouthbrooders are very bright and have made this fish popular for many decades . reminding the observer of a brightly colored bird , the male is lemon yellow , with bright blue lips and blue dots covering the rear half of his body and into his fins . his anal fin is often bright red , even from a young age when the other colors are still developing .\nboth forms of p . multicolor are in the hobby at present , though the ugandan mouthbrooder tends to be of sporadic and often very localized availability . interestingly , there tends to be a great preponderance of males among imported ugandan fish . as is typically the case with haplochromines , the males are by far the more colorful sex . the unbalanced sex ratios of imported ugandan mouthbrooders may reflect either ignorance of the true appearance of the female or alternatively , a reluctance to ship dull colored specimens that may not sell well . such a state of affairs is not unfamiliar to hobbyists who work with the endemic haplochromines of lake malawi . whatever its cause , it greatly hinders efforts to establish tank - reared populations of these cichlids , a fact which in my more cynical moments offers itself as another plausible explanation for the occurrence of such imbalances .\nthe slender fry of both populations can take the smallest artemia nauplii , micro - worms and finely powered prepared foods for their initial meal . they will not tolerate dirty or crowded tanks , but are otherwise easily reared . growth is relatively slow . welcomme reports that in nature , the ugandan mouthbrooder does not attain sexual maturity until the seventh month post - release , as 2 . 8 cm sl for males , 2 . 6 cm sl for females . in captivity , secondary sexual coloration becomes evident in males of both populations at c . 1 . 8 cm sl , a point in growth generally attained between the eighth and tenth week post - release . sexual maturity is attained between fourteen and sixteen weeks post - release , at lengths of 2 . 5 cm sl and 2 . 0 cm sl for males and females respectively .\nwithin its chosen habitat , p . multicolor / uganda occurs over a wide range of substrata , ranging from sand and clay through mud with a very high content of organic matter . while emergent and floating aquatic plants are abundant in such habitats , submerged plants are not . blooms of green and blue - green algae are not uncommon , and the stems and leaves of aquatic plants generally support a rich diatom flora . the ugandan mouthbrooder forages for its food over the bottom and among the leaves and stems of aquatic plants . aquatic insect larvae appear to be staple items , but quantities of diatoms are also eaten . this may explain the intense golden yellow coloration seen in freshly imported specimens of p . multicolor / uganda . such coloration certainly seems to be strongly influenced by diet , for specimens i captured for photographic purposes during a visit to jinja , uganda in the spring of 1971 faded markedly within 24 hours of being placed in a holding tank .\nlike all their congeners , both populations of this species are tolerant of a wide range of water conditions . in nature , they typically occur in moderately hard , slightly alkaline water , but as long as he avoids extremes of either ph or hardness , the aquarist need not concern himself greatly about these aspects of water chemistry . stress induced by build - up of nitrogen cycle by - products is a more serious problem . the ugandan mouthbrooder is particularly sensitive to such pollution and must have good tank maintenance and a program of regular partial water changes if it is to prosper in captivity . both forms devour with gusto any of the usually available live and prepared foods . the golden yellow and red coloration of these cichlids is very sensitive to dietary influences . to maintain it at its fullest , the prudent aquarist will offer his specimens a diet rich in the appropriate precursor substances . the easiest way to get such supplements into these distinctly carnivorous little cichlids is to use one of the commercially available color enhancing foods .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nkraiem , m . , smith , k . & el gamal , a . r .\njustification : this subspecies is only certainly known from egypt , where it is now regionally extinct . there is some taxonomic confusion over the correct subspecies for records from sudan , and it is therefore assessed as data deficient .\nthe subspecies is only positively known from the lower nile ( cloffa 1991 ) , however there have been no recent records and it is likely that this subspecies is now regionally extinct . there are records from the upper white nile , but whether these records belong to this subspecies or p . multicolor victoriae is not clear .\nthis fish probably occurs among submerged plants and in open water zones enclosed by papyrus swamps . it inhabits streams and ponds . it feeds on worms , crustaceans , insects , algae , vegetable fragments and small fish .\nthis subspecies is part of the aquarium trade . the level of captive breeding is unknown .\nno information available . more research is needed into this subspecies ' population numbers and range , biology and ecology , habitat status and threats , as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nrt fry in mouth , background proper breeding tank bottom set up , ct 10 gl tank , tr fry returning to mouth , bl fry exiting mouth , br thin mother after fry leave mouth .\nwhen you see one today , you may wonder what all the fuss is about , the colors of the male , even at breeding time is not all that bright compared to the dullest of what we refer to as african\u2019s today .\nit is also the only fish that looked like this , and even though dull by today\u2019s standards , the fish that inspired generations of aquarists\u2019 to explore and breed and grow a whole genre of the freshwater aquarium hobby , the african cichlids of the great lakes of africa . quite a mighty little fish when you look at it that way !\nsexual differences : males are larger and more colorful ; females are smaller and paler , with dark markings . males have red on the end of the anal fin and rainbow like colors on their bodies in full breeding mode .\nwater : 72 f \u2013 81 f ph 7 ; 10 \u2013 15 dh , however , these fish are not very picky when it comes right down to it and not much special attention must be taken to reach exact water conditions for successful breeding activities .\ntank set up : keep in a relatively small tank , as small as 5 \u2013 10 gallons for a breeding tank . use a sand bottom with live aquarium plants around the outer rim ( sides and the back leaving the middle and front of the tank open and clear ) . have a rock formation that creates an arch or cave that the pair can swim through . for best results introduce 2 well - fed females and 1 well - fed male . remove the male and the female that does not have a full mouth after breeding takes place .\nnote : this is the extreme of what is needed , these fish are so prolific , they often breed in the fish store , with 30 fish crowded into a 10 gallon tank , hundreds of people walking past tapping on the tank , and a bare bottom , but do the above for best and 100 % assured results .\nwater conditions are not critical , the temperature is best at what is always best for most tropical fish , 78f .\na small private tank is best , i suggest a 10 gallon ( not that they need that much space to breed , but the fry will need the space to grow up ) . these fish will actually start breeding when they are as small as 1 and \u00bd inches long , so no matter how small they are when you get them , they are probably ready to breed .\nthe first step is to feed them heavily on frozen blood worms , brine shrimp and if you can find it , daphnia . this is necessary to fatten up the female so she does not starve during the mouthbrooding period , remember she will not eat as much as a scrap for at least 3 weeks ; it is also to mature the eggs and sperm within the male and female before breeding .\nthe live or frozen food feeding also will \u201ccolor up\u201d the males , so you can tell males from females , remember the male will be much more colorful than the plane female , and have red on its tale , if you have several males the dominate male will always be the most colorful , the best female being the fattest ( most full of row ) . you really do not have to do anything with these fish at this point , nature will take its course , their instincts are strong to reproduce , and they do it whenever they can . think guppy of the egg layer world .\n50 to 100 eggs are deposited in a shallow pit in the sand in the open area on the bottom of the tank , 5 - to 10 at a time . after each batch is deposited the male fertilizes them and the female scoops them up in her mouth , and deposits 5 - 10 more , and repeat . as soon as you can see that all spawning activity is finished , all fish except the female with the full jaw should be removed from the breeding tank .\nthe mouth of the female is enlarged , stretched , and the mouth walls are thin so that the eggs can actually be seen in the mouth through the skin of the sides of her mouth . you will see her constantly \u201cchewing\u201d , she does this to keep the eggs aerated , and free of debris and fungus . her mouth gets bigger and bigger and her body shrinks for 2 - 3 weeks .\nthe fry will return to mom\u2019s mouth frequently , this is normal , at first all the time , later just when startled , or always at night . do not think she is about to eat them , this is the part of nature you are getting the rare chance to glimpse , not many people get to see this first hand , enjoy it , video it , put it on youtube for others to enjoy . today it is a rare treat to see these fish in action .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthis species can be kept in pairs or in harems with one male and 3 - 4 females .\nthis species is hardy but it is still important to keep the water quality as high as possible . the ph should be kept around 7 ( 6 . 5 - 7 . 5 ) and the temperature in the 68 - 75\u02daf / 20 - 24\u02dac range . soft to medium hard water is to be preferred .\nthis species is very easy to sex . males are larger and much more colorful . females are smaller and colorless , one might even say dull . the males have red spots on the caudal fin which are not present on females .\nunlike the better - known female mouthbrooding cichlids of lake malawi , which release their fry in the shallows and then move on , this tiny mother will continue to protect her fry for several days after release . she provides them a shelter at night and whenever danger threatens . after a couple of days , it is almost comical to see the nearly 100 juveniles try to dash back to their mother\u2019s mouth when you walk up to the tank . i\u2019ve seen so many juveniles that outgrew their mother\u2019s mouth still trying so hard to get in that there were tails sticking out of her mouth and heads protruding from her gills \u2013 with even more trying to get in . this is why , for the mother\u2019s health , it\u2019s best to remove her as soon as she releases the fry and give her a couple days to recover before moving her back to the main tank .\ncaring for these unique dwarf cichlids is straightforward . they are undemanding about water parameters , and will live and breed under most aquarium conditions , as long as the water is clean ( low dissolved organics , low nitrates , and no ammonia or nitrites ) . in other words , do those water changes regularly . they don\u2019t seem to require a specific temperature , so aim for somewhere in the mid - to upper - 70 degrees fahrenheit , without worrying about being too exact . they are not aggressive with other fishes , but males may fight amongst themselves . you can maintain a group of one or two males and several females in a planted community tank , where they will happily go about their business without bothering other fish or digging up the plants .\nthere is no need to set up a special spawning tank for them . if they are well - fed and happy in the community tank , they will spawn regularly among the other fish . for spawning , the males only require an area of open gravel or sand about 3 inches in diameter . here , they will excavate a shallow , round pit and court the females . the male will put on his brightest colors and swim up to the females , doing a little dance and trying to entice them back to his pit . he flicks his fins and arches his back while shivering and shaking . if the dance impresses the female and she follows him back to his pit , he begins circling the pit , shaking and dragging his bright red anal fin on the bottom .\na receptive female will then enter the dance in the pit . she will begin to follow in the circling behavior , nipping at the male\u2019s side near his bright red anal fin . after a few minutes , she begins laying a few eggs , picking them up in her mouth and biting at the red anal fin of the male . he releases his milt and fertilizes the eggs in her mouth . this process is repeated until the female lays about 80 to 100 eggs . the female then moves off to quietly begin her brooding period as described above . the male will head off , looking for other females . no pair bond is formed .\nif possible , gently remove the female to her own 5 - to 10 - gallon tank to brood her young in peace . a couple of females can share a brooding tank as long as each has her own cave to hide in when needed .\nfeeding is also fairly straightforward . both the adults and the fry appear to be omnivores and will eat just about anything you offer . remember that their mouths are small , so provide appropriately sized foods . after release , the young will grow quickly on a mixed diet of newly hatched brine shrimp and finely crushed flake foods . at about 6 months of age , they will have reached adult size , and within a year , they will be spawning on their own . you should move females that have just released their fry to a separate container for a few days to recuperate . feed them things like worms and protein - rich food , so they can quickly regain their weight \u2014 as soon as you return them to the main tank , the males will likely begin courting again .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nit is found in streams , ponds and lake tributaries . the water is usually slow - moving or completely still , and the fish are commonly found around the stems of aquatic plants or under cover of floating vegetation .\n24\u2033 x 15\u2033 x 12\u2033 ( 60cm x 37 . 5cm x 30cm ) \u2013 71 litres is suitable for a pair . a larger tank is needed for a harem .\nthe tank should contain plenty of hiding places . clay pot caves , roots and pieces of driftwood can all be used . plants are not essential but the fish will appreciate the additional cover . a sand or fine gravel substrate is best as the male will dig when spawning .\nwill accept most foods . a good quality cichlid pellet can be fed as staple , but ensure the diet is varied with regular feedings of live and frozen foods .\ncan be aggressive towards other species inhabiting the lower reaches of the aquarium . if you wish to keep it with other dwarf cichlids , catfish , loaches etc . you will need a large tank . in smaller aquaria good tankmates include african tetras and small surface dwelling species such as hatchetfish . male fish are very aggressive towards one another and only one should be kept in a harem situation with several females .\nmales tend to be a little larger than females and are more colourful , especially when breeding .\nquite easy . maternal mouth - brooder . the breeding aquarium should be set up as suggested above . the fish will breed over a fairly wide range of water parameters . aim for a ph of around 7 . 0 and a temperature of 75\u00b0f and you should be fine . try and purchase a single male fish and 3 - 4 females . if this is not possible get a group of 6 - 8 young fish and allow things to develop naturally . if the fish are conditioned on a high quality diet of frozen and live foods they should come into breeding condition quite quickly .\nwhen in condition the male will excavate a shallow pit in the substrate . from here he will display to females , attempting to entice them to spawn with him . the male can be quite forceful in his seduction attempts and this is why it is preferable to spawn this species in a harem situation as the male\u2019s attention is divided .\nwhen a female is willing she will follow the male to his pit , where spawning occurs . the act itself is preceded by a display of circling by both fish . the male will nuzzle the vent of the female , and it may be this that triggers her to release the eggs . as the eggs are laid the female immediately picks them up with her mouth and then mouths the vent of the male , who releases some milt directly into the mouth of the female . sometimes fertilisation occurs before the female picks up the eggs as the fish circle quite quickly . the male has an orange spot on his anal fin and it has been hypothesised that this may act as a kind of \u2018dummy egg \u2018 to attract the female to his vent . however if the fish are watched closely it appears this may not be the case , as the vent of the male is not actually very close to the \u2018 egg spot \u2018 , and the female tends to mouth the vent itself . this sequence is repeated until the female is holding 5 - 100 eggs in her buccal cavity .\nthe female will hold the brood for around 10 days , at which point the free swimming fry are released . they can be fed brine shrimp nauplii , microworm and powdered dried foods from this point .\nthis species was one of the first cichlid species to be spawned in captivity and has been in the hobby for over a century . it is less popular than it once was but remains a good choice for the beginner as it is tolerant of a wide range of water conditions and is easily bred .\nthere currently exist 2 subspecies , pseudocrenilabrus multicolor multicolor and p . m . victoriae . these are quite distinct in terms of colouration and patterning and exist as separate populations in nature . both subspecies are available in the hobby , though p . m . victoriae is less common . they should not be kept together in aquaria in order to prevent hybridisation .\nif this is your first visit , be sure to check out the faq by clicking the link above . you may have to register before you can post : click the register link above to proceed . to start viewing messages , select the forum that you want to visit from the selection below .\niv started to grow quite an interest in these fish as of late but have come to a sort of brick wall . is it true that they were around in abundance some time ago ? because now ( well in sa that is ) they have completely disappeared . no one i know here in sa has seen them in quite a long time . i would like to find out more info on the little beauties as i am interested in breeding them . so if anyone can share experiences with breeding them and if someone could kindly point me in the right direction to find some it would be much appreciated im not trying to post this thread as a wtb , just wanting to find out more about them .\ni bred several hundred and sold them to bayfish . they were at a recent cichlid society auction , so they are around . they will breed in the bag on the way from the lfs so dont present any difficuly in breeding , they are a nice fish . sorry i dont have them any more\nthanks for the info . hmmmm too bad you dont have them anymore , they look to be a great fish . i guess the search continues !\nthey are a nice fish but fell out with hobbyists when imports from malawi and tanganyika began . when i was a kid , they were extremely interesting since they were the first mouthbrooding fish i had seen for sale . other fish that are hardly mentioned these days are nanacara transvestitus , moonlight gouramies , paradise fish , medakas [ killifish ] , ruby barbs , splash tetras and many more , still around but never ' pushed ' by retailers . a pair of blue gouramies , placed in an outdoor tub or pond and left to their own devices , can produce hundreds of fish by the end of summer . albino paradisefish can be kept without filtration or heat and are amazingly beautiful when hit by a ray of sunlight . i placed a pair of ruby barbs in a vase 40cm high and 20cm diameter with a clump of java moss . they spawned next morning so i removed them . a month or so later , the cylinder was literally filled with barbs . . . . no filter or any help except powdered flake food . when you see ruby barbs in the shop they look so ordinary it ' s hard to believe the intense colour they turn when happy in a planted tank , yet we never hear about anyone keeping them on this forum . ; (\nwow that ' s a lot of nice fish . you just made me to give google a good old thrashing lol . but yeah iv had a long conversation with an old lfs owner and its amazing how many fish are now lost to the hobby . it seems the lake tanganyikan cichlids are the new\nin\nfish at the moment . i wonder what other fish people miss from their childhood days . hmmm would make an interesting thread . . . .\ni have always wanted to get these guys and much to my surprise i scored 1 . 3 from my local fish shop for a very reasonable price , mrs also got herself an african butterfly fish ( she loves oddball fish ) so when they settle in a west african tank is in order\ni would be very interested in these fish as well . i just did a bit of online research & they sound wonderful . if anyone knows of any in brisbane i ' d be very interested . thanks\ncan ' t remember now sorry , was a few years ago and had quite a few tank setups since then . . .\ncoburg had them in stock recently according to their online shop . i came across it when contemplating a group - order buy - in . they must have sold out now as i can ' t find it ( it was about 2 weeks ago ) so i guess they are out there somewhere .\nsnoeks , j . ( freshwater fish red list authority ) & darwall , w . ( freshwater biodiversity assessment programme )\nlakes albert , victoria , kyoga , george , nabugabo , and the swamp lakes kachira , kijanebola and nakavali which lie between lakes edward and victoria ( skelton in daget et . al . 1991 ) .\nprobably occurs among submerged plants and in open water zones enclosed by papyrus swamps .\nconversion of swamps for various purposes might endanger members of the species in those habitats . agriculture may lead to erosion and increase water turbidity . no serous threats identified in the lake habitats .\npam chin has been replying to cichlid questions for over twenty years . highly respected and experienced aquarist , pam has visited cichlid habitats around the world , and bred in her ' s and her husband gary fish house hundreds of cichlid species . besides her job , she still devotes time to help any person with a cichlid question !\narticles for sale beautifully formatted and wonderfully illustrated pdf articles about all matters relative to cichlids .\nbooks for sale cichlid books and dvds for sale at the cichlid room companion .\ne - books for sale pdf copies of popular cichlid books offered for sale at the best price .\ntrade section the master list of cichlid offers ordered by area and species name .\n( this article was originally published in freshwater and marine aquarium magazine , jan 1982 ; pp . 30 - 35 , 59 - 63 . it is here reproduced with the permission of author dr . paul v . loiselle ) .\nuntil very recently , the species of this genus were placed in the genera haplochromis or hemihaplochromis . while contemporary ichthyologists accept the conclusion of wickler ( 1963 ) that these cichlids are generically distinct from haplochromis , they are barred by the provisions of the international code of zoological nomenclature from utilizing the name he proposed for this assemblage of haplochromines . trewavas ( 1973 ) has established the synonymy of the genera pseudocrenilabrus fowler 1934 and hemihaplochromis wickler 1963 , and under the rule of priority , the older published name is the scientifically correct one for the genus . though some recent reference works ( goldstein , 1973 ; mayland , 1978 ; staeck , 1975 , 1977 ) have incorporated the new nomenclature in their treatment of these cichlids , for many readers this essay will be in large measure a review of some familiar fishes sporting an unfamiliar generic name . for the benefit of those aquarists inclined to fume about\narbitrary\nchanges in the scientific names of fishes , i will attempt to present the history of the events leading up to the present situation . this will , hopefully , provide a useful example of how such taxonomic problems arise and are resolved .\nin 1934 , the late henry w . fowler published a report on a series of marine and fresh - water fishes from natal and zululand in south africa . in this paper , he described a new genus of wrasse , pseudocrenilabrus , based upon a single specimen . here matters rested until 1963 , when dr . james boehlke of the philadelphia academy of science informed dr . ethelwyn trewavas , then on a visit to the united states , that he believed the holotype of this wrasse to be a cichlid . his suspicions were confirmed when trewavas examined the entity in question and found it to be a specimen of the fish originally described by the german ichthyologist weber in 1897 as chromis philander and widely referred to in the subsequent literature as haplochromis philander . in charity let us assume that in this instance fowler was aided in his confusion of the families cichlidae and labridae by a faulty locality label !\nthe genus comprises three nominal species , though its actual taxonomic situation is considerably more complex than this would , on the surface , suggest . one species , pseudocrenilabrus philander , comprises a complex of distinctive , geographically separate populations , all enjoying some degree of reproductive isolation . another , p . multicolor , consists of two highly distinctive , quite possibly specifically distinct populations . whether such populations are best treated as species , subspecies or simply left without formal taxonomic designation is a question only further research can satisfactorily resolve . but , as several of them have been introduced as aquarium fish , aquarists must confront a highly plastic and potentially confusing situation . killifish fanciers have learned to live with comparable situations as a matter of course and i think that cichlid enthusiasts working with pseudocrenilabrus would do well to borrow a few points of procedure from them .\nthough these are small cichlids , rarely exceeding 10 . 0 cm sl in nature , sexually active males display a level of aggressiveness quite out of proportion to their size . a male 4 . 0 cm sl is easily capable of totally monopolizing an area 60 cm square , to the extreme discomfiture of any fish daring to venture into the lower half of the water column . in practical terms , this translates into one male / 80 1 aquarium at any stocking density under a single fish / liter of tank volume . at lower densities , a linear dominance hierarchy will emerge among males , with the dominant fish eventually liquidating those beneath him in the peck order . yet this belligerence cannot entirely cancel out the fact that these fish , while falling outside of my definition of a dwarf cichlid on behavioral grounds ( loiselle , 1979 , 1980 ) , do fall into the dwarf category with regard to size . taken with the apparent inability of males to exercise any discernible degree of discretion in their choice of targets , this sharply limits the selection of possible tank - mates for any pseudocrenilabrus species .\nmany aquarists make the error of trying to keep pseudocrenilabrus in the company of haplochromis species or even of mbuna . the consequences are invariably disastrous . both sexes of the smaller pseudocrenilabrus tend to be out - competed at feeding , while females come in for a great deal of general harassment at all times . efforts by males to hold a territory bring them into conflict with haplochromis males that are both absolutely larger and whose jaws are disproportionately bigger in the bargain . those males pseudocrenilabrus that are not seriously injured in outright conflicts lose condition in the face of continued aggression by their larger relatives , eventually to fall prey to stress induced systematic bacterial infections . given that their habitat preferences rarely bring them into association with sympatrically occurring haplochromis species in nature , such an outcome is not surprising . yet , when the sorry progress has run its full course , the culpable aquarist typically blames the pseudocrenilabrus for lack of hardiness , condemns the genus to perdition , and resolves to steer clear of its species in the future . in reality , his unfortunate experiences are the fault of his own ignorance of the behavioral limitations of these cichlids and could have been easily prevented .\nthe spawning behavior of pseudocrenilabrus multicolor from egypt . the male actively displays to passing females from a previously excavated pit ( 1 ) . a ripe female eventually responds to his displays by following him into its confines ( 2 ) . the pair then begins a period of reciprocal circling ( 3 - 5 ) , which is accompanied by mutual vent nudging . the gentle butting of the female ' s vent by the male ( 6 ) seems to trigger oviposition . the female picks up the eggs immediately ( 7 ) , then turns to follow the male ( 8 & 9 ) . as she does so , she nudges his vent ( 10 ) . fertilization appears to occur at this point . note that her mouth is oriented towards the male ' s vent , not towards the orange - red spot on the tip of his anal fin ( 11 ) . this sequence is repeated ( 12 - 15 ) until the bulging jaw of the female ( 16 ) indicates that she is spent .\nthe olive to beige , somewhat pyriform ova measure c . 2 . 5 mm along with their major axis . they can number from 6 to over 100 , depending upon the size and condition of the female . the developmental interval for these fish is 10 days at 29\u00b0 c . ovigerous females are exemplary mothers and will carry to full term even in a community situation . however , if the objective is to save any fry , the hobbyist should move such females into a separate nursery tank , set up in the manner indicated for ovigerous female haplochromis ( loiselle , 1978 ) . the fry measure 6 . 5 mm - 7 . 5 mm sl upon release . while the female will continue to protect her offspring for several days following their initial release , such efforts are invariably futile in a community setting and superfluous in the privacy of a nursery tank ."]}
{"id": 1021, "summary": [{"text": "the striped stingaree ( trygonoptera ovalis ) is a common but little-known species of stingray in the family urolophidae , endemic to shallow , inshore waters off southwestern australia .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "reaching 61 cm ( 24 in ) long , this species is characterized by an oval , grayish to brownish disc with darker mask-like markings around the eyes and paired blotches at the center of the disc that are extended posteriorly into horizontal lines .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "its nostrils have enlarged lobes on the outer margins and a skirt-shaped curtain of skin with a deeply fringed trailing margin in between .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "its tail terminates in a relatively large leaf-shaped caudal fin , and bears a small dorsal fin just before the stinging spine .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the rounded , flexible disc of the striped stingaree enable it to maneuver through the rocks , reefs , and seagrass that comprise its favored habitats .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has listed this species under least concern ; it is seldom caught by fisheries due to its habitat preferences . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "striped stingaree", "paragraphs": ["striped stingaree pictures - trygonoptera ovalis images striped stingray / striped stingaree file size 6 megapixels . more\nview more striped stingaree pictures in the shark pictures database common names : striped stingaree , bight stingaree . latin name : trygonoptera ovalis family : urolophidae identification : disc oval without pointed snout . more\nstriped stingray / striped stingaree images are available for commercial reproduction . please contact elasmodiver for information on licensing fees .\n* striped stingaree , trygonoptera ovalis last & gomon , 1987 . * masked stingaree , trygonoptera personata last & gomon , 1987 . * common stingaree , trygonoptera testacea m\ufffdller & henle , 1841 . more\nstriped stingaree , trygonoptera ovalis . source : rudie h . kuiter / aquatic photographics . license : all rights reserved\nthis eastern shovelnose stingaree was once unheard of in northern tasmania . now it is abundant .\npicture of the striped stingaree has been licensed under a creative commons attribution . original source : ray author cookie monster from australia = = author : cookie monster from australia = = licen\nother common names : sting ray , eagle ray , batfish , stingaree , bat sting ray .\nthe striped stingaree ( trygonoptera ovalis ) is a species of fish in the urolophidae family . it is endemic to australia . its natural habitats are open seas , shallow seas , subtidal aquatic beds , and coral reefs . more\nother common names : skippies , oceanic bonito , striped tuna , arctic bonito , watermelon , victor fish .\nother common names : bonehead , laguna tuna , magneto , striped tuna , california bonito , ocean bonito .\nthe small litter is likely due to the relatively large size of stingaree pups , which measure around half the maximum size at birth .\ndescription : the body of the striped bass is elongate and slightly compressed . the head is a narrow , cone - shape , and the mouth is large . the color is greenish above , silvery on the sides , and white below . there are six to nine horizontal blackish stripes on the side . in southern california , the much smaller salema occasionally is mistaken for young striped bass ; the salema , however , has orange - brown stripes and larger eyes than those of striped bass .\nmask around each eye and paired dark stripes that run back from behind the head to the tail . it is the most common stingaree seen on inshore reefs off the southern west coast .\ndescription : the body of the striped marlin is elongate and compressed . the upper jaw is much extended , forming a rounded spear . the color is dark blue above becoming silver below , with light blue bars or vertical spots on the sides . of the billfishes that occur in california waters , the striped marlin is difficult to confuse with the others . marlin have scales , fins on the belly , and a rounded spear which set them apart from swordfish which have no scales or ventral fins and have bills that are flat . sailfish have an extremely high dorsal fin not found among the marlins , and shortnose spearfish do not have the long spear on the upper jaw nor the body weight of the marlin . the striped marlin normally develops conspicuous stripes along the sides of its body after death . this feature is unique to striped marlin .\nnatural history : the barred sand bass diet includes crabs , octopus , squid , and small fishes . the adults aggregate and spawn during warmer months . the eggs are free floating . the striped young appear in southern california nearshore areas and eelgrass beds during fall and winter .\nfishing information : most striped marlin are taken by trolling artificial lures in areas they are known to inhabit . blind strikes are generally the rule , but one can occasionally tempt a \u201cfinner\u201d or \u201csleeper\u201d ( marlin swimming along the surface ) to strike if lures are trolled past the fish . live bait also works well but requires more effort since the fish must usually be first spotted visually . once a striped marlin is located , the angler should cast a bait in front of and past the fish so it can be reeled back towards the animal . strikes usually result from properly presented live bait . most striped marlin anglers prefer pacific mackerel as bait . the best california fishing locality is in a belt of water which extends from the east end of santa catalina island offshore to san clemente island and southward in the direction of the los coronados islands .\nrange : striped bass were brought to california from new jersey in 1879 . they now are found from northern baja california to barkley sound , british columbia . in california , they most commonly are found in the sacramento - san joaquin delta , san francisco bay and adjacent ocean areas .\nrange : striped marlin occur in tropical and warm temperature waters of the indian and pacific oceans . on the west coast of the united states they range as far north as oregon , but are most common south of point conception , california . they usually appear off california in july and remain until late october .\nnatural history : the food of striped marlin is predominately fishes , squid , crabs and shrimp . the latter three make up lesser portions of the diet than do fish . the spear of the marlin is sometimes used both as a weapon for defense and as an aid in capturing food . wooden boats frequently have been rammed by billfish , and in one instance the spear penetrated 18 . 5 inches of hardwood 14 . 5 inches of which was oak . when it uses its bill in capturing food , the striped marlin sometimes stuns its prey by slashing sideways with the spear rather than impaling its victim , as some believe .\na greyish to greyish - brown stingaree with dark markings below , in front of , and between the eyes and often a dark stripe on the snout ( obvious on juveniles ) , a pair of sometimes indistinct dark patches on the disc extending as stripes along the disc and tail , a pale midline pale , and a greyish to black caudal fin . the underside is white to yellow with dark margins on the disc and pelvic fins .\nfishing information : the pacific staghorn sculpin is attracted to a variety of baits , preferably small invertebrates . it is not highly prized as a food or sport fish . on the other hand , it is a popular bait fish for the san francisco bay delta striped bass sport fishery . caution is recommended when handling this species because the spines located on the gill cover can leave nasty cuts if the fish thrashes around in your hands .\njustification : a small to medium sized eastern indian endemic stingaree from southwestern australia ( the state of western australia ) common in shallow water in depths to 43 m . trygonoptera ovalis forms an insignificant component to the bycatch of the scallop and prawn trawl fisheries that operate within its range . this species typically occurs over rocky and reefy areas and is rarely caught by commercial fisheries operating within the area . since there is a large amount of this habitat within its range , this species is not of any great concern from a conservation point of view .\nnatural history : examination of stomach contents indicate sargo are bottom feeders , eating different small shrimps , crabs , clams , and sea snails . sargo spawn when they are about 7 inches long and 2 years old . spawning occurs in late spring and early summer . the 1 inch young appear in late summer and fall in shallow water , schooling loosely with young salema and black croaker . at a length of 5 inches , when they are about 1 year old , they join adult sargo schools . all through their life they are capable of displaying the striped pattern characteristic of juveniles .\nfishing information : by far the largest part of the striped bass catch is made in san francisco bay and the delta . good fishing occurs during late summer , but is best in the fall . stripers occur along the coast only during late spring and summer at which time surf fishermen get a chance at them . a variety of artificial lures and chunks or strips of standard bait fish will attract stripers . the beaches immediately adjacent to the golden gate are generally the best coastal spots , but occasional good runs are encountered as far south as monterey and as far north as bodega bay . in san francisco bay , trolling with live bait is popular , with common catches under 10 pounds .\nnatural history : examination of stomach contents show that shrimp and anchovies are most important during the summer and fall while a variety of small fishes are eaten during the winter . females usually mature at 5 years of age when about 24 inches long and many males mature at age 2 when about 11 inches long . a 5 pound fish may spawn as many as 25 , 000 eggs in one season ; while a 12 pounder will spawn 1 , 250 , 000 eggs . a 75 pound striper produces as many as 10 , 000 , 000 eggs . striped bass are believed to spawn only in fresh water in which there is an appreciable current . in california , they spawn from march to july with a peak in april and may .\ngreek , trygon = a sting ray + greek , pteron = wing , fin ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 4 - 43 m ( ref . 12951 ) . subtropical ; 26\u00b0s - 36\u00b0s\nmaturity : l m ? , range 35 - ? cm max length : 61 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 6871 )\nfound near reefs , sea grass beds , and sandy beaches ( ref . 12951 ) .\nlast , p . r . and j . d . stevens , 1994 . sharks and rays of australia . csiro , australia . 513 p . ( ref . 6871 )\n) : 16 . 8 - 20 . 9 , mean 18 . 2 ( based on 44 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5156 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 6 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( assuming fecundity < 100 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high to very high vulnerability ( 68 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ntrygonoptera ovalis needs to be compared carefully wih the undescribed trygonoptera spp . ( a and b [ in last and stevens 1994 ] ) to determine relationships between these forms .\nendemic to the eastern indian off southwestern australia : found only off the southwestern coast of australia from eucla ( 128\u00b053 ' e ) to the abrolhos islands , western australia ( 28\u00b043 ' s ) ( last and stevens 1994 ) .\ntrygonoptera ovalis is a common species found over rocky and reefy areas and some seagrass beds in depths of 1 to 43 m ( last and stevens 1994 , w . white pers . obs ) . aplacental viviparous species . attains 61 cm tl and males mature at 35 cm tl ( last and stevens 1994 ) . dietary composition has not yet been examined for this species . life history parameters age at maturity ( years ) : unknown ( both male and female ) . size at maturity ( total length ) : unknown ( female ) ; 35 cm tl ( male ) ( last and stevens 1994 ) . longevity ( years ) : unknown . maximum size ( total length ) : 61 cm tl ( last and stevens 1994 ) . size at birth ( cm ) : unknown . average reproductive age ( years ) : unknown . gestation time ( months ) : unknown . reproductive periodicity : unknown . average annual fecundity or litter size : unknown . annual rate of population increase : unknown . natural mortality : unknown .\nvery few threats . only a negligible component of prawn and scallop trawl bycatch , for which there is only a small number of boats operating within this fishery . not known to be caught by other fisheries within its range . preference of this species for rocky and reefy areas provides refuge from trawling activities .\nnone in place . the effective implementation of the australian national plan of action for the conservation and management of sharks ( shark advisory group and lack 2004 ) ( under the fao international plan of action for the conservation and management of sharks : ipoa - sharks ) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in australia .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nendemic to western australia , from east of low point , great australian bight to the houtman abrolhos .\ndisc almost oval , slightly longer than wide ; broadest part 1 to 3 eye diameters behind level of spiracles ; anterior profile obtuse . snout fleshy , tip not extended . eye of moderate size , 17 - 22 % preocular snout length . posterior margin of spiracle rounded or angular . mouth small ; about 4 minute papillae on floor . internasal flap skirt - shaped , posterior angle not extended into distinct lobe . posterolateral border of nostril forming a broad flattened and fleshy lobe . tail broad , rounded in cross - section ; of moderate length , 75 - 100 % disc length ; lateral cutaneous folds absent ; dorsal fin small ; caudal fin relatively large , lanceolate .\ndorsal surface greyish to greyish - brown ; dark markings below , in front of and between eyes ; often with a dark stripe extending to snout tip ( obvious on juveniles ) ; paired dark patches near centre of disc extending as stripes posteriorly along disc and tail , sometimes darkish areas obscure ; pale along midline . caudal fin greyish or black . ventral surface white or yellow ; tail and margins of disc and pelvic fins mostly dark .\nthe specific name is from the latin ovalis ( oval ) , in reference to the distinctive shape of the disc .\ntrygonoptera ovalis last & gomon 1987 , memoirs of museum victoria 48 ( 1 ) : 63 , fig . 1 . type locality : south of red rocks point , great australian bight , wa [ 32\u00b024\u00b4s , 127\u00b030\u00b4e ] .\ngomon , m . f . , yearsley , g . k . & last , p . r . 2008 . family urolophidae . 125 - 137 pp . in gomon , m . f . , bray , d . j . & kuiter , r . h . ( eds ) .\n. sydney , nsw , australia : new holland publishers xvii , 434 pp .\nlast , p . r & gomon , m . f . 1987 . new australian fishes . part 15 . new species of\nlast , p . r . & gomon , m . f . 1994 . family urolophidae . pp . 172 - 181 figs 150 - 159 in gomon , m . f . , glover , c . j . m . & kuiter , r . h . ( eds ) .\n. collingwood : csiro publishing australia 2 , 550 pp . last , p . r . , yearsley , g . k . & white , w . t . 2016 . family urolophidae pp . 676 - 705 . in : last , p . r . , white , w . t . , de carvalho , m . r . , s\u00e9ret , b . , stehmann , m . f . w . & & naylor , g . j . p . ( eds )\n: urltoken contains images of sharks , skates , rays , and a few chimaera ' s from around the world . elasmodiver began as a simple web based\nto help divers find the best places to encounter the different species of sharks and rays that live in shallow water but it has slowly evolved into a much larger project containing information on all aspects of shark diving and shark photography .\nthere are now more than 10 , 000 shark pictures and sections on shark evolution , biology , and conservation . there is a large library of reviewed shark books , a constantly updated shark taxonomy page , a monster list of shark links , and deeper in the site there are numerous articles and stories about shark encounters . elasmodiver is now so difficult to check for updates , that new information and pictures are listed on an elasmodiver updates page that can be accessed here :\ndorsum mid brown with two , sometimes indistinct , dark patches near midline of back , thinning and extending along tail . smaller dark patches below eyes . small dorsal fin in front of tail spine but no tail folds .\nany area with rocky reefs ( especially adjacent to sand ) would be a good place to start . i encountered this ray while diving with dive albany .\nsharks and rays - elasmobranch guide of the world . ralf m . hennemann . ikan .\np . o . box 8719 station central , victoria , bc . , v8w 3s3 , canada\nfound near reefs , sea grass beds , and sandy beaches ( ref . 12951 ) .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\njuovakiekkorausku\nto\ntrygonoptera ovalis last and gomon , 1987\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nyearsley , g . k . , last , p . r . & morris , g . b . 1997 ,\ncodes for australian aquatic biota ( caab ) : an upgraded and expanded species coding system for australian fisheries databases\n, pp . 15 pp . + appendices\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 329959a5 - bce3 - 4fe2 - 906d - 93f6e3a03cd8\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : ccd1335f - 90cd - 480f - 9fca - 45a88a3a4889\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 371784\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe family urolophidae , also known as stingarees , consists of two genera and about 35 species . they are bottom - dwelling rays in warm seas , usually lying partially buried under the sand . their rounded pectoral discs are colored to blend in with the sand , mud , or rocks on which they live . urolophids are relatively small rays , and feed on a variety of invertebrates , small fishes , and crustaceans . their tails , distinguished by the presence of a well - developed caudal fin , are equipped with one or more serrated stinging spines . like other rays they are viviparous ; urolophids give birth to between two and four young each year , or in some cases , every two years . because of their low birth rates and sometimes restricted range , urolophids are susceptible to human activity , although only one species is currently known to be threatened .\nb\u00f6hlke , j . , c . chaplin . 1968 . fishes of the bahamas and adjacent tropical waters . wynnewood , pa : published for the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia by livingston .\ncompagno , l . 1999 . systematics and body form . pp . 1 - 42 in w hamlett , ed . sharks , skates , and rays . baltimore , md : the johns hopkins university press .\nhamlett , w . , t . koob . 1999 . female reproductive system . pp . 398 - 443 in w hamlett , ed . sharks , skates , and rays . baltimore , md : the johns hopkins university press .\nlast , p . , j . stevens . 1994 . sharks and rays of australia . australia : csiro .\nmoyle , p . , j . cech . 2000 . fishes : an introduction to ichthyology \u2013 fourth edition . upper saddle river , nj : prentice - hall .\nnelson , j . 1994 . fishes of the world \u2013 third edition . new york , ny : john wiley and sons .\nthe world conservation union , 2002 .\niucn 2002\n( on - line ) . 2002 iucn red list of threatened species . accessed december 03 , 2003 at urltoken .\nwheeler , a . 1985 . the world encyclopedia of fishes . london : macdonald .\nwourms , j . , l . demski . 1993 . the reproduction and development of sharks , skates , rays , and ratfishes : introduction , history , overview , and future prospects . pp . 7 - 19 in l demski , j wourms , eds . the reproduction and development of sharks , skates , rays , and ratfishes . dordrecht , the netherlands : kluwer academic publishers .\nurolophids can be found in the eastern indian ocean , the western pacific , the eastern pacific from california to chile , and the western atlantic , including the caribbean . they are not known in the western indian ocean , the mediterranean , or the eastern atlantic .\nurolophids , or stingarees , are rays with a rounded , oval , or rhomboidal disc created by the pectoral fins . the disc is less than 1 . 3 times as broad as it is long . their snouts are confluent with the rest of the disc . from the side they appear relatively flat , with the head not elevated . the spiracles ( respiratory openings ) are close behind the eyes , which are dorsolateral ( above and to either side ) on the head . the mouth is small and located on the underside of the snout , and often has several papillae on its floor . teeth are small and do not form flat crushing plates as in some other rays . there are five pairs of small gill openings , and the internal gill arches do not have filter plates or ridges . some stingarees lack a dorsal fin ; in others the fin is small , located just in front of the sting and behind the pelvic fins . the serrated stinging spine , located about halfway down the tail , is large and functional . a distinguishing feature of these rays is the presence of a moderately large , elongated caudal fin that extends to the tip of the tail . in the genus\n. in coloration stingarees range from uniform grayish , yellowish , or brownish , to patterns of spots , reticulations , or dark mask - like bands . their discs may be smooth or covered with small denticles . these rays tend to be small , not more than 76 cm in length .\nurolophidae is a marine family , although some members enter estuaries . restricted to tropical and warm temperate waters , urolophids are bottom - dwellers along coastlines and along the continental shelf . most live in relatively shallow water but some occupy depths of at least 700 m down the continental slope . they generally prefer sandy bottoms in which they can bury themselves , but a few species live on rocky substrates ( bottoms ) or in association with sea vegetation such as kelp . urolophids tend to have patterns and coloring that blend in with their environment .\nmany stingarees feed on fishes , worms , shrimps , and other small organisms they uncover when they flap their pectoral fins along the bottom . some are able to eat hard - shelled mollusks and crustaceans .\nin their benthic ( on the bottom ) , warm , usually shallow - water habitat , stingarees affect the populations of prey animals such as invertebrates and small fishes . they in turn are eaten by larger fish and humans .\nray spines , some of them likely belonging to urolophids , have been found embedded in the mouths of many sharks . the great hammerhead\n, in particular , appears to specialize in eating stingrays . they use their hammer - shaped heads to knock a ray to the bottom , and then pin the ray , once again with its head , pivoting around to bite the ray\u2019s disc until the ray succumbs and can be eaten . in addition to their defensive venomous sting , most stingarees have cryptic coloring that blends in with the sandy or rocky bottom . some researchers describe stingarees as almost impossible to find unless they move .\nurolophidae is prey of : chondrichthyes this list may not be complete but is based on published studies .\nmyers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2006 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed february 16 , 2011 at urltoken . urltoken\nurolophidae preys on : non - insect arthropods this list may not be complete but is based on published studies .\nrays perceive and interact with their environment using sensory channels common to many vertebrates : sight , hearing , smell , taste and touch . rays also belong to a group of fishes , the elasmobranchs , whose electrical sensitivity seems to exceed that of all other animals . elasmobranch fishes are equipped with ampullae of lorenzini , electroreceptor organs that contain receptor cells and canals leading to pores in the animal\u2019s skin . sharks and rays can detect the electrical patterns created by nerve conduction , muscular contraction , and even the ionic difference between a body ( i . e . of prey ) and water . in lab experiments , members of the family urolophidae changed their feeding location according to artificially induced changes in the electrical field around them . other experiments have demonstrated that cartilaginous fishes use electrosensory information not only to locate prey , but also for orientation and navigation based on the electrical fields created by the interaction between water currents and the earth\u2019s magnetic field . although some rays can produce an electric shock to defend themselves or stun prey , members of the family urolophidae cannot . they are able , however , to inflict a venomous sting with their tail spine in defense .\nbleckmann , h . , m . hofmann . 1999 . special senses . pp . 300 - 328 in w hamlett , ed . sharks , skates , and rays . baltimore , md : the johns hopkins university press .\nmembers of the family urolophidae , like other rays and their shark relatives , employ a reproductive strategy that involves investing large amounts of energy into relatively few young over a lifetime . once sexually mature , stingarees have only one litter per year , usually bearing two to four young . since few young are produced , it is important that they survive , and to this end rays are born at a large size , able to feed and fend for themselves much like an adult . rays develop from egg to juvenile inside the mother\u2019s uterus , sometimes to almost half their adult size . in this system , called aplacental uterine viviparity , developing embryos receive most of their nutriment from a milky , organically rich substance secreted by the mother\u2019s uterine lining . an embryo absorbs this substance , called histotroph , by ingestion , or through its skin or other specialized structures . researchers have found that in some rays , the stomach and spiral intestine are among the first organs to develop and function , so that the embryo can digest the uterine \u201cmilk . \u201d rays\u2019 eggs are small and insufficient to support the embryos until they are born , although the first stage of development does happen inside tertiary egg envelopes that enclose each egg along with egg jelly . the embryo eventually absorbs the yolk sac and stalk and the histotroph provides it with nutrition . development in the uterus usually takes about three months .\nlittle specific information regarding lifespans in urolophidae was found , but in general rays , like their relatives the sharks , grow and mature slowly and are long - lived .\nonly a few species of elasmobranchs have been observed during courtship and mating . however , stingarees have a system that involves internal fertilization , so it can logically be inferred that mating communication between male and female must happen to an extent that allows the male to insert at least one of his two claspers ( male reproductive organs that are modifications of the pelvic fins ) into the female\u2019s cloaca to deposit sperm . elasmobranch fishes have relatively complex endocrine ( hormonal ) systems ; based on knowledge of other vertebrates with similar systems , it is likely that females signal to males through chemical or behavioral cues to indicate when their hormonal state is appropriate for mating . in\nresearchers found that gland secretions seal the open groove on males\u2019 claspers into a closed tube that protects semen from being diluted before it passes into the female . these secretions coagulate on contact with sea water , help transport sperm into the female , and provide lubrication for clasper insertion .\npregnancy in at least some urolophids lasts about three months , generally spanning some period in the spring , summer , and fall . it may take up to two years , however , for the egg follicle to accumulate enough yolk for ovulation ( release of an egg to be fertilized ) as in the case of\n. this means that at least some stingarees may have litters only once every two years , but it is likely that other groups within the family give birth on a yearly cycle . within any given group of rays , individuals appear to go through mating , gestation , and parturition ( birth ) at the same time as all the other females in the group . stingarees usually bear between two and four young at a time , after nourishing the embryos with milky fluid ( histotroph ) secreted by the uterus ( see development for a description of this system , called aplacental uterine viviparity ) . in some groups the epithelium , or wall , of the uterus is modified to form trophonemata , elongated villi that extend into the uterine cavity to provide greater surface area for respiratory exchange and histotroph excretion . this advanced system of nourishing young inside the uterus can produce offspring that are relatively large at birth ( see development ) . according to one investigator , a young ray is rolled up like a cigar during birth , which , along with the lubricating histotroph , facilitates the birth of such proportionally large young . the young ray then unrolls and swims away . likewise , sting - bearing young are able to pass out of the mother\u2019s body without stinging her because their stings are encased in a pliable sheath that sloughs off after birth .\nno reported evidence of post - birth parental care in urolophidae was found . after such extended nurturing inside their mothers\u2019 bodies , young rays come into the sea quite able to feed and fend for themselves ( see development and reproduction ) .\nallen , t . 1996 . shadows in the sea : the sharks , skates , and rays . new york , ny : lyons and buford .\nhamlett , w . 1999 . male reproductive system . pp . 444 - 470 in w hamlett , ed . sharks , skates , and rays . baltimore , md : the johns hopkins university press .\nhelfman , g . , b . collete , d . facey . 1997 . the diversity of fishes . malden , ma : blackwell .\nis listed as near threatened . it lives in an area of intense fishing pressure , and females often abort embryos when captured . these factors , along with low fecundity ( they bear only two young at a time ) , making it vulnerable to human activity . other urolophids , sharing these characteristics , may become threatened in the future .\nstingarees can cause serious wounds with their tail spines . the serrated spine tip can be difficult to remove without surgery if it breaks off in the wound . because they tend to occupy shallow water and are often colored to blend in with the bottom , they are a hazard to waders . some fishermen walk with a \u201cstingray shuffle\u201d to make the rays swim away without stepping on them and getting stung .\nstingarees are seldom used commercially even though large numbers are frequently caught in nets , but several species have edible flesh . some are reported to be \u201cchewy unless prepared properly . \u201d native peoples in many parts of the family\u2019s range have used ray spines for spear tips , daggers , or whips .\nthe urolophidae are a family of rays in the order myliobatiformes , commonly known as stingarees or round stingrays ; this family formerly included the genera urobatis and urotrygon of the americas , which are presently recognized as forming their own family urotrygonidae . stingarees are found in the indo - pacific region , with the greatest diversity off australia . they are sluggish , bottom - dwelling fish that have been recorded from shallow waters close to shore to deep waters over the upper continental slope . measuring between 15 and 80 cm ( 5 . 9 and 31 . 5 in ) long , these rays have oval to diamond - shaped pectoral fin discs and relatively short tails that terminate in leaf - shaped caudal fins , and may also have small dorsal fins and lateral skin folds . most are smooth - skinned , and some have ornate dorsal color patterns .\nstingarees feed on or near the sea floor , consuming small invertebrates and occasionally bony fishes . they are aplacental viviparous , meaning their embryos emerge from eggs inside the uterus , and are sustained to term first by yolk and later by maternally produced histotroph (\nuterine milk\n) . as far is known , the gestation period lasts around a year and litter sizes tend to be small . stingarees have one or two relatively large , venomous stinging spines on their tail for defense , with which they can inflict a painful wound on humans . generally , stingarees have no economic value . some species form a substantial component of the bycatch of commercial trawl fisheries .\n) , which has a rounded disc and no dorsal fin or lateral skin folds on its tail .\nstingarees are modestly sized , ranging from 30 to 80 cm ( 12 to 31 in ) long . they have greatly enlarged\nin shape . the snout is usually short and does not protrude much from the disc . the eyes are placed atop the disc and usually fairly large ; immediately posterior are teardrop - shaped\nopenings ) . there is a curtain of skin between the nostrils , formed from the fusion of the anterior nasal flaps , that reaches the mouth . there are varying numbers of papillae ( nipple - like structures ) on the floor of the mouth and sometimes also on the outside of the lower jaw . the teeth in both jaws are small , with rhomboid bases and blunt to pointed crowns ; they are arranged with a\npattern and number less than 50 rows in either jaw . the five pairs of\nare found on males . the tail is shorter than to about equal to the disc , either flattened or thickly oval in cross - section , and ends in a leaf - shaped , symmetrical\n. one or two relatively large , serrated stinging spines are placed atop the tail about halfway along its length . some species have a small\nimmediately before the spine , and / or lateral skin folds running along either side of the tail .\nstingarees are generally shades of yellow , green , brown or gray above and pale below ; some species are plain , while others are adorned with spots , rings , blotches , lines , or more complex patterns .\nstudies have shown that stingarees that overlap in range differ in their diet composition , which likely serves to reduce competition . for example , off southwestern australia the\nlasts 10\u201312 months and the litter size is small , no more than one or two in some cases .\nstingarees caught from shallow water likely have relatively high chances of survival , but of concern is their tendency to abort any gestating young when captured and handled .\nm\u00fcller , j . and f . g . j . henle ( 1837 ) .\ngattungen der haifische und rochen nach einer von ihm mit hrn . henle unternommenen gemeinschaftlichen arbeit \u00fcber die naturgeschichte der knorpelfische\n. bericht akademie der wissenschaften zu berlin 1837 : 111\u2013118 .\nm\u00fcller , j . and f . g . j . henle ( 1838\u20131841 ) . systematische beschreibung der plagiostomen . veit und comp . p . 173\u2013174 .\nmceachran , j . d . , k . a . dunn , and t . miyake ( 1996 ) .\ninterrelationships of the batoid fishes ( chondrichthyes : batoidea )\n. in stiassny , m . l . j . , l . r . parenti , and g . d . johnson . interrelationships of fishes . academic press . pp . 63\u201384 . isbn 978 - 0 - 12 - 670950 - 6 .\nnelson , j . s . ( 2006 ) . fishes of the world ( fourth ed . ) . john wiley . pp . 69\u201382 . isbn 0 - 471 - 25031 - 7 .\nmceachran , j . d . and n . aschliman ( 2004 ) .\nphylogeny of batoidea\n. in carrier , j . c . , j . a . musick , and m . r . heithaus . biology of sharks and their relatives . crc press . pp . 79\u2013114 .\ns\u00e9ret , b . and p . r . last ( 2003 ) .\ndescription of four new stingarees of the genus urolophus ( batoidea : urolophidae ) from the coral sea , south - west pacific\n. cybium 27 ( 4 ) : 307\u2013320 .\nlast , p . r . and j . d . stevens ( 2009 ) . sharks and rays of australia ( second ed . ) . harvard university press . p . 398\u2013428 . isbn 0 - 674 - 03411 - 2 .\nlast , p . r . and l . j . v . compagno ( 1999 ) .\nmyliobatiformes : urolophidae\n. in carpenter , k . e . and v . h . niem . fao identification guide for fishery purposes : the living marine resources of the western central pacific . food and agricultural organization of the united nations . pp . 1469\u20131476 . isbn 92 - 5 - 104302 - 7 .\nplatell , m . e . , i . c . potter , and k . r . clarke ( 1998 ) .\nresource partitioning by four species of elasmobranchs ( batoidea : urolophidae ) in coastal waters of temperate australia\n. marine biology 131 : 719\u2013734 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s002270050363 .\nfowler , h . w . ( 1941 ) .\ncontributions to the biology of the philippine archipelago and adjacent regions\n. bulletin of the united states national museum 100 ( 13 ) : 1\u2013879 .\nwhite , w . t . and i . c . potter ( 2005 ) .\nreproductive biology , size and age compositions and growth of the batoid urolophus paucimaculatus , including comparisons with other species of the urolophidae\n. marine and freshwater research 56 ( 1 ) : 101\u2013110 . doi : 10 . 1071 / mf04225 .\nmichael , s . w . ( 1993 ) . reef sharks & rays of the world . sea challengers . p . 91 . isbn 0 - 930118 - 18 - 9 .\ntrinnie , f . i . , w . t . white , and t . i . walker ( 2006 ) .\nphoto and id by belinda forbes . so well camouflaged ( and the juveniles in the seagrass even more so ) that belinda forgot it was even in the photo until i asked her about it the next day : )\nup to a hundred per school . photos by belinda forbes . just one of the 50 - odd fish species at the groyne this day .\nphoto and id by belinda forbes . in water a few meters deep at the n . cottlesloe . reef\nandrew tobin receives funding from the australian government via the fisheries research & development corporation .\napril reside does not work for , consult , own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article , and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment .\nrepublish our articles for free , online or in print , under creative commons license .\nwe know that climate change is driving changes in the world\u2019s oceans . currents are shifting , temperatures are climbing and the availability and dynamics of nutrient upwelling is changing .\nthe coastal waters of south - eastern australia are a climate change hotspot , warming at a rate three to four times the global average . this is in part due to an increase in the strength and southward penetration of the east australian current ( eac ) , which carries warm water from the tropics down australia\u2019s east coast .\nin response , numerous marine species have been documented extending their distributions polewards , affecting the functioning of coastal and marine ecosystems in south - eastern australia . this will have knock on effects for local communities and fisheries , many of which are not well prepared .\nwith so many species on the move and changes happening so quickly , scientists have enlisted the help of citizen scientists \u2013 such as recreational scuba divers and fishers \u2013 to help record when , where and how often species are sighted . initiatives such as redmap have helped scientists identify many tropical species shifting their ranges south .\nanother successful example of citizen science is the new south wales state government\u2019s gamefish tagging program . this world - leading gamefish tagging program , established in 1974 , asks recreational anglers to tag and release gamefish and provide information on the species , size , and release location which is sent back to the department of primary industries ( dpi ) .\nmore than 400 , 000 fish from at least 20 different species have been tagged , and more than 7 , 000 recaptures recorded .\nall black marlin tag release locations recorded in the nsw dpi tagging program within the south - west pacific ocean .\nthis has enabled us to investigate whether there had been any geographical shifts in suitable habitat for the highly - mobile black marlin ( istiopmax indica ) in the previous 16 years .\nthe black marlin is one of the most keenly sought gamefish species targeted by recreational anglers in australia , with more than 54 , 000 records of tagged black marlin within the nsw dpi\u2019s database .\nan annual aggregation of large adults , some weighing more than 500kg , occurs off the northern great barrier reef each spring , forming the basis of a charter fishery that will celebrate its 50th year of operation in 2016 .\nat the other end of the spectrum , juvenile black marlin from 15kg to 40kg undertake an annual migration southward along the east coast in association with the eac .\nanglers target these juveniles off cairns and townsville in late winter , south - east queensland in late spring , and port stephens , nsw , in late summer . depending on the behaviour of the eac , juvenile black marlin may even extend as far south as bermagui , nsw , in some years .\nbut our research , published in october in global change biology , aims to identify any changes in the distribution of marlin habitat through time . we used the release positions of black marlin in the nsw dpi database and satellite - derived data such as sea surface temperature and current velocity .\nthe extensive spatial and temporal coverage of the tagging data allowed us to model the geographic distribution of black marlin habitat in the south - west pacific for 192 consecutive months from 1998 to 2013 .\nwe found variability in the location of suitable black marlin habitat across months and years .\non an annual basis , conditions favoured by black marlin occurred off north queensland at the start of spring and gradually shifted south along australia\u2019s east coast from october to april . this coincided with the peak availability of black marlin to recreational anglers and also to a seasonal pulse in the eac .\nfrom may to august , suitable habitat retreats back towards the equator as cold water currents push north over winter . we also identified a strong effect of el ni\u00f1o southern oscillation ( enso ) , with black marlin habitat extending up to 300km further south during la ni\u00f1a phases .\nin addition to the large variability on shorter timescales , we also found that suitable marlin habitat has shifted south at a rate of about 88km per decade across all seasons , independently of the influence of enso .\nwe found that habitat is shifting faster during summer months ( 111km per decade ) in contrast to the rest of the year ( 77km per decade ) . this suggests that suitable habitat is extending south quicker than it is contracting at its northern edge .\npoleward shift in the distribution of suitable black marlin habitat across all three seasons from 1998 - 2013 .\nthis result adds to the growing body of evidence showing that many species\u2019 habitat is shifting polewards in response to climate change .\nconsidering that all highly mobile tuna and billfish species respond to a similar suite of environmental factors , numerous species are likely responding to climate change .\nwhat does this mean for australian fishers , black marlin and similar pelagic species ? these are questions that still need answering .\nwhat is clear from this study is that mobile fish species are not immune from the impacts of climate change , and that long term data sets from recreational fishers are valuable tools in discerning such changes .\nthis article was co - authored by dr julian pepperell , a marine biologist and an external co - supervisor of honours and phd students , and his jcu honours student nick hill .\nlittle penguins are among a number of species that are threatened by climate change .\nmarlin and dory plan to hitch a ride to sydney on the east australian current in finding nemo .\nwe estimate china only makes $ 8 . 46 from an iphone \u2013 and that\u2019s why trump\u2019s trade war is futile\nwrite an article and join a growing community of more than 69 , 600 academics and researchers from 2 , 408 institutions .\nstay informed and subscribe to our free daily newsletter and get the latest analysis and commentary directly in your inbox .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncumberland island an ecological survey of the coastal region of georgia nps scientific monograph no . 3\nthe following list includes those species of fish that are known from or likely to occur in estuarine and marine waters along the georgia coast seaward to a depth of 10 fathoms . this encompasses waters of the estuary , beach , and\ncoastal habitat .\nin the text the term coastal habitat refers to that region from the ocean beaches to a depth of 10 fathoms as in struhsaker ( 1969 ) . species listed are based primarily on my own records from georgia inshore waters , from south carolina by bearden ( 1961a , 1965 ) , and from the coastal habitat by struhsaker ( 1969 ) . for the benefit of sport fishermen , the common offshore sport fishes are also included . this list is extracted from my manuscript , a field guide to georgia coastal fishes . this manuscript and the paper by struhsaker ( 1969 ) report a large number of additional species that are restricted to deeper waters of the continental shelf ; most of these species occur primarily on reefs .\nseasonal records in the text are based on inshore collections , i . e . , beach and estuarine waters .\n1 present address : c . w . rice div . , nus corp . , pittsburgh .\nthe common sharks that occur inshore on the georgia coast are not restricted to well - defined habitats . they may be collected in shallow beach waters as well as deeper waters of the sounds and offshore . most of the sharks considered below prefer warmer waters and leave inshore waters of georgia in the winter . one exception is the spiny dogfish , a northern species that migrates southward to georgia in the winter .\nreported from south carolina but not georgia . mainly pelagic but sometimes found inshore .\nyoung are often collected on the south carolina coast in spring and summer and they probably occur on the georgia coast .\nstingrays are collected by hook , seine , and trawls in shallow beach waters and deeper estuarine waters .\nthe range of the devil ray , mobula hypostoma , includes the georgia coast , but it has not been reported from georgia or south carolina .\nlarge specimens are occasionally seen jumping in georgia coastal waters and one reported to weigh 2500 pounds was caught in a shrimp trawl .\nprimarily found in tidal waters but enters ocean . commonly caught in gill nets in the altamaha river .\nanadromous . commonly caught in gill nets in the altamaha river by shad fishermen .\nprimarily a freshwater species but often encountered in salt water on the georgia coast .\nsmall individuals are often collected in tidal pools and canals and occasionally along the beach , high marsh , and upper reaches , from may to november .\nlarge tarpon are commonly caught in warmer months on georgia beaches and in the lower altamaha river . juveniles occur in tidal pools and creeks in low - to high - salinities from july to november ."]}
{"id": 1024, "summary": [{"text": "ogdoconta cinereola , the common pinkband moth , is a moth in the noctuidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in eastern , central , and south-western north america .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it occurs from southern ontario and quebec south to southern florida .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "at the western edge of its distribution , it occurs from manitoba southward through the great plains of nebraska and iowa , south throughout most of texas , and westward through southern new mexico to south-eastern arizona ( santa cruz county ) .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the distribution extends south to the state of coahuila in northern mexico .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 9.5 \u2013 14.5 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewing is light fuscous brown , and the subterminal region ( between the postmedial and subterminal lines ) is suffused with a pinkish tinge .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the medial and basal areas are minutely speckled with white .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the antemedial line is an obscure , scalloped white line .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the reniform and orbicular spots are obscure but often discernible by fine white outlines .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the claviform spot is absent .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the postmedial line is a white , almost straight , oblique line with a slight basally directed bend .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the subterminal line is marked primarily as a brown shade terminating the pink suffusion of the subterminal region .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are suffused with brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "males and females are similar in appearance , although the female hindwing usually is darker .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing from may to september in the northern part of the range and from april to october in texas and florida .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on amaranthaceae , asteraceae ( especially ambrosia species ) , fabaceae , labiatae and poaceae species . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "ogdoconta cinereola", "paragraphs": ["howell curtis marked\nogdoconta cinereola larva\nas trusted on the\nogdoconta cinereola\npage .\nhowell curtis set\nimage of ogdoconta cinereola\nas an exemplar on\nogdoconta cinereola guen\u00e9e 1852\n.\nsuperficially , ogdoconta margareta and ogdoconta tacna are very similar and key out together in couplet 6 of the key to species in metzler et al . ( op cit . ) . the forewings of ogdoconta margareta have a violet tint whereas those of ogdoconta tacna are greenish . the hindwing of ogdoconta margareta is paler than that of ogdoconta tacna without significant dark suffusion at the anterior margin . ogdoconta margareta can be distinguished from all of the other ogdoconta species that are known to occur in arizona , ogdoconta cinereola ( guen\u00e9e ) , ogdoconta moreno barnes , and ogdoconta rufipenna metzler , knudson , & poole , by its uniform purplish brown forewing and pale whitish hindwing . the forewings of the other species are either dark red brown or have lighter areas on the distal wing , and their hindwings are darker . modifications to the ogdoconta key to species in metzler ( op cit . ) are given in the discussion , below .\nplacodes cinereola guen\u00e9e , 1852 , histoire naturelle des insectes . species general des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e9res , 6 : 316 , pl . 15 , fig . 1 .\n1 ogdoconta margareta , holotype male ( abdomen removed subsequently for dissection ) 2 ogdoconta margareta , male genitalia , valves and aedeagus 3 ogdoconta tacna , adult male , texas , usa ( cnc ) 4 ogdoconta tacna , male genitalia , valves and aedeagus ( source image same as in metzler et al . ( 2013 ) , used with permission ) .\ni am grateful to the following individuals for help with this project : jocelyn gill photographed the ogdoconta tacna adult and prepared the illustrations ; j . donald lafontaine suggested that this species might be distinct , submitted the ogdoconta margareta dna sample to bold , and shared ogdoconta co1 similarity trees ; eric metzler graciously allowed the use of the images of the ogdoconta tacna genitalia ; merrill peterson took the photographs of ogdoconta margareta ; and b . christian schmidt gave editorial advice and other assistance .\na new species of ogdoconta butler ( lepidoptera , noctuidae , condicinae , condicini ) is described from the patagonia mountains , santa cruz county , arizona , usa . ogdoconta margareta sp . n . , is related closely to ogdoconta tacna ( barnes ) from texas . modifications are proposed to a recently published key to the ogdoconta species north of mexico to allow identification of the new species .\nthe two known specimens were collected in early september . it is possible that ogdoconta margareta also flies during the spring because the closely related species ogdoconta tacna has two broods ( metzler et al . 2013 ) .\nthe key to the species of ogdoconta in north america north of mexico in metzler et al . ( op cit . ) can be modified to include ogdoconta margareta by substituting the following couplet 6 for the original and inserting the following couplet 8 after couplet 7 :\nogdoconta margareta is a rarely collected species that is known only from the type locality in southeastern arizona , usa and sonora , mexico .\na review of the genus ogdoconta butler ( lepidoptera , noctuidae , condicinae , condicini ) from north america north of mexico with descriptions of three new species .\na single specimen of a new ogdoconta species resembling ogdoconta tacna ( barnes ) , a species that is known only from texas in the united states , was collected in 2013 near harshaw in the patagonia mountains , santa cruz county , arizona . while the new species and ogdoconta tacna are very similar superficially , their male genitalia are distinct and their co1 barcode sequences differ by nearly 4 % . a second specimen of the new species from sonora , mexico , was identified by its co1 barcode and is included in the type series . this new species is described herein .\nthe north american noctuid moth genus ogdoconta butler was revised recently by metzler et al . ( 2013 ) . there are approximately 16 species in the genus , of which nine occur north of mexico . the most characteristic feature of the genus is a horizontal cleft in the valve of the male genitalia that divides it into dorsal and ventral components .\ncrabo lg ( 2015 ) a new species of ogdoconta butler ( lepidoptera , noctuidae , condicinae , condicini ) from southeastern arizona , usa . in : schmidt bc , lafontaine jd ( eds ) contributions to the systematics of new world macro - moths vi . zookeys 527 : 51\u201356 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 527 . 9771\nmetzler , e . h . , e . c . knudson , r . w . poole , j . d . lafontaine , m . g . pogue , 2013 . a review of the genus ogdoconta butler ( lepidoptera noctuidae , condicinae , condicini from north america north of mexico with description of three new species . . zookeys , 264 : 165\u2013191 .\ndiagnosis : ogdoconta cinereola is the only north american species of the genus found outside of the southwestern u . s . - mexico region . it occurs abundantly in the eastern half of the united states and southeastern canada . the species is easy to identify . the forewing is brown and the subterminal region between the postmedial and subterminal lines is suffused with pink . the median and basal areas are minutely speckled with white . the antemedial line is an obscure , scalloped white line . the reniform spot and orbicular spot are obscure but often discernable as fine white lines . the claviform spot is absent . the postmedial line is a white , almost straight , oblique line . the subterminal line is marked primarily as a brown shade terminating the pink suffusion of the subterminal region . the hindwing is suffused with brown . the male genitalia are not particularly remarkable , but this appears to be the only species in the genus with a clasper - like structure near the junction or the saccular and cucullar regions of the valve . the vesica has a complete coil in it , although this feature is shared with other species . likewise there is a complete coil in the appendix bursae of the female genitalia .\nthe 658 base pair dna \u201cbarcode\u201d region of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 ( co1 ) was used to assess molecular variation in the genus odgoconta . a leg of the arizona specimen was submitted to the barcodes of life campaign ( bold ) at the university of guelph ( ontario , canada ) where it was analyzed by standard dna extraction , amplification , and sequencing protocols as described by hebert et al . ( 2003 ) . the barcode sequence was compared to pre - existing ogdoconta material at bold using the kimura - 2 - parameter distance model as implemented on the barcode of life data systems website ( urltoken ) .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\npowell , j . a . & p . a . opler , moths of western north america , pl . 52 . 50f ; p . 293 . book review and ordering\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\ncaterpillar foods : ragweed , beans , sunflowers , hedge nettle ( stachys spp . ) ( bugguide )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nmiana atomaria walker , 1865 , list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum , 32 : 675 .\ndistribution : this species has a wide distribution in the eastern half of north america . it occurs from southern ontario and quebec in the north to southern florida in the south . the species stretches northward into the great plains as far north as nebraksa and iowa . it has not yet been collected in the dakotas or manitoba . the species occurs throughout most of texas except for the western counties and stretches as far south as the state of coahuila in northern mexico . there is little or no individual or geographical variation in this species .\nthe adult is generally common . adults have been collected throughout the summer months from may to september in the north to as early as april and as late as october in texas and florida .\nthe larval material in the usnm is now too faded to give a good description of the markings and coloration of the larvae , so i am repeating crumb ' s original description .\nbody green flecked with white , dorsum usually suffused with white . strong , sharply defined white lines middorsally and ventral of ii . spiracles white , included in the subventral white stripe which may be margined dorsally by a purplish red line . setigerous tubercles small to moderately large , but not conspicuous , slightly elevated , white . head greenish with white lateral lines margining the front and faint traces of darker submedian arcs and lateral lines , labrum white .\nfoodplants : crumb ( 1956 ) records the larva from ambrosia artemisiifolia ( ragweed ) and a . trifida ( giant ragweed ) , in the asteraceae . there are also adults in the usnm reared from helianthus annuus l . ( sunflower ) and\nartichoke\n. it is not clear from the labels whether the latter record is the true artichoke or the jerusalem artichoke .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license ( cc by 4 . 0 ) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nthe male genitalia were prepared using standard methods ( hardwick 1950 , lafontaine 2004 ) . the detached abdomen was boiled in 10 % koh for 40 minutes . dissection was performed initially in water followed by hardening with isopropyl alcohol . the male vesica was everted and inflated . the preparation was stained with orcein and was mounted in euparal on a glass slide .\nharshaw , 2 . 9\u20135 km sw , santa cruz county , arizona , usa .\nholotype : male : usa : az : santa cruz co . , harshaw , 2 . 9\u20135 km sw , 31 . 42\u2013 [ 31 ] . 45\u00b0 - 110 . 72\u2013 [ 110 ] . 74\u00b0 , 1490\u20131765 m , 1 ix 2013 , l crabo leg . / crabo [ genitalia ] slide 681 / bold cnclep 00113651 . cnc . paratype : one male : mexico , sonora / bold cnclep 83594 . lgc .\ni take pleasure in naming this species after my mother , margareta crabo of cave creek , arizona . the holotype was collected three days prior to her 80 th birthday . the name is a noun in apposition .\nthe valves of both species are unique in the genus in having a broadly triangular cucullus with an irregular outer margin with a series of small knobs . the most prominent structural differences between these species are in the aedeagus , vesica , and sacculus of the valve . in the genitalia of\n) the aedeagus has a proximal bend and the proximal and distal portions of the vesica are coiled . the dorsal sacculus of\nis rounded with greatest width at the mid - point . the saccular extension of\n: antenna filiform with sparse ventral cilia , dorsum with alternating off - white and gray scales ; scape , head , and labial palpus covered with gray , off - white - tipped gray , and sparse off - white scales ; frons smooth , unmodified ; labial palpus with third segment one - third the length of the second segment ; eye smooth , normal sized .\n: entire thorax , including prothoracic collar and patagium , covered with off - white - tipped gray and gray scales , appearing uniform purplish brown similar to the forewings ; legs with off - white and gray scales , prothoracic leg palest , tarsal segments gray with distal off - white bands . forewing : length 13 mm excluding fringe ; covered with brown - gray , off - white , and fawn scales , appearing hoary purplish brown , slightly darker gray medial to the subterminal line and terminal area and slightly paler near the postmedial line ; basal and antemedial lines nearly obsolete , evident as a few pale scales on the costa and in the fold ; medial shade dark gray , faint and diffuse ; postmedial line brown gray , double with filling of the adjacent ground color , outer portion weakly dentate with dark and pale scales on the veins lateral to the line , oriented parallel to outer margin , nearly straight ; subterminal line a hoary sinuous row of pale scales ; terminal line dark brown bordered mesially by an incomplete line of pale scales ; fringe gray brown with hoary pale tips ; orbicular and reniform spots hoary , filled with the adjacent ground color , orbicular spot irregularly ovate , lateral portion touching posterior reniform spot ; reniform spot asymmetrically figure - eight shaped with posterior margin extended toward base and touching orbicular spot ; claviform spot absent ; hindwing slightly brownish off white with slight dusting of pale gray scales near anterior margin and darker gray veins ; terminal line dark brown ; hindwing fringe pale tan with scattered gray scales and paler outer margin .\n( removed for dissection after photography ) : covered with fuscous scales , slightly darker weak dorsal tufts on the first two segments .\n) : uncus cylindrical , 6\u00d7 as long as thick , apex pointed bluntly ; juxta 1 . 25\u00d7 as tall as wide with arrowhead - shaped caudal portion ; valve bifid with larger dorsal portion bearing triangular cucullus and small ventral portion comprised of saccular extension ; sacculus 0 . 5\u00d7 as long as valve , dorsal margin bluntly triangular and extending to near dorsal valve margin distal to mid - point of sacculus near mid - valve , blade - like saccular extensions 0 . 4\u00d7 as long as sacculus , extending to near ventral cucullus margin , asymmetrical , slightly shorter and more robust on the right than the left ; dorsal margin of mid - valve slightly convex , cucullus large , triangular , 0 . 5\u00d7 as wide as valve length , with finely crenulate lateral margin and rounded dorsal and truncate ventral margins , mesial surface covered with fine hairs ; aedeagus cylindrical , straight , 10\u00d7 as long as wide , without ornamentation ; vesica 1\u00d7 as long as aedeagus with slight expansion at subbasal bend but otherwise similar in width to aedeagus , straight beyond 135\u00b0 subbasal bend toward left , subapex with two short fields of innumerable short cornuti .\nthe holotype was collected in one of a series of black light traps placed mostly in a forest of oak and pine , with a few traps in the ecotone between forest and shrub desert . the habitat of this species in mexico is unknown .\nhebert pdn , cywindka a , ball sl , dewaard jr . ( 2003 )\nthe moths of north america including greenland , fascicle 27 . 1 , noctuoideanoctuidae ( part ) noctuinae ( part\u2014agrotini ) . the wedge entomological research foundation .\nmetzler eh , knudson ec , poole rw , lafontaine jd , pogue mg . ( 2013 )"]}
{"id": 1025, "summary": [{"text": "holy roman emperor , is a retired thoroughbred racehorse and active sire .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "he was a leading two-year-old racehorse , winning four races from seven runs in europe in 2006 . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "holy roman emperor ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["holy roman emperor is a 12 year old bay horse . holy roman emperor is trained by e a martinovich , at success and owned by .\narmour of the holy roman emperor ferdinand i . # armor | armor costume inspiration | pinterest | roman emperor , ferdinand and emperor\nholy roman emperor was sired by danehill out of the dam l ' on vite holy roman emperor was foaled on 01 of august in 2004 .\nholy roman emperor has a 50 % win percentage and 100 % place percentage . holy roman emperor ' s last race event was at g b - newmarket .\nferdinand ii , holy roman emperor , whole length on rearing horse , wearing armour , sash and holding baton ; battle in the background .\nholy roman emperor ' s exposed form for its last starts is 2 - 1 - 2 - 1 .\nfor everything you need to know about horse racing . free horse racing tips from professional punters and betting secrets to increase your horse racing profits .\nferdinand ii , holy roman emperor , whole length on rearing horse , wearing armour , sash and holding baton ; battle in the background . | museu . ms\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for holy trilogy ( irl ) . holy trilogy ( irl ) is a gelding born in 2013 may 5 by holy roman emperor out of magical bupers\n; there he crowned him emperor in february 1530 . it was to be the last time that a holy roman emperor was crowned by a pope .\nat the time of his retirement , holy roman emperor was second favorite to champion teofilo for england\u2019s first classic of 2007 , the two thousand guineas . he was perfectly sound , and his perennial irish champion trainer , aidan o\u2019brien , said holy roman emperor was the stable\u2019s best horse .\nholy roman emperor , winning the 2006 prix jean - luc lagardere , was retired to stud at 3 in 2007 .\nholy roman emperor was our best horse ,\no ' brien told the british press association .\nhe was the horse we were looking forward to for the 2000 guineas and the st . james ' s palace .\nholy roman emperor\u2019s last race event was at 14 / 10 / 2006 and it has not been nominated for any upcoming race .\nas befitting a horse named after a roman emperor , honorius is a horse of great style and presence and he is sure to impress breeders as he begins his stud career at larneuk stud , euroa .\nholy roman emperor career form is 2 wins , 2 seconds , thirds from 4 starts with a lifetime career prize money of $ .\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for roman emperor ( nzl ) . roman emperor ( nzl ) is a stallion born in 2005 october 15 by montjeu out of gussy godiva\nalthough john magnier broke with one of racing\u2019s holiest traditions in retiring holy roman emperor to stud while still sound after his juvenile campaign , that decision seems to be paying off . holy roman emperor may become the viable heir to danehill that george washington once appeared to be .\nthe current race record for roman emperor ( nzl ) is 2 wins from 20 starts .\nwith now three racing crops to 2012 , holy roman emperor took on the more seasoned green desert horse invincible spirit in a heavy duel for honours as leading sire of two - year - olds in europe .\nholy roman emperor joseph ii tried to strengthen the habsburg empire with his enlightened reforms , but the changes he made were met with fierce opposition .\nthis was evidenced when holy roman emperor\u2019s \u201cfull sister\u201d milanova set an australasian record price for a broodmare when she sold in 2008 for $ 5 million .\non this day in history , 24th february 1500 , charles v , holy roman emperor was born . happy birthday , charles ! here are some facts about charles : -\n, assuming at the same time the title of roman emperor - elect . in the spring of 1521 the imperial\ngeorge washington had been standing for a fee of 60 , 000 euros ( $ 78 , 000 ) . a stud fee has yet to be set for holy roman emperor .\naidan o ' brien , who trained both holy roman emperor and george washington at his ballydoyle yard in county tipperary , ireland , understands that coolmore has obligations to clients who had signed on to breed mares to george washington , and that their interests can be served by mating with holy roman emperor who , like george washington , is by danehill ( although holy roman emperor is out of a secretariat mare , while george washington is out of a mare by alysheba ) . nonetheless , o ' brien was nonplussed by the developments .\nmount nelson , at 12 to 1 , is now the lowest priced ballydoyle - trained horse in the guineas betting , but the market for the opening classic of the season at newmarket is dominated even more by holy roman emperor ' s old rival teofilo .\nin france , five of holy roman emperor\u2019s juveniles won 8 races to give him his first champion sire title whilst his coolmore stud shuttle colleague choisir finished close behind in fifth position .\ngoing down fighting when only just being beaten by teofilo in the group one dewhurst stakes at newmarket , holy roman emperor looked to have so much ahead of him but with fellow coolmore horse george washington proving infertile he was rushed off to stud to fill that gap on the roster .\nholy roman emperor started a hot favorite in ireland\u2019s premier juvenile race , the group 1 national stakes , but the unbeaten teofilo outpaced him convincingly , drawing off to win by 1 1 / 4 lengths , with holy roman emperor well clear of the rest . sent to france for the group 1 prix jean - luc lagardere , holy roman emperor easily outpointed a substandard field , but though it was his sixth start of a busy campaign , he ran greenly , veering right , then left , then back right again in the final furlong , though the race was already well in hand .\nholy roman emperor charles v is one of the most intriguing characters of the 16th century . i believe titian was his favorite artist . every so often i think about him and don\u2019t know why .\ngeorge washington has been suspended from covering , and holy roman emperor , another dual group 1 - winning 2 - year - old by danehill , has been retired to take his place .\nlike holy roman emperor , teofilo never raced again \u2212 in teofilo\u2019s case because of injury \u2212 so it is difficult to assess just how good holy roman emperor might have been , but so far he has been a better sire than teofilo . holy roman emperor\u2019s first crop of 105 named northern hemisphere foals includes seven stakes winners , headed by the tough , consistent filly banimpire , whose six wins at three in 2011 included a win in the group 2 ribblesdale stakes . at the end of that season , banimpire sold for $ 3 , 095 , 110 at goffs but finished third in her only subsequent start .\nmaria theresa was an austrian archduchess , and holy roman empress of the habsburg dynasty from 1740 to 1780 . she was also marie antoinette\u2019s mother .\nholy roman emperor challenged teofilo once again in the group 1 dewhurst stakes and came within inches of dethroning the champion . held up at the back of the field , he squeezed through on the inside rail running down into the dip and then had to be switched outside teofilo for the final uphill run . holy roman emperor headed teofilo about 100 yards out , but the favorite fought back to win by a head .\naquis shuttler holy roman emperor ( ire ) has been in top form this year and has a very bright prospect in german bred filly well timed , who won the group ii hoppegarten diana trial on the weekend .\nwhilst 2012 was his best year to date and hopefully , a sign of better things to come , holy roman emperor now stands at coolmore stud ireland in 2013 for a service fee of 20 , 000 euro .\nwelcome to horseracing . com . au , australia ' s premier site for horse racing news .\naquis shuttler holy roman emperor ( ire ) has had stakes - winners in every racing country in the world and was in the frame in canada on the weekend when shahroze captured the grade iii singspiel stakes at woodbine .\non the strength of that victory sent out favourite in the group one phoenix stakes at the same track , holy roman emperor was a dominant winner before a gallant second to rising star teofilo in the group one national stakes .\nholy roman emperor\u2019s highlights came with homemaker queen\u2019s win in the gr1 english 1000 guineas and morandi romping through heavy ground to win the gr1 grand criterium . whilst roll out the carpet won the gr1 nz 1000 guineas in november .\nmilanova is a grand - daughter of franfreluche the champion 3yo in canada and horse of the year .\nholy roman emperor also won the phoenix stakes as a juvenile and , in between defeats to teofilo in the national stakes and the dewhurst stakes , he was an impressive winner of the group one prix jean luc lagadere at longchamp .\n\u2026king , charles i , who , as charles v , was elected holy roman emperor in 1519 at the age of 19 . in this youth , the vast dual inheritance of the spanish and habsburg empires came together . the grandson of ferdinand and isabella on his mother\u2019s side and of the emperor maximilian i\u2026\nmagnier\u2019s decision was met with considerable shock in the international racing community and perhaps caused substantial blowback on the subsequent stud career of holy roman emperor . some breeders were offended by coolmore\u2019s decision , which put commercial considerations directly before racing consideration .\n\u201ci speak spanish to god , italian to women , french to men and german to my horse . \u201d\nholy roman emperor charles vi and his wife , elisabeth christine of brunswick - wolfenb\u00fcttel , welcomed their first daughter , maria theresa , into the world on may 13 , 1717 . she was born at the hofburg palace in vienna , austria .\nholy roman emperor ' s grandam is northern dancer ' s finest daughter fanfreluche - canadian horse of the year , us champion 3y0 filly . best remembered as the victim of a kidnap , she was saved by a family who found her wandering along the road ! fortunately she was eventually returned to clairbone farm from where she proved a powerful breeding force .\nbut back to her grandson holy roman emperor . with such a background of course expectations were high and he did not disappoint - at debut racing away with a maiden at leopardstown and two starts later claiming the group two railway stakes at the curragh .\nthe current race record for holy trilogy ( irl ) is 0 wins from 7 starts .\nmaria theresa died on november 29 , 1780 , at hofburg palace in vienna , austria\u2014where she had reigned for four decades\u2014leaving behind a solid basis for future generations of the family empire . with her death , joseph ii assumed full responsibility as holy roman emperor .\njust a few weeks earlier at easter 2008 , gai waterhouse had paid an australasian record price for a yearling when she knocked down the rock of gibraltar / l\u2019on vite colt , being the \u00be brother to milanova and holy roman emperor for $ 3 million .\nto valois and the emperor defeated in his struggle for hegemony in western europe .\nand the track ' s loss has proven breeding ' s gain with holy roman emperor proving himself to be one of danehill ' s classiest and most versatile sons , to date represented by 67 stakes winners , ten of whom have been successful at the elite level .\nthe unbeaten juvenile champion teofilo is now as low as 11 to 8 favourite for this year ' s 2 , 000 guineas after the weekend ' s shock decision by john magnier ' s coolmore stud to retire holy roman emperor to stud just weeks before the flat season begins .\nby a champion , breed shaping stallion , holy roman emperor hails from one of the world ' s great thoroughbred families , one held in such high regard that his full sister milanova set an australian record when fetching a whopping $ 5 million at the 2008 inglis easter broodmare sale .\nthe emperor gave a rare example to his successors\u2026in so doing , he proved himself to be a true christian prince\u2026may the lord in all his goodness now grant the emperor freedom .\ncharles i , who was elected holy roman emperor charles v in 1519 upon the death of his paternal grandfather , maximilian , aspired to universal monarchy over the far - flung territories he had inherited , from germany , the low countries , italy , and spain to the new world . \u2026\n\u2026and the holy roman emperor charles v . militarily , the kingdom was of the same magnitude as the papacy\u2014the english king had about the same revenues and could field an army about the same size\u2014and , as one contemporary noted , england , with its back door constantly exposed to scotland and its economy\u2026\n\u201che was the horse we were looking forward to for the two thousand guineas and st . james\u2019s palace stakes , \u201d o\u2019brien said .\ntheir dam l ' on vite by the immortal secretariat , has produced four stakes winners - holy roman emperor the star whilst milanova was successful at group three level ( producing a group three winner in ireland ) as was big viking in japan . . . whilst heart of oak won listed races in germany .\n, his native city , the emperor himself went to the netherlands . the country\u2019s regent\u2014charles\u2019s sister ,\nholy roman emperor ( ire ) b . h , 2004 { 4 - g } dp = 8 - 11 - 19 - 1 - 1 ( 40 ) di = 2 . 48 cd = 0 . 60 - 7 starts , 4 wins , 2 places , 0 shows career earnings : $ 764 , 836\nit has been reported that holy roman emperor covered his first mare on the same day , a move that emphasises even more the commercial priority of magnier ' s coolmore operation , and one that has been undertaken to salvage as much as possible from the multi - million euro implications of george washington ' s infertility .\ntwo years later an imposing son of danehill , a horse standing his second season at coolmore stud , was chosen as zarinia ' s mate .\nan astonishing sequence of events , beginning with the discovery that last year ' s brilliant guineas winner george washington is infertile , led to the swift removal of holy roman emperor from aidan o ' brien ' s ballydoyle yard on saturday and the end of the racing career of the trainer ' s top classic prospect for 2007 .\ntherefore that makes our filly the daughter of pretty flamingo , the $ 625 , 000 weanling , and next , our filly is the grand - daughter of milanova the $ 5 million broodmare and milanova is the full sister to holy roman emperor . milanova is a half sister to the $ 3 million record price yearling mount olympus .\nsecond - crop star homecoming queen provided holy roman emperor with his first classic winner this year through her runaway , nine - length victory in the one thousand guineas , though she has run disappointingly in subsequent races . that classic win , though , was only the beginning of what has turned out to be an excellent year for the young stallion .\nand her blood flows through many a great australian horse with eight carat - record breaking dam of five group one winners including the champion octagonal - also a descendant .\n, the roman catholic king and queen of spain . after his father\u2019s death in 1506 , charles was raised by his paternal aunt\nholy roman emperor\u2019s second dam , fanfreluche , by northern dancer , was a champion in the united states and canada , and her daughters and granddaughters had been responsible for a long list of turf luminaries , including european champion juvenile filly bint allayl , leading australian sires flying spur and encosta de lago , and group 1 or grade 1 winners aube indienne , majestic roi , and medici .\nholy roman emperor was the success story among stallions claiming championships in the various categories for the french racing year of 2012 . the last of 85 danehill foals to win a group i race was the appropriate champion as leading sire of two - year - olds , since he won his last race at the highest level in the prix jean luc - lagardere ( 1400m ) at longchamp .\nholy roman emperor came to coolmore stud\u2019s australian base in the hunter valley on four occasions and copped a hard start to his first season in 2007 when we were suffering the equine influenza crisis . he had two solid books his first two seasons , then the financial crisis in his third year which saw a drop in service fee and numbers and then again in his fourth and final season .\na truly international success story is holy roman emperor . . . winners in 41 different countries ! a stallion whose stats read so very well - a 65 . 3 % winners - to - runners strike rate , 6 . 2 % stakes winners to runners . prize money earnings in excess of $ 82 million , stakes winners who have won over a variety of distances from 1000m to 2500m .\nsuch as caulfield cup hero mongolian khan , also winner of the new zealand and australian derbies . . . the only horse to claim all three of those coveted group one races .\nthe boss has his clients and he obviously has to take care of them . they are trying to replace like with like . holy roman emperor is by danehill and has a super physique too . with all those mares booked to george , they felt they had to pull out all the stops . it ' s a sickener , but it ' s a business decision ,\nthe champion trainer said .\nholy roman emperor is inbred 3x3 to northern dancer , and , inevitably , 15 of his 21 stakes winners carry at least one additional cross of the little giant of windfields farm . two of his three group 1 winners , homecoming queen and rollout the carpet , do not , and there are no obvious strong preferences among the broodmare sires of his best runners although two of his nine group winners are out of bering mares .\n, \u201d a formula conciliatory to the protestants but retaining the roman catholic ritual in general . although charles believed that he had granted far - reaching concessions to the people and the protestant authorities in that document , his main concern was to make the protestants return to the roman catholic church .\nscintillo won the 2yo gran criterium group 1 , defeating gladiatorus ( who shortly after won g1 ' s dubai duty free and premio vittorio ) and was awarded the \u2018 world\u2019s highest rated horse \u201c .\nfive of her progeny , including canadian horse of the year l ' enjoleur , were stakes winners and she spurred a dynasty whose members include the australian champion stallions flying spur and encosta de lago .\nincluding a tough fellow by the name of honorius , a horse whose illustrious background demands attention ! a proven high class sire line , an internationally prolific family . . . he has it all .\naustralia has been supported by an international spread of breeders which includes , in addition to shareholder china horse club , martin schwartz , moyglare stud , glenhill farm , gestut fahrhof , ballylinch stud and sir robert ogden .\nthe pope , having surrendered to the mutinous troops , was ready for any compromise . the newly started war between the emperor and france also came to a close when the mother of francis i approached margaret of austria , the emperor\u2019s aunt , through whose mediation the so - called \u201cladies\u2019 peace , \u201d the\n, but the order to give decisive battle was withheld . instead , the emperor returned to spain in 1533 , leaving his brother ferdinand behind as his deputy .\nnever tasting defeat , zarkava earned the title of cartier european horse of the year and has already produced a group one winner - her son zarak charging home from the rear to claim the grand prix de saint - cloud in early july .\nkristen manning is a freelance racing writer and pedigree analyst based in melbourne . a keen owner / breeder who loves every aspect of thoroughbred horse racing , she has written two books focusing on the deeds of fields of omagh and prince of penzance .\nsaturday racing in the week of the anniversary of the legendary bart cummings ' death , a horse that holds a special place in the family ' s hearts will start a campaign that could result in one of australian racing ' s most sentimental wins .\nlast season ' s charismatic champion miler retired to stud at the end of 2006 complete with a \u20ac60 , 000 covering fee . but the results of about 40 mares which the horse has covered so far in this breeding season have all been negative .\n\u201cno nay never was pinhooked by paul shanahan and timmy hyde as a foal so they\u2019ve supported him very well since he\u2019s come to stud\u2013he\u2019s got plenty of their mares , \u201d o\u2019loughlin said . \u201cthey\u2019re big believers in the horse . but he\u2019s an interesting horse because he raced in three countries : america , england and france and he raced on three surfaces , turf , dirt and polytrack . he\u2019s been particularly popular internationally ; some americans have bred mares to him , people like hunter valley and reiley mcdonald . \u201d\n\u201cwe own him in partnership with al shaqab and they\u2019ve supported him all along , \u201d o\u2019loughlin noted of ruler of the world , who has also been supported at stud by his trainer , aidan o\u2019brien . \u201cbreeders in england , france , ireland and germany have supported the horse . \u201d\nuk horse of the year , one whose record mare earnings took ten years to surpass . a true legend of the turf - and another great mare to make her mark over the generations with her unraced daughter zahra the foundation mare of the aga khan ' s prolific\nz\nfamily .\nlittle wonder that australians have been keen to tap into the influence of this family and it was kia - ora stud , nsw who imported zariya ' s irish bred granddaughter zarinia in 2005 . . . and they struck gold early with her second foal being south african horse of the year igugu .\nthe results of conclusive tests on george washington ' s fertility are still awaited , but the move does leave open the intriguing possibility of a return to racing action for the horse which also won last year ' s queen elizabeth ii stakes before unsuccessfully bowing out on dirt in the breeders ' cup classic .\nseveral stories tell of nicholas and the sea . when he was young , nicholas sought the holy by making a pilgrimage to the holy land . there as he walked where jesus walked , he sought to more deeply experience jesus ' life , passion , and resurrection . returning by sea , a mighty storm threatened to wreck the ship . nicholas calmly prayed . the terrified sailors were amazed when the wind and waves suddenly calmed , sparing them all . and so st . nicholas is the patron of sailors and voyagers .\n, italy ) , the council for which the emperor had been pressing . once again charles\u2019s precarious financial situation partially accounted for the failure of his plans . his finances were in a perpetually unsettled state . the spanish possessions in the\npaul shanahan ( coolmore adviser ) was here at 11 . 30 and the box came for the horse at 11 . 50 . i spoke to the boss ( magnier ) in between and , the more i tried to persuade him , the more convinced he became that we had to retire him ,\nexplained o ' brien .\nand designs on rome , hong kong horse of the year . as well as south american stars salto olimpico and maraton , hong kong mile winner beauty only , nz 1000 guineas winner rollout the carpet , oakleigh plate victor sheidel , american big race winner rich tapestry , uk 1000 guineas heroine homecoming queen and the , high class french galloper morandi .\n. the gold from those possessions did not add up to any sizable sum at the time . only in 1550 did 17 spanish ships provide the emperor with 3 , 000 , 000 ducats and others with a like sum , the earliest significant\n, who had been his enemy since the establishment of the league of cognac , the pope\u2019s alliance with france , venice , florence , and milan against the emperor . mutinous and with their pay in arrears , charles\u2019s forces entered the defenseless city of\nmembers of australia\u2019s first crop also include the progeny of group 1 winners circle of life ( belong to me ) , mauralakana ( fr ) ( muhtathir { gb } ) , virginia waters ( kingmambo ) , sense of style and nymphea ( ire ) ( dylan thomas { ire } ) , and siblings to group 1 winners order of st george , beauty only ( ire ) ( holy roman emperor { ire } ) ; earl of tinsdal ( ger ) ( black sam bellamy { ire } ) , guignol ( ger ) ( cape cross { ire } ) , lucky lion ( gb ) ( high chaparral { ire } ) , guiliani ( ire ) ( tertullian ) , ridasiyna ( fr ) ( motivator { gb } ) and potemkin ( ger ) ( new approach { ire } ) .\n\u201cwe are absolutely delighted to have secured one of the most commercial young entires in training for our first breeding season , \u201d declared wooldridge . \u201cno established sire in australia is more commercial than snitzel at this time , and with spill the beans we have managed to acquire a young horse that would not be out of place on any stallion roster in the country . \u201d\nthe dominions of charles v thus encircled france and incorporated the wealth of spain overseas . even after the division of this vast inheritance between his son , philip ii of spain , and his brother , the emperor ferdinand i , the conflict between the habsburgs and the french crown dominated the\u2026\n\u201che\u2019s a different sort of horse from the gurkha , he\u2019s more your speed type and he was a top 2 - year - old , \u201d o\u2019loughlin said . he has a very interesting pedigree , being by street cry over a danehill mare from the family of invincible spirit and kodiac , so it resonates a lot with breeders . it\u2019s a fantastic stallion - producing family and people can relate to it so easily . \u201d\n1 print : etching , hand - colored . | cartoon shows catherine ii , faint and shying away from william pitt , who appears as petruchio , and don quixote on horseback ( a lean and scarred george iii whose authority has been usurped by pitt ) , seated behind pitt are the king of prussia and a figure representing holland as sancho panza , selim iii kneels to kiss the horse ' s tail ; a . . .\n\u201che\u2019s such an international horse , and i think that\u2019s becoming more important because the world is getting smaller , \u201d o\u2019loughlin added . \u201cspeed horses are getting more popular everywhere , so he\u2019s a big hit with european breeders because he was so fast . he\u2019s going to cover a similar book to the gurkha , 150 - plus mares . the other thing is he\u2019s an outcross to sadler\u2019s wells - line mares , which is important here . \u201d\nin 1519 ( succeeding his grandfather emperor maximilian i ) recalled him to that country after some two and one - half years in spain , charles left behind him a dissatisfied and restless people . adrian , whom he had installed as regent , was not strong enough to suppress the revolt of the castilian cities (\n, thus handing over imperial lands . when maurice tried to capture the emperor himself , the latter barely managed to escape . he soon gathered reinforcements , but the changed political situation compelled him to ratify an agreement made between his brother ferdinand and the rebels , according to which the new protestant religion was to be granted\n. the reformer\u2019s appearance represented a first challenge to charles , beginning with a sweeping invocation of his roman catholic ancestors , read out to the diet . after luther refused to recant the substance of his writings and left the diet , charles drew up the edict of worms . with it , he rejected luther\u2019s doctrines and essentially declared war on protestantism .\nthe gurkha , the winner of last year\u2019s g1 poule d\u2019essai des poulains and g1 sussex s . , is standing his initial season for \u20ac25 , 000 . \u201cthe gurkha is a horse we bred , \u201d o\u2019loughlin noted . \u201cwe bought his mother , who is by danehill dancer , as a yearling in deauville , and she was a good 2 - year - old and won a good race at the curragh . she was actually scanned in foal to galileo this week . \u201d\nshareholders in pride of dubai include his breeder sheikh khalifa al maktoum and the china horse club , and other breeders supporting him include jim bolger , airlie stud , the niarchos family , moyglare stud , mark gittins , and denis brosnan . his book includes group winners ponty acclaim ( ire ) ( acclamation { gb } ) and princess nala ( ire ) ( in the wings { gb } ) , and the dam of group 1 winner lahaleeb ( ire ) ( redback { gb } ) .\nunder the roman emperor diocletian , who ruthlessly persecuted christians , bishop nicholas suffered for his faith , was exiled and imprisoned . the prisons were so full of bishops , priests , and deacons , there was no room for the real criminals\u2014murderers , thieves and robbers . after his release , nicholas attended the council of nicaea in ad 325 . he died december 6 , ad 343 in myra and was buried in his cathedral church , where a unique relic , called manna , formed in his grave . this liquid substance , said to have healing powers , fostered the growth of devotion to nicholas . the anniversary of his death became a day of celebration , st . nicholas day , december 6th ( december 19 on the julian calendar ) .\nin 1765 maria theresa\u2019s husband , francis stephen , died . upon his death , maria theresa appointed her eldest son , joseph ii , as emperor and co - regent . the two frequently clashed in their beliefs . after considering her own abdication and ultimately rejecting the idea , maria theresa allowed joseph to take control of army reforms and join wenzel anton , prince of kaunitz - rietberg , in determining the empire\u2019s foreign policy .\n. after that , the turkish danger became the habsburgs\u2019 foremost concern on land , as it had been on the seas ever since charles\u2019s accession to the throne of spain . although charles realized that his first duty as emperor of christendom lay in warding off that peril , he found himself so enmeshed in the affairs of western europe that he had little time , energy , and money left for the task . in 1526 charles married isabella , the daughter of the late king\ndid not open until december 1545 , but paul iii had earlier offered charles men and money against the heretics . when the protestant princes failed to put in an appearance at the imperial diet of regensburg in 1546 , the religious and political situation turned critical once again . charles prepared for war . in a battle that decided the whole campaign and placed his archenemies at his mercy , the emperor ( who had been attacked by the german princes the previous september ) defeated the protestants at\nchampion 2yo in france , winner of the g1 prix jean - luc lagardere in record time as well as the g1 phoenix stakes & g2 railway stakes .\nout of a secretariat mare , like storm cat , a . p . indy , gone west etc .\nyearlings in 2017 sold for \u20ac245 , 000 , \u20ac180 , 000 , \u20ac140 , 000 etc .\nat 2 : 1st prix jean - luc lagardere / grand criterium ( fr - g1 ) , phoenix s . ( ire - g1 ) , railway s . ( ire - g2 ) ; 2nd national s . ( ire - g1 ) , dewhurst s . ( gb - g1 ) .\nbrother to australian 10f performer milanova ; half - brother to high - class japanese performer big viking , and smart german winner heart of oak ; dam is sister to d ' accord & medaille d ' or . retired march 2007 to replace george washington at coolmore / ire ( + aust ) ; shuttles to brazil 2012 . in 2016 standing at aquis farm , qld australia . ( close )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsky sports news takes you through all of the day ' s racing news , plus alex hammond ' s tip of the day .\nfollow the latest from the written press with the best gossip and speculation from the papers .\nsky has launched a pub finder for eager fans wanting to find a venue to watch sky sports .\nget a sports star to visit your old secondary school as part of our free schools initiative .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\nalthough coolmore and partners maintain one of the world\u2019s most successful racing stables at ballydoyle , sending out classic winners and champions almost every year , their business is selling stallion seasons . with george washington\u2019s stud fee at $ 78 , 000 , the loss of all those mares booked to george washington would be a substantial blow to the bottom line .\nalthough unraced herself , l\u2019on vite had done her share to spread franfreluche\u2019s genetic excellence , producing australian group 3 winner milanova , by danehill , japanese near - millionaire big viking , by theatrical , and stakes winner heart of oak , by woodman .\nthis fall , his juvenile son morandi proved himself one of the best 2 - year - olds in france with wide - margin victories in the criterium de saint - cloud and prix de conde . a week after morandi\u2019s group 1 victory , his australian - conceived daughter rollout the carpet captured the new zealand bloodstock one thousand guineas .\nteofilo , too , has shown promise as a sire , with dewhurst stakes winner parish hall in his first crop , but poor george washington sired only one foal during his brief period at stud and was dead before the next stud season after breaking down in the 2007 breeders\u2019 cup classic . his only foal , the aptly named date with destiny , placed in the 2011 totepool oaks trial stakes at lingfield park .\narion supply the majority of the stallions listing data on this website . contact them by clicking on the logo .\nopen an account with betfair and bet at least \u20ac5 at min odds of 1 / 5 on the sportsbook . win or lose betfair match your first bet up to \u20ac50 . free bet stakes not returned\na tudor christmas tale : one day in the life of elizabeth i by sydney m . klevesath cabrera\nconfessions of the executioner of queen anne boleyn \u2013 wiley emmett koon , jr .\nplease check your spam box if you don ' t receive a confirmation email . please note : your privacy is essential to us and we will not share your details with anyone .\nin his later life , charles v , like henry viii , was carried around on a special chair . this was due to his gout\n\u201cfortune has something of the nature of a woman . if she is too intensely wooed , she commonly goes the further away . \u201d\n\u201cto endeavor to domineer over conscience , is to invade the citadel of heaven . \u201d\n\u201cmy cousin francis and i are in perfect accord \u2013 he wants milan , and so do i . \u201d\n\u201ca single friar who goes counter to all christianity for a thousand years must be wrong . \u201d\nwow claire ! it\u2019s like you read my mind ! first i was awake at night finding that i wanted to learn more about katherine h because i hated how annoying ( & naked ) they made her look on the tudors\u2026 . the next day , you posted an article on her . charles v was on my list of history to explore & study\u2026 . and here you are again . new to the site , but hooked\u2026i like how you lay out all the facts and not just yours & others opinions\u2026 . although i almost always agree w / yours\u2026great job ! keep it up , reading your site has now become a part of my morning routine w / coffee .\nthank you , courtney , i always try to give a balanced view of historical characters because most of the time we just don\u2019t know the whole truth . i\u2019m so glad that you\u2019re enjoying the site , i love running it .\nalthough charles had affairs before he married and after he was widowed , he was devoted to his wife isabella and was faithful to her . they were married for thirteen years .\nhe was so devasted when she died following the birth of a stillborn child that he wore black for the rest of his life . he refused to consider re - marriage , although he only had one son and two daughters , and was still comparatively young ( 39 ) . a very different character from his contemporary and rival henry viii\u2026\nthis makes me want to learn more about charles\u2013i didn\u2019t know about his mistresses or his epilepsy\u2013of course , the chin\u2013yes . thanks !\nwhat an interesting person , i didn\u2019t knew much about him . thanks for writing this \ud83d\ude42\njust want to say thank you for the interesting post about charles v . i\u2019ve been looking at your site for about a year now and your informative articles have reawakened my long lost interest in history of this time period . i also am learning from other people\u2019s comments . i look forward to reading your posts and thank you for all your hard work .\ni would like to nkow about my coin . charles 5 . years 1648 .\ndo you have any more details on it , a photo ? it won\u2019t be charles v as he lived a century before that . charles i of england was on the throne in 1648 .\nplease note : comment moderation is currently enabled so there will be a delay between when you post your comment and when it shows up .\nsave my name , email , and website in this browser for the next time i comment .\nthis site uses akismet to reduce spam . learn how your comment data is processed .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 the anne boleyn files | | sitemap _ index . xml | | wordpress installation and design by urltoken\nthis website uses cookies to improve your experience . we ' ll assume you ' re ok with this , but you can opt - out if you wish . accept read more\nartist : unknown , printmaker ; classification ( s ) : print , print ; acquisition : given by charrington , john , 1937 [ p . 5640 - r ]\nthe christian amazon , with her invincible target , alias , the focus of genial rays , or dian of the rushes , to much for 300 , 000 , infidels .\n1 print : etching with aquatint . | cartoon shows catherine ii , as an amazon with sword raised and bearing a shield emblazoned with double - headed eagle , battling the sultan , selim iii , attacking with a rifle fixed with bayonet ; joseph ii , an ally , hides behind catherine ; an apish louis xvi and the king of spain stand to the side of the sultan ; in the background the . . .\n1 print : etching . | cartoon shows catherine ii , with orb and scepter , seated on the shoulders of leopold ii who is seated on the back of a stumbling bull ; seated behind him are george iii , frederick william ii and a man representing holland ; in the background , william pitt is about to strike a british citizen with a rod while chastising him for complaining . . .\n1 print : engraving ; sheet 20 . 4 x 13 . 7 cm , on mount 21 . 1 x 14 . 3 cm . | cartoon shows joseph ii and frederick ii with swords drawn , catherine ii holding a cleaver , and louis xv with a knife , seated around a table on which rests a partitioned cake , representing poland , each monarch getting a separate , but not equal share ; in the background on the . . .\n1 print : etching ; plate 11 . 3 x 17 . 7 cm , sheet 12 . 2 x 19 cm , on mount 12 . 9 x 19 . 7 cm . | cartoon shows catherine ii , joseph ii , and frederick ii seated at table on which rests a map of poland ; standing behind them and looking over their shoulders are charles iii and louis xv , still further back , asleep on a throne is george . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe true story of santa claus begins with nicholas , who was born during the third century in the village of patara . at the time the area was greek and is now on the southern coast of turkey . his wealthy parents , who raised him to be a devout christian , died in an epidemic while nicholas was still young . obeying jesus ' words to\nsell what you own and give the money to the poor ,\nnicholas used his whole inheritance to assist the needy , the sick , and the suffering . he dedicated his life to serving god and was made bishop of myra while still a young man . bishop nicholas became known throughout the land for his generosity to those in need , his love for children , and his concern for sailors and ships .\nthrough the centuries many stories and legends have been told of st . nicholas ' life and deeds . these accounts help us understand his extraordinary character and why he is so beloved and revered as protector and helper of those in need .\none story tells of a poor man with three daughters . in those days a young woman ' s father had to offer prospective husbands something of value\u2014a dowry . the larger the dowry , the better the chance that a young woman would find a good husband . without a dowry , a woman was unlikely to marry . this poor man ' s daughters , without\n, were therefore destined to be sold into slavery . mysteriously , on three different occasions , a bag of gold appeared in their home - providing the needed dowries . the bags of gold , tossed through an open window , are said to have landed in stockings or shoes left before the fire to dry . this led to the custom of children hanging stockings or putting out shoes , eagerly awaiting gifts from\n. sometimes the story is told with gold balls instead of bags of gold . that is why three gold balls , sometimes represented as oranges , are one of the symbols for st . nicholas . and so st . nicholas is a gift - giver .\nanother story tells of three theological students , traveling on their way to study in athens . a wicked innkeeper robbed and murdered them , hiding their remains in a large pickling tub . it so happened that bishop nicholas , traveling along the same route , stopped at this very inn . in the night he dreamed of the crime , got up , and summoned the innkeeper . as nicholas prayed earnestly to god the three boys were restored to life and wholeness . in france the story is told of three small children , wandering in their play until lost , lured , and captured by an evil butcher . st . nicholas appears and appeals to god to return them to life and to their families . and so st . nicholas is the patron and protector of children .\n, sparing the lives of those innocently accused , and much more . he did many kind and generous deeds in secret , expecting nothing in return . within a century of his death he was celebrated as a saint . today he is\nsailors , claiming st . nicholas as patron , carried stories of his favor and protection far and wide . st . nicholas chapels were built in many seaports . as his popularity spread during the middle ages , he became the patron saint of\nbrought st . nicholas ' stories and devotion to st . nicholas to his homeland where nicholas became the most beloved saint . nicholas was so widely revered that thousands of churches were named for him , including three hundred in belgium , thirty - four in rome , twenty - three in the netherlands and more than four hundred in england .\nthrough the centuries st . nicholas has continued to be venerated by catholics and orthodox and honored by protestants . by his example of generosity to those in need , especially children , st . nicholas continues to be a model for the compassionate life .\nillustrations by elisabeth ivanovsky from saint nicholas by henri gheon , sheed and ward , 1936 . copyright \u00a9 elisabeth ivanovsky , with kind permission for use by st . nicholas center only .\nand french pressure , and even hostility from the pope . at last he yielded ,\nand assumed rule over the netherlands . his scope of activities soon widened . on january 23 , 1516 , ferdinand ii died . as a result , the problem of the succession in\nand castile together with his mother ( who , however , suffered from a nervous illness and never reigned ) . furthermore , the will provided that francisco , cardinal\nand one of ferdinand and isabella\u2019s most - influential advisers , should direct the administration in castile . the spanish opponents of ferdinand who had fled to\nin september 1517 he arrived in spain , a country with whose customs he was unfamiliar and whose language he was as yet barely able to speak . there he instituted , under burgundian influence , a government that was little better than foreign rule . when his election as king of\n) that broke out at that point . making the most of their candidate\u2019s german parentage and buying up german electoral votes ( mostly with money supplied by the powerful\n. his great - grandfather\u2019s quest was to become a fateful problem for charles as well .\ncharles v , detail of an oil painting by titian , 1548 ; in the bayerische staatsgem\u00e4ldesammlungen , munich , germany .\nand charles v , with whom he concluded a treaty in 1521 . despite the outbreak of war with\nin 1522 his teacher adrian of utrecht became pope , as adrian vi . his efforts to\n, taking prisoner the king himself . the victory ensured spanish supremacy in italy . held in the\nconcluding hostilities between the two countries was signed in january 1526 , but as soon as he had regained his freedom , francis rejected the treaty and refused to ratify it .\n, was concluded in august 1529 . the status quo was preserved : charles renounced his claim to burgundy ; francis , his claims to milan and naples . the pope , having made peace with charles , met him in\naccordingly confirmed , in somewhat expanded form , the resolutions embodied in the edict of worms of 1521 . that , in turn , caused the protestant princes to close ranks in the following year in the\nin return for armed support against the enemy . in 1532 a large army under charles\u2019s personal command faced s\u00fcleyman\u2019s forces before the city of"]}
{"id": 1034, "summary": [{"text": "the spot-winged glider ( pantala hymenaea ) is a dragonfly of the family libellulidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it looks very much like the wandering glider with the addition of a basal spot on the hindwing . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "pantala hymenaea", "paragraphs": ["predatory capacity and prey selectivity of nymphs of the dragonfly pantala hymenaea . - pubmed - ncbi\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nsimilar to rainpool glider , but abdomen mottled gray - brown , more tapered . round spot at base of hindwings is characteristic but may be difficult to see .\nflies almost continuously , but does perch sometimes , vertically on twigs of trees , bushes .\nmuch of north america , also antilles , central and south america , galapagos . ranges northward into canada earlier in year than wandering glider . ( a generational migrant - - spring generations fly north , late summer and fall generations fly south . )\nall year in southern united states , e . g . , texas , florida . late spring to fall in central areas . june - august in canada .\ndragonflies through binoculars : a field guide to dragonflies of north america sidney w . dunkle . 2000 . oxford press .\ndragonflies of the florida peninsula , bermuda , and the bahamas sidney w . dunkle . 1989 . scientific publishers .\nstokes beginner ' s guide to dragonflies donald and lillian stokes . 2002 . little , brown and company .\ndragonflies and damselflies of texas and the south - central united states john c . abbott . 2005 . princeton university press .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nthis species is similar to wandering glider ( p . flavescens ) and equally cosmopolitan in the south - central united states . the face and thorax are essentially as in that species . each hindwing , however , has a distinct round dark spot basally . the abdomen is darker and mottled .\ntotal length : 43 - 51 mm ; abdomen : 29 - 35 mm ; hindwing : 39 - 45 mm .\nwandering glider lacks the brown spot basally in the hindwing . all saddlebag gliders ( tramea ) in the region have a basal band rather than spot in the hindwing . the hyacinth glider ( miathyria marcella ) has a narrow band in the hindwing rather than a spot . other similar skimmers lack the hindwing spot .\nthis species , although not found globally , is as widely distributed throughout north america as the wandering glider . the behavior of this species is much the same as that species . it is a strong flier , generally only taking a perch to roost at night . it is an early colonizer of temporary and artificial ponds where it breeds . males patrol larger more linear territories than do wandering glider . females lay eggs by tapping the abdomen to the water while flying quickly over the water or while hovering , and either accompanied by the male or alone . this species has been slow to colonize along the coast of the western united states , but there is an apparent increase over much of the region . one study showed larvae of this species in oklahoma cou ld complete development in less than five weeks during the summer months .\nthroughout southern canada and u . s . ; also west indies , central america south to argentina and chile .\npermissions to use , copy and distribute documents delivered from this server , with the exception of photographs and content related to the dragonfly society of the americas , is hereby granted with restrictions . odonatacentral should be cited in all cases where the content is used . click here for restrictions of use and the correct citation . questions and comments about this site can be sent to jabbott1 @ urltoken .\nthe spot - winged glider resembles the wandering glider , with its tapered yellow abdomen , gray thorax and long broad wings . it has a dark spot at the base of the hindwing , which makes it possible to tell the two species apart in the field . it migrates along the atlantic coast but is not as widely ranging as the wandering glider . uncommon . this is another summer invader , but there are definite irruptionyears and years with almost none . it is a transcontinental speciesand nebraska is at the northern and western edge of the range . its habitsare essentially identical to wandering glider .\ngreen indicates accepted county record ( specimen or photograph ) . yellow indicates sight record only .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nthis brownish dragonfly is best known for its gliding flying style , much like the wandering glider . the hindwings form an elongated triangle , longer than abdomen , broad at base and reaching halfway down the abdomen . the abdomen is tapered and mottled gray - brown . the face is yellow to orange . mature males have red faces .\nthis species is common in united states and southern canada . it is common in southwest , while it is mostly migratory elsewhere . primarily , the spot - winged glider prefers temporary ponds and pools in the open , including brackish waters . but it also can be seen over fields , clearings , etc , well away from water . it is infrequently seen at scattered locations throughout wisconsin .\nshading illustrates monthly percentages of the total flight season records for the species . each flight season record is a unique date / location / observer combination where one or more adult or an exuvia was recorded ( excludes nymphs ) . the actual number of flight season records for each month is shown in parentheses . flight seasons begin earlier in the southern part of the state , often by a week or more . also , flight charts may not be accurate for rare species because of few data available .\nthis site is produced in conjunction with the wisconsin aquatic and terrestrial resources inventory and sponsored by the wisconsin department of natural resources . the information presented on this site is subject to the wisconsin department of natural resources ' legal notices , disclaimers , and terms of use .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nj am mosq control assoc . 2005 sep ; 21 ( 3 ) : 328 - 30 .\nquiroz - mart\u00ednez h 1 , rodr\u00edguez - castro va , sol\u00eds - rojas c , maldonado - blanco mg .\nlaboratorio de entomolog\u00eda facultad de ciencias biol\u00f3gicas , universidad aut\u00f3noma de nuevo le\u00f3n , san nicol\u00e1s de los garza , nuevo le\u00f3n , m\u00e9xico .\ndragonfly fall migration is underway ! i netted this spot - winged glider flying around rtpi this week . keep an eye out for them , wandering gliders , common green darners , black saddlebags and more on the move in large numbers soon .\nas the steward of roger tory peterson ' s legacy , rtpi connects people with nature through art , education and conservation . your gifts support our mission to educate and keep roger\u2019s legacy alive . will you help ? please click button above to do so ! optional thank you gifts available ."]}
{"id": 1036, "summary": [{"text": "diastictis fracturalis , the fractured western snout moth , is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by zeller in 1872 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from california to south dakota , colorado and louisiana .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is also found in mexico ( sonora , guerrero , jalisco ) .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 9.5-14.5 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the wings are pale tan to dark brown with highly variable silvery markings , ranging from small , isolated spots to elongated , connected spots .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from february to october . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "diastictis fracturalis", "paragraphs": ["species diastictis fracturalis - fractured western snout moth - hodges # 5256 - bugguide . net\ncrambid snout mouth diastictis fracturalis beautiful moth found in taylorsville , utah . \u00a9 carol davis , 9 - 1 - 07 home - utah moths\nrestriction and revision of the genus diastictis h\u00fcbner ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) . eugene munroe . 1956 . the canadian entomologist 88 : 208 - 228 .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\npowell , j . a . & p . a . opler , moths of western north america , pl . 23 . 44f , 23 . 45f ; p . 180 . book review and ordering\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\npowell & opler ( 2009 ) described as pale tan to dark brown with highly variable silvery markings , from small , isolated spots to elongated , connected ones .\nmoth photographers group and bug guide shows california to south dakota , colorado and louisiana .\nalso found in mexico , northern sonora ( morrison ) , amula in guerrero 6000 feet { h . h . smith ) , jalisco ( schumann ) .\npowell & opler ( 2009 ) reported adults fly february through november in coastal california .\nthis is the most variable species of the genus , and , although there seem to be geographical differences in norms , the whole gamut of variation is represented in most parts of the range . there is a high proportion of specimens with small spots in texas , and of pale specimens in arizona , but there is nothing approaching a degree of differentiation that would justify the separation of subspecies . i can see no clear seasonal separation between pale and dark individuals\n( munroe , 1956 )\ncheck list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . hodges , et al . ( editors ) . 1983 . e . w . classey , london . 284 pp .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on images to enlarge .\na variety of organizations and individuals have contributed photographs to calphotos . please follow the usage guidelines provided with each image . use and copyright information , as well as other details about the photo such as the date and the location , are available by clicking on the\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\n= bocchoris ; hampson , 1898 , proc . zool . soc . lond . 1898 : 649\nthis information is not automatically synchronized with globiz and can sometimes be lagging behind .\na revision of the moths of the subfamily pyraustinae and family pyralidae . part 1\nwarren , 1892 descriptions of new genera and species of pyralidae contained in the british - museum collection ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 6 ) 9 ( 50 ) : 172 - 179 , ( 52 ) : 294 - 302 , ( 53 ) : 389 - 397 , ( 54 ) : 429 - 442\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome ."]}
{"id": 1037, "summary": [{"text": "the long-toed skink , oligosoma longipes , is a species of skink of the family scincidae , endemic to new zealand .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it was first described by geoff patterson in 1997 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is only known from a few sites in the south island of new zealand and little is known of its habits .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it seems to prefer dry , rocky habitats , usually eroding stream terraces or scree slopes .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is diurnal and heliothermic .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "maximum snout-vent length is about 70 mm . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "long - toed skink", "paragraphs": ["rangitata skink : discovered in canterbury early this year during a doc survey . much larger relative of the long - toed skink . chestnut brown with very prominent pale stripes . indications are it is a distinct species that does not interbreed with the long - toed skink despite occupying same habitat .\nfrom latin \u201clongus\u201d ( = long ) and latin \u201cpes\u201d ( = foot ) , referring to the long toes .\nlong - toed skink . it is only been found in a few sites in the south island of new zealand and little is known of its habits . it seems to prefer dry , \u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nthe long - toed skink ( oligosoma longipes ) is a small to medium endemic skink that grows up to 67mm long its dorsal ( back ) is grey - brown , with distinctive paler and dark spots and flecks and rudimentary darker strip down the middle of its back . the sides have a broad dark - coloured stripe edged with pale , notched stripes . the belly is grey with dark speckles . its most distinctive feature is exceptionally long toes and tail .\nwhile five species had improved their threat status in the past five years , the mackenzie basin and long - toed skink ' s status increased due to potential threats from rabbit - driven predator irruptions as well as the new threat of dairy conversion destroying habitat .\nlong - toed skink , oligosoma longipes patterson , 1997 , collected 08 feb 1972 , alma river , 3 miles e of tarndale , new zealand . gift of landcare research \u2013 manaaki whenua , 2012 . cc by - nc - nd licence . te papa ( re . 004973 )\n. . . several smaller skink species ( southern grass skink o . aff . polychroma clade 5 ( formerly called common skink ) , mccann ' s skink o . maccanni and cryptic skink o . inconspicuum ; nomenclature based on hitchmough et al . ( 2013 ) and bell ( 2014 ) ) are common in this region . in 2006 , we used artificial retreats ( also known as cover boards or artificial cover objects ) to sample these small skinks in three different predator management treatments at macraes flat ( wilson et al . 2007 ) . . . .\nwhirinaki skink : discovered last year in a forest clearing in whirinaki and still known only from video footage . appears to be different from all known species . it has a distinct colour pattern ( brown with indistinct long stripes ) , head shape and scale count .\nsinbad valley skink : discovered in march in the mountains of fiordland during a survey for geckos . large , spectacularly coloured and unlike any other known species \u2013 black with green spots on the back and salmon - pink spots on the sides . unusually long toes and tail .\nnew zealand has a diverse , endemic skink fauna , which is recognised as the most species rich skink assemblage of any cool temperate region on earth . all native new zealand skink species are assigned to a single genus , oligosoma girard . a new species of oligosoma is described from screes in montane tussock grassland in the mid - canterbury high country , new zealand , where it is currently known . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthey were hopeful they would be able to fulfil their long - term goal of re - establishing populations in the wild but in the meantime they need protection from predators , prof burns said .\nsince the recovery programme had been in place , skink numbers had improved in managed situations such as within enclosures and areas were predators numbers were controlled .\namong those were skink populations in the west of the south island which while the same species were genetically different , but not much was known about their status or range .\nthe purpose of this application , under article 75 . 6 of the code , is to conserve the specific name of the name oligosoma aeneum ( girard , 1857 ) , widely used for a species of new zealand skink , commonly known as the copper skink . we have found tiliqua ornata gray , 1843 ( currently oligosoma ornatum ) to be a senior subjective synonym and the oldest available name for this species . the name . . . [ show full abstract ]\nte kakahu skink : discovered in 2002 on an island in fiordland . so far has only be found in one small area of low , open vegetation at the top of a cliff . has distinct colour pattern differences to other species , and different scale counts .\ngrand and otago skink recovery programme chairwoman prof carolyn burns , of the university of otago , said she thoroughly agreed with the classification which considered the population had not yet progressed far enough to off - set the declines in other parts of the species ' ranges .\nwe have at least 80 species and subspecies of lizard that we know of and we are still finding more . in the past two and a half years , we believe four new species of skink and three new species of gecko have been discovered . two of these species were spotted for the first time this year .\n. . . gemmeus ; mccann 1955 ) is a moderate - sized ( total length up to 160 mm ) , diurnal , cryptic , arboreal lizard , only found in the southeast of the south island , new zealand ( jewell & mcqueen , 2007 ) . it is one of nine species of the endemic genus naultinus and is ranked ' at risk , declining ' according to the threat classification system of the new zealand department of conservation ( doc ; hitchmough et al . , 2013 ) . jewelled geckos are long - lived , viviparous geckos and produce a maximum of two offspring per year ( cree , 1994 ) . . . .\nbeing cold - blooded , it needs warmth to digest food and is commonly seen basking in the sun on warm rocks . as it was only discovered in 1997 , little is known about it .\ncommonly found in the stomach contents predators . any conservation work to reduce the number of pest mammals is likely to benefit them\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nseven entirely new species of lizard have been discovered in new zealand in the past two and a half years .\nthe discoveries made in both the north and south islands were announced today by conservation minister chris carter to kick off this year ' s conservation week ( august 2 - 7 ) .\nfew people realise that in addition to our unique native bird life , weta and giant snails , new zealand is home to a wider variety of lizards than almost any other temperate country in the world . this is a consequence of our environment being isolated from other land masses for 85 million years ,\nmr carter said .\nthe fact we continue to discover so many new species demonstrates how much we still have to learn about what lives around us , and our impact upon them ,\nmr carter said .\nmount benson gecko / split rostral gecko : these probable new species were found in the kahurangi national park , the first in 2002 , and the other in 2003 . they appear to be quite different from other species , and each other . the split rostral species differs from all other geckos in the world , not just new zealand , because the scale at the tip of its nose is divided in two . genetic studies are now being made of these species .\nmoke valley gecko : discovered in the south island high country during tenure review in 2002 . a large robust gecko , which genetic tests have established is different from a similar gecko species discovered near wanaka in 1997 .\ntype locality : alma river , 5 km east of tarndale , marlborough , 173\u00b0 05\u2019 e , 42\u00b0 10\u2019 s .\nhitchmough , rodney a . ; geoffrey b . patterson , and david g . chapple 2016 . putting a name to diversity : taxonomy of the new zealand lizard fauna in : chapple , d . g . ( ed ) . new zealand lizards . springer , pp . 87 - 108 - get paper here\npatterson , g . b . 1997 . south island skinks of the genus oligosoma : description of o . longipes n . sp . with redescription of o . otagense ( mccann ) and o . waimatense ( mccann ) . journal of the royal society of new zealand 27 ( 4 ) : 439 - 450 .\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nyou are not permitted to download , save or email this image . visit image gallery to purchase the image .\na revision of the threat status of new zealand ' s reptiles has shown otago and grand skinks have recovered dramatically in managed areas at macraes flat , while other populations continue to decline .\nhowever , the recovery did not yet meet the threshold for their threat classification to change , a study in the new zealand journal of zoology says .\nthe two species were among the six assessed as being at greatest risk of extinction ( nationally critical ) and all were from the south island , in the study led by the department of conservation .\nwe ' re optimistic . it ' s good news they are showing a response .\nthe status of the population as a whole , particularly those which were not within those controlled areas remained in the high risk categories , she said .\nmanaging the populations was slow and expensive work due to the skinks slow reproductive rate .\nthe study said despite considering public submissions on otago peninsula ' s jewelled gecko suggesting it was taxonomically distinct , it listed as at risk - declining due to numerous records of the skinks in canterbury and western otago .\n( pdf ) conservation status of new zealand reptiles , 2012 . new zealand threat classification series 2\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nconservation status of new zealand reptiles , 2012 . new zealand threat classification series 2\nthe conservation status of all known new zealand reptile taxa was reassessed using the new zealand threat classification system ( nztcs ) . a full list is presented , along with a statistical summary and brief notes on the most important changes . this list replaces all previous nztcs lists for reptiles .\nassessed in 2009 ( hitchmough et al . 2010 ) and 2012 ( this document ) .\nable 3 . statistical summary of status changes of reptiles between 2009 ( hitchmough et al . 2010 ) and 2012\n. . . not dependent on alpine habitat ( facultative user ) . only three species are obligate users of the alpine zone ( i . e . restricted to it for at least part of their life history ) : hutton ' s shearwaters ( puffinus huttoni ) , takah\u0113 ( porphyrio hochstetteri ) and rock wrens ( xenicus gilviventris ) . hutton ' s shearwaters goodman et al . 2013 ; robertson et al . 2013 ; hitchmough et al . 2016 . 2 . dependence on alpine zone : obligate = restricted to the alpine zone for at least part of its life history ; primary = lives in a range of lowland , montane and alpine habitats but the alpine zone is an important habitat ; facultative = can occur incidentally or locally in the alpine zone but is not dependent on it . 3 . use code : f = feed , . . .\n. . . about 75 % of alpine lizards are threatened or at risk ( table 1 ; hitchmough et al . 2016 ) but as with other alpine species groups , there are few data on impacts of predators on alpine lizards . there is a perception that high altitude lizard sites are rarely visited by mammalian predators ( patterson & bell 2009 ) . . . .\n. . . recaptured animals were released quickly after recording their toe - code . otago skinks , which are nationally endangered ( hitchmough et al . 2013 ) , were released promptly with no marking or measuring . . . .\n. . . furthermore , some species statuses have improved over time with conservation management that has included , but has not been restricted to , fenced subpopulations ( gummer et al . , 2015 ) . for example , the conservation status of otago oligisoma otagense and grand skinks o . grande improved from nationally critical to nationally endangered between 2009 and 2012 as a result of successful conservation management that included protecting some populations within pest - proof fenced areas and others in areas subject to landscape - scale predator control networks ( reardon et al . , 2012 ; hitchmough et al . , 2013 ) , although the former remains endangered on the iucn red list ( chapple , 2010 ) and the latter ' s assessment is out of date . hitchmough ( 2013 ) solid lines indicate causal relationships and / or feedbacks while dotted lines indicate actions . . . .\n. . . data ) implying that no males remained in the release area or were available for mating , we suspect that the likelihood and / or speed of population growth and establishment may be hampered when a pen is not used for naultinus gecko translocations . a secondary advantage of penning is that it assists monitoring of the translocated population during the initial stages of population establishment and can provide invaluable information on poorly known taxa ( which is the case for many new zealand lizards ; hare et al . , 2007 ; hitchmough et al . , 2013 ) . little is published on the movement patterns of either natural or translocated populations of naultinus geckos , but available information suggests substantial variability among species and populations . . . .\n. . . they are therefore a difficult taxonomic group for which to obtain data on distribution and population size . as such , 41 % of new zealand ' s lizards are considered ' data poor ' and 4 % are so rarely encountered that their conservation status cannot be determined and they are considered ' data deficient ' ( townsend et al . 2008 ; hitchmough et al . 2013 ) . lizards have traditionally been surveyed and / or monitored by active searches ( whitaker 1967 ; todd 2005 ) , pitfall trapping ( whitaker 1982 ) and , more recently , the use of artificial retreats ( lettink & cree 2007 ; wilson et al . 2007 ) and funnel traps ( barr 2009 ; gebauer 2009 ) . . . .\n. . . once widespread in central otago ( south island , new zealand ) , these skinks have declined dramatically over the past century and now occupy only 8\u201310 % of their former range ( whitaker & loh 1995 ) . the species is now classified as ' nationally endangered ' ( hitchmough et al . 2013 ) . the only extant populations are present near the boundaries of their former range in the macraes flat and lindis / hawea districts ( whitaker & loh 1995 ) . . . .\n. . . granulatus ' southern forest ' , and toropuku aff . stephensi ' coromandel ' ) ( hitchmough et al . 2013 ) . . . .\na new species of scincid lizard in the genus oligosoma ( reptilia : scincidae ) from the mid - canterbury . . .\ncase 3510 cyclodina aenea girard , 1857 ( currently oligosoma aeneum ; reptilia , squamata , scincidae ) : . . .\nnew zealand ' s diverse lizard fauna is under threat , particularly from predation by invasive mammals and ongoing habitat destruction . advances in genetic techniques have greatly enhanced our understanding of the lizard fauna . previously sparse island populations of species have recovered strongly following eradication of pest mammals and translocations of lizards to newly mammal - free islands . . . [ show full abstract ]"]}
{"id": 1038, "summary": [{"text": "the black slug ( also known as black arion , european black slug , or large black slug ) arion ater l. is a large terrestrial gastropod mollusk in the family arionidae \u2014 the round back slugs .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "land slugs lack shells like other terrestrial mollusks ( such as snails ) .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "without such shells , slugs produce unappetizing mucus \u2014 that may also contain toxins \u2014 to deter predators .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "additionally , terrestrial slugs produce two other forms of mucus that facilitate locomotion and prevent death from drying .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "such mollusks are hermaphroditic preferring to find mates .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "slugs most often function as decomposers but are also often omnivores .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "arion ater is one such slug , decomposing organic matter , preying on other organisms , and consuming vegetative matter \u2014 including agricultural crops .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "native to europe , the black slug is an invasive species in australia , canada ( british columbia , newfoundland , quebec ) , and the united states \u2014 pacific northwest . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "black slug", "paragraphs": ["the african black slug is a slimy , black mollusk about an inch long with a distinctive white mark on its back , unlike several harmless species of black slugs native to the lower rio grande valley that are solid black .\nthe black velvet leatherleaf slug doesn ' t closely resemble any native terrestrial slugs .\nthe large black slug archived march 3 , 2016 , at the wayback machine .\none tweeted : \u201cwatching jeremy kyle - what the hell is a black slug . \u201d\ndescription : true to its name , the giant black slug usually is jet black . other than in the red slug , the foot seam is also black . especially conspicuous are the juveniles - those are ivory coloured with a black head ( see also : black arion juvenile on urltoken ) . but they become grey quite fast with advancing age , adolescent slugs quite often are already black . in contrary , the young of lusitanian slugs are quite characteristically banded .\nthree types of banana slugs include the california banana slug , the pacific banana slug and the slender banana slug .\nthere is much debate concerning black slug effect upon plant species diversity . slug impacts change over successional stages , and alaska conservationists observed the black slug\u2019s impact on species diversity depends upon community composition . [ 16 ] if a system is composed of sensitive species , the black slug will likely have a negative impact by pressuring said species . if a system presents more evenness with less sensitive species , the black slug may promote species diversity and encourage healthy succession rates . [ 16 ]\nvinegar is a good ingredient for slug sprays , and for removing slug slime .\nwalls jg . 2009 . just a plain black slug : belocaulus angustipes . american conchologist 37 : 28 - 29 .\ngarry oak ecosystem recovery team . \u201cblack slug . \u201d urltoken archived march 21 , 2014 , at the wayback machine . .\nworld\u2019s longest list of slug remedies loads of helpful tips for dealing with the slug menace .\nused black slugs to smear on the frying pan when they made pancakes . butter\ngiant red slug or chocolate slug ( arion rufus ) from belgium . picture : hans hillewaert .\nbut lucy didn ' t believe her and called serena a \u201cblack slug\u201d twice on monday\u2019s episode , much to the amusement of viewers .\nonly seen from the outside , the giant red slug , the giant black slug and the lusitanian slug are only very hard to tell apart . all three species have red , black ( with the exception of the lusitanian slug ) and brown specimens . the red slug and the black slugs can even be white . without an anatomical examination at the cost of the slug ' s life , the species cannot usually be determined with certainty . the best way usually is to have a look at the juveniles , which are quite conspicuous in all three species .\nblack slug latin name : arion rufus native region : europe introduced region : southern bc reason for introduction : unknown threats : destruction of plant - life , displacement of native slug species many cachers have probably stepped on a black slug at some point on the local trails . they ' re also the bane of gardeners . is\na third joked : \u201cblack slug ? are they worse than the orange ones ? all slugs are equal . # endmolluscracism # jeremykyle . \u201d\neruopean black slug , photo by hugh griffith [ editor ' s note : a . k . a . chocolate arion , arion rufus ]\na large roundback slug varying in colour through browns to black , with a similarly coloured , dull foot fringe and exhibiting a strong rocking response when stimulated . ubiquitous up to moderate altitudes . a jet black form occurs on peatlands .\nlucy has been with kyle for six months but thinks serena is after him , prompting her to tell jeremy : \u201cshe\u2019s a black slug . \u201d\nthe unusual insult returned later on when serena joined lucy on stage - and lucy even treated the audience to an impression of a black slug .\n\u201ci walk all pretty , you walk like a black slug ! \u201d said lucy , shimmying across the stage as jezza looked on utterly baffled .\nincredibly , the slimy black slug peterson pulled from the water was on the small side for its species , weighing a comparatively paltry 10 pounds .\na black specimen of the giant red slug from hesse in germany . well visible : the red foot seam in both specimens . [ rn ]\ngiant black slug ( arion ater ) from the island of bornholm ( denmark ) . picture : francisco welter - schultes ( animal base ) .\nmost conspicuous on wet days , the black slug is an important , but often overlooked , part of the woodland floor fauna in the caledonian forest .\ndue to its huge size the black slug often accepts the blame for most garden carnage , but actually its three smaller cousins wreak the most havoc .\noutrageous sights are normal on itv\u2019s the jeremy kyle show , but one guest\u2019s impression of a \u2018black slug\u2019 may have emerged victorious in the hilarious stakes .\nwhen picked up or touched , the black slug will contract into a hemispherical shape and begin to rock from side to side . this behaviour confuses predators .\nresearching the black slug has provided human and ecological value . for example , a 1996 study investigated the bioaccumulation of mercury in black slugs and determined these slugs could be used to monitor levels of heavy metals in terrestrial systems\u2014similar to how ecologists use aquatic mollusks . [ 25 ] and a 2014 study researched the black slug gut\u2019s microbiology in hopes of catalyzing other studies of cellulolytic activity that could improve biofuel technology . [ 17 ]\nthe slimy insult wasn\u2019t a one - time slip however , later in the show lucy proceeded to demonstrate how a \u2018black slug\u2019 would walk in its natural surroundings .\nto us , slug mucous is horrible , but to the slug , this valuable substance is their arms and legs .\nlike other members of the family arionidae , the black slug has a pneumostome ( breathing hole ) on the right side of its mantle through which it breathes . this mantle is the part in snails that secretes a shell , but in the black slug , the mantle contains a resilient protective structure of calcareous granules . [ 1 ]\nanother said : \u201c ' i walk all pretty , you walk like a black slug ' couldn ' t make this s * * t up ! # jeremykyle . \u201d\nthe black slug is generally deep black , with some adults being brown or even white . generally , pigmentation darkens directly with increasing latitude . young specimens tend to be brown or ivory whitish , turning to grey before becoming characteristically black at maturity . [ 1 ] rust - brown individuals are arguably classified as a separate species arion rufus ( red slug ) . [ 5 ] the two can only be distinguished by dissecting the reproductive anatomy . [ 6 ]\nlarge red slug and black slug ( arion ater ) this is widespread and common throughout the uk in most terrestrial habitats . it can reach up to 12cm in length . body is uniform in colour but can be either orange - red or black . when alarmed it contracts into a spherical shape and may rock from side to side . mucus is colourless . this slug is rarely a problem in arable crops .\nin contrary to the giant red slug , the black slug is distributed more to the north of europe : its distribution area covers north and northwest europe , in scandinavia beyond the 61st degree of latitude , it remain confined to the coast .\nthe canola variety , thunder , was sown on the 14 th may into burnt wheat stubble . sowing rate of 3 . 5 / ha broadcast and prickle chained . the slug species identified in this trial were the grey field slug ( deroceras reticulatum ) and the black keeled slug ( milax gagates ) .\nslug bait should be applied at a rate to provide sufficient bait points per m 2 relative to slug populations in the paddock .\ninternal : gray - black with two darker stripes on each side , and black mantle ( kerney & cameron 1979 ) ; orange - red forms sometimes occur ( wiktor 1996 ) ; no spots on mantle ( wiktor 1983 ) ; keel pale , reaches 2 / 3 length between tail tip and mantle ; coarse tubercles ; black spots on tentacles ; white sole with longitudinal side sections of gray to black ; clear mucus ( kerney & cameron 1979 ) .\nthe uk\u2019s largest slug , ash - black slugs can grow to 25cm long ! they have a keel down their back , and a white stripe down the middle of their foot .\ncaught in a fiery rant with serena , she said : \u2018how do you walk ? i walk all pretty , you walk like a black slug , \u2019 with accompanying hilarious impression .\ncoyote peterson , who hosts the discovery network ' s youtube series brave wilderness , had a camera rolling when he encountered the world ' s largest slug - the black sea hare .\nthe african black slug is endemic to asia and the caribbean . it was recently found in harligen and is considered an invasive species . credit : agrilife extension photo by rod santa ana\nhabitat and distribution : the black slug prefers humid habitats , mostly closer in more rugged landscapes than arion rufus , and it mainly occurs in forests . in spain the black slug also lives as a commensal species and may become a garden pest in some places . black slugs live on green and decaying plant matter , so their diet is similar to that of the red slug . black slugs lay about 150 eggs per batch , which they place under moss , only rarely also in the earth . later in the year , the egg count may decline to about 20 eggs per batch . after almost a month , the juveniles hatch , and like in the red slug , it is them who hibernate , while the adults die .\nso remember the old saying : if it\u2019s black , put it back . if it\u2019s grey , keep it at bay .\nelsewhere in its range in britain , the black slug is considered to be a pest , especially by gardeners , but in the caledonian forest it is a vital but often overlooked part of the ecosystem .\neuropean great grey slug , photo by hugh griffith [ editor ' s note : a . k . a . giant garden slug , limax maximus ]\ni analyze slugs collected from several regions in sweden to investigate genetic diversity and activity of different genes . i would also like to know if there is hybridization with our native black slug ( arion ater ) .\narita , l . h . 1990 . control of the black slug , veronicella leydigi ( simroth ) and the veronicellid slug , veronicella cubensis ( pfeiffer ) on chrysanthemums . horticulture digest , no 92 . university of hawaii college of tropical agriculture and human resources , department of horticulture : honolulu .\nafrican black slugs feed on plants at night to avoid the heat of the sun , which can quickly dry them out , villanueva said .\nveronicellid slugs are tropical ( deisler & stange , 1984 ) . the black slug was described from queensland , australia , and was introduced into honolulu in the early 1900\u0151s ( hawaii dept . of agriculture , unpublished ) .\nin the past , slugs were sometimes used as a cure for warts . an artifact in the pitt rivers museum in oxford consists of a glass jar containing a slug impaled on a thorn , the label on the jar gives the following instructions : charm for warts , oxfordshire . go out alone & find a large black slug . secretly rub the underside on the warts and impale the slug on the thorn . as the slug dies the warts will go .\nof all the common garden slugs , the field slug probably causes most damage .\none individual field slug has the potential to produce about 90 , 000 grandchildren .\nslug was found in henry cowell redwood state park after a day of rain .\nif you go down to the woods tonight you might come face to face with one of the world\u2019s largest land slugs ! most ash - black slugs ( limax cinereoniger ) are between 10 and 20cm long , but larger ones have been recorded . this nocturnal slug is only found in ancient woodlands . on damp nights the slugs emerge to feed on fungi , lichens and algae and can be found on the woodland floor , on stumps or up trees . during the day they hide under large pieces of dead wood . adult ash - black slugs can be found all year round . ash - black slugs are one of the keeled slugs \u2013 they have a ridge or keel running along their back . the keel is pale in comparison to the dark grey body colour . some ash - black slugs have thick black and grey stripes along their bodies . if you turn an adult ash - black slug over you will see that the underside of the foot is dark grey with a white stripe down the middle .\nslug slime comes in two varieties : a thin slippery mucous used to lubricate the slug as it moves , and a thicker type used for a variety of purposes .\nthe black slug is omnivorous , and its diet includes fungi , carrion , earthworms , leaves , stems , dead plant material and dung . the food is shredded into tiny pieces by the radula and is then digested by enzymes .\nthese slugs might endanger sensitive ecosystems , especially as an invasive species , and it is yet unclear how drastically these slugs might alter plant community compositions . the black slug is a voracious seedling predator . terrestrial slugs are considered to be especially dangerous because they alter plant species abundance , adult plant fecundity , and the production of plant defensive compounds . black slugs are of special concern in fragmented ecosystems and areas with high shrub and tree cover . in alaska , the black slug threatens seedling populations of lilies and orchids after already having diminished sensitive populations of deltoid balsamroot and yellow montane violet in bc canada . [ 6 ]\nthe black slug has a soft , unsegmented body . the back is covered by a tough , leathery mantle skin with a yellow line down the middle . the head has 2 pair of tentacles . the upper pair have eyes and can be pulled back toward the head , while the shorter pair below have organs of smell ( williams , 1931 ) . like all of its slug relatives , the black slug is a hermaphrodite , having both male and female reproductive parts in the same animal ( crowell et al . , 1986 ; yates , 1988 ) . fertilization , however , is always by another slug ( yates , 1988 ) .\nwhen disturbed , the black slug contracts itself into a slimy hemispherical hump , making itself difficult to be pecked up by a hungry bird . it sometimes rocks from side to side ; thought to be an attempt to confuse its predator .\n, the keelback slugs . this is the largest land slug species in the world .\nthis slug is native to europe . it is recorded in most of europe , including\nwith a maximum length exceeding 20 centimeters , this species is the largest land slug .\na slug has approximately 27 , 000 teeth \u2013 that\u2019s more teeth than a shark .\nlike other terrestrial slugs , the black slug is a hermaphrodite , preferring to find a mate\u2014often several\u2014but can self - fertilize . after mating , the black slug seeks a dark , moist environment such as beneath mosses\u2014occasionally within topsoil\u2014to lay its eggs about 5mm ( 0 . 2 in ) in diameter . between august and october , an individual slug lays up to 150 eggs every one to three weeks\u2014clutches diminishing to 20 eggs late in the season . juveniles hatch after at least twenty - seven days , hatching later under cold temperatures . [ 7 ] maturation takes up to nine months , enabling mating in early summer . black slugs die shortly after laying its last clutch , rarely surviving into a second year . [ 7 ]\nthe black slug is native to western and central europe , from scandinavia to spain and from ireland to austria and the czech republic . it has been introduced to southeastern australia and to some part of north america ( newfoundland , alaska ) .\nmay into burnt barley stubble . sowing rate of 4 . 2kg / ha on a 300mm row spacing . the slug species identified in this trial were the grey field slug (\nthe black slug prefers a diet of rotting vegetation , fungi , manure , and even the odd decomposing dead animal . only during springtime when these aren\u2019t so abundant , and tender young seedlings are , does it cause most damage in the garden .\nthe black slug is omnivorous , and its diet includes fungi , carrion , earthworms , leaves , stems , dead plant material and dung . the food is shredded into tiny pieces by the radula and is then digested by enzymes . reference : urltoken\nprotective position of the giant red slug ( arion rufus ) . picture : martina eleveld .\na slug is basically a muscular foot , and the name \u2018gastropod\u2019 literally means stomach foot .\nlore , they were used in certain plays accompanied with a rhyme to the slug . this\ninvasive species , which in many cases have been introduced by man , are an increasing threat to today\u2019s ecosystems . the iberian slug arion vulgaris ( previously regarded as a . lusitanics ) is an invasive species dispersing through large parts of europe and causing considerable damage to gardens , horticulture and agriculture . it is possible that this slug displaces or hybridizes with native species such as the black slug , arion ater . the invasive nature of this slug species calls for research into its taxonomy and biology as well as its natural enemies .\nthis terrestrial slug is from the family veronicellidae ( leatherleaf slugs ) andcan grow up to 3 . 5 inches in length . as the common name suggest , this slug is typically jet black with an inconspicuous tan stripe down the underside . they have two ocular tentacles that are also black . the velvety / wrinkled mantle covers the entire length of the body . both the breathing pore ( pneumostome ) and anus are located posteriorly . young slugs are not as dark , and their underside is much lighter .\nthe black slug is the \u2018grand - daddy\u2019 of garden slugs , reaching lengths of 20cm ( 8\u201d ) , although up to 13cm ( 5\u201d ) is more typical . the skin is coarse and granular and the sole is pale , often fringed with orange .\nthis is only the second find ever of the african black slug in the u . s . , villanueva said . the first find , also in the lower rio grande valley , occurred in the 1980s , but was eradicated with chemical pesticide baits called molluscicides .\nis a terrestrial slug , common in england and the pacific northwest . ( bbc 2000 ) .\nslug eggs can lay dormant in the soil for years and then hatch when conditions are right .\nmanaging slug populations is unlikely to be successful unless both cultural and chemical control strategies are used .\nmay into burnt wheat stubble which was grazed . sowing rate of 4 . 0kg / ha on a 220mm row spacing . the slug species identified in this trial was the grey field slug (\nthe field slug is another small slug , growing up to 4cm ( 1\u00bd\u201d ) in length . it\u2019s lighter coloured than the garden slug , usually grey or fawn with dark speckles . it has a whitish sole and a short \u2018keel\u2019 , or ridge , on the back of the tail end .\nbefore heading out to the field i had to find the best sampling technique to study european black slugs in eshamy bay . i reviewed a vast amount of literature on various study methods and invasive slug removal . i learned that there are several ways invasive species are managed :\nleopard slug ( limax maximus ) this is a large slug - up to 16cm in length - which has distinctive black leopard like marking on its upper body . its underside is white . it has a pronounced keel along the rear of its body . mucus is sticky and colourless . widespread and common in the uk favouring woodland and gardens . low risk to agricultural crops .\nthe role of parasites and predators in regulating iberian slug populations - the hypothesis that slug - parasitic nematodes reduce or regulate a . vulgaris populations in a chosen area will be tested . we will test the hypothesis that naturally occurring predatory beetles and snails are significant predators of the iberian slug . we will also test if measures to increase predator and parasite abundance leads to reduced populations of the iberian slug .\nespecially in the northern parts of europe , the black slug sometimes maintains its juvenile pale colour even in the adult stage . so adult specimens might be encountered with cream or ivory coloured bodies and foot seams . the appearance of such a slug with a pale body and a dark head allows the assumption ( ! ) that here the juvenile colour might have been kept in adulthood .\nthe keel slug , as its name suggests , has a keel , with a yellow or orange stripe along the ridge . this is a larger slug , up to 6cm ( 2\u00bd\u201d ) long and dark grey or olive in colour . when contracted , the keel slug often curls into a \u2018sickle\u2019 shape .\ntwo juveniles of the lusitanian slug ( arion vulgaris ) feeding on a smaller conspecific . [ rn ]\na slug\u2019s slime absorbs water , which is why it\u2019s nearly impossible to wash it off your hands .\nwhen a slug loses one of its sensory tentacles it grows another , usually within a few months .\nidentify slug species present in a paddock for the most effective control . different species demonstrate different behaviours .\nfigure 2 . effect of each treatment on the plants displaying any slug damage ( inverleigh trial ) .\nfigure 3 . effect of each treatment on the plants displaying any slug damage ( skipton trial ) .\nfigure 4 . effect of each treatment on the plants displaying any slug damage ( hamilton trial ) .\nslug and snail control . natural , organic ways to deter and kill snails and slugs in the garden\ndo whole seedlings disappear in a night ? read on for expert slug and snail control . . .\nslug sex , which can take several hours , is as fascinating and spectacular as it is repellent .\nthe only solution to the problem is a technique called apophallation - the chewing off of the other slug ' s penis using the same razor - sharp teeth with which the slug can decimate your cabbages .\nhaving lost its penis , the castrated slug is then only able to copulate using its female organs .\nnickel , june 1998 . the slimy , yet special slug . natural history , 107 : 18 .\nthe banana slug\u2019s mating behavior , and its slime , have evolved over millions of years . after all this time , the banana slug is very well adapted to the redwood forest environment , scientists say .\niron phosphate : also known as ferric phosphate , this popular and effective slug and snail bait is sold as organic under names such as garden safe slug & snail bait , and sluggo and other commercial names .\nslugs are easy to identify , but not always easy to find . they are basically snails without their protective shells . depending on the species , slugs range in size from less than an inch to 10 inches long , such as the banana slug , native to the west coast . one of the most common slug species found in iowa gardens is the gray garden slug . they are typically less than an inch long and their plump , slimy bodies range in color from light gray to brownish black .\nsimilar species the only large keeled slug with which it might be confused is the common tiger slug or great grey slug limax maximus . in limax maximus the keel is usually shorter and similar in shade to the ground colour of the slug rather than being conspicuously paler . tiger slugs often have a series of broad dark lateral bands along the back rather than being uniformly dark and juveniles are very similar , not undergoing the obvious colour change seen in limax cinereoniger as it matures . the tiger slug always has a uniformly pale sole .\nchris hemsworth kicks off filming for the star - studded men in black spin - off as he cuts a sharp figure in london . . . 21 years after the first film hit screens\nmost animals prefer not to prey upon the black slugs because of the taste of its mucus and because this mucus can make them slippery and consequently difficult to capture ; however , this slug does have some natural predators , including the hedgehog , badger , shrew , mole , mouse , frog , toad , snake , carnivorous beetle , and some birds . [ 19 ] when picked up or touched , the black slug will contract to a hemispherical shape and begin to rock from side to side . this defensive behavior confuses predators , and is unique in the family arionidae . [ 20 ]\nthe black slug plays an important role in a natural ecosystem such as the caledonian forest . by processing decaying plant and fecal material , it helps to recycle the organic matter and nutrients back into a form that can be used by other organisms . this also aids in the maintenance of soil fertility .\naustralia [ invasive ] : the museum victoria reports the black slug to have been first documented in australia in 2001 with multiple reports of these slugs in cultivated gardens and farms since , but as of 2009 , the species was still not considered to be an established species in australia . [ 14 ]\nthis slug is common and widespread throughout scotland and the rest of the uk . it occurs in most terrestrial habitats , including grasslands , hedgerows and woodlands . two closely - related species are arion rufus and arion lusitanicus , and they can only be told apart from the black slug by dissection . however those other species are restricted to the south of the uk , so arion ater is easy to identify in scotland .\nfacilitating a study on european black slugs\u2019 presence or absence in eshamy bay , in west prince william sound ( a newly reported area where slugs were observed in 2012 ) with alaska geographic\u2019s youth group .\nblack slug is often a host of small mites . mites eat mucus of slugs . there are predators which eat it . for example the urchin , the badger , the fox and various birds . seeds and spores are dispersed by slugs , as they get caught in the mucus or slime as a slug moves and are transported for varying distances before being deposited in new sites when the accumulated debris falls off the animal .\nthe moth genus monema is represented by medium - sized yellowish species . the genus belongs to the limacodidae family also known as the slug moths due to the distinct resemblance of their caterpillars to some slug species . . . .\nwinter mortality - we will investigate the hypothesis that the iberian slug experiences high mortality when overwintering in agricultural fields .\ngulp . just look at how ridiculous this thing looks . it\u2019s a giant black sea slug known as a sea hare and it\u2019s freaking monstrous . you don\u2019t really hold it in your hand as much as the sea hare , which can grow up to over 3 feet long and weigh over 30 pounds , just swallows your entire arm . brave wilderness found the black sea hare in the tide pools off the coast of the pacific ocean in san pedro , ca and described holding it as super slimy and unbelievably slippery .\nthe european black slug is native to western and central europe , from scandinavia to spain and from ireland to austria and the czech republic . it has been introduced to southeastern australia and to north america , where it occurs in newfoundland , southern british columbia , the pacific northwest of the usa and some parts of alaska .\nthe black slug is omnivorous , and its diet includes fungi , carrion , earthworms , leaves , stems , dead plant material and dung . recent research has also shown that it eats seedlings of scots pine ( pinus sylvestris ) . the food is shredded into tiny pieces by the radula and is then digested by enzymes .\nthe grey field slug or reticulated slug ( deroceras reticulatum ) is mainly surface active and can have up to three generations a year . it will generally breed in autumn and spring however , if conditions are favourable this species will breed any time , and therefore , a pair can produce up to 1000 eggs a year . the second species identified at these two sites was the black keeled slug ( milax gagates ) . this species can burrow up to 20 centimetres underground to escape the heat . a breeding pair can lay up to 200 eggs a year .\nthe orange and red forms have been considered a separate species \u2013 the red slug \u2013 but this classification is debatable .\na slug\u2019s slime enables it to glide without difficulty over glass shards , or even the edge of a razor blade .\na slug can stretch out to 20 times its normal length , enabling it to squeeze through the smallest of openings .\nuse of molluscicides \u2013 we will test the impact of iron phosphate baited molluscides on slug pest populations in agricultural fields .\nmost molluscs have shells , like snails . a slug ' s shell is hidden inside itself and is very small .\nthe african black slug originated in africa and is now endemic to asia and several islands in the caribbean ,\nvillanueva said .\nhow it got here is anybody ' s guess . it could have come in on imported plants , turf , produce\u2014 who knows ? it hides very well among all those products .\nthe rich chestnut coloured slugs ( see picture below ) one finds in the garden or on the verges differ only very slightly from the large black and the two are regarded as varieties of the same species .\nblack slugs get puberty at the age of 1 year . it\u2019s a hermaphrodite , produces sperm and ovum as well , but for reproduction breeding is needed . slugs lay their eggs in nodes below the soil .\nwhilst arion ater is a very common slug , it belongs to a species complex that can only be 100 % differentiated by dissecting the genitalia so it is usual to record them as part of this aggregate group . there are three species in this complex ( arion ater group ) : arion ater , a . rufus and a . vulgaris . these slug species range from 75 - 180 mm in length at maturity . they may be dark brown , black , grey , orange or reddish in color . they are large and bulky with long , coarse tubercles on the side and back . the juveniles of these species have an even wider range of colors and can be distinguished from mature adults by the presence of lateral stripes . juveniles of the arion ater - complex may be confused with adults of other arion species . the contracted body is bell - shaped . the sole of the foot may be black or tripartite ( pale with a black vertical line down the center ) . the foot fringe may possess any of the following colors with vertical black bands : red , orange , yellow or grey . the mucus of this slug group is colourless , though very sticky , and they lack a keel .\nbesides the usefulness of the trace of mucus , it jeopardizes the animal as some predators follow the trace and eat up the slug ; however , subsistence of the genus is not endangered . it\u2019s not protected , rather proliferated and gnaw the parts of plants . due to its harmful behavior , black slugs are often killed by gardeners .\nif you ever wondered what a slug the size of a household pet would look like , today is your lucky day .\npaddocks with a previous history of slug damage are always a good place to start monitoring in a susceptible crop like canola .\nbelow the majestic trees and prehistoric ferns that grace california\u2019s redwood forests lives a weird and slimy creature : the banana slug .\nare orange when hatched , have a\nstraw\ncoloration until aproximately one inch in length , and eventually take on a black coloration . typical slugs are about six inches long at maturity . ( branley 1996 ) .\nslug locomotion is one of the triumphs of evolution . to see how it works , place a slug ( or a snail , the two groups use an identical technique ) on a sheet of glass and observe its muscular ' foot ' from underneath .\na dark red specimen of the giant red slug ( arion rufus ) from washington state , usa . picture : walter siegmund .\nbeing boneless , the slug ' s body is highly flexible and when fully extended it can be up to 20 cm . in length , although 10 - 15 cm . is more normal . as its common name suggests , it is usually black in colour , although considerable variation does exist , ranging from chestnut brown and orange to pale grey or cream . in general , slugs in northern england and scotland are jet black , while in the south of england the orange forms appear to be more common - the colour variation is thought to be due to differences in ambient temperatures .\nslime serves several other functions , including keeping the slug ' s skin moist , which is important in enabling it to breathe properly . it provides some protection from predators , as more slime is produced when the slug is threatened , and it has an unpleasant taste and texture . slime plays a role in mating , as the slug secretes a chemical in it which attracts potential mates that can follow the slime trail to meet the chemical ' s producer . a slug will also follow an old slime trail to find food .\nseveral specimens found in march in a new residential area of harlingen have since been identified as african black slugs , said dr . raul villanueva , an entomologist at the texas a & m ; agrilife research and extension center at weslaco .\nfortunately , we have never found the nematode that can be carried by the african black slug ,\nhe said .\nthese nematodes , or tiny worms , pose serious health risks to humans , including meningitis . but the nematode has never been detected here . nevertheless , it ' s a good idea to thoroughly wash fruits and vegetables before consuming them .\nlike most organisms , the black slug has its own suite of predators and parasites , so that it too forms food for other species within the ecosystem . predators which will eat it in the caledonian forest include the badger ( meles meles ) , fox ( vulpes vulpes ) , hedgehog ( erinaceus europaeus ) , slow worm ( anguis fragilis ) and various birds . a parasitic nematode , french heartworm ( angiostrongylus vasorum ) , which affects dogs , has been reported as naturally occurring in the black slug in france , while a parasitic mite ( riccardoella oudemansi ) also affects arion ater . another nematode ( phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita ) is also a parasite of slugs , including arion ater . it causes a swelling of the mantle , leading to the death of the infected slug within 21 days , and it has recently been marketed commercially as a biological control for slugs in the uk .\nbanana slug , photo by hugh griffith [ eidtor ' s note : a . k . a . pacific bananslug , ariolimax columbianus ]\nuse of barriers - we will test the hypothesis that barriers can be effective in stopping the iberian slug gaining access into agricultural fields .\nnot only do slugs clear an area of dead and dying matter , they also help spread seeds that are present in vegetation and dung . ( see references 2 ) not all slugs are voracious garden pests . for example , the banana slug is thought to favor mushrooms . it also eats lichen , algae , fungi and dead animals . on the other hand , the garden slug , arion hortensis ; the field slug , derocereas reticulatum ; and the keel slug , tandonia budapestensis , can wreak havoc in gardens . ( see resources 1 )\npredation in the field by carabid beetles is most significant in spring and seems to be density dependent without any clear preferences between slug species .\nthe size of the slug is from 10 to 15 cm . the colour variation is due to the differences in temperatures . usually black coloured but sometimes happed to be red , dark - brown , light - orange and even white . young specimens of black slug do have a brown colour , which is later lost . it has two sets of tentacles : the larger , upper tentacles are sensitive to light , but they cannot differentiate colours ; the smaller , lower tentacles are used for smell . both tentecles can be retracted when the slug is danger . the mouth is on the underside of the head , and it contains a toothed tongue ( radula ) , that has up to 27000 teeth on it . the radula is used to rasp food into the slug ' s mouth . behind the head , the smooth area is called the mantle , and it contains a breathing hole on the right hand side ( pneumostone ) . it protects the rest of the organs . its leg is muscular and covered by mucus . slugs do wavy movements for getting forward .\nlemon slug ( limax tenellus ) this is a small ( max 4cm ) , bright yellow slug which has dark tentacles . it is scarce and almost always found in woodland . it is a good indicator of ancient sites . feeds on fungi . very low risk to agricultural crops .\nthe distribution of the iberian slug in hordaland - the current distribution will be explored , as an example of anthropological spreading of an invasive species .\none reason humans do not much care for slugs is undoubtedly their sliminess . a large tiger slug can produce several teaspoonfuls of slime a day .\nwhen it senses danger the black slug retracts its tentacles and pulls its body back into a compact half - round shape . it also often sways from side to side , although the reason for that behaviour is not entirely clear . slugs possess the ability to re - grow a tentacle which has been lost , and for arion ater this process of regeneration takes 1 - 2 months to be completed .\njuveniles : pale and translucent at hatching , then becoming opaque brown and black , with the sides of the foot becoming pigmented last ( quick 1960 ) . resemble adult lehmannia , and can be distinguished by the absence of a caecum ( wiktor 1996 ) .\nthe european black slug is an invertebrate ( i . e . an animal without a backbone ) and is classified as a mollusc , the group of mainly marine organisms that includes whelks , mussels and squid . it is a gastropod , the class of molluscs that includes snails and slugs , and is defined by the presence of an unsegmented soft body , a large foot and a well - developed head .\nthe slug pictured above is the largest member of the round - backed type of slug . the round backed slugs have no keel , although they often bear numerous rows of elongated tubercles . the breathing pore is near the front of the right hand edge of the mantle ( see picture below ) .\nwhile creating this website i discovered many fascinating \u2013 and some truly bizarre \u2013 facts about the humble slug . it really is a remarkable little creature .\nthe humble slug has few friends , but as she / he is munching through your prized vegetables , these little creatures will not care one jot .\nthe black sea hare gets its deep , dark color from its diet of algae and seaweed and gets it name from the two tentacles sticking out of its head that look like rabbit ears . where it gets it comical size is probably some prehistoric alien energy source .\nbecause of its dependence on staying moist , the black slug is most active at night and on wet days , when numbers in the forest can be prolific . by contrast , none will be visible on a dry sunny day , when they will rest out of sight , to conserve moisture . similarly , they will stay deep in the soil on cold days , only becoming active when the temperature exceeds 5 degrees celsius .\nfor the past two weeks my role in the wildlife devision of the u . s . forest service changed temporarily from studying dusky canada geese to european black slugs . i spent several weeks learning all about the slugs , and wishing that more was known about the species .\ncommon keeled slug ( tandonia budapestensis ) this is the most common of the keeled slugs . it is relatively small reaching around 6cm at maturity . it is typically black or grey in colour with a yellow - orange ridge along its length . it remains mostly underground and will feed on newly drilled seeds which will have a serious effect on emergence . if populations are large it can lead to the need to re - seed .\ni know i\u2019ve already mentioned many of them throughout the pages of \u2018slug off\u2019 , but i\u2019m sure you\u2019ll love reading them all here together in one place .\nthe great grey slug of europe is a voracious garden pest , and the fastest of our slugs . it is able to crawl four times faster than the banana slug , perhaps 6 inches in a minute . not only will it devour many species of plant , this slug is also a predator who will stalk and eat other slugs . i have not witnessed this , but have seen footage of cheetahs chasing gazelles . it is probably similar , but much slower .\nwhen the weather turns hot and dry , a snail can retract into its protective shell to prevent desiccation , while a slug must retreat into the soil or under vegetation to prevent drying out . it is estimated that , during warm summer months , as much as 90 % of a garden\u2019s slug population lives underground .\nspecies description a very large , dark slug with tripartite sole - black or dark grey on either side and white down the middle . this slug is keeled along the back , the keel occupying two - thirds or more of the distance between the mantle and the tail . the keel is whitish to yellowish and contrasts with the dark body colour . juveniles have uniformly pale soles and are coloured a warm buff with double lateral bands . like other keeled slugs , the breathing pore is at rear of the mantle and the mantle has shallow concentric grooves like fingerprints centred on the middle of the back .\nof our three largest slugs , only the banana slug is native . it is the second largest species in the world and can grow to more than 20 cm . if there is a creature that truly symbolizes the great rainy northwest , i suggest it is the banana slug . it is a good slug , almost never found in gardens or crops . in natural habitats it acts as nature ' s garbage collector and recycler , consuming and further breaking down dead and decaying matter .\nu . s . habitat : since they are intolerant of low humidity the sup - tropical southeastern united state are very suitable . commonly found in st . augustine grass , they can also be found under rocks , boards , flower pots , greenhouses and even in the hearts of plants such as lettuce or cabbage . with the black leatherleaf slug having such a voracious and scavenging appetite , they could establish in urban , suburban and rural areas .\nso far , there have been only a few of these african black slugs found in one localized urban area of harlingen ,\nvillanueva said .\nothers have been found nearby , but they are very slow movers , so it ' s not likely they will spread .\nsanitation is vital to slug control . slugs escape hot , dry conditions by hiding between the soil surface and any material on the soil during the daytime . removing boards , pots , and debris from growing areas will reduce slug cover and breeding areas thinning dense foliage will allow sun to reach the soil ( yates , 1988 ) . weather affects slug populations . hot dry weather or excessive flooding reduce populations , while cool , damp weather boosts populations ( crowell et al . , 1986 ) .\nthe ash - black slug is a large keeled slug i . e . it has a sharp ridge or keel running along the middle of the back . in adult slugs the keel is whitish and contrasts with the generally dark ground colour . ash - black slugs can grow to 20 cm ( 8 in . ) and live in undisturbed mature broadleaf woods or , in the west , on open hillsides and marine cliffs feeding on lichens and algae on bare rocks . this species is widespread but very local in n . ireland . there is no evidence at present of a decrease and it has been encountered more frequently in some localities than formerly . this in sharp contrast to experience in southern ireland where it is declining sharply . irish forestry policy is almost certainly implicated , particularly the clear felling of old broadleaf woodland and replacement with conifers and the practice of under - planting with conifers in established broadleaf woods .\nthe field slug only feeds on the surface but will virulently munch its way through most vegetation , and is often found nestling among the leaves of lettuces and cabbages .\ndescription : like its name states , the giant red slug usually is red . there are also brown and black specimens , but those have a red foot seam ( f in the picture above ) . the foot sole , in contrary is light grey , cream coloured or reddish . the tentacles are blackish brown and can be palely striped . the juveniles , contrary to the adults , are of a pale yellowish colour or light orange with a dark head .\nthe foot - fringe is black , the tubercles are large and elongate , and the sole is blackish grey . the atrium and vagina ( genitalia ) are considerably narrower than is the spermatheca ( organ for storing sperm ) . the oviduct is narrow while the spermatheca is spherical . [ 7 ]\nslugs eat dead organic matter as well as living vegetation . various species will feed on rotting plants , leaves , dead animals and even animal droppings . for example , the european black slug , arion ater , eats dung and also lays its eggs in it . after hatching , the larvae live in the dung for three to four weeks . as decomposers , the slugs break down organic matter , thereby releasing nutrients which enrich the soil . ( see references 1 )"]}
{"id": 1043, "summary": [{"text": "pseudoeurycea mystax is a species of salamander in the family plethodontidae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is endemic to mexico and only known from the area of its type locality near ayutla , oaxaca .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "its common name is mustache false brook salamander or mustached false brook salamander .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the specific name refers to the whitish protuberances on the lips that resemble a mustache in the frontal view of the male holotype . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "pseudoeurycea mystax", "paragraphs": ["pseudoeurycea mystax is a species of salamander in the family plethodontidae . it is endemic to mexico .\npseudoeurycea mystax is a species of salamander in the plethodontidae family . it is endemic to mexico .\npseudoeurycea ( pseudoeurycea ) lineola \u2014 dubois and raffa\u00eblli , 2012 , alytes , 28 : 77 - 161 .\niucn ssc amphibian specialist group 2016 . pseudoeurycea mystax . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t59388a53983330 . urltoken\nparra olea , g . & wake , d . 2004 . pseudoeurycea mystax . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 23 july 2007 .\npseudoeurycea unguidentis is a species of salamander in the plethodontidae family . it is endemic to mexico .\nnew salamanders of the plethodontid genus pseudoeurycea from the sierra madre del sur of mexico . american museum novitates ; no . 2314\nparra olea , g . & wake , d . 2004 . pseudoeurycea unguidentis . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 23 july 2007 .\nreviewed by tanner and dundee , 2000 , cat . am . amph . rept . , 705 : 1\u20135 ( as lineatriton lineolus prior to the naming of lineatriton orchimelas and lineatriton orchileucos ) . parra - olea and wake , 2001 , proc . natl . acad . sci . usa , 98 : 7888\u20137891 , suggested on the basis of molecular evidence that\nlineatriton\nlineolus is composed of at least two species , one more closely related to pseudoeurycea werleri and pseudoeurycea mystax and another , most closely related to pseudoeurycea leprosa . see comment under pseudoeurycea . see photograph , map , description of geographic range and habitat , and conservation status ( as lineatriton lineolus ) in stuart , hoffmann , chanson , cox , berridge , ramani , and young , 2008 , threatened amph . world : 577 . raffa\u00eblli , 2013 , urodeles du monde , 2nd ed . : 270\u2013271 , provided a brief account , photograph , and map .\nreviewed by tanner and dundee , 2000 , cat . am . amph . rept . , 705 : 1 - 5 ( as lineatriton lineolus prior to the naming of lineatriton orchimelas and lineatriton orchileucos ) . parra - olea and wake , 2001 , proc . natl . acad . sci . usa , 98 : 7888 - 7891 , suggested on the basis of molecular evidence that\nlineatriton\nlineolus is composed of at least two species , one more closely related to pseudoeurycea werleri and pseudoeurycea mystax and another , most closely related to pseudoeurycea leprosa . see comment under pseudoeurycea . raffa\u017elli , 2007 , les urod\u0165les du monde : 223 - 224 , provided a brief account ( as lineatriton lineolus ) , photograph , and map . see photograph , map , description of geographic range and habitat , and conservation status ( as lineatriton lineolus ) in stuart , hoffmann , chanson , cox , berridge , ramani , and young , 2008 , threatened amph . world : 577 .\npseudoeurycea lineola \u2014 frost , grant , faivovich , bain , haas , haddad , de s\u00e1 , channing , wilkinson , donnellan , raxworthy , campbell , blotto , moler , drewes , nussbaum , lynch , green , and wheeler , 2006 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 297 : 359 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\nfull - text is provided in portable document format ( pdf ) . to view articles you must have the free adobe acrobat reader . click here to download the latest version . the . epub version displays best on an ipad , but may work on other devices that accept . epub format . download directly to your device\u2019s book reader ( e . g . , ibooks ) or drag into your e - books collection on your computer .\namerican museum novitates novitates ( latin for\nnew acquaintances\n) , published continuously and numbered consecutively since 1921 , are short papers that contain descriptions of new forms and reports in zoology , paleontology , and geology . new numbers are published at irregular intervals .\ndepartment of library services american museum of natural history central park west at 79th st . , new york , ny 10024 \u00a9 american museum of natural history , 2011\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfrost , d . r . 2013 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 6 ( 9 january 2013 ) . electronic database . american museum of natural history , new york , usa . available at : urltoken .\njustification : listed as critically endangered because its extent of occurrence ( eoo ) is 13 km 2 , it occurs in a single threat - defined location , and there is a continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat .\nthis species is known only from near ayutla , east - central oaxaca , mexico , at 2 , 100 m asl . it is only known from one threat - defined location and its extent of occurrence ( eoo ) is 13 km 2 .\nit is an uncommon species , having last been seen in 1999 ( lamoreux et al . 2015 ) . due to ongoing decline in the extent and quality of habitat , the population is suspected to be decreasing .\nthis species is a terrestrial inhabitant of pine - oak forest and madro\u00f1o ( arbutus forest ) . it can tolerate some habitat disturbance , as evidenced by the fact that a handful of small subpopulations survive in several tiny fragments of remaining habitat . it breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water .\nthe major threat to this species is the extensive loss of habitat ( only small fragments of original habitat remain ) that has taken place due to agriculture ( including slash and burn practices ) , logging and human settlement .\nconservation actions this species has not been recorded in any protected areas . it is listed as\nthreatened\n( amenazada ) by mexican law . conservation needed there is an urgent need for the protection of forested areas near ayutla . research needed research is needed on its population size and distribution and to monitor its population trends .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis species is known only from near ayutla , east - central oaxaca , mexico , at 2 , 100 m asl . it is only known from one threat - defined location and its extent of occurrence ( eoo ) is 13 km\n. 2015 ) . due to ongoing decline in the extent and quality of habitat , the population is suspected to be decreasing .\nthis species has not been recorded in any protected areas . it is listed as\nthreatened\n( amenazada ) by mexican law .\nresearch is needed on its population size and distribution and to monitor its population trends .\n, it occurs in a single threat - defined location , and there is a continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfrost , darrel r . 2004 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 3 . 0 ( 22 august , 2004 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa\namphibian species of the world : an online reference v5 . 3 , database ( version 5 . 3 )\nfrost , darrel r . 2009 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 3 ( 12 february , 2009 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa\nflores - villela , oscar / mccoy , c . j . , ed .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nits natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests . it is threatened by habitat loss .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 10 / 10 / 2015 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\ndata and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho .\n* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .\nwill find all uses of\nhyl . . .\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hylarana , hyla , hylidae , hylinae , hylaedactyla .\nwill find all uses of\n. . . hyla\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hyla , hylidae , plectrohyla , ptychadena hylaea , adenomera hylaedactyla\nwill find all records that contain stand - alone uses of hyla : e . g . , hyla , hyla arenicolor\ninterprets this as\nlithobates or pipiens\nso will find the union of all records that contain either\nlithobates\nor\npipiens\n: e . g . , lithobates omiltemanus , hylorana pipiens\ninterprets this as\nlithobates and pipiens\nso will return all records that have the character string\nlithobates pipiens\nanywhere within a record : e . g . , all members of the lithobates pipiens complex .\nspelerpes lineolus cope , 1865 , proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , 17 : 197 . holotype : not designated ; ansp 735 , according to dunn , 1926 , salamanders fam . plethodontidae : 423 , and malnate , 1971 , proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , 123 : 348 . type locality :\ntable land , mexico\n; probably eastern central veracruz , mexico , according to smith and taylor , 1948 , bull . u . s . natl . mus . , 194 : 21 . restricted to\nmetlac\n, veracruz , mexico by smith and taylor , 1950 , univ . kansas sci . bull . , 33 : 349 .\nopheobatrachus lineolus \u2014 cope , 1869 , proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , 21 : 101 .\nspelerpes ( oedipus ) infuscatus peters , 1879 , monatsber . preuss . akad . wiss . berlin , 1879 : 778 . holotype : zmb 6556 according to bauer , g\u00fcnther , and klipfel , 1995 , in bauer et al . ( eds . ) , herpetol . contr . w . c . h . peters : 40 . type locality :\nhayti [ = haiti ] ; in error according to dunn , 1923 , proc . new england zool . club , 8 : 39 - 40 , who also made the synonymy ( but see wake , 1993 , herpetologica , 49 : 229 - 237 ) . type locality restricted to\nmetlac\n, veracruz , mexico by smith and taylor , 1950 , univ . kansas sci . bull . , 33 : 349 .\ngeotriton lineolus \u2014 garman , 1884 , bull . essex inst . , 16 : 39 .\noedipina lineolus \u2014 cope , 1887 , bull . u . s . natl . mus . , 32 : 8 .\noedipina lineola \u2014 cope , 1896 , am . nat . , 30 : 1022 .\noedipus lineolus \u2014 fowler and dunn , 1917 , proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , 69 : 21 . dunn , 1926 , salamanders fam . plethodontidae : 422 .\nlineatriton lineola \u2014 tanner , 1950 , great basin nat . , 10 : 39 .\nlineatriton lineolus \u2014 brodie , mendelson , and campbell , 2002 , herpetologica , 58 : 194 .\nveracruz worm salamander ( liner , 1994 , herpetol . circ . , 23 : 12 ; frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 32 ; liner and casas - andreu , 2008 , herpetol . circ . , 38 : 33 ) .\nmexican slender salamander ( tanner and dundee , 2000 , cat . am . amph . rept . , 705 : 1\u20134 ) .\nknown only from a small area of pine - oak forest in the sierra madre oriental of veracruz , mexico , in the vicinity of cuautlapan , nearby barranca metlac , and jalapa , 800\u20131250 m elevation .\nplease note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .\nfor access to available specimen data for this species , from over 350 scientific collections , go to vertnet .\ncopyright \u00a9 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .\nthis species occurs in cerro san felipe / cerro san luis ( the type locality ) in north - central oaxaca , mexico . elevation 2 , 600 - 2 , 800 m asl . taxonomic status of specimens provisionally assigned to this species found in llano de las flores and cerro machin remain to be validated .\nparatype : taylor , e . h . 1941 . herpetologica . 2 ( 3 ) : 57 .\nthis taxon is found in the sierra madre de oaxaca pine - oak forests , an ecoregion of northern oaxaca , mexico exhibiting a large number of endangered species , so that the conservation value is outstanding in terms of uniqueness of the habitat . the sierra madre de oaxaca pine - oak forests is within the tropical and subtropical conifer forests biome , and the ecoregion is known for elevated plant endemism , especially within the sierra de juarez montane forests .\nthis ecoregion is located in northern oaxaca state , and is delineated by the sierra norte de oaxaca mountains , which have characteristically abrupt and rugged topography . its tallest peak is zempoaltepetl ( 3400 metres ) , and most of the terrain in this area is above 1000 metres . three mountain chains or sierras constitute the sierra madre de oaxaca : juarez , aloapaneca and zempoaltepec . the climate is temperate and humid with annual temperatures ranging from 16\u00b0c to 20\u00b0c . the annual mean precipitation varies greatly from 700 millimetres ( mm ) to as great as 4000 mm .\nthe sierra juarez spiny lizard ( sceloporus cryptus ) is endemic to the ecoregion , and limited in range to drier parts of the sierra de juarez , in northeastern oaxaca . there are a number of threatened reptilian taxa in the ecoregion including the ribbon graceful brown snake ( rhadinaea fulvivittis vu ) , a limited distribution snake endemic to southern mexico .\navian taxa found here include the dwarf jay ( cyanolyca nana en ) , bearded tree quail ( dendrortyx barbatus cr ) , tamaulipas pygmy - owl ( glaucidium sanchezi ) and grey - barred wren ( campylorhynchus megalopterus ) as restricted - range bird species , which includes this ecoregion . the oaxaca sparrow ( aimophila notosticta nt ) , golden - cheeked warbler ( dendroica chrysoparia en ) , russet nightingale - thrush ( catharus occidentalis ) , hooded yellowthroat ( geothlypis nelsoni ) , and collared towhee ( pipilo ocai ) are also species which thrive in the habitats offered by this mountainous ecoregion .\nthis ecoregion presents a mosaic of vegetatative associations , due to the varied climate and topography . these formations include tropical evergreen forest , montane cloud forest , pine forest , pine - oak forest , and oak forest . the pine forests , at elevations between 1600 and 2600 metres ( m ) , include trees that are 25 to 40 m tall . dominant pine species are mexican white pine ( pinus ayacahuite ) ; lawson ' s pine ( p . lawsonii ) , a mexican endemic ; chiapas white pine ( p . strobus var . chiapensischiapensis ) ; michoacan pine ( p . devoniana lr / lc ) and smooth - barked mexican pine ( p . pseudostrobus ) . these pine forests have a robust understory and an herbacious layer dominated by numerous species of the ericaceae family .\nthis is a semi - arboreal species that inhabits pine - oak and fir forests , and has commonly been found under logs . it can live in somewhat disturbed forest . it reproduces by direct development .\nlisted as critically endangered because its extent of occurrence is less than 100 km , all individuals are known with certainty only from a single location , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat , and in the number of mature individuals , in oaxaca , mexico .\nformerly common , this species was not found in the 1960s and the early 1970s , and , although it was recorded briefly , there have been no records since 1976 at the type locality .\nthe cause for declines remain a mystery . it is probably being negatively impacted by agricultural expansion , human settlements , and logging , all of which are taking place extensively within its range . however , these threats do not explain the level of decline that has been observed , because the habitat is still in quite good condition in some places . possible explanations include climate change , and disease ( such as chytridiomycosis ) .\nit occurs in parque nacional benito juarez . there is a need for further research to establish the cause of the declines observed in this species in suitable habitat . this species is listed as\nthreatened\n( amenazada ) by the mexican government .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n` \u00e1\u0003\n\u00e8\u0084h0\u0083\bn\u00904\u00f3\u00edl \u00f0a0\u0084d\u0092\u00b1 # \bn\u00ac\u0019\u00f68v\u009ai\u00a2\u00ab\u0091\u00ec\u00ea\u00144\u001aa20\u00b0\u0083\b0l ! \u0011\u0013\u00e6\n4\u0018a\u0084\u0018a \u0086\u0099 [ \u00ad\u0006\u0014\u009a a\u0084\u0018 ! \u0013\u00b3 \\ e\u00b1\u0010\u00e2 ! \u0010\u00880 @ \u00e2\u0011 \u0013\u0005\u0093\u00bcdddd ` \u00ec\u00f3\u00f6\n\n\u00e2\n8\u00f1\u00eba3 ) \u00e4\u00ff\u00bf\u00f4\u009f\u00fa\u00bf\u00fa\u00ff\u00af\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00f7\u00ff\u00fa _ \u00fa\u00fa\u00b6\u00bd\u00f6\u0018 $ \u009a\u00e2\u0006\u00e3 \u0016 @ p \u0011\u0006\u001a\b\b9\u0007 kpb\u0017w . \u00ac \u00e2\u0011\u0088\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff - \u00b34y\u00a9\u00ec\u009b\u00a9\u00b3\u00ba\u00e2l < \u00b5s\u0081\u0082\ber\u00e1\u0084 \u00ec\u00e8\u008bw\bwa\u009d\u00f0\nd\u00fc\u00ac9\u00fc\u00e3\u00a7 , \u00a2\u00e1\u009c\u0083 \u0006d\u0081\u000e\u00fc : d ! \\ * gd\u00a1\u00f3\u00b4\u00f3 ] \u00f6\u00a1 ? m4\u00f5so\u00d7\u00fe\u00ad / \u00ef\u0084e\u0080\u00f3w\u000fa\u00be\u00e6ba\u0087\u00f7\u000f\u00e2 | 8 ; 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[ \u00a5 _ | b\u00ff\u00d7\u00fd [ \u00ff\u00fe\u00fd _ \u00ee ! z\u00fb\u00ff } ~ \u0081z\u00ee\u00be\u00bdhw\u00ad\u00fd\u00a5\u00ff\u00a5\u00a5 xc\u00fa\u00fa\u00fb } \u00e1\u007fu\u00eb\u00d7\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff \u00f5\u00ffw\u00f3ka { \u00fa\u00f9 \u0007r ( \u00eb\u00eb\u0005\u00fb ~ \u00df\u00d7\u00ff\u00b0\u00e1\u00fe\u0017\u00eb\u00ff\u0005\u00feb $ \u00f2 \u00d7\u00f5\u00ff\u00ff\u00fe\u00bf\u0005\u00ff\u00ff\u00ead\u0012\u00f4\u0088u\u00ff\u0091\nsmith and taylor , 1948 , bull . u . s . natl . mus . , 194\nsmith and taylor , 1950 , univ . kansas sci . bull . , 33\nfowler and dunn , 1917 , proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , 69\nfrost , grant , faivovich , bain , haas , haddad , de s\u0161 , channing , wilkinson , donnellan , raxworthy , campbell , blotto , moler , drewes , nussbaum , lynch , green , and wheeler , 2006 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 297\nmexican slender salamander ( tanner and dundee , 2000 , cat . am . amph . rept . , 705 : 1 - 4 ) .\nknown only from a small area of pine - oak forest in the sierra madre oriental of veracruz , mexico , in the vicinity of cuautlapan , nearby barranca metlac , and jalapa , 800 - 1250 m elevation .\ncopyright \u00a9 1998 - 2013 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nparra olea , g . & wake , d . 2004 . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 23 july 2007 .\nthis article was sourced from creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . world heritage encyclopedia content is assembled from numerous content providers , open access publishing , and in compliance with the fair access to science and technology research act ( fastr ) , wikimedia foundation , inc . , public library of science , the encyclopedia of life , open book publishers ( obp ) , pubmed , u . s . national library of medicine , national center for biotechnology information , u . s . national library of medicine , national institutes of health ( nih ) , u . s . department of health & human services , and urltoken , which sources content from all federal , state , local , tribal , and territorial government publication portals ( . gov , . mil , . edu ) . funding for urltoken and content contributors is made possible from the u . s . congress , e - government act of 2002 .\ncrowd sourced content that is contributed to world heritage encyclopedia is peer reviewed and edited by our editorial staff to ensure quality scholarly research articles .\nby using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy . world heritage encyclopedia\u2122 is a registered trademark of the world public library association , a non - profit organization .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department ."]}
{"id": 1047, "summary": [{"text": "calliostoma metabolicum is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family calliostomatidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "some authors place this taxon in the subgenus calliostoma ( fautor )", "topic": 26}], "title": "calliostoma metabolicum", "paragraphs": ["calliostoma adamsi brazier , 1895 : synonym of calliostoma comptum a . adams , 1855\ncalliostoma purpureocinctum hedley , 1894 : synonym of calliostoma comptum a . adams , 1855\nspecies calliostoma convexum w . h . turton , 1932 accepted as calliostoma africanum bartsch , 1915\nspecies calliostoma capense thiele , 1925 accepted as calliostoma perfragile g . b . sowerby iii , 1903\nspecies calliostoma albolineatum w . h . turton , 1932 accepted as calliostoma ornatum ( lamarck , 1822 )\ncalliostoma formosensis e . a . smith , 1907 synonym of calliostoma formosense e . a . smith , 1907\ncalliostoma poupineli ( montrouzier in souverbie & montrouzier , 1875 ) synonym of calliostoma comptum a . adams , 1855\ncalliostoma formosensis e . a . smith , 1907 : synonym of calliostoma formosense e . a . smith , 1907\ncalliostoma poupineli ( montrouzier in souverbie & montrouzier , 1875 ) : synonym of calliostoma comptum a . adams , 1855\nspecies calliostoma formosensis [ sic ] accepted as calliostoma formosense e . a . smith , 1907 ( incorrect original spelling )\nspecies calliostoma fernandesi boyer , 2006 accepted as calliostoma angolense boyer , 2007 ( invalid : junior homonym of calliostoma fernandesi rol\u00e1n & monteiro , 2006 ; c . angolense is a replacement name )\ncalliostoma formosum ( mcandrew & forbes , 1847 ) synonym of calliostoma occidentale ( mighels & c . b . adams , 1842 )\ncalliostoma formosum ( mcandrew & forbes , 1847 ) : synonym of calliostoma occidentale ( mighels & c . b . adams , 1842 )\nspecies calliostoma adamsi brazier , 1895 accepted as calliostoma comptum ( a . adams , 1855 ) accepted as fautor comptus ( a . adams , 1855 ) ( invalid : junior homonym of calliostoma adamsi pilsbry , 1889 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( calliostoma ) burnupi e . a . smith , 1899 accepted as dactylastele burnupi ( e . a . smith , 1899 )\nspecies calliostoma echinatum dall , 1881 accepted as calliostoma caribbechinatum landau , van dingenen & ceulemans , 2017 ( invalid : junior secondary homonym of calliostoma echinatum ( millet , 1865 ) ; c . caribbechinatum is a replacement name )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( ampullotrochus ) alisi b . a . marshall , 1995 represented as calliostoma alisi b . a . marshall , 1995 ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( ampullotrochus ) heros b . a . marshall , 1995 represented as calliostoma xanthos b . a . marshall , 1995 ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( ampullotrochus ) peregrinum b . a . marshall , 1995 represented as calliostoma peregrinum b . a . marshall , 1995 ( original combination )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( ampullotrochus ) xanthos b . a . marshall , 1995 represented as calliostoma xanthos b . a . marshall , 1995 ( original combination )\nspecies calliostoma formosum ( mcandrew & forbes , 1847 ) accepted as calliostoma occidentale ( mighels & c . b . adams , 1842 ) ( junior synonym )\nspecies calliostoma expansum schepman , 1908 accepted as enida japonica a . adams , 1860\ncalliostoma expansum schepman , 1908 : synonym of enida japonica a . adams , 1860\ncalliostoma bisculptum e . a . smith synonym of cantharidus bisculptus e . a . smith\ncalliostoma limatulum marshall , 1995 synonym of selastele limatulum b . a . marshall , 1995\ncalliostoma onustum odhner , 1924 synonym of selastele onustum b . a . marshall , 1995\nspecies calliostoma rubroscalptum y . c . lee & w . l . wu , 1998\nsubgenus calliostoma ( kombologion ) clench & r . d . turner , 1960 represented as kombologion clench & r . d . turner , 1960 accepted as calliostoma swainson , 1840\nsubgenus calliostoma ( eutrochus ) a . adams , 1864 accepted as astele swainson , 1855\ncalliostoma bisculptum e . a . smith : synonym of cantharidus bisculptus e . a . smith\ncalliostoma limatulum marshall , 1995 : synonym of selastele limatulum b . a . marshall , 1995\ncalliostoma onustum odhner , 1924 : synonym of selastele onustum b . a . marshall , 1995\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( calliotropis ) waikanae w . r . b . oliver , 1926 accepted as calliostoma waikanae oliver , 1926 accepted as maurea waikanae ( oliver , 1926 ) ( basionym )\ncalliostoma trepidum hedley , 1907 synonym of laetifautor deceptus ( e . a . smith , 1899 )\ncalliostoma ( kombologion ) clench & r . d . turner , 1960 \u00b7 accepted , alternate representation\ncalliostoma swainson , 1840 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 30 october 2010 .\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( calliotropis ) pagoda w . r . b . oliver , 1926 accepted as calliostoma ( maurea ) selectum ( dillwyn , 1817 ) accepted as maurea selecta ( dillwyn , 1817 )\ncalliostoma trepidum hedley , 1907 : synonym of laetifautor deceptus ( e . a . smith , 1899 )\ncalliostoma rubropunctatum ( a . adams , 1851 ) synonym of laetifautor rubropunctatus ( a . adams , 1851 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( mauriella ) wanganuicum w . r . b . oliver , 1926 accepted as calliostoma ( maurea ) punctulatum ( martyn , 1784 ) accepted as maurea punctulata ( martyn , 1784 ) ( synonym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( tristichotrochus ) gendalli b . a . marshall , 1979 represented as calliostoma gendalli b . a . marshall , 1979 accepted as tristichotrochus gendalli ( b . a . marshall , 1979 ) ( original combination )\nspecies calliostoma bisculptum e . a . smith , 1906 accepted as jujubinus suarezensis ( p . fischer , 1878 )\nspecies calliostoma comptum ( a . adams , 1855 ) accepted as fautor comptus ( a . adams , 1855 )\ncalliostoma polychroma ( a . adams , 1851 ) : synonym of cantharidus polychroma ( a . adams , 1851 )\ncalliostoma rubropunctatum ( a . adams , 1851 ) : synonym of laetifautor rubropunctatus ( a . adams , 1851 )\ncalliostoma burnupi e . a . smith , 1899 synonym of dactylastele burnupi ( e . a . smith , 1899 )\ncalliostoma deceptum e . a . smith , 1899 synonym of laetifautor deceptus ( e . a . smith , 1899 )\ncalliostoma regalis ( verrill & s . smith , 1880 ) synonym of calliotropis regalis ( verrill & smith , 1880 )\nspecies calliostoma aucklandicum e . a . smith , 1902 accepted as coelotrochus chathamensis ( hutton , 1873 ) ( synonym )\nspecies calliostoma farquhari g . b . sowerby iii , 1892 accepted as jujubinus suarezensis ( p . fischer , 1878 )\nspecies calliostoma coronatum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as calliostoma kanakorum b . a . marshall , 2001 accepted as benthastelena coronata ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) accepted as benthastelena kanakorum ( b . a . marshall , 2001 ) ( invalid : junior homonym of calliostoma coronatum quinn , 1992 ; c . kanakorum is a replacement name )\nsubgenus calliostoma ( mauriella ) w . r . b . oliver , 1926 accepted as maurea oliver , 1926 ( synonym )\nspecies calliostoma antipodense b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea antipodensis ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nspecies calliostoma aupourianum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea aupouriana ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nspecies calliostoma boucheti b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor boucheti ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nspecies calliostoma chesterfieldense b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor chesterfieldensis ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nspecies calliostoma cristatum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as benthastelena cristata ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nspecies calliostoma crossleyae e . a . smith , 1910 accepted as tristichotrochus crossleyae ( e . a . smith , 1910 )\nspecies calliostoma diadematum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as benthastelena diademata ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nspecies calliostoma eminens b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea eminens ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nspecies calliostoma gendalli b . a . marshall , 1979 accepted as tristichotrochus gendalli ( b . a . marshall , 1979 )\nspecies calliostoma gibbsorum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea gibbsorum ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\ncalliostoma burnupi e . a . smith , 1899 : synonym of dactylastele burnupi ( e . a . smith , 1899 )\ncalliostoma deceptum e . a . smith , 1899 : synonym of laetifautor deceptus ( e . a . smith , 1899 )\ncalliostoma regalis ( verrill & s . smith , 1880 ) : synonym of calliotropis regalis ( verrill & smith , 1880 )\nspecies calliostoma alertae b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea ( alertalex ) alertae ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( replacement name for calliostoma blacki ( dell , 1956 ) not c . blacki ( powell , 1950 ) )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) comptum ( a . adams , 1855 ) accepted as fautor comptus ( a . adams , 1855 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) gracile p . marshall , 1918 \u2020 accepted as maurea gracilis ( p . marshall , 1918 ) \u2020\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) spectabile ( a . adams , 1855 ) accepted as maurea spectabilis ( a . adams , 1855 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) waikanae w . r . b . oliver , 1926 accepted as maurea waikanae ( oliver , 1926 )\nspecies calliostoma aculeatum g . b . sowerby iii , 1912 accepted as tristichotrochus aculeatus ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1912 )\nspecies calliostoma correlatum ( c . a . fleming , 1943 ) \u2020 accepted as maurea correlata c . a . fleming , 1943 \u2020\nspecies calliostoma dnopherum ( r . b . watson , 1879 ) accepted as margarites dnopherus ( r . b . watson , 1879 )\nspecies calliostoma deceptum e . a . smith , 1899 accepted as laetifautor deceptus ( e . a . smith , 1899 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( benthastelena ) coronatum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as benthastelena kanakorum ( b . a . marshall , 2001 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( benthastelena ) kanakorum b . a . marshall , 2001 accepted as benthastelena kanakorum ( b . a . marshall , 2001 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) antipodense b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea antipodensis ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) aupourianum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea aupouriana ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) eminens b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea eminens ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) gibbsorum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea gibbsorum ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) jamiesoni b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea jamiesoni ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) maui b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea maui ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) penniketi b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea penniketi ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) regale b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea regalis ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) simulans b . a . marshall , 1994 accepted as maurea simulans ( b . a . marshall , 1994 )\nspecies calliostoma arruense r . b . watson , 1880 accepted as calthalotia arruensis ( r . b . watson , 1880 ) ( original combination )\nspecies calliostoma burnupi e . a . smith , 1899 accepted as dactylastele burnupi ( e . a . smith , 1899 ) ( original combination )\ndrawing of a dorsal view of a living animal of calliostoma bairdii dredged in the atlantic ocean at a depth of from 100 m to 1170 m .\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) correlatum ( c . a . fleming , 1943 ) \u2020 accepted as maurea correlata c . a . fleming , 1943 \u2020\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) boucheti b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor boucheti ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) chesterfieldense b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor chesterfieldensis ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) houbricki b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor houbricki ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) metivieri b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor metivieri ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) necopinatum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor necopinatus ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) paradigmatum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor paradigmatus ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) periglyptum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor periglyptus ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) richeri b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor richeri ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) vaubani b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor vaubani ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\nperron , f . e . ( 1975 ) .\ncarnivorous calliostoma ( prosobranchia : trochidae ) from the northeastern pacific\n. veliger . 18 : 52\u201354 .\nmarshall , b . a . ( 1995 ) .\na revision of the recent calliostoma species of new zealand\n. the nautilus . 108 : 83\u2013127 .\nclench w . & turner r . ( 1960 ) .\nthe genus calliostoma in the western atlantic\n. johnsonia 4 ( 40 ) : 1 - 80 .\nmarshall , b . a . 1995 . a revision of the recent calliostoma species of new zealand ( mollusca : gastropoda : trochoidea ) . the nautilus 108 : 83 - 127 . [ details ]\nquinn , j . f . jr . ( 1992 ) .\nnew species of calliostoma and notes on some poorly known species from the western atlantic\n. the nautilus . 106 : 77\u2013114 .\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( otukaia ) alertae b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as otukaia blacki ( dell , 1956 ) accepted as maurea ( alertalex ) alertae ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nvilvens c . 2005 . new records and new species of calliostoma and bathyfautor ( gastropoda : calliostomatidae ) from the vanuatu , fiji and tonga . novapex 6 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 17 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nthe name of this genus is derived from the greek words kallos ( beautiful ) and stoma ( mouth ) , referring to the pearly aperture of the shell . the genus calliostoma is known in fossil records from the upper cretaceous onwards . [ 3 ]\n( of trochus ( calliostoma ) swainson , 1840 ) swainson w . ( 1840 ) a treatise on malacology or shells and shell - fish . london , longman . viii + 419 pp . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 218 , 351 [ details ]\ncontrary to what is the case in most other top shells , calliostoma deposits its eggs in gelatinous ribbons that are only fertilized after being deposited . the young emerge as small snails ( lebour , 1936 ) without passing through a free - living planktonic stage as a veliger larva .\ncurrently , calliostoma is being treated in worms as a broad genus . it is expected to be broken up and ( some ) subgenera will be elevated to the status of genus . at this moment ( 2013 ) , information is too fragmentary to assign all species in a revised genus .\nthe species in this genus are mainly herbivorous or feed on detritus , [ 4 ] although a few have been observed to be omnivorous ( keen , 1975 ) or even carnivorous , feeding on a wide range of algae and on animals belonging to various other invertebrate phyla . [ 5 ] the north atlantic topshell calliostoma occidentale has been reported to feed on coelenterates . [ 6 ]\nafter more than 2 years of preparations , the diatombase portal is now officially launched . . . .\non 23 april 2018 , a number of editors of the world register of introduced species ( wrims ) started a three day workshop in the flanders marine institute ( vliz ) . these three days were used to evaluate , complete and improve the content of this worms thematic register ( tsd ) . . . .\nthe 2nd worms early career researchers and 3rd worms achievement award were granted respectively to fran\u00e7ois le coze and geoff read . congratulations ! . . .\nin 2018 , to celebrate a decade of worms ' existence , it was decided to compile a list of our top marine species , both for 2017 and for the previous decade . . . .\nthe scleractinian corals are now accessible though their own list portal . this world list contains over 1 500 accepted names of extant species and is one of the most complete existing resources for scleractinian taxa . . .\netymology greek : polymorphous - with reference to the variability of the new species in colours and granularity of spiral cords .\netymology greek : polymorphous - with reference to the variability of the new species in colours and granularity of spiral cords . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nkeyword search - try again , but check your spelling , and / or use fewer search terms .\nif we don ' t have it today , create a ' want ' and receive an automated email when the item is listed for sale .\nfind books from over 100 , 000 booksellers worldwide , for easy searches and price comparison .\nby using the web site , you confirm that you have read , understood , and agreed to be bound by the terms and conditions . \u00a9 1996 - 2018 abebooks inc . all rights reserved . abebooks , the abebooks logo , abebooks . com ,\npassion for books .\nand\npassion for books . books for your passion .\nare registered trademarks with the registered us patent & trademark office .\nsorry , the species or group that you asked for is not on the onezoom tree .\nthe open tree contains additional species not on the onezoom tree ( particularly subspecies and fossils ) . to check if this is why we cannot find your species or group , you can\n, then chances are you have entered a wrong number or a misspelt name .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\norganic farming - externalities - biodiversity . . . nearly all non - crop , naturally occurring species observed in comparative farm land practice studies show a preference for organic farming both by abundance and diversity . . . an average of 30 % more species inhabit organic farms . . . many weed species attract beneficial insects that improve soil qualities and forage on weed pests . . .\nnemertea - description - nervous system and senses . . . most nemertean species have just one pair of nerve cords , many species have additional paired cords , and some species also have a dorsal cord . . . in some species the cords lie within the skin , but in most they are deeper , inside the muscle layers . . . some species have paired cerebral organs , sacs whose only openings are to the outside . . .\northoptera - life cycle . . . orthopteroid species have a paurometabolous life cycle or incomplete metamorphosis . . . the use of sound is generally crucial in courtship , and most species have distinct songs . . . the number of moults varies between species growth is also very variable and may take a few weeks to some months depending on food availability and weather . . .\nnemertea - taxonomy . . . comprises 100 marine species . . . comprises about 400 species . . . includes seven species , of which six live as commensals in the mantle of large clams and one in that of a freshwater snail . . .\nnemertea . . . all species have a proboscis which lies in the rhynchocoel when inactive but everts ( turns inside - out ) to emerge just above the mouth and capture the animal ' s . . . a few species with stubby bodies filter feed and have suckers at the front and back ends , with which they attach to a host . . . most nemerteans have various chemoreceptors , and on their heads some species have a number of pigment - cup ocelli , which can detect light but not form an image . . .\nalways exist\u0097occupy themselves with a vision of the future : but the former do so out of a strength of their age , the latter out of its weakness .\nthe genus ; through all genera the steadfast type ; through all the kingdoms of organized life the eternal unity . nature is a mutable cloud which is always and never the same .\nand kind of body as he pleaseth ? but i dare not say , that this is the way by which god almighty worketh , because it is past my apprehension : yet it serves very well to demonstrate , that the omnipotence of god implieth no contradiction .\n( of fluxina dall , 1881 ) dall w . h . 1881 . reports on the results of dredging , under the supervision of alexander agassiz , in the gulf of mexico and in the caribbean sea ( 1877 - 78 ) , by the united states coast survey steamer\nblake\n, lieutenant - commander c . d . sigsbee , u . s . n . , and commander j . r . bartlett , u . s . n . , commanding . xv . preliminary report on the mollusca . bulletin of the museum of comparative zo\u00f6logy at harvard college , 9 ( 2 ) : 33 - 144 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 51 [ details ]\nvilvens c . ( 2009 ) . new species and new records of calliostomatidae ( gastropoda : trochoidea ) from new caledonia and solomon islands . novapex 10 ( 4 ) : 125 - 163 [ details ]\nwilliams s . t . , donald k . m . , spencer h . g . & nakano t . ( 2010 ) molecular systematics of the marine gastropod families trochidae and calliostomatidae ( mollusca : superfamily trochoidea ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 54 : 783 - 809 . [ details ]\nmarshall , b . a . ( 1995 ) . calliostomatidae ( gastropoda : trochoidea ) from new caledonia , the loyalty islands , and the northern lord howe rise . in : bouchet , p . ( ed . ) r\u00e9sultats des campagnes musorstom 14 . m\u00e9moires du mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle . s\u00e9rie a , zoologie . 167 : 381 - 458 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nmarshall , b . a . ( 2016 ) . new species of venustatrochus powell , 1951 from new zealand , and new species of falsimargarita powell , 1951 and a new genus of the calliostomatidae from the southwest pacific , with comments on some other calliostomatid genera ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . molluscan research . 36 : 119 - 141 . [ details ]\n( of elmerlinia clench & r . d . turner , 1960 ) marshall , b . a . ( 2016 ) . new species of venustatrochus powell , 1951 from new zealand , and new species of falsimargarita powell , 1951 and a new genus of the calliostomatidae from the southwest pacific , with comments on some other calliostomatid genera ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . molluscan research . 36 : 119 - 141 . [ details ]\nthe distribution of this genus is worldwide , found mainly on hard substrates , although japanese species have been found on sandy bottoms . these snails occur from shallow waters to bathyal depths .\nthe rather thin , acute , coeloconoid ( = approaching conical shape but with concave sides ) shell is imperforate or rarely umbilicate . the whorls are smooth , often polished and spirally ridged or granular . the body whorl is angulated at the periphery . the aperture is quadrangular , sinuated at the base and slightly oblique . the columella is simple , usually ending anteriorly in a slight tooth . [ 7 ] the nucleus appears to be either dextral or sinistral indifferently . [ 8 ] [ 9 ]\nperron , frank e . ; turner r . d . ( 1978 ) .\ndall w . h . 1889 . reports on the results of dredging , under the supervision of alexander agassiz , in the gulf of mexico ( 1877 - 78 ) and in the caribbean sea ( 1879 - 80 ) , by the u . s . coast survey steamer\nblake\n, lieut . - commander c . d . sigsbee , u . s . n . , and commander j . r . bartlett , u . s . n . , commanding . xxix . report on the mollusca . part 2 , gastropoda and scaphopoda . bulletin of the museum of comparative zo\u00f6logy at harvard college 18 : 1 - 492 , pls . 10 - 40\nvilvens c . ( 2012 ) new species and new records of seguenzioidea and trochoidea ( gastropoda ) from french polynesia . novapex 13 ( 1 ) : 1 - 23 . [ 10 march 2012 ] page ( s ) : 18\nvilvens c . ( 2009 ) . new species and new records of calliostomatidae ( gastropoda : trochoidea ) from new caledonia and solomon islands . novapex 10 ( 4 ) : 125 - 163\nthis page is based on a wikipedia article written by authors ( here ) . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 license ; additional terms may apply . images , videos and audio are available under their respective licenses ."]}
{"id": 1050, "summary": [{"text": "the squirrel cuckoo ( piaya cayana ) is a large and active species of cuckoo found in wooded habitats from northwestern mexico to northern argentina and uruguay , and on trinidad .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "some authorities have split off the western mexican form as the mexican squirrel-cuckoo ( piaya mexicana ) . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "squirrel cuckoo", "paragraphs": ["squirrel cuckoo ( piaya cayana ) is a species of bird in the cuculidae family .\nflight : squirrel cuckoo is able to catch flying insects , performing short fluttering flights . when foraging in trees , among foliage , it crosses open spaces between trees by gliding . squirrel cuckoo is able to perform sustained flights .\naverage lifespan : the lifespan of this squirrel cuckoo can\u2019t be determined as the accurate one . but , normally the cuckoo birds can live from 4 - 6 years .\nweight : the large squirrel cuckoo weighs around 95 - 120 grams ( 3 . 4 - 4 . 2 oz )\nrange : squirrel cuckoo lives in mexico and central america , and in south america from peru to north argentina and uruguay .\nyes ! i once saw a squirrel cuckoo hopping in a tree in ecuador and will never forget it . a magical bird !\nclick the button below to add the schneider 1 day bird leaf and squirrel cuckoo clock - 89 / 11 to your wish list .\nsquirrel cuckoo appears to be quite tolerant among human disturbances , untill the wooden land remains . this type of cuckoo is treated as the bold and conspicuous one compare to other cuckoos all over the world .\nall these colors make the squirrel cuckoo as the colorful bird . because of this reason most of the tourists of costa rica prefers to see this bird when they visit . the color variation and the plumage separate this species into 14 subspecies . two main subspecies of squirrel cuckoo are ,\n1 - day bird , leaf and squirrel cuckoo clock with hand carved squirrels , rugula 25 movement with a cuckoo call on the full and half hours , manual shut - off switch for strike and call , dial hands and cuckoo in wood . height is 9 inches ( 23 cm )\nprotection / threats / status : squirrel cuckoo\u2019s populations are not globally threatened . this species is common or very common in most parts of its wide range .\nthe squirrel cuckoo is the most common and widespread of all new world cuckoos . wherever this cuckoo occurs , it never fails to be center of attention , even for those who don\u2019t pay much attention to nature and birds .\nmangrove cuckoo : call is a thick , throaty , and squirrel - like\ngah - gah - gah\nor\nqua - qua - qua .\nseeing a squirrel cuckoo on your next trip south of the border is nearly guaranteed . seeing one fly across a clearing in the forest is an image to remember !\nits feeding behaviour makes it very similar to red squirrel . squirrel cuckoo hops along branches , through foliage , in bounding leaps . it hops from branch to branch ; it also runs along limbs as a squirrel , and glides with bursts of shallow wing beats for crossing open spaces . it forages in foliage , gleaning insects on leaves . it can also catch flying insects with fluttering flight . squirrel cuckoo is resident in its range . it is not brood parasite of other bird\u2019s species . it builds a nest and rears its young .\nfolia parasitologica : cucolepis cincta gen . n . et sp . n . ( cestoda : cyclophyllidea ) from the squirrel cuckoo piaya cayana lesson ( aves : cuculiformes ) from paraguay\nalthough cuckoo spends almost nine months in africa , it never sings while there .\ncuckoo does not build its own nests , because it is a brood parasite . that means that female cuckoo uses nests of other birds to lay her own eggs .\ndiet : squirrel cuckoo feeds mainly on large insects , cicadas , wasps and caterpillars ( green or with hair or spines ) , and sometimes spiders and small lizards . it rarely takes fruits .\nsquirrel cuckoos are large arboreal cuckoos with a very long , graduated tail . the upperparts are rufous brown ; the throat and breast are buffy ; and the belly is light gray . the long tail is rufous above but the undersides of the rectrices are blackish , with broad white tips . the name ' squirrel cuckoo ' comes from their coloration and the fact that their movements in trees resemble those of a squirrel at first glance .\nemily , it is due to the long tail . the bird with that long tail looks like a squirrel in a tree .\nlow guttural gaw - gaw - gaw - gaw - gaw , almost like a soft bark or the scolding of a squirrel .\n20 % of cuckoo ' s eggs will be recognized as foreign eggs and eliminated from the nest .\nmangrove cuckoo : yellow - billed and black - billed cuckoos have white underparts and lack black masks .\nbreeding / reproduction : the breeding season of squirrel cuckoo varies depending on the place . the first thing is to build the nest . both the male and female birds involve in forming the nest . they make the nest probably with fresh leaves or with sticks and leaves . the foundation of nest is made by sticks and twigs . the male squirrel cuckoo is responsible for bringing the things needed for forming the nest and the female bird forms the nest according to the convenient .\nthe squirrel cuckoos ( piaya cayana ) - also known as chestnut cuckoos or chestnut - billed cuckoos - are endemic to the americas .\nbehaviour : squirrel cuckoo feeds mainly on large insects which it takes off the foliage . it gleans in canopy and sub canopy , often in pairs , sometimes alone or in mixed groups . occasionally , it can follow army - ants swarms .\ncuckoo has long and pointed wings and long and thin beak . while flying , it resembles to hawk .\nwe can find two similar species : black - bellied cuckoo , with grey head , red bill , yellow lores and blackish belly and vent ; little cuckoo , smaller , with cinnamon - chestnut underparts and shorter tail .\nbecause of this if you visit costa rica next time , and then don\u2019t forget to visit the national parks to get the pleasant moments of your life along with the squirrel cuckoo . they will rejuvenate your spirit and will bring happiness in your mood .\nmangrove cuckoo : eats caterpillars , grasshoppers , moths , flies , and other insects ; forages in trees and shrubs .\ndiet : when you consider about this squirrel cuckoo it normally gets the prey as foliage one by quick lunge . it usually feeds on insects like wasps , cicadas and caterpillars including the one with stinging heads and wings . it occasionally eats spiders and lizards available in the forest . it rarely eats fruit and it catches the wasps by air through the excellent flight capacity of it . the group of squirrel cuckoo tries to attack the ants - column and takes off with the flushed prey of ants . sometimes they also search forage by roaming the forest .\nsquirrel cuckoo is the bird along with long tail and plumage that normally remembers the red squirrel , when it jumps over the tree . both sexes are similar in the shape and color . but the adult one has some different shapes and different colors . it has upper parts of the chestnuts as the rich one and the tail is tipped black and white . chin and throat of the adult squirrel cuckoo will be pale reddish on the lower parts . eyes have the bare yellow - green skin as the eye ring and with red in color . belly and breast of the bird are grey in color and there is black under tail coverts . legs and feet of this bird are pale bluish - grey .\nthe squirrel cuckoo is more often seen as it flies from tree to tree or across a clearing in the forest . it does not do this more frequently than other birds , but its long black tail and rufous wing seen in the air are such an attention - gette .\ntiming of the hatching is very important and female cuckoo closely observes routine and behavior of other birds . cuckoo ' s eggs need to hatch before other eggs so that the young cuckoos gain advantage over other chicks and ensure enough food for development .\nsize : this extremely long - tailed cuckoo is 40 . 5 - 50 centimeters ( 15 . 9 - 20 inches ) long\nthe cosmopolitan family cuculidae includes old and new world cuckoos . many of the old world cuckoos are brood parasites , laying their eggs in other birds nest . most new world cuckoos , including the squirrel cuckoo , are not brood parasites and build a nest and rear their young like most other birds .\nmf de vasconcelos , urban environment utilization by the squirrel cuckoo , piaya cayana : the importance of urban trees : ciencia e cultura ( sao paulo ) [ cienc . cult . ( sao paulo ) ] , vol . 50 , no . 6 , pp . 462 - 464 , dec 1998 .\ncuckoo travels to africa each september to avoid cold periods and lack of food during the winter in temperate areas of europe and asia .\nsquirrel cuckoos primarily feed on insects , including caterpillars , walking sticks , grasshoppers , beetles , wasps , bees , army ants , cicadas , hemipteras , odonates and spiders .\nsquirrel cuckoos are common across most of their natural range , and they have adapted well to human - altered habitats . therefore , they are not currently at risk of extinction .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto squirrel cuckoo utters explosive \u201cchik\u201d followed by gruff \u201cwhrrr\u201d . it also gives variations such as \u201cchik - chik\u201d , nasal \u201cchek - e - rehr\u201d , and loud \u201cch\u2019kaow\u201d . song is a prolonged series of sharp notes \u201cpee\u2019uk pee\u2019uk\u2026\u201d or whistled notes \u201cwheek wheek wheek\u2026\u201d mainly uttered in april - august .\nthey somewhat resemble the black - bellied cuckoo ( piaya melanogaster ) found in lowlands areas of northern and central south america east of the andes . however , the black - bellied cuckoo has a grey crown , red ( not greenish yellow ) bill , blue eye rings and blackish abdomen .\nfemale cuckoo lays one egg in each nest . she usually lays between 12 and 22 eggs per season ( in 12 to 22 different nests ) .\ncuckoos are named after onomatopoeic sound which they produce : ' cuck - oo , cuck - oo ' . even thought the whole family is named by this unique sound , only one cuckoo species ( common cuckoo ) is able to produce this sound . other species communicate by producing different types of sounds .\nmore than 120 species of birds can be tricked to raise young cuckoos as their own chicks , but 90 % of cuckoo ' s eggs are laid in the nests of reed warbler , meadow pipit and dunnock birds . cuckoo chooses nests with eggs that are the most similar to eggs that she is producing .\nphillips , a . j . , mariaux , j . , & georgiev , b . b . ( 2012 ) . cucolepis cincta gen . n . et sp . n . ( cestoda : cyclophyllidea ) from the squirrel cuckoo piaya cayana lesson ( aves : cuculiformes ) from paraguay . folia parasitologica , 59 ( 4 ) , 287 - 294 . doi : 10 . 14411 / fp . 2012 . 040 .\nhabitat : squirrel cuckoo lives in forests and woodlands , in canopy and edges . tropical forests can be evergreen , deciduous , old secondary , gallery , flooded evergreen forest , and mangroves . it also frequents coffee plantations , shrubbery , pastures with trees , areas along watercourses in dry regions , and also residential areas . this species can be found from sea level to 2700 metres of elevation . however , it avoids too dense forests .\npayne , r . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . common squirrel - cuckoo ( piaya cayana ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ncuckoo is a bird of the cuculidae family . there are 54 species of cuckoo that can be found in the europe , asia , africa and australasia . only 2 of 54 species live in europe . cuckoo inhabits open areas , such as marshes , meadows and fields , but it can be also found in woodlands and alpine areas . they are not listed as endangered , but their number in certain areas declined as a result of habitat loss , decrease in number of birds which act as foster parents to young cuckoos and because of the climate changes ( which affect their migratory patterns and availability of food ) .\nwhen you visit costa rica with your family or with your companion , then it would be better to watch the activities of this bird from the nationalized parks available in costa rica . you can find the bird in monteverde cloud forrest reserve , braulio carrillo national park , juan castro bianco national park and chirripo national park . if you go through these parks , then you can enjoy with your family because of the natural sceneries and the presence of squirrel cuckoo bird .\nhughes j . m . 2006 : phylogeny of the cuckoo genus coccyzus ( aves : cuculidae ) : a test of monophyly . syst . biodiv . 4 : 483 - 488 go to original source . . .\nthis cuckoo is also the most habitat generalist . it is found mature humid forest in amazonia , the humid foothill of the andes , dry and deciduous forests , second growth , coffee plantations , and just about any type of standing forest from mexico to argentina . it has several regional names and is the center of tales , but the most used name is sicua or shicua ; an onomatopoeic name after the cuckoo\u2019s most common call .\ndescription : squirrel cuckoo resembles red squirrel when moving along branches with its rufous plumage and its long tail . adult male has rich chestnut upperparts . long dark chestnut tail is tipped black and white . on the underparts , chin and throat are pale reddish . breast and belly are grey , darker on belly and flanks . undertail coverts are black . undertail is dark chestnut with white - tipped feathers . head is chestnut . down - curved , strong bill is yellow - green . eyes are red , with bare yellow - green skin as eye - ring . legs and feet are pale bluish - grey . both sexes are similar . juvenile resembles adults , but it is paler , and central tail feathers lack black tips above . bill is greyish . eyes are brown .\nrange : the squirrel cuckoo is mostly found in the neotropic eco zone of the world . the bird occurs from north to southern sonora and southern tamaulipas of north mexico , panama and costa rica of center american countries , south america , peru , south to northern argentina and east of the andes . this bird has very broad elevational distribution among these countries . other than america you can\u2019t find this bird because it is endemic to america . among all these places , costa rica is treated as the best place to see this bird because of the best tourist infrastructure of this country .\nmangrove cuckoo : two to three light blue eggs are laid in a nest made of twigs and leaves , and built from 8 to 10 feet above the ground in a mangrove tree or shrub . incubation ranges from 9 to 11 days and is carried out by both parents .\nbirders who seek the mangrove cuckoo in florida may have to contend with heat , humidity , mosquitoes , and long hours of searching . this bird is a shy denizen of dense mangrove swamps , living in impenetrable tangles , where its presence is often betrayed only by its throaty calls .\njohnson k . p . , goodman s . m . , lanyon s . m . 2000 : a phylogenetic study of the malagasy couas with insights into cuckoo relationships . mol . phylogenet . evol . 14 : 436 - 444 go to original source . . . go to pubmed . . .\nsorenson m . d . , payne r . b . 2005 : molecular systematics : cuckoo phylogeny inferred from mitochondrial dna sequences . in : r . b . payne ( ed . ) , bird families of the world : cuckoos . oxford university press , new york , usa , pp . 68 - 94\nmangrove cuckoo : found in in mangrove forests in the united states , part of its range , as well as in some tropical hardwood species . in the tropical range , it is found in mangroves , but also in other types of woodlands . not always found near water in the tropics , with some birds nesting far from water sources . considered a permanent resident throughout its tropical range .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na guide to the birds of mexico and northern central america by steve n . g . howell , sophie webb - oxford university press - isbn : 0198540124\na guide to the birds of colombia by steven l . hilty and william l . brown - princeton university press \u2013 isbn 069108372x\nthere are 14 subspecies varying in coloration and plumage pattern . main subspecies are : p . c . mexicanus , from w mexico , is brighter and paler ; p . c . thermophila , from e mexico and central america , is darker overall with black undertail broadly tipped white .\nreproduction : breeding season varies , according to the place . both adults build the cup - shaped nest in dense shrubbery or in trees . it is a shallow platform made with leaves , or also with sticks and fresh leaves . sticks and twigs are used as foundations . nest is well concealed in dense vegetation , on large branch . female lays 2 to 3 white eggs . incubation lasts about 18 to 20 days , shared by both parents . each turn lasts about 6 to 8 hours . chicks are covered with down at hatching . they are fed and cared by both parents . they are fed with large insects . they leave the nest relatively soon after hatching , and before they can fly , at about 8 to 10 days of age . if disturbed , they can climb around the nest . this species can produce several broods per year .\nauthors : jenny fitzgerald , thomas s . schulenberg , and glenn f . seeholzer\nfitzgerald , j . , t . s . schulenberg , and g . f . seeholzer ( 2011 ) .\n) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\njosep del hoyo , juan sanabria , stefan behrens , pieter de groot boersma , pere sugranyes , max roth , keith and lynn youngs , greg baker , dani\u00eal jimenez , martin manassero , thore noernberg , keith blomerley , nelsonlage , virgilio y\u00e1bar calder\u00f3n , robert schaefer , antonio silveira , yo\u00ebl jimenez , paul molina abril , agustin carrasco , manakincarmelo , jacob . wijpkema .\njoe klaiber , peter boesman , josep del hoyo , no\u00e9 eiterer , ciro albano .\nuntil recently treated as conspecific with p . mexicana . proposed race stirtoni ( from sw guatemala to nw costa rica ) is synonymized with thermophila , inexpectata ( w venezuela ) with mehleri , cearae ( cear\u00e1 , in ne brazil ) with pallescens , and boliviana ( c peru to n bolivia ) with obscura . thirteen subspecies recognized .\n\u2013 e mexico ( e san luis potos\u00ed and s tamaulipas s to veracruz , yucat\u00e1n and isthmus of tehuantepec on gulf coast s to near tehuantepec city ) through central america to panama and nw colombia .\n\u2013 w colombia ( occurring e to slopes of c andes ) , w ecuador , and nw peru ( tumbes ) .\nbonaparte , 1850 \u2013 ne colombia e of gulf of urab\u00e1 to magdalena valley and along w slope of e andes , e in coastal venezuela to paria peninsula .\n\u2013 e & s venezuela through the guianas and s to n bank of lower amazon .\n( cabanis & heine , 1863 ) \u2013 colombia e of andes , e ecuador , and ne peru ( n of r mara\u00f1\u00f3n ) .\ne . snethlage , 1908 \u2013 c brazil s of amazon from r juru\u00e1 e to r tapaj\u00f3s and s to upper ji - paran\u00e1 , e peru and n bolivia .\npinto , 1938 \u2013 brazil s of amazon from santarem e to mouth of amazon , and coast of n maranh\u00e3o .\nj . a . allen , 1893 \u2013 sc brazil ( c mato grosso and goi\u00e1s to n s\u00e3o paulo ) .\na three - note dry rolling \u201chic - a - ro\u201d or \u201cgeep - kareer\u201d , a \u201cchick - kaw . . .\ntropical lowland evergreen forest , tropical deciduous forest , old secondary forest , gallery forest . . .\nbreeds in costa rica in both dry and wet seasons , jan\u2013aug but mainly apr\u2013jun ; in panama may\u2013jun ; in colombia jan\u2013 . . .\nnot globally threatened . generally common to very common throughout most of its extensive range , e . g . common in many parts of guatemala , costa rica , colombia , ecuador , brazil . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\ncame very close , marginally over - recorded a couple of times , but some good stretches , e . g . , after 0 : 45 ; several types of call ;\nindividual bird calling from a magnolia sp . tree . garden in suburbial neighborhood .\nnatural vocalization ; calls from a bird perched high in a tall tree in dense thorn forest .\nnatural vocalization ; calls from a bird perched fairly high in a tall tree in dense thorn forest on a steep slope .\nsong and several call types in response to playback from a bird perched at mid - level in tall , dense thornscrub .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\npiaya cayana and p . mexicana ( del hoyo and collar 2014 ) were previously lumped as p . cayana following sibley and monroe ( 1990 , 1993 ) .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\npartners in flight estimated the total population ( prior to the split of p . mexicanus ) to number 5 , 000 , 000 - 50 , 000 , 000 individuals ( a . panjabi in litt . 2008 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\n( amended version of 2017 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t61418830a118860996 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhabitat : it is the bird that mostly lives in the forested habitats of countries throughout the america . you can find them in the humid forest , semi humid forest , plantations , deciduous forest , forest edges and even on the scattered trees of an open country . normally it makes the residence in the tree as hidden dense vegetation of 1 - 12 m high .\nin most of the countries it lives over some high . in mexico it can live up to 2000 m from the sea level , up to 2450 m in costa rica , regularly 1500 m in ecuador countries , over 1800 m in panama , usually below 1200 m in the north orinoco and 2500 m in venezuela .\nthey probably build two nests in the shape of cup . one nest sizes as 17 . 8 cm wide by 6 . 4 cm deep . another nest measures as an outer depth and inner diameter as 8 . 9 cm and outer diameter as 15 . 2 - 17 . 8 cm . the female bird normally lays 2 to 3 eggs , which are unmarked and chalky white in color . both birds would take care of the incubation over the period of 18 - 19 days . each takes the turn as 6 - 8 hours to incubate . they also take care of the cleaning of nests . every day they replace the leaves of nest by fresh leaves .\nboth parents would take care of feeding to their children . after eight days of incubation , the young one started to surround the branches of tree and then it get back to the nest .\n\u2022 p . c . thermophila , which is available in costa rica of central america and eastern mexico . it is normally darkened overall with black and tipped with white in under tail\napart from these two subspecies , you can also find some subspecies in northern south america and western south america . these subspecies has the yellow eye ring that doesn\u2019t remain in other subspecies available in other parts of south america .\nif you think about the voice of this bird , there are different sounds you can hear from it . it explores the prolonged whistle notes in the voice normally in the season of april to august . it is also treated as the melodious voice that gives pleasant feeling to the people . this would also make the environment of parks of the costa rica as the best and enjoyable one .\nalfredo lives in florida but grew up alongside peruvian meadowlarks and marvelous spatuletails in peru . trained as wildlife biologist , he divides his time between south florida and the tropics where he spends a fair amount of time . alfredo founded surbound , a blog on mission to connect the birds , wildlife , people , and magnificent landscapes in the americas .\nwelcome to 10 , 000 birds , just the place for people who love birds , pictures of birds , and people who write about birds , birding , conservation , and much more .\nget 10 , 000 birds in your email inbox every day . sign up for our free email newsletter !\nfb , by james hogg : i always seem to end up at a se . . .\ntempted to buy this beer just for the design , love it ! . . .\nstill going strong . bravo ! i know where you are coming fro . . .\n\u00a9 2013 10 , 000 birds . all words , images , and opinions are the property of their respective authors unless stated otherwise .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 292 , 755 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nadult : sexes similar . upperparts chestnut to rufous - chestnut , usually paler on the crown . remiges tipped with grayish brown . tail long , graduated . rectrices rufous - chestnut above with a broad white terminal spot and a black subterminal bar ; the underside of the rectrices primarily brownish - black , with a broad terminal white spot . throat and breast cinnamon . belly gray , shading to slate to slaty black on the flanks , crissum , and undertail coverts . underwing coverts light gray ; underside of remiges cinnamon - buff .\nimmature ( formative plumage ) : similar to adult , but rectrices ( retained from the juvenile or first basic plumage ) are narrower , with more pointed tips , and ( especially on the central pair ) the white tips and the black subterminal bar are reduced in size .\njuvenile ( first basic plumage ) : similar to adult , but the plumages is more lax and fluffy , and the throat is a little grayer . the rectrices are narrower , with more pointed tips , and ( especially on the central pair ) the white tips and the black subterminal bar are reduced in size .\ndefinitive basic plumage is acquired by a complete prebasic molt . in el salvador , the onset of this molt is variable , but the molt primarily is july - september .\nprealternate molt , which in el salvador occurs in feburary - march , is incomplete . the extent of this molt is not documented . the first prealternate molt also is described as more extensive than the definitive prealternate molt .\nformative plumage is acquired by an incomplete preformative molt . juvenile ( first basic ) rectrices and remiges are retained .\niris : carmine red , dark red ( ridgway 1916 , haverschmidt 1968 , wetmore 1968 ) .\nthe color of the bare orbital skin is geographically variable ; generally , the eyering is yellowish green from mexico south to northern and northwestern south america , and is red from northern south america , east of the andes , south to south central south america . the eyering is yellowish green to light olive - green from mexico south to northwestern south america west of the andes ( subspecies mexicana , thermophila , and nigricrissa ; ridgway 1916 , wetmore 1968 , howell and webb 1995 , ridgely and greenfield 2001b , schulenberg et al . 2007 ) . the eyering color in northern colombia and northwestern and northern venezuela ( subspecies mehleri , circe ) apparently also is yellow ( restall et al . 2006 ) , as it in trindidad ( insulana ; ffrench 1991 ) . from venezuela south of the orinoco , apparently south to the southern end of the distribution , the bare orbital skin is crimson ( haverschmidt 1968 , wetmore 1968 , belton 1984 , hilty and brown 1986 , ridgely and greenfield 2001b , hilty 2003 , schulenberg et al . 2007 ) .\ntotal length : 40 - 46 cm ( wetmore 1968 ) , 40 . 5 - 46 cm ( ridgely and greenfield 2001b ) , 40 . 5 - 50 cm ( howell and webb 1995 ) , 43 cm ( hilty and brown 1986 , hilty 2003 )\nmass : male , mean 104 . 0 g ( range 73 . 0 - 137 . 0 , n = 33 , taxa not specified ; payne 2005 ) ; female , mean 100 . 3 g ( range 76 . 0 - 129 . 4 g , n = 28 , taxa not specified ; payne 2005 )\nsubspecies thermophila : males , mean 99 . 4 g ( \u00b1 9 . 0 g , range 89 . 2 - 111 g , n = 7 ; belize , russell 1964 ) ; female , 103 g ( belize , russell 1964 ) .\nsubspecies insulata : males , mean 92 . 8 g ( range 90 - 95 . 5 g , n = 2 ; junge and mees 1958 ) ; females , mean 97 g ( range 94 - 100 g , n = 2 ; junge and mees 1958 ) .\nthese birds were named for their similarities with squirrels - both in their body color as well as their movement in trees that resemble those of squirrels moving up and down the trunk of trees .\nthe subspecies vary in the coloration of their underparts , throats , tails and eye - rings ( red in the more northern populations and yellow in southern parts ) .\nrange : northeastern colombia east of the gulf of urab\u00e1 to magdalena valley and along the western slope of east andes , east in coastal venezuela to the paria peninsula .\nrange : brazil south of the amazon , from santarem to the amazon delta , and coast of northern maranh\u00e3o .\nthese birds are quite distinctive throughout their range and are unlikely to be confused , except by the casual observers .\nthey also resemble the little cuckoos , but those are smaller in size and have darker throats .\nthere is one report of one bird killing a frog , but then abandoned it - maybe because of its large size .\nthey typically forage in the mid - story and canopy . flying insects may be caught in mid - air .\nchinese : ? ? ? ? . . . czech : kukacka guyansk\u00e1 , kuka ? ka vever ? \u00ed . . . danish : egerng\u00f8g . . . dutch : eekhoornkoekoek . . . estonian : oravk\u00e4gu ( hallk\u00f5ht - oravk\u00e4gu ) . . . finnish : oravak\u00e4ki . . . french : piaye \u00e9cureuil . . . german : cayenne - fuchskuckuck , cayennekuckuck , eichhornkuckuck . . . guarani : tingasu . . . italian : cuculo scoiattolo , cuculo scoiattolo della cayenna . . . japanese : haimunerisukakkou , risukakkou . . . norwegian : ekorngj\u00f8k . . . polish : rudzianka wielka . . . portuguese : alma - de - caboclo , alma - de - gato , atinga\u00fa , chinco\u00e3 , crocoi\u00f3 , maria - cara\u00edba , meia - pataca , oraca , pataca , pato - pataca , rabilonga , rabo - de - escriv\u00e3o , rabo - de - palha , tico\u00e3 , tinco\u00e3 , tingua\u00e7u , uir\u00e1 - pag\u00e9 . . . russian : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? , ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? , ? ? ? ? ? . . . slovak : kukavka krovinn\u00e1 , kukavka krovinov\u00e1 . . . spanish : alma de gato canela , cuclillo canela , cuco ardilla , cuco ardilla com\u00fan , cuco - ardilla com\u00fan , paj\u00e1ro le\u00f3n , pirincho de monte , tingaz\u00fa , urraca canela . . . swedish : ekorrg\u00f6k\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\ntambor , c\u00f3bano , puntarenas , 100m east and 75m north from local public school , on beachfront . local : + 506 2683 - 0011 info @ urltoken\nmount of a small bird with body arched backwards and both wings held opened . head is held up and tail is held down . both wings are widely opened and feet are paralell and held in natural standing position .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncuckoos are birds of the medium size . they can reach 12 . 6 to 14 . 1 inches in length and weight up to 2 . 1 ounces .\nmales and females can be distinguished by the color of their feathers . upper parts of the males are bluish to gray , and their white bellies are intersected with dark lines . some females may look like males , except that they have buff colored breast with dark lines . other types of females are reddish brown or covered with dark bars completely . young cuckoos are slate - gray and reddish brown in color .\ncharacteristic ' cuck - oo , cuck - oo ' sound is produced only by males . females produce bubbling sound , which resembles the sound of the water that is running out of the tub after removing the plug .\nyoung cuckoos are very aggressive toward other chicks in the nest and they will often remove them from the nest as soon as they hatch . when they are several weeks old , young cuckoos are ready to fly to africa along with their parents .\n( rio juru\u00e1 to rio tapaj\u00f3s . c brazil s of the amazon . , e peru , n bolivia )\n( rio tapaj\u00f3s to the amazon delta . ne brazil s of the amazon . )\ninternational journal that covers all branches of parasitology , including morphology , taxonomy , molecular biology , host - parasite relationships , parasite evolution , biochemistry , physiology and immunology .\ndepartment of ecology and evolutionary biology , university of connecticut , 75 n . eagleville road , storrs , ct 06269 - 3043 , usa\nbaczynska h . 1914 : etudes anatomiques et histologiques sur quelque nouvelles especes de cestodes d ' oiseaux . bull . soc . neuchatel . sci . nat . 40 : 187 - 239\nbona f . v . , bosco m . c . , maffi a . 1986 : tre nuove specie del genera paruterina ( cestoda , paruterinidae ) in trogoniformi ( aves ) neotropicali . boll . mus . reg . sci . nat . 4 : 1 - 61\nbona f . v . , maffi a . v . 1984a : la estructura del genero paruterina fuhrm . , 1906 y consideraciones sobre los generos biuterina fuhrm . , 1902 , proparuterina fuhrm . , 1911 y sphaeruterina johnston , 1914 ( cestoda , paruterinidae ) . mus . reg . sci . nat . boll . ( torino ) 2 : 411 - 443\nbona f . v . , maffi a . v . 1984b : paruterina similita n . sp . ( cestoda , paruterinidae ) en cuculidae ( aves ) del norte de argentina . mus . reg . sci . nat . boll . ( torino ) 2 : 181 - 198\nbona f . v . , maffi a . v . 1985 : redescripcion y variabilidad de paruterina similis ( ransom , 1909 ) ( cestoda , paruterinidae ) , recolectada en un neuvo hospedador , coccyzus melacoryphus ( cuculiformes ) en el norte de argentina . riv . parassitol . 2 ( 46 ) : 115 - 139\nbona f . v . , maffi a . v . 1987 : los paruterinidae ( cestoda ) con ganchos de patron\nrectanguloide\n. parte i . observaciones sobre los ganchos rectanguloides y revision de la literatura . boll . mus . reg . sci . nat . 5 : 455 - 489 .\nfuhrmann o . 1906 : die taenien der raubvoegel . zbl . bakt . hyg . i . abt . orig . 41 : 440 - 452\nfuhrmann o . 1907 : bekannte und neue arten und genera von vogeltaenien . zbl . bakt . hyg . i . abt . orig . 45 : 516 - 536\nfuhrmann o . 1908 : nouveaux taenias d ' oiseaux . rev . suisse zool . 16 : 27 - 73\nfuhrmann o . 1927 : brasilianische cestoden aus reptilien und vogeln . abh . senckenb . naturforsch . ges . 40 : 389 - 401\ngeorgiev b . b . , gibson d . i . 2006 : description of triaenorhina burti n . sp . ( cestoda : paruterinidae ) from the malabar trogon harpactes fasciatus ( pennant ) ( aves : trogoniformes : trogonidae ) in sri lanka . syst . parasitol . 63 : 53 - 60 go to original source . . . go to pubmed . . .\ngeorgiev b . b . , kornyushin v . v . 1994 : family paruterinidae fuhrmann , 1907 ( sensu lato ) . in : l . f . khalil , a . jones and r . a . bray ( eds . ) , keys to the cestode parasites of vertebrates . cab international , wallingform , uk , pp . 559 - 584\ngeorgiev b . b . , vaucher c . 2001 : revision of the genus parvirostrum fuhrmann , 1908 ( cestoda : cyclophyllidea : paruterinidae ) . syst . parasitol . 50 : 13 - 29 go to original source . . . go to pubmed . . .\ngill f . , donsker d . ( e ds . ) 2012 : ioc world bird names ( v . 2 . 11 ) . available at urltoken [ accessed 13 / 2 / 2012 ]\nhughes j . m . 1996 : phylogenetic analysis of the cuculidae ( aves , cuculiformes ) using behavioral and ecological characters . the auk 113 : 10 - 22 go to original source . . .\nhughes j . m . 2000 : monophyly and phylogeny of cuckoos ( aves , cuculidae ) inferred from osteological characters . zool . j . linn . soc . 130 : 263 - 307 go to original source . . .\nvon linstow o . f . b . 1906 : helminthes from the collection of the columbo museum . spolia zeylanica 3 : 163 - 188\nmacko j . k . , rysavy b . 1982 : vitta crotophagae sp . n . ( cestoda : dilepididae ) , a new cestode species from crotophaga ani l . in cuba . folia parasitol . 29 : 297 - 301\nmahon j . 1957 : deltokeras synallaxis sp . nov . ( dilepididae ) from synallaxis rutilans temm . can . j . zool . 35 : 441 - 447 go to original source . . .\nmariaux j . , vaucher c . 1990 : a new genus of dilepididae ( cestoda ) of the yellowbill ceuthmochares aereus ( cuculidae ) from the ivory coast . j . parasitol . 76 : 22 - 26 go to original source . . . go to pubmed . . .\nmascarenhas c . s . , kreuger c . , meuller g . 2009 : the helminth fauna of the red - crested cardinal ( paroaria coronata ) passeriformes : emberizidae in brazil . parasitol . res . 105 : 1359 - 1363 go to original source . . . go to pubmed . . .\nposso s . r . , donatelli r . j . 2006 : analise filogenetica e implicacoes sistematicas e evolutivas nos cuculiformes ( aves ) com base na osteologia , comportamento e ecologia . rev . bras . zool . 23 : 608 - 629 go to original source . . .\nposso s . r . , donatelli r . j . 2010 : when decisions on homologous structures cause ambiguous taxa relationships : the neomorphinae ( aves , cuculidae ) example . braz . j . biol . 70 : 195 - 204 go to original source . . . go to pubmed . . .\nrausch r . l . , morgan b . b . 1947 : the genus anonchotaenia ( cestoda : dilepididae ) from north american birds , with the description of a new species . trans . am . microsc . soc . 66 : 203 - 211 go to original source . . . go to pubmed . . .\nrudolphi c . a . 1819 : entozoorum synopsis cui accedunt mantissa duplex et indices locupletissimi . sumtibus augusti ruecker , berlin , 811 pp\nscholz t . , kuchta r . , salgado - maldonado g . 2002 : cestodes of the family dilepididae ( cestoda : cyclophyllidea ) from fisheating birds in mexico . syst . parasitol . 52 : 171 - 182 go to original source . . . go to pubmed . . .\nsouthwell t . 1922 : cestodes from indian birds with a note on ligula intestinalis . ann . trop . med . parasitol . 16 : 355 - 382 go to original source . . .\nspasskii a . a . , shumilo r . p . 1965 : [ the phenomenon of the postlarval development of the rostellum and the hooks in the cestodes of the genus triaenorhina , n . gen . ( paruterinidae ) . ] . doklady akademii nauk sssr 164 : 1436 - 1438 . ( in russian )\nvasileva g . p . , georgiev b . b . , genov t . 2000 : palaearctic species of the genus confluaria ablasov ( cestoda , hymenolepididae ) : redescriptions of c . podicipina ( szymanski , 1905 ) and c . furcifera ( krabbe , 1869 ) , description of c . pseudofurcifera n . sp . , a key and final comments . syst . parasitol . 45 : 109 - 130 go to original source . . . go to pubmed . . .\nwe promise to never spam you , and just use your email address to identify you as a valid customer .\nthis product hasn ' t received any reviews yet . be the first to review this product !\nprobably declining in florida keys as habitat is lost to development , but may be expanding north slightly along coast . still widespread in caribbean and elsewhere in tropics .\nin our area , mostly in mangroves . in florida , lives in mangrove swamps and in groves of tropical hardwoods on the keys and the southern mainland . elsewhere in range , found in mangroves and in various kinds of scrubby woods , including dry forest far from water .\nforages rather slowly and deliberately among mangroves or other dense growth , peering about , sometimes making short leaps or flutters to take insects from the foliage .\n2 , sometimes 3 . pale blue - green , fading to greenish yellow . incubation is probably by both parents ; incubation period not well known . young : development of young and age at first flight not well known . probably fed by both parents , as in other cuckoos .\ndevelopment of young and age at first flight not well known . probably fed by both parents , as in other cuckoos .\nmostly insects . diet not known in detail . as with other cuckoos , seems to eat many caterpillars . also feeds on grasshoppers , praying mantises , moths , flies , and other insects ; also some spiders and small frogs , and probably some berries and small fruits .\nbreeding behavior is not well known . male gives low , throaty song in spring , presumably to defend territory and attract a mate . nest : so far as known , site is in mangrove or other low tree , usually fairly low over the water or ground ( probably lower than 10 ' in most cases ) , among dense foliage . nest is a flimsy platform of sticks .\nmigratory status in florida uncertain . recorded at all seasons and thought to be permanent resident , but more conspicuous in summer . rare stray from mexico north into texas and gulf coast .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\nin the broadest and most detailed study of its kind , audubon scientists have used hundreds of thousands of citizen - science observations and sophisticated climate models to predict how birds in the u . s . and canada will react to climate change .\nthe darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season .\neach map is a visual guide to where a particular bird species may find the climate conditions it needs to survive in the future . we call this the bird\u2019s \u201cclimatic range . \u201d\nthe darker the shaded area , the more likely it is the bird species will find suitable climate conditions to survive there .\nthe outline of the approximate current range for each season remains fixed in each frame , allowing you to compare how the range will expand , contract , or shift in the future .\nthe first frame of the animation shows where the bird can find a suitable climate today ( based on data from 2000 ) . the next three frames predict where this bird\u2019s suitable climate may shift in the future\u2014one frame each for 2020 , 2050 , and 2080 .\nyou can play or pause the animation with the orange button in the lower left , or select an individual frame to study by clicking on its year .\nthe darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season . more on reading these maps .\nyebicu _ 1 . c - c - c - kowlpoutbursts3examples _ vale _ 1 . mp3\ntell congress to oppose a harmful rider that threatens sage - grouse and other wildlife .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\nyour browser does not have support for cookies enabled . some features of this application will not work .\nthis metadata record is the intellectual property of csa / proquest , and was licensed for use under a contract with the usgs to support scientific research and understanding . as such , this copyrighted material should not be electronically reproduced or shared outside of sciencebase .\nciencia e cultura ( sao paulo ) [ cienc . cult . ( sao paulo ) ] , vol . 50 , no . 6 , pp . 462 - 464 , dec 1998\ntail is long and dark with six large white spots underneath , each with a dark spot . decurved bill is dark above and yellow below with a dark tip . sexes are similar .\n\u00a9 2002 - 2013 urltoken all rights reserved . mitch waite group . no part of this web site may be reproduced without written permission from mitch waite group . privacy policy\nconsists of soft , loose - webbed feathers on the side of the bird ' s head below and behind the eyes ."]}
{"id": 1059, "summary": [{"text": "cancer is a genus of marine crabs in the family cancridae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it includes eight extant species and three extinct species , including familiar crabs of the littoral zone , such as the european edible crab ( cancer pagurus ) , the jonah crab ( cancer borealis ) and the red rock crab ( cancer productus ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it is thought to have evolved from related genera in the pacific ocean in the miocene . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "cancer ( genus )", "paragraphs": ["and subdivided that genus into four subgenera : cancer ( cancer ) linnaeus , 1758 ; c .\ngenus oncology discovers and commercializes new anti - cancer agents that target the mucin 1 oncoprotein .\nare we missing a good definition for genus cancer ? don ' t keep it to yourself . . .\nthe genus cancer used to consists of species of crabs and most large crustaceans . it now consists of 8 extant and 3 extinct species\nphylogenetic relationships and evolutionary history of the shrimp genus penaeus s . l . derived from mitochondrial dna\nin vitro antibiotic susceptibility of pseudomonads other than pseudomonas aeruginosa recovered from cancer patients .\nthe species cancer productus ( a . k . a . red rock crab ) can be identified from other species in the genus cancer by the distinct black tips of their claws . the other large , common cancer crab species is c . magister which does not have a dark tip on its claws . c . antennarius has red spots its underside .\nphylogenetic relationships and evolutionary history of the shrimp genus penaeus s . l . derived from mitochondrial dna | request pdf\npopulation assessment of the edible crab ( cancer pagurus l . ) fishery off southwest england .\npopulation and catch structure of the edible crab ( cancer pagurus ) in the english channel .\nrefuting the six - genus classification of penaeus s . l . ( dendrobranchiata , penaeidae ) : a combined anal . . .\nforaging behaviour of juvenile carcinus maenus ( l . ) and cancer pagurus ( l . ) .\nthe distribution and behaviour of ovigerous edible crabs ( cancer pagurus ) , and consequent sampling bias .\ncancer pagurus is not known to compete with or be affected by any non - native species .\na role for the beta genus hpvs in keratinocyte carcinoma ( kc ) remains to be established . in this article we examine the potential role of the beta hpvs in cancer revealed by the epidemiology associating these viruses with kc and supported by oncogenic properties of the beta hpv proteins . unlike the cancer associated alpha genus hpvs , in which transcriptionally active viral genomes are invariably found associated with the cancers , that is not the case for the beta genus hpvs and keratinocyte carcinomas . thus a role for the beta hpvs in kc would necessarily be in the carcinogenesis initiation and not in the maintenance of the tumor .\neffect of air exposure on ammonia excretion and ammonia content of branchial water of the crab cancer pagurus .\ncancer mediterraneus herbst , 1794 : 150 , tab . 37 , fig . 2 [ 67 ] .\n) . two other members of the subfamily ebaliinae were selected as outgroups based on their phylogenetic proximity to the genus and availability of data .\nfactors in the life history of the edible crab ( cancer pagurus l . ) that influence modelling and management .\npatterns of recolonisation and the importance of pit - digging by the crab cancer pagurus in a subtidal sand habitat .\nbasic movement pattern and chemo - oriented search towards baited pots in edible crab ( cancer pagurus l . ) .\ncancer pagurus occurs in extremely wave sheltered loughs . decreased wave exposure likelihood of displacement ( a favourable effect ) and increase food supply but may increase siltation . overall , cancer pagurus is probably tolerant to a decrease in wave exposure .\nto deal with this dilemma , the society of zoological nomenclature officially designated the holotype of gelasimus platydactylus as a neotype of cancer vocans major ( holthuis 1979 ; iczn 1983 ) . the result of this decision is that we retain the names u . major for the american species and u . tangeri for the west african / european species . it also means that although u . tangeri is technically the species upon which the genus is named , u . major ( cancer vocans major ) is still the official type species of the genus uca .\noxygen uptake of developing eggs of cancer pagurus ( crustacea : decapoda : cancridae ) and consequent behaviour of ovigerous females .\nestimation of the spatial distribution of spawning crabs ( cancer pagurus l . ) using larval surveys of the english channel .\nmany of the prey items of cancer pagurus are also commercially exploited especially large bivalves . if populations of prey items were overexploited it is likely that the populations of cancer pagurus would either decrease or growth would be slower leading to later maturation .\nforaging behaviour of the crab cancer pagurus feeding on the gastropods nucella lapillus and littorina littorea : comparisons with optimal foraging theory .\ncancer ( three thorned crab ) browne , 1756 : 422 [ 156 ] , pl . 42 , fig . 3 .\nfigure 3 : radial tree - grishin ( protein ) model - showing phylogeny of genus naja with the help of rendering tree . radial tree is unrooted tree shape .\nthe benchmark genome assembly and annotation of the long - lived , cancer - resistant naked mole - rat ( heterocephalus glaber ) .\nkhodarev n , pitroda s , beckett m , macdermed d , huang l , kufe d , and weichselbaum r , muc1 - induced transcriptional programs associated with tumorigenesis predict outcome in breast and lung cancer . cancer res , 2009 . 69 : 2833 - 7 .\na number of authors subsequently used this same picture as a basis for naming the species ( manning & holthuis 1981 ) . cancer vocans major herbst , 1782 ; ocypode heterochelos lamarck , 1801 ; cancer uka shaw and nodder , 1802 ; and uca una leach , 1814 , are all objective synonyms , because they are all based on the picture and description from seba . because of this , the official type specimen of the genus uca is cancer vocans major . the earliest description of this species based on actual specimens and not on seba ' s drawing was gelasimus platydactylus milne - edwards , 1837 .\nproduction , drift and mortality of the planktonic larvae of the edible crab ( cancer pagurus ) off the north - east coast of england .\nadult cancer pagurus are not dependent in any way on water - borne particles and are unlikely to be affected by a decrease in turbidity .\n) , conventional and modern spectrum techniques were employed , encompassing morphology , ultrastructure , physiology , and molecular biology . as a result , the genus included seven species , the three former taxa\ncancer pagurus will not feed between 0 and 5\u00b0c ( karlsson & christiansen , 1996 ) and embryos will not develop below 8\u00b0c ( thompson et al . , 1995 ) . therefore if an acute decrease in temperature took the absolute temperature below 5\u00b0c , productivity of cancer pagurus might be affected although mortality is unlikely . a chronic decrease in temperature is unlikely to affect cancer pagurus at the benchmark level and tolerant has been recorded .\ncancer pagurus is not reliant on suspended sediment , therefore is unlikely to be affected by a decrease in suspended sediment and tolerant has been recorded .\ncancer pagurus is an osmoconformer ( wanson et al . , 1983 ) and is probably tolerant to slight increases in salinity but may be affected by acute increases . however , no information has been found on the effect of hypersaline conditions on cancer pagurus and therefore no assessment has been made .\nfigure 2 : slanted tree - grishin ( protein ) model - phylogenetic study of genus naja with the help of rendering tree . slanted tree is similar to rectangle , but with triangular tree shape .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - edible crab ( cancer pagurus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - edible crab ( cancer pagurus )\ntitle =\narkive species - edible crab ( cancer pagurus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nwallach v , wuster w , broadley dg ( 2009 ) . in praise of subgenera : taxonomic status of cobras of the genus naja laurenti ( serpentes : elapidae ) . zootaxa . 2236 : 2636 .\nthirteen sepcies has taken from genus naja of elapidae family , in which targeted neurotoxins protein data were used to observe molecular resemble of related protein by phylogenic analysis ( table 1 ) [ 16 , 17 ] .\nshelton ( 1973 ) reported that cancer pagurus avoided areas of spoil dumping and suggested this may be due suspended sediment or due to decreased macrofauna . cancer pagurus relies on visual acuity to find prey so although mortality due to an increase in suspended sediment is unlikely , some perturbation is expected and low has been recorded .\ncancer pagurus responds to hypoxia by increasing the efficiency of oxygen extraction from the water by its gills ( aldrich & regnault , 1992 ; spicer & weber , 1992 ) . cancer pagurus can survive for at least 18 hours in oxygen - depleted conditions ( spicer & weber , 1992 ) and can probably survive longer .\na decrease in water movement probably would not affect cancer pagurus as it does not rely on water movement for feeding or gas exchange and tolerant has been recorded .\ncancer punctatus linnaeus , 1758 : 630 [ 78 ] . \u2015herbst , 1794 : 89 [ 67 ] , pl . 11 , figs . 15 , 16 .\nkufe d , muc1 - c oncoprotein as a target in breast cancer : activation of signaling pathways and therapeutic approaches . oncogene 2013 . 32 : 1073 - 81 .\nlawton , p . , 1989 . predatory interaction between the brachyuran crab cancer pagurus and decapod crustacean prey . marine ecology progress series , 52 , 169 - 179 .\nregnault , m . , 1992 . effect of air exposure on nitrogen metabolism in the crab cancer pagurus . journal of experimental zoology , 264 , 372 - 380 .\ncancer pagurus accumulates technetium , a radionuclide of anthropogenic origin , in the hepatopancreas bound by metallothionein ( knowles et al . , 1998 ) . accumulated metal can be excreted once exposure has ceased and experimental cancer pagurus cleared half of the accumulated technetium in about 100 days ( smith et al . , 1998 ) . due to the detoxification of metal by binding it to metallothioneins , cancer pagurus may be tolerant but the effect of radiation during decay of radionuclides is unknown . therefore no assessment of intolerance has been made .\nthe earliest description of the type species of uca is from a drawing in seba ( 1758 ) , which he called cancer uka una , brasiliensibus ( shown below ) .\nngoc - ho , n . & de saint laurent . ( 2009 ) . the genus thalassina latreille , 1806 ( crustacea : thalassinidea : thalassinidae . raffles bulletin of zoology supplement . 20 : 121 - 158 . [ details ]\nfigure 4 : force tree - grishin ( protein ) model - showing phylogeny of genus naja with the help of rendering tree . force tree is similar to radial , where nodes are pushed away from one another for better presentation .\ncitation : sherkhane as , gomase vs ( 2014 ) evolutionary distance and conserved domain analysis of divergent phylogenetic lineages from genus naja . j data mining genomics proteomics 5 : 156 . doi : 10 . 4172 / 2153 - 0602 . 1000156\ngenus oncology was formed in 2007 with a mission of discovering , developing , and commercializing new anti - cancer agents that target the mucin 1 ( muc1 ) oncoprotein . the incidence of overexpressed muc1 in a wide array of carcinomas and hematologic malignancies has been known by researchers for many years . until now , no viable approach existed to selectively target and block the function of muc1 that leads to the formation of tumors .\nfigure 1 : rectangle tree - fast minimum evolution algorithm - phylogenetic study of genus naja with the help of rendering tree showing the evolutionary difference with n . naja in the rectangular shaped rooted tree , root is places in the longest edge .\nin an experiment on blood chemistry of emersed crabs , 60 cancer pagurus survived exposure to air but under wet seaweed for 24 hours ( regnault , 1992 ) . however , increased emergence will probably cause them to migrate down shore during a following period of immersion . an increase in emergence is unlikely to cause mortality or perturbation to cancer pagurus and tolerant has been recorded .\nwanson , s . , pequeux , a . & giles , r . , 1983 . osmoregulation in the stone crab cancer pagurus . marine biology letters , 4 , 321 - 330 .\nadult cancer pagurus are osmoconformers , meaning that they maintain the ionic balance of the haemolymph at a similar concentration to the surrounding water but they are intolerant of salinities below 17 psu . juveniles ( 5 - 10 cm cw ) are mainly intertidal and are tolerant of low salinities ( wanson et al . , 1983 ) . cancer pagurus loses osmoregulatory ability when it moves from the intertidal to the subtidal at about 3 years of age ( regnault , 1992 ) . intertidal populations of cancer pagurus are probably tolerant of decreases in salinity . however , subtidal adults are likely to be adversely affected by low salinities e . g . from hyposaline effluents . cancer pagurus is a very mobile species and would probably avoid hyposaline water and therefore an intolerance of low has been recorded .\nhoward , a . e . , 1982 . the distribution and behaviour of ovigerous edible crabs ( cancer pagurus ) , and consequent sampling bias . journal du conseil , 40 , 259 - 261 .\nregnault , m . , 1994 . effect of air exposure on ammonia excretion and ammonia content of branchial water of the crab cancer pagurus . journal of experimental zoology , 268 , 208 - 217 .\nmascaro , m . & seed , r . , 2001 . foraging behaviour of juvenile carcinus maenus ( l . ) and cancer pagurus ( l . ) . marine biology , 139 , 1135 - 1145 .\nfigs , the genus ficus brings together those histories , ancient and modern , to present an extraordinary profile of an extraordinary plant with an abundance of medical uses and a reputation as both a delicacy and a diet staple in some regions of the world . several chapters within the book are devoted to intensive study of different parts of the tree : fruits , leaves , bark and stem , roots , and latex . these chapters discuss the ficus genus as a whole , including the botany of the most important species that have been related to that particular part pharmacologically .\ncancer can live up to 20yrs & is relatively slow growing taking 6 - 10yrs to reach sexual maturity . it produces a large number of eggs that are fertilised internally & brooded by the female before being released as planktotrophic zoea larvae between april - august . these spend about 30 days in the plankton before developing into the megalopa stage & settling to the seabed . larval dispersal potential is therefore high , but the very slow growth rate & the substrate requirements for this genus suggest that recoverability may be low .\nbennett , d . b . , 1995 . factors in the life history of the edible crab ( cancer pagurus l . ) that influence modelling and management . ices marine science symposia , 199 , 89 - 98 .\nthere have been two major proposals for splitting up the genus , one by bott ( 1973 ) and the other by crane ( 1975 ) . neither is based on a numerical phylogeny . crane ' s descriptions are very complete . bott ' s descriptions are poor , but have priority . for a long time , scientists actively ignored both subdivisions and when there was a reference in the literature , it almost always used crane ' s names and not bott ' s . bott also split the genus into multiple genera rather than subgenera , an unnecessary complication in most researcher ' s minds .\novernell , j . , 1984 . the partition of copper and cadmium between different charge - forms of metallothionein in the digestive tubules of the crab , cancer pagurus . comparative biochemistry and physiology , 77c , 237 - 243 .\nwilson , e . ( 1999 ) cancer pagurus . edible crab . marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information sub - programme [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom : urltoken\nbrown , c . g . & bennett , d . b . , 1980 . population and catch structure of the edible crab ( cancer pagurus ) in the english channel . journal du conseil , 39 , 88 - 100 .\nlaw , t . , 1982 . the uptake , distribution and biochemical effects of cadmium in the edible crab cancer pagurus . ( m . phil . thesis ) , m . phil . thesis , bristol polytechnic , science department .\nbennett , d . b . & brown , c . g . , 1983 . crab ( cancer pagurus ) migrations in the english channel . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , 63 , 371 - 398 .\nlike in laboratory mice ( mus musculus ) , the major cause of death in rats is cancer , though there is variation between strains . various degenerative conditions have been observed in aged rats , including several kidney diseases [ 0981 ] .\nthe above synonymization of i . hancocki does not affect the taxonomic status of the genus iliacantha . there are five more species within iliacantha for which we do not have genetic data to assess the validities of the two genera . however , we are able to separate both genera based on morphology of the cheliped alone .\nin our analysis , the separation of p . subovata and \u201c i . hancocki \u201d cannot be supported . the genetic divergence value obtained with coi was only 0 . 3 % , clearly within the range of intraspecific genetic variation , placing \u201c i . hancocki \u201d and equivalent to other existing species in the genus persephona .\naldrich , j . c . & regnault , m . , 1990 . individual variations in the response to hypoxia in cancer pagurus ( l . ) measured at the excited rate . marine behaviour and physiology , 16 , 225 - 235 .\nas the majority of cases were reported prior to the implementation of the new taxonomy for malassezia yeasts , the genus name malassezia sp . will be used in order to address cases of lipophilic yeast systemic isolates characterized as m . furfur ( sensu lato ) or pityrosporum ovale , while m . pachydermatis will be used for nonobligatory lipophilic isolates .\nkarlsson , k . & christiansen , m . e . , 1996 . occurrence and population composition of the edible crab ( cancer pagurus ) on rocky shores of an islet on the south coast of norway . sarsia , 81 , 307 - 314 .\nwilson , e . ( 1999 ) cancer pagurus . edible crab . marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information sub - programme [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom . ( november , 2003 ) urltoken\nsubstrate removal is likely to remove a proportion of cancer pagurus although some will escape . those that escape undamaged will quickly recolonize whatever seabed remains and migrate to new habitats if necessary . therefore an intolerance of intermediate and a recoverability of moderate have been recorded .\nlawton , p . & hughes , r . n . , 1985 . foraging behaviour of the crab cancer pagurus feeding on the gastropods nucella lapillus and littorina littorea : comparisons with optimal foraging theory . marine ecology progress series , 27 , 147 - 154 .\nbennett , d . b . , 1979 . population assessment of the edible crab ( cancer pagurus l . ) fishery off southwest england . rapports et proces - verbaux des reunions . conseil international pour l ' exploration de la mer , 175 , 229 - 235 .\novernell , j . , 1982 . copper metabolism in crabs and metallothionein : in vivo effects of copper ( ii ) on soluble hepatopancreas metal binding components of the crab cancer pagurus containing varying amounts of cadmium . comparative biochemistry and physiology , 73b , 555 - 564 .\nfigs , the genus ficus is a book in the crc press series , traditional herbal medicines for modern times , edited by roland hardman . each volume in this series provides academia , health sciences , and the herbal medicines industry with in - depth coverage of the herbal remedies for infectious diseases , certain medical conditions , or the plant medicines of a particular country .\nall around britain and ireland there are substantial fisheries for cancer pagurus ( bennett 1979 ; 1995 ; brown & bennett , 1980 ; eaton et al . , 2001 ; fahy , et al . , 2002 ; howard , 1982 ) , which although causing significant mortality , are regulated by minimum landing sizes introduced in the 19th century . also the biology of cancer pagurus protects the sustainability of the fishery as berried females do not feed and are rarely caught in baited pots ( howard , 1982 ) . therefore an intolerance of intermediate has been recorded .\nphylogenetic relationships within metapenaeopsis remain largely unknown . the modern revision of the genus suggests that the shape of the petasma , followed by the presence of a stridulating organ , are the most important distinguishing taxonomic features . in the present study , phylogenetic relationships were studied among seven metapenaeopsis species from the indo - west pacific based on partial . . . [ show full abstract ]\nadult cancer pagurus are very unlikely to be subject to desiccation because they are subtidal but are likely to survive at the benchmark level as they can survive up to 24 hours in moist air ( regnault , 1992 ) . the juveniles in the intertidal seek shelter in moist microhabitats under rocks and seaweed ( lawton , 1989 ) and are likely to survive extended exposure in the short term and will migrate downshore upon emersion on the next high tide . cancer pagurus survive for long periods in fish boxes waiting to be sold , therefore tolerant has been recorded .\nmuc1 is overexpressed in ~ 90 % of human breast cancers , including those of the triple - negative subtype . the findings that overexpression of muc1 in breast cancer is associated with decreased progression - free and overall survival have emphasized the potential importance of muc1 as a therapeutic target .\nfahy , e . , carroll , j . & stokes , d . , 2002 . the inshore pot fishery for brown crab ( cancer pagurus ) , landing into south east ireland : estimate of yield and assessment of status . irish fisheries investigations , 11 , 26 p .\nicz is known as a product of indole - 3 - carbinol ( i3c ) condensation in the acidic stomach environment after the ingestion of plants belonging to the genus brassica ( cruciferae ) , such as cabbage and broccoli , etc . ( 248 ) . i3c is a product of glucobrassicin catabolism , a natural ingredient of the above - mentioned foods ( 188 , 336 ) .\ncancer ( the edible or brown crab ) is a large , mobile crab which is known to undergo significant migrations . it is likely to be vulnerable to dredging , but is sufficiently active to avoid the effects of deposition of sediment mobilised by the dredging process . however it is dependent on the presence of suitable boulders or crevices hollowed out of the deposits for survival & is hence susceptible to habitat modification if large quantities of sand overlay the substratum . there is some anecdotal evidence that significant alterations to the sediment type may cause cancer to move out of an area . there are some stages in the breeding cycle when cancer may be particularly vulnerable to sedimentation . when the females are \u201cberried\u201d , brooding their eggs , they hide in pits or under rocks & do not feed for 6 - 9 months & are likely to be vulnerable to disturbance .\nspicer , j . i . & weber , r . e . , 1992 . respiratory impairment by water - borne copper and zinc in the edible crab cancer pagurus ( l . ) ( crustacea : decapoda ) during hypoxic exposure . marine biology , 112 , 429 - 435 .\ndiverse sites of infection by p aeruginosa . this opportunistic pathogen may infect virtually any tissue . infection is facilitated by the presence of underlying disease ( e . g . , cancer , cystic fibrosis ) or by a breakdown in nonspecific host defenses ( as ( more . . . )\nthe prey of cancer pagurus includes various filter feeding bivalves ( hall et al . , 1991 ; mascaro & seed , 2001 ) and filter feeding crabs ( lawton , 1989 ) . the productivity of these prey items is likely to be increased by increased turbidity and thus improve the ratio of effort / predation success by cancer pagurus and thus improve their productivity as well . an increase in suspended matter may reduce predation from visual predators such as seals and fish but is unlikely to affect the foraging of the crab as this is mainly chemosensory and tolerant * has been recorded .\nany effect from an increase in temperature would depend on the time of year . adult cancer pagurus are not tolerant of temperatures over 20\u00b0c ( karlsson & christiansen , 1996 ) and if an acute change of temperature occurred in summer when sea temperatures are already high , some mortality could occur . however , if an acute rise in temperature occurred in winter the only effect would be an increase in activity associated with a rise in metabolic rate . a chronic increase in temperature is unlikely to affect cancer pagurus . an intolerance of intermediate has been recorded to account for the worst case scenario .\nskajaa , k . , ferno , a . , lokkeborg , s . & haugland , e . k . , 1998 . basic movement pattern and chemo - oriented search towards baited pots in edible crab ( cancer pagurus l . ) . hydrobiologia , 371 / 372 , 143 - 153 .\nthis study reports a primer set for amplifying a partial fragment of about 610 bp in the fast mutating mitochondrial control region in shrimps of the genus penaeus ( decapoda : penaeidae ) . the utility of this amplified fragment for studying population differentiation and structuring , compared with more conservative mitochondrial genes ( 16s rrna and coi ) , was explored in p . merguiensis . . . [ show full abstract ]\nkhodarev n , ahmad r , rajabi h , pitroda s , kufe t , mcclary c , joshi md , macdermed d , weichselbaum r , and kufe d , cooperativity of the muc1 oncoprotein and stat1 pathway in poor prognosis human breast cancer . oncogene , 2010 . 29 : 920 - 9 .\nadult cancer pagurus are subtidal and are unlikely to be affected by a decrease in emergence . juveniles less than 3 years of age are mainly intertidal ( regnault , 1994 ) and a decrease in emergence is likely to be beneficial as it would increase foraging time . therefore tolerant * has been recorded .\nthompson , b . m . , lawler , a . r . & bennett , d . b . , 1995 . estimation of the spatial distribution of spawning crabs ( cancer pagurus l . ) using larval surveys of the english channel . ices marine science symposia , 199 , 139 - 150 .\nknowles , j . f . , smith , d . l . & winpenny , k . , 1998 . a comparative study of the uptake , clearance and metabolism of technetium in lobster ( homarus gammarus ) and edible crab ( cancer pagurus ) . radiation protection dosimetry , 75 , 125 - 129 .\n) are considerably different . nonetheless , these two species are the members of the genus in which the carpus and merus of the cheliped share the character of bearing tufts of setae on the inner margins . this appears to represent yet another example among marine decapod crustaceans of a species pair diverging from a common ancestor after gene flow was interrupted by closing of the isthmus of panama ( ~ 3 . 5 mybp [\nnichols , j . h . , thompson , b . m . & cryer , m . 1982 . production , drift and mortality of the planktonic larvae of the edible crab ( cancer pagurus ) off the north - east coast of england . netherlands journal of sea research , 16 , 173 - 184 .\nvogan , c . l . , llewellyn , p . j . & rowley , a . f . , 1999 . epidemiology and dynamics of shell disease of the edible crab cancer pagurus : a preliminary study of langland bay , swansea , uk . diseases of aquatic organisms , 35 , 81 - 87 .\naccording to current taxonomy , six species of persephona are known to occur in the western atlantic [ p . aquilonaris rathbun , 1933 ; p . crinita rathbun , 1931 ; p . finneganae rathbun , 1933 ; p . lichtensteinii leach , 1817 ; p . mediterranea ( herbst , 1794 ) , and p . punctata ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ] and four in the eastern pacific [ p . edwardsii bell , 1855 ; p . orbicularis bell , 1855 ; p . subovata ( rathbun , 1893 ) , and p . townsendi ( rathbun , 1893 ) ] [ 1 ] ) . however , this number is somewhat uncertain given the questionable status of several species in the genus . applying the briggs and bowen [ 5 ] scheme of american zoogeographic subdivisions , representative members of the genus persephona are absent from only the eastern pacific juan fernandez province .\nthe galatheid genus raymunida macpherson and machordom , 2000 , is reported for the first time from taiwan , and the species collected is also new to science . the new species is most closely related to r . confundens macpherson and machordom , 2001 , but differs in having a more robust cheliped and walking legs covered with distinct squammae . the coloration of the new species is probably unique in . . . [ show full abstract ]\nsmith , d . l . , knowles , j . f . & winpenny , k . , 1998 . the accumulation , retention and distribution of 95mtc in crab ( cancer pagurus l . ) and lobster ( homarus gammarus l . ) . a comparative study . journal of environmental radioactivity , 40 , 113 - 135 .\nnaylor , j . k . , taylor , e . w . & bennett , d . b . , 1999 . oxygen uptake of developing eggs of cancer pagurus ( crustacea : decapoda : cancridae ) and consequent behaviour of ovigerous females . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , 79 , 305 - 315 .\nchapter 1 . introduction references chapter 2 . overview of ficus genus references chapter 3 . fruits summary references chapter 4 . leaves . alkaloids coumarins flavonoids terpenoids , sterols peptides and proteins . nociception . inflammation osteoporosis , viruses , parasites toxicology historical uses summary references . chapter 5 . latex historical uses of ficus latex chemistry and pharmacology of fig latex hypertension signal transduction modulation blood coagulation chitinase - related activities viii contents warts cancer psoriasis . hepatotoxicity allergy for the plant references chapter 6 . bark , wood , and stems chemistry references chapter 7 . roots ( including aerial roots and root bark ) historical uses references chapter 8 . fig wasps . references chapter 9 . figs and humans terradiagnostics terratherapeutics ecology , nutrition , and novel applications figs and medicine . references chapter 10 . ficus post - script references index\n. . . haplotypes . since the genus also occurs in the pacific ocean , we included in the analysis four sequences of xiphopenaeus riveti , obtained from specimens coming from panama ( 8 53 0 ne79 35 0 w ) ( accession numbers : dq084377edq084380dq084377dq84378dq84379dq84380 ; gusm\u00e3o et al . , 2006 ) , as well as one metapenaeus ensis sequence , that was used as the outgroup ( access number af279830 ; lavery et al . , 2004 ) . . . .\neaton , d . r . , brown , j . , addison , j . t . , milligan , s . p . & fernand , l . j . , 2003 . edible crab ( cancer pagurus ) larvae surveys off the east coast of england : implications for stock structure . fisheries research , 65 , 191 - 199 .\n( of cancer mantis linnaeus , 1758 ) linnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cancer mantis linnaeus , 1758 ) schram , f . r . ; m\u00fcller , h . - g . ( 2004 ) . catalog and bibliography of the fossil and recent stomatopoda . backhuys publishers : leiden , the netherlands . isbn 90 - 5782 - 144 - 3 . 264 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\ngenus beta type - specific dna loads in plucked eyebrow hairs of controls and scc cases who were concordant for a single hpv type in their eyebrow hair and tumor tissue . controls had a single hpv type in their eyebrow hair that was the same detected in the scc cases . fully colored bars show the result of quantitative pcr . partially colored bars represent quantitative pcr negative but qualitative pcr positive samples with the height giving the threshold of detection of quantitative pcr ( ) .\nneutropenia in cancer patients and others receiving immunosuppressive drugs contributes to infection . pseudomonas aeruginosa has several virulence factors , but their roles in pathogenesis are unclear . an alginate is antiphagocytic , and most strains isolated produce toxin a , a diphtheria - toxin - like exotoxin . all strains have endotoxin , which is a major virulence factor in bacteremia and septic shock .\nhall , s . j . , basford , d . j . , robertson , m . r . , raffaelli , d . g . & tuck , i . , 1991 . patterns of recolonisation and the importance of pit - digging by the crab cancer pagurus in a subtidal sand habitat . marine ecology progress series , 72 , 93 - 102 .\ncancer pagurus is tolerant of being hauled into boats in crab pots and returned to the sea , with an increase in metabolic rate the only effect ( aldrich & regnault , 1990 ) . it also survives well when caught in pots and taken to laboratories and so is tolerant of being displaced within the marine environment ( regnault , 1992 ; overnell , 1984 ) .\nlinnaeus , c . , 1758 . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . ( ed . 10 ) , 1 ( 2 ) : i - iii , 1 - 823 ( animalia ) ( 625 - 634 for cancer ) , 825 - 1384 ( vegitabilia ) holmiae .\nnaja naja is one of the poisonous snakes in the genus naja of elapids family and commonly called indian cobras and are mostly found in asia and africa [ 1 ] . elapidae family approximately consists of 300 venomous snakes in 62 genera [ 2 ] . the genus naja consists of currently 26 species of cobra of which 11 inhabit asia and 15 occur in africa [ 3 , 4 ] . proteins from naja naja are potent postsynaptic neurotoxins [ 5 ] . neurotoxins that acts by binding to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the postsynaptic membrane of skeletal muscles [ 6 ] causing severe local pain , swelling immediately after bite ; dark discoloration , necrosis , paralysis and even death [ 7 - 10 ] . in this research work , we study the origin and evolution of neurotoxin from n . naja by multiple sequence alignments that provide the functional information of conserved sequence regions of neurotoxin from naja naja , phylogenetic analysis shows taxonomical classification , identifying and naming new members of protein families that derived from a common ancestor [ 11 - 15 ] .\nstentiford , g . d , green , m . , bateman , k . , small , h . j . , neil , d . m . & feist , s . w . , 2002 . infection by a hematodinium - like parasitic dinoflagellate causes pink crab disease ( pcd ) in the edible crab cancer pagurus . journal of invertebrate pathology , 79 , 179 - 191 .\nneal , k . j . & wilson , e . 2008 . cancer pagurus edible crab . in tyler - walters h . and hiscock k . ( eds ) marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information reviews , [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom . [ cited 09 - 07 - 2018 ] . available from : urltoken\neaton , d . r . , addison , j . t . , milligan , s . p . , brown , j . & fernand , l . j . , 2001 . larvae surveys of edible crab ( cancer pagurus ) off the east coast of england : implications for stock structure and management . ices council meeting papers , c . m . j : 14 10 p .\nin addition to cyp1a1 , icz also affects another protein , breast cancer resistance protein ( bcrp ) , probably through ahr activation . experiments with caco - 2 cells have shown that icz ( 2 . 5 \u03bcm ) can increase significantly the mrna expression level of bcrp after 8 or 24 h ( 90 ) . furthermore , icz presented antiestrogenic activity in mcf - 7 cells ( 201 ) .\nma , k . y . , chan , t . - y & chu , k . h . ( 2011 ) . refuting the six - genus classification of penaeus s . l . ( dendrobranchiata , penaeidae ) : a combined analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear genes . \u2014zoologica scripta , 40 , 498\u2013508 . the taxonomic revision in 1997 of the shrimps formerly classified in penaeus s . l . has been one of the most controversial issues on systematics of the decapods in recent years . . . . [ show full abstract ]\npseudomonas aeruginosa and p maltophilia account for 80 percent of opportunistic infections by pseudomonads . pseudomonas aeruginosa infection is a serious problem in patients hospitalized with cancer , cystic fibrosis , and burns ; the case fatality is 50 percent . other infections caused by pseudomonas species include endocarditis , pneumonia , and infections of the urinary tract , central nervous system , wounds , eyes , ears , skin , and musculoskeletal system .\nfor about 60 years , the genus was known as gelasimus , until rathbun ( 1897 ) showed that the abandonment of the older name uca did not conform to zoological naming conventions . the type species of uca was known as both uca heterochelos and u . platydactylus , until rathbun ( 1918 ) suggested the adoption of u . heterochelos as the valid name . almost 50 years later , holthuis ( 1962 ) pointed out that u . heterochelos was an objective junior synonym of u . major , thus the type species has been referred to as u . major ever since .\n( of cancer luederwaldti rathbun , 1930 ) adema , j . p . h . m . ( 1991 ) . de krabben van nederland en belgie ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura ) [ the crabs of the netherlands and belgium ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura ) ] . nationaal natuurhistorisch museum : leiden , the netherlands . isbn 90 - 73239 - 02 - 8 . 244 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of cancer fimbriatus olivi , 1792 ) adema , j . p . h . m . ( 1991 ) . de krabben van nederland en belgie ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura ) [ the crabs of the netherlands and belgium ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura ) ] . nationaal natuurhistorisch museum : leiden , the netherlands . isbn 90 - 73239 - 02 - 8 . 244 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n. . . morphological traits including the diagnostic pouch - like thelycum and characteristic features ( such as its movable spines in the telson ) are effective characters to identify the species . this species is currently described by two scientific names p . japonicus and marsupenaeus japonicus due to the controversy of the status of the genus penaeus fabricius , 1798 ( see p\u00e9rez farfante and kensley 1997 ; lavery et al . 2004 ; flegel 2007flegel , 2008mclaughlin et al . 2008 ; ma et al . 2011 ) . these names are independently used by various organizations and databases , e . g . . . .\ncancer pagurus is nocturnal and has reasonably good eyesight , any lights that are present in the water are likely to affect their activity patterns . since they are predated upon by seals ( skajaa et al . , 1998 ) , large objects in the water such as divers may cause active crabs to seek refuge and inactive ones to remain so . an intolerance of low has been recorded because visual presence is unlikely to cause mortality but will probably alter its behaviour .\nfigure 5 : multiple sequence alignment by cobalt of genus naja . here columns with no gaps are colored in blue or red . the red color cys ( c ) , thr ( t ) , asn ( n ) hydrophilic polar , phe ( f ) , gly ( g ) , ala ( a ) , pro ( p ) hydrophobic nonpolar , lys ( k ) , arg ( r ) , positive charged , asp ( d ) , nagative charge indicates highly conserved columns and blue indicates less conserved ones . the conservation setting can be used to select a threshold for determining , which columns are colored in red .\nfigs , the ficus trees , are an understudied genus in modern pharmacognosy . this book present a multidisciplinary approach to the botany , chemistry , and pharmacology of fig trees and figs of the ficus species , including the fig of commerce , ficus carica , the rubber tree , ficus elastic , and the bo tree , ficus religiosa . traditional and current uses of figs in medicine are discussed in detail . the book also explores how figs and fig tree parts are processed , and the pharmacological basis underlying the potential efficacy of preparations is investigated in relation to their chemical composition . the book moves seamlessly from mythology to botany to ethnomedicine to pharmacology to phytochemistry .\nbased on molecular and morphological analyses , we propose substantial modifications to the current taxonomy of the genus persephona . we restrict the distribution of p . crinita to the gulf of mexico ; we synonymize p . finneganae under p . lichtensteinii ; we confirm that p . mediterranea and p . aquilonaris are both valid species , the first occurring in part of southern florida , the caribbean and south america , the second restricted to the gulf of mexico and eastern north america . we also show that p . townsendi is a junior synonymy of p . orbicularis , and that iliacantha hancocki is a junior synonym of p . subovata . following this revision , there are eight valid species of persephona .\nshih et al . ( 2016 ) published a paper which uses a phylogenetic tree showing ghost crabs as a subgroup of fiddler crabs to justify splitting fiddler crabs into eleven different genera ( essentially , raising the subgenera listed below to genera , except for australuca which they find to be a subset of tubuca ) . while one can argue whether differences among the subgroups warrant being considered genera or subgenera , i do not believe the phylogenetic tree which they use to justify this change is correct and for now am sticking with the more traditional approach of keeping all fiddler crabs within a single genus on this website . i will update this site to match their classification if additional data and future analyses continue to support their result .\nmultiple sequence alignment [ msa ] is conducted by cobalt , which aligns thirteen neurotoxin protein sequences of similar naja genus using a combination of distance matrix and approximate parsimony methods . numerical setting method is used to study the relative entropy threshold , in bits , that must be met for an alignment column to be displayed in red . a larger number indicates higher degree of conservation . the relative entropy is computed as : \u03c3 i f i log2 ( f i / p i ) , where i is residue type , fi is residue frequency observed in the multiple alignment column , and pi is the background residue frequency . identity setting used for only columns with one residue type will be colored in red [ 18 ] .\nthe authors , dr . ephraim lansky md , highly respected as one of the world\u2019s only physician pharmcognocists and dr . helena paavilainen , a renowned researcher of natural products , go on to consider the chemistry and pharmacology of each part in selected ficus species , and modern , medieval , and ancient methods for obtaining and preparing the beneficial components from that plant part for medicinal use . special attention is paid to the plants ' propensity for fighting inflammation , including cancer . figs\u2019 future potential is considered in a number of treatments , as are future areas of research .\nmalassezia yeasts are unique under the view that they comprise almost exclusively the single eukaryotic member of the microbial flora of the skin . however , the complexity of the interaction of a unicellular eukaryotic organism ( malassezia ) with a tissue of a multicellular organism ( skin ) makes understanding the interactions and development of disease a complex process . this is easily understood by the fact that once a revision of the genus malassezia was described in a seminal publication by gu\u00e9ho et al . in 1996 ( 129 ) , in addition to studying the epidemiology of this yeast in healthy and diseased skin , the need to repeat the already inconclusive experiments in relation to malassezia immunology surfaced ( 14 ) . furthermore , the expansion of our knowledge on the complex homeostatic mechanisms of the skin increases the candidate targets of interactions between this yeast and skin cells .\nindirubin and its analogues exhibit inhibitory activities against cell proliferation as well as cytotoxicity and apoptosis induction in human cancer cell lines , and its identification in m . furfur extracts ( 120 ) expands the spectrum of the interactions of this yeast with the skin . the interest in indirubin and its derivatives has increased significantly in the last years , after the discovery of its inhibitory activity against cyclin - dependent kinases ( cdks ) and glycogen synthase kinase 3 ( gsk3 ) . additionally , indirubin has been found to be one of the most active agonists of the ahr and was also proposed to be the natural ligand of this receptor . in order to clarify the role of kinase inhibition and ahr activation by indirubin in cell proliferation , a study of synthetic derivatives with selective activity proved that ahr activation is responsible for the observed cytostatic effects , while the inhibition of cdks or gsk3 is responsible for its cytotoxicity ( 182 ) .\nioannis d . bassukas , m . d . , ph . d . , studied medicine and specialized in dermatology - venereology and allergiology . he graduated from the university of athens ( greece ) and received his postgraduate degrees from the university of w\u00fcrzburg ( germany ) . he joined brigitte maurer - schultze at the institute of medical radiation and cell research ( university of w\u00fcrzburg ) as a research fellow and worked on the effects of antineoplastic modalities on growth and cell kinetics of normal and malignant tissues . he trained as a resident at the departments of pathology ( bonn ) and dermatology ( erlangen ) and served as attending physician at the departments of dermatology , fachklinik hornheide university of m\u00fcnster and university of l\u00fcbeck ( germany ) , and as vice director of the department of dermatology and venereology , academic hospital neuk\u00f6lln , berlin , germany . he is now associate professor of dermatology and director of the department of skin and venereal diseases , university of ioannina ( greece ) . his main research interests are skin - focusing human commensal\u2013pathogen interactions and nonsurgical treatment modalities for skin cancer .\nold animals suffer from various age - related diseases common in humans , including heart disease and cancer ; amyloidosis , diabetes and , in females , endometriosis have also been reported [ 0981 ] . chinese rhesus macaques have demonstrated noticeable age - related changes in both t and b cell subsets , comparable to those found during human ageing . t cell ageing is slower in female chinese rhesus macaques than in males , giving males a more severe immune risk profile [ 1183 ] . there have been conflicting reports on the effects of caloric restriction in rhesus macaques . one ongoing study first reported in 2009 that caloric restriction can lower the incidence of ageing - related deaths [ 0873 ] , a second ongoing study reported in 2012 that caloric restriction did not improve survival even if beneficial health effects were observed [ 1074 ] . the former ongoing study reported again in 2014 that caloric restriction reduces age - related and all - cause mortality [ 1184 ] . a comprehensive assessment of longitudinal data from both sites concluded that caloric restriction does improve health and survival of rhesus monkeys [ 1257 ] .\nmaterial examined . \u2015photograph of lectotype ( by c . o . coleman ) . \u2015mediterranean sea ( error ) , 1 \u2642 of cancer mediterraneus ( cw 29 . 0mm ) , zmb 0756 . \u2015photograph of type ( by h . taylor ) . \u2015west indies , 1 \u2640 of persephona latreillei ( cw 42 . 0mm ) , nhmuk white 1 96 . d ( sloane 2048 ) . \u2015photograph of syntype ( by m . carnall ) . \u2015antilles islands , 1 \u2642 of persephona guaia ( cw 45 . 0mm ) , oumnh 13775 . other specimens . \u2015united states : florida , tampa ufmnh 6579 ( 1 \u2640 ) . belize : twin cays ullz 15385 ( 1 juvenile ) . brazil : esp\u00edrito santo mnrj 23309 ( 1 \u2640ov reported as p . punctata punctata ) . rio de janeiro , cabo frio mnrj 3900 ( 1 \u2642 , 1 \u2640 ) . arraial do cabo mnrj 3899 ( 1 juvenile reported as p . punctata punctata ) . rio de janeiro mnrj 333 ( 3 \u2642 reported as p . punctata punctata ) , 334 ( 2 \u2640 reported as p . punctata punctata ) , 346 ( 1 \u2642 , 1 \u2640ov reported as p . punctata punctata ) , 712 ( 1 \u2642 reported as p . punctata punctata ) . guaratiba mnrj 342 ( 1 \u2642 reported as p . punctata punctata ) . angra dos reis mnrj 3897 ( 1 \u2642 reported as p . punctata punctata ) , 3898 ( 1 \u2642 , 3 \u2640 ) , 4462 ( 1 \u2642 ) . ilha grande mnrj 4463 ( 3 \u2642 , 2 \u2640 reported as p . punctata punctata ) . s\u00e3o paulo , canan\u00e9ia mzusp 33205 ( 1 \u2642 ) . caraguatatuba ccdb 758 ( 1 \u2642 ) . ubatuba ccdb 1539 ( 2 \u2640 , 2 juveniles ) , 2836 ( 1 \u2642 ) , 3881 ( 1 \u2642 ) . santos mnrj 23308 ( 2 \u2642 , 1 \u2640 reported as p . punctata punctata ) . santa catarina , s\u00e3o francisco do sul cepesul 113 ( 1 \u2642 ) .\nbroadly oval , about 1 . 2 - 1 . 4 times as broad as long , widest at level of seventh or eighth\nmoderately projecting , tri - lobed , lateral lobes broad , medial lobe on a lower level , projecting upwards ; antero - lateral and postero - lateral borders not meeting at a distinct angle ; antero - lateral margins strongly convex , cut into 10 teeth , first 9 of similar shape and size , tenth smaller .\nbalss , h . , 1922c . \u00f6stasiatische decapoden . iv . die brachyrhynchen ( cancridea ) . archiv f\u00fcr naturgeschichte , 88a ( 11 ) : 94 - 166 , figs 1 - 2 , pls 1 - 2 ."]}
{"id": 1062, "summary": [{"text": "calliostoma aculeatum , common name the prickly japanese top shell , is a species of medium-sized deepwater sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family calliostomatidae . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "calliostoma aculeatum", "paragraphs": ["worms - world register of marine species - calliostoma aculeatum aculeatum g . b . sowerby iii , 1912\ncalliostoma aculeatum 22mm beautiful specimen leg . teram . . . calliostoma aculeatum 22mm beautiful specimen leg . teram . . .\ncalliostoma aculeatum 22mm beautiful specimen leg . teramachi w / o kii , japan | ebay\nworms - world register of marine species - calliostoma aculeatum g . b . sowerby iii , 1912\nsubspecies calliostoma aculeatum aculeatum g . b . sowerby iii , 1912 accepted as tristichotrochus aculeatus aculeatus ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1912 ) represented as tristichotrochus aculeatus ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1912 )\ncalliostoma aculeatum g . b . sowerby iii , 1912 accepted as tristichotrochus aculeatus ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1912 )\nspecies calliostoma aculeatum g . b . sowerby iii , 1912 accepted as tristichotrochus aculeatus ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1912 )\nspecimen shell : calliostoma aculeatum aliguayensis each seashell we have have been carefully picked to ensure the highest seashells quality . these shells come from all over the philippines , provided by fishermen ( philippines - aliguay island ) , divers , calliostomatidae specimen shell : calliostoma aculeatum aliguayensis poppe , tagaro & dekker 2006\nspecies : calliostoma aculeatum aliguayensis . size : 12 . 2 mm . found : taken with lumon lumon net at about 35 m depth . | ebay ! | seashells & land snails | pinterest\nsea shell information on : ts139370 - calliostomatidae calliostoma - > aculeatum aliguayensis . this specimen is of calliostomatidae . the specimen shell of groupe : calliostoma . shell found on the philippines . shell is of exceptional quality . more sea shell information\ncalliostoma adamsi brazier , 1895 : synonym of calliostoma comptum a . adams , 1855\ncalliostoma purpureocinctum hedley , 1894 : synonym of calliostoma comptum a . adams , 1855\nspecies calliostoma convexum w . h . turton , 1932 accepted as calliostoma africanum bartsch , 1915\nspecies calliostoma capense thiele , 1925 accepted as calliostoma perfragile g . b . sowerby iii , 1903\nspecies calliostoma albolineatum w . h . turton , 1932 accepted as calliostoma ornatum ( lamarck , 1822 )\ncalliostoma formosensis e . a . smith , 1907 : synonym of calliostoma formosense e . a . smith , 1907\ncalliostoma poupineli ( montrouzier in souverbie & montrouzier , 1875 ) : synonym of calliostoma comptum a . adams , 1855\nspecies calliostoma formosensis [ sic ] accepted as calliostoma formosense e . a . smith , 1907 ( incorrect original spelling )\nspecies calliostoma fernandesi boyer , 2006 accepted as calliostoma angolense boyer , 2007 ( invalid : junior homonym of calliostoma fernandesi rol\u00e1n & monteiro , 2006 ; c . angolense is a replacement name )\ncalliostoma formosum ( mcandrew & forbes , 1847 ) : synonym of calliostoma occidentale ( mighels & c . b . adams , 1842 )\nspecies calliostoma adamsi brazier , 1895 accepted as calliostoma comptum ( a . adams , 1855 ) accepted as fautor comptus ( a . adams , 1855 ) ( invalid : junior homonym of calliostoma adamsi pilsbry , 1889 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( calliostoma ) burnupi e . a . smith , 1899 accepted as dactylastele burnupi ( e . a . smith , 1899 )\nspecies calliostoma echinatum dall , 1881 accepted as calliostoma caribbechinatum landau , van dingenen & ceulemans , 2017 ( invalid : junior secondary homonym of calliostoma echinatum ( millet , 1865 ) ; c . caribbechinatum is a replacement name )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( ampullotrochus ) alisi b . a . marshall , 1995 represented as calliostoma alisi b . a . marshall , 1995 ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( ampullotrochus ) heros b . a . marshall , 1995 represented as calliostoma xanthos b . a . marshall , 1995 ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( ampullotrochus ) peregrinum b . a . marshall , 1995 represented as calliostoma peregrinum b . a . marshall , 1995 ( original combination )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( ampullotrochus ) xanthos b . a . marshall , 1995 represented as calliostoma xanthos b . a . marshall , 1995 ( original combination )\nspecies calliostoma formosum ( mcandrew & forbes , 1847 ) accepted as calliostoma occidentale ( mighels & c . b . adams , 1842 ) ( junior synonym )\ncalliostoma expansum schepman , 1908 : synonym of enida japonica a . adams , 1860\nspecies calliostoma expansum schepman , 1908 accepted as enida japonica a . adams , 1860\nspecies calliostoma rubroscalptum y . c . lee & w . l . wu , 1998\nsubgenus calliostoma ( kombologion ) clench & r . d . turner , 1960 represented as kombologion clench & r . d . turner , 1960 accepted as calliostoma swainson , 1840\nsubgenus calliostoma ( eutrochus ) a . adams , 1864 accepted as astele swainson , 1855\ncalliostoma bisculptum e . a . smith : synonym of cantharidus bisculptus e . a . smith\ncalliostoma limatulum marshall , 1995 : synonym of selastele limatulum b . a . marshall , 1995\ncalliostoma onustum odhner , 1924 : synonym of selastele onustum b . a . marshall , 1995\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( calliotropis ) waikanae w . r . b . oliver , 1926 accepted as calliostoma waikanae oliver , 1926 accepted as maurea waikanae ( oliver , 1926 ) ( basionym )\ncalliostoma ( kombologion ) clench & r . d . turner , 1960 \u00b7 accepted , alternate representation\ncalliostoma swainson , 1840 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 30 october 2010 .\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( calliotropis ) pagoda w . r . b . oliver , 1926 accepted as calliostoma ( maurea ) selectum ( dillwyn , 1817 ) accepted as maurea selecta ( dillwyn , 1817 )\ncalliostoma trepidum hedley , 1907 : synonym of laetifautor deceptus ( e . a . smith , 1899 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( mauriella ) wanganuicum w . r . b . oliver , 1926 accepted as calliostoma ( maurea ) punctulatum ( martyn , 1784 ) accepted as maurea punctulata ( martyn , 1784 ) ( synonym )\ncalliostoma polychroma ( a . adams , 1851 ) : synonym of cantharidus polychroma ( a . adams , 1851 )\ncalliostoma rubropunctatum ( a . adams , 1851 ) : synonym of laetifautor rubropunctatus ( a . adams , 1851 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( tristichotrochus ) gendalli b . a . marshall , 1979 represented as calliostoma gendalli b . a . marshall , 1979 accepted as tristichotrochus gendalli ( b . a . marshall , 1979 ) ( original combination )\nspecies calliostoma bisculptum e . a . smith , 1906 accepted as jujubinus suarezensis ( p . fischer , 1878 )\nspecies calliostoma comptum ( a . adams , 1855 ) accepted as fautor comptus ( a . adams , 1855 )\nspecies calliostoma aucklandicum e . a . smith , 1902 accepted as coelotrochus chathamensis ( hutton , 1873 ) ( synonym )\nspecies calliostoma farquhari g . b . sowerby iii , 1892 accepted as jujubinus suarezensis ( p . fischer , 1878 )\ncalliostoma is a genus of small to medium - sized sea snails with gills and an operculum , marine gastropod molluscs within the family calliostomatidae , the calliostoma top snails ( according to the taxonomy of gastropoda by bouchet & rocroi ( 2005 ) ) . previously this genus was placed within the family trochidae . calliostoma is the type genus of the family calliostomatidae .\ncalliostoma is a genus of small to medium - sized sea snails with gills and an operculum , marine gastropod molluscs within the family calliostomatidae , the calliostoma top snails ( according to the taxonomy of gastropoda by bouchet & rocroi ( 2005 ) ) . previously this genus was placed within the family trochidae . calliostoma is the type genus of the family calliostomatidae .\nspecies calliostoma coronatum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as calliostoma kanakorum b . a . marshall , 2001 accepted as benthastelena coronata ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) accepted as benthastelena kanakorum ( b . a . marshall , 2001 ) ( invalid : junior homonym of calliostoma coronatum quinn , 1992 ; c . kanakorum is a replacement name )\ncalliostoma is a genus of small to medium - sized sea snails with gills and an operculum , marine gastropod molluscs within the family calliostomatidae , the calliostoma top snails ( according to the taxonomy of taxonomy of gastropoda by bouchet & rocroi ( 2005 ) ) . previously this genus was placed within the family trochidae . calliostoma is the type genus of the family calliostomatidae .\ncalliostoma burnupi e . a . smith , 1899 : synonym of dactylastele burnupi ( e . a . smith , 1899 )\ncalliostoma deceptum e . a . smith , 1899 : synonym of laetifautor deceptus ( e . a . smith , 1899 )\ncalliostoma regalis ( verrill & s . smith , 1880 ) : synonym of calliotropis regalis ( verrill & smith , 1880 )\nsubgenus calliostoma ( mauriella ) w . r . b . oliver , 1926 accepted as maurea oliver , 1926 ( synonym )\nspecies calliostoma antipodense b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea antipodensis ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nspecies calliostoma aupourianum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea aupouriana ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nspecies calliostoma boucheti b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor boucheti ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nspecies calliostoma chesterfieldense b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor chesterfieldensis ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nspecies calliostoma cristatum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as benthastelena cristata ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nspecies calliostoma crossleyae e . a . smith , 1910 accepted as tristichotrochus crossleyae ( e . a . smith , 1910 )\nspecies calliostoma diadematum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as benthastelena diademata ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nspecies calliostoma eminens b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea eminens ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nspecies calliostoma gendalli b . a . marshall , 1979 accepted as tristichotrochus gendalli ( b . a . marshall , 1979 )\nspecies calliostoma gibbsorum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea gibbsorum ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nspecies calliostoma alertae b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea ( alertalex ) alertae ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( replacement name for calliostoma blacki ( dell , 1956 ) not c . blacki ( powell , 1950 ) )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) comptum ( a . adams , 1855 ) accepted as fautor comptus ( a . adams , 1855 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) gracile p . marshall , 1918 \u2020 accepted as maurea gracilis ( p . marshall , 1918 ) \u2020\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) spectabile ( a . adams , 1855 ) accepted as maurea spectabilis ( a . adams , 1855 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) waikanae w . r . b . oliver , 1926 accepted as maurea waikanae ( oliver , 1926 )\nspecies calliostoma correlatum ( c . a . fleming , 1943 ) \u2020 accepted as maurea correlata c . a . fleming , 1943 \u2020\nspecies calliostoma dnopherum ( r . b . watson , 1879 ) accepted as margarites dnopherus ( r . b . watson , 1879 )\n( lightfoot , 1786 ) - california , 26 - 30mm - inhabitants kelp beds . one of the more showy and desirable calliostoma .\nspecies calliostoma deceptum e . a . smith , 1899 accepted as laetifautor deceptus ( e . a . smith , 1899 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( benthastelena ) coronatum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as benthastelena kanakorum ( b . a . marshall , 2001 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( benthastelena ) kanakorum b . a . marshall , 2001 accepted as benthastelena kanakorum ( b . a . marshall , 2001 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) antipodense b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea antipodensis ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) aupourianum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea aupouriana ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) eminens b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea eminens ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) gibbsorum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea gibbsorum ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) jamiesoni b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea jamiesoni ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) maui b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea maui ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) penniketi b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea penniketi ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) regale b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea regalis ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) simulans b . a . marshall , 1994 accepted as maurea simulans ( b . a . marshall , 1994 )\nspecies calliostoma arruense r . b . watson , 1880 accepted as calthalotia arruensis ( r . b . watson , 1880 ) ( original combination )\nspecies calliostoma burnupi e . a . smith , 1899 accepted as dactylastele burnupi ( e . a . smith , 1899 ) ( original combination )\ndrawing of a dorsal view of a living animal of calliostoma bairdii dredged in the atlantic ocean at a depth of from 100 m to 1170 m .\nperron , f . e . ( 1975 ) .\ncarnivorous calliostoma ( prosobranchia : trochidae ) from the northeastern pacific\n. veliger 18 : 52\u201354 .\nmarshall , b . a . ( 1995 ) .\na revision of the recent calliostoma species of new zealand\n. the nautilus 108 : 83\u2013127 .\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) correlatum ( c . a . fleming , 1943 ) \u2020 accepted as maurea correlata c . a . fleming , 1943 \u2020\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) boucheti b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor boucheti ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) chesterfieldense b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor chesterfieldensis ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) houbricki b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor houbricki ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) metivieri b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor metivieri ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) necopinatum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor necopinatus ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) paradigmatum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor paradigmatus ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) periglyptum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor periglyptus ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) richeri b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor richeri ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) vaubani b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor vaubani ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\nperron , f . e . ( 1975 ) .\ncarnivorous calliostoma ( prosobranchia : trochidae ) from the northeastern pacific\n. veliger . 18 : 52\u201354 .\nmarshall , b . a . ( 1995 ) .\na revision of the recent calliostoma species of new zealand\n. the nautilus . 108 : 83\u2013127 .\nclench w . & turner r . ( 1960 ) .\nthe genus calliostoma in the western atlantic\n. johnsonia 4 ( 40 ) : 1 - 80 .\nremarks . calliostoma delli tends to be broader than high ; one of the figured paratypes ( fig . 14 ) is unusually narrow , compared to most specimens on the type lot .\nthe trochidae include all of the shells generally referred to as top shells . among the most beautiful of this family are the calliostoma with their iridescent sheen and beaded sculpture . literature :\nquinn , j . f . jr . ( 1992 ) .\nnew species of calliostoma and notes on some poorly known species from the western atlantic\n. the nautilus 106 : 77\u2013114 .\nmarshall , b . a . 1995 . a revision of the recent calliostoma species of new zealand ( mollusca : gastropoda : trochoidea ) . the nautilus 108 : 83 - 127 . [ details ]\nquinn , j . f . jr . ( 1992 ) .\nnew species of calliostoma and notes on some poorly known species from the western atlantic\n. the nautilus . 106 : 77\u2013114 .\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( otukaia ) alertae b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as otukaia blacki ( dell , 1956 ) accepted as maurea ( alertalex ) alertae ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\ndell , 1950 - new zealand , 41 - 47mm - trawled in deep water off the south island and stewart island . maurea are endemic to new zealand , and related to the calliostoma . an uncommon species .\nthe name of this genus is derived from the greek words kallos ( beautiful ) and stoma ( mouth ) , referring to the pearly aperture of the shell . the genus calliostoma is known in fossil records from the upper cretaceous onwards .\nthe name of this genus is derived from the greek words kallos ( beautiful ) and stoma ( mouth ) , referring to the pearly aperture of the shell . the genus calliostoma is known in fossil records from the upper cretaceous onwards . [ 3 ]\ncontrary to what is the case in most other top shells , calliostoma deposits its eggs in gelatinous ribbons that are only fertilized after being deposited . the young emerge as small snails ( lebour , 1936 ) without passing through a free - living planktonic stage as a veliger larva .\n( of trochus ( calliostoma ) swainson , 1840 ) swainson w . ( 1840 ) a treatise on malacology or shells and shell - fish . london , longman . viii + 419 pp . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 218 , 351 [ details ]\ncurrently , calliostoma is being treated in worms as a broad genus . it is expected to be broken up and ( some ) subgenera will be elevated to the status of genus . at this moment ( 2013 ) , information is too fragmentary to assign all species in a revised genus .\nholotype for calliostoma atlantoides quinn , 1992 catalog number : usnm 860261 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of invertebrate zoology preparation : dry locality : st . lucia , caribbean sea , north atlantic ocean depth ( m ) : 417 to 589 vessel : pillsbury r / v\n: kosuge , s . , studies of the collection of mr . victor dan ( 7 ) descriptions of new species of the genera calliostoma and lyria , bull . inst . malac . tokyo 2 ( 1 ) : 3 - 4 ( 1984 ) , pl . 2 ( orig . desc . ) .\n: abbott , r . t . , 1974 , american seashells , p . 46 , f . 335 / clench , w . j . & turner , r . d . , the genus calliostoma in the western atlantic , johnsonia , vol . 4 no . 40 ( 1960 ) p . 54 pl . 35 .\nthe species in this genus are mainly herbivorous or feed on detritus , although a few have been observed to be omnivorous ( keen , 1975 ) or even carnivorous , feeding on a wide range of algae and on animals belonging to various other invertebrate phyla . the north atlantic topshell calliostoma occidentale has been reported to feed on coelenterates .\n: kilburn , r . n . , notes on some benthic mollusca from natal and mocambique , with descriptions of new species and subspecies of calliostoma , solariella , latiaxis , babylonia , fusinus , bathytoma and conus , ann . natal mus . vol . 21 ( 3 ) , 1973 , p . 558 , f . 1a - c ( orig . desc . ) .\nthe species in this genus are mainly herbivorous or feed on detritus , [ 4 ] although a few have been observed to be omnivorous ( keen , 1975 ) or even carnivorous , feeding on a wide range of algae and on animals belonging to various other invertebrate phyla . [ 5 ] the north atlantic topshell calliostoma occidentale has been reported to feed on coelenterates . [ 6 ]\npetit , r . e . ( 2009 ) . george brettingham sowerby , i , ii & iii : their conchological publications and molluscan taxa . zootaxa . 2189 : 1\u2013218 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nsasaki t . ( 2017 ) . family calliostomatidae . pp . 756 - 759 , in : t . okutani ( ed . ) , marine mollusks in japan , ed . 2 . 2 vols . tokai university press . 1375 pp . [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\npoppe g . t . , tagaro s . p . & dekker h . ( 2006 ) the seguenziidae , chilodontidae , trochidae , calliostomatidae and solariellidae of the philippine islands . visaya supplement 2 : 1 - 228 . [ details ]\ntristichotrochus aculeatus aculeatus ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1912 ) represented as tristichotrochus aculeatus ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1912 )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\nchina . east china sea . trawled . 150 m . gravel and sand bottom . 2010 .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 001 seconds . )\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . < em > china science press . < / em > 1267 pp .\npetit , r . e . ( 2009 ) . george brettingham sowerby , i , ii & iii : their conchological publications and molluscan taxa . < em > zootaxa . < / em > 2189 : 1\u2013218 .\nsasaki t . ( 2017 ) . family calliostomatidae . pp . 756 - 759 , in : t . okutani ( ed . ) , marine mollusks in japan , ed . 2 . 2 vols . tokai university press . 1375 pp .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ndimensions : height 29 . 6 mm . diameter 30 . 9 min ( holotype , fig . 13 ) : height 24 . 3 mm , diameter 23 . 2 mm ( paratype , fig . 14 ) ; height 29 . 0 mm , diameter 26 . 0 ( paratype . fig . 15 ) .\nmaterial . chile : los vilos ( lacm , type lot , figs . 13 - 15 ) , papudo , zapallar , algarrobo , punta penablanca ( lacm ) , pichilemu , constituci\u00f3n . specimens examined : 114 .\ntype material . thirty - three specimens from the type lo\u00adcality , collected 29 may 1977 , by andrade , shrimp trawler goden wind , holotype , lacm 1980 ; paratypes , lacm 1981 ; paratypes , mnhn 200489 ; paratypes , mzicb 15 . 528 ; paratypes , usnm 784738 .\ntype locality . 400 m off los vilos , chile ( 31\u00b056 ' s : 71\u00b054 ' w ) .\ndistribution . los vilos ( 31\u00b056 ' s ) to constituci\u00f3n , chile ( 35\u00b020 ' s ) . depth range 200 - 450 m .\ndiagnosis . a species of the subgenus otukaia characterized by having three spiral cords prominent at all growth stages . it differs from the similarly sculptured c . blacki ( dell , 1956 ) from new zealand ( see dell , 1956 : 46 , pl . 7 , fig . 6 ) in being lower spired , and in having a weaker subsutural ( first ) cord and a stronger second cord .\netymology . we are pleased to name this species in honor of dr . richard k . dell of the national museum of new zealand , wellington . \u201d\nmclean , j . h . and h . andrade . 1982 . large archibenthal gastropods of central chile : collections from an expedition of the r / v anton bruun and the chilean shrimp industry . los angeles county museum , contributions in sciences , 342 : 1 - 20 . urltoken ; = 2316\nunconfirmed _ type : mclean , j . & andrade , h . 1982 . contributions in science ( natural history museum of los angeles county ) . 342 : 1 - 20 , figs . 1 - 56 .\nholotype : quinn , j . f . 1992 . the nautilus . 106 ( 3 ) : 102 .\nunconfirmed type : mclean , j . & andrade , h . 1982 . contributions in science ( natural history museum of los angeles county ) . 342 : 1 - 20 , figs . 1 - 56 .\ndepth range based on 1 specimen in 1 taxon . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 1 sample . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 274 - 274 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 12 . 462 - 12 . 462 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 16 . 704 - 16 . 704 salinity ( pps ) : 35 . 456 - 35 . 456 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 3 . 043 - 3 . 043 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 1 . 235 - 1 . 235 silicate ( umol / l ) : 5 . 700 - 5 . 700 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\nstocks , k . 2009 . seamounts online : an online information system for seamount biology . version 2009 - 1 . world wide web electronic publication .\nthe distribution of this genus is worldwide , found mainly on hard substrata , although japanese species have been found on sandy bottoms . these snails occur from shallow waters to bathyal depths .\nthe rather thin , acute , coeloconoid ( = approaching conical shape but with concave sides ) shell is imperforate or rarely umbilicate . the whorls are smooth , often polished and spirally ridged or granular . the\nperron , frank e . ; turner r . d . ( 1978 ) .\ndall w . h . 1889 . reports on the results of dredging , under the supervision of alexander agassiz , in the gulf of mexico ( 1877 - 78 ) and in the caribbean sea ( 1879 - 80 ) , by the u . s . coast survey steamer\nblake\n, lieut . - commander c . d . sigsbee , u . s . n . , and commander j . r . bartlett , u . s . n . , commanding . xxix . report on the mollusca . part 2 , gastropoda and scaphopoda . bulletin of the museum of comparative zo\u00f6logy at harvard college 18 : 1 - 492 , pls . 10 - 40\nvilvens c . ( 2012 ) new species and new records of seguenzioidea and trochoidea ( gastropoda ) from french polynesia . novapex 13 ( 1 ) : 1 - 23 . [ 10 march 2012 ] page ( s ) : 18\nwilliams , s . t . ; k . m . donald , h . g . spencer and t . nakano ( march 2010 ) .\nvilvens c . ( 2009 ) . new species and new records of calliostomatidae ( gastropoda : trochoidea ) from new caledonia and solomon islands . novapex 10 ( 4 ) : 125 - 163\nusing cookies on urltoken shellauction uses cookies only for technical reasons and to facilitate and speed up your site navigation . by continuing to browse , you accept the use of cookies ; if you do not wish to receive them please disable them or not navigate this website further . more info cookies on urltoken\nutilizzo dei cookies su urltoken shellauction utilizza i cookies esclusivamente per ragioni tecniche e per facilitare e velocizzare la navigazione del sito . continuando a navigare accetti l ' utilizzo dei cookies , se non desideri riceverli ti invitiamo a disabilitarli oppure a non navigare questo sito ulteriormente . altre informazioni sui cookies di urltoken\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhow to buy ? if you want to buy an item , click the\nbuy now\nbutton on this page . once you ' ve pressed the\nbuy now\nitem , you will be forwarded to a fill - up form page . after filling up the form and when you submit your order , the item will be reserved for you automatically after a few hours .\nterms of payment / shipping all prices are in us dollars and the shipment cost is not include . all orders will be confirmed by e - mail with the cost of shells and postage included . the parcel will be sent via registered air mail at the cost price following receipt of payment .\nthis item will be sent through the global shipping programme and includes international tracking . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\nthis amount includes applicable customs duties , taxes , brokerage and other fees . this amount is subject to change until you make payment . for additional information , see the global shipping programme terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab\nthis amount includes applicable customs duties , taxes , brokerage and other fees . this amount is subject to change until you make payment . if you reside in an eu member state besides uk , import vat on this purchase is not recoverable . for additional information , see the global shipping programme terms and conditions - 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opens in a new window or tab . import charges previously quoted are subject to change if you increase your maximum bid amount .\nyou ' ve been outbid . don ' t let it get away - place another bid .\nyou ' ve been outbid by an automatic bid placed earlier by another bidder .\nalthough you ' re the highest bidder on this item , you ' re close to being outbid .\nalthough you ' re the high bidder on this item , the reserve price hasn ' t been met yet .\nsorry , you can ' t lower your maximum bid once it ' s placed .\nthis seller requires the buyer to have a paypal account to purchase this item . get a paypal account here .\nyour bid is the same as or more than the buy it now price . you can save time and money by buying it now .\n, you are agreeing to buy this item from the seller if you ' re the winning bidder .\nyou ' re the highest bidder , but the reserve price has not been met .\ncopyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 ebay inc . all rights reserved . user agreement , privacy , cookies and adchoice\n( of fluxina dall , 1881 ) dall w . h . 1881 . reports on the results of dredging , under the supervision of alexander agassiz , in the gulf of mexico and in the caribbean sea ( 1877 - 78 ) , by the united states coast survey steamer\nblake\n, lieutenant - commander c . d . sigsbee , u . s . n . , and commander j . r . bartlett , u . s . n . , commanding . xv . preliminary report on the mollusca . bulletin of the museum of comparative zo\u00f6logy at harvard college , 9 ( 2 ) : 33 - 144 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 51 [ details ]\nvilvens c . ( 2009 ) . new species and new records of calliostomatidae ( gastropoda : trochoidea ) from new caledonia and solomon islands . novapex 10 ( 4 ) : 125 - 163 [ details ]\nwilliams s . t . , donald k . m . , spencer h . g . & nakano t . ( 2010 ) molecular systematics of the marine gastropod families trochidae and calliostomatidae ( mollusca : superfamily trochoidea ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 54 : 783 - 809 . [ details ]\nmarshall , b . a . ( 1995 ) . calliostomatidae ( gastropoda : trochoidea ) from new caledonia , the loyalty islands , and the northern lord howe rise . in : bouchet , p . ( ed . ) r\u00e9sultats des campagnes musorstom 14 . m\u00e9moires du mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle . s\u00e9rie a , zoologie . 167 : 381 - 458 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nmarshall , b . a . ( 2016 ) . new species of venustatrochus powell , 1951 from new zealand , and new species of falsimargarita powell , 1951 and a new genus of the calliostomatidae from the southwest pacific , with comments on some other calliostomatid genera ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . molluscan research . 36 : 119 - 141 . [ details ]\n( of elmerlinia clench & r . d . turner , 1960 ) williams s . t . , donald k . m . , spencer h . g . & nakano t . ( 2010 ) molecular systematics of the marine gastropod families trochidae and calliostomatidae ( mollusca : superfamily trochoidea ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 54 : 783 - 809 . [ details ]\n( of elmerlinia clench & r . d . turner , 1960 ) marshall , b . a . ( 2016 ) . new species of venustatrochus powell , 1951 from new zealand , and new species of falsimargarita powell , 1951 and a new genus of the calliostomatidae from the southwest pacific , with comments on some other calliostomatid genera ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . molluscan research . 36 : 119 - 141 . [ details ]\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nsearch urltoken search urltoken - enter search word . avoid using the word\nshell\n- e . g . , use cone instead of cone shell . * * * google trochidae on the internet\nclick on the thumbnail images for an enlarged view . images will open up in a separate , resizeable window .\n( dall , 1889 ) - oregon , 40mm - dredged in deep water ; ranges from the bering sea south to chile . shell thin , white , covered with a yellowish - greenish periostracum .\n: abbott , r . t . , 1974 , american seashells , p . 39 , f . 263 .\n( watson , 1886 ) - australia , 25mm - commonly trawled in in 300 to 700 meters of water off new south wales .\n: jansen , p . , notes on the australia species of calliotropis ( gastropoda : trochidae ) with descriptions of four new species , moll . res . 15 : 43 - 53 ( 1994 ) .\n( e . a . smith , 1899 ) ] - alaska , 7mm - circumpolar from the arctic seas to alaska and massachusetts . commonly found in a range of depths from as little as 1 meter to over 70 meters of water .\n: abbott , r . t . , 1974 , american seashells , p . 35 , f . 208 .\n, but cidaris has a more impressed suture and flatter spire whorls . type of the subgenus\n: abbott , r . t . , 1974 , american seashells , p . 39 , f . 264 .\n( lamarck , 1822 ) - mediterranean sea , 25mm - lives in relatively shallow water and intertidally . a variable species with many form names .\n: poppe , g . t . & yoshihiro , g . , european seashells , vol . i , ( 1991 ) p . 85 , pl . 9 , fig . 1 .\n( sowerby , 1912 ) - japan , 15mm - endemic to south and central japan . similar to c . soyoae , but is larger and lack the umbilicus of c . soyoae .\n: kira , t . , shells of the western pacific in color , vol . i , ( 1975 ) p . 11 , pl . 8 , fig . 12 .\n: abbott , r . t . , 1974 , american seashells , p . 47 , f . 355 .\ndall , 1889 - florida ; gulf of mexico , 20 - 25mm - trawled in deep water . one of the more uncommon caribbean calliostomas . small specimens were referred to as c . springeri .\n: abbott , r . t . , 1974 , american seashells , p . 45 , f . 321 .\ndall , 1881 - colombia , 12mm - this small specimen represents a southward range extension for the species . typically , but rarely found in the northern caribbean down to barbados . c . tejedori aguayo , 1949 is a synonym .\n: abbott , r . t . , 1974 , american seashells , p . 46 , f . 350 .\n( lightfoot , 1786 ) - california , 23 - 30mm - another kelp bed inhabitant . covered with raised spiral cords . the species ranges north to alaska .\n: abbott , r . t . , 1974 , american seashells , p . 47 , f . 356 .\n( a . adams , 1855 ) - florida , 19mm - ranges from north carolina to mexico , but considered uncommon in florida . inhabits intertidal zones down to 30 + fathoms of water . this species has no umbilicus .\n: abbott , r . t . , 1974 , american seashells , p . 45 , f . 322 .\n( philippi , 1860 ) - chile , 16mm - known from peru , chile and galapagos . has three main spiral cords , the upper two are beaded .\n: keen , a . m . , 1971 , sea shells of tropical west america , p . 334 , f . 79 .\nquinn , 1992 - bermuda , 25mm - taken in deep water traps . a rare , endemic species .\ndall , 1906 - florida , 17mm - dredged in deep water . the shell is sculptured with fine encircling incised lines .\n: abbott , r . t . , 1974 , american seashells , p . 45 , f . 323 .\nihering , 1907 - brazil , 24mm - ranges from rio de janeiro southward to rio negro , argentina . taken by fishing boats in 30 - 60 meters of water . the species is quite rare .\n: rios , e . c . , 1975 , brazilian marine mollusks iconography , p . 24 , pl . 6 f . 65 .\ndall , 1889 - bahamas , 8mm - the holotype was taken off havana , cuba . reaches a size of about 12mm .\n( lamarck , 1822 ) - south africa , 21 - 22mm - a common reef dweller , taken from intertidal zones down to scuba diving depths .\n: kilburn , r . n . , taxonomic notes on south african marine mollusca ( 3 ) * : gastropoda : prosobranchia , with descriptions of new taxa of naticidae , fasciolariidae , magilidae , volutomitridae and turridae , ann . natal mus . vol . 22 ( 1 ) , p . 187 , f . 1 / kilburn , r . & rippey , e . , ( 1982 ) sea shells of southern africa , p . 39 , pl . 8 , fig . 4 .\ndall , 1871 - mexico , 26mm - limited to gulf of california southward to guaymas , mexico . lives intertidally down to 40 + meters of water . note the purple umbilical region .\n: keen , a . m . , 1971 , sea shells of tropical west america , p . 335 , f . 88\nkosuge , 1984 - philippines , 12mm - an uncommon deep water trochid from the central philippines characterized by its rows of short spiny encircling the body whorrl .\ndall , 1889 - california , 28 - 35mm - pearly greenish - white . similar to c . titanium , but lacks the shell sculpture . two beaded cords encirle the shell around the suture and keel . dredged from deep water . a very rare species .\n: abbott , r . t . , 1974 , american seashells , p . 48 , f . 362 / mclean & gosliner , taxonomic atlas of the benthic fauna of the santa maria basin and western santa barbara channel , vol . 9 ( 2 ) the gastropoda , 1996 , p . 34 , fig . 1 . 6a .\n( broderip , 1835 ) - australia , 28mm - typically taken from south australia and new south wales , this illustrated specimen was collected near broome , north territory .\nkilburn , 1973 - mozambique , 35mm - golden color , with beaded sculpture . trawled in 150 - 200 meters of water .\nkilburn , 1973 - south africa , 37mm - an interesting specimen with a well - defined white zone on the base . this was the only specimen in the lot that exhibited this coloring , though probably not too unusual .\nmclean , 1984 - california , 31 - 33mm - beautiful pale pearly greenish / white ; one of the great rarities from the west coast . this specimen was taken in prawn traps set in deep water .\nmclean , 1984 - california , 26 - 27mm - shell sculpture can be variable . a typically beaded specimen with sculptured and an unusual shell with reduced sculpture is illustrated .\ngabb , 1865 - california , 14 . 5mm - this species has been recorded from san francisco southward to cabo san lucas , mexico . this specimen was dredged off redondo beach in 25 fathoms of water on a gravel bottom by tom & john q . burch in august 1941 .\n: abbott , r . t . , 1974 , american seashells , p . 47 , f . 352 .\ncarpenter , 1864 - alaska , 23mm - uncommonly found from alaska to southern california . this specimen was found on rocks in 20 - 25 meters of water while scuba diving .\n: abbott , r . t . , 1974 , american seashells , p . 47 , f . 357 .\nkosuge , 1984 - philippines , 29mm - covered with rows of closely set beads ; a small ridge is found inside the base of the aperture close to the columellar . this is an exceptional example of the species . collected from deepwater tangle nets .\ndall , 1881 - south carolina , usa , 11mm - a more northerly species ranging from north carolina to mexico . note the deep , smooth umbilicus , which is characteristic for the species .\n: abbott , r . t . , 1974 , american seashells , p . 43 , f . 309 .\n: powell , a . w . b . , 1979 , new zealand mollusca , marine , land and freshwater shells , p . 63 , pl . 10 , f . 7 .\n( gould , 1849 ) - kwajalein , 7 - 8mm - sculpture of beaded cords . the red - tipped spire is characteristic of the species .\n: cernohorsky , w . o . , 1987 , tropical pacific marine shells , p . 32 , pl . 8 f . 3 .\n( wood , 1828 ) - kwajalein , 10 - 11mm - the third and seventh row of beaded sculpture , with every fourth bead a deep rose color is characteristic of the species . this uncommon species is found in the central and western pacific .\n: cernohorsky , w . o . , 1972 , marine shells of the pacific , vol . ii , p . 40 , pl . 8 f . 8 .\n( payraudeau , 1826 ) - italy , 10mm - dark specimens with variegated pattern around umbilical area . the upper whorls are covered with fine spiral lines .\n: rubio , f . & rol\u00e1n , e . , ( 2002 ) revision of the genus clanculus ( gastropoda : trochidae ) in the eastern atlantic , evolver publications , roma , pp . 40 - 41 , fig . 63 - 75 , 135 - 136 , 151 - 152 , 159 .\n( gmelin , 1791 ) - japan , 41mm - a common western pacific species that grows to over 75mm . specimens tend to become encrusted with coralline encrustations , obscuring the color and pattern . the species lives on rocks in intertidal zones , yet is also found at deeper depths . this specimen was taken in 20 - 40 fathoms of water off wakayama prefecture , japan .\n: habe , t . , 1975 , shells of the western pacific in color vol . ii , p . 12 , f . 27 .\nreeve , 1842 - australia , 31mm - this species has a western pacific distribution , but is more often found around the northern , eastern and western coasts of australia . it is considered uncommon . the illustrated shell is unusual in that the whorls are somewhat concave , whereas the species typically exhibits slightly more convex whorls .\n: cernohorsky , w . o . , 1987 , tropical pacific marine shells , p . 32 , pl . 6 f . 6 .\n( linn\u00e9 , 1758 ) - kuwait , 11mm - two of a seemingly endless number of color - patterns that this species exhibits . found from the northern persian gulf south to masirah id . , gulf of oman . the species lives intertidally in sand .\n: bosch , dance , moolenbeek & oliver , 1995 , seashells of eastern arabia , p . 36 , f . 50 .\n( gmelin , 1791 ) - philippines , 34mm - western pacific distribution . the large size and arrow - shaped lines on the spiral cords separate it from similar species . this specimen was taken in 25 feet of water off siasi id . , sulu sea .\n: cernohorsky , w . o . , 1972 , marine shells of the pacific , vol . ii , p . 43 , pl . 9 f . 3 .\n( dall , 1890 ) - uruguay , 3mm + - small , cylindrical , and very un - trochoid - like shells . h . columna is the type species of the genus . it ' s found from brazil to uruguay , infrequently dredged in 10 - 40 meters of water .\n: abbott , r . t . , 1974 , american seashells , p . 52 , f . 400 .\ntrochidae on this page click name to view image - click \u00bb to view caption below .\nthe distribution of this genus is worldwide , found mainly on hard substrates , although japanese species have been found on sandy bottoms . these snails occur from shallow waters to bathyal depths .\nthe rather thin , acute , coeloconoid ( = approaching conical shape but with concave sides ) shell is imperforate or rarely umbilicate . the whorls are smooth , often polished and spirally ridged or granular . the body whorl is angulated at the periphery . the aperture is quadrangular , sinuated at the base and slightly oblique . the columella is simple , usually ending anteriorly in a slight tooth . the nucleus appears to be either dextral or sinistral indifferently .\nthe rather thin , acute , coeloconoid ( = approaching conical shape but with concave sides ) shell is imperforate or rarely umbilicate . the whorls are smooth , often polished and spirally ridged or granular . the body whorl is angulated at the periphery . the aperture is quadrangular , sinuated at the base and slightly oblique . the columella is simple , usually ending anteriorly in a slight tooth . [ 7 ] the nucleus appears to be either dextral or sinistral indifferently . [ 8 ] [ 9 ]\nthis page is based on a wikipedia article written by authors ( here ) . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 license ; additional terms may apply . images , videos and audio are available under their respective licenses ."]}
{"id": 1073, "summary": [{"text": "the aesculapian snake / \u02cc\u025bskj\u0259\u02c8le\u026api\u0259n / ( now zamenis longissimus , previously elaphe longissima ) , is a species of nonvenomous snake native to europe , a member of the colubrinae subfamily of the family colubridae .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "growing up to 2 metres ( 6.6 ft ) in total length ( including tail ) , it counts among the largest european snakes , though not as massive as the four-lined snake ( elaphe quatuorlineata ) or the montpellier snake ( malpolon monspessulanus ) .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the aesculapian snake has been of cultural and historical significance for its role in ancient greek and roman mythology and derived symbolism . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "aesculapian snake", "paragraphs": ["the aesculapian snake ( elaphe longissima ) is a nonvenomous snake native to europe .\nthe italian aesculapian snake ( zamenis lineatus ) is a species of snake in the colubridae family .\n1 . adder - vipera berus . 2 . grass snake - natrix natrix . 3 . smooth snake - coronella austriaca . 4 . aesculapian snake - zamenis longissimus . 5 . barred grass snake - natrix helvetica .\nin the third chapter of our series introducing hungary - native snake species , we are discussing the aesculapian snake ( zamenis longissimus ) . . .\n' photograph , aesculapian snake ( coluber longissimus ) ' . copyright owner of work : herbert . . .\nhabitat use of the aesculapian snake , zamenis longissimus , at the northern extreme of its range in northwest bohemia .\naesculapian snake ( zamenis longissimus ) from bulgaria displaying defensive behaviour . rattling its tail to draw attention from the head .\njason steel photographing a wild aesculapian snake along regents canal in london , uk . photo taken by australian photographer diane paine .\nzoological director nick jackson said :\nthe aesculapian snake is a harmless , non - venomous species which feeds mainly on rodents .\n' photograph , aesculapian snake ( coluber longissimus ) ' . copyright owner of work : herbert . . . | the national archives\nboth albino and melanistic specimens of aesculapian snakes have been found in the wild in austria , slovenia and italy but these are incredibly rare . in greece grey morphs of the aesculapian snake can be found .\nthis close - up shot shows the smooth un - keeled scales of adult female aesculapian snake number 15 , of the london population .\nebscohost | 117833477 | habitat use of the aesculapian snake , zamenis longissimus , at the northern extreme of its range in northwest bohemia .\nin the uk we have three native snake species and one non - native snake that has established healthy breeding colonies at two different sites . the four snake species found are :\nthe aesculapian rat snake arrived in conwy during the mid - sixties when the founder of the welsh mountain zoo , robert jackson , imported reptiles from italy .\nthe aesculapian snake is one of four species of rat snake found in europe and its range once reached far further north than it does now when the earth ' s climate was warmer . this vast range may have been partly due to escaped specimens when the romans kept aesculapian snakes in their temples during the roman occupation of europe .\nalthough considered non - native . the aesculapian snake has been protected by uk law since 1992 , against being harmed or killed under the 1981 wildlife & countryside act .\nat some point , the aesculapian snakes must have escaped into the zoo grounds and started breeding .\nthe aesculapian snake is associated with greek mythology , from which it takes its name : aesculapius , the god of healing , held a staff with a snake coiled around it . there are similar stories of healing snakes in the old testament .\nso although now considered a non - indigenous species the aesculapian snake may have once been native to the uk . this topic is covered in great detail in the 1998 book\nyou may be aware that there are a couple of wild populations of non - venomous aesculapian snakes .\nthe aesculapian snake has a uniformly brown back with a streak of darker colour behind the eyes . it has a yellowish belly with ridged scales which are specially adapted for climbing trees .\nreports by the british media about the aesculapian snake colonies found in the uk . these scaremongering stories were full of false information and inaccurate reports with ridiculous claims and headlines including :\nin the uk we have three native snake species and one non - native snake that has established healthy breeding colonies at two different sites . these are :\nthe fourth snake found only in two specific parts of the uk is the non - native aesculapian snake . although considered non - native to the uk there are two well established breeding colonies of aesculapian snakes in great britain that have been in existence now for over 25 years . one is in central london , england and the other is in colwyn bay , wales .\nthe snake mentioned in the symbol is an aesculapian snake which belongs to the family colubridae . its zoological name elaphe longissima . smooth , glossy , and slender , the snake has a uniformly brown back with a streak of darker color behind the eyes . the snake ' s belly is yellowish or whitish and has ridged scales that catch easily on rough surfaces [ 8 ] ( like that of a pole or staff ) .\nslithering along the branches of this tree , the aesculapian snake is a very competent climber . they use their strong prehensile tail to grasp a firm grip when climbing or when being handled .\nupdate 1st june , 2018 : we just set up snake _ id , a cool new page that simplifies snake identification . be sure to check it out !\nno , not at all . the aesculapian snake is non - venomous and not an aggressive species . unless you ' re a rodent or a small bird , then you ' re quite safe .\naesculapian snakes get their name from the greek god aesculapius , the greek god of medicine , who was the son of apollo . aesculapius was reputed to have mystical healing powers and the ability to transform himself into the harmless aesculapian snake . aesculapian snakes were used in ancient temple ceremonies for healing and sexual virility rituals performed by both the greeks and the romans . the greek god aesculapius is often depicted holding a snake - entwined staff . this staff became a symbol for healing which is still used in modern medicine today .\n\u2022 anyone wanting to report sightings of aesculapian snakes around the canal can contact will atkins at lehartrust @ hotmail . com\nsmooth , glossy , and slender , the snake has a uniformly brown back with a streak of darker color behind the eyes . the snake ' s belly is yellowish or whitish and has ridged scales that catch easily on rough surfaces , making it especially adapted for climbing trees . scientific classification : the aesculapian snake belongs to the family colubridae . it is classified as elaphe longissima .\nthe simple answer to this question is no . following extensive studies of both the aesculapian snake populations in the uk by leading herpetologists including wolfgang wuster in bangor , wales , & will atkins in london it has\nthis corn snake was found in a suburban garden in kent . corn snakes originally come from\ncorsetti , luigi ; antonio romano 2008 . on the occurrence of the italian aesculapian snake , zamenis lineatus ( camerano , 1891 ) , in latium ( central italy ) . acta herpetologica 3 ( 2 ) : 179 - 183\n& i ; the aesculapian snake - distribution and ecology in central europe & o ; . provides new facts on ecology , distribution and history of the largest and least known snake in central europe . some parts of the book are based on a study conducted in one of germany ' s isolated populations of the snake , the neckar - odenwald region . sympatric reptile species were also studied and conservation methods are discussed .\nthis snake was found on the canal ' s edge , mosaic - basking amidst grass and twigs on the ground . only a few inches of the scales on the middle of the snake ' s body were visible , as the rest of the snake was buried beneath the protection of the surrounding foliage . when i carefully picked up the snake , to my complete surprise , an angry , wide - mouthed head quickly spun round and latched onto my wrist . having never experienced any signs of aggression from aesculapian snakes during previous encounters , i was very surprised by how intent this snake was in defending itself from what it\nwas originally thought to be a subspecies of the grass snake is in fact a distinct separate species .\nthis female grass snake has a noticeably swollen stomach having just eaten an adult toad which weighed a third of the snake ' s total body weight ! digesting a meal of this size takes a huge amount of energy and this snake will need to lay dormant for 24hrs or more . basking in the sun will speed up this process but during this period the grass snake is highly vulnerable to predators herself .\nwilcox ra , whitham em . the symbol of modern medicine : why one snake is more than two .\nthis shot shows the grass snake in ideal habitat . this south - facing slope has plenty of good vegetation along the river ' s edge as well as good clear spots that are exposed to plenty of sunlight where the snake can bask . there are also plenty of mammal burrows which the snake can use as hibernacular during the winter .\nthis adult grass snake was one of three seen swimming around the edges of a country park pond in kent .\nunlike all the other snake species found in britain , it is the male aesculapian snake that is usually larger than the female . the female has considerable girth but the male tends to be much longer . the female pictured above had a total body - length of just 3 . 5ft . a male specimen with equivalent girth would probably have been 5 - 6ft + in length .\nwhen talking about snakes , many herpetologists quote snake lengths as\nstv\nlength . this means\nsnout to vent\n. measurements are usually taken from the tip of a snake ' s nose to the opening of its anal glands at the base of the tail . this is a more accurate way of regularly monitoring a snake ' s length as snake ' s tails are often damaged or broken over the years especially after encounters with a predator .\nfeeding mainly on mice , voles , young rats and other small rodents these non - venomous constrictor snakes will also eat lizards , small birds and eggs if available . like most snakes the aesculapian snake sheds its skin periodically in one complete slough . apart from a noticeable dulling in colour and pattern , one obvious indication that a snake is due to slough is the clouding over and bluing of the scale covering the eyes of the snake as pictured above . this eye - scale will shed first and then the rest of the snake ' s skin will usually shed a few days later as a complete slough .\nthis beautiful non - native snake has been introduced from mainland europe to a couple of sites in the uk . unlike our native snake species , they can be found in trees or bushes as they are very good at climbing .\n* this species of snake is associated with the greek healing god asclepius / aesculapius ( more about it here ) .\nthe aesculapian snake is not as timid as our native grass snake and can often be approached for photographs without disturbing it or causing it to flee . they rely heavily on their excellent camouflage and will often remain completely motionless until they are sure that you have seen them . if handled aesculapian snakes may initially bite but usually calm down , and once they no longer perceive you as a threat they can be very relaxed in your hands . being constrictors , these snakes have a very strong grip . when startled it ' s surprising how firmly they can squeeze your hand .\nthe aesculapian snake ( e . longissima ) , plain and dark coloured , is native to southeastern europe and asia minor . in ancient times it was sacred to aesclepius , god of medicine ; the present isolated populations in germany and switzerland are descended from specimens conveyed to health resorts there by\u2026\nhierophis genus : the green whip snake or western whip snake ( hierophis viridiflavus ) is a brightly - coloured snake with a pattern of black , yellow and green spots over its body . even though they can grow up to 170 cm of length they are not venomous . it can be usually found from temperate forests to crop fields , and even in abandoned buildings .\nan imported snake species believed to be breeding in the wild in north wales has been caught on film for the first time .\nsome specimens may be very defensive when handled . the bite marks shown above were inflicted by a very defensive adult female aesculapian snake . i must stress that there is no chance of being bitten by one of these snakes unless you try and pick one up ! they will always flee rather than confront a human .\nthe italian aesculapian snake is a medium to large snake that reaches a maximum total length ( including tail ) of 2 m ( 6\u00bd feet ) . dorsally , it is yellowish brown and may have four dark brown stripes . if present , the stripes are of equal width and equidistant . the dorsal scales are smooth . the iris of the eye is red , giving it the common name in italian of saettone occhirossi ( red - eyed racer ) .\naltough , several subspecies had been described over the years , most of these were elevated to separate species rank , therefore recent taxonomy suggests aesculapian snake to be a monotype species with no further subspecies . these days , they are protected in most european countries , including hungary . the populations in germany mentioned earlier are critically endangered .\nhuffington post uk spoke to dr wolfgang wuster , a snake venom expert and senior lecturer of the school of biological science in bangor university .\nthe number of snake species with populations in great britain is now 5 . - non - fishing chat - fishing forums from anglers ' net\nthere have been some interesting headlines over the weekend regarding aesculapian snakes in london , such as the daily mirror\u2019s \u2018colony of killer snakes \u2018capable of crushing small children to death\u2019 on loose in london\u2019 .\nthese elegant snakes range in colour from light golden - brown to dark brown with white flecks and a creamy yellow underside . aesculapian snakes have unkeeled scales that are very smooth to the touch and this snake can have a very shiny appearance with an iridescent sheen in bright sunlight . their appearance has been compared to that of a twix wrapper .\nalthough grass snakes are termed non - venomous they do possess duvernoy glands ( like rear - fanged venomous snakes ) in their upper jaws that produce a very mild venom . the grass snake does not possess any fangs to deliver the venom to its victim though . although this venom is very mild and is only found in small quantities in the grass snake ' s saliva it is not purposeless . the main diet of the grass snake is amphibians which when caught in the mouth of the snake will absorb this venom through their skin . this would help to subdue a struggling frog or toad .\nthe fourth snake found in specific parts of the uk is the aesculapian snake . although considered non - native to the uk there are two healthy well established breeding colonies of aesculapian snakes in great britain that have been in existence for at least 25 years . one is in central london , england and the other is in colwyn bay , wales . these long slender rat - snakes are one of europe ' s longest and regularly grow to a length of 140 - 160cm in warmer parts of europe they may even reach 225cm . these snakes are usually found across southern europe and use the same method of incubating their eggs as grass snakes using warm damp moist areas of vegetation such as hay piles and compost heaps to provide the necessary heat . aesculapian snakes are semi - arboreal meaning that they are excellent climbers and are equally at home high up in trees and bushes as they are on the ground .\nwe were lucky enough to have two experts on hand - bbc wales snake expert rhys jones and peter litherland , a keeper at the zoo .\ncolubrid with round pupil ( ringed snake , natrix natrix ) and viperid with elliptic pupil ( snub - nosed viper , vipera latastei ) . photos by\nin 2015 chosen hatching places were monitored by data loggers in order to find out temperature and humidity conditions in the hatching place . in the autumn after the hatching of eggs , egg - laying sites were checked and remaining eggs counted . we were able to found about 160 remnants of egg shells so the successful reproduction of the aesculapian snake is proved there .\nprofessor wolfgang w\u00fcster , who has studied the only other colony of aesculapian snakes in britain \u2013 located close to the welsh mountain zoo in colwyn bay , north wales \u2013 says they do no harm to the ecosystem .\nthe london population of aesculapian snakes can be found along the length of regent ' s canal as it runs past regent ' s park , living on the banks that run parallel to both sides of the canal .\njuvenile aesculapians sometimes display a yellow collar making them easy to confuse with juvenile grass snakes . aesculapian snakes are egg - laying snakes and usually produce clutches of 5 - 20 eggs with 5 - 15 being common .\nwe can confirm a colony of non - venomous aesculapian snakes does live in the camden lock area of north london , but contrary to media reports they are not capable of crushing small children or murdering your pets .\naesculapian snakes are among the largest snakes in europe and juveniles can easily be confused with grass snakes . a colony of the snakes has lived peacefully in north wales for decades after escaping from the welsh mountain zoo .\nzamenis genus : the aesculapian snake ( zamenis longissimus ) is a slim , long and harmless colubrid with a characteristically narrow and elongated skull . it is normally found on forested areas , with different microclimatic variations to aid it on its thermoregulation . this species is the one represented coiled around the rod of aesculapius and the bowl of hygieia , symbols of medicine and pharmacy respectively .\nsalvi , daniele ; daniela lucente , joana mendes , cristiano liuzzi , d . james harris and marco a . bologna 2017 . diversity and distribution of the italian aesculapian snake zamenis lineatus : a phylogeographic assessment with implications for conservation . journal of zoological systematics and evolutionary research 55 ( 3 ) : 222\u2013237 ; doi : 10 . 1111 / jzs . 12167 - get paper here\nsnake ( elaphe longissima ) , a species native to the former yugoslavia , and it is believed there are a few dozen such animals living by the canal .\nthe adder or viper is more common in cornwall , other snakes of the uk sloworm and grass snake can be found in any area . i have never seen a snake in the wild in the uk yet and lived very rural for many years . interesting topic alan , thank you ! : xxgrinning - - 00xx3 :\nthis 20 inch sub - adult female grass snake is gathering all the information she can about her surroundings by constant flickering of her tongue which she fully extends .\nas for the concern about people\u2019s safety , when left alone aesculapian snakes are a docile and non - venomous species . please rest assured that your children will not risk being crushed by snakes whilst wandering through central london .\nthis list does indeed include the aesculapian snakes that are being referred to , although no action that i am aware of has been taken to remove this population , nor does lisi have any plans to do so at present .\nadults are up to 200 cm ( 225 cm ) , usually arround 140 cm , males longer than females ( and have a longer tail ) . a very slender snake with a narrow head , eyes have round pupils . adults can be brownish , greyish - greenish , even black ( melanism ) ( first 20 - 40 cm can be a lighter colour ) with white dots on the scale edges , especially on mid - body . belly is yellow or whiteish , belly scales are keeled . brownish coloured ones usually have yellow dots behind the head , so they can resemble a grass snake . very similar to the italian aesculapian snake ( zamenis lineatus ( formerly elaphe lineata ) - s italy ) . albinism ( completely white / yellowish white ) also noticed .\nrhinechis genus : the ladder snake ( rhinechis scalaris ) receives its common name due to the stripes that juvenile specimens present on their back , similar to a ladder , even though adult individuals may present only longitudinal stripes on their body without any transversal marks connecting them . despite being an apparently aggressive snake , it rarely bites and is harmless to human beings .\naesculapian snake ( zamenis longissimus , formely known as elaphe longissima ) first appeared in greek - roman mythology on rod of god aesculapius . ever since , this species has become the symbol of healing and health . aesculapian snake ( zamenis longissimus ) is native to most european countries with mediterreanean and continental climates , including french , spain , italy , switzerland , germany , austria , czech republic , hungary , romania , poland , croatia , serbia , bulgaria . they also occur in region of black sea . several insular populations have been confirmed , as well . they were also introduced to few places they had not been native before ; one of them is germany where they were introduced most likely due to the mythological significance associated with the species . two populations has also estabished themselves in great britain ; specimens had escaped from zoos ultimately found new home near london and west wales suburbans .\nthe smooth snake is britain ' s rarest native reptile and is fully protected by law from being killed , harmed , or even disturbed . this makes it an offence to look for them unless you hold a licence to do so or you are in the company of a licence - holder who is authorised to do so . once common across the southern half of britain they are now only found on heathland sites in dorset and hampshire , and a couple of sites in surrey and west sussex . their total numbers are now estimated to be in the low thousands across the uk . this is due mainly to habitat loss as the smooth snake lives on heathland sites which have disappeared across the uk . many of these sites are particularly vulnerable to fires . on some of these sites where the smooth snake is still found it is the most commonly encountered snake . the smooth snake is at the tip of its range in england as the average summer in britain is only just long enough for the female to gestate her young . unlike grass snakes the smooth snake is reported to be very reluctant to transverse unsuitable habitat to cross from one site to another .\ncoronella genus : known as smooth snakes . in the iberian peninsula we can find the northern smooth snake ( coronella austriaca ) which presents a dark mask - like spot covering from the nasal openings up to the neck and dark irregular markings on its back , and the southern smooth snake ( coronella girondica ) which presents a pair of parietal marks and dark transversal spots on its back .\nurltoken is a great on - line app that allows you to work out the total length of a snake from a photo , as long as you can accurately measure anything else in that photo .\n\u201cif your child is the size of a small rat they could constitute a danger , but if that\u2019s the case i\u2019d suggest it being constricted by a snake would be the least of your worries . \u201d\nnatrix genus : commonly known as water snakes due to their affinity for aquatic habitats . in the iberian peninsula we can find two species , the viperine water snake ( natrix maura ) named after its zigzag marking and its keeled scales similar to a viper , and the grass or iberian ringed snake ( natrix astreptophora ) which presents reddish pupils , an extremely variable coloration and a black \u201cring\u201d in juvenile individuals .\nthe common adder , britain ' s only venomous snake , is seen here coiled in its defensive stance and ready to strike . for more photos and information on adders please visit the adder pages on this website :\nshortly before sloughing ( shedding the old skin ) snakes often spend more time basking to help with the process . this male grass snake clearly shows the typical blue - eyed tell tale sign of an imminent slough .\nthe aesculapian snake ( zamenis longissimus ) is a widespread colubrid species , being present in much of central and southern europe , with isolated populations occuring as far east as iran . in romania , the species is known from most of the country\u2019s regions , although it has been reported from very few areas from the moldova region ( eastern and north\u2013eastern romania ) . here we present three new records for z . longissimus in romanian moldova , including the first record for the species in boto\u0219ani county , the north\u2013easternmost region of romania .\nnumbers 21 : 8 . the etching\nthe brazen serpent\n( to the right ) by schnorr von carolsfeld shows this as only one snake , suggesting he interpreted this as a medical rather than mystical or magical symbol .\nsmooth snakes are slender in build and are also the smallest of the british snakes usually growing to an average length of 45 - 60cm , occasionally they reach 70cm with 80cm being the largest found . true to its name the smooth snake is the only native snake in the uk to have unkeeled scales giving it a very smooth feel when handled . both the adder and grass snake have a ridge or\nkeel\nrunning down the middle of each scale . smooth snakes are brown - grey in colour and usually have a dark heart - shaped pattern on the back of the head . they also usually have a dark stripe that runs across the side of the head through the eye .\nto identify a snake as a colubrid or a viper there are some anatomical characteristics which tell them apart . these characteristics are usually only applicable to iberian ophidians ; species from outside the iberian peninsula may present different combinations of characters .\ncooperation with hunting society was established in order to hunt allochthonnous predators including american mink ( mustela vison ) , racoon dog ( nyctereutes procyonoides ) and racoon ( procyon lotor ) . these animals represent high level of risk for the aesculapin snake\n] one is the caduceus , and the other is the rod of asclepius . caduceus is a symbol with a short staff entwined by two serpents , sometimes surmounted by wings while the rod of asclepius is the one with a single snake . [\njuvenile aesculapian snakes prey small lizards , amphibians , mice , while the main food source are mostly rodents for adults . they will not refuse birds , either . they usually suffocate the prey by using constriction , although when there is no resistance they may start swallow the prey alive without constriction applied . when they encounter humans , they will quickly try to escape . however , when cornered they can attack willingly and very aggressively . they spend wintertime inactive in underground caverns , where several specimens may assemble . interestingly , this is one of the few snake species where males are longer than females .\nthese eggs hatch after 6 - 10 weeks depending on the weather and incubation temperatures . if they can avoid predation these snakes can generally live for around 25 years and they reach sexual maturity after approximately 4 - 6 years . male aesculapian snakes reach sexual maturity when they reach around 100cm in length , and females at just 85cm in length .\ngrass snakes are completely harmless to humans and feed mainly on amphibians and small fish when they can catch them . they will also prey on small mammals , young birds and even lizards occasionally . the grass snake is britain ' s longest native reptile and can occasionally reach sizes of up to 5ft in the uk and very occasionally stories of even 6ft specimens are heard but it is unlikely that any specimen of that size exists in the uk any longer . these larger grass snakes are more commonly found in warmer parts of europe though . in the uk 2 - 3ft in length is the most commonly recorded length of adult specimens found . any grass snake with a total length of 80 + cm is usually female , and any grass snake with a total length of 110cm or more is always a female .\ndespite these snakes posing little if any threat to our native wildlife ( excluding rats ) in 2013 the government agency ' lisi ' ( london invasive species initiative ) decided that these aesculapian snakes were a species of concern and called for the snakes to be eradicated in the uk quoting them as a\nspecies of high impact or concern\n. download the list of\nit took me a while to realise that this snake , although drawing blood with every bite , was incapable of inflicting any real pain on me . it had extremely sharp little teeth but lacked the sufficient clamping power in its jaws to do me any real harm . after a few minutes , the snake also came to the same conclusion , and once it also realised that i wasn ' t actually a threat or causing it any harm it began to calm down . after a while it became quite docile and was content to slither around or just relax in\nthere is an interesting piece written on pages 181 - 182 , in the book\nwild animals in captivity\nby the late a . d . bartlett , the superintendent of regents park zoo during the late 1800 ' s . he tells of his experiences where wild - caught brown mice were introduced to snake enclosures as a source of live food . if the mice weren ' t caught and eaten by the snakes fairly quickly , then the mice would gnaw their way out of the enclosures , leaving a rodent - sized hole for the snake to also escape from . the practice of feeding these wild - caught live brown mice was stopped once the mistake was recognised , but not before a highly venomous cobra had escaped . luckily this cobra was eaten by another snake in the adjoining enclosure . but a . d . bartlett also recalls :\nthe population of the aesculapian snake in the eger river valley is extraordinarily threatened and very vulnerable . rapid decline in abundance has been documented since the 1980s . biotope loss by changed management and landscape use methods , lack of suitable reproducing places , road traffic and alien predators are among the main causes of threatening . this project includes several measures essential for surviving and stabilization of the unique isolated population , such as managment of existing egg - laying sites , restoration of old one egg - laying sites , cleaning and restoration of old and shady dry - stone walls , reproduction research , estimating number of population , biotope monitoring , support to hunting alien predators and restoration of small water bodies .\nlastly , i would like to make an appeal to anyone considering catching and keeping a wild aesculapian snake as a pet . please don ' t ! it is an absolute joy being able to find , photograph and watch these beautiful reptiles living wild and free in the uk . they have found a niche in our ecosystem that has allowed them to flourish without upsetting the delicate balance of our environment . there are suspected to be a maximum of 20 breeding pairs in the london population . just removing one snake could have serious consequences for the future of this species in the uk . many of these snakes have already been caught , and with the increasing number of rodent traps being used in the area , these are also likely to have a negative impact on number of these snakes . please just be grateful if you are lucky enough to see one , let it live in peace in the wild , and let other people also experience the joy of seeing them living wild in the uk .\nahh , the australian tiger snake . . . fishing one day along the beardy waters , near glen innes in the new england region of nsw , came across 11 of them in about 2 miles . stood fishing and one came out of the water , and slithered around my boot . . .\nsahlean , t . c . , i . gherghel , m . pape\u0219 , a . strugariu , \u0219 . r . zamfirescu ( 2014 ) refining climate change projections for organisms with low dispersal abilities : a case study of the caspian whip snake . plos one , 9 ( 3 ) : e91994 .\nhave you ever wondered why is a snake , which is a symbol of destruction [ 4 ] used ironically as a symbol of healing ? well , the answer lies deep sown in history when moses , around 1400 bc , used the bronze serpent erected on the pole to cure the people who were bitten by snakes . [ 5 ] the other reasons why serpent has been used is the shedding of the skin that indicated longevity and immortality . the snake ' s ability to change from a lethargic stage to one of rapid activity symbolized the power to convalesce from an illness . [ 2 ] charas and martyn ( 1673 ) subjected the viper [ 6 ] to innumerable experimental investigations and concluded they were valuable remedies for itch , erysipelas , measles , smallpox , leprosy and were a valuable adjunct to the production of a beautiful skin . [ 6 ] hence , the snake has been a powerful symbol of healing itself . [ 7 ]\nwe studied a population of aesculapian snakes ( zamenis longissimus ) living close to a 1 , 000 - m stretch of busy road located in northwestern bohemia . we monitored the extent of road mortality and related behavioral characteristics . a large number of snakes regularly inhabited the road ' s embankment during monitoring in june and september . some individuals were observed to stay in exactly the same spot continuously for several days . snakes were active starting between 0800 and 0900 h in the morning and ending by 1900 h in june and 1800 h in september . activity was greatest during the morning . the most frequent type of observed behavior was related to thermoregulation . the snakes did not react visibly to passing traffic . the aesculapian snakes ' activity was higher , and started at lower temperatures , in june than in september . the mean body temperature of the aesculapian snakes was 24 . 3\u00e2\u00b0c . on average , it was higher than the ambient air temperature until the ambient air temperature exceeded 27 . 8\u00e2\u00b0c . we detected very little road mortality of adult snakes . even though they used the road embankments and adjacent stone abutment walls frequently , they virtually never ventured onto the surface of the road . to cross the road they generally used the culverts under it . juvenile snakes ventured onto the road frequently and their road mortality was high .\nwhen we find a snake in the wild it\u2019s important to know if that animal is a colubrid or a viper . bites from iberian colubrids are mostly harmless because they have either an unspecialized non - venomous dentition ( aglyphous ) or posterior venomous fangs ( opisthoglyphous ) which usually doesn\u2019t inject venom and even if they do , normally they don\u2019t inject enough venom for it to be dangerous . on the other hand , as iberian vipers are solenoglyphous , they inject large quantities of venom , being vipers responsible for most of the snake bite accidents in spain . yet , bites are extremely rare , and most happen after a too prolonged manipulation of the animal .\nthe welsh population of aesculapian snakes is estimated at 50 + specimens and came about during the 1960 ' s after a gravid female snake escaped from the welsh mountain zoo at colwyn bay and laid her eggs within the grounds of the zoo . the offspring then successfully bred and the population has thrived ever since in and around the zoo grounds . these were first reported by the press during the early ' 70 ' s . the london population of aesculapians had 30 different adult specimens recorded by 2011 and this population was estimated at around 30 - 40 specimens . however numbers seem to have fallen significantly in london over recent years . it is believed that this population came about after eight snakes were deliberately released in the 1980 ' s from a building close to london zoo rented by ilea (\ngrass snakes are britain ' s only native egg - laying snake . the eggs need plenty of heat to hatch successfully so the female lays them in damp rotting vegetation . because of this grass snakes are regularly found on allotments or in gardens with compost heaps as these provide an ideal spot for the grass snake to lay their eggs due to the heat generated by the rotting vegetation . the number of eggs laid usually varies from 10 - 40 depending on the size of the adult female . when clutches of eggs are first laid at the ovipositicula ( egg - laying site ) these eggs are soft and sticky and can often be found stuck together in one large mass .\nin 2015 the bbc ' s\none show\nasked me to feature on the program as part of a story they were going to run on the aesculapian snakes in london . in the end they chose to feature will atkins ( following my recommendation ) and i was replaced with the greek historian , simon chaplin . the finished piece was both interesting and informative and portrayed the snakes in a positive light . watch the video here : watch bbc one show\nduring mating season males can go up to 2 km in search of females . females lay 2 - 18 ( often 5 - 11 ) elongated , pear - shaped eggs ( 35 - 60 mm x 17 - 25 mm ) under ground , into holes in trees , compost heaps . . . ( sometimes communally with the grass snake ) .\nthe asclepiadae were a large order of priest physicians who controlled the sacred secrets of healing , which were passed from father to son . harmless aesculapian snakes were kept in the combination hospital - temples built by the ancient greeks and , later , by the romans in honor of the god . the snakes are found not only in their original range of southern europe , but also in the various places in germany and austria where roman temples had been established . escaped snakes survived and flourished .\nthese long slender snakes are one of europe ' s longest and regularly grow to a length of 140 - 160cm in warmer parts of europe they may even reach 225cm . this makes them the longest snake found in the uk . these snakes are usually found across southern , central and eastern europe and use the same method of incubating their eggs as our native grass snakes , using warm damp moist areas of vegetation such as hay piles and compost heaps to provide the necessary heat . clutch size is usually 5 - 11 eggs and these may take 6 - 10 weeks to hatch depending on the weather conditions . aesculapian snakes are semi - arboreal meaning that they are excellent climbers and are equally at home high up in trees and bushes as they are on the ground . they can on occasion be found basking on the canopies of trees and tall bushes .\nearlier this month , local papers in east london reported that a potentially venomous snake was on the loose , then the broadsheets snapped up the story of an alligator found on the streets of new york . the next day , the new journal carried an article about a man who had been rushed to the royal free hospital after being bitten by a tropical spider .\nalthough very shy and easily scared off grass snakes are the most common snake in the uk to be found wandering into urban gardens . grass snakes are found across england and wales and are found in small numbers in the very south of scotland just over the border . ( a fact that has only very recently been confirmed so not what you will read elsewhere ! ) .\na second feral population has been extant since the mid 1980s along a canal embankment habitat in camden , north london . this was first reported to tesl in 1998 by ester wenman , then head keeper of reptiles at london zoo . aesculapian snakes had apparently colonized the area during an experiment reported by the british herpetological society legal officer , peter curry , who was working there and keeping this species at the inner london education authority centre for life studies at the time that it was closed down around 1986 . one account was that eight snakes had been released \u2018on the quiet\u2019 around the time of closure to try to form a population , several of which were recaptured , but some remained at large . those caught initially were being euthanased but the view was then taken to leave the others \u2018to take their chances\u2019 where they were . ten years later , in an aviary close to the embankment , fragments of juvenile aesculapian snakes were found in a laughing thrush garrulax sp . aviary , suggesting that the snakes had bred .\nmacroprotodon genus : this is one of the few venomous species in the peninsula . the western false smooth snake ( macroprotodon brevis ) is an animal common on many different mediterranean habitats . even if it\u2019s venomous , its small opisthogyphous mouth and its calm behavior make it totally harmless . it is characterised by a dark mark on the back of its head , and its short and flattened skull .\nif handled grass snakes may ' musk ' the supposed predator . they do this by secreting a foul - smelling liquid from their anal glands . if this does not deter the potential attacker then the grass snake ' s next line of defence is often to feign death . they literally lay on their back with their mouth open and their tongue hanging out and pretend to be dead in a very theatrical manor . obviously this will only deter predators that refuse to eat carrion and is not a very effective form of defence . the practice of feigning death is more common amongst larger grass snakes and the time that this display takes can vary from a few seconds to 30 minutes . during this display the grass snake will continue to keep an eye on you and if it catches you watching it closely it will take longer to recover .\nhemorrhois genus : the horseshoe whip snake ( hemorrhois hippocrepis ) is an aglyphous colubrid that , even if it may bite if touched or grabbed , it\u2019s not considered a venomous species . it presents a transversal mark on its head from one eye to the other , and another mark in the shape of a horseshoe on its neck , which gives this species its common name . it\u2019s a species typical of rocky habitats .\nabstract : habitat use of the aesculapian snake ( zamenis longissimus ) at the northern extreme of its range in northwest bohemia was studied in two areas with different proportions of man - made structures and urban features . six snakes were equipped with internal transmitters ( giving 171 radio locations in total ) . compositional analysis at the homerange scale and location - scale revealed that the snakes used habitats and ecotones non - randomly . man - made structures were preferred significantly over all other habitat types in both study areas with buildings and their surroundings , stone walls and compost heaps preferred microhabitats in both areas . these sites were used mainly as sheltering places or for thermoregulatory activities . in both areas snakes showed a preference for ecotones , transitional areas between biomes . urban structures were favoured for nesting and overwintering sites . the prevalence of snakes in man - made edge habitats suggests that in climatically challenging conditions , these otherwise heat seeking snakes prefer different habitats than in more southernly areas of this species ' range .\nin the iberian peninsula we can find 13 different species of snakes , with representatives of three of the four types of dentition i talked about in my last post . there aren\u2019t any proteroglyphous snake because the members of the elapidae family are restricted to tropical and subtropical habitats . most of the iberian species are snakes of the colubridae family ( aglyphous or opisthoglyphous ) or vipers and adders of the viperidae family ( solenoglyphous ) .\n: smile : thank you for this interesting and informative write ~ up , alan . : xxgrinning - - 00xx3 : like michael , i cannot be certain i ' ve ever encountered a live snake in the wild . . . and , to be honest . . . : anerikke : . . . i ' m not sure i ' d even want to , as the mere thought of these reptiles gives me the heebie jeebes !\ncapula , massimo ; luiselli , luca ; valenti , < br / > sophia ; ceccarelli , arianna ; rugiero , lorenzo ; aloise , gaetano 2006 . are endemic snakes with a narrow distribution more specialist than their wide - ranging counterparts ? evidence from the prey composition and morphometric correlates of the diet in zamenis lineatus , a rat snake endemic to southern italy . amphibia - reptilia 27 ( 4 ) : 531 - 537 - get paper here\ngrass snakes are excellent swimmers and are just as ' at home ' in the water as on land . if threatened the grass snake can disappear under water holding its breath for up to an hour to evade a predator . they will also actively hunt newts , frogs , toads and small fish in water . they are such competent swimmers that they have even been recorded crossing the sea from mainland britain to small islands off the west coast on calm days .\nsmooth snakes are viviparous giving birth to live young ( usually 4 - 15 ) which are born in august or september . melanistic ( black ) smooth snakes are incredibly rare in the uk with only two reports of sightings ever being recorded . the first record of a melanistic smooth snake in the uk dates from back in 1994 on a site in south - west surrey . the last recorded sighting was of 2 - 3 specimens found on a site in dorset in 2008 .\nin my first blog entry i talked about the different kinds of snake that exist based on their dentition . in this entry , i\u2019ll explain what species of ophidian we can find in the iberian peninsula , which species are venomous and which aren\u2019t , and how we can identify the different species we can find when we are on the field . as we will see in this entry , snakes have been unfairly demonized , as the species in the iberian peninsula pose no threat to us .\n' the species of concern list for the greater london area has been compiled by a range of industry professionals and land managers within london and is reviewed and updated quarterly . this list does indeed include the aesculapian snakes that are being referred to , although no action that i am aware of has been taken to remove this population , nor does lisi have any plans to do so at present . this species is listed in the wildlife and countryside act 1981 meaning it is illegal to allow the species to spread or escape into the wild . at present there is limited information on what effects the species may have on our local ecosystems and further information would be hugely valuable in developing appropriate management plans for this population\u2019 ."]}
{"id": 1081, "summary": [{"text": "giant african threadfin ( polydactylus quadrifilis ) is a fish species in the family polynemidae .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it is native to coastal parts of the east atlantic from mauritania to angola , also ranging into freshwater rivers .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this fish supports important fisheries and can reach up to 2 m ( 6.6 ft ) in length . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "giant african threadfin", "paragraphs": ["giant african threadfin ( polydactylus quadrifilis ) is a fish species in the family polynemidae .\nlight tackle spinning in the surf and lagoons of gabon for jacks , tarpon , giant african threadfin ( capitaine ) , and cubera snapper .\ndietary composition and biometric characteristics of the giant african threadfin , polydactylus quadrifilis ( cuvier , 1829 ) from , nigeria | t . f . | journal of biology , agriculture and healthcare\ngarth stood over the mighty threadfin to be sure the next wave didn\u2019t release him . i ran down to see my prize and was in instant awe . this giant african threadfin was a giant ! at first i could hardly handle him . his strength pushed me away twice before i finally got my hands under him enough to lift . he was easily 40lbs !\n[ \u2026 ] any fun if he didn\u2019t . i took a deep breath and went about my business . it wasn\u2019t long ago i hoisted the giant african threadfin up the beach in much more difficult conditions . this one would be easy and it [ \u2026 ]\na lure fished slowly along the bottom \u2014 often intended for threadfin \u2014 is a sure tarpon producer .\nthe mission ' s conrad botes returns to gabon today on his second trip with tourette fishing . the first one was a massive success . several guys caught huge tarpon off the beach on fly , while plenty of pitbull - sized cubera snapper , a few giant african threadfin and loads of jack crevalle ( the local ' trash fish ' ) were caught too . [ . . . ]\nwhen the rains arrive in gabon ,\nsays mark murray ,\nthe giant african threadfin come out to play .\nmurray says these exotic game fish hunt in big shoals\nright behind the shore dump , and are arguably one of the strongest - fighting fish one can encounter in the surf\nthat love eat to lures , spoons or jigs . they grow to over 100 pounds .\nthe anticipation for everyone was no less than thrilling . while i still knew i had a threadfin the south africans weren\u2019t so sure . finally , the wave i needed came just as the fish let go of bottom . i lifted and felt him give and with my rod over my shoulder pointed towards the sea i ran up the beach . the lunker of a fish rode the wave perfectly and when it receded the fish stayed on his side on the beach . a giant african threadfin on the fly off the beach !\nit was nice on the beach at the mouth of the estuary . there were a few rolling tarpon we couldn\u2019t reach and garth wellman took down this enormous longfin jack . but this brute was our only fish in daylight . things got so slow that we considered calling it an early night until mark assured us after dark is the best time for everyone\u2019s dream fish for the trip , the giant african threadfin .\nit was dark before 7 and that\u2019s when the relentless blind casting began . six of us lined the beach around a point where the water rushes past in the dropping tide . mark feels the giant african threadfin are mostly deep and far from the beach except every once in a while they move close and this is the spot . the problem is keeping a fly down deep in the zone for more than a few seconds . the tidal current rips so hard that even with my 450 grain sonar sink fly line the fly gets swung back to the surface too fast . i envision literally needing to bump a threadfin in the nose in those short seconds much like hitting the lottery .\none of the best times to fish for the fabulous threadfin is following a big storm ( note the clouds heading away , on the horizon ) .\nthe biggest threadfin in the world are found here , a fish that murrays says is unique to west africa . the aggressive predators are available in large numbers along gabon beaches .\ni\u2019d have thought differently but mark was quick to announce that threadfin are delicate and our photos session must take place fast . the last thing i wanted to do was hurt this magnificent creature any more so i lifted for a couple shots then john pulled the fly and i ran him down to the water . waves crushed me at the edge of the beach drop but i held my breath and enjoyed the power of the threadfin one last time as he yanked himself away with one swift kick of his massive tail . mission accomplished !\nif anyone were to compile a list of the world\u2019s most exciting surf - fishing spots , there can be little doubt that the west african country of gabon would be at or near the top . in recent years , its reputation among globe - trotting surf enthusiasts has been growing , and as these dramatic , brilliant images taken by mark murray of tourette fishing reveal , with good reason . adjacent to ndogo lagoon at the southern boundary of loango national park are\nsome of the longest stretches of untouched coastline left on the african continent ,\naccording to the outfitter . for more information on fishing here , visit tourette fishing ( which is based in africa but organizes trips for anglers from all over ) .\nlike tarpon , cubera snapper will nail jigs and other lures fished slowly in the surf .\nthat ' s one of the reasons fishing gabon is so exciting ,\nsays murray .\nyou can be targeting a certain species \u2014 such as threadfin , as this angler was doing \u2014 but you ' ll run into surprise catches like this .\nthere\u2019s a ton of wildlife in this area including lowland gorillas and chimpanzees . i can\u2019t tell you how cool seeing one of these primates would be . the chances are slim though because they\u2019re wild and have more jungle to hide in than anywhere . there have been lots of elephants however enjoying the estuary and we saw several on the boat ride to the fishing tonight . these are a smaller african species called the forest elephants . last night we had two walk right out on the beach while fishing .\nfurthermore , the monsters we\u2019re after aren\u2019t likely stopped on traditional leader systems of class tippet breaking strengths of 20lb . certainly not a tarpon when there\u2019s a rocky reef near . i\u2019ve learned from my african friends to fish straight 80lb flouro . this system stirs alarm with old - timers that feel the leader \u201cmust\u201d have a weaker breaking point than the fly line and backing . no doubt they\u2019re correct and i emphasized this in my saltwater fly fishing book . but times change and the modern philosophy is use heavy tippet and hold the fish close so he never reaches the backing and count on the newer stronger than ever cores of fly lines not to break .\nthere was one last stellar fish taken after the threadfin and that was a cubera snapper by conrad . the big fish for sure cruise the beach after dark . it\u2019s just that tonight there were not many and it was a lot of hard work to capture what we did . we returned to camp for a very late night of beers and dinner . we made it to bed slightly before 1 am and mark is knocking on our doors at 4 : 30 . this is going to be one of those \u201chardest core\u201d weeks that i thrive on !\nif you read this blog however , you know i\u2019m a believer and my persistence is that of an insane man . i traveled 9 , 000 miles for a threadfin and dang it i\u2019m not going home without a fight . at 9 pm , two solid hours of relentless casting in the dark began to wear on me . it was so black i simply stared at the opening of my stripping basket being sure my strips of line made it in there for a productive next cast . honestly , i was falling asleep standing up in thigh deep water .\nas the guys came around to see the fight , the fish steadily cleared my reel of fly line . i was using my scientific angler demo reel \u2013 not exactly my first choice but it was too late to second guess my decision . sa lined the attractive reel with the 450 grain sonar at the factory to help me save time packing . the run was powerful yet not speedy and my drag was tight and my backing crackled off the reel in a strange sound . undoubtedly the fish had size . by now some of the guys suggested big snapper while others a jack , both of which i am more than familiar with their fights . i kept saying , \u201cno . this is a threadfin \u201d .\ni told myself ten more casts , something i\u2019ve been doing at the end of every hard fishing day since i was a kid . on my third cast my heavy fly got hit with the strangest thump i\u2019ve ever felt from a fish in my life . so strange that at first i wasn\u2019t sure it was a fish . but after a good strip set and a lift of the rod , without any doubt it was a fish . the strange thump was followed by heavy and violent headshakes . the kind that sever a 40lb tippet . the kind of power that if you\u2019re squeezing your rod to tight the thrust could break your wrist ( very few anglers have any idea what i\u2019m talking about but i promise you it\u2019s true ) . i just knew and yelled \u201c threadfin on ! \u201d\ngreek , poly = a lot of + greek , daktylos = finger ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; freshwater ; brackish ; demersal ; depth range 15 - 55 m ( ref . 10799 ) . tropical ; 22\u00b0n - 5\u00b0s , 26\u00b0w - 13\u00b0e ( ref . 57343 )\neastern atlantic : senegal to angola ( ref . 57402 ) . also reported from mauritania ( ref . 55783 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 200 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 57402 ) ; common length : 150 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3659 ) ; max . published weight : 75 . 0 kg ( ref . 7386 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 9 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 12 - 13 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 11 - 12 . diagnosis : pectoral fin with 4 threadlike filaments ( ref . 57402 , 81658 ) . pectoral fin inserted very low on body , generally somewhat longer than upper part of fin ( ref . 57402 ) .\noccurs in shallow coastal waters , over sandy and muddy bottoms , sometimes in brackish habitats ( ref . 57343 , 81658 ) . enters estuaries ( ref . 57402 ) , occasionally caught in fresh water ( ref . 57402 , 81658 ) . very large specimens are only found in marine waters ( ref . 81658 ) . feeds on crustaceans and fishes ( ref . 10799 , 81658 ) . flesh fairly tasteful ( ref . 57402 ) .\nmotomura , h . , 2004 . threadfins of the world ( family polynemidae ) . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of polynemid species known to date . fao spec . cat . fish . purp . rome : fao . 3 : 117 p . ( ref . 57343 )\n) : 22 . 3 - 28 , mean 26 ( based on 48 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00724 ( 0 . 00465 - 0 . 01128 ) , b = 3 . 08 ( 2 . 95 - 3 . 21 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 0 \u00b10 . 66 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 0 . 34 - 0 . 41 ; assuming tm = 3 - 4 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high to very high vulnerability ( 69 of 100 ) .\nyour igfa account is your personal portal to member benefits , including world records , videos , photos , and the latest in game fish conservation .\nthe international game fish association is a not - for - profit organization committed to the conservation of game fish and the promotion of responsible , ethical angling practices through science , education , rule making and record keeping .\n\u00a9 2015 international game fish association , 300 gulf stream way , dania beach , fl 33004 .\nif you look at a map of gabon we\u2019re on the southern coast exactly at the border of loango national park . it\u2019s a long way from idaho and takes a few days to adjust to the time change . because of this i slept like garbage last night . it was miserable waking up at 4 : 15 am . but then i realized i was fly fishing in gabon and filled my yeti tumbler with coffee and stimulated my brain on the 20 - minute boat ride to the mouth of the estuary where we fished last night .\nit was plenty dark when we arrived . the winds were soft and the surf and waves easy to handle . today i brought my flimsy stripping basket and it made line control for casting slightly easier . the skies were full of puffy tropical clouds and moon and stars poked through every hole . by the time i got done being the weatherman john travis hooked up .\njohn got his fly on the water first and several casts in his reel started screaming and saw him against the moonlight backing up the beach . he had a tremendous fish pulling him around and things looked hectic . next we heard the splashes out in the darkness . john had a tarpon on .\nlanding a tarpon on a fly from a flats boat can be a chore for two guys working together . hooking and landing one off the beach here in gabon seems impossible especially when you consider the ripping currents and a reef not far from where we cast . but stronger than ever fly rods , reels and lines make the once impossible now possible .\ntourette fishing carefully selected the anglers for this fly fishing exploratory trip to gabon . john wasn\u2019t only fishing straight 80lb tippet but he knows all the tricks to break a tarpons spirit fast . he had his fish on the beach in a notable ten minutes . the quick battle was a sight to behold !\nthere was more action as well . as we photographed johns tarpon conrad botes hooked another but lost him after several jumps . as he was reeling in to check over the rig he hooked and landed a longfin jack and mike lasota beached a nice jack as well . as for me , i better put down the camera and get my game face on soon .\nby 7 am the tide was useless for fishing the estuary mouth . mark murray knew 7 was the end of it so he had a plan and we paired up in the boats and headed in the estuary to fish for snapper and jack . i picked up my 9 - weight jungle rod and heaved some clouser\u2019s at the mangroves from the front while mike did the same from the back .\nthere was action on almost every cast with snappers and grunter . i caught a new species called the mangrove jack . he\u2019s a snapper not a jack . what\u2019s nice about this catch for me is that i lost a huge one of these in sudan in 2014 right as i reached for him . finally , i can add one of the handsome fellas to my list .\ni also added the guinean barracuda ( sphyraena afra ) to my species list . this one\u2019s a baby but the species gets gigantic . unfortunately , the aggressive fish have made themselves too vulnerable in the area and the big boys are rare these days . i noticed the difference from other cuda species immediately with all the beautiful colors on this fishes back .\nwe packed in the morning session around 11 and headed for camp for lunch and beers . i adjusted my beach set up while mike napped and the south africans tied flies . the fun breather lasted until 4 pm when we left for the evening session during prime tide .\nmy technique was cast as long as i could which isn\u2019t far with a 450 grain from a beach at night . then mend some slack line out as the system sinks . the second i felt the current swing against my fly line i made a strip then fed it back out . then another and another but by the time there was hope for a fourth strip and feed my fly was slamming into the beach down current . you can see how short a time the fly is in the zone .\nforty feet away i could make out the silhouette of john and slightly further i could see conrad . beyond them but too dark to see was arno and garth . mike was on his own mission tonight somewhere searching for less surf to contend with . i made a deal with myself to be the last guy to call it quits but dang everyone was fishing hard . at last , i could hear john reeling in followed by conrad . their silhouettes met and up the beach they went . then arno and garth met them \u2013 the night was coming to an end .\nthe hard pulling fish never went more than about fifty feet in the backing . he fought back and forth around this distance for a good five minutes . then he started to give up . it was a huge relief when my fly line returned to the reel but it took another five minutes to get in my running line and finally see the sinking head of the line .\nten minutes in the fish had taken me a hundred yards down the beach . bad for me was here the surf was big and the beach was steep . i made my first attempt to surf him in on the beach but the lip at the sand drop was too much . the big fish , although tired now , anchored himself in the trough . each time a big wave came i timed it to lift hard and although the first few tries failed i could feel him start to budge .\nwe stayed fishing on the beach until 11 : 30 pm . while i relaxed shooting the bull with mark most of the time i did put in a few more casts that led to something quite humorous . my unlit headlamp was tight over my yeti ball cap . it was uncomfortably tight and i continued to adjust my hat . eventually i forgot the headlamp was there and ripped my hat off to shake it around to make it more comfortable and off went my headlamp out to sea . first full night \u2013 headlamp gone . not good .\na full ten minutes later i saw a red light flash off the drop - off far down the beach . it didn\u2019t register with my spinning mind at first but the second time it flashed i charged the direction . it kept going off but each flash of red i got closer till finally i lunged and dove and miraculously retrieved my lamp . i forgot to take off my hat though and in trade for the lamp i lost my yeti hat .\nwhile my dumb moves were stacking up it seemed like a good trade \u2013 the hat for a lamp ( even though it\u2019s not waterproof and may not ever work again ) . then low and behold when we finally gave it up for the night , john came up the beach with my yeti hat in hand . it washed up against his feet in the blackness of the ocean . tonight was indeed my lucky night !\ncongrats jeff \u2013 what an awesome trip . have a blast for the rest of the week !\ni started fly fishing at age 7 in the lakes and ponds of new england cutting my teeth on various sunfish , bass , crappie and stocked trout . i went to northland college in ashland , wisconsin , where i graduated with a naturalist degree while i discovered new fishing opportunities for pike , muskellunge , walleyes and various salmonids found in lake superior and its tributaries .\nfrom there i headed west to work a few years in the yellowstone region to simply work as much as most people fish and fish as much as most people work . i did just that , only it lasted over 20 years working at the jack dennis fly shop in jackson , wy where i recently departed . now it\u2019s time to work for\nthe man\n, working for myself that is .\ni plan to pursue my love to paint fish , lecture on any aspect of fly fishing you can imagine and host a few trips to some of the most exotic places you can think of . my ultimate goal is to catch as many species of fish on fly possible from freshwater to saltwater , throughout the world . i presently have taken over 325 species from over 50 countries !\ngive us your email and we ' ll notify you when jeff posts a new blog post .\nno time for starlets , autographs , glitz or glamour . . . where\u2019s the fly shop on hollywood blvd ?\nthe dot on the map shows the location of gabon ' s loango national park .\nwhen longfin and crevalle jacks move into the surf , double and triple hookups are constant .\nfishing inside the lower ndogo lagoon estuary offers great action in addition to the beaches . the igfa all - tackle world - record longfin jack ( caranx fischeri ) of 36 + pounds was caught here .\nin few places can an angler tussle with big fish under the watchful eyes of elephants . the area is known as africa ' s eden ; says murray :\nanglers can often end up sharing the beaches of gabon with forest elephants , hippos , sitatunga ( elegant , swamp - loving antelopes ) or lowland gorillas .\nthis is not a game fish on the bucket list of most guests who fish gabon with tourette fishing . their bad , says murray .\nthe guitarfish is hands down one of the most underrated species one can target here .\nthese very strong fish that share characteristics of both sharks and rays seldom touch lures ,\nbut a well - placed bait on the edge of a sandbar will get you hooked up with one of these beasts almost every time !\nmurray says .\nwhile this isn ' t actually a huge seatrout or weakfish , the resemblance is unmistakable . it ' s a senegalese kob , in fact a very close cousin of those species . kobs are a prized group of the drum / croaker family found from south africa north into the mediterranean . slow - fished bucktails jigs or soft plastics are hard to beat .\nan angler tossing a lure into the chaos of game fish tearing up the bait along these beaches is guaranteed an instant hookup .\neven smaller longfin jacks made superb targets in the estuary for fly - rodders .\nsome species of barracuda grow much larger than this handsome specimen caught from a skiff .\nre - rigging lures occupies time daily .\nthe size and power of fish off gabon beaches and in the estuaries mean they ' re really hard on tackle ,\nsays murray .\nit ' s typical for a boat to have an entire lagoon to itself .\nthe first hour of the day is always a good time for action on gabon beaches . the light tackle this angler uses makes even smaller jacks a blast to catch .\nwhile they may be caught during daylight hours , big cubera snapper become most active in the darkness .\nwhen the bite is hot , the action comes hot and heavy . here , one longfin is beached and three anglers are battling fish \u2014 likely jacks but , says murray , very possibly other species such as tarpon or cubera snapper .\nelongate , shallow - running minnow lures are particularly effective for longfin jacks in the estuary when fished fast with hard twitches .\ncatching big tarpon in the surf is what murray terms\nan exceptional experience .\nwhile this is a big fish , by gabon standards it ' s typical , since tarpon exceeding 250 pounds have been hooked off these beaches .\ncrashing surf on one side and a line of elephants ambling past on the other remind anglers that they ' re nowhere near kansas anymore .\nas popular as throwing lures may be among gabon anglers , bait accounts for some great catches . murray says circle hooks help ensure quick release . tourette guides often invert a chunk of mullet , sewing it up to keep its shape in the surf .\nif anglers tire of casting , they can toss out a live mullet on a circle hook . this huge longfin was caught that way , in the estuary .\nreal - world woes fall away for anglers casting on gabon ' s remote , peaceful beaches .\nmany products featured on this site were editorially chosen . sport fishing may receive financial compensation for products purchased through this site .\nurltoken is part of the bonnier fishing group , a division of bonnier corporation .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 sport fishing magazine . a bonnier corporation company . all rights reserved . reproduction in whole or in part without permission is prohibited .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhome > vol 6 , no 9 ( 2016 ) > t . f .\nplease add our address\ncontact @ urltoken\ninto your email contact list .\nthis journal follows iso 9001 management standard and licensed under a creative commons attribution 3 . 0 license .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 9 / 3 / 2014 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files ."]}
{"id": 1082, "summary": [{"text": "the hainan black-crested gibbon or hainan gibbon ( nomascus hainanus ) , is a species of gibbon found only on hainan island , china .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it was formerly considered a subspecies of the eastern black crested gibbon ( nomascus nasutus ) from h\u00f2a b\u00ecnh and cao b\u1eb1ng provinces of vietnam and jingxi county in guangxi zhuang autonomous region , china .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "molecular data , like morphology and call differences , suggest it is a separate species .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "its habitat consists of broad-leaved forests and semideciduous monsoon forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it feeds on ripe , sugar-rich fruit , such as figs ( ficus spp. ) and , at times , leaves , and insects . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "hainan black crested gibbon", "paragraphs": ["hainan black crested gibbon ( nomascus sp . cf . nasutus hainanus ) conservation biology status and conservation strategy\nhainan black - crested gibbons can act as seed dispersers for forest tree species . trade in live\nthe current status of the hainan black - crested gibbon nomascus sp . cf . nasutus hainanus in bawangling national nature reserve , hainan , china | oryx | cambridge core\nhaimoff , e . 1984 . the organization of song in the hainan black gibbon ( hylobates concolor hainanus ) .\nchan bpl , tan xf , tan wj ( 2008 ) . rediscovery of the critically endangered eastern black - crested gibbon\nzhou j , wei fw , li m , zhang jf , wang dl , pan rl ( 2005 ) . hainan black crested gibbon is headed for extinction .\nhainan black - crested gibbons are almost exclusively frugivores . in the refuge they inhabit , the most common food sources are the fruits from\nnadler , t . 2003 . rediscovery of the eastern black crested gibbon nomascus nasutus in vietnam . the gibbon\u2019s voice 6 ( 1 ) : 1\u20133 .\nthe black - crested gibbon inhabits evergreen , semi - evergreen and deciduous forest , in subtropical and montane regions ( 1 ) .\nwestern black crested gibbon ( n . concolor ) china , laos , vietnam , ( critically endangered a2cd ver 3 . 1 )\nclassified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , and listed on appendix i of cites ( 3 ) . four subspecies are currently recognised , all of which are classified as critically endangered : the tonkin black - crested gibbon ( nomascus concolor concolor ) , west yunnan black - crested gibbon ( n . c . furvogaster ) , central yunnan black - crested gibbon ( n . c . jingdongensis ) , and laotian black - crested gibbon ( n . c . lu ) ( 1 ) .\ngeissmann , t . 2006 . schutz des hainan - schopfgibbons , des seltensten menschenaffen der welt : ein projektbericht [ conservation of the hainan black crested gibbon , the most endangered ape species : a project report ] . gibbon journal 2 : 11 - 13 .\nbleisch , w . and chen , n . 1991 . ecology and behavior of wild black crested gibbons\ngeissmann , t . & chan , b . 2004 : the hainan black crested gibbon : most critically endangered ape . folia primatologica 75 , supplement 1 : 116 ( abstract only ) .\nzhang , y . z . , and shreeran , l . k . ( 1994 ) . current status of the hainan black gibbon\nzhou , j . , f . wei , m . li , j . zhang , d . wang , r . pan . 2005 . hainan black - crested gibbon is headed for extinction .\nla qt , trinh dh , long b , geissmann t ( 2002 ) . status review of black crested gibbons\ngeissmann , t . and b . chan . 2004 . the hainan black crested gibbon : most critically endangered ape . folia primatol . 75 ( suppl . 1 ) : 116 . ( abstract . )\nmootnick , a . , b . chan , p . moisson , t . nadler . 2012 . the status of the hainan gibbon nomascus hainanus and the eastern black gibbon nomascus nosutus .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - black - crested gibbon ( nomascus concolor )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - black - crested gibbon ( nomascus concolor )\ntitle =\narkive species - black - crested gibbon ( nomascus concolor )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe black - crested gibbon is found in south east asia , and the greatly reduced and fragmented range includes vietnam , china and laos . much confusion surrounds the taxonomy of this species but at present four different subspecies are recognised ( 7 ) . the central yunnan ( nomascus concolor jingdongensis ) and the west yunnan black - crested gibbon ( n . c . furvogaster ) are both found within the yunnan province of china ( 8 ) . the laotian black - crested gibbon ( n . c . lu ) is found in laos , the tonkin black - crested gibbon ( n . c . concolor ) is found in northern vietnam ( 4 ) .\nthe future of gibbons in vietnam is uncertain , but we should not give up hope . successful gibbon conservation is possible . the hainan gibbon , a related crested gibbon species on china\u2019s hainan island , was down to 13 individuals , but after strict protection , the population has now grown to over 20 .\nhainan black - crested gibbons are one of only three gibbon species in which the female makes vocalizations during mating . there are many hypotheses concerning these soft grunts of the female but it might have be related to the social polygyny of\nhainan black - crested gibbons often perform morning duets between male and female pairs . the female usually only emits a single loud noise often referred to as a great - call . the male\u2019s song is more elaborate and has at least three distinct calls . the presence of a laryngeal sac in males may contribute to the increased complexity of vocalizations . hainan black - crested gibbons are believed to be the only gibbon species with a male dominated duet .\nliu , z . h . , yu , s . , and yuan , x . ( 1984 ) . the resource of the hainan black gibbon at its present situation .\nhainan black - crested gibbons live in tropical primary forests . it is estimated that 95 % of their original habitat has been lost . hainan black - crested gibbons require indigenous forest of hainan island and do not inhabit recently planted pine forests or rubber plantations . due to habitat loss and hunting , this species has shifted its primary habitat from lowland forest to higher mountainous forest ( with elevations ranging from 100 to 1800 m on hainan island ) . optimal habitat is hard to determine as a result of the small population size and altered environment on the entire island . however , mature , ravine tropical forests , in particular , seem to be favored . like other gibbons , hainan black - crested gibbons are specialized for living in the canopies of forests .\nhainan crested gibbon ( n . hainanus ) bawangling nature reserve on hainan island , china ( critically endangered a2acd ; b1ab ( iii , v ) + 2ab ( iii , v ) ; c2a ( ii ) ; d ver 3 . 1 )\nhabitat loss and human encroachment and activity are the main reasons for the decline in population of hainan black - crested gibbons . the species has seen a drastic reduction in range and population since the 1950s . the annual rate of habitat loss is approaching zero , although more work needs to be done concerning critical habitat conservation , but hainan black - crested gibbons are , without a doubt , on the very edge of extinction .\nthe case of the eastern black crested gibbon also shows that conservation management can stabilise wild gibbon populations . hunting for this species does not seem to be a major threat anymore due to conservation efforts , although it was in the past . but immediate and efficient conservation actions are still urgently needed . we should start protecting the gibbons now and not wait until population numbers have dropped as low as the eastern black - crested gibbon .\nwei , w . , w . xiaoming , f . claro , d . youzhong , a . souris , w . chundong , w . changhe , r . berzins . 2004 . the current status of the hainan black - crested gibbon nomascus sp . cf nasutus hainanus in bawangling national nature reserve , hainan , china .\nadult male eastern black gibbons are black and can have a slight tinge of brown hair on the chest . adult male hainan gibbons are entirely black ( geissmann et al . 2000 ; mootnick 2006 ) . adult female hainan gibbons and eastern black gibbons vary from a buffish to a beige brown and have a black cap ( geissmann et al . 2000 ; mootnick 2006 ) . the adult female hainan gibbon has a thin , white face ring that is thicker above the mouth and below the orbital ridge . the hair surrounding the face of the female hainan gibbon creates a rounded appearance encircling the face . the hair grows outwards on the side of the face and in a more downward direction as it gets closer to the chin .\nzhang , y . and sheeran , l . 1994 . current status of the hainan black gibbon ( hylobates concolor hainanus ) . asian primates 3 ( 3 - 4 ) : 3 .\nhaimoff , e . 1987 . preliminary observations of wild black - crested gibbons ( hylobates concolor concolor ) in yunnan province , people\u2019s republic of china .\nliu , z . , yu , s . and yuan , x . 1984 . the resources of the hainan black gibbon at its present situation . chinese wildlife 6 : 1 - 4 .\nspecies . due to the rarity of hainan black - crested gibbons , very few specimens have been collected and little is known of variation in size . however , within gibbons there is little variation in body size . most likely\nzhou , j . , wei , f . , li , m . , zhang , j . , wang , d . and pan , r . 2005 . hainan black - crested gibbon is headed for extinction . international journal of primatology 26 : 453 - 465 .\nmootnick ar , fan pf ( 2010 ) . a comparative study of crested gibbons\ndue to the critically endangered status of hainan black - crested gibbons , the chinese government has put a ban on all types of forestry in or around bnnr . hainan island , which is home to many introduced rubber plantations , has been forced to stop the expansion of the rubber industry in order to save\nsouthern white - cheeked crested gibbon ( n . siki ) savannakhet in southern laos , quang binh province in central vietnam ( endangered )\nhaimoff , e . , yang , x . , he , s . j . and chen , n . 1986 . census and survey of wild black crested gibbons\ngibbon species in vietnam and worldwide are becoming increasingly endangered . five of the six species in vietnam should be classified as critically endangered and the other as endangered nationally due to steep declines in populations in the country . for example , the two most threatened species in vietnam are the eastern black crested gibbon , which has a population of 110 individuals , and the western black crested gibbon , which has fewer than 80 individuals remaining in vietnam . these species were once widely distributed in vietnam .\ngeissmann , t . 2005b . auf der suche nach den letzten gibbons von hainan . gibbon journal 1 : 18 - 22 .\nzhang , y . 1992 . hainan gibbon ( hylobates concolor hainanus ) threatened . asian primates 2 ( 1 ) : 6 .\nliu , z . h . , s . m . yu and x . c . yuan 1984 . resources of the hainan black gibbon and its present situation . chinese wildlife 6 : 1\u20134 . in chinese .\nthe taxonomy of the crested black gibbons , genus nomascus is still in debate , but experts now believe there are three species : the hainan gibbon , nomascus hainanus , the most endangered of any of the gibbons and restricted to the island of hainan ( geissmann 2003 ; geissmann and chan 2004 ; wu et al . 2004 ; zhou et al . 2004 ) ; the eastern black gibbon , nomascus nasutus , occurring in northeast vietnam ( nadler 2003 ) , and adjoining guangxi zhuang autonomous region , china ( chan et al . in prep . ) ; and the western black gibbon , nomascus concolor , occurring in central yunnan , china , and indochina .\nkey words : hainan black crested gibbon , extinction , indochina in october 2003 , we carried out a large - scale survey of the remaining gibbon ( nomascus sp . ) habitat in the bawangling national nature reserve ( bawangling ) in order to determine the size of the gibbon population . up to 17 teams surveyed all suitable habitat in bawangling using a fixed listening point method specially adapted for gibbon surveys . in addition , group compositions were established through direct sightings .\ngeissmann , t . 2005 . der hainan - schopfgibbon : der bedrohteste menschenaffe der welt . gibbon journal 1 : 10 - 12 .\nzhou , j . , f . w . wei , m . li , j . f . zhang , d . l . wang and r . l . pan . 2005 . hainan black - crested gibbon is headed for extinction . int . j . primatol . 26 ( 2 ) : 453\u2013465 .\nblack - crested gibbons feed preferentially on ripe sugar rich fruit such as figs ( ficus species ) , although they also supplement their diet with leaves and insects ( 2 ) .\nhainan black - crested gibbons are found in social groups composed of females , juveniles , infants and , occasionally , males . males will also live solitarily . group size has been hard to determine due to the extremely low population size and fluctuations in behavior of\nadults weigh between 5 . 8 and 10 kg . hind limbs are 70 . 4 % the length of forelimbs , which is slightly longer than in other black - crested gibbons (\nhaimoff , e . h . , yang , x . y . , he , s . j . and chen , n . 1987 . preliminary observations on black - crested gibbons\nliu , z . h . , and tan , c . ( 1990 ) . an analysis on habitat structure of the hainan gibbon .\npocock , r . 1905 . observations upon a female specimen of the hainan gibbon ( hylobates hainanus ) now living in the society\u2019s gardens .\nhumans are the main predators of hainan black - crested gibbons . humans can benefit by selling adults into the illegal animal trade , use the meat for food , or sell the bones for use in traditional chinese medicine . mass slaughters have been recorded on numerous occasions .\nhainan black - crested gibbons have been described as an umbrella species for the local ecosystem . an umbrella species is one which indicates the overall health of an ecosystem . gibbons may also play a role in the seed dispersal of many of the fruits that they eat .\nwei , w . , wang , x . , claro , f . , ding , y . , souris , a . c . , wang , c . , wang , c . and berzins , r . 2004 . the current status of the hainan black - crested gibbon nomascus sp . cf . nasutus hainanus in bawangling national nature reserve , hainan , china . oryx 38 : 452 - 456 .\na recent study found no molecular differences between the putative subspecies of n . concolor , but significant genetic differences between the forms hainanus and nasutus ( roos et al . 2007 ) . the hainan gibbon and eastern black gibbon differ in their hair coloration ( geissmann et al . 2000 ; mootnick 2006 ) and territorial calls ( la q . trung and trinh d . hoang 2004 ) . these characteristics , in association with the newly discovered genetic differences , suggest that the hainan gibbon and eastern black gibbon be considered distinct species ( roos and nadler 2005 ; roos et al . 2007 ) .\n. a species survey of hainan island recorded 7 species of carnivorous eagles and hawks .\nwu , w . , x . m . wang , f . claro , y . z . ding , a . c . souris , c . d . wang , c . h . wang and r . berzins . 2004 . the current status of the hainan black - crested gibbon nomascus sp . cf . nasutus hainanus in bawangling national nature reserve , hainan , china . oryx 38 ( 4 ) : 452\u2013456 .\ngibbons have a hairless face with dark eyes , small nostrils , and jet - black skin .\nlan , d . and sheeran , l . k . 1995 . the status of black gibbons\nbleisch , w . v . and n . chen . 1991 . ecology and behavior of wild black - crested gibbons in china with a reconsideration of evidence of polygyny . primates 32 : 539\u2013548 .\ndepartment of forest , hainan province , haifu street no . 80 , haikou 570000 , china\nin bawanglin nature reserve , hainan , china . american journal of primatology 19 : 247\u2013254 .\nadult males and juveniles have completely black pelage while females are brownish buff with some black hairs appearing on the limbs as they age . males and females have a large black crest of fur on the top of their heads . the crest is approximately 10 by 3 cm . females also have a characteristic white face ring . infants are born tawny brown , becoming black within 5 to 6 months .\nthe world ' s final 23 hainan black - crested gibbons ( nomascus hainanus ) are making what may be their last stand in china , where their jungle habitat is being wiped out at a rate of 200 , 000 square meters a day , according to a new report from greenpeace international .\nwith only 17 hainan gibbons and 54 eastern black gibbons confirmed , each surviving in just one small forest block , the hainan gibbon and eastern black gibbon are among the most critically endangered primates in the world . it is important to gain full support from the surrounding community for conservation of the gibbons and their habitat , possibly by ensuring benefits linked to their compliance with conservation goals , and ensuring longer - term commitment from the government and outside partners . efforts are underway to contribute to the conservation of the eastern black gibbon in vietnam with the establishment of community - based protection activities . since there are unconfirmed reports of gibbon occurrences from other forests , additional surveys need to be conducted in both guangxi and hainan ( hainan daily online 2007b ) . there is an urgent need to secure and expand suitable forest for the survival of the few remaining gibbons and their habitats , which will require continued effort and cooperation among all parties .\nhaimoff , e . h . , yang , x . j . , he , s . j . , and chen , n . ( 1986 ) . census and survey of wild black - crested gibbons\nseveral projects and studies support the conservation of the crested gibbons by collecting survey data , and by involving local communities and cooperating with administrative institutions . a recent example is a tree nursery for reforestation in hainan :\nfellowes , j . r . and b . chan . 2004 . hainan gibbon : concerted action for the world\u2019s most endangered ape . living forests 7 : 22\u201324 .\ncomplete former distribution of gibbons across different administrative regions in china inferred from historical records . black areas represent regions containing gibbon populations ; white areas represent regions with no available records .\nchan , b . p . l . , x . f . tan and w . j . tan . in preparation . rediscovery of the critically endangered eastern black crested gibbon nomascus nasutus nasutus ( hylobatidae ) in china ; with preliminary notes on population size , ecology and conservation status .\nmootnick , a . , p . fan . 2011 . a comparative study of crested gibbons ( nomascus ) .\nhainan gibbons are now limited to a few isolated patches of forest in the south west of china .\nfellowes , j . and chan , b . 2003 . hainan gibbon : concerted action for the world ' s most endangered ape . living forests 7 : 22 - 24 .\nliu , z . and tan , c . 1990 . an analysis on habitat structure of the hainan gibbon . acta theriologica sinica 10 ( 3 ) : 163 - 169 .\nzhang , m . , j . fellowes , x . jiang , w . wang , b . chan , g . ren , j . zhu . 2010 . degradation of tropical forest in hainan , china , 1991 - 2008 : conservation implications for hainan gibbon ( nomascus hainanus ) .\nall six species in the genus nomascus ( crested gibbons ) are classified as endangered or even critically endangered by the iucn redlist . they are all listed on appendix i of cites . both classifications illustrate that all crested gibbons are threatened with extinction .\nthe black - crested gibbon is protected from international trade by its listing on appendix i of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) ( 3 ) . fauna and flora international ( ffi ) have been studying the species in northern vietnam since 1999 . they have also been involved in a community awareness programmes in the area and there is pressure to designate the last stronghold of the species ( the che tao forest ) as a gibbon sanctuary ( 4 ) . in china , the largest population of the central yunnan black crested gibbon subspecies occurs within the wuliang mountain national reserve ( 4 ) . it is vital that any remaining viable populations and habitats are protected or this previously successful ape is in grave danger of disappearing .\nfan p . f . , x . l . jiang , c . m . liu and w . s . luo . 2006 . polygynous mating system and behavioural reason of black crested gibbon ( nomascus concolor jingdongensis ) at dazhaizi , mt . wuliang , yunnan , china . zool . res . 27 ( 2 ) : 216\u2013220 .\nla q . trung and hoang d . trinh . 2004 . status review of the cao vit black crested gibbon ( nomascus nasutus nasutus ) in vietnam . in : conservation of primates in vietnam , t . nadler , u . streicher , and long t . ha ( eds . ) , pp . 90\u201394 . frankfurt zoological society , hanoi .\nthe hainan gibbon is such as rare species , but knowing that this species is still hanging on there gives you hope that conservation will be able to bring that population back from the brink .\nliu , z . h . and c . f . tan . 1990 . an analysis of habitat structure of the hainan gibbon . acta theriologica sinica 10 : 163\u2013169 . in chinese with english summary .\ngibbon fragmentation index and 83 % cis for initial ( pre - 1600 ) gibbon distribution across china , and over nine consecutive 50 - year time intervals ( 1600\u20132000 ) .\nmukherjee r . j . 1986 . the ecology of the hoolock gibbon , h .\nsong , x . , jiang , h . , zhang , j . , chen , q . , wang , c . , and lin , w . ( 1999 ) . a survey of the hainan gibbon\nfield study : population structure , social behaviour of the hainan gibbon . environment and peripherical anthropical activities in bawanglin nature reserve location of field site : bawanglin nature reserve , hainan island . project directors : china : pr . xiaoming wang france : dr fran\u00e7oise hergueta - claro contact person : prof . xiaoming wang e - mail : wxming @ urltoken phone : + 86 - 21 62 23 28 95 or + 86 - 21 62 57 62 17 dr fran\u00e7oise hergueta - claro e - mail : claro @ urltoken phone : + 33 - 1 44 75 20 31 fax : + 33 - 1 - 43 43 54 73 mailing address : prof . xiaoming wang department of biology east china normal university shangai 200 000 china dr fran\u00e7oise hergueta - claro mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle laboratoire de conservation des esp\u00e8ces animales 53 , avenue st maurice 75012 paris france research objectives : - study the population structure , the social behaviour of the hainan black crested gibbon in bawanglin - characterize the bawanglin nature reserve and the peripheral anthropical activities - carry out a non - invasive genetic study of the gibbon population field positions and volunteers : n / a species studied : hainan black crested gibbon ( nomascus sp . cf . nasutus hainanus ) other species found at site : rhesus macaque ( macaca mulatta ) affiliations : mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle , paris , and east china normal university , shanghai project begin / end dates : ongoing until 2004\ngreenpeace is calling for the hainan government to enforce its laws for protecting the gibbons as well as the island ' s rainforests .\ncao - vit / eastern black crested gibbon ( n . nasutus ) formerly : most of north eastern vietnam east of red river , south eastern china . now : small area of north eastern vietnam and south eastern china northeast of red river , possibly still in hoa binh province , vietnam ( critically endangered a2acd ; c2a ( i ) ; d ver 3 . 1 )\nnorthern white - cheeked crested gibbon ( n . leucogenys ) formerly : southernmost yunnan province in china ; now only few localities in northwest and north central parts of vietnam and laos ( critically endangered a2cd + 3cd ver 3 . 1 )\nthe six species in vietnam are known as crested gibbons . these gibbons show a clear sexual dimorphism , with prominent differences in fur colour between the sexes . males are always black , sometimes with light cheeks , and have a crest on the crown whereas females are golden or buff coloured .\nmackinnon jr , mackinnon ks ( 1977 ) . the formation of a new gibbon group .\nsommer v , reichard u ( 2000 ) . rethinking monogamy : the gibbon case . in\nvietnam is home to six of the 19 gibbon species . only indonesia has more species .\nmalone , n . and oktavinalis , h . 2006 . the socioecology of the silvery gibbon\ntree selection for sleeping is an antipredator behavior for gibbons . they often sleep in the tallest trees in an area which would safeguard them from most terrestrial predators . gibbons also sleep on branches with many twigs so that the twigs , which vibrate easily , will act as an early warning system . hainan black - crested gibbons were not explicitly mentioned in a fei et al . 2012 study , but these insights into their close relatives ,\nthe iucn currently lists hainan black - crested gibbons as critically endangered . some have suggested that they are the rarest mammals in the world , with approximately 20 individuals counted in a recent survey . a major concern is that of the approximately 20 individuals left , only 4 are adult females and one of these may be post - reproductive . numbers have increased since 2003 , when it was believed that there were as few as 13 individuals .\nwas widespread on hainan island but a recent estimate put its entire geographic range as low as 14 to 16 km ^ 2 of bnnr .\nyellow / red - cheeked crested gibbon ( n . gabriellae ) north eastern cambodia south of ratanakari province , savannakhet in southern laos , southern vietnam south of bach ma , thua thien hue province in central vietnam ( endangered a2cd ver 3 . 1 )\nahsan f ( 1995 ) . fighting between two females for a male in the hoolock gibbon .\nconservation efforts are varied . technologies such as remote sensing and geographic information systems are being used to determine suitable habitats . the government is also planning on adding to the list of protected forest on hainan island . in 2003 , the hainan gibbon action plan was launched . population surveys , reforestation , and the training of staff to monitor the gibbons are all parts of the action plan .\nthis species is endemic to hainan island , china ( chan et al . 2005 ) . it is currently confined to the bawangling nature reserve on the western side of the island of hainan ( chan et al . 2005 ) . before the 1960s it was widely distributed across the island .\nvia satellite images and field work , greenpeace found that more than 72 , 000 acres of hainan rainforest have been illegally cut down since 2001 .\nwang , c . 1995 . current status of conservation of the black gibbon ( hylobates concolor hainanus ) . in : w . xia and y . zhang ( eds ) , primate research and conservation , china , forestry publishing house , beijing , china .\nfield study on habitat selection behavior and its mechanism of the hainan gibbon south china institute of endangered animals , in : bawangling nature reserve , hainan ; project director : dr . jiang haisheng ; contact person : dr . jiang haisheng , email : jianghs @ urltoken , phone : + 86 - 20 - 84 19 25 36 , fax : + 86 - 20 - 84 18 37 04\nliu , z . h . , jiang , h . , zhang , y , liu , y , chou , t . , manry , d . , and southwick , c . ( 1987 ) . field report on the hainan gibbon .\nthe black - crested gibbon is one of the world\u2019s most endangered primates and may be on the very brink of extinction ( 4 ) . males and females are strikingly different in appearance with males almost completely black , but sometimes with white or buff cheeks , and females a golden or buff colour with variable black patches , including a black streak on the head ( 2 ) . the common name of this species comes from the tuft of longer fur on the crown of the head ( 5 ) . both sexes have the characteristic slender shape of the \u2018lesser ape\u2019 with long arms and legs , grasping hands and feet , and no tail ( 6 ) . a variety of calls are produced , which are amplified with the aid of a throat sac below the chin ; males and females engage in duets , in which males grunt , squeal and whistle whilst females sing rising notes and twitter ( 2 ) .\nsince 2003 , when the first hainan gibbon action plan was launched ( chan et al . 2005 ) , several teams have continued to work roughly in line with the plan , though with limited coordination . conservation actions include surveying the distribution of the hainan gibbon , providing training of staff to monitor the gibbons , restoring the forest , and community conservation work . one team consists of the kfbg , the hainan wildlife conservation centre of the hainan provincial forestry department ( hwcc ) , and bnnr . the second ( franco - chinese ) team consists of east china normal university of shanghai ( ecnu ) , the zoological society of paris ( pzs ) , and bnnr . a third team from fauna and flora international ( ffi ) china has also conducted monitoring , training and community work in the recent past .\n, is found in the 300 km ^ 2 bawangling national nature reserve ( bnnr ) on hainan island off of the coast of china . historically ,\nfield study on the ecology and behaviour of the yellow - cheeked crested gibbon ( nomascus gabriellae ) . phd research , in : samling logging concession , southern mondulkiri province , cambodia , contact person : ben m . rawson , e - mail : ben . rawson @ urltoken\nthe researchers said a better understanding of the animals ' decline would help them to establish a conservation plan for the country ' s last few hainan gibbons .\nin laos , the nam ha ecotourism project was developed by the lao national tourism authority , which together with the wcs western black crested gibbon conservation and ecotourism project aimed to develop ecotourism in the area of the nam ha national protected area . in 2003 gibbon populations had been documented in three areas of the nam ha npa , but a survey in 2005 / 2006 showed that due to hunting and logging activities population size had decreased dramatically and the number of gibbons is now too low to maintain an ecotourism project in this area ( brown , 2009 ) .\nliu , z . , jiang , h . , zhang , y . , liu , y . , chou , t . , manry , d . and southwick , c . 1987 . field report on the hainan gibbon . primate conservation 8 : 49 - 50 .\ngeissmann , t . ( 1990 ) systematics of crested gibbons ( hylobates concolor group ) . abstracts , international symposium on primate conservation in china . kunming institute of zoology , kunming .\na some researchers recognize the white - bearded agile gibbon of borneo as a distinct species ( hylobates albibarbis ) .\nliu , z . , y . zhang , h . jiang , c . southwick . 1989 . population structure of hylobates concolor in bawangling nature reserve , hainan .\nnumber of administrative regions containing gibbon populations for complete historical gibbon distribution across china ( pre - 1600 ) and over nine consecutive 50 - year time intervals ( 1600\u20132000 ) . pale grey , regions north of the yangtze ; dark grey , regions south of the yangtze . arrow indicates temporal switch - point in the rate of gibbon population decline .\nin the 1950s there were estimates of > 2000 hainan gibbons on the island of hainan in 866 , 000 ha of forests across 12 counties ( wang and quan 1986 ) . by 1989 , the hainan gibbon population was reduced to only 21 gibbons in four groups restricted to bawangling nature reserve ( liu et al . 1989 ) . in 1998 the population was said to be 17 ( kadoorie farm & botanic garden 2001 ) . a gibbon survey in october 2003 found two groups , and two lone males , comprising a total of 13 individuals ( fellowes and chan 2004 ; geissmann and chan 2004 ; chan et al . 2005 ; zhou et al . 2005 ) ; another survey in 2001\u20132002 estimated 12\u201319 individuals in four groups ( wu et al . 2004 ) . in recent months three newborns and at least one lone female have been observed , bringing the world total to 17 individuals ( hainan daily online 2007a ) .\nfield study on the population structure , social behaviour of the hainan gibbon . environment and peripherical anthropical activities in bawanglin nature reserve , in : bawanglin nature reserve , hainan island , project directors : china : pr . xiaoming wang , france : dr fran\u00e7oise hergueta - claro ; contact person : prof . xiaoming wang , e - mail : wxming @ urltoken , phone : + 86 - 21 62 23 28 95 or + 86 - 21 62 57 62 17\nunreliable population estimates and problems with effective conservation management of crested gibbons show that multiple actions and measures are needed to prevent the extinction of these primates . these needs can be summarized as follows :\ntilsen , r . 1979 . behaviour of hoolok gibbon ( hylobates hoolok ) during different seasons in assam , india .\ngittins , s . p . 1982 . feeding and ranging in the agile gibbon . folia primatologica 38 : 39\u201371 .\nchanging distribution of gibbons across different administrative regions in china over nine consecutive 50 - year time intervals ( 1600\u20132000 ) . black areas represent regions containing gibbon populations ; grey areas represent regions where gibbons formerly occurred but have been extirpated by a given time interval ; white areas represent regions with no available records .\nle td , fan pf , yan l , le ho , josh k ( 2008 ) . the global cao vit gibbon\nzhang , y . z . , quan , g . q . , yang , d . , liu , z . , and sheeran , l . k . ( 1995 ) . population parameters of the black gibbon in china . in xia , w . , and zhang , y . ( eds . ) ,\ntoday , china has between 26 and 28 hainan gibbons left , but government records that date back to the 17th century show that gibbons were once widespread across half of the country .\nas well as body parts , can result in hefty profits from black market chinese medicine . there is no proven efficacy of these traditional\nmedicines\nand the impact on wildlife populations is devastating .\nzhang , y . , quan , g . , yang , d . , liu , z . and sheeran , l . 1995 . population parameters of the black gibbon in china . in : w . xia and y . zhang ( eds ) , primate research and conservation , forestry publishing house , beijing , china .\nchan , b . , fellowes , j . , geissmann , t . and zhang , j . 2005 . hainan gibbon status survey and conservation action plan , version 1 ( last updated november 2005 ) . kadoorie farm and botanic garden technical report no . 3 . kadoorie farm and botanic garden , hong kong .\n, which is the largest and darkest gibbon . because of the rapid deforestation of their habitats , gibbons are an endangered species .\nproject director : dr . jiang haisheng contact person : dr . jiang haisheng email : jianghs @ urltoken phone : + 86 - 20 - 84 19 25 36 fax : + 86 - 20 - 84 18 37 04 mailing address : dr . jiang haisheng ( project director ) south china institute of endangered animals 105 xingang road guangzhou , guangdong 510260 china research objectives : study the habitat structure of gibbons and the habitat values of rainforests influenced by humans in different degrees . field positions and volunteers : n / a species studied : hainan black crested gibbon ( nomascus sp . cf . nasutus hainanus ) other species found at site : rhesus macaque ( macaca mulatta ) affiliations : south china institute of endangered animals project begin / end dates : ongoing\nesser , a . h . , deutch , r . d . and wolff , m . 1979 . social behavior adaptations of gibbon\nli , s . , f . zou , q . zhang , f . sheldon . 2013 . species richness and guild composition in rubber plantations compared to secondary forest on hainan island , china .\ndensity densities for some of the six species are tentative due to the absence of survey data for many populations , and when the status of the gibbons was assessed for iucn in 2006 / 2007 there were no population estimates available for 10 of the 16 species and subspecies ( geissmann 2007a ) . however , despite a lack of current survey data it is clear that there is a negative population trend for all crested gibbons . according to their iucn classification nomascus have suffered from a decline of 50 - 80 % in the last 50 years and are threatened with extinction in the near future ( iucn redlist 2011 . 1 ) and in fact the hainan crested gibbon ( n . hainanus ) is the most critically endangered primate species in the world ( geissmann & bleisch 2008 ) .\ngibbon populations are decreasing ; they are threatened with extinction . gibbons are losing their natural habitat because human agriculture is encroaching on it . population numbers are decreasing . there are estimated to be about 79 , 000 lar gibbons ( the white - handed or common gibbon ) .\ncomments : kadoorie farm & botanic garden , a hong kong conservation organisation , has been working with the bawangling national nature reserve management office since 2003 to support conservation of the hainan gibbon . our work has included support for monitoring by staff , reforestation , and some research . contact john fellowes ( kfjrf @ kfbg . org ) for details .\nbrockelman , w . , and srikosamatara , s . ( 1993 ) . estimation of density of gibbon groups by use of loud songs .\nthe hainan gibbon only occurs in bawangling national nature reserve on the island of hainan in china , and a survey in 2003 revealed that only 13 individuals still existed . to stop the extinction of this species an action plan was published ( chan et al . 2005 ) and a conservation project started . the china - program of the kadoorie farm & botanic garden together with the bawangling national nature reserve established two tree nurseries in the reserve , with two main objectives . firstly , trees needed to be planted in order to reconnect forest fragments , and secondly the variety and availability of gibbon fruit trees needed to be increased to facilitate gibbon survival during the dry season . so in 2005 , 16 , 000 indigenous seedlings were planted with a plan to plant a further 150 , 000 trees within the next five years ( geissmann , 2006 ) .\ngeissmann , t . 2003 . symposium on gibbon diversity and conservation : concluding resolution . asian primates 8 ( 3 / 4 ) : 28\u201329 .\nmcconkey , k . 2005 . the influence of gibbon primary seed shadows on post - dispersal seed fate in lowland dipterocarp forest in central borneo .\nrelatively few studies of the genus nomascus have been conducted ( haimoff et al . 1987 ; zhenhe et al . 1989 ; bleisch and chen 1991 ; sheeran 1993 ) , and these studies are limited to only a portion ( china ) of the entire range for the genus . species in this genus range in montane forests up to 2900 m . with the exception of the siamang , this represents the highest recorded altitude for a gibbon species ( bleisch and chen 1991 ) . the diet of the black - crested gibbon ( nomascus concolor ) has been reported to be more folivorous than those of other gibbons of similar size , and black - crested gibbons have been observed to come to the ground to forage on bamboo shoots . early reports of group structure reported one male\u2013multifemale groups of up to four females , and average group sizes of 5 . 25 individuals ( haimoff et al . 1987 ) . overall , published reports indicate that approximately 25 % of nomascus spp . groups have greater than two adults , including the observations of groups of up to ten individuals , groups with up to four adult females , and multiple females with dependent infants ( haimoff et al . 1986 ; bleisch and chen 1991 ; lan and sheeran 1995 ) .\nfellowes , j . r . , chan , b . p . l . , zhou , j . , chen , s . , yang , s . and ng , s . c . 2008 . current status of the hainan gibbon ( nomascus hainanus ) : progress of population monitoring and other priority actions . asian primates journal 1 : 2 - 9 .\nminimum adequate generalized linear model for number of years since local gibbon population extinction in relation to environmental variables . asterisks denote significance of p - values .\nahsan , m . f . 1995 . fighting between two females for a male in the hoolock gibbon . international journal of primatology 16 : 731\u2013737 .\ndeforestation has swept across south east asia at an alarming rate as trees are logged for timber or to make way for agriculture and development . gibbons throughout the region have undergone dramatic declines due principally to this habitat loss , but also as a result of hunting ( 4 ) . the fragmentation of their habitat causes groups to become separated from the remaining population ( 2 ) , and it is estimated that about 75 percent of the black crested gibbon\u2019s original habitat has already been lost ( 9 ) . the taxonomic confusion surrounding this species makes population estimates particularly difficult but at least two of the subspecies are today at critically low levels ( 1 ) .\nwe invite everybody to contribute . do you know a gibbon field site which should be included here ? please send an e - mail to the webmaster .\nconservation efforts to preserve the hainan gibbon have been slow to get off the ground . a conservation action plan ( pdf ) was established in 2003 , but according to the iucn primate specialist group , its success has been limited by lack of coordination between the eight participating government bodies , universities and organizations . most efforts to date have been restricted to surveying the apes and their habitat .\nchan , b . p . l . , j . r . fellowes , t . geissmann and j . f . zhang ( eds . ) . 2005 . hainan gibbon status survey and conservation action plan \u2013 version i ( last updated november 2005 ) . kadoorie farm and botanic garden technical report no . 3 . kfbg , hong kong sar , iii + 33 pp . .\nalthough gibbons are today restricted to 11 prefectures in a small area of southwestern china , we collected gibbon last - occurrence dates ranging from 250 ( fuling , chongqing ) to 1995 ( qiongzhong , hainan ) from a further 149 administrative regions in 19 provinces or equivalent areas distributed across much of central , southern and eastern china ( figure 1 ; electronic supplementary material , table s3 ) .\nrecently , a team of researchers from kadoorie farm & botanic garden ( kfbg ) and china confirmed 17 eastern black gibbons in three groups in the bangliang limestone forest of jingxi county in guangxi , neighboring the phong nam - ngoc khe mountains of vietnam . some of the gibbons observed in bangliang may be the same individuals counted by vietnamese counterparts as gibbon groups were seen traveling between the two countries ( people ' s daily online 2006 ; chan et al . in prep . ) . there is a rumor that there might be some eastern black gibbons in kim hy nature reserve , bac kan province , vietnam , as well as other border areas in guangxi , china .\nmootnick , a . r . 2006 . gibbon ( hylobatidae ) species identification recommended for rescue and breeding centers . primate conserv . ( 21 ) : 103\u2013138 .\n] . the number of gibbon populations that persisted after isolation from populations in all neighbouring regions , and their post - isolation survival time , was also determined .\ncheyne , s . m . and brul\u00e9 , a . 2004 . adaptation of a captive - raised gibbon to the wild . folia primatologica 75 : 37\u201339 .\nliu , z . , zhang , y . , jiang , h . and southwick , c . 1989 . population structure of hylobates concolor in bawanglin nature reserve , hainan , china . american journal of primatology 19 : 247 - 254 .\ngeissmann , t . 2002 . gibbon diversity and conservation . in xixth congress of the international primatological society , august 4\u20139 , 2002 . beijing , china , 112\u2013113 .\nxu , l . , liu , z . and yu , s . 1983 . mammalia . in : l . xu , z . liu and x . yi ( eds ) , birds and mammals of hainan island , beijing , china .\ngeissmann , t . ( 1997 ) new sounds from the crested gibbons ( hylobates concolor group ) : first results of a systematic revision . in : zissler , d . ( ed ) verhandlungen der deutschen zoologischen gesellschaft : kurzpublikationen \u2013 short communications . gustav fischer verlag , stuttgart .\ngibbons generally establish long - term pair bonds , but in bawangling national nature reserve ( bnnr ) there have been repeated observations of two females in the same group both carrying offspring ( liu et al . 1989 ; bleisch and chen 1991 ; hainan daily online 2007a ) . this \u201cnon - traditional\u201d group could be the result of older offspring being unable to locate appropriate mates ( wu et al . 2004 ) , limited space to establish new groups ( liu et al . 1989 ) , or could reflect habitual bigyny as in the crested black gibbons of yunnan ( bleisch and chen 1991 ; fan et al . 2006 ) . if fresh feces could be collected from these individuals , it is possible that nuclear dna sequencing could determine the relationships and confirm if observations are being conducted on the same group in different locations .\nhainan gibbons are the world ' s rarest primates . sixty years ago they could be found all across hainan island in the south china sea . now they are limited to the 2 , 100 - hectare bawangling national nature reserve on the western side of the island . while the gibbons are legally protected , lack of enforcement has allowed illegal loggers and pulp paper plantation growers to take over 25 percent of the island ' s rainforests , including a portion of the apes ' reserve habitat , in the past 10 years .\nliu , z . h . , y . z . zhang , h . s . jiang and c . h . southwick . 1989 . population structure of hylobates concolor in bawanglin nature reserve , hainan , china . am . j . primatol . 19 : 247\u2013254 .\nmootnick , a . r . and groves , c . p . 2005 . a new generic name for the hoolock gibbon ( hylobatidae ) . international journal of primatology 26 : 971\u2013976 .\nkadoorie farm and botanic garden . 2001 . report of rapid biodiversity assessments at bawangling national nature reserve and wangxia limestone forest , western hainan , 3 to 8 april 1998 . south china forest biodiversity survey report series no . 2 . kadoorie farm and botanic garden , hong kong .\nkadoorie farm & botanic garden . 2001 . report of rapid biodiversity assessments at bawangling national nature reserve and wangxia limestone forest , western hainan , 3 to 8 april 1998 . south china forest biodiversity report series : no . 2 . kfbg , hong kong sar , ii + 33pp .\na dataset of 535 dated historical gibbon records from 420 gazetteers ( electronic supplementary material , table s1 ) , which provide detailed spatio - temporal coverage for china across the ming dynasty ( 1368\u20131644 ) , qing dynasty ( 1644\u20131912 ) and republican period ( 1912\u20131949 ) and with some further sampling of older jin\u2013yuan dynasty records [ 26 ] , was obtained from a geographical compendium of chinese gazetteer natural history records [ 22 ] , constituting a larger dataset compared with previous studies of historical gibbon extinction [ 39 ] . this dataset was supplemented with further data on historical ( twentieth century and older ) and current - day gibbon distributions [ 17 , 36 , 40 \u2013 42 ] in order to investigate gibbon population change through time . all chinese - language records were translated directly by the lead author .\n250 , before any local populations had been extirpated ) , and for each 50 - year interval from 1600 until the last - occurrence date for gibbons from the target region . these proportion data were then averaged across all regions that still contained gibbon populations at each chosen time interval to calculate a gibbon range fragmentation index , which is interpreted as a proxy for population fragmentation and level of isolation or connectivity of gibbon populations . levels of population fragmentation were considered significantly different between different time intervals if cis for fragmentation index values did not overlap ; 83 % cis were used for comparison because these give an approximate\ngibbons are covered with light - colored to very dark brown ( or black ) dense hair on most of their body ( except their face , fingers , palms , armpits , and bottoms of their feet ) . some species of gibbons have a white face ring , a band of white face completely surrounding their face .\nthe hoolock gibbon ( hoolock hoolock ) inhabits rainforests and semi - deciduous forests in tropical and subtropical areas of india , myanmar , china , and bangladesh . very little is known about the behavioral ecology of this genus . the hoolock gibbon is the second - largest hylobatid species and is the only gibbon species that ranges substantially outside of the tropics ( mootnick et al . 1987 ) . a predicted dietary response to a seasonal environment might include increased reliance on leaves as fruit availability decreases . however , gittins and tilson ( 1984 ) report stable consumption of fruit throughout the year at a level comparable to species of hylobates .\nvna . 2004 . endangered gibbon and rare flora species found . report on web site of sci / tech - environment , vietnam news agency ( vna ) , hanoi . . accessed : 17 november 2004 .\n) 20 million years ago . gibbon - like fossils have been found in africa ( from the oligocene and miocene ) , europe ( from the miocene ) , and asia ( from the upper pliocene and pleistocene ) .\nsommer , v . and reichard , u . 2000 . rethinking monogamy : the gibbon case . in primate males , p . m . kappeler ( ed . ) , pp . 159\u2013168 . cambridge : cambridge university press .\nthe most recent gibbon record for a given administrative unit was interpreted as a last - occurrence date for that region , with gibbons inferred to be regionally present until that date . gazetteer records of other wild animal species post - dating the latest gibbon records are also reported for most regions , indicating that later regional gibbon absence is unlikely to represent an artefact of incomplete reporting ; for example , 82 . 1 % of mainland regions with pre - twentieth century gibbon gazetteer last - occurrence records have younger gazetteer records of tiger , a species known to have survived across much of mainland china until the twentieth century [ 22 ] . nearly all ( 88 . 6 % ) historical gibbon last - occurrence records were associated with an exact calendar year , but a small number were instead only associated with a given date range ( e . g . \u2018reign of the qianlong emperor\u2019 ( 1735\u20131796 ) , \u20181950s\u2019 ) . in order to include these data in our analyses , date ranges were converted to direct calendar years by randomly selecting a year from within this range , with an equal probability of being assigned to any year within the range ."]}
{"id": 1086, "summary": [{"text": "the surinam cockroach or greenhouse cockroach ( pycnoscelus surinamensis ) is a species of burrowing cockroach .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is a common plant pest endemic to the indomalayan region that has spread to tropical and into subtropical regions around the world , and in isolated populations to temperate climates where protective habitat such as greenhouses provide shelter for individuals inadvertently shipped in the soil of plants .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "its populations are almost exclusively female , and it reproduces asexually , having evolved several clonal strains from its sexual progenitor p. indicus . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "surinam cockroach", "paragraphs": ["cockroaches : american cockroach , asian cockroach , australian cockroach , brown banded cockroach , cuban cockroach , florida woods cockroach , german cockroach , oriental cockroach , smoky brown cockroach , surinam cockroach and woods cockroach .\nan adult surinam cockroach measures about three - quarters to 1 inch in length .\n1 . surinam cockroach identification : call in a professional exterminator to assess suspected infestation areas thoroughly to determine which type of cockroach has invaded .\n3 . removal of surinam cockroaches : plants containing surinam cockroaches need to be removed and treated off the premises .\ncontrol experiments on the surinam cockroach ( pycnoscelus surinamensis l . ) | journal of economic entomology | oxford academic\nsome of the scientific names of the different species of cockroaches are the american cockroach ( periplaneta americana ) , the florida woods cockroach ( eurycotis floridana ) , the oriental cockroach ( blatta orientalis ) , the german cockroach ( blattella germanica ) , the asian cockroach ( blattella asahinai ) , the surinam cockroach ( pycnoscelus surinamensis ) , the brown - banded cockroach ( supella longipalpa ) , the australian cockroach ( periplaneta australasiae ) , the smoky brown cockroach ( periplaneta fuliginosa ) , the pennsylvania woods cockroach ( parcoblatta pennsylvanica ) , the brown cockroach ( periplaneta brunnea ) , and the madagascar hissing cockroach ( gromphadorhina portentosa ) .\na pest management professional has the education , equipment and skills necessary to effectively address a surinam cockroach problem . finding and treating the surinam cockroaches can be challenging , especially if their home and eggs are spread throughout your house . a cockroach management professional provides their expertise to identify the pest problem and determine the best possible solution to resolve the surinam cockroach infestation .\nkey words : oxyspirura mansoni , bird eyeworm , pycnoscelus surinamensis , surinam cockroach , free roaming hen , gallus gallus domasticus .\nthis pest hitches a ride in plant soil and infests plants inside buildings . it is not normally considered a pest , but sometimes finds its way into homes via houseplants . the female surinam cockroach does not fly . the male surinam cockroach can fly very short distances . spring , summer , and fall are the most active seasons for the surinam cockroach . people have reported seeing large populations of surinam cockroaches emerging out of the ground in places the species has not been known to inhabit .\nthe male surinam cockroach has a black head with dark brown wings and can fly a short distance . the female surinam cockroach has a black head with light brown to olive colored wings that are too small to fly . the female surinam cockroach is able to reproduce without a male . she doesn\u2019t need a nest site or place to deposit egg pods because she carries the eggs inside and gives birth to live young .\nsurinam cockroaches develop by metamorphosis\u2014ootheca , nymphal stages or instars , and adult stages .\nsurinam cockroaches are not commonly found inside homes . however , they infest greenhouses and gardens and prove destructive pests . if you suspect a surinam cockroach infestation , contact your local pest control professional to discuss treatment and prevention methods .\nunlike other new england cockroach species that invade homes to find moisture and feed on human food , surinam cockroaches prefer to eat plants . the surinam cockroach often feeds on the stems of plants rooted in the soil in which the insect lives . due to their status as herbivores and their need for warm , moist areas , surinam cockroaches can become a major problem in heated greenhouses .\nthe cockroach ' s nearest relatives include the grasshoppers , crickets and mantids . a distant cousin of the cockroach is the termite .\noxyspirura worms have an indirect life cycle . intermediate hosts are cockroaches ( e . g . pycnoscelus surinamensis , the surinam cockroach , for oxyspirura mansoni ) .\nthough not native to new england , surinam cockroaches can survive and thrive indoors upon relocation to the area . if undetected and permitted to reproduce , the surinam cockroach has the ability to create infestations capable of wreaking havoc on houseplants . on a larger scale , surinam cockroach invasions can overrun the indoor vegetation in greenhouses and shopping malls , creating unsightly landscaping and negatively impacting the commercial operations of plant retailers .\npalabras clave : oxyspirura mansoni , pycnoscelus surinamensis , cucaracha de surinam , gallus gallus domasticus .\nhabit : the surinam cockroach is an insect snoop living in the soil of houseplants , under dead leaves on the outside and sometimes in the atria or greenhouses . .\nthere are many different types of cockroaches , and some can reproduce without the male , like the surinam cockroach . this is called parthenogenisis . other creatures are : moll\ncomments - the brown - banded cockroach frequents homes , hotels , apartments and hospitals . it resembles the german cockroach but is smaller in size .\ndistinguishing characteristics - this species is a bit darker in color than the american cockroach . also , the wings of the male are not as long as the wings of the male american cockroach . the ootheca of the brown cockroach is about twice as long as the ootheca of the american cockroach .\nwhile the this cockroach can be spotted inside of homes on occasion , it\u2019s not a common household pest . even if it does get inside , the cockroach is unlikely to cause damage to your home . still , cockroaches can spread disease and bacteria , causing health complications . control the surinam cockroach population around your home by :\n2 . spread it out ! thinly spread mulch piles to make them less hospitable to surinam cockroaches .\nthe female surinam cockroach produces eggs without fertilization by a male cockroach . the female carries her egg capsule inside , until the young emerge . on average , the capsule contains 26 eggs , and the female can produce a new capsule 48 to 82 days later .\nlihoreau m , rivault c . tactile stimuli trigger group effect in cockroach aggregations .\n2 . bait and insecticide : a professional pest control expert can place large bait stations and sticky traps around the base of infested plants to catch pests as they leave . an exterminator may need to use granular cockroach baits in active surinam cockroach harborages . residual insecticides can be applied to foundations , mulches , plantings , potted plants woodpiles , and any other infested area . surinam cockroach populations can be significantly reduced by treating the barriers of the home with insecticide .\ndistinguishing characteristics - the field cockroach is smaller than its close relative , the german cockroach . the black area on the front of the head is the most distinguishing characteristic .\nparker edj , niklasson m . desiccation resistance among clones in the invading parthenogenetic cockroach ,\nlihoreau m , rivault c . kin recognition via cuticular hydrocarbons shapes cockroach social life .\ndescription : the surinam cockroach adult 18 to 25 mm long . brown , the pronotum ( thorax ) is dark brown to black . its wings are pale brown , except for the tip almost transparent .\nlinnaeus 1758 : 32 . type locality\namerica\n. restricted to surinam by o . thomas ( 1911 ) .\nthe surinam cockroach is easily recognised by its black head and pronotum , the latter of which has a yellow margin near the head . it is a good flier and can be found at lights where it occurs .\nmy cockroach looks similar to brown - hooded cockroach illustration in kaufman . however , the gulf coast is out of range . so i\u2019m thinking mine is at least in the polyphagidae family .\ncharles f . doucette , floyd f smith ; control experiments on the surinam cockroach ( pycnoscelus surinamensis l . ) , journal of economic entomology , volume 19 , issue 4 , 1 august 1926 , pages 650\u2013656 , urltoken\nbeccaloni g . w . ( 2007 - ) cockroach species file online . version 5 . 0\nit is rather slow moving and sluggish , for a cockroach , and neither sex can fly .\ncolor - the australian cockroach closely resembles the american cockroach . it is reddish - brown to dark brown . it has yellow markings on the pronotum and on the front edge of each wing .\nthere is one cockroach found in the home that will readily fly when disturbed . this is the\nizutsu m , ueda s , ishii s . aggregation effects on the growth of the german cockroach\nsurinam cockroaches found in new england are always female and only produce female offspring . classified as a parthenogenic species , surinam cockroaches do not need to mate in order to reproduce . adult females produce egg cases , or oothecae , which are between 12 and 15 millimeters long and carried internally until hatching . each case contains roughly 25 eggs that hatch into nymphs after about 35 days . the average adult female surinam cockroach lives for up to seven months and produces three egg cases in a lifetime .\nonce the nymphs hatch from the egg cases , they look like smaller versions of the adult surinam cockroach but lack fully developed wings and cannot breed at this point . the nymphs will molt 10 to 13 times in about a year .\ncolor - the brown cockroach is reddish - brown in color and has yellow margins on the pronotum .\nwharton dr , lola je , wharton ml . growth factors and population density in the american cockroach ,\nthe surinam cockroach is listed in our group of large outdoor roaches . this cockroach is usually found outdoors , though it can migrate indoors . the best method of controlling surinam cockroach infestations is to alter its outdoor habitat ( if possible ) and to treat the exterior of homes and buildings as you would for other large , outdoor roaches . this roach typically prefers to live and breed in damp areas such as mulched flower beds , piles of organic debris ; due to its fondness for humid areas , basements and crawl spaces beneath buildings are also areas where they can be found .\nsurinam cockroaches live in piles of firewood , leaves , mulch , lumber piles , and other outdoor harborages . they avoid light and like moist , dark places . surinam cockroaches hide under stones and mulch ; underneath wood ; and in barrels , holes , cracks , and crevices in building walls\u2014wherever they can conceal themselves . surinam cockroaches burrow three to four inches deep into soil . they build burrows for nymphs and incubating females .\nit has long been said that the cockroach is one of the most successful and adaptive organisms on earth .\ncomments - the brown cockroach is found in the southeastern and the southern states , from florida to california .\nthe largest species of cockroach in the u . s . that is commonly a pest in the home is\nas natives of the tropics and subtropics , surinam cockroaches can only survive in warm indoor areas when transplanted to colder regions . in new england , the surinam cockroach is almost exclusively found in greenhouses , shopping malls , restaurants , offices , and other buildings where indoor planters are common . surinam cockroaches are burrowing insects and primarily live in loose soil , compost , and mulch . during the day , the pests may also hide in crevices and holes providing ample heat and darkness . the nocturnal insects emerge at night , often en masse , to feed .\nthere are many cockroaches that can be potential pests and annoyances to homeowners . even those that are able to survive outside in the natural habitat like the oriental cockroach still venture inside for shelter and food quite often . one of the saving graces for you all is potentially the surinam cockroach , one that rarely makes its way into the human habitat , save perhaps for water .\ncomments - the cuban cockroach has been known to establish populations in parts of florida and in brownsville , texas .\nuzs\u00e1k a , schal c . differential physiological responses of the german cockroach to social interactions during the ovarian cycle .\nnishino h , yoritsune a , mizunami m . postembryonic development of sexually dimorphic glomeruli and related interneurons in the cockroach\n5 . bait them ! use granular roach bait , which is a great way to control these pests . a lot of brands are water - resistant and are useful in damp areas such as flowerbeds . use liquid insecticide to soak the soil in which surinam cockroaches have been burrowing . sun and rain will affect insecticide treatment staying power . reapply treatments and repeat the above steps to maintain a surinam cockroach - free property .\nhello admin , i have found your blog on msn and rellay love your guidelines . read my review best cockroach killer\nsurinam cockroaches prefer dark , moist areas and hide in corners and beneath objects . surinam cockroaches reproduce through parthenogenesis , allowing female specimens to produce offspring without the fertilization of males . eggs are hidden within the female\u2019s abdomen and hatch internally . females may have an average of 3 egg cases which contain an average of 24 eggs .\nof the 4 , 000 species of cockroaches in the world , the u . s . has about 55 species . this includes 49 native species and about six or seven introduced species . although a number of species may be found occasionally or accidentally in the home , there are only five species that are considered as common pests in the dwellings of man . these most common species are german cockroach , american cockroach , oriental cochroach , brown - banded cockroach and the smoky - brown cockroach .\nwharton dr , lola je , wharton ml . population density , survival , growth , and development of the american cockroach .\nsurinam cockroaches have dark brown or black bodies with shiny brown wings . males have longer wings than the females , but regardless , neither gender can fly particularly well .\nwhen fully grown , surinam cockroaches generally measure slightly less than an inch in length . dark and shiny , the bodies of surinam cockroaches are black with olive - green or dark brown wings that stretch past the abdomen and give the insects a distinctive two - tone look . developing nymphs have no wings , while adults are able to fly . in new england , only female surinam cockroaches exist . these females are able to reproduce asexually through a process termed parthenogenesis ( females lay unfertilized eggs ) .\nsurinam cockroaches have the ability to bite , but are not known to bite people . the mouthparts of these cockroaches are so small that their bites would be harmless .\nnative to the southeastern united states and other regions with warmer climates , surinam cockroaches are sometimes found in indoor settings throughout new england . the tropical insects , scientifically named pycnoscelus surinamensis , typically travel to the new england area as stowaways in potted plants , soil and mulch , and similar items imported from their native habitats . though not considered household pests in the same vein as other new england cockroach species , surinam cockroaches can still cause damage in the buildings they inhabit .\nthe amazing fact about surinam cockroaches is that they burrow and can cause lots of damage to your vegetation . they love tropic humid locations and can survive in moist dark areas on your property , including beneath objects and in corners . they reproduce parthenogenesis and this makes it possible for the females to reproduce even without male fertilizations . unlike most other cockroaches that lay eggs , the surinam female cockroach have the eggs hatch internally and it can have at least 3 egg cases .\ncorley ls , blankenship jr , moore aj , moore pj . developmental constraints on the mode of reproduction in the facultatively parthenogenetic cockroach\nsurvey - to control german cockroaches , it is important to do a thorough inspection . a cockroach survey ( trapping ) is sometimes necessary to determine the extent of an infestation , as even a thorough inspection will not reveal all cockroach harborages or foraging areas .\nthe surinam cockroach can usually be found in greenhouses , gardens and potted plants . it thrives in dense vegetation growing in warm , moist conditions and will burrow down into vegetation and destroy plants from the roots . if found in your home it may have come in on a potted plant bought from a nursery .\nkuwahara s , mori k . synthesis of ( \u2212 ) - periplanone - b , a sex pheromone component of the american cockroach .\ncomments - the asian cockroach is native to southeast asia . it is a relative of the german cockroach , but it prefers the outside . the species is now established in florida and is working its way westward . it is a strong flier and is attracted to lights .\ncomments - the german cockroach is native to europe . it is the most widely distributed and best known species in the u . s .\nonly females are found in the united states ; they reproduce by way of parthenogenesis or asexual reproduction without male fertilization . the female keeps the eggs inside and fertilizes them herself before giving birth to live nymphs . even though the female surinam cockroach can carry as many as 42 eggs , usually only 24 eggs will hatch and survive .\ncomments - the surinam cockroach is found worldwide . in the u . s . it is established in florida , louisiana and texas . this species is generally found outside under boards or litter . it is often a pest of greenhouses . in the u . s . the species is parthenogenetic , no males have ever been found .\nthe german cockroach is a widely distributed urban pest . it is also the most common cockroach species in houses , apartments , restaurants , hotels , and other institutions . this is true not only in pennsylvania but also throughout the united states and in most parts of the civilized world .\ngerman cockroaches produce odorous secretions that can affect the flavor of various foods . when cockroach populations are high , these secretions may result in a characteristic odor in the general region of the infestation . disease - producing organisms such as bacteria , protozoans , and viruses have been found on cockroach bodies .\neggs of oxyspirura mansoni , manson eyeworm , are deposited in the eye , reach the pharynx via the nasolacrimal duct , are swallowed , passed in the feces , and ingested by the surinam cockroach , pycnoscelus surinamensis . larvae reach the infective stage in the cockroach . when infected intermediate hosts are eaten , liberated larvae migrate up the esophagus to the mouth and then through the nasolacrimal duct to the eye , where the cycle is completed . other insect species may also serve as the intermediate host .\nprofessional granular roach baits scattered in mulched areas and flower beds or other landscaped areas where the surinam frequents will often control outdoor infestations . once outdoor areas are free of roaches , rarely are they found indoors . when potted plants are moved from outdoors to indoors , any of the outdoor roaches ( such as the surinam , smoky brown , etc . ) will often hitch - hike into homes .\nfirst , let ' s examine the carrier of this disease organism . the domestic chicken , turkey , peafowl , pheasant , and quail\u2014as well as numerous free - flying birds\u2014can all act as the definitive host for this worm . the surinam cockroach is the intermediate host for this worm and the main method this disease is spread , or the vector .\ncomments - the australian cockroach is probably not indigenous to australia . in the u . s . , it is found mainly in the southern states .\na female surinam cockroach is about three - fourths of an inch long , has a shiny black head and pronotum , and has light brown , dark brown , or olive green wings . the pronotum has a pale white band on the front edge by the head . surinam cockroaches have stout , broadly oval bodies with short legs adapted for burrowing in soil . adult surinam cockroaches can be winged or wingless . females without wings are black and shiny with dull and matte segments in the rear section of the abdomen . females and males with wings have forewings that are brown in color with pale edges . the thorax is black with a pale front edge . males with wings are very rare . both sexes can be found in europe and indo - malaysia .\n3 . seal it up ! fill any cracks or crevices in building foundations to keep surinam cockroaches out of your home . make sure all foundation and attic vents have tight - fitting screens over them .\nthe surinam cockroach causes extensive damage to vegetation , especially in heated greenhouses where large numbers can hide during the day , coming out at night to feed on the plants . they have the ability to destroy any vegetation , whether inside or outside your home . these cockroaches are also considered garden dwellers , specifically in gardens located in florida , louisiana or texas .\nthough surinam cockroaches are not generally considered a pest , they can end up in your home via houseplants . they are transported through plant soil and end up infesting homes and buildings the plants are brought to .\nthe shiny brown cockroaches are often confused with oriental cockroaches , but even though they appear similar , the rough abdomen of the surinam cockroach is the distinguishing feature . they also have wings that are light green or olive tinted . their mouthparts can bite , but they are not known to bite humans . the females cannot fly , but the males can fly short distances .\ncockroach . what that means in plain english is that females can reproduce without mating . males are rare and when the occur they are sexually non - functional .\ncolor - the cuban cockroach is pale green in color . its head , pronotum and the front half of the front wings are a bit lighter in color .\nnishino h , iwasaki m , mizunami m . pheromone detection by a pheromone emitter : a small sex pheromone - specific processing system in the female american cockroach .\nfang y , long c , bai x , liu w , rong m , lai r , an s . two new types of allergens from the cockroach ,\ncomments - the field cockroach is found from texas to california . it is normally found outside but will occasionally enter homes . it is somewhat active in the day .\ncomments - the smoky - brown cockroach is a very close relative of the american cockroach . it is mainly a pest in the eastern and southeastern u . s . this species is common outdoors in compost piles , woodpiles and rubbish . it is more and more becoming a pest of homes , warehouses and other man - made structures .\ndistinguishing characteristics - the american cockroach has two distinguishing characteristics . one is its size , and the other is the golden - yellow area around the outer edge of the pronotum .\nbecause of their habitat and diet , these insects are considered a destructive pest , often doing considerable damage to gardens over time . since they do not need to find a mate , and the females can reproduce on their own , this species is a quick breeder . as such just a few in your garden or greenhouse can quickly turn into an infestation and result in lots of surinam cockroach damage to your garden .\nreproduction : the surinam cockroach reproduces by parthenogenesis , ie without fertilization by a male , so the female is sufficient to carry the case . the female of this species carries her egg capsule within the body and when the embryos hatch from the eggs , the female expels the egg capsule , giving the impression of a live birth . the female may have an average of 3 egg pods containing an average of 26 eggs .\ncomments - the american cockroach is world wide ( cosmopolitan ) in distribution . it is the largest species and the second most common species found in homes in the u . s .\ncolor - the oriental cockroach is dark brown to almost black and rather uniform in color . its legs are about the same color as their body but can be slightly lighter brown .\ncolor - the american cockroach has a uniform light reddish - brown body . its yellow - brown pronotum has a golden - yellow border . its legs are also a golden - yellow .\ndistinguishing characteristics - the australian cockroach may be distinguished from its near relative , the american cockroach , by the straw - colored to yellowish streak extending about 1 / 3 of the way down the outer margin of the wings . also , by the wide yellowish area around the margin of the pronotum which leaves a\ndouble\ndark spot in the middle of the pronotum .\nsurinam cockroaches are common in the southeastern part of the united states , from north carolina to texas . they sometimes spread to other regions when they are inadvertently burrowed in the soil of tropical plants that are shipped to greenhouses and plant nurseries across the country .\nfrom an economic standpoint , that means that a single nymph can give rise to an entire population of this cockroach . so the species can be spread easily . the cockroaches are moved about in nursery stock , soil , stock feed and the like . but even though this cockroach is tropical and subtropical its its habitat requirements , it can live quite nicely in greenhouses in temperate regions .\nthese shiny brown cockroaches can grow up to an inch in length ( although most average at around \u00be of an inch ) . these are easily confused with the oriental cockroach , and do have a somewhat similar appearance . the key distinguishing features are their rough abdominal area ( compared to the smooth abdomen of the oriental cockroach ) as well as their olive / light green tinted wings .\ncolor - the field cockroach is light brown . it has a black face and two black longitudinal stripes on the pronotum . this species has been described as being olive - green in color .\none of the most common insects found in and around man - made structures is the cockroach . the cockroach is often labeled as a repulsive , filth - carrying , food - contaminating creature . controlling cockroaches in and around the home is a continuous battle . if effective , economic control is to be achieved , we must be able to positively identify the species that we are dealing with .\nabdominal aberrations of the tergites have been described in the surinam cockroach , pycnoscelus surinamensis ( l . ) ( roth and willis 1961 ) ; the german cockroach , blattella germanica ( l . ) ( ross and cochran 1961 ) ; and blaberus giganteus ( l . ) ( fisk and brass 1961 ) . almost invariably these anomalies were restricted to the tergites only , the corresponding sternites being normal . in this note i describe an unusual specimen of p . surinamensis in which some of the abdominal segments , including internal organs , were duplicated . the female was isolated as a mature nymph from a culture of parthenogenetic p . surinamensis which originated from australia .\nsurinam cockroaches are burrowing insects that cause damage to vegetation . the species is most commonly found in humid , tropic areas such as the southeastern united states . adults are 18 to 25 mm in length . female adults have light - colored wings and black heads .\ndistinguishing characteristics - the oriental cockroach may be distinguished by its large size , robust shape and dark color . the short wings of the male and the rudimentary wings of the female are also distinguishing characters .\nthe surinam cockroach prefers dark , moist areas such as your garden . they are burrowing insects and make their homes almost exclusively in soil . they can also be found beneath rocks , rotten branches , in trash bags , compost piles , woodpiles , lawn thatches and other debris . even in houseplants . people may water their plants outside then bring the plants back in , not knowing that a roach has crawled into the soil . this is often the first point of contact .\nthe surninam cockroach is almost a perfect lab animal . it reproduces readily in captivity and is easily cared for . it does not have a disagreeable odour and females look after their young . children find them intriguing .\nroth , l . m . 1998 . the cockroach genus pycnoscelus scudder , with a description of pycnoscelus femapterus , sp . nov . ( balttaria : blaberidae ; pycnoscelinae ) . oriental insects 32 : 93 - 130 .\nthe name cockroach is thought to have been derived from the spanish name for the insect ,\ncucaracha\n. many of the most common species have an accepted common name , and some have one or more aliases .\nthis species of cockroach is well - established in virginia and along the southeast gulf coast in florida , louisiana , and texas . no males of this species are found in the united states . it is also found in australia and in humid tropics around the world . it lives mostly outdoors and does not breed inside human habitations . therefore , it is considered a nuisance insect . occasionally , it finds its way into northern states in malls and zoos , usually in atriums and potted plants imported from southern states like florida . surinam cockroaches build huge populations around landscape beds in the south in areas with thick layers of mulch , heavy ground cover , and landscape timbers . these roaches are sensitive to cold temperatures and can only survive indoors in northern regions . indoors , surinam cockroaches can be found as far north as canada .\ncolor - the smoky - brown cockroach is very uniform dark brown to black in color . if there is any differentiation in color at all , the legs and the pronotum may be slightly darker than the rest of the body .\nblack butcher - birds , craticus quoyi , learn to find surinam cockroaches all they have to do is toss leaves out of roof gutters - - ( but not thoroughly enough to be useful ! ) . the cockroahces are large enough to be worth the effort and are a good source of fat and protein .\nis latin meaning \u201chare - like\u201d presumably in reference to the hare - like cleft lip of the genus . no type specimen exists , the original description by linnaeus being based on a text written by seba ( 1734 ) . the type locality was restricted to surinam by o . thomas ( 1911 ) . the species name\ncolor - the head and thorax of the brown - banded cockroach is dark brown to almost black . its wings are also dark brown but banded with light brown . the legs are light brown and have small dark spots at the joints .\nwe evaluated the effect of ablation of primary chemosensory organs ( antennae and palps ) [ 16 ] on ootheca production , because chemosensory signals are known to be important for discrimination of the sex of cohabitants in other cockroach species [ 27 ] .\nwith the immanent publication of the guidebook to australian cockroaches , readers of this blog can expect an emphasis on cockroaches for a time . there are additional cockroach photos on the flickr site noted in the left margin for those who might be interested .\nthe current report addresses the finding of ocular filariosis in a domestic adult hen , raised in a backyard , in a community near la silla river , south nuevo leon , in mexico . the hen was submitted to a veterinary practice due to weakness and diarrhea . during necropsy , three nematodes were found underneath the nictitating membranes in both of the bird ' s eyes . the nematodes were identified as oxyspirura mansoni . the diagnostic was confirmed when the intermediate host of o . mansoni , the surinam cockroach ( pycnoscelus surinamensis ) , was found in the hen ' s living environment .\nthe biggest harm surinam cockroaches inflict on people is economic in nature . these pests will cause severe damage to expensive tropical plants in atriums , green houses , and yards by destroying plants from the roots . they have not been known to bite or harm humans in any way , are not aggressive , and stay hidden from sight .\nwhen you have the surinam cockroaches infesting your property , it would be best that you call in pest control professionals . toro pest management is a market leader in pest solutions and will easily and effectively treat the infestations and keep your garden protected from further damaging infestations . the cockroaches can be hard to control considering that they burrow and can be in large populations . only the professionals with the right education , skills and equipment will be able to address your problem effectively . remember that they could be scattered all over your garden , making treatment hard for you , but the pest experts at toro know the right approaches and techniques to get rid of the surinam cockroaches both on your outdoors and indoors .\nat the present time more than 4 , 000 species of cockroaches have been described and named . close study of fossilized cockroaches has revealed that very little change has occurred in the cockroach over time . the present day species are very much like their ancient ancestors .\nwith that good news comes some bad new unfortunately ; surinam cockroaches are extremely partial to your gardens ! it\u2019s rare to see infestations of these cockroaches inside houses , and unlike other species , actually prefers the dirt and turf outside . this does mean that they are often seen in gardens throughout the south ( most predominantly in florida , louisiana , and texas ) .\ncolor - the german cockroach is a uniform drab brown . its legs are a bit lighter in color than its body . the pronotum has two wide , black longitudinal stripes . between these longitudinal stripes there is a golden brown stripe that extends past the pronotum onto the wings .\ncomments - the oriental cockroach is worldwide in distribution . it is normally an outside species , but will move into the home during cold weather . it is commonly found in lawns , along the foundation of buildings , in water meters , in basements and in piles of rubbish .\npellens r , d\u2019haese ca , bell\u00e9s x , piulachs md , legendre f , wheeler wc , grandcolas p . the evolutionary transition from subsocial to eusocial behavior in dictyoptera : phylogenetic evidence for modification of the \u201cshift - in - dependent - care\u201d hypothesis with a new subsocial cockroach .\nyou may not have to worry about cleaning your food scraps away with these ones , but you certainly need to watch out for your plants ! surinam cockroaches are not omnivores like its other relative roaches , and instead chooses to dine on your freshly planted foliage . potted plants , flowers , tree leaves , and even weeds are all on the menu , so watch those petunias for bite marks .\ncheck under wood that is permanently outside , as it may be rotting and serving as host to these cockroaches . further try to keep a look out for any disturbances to your garden / lawn . bite - marks along the stems or leaves of plants may be a sign of just your average garden grubs , but it may just be a burrow of surinam cockroaches nearby - so don\u2019t dismiss it !\nthe route of infection in the hen was related with the presence of the burrowing cockroach . this insect belongs to the genus pycnoscelus , and is the intermediate natural host of oxyspirura mansoni . the cockroach was found in cracks , crevices , and underneath debris on the premises . the insects were identified as pycnoscelussurina mensis ( fig . 5 ) and neostylopygar hombifolia . pycnoscelus surinamensis , order orthoptera , suborder blattaria , family blattidae , is known to be the only intermediate host of o . mansoni and is widely distributed in the american continent ( jacobs et al . 2003 ; malgalhaes & caldas 2004 ) .\nthe german cockroach is the most successful of the species infesting buildings in pennsylvania . there are several reasons for this cockroach\u2019s persistence and the difficulty of controlling it . german cockroaches produce a larger number of eggs per capsule and they undergo the shortest time from hatching until sexual maturity , resulting in a rapid population growth . a greater number of nymphs hatch successfully because the female carries the egg capsule during the entire time the embryos are developing within the eggs . also , and most importantly , german cockroaches are smaller than most other cockroaches and can conceal themselves in many places inaccessible to individuals of the larger species .\ncommon names may vary from place to place and their use may be confusing . each species of cockroach has an accepted scientific name , which is composed of its generic and its species name . the scientific names of species will be given here to facilitate further study and to assure that you are studying the species with which you are concerned .\nfishing bat ( hood & knox jones jr 1984 , davis 1973 , eisenberg 1989 ) , mexican bulldog bat ( redford & eisenberg 1992 ) , bulldog fishing bat ( parera 2002 ) , large fishing bat ( fischthal & martin 1978 ) , hare - lipped bat ( gudger 1945 ) , rabbit - nosed night - flying bat ( tomes 1860 ) , fish - eating bat ( goodwin & greenhall 1961 ) , surinam fishing bat ( goodwin & greenhall 1961 ) .\nfirst and foremost , make sure that any paved areas are sealed tight and free of cracks . that small patch of dirt in your driveway may look like a mild inconvenience , but you\u2019ll hate it more when a burrow of surinam cockroaches make there way inside it and widen it up a bit . use this same mentality when examining the foundation of your home . cracks in basement cement could provide a nesting area if they are not well maintained and kept clear of vegetation / soil .\nthe nymphs go through several molts . each time they increase in size and look more like the adults . some species of cockroaches may complete a life cycle in about 60 days . other species require about three years . the number of offspring from one female cockroach , in a single year , may range from several hundred to several thousand , depending upon species .\ncockroaches are one of the most ancient of all insects . fossil evidence indicates that they have been on earth for over 300 million years . when compared to the cockroach , man has been around for only the blink of an eye . more than 200 species of fossilized cockroaches have been found in north america and europe . several species have been found in baltic amber .\nthe american cockroach , periplaneta americana ( l . ) ( insecta : blattodea : blattoidea : blattidae ) is a worldwide pest due to its euryphagous , gregarious behavioral ecologies and close association with human habitats [ 16 ] . this species is phylogenetically closer to termites ( blattodea : blattoidea ) than the members of the suborder blaberoidea , which includes n . cineria , p . surinamensis and the german cockroach blattera germanica [ 17 , 18 ] . females of p . americana show facultative parthenogenesis in the absence of males [ 19 , 20 ] . although the hatchability of eggs produced by parthenogenesis is lower than that of eggs produced by sexual reproduction [ 20 ] , the resultant female offspring have been shown to survive through at least two generations in the laboratory [ 19 ] .\nthere are no male surinam cockroaches in north america , but the species is far from extinct . in fact , the population is surviving quite well . this abundance is due to the fact that females can reproduce through parthenogenesis , which is not dependent on male participation . females produce female clone offspring and do so very quickly . this swift reproduction process means trouble \u2013 just a few of these cockroaches can rapidly turn into an infestation . and since these cockroaches feed on plants , an infestation can mean doom for your garden .\nit is hard to believe , but cockroaches have never been positively linked to the transmission of pathogenic organisms that infect man . however , the potential for cockroach transmission of certain pathogens , under specific conditions , is undeniable . cockroaches frequent many sites where they can be contaminated with disease organisms . afterward , they frequently come in contact with man and this is a potential situation where transmission of these pathogens could occur .\nthe information for roaches should help not only identify pests but also help to differentiate types of roaches that are given common or incorrect names . to many people , any large roach , roaches that live primarily outdoors or any cockroach that is not a german cockroach is considered a woods roach . the wood roach is a distinct species of roach , not a group of bugs . however , many pest control experts do consider roaches that are not german roaches to belong to a generic\nlarge roach\nor\noutdoor roach\nbecause their primary source is the outdoors .\nwater bugs\nis a term many people use to describe german cockroaches . there are no roach pests that are technically water bugs . when our customers say that water bugs are a problem in their home , we can usually assume that they have an infestation of german roaches .\npycnoscelus surinamensis l . , a tropical cockroach , has been found doing injury in a number of greenhouses in the eastern part of the united states . a study of its habits has been made and experiments conducted to determine practical control measures adaptable in commercial greenhouses . tests with poisoned baits indicate that their use over large areas would be impractical . sodium cyanide in solution when applied to the soil is the most promising control material used .\nthe only way to get control of this situation is to eliminate the cockroach as the vector . spray the coop and all pens with an insecticide designed to kill cockroaches . removal of the worms from under the nictitating membrane can be accomplished by using tweezers and picking them out , one by one . they will be about three quarters of an inch to approximately one inch in length and approximately the same diameter as a piece of thread .\nel presente trabajo reporta el hallazgo de una filariosis ocular en una gallina dom\u00e9stica adulta , criada en traspatio en una comunidad cercana al r\u00edo la silla , al sur de nuevo le\u00f3n , m\u00e9xico . la gallina fue remitida para una pr\u00e1ctica de veterinaria debido a que presentaba debilidad y diarrea . a la necropsia , fueron encontrados tres nematodos debajo de la membrana nictitante en ambos ojos . los nematodos fueron identificados como oxyspirura mansoni . el diagn\u00f3stico fue confirmado cuando el hu\u00e9sped intermediario de o . mansoni , la cucaracha de surinam ( pycnoscelus surinamensis ) , fue hallado en el lugar donde habitaba la gallina .\nchemical control - baiting is an effective method to control or eliminate german cockroaches . baits containing hydramethylnon , fipronil , sulfluramid , boric acid , or abamectin can provide a high level of control when applied to those areas where cockroaches harbor . some formulations of baits are available to the public in plastic feeding stations . professional pest control personnel also have cockroach baits in flowable granular and gel formulations . care should be taken to closely follow the label instructions for use .\ndifferent forms of gastroenteritis ( food poisoning , dysentery , diarrhea , and other illnesses ) appear to be the principal diseases transmitted by german cockroaches . the organisms causing these diseases are carried on the legs and bodies of cockroaches and are deposited on food and utensils as the cockroaches forage . cockroach excrement and cast skins also contain a number of allergens to which many people exhibit allergic responses , such as skin rashes , watery eyes and sneezing , congestion of nasal passages , and asthma .\nfacultative parthenogenesis , seen in many animal phyla , is a reproductive strategy in which females are able to generate offspring when mating partners are unavailable . in some subsocial and eusocial insects , parthenogenesis is often more prevalent than sexual reproduction . however , little is known about how social cooperation is linked to the promotion of parthenogenesis . the domiciliary cockroach periplaneta americana is well - suited to addressing this issue as this species belongs to the superfamily blattoidea , which diverged into eusocial termites and shows facultative parthenogenesis .\ngroup - housed females of the american cockroach p . americana promote asexual ootheca production compared to isolated females . a founder colony of 15 virgin females is sufficient to maintain the colony for more than four generations over a period of more than three years only by parthenogenesis . recognizing female - specific chemosensory signals via antennae is the most potent sensory cue for promoting ootheca production . the promotion of ootheca production may be an early stage of social cooperation linked to more prevalent parthenogenesis adopted by eusocial insects .\nmost cockroaches have two pair of well developed wings . the front pair of wings ( forewings ) overlaps over the back . they are narrow , thick and leathery . the hind pair of wings are membranous and are folded fan - like beneath the front pair . many cockroach species are wingless and others have only rudimentary wings . in some species , the females have wings that are shorter than the males , and they may appear so different that they can mistakenly be taken as being two different species .\nadult german cockroaches are 1 / 2 to 5 / 8 inch long and tan to light brown ( fig . 1 ) . although they have fully developed wings , they do not fly . nymphs are similar in appearance to adults except that they are smaller and lack wings . the german cockroach is best identified by its small size and by two dark parallel lines running from the back of the head to the wings . it is usually found in kitchens ( near dishwashers , stoves , and sinks ) and in bathrooms of homes .\ncockroaches are among the most common of insects . fossil evidence indicates that cockroaches have been on earth for over 300 million years . they are considered one of the most successful groups of animals . because cockroaches are so adaptable , they have successfully adjusted to living with humans . about 3 , 500 species of cockroaches exist worldwide , with 55 species found in the united states . only four species are common pests in pennsylvania structures . these are the german , brown - banded , oriental , and american cockroaches . a fifth species , the pennsylvania wood cockroach is an occasional nuisance pest in some locations .\nthe surinman cockroach . got a problem with what you have here . yes , the bug i am infested with here on big island looks exactly like your foto . and i have been researching to identify this pest . but , wikipedia when i search surinman cockroach says the female does not fly . here\u2019s by problem . please help . the bug looks like your picture . but it crawls into our house from any opening it can find . my husband has been spending weeks caulking up any openings on the bottom of the walls because that\u2019s where they come in . the wikipedia says they are plant eaters and do not fly ! . we do not have plants in the house , and we are in a clearing in the forest . of course we have something like grass , but we are on lava rock . we have been here in this house for 4 yrs . and just this winter have had the worst infestation ever . they fly in , they crawl in . when they landed on the bed linen that\u2019s when i said caulk the walls . they seem to find any opening and i have been calling them snuggle bugs because they like to crawl into the bathroom rugs . they seem to be nocturnal , but occasionally i find the coming across my floor in the day . what can we do to rid ourselves of this pest ? i would appreciate any info you have"]}
{"id": 1087, "summary": [{"text": "bollin eric ( foaled 18 february 1999 ) , is a retired british thoroughbred racehorse and active sire .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in a career which lasted from july 2001 until october 2003 , he ran eighteen times and won four races .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he recorded his most important success when winning the classic st. leger stakes as a three-year-old in 2002 .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he won the lonsdale stakes in the following year and was placed in important races including the dante stakes , king edward vii stakes , great voltigeur stakes , yorkshire cup and hardwicke stakes . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "bollin eric", "paragraphs": ["the stud is managed by bill bromley who reports bollin eric to be doing well in his new career .\nmeet fox news channel ' s eric bolling and his beautiful wife adrienne : married in 1997 . meet son eric chase\nmeet fox news channel ' s eric bolling and his beautiful wife adrienne : married in 1997 . meet son eric chase\nbollin eric had been held back at the rear by jockey kevin darley and began to move up after the six - furlong marker .\nand trainer tim easterby said on wednesday that there was\na strong possibility\nthat bollin eric would indeed line up in the arc .\nbollin zola , won 2 races at 2 and 3 years rated 90 , dam of 6 winners of 21 races incl , bollin eric classic gr . 1 winner . bollin joanne , gr . 3 duke of york stakes , lr scarbrough stakes , 2nd lr summer stakes , rated 118\ndarley had ridden bollin eric before , but that season the shaamit colt had also been partnered by robert winston , willie supple and kieren fallon .\n\u2022royal ascot selections : 2 . 30 chic . 3 . 05 bollin eric . 3 . 45 airwave . 4 . 20 fire up the band .\nafter finishing eighth in the arc behind dalakhani , the decision was taken to retire bollin eric to the national stud in newmarket for the 2004 season .\nthree racing dynasties can fittingly combine to win saturday ' s st leger , the 226th running of the world ' s oldest classic race , with bollin eric .\nlast year ' s st leger winner bollin eric is set to take his place in this sunday ' s prix de l ' arc de triomphe at longchamp .\nthese days , eric seems to be a little frustrated with all the presidential polls taking place . while his co - hosts were nodding in disapprovements , eric said ,\nthe horse she calls\neric\nis by the 1996 epsom derby winner shaamit out of bollin zola , the dam of bollin joanne , who won the group three duke of york stakes but sadly died last year after breaking her femur while in foal .\nfour years ago the partisan crowd at doncaster erupted when bollin eric galloped to victory in the st leger , providing a local win for yorkshiremen tim easterby and kevin darley .\nbollin eric crowned a successful season last year by winning the st leger at doncaster and he can take the hardwick stakes ( 3 . 05pm ) for yorkshire trainer tim easterby .\npat smullen ' s mount had been odds - on for last year ' s win but on this occasion was a 2 - 1 second favourite to 2002 doncaster winner bollin eric .\na little over two weeks later , winston was on board again as bollin eric took home the prince of wales cup at doncaster by three - quarters of a length from hoax .\nbut lingwood , who has been at norton grove in one capacity or another since 1960 , is banking on bollin eric ' s popularity in yorkshire proving a draw for prospective customers .\nthe bollin tag on their horses reflects the westbrooks ' cheshire roots , as the rolling 150 acres of their prestbury home , white gables , is cut in two by the river bollin .\nboth the 1994 and 1995 derby winners , erhaab and lammtarra , failed dismally at stud , while the 1996 winner , shaamit , sired st leger winner bollin eric , but precious little else .\nbollin ted is a beverley specialist and a mile and quarter is his trip . he doesn\u2019t mind fast ground and he is very adaptable . he is from the bollin breed who improve in time .\ntrained by tim easterby at great habton , bollin eric announced his arrival at beverley in august 2001 - taking a maiden race by four lengths with york - based jockey robert winston in the saddle .\nso far bollin eric ( 3 . 25 ) has improved with each outing this season and his trainer tim easterby should now have him somewhere near his best with the king george looming large on july 26 .\nhe became the first locally - trained horse to be successful in the oldest classic since peleid won in 1973 , and added to that bollin eric posted first classic successes for both his trainer and his jockey .\ncut from 16 - 1 to 10 - 1 yesterday by the bookmakers coral for the big ascot race , bollin eric has the class and courage to give weight all round in the princess of wales ' s stakes .\nnot since bollin eric won the marathon mile and three quarter contest in 2002 for great habton ' s tim easterby has anyone from the county won the blue riband event on town moor and johnston has come nearer than most .\nnow bollin eric is back in north yorkshire . after a spell at the national stud , owner sir neil westbrook has moved the eight - year - old to norton grove stud - where owner richard lingwood is naturally delighted .\nshaamit , won gr . 1 derby stakes . 3rd king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes . died after only 3 crops . sire of bollin eric , lygeton lad , harlestone greyetc son of mtoto , sire of the leading nh sire presenting etc .\nbollin eric was to be placed three more times in group and listed contests that summer , and while he failed to win , it was evident through his resolute style of running and tenacity that a step - up in trip would prove the making of him .\nretiring from racing , bollin terry came to puddledub in late 1999 and had his first covering season in 2000 with just 3 mares .\nwith his racetrack career now becoming a distant memory , lingwood says bollin eric is settling in nicely at norton grove ' s 98 acres .\nhe ' s a grand , quiet horse ,\nhe said .\nhe ' s as good as gold .\nbollin eric belongs to the 85 - year - old sir neil westbrook , a former lord mayor of manchester , who splits his racing interests along gender lines with his wife of 57 years , lady joan : their fillies run in her name and the colts in his .\never the bridesmaid , the tim easterby trained bollin eric was a good second today in the king edward vii stakes g2 at royal ascot . it is believed that the colt will continue to be aimed at the st leger , probably via the great voltigeur stakes at york .\ni liked bollin eric on the track . he ran a courageous st . leger and was a very good stayer . i don ' t know why he wouldn ' t produce a decent sporthorse . have you checked to see if any of his offspring are in nh racing / training ?\nbollin eric had always been highly thought of by easterby , and finished placed in two maidens as a juvenile before winning on his third attempt at beverley over a mile , storming four lengths clear of his nearest pursuer . this was followed up by victory in a valuable nursery at doncaster .\nthere seem to have been westbrooks , easterbys and bollins for as long as i can remember ,\nhe said .\ni recall when i was an amateur jockey winning a race on gowanloch from the bollin strain at newmarket , and a few more winners i rode began with bollin .\nborn in 1994 , he was in training with tim easterby in malton , yorkshire who has trained all the bollin horses for owner / breeders sir neil and lady westbrook . by terimon and out of bollin zola who was by alzao ( usa ) he was destined for the flat and ran a total of 20 races in his career , winning 2 and placed in a further 8 and winning a total of \u00a326 , 968 . his dam is also the dam of bollin joanne who was a group 3 winner and \u00a3118 , 512 and bollin eric who won the st leger ( one of only\u201e classic races ran in britain each year ) and a total prize money tally of over \u00a3506 , 000 and was named champion european stayer .\nit ' s a crucial time for bollin eric . the first two - year - olds he has sired are either on the track , or will soon make their racecourse debuts , and their success will go a long way to determining how popular he will be as a stallion in the future .\nbollin eric isn ' t the only top class horse they have at norton grove . currently in the ranks is gentleman ' s deal - a winter derby winner outof sire of sires danehill - and timeless times , a group - winning performer who is the sire of the winners of 206 races .\nbut eric boiling and kimberly guilfoyle reminisced about it all and accepted that it had made them a better person after it all . after talking about their rivalry with kathy griffin and anderson cooper ( with eric throwing some minor shade on kathy ' s antic during past year ' s new years eve ) , eric and kimberly talked to tvnewser about their relationship along with what it felt to be part of the fox family and its current state .\nand so it did . the one - mile - six - furlong trip of the leger may have been the undoing of favourite bandari , but bollin eric relished every yard of it , beating highest by a length and a quarter , with future ascot gold cup winner mr dinos back in fifth place .\nlike his namesake river , bollin eric just keeps rolling along . it would round off the season nicely if such a stout stayer could land the final classic for the westbrooks , the easterbys and the north - just to prove that if you have the stamina , you ' ll get there in the end .\nbollin eric ( gb ) b . h , 1999 { 4 - d } dp = 5 - 2 - 8 - 5 - 2 ( 22 ) di = 1 . 00 cd = 0 . 14 - 18 starts , 4 wins , 4 places , 5 shows career earnings : $ 850 , 102\nthe thoroughbred breeders association annual awards for 2002 sees a victory for yorkshire with sir neil and lady westbrook winning the tba flat breeder of the year award . this was mainly due to the success of st . leger winner bollin eric , who was bred and raised at the easterby ' s easthorpe hall stud .\nthe older horses staked their claim for major middle - distance honours in the eclipse at sandown and today at newmarket it should be the turn of bollin eric , last year ' s st leger winner , to show he is a worthy contender for the king george vi & queen elizabeth diamond stakes later this month .\nstill at newmarket and the tim easterby trained bollin eric puts up a strong performance to finish a close third in the feilden s l , . possibly a leger horse in the making ? ! ? at the same track david nicholls has another good result when his fire up the band wins the \u00a310 , 530 exning h .\nfirst - season sires passing glance and deportivo have been purchased to enhance the current group of established sires standing at the stud , which include the highly successful bahamian bounty . the stud is also home to helissio , silver patriarch and passing glance , while bollin eric will spend the 2005 season at wood farm stud in shropshire .\nthe four - year - old ' s group one penalty will always make bollin eric vulnerable in races like this . but he finished clear of two of today ' s rivals , zindabad and bandari , in similar circumstances at royal ascot when caught close home by indian creek and he is likely to have come on again for that run .\ntwo good yorkshire performances up at doncaster today , and they were both winners . the tim easterby trained bollin eric confirmed the form of his previous good runs when winning the \u00a318 , 931 ralph raper memorial prince of wales cup nursery . this colt , who is a 1 / 2 brother to former stable star bollin joanne , could well pick up some more good prizes next season . later on lynda ramsden yet again showed she has lost non of her magic touch with sprinters when astonished won the scarbrough stakes l .\nwhether or not eric claims his niche in the classic records on saturday , his forebears have already carved a little place in history , as his trainer tim easterby explains .\neric bolling is also the author of a book titled \u201c wake up america : the nine virtues that made our nation great\u2014and why we need them more than ever . \u201d\n2016 was a big year for fox news and eric bolling . from the 2016 american election to the roger ailes sexual harassment scandal , the fox family went through a lot .\nthe horse , given the prefix ' bollin ' after the river which runs through the westbrook ' s cheshire estate , was foaled in easterby ' s easthorpe hall stud , in malton .\nhis sire , bollin eric , developed into a high - class middle - distance horse for tim easterby , a st leger win being the highlight . very much a dual - purpose stallion , his progeny progress well with racing . they include 12 - time winner over fences and hurdles , grandads horse , and seven - time victor on the flat , lady florence .\nfox news host eric bolling is suing huffington post columnist yashar ali for defamation . ali talks to cnn ' s brian stelter about the case and why he ' s fighting it .\npeople who own a top class racehorse that could be a top class stallion aren ' t keen to stand it in the north ,\nlingwood said .\nyou have now got to have something that has won group races and , because of bollin eric ' s reputation , we have that . the easterbys will also be a big help . they have persuasive tongues .\nborn on march 2 , 1963 , in chicago , illinois , u . s . eric is a graduate of rollins college in 1984 with a ba degree in economics . eric was a commodities trader on the new york mercantile exchange and later got involved in developing cnbc ' s fast money , but later , he left cnbc and became a financial analyst at the fox news network .\nhe was retired to the national stud where in 1998 he became the first european horse to serve as a shuttle stallion to south africa . he subsequently moved to scarvagh house stud , county down , northern ireland where he died of a ruptured stomach on 7 april 2001 . [ 14 ] by far the best of his progeny was his son bollin eric who won the st . leger in 2002 . [ 15 ]\nanother two - year - old who won ' t have too much more racing this season is bollin eric , who landed a gamble in the ralph raper memorial prince of wales cup for tim easterby .\ni never picked him out until he hit the front ,\nsaid easterby , who was celebrating his 40th birthday .\nhe ' s always been a good horse at home and had been working tremendously .\nbollin eric was kept in training as a four - year - old and proved himself to be as consistent as ever in eight starts , including a second to indian creek in the hardwicke stakes and a fourth place in a vintage renewal of the king george behind alamshar \u2013 finishing in front of falbrav , nayef and grandera . his final success came with a decisive victory in the lonsdale stakes , defeating cover up by two lengths .\nin the group 2 king edward vii stakes ( ascot derby ) over 12 furlongs at royal ascot , balakheri took his revenge on subsequent st leger winner bollin eric , carrying top weight and defeating him impressively by 4 lengths , with first charter back in third . balakheri ' s other two outings were both in classics , starting second favourite for the group 1 budweiser irish derby finishing 6 lengths off high chaparral just 9 days after winning at royal ascot & finishing 6th\neric has been very consistent this season without winning because he hasn ' t had his going . a bit of give in the ground on saturday would give him a little edge because he has got a reasonably high action .\na baseball player turned commodity trader turned television personality , eric bolling is married to adrienne bolling . he was married in the year of 1997 . they have been married for around 19 years , and the couples are still going strong .\nwinner of gr . 1 st leger . european champion stayer at 3 yo not just staying power but speed too !\nhe was a fantastically good natured colt , whose sharp tactical speed was a great help in his races . we had a top class sprinter at the same time in somnus , but bollin eric could beat him at home over six furlongs . he was absolutely genuine and i have trained several of his offspring , who are just the same\ntim easterby .\nsiring winners from his first few crops , inc : nh nearly 50 % winners / placed to lifetime nh runners . grands horse - 9 races , 2011 - 2013 or : 137 chasers and hurdles , 2011 / 2012 .\nstrong gelding most progressive over hurdles\n. seymour eric - 5 races over hurdles , rated 135 . oyster shell - over hurdles , 2013 rattlin - 3 races , 2013 barney cool - easy winner of bumper bollin judith - over hurdles , 2012 / 13 . also the winners of 7 point - to - points in 2013 , inc . it was me - 4 wins . brave buck - winner over hurdles at 5 years by 11 lengths , oct 2013 . and on the flat . lady florence - 7 wins over 7f and 8f . bollin judith - 6 wins over 1m6f at 3 to 5 years . brasingaman eric - 3 wins over 12 , 14 and 16 furlongs . for other runners and results go to news .\nbollin terry has also been very successful in the show ring , being champion or reserve champion every time out as a hunter , hack and ex - racehorse at such prestigeous shows as the aberdeen spring show , ingliston grand slam and festival of champions .\nthe roisin hickey - trained cecil corbett vindicated some previous promise by springing a mild surprise with corky carroll in the first division of this same contest . the physically - imposing cecil corbett , who fell two out when holding placed prospects on his debut at tallow in february , challenged from two out and he eased to the front on the inner in the closing stage to record an authoritative success over the promising just a par . the bollin eric - sired cecil corbett is now likely to take in some of the forthcoming sales .\neric and i are like brother and sister , we text throughout the day , same with greg ( gutfeld ) and dana ( perino ) . juan ( williams ) is such a good sport , and he puts up with a lot of our craziness . \u201d\nwe have heard that eric bolling is quite the happy man having both personal life and professional life in perfect balance . professional life might be easy to handle but what about his married life ? let ' s know about the man who gets criticized for his high pay .\nwe thought that they had more than one children in the long run of 19 years . well , they surprised us . the couples have a son , only a son . his name is eric chase , and he is quite a handsome and charming fellow like his father .\ndoes anyone know where presenting got his jumping ability from ? he ' s a tb stallion by mtoto and has sired several top class chasers including denman and war of attrition . is the jump coming from mtoto or is it from his damline ? urltoken the reason i ask is that i ' m casting around for a tb to sire an eventer . there ' s a stallion called bollin eric whose grandsire is mtoto that looks rather nice but since he ' s only raced on the flat i don ' t know if he can jump . can any of the pedigree experts cast any light on the likelihood of this please ? urltoken\nin april 2006 , bollin terry was graded with scottish sports horse , where aged 12 years old he was asked to jump for the first time in his life , showing a natural aptitude and a neat technique . he impressed the dutch graders with his conformation , paces and athletism and they awarded him the highest marks the society has ever given a thoroughbred stallion .\nbollin terry has covered a wide range of mares , from small , fine flat race mares to big rangey chasers and from small 13hh ponies to an 18hh percheron . he appears to have the unique ability to add size and substance to finer mares and quality and elegance to the heavier mare . there doesn ' t seem to be a mare that does not suit him .\nfor a race of this class i always aim to get the horse there fit on the day , as a lot of things can go wrong in this game . but at this stage eric is fine , and if the going turns out to be good to soft it would suit us . the extra furlongs of the leger could also come into play .\nhe is none other than eric bolling , co - host of the famous early evening show called \u201cthe five\u201d ( alongside kimberly guilfoyle , greg gutfeld , dana perino and juan williams ) . you sure have heard about the five , right ? ; the one that airs on fox news channel . even if you haven\u2019t , you don\u2019t need to worry about it . we\u2019ll fill you up .\nfour weeks later in the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes , alamshar looked even better . in the words of johnny murtagh ,\nhe came alive in my hands\n, after tracking the leaders into the straight and pulled away to win by three and a half lengths from sulamani , with kris kin third and top performers such as falbrav , warrsan , grandera , nayef , millenary and bollin eric among the also - rans . the guardian ' s correspondent called the race\none of the strongest renewals of the king george for many years\nand wrote that\nalamshar simply took them apart\n. [ 15 ] oxx expressed his satisfaction , describing it as\na no - worries race\n, whilst explaining that the horse ' s back problems had required\na lot of work\n. [ 1 ]\nthe end of the ' proper ' flat season see ' s an appropriate 755 - 1 treble for mark johnston , the highlight of which was the victory of knavesmire omen in the \u00a317 , 761 saffie joseph & sons handicap . the other two winners were in the opening two races and included marina park ' s daughter marinas charm , getting her first win on her third attempt . both these opening johnston winners were at the expense of tim easterby , and he also had to contend with the runner - up slot in the big race of the day with bollin nellie filing that position in the november handicap . the season ends with johnston in third place in the trainers championship with 131 winners and well over \u00a32 million in win and place prize money , with tim easterby and david nicholls also high up the ranks . paul hanagan , who is attached to richard fahey ' s yard , is champion apprentice . there were five group one wins for yorkshire trainers with royal rebel , yavana ' s pace , continent ( 2 wins ) and bollin eric providing the big race wins , this is the largest group one haul in one season for yorkshire trainers since the introduction of the pattern system , and shows that yorkshire racing is still on the rise , with the ' defection ' of bryan smart further strengthening the ranks for next season .\nclose , but not close enough . the mark johnston trained sir george turner was defeated by the shortest of heads in the dee stakes l at chester today by the barry hills trained sohaib . the nashwan colt came from behind to catch the front runner but couldn ' t seem to get past him and was possibly ' eye - balling ' the opposition instead of pushing on to the finish . the trainer is now contemplating a quick reappearance in the dante at york next week , but with the addition of blinkers . this result slightly dents the form of the tim easterby trained bollin eric , as his newmarket conqueror , playapart , was back in third place , but he ' s another possible for the dante as well . later on the chester card the david nicholls trained hormuz was succesful in the \u00a39 , 126 stratstone aston martin handicap , with his stable mate mister rambo filling the runner - up berth .\nin what must rank as one of the best weeks ever for yorkshire trainers ( in terms of the breadth of quality results achieved by a wide number of trainers ) the last day proves to be no exception ! at haydock the andy turnell trained jelani , fourth in the derby last time out , continues his st . leger preparation with a nice confidence boosting win in the july trophy stakes l . the tim easterby trained bollin eric was sent off odds - on favourite in the same race , but could only finish a very disappointing third of only four runners . meanwhile over at the curragh there was even a big race double on the irish oaks card for yorkshire trainers . mark johnston started things off with the kennet valley owened gateman winning the minstrel stakes g3 under keith dalgleish . in the next race it was the turn of the sprint king dandy nicholls , and he made off with the \u00a336 , 809 ladbroke rockingham handicap with awake , a horse formerly trained by johnston , who was second at newmarket earlier this week , behind yesterdays winner brave burt .\nhi ss , mtoto is by busted who has had his fair share of nh stallions . busted has a nice wild risk cross through his dam which is good for jumping . the dam of mtoto is mincio . minicio is by relic who shows up in succesful jumping lines as well . mincio ' s dam has a couple of nice crosses with dollar too which is also success for jumping . denman ' s mom , polly puttens , had some very nice jumping lines as well . i think all but one of her children ran and win , but can ' t be sure . i know last year there was a nice thing on her pedigree and how successful she was as a broodmare . of course by the time denman rolled around she was nearly done her producing days . i think she had 4 or 5 black type winners . war of attrition is out of a good thyne mare who in turn is out of a strong gale mare . both of whom have been big sires of nh horses . bollin eric is by shaamit who has proven himself in eventing already if i ' m not mistaken so i don ' t think you could go wrong . viney is way better at this than me so i ' m hoping she chimes in with more help ! terri\nfirst day of the\nroyal ascot of the north\n- the ebor meeting at york . mark johnston starts as he means to go on when bourbonnais wins the opening acomb stakes l in good style . in the next race johnston has another good result when darasim is a respectable third in the lonsdale stakes g3 . in the fourth race of the day the johnston ' sure thing ' of the meeting - bandari - obliges when taking the great voltigeur stakes g2 and must surely now have a good chance in the st . leger . this was johnston ' s 100th winner of the season - making him the first person to achieve that level this year ( richard hannon is hot on his heels ) and also making it the ninth year in a row that he has made this landmark . only henry cecil has achieved 100 winners 9 seasons in a row , and if johnston can do this again next season he will be the first person ever to do it 10 years in a row . in the same race the tim easterby trained bollin eric is a decent third , but he perhaps needs to be dropped down to listed class to get his first stakes win . in the fifth race , the knavesmire handicap , the alan swinbank trained collier hill puts up a decent performance to be second . in the final race of the day there is another good yorkshire performance when the tim easterby trained forever times is second in the links of london showcase handicap . less welcome is the news that scott ' s view , mark johnston progressive stayer , has not made the cut for the ebor handicap .\na good day at the races with yorkshire trainers winning the feature races at both york and sandown . up at york the hero of the day was tim easterby ( who ' s had a good week ) who trained 25 - 1 shot artie to win the big race , the \u00a349 , 010 william hill trophy handicap , just ahead of the david barron trained impressiveflight with the david nicholls charge fire up the band back in third . easterby had also won the previous race when his bollin nellie won the \u00a311 , 310 queen mother ' s cup under a good ride from former malton trainer bill elsey ' s daughter annie elsey . down at sandown meanwhile yorkshire also dominated the finish of the main race with the james bethell trained mine finishing ahead of the mark johnston trained bouncing bowdler ( putting up an increasingly rare good run ) in the \u00a314 , 024 tote scoop6 handicap . incredibly it ' s the middle of june , james bethell has ' only ' had two winners all year , but they ' re both ' major ' winners ! ! ? allegedly england won a football game or something as well .\nshergar cup day at ascot . but they probably should have called it middleham benefit day ! the format of the ' challenge ' leads to some rare jockey / trainer combinations , and thus it was in the opening race , the \u00a322 , 550 shergar cup mile handicap which was won by the mark johnston trained bouncing bowlder who was ridden by richard hughes . the next race was the shergar cup juvenille auction and the patrick haslam trained devious boy continued his fine run by coming second in this race under david flores , picking up \u00a37 , 518 in the process . third race on the card was the shergar cup distaff rated handicap , where a blow was struck for the ryedale region when the john wainwright trained vita spericolata showed she ' s right back in form by coming second under andreas suborics , and collecting a useful \u00a38 , 500 for her efforts . in the next race mark johnston struck again , this time in combination with pat eddery , when mana d ' argent won the \u00a325 , 000 shergar cup stayers handicap . the penultimate race was perhaps the best result for yorkshire racing fans as it was won by the chris fairhurst trained king ' s welcome , the race being the \u00a325 , 000 shergar cup challenge rated handicap . fairhurst has had a relatively quiet season so far but this was one of his biggest ever wins . the timeasterby trained bollin nellie was a somewhat unlucky third in the same race . the only race where yorkshire wasn ' t involved in the finish was the final one ! ' gb & ire ' beat ' rest of the world ' , but the real winner was middleham !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nwon 4 races , 2 to 4 years , \u00a3506 , 294 , and placed 13 times from 18 starts . won , gr . i st . leger stakes 14f , doncaster . won , gr . 3 longsdale stakes 16f york . won , 2 races at 2 years . urltoken placed 2nd in gr . 2 dante stakes york , hardwicke stakes , 12f royal ascot king edward vii stakes 12f royal ascot . 3rd gr . 2 great voltigeur stakes 12f york , yorkshire cup 14f york . 4th gr . 1 king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes 12f ascot and 4th gr . 1 irish st . leger 14f the curragh\nthe colt , from a long line of british\nhomebreds\n, has the right credentials to land the doncaster marathon , being handled by a legendary training family and owned by breeders who have carried the standard for northern racing for more than four decades .\nlady joan said :\nwhen we came into racing more than 40 years ago you couldn ' t use a prefix for more than two horses , but now sponsorship has changed all that . i can ' t remember how many bollins there have been over the years , but the name has been lucky .\nwe have never had a classic runner , let alone a classic winner , and as we are both getting a little long in the tooth we hope the moment may have arrived .\nthe westbrooks ' fortunes are inextricably linked with the easterby family . their broodmares are based at the easterby stable at malton , north yorkshire and the progeny is trained there .\npeter easterby handed over the reins to his son tim not long ago , but the link goes back even further .\nwe started out with walter easterby , peter ' s uncle , at tadcaster , so it is a partnership steeped in tradition ,\nadded lady joan .\n\u00b7 there were no surprise st leger withdrawals at yesterday ' s confirmation stage , with 13 hopefuls standing their ground , though kazzia is a doubtful starter as she has a foot abscess . if fit , the godolphin filly will attempt to become the first since oh so sharp in 1985 to win the fillies ' triple crown , having already landed the sagitta 1 , 000 guineas and vodafone oaks .\n\u00a9 2018 guardian news and media limited or its affiliated companies . all rights reserved .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nf . by dodsworth . dam of\ntrumpet ' s dam\nf . by place ' s white turk f . by brimmer f . by hautboy d ' arcy ' s counsellor , c . by lonsdale ' s counsellor . sire burford bull , c . by brimmer f . by brimmer young violet layton f . about 1715 by darcy ' s chesnut arabian ( may have been a granddaughter of the layton barb mare )\n1887 reve d ' or ch . 1884 ( hampton - queen of the roses )\n1921 love in idleness br . 1918 ( bachelor ' s double - cornfield )\n1960 never too late ch . 1957 ( never say die - gloria nicky )\n1798 sir harry br . c . 1795 ( sir peter teazle - matron )\n1881 iroquois br . c . 1878 ( leamington - maggie b . b . )\n1990 quest for fame b / br . c . 1987 ( rainbow quest - aryenne )\n1816 the duchess b . f . 1813 ( cardinal york - miss nancy )\n1907 wool winder b . c . 1904 ( martagon - st . windeline )\nalice hawthorn b . f . 1838 ( muley - moloch - rebecca ) top runner from 1841 - 1845 , winning stakes and cups throughout england . established significant branch line through daughter lady hawthorne ; also dam of thormanby .\nassault ch . c . 1943 ( bold venture - igual ) american triple crown winner , ran from ages 2 - 7 , with 18 wins from 42 starts . horse of the year in 1946 . infertile with thoroughbred mares , although he sired a few foals when pastured with quarter horse mares at king ranch in texas .\nboudoir ii gr . f . 1938 ( mahmoud - kampala ) a refined race filly placed in cur ragh ' s irish 1 , 000 guineas , in america she bred nine winners , including flower bed , my host , your host and your hostess .\nbruleur ( fr ) b . c . 1910 ( chouberski - basse terre ) top european colt of his generation , he won the grand prix de paris and the prix royal oak , went on to become a significant sire . his progeny include ksar , pot au feu , brulette , samos , madrigal ii , finglas .\ncozzene gr . c . 1980 ( caro - ride the trails ) from ages 3 - 5 he won 10 of 24 starts , including the breeder ' s cup mile and number of important stakes races . has emerged as a strong american sire , his get includes alphabet soup , environment friend , haste to add , cozzene ' s prince .\ndan cupid ch . c . 1956 ( native dancer - vixenette ) sent to france to race , he won , among others , the prix de sablonville and the prix de st . james . sired 14 stakes winners , including the great sea bird , dankara , gift card .\nepinard ( fr ) ch . c . 1920 ( badajoz - epine blanche ) top european winner of such races as longchamp ' s grand criterium and the steward ' s cup at goodwood , and valiant runner - up in two famous 1924 international special races against america ' s best . sire of many good stakes winners in u . s . and europe , including rodosto , marica , epithet , hygro .\nfall aspen ch . f . 1976 ( pretense - change water ) won 8 of 20 starts from 2 - 4 , including the matron stakes and the prioress stakes . ktdf broodmare of the year for 1994 , she was dam of 9 stakes winners , including colorado dancer , fort wood , timber country , hamas and native aspen .\nfanfreluche b . f . 1967 ( northern dancer - ciboulette ) winner of 11 stakes races in the u . s . and canada , including the alabama stakes . champion 3 year old filly in america and canada , her 12 winning foals included medaille d ' or , l ' enjoleur , and la voyageuse .\nflower bowl b . f . 1952 alibhai - flower bed ) won at ages 3 and 4 , including the delaware handicap and the ladies handicap at aqueduct ; she only had five foals , four of which won , including top juvenile filly bowl of flowers , graustark ( see ) and his majesty ( see ) .\ngraustark ch . c . 1963 ( ribot - flower bowl ) injury ended his stakes - winning career ( 6 wins of 7 starts ) , possibly terminating his potential as\nanother man o ' war .\nleading broodmare sire in england 1985 . sire of key to the mint , avatar , caracolero , tempest queen , prove out .\nhabitat b . c . 1966 ( sir gaylord - little hut ) won 5 of 8 starts at 3 , his only season , including wills mile and prix quincey . as a sire , a source of brilliant speed , leading sire of broodmares in england 7 times . his best progeny include habibti , bitty girl , steel heart , steinlen , rose bowl , blue note .\nhail to reason dkb / br . c . 1958 ( turn - to - nothirdchance ) won 9 of 18 starts at 2 ; injury forced his retirement to stud at three . leading sire in the u . s . in 1970 , offspring included admiring , bold reason , roberto , straight deal , regal gleam , personality , trillion , proud clarion , halo . a noted source of soundness and durability .\nhis majesty b . c . 1968 ( ribot - flower bowl ) ran from 2 to 5 , winning 5 of 22 starts , including the everglade stakes . leading sire in the u . s . in 1982 , offspring included battonier , cormorant , mehmet , pleasant colony , valiant nature , cetewayo , majesty ' s prince , brother to graustark .\nhourless br . c . 1914 ( negofol - hour glass ii ) one of the best of his generation , won the grand union hotel stakes and the belmont stakes , among others . among his 21 stakes winners were helvetia , runaway lass , yearning , late date , mike hall , horometer .\niroquois br . c . 1878 ( leamington - maggie b . b . ) first american - bred horse to win the derby and st . leger , he also won the st . james ' s palace stakes and the prince of wales ' s stakes . leading sire in america in 1892 , offspring included tammany , g . w . johnson , rancocas , huron and nettie b .\nkincsem liv . ch . f . 1874 ( cambuscan - water nymph ) the toast of europe , this hungarian - bred mare was the unbeaten winner of 54 races in 5 different countries , including the preis der jockey club , the goodwood cup , the grand prix de deauville . descendents waldcanter and wicht ( brothers ) both the top of their generations in the 1950s .\nle sancy gr . c . 1871 ( atlantic - gem of gems ) genuine racehorse won the grand prix de deauville twice , among other races , and highly esteemed french sire , offspring included le samaritain , ex voto , toison d ' or .\nlittle hut b . f . 1952 ( occupy - savage beauty ) won 5 of her 55 starts . she continued her line , known for producing courageous horses , with offspring including guest room , habitat , lodge and northfields .\nmad hatter br / b . c . 1916 ( fair play - madcap ) won the jockey club gold cup among other races . although plagued by poor fertility , sired 23 stakes winners from 177 foals , including rosern , the nut and zelide .\nmaggie b . b . b . f . 1867 ( australian - madeline ) one of the most important matrons of the american turf , she produced francesca , harold , iroquois , jaconet ( dam of sir dixon ) , panique and red and blue .\nmahubah b . f . 1910 ( rock sand - merry token ) speedy , but generally unsuccessful runner , she produced five foals , all sired by fair play : man o ' war , masda ( ancestress of assault ) , mirabelle , playfellow and my play .\nman o ' war ch . c . 1917 ( fair play - mahubah ) winner of all but one of his 21 starts , probably the most famous horse of the american turf . leading american sire in 1926 . with limited opportunity , he sired 64 stakes winners from 379 foals , including war admiral , crusader , american flag , battleship , war relic , maid at arms , edith cavell , bateau , clyde van dusen , scapa flow , annapolis .\nmarguerite ch . f . 1920 ( celt - fairy ray ) important american broodmare , dam of the classy colts fighting fox , foxbrough , gallant fox and petee - wrack . the great race mares trillion and triptych descend from her daughter , margery .\nmatchem b . c . 1748 ( ( old ) cade - ( old ) partner mare ) one of the pillars of the thoroughbred breed , won matches in 1755 and 1756 and went on to become one of four stallions to have major influence on the breed . sire of tetotum , hollandaise , conductor , alfred , and many others .\nmineral ch . f . 1863 ( rataplan - manganese ) modest winner of four races over four and five furlongs at age three , she proved an excellent broodmare , dam of derby winner kisber ( later leading sire in germany three times ) ; st . leger winner wenlock , later a good broodmare sire , and several other winners that bred on .\nnearco br . c . 1935 ( pharos - nogara ) wilful unbeaten winner of the 14 races he ran at ages 2 and 3 , including the gran prix de paris . one of the most influential sires of the 20th century , he was leading sire in england three times in the late 1940s . offspring include amerigo , sayajirao , rivaz , arctic star , dante , masaka , and nasrullah , the latter , in his turn , becoming a highly significant sire .\nneckar bl . c . 1948 ( ticino - arjaman ) won the german derby and the prix de chantilly among 4 other races prior to injury forcing his retirement . leading sire in germany five times ; leading broodmare sire three times . sire of kronzeuge , wilderer , waidwerk , zank .\nnogara b . f . 1928 ( havresac ii - catnip ) top winner to 1600 meters at 2 and 3 in italy , including criterium nazionale and premio parioli . dam of top horses nearco , niccolo dell ' arca , nakamuro , naucide .\nribot b . c . 1952 ( tenerani - romanella ) perhaps the best racehorse of the 20th century , he was unbeaten in 3 years of racing . his wins included the prix de l ' arc de triomphe ( twice ) , the premio del jockey club e coppa d ' oro , the king george vi & queen elizabeth stakes . sire of 67 stakes winners from 423 foals in england , italy and the u . s . , including arts and letters , graustark , tom rolfe , roi soleil , ribocco , ribero , romulus , ragusa , his majesty .\nsir dixon b . c . 1885 ( billet - jaconet ) stakes winning american , including belmont stakes , withers stakes , carlton stakes and travers stakes . leading american sire of 1901 , his fillies were better than his colts , and he became an outstanding broodmare sire . noted offspring include kilmarnock , agile , running water , audience , martha gorman , yankee girl .\nstorm bird b . c . 1978 ( northern dancer - south ocean ) canadian - bred winner of 5 of 6 races at 2 and 3 , including the national stakes and dewhurst stakes ; imported to america , became a top sire , offspring including storm cat , indian skimmer , acushla , bluebird , mukaddamah , balanchine , lonely bird and summer squall .\ntredennis ch . c . 1898 ( kendal - st . marguerite ) did not win at the track , but became a leading sire . offspring included bachelor ' s double , clodagh , honey bee , lady wembley , red dennis , soldennis , tregaron , wet kiss .\nwhisk broom ii ch . c . 1907 ( broomstick - audience ) won 7 of 17 races in england , then back to the u . s . to win three important handicaps . retired at age 7 to sire a number of stakes winners , including diavolo , john p . grier , swing on , upset , panasette , victorian , whiskaway , whiskery .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\napologies for any inconvenience , but the page you are looking for might have been removed , had its name changed , or is temporarily unavailable .\nif you typed the page address in the address bar , make sure that it is spelled correctly .\nowner : the national stud ( gb ) breeder : sir neil & lady westbrook winnings : 18 starts : 4 - 4 - 5 , $ 850 , 102 1st st . leger s . ( gb - gr . 1 ) 2900m , lonsdale s . ( gb - g3 ) 3200m . 2nd : dante s . gr . 2 ( gb ) , hardwicke s . ( eng - gr . 2 ) , king edward vii s . gr . 2 ( gb ) . 3rd great voltigeur s . ( gb - g2 ) , yorkshire cup gr . 2 ( gb ) , fielden s . lr . ( gb ) , july s . lr . ( gb ) 4th king george vl & queen elizabeth s . gr . 1 ( gb ) , irish st . leger gr . 1 ( ire ) , prince of wales ' s . gr . 2 ( gb ) , irish village s . gr . 3 ( ire ) . foaled 2 / 18 / 99 . champion 3yo stayer in europe in 2002 . in 2008 stands at norton grove stud , gb . 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{"id": 1088, "summary": [{"text": "kurixalus idiootocus is a small species of frog in the rhacophoridae family .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is endemic to taiwan and is commonly known as the temple tree frog .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist shrubland , seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland , freshwater marshes , intermittent freshwater marshes and irrigated land .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is listed as being of \" least concern \" by the iucn although there may be some destruction of its habitat . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "kurixalus idiootocus", "paragraphs": ["advertisement calls of four kurixalus species from taiwan . a . kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . \u201cslow call\u201d b . kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . \u201crapid call\u201d c . kurixalus wangi sp . n . \u201cslow call\u201d d kurixalus wangi sp . n . \u201crapid call\u201d e kurixalus eiffingeri f kurixalus idiootocus .\nfour kurixalus species of taiwan . a kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . ( holotype , adult , dark morph ) b kurixalus wangi sp . n . ( holotype ) c kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . ( sub - adult ) d kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . ( adult , light morph ) e kurixalus eiffingeri f kurixalus idiootocus .\nkurixalus berylliniris sp . n . , kurixalus wangi sp . n . , oophagous tadpoles\nlateral view of tadpoles of three oophagus kurixalus species . a kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . b kurixalus wangi sp . n . c kurixalus eiffingeri . scale bars 1 mm .\ncomparisons of the characteristics of slow mating calls among kurixalus eiffingeri , kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . and kurixalus wangi sp . n .\ndorsal view of tadpole head region of three oophagus kurixalus species . a kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . b kurixalus wangi sp . n . c kurixalus eiffingeri . scale bars 1 mm .\ntemple tree frog ( kurixalus idiootocus ) temple tree frog stock photo , picture and royalty free image . image 56473078 .\nchirixalus idiootocus \u2014 bossuyt and dubois , 2001 , zeylanica , 6 : 57 .\nthe guts of tadpoles of the two new species contained a yellow \u2018yolky\u2019 substance . when the same characteristic was observed in kurixalus eiffingeri it was confirmed as tadpole oophagy ( ueda 1986 , liang et al . 2002 ) . therefore , it is likely that the tadpole oophagy is a synapomorphy for the two new species and kurixalus eiffingeri . interestingly , kurixalus idiootocus , as well as all known kurixalus species from mainland china and southern asia lack this particular reproductive behavior . therefore , the oophagy reproductive behavior could also support the phylogenetic positions of kurixalus eiffingeri , kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . , and kurixalus wangi sp . n . within the kurixalus genus .\nkurixalus eiffingeri , a native species in the island of taiwan , is the only rhacophorid within the genus kurixalus that has a tree - hole breeding reproductive mode and oophagous tadpoles ( ueda 1986 , lehtinen and nussbaum 2003 , wells 2007 ) . kurixalus idiootocus , a species endemic to taiwan , has a lentic feeding tadpole type , which is similar to most species in the genus kurixalus ( inger 1966 , inger et al . 1999 , kuramoto and wang 1987 ) . in previous molecular phylogenetic studies , kurixalus eiffingeri and kurixalus idiootocus have been recovered as sister taxa ( abraham et al . 2013 , yu et al 2013 , nguyen et al . 2014a , b ) . since kurixalus eiffingeri and kurixalus idiootocus are the only two species that have been described from the island of taiwan , rhacophorid frogs with similar life history to kurixalus idiootocus ( but see abraham et al 2013 ) , specifically any rhacophorid frogs with tree - hole breeding reproductive mode or lentic feeding tadpole type would be would be assigned to either of the two species .\nnesting sites of three tree - hole breeding kurixalus species ( a nest is made by the animal ) . a eggs of kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . b eggs of kurixalus wangi sp . n . ; note that the parents were present with eggs c eggs of kurixalus eiffingeri .\nmolecular evidence for taxonomy of rhacophorus appendicularis and kurixalus species from northern vietnam , with comments on systematics of kurixalus and gracixalus ( anura : rhacophoridae ) .\nanalysis of covariance of morphometric characteristics of males and females among four kurixalus species .\naquixalus idiootocus \u2014 fei , hu , ye , and huang , 2009 , fauna sinica , amph . 2 : 671 .\neffects of intermittent feeding on the growth of oophagous ( chirixalus eiffingeri ) and herbivorous ( chirixalus idiootocus ) tadpoles from taiwan .\nmeasurements ( in mm ) of type series and other specimens of kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . and kurixalus wangi sp . n . abbreviations as in materials and methods .\ngenetic variation of three kurixalus species from taiwan according to mtdna co1 gene partial sequence .\na new tree frog of the genus kurixalus ( anura : rhacophoridae ) from vietnam .\nmolecular evidence for taxonomy of rhacophorus appendiculatus and kurixalus species from northern vi . . .\nwe follow wilkinson et al . ( 2002 ) in transferring this species from chirixalus to kurixalus .\nfst ( above diagonal ) and nm ( below diagonal ) between three kurixalus species from taiwan .\na new cryptic tree frog species allied to kurixalus banaensis ( anura : rhacophoridae ) from vietnam .\nannandale ' s high altitude frog ( kurixalus naso ) is a rhacophorid frog that . . .\nin the latest study , a team led by zoologist yu - teh kirk lin at the national taiwan university in taipei studied kurixalus idiootocus tree frogs in a wooded suburb of taipei during the mating season , which lasts from february to september .\nsampling localities of this study . localities 1 through 22 are around taiwan island , locality 23 from iriomote isle , locality 24 from ishigaki isle . the two isles belong to the southern end of ryukyu archipelago . color refers to the geographical distribution of the three kurixalus species . red : kurixalus eiffingeri ; green : kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . ( taxon 1 ) ; b : kurixalus wangi sp . n . ( taxon 2 ) . loc . 20 : ligia , type locality of kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . ; loc . 21 : shouka , type locality of kurixalus wangi sp . n .\ndana campbell added text to\nbrief summary\non\nkurixalus naso ( annandale , 1912 )\n.\ndana campbell added text to\ntype information\non\nkurixalus naso ( annandale , 1912 )\n.\na species boundary within the chinese kurixalus odontotarsus species group ( anura : rhacophoridae ) : n . . .\naquixalus ( aquixalus ) idiootocus \u2014 delorme , dubois , grosjean , and ohler , 2005 , bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon , 74 : 166 .\ndana campbell marked\nfile : polypedates naso . jpeg\nas trusted on the\nkurixalus naso\npage .\nthe epithet is named and dedicated to mr . ching - shong wang for his pioneering work and contributions to the herpetology of taiwan ( wang 1962 ) . mr . wang discovered two rhacophorid frogs ( rhacophorus taipeianus and kurixalus idiootocus ) ( liang and wang 1963 , kuramoto and wang 1987 ) in taiwan and suggested , in the early 1980s , that some kurixalus specimens collected near the type locality of this new species might be different from kurixalus eiffingeri ( personal communication ) . the name is used in the genitive case .\ndana campbell selected\nbrief summary\nto show in overview on\nkurixalus naso ( annandale , 1912 )\n.\nmax : maximum frequency ; min : minimum frequency ; wid : width of frequency ( max - min ) ; dur : single note duration ; int : time interval between notes ; df : dominant frequency ; all data shown are mean and standard deviation ( in parentheses ) based on 30 advertisement calls recorded in the field under natural conditions . environmental parameters : 1 ) kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . : 18 \u00b0c , 93 % rh . 2 ) kurixalus wangi sp . n . : 25 \u00b0c , 84 % rh . 3 ) kurixalus eiffingeri : 19 \u00b0c , 91 % rh . 4 ) kurixalus idiootocus : 24 \u00b0c , 80 % rh .\nphylogenetic relationships : k . idiootocus is closely related to k . eiffingeri . and has gone through several taxonomic changes . kuramoto and wang ( 1987 ) suggested these species might be related to the genus buergeria .\npca morphometric comparisons of four kurixalus species from taiwan . scatterplots of ( a ) principal components 1 and 2 , and ( b ) principal components 2 and 3 of size - adjusted morphometric data for male frogs of the four kurixalus species . the 95 % confidence ellipses for each population ( elm ) are shown .\ntwo new species of rhacophorid tree frog were identified in taiwan . in both new taxa , derived reproductive characteristics of laying eggs in tree holes and oophagous tadpoles are shared with kurixalus eiffingeri , but they are divergent from each other in molecular genetics , mating calls , and tadpole and adult morphology . the morphological characteristics and the molecular phylogenetic evidence support the hypothesis that the two new species , kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . and kurixalus wangi sp . n . , are both monophyletic lineages .\nabbreviations : k : kurixalus ; f : feihyla ; r : rhacophorus ; jp : ryukyu islands of japan ; ntw : northern taiwan ; ctw : central taiwan .\ndana campbell marked the classification from\nspecies 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013\nas preferred for\nkurixalus naso ( annandale , 1912 )\n.\n. . . in this study , we measured the body weight , body length , jump height , jump length , and climbing abilities of three species of frogs indigenous to taiwan . the results were used to design an amphibian corridor suitable for amphibian mobility . twenty specimens for each of the three species , rana adenopleura , rana latouchii , and kurixalus idiootocus , were collected for testing . their climbing ability . . .\nkurixalus idiootocus \u2014 wilkinson , drewes , and tatum , 2002 , mol . phylogenet . evol . , 24 : 272 ; frost , grant , faivovich , bain , haas , haddad , de s\u00e1 , channing , wilkinson , donnellan , raxworthy , campbell , blotto , moler , drewes , nussbaum , lynch , green , and wheeler , 2006 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 297 : 245 .\nbody size variation ( svl ) in female and male kurixalus species from taiwan ( mean \u00b1 standard deviation ) . ( * * : significant level < 0 . 01 ) .\nfactor loadings of the first three principal components of 18 size - adjusted morphometric characteristics of males of four kurixalus species . absolute values of loadings greater than 0 . 50 in boldface .\nholotype of kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . dorsal ( a ) , ventral ( b ) , and ventral view of hand ( c ) and foot ( d ) . scale bars : 10 mm .\nphylogeny of rhacophoridae is constructed using two mitochondrial ( 12s rrna and 16s rrna ) and two nuclear ( tyrosinase and rag - 1 ) genes in an attempt to test for the taxonomic status of rhacophorus appendiculatus and kurixalus species from tam dao . all phylogenetic analyses demonstrate that specimens from tam dao are nested in kurixalus bisacculus , indicating that they belong to k . bisacculus . . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe notion of \u201cfrog song\u201d needs more careful consideration , we have found a similar vocalizing behavior of the human and male frogs . many people sing in the bathroom because the acoustics make them feel like the voice is stronger and richer . male mientien tree frogs kurixalus idiootocus frequently perch and call in roadside concrete drainages \u2013 miniature urban canyons . in an indoor experiment using a replica of a concrete drain , males preferred one particular type of call perch that facilitated call transmission ( tan , tsai , lin , & lin , 2014 ) .\nchirixalus idiootocus kuramoto and wang , 1987 , copeia , 1987 : 932 . holotype : ntuma 1010 , by original designation . type locality :\nin a rain pool near sanshengkong ( a temple , altitude ca . 500 m ) in the southern slope of mount mientien - shan , taipei , taiwan\n, china .\ncomparisons of measurements and ratios of tadpoles of three oophagus kurixalus species from taiwan ( anova significant level , * : 0 . 01 < p < 0 . 05 ; * * : p < 0 . 01 ) .\nfei , 1999 , atlas amph . china : 252 - 253 , provided a brief account ( as philautus idootocus ) , figure , and map . bossuyt and dubois , 2001 , zeylanica , 6 : 57 - 58 , discussed with this species cannot be in philautus and , although they transferred it back to chirixalus , noted that the definition of chirixalus was so poorly resolved that this species might ultimately have to be moved to a distinct genus , a position formalized by wilkinson , drewes , and tatum , 2002 , mol . phylogenet . evol . , 24 : 272 . lue , tu , and hsiang , 1999 , atlas taiwan amph . rept . : 40 - 41 , provided a brief account for taiwan ( as chirixalus idiootocus ) . fei , hu , ye , and huang , 2009 , fauna sinica , amph . 2 : 671 - 676 , provided an account ( as aquixalus idiootocus ) and spot map . fei , ye , and jiang , 2010 , colored atlas of chinese amph . : 428 - 429 , provided a brief account ( as aquixalus idiootocus ) for china including photographs of specimens and habitat . fei , ye , and jiang , 2012 , colored atlas chinese amph . distr . : 498\u2013499 , provided an account ( as aquixalus idiootocus ) , photographs , and a range map for china .\ngenetic distances among kurixalus species and two outgroup taxa in co 1 gene ( above diagonal ) and 16s rrna gene ( below diagonal ) . numbers on top row refer to species shown on the left column . genetic distances are shown as percentage .\nbuergeria japonica : nchuzool : 4021 , 4825 , 4826 ( taiwan ) . buergeria robusta : nchuzool 4025 , 4027 , 4831 ( taiwan ) . kurixalus eiffingeri : ntu 927\u201328 , 931 - 32 , 939 , 1052 , 1054\u201356 , 1649 ( shitou , nantou ) ; 1058 - 67 , 1645\u201346 , 1769 ( wulai , taipei ) ; nchuzool : 2502\u201303 , 2508 , 2509 ( c / s ) , 2514\u201315 , 2517\u201319 , 2523\u201324 , 2525 ( c / s ) , 2526\u201327 , 2535 , 2536 ( c / s ) , 2537 , 2538 ( c / s ) , 2539\u201340 , 2545\u201347 , 2550\u201351 , 2829 , 2831 , 4018 ( c / s ) , 11320 , 11436\u201340 ( shindian , taipei ) ; 11333 ( shitou , nantou ) . kurixalus idiootocus : ntu 929 , 1005\u201309 , 1033 , 1035\u201337 , 1038\u201342 ( shiding , taipei ) ; 1045 ( suao , yilan ) ; 1010 ( holotype of chirixalus idiootocus ) , 1011 , 1013\u201329 , 1657 , 1695\u201396 , ( yanminshan , taipei ) ; 1658 ( shindien , taipei ) ; 1708\u201309 ( juchi , chiayi ) ; 1770 ( wulai , taipei ) ; nchuzool 1010 , 2780 , 2782 , 2784 , 2785 ( c / s ) , 2787\u201388 , 2792 , 2795 , 2796 ( c / s ) , 2805 , 2845 , 2847 , 2954 , 2956 ( c / s ) , 2959\u201363 , 3709 , 3711 ( c / s ) , 4304 ( c / s ) , 4990 , 4993 , 4995 ( c / s ) , 7402 . kurixalus wangi sp . n . : ntu 1043\u20131044 , 1046 , 1647 - 48 ( manjo , pingtung county ) .\nthe population of kurixalus naso population is thought to be small , and susceptible to deforestation . little is known about this species , and the taxonomic identities and relationships within this genus are also poorly known and not distinguishable on the basis of morphology ( tao et al . 2014 ; nguyen et al . 2012 ) . kurixalus naso occurs in several preserves including dihang - dibang biosphere reserve and mouling national park in arunachal pradesh ( dutta et al . 2004 ) . more sampling and fieldwork is necessary to understand this species , its ecology , and its conservation status .\nholotype of kurixalus wangi sp . n . dorsal ( a ) , ventral ( b ) , and ventral view of hand ( c ) and foot ( d ) . scale bars 10 mm in ( a ) and ( b ) ; 5 mm in ( c ) and ( d ) .\nannandale ' s high altitude frog ( kurixalus naso ) is a rhacophorid frog that inhabits montane forests , shrublands and grasslands of northeastern india , the eastern xizang province of china , and myanmar . in india it is recorded from altitudes between 1 , 100 and 1 , 500m asl . kurixalus naso is a small , arboreal species , that breeds in temporary water bodies ( dutta et al . 2004 ) . annandale ( 1912 ) reported the type specimen as 43 mm ( 1 . 7 in ) snout to vent length ( svl ) , with a stout body , short stout limbs , and a broad head . it is purplish - brown on its dorsal surface , with grey mottling , and has an off - white belly ( annandale 1912 ) . a cone - shaped snout distinguishes this species from others in genus kurixalus . ( annandale 1912 ; tao et al . 2014 ) . very little literature describes this species .\nphylogenetic relationship of all kurixalus species from taiwan . a phylogram showing the phylogenetic relationships of the four kurixalus species , obtained by a maximum likelihood search based on 1207 nucleotides from mtdna co1 and 16s rrna genes . feihyla palpebralis and rhacophorus moltrechti were used as outgroups . the three values on each branch are maximum likelihood ( ml ) , maximum parsimony ( mp ) , and neighbor - joining ( nj ) analyses with bootstrapping support based on 2000 replicates . bootstrapping values below 50 % are not shown . ( jp : ryukyu islands of japan ; n . tw : northern taiwan ; c . tw : central taiwan ) .\nwe would like to show our gratitude to hm huang for collecting the first specimen of kurixalus berylliniris sp . n . ; to jh chu , cc hwang , hj su and sm lin for advice on molecular analysis ; to h masaki for providing specimens of kurixalus eiffingeri from the ryukyu islands , to cy hsiao for photographs ; to yt chung for his dedicated fieldwork ; to cc wu for performing bench work ; and to cf lin for providing kurixalus eiffingeri tadpoles . thanks are extended to cj huang , ch chang , cw lin and yc liu for assistance with the fieldwork . we appreciate the help of sf chan with vocal analysis and yh chen for partial sample contribution . the map of taiwan was kindly prepared by pf lee . this study was partially supported by the council of agriculture grant ( 94\u2013admin\u20134 . 1\u2013conserv\u201303 ( 2 ) ) , by shei - pa national park , ministry of interior grant ( 094 - 301020500g1 - 005 ) , and a support from mr . cc chen . re brown greatly improved an early draft of the manuscript .\n. . . phylogenetic data support the monophyletic origin of kurixalus despite its broad distri - bution ( li et al . , 2013 ; biju et al . , 2016 ; jiang et al . , 2016 ) . however , since these frogs are similar in morphology and overlap in body size , taxonomy is difficult and mainly based on molecular analyses ( wilkinson et al . , 2002 ; li et al . , 2008 ; li et al . , 2009 ; hertwig et al . , 2013 ; yu et al . , 2013 ; nguyen et al . , 2014a ; nguyen et al . , 2014b ; wu et al . , 2016 ) . currently , 14 species are recognized in kurixalus ( frost , 2017 ) . . . .\nwu s - p , huang c - c , tsai c - l , lin t - e , jhang j - j , wu s - h ( 2016 ) systematic revision of the taiwanese genus kurixalus members with a description of two new endemic species ( anura , rhacophoridae ) . zookeys 557 : 121\u2013153 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 557 . 6131\nwe construct the phylogeny of the kurixalus odontotarsus species group using two mitochondrial ( 12s rrna and 16s rrna ) genes in an attempt to delimit species boundaries within the chinese k . odontotarsus group . with strong support values , three major clades are obtained , and all phylogenetic analyses reject monophyly of k . odontotarsus . the tibetan lineage of k . odontotarsus was clustered with . . . [ show full abstract ]\nkurixalus eiffingeri is not an endangered or protected species and thus no specific permission is needed for field studies . some bamboo forests in chitou are privately owned , and we had verbal permission from land owners ( mr . pan yeong - sung and ms chen mei - chi ) to conduct observational and field studies ( 23 o 41\u201905 . 4\u201d n 130 o 47\u201945 . 4\u201d e and 23 o 41\u201922 . 8\u201d n 130 o 47\u201922 . 5\u201d e , respectively ) .\nin this study , we used a taiwanese frog ( kurixalus eiffingeri ( anura : rhacophoridae ) ) that breeds in water - filled bamboo stumps as a model animal to study the parentage between overlapping offspring and its ecological consequence on reproductive strategy and nest site selection . specifically , we used ( 1 ) five microsatellite dna markers to analyze the parentage of adults and tadpoles and ( 2 ) paired bamboo cups with and without tadpoles to study the nest choice of frogs and to reveal the possible causes of nest reuse .\na small to moderate - sized kurixalus . females snout - vent length averaging about 34 mm ( range : 30 . 8\u201337 . 1 mm ) ; males averaging 30 mm ( range : 28 . 6\u201331 . 6 mm ) . iris golden - yellow . two anterior horns of the x - shaped marking on back extending to eyelid . webbing extensive on toes , extending to the toe disc on the inner margin of toe v . belly and throat whitish . anterior margin of tadpole dorsal fin extending to posterior body . tadpole with almost no pigment on region of tail muscle . upper lip of tadpole with shallow transverse furrow .\ndescription diagnosis : kurixalus idiooticus is a small treefrog similar to k . eiffingeri but with a smaller body size . it has a smaller and weakly developed pollex , has less rugose skin . no female anal flap is present , dorsal warts lack white spinules , its ground color is never greenish , and generally a large dark brown hourglass - like pattern on the back . males have an aggressive vocal behavior . the species has a generalized larval morphology . in contrast to all other known taiwanese rhacophorine frogs , k . idiooticus lays eggs terrestrially near the water ' s edge without constructing a foam nest ( kuramoto and wang 1987 ) .\n. . . recently , dubois ( 2005 ) assigned both theloderma and nyctixalus to the tribe philautini ( including also aquixalus , kurixalus , and philautus ) , whereas more recently grosjean et al . ( 2008 ) proposed separation of theloderma and nyctixalus in the new tribe nyctixalini . this assignment and distant phylogenetic position of theloderma and nyctixalus in respect to other members of the subfamily rhacophorinae was also supported by subsequent phylogenetic analyses ( li et al . , 2008 li et al . , , 2009li et al . , , 2013 pyron and wiens , 2011 ) . based on the analysis of mtdna genetic markers , li et al . ( 2008 ) showed sister clade relationships between nyctixalus ( n . . . .\na moderate - sized kurixalus . females average about 41 mm snout - vent length ( range : 27 . 6\u201346 . 3 mm ) ; males average about 35 mm ( range : 29 . 0\u201342 . 3 mm ) . iris emerald to light green . two dark brown spots on eyelids , separated from each other and from x - shaped blotch on dorsum . subarticular tubercles on foot rounded and flat . belly and throat white or faintly - speckled . prepollex in males squarish , compressed and expanded . about half - webbed between two outer toes . anterior margin of tadpole dorsal fin extending to body . tadpole heavily dark brown to black pigmented in gular region and on tail muscle . upper lip of tadpole with deep transverse furrow , and prominent ridge extending from upper lip to anterior margin of nostril ( key of tadpole , 3 ) .\n. . . three mitochondrial genes and five nuclear genes were surveyed : partial 12s rrna , trna - val , and 16s rrna genes were regarded as a single mitochondrial locus ; the other five nuclear loci included ( i ) a fragment of the brain - derived neurotrophic factor ( bdnf ) ; ( ii ) a fragment of proopiomelanocortin ( pomc ) ; ( iii ) a fragment of the recombination activating gene 1 ( rag - 1 ) ; ( iv ) a fragment of exon 1 of rhodopsin ( rhod ) , and ( v ) a fragment of exon 1 of tyrosinase ( tyr ) . mitochondrial 12s rrna , trna - val , and 16s rrna sequences of kurixalus eiffingeri from ishigaki island ( ryukyu islands ) ( see the last one in supplement table 1 for detailed information ) were newly acquired according to protocols of previous studies ( li et al . , 2008 ; li et al . , 2009 ) . sequences from mitochondrial dna and five nuclear loci were aligned with muscle 3 . 8 . 31 . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfrost , d . r . 2014 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 ( 27 january 2014 ) . new york , usa . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 january 2014 ) .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its relatively wide distribution , tolerance of a broad range of habitats , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis species is endemic to taiwan , province of china , and occurs below 2 , 000m asl .\nit inhabits shrubland , grassland , paddy fields and nearby pools . it usually breeds in shallow , still waterbodies .\nhabitat destruction and degradation are potential threats to this species , in particular infrastructure development for human settlement .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ntadpoles are pond - type ( rounded body , small mouth and sinistral spiracle with moderate tail ) . at stages 25 - 27 , body length is 1 . 4 - 1 . 5x longer than wide . body is oval and moderately depressed . eyes and nostrils are dorsolateral . dorsal fin is slightly larger than ventral fin . caudal musculature is slender and tapers gradually to the tip of the tail . papillae are marginal , small , and homogeneous in size ; they form a continuous row across the ventral lip and extend to the sides of the lips . ltrf is 2 : 1 + 1 / 3 at stages earlier than 37 and 2 : 3 + 3 / 3 or 1 : 4 + 4 / 3 at stage 37 . head and body are generally dark brown , sometimes with black spotting . caudal muscle is dark brown . fins are transparent at stage 25 . ( kuramoto and wang 1987 ) .\ncoloration in life : ground color of light grayish brown , brown , dark brown or yellowish brown ( never greenish ) . the dorsum is characterized by a dark brown stripe . dark brown spots and patches are on the sides of head . a brown bar extends from the nostril to edge of upper lip , and another brown bar extends from the anterior lower edge of the eye to the edge of the upper lip . the upper lip has a few narrow dark bars . an inverted y shape in brown or black extends from a dark cross band between upper eyelids to posterior part of the back . this marking can be y - shaped , h - shaped or x - shaped , or may be lacking . sides of the body have dark brown marbling with some dark spots . anterior throat has dark brown marbling and spotting , as well as some white granules . the belly is dark brown and marbled , scattered with dark spots . forearms have a dark brown cross band . thighs have numerous small dark patches on both the anterior and posterior sides . a dark knee patch is present . the sides of the anal opening are dark brown ; white granules are present on the dorsal and ventral sides of the anal opening ( kuramoto and wang 1987 ) .\nis widespread in taiwan ( e . g . , pinglin , mientien - shan , chutung , suao , chushan , chiahsien , anping ) at altitudes from 10 - 750 m asl ( kuramoto and wang 1987 ) . it generally occurs at a lower elevation than the closely related species\n; so far the two species are known to overlap only at anping ( kuramoto and wang 1987 ) . habitat includes grassland , paddy fields and shrublands or anywhere near still , shallow water bodies ( stuart et al . 2008 ) .\nthe breeding season lasts from march - june with males calling from the ground or in low shrubs , often near rain pools ( 5 - 20 cm in depth ) that are surrounded by high vegetation ( grasses or bushes ) . males form large breeding aggregations and calling males confront one another , with one male ceasing to call . calls resemble birds warbling and generally consist of a long series ( 2 - 6 seconds ) of fast , repeating pulses , but other call types include short trills with sharp pulses and short calls with a long pulse . males are aggressive and calling males approach each other , with one male then ceasing to call ( kuramoto and wang 1987 ) .\nlays pigmented eggs ( gray - brown animal half , light yellowish gray vegetal half ) with transparent gelatinous coats . ova measured about 1 . 95 mm in diameter and were covered with two jelly layers , with the diameter of the outermost , tough , non - sticky jelly layer about 4 . 09 mm . eggs are laid terrestrially near the water ' s edge or in depressions , with hatching triggered by rainfall , filling the depressions or washing the tadpoles into adjacent ponds and ditches . some egg masses were observed more than 50 cm in horizontal distance from the water . egg masses were often concealed under fallen leaves or other debris , in soil depressions or in crevices behind stones or openings of rat holes . the clutch size averaged 182 eggs . tadpoles of\npopulations are stable with the major threat being habitat destruction and degradation from human settlements . its range overlaps with many protected areas in taiwan ( stuart et al . 2008 ) .\nkaryotype : 2n = 26 with eight small pairs and five large pairs of chromosomes ( kuramoto and wang 1987 ) .\nis derived from the greek words \u201cidios , \u201d or peculiar , and\nootocos ,\nor egg - laying ( kuramoto and wang 1987 ) .\nkuramoto , m . , and wang , c . s . ( 1987 ) . ' ' a new rhacophorid treefrog from taiwan , with comparisons to\nstuart , s . , hoffmann , m . , chanson , j . , cox , n . , berridge , r . , ramani , p . , and young , b . ( eds ) ( 2008 ) .\nlynx edicions , iucn , and conservation international , barcelona , spain ; gland , switzerland ; and arlington , virginia , usa .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\n* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .\nwill find all uses of\nhyl . . .\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hylarana , hyla , hylidae , hylinae , hylaedactyla .\nwill find all uses of\n. . . hyla\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hyla , hylidae , plectrohyla , ptychadena hylaea , adenomera hylaedactyla\nwill find all records that contain stand - alone uses of hyla : e . g . , hyla , hyla arenicolor\ninterprets this as\nlithobates or pipiens\nso will find the union of all records that contain either\nlithobates\nor\npipiens\n: e . g . , lithobates omiltemanus , hylorana pipiens\ninterprets this as\nlithobates and pipiens\nso will return all records that have the character string\nlithobates pipiens\nanywhere within a record : e . g . , all members of the lithobates pipiens complex .\ntemple treefrog ( frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 111 ; lue , tu , and hsiang , 1999 , atlas taiwan amph . rept . : 40 ) .\nmientien small treefrog ( fei , 1999 , atlas amph . china : 252 ) .\nmientien treefrog ( lue , tu , and hsiang , 1999 , atlas taiwan amph . rept . : 40 ) .\nplease note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .\nfor access to available specimen data for this species , from over 350 scientific collections , go to vertnet .\ncopyright \u00a9 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the annotation score provides a heuristic measure of the annotation content of a uniprotkb entry or proteome . this score < strong > cannot < / strong > be used as a measure of the accuracy of the annotation as we cannot define the \u2018correct annotation\u2019 for any given protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / annotation _ score ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this indicates the type of evidence that supports the existence of the protein . note that the \u2018protein existence\u2019 evidence does not give information on the accuracy or correctness of the sequence ( s ) displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ existence ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides any useful information about the protein , mostly biological knowledge . < p > < a href = ' / help / function _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the < a href =\nurltoken\n> gene ontology ( go ) < / a > project provides a set of hierarchical controlled vocabulary split into 3 categories : < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ ontology ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > uniprotkb keywords constitute a < a href =\nurltoken\n> controlled vocabulary < / a > with a hierarchical structure . keywords summarise the content of a uniprotkb entry and facilitate the search for proteins of interest . < p > < a href = ' / help / keywords ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000256\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information about the protein and gene name ( s ) and synonym ( s ) and about the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / names _ and _ taxonomy _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides an exhaustive list of all names of the protein , from commonly used to obsolete , to allow unambiguous identification of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ names ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been imported from another database using automatic procedures . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000313\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides information on the name ( s ) of the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / organism - name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section shows the unique identifier assigned by the ncbi to the source organism of the protein . this is known as the \u2018taxonomic identifier\u2019 or \u2018taxid\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ identifier ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section contains the taxonomic hierarchical classification lineage of the source organism . it lists the nodes as they appear top - down in the taxonomic tree , with the more general grouping listed first . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ lineage ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on sequence similarities with other proteins and the domain ( s ) present in a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / family _ and _ domains _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> family and domains < / a > section describes the position and type of a domain , which is defined as a specific combination of secondary structures organized into a characteristic three - dimensional structure or fold . < p > < a href = ' / help / domain ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000259\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section displays by default the canonical protein sequence and upon request all isoforms described in the entry . it also includes information pertinent to the sequence ( s ) , including < a href =\nurltoken\n> length < / a > and < a href =\nurltoken\n> molecular weight < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequences _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is complete or not . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the checksum is a form of redundancy check that is calculated from the sequence . it is useful for tracking sequence updates . < / p > < p > it should be noted that while , in theory , two different sequences could have the same checksum value , the likelihood that this would happen is extremely low . < / p > < p > however uniprotkb may contain entries with identical sequences in case of multiple genes ( paralogs ) . < / p > < p > the checksum is computed as the sequence 64 - bit cyclic redundancy check value ( crc64 ) using the generator polynomial : x < sup > 64 < / sup > + x < sup > 4 < / sup > + x < sup > 3 < / sup > + x + 1 . the algorithm is described in the iso 3309 standard . < / p > < p class =\npublication\n> press w . h . , flannery b . p . , teukolsky s . a . and vetterling w . t . < br / > < strong > cyclic redundancy and other checksums < / strong > < br / > < a href =\nurltoken\n> numerical recipes in c 2nd ed . , pp896 - 902 , cambridge university press ( 1993 ) < / a > ) < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018sequence\u2019 section is used for sequence fragments to indicate that the residue at the extremity of the sequence is not the actual terminal residue in the complete protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / non _ ter ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides links to proteins that are similar to the protein sequence ( s ) described in this entry at different levels of sequence identity thresholds ( 100 % , 90 % and 50 % ) based on their membership in uniprot reference clusters ( < a href =\nurltoken\n> uniref < / a > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / similar _ proteins _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section is used to point to information related to entries and found in data collections other than uniprotkb . < p > < a href = ' / help / cross _ references _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides general information on the entry . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ information _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides a mnemonic identifier for a uniprotkb entry , but it is not a stable identifier . each reviewed entry is assigned a unique entry name upon integration into uniprotkb / swiss - prot . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides one or more accession number ( s ) . these are stable identifiers and should be used to cite uniprotkb entries . upon integration into uniprotkb , each entry is assigned a unique accession number , which is called \u2018primary ( citable ) accession number\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / accession _ numbers ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section shows the date of integration of the entry into uniprotkb , the date of the last sequence update and the date of the last annotation modification ( \u2018last modified\u2019 ) . the version number for both the entry and the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > are also displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ history ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section indicates whether the entry has been manually annotated and reviewed by uniprotkb curators or not , in other words , if the entry belongs to the swiss - prot section of uniprotkb ( < strong > reviewed < / strong > ) or to the computer - annotated trembl section ( < strong > unreviewed < / strong > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\n< p > this section provides information on the location and the topology of the mature protein in the cell . < p > < a href = ' / help / subcellular _ location _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on the quaternary structure of a protein and on interaction ( s ) with other proteins or protein complexes . < p > < a href = ' / help / interaction _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> ' interaction ' < / a > section provides information about the protein quaternary structure and interaction ( s ) with other proteins or protein complexes ( with the exception of physiological receptor - ligand interactions which are annotated in the < a href =\nurltoken\n> ' function ' < / a > section ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / subunit _ structure ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\nthe nucleosome is a histone octamer containing two molecules each of h2a , h2b , h3 and h4 assembled in one h3 - h4 heterotetramer and two h2a - h2b heterodimers . the octamer wraps approximately 147 bp of dna .\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018family and domains\u2019 section provides information about the sequence similarity with other proteins . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ similarities ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwe\u2019ve updated our privacy policy to give you more control over your information and support new european data protection laws . you can review the changes here .\nfrom \u86d9\u86d9\u54c7 ! songs of the frogs of taiwan vol\u200b . \u200b1 , released january 6 , 2017\nsound artist and field recordist based in taiwan . sound designer for contemporary dance and film . audio documentaries\nproducer and electroacoustic music composer . works inspired by ethnography , amphibian conservation and marine biology . collaborates with communities and individuals in hakka and austronesian territories .\nif you like \u86d9\u86d9\u54c7 ! songs of the frogs of taiwan vol . 1 , you may also like :\nsupported by 9 fans who also own \u201c\u86d9\u86d9\u54c7 ! songs of the frogs of taiwan vol . 1\u201d\nthis is brutal . i just discovered leyland kirby , and i think he is a genius . his work does not hide behind empty , pretending stories , but seems to be heavily connected to the mind and its processes indeed . memories come to life and long lost feelings emerge - even feelings that never existed but yet feel familiar . words won ' t be able to capture what happens on your inside when you decide to let yourself be carried away by this sonical wizardry . haunting , stuck as a loop in my head .\nsupported by 4 fans who also own \u201c\u86d9\u86d9\u54c7 ! songs of the frogs of taiwan vol . 1\u201d\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsearch 123rf with an image instead of text . try dragging an image to the search box .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\n1 department of earth and life science , university of taipei . no . 1 , ai - guo west road , taipei , 10048 taiwan\n4 department of life sciences , national chung - hsing university , no . 250 , guo - guang road , taichung city , 40227 taiwan\ncorresponding author : shu - ping wu ( wt . ude . utn @ uwgnipuhs )\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license ( cc by 4 . 0 ) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nspecies were collected by hand , euthanized using a dilute chloretone solution , and fixed in 10 % buffered formalin . frogs were later transferred to 70 % ethanol , and tadpoles were stored in 10 % buffered formalin . in addition to the type specimens described in this study , 343 samples that consisted of\nand related taxa were collected from 22 locations throughout the island of taiwan . furthermore , three specimen of\nwere collected from the type locality . one was from iriomote isle and the other two were from ishigaki isle ( fig .\nin addition , the eggs and tadpole morphometric characteristics were measured comprising total length ( tl ) , body length ( bl ) , tail length ( cl ) , tail height ( th ) , tail muscle height ( tm ) , internarial distance ( na ) , distance between eyes ( in ) , and tail muscle width ( mw ) ( altig and mcdiarmid 1999a , b ) . except for tl , bl , and cl , which were measured using dial calipers , tadpoles and eggs were measured under a dissecting microscope with a stage micrometer . developmental stages of tadpoles were as defined by gosner ( 1960 ) . drawings of the tadpoles were done by shw using a dissecting microscope with a camera lucida attachment .\nall measurements of morphometric characteristics were taken using a dial caliper under a dissecting microscope , and measurements were rounded to 0 . 1 mm . digital webbing of the adults was recorded using savage and heyer\u2019s formula ( 1997 ) .\nt - tests were used to examine whether body size varied by gender within each taxon . an analysis of covariance ( ancova ) method was used to compare the size - adjusted means of morphometric characteristics . morphometric characteristics that satisfied the normality assumption were included in a multivariate principal component analysis ( pca ) based on the correlation matrix of size - standardized measurements ( all measurements divided by svl ) . scatter plots of the scores of the first three factors of pca were used to examine the differentiation among specimens . all of these tests and analyses were applied separately to male and female specimens . the statistical analyses were performed using sigmaplot 12 ( systat software , inc . ) .\nfrog mating calls were recorded using a digital recorder ( fostex fr - 2le ) and a microphone ( sennheiser me 67 / k6 ) . calls were recorded in the native habitats of these tree frogs , and environmental parameters including temperature and humidity were also recorded . avisoft saslab pro 5 . 2 . 08 ( avisoft bioacoustics ) was used to extract the maximum and minimum frequencies , as well as the width of frequency , the single note duration , and the time interval between notes of the mating calls . a rapid call and a slow call were identified . slow mating calls were compared among the subtypes in a pair - wise manner using wilcoxon - mann - whitney odds ( wmwodds ) calculations ( divine et al . 2013 ) . a bootstrap method was used to calculate the bonferroni corrected confidence intervals of the wmwodds .\npolymerase ( super - therm ) , 0 . 5 \u03bcl of each primer ( 10 pm / \u03bb ) , 1 \u03bcl template dna and ddh\no . thermal cycling was performed on a geneamp 9700 with 5 minutes at 95 \u00b0c for pre - denaturing , 35 cycles of 1 minute at 95 \u00b0c , 1 minute at 50 \u00b0c , 1 minute at 72 \u00b0c , and a final extension for 7 minutes at 72\u00b0c for both of the co1 and the 16s rrna genes . the amplicons were examined on a 2 % agarose gel for quality and fragment size . then they were purified using a geneaid pcr extraction kit and sequenced on an abi 3730 automated sequencer . estimates of genetic divergence among taxa were calculated using the kimura two - parameter model of correction for multiple substitutions at a site (\n) . the transition / transversion ratio was set as 2 : 1 . chromatographs and sequences were examined and edited in bioedit 7 . 0 . 1 . (\n) using the branch - and - bound search algorithm with 1000 permutation replicates to generate the null distribution . the fraction of ild null replicates with a significance value greater than the significance value of the ild was recorded . the sequences of the two gene segments were combined into one data set for subsequent analyses . dnasp 5 . 10 (\n) was used to compute the population divergence conditions . tcs 1 . 21 (\n) was used to reconstruct the minimum spanning network of haplotypes from each genetic population or species . a consensus ml tree was reconstructed by mega 6 (\na general time reversible model with a proportion of invariable sites and a gamma shaped distribution of rates across sites ( gtr + i + g , i = 0 . 4402 , g = 0 . 4519 ) was determined as the best - fitting model for the aligned sequences of the combined dataset using a hierarchical likelihood ratio test performed with the program mrmodeltest 2 . 2 ( nylander 2004 ) . the selected substitution model then was adopted in the reconstruction of the phylogeny by bayesian analysis and neighbor - joining ( nj ) analysis ( saito and nei 1987 ) .\nthe bayesian tree and the posterior probability distribution were determined using the program mrbayes 3 . 1 ( huelsenbeck and ronquist 2001 , ronquist and huelsenbeck 2003 ) . two independent monte carlo markov chain ( mcmc ) analyses were run simultaneously for 200 , 000 generations and sampled every 100 generations . to summarize the parameters and trees , the first 500 ( 25 % ) parameter values and trees were discarded . the nj analysis was conducted in paup using ml distance . gaps within the alignment were considered as missing values . the mp ( maximum parsimony ) analysis was performed with a heuristic search using 10 random stepwise steps followed by tree bisection reconnection ( tbr ) branch swapping . support for nodes was evaluated by bootstrap analysis ( felsenstein 1985 ) with 1000 replicates of the nj and the mp methods .\npartial sequences of mtdna co1 gene were used as haplotypes to examine the genetic structures of the three subtypes . we calculated the fst , nm ( number of immigrants per generation , nm = ( ( 1 / fst ) - 1 ) / 4 ) , nucleotide diversity ( pi ) , and haplotype diversity ( hd ) . these calculations were made to comprehend the divergence and the intensity of gene flow among these taxa and to infer the evolutionary histories experienced by these taxa or their populations ( wright 1965 , avise 1994 ) .\n) , collected on ligia timber trail , 1250 m elevation , taitung county , taiwan ( fig .\nnchuzool 11311 - 13 collected on 2 august 2005 by hui - ming huang at the type locality ; nchuzool 11431 , asizam 0054 collected on 15 september 2005 by shu - ping wu at the type locality ; nchuzool 11442 ( eggs and tadpoles ) , collected on 7 february 2006 by shu - ping wu at the type locality ; nchuzool 11448 , collected on 16 february 2006 by shu - ping wu at 425 meters above sea level , at antong , hualien county ( fig .\nligia timber trail , 1250 meters above sea level , taitung county , taiwan , republic of china ( fig .\nthe epithet berylliniris is a compound word formed from beryllin ( l . ) , green - colored , and from iris ( l . ) , iris of the eye , and is treated as a noun in nominative singular in opposition to the generic name .\nhabitus moderately slender and somewhat flattened , size moderate ( svl 40 . 1 mm ) ; head wider than long ; tip of snout pointed ; snout obtuse in lateral view ; nostril barely visible from above ; canthus rostralis curved , prominent ; loreal region concave , oblique ; interorbital distance 1 . 5 times wider than upper eyelid width ; nostril oval , oblique , closer to tip of snout than to eye ; internarial distance slightly longer than nostril - eye distance ; eye diameter larger than nostril - eye distance ; pupil horizontal ; tympanic region oblique ; diameter of tympanum approximately half of eye diameter ; tympanum distinct , round ; tympanum to eye distance smaller than half tympanum diameter ; supratympanic fold from posterior tip of eye to base of arm ; jaw angle almost to posterior rim of tympanum ; premaxillary and maxillary teeth present ; choana exposed ; vomerine teeth present only on left side ; tooth patch oval , about half of choana diameter . vocal slits near commissure of jaw , slit - like ."]}
{"id": 1103, "summary": [{"text": "the surface pen is an active stylus and digital pen developed by microsoft for its series of surface computing devices .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is designed to showcase the pen computing capabilities of microsoft 's windows 8/8 .1 and windows 10 operating systems . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "surface pen", "paragraphs": ["surface pen surface active stylus capacitive digital pen 384 levels of pressure sen . . .\nthe original surface pro 3 active pen ( top ) , the surface pro 4 pen ( center ) and the new surface pen .\nsurface pen , surface stylus pen with 1024 levels of pressure sensitivity and alumin . . .\nsurface pen , surface stylus pen with 1024 levels of pressure sensitivity and aluminu . . .\n* surface pen sold separately for surface pro , surface laptop and surface book 2 .\naccurate surface pen , ciscle active surface stylus pen with max 4096 levels of pres . . .\nsurface pen , fabtek active pen with 1024 pressure levels , compatible with microsoft . . .\nsurface will then re - discover the surface pen when you hold down the top button of the surface pen for about seven seconds\u2013until the light in the middle of the pen clip starts to flash ( on the original surface pen ) or the light on the flat side of the pen glows white ( on the new surface pen ) .\nstep 2 : pair your surface pen please note that you can pair the new surface pen with surface pro 4 and surface book as well as with surface 3 or surface pro 3 .\ntests in clip studio paint and photoshop consistently showed that the new surface pen greatly outperformed the sp3 pen and did slightly better than the sp4 pen .\ndevices that ( eventually will ) support new surface pen enhancements : surface 3 , surface pro 3 , surface pro 4 , surface book , surface laptop , and surface studio .\ncompatibility \u2014 surface studio , surface laptop , surface book , surface pro , surface pro 4 , surface pro 3 and surface 3 .\nwhatever the situation , here\u2019s how to pair a surface pen to your surface device .\ncompatible with surface 3 , surface pro 3 , surface pro 4 , surface pro and surface book .\nsurface pen , betop surface active stylus with 1024 levels of pressure sensitivity f . . .\n4 surface pen tilt functionality is available now with surface pro . available with other surface devices via windows update .\nthe microsoft store listing for the surface pen contains the following footnote :\nsurface pen tilt functionality is available now with surface pro . coming to other surface devices via windows update soon .\nhere is what owners of previous surface devices should expect with the all - new surface pen .\nhere\u2019s an easy two - step guide on how to connect your surface pen with your surface 3 , surface pro 3 , surface pro 4 , or surface book .\nhow does your surface pen help you # dogreatthings ? share with us on twitter via @ surface .\nthe surface pro 3 , with n - trig pen technology . image : microsoft\nthe surface pen is practically synonymous with surface at this point . surface pro is all about inking , and microsoft showed off how its latest 2 in 1 does inking with the all - new surface pen .\nthe new surface pen and microsoft ' s surface dial tool . the dial now works with the new surface pro , too .\nthe pen runs for $ 49 . 99 usd ( the surface pro 3 comes with one pen already ) , and you can snag the pen in a silver color . the pen utilizes bluetooth 4 . 0 and is 135mm x 9 . 5mm diameter .\nthe surface pen also now supports tilting for the first time , making shading much easier . the surface pen is backward compatible with the surface 3 , surface pro 3 , surface pro 4 , surface book , and surface studio , so its new features work with those older devices .\nperhaps you just bought a new surface tablet and skipped through the set - up instructions for the surface pen . or maybe you upgraded to the new surface pen for your surface pro 3 and need help pairing it .\nthe redesigned surface pen appears to be a bit longer and sleeker than its predecessor .\nfor the first time , microsoft will be selling surface pen separately for $ 99 .\ndue to the focus in the improved surface pen , questions were raised as to whether microsoft had improved the hardware of the surface pen or debuted a new pen like it did with the past generations of surface . it turns out the answer to that question is no , the surface pen for the surface studio is the same pen that we\u2019ve known and loved for the past year and a bit . instead , the surface pen will have an improved performance on the studio due to the technology built into the studio .\nconnectivity : bluetooth 4 . 0 . user has to manually pair the surface pen to the surface tablet by going to pc > device > bluetooth settings while holding down a button on the surface pen .\na microsoft spokesperson told mspu that \u201cthe technology in the pen hasn\u2019t changed , but pen enhancements are linked to the new devices themselves . so [ it is the ] same surface pen but improved performance with the technology built into surface studio . \u201d\nsurface pen , active stylus with 1024 levels of of pressure sensitivity for microsof . . .\nwrite and draw naturally with the surface pen that ' s better and faster than ever .\nthe refurbished surface pen works exclusively with surface pro and surface pro 2 , and makes it easier to draw and take notes in office applications .\nsurface pen , ciscle digital stylus pen : high - precision 1 . 0mm , with 1024 levels of pressure sensitivity , right click and erase buttons for surface pro ( 2017 ) , surface pro 4 , surface laptop / book _ ( black )\nwhile these advances are coming , they are not here today \u2013 at least not completely . in my usage of the new surface pen on the surface studio and surface pro 4 , i noticed an overall increased sensitivity and reduced iaf \u2013 there is just less effort needed to use the surface pen . that experience is like the new wacom bamboo ink pen , which is a cheaper alternative to the surface pen .\nmicrosoft surface pen experience the ultimate modern writing experience with surface pen . includes pen tip kit compatible with surface 3 , surface pro 3 , surface pro 4 , surface pro and surface book . experience the ultimate modern writing experience with surface pen . write , draw or mark - up documents , digitally . take notes to quickly capture your thoughts and instantly convert to text for sharing and searching with ease . simply click once to open onenote , or click and hold to instantly access your personal digital assistant , cortana . the surface pen is pairedwith a pen tip kit to help you choose the tip that feels most natural to you and attaches magnetically to your surface so you never leave it behind .\none of the things microsoft focused on with the new surface pen is latency . in order to accurately emulate a pen and paper , the surface pen has to \u201cflow\u201d as effortlessly as an old - fashioned pen . microsoft claims , \u201cthe new surface pen more than doubles the accuracy of the previous version , and with latency so low it is virtually imperceptible to the human eye , making it twice as responsive as the apple pencil . \u201d\nthe surface pen comes in the new surface color range of platinum , black , burgundy , and cobalt blue , matching the new surface pro type covers and the new surface arc mouse .\nas lowensohn himself points out later in his article , the surface pen is good for far more .\nmicrosoft certified surface pen , stylus pens supporting 500 - hour playing time 180 - da . . .\nin the following videos i drew my hand across the surface pro 3 , first with its original pen and then with the others . the results are very dramatic between the surface pro 3 and other pens , but much less so between the sp4 pen and the new pen .\nsurface pen feels as natural as pen on paper ; with precision ink on one end and an eraser on the other . palm block technology ignores the pressure from your hand when it senses you\u2019re using pen . now with 1024 levels of pressure sensitivity and reduced latency , surface pen lets you draw and paint with artistic precision and the control you want .\nowners of older surface pcs may wonder what the new surface pen can do for them . here is what you need to know .\nare you going to pick up the new surface pro ? or a new surface pen for a previous - gen surface maybe ? let us know in the comments .\nwhen we wrote and drew pictures with the pen , it felt effortless , like using an ink - based pen on a normal sheet of paper .\nthe most notable difference between the new surface pen and its predecessor is the removal of the clip located near the eraser . that part was a vestige of the original surface pro 3 pen which was not magnetized .\nthe new surface pen brings significant changes . here are the key features being advertised or that we noticed .\nmicrosoft just lifted the lid on the brand new surface pro , and it comes with some nifty accessories , including a new surface pen .\nan aaaa battery is pre - installed in the new surface pen for surface pro 4 and surface book . if it needs to be replaced , follow the steps above .\n* surface pen , arc mouse , signature type cover , and dial sold separately . some software sold separately .\napple has a patent for its own pen , called , naturally ipen , but no one knows when , or if , they will come out with their own pen . remember , this is the company that declared pen dead .\nunscrew the top of the pen ( the part with the purple button ) .\nmicrosoft has been pushing its pen technology in windows and surface for years . the new surface pro , announced today , includes what microsoft describes as the \u201cfastest pen in the world . \u201d microsoft\u2019s distinguished engineer and co - inventor of surface , stevie bathiche , excitedly revealed the new surface pen to me in a recent interview . \u201cwe did a huge step with the pen , a massive step , \u201d claims bathiche . \u201ci\u2019m so pumped about this . \u201d\nyou click the tip of the pen and the surface pro 4 opens microsoft onenote . much like pretty much every device we have seen at the event , the pen also comes with cortana integration .\nthe new pen ' s tilt support works exceptionally well on the new surface pro , opening up shading possibilities that were previously inaccessible to surface artists .\nthe surface also sports pen - based input \u2014 fulfilling microsoft\u2019s dream of effectively integrated pen computing in windows , something that began in the 90s . it looks like the surface\u2019s pen is more attuned to the hardware than something like samsung\u2019s galaxy note , which should make it easier to take notes on the glass screen .\ncall it the great pen wars of 2017 . both microsoft and apple have moved the needle on their respective smart pen computing solutions . so which one is better ?\never since microsoft introduced its surface tablet pcs , the company has pushed the importance of stylus input using the included pen . accordingly , the surface pro has always included the pen in the box . the company has also made significant improvements to the usefulness of the pen in the most recent major update of windows 10 .\npressure sensitivity : 256 levels of pressure sensitivity ; creates thicker , darker lines the harder you push . the surface pen also incorporates palm block technology to allow you to rest your palm on the screen without interfering with the surface pen\u2019s input .\nimagine how much better the pen would look if clad in a molded magnesium cylinder .\nnever has there been a digital pen like this one . we couldn\u2019t be more excited for surface fans to use it , and to help you coordinate your personal look , surface pen is available in platinum , burgundy , cobalt blue and black .\nthis video is a technical look at the surface ( pro ) 3 pen up really close ( in macro ) . it compares the pen to previous model n - trig pens like the motion cl900 and fujitsu q702 pens . we then break down the cl900 pen to show you what is inside . we explain the functions of the pen including the purple bluetooth button on the end . at the end of the video we unbox one of the new generation surface 3 coloured pens ( colored ; - ) for those in the usa ) showing that the pen loop now comes in the pen box .\nif you are on an older surface , getting the new surface pen is a mixed bag for now , and it ' s best to wait . ( the surface pro 1 and pro 2 used completely different pen tech , so they won ' t see any such improvements . )\ni was surprised that when i received the pen it came with additional tips . i enjoy changing the tips and trying them out . pen occasionally disconnects but that\u2019s very rare .\nunlike the surface pro 4 , the new surface pro doesn\u2019t include the surface pen \u2014 an unfortunate decision on microsoft\u2019s part . the company cited a few reasons for making the pen an option , including the new multi - color scheme , customer feedback that shows that not everyone uses the pen , and the fact that many people who buy the surface pro will be upgrading from previous models . the pens \u2013 and the type covers , for that matter \u2013 are compatible across the surface 3 , surface pro 3 , surface pro 4 , and surface pro .\nthe first - generation surface pen arrived alongside the surface pro in 2012 . since then , microsoft\u2019s peripheral has endured several generations of enhancements and refinements up until the release of microsoft\u2019s fifth - generation surface pro 2 - in - 1 last month . the digital pen is now offered as a stand - alone product , supporting the surface book with performance boost , the surface laptop , the surface studio , and surface - branded devices .\nclicking the button on a traditional pen ejects the tip so you\u2019re ready to write . pushing the button on a surface pen opens the windows ink workspace so you\u2019re ready to write . the windows ink workspace gives you easy access to sticky notes , sketchpad , screen sketch , and pen - enabled applications .\nin my own limited time with the surface pen i saw a big improvement . i couldn\u2019t detect any lag , and the tilt action felt very similar to a wacom pen . i\u2019m not a professional illustrator , so we\u2019ll have to see what creatives think , but microsoft has definitely improved the pen here . although it ' s slightly more refined and lacks the clip at the top , the new surface pen is still not fully circular , as it\u2019s designed to magnetically snap onto the side of surface devices . some creatives will still dislike the shape of the actual surface pen as a result .\nkeep in mind the surface pen utilizes bluetooth to launch onenote \u2013 that\u2019s it . the aaaa battery is crucial for the stylus functions , but the two small batteries at the top of the pen are simply for the ability to launch onenote via the top of the pen . you can turn off bluetooth and the pen will work fine \u2013 except that you will not be able to launch onenote .\nthe no - pen sku appears to be limited to the us only at this time .\n\u201clike putting pen to paper or brush to canvas , the new surface pen supports a natural , immersive experience that sets you free to create , learn , and express yourself in completely new ways , \u201d explains microsoft .\nmeanwhile , the gilded edition of the surface pen offers a glitzy take on the previously released stylus , but no other differences . it\u2019s set to retail for $ 60 , and comes packaged with the surface pen tip kit that was released late last year .\nwith surface hub , your teams can collaborate in new ways , with apps optimized for large - screen pen and touch experiences .\nsurface pro 3 and 4 , surface book and surface studio users will definitely see a difference with the new pen , but whether that difference is worth the $ 100 upgrade price is a different story .\ni have used every model of the surface pro since the initial launch , and i have carried around the surface pen since 2012 . i have rarely used it , though , until now . the new surface pen that microsoft rolled out this year alongside the launch of the latest surface pro is a game changer . it may look like the same pen from the outside , but there are significant updates to the surface pen itself , as well as sweeping changes in windows and across microsoft office applications that integrate the device more seamlessly into the computing experience .\nanother advantage of the pro 4 pen over the pro 3 is that only one aaaa battery is needed to power the [ pro 4 ] pen , compared to the aaaa battery and the three 319 button cells needed to power the pro 3 pen . also , the pro 4 pen connects to the right - hand side of the tablet easier than the pro 3 .\nwith the surface pro 3 you cannot enjoy some of the functions of the new pen . this includes being limited to 256 levels of sensitivity instead of 1024 and not being able to customize the actions of the pen button .\nout of the default loadout , and now selling it separately ( the new pen is $ 99 , while most previous surface pros came bundled with the older model pen , which is still available for around $ 60 ) .\nwith the surface pen ( $ 50 with the surface 3 ; included with surface pro 3 ) , you can tap the top button on the pen once to open the onenote app \u2014 even if your surface is locked . then you can scribble a quick note using the pen , and if you want , turn the tablet off . your notes are saved automatically to your default onenote notebook of choice , which is very cool .\nthe new surface pen is only as good as the software behind it , which is why we\u2019ve worked with office to create new inking features that take full advantage of the hardware technology within surface pro and surface pen . these include customizable pen tips that roam with you across all your office 365 apps , regardless of device , and amazing support for tilt and shading across all office 365 apps .\nthe results are impressive . no , not the drawings , those are terrible . what i mean is , the new surface pen , used in tandem with the new surface pro , delivers a very natural experience . in this case , \u201cnatural\u201d means that the experience emulates , if not outright duplicates , the experience of doing so with a real pen , pen , or paintbrush on real paper . it doesn\u2019t feel like you\u2019re gliding the surface pen across glass . which of course you are .\nnot only does surface pro work with on - screen surface dial , it was also designed with the new surface pen , our most natural and responsive pen yet , with over 4096 pressure points , only 21 milliseconds of latency and new tilt functionality . it gives people , from artists to mobile professionals , a more fluid and real - to - life inking experience . over two times more accurate , with four times more pressure sensitivity than the original surface pen , we engineered surface pen to be the fastest pen ever * * * * * . and with the lowest parallax in the industry , we bring your ink and your content closer to your fingertips .\nnow that your surface pen is read to use , try using it to do things like jotting down notes , taking screenshots , and planning a trip on your surface .\nsurface pro and surface pro signature type cover are available for pre - order today and will ship on june 15th worldwide ; surface pen will be available in the coming weeks * * * * . surface pro starts at $ 799 . 99 usd .\ntips and tricks about how to use microsoft surface pen on surface pro 4 tablet for better productivity . \u25ba subscribe now for daily new tech and gadget videos urltoken how to customize the microsoft surface pen on surface pro 4 to perform specific tasks : urltoken microsoft surface pro 4 - how to take screenshot ( two methods ) : urltoken how to close background running apps on microsoft surface pro 4 how to hard reset or factory reset the microsoft surface pro 4 : urltoken\nthe pen is available in four colors : black , cobalt blue , platinum , and burgundy .\nthe next - generation surface pen features increased pressure sensitivity , tilt for artistic shading , and true real - time writing . like putting pen to paper or brush to canvas , the new surface pen supports a natural , immersive experience that sets you free to create , learn , and express yourself in completely new ways . learn more : urltoken audio description video : urltoken\npersonalise surface pro and express yourself with next - generation tools in rich colours , 3 including new surface arc mouse , * surface pro signature type cover * and surface pen * \u2014 with real - time writing and tilt 4 for shading \u2014 plus on - screen support for surface dial . *\nmicrosoft redeemed itself after the windows rt fiasco with a sleek , windows 8 . 1 surface 3 tablet that really shines when combined with the optional surface pen and onenote app .\nfor these and other reasons , microsoft is upgrading its surface pen to a new version that offers 4 times the pressure sensitivity , plus tilt capabilities , just like apple pencil . at its may unveiling , microsoft claimed that the new surface pen , when used in tandem with the new surface pro and its unique \u201cpixelsense accelerator chip\u201d offers the fastest - ever smart pen experience . an obvious jab at apple pencil .\nwhen i try to pair the new pen with my surface 3 , it says connected for a second or two , then it says not connected . pen doesn\u2019t work at all except the purple button on the top will launch onenote .\nmicrosoft\u2019s brand new 12 - inch surface pro 3 tablet is available for purchase and comes with a fantastic stylus called the surface pen . the stylus connects to your surface pro 3 via bluetooth and is powered by batteries . if you are having trouble with the pen\u2019s connectivity , you might have the battery inserted backwards .\ncompatibility : microsoft\u2019s surface and surface pro 3 2 - in - 1 tablets .\nthe new microsoft surface pro ( left ) and the older surface pro 4 .\nin addition to the hardware updates , microsoft is also adding a variety of surface pen and application specific features that make it easier and better to use . microsoft developed new ink types and added a pencil option to make the output of the surface pen simulate graphite on paper .\nif the pen shows as \u201cnot connected\u201d in your bluetooth list , double - check that all the latest updates are installed on your surface .\nthe pen magnet will only loosely attach to the right side of the sp3 , in a small area next to the power connector . in order to securely fasten the pen without the clip , surface pro 3 owners will need to dig up one of the old pen loops that could be attached to that generation ' s type covers .\nthe new surface pen will be backwards compatible with older surface devices , but that doesn\u2019t mean the new tilt functionality will be available on older devices . microsoft\u2019s new surface pro ships with this new support , and microsoft is planning to add tilt to existing surface studio and surface book devices later this year .\nthe old pen will work on the new system , so if you don ' t care about tilt and have a pen from a pro 3 , pro 4 , book , or studio , you can continue to use it . one less satisfactory aspect of the new pen is that microsoft no longer bundles it . with the pro 4 , only the cheapest system omitted the pen ; now they all do . worse still , the new pen is more expensive\u2014 $ 100 as opposed to $ 60 .\nas highlighted last year by josh lowensohn in an article for the verge , almost all of microsoft\u2019s 30 - second ad spots only show the surface pen used to draw circles on the screen . you\u2019d be forgiven then for thinking drawing circles is all the surface pen is good for .\ni panicked when i thought the tips from the replacement kit ( right ) wouldn ' t fit inside the new surface pen ' s collar .\nwithin the surface app ( available in the windows store ) if the pressure curve is set at the value shown above , the lower iaf surface pen will produce the lightest strokes possible .\nlower the kickstand \u2014 now featuring a deeper , next - generation hinge \u2014 to place surface pro in studio mode for the perfect writing and drawing angle with the new surface pen . *\nbut time stands still for no active pen , and apple just announced its own upgrades , and it has ostensibly leapfrogged surface , and surface pen , yet again . what\u2019s interesting is that this didn\u2019t require a new apple pencil . instead , if you use the existing peripheral with a new ( 2017 ) ipad pro and its promotion display technology , you\u2019ll get better performance than surface pro ( 2017 ) with surface pen ( 2017 ) : 20 ms of latency vs . 21 .\nbut the same can ' t be said for the new surface pen , which offers a major step up to 4 , 096 pressure levels , lower activation force ( ~ 9 grams ) and tilt recognition . on paper at least , this is the pen that surface users have always wanted .\ntry surface book 2 and the newest surface pro at a microsoft store near you .\ncushion your surface pro or surface laptop with a colorful , limited edition marimekko sleeve .\nwith surface pen and windows ink , nothing comes between you and inspiration . quickly turn thoughts into action and access your inking apps in one place .\noverall , the surface pro 3 pen is an excellent tool for note - takers and digital artists looking for a realistic drawing experience on a tablet .\nback in may i spoke to jared spataro , general manager of office for microsoft , about the surface pen . he explained that the goal for microsoft was to make using the surface pen with a surface device better than a traditional pen and paper . he told me , \u201cnot only does it allow you to do all of the things you can do with paper \u2013 it gives you a variety of tools and features that paper can\u2019t provide . \u201d\nexpress yourself with one of the vibrant pen colors designed to mix and match with your type cover . choose a pen tip that\u2019s right for you . stay with the pre - installed hb tip for writing and drafting , or swap to a 2h tip for detailed drawing , shading and illustrating . choose from one of 4 tips in our surface pen tip kit .\nwhen the pen now appears in the list of bluetooth devices , select it and then choose \u201cpair . \u201d\nsurface 3 retains all the other benefits provided by surface pro 3 , like the compatibility with the docking station , surface pen support , and more , but offers them in a much more portable package . what ' s not to like ?\nsurface pro 4 vs . surface book vs . surface pro 3 : is it worth upgrading and which one is best for you ?\nok , those numbers are close . and they suggest that the performance of apple pencil and the new surface pen are , in fact , roughly identical .\nthe best days of the new surface pen are still ahead . when microsoft releases its new pen driver and firmware , you will see even more improvements enabled on older surface hardware . that does not mean the $ 99 is still worth it , but that is a personal decision you will need to make .\nmicrosofts surface studio was announced last week to much fanfare . featuring the body of an all in one pc , much like microsoft\u2019s other windows 10 device like the surface book and surface pro 4 , it bucks that staid old norm by allowing users to draw all over the screen with a new surface dial and an improved surface pen .\nif you thought styluses were last seen on devices in 1990s , think again . israel ' s n - trig is one of a new breed of pen input companies , recently unseating wacom as microsoft ' s pen of choice on its new surface pro 3 tablets .\nthe surface pen uses one aaaa battery to feed the digitizer and two small size 319 lithium coin cell batteries , which come pre - installed in the top of the pen , to power the bluetooth section . the aaaa battery is manually installed by the user and can be accidentally inserted backwards , resulting in issues with bluetooth connectivity even though the indicator light on the pen will be on . the indicator light might confuse you into thinking the pen is working fine , when it is not .\nalongside the microsoft lumia 950 , lumia 950 xl , and lumia 550 launches , the company also announced the surface pro 4 . microsoft unveiled the surface book as well , its first laptop . both devices will come bundled with the new surface pen .\nsurface pro 3 pen users should definitely switch to a newer pen . if tilt is important , wait to see if the sp3 will get the necessary update . if tilt doesn ' t matter to your drawing technique , save $ 30 and pick up the bamboo ink .\nin australia , another strange situation . the base model surface pro 4 is au $ 1349 . take away the pen and it drops to an astonishing au $ 899 . given that the pen only costs au $ 94 , this au $ 450 saving is rather remarkable .\nwhen all combined with our pixelsense accelerator , the writing experience feels like writing on paper , picking up every expression of the pen and reacting to the subtlest of artistic movements . artists can paint on surface and feel like they are painting on parchment , as surface pen has almost no latency and gives you the ability to do tilt and shading on surface pro . for those at work , you will feel like you are taking notes in your moleskin notebook with your favorite pen .\nsecond , i\u2019m worried about losing the pen . sure , it clicks into the tablet\u2019s power connector with a satisfying snap , but it just sits there , naked , exposed , and easy to pry loose . as a result , i never felt comfortable tossing the surface into the bottomless pit of my backpack when the pen was attached . i believe pen accessories should be sheathed inside their tablets , and not strapped to the side with a hope and a prayer . regardless , if you do lose the surface pen , a replacement costs $ 30 .\nthere\u2019s just one problem . when apple announced its first ipad pro back in late 2015 , it also launched a companion peripheral , the apple pencil , which duplicates and in many ways exceeds the performance and utility of surface pen . it offers tilt capabilities , for example , where ( the current ) surface pen does not .\ndigital artists have more to like . the redesigned surface pen boasts 4 , 096 levels of pressure accuracy compared to its predecessors ' 1 , 024 levels , and it has tilt support . this means you can ink with the pen , or angle it and shade in brushstrokes with the side of the nib , just like a real pen would . the new surface pen is also a little longer and sleeker , and it eliminates the clip . microsoft ' s also quite proud of the fact that the new pen virtually eliminates the pen ' s latency ( now just 26 ms ) between when you ink a line on the screen , and when the digital ink actually appears . finally , like the studio , microsoft now offers the option to switch to\nenhanced color\nfrom srgb .\none company that doesn ' t support pen \u2014 yet \u2014 is apple . but that may change , lebovitz said .\ntry the new surface book 2 and the newest surface pro at a microsoft store near you .\nthe improved surface pen stylus features increased pressure sensitivity with up to 4 , 096 pressure points ( from 1 , 024 ) , tilt that adjusts the thickness and texture of your ink granularly , based on the angle of your pen , for artistic shading and true real - time writing .\nthe magnet on the pen is also considerably stronger ; one problem i ' ve found with previous models is that the pen often gets divorced from the system when it ' s in my laptop bag ; a stronger magnet should reduce this .\nthis custom setup means microsoft can quickly erase , about a 100 - millisecond trail of ink , before the rest of the system catches up , so it improves the latency of the pen . \u201cthis is how we\u2019re able to close that gap , \u201d says bathiche . \u201cwe have the fastest pen in the world . \u201d pressure - sensitivity levels on the new surface pen have increased to 4096 , alongside a 12 - gram activation force . the new surface pen is now double the speed of the previous one , and microsoft claims it\u2019s \u201ctwice as responsive as the apple pencil . \u201d\nexperience the ultimate modern writing experience with surface pen . write , draw or mark - up documents , digitally . take notes to quickly capture your thoughts and instantly convert to text for sharing and searching with ease . simply click once to open onenote , or click and hold to instantly access your personal digital assistant , cortana . the surface pen is paired with a pen tip kit to help you choose the tip that feels most natural to you and attaches magnetically to your surface so you never leave it behind .\nthe surface pen is useful for a variety of tasks normally associated with traditional pen and paper , including writing and drawing on the screen ( converted to text ) , highlighting and writing on pdfs in a range of apps like onenote , adobe creative cloud , fresh paint , and drawboard pdf .\npen broke after only a few months . thought battery was dead , but took it to microsoft store just to verify .\nin other words , the great pen wars of 2017 are ending with a stalemate . these are both excellent smart pens .\nactually the new preview builds will install the sp4 pen drivers , properly . then you can do all the expected tweaks .\nthe surface pen has been around since the launch of the initial surface pro in 2012 . it was built using technology from wacom , which has been doing digital pens long before microsoft was in the 2 - in - 1 hybrid market . the surface pen provided some unique potential for the tablet - cum - laptop , but it was still more or less a novelty \u2013 at least for me .\nmicrosoft has at times been vague about the details of the new surface pen , and the feature set is apparently spread out across devices . my educated hunch is that microsoft is going to push a driver update for the new surface pen in the next few months , but because it is still being worked on the company does not want to commit to specifics . they know this new pen can do more , but just how much more on older hardware is currently fuzzy .\nbilled as \u201cthe most versatile laptop , \u201d the new surface has 13 . 5 hours of battery life , intel\u2019s seventh - generation \u201ckaby lake\u201d core processor ( the same chip powering microsoft\u2019s $ 999 surface laptop ) , a new alcantara keyboard and a next - generation surface pen .\nas per microsoft , surface pro has up to 50 percent better performance and 50 percent better battery life than it predecessor and 35 percent better battery life than an ipad pro . its 12 . 3 - inch pixelsense touch display supports microsoft\u2019s surface dial and the new surface pen .\nthe new pen has a flat side and the single side switch is much smaller . the slightly longer collar is now entirely plastic , presumably to help conductivity during tilt operations . the new pen is the same length and weight as the prior generation .\nthe surface pro ' s pen has seen a significant upgrade . it now has 4 , 096 pressure levels ( up from 1 , 024 ) , and microsoft has added tilt support ; you can hold the pen upright to write with a fine point , or you can angle it for shading . a wide range of artists have already made surface pros an important part of their toolkits , and tilt support will further enhance this . ( microsoft has promised to add support for the new tilting pen to the surface pro 4 , surface book , and surface studio through a firmware update , though there ' s no eta yet . )\nthe surface pen is quite expensive and runs for $ 50 if purchased separately . the pen is cased in aluminum , has over 250 levels of pressure sensitivity , and palm block technology . this means you can write and draw without worrying about resting your hand on the screen and messing up your creation .\nas far as looks go , the surface pen closely resembles a typical click pen . it has a good weight of 20 grams , a substantial diameter of 9 . 5 millimeters , and a length of 135 millimeters . the stylus comes in silver , takes batteries , and has bluetooth 4 . 0 .\nwhich i believe they are , having now used both . and in their optimal , most performant scenarios : the new surface pen with the new surface pro , and the apple pencil with a new ( 2017 ) ipad pro .\nin other ways , microsoft ' s changed course from prior generations . the new surface pro will go out the door with an intel core m option ( it was a later arrival in the prior generation ) . none of the new surface pro devices will be sold with a surface pen . that has nothing to do with user reluctance to use the pen , microsoft says , but merely reflects that surface owners who choose to upgrade may already own one .\none of those activities is the whiteboard app , which allows for three people to ink on the screen at any one time . the hub ships with a pair of pens , holstered on either side . once you remove a pen from the holster , whiteboard launches . icons appear on the bottom of the screen so you can choose ink color , among other pen options . unlike the surface pen , there are no other buttons on the surface hub pen , though you can \u201cerase\u201d by flipping it over . you won\u2019t find any fancy icons , brush motifs , or digital stickers in whiteboard ; each pen has a choice of what appears to be five colors , and there\u2019s a lasso tool for moving digital ink around on the page .\nthis will especially come in handy when drawing on the surface pro 3 with the just - announced touch - friendly photoshop cc , along with writing a note in onenote . you can even click the top of the pen and immediately activate your surface pro 3 device and begin taking notes in onenote . double clicking the top of the pen captures a screenshot !\nmicrosoft has announced new premium models of its surface book and surface pro 4 computers , with extra memory and storage to satisfy the needs of power users . the company is also launching a gold version of its surface pen accessory , which will be sold separately from the new hybrids .\nthe pen also makes it easy to create whiteboard - like drawings and diagrams in onenote . microsoft did a great job with\npalm rejection ,\nso resting your palm on the tablet screen as you draw with the pen doesn ' t cause problems .\ni have a sp3 and a sp4 but have found i prefer to use the sp3 pen on both devices . i honestly can ' t pinpoint exactly why , but i just prefer the feel of the sp3 pen in my hand . personal preference i guess\nbut microsoft formally made smart pens a core feature of the pc starting with windows xp tablet pc edition in 2002 , and it has been steadily improving the platform ever since . and today , microsoft\u2019s surface pen is routinely cited as the best example of what we now think of as an active smart pen .\nto adjust pen pressure you ' ll need to install the surface app from the windows store . for all of my tests i kept pressure settings centered . with the new pen ' s much lower iaf , you will likely need to lower your tip sensitivity as illustrated below in order to see finer strokes .\nset next to each other , the surface pro 4 and the new $ 799 surface pro are virtually indistinguishable , especially when matched up with the surface pro 4\u2019s signature type cover . both boast 12 . 3 - inch pixelsense displays , but the new surface pro ( 2017 ) adds a better keyboard , reclines to a surface studio - like 165 degrees , and takes advantage of a new , more sensitive optional surface pen . you ' ll have the choice of either a more traditional type cover keyboard ( $ 129 ) or a new signature type cover with the alcantara fabric used on the surface pro 4 , for $ 159 . the surface pen will cost $ 100 .\nmy first microsoft surface pen was terrible . it would shut off randomly in the middle of lectures , causing me to miss 20 minutes of lecture trying to fix the dang thing .\nthe new surface book in full recline ( front ) , with the older surface pro 4 behind it .\nthe new surface pen is designed to compliment the 2017 surface pro ' s next - generation screen , which takes advantage of unprecedentedly low latency inking thanks to new tech . custom silicon in both the pen and the surface pro screen reduce the latency between your ink strokes and the display to levels\nvirtually imperceptible\nto the human eye , according to microsoft . the company also says the new surface pen is much more responsive than the apple pencil designed for the ipad pro , and it benefits from a boost in pressure sensitivity at 4 , 096 levels , up from 1 , 024 in the previous version .\nsurface pen offers real buttons that do real things , something i kind of miss with apple pencil . the top of surface pen , for example , functions as an eraser in most apps . and you can press it to launch windows ink workspace . ( or some other app of your choosing . ) there\u2019s also another button on the barrel , which is likewise programmable .\nturn bluetooth on . if surface pen appears in the list of discovered devices , it may not be properly paired yet . so , select it from the list and remove the device .\ndozens of pen - and - touch enabled devices are on the market already , and more are on the way , leibovitz said .\na lot of devices already included a touch sensor that supports pen , even if those devices currently only support touch ,\nhe said .\nfor those devices we have a software solution that can activate the pen component , allowing users to enjoy both .\nthe collar on the new pen ( left ) is longer and plastic for tilt signal conductivity . the side switch has been shortened .\ninterestingly enough , microsoft has replaced the wacom digitizer used in earlier surface models with an n - trig stylus . this pen supports 256 points of pressure and there is reportedly no latency or parallax effects . in fact , when you are writing something on the surface pro 3 , it will feel as if there were no distance between the tip of the pen and the screen surface . this means no delay and a natural ink experience .\nfounded in 1999 , n - trig\u2019s technology is the industry\u2019s only combined active pen and touch solution available today . the company\u2019s solutions support the latest windows and android operating systems \u2013 allowing oems to develop slim pen and touch - enabled mobile devices using only a single sensor .\nwatch your ideas come to life in brilliant colour and razor - sharp resolution on the 12 . 3\u201d pixelsense\u2122 display with a stunning screen that responds to the new surface pen * and touch .\nthe surface pro will go on sale alongside the surface laptop , which was unveiled at the start of may .\nwhat are the diffrent pen tips for and how can you get the most of the suface pen . quick demo with edge and onenote all the tips & tricks ; in this video can also be applied to the surface pro 3 ( and 2 and 1 ) as long as you use windows 10 and onenote on your machine .\nyes . i have both pens and the sp4 pen does stick to the top of the left side but very weakly . it ' s far better sticking it to the charging port . it can still fall off with a shake , but stays on if the sp3 is immobile . the pen also seems more solidly on there if it ' s upside down , for some reason . obviously , with the sp3 in the dock , you can ' t stick the pen to either side of the surface , but the left side of the dock itself is magnetic , so the pen parks there quite nicely .\nthe ipad pro takes on the surface pro 3 as a productivity tool and , since the stylus ( or pencil ) is an integral part of using these devices , we took a look at how the apple pencil stacks up against microsoft\u2019s surface pen .\none reason pen took a back seat was because it has a number of technical issues that touch doesn ' t : palm rejection , for example , in which the device has to figure out if it is the pen or a user ' s palm resting on the screen .\nmicrosoft ' s new $ 99 surface pen is a steep upgrade from the previous iteration that costs $ 59 ( and which is still available ) . there are quite a few enhancements that may justify the cost for new surface pro owners . but for older surface devices , the value is not too clear ."]}
{"id": 1110, "summary": [{"text": "apostichopus japonicus is a species of sea cucumber in the family stichopodidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in shallow temperate waters along the coasts of south east asia and is commonly known as the japanese spiky sea cucumber or the japanese sea cucumber . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "apostichopus japonicus", "paragraphs": ["fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric ducarme marked\nfile : japan sea animal , apostichopus japonicus . jpg\nas trusted on the\napostichopus japonicus\npage .\ndraft genome of the sea cucumber apostichopus japonicus and genetic polymorphism among color variants .\nfigure 5 : related data from apostichopus japonicus individual levels after each gene silencing .\nprint version : sea cucumber apostichopus japonicus . ( 9780127999531 / 0127999531 / 900827492 )\nfigure 4 : related data from apostichopus japonicus primary cultured coelomocytes after each gene silencing .\ndraft genome of the sea cucumber apostichopus japonicus and genetic polymorphism among color variants . - pubmed - ncbi\nexpression analysis of immune related genes identified from the coelomocytes of sea cucumber ( apostichopus japonicus ) in response to lps challenge .\nexpression analysis of immune related genes identified from the coelomocytes of sea cucumber ( apostichopus japonicus ) in response to lps challenge . - pubmed - ncbi\ngigadb dataset - doi 10 . 5524 / 100257 - supporting data for\ndraft genome of the sea cucumber apostichopus japonicus and genetic polymorphis . . .\ndistribution of the japanese sea cucumber apostichopus japonicus in the intertidal zone of hirao bay , eastern yamaguchi pref . , japan : suitable environmental factors for juvenile habitats\ndistribution of the japanese sea cucumber apostichopus japonicus in the intertidal zone of hirao bay , eastern yamaguchi pref . , japan : suitable environmental factors for juvenile habitats\ndistribution of the japanese sea cucumber apostichopus japonicus in the intertidal zone of hirao bay , eastern yamaguchi pref . , japan : suitable environmental factors for juvenile habitats [ 2006 ]\nzhang b l , sun d y , wu y q . 1995 . preliminary analysis on the feeding habit of apostichopus japonicus in the rocky coast waters of lingshan island .\nbogatyrenko , e . a . , buzoleva , l . s . , and chi , z . , potential probiotics of the far eastern trepang apostichopus japonicus producing digestive enzymes ,\nzhang w j , hou h m , zhang g l , li q y , du c m . 2011 . study on diversity of intestine cultivable microorganisms from apostichopus japonicus .\nlebedev , a . m . 2000 . fisheries and reserves of the far eastern sea cucumber apostichopus japonicus . russina journal of marine biology 26 ( 4 ) : 296 - 302 .\n22 . 6 . problems and prospects in sustainable a . japonicus production in japan\napostichopus japonicus appears to be more tolerant to environmental fluctuations than many other species of sea cucumbers . however , the larval stages remain rather sensitive and less tolerant to variations in their environment .\nthree color variants of a . japonicus ( green , red , and black ) .\n12 . 5 . differences in mitf gene expressions in albino and normal a . japonicus\n12 . 6 . differences in astacin gene expressions in albino and normal a . japonicus\ngao f , sun h l , xu q , tan j , yan j p , wang q y . 2010 . pcrdgge analysis of bacterial community composition in the gut contents of apostichopus japonicus .\nzhang x c , nakahara t , murase s , nakata h , inoue t , kudo t . 2013 . physiological characterization of aerobic culturable bacteria in the intestine of the sea cucumber apostichopus japonicus .\ntoday , in northern china , the sea cucumber apostichopus japonicus is commonly farmed in earth ponds either in an extensive or semi - intensive system . sea rafts are sometimes used , but are not very popular .\nselin , n . i . 2001 . vertical distribution of the far east trepang apostichopus japonicus in vostok bay , sea of japan . russian journal of marine biology 27 ( 4 ) : 256 - 258 .\n12 . 3 . differences in nutrient and melanin contents between albino and normal a . japonicus\n12 . 4 . differences in histological and ultrastructural characteristics between albino and normal a . japonicus\nyang z p , sun f x , liu z m , zhang l , cao w , ma y x . 2013 . screening and identification of potential enzyme producing probiotics from gut of sea cucumber apostichopus japonicus .\n17 . 3 . bioremediation capability of a . japonicus when combined with bivalve and / or macroalgae\ngao f , li f h , tan j , yan j p , sun h l . 2014 . bacterial community composition in the gut content and ambient sediment of sea cucumber apostichopus japonicus revealed by 16s rrna gene pyrosequencing .\nli b , rong x j , liao m j , chen g p , zhang z , wang y g , xue t s . 2010 . bacteria community in the intestine and culture environment of apostichopus japonicus in winter .\n\u2212 1 d \u2212 1 ) of apostichopus japonicus during the experimental period . means ( n = 4 ) with different letters denoting significant differences ( p < 0 . 05 ) , and bars representing standard deviations of the means .\nchen , l . , li , q . and yang , j . 2008 . microsatellite genetic variation in wild and hatchery populations of the sea cucumber ( apostichopus japonicus selenka ) from northern china . aquaculture research 2008 : 1 - 9 .\ndubrovskii , s . v . and sergeenko , v . a . 2002 . distribution pattern of far eastern sea cucumber apostichopus japonicus in busse lagoon ( southern sakhalin ) . russian journal of marine biology 28 ( 2 ) : 87 - 93 .\nin northern inshore areas of china , many other animals inhabit the eelgrass ecosystems in which a . japonicus is abundant . this study showed that decaying eelgrass debris could act as an important food resource for a . japonicus .\nkanno , m . , suyama , y . , li , q . & kijima , a . 2006 . microsatellite analysis of japanese sea cucumber , stichopus ( apostichopus ) japonicus , supports reproductive isolation in color variants . marine biotechnology , 8 : 672 - 685 .\nzhao y c , zhang w b , xu w , mai k s , zhang y j , liufu z g . 2012 . effects of potential probiotic bacillus subtilis t13 on growth , immunity and disease resistance against vibrio splendidus infection in juvenile sea cucumber apostichopus japonicus .\ncitation : du h , bao z , hou r , wang s , su h , yan j , et al . ( 2012 ) transcriptome sequencing and characterization for the sea cucumber apostichopus japonicus ( selenka , 1867 ) . plos one 7 ( 3 ) : e33311 . urltoken\nwang , p . , chang , y . , yu , j . , li , c . & xu g . 2007 . acute peristome edema disease in juvenile and adult sea cucumbers apostichopus japonicus ( selenka ) reared in north china . journal of invertebrate pathology 96 : 11 - 17 .\ndong , y . , dong , s . , tian , x . , wang , f . & zhang , m . 2006 . effects of diel temperature fluctuations on growth , oxygen consumption and proximate body composition in the sea cucumber apostichopus japonicus selenka . aquaculture , 255 : 514 - 521 .\ndong , s . , liang , m . , gao , q . , wang , f . , dong , y . & tian , x . 2010 . intra - specific effects of sea cucumber ( apostichopus japonicus ) with reference to stocking density and body size . aquaculture research , 41 : 1170 - 1178\ncheon s ; cho sj ; hong hh ; jin s ; jo j ; kern ema ; lee hg ; lee sg ; oh j ; park c ; park jk ( 2016 ) : supporting data for\ndraft genome of the sea cucumber apostichopus japonicus and genetic polymorphism among color variants\ngigascience database . urltoken\nlysenko , v . n . , zharikov , v . v . , and lebedev , a . m . , the abundance and distribution of the japanese sea cucumber , apostichopus japonicus ( selenka , 1867 ) ( echinodermata : stichopodidae ) , in nearshore waters of the southern part of the far eastern state marine reserve ,\ncitation : liu x , zhou y , yang h , ru s ( 2013 ) eelgrass detritus as a food source for the sea cucumber apostichopus japonicus selenka ( echinidermata : holothuroidea ) in coastal waters of north china : an experimental study in flow - through systems . plos one 8 ( 3 ) : e58293 . urltoken\nthere are over 1 000 species of sea cucumbers known worldwide . more than 100 species can be found in china , amongst which more than 20 species are considered edible . most of them , e . g . thelenota ananas , stichopus chloronotus , s . variegatus and apostichopus japonicus , are distributed in the southern sea of china .\nyuan , x . , yang , h . , wang , l . , zhou , y . , zhang , t . and liu , y . 2007 . effects of aestivation on the energy budget of sea cucumber apostichopus japonicus ( selenka ) ( echinodermata : holothuroidea ) . acta ecologica sinica 27 ( 8 ) : 3155 - 3161 .\nzzd is one of the main aquaculture and fishery companies in china , and it is the biggest base for aquaculture and sea ranching of high - valued seafood in north yellow sea . it operates a 2000 km 2 ocean farm , producing about 60 thousand t of scallop patinopecten yessoensis , sea cucumber apostichopus japonicus and abalone haliotis discus hannai annually .\nsang , c . 1963 . biology of japanese common sea cucumber , stichopus japonicus selenka . kaibundo , tokyo , japan ( in japanese with english summary )\nthe yield and growth condition of albino juveniles and thermal resistant juveniles was checked by experts . after the project leader reported the work statement , the experts inquired the key technology and the progress of the project and finally confirmed the achievement on artificial breeding of thermal resistant a . japonicus and albino a . japonicus . according to the results of the project , the thermal resistant strain could terminate the stage of estivation 17 days earlier than normal a . japonicus . furthermore , the thermal resistant strain could endure 1 degree higher temperature than normal a . japonicus . the results of gene expression of heat shock proteins and lethal high temperature test indicated that the thermal resistant strain had better thermostability . at present , the yield of thermal resistant a . japonicus was one million eight hundred thousand , which included eight hundred thousand f1 offspring and one million f2 offspring . in addition , 18 a . japonicus pedigrees were established and each pedigree had 5000 - 30000 individuals . in march 2010 , the artificial breeding of albino a . japonicus was carried out . up to october 2010 , the yield of albino offspring was one million three hundres thousand .\npyrosequencing was proven to be efficient in rapidly identifying a large set of genes for the sea cucumber a . japonicus . through the large - scale transcriptome sequencing as well as public est data integration , we performed a comprehensive characterization of the a . japonicus transcriptome and identified candidate aestivation - related genes . a large number of potential genetic markers were also identified from the a . japonicus transcriptome . this transcriptome resource would lay an important foundation for future genetic or genomic studies on this species .\nsome researchers pointed out that the appropriate temperature for the growth of a . japonicus is 5\u201320\u00b0c , while the optimum is 10\u201316\u00b0c [ 40 ] \u2013 [ 42 ] . during the experiment , the water temperature ranged from 13 . 5\u201320 . 8\u00b0c ( fig . 2 ) . with an increase in water temperature to 18\u00b0c , a . japonicus gradually went into an aestivation state , and the fpr of a . japonicus reduced rapidly ( fig . 2 ) . before entering into aestivation , the fpr of a . japonicus was higher , which were 0 . 33 g\u00b7ind . \u22121 d \u22121 , 1 . 31 g\u00b7ind . \u22121 d \u22121 , 1 . 31 g\u00b7ind . \u22121 d \u22121 , 0 . 63 g\u00b7ind . \u22121 d \u22121 for treatments es10 , es20 , es40 , and es100 , respectively ( fig . 3 ) . according to the experiment the water temperature had an effect on the sgr and fpr of a . japonicus which fed on the mixed food containing eelgrass detritus and seafloor surface sediment . when the water temperature was between 13 and 17\u00b0c , a . japonicus grew faster .\nyaqing , c . , changging y . & songxin . 2004 . pond culture of sea cucumbers , apostichopus japonicus , in dalian . in : a lovatelli , c . conand , s . purcell , s . uthicke , j - f . hamel & a . mercier ( eds ) , advances in sea cucumber aquaculture and management , pp . 269 - 272 . fao fisheries technical paper no 463 . fao , rome .\njo , j . , oh , j . , lee , h . - g . , hong , h . - h . , lee , s . - g . , cheon , s . , \u2026 park , c . ( 2017 ) . draft genome of the sea cucumber apostichopus japonicus and genetic polymorphism among color variants . gigascience , 6 ( 1 ) , 1\u20136 . doi : 10 . 1093 / gigascience / giw006\npublication date 2015 series developments in aquaculture and fisheries science ; volume 39 note includes index . available in another form print version : sea cucumber apostichopus japonicus : history , biology and aquaculture . london , england : academic press , \u00a92015 xxiii , 454 pages developments in aquaculture and fisheries science ; volume 39 ( 9780127999531 ) isbn 0127999531 ( trade cloth ) 9780127999531 ( trade cloth ) 9780128004678 ( e - book ) 0128004673 ( e - book ) 9780127999531\nin order to verify which factors affect habitat selection for aestivating and in the active adult apostichopus japonicus , animals were tested for their selection of attachment site in an experimental device ( 1 - m pipes ) in which the perceived environmental stimuli ( light intensity , degree of contact with a hard surface , geotaxis ) varied depending on the attachment site . during the aestivating season , the animals showed a strong selection for attachment sites during the daytime and nighttime ; they also showed positive stereotaxis ( thigmotaxis ) , negative phototaxis , and negative geotaxis . the results suggest that ( 1 ) habitats are not suitable for the aestivating adult a . japonicus unless these three environmental requirements are satisfied .\nto identify genomic repeat elements in the a . japonicus genome assembly , we ran repeatmasker ( version 4 . 0 . 6 ) [ 19 ] using the repbase transposable element library ( release 20150807 ) [ 20 ] and the de novo repeat library constructed by repeatmodeler ( version 1 . 0 . 8 ) [ 21 ] . approximately 27 . 2 % of the a . japonicus genome was identified as interspersed repeats .\ngenerally , a . japonicus feeds on sediments containing organic matter , which includes microorganisms and the detritus of plants or animals . results in this experiment showed that a . japonicus could use eelgrass detritus as a food resource . according to the present study , a mixture of z . marina debris and seafloor muddy sediments with an organic content of 19 . 6 % ( es40 ) , could lead to a better growth effect .\nthe collecting of the decaying eelgrass leaves and the invertebrate apostichopus japonicus from swan lake of weihai was permitted by peiliang wang , manager of mashan group co . ltd . no specific permit was required for the collecting of the sediment from jiaozhou bay , qingdao , where is not privately owned or protected . ethical approval was not required for this study because no endangered animals were involved . however , specimen collection and maintenance were performed in strict accordance with the recommendations of animal care quality assurance in china .\nrecently the institute of oceanology , chinese academy of sciences and shandong oriental ocean sci - tech co . , ltd collaborated on the establishment of sea products breeding and healthy aquaculture lab . these affiliations carried out the research on the breeding of thermal resistant a . japonicus and albino a . japonicus jointly , and finally achieved a series of innovative outcome , which laid the groundwork for popularization and industrialization of thermal resistant strain and albino strain .\naccording to several sources of information , the output of apostichopus japonicus in dalian was 906 tonnes in 1955 . with the improvement of breeding technology , the quantity of farmed sea cucumbers has increased significantly . in 1999 , the farming area was estimated at around 32 000 hectares and the output at 2 000 tonnes ; the following year , in 2000 , the farming area covered 48 000 hectares , while the output was 3 000 tonnes valued at 200 million yuan . in 2002 , the production reached 8 000 tonnes .\nyin - geng , w . , chun - yun , z . , xiao - jun , r . , jie - jun , c . & cheng - yin , s . 2004 . diseases of cultured sea cucumber , apostichopus japonicus , in china in : a lovatelli , c . conand , s . purcell , s . uthicke , j - f . hamel & a . mercier ( eds ) , advances in sea cucumber aquaculture and management , pp . 297 - 310 . fao fisheries technical paper no 463 . fao , rome .\nschematic workflow of a . japonicus genome assembly and annotation . the left side represents the genome assembly and the right side represents the transcriptome assembly that was performed in previous publications . to achieve suitable gene prediction , we integrated these two assembly results .\n( of stichopus japonicus selenka , 1867 ) selenka , e . ( 1867 ) . beitrage zur anatomie und systematik der holothurien . der philosophischen facultat zu gottingen in december 1866 , als dissertation vorgelegt . : pp . 291 - 374 . [ details ]\nthe spatial and size - frequency distribution of the japanese sea cucumber , apostichopus japonicus , in the far eastern state marine reserve and unprotected parts of peter the great bay , sea of japan was studied using both scuba diving equipment and a remotely operated underwater sub - fighter 3000 vehicle . the abundance of the japanese sea cucumber and the pattern of its distribution over the southern part of the reserve were determined . it was found that the density of sea cucumber aggregations in the studied unprotected parts of peter the great bay is not lower than that over the major portion of the reserve .\nat present , artificial breeding and culture of sea cucumbers is still a work in progress , but the scale of the production is increasing and a number of questions related to the culture techniques are being raised , calling for further studies on the commercial aspects of a . japonicus aquaculture .\nfigure 1 . the development of a . japonicus . 1 . gastrula ; 2 . early auricularia ; 3 . mid auricularia ; 4 . late auricularia ; 5 . early doliolaria ; 6 . doliolaria ; 7 . early pentactula ; 8 . pentactula ( bar = 100 mm ) .\nsgr of a . japonicus in treatment es0 with a negative value was significantly lower than that in other treatments ( all p < 0 . 05 ) ( fig . 1 ) . and sgr of a . japonicus in treatment es40 was significantly higher than those in treatments es10 and es20 ( f = 24 . 08 , df = 7 , p = 0 . 003 ; f = 16 . 57 , df = 7 , p = 0 . 007 , respectively ) . no significant differences were found between the other treatments es10 , es20 and es100 ( all p > 0 . 05 ) .\ngut microorganisms play an important role in the digestion of their host animals . the purpose of this research was to isolate and assess the enzyme - producing microbes from the apostichopus japonicus gut . thirty - nine strains that can produce at least one of the three digestive enzymes ( protease , amylase , and cellulase ) were qualitatively screened based on their extracellular enzyme - producing abilities . the enzyme - producing strains clustered into eight groups at the genetic similarity level of 100 % by analyzing the restriction patterns of 16s rdna amplified with mbo i . phylogenetic analysis revealed that 37 strains belonged to the genus bacillus and two were members of the genus virgibacillus . enzyme - producing capability results indicate that the main enzyme - producing microflora in the a . japonicus gut was bacillus , which can produce protease , amylase , and cellulase . virgibacillus , however , can only produce protease . the high enzyme - producing capability of the isolates suggests that the gut microbiota play an important role in the sea cucumber digestive process .\n( of stichopus japonicus var . typicus th\u00e9el , 1886 ) th\u00e9el , h . ( 1886 ) . report on the holothurioidea dredged by h . m . s . ' challenger ' during the years 1873 - 76 . chall . rep . zool . no . xxxix : 290 pp . [ details ]\nat the beginning of the experiment , there were no significant differences in wet body weights of a . japonicus between the five treatments ( f = 1 . 20 , df = 39 , p = 0 . 33 ) ( table 2 ) . by contrast , at the end of the experiment , final wet body weight of a . japonicus in treatment es0 was significantly lower than that in other treatments containing eelgrass debris ( all p < 0 . 05 ) . and final wet body weight in treatment es40 was significantly higher that that in treatments es10 and es20 ( both p < 0 . 05 ) .\nthe development of a . japonicus includes six major phases : fertilized oocytes , early development ( including cleavage , blastula and gastrula ) , auricularia ( including early auricularia , middle auricularia and late auricularia ) , metamorphosis ( including doliolaria and pentactula ) , juvenile , young sea cucumber and adult ( figure 1 ) .\nmixtures of z . marina debris and sediment were used to feed a . japonicus . according to the proportion of z . marina debris , 5 diet treatments in quadruplicate were designed , i . e . , es0 , es10 , es20 , es40 , and es100 , with eelgrass debris accounting for 0 % , 10 % , 20 % , 40 % , and 100 % in dry weight , respectively . the chemical composition of each diet was analyzed in 3 replicates . each diet treatment involved 4 aforementioned pvc boxes , and each box contained 2 individuals of a . japonicus with initial wet body weights of 25 . 12\u00b15 . 79 g\u00b7ind . \u22121 . the experiment was conducted from april 22nd to june 8th , 2009 in the laboratory at the institute of oceanology , chinese academy of sciences , qingdao , p . r . china . during the experiment , specific growth rates and fecal production rates of a . japonicus were measured .\nassimilation efficiency ( ae ) of organic matter by a . japonicus had no significant difference in four experimental treatments ( fig . 4 ) , with mean ae being 14 . 2 % , 14 . 3 % , 24 . 2 % , and 21 . 8 % , respectively ( all p > 0 . 05 ) .\nalthough a . japonicus always occurs abundantly in eelgrass - rich meadows in temperate northern coastal areas of china ; yet it has never been reported whether eelgrass detritus can act as a food source for sea cucumbers or not . in this study , decaying eelgrass debris and muddy sediment were mixed as food to feed a . japonicas . the ingestion and growth of the animals were then determined , in order to understand the importance of eelgrass meadows for a . japonicus , and thus clarify the importance of eelgrass - meadow restoration . it is suggested that eelgrass - meadow restoration is imperative and could not only be of huge ecological benefit , but also of potential economic value .\nthe initial and final wet body weight of a . japonicus was measured . animal feces were collected by siphon every 1\u20133 days , depending on the amount of produced feces . for estimation of assimilation efficiency ( ae ) of a . japonicus , fresh feces produced within 6 h were collected . fecal samples were dried at 60\u00b0c to constant weight and preserved for further analysis . subsamples of the dried food and feces were used to estimate organic material ( om ) by combusting ( 500\u00b0c for 3 h ) dried and pre - weighed samples . subsamples were treated with hcl vapor for 6 h to remove carbonates for analyzing organic carbon ( oc ) and nitrogen ( on ) with a perkin elmer model 240c chn analyzer standardized with acetanilide .\nin this experiment , the organic contents of food in the five diet treatments were 5 . 6 % , 7 . 6 % , 10 . 9 % , 19 . 6 % , 39 . 9 % , respectively ; and organic matter in the feces of a . japonicus was lower than that in the food ; and organic carbon and nitrogen were the same ( table 1 ) .\nin conclusion , a comprehensive collection of ests has been achieved for the sea cucumber a . japonicus using the 454 gs flx platform , permitting gene discovery and characterization across a broad range of functional categories . in addition , our study identified a large number of ssrs and snps , from which genetic markers can be rapidly developed to serve as tools for further genetic or genomic studies on this species .\nin comparison with the 454 sequencing data obtained from sun et al . [ 15 ] , 53 % of the hq reads obtained in our study did not find significant matches ( blastn , e < 10 \u22124 ) with their data . for gene annotation , 94 % of gene annotations obtained in this study were not found in their data . these above results possibly suggest more representative collections of a . japonicus genes in this study .\nin this experiment , sgr of a . japonicus in the five treatments were significantly different . sgr was only \u22120 . 65 % d \u22121 in the pure sediment diet ( treatment es0 ) , which was significantly lower than that in the mixed diets of z . marina debris and sediment . in contrast , the mean sgr in treatments es10 , es20 , es40 and es100 were 0 . 70 % \u00b7d \u22121 , 0 . 61 % \u00b7d \u22121 , 1 . 54 % \u00b7d \u22121 , and 1 . 20 % \u00b7d \u22121 , respectively ( fig . 1 ) . the occurrence of negative growth of a . japonicus fed with pure sediment might be due to the lower organic matter content ( 5 . 6 % ) of the diet , which might not satisfy the need for growth . the highest sgr of a . japonicus occurred in treatment es40 with organic matter content being 19 . 6 % and higher than that in es0 , es10 , and es20 ; while in the pure eelgrass - debris diet ( es100 ) with organic matter content as high as 39 . 9 % , the sgr was not significantly higher than that in treatment es40 ( p > 0 . 05 ) . sea cucumbers are deposit feeders , and clay sediment is an important component of ingested material , which is supposed to be helpful for the digestion of food [ 37 ] .\nfig . 2 shows variation in fecal production rates ( fpr ; g\u00b7ind . \u22121 d \u22121 ) of a . japonicus during the experimental period . sea cucumbers in treatment es0 had hardly ingested food during the experiment period , thus only fecal production rates in other treatments were considered comparable with each other . generally , fprs in treatments es20 and es40 were significantly higher than those in treatments es10 and es100 ( all p < 0 . 05 ; fig . 3 ) .\nin natural eelgrass ecosystems , deposit feeders feed on organic detritus after eelgrass decomposition , which not only accelerates the cycling of matter but also promotes the health and stability of the ecosystem structure . until now eelgrass meadows in shandong coastal waters with water depth 2\u20136 m have deteriorated badly , and some eelgrass meadows have even disappeared [ 43 ] . for the restoration of the declining natural resource of a . japonicus , it is suggested that the degraded eelgrass meadows should be restored in the northern inshore areas of china .\nwith a . japonicus , spawning often occurs between 2100 h and 0200 h . it is important to maintain a quiet environment and keep the tanks in the dark . male sea cucumbers usually are the first to spawn , which in turn induce the females to start releasing the eggs . at this point the number of spawning males should be reduced , only retaining a few strong spawners . following the spawning activity the tanks are drained and all the sea cucumbers removed . the eggs are gently washed and the tanks refilled with clean seawater at a temperature of 22 \u00b0c .\nto maximize the transcript representation in a broad range of biological processes , eight a . japonicus cdna libraries representing different developmental stages and adult tissues were constructed and used for 454 sequencing ( table 1 ) . after a single - run of 454 sequencing , a total of 1 , 061 , 078 raw reads with an average length of 344 bases were obtained . the size distribution of raw reads is shown in figure 1a . of all these reads , 92 % ( 974 , 004 reads ) passed through our quality filters and represented high - quality ( hq ) reads .\nthe hq reads combined with the public ests were assembled into 33 , 835 contigs and 199 , 011 singletons . approximately 80 % ( 774 , 993 ) of the hq reads were incorporated into contigs . the size of contigs ranged from 101 to 6 , 323 bp , with an average length of 630 bp . the size distribution of contigs is shown in figure 1b . the sequencing coverage of contigs ranged from 2 to 7 , 429 with a mean of 23 . as expected for a randomly fragmented transcriptome , there was a positive relationship between the length of a given contig and the number of reads assembled into it ( figure 1c ) . contigs were then assembled into 29 , 666 isotigs ranging from 104 to 7 , 697 bp with an average length of 1 , 042 bp ( n50 = 1 , 294 bp ) . the size distribution of isotigs is shown in figure 1d . the average contig coverage for each isotig was 2 . 1 . the isotigs were further grouped into 21 , 071 isogroups , which possibly represents the total number of genes in the a . japonicus transcriptome . the summary statistics for the a . japonicus est assembly are shown in table 2 .\nvalidation of rna - seq results using qrt - pcr . the relative fold changes of 10 genes expressed in a . japonicus coelemocytes at 4 h ( a ) ; 24 h ( b ) and 72 h ( c ) after lps challenge . gene abbreviations are : bf , complement factor b ; c3 - 2 , complement component 3 - 2 ; cat b , cathepsin b ; cd36 , cluster of differentiation 36 ; hsp90 , heat shock protein 90 ; lbp , lipopolysaccharide binding protein ; myd88 , myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 ; mys , myosin ; rel , nf - \u03bab transcription factor rel ; thy , thymosin \u03b2 .\neelgrass debris used in this study was from decaying eelgrass leaves . the decaying dark colored eelgrass leaves were collected from swan lake of weihai . muddy sediment was obtained from the non - vegetated seafloor surface in the inshore area of jiaozhou bay , qingdao . both decaying eelgrass leaves and sediment were dried at 65\u00b0c , ground and sieved using 0 . 18 mm mesh . the specimens of a . japonicus used in this study were also collected from the cove of swan lake . sea cucumbers were transported to the laboratory where they were acclimatized for a week , after which an experiment was carried out using 20 pvc boxes , with each box measuring 30\u00d740\u00d730 cm in size .\nin addition , 52 , 102 high - quality snps and 2 , 083 indels were identified from 10 , 333 contigs ( table 5 ) . the predicted snps included 30 , 366 transitions , 21 , 736 transversions . the overall frequency of all types of snps including indels was one per 393 bp . we randomly chose 32 contigs containing 201 snps to evaluate the preference of snp position in the coding regions . the result showed that 70 % of snps resided in the third codon position , while 18 % and 12 % in the first and second codon position , respectively . experimental validation was also carried out to evaluate the reliability of the predicted snps . fifteen of randomly chosen snps were subject to experimental validation in 48 a . japonicus adults using the high - resolution melting ( hrm ) genotyping method [ 42 ] . it turned out that 80 % of these snps could be validated , suggesting the majority of our predicted snps are likely to be true snps .\nthe history of sea cucumber fishery dates back for more than 1 000 years . over the last century , and especially the past 20 years , chinese research projects have focused on the breeding , artificial culture and processing of sea cucumber .\nafter the oocytes have been fertilized , they slowly sink and start their development . when the water temperature ranges from 21 to 24 \u00b0c the fertilized eggs require about 45 minutes to begin to divide themselves and finally develop into a blastula ( table 1 ) . the blastula is ciliated and rotates actively . after about 2 to 3 h , the hatched embryo gradually elongates and moves to the surface of the water column . during this ascent the embryo begins to invaginate and gradually develops into gastrula . a fully developed gastrula appears at the surface of the culture tanks 24 to 28 h after fertilization . twelve to twenty hours later the gastrula gradually elongates and begins to fold into the auricularia stage .\n1 . water temperature maintained between 21 . 5 and 23 \u00b0c . 2 . results obtained in research facilities in yantai and changdao ( china ) and japan .\nthe auricularia stage lasts from day 7 to day 10 at a water temperature ranging from 18 to 26 \u00b0c . early auricularia larvae have a symmetrical bilateral and a length varying from 320 to 600 mm . as the larva grows , the stomach increases in size . when the auricularia reaches 600 to 750 mm , its left cavity , which adjoins the stomach and gullet , begins to grow and gradually takes on a semi circular shape . at this point , the auricularia has reached the middle phase of its development . later , the cilia develop into five pairs of symmetrical circles . at the same time , the primary tentacles begin to develop as the larva reaches the late auricularia stage . typically , the ball shaped body of the larva at this stage is the early sign of the upcoming doliolaria stage .\nin the late auricularia phase , the larvae begin to shrink ; the five lipid spheres finally connect while the tentacles enlarge and move to the centre of the body . at this stage the auriculariae are still swimming in the water column ; they move from the surface to the bottom . the settlement plates should be placed in the tanks at this time .\nthe doliolaria phase usually lasts for 1 or 2 days at the end of which five tentacles reach out of the body . at this moment , the larvae begin to creep along the bottom for an additional 1 or 2 days . the number of cilia on the body surface of the larvae progressively decreases and x - shaped ossicles gradually begin to appear . the body becomes rounder and the first tube - like foot emerges on the left posterior section of the body . the presence of podia is a significant precursor to the juvenile stage .\nthe primary change in the juvenile stage is the appearance of tube - like feet ( which enables the organism to attach to a substrate ) and the ability to ingest food . the gut , mouth and papillae become clearly visible . in the next couple of months the juvenile sea cucumbers grow to about 1 cm in length assuming the appearance of an adult individual . the body pigmentation changes gradually from a transparent whitish appearance to a red , grey or light green colouration ( figure 2 ) . at this point the individual has reached the young sea cucumber stage .\nthere is almost no morphological difference between a young and an adult sea cucumber . in a hatchery facility the movement and feeding activity of young sea cucumbers sharply decreases when the seawater temperature exceeds 23 \u00b0c . the young specimens move from the surface of the water to the bottom of the tank . for this reason it is important to maintain an optimal temperature level in the culture tanks to ensure adequate growth and reduce the length of this relatively fragile developmental stage .\na large sea cucumber hatchery in northern china typically has the following facilities : a larvae culture volume of 2 600 m 3 divided into tanks of 10 to 20 m 3 with a depth of 1 . 4 m ; a juvenile culture volume of 4 000 m 3 divided into tanks of 30 m 3 with a depth of 1 . 7 m ( figure 3 ) ; a phytoplankton production unit with a total tank volume of 500 m 3 ; 4 filter tanks of 200 m 3 / h filtering capacity ; and 5 overhead troughs of 200 m 3 each . the facility is also fitted with a high quality water supply and drainage system as well as a heater to raise the water temperature when necessary .\nthe devices used for larval settlement include metal frames each fitted with 5 - 10 polyethylene screens measuring 50 x 50 cm and used as the settlement substrate ( figure 4 ) .\nfigure 3 . sea cucumber settlement device ( photo : a . lovatelli ) .\nfigure 4 . sea cucumber hatchery in the vicinity of dalian , liaoning province . juvenile culture tanks ( photo : a . lovatelli ) .\nthe optimum water temperature in a hatchery is between 23 and 25 \u00b0c , even though sea cucumbers can adapt to a range between 10 and 26 \u00b0c . the best salinity level is 31 . 6 , but individuals can tolerate salinities from 26 to 33 . the optimal ph is 7 . 8 , but it can range from 7 . 5 to 8 . 2 . the dissolved oxygen should be maintained at > 5 mg / litre .\nbroodstock harvesting . individuals are generally collected from the 20 th june to the 20 th july in the dalian area . at that time , the seawater temperature varies from 15 to 17 \u00b0c . a few individuals are usually sacrificed and dissected in order to adequately determine the maturation stage of the gonads . specimens weighing around 300 g and measuring around 20 cm in length are generally preferred .\nconsiderable care is required during the collection and transportation of the sea cucumber broodstock . it is important to : 1 ) select each specimen individually ; 2 ) keep the selected sea cucumber away from any source of pollution ( e . g . oil spills from the boat engine ) ; 3 ) avoid exposing the sea cucumbers to high temperatures or violent movements during transport ; and 4 ) avoid simultaneous collection of the sea cucumbers and other marine organisms ( e . g . bivalves ) in order to avoid damaging the broodstock .\nmaintaining broodstock . following collection , the sea cucumbers should be placed in a tank filled with seawater at ambient temperature . the tanks should be clean and the individuals kept at a density of 30 individuals / m 3 for 2 - 3 days . no feed is supplied . at this point the water temperature is gradually raised to 19 \u00b0c at a rate of 1 \u00b0c per day . after 7 to 10 days the broodstock can be induced to spawn . during this phase it is necessary to maintain the quality of the water in the culture tanks . water exchange should be carried out rapidly , when required .\nwhen the seawater temperature has been raised to 19 \u00b0c , the sea cucumber activity should be carefully monitored particularly during the night hours . the bottom of the tanks should be examined for the presence of oocytes as this is an indication that the sea cucumbers are likely to start mass release of gametes . there are two ways to induce spawning : the first method consists of drying the sea cucumber in the shade followed by a jet of violent water ; the second method uses a temperature shock by raising and lowering the water temperature by several degrees .\nthe clean seawater in the tanks should be stirred gently every 30 minutes ensuring that whirlpools do not form . edta is added at a concentration of 3 - 4 ppm while the larval density is kept at about 5 larvae / ml . the hatching success may exceed 90 % .\nselection of the larvae begins before the auricularia\u0092s tube - like foot is formed , or shortly after . an hour prior to the selection process , stirring is stopped in order to allow the auriculariae to gather at the surface of the tanks . malformed larvae are unable to swim and will sink to the bottom of the tanks . the larvae gathered at the surface are collected from the uppermost 0 . 5 m of the water column with the use of a fine mesh . these are then transferred to a new tank at a density of 300 larvae / litre .\nafter the appearance of the mouth in the auricularia larvae , feeding should commence immediately . early in the growth of the auricularia , the feeding regime should be in the range of 5 000 to 10 000 microalgae cells / ml . at the intermediate stage , feeding needs to be increased to about 20 000 cells / ml . monitoring the presence of algae in the stomach of the larvae helps the adjustment of the feeding regime . dunaliella is the primary algal species used and is generally mixed with diatoms and chaetoceros sp . the three micro - organisms are added in a proportion of 4 : 1 : 1 . the food mixture should be supplied in small quantities in order to maintain optimal water quality .\nrearing during the auricularia stage should be carried out in still water . water should be added to the rearing tank at a rate of 20 cm per day until the tank is filled . this usually takes approximately 3 days . once the tank is filled , one third to a half of the water should be exchanged daily using a siphon . as the larvae grow the water exchange rate should gradually increased . water exchange should be carried out gently in order to avoid injuries or loss of larvae .\nthe culture of auricularia larvae requires the proper control of all major chemical and physical factors . generally speaking , the ph and salinity values should remain within the range tolerated by the larvae . stirring the water or adding new seawater will control dissolved oxygen levels . it is important to maintain the temperature at around 23 \u00b0c . if the larvae are reared in natural seawater , the temperature will rise gradually with the seasonal fluctuations . appropriate measures must be taken to maintain it within the acceptable range .\nduring the larval culture , the primary harmful organisms are copepods ; however their presence can be contained through a proper water exchange protocol and the use of edta ( 3 to 4 ppm ) , if necessary .\nthe primary symptoms of disease are a slow development rate of the larvae and the \u0093rotten stomach\u0094 phenomenon observed in late auriculariae . this can be caused by food deficiency or sub - optimal larval densities . the use of quality feeds and maintaining low larvae densities can minimise the outbreak of diseases .\nafter the larvae have developed for 7 to 10 days , the five lipid spheres on each side of the larvae appear and the hydrocoel begins to develop . the larvae are now transforming into doliolaria . at this stage , the settlement substrates ( see figure 4 ) should be placed in the rearing tanks . the density of the larvae settled on substrate should be maintained between 1 to 2 individuals / cm 2 .\nthe rearing techniques at this point of the development of the sea cucumber juveniles are very important and should be carefully applied in order to ensure a high rate of survival .\nthe rearing tanks are fitted with a water flow through system . the presence of food particles and the relatively high water temperature are responsible for the proliferation of undesirable and harmful organisms , such as copepods and bacteria . the water in the tanks should be clean with a daily exchange rate of up to 200 % .\njuvenile sea cucumbers grow at different rates and it is therefore important to sort them according to their size . this is done using sieves fitted with different mesh sizes . while sorting , care should be taken not to damage or kill the juvenile sea cucumbers .\nraft culture . wooden rafts are usually located in sea areas not exposed to strong winds and tidal action . the sea cucumber cages are usually hung under the rafts or placed directly on the sea floor . during the rearing period , sea cucumbers are fed with sargassum sp . and other macroalgae . this farming method is not very popular due to the high costs involved .\nintensive farming : intensive sea cucumber aquaculture has only recently developed . large quantities of rocks or other suitable substrates ( e . g . roof tiles ) are placed in the culture ponds to increase the surface area for the juvenile sea cucumbers and to provide shelter from predators . a refrigeration system or underground water supply is used to lower the water temperature in the ponds in the summer months when high temperatures can reduce growth and feeding rates . these pond facilities are expensive and therefore intensive farming is only carried out by large and financially strong companies .\nthe most suitable sea locations are rocky sites with an abundance of macrophytes and with muddy and sandy bottoms . areas protected from strong winds and tidal actions are usually favoured .\njuveniles over 1 cm in length are used when stocking directly in the sea . the larger the initial size of the juveniles , the higher the survival rate . when stocking , the juveniles are placed in bags with a mesh size of 0 . 25 - 0 . 5 cm . a diver then places the bags on the sea bottom in the vicinity of existing rocks or artificially prepared rock piles . subsequently the mesh bags are opened and the juveniles are simply left to crawl away . larger juveniles ( > 5 cm ) can be released into the sea directly .\ngenerally , two years after stocking , the sea cucumbers have reached a marketable size and can be collected . harvesting is often done in the spring ( mid - april to early june ) and autumn ( october to december ) ( figure 5 ) .\nfigure 5 . sea cucumber harvested off the coast of dalian , china ( photo : a . lovatelli ) .\nsea ranching takes full advantage of the natural environment and this method is considered to be ecologically acceptable and therefore worth developing . however , due to a number of seasonal limitations and resource use conflict ( presence of industrial activities ) , this growout method can only be carried out in locations which have the right conditions .\nliao , y . l . 1997 . fauna sinica , phylum echinodermata , class holothuroidea . science press , beijing . 334pp .\nsui , x . l . & liao , y . l . 1988 . sea cucumber culture and its enhancement . agriculture publishing house , beijing . 288pp .\nzhang , f . y . 1958 . the preliminary report of aquaculture and sea ranching of sea cucumber ( apostichopusjaponicus ) . journal of zoology , 2 ( 2 ) : 65 - 73 .\nzhang , q . l . & liu , y . h . 1998 . the techniques of sea cucumber culture and its enhancement . qingdao ocean university publishing house , qingdao . 157pp .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncopyright : \u00a9 2012 du et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : financial support for this work was provided by the national key technology r & d program of china ( 2011bad13b05 and 2011bad13b06 ) , and the national high technology research and development program of china ( 2012aa10a412 ) . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\n( a ) size distribution of raw reads . ( b ) size distribution of contigs . ( c ) log - log plot showing the dependence of contig lengths on the number of reads assembled into each . ( d ) size distribution of isotigs .\nregarding gene annotation , all isogroups were searched against the swiss - prot database with an e - value threshold of 1e - 6 . of 21 , 071 isogroups , 8 , 229 ( 39 % ) had at least one hit , which corresponded to 6 , 963 unigene names . the sequences and annotation information of all isogroups are provided in dataset s1 and table s1 . more than half of the isogroups did not match to known genes most likely due to the fact that insufficient sequences are available in public databases from phylogenetically closely related species . the annotation rate in our study is also comparable to those ( 20\u223c40 % ) reported in the previous de novo transcriptome sequencing studies for non - model organisms [ 26 ] , [ 27 ] , [ 33 ] , [ 34 ] , [ 35 ] .\naestivation is possibly a protection strategy for sea cucumbers to survive from high temperatures [ 10 ] , [ 11 ] . studies on sea cucumber aestivation from different perspectives such as morphology [ 10 ] , [ 11 ] , [ 37 ] , physiology [ 10 ] , [ 11 ] , [ 37 ] , [ 38 ] , and immunology [ 39 ] have been performed . nonetheless , the molecular mechanism of this process is still far from fully understood . identification and characterization of candidate genes involved in aestivation would represent the first step to understand the genetic basis of aestivation in sea cucumbers .\ntwelve candidate dges were selected for q - pcr validation . q - pcr results verified the differential expression of these genes between the active and aestivating sea cucumbers ( figure 3 ) . however , it should be noted that many genes in the two libraries were lowly expressed and therefore were not included in the comparison . more dges would be determined from these lowly expressed genes by performing deep transcriptome sequencing in future studies ."]}
{"id": 1118, "summary": [{"text": "the black inca ( coeligena prunellei ) is a species of hummingbird found only in colombia .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests and urban areas .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it was formerly classified as an endangered species by the iucn , but new research has shown it to be not as rare as it was believed .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "consequently , it was downlisted to vulnerable in 2008 . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "black inca", "paragraphs": ["1st place adult black male huacaya , champion black huacaya male . judge : mrs . liz barlow\nbritish alpaca futurity 2013 1st place intermediate black male huacaya , champion black huacaya male judge : mrs . jill macleod\nhoniton show 2012 1st place junior black male huacaya reserve champion black male huacaya champion was his sire lillyfiled jack of spades of inca judge : mr . nick harrington - smith\nlittle is known of the life history of this rare species . the black inca is thought to breed between june and october ( 2 ) .\nthe black inca is endemic to colombia , where it is restricted to the western slopes of the east andes ( 1 ) ( 2 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - black inca ( coeligena prunellei )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - black inca ( coeligena prunellei )\ntitle =\narkive species - black inca ( coeligena prunellei )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nplease note : inca flagship is now owned by alpakka bromma and alpakka sigdal in norway . please contact them for inca flagship\u2019s availability in norway .\nthe black inca is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) . listed under appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .\nas the shang probably did in china , the black aztec and inca unwisely used their mongol subjects for low - level work and sacrifice . in the inca empire these were the\nyanaconas\n: when the spanish came , they rebelled and joined forces with the spanish to bring down the inca empire .\ninhabits humid montane forests , particularly where oaks are dominant ( 2 ) . black inca individuals have also been recorded in parkland and riverine forests ( 2 ) .\nbas national show 2014 1st place adult black male huacaya , champion black huacaya fleece . judges : mrs . jenny jackson , mr . nick harrington - smith and mr . rob bettinson\nc . 13\u00b75 cm ; 6\u00b74\u20137 g . male has long , straight , black bill , legs pale flesh - coloured ; almost entire plumage purplish - black ; throat patch small , greenish . . .\nbas national fleece show 2013 1st place juintermediate black huacaya fleece judge : mr . nick harrington - smith\ninca flagship is the culmination of 5 generations of careful selective breeding with the goal of achieving an outstanding black male . we here at inca alpaca are proud of our achievement with this male as he is the best jack of spades son that we have ever produced . inca flagship has a pedigree full of the most famous genetic lines found in australia and europe . his sire is our champion male lillyfield jack of spades of inca who is not only a champion himself but has and continues to sire the black champions of the uk show circuit . the dam of inca flagship is our own female inca anais who is not only a multi black show champion herself but she is from our strongest family line \u2013 jannarie rhanee . conformationally inca flagship shows strength , presence and perfect alignment of his limbs and jaw . he is heavy chested and exudes great capacity through his frame . the fleece on this male is where his value really becomes apparent . he is super fine , soft , bright and there is not one white fibre to be seen . each fibre is well crimped and forms a staple that is thin and perfectly aligned . the very high density and staple length this male exhibits resulted in the maximum cutting weight of all our yearling males . inca flagship is the ultimate in black males and seeing is believing . with an amazing pedigree which is full of champions and an outstanding phenotype inca flagship is the diamond standard for any discerning black alpaca breeder .\n2 ) the holy roman emperor and spanish ruler , charles v , ( carlos quinto ) was a black man .\n11 cm . dark hummingbird with long , needle - like bill . mainly black with conspicuous white patch on each side of chest and postocular spot . glittering blue shoulders . small greenish - blue throat patch . white - edged undertail - coverts . black and forked tail . long , slender , straight black bill . rosy - red legs . female slightly duller overall .\nblack inca is endemic to colombia , where it is distributed in the eastern cordillera in the departments of boyac\u00e1 , santander and cundinamarca , between 1200 and 2800 m . this species inhabits humid montane forests , primarily forests that are dominated by oak . it is a medium - sized hummingbird with a unique color pattern : purple black with a white patch on each side of the breast , shoulders contrasting with dark blue metallic . black inca currently is listed as endangered ( en ) in colombia and globally its conservation status is rated as vulnerable ( vu ) , due to drastic declines of habitat in its narrow geographic range .\nhere at inca alpaca we are committed to the long term success of the british alpaca industry . we have been breeding black and grey alpacas for over twenty years and in this time have helped many new owners establish and develop their own enterprise .\nwe will use these following two papers to try and glean an understanding of life in the inca homeland after the europeans came .\nayllu - a clan / network of families , that constituted the basic socioeconomic unit , and local government , of inca society .\nthe main threats affecting the black inca include habitat loss and degradation , largely as a result of human settlement and the clearance of the forest for wood and for agricultural land , including coffee and sugarcane plantations ( 2 ) . much of the remaining habitat is greatly fragmented and isolated ( 2 ) .\nyanaconas - in the inca empire yanacona was the name of the servants to the inca elites . it is important to note that they were not forced to work as slaves . some were born into the category of yanacona ( like many other professions , it was a hereditary one ) . they were to care for the herds of the nobles , do fishing , and were dedicated to other work , like the making of pottery , construction , and domestic service . yanaconas were sometimes given high positions in the inca government .\nthe black inca is listed under appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) . it occurs within a nature sanctuary in one part of its range , and so receives a level of protection in this area . there is currently a need to carry out surveys in some parts of the range and to study the life - history and breeding behaviour of the species ( 2 ) .\nz\u00fcchner , t . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . black inca ( coeligena prunellei ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe black inca ( coeligena prunellei ) is a dark - coloured hummingbird , which has a long straight bill ( 2 ) . the plumage is generally black , with a greenish - blue throat patch ; on each side of the chest there is a white patch , and the shoulders are iridescent blue ( 2 ) . as with most hummingbirds , the female is somewhat drab in colour compared to the male ( 4 ) . the narrow wings are adapted for hovering and the legs and feet are small and weak , a feature hinted at by the name of the order to which hummingbirds and swifts belong , \u2018apodiformes\u2019 , a term that means footless ( 4 ) .\nfrom the text above , it is clear that the inca could not possibly have been a mongol type people : simply by the mere fact that a\nfull - blooded , unmixed inca\ncould\npass\nfor a spaniard , simply by learning the language and dressing and acting the part . that simply would not be possible for a person of mongol phenotype . the corollary is that blacks were still prominent in spain at that time .\nabstract we present two nesting records ( habitat , nest , eggs and chicks ) of black inca ( coeligena prunellei ) , a threatened and ende - mic bird species , from two localities in the eastern andes of colombia . the nests were cup - shaped , constructed with scales from tree - fern fronds , fibers , moss and spiderweb . both nests were found in the understory of oak ( quercus humboldtii ) forest , indicating the possible importance of this habitat for the nesting and conservation of this species .\nmita - mita was mandatory public service in the society of the inca empire . mita was effectively a form of tribute to the inca government in the form of labor , public service was required in community - driven projects such as the building of their extensive road network and military service . all citizens who could perform labor were required to do so for a set number of days out of a year . overseers were responsible to make sure that a person after fulfilling his duty in the mita still had enough time to care for his own land and family .\nmacana - garc\u00eda , d . c . , j . e . zuluaga - bonilla , a . sua - becerra & s . chaparro - herrera . 2012 . primeros registros de anidaci\u00f3n del inca negro ( trochilidae , coeligena prunellei ) . ornitolog\u00eda colombiana 12 : 61 - 64 .\nmitimaes - i s a term commonly associated with yanaconas , but its meaning is different , as the mitimaes were used as labor for large projects . yanaconas were specifically not a part of an ayllu and were relocated individually instead of in large labor groups . an example of the differences of the classes is that mitimaes were labor that built machu piccu , but yanaconas lived and served the inca there .\nhistorians jeffrey cole and enrique tandeter testify to corrupt local officials . cole says ,\nmany of the indians who came to potosi were yanaconas - artisans , former inca retainers , and others who were not affiliated with an ayllu - men who had been displaced by the conquest . tandeter adds ,\neven more surprising is the fact that more than half of the forasteros of oruro were not exempt from the mita either . perhaps surprising , nonetheless it was common practice , especially if the spaniards wished to maintain and increase mining productivity .\ntandeter states ,\nin the area subject to the mita , the census showed a pronounced population decline of 45 percent since the toledo inspection . on the following graph cook demonstrates the total number of tributaries and mitayos in several regions encircled around the mitas .\nmany of the indians who came to potosi were yanaconas - artisans , former inca retainers , and others who were not affiliated with an ayllu - men who had been displaced by the conquest . tandeter adds ,\neven more surprising is the fact that more than half of the forasteros of oruro were not exempt from the mita either .\nonce the indios had been relocated from their native hilltop dwellings to valley reservations they were put to work and taxed . the type of work the indios were forced to do varied to some extent , but if it was not working in the mines , it was agricultural or domestic work . the produce of the work would in turn be taken by spanish officials as payment for the tribute . often after paying the tribute indios were left with very little and in some cases they could not work enough to pay the tribute . establishing the tribute and the mita was a devious plan by the spaniards , who tried to understand inca history and use it for their advantage .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\nvulnerable b1ab ( i , ii , iii , v ) ; c2a ( i ) ver 3 . 1\nthis species has has a larger range and population than previously thought . nonetheless , its range is still highly fragmented and habitat patches are decreasing in size and quality through ongoing degradation and clearance for agriculture . it is therefore considered vulnerable .\nvelasquez - tibata et al . ( 2005 ) used a habitat model to estimate the population at 4 , 070 - 8 , 720 individuals , and so it is placed in the band 2 , 500 - 9 , 999 mature individuals . this equates to 3 , 750 - 14 , 999 individuals , rounded here to 3 , 500 - 15 , 000 individuals . trend justification : the degradation of remaining habitat patches within the species ' s range continues , hence its population is suspected to be declining at a slow to moderate rate .\n2007 ) . most observations have been at 1 , 675 - 2 , 500 m , but it is known between 1 , 000 and 2 , 800 m ( schuchmann 1999 , t . z\u00fcchner\n. 1999 ) . breeding is thought to take place between june and october .\n. 1999 ) , with the significant exception of guanent\u00e1 - alto r\u00edo fonce ( wege and long 1995 ) . however , there are still extensive forests that are poorly known to ornithology in the serran\u00eda de las quinchas , west boyac\u00e1 ( stiles\n. 1999 ) . prepare a management plan for the species ( t . z\u00fcchner\n. 1999 ) . augment conservation activities in guanent\u00e1 - alto r\u00edo fonce fauna and flora sanctuary ( p . g . w . salaman\n. 1999 ) . protect areas of the favoured habitat holding significant populations ( p . g . w . salaman\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nlike most websites we use cookies . if you\u2019re happy with that , just carry on as normal ( close this bar ) - otherwise click here to find out more .\nspoon - billed sandpiper eurynorhynchus pygmeus was uplisted to critically endangered in birdlife ' s 2008 update to the iucn red list . photo : choi soon kyoo\none in eight of the world\u2019s bird species is globally threatened , and the fortunes of some 200 critically endangered species are now so perilous that they are at risk of imminent extinction . birdlife aims to improve the conservation status of all the world ' s birds , and hence species are often the starting point for our scientific research .\nthe birdlife secretariat is the red list authority for birds on the iucn red list , coordinating the process of evaluating all of the world\u2019s c . 10 , 000 bird species against the red list categories and criteria in order to assess their extinction risk .\nour detailed information on the threats to species and actions required helps to shape the conservation action implemented by the birdlife partnership through its preventing extinction programme , as well as by other organisations and initiatives including the alliance for zero extinction .\nvideo story : step into a desert island wilderness , where conservation work for turtles and birds is delivering heartening , long lasting , results : \u201cnow the fishermen work with us , they help us count the birds instead of killing them . they even adopt turtle nests . it is a big , big change . \u201d\nnew analysis reveals key factors that could help make or break a conservation project , and practitioners in africa and around the world can all benefit from their hard - won lessons .\nsince the seventies , millions of north american birds have disappeared and a third of species are now of conservation concern , a new report reveals .\nscientists and ngos are calling for a ban on veterinary diclofenac after finding it could kill as many as 6 , 000 vultures per year in spain , home to 95 % of the griffon vulture population .\ndeforestation since the turn of the century has driven at least 500 species of mammals , birds and amphibians closer to extinction , according to a new scientific study published in conservation biology journal .\n) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\nbirdlife international 2003 birdlife\u2019s online world bird database : the site for bird conservation version 2 . 0 . cambridge , uk : birdlife international : urltoken\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nendemic a species or taxonomic group that is only found in one particular country or geographic area . montane forests forest occurring in the montane zone , a zone of cool upland slopes below the tree line dominated by large evergreen trees .\nbirdlife international 2003 birdlife\u2019s online world bird database : the site for bird conservation version 2 . 0 . cambridge , uk : birdlife international . ( march , 2004 ) urltoken\nerritzoe , j . ( 1993 ) the birds of cites and how to identify them . the lutterworth press , cambridge .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : coeligena prunellei . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nluis eduardo urue\u00f1a , mauricio rueda , phillip edwards , dusan m . brinkhuizen , juanjaimemg , joe tobias , oswaldocortes , greg griffith , lars petersson , manakin nature tours , megan , dubi shapiro , diego calderon - colombia birding .\ngenetic data indicate that present species and c . wilsoni are sisters , together forming a sister - group to c . coeligena # r . taxonomic status of proposed form c . assimilis uncertain : could represent a valid race of present species or a variant ; further study required . described form c . purpurea ( popay\u00e1n , in sc colombia ) may be hybrid of present species and c . coeligena . monotypic .\nnc colombia on w slope of e andes ( se santander , w boyac\u00e1 , w cundinamarca ) and on both slopes of serran\u00eda de los yarigu\u00edes . specimen supposedly from c andes of quind\u00edo was incorrectly labelled # r .\nrather silent . calls include a strident single \u201ctsit\u201d or doubled \u201ctsi - tsit\u201d , often in longer series . . .\nprobably may\u2013oct , based on gonadal condition . no further data available , nest undescribed .\nvulnerable . cites ii . restricted - range species : present in colombian east andes eba . rare to locally fairly common . recent records near virol\u00edn indicate that it is . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nrecent molecular study found that most of the genera in the following sequence , from haplophaedia to heliodoxa , formed a monophyletic group # r . present family - group name selected over docimastini by first revisers # r .\nrecent molecular studies found this genus to represent a monophyletic group , with heliodoxa as sister # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\n\u2190 click inside , copy the code and then paste it into your web page code .\nthe only time i actually heard the species , during foraging . species common here .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis is a specific subject page , dealing exclusively with , or primarily with , the subject in the title . because of need , there are many such pages at rhww : usually , but not always , linked to primary pages . for those in a hurry , they enable a quick summary of many important subjects . the menu for these pages is here :\n1 ) the incas and the peruvian rulers before them , were not mongol type people .\nthe moche ruled in peru from about 250 b . c . to 750 a . d .\nthe amerindians were later\ndouble - crossed\nby the spanish . they then tried to sue the spanish in spanish courts for redress . see :\nlitigation over the rights of \u201cnatural lords\u201d in early colonial courts in the andes\nbelow .\ncorruption , the reforms of francisco de toledo and the backlash of indio social changes in sixteenth & seventeenth spanish peru . by jeffrey benson , western oregon university ,\nin 1569 francisco de toledo was dispatched from spain by king phillip ii to assume the position of viceroy of spanish peru . toledo was expected to install political reforms that would further subordinate the natives especially in the andes , provide adequate workers for the mines , and increase the overall revenue for the royal treasury . although toledo legislated several reforms his three most influential were :\n3 ) establishing a regimen of forced labor to support the silver mines of peru and alto peru { bolivia } . the reforms were readily accepted by the local officials , but not because they wished to improve the status of the spanish crown ; rather it gave them a chance to further corrupt and reap the benefits . prior to the reforms of francisco de toledo , political and economic corruption was already in motion . after toledo ' s reforms were instituted , royal officials , clergy , entrepreneurs and even kurakas ( local native chieftains ) did what they could to take advantage of the system and profit . toledo ' s reforms permitted a larger share of spaniards to exploit the indios ( indigenous peoples ) productivity , increase their revenues and appease the crown . to some degree , both indirectly and directly , the reforms encouraged the indios to assimilate , adapt , change or hide in order to escape the obligations of the indio caste system .\nwhen the spanish conquistadors arrived in modern - day peru , the yanaconas declared themselves \u201cfriends of the spaniards\u201d , as most peasant societies are very sensitive to changes in power balances . they then assisted the spaniards to take control of the empire . after conquest , the yanacona population exploded with people leaving ayllus in correspondence with mining . spaniards favored the individual yanaconas ( as they were an alternative labor force ) instead of the ayllu - based encomienda system , so the population continued to increase .\npotosi - is a city in bolivia ; it is one of the highest cities in the world by elevation at a nominal 13 , 420 ft . and it was the location of the spanish colonial mint . potos\u00ed lies at the foot of the cerro de potos\u00ed , sometimes referred to as the cerro rico (\nrich mountain\n) . a mountain popularly conceived of as being\nmade of\nsilver ore , which has always dominated the city . the cerro rico is the reason for potos\u00ed ' s historical importance , since it was the major supply of silver for spain .\ntwo things to consider about the local officials were their capability to perform and their integrity . a . m . fuentes writes about the inefficiency of tribute collection of the yanaconas by the corregidores ( spanish mayors ) at the potosi .\nhe writes ,\nin the secular government i referred to your majesty about the sustenance and origin of these people , the very moderate tax they pay in some regions , how the corregidores and royal officals collect it , the value of yanacona tribute at potosi , and the silver which is consigned to the foot soldiers of government . the rest is of the royal treasury but of little importance owing to the poor collection , which you should rectify .\ntoledo ' s reforms for collecting tribute clarified that tributarios ( indios who held and cultivated native property / land ) from the ages of 18 to 50 were to be subjected to the tribute system .\nin rural society , toledo ' s reorganization created imposing networks of authority , formal and informal , in which the corregidores stood at the center , armed with the police powers of the colonial state with that authority and protection corregidores began to take advantage of the system . the police powers were real enough , for corregidores and other officials jailed and whipped people , and impounded their belonging , under the guise of enforcing laws and punishing criminals . the corregidores also withheld tribute monies belonging to the crown in order to finance their own local business ventures .\nin addition to intimidating royal opposition and embezzling tribute , the corregidores also took advantage of the indios ' service . spanish officials also required andeans to serve as mitayos ( conscripted laborers ) in textile mills , on coca farms , and on public works projects , despite imperial and local laws forbidding the practices . when kurakas attempted to protest or take the local magistrates to court , the corregidores and their allies among the parish priest usually conspired to intimidate , abuse , jail , or even replace the ethnic leader with a more pliable candidate .\nthe lure of riches , though , did not solely attract spaniards , but also kurakas . there is not sufficient evidence that all kurakas took advantage of the toledan system , however ; andrien offers one specific example that permits historians to identify the vast amount of wealth that a kuraka could acquire . he writes ,\nthe fabulously wealthy and powerful diego caqui , kuraka of tacna . . . when diego caqui died in 1588 , his will specified that the kuraka owned an estate worth 260 , 000 pesos , including a coastal vineyard with forty thousand plants and three ships engaged in coastal trading . the example offered by andrien demonstrates the potential for kurakas to take advantage of toledo ' s reforms . andrien does go to clarify that diego caqui used his wealth to promote festivals and distribute gifts among the indios , however ; that cannot be said of all the kurakas that took advantage of toledo ' s reforms and of their kinsmen .\njohn v . murra notes a 1559 meeting , in which settlers were asked to discover the history of the indios . murra records the instructions of a royal official to several members of his staff ,\nyou will inquire if in olden times there were corporal services and in what form so that if these had prevailed , one would understand in all fairness what they could and should pay .\nin theory , mitayos were to work for one year then be paid and return home not having to serve again for about another seven years . zulawski notes ,\neach worker was to remain for a year in potosi and be paid for his labor . after his turn in the villa imperial , he could return to his village and theoretically was not to serve again for about seven years . unfortunately , the decline of originarios and mass migration away from the mita regions caused the seven years away from the mita to become three years . tandeter comments ,\nviceroy toledo had determined that each village would send to potosi each year a fixed number of indian men between the ages of eighteen and fifty , selected from a list of villages located in sixteen provinces centered in the altiplano ( also known as andean plateau ) , but reaching to the east and north , to the dividing line between collao and cusco .\nhowever , the bulk of the pressure fell upon the kurakas and the poor mitayos . the kurakas were in charge of supplying the local officials with a yearly quota of mitayos and if they were unable to accomplish this task then they and their family would lose their social status , be imprisoned and in some cases sent fo the mines . wightman further captures the intense amount of pressure bestowed upon a kuraka ,\nas a parish priest explained in 1689 , ' there is no indian who wants to be kuraka , because of the problems to be faced in the fulfillment of the different obligations ; and the corregidores and their assistants force the richest indian to take this office , to serve as kuraka of these ayllus , even though he may not be an originario of the town .\nwightman states ,\nthe toledo reforms , however , were particularly vulnerable to manipulation because the per - capita basis for tribute and mita assessments led indian leaders to underreport their base population . however falsifying census records was extremely risky for kurakas because if caught they ' d be demoted , forced to pay a tribute and handed over to public works . in addition , for indios that were not properly recorded in the census , their houses would be demolished , they would be taken out by force , fined and handed over to public works .\nfor the few indios that did survive their turn at the mita , when they return to their homeland , often they found that their land had been occupied by another party . wightman explains ,\nindians who did return to their home communities often found that their lands had been seized by spaniards , taken by neighbors , or occupied by migrants from other communities . this unfortunate turn of events is not surprising in that the percentage of survivors was fewer than 15 % . it is likely that the spaniards or neighboring indios did not expect . the return of the majority mitayos .\ntoledo ' s reforms clarified who was exempt and who wasn ' t , but he was unable to supervise local officials , so he was helpless to fully supervise his reforms . most indians didn ' t want to participate in the mita . so great was their distaste for the mita that they desired by whatever means to escape the mita service . cole comments ,\nrather , the indians responded to the worsening situation in the mines by using every available means to evade the mita . however , were a huge mass of the work force to change their civil status , then the local officials would suffer . to avoid such cases the local officials simply ignored toledo ' s specifications .\nin addition to the mita , indios were required to pay a tribute to the royal crown and local officials . each civil status group within the indios caste system had to pay tribute with the exception of the kurakas . andrien states ,\nkurakas were exempt , but members of the community clan structure ( tributarios ) paid the largest sums . those outside the ayllu or kin structure ( yanaconas ) and recent migrants ( forasteros ) paid lesser amounts . after the collection of the tributes the kurakas would transfer the goods over to the corregidores who would then deposit the sum to various offices .\ntoledo ' s statement clearly shows that one of the spanish intentions for replacing the indios in reducciones was to christianize them and teach them of the catholic faith . whether their intentions were genuine or not is debatable , but what is noticeable is the official approval to christianize the indios and change their religious upbringings . one method of assimilating the indios into the catholic faith was rewarding them with exemption from the mita .\nthe priest could bestow exemptions from the mita upon his favored lay assistants , and heap abuses upon the troublesome by accusing them of idolatry . thus , the more assimilated an indio became , culturally , the less he / she was punished , taxed , or forced to work , technically .\nmost of the cultural changes , though , geographical , economic , horticultural , and religious were examples of forced change . indios who changed culturally were not guarantee better treatment , tax relief or mita exemption . as demonstrated earlier many forasteros and yanaconas were still being subjected to mita service even though they had changed their social economic status . that is why , as some historians have argued , the indios further changed socially in order to ascend beyond the indio caste system by establishing themselves as mestizo status .\nin order to do this the indios aimed to change every social aspect from indio to spanish . jackson argues ,\nindividuals consciously changed their behavior to be able to move to another and usually higher racial status within the caste system . indios , for example , could escape tribute obligations and service in labor drafts such as the andean mita by passing as mestizos . methods of change included clothes , language , surname , occupation , activities , architecture , religion , baptism , catholic marriage , location of home and accumulation of wealth . jackson continues ,\nindios could change their mode of dress , learn to speak spanish , move to a city or away from their place of birth , take up a profession generally not associated with the indigenous population , and be reclassified as mestizos exempt from the unique legal obligations of the indigenous population .\nhowever , once the outward appearance has changed in an attempt to climb the social ladder , there still remained the legal documentation of identification .\none method of escaping the indio caste by legal documentation was to simple state that you had some spanish background and were , thus , mestizos . this was such the case for antonio and agustin carrillo who won exemption from the mita based on their claim to spanish heritage in 1603 . many local officials advised against the judicial conclusion fearing an onslaught of social claims . stern records ,\nthe audiencia of la plata ruled in favor of the carrillos despite the objections of its fiscal , who counseled the tribunal that a ruling in favor of the brothers would open a pandora ' s box of problems for the mita , for the judicial system would soon be clogged with petitions from indians claiming some degree of spanish ancestry . jackson concurs adding this excerpt ,\nthe indians change their name , and declare themselves mestizos and yanaconas , they dress in the spanish way and work as artisans or in the convents with the intention of not complying with their obligations .\nclaims of spanish ancestry were usually accompanied with wills , marriage records , baptismal records or testimony from a known spaniard . jackson discusses baptisms by stating ,\nthis was particularly the case with parish priests who recorded the racial status of newborn children . if the parents of a newborn child were members of the catholic church they could try to claim spanish ancestry at the baptism or provide a generous bribe to the local priest so that their son or daughter could be classified as a mestizo . in some cases the priest would even baptize infant boys as girls so that they could escape the mita service . another method that didn ' t involve using the church was the testimony of a spaniard , usually a hacienda owner . a hacienda owner who employed indios had to do one of two things when it came time to pay tribute ; 1 ) pay the tribute for the indios or 2 ) permit the indios to leave for a certain duration of time so that they could earn enough money to pay the tribute . if , however , a indio suddenly changed identity to a mestizo then the hacienda owner would no longer have to burden himself with his / her tribute situation . jackson notes ,\nhacienda owners , for example , conspired to have their workers removed from the tribute rolls . in this way , the hacendados would not have to contend with paying their workers ' tribute , or allow the workers time off to work elsewhere to earn money to cover the tribute payments .\nin a 1582 manuscript from la biblioteca nacional de lima titled\nlimpieza de sangre ,\ncontains the process by which a witness might have had to justify the social identity of another . in this particular manuscript dona juana fernandez de ugarte is the person of interest , who is trying to solidify her social class standing and the witness is martin hurtado de aviento .\nthere are several questions the court asks martin and in the manuscript he provides adequate answers to assure the social identity of dona juana . provided are several of those questions along with martin ' s replies :\nquestion 1 : first to be asked if they know the parents and the francisco de yrarrazabal , so the father and mother and grandfather and parents of dona lorenza de zarate said his wife , so the father and mother contained in this memorial and if they know who is the legitimate child of such parents .\nresponse : the first question he said , who knows that don francisco de yrarrazabal , twenty - five years now , what was known in this city , and has news of dona lorenza de zarate said his wife , because although he has not seen public knows or noticeable thing is his wife , and there were , this witness had known and understood , as a country and try and recruit very familiar with many relatives of the don francisco .\nquestion 5 : and who knows if the said dona lorenza zarate woman said don francisco de yrarrazabal is legitimate daughter of these parents and that she and they and their grandparents and those from father and mother every of them have been and are christians and clean blood and clean without spot or race or indian descent , moors and converts or another sect of newly converted and that these have been incurred and taken and if it would otherwise have been known rumor or what they know or have heard about .\nresponse : to the fifth question he said , who knows what is contained in this question because it has been treated and chat for a striking thing to be clean people , old christians , gentlemen . sons , content on this question , heard or understood without knowing anything to the contrary and also knows that to be the legitimate daughter of dona lorenza said parents , who saw her as such in seville in his mother ' s house .\nresponse : in the sixth question he said , that never understood or heard anything contained in this question , if any , this witness know what you think and could not be less . the play out of the interrogation creiltes an environment of uncertainty . the questions tend to represent a common procedure , however ; the responses are not very clear and direct , but are somewhat witty and taunting in discourse . if the court is to make a decision against dona juana they must explain their reasoning with evidence , otherwise , the social status of many could be at jeopardy . to approve of the social status of dona juana , the court has to clarify that the evidence provided is not falsified and the honest testimony of the witness was absolute . the atmosphere of uncertainty was not to be impeded with one trial . if indios had more success than failure at changing their identity through the spanish courts then there was no reason to not attempt social change and escape the spanish colonial corruption .\ntoledo ' s reforms permitted a larger share of spaniards to exploit the indios productivity , increase their revenues , appease the crown to some degree and indirectly encourage the indios to assimilate , adapt , change and hide in order to escape the obligations of the indio caste system . the indios were exhausted physically and economically and they used all sorts of methods to change socially ; language , clothes , lifestyle , occupations , food , migration of forastero status , etc . they took great risk to challenge the spanish court system and justify their spanish ancestry using wills , genealogy records , baptismal records , marriage records , and testimony from known spaniards . they risked much in order to liberate themselves from the corrupted reforms of toledo , the hardships of the indio caste system and from the abusive relationships with the local and royal officials . it was these atrocities that grew with fervor with the toledo reforms that caused the indios to seek ways of socially changing their identity and become mestizos .\nin the earliest days of the european invasion , when inka resistance , potentially so threatening , turned out to be virtually absent ( lockhart 1972 ) , the pizarros acquired a steadfast ally , the wanka / ca\u00f1aris lords . it was in their territory , xauxa , that the europeans established their first capital . along with thousands of soldiers and bearers , the canaris provided the newcomers with strategic information , plus the food and weapons stored in hundreds of warehouses built by the inka and filled locally ( polo de ondegardo 1940 [ 1561 ] ) . in one region where the inka had managed to cobble together some resistance , as at hu\u00e1nuco , the europeans had to call on canaris troops to help them put down \u201cthe rebellion . \u201d all this assistance provided the europeans was recorded with care on a khipu kept by the canaris lords . this record was first described by cieza de le\u00f3n , some fifteen years after the invasion . such bookkeeping later became the subject of litigation initiated at the viceregal court , at lima , by one of the lords who in 1532 had opened the country to the troops of charles v ( murra 1975 ) . this man , don francisco cusichac , felt betrayed by the ill treatment of his people and the neglect of his own privileges .\nthe only other group to be treated so harshly by toledo were the descendants of another wing of the andean elite who also sided from the earliest days with the invaders . these were the \u201csons\u201d and heirs of pawllu thupa , the one inka \u201cprince\u201d to make peace , early and openly , with the europeans . pawllu had helped them through extreme difficulties , particularly almagro\u2019s invasion of chile . the efficiency of that thrust south was attributed by many to pawllu thupa\u2019s ability to mobilize the lords of charcas , the region known today as bolivia . for his services , pawllu had been allowed to keep \u201chis indians , \u201d coca - leaf terraces , food - producing fields , and much other inka wealth . a test came in 1550 at pawllu\u2019s death : various europeans attempted to deprive the \u201cindian\u2019s\u201d heirs of these lands and people , but the emperor\u2019s representative , bishop lagasca , resisted such claims . for the next two decades , pawllu\u2019s many sons were a distinguished and rich lineage in cuzco . they spoke spanish , invested in the long - distance coca - leaf trade to the mines at potos\u00ed , and employed europeans in their various enterprises . the main heir , don carlos , was married to a european woman . thirty - five years after the invasion , pawllu thupa\u2019s heirs were the one group of inkas at cuzco who had managed to hang on to both status and wealth ( glave 1991 ) .\nwhen toledo reached cuzco on his way to the mines at potos\u00ed , he selected pawllu\u2019s lineage for special attention . as at xauxa , the lords were ordered to these grants are transcribed from the originals in the archivo general de indias , seville : section lima , legajo 567 , lib . 8 , fols . 107v\u2013108r ; see also other grants cited by espinoza soriano ( 1972 ) . letters from francisco de toledo to philip ii , found in the biblioteca nacional , madrid . see pawllu thupa\u2019s testament published in revista del archivo hist\u00f3rico del cuzco ( 1950 : 275 , 286 ) .\nlitigation over the rights of \u201cnatural lords\u201d display the credentials testifying to their services to the spanish crown . the papers were publicly burned . don carlos and his kin were accused of maintaining illicit contacts with those inka who had taken refuge at vilcabamba , in the eastern lowlands ( kubler 1946 ) . some twenty of pawllu thupa\u2019s heirs were put on trial for subversion ; during the proceedings , which lasted many months , the princes were kept in animal corrals , exposed to the elements . the testimony was conducted in quechua even though many of the accused spoke spanish ; a mestizo , one gonzalo g\u00f3mez xim\u00e9nez , \u201cinterpreted\u201d for the only record kept of the proceedings , despite continuous protests by the accused . xim\u00e9nez\u2019s version of what they had \u201cconfessed\u201d became the official transcript . the \u201cnatural lords\u201d were sentenced by gabriel de loarte to the loss of \u201ctheir\u201d indians and of their coca - leaf fields , which were granted by toledo to loarte . some twenty inka , including aged princes , don carlos , and several children , were deported on foot to lima . from there they were supposed to be shipped into exile to mexico .\nof the twenty , seven survived . they were able to rally support from some of the judges at the audiencia who were hostile to the viceroy . toledo remained in the highlands for almost another decade , the only viceroy to devote such personal attention to the andean population . he sponsored many institutional innovations ; some of them were consistent with ideas to end the las casas \u201cbenevolent\u201d approach to indian affairs , which he brought with him from court . he tried to put an end to the influence of bishops ger\u00f3nimo de loaysa of lima and domingo de santo tom\u00e1s in charcas , men from another era , who spoke quechua and had earlier corresponded with las casas ( las casas 1892 ) .\nof the people toledo consulted , the best informed were two salamanca trained lawyers\u2014juan de matienzo and juan polo de ondegardo\u2014who gave him diametrically opposed advice . matienzo , a crown justice at the audiencia of charcas , was frequently active away from his court . even before toledo\u2019s arrival in 1569 , matienzo had argued for the \u201cextirpation\u201d of the inka lineage that had taken refuge in the forest at vilcabamba . the high court in lima was betting on a reduction policy , resulting in the conversion of the refugee princes and their resettlement at cuzco . matienzo thought such a policy was dangerous . resettlement expanded the number of \u201cnatural lords\u201dat cuzco\u2014a loss of revenues for the spanish crown and the threat implicit in an additional focus of traditional loyalty ( matienzo 1967 ) . after toledo\u2019s arrival , he and matienzo formed an intimate alliance broken only by the judge\u2019s death in 1579 ."]}
{"id": 1124, "summary": [{"text": "kassina cochranae , sometimes known as the cochran 's running frog , is a species of frog in the family hyperoliidae .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is found in southern guinea , liberia , sierra leone , western ivory coast ( the mount nimba area , possibly wider ) , and at least tentatively , southern ghana .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "kassina arboricola was for a period treated as a subspecies kassina cochranae arboricola , but it is now considered a valid species . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "kassina cochranae", "paragraphs": ["endangered animals of west africa , birds , reptiles , animals , ( kassina cochranae , genetta bourloni , miniopterus schreibersii ) .\nconfused with kassina maculata and kassina cochranae prior to its description . channing , r\u00f6del , and channing , 2012 , tadpoles of africa : 238 , provided information on comparative larval morphology .\nwe follow perret ( 1985 ) and r\u00f6del et al . ( 2002 ) in considering kassina arboricola to be separate from k . cochranae .\nwe follow perret ( 1985 ) and r\u00f6del et al . ( 2002 ) in considering this to be a species distinct from kassina cochranae .\nkassina cochranae is a species of frog in the hyperoliidae family . it is found in c\u00f4te d ' ivoire , guinea , liberia , and sierra leone .\nr\u00f6del , m . - o . & schi\u00f8tz , a . 2004 . kassina cochranae . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 22 july 2007 .\nkassina senegalensis tested positive for batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in the eastern cape of south africa in kenton on sea in 2004 ( weldon 2005 ) .\nmark - oliver r\u00f6del , arne schi\u00f8tz 2004 . kassina arboricola . the iucn red list of threatened species 2004 : e . t56225a11443348 . urltoken\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - ivory coast running frog ( kassina arboricola )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - ivory coast running frog ( kassina arboricola )\ntitle =\narkive species - ivory coast running frog ( kassina arboricola )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nk . cochranae is locally abundant and occurs in a number of protected areas . a major threat to this species is habitat loss through water drainage and afforestation ( text from minter et al . , 2004 , \u00a9 si / mab biodiversity program ) .\nr\u00f6del , m . - o . , grafe , t . u . , rudolf , v . h . w . & ernst , r . , 2002 : a review of west africa spotted kassina , including a description of kassina schioetzi sp . nov . ( amphibia : anura : hyperoliidae ) . \u2013copeia : vol . 102 , # 3 , pp . 800 - 814\nr\u00f6del , m . - o . , grafe , t . u . , rudolf , v . h . w . , and ernst , r . ( 2002 ) . ' ' a review of west african spotted kassina , including a description of kassina schioetzi sp . nov . ( amphibia : anura : hyperoliidae ) . ' ' copeia , 2002 ( 3 ) , 800 - 814 .\nr\u00e3\u00b6del , m . - o . , grafe , t . u . , rudolf , v . h . w . , and ernst , r . ( 2002 ) . ' ' a review of west african spotted kassina , including a description of kassina schioetzi sp . nov . ( amphibia : anura : hyperoliidae ) . ' ' copeia , 2002 ( 3 ) , 800 - 814 .\nkassina schioetzi r\u00f6del , grafe , rudolf , and ernst , 2002 , copeia , 2002 : 801 . holotype : smns 09703 . 5 , by original designation . type locality :\ncomoe national park , aussichtsbergtumpel 1 , 8\u00b0 45\u2032 n , 3\u00b0 49\u2032 w , ivory coast\n.\nk . cochranae produces a characteristic odor when handled and is quite unpalatable , due to the production of defensive amines and peptides by glands in the skin ( roseghini et al . 1988 ) . in spite of these defenses , there are records of predation on this species by the yellowbilled egret egretta intermedia and the vine snake thelotornis capensis ( text from minter et al . , 2004 , \u00a9 si / mab biodiversity program ) .\nthis west african species is known from the forest zone of sierra leone , liberia , southern guinea , and extreme western c\u00f4te d\u2019ivoire ( where it occurs at least in the mount nimba area ) . earlier records of this species from further to the east are now separated as kassina arboricola and k . schioetzi .\nthis west african species is known from the forest zone of sierra leone , liberia , southern guinea , and extreme western cte divoire ( where it occurs at least in the mount nimba area ) . earlier records of this species from further to the east are now separated as kassina arboricola and k . schioetzi .\nthe common bubbling kassina is a very distinctive looking frog , the background is an olivegreen colour , which can look almost gold . populations from the taita hills of kenya are covered with regular black spots , each of which has a white ring around it , while other populations have stripes on the dorsum ( measey et al . 2009 , \u00a9 sanbi ) .\nin the taita hills , males have been heard calling in the height of both rainy seasons , march and november . males call from shallow water around dams or swamps hidden deep under patches of vegetation . the noise sounds like a series of bubbles rising up from the water , and this gives it the common name : bubbling kassina ( text from measey et al . 2009 , \u00a9 sanbi ) .\na medium - sized , sturdy , spotted kassina from the western part of west africa with short legs and arms . 35 - 77 large spots on flanks and dorsum . belly white to brown , sometimes with scattered small punctuations but never with large spots . none , one , or two occipital spots . throat of male most often dark , sometimes with black spots . gular strap of males narrow and straight . central part of belly smooth .\nfrom the western part of west africa with short legs and arms . 35 - 77 large spots on flanks and dorsum . belly white to brown , sometimes with scattered small punctuations but never with large spots . none , one , or two occipital spots . throat of male most often dark , sometimes with black spots . gular strap of males narrow and straight . central part of belly smooth .\nwestern west africa from sierra leone into guinea , liberia , and westernmost ivory coast . found in forest , sometimes open secondary forest , and savanna .\nthe species is arboreal , with the males calling from branches of bushes and trees 2 - 4 metres up in the forest . although apparently associated with a typical forest fauna ,\nwill often call on more exposed sites at the edges of ponds or beside roads . in sierra leone , where several treefrogs are known to behave differently from elsewhere in their range ,\nwere heard calling from the ground on several occasions . acoustically the voice is a typical\ncall , but analysis , especially at low speeds , reveals a number of pulses with a rising frequency , rather than a rising frequency modulation of a single note as is sometimes reported for this genus .\ndevelopment takes place as in other members of the genus . tadpoles reach up to 58 mm with a very high fin . tooth formula 1 / 1 + 1 , 1 .\nr\u00f6del , m . - o . , grafe , t . u . , rudolf , v . h . w . , and ernst , r . ( 2002 ) . ' ' a review of west african spotted\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfrost , d . r . 2016 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 ( 31 march 2016 ) . new york , usa . available at : urltoken .\njustification : listed as near threatened since although this species is still relatively widely distributed , it depends on forest and moist savanna wooded habitat , and so its area of occupancy is probably not much greater than 2 , 000 km2 , and the extent and quality of its habitat is declining , thus making the species close to qualifying for vulnerable .\nthere is no information on its population status , but it is probably not rare .\nit is an arboreal , forest - dwelling species , which can exist in secondary forest . there also records from moist savannah and montane savannah areas as well as montane grassland . it seems to be able to survive in habitat fragments and gallery forests , but is unlikely to tolerate complete opening up of its habitat . it presumably breeds in both temporary and permanent waterbodies , favouring large , well - vegetated pools , like other members of its genus .\ncertain populations are probably suffering as a result of severe deforestation taking place due to agricultural expansion , logging and expanding human settlements .\nit occurs in the mount nimba world heritage site ( guinea and liberia ) , and in the protected area at pic de fon ( guinea ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis account was taken from\ntreefrogs of africa\nby arne schi\u00f8tz with kind permission from edition chimaira publishers , frankfurt am main . updated by a . schi\u00f8tz , 2008 .\nschi\u00f8tz , a . ( 1999 ) . treefrogs of africa . edition chimaira , frankfurt am main .\nschi\u00e3\u00b8tz , a . ( 1999 ) . treefrogs of africa . edition chimaira , frankfurt am main .\nsyntype : loveridge , a . 1941 . proc . u . s . nat . mus . 91 ( 3128 ) : 125 .\nthe species occurs throughout mozambique and the eastern lowlands of zimbabwe , malawi , tanzania and kenya . it inhabits a wide variety of bushveld vegetation types , predominantly in the savanna biome ( text from minter et al . , 2004 , \u00a9 si / mab biodiversity program ) .\nthese frogs can be easily identified by their characteristic call that carries a considerable distance . bishop ( 1994 ) found that the males appear to have two distinct calling periods , one in the early evening ( 16 : 30\u201320 : 00 ) and another in the early morning peaking between 02 : 00 and 03 : 00 ( text from minter et al . , 2004 , \u00a9 si / mab biodiversity program ) .\nthe breeding season usually begins in early november and continues until the end of february , depending on weather conditions ( bishop 1994 ) . the breeding habitat consists of well vegetated pans , vleis , marshes and dams . once breeding has taken place eggs are laid singly or in lines of four or five , attached to submerged vegetation ( text from minter et al . , 2004 , \u00a9 si / mab biodiversity program ) .\nthe tadpoles are large and fish - like , they are up to 130 mm long with deep keel - like tails that arise from the top of the head ( text from minter et al . , 2004 , \u00a9 si / mab biodiversity program ) .\nlisted as near threatened since although this species is still relatively widely distributed , it depends on forest and moist savanna wooded habitat , and so its area of occupancy is probably not much greater than 2 , 000 km2 , and the extent and quality of its habitat is declining , thus making the species close to qualifying for vulnerable .\nits natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , moist savanna , subtropical or tropical high - altitude grassland , freshwater marshes , and intermittent freshwater marshes . it is threatened by habitat loss .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthe ibm strategic repository for digital assets such as images and videos is located at urltoken . this repository is populated with tens of thousands of assets and should be your first stop for asset selection .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nk . senegalensis may be composed of multiple cryptic species ( text from harper et al . , 2010 ) .\nthe dorsum is pale gray with large dark spots and a broad , dark vertebral stripe . toe and fingertips are expanded into small disks ( text from harper et al . , 2010 ) .\nk . senegalensis lacks the bright red - orange markings that are present on the thigh of k . maculata . k . senegalensis may be composed of multiple cryptic species ( text from harper et al . , 2010 ) .\nmales are 33 \u2013 40 mm in snout - vent length , and females are 33 \u2013 40 mm ( harper et al . , 2010 ) .\nthis species is common in savanna , grassland , and shrubland in coastal lowlands at elevations up to 2000 m . it tolerates some degree of habitat alteration and may be found in agricultural areas ( harper et al . , 2010 ) .\nk . senegalensis preys on a variety of arthropods , including termites , caterpillars , ants , flies and spiders ( loveridge 1936 ; inger and marx 1961 ) . the species has been observed to fall prey to the herald snake crotaphopeltis hotamboeia while approaching breeding sites ( text from minter et al . , 2004 , \u00a9 si / mab biodiversity program ) .\nzimkus , breda , bergmann , travis , weldo , c . , du prez , l . h . , african amphibians lifedesk\ntadpoles hatch within 5\u20136 days and the tadpoles develop slowly and complete their development in 52\u201390 days ( text from minter et al . , 2004 , \u00a9 si / mab biodiversity program ) .\nzimkus , breda , weldo , c . , du prez , l . h . , african amphibians lifedesk\nthey begin to call at dusk some distance from the water , the vocal repertoire includes an advertisement call as well as a longer , pulsed , territorial call ( text from minter et al . , 2004 , \u00a9 si / mab biodiversity program ) .\nmales call in groups of 3 - 10 from concealed positions in vegetation near , but not usually in , water . the call is a series of rising notes sounding like bubbles ( text from harper et al . , 2010 ) .\nzimkus , breda , zimkus , breda , bergmann , travis , weldo , c . , du prez , l . h . , african amphibians lifedesk\nbreeding habitat comprises both temporary and permanent water bodies , including well - vegetated shallow pans , vleis and marshes , as well as deeper dams ( r\u00f6del 2000 ) . breeding takes place from spring to late summer with amplexus usually initiated out of the water . females lay between 100 and 500 eggs singly in shallow water ( text from minter et al . , 2004 , \u00a9 si / mab biodiversity program ) .\neggs are laid in similar areas where males call in small masses ( text from measey et al . 2009 , \u00a9 sanbi ) .\nbreeding takes place in a range of temporary and aquatic habitat types , primarily pools with abundant vegetation . clutches of 260 \u2013 400 eggs are attached to submerged vegetation . tadpoles are large with high tail fins ( text from harper et al . , 2010 ) .\nthe tadpoles are also rather distinctive with a high fin ( text from measey et al . 2009 , \u00a9 sanbi ) .\nthis species ranges very widely in the savannah zone of africa from senegal , east to western ethiopia , southern somalia , and kenya , thence south to namibia , and south africa . records from eritrea refer to\n. there do not appear to be records from guinea - bissau , togo and burundi , but it presumably occurs in these countries . its distributional limits in kenya and northern tanzania with respect to\nare still poorly understood , and the distribution map should be considered provisional . it occurs up to 2 , 000 m asl in ethiopia .\nsujeevan ratnasingham , paul d . n . hebert , barcode of life data systems ( bold )\nthis account was taken from\ntreefrogs of africa\nby arne schi\u00f8tz with kind permission from edition chimaira publishers , frankfurt am main .\nballetto , e . , cherchi , m . a . , and lanza , b . ( 1978 ) . ' ' on some amphibians collected by the late prof . guiseppe scortecci in somalia . ' ' monitore zoologico italiano supplemento , 11 ( 9 ) , 221 - 243 .\nlanza , b ( 1981 ) . ' ' a check - list of the somali amphibians . ' ' monitore zoologico italiano supplemento , 15 ( 10 ) , 151 - 186 .\nschi\u00e3\u00b8tz , a . ( 1975 ) . the treefrogs of eastern africa . steenstrupia , copenhagen .\nlisted as least concern in view of its very wide distribution , tolerance of a broad range of habitats and its presumed large population .\ndescription : new species of animal and plant are being discovered all the time . when this happens , the new species has to be given a scientific , latin name in addition to any common , vernacular name . in either . . .\nbird conservation : global evidence for the effects of interventions . contents and sample chapter\nthis action might not be possible to undo . are you sure you want to continue ?\narkive is working with iucn - international union for conservation of nature , to source images of the world ' s threatened amphibian species . together with conservation international and natureserve , iucn has led a comprehensive assessment of the conservation status for the world ' s known species of frogs , toads , salamanders , newts and caecilians . to date , the project has involved the input of more than 600 herpetologists from around the world .\niucn red list category , and details of range , ecology , threats and conservation information for every known amphibian species , can be found on the iucn red list website .\nclassified as vulnerable ( vu b2ab ( iii ) ) on the iucn red list 2004 ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\n* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .\nwill find all uses of\nhyl . . .\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hylarana , hyla , hylidae , hylinae , hylaedactyla .\nwill find all uses of\n. . . hyla\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hyla , hylidae , plectrohyla , ptychadena hylaea , adenomera hylaedactyla\nwill find all records that contain stand - alone uses of hyla : e . g . , hyla , hyla arenicolor\ninterprets this as\nlithobates or pipiens\nso will find the union of all records that contain either\nlithobates\nor\npipiens\n: e . g . , lithobates omiltemanus , hylorana pipiens\ninterprets this as\nlithobates and pipiens\nso will return all records that have the character string\nlithobates pipiens\nanywhere within a record : e . g . , all members of the lithobates pipiens complex .\nplease note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .\nfor access to available specimen data for this species , from over 350 scientific collections , go to vertnet .\ncopyright \u00a9 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .\nendangered animals of west africa , birds & animals , ( sterna balaenarum , cephalophus jentinki , lamprotornis cupreocauda ) .\nendangered animals of west africa , reptils & birds , ( kinixys homeana , bycanistes cylindricus , lasser kestrel ) .\nendangered animals of west africa , animals , ( mandrillus sphinx , ceropithecuc mitis ) .\nendangered animals of west africa , animals & birds , ( tragelaphus eurycerus ) .\nendangered animals of west africa , animals & birds , ( procolubus banius , caracal aurata , psittacus eritacuc ) .\nendangered animals of west africa , animals , ( tragelaphus eurycherus , loxodonia africana , gorilla gorilla ) .\nendangered animals of west africa , animals , ( tragelaphus eurycerus , giraffa , panthera pardus ) .\nendangered animals of west africa , animals , ( crocidura buettikoferi , cercopithecuc \u2026 , cephalophus jentinki ) .\nendangered animals of west africa , birds , ( trigonoceps occipitalis , picathartes gymnocephalus , ceratogymna elata ) .\nendangered animals of west africa , animals , ( cobus polykomos , caracsl aurata , lesser kestrel ) .\nendangered animals of west africa , reptiles & birds , ( leptopelis macrotis , limosa limosa , mecistops cataphractus ) .\nendangered animals of west africa , animals & reptils , ( hexaprodonton liberiensis , loxondonta africana , mecictops cataphractus ) .\nendangered animals of west africa , birds & animals , ( aguila chrysaetos , addax nasomaculatus , nanger dama ) .\nendangered animals of west africa , animals & birds , ( pan troglodytes erus , hyaenidae , psittacus eritacuc erithacus ) .\nendangered animals of west africa , animals , ( procolobus badius , hexaprotodon liberiensis ) .\nendangered animals of west africa , animals , ( cerophitecus mitis , colobus polykomos ) .\nspecial blocks russia 2013 \u2013 international philatelic exposition . ( 6 diff . s / s )\ncarroll , r . l . , 1988 : vertebrate paleontology and evolution . \u2013w . h . freeman and company , new york , 1988 , 698\ncarroll , r . l . , 1988 : appendix . 594 - 648 . in carroll , r . l . 1988 : vertebrate paleontology and evolution . \u2013w . h . freeman and company , new york , 1988 , 698 .\nfrost , d . r . , 2000 : amphibian species of the world : an online reference . \u2013inet : american museum of natural history , department of herpetology : urltoken\njustification : listed as vulnerable because its area of occupancy is less than 2 , 000 km2 , its distribution is severely fragmented , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat in cote d ' ivoire and ghana .\nthis species ranges from south - western c\u00f4te d ' ivoire to south - central ghana , though within this general range it is known only from 4 - 5 localities .\nthere have only been a few records , but it is abundant where it has been found .\nit is a species of secondary forest and forest edges , rather than undisturbed primary forest . it only occurs marginally in heavily degraded former forest ( farm bush ) . it breeds in both temporary and permanent water , favouring large , well - vegetated pools .\nit is probably suffering from severe deforestation as a result of agricultural expansion , logging , and growing human settlements .\nlisted as vulnerable because its area of occupancy is less than 2 , 000 km2 , its distribution is severely fragmented , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat in cote d ' ivoire and ghana ."]}
{"id": 1125, "summary": [{"text": "monodactylus sebae , the african moony , is a species of moonyfish native to fresh , brackish and marine waters from the eastern atlantic , ranging from the canary islands down to angola .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it inhabits mangrove swamps and estuaries and can occasionally be found in lagoons .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this species can reach a length of 25 centimetres ( 9.8 in ) tl though most do not exceed 15 centimetres ( 5.9 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it can also be found in the aquarium trade . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "monodactylus sebae", "paragraphs": ["a picture of a monodactylus sebae . brian nelson took this photo of his sebae and gave us permission to use it .\nmono sebae ( monodactylus sebae ) are collected from the mangrove swamps and estuaries of west africa , gambia , the canary islands and senegal to angola .\npalko , barbara j . , 1977 . monodactylus sebae . . . a single rearing attempt . tfh 7 / 77 .\n1970 but before 1976 we heard there was a man named wesley wey , living in los angeles , who was breeding monodactylus sebae , which was then called the finger fish .\nthe family monodactylidae are found in western africa and the indo - pacific . the two principal aquarium species , monodactylus sebae and monodactylus argenteus are wild - collected as well as tank - bred and raised at fish farms in the far east and florida ( and sporadically elsewhere ) .\nthe family of monos comprises two genera , monodactylus and schuttea of four species . the genus monodactylus sports three of the species , two being regularly offered in the trade . of the others , examples of monodactylus falciformes and schuttea can be found in axelrod , burgess and hunziker ' s atlas , volume 1 , marine fishes .\nmonodactylus sebae are usually available to tropical fish keeping enthusiasts and are moderately priced . when available for purchase they are usually juveniles at a size of 1 - 1 / 2\u2033 to 2 - 1 / 2\u2033 .\nthis page has a story about visiting mr . wesley wey and listening to his story about breeding mono sebae .\nthe body monodactylus sebae is compressed and taller than it is long . overall body coloration is silver with four dark vertical stripes strongly developed across the head ( at the eye ) and body from the tip of the dorsal fin down to the tip of the anal fin . scales cover the anal and dorsal fins . this species lacks the yellowish coloration in the caudal fin seen in other species of monodactylus ( monks 2006 ) .\ntable 1 . states with nonindigenous occurrences , the earliest and latest observations in each state , and the tally and names of hucs with observations\u2020 . names and dates are hyperlinked to their relevant specimen records . the list of references for all nonindigenous occurrences of monodactylus sebae are found here .\nthe mono sebae has a flat , diamond shaped body with a larger anal fin than it\u2019s close relative , mono argentus .\na single specimen of m onodactylus sebae was found at blue hole in the national key deer refuge , florida in june 2017 .\nthere were many hundreds of them in that aquarium , and there were lots and lots of similar aquariums full of sebae fry .\nschofield , p . j . , and m . e . brown , 2018 , monodactylus sebae ( cuvier , 1829 ) : u . s . geological survey , nonindigenous aquatic species database , gainesville , fl , urltoken revision date : 7 / 14 / 2017 , access date : 7 / 9 / 2018\nit took a while to realize the tiny specks that looked like finely ground pepper were some sebae fry that were just a few days old .\nexcept for the fact that mono sebae are egg layers and spawn in a marine environment , little is known about the differences between sexes and their breeding habits .\nhe also said he had to increase the salinity a little bit every few days by adding aquarium salt to the water , or the sebae fry would not do well .\nmonos have strongly laterally ( side to side ) compressed bodies of a distinctive shape ; swimming in a swagging motion with their long - based , rear - oriented dorsal and anal fins . adding to their streamlined appearance , monodactylus lack pelvic fins entirely .\nmono sebae are found in fresh , brackish , and marines environments and are also known to tropical fish keeping enthusiasts as the african moony . guinean fingerfish , rambali finger fish , mono , and african mono\n( of psettus sebae cuvier , 1829 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nmonodactylus sebae is primarily found in estuaries and coastal mangrove habitat , but is able to live in both freshwater and marine habitats ( schneider 1990 ) . under experimental conditions , ideal growth for eggs and larvae is approximately 6 . 5 ppt salinity indicating it probably spawns in brackish water ( akatsu et al . 1977 ) . this species has a variable clutch size from 825 \u2013 5 , 800 eggs ( akatsu et al . 1977 ) and feeds on invertebrates and fish ( longhurst 1957 ; bauchot 2003 ) .\nmr . wey said one of the tricks that he ' d learned about spawning sebaes was to be there , when they spawned , and follow the sebae females with a net to catch a bunch of her eggs .\n( of psettias sebae ( cuvier , 1829 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nmono sebae eat fish , shrimp , zooplankton and a great deal of vegetable matter in the wild . in an aquarium environment they should be fed dried seaweed , dried spirulina , lettuce , brine shrimp and a high quality omnivore flake food .\nmono sebae grow large and as adults require an aquarium of at least 125 gallons . smaller specimens are frequently kept in freshwater , but as they grow and mature , they should gradually be converted to a higher water salinity in a larger tank .\nmono sebae are silver with a black line covering the eyes , a second line coming down from the front of the dorsal fin behind the gill plate to the front of the anal fin , and another line coming down from the tip of the dorsal fin to the rear tip of the anal fin . juveniles exhibit a tinge of yellow on the dorsal fin which fades with age .\ngreek , monos = one + greek , daktylos = finger ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; freshwater ; brackish ; pelagic - neritic . tropical ; 24\u00b0c - 28\u00b0c ( ref . 2060 ) ; 16\u00b0n - 17\u00b0s , 25\u00b0w - 14\u00b0e\neastern atlantic : west african coast , from cape verde to angola ( ref . 81286 , 81657 ) , including the canary islands ( ref . 7314 , 81657 ) and senegal ( ref . 28587 , 81657 ) .\nmaturity : l m 8 . 0 range ? - ? cm max length : 25 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 2683 ) ; common length : 15 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 2683 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 7 - 8 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 32 - 38 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 36 - 38 . diagnosis : body very deep ( depth greater than body length ) and strongly compressed , its anterior profile very steep ; head small ; eyes large ( ref . 81286 , 81657 ) . mouth small , oblique ( ref . 81286 , 81657 ) , maxilla extending beyond level of anterior eye ( ref . 81286 ) . jaws with villiform teeth ; granular teeth present on roof of mouth and tongue ( ref . 81286 ) . preopercle smooth or with minute serrations ; 1st gill arch with 22 - 27 / 1 / 7 - 11 ( total 31 - 37 ) gill rakers ( ref . 81657 ) . dorsal and anal fins triangular ( ref . 81657 ) , long - based and very high anteriorly ( ref . 81286 , 81657 ) . only tip of dorsal fin spines visible ( ref . 81286 , 81657 ) . pectoral fins short ; pelvic fins present in young individuals , rudimentary or absent in adults ( ref . 81286 ) . scales covering all of body , head and bases of dorsal and anal fins ( ref . 81286 , 81657 ) . about 50 tubed scales in lateral line ( ref . 81286 ) . caudal fin slightly emarginated ( ref . 81657 ) . coloration : silvery grey / brownish ( ref . 81286 , 81657 ) , somewhat darker dorsally ( ref . 81657 ) , with 4 dark brownish - black / soot - coloured vertical bars , more distinct in young individuals ( ref . 81286 , 81657 ) and already fading or almost absent at > 50 mm sl ( ref . 81657 ) , 1st at level of eye , 2nd between dorsal - and anal - fin origins , 3rd between tips of these fins , and 4th on caudal peduncle ( ref . 81286 , 81657 ) . in adults , dorsal and anal fin tips , basal part of dorsal and anal fins and hind caudal edge blackish ; dorsal and anal fin edge and basal part of caudal fin pale ; pectoral fins smoky grey to white or even transparent ( ref . 81657 ) .\nvery common in estuaries and lagoons ( ref . 2683 , 81286 , 81657 ) where reproduction takes place , marshes and lower courses of rivers , sometimes ascending over long distances into freshwater ( ref . 81286 , 81657 ) . also lives in the sea , mainly in shallow bays and harbour areas ( ref . 81286 ) . sometimes found in shoals composed of several hundred individuals ( ref . 81657 ) . feeds on fish , shrimps , zooplankton ( ref . 28587 , 81657 ) and various small invertebrates ( ref . 81657 ) . neither anterolateral glandular groove nor venom gland is present ( ref . 57406 ) . maximum reported standard length 200 mm ( ref . 81657 ) .\ndistinct pairing ( ref . 205 ) . after a stormy courtship a female lays 15 , 000 or more eggs which hatch in 24 hours ( ref . 7020 ) .\nbauchot , m . l . , 2003 . monodactylidae . p . 512 - 513 . in d . paugy , c . l\u00e9v\u00eaque and g . g teugels ( eds . ) the fresh and brackish water fishes of west africa volume 2 . coll . faune et flore tropicales 40 . institut de recherche de d\u00e9veloppement , paris , france , mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle , paris , france and mus\u00e9e royal de l ' afrique central , tervuren , belgium , 815p . ( ref . 81286 )\n) : 24 . 4 - 27 . 9 , mean 27 . 2 ( based on 22 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5781 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 02455 ( 0 . 01329 - 0 . 04535 ) , b = 2 . 92 ( 2 . 75 - 3 . 09 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 9 \u00b10 . 64 se ; based on food items .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 13 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of chaetodon rhombeus bloch & schneider , 1801 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ntheir coloration and general health can be maximized by gradually changing their environment from brackish to saltwater as the fish grow older .\nmonos can be kept with other brackish water fish such as puffers , scats , dragon gobies , other monos , and archer fish . the tank should dimly lit with an aragonite sand or gravel substrate , and decorated with rocks and plants ( such as mangroves ) that thrive in brackish water environments .\nminimum tank size : 125 gallons care level : moderate temperament : peaceful aquarium hardiness : moderately hardy water conditions : 75 - 82\u00b0 f , kh 8 - 12 , ph 7 . 2 - 8 . 4 salinity : 1 . 006 max . size : 10\u2033 color form : silver , black diet : omnivore compatibility : multiple species brackish water tank origin : coastal west africa family : monodactylidae life span : 7 years aquarist experience level : intermediate\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe nonindigenous occurrences section of the nas species profiles has a new structure . the section is now dynamically updated from the nas database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information . occurrences are summarized in table 1 , alphabetically by state , with years of earliest and most recent observations , and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed . the table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states , years , and drainages selected . references to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables .\neastern tropical atlantic ocean along the african coast from senegal to angola and the canary islands ( desoutter 1990 ) .\nakatsu , s . , y . ogasawara , and f . yasuda . 1977 . spawning behavior and development of eggs and larvae of the striped fingerfish ,\ndesoutter , m . 1990 . monodactylidae . in : check - list of fishes of the eastern tropical atlantic . qu\u00e9ro , j . c . , j . c . hureau , c . karrer , a . post , and l . saldanha ( eds ) . unesco , portugal , 1492 pp .\nbauchot , m . l . , 2003 . monodactylidae . p . 512 - 513 . in d . paugy , c . l\u00e9v\u00eaque and g . g teugels ( eds . ) the fresh and brackish water fishes of west africa volume 2 . coll . faune et flore tropicales 40 . institut de recherche de d\u00e9veloppement , paris , france , mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle , paris , france and mus\u00e9e royal de l ' afrique central , tervuren , belgium , 815p .\nlonghurst , a . r . 1957 . the food of the demersal fish of a west african estuary . journal of animal ecology 26 ( 2 ) : 369 - 387 .\nmonks , n . 2006 . brackish - water fishes ; an aquarist\u2019s guide to identification , care , and husbandry . t . f . h . publications . neptune city , new jersey . 383p .\nschneider , w . , 1990 . fao species identification sheets for fishery purposes . field guide to the commercial marine resources of the gulf of guinea . prepared and published with the support of the fao regional office for africa . rome : fao . 268 p .\nthis information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision . it is being provided to meet the need for timely best science . the information has not received final approval by the u . s . geological survey ( usgs ) and is provided on the condition that neither the usgs nor the u . s . government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information .\nthe data represented on this site vary in accuracy , scale , completeness , extent of coverage and origin . it is the user ' s responsibility to use these data consistent with their intended purpose and within stated limitations . we highly recommend reviewing metadata files prior to interpreting these data .\ncitation information : u . s . geological survey . [ 2018 ] . nonindigenous aquatic species database . gainesville , florida . accessed [ 7 / 9 / 2018 ] .\ncontact us if you are using data from this site for a publication to make sure the data are being used appropriately and for potential co - authorship if warranted . for queries involving fish , please contact pam fuller . for queries involving invertebrates , contact amy benson .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nwith names like moonfish and fingerfish you know the monos have got to be some spaced - out aquarium fishes . and indeed , behaviorally and structurally they are .\nthough monos are make periodic incursions into the realm of brackish ( fresh & salt mixed waters ) in the wild , these are truly marine fishes that generally do well only when maintained in full - strength seawater or carefully maintained hard , alkaline brackish . the\nsecret\nto their optimum health in captivity are besides the aforementioned suitable , stable environment , is proper / sufficient diet .\n( linnaeus 1758 ) , the common mono , aka malayan angel fish , silver moony , is broadly equilateral triangle - shaped ; a beautiful shimmering silver fish with yellow highlighted areas immediately in front of the dorsal and anal fins . indo - pacific in distribution , including the red sea . to more than eight inches in height . these ones in the long beach aquarium of the pacific .\n, the african mono , or finger fish , is much more deep - bodied , and bears four stark black vertical bars on its body . it gets progressively taller with age , growth .\n, the african mono , or finger fish , is much more deep - bodied , and bears four stark black vertical bars on its body . it gets progressively taller with age , growth . ( cuvier 1829 ) , the african mono , or finger fish , is much more deep - bodied , and bears four stark black vertical bars on its body . it gets progressively taller with age , growth . eastern atlantic , senegal to angola coastal and canary islands distribution . to about ten inches in height . shown are tank bred and reared juvenile of one inch height and an individual of five inches .\nthe two commonly encountered species attain eight inches in height , though specimens of more than half that are rare in captivity .\nthe best small ( 1 - 2\nor less ) monos are farm - raised ; unsurprisingly , these adapt more readily to captive conditions . often , tank - bred and raised specimens are half the cost , and more than triple the survival rate of wild caught . how to tell which is which ? ask your supplier , and take a look at their stock . non - wild monos are typically uniform in size , color , behavior , compared with wild stock . a further benefit for non - marine aquarists , tank - raised specimens tend to be brackish - fresh acclimated from the get - go .\nlarger monos ( and many small ones ) are collected in seawater , or polluted fresh . some do well in acclimating to big tanks ( see below ) , many do not . take care to thoroughly discuss source and replacement matters with whoever is providing you . my advice is to wait a good week or two after arrival before making a purchase , and then to obtain a small , odd - numbered school ( these are social animals ) , and\nbatch - process\nthem , dips / quarantine / introduction to the main system , all together .\ncolor and cut marks are telling . select for specimens with good , complete silvery scaling ; and clear , shiny eyes . specimens darken for several reasons , fear , unacceptable water conditions , cover of night . . . during daytime they should be out and shiny bright .\nshould the dealers specimens be less - than exemplary , don ' t be shy about requesting that more be\nspecial ordered\n, or pass them by for later consideration .\na final word , regarding netting . how fast are these fishes ? fast . don ' t thrash the system and its occupants trying to catch them ; remove all the decor , and carefully and skillfully wield two nets , one for directing the other for scooping upwards once the fish are cornered . trust me on this .\nif not going with a totally marine set - up , watch out for the vagaries of partially concentrated seawater ; principally be wary of salinity\ndrift\nfrom evaporation and salt depositing . maybe it goes without writing that your gear must be\nrust - proof\nas well if you are adding salt .\nfor physical , chemical and biological stability ' s sake , the system should be as large as practical , at least forty gallons says i . smaller tanks are inherently too easily given to crashes , and don ' t provide cruising and growing space .\na high , and stable specific gravity should be attempted ; the osmotic shock and concomitant stress / bioadaptation to rapid changes in salinity are to be avoided . monos can / will adapt to less salty water but such changes should be\nsynthetic or natural seawater of a constant 1 . 021 - 1 . 025 specific gravity is ideal for monos . they can , and some populations do , live in more freshwater ( to feed and breed ) , but these fishes are at their best color , behavior and longevity in full - concentration seawater .\nif you ' re not going the totally saltwater route : a timely mention of the need to make sure other tank specimens can tolerate salt levels . all fishes , invertebrates and plants have ranges and rates of adaptation to osmotic pressure ; it is necessary to be aware and accommodate all that you intend to keep together .\ntemperature should range as per tropical marines , in the mid seventies to low eighties degree f . , and ph elevated , and stable in the upper sevens to low eights .\nlighting is largely a matter of personal preference , unless you ' re utilizing live rock , plants , or other photosynthetic organisms . for beauty ' s sake , brighter is better .\na simple marine\nfish - only\narrangement with an undergravel filter augmented by an outside power unit will do . better are set - ups that utilize more sophisticated modes , such as live - rock and skimmer\nberlin\nmethods , in - tank nitrate reducing contrivances . . . best is a remoted\nrefugium\nfilter / manipulation tank arrayed in tandem with the main display unit where filtration and more can be accomplished without disturbing the principal tank at all .\nbrackish and seawater holds less dissolved gas than fresh , hence a plug for the use of a redundant mechanical aerator in addition to other forms of agitation .\nthe regular , ongoing upkeep of your system is the key to your success . weekly checking and adjusting of water quality is de rigueur . get and use a good hydrometer ; the relatively non - breakable plastic box - type are my preference .\npre - mixing your make - up water in a suitable container for proper specific gravity , ph and hardness ( all automatic with a good synthetic salt mix ) is definitely a good idea . a clean , dedicated plastic trash can or alternate container located next to the system makes changes a breeze .\nunlike many other fishes promoted as\nbrackish\n, e . g . scats , datnoides , some of the puffers , targetfishes . . . , the monodactylids shy on the side of being non - quarrelsome . though not outright peaceful , most specimens will not harass other\npar\nmarine fishes or invertebrates .\nmonos can be territorially aggressive amongst themselves , particularly in small system volumes , or where a new individual is added to an established community ; therefore the suggestion of introducing all your monos in one throw and maintaining them in good sized schools if room permits . four or more individuals are preferable to a smaller number where one or more are bullied more or less constantly . observe your livestock .\nthis can be an area fraught with danger . many monos are unwittingly killed by improper or rushed acclimation . water conditions , in particular temperature , specific gravity and ph should be matched as close as practical between the source and your intermediate / holding system . the new specimens should be left in the dark for a day , and over a period of weeks brought into approximately the same water quality as the dealer / source .\nfor the most part , monodactylids leave other organisms be and are too fast and agile to be caught by any but the most determined large piscivore .\nmonos cannot be easily distinguished sexually ; they are egg dispersers with planktonic young . commercial production incorporates hormonal and / or environmental manipulation , hatching and rearing the fry in saline water fed on screened live algal and crustacean matter .\nmonos are voracious feeders that require large , frequent meaty and vegetable meals . live foods are eagerly accepted , and they are easily trained onto prepared mashes , dried and frozen foods .\nwhatever mix of foodstuffs you use , make sure your monos are getting their share ; to the point of visible fullness . most of the monos i ' ve encountered that were otherwise appropriately acquired and housed , and lost , perished due to lack of nutrition . these are immensely active , continuously curious fishes that can waste away in days if under - fed .\nmonos are remarkably tough and resistant to biological disease , when and where maintained properly . invariably infectious and parasitic problems are linked to diminished water quality . if / when you think your fishes are coming down with\nsomething\n,\ncheck ph , ammonia , nitrite , and specific gravity . . . and adjust through moderate water changes .\nthe time to observe real and potential disease problems is during feeding . watch your charges closely ; are all your monos feeding ? are they interacting\nnormally\n? a non - feeding mono is definitely cause for concern ; a food - strike should be easily turned around by an offer of live food . if not , be on the look out for bullying , and get the bullied specimen ( s ) to a neutral corner .\nand diligent brackish water aquarists . learn to pick out decent specimens and grant them the graces of a large , stable environment and plenty of food , and you ' ll enjoy them for many\nmoons\n.\nburgess , warren e . , axelrod , herbert r . & raymond e . hunziker iii , 1990 . volume 1 , marine fishes , atlas of aquarium fishes reference book . t . f . h . publications , inc . nj .\ndawes , john , 1989 . bolstering sales of brackish water fish . pets supplies marketing 7 / 89 .\ngibbs , max , 1995 . the brackish aquarium . fama 4 / 95 .\ngos , michael w . , 1977 . the brackish aquarium . tfh 10 / 77 .\ngos , michael w . , 1980 . the brackish system , parts 1 & 2 . fama 11 , 12 / 80 .\nnelson , joseph , 1994 . fishes of the world . john wiley & sons , inc . , ny .\ntaylor , edward c . , 1982 . keeping a brackish aquarium , parts i , ii . tfh 5 , 6 / 82\nvolkart , bill , 1989 . the brackish aquarium , part 3 : the fishes . tfh 8 / 89 .\ncichlids for sale south american discus fish angelfish ram fish metallic blue acara oscar fish eartheater pike cichlid green terror red terror peacock bass apistos . dwarf cichlids festivum severum\nfeatured fish 319 featured fish 318 featured fish 317 featured fish 316 . . .\nabout us our terms our disclaimer our warranty your privacy f . a . q . link to us help us improve advertise here contact us\nw e got to see his large breeder fish and lots - and - lots of babies . it was all very cool !\ni think all of l . a . had the same area code , 213 , at that time . i called information for area code 213 and got mr . wey ' s phone number , telephoned him , and asked if we could visit him . he said ok and gave me directions to his house .\n, because we were thinking about fish and how to spawn them all the time .\nhow to spawn livebearers like mollies and swordtails , killifish like aphyosemion gardneri , cynolebias nigripinnis , and nothobranchius guentheri , cichlids like angelfish and convicts , and many other types of fish interested us .\nbut brackish water fish , such as monos , really fascinated us . they were kind of like the ultimate to us , and practically no one anywhere in the world had spawned them .\nmr . wey ' s house was in a residential neighborhood that was very much like the neighborhood where we lived in our parent ' s home .\nhe opened the front door , and in a few seconds we were looking at a very large aquarium by the back of his living room near the door to the kitchen .\nin this large aquarium were 4 or 5 huge mono . sebaes . they measured at least 14\ntall , which was much bigger than any brackish water fish that we ' d ever seen .\nmr . wey explained to us about how he conditioned his sebaes to breed . first he increased the salinity of the water until the water had as high a concentration of salt as seawater .\nhe measured the salinity with a hydrometer , and he showed us his hydrometer , then he dipped the hydrometer into the aquarium water to show us how he measured the salinity of the water .\nhe kept the sebaes in sea water and fed them very well for a few weeks , and the females would fill with eggs . then each day he would remove 4 or 5 inches of water and replace it with fresh water .\nso the salinity would decrease each day , and after a few days his huge sebaes would spawn . he said they would swim in a tight circle , and he held his hands about 18\napart to show us the diameter of the circle .\naround and around they ' d go . the females releasing eggs and the males presumably fertilizing the newly released eggs .\nhe said the eggs were very very small . almost too small to be seen .\nit had to be a fine net , because the eggs were so small .\nhow many eggs do you get from a spawn , mr . wey ?\n, i asked , and he replied ,\ni don ' t know exactly , but i ' ve estimated that i get at least 50 , 000 from two or three females during each spawning . the eggs don ' t all hatch , and the ones that hatch , don ' t all survive .\nlets go out to my garage , and i ' ll show you some of the sebaes that i ' m raising now .\non the way i noticed that he had a round swimming pool filled with very dark green water like the water in a pond , which seemed strange , but there was no time to ask about that now , because we were going inside his huge garage that was filled with aquariums .\nright inside the door to the garage were two large aquariums that were side by side and full of more huge sebaes .\ni watched the sebaes swim back and forth for a while , and realized that they could swim from one aquarium into the other aquarium . how could that be ?\ni asked mr . wey , and he said that he ' d done it like thus and so , but i couldn ' t follow the details .\nmaybe it wasn ' t too complicated , but it seemed complicated , and mr . wey seemed more and more like a wizard .\ni caught up with him and my brother . they were looking at an aquarium and talking about some fry .\ni can ' t remember what he fed them , but i remember that he said he had to divide each aquarium of fry into two aquariums every three days or so , or the aquariums would become too crowded . so the baby sebaes were growing very fast .\nmy brother asked mr . wey how he ' d discovered that , and mr . wey said that he ' d been in the u . s . navy and stationed overseas in asia near a large river .\nfor a couple of years he ' d seen adult brackish water fish , such as monos and scats , swim upstream , and then weeks later small monos and scats going back downstream and out into the ocean .\nhe theorized that the the adults had gone upstream to spawn , then the eggs floated down stream , hatched into fry , and grew to be about 1\nby the time he saw them .\nas the adults swam upstream the salinity decreased , and so he tried decreasing the salinity in his aquariums to trigger the sebaes to spawn .\nbut then the fry were difficult or impossible to raise . so he visualized the fry hatching upstream , then floating or swimming back down the river with the salinity of the water steadily increasing .\nso he tried emulating that process in the aquariums with the fry by adding some aquarium salt every few days , and it also worked .\nafter hearing that explanation , i was convinced that mr . wey was for sure a wizard .\nwe went back outside his garage . it was dark by then , and i saw his swimming pool with the dark green water .\nhe went into his kitchen and came back with a big head of cabbage , that he tossed into his swimming pool .\nimmediately the head of cabbage began to bob up and down in the water , and we could see that big pieces had been bitten out of the cabbage .\nbefore long the head of cabbage was gone . eaten by whatever was in the pool .\ni bent down by one of the pool lights and saw a huge scat swim past the light . it was at least 18\nlong and about 6\nto 8\nthick from one side to the other side .\nmr . wey explained that he had quite a few big scats in the pond , and he was trying to spawn them too , but all the tricks he ' d learned about spawning the sebaes hadn ' t work on the scats .\nhe needed to think of something new , and had kind of run out of good ideas , but he was hopeful that one day he ' d think of something or just get lucky and spawn them .\nwe thanked mr . wey . we told him that we ' d really enjoyed visiting him and seeing his fish , and that he was for certain a fish wizard .\nhe just smiled and said ,\nthanks for visiting and good luck with your fish .\nthe seas of s . e . a . aquarium : the mangrove and its friends\nthe s . e . a . aquarium\u2019s laccadive sea is a zone where you can learn about the importance of mangroves . see whether you can spot the archerfish squirting water from the water surface ?\nthis species eats a great deal and demands an aquarium that can tolerate such a heavy load .\nthis species requires frequent feeding , at least a couple of times per day .\nthis species will better acclimatize to the aquarium ` s condition if introduced , when young .\nthis species can be bred in captivity , one can therefore consider asking your local fish store for a captive bred specimen .\nseveral specimen of this species can coexist in the same aquarium , provided they are introduced simultaneously .\nmoonfish ( monodactylidae ) are unique , with their special shape and that they have a reflective skin . they are seldom kept in private aquaria , but seen occasionally .\nthey normally live in brackish water , but can get used to water with a salinity of around 35 ( specific gravity 1 . 026 ) . larger individuals do better in salt water . adult fish don\u00b4t thrive when moved from their environment , this must be taken into account when these fish are acquired\nit is important to mimic their natural environment with proper hiding places , plenty of macroalgae and tree roots .\nbecause they have the the tendency to swim directly into the glass when frightened , this must be avoided . i . e . dim the light gradually and permanently have a nightlight on .\neastern atlantic : west african coast , from cape verde to angola ( ref . 81286 ) , including the canary islands ( ref . 7314 ) and senegal ( ref . 28587 ) .\nscott w . michael . 2004 . angelfishes and butterflyfishes ( reef fishes series book 3 ) tfh publications / microcosm ltd . - ( english ) bob fenner . marvelous monos ; the moonfishes , finger fishes , family monodactylidae - wet web media - ( english ) wwm crew . faqs about monos or fingerfishes , family monodactylidae - wet web media - ( english )\nfroese , r . and d . pauly . editors . 2014 . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . urltoken , version ( 08 / 2014 ) .\nminimum volume\nindicates the size of the tank needed to house this species under optimal conditions .\nthis is based on a medium size animal , which you want to keep for several years . it might be possible to keep smaller specimens for a limited period in a smaller tank . a larger tank might be needed for fully - grown specimens .\nhardiness\nindicates how resistant this species is to disease and how well i tolerates bad conditions in general . some species doesn ' t handle transportation very well , but that doesn ' t mean that the species isn ' t hardy under the right conditions .\nin this case , a\nnormal\naquarium is a reef aquarium with mixed corals or a fish only aquarium with an approximately salinity of 1 . 026 ( sg ) and a temperature close to 26\u00b0c . species requiring more than a 4000 - liter tank are considered not suitable for home aquarium .\nspecial aquariums may cover tanks with low salinity , sub - tropical temperature , deep sand bed , sea grass etc .\nalways reef safe : no sources indicate that this species will harm corals or other invertebrates .\noften reef safe : only a few aquarists has reported problems keeping this species with corals and other invertebrates .\nreef safe with caution : this species may be a threat to some types of invertebrates .\nreef safe with luck : most specimens will harm corals and / or other invertebrates , but you might be lucky .\nnot reef safe : this species is a threat to most corals and / or other invertebrates .\nshould only be kept with other peaceful fish . may prey on fish able to fit into it ' s mouth .\nwill accept most foods , but cannot survive on dry foods alone . ensure to feed live or frozen foods occasionally .\nfeed on a daily basis , once a day should suffice , but twice is acceptable .\nspecies . if kept in brackish water , and sg of 1 . 002 to 1 . 007 is suggested .\na reserved species , which on occasion will move around actively , particularly at feeding time . has known to prey on smaller species .\nthis page was last edited on 13 december 2017 , at 03 : 02 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license unless otherwise noted .\na stately , tall brackishwater fish from the shores of west africa , where it is commonly found in mangrove swamps and areas where freshwater flows into the sea .\nhabitat : found in brackishwater lagoons , estuaries , mangrove swamps , near coastal reefs . may enter freshwater , but is primarily a brackishwater / saltwater species .\nomnivore , but feeds primarily on zooplankton in the wild . offer meaty foods , along with herbivore rations .\npeaceful , but larger specimens have been known to ingest small fish tankmates . should be kept in schools of at least 3 - 5 fish . safe with most reef aquarium invertebrates and corals .\noften sold from freshwater display tanks , but will only thrive in brackishwater or full - salinity saltwater . newly purchased specimens can be acclimated from fresh to saltwater over a period of three days .\nurltoken | urltoken | urltoken microcosm\u2122 is a trademark of microcosm , ltd . 823 ferry road | charlotte , vt | usa 05445 | telephone 802 - 425 - 5700 ext . 19\nmicrocosm aquarium explorer is a world - class online resource devoted to the underwater worlds that are home to fishes , corals , aquatic plants and invertebrate life of special interest to aquarium keepers . the mission of microcosm aquarium explorer is to inspire and inform those with an interest in the natural world , with particular emphasis on tropical coral reef and rainforest aquatic ecosystems that are the models for aquarists creating captive microcosms in their home aquaria ."]}
{"id": 1126, "summary": [{"text": "the thrush-like antpitta ( myrmothera campanisona ) is a species of bird in the grallariidae family .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is found in bolivia , brazil , colombia , ecuador , french guiana , guyana , peru , suriname , and venezuela .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "thrush - like antpitta", "paragraphs": ["the widely distributed , and generally fairly common , thrush - like antpitta currently includes six subspecies , but at least one of these probably merits being elevated to species level , principally based on distinct vocal differences . morphological differences between the different taxa are poorly defined . the plumage of thrush - like antpitta is brown above with lightly streaked , paler underparts , and a pale mark behind the eye . this species prefers areas of dense undergrowth within lowland terra firme forest , but is also found as high 1200 m in hilly , foothill forests . like most antpittas , its general natural history is poorly known , but thrush - like antpitta is thought to subsist primarily on invertebrates captured on the forest floor . the nest is a broad , shallow cup , comprised predominantly of sticks and leaves , and placed just above the ground . the clutch , so far as is known , consists of two subelliptical , brown spotted , blue green eggs .\nkrabbe , n . k . & schulenberg , t . s . ( 2018 ) . thrush - like antpitta ( myrmothera campanisona ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' fairly common ' ( stotz et al . ( 1996 ) . trend justification : this species is suspected to lose 7 . 4 - 7 . 8 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 10 years ) based on a model of amazonian deforestation ( soares - filho et al . 2006 , bird et al . 2011 ) . given the susceptibility of the species to fragmentation and / or edge effects , it is therefore suspected to decline by < 25 % over three generations .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\nhumid primary forest . reference : jn1 . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\nprobably the same bird as recorded at 06 : 10 hrs same date . humid primary forest\nhumid forest . reference : cxla 113 - 124 ( myrcam4 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\nhumid forest . reference : cxxxixb 651 - 660 , - 673 ( myrcam3 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 546 side a track 67 seq . a )\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nrace subcanescens shows marked vocal differences from other races , song being clearly higher - pitched ( 3 ) , rising towards end ( 2 ) , and reaching maximum amplitude on last or penultimate note ( ns [ 1 ] ) # r , but plumage differences from races minor and signata very slight , as indeed are differences among some other races ; further study required . six subspecies recognized .\n( p . l . sclater , 1855 ) \u2013 base of e andes of colombia ( s from meta ) .\nj . t . zimmer , 1934 \u2013 e colombia in guain\u00eda and vaup\u00e9s , adjacent s venezuela ( c & s amazonas ) and nw brazil ( from r negro s to r solim\u00f5es , apparently also s of amazon on left bank of lower r madeira ) .\n\u2013 se venezuela , the guianas , and brazil n of r amazon ( w at least from r ataban\u00ed , probably from r negro ) .\nj . t . zimmer , 1934 \u2013 e ecuador and ne peru n of r amazon .\n( taczanowski , 1882 ) \u2013 e peru ( s of r amazon ) , adjacent w brazil ( e to r purus ) and extreme nw bolivia ( pando ) .\n\u2013 brazil s of r amazon , from r madeira e to right bank of lower r tapaj\u00f3s and s to rond\u00f4nia .\n15 cm ; male 39\u00b75\u201354 g , female 42\u201364 g . adult has buffy lores , small white patch behind eye ; moustachial region mottled brown and white ; side of head and . . .\nsong 1\u00b74\u20132\u00b74 seconds long , given at intervals of 6\u201314 seconds , a slightly . . .\nforest floor amid thick undergrowth , e . g . along treefalls or streams of humid\n) , ants ( attinae , formicinae ) , grasshoppers ( acrididae ) and millipedes ( . . .\nbreeds during the wet season ( dec\u2013jan in french guiana ) . nest a shallow cup of tiny twigs , rootlets or hyphae on a platform of dead . . .\nnot globally threatened . locally fairly common ; uncommon in peru . generally widespread at low density ; distance between nests of two neighbouring pairs in french guiana was . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\npreviously included in formicariidae , but dna studies indicate that the four genera currently included herein form a monophyletic group , whereas current members of formicariidae may be closer to some members of rhinocryptidae # r # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nbird captured in mist nets during ecological research to understand the effect of different types of land use on the . . .\njoe tobias , anselmo d affonseca , andretti . tche , jmittermeier , dusan m . brinkhuizen .\npatrick . ingremeau , niels poul dreyer , joe klaiber , sclateria , josep del hoyo .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nmyrmothera campanisona signata : tropical e ecuador and ne peru ( north of r . amazon )\nmyrmothera campanisona subcanescens : n brazil south of r . amazon ( r . madeira to r . tapaj\u00f3s )\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 294 , 261 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy"]}
{"id": 1130, "summary": [{"text": "dodging bullets ( foaled 16 april 2008 ) is a british thoroughbred racehorse , best known for his performances in national hunt races .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "bred by the leading jockey frankie dettori he had a flat racing career of limited importance , winning two minor races from nine starts as a three-year-old in 2011 .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he showed better form when switched to hurdles , winning the sharp novices ' hurdle in 2012 .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he proved even better when he began to compete in steeplechases , winning the november novices ' chase and the wayward lad novices ' chase in 2013 .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in the 2014/2015 national hunt season he emerged as one of the best chasers in britain , recording three consecutive grade 1 wins in the tingle creek chase , clarence house chase and queen mother champion chase . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "dodging bullets", "paragraphs": ["best superheros dodging / stopping bullets compilation please subscribe and share this to others .\ndodging bullets is set to make a belated seasonal reappearance in the betfair exchange chase at newbury on saturday .\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for dodging bullets . dodging bullets is a gelding born in 2011 august 24 by dash for cash out of young love\nyoung urban black gangster dodging bullets from a drive by shooting . the concrete background is full of bullet holes .\nthe current race record for dodging bullets is 7 wins from 30 starts with prizemoney of $ 521 , 600 . 00 .\ndodging bullets ( 5 / 1 ) ended a frustrating run of placed efforts when coming good under ben curtis in the urltoken handicap .\nif dodging bullets was establishing one new world order , his win also marked the changing tide in the balance of power at this meeting .\npaul nicholls admits dodging bullets needs to raise his game significantly if he is to successfully defend his crown in the betway queen mother champion chase .\none of rob ' s favorite categories ,\ndodging bullets\nis relived and sterling brings back\nyour friend ' s a dick\n.\ndodging bullets , bred by flat jockey frankie dettori , won the queen mother champion chase at cheltenham for rider sam twiston - davies and trainer paul nicholls .\ndodging bullets has been collaborating\b\b\b\b\b\b\b with reacch pna at the university of washington to edit together presentations on climate change and the future of farming . learn more at urltoken\nwith a new year comes a new start for dodging bullets , as the company has moved to the greater seattle area in washington ! dodging bullets will continue to serve clients in virginia , but is excited to explore new opportunities in a new area in 2015 . to find out what dodging bullets is all about , check out the new video demo reel by clicking the link below ! there are major announcements coming soon , so stay tuned ! thank you all for your continued support !\ndodging bullets\u2019 breeder frankie dettori has his hat knocked off by jockey sam twiston - davies after their win in the champion chase . photograph : tom jenkins for the guardian\ni haven ' t shouted like that since watching my beloved arsenal .\n- frankie dettori , breeder of the nicholls - trained queen mother champion chase winner dodging bullets .\nmiddle - aged marvel : at 53 , tom cruise is still hurtling about on motorbikes and dodging bullets . brian viner , who ' s the same age , doffs his cap\nhowever , showing a resolution he lacked last year , dodging bullets galloped up the hill to beat somersby by a length and a quarter with special tiara the same distance away third .\ndodging bullets confirmed himself as the top two - mile chaser in training this season by taking the betway queen mother champion chase , the highlight on day two of the cheltenham festival .\nthe feature race on the card this evening at sligo , the rosses point handicap went to the 11 / 4 second favourite dodging bullets for trainer andy oliver with ben curtis aboard .\ngrade schoolers in del city found themselves dodging bullets after a \u201cdrive - by\u201d shooting near se 27th street sunday . police say two men who were walking were hit in the arm , leg and the hip by the barrage of bullets . police say the two men also . . .\nat their first cheltenham festival since teaming up , the wins of aux ptits soins and , more particularly , dodging bullets were hugely significant to the nicholls / twiston - davies association - it cemented it .\ndodging bullets at cheltenham was left to account by just over a length for the admirable veteran somersby , who 12 months previously had bravely succumbed to an on - song sire de grugy by almost six times that margin .\nin leopardstown\u2019s three - year - old maiden over a mile , jim bolger\u2019s unraced colt tobar na gaoise and kevin manning overhauled long - time leaders dodging bullets and eagle canyon 100 yards out to score by half a length .\ncleveland - the fox 8 i team has obtained exclusive video showing how cleveland police officers and firefighters became heroes without dodging bullets or flames . police body camera video shows how they saved a 4 - pound chihuahua after an . . .\nit was dodging bullets and twiston - davies who found the finishing kick to win by a length and a quarter , with somersby nearly two lengths ahead of special tiara and sire de grugy , last year\u2019s winner , another seven lengths away in fourth place . for paul nicholls , the trainer of dodging bullets , it was a fifth victory in the race , but somersby , an 11 - year - old running at his seventh festival , emerged with almost as much credit .\nthe shawnee high school softball team put seven runners on base in the first two innings of its hammonton invitational quarterfinal against kingsway saturday . none of them scored . after dodging a couple bullets the first two innings , kingsway plated . . .\nas dodging bullets walked a lap of honour around the parade ring no one clapped louder than nicholls , but it is perhaps the trainer who should be applauded having , in a season , turned the horse from a weak finisher into a champion .\nare you interested in becoming a vendor or just learning more about the western virginia sport show ? hear from past celebrities and vendors about their experiences with this time - tested annual virginia event in this latest video produced by dodging bullets , llc .\ndodging bullets is tough business . but that ' s just what happened in one brazilian rural community during the truckers ' strike that left millions without gasoline , medicine and many foodstuffs . the brazilian government folded like a lawn chair , and the . . .\nsome birds come to the world for fulfilling their duties rather than just dodging bullets . \u2014luo yonghao , founder of smartisan . from bullog\u2014luo yonghao ' s blog started in 2006\u2014to luo and his friends education and technology co . , ltd ( \u8001\u7f57\u548c\u4ed6\u7684\u670b\u53cb\u4eec . . .\nraya star was rated just 3lb higher than dodging bullets over hurdles but the paul nicholls camp are quietly confident that their gelding could prove to be even better over fences . if he does win , dodging bullets will give owner martin broughton plenty to think about as his taquin de seuil was the impressive winner of the steel plate and sections novices\u2019 chase here yesterday . the rest of the field is made up by my brother sylvestre and ted veale , who won the vincent o\u2019brien county hurdle at the festival earlier this year .\nby policeone staff . cleveland , ohio \u2014 recently released video shows a group of cleveland officers dodging bullets after a gunman opened fire in a drive - by shooting . police responded to reports of shots fired into a house on april 14 , wews - tv reports .\nboth dodging bullets and raya star have already opened their respective accounts over fences , with the former winning in good style at kempton at the end of october while raya star got the better of tanerko emery in a good race at uttoxeter at the beginning of this month .\nit appears that claiborne commissioner bill keck spent a bit of time late last year , dodging bullets in his own home . keck allegedly entered his residence during the early morning hours of nov . 27 , unaware that a couple of uninvited guests were in the . . .\nas the sun begins to go down on the third day of thin line , festival goers file into the green seats of the campus theatre to view the world premiere of \u201cdodging bullets . \u201d moments before the lights dim , co - director bob trench and special guest meskwaki . . .\nthe man demanded kluting hand over his louis vuitton bag , but kluting refused to give it up , even dodging three bullets to protect the designer bag . \u201cit happened very fast . in one motion he took the gun out of his waist belt and with the other hand put . . .\npaul nicholls believes dodging bullets\ndeserves to be favourite\nfor the queen mother champion chase at cheltenham . the seven - year - old beat somersby in the tingle creek chase at sandown in december before lowering the colours of the mighty sprinter sacre in the clarence house chase at ascot last month .\n\u201ci know the other two were past champions , \u201d nicholls said of sprinter sacre and sire de grugy , \u201cbut i couldn\u2019t see why they were ahead of us in the betting , it must have been on sentiment . dodging bullets was the progressive young horse and it\u2019s them that usually come out on top .\ndodging bullets , bred to win a derby by frankie dettori but now winning on jumping\u2019s biggest stage , was going best . but for a few strides after the last the 11 - year - old somersby , a nearly horse , ranged alongside as if he was finally going to have his day in the sun .\ndodging bullets was given the opportunity to film presentations at the fourth annual meeting of regional approaches to climate change for pacific northwest agriculture in moscow , idaho . you can watch the 7 full presentations from the extension mini - grant program at urltoken , or view the beautiful art and music interpretations of reacch themes at urltoken .\nthe future , though , belongs to dodging bullets and his rider , who is a strong candidate to be the first champion jockey of the post - tony mccoy era next season . twiston - davies\u2019s rapid rise to the top of his profession owes much to the decision of paul nicholls , national hunt\u2019s champion trainer in eight of the last nine seasons , to appoint him as stable jockey at the start of this campaign . dodging bullets had already recorded a grade one win for trainer and rider at sandown back in december , and victory in one of the festival\u2019s feature events underlined the success of a partnership that should only grow stronger with time .\nstocks survived day one of the trade war on friday . it ' s anyone ' s guess if they can keep dodging bullets . dow jones industrial average futures rose 119 points on monday as of 3 : 26 a . m . , s & p 500 futures gained 9 points , and nasdaq composite futures . . .\ndodging bullets had beaten sprinter sacre in a grade one event at ascot in january , when the former champion was running for the first time since suffering an irregular heartbeat in a race at kempton on 27 december 2013 . the betting suggested that the former champion would find enough improvement to reverse the form , but nicholls was not surprised by the outcome .\nhe won the easter cup at caulfield on shoreham ( $ 61 ) and the bendigo mile on dodging bullets ( $ 51 ) . daniel moor and king river combine to win the third leg of saturday ' s huge $ 61 , 604 . 70 quaddie . moor said he didn ' t believe it was coincidental he ' d had . . .\nif tuesday belonged to willie mullins , a treble courtesy of dodging bullets , aux ptits soins in the coral and qualando in the fred winter meant wednesday very much belonged to nicholls and with the first two favourites in thursday ' s ladbrokes world hurdle and the favourite in friday\u2019s gold cup , mullins may yet have competition in the race to be the week\u2019s leading trainer .\ndodging bullets is humbled to announce that it ' s video ,\njust a tree ,\nwas selected as a finalist in a contest hosted by urltoken ! unilever ' s\na special tree\nproject asked participants to support their sustainable living plan by creating a video that\ncaptures the relationship between humans and trees .\nout of 119 entries , dodging bullets ' video placed 4th !\njust a tree\nfeatures the story of how maple trees encompass an important part of the community in one small rural county . thank you so much to highland county maple syrup producers , including nearly all of the footage here from highland hills farm , as well as puffenbarger ' s sugar orchard and back creek farms . check out the 60 second video below !\ndodging bullets , llc is now seed and fruit media , inc . more on that later , but for now , here is one of the newest commercials , this one promoting the blue grass valley bank . thanks so much for the support , and be on the lookout for this commercial as it airs before movies at warner ' s drive - in in franklin , wv this summer ! urltoken\nit had seemed a straight forward case of either - or ; either sprinter sacre or sire de grugy , but the two former betway queen mother chase champions were consigned to yesteryear\u2019s heros and mere red herrings as the season ' s form two - miler , dodging bullets , galloped home to give jockey sam twiston - davies his most important winner since joining paul nicholls at the start of the season .\nwhilst dodging bullets was the nicholls representative in last year\u2019s triumph hurdle at the cheltenham festival , this year he could well saddle far west who was a very impressive seven lengths winner of the grade two triumph hurdle trial at this meeting on saturday . the win gave the three year old his second win of the season and a quotes as short as 8 / 1 favourite for the 2013 triumph hurdle .\nas the field in the sodexo clarence house stakes turned for home at ascot on saturday , there was a spontaneous surge of excitement within the crowd as the expectation of a winning return by the much - missed sprinter sacre seemed about to be completed . in the event barry geraghty\u2019s skilful handling of nicky henderson\u2019s star was foiled by the equally subtle noel fehily on the hitherto under - heralded dodging bullets .\nsprinter sacre missed a planned run in the tingle creek trophy but performed well in a racecourse gallop at newbury in late december . after an absence of over a year , the gelding returned in the clarence house chase at ascot on 17 january . after racing in fourth place for most of the way , he moved up to take the lead in the straight but was overtaken approaching the final fence and finished second to dodging bullets . at the cheltenham festival 11 march 2015 , sprinter sacre started favourite for the queen mother champion chase but faded by the last two jumps and pulled up in a race won by dodging bullets . the gelding was treated for a back problem following the race and returned to contest the celebration chase at sandown on 25 april , finishing second of the seven runners behind special tiara .\nwas another nice winner on day one of the meeting , landing the grade two , sharp novices hurdle , which made it two from two over course and distance this season for the juvenile but due to the reluctance of any of the jockeys to take up the running , it wasn ' t a truly run race . nonetheless , dodging bullets seems to be a much better horse than the current 14 / 1 on offer about him winning the\nas i mentioned , henderson has had 12 chase wins . i can quickly point out that nicholls has had at least 13 individual winners of a major prize , either a big handicap , or graded event . the group are in prize order silvianico conti , saturday\u2019s much - improved winner dodging bullets , caid du berlais , sam winner , vibrato valtat , ptit zig , virak , hawkes point , unioniste , mr mole , southfield theatre , irish saint and al ferof .\nthe last two winners of the race were expected to fight out the finish in the queen mother champion chase but their ageing bodies proved to be no match for youth , both in the saddle and underneath . dodging bullets , who was bred to win a derby by the flat jockey frankie dettori , gave sam twiston - davies the biggest win of a career that is still mostly in front of him . for sprinter sacre , however , the glory days are surely gone beyond recall .\nthe 2015 highland county maple festival is just around the corner ! are you ready for some maple magic ? the second promotional video dodging bullets produced for highland county is now available to view online ! check out\nmaple magic\ndirectly at urltoken or at www . highlandcounty . org . a huge thank you goes out to all of the maple producers and sugar camps in the county who allowed me complete access to their facilities , as well as the tourism council and chamber of commerce !\non 11 march , sire de grugy attempted to repeat his 2014 success in the queen mother champion stakes in which he was opposed by two previous winners of the race in sprinter sacre and sizing europe . after being restrained in the early stages he began to make progress four fences from the finish but was never able to reach the leaders and finished fourth behind dodging bullets , somersby and special tiara . he was moved up in distance for the melling chase at aintree but fell at the sixth fence .\nsprinter sacre produced one of the finest individual performances that the festival has ever seen when victorious in the champion chase two seasons ago . he was sent off as favourite on a wave of sentimental money by fans who were desperate to see one more tour de force , but they did not even see him cross the line . instead , barry geraghty pulled him up before the last , as dodging bullets and the outsiders somersby and special tiara set off up the run - in with the race between them .\nmost people believe that the matrix movies are fictional , but that ' s not entirely true . some people are born with the same ability as neo to slow down time and dodge bullets . don ' t believe me ? these pictures are the proof !\nexplorers tend to be a lucky bunch , but nathan drake of naughty dog ' s uncharted series is seemingly the offspring of two leprechauns who bedded down on a hill of rabbits ' feet . yesterday , naughty dog animator jonathan cooper revealed bullets straight . . .\non 23 april , sprinter sacre ended his season in the celebration chase at sandown park on 23 april . he started the 11 / 10 favourite ahead of un de sceaux with the best fancied of the other four runners being sire de grugy and dodging bullets . nico de boinville settled sprinter sacre behind the leaders , un de sceaux and sire de grugy , before making rapid progress to take the lead at the third last . he drew away from his rivals over the last two fences and won by fifteen lengths from un de sceaux .\nthe red bulls dodged a few bullets in the opening half as keeper luis robles was forced to make two diving saves to his right to deny sebastian lletget and giovanni dos santos in the second and fifth minutes , respectively . five minutes later , romain . . .\ncuetzalan , mexico \u2014 one evening in early march , in the northern mountains of puebla state , gunmen ambushed a van belonging to the indigenous union de cooperativas tosepan . bullets struck one of the van ' s tires , the driver ' s side window and the . . .\n, whilst the other eight runners included dodging bullets , sire de grugy , felix yonger ( punchestown champion chase ) , special tiara , and somersby . special tiara and un de sceaux set a very fast pace with nico de boinville settling sprinter sacre behind the leaders . despite a mistake three fences from home , sprinter sacre made rapid progress to take the lead approaching the second last and quickly went several lengths clear . he stayed on up the run - in to win the race by three and a half lengths and a nose from un de sceaux and special tiara .\nwith saphir du rheu , rebel rebellion , silviniaco conti , dodging bullets , vibrato valtat , and sound investment showing great promise for the future , paul nicholls can perhaps relax a bit , at least until november of this year , when the \u2018jumps season proper\u2019 kicks off once again . he\u2019s patient but eager to see what his new crew can do , and he\u2019s already thinking ahead and looking at the programme book to place each candidate in the right race for the upcoming season . when paul nicholls says , \u201cit\u2019s all about looking to the future , \u201d he means it .\nlast year\u2019s champion chaser dodging bullets has endured a brief and disappointing season . the paul nicholls trained 8 year old never stopped improving last season and after running two lengths third to uxizandre in the shloer chase in november 2014 , he swept all before him . he defeated somersby by 2 \u00bd lengths in the grade 1 tingle creek chase in december 2014 and followed up with a 3 lengths defeat of sprinter sacre in the grade 1 clarence house chase at ascot in january of last year . even then there were plenty of people willing to oppose dodging bullets , but he confounded them all with a terrific performance to beat somersby by 1 \u00bc lengths in the grade 1 queen mother champion chase at cheltenham last march . a splint disrupted his season and he did not return to action until running in the grade 2 game spirit chase at newbury in mid - february , finishing 10 lengths second of 4 to top gamble in tiring ground . he then made a bid to defend his cheltenham crown but was beaten a long way out , eventually coming home 27 lengths 7 th of 10 to sprinter sacre . he has had time to recover since then and encounters better ground here and may well prove fresher than several of these rivals .\na bullet is a projectile propelled by a firearm , sling , slingshot , or air gun . bullets do not normally contain explosives , but damage the intended target by impact and penetration . the word\nbullet\nis sometimes colloquially used to refer to ammunition in general , or to a cartridge , which is a combination of the bullet , case / shell , powder , and primer . this use of ' bullet ' , when ' cartridge ' is intended , leads to confusion when the components of a cartridge are discussed or intended .\non 16 march 2016 , sprinter sacre contested his third queen mother champion chase at the cheltenham festival . he started the 5 / 1 second favourite behind the irish - trained un de sceaux , whilst the other eight runners included dodging bullets , sire de grugy , felix yonger ( punchestown champion chase ) , special tiara , and somersby . special tiara and un de sceaux set a very fast pace with nico de boinville settling sprinter sacre behind the leaders . despite a mistake three fences from home , sprinter sacre made rapid progress to take the lead approaching the second last and quickly went several lengths clear . he stayed on up the run - in to win the race by three and a half lengths and a nose from un de sceaux and special tiara . [ 30 ] commenting on the ten - year - old ' s return to form , henderson said ,\nhe\u2019s just been so feisty and aggressive all season . . . i\u2019ve been looking at him every night for the last three weeks and i just knew that it was still there , and his whole body said that it was . it\u2019s just talent , isn\u2019t it ?\n[ 31 ]\n\u201che would have liked the ground a bit slower and i thought sam gave him a fantastic ride . sam is so much more confident this season , it all just takes a bit of bedding in but he\u2019s been awesome this year . he rides really well and we\u2019re all very fond of him .\n\u201cthe horse won\u2019t run again this season and i expect we\u2019ll be dreaming all summer . the whole aim will be to come here again in a year\u2019s time . \u201d\ndettori , who sent his mare nova cyngi to be covered by the top flat sire dubawi in the hope of producing a classic winner , echoed the approval of twiston - davies\u2019s performance in the saddle .\n\u201csam gave him a fantastic ride , he jumped like a stag and was gutsy all the way to the line , \u201d dettori said . \u201che was bred to win the derby but this is second best . it\u2019s the equivalent of the 100m final at the olympics and what a horse . he didn\u2019t make very much [ when sold ] as a yearling because his legs were pointing in the wrong direction , although they have got better with time .\n\u201ci watched it with the owners and my legs were shaking a little bit walking down the steps because i was so excited . it\u2019s completely different to have those feelings when i don\u2019t have anything to do with it . sam was tactically very astute . riding is all about confidence and for a young man , you\u2019ve got to say that sam is top class . \u201d\nthis was the biggest success of twiston - davies\u2019s career to date and will remain so until next season , at least unless he wins friday\u2019s gold cup or the grand national at aintree next month .\n\u201ci\u2019ve always said my dad [ nigel ] is the best trainer i\u2019ve ridden for , but paul nicholls is some man , \u201d twiston - davies said . \u201cit is a massive win and hopefully means i keep hold of the job for years to come .\n\u201cbig winners make up for the days when things don\u2019t go so well , we didn\u2019t have a great day yesterday but paul said : \u2018i\u2019ll leave it [ how to ride the race ] to you , so get on with it . \u2019 it eases the pressure and hopefully i\u2019ll ride better and better as the week goes on . \u201d\nafter willie mullins\u2019s grade one four - timer on tuesday , nicholls moved into second place among the trainers this week with a treble on the day , as aux ptits soins took the coral cup handicap hurdle with twiston - davies in the saddle , and then qualando beat stablemate bouvreuil in the fred winter handicap hurdle . nicholls will saddle silviniaco conti , the favourite , in the gold cup , a race that mullins , who trains three of the 18 declared runners , has yet to win .\n\u00a9 2018 guardian news and media limited or its affiliated companies . all rights reserved .\nthe 9 - 2 chance won by one and a quarter lengths from somersby ( 33 - 1 ) with special tiara ( 18 - 1 ) third .\nlast year ' s winner sire de grugy finished fourth while the 2013 victor sprinter sacre - in his second run in 15 months after a heart scare - was pulled up .\nvictory gave twiston - davies and eight - time champion trainer nicholls a double after aux ptit soins won the previous race , the coral cup .\nnicholls said :\ni know the other two were past champions but i couldn ' t see why they were behind us in the betting , it must have been on sentiment .\ndettori praised the winning jockey for a\nfantastic\nride and said the horse was\ngutsy\n.\nhowever successful during the rest of the year , it ' s at the major events , like cheltenham , where reputation - sealing wins are to be found .\nground conditions had , as trainer gary moore feared , probably dried up too much for sire de grugy , but he ' ll be back , though whether the same applies to sprinter sacre is surely a moot point .\nhe was bred to win the derby , but this is second best . it ' s the equivalent of the 100m final at the olympics and what a horse ,\nsaid the italian .\nand nicholls completed a treble when 25 - 1 chance qualando , ridden by nick scholfield , won the day ' s sixth race - the fred winter handicap hurdle .\nthe champion chase , in which champagne fever was a morning withdrawal , was billed as a battle of the champions .\nbut sire de grugy , who has had an interrupted season , and sprinter sacre struggled to keep pace as the two - mile contest developed .\nthree - time champion flat jockey dettori , famous for his magnificent seven winning spree at ascot in 1996 , has played down his role in breeding the seven - year - old , but revelled in this triumph at the home of jump racing .\nit was a fifth champion chase victory for nicholls , who also scored with call equiname ( 1999 ) , azertyuiop ( 2004 ) and master minded ( 2007 and 2008 ) .\ntrainer willie mullins , who scored a historic four - timer on the opening day , clocked up a fifth win of the meeting with don poli in the rsa chase .\njockey bryan cooper triumphed on the 13 - 8 favourite , a potential gold cup candidate next year , 12 months after breaking his leg at the same fixture .\none bookmaker paid out on mullins being the top trainer with just a third - 9 of 27 - of the races having been run .\nthe opening neptune hurdle went to 9 - 1 chance windsor park , ridden by davy russell for dermot weld .\nretiring champion jockey ap mccoy , without a win so far , was second on parlour games .\nrussell was scoring in the same purple and yellow colours of owner dr ronan lambe , for whom he won last year ' s cheltenham gold cup on lord windermere .\nphotographer patrick mccann suffered a broken leg when a horse was carried out , went through the rail and caught him during the cross country chase .\nmccann , who works for the racing post , could have been more badly hurt but took evasive action as the unexpected drama unfolded .\nnina carberry , on quantitativeeasing , was forced to the left by another horse in an incident which went viral on social media .\nrussell completed a wednesday double as he emerged the winner on 16 - 1 chance rivage d ' or , trained by tony martin .\nwednesday was ladies day at the festival and the duchess of cornwall ( right , with daughter laura lopes and katie price , left ) was among the high - profile patrons .\nas long as he stays in ireland , i ' m dead happy ,\n- paul nicholls , after a treble himself , on the success of fellow trainer willie mullins , who has five victories .\nit is a massive win and hopefully means i can keep hold of my job for years to come .\n- winning rider sam twiston - davies jokes about his role with nicholls . he was appointed first jockey less than 11 months ago .\njockey tom scudamore overcame a tardy start by moon racer , trained by david pipe , to lead a 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 for horses trained in great britain in the concluding champion bumper .\nafterwards , former trainer michael dickinson - who made history by saddling the first five home led by bregawn in the 1983 cheltenham gold cup - was among those to congratulate him .\ni emailed tom after he took the wrong course at cartmel earlier in the season and was banned ,\ndickinson told bbc sport .\ni said tommy stack did the same thing years ago , and there was no reason why tom wouldn ' t go on to be champion jockey .\nvictory made it six wins for great britain against the eight of ireland , with 13 races to come .\ntrainer paul nicholls bids to build on his wednesday treble when he saddles two leading contenders in thursday ' s world hurdle .\nsaphir du rheu and zarkandar will try to fill the void left by big buck ' s when they run in the three - mile contest ( 15 : 20 gmt ) .\nnicholls won the race four times with his great stayer , who is now retired , but hopes his new generation can shine .\nmeanwhile , the gordon elliott - trained don cossack is favourite for the ryanair chase at 14 : 40 .\nsaphir du rheu carries the same red , black and white silks of owner andy stewart ' s family as big buck ' s and will be ridden by stable jockey sam twiston - davies .\nsam thinks he may win a gold cup with him one day . whereas big buck ' s didn ' t jump a fence , this lad will jump in the future some time as he is a big , scopey horse ,\nsaid the trainer .\nrider noel fehily believes zarkandar has a better chance than when he finished fourth in the race won by more of that last year .\nhe ' s in much better form this year and hopefully he has a great chance .\nyou can watch an expert preview of day three with former gold cup winning jockey andrew thornton and commentator john hunt on the bbc radio 5 live website .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nindeed as the race unfolded between the 9 - 2 shot , the evergreen somersby and the front - running special tiara off the last bend , the previous two winners of the race , both beset with problems since their finest hour , were nowhere to be seen . a lacklustre sprinter sacre was about to be pulled up while sire de grugy , eventually fourth , was staying on having never really been at the races on the good ground .\n\u201che should have been favourite on form but i understand sometimes with those old champions the heart rules the head , \u201d he said . \u201cwe had the same with big buck\u2019s , but they don\u2019t often come back as good . i thought i\u2019d missed a trick when i saw the other two vying for favouritism .\n\u201clast spring he had a few little issues with his breathing and gastric ulcers . i think it is why he wasn\u2019t finishing his races . we\u2019ve sorted them out , he has run three times in a tongue tie and won three , i\u2019ve learned how to train him and he\u2019s grown up mentally .\n\u201ci thought he was a good thing first time out this season but he either blew up or wasn\u2019t as good as i thought , so we took him home and got stuck into him . i would never have been able to train him like that before because he\u2019d have run up light and been far too buzzy . now i can really stick the work into him . \u201d\nfor twiston - davies , already a front - runner in the race to be the next champion after ap mccoy\u2019s immiment departure , it was a huge step forward and a coming of age in his partnership with nicholls . \u201csomeone said he would be my first jockey until i retire , \u201d joked nicholls . \u201ci don\u2019t know if he\u2019ll last that long ! \u201d\n\u201cit\u2019s a massive win and hopefully means i keep hold of the job for years to come , \u201d said twiston - davies . \u201cbig winners make up for the days when things don\u2019t go so well . we didn\u2019t have a great day yesterday . he is some trainer . if i ' d said this horse would win three grade ones this time last year you would have said i was a moon man . \u201d\ndettori , who watched the race as a guest of the winning owners headed by sir martin broughton before driving on to kempton to ride on wednesday night , said : \u201che had me on the edge of my seat for the last three fences . it\u2019s a pity he couldn\u2019t win the derby , but i\u2019ve bred the best jumping horse in the world in 2015 . sam gave him some ride , he jumped like a stag . \u201d\nbroughton , a former chairman of british airways and , closer to home , the british horseracing authority , was up in the clouds . \u201cin business you don\u2019t have instant moments , \u201d he explained . \u201cthings go right or wrong over a long period . this has been a while coming , but in business you don\u2019t get moments like this . i\u2019m ecstatic and i was very happy being under the radar as everyone was talking about sprinter versus sire . \u201d\nnicholls , who has now won five champion chases , said the next engagement for the new champion would be a grass field and that he would not run again this season .\nghost recon : wildlands song | kill a ghost | [ prod . by boston ] | # nerdout\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsky sports news takes you through all of the day ' s racing news , plus alex hammond ' s tip of the day .\nfollow the latest from the written press with the best gossip and speculation from the papers .\nsky has launched a pub finder for eager fans wanting to find a venue to watch sky sports .\nget a sports star to visit your old secondary school as part of our free schools initiative .\nwould hate to ruin that pedicure . if she hadn ' t been able to save her toes , she ' d at least be able to save some nail polish later on .\nnothing can ruin a day like a yellow starburst . if you say your fav is yellow , i ' ll fight you .\nnothing like seasoning your meal with whatever bacteria happens to be lurking on your fingers as you fish your spoon from the bottom of your bowl .\nthis could have been tree - cherous . mother nature is like ,\ni ' ll just leaf this right here .\nplaying an eclectic blend of popular rock , pop and indie music . we like to think there ' s something\nin our set for everyone . we perform in locations such as aylesbury , burnham , windsor , slough , bagshot , maidenhead , camberley and west london .\n' ' great tracks for a wide audience . well known songs but few bands play them .\nto status quo , green day , def leppard , goo goo dolls and duran duran . our live shows are guaranteed to entertain , be atmospheric and enjoyable . we have our own pa system , led lighting , lasers and we can even bring along the smoke machine .\nwe look forward to hearing from you should you wish to book us for weddings , private functions or public houses . please use the email link under contact us .\ncheltenham fri , 17th mar , 17 p . u . , 8 / 1 , n d fehily\nsizing granite makes his first start since joining colm murphy in the betway queen mother champion chase at cheltenham today .\nhot favourite un de sceaux will face nine rivals in the betway queen mother champion chase at cheltenham .\nun de sceaux will face a maximum of 11 rivals in the betway queen mother champion chase at next week ' s cheltenham festival .\nfor most people lucky enough to have a birthday coinciding with the cheltenham festival , a pair of tickets to the meeting is a valued present - but colm o ' connell might just enjoy the best celebration of all , a betway queen mother champion chase win for un de sceaux .\ndon cossack and vautour are among 21 horses still in contention for the timico cheltenham gold cup following the latest scratchings deadline for the six non - novice grade one events at the festival .\nun de sceaux headlines 23 entries for the \u00a3350 , 000 betway queen mother champion chase at cheltenham on wednesday , march 16 .\nqualando completed a day to remember for paul nicholls when beating stablemate bouvreuil in the fred winter juvenile handicap hurdle to bring up a sensational 1 , 429 / 1 treble for the champion trainer .\nhenry de bromhead was thrilled with the performance of special tiara in the betway queen mother champion chase at cheltenham .\nformer winners sprinter sacre and sire de grugy headline 12 horses still in contention for the betway queen mother champion chase at cheltenham on wednesday .\nsire de grugy will be sporting some eyecatching footwear as he defends his betway queen mother champion chase title at cheltenham next week .\npaul nicholls admits it was a\nclose call\nfor stable jockey sam twiston - davies over which of the yard ' s two runners he will ride in the ladbrokes world hurdle at cheltenham .\nhinterland has been ruled out of the betway queen mother champion chase , with paul nicholls instead hoping for some consolation at sandown in april .\nruby walsh believes champagne fever ' s course form will be an asset when he lines - up at the cheltenham festival .\nacceptors for the five main grade one championship contests at cheltenham were revealed today .\ntom george believes module will be back to his best at the cheltenham festival where he will be aimed at the ryanair chase .\njohn ' shark ' hanlon is looking forward to hidden cyclone taking on the best two - milers around in the betway queen mother champion chase at cheltenham .\ngonebeyondthemoon got off the mark in good fashion when claiming the opening maiden at fairyhouse this afternoon .\nnoel meade completed an across the card double ( jakros won in cork ) as his still point ran out an comfortable winner of the 7f barclay communications ebf maiden under fran berry .\nafter race at sligo tue , 16th aug , 2011 ( 1st ) it looked like a competitive enough race beforehand . ben gave him a super ride . we decided to settle off the pace today and he picked up well . we will see what the handicapper does with him now . he is not lacking in pace and will go for a race between a mile to a mile and two furlongs next . a oliver\nafter race at galway wed , 27th jul , 2011 ( 1st ) everything worked out well , and ben gave him a great ride . he ' s been improving all year , although it took him a few runs for the penny to drop . he ' s hardy and i ' ve been keeping him busy but he ' s got his reward now . a oliver\nopen an account with betfair and bet at least \u20ac5 at min odds of 1 / 5 on the sportsbook . win or lose betfair match your first bet up to \u20ac50 . free bet stakes not returned\n* new customers only . turnover and bet requirements apply . t & c ' s apply . excl nsw , wa , sa & vic . gamble responsibly .\nsaturday racing trainers have enthusiastically supported saturday\u2019s moonee valley meeting with the nominations now available for viewing online .\nsaturday racing i\u2019m not a religious man but am happy to admit i have resorted to prayer this week to break a frustrating run for this column in recent weeks .\n* new customers only . turnover & bet requirements apply . t & c ' s apply . excl nsw , wa , sa & vic . gamble responsibly .\nis gambling a problem for you ? call gambling help on 180 0858 858 or visit www . gamblinghelponline . org . au\nyour screen name will be seen by the racenet community when you participate in discussions or comment on our content .\nyou ' ll receive an email shortly with instructions on how to reset your password .\n{ { race . shorttrack } } r { { race . number } }\n\u00a9 2018 racing victoria limited ( rv ) and other parties working with it . vic and sa racing materials , including fields , form and results , is subject to copyright which is owned respectively by rv and trsa and other parties working with them .\nhere ' s our cover of\nlove will set you free\nby kodaline . # dodgingbullets # kodaline # lovewillsetyoufree # likeandshare .\nhere is our cover of\ntake my hand\nby the amazing picture this . please like and share . # dodgingbullets # picturethis\nit looks like you may be 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{"id": 1134, "summary": [{"text": "the bronze mannikin or bronze munia ( lonchura cucullata ) is a small passerine ( i.e. perching ) bird of the afrotropics .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "this very social estrildid finch is an uncommon to locally abundant bird in much of africa south of the sahara desert , where it is resident , nomadic or irruptive in mesic savanna or forest margin habitats .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it has an estimated global extent of occurrence of 8,100,000 km \u00b2 .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "it is the smallest and most widespread of four munia species on the african mainland , the other being black-and-white , red-backed and magpie mannikin .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it co-occurs with the madagascan mannikin on the comoro islands , and was introduced to puerto rico .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "especially in the west africa , it is considered a pest in grain and rice fields .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is locally trapped for the pet bird trade . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "bronze mannikin", "paragraphs": ["bronze mannikin ( spermestes cucullatus fam . estrildidae ) kruger park birds & birding .\nthe bronze mannikin is neither endemic or near endemic to the kruger national park .\nin terms of distribution of the bronze mannikin in the kruger national park you may not see it in all areas . bronze mannikin : see above distribution map .\nthe bronze mannikin averages 9 - 10cm in length , including its long black tail .\nyou will normally see the bronze mannikin in pairs or flocks and not as single birds .\nmuseum specimens indicate historical distributions . the map below shows locations from which museum specimens of bronze mannikin were collected . you can see more information on the individual museum specimens of bronze mannikin here .\nthe bronze mannikin ( latin name spermestes cucullatus ) is described in roberts birds of southern africa , 7th edition . this bird has a unique roberts number of 857 and you will find a full description of this bird on page 1065 also a picture of the bronze mannikin on page 1057 . the bronze mannikin belongs to the family of birds classified as estrildidae . according to the percy fitzpatrick institute of african ornithology the bronze mannikin is also known by these other names : bronzewing , bronze - winged mannikin , hooded finch .\nthe bronze mannikin is monogamous unless its mate dies . in the event of a partner dying spermestes cucullatus will seek out a new mate\nthe bronze mannikin is a tiny gregarious bird which feeds mainly on seeds . it frequents open country and cultivation , especially near water .\nthis book includes the six african species in this genus - madagascar mannikin lonchura nana , bronze mannikin l . cucullatus , black - and - white mannikin , magpie mannikin , african silverbill l . cantans and pearl - headed mannikin l . caniceps ( absent from plates at rear of book ) . the information given for these species compares favourably with the much scantier information provided within finches and sparrows ' .\nthe bronze mannikin feeds on a variety of seeds . insects may be taken during the breeding season , when their requirement for protein is higher .\nduring the breeding season in summer the bronze mannikin is often seen singly or in pairs . out of the breeding season they tend to be in flocks .\nmale and female bronze mannikins look alike . immatures are a more plain buffy brown .\n5 - inch ) bronze mannikin ( l . cucullata ) has large communal roosts in africa ; it has been introduced into puerto rico , where it is called hooded weaver . abundant in southern asia are the nutmeg mannikin ( l . punctulata ) , also called spice finch or spotted munia , and the striated mannikin ( l . \u2026\nthe nesting habit of bronze mannikin is to create the nest in branches of a tree or shrub . the bird lays eggs which are white in colour and number between 2 to 8\nadditional notes the madagascar mannikin is the only estrildid endemic to the island of madagascar .\none of the first indicators to take note of when trying to identify a bird is it relative size . for example how big is the bird compared to a well known familiar bird . the bronze mannikin is an extremely small bird about half the size of a house sparrow . the height of the bronze mannikin is about 10 cms and its weight is about 10 gms\nthe bronze mannikin ( lonchura cucullata ) is a small estrildid finch that breeds in much of africa south of the sahara desert . they are found in open country and cultivation , particularly near water .\nbronze mannikins also build communal roosting nests , which they use overnight and dismantle and rebuild the next day .\nthe bronze mannikin or bronze munia ( lonchura cucullata ) is a small passerine ( i . e . perching ) bird . this estrildid finch is an abundant resident breeding bird in much of africa south of the sahara desert of dry savanna habitats . it has an estimated global extent of occurrence of 8 , 100 , 000 km\u00b2 .\nfor chestnut mannikin , see munia . for the south american manakins ( family pipridae ) , see manakin .\nbronze - winged mannikins live in flocks and family parties outside of the breeding season and may associate with other species of waxbill and mannikin . allo - preening is common among birds on friendly terms . they eat grass seeds ( from the genera\nthe bronze mannikin is 9\u201310 cm in length with a long black tail . the adult has a stubby grey bill , brown upperparts , a dark purple head and white underparts with dark flank markings . there is an iridescent green shoulder patch .\nbronze - winged mannikin , lonchura cucullata , is found in africa , south of the sahara except for the southwest . also found on the islands of fernando po , principe , sao tome\u2019 , pemba , zanzibar , mafia , comoros ; introduced to puerto rico .\ndistribution of bronze mannikin in southern africa , based on statistical smoothing of the records from first sa bird atlas project ( \u00a9 animal demography unit , university of cape town ; smoothing by birgit erni and francesca little ) . colours range from dark blue ( most common ) through to yellow ( least common ) .\nabove and below - bronze and red - backed mannikins are similar in looks but there are a number of differences . sometimes they may feed together and , side by side , it is quite easy to tell them apart . the bronze mannikin ( above ) is a plain brown on the back and doesn ' t have too much black on the head . it has quite a bit of barring on its white underparts . the red - backed mannikin is a more attractive and clean - cut bird . the back is a reddish brown and there is extensive black on the head . the white underparts do not have other markings .\nmunia , any of several small finchlike asian birds of the mannikin and waxbill groups ( family estrildidae , order passeriformes ) . the black - headed munia , or chestnut mannikin ( lonchura malacca , including atricapilla and ferruginosa ) , is a pest in rice fields from india to java and the philippines ; as a cage bird it is often\u2026\nhousing : the chestnut - breasted mannikin like most other mannikins are quite placid and mix well in a communal aviary . however as with most species of mannikins and munias breeding success is more likely by keeping a single pair in an aviary / cage of its own . there is also danger of hybridisation if kept with other mannikin species .\ndescription : the dusky mannikin is similar to the java mannikin but without the white on the belly . they are completely brownish black with darker tips creating a scaled look . there are variations in colour of each individual some being more scaled than others . the upper beak is black and the lower beak is a bluish grey as are the legs .\npayne , r . ( 2018 ) . bronze mannikin ( spermestes cucullata ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe bronze mannikin is a native of sub - saharan africa , where it ranges widely from senegal in the west to ethiopia in the east , and south to south africa . in the neotropics it is more or less confined to puerto rico , where it is speculated to have arrived on spanish slave ships at some time between the early 16th and the early 19th centuries . it was abundant there by the mid 1860s and by the 20th century had spread to neighboring vieques island . on puerto rico , the bronze mannikin is rarely reported above 300 m . they are particularly fond of feeding on rice . the species was also reported on st . croix , in the virgin islands , in the late 1970s , but to date it has not been reported on any of the other islands in the greater antilles .\nbronze - winged mannikins prefer to live in groups of like species . males may become aggressive toward each other and other species during the breeding season ; fighting birds will fan out the wing that is further away from their enemy during spats .\nintroduction : bronze mannikins ( spermestes cucullata ) congregate in breeding groups of up to 30 , otherwise they can be observed in pairs or smaller family groups . evergreen woodland is favoured as well as suburban gardens . will fly into cover when disturbed\nabove and below - bronze mannikins are quick to find bird feeders in gardens . they prefer the fine ' wild bird ' seed . during winter they tend to feed in large flocks while during the summer breeding season they are often seen singly .\nbreeder ' s notes like some other small african mannikins such as the rufous - back and bronze - wing , the madagascar mannikin can be rather aggressive when breeding . they are usually not a hazard to others in a mixed colony , but can be to each other in a small flight cage . colony breeding in a large flight would probably be safe ( walk in size ) . there simply needs to be enough space for the birds that are being chased to fly and hide .\nthe line of striking black , chestnut and white munia and mannikin species perched on plant fronds against the white dust jacket of this book provides an arresting cover design , which prepares the reader well for the remainder of the book .\nhousing : the magpie mannikin quite a shy bird that will flee to dense cover if disturbed . more often found in pairs or small family groups not often seen in flocks of more than 10 unless found in where bamboo is seeding .\nhousing : the dusky mannikin is little different from other munias within its range . it is somewhat a skulking bird described as mouse like . keeping low in vegetation and feeding on the ground mostly . one of its characteristics is little fear of man .\ndistribution and habitat : there are 6 species of chestnut - breasted mannikin 2 are native to australia and 4 are native to new guinea . the nominate l . c . castaneothorax comes from australia is found in and around grassy river banks and reed beds . the more commonly kept new guinea species l . c . sharpii is a bird that prefers drier areasand prefers to not inhabit the jungle clearings of other munias / mannikins . l . c . sharpii commonly form small flocks with the grey - headed mannikin .\nhousing : the indian silverbill is not aggressive toward other species if kept in a mixed aviary . breeding success can be achieved when kept a small flock in an outside aviary . there may also be a danger of hybridisation if kept with other mannikin species .\nhousing : the white - headed nun is not aggressive toward other species if kept in a mixed aviary . breeding success can be achieved by keeping a small flock in an outside aviary dependant on size . there is a danger of hybridisation if kept with other mannikin species .\nthe 16 plates at the front of the book illustrate all of the world ' s species of munias and mannikins , and many of the races . amongst the six african species represented in the book , the only omissions are illustrations of the somali race of black - and - white mannikin lonchura bicolor minor and , perhaps rather more surprisingly , southern magpie mannikin lonchura fringilloides pica , given this subspecies ' relatively extensive distribution in southern and eastern africa . this series of plates is rather regimented and stylised , but does allow comparisons between species and subspecies .\nhousing : the black - headed nun is quite a placid bird and mixes well in a communal aviary . however breeding success is more likely by keeping a single pair in an aviary / cage of its own . there is a danger of hybridisation if kept with other mannikin species .\nmost are sensitive to cold and require warm , usually tropical , habitats , although a few , such as the eastern alpine mannikin , mountain firetail and red - browed finch , and the genus stagonopleura , have adapted to the cooler climates of southern australia and the highlands of new guinea .\ndistribution and habitat : there are 2 subspecies of the magpie mannikin spreading across from the west to east coast of africa from senegal and gambia to kenya , tanzania and natal . it is a bird seldom found far from water preferring to roost in reed beds preferring to habit near thickets of bamboo .\ndistribution and habitat : there are 3 recognised subspecies of the five - coloured mannikin finch which are found on some of the indonesian islands like timor , sumba , flores and sermata to name a few . they are found in grasslands , paddy fields , scrub even in cultivated land where cereals grow .\nhousing : the tri - coloured munia is generally considered not to be aggressive toward other species if kept in a mixed aviary . however there is little doubt that best breeding success will be achieved by keeping a small flock in an aviary of its own . there is a danger of hybridisation if kept with other mannikin species .\ndescription : head is glossy black , back is dark brown as are the wings . tail is black with white below with black and brown barring on the flanks . bill is heavy long and pointed . as with many mannikins the sexes are difficult to tell apart . juveniles are similar to bronze - winged mannikins and black & white mannikins but are distinguishable by their size .\nweaver - finch , , any of numerous songbirds belonging to the family estrildidae ( order passeriformes ) , individually called grass finch , mannikin , and waxbill ( qq . v . ) . they are finchlike old world birds . most of the 107 species are small or tiny seed - eaters with short conical bills . they occur in\u2026\nthe upper photo shows adult and immature bronze mannikins , courtesy of karine van der vurst . the middle photo ( dar es salaam , 10 - 15 ) , is courtesy of michael oates . the lower photo of an adult was taken in olasiti ( 11 - 08 ) : click it to see nine enlargements . the first four enlargements are of a nesting pair whose nest was destroyed by house crows , courtesy of andy perkin .\nbreeding : wfs records show that this species is progressively being bred each year . in its natural habitat , the nest is usually found in holes in banks , among exposed roots and in holes in trees . the dusky mannikin accepts various nesting receptacles in captivity from wicker baskets to half - open nest boxes . average clutch size is 3 to 6 and incubation is about 13 days . youngsters fledge in approximately 3 weeks .\nfor best results , keep a group ( at least 3 pairs and with equal numbers of cocks and hens ) of these birds together to allow the birds to choose their own partners . birds aged 1 to 4 years are best suited to breeding . newcomers to the flock may be attacked , intensely courted , and mounted , but are usually accepted before long . because they can become pugnacious while breeding , bronze - winged mannikins may be best kept in a group on their own while breeding . birds are most successfully bred in a community fashion in larger aviaries , though some may breed in cages in pairs with increased productivity .\nthe various phases of the reproductive behaviour of the bronze mannikin are described in detail and discussed . this species possesses rather specialised fighting patterns which are different from those of the other estrildine finches . in an all - out attack it charges in a frontal - horizontal posture like other species , but in an equally matched bout , the contestants do not adopt the typical sleeked vertical postures of most species , but instead crouch in latero - horizontal postures . when fighting in this position , the far wing is spread and raised vertically both as a balancing device and also as a display . nesting behaviour is described and the differences between breeding and sleeping nests are discussed . the process of pair - formation is mentioned and it is pointed out that in communal species such as the present one , this is in many respects a negative process ; i . e . the narrowing down of social responses from all , to one particular member of the colony . when a male and female are paired , they begin to construct a nest together and a special ceremony takes place repeatedly in the nest cavity . this has evolved from simple nesting patterns , but is now sexual in character and may lead to copulations inside the nest . the typical precopulatory patterns are analysed in detail and it is shown that they contain a number of the ritualised components of the nest ceremony . the latter therefore provides a valuable derivational clue , linking nesting proper with pre - copulatory displays . other aspects of the male courtship , such as the dancing movements of inverted curtseying and pivoting , can be derived from intention movements of fleeing\ndiet a basic finch maintenance diet will serve this rather small african mannikin well . they are hardy birds like most mannikins . a finch seed mix is fine , but these small finches will prefer the larger seeds such as large white prosso , so i actually mix 50 / 50 mix of finch mix with white prosso . in addition , they will readily eat my egg food ( roy ' s egg food ) , some gamebird crumbles and green food . soaked or sprouted paddy rice was also accepted . calcium can be provided in the form of crushed egg shell and crushed oyster shell . i have a cuttlebone available to them , but like so many mannikins , they don ' t really eat a lot of it off the bone . live food in the way of small mealworms can be offerred to the birds , but generally i like to try and raise the birds without the addition of live food whenever possible . it makes my life easier . using a few mealworms might act as a breeding trigger for these birds if they seem reluctant to start a nest .\nthe clutch size ranged from 4 to 7 eggs and the incubation period was 12 - 13 days . the tiny young hatch out with little down and are pinkish in color . ( see the gape markings ) . the parents really begin to eat the eggfood when the chicks hatch and continue this voracious eating until the chicks fledge . i would leave the young with the parents for at least 3 weeks after fledging to be certain that the young are weaned . i did not see any aggression towards the young after they fledged as is seen with the rufous - back mannikin . the young fledge with a dark brown back and tan belly . the beak is solid black and there is just a hint of the throat bib ( see below ) . the parents will quite often return to nest before the first clutch is fully weaned . the male will continue to feed while the hen starts incubating the new clutch . they can be quite prolific with repeated clutches and rather large clutches of 6 - 7 young . as is always the safe recommendation , it is best not to overtax your breeders by taking more than 2 - 4 clutches . ( depends on clutch size and condition of the parents )\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nadults and juveniles bathing in a small puddle of water , next to orange - cheeked waxbills .\njuan sanabria , josep del hoyo , greg baker , pieter de groot boersma , dani\u00eal jimenez , doug and denise norris , pascal vagner , marc de bont , yo\u00ebl jimenez , keith blomerley .\npaul van giersbergen , \u00e9ric roualet , stefan helming , lars petersson , robert erasmus , laurent demongin , holger teichmann , james kashangaki , paul a guris , markus lilje , juan jos\u00e9 baz\u00e1n hiraldo , tadeusz stawarczyk , bernard . guevorts , frank sandvoss , bruno schmetz , jacek nalepa , ossewa , jmdebruyn , klaus lachenmaier , fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric pelsy , keithedward , ruben gaasenbeek , abe and jenny , alexander viduetsky , marco valentini , ken havard , mlanguy , dolapo805 , morten venas , rafael merchante , mattias hofstede , juan gonzalez valdivieso , buchert .\nraces intergrade in ne drcongo and uganda . proposed race tessellata , described from nampini ( middle r zambezi valley ) , in nw zimbabwe , is synonymized with scutata . two subspecies recognized .\nswainson , 1837 \u2013 senegambia , s mali , guinea - bissau and guinea , sierra leone and liberia e to nigeria , s chad , central african republic and south sudan , s to gabon , congo , and w kenya ( w of rift valley ) ; also bioko , pr\u00edncipe , s\u00e3o tom\u00e9 and annob\u00f3n , in gulf of guinea .\nheuglin , 1863 \u2013 ethiopia and kenya ( e of rift valley ) s to s drcongo , angola , namibia ( caprivi strip ) , n & e botswana , mozambique and ne & se south africa ; also islands off tanzania ( pemba , zanzibar and mafia ) , and comoro is .\n9 cm ; 7\u00b77 - 11\u00b78 g . nominate race has head and upper breast brownish - black , browner on hindneck and neck side , with variable amounts of greenish gloss on cap and . . .\ncontact and flight calls a wheezy\ntsek\nor\nchik - chik\n, twittering in flocks ; . . .\ngrassy open woodland and grassy semi - arid scrub ; areas with seeding grasses , including cultivations . . .\nseason prolonged , jan\u2013sept ( mainly beginning with mar rains ) in ghana , aug\u2013oct in ethiopia , mainly apr , may , oct and nov in . . .\nresident . some local movements in response to rains and seeding of grasses ; longest distance of . . .\nnot globally threatened . common to abundant and widespread throughout most of range ; one of the commonest avian species in africa . estimated population in s mozambique ( sul . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 293 , 256 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as common and widespread ( clement 1999 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ncalls from a flock of at least 30 - 40 birds moving through open , disturbed secondary forest .\na small flock of bird seen sunning themselves in a tree in the early morning near a seed feeder in the garden .\nsmall group feeding on the ground . habitat : secondary evergreen forest , shrubland , field , papyrus swamp .\nbird seen calling from a phone wire in a suburb in the early morning .\nseveral birds moving around in some tall grass next to a restaurant . frog calling from a well .\nthese birds sat silently for a 10 - 15 minutes . i had to throw things at them to get the to make noises . this recording documents the noises that the flock of 8 made as they flew off in response to me throwing a stick in their direction .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nin africa , south of the sahara except for the southwest . also found on the islands of fernando po , principe , sao tome ' , pemba , zanzibar , mafia , comoros ; introduced to puerto rico .\nactive , vivacious , but may become sluggish if housed in a smaller enclosure . generally gregarious , but can become dominating while breeding .\nblack upper bill , silver lower bill ; brownish black head with metallic green or purplish sheen ; brownish black throat and upper breast ; brown back & wings ; shoulders sport a metallic green patch ; flanks are mottled brown & white ; black tail with brown - and - black cross - barred rump ; white belly ; dark grey or blackish legs .\nsubspecies tends to lack . juveniles have a black beak and are dark grey - brown with light grey - brown throat and breast , buff belly , brownish - buff flanks .\nsexes appear similar , though the hen may appear a little less glossy , browner above , and sport a narrower head with a beak that tapers more than the cock ' s . only the male bird appears to show a courtship display where he erects his body ( but not head or breast ) fathers , presents himself in an upright posture to the female with his head pointed downward ; he will then click his bill , open it widely , and sing , at intervals protruding and vibrating his tongue , bobbing up - and - down or pivoting side - to - side toward and away from , and sometimes in a circle around , the female , while keeping his tail pointed toward her . the female may respond by crouching and quivering her tail .\nsmall mixed millet , greens , egg food , mealworms , ant pupae , soaked seed .\nsavannahs & scrub , open woodland , forest edge , along rivers , marsh and swamp edges , cultivated areas , open clearings , farms & gardens .\n) , soft greens , & flying termites on the wing , and feed both on the ground & on plants . birds may gather at a watering hole prior to roosting for the night . individual families roost in brooding or\nslovenly\nroosting nests ( which may be dismantled and rebuilt each afternoon ) . the cock tends to collect the nesting material while the hen tends to build the nest , often near active wasp nests ( presumably for protection from predation ) . nests are rounded and constructed of grass stems and blades , lined with fine grasses , vegetable down and fiber , hair and feathers , and built in small ( 3 to 10 feet tall ) trees ( mango & orange trees ) , although some pairs may make use of abandoned weavers ' or waxbills ' nests , bushes , shrubs , and niches in buildings . families may build nests close together and share the same tree . both cock and hen share incubation duties during the day , and both sit together in the nest at night . young are reared on green ( half - ripe ) seeds , greens , and insects . after fledging , young are lead back to the nest each night to roost . an alerted or active bird may flick its tail from side - to - side and flick the wings up and down . birds may try to ' escape ' to a dark area and become motionless , attempting to hide .\npotential health problems include : overgrown toenails that require frequent trimming , obesity if given inadequate opportunity to exercise , a possibility for developing intestinal parasites due to insect - eating and ground - feeding habits , and egg - binding if suffering from nutritional deficiency or bred in cold conditions .\nmay be parasitized by the pin - tailed whydah . has produced hybrids with : spice finch (\nbreeding is restricted to the warm ( rainy / wet ) season , but may occur year - round near the equator .\nintroduce a breeding diet about one month prior to breeding . pairs may make use of semi - open nest boxes , nest baskets , or they may build their own nests in bushes using coconut fiber , leaves , grass , and feathers for padding . copulation tends to occur inside the privacy of the nest , and may be interrupted by other males if taking place outside of the nest . for rearing food , provide varied options of ample\nnest checks tend to be tolerated . parents usually cease brooding the young around 10 days of age , so it is important to ensure an adequately warm enclosure at this time .\nfledged young raise the wing furthest from the parent bird when begging for food . parents may escort fledglings back to the nest for about 2 weeks . after the young fledge , they do not need to be separated from the parents / breeding pairs , and may form a peaceful extended family from successive clutches . sometimes captive young from older clutches may try to feed their younger siblings . parent birds may drive these older juveniles out of the nest , but will often permit them to feed their younger siblings after they have fledged . if removing juveniles , wait 4 weeks until after they have fledged to ensure they are fully weaned . the spent nest can be removed so the parents build a fresh one for the next brood .\nbirds should be transitioned to an austerity diet after breeding , where soft foods , egg food , live food , and greens are limited , and ideally housed in flights or aviaries for exercise .\n: as the creator of finchinfo . com , i take no responsibility for any mishaps which you may experience in following any advice given , nor in purchasing any products suggested . i will therefore not be liable for any consequences that arise from following any advice provided in these pages .\nexternal sites open in a new browser . urltoken does not endorse external sites . urltoken is a participant in the amazon services llc associates program , an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to amazon . com . proceeds will be used to help this site grow .\n. no part of this page ( including , but not limited to pictures , articles , advice , logo , or otherwise ) may be copied or retransmitted by any means without expressed written permission from the author / creator of this page .\nthis page is hosted by dreamhost . styles : former fic | art deco | spring | magazine\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\nhorse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , \u2026\ndiet : forages and feeds on the ground . eats mainly grass seeds , some insects , fruit and nectar .\ndescription : a blackish head ( cucullata is latin for ' hooded ' ) with violet - tinged cheeks . a grey - brown back and wing coverts with blackish - brown flight feathers .\nbreeding : both male and female build a round nest with a side entrance in around 14 days . from 2 to 8 eggs are laid from august to may and incubated for an average of 14 days .\na luxurious house boat on the chobe river which offers 2 or 3 night cruises on the chobe river . an excellent way to celebrate a special occasion or just to relax in these splendid surroundings\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nthe reference for the information following is\nroberts birds of southern africa\n, 7th edition * edited by par hockey , wrj dean and pg ryan , published by\nthe trustees of the john voelcker bird book fund .\n- this is an old template for this website . please visit the home page for more : birds in sa\nfinch information . . . index of finch species . . . photos of the different finch species for identification . . . common health problems of finches . . . finch / canary diet / nutrition\nmales and females look alike . the adult has a stubby grey bill and a dark purple head . it is brown above and white below , with dark flank markings . they have iridescent green shoulder patches .\nthe nest is a large domed grass structure in a tree . the average clutch size consists of 4 - 8 white eggs .\nits varied calls , includes a rreep - rreeep in flight and a twittering made when perched .\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nthe map of the kruger you see on this page shows the areas ( coloured orange ) where this bird has been identified . the basic information was provided by the avian demographic unit based at uct and i created the maps from that information . . . the green dots show the locations of the various kruger national park rest camps\nfor in - depth birding information please refer to these authoritative avian references . . .\nthe main reference source for this data was\nroberts - birds of southern africa , 7th edition\n. other references were\nnewmans birds of the kruger park\nby keith newman published circa 1980 . names in foreign languages were obtained from the percy fitzpatrick institute of african ornithology , university of cape town website , urltoken\nhabitat : savannahs & scrub , open woodland , forest edge , along rivers , cultivated areas , open clearings , farms & gardens .\ndescription : black upper bill , silver lower bill ; brownish black head with metallic green or purplish sheen ; brownish black throat and upper breast ; brown back & wings ; shoulders sport a metallic green patch ; flanks are mottled brown & white ; black tail with brown - and - black cross - barred rump ; white belly ; dark grey or blackish legs . l . c . cucullata may also have some variable glossy green patches along the flanks which the l . c . scutata subspecies tends to lack . juveniles have a black beak and are dark grey - brown with light grey - brown throat and breast , buff belly , brownish - buff flanks . sexes appear similar , though the hen may appear a little less glossy , browner above , and sport a narrower head with a beak that tapers more than the cock\u2019s .\nbreeding : breeding is restricted to the warm ( rainy / wet ) season , but may occur year - round near the equator . they like semi - open nest boxes , nest baskets , or they may build their own nests in bushes using coconut fiber , leaves , grass , and feathers for padding . copulation tends to occur inside the privacy of the nest . for rearing food , provide varied options of ample sprouted seed , egg food , and live food . after the young fledge , they do not need to be separated from the parents / breeding pairs , and may form a peaceful extended family from successive clutches .\ndiet : paradise pet products premium finch blend , dried insect blend , greens and eggfood .\ndescription male s and females are similar in appearance . i sexed these birds by behavior . watching for pair bonding and for males to protect their females by aggressively chasing others away . otherwise , males have a nice , high pitched song with a bit of a dance . mostly just posture . i found no visual differences at all .\ni bred these birds as single pairs in my standard breeding cage with some fake plants fixed to the outside of the cage ( madigascar cage ) with one pair i used an outside nesting box of standard dimensions and in another i placed a converted milk box ( milk box nest ) they readily took to both types of boxes . i offered strands of coco fiber for them to construct their nests . small white feathers and other soft materials were offered , but for the most part the nest was a nice weave of coco fibers .\ni did successfully foster a clutch under society finches , but quite frankly , i found the madagascars to be excellent parents quite capable of rearing the young on their own .\nresting birds were housed as a colony . some feather plucking may start if crowded or the birds begin to get anxious to start breeding again , otherwise they were quite peaceful together .\nrobin restall in\nmunias and mannikins\nindicates that captive bred birds showed signs melanism and that the belly color had darker tones . thus far i have not encountered this .\nthe southern african bird atlas project ( sabap1 ) in namibia gathered a huge amount of distribution data between 1970 and 1993 .\nver time , these will give valuable information on population distribution , habitat requirements , trends and so on .\nif you have a lot of records and it would be very time - consuming to enter them manually you can also send us a spreadsheet with the details , and associated photos . use the contact us form to get in touch .\nadvertise your bnb , guest house , hotel , private game park or whatever on this site for only r25 . 00 per month !\nit is a small finch - like bird weighing around 10 grams . it is about 9 cm in length .\nthis is a very common species , even in urban areas , and is a familiar sight in gardens over the eastern portion of the country .\ntheir nests are a grassy structure in a tree . sometimes they nest by themselves and other times in colonies . up to 8 eggs are laid .\nyou can support the bluegnu project by buying one of our photo prints that are for sale .\ncopyright steven herbert t / a bluegnu projects , 2013 - 2018 . all rights reserved .\nintro text here . you may mention what country the species is from , its habitat , conservation status , generally what the species is like , other common names , and anything else .\nhere you can describe the species ' appearance ( colour , size , etc ) , adaptations , etc .\nlist similar articles here by entering their raw page name . example : lories - and - lorikeets\nunless otherwise stated , the content of this page is licensed under creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 license\nclick here to toggle editing of individual sections of the page ( if possible ) . watch headings for an\nedit\nlink when available .\nif you want to discuss contents of this page - this is the easiest way to do it .\nchange the name ( also url address , possibly the category ) of the page .\nview / set parent page ( used for creating breadcrumbs and structured layout ) .\nurltoken terms of service - what you can , what you should not etc .\nmannikins are finchlike birds , mostly brownish and often with black throats and fine barring . large flocks occur in open country from africa to australia . many are popular cage birds . the 9 - centimetre ( 3 . 5 - inch )\n) , also called white - backed munia . the former is established in hawaii , where it is called\nmanakin , ( subfamily piprinae ) , common name given to about 60 species of small , stubby , generally short - tailed birds abundant in american tropical forests . manakins are short - billed birds that range in size from 8 . 5 to 16 cm ( 3 . 5 to 6 . 5 inches ) long and weigh a mere 10\u201340 grams ( 0 . 35\u20131 . 4 ounces ) . females and immature\u2026\nestrildidae , songbird family , order passeriformes , consisting of approximately 140 species of waxbills and other small finchlike birds of the old world , many of which are favourite cage birds . members range in size from 7 . 5 to 15 cm ( 3 to 6 inches ) long . they have short , stout bills and short legs\u2026\nsilverbill , , any of several birds named for bill colour . some finches of the genus lonchura ( see munia ) are called silverbill . lichenops ( hymenops ) perspicillata , the spectacled tyrant , or silverbill , of central south america , is a tyrant\u2026\nwe welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles . you can make it easier for us to review and , hopefully , publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind .\nencyclop\u00e6dia britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience .\nyou may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered .\nat the bottom of the article , feel free to list any sources that support your changes , so that we can fully understand their context . ( internet urls are the best . )\nyour contribution may be further edited by our staff , and its publication is subject to our final approval . unfortunately , our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions .\nour editors will review what you ' ve submitted , and if it meets our criteria , we ' ll add it to the article .\nplease note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors , and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed .\ncorrections ? updates ? omissions ? let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article ( requires login ) .\nif you prefer to suggest your own revision of the article , you can go to edit mode ( requires login ) .\nour editors will review what you\u2019ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article .\nwoodland kingfisher , kruger national park , south africa . [ photo trevor hardaker \u00a9 ]\nthe woodland kingfisher is common across sub - saharan africa , occupying a wide variety of woodland and savanna habitats . it is quite an adaptable hunter , feeding mainly insects but also small vertebrates , such as fish , snakes and even other birds ! it is an intra - african migrant , arriving in southern africa around september - december , breeding then leaving for central africa around march - april . it usually nests in tree cavities , either natural or excavated by barbets or woodpeckers , laying 2 - 4 eggs incubated by both sexes . the chicks grow rapidly , cared for by both parents , leaving the nest at about 18 - 24 days old . they remain dependent on their parents for about 5 more weeks after fledging , after which they usually disperse .\ncommon across sub - saharan africa , although absent from arid areas such as the deserts of somalia . in southern africa it occurs in northern namibia ( including the caprivi strip ) , northern and eastern botswana , zimbabwe , mozambique and north - eastern south africa . it is highly adaptable , occupying a wide range of woodland and savanna habitats , provided there are streams , rivers or lakes . it also occurs in man - altered areas , such as parks , gardens and farmland .\ndistribution of woodland kingfisher in southern africa , based on statistical smoothing of the records from first sa bird atlas project ( \u00a9 animal demography unit , university of cape town ; smoothing by birgit erni and francesca little ) . colours range from dark blue ( most common ) through to yellow ( least common ) . see here for the latest distribution from the sabap2 .\nintra - african migrant , arriving in southern africa from september - december , going through its breeding cycle before leaving for central africa in the period from march - april .\nit is quite an adaptable hunter , feeding mainly on insects , supplemented with small vertebrates , such as fish , snakes and even other birds ! it usually hunts from a perch , searching for food . once it spots prey it dives down to the ground , grabs the prey item with its bill then flies back up to its perch , where it usually beats the animal to death . the following food items have been recorded in its diet :"]}
{"id": 1137, "summary": [{"text": "sphyraena sphyraena , the european barracuda or mediterranean barracuda , is a ray-finned predatory fish of the mediterranean basin and the warmer waters of the atlantic ocean . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "sphyraena sphyraena", "paragraphs": ["jennifer hammock split the classifications by inventaire national du patrimoine naturel from sphyraena sphyraena ( linnaeus , 1758 ) to their own page .\nthere are no species - specific conservation measures in place for sphyraena sphyraena , however , the range for this species overlaps with a number of marine protected areas .\nsphyraena sphyraena is normally a pelagic species found high in the water column , but smaller fish are often found near the bottom of the water column . the main food is other fish but sometimes includes cephalopods and crustaceans . they are a social species and large groups of sphyraena sphyraena could number between ten and a few hundred .\nthe genus sphyraena belongs to the family sphyraenidae , the order perciformes , class actinopterygii , phylum chordata and kingdom animalia . the genus sphyraena is the only genus in the family sphyraenidae .\njustification : sphyraena sphyraena is widespread and relatively common throughout the mediterranean . it is a commercial species but there are no serious threats at present . therefore , it is listed as least concern .\n( of sphyraena sphyraena bocagei os\u00f3rio , 1891 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nits habits are probably similar to those of the phylogenetically closely related sphyraena sphyraena ( ref . 6949 ) . feeds on cephalopods , crustaceans and fishes . caught in trammel nets and beach seines ( ref . 11101 ) .\neastern central atlantic : cape verde and the canary islands . also reported from lebanon in the eastern mediterranean . its exact distribution and abundance are unknown because most published records do not separate it from sphyraena sphyraena . also in azores islands ( ref . 44330 ) .\nindo - west pacific : red sea and east africa to new caledonia and vanuatu , north to southern japan . reported from fiji and tuvalu ( ref . 12596 ) . the exact range is uncertain because of confusion of this species with sphyraena jello and sphyraena qenie ( ref . 9768 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - pickhandle barracuda ( sphyraena jello )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - pickhandle barracuda ( sphyraena jello )\ntitle =\narkive species - pickhandle barracuda ( sphyraena jello )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\njohann julius walbaum first described sphyraena barracuda in 1792 . the genus sphyraena is latin meaning a pike - like fish . synonyms include s . picuda bloch and schneider 1801 , s . picuda picuda bloch and schneider 1801 , s . becuna cuvier 1829 , s . commersonii cuvier 1829 , and s . dussumieri valenciennes 1831 .\nto cite this page : fuller , b . 2000 .\nsphyraena barracuda\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\n( of esox sphyraena linnaeus , 1758 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of sphyraena bocagei os\u00f3rio , 1891 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of sphyraena vulgaris cuvier , 1829 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of sphyraena brachygnathos bleeker , 1855 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of sphyraena brachygnathus bleeker , 1855 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of sphyraena chinensis lacep\u00e8de , 1803 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of sphyraena obtusa cuvier , 1829 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nsupino , f . 1920 . la sphyraena spet lac . note morfologiche e comparative . rc . ist . iomb . sci . lett . , ( 2 ) 53 : pp . 353 - 358 , 1 fig .\n( of sphyraena spet ( lacep\u00e8de , 1803 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nsphyraena sphyraena has a long , fairly compressed body which is covered with small , smooth scales . it has a large mouth with a projecting lower jaw . the jaws are lined with prominent sharp teeth . it is dark above and silvery below with a yellow band running parallel to the lateral line . they are normally around 30 to 60 cm in length and weigh 6 kg but there are records of fish 165 cm long and reaching weights of 12 kg or more .\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 6 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 9 ; anal spines : 2 ; anal soft rays : 8 . diagnosis : 102 - 119 scales in lateral line ; no chevrons on the flanks or , if present , not so well marked as in sphyraena afra ( ref . 57401 ) .\n( of esox sphyraena linnaeus , 1758 ) linnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nde morais , l . , smith - vaniz , w . f . , kara , m . , yokes , b . , pollard , d . , carpenter , k . e . & de bruyne , g .\nare declared from the eastern central atlantic ( eca ) fishing zone . the overall trend in declared landings is one of increase from the late 1980s onwards . landings from the mediterranean and black sea represent five to 10 % of total recent landings . the overall trend in declared landings of\nbarracuda\nin the mediterranean and black sea is one of increase to a peak of roughly 5 , 602 tonnes in 1994 , followed by a period of decline and stabilization around 2 , 000 tonnes from the late 1990s to 1 , 000 tonnes in 2010 to 2011 ( fao 2011 ) . global catch production for\n. the catch peaked in 2006 at 398 tonnes and fluctuated through 2010 ( fao 2011 ) . however , this may be due to increasing recording from different countries and also increases in other species ( including in the catch figures for\nthe global aggregate catch production for barracuda species in the eca increased from 1950 to the 1970s , peaking in 1974 at 25 , 686 tonnes . the catch fluctuated in the late 1970s and early 1980s and decreased by 60 % from 1982 to 1985 . global catch production in the area subsequently fluctuated from 1985 to 1995 and continued to increase in 1996 into the 2000s . it peaked in 2010 at 33 , 340 tonnes , a 23 % increase from the peak in 1974 . the majority of landings are declared by nigeria . nigerian catches alone increased 75 % from 1982 to 1985 ( fao 2011 ) .\nis a commercially important species . it is a component of both artisanal fisheries and recreational fisheries . in turkey , israel and tunisia ( fao region 37 ) , up to 1 , 000 tons are landed per year .\nis captured by artisanal fishing practices with purse seines , gillnets , handlines and trolling lines . in turkey , israel and tunisia ( fao area 37 ) , up to 1 , 000 tons are landed per year . it appears regularly in the markets of algeria and morocco , where it is highly regarded , and occasionally in other markets in the area . this species is marketed fresh ( fischer\nfeeds almost exclusively on small pelagic fishes . the primary components of the diet include commercially - important clupeids and the commercially important\nde morais , l . , smith - vaniz , w . f . , kara , m . , yokes , b . , pollard , d . , carpenter , k . e . & de bruyne , g . 2015 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nbrian , a . ( 1902 ) . note su alcuni crostacei parassiti dei pesci del mediterraneo . atti della societ\u00e0 ligustica di scienze naturali e geografiche 13 : 30 - 45 , pl . 1 ( sep . : 3 - 18 , pl . 1 ) . ( also in : boll . musei lab . zool . anat . comp . r . univ . genova , 115 : 1 - 16 , pl . 1 ) . [ details ]\nho , j . s . & j . rokicki . ( 1987 ) . poecilostomatoid copepods parasitic on fishes off the west coast of africa . journal of natural history , london 21 : 1025 - 1034 . [ details ]\n. raffaele , 1888 : 64 | lo bianco , 1909 : 753 | vialli , 1937 , pl . 35 ( fig . 10 - 20 ) ; 1956 : 457 | marinaro , 1971 : 22 , pl . 4 ( fig . 1 ) .\n* lacep\u00e8de , b . 1798 - 1803 . histoire naturelle des poissons , 5 vol . in - 4 , paris . i : 1798 , 8 + cxlvii + 532 pp . , 25 pl . , 1 tabl . ( inset ) ; ii : 1800 , ixiv + 632 pp . , 20 pl . ; iii : 1801 , 558 pp . , 34 pl . ; iv : 1802 , xliv + 728 pp . , 16 pl . ; v : 1803 , xlviii + 803 pp . , 21 pl .\nancona , u . d ' ; sanzo , l . ; sparta , a . ; bertolini , f . ; ranzi , s . ; montalenti , g . ; vialli , m . ; padoa , e . ; tortonese , e . 1931 - 1956 . uova , larve e stadi giovanili di teleostei ; monografia eborata con l ' uso del materiale raccolto e seriato da salvatore lo bianco . fauna flora golfo napoli , 38 monografia . 1 , 1931 : 1 - 177 , fig . 1 - 166 , pl . i - xi ; 2 , 1933 : 178 - 384 , fig . 167 - 263 , pl . xii - xxx ; 3 ( 1 ) , 1937 : 385 - 456 , fig . 264286 , pl . xxxi - xxxv ; 3 ( 2 ) , 1956 : 457 - 1064 , fig . 287 - 831 , pl . xxxvi - li .\nbauz\u00e1 - rull\u00e1n , j . 1960a . contribuci\u00f3n al conocimiento de otolitos de peces . boln r . soc . esp . hist . nat . ( biol . ) , 57 , 1959 : 89 - 118 , pl . i - viii .\nbini , g . 1967 - 1972 . atlante dei pesci delle coste italiane . mondo sommerso , milano , 9 vol : i , 1967 , leptocardi , ciclostomi , selaci , 206 pp . , 66 fig . + 64 col . fig . ii , 1971 , osteitti ( acipenseriformi , clupeiformi , mictofiformi , anguilliformi ) , 300 pp . , 73 col . fig . iii , 1970 , notacantiformi . . . zeiformi , 229 pp . , 34 fig . + 63 col . fig . iv , 1968 , perciformi ( mugiloidei , percoidei ) , 163 pp . , 34 fig . + 49 col . fig . v , 1968 , perciformi ( percoidei ) , 175 pp . , 22 fig . + 56 col . fig . vi , 1968 , perciformi ( trichiuroidei . . . blennioidei ) , 177 pp . , 48 fig + 57 col . fig . vii , 1969 , perciformi ( ofidioidei . . . dactilopteroidei ) , 196 pp . , 57 fig . + 59 col . fig . viii , 1968 , pleuronettiformi , echeniformi , gobioesociformi , tetraodontiformi , lofiformi , 164 pp . , 34 + 63 fig . ix , 1972 , introduzione . parte generale . aggiornamenti . indici . 176 p .\ncadenat , j . 1964a . les sphyraenidae de la c\u00f4te occidentale d ' afrique . bull . inst . fr . afr . noire , ( a ) 26 ( 2 ) : 659 - 685 , 5 pl .\ndieuzeide , r . ; novella , m . ( collab . j . roland ) , 1953 - 1955 . catalogue des poissons des c\u00f4tes alg\u00e9riennes . bull . stn aquic . p\u00each . castiglione , i ( n . s . ) , ( 4 ) , 1952 [ 1953 ] : pp . 1 - 135 , 73 fig . n . num . ; ii ( n . s . ) , ( 5 ) , 1953 [ 1954 ] : pp . 1 - 258 , 135 fig . n . num . ; iii ( n . s . ) , ( 6 ) , 1954 [ 1955 ] : pp . 1 - 384 , 202 fig . n . num .\nfowler , h . w . 1936 . the marine fishes of west africa , based on the collection of the american museum congo expedition 1909 - 1915 . bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 70 ( 1 ) , jan . 21 , 1936 : pp . vii + 1 - 606 , fig . 1 - 275 ; ( 2 ) , nov . 18 , 1936 : pp . 607 - 1493 , fig . 276 - 567 .\njordan , d . s . ; evermann , b . w . 1896 - 1900 . the fishes of north and middle america , a descriptive catalogue of the species of fish - like vertebrates found in the waters of north america , north of the isthmus of panama . bull . u . s . natn . mus . , ( 47 ) , part i , 1896 : ix + 1 - 1240 ; part ii , 1898 : xxx + 1241 - 2183 ; part iii , 1898 : xxiv + 2184 - 3136 ; part iv , 1900 : ci + 3137 - 3313 , 391 pl . ( 958 fig . ) .\nlinnaeus , c . 1758 . systema naturae , ed . x , vol . 1 , 824 pp . nantes & pisces : pp . 230 - 338 . ( reprint , 1956 , london . )\nlo bianco , s . 1909 . notizie biologiche riguardanti specialmente il periodo di maturita sessuale degli animali del golfo di napoli . mitt . zool stn neapel , 19 : pp . 513 - 761 .\nmarinaro , j . y . 1971 . contribution \u00e0 l ' \u00e9tude des \u00efufs et larves p\u00e9lagiques de poissons m\u00e9diterran\u00e9ens . v . ( \u00eeufs p\u00e9lagiques de la baie d ' alger . pelagos , bull . inst . oc\u00e9anogr . alger , 3 ( 1 ) : pp . 1 - 115 , 18 fig . , 27 pl .\nmoreau , e . 1881 - 1891 . histoire naturelle des poissons de la france , paris , i , 1881 : pp . i - vii + 1 - 480 , fig . 1 - 82 ; ii , 1881 : pp . 1 - 572 , fig . 83 - 145 ; iii , 1881 : pp . 1 - 697 , fig . 146 - 220 ; suppl . , 1891 : pp . 1 - 144 , fig . 221 - 227 .\nraffaele , f . 1888 . le uova galleggianti e le larve dei teleostei nel golfo di napoli . mitt . zool . stn neapel , 8 : 84 p . , 5 pl .\nsanz echeverria , j . 1926 . datos sobre el otolito , sagitta de los peces de espa\u00f1a . boln r . soc . esp . hist . nat . , 26 ( 1 ) : pp . 145 - 160 , 71 fig .\nsoljan , t . 1963 . fishes of the adriatic ( ribe jadrana ) . fauna et flora adriatica 1 ( revised and enlarged for the english edition ) , 428 pp . , many unnumbered fig .\nsvetovidov , a . n . 1964 . r\u00eeb\u00ee chernogo morya . [ the fishes of the black sea ] . opred faune sssr , 86 : pp . 1 - 552 , fig . 1 - 191 ( in russian ) .\nvialli , m . 1937 . percesoces ( atherinidae , mugilidae , sphyraenidae in uova , larve e stadi giovanili di teleostei . fauna flora golfo napoli , 38 : 412 - 460 , fig . 278 - 286 , pl . xxxiv - xxxv .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nthe barracuda ( sphyraenus , family sphyraenidae ) is a ray - finned fish notable for its large size ( up to 1 . 8 m or 5 ft ) and fearsome appearance . the one genus of the family includes about 25 known species .\nthe barracuda body is elongated , with the lower jaw of the large mouth jutting out , and displaying prominent fang - shaped teeth . the two dorsal fins are widely separated , with the first having five spines and the second one spine and nine soft rays . the lateral line is prominent .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nazul fit offers wellbeing experiences including : ashtanga & hatha yoga , pilates , meditation , circuits , massage & spa treatments , personal training and more ! check them out on our sports page .\nthe google earth option requires a plug - in and ie has some problems with it - if you have firefox you ' ll find it works fine .\nthe sea around fuerteventura is much cooler than many people expect due to the cold canary current , which brings cool water down from northern europe . it is this temperate water that gives the island its world famous climate , for without it , temperatures would be much higher and the archipelago much dryer than it is .\nwhales , dolphins and turtles are frequent visitors and big game fishermen have set world records off its coasts . close to the shore , colourful shoals of parrotfish graze on rocks that harbour moray eels and brightly coloured wrasse and damsel fish . seahorses live in the seagrass and huge rays patrol the bottom . octopus and cuttlefish are abundant , along with an almost infinite variety of smaller organisms , such as brightly coloured sea urchins , crabs and sponges .\nspaisoma ( euscarus ) cretense this is the single most famous fish species around fuerteventura . a sexually dimorphic species , the female being brightly decorated with red , yellow and blue and the male a drab greyish brown . while juveniles are often seen alone , larger viejas group together , sometimes in schools of several hundred , to feed over rocky bottoms down to 50m . feeds on invertebrates and especially crabs , relying on its prominent beak - like teeth .\nthe most characteristic canarian fish much sought after by divers and fishermen alike the vieja remains an important commercial species despite heavy overfishing . a reduction in the use of nasa fish traps has seen an increase in the population around gran canaria . traditionally fished for from small craft using salted crabs on large hooks and a rod tipped with a stingray tail .\nliza aurata the most common of several mullet species around the island , the golden mullet is often seen in harbours and close to the shore . large shoals are often encountered and large specimens are found grazing in very shallow water . an algae and debris feeder , it can be attracted with bread and , while not often consumed in the canaries , is a challenging fish to catch .\nabudefduf luridus small but spectacular , the black damsel fish is found almost everywhere but especially over rocky and weedy bottoms in shallow water . its bright blue colour and trusting nature make it a diving favourite . it can sometimes be tempted to feed from the hand and is often seen along harbour walls and in rockpools . males develop orange patches during the breeding season .\nthalassoma pavo one of the commonest and most beautiful fish in canarian waters the peacock wrasse is often found in mixed shoals along with the black damsel fish and band - tail chromis . found everywhere except over pure sand bottoms from the inter - tidal zone down to depths of 200m . males are larger with more distinctive coloration and , like many wrasse , this species can change sex .\nat night , giant manta rays sometimes come into harbours to feed around lights . a torch shone down the walls will reveal goldfish - like cardinal fish and the larger red and white glasseyes , which have large eyes that glow in torchlight . black and silver bream or \u2018sargos\u2019 are much more active at night and large , mixed groups can often be located with a torch .\nheteropriacanthus cruentatus common but nocturnal , the glasseye is found hiding in caves during the day and allows divers to approach closely . common in the cracks and crevices of harbour walls and manmade structures . like the vieja , the glasseye is susceptible to crustacean parasites . an attractive species with limited interest as a sport fish .\npolyprion americanus a deep sea species found from gibraltar to southern angola the wreckfish is an important commercial and food fish in the canary islands . found between 200m and 800m most wreckfish caught around the canaries are much smaller than the maximum .\npseudolepidaplois scrofa found on rocky and mixed bottoms down to 150m the hogfish is an important species for traditional fishermen , even though it is listed as threatened . an attractive species , it is rarely seen by snorkelers as it prefers deeper waters . often seen in the mixed catch of small fishing vessels arriving back in port on fuerteventura .\na trip on an inter - island ferry or a water - taxi can often be a rewarding experience for those looking for wildlife . a variety of shearwaters and petrels will be seen , flying close to the water\u2019s surface . some , such as the white - faced storm petrel are very rare and breed only on one or two of the canary islands . graceful terns are often seen around the coast , and a group of them plunging into the sea to catch small fish is a beautiful sight .\ndolphins and porpoises are common in our waters and often ride the bow waves of ferries . among the larger cetaceans , pilot whales are common and sperm and killer whales are often seen off the fuerteventura coast along with risso\u2019s dolphin . several species of turtle visit and are occasionally washed up after becoming trapped in fishing nets or fouled with oil .\nother creatures that are sighted from boats include blue and hammerhead sharks , portuguese man of war jellyfish , flying fish and manta rays .\nbelone belone gracilis small shoals of this curious fish appear close to the shore around fuerteventura in the summer months . rarely seen more than a few centimetres from the surface the greenbone garfish is often missed by divers and snorkelers . good eating despite its slender build and green bones .\nkatsuwonus pelamis a small , schooling tunnid that runs in canary waters through the summer and autumn . an important commercial and sporting species the skipjack is traditionally caught with rod and line from small offshore craft . a voracious fish eater that is particularly fond of bogues .\nthunnus alalunga one of several large pelagic and epipelagic tunnid species common in canarian waters at certain times of year along with the yellowfin , big - eye and bluefin tuna . all are important commercial and sport fish and can be caught from chartered sport fishing craft in the south of gran canaria .\npseudocaranx dentex an epibenthic to pelagic species found down to depths of 100m , the guelly jack is a powerful predatory fish at the top of the coastal food chain . once a common species , it has been overfished to the point where it is rarely seen . juveniles are sometimes still found around mooring buoys and sometimes \u201cadopt\u201d divers and snorkelers , as well as large fish such as saddled bream\nscomber japonicus one of two mackerel species present in canarian waters at certain times of year along with the frigate tuna . both are fished commercially and are good fishing from small craft . large schools of small chub mackerel are sometimes found close to the shore often in the company of bogues .\nmakaira nigricans an oceanic species reaching 650kg that is quite common around the canary islands and an important sport fish . several blue marlin world records have been broken around the archipelago and the waters of the canaries are famous for their large specimens . chartered fishing boats operating from the harbours of the island seek out this species . the physically similar swordfish is also occasionally caught although it prefers warmer waters .\nexocetus volitans a curious species found in small groups close to the surface . capable of leaping clear of the water and \u201cflying\u201d up to 100m using its elongated pectoral fins . a plankton feeder that is hunted by tuna , the flying fish is often seen flying away from boats and ferries around fuerteventura .\na wide selection of shells and other objects can be collected from fuerteventura\u2019s beaches , especially after storms . among the most common are cuttlefish bones , well known due to their use as a source of calcium for canaries . they often wash up on beaches and are more often seen that the living creature . delicate spiral ramshorns also come from a seldom seen squid and are very common along the strand line . also common are the very delicate lilac shells of the janthinidae , which live under a raft of bubbles , only washing up on the shore after stormy weather .\nstranded jellyfish also wash up , sometimes in large numbers , and should not be handled as they are still capable of stinging . common shells to be found empty along the coastline of the canaries include sea urchins carapaces without the spines . these can be green , purple or brown and are as beautiful as they are fragile .\nvenus ear shells are easily recognisable , with one side covered in mother of pearl . the living venus ear lives stuck under rocks , emerging after dark to graze on algae . limpets , winkles and dog whelks are common all around the canaries , while cowries , mussels , cockles and scallops also turn up . goose barnacles can be found attached to almost any piece of floating debris that has been in the water for a decent length of time .\nrockpools are perhaps the best place to see a wide selection of sealife without the need to get too wet . low tide leaves large areas of rock exposed around the coast , trapping animals that cannot normally be seen without a mask and snorkel . in general , the less time rocks are exposed to the air , the more life is found on and among them . especially low spring and neap tides expose areas that are usually underwater and these can yield very rich pickings for the naturalist . some caution is needed when exploring rockpools , as the tide comes in fast and exposed rocks can be very slippery .\na few of the animals that are found can also cause damage . sea urchin spines snap off under the skin and cause painful injuries , while the red and white bristleworms to be found under rocks are best avoided , as their bristles irritate the skin . brown sea cucumbers exude a white fluid when handled , which is very hard t o remove from skin or clothing .\nsmall scorpionfish , often trapped in rockpools , have poisonous spines and large crabs can deliver nasty nips with their powerful claws . it is always best merely to observe any creatures found , as much for the observer\u2019s benefit as their own . do not forget to replace any rocks that you turn over and make sure any shells you take home do not already have a rightful owner , as hermit crabs are plentiful around fuerteventura .\neven the smallest and shallowest rockpool is likely to have fish living in it . gobies and blennies are small specialists in this particular habitat and , with patience , can be tempted to take bread or squid from the hand . baby mullet and sucker fish are also often found in the smallest pool . in deeper pools closer to the low tide mark , the number of fish species to be found increases . fulas and pejeverdes are common , while small sargos , mullet , grouper , wrasse and scorpionfish are also evident . in deep pools with caves , moray eels lurk , along with larger grouper and a wide variety of other fish .\nother organisms to be found in rockpools include small , transparent shrimps which will often come and nibble on a foot left in the water , a variety of crabs , including the hairy \u2018jaca\u2019 , which is very tasty and much sought after . grey sea hares , with black circular marks , and sea cucumbers are often found in cracks and caves , along with a wide variety of urchins , sponges and anemones . a careful search among the seaweed will often reveal small but brightly coloured sea slugs and starfish .\nbright red sally lightfoot crabs are easily spotted on exposed rocks , but are very shy . they are caught in the canaries with bait wrapped in a ball of rough thread , which tangles up their claws . at night , tubeworms extend their delicate fans and pluck small morsels from the water and crabs come out to feed , safe from the sleeping seabirds . perhaps the best way to find rockpool inhabitants is to turn over rocks and stones . this should be done very sparingly and the rocks carefully replaced as many of the creatures found under them are killed by sunlight . many rocks also have sea urchins underneath them .\nlook out for brightly coloured orange and yellow sponges , shy peacrabs and the highly mobile bristlestars , which will wriggle off as soon as they detect light .\nwhile a wide selection of marine life can be seen from above the surface , taking the plunge and joining it underwater opens up an entirely new world . snorkel kits are widely available in most shopping centres and are very reasonably priced although , for the sake of comfort , it is often best to spend a little more than the minimum . there are dive centres in most resorts and they cater for a wide range of abilities , from absolute novices to experienced divers . in some areas , there are commercial glass - bottomed boats and even submarines , which allow you to experience the underwater world without getting wet and with the added bonus of an experienced guide .\ndiplodus sargus cadenati the most common of a number of sea breams around fuerteventura , the white sea bream is present almost everywhere . it forms small shoals of different sized individuals which will often follow divers . once heavily fished , especially by speargunners , it remains an important commercial and sport fish , best sought after at night . the similar annular sea bream is smaller and closely linked to sandy bottoms and seagrass beds .\ndiplodus cervinus cervinus the largest commonly encountered canarian sea bream , the zebra sea bream is a spectacular if retiring species , especially when adult . small shoals and pairs are often found over rocky and mixed bottoms down to 100m . smaller specimens are more brightly coloured and are found closer to the shore . a good , if hard to catch sport fish that has suffered at the hands of speargunners .\ndiplodus vulgaris a common and easily recognised species , the 2 - banded sea bream is found over all bottoms . usually seen alone or in pairs , the juveniles group together in mixed shoals along with other sea breams . rarely larger than 20cm in fuerteventuran waters , it is of limited commercial and sport fishing interest .\nsarpa salpa one of the most frequently encountered fish in fuerteventuran waters , the salema forms large uniform schools close to the shore . in bright light , they appear blue with fine yellow stripes . a grazing species its abundance may be due to the unpleasant muddy flavour of its flesh . a good sport fish that is attracted to bread and is not afraid of divers bearing food .\nboops boops a very common species that has benefited from the overfishing of its predators . bogue populations can assumes almost plague proportions in some areas . rarely eaten as it is traditionally considered a dirty fish that feeds on the corpses of fishermen . found in open water down to 250m . an important bait fish for tunny fishing .\ngobius paganellus one of several goby species common in shallow water and the intertidal zone . best observed at low tide when they hunt fearlessly in rockpools gobies will happily eat almost anything offered to them . of no interest to fishermen due to their small size , gobies are occasionally caught accidentally .\ncoryphoblennius galerita several similar blenny species are found in shallow waters and rockpools around fueeteventura . more sinuous than the gobies , blennies are also more wary . extremely common in some areas blennies are of no interest to fishermen due to their small size .\ntrypterygion tripteronotus a tiny but spectacular species this blenny is found in pairs in shallow water over rocky bottoms . the brightly coloured male is instantly recognisable due to its black head and orange body . pugnacious despite its size it sometimes attacks divers\u2019 fingers , especially during the breeding season .\nophioblennius atlanticus atlanticus the largest of the gobies and blennies around the canaries the rubber eye is recognised by its cream head and almost black body . populations can be quite dense on exposed rocky bottoms covered with diadema sea urchins and on harbour walls . aggressive with its own kind , the rubber eye is unafraid of divers . it is very seldom caught , even by accident , by fishermen .\neven areas of completely bare sand support specialist animals . small flatfish rise from the bottom if the swimmer gets too close and are well worth observing for their curious form of locomotion . they are often seen in pairs and are surprisingly curious and unafraid of divers . they have a habit of settling on the bottom and disappearing in a puff of sand , leaving only their protruding eyes above the sand .\nxyrichthys novacula the cleaver wrasse is an attractive species linked to sandy bottoms and sea grass beds , where it can be quite frequent . if disturbed it has the ability to burrow into the sand faster than the eye can follow . a favourite food of dolphins which have been observed burrowing into the sand to capture them . a good food fish with firm , white flesh .\nlithognathus mormyrus found strictly close to sandy bottoms , the herrera can form large schools of similar sized individuals . fond of bare sand bottoms exposed to breaking waves it is recognised by its elongated body , numerous pale bands and large white lips . large specimens are often encountered close to the shore . the herrera is an excellent sport and eating fish aught with rod and line from the shore or from small craft .\nsynodus saurus found on rocky and sandy bottoms down to 100m the lizard fish is a voracious predator that will consume anything that fits into its considerable mouth . cannibalism is not uncommon and they have been known to swallow small fish hooked by fishermen , releasing them when pulled out of the water . easily recognised due to their shape , lizard fish are most often observed lying motionless and half buried on the bottom . a similar species is found in deeper waters .\ntrachinus draco the fish species most likely to injure swimmers in the canary islands the greater weever lives on sandy bottoms down to 50m . small specimens are found buried in the sand in shallow water and have venomous dorsal spines that deliver a powerful sting to anyone unwary enough to tread on them . an attractive species with blue markings and a black dorsal fin that is understandably unafraid of divers .\nbothus podas maderensis common on sandy bottoms down to 90m , this is a subspecies endemic to the canaries and madeira . small specimens are often seen in shallow water close to beaches . instantly recognisable , the flounder is unafraid of divers and a charismatic fish . often caught from small craft by rod and line fishermen fishing on the bottom large examples make for good eating . the flounder\u2019s local name of \u201ctapaculo\u201d translates as \u201cbuttock cover\u201d .\namong the most remarkable seagrass specialist is the seahorse , very common in some areas but hard to spot and very shy . patches of floating seagrass uprooted during storms often harbour its relative the pipefish , just as shy and very well camouflaged . another notable inhabitant in the culebre , a type of eel that looks exactly like a sea snake . it often shelters in sunken car tyres and is a harmless , retiring fish . another eel lives in colonies of several hundred and spends its life half buried in the sand . if a diver approaches too closely , the eels will disappear , emerging when the coast is clear .\nstephanolepsis hispidus a common and trusting fish the yellow trigger fish is unmistakeable when encountered . while seemingly slow moving it is capable of speed if threatened . a popular food fish that must have its leathery skin removed before cooking . difficult to catch with rod and line due to its powerful teeth and patient nature it is a famous baitstealer .\nmullus surmuletus closely linked to sandy bottoms and seagrass beds , the red mullet is often found digging in the sand for invertebrates . indifferent to divers it is recognised by its prominent white barbells and elongated body . an important food fish wherever it is found the red mullet is rarely caught by rod and line fishermen in the canaries .\nhippocampus hippocampus a small and rarely seen species , the seahorse is found in seagrass beds and on weedy bottoms between 8cm and 12cm . considered rare , it is so seldom observed due to its excellent camouflage and slow movements that its exact status is unknown . the closely related pipefish also occurs around fuerteventura and can be observed around floating mats of seagrass .\ncaves are also the best place to see sea urchins , in a variety of colours , sea anemones , sea cucumbers , sea hares and sponges . long - spined black sea urchins are common and have assumed plague proportions in some areas , grazing so intensively that algae has no chance to grow . areas of white rock covered in urchins are called urchin bights and tend to support fewer fish than areas without urchins . part of the problem is the overfishing of predators such as triggerfish and triton shells , which keep urchin numbers under control . some divers crush these urchins whenever they can in a bid to control them but this is not advisable , as the spines are poisonous . the urchin\u2019s long spines also provide a home for a variety of juvenile animals and small creatures , such as shrimps and spider crabs .\nepinephelus marginatus one of the stars of the diving world in the canary islands , the dusky grouper is easily tamed and will feed from divers\u2019 hands . groups of different sized individuals are often found sharing the same cave . an important commercial fish that has is now listed as threatened as it is an easy and attractive target for spear gun fishermen and has been severely overfished .\nmycteroperca fusca a benthic species that found down to 150m and quite common in places . juveniles are often seen by divers and snorkelers and a spectacular , bright yellow morph is sometimes found . threatened by over fishing and indiscriminate spear gun fishing , the comb grouper is an important sporting and commercial species .\nchromis limbatus similar to the previous species but usually found at greater depths the band - tail chromis can form large schools in open water above rocky bottoms . males develop purple backs during the breeding season . a common species seen on most dives , often in large numbers . one of the few species to thrive over rocks infested with diadema sea urchins .\npomadasys incisus a common species known locally as the snorer due to the audible noises it makes when caught . large banks of bastard grunts are often found close to the shore and are unafraid of divers . a good sport and eating fish that is abundant partly because it rarely enters fish traps . the related striped grunt is found in small colonies between 20m and 150m . it is used by fishermen as a marker species as it lives closely linked to underwater reefs .\ncanthigaster rostrata a common shallow water species that is not afraid of divers , the sharpnose pufferfish can inflate its body with water if threatened . considered poisonous by some , it is sometimes eaten after careful cleaning . a major baitstealer and linebreaker due to its powerful front teeth , it is considered a pest by fishermen .\nscorpaena scrofa one of two similar scorpionfish fund in shallow water over rocky and weedy bottoms but also down to 200m . both rely on their excellent camouflage for defence and hunting and have poisonous spines . scorpion fish are often caught by rod and line fishermen and are good eating , especially in fish soups .\nfish farming is becoming an important industry around the archipelago and will eventually be widespread enough to cope with the demand for fresh fish . it has had unforeseen consequences , as several of the species farmed are not naturally found around the islands and have escaped . the impact of these alien species is not yet understood and could seriously affect populations of native species .\noverfishing is , however , still a threat to some species and those that feed off them . whitebait netting has been banned for several years after these fish were almost driven to extinction and the jurel , a kind of jack , has almost completely disappeared from some islands due to its affinity for fish traps .\nrubbish generated by the 10m tourists passing through the islands every year also has a detrimental effect on sealife . turtles mistake plastic bags for jellyfish and swallow them and along with birds , get tangled in fishing line and plastic rings from drinks cans . the deforestation of mountain areas and continued hotel development mean rainwater erodes the soil and washes it into the sea , where it clouds the water and prevents light - dependent organisms from growing , as well as reducing visibility for the diver .\nfuerteventura hotels for the cheapest prices search our database to find the best hotels and prices for the times you can take your holiday www . fuerteventura - hotels\ngreek , sphyraina , - es = the name of a fish ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; pelagic - neritic ; depth range 0 - 100 m ( ref . 27000 ) , usually ? - 50 m ( ref . 6949 ) . subtropical ; 48\u00b0n - 18\u00b0s , 31\u00b0w - 37\u00b0e\neastern atlantic : bay of biscay to mossamedes , angola , including the mediterranean and black sea , canary islands , and azores . western atlantic : bermuda and brazil .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 165 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3397 ) ; common length : 60 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 11101 ) ; max . published weight : 3 . 6 kg ( ref . 40637 )\nfound in coastal and offshore waters ( ref . 2683 ) . feeds mostly on fish , less often on cephalopods and crustaceans ( ref . 11101 ) .\nde sylva , d . p . , 1990 . sphyraenidae . p . 860 - 864 . in j . c . quero , j . c . hureau , c . karrer , a . post and l . saldanha ( eds . ) check - list of the fishes of the eastern tropical atlantic ( clofeta ) . jnict , lisbon ; sei , paris ; and unesco , paris . vol . 2 . ( ref . 6949 )\n) : 14 . 3 - 21 . 9 , mean 18 . 3 ( based on 126 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00776 ( 0 . 00622 - 0 . 00968 ) , b = 2 . 93 ( 2 . 88 - 2 . 98 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 0 \u00b10 . 51 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 0 . 123 ; tmax > 8 yrs ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 49 of 100 ) .\nthis species is relatively common throughout most of the mediterranean , but there is likely to have been a confusion between this species and s . viridensis ( p . francour pers . comm . 2007 ) . it is rare in the black sea , common in the sea of marmara , and more common in the aegean ( b . yokes pers . comm . 2007 ) . food and agriculture organization ( fao ) landings figures are available from ten countries , but not specifically for this species ( all barracuda are lumped into the statistics ) . overall there is an increasing trend to these figures . however , this may be due to increasing recording from different countries and also increases in other species ( including in the catch figures for s . chrysotaenia and s . flavicauda , both immigrant species from the red sea ) .\nthis is an epipelagic species , found in coastal and offshore waters ( schneider 1990 ) . it feeds mostly on fish , less often on cephalopods and crustaceans ( ben - tuvia 1986 ) . this species may be found to 100 m depth . in the mediterranean , it is recorded to 50 m depth ( louisy 2005 ) , and grows to perhaps up to 70 to 80 cm length .\nit is commercially fished . in turkey , israel and tunisia ( fao 37 ) , up to 1 , 000 tons are landed per year .\nin turkey , israel and tunisia ( fao area 37 ) , up to 1 , 000 tons are landed per year . there are no known major threats for this species , although it is commercially fished .\nno conservation measures are in place for this species . however , it is likely to occur in some marine protected areas ( it is a mobile species ) .\n5 . biological resource use - > 5 . 4 . fishing & harvesting aquatic resources - > 5 . 4 . 1 . intentional use : ( subsistence / small scale ) [ harvest ]\nben - tuvia , a . 1986 . sphyraenidae . fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean , pp . 1194 - 1196 .\nfischer , w . , bauchot , m . - l . and schneider , m . 1987 . fiches fao d ' identification des esp\u00e8ces pour les besoins de la p\u00eache . ( r\u00e9vision 1 ) . m\u00e9diterran\u00e9e et mer noire . zone de p\u00eache 37 . fao , rome .\niucn . 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species ( ver . 2011 . 2 ) . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 10 november 2011 ) .\nlouisy , p . 2005 . guide d ' identification des poissons marins . europe et m\u00e9diterran\u00e9e . ulmer editions , paris .\nschneider , w . 1990 . fao species identification sheets for fishery purposes . field guide to the commercial marine resources of the gulf of guinea . fao , rome .\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nvan der land , j . ; costello , m . j . ; zavodnik , d . ; santos , r . s . ; porteiro , f . m . ; bailly , n . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; froese , r . ( 2001 ) . pisces , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 357 - 374 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of esox spet ha\u00fcy , 1787 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nthe photo of this shoal of barracuda was taken at a depth of 8 m near crocodile rock , a natural offshore reef at dwejra , not far from the famous azure window , on gozo \u2019s west coast .\nelysia timida , the green elysia , is a species of sacoglossan sea slug , a marine opisthobranch gastropod mollusk endemic to the . . .\nbothus podas , the wide - eyed flounder , is a type of flatfish and is native to the mediterranean sea and the eastern . . .\nastropecten aranciacus , the red comb starfish , is a type of sea star and is native to the mediterranean sea and . . .\ndie gruppe um stephania und brian ist echt super . wir hatten eine woche mit h\u00f6hen und tiefen aber waren hier echt super gut aufgehoben und betreut . ich komme gerne wieder . super gutes team und echt sch\u00f6ne tauchpl\u00e4tze .\nprofessional , attention to every detail , friendly , helpful where needed . thank you for the 2 amazing dives guys at the blue hole and the reqqa point . special thanks to dennis , dennis - dennis , georgia & stephania !\ni was there a couple of years ago . diving with brian was just like diving with a good friend .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 atlantis diving center . all rights reserved . privacy policy | terms & conditions | refund policy\naegean sea : 18300 - 371 ( 4 spc . ) , 13 . 08 . 1989 , goekova bay , ring net , n . meri\u00e7 . mediterranean sea : 18300 - 363 ( 1 spc . ) , 01 . 08 . 1968 , m . demir ; 18300 - 372 ( 2 spc . ) , 01 . 08 . 1968 , m . demir .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmarine ; brackish ; reef - associated ; depth range 1 - 100 m ( ref . 6949 ) , usually 3 - 30 m ( ref . 40849 ) . subtropical ; 42\u00b0n - 35\u00b0s , 180\u00b0w - 180\u00b0e ( ref . 55300 )\nindo - pacific : red sea and east coast of africa to hawaii and the marquesas and tuamoto islands . western atlantic : massachusetts ( usa ) , bermuda , and throughout the caribbean sea to brazil ( ref . 9626 ) . eastern atlantic : sierra leone , c\u00f4te d ' ivoire , togo , nigeria , senegal ( ref . 6949 ) , mauritania ( ref . 5377 ) , st . paul ' s rocks ( ref . 13121 ) , and s\u00e3o tom\u00e9 island ( ref . 34088 ) ."]}
{"id": 1138, "summary": [{"text": "the steppe eagle ( aquila nipalensis ) is a bird of prey .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "like all eagles , it belongs to the family accipitridae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it was once considered to be closely related to the non-migratory tawny eagle ( aquila rapax ) and the two forms have previously been treated as conspecific .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "they were split based on pronounced differences in morphology and anatomy ; two molecular studies , each based on a very small number of genes , indicate that the species are distinct but disagree over how closely related they are . ", "topic": 10}], "title": "steppe eagle", "paragraphs": ["the habitat for the steppe eagle must be protected . agricultural practices should respect the habitat and the conservation of steppe birds like the steppe eagle .\nthe name\nsteppe eagle\nis a parody of the desert eagle as both steppe and desert are ecological zone types .\ntags : afghanistan , birds , eagle , navy seals , sen . chuck schumer , steppe eagle\nvireo steppe eagle photos . urltoken species account , with an emphasis on european populations .\ngreen , dietmar knopp and richard j . cuthbert diclofenac is toxic to the steppe eagle\nwith witch the steppe eagle is closely related . today they are definitely regarded as seperate species .\n[ grin 2009 ] global raptor information network . 2009 . species account : steppe eagle aquila nipalensis . downloaded from\nview different nest arrangements of the steppe eagle ( karjakin , 2012 : pp . 24 - 35 ) > > >\nthere are no specific conservation programs in place for the steppe eagle , however many parts of its range are protected .\nsteppe eagle | s . t . a . l . k . e . r . wiki | fandom powered by wikia\njuvenile eagle and immature often show broad white band along the greater coverts on the underwing . plumage is paler . the young steppe eagle reaches the adult plumage at 4 - 5 years .\nthe steppe eagle is a quiet bird , only vocalising during the breeding season . their call sounds somewhat like a barking crow .\nbeside that , the large scale destruction of steppe habitat and conversion the agricultural land ( and the following reduction of prey like susliks ) is the major reason for the decline of the steppe eagle .\nrecommended citation : global raptor information network . 2018 . species account : steppe eagle aquila nipalensis . downloaded from urltoken on 9 jul . 2018\nview the habitats of the steppe eagle in satellite images and photographs ( karyakin , 2012 : pp . 24 - 35 ) > > >\na steppe eagle named mitch was a long way off its normal migration route when it landed in norfolk , va . , last friday .\nthe steppe eagle is a large bird of prey , belonging to the aquila family , or eagle family . it was once thought to be a subspecies of the tawny eagle , but they are now known to be a distinct species . there are in fact two subspecies of the steppe eagle , aquila nipalensis nipalensis and aquila nipalensis orientalis which slightly differ in coloration and size . in general aquila nipalensis nipalensis is darker and larger .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - steppe eagle ( aquila nipalensis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - steppe eagle ( aquila nipalensis )\ntitle =\narkive species - steppe eagle ( aquila nipalensis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nsteppe eagle arrives in march at breeding areas . both mates often arrive together . in this species , breeding season is strongly dependent on preys\u2019 availability .\nduring a dive steppe eagles can reach a speed of 300 kilometers per hour .\nstory by andrea egan , vadim kirilyuk and undp russia / photos : undp / gef steppe project team and natalia sudets for undp steppe project and undp russia .\nsimilar species within the steppe eagle\u2019s nesting sites , similar breeds of eagles exist - the white - tailed eagle ( haliaeetus albicilla ) , golden eagle ( aquila chrysaetos ) , imperial eagle ( a . heliaca ) and greater spotted eagle ( a . nipalensis ) . all the above - listed species , as well as the lesser spotted eagle ( a . pomarina ) , which is most similar to the steppe eagle , migrate to the same areas , which makes identification of species difficult . when trying to identify eagles , attention must be turned to the colour of the underside of the wing . the young steppe eagle can be distinguished from the other eagles by the \u2018juvenile band\u2019 , formed cleanly by white lower coverts . with age the band turns black and by the age of 5 it will have almost completely disappeared . at this age the key indicators identifying the steppe eagle will be its wing and tail proportions , wing position in flight , and the length of the foot relative to the tail .\nprotection / threats / status : steppe eagle is vulnerable to persecution , changes or destruction of their habitat for agriculture , and collision with power lines . this species may be common in suitable habitat , and it is one of the most common eagles in the world . steppe eagle is not threatened at this moment .\nas the name already says , the steppe eagle is a bird of open habitat like steppes , desert , semi - desert , grasslands and even agricultural areas .\na soldier from the kazakhstan peacekeeping battalion loads a helicopter during load training at illisky training center during steppe eagle 16 . steppe eagle is a multinational exercise with participation from servicemembers from kazakhstan , the united kingdom and the united states . ( u . s . army photo by maj . chris brautigam , usarcent public affairs )\na group of refugees clash with members of the kazakhstan peacekeeping battalion during the steppe eagle 16 , apr . 20 . steppe eagle is a multinational exercise with participation from servicemembers from kazakhstan , the united kingdom and the united states . ( u . s . army photo by maj . chris brautigam , usarcent public affairs )\nthe steppe eagle is a unique black kite featured only in s . t . a . l . k . e . r . : call of pripyat .\nverifying the toxicity of diclofenac to steppe eagles . if such results are borne out ,\nwhile there are currently no specific conservation measures in place for the steppe eagle ( 1 ) , it occurs in numerous protected areas throughout its range ( 6 ) .\nit is not known exactly when a steppe eagle reaches sexual maturity , but it is estimated at around 3 to 4 years old , when it gains its adult plumage .\na soldier from the kazakhstan peacekeeping battalion pulls security following small arms fire from the local village during the steppe eagle 16 , apr . 20 . steppe eagle is a multinational exercise with participation from servicemembers from kazakhstan , the united kingdom and the united states . ( u . s . army photo by maj . chris brautigam , usarcent public affairs )\ndescription : steppe eagle adult has dark brown plumage overall . the body is darker than the greyish wings . flight and tail feathers are greyish , and may be barred dark grey .\na team of medics from the kazakhstan peacekeeping battalion evacuate a simulated casualty during medevac training , apr 16 , at illisky training center kazakhstan during steppe eagle 16 . steppe eagle is a multinational exercise with participation from servicemembers from kazakhstan , the united kingdom and the united states . ( u . s . army photo by maj . chris brautigam , usarcent public affairs )\nfood : as a predator steppe eagle prefers small rodents as food , which he is able to catch . sometimes it can hunt for small chicks , eat carrion and occasionally reptiles .\nthe steppe eagle is a migratory species . most european birds and those from western asia spend the winter in eastern and southern africa . some also spend the winter on the arabian peninsula .\nhere at woburn we have one steppe eagle , goran . he is a gentle giant , with a laid back attitude to life . his call is more like a chicken than an eagle ! he was hatched in the czech republic , but has settled into life at woburn well .\nsoldiers from the kazakhstan peacekeeping battalion use their shields and gain confidence in their equipment during public order training at the illisky training center , kazakhstan during steppe eagle 16 , april 12 . steppe eagle is a multinational exercise with participation from servicemembers from kazakhstan , the united kingdom and the united states . ( u . s . army photo by maj . chris brautigam , usarcent public affairs )\nsteppe eagles are very quiet birds and use rarely vocalization for communication , except during the breeding season .\na team of soldiers from the kazakhstan , the united kingdom and the united states compete against another multinational team in a tug - of - war competition during steppe eagle 16 . steppe eagle is a multinational exercise with participation from servicemembers from kazakhstan , u . k . and the u . s . ( u . s . army photo by maj . chris brautigam , usarcent public affairs )\n[ birdlife international 2004 ] birdlife international . 2004 . birds in europe : population estimates , trends and conservation status . birdlife interntional . cambridge , uk . ( steppe eagle species account available at :\nalthough generally considered common throughout its range , as a result of persecution , collision with power lines , and the conversion of steppe to agricultural land , the steppe eagle has disappeared from romania , moldova and ukraine ( 2 ) . nevertheless , it remains the most common eagle species of its size in the world ( 2 ) , and is therefore not considered to be threatened ( 1 ) .\na relatively large , handsome bird of prey , the steppe eagle closely resembles a number of related eagle species such as the tawny eagle , aquila rapax , that occur within its extensive range ( 2 ) . the plumage is mostly dark brown , with well - defined bars on the flight and tail feathers ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the main distinguishing features are the reddish - brown patch on the nape of the neck , the oval nostrils , and the long , wide gape . there are two recognised subspecies of steppe eagle , aquila nipalensis nipalensis and aquila nipalensis orientalis , the latter being slightly smaller , with paler plumage . the juvenile steppe eagle resembles the adult but is paler brown , with a characteristic broad white band running along the underside of the wing ( 2 ) .\n) . therefore , it is possible that minks may also prey on lesser spotted eagle eggs .\nfor many inhabitants of the steppes , the eagle is held with a reverence that borders religion .\nmeyburg , b . - u . , c . meyburg & p . paillat ( 2012 ) : steppe eagle migration strategies - revealed by satellite telemetry . brit . birds 105 : 506 - 519 .\nrange : steppe eagle breeds from romania , through the asiatic steppes to mongolia . they are migratory raptors . the european and central asian races winter in africa , whereas the eastern races winter in india .\nsgt . ana pegues , a veterinary food inspection specialist from area support group - kuwait , receives a medal and a certificate for her performance during the steppe eagle 16 sports day , apr . 17 . steppe eagle is a multinational exercise with participation from servicemembers from kazakhstan , the united kingdom and the united states . ( u . s . army photo by maj . chris brautigam , usarcent public affairs )\n. . . steppe eagles aquila nipalensis ( sharma et al . , 2014 ) suggesting the possibility that diclofenac is toxic to other accipitrid raptors , such as the threatened spanish imperial eagle . . . .\nhabitat in most parts of its breeding range , the steppe eagle is typically an inhabitant of the open steppes and semi - desert spaces . in contrast to other eagles , it has truly mastered overland habitats , and thus a wide range of landscapes . the habitats of the steppe eagle can be categorised into the following : 1 . low steppe hills 2 . valley - beam systems in steppe zones , including in agricultural landscapes . 3 . vast , flat territories of undisturbed dry desert steppes , semi - deserts , and northern argillaceous scree deserts . 4 . steep slopes and cliff plateaus of steppe and semi - desert zones . 5 . all types of open spaces in the hills , regardless of the high - altitude zone ( steppe valleys , forest steppes around their peripheries or mountain plains , upper boundaries of forests , alpine tundras ) .\nbehaviour : steppe eagle feeds almost exclusively on several races of susliks , and especially little suslik ( citellus pygmaeus ) , small rodent related to terrestrial squirrels . it also may take other small rodents and young terrestrial birds , and occasionally crickets and reptiles . steppe eagle hunts from a hide and often pursues the prey before to catch it . this eagle may hunt by walking , or while flying , by circling and diving . it also waits at burrow entrance for rodents . it captures the preys with the talons .\nhabitat : steppe eagle frequents grassy steppes and semi - desert . the subspecies \u201cnipalensis\u201d is found in mountainous areas during the breeding season , up to 2300 metres of elevation , whereas the race \u201corientalis\u201d breeds in lowlands .\n. . . other external stressors relevant to steppe eagle mortality have recently been demonstrated as a potential threat to the species . specifically , the veterinary drug diclofenac responsible for large - scale declines in gyps vultures in south asia has recently been implicated in the death of steppe eagles ( sharma et al . , 2014 ) . the findings suggest that , as facultative scavengers potentially present in areas where diclofenac may be used as a veterinary drug , 31 steppe eagle populations may be exposed to and consequently adversely affected by diclofenac residues in carcasses . . . .\nthey collaborated on this work with a steppe eagle named cossack , whom they have studied for about 10 years . cossack wore an advanced recording device to track the details of his flight , like speed , turns and altitude .\nmaj . dave dalton , the executive officer for the 30th military engagement team - - jordan discusses troop leading procedures with the company staff from company 1 , kazakhstan peacekeeping battalion at the illisky training center , kazakhstan during steppe eagle 16 , april 12 . steppe eagle is a multinational exercise with participation from servicemembers from kazakhstan , the united kingdom and the united states . ( u . s . army phohto by maj . chris brautigam , usarcent public affairs )\nsgt . scott boyd , a platoon sergeant from 1st rifles battalion , 160th brigade , discusses riot control techniques with maj . chris hainge and one of the instructors from the kazakhstan peacekeeping operations training center during predeployment preparation for steppe eagle 16 , april 11 . steppe eagle is a multinational exercise with participation from servicemembers from kazakhstan , the united kingdom and the united states . ( u . s . army photo by maj . chris brautigam , usarcent public affairs )\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto steppe eagle is usually silent outside breeding season , but when displaying , it utters crow - like barking . calls are often given during some behaviour such as displays , contact , alarm and threat .\nflight : steppe eagle has long , broad wings , and flies with heavy , slow wing beats . when circling , the wings are held horizontally with slightly hanging hand . when soaring , wings are raised and bent at hand level .\n. . . pesticide poisoning has adversely impacted on the steppe eagle eastern populations in rus - sia ( karyakin et al . , 2016 ) . sharma et al . ( 2014 ) mentioned that the steppe eagle is a vulnerable to diclofenac which was inten - sively used in the species ' wintering range in pakistan and india ( birdlife international , 2016b ) . in iraq , little is known about poi - soning as a threat to birds of prey . . . .\ngo here fledglings of the steppe eagle can be distinguished easily from other eagles by its longer beak and the colour of the primaries developing from pins , tail feathers and remiges on the upper and undersides of the body . after the opening of the primaries , the juvenile can be easily distinguished from that of the golden eagle and the eastern imperial eagle : the upper coverts of the spine and shoulder are brown , and the remiges and tail feathers are ochre - coloured .\nas its name suggests , the steppe eagle mainly inhabits vast , semi - arid areas of grassland , known as steppe , although it also frequently occurs in semi - desert . during the breeding season , aquila nipalensis orientalis can be found in lowlands and low hills , whereas aquila nipalensis nipalensis occupies mountainous areas up to elevations of 2 , 300 metres ( 2 ) .\nsaryarka - steppe and lakes of northern kazakhstan protects substantial , largely undisturbed areas of central asian steppe and lakes in the korgalzhyn and naurzum state nature reserves . the property\u2019s wetland areas are of outstanding importance for migratory waterbirds , including substantial populations of globally threatened species , as they are key stopover points and crossroads on the central asian flyways . the property\u2019s steppe areas provide a valuable refuge for over half the species of the region\u2019s steppe flora , a number of threatened bird species and the critically endangered saiga antelope .\nto find food the steppe eagle flies over its territory . when it discovers prey it rushes down and kills it on the ground with its powerful claws . prey comprises predominately small mammals , especially gophers , but also small birds , insects and reptiles . the also feed on fresh carrion or steal prey from other animals . the steppe eagle has a crop in the throat which allows it to store food before it is moved to the stomach or regurgitated in order to feed its offspring .\nmitch is a steppe eagle that cannot fly . his brown wings , permanently injured , no longer soar through the air . still , mitch is about to head from afghanistan to new york , thanks to the help of a few caring soldiers .\nthus , the imperial eagle project will provide the chance to learn more about the eastern imperial eagle and improve the conservation of this bird in azerbaijan with the involvement of the media , local community stakeholders , infrastructure companies and governmental authorities .\nfederal wildlife laws recognize the importance of accommodating tribal spiritual needs by allowing exceptions for the religious purposes of indian tribes . eagle feathers are made available to tribal members every year from the fish and wildlife service ' s national eagle repository .\nthe\nsteppe eagle\n( aquila nipalensis ) ( kazakh : \u0434\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u049b\u044b\u0440\u0430\u043d\u044b ) is a bird of prey . like all eagles , it belongs to the family accipitridae . cultural significance : the steppe eagle appears on the flag of kazakhstan , as the\nnational bird of kazakhstan\nrespectively . habitat and feeding : the steppe eagle breeds from romania east through the south russian and central asian steppes to mongolia . the european and central asian birds winter in africa , and the eastern birds in india . it lays 1\u20133 eggs in a stick nest in a tree . throughout its range it favours open dry habitats , such as desert , semi - desert , steppes , or savannah . it is found in south - eastern pakistan especially in karachi .\nscott hickman poses with mitch in the cage he and his colleagues built for the eagle . photo : courtesy of scott hickman\n. . . it may also be that diclofenac affects other vulture species , such as bearded gypaetus barbatus , egyptian neophron perc - nopterus and cinereous vultures aegypius monachus , and facultative avian scavengers , such as the red kite , spanish imperial eagle , golden eagle aquila chrysaetos and black kite milvus migrans . circumstantial evidence suggests that the steppe eagle which is in the same family ( accipitridae ) as vultures , kites and other eagles , may be susceptible to diclofenac ( sharma et al . 2014 ) . . . .\nresearchers find dead steppe eagles with diclofenac residues in their tissues in rajasthan ; experts say it points to alarming trend for all indian raptors .\nremarkable is the velocity that steppe eagles can achieve during their flight . they can reach up to 60 kilometer per hour and when they dive they fall with a speed up to 300 kilometer per hour . compared with other birds steppe eagles spend relatively much time on the ground .\nfor the imperial eagle in 2006 , which stated that a basic assessment of the breeding population of the species was a priority .\nwatson , j . w . 2003 . bald eagle nesting chronology in western washington . washington birds 9 : 8 - 11 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - steppe eagles in natural habitat\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - steppe eagles in natural habitat\ntitle =\narkive video - steppe eagles in natural habitat\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe steppe eagle is a large and handsome bird of prey , belonging to the aquila , or eagle , family . as its name suggests you will find it living in steppe habitats , or dry grasslands , across eastern europe . you will also find them on the national flag of kazakhstan , pictured flying beneath the sun . they are fast for their size , reaching flying speeds of up to 37mph , and incredible speeds of up to 186mph when diving . when migrating for the winter they can fly an incredible 220 miles in a day .\nwe had suspected as much from observed declines in non - gyps vultures in asia , but this study confirms our worst fears . \u201d taking from empirical evidence , experts fear that just like the steppe eagles , other species of eagle may also be affected in the same way .\ntingaya , r . e . , suredab , n . and gilbert , m . ( 2008 ) steppe eagle ( aquila nipalensis ) foraging behavior in mongolia : a combined use of diversionary and covert ambush tactics ? . journal of raptor research , 42 : 155 - 156 .\nthe eastern imperial eagle has a small global population that is declining due to habitat loss and exploitation . photo : michael ransburg / flickr\nappearance the steppe eagle ( aquila nipalensis ) is a large eagle , with broad , long wings and a short rounded tail . adult birds are brown in colour . the undersides of the wings are either the same colour as the wing coverts and belly or darker , with visible barring . there is a white patch on the upper tail coverts . the nape has either a rusty - coloured or ochre patch , which differs considerably in size across birds . in juveniles and immature birds the underside of the wing has a narrow white band , formed by the large lower wing coverts ( the so - called \u2018juvenile\u2019 band ) , which serves well to distinguish steppe eagles of this age from other eagle species .\nsteppe eagles tend to nest on the ground , or in bushes , and occasionally on electricity pylons and other artificial structures . ground nesting allows a good view of surroundings , for protection , but as habitat loss and habitat conversion to agricultural land occurs more , the steppe eagle has to use higher nest sites . the nest is made of sticks and twigs , and is lined with camel dung and old rags . it is usually around 1metre in diameter .\nthe steppe eagle will produce a pellet every day , a small package of all the parts of their food they cannot digest fully , such as the bones and fur or feathers , regurgitated . this removes the indigestible parts of food , but also cleans the digestive tract of any debris and bacteria .\nwatson , j . w . 1990 . bald eagle dies from entanglement in fish net . journal of raptor research 23 : 52 - 53 .\nshakhyru was the first event , in which the eagle trainer drags a dead ( ? ) fox behind his horse . his eagle is then released from a nearby hilltop and judged on how quickly it can descend upon the bouncing , deteriorating fox ( it\u2019s certainly dead at this point ) .\nthe current flag of kazakhstan was adopted on june 4 , 1992 , replacing the flag of the kazakh soviet socialist republic . the national flag of the republic of kazakhstan represents rectangular breadth of blue color with the sun in its center surrounded by 32 beams , and a steppe eagle flying beneath it . there is a vertical strip with national ornament near hoist . images of the sun , beams , eagle and ornament \u2014 are all gold - colored .\nthe sun represents the source of life and energy . it is also a symbol of wealth and abundance ; the sun ' s rays are like grain , which is the basis of abundance and prosperity . peoples of different kazakh tribes had the golden eagle on their flags for centuries . the eagle symbolizes the power of the state . for the modern nation of kazakhstan , the eagle is a symbol of independence , freedom and flight to future .\na violent and exciting sport to witness , kokbar was easily the most popular event at the festival and drew even larger crowds than the eagle hunting .\nadult lesser spotted eagles also are distinguished by their yellow eyes , whereas adult steppe eagles and greater spotted eagles have brown eyes . juveniles of all three species have brown eyes . the head and wings of lesser spotted eagles are a lighter shade of brown compared to the rest of its body ; in steppe eagles and greater spotted eagles , the entire body is a dark shade of brown . lesser spotted eagles also have a small head and beak for an eagle . like other eagles in the genus\nthe species suffers from declining and destruction of natural habitat . the large scale destruction of steppe habitat and conversion of steppes to agricultural land ( and the following reduction of prey like gophers ) is the major reason for the decline of the steppe eagle . especially in western ranges the number of populations is decreasing . however , at the moment the number of individuals is relatively high and the species is not seen as endangered . therefore it is qualified as least concern on the iucn red list of threatened species .\nthreats : habitat loss is the greatest threat as their natural steppe habitat is converted into agricultural lands . they are also very susceptible collisions with power lines and wind power development .\nas steppe eagles are living in areas with very few trees they often build their nests on the ground , the slope of a hill and also on bushes and power poles .\nlike kazakh music , kazakh dance is decidedly odd . the aim of the dance is to replicate the movements of all the great steppe animals ( all four of them ) .\nas the name indicates the steppe eagle prefers open and dry landscapes as semi - deserts , savannahs and grass steppes . the birds are living up to a height of 3000 meter , but can overcome heights up to 7900 meters . an average home territory comprises between 30 and 50 square kilometers but sometimes even encompass more than 100 square kilometers .\n72 - 81 cm , wingspan 160 - 200 cm . dark - brown , medium - large aquila . juvenile usually has broad whitish band along greater underwing coverts . primaries banded , iris brown ( meyburg and boesman 2013 ) . similar spp . larger than tawny eagle a . rapax and separated by width and length of gape . generally darker than lesser spotted eagle a . pomarina and paler than greater spotted eagle a . clanga and has oval nostrils rather than round as in both these species .\ndiet : steppe eagle uses wide variety of hunting techniques , and may catch preys by walking or flying . it often steals preys from other raptors when in flight . susliks are their favourite preys , but other rodents , terrestrial birds , reptiles and crickets are also taken . carrion is eaten during migration and on wintering areas , mainly by immature birds .\nbald eagle ( haliaeetus leucocephalus ) . in e . m . larsenand n . nordstrom , editors . management recommendations for washington ' s priority species , volume iv : birds\nthere are usually 1 - 4 eggs in the steppe eagle\u2019s clutch . the laying of each subsequent egg takes place every 2 - 5 days , usually 3 - 4 days ( rarely up to 10 days ) . the incubation period begins with the first egg laid . the egg is white and freckled with ochre and light - brown spots of differing colour intensity and sizes . the shell is thick and coarse - grained . the size of the eggs are 62 . 5 \u2013 80 . 1 x 48 . 9 \u2013 60 . 5 mm , and 73 . 81 x 55 . 85 mm on average . the eggs of the steppe eagle are on average slightly smaller than that of the golden and eastern imperial eagle , but there is a strong overlap between the ranges of measurements and the classification of each species should not be determined using these dimensions . the incubation period lasts from 39 to 45 days .\nfederal wildlife laws such as the bald and golden eagle protection act generally criminalize the killing of eagles and other migratory birds and the possession or commercialization of the feathers and other parts of such birds . these important laws are enforced by the department of justice and the department of the interior and help ensure that eagle and other bird populations remain healthy and sustainable .\na research paper published on monday in the journal of the cambridge university press highlighted the threat faced by steppe eagles ( aquila nipalensis ) from veterinary diclofenac , after the corpses of two steppe eagles were found in rajasthan towards the end of 2013 and earlier this year . after these were studied over the last few months , the deadly chemical was found in their tissues , setting off alarm bells .\nthese closely related eagle species can be most readily distinguished during their juvenile stages . in each species , juvenile birds differ greatly compared to adults . for example , juvenile greater spotted (\nonce hatched , the young will stay in the nest for around 60 days . usually 2 to 3 of the young will survive to fledging . during this time the male will bring food to the female and young in the nest . the success rate of chick survival in the steppe eagle is directly linked with the population number of gophers , their main food during the breeding season .\nthe steppe eagle is a relatively large and handsome bird of prey belonging to the genus aquila . the species is divided in two subspecies : aquila nipalensis nipalensis and aquila nipalensis orientalis which slightly differ in coloration and size . in general aquila nipalensis nipalensis is darker and larger . usually steppe eagles achieve a body - length between 60 and 81 centimeters and a wingspan between 165 and 214 centimeters . the weight ranges between 2 , 4 to 3 , 8 kilogram and the female birds are slightly larger and heavier than their male con - species . the plumage is brown to dark brown and on the back of the head are sometimes yellow spots . flight feathers and tail are blackish . often the birds have a lighter or even white bond at the wings . the eyes are brown and the hooked tip is dark gray but in the beginning the bill is bright yellow colored . the tail is short and wedge - shaped . immature young birds are less contrasted and often have a white spot on the neck . in an age of 3 \u2013 4 years a steppe eagle gets the adult plumage and reaches sexual maturity . in wild the lifespan reaches 30 years in captivity steppe eagles can reach over 40 years .\nthe bird \u2014 a large , mostly brown eagle that is slightly smaller than a bald eagle \u2014 was shot in the wing by an afghan soldier at a firing range in april . an american contractor who happened to have a background in ornithology rescued the bird and took it to a u . s . army veterinarian , who was able to splint its wing and provide medication .\nelectrocution is a serious problem which causes the death of many steppe eagles . the taking of young eagles out of the nest in order to sell them to western european countries also occurs [ mebs & schmidt 2006 ] .\nthe steppe eagle is an opportunistic feeder , usually soaring above its prey , and taking steep dives , of up to 186mph towards the prey . the strong feet and talons are used to catch the prey and kill them , before either tearing them apart with the strong hooked beak , or if they are small , swallowing them whole . they will occasionally wait outside burrows of small mammals , waiting for them to emerge .\nsince november 2015 , sabuko ( society for nature conservation ) is carrying out conservation activities to improve the status of the eastern imperial eagle ( aquila heliaca ) through direct conservation measures , awareness raising and education .\nthe festival ended with the distribution of awards to the winners . if you\u2019ve already read \u201c a hitchhiker\u2019s tale from outer mongolia , \u201d you\u2019re probably expecting me to mention a certain eagle vs . wolf death match now\u2026\nmeyburg , b . - u . & c . meyburg ( 2010 ) . migration strategies of 16 steppe eagles aquila nipalensis tracked by satellite . 6th international conference on asian raptors . ulaanbaatar , mongolia , 23 - 27 june 2010 : poster\nsaryarka - steppe and lakes of northern kazakhstan comprises two protected areas : naurzum state nature reserve and korgalzhyn state nature reserve totalling 450 , 344 ha . it features wetlands of outstanding importance for migratory water birds , including globally threatened species , among them the extremely rare siberian white crane , the dalmatian pelican , pallas\u2019s fish eagle , to name but a few . these wetlands are key stopover points and crossroads on the central asian flyway of birds from africa , europe and south asia to their breeding places in western and eastern siberia . the 200 , 000 ha central asian steppe areas included in the property provide a valuable refuge for over half the species of the region\u2019s steppe flora , a number of threatened bird species and the critically endangered saiga antelope , formerly an abundant species much reduced by poaching . the property includes two groups of fresh and salt water lakes situated on a watershed between rivers flowing north to the arctic and south into the aral - irtysh basin .\nmigration the steppe eagle is a migratory bird and emigrates from its nest in winter . in recent years , there has been data about hibernating birds within the borders of the nesting sites in kazakhstan , but this remains a random phenomenon and is not the norm . wintering steppe eagles are dispersed across the tropical grassland ecosystems and deserts of the old world \u2013 africa , india , south - east asia , to the north until the arabian desert , iran , afghanistan . pakistan and south - east china ( sichuan , hubei ) . most of the global steppe eagle population seem to winter in africa ( a . n . orientalis ) and india ( a . n . nipalensis ) . birds from the population in the volga and aral - caspian regions spend winter in the persian gulf region and in various regions of africa , and those from central kazkhstan spend theirs in the persian gulf . this has been established through satellite monitoring of 16 birds which were mainly caught in saudi arabia . in particular , in the course of winter an adult female flew from ustiurt ( kazakhstan ) to botswana , south africa and zimbabwe , while another flew from ustiurt to ethiopia , chad and sudan ( meyburg et al . , 2012 ) . the general length of migration from kazakhstan can reach 17 000 km . similar data has not yet been determined for wintering steppe eagles of the eastern subspecies nesting in russia from the altai to the amura basin .\nwatson , j . w . , d . j . pierce , and b . c . cunningham . 1999 . an active bald eagle nest associated with unusually close human activity . northwestern naturalist 80 : 71 - 74 .\neagle ( burkit ) hunting is a distinguishing characteristic of kazakh culture . often these birds are raised as hatchlings , however many discerning burkit trainers insist that captivity - raised birds lack natural killer instincts . these trainers prefer to capture their eagles after they\u2019ve mature , by stealing them out of the nest . to the casual layperson such as me , stealing a full - grown , pissed - off eagle with \u201ckiller instincts\u201d from its nest seems pretty inadvisable .\nsteppe eagles arrive at their summer breeding grounds around april , at the start of spring . large nests , up to a metre wide , are constructed from twigs and lined with various materials , such as old rags and camel dung . while the nests are usually placed on the ground in a position allowing a good view of the surroundings , as a result of habitat alteration and persecution , nests are increasingly being found in trees , bushes and on artificial structures . the female lays a clutch of between one and three eggs which are incubated for 45 days , with the chicks being brooded for a further 55 to 65 days before fledging . the steppe eagle is remarkably long lived , reaching up to 41 years in captivity ( 2 ) .\nhabitat : the main habitat - the virgin steppe , foothills , semi - deserts . in the south - east of europe habitat covers an area from romania to p . urals , and in asia - east transbaikal , argun and the yellow river valley .\na denizen of the middle east and africa , the eagle got a lift on a military aircraft after being wounded in afghanistan and cared for by navy seals . it also received some valuable assistance from new york sen . chuck schumer .\nthe original distribution area of the steppe eagle ranged from eastern europe to central asia ( tibet , manchuria ) and the east asian mongolia . but in europe the species is now only found in russia north and north - west of the caspian sea . formerly steppe eagles also nested in moldova , romania and ukraine but it is long extinct in those countries . outside of europe the species is found in the steppes of central asia eastwards to mongolia , eastern kazakhstan , tibet and northeastern china . in autumn the eagles migrate to their winter territories . most european birds and those from western asia spend the winter in eastern and southern africa . some also spend the winter on the arabian peninsula . birds from farther east spend the winter in india and neighboring countries .\nthe distance between nests in concentrated nesting sites in low hills of the steppe ranges from 0 . 8 - 2 km with an average of 1 . 2 km , 2 - 6 km , usually 4 km in denser groups and 25km in less saturated groups .\nand thanks to their efforts , the eagle named mitch will finally enjoy some peace at dubacher\u2019s sanctuary , where thousands of visitors will be able to hear the story of \u201cthis very special bird and some very special guys that saved him . \u201d\ngarrett , m . g . , j . w . watson , and r . g . anthony . 1993 . bald eagle home range and habitat use in the columbia river estuary . journal of wildlife management 57 : 19 - 27 .\ni timed my visit to coincide with the nomads\u2019 burkit eagle hunting festival , a spectacular two - day pageant of kazakh culture , traditional food , equestrian sports , and giant eagles laying waste to bunnies , foxes , and one unlucky wolf .\nhere\u2019s a second example of shakhyru that didn\u2019t run quite as smoothly . i\u2019m including it because it shows the wonderfully volatile nature of the eagles . eagle hunters only use female eagles , which are larger and more aggressive than their male counterparts .\nmeyburg , b . u . , boesman , p . , marks , j . s . & sharpe , c . j . ( 2018 ) . steppe eagle ( aquila nipalensis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ncriterion ( x ) : biological diversity and threatened species : korgalzhyn and naurzum state nature reserves protect large areas of natural steppe and lake habitats that sustain a diverse range of central asian flora and fauna and support vast numbers of migratory birds , including substantial populations of many globally threatened species . the korgalzhyn - tengiz lakes provide feeding grounds for up to 15 - 16 million birds , including flocks of up to 2 . 5 million geese . they also support up to 350 , 000 nesting waterfowl , while the naurzum lakes support up to 500 , 000 nesting waterfowl . the property\u2019s steppe areas provide a valuable refuge for over half the species of the region\u2019s steppe flora , a number of threatened bird species and the critically endangered saiga antelope , a once abundant species much reduced across its range by poaching pressure .\nwatson , j . w . , and d . j . pierce . 1998 . bald eagle ecology in western washington with an emphasis on the effects of human activity . final report . washington department of fish and wildlife , olympia . 197p .\nduring the winter months the steppe eagle will migrate to warmer climates . around autumn they will start to move from northern breeding grounds in central asia , eastern europe , and russia . they will travel to wintering grounds across the middle east , the arabian peninsula and eastern and southern africa . they have been found to fly very long distances , with some individuals travelling 220miles in a single day . they return to summer grounds at the start of the breeding season , in april and may . during migration their diet varies considerably .\nsteppe eagle resembles several other eagles\u2019 species , but the main features are the rufous patches visible on nape and neck of adults , and the large gape . numerous eagles show pale rump and white patch on back . when flying , we can see a whitish patch on the hand , and some eagles have pale inner webs on most of the primary feathers . the strong , hooked bill is dark grey with yellow cere and long gape . nostrils are oval . eyes are brown . short legs are feathered brown . talons are yellow .\nbecause of avian flu concerns , the u . s . currently bans the import of birds from a long list of countries , including afghanistan . getting the eagle out of afghanistan and into the u . s . presented something of a bureaucratic obstacle course .\nsteppe eagles are migratory birds . in their breeding territories they are specialized on hunting gophers . during winter the eagles migrate to southern regions as india and near east . old birds start their flight to the breeding sites in the middle of february while young birds start around one month later .\ntheir plumage is mostly dark brown in colour , with light barring on the flight and tail feathers . there is a patch of reddish - brown on the nape of the neck . the nostrils , or nares , are oval in shape , and the steppe eagle is the only species in aquila which the gape , or opening of the mouth , reaches beyond the eye . the beak is yellow with a dark tip . the juvenile is similar to the adult , but paler in colour , and with a broad white band on the underside of the wing .\nhabitat and habits : occurs in steppe , desert , semi - desert , open savanna , pastures , agricultural fields , paddy fields , grassland , and open woodland . it roosts on the ground , in groups in trees , or perches on power poles . steppe eagles are nearly always found in groups in winter , sometime numbering more than a hundred birds , and often in association with other raptors , especially black kites and lesser spotted eagles . this species appears sluggish , spending much of its time perched on rock piles , the ground , or telephone poles ) . more . . . .\nhickman cared for the bird for several months , enlisting a colleague to help build it a spacious cage and feeding it by hand with whole chickens he obtained from a local cook . although it began to recover , the eagle would not be able to fly . hickman sought help from agencies in the u . s . , but got nowhere . one expert at a refuge in british columbia offered advice on caring for the bird , but was skeptical , wondering if hickman could provide it with a high enough quality of life to justify keeping the eagle alive .\nthe steppe eagle is an extremely widespread species , which makes long - distance migrations between summer breeding grounds and wintering sites . subspecies aquila nipalensis orientalis breeds in extreme south - east europe , southern parts of the russian federation , and central asia as far east as eastern kazakhstan . during the winter , it migrates to the middle east , the arabian peninsula and eastern and southern africa . by contrast , aquila nipalensis nipalensis breeds from the altai mountains , south to tibet , and east as far as north - east china and eastern mongolia , and mostly winters in southern asia ( 2 ) .\nsabuko is also carrying out satellite tracking of juvenile birds with the help of mme and the vashlovani protected areas office . to raise awareness among locals , sabuko is conducting activities such as eagle watchers\u2019 training , talks and presentations in schools , and meetings with municipality representatives , farmers and landowners .\nlesser spotted eagles are medium - sized birds ( body length 54 to 65 cm ) , generally smaller than steppe eagles ( aquila nipalensis ) ( 60 to 81 cm ) and greater spotted eagles ( a . clanga ) ( 59 to 71 cm ) . the largest of these three species are steppe eagles , weighing 1 . 8 to 3 . 8 kg . thus , despite their relatively large size , lesser spotted eagles only weigh 1 . 2 to 2 . 2 kg , with an average of 1 . 6 kg . greater spotted eagles are just slightly heavier ( 1 . 4 to 3 . 2 kg ) than lesser spotted eagles .\nthe main diet of the steppe eagle during the summer consists of small mammals , especially gophers and suslik ( small squirrels ) , but also small birds , insects and reptiles . during the winter months they will rely heavily on winged harvester termites , and become more resourceful in finding food . some have been witnessed , in south africa , to ambush burrowing blind and semi - blind mole rats , by watching the soil for movement , to then plunge their feet into the ground and seize them . they will also take carrion when migrating , and have been known to steal food from other raptors , in mid - flight .\nlesser spotted eagle females lay two eggs and stay with them continuously while males forage for food . after the eggs hatch , both parents tend the helpless , altricial young until fledging occurs , typically after 8 weeks . siblicide is common in this species , thus only one offspring typically survives to fledge .\nin april 2007 , the azerbaijan ornithological society ( birdlife in azerbaijan ) started a comprehensive survey of imperial eagles in the northwestern part of azerbaijan . data collected during this survey were the first and most detailed data about the eastern imperial eagle for azerbaijan . in nine days , they covered 6 . 000sq km ( 7 % of azerbaijan territory , which is 25 % of the habitat suitable for the eastern imperial eagle ) where they found 25 breeding pairs of eastern imperial eagles and a five more active territories . it was estimated that for the studied area , the number of breeding pairs was 35 - 60 .\nthe eagle landed in virginia friday morning , and was then flown to new york by a pilot with the volunteer organization pilots n paws . it will be kept under quarantine for 30 days before inhabiting its new home at the berkshire sanctuary , where caretakers will keep it strong on chicken and \u201cratsicles . \u201d\ninteresting fact : eagle has very sharp , vision with broad coverage . each eagle eye is able to focus directly on the 2 items . visual acuity allows to see a hare at a distance of over three kilometers and a peripheral glance it can reach 270 degrees . with altitude eagle is able to see the production on the surface of 11 . 5 square kilometers . eagles effective in the hunt . they do not kill the extra animals are caught only for their own food and chicks . mainly small game hunting . eagles not only independently gather food , but also willing to engage in a frank robbery . for example , they can take away the prey from a small bird of prey on the fly . eagles excellently hunt flying birds . overtakes them unawares victim , prey to such a height that the bird does not see them . then dive with such speed that their production does not have time to notice ."]}
{"id": 1140, "summary": [{"text": "musa is one of two or three genera in the family musaceae ; it includes bananas and plantains .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "around 70 species of musa are known , with a broad variety of uses .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "though they grow as high as trees , banana and plantain plants are not woody and their apparent \" stem \" is made up of the bases of the huge leaf stalks .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "thus , they are technically gigantic herbs .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "musa species are used as food plants by the larvae of some lepidoptera species , including the giant leopard moth and other hypercompe species , including h. albescens ( only recorded on musa ) , h. eridanus , and h. icasia . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "musa ( genus )", "paragraphs": ["sister relationship , the latter genus is well supported ( bpp , 0 . 98 ) . the genus\nsectional relationships in the genus musa l . inferred from the pcr\u2010rflp of organelle dna sequences\n1 . the nomenclature of the genus musa by david constatine . retrieved 5 july 2017 .\nthe genus musa is in the family musaceae in the major group angiosperms ( flowering plants ) .\nsectional relationships in the genus musa l . inferred from the pcr - rflp of organelle dna sequences\nalmost all modern edible parthenocarpic bananas come from the two wild species musa acuminata and musa balbisiana . the scientific names of bananas are musa acuminata , musa balbisiana or hybrids musa acuminata \u00d7 musa balbisiana , depending on their genomic constitution . the old scientific names musa sapientum and musa paradisiaca are no longer used .\nmusa is the name of the genus to which wild and cultivated bananas belong . in the hierarchy of botanicall classification , a genus comes above species and below family . in the binomial nomenclature system created by carl linneaus , the genus name forms the first part of the binomial species name for each species within the genus ( e . g . musa acuminata ) .\nalmost all modern edible parthenocarpic bananas come from the two wild species musa acuminata and musa balbisiana . the scientific names of bananas are musa acuminata , musa balbisiana or hybrids musa acuminata \u00d7 balbisiana , depending on their genomic constitution . the old scientific names musa sapientum and musa paradisiaca are no longer used .\nalmost all modern edible parthenocarpic bananas come from the two wild species \u2013 musa acuminata and musa balbisiana . the scientific names of bananas are musa acuminata , musa balbisiana or hybrids musa acuminata \u00d7 balbisiana , depending on their genomic constitution . the old scientific names musa sapientum and musa paradisiaca are no longer used .\nalmost all modern edible parthenocarpic bananas come from the two wild species \u2013 musa acuminata and musa balbisiana . the scientific names of bananas are musa acuminata , musa balbisiana or hybrids musa acuminata \u00d7 balbisiana , depending on their genomic constitution . the old scientific names musa sapientum and musa paradisiaca are no longer used .\n2 . cheesman , e . e . 1947 . classification of the bananas . i . the genus ensete horan and the genus musa l . kew bulletin ( 2 ) : 97 - 117 .\n3 . cheesman , e . e . 1947 . classification of the bananas . i . the genus ensete horan and the genus musa l . kew bulletin ( 2 ) : 97 - 117 .\n4 . cheesman , e . e . 1947 . classification of the bananas . i . the genus ensete horan and the genus musa l . . kew bulletin ( 2 ) : 97 - 117 .\nthe plant list includes 203 scientific plant names of species rank for the genus musa . of these 66 are accepted species names .\nshepherd k . cytogenetics of the genus musa ( international network for the improvement of banana and plantain , montpellier ) . 1999 .\nbanana is also used to describe enset and fe ' i bananas , neither of which belong to the musa genus . enset bananas belong to the genus ensete while the taxonomy of fe ' i - type cultivars is uncertain .\nbanana is also used to describe enset and fe ' i bananas , neither of which belong to the musa genus . enset bananas belong to the genus ensete while the taxonomy of fe ' i - type cultivars is uncertain .\nnwakanma dc , pillay m , okoli be , tenkouano a . sectional relationships in the genus\nthe genus musa is divided into two sections : musa and callimusa [ 1 ] . a section is a taxonomic rank below the genus , and subgenus if present , and above the species . it is also above the series , but in the case of bananas the term series has been used interchangeably with section . in 2013 , the number of sections in the genus musa was reduced from 5 to 2 [ 1 ] .\nmusapedia pages that mention cheesman : musa sections , nomenclature of cultivated bananas , calcutta 4 , musa itinerans .\na taxonomic genus within the family musaceae \u2013 large tropical herbs , commonly known as banana plants .\nchessman also developed a coherent classification system for the musa genus , which he divided into four sections : australimusa , callimusa , eumusa and rhodochlamys [ 2 ] .\nmusa chunii h\u00e4kkinen , a new species ( musaceae ) from yunnan , china and taxonomic identity of musa rub . . .\nenter family names in full and use the wildcard character ( * ) for partial matches on genus and species .\n1 . according to article 21 . 3 , the epithet in the name of a subdivision of a genus is not to be formed from the name of the genus to which it belongs by adding the prefix eu - . moreover , the name of any subdivision of a genus that includes the type of the adopted , legitimate name of the genus to which it is assigned is to repeat that generic name unaltered , according to article 22 . 1 .\nthere are 7 species in the genus ensete , all from tropical africa and asia . they were formerly placed in the banana genus , musa . in ethiopia , in addition to being an important food crop , it is also used in traditional medicine , and the leaves are used for thatching .\ndill ( anethum graveolens ) is a short - lived perennial herb . it is the sole species of the genus anethum , though classified by some botanists in a related genus as peucedanum graveolens ( l . ) c . b . clarke .\nthe problems highlighted reveal the shortcomings of the current state of musa classification . hence , this study employs aflps in a phenetic examination of the relationships among sections musa , rhodochlamys , callimusa and australimusa of genus musa , and evaluates whether genetic differences among the sections are sufficiently significant or distinct to justify maintaining the four sections as separate groups .\nshepherd k . 1990 . observations on musa taxonomy . in : jarret rl , ed . identification of genetic diversity in the genus musa : proceedings of an international workshop held at los banos , philippines , 5\u201310 september 1988 . france : inibap , montferrier\u2010sur\u2010lez , 158\u2013165 .\ntezenas du montcel h ( 1988 ) musa acuminata subspecies banksii : status and diversity . in : identification of genetic diversity in the genus musa . proc int workshop , los banos , philippines 5 - 10 september 1988 . inibap , montpellier , france , pp : 211\u2013218 .\n, a single colonization event from northern indo\u2010burma gave rise to the african species of the genus . at the time of divergence of\n( a ) musa yunnanensis ( itc . 1573 ) ; ( b ) musa mannii ( itc . 1574 ) ; ( c ) musa rosea x siamensis ( itc . 1592 ) ; ( d ) musa campestris var . sarawakensis ( itc . 1517 ) ; ( e ) musa monticola ( itc . 1528 ) ; ( f ) musa lutea ( itc . 1515 ) . chromosomes were counterstained with dapi . bar = 5 \u03bcm .\na section is a taxonomic rank below the genus and above the species . it\u2019s typically used to highlight relationships within a genus . for bananas , the first attempt to tidy up the musa genus dates back to 1887 , when the french botanist paul sagot recognized three groups : edible bananas , ornamental bananas with upright inflorescences and brightly coloured bracts , and giant enset species , which have since been given their own genus . sagot did not give names to his sections , but a few years later the british botanist john g . baker classified them as subgenera and respectively named them eumusa , rhodochlamys and physocaulis .\nbanana is the common name for herbaceous plants of the genus musa and for the fruit they produce . bananas come in a variety of sizes and colors when ripe , including yellow , purple , and red .\ntaxonomy , it is challenging to infer the exact number of species within the genus . based on the study of h\u00e4kkinen & v\u00e4re (\ntypification and check\u2010list of musa l . species names ( musaceae ) with nomenclatural notes\nover the years several authors based the taxonomy of bananas on musa paradisiaca and musa sapientum . sometimes musa sapientum was treated as a subspecies of musa paradisiaca , but at other times botanical priority was ignored and musa paradisiaca was treated as a subspecies of musa sapientum . moreover , since musa paradisiaca is seedless , the subspecies seminifera was created in order to accommodate the wild seeded forms . giving a seed - bearing wild species the status of subspecies to a seedless cultivar is a good example of the stultifying effect formal nomenclature has had on the crop ' s taxonomy .\nagrobacterium - mediated transformation of musa acuminata cv . \u2018grand nain\u2019 scalps by vacuum infiltration\nfigure 3 . the erect bunch of musa maclayi a wild australimusa banana species .\nresearchers norman simmonds and ken shepherd proposed the genome - based nomenclature system in 1955 . this system eliminated almost all the difficulties and inconsistencies of the nomenclature system of bananas based on musa sapientum and musa paradisiaca . despite this , musa paradisiaca is still recognized by some authorities today , leading to confusion . generally , modern classifications of banana cultivars follow simmonds\u2019 and shepherd\u2019s system . the accepted names for bananas are musa acuminata , musa balbisiana or musa acuminata \u00d7 balbisiana , depending on their genetic ancestry\nmolecular analysis and genomic organization of major dna satellites in banana ( musa spp . )\nfactors influencing seed set in triploid musa spp . l . and production of euploid hybrids\nfigures 7 and 8 . the wild giant banana of montane forests , musa ingens .\nrelationship between nuclear 2c dna content and 2n chromosome number in representatives of the genus musa studied in the present work ( empty circles ) and by barto\u0161 et al . [ 9 ] ( full circles ) , r = - 0 . 85 .\nshepherd k ( 1988 ) observation on mus a taxonomy . in : identification of genetic diversity in the genus musa . proc int workshop held at los banos , philippines 5 - 10 september 1988 . inibap : montpellier , france , pp 158\u2013165 .\ndaniells , j . , jenny , d . , karamura , d . and tomekpe , k . ( 2001 ) musalogue : a catalogue of musa germplasm . diversity in the genus musa . ( e . arnaud and s . sharrock , compil . ) . international network for the improvement of banana and plantain , montpellier , france .\nin 1887 , the french botanist paul sagot published an article in which he subdivided the genus into three unnamed sections : i ) the edible bananas , ii ) the ornemental bananas with upright inflorescences and brightly coloured bracts , and iii ) the giant enset species , which were later given their own genus [ 2 ] .\nisolation , characterization and chromosome localization of repetitive dna sequences in bananas ( musa spp . )\nisolation , characterization and chromosome localization of repetitive dna sequences in banana ( musa spp . )\nin view of the importance of chromosome numbers in grouping species within the genus musa , it will be of great interest to carry out a molecular study on the sole member of sect . ingentimusa that has a chromosome number of n = x = 14 .\nstarted during the late eocene ( mean age estimate , 37 . 9 ma ; 50 . 5\u201324 . 5 ma 95 % hpd ) . clade i in the genus\nthe majority of dessert bananas eaten today derive from musa acuminata and are mainly eaten raw . plantains which are more starchy and less sweet are a hybrid between musa acuminata and musa balbisiana are usually cooked and eaten as a vegetable . morphologically wild banana is very different to its cultivar .\nthe species that currently make up each section are listed in the musapedia page on musa sections .\nmusa x fennicae ( m . siamensis ( male ) x m . rosea ( female ) )\nmusa x fennicae ( m . siamensis ( male ) x m . rosea ( female ) )\nflow cytometric estimation of nuclear dna amount in diploid bananas ( musa acuminata and m . balbisiana )\ncomparative analysis of phenotypic and genotypic diversity among plantain landraces ( musa spp . , aab group )\nflow cytometric estimation of nuclear dna amount in diploid bananas ( musa acuminata and m . balbisiana )\nbefore simmonds and shepherd ' s system , cultivated bananas were classified using the binomial nomenclature system developed by carl linneaus that is used to this day to name species . in fact linneaus is the one who gave the name musa paradisiaca to the banana . being the first linnean name given to a banana , musa paradisiaca is technically the\ntype species\nfor the genus musa . except that musa paradisiaca , and musa sapientum which linnaeus later added to the genus , had been modeled after a plantain and a silk cultivar , respectively , and as such did not represent species in any reasonable sense of the word . nevertheless , these names , and others that were proposed in their wake , continue to be used to designate cultivars despite the existence of the nomenclature system developed by simmonds and shepherd ( see previous section ) .\nthe plant list includes a further 181 scientific plant names of infraspecific rank for the genus musa . we do not intend the plant list to be complete for names of infraspecific rank . these are primarily included because names of species rank are synonyms of accepted infraspecific names .\nvisit my website at urltoken - bananas are produced by several kinds of large flowering plants in the genus musa . the banana plant itself is considered to be the largest herbaceous flowering plant . because the plants are tall and fairly sturdy , they are often mistaken for trees .\nthis study improves significantly the knowledge about the nuclear genome of wild musa species . we provide novel data on nuclear genome size and genomic distribution of ribosomal genes in 21 wild musa accessions . we revealed high variability in both characters , especially in the section callimusa . our results indicate that species of the musa genus evolved from a common ancestor by chromosome fission , which was accompanied by dna loss . cladogram based on the ssr markers together with the previously studied wild diploids showed clear clustering and significantly increased the knowledge on genetic diversity within musa genus . ssr genotyping platform enabled us to identify groups of the most related species and sub - species . apart from phylogenetic analysis , characterization of its sequences indicated that more than a half of the new itc accessions representing wild musa accessions originated from hybridization between different genotypes within a species or between putative subspecies .\nall three musaceae genera \u2013 ensete , musa and musella \u2013 originated in northern indo\u2010burma during the early eocene . musa species dispersed from \u2018northwest to southeast\u2019 into southeast asia with only few back\u2010dispersals towards northern indo\u2010burma .\nat the time of the revision , the musa section included 33 species and the callimusa one 37 .\nmusa genotyping centre was established at the institute of experimental botany in olomouc , czech republic . available :\n] in accordance to their expected classification based on plant morphology . newly introduced accessions belonging to the musa section were grouped within the cluster a comprising other species from section musa . the two accessions described as\nmusa \u00d7 paradisiaca l . subsp . sapientum ( l . ) c . e . o . kuntze\nli , l . - f . et al . 2010 . molecular phylogeny and systematics of the banana family ( musaceae ) inferred from multiple nuclear and chloroplast dna fragments , with a special reference to the genus musa . molec . phylogenet . evol . 57 : 1 - 10 .\nabout 40 species of evergreen perennials make up this genus from india , bangladesh , asia , and australia . they are grown for their very large leaves , their colorful flowers , and their edible fruits ( including bananas and plantains ) . use musa as specimens or in a greenhouse .\nstructures of waxy and adh 1 genes in musa and the positions of each primer used in this study .\nidentification of the genomic constitution of musa l . lines ( bananas , plantains and hybrids ) using molecular cytogenetics\nde langhe , e . et al . 2005 . integrating morphological and molecular taxonomy in musa : the african plantains ( musa spp . aab group ) . pl . syst . evol . 255 : 225 - 236 .\n12 . musa sections revisited published 28 august 2013 in under the peel , the blog of the promusa community .\nmusa genotyping centre was established at the institute of experimental botany in olomouc , czech republic . available : urltoken .\nbanana is also used to describe enset and fe\u2019i bananas , neither of which belong to the aforementioned species . enset bananas belong to the genus ensete while the taxonomy of fe\u2019i - type cultivars is uncertain .\nphylogeny of banana streak virus reveals recent and repetitive endogenization in the genome of its banana host ( musa sp . )\nthe system is based on 15 characters that were chosen because they are different in musa acuminata and musa balbisiana [ 1 ] . each character is scored on a scale from one ( typical musa acuminata ) to five ( typical musa balbisiana ) . the possible total scores range from a minimum of 15 to a maximum of 75 . the expected scores are 15 for aa and aaa , 35 for aab , 45 for ab , 55 for abb and 75 for bb .\naflp has provided important information regarding the genetic relationships among taxa of sections of musa . in addition , it has generated unique molecular markers for the identification of musa species . the level of polymorphism in musa and the number of loci generated per primer pair using aflp compare favourably with other techniques . a study employing issrs in musa ( godwin et al . , 1997 ) generated 940 bands from ten primer pairs , but only 13\u00b71 % were polymorphic , while rflp analysis of musa ( gawel et al . , 1992 ) using 66 primers generated only 96 alleles , an average of two alleles per probe .\ncomparative analysis of argonaute gene sequences in bananas ( musa sp . ) shows conserved species - specific ago - 7 piwi domains\nas ernest cheesman noted in 1948 ,\nsome botanists have regarded the seedless forms as ranking with the fertile species and have bestowed latin binomials upon them . others have preferred to regard them as varieties of one mythical \u201c species\u201d ( usually called musa sapientum ) which is supposed to exist somewhere in the wild and fertile condition \u2026 such mistakes . . . are not peculiar to the genus musa , but they are unusually conspicuous in this group\n[ 3 ] .\nspecies in one of the two distinct tropical southeast asian subregions ( northern indo\u2010burma vs malesia ) is correlated with changes in extinction and speciation rate within that genus . of the eight models tested , the bisse\u2010bma analysis in b\nresults of aflp analysis showed that the 11\u2010chromosome and 10\u2010chromosome grouping are robust and justified and that the separation of musa species into different groups based on their chromosome numbers provides a reliable means for classifying musa species into sections . in contrast , the separations of sect . rhodochlamys from sect . musa , and sect . australimusa from sect . callimusa were not supported by the aflp analysis . indeed , there is more genetic variation within the two groupings , sect . musa \u2013 rhodochlamys and callimusa \u2013 australimusa , than there is between sect . musa and sect . rhodochlamys and between sect . callimusa and sect . australimusa , drawing attention to the fact that striking differences in morphological characters in musa species are not always indicative of the same degree of genetic difference .\nmost of the knowledge on nuclear genome size and genomic distribution of rdna loci in banana comes from the analysis of triploid cultivars and their wild ancestors [ 14 \u2013 16 , 17 , 18 , 46 ] . only the study of barto\u0161 et al . [ 9 ] included a wider range of musa species and provided the first complex picture of the whole genus . our study significantly expands the number of wild musa species where these key characteristics of nuclear genome are described .\nball t , vrydaghs l , van den hauwe i , manwaring j , and de langhe e . 2006 . differentiating banana phytoliths : wild and edible musa acuminata and musa balbisiana . journal of archaeological science 33 ( 9 ) : 1228 - 1236 .\nfig . 2 . dendrogram showing genetic similarities between species of musa and ensete using upgma cluster analysis . scale bar depicts gdes .\nphylogeny of banana streak virus reveals recent and repetitive endogenization in the genome of its banana host ( musa sp . ) | springerlink\nsecondary polyploids , heterosis , and evolutionary crop breeding for further improvement of the plantain and banana ( musa spp . l ) genome\nanalysis of expressed sequence tags from musa acuminata ssp . burmannicoides , var . calcutta 4 ( aa ) leaves submitted to temperature stresses\nmusa \u00d7 paradisiaca var . dacca ( p . f . horaninow ) j . g . baker ex k . m . schumann\nfor the banana cultivar previously referred to as musa sapientum , see latundan banana . [ 19 ] for bananas and plantains previously referred to as musa paradisiaca , see plantain . for a list of the cultivars classified under the new system see banana cultivar groups .\nfigures 12 and 13 . wild australimusa banana species , musa maclayi growing in sheltered gully and bunches showing differences in bract retention .\noverview : there is a huge amount of morphological variability in the cultivated banana . musa spp . which include banana and plantain , are not trees but giant herbs with a pseudostem ( formed from the bases of leaves rolled tightly around each other ) . members of this genus can grow up to 15 m tall making them the largest perennial herb in the world .\nbased on phenetic analyses , no clear distinction was apparent between species of sect . rhodochlamys and those of sect . musa . m . velutina ( sect . rhodochlamys ) was embedded within species of sect . musa , and m . laterita ( sect . rhodochlamys ) nestled within subspecies of m . acuminata . musa ornata ( sect . rhodochlamys ) also fell within the generally larger cluster of sect . musa . these results suggested that sect . rhodochlamys and sect . musa are not sufficiently distinct genetically to warrant separation into two sections . this is in agreement with the conclusions of simmonds ( 1962 ) , shepherd ( 1990 ) and jarret and gawel ( 1995 ) .\nh\u00e4kkinen , m . 2013 . reappraisal of sectional taxonomy in musa ( musaceae ) . ( taxon ) 62 : 809 - 813 .\nmusa flowers are individually not conspicuous , but the large main bracts are quite conspicuous ; the bracts curl back in turn to expose the flowers they have protected while in bud . musa species ( including cultivated bananas ) with pendulous inflorescences and dull purplish bracts have flowers with\u2026\nthe species in the old eumusa section were described by cheesman as being more than 3 meters high , having pendent or semi - pendent inflorescences , many flowers to a bract and dull - coloured bracts . the section includes musa acuminata and musa balbisiana ( photo ) .\npcr - rflp of the ribosomal dna internal transcribed spacers ( its ) provides markers for the a and b genomes in musa l .\nbananas are basically giant herbs , rather than trees , and there are approximately 50 species in the musa genus , which includes the edible forms of bananas and plantains . the genus is split into four or five sections , based on the number of chromosomes in the plant , and the region where they are found . furthermore , over a thousand different types of cultivars of bananas and plantains are recognized today . the different varieties are characterized by wide differences in peel color and thickness , flavor , fruit size , and resistance to disease . the bright yellow one found most frequently in western markets is called the cavendish .\nthe first subgeneric classification of musa s . l . began with three subgenera physocaulis , eumusa and rhodochlamys ( sagot , 1887 ; baker , 1893 ) . later , cheesman ( 1947 ) laid the foundation for the grouping of banana species into four sections . he recognized subgenus physocaulis as a distinct genus , ensete with a chromosome number n = x = 9 . within musa s . s . , he redefined subgenera eumusa ( now sect . musa ) and rhodochlamys as two separate sections , and described an additional two sections , australimusa and callimusa . cheesman ( 1947 ) also redistributed the species among the four sections to produce more homogenous groups .\nin addition to m . acuminata and m . balbisiana , the genus musa contains about 70 species . based on morphology [ 5 ] and chromosome number , the genus was divided into sections eumusa ( x = 11 ) , rhodochlamys ( x = 11 ) , australimusa ( x = 10 ) and callimusa ( x = 9 , 10 ) [ 6 ] . more recently , argent [ 7 ] created a separate section ingentimusa , which contains only a single species m . ingens ( x = 7 ) . this classification has been questioned recently , and various regroupings were suggested [ 8 ] . genotyping with several types of dna markers confirmed the need for revision of the musa sections [ 9 \u2013 12 ] . based on these results , h\u00e4kkinen [ 13 ] combined the australimusa , ingentimusa and callimusa sections into section callimusa , and sections eumusa and rhodochlamys into a newly created section musa .\nthe taxonomy of the approximately 50 species within the genus musa remains poorly resolved , not least because of the widespread vegetative reproduction and natural occurrence of many hybrids . most frequently , the genus is divided into four ( sometimes five ) sections , eumusa and rhodochlamys with a basic chromosome number of x = 11 , australimusa ( x = 10 ) , and callimusa ( x = 10 or x = 9 ) ( after cheesman , 1947 ; simmonds and weatherup , 1990 ; dolezel and bartos , 2005 ) . various minor and major regroupings have been suggested ( wong et al . , 2002 ) . at the species level , the number of species and the status of subspecies has been debated ( taxonomic advisory group for musa , 2007 ) . however , from the point of view of the taxa related to crops , the morphological features are well defined ( musa germplasm information system , mgis ; ipgri\u2013inibap / cirad , 1996 ) . in the last decade , in conjunction with molecular studies of musa accessions at the dna level ( see bartos et al . , 2005 ) , aspects of the taxonomy have been clarified but a careful treatment of the complementary and contrasting data , along with judicious filling of gaps in the data , is required to resolve the relationships and phylogeny in the genus .\ncheesman ( 1947 ) noted that sect . musa and sect . rhodochlamys , although regarded as a close assemblage , were initially separated for convenience , sect . musa including the edible bananas with dull bracts while sect . rhodochlamys included the ornamental bananas with brightly coloured bracts . this view is no longer tenable in the face of genetic evidence and these two sections should be merged into a single section , sect . musa .\n13 . lamare , a . , otaghvari , a . m . and rao , s . r . 2016 . phylogenetic implications of the internal transcribed spacers of nrdna and chloroplast dna fragments of musa in deciphering the ambiguities related to the sectional classification of the genus . genetic resources and crop evolution , 11 pages . doi : 10 . 1007 / s10722 - 016 - 0433 - 9 .\ngenome groups are further divided into subgroups usually defined as a set of cultivars derived from each other through somatic mutations . on the basis of this system , cultivar names are put between inverted commas and preceded by the name of the genus and when known , the name of the group and subgroup . for example : musa ( aaa group cavendish subgroup ) ' robusta ' [ 2 ] .\nin 1976 , george argent added the section , ingentimusa for the lone species musa ingens , which has 7 pairs of chromosomes [ 5 ] .\nmolecular cytogenetics of musa species , cultivars and hybrids : location of 18s - 5 . 8s - 25s and 5s rdna and telomere - like sequences\ncentrifugation assisted agrobacterium tumefaciens - mediated transformation ( caat ) of embryogenic cell suspensions of banana ( musa spp . cavendish aaa and lady finger aab )\nconstruction and characterization of a plant transformation - competent bibac library of the black sigatoka - resistant banana musa acuminata cv . tuu gia ( aa )\nfigure 14 . articulated phytoliths from seed of musa acuminata ssp . banksii qh067962 showing distinct dorsal ridging of eumusa seed phytoliths . b : articulated phytoliths from seed of musa peekelii lh82751 with distinctive tabular dorsal surfaces found in australimusa seed phytoliths . these were not found in the kuk assemblages . c : seed phytolith from seed of musa ingens . d : dorsal and lateral views of ensete glaucum seed phytoliths qh356652 . e : fossil eumusa seed phytolith with distinct dorsal ridging found in the phytolith assemblage from kuk . f : facetted phytolith seed morphotype of musa ingens found in the phytolith assemblage from kuk . lateral view of ensete seed morphotype found sediment from kuk . h : articulated chain of musa leaf phytoliths found in sediment from kuk .\n8 . li , l - f . , h\u00e4kkinen , m . , yuan , y - m . , hao , g . and ge , x . j . 2010 . molecular phylogeny and systematics of the banana family ( musaceae ) inferred from multiple nuclear and chloroplast dna fragments , with a special reference to the genus musa . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 57 ( 1 ) : 1 - 10 .\n1 . h\u00e4kkinen , m . 2013 . reappraisal of sectional taxonomy in musa ( musaceae ) . taxon 62 ( 4 ) : 809 - 813 .\nmusa puspanjaliae r . gogoi & h\u00e4kkinen , a new species of musa sect . musa , is described and illustrated from west kameng , arunachal pradesh , india based on morphological characteristics observed in the field . the new species is common in sessa , zero point to ramda on sepa road of west kameng and hazi basti , ziro of lower subansiri district in arunachal pradesh . a key to m . puspanjaliae and . . . [ show full abstract ]\ngenetic stability of three economically important micropropagated banana ( musa spp . ) cultivars of lower indo - gangetic plains , as assessed by rapd and issr markers\nthe apple is the pomaceous fruit of the apple tree , species malus domestica in the rose family ( rosaceae ) . it is one of the most widely cultivated tree fruits , and the most widely known of the many members of genus malus that are used by humans .\nthe present work is part of a continuing study to revise the old names in musa and aims to clarify the taxonomy in the sections rhodoclamys and callimusa . lectotypes are designated here for musa sect . callimusa and m . sect . rhodochlamys . these sections were first erected without the indication of a type species .\nin a broader phylogenetic view based on groupings that can be regarded as strictly monophyletic , angiosperm phylogeny group ( 2003 ) puts musa within the zingiberales , one of four sister orders in the monophyletic grouping commelinids , along with the poales ( grasses ) , commelinales and aracales . this puts musa in an important taxonomic position from the point of view of comparative genetics , since it is a sister group to the well - studied grasses . apart from the cereals , bananas are the major crop species within the commelinids . the musaceae family includes a second genus , ensete , with the ethiopian banana , used occasionally as a food in east africa . ginger , where the root is eaten , is the other significant crop in the zingiberales . there are a number of horticultural species in the genus musa , and strelitzia reginae ( bird - of - paradise ) lies in the sister familiy strelitziacea . the leaves of musa are used for their fibre content : when fresh as plates for eating or wrapping food parcels for steaming , or when dry as strips for weaving into various articles and for roofing shelters . specific names such as m . ornata and m . textilis reflect these uses .\nthe center of diversity of the genus musa ( musaceae ) is in southeast asia , a region not studied in detail and where new species and varieties continue to be reported . a new wild banana species , m . chunii h\u00e4kki - nen from yunnan , china is described and illustrated based on observed morphological characteristics in the field . this extremely rare new species was only found in tongbiguan nature . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe plant is also called head cabbage or heading cabbage , and in scotland a bowkail , from its rounded shape . the scots call its stalk a castock , and the british occasionally call its head a loaf . it is in the same genus as the turnip \u2013 brassica rapa .\nthis article examines the origin and evolution of the musaceae family with special emphasis on the tempo and timing of diversification of the genus musa in relation to its distribution range throughout tropical southeast asia . evolutionary relationships and age estimates within major musaceae clades are inferred to gain more insight into the complex processes of speciation and extinction that shaped the current banana biodiversity in tropical southeast asia . in addition , we discuss to what extent past climatic and geological events , such as the continuous sea level fluctuations during the pleistocene and the collision of the sunda and sahul shelf , influenced the radiation of musa in tropical southeast asia .\n) . in a majority of accessions from the musa section , 5s rdna sites were localized on two or three chromosome pairs . three signals were observed on chromosomes of\nbananas and plantains belong to the genus musa . it was linnaeus that first gave the scientific name musa sapientum for all sweet bananas , and the scientific name musa paradisiaca for plantains . however , linnaeus did not know that the two species he had described were in fact hybrids and not two distinct species . therefore , those two names could not be relevant in modern taxonomy . genetic studies have then demonstrated that all edible bananas and plantains come from a common ancestor , musa acuminata . plantains also carry genes from another ancestor , musa balbisiana . the genome of each ancestor could be represented respectively by the letter a and b . then , further studies showed that edible bananas are mostly triploids and their genome would be described as aaa . this means that they carry three sets of chromosomes derived from m . acuminata . different hybrid combinations have been observed , such as aab , bbb , and tetraploid groups ( aaaa ) were also described . therefore , an accurate classification for bananas seems to be a great challenge . however , one thing sure in that banana taxonomists seem to agree that there is no single scientific name that can be attributed to all edible bananas . therefore , a new type of classification was proposed by simmonds and that would abandon the latin name to use instead a group indication like this : genus ( musa ) + genome group ( e . g . aaa ) + subgroup name ( e . g . cavendish subgroup \u201cgrand nain\u201d ) . in panama , the sweet bananas come mostly from the cavendish subgroup . the plantain subgroup is also triploid but has the genome group aab .\nmusa itinerans , known also as yunnan banana , is a close relative to both banana progenitors with wide distribution across subtropical china . it is native to south - east asia and can be found in moist ravines to mountainous areas . in china , it is usually found in secondary tropical rainforests . it grows fast and can produce long rhizome with sucker emerging more than 2 meters from the mother plant , explaining its name origin . interestingly , it was shown as one of the most foc - tr4 resistant and cold tolerant species in the musa genus , providing valuable resource for the disease resistance and hardiness improvement in banan . . . [ more ]\nbetween 1925 and 1937 , cheesman worked as professor of botany at the imperial college of tropical agriculture in trinidad . after his return to england , he worked on the taxonomy of musaceae at the royal botanic gardens , in kew . as a result of his studies he revived the genus ensete [ 2 ] , first published in 1862 by paul fedorowitsch horaninow , but then not accepted . cheesman made it clear that there are no wild musa native to africa , only ensete .\nby then , it was known that the vast majority of edible bananas were derived from either musa acuminata alone or hybridized with musa balbisiana . however , their origin proved to be more complicated than mere hybridisation . whereas some cultivars were , like their wild ancestors , diploid , most edible bananas were found to be triploid , that is they had three sets of chromosomes instead of two . in some cultivars all three sets seemed to come from musa acuminata , whereas in others , sometimes one set seemed to come from musa balbisiana , sometimes two sets . this complexity made it difficult to devise a concise nomenclature system based on latin names that could cope with all possible permutations [ 4 ] .\ncultivated bananas are large , vegetatively - propagated members of the genus musa . more than 1 , 000 cultivars are grown worldwide and they are major economic and food resources in numerous developing countries . it has been suggested that cultivated bananas originated from the islands of southeast asia ( isea ) and have been developed through complex geodomestication pathways . however , the maternal and parental donors of most cultivars are unknown , and the pattern of nucleotide diversity in domesticated banana has not been fully resolved .\nthe taxon sampling represents five ensete species ( six accessions ) , 38 musa species ( 63 accessions ) and one species ( one accession ) of musella ( supporting information table s1 ) . in order to correctly estimate node ages for ensete , musa and musella , we extended the musaceae dataset with 156 zingiberales species and two outgroup taxa ( methods s1 ) .\nhybridization is known to be common between species from sect . musa and sect . rhodochlamys , producing relatively vigorous offspring . according to simmonds ( 1962 ) , m . acuminata ( sect . musa ) crosses effectively with m . laterita , m . ornata and m . velutina ( all from sect . rhodochlamys ) , while m . balbisiana ( sect . musa ) hybridizes successfully with almost all species , including m . laterita and m . velutina . the weak reproductive barrier between the two sections supports the notion that they are not distinct .\nan interesting outcome of this study is the observation of a negative correlation between the basic chromosome number ( x ) and nuclear genome size ( 1c ) , which became evident in this study after a wider range of musa species was analyzed . this trend could be explained by the evolution from a common ancestor by chromosome fission accompanied by dna loss . this hypothesis is in line with simmonds [ 49 ] , who speculated that the lower chromosome number of m . beccarii and the genus ensete reflects their ancient origin . similarly , bekele and shigeta [ 50 ] suggested that ensete glaucum and m . beccarii are ancestral forms of ensete and musa with a common ancestor that is yet to be established and the ancestral chromosomal number of both genera is x = 9 . on the other hand , if this hypothesis was true , representatives of the genera ensete and musella would be expected to have a genome size comparable to that of and other callimusa species . a more extensive study of the karyotype evolution in the family musaceae will be necessary to explain this\nthe less chromosomes , the larger genome\ntrend emerging in the genus musa , but not observed in other genera of the family .\n( itc . 1531 ) ) . four groups comprised different representatives of the section musa ( former sections eumusa and rhodochlamys ) and two groups included different species belonging to section callimusa .\ncomparison of dna marker and pedigree - based methods of genetic analysis of plantain and banana ( musa spp . ) clones . i . estimation of genetic relationships , theoretical and applied genetics\n. . . edible seedless bananas mostly grown in the backyards or home gardens whereas wild seeded bananas commonly found in the wild [ 4 ] . the genus musa are generally grouped into four sections : australimusa ( n = 10 ) , callimusa ( n = 10 ) , rhodochlamys ( n = 11 ) and eumusa ( n = 11 ) [ 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ] . most members of callimusa and rhodoclamys are ornamentals in nature ; they originated on the asian continent . . . .\ncompared to other species discussed in this volume , banana has an unusual triploid genetic background with parthenocarpy , and the process of domestication has been largely through collection of individual varieties from spontaneous mutations in the wild . hence conventional genetics and plant breeding are relatively poorly developed . however , genomic approaches are now rapidly advancing in musa : the global musa genomics consortium was established in 2001 to assure the sustainability of banana as a staple food crop by developing an integrated genetic and genomic understanding , allowing targeted breeding , transformation and more efficient use of musa biodiversity .\nprevious studies in the fields of archaeology , genetics and linguistics have shed light upon the major stages in the domestication process of cultivated bananas [ 1 ] , [ 2 ] , [ 70 ] . in this study , we have not only confirmed the multiple intra - and inter - specific hybridization origins of cultivated banana , but also revealed that both diploid and triploid cultivars harbor high levels of nucleotide diversity . however , only a small number of musa accessions were investigated in this study , and it may therefore be insufficiently representative of the genus . it will be necessary to employ tens of nuclear genes and hundreds of musa accessions in future studies to further elucidate the domestication process undergone by cultivated banana .\ncarreel f . etude de la diversit\u00e9 g\u00e9n\u00e9tique des bananiers ( genre musa ) \u00e0 l ' aide des margueurs rflp , phd thesis , institut national agronomique , paris - grignon ; 1994 .\nperrier , x . et al . 2011 . multidisciplinary perspectives on banana ( musa spp . ) domestication . proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the usa 108 ( 28 ) .\nthe nomenclature system used to classify banana cultivars was developed by norman simmonds and kenneth shepherd in 1955 [ 1 ] . it classifies cultivated bananas into genome groups , according to the relative contribution of their ancestral wild species , and into subgroups , sets of closely related cultivars . this system eliminates almost all the difficulties and inconsistencies of a taxonomy based on musa paradisiaca and musa sapientum .\nin 1947 , ernest cheesman divided the genus into four sections based on chromosome numbers and morphological characteristics [ 4 ] . he wrote that he deliberately called the groups sections rather than subgenera\nin an attempt to avoid the implication that they are of equal rank\n. his grouping of species proved to be useful and was widely accepted .\ncultivated bananas and plantains are giant herbaceous plants within the genus musa . they are both sterile and parthenocarpic so the fruit develops without seed . the cultivated hybrids and species are mostly triploid ( 2 n = 3 x = 33 ; a few are diploid or tetraploid ) , and most have been propagated from mutants found in the wild . with a production of 100 million tons annually , banana is a staple food across the asian , african and american tropics , with the 15 % that is exported being important to many economies .\nthen came ernest e . cheesman , the prescient british botanist who realized that the classification of banana cultivars needed a system different from the latin binomials used for wild species . in 1947 , he divided the genus musa into four sections based on the chromosome numbers and morphological characteristics of the species : those that have 11 pairs of chromosomes ( eumusa and rhodochlamys ) and those that have 10 pairs ( australimusa and callimusa ) . he said that he deliberately used the term section , rather than subgenus , to avoid the implication that the groups are of equal rank . in 1976 , another british botanist , george argent , added the section ingentimusa to accommodate a lone species , musa ingens , which has 7 pairs of chromosomes .\nthe distinct separation of the clusters comprising species with chromosome numbers n = x = 11 in sect . musa and rhodochlamys , and species with chromosome numbers n = x = 10 in sect . callimusa and australimusa , is in agreement with previous taxonomic alignment based on morphological data . cheesman ( 1947 ) noted that chromosomal differences between taxa of sect . callimusa \u2013 australimusa and sect . musa \u2013 rhodochlamys were correlated with many small differences in their habits and physiology , and regarded chromosome number as the best and safest criterion of relationships within musa . this study is in agreement with cheesman\u2019s data and also the cytogenetic evidence of simmonds ( 1962 ) and shepherd ( 1990 ) and the more recent study on species in sections musa and rhodochlamys using rflp by jarret and gawel ( 1995 ) .\nmusa balbisiana was shown to be most distant in the present analysis . it is generally considered a distinct species ( cheesman , 1948 ; simmonds , 1962 ) and other molecular studies have demonstrated its position as a species isolated within sect . musa ( simmonds and weatherup , 1990 ; gawel and jarret , 1991 ; gawel et al . , 1992 ; jarret et al . , 1992 ) .\nwong , c . et al . 2002 . assessment of the validity of the sections in musa ( musaceae ) using aflp . ann . bot . ( oxford ) 90 : 231 - 238 .\nthe musa orthologs of the waxy and adh 1 genes were identified by performing a blast homology search [ 26 ] against the musa est database at ncbi using the oryza sativa coding sequences as queries ( genbank accession numbers : waxy : nm _ 001065985 , adh 1 : ef122490 ) . the parameters for blastn ( urltoken ) were set as follows : database was expressed sequence tags ( est ) and organism name was musa . sequences that were retrieved in this way were used to design primers with the software primer premier 5 . 0 ( premier biosoft international , palo alto , ca ) . the positions of exons were determined by reference to the annotated o . sativa sequences . the homologs of matk and trnl - f in musa accessions were amplified using published universal primer sequences [ 27 ] , [ 28 ] .\nh\u00e4kkinen , m . & v\u00e4re , h . ( 2008 ) . typification and check - list of musa l . names ( musaceae ) with nomenclatural notes adansonia , iii , 30 : 63 - 112 .\nthe species in the old rhodochlamys section were described by cheesman as being less than 3 meters high , having upright inflorescences , few flowers to a bract and brightly coloured bracts . ( photo : musa velutina )\ndonohue m , and denham t . 2009 . banana ( musa spp . ) domestication in the asia - pacific region : linguistic and archaeobotanical perspectives . ethnobotany research & applications 7 : 293 - 332 . open access\nwithin the rhodochlamys and musa clusters , m . balbisiana colla formed a distinct branch , while the remaining species in the cluster were separated into two groups . the first cluster included m . ornata roxb . , the four subspecies of m . acuminata colla , m . laterita cheesman , m . velutina h . wendl & drude and m . sikkimensis , while the second cluster included m . itinerans and m . nagensium prain . species from sect . rhodochlamys , m . ornata , m . laterita and m . velutina were embedded within sect . musa , suggesting that the separation of sect . rhodochlamys from sect . musa was not clear\u2010cut ."]}
{"id": 1142, "summary": [{"text": "non-reproductive sexual behavior is sexual activities animals participate in that do not lead to the reproduction of the species .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "although procreation continues to be the primary explanation for sexual behavior in animals , recent observations on animal behavior has given alternative reasons for the engagement in sexual activities by animals .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "animals have been observed to engage in sex for social interaction , demonstration of dominance , aggression relief , exchange for significant materials , and sexual stimulation .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "observed non-procreative sexual activities include non-copulatory mounting ( without penetration , or by the female ) , oral sex , genital stimulation , anal stimulation , interspecies mating , and acts of affection .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "there have also been observations of animals engaging in homosexual behaviors , as well as sex with dead animals and sex involving juveniles . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "non - reproductive sexual behavior in animals", "paragraphs": ["why have animals evolved to have sex ? the obvious answer ,\nfor reproduction\n, is at odds with the diversity of non - reproductive sexual behavior . some non - reproductive sexual behavior may exist merely by accident , but there ' s a variety of ways non - reproductive sexual behavior may otherwise benefit animals . there ' s no ready answer to the general question of why animals have sex .\nram mating behavior after long - term selection for reproductive rate in rambouillet ewes .\nresearch on masturbatory practice by non - human animals almost exclusively focuses on male masturbation .\nsexual behavior is an extremely significant aspect of the lives of all sexually reproductive animals , including humans . masturbation is an enigmatic yet highly ubiquitous practice , as it is a non - reproductive sexual behavior . understanding the origins of masturbation may shed light on its evolutionary function and its consequent conservation in human behavior , elucidating possible explanations for some of our most primal innate behaviors .\nare used strictly in the reproductive sense to refer to animals that produce sperm or eggs , respectively ) .\nwhy has natural selection allowed sexual affect and sexual behavior to flourish , particularly in humans ? the obvious answer is that sexual affect motivates sexual behavior , and sexual behavior is necessary for reproduction . but only a small subset of sexual behavior is actually capable of producing offspring . why has evolution preserved such things as masturbation , oral sex , homosexuality , and sex after menopause ?\nregarding genetic influences on behavior : a single gene usually codes for complex behavior .\nrelationship of sex and number of siblings in utero with sexual behavior of mature rams .\nin rats , a _ _ _ _ _ _ will display male sexual behavior in adulthood .\n] . female animals treated with testosterone prenatally or neonatally subsequently show increased male - typical behavior and decreased female - typical behavior . similarly , male animals that have their testes removed early in development later show increased female - typical behavior and reduced male - typical behavior . these effects have been seen for sexual behaviors and for non - reproductive behaviors that differ by sex , such as aggression and juvenile rough - and - tumble play [\nthe most parsimonious explanation is that non - reproductive sexual behavior is a spandrel . that is , natural selection created a motivation to seek genital stimulation because this motivation makes animals more likely to reproduce , and it is merely an accident of evolution that this motivation also gets animals to do useless things like masturbate .\nthough most empirical research on the subject is heavily biased toward western sexual behavior .\na . expressing whether the behavior conforms to our culture ' s sexual norms .\naltered adult sexual behavior in the male rat following chronic prenatal hypoxia . - pubmed - ncbi\nwallen k , tannenbaum pl . hormonal modulation of sexual behavior and affiliation in rhesus monkeys .\nstoinski ts , perdue bm , legg am . sexual behavior in female western lowland gorillas (\ndolphins are known to display non - reproductive sexual behavior , engaging in masturbation , stimulation of the genital area of other individuals using the rostrum or flippers , and homosexual contact . [ 48 ] [ 53 ] [ 54 ]\ngordon t ( 1981 ) reproductive behavior in the rhesus monkeys : social and endocrine variables . am zool 21 : 185\u2013195\nwhich of the following phrases best defines sexual variations ? a . sexual activity that involves force or coercion b . sexual behaviors that are not socially approved c . sexual behavior that is not statistically typical d . sexual expression that is illegal\nby separating capability from interest , sexual behavior became more sensitive to social context , and sex could easily be used for other than reproductive purposes . once the capacity to engage in sex was released from hormonal control , hormonal modulation of sexual motivation became the primary regulator of sexual behavior . however , unlike the physical adaptations described earlier , which completely prevent the occurrence of sexual behavior , hormonal regulation of sexual motivation only modulates the frequency or likelihood of occurrence of sexual behavior . this less strict control exerted by sexual motivation has been the source of much misunderstanding about hormonal regulation of sexual behavior in primates , including humans .\nwallen k . desire and ability : hormones and the regulation of female sexual - behavior .\n) : insights into pseudogene formation and evidence for functional degeneracy in non - human primates .\nhomosexuality is quite common in the animal kingdom , especially among herding animals . many animals solve conflicts by practicing same gender sex .\nthe coverage of # savebenjy opens a dialogue on homosexual activity in a landscape that survives and thrives on heterosexual reproductive non - human animal activity in a male - dominated landscape .\nautoeroticism is a . sexual fantasy . b . sexual behavior with others . c . an intrapersonal activity . d . an unacceptable activity .\nthe utility of nature as a heteronormatizing force was influenced by two factors . the first was industrialization , which moved people away from nature and interactions with other animals . the second factor was that aspect of darwin\u2019s theory that emphasized animals\u2019 drive to reproduce and continue the species . this emphasis on heterosexual reproductive activity created a picture of the non - human animal as only engaging in sexual activity with the opposite sex , and inevitably has led to under - recording or - documenting of same - sex behavior in non - human animals .\ndiurnal , larger than nwp , most are partly terrestrial . non - prehensile tails\na female rate will show female sexual behavior in adulthood if it is _ _ _ _ _ _ .\nle boeuf b , mesnick s . sexual - behavior of male northern elephant seals . i .\nin his book , bagemihl describes homosexual activity in a broad spectrum of animals . he asserts that while same - sex behavior is sometimes found in captivity , it is actually seen more frequently in studies of animals in the wild .\nyou can view the lecture here . at about the 11 : 40 point the claim is made that humans are the only species that engage in non - reproductive sex .\nintracerebral infusion of an aromatase inhibitor , sexual behavior and brain estrogen receptor - like immunoreactivity in intact male rats .\nwallen k , winston la . social complexity and hormonal influences on sexual behavior in rhesus monkeys ( macaca mulatta )\ndittmann rw , kappes me , kappes mh . sexual behavior in adolescent and adult females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia .\neffect of vorozole , an aromatase enzyme inhibitor , on sexual behavior , aromatase activity and neural immunoreactivity .\nwallen k . influence of female hormonal state on rhesus sexual behavior varies with space for social interaction .\naccording to the text , when we label a sexual behavior natural or unnatural , we are a . expressing whether the behavior conforms to our culture ' s sexual norms . b . expressing instinctive beliefs . c . using biological criteria for our judgment . d . using universal norms for human sexual behavior .\nmany acts that are considered to be sex crimes involve parties who participate in such acts willingly . these crimes relate to issues of marriage and infidelity , non - reproductive sexual activities , prostitution and pandering , and pornography and obscenity .\nbruce bagemihl argues that any evidence of non - reproductive same - sex activity has been rationalized , in effect \u201cexplaining away\u201d ( 122 ) any same - sex behaviors . published in 1999 , bagemihl\u2019s biological exuberance offers both a \u201cwondrous bestiary\u201d ( 265 ) chronicling the myriad of same - sex activities exhibited by a wide range of species , and an exploration of how non - reproductive homosexual activity in non - human animals is treated in scientific discourse . the # savebenjy campaign was treated as an oddity , but bagemihl demonstrates that homosexuality in animals is not a new phenomenon . he finds that homosexual activity exhibited by non - human animals , unless it is explicit sexual intercourse , is either omitted from research findings or insufficiently documented , being wrongly categorized under a number of other behaviors such as affiliation or dominance ( 107 ) .\nalthough no mark and recapture techniques were applied in the present study , the seasonal distribution of svls suggests that animals were sexually mature in the first reproductive season after hatching .\ni ' ve heard this about many species , including aforementioned bonobos , dolphins and more . also homosexual behavior in animals is rather widespread , and i ' ll be damned if that ' s a reproductive sex .\nmadsen t , shine r ( 1993 ) temporal variability in sexual selection acting on reproductive tactics and body size in male snakes . american naturalist 141 : 167\u2013171 .\nthe thing that particularly fascinated me about this book was the broad array of variations in physical gender found in animals . for many animals ( e . g .\n) . i . specimens , procedures and behavioral characteristics of estrus ii . periodicity of estrus , homosexual , autoerotic , and non - conformist behavior .\nfuruichi t , connor r , hashimoto c . non - conceptive sexual interactions in monkeys , apes , and dolphins in : yamagiwa j , karczmarski l . , editors .\nthe masters and johnson ' s model of sexual response does not account for the physical changes that occur in the clitoris . role of desire in sexual arousal . physiological components of sexual arousal . role of the autonomic nervous system in sexual response .\nthe vehemence with which this prohibition [ against sex with other species ] continues to be held , its persistence while other non - reproductive sexual acts have become acceptable , suggests that there is [ a ] powerful force at work : our desire to differentiate ourselves , erotically and in every other way , from animals .\nsdn - poa volume , sexual behavior , and partner preference of male rats affected by perinatal treatment with atd .\nzhao qk ( 1993 ) sexual behavior of tibetan macaques at mt . emei , china . primates 34 : 431\u2013444\nwhile in adult females the relationship between circulating hormone levels and sexual behavior varies with social context , adolescent females could show one of two patterns . adolescent females may show a tight coupling of hormones and behavior in which adult flexibility in response to social context develops during puberty . alternatively , adolescent females may have a loose coupling between circulating hormones and sexual behavior in which social context overrides increased sexual motivation in response to circulating hormone levels . we investigated variability among adolescent females in the relationship between sexual behavior and circulating hormone levels to address these two alternatives .\nseth genuinely cares about his animals , yet he derives sexual pleasure from having sexual contact with them . seth is practicing a . klismaphilia b . bestiality c . zoophilia d . kennelism\ntan et al . ( 2009 ) observed female greater short - nosed fruit bats ( cynopterus sphinx ) licking the shaft and base of their mate ' s penis during coitus . ( so unlike the other non - reproductive sexual behaviors discussed in this chapter , this behavior occurs only in an apparently reproductive context . ) tan et al . make a similar suggestion : saliva may kill pathogens and thus reduce the spread of disease .\ninfluence of castration and estrogen replacement on sexual behavior of female - oriented , male - oriented , and asexual rams .\nbercovitch fb , strum sc . dominance rank , resource availability , and reproductive maturation in female savanna baboons .\nplenty of academic research referenced in detail at the wikipedia article on homosexual behavior in animals . roughgarden and bagemihl have done extensive research . urltoken urltoken urltoken urltoken urltoken urltoken\nvasey pl . same - sex sexual partner preference in hormonally and neurologically unmanipulated animals . ann rev sex res . 2002 ; 13 : 141\u201379 .\nciaccio la , lisk rd , reuter la . prelordotic behavior in the hamster : a hormonally modulated transition from aggression to sexual receptivity .\ngoy , r . w . ( 1979 ) . sexual compatibility in rhesus monkeys : predicting sexual performance of oppositely sexed pairs of adults . in\n) : androgens and behavior in a confined troop . horm behav 20 : 452\u2013462\nsuch studies have nonetheless observed autoerotic behavior in a diverse array of mammalian species .\nthere * have * been studies done on the reproductive success of homosexually paired birds . . .\nbailey nw , zuk m . same - sex sexual behavior and evolution . trends in ecology and evolution . 2009 ; 24 : 439\u201346 .\ntaken together , these results suggest that in early adolescence , periovulatory increases in circulating estradiol increase female sexual initiation and female sexual motivation , as they do in adult females . in addition , these results suggest that social context can suppress female sexual behavior in early adolescent females , with one middle ranked female showing no sexual initiation at midcycle . in contrast , high social rank allows an uncoupling of circulating hormone levels and female sexual initiation behavior , since a high ranked female initiated interactions with males in the absence of periovulatory hormone levels .\nbenjy\u2019s behavior challenged cultural perceptions of non - human animals as intrinsically heterosexual . his homosexual activity eluded normative sexual categories of ordering which are defined , discrete , and biologically determined . more importantly , benjy was no longer a charolais bull who engaged in homosexual activity ; he became a symbol , a representative for the naturalness of homosexuality .\n4 . alfred c . kinsey et al . sexual behavior in the human female , w . b . saunders company , philadelphia , 1953 .\nas one example , bottlenose dolphins routinely engage in non - reproductive intercourse - this can be when females are not in estrus ( i can ' t locate the reference though ) , and there is also a lot of non - intercourse sexual behaviour between individuals , even between males ( mann , j . 2006 . sociosexual behaviour among indian ocean bottle - nose dolphins and the development of male - male bonds .\nwhile social rank affects the timing of the expression of sexual behavior within an adult female\u2019s ovarian cycle , it rarely completely suppresses female sexual behavior ( wallen , 1990 ) . finally , adult males respond differently to sexual initiation by early adolescent and adult females ( zehr , 2002 ) . the increased aggression and decreased mounting by males toward adolescents also limits adolescent sexual behavior and further illustrates the special social status that adolescent females have within the social group .\nsexual dimorphism in the coloration of the first and second rows of ventral longitudinal scales in the abdomen is probably associated with sexual maturation in males , since juveniles and females always presented white scales . feltrim ( 2002 ) suggested that sexual dimorphism in coloration could represent a social sign and could play an important role in sexual recognition .\nbeirne , p . ( in press ) . on the sexual assault of animals : a sociological view . in a . creager and b . jordan ( eds . ) ,\n\u201ca brilliant and important exercise in exposing the limitations of received opinion . . . an exhaustively argued case that animals have multiple shades of sexual orientation . \u201d \u0097\nstudies of rhesus monkey behavioral endocrinology offer two different pictures of the role that hormones play in female sexual behavior . early studies of social groups of rhesus monkeys described discrete periods of sexual activity interspersed with longer periods of sexual inactivity ( carpenter , 1942 ) . in contrast , studies of male - female pairs of rhesus monkeys reported midcycle peaks in sexual behavior but some sexual activity throughout the female\u2019s cycle ( goy , 1979 ; michael & zumpe , 1970 ) . these markedly different patterns of sexual activity reflected the hormonal emancipation of the ability to mate combined with a sensitivity of sexual behavior to social context . subsequent studies demonstrated that the amount of space ( wallen , 1982 ) and the presence of multiple females ( wallen & winston , 1984 ) affected the extent to which the female\u2019s hormonal condition modulated the occurrence of sexual behavior .\nmany animals of the same sex touch each other in ways that are not overtly sexual ( they do not involve direct contact of the genitals ) but that do nevertheless haveclear sexual or erotic overtones . these are referred to as\nhuffman ma ( 1992 ) influence of female partner preference on potential reproductive outcome in japanese macaques . folia primatol 59 : 77\u201388\nanimals are those with two distinct sexes in which males always remain male and females always remain female .\nso , if we bread animals specifically for fucking it is o . k . ?\nmeyer - bahlburg hfl , dolezal c , baker sw , new mi . sexual orientation in women with classical or non - classical congenital adrenal hyperplasia as a function of degree of prenatal androgen excess .\ndittmann rw , kappes me , kappes mh . sexual behavior in adolescent and adult females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia . psychoneuroendocrinology . 1992 ; 17 : 153\u201370 .\na more widely known example of\nprostitution\nin animals is hunter and davis ' s ( 1998 ) observation of mated female ad\u00e9lie penguins copulating with males other than their mate in exchange for rocks on which to lay their eggs . but in this case , the harlotry could conceive , so it isn ' t a clear example of non - reproductive sex .\nalexander gm , wilcox t , farmer me . hormone - behavior associations in early infancy .\neffects of discrete lesions of the sexually dimorphic nucleus of the preoptic area or other medial preoptic regions on the sexual behavior of male rats .\ngiffney , noreen , and myna hird . queering the non / human . aldershot , uk : ashgate , 2008 .\nweatherhead pj , prosser mr , gibbs hl , brown gp ( 2002 ) male reproductive success and sexual selection in northern water snakes determined by microsatellite dna analysis . behavioral ecology 13 : 808\u2013815 .\non the other hand there are many ways in which we cannot help behaving just as animals do \u2014 or mammals , anyway \u2014 and sex is one of the most obvious ones . we copulate , as they do . they have penises and vaginas , as we do , and the fact that the vagina of a calf can be sexually satisfying to a man shows how similar these organs are . the taboo on sex with animals may , as i have already suggested , have originated as part of a broader rejection of non - reproductive sex . but the vehemence with which this prohibition continues to be held , its persistence while other non - reproductive sexual acts have become acceptable , suggests that there is another powerful force at work : our desire to differentiate ourselves , erotically and in every other way , from animals .\njones ba , shimell jj , watson nv . pre - and postnatal bisphenol a treatment results in persistent deficits in the sexual behavior of male rats , but not female rats , in adulthood .\nwhen non - reproductive sex is more accessible than reproductive sex , animals might pursue it for practice . li et al . ( 2007 ) noticed that during the mating season , some male macaques wouldn ' t tolerate other males copulating with females , particularly if the copulating male was adolescent or ranked below the other male . the lower stakes outside of the mating season would probably be a better time for males to practice sex .\nthe changing aspects of an individual ' s sexual attitudes , behaviors , feelings , and roles can be described by the term ? psychophysiological development . sexual life cycle . psychosexual development . sexual maturation .\n] . sexual orientation also has been reported for two male infants who were reassigned as girls because of severe penile damage in infancy . one of these individuals had primary sexual interest in women in adulthood , whereas the other had sexual interest in both women and men [\n\u201ca brilliant and important exercise in exposing the limitations of received opinion . . . an exhaustively argued case that animals have multiple shades of sexual orientation . \u201d \u2015 publishers weekly\na brilliant and important exercise in exposing the limitations of received opinion . . . an exhaustively argued case that animals have multiple shades of sexual orientation .\npublishers weekly\nthe dsm - 5 identifies sexual dysfunction as a . a diminution of sexual functioning in one of the four phases of sexual response . b . a pathological inability to regulate arousal states , to delay or achieve ejaculation , and / or to control orgasms . c . a disturbance in sexual desire and in the psychophysiological changes characterizing the sexual response cycle that causes marked distress and interpersonal difficulty . d . psychological or physical impairments to achieving sexual fulfillment .\nin order to understand queer animals , alaimo employs haraway\u2019s \u201cnaturecultures\u201d as the environment within which fluidity and plurality of sexuality can be achieved . she shows how non - human animals are cultural beings entwined in social interactions . alaimo adopts a perspective similar to bagemihl\u2019s , as she longs for a reconfiguration of the distinctions between nature and culture :\n# savebenjy , as the campaign was called , captures a marked shift in cultural attitudes towards homosexuality in ireland . this essay considers the discourse of sexuality , both in the historical and irish cultural context . foucault\u2019s the history of sexuality vol . 1 ( 1976 ) identified how sex was brought into biological discourses , where it could be studied and explained and , by the nineteenth century , how heterosexual reproductive sex was promoted as the norm . same - sex non - reproductive behavior was made \u201cdeviant\u201d with strict laws and prohibitions . in ireland , the doctrine of the catholic church emphasized chastity and restraint , and sex was confined to the married heterosexual couple , while same - sex non - reproductive activity was a criminal offence .\nlockhart ab , thrall ph , antonovics j . sexually transmitted diseases in animals : ecological and evolutionary implications .\nnadler rd . homosexual behavior in nonhuman primates in : mcwhirter dp , sanders sa , reinisch jm , editors .\nsexual differentiation of aromatase activity in the rat brain : effects of perinatal steroid exposure .\nfemale sexual initiation in early and late adolescence in three females who first ovuluted during early adolescence , illustrating that the frequency of sexual initiation increased from early to late adolescence .\nhomosexuality is a social phenomenon and is most widespread among animals with a complex herd life .\nanimals are expected to defend feeding territories when food is widely distributed . true or false .\nmanson , j . h . , perry , s . , & parish , a . r . ( 1997 ) . nonconceptive sexual behavior in bonobos and capuchins .\na brilliant and important exercise in exposing the limitations of received opinion . . . an exhaustively argued case that animals have multiple shades of sexual orientation .\n- - publishers weekly\ntakahata y ( 1980 ) the reproductive biology of a free - ranging troop of japanese monkeys . primates 21 : 303\u2013329\na . focused on biological function , behavior , body awareness , and acceptance .\nfurther research on species in which sexual dimorphism is prominent but sexual segregation is absent ( watts 2005 ) or on species in which sexual segregation occurs in the absence of a sexual dimorphism in size ( such as in bats ) ( altringham and senior 2005 ; senior et al . 2005 ) would be extremely important for understanding the underlying causes and mechanisms of sexual segregation , not just in ungulates , but in all sexually segregating species . finally , the examples of sticklebacks and guppies show how powerful an experimental approach can be in elucidating proximate and ultimate causes of sexual segregation .\nthere are hundreds of examples of non - reproductive sex among animals , from albatrosses to koalas . but none of these examples can make people quite so uncomfortable as bonobos do . two bonobo females having sex looks very different than two female albatrosses sitting placidly on their nest . bonobo sex looks human . [ biologists : media sensationalizes animal sex ]\ngavin l , mackay ap , brown k , et al . centers for disease control and prevention ( cdc ) sexual and reproductive health of persons aged 10\u201324 years \u2013 united states , 2002\u20132007 .\naltered sexual partner preference in male ferrets given excitotoxic lesions of the preoptic area anterior hypothalamus .\nshine r ( 1994 ) sexual size dimorphism in snakes revisited . copeia 1994 : 326\u2013346 .\nchadwick - jones jk . presenting and mounting in non - human primates : theoretical developments . j soc biol struct . 1989 ; 12 : 319\u201333 .\nwallen k , winston la , gaventa s , davis - dasilva m , collins dc . periovulatory changes in female sexual behavior and pattern of ovarian steroid secretion in group - living rhesus monkeys .\n. . . and animals don ' t live off 2000 year old books filled with bs .\nyour logic says that police dogs , service animals , and sporting animals are abused . some can be , but i believe a lot of them enjoy themselves . simple minds , simple lives .\nbao am . , swaab df . sex differences in the brain , behavior , and neuropsychiatric disorders .\nthe development of brain circuitry controlling the sexual dimorphism in urination behavior is influenced by the levels of estrogen or testosterone that are circulating in the blood during the early postnatal period . estogren must prevent the development of the neuronal patterns of connectivity that are responsible for the male behavior .\n) . thus , a female might have a stronger rank - related suppression of sexual behavior early in adolescence than late in adolescence . finally , the early adolescent females may be less sensitive to the effects of estradiol on sexual motivation than are late adolescent females . if this were true , follicular increases in estradiol , while sufficient to trigger ovulation , may be insufficient to increase sexual initiation . probably , age - related differences result from some combination of experiential differences , changes in social status , or sensitivity to hormones , with no single factor accounting for the differences . whatever the cause , this change in sexual behavior across development reinforces the notion that rhesus female sexual behavior is sensitive to both the hormonal and social environments .\na brilliant and important exercise in exposing the limitations of received opinion . . . an exhaustively argued case that animals have multiple shades of sexual orientation .\n- -\npublishers weekly\nthen in 1999 , bruce bagemihl published\nbiological exuberance : animal homosexuality and natural diversity\n( st . martin ' s press ) , one of the first books of its kind to provide an overview of scholarly studies of same - sex behavior in animals . bagemihl said homosexual behavior had been documented in some 450 species .\nit says sex between animals - as between humans - is often a matter of enjoyment , rather than procreation , and that this applies to animals of the same sex as well as opposite sexes .\ndiscover new insights into neuroscience , human behavior and mental health with scientific american mind .\nwallen , k . ( 1995 ) . the evolution of female sexual desire . in p . abramson and s . pinkerton ( eds . ) . sexual nature , sexual culture ( pp . 57\u201379 ) . chicago : university of chicago press .\nthis purification of sex manifested itself through catholic doctrine in ireland , and homosexual non - reproductive sexual behavior was now identified as deviant . queer theorist gayle rubin describes mistreatment of homosexuals in the us during the 1950s , from frequent police raids to queer bashing . the us gay rights movement in the 1970s led to a rethinking of what it meant to be gay or lesbian , and brought about a radical new era when sexual preferences could no longer be viewed as legitimate grounds for discrimination . ireland\u2019s movement towards becoming a more tolerant country would take another 20 years .\nvasey pl , sommer v . homosexual behaviour in animals : topics , hypotheses and research trajectories . in : sommer v , vasey pl , editors . homosexual behaviour in animals : an evolutionary perspective . cambridge : cambridge university press ; 2006 . p . 3\u201342 .\nnottebohm f . , arnold ap . sexual dimorphism in vocal control areas of the songbird brain .\nbehavior . in j . e . reynolds iii & s . a . rommel ( eds . ) ,\nother animals appear to go through a homosexual phase before they become fully mature . for instance , male dolphin calves often form temporary sexual partnerships , which scientists believe help to establish lifelong bonds . such sexual behavior has been documented only relatively recently . zoologists have been accused of skirting round the subject for fear of stepping into a political minefield .\nsee william simon and john h . gagnon , \u2018sexual scripts : permanence and change\u2019 , archives of sexual behavior , 15 / 2 ( 1986 ) , 97\u2013120 ; william simon , postmodern sexualities ( london : routledge , 1999 ) , 40\u201358 .\ndemonstration of a sexual dimorphism in the distribution of serotonin - immunoreactive fibers in the medial preoptic nucleus of the rat .\nclutton - brock th ( 1988 ) reproductive success : studies of individual variation in contrasting breeding systems . chicago , il : university of chicago press .\nthis is the first published article on the biology of c . vacariensis ; its main goal is to study the reproductive cycle and sexual dimorphism of the species . the following questions are addressed : ( 1 ) are the reproductive activity and cycles of stored fat seasonal or continuous ? ( 2 ) what is the reproductive cycle of males and females ? ( 3 ) at which snout - vent length ( svl ) do males and females reach sexual maturity ? ( 4 ) what is the effect of environmental factors ( temperature , photoperiod , precipitation ) on the reproductive activity and body fat cycles ? ( 5 ) what is the clutch size ? ( 6 ) does clutch size depend on female size ? ( 7 ) is there any sexual dimorphism in morphological characteristics and in the coloration pattern ?\nhuman masturbation is typically coupled with imagined or observed sexual behavior ( e . g . pornography ) , while masturbation in other primates typically occurs in isolation or independent of the sexual behavior of others , and likely does not involve developed mental sexual imagery given the presumed human uniqueness of this capacity . human masturbation also seems to be more ubiquitous across individuals , and may display different patterns compared to other primates , though data on this subject is limited .\nvasey pl , sommer v . homosexual behaviour in animals : topics , hypotheses and research trajectories in : sommer v , vasey pl , editors .\ncarothers , j . h . 1984 . sexual selection and sexual dimorphism in some herbivorous lizards . the american naturalist 124 ( 2 ) : 244 - 254 . [ links ]\nfemale sexual initiation in high , middle , and low ranked females during late adolescence , illustrating that high ranked females had higher levels of sexual initiation and a less tight coupling of behavior with the periovulatory period of their ovarian cycles than did middle and low ranked females .\ncan refer either to a particular behavior when it occurs between two men or two women , or to an individual whose primary\nidentity\ninvolves any or all of these activities . since the notion of identity is inappropriate to ascribe to animals , these terms will be reserved for the behaviors that animals engage in and , where relevant , to describe individuals whose primary\norientation\nis toward animals of the same sex where courtship , sexual , and / or pair - bonding activities are concerned . in addition , because the terms\n] , but this curvilinear relationship , as opposed to a linear relationship , had not been predicted . these studies were part of a larger project that also measured looking preferences for social / non - social stimuli , non - verbal communicative gestures , verbalizations , pretend play , and empathy [\naltmann j ( 1974 ) observational study of behavior : sampling methods . behaviour 49 : 227\u2013267\ntutin ceg , mcgrew wc ( 1973 ) chimpanzee copulatory behavior . folia primatol 19 : 237\u2013256\nhormones , brain and behavior . vol 3 . san diego , ca : academic press .\njia zy , jiang zg , wang zw ( 2000 ) observation on the behaviors of masked palm civet in reproductive season . acta theriol 20 : 108\u2013115 .\nderickson , w . k . 1976b . ecological and physiological aspects of reproductive strategies in two lizards . ecology 57 : 445 - 458 . [ links ]\nthe relationship of male - male mounting to the sexual preferences of young rams .\nbradbury jw ( 1977 ) lek mating behavior in the hammer - headed bat . z tierpsychol 45 : 225\u2013255 .\none of the most important findings in kinsey ' s work was that a . children had sexual thoughts and experiences . b . few people understood or used contraceptive devices . c . there was extraordinary diversity in sexual behavior . d . a vast majority of women masturbated several times a day .\nanate m . vaginal trauma at sexual intercourse in llorin , nigeria . an analysis of 36 cases .\nby invoking examples of how we humans have decided that we do have an ethical obligation to the sentient animals in our care like neglect and abuse laws , i was using the above proposition to argue for the ethical treatment of animals .\nhomosexuality in its myriad forms has been scientifically documented in more than 450 species of mammals , birds , reptiles , insects , and other animals worldwide .\nreeder dm ( 2003 ) the potential for cryptic female choice in primates : behavioral , anatomical , and physiological considerations . in : jones cb , editor . sexual selection and reproductive competition in primates : new perspectives and directions . norman : american society of primatologists . pp . 255\u2013303 .\nmeyer - bahlburg hfl , dolezal c , baker sw , new mi . sexual orientation in women with classical or non - classical congenital adrenal hyperplasia as a function of degree of prenatal androgen excess . arch sex behav . 2008 ; 37 : 85\u201399 .\nhines m , brook c , conway gs . androgen and psychosexual development : core gender identity , sexual orientation and recalled childhood gender role behavior in women and men with congenital adrenal hyperplasia ( cah )\nmallard ducks are reported to both attempt to rape ducks of the same sex , as well as practice necrophilia . either of those should qualify on some level as non - reproductive sex , even if not consensual for the one in a pickle . this discovery earned kees moeliker the ig nobel prize in 2003 . the guardian reports :\nin addition to physical injury and increased risk of disease , sexual intercourse and pregnancy increase opportunity for predation and use energy that could enhance survival . the occurrence of nocturnal mating , rapid sexual intercourse , and cryptic mating are all adaptations that counter this risky aspect of sexual intercourse . given the significant risks associated with sexual reproduction , why does it occur ?\nreproductive cycle . the available data indicate that c . vacariensis has a seasonal and discontinuous reproductive cycle , as it has been found for other lizard species that inhabit regions with seasonal climatic factors ( precipitation and / or temperature ) ( e . g . magnusson , 1987 ) .\nsex when the female is nonfertile would have little evolutionary consequence if sex also occurred during fertility . thus , the coupling of increased sexual motivation with peak fertility through changes in the same hormones increases reproductive success and still allows the occurrence of sexual behavior in nonreproductive contexts . a reliance upon sexual motivation as the mechanism coordinating fertility with sexual behavior produces a less tight coupling between hormonal and behavioral change in primates than that seen in nonprimate species ( wallen , 1990 ) . a loose coupling between hormonal changes and behavior would be at a selective disadvantage compared to a strict coupling if the loose coupling reduced the likelihood of mating when the female is fertile . however , if mating during peak fertility was the same , but additional mating occurred at nonfertile times , there would still be some selection against nonreproductive mating due to the risks posed by mating itself .\nfleming a . s , vaccarino f , luebke c . amygdaloid inhibition of maternal behavior in the nulliparous female rat .\nleckman j . f , et al . the role of central oxytocin in obsessive compulsive disorder and related normal behavior .\nconstantinescu m , hines m . relating prenatal testosterone exposure to postnatal behavior in typically developing children : methods and findings .\ntalmage - riggs g , anschel s . homosexual behavior and dominance hierarchy in a group of captive female squirrel monkeys (\nyes , and nearly 100 % of animals with mate with their own offspring . many species eat their young .\ncurators say a norwegian exhibition on homosexuality among animals has been well received , despite initial indications of strong opposition .\npomerantz sm , goy rw . proceptive behavior of female rhesus monkeys during tests with tethered males .\nsexual dimorphism in the preoptic / anterior hypothalamic area of ferrets : effects of adult exposure to sex steroids .\nbeach fa ( 1976 ) sexual attractivity , proceptivity and receptivity in female mammals . horm behav 7 : 105\u2013138\n) also showed a peak in female sexual initiation at midcycle , but showed much lower levels of sexual initiation than the higher ranked female . finally , the third female who ovulated ( ys5 ,\nand those acts need to be discussed to have an accurate understanding of biology . the exhibit continuously states that non - reproductive sex acts form the foundation of many vertebrate social structures . without those social groups , the animals would perish . in that way , behavior that does not result in mating , and thus would otherwise be considered\nevolutionarily useless\n, proves its worth by increasing the survivability of the various members of the group by strengthening cohesion and diffusing tension . that argument about evolution underlies one of the two implicit messages of the exhibit .\nnorvell mk , benrubi gi , thompson rj . investigation of microtrauma after sexual intercourse .\nandersson m ( 1994 ) sexual selection . princeton , nj : princeton university press .\nd . sexual arousal by the real infliction of physical or psychological harm to another .\na . giving and receiving pleasure to each other without a sexual or coital goal .\npalavras - chave : teiidae , cnemidophorus vacariensis , reprodu\u00e7\u00e3o , dimorfismo sexual , conserva\u00e7\u00e3o .\nall the incidents recorded by harris and her coauthors took place in monterey bay . however , harris told discovery news ,\ngiven that we documented interspecific sexual interactions involving at least three different male otters and that similar behavior has been described in many wildlife species , it is certainly possible that this behavior could be occurring elsewhere in the range .\nyet scientists say we should be wary of referring to animals when considering what ' s acceptable in human society . for instance , infanticide , as practiced by lions and many other animals , isn ' t something people , gay or straight , generally approve of in humans .\n) . these studies estimate from sequence disruptions that more than 30 % of olfactory receptor genes are non - functional pseudogenes in non - human primates , rising to more than 60 % in the human genome . coupled with these genetic changes , there has also been a dramatic reduction in the size of the olfactory cortex , from 65 % of total cortex in insectivorous mammals to less than 5 % in old world primates (\nlabad j , menchon j . m , alonso p , segalas c , jimenez s , vallejo j . female reproductive cycle and obsessive\u2013compulsive disorder .\nthe counterexample would be that we ' re treating animals in all kinds of ways that are not in their interest or involve not\ngetting their consent\n.\nfuruichi t , connor r , hashimoto c . non - conceptive sexual interactions in monkeys , apes , and dolphins . in : yamagiwa j , karczmarski l . , editors . primates and cetaceans : field research and conservation of complex mammalian societies . tokyo : springer . p . 385\u2013408 .\nanderson , r . a . & vitt , l . j . 1990 . sexual selection versus alternative causes of sexual dimorphism in teiid lizards . oecologia 84 : 145 - 157 . [ links ]\ndepicts the frequency of female sexual initiation in high , middle , and low ranked control females . the two high ranked females initiated sexual interactions with the highest frequency and for longer periods prior to ovulation . both middle and low ranked females had peaks in sexual initiation behavior at midcycle , but had lower levels than high ranked females during the follicular phase . thus , middle and low ranked late adolescent females demonstrated an adult - like pattern of a shorter period of follicular female initiation , lower levels of behavior , and a tighter coupling of behavior with the periovulatory period than that of high ranked late adolescent females .\nbagemihl details how many ethologists and other researchers disregarded any same - sex behavior that is not overt sex , calling it imitation of heterosexuality ( pseudoheterosexuality ) , substitute activity in the absence of the opposite sex , a mistake , or a pathological condition , seeking to explain the behavior rather than understand it . bagemihl claims that the preconceived notions of heteronormative sexual activity in non - human animals are grounded in the traditional \u201cnoah\u2019s ark view\u201d of the animal kingdom , where \u201cbiology revolves around two sexes , male and female , with one of each to a pair\u201d ( 36 ) . ecologist joan roughgarden equates the homophobia in science with a \u201ccover up\u201d ( 128 ) .\nmagnusson , w . e . 1987 . reproductive cycles of teiid lizards in amazonian savanna . journal of herpetology 21 ( 4 ) : 307 - 316 . [ links ]\nseveral psychological adaptations crucial to sexual behavior parallel the physiological and behavioral adaptations controlled by gonadal hormones . successful reproduction requires intimate social contact , which provides the opportunity for the evolution of male selection based on physical and behavioral characteristics . it is beyond this review to cover this vast area . instead we focus on the psychological processes that regulate the occurrence of sexual behavior in females and coordinate mating with fertility .\nnadler rd . homosexual behavior in nonhuman primates . in : mcwhirter dp , sanders sa , reinisch jm , editors . homosexuality / heterosexuality : consepts of sexual orientation . new york : oxford university press ; 1990 . p . 138\u201370 .\nis it if you want to be dirty be dirty a freedom of practice ? there is a general opinion about animals ' behavior . they refer to a man who is dummy an ass , a coward a chicken , a dirty a pig or an ape . something is described as in human opposite savage . animals learning from humans in the circus have succeeded in teaching man how to behave like them .\nbarouki r , gluckman pd , grandjean p , hanson m , heindel jj . developmental origins of non - communicable disease : implications for research and public health .\nunfortunately , the extant research doesn ' t clearly support any one explanation of all these behaviors across all these species . perhaps this shouldn ' t be a surprise . in this chapter , i enumerate some of the available explanations and the evidence for them . they aren ' t mutually exclusive , but nor are there any proposals of how to integrate them into a coherent theory of non - reproductive sexual behavior . therefore , the adaptive value of sexuality\u2014the one domain of life that evolutionary psychology would presumably most easily explain\u2014is in fact an open question .\nwilson me , gordon tp , blank ms , collins dc . timing of sexual maturity in female rhesus monkeys (\ncould the indirect competition hypothesis explain inter - sexual site segregation in red deer ( cervus elaphus l . ) ?\naltmann , j . , hausfater , g . , & altmann , s . a . ( 1998 ) . determinants of reproductive success in savannah baboons . papio cynocephalus in t . h . clutton - brock ( ed . ) . reproductive success : studies of individual variation in contrasting breeding systems ( pp . 403\u2013418 ) . chicago : the university of chicago press .\njanet mann , a professor of biology and psychology at georgetown university who has studied same - sex behavior in dolphin calves , says their homosexuality\nis about bond formation , not about being sexual for life .\nroy and silo are hardly unusual . indeed , scientists have found homosexual behavior throughout the animal world .\nfor intelligent species , the benefits are exactly the same as in intercourse with birth control - no offspring are produced , but people still seem to get something out of it . even for non - intelligent creatures , the usual non - procreative reasons still apply ( pleasure , dominance , social cohesion and conflict resolution , prostitution , etc . ) .\nlicht , p . & gorman , g . c . 1970 . reproductive and fat cycle in caribbean anolis lizards . university of california publications in zoology 95 : 1 - 52 . [ links ]\nsexual health is a . focused on biological function , behavior , body awareness , and acceptance . b . focused on our mental health and our attitudes toward sexuality . c . primarily focused on our physical well - being . d . focused on sexual function and sexually transmitted diseases .\n] . the effects of early androgen exposure on both the brain and behavior are often described as organizational , and early androgen exposure is thought to produce enduring changes in behavior by altering the development and organization of underlying brain circuits .\n] . both outcomes are consistent with an influence of early androgen exposure on sexual orientation .\nthere were annual reproductive cycles in the study period ( fig . 1 ) . the peak of the reproductive cycle of males coincided with the peak of the female reproductive cycle . the testicular volume was highest in october / november ( = 72 . 2 \u00b1 29 . 6 mm 3 ; n = 17 ) , and lowest in february ( = 8 . 9 \u00b1 2 . 1 mm 3 ; n = 6 ) ; females were able to reproduce between october and december , and they were nonreproductive between january and september .\nby the fall breeding season around 3 . 5 years of age , all adolescent females have ovulatory menstrual cycles , and most conceive ( wilson et al . , 1982 ; wilson et al . , 1983 ; zehr , 2002 ) . in general , late adolescent females engage in sexual behavior for longer periods than do adults , due to increased estradiol earlier in the follicular phase ( wilson et al . , 1982 ) . in adult females , social rank modulates the length of behavioral estrus , with high ranked females mating for longer periods of time prior to ovulation than lowed rank females ( wallen , 1990 ) . this section describes female sexual initiation in late adolescent females of high , medium , and low rank to determine if late adolescent females have rank - related modulation of female sexual behavior similar to that seen in adult females . in addition , this section explores age - related differences in female sexual initiation by comparing sexual behavior in early and late adolescence for those females who ovulated in early adolescence .\nthe existence of sexual contact between humans and animals , and the potency of the taboo against it , displays the ambivalence of our relationship with animals . on the one hand , especially in the judeo - christian tradition \u2014 less so in the east \u2014 we have always seen ourselves as distinct from animals , and imagined that a wide , unbridgeable gulf separates us from them . humans alone are made in the image of god . only human beings have an immortal soul . in genesis , god gives humans dominion over the animals . in the renaissance idea of the great chain of being , humans are halfway between the beasts and the angels . we are spiritual beings as well as physical beings . for kant , humans have an inherent dignity that makes them ends in themselves , whereas animals are mere means to our ends . today the language of human rights \u2014 rights that we attribute to all human beings but deny to all nonhuman animals \u2014 maintains this separation .\nfemales begin to engage in sexual behavior during the breeding season around 2 . 5 years of age . however , since few females are likely to ovulate or conceive around 2 . 5 years of age ( wilson & gordon , 1989 ; wilson , gordon , blank , & collins , 1984 ; wilson et al . , 1986 ; wilson et al . , 1983 ) , studies of adolescent sexual behavior have primarily focused on females 3 . 5 years of age or older ( pope , gordon , & wilson , 1986 ; wilson & gordon , 1980 ; wilson , gordon , et al . , 1984 ; wilson , et al . , 1982 ) . this section describes sexual initiation behavior in both ovulating and nonovulating early adolescent females . if circulating hormones and sexual initiation are tightly coupled in early adolescence , all ovulating females would display sexual initiation behavior and only ovulating females would be sexually active . our data suggest comparable flexibility in the sexuality of adolescent females to that seen in adult females .\nis the first comprehensive account of the subject , bringing together accurate , accessible , and nonsensationalized information . drawing upon a rich body of zoological research spanning more than two centuries , bruce bagemihl shows that animals engage in all types of nonreproductive sexual behavior . sexual and gender expression in the animal world displays exuberant variety , including same - sex courtship , pair - bonding , sex , and co - parenting\u0097even instances of lifelong homosexual bonding in species that do not have lifelong heterosexual bonding ."]}
{"id": 1145, "summary": [{"text": "the rainbow ameiva , barred whiptail , or metallic ameiva ( ameiva undulata ) is a species of whiptail lizard found in costa rica , nicaragua , honduras , el salvador , guatemala , belize , and southern mexico . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "ameiva undulata", "paragraphs": ["jennifer hammock split the classifications by herpetology resource from ameiva undulata wiegmann 1834 to their own page .\nthis species was recently moved into the genus holcosus ; it was formerly known as ameiva undulata .\nmaggie whitson set\nimage of holcosus undulatus\nas an exemplar on\nameiva undulata wiegmann 1834\n.\nmccrystal , h . , j . behler . 2007 . husbandry and reproduction of captive giant ameiva i lizards ameiva ameiva at the new york zoological park .\nbiazquez , m . 1996 . activity and habitat use in a population of ameiva ameiva in southeastern columbia .\nmaggie whitson marked the classification from\nspecies 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013\nas preferred for\nameiva undulata wiegmann 1834\n.\ncolli , g . 1991 . reproductive ecology of ameiva ameiva ( sauria , teiidae ) in the cerrado of central brazil .\nvitt , l . 1982 . reproductive tactics of ameiva ameiva ( lacertilia : teiidae ) in a seasonally fluctuating tropical habitat .\ngarc\u00eda , ulises padilla ; mendoza - quijano , fernando 1996 . geographic distribution . ameiva undulata . herpetological review 27 ( 4 ) : 210 - get paper here\nlainson , r . , i . paperna . 1999 . some coccida from the gall - bladder and intestine of the teiid lizard ameiva ameiva ameiva and the gecko hemidactylus mabouia in north brazil .\nstuart , l . c . 1942 . comments on the undulata group of ameiva ( sauria ) . proc . biol . soc . washington 55 : 143 - 150 - get paper here\nboyden , t . 1976 . butterfly palatability and mimicry : experiment with ameiva lizards .\nsartorius , s . , l . vitt , g . colli . 1999 . use of naturally and anthropogenically disturbed habitats in amazonian rainforest by the teiid lizard ameiva ameiva .\nto cite this page : siders , r . 2014 .\nameiva ameiva\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ncensky , e . 1995 . mating strategy and reproduction success in the teiid lizard , ameiva .\nthis ameiva was at the roadside near the palenque garabito restaurant where we stopped briefly for a final pit stop before leaving the pan - american highway for the long and bumpy dirt road up to the monteverde cloud forest . i believe this is a young female ameiva undulata ; the males are much more colorful ( as in the next picture ) .\ngiugliano , l . , r . teixeira , g . colli , s . bao . 2002 . ultrastructure of spermatozoa of the lizard ameiva ameiva , with considerations on polymorphism within the family teiidae ( squamata ) .\nimparato , b . , m . antoniazzi , m . rodrigues , c . jared . 2007 . morphology of the femoral glands in the lizard ameiva ameiva ( teiidae ) and their possible role in semiochemical dispersion .\nmaffei , f . , g . rodrigues do nascimento , d . neto . 2009 . predation on the lizard ameiva ameiva ( sauria : teiidae ) by a coral snake micrurus frontalis ( serpentes : elapidae ) in brazil .\nundulata : pacific slopes of the isthmus of tehuantepec as far west as puerto \u00e1ngel , and eastward to niltepec . oaxaca . type locality : mexico ( by inference ) . restricted to tehuantepec by smith 1940 .\nlewis , a . , j . saliva . 1987 . effects of sex and size on home range , dominance , and activity budgets in ameiva exsul ( lacertilia : teiida ) .\nechternacht , arthur c . 1970 . taxonomic and ecological notes on some middle and south american lizards of the genus ameiva ( teiidae ) . breviora ( 354 ) : 1 - 9 - get paper here\nechternacht , a . c . 1971 . middle american lizards of the genus ameiva . misc . publ . univ . kans . mus . nat . hist . 55 : 1 - 86 - get paper here\nbarbour , t . and g . k . noble . 1915 . a revision of the lizards of the genus ameiva . bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard 59 : 417 - 479 . - get paper here\nsmith , hobart m . & laufe , leonard e . 1946 . a summary of mexican lizards of the genus ameiva . univ . kansas sci . bull . 31 ( 2 ) : 7 - 73 - get paper here\nhower , lindsey m . , and s . blair hedges 2003 . molecular phylogeny and biogeography of west indian teiid lizards of the genus ameiva . carib . j . sci . 39 ( 3 ) : 298 - 306 . - get paper here\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nharvey , m . b . , ugueto , g . n . and gutberlet jr . , r . l . 2012 . review of teiid morphology with a revised taxonomy and phylogeny of the teiidae ( lepidosauria : squamata ) . zootaxa 3459 : 1 - 156 .\nacosta chaves , v . , batista , a . , chaves , g . , flores - villela , o . , ib\u00e1\u00f1ez , r . , jaramillo , c . , k\u00f6hler , g . & sol\u00f3rzano , a .\njustification : listed as least concern because it is relatively widespread , numerous , and not declining fast enough for listing in a more threatened category .\nspecies . it occurs at low and moderate elevations from tamaulipas ( mexico ) on the atlantic versant , and nayarit ( mexico ) on the pacific slope , southward to northwestern costa rica . it is found throughout the yucatan peninsula . elevational range extends from sea level to 1 , 500 meters ( k\u00f6hler 2008 ) .\nbelize ; costa rica ; el salvador ; guatemala ; honduras ; mexico ; nicaragua ( nicaragua ( mainland ) , nicaraguan caribbean is . )\nthis terrestrial and diurnal lizard inhabits tropical and subtropical wet , moist , and dry forest . it prefers open situations such as plantations , pasture lands , house gardens , and forest edges ; avoiding the deep shade of tall humid forests . it is frequently seen darting across roads or encountered as it forages noisily through the leaf litter .\ncurrently , this species is of relatively low conservation concern and does not require significant additional protection or major management , monitoring , or research action . it is present in several protected areas .\nacosta chaves , v . , batista , a . , chaves , g . , flores - villela , o . , ib\u00e1\u00f1ez , r . , jaramillo , c . , k\u00f6hler , g . & sol\u00f3rzano , a . 2013 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthe number of species increased from 10 , 711 to 10 , 793 , i . e . an increase of 82 species . 66 new species have been described , 9 species have been revalidated from synonymy and 16 subspecies were elevated to full species . . .\nover the past 4 months , the number of species increased from 10 , 639 to 10 , 711 .\nthe number of species has grown from 10 , 544 in the may release to now 10 , 639 ( + 95 species ) .\noverall , 212 new taxa have been added or changed their status or name .\nthe reptile database is a taxonomic database that provides basic information about all living reptile species , such as turtles , snakes , lizards , and crocodiles , as well as tuataras and amphisbaenians , but does not include dinosaurs .\ncurrently there are more than 10 , 000 species and an additional 2 , 700 subspecies . this is making reptiles the largest vertebrate group after fish ( ~ 25 , 000 species ) and birds ( ~ 10 , 000 species ) , and significantly larger than mammals ( ~ 5 , 000 species ) or amphibians ( ~ 6 , 000 species ) .\nthe reptile database provides taxonomic information for the catalogue of life and the encyclopedia of life . our taxonomic information has also been used by genbank and many other resources and is the only comprehensive reptile database on the web .\nthe reptile database can be used to find all species within a certain geographic area ( e . g . all snakes of egypt ) . its collection of more than 2 , 500 images allow users to identify a species or at least get an idea how the species or genus may look like . more than 30 , 000 references provide a guide to further information .\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\namphigramma : mexico ( n veracruz southward at low elevations to the isthmus of tehuantepec , westward into valleys extending into extreme e oaxaca , ne puebla ; tabasco , tamaulipas , nuevo le\u00f3n ) . type locality : san andr\u00e9s tuxtla , veracruz .\ndextra : southern slope of the sierra madre del sur . oaxaca , guerrero . type locality : near rinc\u00f3n , guerrero .\ngaigeae : northern half of the yucat\u00e1n peninsula and southward to the island carmen along the extreme eastern coast ; yucat\u00e1n , campeche , quintana roo . type locality : progreso , yucat\u00e1n .\nhartwegi : atlantic slopes of mexico ( chiapas ) and guatemala from the vicinity of the southeastern end of laguna de t\u00e9rminos south and eastward across the base of the yucat\u00e1n peninsula to nw honduras . campeche , quintana roo , yucatan . type locality : \u201cacross the r\u00edo usumacinta from piedras negras , guatemala , in chiapas , mexico\u201d .\nmiadis : isla del ma\u00edz grande . type locality : \u201cgreat corn island\u201d [ = isla del maiz grande\u201d ] , depto . zelaya , nicaragua .\nparva : guatemala , pacific slopes from the isthmus of tehuantepec in oaxaca to costa rica . chiapas . type locality : guatemala . restricted to mazatenango by smith & laufe 1946 .\npodarga : s tamaulipas , e san luis potos\u00ed , probably veracruz and hidalgo . type locality : 7 miles west of ciudad victoria , tamaulipas .\npulchra : caribbean slope of honduras south to costa rica ; type locality : nicaragua .\nsinistra : mexico ( colima , jalisco , michoac\u00e1n , puebla , morelos , nayarit ; pacific slopes from jalisco to the arid balsas basin in michoac\u00e1n , thence inland along the northern drainage of the r\u00edo balsas to puebla ) . type locality : manzanillo , colima .\nstuarti : atlantic slopes of mexico from the middle of the isthmus of tehuantepec eastward in the lowlands to the southern border of laguna de t\u00e9rminos and to tenosique , tabasco . southward up the valley of the r\u00edo rrijalva at least as far as tuxtla guti\u00e9rrez , chiapas . campeche , oaxaca . type locality : palenque , chiapas .\nthomasi : upper tributaries of r\u00edo grijalva in the interior of chiapas and adjacent guatemala . type locality : la libertad , chiapas , near r\u00edo cuilco where it crosses the gutemalan border .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nthe specific name undulatus is a latin word meaning wavy or undulating , in reference to the dorsolateral pattern .\nbarbour , t . & loveridge , a . 1929 . amphibians and reptiles [ of the corn islands , nicaragua ] . bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard 69 : 138 - 146 - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1885 . catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( natural history ) . vol . 2 , second edition . london , xiii + 497 pp . - get paper here\nbrattstrom , baynard h . ; adis , nelly b . 1952 . notes on a collection of reptiles and amphibians from oaxaca , mexico . herpetologica 8 : 59 - 60 - get paper here\ncampbell , j . a . 1998 . amphibians and reptiles of northern guatemala , the yucat\u00e1n , and belize . norman : university of oklahoma press , xiii + 380 pp . - get paper here\ncasas - andreu , g . , f . r . m\u00e9ndez - de la cruz and x . aguilar - miguel . 2004 . anfibios y reptiles ; pp . 375\u2013390 , in a . j . m . garc\u00eda - mendoza , j . ordo\u00f1ez and m . briones - salas ( ed . ) . biodiversidad de oaxaca . instituto de biolog\u00eda , unam - fondo oaxaque\u00f1o para la conservaci\u00f3n de la naturaleza - world wildlife fund , m\u00e9xico , d . f .\ncope , e . d . 1894 . third addition to a knowledge of the batrachia and reptilia of costa rica . proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 1894 : 194 - 206 - get paper here\ndixon , james r . and julio a . lemos - espinal 2010 . amphibians and reptiles of the state of queretaro , mexico . tlalnepantla unam , 428 pp .\ndunn , e . r . 1940 . new and noteworthy herpetological material from panam\u00e1 . proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia . 92 : 105 - 122 . - get paper here\ngaige , h . 1936 . some reptiles and amphibians from yucatan and campeche , mexico . carnegie inst . wash . publ . , ( 457 ) : 289 - 304 .\ngarc\u00eda , a . & ceballos , g . 1994 . guia de campo de los reptiles y anfibios de la costa de jalisco , mexico . fundacion ecologica de cuixmala , a . c . instituto de biologia , unam\ngehlbach , frederick r . ; collette , bruce b . 1957 . a contribution to the herpetofauna of the highlands of oaxaca , mexico . herpetologica 13 : 227 - 232 - get paper here\ngray , j . e . 1845 . catalogue of the specimens of lizards in the collection of the british museum . trustees of die british museum / edward newman , london : xxvii + 289 pp . - get paper here\ng\u00fcnther , a . c . l . g . 1885 . reptilia and batrachia . biologia centrali - am\u00e9ricana . taylor , & francis , london , 326 pp . [ published in parts from 1885 - 1902 ; reprint by the ssar 1987 ] - get paper here\ngutie\u0301rrez maye\u0301n , ma . guadalupe y jorge salazar arenas 2007 . herpetofauna de los municipios de camocuautla , zapotitla\u0301n de me\u0301ndez y huitzilan de serda\u0301n , de la sierra norte de puebla . herpetofauna de tres municipios de la sierra norte de puebla , pp . 197 - 223\ngutsche , alexander 2015 . die insel der verschollenen salamander : zur herpetofauna der honduranischen isla del tigre . terraria - elaphe 2015 ( 3 ) : 38 - 43 - get paper here\nhallowell , e . 1861 . report upon the reptilia of the north pacific exploring expedition , under command of capt . john rogers , u . s . n . proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 12 [ 1860 ] : 480 - 510 - get paper here\nharvey , michael b . ; gabriel n . ugueto & ronald l . gutberlet , jr . 2012 . review of teiid morphology with a revised taxonomy and phylogeny of the teiidae ( lepidosauria : squamata ) . zootaxa 3459 : 1\u2013156 - get paper here\njohnson , j . d . , l . d . wilson , v . mata - silva , e . garci\u0301a - padilla , and d . l . desantis . 2017 . the endemic herpetofauna of mexico : organisms of global significance in severe peril . mesoamerican herpetology 4 ( 3 ) : 544\u2013620\njohnson , jerry d . ; vicente mata - silva , el\u00ed garc\u00eda padilla , and larry david wilson 2015 . the herpetofauna of chiapas , mexico : composition , distribution , and conservation . mesoamerican herpetology 2 ( 3 ) : 272\u2013329 . - get paper here\nk\u00f6hler , g . 2008 . reptiles of central america . 2nd ed . herpeton - verlag , 400 pp .\nkoller , rene 2005 . herpetologoische waarnemingen in belize , deel 2 : reptielen . lacerta 63 ( 1 ) : 4 - 19 - get paper here\nlee , j . c . 2000 . a field guide to the amphibians and reptiles of the maya world . cornell university press , ithaca ,\nlee , j . c . 1996 . the amphibians and reptiles of the yucat\u00e1n peninsula . comstock , cornell university press , ithaca , 500 pp .\nleenders , t . 2004 . der nationalpark \u201cel imposible\u201d in el salvador . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 9 ( 48 ) : 45 - 49 - get paper here\nlemos - espinal , julio a . and james r . dixon 2013 . amphibians and reptiles of san luis potos\u00ed . eagle mountain publishing , xii + 300 pp .\nlemos - espinal , julio a . , geoffrey r . smith 2015 . amphibians and reptiles of the state of hidalgo , mexico . check list 11 ( 3 ) : 1642 - get paper here\nlemos - espinal , julio ; daniel wylie , geoffrey smith 2017 . new distributional records for reptiles from nuevo le\u00f3n , mexico herpetology notes 10 : 639 - 614 - get paper here\nliner , ernest a . , and gustavo casas - andreu . 2008 . standard spanish , english and scientific names of the amphibians and reptiles of mexico . herpetological circular 38 : 167 p .\nluja vh , l\u00f3pez ja , cruz - elizalde r , ram\u00edrez - bautista a 2017 . herpetofauna inside and outside from a natural protected area : the case of reserva estatal de la bi\u00f3sfera sierra san juan , nayarit , mexico . nature conservation 21 : 15 - 38 - get paper here\nmartin , plul s . 1958 . a biogeography of reptiles and amphibians in the gomez farias region , tamaulipas , mexico . miscellaneous publications , museum of zoology , university of michigan ( 101 ) : 1 - 102 + 7 plates - get paper here\nmata - silva , vicente , jerry d . johnson , larry david wilson and el\u00ed garc\u00eda - padilla . 2015 . the herpetofauna of oaxaca , mexico : composition , physiographic distribution , and conservation status . mesoamerican herpetology 2 ( 1 ) : 6\u201362 - get paper here\nmccranie , j . & casta\u00f1eda , f . e . 2005 . the herpetofauna of parque nacional pico bonito , honduras . phyllomedusa 4 ( 1 ) : 3 - 16 - get paper here\nmccranie , james r . 2015 . a checklist of the amphibians and reptiles of honduras , with additions , comments on taxonomy , some recent taxonomic decisions , and areas of further studies needed . zootaxa 3931 ( 3 ) : 352\u2013386 - get paper here\nmccranie , james r . , leonardo vald\u00e9s orellana and alexander gutsche . 2013 . new departmental records for amphibians and reptiles in honduras . herpetological review 44 ( 2 ) : 288 - 289\nmeza - l\u00e1zaro , r . n . and nieto - montes de oca , a . 2015 . long forsaken species diversity in the middle american lizard holcosus undulatus ( teiidae ) . zoological journal of the linnean society 175 ( 1 ) : 189 - 210 ; doi : 10 . 1111 / zoj . 12264 - get paper here\nneill , wilfred t . and e . ross allen . 1959 . studies on the amphibians and reptiles of british honduras . publications of the research division ross allen ' s reptiles institute . 2 ( 1 ) : 1 - 76\npalacios - aguilar , ricardo & oscar flores - villela 2018 . an updated checklist of the herpetofauna from guerrero , mexico . zootaxa 4422 ( 1 ) : 1 - 24 - get paper here\nsavage , j . m . 2002 . the amphibians and reptiles of costa rica : a herpetofauna between two continents , between two seas . university of chicago press , 934 pp . [ review in copeia 2003 ( 1 ) : 205 ]\nschl\u00fcter , u . 2006 . die ern\u00e4hrung von ameiven und warantejus in der natur und bei terrarienhaltung . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 11 ( 62 ) : 56 - 62 - get paper here\nschmidt , karl p . ; shannon , frederick a . 1947 . notes on amphibians and reptiles of michoacan , mexico . zoological series of field museum of natural history 31 ( 9 ) : 63 - 85\nsmith , h . m . 1935 . miscellaneous notes on mexican lizards . univ . kansas sci . bull . 22 : 119 - 156 - get paper here\nsmith , hobart m . & laufe , leonard e . 1945 . mexican amphibians and reptiles in the texas cooperative wildlife collections . trans . kansas acad . sci . 48 : 325 - 354 - get paper here\nsmith , h . m . 1940 . descriptions of new lizards and snakes from m\u00e9xico and guatemala . proc . biol . soc . washington 53 : 55 - 64 . - get paper here\nsoli\u0301s , j . m . , l . d . wilson , and j . h . townsend . 2014 . an updated list of the amphibians and reptiles of honduras , with comments on their nomenclature . mesoamerican herpetology 1 : 123\u2013144 - get paper here\nstuart , l . c . 1935 . a contribution to a knowledge of the herpetology of a portion of the savanna region of central peten , guatemala . university of michigan museum of zoology miscellaneous publications 29 : 1 - 56 - get paper here\nstuart , l . c . 1948 . the amphibians and reptiles of alta verapaz guatamala . miscellaneous publications , museum of zoology , university of michigan 69 : 1 - 109 - get paper here\nsunyer , javier 2014 . an updated checklist of the amphibians and reptiles of nicaragua . mesoamerican herpetology 1 ( 2 ) : 186\u2013202 . - get paper here\ntaylor , e . h . 1956 . a review of the lizards of costa rica . univ . kansas sci . bull . 38 ( part 1 ) : 3 - 322 - get paper here\nurbina - cardona , j . nicol\u00e1s ; mario olivares - p\u00e9rez , v\u00edctor hugo reynoso 2006 . herpetofauna diversity and microenvironment correlates across a pasture\u2013edge\u2013interior ecotone in tropical rainforest fragments in the los tuxtlas biosphere reserve of veracruz , mexico . biological conservation 132 : 61\u201375\nvences m . , franzen m . , flaschendr\u00e4ger a . , schmitt r . & reg\u00f6s j . 1998 . beobachtungen zur herpetofauna von nicaragua : kommentierte artenliste der reptilien . salamandra 34 ( 1 ) : 17 - 42 - get paper here\nwiegmann , a . f . a . 1834 . herpetologia mexicana , seu descriptio amphibiorum novae hispaniae , quae itineribus comitis de sack , ferdinandi deppe et chr . guil . schiede im museum zoologicum berolinense pervenerunt . pars prima , saurorum species . berlin , l\u00fcderitz , iv + 54 pp . - get paper here\nwoolrich - pi\u00f1a , g . a . , e . garc\u00eda - padilla , d . l . desantis , j . d . johnson , v . mata - silva , and l . d . wilson . 2017 . the herpetofauna of puebla , mexico : composition , distribution , and conservation status . mesoamerican herpetology 4 ( 4 ) : 791\u2013884\nzweifel , richard g . 1959 . additions to the herpetofauna of nayarit , mexico . american museum novitates ( 1953 ) : 1 - 13 - get paper here\nclassification from species 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013 selected by maggie whitson - see more .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\ni first noticed this large and colorful male rustling through the leaf litter on the shaded forest floor . i thought it was some sort of medium - sized rodent until it popped up its head and moved on to the next promising - looking leaf pile . after some more poking and prodding through the leaves , it finally decided to bask briefly in a sun patch , where i got this overly high - contrast photo .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nflores - villela , oscar / mccoy , c . j . , ed .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c1faa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322cf308 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322cf46e - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322fd36a - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 336d8ed8 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nuetz p . & ho\u0161ek j . ( 2018 ) . the reptile database ( version dec 2015 ) . in : roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , bailly n . , kirk p . m . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , nieukerken e . van , zarucchi j . , penev l . , eds . ( 2018 ) . species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 30th june 2018 . digital resource at urltoken species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 5383828d - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\n. if you continue to use the site we will assume that you agree with this .\nterms & conditions | privacy policy | copyright viamerica s . a . | webdesign : penguin protocols\ngiant ameivas are found in central and south america . they are found from the eastern coast of brazil through the interior portions of central south america , to the west coasts of columbia , ecuador , and peru . they are found as far south as the northern portions of argentina , through bolivia and paraguay and as far north as french guiana , suriname , guyana , trinidad , tobago , and panama . recently they have been introduced to areas of florida .\n(\nscientific and standard english names\n, 2001 ; biazquez , 1996 ; sartorius , et al . , 1999 )\ngiant ameivas are found in varied habitats , such as cerrado and northeastern caatinga in brazil and amazonian savannah and forests . they seem to prefer disturbed rain forests that have recently been harvested .\n( biazquez , 1996 ; colli , 1991 ; imparato , et al . , 2007 ; sartorius , et al . , 1999 ; vitt , 1991 )\nfemales carry their eggs for a short period of time and tend to stay in their burrows during this time . once eggs are laid , incubation time is about 5 months , with offspring usually hatching at the beginning of the rainy season . juvenile males tend to grow faster than their female counterparts . maturity is acheived when snout - vent length reaches 100 mm , occurring at about 8 months after hatching for both males and females .\nin size and the environments in which they live , so their reproductive biology may be similar .\nmales tend to guard females during sexual encounters . however , males that did not guard females did not mate . males in this species that were larger tended to mate more as they won over the most females .\ngiant ameivas reproduce by laying eggs in clutches , which vary in size regionally . although little data exist from most regions , data have been collected from caatinga and cerrado habitats of brazil . clutch size can range from 3 to 11 . clutch sizes tend to be larger in cerrado , averaging 6 . 4 + / - 0 . 2 ( colli , 1991 ) . clutch sizes in caatinga average 5 . 7 + / - 0 . 164 ( vitt , 1982 ) . clutch size is directly related to snout - vent length of the female - larger females produce more eggs per clutch . in cerrado , females can lay up to 3 clutches per reproductive season . however , in caatinga giant ameivas may reproduce throughout the year . the reproductive habits of\nare based on rainfall . in areas where rainfall is constant or unpredictable throughout the year , reproduction is year - round . in areas where there is a distinct dry season , reproduction only occurs during the rainy seasons . this is thought to be the result of lack of food for both adults and juveniles during dry seasons .\nbreeding interval breeding interval is based on location however females may lay up to 3 clutches per cycle in the cerrado of brazil .\nthere is little information on parental investment in this species . however , females invest heavily in supplying their eggs with nutrients before they are laid and males invest energy in mate guarding during mating .\nin the wild . however , based on small sample sizes , individuals are known survive up to 4 . 6 years . the index of scientific binomials indicate their observed specimen lived up to 2 . 8 years in captivity .\ngiant ameivas are solitary and diurnal . not much is known about their behavior .\ngiant ameivas are not territorial . however , they do have a home range which overlaps with other individuals . data are not available for home range size of\nis based on size and sex of the lizard . average male home range size was 376 . 8 square meters , and female home range was on average 173 . 7 square meters based on a data set from 13 males and females . home range size may be similar in\n( lewis and saliva , 1987 ; simmons , et al . , 2005 )\nplay a role in establishing territory size . femoral glands also play a role in various sexual behaviors . these femoral glands produce semiochemicals which influence inter - and intra - specific communication . although these semiochemicals are not well understood in\n, they affect defense of territory and self , predation , territorial markings , and parental care .\n( imparato , et al . , 2007 ; imparato , et al . , 2007 )\ngiant ameivas are active foragers . their diet varies regionally and seasonally and consists mainly of insects . the most common animals found in their diet are grasshoppers , butterflies , beetles , roaches , larvae , spiders , and termites . they have also been known to eat other species of lizards . what they eat is proportional to their snout - vent length ; as they grow their prey becomes larger .\npredators of giant ameivas consist of a wide variety of birds and snakes . unlike other species of lizards found throughout south america , they do not sit and wait for their prey . their main method of avoiding predation is escape and their body shape is designed for rapid speed , allowing them to avoid predators in the open areas where they forage . common predators of\n( colli , 1991 ; maffei , et al . , 2009 ; shepard , 2007 )\n. often these invasive parasites will damage organs such as the gall bladder , liver , kidneys , lungs , and spleen . parasites also have been found in saliva and feces of this lizard . many of the parasites found in the feces originate in the gut . additionally , parasites invade epithelial cells .\n( kaplan , 1995 ; lainson and paperna , 1999 ; lainson , et al . , 2003 )\nalthough these species can carry disease and can be aggressive , people keep them as pets . furthermore , giant ameivas tend to prefer cleared environments such as crop fields . because their diet consists mainly of\n( everard , et al . , 1979 ; kaplan , 1995 ; sartorius , et al . , 1999 )\n, including strains that can infect humans . in grenada , according to everard et al . ( 1979 ) , half of all specimens collected carried\n( everard , et al . , 1979 ; kourany and telford , 1981 )\ncurrently giant ameivas are not considered threatened . there are no efforts at this time to actively conserve this species .\nryan siders ( author ) , radford university , karen powers ( editor ) , radford university , tanya dewey ( editor ) , university of michigan - ann arbor .\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nhaving markings , coloration , shapes , or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment ; being difficult to see or otherwise detect .\nhaving a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment ; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature .\nreferring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range , usually through human action .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nreproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .\nthe business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets .\nrainforests , both temperate and tropical , are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground . epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant . precipitation is typically not limiting , but may be somewhat seasonal .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\na terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .\na grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .\na terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5\u00b0 n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .\n2002 .\nindex of scientific binominals\n( on - line ) . accessed april 09 , 2010 at urltoken .\noccurrence overview\n( on - line ) . global biodiversity information facility . accessed february 19 , 2010 at urltoken .\ncommittee on standard english and scientific names . scientific and standard english names . society for the study of amphibians and reptiles . 2001 . accessed february 19 , 2010 at urltoken .\nbowler , j . 1975 . longevity of reptiles and amphibians in n . american collections as of 1 november , 1975 . .\neverard , c . , b . tota , d . bassett , c . ali . 1979 . salmonella in wildlife from trinidad and grenada , w . i . .\nkaplan , m . 1995 .\nameivas\n( on - line ) . accessed april 09 , 2010 at urltoken .\nkourany , m . , s . telford . 1981 . lizards in the ecology of salmonellosis in panama .\nmagnusson , w . 1987 . reproductive cycles of teiid lizards in amazonian savanna .\nmagnusson , w . , l . junqueira de paiva , r . moreira da rocha , c . franke , l . kasper , a . lima . 1985 . the correlates of foraging mode in a community of brazilian lizards .\nmagnusson , w . , l . junqueira de paiva , r . moreira da rocha , c . franke , l . kasper , a . lima . 1985 . the correlates of foraging mode in a community of brazilian lizards .\nsevenster , j . , j . ellers , g . driessen . 1998 . an evolutionary argument for limitation .\nshepard , d . 2007 . habitat but not body shape affects predator attack frequency on lizard models in the brazilian cerrado .\nsimmons , p . , b . greene , k . williamson , r . powell , j . parmerlee . 2005 . ecological interactions within a lizard community on grenada .\ntinkle , d . 1969 . the concept of reproduction effort and its relation to the evolution of life histories of lizards .\nvitt , l . 1991 . an introduction to the ecology of cerrado lizards ."]}
{"id": 1149, "summary": [{"text": "amphorella iridescens is a species of air-breathing land snail , a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family ferussaciidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this species is endemic to madeira , portugal . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "amphorella iridescens", "paragraphs": ["information on amphorella iridescens is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\namphorella ( amphorella ) r . t . lowe , 1852 represented as amphorella r . t . lowe , 1852\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - amphorella ( amphorella iridescens )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - amphorella ( amphorella iridescens )\ntitle =\narkive species - amphorella ( amphorella iridescens )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\namphorella is a genus of air - breathing land snails , terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusks in the family ferussaciidae .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nthis species is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nnatural history museum , london & national museum of wales biodiversity & systematic biology national museum & galleries of wales cathays park cardiff cf10 3np united kingdom tel : 029 20573244 fax : 029 20239829 harriet . wood @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nbank , r . a . ; neubert , e . ( 2017 ) . checklist of the land and freshwater gastropoda of europe . last update : july 16th , 2017 . [ details ]\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 12 / 9 / 2014 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser ."]}
{"id": 1150, "summary": [{"text": "the yellowcheek darter ( etheostoma moorei ) is a species of darter endemic to the eastern united states where it is only known to occur in the state of arkansas in the little red river .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it inhabits medium-sized and smaller rivers in rocky riffles with strong current .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this species can reach a length of 7.2 centimetres ( 2.8 in ) tl though most only reach about 4.9 centimetres ( 1.9 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "in july 2010 , the united states fish and wildlife service proposed the yellowcheek darter for endangered status .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the fish is a federally listed endangered species of the united states , effective september 8 , 2011 . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "yellowcheek darter", "paragraphs": ["endangered status for the cumberland darter , rush darter , yellowcheek darter , chucky madtom , and laurel dace : final rule .\ndesignation of critical habitat for the cumberland darter , rush darter , yellowcheek darter , chucky madtom , and laurel dace : final rule .\ndesignation of critical habitat for the cumberland darter , rush darter , yellowcheek darter , chucky madtom , and laurel dace : proposed rule ; reopening of comment period and announcement of public hearing .\nthe yellowcheek darter is classified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 9 august 2011 . endangered status for the cumberland darter , rush darter , yellowcheek darter , chucky madtom , and laurel dace . federal register 76 ( 153 ) : 48722 - 48741 .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 12 october 2011 . proposed designation of critical habitat for the cumberland darter , rush darter , yellowcheek darter , chucky madtom , and laurel dace . federal register 76 ( 197 ) : 63360 - 63418 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - yellowcheek darter ( etheostoma moorei )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - yellowcheek darter ( etheostoma moorei )\ntitle =\narkive species - yellowcheek darter ( etheostoma moorei )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe yellowcheek darter is endemic to four tributaries of the upper little red river drainage in arkansas state in the southern united states ( 1 ) ( 3 ) .\nwine , m . , s . blumenshine , and g . harp . 2000 . status survey of the yellowcheek darter ( etheostoma moorei ) in the little red river basin . department of biological sciences , arkansas state university .\nthe yellowcheek darter is a rare species of freshwater fish found only in the state of arkansas in the united states . for most of the year the yellowcheek darter is predominately grey with contrasting dark brown , saddle - shaped patches on the sides . however , during the breeding season the male develops a brilliant blue breast and throat and a light green underside , while the smaller , and somewhat duller , female develops a scattering of orange - red spots ( 3 ) . the body is deep and slender with a sharp , straight snout and two separate dorsal fins and , in common with other darters , the yellowcheek darter lacks a swim bladder , a gas - filled sac typically used to regulate buoyancy ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . adapted to a bottom - dwelling lifestyle , the yellowcheek darter dashes between the sanctuary of large stones , a behaviour that has earned the species its common name ( 5 ) .\nmitchell , r . m . , r . l . johnson , and g . l . harp . 2002 . population structure of an endemic species of yellowcheek darter , etheostoma moorei ( raney and suttkus ) , of the upper little red river , arkansas . american midland naturalist 148 : 129 - 137 .\na small darter with a moderately sharp snout , a compressed , deep body , and a deep caudal peduncle ( robison and allen 1995 ) .\nwood , r . m . 1996 . phylogenetic systematics of the darter subgenus nothonotus ( teleostei : percidae ) . copeia 1996 : 300 - 318 .\na rare and little - studied species , much of the yellowcheek darter\u2019s biology is , as yet , undescribed ( 3 ) . however , this bottom - dwelling fish is known to feed on a variety of invertebrates , including immature mayflies and stoneflies ( 6 ) . a fairly sedentary species , the yellowcheek darter rarely strays from its home grounds , but during the breeding season mature fish move towards small , fast flowing streams to breed . it is at this time that the female fish bury into the substrate with only the head and tail fin exposed . the male then positions above the female to fertilise the eggs as they are released ( 3 ) .\nweston and johnson ( 2005 , cited by usfws 2011 ) , estimated yellowcheek darter populations within the middle fork to be between 15 , 000 and 40 , 000 individuals , and between 13 , 000 and 17 , 000 individuals in the south fork . confidence in these estimates is low , so it is unclear whether these numbers reflect a true increase in the populations ( usfws 2011 ) .\nthe yellowcheek darter is found in small to medium - sized , fast flowing rivers and streams . it prefers areas with clear water , rocky or gravel bottoms and a steep gradient , and is often found in areas with dense growths of aquatic plants ( 3 ) ( 6 ) . adults are typically found in waters with a depth of 25 to 50 centimetres , but juveniles prefer more shallow waters ( 6 ) .\nalthough once abundant , the yellowcheek darter population has undergone a rapid decline , decreasing by 75 to 90 percent since the 1960s ( 3 ) ( 6 ) . the principle agent behind this decline was the creation of greers ferry lake in 1962 , which resulted in the inundation of downstream tributaries , creating deep pools with increased sedimentation and lower oxygen levels in the water . as an inhabitant of shallow , fast - moving streams the yellowcheek darter was displaced from much of its former range , moving upstream to less suitable areas of habitat . the species\u2019 migratory behaviour was also disrupted , while the loss of downstream refugia made the species more vulnerable to droughts , resulting in the loss of many populations ( 7 ) . other threats , such as the channelization of streams for agriculture and human consumption , have isolated some populations , and a loss of genetic diversity has been observed due to inbreeding ( 3 ) ( 8 ) .\nwine , m . s . , weston , m . r . and johnson , r . l . ( 2008 ) density dynamics of a threatened species of darter at spatial and temporal scales . southeastern naturalist , 7 : 665 - 678 .\nraney , e . c . and suttkus , r . d . ( 1964 ) etheostoma moorei , a new darter of the subgenus nothonotus from the white river system , arkansas . american society of ichthyologists and herpetologists , 1964 : 130 - 139 .\nhaving suffered such a severe decline , the yellowcheek darter is in drastic need of major conservation measures . indeed , the species has been proposed for threatened status under the u . s endangered species act ( 9 ) . an agreement has also been made between several conservation organisations and landowners to mitigate threats to the species , protect bordering terrestrial habitats ; and explore potential reintroduction programmes ( 3 ) . in conjunction with this , several mature adults were taken from the wild in 2002 to start a captive breeding programme , with the first individuals bred in 2003 and further successes in 2006 ( 10 ) .\njohnson , r . l . , mitchell , r . m . and harp , g . l . ( 2006 ) genetic variation and genetic structuring of a numerically declining species of darter , etheostoma moorei raney & suttkus , endemic to the upper little red river , arkansas . the american midland naturalist , 156 : 37 - 44 .\na thorough survey in 2000 yielded an estimated population size of approximately 10 , 300 individuals ( uncertain whether this refers to adults or all individuals ) , with 6 , 000 in middle fork , 2 , 300 in south fork , and 2 , 000 in archey fork ( none were found in the devils fork system ) ( wine et al . 2000 ) . weston and johnson ( 2005 , cited by usfws 2011 ) , estimated yellowcheek darter populations within the middle fork to be between 15 , 000 and 40 , 000 individuals , and between 13 , 000 and 17 , 000 individuals in the south fork . confidence in these estimates is low , so it is unclear whether these numbers reflect a true increase in the populations ( usfws 2011 ) .\ndata on dispersal and other movements generally are not available . though larvae of some species may drift with the current , turner ( 2001 ) found no significant relationship between a larval transport index and gene flow among several different darter species . separation distances are arbitrary but reflect the likely low probability that two occupied locations separated by less than several kilometers of aquatic habitat would represent truly independent populations . because of the difficulty in defining suitable versus unsuitable habitat , especially with respect to dispersal , and to simplify the delineation of occurrences , a single separation distance is used regardless of habitat quality . occupied locations that are separated by a gap of 10 km or more of any aquatic habitat that is not known to be occupied generally represent different occurrences . however , it is important to evaluate seasonal changes in habitat to ensure that an occupied habitat occurrence for a particular population does not artificially separate spawning areas and nonspawning areas as different occurrences simply because there have been no collections / observations in an intervening area that may exceed the separation distance .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is listed as endangered because its extent of occurrence is less than 5 , 000 sq km , area of occupancy is less than 500 sq km , the species occurs in not more than five locations , and habitat is subject to continuing declines in quality .\nthis species ' range encompasses the upper little red river drainage ( white river drainage ) above greers ferry lake in cleburne , searcy , stone , and van buren counties , arkansas ( robison and buchanan 1988 ) . much of the original range was inundated by greers ferry lake in the early 1960s . remaining populations occur in the following tributaries of the little red river : south fork , middle fork , archey creek , and devils fork ( including turkey fork [ at least formerly ] and beech fork segments ) ( mitchell\nextent of occurrence is less than 2 , 000 square kilometers ( probably greater than 1 , 000 ) .\neach of the 3\u20134 occupied tributaries can be considered to be a single occurrence or subpopulation , separated by the reservoir .\nmost of the best habitat was destroyed by inundation and cold tailwater releases from greers ferry reservoir ( usfws 2011 ) . estimated population size declined from approximately 60 , 000 in 1978\u20131981 ( robison and harp 1981 ) to 10 , 300 in 2000 ( wine\n. 2000 ) . subsequently , an increase may have occurred ( usfws 2011 ) .\narea of occupancy and area and quality of habitat probably are still declining , but better data are needed .\nthis fish occupies small to medium , high gradient , clear rivers , in swift to moderate riffles with gravel , rubble , and boulder bottoms ( robison and buchanan 1988 , page and burr 2011 ) . juveniles occur in shallow riffles ; adults are commonly found at depths of 10\u201320 inches ( robison and allen 1995 ) .\noften grows in inhabited riffles . spawning occurs in swifter , turbulent portions of riffles around or under the largest substrate particles available ( lower portions of riffles ) ( wine\naccording to usfws ( 2011 ) , threats include such activities as impoundment , sedimentation , poor livestock grazing practices , improper timber harvest practices , nutrient enrichment , gravel mining , channelization / channel instability , and natural gas development . these threats are considered imminent and of high magnitude throughout the species ' entire range . usfws ( 2011 ) had no information indicating that the magnitude or imminence of these threats is likely to be appreciably reduced in the foreseeable future , and in the case of pipeline disturbance , usfws expected this threat to become more problematic over the next several years as natural gas development continues to intensify .\n. 2002 ) . tributary headwaters have fluctuating and often inadequate flows and so do not provide optimal habitat .\nhistorical distribution has been fragmented , and population and genetic interchanges among the remaining populations is no longer possible . remaining populations may be negatively impacted by factors affecting small populations .\npatterns of genetic differentiation among populations indicate that the turkey fork and middle / south fork populations be treated as unique management units ( mitchell et al . 2002 ) . an introduction program utilizing captive - raised fish should be initiated , as suggested by buchanan ( 1974 ) . remaining occurrences need to be protected .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nitis reports - - itis ( the integrated taxonomic information system ) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\ngreek , etheo = to strain + greek , stoma = mouth ; rafinesque said\nvarious mouths\n, but jordan and evermann suggest the name might have been intended as\nheterostoma ( ref . 45335 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 7 . 2 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5723 ) ; common length : 4 . 9 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 12193 ) ; max . reported age : 4 years ( ref . 12193 )\npage , l . m . and b . m . burr , 1991 . a field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . houghton mifflin company , boston . 432 p . ( ref . 5723 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00501 ( 0 . 00201 - 0 . 01253 ) , b = 3 . 14 ( 2 . 92 - 3 . 36 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 \u00b10 . 5 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( tmax = 4 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 15 of 100 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\ndorsal fin the unpaired fin found on the back of the body of fish , or the raised structure on the back of most cetaceans . endemic a species or taxonomic group that is only found in one particular country or geographic area . fertilisation the fusion of gametes ( male and female reproductive cells ) to produce an embryo , which grows into a new individual . genetic diversity the variety of genes within a particular species , population or breed causing differences in morphology , physiology and behaviour . inbreeding the breeding of closely related individuals . an inbred population usually has less genetic variability and this is generally disadvantageous for its long - term survival and success . invertebrates animals with no backbone , such as insects , crustaceans , worms , molluscs , spiders , cnidarians ( jellyfish , corals , sea anemones ) , echinoderms , and others .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . ( 2008 ) species assessment and listing priority assignment form . u . s . fish and wildlife service . available at : urltoken\ncampbell , a . and dawes , j . ( 2004 ) encyclopedia of underwater life . oxford university press , oxford .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nrobins , c . r . , r . m . bailey , c . e . bond , j . r . brooker , e . a . lachner , r . n . lea , and w . b . scott . 1991 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada . american fisheries society , special publication 20 . 183 pp .\nsmall range in the upper little red river drainage in arkansas ; much of the already small habitat was destroyed by impoundment ( greers ferry lake ) ; the few remaining isolated populations are in serious peril from habitat loss and degradation .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\nrange encompasses the upper little red river drainage ( white river drainage ) above greers ferry lake in cleburne , searcy , stone , and van buren counties , arkansas ( robison and buchanan 1988 ) . much of the original range was inundated by greers ferry lake in the early 1960s . remaining populations occur in the following tributaries of the little red river : south fork , middle fork , archey creek , and devils fork ( including turkey fork [ at least formerly ] and beech fork segments ) ( mitchell et al . 2002 , usfws 2011 ) , although the devils fork population is now highly reduced or extirpated ( wine et al . 2000 ) . extent of occurrence is less than 2 , 000 square kilometers ( probably greater than 1 , 000 ) .\nproposed critical habitat for this species in the little red river drainage included 70 . 2 stream - kilometers in the middle fork , 31 . 9 km in the south fork , 27 . 4 km in the archy fork , and 27 . 5 km in the devil ' s fork ( usfws 2011 ) . these areas ( 157 stream - kilometers ) include all occupied and remaining suitable habitat .\neach of the 3 - 4 occupied tributaries can be considered to be a single occurrence or subpopulation , separated by the reservoir .\naccording to usfws ( 2011 ) , threats include such activities as impoundment , sedimentation , poor livestock grazing practices , improper timber harvest practices , nutrient enrichment , gravel mining , channelization / channel instability , and natural gas development . these threats are considered imminent and of high magnitude throughout the species ' entire range . usfws ( 2011 ) had no information indicating that the magnitude or imminence of these threats is likely to be appreciably reduced in the foreseeable future , and in the case of pipeline disturbance , usfws expected this threat to become more problematic over the next several years as natural gas development continues to intensify . suitable habitat has declined due to impoundment ( see mitchell et al . 2002 ) . tributary headwaters have fluctuating and often inadequate flows and so do not provide optimal habitat . historical distribution has been fragmented , and population and genetic interchanges among the remaining populations is no longer possible . remaining populations may be negatively impacted by factors affecting small populations .\nmost of the best habitat was destroyed by inundation and cold tailwater releases from greers ferry reservoir ( usfws 2011 ) . estimated population size declined from approximately 60 , 000 in 1978 - 1981 ( robison and harp 1981 ) to 10 , 300 in 2000 ( wine et al . 2000 ) . subsequently , an increase may have occurred ( usfws 2011 ) .\n( 250 - 5000 square km ( about 100 - 2000 square miles ) ) range encompasses the upper little red river drainage ( white river drainage ) above greers ferry lake in cleburne , searcy , stone , and van buren counties , arkansas ( robison and buchanan 1988 ) . much of the original range was inundated by greers ferry lake in the early 1960s . remaining populations occur in the following tributaries of the little red river : south fork , middle fork , archey creek , and devils fork ( including turkey fork [ at least formerly ] and beech fork segments ) ( mitchell et al . 2002 , usfws 2011 ) , although the devils fork population is now highly reduced or extirpated ( wine et al . 2000 ) . extent of occurrence is less than 2 , 000 square kilometers ( probably greater than 1 , 000 ) .\ndiffers from etheostoma juliae by its separate to narrowly joined gill membranes , naked nape ( vs . fully scaled ) , and lack of a wide , dark saddle beginning at the first dorsal fin and extending down to both pectoral fin bases ( robison and allen 1995 ) .\nspawns from late may through june ; sexually mature in one year ; lives up to 4 years ( robison and buchanan 1988 ) .\nthis fish occupies small to medium , high gradient , clear rivers , in swift to moderate riffles with gravel , rubble , and boulder bottoms ( robison and buchanan 1988 , page and burr 2011 ) . juveniles occur in shallow riffles ; adults commonly are found at depths of 10 - 20 inches ( robison and allen 1995 ) . podostemon often grows in inhabited riffles . spawning occurs in swifter , turbulent portions of riffles around or under the largest substrate particles available ( lower portions of riffles ) ( wine et al . 2000 ) .\nprimary foods are aquatic dipteran larvae ( chironomids and simuliids ) ; also eats immature stoneflies , mayflies , and caddisflies ( robison and buchanan 1988 ) .\npatterns of genetic differentiation among populations indicate that the turkey fork and middle / south fork populations be treated as unique management units ( mitchell et al . 2002 ) . an introduction program utilizing captive - raised fish should be initiated , as suggested by buchanan ( 1974 ) .\noccurrences are based on evidence of historical presence , or current and likely recurring presence , at a given location . such evidence minimally includes collection or reliable observation and documentation of one or more individuals ( including eggs and larvae ) in appropriate habitat .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\njelks , h . l . , s . j . walsh , n . m . burkhead , s . contreras - balderas , e . d\u00edaz - pardo , d . a . hendrickson , j . lyons , n . e . mandrak , f . mccormick , j . s . nelson , s . p . platania , b . a . porter , c . b . renaud , j . jacobo schmitter - soto , e . b . taylor , and m . l . warren , jr . 2008 . conservation status of imperiled north american freshwater and diadromous fishes . fisheries 33 ( 8 ) : 372 - 407 .\nkuehne , r . a . , and r . w . barbour . 1983 . the american darters . university press of kentucky , lexington , kentucky . 177 pp .\nlee , d . s . , c . r . gilbert , c . h . hocutt , r . e . jenkins , d . e . mcallister , and j . r . stauffer , jr . 1980 . atlas of north american freshwater fishes . north carolina state museum of natural history , raleigh , north carolina . i - x + 854 pp .\nnelson , j . s . , e . j . crossman , h . espinosa - perez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , and j . d . williams . 2004 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . american fisheries society , special publication 29 , bethesda , maryland . 386 pp .\npage , l . m . 1983a . handbook of darters . t . f . h . publications , inc . , neptune city , new jersey . 271 pp .\npage , l . m . , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , n . e . mandrak , r . l . mayden , and j . s . nelson . 2013 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . seventh edition . american fisheries society , special publication 34 , bethesda , maryland .\npage , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 1991 . a field guide to freshwater fishes : north america north of mexico . houghton mifflin company , boston , massachusetts . 432 pp .\npage , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 2011 . peterson field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . second edition . houghton mifflin harcourt , boston . xix + 663 pp .\nrobison , h . w . and t . m . buchanan . 1988 . fishes of arkansas . the university of arkansas press , fayetteville , arkansas . 536 pp .\nrobison , h . w . and r . t . allen . 1995 . only in arkansas : a study of the endemic plants and animals of the state . university of arkansas press , fayetteville , arkansas .\nstarnes , w . c . 1995 . taxonomic validation for fish species on the u . s . fish and wildlife service category 2 species list . 28 pp .\nstate natural heritage data centers . 1996a . aggregated element occurrence data from all u . s . state natural heritage programs , including the tennessee valley authority , navajo nation and the district of columbia . science division , the nature conservancy .\nstate natural heritage data centers . 1996b . aggregated element occurrence data from all u . s . state natural heritage programs , including the tennessee valley authority , navajo nation and the district of columbia : export of freshwater fish and mussel records west of the mississippi river in 1997 . science division , the nature conservancy .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users ."]}
{"id": 1155, "summary": [{"text": "harpa gracilis , common name the polynesian harp , is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family harpidae , the harp snails . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "harpa gracilis", "paragraphs": ["harpa striata lamarck , 1816 : synonym of harpa cabriti p . fischer , 1860\nharpa ventricosa lamarck 1816 - ventral harp : synonym of harpa cabriti p . fischer , 1860\nharpidae \u00bb harpa gracilis , id : 228421 , shell detail \u00ab shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc .\nworms - world register of marine species - harpa gracilis broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829\npolynesian harp - harpa gracilis broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 - literature - encyclopedia of life\nberkhout ( 1992 ) writes : \u201ch . gracilis is the only harpa shell that has a white protoconch . \u201d\nbelongs to harpa according to b . landau and c . marques da silva 2010\ndescribed in malacologia . the h . kolaceki has the purple protoconch in common with the tuamotou\u2019s endemic harpa gracilis , but the shape is completely different . rare .\nrehder ( 1973 ) writes on harpa gracilis broderip & sowerby , 1829 : \u201cnuclear whorls 3 1 / 2 to 4 , smooth , white . . . \u201d\nhowever , on the conchology inc . auction i read thus : \u201cthe h . kolaceki has the purple protoconch in common with the tuamotou\u2019s endemic harpa gracilis . . . \u201d\nso , can anyone verify for me that there are indeed harpa gracilis ( from the tuamotos or elsewhere ) with a purple protoconch ? perhaps a subspecies ? this would certainly shed some light on this complex of smaller harpa . an image would be most appreciated .\nbouchet , p . ( 2015 ) . harpa gracilis broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 . in : molluscabase ( 2015 ) . accessed through : world register of marine species at urltoken ; = 403835\nharpa gracilis is the only harp with a white protoconch , clearly distinguishing it from all other harps , whose protoconchs are pink to brown . other differentiating characteristics are the shallow umbilicus , slender form and no shoulder on the body whorl . the harps in the links you sent are , therefore , clearly not gracilis . they are amouretta , as stated by others .\npoppe , brulet & dance ( 1999 ) also write : \u201ch . gracilis . . . protoconch is white instead of purple . \u201d\ndealers sometimes use the name gracilis for ( or in relation to ) non - gracilis shells for obvious reasons . regarding h . kolaceki , even poppe , on his auction site selling it , mentioned that it is a\ndoubtful\nspecies . may very well be a form of amouretta .\nabout h . gracilis i also wrote in 1990 ( let ' s tune our harps ! xenophora no . 50 pp . 10 - 21 ) :\nprotococh white .\non the conchology inc . auction what is read : \u201cthe h . kolaceki has the purple protoconch in common with the tuamotou\u2019s endemic harpa gracilis . . . \u201d is an error as it does not match the description of h . kolaceki where the colour of its protoconch is not even mentioned and on the colour photos included in the description it is obvious that the protoconch of h . kolaceki is purple .\ni agree with rick . while the shells he illustrated may not be h . gracilis , they are certainly unlike any of the h . amouretta i have ( another 30 specimens to that 50 ) .\nbroderip w . j . & sowerby i g . b . ( 1829 ) . observations on new or intersting mollusca contained , for the most part , in the museum of the zoological society . zoological journal . 4 : 359 - 379 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 373 [ details ]\ndance , s . p . & g . t . poppe , 1999 family harpidae . in : a conchological iconography ( conchbooks , ed . ) , 69 p . [ details ]\nrehder h . a . ( 1973 ) . the family harpidae of the world . indo - pacific mollusca 3 ( 16 ) : 207 - 274 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\npetit , r . e . ( 2009 ) . george brettingham sowerby , i , ii & iii : their conchological publications and molluscan taxa . zootaxa . 2189 : 1\u2013218 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 001 seconds . )\nshell gallery view \u00ab shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc . \u00bb conchological megadatabase on mollusks\nclick on an image to view all the information : family , species , author , date , and full locality .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 3 . 118 seconds . )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nversion 43 . 0 went live 11 / 6 / 2018 - i hope that the majority of issues have been fixed . my email address is on the home page if you see anything wrong .\nthe following bibliography has been generated by bringing together all references provided by our content partners . there may be duplication .\nbouchet p . , gofas s . & rosenberg g . ( 2015 ) . worms mollusca : world marine mollusca database ( version feb 2013 ) . in : species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 26th august 2015 ( roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , kunze t . , flann c . , bailly n . , kirk p . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , eds ) . digital resource at urltoken . species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .\nbroderip w . j . & sowerby g . b . ( 1829 ) . observations on new or intersting mollusca contained , for the most part , in the museum of the zoological society . zoological journal , 4 : 359 - 379 , pl . 9\ndance , s . p . & g . t . poppe , . 1999 . amily harpidae . in : a conchological iconography ( conchbooks , ed . ) , 69 p .\npetit r . e . 2009 . george brettingham sowerby , i , ii & iii : their conchological publications and molluscan taxa . zootaxa 2189 : 1\u2013218 .\nrehder h . a . 1973 . the family harpidae of the world . indo - pacific mollusca 3 ( 16 ) : 207 - 274 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nusing cookies on urltoken shellauction uses cookies only for technical reasons and to facilitate and speed up your site navigation . by continuing to browse , you accept the use of cookies ; if you do not wish to receive them please disable them or not navigate this website further . more info cookies on urltoken\nutilizzo dei cookies su urltoken shellauction utilizza i cookies esclusivamente per ragioni tecniche e per facilitare e velocizzare la navigazione del sito . continuando a navigare accetti l ' utilizzo dei cookies , se non desideri riceverli ti invitiamo a disabilitarli oppure a non navigare questo sito ulteriormente . altre informazioni sui cookies di urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nbroderip w . j . & sowerby g . b . ( 1829 ) . observations on new or intersting mollusca contained , for the most part , in the museum of the zoological society . < i > zoological journal < / i > , 4 : 359 - 379 , pl . 9\nbroderip , w . j . & sowerby , g . b . ( 1829 ) . observations on new or intersting mollusca contained , for the most part , in the . < em > museum of the zoological society . zoological journal < / i . < / em > 4 : 359 - 379 .\ndance , s . p . & g . t . poppe , 1999 family harpidae . in : a conchological iconography ( conchbooks , ed . ) , 69 p .\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . < em > china science press . < / em > 1267 pp .\npetit , r . e . ( 2009 ) . george brettingham sowerby , i , ii & iii : their conchological publications and molluscan taxa . < em > zootaxa . < / em > 2189 : 1\u2013218 .\nrehder h . a . ( 1973 ) the family harpidae of the world . indo - pacific mollusca 3 ( 16 ) : 207 - 274 .\nrehder h . a . ( 1973 ) . the family harpidae of the world . indo - pacific mollusca 3 ( 16 ) : 207 - 274 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nwe ' ve updated our privacy policy and by continuing you ' re agreeing to the updated terms .\nwhen you visit our site , preselected companies may use cookies or other certain information on your device to serve relevant ads and for analytics purposes . learn more\ninteresting , i have over 50 specimens of amouretta from around the world and none of them are like these two shells . can someone post images of similar shells ?\nby the way , in the description of h . kolaceki the colour of the protoconch is not even mentioned .\nfor rick ' s shells . i ' ve documented this conversation on lts with rick ' s photos ( and permission ) and added photos of a\nfrom the solomons in my collection . while there are are some overall shape differences , with my shell more closely resembling forma\nkrauss , 1848 , i cannot see how rick ' s shells can be distinguished as other than a normal , local , regional variation for the species .\ni fully agree with your comment \u201c i cannot see how rick ' s shells can be distinguished as other than a normal , local , regional variation for the species .\n( 1973 ) . rehder presented 11 species of living harps . there have been many new taxa proposed since 1973 . all but one are now generally accepted as forms of one or the other of the 11 species addressed by rehder . only\nrehder , 1993 is mostly accepted as a valid addition to his 1973 list . whether or not all 11 of the taxa addressed by rehder ( plus\n) are truly separate species or if the many localized forms given species / subspecies names actually represent separate species will have to await a comprehensive dna analysis .\n( two or one blotch ) to be able to accept his argument . i would also note that the characters described for\n( \u201cbody whorl \u2026 more broadly ovate and rounded , \u201d \u201cribs tend to be narrower and more distant\u201d ) . my own opinion is that\nspecies addressed by rehder and the\naccepted\nspecies addressed 31 and 42 years later .\n. indo - pacific mollusca , volume 3 , no . 16 . delaware museum of natural history .\nare quite variable within populations and across geographic range . so variable that they occur readily across taxa , especially those that share common geographic distributions and influences , and most often cannot be relied upon to distinguish between species when confronted with a particular specimen . in my presentations i have limited the features discussed to those that should be relied upon to distinguish among taxa . i have presented the protoconchs for all , but did not find this feature to be helpful ( too variable , too often missing or incomplete , and too similar ) in distinguishing among taxa , except in a few cases (\n) . i did not find color to be helpful for taxa that are otherwise close and from the same locales . i did not find reliance on \u201cblotching\u201d to be more than partially helpful without linkage to other confirming features . i have addressed the distribution of parietal glazing and found it to be quite helpful and distinctive for many taxa ( especially when linked to other features ) , but not decidedly so for the most problematic taxa (\n) . i do not present a general description of each taxa , which is available many places elsewhere ( see rehder 1973 ) . rather , for some i present some background information and then start my descriptions with the parietal glazing and follow with those features that i found can best be used to distinguish among taxa .\nthe following table presents the features i found best allow identifying and distinguishing the 12 taxa . the green cells describe key features that should be identified first ( and in some taxa , alone or linked to other \u201cgreens , \u201d are sufficient to identify a taxon ) . the pink cells describe features very helpful in narrowing the possibilities for otherwise similar taxa . the yellow cells describe features that i found very consistently separate taxa within the geographic range of\n. i apologize for the tiny text in the table , but i wanted to get it all on one page .\n, and from a dozen to several dozen for the others , limited examination of shells displayed at shell shows by exhibitors and dealers , some images from the web ( usually too poor to be helpful ) , and images in literature ( also usually also too poor to be helpful ) . obviously , my sample is limited in terms of actual material for close examination , and my conclusions should be tempered accordingly . i would be happy to hear from those with specimens in any of these taxa that question or confirm my observations (\n) . however , i would also hope that you can provide good quality photos or would be willing to loan the specimens for a photo session . i will continue to add to these presentations with comments or more photos / material contributed by other fans of\n. three terms ( subsutural plateau , shoulder and t ) should be understood . normally , \u201cshoulder\u201d refers to the area from the suture to an inflection point ( a pronounced downward angle ) or , when absent , the periphery . all\n, the shoulder would normally be the area from suture to the inflection point ( where spines are located ) . i have defined the area from the suture to the inflection point as the subsutural plateau . and , when i refer to the shoulder , i am referring narrowly to the spiral line representing the inflection where the subsutural plateau turns downward ( and is where the rib spines normally occur ) . i have observed that all mature\nhas three . as a matter of shorthand i may use t1 , t2 , t3 or t4 to refer to the teleoconch whorls . so ,\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\ndo not be surprised to find cod or mackerel in paris in the late middle ages ( 14th - 15th c . ) . . . the sea did not come that far , but trade did .\nin compliance with laws and intellectual property practices in the scientific world , unpublished data under five years ( from excavation reports , analyses , but also academia ) is never communicated .\nthe dots represent the sites for which a study ( or a simple recording ) of fauna and / or flora was performed ; these sites were recorded in the database zooarchaeological and archaeobotanical inventories of france ( i2af ) . the lack of dots can mean both a lack of data and / or lack of recording .\nthe dots remain gray when the selected species is absent from the site . symbols of different colour mark the presence of the species in different periods .\nto select / deselect one or more periods or to remove the dots corresponding to the listed sites , check / uncheck in the right side .\nhovering a dot reveals in the left corner at the bottom of the map , the name of the department or municipality . one click enables the list of sites present on the municipality .\nthe selection of a site opens a new page that displays general information relating thereto ( other name ( s ) known , location . . . ) , the bibliographical reference ( s ) connected to the species , and a summary of plant and animal species identified per large time period .\na timeline summarizes all known information on the species . the relevant periods or sub - periods when the detail is known , are highlighted in red . tool tip : passing over a period ( palaeolithic for example ) displays the date range of the period .\naccess to more detailed information is accessible only by convention , after login , for scientists affiliated to groups or institutional programs ( national center of scientific research , national institute of preventive archaeological research , for example ) or associations ( international council for archaeozoology , for example ) .\nwarning : the data available reflects the progression status of knowledge or the availability of the inventories . it should never be considered as comprehensive .\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nfull reference : f . e . eames . 1952 . a contribution to the study of the eocene in western pakistan and western india : c . the description of the scaphopoda and gastropoda from standard sections in the rakhi nala and zindar pir areas of the western punjab and in the kohat district . philosophical transactions of the royal society of london series b 236 : 1 - 168\ntype specimen : bmnh g . 68305 , a shell . its type locality is fossil bed f . 2556 , zinda pir , which is in a lutetian marine shale in the domanda formation of pakistan .\nholotype nhmw 2009z0076 / 0001 . upper miocene . lopez section , rio yaque del norte , upstream of the mouth of angostura gorge , dominican republic .\nbuccinum testa costis aequilibus longitudinalibus , distinctis mucronatis , columella laevigata .\n. recent . benghala . refers to buonanni , 1681 : plate 185 ( a ) ; lister , 1688 : pl . 992 [ fig . 55 ] ( b ) ; petiver , 1702 : pl . 48 fig . 13 ( c ) ; rumphius , 1705 : pl . 32 figs . k , l , m ( d ) ; gualtieri , 1742 : pl . 29 figs . c . d , e , g ( e ) ; argenville , 1742 : pl . 20 fig . d ( f ) ; regenfuss , 1758 : pl . 2 fig . 14 ( g ) .\nrv 5167 . philippines , cebu province , olango island ; by diver , depth 20 m ; june 2012 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis work is licensed under the creative commons attribution license ( cc by 4 . 0 )\nnew records of diplomys labilis ( bangs , 1901 ) ( mammalia , rodentia , . . .\nfirst record of boana maculateralis ( caminer & ron , 2014 ) . . .\nfirst record of the bignose unicornfish , naso vlamingii ( perciformes , . . .\nambidexter symmetricus manning & chace , 1971 ( decapoda , processidae ) : . . .\ncheck list is a peer - reviewed , open access , on - line journal devoted to publishing annotated list of species , notes on geographic distribution of one or a few species , and distribution summary of a taxonomic group . these data are essential for studies on biogeography and provide a baseline for the conservation of biodiversity as a whole . the first step to undertaking effective conservation action is to understand species\u2019 geographic distribution . check list was established to cater to this need by publishing papers on the geographic distribution of species and higher taxonomic groups .\ndoaj , scopus , zoological abstracts , ebsco host , and index copernicus . member journal of the brazilian association of science editors ( abec ) and of the committee on publication ethics ( cope ) .\nthe shell has an ovate - oblong shape . it is more or less inflated , generally pretty thin , enamelled , and provided with parallel , longitudinal , inclined and acute ribs . ; the body whorl is much larger than all the others together . the spire is slightly elevated . the aperture is large , oval , dilated , strongly emarginated inferiorly , and without siphonal canal . the outer lip is bordered by the last rib . the columella is smooth , simple , nearly straight and pointed at the base .\nthe animal has a flattened head , which supports a pair of pretty long , thick , and conical tentacles , with a small protuberance at their base , internally , where the eyes are situated . the mouth is simple , surrounded by a muscular margin , and furnished with a small , slender and pointed trunk . the organ of excitement is elongated , cylindrical , situated on the right side . the locomotive organ is very large , very broad at the anterior part , which is ear - shaped , and distinguished by a deep emargination upon each side . the posterior extremity is caducous , and destitute of an operculum .\nthe fleshy part of this mollusk is very strong , and very large . its foot is enormous , thick , and extended considerably out of the shell . it cannot be wholly contained within the aperture , before which , by contracting itself , it forms a margin .\nthe foot is as if divided into two portions . the anterior broader , arcuated , ear - shaped , with a marginal furrow , and joined to the posterior part by a kind of neck . this latter , more extended , is somewhat oval , pointed , and slightly inflated above , without any appearance of operculum . when the animal is violently disturbed , it breaks off the posterior extremity of its foot , in order to withdraw itself more completely within its shell . in consequence of this an operculum would be useless to it , for it would be liable to be carried away by the rupture of the foot . therefore , it is not possessed .\nall the external parts of the animal are strongly colored with spots and plates of a brownish red , intermingled with other yellowish spots . the middle portion is frequently crossed by a brown band .\nthis marine species is circumtropical , except the western atlantic ocean . it also occurs off australia ( northern territory , queensland , western australia ) ."]}
{"id": 1157, "summary": [{"text": "procaris is a genus of shrimp in the family procarididae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it contains the following species : procaris ascensionis chace & manning , 1972 procaris chacei hart & manning , 1986 procaris hawaiana holthuis , 1973 procaris mexicana von sternberg & schotte , 2004 procaris noelensis bruce & davie , 2006", "topic": 26}], "title": "procaris", "paragraphs": ["phylum arthropoda subphylum crustacea class eumalacostraca order decapoda family procarididae procaris sp . kensley , 1988\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - procarid shrimp ( procaris chacei )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - procarid shrimp ( procaris chacei )\ntitle =\narkive species - procarid shrimp ( procaris chacei )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 2003 . candidate assessment and listing priority assignment form - procaris hawaiana . u . s . fish and wildlife service , pacific islands office . 6 pp .\nbruce , a . j . ; davie , p . j . f . ( 2006 ) . a new anchialine shrimp of the genus procaris from christmas island : the first occurrence of the procarididae in the indian ocean ( crustacea : decapoda : caridea ) . zootaxa . 1238 : 223 - 252 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\ntwo of the known pools containing procaris hawaiana lie within a state natural area reserve . the rarity of this shrimp contributed to the current protection received by the maui anchialine pools ( holthuis 1973 ) . no conservation agreements between federal , state , or private landowners have been drafted or initiated and , aside from placement of some pools / pool systems within reserves , virtually no conservation activities have been conducted .\nty - jour ti - a new anchialine shrimp of the genus procaris ( crustacea : decapoda : procarididae ) from the yucatan peninsula t2 - proceedings of the biological society of washington . vl - 117 ur - urltoken pb - biological society of washington cy - washington , py - 2004 sp - 514 ep - 522 sn - 0006 - 324x au - sternberg , richard v au - schotte , marilyn er -\n@ article { bhlpart49127 , title = { a new anchialine shrimp of the genus procaris ( crustacea : decapoda : procarididae ) from the yucatan peninsula } , journal = { proceedings of the biological society of washington . } , volume = { 117 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . } , url = urltoken publisher = { washington , biological society of washington } , author = { sternberg , richard v and schotte , marilyn } , year = { 2004 } , pages = { 514 - - 522 } , }\nmain threat = alien species . greatest potential threat is cited as the introduction of non - native fish into the pools ( u . s . fish and wildlife service 1998 ; 2003 ) . anchialine pools have been used to discard or hold bait - fish and / or aquarium fish . these fish either directly consume the native shrimp or , as with introduced tilapia ( oreochromis mossambica ) , out - compete the native herbivorous species of shrimp which typically serve as the prey - base for the rarer , predatory species of shrimp . habitat modification is also a threat ; up to 90 % of the anchialine pools on the island of hawaii have been either destroyed or altered . on the island of hawaii , dr . r . brock ( pers . comm . , 1998 ) estimates that up to 90 percent of the anchialine pools have been destroyed or altered by human activities . although the two known maui pools , which are contain procaris hawaiana , occur within a protected state reserve , habitat modifications by early hawaiians and later inhabitants have occurred in the area .\nchace , f . a . jr . & r . b . manning , 1972 . two new caridean shrimps , one representing a new family , from marine pools on ascension island ( crustacea : decapoda : natantia ) . \u2014 smithsonian contributions to zoology 131 : 1 - 18 . [ details ]\nde grave , s . & c . h . j . m . fransen . ( 2011 ) . carideorum catalogus : the recent species of the dendrobranchiate , stenopodidean , procarididean and caridean shrimps ( crustacea : decapoda ) . zool . med . leiden . 85 ( 9 ) : 30 . ix . 2011 : 195 - 589 figs 1 - 59 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nbouchet , p . ; fontaine , b . ( 2009 ) . list of new marine species described between 2002 - 2006 . census of marine life . [ details ]\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\nphyllobranchiate gills ; maxillipeds and pereiopods with strong exopods ; none of pereiopods chelate or subchelate ; rostrum small and unarmed ( kensley , 1988 ) .\nare quite similar , showing few differentiating characters ( hart & manning , 1986 ) .\nabele and felgenhauer ( 1985 ) have studied the ecology of the ascension species . they report that smaller individuals spend most of their time in crevices , while larger individuals are observed swimming in open water . examination of gut contents reveals that they feed on both plant matter and crustaceans including amphipods and atyid shrimp .\n( felgenhauer et al . , 1988 ) . although more than 1 , 000 specimens of\nwere observed in the field , no ovigerous females were seen . a single female maintained in the laboratory bore approximately 60 bright orange eggs on the endopods of pleopods . the large size of these eggs ( 0 . 83 - 0 . 93 mm ) suggests the existence of a zoeal larval stage ( felgenhauer et al . , 1988 ) .\nhart and manning ( 1986 : 416 ) note that the similarities between species and their highly anomalous distribution in marine caves indicate an extremely slow rate of evolution . they suggest that ,\n, or its predecessors , may , at one time , have been widely distributed throughout the oceans , surviving today only in cryptic habitats removed from some of the environmental pressures necessitating change .\nfelgenhauer , b . e . , l . g . abele and w . kim . 1988 . reproductive morphology of the anchialine shrimp\nhart , c . w . and r . b . manning . 1986 . two new shrimps ( procaridae and agostocarididae , new family ) from marine caves of the western north atlantic .\nkensley , b . 1988 . new species and records of cave shrimps from the yucatan peninsula ( decapoda : agostocarididae and hippolytidae ) .\nschram , f . r . 1986 . crustacea . oxford university press , oxford , xii + 606 pp .\nthis shrimp was discovered in february 1972 by j . a . maciolek in anchialine lava pools at cape kinau , maui and also in anchialine pools at lua o palehemo , south point on the big island of hawaii . only three populations of this rare shrimp are known .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 1989a . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; animal notice of review . federal register , department of the interior 54 ( 4 ) : 554 - 579 .\napparently endemic to the hawaiian islands where it has only been recorded from three anchialine pools .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\nknown from the hawaiian islands of hawaii ( 1 site ) and maui ( 2 sites ) ( holthuis , 1973 ; maciolek 1983 ; u . s . fish and wildlife service 1998 ; 2003 ) . current range considered to be relictual of an early global distribution .\nknown from two sites on maui and one site on hawaii ( usfws , 1998 ) .\nknown from one site on hawaii and two sites on maui ( holthuis , 1973 ; u . s . fish and wildlife service 1998 ; 2003 ) .\nit was estimated to occur in the thousands at the hawaii site ( kensely and williams 1986 ) . due to their rarity within these locations since the previous estimate , population estimates have not been attempted .\nit was estimated to occur in the thousands at the hawaii site ( kensely and williams 1986 ) .\nin hawaii , there are estimated to be over 650 anchialine pools , with an estimated 90 % of these occurring on hawaii . approximately 90 % of the pools on that island have been destroyed or otherwise impacted by development or other human uses ( richard brock , university of hawaii , personal communication , 1998 in usfws , 1998 ) .\nin the state of hawaii , there are estimated to be over 650 anchialine pools , with an estimated 90 % of these occurring on the island of hawaii . unfortunately , approximately 90 percent of the pools on that island have been destroyed or otherwise impacted by development or other human uses ( usfws , 2003 ) .\n( 250 - 1000 square km ( about 100 - 400 square miles ) ) known from the hawaiian islands of hawaii ( 1 site ) and maui ( 2 sites ) ( holthuis , 1973 ; maciolek 1983 ; u . s . fish and wildlife service 1998 ; 2003 ) . current range considered to be relictual of an early global distribution .\nhas pink to light - red pigmentation that is darkest along the midline with the dorsal thorax being white to yellow . black pigments are associated with the eyss . conspicuous chelapeds ( claws ) are lacking . locomotion is accomplished by swimming with the swimmerets ( pareopods and uropods ) and occurs just above the substate to mid - water ( usfws , 1998 ; 2003 ) .\nfound in anchialine pools with salinities generally ranging from 19 - 25 ppt . anchialine pools are tidally influenced saline pools that occur along the coast but are not openly connected to the ocean . this includes water in natural depressions , fissures , quarries , and craters . the site on hawaii is an anchialine pool that is connected to deeper waters leading to a submerged lava tube ( kensley and williams 1986 ) .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nholthuis , l . b . 1973 . caridean shrimps found in land - locked saltwater pools at four indo - west pacific localities ( sinai peninsula , funafuti atoll , maui and hawaii islands ) , with the description of one new genus and four new species . zoollogische verhandelingen 128 : 3 - 55 .\nkensley , b . and d . williams . 1986 . new shrimps ( families procarididae and atyidae ) from a submerged lave tube on hawaii . journal of crustacean biology 6 ( 3 ) : 417 - 437 .\nmaciolek , j . a . 1983 . distribution and biology of indo - pacific insular hypogeal shrimps . bulletin of marine science 33 : 606 - 618 .\nmaciolek , j . a . 1986 . environmental features and biota of anchialine pools on cape kinau , maui , hawaii . stygologia 2 ( 1 / 2 ) : 119 - 129 .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 1998 . category and listing priority forms .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nthis procarid shrimp has a thin , fragile integument ( hard outer covering of the body ) . the carapace and short , triangular rostrum are unarmed , and the eyestalks split into two blunt lobes . all five pairs of walking limbs ( pereiopods ) are similar , each with large , bristle - like structures ( 2 ) .\nrecorded only from green bay cave in hamilton parish , bermuda ( 2 ) .\nclassified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list 2006 ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nanchialine coastal bodies of standing waters that have no surface connections to the ocean but display both tidal fluctuations and salinity ranges characteristic of fresh and brackish waters , indicating the presence of subsurface connections to the watertable and ocean . carapace the hard shell covering the upper surface of part of the body of a crustacean . rostrum central , forward - projecting and occasionally long spine between the eyes of crustaceans .\ndr . thomas m . iliffe department of marine biology texas a & m ; university at galveston 5007 ave . u galveston tx 77551 united states of america iliffe @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmclaughlin et al . 2005 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : crustaceans . american fisheries society special publication 31\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service ."]}
{"id": 1160, "summary": [{"text": "the cumberland snubnose darter ( etheostoma atripinne ) is a small , perciform fish found it the middle cumberland river drainage in tennessee , kentucky , virginia , north carolina , georgia , and alabama .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is absent in reaches above the big south fork , rare in north carolina , and absent in western tributaries of the tennessee river .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "while research on the ecology of e. atripinne is not extensive , what is known is they are usually found in small to medium freshwater streams in gravel riffle areas where their eggs can attach to the substrate and be left unguarded .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "e. atripinne can be found within a wide range of depths in its environment , leading its being classified as benthopelagic .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "while its global status is secure , the american fisheries society labels it with a status of \u201c special concern \u201d . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "cumberland snubnose darter", "paragraphs": ["etheostoma atripinne ( d . s . jordan , 1877 ) ( cumberland snubnose darter )\nthe snubnose darter ( etheostoma simoterum ) is a species of darter endemic to the southeastern united states .\ncumberland snubnose darters spawning in small creek in wilson county tennessee . april 24 , 2014 . canon powershot 710is version .\netheostoma susanae ( d . s . jordan & swain , 1883 ) ( cumberland darter )\n, and the other greenside darter species were nested in a clade containing most of the snubnose darter species . in addition ,\nlocus was the most congruent with regard to the subgeneric taxonomy of greenside and snubnose darters . greenside darters , snubnose darters , and\nwere nested as successive sister lineages at the base of the snubnose\u2013greenside darter clade . the sister lineage of\nthe snubnose darter has two recognized subspecies , including the cumberland snubnose darter . e . s . atripinne , and the tennessee snubnose darter , e . s . simoterum . intergradation between the two subspecies occurs in the lower tennessee river unit . the mean length of snubnose darters is 45 millimetres ( 1 . 8 in ) , the reported average clutch size is 152 , and the maximum age is less than two years . the snubnose darter inhabits riffles and rock - bottomed pools in streams with low turbidity . as of 2000 , the snubnose darter was listed as currently stable , meaning it is widespread and not in need of any immediate conservation action .\netnier , d . a . 1980 . etheostoma acuticeps bailey , sharphead darter ; e . atripinne ( jordan ) , cumberland snubnose darter ; e . duryi henshall , blackside snubnose darter ; e . luteovinctum gilbert and swain , redband darter ; e . maculatum kirtland , spotted darter ; e . rufilineatum ( cope ) , redline darter ; e . simoterum ( cope ) , tennessee snubnose darter ; and percina tanasi etnier , snail darter ; pp . 622 , 625 , 642 , 663 , 664 , 687 , 693 , 743 , in : d . s . lee et al . , atlas of north american freshwater fishes . nc state mus . nat . hist . , raleigh , 864 p .\nthe snubnose darter is native to the tennessee and cumberland river drainages of tennessee , virginia , kentucky , north carolina , georgia and alabama . warren et al . described the distribution of the freshwater fish native to the southern united states by drainage basin . the historical range of the tennessee snubnose darter ( e . s . simoterum ) includes the upper and lower tennessee river drainage units , and it has been introduced into both the licking big sandy creek river and the kanawha - new - guyandotte - little kanawha river . the historical range of the cumberland snubnose darter ( e . s . atripinne ) includes the lower tennessee river and cumberland river drainages . intergradation between the two subspecies occurs in the lower tennessee river unit .\nthe snubnose darter is listed as\ncurrently stable\n, which is defined as\na species or subspecies whose distribution is widespread and stable or a species or subspecies that may have declined in portions of its range but is not in need of immediate conservation management actions\n. based on certain lifecycle parameters , the american fisheries society lists the snubnose darter as highly resilient with low vulnerability .\nnorth america : found only in cumberland and tennessee river drainages in virginia , north carolina , kentucky , tennessee , georgia and alabama , usa .\nheins , d . c . 2001 . variation in clutch size and ovum size of the snubnose darter , etheostoma simoterum ( cope ) , from two populations in tennessee . american midland naturalist . 145 : 74 - 79 .\nlarge darters are susceptible to internal parasitism by flukes and nematodes . external parasites such as black spot disease caused by metacercariae flukes and piscicolid leeches also affect snubnose darters .\nblanton , r . e . , and r . e . jenkins . 2008 . three new darter species of the etheostoma percnurum species complex ( percidae , subgenus catonotus ) from the tennessee and cumberland river drainages . zootaxa . 1963 : 1 - 24 .\netheostoma artesiae ( o . p . hay , 1881 ) ( redspot darter )\netheostoma asprigene ( s . a . forbes , 1878 ) ( mud darter )\netheostoma bellator suttkus & r . m . bailey , 1993 ( warrior darter )\netheostoma boschungi wall & j . d . williams , 1974 ( slackwater darter )\netheostoma chlorosoma ( o . p . hay , 1881 ) ( bluntnose darter )\netheostoma chuckwachatte mayden & r . m . wood , 1993 ( lipstick darter )\netheostoma collettei birdsong & l . w . knapp , 1969 ( creole darter )\netheostoma colorosum suttkus & r . m . bailey , 1993 ( coastal darter )\netheostoma flavum etnier & r . m . bailey , 1989 ( saffron darter )\netheostoma lachneri suttkus & r . m . bailey , 1994 ( tombigbee darter )\netheostoma marmorpinnum blanton & r . e . jenkins , 2008 ( marbled darter )\netheostoma phytophilum bart & m . s . taylor , 1999 ( rush darter )\netheostoma proeliare ( o . p . hay , 1881 ) ( cypress darter )\netheostoma ramseyi suttkus & r . m . bailey , 1994 ( alabama darter )\netheostoma stigmaeum ( d . s . jordan , 1877 ) ( speckled darter )\netheostoma swaini ( d . s . jordan , 1884 ) ( gulf darter )\netheostoma virgatum ( d . s . jordan , 1880 ) ( striped darter )\netheostoma wapiti etnier & j . d . williams , 1989 ( boulder darter )\n( watercress darter ) to be an endangered species . fed regist 35 : 16047\nharrington r . c . , near t . j . forthcoming . phylogenetic and coalescent strategies of species delimitation in snubnose darters ( percidae : etheostoma ) . syst . biol .\netnier , d . a . , and r . m . bailey . 1989 . etheostoma ( ulocentra ) flavum , a new darter from the tennessee and cumberland river drainages . occ . pap . mus . zool . univ . mich . 717 : 1 - 24 .\nalthough the term\ndarter\nis shared by several other genera . many can produce\netheostoma erythrozonum switzer & r . m . wood , 2009 ( meramec saddled darter )\nrange includes tributaries of the cumberland river system in the nashville basin , from near the mouth of the roaring river to mansker creek ( northeastern nashville ) , tennessee ( page and burr 2011 ) .\nsnubnose darters inhabit flowing bedrock or gravel - bottomed pools with moderate current in small to medium streams . they have been observed spawning in streams with water temperature ranging from 11 to 18 \u00b0c . etheostoma simoterum prefers a habitat with no vegetation or light algae . snubnose darters are rarely found in water with high turbidity or where the substrate has been silted , and human activities such as dam building or destruction of riparian buffers may lead to increased siltation , thereby threatening darter populations .\netheostoma collis ( c . l . hubbs & cannon , 1935 ) ( carolina darter )\netheostoma edwini ( c . l . hubbs & cannon , 1935 ) ( brown darter )\netheostoma inscriptum ( d . s . jordan & brayton , 1878 ) ( turquoise darter )\netheostoma lepidum ( s . f . baird & girard , 1853 ) ( greenthroat darter )\netheostoma osburni ( c . l . hubbs & trautman , 1932 ) ( candy darter )\netheostoma perlongum ( c . l . hubbs & raney , 1946 ) ( waccamaw darter )\netheostoma sagitta ( d . s . jordan & swain , 1883 ) ( arrow darter )\netheostoma saludae ( c . l . hubbs & cannon , 1935 ) ( saluda darter )\netheostoma sellare ( radcliffe & w . w . welsh , 1913 ) ( maryland darter )\netheostoma serrifer ( c . l . hubbs & cannon , 1935 ) ( sawcheek darter )\netheostoma thalassinum ( d . s . jordan & brayton , 1878 ) ( seagreen darter )\netheostoma zonifer ( c . l . hubbs & cannon , 1935 ) ( backwater darter )\n, a new darter from a limestone spring in alabama . tulane stud zool 12 : 101\u2013108\ncomiskey , c . e . and d . a . etnier . 1972 . fishes of the big south fork of the cumberland river . j . tenn . acad . sci . 47 : 140 - 145 .\npowers , s . l . , r . l . mayden , and d . a . etnier . 2004 . conservation genetics of the ashy darter , etheostoma cinereum ( percidae : subgenus allohistium ) , in the cumberland and tennessee rivers of the southeastern united states . copeia . 3 : 632 - 637 .\nnear , t . j . , e . d . france , r . c . harrington , b . p . keck ( 2016 ) . systematics and taxonomy of the snubnose darter , etheostoma simoterum ( cope ) . bulletin of the peabody museum of natural history 57 ( 2 ) : 127 - 145 .\n( percidae ) , and their potential utility for other darter species . mol ecol notes 6 : 230\u2013232\nharrington , r . c . , t . j . near ( 2012 ) . phylogenetic and coalescent strategies of species delimitation in snubnose darters ( percidae : etheostoma ) . systematic biology . 61 ( 1 ) : 63 - 69 .\neisenhour , d . j . 1995 . systematics of etheostoma camurum and e . chlorobranchium ( osteichthyes , percidae ) in the tennessee and cumberland river drainages with analysis of hybridization in the nolichucky river system . copeia . 2 : 368 - 379 .\nkeck , b . p . and t . j . near . 2010 . a young clade repeating an old pattern : diversity in nothonotus darters ( teleostei : percidae ) endemic to the cumberland river . molecular ecology . 19 : 5030 - 5042 .\nthe combined mtdna and nuclear gene phylogeny was similar to the mtdna cytb gene , particularly with respect to the paraphyly of catonotus and the snubnose darters ( fig . 3a ) . removal of mtdna sequences with a heterospecific origin from the alignment resulted in the monophyly of both oligocephalus and psychromaster ( fig . 3b , c ) . etheostoma baileyi and e . histrio formed a significantly supported clade that was sister to a clade containing e . cinereum , all other greenside darters , and all other snubnose darter species ( fig . 3c ) . etheostoma zonale and e . lynceum were resolved with significant bayesian posterior support as the sister lineage of a clade that contained all greenside darter species ( sans e . histrio ) .\netheostoma fonticola ( d . s . jordan & c . h . gilbert , 1886 ) ( fountain darter )\netheostoma radiosum ( c . l . hubbs & j . d . black , 1941 ) ( orangebelly darter )\nhowell wm , black a ( 1976 ) status of the watercress darter . southeast fishes counc proc 1 : 1\u20134\ne . baileyi is restricted to the cumberland plateau , including only the upper cumberland river drainages in eastern kentucky and northeastern tennessee . rivers where emerald darters can be found include the red river , jacks creek , indian creek in kentucky , and clear creek , elk creek , poor creek , and other small water systems . though populations have fluctuated through the years , the emerald darter\u2019s geographic range has stayed the same , and in some areas they can even be found in abundance . [ 4 ] populations may have experienced declines in the past due to strip - mining and siltation in the gravel substrates in which it spawns . [ 5 ]\netheostoma euzonum ( c . l . hubbs & j . d . black , 1940 ) ( arkansas saddled darter )\netheostoma tetrazonum ( c . l . hubbs & j . d . black , 1940 ) ( missouri saddled darter )\nporter , b . a . , t . m . cavender , and p . a . fuerst . 2002a . molecular phylogeny of the snubnose darters , subgenus ulocentra ( genus etheostoma , family percidae ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution . 22 : 364 - 374 .\na new darter from the southern bend of the tennessee river system in alabama and tennessee . proc . biol . soc . wash\netheostoma lawrencei , a new species of darter in the e . spectabile species complex ( percidae : subgenus oligocephalus ) , from kentucky and tennessee\netheostoma ditrema , a new darter of the subgenus oligocephalus ( percidae ) from springs of the alabama river basin in alabama and georgia . tulane stud\ncumberland and tennessee drainages in virginia , north carolina , kentucky , tennessee , georgia , and alabama ( page and burr 1991 ) . however , menhinick ( 1991 ) did not list in north carolina . the inclusion of north carolina is probably based on cope ( 1870 ) who listed the species in the state without comment .\nthe crown clade etheostoma dates to the earliest oligocene , whereas the crown ages of other major darter clades ( percina , carnipellucida , and nothonotus ) originated in the late oligocene and miocene ( table 3 ) . these age estimates demonstrate that the majority of reconstructed speciation events in the darter phylogeny date to the miocene and pliocene , indicating that most extant darter species and ecological communities of darter species have an origin within the last 15 myr . the dense species sampling in the darter chronograms will provide an informative basis for the investigation of long - standing hypotheses regarding the role of paleoclimate and paleogeography on the evolution and diversification of the species - rich north american freshwater fish fauna ( e . g . , wiley and mayden 1985 ; mayden 1988 ; near and keck 2005 ) .\nthe posterior molecular evolutionary rates estimated for each of the three genes using the centrarchid - only alignments were used as priors for the molecular evolutionary rates in the analyses of the darter and non - darter percid alignments . the mean and standard deviation of the molecular evolutionary rate for each of the three genes were determined from the posterior distribution resulting from the fossil - calibrated ucln analyses of the centrarchid gene alignments . the mean and standard deviation of the centrarchid molecular evolutionary rates were subsequently used to construct a normal prior on the molecular evolutionary rate in the ucln analyses of divergence times using the darter and non - darter percid alignments .\nsimons , a . m . 1991 . phylogenetic relationships of the crystal darter , crystallaria asprella ( teleostei : percidae ) . copeia 1991 : 927 - 936 .\nstarnes , w . c . , and d . a . etnier . 1986 . drainage evolution and fish biogeography of the tennessee and cumberland river drainages , chapter 10 , p . 325 - 361 , in : zoogeography of north american freshwater fishes , c . h . hocutt and e . o . wiley , eds . wiley interscience , new york , 866 p .\netnier , d . a . , and w . c . starnes . 1978 . wildlife profile , snail darter ( percina tanasi ) . tennessee wildlife . 1 : 24 - 25 .\nclayton , j . 1984 . population differences and life history of emerald darter , etheostoma baileyi ( pisces , percidae ) . university of kentucky , lexington : m . s . thesis .\nsnubnose darters reach sexual maturity at one year of age and only survive for one breeding season , which occurs in april to early may . the darter breeds in bedrock pools and crevices with low siltation . the testes of breeding males gradually begin to increase in size in january and reach their peak in april . males also begin to develop bright breeding colors in january , and by april , all males are deep green to blue - green with red dorsal fins and red spots along their bodies . breeding females do not change color , but they may be slightly brighter in tone . mature eggs are transparent , contain oil droplets , and are an average of 1 . 2 mm in diameter . one study showed the number of mature eggs per female ranges from 110 to 240 by april . males court females by displaying erect fins and bright breeding colors . a female responds to this display by leading the male to an appropriate site for egg deposition , such as a large stone or , more rarely , a gravel bed . the pair vibrates together , and after one or two eggs are released and fertilized by the male , the pair may move to another acceptable site to repeat the spawning act . however , snubnose darters are often promiscuous and may move on to find other mates , instead . no parental care , such as egg guarding , occurs after spawning . snubnose darters survive to a maximum age of 18 months .\ndivergence times in darters were estimated using two calibration strategies that were derived from the centrarchid fossil calibrations . the first method used gene alignments that included all sampled darter species , 2 non - darter percid species , and 33 of the sampled species of centrarchidae . the centrarchid fossil calibrations were used to estimate divergence times in relaxed - clock analyses of these large data matrices . the second approach used rates of molecular evolution estimated from the relaxed - clock analyses of centrarchidae for each of the three genes . the bayesian posterior distribution of estimated nucleotide substitution rates from the centrarchid relaxed - clock analyses was then used as a prior in relaxed - clock analyses of gene alignments that contained only the sampled darter and non - darter percid species ( e . g . , saarma et al . 2007 ) .\nkozal , l . c . , j . w . simmons , j . m . mollish , d . j . macguigan , e benavides , b . p . keck , t . j . near ( 2017 ) . phylogenetic and morphological diversity of the etheostoma zonistium species complex with the description of a new species endemic to the cumberland plateau of alabama . bulletin of the peabody museum of natural history 58 ( 2 ) : 263 - 286 .\nblanton , r . e . , and g . a . schuster . 2008 . taxonomic status of etheostoma brevispinum , the carolina fantail darter ( percidae : catonotus ) . copeia . 4 : 844 - 857 .\nfluker bl , kuhajda br , duncan rs , salter el , schulman m ( 2009 ) impacts of a small dam removal on the endangered watercress darter . proc annu conf southeast assoc fish wildl agencies 63 : 188\u2013195\nbaker , j . a . , and d . c . heins . 1994 . effects of drying temperature on weight estimates for oocytes and eggs in the darter etheostoma lynceum . copeia . 3 : 821 - 823 .\nhowell , w . m . , and h . t . boschung . 1966 . a natural hybrid darter etheostoma whipplii artesiae x etheostoma stigmaeum ( pisces : percidae ) . american midland naturalist . 76 : 510 - 514 .\npage , l . m . , and t . j . near . 2007 . a new darter from the upper tennessee river drainage related to percina macrocephala ( percidae : etheostomatinae ) . copeia . 3 : 605 - 613 .\nheins , d . c . , and j . a . baker . 1993 . clutch production in the darter etheostoma lynceum and its implications for life - history study . journal of fish biology . 42 : 819 - 829 .\ncarlson , r . l . , p . c . wainwright . 2010 . the ecological morphology of darter fishes ( percidae : etheostomatinae ) . the linnean society of london , biological journal of the linnean society . 100 : 30\u201345 .\ngrandmaison , d , j . mayasich , and d . etnier . 2004 . eastern sand darter status assessment . nrri tech . rept . nrri / tr - 2003 / 40 , us fish & wildlife srvice , 39 p + appendices .\ngrandmaison , d , j . mayasich , and d . etnier . 2003 . crystal darter status assessment report . nrri tech . rept . nrri / tr - 2003 / 19 , us fish & wildlife srvice , 37 p + appendices .\nlayman , s . r . , and r . l . mayden . 2009 . a new species of the darter subgenus doration ( percidae : etheostoma ) from the caney fork river system , tennessee . copeia . 1 : 157 - 170 .\nmayasich , j . m . , d . grandmaison , and d . etnier . 2004 . spotted darter status assessment . nrri tech . rept . nrri / tr - 2003 / 02 , us fish & wildlife service , 25 p + appendices .\nthe emerald darter is not currently listed as a state or federal threatened species , though they are experiencing population declines in tennessee . though emerald darters have experienced population fragmentation , their range has not undergone declines . threats to populations include limited range , as well as strip - mining , which results in heavy siltation of the gravel substrates on which they depend for reproduction . [ 8 ] damming of tennessee\u2019s main waterways has fragmented the emerald darter\u2019s habitat . kentucky\u2019s populations are not considered threatened . [ 9 ]\nthe phylogenetic classification presented in figure 4 and the appendix communicates our best understanding of darter relationships and includes major alterations to the previous non - phylogenetic taxonomies for the clade . for example , there were 19 or 21 polytypic subgenera present in the most recently proposed darter classifications ( bailey and etnier 1988 ; page 2000 ) . our phylogenetic analyses indicate that 10 of these subgenera are not monophyletic ( table 1 ) . substantial nonmonophyly of darter subgenera was also intimated in the previously published morphological and molecular phylogenetic analyses ( e . g . , near 2002 ; mayden et al . 2006 ; ayache and near 2009 ) , but the extent of the failure of these taxonomies to reflect monophyletic lineages was not apparent until comparison with the comprehensive phylogenetic analyses presented in this investigation .\nsuttkus , r . d . , h . d . bart , and d . a . etnier . 2009 ( accepted ) . etheostoma thompsoni , a new darter , subgenus oligocephalus , from southeastern texas and southwestern louisiana . tulane stud . zool . bot .\nlayman s . r . , r . l . mayden ( 2012 ) . morphological diversity and phylogenetics of the darter subgenus doration ( percidae : etheostoma ) , with descriptions of five new species . bull . alabma mus . nat . hist . 30 : 1 - 83 .\nshepard , t . e . , and b . m . burr . 1984 . systematics , status , and life - history aspects of the ashy darter , etheostoma cinereum ( pisces , percidae ) . proceedings of the biological society of washington . 97 : 693 - 715 .\nkeck , b . p . , t . j . near ( 2013 ) . a new species of nothonotus darter ( teleostei : percidae ) from the caney fork in tennessee , usa . bulletin of the peabody museum of natural history 54 ( 1 ) : 3 - 21 .\nnear , t . j . , b . p . keck ( 2013 ) . free from motochondrial dna : nuclear genes and the inference of species trees among closely related darter lineages ( teleostei : percidae : etheostomatinae ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 66 ( 3 ) : 868 - 876 .\nsuttkus , r . d . , h . l . , bart jr . and d . a . etnier , 2012 . a new darter of the subgenus oligocephalus , genus etheostoma , from southeastern texas and southwestern louisiana . tulane stud . zool . bot . 32 : 6 - 30 .\npiller , k . r . , h . l . bart , and d . l . hurley . 2008 . phylogeography of the greenside darter complex , etheostoma blennioides ( teleostomi : percidae ) : a wide - ranging polytypic taxon . molecular phylogenetics and evolution . 46 : 974 - 985 .\nbauer , b . h . , d . a . etnier , and n . m . burkhead . 1995 . etheostoma ( ulocentra ) scotti ( osteichthyes : percidae ) , a new darter from the etowah river system in georgia . bulletin alabama museum of natural history . 17 : 1 - 16 .\nporter , b . a . , a . c . fiumera , and j . c . avise . 2002b . egg mimicry and allopaternal care : two mate - attracting tactics by which nesting striped darter ( etheostoma virgatum ) males enhance reproductive success . behavioral ecology and sociobiology . 51 : 350 - 359 .\netnier , d . a . , and j . d . williams . 1989 . etheostoma ( nothonotus ) wapiti ( osteichthyes , percidae ) , a new darter from the southern bend of the tennessee river system in alabama and tennessee . proceedings of the biological society of washington . 102 : 987 - 1000 .\nan excellent group in which to investigate the history of mtdna introgression and divergence time estimation in species - rich lineages is the darter clade , which contains approximately 250 species endemic to eastern north america that comprises more than 20 % of the entire hyperdiverse north american freshwater fish fauna ( table 1 ; lundberg et al . 2000 ) . darters are classified as etheostomatinae , which is a subclade of percidae . in addition to etheostomatinae , two other major freshwater clades with holarctic distributions , percinae and luciopercinae , comprise percidae . however , neither percinae nor luciopercinae contains more than 10 species ( collette and banarescu 1977 ; song et al . 1998 ) . darter species differ substantially from those in the two other lineages of percidae by having a smaller body size , males of many darter species develop elaborate nuptial colors , and the majority of species lack a functional swim bladder ( page 1983 ; page and swofford 1984 ; etnier and starnes 1993 ) .\na composite phylogeny based primarily on the analyses of the concatenated data sets was used to phylogenetically define 45 clade names for darters ( fig . 4 and appendix ) . the proposed phylogenetic classification in figure 4 represents the most current knowledge of the evolutionary relationships among darter species while also preserving previously used names when appropriate . most of the names in the phylogenetic classification are converted clade names from ranked genus and subgenus names , and four of these converted clade names\u2014 austroperca , astatichthys , pileoma , and richiella \u2014were treated as invalid synonyms in the most recent darter classifications . a total of 16 new clade names are proposed in the phylogenetic definitions ( fig . 4 and appendix ) . some of the well - supported nodes in the darter phylogeny are not named primarily as a result of incongruence between the mtdna and nuclear gene trees ( e . g . , relationships within hadropterus ) or our desire to avoid the possibility of having to redefine clade names subsequent to future phylogenetic analyses .\n, approximately 10 % of the specimens included in this study were obtained from several other natural history museums including university of alabama ichthyology collection ( uaic ) , the north carolina state museum ( ncsm ) , tulane university ( tu ) , and the university of kansas natural history museum ( ku ) . the non - darter percid species\nthe phylogenetic resolution given by the three genes sampled in this study provided an excellent opportunity to revise the classification of darters in a phylogenetic context . the classification presented in figure 4 and the appendix represents the first attempt to provide a comprehensive taxonomy for darters that is based on the results of explicit phylogenetic analysis of comparative data . all previous delimitations of ranked taxonomic groups were based on morphological diagnoses that did not attempt to assess monophyly of the proposed groups ( e . g . , bailey and gosline 1955 ; page 1974 ; 1981 ) . the rich history of darter taxonomy is reflected in the scores of group names that have been introduced over the past two centuries ( collette and knapp 1966 ; collette 1967 ) . previous attempts to codify darter taxonomy have delimited groups of darter species using the available group names as ranked genera and subgenera ( e . g . , jordan and evermann 1896 , p . 1015\u20131105 ; bailey et al . 1954 ; page 1974 , page 1981 , page 2000 ; bailey and etnier 1988 ) .\na previous phylogenetic analysis of darters using cytb gene sequences was reluctant to recognize the darter clade nothonotus as distinct from etheostoma ( mayden et al . 2006 ) , as was proposed in a previous study ( near and keck 2005 ) , on the grounds that all darter lineages exclusive of percina could form a clade named etheostoma . our phylogenetic analyses resolve percina as the sister lineage of all other darters but consistently result in trees that place nothonotus outside of a monophyletic etheostoma and distinct from carnipellucida ( figs . 2 and 3 ) . although our phylogenies are consistent with the clade - naming scenario presented in mayden et al . ( 2006 ) , we believe that the scenario has limited utility because it fails to communicate the wealth of knowledge now available about the phylogenetic relationships among carnipellucida , nothonotus , and etheostoma ( fig . 4 ) .\nphylogenetic classification of darters communicated using a composite phylogeny of darters based on the phylogenies inferred from mitochondrial and nuclear gene dna sequences . the 45 darter clade names that are defined phylogenetically ( see appendix ) are listed and marked with an unfilled circle . filled circles mark clades that were well supported in the phylogenetic analyses but not named in this study . clade names commonly associated with the rank of genus are marked with an asterisk . 4\nphylogenies inferred using bayesian inference from each gene resulted in a large number of significantly supported interspecific nodes , but not all genes contributed equally to our understanding of the darter phylogeny ( fig . 2 ) . despite resolving a large fraction of the nodes in the phylogeny , the s 7 intron 1 gene tree contained relationships that were not congruent with those in the gene trees estimated from cytb and rag1 . the incongruence of the s 7 gene tree is illustrated by the incongruence among phylogenetic relationships of etheostoma and nothonotus that subtend some of the oldest nodes in the darter phylogeny ( fig . 2 ) . relative to rag1 , the s 7 gene tree had fewer nodes with significant posterior support in the 10 - to 20ma age and the 20ma root node age intervals ( fig . 5 ) . the proportion of 10\u201320 ma age nodes supported with significant posteriors in the s 7 gene tree was similar to that observed in the mitochondrial cytb gene tree . in contrast , 10 % more nodes in this age interval were supported in the rag1 gene tree . in addition , we had difficulty aligning the darter s 7 intron dna sequences with those of non - percid teleosts ( e . g . , centrarchidae ) , limiting our ability to include the external age information necessary to time - calibrate the s 7 gene tree .\nusing external calibrations to estimate divergence times for clades lacking a fossil record can be complicated by the presence of substantial differences in molecular evolutionary rates ; however , our analyses did not appear to be confounded by appreciable rate heterogeneity between darters and centrarchidae . the posterior mean rate estimate for cytb and rag1 did not change substantially between beast runs that contained only centrarchid species ( table 2 ) and the runs that included all sampled centrarchid and darter species .\ngene alignments , two sets of beast ucln analyses were run , each with a different calibration strategy . analyses for both genes under both calibration strategies produced similar posterior age estimates for all the major darter clades ( table 3 ) . the mean posterior age estimates for the mrca of all darters , the etheostomatinae , ranged between 30 . 7 and 38 . 4 ma ; however , the 95 % hpd for each of the five estimates exhibited broad overlap (\nulocentra jordan ( p . 223 1878 ) [ t . j . near & b . p . keck ] , converted clade name . comments on name . \u2014applied as a monotypic genus containing e . atripinne ( jordan and brayton 1878 , p . 223 ) and subsequently expanded to include all \u201csnubnose darters\u201d that are classified here as ulocentra and adonia ( bailey and gosline 1955 ; bailey and etnier 1988 ) . definition ( node - based ) . \u2014the least inclusive clade containing e . atripinne ( jordan ) and etheostoma barrenense burr & page . reference phylogeny . \u2014 figure 3c . composition . \u2014includes the species designated in the definition and etheostoma planasaxatile powers & mayden , etheostoma rafinesquei burr & page , and e . simoterum ( cope ) . synapomorphies . \u2014species of ulocentra are diagnosed from other species of simoperca by the presence of a very narrow frenum and a lack of teeth on the vomer ( bailey and etnier 1988 ) . type species . \u2014 e . atripinne ( jordan ) .\nreliance on a ranked classification of darters that emphasizes subgenera without assessing the monophyly of these groups has long been an impediment to comparative studies of darters . for example , bart and page ( 1992 ) analyzed a rich database of information on the size at maturity , fecundity , and egg size in 64 darter species to examine the effects of body size and phylogeny on variation in life history traits ( e . g . , stearns 1984 ; dunham and miles 1985 ) . species data were pooled into clustered groups of genera , groups of subgenera , and subgenera for the analysis of covariance . however , 8 of the 15 polytypic subgenera sampled in the study of bart and page ( 1992 ) are not monophyletic in our phylogenetic analyses . thus , the variance in life history variables explained by the taxonomic nesting in bart and page ( 1992 ) was calculated incorrectly , and as a result , the data need reevaluation in the context of our revised understanding of darter phylogeny .\nwe recommend that ammocrypta , crystallaria , etheostoma , nothonotus , and percina continue to be used as the primary clade names with species epithets . the other clade names highlight phylogenetically related groups of species and will find validity in discussions of character diversity , biogeography , and ecological differences . in addition , the phylogenetic classification and the clade names will provide a comparative basis with which to investigate the ecology and evolutionary biology of darters in a way that was not possible with the previous darter classifications because the classifications did not consistently delimit monophyletic groups of species .\nwe were able to reconstruct the phylogenetic relationships of nearly all extant darter species , while avoiding inference pathologies stemming from incomplete taxon sampling ( e . g . , heath et al . 2008 ) . complete taxon sampling , however , does not resolve issues relating to character sampling ; more characters are generally required to resolve phylogenies that contain a moderate to high number of terminal taxa ( e . g . , bremer et al . 1999 ) . because the darter radiation was expected to contain a mixture of lineages with a fairly recent time since common ancestry and lineages with a much older common ancestor , we aimed to assess if a modest data set of mitochondrial and nuclearencoded gene sequences could result in well - resolved and congruent phylogenetic hypotheses for the clade . the analyses of the two sampled nuclear genes result in an appreciable degree of phylogenetic resolution among closely related species . however , our analyses do substantiate commonly held conceptions in molecular systematics that faster evolving genes provide phylogenetic resolution and clade support for younger nodes in the tree , whereas slower evolving genes are able to provide support for deeper nodes in the phylogeny ( fig . 5 ) .\nrecent phylogenetic analyses of darter subclades have revealed instances of mtdna introgression that range from a few sampled individuals exhibiting heterospecific mtdna genomes to species with complete mtdna genome replacement by heterospecific haplotypes ( bossu and near 2009 ; heckman et al . 2009 ; keck and near 2010 ) . in comparing the phylogenies inferred from mtdna with those inferred from the nuclear genes , we noted a number of topological differences that are likely the result of mtdna introgression . the frequency of mtdna introgression was noted , and mtdna haplotypes that were identified as resulting from introgression were scored as missing data in the bayesian phylogenetic analyses of combined mtdna and nuclear gene data sets .\nas the architecture of the deepest parts of the tree of life become articulated through analyses of ever larger genomic - scale data sets , the challenges of resolving relationships among the most closely related branches and twigs remain . the history of investigating phylogenetic relationships among closely related animal species using molecular data is dominated by the use of mtdna . zoological systematists had been reluctant to explore the use of single - copy nuclear proteincoding genes for closely related lineages because mtdna sequences consistently provided substantial phylogenetic resolution . our investigation of darter phylogenetics based on the near - complete species sampling of a species - rich clade results in several important conclusions : 1 ) the sampling of a modest data set of nuclear genes results in appreciable phylogenetic resolution among closely related species ; 2 ) mtdna introgression in darters is extensive and complicated by the presence of at least three distinct phylogenetic patterns ; 3 ) resolved phylogenetic hypotheses for darters allow the construction of an informative phylogeny - based classification ; and 4 ) strategies of external calibration result in consistent relaxed - clock age estimates for clades across different genes and calibration methods . the results of our analyses provide critical insights in the pattern and timing of darter diversification , but perhaps more importantly , these analyses offer a prospectus for the use of nuclear gene sequence data to resolve the most closely related portions of the animal tree of life .\nin order to determine whether genes that exhibited differing rates of nucleotide substitution provided resolved and significantly supported nodes at different time depths in the phylogeny , the posterior probability clade support values were plotted against the estimated age of the node . only interspecific nodes in the gene trees were scored . the posterior probabilities of clade support were extracted from the mrbayes posterior tree files by adding all compatible groups to the standard 50 % majorityrule consensus trees using the \u201callcompat\u201d option in the mrbayes \u201csumt\u201d command . only nodes that were present in both the beast and the mrbayes sets of posterior trees were recorded . there was substantial congruence among the tree topologies inferred from the mrbayes and beast analyses ; however , there were a few differences that involved the youngest clades in the darter phylogeny .\nthere has been a dramatic increase in the number of recognized darter species since the listing of 129 species in page ' s monographic treatment of the clade ; the increase to 248 species represents nearly a doubling of the number of recognized species over the past 25 years ( table 1 ) . this increase in the recognized species diversity of darters is the result of the discovery of previously unknown or unrecognized species ( e . g . , page et al . 2003 ; page and near 2007 ; layman and mayden 2009 ; switzer and wood 2009 ) , resurrecting species from synonymy ( e . g . , etnier and starnes 1986 ; near 2008 ) , and recognition of species formerly ranked as subspecies ( e . g . , etnier and williams 1989 ; piller et al . 2001 ; robins and page 2007 ) .\nphylogeny of darters inferred from a partitioned bayesian analysis of a combined data set consisting of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene ( cytb ) , the nuclear s 7 ribosomal protein intron 1 gene ( s 7 ) , and the nuclear recombination activating gene 1 exon 3 ( rag1 ) . the sequences for cytochrome b for species with heterospecific mitochondrial genomes were removed prior to the analysis . filled black circles identify clades supported with a bayesian posterior of 1 . 00 , and unfilled circles identify clades with bayesian posterior support that ranges between 0 . 95 and 0 . 99 . the shaded portion of the phylogeny at the top of the figure indicates placement of clades in the darter phylogeny . asterisks connect disconnected branches in the phylogeny . the phylogeny is presented in three parts , labeled ( a ) , ( b ) , and ( c ) .\nthere were three instances of deep introgression observed in the darter phylogeny , two of which involved the clades oligocephalus and psychromaster ( fig . 1 and table 4 ) . when comparing the phylogeny of these lineages inferred from the two nuclear genes with the cytb gene tree , two separate introgression events were detected . there was an mtdna transfer event from a lineage related to the extant species of psychromaster into the common ancestral lineage of vexillapinna , boleichthys , austroperca , and astatichthys . a second deep introgression event involved the transfer of mtdna originating from an oligocephalus lineage into the common ancestor of e . punctulatum , e . autumnale , and e . mihileze . in both cases , there has been species diversification in these lineages subsequent to the transfer and fixation of the heterospecific mtdna ; however , the phylogenetic affinities of these lineages in the mtdna gene tree are dramatically obscured by the deep introgression .\nthe other two species with heterospecific mtdna labeled as examples of indeterminate mtdna introgression may also be considered to harbor mitochondrial fossils ( table 4 ) . for example , the phylogenetic relationships of e . cinereum have long intrigued darter systematists ( bailey and gosline 1955 ; page and whitt 1973b ; page 1977 ; bailey and etnier 1988 ; dimmick and page 1992 ) , and the phylogenetic analyses of mtdna sequences have resulted in the placement of this species distantly related to other etheostoma lineages and more closely related to carnipellucida , percina , or nothonotus ( song et al . 1998 ; sloss et al . 2004 ; mayden et al . 2006 ; lang and mayden 2007 ) . our analyses of the two sampled nuclear genes place e . cinereum in the etheostoma subclade simoperca , a result consistent with the previous analyses of nuclear gene dna sequences and allozymes ( wood and mayden 1997 ; lang and mayden 2007 ; bossu and near 2009 ) .\nour phylogenetic analyses of cytb and the two sampled nuclear genes indicate that 31 species , comprising more than 12 % of all darter species ( tables 1 and 4 ) , exhibit some degree of mitochondrial introgression , which ranges from complete replacement to an appreciable frequency of sampled individuals with heterospecific mtdna genomes . as in the previous investigations of boleosoma and nothonotus , we found no introgression of the two examined autosomal ( nuclear ) loci in any of the species exhibiting mtdna introgression ( heckman et al . 2009 ; keck and near 2010 ) . three different patterns of mtdna transfer were observed in our phylogenetic trees . among the 13 detected mtdna introgression events in darters , 8 involved proximal mtdna transfer ( table 4 ) . this pattern is detected by reference to a phylogeny that shows the phylogenetic nesting of haplotypes sampled from the recipient lineage in the donor lineage clade . these introgressed haplotypes may be fixed in the recipient lineage or show variation in the degree of introgression among geographic populations , and the introgressed haplotypes in the recipient lineage may be identical or very similar to those observed in the donor lineage ( fig . 1 ) .\ndivergence times were estimated using an uncorrelated lognormal ( ucln ) model of molecular evolutionary rate heterogeneity implemented in the computer program beast v . 1 . 53 ( drummond et al . 2006 ; drummond and rambaut 2007 ) . data sets used in the mrbayes analyses were pruned to contain only one specimen per sampled species in the ucln analyses . the optimal molecular evolutionary models were identified using aic , partitioning schemes were assessed using bayes factor comparisons , and the ucln model was implemented in beast to estimate the posterior density of divergence times . a birthdeath speciation prior was used for the branching rates in the phylogeny . five sets of relaxed - clock analyses were performed . divergence times were estimated using the centrarchid fossil calibrations and alignments of darters and centrarchids for each of the proteincoding cytb and rag1 genes . the centrarchid fossil calibrations were not used to estimate divergence times in darters for the s 7 intron 1 locus because substantial divergence between darters and centrarchids makes alignment of this locus problematic . the posterior densities of centrarchid molecular evolutionary rates estimated from alignments that contained only centrarchid species were used as priors in the analyses of darter alignments from each of the three genes ( cytb , s 7 , and rag1 ) .\nscores of colleagues either directly contributed specimens for this study or facilitated our fieldwork . in particular , we thank h . l . bart , b . h . bauer , a . c . bentley , g . r dinkins , b . j . freeman , m . c . freeman , g . hogue , r . e . johansen , r . l . mayden , l . m . page , k . r . piller , b . a . porter , s . l . powers , m . e . raley , r . h . robins , a . m . simons , w . c starnes , e . o . wiley , and r . m . wood . our views on darter phylogeny were shaped through discussions with h . l . bart , b . h . bauer , m . j . donoghue , a . dornburg , b . r moore , t . c . mendelson , l . m . page , k . r . piller , and r . m . strange . b . j . kendrick provided assistance in the laboratory . g . watkins - cowell and j . p . joice provided assistance with museum collections . we thank k . de queiroz and r . e . glor for valuable comments on earlier versions of our manuscript .\nthere are considerable challenges to estimating divergence times using molecular data because of the near - ubiquitous presence of among - lineage molecular evolutionary rate heterogeneity and the need for external age calibration information ( sanderson 1998 ) . unfortunately , the fossil record for darters is poor and offers no information to provide minimal age constraints for nodes in molecular phylogenies ( ossian 1973 ; smith 1981 ; cavender 1986 , cavender 1998 ) . although the fossil record for non - darter percids ( e . g . , perca and sander ) extends to the early miocene , the morphological features preserved in these fossils do not permit the phylogenetic placement of the taxa relative to extant percid species ( svetovidov and dorofeeva 1963 ; cziczer et al . 2009 ; murray et al . 2009 ) . previous analyses of molecular divergence times in darters have used external fossil calibrations from the percoid clade centrarchidae ( near and benard 2004 ; near and keck 2005 ; carlson et al . 2009 ; hollingsworth and near 2009 ) . centrarchid fishes are classified in the same taxonomic order as darters ( nelson 2006 ) and have a rich fossil record that has been used to calibrate molecular phylogenies . there is also a substantial set of comparative molecular data sets available for this clade ( near et al . 2003 , near et al . 2004 , near , bolnick , et al . 2005 ) .\nemerald darters spawn in late april and early may . though actual spawning has not been observed , attempts by males to mate include swimming from side to side over the female\u2019s back . further , males have been observed in the wild trying to mount unresponsive females from behind or from the side . emerald darter larvae usually measure 4 . 5 to 6 . 0 mm in length and emerge from the egg with yolk sacs still attached . water temperature has a direct correlation with juvenile development , with warmer water temperatures resulting in a faster development and smaller sizes . warmer temperatures can have even more detrimental effects on populations . warmer temperatures in the later weeks of the breeding season can cause females to reabsorb their eggs and become unreceptive . spawning occurs in the center of riffles . larger males place themselves in pools near the middle of these turbulent areas so they will have a higher probability of encountering more females , which tend to use these areas . emerald darters prefer gravel substrates that lack silt . eggs and sperm are released simultaneously through mutual vibration and are attached by the female directly onto the gravel substrate . [ 7 ] emerald darters generally average 36 offspring per year . most captured emerald darters have been aged at up to three years old . in the red river drainage , 53 % of the population survived its second year , while only 7 . 7 % survived the third . third - year individuals were predominantly male .\nthe classification of darters has historically been characterized by the recognition of genera and subgenera that were assumed to represent monophyletic groups of species ( page 1981 , page 1983 ; bailey and etnier 1988 ; etnier and starnes 1993 ; boschung and mayden 2004 ) . because we are able to present well - resolved and strongly supported phylogenies based on mtdna and nuclear genes that are , with a few exceptions , generally in agreement with one another , we developed a phylogeny - based classification of darters that follows the principles of phylogenetic nomenclature described in the phylocode ( de queiroz and gauthier 1990 , de queiroz and gauthier 1992 , de queiroz and gauthier 1994 ; cantino and de queiroz 2009 ) . we attempted to preserve the nomenclatural history of group names by retaining preexisting names for clades when they exist ( e . g . , collette and knapp 1966 ) and by providing new names for clades that have never had formal names applied . we based our decision to name a clade on both its diagnosability and the need to communicate the clade in comparative and taxonomic studies ( e . g . , cantino et al . 2007 ) . thus , not all well - supported clades in the darter phylogenies were named . in addition , the clade names were given phylogenetic definitions that can only be applied in the context of a given phylogeny , and clades were identified by reference to a branch or a node in the phylogeny ( de queiroz and gauthier 1990 , de queiroz and gauthier 1992 ) .\ncomparison of posterior node ages estimated using external centrarchid fossil calibrations and those estimated using external rate calibrations reveals slight differences in the posterior age estimates between the two strategies . although there were no significant differences in the posterior node heights estimated by the two calibration strategies , fossil - calibrated ages were on average younger for the cytb chronogram and older for the rag1 chronogram relative to those estimated using external rate calibrations ( table 3 ) . this slight difference in node ages between the fossil and rate calibration analyses may be due to a difference in the width of the prior distribution of the rate calibrations , which are modeled on the posterior distributions of rate estimates from the centrarchid - only beast analyses ( table 2 ) . the prior distribution of the mean rate of the cytb gene was much wider than that of the rag1 gene . in the rate calibration analysis , the sampling of rates within this prior distribution may be limited relative to the sampling of rates in the fossil - calibrated analysis for rag1 . for the cytb rate calibration analysis , the converse may be true : a wide posterior on rates implies a wider sampling of rate variation relative to the rates sampled in the fossil calibration analysis . the assessment of posterior ages resulting from fossil - based versus rate calibration should therefore ideally consider the density of fossil calibration and the disparity in the credible intervals of the individual genes in the analysis . however , our analyses of darter divergence times using external centrarchid calibrations demonstrate promising consistency in posterior ages estimated using fossil and rate calibrations ."]}
{"id": 1168, "summary": [{"text": "the titan triggerfish , giant triggerfish or moustache triggerfish ( balistoides viridescens ) is a large species of triggerfish found in lagoons and at reefs to depths of 50 m ( 160 ft ) in most of the indo-pacific , though it is absent from hawaii .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "with a length of up to 75 centimetres ( 30 in ) , it is the largest species of triggerfish in its range ( the stone triggerfish , pseudobalistes naufragium , from the east pacific is larger ) . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "titan triggerfish", "paragraphs": ["territorial females such as this titan triggerfish may guard their egg nests aggressively against all comers .\nothers , such as titan triggerfish , don\u2019t seem treacherous until they\u2019re pummeling your face with their teeth .\ntitan triggerfish are often solitary , and diurnal , meaning they are day - time fish , sleeping at night .\nmr . reeftraveler was bitten by an aggressive titan triggerfish several years ago . here is his account of the story .\nbehaviour : titan triggerfish are often solitary , and diurnal , meaning they are day - time fish , sleeping at night .\na titan triggerfish feeds on something crunchy and delicious ( an echinoderm , crustracean or mollusk ) . image courtesy of flickriver . com .\nthe beautiful , robust and perhaps misunderstood titan triggerfish is often found in lagoons , outer reefs and nibbling at the ends of your fins ( especially if they are yellow ) . with a daring attitude unrivalled by any other , the titan triggerfish is our wildlife of the week :\nmost underwater photographers who have spent any time in the indo pacific have come across the very photogenic titan triggerfish . most of us have heard the stories of titan triggerfish attacking divers , ramming and biting , and sometimes requiring medical attention . there is some irony in the fact that most non - divers ' ( and unfortunately many divers as well ) have unwarranted fears about sharks or barracudas , but would more than likely approach a titan triggerfish without a second thought .\nouch ! that sounds painful . i recall seeing many titan triggers in the maldives ( south ari atoll ) . and like you said , it wasn\u2019t the sharks that i was weary of , it was the titan triggerfish . those googly eyes strike fear in me !\ndue to this intrusive style of feeding , titan triggerfish often have smaller fish groupies hanging about picking off left overs from successful kills and other scraps dislodged by their thrashing about .\ntitan triggerfish ( balistoides viridescens ) attack . tulamben , bali , indonesia . nov / 2012 . shot with a samsung galaxy compact camera in custom underwater housing . blog post : urltoken\njohn , i can\u2019t help but laugh at your story ! thanks for sharing . like you , i would much rather encounter a large shark than a ticked - off titan triggerfish .\n* all species of triggerfish build nests , and most have cone - shaped territories ; but only two species - the titan and picasso triggerfish \u2013 defend their turf violently . not coincidentally , these are also the two species big enough to inflict actual damage .\nbeing an oddly - shaped swimmer probably got this titan triggerfish made fun of on the playground . ( can ' t believe i just resisted a\nschool\npun . ) titan triggers are found throughout indo - pacific waters ; we saw them frequently in thailand and malaysia . image courtesy of aquaviews . com .\ntitan triggerfish is a large species of triggerfish with size up to 75cm . they are quite common in many indo - pacific areas and can live in depths as much as 50m . this fish is very territorial and especially during the reproduction season will protect its nest fiercely . you can tell you are risking an attack when the fish faces you with its dorsal spine erect . the bite of a titan triggerfish is not venomous , however its teeth are strong enough to send you for a stitch or two .\nwe are considering going to the maldives in february . i have heard that titan triggerfish can be very aggresive and can cause injuries to snorkellers when the fish are guarding their nests . are the fish easy to spot so you can avoid them or is it a case that they see you before you see them ? any tips on how to avoid injury from them ? are the titan triggerfish any worse at vilamendhoo compared to the other islands ?\ntitan triggerfish enjoy a wide distribution . inhabiting the coral reefs found in indo - pacific region comprising malaysia , thailand , indonesia , philippines , fiji and australia , as well as further afield in the maldives and the red sea .\nwow , what a story ! there isn\u2019t much that i fear underwater , but the titan trigger is one fish that makes me very cautious .\nchakradar , i have seen the titan trigger fish in very shallow water also . this fish has a really cool appearance with its big eyes .\nthe threat posture includes the triggerfish facing the intruder while holding its first dorsal spine erect . it may also roll onto its side , allowing it a better look at the intruder it perceives as threatening its nest . the titan triggerfish will not always bite , but can swim at snorkellers and divers escorting them out of their territory .\nouch , fay ! what an experience . i would guess that a titan triggerfish was the culprit . i saw many of them in the maldives , but they didn\u2019t bother me . i think it was not mating season at the time ?\nsexually distinctive , the titan triggerfish will lay eggs that are fertilised externally . eggs are laid after some preparation of the nest . they create a depression in the sand of the chosen nesting area by fanning it with their caudal and dorsal fins .\ntitan triggerfish won ' t always resort to violence though , on occasion just swimming at the intruder , usually a diver or snorkeller , to provide them with an escort out of the nesting territory . however , should a colourful male titan happen to charge in your direction , it ' s best to do away with bravado and retreat , using your fins as a barrier between you and the fish .\ntitan triggerfish looking for food , picked up a large bit of corral . it was keeping an eye on me as i drifted closer , not sure if it was going to attack me or swim away . . . . ! interaction with humans the titan triggerfish is usually wary of divers and snorkelers , but during the reproduction season the female guards its nest , which is placed in a flat sandy area , vigorously against any intruders . although bites are not venomous , the strong teeth can inflict serious injury that may require medical attention\nthe titan triggerfish is well known to those who dive and snorkel the tropical waters of the pacific and indian oceans . it\u2019s dramatic coloring , relatively large size ( 30 inches / 75 cm ) and cartoon - like eyes render it a very attractive subject for underwater photographers .\na titan triggerfish may well be able to defend its egg nest against a diver who inadvertently crosses into its protective zone . the diver is perceived as a large predator by the triggerfish , which is fearless and unrelenting in defense of its territory against the hapless diver . the triggerfish will swim to confront the diver at frenetic speed and perhaps bite a chunk out of him with its formidable teeth and strong jaws . however , while the triggerfish is on the offensive , opportunist egg - eaters such as wrasses , surgeonfish and butterflyfish will take advantage of the opening in defenses . they dart in to gorge upon the momentarily unprotected eggs in an unabashed frenzy , while the triggerfish deals with the intruding diver .\ntitan triggerfish spawn for about 4 days a month . the male will guard the nest and blow water over the eggs , ensuring a good supply of fresh water and oxygen . once the larvae hatch they will swim away , presumably into the protection afforded by the coral reef .\ntitan triggers are capable of delivering a nasty bite . the internet disagrees about whether the bite of the triggerfish is toxic . eating triggerfish flesh , like the flesh of many reef fish , sometimes causes ciguatera in humans , an illness produced by dinoflagellates in the fish ' s diets . whether the bite is ciguatoxic , however , is up for dispute . image courtesy of patmillerphoto . com .\nits snout comprises about a third of its total length and its mouth is small with chisel - like teeth . titan triggerfish can accelerate for short distances at a fairly surprising speeds . they can generally be found in the indian ocean and central pacific at depths of around 10 to 30 metres .\nthe titan triggerfish is usually wary of divers and snorkelers , but during the reproduction season the female guards its nest , which is placed in a flat sandy area , vigorously against any intruders . although bites are not venomous , the strong teeth can inflict serious injury that may require medical attention .\nnot all titans will attack to protect their territory . often you will just be charged at aggressively and subsequently escorted out of the nesting zone by an agitated pit - bull with scales . and remember - you are not really being\nattacked\n, the titan is defending its territory , which you ( unknowingly ) invaded . don ' t blame the titan .\nsometimes the fish will simply make a quick charge at the diver or snorkeler to \u201cevict\u201d them from the nesting territory . in other instances the fish may bite the diver or snorkeler as they are trying to flee . but most of the time , a titan triggerfish will ignore a diver or snorkeler .\nthe 40 species of triggerfish are scattered throughout the world\u2019s seas and are familiar to divers and aquarium aficionados . largest of all is the stone triggerfish , which reaches up to 3 . 3 feet long , found in the eastern pacific from mexico to chile .\nthis entry was posted in uncategorized and tagged dangerous marine life , diving , self - defense , triggerfish . bookmark the permalink .\ndespite triggerfish\u2019s benign appearance , our certifying instructor , a normally insouciant dutchman named jesse , warned us about them vehemently before we got in the water . \u201cya , ya , they are dangerous , \u201d jesse told us with uncharacteristic gravity , stabbing at the fish id book with an index finger . he was pointing at one species of triggerfish in particular : the titan trigger ( balistoides viridescens if you speak latin ) , one of the largest types in the world .\nfor reasons that are not totally understood , titan triggerfish defend a funnel - shaped territory that widens as it rises * . this means that a diver\u2019s natural reaction to danger \u2013 ascension \u2013 actually keeps them squarely in the trigger\u2019s defense zone . an aggrieved triggerfish will keep chasing a frantically rising diver right to the surface , and presumably onto the boat if it could . the proper response to a triggerfish attack , then , is to swim horizontally and toward the bottom , with fins splayed out to ward the fish off . good luck remembering the proper response when you\u2019re being targeted by an enraged yellow missile .\nregularly spotted at the phuket islands such as racha yai and certainly one of the more antagonistic species of fish found in thai waters , titan triggerfish are not known as a diver ' s best friend . however , despite looking quite mean with their beady , swivelling eyes , they ' re quite easy to deal with , with the right approach .\nthe triggerfish search for mating partners and are known to do mating dances with the chosen one . both will vigorously protect the nesting area .\ntitan triggerfish , he explained , respond more aggressively to potential predators during mating season : which , being april at the time , it was . a nasty bite on the arm , a chomp on the rubber fin , and a couple of angry charges had sent several trespassing divers packing in recent days . ( in the future , i was to hear even more tales of triggerfish assaults , including a shattered mask and a cut on the forehead requiring three stitches . ) titan triggers are not small fish \u2013 some are nearly a meter long \u2013 and despite being oddly - shaped swimmers they can build up some pretty serious momentum . not only are they powerful , they\u2019re highly intelligent , and capable of learning from previous experience \u2013 if a triggerfish discovers that it can ward off divers by sinking its teeth into arm - flesh , it\u2019s liable to try that tactic again .\nmove away trying to escape is the most logical solution . triggerfish is mostly aggressive during breeding season ( april to may ) , but they are known to attack divers basically at any time of the year . similar to other animals , they attack when their territory is invaded by intruders including other unfriendly fish and divers . if you unintentionally come too close to their nest , triggerfish will repeatedly chase you to send you away . an important thing to know is that triggerfish makes its territory in cone - shaped area with the tip of the cone at the bottom . if you bump into a titan triggerfish , swim away in horizontal direction and toward the bottom . many divers try to escape by ascending . that is a mistake and the fish will most probably keep on chasing them . ignore them\nthe nest of the titan triggerfish is usually in a flat sandy area amongst the corals , an area that it will defend with a passion . mating season is a particularly aggressive time during which the trigger fish becomes even more territorial than usual . the teeth , designed for crunching through hard shells and coral , can inflict serious wounds on any would - be intruders .\nthe titan triggerfish ( scientific name - balistoides viridescens ) is the largest of the triggerfish family , ranging from approximately 15 - 30 inches . their bodies have patterns of green , yellow , purple and gray , with black fin tips . they are indeed very photogenic . titans feed on hard coral , crustaceans and invertebrates , using a set of specialized teeth that are clearly designed for these food sources . the titans have independently rotating eye sockets , but apparently have poor vision , possibly adding to their territorial nature .\nvery interesting , and well written . cool illustration of the diver\u2019s reaction after realizing that he had disturbed the nest of the triggerfish ! ! !\nwhile not always aggressive and on the attack , these highly territorial fish are no joke and are to be taken seriously . so when we received an email from underwater photographer david henshaw with images from a recent trigger attack in dumaguette , philippines , we decided that it was important to make sure that all of our readers understood more about the titan triggerfish , and their behavior .\nwhy the aggressive behaviour , one might wonder ? hard to say . while some triggerfish are merely reacting to what they perceive as threats to their nesting grounds - definitely a lesson for divers to respect the habitat of these fish - others seem to do so for the fun of it . this much is clear - titan triggerfish are extremely territorial by nature . the male stands guard over its nest and will charge at any divers or fish that cross into its territory ( the zone in a full circle directly above its nest .\ntriggerfish are attractive animals and some species have become too popular for their own good . they are sought for the aquarium trade , which has prompted fishermen to gather even threatened species from the wild . researchers are working to raise triggerfish in captivity so that wild populations might more likely be left alone .\ntitan triggerfish feed on shellfish , urchins , crustaceans and coral . they are the workers of the reef , often being busy turning over rocks , stirring up the sand and biting off pieces of branching coral . this is why one often sees other smaller fish species around it who feed from the left overs . they have also been observed being agressive to other fish who enter their territory .\ntitan trigger and green moray eel 5 / 10 / 18 hi all great site . very informative < hi george > i just built a 450 gallon acrylic tank in my basement a month ago . my basement entrance has always kept me from anything larger then a 180 gallon but building it myself has fixed this issue . < great > current occupants are a green moray eel and a titan trigger . < one of the most aggressive trigger species and it gets too large ! > all the filter media sand and live rock was transferred from my 180 gallon into this new aquarium , the eel is new but the titan has been with me for about a year in the 180 i < caps > know the tank is to small for them once they get bigger , i am beginning the plans for a approximately 1000 gallon soon . the titan is about 9 inches and the green moray is 3 feet long . < keep an eye on the trigger as it is very mean with most tankmates > i believe i have a year or so before the 1000 is necessary . contemplating whether to go acrylic or plywood this time . my question is will the titan trigger get it\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s adult coloration in a home aquarium ? < it will if good nutritional and environmental conditions are provided > thanks george < your welcome wilberth gamboa > re : titan trigger and green moray eel 5 / 10 / 18 thank you very much < welcome . wilberth gamboa >\nan orange - lined triggerfish - a common sighting at mabul and sipadan islands - with dorsal trigger fully engaged . courtesy of animal - world . com .\nwhile they may enjoy taking a nibble out of divers , titan triggerfish tend to feed on hard corals , hard bodied benthic invertebrates ( shellfish , crustaceans and urchins ) and algae . they have distinctly disruptive feeding habits , darting about the coral - scape turning over rocks , biting off pieces of branching coral and stirring up sand by fanning its fins or squirting water through its mouth in search of food .\nthe larger , hardier angel species do well with triggerfish , as do many wrasse , surgeonfish , and damselfish species , as well as various moray eel species .\n\u201cyou go into her territory\u2026\u201d he shook his head , and pounded a fist \u2013 presumably the female triggerfish \u2013 into his open palm \u2013 presumably a diver\u2019s face .\na world - renowned reef fishes authority examines a variety of triggerfish that are suitable additions to a reef aquarium and the dangers they might pose to invertebrates and corals .\nyou have probably seen them before and not doubt been warned of the dangers they pose when protecting their young but how much do you know about trigger fish ? find out more about this common reef inhabitant and understand why it has torn off a few ears over the years and caused so many bruises - is it just misunderstood ? the titan triggerfish is a beautiful and robust reef creature just waiting to be discovered . . .\ntriggerfish are highly resilient animals , and for the most part they ship well and feed from the time they are collected to the time they make it into your home aquarium .\none of the most important criteria for keeping healthy triggerfish is to feed them often\u2013at least three and preferably five small meals a day . in order to maintain their color and health , they should be fed a varied diet , complete with fresh or frozen clams , urchins , freeze - dried seaweed sheets , frozen or steamed spinach leaf , and freeze - dried krill soaked in selcon , or a comparable amino - acid . it is important to feed triggerfish several times a day , as they will rapidly lose weight if fed sparingly . although many aquarists like to hand - feed their triggerfish , you should be aware that triggerfish , especially larger specimens , can inflict painful injuries with their strong jaws and teeth . when first introduced to the aquarium some triggerfish species can be quite shy and may hide whenever you approach their tank . but it will not take long before they become bold aquarium inhabitants .\ntriggerfish are infamous for their nasty attitude and this behavior is especially evident around nests , where intruders , from other fish to human divers , are likely to be charged or bitten .\nbut when the trigger appeared i obeyed jesse and ducked . the triggerfish fluttered awkwardly in a vertical position , facing downward , pecking at the sand even as its body tugged surface - ward like a helium balloon . was it arranging its legendary nest ? hunting for crustaceans and echinoderms , its preferred food ? we were triggerfish neophytes , and there was no telling .\nmost of the time , the fish will ignore you . watch the fish from a distance for a minute or two and look for signs of agitation ( including an erect dorsal fin or charging or darting ) . if the fish seems ambivalent about your presence , go ahead and take photos . it\u2019s best to stay at the same depth as the fish and as far away as possible ( while still close enough to get a good shot ) . the maldivian titan triggerfish shots that i took above were from a distance of about 4 feet . if you find yourself face to face with an aggressive titan triggerfish , remember to swim away horizontally at the same depth . this is the quickest way to exit its territory . and while swimming away , swim backwards while keeping your eyes on the fish and point your fins toward the fish . if it decides to bite , let it take a chunk from your fin instead of your leg .\nthe triggerfish belong to the family balistidae , which comprises 11 genera and approximately 40 species . the common name for the family is derived from the second dorsal , or \u201ctrigger , \u201d spine . when a triggerfish is threatened or resting , it will wedge itself into a hole and erect the first dorsal spine , which is then locked into place by the second dorsal spine . the only way to remove the fish when it is thus secured is by depressing the \u201ctrigger\u201d spine , which causes the first dorsal to \u201cunlock . \u201d however , this is often a difficult task , and attempting to do so may inadvertently injure a triggerfish . therefore the best way to transfer a triggerfish hiding in aquarium decor is to move the piece of rock or coral along with the fish .\nit\u2019s not a myth . however , that shouldn\u2019t stop you from enjoying the water . the truth is that some male titan triggerfish in certain regions , and during certain seasons , have a tendency to charge at and / or bite divers and snorkelers who unknowingly enter their \u201cterritory\u201d . the \u201cterritory\u201d is generally a cone shaped area directly above their nest ( which is usually found in the sand close to and around coral ) . the widest part of the cone shaped area / territory is at the surface .\naside from their unique morphology , the next thing that will grab your attention about a triggerfish is the color . a few species are like living , breathing modern art paintings , and the picasso triggerfish in particular looks like something out of a children\u2019s story , almost too fanciful to be real\u2026but there it is ! a few species are just out and out garish , while some have a more subtle beauty .\nthat is how people often respond to the suggestion of adding one of those fish to their prized reef aquarium . while the majority of triggerfish are not suitable for most reefs , there is a small group of triggers that are exceptions to the normally held rule . in this article we will examine those triggerfish and look at the calculated risk of keeping some of the less suitable species with your invertebrates and corals .\nat night or when threatened , the fish will wedge itself into a coral crevasse and erect its dorsal fin wedging itself in tight . the first spine is locked in place by the second spine and once that ' s in place , the fish is virtually immovable , resulting in the titan trigger fish not being considered an easy meal .\nthe best triggerfish for the reef aquarium belong to the genera melichthys , odonus , and xanthichthys . of those three genera , the latter is the very best for the reef aquarium\u2014this includes the bluechin ( x . auromarginatus ) , the crosshatch ( x . mento ) , and the sargassum triggerfish ( x . ringens ) . the niger triggerfish ( odonus niger ) is more likely to hunt down motile invertebrates and may occasionally eat sessile invertebrates like sponges . the triggers in the genus melichthys\u2014including the indian ( m . indicus ) , black ( m . niger ) , and pinktail triggerfish ( m . vidua ) \u00ac\u2014feed heavily on floating algae and thus usually behave well with sessile invertebrates . while those species usually do well with corals , they may occasionally decide to dispatch a crustacean here or there , especially if the latter are introduced after the trigger is already in the tank .\ntitans are also known as the\nblack - tipped\nor\nmoustached triggerfish\ndue to their appearance - they have dark markings above the mouth which look like a moustache - and black edgings on their fins .\ntriggerfish are simply too goofy to be intimidating . in identification guides , the world\u2019s forty species of triggerfish fall into the ignominious category \u201coddly - shaped swimmers , \u201d which has to be a little embarrassing if you\u2019re a fish . triggers are endowed with huge bulging heads , independently rotating eyes that protrude like marbles , and tiny undulating fins that appear far too small to propel their decidedly un - aerodynamic bodies . to their credit , triggerfish also have a cool eponymous adaptation : to protect against predators they can raise two dorsal spines , which when locked into place resemble a trigger . the spines are usually engaged at night . they still look weird during the day .\nordinarily you will encounter a solitary titan . like most reef fish , they are active during the day and will tuck themselves into the reef to sleep at night . understanding their nesting behavior and territorial nature is important for minimizing problematic encounters . while it is commonly cited that titans only attack while protecting their nests , this may not be true , as many incidents indicate aggression against territorial intruders even during non nesting seasons . titans nest in the sand adjacent to or within the corals . they will protect these nests with a rigor that is rarely seen from other species . the\ndanger zone\nis a cone shaped area directly above the nest , all the way to the surface . so if you invade a titan ' s nesting zone , which more often than not you will do unintentionally , and find yourself with an aggressive male chomping at your fins and ramming you , ascending will not stop the titan from defending its turf . you must swim horizontally away from this zone . try to keep your eyes on the titan at all times , which is easier said than done , as these fish dart about in spurts of intense speed . keep your camera or fins between you and the fish if at all possible . better to have a hole or in fins than your body ! hardcore photographers would say to make sure you get the shot while evading attack , but we will be responsible and recommend focusing on not being harmed .\ntriggerfish quickly learn to solve simple problems . for example , it does not take long for most species to learn to recognize where the food comes from , and established specimens will \u201cbeg\u201d at the water ' s surface every time their owner is in view . they will also spit water out of the aquarium . triggerfish in the wild often engage in a behavior called hydraulic jetting . this action gets its name from a triggerfish\u2019s directing a jet of water out of its mouth into the sand to uncover buried prey . triggerfish also use hydraulic jetting to flip over protected prey items like spiny sea urchins . in the aquarium they learn to associate the surface of the water , not the tank bottom , with food . so instead of spitting water at the substrate they blow it at the water ' s surface . although interesting , this behavior can cause severe problems if your top is not totally covered and you have electrical outlets near the tank .\nhey jk , thanks a lot for the kind words . i\u2019m proud to take credit for the interesting content of the post , but the pictures are another story : i actually lifted them from various sites around the internet ( with due accreditation ) . i\u2019ve tried to photograph triggers before , too , but it\u2019s hard to get a titan trigger to hold still for you !\nwe hit the water that first day with some trigger - related anxiety . jesse had warned us that an especially large titan trigger made her home nearby , and that if we saw her we were to cower behind him like the pansies we were . screw that , i thought : i\u2019m provoking an attack . the resultant scar would be a cool synecdoche for a great story .\ntriggerfish are laterally compressed , have relatively small mouths equipped with chisel - like teeth , heavily muscled jaws , and eyes that are positioned far back on the head . the powerful jaws and teeth are used to crush hard - shelled prey items , while having the eyes far from the mouth ensures that these vulnerable organs will not be damaged by sharp - spined prey items like sea urchins . triggerfish swim by sculling with the soft anal and dorsal fins ( this is known as the balistiform swimming mode ) , but if a sudden burst of speed is required they will use rapid sweeps of their tail . triggerfish occur in all tropical oceans , and most species associate with rocky outcroppings or coral reefs . there are several species that lead a pelagic lifestyle , roaming about the open ocean or living among sargassum algae rafts . but most species inhabit relatively shallow coastal waters . some triggerfish are sexually dimorphic and / or sexually dichromatic ; for example , in many species males are larger than females .\nthere is one simple rule every diver should know and respect - limit the interactions with the marine life ideally to zero contact . underwater animals and plants have been there for millions of years , while humans have found home on land . as cute as many of them might look , there are several good reasons why we should not touch or harass marine life . direct interaction might be allowed ( or even necessary ) only in case of an official scientific research such as tagging certain fish or during rescue activities . read our previous blog post do not harras the marine life - you may hurt them . some fish are known to attack humans , but they do that based on the defensive survival instincts . when they feel threatened , they become aggressive . among many different fish species in the ocean , titan triggerfish is one of the most fearsome . here are some things you should do if you ever find yourself under the triggerfish attack .\nthe halfmoom and bursa triggers , ( sufflamen chrysopterus ) , and ( sufflamen bursa ) respectively can also be kept in a community setting , as can the pinktail triggerfish , ( melichthys vidua ) , the bluechin triggerfish , ( xanthichthys auromarginatus ) , the crosshatch triggerfish , ( xanthichthys mento ) , and the sargassum triggerfish , ( xanthichthys ringens ) . the latter 4 species , as well as odonus niger have the distinction of being generally safe in reef settings , with the caveat that small shrimp should be added before the triggerfish , and the triggers themselves should generally be added last , and be the smallest fish in the tank . in fact , in all cases your trigger should be the last and smallest fish added to the community . the reason for this is that even relatively peaceable species like the huma huma , are only peaceable in relative terms ! they are still somewhat aggressive fish , and can do a fair amount of damage in an altercation . for this reason they generally should not only be added last , but also be the smallest fish in the tank . this mitigates the damage that these fish are capable of , and allows the trigger to become conditioned to the presence of his / her tank mates . simply following these two rules generally assures that the trigger does not establish itself as the dominant fish in the community , and allows the other inhabitants to adapt to the presence of the triggerfish . for their part , triggers are not generally susceptible to stress from larger , bullying tank mates , and they are quite well armored against anything short of a depth charge attack !\nsome of our diving guests in padangbai suggest that it is best to pretend you don\u2019t care about the fish . of course this might not work when you actually are under the attack , but might be worth trying to avoid it in the first place . if you spot a titan triggerfish on alert , just pretend you don\u2019t care and turn your back on them . use your equipment as defense even under attack , divers should not defend by being offensive or aggressive . when scuba diving , divers enter the territory of marine animals so it is only natural that some fish see divers as a threat . the fish attack in order to defend their territories . it is not fair to attack them back . instead of fighting back using a pointer or other edged weapon , try to block the attack by using your camera , dive slate or fins . triggerfish is both powerful and intelligent , they can learn from previous experience . recognize the fish as a preventive measure , learn to recognize triggerfish before you go diving . some prominent characteristics include purple lower jaw , green or yellow fins , and eye socket that rotates independently . triggerfish are solitary creatures but smaller fish often tag along to feed on the leftovers . this fish is active during the day and usually hiding in the reef at night . if you spot them , keep a safe distance and avoid diving toward their direction to minimize interaction . want to learn more about other curious fish ? read our blog post about what you didn\u2019t know about nemo or how to behave around mola mola .\nthere is so many of them in the maldives , not only the titan ones but incredible amount of the black ones that swim in a group - it bit me hard through my pinky and 5 weeks on it is still very painful and the tissue has become hard under the skin . since that day i was also very cautious snorkelling , literally didn\u2019t mins the sharks and rays at all but was looking out for the trigger jerks : - ) )\nthe other thing that helped reduce the level of destruction wrought by the trigger was the feeding regimen\u2013the triggerfish was fed chunks of seafood several times a day . not only does frequent feeding mean your trigger is fat and happy , it also means the balistid is less likely to eat its neighbors .\nthe balistoids are laterally compressed , generally rhomboid shaped fishes , although a few species such as the clown triggerfish , are slightly elongated . they have a non - protrusible upper jaw , with hard , specialised teeth that in most species are designed for cracking the shells of various hard - shelled invertebrates .\nspeaking of things that should be kept out of the main tank , add your hands and arms to the list ! as much as possible anyway , you should avoid inserting your hands into a tank containing a large triggerfish \u2013 they can draw blood , and larger specimens ( though unlikely to be found in your home tank ) can remove fingers . the jaws of these fish are highly effective at what they are designed for , which is dismantling all manner of hardened items found in their environment . always be aware of where your triggerfish is when doing maintenance of your tank , even smaller specimens can deliver a painful and shocking bite .\nso what about invertebrates ? is it really possible to keep triggers with animals they may perceive as prey ? the answer is yes and no . it is very important that you choose your triggerfish species and invertebrate tankmates very carefully . many triggerfish have highly varied diets that include many different types of invertebrates , as well as plant material and small fish . take a look at a dietary study on the commonly kept rectangular triggerfish ( rhinecanthus rectangulus ) . this study lists the following in r . rectangulus stomachs ( in order of importance in the diet ) : amphipods , tunicates , filamentous algae , crabs , polychaete worms , shrimps , coralline algae , snails , sea urchins , isopods , bryozoans , tiny clams , and crab larvae ! there are a lot of animals in that list that many reef aquarists would prefer to have flourish in their tanks . but note that there were no corals listed . that does not mean that all triggers are not a threat to corals . triggerfish are very opportunistic , and some larger species have been known to bite off coral branches to get at crabs or echinoderms that are hiding within a coral colony . those species would indeed be unwelcome in your small - polyped stony coral tank . there are also food habit studies that have listed the tips of stony corals in trigger stomachs .\n\u201cthe triggerfish , she has a nest , \u201d jesse explained . on a whiteboard he drew a pile of rocks on the seafloor meant to represent the nest . \u201cshe stays near her nest all the time . and she has a territory around her nest , \u201d he went on , drawing as he spoke , \u201cshaped like this . \u201d\nno , its not a myth . i\u2019ve been attacked by a titan trigger fish a few weeks ago in indonesia . first he went to my divemaster and then after me . it was not like attacking once and go , no , he tried to byte me at least 3 times . they\u00b4re nesting now i suppose , since a girl has been chased as well by one in the same morning . it happened at 20meters deep + or \u2013 . now i laugh at myself but at the moment i was like oh nooooo ahahah . greetings from lisbon , portugal\nthen you\u2019re in for an extremely rewarding and entertaining experience , and only the size tank you can invest in limits your choice of triggerfish . keeping a single fish alone in a species tank is the only viable option for certain species , including b . undulatus , and v . vetula \u2013 the undulated and queen triggers respectively . in fact , of the dream tanks that this author aspires to keep on day is a 120 gallon tank with a single , adult undulates trigger . for the b . vetula , the 2\u2019 queen triggerfish , it will have to be a tank in the 500 gallon range . now the aquarist is only faced with the challenge of dealing with the highly destructive capabilities of these fishes , and nothing is safe ! this means filters , powerheads , power cords and heaters ! for this reason , these items are best kept in a sump , and out of the main tank . they are also adept , ( and seemingly quite fond of ) , overturning and moving rocks and other pieces of d\u00e9cor . this tendency should be taken into account when aquascaping a tank that will eventually house and adult triggerfish .\nfrom an evolutionary standpoint , triggerfish are some of the most advanced fish in the sea . they are heavily armored , intelligent hunter - killers of the reef , and have a set of jaws that can annihilate any hard - shelled invertebrate you care to name they can also destroy just about anything else you care to name , both alive and otherwise , but we\u2019ll get to that shortly .\nfor those of you who fall into that category , it is possible to keep some of the triggers that have a more varied diet in a reef tank with certain invertebrates . for example , i once saw a clown triggerfish ( balistoides conspicillum ) in a reef tank ! the owners said they had the trigger in the tank for over a year and that it had not caused any problems . the cnidarian community consisted mainly of soft coral \u201ctrees\u201d ( e . g . , sinularia , litophyton , lemnalia ) . many of those soft corals have toxins that make them unpalatable to the general predator . the tank contained no crustaceans , as the trigger would most likely make short work of them , but there were small demoiselles ( chrysiptera spp . ) that would dart into tight hiding places when the triggerfish got too close !\nhi there . i enjoyed this thread . i was in sodwana bay earlier this year with my girlfriend , honing our underwater photography skills in this beautiful part of the planet . mid way through one of our dives , while skirting over the reef at a depth of around 50 feet , i felt this hard tug at my fin . at first i thought i had carelessly snagged my fin on the reef and was angry at myself . the tugging was intermittent and rapid in nature \u2013 my first clue that this was a creature . as i turned to see what was up , i noticed this adult male titan triggerfish going ballistic at my one fin \u2013 he was really pissed off . i\u2019m telling you , 2ft + of raging fury was pretty terrifying . i kicked out \u2013 half in panic and half in frustration\u2026 . caught him square in the head too . it did nothing though and in an instant he was back at it . it wasn\u2019t until i tried to swim away really quickly that he finally let up , turned\u2026 . . and attacked my girlfriend who was behind me , witnessing the event . she bolted too \u2013 sideways and had to swim a big loop to get back to our group . i realized after reading your information , that i had in fact turned on my back to face the creature and through it all i snapped away furiously with my camera . most pics were pretty blurred since my shutter speed was set for macro photography at the time , but a few images turned out ok . my girlfriend and i travel the globe to dive with sharks \u2013 that\u2019s our passion . this was the most frightened we\u2019ve ever been in the water . i\u2019ll take sharks any day over an angry titan !\nthe triggerfish that are better suited to the reef aquarium have some special qualities that make them more \u201cinvert - friendly . \u201d first of all , most of the species that are good for reef aquariums feed primarily on zooplankton or floating algae . as a result , they are \u201cdesigned\u201d a little differently from their less selective cousins . they have slightly smaller mouths ( not well suited for destroying aquarium equipment , including heater tubes ! ) that are a bit higher up on the head . as far as their behavior is concerned , they tend to spend more time in the water column hunting their lilliputian foods . some of them ( e . g . , the crosshatch triggerfish , xanthichthys mento ) form groups because they are more vulnerable when they are farther from the reef . they choose to feed together because there is safety in numbers .\ntriggerfish can be quite aggressive in koh tao . here is a short compilation of some of the attacks we ' ve encountered whilst diving here ! no divers and no fish were injured in the making of this video : ) to license this video footage please email charlie . christie . mutch @ urltoken 1 video file - 20 gbp 20 % discount when ordering 20 + video files 50 % off when ordering 40 + video files\nthese bottom dwellers dig out prey , such as crabs and worms , by flapping away debris with their fins and sandblasting with water squirted from their mouths . they also use very tough teeth and jaws to take on sea urchins , flipping them over to get at their bellies , which are armed with fewer spines . triggerfish wreak such havoc on less fortunate reef dwellers that smaller fish often follow them to feast on their leftovers .\ntriggerfish tend to be solitary but meet at traditional mating grounds according to timetables governed by moons and tides . the males of many species appear to establish territories on these spawning grounds and prepare seafloor nests that will house tens of thousands of eggs . females share care of the eggs until they hatch , blowing water on them to keep them well supplied with oxygen . in some species males are known to maintain a harem of female mates .\ntriggerfish have also been implicated in biting and damaging glass aquarium heaters and both flexible and rigid tubing . although heater - biting is a relatively rare event , it is a good idea to protect that piece of equipment by placing it in a sump . if your aquarium is \u201csumpless\u201d you can build a barrier around your heater using egg crate material or a piece of plastic that has had numerous holes drilled in it ( e . g . , material commonly sold for tank dividers ) . the best option , though , is to obtain a titanium heater , which is totally resistant to a triggerfish\u2019s jaws . in addition to being trigger - proof , titanium heaters normally function better than standard glass heaters , and using an external thermostat reduces the risk of the heater\u2019s getting stuck in the on position . frequently check any airline tubing in the aquarium to see whether it needs to be replaced .\nthe news couldn\u2019t be better in this department \u2013 feeding a triggerfish is the easiest thing you can imagine . most species feed on hard shelled invertebrates in the wild , so they spend their day browsing the reef for crabs , shrimp , snails , etc . in captivity , they will accept a wide range of fresh and prepared fish foods , only leaving the aquarist the task of making sure that a variety of food items are offered , and that vitamin supplements are administered now and then to insure proper nutrition . aside from a variety of appropriate foods that can be purchased in frozen form at most better fish stores , the aquarist can brows the seafood counter at his or her local grocer , and find many things that will have a triggerfish eating out of the keepers hands in no time flat . a few of these items are fresh squid , octopus , scallops , fish , shrimp and crab . these foods can be cut into bite sized morsels and offered to the trigger 2 or 3 times a day . whole crayfish can even be offered , shell and all , and this will allow you to witness the business end of a triggerfish doing what it was meant to do\u2026demolish and consume ! even the few available species that are planktivores in the wild readily accept and thrive on all the options mentioned above with the exception of large , whole invertebrates ."]}
{"id": 1169, "summary": [{"text": "the luna moth ( actias luna ) is a lime-green , nearctic saturniid moth in the family saturniidae , subfamily saturniinae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it has a wingspan of up to 114 mm ( 4.5 in ) , making it one of the largest moths in north america . ", "topic": 9}], "title": "actias luna", "paragraphs": ["luna moth , actias luna larva , late instar - actias luna - bugguide . net\nmaggie whitson marked\nluna moth\nas hidden on the\nactias luna\npage . reasons to hide : duplicate\ncharge dependent distribution of endogenous proteins within vitellogenic ovarian follicles of actias luna . - pubmed - ncbi\nelza pap added the hungarian common name\namerikai holdassz\u00f6v\u0151\nto\nactias luna linnaeus 1758\n.\nemergence of the actias luna , the luna moth . ( silkmoth from north - america ) . it crawls out of its cocoon .\nactias luna\namber\nfifth instar , waynesboro , pennsylvania , august 7 , 2009 , courtesy of kristina kollman .\nfigure 2 . adult male luna moth , actias luna ( linnaeus ) . photograph by donald w . hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 3 . adult female luna moth , actias luna ( linnaeus ) . photograph by lyle j . buss , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 4 . eggs of the luna moth , actias luna ( linnaeus ) . photograph by donald w . hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 11 . cocoon of the luna moth , actias luna ( linnaeus ) . photograph by donald w . hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 13 . pupa of the luna moth , actias luna ( linnaeus ) . photograph by donald w . hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 15 . male pupa of the luna moth , actias luna ( linnaeus ) . photograph by donald w . hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 5 . first instar larva of the luna moth , actias luna ( linnaeus ) . photograph by donald w . hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 6 . second instar larva of the luna moth , actias luna ( linnaeus ) . photograph by donald w . hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 7 . third instar larva of the luna moth , actias luna ( linnaeus ) . photograph by donald w . hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 8 . fourth instar larva of the luna moth , actias luna ( linnaeus ) . photograph by donald w . hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 12 . pupa of the luna moth , actias luna ( linnaeus ) . lateral view . photograph by donald w . hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 9 . fifth ( last ) instar larva of the luna moth , actias luna ( linnaeus ) . photograph by donald w . hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 17 . emergence ( exit ) hole in cocoon of the luna moth , actias luna ( linnaeus ) . photograph by donald w . hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 16 . cut away of cocoon with split pupal exuvium of the luna moth , actias luna ( linnaeus ) . photograph by donald w . hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 20 . sweetgum , liquidambar styraciflua l . , a host of the luna moth , actias luna ( linnaeus ) . photograph by donald w . hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 21 . persimmon , diospyros virginiana l . , a host of the luna moth , actias luna ( linnaeus ) . photograph by donald w . hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 10 . fifth ( last ) instar larva ( more sertiferous ) of the luna moth , actias luna ( linnaeus ) . photograph by donald w . hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 19 . winged sumac , rhus copallinum l . , a host of the luna moth , actias luna ( linnaeus ) . photograph by donald w . hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\npriddle tr . 1967 . structures employed by actias luna ( saturniidae ) in effecting emergence from the cocoon . journal of the lepidopterists society 21 : 249 - 252 .\nto cite this page : patlan , l . 2000 .\nactias luna\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nfigure 18 . pignut hickory , carya glabra ( mill . ) sweet , a host of the luna moth , actias luna ( linnaeus ) . photograph by donald w . hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nwright da . 1967 . the effects of photoperiod on the initiation of pupal diapause in the wild silkworm , actias luna . journal of the lepidopterists society 21 : 255 - 258 .\nfigure 1 . in 1987 , the united states post office issued a first class stamp with the image of the luna moth , actias luna ( linnaeus ) . photograph by donald w . hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 14 . female pupa of the luna moth , actias luna ( linnaeus ) . note the two longitudinal notches on the ventral surface of the fourth and fifth totally exposed abdominal segments . photograph by donald w . hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nsome interesting facts about the luna moth in the u . s . | owlcation\ni found a catapillar in september . a luna , when will it hatch ?\nthis helped me identify a luna month on my window ! spotted in texas .\nkellog sk , fink ls , brower lp . 2003 . parasitism of native luna moths , actias luna ( l . ) ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) by the introduced compsilura concinnata ( meigen ) ( diptera : tachinidae ) in central virginia , and their hyperparasitism by trigonalid wasps ( hymenoptera : trigonalidae ) . environmental entomology 32 : 1019 - 1027 .\nthe luna moth , actias luna ( linnaeus ) , is arguably our most beautiful moth . examples of its popularity include its appearance on a first class united states postage stamp issued in 1987 ( figure 1 ) ; its selection to grace the front cover of a field guide to moths of eastern north america ( covell 2005 ) ; and the use of an animated luna moth in the 2007 television commercials for the sleep aid lunesta .\nchemical ecology of the luna moth : effects of host plant on detoxification enzyme activity .\njust saw my first luna moth next to my sweetgum tree here in tampa . beautiful .\nactias luna larva on hydrangea is a beautiful soft nature photograph of a bright green larva ( caterpillar ) on a purplish hydrangea bloom while the flower was in full bloom . this nature photo was taken on the grounds of bellevue state park , located in wilmington , delaware in the peaceful mansion gardens .\ndetailing the physical features , habits , territorial reach and other identifying qualities of the luna moth .\ni just saw a luna moth in kirkland lake , ontario canada . what a beautiful site .\na male luna moth has been on my window screen for 3 days . central north carolina .\nhave a luna moth on my sweet gum tree every year ( today ) tx . beautiful ! !\nluna moth caterpillars are herbivores that graze on the vegetation of trees . all stages provide food for predators .\ni saw a luna moth , and it laid eggs on a chain link fence . is that normal ?\nwe saw a luna this morning in our garage . we live in texas . 9 / 28 / 2017\nwilliams , amanda .\nhow to care for a luna caterpillar\naccessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken\nchemical ecology of the luna moth : effects of host plant on detoxification enzyme activity . - pubmed - ncbi\ni have an ulterior motive for appointing the luna moth caterpillar ( actias luna ) this week\u2019s caterpillar of the week , which will be revealed in an upcoming spotlight on caterpillar anatomy . spoiler alert : that post will involve prolegs\u2014and you should definitely get excited ! anyway , we hardly need a reason to feature lunas . regarded by many as the most gorgeous insect in all of north america , they bring publicity to our lab , not the other way around !\nwilliams , amanda .\nhow to care for a luna caterpillar .\nanimals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / care - luna - caterpillar - 6557 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .\ngreensboro , north carolina near lake townsend - had a luna moth this morning on my house under patio light .\nwilliams , amanda . ( n . d . ) . how to care for a luna caterpillar . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / care - luna - caterpillar - 6557 . html\nfirst time i have seen the luna month . was on the screen at my back porch door in charlotte , nc\nwe saw a luna moth flying around on our back deck around 8 : 00 pm . st louis , mo !\nluna moth insecta ( hexapoda ) > lepidoptera > saturniidae actias luna ( linnaeus ) photographer : gerald j . lenhard , descriptor : pupa ( e ) image citation : gerald j . lenhard , , urltoken image use : this image may be copied and used , in whole or in part , for any non - profit , educational purpose provided that all reproductions bear an appropriate credit . any commercial or other use of the image requires the written permission of the photographer or contact organization , and forestry images .\ndescribed and named ( as phalena plumata caudata ) by petiver in 1700 , the luna moth was the first north american saturniid to be reported in the literature ( tuskes et al . 1996 ) . the original latin name of the luna moth which referred to the long tails was lost when linnaeus converted the name to a binomial with the specific epithet luna in 1758 .\nthe luna moth exhibits a pheromone mating system . this ability to attract distant males via chemical communication is found in all female\nwe have two luna moths on our downspout today in the north georgia mountains . sosad that they live such short lives .\nwe have what we called\ninch worms\nall the time but it appears that it has been luna moth larva .\ncare required for a pupa and adult luna moth is minimal . pupa and adult luna moths do not eat or drink . all you need to do is place several sticks from the floor tilted up to the side of the shelter so the caterpillars have somewhere to prepare for their metamorphosis , and so adult luna moths have a place to climb and stretch their wings . you may also continue to spray their shelter with water to maintain humidity . adult luna moths normally live four to five days .\ni just love the distinctive color of the luna moth , along with its long tails . it definitely stand out among other moths , especially for north american moths . in the midwest states , the luna moth flies from early april , to the end of august .\nhello alexandra , thanks for sharing ! i hope to see one here yet ! i agree luna moths are enchanted little beings . paula\ni had a luna moth land on my back at work last night . i was able to get a picture of it greenwood , sc\nlindroth rl ( 1989 ) chemical ecology of the luna moth : effects of host plant on detoxification enzyme activity . j chem ecol 15 : 2019\u20132029\nluna moths are often used in classrooms to teach insect life cycles . their beauty is appreciated as well by those lucky enough to spot them .\nthere is a luna moth on my back door now . it has been there for the last couple of days . ( nova scotia , canada )\ni have never personally spotted a luna moth but thanks for introducing me to it . hopefully it will survive pesticides and continue to flourish in the wild .\nluna caterpillars are hosts for a number of insect parasitoids in the families tachinidae , ichneumonidae , and pteromalidae ( tuskes et al . 1996 , kellog et al . 2003 ) . all luna moth stages also are subject to predation by a variety of invertebrates and / or vertebrate predators . the adults are not even safe at night . kellog et al . ( 2003 ) reported that the ground below an owl roost was littered with saturniid wings including those of luna moths .\nluna moth larvae feed on the foliage of walnut , hickory , persimmon and sweet gum trees . adults don\u2019t eat at all and only live about a week .\nreal natural american luna moth ( actius luna ) wings are naturally fluorescent green which makes our glowing luna moth magnets very realistic indeed . the wings of the unusually beautiful lunar moth not only glow in the dark , but they also have life - like moving wings and can be enjoyed day and night . collect all three glow - in - the - dark butterfly , moth , and giant firefly magnets including a luna moth glow magnet , a tropical glow butterfly , and a giant firefly ! what is the smallest butterfly ? the smallest butterfly is the western pygmy blue ( brephidium exilis ) from africa , which has a half an inch wingspan .\nlindroth rl . 1989 . chemical ecology of the luna moth : effects of host plant on detoxification enzyme activity . journal of chemical ecology 15 : 2019 - 2029 .\nthank you for sharing , jane . i think they are more active at night . i hope the luna moth was ok after being harassed by the little one .\ni just had a luna moth hanging out on the edge of my outdoor umbrella . it was beautiful and about 5 inches wide and long . what a blessing .\nurltoken watch a luna moth female calling a male with pheromones . find science explorations and other good stuff for kids , parents , and teachers here : urltoken and here urltoken\ni found a luna moth on sidewalk in front of kroger . i think she is barely hanging on . should ii put her in a tree ? she is gorgeous .\nthe luna moth occurs in the forested areas of north america . they seem to prefer decidous woodlands , with trees such as the hickory , walnut , sumacs , and persimmon .\ntoday the luna moth is featured in television commercials for a popular sleeping pill , and ( somewhat absurdly ) on cans of moth balls marketed to control moths that infest clothing .\nhi carrol , it is a very special thing to see a luna moth like that in your backyard ! thank you for sharing . i hope you get to see more .\nwe ' ve had a luna moth hanging on one of the screens on our screened in porch since this morning , it ' s the first one i ' ve ever seen .\nmy husband spotted the beautiful luna moth early this morning , may 8 , 2018 above the garage door . it is very near to the sweetgum tree in the yard . eastern indiana\nluna moths have often been used in classrooms to help teach insect life cycles . they have also proven good subjects in ecology and evolutionary biology ( tuskes et al . , 1996 ) .\nthe luna moth is a wild silk moth . wild silk moths have declined in numbers since the 1960 ' s due to habitat destruction and increased use of bright vapor lights that disrupt mating ( tuskes et al . , 1996 ) . however , luna moths are not listed as threatened by the iucn , the u . s . government , or the state of michigan .\nthe luna moth is a nocturnal species ( tuskes et al . , 1996 ) , and is not often seen in the daytime ( holland , 1908 ) . as do many saturniids , the luna moth uses wing patterns as a defense against predators . the luna moth can mimic living and dead leaves on the ground by remaining motionless when not involved in reproductive behavior and also becomes nearly impossible to see during the day when roosting on the bark of sycamore trees . the moths will also dramatically flutter their wings when attacked ( tuskes et al . , 1996 ) .\ni have a luna moth , a walking stick and a st andrews spider all taking up residency on my back deck . they must know it ' s a safe place to hang out !\ni recall the first time i saw a luna moth , and i was so amazed . it was such an interesting color , and had such unique markings , and the size alone was eyecatching . i was able to capture it in a picture , and i was so glad . it got me curious to learn more about the luna moth , which is also known as the american moon moth .\njuly 8 , 2018 luna moth on our deck in vermont , it doesn ' t have the second set of\neye spots\n. the one i saw 4 weeks ago had great big eye spots\nhi linda , luna moths are such amazing creatures , and i love that you thought it was a decoration even ! they look just amazing , and i find them fascinating . thanks for sharing here ! paula\ni saw a luna moth for the first time ever on 05 / 14 / 18 . it was sitting in the grass outside magna seating south carolina in moore , sc . it appeared to be a leaf .\nthis is my first time seeing a luna moth , and oh what a sight she is ! she ' s been been right outside my door since last night . i ' m here in nashville , tn .\nthe family name saturniidae is based on the eyespots of some members of the family that contain concentric rings reminiscent of the planet saturn ( powell 2003 ) . the luna moth gets its name from its moon - like spots .\nluna antennae are quadripectinate ( comb - like on four sides ) with those of males being larger than those of females . males are more yellowish - green while females are more blue - green in color ( packard 1914 ) .\ni ' m in smithfield va and each year we see at least one luna moth on our moon flower vine . we plant moon flower every year just to see these moths although the flowers are beautiful and smell so sweet !\n. undeterred by obstacles such as leaves and branches , the male moths will persistently follow the scent trail of a female . then the female will typically mate with the first male to reach her . since the luna moth is a nocturnal species , mating usually occurs in the first hours after midnight . if the pair is undisturbed then they will remain in copula until the next evening , but the slightest disturbance can cause separation . after the separation of the pair , then ovipostion will begin and continue for several nights . a female luna moth will seek a host plant in which to oviposit . some populations of luna moths complete more than one generation in a year . ( tuskes et al . , 1996 ) .\ni just saw a luna moth in columbus ohio sitting next to my front door at 12 am . he had to be every bit of 5 inches . i didn ' t know what it was and it kind of freaked me out .\nbeautiful luna moth was on the siding of my house yesterday afternoon , may 6 , 2018 . my husband noticed around 10 : 30 pm it had obviously been active and was now clinging to the sunroom window screen . trussville , alabama .\ni have a luna moth at this moment on the stone siding of my home . i saw it there last evening and it is still there today . this is the second year i have seen one it is in the same spot .\nin canada and the northern border states within its range , the luna caterpillar shows a preference for white / paper birch ( betula paperifera ) , and the moth is usually single brooded with most adults flying from late may to early july .\nonce you have acquired luna moth eggs , gently relocate them to a stable and permanent shelter , such as a plastic fish tank or a cleaned - out gallon milk jug . cover the tank or jug with a secured screen or breathable cheesecloth . avoid a shelter that is too small or that has breathing holes with rough edges , where caterpillars could be injured . use a spray bottle to mist the shelter every few days to maintain humidity . it typically takes 10 days for luna moth eggs to hatch .\nthey have their\ncalling time\naround the midnight hour . the calling time for the luna moth ( and for many moths ) is when pheromones are released . the time frame for luna moths is two to three hours long . this is the time that most males are active . in the saturniidae family , you will see the pheromone activity the most active compared to the other\nfamilies\nof butterflies and moths . once in a mating position , they can stay there for up to 20 hours .\ni woke up this morning to find a luna moth just testing on the bricks ! i ' m in charleston s . c . my 5 and 6 year i ' ll came out and we were looking at the amazing creature that came to visit !\nthis beautiful and exotic moth is large . it ranges from 3 to 4 . 5 inches and the name is technically actias luna ( linnaeus ) . its wings are a pale green , and has delicate tail streamers . the wings are broad , and have a reddish rust color along the edges of both the fore wings and hind wings . depending on the region , the colors can vary from more bluish green to a yellow in the background coloring . along the fore wings in the very front you will see a darker purplish gray color . from a distance however , it is primarily a beautiful lime green , and the very distinctive\neye spots\nare just fascinating to observe . this surely helps to protect from would be predators , that would rather move on than mess around with something that has eyes that appear to be that big !\ngood luck . i have reared thousands of luna caterpillars over the years , and there is still something very magical in the appearance of a mature larva , especially if it has turned a bright burgundy just before spinning . large translucent green larvae are also a wonderment .\nluna moths are usually found in and near deciduous woodlands , where their larval food plants occur : walnut , hickory , persimmon and sweet gum . in some areas , populations have declined due to habitat destruction and increased use of bright lights at night , which can disrupt mating cycles .\nthere\u2019s nothing quite like watching a vibrant green , wild luna caterpillar chowing down on a leaf . during my first summer with the lab in 2014 , at a certain point , we hatched way too many locally collected luna eggs . i had the privilege of releasing some early instars on hickory trees in my yard . every day , i checked on them . naturally , most disappeared due to predation , but a few reached their final instar , growing into a plump , juicy , luminous green body that we can never quite replicate in captivity . the experience was enthralling .\na luna moth was on the door of a nail salon in dartmouth , ma the 2nd week of june 2017 . it stayed attached to the outside of door for several hours and did not seem to be disturbed by the motion of the door and a child who was harassing it .\nadults : the adult wingspan is 75 to 105 mm ( covell 2005 ) . adult luna moths are large green moths with a long tail on each hind wing and discal eyespots on both the fore and hind wings ( figures 2 and 3 ) . the luna moth is univoltine ( one generation ) from michigan northward , bivoltine throughout the ohio valley , and trivoltine southward ( tuskes et al . 1996 ) . in louisiana and florida , adults may be found during every month of the year also , reared specimens often differ in coloration from those in nature ( ferguson 1972 ) .\nthe luna moth is primarily a species of deciduous or mixed forests and hardwood swamps where its food plants grow . although caterpillars do occur in suburban yards , cocoons in such places are likely to be removed when leaves are raked in the fall . luna moths are common in most eastern forests , but might still be rare in some parts of new england , where these and many other large moths with summer caterpillars declined drastically or died out in the mid to late 20th century , probably due mostly to high mortality of larvae caused by an introduced parasitic fly intended to control gypsy moth populations .\nthe luna moth is an insect herbivore . as a caterpillar it feeds on the foliage of various species of hickory , walnut , sweet - gum , persimmon , and birch trees ( holland , 1908 ) . it has been reported that it is particularly fond of the persimmon ( holland , 1908 ) .\ncaterpillars reared on juglone - producing plants in lindroth\u2019s study developed highly increased levels of an enzyme that helped them tolerate juglone in their diets . luna caterpillars reared on birch , which doesn\u2019t produce juglone , had such low levels of this enzyme that lindroth speculated their bodies never began to produce the enzyme at all .\nmy daughter had this beautiful catapillar on her shoe . we researched and found out it was the luna moth . that same night i made a home for it in an old fish tank with birch leaves . the very next day it was completely cocooned up . very sad i missed the process . however she ( luna ) is being well watched until she turns into her beautiful new self . i live in eastern ny so this is the last cycle . very sad really . we plan on letting her out at night n having a nice fire . its only been 2 weeks so a few more to go . .\nluna caterpillars gain protection from predators by their cryptic green coloration . when threatened they often rear the front part of the body in a\nsphinx\npose \u2013 possibly to make them less caterpillar - like to a predator . if attacked , luna caterpillars as well as those of many other bombycoid moths make a clicking noise with the mandibles \u2013 sometimes as a prelude to or accompanied by defensive regurgitation of distasteful fluids . brown et al . ( 2007 ) found that ants and mice were deterred by the regurgitant of the polyphemus moth , antheraea polyphemus ( cramer ) , and suggested that the clicking is a warning of the impending regurgitation .\nbefore the eggs hatch , determine a host plant , such as the white oak or black walnut . it is beneficial to add a variety of host plant leaves and let the caterpillars choose their favorite , then solely feed them their preferred variety . as soon as the caterpillars hatch from their eggs , place several fresh host plant leaves in their shelter . upon hatching , luna caterpillars will begin eating immediately . since they derive their nutrients and water supply from the leaves you provide to them , replacing the leaves inside their shelter daily is essential . luna caterpillars shed their skin over a period of four weeks until they are fully grown .\ni wish you could see the one picture more close up , as it shows the luna moths feathery antennae . these moths are just amazing creatures to behold , and i felt very lucky that day in arkansas when i saw the moth . it was just resting among the rocks as you can see in my picture .\nthe luna moth is an easily distinguishable species with long sweeping hindwing tails and varying in color from yellowish green to pale bluish green ( carter , 1992 ) . both sexes are similar in size , but males have a more strongly feathered antennae ( tuskes et al . , 1996 ; carter , 1992 ) . the wingspan ranges from 80mm - 115mm ( carter , 1992 ) . this species also exhibits both polyphenism and regional phenotypic variation ( tuskes et al . , 1996 ) . in its early stages the luna moth is a green caterpillar that has hair , spiny tubercles , and a yellow stripe on each side ( holland , 1908 ; grzimek , 1972 ) .\nhatchling luna larvae ( caterpillars ) show two different color forms . they can either be all greyish green or they can be greyish green with black markings : a thin black strip across top of the head , a black lateral stripe , one on each side , and a thin black bridge across the back near the first abdominal segment .\nthe habitat you will most often find the luna moth is deciduous woodland in north america , although there are fewer in canada . the foliage of trees like birch , willow and alder , walnut ( or juglans nigra ) , persimmon ( or diospyros virginiana ) , and sweet gum ( liquidambar stryaciflua ) are the food the larva feed off of . luna moths like broad leaved forests , including ones with hickory trees . so if you hope to attract these beauties to your area , those would be good choices to plant . the adults will be attracted to areas with these trees , so their young have the right food to eat when they\nhatch\nfrom their eggs .\ni was fortunate enough for the first time today to see my first luna moth . he / she was on my mailbox on the brick part . a few hours later it was on the curb just below my mailbox . i ' m in texas , just east of houston . what a beautiful moth . i took pictures of it too .\nwatching caterpillars transform into moths is enjoyable , especially when you play an active role in the process . raising caterpillars is a fun , hands - on learning process for insect lovers , from first - timers to experienced hobbyists . when raising luna caterpillars , consider care components such as shelter , food and water , proper handling and pupa and adult care .\nthe luna moth occurs widespread in the forested areas of north america ( carter , 1992 ) . in canada the species has been found from nova scotia through central quebec and ontario . in the united states the species has been found in every state east of the great plains all the way south to northern mexico ( tuskes et al . , 1996 ) .\nin the united states , these moths are actually fairly common in the eastern united states , and some states , like missouri , arkansas and others . you can sometimes see them in southern canada . luna moths are large enough , that you would see the shadow of them flying by , or could darken a room if they landed on a light bulb !\nluna cocoons are papery thin and pupae outlines can easily be seen when the cocoon is held up to a bright light . winter diapause stock tends to spin a courser , darker silk . in regions of the united states where lunas are double or triple brooded 25 - 40 % of early brood stock caterpillars will spin the darker cocoon and overwinter instead of eclosing that same summer .\nin some areas where there has been a lot of spraying with pesticides , it could be very rare you see one of these beautiful luna moths . they are simply becoming harder and harder to find . evidently , even in the best of conditions , the number of luna moths are rather small . a single planeload of pesticides can supposedly wipe out the species for decades ! when i heard this , i was so sad . i understand the need for pesticides , but if this species was totally wiped out , i think i may have rather gone with the lack of pesticides . i suppose it depends on the survival of humanity , but we are not at a point where this seems to be a critical concern . so it is something worth thinking about , or possibly limiting .\nsaw my first luna moth on thursday night , june 14 , 2018 . the beautiful moth was on the mud room back door and flew into the garage when we opened the door . we left the garage door open for quite a while and then closed it . our son took a picture of it the next day hanging off the light fixture . we live in mid - coast maine .\none of the most beautiful natural sights i ever witnessed as a young boy occurred one may morning when i chased an errant baseball into a mature hickory stand in new jersey . sunlight streamed through small openings in the leafy canopy onto lush ground foliage on the forest floor . a fully expanded , freshly emerged luna hung about one foot from the ground on the underside of a skunk cabbage stem .\nbroadleaf host plants belonging to a large number of genera have been reported as hosts for luna moths ( godfrey et al . 1987 , tietz 1972 ) . however , some of the reported host plants may not be suitable for all populations of lunas . lindroth et al . ( 1989 ) studied first instar survival , duration of larval stage , and pupal weights of caterpillars fed on eleven different plant species and found that survival was poor on some plant species that were reported in the literature as hosts . it appears that different geographical populations of luna moths are adapted to different host plants ( lindroth et al . 1989 , tuskes et al . 1996 ) . lindroth et al . ( 1989 ) suggested that biochemical detoxification of host defensive chemicals by caterpillar enzymes may be a factor in this host plant specialization .\non 8 / 31 / 17 my daughter found a luna moth worm . so we took it home and put it in a big open glass bowl . i have documented it with photos . what an amazing sight so far . found out with the help of google , that it didn\u2019t like apple trees but loves diamond willow . we placed the willow branches in the bowl and it immediately started its cocoon . on 9 / 1 / 17 at 6 : 00am it started its silk and finished on 9 / 2 / 17 at 3 : 30pm . been waiting all winter for it to hatch . i thought maybe it had died but now know it can take until july for it to become a moth . wish i could share the photos ! i will update when it turns to a beautiful luna moth : ) hope you all are enjoying nature\u2019s beauty !\naccording to a 1989 study by richard lindroth , luna caterpillars\u2019 ability to eat those hickory leaves ( as well as the leaves of many other preferred host plant species , such as butternut and walnut ) depends on the lunas\u2019 enzyme production . hickory , butternut , and walnut trees all produce a defensive chemical called juglone . juglone can repel other plants from growing in the vicinity of these trees , and inhibit insects from dining on them .\ni once sent a first time customer five luna cocoons . upon receipt she\nfreaked out\nand in a bit of a rage phoned me to complain that my cocoons were full of wasps and bees . she could hear them buzzing around in the cocoons . i explained that the sound was the sound of the pupae wiggling against the sides of their cocoons . i am not sure that she believed me until the beautiful moths emerged in the spring .\na beautiful luna moth is clinging to door jamb outside on my deck this morning , may 12 in suwanee , ga . i ' ve never seen one before . we have a sweet gum tree that overhangs the deck , and while sweeping those annoying spiky balls off the deck every day is a pain , ( i was even thinking of cutting the tree down . . . oh no ! ! ) now i know that the tree attracts this gorgeous critter ! !\nhi , i stumbled upon this amazing caterpillar trying to take a photo of another caterpillar , but since i am so light footed , observant and careful i didn ' t . i thought at first it was some kind of weird seed pod until i saw it eating . the caterpillar i spotted looks very close to yours , but my caterpillars seem a little larger . i hope i ' m accurate on the luna moth if not it ' s something almost identical .\nluna caterpillars are said to be in their first instar stage when they hatch from the eggs . each time they shed their skins , they move into a new instar , i . e . , second instar , third instar , fourth instar and the fifth instar . the time spent in each instar will vary with local conditions , usually anywhere from 3 - 7 days in each of the first four instars , and 6 - 14 days in the fifth ( final instar ) .\nif you are going to overwinter the cocoons outdoors , make sure they are in a rodent proof cage , and one that will not overheat . it is also recommended that the cage sit on the ground and there not be airflow under the cocoons . windchills could take a toll . in their natural environment luna pupae spend their winters in cocoons that have fallen from the trees during leaf drop , or the larvae have crawled or dropped from the tree and spin cocoons among leaf litter .\nobservation of the spinning process can be interesting . the caterpillars work tirelessly to pull some leaves together , anchoring them with a continuous strand of silk . the cocoon is often complete within a few hours . generally ( not always ) luna caterpillars that are going to overwinter in their cocoons will take on an amber to burgundy colouration just prior to spinning . they tend to spin a darker , coarser , thicker silk cocoon than the larvae ( successive brood ) which are not going to overwinter .\nthe map below showcases ( in red ) the states and territories of north america where the luna moth may be found ( but is not limited to ) . this sort of data can be useful in seeing concentrations of a particular species over the continent as well as revealing possible migratory patterns over a species ' given lifespan . some species are naturally confined by environment , weather , mating habits , food resources and the like while others see widespread expansion across most , or all , of north america .\nsuccessive brood larvae tend to spin lighter beige cocoons with finer silk as compared to the overwintering brood . in either case , caterpillars will shed their skins one more time inside the cocoon , usually 2 - 5 days after spinning , depending upon temperature , and enter the pupal stage . if you hold a five day old cocoon up to a light , you can usually see the outline of the pupa and the discarded skin through the walls of the cocoon . luna pupae tend to be quite active .\nwhen caterpillars are full - grown , they may begin to wander . the cocoon is spun among the leaves of the deciduous host plants but is not anchored to a twig as is the case with many polyphemus moth cocoons . therefore , they fall to the ground in autumn ( holland 1968 ) as the leaves fall and are not commonly seen . development from hatching to pupation takes a month or longer depending on temperature . luna moth caterpillars are never sufficiently common to cause significant damage to their host trees .\nprobably the most recognized moth in north america , the luna moth is easily recognized by the green color , large wing span of about 3 - 4 inches , long tails , and eyespot on each wing . no other species in north america remotely resembles a luna moth . the earliest spring adults are much brighter green than later adults . females are lighter than males . in southern populations there is often a row of dark spots or a thin dark line on the forewing , as on the male illustrated here . the caterpillars are green with a brown head , but may become brown a day or so before they spin their cocoon . the body has a variable amount of sparse hairs ( but no spines ) . markings include a lengthwise yellowish line on each side and yellow between most of the segments , but no diagonal lateral ( side ) streaks . caterpillars of the polyphemus moth are similar but have conpsicuous diagonal yellowish lines on each abdominal segment and they are usually found on oaks , maples , and willows .\nthe larva of the luna moth are bright green ( see video below ) and have narrow yellow lines on them . there is a band of yellowish spiracles , and some reddish colored tubercles on each side . some have observed raised pink spots , and this can vary from region to region . the head of the caterpillar is a brownish color . when the time comes for it to spin its cocoon it will do so in areas where there is a lot of leaves on the ground , among the leaves . its cocoon is thin and silken .\nthe soft moth ( female to left , note narrow antennae ) can escape through a hole roughly 3 / 8 inch in diameter . once out of the cocoon , the moth must climb to hang its wings for inflation . i place my luna cocoons in a 11\nx11\nx 2 ' emerging cage made out of folded hardware cloth with a 1 / 2 inch mesh . the newly emerged , soft , pliant moths climb up the wire and hang from either the top or upper reaches of the sides . photo courtesy of john h . campbell\nluna caterpillars have incredibly variable diets overall , but very specific local preferences . in lindroth\u2019s study , he attempted to raise lunas on 11 different recorded host plants , and only experienced success with four of these . why didn\u2019t all of the caterpillars thrive ? lindroth hypothesized that local populations of lunas are specifically adapted to certain host plant species , possibly based on the types of enzymes their bodies produce to help them consume their food . since his lunas all came from one regional population , they might not have been equipped with the adaptations necessary to eat plants that lunas in other areas thrive on .\nhere on prince edward island where i rear most of my luna larvae outdoors on live trees covered with rearing sleeves , the larvae require approximately five or six weeks ( 35 - 42 days ) to grow from hatchlings to cocoon spinners . it is rare that we get temperatures above 90 f in summer time . some years it seems it is even rare if we get temperatures into the 80 ' s . most summer days are in the 70 ' s and we usually get cooler , darker , rainy days once or twice a week . night time temps often dip into the 60 ' s .\nmy best suggestion is that if you wish to rear larvae and have luna cocoons that overwinter , then you need to rear in such a way ( at such a time ) that larvae pass through their fourth instar with hours of light under 14 hours per day and be on a diminishing photo period cycle . if you ask me questions accompanied with specific information supplied , i can only offer a best guess . other obervations would be appreciated . please provide data : date , location , rearing conditions if you are going to submit observations . please provide same if you are going to ask questions . email :\nthere are may ways to rear luna moths . airtight jars / containers is recommended for indoor rearing , at least for the first three instars to prevent desiccation / dehydration of larvae . once the larval bulk increases , the airtight conditions to conserve the moisture in the foliage is probably not quite as critical , but i would recommend putting the cut ends of foodplant stems in water that the caterpillars cannot crawl into if you are going to rear outdoors on cut food in screened cages or if you are going to rear indoors ( after third instar only ) on cut food in an airy container ( screened cage ) .\ndaily interaction with your luna caterpillars should include frequent cleanings of the shelter . directly after the caterpillars hatch , line the bottom of their shelter with paper towels to catch droppings . at the end of each day , toss the paper towels out and replace them . this helps prevent the growth of mold . if you choose to handle your caterpillars , be very gentle . wash your hands before and after accessing their shelter to prevent the spread of bacteria . do not pull or tug on the caterpillars . let them come to you and climb off you on their own , as being forceful may damage their appendages .\nnick boyonoski and scott bessin provided technical assistance , dr . martha lutz reared the first generation of luna moths in kentucky , and dr . eric chapman helped find suitable field locations in kentucky . clint patterson , berea college forester , provided us with access to the berea college forest . the experiments conducted in kentucky were supported by the kentucky agricultural experiment station ( national institute of food and agriculture , u . s . department of agriculture , hatch project ky008066 1003549 ) , the experiments in ontario were supported by natural resources canada , and jgm acknowledges support from hatch project ca - r * ent - 5181 - h .\nthe series of photos above show the luna caterpillar from 1st instar to cocoon . it takes about 10 days for the egg to hatch into a tiny caterpillar and about 5 - 6 weeks to grow into the full its size of about 2 . 5 inches long and 3 / 4 inch in diameter . the caterpillars are green in all instars except the first and resemble polyphemus . the 5th instar caterpillars are not as voracious as polyphemus and it was a little easier to keep them supplied with leaves . i raised 15 on sweet gum and they did very well as the cocoons were all larger than those of their parents .\ni work with a number of subcontractors in the united states who can ship luna eggs for me at various times , starting as early as march in alabama and as late as september from new jersey . in most cases , the subcontractors have either captured wild female moths at lights or have obtained pairings of their own reared or purchased females with wild males . fresh eggs are shipped at a time appropriate to their rearing in the respective areas of customers . shippers indicate the date of deposit with each shipment . eggs typically take eight days ( 80 - 85 f ) to twelve days ( 68 f ) to incubate , depending on storage temperature .\nmany of you will have cocoons that are not going to overwinter . in the spring of march 2008 a shipping partner in southern alabama obtained a luna pairing ( wild males flying ) on march 9 . he reared the larvae outdoors in sleeves and the caterpillars started spinning cocoons on april 27 . i suspect moths from these cocoons will begin hatching the second or third week in may after spending only two to three weeks in cocoons . in contrast , on march 9 on p . e . i . in eastern canada , where i live , we were having a blizzard . there are still no leaves on the trees and there are patches of snow on the ground in shaded ditches as of may 3 .\ni ' m in the suburbs and let a part of my yard 100 % natural . i never spray pesticides ever ! ! ! i have so many amazing moths , butterflies and insects in my yard . so please everyone don ' t spray pesticide . enjoy the wildlife and see the beauty in nature . it ' s much more fascinating for kids as well as adults to experience these rare kind of sightings as the luna moth . i stopped my young kid neighbor passing by and within in an hour he had all his friends looking at the caterpillar and they were amazed and fascinated . letting your yard grow natural while keeping some tidy flower gardens on the outskirts looks beautiful and helps our wildlife . thank you for the great post !"]}
{"id": 1171, "summary": [{"text": "the buff-spotted woodpecker ( campethera nivosa ) is a species of bird in the family picidae .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "it is native to large parts of tropical central africa .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it has an extremely wide range and is an uncommon species , and the international union for conservation of nature has rated its conservation status as being of \" least concern \" . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "buff - spotted woodpecker", "paragraphs": ["orn . spotted - throated woodpecker [ campethera scriptoricauda , syn . : c . albiefacies ]\norn . gray - and - buff woodpecker [ hemicircus concretus ] [ am . ]\norn . grey - and - buff woodpecker [ hemicircus concretus ] [ br . ]\ndana campbell selected\nbuff - spotted flameback\nto show in overview on\nchrysocolaptes lucidus ( scopoli , 1786 )\n.\n: the back is predominately cinnamon - buff , spotted or streaked with blackish . different as they are , these two subspecies are reported to hybridize in eastern brazil in esp\u00edrito santo and southern bahia . the third subspecies of blond - crested woodpecker ,\nshowing page 1 . found 0 sentences matching phrase\nbuff - spotted woodpecker\n. found in 0 ms . translation memories are created by human , but computer aligned , which might cause mistakes . they come from many sources and are not checked . be warned .\norn . knysna woodpecker [ campethera notata , syn . : c . relicta ]\norn . tanganyika woodpecker [ campethera scriptoricauda , syn . : c . albiefacies ]\norn . tanzanian woodpecker [ campethera scriptoricauda , syn . : c . albiefacies ]\n) . male has white forehead and lores tinged grey or buff , crimson - red . . .\norn . reichenow ' s woodpecker [ campethera scriptoricauda , syn . : c . albiefacies ]\norn . speckle - throated woodpecker [ campethera scriptoricauda , syn . : c . albiefacies ]\n, is mostly black , with a buffy rump , and narrow buff bars across the wings and the back . the subspecies\norn . white eye - browed nubian woodpecker [ campethera scriptoricauda , syn . : c . albiefacies ]\nthe buff - spotted flameback ( chrysocolaptes lucidus ) is a species of bird in the picidae family . it is found on the philippine islands of bohol , leyte , samar , biliran , panaon , mindanao , basilan , and samal . it is sometimes considered a subspecies of the greater flameback .\nwinkler , h . & christie , d . a . ( 2018 ) . buff - spotted woodpecker ( campethera nivosa ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthis article is part of project picidae , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each woodpecker , including made - up species .\na common and widespread woodpecker occuring all through the amazon and surrounding regions . description from antpitta . com . i searched for this on b\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\n, of northeastern brazil , is very different . the underparts are dusky , but the feathers are tipped with cinnamon - buff . the color pattern of the upperparts is almost the opposite of that of\nthis article is part of project piciformes , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each woodpecker and ally , including made - up species .\nc . 14\u201316 cm ; 30\u201349 g . male has dark green - olive to blackish - olive forehead and crown , red nape ; rest of head whitish to pale yellow - buff , heavily streaked olive , . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . seems to be at best uncommon in most of its range , and in many parts rare or extremely rare , but may be commonest woodpecker in parts . . .\nwinkler , h . & christie , d . a . ( 2018 ) . white - backed woodpecker ( dendrocopos leucotos ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nwinkler , h . & christie , d . a . ( 2018 ) . golden - cheeked woodpecker ( melanerpes chrysogenys ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nwinkler , h . , christie , d . a . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . pale - headed woodpecker ( gecinulus grantia ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nrace maxima , known only from two specimens from n ivory coast , doubtfully valid , possibly only a larger form of nominate . latter intergrades with race herberti , the resultant intermediates formerly known as race efulenensis ; yalensis ( w kenya ) synonymized with herberti . four subspecies recognized .\n( swainson , 1837 ) \u2013 senegambia e to cameroon and w drcongo and s to nw angola .\n( alexander , 1908 ) \u2013 s central african republic and sw south sudan ( bangangai forest ) to w kenya ( kakamega and south nandi forests ) and s to sc & e drcongo .\ncalls \u201cpreeeew\u201d , and \u201cdee - dee - dee\u201d trills ; repeated \u201cte - te - te - te - te . . .\nprimary and dense secondary lowland and montane forest , at up to c . 1800 m , mostly to 950 m ; on . . .\n) and termites ( isoptera ) . singly or in pairs ; joins mixed - species flocks . forages quietly in . . .\nseason nov\u2013jun ; jan\u2013mar in sierra leone ; eggs in apr in nigeria ; probably breeds in nov\u2013jan and mar\u2013jun in cameroon . . .\nnot globally threatened . common in most of range ; not uncommon in nigeria and angola ; uncommon in kenya . common in liberia , densities 13 pairs / km\u00b2 in logged forest , 8 pairs / . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be common to not uncommon in most of its range ( del hoyo et al . 2002 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\n( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22680937a111715676 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\ndavid beadle , ahmet karata\u015f , yvonne stevens , adam riley , markus lilje .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : campethera nivosa . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nunter folgender adresse kannst du auf diese \u00fcbersetzung verlinken : urltoken tipps : doppelklick neben begriff = r\u00fcck - \u00fcbersetzung \u2014 neue w\u00f6rterbuch - abfrage : einfach jetzt tippen ! suchzeit : 0 . 042 sek .\n) , m\u00f6glichst mit einem guten beleg im kommentarfeld . wichtig : bitte hilf auch bei der\nlimited input mode - mehr als 1000 ungepr\u00fcfte \u00fcbersetzungen ! du kannst trotzdem eine neue \u00fcbersetzung vorschlagen , wenn du dich einloggst und andere vorschl\u00e4ge im contribute - bereich \u00fcberpr\u00fcfst . pro review kannst du dort einen neuen w\u00f6rterbuch - eintrag eingeben ( bis zu einem limit von 500 unverifizierten eintr\u00e4gen pro benutzer ) .\ndieses deutsch - englisch - w\u00f6rterbuch basiert auf der idee der freien weitergabe von wissen . mehr informationen ! enth\u00e4lt \u00fcbersetzungen von der tu chemnitz sowie aus mr honey ' s business dictionary ( englisch / deutsch ) . vielen dank daf\u00fcr ! links auf dieses w\u00f6rterbuch oder einzelne \u00fcbersetzungen sind herzlich willkommen ! fragen und antworten\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 291 , 630 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nour search server encountered a problem during your search . please copy this error code { { spperror _ message } }\nmore in { { topic . val } } ( { { topic . numarticles - topic . articles . length } } )\nthe cornell lab will send you updates about birds , birding , and opportunities to help bird conservation . you can unsubscribe at any time . we will never sell or give your email address to others .\nkari pihlaviita marked the finnish common name\npikkut\u00e4pl\u00e4tikka\nfrom\ncampethera nivosa ( swainson , 1837 )\nas trusted .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ncookies help us deliver our services . by using our services , you agree to our use of cookies .\nno translation memories found . consider more lenient search : click button to let glosbe search more freely .\nthis article is part of project aves , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each bird , including made - up species .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the annotation score provides a heuristic measure of the annotation content of a uniprotkb entry or proteome . this score < strong > cannot < / strong > be used as a measure of the accuracy of the annotation as we cannot define the \u2018correct annotation\u2019 for any given protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / annotation _ score ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this indicates the type of evidence that supports the existence of the protein . note that the \u2018protein existence\u2019 evidence does not give information on the accuracy or correctness of the sequence ( s ) displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ existence ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information about the protein and gene name ( s ) and synonym ( s ) and about the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / names _ and _ taxonomy _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides an exhaustive list of all names of the protein , from commonly used to obsolete , to allow unambiguous identification of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ names ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been imported from another database using automatic procedures . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000313\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section indicates the name ( s ) of the gene ( s ) that code for the protein sequence ( s ) described in the entry . four distinct tokens exist : \u2018name\u2019 , \u2018synonyms\u2019 , \u2018ordered locus names\u2019 and \u2018orf names\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides information on the name ( s ) of the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / organism - name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section shows the unique identifier assigned by the ncbi to the source organism of the protein . this is known as the \u2018taxonomic identifier\u2019 or \u2018taxid\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ identifier ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section contains the taxonomic hierarchical classification lineage of the source organism . it lists the nodes as they appear top - down in the taxonomic tree , with the more general grouping listed first . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ lineage ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section displays by default the canonical protein sequence and upon request all isoforms described in the entry . it also includes information pertinent to the sequence ( s ) , including < a href =\nurltoken\n> length < / a > and < a href =\nurltoken\n> molecular weight < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequences _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is complete or not . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018sequence\u2019 section is used for sequence fragments to indicate that the residue at the extremity of the sequence is not the actual terminal residue in the complete protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / non _ ter ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\nkc813357 genomic dna translation : agi05267 . 1 kc813358 genomic dna translation : agi05268 . 1\n< p > this section is used to point to information related to entries and found in data collections other than uniprotkb . < p > < a href = ' / help / cross _ references _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides general information on the entry . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ information _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides a mnemonic identifier for a uniprotkb entry , but it is not a stable identifier . each reviewed entry is assigned a unique entry name upon integration into uniprotkb / swiss - prot . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides one or more accession number ( s ) . these are stable identifiers and should be used to cite uniprotkb entries . upon integration into uniprotkb , each entry is assigned a unique accession number , which is called \u2018primary ( citable ) accession number\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / accession _ numbers ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section shows the date of integration of the entry into uniprotkb , the date of the last sequence update and the date of the last annotation modification ( \u2018last modified\u2019 ) . the version number for both the entry and the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > are also displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ history ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section indicates whether the entry has been manually annotated and reviewed by uniprotkb curators or not , in other words , if the entry belongs to the swiss - prot section of uniprotkb ( < strong > reviewed < / strong > ) or to the computer - annotated trembl section ( < strong > unreviewed < / strong > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\noriginal description previously attributed to mcclelland , but correct author is horsfield # r . closely related to g . viridis , and in the past the two were at times treated as conspecific . recent observations and several specimens reinforce probability that a narrow hybrid zone between the two exists in n thailand and , presumably , n laos # r . proposed form aristus ( ne india ) synonymized with nominate ; poilanei ( cochinchina , in s vietnam ) is inseparable from indochinensis . three subspecies recognized .\n( horsfield , 1840 ) \u2013 foothills from e nepal e to n , c & w myanmar and s china ( w yunnan ) .\n25\u201327 cm ; 68\u201385 g . male has greenish - yellow crown to nape and crest , central patch of red - tipped pinkish feathers reaching to upper nape ; rest of head and neck . . .\nnasal \u201cchaik - chaik - chaik - chaik\u201d or \u201ckw\u00e9ek kwek - kwek\u201d , 4\u20135 . . .\ninhabits evergreen forest , semi - deciduous forest , secondary mixed bamboo forest , secondary forest . . .\nmainly ants , larvae of beetles , and other insects . often in pairs or small family parties . forages mainly in lower levels , on trunks of . . .\nmar\u2013may . nest - cavity excavated 1\u20136 m up in dead tree , rotten stump or bamboo . clutch three eggs . no other information , but . . .\nnot globally threatened . very rare in nepal , only few records ( from e ) , where not discovered until 1974 ; uncommon in india and bhutan ( known from just 3\u20134 sites in . . .\napparently forms a clade of indomalayan taxa together with dinopium , micropternus and meiglyptes # r .\nof eastern south america , occuring from extreme eastern amazonia east and south to northeastern argentina . like other members of the genus , it forages at mid - heights and in canopy of humid forest . it primarily eats ants and termites , although it also eats some fruit and berries . the nest cavity is in the side of an arboreal ant nest ; otherwise , very little is known about the natural history of this bird . the\nexhibits striking geographic variation , although all populations share a blond , crested head ; males have a large red moustachial stripe , while females have a less prominent black moustache . the body of the southern subspecies ,\n, occurs in the interior of eastern brazil , and is intermediate in appearance between the two other subspecies .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\ncollar , n . j . 2011 . species limits in some philippine birds including the greater flameback chrysocolaptes lucidus . forktail number 27 : 29 - 38 .\ndana campbell changed the thumbnail image of\nramankumar _ greaterflameback _ female _ apr07 339\n.\nkari pihlaviita marked the finnish common name\npunaselk\u00e4tikka\nfrom\nchrysocolaptes lucidus ( scopoli , 1786 )\nas trusted .\nwhat do ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) mean ? learn more about the scoring system .\n( bechstein , 1802 ) \u2013 w norway , sweden , finland and poland s in europe to e switzerland , austria , n serbia and carpathian mts , and e through s russia to kamchatka , sakhalin , ne china and korea .\n( malherbe , 1861 ) \u2013 w siberia from w ural mts e to l baikal .\n( sharpe & dresser , 1871 ) \u2013 pyrenees , c italy , the balkans and peloponnese , turkey ( n anatolia , taurus mts ) , caucasus and transcaucasia .\n( stejneger , 1886 ) \u2013 s kuril is and n japan ( hokkaido ) .\n( stejneger , 1886 ) \u2013 c & s japan ( s honshu , shikoku , kyushu ) .\n( nagamichi kuroda & mori , 1920 ) \u2013 ulleung i ( dagelet ) , off e korea .\n( nagamichi kuroda & mori , 1918 ) \u2013 jeju i ( quelpart ) , off s korea .\nsoft low \u201cgig\u201d ; series of \u201ckyig gyig\u201d notes in alarm ; also \u201cgig gig . . .\nold - growth and overmature but relatively open deciduous and mixed forest with high proportion of . . .\nlaying from late apr , but significant courtship from feb ; season extends to may or jun , is c . 2 weeks earlier than other woodpeckers in . . .\ngenerally resident ; some local movements . a few individuals seem to be carried along with eruptive . . .\nthe date of description of the nominate species dendrocopos leucotos ( picus leucotos ) is 1802 , not 1803 ( e . mey in : rudoltst\u00e4dter nat . hist . schr . ii : 63 - 100 .\nthe bibliography is stopped in 2001 in hbw : numerous papers were published from this date , especialy on lilfordi ( french pyr\u00e9n\u00e9es , italy ) on the history of this taxon ( grang\u00e9 et vuilleumier , nos oiseaux 56 - 2009 ) , the nest - trees in pyr\u00e9n\u00e9es ( casseur d ' os , vol . 9 - 2009 ) and italy ( wilson bull . 115 - 3 , 2003 ) and the reproductive biology ( nos oiseaux n\u00b049 - 2002 ) .\nsometimes separated with other barred congeners in centurus . variation clinal ; interior population ( morelos , adjacent michoac\u00e1n ) often separated as race morelensis , tending to be paler with less yellow and orange than flavinuchus , but considerable overlap with latter in plumage characteristics . two subspecies recognized .\n( ridgway , 1911 ) \u2013 jalisco e to sw puebla and se along coast to e oaxaca .\n19\u201322 cm ; 55\u201388 g . male has whitish forehead with golden - yellow at base of bill , red crown ( usually becoming more golden - orange on nape ) , bright yellow - gold . . .\nmany churring calls and short series of notes , e . g . nasal \u201cki - di - dik\u201d , more explosive . . .\nmesic to xeric forest and edge , forest patches , open areas with scattered trees and plantations . . . .\ninsects , including adults and larvae of beetles , ants ; also various fruits and seeds . forages singly and in pairs , at middle and upper . . .\nmay\u2013jul . nest - hole in tree or cactus . clutch size and other aspects of breeding undescribed .\nnot globally threatened . common to fairly common ; widespread within range , recorded at numerous sites . a little - known species . research required on its ecology and breeding . . .\nincorporates tripsurus , and the four monotypic genera leuconerpes , asyndesmus , linneopicus and trichopicus ; barred species sometimes separated in centurus .\nthe iucn red list of threatened species . version 2018 - 1 . < urltoken > . downloaded on 09 july 2018 .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be common to not uncommon in most of its range ( del hoyo et al . 2002 ) . . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nspecial thanks to tropical birding for outstanding photo contributions to the bird data family of apps .\nthis application is created by interactive maps . you can also have your visited countries map on your site . if you see this message , you need to upgrade your flash player .\nb = breeding resident \u2013 present all year ; known or presumed to breed .\np = palaearctic migrant \u2013 non - breeding summer visitor ; breeds during the northern summer in europe and asia : typically present november - march .\nt = tropical migrant \u2013 breeding summer visitor ; winters in tropical africa : typically present september - april .\na = altitudinal migrant \u2013 non - breeding winter visitor ; breeds at higher altitudes in kwazulu - natal : typically present may - august .\nn = nomad \u2013 visits irregularly , sometimes in large numbers , in response to specific environmental cues . may breed .\nv = vagrant \u2013 one - off or occasional visitor outside its normal range .\nabundance and status codes pertain locally : for example species considered common within the main part of their range may be rare or vagrant here .\nu = uncommon \u2013 usually present , but not necessarily found on the day .\nsave my name , email , and website in this browser for the next time i comment ."]}
{"id": 1172, "summary": [{"text": "synodontis polystigma is a species of upside-down catfish that is native to the upper congo basin of the democratic republic of the congo and zambia .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it was first described by george albert boulenger in 1915 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the original specimens were obtained at lukonzolwa , in lake mweru , in what is now the democratic republic of the congo .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the species name polystigma is derived from poly , meaning \" many \" and stigma , meaning \" mark or spot \" , referring to the numerous black spots on the body and fins of the species . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "synodontis polystigma", "paragraphs": ["fuente : wikipedia . paginas : 26 . capitulos : synodontis njassae , synodontis multipunctata , synodontis nigriventris , synodontis eupterus , synodontis nigromaculata , synodontis membranaceus , synodontis resupinatus , synodontis nebulosus , synodontis woosnami , synodontis nigrita , synodontis dorsomaculatus , synodontis leopardina , synodontis flavitaeniatus , synodontis petricola , synodontis filamentosa , synodontis clarias , synodontis afrofischeri , synodontis macrops , synodontis macrostigma , synodontis obesus , synodontis angelica , synodontis khartoumensis , synodontis ruandae , synodontis thamalakanensis , synodontis violacea , synodontis vanderwaali , synodontis fuelleborni , synodontis rufigiensis , synodontis zambezensis , synodontis victoriae , synodontis multimaculatus , synodontis ocellifer , synodontis camelopardalis , synodontis waterloti , synodontis schall , synodontis ricardoae , synodontis rukwaensis , synodontis bastiani , synodontis schoutedeni , synodontis steindachneri , synodontis ornatipinnis , synodontis annectens , synodontis longirostris , synodontis matthesi , synodontis macrophthalmus , synodontis batesii , synodontis manni , synodontis albolineata , synodontis longispinis , synodontis tanganyicae , synodontis acanthomias , synodontis acanthoperca , synodontis macrostoma , synodontis ansorgii , synodontis dhonti , synodontis punctifer , synodontis pardalis , synodontis robbianus , synodontis polystigma , synodontis centralis , synodontis polli , synodontis arnoulti , synodontis robertsi , synodontis gobroni , synodontis greshoffi , synodontis velifer , synodontis brichardi , synodontis unicolor , synodontis lufirae , synodontis pleurops , synodontis budgetti , synodontis ouemeensis , synodontis nummifer , synodontis tessmanni , synodontis pulcher , synodontis woleuensis , synodontis katangae , synodontis koensis , synodontis iturii , synodontis alberti , synodontis depauwi , synodontis dekimpei , synodontis polyodon , synodontis soloni , synodontis laessoei , synodontis thysi , synodontis kogonensis , synodontis cou . . .\nfont : wikipedia . p gines : 24 . cap tols : synodontis nigriventris , synodontis nigromaculata , synodontis cuangoana , synodontis leopardina , synodontis guttata , synodontis dorsomaculatus , synodontis dekimpei , synodontis brichardi , synodontis zanzibarica , synodontis koensis , synodontis arnoulti , synodontis eupterus , synodontis filamentosa , synodontis comoensis , synodontis njassae , synodontis gambiensis , synodontis woosnami , synodontis ngouniensis , synodontis petricola , synodontis clarias , synodontis schall , synodontis multipunctatus , synodontis sorex , synodontis xiphias , synodontis acanthoperca , synodontis caudovittata , synodontis afrofischeri , synodontis ouemeensis , synodontis vanderwaali , synodontis omias , synodontis kogonensis , synodontis macrostigma , synodontis nigrita , synodontis thamalakanensis , synodontis ornatipinnis , synodontis woleuensis , synodontis acanthomias , synodontis dhonti , synodontis macropunctata , synodontis longispinis , synodontis fuelleborni , synodontis macrostoma , synodontis nummifer , synodontis rufigiensis , synodontis khartoumensis , synodontis victoriae , synodontis melanoptera , synodontis ocellifer , synodontis rukwaensis , synodontis polystigma , synodontis depauwi , synodontis grandiops , synodontis frontosa , synodontis annectens , synodontis longirostris , synodontis obesus , synodontis decora , synodontis punctifer , synodontis batesii , synodontis manni , synodontis steindachneri , synodontis violacea , synodontis geledensis , synodontis soloni , synodontis levequei , synodontis granulosa , synodontis serpentis , synodontis angelica , synodontis lucipinnis , synodontis multimaculatus , synodontis ansorgii , synodontis macrops , synodontis fascipinna , synodontis camelopardalis , synodontis ilebrevis , synodontis robbianus , synodontis nebulosus , synodontis waterloti , synodontis pardalis , synodontis ornatissima , synodontis caudalis , synodontis membranaceus , synodontis aterrima , synodontis matthesi , synodontis albolineata , synodontis zambezensis , synodontis budgetti , sy . . .\nsynodontis polystigma is a benthopelagic species . it is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding ( breder and rosen 1966 ) .\n: 6 . an aggressive fish that thrives when frequent partial water changes are made . the polystigma must be kept in a large tank .\nlateral view of synodontis ornatipinnis , illustrating the striking patterns seen in some species of synodontis ; cu 91403 . \u00a9\nsynodontis\nmay also squeak when they are taken out of the water .\nsynodontis membranaceus ( geoffroy st . hilaire 1809 ) referring to membranes on maxillary and mandibular barbels\nsynodontis aterrimus is a benthopelagic species . it is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding ( breder and rosen 1966 ) .\nsynodontis annectens boulenger 1911 linking or joining , believed to be intermediate in form between s . sorex and s . clarias\nsynodontis aterrimus is known from the central congo river basin . it is not known from the kwango , kasai and lukenie systems .\nsynodontis bastiani daget 1948 in honor of m . ( probably monsieur ) bastian ( no other information available ) , who collected type\nsynodontis dekimpei paugy 1987 in honor of p . de kimpe , mus\u00e9e royal de l\u2019afrique centrale ( tervuren ) , who collected type\nsynodontis macrops greenwood 1963 macro - , large ; ops , eye , referring to larger eye compared to the similar s . schall\nmusschoot , t . , and p . lal\u00e8y\u00e8 . 2008 . designation of a neotype for synodontis schall ( bloch and schneider , 1801 ) and description of two new species of synodontis ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) . journal of natural history 42 ( 17 - 18 ) : 1303\u00961331 .\nsynodontis longispinis pellegrin 1930 longus , long ; spinis , spine , described as a variety of s . batesii with a longer dorsal - fin spine\nsynodontis : from the greek syn , meaning together , and odontos , meaning tooth ; in reference to the closely - spaced lower jaw teeth .\nfossil mochokids , of the genus synodontis , have been found in deposits from eastern and northern africa dating to at least the early miocene ( at least 20 mya ) ( stewart , 2001 ) . interestingly , fragments of pectoral spines of synodontis dating from the early oligocene have been found in oman , an area where mochokids do not exist today ( otero & gayet , 2001 ) . fossil mochokids outside of the genus synodontis are presently unknown .\nsynodontis gobroni daget 1954 in honor of m . ( probably monsieur ) gobron , a volunteer at laboratoire de diafarab\u00e9 ( mail ) , who collected type\nsynodontis irsacae matthes 1959 of i . r . s . a . c . ( institut pour la recherche scientifique en afrique centrale ) , matthes\u2019 employer\nsynodontis thysi poll 1971 in honor of poll\u2019s mus\u00e9e de l\u2019afrique centrale colleague , dirk thys van den audenaerde ( b . 1934 ) , who collected type\nsynodontis obesus boulenger 1898 fat , allusion not explained , perhaps referring to less - elongate body shape compared to s . serratus , with which it had been misidentified\nsynodontis soloni boulenger 1899 in memory of alexandre solon , a young traveler who died in congo after helping capt . capra ( no other information available ) collect fish\n6a . eyes with free orbital margin ; 17 principal caudal - fin rays ( only 13 in synodontis contracta ) ; tail forked ; 6 to 10 pectoral - fin rays ( usually 8 or 9 ) ; lateral mandibular barbels with single , gracile branches at each point along length or doubly branched ( fig . 27a\u2013b ) \u2026 synodontis\nsynodontis haugi pellegrin 1906 in honor of protestant missionary ernest haug ( d . 1915 ) , a correspondent of m\u00faseum national d\u2019histoire naturelle ( paris ) , who collected type\nreproduced from 1971 . revision des synodontis africains ( famille mochocidae ) . ann . mus . r . afr . cent . ser . 8 zool . . . .\nsynodontis polyodon vaillant 1895 poly , many ; odon , tooth , referring to greater number of mandibular teeth ( ~ 75 ) compared to s . schall ( ~ 25 )\nday , j . j . , and m . wilkinson . 2006 . on the origin of the synodontis catfish species flock from lake tanganyika . biology letters 2 : 548\u0096552 .\nsynodontis robbianus smith 1875 \u2013 anus , belonging to : rev . alexander robb , who provided specimens from the \u201cold calavar district of tropical africa , \u201d including type of this one\nbishai h . m . and y . b . abu gideiri . 1968 . studies on the biology of genus synodontis at khartoum . iii . reproduction . hydrobiologia 31 : 193\u0096202 .\nsanyanga , r . a . 1998 . food composition and selectivity of synodontis zambezensis ( pisces : mochokidae ) in lake kariba , and the ecological implications . hydrobiologia 361 : 89\u009699 .\nsynodontis nummifer boulenger 1899 nummus , coin ; fero , to bear , referring to 1 - 2 rounded ( i . e . , coin - like ) black spots on the sides\nbishai h . m . and y . b . abu gideiri . 1965a . studies on the biology of genus synodontis at khartoum . i . age and growth . hydrobiologia 26 : 85\u009697 .\nbishai h . m . and y . b . abu gideiri . 1965b . studies on the biology of genus synodontis at khartoum . ii . food and feeding habits . hydrobiologia 26 : 98\u0096113 .\nsynodontis courteti pellegrin 1906 in honor of m . ( probably monsieur ) courtet , member of french 1902 - 1903 mission to study the region between ubangi river and lake chad , during which type was collected\nmost medium or large community fish . although commonly available as such , not a good species for the small community tank . anything smaller than 3foot / 1 meter long , go for synodontis nigriventris instead .\nmicrosynodontis boulenger 1903 micro - , small , referring to small size of m . batesii ( 10 cm tl ) , i . e . , a small synodontis ( all other species are small , too )\nsqueaker catfishes ( pisces , mochokidae , synodontis ) are widely distributed throughout africa and inhabit a biogeographic range similar to that of the exceptionally diverse cichlid fishes , including the three east african great lakes and their surrounding rivers . since squeaker catfishes also prefer the same types of habitats as many of the cichlid species , we hypothesized that the east african synodontis species provide an excellent model group for comparative evolutionary and phylogeographic analyses .\nsynodontis robertsi poll 1974 in honor of ichthyologist tyson r . roberts ( b . 1940 ) , who helped collect type during a national geographic society expedition to zaire ( now democratic republic of the congo ) in 1973\nsynodontis serpentis whitehead 1962 snake , allusion not explained , perhaps referring to marbled pattern on caudal peduncle of juveniles ( e . schraml , pers . comm . ) , which resembles the marbled pattern seen on many constrictors\nwright , j . j . and l . m . page . 2006 . taxonomic revision of the lake tanganyikan synodontis ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) . the bulletin of the florida museum of natural history 46 : 99\u0096154 .\nsynodontis polli gosse 1982 in honor of belgian ichthyologist max poll ( 1908 - 1991 ) , for his revision of the genus [ replacement name for s . eurystomus matthes 1959 , preoccupied by s . eurystomus pfeffer 1889 ]\nwright , j . j . and l . m . page . 2008 . a new species of synodontis ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) from tributaries of the kasai river in northern angola . copeia 2008 ( 2 ) : 294\u0096300 .\nkoblm\u00fcller , s . , c . sturmbauer , e . verheyen , a . meyer , and w . salzburger . 2006 . mitochondrial phylogeny and phylogeography of east african squeaker catfishes ( siluriformes : synodontis ) . bmc evolutionary biology 6 : 49 .\nsynodontis acanthomias boulenger 1899 acanthus , thorn ; omias , perhaps from the greek omos , shoulder or humerus , referring to humeral process armed with spines ( name may also refer to s . omias , to which this species had incorrectly been identified )\nsynodontis : from the greek syn , meaning together , and odontos , meaning tooth ; in reference to the closely - spaced lower jaw teeth . this specific epithet literally means beautiful ( eu - = beautiful , good ) wing ( pteron = wing ) .\nsynodontis : from the greek syn , meaning together , and odontos , meaning tooth ; in reference to the closely - spaced lower jaw teeth . this specific epithet refers to its black ( nigro = black ) spots ( maculatus , - a = spots ) .\nfriel , j . p . , and j . p . sullivan . 2008 . synodontis woleuensis ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) , a new species of catfish from gabon and equatorial guinea , africa . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 157 : 3\u009612 .\nfriel , j . p . and t . r . vigliotta . 2006 . synodontis acanthoperca , a new species from the og\u00f4ou\u00e9 river system , gabon with comments on spiny ornamentation and sexual dimorphism in mochokid catfishes ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) . zootaxa 1125 : 45\u009656 .\nsynodontis ornatissimus gosse 1982 very ornate or decorated , referring to its \u201cstriking\u201d coloration ( translation ) , with many black spots on body and dorsal fin and black bands on tail [ replacement name for s . ornatus boulenger 1920 , preoccupied by s . ornatus pappenheim 1914 ]\nde weirdt , d . , e . vreven , and y . fermon . 2008 . synodontis ngouniensis , a new species ( siluriformes : mochikidae ) from ngouni\u00e9 and nyanga basins , gabon and republic of congo . ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 19 ( 2 ) : 121\u0096128 .\nsynodontis vanderwaali skelton & white 1990 in honor of zoologist ben van der waal , university of venda ( south africa ) , who collected type , for his donations of fishes from northern namibian rivers to the j . l . b . smith institute of ichthyology and the albany museum\nnine genera and approximately 200 valid species are currently recognized . some fossilized pectoral spines have been attributed to synodontis , but none of them are described as new . phylogenetic relationships among the mochokid genera were investigated by vigliotta ( 2008 ) who found that chiloglanis is possibly a paraphyletic assemblage , that synodontis must include s . membranaceous and s . batensoda ( formerly placed in hemisynodontis and brachysynodontis respectively ) and that the reciprocal monophyly of atopochilus and euchilichthys are questionable at best ; all remaining genera are recovered as valid and monophyletic . the general relationships between mochokid genera are illustrated in the phylogeny below .\ndating of the major cladogenetic events in synodontis with r8s . we ran three independent analyses in r8s [ 32 ] with different calibration points using the maximum estimated age for the lacustrine habitat in lakes malawi ( 1 my [ 49 ] ) and tanganyika ( 6 my [ 46\u201348 ] ) , as well as the minimum age of the east african clade of synodontis as suggested by the oldest known synodontis fossil in that region ( > 20 my [ 45 ] ) . in the first analysis , all three calibrations were applied ( 1 / 6 / 20 calibration ) ; in the second cycle , we used the lake malawi and the fossil calibration ( 1 / 20 calibration ) ; in the third round , we only used the fossil based calibration ( 20 calibration ) . the numbers indicate the average value ( in my ) obtained from a bootstrap approach with 30 replicates , the minimum and maximum values are depicted in round brackets ( in italics ) . square brackets indicate the time constraints used for the different r8s analyses and the range of the actual numbers used in the bootstrap replicates ( in round brackets ) . the estimates for the age of the entire genus synodontis should be interpreted with caution , as the values lie outside our range of calibration points\neven more peculiar is the habit of some species of synodontis that are known to swim upside - down . this habit seems to be correlated with feeding while upside - down at the water\u2019s surface ( bishai & abu gideiri , 1965b ) , but upside - down catfishes will rest and swim in the inverted position on a regular basis . chapman et al . ( 1994 ) showed that an upside - down posture near the surface also facilitates respiration in poorly oxygenated water . while the genus synodontis presents the most well - known species with their fascinating behaviors and natural histories , the family is actually much more interesting when taken as a whole .\nsynodontis ricardoae seegers 1996 in honor of cicely kate ricardo ( later ricardo - bertram , 1912 - 1999 ) , who , together with ms . r . j . owen , collected in the lake rukwa drainage ( where this species occurs ) and co - authored several important papers on the fishes of east and central africa\nbeyond information gleaned from captive breeding of certain species of synodontis , very little is known about reproduction in mochokids . the best studied mochokids in this regard are most likely nile river synodontis ( including s . membranacea and s . batensoda , previously placed in other genera ) . still , details are limited ; the studies indicate that spawning occurs from july to october , which coincides with the flooding season , and that pairs swim in unison during spawning bouts ( bishai & abu gideiri , 1968 ) . the most interesting and detailed information on mochokid reproduction relates to a species from lake tanganyika , synodontis multipunctatus , which is a brood parasite of mouth brooding cichlids such as simochromis and haplochromis ( sato , 1986 ; wisenden , 1999 ) . adults of this species spawn in the midst of spawning cichlids and the fertilized catfish eggs are taken into the mouth of a cichlid . the catfish eggs hatch first and will eat the host eggs before they leave the host mouth . most amazingly , this species has been able to parasitize mouth brooding cichlids from south america in captivity ( loiselle , 1998 ) .\nour analyses reveal the existence of six major lineages of synodontis in east africa that diversified about 20 mya from a central and / or west african ancestor . the six lineages show a clear geographic patterning . two lineages are endemic to lake tanganyika ( plus one non - endemic representative ) , and these are the only two synodontis lineages that diversified further into a small array of species . one of these species is the cuckoo catfish ( s . multipunctatus ) , a unique brood parasite of mouthbrooding haplochromine cichlids , which seems to have evolved in parallel with the radiation of its cichlid host lineage , the tropheini . we also detect an accelerated rate of molecular evolution in s . multipunctatus , which might be the consequence of co - evolutionary dynamics .\nbased largely on coloration and pattern some scientists and aquarists have recognized \u2018species flocks\u2019 of synodontis . the largest and most visually impressive of these is the lake tanganyika synodontis species flock . the flock consists of at least six species , all endemic to the lake , that show amazingly similar coloration and patterning . recent work suggests that this \u2018flock\u2019 is not monophyletic and that the biogeographic scenario is more complicated than a simple radiation after lake formation ( day & wilkinson , 2006 ; koblmuller et al . , 2006 ) . regardless , in this group of species , the nearly constant color pattern consists of a light brown base color and darker brown polka - dots . it is made more impressive by the fins , which have dark brown membranes basally and stark white trailing edges . the cryptic nature of lake tanganyika synodontis has led to an underestimate of the actual number of species present ( wright & page , 2006 ) ; three new species were described and two others were resurrected in that work . there are several other smaller flocks with their own unique patterns and pigmentation outside of the lake , and cryptic species probably exist for these as well .\ndorsal view of heads illustrating sexual dimorphism of the opercular spine in synodontis acanthoperca : a . cu 89005 , male holotype , 44 . 1 mm sl ; b . cu 89006 , female paratype , 40 . 4 mm sl . the pectoral spines in both specimens have been removed from the images to make the margins of the head more distinct against the background . scale bar equals 1 mm . \u00a9\nlittle is known about the ecology of most mochokids . what is known pertains mostly to diet and is biased towards species of synodontis . stomach contents from synodontis have included insects , nematodes , crustaceans , mollusks , annelids , seeds , algae , diatoms , fish scales and , incidentally , sand ( bishai & abu gideiri , 1965a ; bishai & abu gideiri , 1965b ; winemiller & kelso - winemiller , 1996 ; sanyanga , 1998 ) . from observations of stomach contents , the diet of most mochokids is probably very similar ; that is , they are omnivores . for some of the larger sucker - mouthed species ( i . e . , atopochilus and euchilichthys ) the stomach contents contain a high proportion of silt , algae and detritus . for these taxa it seems likely that scraping or grazing is the predominant method of feeding .\ncomposite consensus tree of the phylogenetic analyses . the strictconsensus of the neighbor - joining tree , the most parsimonious trees , the optimal maximum likelihood topology ( see fig . 4 ) and the bayesian inference tree is shown . numbers above the branches are neighbor - joining and maximum parsimony bootstrap values , numbers below the branches represent maximum likelihood bootstraps and bayesian posterior probabilities . the grey box indicates the east african clade of synodontis .\nthe mochokidae are a family of african catfishes known commonly as \u2018squeakers\u2019 and \u2018upside - down catfishes . \u2019 these common names refer to some unusual habits of certain members of the large genus synodontis . the name squeaker refers to the fact that , when agitated , many species in the genus are capable of making a squeaking noise by stridulation of the pectoral spine against the pectoral girdle ( jubb , 1967 ) ; stridulation is also apparent in mochokiella paynei and some species of atopochilus .\nmaximum likelihood tree . maximum likelihood topology based on the k81uf + i + \u03b3 model of molecular evolution [ 70 ] with nucleotide frequencies a , 0 . 3581 , c , 0 . 2676 , g , 0 . 1368 , t , 0 . 2375 , proportion of invariable sites ( i ) , 0 . 2461 , gamma shape parameter ( \u03b1 ) , 0 . 7306 , and r - matrix a\u2194g , a\u2194t , c\u2194g and g\u2194t , 1 . 0000 ; a\u2194g , 7 . 7875 and c\u2194t , 1 . 2463 . the blue box indicates the east african clade of synodontis .\nall species in the genus synodontis have a hardened head cap that has attached a process ( humeral process ) which is situated behind the gill opening and pointed towards the posterior . the dorsal fin and pectoral fins have a hardened first ray which is serrated . caudal fin is always forked . there is one pair of maxillary barbels , sometimes having membranes and occasionally branched . the two pairs of mandibular barbels are often branched and can have nodes attached . the cone - shaped teeth in the upper jaw are short . s - shaped and movable in the lower jaw . these fish produce audible sounds when disturbed rubbing the base of the pectoral spine against the pectoral girdle .\npigmentation and patterning of mochokid skin is also diverse . mochokids are popular in the pet trade because they have showy colors , sharply contrasting patterns like stripes and polka - dots and , quite often , extravagant fins . as some of the largest and most active mochokids , species of synodontis display an amazing array of patterns and pigmentation that may , in some cases , serve as visual cues to conspecifics . it might also be true that the bright , contrasting coloration found in some species serves as a warning to predators . like many catfishes , some mochokids possess specialized poison glands for delivering offensive chemicals along with a \u2018stick\u2019 by the pectoral spine ; anecdotal accounts indicate that these wounds can be very painful . however , field studies that might demonstrate function of these varied patterns have not been done .\nall species in the genus synodontis have a hardened head cap that has attached a process ( humeral process ) which is situated behind the gill opening and pointed towards the posterior . the dorsal fin and pectoral fins have a hardened first ray which is serrated . caudal fin is always forked . there is one pair of maxillary barbels , sometimes having membranes and occasionally branched . the two pairs of mandibular barbels are often branched and can have nodes attached . the cone - shaped teeth in the upper jaw are short . s - shaped and movable in the lower jaw . these fish produce audible sounds when disturbed rubbing the base of the pectoral spine against the pectoral girdle . juvenile colouration is quite different from that of the adult . the change begins when the fish reach about 40mm and gradually continues until they pass the 100mm mark .\nmany mochokid species exhibit obvious sexual dimorphism . for example , many species in the genus chiloglanis show dimorphism of the caudal and anal fins ( roberts , 1989 ; seegers , 1996 ; friel & vigliotta , 2006 ) ; some chiloglanis also display sexual dimorphism of the cleithral process , wherein males possess a greatly enlarged process shielding the flank . in the closely related genus atopochilus , sexual dimorphism of the anal fin is sometimes evident . some mochokids exhibit spiny ornamentation of the skull roof bones , opercular series and pectoral girdle ( friel & vigliotta , 2006 ) . in the case of synodontis acanthoperca , a spine found at the rear of the opercle is , itself , sexually dimorphic . the spines of males are much larger than those of females . this is also true for mochokiella paynei ( personal observation ) , which was previously unknown to possess opercular spines or exhibit sexual dimorphism .\ngreek , syn , symphysis = grown together + greek , odous = teeth ( ref . 45335 )\nafrica : upper lualaba , lake mweru and luapula up to johnston falls ( upper congo river basin ) in democratic republic of the congo and zambia ( ref . 78218 , 82238 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 24 . 5 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3202 )\noviparous ( ref . 205 ) . distinct pairing during breeding ( ref . 205 ) .\ngosse , j . - p . , 1986 . mochokidae . p . 105 - 152 . in j . daget , j . - p . gosse and d . f . e . thys van den audenaerde ( eds . ) check - list of the freshwater fishes of africa ( cloffa ) . isnb , brussels , mrac , tervuren ; and orstom , paris . vol . 2 . ( ref . 3202 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 9 \u00b10 . 3 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 25 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nbrummett , r . , mbe tawe , a . n . , dening touokong , c . , reid , g . m . , snoeks , j . staissny , m . , moelants , t . , mamonekene , v . , ndodet , b . , ifuta , s . n . b . , chilala , a . , monsembula , r . , ibala zamba , a . , opoye itoua , o . , pouomogne , v . , darwall , w . & smith , k .\njustification : the species is widespread or without major threats throughout the central africa assessment region and is assessed as least concern .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\ncatalogue of the fresh - water fishes of africa in the british museum ( natural history ) . .\nthe bookreader requires javascript to be enabled . please check that your browser supports javascript and that it is enabled in the browser settings . you can also try one of the other formats of the book .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe root of the current tree connects the organisms featured in this tree to their containing group and the rest of the tree of life . the basal branching point in the tree represents the ancestor of the other groups in the tree . this ancestor diversified over time into several descendent subgroups , which are represented as internal nodes and terminal taxa to the right .\nyou can click on the root to travel down the tree of life all the way to the root of all life , and you can click on the names of descendent subgroups to travel up the tree of life all the way to individual species .\nfor more information on tol tree formatting , please see interpreting the tree or classification . to learn more about phylogenetic trees , please visit our phylogenetic biology pages .\nmochokid catfishes are currently restricted to the freshwaters of africa , but are nearly ubiquitous in the habitable waters of the continent . a high degree of morphological diversity allows mochokid catfishes to inhabit some of the fastest flowing streams and cataracts to the widest and deepest stretches of the congo river . mochokids also inhabit the massive african rift lakes like tanganyika , victoria and nyasa . the greatest diversity of mochokids almost certainly occurs in the congo river and its numerous tributaries , but they are also found in many of the rivers and lakes of western africa , southern africa , eastern africa and in the nile . like a handful of other catfishes , some mochokids are known to swim in mid - water ; other members of the family are primarily benthic . likewise , some mochokids shoal while others are rather solitary . as a rule they are most active during the night , but they can be found hiding amongst plants , logs and other submerged structure during the day .\nlateral view of atopochilus vogti , illustrating typical body shape in sucker - mouthed mochokids ; cu 93752 . \u00a9\nvigliotta ( 2008 ) provides several synapomorphies as diagnostic features for the mochokidae including : absense of the ascending process of meckel\u2019s cartilage ; a shortened horizontal process of meckel\u2019s cartilage ; coronomeckalian extremely reduced or even absent ; absence of a coronoid process ; absence of an interhyal ; presence of a pectoral locking foramen ( absence / reversal in most suckermouthed species ) ; seven pelvic - fin rays ; fusion of upper caudal - fin elements ( absence / reversal in atopochilus and euchilichthys ) ; a reduced number of mandibular sensory canal pores ( 3 or fewer ) ; and distinctive , ramified inner and outer mandibular barbels ( absence / reversal in suckermouthed mochokids where these barbels are partially or completely incorporated into an expanded lower lip ) .\n1a . lips and barbels modified into oral disc ( fig . 27c ) ; postcleithral process short ( fig . 22c ) ; 5 infraorbitals ( figs . 2c , 4b ) ; pelvic - fin origin at vertical at end of dorsal - fin base . . . 2\n1b . lips and barbels not modified into oral disc ; postcleithral process quite long ( fig . 22b ) ; 4 infraorbitals figs . 2b , 4a ) ; pelvic - fin origin beyond end of dorsal - fin base . . . 5\n2a . mandibular teeth bunched ( in bouquet ) at midline ( fig . 3d in friel and vigliotta , 2008 ) in or spread across mouth opening in one or two discrete rows ( fig . 3e\u2013f in friel and vigliotta , 2008 ) ; eyes without free orbital margin ; mandibular sensory - canal absent ; 4 to 6 dorsalfin rays ( typically 5 ) ; 5 to 7 branchiostegal rays ( typically 5 or 6 ) \u2026 chiloglanis\n2b . mandibular teeth spread across mouth opening in more than two discrete rows ( fig . 3a\u2013c in friel and vigliotta , 2008 ) ; eyes with free orbital margin ; mandibular sensory canal present , with 2 pores on each side ; 6 to 7 dorsal - fin rays ; 7 to 8 branchiostegal rays . . . 3\n3a . small anteriorly directed pocket underneath lower lip produced by folds of skin ( fig . 4a in friel and vigliotta , 2008 ) ; width of mandibular tooth rows less than 66 % width of paired premaxillae ( fig . 3a in friel and vigliotta , 2008 ) ; caudal fin emarginate ; gas bladder extremely reduced to two small bulbs ( fig . 5 ) \u2026 atopodontus\n3b . small anteriorly directed pocket underneath lower lip absent ( fig . 4b in friel and vigliotta , 2008 ) ; width of mandibular tooth rows more than 66 % width of paired premaxillae ( fig . 3b\u2013c in friel and vigliotta , 2008 ) ; caudal fin forked ; gas bladder only modestly reduced ( fig . 3c ) . . . 4\n4a . mandibular teeth spatulate and unicuspid ( fig . 10c ) ; large posterior pectoral - spine serrae ; one or only a few pores at sites along the cephalic sensory canals ; fewer than 40 vertebrae \u2026 atopochilus\n4b . mandibular teeth with lengthwise keel creating trowel shape and sometimes bicuspid from wear ( fig . 10a ) ; small posterior pectoral - spine serrae ; several pores at various sites along the cephalic sensory canals ; more than 40 vertebrae \u2026 euchilichthys\n5a . s - shaped auxiliary dentary teeth present ( fig . 10a , c\u2013f ) ; premaxillary teeth differentiated by shape and size front to back ; lips plicate ( with folds at corners of mouth ) . . . 6\n5b . s - shaped auxiliary dentary teeth absent ( fig . 10b ) ; premaxillary teeth showing little , if any , differentiation from front to back ; lips papillose , but not plicate ( without folds ) . . . 7\n6b . eyes without free orbital margin ; 12 to 14 principal caudal - fin rays ; tail truncate or rounded ; 6 or 7 pectoral - fin rays ( typically 6 ) ; lateral mandibular barbels with single , gracile branches at each point along length ( fig . 27a ) \u2026 microsynodontis\n7a . dorsal surface of the head and nuchal shield covered by large ridges and spinous projections ; cleithrum bearing spine in males ; rounded , blunt postcleithral process ; anus and urogenital opening distant ; free orbital margin present ; gill openings open to isthmus ; tips of mandibular teeth spatulate ; medial mandibular barbels with multiple , thick branches at each point along length ( fig . 27b ) ; 8 to 9 pectoral - fin rays ; 17 caudal - fin rays ; more than 40 vertebrae \u2026 acanthocliethron\n7b . dorsal surface of the head and nuchal shield without ridges and spinous projections ; cleithrum without spine in males ; pointed postcleithral process ; anus and urogenital opening very close ; free orbital margin absent ; gill openings restricted to sides of the head ; tips of mandibular teeth pointed ; medial mandibular barbels with single , gracile branches at each point along length ( fig . 27a ) ; 5 to 7 pectoral - fin rays ; 13 or 15 caudal - fin rays ; fewer than 36 vertebrae . . . 8\nchapman , l . j . , l . kaufman , and c . a . chapman . 1994 . why swim upside - down - a comparative study of 2 mochokid catfishes . copeia 1994 : 130\u0096135 .\nferraris , c . j . , jr . 2007 . checklist of catfishes , recent and fossil ( osteichthyes : siluriformes ) , and catalogue of siluriform primary types . zootaxa 1418 : 1\u0096628 .\nfriel , j . p . and t . r . vigliotta . 2008 . atopodontus adriaensi , a new genus and species of african suckermouth catfish from the og\u00f4ou\u00e9 and nyanga river systems of gabon ( siluriformes mochokidae ) . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 157 : 13\u009623 .\njubb , r . a . 1967 . freshwater fishes of southern africa . cape town , amsterdam , balkema , 248 pp .\nng , h . h . and r . m . bailey . 2006 . chiloglanis productus , a new species of suckermouth catfish ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) from zambia . occasional papers of the university of michigan museum of zoology 738 : 1\u009613 .\notero , o . and m . gayet . 2001 . palaeoichthyofaunas from the lower oligocene and miocene of the arabian plate : palaeoecological and palaeobiogeographical implications . palaeogeography palaeoclimatology palaeoecology 165 : 141\u0096169 .\nroberts , t . r . 1989 . systematic revision and description of new species of suckermouth catfishes ( chiloglanis , mochokidae ) from cameroun . proceedings of the california academy of sciences series 4 , 46 : 151\u0096178 .\nsato , t . 1986 . a brood parasitic catfish of mouthbrooding cichlid fishes in lake tanganyika . nature 323 : 58\u009659 .\nseegers , l . 1996 . the fishes of the lake rukwa drainage . mus\u00e9e royal de l\u0092afrique centrale , annales , sciences zoologiques 278 : 1\u0096407 .\nseegers , l . 2008 . the catfishes of africa . a handbook for identification and maintenance . aqualog verlag , rodgau , germany . 604 pp .\nstewart , k . m . 2001 . the freshwater fish of neogene africa ( miocene - pleistocene ) : systematics and biogeography . fish and fisheries ( oxford ) 2 : 177\u0096230\nvigliotta , t . r . 2008 . a phylogenetic study of the african catfish family mochokidae ( osteichthyes , ostariophysi , siluriformes ) , with a key to genera . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 157 : 73\u0096136 .\nwinemiller , k . o . , and l . c . kelso - winemiller . 1996 . comparative ecology of catfishes of the upper zambezi river floodplain . journal of fish biology 49 : 1043\u00961061 .\nwisenden , b . d . 1999 . alloparental care in fishes . reviews in fish biology and fisheries 9 : 45\u009670 .\nthis media file is licensed under the creative commons attribution - noncommercial license - version 3 . 0 .\ncorrespondence regarding this page should be directed to john p . friel at and thomas r . vigliotta at\n. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the\n. african squeaker and suckermouth catfishes . version 02 march 2009 ( under construction ) .\neach tol branch page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a branch of the tree of life . the major distinction between a branch and a leaf of the tree of life is that each branch can be further subdivided into descendent branches , that is , subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\nmalapterurus minjiriya sagua 1987 hausa word for this species , which fishers along the niger river can easily distinguish from m . electricus\nparadoxoglanis cryptus norris 2002 hidden or secret , referring to close superficial resemblance to p . parvu s\natopochilus macrocephalus boulenger 1906 macro - , long ; cephalus , referring to longer head compared to a . savorgnani\natopochilus mandevillei poll 1959 in honor of j . th . mandeville , fisheries agent , government of leopoldville ( now kinshasa , democratic republic of the congo ) , who collected some of the paratypes\nchiloglanis brevibarbis boulenger 1902 brevis , short ; barbis , barbel , referring to shorter barbels compared to c . deckenii and c . niloticus\nchiloglanis camarabounyi schmidt & bart 2017 named for camara - bounyi , guinean village adjacent to type locality ; residents generously allowed access to the river , assisted with collecting , and the children provided the common name \u201cfanye makonyi , \u201d i . e . , \u201cthe fish that bites people , \u201d likely referring to its sharp pectoral - and dorsal - fin spines and associated venom\nchiloglanis devosi schmidt , bart & nyingi 2015 in honor of the late luc devos ( 1957 - 2003 ) , director of the ichthyology section at the national museums of kenya , who was instrumental in establishing its collection and building it into a regional and internationally invaluable collection , and who was partly responsible for discovering and recognizing this species and c . kerioensis as distinct\nchiloglanis disneyi trewavas 1974 in honor of medical entomologist ronald henry lambert disney ( b . 1938 ) , who collected type\nchiloglanis emarginatus jubb & le roux 1969 referring to emarginate ( having a notched tip or edge ) caudal fin , compared to deeply forked caudal fin of c . bifurcus\nchiloglanis normani pellegrin 1933 in honor of ichthyologist j . r . ( john roxborough ) norman ( 1898 - 1944 ) , british museum ( natural history ) , who described the similar c . polyodon in 1932\nchiloglanis paratus crass 1960 latin for prepared or equipped , apparently a key word in the family motto of t . g . fraser ( natal parks , game and fish preservation board ) , \u201cwhose enthusiastic efforts have brought in much useful material\u201d\nchiloglanis pojeri poll 1944 in honor of dr . g . pojer ( a belgian scientist , no other information available ) , who collected type\nchiloglanis somereni whitehead 1958 in honor of dr . v . d . von someren , m . b . e . , senior research officer , ministry of forest development , game and fisheries , nairobi , kenya , where whitehead was affiliated at the time\neuchilichthys boulengeri nichols & la monte 1934 patronym not identified but clearly in honor of ichthyologist - herpetologist george a . boulenger ( 1858 - 1937 ) , who proposed the genus in 1900\neuchilichthys royauxi boulenger 1902 in honor of capt . louis royaux , who led expedition that collected type and supplied indigenous names of the species collected\nmicrosynodontis lamberti poll & gosse 1963 in honor of poll\u2019s frequent collaborator j . g . lambert , \u201cwell - versed in many genera of african fishes\u201d ( translation )\nmochokiella howes 1980 \u2013 iella , a diminutive , referring to dwarf size of m . paynei , i . e . , a small mochokid\nmochokiella paynei howes 1980 in honor of a . i . payne , university of sierra leone , who collected type\nmochokus joannis 1835 latinization of mouchchou\u00e9k\u00e9 , arabic name for m . niloticus , roughly translating as \u201cdon\u2019t get stung or jabbed by it , \u201d referring to its dangerously sharp spines , which local fishermen try to avoid\nmochokus brevis boulenger 1906 short , referring to shorter caudal part of body compared to m . niloticus\nirvineia trewavas 1943 \u2013 ia , belonging to : dr . f . r . irvine , former biology master at achimota college , gold coast ( now ghana ) , who presented local fishes to the british museum ( natural history ) , including type of i . voltae\nirvineia orientalis trewavas 1964 eastern , referring to its east african distribution compared to the west african i . voltae\npareutropius buffei ( gras 1961 ) in honor of m . ( monsieur ) buffe , director , eaux et for\u00eats ( waters and forests ) service , dahomey ( now benin ) , \u201cwho witnessed the discovery\u201d of this species ( translation )\npareutropius debauwi ( boulenger 1900 ) in honor of lieut . g . de bauw ( probably a belgian army officer ) , who collected type\npareutropius mandevillei poll 1959 in honor of j . th . mandeville , fisheries agent , government of leopoldville ( now kinshasa , democratic republic of the congo ) , who collected type\nschilbe oken 1817 latinization of \u201cles schilb\u00e9\u201d used by cuvier in 1816 , based on a local name for s . mystus along the nile river\nschilbe intermedius r\u00fcppell 1832 intermediate in certain characters between s . uranoscopus and siluranodon auritus ( then placed in schilbe )\nschilbe laticeps ( boulenger 1899 ) latus , broad ; ceps , head , referring to its large and broad head , wider than head of s . congensis\nsiluranodon bleeker 1858 silurus , referring to previous placement of s . auritus in that genus ; ano - , without and odon , tooth , referring to what bleeker mistakenly believed was a lack of teeth ( teeth are very reduced ; those on upper jaw tend to be lost due to damage , while those on lower jaw are overgrown by surrounding bone )\nsiluranodon auritus ( geoffroy st . hilaire 1809 ) eared , from the local arabian name wadi denne ( \u201cprovided with ears\u201d ) , referring to large , rounded pectoral fins just behind head , which resemble two big ears\nauchenoglanis biscutatus ( geoffroy st . hilaire 1809 ) bi - , two ; scutatus , shielded , referring to nuchal shield divided into two parts\nauchenoglanis occidentalis ( valenciennes 1840 ) western , referring to its distribution ( described from senegal ) compared to the similar a . biscutatus of egypt\nnotoglanidium g\u00fcnther 1903 notos , back , presumably referring to \u201crather long\u201d dorsal fin of n . walkeri ; glanidium , diminutive of glanis , sheatfish ( silurus glanis ) , now used as a general term for catfish\nnotoglanidium akiri ( risch 1987 ) in honor of mrs . p . j . akiri ( rivers state university of science and technology , port harcourt , nigeria ) , ichthyologist , who collected type\nnotoglanidium thomasi boulenger 1916 in honor of anthropologist northcote w . thomas , who collected type\nparauchenoglanis longiceps ( boulenger 1913 ) longus , long ; ceps , head , referring to longer , narrower head compared to p . balayi\nparauchenoglanis monkei ( keilhack 1910 ) in honor of dr . h . monke ( no other information available ) , who collected type\nparauchenoglanis ngamensis ( boulenger 1911 ) \u2013 ensis , suffix denoting place : lake ngami district ( i . e . , area ) , botswana , type locality\namarginops hildae ( bell - cross 1973 ) in honor of hilda jubb , albany museum , grahamstown , south africa ( wife of ichthyologist rex a . jubb ) , \u201cwhose excellent fish illustrations of southern african freshwater fishes [ including type of this species ] have been admired by all\u201d\nbathybagrus bailey & stewart 1984 bathys , deep , referring to \u201cprofundal habitat\u201d of b . tetranema ; bagrus , a bagrid catfish ( originally placed in bagridae )\nchrysichthys bleeker 1858 chrysos , gold , referring to golden - yellow head and / or specific name of c . auratus ( = golden ) ; ichthys , fish\nchrysichthys auratus ( geoffroy st . hilaire 1809 ) golden , referring to golden - yellow head ( at least on the specimens that geoffroy st . hilaire examined )\nchrysichthys johnelsi daget 1959 in honor of zoologist alf g . johnels ( 1916 - 2010 ) , swedish museum of natural history , who observed and reported the first specimens in 1954\nchrysichthys persimilis g\u00fcnther 1899 per - , very ; similis , similar , described as \u201cextremely similar\u201d to the type of c . furcatus\nchrysichthys platycephalus worthington & ricardo 1937 platy , flat ; cephalus , head , referring to broader , more flattened head compared to the similar c . graueri\nchrysichthys praecox hardman & stiassny 2008 early ripening or precocious , referring to small size at maturity ( 31 . 7 - 62 . 5 mm sl )\nchrysichthys teugelsi risch 1987 in honor of ichthyologist guy g . teugels ( 1954 - 2003 ) , mus\u00e9um national d\u2019histoire naturelle ( paris ) , who helped collect type\nchrysichthys wagenaari boulenger 1899 in honor of lieut . wagenaar ( no other information available , probably a dutch army officer ) , who collected upper congo fishes for boulenger , including presumably the type of this one\nchrysichthys longidorsalis risch & thys van den audenaerde 1981 longus , long ; dorsalis , dorsal , referring to long dorsal fin , reaching to at least adipose fin when folded [ replacement name for gephyroglanis velifer thys van den audenaerde 1965 , preoccupied in chrysichthys by c . velifer ( = maurus ) norman 1923 ]\nsubgenus melanodactylus bleeker 1858 melano - , black ; daktylos , finger , referring to dark - edged fins of type species , arius acutivelis ( = c . nigrodigitatus )\nchrysichthys thysi risch 1985 in honor of ichthyologist dirk thys van den audenaerde ( b . 1934 ) , who collected type\nclarotes kner 1855 named after the ancient greek klaroten , a term for slaves ( i . e . , \u201cpeople with bent necks\u201d [ translation ] , according to kner ) , referring to sharp downward - sloping angle of head\nclarotes bidorsalis pellegrin 1938 bi - , two ; dorsalis , dorsal , referring to spine in adipose fin of adults ( apparently bigger or more pronounced than adipose fin on c . laticeps ) , giving the impression that it has two dorsal fins\nclarotes macrocephalus daget 1954 macro - , large ; cephalus , head , referring to larger head compared to c . laticeps\nphyllonemus boulenger 1906 phyllon , leaf ; nemus , thread , referring to leaf - like membrane at tips of maxillary barbels of p . typus\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n245mm or 9 . 6\nsl . find near , nearer or same sized spp .\nfirst lay the fish in your hand with its head toward your palm and the tail toward your fingers . hold the dorsal spine between your middle and ring finger so the fish is belly up and you won ' t get stuck ( which by the way , hurts like crazy ! ) . the genital pore is in a small furrow of tissue ( in healthy fish ) and will be obstructed by the pelvic fins . pull down on the tail gently to arch the fishes spine and the pelvic fins will stand and the furrow open to display the genital pore and the anus of the fish . the male has a somewhat ridged genital papillae on which the spermatoduct is on the back side , facing the tail fin . a gravid female will also show an extended papillae but the oviduct is on the ventral side of the papillae ( and may also show a little redness if really gravid ) . a thin or emaciated female will have just two pink pores , the oviduct and the anus .\nget or print a qr code for this species profile , or try our beta label creator .\nhas this page been useful ? please donate to our monthly hosting costs and keep us free for everyone to enjoy ! explore our youtube channel , facebook page or follow us on twitter .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 urltoken , part of the aquatic republic network group of websites . all rights reserved . cite this website . by accessing this site you agree to our terms and conditions of use . our privacy policy .\njustification : although there are threats known in the luapula - mweru region ( overfishing ) , the species is listed as least concern because it has a relatively broad distribution .\nsince 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in lake mweru and the luapula river on the congolese site of the border . in zambia , there is the kasanka national park around lake bangweulu . the fines didn\u2019t work in this region . even scientific collections were stopped . the government has burned 10 , 000 nets after measuring the nets . the governor ( morris katunge ) has paid the fishermen . since 1st of may 2008 , fishing was allowed again , but with controlled mesh sizes .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service ."]}
{"id": 1179, "summary": [{"text": "the mountain plover ( charadrius montanus ) is a medium-sized ground bird in the plover family ( charadriidae ) .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is misnamed , as it lives on level land .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "unlike most plovers , it is usually not found near bodies of water or even on wet soil ; it prefers dry habitat with short grass ( usually due to grazing ) and bare ground . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "mountain plover", "paragraphs": ["listing the mountain plover as threatened : proposed rule ; request for public comments .\nstogsdill still remembers the moment a biologist showed him what a mountain plover looked like .\nmountain plover ( charadrius montanus ) : a technical conservation assessment by steve dinsmore . 2003 .\nshe has already signed up for the 10th annual mountain plover festival , which starts friday .\nthe color of the mountain plover helps it fade into the landscape , making it hard to spot .\ndinsmore , s . j . ( 2003 ) mountain plover ( charadrius montanus ) : a technical conservation assessment . usda forest service , rocky mountain region .\ngraul , w . d . 1975 . breeding biology of the mountain plover . wilson bulletin 87 : 6 - 31 .\nthe mountain plover is one of the species that uses prairie dog towns to provide suitable breeding habitat in areas of longer grasses .\ndinsmore , s . j . 1995 . 1995 mountain plover research in phillips county , montana . unpublished report to usfws . 6pp .\nknowles , c . j . 1985 . the mountain plover : uncommonly exceptional . montana outdoors 16 ( 6 ) : 7 - 12 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - mountain plover ( charadrius montanus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - mountain plover ( charadrius montanus )\ntitle =\narkive species - mountain plover ( charadrius montanus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nprellwitz , d . m . 1993 . additional mountain plover sightings in montana . prairie nat . , 25 ( 1 ) : 23 - 26 .\nthe combination of a black forecrown and white breast is a unique color pattern among north american plover species that distinguishes the mountain plover ( knopf 1996 ) . the snowy plover ( charadrius alexandrinus ) , semipalmated plover ( charadrius semipalmatus ) , piping plover ( charadrius melodus ) , and a few other plovers , also have black forecrowns , but their breasts are decorated with a black breast band or black side patches ( sibley 2000 ) . their habitats are also distinctly different ( see habitat ) .\ngraul , w . d . , and l . e . webster . 1976 . breeding status of the mountain plover . condor 78 : 265 - 267 .\nolson , s . l . 1985 . mountain plover food items on and adjacent to a prairie dog town . prairie naturalist 17 ( 2 ) : 83 - 90 .\nthe conservation of the mountain plover depends on the protection of suitable nesting habitat , the conservation of prairie dogs , and the protection of known nesting sites ( 8 ) . efforts to carry out these conservation measures are underway in a number of areas ( 8 ) ( 9 ) , such as the pawnee national grassland in colorado , an important nesting site for the mountain plover and where a mountain plover management strategy has been implemented ( 2 ) ( 8 ) . in addition , the mountain plover and the black - tailed prairie dog ( cynomys ludovicianus ) have been proposed for listing under the federal endangered species act ( 5 ) , which would offer more protection to these declining species .\nfederal register 68 : 174 . 2003 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; withdrawal of the proposed rule to list the mountain plover as threatened . pp . 53083 - 53101\nwe are urging the federal government to protect all five species of prairie dogs and the diverse community of animals that depend on them , including the mountain plover . the plover has twice been proposed for listing , and twice the listing proposed has been withdrawn . we continue to advocate for the plover and we will not rest until these small , graceful birds have a safe home .\nthe oldest recorded mountain plover was at least 10 years old when it was sighted in montana in the wild and identified by its band . it had been banded in the same state .\nthe mountain plover is a bird that begins arriving to colorado\u2019s eastern plains in early april . plovers find the short grass prairie and fallow fields in the area to be excellent nesting grounds .\nfaunawest wildlife consultants . 1991 . status and breeding distribution of the mountain plover in montana . report to usdi bureau of land management . faunawest wildlife consultants , boulder , mt . 44 pp .\nknowles , p . r . 1992 . status and breeding distribution of the mountain plover in montana . paper presented at the 30th meeting of the montana chapter of the wildlife society , whitefish .\na native of the shortgrass prairie , the mountain plover is a dull - colored shorebird of open , dry areas . despite its name , it breeds in the high tablelands , not the mountains .\nand most ranchers in karval knew nothing about the mountain plover , a grassland bird native to the western great plains that prefers to nest in sparse vegetation or bare patches such as prairie dog towns .\nmountain plovers are one of only 12 grassland birds endemic to the western great plains . they nest across the western great plains and rocky mountain states , from the canadian border to northern mexico , and winter in california , southern arizona , texas and mexico . mountain plovers only nest in areas with sparse vegetation or bare ground , such as prairie dog towns . loss of these areas because of crop planting or the removal of prairie dogs , is the biggest threat to the mountain plover ' s population .\nproject overview in 2002 , the nebraska prairie partners initiated the systematic research of mountain plover ecology to reassess their status in nebraska . monitoring efforts including estimated arrival dates and departure dates of migrants , nesting chronology and time intervals of peak nesting activity , and general distribution of breeding mountain plovers in the southwest panhandle .\nthe mountain plover is classified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of the convention on the conservation of migratory species ( cms ) ( 3 ) .\nplover lovers . learn how landowners and biologists work together to study and preserve the nesting grounds of this elusive species .\nafter scientists determined that the mountain plover population had stabilized , and the government decided not to list it as an endangered species , people in the karval community realized that this bird could be an economic opportunity they\u2019d been seeking .\nthe mountain plover breeds in central north america , from montana , south to new mexico . it winters from central california to baja california , and east to southern texas and north - east mexico ( 2 ) ( 6 ) .\nknowles , c . j . and p . r . knowles . 1993 . mountain plover numbers , reproduction , and habitat use in three areas of montana . unpublished report for the bureau of land management , billings . 50 pp .\nlaun , c . h . 1957 . a life history study of the mountain plover ( eupoda montana townsend ) on the laramie plains , albany county , wyoming . m . s . thesis , univ . wyo . , laramie .\nleachman , b . , and b . osmundson . 1990 . status of the mountain plover : a literature review . unpublished report to the u . s . forest service , fish and wildlife enhancement , golden , co . 83 pp .\nparrish , t . l . , s . h . anderson and w . f . oelklaus . 1993 . mountain plover habitat selection in the powder river basin , wyoming . prairie nat . 25 ( 3 ) : 219 - 226 .\nolson - edge , s . l . and w . d . edge . 1987 . density and distribution of the mountain plover on the charles m . russell national wildlife refuge . the prairie naturalist 19 ( 4 ) : 233 - 238 .\nbetty snow , an avid birder , has checked out almost every bird festival in colorado . her favorite is the mountain plover festival in the tiny town of karval , out on the eastern plains where some of the state\u2019s oldest ranches are located .\nolson , s . l . 1984 . density and distribution , nest site selection , and activity of the mountain plover on the charles m . russell national wildlife refuge . m . s . thesis . university of montana , missoula . 62 pp .\nthe idea for karval\u2019s festival goes back more than a decade , when the u . s . fish and wildlife service wanted to put the mountain plover on the endangered species list , which meant ranchers would need to navigate a complex web of federal regulations .\nknowles , c . , p . knowles , m . maj , and d . hinckley . 1995 . mountain plover numbers , reproduction , and habitat use in three areas of montana . prepared by faunawest wildlife consultants for bureau of land management , billings , montana .\npoorly named , this pallid plover is a bird of flat open plains , not mountains . of all of our\nshorebirds ,\nthis is the one most disconnected from the shore , generally living miles from water in the dry country of the west . the short - grass prairie where it once thrived has been largely converted to farmland , but the mountain plover has found new habitat in grassland overgrazed by cattle .\nalso , public lands and parks are mowed too frequently and the grass kept too short to provide a habitat for birds , the reports said . grassland birds showing marked population declines include the mountain plover , eastern and western meadowlarks , short - eared owls and northern bobwhites .\nfirst collected by john kirk townsend in 1834 along the sweetwater river of wyoming and named by john james audubon as the rocky mountain plover , the mountain plover is a north american endemic that breeds on the dry tablelands of the western great plains , and winters in dry grasslands and deserts of northern mexico and california . an unwary species , it often faces away from an observer and squats motionless in response to disturbance . this behavior results in the drably marked bird virtually disappearing and has fostered the nickname\nprairie ghost\namong those who seek it out .\nfederal register : february 16 , 1999 ( volume 64 , number 30 ) . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants : proposed threatened status for the mountain plover . proposed rules . department of the interior , u . s . fish and wildlife service . pp . 7587 - 7601 .\nmountain plover populations declined by over 3 % per year between 1966 and 2014 , resulting in a cumulative decline of 80 % , according to the north american breeding bird survey . a 2012 study estimates a breeding population of 20 , 000 . these birds only live in north america , principally in the west and central areas of the u . s . during the summer , migrating south to mexico and the southwest u . s . mountain plover is on the 2014 state of the birds watch list , which lists species most in danger of extinction without significant conservation action . a proposal to list the species as\nendangered\nwas rejected by the u . s . fish and wildlife service in 2003 , stating that species was more common than was believed . however , mountain plover is listed a near threatened on the iucn red list . back to top\nknopf , fritz l . and m . b . wunder . 2006 . mountain plover ( charadrius montanus ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\nwwf works with researchers and landowners to understand the needs of mountain plovers and to assess how land management and climate change impact the bird .\nforesman , k . r . 2012 . mammals of montana . second edition . mountain press publishing , missoula , montana . 429 pp .\nother rmbo research related to mountain plovers quantifies the success of nests and chick survival as a result of our nest marking program in agricultural lands .\nday , k . s . 1994 . observations on mountain plovers ( charadrius montanus ) breeding in utah . southwestern naturalist 39 : 298 - 300 .\nbehavior : mountain plovers often will run rather than fly when disturbed . they winter in central and coastal california , arizona , texas , northern mexico .\ndespites its common and scientific names , the mountain plover is not actually a mountain species ( 2 ) . it nests in upland short - grass prairie disturbed by fire or grazing . during the winter , it is found in heavily - grazed short - grass plains and fields , sandy deserts and on agricultural land ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . they are often found in association with burrowing mammals such as kangaroo rats ( dipodomys species ) and prairie dogs ( cynomys species ) ( 2 ) .\nmountain plover recordings by geoffery a . keller \u00a9 cornell lab of ornithology macaulay library cornell lab of ornithology 159 sapsucker woods road ithaca new york 14850 united states of america tel : + 1 ( 607 ) 254 - 2404 fax : + 1 ( 607 ) 254 - 2439 email : macaulaylibrary @ urltoken website : www . birds . urltoken / macaulaylibrary\nknopf , f . l . and m . b . wunder . 2006 . mountain plover ( charadrius montanus ) . species account number 211 . the birds of north america online ( a . poole , ed . ) . ithaca , ny : cornell laboratory of ornithology ; retrieved 3 / 25 / 2008 from the birds of north america online database\nranchers know where to find the mountain plover \u2014 their nests are so hard to spot that bird watchers call them \u201cthe ghost of the prairie\u201d \u2014 but the festival isn\u2019t just about that bird . over the years , visitors have spotted nearly 90 different kinds of birds , from red - winged blackbirds to the snowy egret and the great horned owl .\nthe rocky mountain bird observatory ( which later changed its name to bird conservancy of the rockies ) held a workshop in karval to discuss the bird with landowners .\nknopf , f . l . and j . r . wunder . 2006 . mountain plover ( charadrius montanus ) . the birds of north america , no . 211 ( a . poole and f . gill , eds . ) the academy of natural sciences , philidelphea , pa , and the american ornithologists ' union , washington , d . c .\nknowles , c . and p . knowles . 1997 . mountain plover numbers , reproduction , and habitat use in montana : a summary of six survey years . faunawest wildlife consultants . prepared for the montana department of fish , wildlife , & parks , great falls , montana , and the bureau of land management , billings , montana . 22 april 1997 .\nknopf , f . l . and j . r . rupert . 1995 . habits and habitats of mountain plovers in california . condor 97 : 743 - 751 .\nthey came up with the idea for the mountain plover festival \u2014 a three - day event with prices that range from $ 50 for a single event to $ 200 for the complete package . visitors spend time with ranchers and farmers , learning about their lives while touring private ranch land and eating home - cooked meals , including a saturday night chuck wagon dinner .\nmostly insects . diet is not well known ; but in the dry upland habitats where this plover lives , it probably feeds almost entirely on insects , including grasshoppers , beetles , flies , and crickets .\nas increasing human development overruns plover habitat and the prairie dogs who provide them their best nesting sites are persecuted , the difficulties the plover faces have taken their toll : this bird has declined by over 66 percent in the past few decades . recent estimates place the bird\u2019s total numbers at 5 , 000 - 11 , 000 individuals , a small number for a bird who lives just two years on average .\nspecies overview the mountain plover is an upland shorebird that breeds across the xeric tablelands of the western great plains and is a species of conservation concern throughout its range because of apparent range - side population declines ( knopf and wunder 2006 ) . by the beginning of the 21st century however , its extent in nebraska was largely unknown . bruner et al . ( 1904 ) described the species as\nnot uncommonin extreme western nebraska\nat the turn of the 20th century and noted the species had been observed in cheyenne , dawes , and sioux counties . as late 2000 , sharpe et al . ( 2001 ) described the species as a rare , regular breeder limited to southwestern kimball county . in fact , few mountain plover nests had ever been located in nebraska .\nknopf , f . l . and j . r . rupert . 1996 . reproduction and movements of mountain plovers breeding in colorado . wilson bulletin 108 : 28 - 35 .\nknopf , f . l . , and b . j . miller . 1994 . chradrius montanus : montane , grassland , or bare - ground plover ? the auk 111 ( 2 ) : 504 - 506 .\nknopf , f . l , and j . r . rupert . 1999 . use of cultivated fields by breeding mountain plovers . studies in avian biology 19 : 81 - 86 .\nadams , r . a . 2003 . bats of the rocky mountain west ; natural history , ecology , and conservation . boulder , co : university press of colorado . 289 p .\nthe karval mountain plover festival began when karval community members were looking at economic opportunities for this small community . we decided to \u201cbring the bird lovers to the bird\u201d . this i s a weekend full of bird watching , wildlife viewing tours , entertainment , history , arts and crafts , antiques , and lots of good food ! along with bird watching , here are some of the other things you will enjoy :\njohnsgard , p . a . 1986 . birds of the rocky mountains : with particular reference to national parks in the northern rocky mountain region . colorado associated university press , boulder , co .\nknowles , c . j . , and p . r . knowles . 1984 . additional records of mountain plovers using prairie dog towns in montana . prairie naturalist 16 : 183 - 186 .\nknopf , f . l . 1991 . status and conservation of mountain plovers : the evolving regional effort . report of research activities , usfws national ecology research center , fort collins , co . 9 pp .\nolson , s . l . and w . d . edge . 1985 . nest site selection by mountain plovers in northcentral montana . j . range manage . 38 ( 3 ) : 280 - 282 .\nwershler , c . r . 1989 . a management strategy for mountain plovers in alberta . proceedings of the prairie conservation and endangered species workshop , saskatchewan natural history society and canadian plains research center . 5 pp .\nhutto , r . l . and j . s . young . 1999 . habitat relationships of landbirds in the northern region , usda forest service , rocky mountain research station rmrs - gtr - 32 . 72 p .\nwerner , j . k . , b . a . maxell , p . hendricks , and d . flath . 2004 . amphibians and reptiles of montana . missoula , mt : mountain press publishing company . 262 p .\nknowles , c . j . , c . j . stoner , and s . p . gieb . 1982 . selective use of black - tailed prairie dog towns by mountain plovers . condor 84 : 71 - 74 .\nthe loss of nesting habitat is the biggest threat to mountain plovers . prairie dog colony extermination , lack of natural fire regimes , and the conversion of native prairie for agriculture and energy development all contribute to habitat loss and change .\nmountain plovers arrive in april and may remain in the state until september ( johnsgard 1986 ) . the species is a rare migrant west of the continental divide , but is a breeding resident of the prairie lands to the east .\nwallis , c . a . and c . r . wershler . 1981 . status and breeding of mountain plovers ( charadrius montanus ) in canada . can . field - nat . 95 ( 2 ) : 133 - 136 .\ngateway to the rocky mountain west for people from far - off lands or potential shortcut for flyers running late ; the beauty of the pedestrian bridge stretching between dia ' s main terminal and the a concourse is in the eye of the crosser .\n. the plumage of the mountain plover is brownish - grey on the upperparts and whitish on the underparts with a buff wash on the sides . the bright white of the forehead extends back above the eye like an eyebrow and contrasts with the black crown and the black patch that joins the eye to the black , short , straight bill . the pale , yellowish - brown legs are relatively long . non - breeding adults have a pale brown crown and rufous fringes to the new wing feathers , while juveniles can be identified by the buff - coloured \u2018eyebrow\u2019\ngomez de silva , h . , r . a . medilin legorreta , m . a . amin , and s . aguilar . 1996 . a concentration of mountain plovers charadrius montanus in san luis potosi , mexico . cotinga 5 : 74 - 75 .\nthe mountain plover is one of the many species that depends on prairie dog colonies in the west . mountain plovers like to nest in prairie dog towns , and considering the difficulties they face in making it to adulthood it is in their interests to choose wisely . their nests are shallow depressions in the ground , and though their dark olive and black eggs are well - camouflaged , they are vulnerable to predators such as coyotes , swift foxes , and ground squirrels . more than half of the egg clutches are lost to predation . once the chicks hatch , they can almost immediately run and feed themselves . during their first few weeks of life , they are most concerned with avoiding predators such as prairie falcons , ferruginous hawks , golden eagles , and loggerhead shrikes , and staying out of the hot prairie sun in the shade of tall grass , fence posts , telephone poles , or their parents .\n. prairie dogs , which this species is particularly associated with , can be greatly affected by sylvatic plague ( dinsmore and smith 2010 ) , yet treatment of these species against this can have further detrimental effects on nesting success of the plover ( dinsmore 2013 ) . over 70 % of nests on cultivated land are destroyed by farm machinery ( shackford\nbecause the continental population of the mountain plover apparently declined three percent or more per year during the 1970s , 1980s and early 1990s , the species was proposed for listing as threatened under the endangered species act in 1999 , but was subsequently withdrawn in 2003 . individuals in california may spend up to seventy - five percent of their time on agricultural fields where they are exposed to an array of pesticides , although no direct effects of pesticides on reproductive success or survival have been detected . in the southern part of the breeding range , birds also nest on tilled fields . although nests are lost to tillage practices during incubation , nest success on tilled fields currently appears compensatory rather than additive to losses due to predation in native habitats .\nour monitoring efforts yielded 278 nests ( 272 on agricultural fields and six on native rangelands ) over the duration of the study . the majority of nests were laid during the first two weeks of may . we observed mountain plovers incubating eggs into the middle of july , when it was previously believed that the birds migrated south ( sharpe et al . 2001 ) . our data also suggest that juveniles may reside within the state as late as early september , which is significantly longer than previously documented ( sharpe et al . 2001 ) . finally , compared with historically documented sightings , our results indicate that mountain plovers are more numerous in nebraska than previously believed ( see figure below ) .\nclark , t . w . , h . a . harvey , r . d . dorn , d . l . genter , and c . groves ( eds ) . 1989 . rare , sensitive , and threatened species of the greater yellowstone ecosystem . northern rockies conservation cooperative , montana natural heritage program , the nature conservancy , and mountain west environmental services . 153 p .\nin the summers the prairie was flush with grouse , prairie chickens , and curlews with their pink underwings lovely as a flash of sunset cloud . then there was the dainty little prairie plover that rose singly , at forty , fifty yards and soared gently away , rising gradually , such ready and toothsome game for the hunter . wright , an early hide man from around dodge , once killed nearly two hundred in an hour for an entourage of eastern sportsmen .\nidentification : mountain plovers are typically 8 - 9 \u00bd inches ( 20 - 24 cm ) tall with a17 \u00bd - 23 inch ( 44 - 58 cm ) wingspan . colors are light brown back , sandy - buff breast , white forehead with black above , white eye stripe , white wing stripe , black tail band with white border . male and females are similar in size and appearance .\nthroughout its range , this plover arrives on its breeding grounds in late march and april , two months before warm - season grasses begin to green . some adults and fledged chicks begin leaving the breeding grounds by mid july and wander throughout the southwestern plains and deserts until early november , when they arrive at the wintering grounds and gather , localized , in small flocks . spring migration , apparently directed around the suthern extents of the sierra nevada and rocky mountains to the breeding grounds , is much faster .\n21 - 23 . 5 cm . pale brown plover . upperparts brownish grey , underparts whitish washed buff on breast sides and flanks , white forehead and supercilium contrasting with black frontal bar and lores , black bill and long , pale brown - yellow legs . non - breeding adults lack black on head , have rufous fringes to fresh wing feathers , more extensive and buffy breast markings . juvenile similar but supercilium buff and broader , more buffy fringes and marked underparts . in flight , looks long - winged and shows white wing - bar , underwing - coverts and in tail .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\nis larger , darker and greyer , with darker legs and more patterned upperparts , in flight distinguished by white underwing and in tail .\nbutcher , g . , dinsmore , s . , dreitz , v . , earsom , s . , estelle , v . , knopf , f . , leachman , b . , lockwood , m . , manzano , p . , o ' connell , t . & wunder , m .\nthis species is classified as near threatened because it has a moderately small population . however , it is continuing to decline as a consequence of habitat loss and degradation resulting from cultivation , urbanisation , over - grazing , and changes in native herbivore populations .\n2009 ) . all these birds winter from sacramento , san joaquin and imperial valleys , california ( knopf and rupert 1995 , s . d . earsom and v . b . estelle\n( wilbur 1987 ) , and irregularly in south arizona and south texas in the blackland prairie ( knopf 1996 , m . lockwood\n. there appears to be some mixing on the wintering grounds , with birds banded in montana having been documented over - wintering in southern california , southeastern arizona , and texas ( s . dinsmore ,\n2012 ] ) . these figures are likely to reflect an increase in counting accuracy rather than a recent population increase . breeding was first successful in nuevo le\u00f3n , mexico , in 2004 ( gonzales rojas\n. these and / or northern birds regularly winter at janos in chihuahua ( p . manzano\nthe global population was estimated to number 11 , 000 - 14 , 000 individuals , but this has recently been revised upwards to 15 , 000 - 20 , 000 individuals , roughly equivalent to 10 , 000 - 14 , 000 mature individuals . trend justification : this species underwent a large and statistically significant decrease over 40 years in north america , with a 66 . 5 % decline over 40 years ( 23 . 9 % per decade ) , according to data from breeding bird survey and / or christmas bird count ( butcher and niven 2007 ) . more recent data from bbs suggests a potential annual decline of 2 . 88 % , which would equate to a decline of 36 . 6 % over 3 generations ( sauer et al . 2017 ) . however , there is a large margin of error and uncertainty with this estimate ( see sauer et al . 2017 ) and there is a suggestion that the population may be starting to stabilise ( t . o ' connell in litt . 2016 ) .\n. it arrives in canada and northern u . s . a . in late march - april and leaves in early august ( knopf 1996 )\nwhen it inhabits semi - desert , dry , bare agricultural land and ( in mexico ) breeding - type habitats ( s . d . earsom and v . b . estelle\n. the species apparently fares better during drought years ( dinsmore 2008 ) . it flocks in winter and on migration ( s . d . earsom and v . b . estelle\nhunting probably explains the long - term decline . more recently , cultivation and urbanisation have reduced nesting habitat , and intensive grazing has resulted in desertification and a reduced prey base ( s . d . earsom and v . b . estelle\n1999 ) , although dreitz and knopf ( 2007 ) suggest that nest success is comparable between cultivated land and grasslands - instead the cause of nest failure is different between the two habitat types . mining activities within its range can have detrimental effects on this species ( andres and stone 2010 ) .\ncms appendix ii . a conservation action plan for this species was published in 2010 ( andres and stone 2010 ) . pawnee national grassland , colorado , and charles m . russell national wildlife refuge , montana , are important reserves ( shackford\n. it has been proposed for listing under the federal endangered species act ( f . l . knopf\nhas also been proposed , partly because it helps to maintain suitable habitat ( f . l . knopf\n. the release of black - footed ferret in mexico is helping with prairie dog colony protection ( b . leachman\nset up a functional working group for this species ( andres and stone 2010 ) . define mexican breeding and winter distribution ( s . d . earsom and v . b . estelle\n. monitor u . s . a . and canada ' s populations , and investigate its demography across its range ( s . dinsmore\n2016 ) . conduct research to investigate how this species may be impacted by energy development projects ( andres and stone 2010 ) . improve population estimates by documenting the number of birds nesting away from prairie dog colonies . research movements of birds ( s . d . earsom and v . b . estelle\n1999 ) . protect prairie dog colonies , especially at janos ( s . d . earsom and v . b . estelle\n. restore prairie ecosystems ( include protection / reintroduction of grazers ) . protect remaining breeding and wintering habitats and prevent further conversion of grasslands . stop agricultural disturbance at nest sites . train and raise awareness amongst farmers to encourage the protection of this species and its habitat ( andres and stone 2010 ) . monitor the extent and health of habitat throughout its range ( childers and dinsmore 2008 ) . potentially , future conservation actions for this species may be best targeted at improving chick and adult survival as these factors have been suggested to have a great impact on population growth than nesting success ( see dinsmore\n2010 ) . work to find ways to enforce mexican wildlife laws to reduce and prevent the direct take of this species ( andres and stone 2010 ) .\nedited population trend justification , threats , geographic range and conservation actions information text . altered actions in place to recognise that a conservation action plan for this species has been published , and edited the reference list . added extra threats , actions needed , a new contributor and a new facilitator / compiler .\n( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22693876a111353209 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nof the 800 - plus species of birds in the u . s . , 67 are endangered or threatened\n( cnn ) - - bird populations native to several areas of the globe are in decline , with some teetering on the brink of extinction , according to a multi - agency report , the first of its kind , released thursday .\nthe western meadowlark is an endangered bird species , according to a new report .\nbut some other species are thriving , according to the\nstate of the birds\nreport , which credited conservation programs and waterfowl management initiatives that it said can serve as a model in other areas .\nevery u . s . habitat harbors birds in need of conservation ,\nsaid the report , issued by the cornell university lab of ornithology in conjunction with federal agencies and other organizations .\nhawaiian birds and ocean birds appear most at risk , with populations in danger of collapse if immediate conservation measures are not implemented .\nof the more than 800 species of birds in the united states , 67 are federally listed as endangered or threatened , the report said . another 184 are\nspecies of conservation concern\nbecause they have small distribution , are facing high threats or have a declining population .\nhawaiian birds , particularly , are in crisis , the report said . more than one - third of all u . s . bird species are in hawaii . however , 71 species have gone extinct since the islands were colonized about 300 a . d . , and 10 more species have not been seen in the past 40 years , contributing to fears they , too , have died out .\ngrassland and arid - land birds are showing the most rapid declines over the last four decades , while forest birds are also declining , the report said .\njust as they were when rachel carson published ' silent spring ' nearly 50 years ago , birds today are a bellwether of the health of land , water and ecosystems ,\ninterior secretary ken salazar said thursday in a statement on the report .\nfrom shorebirds in new england to warblers in michigan to songbirds in hawaii , we are seeing disturbing downward population trends that should set off environmental alarm bells . we must work together now to ensure we never hear the deafening silence in our forests , fields and backyards that rachel carson warned us about .\nthe declines can be traced to a variety of factors , depending on a bird ' s particular habitat . but the causes most frequently cited in the report are agriculture , climate change , development and energy , and invasive species .\nfor instance , some of the nation ' s fastest - growing cities - - las vegas , nevada ; phoenix , arizona ; and san diego , california - - are located in arid lands , the report said .\nunplanned and sprawling urban development is by far the greatest threat to arid lands .\nin addition , invasive non - native plants have been introduced into the area , which can fuel wildfires and destroy native plants . bird species of concern in arid lands include the elf owl , bendire ' s and leconte ' s thrashers and the gilded flicker , the report said . some , such as the california condor , are already listed as endangered or threatened .\nin the grasslands , intensified agricultural practices have hurt bird populations , according to the report .\npastures cannot support many birds if overgrazed , burned too frequently or burned at the beginning of the nesting season or the end of the grass - growing season .\nin the forest , some species are doing well , but roughly one - third of forest - breeding bird species are showing decline . the same is true for arctic and alpine birds , where 38 percent of the 85 species are of conservation concern , the report said .\ngame birds are also struggling . of 19 resident game bird species , 47 percent are species of conservation concern , and two species are federally endangered , according to the report . the greatest hope for long - term management of game birds , however , lies in farm bill programs that retire millions of acres of land used for heavy agriculture , the report said .\nalong the coast and in the ocean , bird populations have been hurt by overfishing , pollution and climate change , among other factors , the report said .\neach section of the report contains at least one\nreason for hope .\nthe california condor , for instance , has been reintroduced to some areas , and the bird ' s numbers are growing .\nurban birds , such as the american robin , hummingbirds , sparrows and woodpeckers , show a\nsteady , strong increase\nin the last 40 years .\na surprising number of native birds have adapted to life around humans ,\nthe report said .\n. . . the wide variety of native birds that thrive in urban areas underscores the importance of these artificial habitats to the survival of many bird populations .\nwetland bird populations remain below historic levels , but\nmanagement and conservation measures have contributed to increases of many wetland birds , including hunted waterfowl .\nresearch shows that wetland bird species began to increase in the late 1970s ,\ncoinciding with major policy shifts from draining to protecting wetlands ,\nthe report said .\ndramatic increases in many wetland generalist species , as well as arctic - nesting geese and cavity - nesting ducks , contribute to this overall trend .\nthese results emphasize that investment in wetlands contribution has paid huge dividends ,\nsaid kenneth rosenberg , director of conservation science at the cornell lab or ornithology .\nnow we need to invest similarly in other neglected habitats where birds are undergoing the steepest declines .\ntaking action now - - particularly in the area of habitat loss - - can help reverse the declining trend seen in some species , according to the report .\nthe number and scope of severe threats to birds is daunting , but implementing solutions immediately and widely will pay off in benefits to society , the economy and the health of our environment .\nit calls for measures such as increased monitoring of bird populations , stricter protection laws , more incentives , sustainable fishing practices and widespread education .\ncitizen science plays a critical role in monitoring and understanding the threats to these birds and their habitats , and only citizen involvement can help address them ,\nsaid greg butcher , conservation director for the national audubon society .\nconservation action can only make a real difference when concerned people support the kind of vital habitat restoration and protection measures this report explores .\nsince 2000 , wwf has worked in this part of the country to conserve and restore the northern great plains ' natural heritage and native wildlife . so which animals call this beautiful region home , and why do they matter ?\nshow your love of the tiger with the wwf bankamericard cash rewards visa credit card . bank of america will contribute $ 100 to wwf for each account opened and activated .\nhelp wwf conserve the world ' s wildlife and their homes by symbolically adopting a tiger .\nworld wildlife fund 1250 24th street , n . w . washington , dc 20037\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nendemic a species or taxonomic group that is only found in one particular country or geographic area . gregarious tending to form a group with others of the same species by habitually living or moving in flocks or herds rather than alone . incubate to keep eggs warm so that development is possible . incubation the act of incubating eggs , that is , keeping them warm so that development is possible .\ndel hoyo , j . , elliott , a . and sargatal , j . ( 1996 ) handbook of the birds of the world . vol . 3 : hoatzin to auks . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nkaufman , k . ( 1996 ) lives of north american birds . houghton mifflin company , boston .\njones , s . r . and cushman , r . c . ( 2004 ) the north american prairie . houghton mifflin company , boston .\nanimals animals / earth scenes 17 railroad avenue chatham ny 12037 united states of america tel : + 01 ( 518 ) 3925500 fax : + 01 ( 518 ) 3925550 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhas disappeared from much of former breeding range as former short - grass prairie is converted to farmland . in some areas , decline may be linked to decline in prairie - dogs ( whose colonies formerly furnished good nesting habitat ) .\nsemi - arid plains , grasslands , plateaus . favors areas of very short grass , even bare soil . typically far from water . nests mostly in short - grass prairie , including overgrazed pasture and very arid plains . in some areas , nests mainly on the rather barren open ground found in large prairie - dog towns . winter habitats include desert flats , plowed fields .\ntypically they run a few steps and then pause , then run again , pecking at the ground whenever they spot something edible .\n3 , sometimes 2 , rarely 1 - 4 . olive - buff with many black marks . incubation is by one or both sexes , 28 - 31 days . on very hot days , adult will stand over eggs , shading them from intense sun . young : downy young leave nest soon after hatching ; are tended by one or both parents , but feed themselves . adults shade young on hot days , and family may seek out any available shade at mid - day . young can fly well at about 33 - 34 days .\ndowny young leave nest soon after hatching ; are tended by one or both parents , but feed themselves . adults shade young on hot days , and family may seek out any available shade at mid - day . young can fly well at about 33 - 34 days .\nin breeding season , male may display by flying high over territory with exaggerated slow wingbeats , calling . female may lay one clutch of eggs and leave male to care for eggs and young , then lay another clutch and incubate it herself . nest site is on flat open ground ( flat sites chosen even in hilly country ) . on featureless plain , nest is often placed close to some conspicuous object , such as a pile of cow manure . nest is shallow scrape in soil . nest lining ( including pebbles , grass , rootlets , chips of cow manure ) added mostly during incubation . several nest scrapes are made , only one is used .\nmost apparently migrate southwest from breeding grounds ; some go straight south to texas , northern mexico . very rarely strays to eastern united states , mostly in fall and winter .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\nin the broadest and most detailed study of its kind , audubon scientists have used hundreds of thousands of citizen - science observations and sophisticated climate models to predict how birds in the u . s . and canada will react to climate change .\nthe darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season .\neach map is a visual guide to where a particular bird species may find the climate conditions it needs to survive in the future . we call this the bird\u2019s \u201cclimatic range . \u201d\nthe darker the shaded area , the more likely it is the bird species will find suitable climate conditions to survive there .\nthe outline of the approximate current range for each season remains fixed in each frame , allowing you to compare how the range will expand , contract , or shift in the future .\nthe first frame of the animation shows where the bird can find a suitable climate today ( based on data from 2000 ) . the next three frames predict where this bird\u2019s suitable climate may shift in the future\u2014one frame each for 2020 , 2050 , and 2080 .\nyou can play or pause the animation with the orange button in the lower left , or select an individual frame to study by clicking on its year .\nthe darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season . more on reading these maps .\nintimidated to chase a lifer on your own ? don ' t be . just use my bird - finding strategy , known as i . b . i . s .\nthe company has pledged to invest in a monterey county solar project , but the plan could hurt birds .\ntell congress to oppose a harmful rider that threatens sage - grouse and other wildlife .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncopyright by borror laboratory of bioacoustics , department of evolution , ecology , and organismal biology , ohio state university , columbus , oh , all rights reserved .\nusing personal observations and reviewing literature that summarize the breeding , overwintering , or migratory habitat requirements of each species ( dobkin 1992 , hart et al . 1998 , hutto and young 1999 , maxell 2000 , foresman 2012 , adams 2003 , and werner et al . 2004 ) ;\ncalculating the percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of montana covered by each ecological system to get a measure of\nobservations versus availability of habitat\n.\nspecies that breed in montana were only evaluated for breeding habitat use , species that only overwinter in montana were only evaluated for overwintering habitat use , and species that only migrate through montana were only evaluated for migratory habitat use . in general , species were listed as associated with an ecological system if structural characteristics of used habitat documented in the literature were present in the ecological system or large numbers of point observations were associated with the ecological system . however , species were not listed as associated with an ecological system if there was no support in the literature for use of structural characteristics in an ecological system ,\npoint observations were associated with that system . common versus occasional association with an ecological system was assigned based on the degree to which the structural characteristics of an ecological system matched the preferred structural habitat characteristics for each species as represented in scientific literature . the percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of montana covered by each ecological system was also used to guide assignment of common versus occasional association . if you have any questions or comments on species associations with ecological systems , please contact the montana natural heritage program ' s senior zoologist .\nspecies associations with ecological systems should be used to generate potential lists of species that may occupy broader landscapes for the purposes of landscape - level planning . these potential lists of species should not be used in place of documented occurrences of species ( this information can be requested at :\n) or systematic surveys for species and evaluations of habitat at a local site level by trained biologists . users of this information should be aware that the land cover data used to generate species associations is based on imagery from the late 1990s and early 2000s and was only intended to be used at broader landscape scales . land cover mapping accuracy is particularly problematic when the systems occur as small patches or where the land cover types have been altered over the past decade . thus , particular caution should be used when using the associations in assessments of smaller areas ( e . g . , evaluations of public land survey sections ) . finally , although a species may be associated with a particular ecological system within its known geographic range , portions of that ecological system may occur outside of the species ' known geographic range .\ndobkin , d . s . 1992 . neotropical migrant land birds in the northern rockies and great plains . usda forest service , northern region . publication no . r1 - 93 - 34 . missoula , mt .\nhart , m . m . , w . a . williams , p . c . thornton , k . p . mclaughlin , c . m . tobalske , b . a . maxell , d . p . hendricks , c . r . peterson , and r . l . redmond . 1998 . montana atlas of terrestrial vertebrates . montana cooperative wildlife research unit , university of montana , missoula , mt . 1302 p .\nmaxell , b . a . 2000 . management of montana ' s amphibians : a review of factors that may present a risk to population viability and accounts on the identification , distribution , taxonomy , habitat use , natural history , and the status and conservation of individual species . report to u . s . forest service region 1 . missoula , mt : wildlife biology program , university of montana . 161 p .\nthis opportunistic bird feeds primarily on insects ( grasshoppers , crickets , beetles , flies , ants ) . it takes prey from the ground , and selects different food items at different locales ( knopf 1996 ) ."]}
{"id": 1182, "summary": [{"text": "elegia fallax is a moth of the family pyralidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from spain , portugal , france , italy , croatia , the czech republic , slovenia , hungary , romania , bulgaria , macedonia and greece .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it has also been recorded from the channel islands in 2005 .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the wingspan is 17 \u2013 19 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the larvae feed on quercus ( oak ) species . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "elegia fallax", "paragraphs": ["html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nnotes : very rare immigrant ( less than 10 previous uk records ) from southern and central europe to the channel islands , where first recorded in 2005 . in hampshire recorded for the first time at stubbington on 24 april 2011 , the first record for the british mainland . not recorded from the isle of wight to date . wingspan 17 - 19 mm . larva feeds on oak , no evidence of breeding in the uk .\nenter the name or part of a name you wish to search for . the asterisk character * can be used as wildcard . e . g . ' papilio * ' . keep in mind that the search is only based on the full taxon name .\nwe are still having problems with the search feature . unfortunately we cannot give a timeline when the advanced search will be fixed .\nthe id resolving service for stable taxon ids is currently under maintenance . meanwhile , please use the name search in order to find the taxon page .\nmuseum f\u00fcr naturkunde leibniz - institut f\u00fcr evolutions - und biodiversit\u00e4tsforschung invalidenstr . 43 10115 berlin germany e - mail : fauna - eu ( at ) mfn - berlin . de website : urltoken\ndiscovered in the channel islands in 2005 , this species is believed to be a rare migrant .\nthe individual shown from stubbington , hants . , in april 2011 was the first british mainland record .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 06 - 16 16 : 08 : 32 page render time : 0 . 2024s total w / procache : 0 . 2377s\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\ncorresponds to a report on the basis of at least one observation proved within a period of 10 years ( 20 years for little - known invertebrates ) preceding the year and no presumption of extinction since obtaining the last data nor doubt on reproductive and implemented nature of this population . for migratory species , the presence indicated concerns areas of reproduction .\nthe last reliable sighting is older than 10 years compared to the reference date , no recent specific research and no presumption of extinction from that date [ vertebrates , invertebrates and plants well studied ( rhopalocera , grasshoppers , dragonflies . . . ) ] ;\nthe last reliable observation being older than 20 years , no recent specific research and no presumption of extinction from that date [ poorly known taxa : fungus , many invertebrates . . . ] .\nthis point covers the absence , more difficult by nature to demonstrate than presence . this status is based on one or more of the following criteria :\nthis status must be assigned to a department in which the presence of the species is casual .\nparticular case of absence due to a proven extinction less than a half century ago ( older disappearances are treated as\nno probable or definite\n) .\nin the state of knowledge , we can not comment on the presence or absence in the current department . this is the default status when not comprised in one of the previous categories or whenever there is doubt .\nwarning : the data available reflects the progression status of knowledge or the availability of the inventories . it should never be considered as comprehensive .\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n1 - photos : joindre un ou plusieurs clich\u00e9s ( vue de dessus , vue de dessous , vue lat\u00e9rale , vue de face et gros plan de la t\u00eate ) .\n2 - localit\u00e9 : pr\u00e9ciser la localit\u00e9 , le d\u00e9partement ( voir le pays ) de l\u2019observation .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthere are 0 county records of individuals from 0 different sites . first recorded in .\nbulgaria , hungary , greece , spain , italy , portugal , romania , sicily , slovakia , france , yugoslavia .\nbulgaria , hungary , greece ( mainland ) , spain ( mainland ) , italy ( mainland ) , macedonia , portugal ( mainland ) , romania , sicily , slovakia , france ( mainland ) , croatia , czech republic .\n[ 10 ] de jong , y . s . d . m . ( ed . ) ( 2011 ) fauna europaea version 2 . 4 ( faunaeur . org )\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\n2011 - 01 - 26 by & van nieukerken , dr erik j . karsholt , dr ole & by speidel , w . & segerer , a . nuss , m .\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 license\npesi is funded by the european union 7th framework programme within the research infrastructures programme . contract no . ri - 223806 . activity area : capacities . period 2008 - 2011 - website hosted & developed by vliz banner picture : gannet ( morus bassanus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) by karl van ginderdeuren - contact pesi"]}
{"id": 1193, "summary": [{"text": "prosapia bicincta , common name two-lined spittlebug , is a species of insect in the family cercopidae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is found in north america .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "adults are black with two lines crossing the wings , ranging from red to orange in colour .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they reach a length of 8 \u2013 10 mm .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "nymphs feed on various grasses ( including centipedegrass , bermudagrass and corn ) from within foam ( consisting of their own spittle ) produced from juices of their host plant .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "adults feed on hollies on the underside of the leaves . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "prosapia bicincta", "paragraphs": ["katja schulz marked\ntwo - lined spittlebug ( prosapia bicincta )\nas trusted on the\nprosapia bicincta\npage .\nthe two - lined spittlebug , scientific name prosapia bicincta , is a hemipteran insect . . .\npatrick coin marked\ntwo - lined spittlebug\nas trusted on the\nprosapia bicincta\npage .\ndana campbell added text to\nbrief summary\non\nprosapia bicincta ( say , 1830 )\n.\ntwo - lined spittlebugs ( prosapia bicincta ) in baltimore co . , maryland ( 7 / 1 / 2012 ) . photo by bill hubick . ( mbp list )\ndistinguish these from similar prosapia ignipectus by examining underside - - ignipectus has bright red coxae .\nthere are several other common north american spittlebug species . prosapia bicincta might be confused with their similar sister species , p . ignipectus , but can be distinguished in adult form as p . ignipectus has a bright red ventral surface that shows especially when they fly .\nthe two - lined spittlebug ( prosapia bicincta ) is one of the most common species in eastern north america . adults are dark brown with two red - orange stripes and feed on grasses , weeds , and holly . nymphs are yellow and are often found on grasses in late spring .\nthe two - lined spittlebug , scientific name prosapia bicincta , is a hemipteran insect similar to leafhoppers , but spittlebugs are in the sister family cercopidae . two - lined spittlebugs occur in the eastern united states , from maine to florida ( primarily northwestern florida ) and west to iowa , kansas , and oklahoma .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nadults are black with ( typically ) two red to orange lines crossing the wings . eyes are red . some adults lack the lines , are mostly black above :\nnymphs are usually concealed by the foam they produce , but are supposed to resemble adults but without wings .\nin the immature ( nymph ) stage ( surrounded by the\nspittle\nfoam which protects them , and which they produce from juices they suck from the plant ) they feed on centipedegrass , bermudagrass and other grasses , including occasionally corn .\nadults feed on hollies - they feed on the underside of leaves , and damage shows up as pale mottling not usually visible from above .\nconsidered a pest of grasses and hollies , though damage is usually relatively minor .\namerican insects : a handbook of the insects of america north of mexico ross h . arnett . 2000 . crc press .\nthe common insects of north america lester a . swan , charles s . papp . 1972 . harper & row .\ngarden insects of north america : the ultimate guide to backyard bugs ( princeton field guides ) whitney cranshaw . 2004 . princeton university press .\nadult spittlebugs are about 8\u201310 mm ( 3 / 8 inch ) long and dark brown to black in color . they usually have two brilliant red - orange lines crossing the wings , but sometimes are unbanded . they hold their wings over the back of their body . if disturbed , adults produce an unpleasant smelling chemical as a defense . their bright coloration pattern may be a warning that they are inedible . adults are most active in early morning and hide near the soil surface or in hollies and other shrubbery the rest of the day . at night they become active , and may be attracted to lights .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\nguthion\u00ae ( o , o - dimethyl s - ( 4 - oxo - l , 2 , 3 - benzotriazin - 3 ( 4 h ) - ylmethyl ) phosphorodithioate ) , endosulfan , endrin , and ddt were the most effective insecticides tested as foliage sprays against nymphs . heptachlor and endosulfan were also effective as granular formulations . guthion , malathion , mevinphos , endosulfan , and carbaryl were 100 % effective as foliage sprays in controlling adults . parathion , naled , and methoxychlor were slightly less effective .\nyou could not be signed in . please check your email address / username and password and try again .\nmost users should sign in with their email address . if you originally registered with a username please use that to sign in .\nto purchase short term access , please sign in to your oxford academic account above .\noxford university press is a department of the university of oxford . it furthers the university ' s objective of excellence in research , scholarship , and education by publishing worldwide\nfor full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription .\nthe pair of lines crossing over the elytra are diagnostic . the color of these lines can range from yellow to orangish - red , or they can be completely missing .\na two - lined spittlebug in frederick co . , maryland ( 7 / 7 / 2014 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na two - lined spittlebug in howard co . , maryland ( 7 / 25 / 2015 ) . photo by richard orr . ( mbp list )\na two - lined spittlebug in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 7 / 19 / 2014 ) . photo by jesse christopherson . ( mbp list )\na two - lined spittlebug in baltimore co . , maryland ( 8 / 8 / 2014 ) . photo by brandon woo . ( mbp list )\na two - lined spittlebug collected in montgomery co . , maryland . image enhanced by by karie darrow . photo by gary hevel . ( mbp list )\na two - lined spittlebug in cecil co . , maryland ( 7 / 8 / 2015 ) . verified by ken wolgemuth / bugguide . photo by shannon schade . ( mbp list )\na two - lined spittlebug in cambridge , maryland ( 7 / 1 / 2013 ) . photo by scott housten . ( mbp list )\na two - lined spittlebug in anne arundel co . , maryland ( 7 / 29 / 2016 ) . photo by tyler bell . ( mbp list )\na two - lined spittlebug in anne arundel co . , maryland ( 10 / 17 / 2016 ) . photo by tyler bell . ( mbp list )\na two - lined spittlebug in baltimore co . , maryland ( 7 / 30 / 2015 ) . photo by p . merz . ( mbp list )\na two - lined spittlebug in charles co . , maryland ( 9 / 23 / 2014 ) . photo by jim brighton . ( mbp list )\ntwo - lined spittlebugs in worcester co . , maryland ( 7 / 16 / 2013 ) . photo by mike burchett . ( mbp list )\na two - lined spittlebug in harford co . , maryland ( 7 / 4 / 2014 ) . photo by dave webb . ( mbp list )\na two - lined spittlebug falls prey to a starbellied orbweaver in caroline co . , maryland ( 8 / 16 / 2014 ) . photo by bill adams . ( mbp list )\nuse of images featured on maryland biodiversity project is only permitted with express permission of the photographer ."]}
{"id": 1195, "summary": [{"text": "the long-tailed forest shrew ( myosorex longicaudatus ) is a species of mammal in the family soricidae endemic to south africa .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "its natural habitats are mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation and swamps . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "long - tailed forest shrew", "paragraphs": ["wikipedia article copyright notice : this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . it uses material from the wikipedia article\nlong - tailed forest shrew\n.\nglenn , c . r . 2006 .\nearth ' s endangered creatures - long - tailed forest shrew facts\n( online ) - licensed article from wikipedia : the free encyclopedia . accessed\nfacts summary : the long - tailed forest shrew ( myosorex longicaudatus ) is a species of concern belonging in the species group\nmammals\nand found in the following area ( s ) : south africa .\nthe forest shrew is a mottled , medium - sized shrew . colouration is grey - brown to dark grey - brown . head and body length is about 83 mm , with a relative short tail of about 45 mm . weighs on average 12 grams . first described to science in 1832 from port elizabeth .\nthe forest shrew is an opportunistic feeder , taking a great variety of invertebrates like beetles , grasshoppers , termites , moths , spiders , millipedes and earthworms . in turn , it is preyed upon by the barn owl , water mongoose , african weasel and the striped polecat .\nall forests in south africa are protected by law , although the degree to which they are protected may vary . this species is also present in protected areas such as the diepwalle forest reserve and tzutzu kama coastal park .\nthis species is relatively common in suitable habitat . the highest numbers of individuals are found at the forest edge ( dippenaar , 1995 ) . population numbers seems to fluctuate and there is an example of a survey finding no specimens in an area where a previous survey had caught quite high numbers .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\namori , g . ( small nonvolant mammal red list authority ) & cox , n . ( global mammal assessment team )\njustification : listed as vulnerable because its area of occupancy is less than 2 , 000 km\u00b2 , its distribution is severely fragmented , and there is continuing decline projected in the extent and quality of its habitat .\nmyosorex longicaudatus is known from the southeastern parts of the cape province , south africa . this species was only discovered in 1978 . this species generally occurs at elevations up to 2 , 000 m asl . a population of the subspecies myosorex longicaudatus boosmai from the langeberg mountains , occurs at much higher elevations ( up to 3 , 600 m asl ) than any other known populations ( dippenaar 1995 ) .\nm . longicaudatus is found in forests , forests edges , fynbos and boggy grassland . this species needs a moist microhabitat . it is restricted to pristine primary habitat that has not been degraded .\nclimate change is considered to be the principal threat to this species . habitat in neighbouring areas is arid and unsuitable for this species which depends on a moist habitat . because of this m . longicaudatus would not be able to move to other areas if the climate in its current range became unsuitable . it is thought that coastal populations might be at less risk than non - coastal populations . the moist habitat of this species is fragmented .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nat higher altitudes the breeding season may be delayed for a month , due to lower ambient temperatures . at normal altitudes the breeding season lasts for seven months , starting in september and ending in march . litter sizes vary between two and five young . these shrews have an advanced maternal care behavioural pattern . nipple - clinging is practiced by the young for the first five to six days . this behaviour is replaced firstly by clustering of young , and then to the formation of a chain , called ' caravanning ' . caravanning entails each offspring gripping the the tail of the preceding sibling in its mouth , thus following the foraging mother like a caravan . weaning takes place between 20 - 25 days after birth .\npredominantly nocturnal , showing a sharp rise in activity at dusk and sharp decline at dawn . extremely cautious when leaving the shelter . like most shrews , it is remarkably aggressive . the insides of its burrows and nests are spherical . nests are constructed from grass , and equipped with two to four entrances .\nendemic to the eastern regions of south africa and lesotho . found in a variety of vegetation types , ranging from vegetation associated with permanent water on the highveld , to montane grasslands and primary forests .\nis known from the southeastern parts of the cape province , south africa . this species was only discovered in 1978 . this species generally occurs at elevations up to 2 , 000 m asl . a population of the subspecies\nfrom the langeberg mountains , occurs at much higher elevations ( up to 3 , 600 m asl ) than any other known populations ( dippenaar 1995 ) .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\npitk\u00e4h\u00e4nt\u00e4hiist\u00e4inen\nto\nmyosorex longicaudatus meester and dippenaar , 1978\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthis article is only an excerpt . if it appears incomplete or if you wish to see article references , visit the rest of its contents here .\nfor the first time in history , a captive cheetah has successfully given birth to eight healthy cubs . it is said that only around 10 , 000 cheetahs remain in the wild in africa along with 100 or fewer in iran .\nlist of all endangered animals . list of all endangered plants . list of all endangered species ( animals & plants ) . by species group ( mammal , birds , etc ) . . . united states endangered species list . browse by country , island , us state . . . search for an endangered species profile .\nare you inspired by endangered animals ? check out our games and coloring pages ! more to come soon .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 2nd ed . , 3rd printing\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vols . 1 & 2\nwith contributions by bernadette n . graham , adam p . potter , and mariana m . upmeyer\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 1202, "summary": [{"text": "lepidopygopsis typus , the peninsular hilltrout , is a species of cyprinid fish endemic to kerala , india where it is only known from periyar river and periyar lake .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "this species can reach a length of 25 centimetres ( 9.8 in ) tl .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is currently the only known member of its genus . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "lepidopygopsis typus", "paragraphs": ["taxonomic notes : lepidopygopsis typus was first described by raj ( 1941 ) from periyar lake , kerala , india .\nthe phylogenetic position of lepidopygopsis typus ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) , a monotypic freshwater fish endemic to the western ghats of india .\nthe phylogenetic position of lepidopygopsis typus ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) , a monotypic freshwater fish endemic to the western ghats of india . - pubmed - ncbi\n{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . lepidopygopsis typus raj , 1941 . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 10 , 2018 ] .\nrange description : lepidopygopsis typus is endemic to the periyar tiger reserve , kerala , india where it occurs at mlappara , thanikkudy , mullayar and thekkady in the periyar lake - stream system ( arun 1999 , ponniah and gopalakrishnan 2000 , kurup et al . 2004 , euphrasia et al . 2006 , raj 1941 ) . countries - native : india ( kerala )\na species of lepidopygopsis having elongate and compressed body ; no scales on head , only a few on interior part of body consisting of a patch at scapular region , a few scattered scales on base of dorsal spine and a continuous row of enlarged scales along lateral line , elongated tile like scales forming a sheath to vent and base of anal ; lateral line complete and decurved with 54 to 60 scales .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nwas first described by raj ( 1941 ) from periyar lake , kerala , india .\nrema devi , k . r . , gopalakrishnan , a . , arunachalam , m . , shrikant , j . , johnson , j . a . , rahul , k . & molur , s .\n, and subjected to an on - going decline in the quality of habitat and in competition with exotic alien fishes .\nfound in fast flowing torrential streams ( raj 1941 , arun 1999 ) with boulders , cobbles ( shaji and easa 2001 ) and bed rock ( manojkumar and kurup 2002 ) as substrates . known to be a habitat specialist with affinity towards cascades and riffles ( manojkumar and kurup 2002 ) .\nalso occurs in confluence zone of lakes and feeder streams ( arun 1999 ) .\nis used occasionally as a food fish by local tribes inside the periyar tiger reserve ( a . ali and r . raghavan pers . obs . ) and is also considered to be a potential ornamental fish ( kurup\nno conservation action is in place . species level management efforts have been largely hampered by absence of baseline data on life history and population .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\ngreek , lepis = scale + greek , pyge = tail + greek , opsis = appearance ( ref . 45335 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 25 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 41236 )\nmenon , a . g . k . , 1999 . check list - fresh water fishes of india . rec . zool . surv . india , misc . publ . , occas . pap . no . 175 , 366 p . ( ref . 41236 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00977 ( 0 . 00375 - 0 . 02544 ) , b = 2 . 98 ( 2 . 75 - 3 . 21 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 7 \u00b10 . 3 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 33 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ndahanukar n 1 , philip s , krishnakumar k , ali a , raghavan r .\nindian institute of science education and research ( iiser ) , pune , 411 021 india . n . dahanukar @ urltoken\nit occurs at mylappara , thanikkudy , mullayar and thekkady in the periyar lake - stream system in kerala , india . the species is found in flowing waters and lay eggs in deep waters . it was once a main diet of the mannan tribe . the name brahmanakendai may be due to a thread , similar to a \u2018poonool , \u2019 in its body . the fish which is already on the red category list of the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) could be in more danger as nearly 80 per cent of its total population was endemic to the periyar tiger reserve ( ptr ) where the african catfish proves a threat to its existence , say experts .\nthere are 44 rivers in kerala . 41 of them flow westward and 3 eastward . all these rivers originate from the sahyadri hills ( western ghats ) . longest river in kerala is periyar , then bharathapuzha and pampa . largest backwater lake in kerala is vembanad lake . these rivers all originate in the western ghats range and flow westward into the kerala backwaters or into the arabian sea . west flowing 41 rivers and its branches 1 . periyar river ( 244 ) edamala , cheruthoni , mullayar , muthirapuzha , perinjankutti river 2 . bharatapuzha river ( 209 ) , thuthapuzha , gayathripuzha , kalpathipuzha , kannadipuzha river 3 . pamba river ( 176 ) , azhuthayar , kakkiyar , kakkattar , kallar , perunthenaruvi , madatharuvi , thanungattilthodu , kozhithodu , varattar , kuttemperoor 4 . chaliyar river ( 169 ) 5 . chalakudy river ( 169 ) , parambikulam river 6 . kadalundy river ( 130 ) 7 . achankoil river ( 128 ) 8 . kallada river ( 121 ) 9 . muvattupuzha river ( 121 ) 10 . valapattanam river ( 110 ) 11 . chandragiri river ( 105 ) 12 . manimala river ( 90 ) 13 . vamanapuram ri\u2026\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nfreshwater fish species of the indian subcontinent . the remarkable discontinuous distribution of \u2018sister g\n. . . in his review of phylogenetic studies , investigating south asian taxa with disjunct distributions across the indian subcontinent ( western ghats versus indo - burma ) , karanth ( 2003 ) showed the disjunct distributions of most taxa to be erroneous due to a mismatch between the existing classifications and phylogenetic relationships ( i . e . taxon reported to be disjunctly distributed is non - monophyletic ) , as exemplified recently by the fanged frogs ( bossuyt and milinkovitch 2000 ) or the asian hill trouts ( dahanukar et al . 2013 ) . karanth ( 2003 ) identified only a few examples of monophyletic groups containing disjunctly distributed taxa ( his ' true ' disjunct ) across the indian subcontinent ( including macaques and flying lizards of the genus draco ) . . . .\nfw bon is a global voluntary community of practice . it will promote the establishment of best practices for global biodiversity observations by : 1 ) improving the collection of harmonized data , \u2026\n[ more ]\nthis project tries to understand molecular phylogeny , biogeography and systematics of freshwater fishes of india and their evolutionary relationships with the neighboring countries and continents . \u2026\n[ more ]\ndistribution , threats and conservation status of the wayanad mahseer , neolissochilus wynaadensis ( da . . .\nthe wayanad mahseer neolissochilus wynaadensis ( day , 1873 ) is an endemic cyprinid fish that occurs in the upland streams and rivers of the southern region of the western ghats . this species has been listed as critically endangered on the iucn red list of threatened species due to its restricted distribution and heavy declines in populations . like many large cyprinids of the western ghats , n . . . . [ show full abstract ]\nestablishment of caudal fin cell lines from tropical ornamental fishes puntius fasciatus and pristol . . .\nredline torpedo barbs ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) , comprising of two species , puntius denisonii and p . chalakkudiensis , and six evolutionarily distinct lineages are endemic to the streams of the western ghats freshwater ecoregion in peninsular india . based on molecular and osteological evidence , we demonstrate that these barbs comprise a distinct genus , for which we propose the name sahyadria .\nfroese , r . and d . pauly . editors . 2011 . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . < a href = ' urltoken ' target = ' _ blank ' > www . fishbase . org , version ( 10 / 2011 ) . < / a >\n< a target = ' _ blank ' href = ' urltoken ' > iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . exported on 12 january 2012 < / a >\nfroese , r . and d . pauly . editors . 2013 . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . ; urltoken version ( 12 / 2013 ) .\na general description , with any kind of information about the taxon . its main goal is summarize the most relevant or attractive characteristics of this taxon to the general public .\nred list category & criteria : least concern ver 3 . 1 year assessed : 2010 conservation actions : currently there is no specific action plan directed towards ambassis dussumieri . research on the population status , ecology and threats to the species is essential .\ns . s . mishra , laishram kosygin , p . t . rajan and k . c . gopi , zoological survey of india in venkataraman , k . , chattopadhyay , a . and subramanian , k . a . ( editors ) . 2013 . endemic animals of india ( vertebrates ) : 1\u2013235 + 26 plates . ( published by the director , zoological survey of india , kolkata )\nmenon , a . g . k . 1999 check list - fresh water fishes of india . rec . zool . surv . india , misc . publ . , occas . pap . no . 175 , 366 p .\ndescribes average size , max , range ; type of size ( perimeter , length , volume , weight . . . ) .\ngeneral description of the sites where the species is found ( ecosystem , forest , environment or microhabitat ) . includes realm ( e . g terrestrial etc ) and climatic information ( e . g boreal ) ; also includes requirements and tolerances ; horizontal and vertical ( altitudinal ) distribution . also includes information referring to territorial extension of the individual or group in terms of its activities ( feeding , mating , etc . ) , associated mostly to vertebrates .\nenumerates geographic entities where the taxon lives . covers ranges , e . g . , a global range , or a narrower one ; may be biogeographical , political or other ( e . g . , managed areas like conservencies ) ; endemism ; native or exotic . does not include altitudinal distribution , which is covered under habitat .\nknown from periyar river and lake in kerala . rarely found in the periyar lake\nincludes abundance information ( population size , density ) and demographics ( e . g . age stratification ) .\n2006 iucn red list of threatened species . www . iucnredlist . org . downloaded july 2006 .\ndescribes the likelihood of the species becoming extinct in the present day or in the near future . population size is treated under population biology , and trends in population sizes are treated under trends . however , this is the preferred element if an object includes all of these things and details about conservation listings .\ndistribution , threats and conservation status of the wayanad mahseer , < i > neolissochilus wynaadensis < / i . . .\nthe wayanad mahseer neolissochilus wynaadensis ( day , 1873 ) is an endemic cyprinid fish that occurs . . .\nredline torpedo barbs ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) , comprising of two species , puntius denisonii and p . . . .\nprevious checklists of fishes from the periyar tiger reserve , kerala merely included species from p . . .\n| | best supported on google chrome , firefox 3 . 0 + , internet explorer 8 . 0 + , safari 4 . 0 + , opera 10 + . powered by the open source biodiversity informatics platform . technology partner strand life sciences\nneelesh dahanukar , siby philip , k . krishnakumar , anvar ali , rajeev raghavan\narratia , g . ( 1997 ) basal teleosts and teleostean phylogeny . paleo ichthyologica , 7 , 5\u2013168 . urltoken\narunachalam , m . & muralidharan , m . ( 2008 ) description of a new species of the genus psilorhynchus ( teleostei : psilorhynchidae ) from a western ghat stream in southern india . the raffles bulletin of zoology , 56 ( 2 ) , 405\u2013414 .\nbenziger , a . , philip , s . , raghavan , r . , anvar ali , p . h . , sukumaran , m . , tharian , j . c . , dahanukar , n . , baby , f . , peter , r . , devi , k . r . , radhakrishnan , k . v . , haniffa , m . a . , britz , r . & antunes , a . ( 2011 ) unraveling a 146 years old taxonomic puzzle : validation of malabar snakehead , species - status and its relevance for channid systematics and evolution . plos one , 6 ( 6 ) , e21272 . h urltoken\nberg , l . s . ( 1912 ) fauna of russia and adjacent countries , volume 3 . st . petersburg : imperial academy of sciences , pp . 369\u2013704 .\nbritz , r . , ali , a . & raghavan , r . ( 2012a ) pseudolaguvia lapillicola , a new species of catfish from peninsular india ( teleostei : sisoridae ) . ichthyological exploration of freshwaters , 23 ( 4 ) , 289\u2013295 .\nbritz , r . , ali , a . & raghavan , r . ( 2012b ) pangio ammophila , a new species of eel loach from peninsular india . ichthyological exploration of freshwaters , 23 ( 1 ) , 45\u201350 .\nbritz , r . , ali , a . & philip , s . ( 2012c ) dario urops , a new species of badid fish from the western ghats , southern india ( teleostei : percomorpha : badidae ) . zootaxa , 3348 , 63\u201368 .\nchen , x . l . , chiang , t . y . , lin , h . d . , zheng , h . s . , shao , k . t . , zhang , q & hsu , k . c . ( 2007 ) mitochondrial dna phylogeography of glyptothorax fokiensis and glyptothorax hainanensis in asia . journal of fish biology , 70 , 75\u201393 . urltoken\nchen , y . f . ( 1998 ) phylogeny and distributional patterns of subfamily schizothoracinae ( pisces , cypriniformes , cyprinidae ) : i . phylogenetic relationships . acta zoologica sinica ( in chinese ) , 23 , 17\u201325\nchen , x - y . , yang , j - x & chen , r - y . ( 1999 ) a review of the cyprinoid fish genus barbodes bleeker , 1859 , from yunnan , china , with descriptions of two new species . zoological studies , 38 ( 1 ) , 82\u201388 .\nchen , x . l . , yue , p . q . & lin , r . d . ( 1984 ) major groups within the family cyprinidae and their phylogenetic relationships . acta zootaxonomica sinica , 9 , 424\u2013440 [ in chinese with english summary ] .\ndahanukar , n . , raghavan , r . , ali , a . , abraham , r . & shaji , c . p . ( 2011 ) the status and distribution of freshwater fishes of the western ghats . in : molur , s . , smith k . g . , daniel , b . a . & darwall , w . r . t ( compilers ) . the status of freshwater biodiversity in the western ghats . international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) gland , switzerland & zoo outreach organization ( zoo ) coimbatore , india , pp 21\u201348 .\ndaniels , r . j . r . ( 2001 ) endemic fishes of the western ghats and the satpura hypothesis . current science , 81 ( 3 ) , 240\u2013244 .\nedgar , r . c . ( 2004 ) muscle : multiple sequence alignment with high accuracy and high throughput . nucleic acids research , 32 ( 5 ) , 1792\u20131797 . urltoken\nedwards , s . v . ( 2009 ) natural selection and phylogenetic analysis . proceedings of the national academy of sciences , 106 ( 22 ) , 8799\u20138800 . urltoken\nhora , s . l . ( 1949 ) symposium on satpura hypothesis of the distribution of malayan fauna and flora to peninsular india . proceedings of the national institute of science india , 15 , 309\u2013422 .\nhora , s . l . ( 1944 ) on the malayan affinities of the freshwater fish fauna of peninsular india , and its bearing on the probable age of the garo - rajmahal gap . proceedings of the national institute of science , india , 10 , 423\u2013439 .\nhowes , g . j . ( 1991 ) systematics and biogeography : an overview . in : winfield , i . j . , nelson j . s . , eds . cyprinid fishes , systematics , biology and exploitation . fish and fisheries series 3 . new york : chapman & hall , pp . 1\u201333\nhowes , g . j . ( 1987 ) the phylogenetic position of the yugoslavian cyprinid fish genus aulopyge heckel , 1841 , with an appraisal of the genus barbus cuvier and cloquet , 1816 and the subfamily cyprininae . bulletin of the british museum ( natural history ) , zoology , 52 , 165\u2013196 .\njayaram , k . c . ( 2010 ) the freshwater fishes of the indian region . narendra publishing house , new delhi , india . 616p + xxxix plates .\nkaranth , k . p . ( 2006 ) out - of - india gondwanan origin of some asian biota . current science , 90 ( 6 ) , 789\u2013792 .\nkaranth , k . p . ( 2003 ) evolution of disjunct distributions among wet - zone species of the indian subcontinent : testing various hypotheses using a phylogenetic approach . current science , 85 ( 9 ) , 1276\u20131283 .\nkottelat , m . & freyhof , j . ( 2007 ) handbook of european freshwater fishes . kottelat , cornol , switzerland and freyhof , berlin , germany . publications kottelat , 2008 , pp . xiii + 646 .\nkottelat , m . ( 2000 ) diagnoses of a new genus and 64 new species of fishes from laos ( teleostei : cyprinidae , balitoridae , bagridae , syngnathidae , chauhuriidae and tetraodontidae ) . journal of south asian natural history , 5 , 37\u201382 .\nkullander , s . , fang , f . , delling , b . & \u00e5hlander , e . ( 1999 ) fishes of the kashmir valley . in : nyman , l . ( ed ) . river jhelum , kashmir valley . impacts on the aquatic environment . swedmar , g\u00f6teborg , 198 pp .\nlanfear , r . , calcott , b . , ho , s . y . & guindon , s . ( 2012 ) partitionfinder : combined selection of partitioning schemes and substitution models for phylogenetic analyses . molecular biology and evolution , 29 ( 6 ) , 1695\u20131701 . urltoken\nli , y . , ren , z . , shedlock , a . m . , wu , j . , sang , l . , tersing , t . , hasegawa , m . , yonezawa , t . & zhong , y . ( 2013 ) high altitude adaptation of schizothoracine fishes ( cyprinidae ) revealed by the mitochondrial genome analyses . gene , 517 ( 2 ) , 169\u2013178 . urltoken\nlovejoy , n . r . & collette , b . b . ( 2001 ) phylogenetic relationships of new world needlefishes ( teleostei : belonidae ) and the biogeography of transitions between marine and freshwater habitats . copeia , 2001 , 324\u2013338 . ht urltoken ; 2\nmedlicott , m . a . & blanford , w . t . ( 1892 ) a manual of the geology of india , 2 nd edition ( ed . oldham , r . t . ) cambridge library collections ( revised edition published 2011 ) , 626 pp .\nmiller , m . a . , pfeiffer , w . & schwartz , t . ( 2010 ) creating the cipres science gateway for inference of large phylogenetic trees : in proceedings of the gateway computing environments workshop ( gce ) , 14 nov . 2010 , new orleans , l . a . , pp . 1\u20138 .\nmirza , m . r . ( 1991 ) a contribution to the systematics of the schizothoracine fishes ( pisces : cyprinidae ) with the description of three new tribes . pakistan journal of zoology , 23 , 339\u2013341 .\nmyers , n . , mittermeier , r . a . , mittermeier , c . g . , da fonseca , g . a . b . & kent , j . ( 2000 ) biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities . nature , 403 , 853\u2013858 .\nnear , t . j . , eytan , r . i . , dornburg , a . , kuhn , k . l . , moore , j . a . , davis , m . p . , wainwright , p . c . , friedman , m . & smith , w . l . ( 2012 ) resolution of ray - finned fish phylogeny and timing of diversification . proceedings of the national academy of sciences u . s . a , 109 ( 34 ) , 13698\u201313703 . urltoken\npatterson , c . ( 1993 ) osteichthyes : teleostei . in : benton m , ed . the fossil record , london : chapman and hall , volume 2 , pp . 621\u2013656 .\npethiyagoda , r . , meegaskumbura , m . & maduwage , k . ( 2012 ) a synopsis of the south asian fishes referred to puntius ( pisces : cyprinidae ) . ichthyological exploration of freshwaters , 23 ( 1 ) , 69\u201395 .\nradhakrishnan , k . v . , sureshkumar , s . & ng , h . h . ( 2010 ) pseudolaguvia austrina , a new species of sisorid catfish ( osteichthyes : siluriformes ) from peninsular india . ichthyological exploration of freshwaters , 21 ( 4 ) , 377\u2013383 .\nrainboth , w . j . ( 1996 ) the taxonomy , systematics and zoogeography of hypsibarbus , a new genus of large barbs ( pisces : cyprindae ) from the rivers of southeastern asia . university of california publications in zoology 129 . university of california press , 199 pp .\nraj , b . s . ( 1941 ) a new genus of schizothoracine fishes from travancore , south india . records of the indian museum , 43 ( 2 ) , 209\u2013214 .\nrevell , l . j . , johnson , m . a . , schulte , j . a . , kolbe , j . j . & losos , j . b . ( 2007 ) a phylogenetic test for adaptive convergence in rock dwelling lizards . evolution , 61 ( 12 ) , 2898\u20132912 . urltoken\nroberts , t . r . & khaironizam , m . z . ( 2008 ) trophic polymorphism in the malaysian fish , neolissochilus soroides and other old world barbs ( teleostei , cyprinidae ) . natural history bulletin of the siam society , 56 ( 1 ) , 25\u201353 .\nroy , a . d . & karanth , k . p . ( 2009 ) the out - of - india hypothesis : what do molecules suggest ? journal of bioscience , 34 ( 5 ) , 687\u2013697 . urltoken\nronquist , f . & huelsenbeck , j . p . ( 2003 ) mrbayes 3 : bayesian phylogenetic inference under mixed models . bioinformatics , 19 ( 12 ) , 1572\u20131574 . urltoken\nr\u00fcber , l . , kottelat , m . , tan , h . h . , ng , p . k . l & britz , r . ( 2007 ) evolution of miniaturization and the phylogenetic position of paedocypris , comprising the world ' s smallest vertebrate . bmc evolutionary biology , 7 , 38 . urltoken\nsaitoh , k . , sado , t . , doosey , m . h . , bart , h . l . jr , inoue , j . g . , nishida , m . , mayden , r . l . & miya , m . ( 2011 ) evidence from mitochondrial genomics supports the lower mesozoci of south asia as the time and place of basal divergence of cypriniform fishes ( actinopterygii : ostariophysi ) . zoological journal of the linnean society , 161 , 633\u2013662 . urltoken\nsanderson , m . j . ( 1997 ) a non parametric approach to estimating divergence times in the absence of rate constancy . molecular biology and evolution , 14 ( 12 ) , 1218\u20131231 . urltoken\nsharina , s . n . & kartavtsev , l . ( 2010 ) phylogenetic and taxonomic analysis of flatfish species ( teleostei , pleuronectiformes ) inferred from the primary nucleotide sequence of cytochrome oxidase 1 gene ( co - 1 ) . genetika , 46 ( 3 ) , 401\u2013407 . urltoken\nshimodaira , h . & hasegawa , m . ( 2001 ) consel : for assessing the confidence of phylogenetic tree selection . bioinformatics , 17 ( 12 ) , 1246\u20131247 . urltoken\nsilas , e . g . ( 1955 ) garra hughi , a new cyprinoid fish from the western ghats , peninsular india , with notes on its bionomics . records of the indian museum , 52 , 1\u201314 .\nsukumaran , j . & holder , m . t . ( 2010 ) dendropy : a python library for phylogenetic computing . bioinformatics , 26 ( 12 ) , 1569\u20131571 . urltoken\ntalwar , p . k . & jhingran , a . ( 1991 ) inland fishes of india and the adjacent countries . oxford and ibh publishing company , delhi . in 2 vols . xix + 1158 .\nvincent , m . ( 2012 ) occurrence , distribution and troglomorphisms of subterranean fishes of peninsular india . current science , 102 ( 7 ) , 1028\u20131034 .\nwang , n . & chang , m . m . ( 2010 ) pliocene cyprinids ( cypriniformes , teleostei ) from kunlun pass basin , northeastern tibetan plateau and their bearings on development of water system and uplift of the area . science china earth sciences , 53 ( 4 ) , 485\u2013500 . urltoken\nwang , x . , li , j . & he , s . ( 2007 ) molecular evidence for the monophyly of east asian groups of cyprinidae ( teleostei : cypriniformes ) derived from the nuclear recombination activating gene 2 sequences . molecular phylogenetics and evolution , 42 ( 1 ) , 157\u2013170 . urltoken\nyang , l . , mayden , r . l . , sado , t . , he , s . , saitoh , k . & miya , m . ( 2010 ) molecular phylogeny of the fishes traditionally referred to cyprinini sensu stricto ( teleostei : cypriniformes ) . zoologica scripta , 39 , 527\u2013550 . urltoken\nzwickl , d . j . ( 2006 ) genetic algorithm approaches for the phylogenetic analysis of large biological sequence datasets under the maximum likelihood criterion . ph . d dissertation . the university of texas at austin , usa ."]}
{"id": 1205, "summary": [{"text": "anomphalus jaggerius is an extinct species of permian sea snail .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "fossils have been found in artinskian era limestone from the bird spring formation in the southern arrow canyon range of the us state of nevada .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the species , which had a shell 6.37 millimetres ( 0.251 in ) wide , was a subtidal epifaunal grazer .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "it was named after rolling stones lead singer mick jagger . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "anomphalus jaggerius", "paragraphs": ["the snail species anomphalus jaggerius was named after the rolling stone frontman back in 1972 . he has since lent his name to the jaggermeryx naida , an ancient , big - lipped swamp creature which was discovered earlier this year .\njagger is far from the first celebrity to be honoured in this way - fellow musicians mark knopfler , frank zappa , shakira and the sex pistols have all had species named after them . and , in fact , it ' s not even jagger ' s first : aegrotocatellus jaggeri is a trilobite and anomphalus jaggerius is a type of snail .\nindeed , this isn\u2019t the first time jagger has had researchers honor him in this way . he\u2019s also the namesake of aegrotocatellus jaggeri , a trilobite , as well as anomphalus jaggerius , a kind of snail . he shares the multiple animal namesake honor with such other luminaries as frank zappa ( snail , spider , bacteria , jellyfish , gerbil ) , barack obama ( spider , reptile , fish , worm , lichen ) , arnold schwarzenegger ( spider , beetle ) , and adolf hitler ( beetle , insect ) , because scientists have the same small reference pool as the rest of us . still , none of those guys have scored anything as big as an extinct hippo - pig , proving once and for all : mick jagger is better than hitler .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nfull reference : l . p . , j . r . plas . 1972 . upper wolfcampian ( ? ) mollusca from the arrow canyon range , clark county , nevada . journal of paleontology 46 ( 2 ) : 249 - 260\ntype specimen : x - 3408 , a shell ( x - 3408 ) . its type locality is ucmp d - 5252 , lookout hill , southern arrow canyon range , which is in an artinskian shallow subtidal limestone in the bird spring formation of nevada .\nscientists have named a newly discovered extinct animal \u2014 notable for its prominent , grasping lips \u2014 after rolling stones frontman mick jagger . dubbed jaggermeryx naida by duke university researchers , the extinct mammal was apparently a deer - sized mixture of a pig and a hippopotamus , which actually sounds a lot cuter than the real mick jagger . the ancient , leathery - skinned beast has yet to release a comment about scientists naming another animal after him .\nit & apos ; s 3 p . m . , so let & apos ; s watch chris farley get uncomfortably honest about his life\u2014in song !\nkinja is in read - only mode . we are working to restore service .\nsubscribe to the all - new rolling stone ! everything you need to know from the authority on music , entertainment , politics and pop culture .\nsign up for our newsletter and go inside the world of music , culture and entertainment .\nscientists recently named a new caribbean fish parasite gnathia marleyi , after reggae legend bob marley . ( pictured at left , inset , is a similar parasite . ) as it turns out , marley isn & apos ; t the only star to be immortalized forever in the annals of zoology . check out these other animals who were named after some rock & roll bigwigs \u2013 just wait until you see the critter version of the fab four .\njason bond , a biology professor at east carolina university , christened a new species of spider he discovered in 2007 after the\nheart of gold\nsinger .\ni really enjoy his music and have had a great appreciation of him as an activist for peace and justice ,\nbond said of young .\na species of australian horse fly named in 2011 after one of pop & apos ; s curviest stars , this insect has a shiny gold abdomen . you might even say it & apos ; s bootylicious .\nrelated \u2022 the 500 greatest songs of all time : beyonce feat . jay - z ,\ncrazy in love\n\u2022 women who rock : the 50 greatest albums of all time : beyonce & apos ; s 4 \u2022 photos : beyonce & apos ; s fashion evolution\nscholars named this beetle that & apos ; s black on top and white on bottom after the great\noh , pretty woman\nsinger in 2008 .\ni have never seen an honor like that ,\norbison & apos ; s widow , barbara , said at the time .\nthis fine creature is a species of crustacean found off the coast of zanzibar , a city in tanzania . zanzibar , of course , is the birthplace of farrokh bulsara , who later took the name freddie mercury and fronted a crazy little band called queen . isopods have seven pairs of legs , none of which would probably look as good as freddie\u2019s in a pair of white denim shorts .\ngrateful dead fans used to a different kind of roach might be surprised to know that there\u2019s also an actual insect named after the leader of the original jam band kings . garcia also has an asteroid named after him , christened by two deadhead astronomers .\ngreen day & apos ; s plant gets an honorable mention in this list of rock & roll animals . harvard researchers bestowed the name\ndies - viridis\n( latin for\ngreen day\n) upon their newly minted species of night - blooming flower after listening to the band while driving throughout ecuador on their research trips .\nthe paleontologists who discovered this small predatory theropod dinosaur spent a lot of time jamming out to dire straits \u2013 so they named it after the band & apos ; s distinctive baritone lead singer . notable for having its front teeth pointing straight outward rather than down , masiakasaurus lived in the time before microwave ovens and custom kitchen deliveries , but still probably got its prehistoric money for nothing and its lady dinosaurs for free .\nthis spider has a mustache - shaped mark on its abdomen , which makes it look sort of like zappa & apos ; s face . sadly , there isn & apos ; t much of a soul patch marking to go with it .\nthis colombian tree frog was named in recognition of sting & apos ; s charitable work for the rain forest .\ngall wasps never had as much swagger as this one . scientists created a new genus , preseucoila , based on the name\npresley\n\u2013 and just to make things extra clear , they named the species after one of the king & apos ; s signature hits .\nthis arachnid , named by belgian scientists , reportedly produces one of the most atmospheric and washy synth - filled webs in the world .\ndecades after james taylor and carole king & apos ; s first performance together at the troubador , the singer - songwriters have been immortalized as two closely related species of stoneflies .\nyou & apos ; ve got a friend ,\nindeed .\nin 1997 , some mite researchers gave a new species a latin name that cleverly disguised a tribute to the hardest working man in show business . ( iago =\njames ,\nbadius =\nbrown .\n) it & apos ; s the funkiest microscopic insect on earth .\nthis ancient snail was found fossilized between two rocks , mid - rooster strut .\ntrilobites \u2013 an extinct class of sea - living arthropods that died out 250 million years ago \u2013 have some of the most rock & roll names in biological history . this species was named after the rolling stones & apos ; legendary guitarist .\nthis pair of extinct trilobite species was named after the great on - again , off - again folk - rock duo .\n425 million years ago , a less - handsome version of the fab four roamed the earth as prehistoric ocean dwellers . avalanchurus lennoni ( john lennon ) and avalanchurus starri ( ringo starr ) belonged to the same genus as their simon & garfunkel - named friends , while struszia harrisoni ( george harrison ) and struszia mccartneyi ( paul mccartney ) came from a different genus . together , they comprised one of the greatest bands in evolutionary history .\nrelated \u2022 the 100 greatest beatles songs \u2022 the 100 greatest artists of all time : the beatles \u2022 the 500 greatest albums of all time : the beatles & apos ; sgt . pepper & apos ; s lonely hearts club band\nwe want to hear from you ! send us a tip using our anonymous form .\n\u00a9 copyright 2018 rolling stone , llc , a subsidiary of penske business media , llc . powered by urltoken vip\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nas part our commitment to scholarly and academic excellence , all articles receive editorial review .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\nhe ' s been part of the rolling stones for over 50 years , but now another stone has led to mick jagger lending his name to a new species .\nanthropologist and paleontologists from wake forest university discovered some fossils in the egyptian desert belonging to a family of extinct hoofed animals called anthracotheres , but one creature was so distinct that they decided that it was a previously undescribed species .\nassociate anthropology professor ellen miller said of the animal , described as a cross between a long - legged pig and a slender hippo : \u201cwe imagine its lifestyle was like that of a water deer , standing in water and foraging for plants along the river bank . \u201d\nin particular , in had nerves on either side of its jaw , giving it a hypersensitive lower lip and snout . which is where jagger comes in .\nafter much debate about whether the big - lipped beast should be named after angelina jolie , or mick , they plumped for the latter , giving it the name jaggermeryx naida , or jagger ' s water nymph ."]}
{"id": 1216, "summary": [{"text": "gilles de retz ( 1953 \u2013 1969 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse and sire best known for winning the classic 2000 guineas in 1956 .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "after winning twice from five starts as a two-year-old , the colt disappointed on his three-year-old debut before recording a 50/1 upset victory in the guineas .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "although the feat was not officially recognised at the time , gilles de retz 's success made helen johnson houghton the first woman to train the winner of a british classic .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "the colt failed to reproduce his best form in three subsequent efforts in 1956 and won once from four attempts as a four-year-old .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he was retired to stud where he had little success as a sire of winners . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "gilles de retz ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["gilles de retz\nredirects here . for the racehorse , see gilles de retz ( horse ) .\nso far , there are no tournament results from gilles de retz xx are stored .\nmatei cazacu , gilles de rais , 2005 , p . 11 ; 23 - 25 .\ngilles de rais is featured as one of the antagonists in the 2011 anime fate / zero .\ngilles de rais is featured as a nephilim in the manga and anime series devils and realist .\nbataille , georges . the trial of gilles de rais . los angeles : amok , 1991 .\ngilles de rais is the pseudonym ( gilles de rais . . . child - murderer ) for ray ' s character in the episode titled\nlive and let dine\nin season 4 of the fx series , archer .\nbordonove , georges . gilles de rais . pygmalion . isbn 978 - 2 - 85704 - 694 - 3 .\nambroise ledru ,\ngilles de rais dit barbe - bleue , mar\u00e9chal de france . sa jeunesse , 1404 - 1424\n, l ' union historique et litt\u00e9raire du maine , vol . i , 1893 , pp . 270 - 284 ; matei cazacu , gilles de rais , 2005 , p . 11 .\ncebri\u00e1n , juan antonio . el mariscal de las tinieblas . la verdadera historia de barba azul . temas de hoy . isbn 978 - 84 - 8460 - 497 - 6 ( spanish ) .\nbataille , georges . the trial of gilles de rais . amok books . isbn 978 - 1 - 878923 - 02 - 8 .\nin 1987 , the spanish director agusti villaronga directed the film tras el cristal , with an original script based on the killings of gilles de rais .\ngilles de rais is mentioned in the crime novel revelation by c . j . sansom , whose case is cited as a historic precedent for serial killing\nlampo , hubert . le diable et la pucelle . 163 p . , presses universitaires du septentrion , 2002 , isbn 2 - 85939 - 765 - 5 . ( traduction fran\u00e7aise de de duivel en de maagd ) .\ngilles de montmorency - laval ( also known as gilles de rais ) ( prob . c . september 1405 \u2013 26 october 1440 ) , baron de rais , was a breton knight , a leader in the french army and a companion - in - arms of joan of arc . he is best known by his reputation and conviction as a prolific serial killer of children .\nhelen johnson houghton , who has died aged 102 , became the first woman to train a classic winner when she sent out gilles de retz to win the 2 , 000 guineas in 1956 ; her name did not , however , appear in the record books as the jockey club did not in those days recognise women trainers .\ndick hern called nashwan\nthe best horse i ' ve ever trained\n. [ 3 ]\n, whose father and uncle were both major forces in british horse racing . he was sired by\ngilles de retz ( gb ) b . h , 1953 { 5 - g } dp = 22 - 6 - 7 - 1 - 6 ( 42 ) di = 3 . 00 cd = 0 . 88 - 14 starts , 4 wins , 1 places , 2 shows career earnings : $ 37 , 127 ( \u00a313 , 884 )\ncradle of filth ' s album godspeed on the devil ' s thunder is centered on the life of gilles de rais after joan of arc ' s burning .\ngilles de retz had been winter favourite for the race , but had run badly in the greenham stakes on heavy going , and went off in the guineas at 50 - 1 ( unbacked , it is said , by his trainer ) . \u201cthe greenham made me realise how far from being fit gilles de retz was , \u201d helen johnson houghton later explained . \u201che was very lazy and did nothing on the gallops . but he did a lot more when trotting up the hill from the village , so that\u2019s what we did with him to get him fit . \u201d although helen johnson houghton had trained the horse , he ran under the name of her assistant , charles jerdein , who later became an art dealer in new york \u2014 in her words , \u201cselling old masters to old mistresses\u201d .\nclassical scenes of farwell ,\na short - story by jim shepard , is told from the point of view of one of gilles de rais ' servants .\nbenedetti , jean ( 1971 ) .\ngilles de rais\n. new york : stein and day . isbn 978 - 0 - 8128 - 1450 - 7 .\nnye , robert . the life and death of my lord , gilles de rais . time warner books . isbn 978 - 0 - 349 - 10250 - 4 .\nla passion de gilles , opera ( french libretto ) , 1983 , music : philippe boesmans , libretto : pierre mertens based on his 1982 play ( same title ) .\nin may 1431 , joan of arc was burned at the stake ; gilles was not present . his grandfather died 15 november 1432 , and , in a public gesture to mark his displeasure with gilles ' reckless spending of a carefully amassed fortune , left his sword and his breastplate to gilles ' younger brother ren\u00e9 de la suze . [ 21 ]\nas a result of infirmities from old age . he is buried in the national stud ' s horse cemetery .\nthe protagonist durtal , from huysmans ' s l\u00e0 - bas ( 1891 ) , conducts intensive research into gilles de rais which forms the basis of many of the chapters in the novel .\nalthough gilles de rais was convicted of murdering many children through his confessions and the detailed eyewitness accounts of his own confederates and victims ' parents , [ 45 ] doubts have persisted about the court ' s verdict . counterarguments are based on the theory de rais was himself a victim of an ecclesiastic plot or act of revenge by the catholic church or french state . doubts on gilles de rais ' guilt have long persisted because the duke of brittany , who was given the authority to prosecute , received all the titles to gilles ' former lands after his conviction . the duke then divided the land among his own nobles . writers such as french professor and secret societies specialist jean - pierre bayard , in his book plaidoyer pour gilles de rais , contend he was a victim of the inquisition .\ngilles de rais was probably born in late 1405 [ 1 ] to guy ii de montmorency - laval and marie de craon in the family castle at champtoc\u00e9 - sur - loire . [ 2 ] he was an intelligent child , speaking fluent latin , illuminating manuscripts , and dividing his education between military discipline and moral and intellectual development . [ 3 ] [ 4 ] following the deaths of his father and mother in 1415 , gilles and his younger brother ren\u00e9 de la suze were placed under the tutelage of jean de craon , their maternal grandfather . [ 5 ] jean de craon was a schemer who attempted to arrange a marriage for twelve - year - old gilles with four - year - old jeanne paynel , one of the richest heiresses in normandy , and , when the plan failed , attempted unsuccessfully to unite the boy with b\u00e9atrice de rohan , the niece to the duke of brittany . [ 6 ] on 30 november 1420 , however , craon substantially increased his grandson ' s fortune by marrying him to catherine de thouars of brittany , heiress of la vend\u00e9e and poitou . [ 7 ] their only child marie was born in 1429 . [ 8 ]\nthe first documented case of child - snatching and murder concerns a boy of twelve called jeudon ( first name unknown ) , an apprentice to the furrier guillaume hilairet . [ 28 ] gilles de rais ' cousins , gilles de sill\u00e9 and roger de briqueville , asked the furrier to lend them the boy to take a message to machecoul , and , when jeudon did not return , the two noblemen told the inquiring furrier that they were ignorant of the boy ' s whereabouts and suggested he had been carried off by thieves at tiffauges to be made into a page . [ 28 ] in gilles de rais ' trial , the events were testified to by hillairet and his wife , the boy ' s father jean jeudon , and five others from machecoul .\nwolf , leonard ( 1980 ) .\nbluebeard : the life and times of gilles de rais\n. new york : clarkson n . potter , inc . . isbn 978 - 0 - 517 - 54061 - 9 .\nin 1992 , freemason jean - yves go\u00ebau - brissonni\u00e8re , the grand master of the grand lodge of france , organized a court consisting of former french ministers , parliament members and unesco experts to re - examine the source material and evidence available at the medieval trial . the hearing , which concluded gilles de rais was not guilty of the crimes , was turned into a documentary called gilles de rais ou la gueule du loup , narrated by gilbert prouteau .\ncoup de folie b . 1982 gw 4 wins f : 12 r : 10 w : 7 sw : 5\nhyatte , reginald . laughter for the devil : the trials of gilles de rais , companion - in - arms of joan of arc ( 1440 ) . fairleigh dickinson univ press . isbn 978 - 0 - 8386 - 3190 - 4 .\na scopey , substantial horse with plenty of athleticism . he has plenty of quality and good forelegs . from top class family with looks to match .\nbad - legged horse with something of the same temperament that marked his close relative nasrullah , royal charger was far from a top horse on the race course and was packed off to stud with relatively modest expectations . he soon proved that in his case , his royal bloodlines trumped his individual performance . a\nlampo , hubert . de duivel en de maagd . 207 p . , amsterdam , meulenhoff , 1988 ( 11e druk ) , isbn 90 - 290 - 0445 - 2 . ( 1e druk : \u2019s - gravenhage , stols , 1955 ) .\ngilles de rais is believed to be the inspiration for the 1697 fairy tale\nbluebeard\n(\nbarbebleu\n) by charles perrault . his life is the subject of several modern novels , and referenced in a number of rock bands ' albums and songs .\nmorgan , val . the legend of gilles de rais ( 1404 - 1440 ) in the writings of huysmans , bataille , planchon and tournier ( studies in french civilization , 29 ) . edwin mellen press . isbn 978 - 0 - 7734 - 6619 - 7 .\ndon\u2019t forget me\u2019s 1987 win was a second for richard hannon and came after an eleventh hour scare when the horse injured a foot on the morning of the race .\nin 1434 / 1435 , he retired from military life , depleted his wealth by staging an extravagant theatrical spectacle of his own composition and dabbled in the occult . after 1432 gilles engaged in a series of child murders , his victims possibly numbering in the hundreds . the killings came to an end in 1440 , when a violent dispute with a clergyman led to an ecclesiastical investigation which brought gilles ' crimes to light . at his trial the parents of missing children in the surrounding area and gilles ' own confederates in crime testified against him . gilles was condemned to death and hanged at nantes on 26 october 1440 .\nmurray , margaret ( 1921 ) . the witch - cult in western europe . oxford : clarendon press . pp . 173\u2013174 .\ngilles de rais was tried and executed as a witch and , in the same way , much that is mysterious in this trial can also be explained by the dianic cult\na member of the house of montmorency - laval , gilles de rais grew up under the tutelage of his maternal grandfather and increased his fortune by marriage . he earned the favour of the duke of brittany and was admitted to the french court . from 1427 to 1435 , gilles served as a commander in the royal army , and fought alongside joan of arc against the english and their burgundian allies during the hundred years ' war , for which he was appointed marshal of france .\ndespite his successes , royal palace was never voted british horse of the year , being beaten by busted in 1967 and sir ivor in 1968 . he was given a relatively modest timeform rating of 131 .\nthen in 2009 the race went the way of a horse who had looked all promise beforehand , albeit most likely over longer distances . this was the year that sea the stars came to the fore and john oxx\u2019s colt stamped his class on the guineas before claiming the derby , eclipse , juddmonte international , irish champion stakes and arc de triomphe in an astonishing career .\non sunday 17 july 1429 , gilles was chosen as one of four lords for the honor of bringing the holy ampulla from the abbey of saint - remy to notre - dame de reims for the consecration of charles vii as king of france . [ 19 ] on the same day , he was officially created a marshal of france . [ 17 ]\nmill reef was never beaten again and would go on to win the epsom derby , eclipse stakes , king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes , arc de triomphe and coronation cup .\nthis feature allows you to add personal notes to any horse record . only you will be able to see or add to these personal notes . this feature is only available in the sporthorsedata pro version which will be available soon .\nalthough cameronian was found to be running a temperature after the race he soon recovered . his connections were unable to explain his poor effort , with darling explicitly ruling out the possibility of the horse having been\ngot at\n.\nfollowing the siege of orleans , rais was granted the right to add a border of the royal arms , the fleur - de - lys on an azure ground , to his own . the letters patent authorizing the display cited gilles\u2019\nhigh and commendable services\n, the\ngreat perils and dangers\nhe had confronted , and\nmany other brave feats\n. [ 20 ]\non 23 october 1440 , the secular court heard the confessions of poitou and henriet and condemned them both to death , [ 40 ] followed by gilles ' death sentence on 25 october . [ 40 ] gilles was allowed to make confession , [ 40 ] and his request to be buried in the church of the monastery of notre - dame des carmes in nantes was granted . [ 41 ]\nthere have been some extraordinary performances down the years and two stand out visually : tudor minstrel was a brilliantly fast horse who in 1947 annihilated his rivals by 8 lengths , giving the great jockey gordon richards his third victory in the race .\nthat horse was a son of the mighty northern dancer and his name was nijinsky . in a glorious career , nijinsky had dominated the two year old rankings in 1969 and returned with success over the famous national hunt stallion deep run in the gladness stakes . at newmarket he ambled to an easy two and a half length victory over yellow god at odds - on , before brilliantly winning the derby and scrambling home in the st leger . no horse since has won the colt\u2019s triple crown .\nshe enjoyed point - to - pointing , and in the 1930s married gordon johnson houghton . the wedding had been scheduled for 1936 , but depended on their collecting from a gamble on a horse called fan mail winning a seller . gordon decided to give the ride to the horse\u2019s stable lad , and everything looked rosy until the jockey , for no discernible reason , picked up his whip and fan mail suddenly veered off the course . as a result the marriage had to be delayed for a year .\nnashwan was retired from racing to become a breeding stallion at his owner ' s shadwell stud . his most successful racehorses were swain ( foaled 1992 ) , dual winner of the king george vi and queen elizabeth diamond stakes , and bago ( 2001 ) , winner of the prix de l ' arc de triomphe . the best of his fillies was the international stakes winner one so wonderful . [ 18 ]\nin 1438 , according to testimony at his trial from the priest eustache blanchet and the cleric fran\u00e7ois prelati , de rais sent out blanchet to seek individuals who knew alchemy and demon summoning . blanchet contacted prelati in florence and convinced him to take service with his master . having reviewed the magical books of prelati and a traveling breton , de rais chose to initiate experiments , the first taking place in the lower hall of his castle at tiffauges , attempting to summon a demon named barron . de rais provided a contract with the demon for riches that prelati was to give to the demon at a later time .\nin 2000 coolmore and o\u2019brien had another strong fancy in giant\u2019s causeway but in a huge field , it was king\u2019s best , ridden coolly by kieren fallon , who weaved a path through and defeated the iron horse who promptly went on to win five successive group ones .\nexecution by hanging and burning was set for wednesday 26 october . at nine o\u2018clock , gilles and his two accomplices made their way in procession to the place of execution on the ile de biesse . [ 42 ] gilles is said to have addressed the crowd with contrite piety and exhorted henriet and poitou to die bravely and think only of salvation . [ 41 ] gilles ' request to be the first to die had been granted the day before . [ 40 ] at eleven o ' clock the brush at the platform was set afire and rais was hanged . his body was cut down before being consumed by the flames and claimed by\nfour ladies of high rank\nfor burial . [ 41 ] [ 43 ] henriet and poitou were executed in similar fashion but their bodies were reduced to ashes in the flames and then scattered . [ 41 ] [ 43 ] [ note 1 ] [ 44 ]\nthen in 1992 lester piggott , by now aged 56 , was reunited with the robert sangster colours he had ridden in with such distinction during the 1970s \u2013 and won the 2 , 000 guineas aboard rodrigo de triano .\nin the early 20th century , anthropologist margaret murray and occultist aleister crowley are among those who questioned the involvement of the ecclesiastic and secular authorities in the case . murray , who propagated the witch - cult hypothesis , speculated in her book the witch - cult in western europe that gilles de rais was really a witch and adherent of a fertility cult centered on the pagan goddess , diana . [ 46 ] [ 47 ] however , many historians reject murray ' s theory . [ 48 ] [ 49 ] [ 50 ] [ 51 ] [ 52 ] [ 53 ] norman cohn argues that her theory does not agree with what is known of gilles ' crimes and trial . [ 54 ] [ 55 ] historians do not regard gilles as a martyr to a pre - christian religion ; other scholars tend to view him as a catholic who descended into crime and depravity . [ 56 ] [ 57 ] [ 58 ]\n[ the boy ] was pampered and dressed in better clothes than he had ever known . the evening began with a large meal and heavy drinking , particularly hippocras , which acted as a stimulant . the boy was then taken to an upper room to which only gilles and his immediate circle were admitted . there he was confronted with the true nature of his situation . the shock thus produced on the boy was an initial source of pleasure for gilles . [ 28 ]\ngilles de rais features as a minor antagonist in the 1999 video - game castlevania 64 , and it ' s sequel castlevania : legacy of darkness . he , along with another antagonist , actrise , attempts to revive the main antagonist dracula , and later , masquerades as dracula , dissuading the main characters from progressing . in game , he appears as an elderly man with a blue beard . his crimes of murdering children , however , is ascribed to actrise .\nour babu ' s highest timeform rating was 131 as a two - year - old in 1954 , when the organisation rated him the equal - best horse of his generation in europe . a rating of 130 is considered the mark of an above average group one winner . [ 1 ]\nin 1961 her son fulke took over the yard , sending out successful horses such as ribero , habitat , double form and ile de bourbon . the licence is now held by his daughter ( and helen\u2019s granddaughter ) eve johnson houghton .\nas befits its standing , the guineas is a group 1 flat horse race open to three - year - old thoroughbred colts and fillies . it is run on the rowley mile at newmarket over a distance of 1 mile and takes place each year at the end of april or first saturday in may .\nfollowing the london & north eastern railway tradition of naming locomotives after winning racehorses , [ 12 ] british railways\ndeltic\ndiesel locomotive no . d9020 ( later 55020 ) was named after the horse on 12 february 1962 , [ 1 ] and remained in service until 5 january 1980 . [ 13 ]\nin his confession , gilles maintained the first assaults on children occurred between spring 1432 and spring 1433 . [ 26 ] the first murders occurred at champtoc\u00e9 - sur - loire ; however , no account of these murders survived . [ 27 ] shortly after , gilles moved to machecoul where , as the record of his confession states , he killed , or ordered to be killed , a great but uncertain number of children after he sodomized them . [ 27 ] forty bodies were discovered in machecoul in 1437 . [ 27 ]\npoitou testified that he and henriet burned the bodies in the fireplace in gilles ' room . the clothes of the victim were placed into the fire piece by piece so they burned slowly and the smell was minimized . the ashes were then thrown into the cesspit , the moat , or other hiding places . [ 30 ] the last recorded murder was of the son of \u00e9onnet de villeblanche and his wife mac\u00e9e . poitou paid 20 sous to have a page ' s doublet made for the victim , who was then assaulted , murdered , and incinerated in august 1440 . [ 31 ]\nthe precise number of gilles ' victims is not known , as most of the bodies were burned or buried . the number of murders is generally placed between 80 and 200 ; a few have conjectured numbers upwards of 600 . the victims ranged in age from six to eighteen and included both sexes .\ngilles ' bodyservant \u00e9tienne corrillaut , known as poitou , was an accomplice in many of the crimes and testified that his master hung his victims with ropes from a hook to prevent the child from crying out , then masturbated upon the child ' s belly or thighs . taking the victim down , rais comforted the child and assured him he only wanted to play with him . gilles then either killed the child himself or had the child killed by his cousin gilles de sill\u00e9 , poitou or another bodyservant called henriet . [ 29 ] the victims were killed by decapitation , cutting of their throats , dismemberment , or breaking of their necks with a stick . a short , thick , double - edged sword called a braquemard was kept at hand for the murders . [ 29 ] poitou further testified that rais sometimes abused the victims ( whether boys or girls ) before wounding them and at other times after the victim had been slashed in the throat or decapitated . according to poitou , rais disdained the victim ' s sexual organs , and took\ninfinitely more pleasure in debauching himself in this manner . . . than in using their natural orifice , in the normal manner .\n[ 29 ]\nin 1970 , a film was made about his racing career entitled a horse called nijinsky . narrated by orson welles , it was released in british cinemas and in 1988 released on vhs video . [ 29 ] the nijinsky team also was voted the 1970 bbc sports personality of the year team award . [ 30 ] in a poll in 2000 , readers of the uk newspaper the sun voted nijinsky their\nhorse of the millennium .\n[ 31 ] among the more unusual tributes , a cabernet sauvignon wine [ 32 ] and a variety of winter wheat [ 33 ] have been named in nijinsky ' s honour . bronze statues of him stand at ballydoyle and at the curragh racecourse . [ 34 ] [ 35 ]\nnijinsky was given a rating of 138 by timeform , the second highest for a winner of the epsom derby up to that time . [ 23 ] this was later scaled up to 140 by the racing post [ 2 ] . he was timeform ' s horse of the year for 1970 . nijinsky was also voted british horse of the year by the racecourse association , gaining 38 of the 40 votes . [ 24 ] in their book a century of champions , john randall and tony morris rated nijinsky as a\ngreat\nderby winner and the best irish racehorse of the 20th century . [ 25 ] vincent o ' brien named nijinsky and sir ivor as the best horses he had trained , placing nijinsky first\nfor brilliance .\n[ 26 ] lester piggott concurs saying\ni think nijinsky probably on his day was the most brilliant horse i ' ve ever ridden\n[ 27 ] . geoff lewis who rode mill reef to be second against brigadier gerard in the 1971 2 , 000 guineas felt that nijinsky was the best guineas winner of the 1970s decade [ 28 ] .\ntopically disraeli won the guineas in 1898 while the brilliant filly sceptre in 1902 , became the only horse in history to win four english classics , claiming the 2 , 000 guineas and then following up in the fillies\u2019 equivalent the 1 , 000 guineas two days later . a bruised foot interrupted her preparations for the epsom derby where she finished fourth but she then won the oaks and st leger .\nafter frankel\u2019s extraordinary rout in 2011 , the following year yielded hopes of a triple crown winner at long last . camelot had been a leading two year old but was another horse expected to excel over longer distances . however , he won the 2 , 000 guineas with a late burst of speed and then claimed the derby and irish derby , only to be denied at doncaster in the st leger .\nthe extensive witness testimony convinced the judges that there were adequate grounds for establishing the guilt of the accused . after rais admitted to the charges on 21 october , [ 38 ] the court canceled a plan to torture him into confessing . [ 39 ] peasants of the neighboring villages had earlier begun to offer up accusations that since their children had entered gilles ' castle begging for food they had never been seen again . the transcript , which included testimony from the parents of many of these missing children as well as graphic descriptions of the murders provided by gilles ' accomplices , was said to be so lurid that the judges ordered the worst portions to be stricken from the record .\nin the decades following the breton war of succession ( 1341\u201364 ) , the defeated faction led by olivier de blois , count of penthi\u00e8vre , continued to plot against the dukes of the house of montfort . [ 9 ] the blois faction , who still refused to relinquish their claim to rule over the duchy of brittany , had taken duke john vi prisoner in violation of the treaty of gu\u00e9rande ( 1365 ) . [ 10 ] the sixteen - year - old gilles took the side of the house of montfort . rais was able to secure the duke ' s release , and was rewarded with generous land grants which were converted to monetary gifts . [ 11 ]\nin june 1435 , family members gathered to put a curb on gilles . they appealed to pope eugene iv to disavow the chapel of the holy innocents ( which he refused to do ) and carried their concerns to the king . on 2 july 1435 , a royal edict was proclaimed in orl\u00e9ans , tours , angers , pouzauges , and champtoc\u00e9 - sur - loire denouncing gilles as a spendthrift and forbidding him from selling any further property . no subject of charles vii was allowed to enter into any contract with him , and those in command of his castles were forbidden to dispose of them . gilles ' credit fell immediately and his creditors pressed upon him . he borrowed heavily , using his objets d ' art , manuscripts , books and clothing as security . when he left orl\u00e9ans in late august or early september 1435 , the town was littered with precious objects he was forced to leave behind . the edict did not apply to brittany , and the family was unable to persuade the duke of brittany to enforce it . [ 24 ]\nthe race roll of honour is a pantheon of the thoroughbred greats stretching back to 1809 when the race first took place and was named after its original prize fund . the first renewal was won by a horse called wizard and the race\u2019s magic quickly caught on ; by the mid - 1860\u2019s the 2 , 000 guineas was considered britain\u2019s premier race for the classic generation with other countries introducing their own versions of the race .\nnijinsky appeared to recover fully after being placed on a\nrich\ndiet including raw eggs and irish stout , [ 16 ] and was sent to doncaster for the st . leger in september . in the one mile and six furlongs race , he was attempting to become the first horse since bahram 35 years earlier to complete the english triple crown . he started the 2 / 7 favourite and won comfortably , [ 17 ] although his margin of victory over meadowville was only one length . as of 2017 , he is the last horse to accomplish the feat of sweeping the english triple crown : since 1970 only reference point ( 1987 ) , nashwan ( 1989 ) , sea the stars ( 2009 ) and camelot ( 2012 ) have won two of the three races , but oh so sharp won the filly ' s version of the triple crown in 1985 .\nseveral years after gilles ' death , his daughter marie had a stone memorial erected at the site of his execution . over the years , the structure came to be regarded as a holy altar under the protection of saint anne . generations of pregnant women flocked there to pray for an abundance of breast milk . the memorial was destroyed by rioting jacobins during the french revolution in the late 18th century .\n1980 brought controversy as the brilliant unbeaten colt nureyev barged his way through to finish first past the post before becoming the only horse in the race\u2019s history to be disqualified . he had almost brought pat eddery and posse down and that colt stayed on strongly to finish a close - up third . meanwhile on the stands rail , known fact and willie carson were out of trouble and finished second past the post , only to be awarded the race on the french trained colt\u2019s demotion .\nnashwan ' s next task was to prove himself against older opposition , starting with the eclipse stakes over one and a quarter miles at sandown park on 8 july . despite having recently recovered from a foot infection and facing both the outstanding racemare indian skimmer and the champion miler warning , he was sent off the 2 / 5 favourite . [ 10 ] nashwan took the lead approaching the final furlong and won by five lengths from the outsider opening verse , who later won the breeders ' cup mile . [ 11 ] two weeks later , nashwan contested britain ' s most prestigious all - aged race , the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes over one and a half miles at ascot . with the late withdrawal of prix du jockey club winner old vic , nashwan was expected to win easily and started as 2 / 9 favourite . this time he had to fight for his victory , with old rival cacoethes challenging him throughout the final two furlongs . nashwan was driven out by carson to win by a neck , with the subsequent prix de l ' arc de triomphe winner carroll house a further eleven lengths back in fifth . [ 12 ] his narrow margin of victory lead some critics to question his status as a\nsuper - horse\n. [ 13 ]\nthe following year another of the great horses of the last half century claimed the guineas as dancing brave powerfully careered out of the dip to defeat champion sprinter green desert before suffering a narrow defeat in the epsom derby . by season\u2019s end dancing brave was heralded as the champion colt of 1986 following victories in the eclipse stakes , king george vi and queen elizabeth diamond stakes and arc de triomphe .\nnijinsky , a bay horse with a white star and three white feet , was bred at e . p . taylor ' s windfields farm in oshawa , ontario , canada . he was from the second crop of foals sired by northern dancer , the winner of the 1964 kentucky derby who went on to become one of the most influential sires of the 20th century . his dam , flaming page , by bull page , was a highly successful racemare , winning the 1962 queen ' s plate . at stud , she produced only two other foals ; one of these was fleur , who produced the 1977 epsom derby winner the minstrel , the other was minsky , champion irish 2 year old in 1970 . [ 3 ] nijinsky was a big , powerful and handsome horse with great presence standing 16 . 3 hands ( 67 inches , 170 cm ) high , resembling his dam rather than his sire in stature and conformation , traits he tended to pass on to his offspring . [ 4 ]\nas no demon manifested after three tries , the marshal grew frustrated with the lack of results . prelati responded that the demon barron was angry and required the offering of parts of a child . de rais provided these remnants in a glass vessel at a future invocation . all of this was to no avail , and the occult experiments left him bitter and with his wealth severely depleted . [ 25 ]\nin his own confession , gilles testified that \u201cwhen the said children were dead , he kissed them and those who had the most handsome limbs and heads he held up to admire them , and had their bodies cruelly cut open and took delight at the sight of their inner organs ; and very often when the children were dying he sat on their stomachs and took pleasure in seeing them die and laughed\u201d . [ 30 ]\non 15 may 1440 , rais kidnapped a cleric during a dispute at the church of saint - \u00e9tienne - de - mer - morte . [ 32 ] [ 33 ] the act prompted an investigation by the bishop of nantes , during which evidence of gilles ' crimes was uncovered . [ 32 ] on 29 july , the bishop released his findings , [ 34 ] and subsequently obtained the prosecutorial cooperation of rais ' s former protector , jean vi , the duke of brittany . rais and his bodyservants poitou and henriet were arrested on 15 september 1440 , [ 35 ] [ 36 ] following a secular investigation which paralleled the findings of the investigation from the bishop of nantes . rais ' s prosecution would likewise be conducted by both secular and ecclesiastical courts , on charges which included murder , sodomy , and heresy . [ 37 ]\nthe 1971 guineas saw the re - match of europe\u2019s top two juveniles of 1970 as the prolific colt my swallow took on the little horse he had beaten as part of his unbeaten run of seven victories that year : mill reef . my swallow extended that run to eight on his seasonal bow in 1971 while mill reef proved an outstanding two year old winning the gimcrack stakes by 10 lengths and the dewhurst stakes by 4 lengths . mill reef sauntered to victory in the greenham stakes and was then race - fit for newmarket .\nnijinsky ( 21 february 1967 \u2013 15 april 1992 ) , usually known in the united states as nijinsky ii , was a canadian - bred , irish - trained thoroughbred racehorse and sire . he was the outstanding two - year - old in europe in 1969 when he was unbeaten in five races . in the following season , he became the first horse for thirty - five years to win the english triple crown . he is regarded by many experts to have been the greatest flat racehorse in europe during the 20th century [ 1 ] .\nour babu was a bay horse with a white star and snip and distinctive\nlop\nears [ 2 ] [ 3 ] bred in ireland by sir oliver lambart . he was sired by the champion two - year - old and 2000 guineas winner my babu out of the mare glen line who showed no ability as a racehorse but was a highly successful broodmare producing the eclipse stakes winner king of the tudors . as a descendant of the mare sunbridge , she was a member of the same thoroughbred family as windsor lad . [ 4 ]\nin his next race , nijinsky was sent to france for the prix de l ' arc de triomphe at longchamp in paris in october . piggott produced nijinsky in the straight to make his challenge but was baulked twice before making his run on the wide outside . however , 150m from the finish he caught front runners miss dan and sassafras and took a slight lead . in the last strides , nijinsky appeared to veer left away from piggott ' s whip , [ 18 ] and sassafras , ridden by yves saint - martin , produced a renewed effort to regain the advantage and win by a head . while many , including his trainer vincent o ' brien , felt that piggott had given nijinsky too much ground to make up and had left his challenge too late , [ 19 ] the jockey said that in his opinion nijinsky was past his peak for the year . [ 20 ]\nnashwan ' s owner decided not to attempt the triple crown in the st leger stakes , and the colt was instead aimed at the prix de l ' arc de triomphe at longchamp in october . to prepare for this race , he was sent to the prix niel over the arc course and distance on 17 september . racing on soft ground , nashwan moved up to challenge in the straight but made no further progress and finished third , beaten one and a half lengths and half a length by the french - trained colts golden pheasant and french glory . [ 14 ] neither hern nor carson could offer any explanation for the\nlifeless\nperformance with the jockey commenting that the 1 / 5 favourite\ndidn ' t have any energy\n. [ 15 ] nashwan missed the arc , and , as had been announced in summer , he was retired from racing at the end of the year . [ 13 ]\nin 1425 , rais was introduced to the court of charles vii at saumur and learned courtly manners by studying the dauphin . [ 12 ] in combat at saint - l\u00f4 and le mans between 1427 and 1429 , gilles was allowed to indulge his taste for violence and carnage . [ 13 ] at the battle for the ch\u00e2teau of lude , he climbed the assault ladder and slew the english captain blackburn . [ 14 ] he was young , handsome and rich with companions - in - arms of his own stripe about him . [ 15 ]\nin 1434 / 5 , rais gradually withdrew from military and public life in order to pursue his own interests : the construction of a splendid chapel of the holy innocents ( where he officiated in robes of his own design ) , [ 22 ] and the production of a theatrical spectacle called le mist\u00e8re du si\u00e8ge d ' orl\u00e9ans . the play consisted of more than 20 , 000 lines of verse , requiring 140 speaking parts and 500 extras . gilles was almost bankrupt at the time of the production and began selling property as early as 1432 to support his extravagant lifestyle . by march 1433 , he had sold all his estates in poitou ( except those of his wife ) and all his property in maine . only two castles in anjou , champtoc\u00e9 - sur - loire and ingrandes , remained in his possession . half of the total sales and mortgages were spent on the production of his play . the spectacle was first performed in orl\u00e9ans on 8 may 1435 . six hundred costumes were constructed , worn once , discarded , and constructed afresh for subsequent performances . unlimited supplies of food and drink were made available to spectators at gilles ' expense . [ 23 ]\npart of the attraction of the 2 , 000 guineas is the mixture of different horse types it attracts . it is often the first major target of the season for horses likely to tackle longer middle distance races later in the year , but perhaps have sufficient speed for a mile . then there are the specialist milers , who in theory ought to be in their element at this distance . there are also sprinters , who are tried over the rowley mile in the hope that they might just last out the distance . then there are the champion two year olds from the season before , attempting to prove that they have developed over the winter and still retain their position at the head of their generation .\nless than two weeks after his defeat in the arc , nijinsky ran his last race in the champion stakes over ten furlongs at newmarket . although he had been known to sweat freely before some of his previous races , nijinsky on this occasion appeared to become particularly nervous and anxious before the start . in the race itself , he ran well below his best form and was beaten 3 / 4 length at odds of 4 / 11 by the five - year - old english horse lorenzaccio . [ 21 ] o ' brien on this occasion concurred with piggott , saying that nijinsky appeared to have\nlost his fire .\n[ 20 ] nijinsky was retired to stand at stud at claiborne farm near paris , kentucky having been syndicated in august for $ 5 , 440 , 000 . [ 22 ]\nnashwan was a large , powerfully built chestnut horse with a white star and a white sock on his right foreleg bred by his owner hamdan al maktoum at his shadwell farm in lexington , kentucky . he was sired by the 1977 poule d ' essai des poulains winner blushing groom . blushing groom became an exceptionally successful breeding stallion , siring rainbow quest , blushing john , arazi , and many other leading horses . nashwan ' s successes made him the leading sire in great britain & ireland in 1989 . [ 1 ] nashwan ' s dam was height of fashion , a daughter of bustino previously owned by queen elizabeth ii . he was thus a half - brother to the group race winners alwasmi , unfuwain , and nayef , and a close relative of the japanese champion deep impact and the 1000 guineas winner ghanaati . [ 2 ]\nnijinsky ' s first four races were all at the curragh . in june , he started at odds of 4 / 11 and won a six - furlong maiden race by half a length . he followed up with wins in the anglesey stakes and the railway stakes . on his fourth appearance , he was extended for the first time in the beresford stakes . he won decisively from decies , a colt who went on to win the irish 2000 guineas in 1970 . having proved himself the best of the irish two - year - olds , he was sent to england in october to contest the dewhurst stakes at newmarket . ridden for the first time by lester piggott , he was held up at the back of the six - horse field before moving through to take the lead inside the final furlong , earning top rating in the british free handicap . [ 6 ] [ 7 ]\na month later , nashwan was moved up in distance for the ever ready derby over one and a half miles at epsom downs racecourse . despite the unseasonably cold , damp weather , the race attracted an estimated 500 , 000 spectators including queen elizabeth ii . [ 7 ] nashwan started 5 / 4 favourite against eleven opponents , with the biggest danger expected to come from cacoethes , winner of the lingfield derby trial . carson positioned the favourite just behind the leaders before moving up to take the lead from cacoethes in the straight . he pulled\neffortlessly\n[ 8 ] clear in the closing stages to win by five lengths from the 500 / 1 outsider terimon , who finished well to deprive cacoethes of second . [ 9 ] he was the first horse to complete the guineas - derby double since nijinsky ii in 1970 , [ 8 ] though he was emulated by sea the stars in 2009 and camelot in 2012 .\nnimbus was a bay horse with a white star and snip and white socks on his hind feet . [ 2 ] he was bred by william hill who would go on to win the st . leger stakes in 1959 with cantelo . he was sired by nearco , one of the most important sires of the 20th century . his dam , kong , was sprinter whose victories included the wokingham stakes at royal ascot . in addition to nimbus , kong also produced nimbus ' s three - quarter brother grey sovereign ( sired by nearco ' s son nasrullah ) who won the richmond stakes and became a successful breeding stallion . [ 3 ] as a yearling , nimbus was sent to the sales where he was bought for 5000 guineas by the trainer george colling , acting on behalf of henry glenister . the colt was trained by colling at his hurworth house stable in newmarket , suffolk and raced in the colours of glenister ' s wife , marion . [ 4 ]\non 27 june , nijinsky followed up his epsom win by taking the irish derby at the curragh . ridden by liam ward , he started at odds of 4 / 11 and accelerated late to win by three lengths from meadowville . [ 13 ] in july , nijinsky raced against older horses for the first time in the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes at ascot . his five opponents included winners of major races including blakeney ( 1969 epsom derby ) , karabas ( washington , d . c . international stakes ) , crepellana ( prix de diane ) , and caliban ( coronation cup ) . without being extended , nijinsky moved through to take the lead a furlong from the finish and won by two lengths from blakeney despite being eased down to a canter in the closing stages . [ 14 ]\namong contemporary thoroughbreds attributed by stud book record to family 5 three different mitochondrial dna haplotypes have been found , representing no fewer than three separate founder mares . one of these haplotypes is found in 5g and 5h , another in 5d and 5e , and the third in an unspecified part of the ' trunk ' of family 5 . see deep - rooted anomalies and equine genetic genealogy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhelen johnson houghton had begun training on her own account after her husband , major gordon johnson houghton , had been killed in a hunting accident in 1952 . in those days , however , the licence had to be in the name of a male trainer \u2014 it was not until 1966 that the jockey club recognised women trainers after it had been taken to court by the redoubtable florence nagle .\nin an interview with the racing post in 2010 , helen johnson houghton recalled how she had felt about the lack of public recognition after she had won the guineas : \u201cbloody maddening . it seems so ridiculous in this day and age , doesn\u2019t it ? beyond belief . but that\u2019s all in the past , and i no longer agonise over it . \u201d\nthe twin sister of fulke walwyn , who become one of the great national hunt trainers of his time , she was born helen marjorie walwyn on november 8 1910 at abergavenny . her father was an army officer and master of the monmouth hounds . when the twins were young , their mother died , and they were looked after by a succession of governesses . helen , who never went to school , was in her early teens when her father married one of these governesses , and , disapproving of the match , she left home and went to live with an aunt in cheshire ."]}
{"id": 1223, "summary": [{"text": "the pin-tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) is a medium large bird in the sandgrouse family .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it has a small , pigeon like head and neck and a sturdy , compact body .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it has long pointed wings , which are white underneath , a long tail and a fast direct flight .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "flocks fly to watering holes at dawn .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the call is a loud kattar-kattar .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "this gregarious species breeds on dry open treeless plains and similar habitats .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "its nest is a ground scrape into which two or three cream-coloured eggs with cryptic markings are laid .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "both sexes incubate the eggs .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the pin-tailed sandgrouse is about 35 centimetres ( 14 in ) long .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its head and upperparts are yellowish-green .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the underparts are white with a chestnut breast band separating the belly from the green neck .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "sexes are somewhat similar , but the female is better camouflaged and has a shorter tail than the male .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "there are two subspecies ; p. a. alchata breeds in southern europe and p. a. caudacutus breeds in northwestern africa , the middle east and southeastern asia .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is a partial migrant , with some asian birds moving to the middle east and northern pakistan in winter .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "males of the eastern race have duller underparts than the european birds , and the females have white , rather than yellow , wing coverts . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "pin - tailed sandgrouse", "paragraphs": ["chestnut bellied sandgrouse , common indian sandgrouse , indian sandgrouse , lesser pin - tailed sandgrouse , small pin - tailed sandgrouse .\nenglish : common indian sandgrouse , common sandgrouse , indian sandgrouse , kenyan pin - tailed sandgrouse , lesser pintailed sandgrouse , singed sandgrouse , small pin - tailed sandgrouse , somaliland pin - tailed sandgrouse , chestnut - breasted sandgrouse ; french : ganga \u00e0 ventre brun ; german : braunbauchflughuhn ; spanish : ganga moruna .\nnobody uploaded sound recordings for pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) yet .\n) species factsheet : pin - tailed sandgrouse pterocles alchata [ www document ] . url\nthe pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) is a bird in the columbiformes order .\nthe pin - tailed sandgrouse is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nchanges in behaviour and faecal glucocorticoid levels in response to increased human activities during weekends in the pin - tailed sandgrouse .\ninformation on the pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nthe iba of pin - tailed sandgrouse species in turkey are ak\u00e7akale plains , ceylanp\u0131nar and southern euphrates valley and birecik plains . the iba of pin - tailed sandgrouse species in turkmenistan is chokrak - tutly . the iba of these sandgrouse species in portugal is upper river tejo . the iba in france is crau .\nthe pin - tailed sandgrouse does not approach the thresholds for being vulnerable either under the range size criterion or under the population trend criterion or under the population size criterion . the iucn ( international union for conservation of nature ) has categorized and evaluated the pin - tailed sandgrouse (\nchanges in behaviour and faecal glucocorticoid levels in response to increased human activities during weekends in the pin - tailed sandgrouse . - pubmed - ncbi\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse eggs\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse eggs\ntitle =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse eggs\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse chick\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse chick\ntitle =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse chick\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe irises of the pin - tailed sandgrouse are brown . the bare skin around the eyes is slaty blue . the bill is slaty gray . the pin - tailed sandgrouse call is a loud \u201c kattar - kattar\u201d in flight and also a nasal \u201cga - ga - ga\nsound .\nspline correlograms for pin - tailed and black - bellied sandgrouse with 95 % pointwise bootstrap confidence intervals and maximum lag distance of 15 km derived for 1 ) landscape scale and 2 ) microhabitat scale . a ) pin - tailed sandgrouse ; b ) black - bellied sandgrouse . distance was measured in meters ( doc 54 kb )\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse pair in flight\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse pair in flight\ntitle =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse pair in flight\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse nest in habitat\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse nest in habitat\ntitle =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse nest in habitat\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe landscape requirements are analysed and population sizes are estimated for the pin - tailed and black - bellied sandgrouse during the breeding season in peninsular spain . the estimated populations in the 26 study zones , which comprise the main breeding areas of spain , are c . 13 , 000 individual pin - tailed sandgrouse and 3500 black - bellied sandgrouse . the overall population estimate for peninsular spain is < 14 , 000 pin - tailed sandgrouse and 9000\u201311 , 000 black - bellied sandgrouse . the latter figure places the species within the \u2018endangered\u2019 category in europe .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata )\ntitle =\narkive species - pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - male pin - tailed sandgrouse collecting water in feathers\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - male pin - tailed sandgrouse collecting water in feathers\ntitle =\narkive photo - male pin - tailed sandgrouse collecting water in feathers\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nenglish : abyssinian sandgrouse , close - barred sandgrouse , somaliland sandgrouse , suk sandgrouse ; french : ganga de lichtenstein ; german : wellenflughuhnl ; spanish : ganga de lichtenstein .\nmart\u00edn ca , casas f , mougeot f et al ( 2010b ) seasonal variations in habitat preferences of the pin - tailed sandgrouse in agrarian pseudo - steppes . ardeola 57 : 191\u2013198\nreproduction : breeding season occurs from april to august , with peak in may - june . pin - tailed sandgrouse nests on the ground , in shallow depression or scrape , without lining .\ndiet : pin - tailed sandgrouse feeds on seeds , green shoots and leaves , mainly from leguminosae , but also from other plant species . they can add cereal grains and cultivated legumes .\nthese pin - tailed sandgrouse species are partially migratory birds . the breeding populations in northwest africa , spain , portugal , france , middle east and parts of afghanistan are sedentary or nomadic .\nspline correlograms for pin - tailed and black - bellied sandgrouse ( large geographical spatial scale ) with 95 % pointwise bootstrap confidence intervals and maximum lag distance of 100 km derived from 1 ) glm models ( on the left ) and 2 ) glm analyses after applying the moran eigenvector filtering function ( on the right ) . a ) pin - tailed sandgrouse ; b ) black - bellied sandgrouse . distance was measured in meters . ( doc 67 kb )\nben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , a . & garc\u00eda - egea , i . 2015 . first record of an aberrantly colored pin - tailed sandgrouse pterocles alchata . wilson journal of ornithology 127 , 755 - 759 .\nmart\u00edn ca , casas f , mougeot f , garc\u00eda jt , vi\u00f1uela j ( 2010b ) seasonal variations in habitat preferences of the pin - tailed sandgrouse in agrarian pseudo - steppes . ardeola 57 ( 1 ) : 191\u2013198\nthe diet of these pin - tailed sandgrouse species is mostly wild seeds , especially of legumes . they also feed on grain , green shoots , flowers and leaves . they fly in large flocks to watering holes at dawn .\nthe breeding populations of the pin - tailed sandgrouse in kazakhstan , uzbekistan , turkmenistan and kyrgyzstan are migratory and migrate to central saudi arabia , northern iraq , southern afghanistan , pakistan and northwest india ( rajasthan , punjab and haryana ) for wintering .\nben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , ana and garc\u00eda - egea , iv\u00e1n 2015 . first record of an aberrantly colored pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) . the wilson journal of ornithology , vol . 127 , issue . 4 , p . 755 .\nthese species of sandgrouse are distributed in north africa , middle east , turkey , iran , iraq , kazakhstan , uzbekistan , turkmenistan , kyrgyzstan , spain , portugal , france , afghanistan , pakistan and india . the pin - tailed sandgrouse species are gregarious and flocks of hundreds of birds fly to watering holes at dawn . there are two recognized subspecies of these sandgrouse species .\nmart\u00edn ca , casas f , mougeot f et al ( 2010a ) positive interactions between vulnerable species in agrarian pseudo - steppes : habitat use by pin - tailed sandgrouse depends on its association with the little bustard . anim conserv 13 : 383\u2013389 . doi :\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto pin - tailed sandgrouse gives contact calls in flight . these loud calls are repeated at shot intervals \u201ckhattar - khattar\u201d . the french name comes from this sound ( cata ) . on the ground , the bird utters some clucking sounds .\n2010 . fran\u00e7ois mougeot , ana ben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , carlos a . mart\u00edn , fabi\u00e1n casas , jes\u00fas t . garc\u00eda , javier vi\u00f1uela . seasonal movements and breeding of pin - tailed sandgrouse pterocles alchata . xx congreso espa\u00f1ol de ornitolog\u00eda . tremp ( lleida ) , spain .\npin - tailed sandgrouse abundance is positively correlated with the area of fallow and stubble , while black - bellied sandgrouse abundance is positively correlated with the amount of medium / long - term fallow land and the proportion of land used for dry pasture . all of these landscape variables have undergone profound changes in spain since the 1960s due to agricultural intensification .\nstatus : rare ( category iii ) , decreasing in number and area of distribution . the pin - tailed sandgrouse inhabits the deserts of north africa , the near east and central asia . in kazakstan it is found from the aral sea to the betpak dala desert . during the past several years , both the area where it is found and its numbers have been considerably reduced . in the 1960s , flocks of tens and even hundreds of thousands of birds could be observed . today , flocks of several hundreds is a rarity . the basic factors causing the decline in pin - tailed sandgrouse populations are poaching ( at the water holes ) and the disturbance of nesting birds by humans . to protect the pin - tailed sandgrouse , it is necessary to create both the betpak dala preserve and the kyzyl kum preserve and to forbid hunting at all watering places .\noutside the breeding season of the pin - tailed sandgrouse , all the upperparts , including head are barred in black and pale - yellow and the throat patch becomes whitish . the female has duller colors . the chin is whitish and the back and the wings are grayish with black barring .\n2010 . ana ben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , carlos a . mart\u00edn , fabi\u00e1n casas , jes\u00fas t . garc\u00eda , fran\u00e7ois mougeot , javier vi\u00f1uela . first mortality records in pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) in spain . xx congreso espa\u00f1ol de ornitolog\u00eda . tremp ( lleida ) , spain .\n2010 . ana ben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , carlos a . mart\u00edn , fabi\u00e1n casas , fran\u00e7ois mougeot , jes\u00fas t . garc\u00eda , javier vi\u00f1uela . home ranges and seasonal movements of pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) . xiii congreso nacional y x iberoamericano de etolog\u00eda . ciudad real , spain . links\nenglish : imperial sandgrouse , large sandgrouse , oriental sand - grouse ; french : ganga unibande ; german : sandflughuhn ; spanish : ganga ortega .\nreasons for the need for protection / inclusion in annex i the pin - tailed sandgrouse is undergoing a widespread decline in both its popualtion size and distribution . this is due mainly to the destruction of dry grassland which has followed the agricultural intensification , particularly in the form of irrigation schemes , and hunting .\n2014 . iv\u00e1n perag\u00f3n , carlos a . mart\u00edn , fabi\u00e1n casas , ana ben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , fran\u00e7ois mougeot , jes\u00fas t . garc\u00eda , javier vi\u00f1uela . satellite - tracking of pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) : home ranges and seasonal movements . xxii congreso espa\u00f1ol de ornitolog\u00eda , madrid , spain .\nthere is a broad brownish yellow band on the breast of pin - tailed sandgrouse , bordered on either side by a thin black stripe . the outer wing coverts are reddish brown with black and pale - yellow edges . the rump and tail are barred dark brown and pale - yellow . the central tail streamers are grayish brown . the sandgrouse underparts , underwing and feathered legs are whitish .\nprotection / threats / status : pin - tailed sandgrouse is common or locally common in several parts of the range , but the species is threatened in most parts of europe , due to changes in agricultural practices . it is still common in spain , and at this moment , this species is not globally threatened .\nthe pin - tailed sandgrouse is distributed in northwest africa , spain , portugal , france , middle east , afghanistan , kazakhstan , uzbekistan , turkmenistan , kyrgyzstan , saudi arabia , northern iraq , southern afghanistan , pakistan and northwest india . in india they are distributed in the states of rajasthan , punjab and haryana .\npredictive species\u2019 distribution models may answer ecological questions about habitat selection , co - occurrence of species and competition between them . we studied the habitat preferences and segregation of two sympatric species of declining sandgrouse , the black - bellied sandgrouse ( pterocles orientalis ) and the pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) , during the breeding season . we developed predictive models that related sandgrouse presence to environmental variables at three different spatial levels : large geographical , landscape and microhabitat scales . at the large geographical scale , differences between sandgrouse distributions , in the iberian peninsula , seem to be explained mainly in terms of bioclimatology : pin - tailed sandgrouse appear to be a more thermophilous species and occupy warmer sites usually located in flatter areas . at the landscape spatial level , in those areas that exhibit environmental conditions allowing for both species\u2019 co - existence at a large geographical scale , black - bellied sandgrouse appear to be more tolerant to environmental variation than pin - tailed sandgrouse . at the microhabitat level , however , differences between species could be related to different flocking behaviour as a consequence of different sensitivities to vegetation structure and predators . thus , the observed spatial distribution patterns are the result of different ecological factors that operate at different spatial levels . conservation guidelines for these species should therefore consider their habitat preferences at large geographical , landscape and microhabitat scales .\nhabitat : pin - tailed sandgrouse frequents arid and semi - arid treeless plains such as semi - desert , steppes , dry mudflats near marshes , and dry cereal fields . this bird avoids dense scrub or tall vegetation , and prefers clay or sandy surfaces . it can be seen in hilly areas and at high elevation .\nthese pin - tailed sandgrouse species do not occur normally in forest . they inhabit various dry inland ecosystems . they inhabit semi - arid plains , fallow agricultural fields , arid treeless plains , semi - deserts , hot deserts , temperate grasslands , shrublands with sparse short shrubs , steppe , open grassland plains and dry mudflats .\nben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , a . , mougeot , f . , garc\u00eda , j . t . , mart\u00edn , c . a . & vi\u00f1uela , j . 2015 . individual traits and extrinsic factors influence survival of the threatened pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) in europe . biological conservation 187 , 192 - 200 .\nknowledge of the factors determining species distributions is essential for developing conservation strategies . sandgrouse\nthe breeding season of these pin - tailed sandgrouse species depends upon availability of feed . these sandgrouse species are monogamous and feeding flocks break into pairs . the nest is a ground scrape , which is usually unlined . typically three eggs are laid . the male incubates in the night and the female incubates in the day . the eggs hatch in about 25 days and hatchlings are led to feed by both the parents .\n2012 . fabi\u00e1n casas , jes\u00fas t . garc\u00eda , fran\u00e7ois mougeot , ana ben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , carlos a . mart\u00edn , sergio gonz\u00e1lez , alejandro urmeneta , javier vi\u00f1uela . seasonal movements of pin - tailed sandgrouse in bardenas reales biosphere reserve ( navarra ) . poster . xiii congreso nacional y x iberoamericano de etolog\u00eda . sevilla , spain .\nrange : pin - tailed sandgrouse of race \u201calchata\u201d is sedentary and nomadic in spain and se france . the race \u201ccaudacutus\u201d is found in nw africa , se turkey and middle east . it is resident in north africa and middle east , whereas the populations of the northernmost parts of the range are migratory , wintering in pakistan and nw india .\ndescription smaller ( l 33 cm ) than black - bellied sandgrouse ( pterocles orientalis ) , and easy to tell from latter by long tail extension and lack of black belly . in winter gathers in large flocks . the pin - tailed sandgrouse is a species of steppe country , requiring plains without trees or high bushes . it favours lowland plains which comprise a mosaic of arable and non - irrigated fields . the diet consists mainly of seeds . resident .\npin - tailed sandgrouse - the sandgrouse of the agricultural fields of the north - western negev and the species with the narrowest distribution of all four . autumn and winter gatherings at urim have reached between 2000 - 4000 birds annually , and occasionally have exceeded 6000 , all during the 80 ' s and first half of the 90 ' s . since the mid 90 ' s , however , numbers have been ranging between 500 to less than 1000 birds only .\ncasas , fabi\u00e1n ben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , ana tarjuelo , roc\u00edo barja , isabel vi\u00f1uela , javier garc\u00eda , jes\u00fas t . morales , manuel b . and mougeot , francois 2016 . changes in behaviour and faecal glucocorticoid levels in response to increased human activities during weekends in the pin - tailed sandgrouse . the science of nature , vol . 103 , issue . 11 - 12 ,\none of the most common sandgrouse in africa and india ; in no danger of decline .\nthere are currently no known conservation plans targeting the chestnut - bellied sandgrouse ( 1 ) .\npin - tailed sandgrouses are gregarious birds and live in flocks of different sizes . in spain , they are often seen with groups of little bustards ( tetrax tetrax ) . sandgrouses are very difficult to see , due to their cryptic plumage and their unobtrusiveness , except when they are flying .\npin - tailed sandgrouse are monogamous and breed in isolated pairs or in loose colonies with nests about six metres apart on the ground . courtship displays by male are simple . it holds the head low , with wings slightly away from the body , and the tail fanned out and raised . before mating , the male approaches its mate holding the legs very stiff and straight and the body erect .\nben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , a . casas , f . mougeot , f . garc\u00eda , j . t . mart\u00edn , c . a . tatin , l . wolff , a . and vi\u00f1uela , j . 2015 . individual traits and extrinsic factors influence survival of the threatened pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) in europe . biological conservation , vol . 187 , issue . , p . 192 .\na pin - tailed sandgrouse flew across the front of the hide and landed on the other side of a freshwater sluice , just a few meters away under the watchful eye of a slender - billed gull . a security guard who mans the hide had spotted it earlier and pointed it out , but at the time it was quite a long way off and in a small hollow , making it difficult to identify .\npin - tailed sangrouse adult male in breeding plumage has yellowish upperparts with cryptic pattern and yellow spots . rump and uppertail coverts are black , finely vermiculated creamy - white . the upperwing shows dark grey flight feathers . wings are long and pointed . the tail has long central rectrices , giving the bird its english name .\nthe breeding male pin - tailed sandgrouse has yellowish face , cheek , neck , throat and upper chest . the crown and upper back are brownish yellow . there are large golden yellow spots and streaks on the shoulder and back . a narrow black stripe starts from the base of the bill and extends through the eyes to half the way to the center of nape . there is a dark patch immediately below the bill .\nenglish : saharan sandgrouse ; french : ganga tachet\u00e9 ; german : w\u00fcstenflughuhn ; spanish : ganga moteada .\nnot many regularly occuring birds remain on my southern europe wish list now but of the lingerers , three \u2013 pin - tailed sandgrouse , rock sparrow and ( greater ) spotted eagle \u2013 all winter in provence . finding a \u00a353 flight ( luggage included ) from lisbon to marseilles with the portuguese airline tap meant i could add a winter visit here to my algarve break . and so the opportunity to find these birds has arisen .\ntime budgets and activity patterns of sandgrouse were studied in semi - arid agricultural land in spain ( black - bellied and pin - tailed sandgrouse ) and in more desertic conditions in israel ( black - bellied and spotted sandgrouse ) . during c . 75 % of daylight hours , all four species were either foraging or inactive . the birds in israel spent more time foraging than those in spain , despite having lower thermoregulatory costs , reflecting a likely difference in the productivity of the sites . partitioning of foraging habitat was evident at both sites and , contrary to expectation , it was the larger black - bellied sandgrouse which spent the most time foraging . in israel , spotted sandgrouse became inactive at high temperatures whereas the black - bellied continued to forage , utilizing the shade available in its dwarf shrub foraging habitat . the range of black - bellied sandgrouse may be limited by its thermoregulatory ability in hot conditions and its need to forage for long periods .\nthe important bird and biodiversity areas ( iba ) of pin - tailed sandgrouse species in spain are ballobar - candasnos , bardenas reales , belchite - mediana , brozas - membr\u00edo , campo de montiel , cogul - alf\u00e9s steppes , la serena , monegrillo - pina steppe area - pina , plain between c\u00e1ceres and trujillo - aldea del cano , san clemente - villarrobledo , tembleque - la guardia plains , tierra de campi\u00f1as steppes , tordesillas - mota del marqu\u00e9s and villaf\u00e1fila .\nde juana , e . , kirwan , g . m . & mart\u00edn , c . a . ( 2018 ) . pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nmaclean , g . l .\nevolutionary trends in the sandgrouse .\nmalimbus 6 ( 1984 ) : 75\u201378 .\nthe chestnut - bellied sandgrouse is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\npterocliformes ( sandgrouse ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nbehaviour : pin - tailed sandgrouse feeds on the ground , taking mainly seeds , and in less extent shoots and leaves . its preferred plants are leguminosae . when foraging in cultivated fields , it feeds on cereal grains and legumes . this bird drinks during the morning , and needs to drink regularly every day because its diet is particularly dry . it walks and runs easily and fast , thanks to the robust legs and the strong , short feet , with three front - toes and a small rudimentary raised hind - toe .\nflight : pin - tailed sandgrouse has long , pointed wings and strong musculature , allowing the bird to spring up into the air vertically , and to maintain high speeds over long distances . the flight is strong , direct and sustained , with cruising speeds of about 60 - 70 km / hour , kept up over long distances . . the bird performs continuous wing - flapping , only gliding when about to land . take off is sudden , and when flying in flocks , they fly in close formation , maintaining their distances .\njohnsgard , paul a . bustards , hemipodes , and sandgrouse : birds of dry places . oxford : oxford university press , 1991 .\nkalchreuter , heribert .\nthe breeding season of the chestnut - bellied sandgrouse pterocles exustus and the black - faced sandgrouse p . decoratus in northern tanzania and its relation to rainfall .\nproceedings of the 4th pan - african ornithological congress ( 1976 ) : 277\u2013282 .\nferns pn , hinsley sa ( 1995 ) importance of topography in the selection of drinking sites by sandgrouse . funct ecol 9 : 371\u2013375\nthe chestnut - bellied sandgrouse prefers to eat legumes such as beans , but also eats shoots and insects on rare occasions ( 2 ) .\nalthough population numbers are unknown , there appear to be no major threats to the chestnut - bellied sandgrouse ( 1 ) ( 3 ) .\nmodelling sandgrouse ( pterocles spp . ) distributions and large - scale habitat requirements in spain : implications for conservation | environmental conservation | cambridge core\nmaclean , g . l .\nfield studies on the sandgrouse of the kalahari desert .\nliving bird 7 ( 1968 ) : 209\u2013235 .\npterocliformes ( sandgrouse ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nthe effects of european union agricultural regulations on this problem are discussed . the voluntary set - aside regulation , r . 797 / 85 / eec and 1094 / 88 / cee , has received very little acceptance . regulation r . 1765 / 92 / eec , compulsory withdrawal of cropland , involves the ploughing - up of fallows and thus the loss of an important habitat for both species , especially for pin - tailed sandgrouse . agri - environmental schemes linked to r . 2078 / 92 / eec potentially have the most positive effects , although it is still too early to evaluate their impact on bird populations .\nthe pin - tail sandgrouse , pterocles alchata , is a bird of the dry lands , inhabiting stony semi - desert and plain . the bird featured today is a female of the eastern race p . a . caudacutus which includes northern africa and the middle east within its range . it was introduced into uae . the nominate form can be seen in spain and southern france .\nmaclean , g . l .\nsandgrouse : models of adaptive compromise .\nsouth african journal of wildlife research 15 ( 1985 ) : 1\u20136 .\nspotted sandgrouse \u2013 the commonest sandgrouse in the whole negev . the species used to occupy all the loess plains from the northern negev near bear sheva , to the uvda valley in the south , including parts of the arava . peak numbers at a specific drinking spot at nizzana have reached 5000 birds a day .\nup until 30 years ago , birders visiting nizzana during each summer and autumn could have witnessed clouds of hundreds , or even thousands , of both spotted and black - bellied sandgrouses gathering to drink every morning . even i , who only started birding during the early 90 ' s , can ' t forget the amazing sight and sound of a noisy cloud of no less than 4200 pin - tailed sandgrouses performing their aerial maneuvers north of urim , the north - western negev , in december 1993 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - chestnut - bellied sandgrouse ( pterocles exustus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - chestnut - bellied sandgrouse ( pterocles exustus )\ntitle =\narkive species - chestnut - bellied sandgrouse ( pterocles exustus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nmaclean , g . l .\nadaptations of sandgrouse for life in arid lands .\nproceedings of the 16th international ornithological congress ( 1974 ) : 502\u2013516 .\nin order to try to understand the sandgrouses ' s behavior and movement , the ioc , together with the inp , have launched a year - round monthly monitoring programme at four different drinking spots in the western negev and a 3 - monthly programme at another 11 drinking spots between arad in the judean desert and mitzpe ramon in the high negev mountains . in addition , a few spotted sandgrouses have been fitted with high - tech satellite transmitters , and the plan for the coming year is to do the same with some pin - tailed sandgrouses , whilst at a less sophisticated level , some clean water troughs will be scattered among the main sandgrouse concentration hot - spots .\nwonderful images ! sandgrouse and the way they carry water back to their chicks were featured on the television series , earth 2 . i\u2019d love to visit this hide .\nsandgrouse occur from south africa and namibia through the drier parts of east africa to north africa , spain , the arabian peninsula , central asia , mongolia , and india .\nsimiyu , a .\nsome aspects of demography and movement patterns of sandgrouse in southern kenya .\nostrich 69 , no . 3 and 4 ( 1998 ) : 452 .\ncade , t . j . , and g . l . maclean .\ntransport of water by adult sandgrouse to their young .\ncondor 69 ( 1967 ) : 323\u2013343 .\nthe chestnut - bellied sandgrouse occurs along a narrow strip of sub - saharan africa , from the west coast to the east coast , where a larger distribution is found , as well as over much of india and pakistan . there are also scattered populations along the coasts of the middle east . the chestnut - bellied sandgrouse has also been introduced in the usa ( 1 ) .\nsandgrouse are abundant throughout their distribution and are not in need of special conservation measures . however , where they are hunted for sport , the shooting season needs to be regulated to avoid overexploitation .\nthe resident pin - tailed sandgrouse had huge lifer status for the usual reason that i had not found the species on two previous visits to provence in may 2012 and march 2013 . doing so was my top priority this time . trip research had revealed a hitherto untried access point to la crau , at the north - western end near the town of st - martin - de - crau , that appeared to be a good pts location . this is the reserve peau de meau , managed by a regional association for nature conservation , ceep ( conservatoire etudes des ecosystemes de provence ) . after getting a permit dutifully from ceep\u2019s ecomusee de la crau in saint - martin , i arrived on site late on wednesday morning ( 20th ) , having first seen to buying provisions . stomach again , call myself a birder ?\nsandgrouse are known as fossils of the genus archaeoganga from the upper eocene of france , some 35 million years ago , one species of which is estimated to have been about three times the size of the largest living sandgrouse species , weighing perhaps 3 lb ( nearly 1 . 5 kg ) . other fossil genera occur into the lower miocene , about 20 million years ago . the general consensus , based on morphological , behavioral , and chromosomal evidence , is that sandgrouse are derived from the shorebirds ( order charadriiformes ) and are sometimes grouped in that order under the suborder pterocli . however , even the earliest fossil sandgrouse show marked divergence from the ancestral shorebird . they are no longer regarded as closely related to doves and pigeons ( order columbiformes ) , with which they were placed for many years .\nin many parts of their range , sandgrouse are considered good eating and are hunted at watering points . because most species inhabit remote areas , they generally suffer little human disturbance away from their drinking places .\nfirst , away to my left four little bustard went up before seemingly vanishing into thin air . quite an achievement for such a large bird but a not unusual experience for the species . that also maintained my 100 % record for it at this site . then away on my other side , five pin - tailed sandgrouse at last flew across the sunny morning expanse of the coussoul . mission accomplished ! the middle distance flight view was pretty much what i had expected . i have seen some good birds in the past at la crau : little bustard , stone curlew , red - backed shrike , tawny pipit , melodious warbler and a possible spotted eagle that i didn\u2019t put on my life list . now having gained the elusive top prize i felt very relieved not to have to re - visit this flat and otherwise dour landscape unless i choose to .\nmost desert - adapted sandgrouse . normally in pairs or small groups by day , gathering into larger flocks at dusk to fly to water . lands a few yards from water , then runs down to drink .\nthomas , d . h .\nadaptations of desert birds : sandgrouse ( pteroclididae ) as highly successful inhabitants of afro - asian arid lands .\njournal of arid environments 7 ( 1984 ) : 157\u2013181 .\nsandgrouse are the most terrestrial of birds , feeding , roosting , and nesting on the ground . they fly to water almost every day , covering up to about 75 mi ( 120 km ) round - trip ,\nkidney structure is especially well adapted to water conservation ; water - carrying capacity of male ' s belly plumage is greatest for any sandgrouse studied . largely nocturnal , roosting by day in shade of rocks or plants .\ndel hoyo , j . , elliott , a . and christie , d . a . ( 1997 ) handbook of the birds of the world . volume 13 : sandgrouse to cuckoos . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nenly becomes a glorified and distant memory . due to reasons not yet fully understood , the populations of three of the four sandgrouse species of the negev desert have shrunk by an order of magnitude within a decade .\ncrowned sandgrouse \u2013 widespread but uncommon . its range varies from uvda valley in the south to nizzana \u2013 wadi zin line in the north . reported regularly also in the arava valley from yahel to hazeva . even at major drinking spots numbers range from 10 to 100 birds at most . although scarce , this species seems to have suffered the least from population decrease or habitat loss , compared with other species of sandgrouse in israel .\nlloyd , penn , et al .\nrainfall and food availability as factors influencing the migration and breeding activity of namaqua sandgrouse pterocles namaqua .\nostrich 72 , no . 1 and 2 ( 2001 ) : 50\u201362 .\nde juana e ( 1997 ) family pteroclidae ( sandgrouse ) . in : del hoyo a , elliot a , sargatal j ( eds ) handbook of the birds of the world . lynx edicions , barcelona , pp 30\u201359\nmougeot f , ben\u00edtez\u2013l\u00f3pez a , casas f et al ( 2014 ) a temperature - based monitoring of nest attendance patterns and disturbance effects during incubation by ground - nesting sandgrouse . j arid environ 102 : 89\u201397 . doi :\nare threatened in spain , the stronghold of european populations . spatial modelling was used to : ( 1 ) assess the relative importance of abiotic , anthropogenic and geographical factors in the distribution of both sandgrouse species , ( 2 ) determine the most important anthropogenic predictors for each species occurrence , and ( 3 ) identify areas where conservation efforts should be prioritized . abiotic and anthropogenic factors explained most of the variation in sandgrouse distributions . both species were associated with arid flatlands , arable land cover being the most important anthropogenic variable determining their distribution . the common agricultural policy ( cap ) is the main driver of agricultural management in europe , and may thus have a direct effect on sandgrouse distributions .\nben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , a . 2014 . ecology and conservation of iberian sandgrouse : a multiscalar approach - ecolog\u00eda y conservaci\u00f3n de pter\u00f3clidos ib\u00e9ricos : una aproximaci\u00f3n multiescalar . phd dissertation . university of castilla - la mancha , uclm , spain .\nben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez a , vi\u00f1uela j , herv\u00e1s i et al ( 2014 ) modelling sandgrouse ( pterocles spp . ) distributions and large - scale habitat requirements in spain : implications for conservation . environ conserv 41 : 132\u2013143 . doi :\nalthough perhaps rather plain in appearance , the plumage of the chestnut - bellied sandgrouse ( pterocles exustus ) is in fact wonderful camouflage against the sand of its arid habitats . a somewhat small , plump bird , the chestnut - bellied sandgrouse has an unmarked head , dark under - wings , a blackish lower - belly , and a chestnut upper - belly , after which it is named . the dark - tipped bill is slate - blue , and there is a pale green circle around the eyes . the male chestnut - bellied sandgrouse is somewhat drabber than the female , with a pale brown back and a narrow chest band , compared to the female\u2019s more elaborate , mottled back of tan , brown and dark brown . the juvenile lacks the elongated tail feathers of the adult bird , and has more densely barred upperparts . six subspecies of the chestnut - bellied sandgrouse are currently recognised , and these vary mainly in the colouration of the upperparts ( 2 ) .\nsandgrouse probably evolved in the arid zone of north africa and the middle east , spreading to southern africa and central asia . they are more closely associated with the afro - asian deserts than any other family of birds . the 14 species of the genus pterocles retain a rudimentary hind toe ; this toe has been lost in the two species of syrrhaptes that are likely to be more recent offshoots of the ancestral sandgrouse stock . four species of sandgrouse ( lichtenstein ' s , double - banded , four - banded , and painted ) share the habit of crepuscular or nocturnal drinking and may constitute a separate genus ( or at least a subgenus ) nyctiperdix on the basis of this and the possession of a strongly barred abdomen in both sexes .\nmaclean , g . l . , and c . h . fry .\npteroclidae , sandgrouse .\nin the birds of africa , vol . 2 . , edited by emil k . urban , et al . london : academic press , 1986 .\n) is estimated to be around 170000 to 250000 individual birds . the overall population size is considered to be stable . the modern agricultural practices are degrading the habitat of these sandgrouse species and threaten their survival . their generation length is 5 . 6 years .\nthe chestnut - bellied sandgrouse inhabits a range of environments , including shrubland , semi - desert scattered with thorny shrubs or trees , arable land and grassland ( 1 ) ( 2 ) , up to altitudes of 1 , 500 metres ( 1 ) ( 3 ) .\nsandgrouse feed almost exclusively on small seeds picked up from the surface of the soil ; the birds also use their bills to flick loose sand sideways to uncover buried seed . because of the dry diet , they must drink often , especially in hot weather when drinking may occur daily . most species drink an hour or two after sunrise , but some drink only at dusk or at night . sandgrouse drink by dipping the bill , sucking a draft of water , and raising the head to swallow , taking several drafts at each bout of drinking .\nlloyd , penn , et al .\nthe population dynamics of the namaqua sandgrouse : implications for gamebird management in an arid , stochastic environment .\nproceedings of the 22nd international ornithological congress , durban , south africa . compact disk . johannesburg : birdlife south africa , 1999 .\ndepending on the location of feeding areas . all species are gregarious , except when breeding : flocks may number hundreds or thousands of birds . they call to each other in flight and sometimes when flocking on the ground . adaptations of sandgrouse to arid zones include : seeking shade in hot conditions , flying and feeding in the cooler hours of the day , insulation against overheating by dense plumage , and huddling together under extreme conditions . some species of sandgrouse also may limit their frequency of drinking to conserve energy , though this may not be possible in hot conditions .\nben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , a . , vi\u00f1uela , j . , su\u00e1rez , f . , herv\u00e1s , i . & garc\u00eda , j . t . 2014 . niche - habitat mechanisms and biotic interactions explain the coexistence and abundance of congeneric sandgrouse species . oecologia 176 , 193 - 206 .\nsandgrouse are stocky terrestrial birds with dense , beautifully camouflaged plumage . they are covered with an underdown even between the main feather tracts . their lower legs are feathered in front in the genus pterocles , whereas the whole lower leg and the toes are feathered in syrrhaptes , possibly as an adaptation to cold climates . despite their short legs , sandgrouse walk and run well . the nostrils of all species are covered with fine feathers . their wings are long and pointed , giving them exceptional powers of flight . the sexes differ markedly in plumage pattern , the females being more cryptically colored than the males .\nfeathers at a drinking place and flies back to the chicks , which take the water from his plumage . this method of providing the chicks with water is unique among birds . sandgrouse young fly at about four to five weeks , after which they accompany their parents on flights to the watering hole .\ncasas , fabi\u00e1n ben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , ana garc\u00eda , jes\u00fas t . mart\u00edn , carlos a . vi\u00f1uela , javier mougeot , francois and marsden , stuart 2015 . assessing the short - term effects of capture , handling and tagging of sandgrouse . ibis , vol . 157 , issue . 1 , p . 115 .\ncasas , f . , ben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , a . , garc\u00eda , j . t . , mart\u00edn , c . a . , vi\u00f1uela , j . & mougeot , f . 2015 . assessing the short - term effects of capture , handling and tagging of sandgrouse . ibis 157 , 115 - 124 .\nben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , a . , vi\u00f1uela , j . , herv\u00e1s , i . , su\u00e1rez , f . & garc\u00eda , j . t . 2014 . modelling sandgrouse ( pterocles spp . ) distributions and large - scale habitat requirements in spain : implications for conservation . environmental conservation 41 : 132 - 143 .\nmougeot , f . , ben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , a . , casas , f . , garc\u00eda , j . t . & vi\u00f1uela , j . 2014 . a temperature - based monitoring of nest attendance patterns and disturbance effects during incubation by ground - nesting sandgrouse . journal of arid environments 102 , 89 - 97 .\nwhen a predator is detected , rather than fleeing and risk giving away its location , the chestnut - bellied sandgrouse sits still and relies on its wonderfully camouflaged plumage to conceal itself . it tends to live in small , scattered groups to reduce its visibility except for times when it gathers in often large numbers around watering holes ( 4 ) .\nsomething strikes me as i write ; the sluice was opened up and freshwater was allowed to flow just as the bird arrived . sandgrouse are generally noted for visiting water in the early morning , late evening or nocturnally . this occurred close to midday . i wonder if the sluice is opened at the same time each day and she timed her arrival . another thought ; the tide had just turned . was the sluice closed to prevent salt water flowing upstream ? if so the sluice would be operational at a different time each day depending on the time that the tide receded below the sluice gate . what do desert - dwelling sandgrouse know of tides , i wonder ? this is simply musing unless anyone knows any better ?\nthe timing of breeding in the chestnut - bellied sandgrouse is heavily influenced by the level of local rainfall , but generally occurs sometime between january and july , except in kenya and tanzania where the breeding season is more lengthy , ranging from february until november ( 2 ) . the chestnut - bellied sandgrouse may produce two clutches a year , the nest being a simple scrape in the ground , holding three eggs per clutch ( 4 ) , with both the male and female birds incubating the eggs ( 5 ) . the chicks are active from hatching , soon foraging for food with the adult birds ( 4 ) , but are unable to fly large distances and so must rely on the adults for water . at a water hole , the adult birds soak up water in the breast feathers before returning to the nest to \u201cwater\u201d the chicks - a unique feature of the sandgrouse family . adult birds can fly distances of up to 16 kilometres per day to find water , gathering in large flocks to drink a couple of hours after sunrise , and on very hot days at sundown ( 6 ) .\nthese sandgrouse species are sexually dimorphic . the males are larger than the females and have brighter plumage in the breeding season . the males weigh 250 to 400 grams whereas the females weigh 200 to 370 grams . the wingspan is 55 to 65 cm . the central rectrices ( central tail streamers ) are long , stiff and pointed . the central rectrices are longer in males .\nben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , a . , mougeot , f . , mart\u00edn , c . a . , casas , f . , calero - riestra , m . , garc\u00eda , j . t . & vi\u00f1uela , j . 2011 . an improved night - lighting technique for the selective capture of sandgrouse and other steppe birds . european journal of wildlife research 57 , 389 - 393 .\n; the latter species tolerates warmer climates . consequently , the network of core and marginally suitable areas identified for each species differs , and connectivity between the populations of these areas seems unlikely . potential future changes in sandgrouse distribution will probably be directed principally by the synergistic effects of climate change and expected land - use transformations resulting from the new cap and ongoing population growth , urbanization and infrastructure development .\nsandgrouse will often arrive at a waterhole in large groups that form en - route . in company , there would be many eyes to keep watch for the local greater spotted eagles and other predators . they can drink their fill quickly by tipping their heads back , allowing the water to flow into their crops , but on her own she had to keep returning to the top of the bank between sips to maintain a look - out .\nabout 9 . 8 in ( 25 cm ) ; 6 . 2\u20138 . 8 oz ( 175\u2013250 g ) . smallish , without elongated , central tail feathers . both sexes strongly barred black on buff above and below ; male distinguished by black - and - white forehead pattern , yellow bill , and two broad breast - bands of buff , each bordered black below . downy chick , unusual in being almost plain brown ; other sandgrouse chicks boldly patterned above .\nsandgrouse are famed for having breast feathers that can absorb water which is carried back to chicks in their waterless habitat . they are noted for flying many miles to a freshwater source to provide water for their young . in keeping with most of the species in the genera , it is only the male that carries water . he will take over parenting duties while the female fends for herself . so it was with a sense of something missing that i watched her take a drink .\nblack - bellied sandgrouse \u2013 this species dominated hilly habitats within the central negev mountains , nizzana area , the northern negev and judean desert . while historic peak numbers at a drinking pool at nizzana exceeded 2000 birds , current numbers struggle to reach 300 at most within the same region . in other parts of the negev there has been no big change in distribution though numbers have diminished . at a local level , the species has disappeared from specific locations where it was once regular .\ngregarious in flocks of up to about 60 , but birds congregate to drink at watering sites in flocks of several hundred about two hours after sunrise . some birds may drink again in evening . birds call to each other with a bubbling sound . in egypt , may gather with flocks of crowned sandgrouse ( pterocles coronatus ) to feed on grain spilled by trucks traveling from nile to red sea ports . nonbreeding flocks roost on ground in open desert , each bird making a shallow scrape .\nlong central rectrices , underwing and belly white . 30 = 39 cm , 210 - 400 g , wingspan 55 - 65 cm . broad chestnut band on breast , bordered with black lines . bill bluish grey - horn , orbital ring blue . female duller , and has additional black line on neck . exceptionally among sandgrouse , a non - breeding plumage exists in male , showing white throat , black eyestripe reduced or absent , and dorsal parts barred , without yellow spots . race caudacutus paler , with longer wings .\nmy base is the cheap and cheerful , self catering top motel in istres . i find this arrangement ideal because french breakfasts aren\u2019t worth their cost and evening meals also become more affordable . then there is the essential of tea and coffee whenever i want one , that isn\u2019t possible in a budget chain hotel unless a kettle is smuggled in . oh , and this establishment in a secure compound behind the 3 - star ariane hotel is also hard by the plaine de la crau sandgrouse site , and conveniently placed to visit birding sites in les alpilles and la camargue .\nsandgrouse are monogamous , solitary nesters , though nests may be fairly close together , giving the appearance of a loose colony . the nest is a shallow scrape , often under a plant , but also in the open ; it is usually lined with fragments of soil , stone , or plants . clutches usually contain three rather elongated , spotted eggs . each clutch is incubated by the female during the day and by the male at night , at least in those species which have been studied . the chicks hatch after about 21\u201331 days , depending on the species . they feed themselves but are given water by the male parent , which soaks his belly\nabout 15 in ( 39 cm ) ; female 10 . 6\u201316 . 4 oz ( 300\u2013465 g ) , male 14 . 1\u201319 . 4 oz ( 400\u2013550 g ) . largest sandgrouse ; robustly built , without elongated , central tail feathers . male rust - colored buff above , mottled grayish on back and wings ; throat a bright rusty color with triangular black patch ; breast gray , bordered with narrow , black band and broad , pinkish band ; belly black . female similar to male but less strongly tinged rust coloring ; lacks rust coloring and black on throat ; breast spotted black ; narrow black collar on throat and below breast . underwing white in both sexes .\nmainly on lowland plains , including baked mud on dried - out marshes by tidal water on spanish marismas , stony hammada on desert edge , and bare clay expanses alternating with sand , as well as dusty or sunbaked flats and sand - dunes . often on infertile areas of dry cultivation , or near irrigation ditches . inhabits areas of scattered tamarisk and other bushes , but avoids trees and scrubland , and rocky broken terrain . like other sandgrouse , unable to exist far from water , essential not only for adults but for carrying in soaked belly feathers to chicks , in regular social flights . will drink brackish water in absence of fresh , and will not only wade but alight on river far from shore , floating high like gull and taking off without difficulty .\npeau de meau has a 5km waymarked trail around it\u2019s perimeter , but first i set off in the car along a rough track for some distance beyond the reserve . after all i had been wanting to do that for the past three years and there was nobody there to stop me . seeing only pipits , skylarks and corvids i returned to walk the full distance of the trail , but still no sandgrouse . so i applied my usual solution to a no show , deciding to return early the next day . but first i took another drive through the rough roads of la crau eventually reaching the n508 road that runs north - west between the plaine and the neighbouring camargue . guess what ? at track\u2019s end was a roadside notice proclaiming access to this military land is prohibited . oh well !"]}
{"id": 1231, "summary": [{"text": "bithynia is a genus of small freshwater snails with an operculum , aquatic prosobranch gastropod mollusks in the family bithyniidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the diploid chromosome number of bithynia sp. from egypt is 2n = 32 . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "bithynia ( gastropod )", "paragraphs": ["new freshwater gastropod species of the iran ( gastropoda : stenothyridae , bithyniidae , hydrobiidae ) .\n\u00bb species bithynia ( digoniostoma ) lithoglyphoides ( nesemann & g . sharma , 2007 ) represented as bithynia lithoglyphoides ( nesemann & g . sharma , 2007 )\nbithynia hambergerae reisch\u00fctz , n . reisch\u00fctz & p . l . reisch\u00fctz , 2008\nthis species has been misidentified by starm\u00fchlner and edlauer ( 1957 ) with bithynia troschelii .\nlife cycles and distribution of the aquatic gastropod molluscs bithynia tentaculata ( l . ) , gyraulus albus ( muller ) , planorbis planorbis ( l . ) and lymnaea peregra ( muller ) in relation to water chemistry\nspecies bithynia tryoni e . a . smith , 1887 accepted as gabbia smithii ( tate , 1882 ) ( unnecessary replacement name for bithynia australis e . a . smith , 1882 )\nbithynia forcarti sp . n . a shell , frontal view b shell , lateral view .\nduring a recent survey of gastropod fauna of skadar lake one new hydrobiid genus was discovered and described in the present paper . therewith , we aim to provide faunal information on skadar lake system gastropod diversity and endemism with relevance to conservation efforts .\ncalow , p . , 1973 . gastropod associations within malham tarn , yorkshire . freshwat . biol . 3 : 521\u2013534 .\nlife cycles and distribution of the aquatic gastropod molluscs bithynia tentaculata ( l . ) , gyraulus albus ( muller ) , planorbis planorbis ( l . ) and lymnaea peregra ( muller ) in relation to water chemistry | springerlink\nspecies bithynia hambergerae a . reisch\u00fctz , n . reisch\u00fctz & p . l . reisch\u00fctz , 2008\nsubgenus bithynia ( hydrobia ) w . hartmann , 1821 accepted as hydrobia w . hartmann , 1821\nein nachtrag zur kenntnis der bithynia - arten von montenegro ( gastropoda : prosobranchia : bythiniidae ) .\nbithynia mazandaranensis sp . n . a , b shell c operculum d detail of the shell surface .\nshell of bithynia starmuehlneri sp . n . a frontal view b lateral view c juvenile shell with operculum .\nthis slim species isthe largest bithynia sp . known in iran . it can be easily distinguished from the other bithynia spp . by the larger dimensions of elongated shell with the stepped whorls and the not angled aperture .\nspecies bithynia australis e . a . smith , 1882 accepted as gabbia smithii ( tate , 1882 ) ( invalid : secondary homonym of gabbia australis tryon , 1865 ; bithynia smithii and b . tryoni are replacement names )\ncomparative morphology of shell and penis in bithynia radomani gl\u00f6er & pe\u0161i\u0107 , 2007 ( a\u2013b ) bithynia montenegrina ( wohlberedt , 1901 ) ( c\u2013d ) and bithynia hambergerae a . reisch\u00fctz , n . reisch\u00fctz & p . l . reisch\u00fctz , 2008 ( e\u2013f ) : a , c , e = shell , b , d , f = penis .\nlodge , d . m . , 1986 . selective grazing on periphyton : a determinant of freshwater gastropod microdistributions . freshwat . biol . 16 : 831\u2013841 .\nthe euro - siberian species bithynia tentaculata ( linnaeus 1758 ) has often been mentioned from iran , turkey and greece . however , this species could not be found in greece ( gl\u00f6er et al . 2010 ) and probably does not occur in turkey . the southern distribution border of this species lies possibly in n bulgaria ( georgiev pers . comm . ) . an analysis of the specimens from nmb published by forcart ( 1935 ) as bithynia tentaculata shows that these specimens represent bithynia forcarti sp . n . ( see below ) . thus , bithynia tentaculata most probably does not occur in iran and has been confused with bithynia forcarti sp . n . or possibly with bithynia mazandaranensis sp . n . ( see below ) .\nendemic gastropod species occurring in the skadar lake basin \u2013 i part . a vinodolia matjasici ( bole , 1961 ) b radomaniola curta curta ( k\u00fcster , 1852 ) c vinodolia scutarica ( radoman , 1973 ) d radomaniola montana ( radoman , 1973 ) e radomaniola elongata ( radoman , 1973 ) f radomaniola lacustris ( radoman , 1983 ) g bracenica spiridoni radoman , 1973 h valvata montenegrina gl\u00f6er & pe\u0161i\u0107 , 2008 i bithynia radomani gl\u00f6er & pe\u0161i\u0107 , 2007 j bithynia hambergerae a . reisch\u00fctz , n . reisch\u00fctz & p . l . reisch\u00fctz , 2008 k karucia sublacustrina n . gen . n . sp . l bithynia zeta gl\u00f6er & pe\u0161i\u0107 , 2007 m bithynia montenegrina ( wohlberedt , 1901 ) n bithynia skadarskii gl\u00f6er & pe\u0161i\u0107 , 2007 o viviparus mamillatus k\u00fcster , 1852 .\nspecies bithynia robusta h . adams , 1870 accepted as gabbia robusta ( h . adams , 1870 ) ( original combination )\nthe bithynia species from skadar lake ( montenegro ) ( gastropoda , bithyniidae ) . mollusca 25 ( 1 ) , 85\u201391 .\ndue to theshape of the aperture ( angled at the top ) , bithynia forcarti sp . n . resembles bithynia mazandaranensis sp . n . ( see below ) . however , from the latter species it can be easily distinguished by the stepped whorls .\nlodge , d . m . , 1985 . macrophyte - gastropod associations : observations and experiments on macrophyte choice by gastropods . freshwat . biol . 15 : 695\u2013708 .\nbithynia mazandaranensis sp . n . , planorbis carinatus , anisus sp . , valvata nowshahrensis sp . n . , hippeutis complanatus .\n) we get the index of gastropod endemism of 0 . 478 . with this relatively high value , skadar lake exceeds such famous lakes as malawi and titicaca ( see :\nthis species was originally considered to be a population of the more widespread species , bithynia leachii , and gloer and georgiev ( 2012 ) separated the the populations noting that\nwe do not believe that bithynia leachii occurs in turkey\n( y\u0131ld\u0131r\u0131m et al . 2006 ) . bithynia leachii is distributed in the lowlands of western europe towards russia , and the southern\u00admost records known are from hungary ( gl\u00f6er and feh\u00e9r 2004 ) .\n( of bithynia ( bithynia ) leach , 1818 ) gl\u00f6er p . & pe\u0161i\u0107 v . ( 2012 ) the freshwater snails ( gastropoda ) of iran , with descriptions of two new genera and eight new species . zookeys 219 : 11\u201361 . [ 4 september 2012 ] [ details ]\ncomparing the efficacy of morphologic and dna - based taxonomy in the freshwater gastropod genus radix ( basommatophora , pulmonata ) . biomedcentral evolutionary biology 14 pp . bmc evolutionary biology2006 , 6 : 100\nspecies bithynia affinis e . a . smith , 1882 accepted as gabbia affinis ( e . a . smith , 1882 ) ( original combination )\nspecies bithynia stanleyi e . a . smith , 1877 accepted as gabbiella stanleyi ( e . a . smith , 1877 ) ( original combination )\nprobably this species formerly ( e . g . , mansoorian 2000 ) was confused with bithynia tentaculata . because we had only an empty shell of this species , we do not know if it belongs to the genus bithynia or pseudobithynia , so our generic assignment is tentative . to address this question , anatomical studies of more specimens are necessary .\nvincent , b . , h . rioux , and m . harvey . 1981 . factors affecting the structure of epiphytic gastropod communities in the st . lawrence river ( quebec , canada ) . hydrobiologia 220 : 57 - 71 .\nyoung , j . o . 1975 . preliminary field and laboratory studies on the survival and spawning of several species of gastropod in calcium poor and calcium rich waters . proc . malac . soc . lond . , 41 : 429\u2013437 .\ndesy , j . c . , j . f . archambault , b . pinel - alloul , j . hubert , and p . g . c . campbell . 2000 . relationships between total mercury in sediments and methyl mercury in the freshwater gastropod prosobranch\non the identity of bithynia graeca gen . n . ( westerlund , 1879 ) with the description of three new pseudobithynia irana n . gen species from iran and greece ( gastropoda : bithyniidae ) .\na dry old stillwater channel near the river crnojevi\u0107a ( september , 2012 ) , sampling site of bithynia montenegrina ( wohlberedt , 1901 ) b lymnaea raphidia ( bourguignat , 1860 ) from bo\u017eaj , montenegro .\nspecies bithynia scalaris fuchs , 1877 \u2020 accepted as bythinella megarensis bukowski , 1896 \u2020 ( secondary homonym of bythinella scalaris ( slav\u00edk , 1869 ) ; bukowski ( 1896 ) invented b . megarensis as replacement name )\nwhere the faucet snail has been observed in lake champlain , it generally dominates gastropod assemblages ( vermont and new york state departments of environmental conservation 2000 ) . this species has been known to infest municipal water supplies in abundance ( ingram 1956 ; mackie and claudi 2010 ) .\ngl\u00f6er , p . and georgiev , d . 2012 . redescription of gyraulus argaeicus ( sturany 1904 ) with the description of two new gastropod species from turkey ( mollusca : gastropoda : bithyniidae , planorbidae ) . journal of conchology 41 ( 2 ) : 167 - 172 .\nthe prosobranch molluscs of iran . a theodoxus fluviatilis ( operculum see fig . 3d ) b bithynia ( bithynia ) ejecta ( syntype zmz 524006 , iraq , samava , ex coll . mousson , photo : e . neubert ) c melanoides tuberculatus d thiara scabra e melanopsis sp . f melanopsis costata g farsithyra farsensis h sarkhia kermanshahensis , i : pseudamnicola saboori k pseudamnicola zagrosensis l pseudobithynia irana m pseudobithynia zagrosia n valvata cristata .\nlilly , m . m . 1953 . the mode of life and the structure and functioning of the reproductive ducts of bithynia tentaculata ( l . ) . proc . malac . soc . lond . , 30 : 87\u2013109 .\nthe skadar lake system is a well - known hotspot of freshwater biodiversity ( pe\u0161i\u0107 et al . 2009 ) and harbors a highly diverse mollusc fauna ( gl\u00f6er and pe\u0161i\u0107 2008a ) . research of gastropod biodiversity on the skadar lake has a relatively long tradition since the first records were published by k\u00fcster ( 1843 ) . the history of research of the skadar lake gastropod fauna was reviewed by gl\u00f6er and pe\u0161i\u0107 ( 2008a ) . as in many of the balkan lakes , the endemic gastropod species of skadar lake were not described until some decades ago . the last recent account of freshwater gastropods of skadar lake gave 40 species by number ( gl\u00f6er and pe\u0161i\u0107 2008a ) . however , modern phylogenetic evaluations are still scarce ( e . g . albrecht et al . 2007 , falniowski et al . 2012 ) and the lack of such studies hampers discussions on the origin and biogeographical relationships of skadar lake mollusc fauna .\nendemic gastropod species occurring in the skadar lake basin \u2013 ii part . a gyraulus meierbrooki gl\u00f6er & pe\u0161i\u0107 , 2007 b gyraulus ioanis gl\u00f6er & pe\u0161i\u0107 , 2007 c gyraulus shasi gl\u00f6er & pe\u0161i\u0107 , 2007 d planorbis vitojensis gl\u00f6er & pe\u0161i\u0107 , 2010 e radix skutaris gl\u00f6er & pe\u0161i\u0107 , 2007 f lymnaea raphidia ( bourguignat , 1860 ) .\nthe on - site molluscan species diversity in the investigated area ranged from one to 14 species , with the highest diversity in the sublacustrine springs . compared to the other investigated habitats of skadar lake lacustrine systems , karu\u010d was species rich . we found a subset of 14 gastropod species , including eight out of 19 proposed endemic taxa .\nprobably due to the small size of this species , biggs ( 1937 ) assigned this species belongs to the genus amnicola , although mousson ( 1874 ) described it as a bythynia , and pointed out that the operculum is characteristic for bythinia and different from amnicola ( syn . to pseudamnicola ) . furthermore , biggs ( 1937 ) found his species in the mountains , while the original description of bithynia ejecta comes from the lowland , indicating the biggs\u2019s species is not conspecific with bithynia ejecta and probably represents an undescribed species .\npinel - alloul , b . & magnin , e . 1971 . cycle vital et croissance de bithynia tentaculata l . ( mollusca , gastropoda , prosobranchia ) du lac st . louis pr\u00e8s de montr\u00e9al . can . j . zool . , 49 : 759\u2013766 .\n( of digoniostoma annandale , 1920 ) annandale n . & seymour sewell r . b . ( 1920 ) . progress report on a survey of the freshwater gastropod molluscs of the indian empire and of their trematode parasites . indian journal of medical research . 8 : 93 - 124 . page ( s ) : 103 , 104 [ details ]\nvon proschwitz , t . 1997 . bithynia tentaculata ( l . ) in norway \u2013 a rare species on the edge of its western distribution , and some notes on the dispersal of freshwater snails . fauna ( oslo ) 50 ( 3 ) : 102 - 107 .\ntable 1 . states with nonindigenous occurrences , the earliest and latest observations in each state , and the tally and names of hucs with observations\u2020 . names and dates are hyperlinked to their relevant specimen records . the list of references for all nonindigenous occurrences of bithynia tentaculata are found here .\nannadale and prashad ( 1919 ) described this species as amnicola ( alocinma ) sistanica and depicted the penis morphology . due to the presence of a penial appendix this species is ascertained to the genus bithynia . the members of the genus pseudamnicola ( formerly amnicola ) have no penial appendix .\nm\u00e9nard , l . , and m . e . scott . 1987 . seasonal occurrence of cyathocotyle bushiensis khan , 1962 ( digenea : cyathocotylidae ) metacercariae in the intermediate host bithynia tentaculata l . ( gastropoda prosobranchia ) . canadian journal of zoology 65 ( 12 ) : 2980 - 2992 .\n( of bithynia ( pseudemmericia ) schlickum , 1968 \u2020 ) schlickum , w . r . ( 1968 ) . die gattungen briardia munier - chalmas und nystia tournouer . archiv f\u00fcr molluskenkunde . 98 : 39 - 51 . page ( s ) : 47 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nthese circumstances and the reported decline in endemic gastropod diversity , should trigger efforts to save this sensitive lake ecosystem . the iucn red list of threatened species ( cuttelod et al . 2011 ) includes 21 endemic species from the skadar lake basin . six of them are assessed as critically endangered , 9 as endangered , 3 as data deficient and 3 as least concern in the iucn red list of endangered species ( see :\nthe faunal relationships of malacofauna among the balkan\u2019s lakes were analysed by albrecht et al . ( 2009 ) . they show that at the species - level , lakes skadar and pamvotis ( greece ) are clustered as sister group to lakes trichonis and lysimachia ( both in greece ) . its worth to note that lake skadar , inhabited by five bithynia spp . ( gl\u00f6er and pe\u0161i\u0107 2008 , reisch\u00fctz et al . 2008 ) is turned out to be a hot spot of bithynia evolution . it\u2019s very likely that the absence of major hydrobioid radiations in some ancient lakes like skadar , pamvotis or trichonis could have triggered diversification in bithyniids ( gl\u00f6er et al . 2007 ) .\nkipp , r . m . , a . j . benson , j . larson , and a . fusaro , 2018 , bithynia tentaculata ( linnaeus , 1758 ) : u . s . geological survey , nonindigenous aquatic species database , gainesville , fl , urltoken revision date : 8 / 17 / 2017 , access date : 7 / 9 / 2018\n( of bithynia ( opisthorchophorus ) beriozkina , levina & starobogatov , 1995 ) vinarski m . v . & kantor y . i . ( 2016 ) . analytical catalogue of fresh and brackish water molluscs of russia and adjacent countries . moscow : a . n . severtsov institute of ecology and evolution of russian academy of science . 544 pp . [ details ]\nsome authors ( e . g subba rao 1989 , nesemann et al . 2007 ) mention gabbia as a genus . however , it seems not possible to distinguish the genera of the bithyniidae by the shape of opercula ( mandahl - barth 1968 ) and / or by shell forms , because these characters are found to be variable . on the other hand , the examined material of the family of bithyniidae can be easily separated by the characteristics of penis morphology ( having a penial appendix : bithynia leach 1818 ; or lacking a penial appendix : pseudobithynia gl\u00f6er & pe\u0161i\u0107 2006 ) . in our study , we tentatively use the name gabbia as a subgenus for small bithynia species with a globular shell , originating from india .\n( of bithynia ( digoniostoma ) annandale , 1920 ) gl\u00f6er , p . ; b\u00f6ssneck , u . ( 2013 ) . freshwater molluscs from nepal and north india with the description of seven new species ( gastropoda : bithyniidae , lymnaeidae , planorbidae ) . archiv f\u00fcr molluskenkunde . 142 ( 1 ) : 137 - 156 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nsauer , j . s . , r . a . cole , and j . m . nissen . 2007 . finding the exotic faucet snail ( bithynia tentaculata ) : investigation of waterbird die - offs on the upper mississippi river national wildlife and fish refuge . u . s . geological survey open - file report 2007 - 1065 . u . s . geological survey , reston , va , 3 pp . available : urltoken\ncomparative species list and type of endemism of gastropods occurring in skadar lake basin . levels of endemicity : e skadar \u2013 endemic to skadar lake basin ; e montenegro \u2013 endemic to the southern and central part of montenegro ; e montenegro + albania - endemic to adriatic drainage of montenegro and albania ; e mont . + alb . + gre . \u2013 endemic to adriatic drainage of montenegro , albania and mainland greece . spatial scales of gastropod diversity : lh \u2013 species collected in skadar lake and its sublacustrine springs , adjacent pools and mouths of the surrounding tributaries ( including its downstream part ) , sh \u2013 species collected in the surrounding spring habitat , gh \u2013 species living in the subterranean habitat ( spr . \u2013 found in spring ) .\nthe ecology of the aquatic gastropods bithynia tentaculata , gyraulus albus , planorbis planorbis and lymnaea peregra in north west england was investigated over 13 months at sites chosen for their wide range of water chemistry . multiple regression analysis was used to determine the significance to the mollusc distributions of a variety of physico - chemical factors . biotic factors were not considered . the species had similar life cycles , with little difference between populations within a species . b . tentaculata could live for over a year , and the major water chemistry variable was potassium ( + ) , where the sign is that of the regression coefficient . g . albus could also survive into a second year and the major variable was mud substratum type ( + ) . rock substratum type ( - ) was the most important factor for p . planorbis . there was a slight difference in the life cycles of l . peregra in hard and medium compared with soft waters and the major water chemistry variable was magnesium ( - ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nvan damme , d . , do , v . , garc\u00eda , n . , tran , l . & allen , d .\nthe species has a wide distribution . there is no information on threats to the species , but it is found in anthropogenic habitats and is assessed as least concern .\n1985 , kim 2008 ) and to western taiwan ( province of china ) . the species has been recorded from viet nam ( b\u1ebfn tre province ) and china ( yuyao (\nand chiangshan ( shandong province ) ) . in taiwan it is recorded from hsiaoliouchyou island on the western coast ( chao\nfound in pools , ponds and paddy fields and other slow - moving waters . it is also an intermediate host for opisthorchiid liver flukes clonorchis sinensis .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n\u00bb species bythinia ( hydrobia ) proximoides capellini , 1880 \u2020 accepted as pseudamnicola proximoides ( capellini , 1880 ) \u2020 ( new combination ( cf . ) )\n( of paludina ( bythinia ) stein , 1850 ) rolle , f . ( 1860 ) . die lignit - ablagerung des beckens von sch\u00f6nstein in unter - steiermark und ihre fossilien . sitzungsberichte der kaiserlichen akademie der wissenschaften , mathematisch - naturwissenschaftliche classe . 41 ( 1 ) , 7 - 46 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 35 [ details ]\n( of bulimus scopoli , 1777 ) wenz , w . ( 1923 - 1930 ) . fossilium catalogus i : animalia . gastropoda extramarina tertiaria . w . junk , berlin . vol . i : 1 - 352 pp . ( 1923 ) , vol . ii : 353 - 736 pp . ( 1923 ) , vol . iii : 737 - 1068 pp . ( 1923 ) , vol . iv : 1069 - 1420 pp . ( 1923 ) , vol . v : 1421 - 1734 pp . ( 1923 ) , vol . vi : 1735 - 1862 pp . ( 1923 ) , vol . vii : 1863 - 2230 pp . ( 1926 ) , vol . viii : 2231 - 2502 pp . ( 1928 ) , vol . ix : 2503 - 2886 pp . ( 1929 ) , vol . x : 2887 - 3014 pp . ( 1929 ) , vol . xi : 3015 - 3387 pp . ( 1930 ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n, which seem to be closely related . numerous synonyms have been described ( brandt 1974 ) .\ndo , v . , garc\u00eda , n . , tran , l . & van damme , d .\njustification : this species is assessed as least concern because of its wide distribution . it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing as threatened .\nthe species has a wide distribution from eastern myanmar ( from mandalay southwards ) , in all parts of thailand to peninsular malaysia , lao pdr , cambodia , north and south viet nam , and perhaps into southern china ( brandt 1974 , sri - aroon 2007 ) .\nthis species is found in a wide variety of usually shallow water bodies , including slow - flowing rivers , streams , ponds , and other anthropogenic habitats , such as irrigated fields . from lao pdr it is known that the species occurs in ponds , trenches and in quiet parts of the mekong .\nis the first intermediate host of this parasite . it is also known as vector for garrison ' s fluke infection ( echinostomiasis ) .\nthe species is unlikely to be impacted by natural wetland loss as it can be found widely in anthropogenic habitats .\ngarc\u00eda , n . , van damme , d . , do , v . & tran , l .\nthe species has been recorded from several provinces in northern and northeastern thailand . it is apparently widespread and although further information is needed into the species ' threats , it is considered least concern at present . a record from peninsular malaysia requires confirmation .\nthe species has been recorded from several provinces in northern and northeastern thailand ( e . g . , chiang mai ( ngern - klun\nwithout more information on the species ' distribution and ecology , nothing can be inferred of its threats .\naho , j . 1966 . ecological basis of the distribution of the littoral freshwater molluscs in the vicinity of tampere , south finland . annls . zool . fenn . , 3 : 287\u2013322 .\natkins , w . g . & lebour , m . v . 1924 . the habitats of lymnaea truncalata and lymnaea peregra in relation to hydrogen ion concentration . sci . proc . of roy . dublin soc . , 17 : 327\u2013331 .\nboycott , a . e . 1936 . the habitats of freshwater mollusca in britain . j . anim . ecol . , 5 : 116\u2013186 .\nbryant , a . 1936 . an experimental investigation into the ph ranges of various species of lymnaea . proc . trans . lpool . biol . soc . , 49 : 8\u201316 .\ncridland , c . c . 1957 . ecological factors affecting the number of snails in permanent bodies of water . j . trop . med . hyg . , 60 : 250\u2013256 .\ndeschiens , r . 1957 . les facteurs conditionnant l ' habitat des mollusques vecteurs des bilharzioses et leurs incidence \u00e9pid\u00e9miologiques . ann . l ' inst . pasteur , 92 : 711\u2013763 .\ndussart , g . b . j . 1976 . the ecology of freshwater molluscs in north west england in relation to water chemistry . j . moll . stud . , 42 : 181\u2013198 .\nellis , a . e . 1941 . the mollusca of a norfolk broad . j . conchol . , 21 : 224\u2013243 .\nharrison , a . d . , williams , n . v . & grieg , g . 1970 . studies on the effects of calcium bicarbonate concentrations on the biology of biomphalaria pfeifferi ( krauss ) ( gastropoda ; pulmonata ) . hydrobiologia , 36 : 317\u2013327 .\nharrison , a . d . & shiff , c . j . 1966 . factors affecting the distribution of some species of aquatic snails . s . afr . j . sci . , 62 : 253\u2013258 .\nhubendick , b . 1958 . factors conditioning the habitat of freshwater snails . bull . wld . hlth . org . , 18 : 1072\u20131080 .\nhunter , w . russel - 1961 . annual variations in growth and density in natural populations of freshwater snails in the west of scotland . proc . zool . soc . lond . , 136 : 219\u2013253 .\nlitalien , f . & deschiens , r . 1954 . comportement des mollusques vecteurs des bilharzioses en pr\u00e9sence de nitrates et de nitrites alcalins . bull . soc . path . exot . , 47 : 525\u2013531 .\nmalec , e . abdel - 1958 . factors conditioning the habitat of bilharziasis - intermediate hosts of the family planorbidae . bull . wld . hlth . org . , 18 : 785\u2013818 .\nmacan , t . t . 1950 . ecology of freshwater mollusca in the english lake district . j . anim . ecol . , 19 : 124\u2013146 .\nmckillop , w . b . & harrison , a . d . 1972 . distribution of aquatic gastropods across an interface between the canadian shield and limestone formations , can . j . zool . , 50 : 1433\u20131445 .\nnduku , w . k . & harrison , a . d . 1976 . calcium as a limiting factor in the biology of biomphalaria pfeifferi ( krauss ) ( gastropoda : planorbidae ) . hydrobiologia , 49 : 143\u2013170 .\n\u00f6kland , j . 1969 . distribution and ecology of the freshwater snails ( gastropoda ) of norway . malacologia , 9 : 143\u2013151 .\nsay , p . j . , diaz , b . m . & whitton , b . a . 1977 . influence of zinc on lotic plants . i . tolerance of hormidium species to zinc . freshwat . biol . , 7 : 357\u2013377 .\nsutcliffe , d . w . & carrick , t . r . 1973 . studies on mountain streams in the english lake district . i . ph , calcium and the distribution of invertebrates in the river duddon . freshwat . biol . , 3 : 437\u2013463 .\nthomas , j . d . , benjamin , m . , lough , a . & aram , r . h . 1974 . the effects of calcium in the external environment on the growth and natality rates of biomphalaria glabrata ( say ) . j . anim . ecol . , 43 : 839\u2013860 .\nthomas , j . d . & lough , a . 1974 . the effects of external calcium concentration on the rate of uptake of this ion by biophalaria glabrata ( say ) . j . anim . ecol . , 43 : 861\u2013871 .\nwilliams , n . v . 1970a . studies on aquatic pulmonate snails in central africa . i . field distribution in relation to water chemistry . malacologia , 10 : 153\u2013164 .\nwilliams , n . v . 1970b . studies on aquatic pulmonate snails in central africa . 2 . experimental investigation of field distribution patterns . malacologia , 10 : 165\u2013180 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nanimal ecology research group , department of zoology , ox1 3ps , oxford , uk .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe nonindigenous occurrences section of the nas species profiles has a new structure . the section is now dynamically updated from the nas database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information . occurrences are summarized in table 1 , alphabetically by state , with years of earliest and most recent observations , and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed . the table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states , years , and drainages selected . references to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables .\nthe faucet snail has a shiny pale brown shell , oval in shape , with a relatively large and rounded spire consisting of 5\u20136 somewhat flattened whorls , no umbilicus , and a very thick lip ( clarke 1981 ; jokinen 1992 ; mackie et al . 1980 ) . the aperture is less than half the height of the shell ( clarke 1981 ) . adult\npossess a white , calcareous , tear - drop to oval - shaped operculum with distinct concentric rings ( clarke 1981 ; jokinen 1992 ; pennak 1989 ) . the operculum of juveniles , however , is spirally marked ( jokinen 1992 ) . the operculum is always located very close to the aperture of the shell ( jokinen 1992 ) . the animal itself has pointed , long tentacles and a simple foot with the right cervical lobe acting as a channel for water ( jokinen 1992 ) .\nshell is usually no larger than 12\u201315 mm ; the snail is sexually mature by the time it reaches 8 mm in size ( jokinen 1992 ; mackie et al . 1980 ; peckarsky et al . 1993 ; pennak 1989 )\nau gres - rifle ; black - macatawa ; brevoort - millecoquins ; carp - pine ; detroit ; kalamazoo ; kawkawlin - pine ; keweenaw peninsula ; lake erie ; lake huron ; lake michigan ; lake superior ; lone lake - ocqueoc ; manistee ; muskegon ; ottawa - stony ; pere marquette - white ; pigeon - wiscoggin ; saginaw ; st . clair ; st . marys ; sturgeon ; tacoosh - whitefish\nbig fork ; buffalo - whitewater ; crow wing ; eastern wild rice ; leech lake ; mississippi headwaters ; snake ; st . louis\nblack ; buffalo - whitewater ; des plaines ; duck - pensaukee ; flambeau ; la crosse - pine ; lake michigan ; lake superior ; lake winnebago ; lower fox ; lower wisconsin ; middle rock ; milwaukee ; peshtigo ; st . louis ; upper fox ; upper fox ; upper rock ; wolf\ncommonly found in freshwater ponds , shallow lakes , and canals . this species is found on the substrate in fall and winter ( including gravel , sand , clay , mud or undersides of rocks ) and on aquatic macrophytes ( including milfoil ,\nspp . ) in warmer months ( jokinen 1992 ; pennak 1989 ; vincent et al . 1981 ) . it lives mostly in shoals , but is found at depths up to 5 m ( jokinen 1992 ) .\ncan inhabit intertidal zones in the hudson river ( jokinen 1992 ) . in general , the faucet snail inhabits waters with ph of 6 . 6\u20138 . 4 , conductivity of 87\u20132320 \u03bcmhos / cm , ca + + of 5\u201389 ppm , and na + of 4\u2013291 ppm ( jokinen 1992 ) . it can potentially survive well in water bodies with high concentrations of k + and low concentrations of no3 - ( jokinen 1992 ) . in the st . lawrence river , it tends to occur in relatively unpolluted , nearshore areas ( vaillancourt and laferriere 1983 ) and amongst dreissenid mussel beds ( ricciardi et al . 1997 ) .\nthis species functions as both a scraper and a collector - filterer , grazing on algae on the substrate , as well as using its gills to filter suspended algae from the water column . when filter feeding , algae is sucked in , condensed , and then passed out between the right tentacle and exhalant siphon in pellet - like packages which are then eaten ( jokinen 1992 ) . the ability to filter feed may play a role in allowing populations of the faucet snail to survive at high densities in relatively eutrophic , anthropogenically influenced water bodies ( jokinen 1992 ) .\nfeeds selectively on food items ( brendelberger 1997 ) . the faucet snail is known in eurasia to feed on black fly larvae ( pavlichenko 1977 ) .\nis dioecious and lays its eggs on rocks , wood and shells in organized aggregates arranged in double rows , in clumps of 1\u201377 . egg - laying occurs from may to july when water temperature is 20\u00bac or higher , and sometimes a second time in october and november by females born early in the year . the density of eggs on the substrate can sometimes reach 155 clumps / m\n. fecundity may reach up to 347 eggs and is greatest for the 2nd year class . eggs hatch in three weeks to three months , depending on water temperature . oocytes develop poorly at temperatures of 30\u201334\u00bac . growth usually does not occur from september to may . the lifespan varies regionally and can be anywhere from 17 \u2013 39 months ( jokinen 1992 ; korotneva and dregol\u2019skaya 1992 ) .\nin its native eurasian habitat , the faucet snail is host to many different species of digeneans , cercariae , metacercariae , cysticercoids , and other parasites ( mattison et al . 1995 ; morley et al . 2004 ; toledo et al . 1998 ) . natural dispersal of this snail is known to occur by passive transport in birds ( von proschwitz 1997 ) .\nis capable of detecting the presence of molluscivorous leeches through chemoreception and of closing its operculum to avoid predation ( kelly and cory 1987 ) .\nthe faucet snail has the potential to be a good biomonitor for contaminants such as cd , zn , and mehg because there are good correlations between environmental concentrations and snail tissue concentrations with respect to these toxic compounds ( desy et al . 2000 ; flessas et al . 2000 ) .\ncould have been introduced to the great lakes basin in packaging material for crockery , through solid ballast in timber ships arriving to lake michigan , or by deliberate release by amateur naturalists into the erie canal , mohawk river and schuyler\u2019s lake ( mills et al . 1993 ) . the most likely and most accepted explanation for its original introduction is the solid ballast vector ( jokinen 1992 ) .\nthe species is established in the drainages of lake ontario ( mills et al . 1993 ; peckarsky et al . 1993 ) , lake michigan ( mills et al . 1993 ) , and lake erie ( krieger 1985 ; mackie et al . 1980 ; peckarsky et al . 1993 ) , but not lake superior ( jokinen 1992 ) . occurrences in lake huron do not warrant classification as established .\n( jokinen 1992 ) . between 1917 and 1968 , the species richness of mollusks in oneida lake decreased by 15 % as the faucet snail increased in abundance ( harman 2000 ) . it is very probable that impacts on pleurocerids , especially\n. in oneida lake , have occurred because the faucet snail has higher growth rates per unit respiration than most pleurocerids due to its ability to filter feed ( tashiro and colman 1982 ) .\n, in oneida lake , the density of the faucet snail decreased and overall mollusk abundance decreased even further ( harman 2000 ) . similar effects occurred in lake ontario between 1983 and 2000 due to competition with invasive dreissenid mussels ( haynes et al . 2005 ) .\n( vincent et al . 1981 ) and amongst introduced mussels ( ricciardi et al . 1997 ) . the snail also has the potential to be a bio - fouling organism for underwater intakes and in swimming areas ( vermont and new york state departments of environmental conservation 2000 ) .\nwas found in fossils from the pleistocene in glacial lake chicago ( jokinen 1992 ) , but the only representative of the genus currently found in the great lakes is eurasian .\nburgmer , t . , j . reiss , s . a . wickham , and h . hillebrand . 2010 . effects of snail grazers and light on the benthic microbial food web in periphyton communities . aquatic microbial ecology 61 ( 2 ) : 163 - 178 .\ncarr , j . f . , and j . k . hiltunen . 1965 . changes in the bottom fauna of western lake erie from 1930 to 1961 . limnology and oceanography 10 : 551 - 569 .\nclarke , a . h . 1981 . the freshwater molluscs of canada . national museum of natural sciences , national museums of canada , ottawa , canada . 447 pp .\ncole , r . a . 2001 . exotic parasite causes large scale mortality in american coots . u . s . geological survey , national wildlife health center , madison , wi . available : urltoken\ncole , r . a . , and j . c . franson . 2006 . recurring waterbird mortalities of unusual etiologies . in : boere , g . c . , c . a . galbraith , d . a . stroud ( eds . ) . waterbirds around the world . the stationery office , edinburgh , uk , pp . 439 - 440 .\nin the st . lawrence river , quebec . canadian journal of fisheries and aquatic sciences 57 ( suppl . 1 ) : 164 - 173 .\nflessas , c . , y . couillard , b . pinel - alloul , l . st - cyr , and p . g . c . campbell . 2000 . metal concentrations in two freshwater gastropods ( mollusca ) in the st . lawrence river and relationships with environmental contamination . canadian journal of fisheries and aquatic sciences 57 ( suppl . 1 ) : 126 - 137 .\nharman , w . n . 2000 . diminishing species richness of mollusks in oneida lake , new york state , usa . nautilus 114 ( 3 ) : 120 - 126 .\nhaynes , j . m . , n . a . trisch , c . m . mayer , and r . s . rhyne . 2005 . benthic macroinvertebrate communities in southwestern lake ontario following invasion of\n: 1983 - 2000 . journal of the north american benthological society 24 ( 1 ) : 148 - 167 .\nherrmann , k . k . , and r . e . sorensen . 2009 . seasonal dynamics of two mortality - related trematodes using an introduced snail . journal of parasitology 95 ( 4 ) : 823 - 828 .\ningram , w . m . 1956 . snail and clam infestations of drinking water supplies . journal ( american water works association ) 48 ( 3 ) : 258 - 268 .\njokinen , e . 1992 . the freshwater snails ( mollusca : gastropoda ) of new york state . the university of the state of new york , the state education department , the new york state museum , albany , new york 12230 . 112 pp .\nkelly , p . m . , and j . s . cory . 1987 . operculum closing as a defense against predatory leeches in four british freshwater prosobranch snails . hydrobiologia 144 ( 2 ) : 121 - 124 .\nl . on its oogenesis . tsitologiya 34 ( 2 ) : 30 - 36 .\nkrieger , k . a . 1985 . snail distribution in lake erie , usa , canada ; the influence of anoxia in the southern central basin nearshore zone . ohio journal of science 85 ( 5 ) : 230 - 244 .\nlawrence , j . s . , p . loegering , r . cole , and s . d . cordts . 2009 . scaup and coot die - off at lake winnibigoshish \u2013 2008 update . minnesota department of natural resources , section of wildlife , bemidji , mn . available : urltoken\nmackie , g . l . , and r . claudi . 2010 . monitoring and control of macrofouling mollusks in fresh water systems . crc press , taylor francis group , boca raton , fl . 508 pp .\nmackie , g . l . , d . s . white , and t . w . zdeba . 1980 . a guide to freshwater mollusks of the laurentian great lakes with special emphasis on the genus\n. environmental research laboratory , office of research and development , u . s . environmental protection agency , duluth , minnesota 55804 . 144 pp .\nmattison , r . g . , t . s . dunn , r . e . b . hanna , w . a . nizami , and q . m . ali . 1995 . population dynamics of freshwater gastropods and epidemiology of their helminth infections with emphasis on larval parmphistomes in northern india . journal of helminthology 69 ( 2 ) : 125 - 138 .\nmills , e . l . , j . h . leach , j . t . carlton , and c . l . secor . 1993 . exotic species in the great lakes : a history of biotic crises and anthropogenic introductions . journal of great lakes research 19 ( 1 ) : 1 - 54 .\nmitchell , a . j . and r . a . cole . 2008 . survival of the faucet snail after chemical disinfection , ph extremes , and heated water bath treatments . north american journal of fisheries management 28 : 1597 - 1600 .\nmorley , n . j . , m . e . adam , and j . w . lewis . 2004 . the role of\nin the transmission of larval digeneans from a gravel pit in the lower thames valley . journal of helminthology 78 ( 2 ) : 129 - 135 .\nnalepa , t . f . , d . l . fanslow , m . b . lansing , g . a . lang , m . ford , g . gostenik , and d . j . hartson . 2002 . abundance , biomass , and species composition of benthic macroinvertebrates populations in saginaw bay , lake huron , 1987 - 1996 . noaa great lakes environmental research laboratory and cooperative institute for limnology and ecosystem research , michigan , ann arbor . 32 pp .\n( trichoptera : hydropsychidae ) larvae in destroying black flies in flowing reservoirs of the zaporozyhe oblast , ussr . ekologiya ( moscow ) 1 : 104 - 105 .\npeckarsky , b . l . , p . r . fraissinet , m . a . penton , and d . j . conklin jr . 1993 . freshwater macroinvertebrates of northeastern north america . cornell university press , ithaca , new york state . 442 pp .\npennak , r . 1989 . fresh - water invertebrates of the united states , 3rd ed . protozoa to mollusca . john wiley & sons , inc . , new york , new york state . 628 pp .\nricciardi , a . 2001 . facilitative interactions among aquatic invaders : is an \u201cinvasional meltdown\u201d occurring in the great lakes ? canadian journal of fisheries and aquatic sciences 58 : 2513 - 2525 .\nricciardi , a . , f . g . whoriskey , and j . b . rasmussen . 1997 . the role of the zebra mussel ( dreissena polymorpha ) in structuring macroinvertebrate communities on hard substrata . canadian journal of fisheries and aquatic sciences 54 : 2596\u20132608 .\n: bioenergetic partitioning of ingested carbon and nitrogen . american midland naturalist 107 ( 1 ) : 114 - 132 .\ntoledo , r . , c . munoz - antoli , m . perez , and j . g . esteban . 1998 . larval trematode infections in freshwater gastropods from the albufera natural park in spain . journal of helminthology 72 ( 1 ) : 79 - 82 .\nvaillancourt , g . , and e . lafarriere . 1983 . relationship between the quality of the environment and the benthic groupings in the littoral zone of the st . lawrence river , canada . naturaliste canadien ( quebec ) 110 ( 4 ) : 385 - 396 .\nvermont and new york state departments of environmental conservation . 2000 . lake champlain basin aquatic nuisance species management plan . 65 pp .\nkipp , r . m . , a . j . benson , j . larson , and a . fusaro\nthis information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision . it is being provided to meet the need for timely best science . the information has not received final approval by the u . s . geological survey ( usgs ) and is provided on the condition that neither the usgs nor the u . s . government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information .\nthe data represented on this site vary in accuracy , scale , completeness , extent of coverage and origin . it is the user ' s responsibility to use these data consistent with their intended purpose and within stated limitations . we highly recommend reviewing metadata files prior to interpreting these data .\ncitation information : u . s . geological survey . [ 2018 ] . nonindigenous aquatic species database . gainesville , florida . accessed [ 7 / 9 / 2018 ] .\ncontact us if you are using data from this site for a publication to make sure the data are being used appropriately and for potential co - authorship if warranted . for queries involving fish , please contact pam fuller . for queries involving invertebrates , contact amy benson .\nto populations from the north and west of the alps . mediterranean populations are considered as a species complex , with two species proposed by falkner\nby angelov ( 2000 ) . georgiev and stoycheva ( 2010 ) noted that it was described as a new species from a thermal spring ( water temperature 20\u00b0 c ) in the rhodopes mountains , bulgaria near the town of krichim ( wohlberedt , 1911 ) . the only known such spring is krichimski vircheta , near the vacha river . the taxonomic status of the species is unclear .\nis widespread through europe and lives in different types of habitat , such as oxbows , rivers , streams , fish ponds , etc . although there are local impacts on its habitats from both human activities and natural events ( i . e . natural sedimentation and water pollution ) , the species is so widespread that it is unlikely to lead to anything other than localised extinctions . therefore the species qualifies for least concern .\nwohlberedt , 1911 was considered a valid species , then it is possibly extinct . georgiev ( 2010 ) noted that it was described as a new species from a thermal spring ( water temperature 20\u00b0 c ) in the rhodopes mountains , bulgaria where the only known spring is krichimski vircheta , near the vacha river . the taxonomic status of the species is unclear , but krichimski vircheta spring as has much disturbance and no shells could be found in two surveys in 2008 and 2009 , presumably as a result of many people washing themselves in the hot water . in the springs pollution from plastic and other materials was obvious .\nthe species was recorded last century from north africa , however there are no recent records , so it is considered to be regionally extinct in north africa , whereas in the northern mediterranean , it is still widespread , but local , and as such is considered least concern . however according to falkner\n, as such some of the map data for the region is incorrect . although these species should probably be considered as data deficient , the likely assessment once the taxonomic issues have been resolved will be least concern , as certainly\nwhich is now considered to be a distinct species . fauna europaea lists the following countries : austria , balearis islands , belgium , u . k . - great britain , bulgaria , czech republic , denmark , estonia , france , germany , hungary , ireland , italy , russia , latvia , lithuania , macedonia , poland , romania , slovakia , slovenia , spain , sweden , switzerland , the netherlands , ukraine , serbia .\n( paasch , 1842 ) are both recorded in the czech republic , where both species are restricted to south moravia ; in the floodplains along the morava river and the dyje river where both species are very rare .\n( sheppard , 1823 ) is widespread in lowland rivers , but is believed to have declined over the last 50 years ( killeen , pers . comm , 2009 ) . slovakia : mainly the danube and morava river . also in the latorica river and slow flooding canals and oxbows , and fishponds . germany : common in the north part . in the southern part only in the river rhein , neckar and chiemsee .\nby angelov ( 2000 ) . georgiev ( 2010 ) noted that it was described as a new species from a thermal spring ( water temperature 20\u00b0 c ) in the rhodopes mountains near the town of krichim ( wohlberedt , 1911 ) . the only known such spring is krichimski vircheta , near the vacha river .\nthere is no unified information available on population and trends for this species , although some countries where the species is less widespread have data on population declines over the last 50 years . there is little evidence of any significant decline .\nthis species lives in different types of habitat , such as oxbows , rivers , streams , fish ponds , slow flowing canals , etc . it is known to inhabit a wide range of habitats such as streams , rivers , canals , large drains , marsh drains and lakes , however , it is less common in smaller ponds . it shows a strong preference for richly vegetated habitats , often with a muddy or silty substrate with a high diversity of molluscs and other aquatic invertebrates .\nits habitats are affected by artificial and natural impacts ( i . e . natural sedimentation and water pollution ) , although it is difficult to state if there is a significant decline on the habitat quality . it is pollution sensitive and there is evidence of some localised decline .\nother threats : pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or other chemical sources , alteration of water courses , changes to flow regimes , and over - frequent dredging . mouthon ( 1996 ) showed that\n2 department of biology , faculty of sciences , university of montenegro , cetinjski put b . b . , 81000 podgorica , montenegro\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license 3 . 0 ( cc - by ) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nconsidering the geographical position of iran , a rich fauna of freshwater snails could be expected . a high level of endemism and a diverse mixture of palaearctic and paleotropical elements are characteristic of the iranian freshwater fauna ( pe\u0161i\u0107 and saboori 2007 ) .\nresearch of molluscs biodiversity in iran has a relatively long tradition . in 1862 , a group of italian scientists undertook the first systematic expedition to persia , which revealed a large number of molluscan samples . the results of this expedition have been published by issel ( 1863 ) . two decades later , the mollusc fauna of the caspian sea was studied by dybowski ( 1888 ) . the first study on the molluscs diversity of inland water was done at the beginning of the xx th century by the indian malacologists annandale and his coauthors ( annandale and prashad 1919 , annandale 1921 , annandale and rao 1925 ) who studied the molluscan fauna of seistan and baluchistan province . biggs ( 1936 , 1937 , 1971 ) studied the malacofauna of the central plateau of iran . in 1936 he noted : \u201clittle has been written on the mollusca of the iranian plateau . this was perhaps due to the inaccessibility of the interior in the past when the only method of travelling was by caravan\u201d . forcart ( 1935 ) studied molluscs from the mazandaran province . starm\u00fchlner and edlauer ( 1957 ) published the results of the austrian iran expedition of 1949 / 50 and 1956 . later on , starm\u00fchlner ( 1961 , 1965 ) studied molluscs from northern and eastern iran collected by the austrian a . ruttner . more recently , mansoorian ( 1986 , 1994 , 1998 , 2000 ) published on the molluscan fauna of iran ."]}
{"id": 1233, "summary": [{"text": "the fungiidae / f\u0259\u014b\u02c8\u0261i\u02d0.\u1d7bdi\u02d0 / are a family of cnidaria , often known as mushroom corals .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the family contains thirteen extant genera .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they range from solitary corals to colonial species .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "some genera such as cycloseris and fungia are solitary organisms , polyphyllia consists of a single organism with multiple mouths , and ctenactis and herpolitha might be considered as solitary organisms with multiple mouths or a colony of individuals , each with its separate mouth . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "fungiidae", "paragraphs": ["family fungiidae ( enter fungiidae in search bar ) on the iucn red list of threatened species website : technical fact sheet .\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30af\u30b5\u30d3\u30e9\u30a4\u30b7\u79d1\nto\nfungiidae\n.\nstony corals from the family fungiidae a . j . nilsen october 1997 aquarium . net\nphylogenetic ecology of gall crabs ( cryptochiridae ) as associates of mushroom corals ( fungiidae ) .\ndistribution patterns of mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) across the spermonde shelf , south sulawesi .\necology of the leptoconchus ssp . ( gastropoda , coralliophilidae ) infesting fungiidae ( anthozoa , madreporaria )\nevolutionary trends in onshore - offshore distribution patterns of mushroom coral species ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) .\nmost members of the family fungiidae are solitary corals that are free - living ( i . e . , lie unattached ) as adults . the family fungiidae is restricted to the indo - pacific .\n( scleractinia : fungiidae ) : lost mushroom corals find their way home . contrib zool 81 : 125\u2013146\nexplanation note : species occurrence of hard coral families fungiidae , agariciidae and euphylliidae at pulau layang - layang .\necology of the leptoconchus ssp . ( gastropoda , coralliophilidae ) infesting fungiidae ( anthozoa , madreporaria )\n( 5 ) family fungiidae ( ' mushroom corals ' ) ( fig . 20 . 6h - k )\nphylogenetic ecology of gall crabs ( cryptochiridae ) as associates of mushroom corals ( fungiidae ) . - pubmed - ncbi\necology of the leptoconchus ssp . ( gastropoda , coralliophilidae ) infesting fungiidae ( anthozoa , madreporaria ) [ 2000 ]\nspecies assemblages and ecomorph variation of mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) related to reef habitats in the flores sea .\nurltoken where reefkeeping begins on the internet - stony corals from the family fungiidae a . j . nilsen october 1997 aquarium . net\nhoeksema bw ( 1989 ) taxonomy , phylogeny and biogeography of mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) . zool verh 254 : 1\u2013295\na molecularly based phylogeny reconstruction of mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) with taxonomic consequences and evolutionary implications for life history traits .\n) spp . ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) , including a new species from the seychelles . zool meded leiden 67 : 639\u2013654 .\nphylogenetic position and taxonomy of cycloseris explanulata and c . wellsi ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) : lost mushroom corals find their way home .\nmushroom corals ( scleractinia , fungiidae ) of espiritu santo ( vanuatu , west pacific ) , with the description of a new species .\nthe \u201c fungia patella group\u201d ( scleractinia , fungiidae ) revisited with a description of the mini mushroom coral cycloseris boschmai sp . n .\nthe mushroom coral fauna ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) of brunei darussalam ( south china sea ) and its relation to the coral triangle .\nscleractinia of eastern australia iii . families agariciidae , siderastreidae , fungiidae , oculinidae , merulinidae , mussidae , pectiniidae , caryophylliidae , dendrophylliidae .\n( scleractinia : fungiidae ) populations in the indo - malay archipelago : implications for live coral trade management efforts . conserv genet 10 : 241\u2013249\nsupervisor - visser , r . r . - a phylogenetic analysis of biometric variables of free - living mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae )\nhoeksema bw ( 1989 ) taxonomy , phylogeny and biogeography of mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) . zool verh leiden 254 : 1\u2013295 .\nfamily fungiidae ( select species from list ) on corals of the world online on the australian institute of marine science website : technical fact sheet .\nhoeksema bw ( 1991b ) evolution of body size in mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) and its ecomorphological consequences . neth j zool 41 : 122\u2013139\nhoeksema bw ( 2012b ) evolutionary trends in onshore - offshore distribution patterns of mushroom coral species ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) . contrib zool 81 : 199\u2013221\nhoeksema b . w . 1990 . systematics and ecology of mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) . phd . thesis leiden university , 471 pp .\nreproductive ecology of diaseris distorta ( michelin ) ( fungiidae ) in th\nby susan b . colley , joshua s . feingold et al .\nhoeksema bw ( 2012a ) distribution patterns of mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) across the spermonde shelf , south sulawesi . raffles bull zool 60 : 183\u2013212\nhoeksema b . w . 1989 . taxonomy , phylogeny and biogeography of mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) . zoologische verhandelingen 254 : 1 - 295 .\nhoeksema b . w . 1989 . taxonomy , phylogeny and biogeography of mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) . zoologische verhandelingen , leiden 254 : 1 - 295 .\nhoeksema bw , koh egl ( 2009 ) depauperation of the mushroom coral fauna ( fungiidae ) of singapore ( 1860s\u20132006 ) in changing reef conditions . raffles bull zool suppl 22 : 91\u2013101\nhoeksema b . w . 2012 . evolutionary trends in onshore - offshore distribution patterns of mushroom coral species ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) . contributions to zoology 81 : 199 - 221 .\nhoeksema b . w . 1991 . evolution of body size in mushroom corals ( scleractinia , fungiidae ) and its ecomorphological consequences . netherlands journal of zoology 41 : 112 - 129 .\nhoeksema b . w . 1991 . evolution of body size in mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) and its ecomorphological consequences . netherlands journal of zoology 41 : 122 - 139 .\nhoeksema b . w . 2012 . distribution patterns of mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) across the spermonde shelf , south sulawesi . raffles bulletin of zoology 60 : 183 - 212 .\nhoeksema b . w . 2012 . distribution patterns of mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) across the spermonde shelf , south sulawesi . raffles bulletin of zoology 60 : 183 - 212 .\nfungiidae recorded at pulau layang - layang in this study . a ctenactis albitentaculata b cycloseris boschmai c cycloseris costulata d cycloseris explanulata e cycloseris mokai f cycloseris tenuis g danafungia horrida h danafungia scruposa .\nfungiidae recorded at pulau layang - layang in this study . a fungia fungites b halomitra pileus c herpolitha limax d lithophyllon ranjithi e lithophyllon repanda f lithophyllon scabra g lithophyllon undulatum h lobactis scutaria .\nfungiidae recorded at pulau layang - layang in this study . a pleuractis granulosa b pleuractis gravis c pleuractis moluccensis d podabacia sinai e polyphyllia talpina f sandalolitha boucheti g sandalolitha dentata h sandalolitha robusta .\nsupervisor - jong , i . de - mushroom coral - inhabiting barnacles of sw sulawesi , indonesia , a study of barnacles ( cirripedia : pyrgomatidae ) on mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae )\nhoeksema b . w . 1997 . diversity of mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) in indonesia . the ecology of indonesian series 7 1 : 311 - 313 : periplus , hong kong .\nhoeksema b . w . 2014 . the \u201c fungia patella group\u201d ( scleractinia , fungiidae ) revisited with a description of the mini mushroom coral cycloseris boschmai sp . n . zookeys 371 : 57\u201384 .\nhoeksema bw ( 1991a ) control of bleaching in mushroom coral populations ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) in the java sea : stress tolerance and interference by life history strategy . mar ecol prog ser 74 : 225\u2013237\nhoeksema b . w . 2012 . mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) of espiritu santo ( vanuatu , west pacific ) with the description of a new species . zoosystema 34 : 429 - 443 .\nhoeksema bw ( 2009 ) attached mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) in sediment - stressed reef conditions at singapore , including a new species and a new record . raffles bull zool s22 : 81\u201390 .\nchadwick - furman n , loya y ( 1992 ) migration , habitat use , and competition among mobile corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) in the gulf of eilat , red sea . mar biol 114 : 617\u2013623\nhoeksema b . w . 1993 . historical biogeography of fungia ( pleuractis ) spp . ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) , including a new species from the seychelles ) . zoologische mededelingen 67 : 639 - 654 .\ngittenberger a , reijnen bt , hoeksema bw ( 2011 ) a molecularly based phylogeny reconstruction of mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) with taxonomic consequences and evolutionary implications for life history traits . contrib zool 80 : 107\u2013132\nhoeksema , b . w . , 1989 . taxonomy , phylogeny and biogeography of mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) . zoologische verhandelingen , leiden 254 : 1 - 295 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nscleractinia ; fungiidae ; mushroom corals ; taxonomy ; revision ; fossil record ; phy - logeny ; biogeography ; indo - pacific ; tropical ; marine ; benthic ; shallow - water habitats ; coral reefs ; species diversity .\nhoeksema b . w . 1993 . historical biogeography of fungia ( pleuractis ) spp . ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) , including a new species from the seychelles ) . zoologische mededelingen , leiden 67 : 639 - 654 .\ngittenberger a , reijnen bt , hoeksema bw ( 2011 ) a molecularly based phylogeny reconstruction of mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) with taxonomic consequences and evolutionary implications for life history traits . contrib zool 80 : 107\u2013132 .\nbos a . r . , hoeksema b . w . 2017 . mushroom corals ( fungiidae ) in the davao gulf , philippines , with records of associated fish and other cryptofauna . raffles bulletin of zoology 65 : 9 .\nhoeksema b . w . , dai c . f . 1991 . scleractinia of taiwan - 2 : family fungiidae ( including a new species ) . bulletin of the institute of zoology academia sinica 30 : 203 - 228 .\nhoeksema b . w . 2009 . attached mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) in sediment - stressed reef conditions at singapore , including a new species and a new record . raffles bulletin of zoology 22 : 81 - 90 .\nclaereboudt m . , hoeksema b . w . 1987 . fungia ( verrillofungia ) spinifer spec . nov . , a new scleractinian coral ( fungiidae ) from the indo - malayan region . zoologische mededelingen 61 : 303 - 309 .\nhoeksema b . w . 1991 . control of bleaching in mushroom coral populations ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) in the java sea : stress tolerance and interference by life history strategy . marine ecology progress series 74 : 225 - 237 .\nhoeksema b . w . , kleemann k 2002 . new records of fungiacava eilatensis goreau et al . , 1968 ( bivalvia : mytilidae ) boring in indonesian mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) . basteria 66 : 25 - 30 .\nhoeksema b . w . , dai c . f . 1991 . scleractinia of taiwan . ii family fungiidae ( with the description of a new species ) . bulletin zoological institute , academia sinica , taipei 30 : 201 - 226 .\nhoeksema b . w . , moka w . 1989 . species assemblages and ecomorph variation of mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) related to reef habitats in the flores sea . netherlands journal of sea research 23 : 149 - 160 .\nhoeksema , b . w . ; cairns , s . ( 2018 ) . world list of scleractinia . fungiidae dana , 1846 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 196100 on 2018 - 07 - 09\nhoeksema b . w . 2012 . mushroom corals ( scleractinia , fungiidae ) of espiritu santo ( vanuatu , west pacific ) , with the description of a new species . zoosystema 34 : 429 - 443 . go to website ( doi )\ngittenberger a . , hoeksema b . w . 2006 . phenotypic plasticity revealed by molecular studies on reef corals of fungia ( cycloseris ) spp . ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) near river outlets . contributions to zoology 75 : 195 - 201 .\nkleemann k . , hoeksema b . w . 2002 . lithophaga ( bivalvia : mytilidae ) , including a new species , boring in mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) at south sulawesi , indonesia . basteria 66 : 1 - 24 .\nhoeksema b . w . , kleemann k . 2002 . new records of fungiacava eilatensis goreau et al . , 1968 ( bivalvia : mytilidae ) boring in indonesian mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) . basteria 66 : 25 - 30 .\nhoeksema b . w . 1993 . mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) of madang lagoon , northern papua new guinea : an annotated checklist with the description of cantharellus jebbi spec . nov . . zoologische mededelingen 67 : 1 - 19 .\nhoeksema b . w . 2009 . attached mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) in sediment - stressed reef conditions at singapore , including a new species and a new record . raffles bulletin of zoology suppl . 22 : 81 - 90 .\ngittenberger a . , hoeksema b . w . 2006 . phenotypic plasticity revealed by molecular studies on reef corals of fungia ( cycloseris ) spp . ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) near river outlets . contributions to zoology 75 : 195 - 201 .\nkleemann k . , hoeksema b . w . 2002 . lithophaga ( bivalvia : mytilidae ) , including a new species , boring in mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) at south sulawesi , indonesia . basteria 66 : 11 - 24 .\nclaereboudt m . , hoeksema b . w . 1987 . fungia ( verrillofungia ) spinifer spec . nov . , a new scleractinian coral ( fungiidae ) from the indo - malayan region . zoologische mededelingen , leiden 61 : 303 - 309 .\nhoeksema b . w . 2014 . the\nfungia patella group\n( scleractinia , fungiidae ) revisited with a description of the mini mushroom coral cycloseris boschmai sp . n . zookeys 371 : 57 - 84 . go to website ( doi )\nhoeksema b . w . , koh e . g . l . 2009 . depauperation of the mushroom coral fauna ( fungiidae ) of singapore ( 1860s - 2006 ) in changing reef conditions . raffles bulletin of zoology 22 : 91 - 101 .\nhoeksema b . w . , best m . b . 1984 . cantharellus noumeae ( gen . nov . , spec . nov . ) , a new scleractinian coral ( fungiidae ) from new caledonia . zoologische mededelingen 58 : 323 - 328 .\nhoeksema b . w . , koh e . g . l . 2009 . depauperation of the mushroom coral fauna ( fungiidae ) of singapore ( 1860s\u20132006 ) in changing reef conditions . raffles bulletin of zoology suppl . 22 : 91 - 101 .\nhoeksema b . w . 1993 . mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) of madang lagoon , northern papua new guinea : an annotated checklist with the description of cantharellus jebbi spec . nov . zoologische mededelingen , leiden 67 : 1 - 19 .\nveron jen , pichon m ( 1980 ) scleractinia of eastern australia . part iii . families agariciidae , siderastreidae , fungiidae , oculinidae , merulinidae , mussidae , pectiniidae , caryophylliidae , dendrophylliidae . townsville : australian institute of marine science . 422 p .\nhoeksema b . w . , achituv y . 1993 . first indonesian record of fungiacava eilatensis goreau et al . , 1968 ( bivalvia : mytilidae ) , endosymbiont of fungia spp . ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) . basteria 57 : 131 - 138 .\nhoeksema b . w . , achituv y . 1993 . first indonesian record of fungiacava eilatensis goreau et al . , 1968 ( bivalvia : mytilidae ) , endosymbiont of fungia spp . ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) . basteria 57 : 131 - 138 .\nhoeksama , bert w . 30 dec 2009 . attached mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) in sediment - stressed reef conditions at singapore , including a new species and a new record . raffles bulletin of zoology supplement no . 22 : 97 - 107 .\nhoeksema b . w . , best m . b . 1984 . cantharellus noumeae ( gen . nov . , spec . nov . ) , a new scleractinian coral ( fungiidae ) from new caledonia . zoologische mededelingen , leiden 58 : 323 - 328 .\nhoeksema b . w . , moka w . 1989 . species assemblages and phenotypes of mushroom corals ( fungiidae ) related to coral - reef habitats in the flores sea . netherlands journal of sea research 23 : 149 - 160 . go to website ( doi )\ngittenberger a . , reijnen b . t . , hoeksema b . w . 2011 . a molecularly based phylogeny reconstruction of mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) with taxonomic consequences and evolutionary implications for life history traits . contributions to zoology 80 : 107 - 132 .\nhoeksema b . w . 1991 . control of bleaching in mushroom coral populations ( scleractinia , fungiidae ) in the java sea - stress tolerance and interference by life - history strategy . marine ecology progress series 74 : 225 - 237 . go to website ( doi )\nhoeksema b . w . , lane d . j . w . 2014 . the mushroom coral fauna ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) of brunei darussalam ( south china sea ) and its relation to the coral triangle . raffles bulletin of zoology 62 : 566 - 580 .\nhoeksema b . w . 1997 . diversity of mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) in indonesia . in : tomascik et al . ( eds . ) the ecology of the indonesian seas . part one : 311 - 313 . periplus editions ( hk ) ltd .\nthere are two basic type of stony corals ; those who live as colonies and those who lives as individual polyps , called solitary corals . in the family fungiidae we do find both kinds , but some species are rather difficult to place in either of the two groups .\nwells , j . w . 1966 . evolutionary development in the scleractinian family fungiidae . in : rees wj ( ed . ) the cnidaria and their evolution . symposium of the zoological society of london 16 : 223\u2013246 , pl . 1 . academic press , london . [ details ]\nbos a . r . , hoeksema b . w . 2015 . cryptobenthic fishes and co - inhabiting shrimps associated with the mushroom coral heliofungia actiniformis ( fungiidae ) in the davao gulf , philippines . environmental biology of fishes 98 : 1479 - 1489 . go to website ( uri )\nhoeksema , bert w . and esther g . l . koh . 30 dec 2009 . depauration of the mushroom coral fauna ( fungiidae ) of singapore ( 1860s - 2006 ) in changing reef conditions ( pdf ) . raffles bulletin of zoology supplement no . 22 : 91 - 101 .\nwells , j . w . , 1966 . evolutionary development in the scleractinian family fungiidae . in w . j . rees ( ed . ) . : the cnidaria and their evolution . symposia of the zoological society london 16 : 223 - 246 , 1 plate . academic press , london .\nowada m . , hoeksema b . w . 2011 . molecular phylogeny and shell microstructure of fungiacava eilatensis goreau et al . 1968 , boring into mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) , in relation to other mussels ( bivalvia : mytilidae ) . contributions to zoology 80 : 169 - 178 .\nhoeksema b . w . , lane d . j . w . 2014 . the mushroom coral fauna ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) of brunei darussalam ( south china sea ) and its relation to the coral triangle . raffles bulletin of zoology 62 : 566 - 580 . go to website ( uri )\ncolley , susan b . ; feingold , joshua s . ; pena , j . ; and glynn , peter w . ,\nreproductive ecology of diaseris distorta ( michelin ) ( fungiidae ) in the galapagos islands , ecuador\n( 2000 ) . oceanography faculty proceedings , presentations , speeches , lectures . 320 . urltoken\nbenzoni f . , arrigoni r . , stefani f . , reijnen b . t . , montano s . , hoeksema b . w . 2012 . phylogenetic position and taxonomy of cycloseris explanulata and c . wellsi ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) : lost mushroom corals find their way home . contributions to zoology 81 : 125 - 146 .\ngittenberger , a . , reijnen , b . t . & hoeksema , b . w . 2011 . a molecularly based phylogeny reconstruction of mushroom corals ( scleractinia : fungiidae ) with taxonomic consequences and evolutionary implications for life history traits . contributions to zoology 80 : 107 - 132 . , available online at urltoken ; idno = 8002a02 [ details ]\nwaheed z , benzoni f , van der meij set , terraneo ti , hoeksema bw ( 2015 ) scleractinian corals ( fungiidae , agariciidae and euphylliidae ) of pulau layang - layang , spratly islands , with a note on pavona maldivensis ( gardiner , 1905 ) . zookeys 517 : 1\u201337 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 517 . 9308\nmeij s . e . t . van der , fransen c . h . j . m . , pasman l . r . & hoeksema b . w . 2015 . phylogenetic ecology of gall crabs ( cryptochiridae ) as associates of mushroom corals ( fungiidae ) . ecology and evolution 5 : 5770 - 5780 . go to website ( doi )\nthe fungiidae are mushroom corals that live in sublittoral habitats in the tropical indo - pacific . their habitats are part of coral reefs or other marine substrata , which usually can be found in the proximity of the reefs . in the present taxonomic revision , the family is divided into 11 genera ; one of which , fungia , is subdivided into seven subgenera . a total of 40 species is described and figured , three of which are new to science . one species is renamed . the stratigraphic distribution is given for all the species recorded in fossil state . a tentative phylogenetic reconstruction down to the species level is given . the cladogram that is provided should be considered a working hypothesis and not a sound basis for a completely revised classification and nomenclature of the fungiidae . for each species the presently known geographic range is mapped . the pattern of species richness in the indo - pacific is compared with that of some other taxa and discussed with respect to their distributional patterns . the ranges of the fungiidae are analyzed with the use of approaches from both historical and ecological biogeography .\nwaheed z . , hoeksema b . w . ( 2012 ) hard corals ( families fungiidae , agariciidae and euphylliidae ) . in : kassem k . , hoeksema b . w . , affendi y . a , ( eds ) semporna marine ecological expedition . wwf - malaysia , ncb naturalis , universiti malaysia sabah . kota kinabalu , malaysia . pp 9 - 42 .\nfamily fungiidae dana 1848 . the mushroom corals could be poster children for lps ( large polyped stony corals ) if they weren ' t so odd in many ways . these are solitary , non - reef building animals that amongst the true or stony corals are ambulatory . . . yes , they ' re capable of movement . all but three genera remain free , unattached from the substrate as adults .\nwaheed z . , benzoni , f . , mei , s . e . t . van der , terraneo t . i . , hoeksema b . w . 2015 . scleractinian corals ( fungiidae , agariciidae and euphylliidae ) of pulau layang - layang , spratly islands , with a note on pavona maldivensis ( gardiner , 1905 ) . zookeys 517 : 1 - 37 . go to website ( doi )\nthe coral species list for the families fungiidae , agariciidae and euphylliidae in the present study added 32 new records for layang - layang and includes rarely recorded species such as leptoseris kalayaanensis , which is thus far a south china sea endemic . the mushroom coral lithophyllon ranjithi has a wider distribution range than previously thought and can no longer be considered endemic to northeastern borneo . this is the first record of this species from an oceanic and offshore reef habitat , in contrast to its previously reported habitat preference for coastal and sheltered reef conditions .\na total of 552 corals , including 375 reef species , are represented on this maximum parsimony cladogram that is part of the scleractinian supertree ( figure 1 ) . roman numerals denote clades based on the phylogeny in fukami et al . [ 42 ] . ant : anthemiphyllidae , ast : astrocoeniidae , car : caryophylliidae , eup : euphylliidae , fav : faviidae , fun : fungiidae , mea : meandrinidae , mer : merulinidae , mus : mussidae , ocu : oculinidae , pec : pectiniidae , poc : pocilloporidae , rhi : rhizangiidae , sid : siderastreidae , ste : stenocyathidae , trc : trachyphylliidae .\ncladogram of the fungiidae ( based on gittenberger et al . ; benzoni et al . ) , combined with gall crab associations . percentages ( depicted as filled circles ) portray how the gall crabs are distributed over their coral hosts : fungicola syzygia ( n = 316 ) , fungicola fagei ( n = 4 ) , fungicola utinomi ( n = 82 ) , and dacryomaia sp . ( n = 29 ) , based on fieldwork in sw sulawesi using belt quadrats . other records ( depicted as filled squares ) are based on collection data ( table ) and fieldwork other than sw sulawesi ( see ) .\nfigure 20 . 6 examples of genera and species from the major coral families : poritidae ( a - c ) , pocilloporidae ( d - g ) ; fungiidae ( h - k ) and minor family oculinidae ( l ) . species : a , porites lutea ; b , porites cylindrical ; c , goniopora fruticosa ; d , pocillopora damicornis ; e , pocillopora eydouxi ; f , stylophora pistillata ; g , seriatopora hystrix ; h , fungia valida ; i , heliofungia actiniformis ; j , ctenactis echinata ; k , herpolitha webberi ; l , galaxea astreata . ( photos : p . muir except g , gbrmpa . )\nfigure 20 . 6 examples of genera and species from the major coral families : poritidae ( a - c ) , pocilloporidae ( d - g ) ; fungiidae ( h - k ) and minor family oculinidae ( l ) . species : a , porites lutea ; b , porites cylindrical ; c , goniopora fruticosa ; d , pocillopora damicornis ; e , pocillopora eydouxi ; f , stylophora pistillata ; g , seriatopora hystrix ; h , fungia valida ; i , heliofungia actiniformis ; j , ctenactis echinata ; k , herpolitha webberi ; l , galaxea astreata . ( photos : p . muir except g , gbrmpa . )\nthe marine aquarium hobby has at last reached a level where the aquarists can observe animal behaviour and study biological events that hardly can be examined in detail anywhere else other than in the aquarium . today many of the private reef tanks can show far better results with respect to the growth of corals than the majority of public marine aquariums , which are still run by heavy biological filters and have an extensive growth of algae . in this article we shall concentrate on the scleractinian family fungiidae ( \u201cpiltzkoralle\u201d ) , which has proven to very durable , and which has shown us some very interesting examples of unisexual breeding through the development of a structure called \u201cacanthocauli\u201d - which we shall return to .\nunderwater surveys of 27 , 000 mushroom corals ( fungiidae ) at papua new guinea ( laing island , madang and motupore ) , singapore , the maldives ( ari atoll and south male atoll ) , the red sea ( hurghada ) , indonesia ( makassar , sulawesi ) and examination of 1 , 000 fungiids from museum collections ( mainly national museum of naturaf history , leiden ) have shown that 36 coral species were infested by several species of coralliophilidae belonging to the genus leptoconchus . the rate of infestation of the mushroom coral assemblage varied from 0 to 7 / . the two most infested fungiidae were fungia ( fungia ) fungites and f . ( verrillofungia ) repanda . at the east side of laing island , f . ( f . ) fungites reached an infestation rate of 19 / , the highest value ever recorded . the rate of infestation was positively correlated with hydrodynamics and negatively with turbidity . it was , however , not correlated with the density of the fungiid assemblage . infestation was maximum in shallow water ( 1 - 5 m ) ; nearly no leptoconchus spp . were found deeper than 20 m . place of settlement of the mollusc ( coral centre or edge ) , opening of the burrow ( oral / aboral side of the coral ) and deformation of coral skeleton varied according to the coral species infested . these variations seemed specifically related to the different leptoconchus species rather than the infested host species\nthe polyps of fungiidae are among the very largest of all coral polyps , and the very often imported species heliofungia actiniformis can reach a diameter of over 50 cm . it also has very long tentacles usually with green and brown colors , but occasionally colored beautifully purple . there is little known about the feeding habits of fungiids , but it is for certain that these corals , like another hermatypic corals , are utilizing the energy produced by the symbiotic algae . most likely the majority of the species catch and utilize plankton as well . like most corals fungiids do have parasites . the bivalve fungicava eilatensis lives inside the mouth of the corals and is found nowhere else . i have , however , not heard of any aquarists that have detected it in an aquarium yet .\nreferences : anonymous . arkive images of life on earth online . mushroom corals ( fungia spp . ) . . anonymous . reef corner online . plate coral . . fenner , bob . wet web media online . plate corals , family fungiidae . goldstein , robert j . . marine reef aquarium handbook hauppauge : barrons , 1997 . hiller , greg . reefkeeping magazine online . propagating fungia sp . ( plate coral ) . . jennings , greg . the new encyclopedia of the saltwater aquarium . buffalo : firefly books ltd . , 2007 . personal observation shimek , ronald l . marine invertebrates . neptune city : t . f . h publications , 2004 . tullock , john h . . natural reef aquariums ; simplified approaches to creating living saltwater microcosms neptune city : t . f . h publications , 2001 .\ncorals within the scleractinian family fungiidae were observed to move toward light ( positive phototaxis ) . negative phototactic movement was not observed in any of the specimens tested . on sandy substratum , diaseris distorta moved faster ( max . speed of 3 cm h - 1 ) than other species . although d . distorta has symbiotic algae , phototactic movement also was observed both in bleached corals and in those treated with a specific inhibitor ( dichlorophenyl dimethyl urea ) of photosynthesis . d . distorta was phototactic even on a glass plate , and climbed up a steep slope ( up to 30\u00b0 ) . based on experiments with fungia fungites and d . distorta , soft tissues at the peripheral region of the dise seem to be responsible for movement via peristalsis . it is suggested that positive phototaxis in symbiontbearing fungiid corals is an important trait for selection of favorable habitats .\nthere are discussions among scientists of how to define the term \u201csolitary\u201d . as a general rule , corals with one mouth only are called solitary while those with many mouths are called colonial . the majority of fungiids are solitary corals . most species in the largest genus fungia , have one mouth only , but the species fungia simplex always has several mouths . the closely related species fungia echinata does , however , only have one single mouth . abnormal developments can also result in the development of an unusual number of mouths . it is accepted that the solitary corals are the oldest evolutionary form and that colonial forms have evolved from the solitary form . the fungiidae does also contain one hermatypic genus - fungiacyathus . altogether this family contains a number of highly interesting species some of which are very durable in the reef aquarium . but again . . . . . the term \u201csolitary\u201d is very diffuse .\nin most corals , there is a clear distinction between what is an individual and what is a colony . this is not always so , as seen in the family fungiidae , where there is a continual gradation between solitary individuals ( with a single mouth ) and colonies ( with many mouths ) , as exemplified by the sequence cycloseris ? fungia ? ctenactis ? herpolitha ? polyphyllia . in this sequence , cycloseris and ( usually ) fungia exist only as solitary individuals with a single mouth while polyphyllia forms colonies with many mouths . a single specimen of ctenactis or herpolitha could be considered a solitary individual with many mouths or a colony of individuals , each with a single mouth . likewise , in some corals there may not be a clear distinction between what is an individual and what is a row of individuals . this is best seen in families faviidae and mussidae , where there is a continual gradation between colonies composed of distinct polyps ( corallites ) to colonies where individuals are recognisable only by the existence of mouths and / or columella centres , to colonies where there is no sign of individuality .\nthe value of investigating extinction risk in the phylogenetic context has been emphasised in considerable detail elsewhere [ 26 ] , [ 29 ] , [ 32 ] , [ 38 ] , [ 101 ] , [ 137 ] , [ 138 ] . specifically for corals , confusion surrounding traditional taxonomy makes it difficult to accurately generalise traits exhibited by species to higher level taxa [ 42 ] . for instance , following the massive bleaching event in 1998 , the family faviidae , including leptastrea purpurea and l . transversa , has been declared a \u2018winner\u2019 in the recovery process at sesoko island , japan [ 39 ] , [ 40 ] . yet phylogenies inferred in the last 15 years have unequivocally demonstrated that leptastrea is more closely related to members of fungiidae rather than faviidae [ 42 ] , [ 52 ] , [ 53 ] , [ 82 ] , [ 139 ] ( see also [ 140 ] , [ 141 ] ) , recovered within clade x with corals that are resistant to or recover quickly from bleaching ( figures 3 , 5 ) . results here suggest that these traits are conserved on the evolutionary tree , irrespective of species ' taxonomic affiliations .\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\nalthough the presence of fish on coral colonies and individual polyps of the anthozoa is relatively common ( e . g . , munday et al .\n) . other fishes may hover over individuals of this large solitary coral polyp , but without direct contact with the tentacles .\nat 3\u201328 m depth in the davao gulf between july 2010 and may 2011 . instead of\n. about every 15th coral polyp was inhabited by one or two fish and , at a few occasions , specimens of more than one fish species were present on a single coral polyp ( fig .\nb ) . these fishes dwelled within the coral canopy apparently without being adversely affected . although these fishes survive outside this coral microhabitat , i repeatedly observed one specimen of\noccupying the same coral polyp over a period of 5 days . the representatives of the gobiidae were mostly adult specimens , whereas those of the labridae were exclusively juveniles . small juveniles ( \u22644 cm tl ) resided among the tentacles , whereas larger juveniles hovered over the tentacles or swam along the coral periphery . this is the first observation of fishes , other than\ngobies a trimma sp . ( undescribed species ) , b eviota pellucida and e . lachdeberei , and the shrimp cuapetes lacertae among tentacles of heliofungia actiniformis\nhoeksema bw , van der meij s , fransen chjm ( 2011 ) the mushroom coral as a habitat . j mar biol assoc uk 91 : doi :\nmunday pl , jones gp , caley mj ( 1997 ) habitat specialisation and the distribution and abundance of coral - dwelling gobies . mar ecol prog ser 152 : 227\u2013239\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na coral is recorded eating a jellyfish for the first time , in intriguing photographs taken by scientists .\ncoral usually feed on tiny plankton as well as products provided by photosynthetic algae .\nyet the photos reveal a stationary mushroom coral sucking in a large moon jellyfish .\nresearchers believe the ability to feed on a variety of food sources like jellyfish may give the coral an advantage in a changing world .\nthe pictures were taken on a dive by mr omri bronstein from tel aviv university in israel and mr gal dishon from bar - ilan university , ramat gan , israel in march 2009 during a survey on reefs near the israeli city of eilat in the red sea .\nocean currents and nutrients had created a seasonal bloom of the jellyfish ( aurelia aurita ) and many surrounded the reef in which the team were diving .\nduring the survey we were amazed to notice some mushroom corals actively feeding on the moon jellyfish ,\nsays ada alamaru , a member of the research team who is doing her phd in marine biology supervised by prof yossi loya at tel aviv university , israel .\nwe couldn ' t believe our eyes when we saw it ,\nms alamaru says .\nthe moon jellyfish is known to be eaten by a number of predators including fish , turtles and sea birds .\nhowever , to find it preyed upon by the mushroom coral ( fungia scruposa ) was a unique discovery .\nthis is the first documentation of a coral feeding on a jellyfish almost equal to its size ,\nms alamaru says .\nin fact we saw a few corals feeding and not only one .\nnormally corals feed on small microscopic organisms that make up plankton only 0 . 2mm to 0 . 4mm in size . in doing so they may ingest extremely small embryonic jellies that would be difficult to see by the naked eye . however research into the stomach contents of corals by scientists in the us did not find evidence of this .\nthey also feed on energy products provided by photosynthetic algae that live inside the coral .\nthis is definitely unusual . as far as i know no other coral are reported to feed on jellyfish . however , some sea anemones , which are close relatives of corals , are documented feeding on other jelly species ,\nms alamaru says .\nunlike most reef building corals which are colonial and are made up of hundreds of polyps f . scruposa is solitary and composed of one large polyp , measuring up to 30cm in diameter .\nthey are not attached to the seabed so have a limited ability to move , unlike their reef building relatives .\nhowever , ms alamaru says it is still a mystery how exactly f . scruposa manages to capture its prey .\nthe coral ' s ability to feed opportunistically when a jellyfish bloom occurs provides valuable protein to the animal .\nms alamaru suggests the discovery reveals not only a food source for the large mouthed coral but also potential further benefits in a changing environment , where due to climate change and anthropogenic disturbances , jelly blooms are increasing in frequency and intensity .\nthe ability to utilise a variety of food sources and to take advantage of such a bloom event gives the mushroom corals an advantage compared with other small polyped corals that are not able to feed on such large prey items ,\nms alamaru says .\nthe bbc is not responsible for the content of external sites . read more .\nthis page is best viewed in an up - to - date web browser with style sheets ( css ) enabled . while you will be able to view the content of this page in your current browser , you will not be able to get the full visual experience . please consider upgrading your browser software or enabling style sheets ( css ) if you are able to do so .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nall my fungiids are placed closely together and they do not seem to have any negative influence to each other . their stinging cells seem to be harmless , and other nearby animals like a galaxea sp . and some actinodiscus sp . do not react negative at all . they are all living like a happy family . even the anenomfish premnas biaculeatus have joined them .\ni have tried to classify the species and most likely it is f . danai . but i am far from sure . i placed both polyps in good light and on sandy bottom . they are doing excellent , are expanded the whole day long and have during 1989 shown the following growth :\noctober - 89 : \u201c \u201c 60mm this gives an average growth of 3 , 5mm diameter pr . month . if the average thickness of the skeleton is estimated roughly to 2 . 0 mm and the specific weight of app . 1 , 5 g / ccm , these two colonies alone have fixed app . 17 gr . calcium carbonate , all very roughly estimated of course . as we clearly see that stony corals , serpulide worms , vermetide snails , different crustaceans , molluscs , the calcareous red - , green - and brown algae and many other calcium fixers are growing heavily , how can anyone state that the adding of calcium and bicarbonate is not necessary ! ?\nin august 1990 i once again measured the second generation acanthocauli on the shell - side of the giant calm . it had now grown to a diameter of 2 cm and as this was not enough , another three very small new acanthocauli - polyps are developing near by . meanwhile the \u201colder ones\u201d have grown to a diameter of 8 cm .\nwhen i examined the shells of the clam about two months after the event , i to my even bigger astonishment discovered that two new acanthocauli were growing from the same stalk ! in nature the stalk becomes weakened from calcareous destroying organisms like algae and sponges , and the polyp breaks off . here the obvious reason for loosening was the decreasing in light intensity when the giant calm was moved backwards in my aquarium . when i visited herr dietrich st\u00e3\u00bcber , who is one of the world leading persons on hermatypic stony corals in captivity , in berlin ( brd ) in october 1989 , in his excellent aquarium especially designed for the growth of scleractinian corals , i was able to detect the asexual formation from several acanthocauli at an fungia sp . , perhaps f . simplex . the pictures that follows this article clearly shows that we have now reached the technical point where natural conditions can be simulated and that natural events can be studied in detail . we can add something new to the knowledge of the reef corals . for all those especially interested in scleractinian corals veron , 1986 is a must and really an excellent work on the subject . the full reference is given below .\nveron , j . e . n . , 1986 . corals of australia and the indo - pacific .\nangus & robertson publ . , london , uk and north ryde , australia . 644 pp . fully colored illustrated . isbn 0 207 15116 4 .\nthe field surveys carried out in this study comply with the \u201canimal welfare act of 1998\u201d issued by the government of the philippines . we greatly acknowledge j . bayogan and g . gumanao ( davao del norte state college ) for providing logistic support during the fieldwork activities . furthermore , we are grateful for identification confirmations by c . fransen ( naturalis biodiversity center , netherlands ) , d . greenfield ( university of hawaii , u . s . a . ) and r . winterbottom ( royal ontario museum , canada ) . we thank two anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments .\nahmadia gn , pezold fl , smith dj ( 2012 ) cryptobenthic fish biodiversity and microhabitat use in healthy and degraded coral reefs in se sulawesi , indonesia . mar biodivers 42 : 433\u2013442\nallen gr ( 2008 ) conservation hotspots of biodiversity and endemism for indo - 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associated wentletrap snails ( gastropoda : epitoniidae ) . contrib zool 82 : 1\u201325\ngosliner tm , behrens dw , williams gc ( 1996 ) coral reef animals of the indo - pacific . sea challengers , monterey\nherler j ( 2007 ) microhabitats and ecomorphology of coral - and coral rock - associated gobiid fish ( teleostei : gobiidae ) in the northern red sea . mar ecol 28 : 82\u201394\nherler j , hilgers h ( 2005 ) a synopsis of coral and coral - rock associated gobies ( pisces : gobiidae ) from the gulf of aqaba , northern red sea . aqua int j ichthyol 10 : 103\u2013132\nhoeksema bw ( 1988 ) mobility of free - living fungiid corals ( scleractinia ) , a dispersion mechanism and survival strategy in dynamic reef habitats . proc 6th int coral reef symp 2 : 715\u2013720\nhoeksema bw ( 2007 ) delineation of the indo - malayan centre of maximum marine biodiversity : the coral triangle . in : renema w ( ed ) biogeography , time , and place : distributions , barriers , and islands . springer , dordrecht , pp 117\u2013178\nhoeksema bw , ten hove ha ( 2014 ) first record of a christmas tree worm in a mushroom coral ( loyalty islands , southwest pacific ) . coral reefs 33 : 717\nhoeksema bw , van der meij set , fransen chjm ( 2012 ) the mushroom coral as a habitat . j mar biol assoc uk 92 : 647\u2013663\nhoeksema bw , waheed z , alamaru a ( 2013 ) out of sight : aggregations of epizoic comb jellies underneath mushroom corals . coral reefs 32 : 1065\nhuang d , licuanan wy , hoeksema bw , chen ca , ang po , huang h , lane djw , vo st , waheed z , affendi ya , yeemin t , chou lm ( 2014 ) extraordinary diversity of reef corals in the south china sea . mar biodivers . doi :\nin the spermonde archipelago , south sulawesi , indonesia . coral reefs 28 : 793\u2013804\noliverio m , barco a , modica mv , richter a , mariottini p ( 2009 ) ecological barcoding of corallivory by second internal transcribed spacer sequences : hosts of coralliophiline gastropods detected by the cnidarian dna in their stomach . mol ecol resour 9 : 94\u2013103\nspp . ) from the great barrier reef , australia . bull mar sci 55 : 193\u2013211\nrandall je ( 1998 ) zoogeography of shore fishes of the indo - pacific region . zool stud 37 : 227\u2013268\nreijnen bt , van der meij set , van ofwegen lp ( 2011 ) fish , fans and hydroids : host species of pygmy seahorses . zookeys 103 : 1\u201326\nroberts cm , mcclean cj , veron jen , hawkins jp , allen gr , mcallister de , mittermeier cg , schueler fw , spalding m , wells f , vynne c , werner tb ( 2002 ) marine conservation hotspots and conservation priorities for tropical reefs . science 295 : 1280\u20131284\nschiemer l , niederm\u00fcller s , herler j ( 2009 ) the influence of colony size and coral health on the occupation of coral - associated gobies ( pisces : gobiidae ) . coral reefs 28 : 137\u2013142\nvan der meij set , suharsono , hoeksema bw ( 2010 ) long - term changes in coral assemblages under natural and anthropogenic stress in jakarta bay ( 1920\u20132005 ) . mar pollut bull 60 : 1442\u20131454\nwaheed z , hoeksema bw ( 2013 ) a tale of two winds : species richness patterns of reef corals around the semporna peninsula , malaysia . mar biodivers 43 : 37\u201351\nwaheed z , hoeksema bw ( 2014 ) diversity patterns of scleractinian corals at kota kinabalu , malaysia , in relation to depth and exposure . raffles bull zool 62 : 66\u201382\nbos , a . r . & hoeksema , b . w . environ biol fish ( 2015 ) 98 : 1479 . urltoken\nin most corals , the over - all appearance of a colony is not a direct outcome of the way its corallites multiply . however , in the family faviidae , the type of budding may determine the type of colony that results . in this family , the terms used to describe both budding ( the formation of corallites ) and growth form are usually the same . ( for example , the term \u2018meandroid\u2019 may be used to describe both the type of budding and the type of colony . )\nall corals that form colonies do so by a process of budding , where the parent polyp divides itself into two or more daughter polyps ( intratentacular budding ) , or daughter corallites form on the side of the parent colony ( extratentacular budding ) , or polyps lose their identity , as seen in colonies with valleys . some colonies have both intra - and extra - tentacular buds .\nright . extratentacular budding ( left ) and intratentacular budding ( right ) in faviid colonies . drawings : geoff kelley\nif the corallites of a colony all have their own walls they are called plocoid or phaceloid , depending on how elongate they are . if they share common walls they are called meandroid or cerioid , depending on whether or not they form valleys . if they are meandroid and have their own walls they are termed flabello - meandroid .\n5 . colony formation in corals . 1 plocoid colonies have corallites with their own walls . 2 phaceloid colonies also have corallites with their own walls , but these are long and tubular . 3 cerioid colonies have polyps , which have common walls . 4 . meandroid colonies have valleys rather than polyps . 4 meandroid colonies have valleys rather than polyps . 5 . flabello - meandroid colonies also have valleys , but do not have common walls . drawings : geoff kelly .\nthese growth forms confer several constraints on corallite replication and growth . plocoid and phaceloid colonies can have both intratentacular and extratentacular budding , while cerioid colonies can only have intratentacular budding . plocoid , cerioid and meandroid colonies have integrated corallites or valleys , while adjacent corallites or valleys of phaceloid and flabello - meandroid colonies may have little or no connecting tissue . the latter may compete for space and other resources , with the result that some parts of colonies overgrow other parts .\nsome colonies combine two growth forms . euphyllia and lobophyllia colonies may be phaceloid toward the colony centre where lack of space constrains valley formation and be flabello - meandroid at the periphery where there are no such constraints . similarly , symphyllia colonies may have both meandroid and flabello - meandroid areas ; favia colonies may have both plocoid and meandroid areas ; favites and goniastrea colonies may be both plocoid and cerioid . there are also many intermediate forms between plocoid and fully phaceloid and ( very commonly ) between cerioid and fully meandroid colonies .\na variety of other types of colony formation are found in corals , but these are uncommon .\nthe most common terms used to describe growth form are ordinary descriptive words . massive means solid and similar in shape in all dimensions . encrusting means adhering to the substrate . branching means forming branches . arborescent means tree - like . columnar means forming columns . laminar means plate - like . explanate means forming solid sheets . other terms are used with particular groups of corals ; all are explained in the glossary . however , there are so many different shapes of corals that such descriptive terms can be misleading and carry less meaning than illustrations .\na common modification of all descriptive terms is the addition of the prefix sub to the term ( e . g . submassive , subcerioid , sub - equal ) , meaning \u2018less than\u2019 or \u2018not quite\u2019 .\nthe much - studied coral porites forms large hemispherical colonies which typically grow ( radially ) at a rate of around 1 cm per year as determined by x - rays of thin slices . some more heavily calcified colonies of other corals grow at slower rates than this , although most are faster . staghorn acropora readily grows ( linearly ) up to about 30 cm per year . plate - forming acropora also grows ( in diameter ) up to about 30 cm per year ."]}
{"id": 1248, "summary": [{"text": "pupilla muscorum , commonly known as the moss chrysalis snail or widespread column , is a species of minute air-breathing land snail , a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk or micromollusk in the family pupillidae . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "pupilla muscorum", "paragraphs": ["barna p\u00e1ll - gergely marked\npupilla muscorum\nas trusted on the\npupilla muscorum\npage .\nsubgenus pupilla ( pupilla ) j . fleming , 1828 represented as pupilla j . fleming , 1828\nmoss snail ( pupilla muscorum ) . picture : \u00a9 stefan haller ( urltoken ) .\nmoss snail ( pupilla muscorum ) . picture : \u00a9 malcolm storey ( urltoken ) .\nsubgenus pupilla ( afripupilla ) pilsbry , 1921 represented as pupilla j . fleming , 1828\nsubgenus pupilla ( fragipupilla ) schileyko , 1984 represented as pupilla j . fleming , 1828\nsubgenus pupilla ( striopupilla ) pilsbry , 1921 represented as pupilla j . fleming , 1828\n\u00bb species pupilla ( pupilla ) triplicata ( s . studer , 1820 ) represented as pupilla triplicata ( s . studer , 1820 )\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nsammalkotilo\nto\npupilla muscorum ( linnaeus , 1758 )\n.\n' the ecological status of pupilla muscorum ( linn\u00e9 ) in holocene overbank alluvium at kingsmead bridge , wiltshire . '\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nmoosp\u00fcppchen\nto\npupilla muscorum ( linnaeus , 1758 )\n.\nanderson , r . , ( 2016 ) . pupilla ( pupilla ) muscorum ( linnaeus 1758 ) . [ in ] molluscireland . urltoken accessed on 2018 - 07 - 09 .\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nmoos - puppenschnecke\nto\npupilla muscorum ( linnaeus , 1758 )\n.\npupilla pratensis ( gastropoda : pupillidae ) in the czech republic and slovakia - its known distribution , ecology and conchometrical distinction from p . muscorum and p . alpicola\npupilla pratensis ( gastropoda : pupillidae ) in the czech republic and slovakia and its distinction from p . muscorum and p . alpicola based on multidimensional analysis of shell measurements\npupilla pratensis ( gastropoda : pupillidae ) in the czech republic and slovakia and its distinction from p . muscorum and p . alpicola based on multidimensional analysis of shell measurements | springerlink\npupilla pratensis ( gastropoda : pupillidae ) in the czech republic and slovakia - its known distribution , ecology and conchometrical distinction from p . muscorum and p . alpicola | masaryk university\n( of pupilla ( pupilla ) muscorum ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) bank , r . a . ; neubert , e . ( 2017 ) . checklist of the land and freshwater gastropoda of europe . last update : july 16th , 2017 . [ details ]\nalthough it is not clear whether any subspecies of this species are currently recognized , if subspecies do exist within this species , it would possibly be the type ( or nominate ) race , pupilla muscorum muscorum , that occurs in utah . the species , however , could well be considered monotypic .\n\u00bb species pupilla ( pupilla ) anodon ( deshayes , 1863 ) \u2020 accepted as negulopsis anodon ( deshayes , 1863 ) \u2020 ( new combination ( cf . ) )\npupa ( pupilla ) j . fleming , 1828 ( considered as a separate genus )\nall 20th century authors who have discussed this species in utah have used the currently accepted scientific name pupilla muscorum . chamberlin and jones ( 1929 ) applied to it the common name the two - toothed snail .\nvon proschwitz , t . , c . schander , u . jueg , and s . thorkildsen . 2009 . morphology , ecology , and dna - barcoding distinguish pupilla pratensis ( clessen , 1871 ) from pupilla muscorum ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ( pulmonata : pupillidae ) . journal of molluscan studies 75 : 315 - 322 .\n( of pupilla ( pupilla ) j . fleming , 1828 ) bank , r . ( 2017 ) . classification of the recent terrestrial gastropoda of the world . last update : july 16th , 2017 . [ details ]\nmoss snails are ovoviviparous snails - their eggs can hibernate inside the mother ' s body and be laid in spring , when favourable conditions prevail . while the juveniles of pupilla muscorum usually hatch during oviposition ( and then crawl around with the amnion over their shells ) , the embryos of the alpine chrysalis snail ( pupilla alpicola ) need some additional days to develop before hatching .\nhow to see this species pupilla muscorum has been seen within the last decade only at benderg bay , co . down and portstewart strand , co . londonderry . areas where it was formerly common such as murlough nnr , garron point , bushfoot dunes , curran sands , whitepark bay and magilligan appear abandoned . it should be looked for by sieving sand and moss in fore dunes or around the edges of dune slacks .\n( of pupilla ( afripupilla ) pilsbry , 1921 ) bank , r . ( 2017 ) . classification of the recent terrestrial gastropoda of the world . last update : july 16th , 2017 . [ details ]\n( of pupilla ( fragipupilla ) schileyko , 1984 ) bank , r . ( 2017 ) . classification of the recent terrestrial gastropoda of the world . last update : july 16th , 2017 . [ details ]\nspecies description the moss chrysalis snail is a small ( 3 - 3 . 5 mm ) , cylindrical shell of 6 - 7 whorls with a blunt , obtuse apex . the shell is brown , slightly glossy and finely striate . the aperture is dextral and has a single white denticle , with the outer lip reinforced internally by a strong white rib or callus . the lip is not reflected . in this it differs from lauria cylindracea which is superficially rather similar . lauria is in general a wall species with a predilection for climbing vertical surfaces , something which it does not share with pupilla . the lip in lauria is reflected outwards and is thickened and whitish and there is a single internal tooth .\n( of pupilla ( striopupilla ) pilsbry , 1921 ) pilsbry h . a . ( 1920 - 1921 ) . pupillidae ( vertiginidae , pupillinae ) . manual of conchology , ser . 2 . 26 : 1 - 254 , pls 1 - 24 . [ part 101 : 1 - 64 , pls 1 - 8 , 23 december 1920 ; part 102 : 65 - 128 , pls 9 - 13 , 13 may 1921 ; part 103 , 129 - 192 , pls 14 - 18 , 4 august 1921 ; part 104 : 193 - 254 , i - iv , pls 19 - 24 , 21 december 1921 ] . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 153 , 155 [ details ]\nchamberlin and jones ( 1929 ) mentioned :\na form known as xerobia [ sic ] pilsbry , commonly ranked as a subspecies , is reported to be the common form in colorado .\nseemingly , chamberlin and jones ( 1929 ) , who noted\n[ w ] e failed to take this species [ in utah ]\nand clearly had not seen material from this state , were implying that this species , in utah , may be represented by the nominal race xerobia . pilsbry ( 1948 ) , who had earlier named the form xerobia , reversed his earlier opinion , stating that xerobia should\n. . . be regarded as an arid station hunger form rather than a true race .\nin modern terms , xerobia would be called an ecomorph .\nonly 5 occurrences have been reported in utah , all of them historical , these being in utah county ( ingersoll 1877 , chamberlin and jones 1929 ) , sevier county ( chamberlin and berry 1930 ) , salt lake county ( woolstenhulme 1942a ) , grand county ( henderson 1936 ) , and san juan county ( henderson 1936 ) .\nabundance of this species in utah is not known . chamberlin and jones ( 1929 ) and chamberlin and berry ( 1930 ) , did not provide information regarding specimens . woolstenhulme ( 1942a ) reported a\nnew record\nbased on 1 utah specimen but did not indicate whether it was alive when collected or , perhaps , a very old , dead shell .\nthreats to this species in utah are not known but are thought not to be great . the population trend of this species in utah is unknown .\ninventory is needed to determine whether this species , not reported in utah since 1942 ( and even then based on one specimen of unknown condition - - perhaps an old dead shell ) , is extant in the state as well as to determine the extent of its distribution and abundance . it should be sought throughout the wasatch mountains and the central high plateaus and in other mountainous areas of utah .\nas with other species in the family pupillidae , this species is minute and living examples are difficult to find ; thus , it is easily missed unless special efforts are made to discover it .\nhabitat information for this species in utah is lacking . however , two of the reported localities are canyons descending west from the wasatch mountains ( chamberlin and jones 1929 , woolstenhulme 1942a ) and another is a moderately high ( approximately 8 , 000 - 9 , 000 ft elevation ) location in the central high plateaus ( chamberlin and berry 1930 ) . part of the locality data reported by woolstenhulme ( 1942a ) was\nstepping stone spring\n, which , though this species is terrestrial and would not have been in the spring itself unless it was dead ( drift ) material , suggests a moist , probably riparian site .\ntext modified from : oliver , george v . and william r . bosworth iii . 1999 . rare , imperiled , and recently extinct or extirpated mollusks of utah [ : ] a literature review . publication number 99 - 29 . utah division of wildlife resources , salt lake city . 230 pp .\nlinn\u00e6us , c . 1758 . systema natur\u00e6 per regna tria natur\u00e6 , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . tomus i . editio decima , reformata . - pp . [ 1 - 4 ] , 1 - 824 . holmi\u00e6 . ( salvius ) .\nshell usually light brown , varies from reddish brown to horny grey , weakly striated or almost smooth , 5 - 6 . 5 weakly convex whorls , suture not very deep , aperture usually with with well developed lip , cervical callus strongly developed , like a dam , parietal tooth usually present , palatal tooth sometimes too . differs from p . pratensis with which it lives sympatrically , in its thicker , smaller and more slender shell , lighter and more variable colour and stronger apertural lip . animal small , elliptical , dark with lighter sides and foot , upper tentacles not very long , lower tentacles very short .\non dry meadows , sand dunes , open and sunny habitats . calciphile . in portugal found under stones , dead leaves and in mosses . in britain frequent in sheep - grazed calcareous grasslands . in the alps in up to 2400 m , in bulgaria 1200 m . feeds mainly on dead plant remains on the soil , occasionally also green leaves . ovoviviparous . reproduction in france mainly between july and september , maximum release period in poland is june - august , the species is able to hibernate with eggs ( diameter 1 - 2 mm ) and can release eggs with partly grown embryos ( size 1 mm , 1 . 5 whorls ) in favourable seasons . individuals incubate 1 - 8 ( mostly 3 - 7 ) embryos thoughout the year , activity in poland is from march to october . maturity is probably reached in the second or third season . gravid individuals are not able to copulate , 0 - 20 % of the individuals at a given time are not gravid .\nthreatened by disturbance due to intensivation of land use of old calcareous grasslands in britain . vulnerable in vorarlberg , lower concern in austria and germany , decreasing ( 4r ) in bavaria .\nproschwitz et al . 2009 provided evidence that pupa pratensis was a separate species , which had already been suggested by jueg 1997 . references : moquin - tandon 1853 : 225 , moquin - tandon 1855 : 392 ( life cycle ) , germain 1930 : 423 ( life cycle ) , nobre 1941 : 146 , damjanov & likharev 1975 : 99 , kerney et al . 1983 : 118 , grossu 1987 : 275 , falkner 1990 : 148 , vogt et al . 1994 : 103 , jueg 1997 , turner et al . 1998 : 162 , r\u00e9al & r\u00e9al - testud 1988 : 50 ( no record from corse since 1848 ) , kerney 1999 : 103 , pokryzsko 2001 ( life cycle ) , hubenov 2007 , proschwitz et al . 2009 , boschi 2011 : 239 , welter - schultes 2012 : 131 ( range map europe ) .\nbennington co . , dorset , vermont . on concrete rubble , culvert in low grassy area between parking lot and vt 30 at quarry pond ( ca . 1 . 4 mi se dorset ) , h . lee ! 10 / 27 / 07 , visual reconnaissance . ( 3 . 0 to 3 . 6 mm . )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\ncounty name all counties alcona alger allegan alpena antrim arenac baraga barry bay benzie berrien branch calhoun cass charlevoix cheboygan chippewa clare clinton crawford delta dickinson eaton emmet genesee gladwin gogebic grand traverse gratiot hillsdale houghton huron ingham ionia iosco iron isabella jackson kalamazoo kalkaska kent keweenaw lake lapeer leelanau lenawee livingston luce mackinac macomb manistee marquette mason mecosta menominee midland missaukee monroe montcalm montmorency muskegon newaygo oakland oceana ogemaw ontonagon osceola oscoda otsego ottawa presque isle roscommon saginaw sanilac schoolcraft shiawassee st . clair st . joseph tuscola van buren washtenaw wayne wexford\nmsu extension programs and materials are open to all without regard to race , color , national origin , gender , religion , age , disability , political beliefs , sexual orientation , marital status or family status . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is relatively widespread and there is no threat known to this species . it is therefore considered to be least concern ( lc ) .\nis a widespread species that occurs in almost all countries of the european union . its exact distribution is unknown , because parts of the literature records refer to\nis in decline in most parts of its irish range . it is now local and rare on northern coasts where it was formerly common . it has almost vanished from the southern part of the central limestone plain probably due to the ' improvement ' of pastures for agriculture ( byrne\nit has suffered a 66 % distributional decline in ireland . the coastal populations are becoming increasingly rare and local ( byrne\n2009 ) . for the other subpopulations , there is no coherent information available on the population size or trend of this species .\n2009 ) . in general it is known from dry meadows and grazed land on calcareous substrata .\n2009 ) . elsewhere , there is no conservation action in place for this species .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nprovoost , s . ; bonte , d . ( ed . ) ( 2004 ) . animated dunes : a view of biodiversity at the flemish coast [ levende duinen : een overzicht van de biodiversiteit aan de vlaamse kust ] . mededelingen van het instituut voor natuurbehoud , 22 . instituut voor natuurbehoud : brussel , belgium . isbn 90 - 403 - 0205 - 7 . 416 , ill . , appendices pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nthe widespread column is a small land snail with an elongated shell that is 3 . 4 - 4 . 0 mm long and 1 . 5 - 1 . 7 mm wide .\nupdated 5 / 15 / 2018 . information is summarized from mnfi ' s database of rare species and community occurrences . data may not reflect true distribution since much of the state has not been thoroughly surveyed .\nthis species inhabits calcareous slopes and wetlands . it is thought to be tolerant of disturbed habitats such as roadsides , culverts , and even quarries . in michigan , it has been documented only from a rocky woodland and roadside cedar swamp .\nfor each species , lists of natural communities were derived from review of the nearly 6 , 500 element occurrences in the mnfi database , in addition to herbarium label data for some taxa . in most cases , at least one specimen record exists for each listed natural community . for certain taxa , especially poorly collected or extirpated species of prairie and savanna habitats , natural community lists were derived from inferences from collection sites and habitat preferences in immediately adjacent states ( particularly indiana and illinois ) . natural communities are not listed for those species documented only from altered or ruderal habitats in michigan , especially for taxa that occur in a variety of habitats outside of the state .\nnatural communities are not listed in order of frequency of occurrence , but are rather derived from the full set of natural communities , organized by ecological group . in many cases , the general habitat descriptions should provide greater clarity and direction to the surveyor . in future versions of the rare species explorer , we hope to incorporate natural community fidelity ranks for each taxon .\nthis species may be more tolerant of disturbance than most rare snails . however , land - use activities that remove forest canopy cover and alter critical habitat requirements such as cool microclimate and moisture availability should be avoided at occupied sites . these include activities such as timber harvesting , residential development , and road building . the species also is sensitive to excessive trampling and orv use .\nsurveys can be conducted anytime during the growing season , but are most successful in spring and fall following rain showers or when soil is moist , during high relative humidity and cooler temperatures . in addition to visual surveys , surveyors can collect samples of leaf litter , turf , and loose soil , dry in a low - temperature oven , and sift through , looking for shells .\nmichigan natural features inventory . 2007 . rare species explorer ( web application ) . available online at urltoken [ accessed jul 9 , 2018 ]\nnekola , j . c . 1998 . terrestrial gastropd inventory of the niagaran escarpment and keweenaw volcanic belt in michigan ' s upper peninsula . small grants program , 1998 nongame wildlife fund , natural heritage program , michigan dnr , lansing . 133pp .\nschilthuizen , m . and h . a . rutjes . 2001 . land snail diversity in a square kilometer of tropical rainforest in sabah , malaysian borneo . journal of molluscan studies 67 : 417 - 423 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nturgeon , d . d . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , w . k . emerson , w . g . lyons , w . pratt , et al .\nturgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , et al .\ncommon and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks , 2nd ed .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nchrysalis snails have their name from their outward resemblance with a holometabole insect ' s chrysalis . they are usually larger than whorl snails ( vertiginidae ) and have distinct , if short , lower tentacles . chrysalis snails are very widely distributed , they can be found on all continents , except antarctica ; in europe their distribution in the north stretches beyond the arctic circle , in the alps beyond 2000 m msl .\nthe common name chrysalis snails is used for whorl snails ( vertiginidae ) , as well as lauriidae and pupillidae , all of which share the same superfamily , pupilloidea .\ndescription : the moss snail usually has a light brown shell , whose colour may vary between reddish brown and yellowish horn colour . the shell is slightly striated , but may also almost have a smooth surface . the whorls are slightly rounded at the outside , the suture separating them is not very deep . the aperture lip usually is well developed , and on the back of the apertural whorl the snail has a prominent callus well visible because of its whitish colour . in the shell mouth there usually is a parietal ( upper ) tooth ; there may also be a palatal ( lower ) tooth or lamella , which often melts with the shell wall .\nthe snail ' s body is small with an elliptic foot , which is dark coloured , becoming lighter coloured at the flanks and the sole . the upper tentacles are not very long , the lower ones are very short .\ndimensions : h : 3 - 4 mm ; w : 1 . 65 - 1 . 75 mm ; u : 5 - 6 \u00bd . ( abbreviations ) .\nmoss snails live on dry meadows , even on sand hills and in more or less open and sunny places . the snail usually prefers calciferous ground , but is also described as indifferent to the ground limestone content ( e\n, p . ( 1956 ) , p . 46 ) . in portugal it can also be found under stones , in the leaf litter and in mosses . in great britain it is also often found on calciferous sheep pastures .\n) - moss snails practically are found everywhere in europe . in the alps the altitude limit for\n( 1956 ) , see above ) , whereas the alpine chrysalis snail , for example , can be found as high as 2400 m msl .\nfalkner , m . , von proschwitz , t . & r\u00fcetschi , j .\njustification : there are uncertainties about the distribution of this species as different taxonomic concepts have been applied for this species . a taxonomic revision of this species is necessary and subsequently the distribution in europe as well as status of the populations needs to be researched . it is listed as data deficient ( dd ) . this species has also been assessed at the regional level : european regional assessment : data deficient ( dd ) eu27 regional assessment : data deficient ( dd ) at the level of the 27 member states of the european union\nit is difficult to define the species distribution as different taxonomic concepts have been applied to this species .\nthere is no information available as the taxonomic concept of this species is under debate .\nin switzerland , the species is listed as critically endangered , due to the strong population declines . there is no information available as the taxonomic concept of this species is under debate . a taxonomic revision of this species is necessary and subsequently the distribution in europe as well as status of the populations needs to be researched .\nfalkner , m . , von proschwitz , t . & r\u00fcetschi , j . 2011 .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\ndata and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho .\nberan l . , ju\u0159i\u010dkov\u00e1 l . & hors\u00e1k m . 2005 . \u2014mollusca ( m\u011bkk\u00fd\u0161i ) , pp . 69\u201374 . in : farka\u010d j . , kr\u00e1l d . & \u0161korp\u00edk m . ( eds ) , \u010derven\u00fd seznam ohro\u017een\u00fdch druh\u016f \u010desk\u00e9 republiky . bezobratl\u00ed [ red list of threatened species in the czech republic . invertebrates ] , agentura ochrany p\u0159\u00edrody a krajiny \u010dr , praha .\nbrabenec j . 1970 . m\u011bkk\u00fd\u0161i st\u00e1tn\u00ed p\u0159\u00edrodn\u00ed rezervace dubno . ( molluskenfauna des naturschutzgebietes dubno ) . pr\u00e1ce stud . p\u0159\u00edrodov\u011bd .\nclessin s . 1871 . die mollusken - fauna der umgegend von augsburg . ber . naturhist . ver . augsburg\nclessin s . 1887\u20131890 . die molluskenfauna mitteleuropa\u2019s . ii . theil . diemolluskenfauna \u00f6sterreich - ungarns und der schweiz . bauer & raspe , n\u00fcrnberg , 858 pp .\nehrendorfer f . & hamann u . 1965 . vorschl\u00e4ge zu einer floristischen kartierung von mitteleuropa . ber . deutsch . bot . gesell .\nhors\u00e1k m . 2003 . how to sample mollusc communities in mires easily . malacol . bohemoslov .\nhors\u00e1k m . 2005 . molluscs , pp . 197\u2013208 . in : poul\u00ed\u010dkov\u00e1 a . , h\u00e1jek m . & rybn\u00ed\u010dek k . . ( eds ) , ecology and palaeoecology of spring fens in the western part of the carpathians , palacky university , olomouc .\n( linnaeus , 1758 ) im nsg \u2018kl\u00e4dener plage\u2019 ( mecklenburg - vorpommern , landkreis parchim ) : ein beitrag zur \u00f6kologie , geh\u00e4usemorphologie und systematik der art ( gastropoda : stylommatophora : pupillidae ) . malakol . abh .\nju\u0159i\u010dkov\u00e1k m . & beran l . 2001 . check - list of the molluscs ( mollusca ) of the czech republic . acta soc . zool . bohem .\nju\u0159i\u010dkov\u00e1 l . , hors\u00e1k m . , beran l . & dvo\u0159\u00e1k l . 2008 . check - list of the molluscs ( mollusca ) of the czech republic . available from\nkerney m . p . , cameron r . a . d . & jungbluth j . h . 1983 . die landschnecken nord - und mitteleuropas . verlag paul parey , hamburg und berlin , 384 pp .\nlo\u017eek v . 1956 . kl\u00ed\u010d \u010deskoslovensk\u00fdch m\u011bkk\u00fd\u0161\u016f [ the key of czechoslovakian molluscs ] . vydavate\u013estvo slovenskej akad\u00e9mie vied , bratislava , 435 pp .\nlo\u017eek v . 1992 . m\u011bkk\u00fd\u0161i ( mollusca ) , pp . 22\u201339 . in : \u0161kapec l . ( ed . ) , \u010derven\u00e1 kniha ohro\u017een\u00fdch a vz\u00e1cn\u00fdch rostlin a \u017eivo\u010dich\u016f \u010dsfr . 3 . bezobratl\u00ed [ red book of threatened and rare plants and animals of czechoslovakia . 3 . invertebrates ] , pr\u00edroda , bratislava .\nrafajov\u00e1 a . 2002 . m\u011bkk\u00fd\u0161\u00ed fauna dlouh\u00e9 meze v chko \u017eelezn\u00e9 hory [ molluscs of the dlouh\u00e1 mez in the protected landscape area \u017eelezn\u00e9 hory mts ( east bohemia , czech republic ) ] . v\u00fdchodo\u010des . sb . p\u0159\u00edrodov\u011bd . pr\u00e1ce a studie\ns\u00e1dlo j . 2000 . p\u016fvod travinn\u00e9 vegetace slatin v \u010dech\u00e1ch : sukcese kontra cenogeneze [ the origin of grassland vegetation of fen peats in the czech republic : succession versus coenogenesis ] . preslia\nter braak c . j . f . & \u0161milauer p . 2002 . canoco reference manual and canodraw for windows user\u2019s guide : software for canonical community ordination ( version 4 . 5 ) . microcomputer power , ithaca , ny , 500 pp .\n( linnaeus , 1758 ) ( pulmonata : pupillidae ) . j . mollusc . stud .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nclick here to view an interactive map of the northern ireland dataset as currently collated by cedar . the map is generated through the nbn gateway using their interactive mapping tool .\na northern ireland priority species which has been red - listed as endangered ( en ) in ireland ( byrne et al . , 2009 )\nlife cycle adults are present at all times of year . breeding probably takes place during the spring and summer months\ncurrent status much rarer than formerly in n . ireland due to abandonment of dune management and grazing , particularly at murlough nnr , bushfoot dunes , curran sands and much of magilligan .\nit is a priority species in northern ireland and listed as endangered ( en ) in the irish red list ( byrne et al . , 2009 )\nwhat you can do this small shell should be looked for in dune areas kept clear of vegetation either by natural sand movement or by grazing . if you encounter something which suggests this species please note the locality from an os map and report the details , with a specimen or specimens to cedar ( record centre manager , cedar , national museums northern ireland , cultra , holywood , co . down , bt18 0eu ; cedar . info @ nmni . com ) .\nliterature anderson , r . ( 1997 ) . an annotated list of the land and freshwater mollusca of northern ireland . environment and heritage service research & development series .\nbank , r . ( 2017 ) . classification of the recent terrestrial gastropoda of the world . last update : july 16th , 2017 . [ details ]\n( of paracoryna flach , 1890 \u2020 ) nordsieck , h . ( 2014 ) . annotated check - list of the genera of fossil land snails ( gastropoda : stylommatophora ) of western and central europe ( cretaceous \u2013 pliocene ) , with description of new taxa . archiv f\u00fcr molluskenkunde : international journal of malacology . 143 ( 2 ) : 153 - 185 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 158 [ details ]\n( of torquatella held , 1838 ) bank , r . ( 2017 ) . classification of the recent terrestrial gastropoda of the world . last update : july 16th , 2017 . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nturgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , p . m . mikkelsen , r . j . neves , c . f . e . roper , g . rosenberg , b . roth , a . scheltema , f . g . thompson , m . vecchione , and j . d . williams . 1998 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks . 2nd edition . american fisheries society special publication 26 , bethesda , maryland : 526 pp .\nthis species inhabits nearly the entire range of the genus and is known throughout the northern hemisphere in europe , northernmost africa , northern asia , and north america . although pilsbry ( 1948 ) and hubricht ( 1985 ) report this as a native north american species , native populations exist in subalpine forests in the rockies and tundra habitats as far south as churchill , manitoba and the northern shore of the st . lawrence in quebec , and are commonly present as full - glacial fossils ; however , these populations differ in shell features from the disturbance tolerant form common to anthropogenic habitats from the mid - atlantic states to iowa and minnesota ( nekola , 2008 ) . the latter populations likely represent a recently escaped european population .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\n( > 2 , 500 , 000 square km ( greater than 1 , 000 , 000 square miles ) ) this species inhabits nearly the entire range of the genus and is known throughout the northern hemisphere in europe , northernmost africa , northern asia , and north america . although pilsbry ( 1948 ) and hubricht ( 1985 ) report this as a native north american species , native populations exist in subalpine forests in the rockies and tundra habitats as far south as churchill , manitoba and the northern shore of the st . lawrence in quebec , and are commonly present as full - glacial fossils ; however , these populations differ in shell features from the disturbance tolerant form common to anthropogenic habitats from the mid - atlantic states to iowa and minnesota ( nekola , 2008 ) . the latter populations likely represent a recently escaped european population .\neast - central north american populations ( maine and tennessee west to eastern iowa ) generally occur in disturbed anthropogenic habitats such as road verges , vacant lots , abandoned quarries , old fields , and concrete culverts ( hubricht , 1985 ) although they may also occasionally inhabit less disturbed carbonate cliff , glade , and grassland sites . to the north ( newfoundland , the north shore of the st . lawrence to northwestern minnesota and the southern shore of hudsons bay ) populations occur on bare soil , under stones , on turf , and in thin leaf litter accumulations on sandy or rocky shorelines and in tundra ( nekola and coles , 2010 ) .\noccurrences are based on some evidence of historical or current presence of single or multiple specimens , including live specimens or recently dead shells ( i . e . , soft tissue still attached without signs of external weathering or staining ) , at a given location with potentially recurring existence . weathered shells constitute a historic occurrence . evidence is derived from reliable published observation or collection data ; unpublished , though documented ( i . e . government or agency reports , web sites , etc . ) observation or collection data ; or museum specimen information .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nanderson , t . k . 2005 . land snail diversity in wind cave national park , south dakota . western north american naturalist , 65 ( 2 ) : 186 - 195 .\ncheatum , e . p . , and r . w . fullington . 1973 . the aquatic and land mollusca of texas . part ii : the recent and pleistocene members of the pupillidae and urocoptidae ( gastropoda ) in texas . dallas museum of natural history , bulletin 1 . 67 pp .\ndourson , d . c . 2015 . land snails of west virginia . goatslug publications , bakersville , north carolina . 412 pp .\nharris , s . a . and e . pip . 1973 . molluscs as indicators of late - and post - glacial history in alberta . canadian journal of zoology , 51 : 209 - 215 .\nhotopp , k . and t . a . pearce . 2007 . land snails in new york : statewide distribution and talus site faunas . final report for contract # nyher 041129 submitted to new york state biodiversity research institute , new york state museum , albany , new york . 91 pp .\nhubricht , l . 1985 . the distribution of the native land mollusks of the eastern united states . fieldiana : zoology , 24 : 1 - 191 .\njass , c . n . , j . i . mead , a . d . morrison , and l . d . agebroad . 2002 . late pleistocene mollusks from the southern black hills , south dakota . western north american naturalist , 62 ( 2 ) : 129 - 140 .\nneck , r . w . 1989 . additional terrestrial gastropods of travis county , texas . malacology data net , 2 ( 5 / 6 ) : 135 - 143 .\nnekola , j . c . 2008 . land snail ecology and biogeography of eastern maine . final report submitted to : maine department of inland fisheries & wildlife and the aroostook hills and lowlands inventory , january 27 , 2008 . 119 pp .\nnekola , j . c . and b . f . coles . 2010 . pupillid land snails of eastern north america . american malacological bulletin 28 : 29 - 57 .\nnekola , j . c . , b . f . coles , and u . bergthorsson . 2009 . evolutionary pattern and process within the vertigo gouldii ( mollusca : pulmonata : pupillidae ) group of minute north american land snails . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 53 : 1010 - 1024 .\npilsbry , h . a . 1948 . land mollusca of north america ( north of mexico ) . monograph of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia , 2 ( 2 ) : 521 - 1113 .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nmap hosted by the national biodiversity data centre , waterford to view the species profile on biodiversity maps and access the live map , please click on the map .\na short cylindrical shell of 6 - 7 whorls with a blunt , obtuse apex . aperture has a single , white , parietal denticle . there is a strong white rib or callus behind the lip which can be seen through the shell from the side . the lip itself is slightly thickened but not reflected . the shell is brown , faintly glossy and finely striate . widespread but declining .\nfound across europe and siberia to the far east . also in northern north america . distribution type : circumpolar wide - temperate ( 66 ) .\nin decline in most parts of its irish range . now local and rare on northern coasts where it was formerly common . it has almost vanished from the southern part of the central limestone plain probably due to the ' improvement ' of pastures for agriculture .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nfull reference : c . linnaeus . 1758 . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima 1 : 1 - 824\nyou are running an old browser version . we recommend updating your browser to its latest version ."]}
{"id": 1249, "summary": [{"text": "bolinus cornutus , or horned murex , is a predatory species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family muricidae , the murex or rock snails .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this species is common along the west coast of africa , where it prefers moderately shallow waters .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the shell of the snail is distinctively large , spiny , and club-shaped , usually pale brown or tan in colour , with an elongated and straight siphonal canal . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "bolinus cornutus", "paragraphs": ["seashell murex bolinus cornutus outstanding ! very spiny ! 127 . 1 mm | ebay\nhorned murex - haustellum ( bolinus ) cornutus ( linnaeus , c . , 1758 ) [ more of this species ]\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\npurpurschnecke\nto\nbolinus cornutus ( linnaeus , 1758 )\n.\nhans - martin braun added the english common name\nhorned murex\nto\nbolinus cornutus ( linnaeus , 1758 )\n.\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\ngeh\u00f6rnte stachelschnecke\nto\nbolinus cornutus ( linnaeus , 1758 )\n.\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\npurpurschnecke\nto\nbolinus brandaris ( linnaeus , 1758 )\n.\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nbrandhorn\nto\nbolinus brandaris ( linnaeus , 1758 )\n.\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nherkuleskeule\nto\nbolinus brandaris ( linnaeus , 1758 )\n.\nhans - martin braun added the dutch common name\nbrandhorenslak\nto\nbolinus brandaris ( linnaeus , 1758 )\n.\npurple dye murex - haustellum ( bolinus ) brandaris ( linnaeus , c . , 1758 ) [ more of this species ]\njennifer hammock split the classifications by inventaire national du patrimoine naturel from bolinus brandaris ( linnaeus , 1758 ) to their own page .\n( of murex ( bolinus ) cornutus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) bernard , p . a . ( ed . ) ( 1984 ) . coquillages du gabon [ shells of gabon ] . pierre a . bernard : libreville , gabon . 140 , 75 plates pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nhouart r . ( 2014 ) . living muricidae of the world . muricinae . murex , promurex , haustellum , bolinus , vokesimurex and siratus . harxheim : conchbooks . 197 pp . [ details ]\n3008 t bolinus brandaris spiridon brusina ( 11 december 1845 \u2013 21 may 1909 ) was a croatian malacologist . together with oton ku\u010dera and gjuro pilar , he founded the croatian society of natural sciences in zagreb in the late 1885 .\n( of aranea conspicua perry , 1811 ) houart r . ( 2014 ) . living muricidae of the world . muricinae . murex , promurex , haustellum , bolinus , vokesimurex and siratus . harxheim : conchbooks . 197 pp . [ details ]\n( of murex cornutus linnaeus , 1758 ) linnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 746 [ details ]\n( of murex tumulosus g . b . sowerby ii , 1841 ) houart r . ( 2014 ) . living muricidae of the world . muricinae . murex , promurex , haustellum , bolinus , vokesimurex and siratus . harxheim : conchbooks . 197 pp . [ details ]\nbolinus brandaris ( originally called murex brandaris by linnaeus ) , and commonly known as the purple dye murex or the spiny dye - murex , is a species of medium - sized predatory sea snail , an edible marine gastropod mollusk in the family muricidae , the murex snails or the rock snails .\nrichter , a . , amor , m . j . & durfort , m . 2010 . the anatomy and ultrastructure of the gland of leiblein of bolinus brandis and coralliophila meyendorfii , two neogastropod species with different ecology and feeding strategies . poster for soc . for environmental biology , annual meeting , prague 2010 .\nthe colour purple was a colour and sign of dignity in the roman empire . it could only be worn by the emperor and other high ranked people . the production of the dye was extremely expensive . a gland in the shell bolinus brandaris was used to produce an originally yellow substance , but by oxydation ( cooking it in urine ) it turned purple . this liquid was used to dye fabric . the colour was fixated using alum , a type of salt .\ngofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\ngofas , s . ; afonso , j . p . ; brand\u00e0o , m . ( ed . ) . ( s . a . ) . conchas e moluscos de angola = coquillages et mollusques d ' angola . [ shells and molluscs of angola ] . universidade agostinho / elf aquitaine angola : angola . 140 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of murex tumulosus g . b . sowerby ii , 1841 ) petit , r . e . ( 2009 ) . george brettingham sowerby , i , ii & iii : their conchological publications and molluscan taxa . zootaxa . 2189 : 1\u2013218 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nbernard , p . a . ( ed . ) ( 1984 ) . coquillages du gabon [ shells of gabon ] . pierre a . bernard : libreville , gabon . 140 , 75 plates pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nshell gallery view \u00ab shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc . \u00bb conchological megadatabase on mollusks\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\nclick on an image to view all the information : family , species , author , date , and full locality .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 2 . 532 seconds . )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nversion 43 . 0 went live 11 / 6 / 2018 - i hope that the majority of issues have been fixed . my email address is on the home page if you see anything wrong .\n- note : several protected species are illustrated here only for identification purposes . they are not for sale . - the photos in our gallery are in most cases just a sample from our stock , except when only one specimen is offered . we try to match the original color but it can vary if your screen is not correctly adjusted ( gamma correction ) .\nthe gastropods ( snails & slugs ) are a group of molluscs that occupy marine , freshwater , and terrestrial environments . most gastropods have a calcareous external shell ( the snails ) . some lack a shell completely , or have reduced internal shells ( the slugs & sea slugs & pteropods ) . most members of the gastropoda are marine . most marine snails are herbivores ( algae grazers ) or predators / carnivores .\nthe horned murex snail shown above is part of the west african province :\nthe warms waters of the west african coast of the atlantic possess very unique species , especially in the volute , murex , and margin shell families . the region extends from morocco to angola with habitats varying from muddy sand flats to stretches of black basalt rock . people in this area use mollusks extensively for food .\n[ info . from museum signage ]\nwe\u2019ve partnered with invision to make it easier to search and download our images in sketch and adobe\u00ae photoshop\u00ae .\n{ { t ( ' more _ than _ one _ credit ' , { zero : calc . totalcreditcost } ) } }\nonce this video clip is done converting , you ' ll be able to download it from your video conversion queue or download history .\neditorial use only photos don ' t have any model or property releases , which means they can ' t be used for commercial , promotional , advertorial or endorsement purposes . this type of content is intended to be used in connection with events that are newsworthy or of general interest ( for example , in a blog , textbook , newspaper or magazine article ) .\nthis format requires a quick conversion ( usually under 5 mins ) before download begins , or you can get the largest and smallest formats immediately .\nby clicking\nconfirm download\nyou agree that you ' ve read and agree to all applicable license agreements for this download .\nthis item will be sent through the global shipping programme and includes international tracking . learn more - 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opens in a new window or tab .\nas other bids come in , ebay will automatically raise your bid in small amounts , up to your limit .\nby submitting your bid , you ' ll be committing to buy this item from the seller if you are the winning bidder .\nby submitting your bid , you ' re committing to buy this item from the seller if you ' re the winning bidder . you ' ve read and agree to the global shipping programme terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab . import charges previously quoted are subject to change if you increase you maximum bid amount .\nby clicking confirm , you commit to buy this item from the seller if you are the winning bidder .\nby clicking confirm , you ' re committing to buy this item from the seller if you ' re the winning bidder and have read and agree to the global shipping programme terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab . import charges previously quoted are subject to change if you increase your maximum bid amount .\nyou ' ve been outbid . don ' t let it get away - place another bid .\nyou ' ve been outbid by an automatic bid placed earlier by another bidder .\nalthough you ' re the highest bidder on this item , you ' re close to being outbid .\nalthough you ' re the high bidder on this item , the reserve price hasn ' t been met yet .\nsorry , you can ' t lower your maximum bid once it ' s placed .\nthis seller requires the buyer to have a paypal account to purchase this item . get a paypal account here .\nyour bid is the same as or more than the buy it now price . you can save time and money by buying it now .\n, you are agreeing to buy this item from the seller if you ' re the winning bidder .\nyou ' re the highest bidder , but the reserve price has not been met .\ncopyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 ebay inc . all rights reserved . user agreement , privacy , cookies and adchoice\ncaught by fishing boats , 20 ~ 30m deep . a few nicks here and there .\nmalacology is the branch of invertebrate zoology which deals with the study of the mollusca ( mollusks or molluscs ) , the second - largest phylum of animals in terms of described species after the arthropods . mollusks include snails and slugs , clams , octopus and squid , and numerous other kinds , many ( but by no means all ) of which have shells .\nusing cookies on urltoken shellauction uses cookies only for technical reasons and to facilitate and speed up your site navigation . by continuing to browse , you accept the use of cookies ; if you do not wish to receive them please disable them or not navigate this website further . more info cookies on urltoken\nutilizzo dei cookies su urltoken shellauction utilizza i cookies esclusivamente per ragioni tecniche e per facilitare e velocizzare la navigazione del sito . continuando a navigare accetti l ' utilizzo dei cookies , se non desideri riceverli ti invitiamo a disabilitarli oppure a non navigare questo sito ulteriormente . altre informazioni sui cookies di urltoken\nbeached alive after storm . cervia ( north adriatic ) , italy . 2 / 2008\nlight mauve - pink shell with slight flattened spiral ribs . sharp uneroded spire retaining smooth apical protoconch and some imbrication on earl whorls . whorls moderately convex with shallow sutures , deeper near apex .\nrespiratory water drawn in on left side through inhalent siphon by beat of cilia on robust ctenidium in the mantle cavity . siphon and pallial channel allow water to be inhaled away from contamination of food , and , with osphradium at inner end of channel , to test water quality and the scents of prey and mates .\nlocomotion by ditaxic retrograde waves on centrally divided sole of foot . slow moving shambling gait . sedentary as sessile prey usually abundant and unable to flee . travels about 10cm in a tidal cycle , with days immobile while digests meals . no planktonic stage ; dispersal relies on slow crawling ; consequent low gene exchange contributes to local differences in appearance and behaviour ; chromosome number of races varies .\nand less than full - grown perforatus perforatus ( barnacle ) urltoken ( flickr album ) .\nadults usually ignore small barnacle species such as chthamalus urltoken & urltoken ( flickr albums ) [ some sources contradict crothers ; cause may be geographical variation in genetics or habit , or frequent misidentification by humans of barnacle spp . - examination of tergoscutal flaps required urltoken flickr album ] .\nconsumption of n . lapillus by humans discouraged by acrid smell and taste , but several known predators ; list in crothers ( 1985 ) p . 302 . main enemies are carcina maenas and necora puber ( crabs ) and larus spp . ( gulls ) , and it is one of the hosts parasitized in sequence with cerastoderma edule and larus spp . by parorchis acanthus ( trematode worm ) . thick shell can sustain considerable abrasion / erosion , but polydora worms , initially commensal , may eventually cause its decay with multiple borings 1nl urltoken .\nvariations in shell colour have been attributed to diet ( barnacles : white , mytilus : dark ) , but environmental selection and genetics seem more likely . colour of individual\u2019s new growth can change in response to impact of move from shore to aquarium ; can confuse laboratory colour : diet experiment results . populations with large proportions of coloured and banded shells are most frequent in s . wales and s . w . england , including , but not only , the area where mytilus consumption predominates . in most populations , old specimens are predominately plain whitish or greyish as outer pattern - bearing layer is eroded away 4nl urltoken .\nwhite sea to gibraltar , not baltic ( low salinity ) , absent or scarce in denmark , germany and netherlands ( soft substrate ) . gbif map urltoken . common on hard substrate all around ireland and britain , avoiding low salinity of inner estuaries . apparently absent or scarce in lincolnshire and suffolk ( soft substrate ) ; many records exist around ireland and e . scotland ( mckay & smith , 1979 ) that have not been entered on nbn . u . k . interactive distribution map nbn urltoken\nsome local gaps difficult to explain ; some perhaps due to imposex near international ports where tributyltin still present .\nurltoken ( galicia , n . w . spain . various colours , incl . black )\nfor help and advice about anatomy i would like to thank dr gregorio bigatti , dr alfredo castro - vazquez , dr sami ibidli , dr ivan nekhaev and dr yu i kantor . many thanks to dr jan light for the loan of specimens , to dominic flint for access to data in his unpublished study and to neil ward for use of his images . special thanks for correspondence and patient help are due to dr alexandra richter . any remaining inaccuracies are attributable to me .\nthe most used sources for this account were crothers ( 1985 ) and fretter & graham ( 1962 ) . fretter & graham ( 1994 ) contains updated information , but lacks the systematic index of the 1962 edition that enables the finding of n . lapillus details scattered through 800 pages .\nandrews , e . b . & thorogood , k . e . 2005 . an ultrastructural study of the gland of leiblein of muricid and nassariid neogastropods in relation to function , with a discussion on its homologies to other caenogastropods . j . mollus . stud . 71 : 269 - 300 . malacological society , london . free pdf at : urltoken\nballantine , w . j . 1961 . a biologically - defined exposure scale for comparative description of rocky shores . field studies 1 ( 3 ) : 1 - 19 . free pdf at : urltoken\n[ ballantine , pp . 16 - 18 , recognised that his use of indicator species lists was area specific . see zettler , 2013 for further consideration of this topic . ]\nbiggam , c . p . 2006 . knowledge of whelk dyes and pigments in anglo - saxon england . anglo - saxon england 35 : 23 - 55 . abstract at : urltoken\ncaldwell , m . marine pollution and sexual confusion in dog whelks . free pdf of university college of london poster about imposex , but note that illustrations of \u201cdog whelks\u201d ( n . lapillus ) are of buccinum undatum . urltoken\ncarefoot , t . 2016 ( date viewed by ifs ) a snail ' s odyssey ; learn about whelks and relatives . [ web - page with detailed information on shell boring by nucella ]\ncrisp , m . , fine structure of some prosobranch osphradia . marine biology 22 : 231 - 242 abstract at urltoken\ncrothers , j . h . 1985 . dog whelks : an introduction to the biology of nucella lapillus . field studies , 6 , 291 - 360 . free pdf at\nflint , d . 2001 . unpublished study of nucella predation on patella spp . in guernsey .\nforbes , e . & hanley s . 1849 - 53 . a history of the british mollusca and their shells . vol . 3 ( 1853 ) , van voorst , london . ( as purpura lapillus ; free pdf at urltoken use slide at base of page to select pp . 379 - 387 . )\nfretter , v . and graham , a . 1962 . british prosobranch molluscs . ray society , london .\nfretter , v . and graham , a . 1994 . british prosobranch molluscs . revised and updated edition . ray society , london .\ngraham , a . 1988 . prosobranch and pyramidellid gastropods . linnean society of london .\nhughes , r . n . and dunkin , s . de b . 1984 . behavioural components of prey selection by dogwhelks , nucella lapillus ( l . ) , feeding on mussels , mytilus edulis l . , in the laboratory . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol . 77 ( 1 - 2 ) : 45 - 68 . abstract at urltoken\njeffreys , j . g . 1862 - 69 . british conchology . vol . 4 ( 1867 ) . van voorst , london . ( as purpura lapillus ; free pdf at urltoken . use slide at base of page to select pp . 275 - 289 . )\nmckay , d . w . & smith , s . m . 1979 marine mollusca of east scotland royal scottish museum , edinburgh .\nlewis , j . r . 1964 . the ecology of rocky shores . london , hodder & stoughton .\nmallon , p . & manga , n . 2007 . the use of imposex in nucella lapillus to assess tributyltin pollution in carlingford lough . j . e . h . r . vol . 6 issue 2\nmatveeva t . a . 1955 . biology of purpura lapillus ( l . ) on west murman . in : kamshilov m . m . , ed . trudy murmanskoy biologicheskoy stanysii , 2 : 48 - 61 [ in russian ] .\nmedeiros , r . , serpa l . , brito , c . , de wolf h . , jordaens , k . , winnepenninckx , b . & backeljau t . 1998 . radular myoglobin and protein variation within and among some littorinid species ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . hydrobiologia 378 : 43 - 51 .\nsantillo , d . , johnston , p . & langston , w . j . 2001 . tributyltin ( tbt ) antifoulants : a tale of ships , snails and imposex . european environment agency , environmental issue report 22 , part 13 .\nsarram\u00e9gna , r . 1965 . poisonous gastropods of the conidae family found in new caledonia . technical paper 144 , s . pacific commission , new caledonia .\neuropean environment agency . several articles on imposex and its effects on various species . urltoken\nyonge , c . m . and thompson , t . e . 1976 . living marine molluscs . collins , london .\nzettler , m . l . et al . 2013 . on the myths of indicator species : issues and further consideration in the use of static concepts for ecological applications plos one vol 8 , issue 10 [ ref . is not specific to n . lapillus , see note under ballantine , above . ] free pdf at\nacinous salivary gland = compound gland of many small rounded sacs that secrete enzymes for external predigestion / liquefaction of prey .\nafferent = carrying towards . ( e . g . of vessel carrying blood , see efferent . )\nbipectinate = feather - like , with narrow filaments either side of central stalk .\ncilia = ( pl . ) vibrating linear extensions of membrane used in feeding or locomotion . ( \u201ccilium\u201d singular ) .\ncolumella = solid or hollow axial \u201clittle column\u201d around which gastropod shell spirals ; hidden inside shell , except on final whorl next to lower part of inner lip of aperture where hollow ones may end in an umbilicus or siphonal canal .\ncolumellar = ( adj . ) of or near central axis of spiral gastropod .\ncolumellar muscle = attaches body , including opercular disc , to columella of shell ; contraction of muscle withdraws body within shell , and pulls operculum to seal aperture .\ncommensal = ( adj . ) obtaining nutrients , shelter , support , or locomotion from a host species , without causing it significant detriment .\nconchiolin = horny flexible protein that forms the matrix for the deposition of calcium carbonate to create a mollusc\u2019s shell .\nctenidium = comb - like molluscan gill ; usually an axis with a row of filaments either side .\nditaxic = ( of locomotion waves on foot ) double series of waves , out of phase with each other , one series on each side of central furrow on sole .\ndirect = ( of locomotion waves on foot ) waves travel from posterior to anterior .\nefferent = carrying away from . ( e . g . of vessel carrying blood from ctenidium ) .\nheight = ( of gastropod shells ) distance from apex of spire to base of aperture .\nhypobranchial gland = thickened , sometimes puckered , tissue on roof of mantle cavity of many gastropods . emits mucous to trap particles from\ninhalent water before it reaches ctenidium . often other biologically active compounds produced . gland occurs also in some bivalves and cephalopods ( ink sac ) .\nmhwn = mean high water neap tide level ( mean level reached by weakest high tides for a few days every fortnight ) .\nmhws = mean high water spring tide level ( mean level reached by highest tides for a few days every fortnight ; pelvetia zone on rocky coasts ) .\nmlwn = mean low water neap tide level ( mean level reached by weakest low tides for a few days every fortnight . i . e . those that fall the least ) .\nmantle = sheet of tissue that secretes the shell and forms a cavity for the gill in most marine molluscs .\nmesopodium = middle section of gastropod foot . ( see propodium & metapodium ) .\nmetapodium = rear section of gastropod foot . ( see mesopodium & propodium ) .\nmyoglobin \u2013 red oxygen - binding protein in muscle tissue ; often in buccal - mass muscles of gastropods . similar to red haemoglobin in vertebrate blood , but green haemocyanin is usual oxygen - carrier in mollusc blood . see urltoken\nnewton = ( abbreviation n ) force exerted by earth\u2019s gravity on approx . 100g .\noperculum = plate of horny conchiolin , rarely calcareous , used to close shell aperture .\nosphradium = chemo - receptor organ in molluscs that tests inhalent water flow approaching ctenidium ( gill ) for \u201csmell\u201d of food , prey , predators , mates and / or water quality .\nplankton = animals and plants that drift in pelagic zone ( main body of water ) .\npropodium = front section of gastropod foot . ( cf . mesopodium & metapodium ) .\nprosobranchia = 20th century term for subclass of gastropoda that included most marine snails with ctenidia . now distributed between several subclasses . see note at urltoken\nrectal gland = ( a . k . a . anal gland ) function uncertain , perhaps produces substances that supplement the excretory activity of the kidney .\nretrograde = ( of locomotion waves on foot ) waves travel from anterior to posterior .\nsessile = ( of organism ) fixed in one place , e . g . barnacles .\nsiphon = extension of mantle to form a channel for inhalent respiratory water current .\nsiphonal canal = grooved or tubular extension of outer lip of the shell aperture on some snails to support the siphon .\nsiphonal fasciole = raised rib , ridge or band along abapertural side of siphonal canal , formed by successive edges of canal .\nsperm ingesting gland = ( in female nucella lapillus ) group of dark brown blind - ended tubules at posterior of capsule gland where excess sperm unrequired by female are trapped , engulfed by cells and digested .\nveliger = shelled larva of marine gastropod or bivalve mollusc which swims by beating cilia of a velum ( bilobed flap ) .\nebbene s\u00ec . sono andata al mare ! ! ! ! anche se ho rimediato una bruciatura ai polpacci ( - . - ) ed il mare era pi\u00f9 che agitato . . . ma . . . e ' iniziata l ' estate ! ! ! ( forse ! )\nthis snail lives in the central and western parts of the mediterranean sea and has been found on isolated coral atoll beaches in the indian ocean and south china sea . it was known since ancient times as a source for purple dye and also as a popular food source under various names , among which sconciglio , from which comes the word scungilli .\nthe snail is 100 % eco - friendly and hand collected on beaches in the district of megara ( greece ) .\ndie meeresschnecke wurde 100 % umweltfreundlich per hand an str\u00e4nden im verwaltungsbezirk megara ( griechenland ) gesammelt .\nthis photograph and all those within my photostream are protected by copyright . they may not be reproduced , copied , transmitted or manipulated without written permission .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by kbanasihan , 06 / 28 / 2010"]}
{"id": 1251, "summary": [{"text": "the yellow-eyed penguin ( megadyptes antipodes ) or hoiho is a penguin native to new zealand .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "previously thought closely related to the little penguin ( eudyptula minor ) , molecular research has shown it more closely related to penguins of the genus eudyptes .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "like most other penguins , it is mainly piscivorous .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the species breeds along the eastern and south-eastern coastlines of the south island of new zealand , as well as stewart island , auckland islands , and campbell islands .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "colonies on the otago peninsula are a popular tourist venue , where visitors may closely observe penguins from hides , trenches , or tunnels .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "on the new zealand mainland , the species has experienced a significant decline over the past 20 years .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "on the otago peninsula , numbers have dropped by 75 % since the mid-1990s and population trends indicate the possibility of local extinction in the next 20 to 40 years .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "while rising ocean temperatures play an important role , it appears that human activities at sea ( fisheries , pollution ) may have an equal if not greater influence on the species ' downward trend . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "yellow - eyed penguin", "paragraphs": ["the yellow - eyed penguin is the third largest penguin behind the emperor penguin , the largest and the king penguin being the second largest .\npenguin place is a private conservation reserve dedicated to helping the endangered yellow - eyed penguin survive .\nthe voice of the yellow - eyed penguin is semi - musical when compared to other penguin calls .\nno sub - species of the yellow - eyed penguin have been found yet .\na yellow - eyed penguin on the otago peninsula stares out at the ocean .\nyellow - eyed penguin ' s population has declined 76 percent from 1996 to 2015 .\nyellow - eyed penguin trust volunteer juliette parsons said the penguin place health centre was a necessity for locally injured penguins .\npenguin place , otago peninsula - a cute yellow - eyed penguin plays to the unseen crowd in the penguin hide above otago harbour . credit : tourism dunedin\nyellow - eyed penguin trust ( yept ) and doc , with other key groups , have been involved with penguin monitoring .\n) was also observed , another important yellow - eyed penguin prey species . brittle stars (\nmore in - depth information can be found on the yellow - eyed penguin trust website .\nthe yellow - eyed penguin is a medium - sized penguin with pale yellow eyes , growing to approximately 65 centimetres in height . the average weight for an adult is 5 to 6 kilograms . the yellow - eyed penguin has a pale yellow head with black feather shafts .\ndonate your time or money to help penguin protection groups , such as the yellow - eyed penguin trust and forest & bird .\nmrs parsons is involved with several aspects of helping the yellow - eyed penguin trust , including transporting penguins to and from penguin place .\nthe yellow - eyed penguin is named for the band of yellow that runs from its eyes to the back of its head .\nis easily identified by its yellow coloured eyes and bright yellow band that runs from its eyes round the back of the yellow - eyed penguin ' s head .\nonly 1500 to 1700 pairs of yellow - eyed penguin population were identified in a survey in 2010 .\ncolorful plants , trees , and humidity are part of the natural landscape of the yellow - eyed penguin .\nthe yellow - eyed penguin trust and doc completed the annual yellow - eyed penguins / hoiho monitoring along the otago and southland coastline and estimate that there are 260 breeding pairs .\nunique to new zealand , the hoiho , or yellow - eyed penguin , is thought to be one of the world ' s rarest penguin species .\nsome of the images of the yellow - eyed penguin listed here will give you an idea of their appearance .\nyellow - eyed penguin foraging study , south - eastern new zealand , 1991 - 1993 . science & research series\nthe rare yellow - eyed penguin , or hoiho , is one of new zealand\u2019s most iconic and beloved animals .\navian diptheria has killed one in three yellow - eyed penguin chicks hatched at two north otago colonies this year .\nthe yellow - eyed penguin trust\u2019s work involves the conservation of coastal ecosystems that include yellow - eyed penguin breeding habitats . it has protected yellow - eyed penguin habitats along the otago and southland coastlines by establishing penguin reserves , providing fencing to protect nests from wandering stock , replanting breeding areas with native trees and shrubs produced at its own nursery ( 5 , 000 . . . continue\na yellow - eyed penguin found sick and underweight in the catlins last month has been returned to the wild after recovering in penguin place on otago peninsula .\n) protruded from the otherwise featureless seafloor . yellow - eyed penguin prey species such as juvenile forms of benthic blue cod (\nthe yellow - eyed penguin consultative group is an umbrella group made up of those individuals and groups , which have an interest in the conservation of yellow - eyed penguin through out its range . the group meets 4 times a year and organises an\nas their name implies , yellow - eyed penguins have pale yellow eyes . their head is also pale yellow . a band of bright yellow extends from their eyes around the back of the head .\ngeographical characteristics , foraging and diving parameters for eight lines determined from yellow - eyed penguin foraging tracks recorded between 2004 and 2012 .\nas well as being an extraordinary bird in its own right , the yellow - eyed penguin is also valuable to the local economy .\nthe department of conservation ( doc ) needed to put more resources towards managing the remaining yellow - eyed penguin population , she said .\n. another conservation effort is the yellow - eyed penguin trust , which teaches people about the penguins and collects funds for their conservation . there are only a few thousand yellow - eyed penguins living in the world today .\nalong with the yellow - eyed penguin trust and others , we have completed the annual yellow - eyed penguins / hoiho monitoring along the otago and southland coastline . it ' s estimated that there are 260 breeding pairs .\nyellow - eyed penguin . adult walking on beach . sandfly bay , otago peninsula , december 2012 . image \u00a9 philip griffin by philip griffin\nthe yellow eyed penguin ( megadyptes antipodes ) , also known by the maori as the hoiho ( noise shouter ) lives and breeds on the otago peninsula in dunedin . the yellow eyed penguin is currently the rarest penguin in the world . it is a large penguin standing between 65 - - 79 cm and weighing 7 - 8 kgs fully grown . the best viewing for yellow - eyed penguins in dunedin is with a local tourism operator through specific hides , or viewing stations . urltoken\nthe yellow - eyed penguin ' s marine habitat is equally important because it provides food , and allows for dispersal and movement between land habitats .\npenguin land : conservation minister steve chadwick ( right ) and former reserve landowner max affleck unveiling the site of the new reserve at long point , established for the protection of the yellow - eyed penguin .\nthe yellow - eyed penguin or hoiho is a penguin found in new zealand , on the south - east coast of south island , foveaux strait and stewart island / rakiura and auckland and campbell islands .\nresearchers for the yellow - eyed penguin trust ( yept ) along with otago and massey university scientists and the department of conservation cannot find a cause .\nthe yellow - eyed penguin forages predominantly over the continental shelf between 1 and 16 miles offshore , diving to depths of 131 ft to 394 feet .\nsource / reference article learn how you can use or cite the yellow - eyed penguin article in your website content , school work and other projects .\n2012 .\npenguins : basic facts\n( on - line ) . yellow - eyed penguin trust . accessed october 17 , 2012 at urltoken .\nvan heezik , y . , p . seddon . 1989 . stomach sampling in the yellow - eyed penguin : erosion of otoliths and squid beaks .\ncoastal otago operations manager annie wallace said a small number of dead adult yellow - eyed penguins were found recently as part of regular penguin nest monitoring .\nfor interested members to report back on their year ' s activities . the symposium also has an annual theme relating to yellow - eyed penguin conservation .\ninappropriate behaviour by visitors to yellow eye penguin habitats is an increasing threat to nesting and moulting birds .\nthe otago population of yellow - eyed penguins has been affected by avian diphtheria , she said .\nyellow - eyed penguins are sedentary birds that usually stay in one area , except when hunting .\nthe yellow - eyed penguin usually nests in forest or scrub . it feeds mainly on blue cod , red cod , opal fish , sprat and squid .\nthe yellow - eyed penguin trust is a conservation organisation dedicated to the protection of yellow - eyed penguins . through generous sponsorship by organisations like mainland products ltd , they have been able to purchase several areas of penguin habitat and are working to revegetate them and restore habitat for penguins . they can be contacted at\nthe yellow - eyed penguin is often referred to as the rarest penguin in the world , although , unfortunately , there are others that could lay claim to that crown too : especially the galapagos and fiordland penguins .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - yellow - eyed penguin ( megadyptes antipodes )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - yellow - eyed penguin ( megadyptes antipodes )\ntitle =\narkive species - yellow - eyed penguin ( megadyptes antipodes )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nany further losses of yellow - eyed penguins will bring forward the date of their local extinction .\naccording to richdale ' s account of the types of behaviour , the yellow - eyed penguin has various call notes which apparently include a good proportion of yelling .\n65 cm . medium - sized penguin with pale yellow eye . pale yellow head with black feather shafts . band of bright yellow from eyes around back of head . juvenile has greyer head with no band .\n66\u201376 cm ; 3\u00b76\u20138\u00b79 kg . the only penguin with pale yellow band through eye . adult has light straw - yellow feathers with black shaft streaks . . .\nmoore , p . j . 2001 . historical records of yellow - eyed penguin ( megadyptes antipodes ) in southern new zealand . notornis 48 : 145 - 156 .\nyellow - eyed penguin trust science advisor trudi webster said because of the 2013 event , the trust was being proactive in collecting samples from the dead penguins for testing .\nyellow - eyed penguins swim great distances and dive to extraordinary depths for food . there are only a few hundred of this rare penguin living on the catlins coast .\nbreeds once a year , forming pairs that usually remain faithful to one another . the female yellow - eyed\nyellow - eyed penguins get their name from the color of their eyes and the band around their head .\n\u201cwe need to get organized , \u201d mattern said . the yellow - eyed penguins are depending on it .\npenguin numbers are still below sustainable levels , but it could have been a lot worse had it not been for everyone who contributed , large or small , to the conservation of this unique bird - the yellow - eyed penguin .\nstanding 65 cm tall and weighing 5 to 6 kg , the yellow - eyed is the fourth largest of the worlds penguins . the distinguishing feature of the yellow - eyed penguin is its distinctive yellow eye and bright yellow stripe that runs through the eye and around the back of the head . both sexes are alike , although the male does have slightly larger head and feet .\nyellow - eyed penguin / hoiho adults and chick ( mp3 , 2 , 417k ) 02 : 34 \u2013 parents calling in the vicinity of the nest and feeding chicks .\nin parts of the coastal south island habitat , yellow - eyed penguin breeding grounds have fallen silent and only\nthe odd lonely pair\nof penguins cling to survival .\nellenberg u , mattern t ( 2012 ) yellow - eyed penguin : review of population information . marine conservation services programme . wellington : department of conservation . available : .\nelm has taken further steps towards protecting the world\u2019s rarest penguin ( the yellow eyed ) and its terrestrial environment by enhancing habitat , nest site creation and predator control programmes .\nyellow - eyed penguins are dying in droves on stewart island and scientists are at a loss to explain why .\nseddon , p . , l . davis . 1989 . nest - site selection by yellow - eyed penguins .\ncolor : juvenile yellow - eyed penguins have a grayish head and gray iris , unlike the adults that have light yellow heads with yellow iris . adults have black feathers , with dark brown throat and chin . it has bright stripe of yellow from the nape to the eyes .\nhabitat protection and restoration ( including predator control ) is managed by the department of conservation ( doc ) , the yellow - eyed penguin trust , community groups , and private landowners .\nseddon , p . j . 2013 [ updated 2017 ] . yellow - eyed penguin . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken\nwhat we do know is that sadly , only about 1 , 700 breeding pairs of yellow - eyed penguin are left , making it one of the rarest penguins in the world .\nthe company has also established and financially funded a project to rejuvenate the yellow eyed penguin population . this is one of only two privately funded conservation projects in new zealand , and has had a significant effect on the growth of the rare penguin population .\nyellow - eyed penguins lay two eggs and parents typically raise both chicks , which can be nearly equal in size .\nhouston dm ( 2005 ) diphtheritic stomatitis in yellow - eyed penguins . new zealand journal of zoology 32 : 267 .\nthe scientific name of the yellow - eyed penguin is megadyptes antipodes which means big diver from the southern lands ( mega = big , dyptes = diver , antipodes = southern lands ) .\nour commitment to new zealand\u2019s nature / environment is reflected in membership of the yellow - eyed penguin trust and the yellow - eyed penguin consultative group . the survival of the yellow - eyed penguin on otago peninsula close to dunedin provides a major challenge and needs to be managed through active contributions by all parties involved , including the concerned public . in co - operation with the department of conservation ( doc ) , nature guides otago is supporting a volunteer warden program for sandfly bay which was established in 2007 . this closely monitored program provides guidance and education for the public and independent travelers with the aim to reduce stress for the yellow - eyed penguins and to enhance the visitors\u2019 nature experience .\nwhere the yellow - eyed penguin has come into contact with european settlement it has suffered a considerable reduction in numbers . this is the case on the otago peninsular where a good deal of the forest has been cleared with the consequent destruction of the bird ' s breeding grounds . for the birds on the otago peninsular , richdale informs me that squid and small fish , yellow - eyed mullet and red cod , have been identified by him as part of the food of the yellow - eyed penguin .\nthe rata was planted with the help of the reserve land ' s previous owner max affleck _ who still owns 700 surrounding hectares _ and yellow - eyed penguin trust founding trustee lala frazer .\nthe population trend for the yellow - eyed penguin is decreasing and there are some conservation actions being taken such as policy - based actions , research actions , and habitat and site - based actions .\nyellow eyed penguin trust manager sue murray said she was concerned at the developments in the moreraki colonies , and staff were checking on chicks in the trust ' s managed colonies on the otago peninsula .\nalthough they nest in loose \u2018colonies\u2019 , mated yellow - eyed penguins seek solitude , often nesting out of sight of each other .\nis a parasite that has been found on wild yellow - eyed penguins . there is not much information on the ecosystem role of\nthe yellow - eyed penguin is equally dependant on marine and land habitats , which include forest and coastal scrubland . habitats adjacent to the coastline that have been burnt or developed for farming restrict nesting options .\nits m\u0101ori name , hoiho ( meaning noise shouter ) , was given because of its shrill call . the yellow - eyed penguin is also known as takaraka , and an ancient m\u0101ori name was tavora .\npenguin place . 2012 .\nconservation project\n( on - line ) . penguin place conservation reserve . accessed november 13 , 2012 at urltoken .\nthe yellow - eyed penguin is struggling to survive on mainland nz . the yellow - eyed penguin trust is involved in monitoring and maintaining ( predator control , replanting , nest monitoring ) a large number of sites on the mainland and stewart island . as it does not run a revenue - generating touristic operation , the trust relies largely on donations and a number of dedicated volunteers . donations may be made online .\nwe financially fund this project of many years to assist the local population of yellow eyed penguins viewed by our customers . this has been extremely successful with the population slowly growing . the project is one of only two funded and managed by commercial operators . others are funded by government and other organisations such as the yellow eyed penguin trust .\nthe largest penguin that does not live in the antarctic . a defining trait of this particular penguin is their yellow eyes . the characteristic used to distinguish between adult and juvenile penguins is the presence of yellow plumage on the adult ' s heads . yellow feathers are not present on juvenile penguins until they molt , around the age of one .\naustralian economist professor clem tisdell ( university of queensland ) calculated that nature - based tourism ( relying primarily on the yellow - eyed penguin ) returned $ 100 million annually to the dunedin economy in 2007 . this figure is likely to be higher today . a single breeding pair of yellow - eyed penguins could be worth $ 60 , 000 .\nabout 50ha of catlins farmland had been set aside for the protection of the yellow - eyed penguin , the new conservation minister steve chadwick said yesterday at an unveiling ceremony at long point , just south of owaka .\nrarest of all the penguins , the yellow - eyed penguin is unique in appearance and behaviour . these solitary birds have experienced population declines in the last 50 years due to habitat loss and predation by introduced species .\nsharks , barracouta , fur seals and new zealand sea lions take yellow - eyed penguins at sea . yellow - eyed penguin adults and chicks periodically succumb to disease . there was a major die - off of adults in 1990 , and in more recent breeding seasons young chicks in mainland breeding sites have become infected with a disease described as diphtheritic stomatitis .\nthe largest of the penguins breeding on the new zealand mainland , the yellow - eyed penguin has become a flagship species for nature - based tourism in the southern south island . recent research has revealed the presence on the south island of a sister species , the waitaha penguin megadyptes waitaha . up until c . 1500 ad , yellow - eyed penguins were restricted to auckland and campbell islands , while the mainland was occupied by waitaha penguins . it is thought that waitaha penguins were harvested to extinction , their disappearance enabling straggler yellow - eyed penguins from the subantarctic to establish on the mainland , where human - induced extirpation of large marine mammals allowed them to expand into the population we see today . the endemic yellow - eyed penguin is now the only extant member of the genus megadyptes .\nyellow - eyed penguins are forest or shrubland nesting birds , usually preferring to nest in a secluded site and backed up to a bank , tree or log . although they nest in loose\ncolonies\n, yellow - eyed penguins do not nest within sight of each other .\nyellow - eyed penguins / hoiho are one of the rarest penguins in the world and are only found in new zealand ( endemic ) .\nyellow - eyed penguins have a long breeding season starting with courtship in august and finally ending with fledging of the chicks the following march .\ndog owners are being warned they must take better control of their dogs following the deaths of two yellow - eyed penguins / hoiho in the catlins if they want to help the species survive . in the past month , two of the nationally endangered birds have been attacked and killed along the catlins coast at the yellow - eyed penguin trust\u2019s . . . continue\nget rid of the books and lecture theatres - this is what wildlife biology is really like - on your hands and knees bashing through 400 metres of bush every day in the hunt for yellow - eyed penguin nests .\nelm wildlife tours is pleased to work along side conservation aware land owners towards the preservation of yellow eyed penguins , which are considered to be the world ' s rarest penguin species , with a little over 5000 remaining in the world . in the effort to save the yellow eyed penguin , we have carried out extensive habitat planting , construction of nest sites and predator control , all of which are crucial to the survival of the penguins .\nthe yellow - eyed penguin is in great peril on the peninsula \u2015 and on the new zealand mainland as a whole , researchers found . climate change and other effects of human activity could drive the species extinct locally in\nfortunately , mattern said , there is still hope for the yellow - eyed penguin and the habitat to which it belongs . \u201call is not yet lost , \u201d he said . \u201cwe haven\u2019t reached the critical threshold . \u201d\n14 . of the 17 penguin species , the most endangered is new zealand\u2019s yellow - eyed penguin ( megadyptes antipodes ) : only around 4 , 000 birds survive in the wild today . but other species are in trouble , including the erect - crested penguin ( eudyptes sclateri ) of new zealand , which has lost approximately 70 percent of its population over the past 20 years , and the galapagos penguin , which has lost more than 50 percent since the 1970s .\nto get a peek at the famed penguin , named for the band of bright yellow that runs from its eyes to the back of its head .\ndarby , j . t . ; seddon , p . j . 1990 . breeding biology of the yellow - eyed penguin . pp . 45 - 62 . in penguin biology ( eds davis , l . s . ; darby , j . t . ) . academic press , orlando , florida .\n2 darby jt , and seddon pj , 1990 . breeding biology of yellow - eyed penguins ( megadyptes antipodes ) . in : penguin biology . edited by ls davis and jt darby . academic press , san diego usa .\nthis is not unusual for this time of year , however we are mindful of the 2013 event where 67 adult penguins died \u2013 an event that only affected yellow - eyed penguin / hoiho adults ,\nshe said .\ndoc ' s coastal otago operations manager annie wallace says\na small number of dead adult yellow - eyed penguins have recently been found as part of regular penguin nest monitoring . this is not unusual for this time of year however we are mindful of the 2013 event where 67 adult penguins died , an event that only affected yellow - eyed penguin / hoiho adults . we are working with wildbase of massey university to determine the likely cause of these deaths . in the interim we are increasing the frequency of monitoring penguin sites\n.\nin the paper , they wrote : \u201cnow we all know that yellow - eyed penguins are quietly slipping away we need to make a choice .\nthe department of conservation is concerned about the number of yellow - eyed penguins , with breeding pairs hitting a record low for two years running .\nthe yellow - eyed penguin is said to be one of the rarest penguins in the world . it can be found in new zealand and is called hoiho or\nnoise shouters\nby the maori of new zealand . the yellow - eyed penguin is the fourth largest penguin and its most distinguishing feature is their yellow eyes and the bright yellow stripe that runs by the eye and around to the back of its neck . these penguins feed on a variety of fish , mostly opal fish , silverside , sprat , aruhu , and red cod . they also eat arrow squid . when the penguins feed , they tend to go near the bottom , and can go quite far off shore .\nyellow - eyed penguins are easily identifiable among other species because of the yellow color of their eyes and also because the plumage of the back , flippers , and the tail is not dark black as in other species .\nabout 70 per cent of the penguin chicks have died over the past six years .\nthe penguin has set up its nest near a proposed walking track in curio bay .\nthe current status of the yellow - eyed penguin is endangered , with an estimated population of 4 , 000 . it is considered one of the worlds rarest penguin species . the main threats include habitat degradation , introduced predators as well as environmental changes . it is thought to be the most ancient of all living penguins .\na new disease , leucocytozoonosis , was identified during the 2005 season that caused mortality of chicks on stewart island . yellow - eyed penguin chicks on the auckland islands were also found to be infected with leucocytozoon during disease screening in 2008 .\nfirst breeding occurs at 3 - 4 years of age and long term partnerships are formed . yellow - eyed penguins may live for up to 24 years\nyellow - eyed penguins ' habitat ranges across the southeast south island , banks peninsula , stewart island , and auckland , campbell , and codfish islands .\nurltoken thomas mattern ' s blog on research into the foraging ecology of yellow - eyed penguins on new zealand ' s otago peninsula and stewart island .\nare the only terrestrial mammals that are capable of predation on adult yellow - eyed penguins . however , non - terrestrial predators include new zealand sea lions\neach autumn penguins replace all their feathers in a process called the moult . during this time penguins must sit ashore for 25 days to grow new feathers , and are unable to go to sea . the moult is a very dangerous time for them because disturbance can lead to increased stress and potentially permanent damage to new feathers . where yellow eyed penguin moult in areas where they can be disturbed doc staff and the yellow - eyed penguin trust will move them to safer habitats .\nadults are unmistakable with their yellow eyes and yellow eye - stripes that join on the back of the head . moulting birds and birds at sea can be confused with crested penguins . immature birds are similar to adults but have a pale yellow chin and a less vivid yellow eye - stripe .\nthe yellow - eyed penguin is one of the most endangered of all penguin species ( 3 ) . these birds are slate grey with a white breast . as their common name suggests they have yellow eyes , accentuated by the yellow band that runs from the eyes around the back of the head ( 4 ) . males and females are identical but juveniles lack the yellow eyes and bands of older birds ( 2 ) . the maori name for these birds is \u2018hoiho\u2019 , which means \u2018the noise shouter\u2019 in reference to their shrill call ( 5 ) .\nwhether linear foraging patterns in yellow - eyed penguins from the otago peninsula are associated with a diet of reduced quality remains a matter of conjecture at this stage and more research is required to substantiate this hypothesis . however , the circumstantial evidence suggests that yellow - eyed penguins are likely exposed to cascading fisheries effects where disturbances of the benthic habitat influence the assemblages of benthic species and penguin prey , which is reflected in penguin behaviour , diet composition , and subsequent impacts on reproductive outcome .\ngenerally searches for food up 10 miles offshore , and travels ( on average ) around 15 miles away from the colonies nesting site . the yellow - eyed\nthough penguins generally form colonies , these yellow - eyed ones are known to be making nests beyond the sight of others as they are not very social .\nelm wildlife tours , based on the otago peninsula , quietly goes about its work , showcasing the natural beauty of the otago area , paying particular attention to the unique and rare yellow eyed penguin , as well as blue penguins and sea lions .\nclimate change and other effects of human activity are driving the endangered penguin to the brink .\nyellow - eyed penguin trust science advisor trudi webster says\nbecause of the 2013 event , we are being proactive in collecting samples from the dead penguins for testing . we plan to use analysis of these results to compare to the 2013 event\n.\nspecies by the international union for conservation of nature , the yellow - eyed penguin is one of the rarest penguins on the planet . endemic to new zealand , the bird is found in three distinct clusters . about 40 percent live on the new zealand\njuvenile yellow - eyeds look very similar to the adults , but lack the yellow head band . they gain their adult plumage at one year of age .\nin a new study , researchers developed a model to predict what will happen to the yellow - eyed penguins on the otago peninsula over the next few decades .\non a small island hundreds of kilometres south of bluff , kiwi scientists are carrying out a census of sorts . they ' re trying to work out the population of our endangered yellow - eyed penguin . but the birds don ' t make it easy .\nthere are a number of conservation organisations in new zealand working to conserve penguins . some like the department of conservation and forest and bird work at a national level with many species and habitats while others like the yellow - eyed penguin trust are species specific .\n65 cm . , 5 . 5 kg . , crown and sides of face pale golden yellow , band of yellow from eye around the back of head .\nyellow - eyed penguins breed in forest or scrubland , choosing to build nests against rocks or tree trunks , which provide some protection from the elements ( 2 ) .\nmore than 100 , 000 visitors make their way through the catlins each year to view the 180 million - year - old fossil forest as well as the area ' s wildlife , such as yellow eyed penguin , rare hector dolphins , seals and sea lions .\nmattern said people may point to the two subantarctic clusters as a reason to not worry about the yellow - eyed penguin on the mainland . \u201cif the penguins disappear here , they can just say , well , we still have them on the subantarctic islands . \u201d\nis not a colonial penguin , meaning it does not live in large groups with other penguins .\nthe yellow - eyed penguin may be the rarest penguin in the world . the coastal forests of their habitat , particularly of mainland new zealand , have been destroyed to make way for development and agriculture . introduced sheep and cattle pose a threat as they can trample on penguin nests and overgraze the area , destroying further habitat ( 2 ) . in 1986 and 1990 there were two major population crashes , the causes of which remain a mystery ( 6 ) . the other major threat to the yellow - eyed penguin comes from introduced mammalian predators such as ferrets , cats , rats and dogs ; juvenile penguins or adults during their moult phase are extremely vulnerable to predation and numbers have been decimated over the years ( 2 ) .\nthe yellow - eyed penguin is endemic to new zealand and breeds on the sub - antarctic auckland and campbell islands , along the southeast coast of new zealand\u2019s south island , and stewart island and its outliers . the species is classified endangered in the 2013 red list [\non 19 february 2013 , we undertook a one - day cruise on the university of otago research vessel polaris ii to the foraging grounds of yellow - eyed penguins from the otago peninsula . two offshore stations were chosen that coincided with lines determined from penguin foraging tracks (\ndr ursula ellenberg , of la trobe university , who has researched yellow - eyed penguins for the past 14 years , said : \u201cit is sobering to see the previously busy penguin - breeding areas now overgrown and silent , with only the odd lonely pair hanging on . \u201d\nthis research was approved by the university of otago animal ethics committee ( aec 32 / 03 ) and complies with the current laws of new zealand . entry and research permits required for the work on the endangered yellow - eyed penguin were issued by the department of conservation .\nthey nest in dense vegetation in dunes and coastal forest , with nests typically being isolated from each other . at sea , yellow - eyed penguins forage in pairs or alone .\ncommercial wildlife tourism takes place on both private land and on doc - administered reserves . unregulated visitor access is facilitated with signage and viewing hides . there is regulated seasonal tourist presence at yellow - eyed penguin landing and nesting areas on enderby island , in the auckland island group .\nthey have been listed under the endangered section by iucn red list . various conservational programs have been initiated to protect the species by the yellow - eyed penguin trust apart from recovery plans . it has also stressed to keep dogs out of their breeding sites to ensure complete protection .\nsize : it is quiet a large penguin , having a length of between 27 and 30 inches .\nan endangered african penguin brays with its mouth open , showing off the bristly inside of its mouth .\nan emperor penguin loses its old feathers ( the fluffy ones ) as new ones grow in underneath .\nnew zealand\u2019s iconic yellow - eyed penguins \u2013 displayed on billboards greeting people arriving at the country\u2019s main airports \u2013 could become extinct from the mainland in 25 years , scientists have warned .\nyellow - eyed penguins spend most of their day at sea , feeding in the warm new zealand waters . amazing underwater swimmers , they can dive to depths of 400 feet and are adapted to holding their breath for up to four minutes . yellow - eyed penguins may travel up to 20 miles from shore to feeding grounds at the edge of the continental shelf .\nintroduced predators such as cats , stoat and ferrets have impacted yellow - eyed penguin populations . habitat degradation , avian malaria , food shortages due to sea temperature changes , human disturbances , drowning in fishing nets , and accidental fires are all threats to yellow - eyed penguins . all 18 penguin species are legally protected from hunting and egg collecting . the antarctic treaty of 1959 makes it illegal to harm , or in any way interfere with , a penguin or its eggs . every penguin specimen collected with a permit must be approved by and reported to the scientific committee for antarctic research ( scar ) . penguins are vulnerable to habitat destruction , overfishing of primary food sources , ecological disasters such as oil spills , pollution such as trash in the ocean , and human encroachment into nesting areas .\non 19 february 2013 , we undertook a one - day cruise on the university of otago research vessel polaris ii to the foraging grounds of yellow - eyed penguins from the otago peninsula . two offshore stations were chosen that coincided with lines determined from penguin foraging tracks ( figure 1d ) .\nthe yellow - eyed penguin is a tall , heavy penguin with a distinctive pale yellow uncrested band of feathers passing across the nape and around the eyes . the forecrown , chin and cheeks are black flecked with yellow , the sides of the head and the foreneck are a light fawn - brown , and the back and tail are slate blue . the chest , belly , front thighs , and the underside of the flippers , are white . the red - brown and pale cream bill is long and relatively slender . the eyes are yellow , and the feet pink dorsally and black - brown ventrally . juveniles lack the pale yellow band and have a paler eye and paler back of the head . sexes look alike ; males are larger than females .\nthe department of conservation was alerted to the penguin by members of the public at the end of may .\na few weeks ago we brought you the story of new zealand ' s first penguin underpass in oamaru .\nis endangered according to the iucn red list and is threatened according to the united states federal list . the main cause contributing to the status of yellow - eyed penguins is deforestation on the coast of new zealand . there are various conservation efforts , including penguin reserves , such as penguin place in dunedin , new zealand . these reserves allow visitors to view the penguins for a fee , which helps conserve\nthe present - day distribution of yellow - eyed penguin breeding sites corresponds to the pre - european distribution of cool coastal hardwood forest . currently , breeding occurs in mature coastal forest , regenerating coastal scrub , but also in pasture , windbreaks of planted exotic trees , and on relatively exposed cliffs .\nendemic to new zealand , yellow - eyed penguins breed on the east and south coast of the south island , on and around stewart island , the auckland islands , and campbell islands .\nhas a diet that consists mostly of small prey , either juveniles or species whose adults are small . yellow - eyed penguins are carnivores . their diet is mainly composed of fishes including opalfish\nyellow - eyed penguins can be seen at nugget point and curio bay . there are several wildlife guides in the catlins who are doc concessionaires and who can take visitors to see them .\nin the 1940s those waters , including the incredibly fun to pronounce kumo kumo whero bay , warmed enough that , based on current understanding of the penguin - ocean temperature relationship , the region\u2019s yellow - eyed penguin populations should have declined . thanks to the fastidious record keeping of one lancelot eric richdale , a school teacher and amateur ornithologist , we know that wasn\u2019t the case . instead , their populations boomed .\nmoore pj , wakelin md , douglas me , mckinlay b , nelson d et al . ( 1995 ) yellow - eyed penguin foraging study , south - eastern new zealand , 1991 - 1993 . science & research series . wellington , nz : department of conservation . 40 p . available : .\nyellow - eyed penguins have a very long chick - rearing period ( 100 days ) . consequently , breeding takes from september to february . moult occurs at the end of the breeding period .\nthe fact that yellow - eyed penguins aren\u2019t faring so well bodes poorly for other animals in the region , according to dr . michelle larue , a research ecologist at the university of minnesota .\nanimations of foraging trips of two yellow - eyed penguins exhibiting straight line foraging in december 2004 ( bird id 14688 , line \u201cd\u201d ) and 2012 ( bird id 17935 , line \u201cc\u201d ) .\nmoore pj ( 1994 ) . what is a bad season for yellow - eyed penguins ? conservation advisory science notes wellington , nz . : department of conservation . 7 p . available : .\n\u201cwhen including adult survival rates from 2015 into the models the mean projection predicts yellow - eyed penguins to be locally extinct in the next 25 years , \u201d dr . stefan meyer , a co - author on the study , said in a statement . though their populations on new zealand\u2019s otago peninsula is already dwindling pretty rapidly , about 60 percent of the yellow eyed penguin population lives on the sub - antarctic auckland and campbell islands . however , not much scientific research has been dedicated to these birds .\nit was taken from a beach near the nuggets in the catlins to the penguin place rehabilitation facility near dunedin .\nthe sick penguin after it was found near death in may , near kaka point . photos : samuel white .\nlays two eggs in her nest in the forest which are incubated by both parents for up to a couple of months , when only one of the eggs will usually hatch . the yellow - eyed\nindeed , our findings on the seafloor at the location of line \u201cc\u201d indicate that man - made cues prone to erosion over time provide yellow - eyed penguins the means for accurate way - finding .\nmattern also notes that if climate change were the only threat to penguin populations , the birds would probably be able to adapt and survive . in 1943 , the waters of kumo kumo whero bay warmed so much that the yellow - eyed penguin population should have declined\u2014but it did not . mattern suspects that the birds\u2019 ability to thrive under these conditions can be attributed to the fact that many new zealanders were overseas fighting in wwii .\nenderby island is the insurance policy for the yellow - eyed penguin . while there ' s small pockets on the new zealand mainland , it ' s thought roughly 1000 , or half of those currently known to be in existence , are on this tiny island , making the most of its pest - free status .\nking s , harper g , wright j , mcinnes j , van der lubbe j et al . ( 2012 ) site - specific reproductive failure and decline of a population of the endangered yellow - eyed penguin : a case for foraging habitat quality . marine ecology progress series 467 : 233 - 244 . doi :\nnewshub have just published an interesting article about the yellow - eyed penguins on enderby island . this footage was filmed while newshub reporter thomas mead was recently aboard our ship the ' spirit of enderby . '\n. yellow - eyed penguins do not have any anti - predator mechanisms against terrestrial mammals because they are a relatively new predator , although their conservation status does help serve as an anti - predator mechanism .\nif things continue on their current trajectory , new zealand\u2019s yellow - eyed penguin may go locally extinct by 2043 , according to a study released today in the journal peerj . breeding penguins declined by 76 percent between 1996 and 2015 . and while climate change is a factor , it\u2019s unclear if it\u2019s the most important one .\nyou see how tourism and penguin conservation work together in elm wildlife tours exclusive ( private ) wildlife reserve .\napril 25 of each year is world penguin day , and to celebrate here are 14 facts about these charismatic seabirds .\nseddon , p . j . ; ellenberg , u . ; van heezik , y . 2012 . yellow - eyed penguin . in biology and conservation of the world\u2019s penguins ( eds garc\u00eda borboroglu , p . g . ; boersma , p . d . ) university of washington press , seattle u . s . a .\nthe loss of coastal forest has played a part in the decline of the yellow - eyed penguin on the nz mainland , but the biggest threat to the survival of the species is introduced mammalian predators . wild cats , ferrets and stoats often kill chicks and take eggs . adult penguins all too often fall victim to dogs .\nin treatment with site fixed effects and with an instrumental variable based on site accessibility . of the three treatments analyzed , only intensive management is significantly correlated with increases in sitelevel penguin population growth rate . we estimate the marginal cost of providing yellow - eyed penguins through intensive management to be nz $ 68 , 600 per nest .\nmattern t , ellenberg u , houston dm , davis ls ( 2007 ) consistent foraging routes and benthic foraging behaviour in yellow - eyed penguins . marine ecology progress series 343 : 295 - 306 . doi :\ndata on these other threats is currently limited , but researchers believe the fishing industry may play a significant role . gill nets used by fishermen are known to ensnare yellow - eyed penguins , which get entangled in the near - invisible nets and drown . a 2000 study that looked at autopsy data of 185 yellow - eyed penguins that died around south island found that more than 70 deaths were linked to gill net entanglement .\nthe penguins are estimated to contribute about $ 70 million ( or 100 million new zealand dollars ) to the local economy every year through tourism . \u201cat every airport in the country , you\u2019ll find the yellow - eyed penguin on huge billboards , \u201d said mattern , a researcher at the university of otago . \u201cit\u2019s a huge draw . \u201d\nuniversity of otago zoologist dr thomas mattern said the study used forecast climate change models to predict the impact on penguin populations .\na team of penguin researchers are stationed on enderby island in the new zealand sub - antarctic for four months over summer , arduously counting the yellow - eyeds one - by - one for the first complete population count since 1990 .\nthe studies further suggest that yellow - eyed penguins only settled on mainland new zealand about 500 years ago , taking over the ecological niche left behind by their extinct predecessor . the present breeding range does not expand into the range of the northern population of m . waitaha . it is noted that a few mainland prehistoric bones were attributed to m . antipodes , yet the author attributed these to vagrant non - breeding birds ( a small breeding population can however not be ruled out ) . hence , present day yellow - eyed penguin populations on south island probably represent an unusual example of human intervention leading to expansion of the range of a species ( albeit at the expense of another ) . the yellow - eyed penguin may not have suffered the same fate as its extinct relative for several reasons : ( i ) sustainability of resources became more entrained in maori culture , ( ii ) decimation of sea lion populations following human settlement may have facilitated the establishment of yellow - eyed penguins , and ( iii ) coastal settlements appear to have dwindled in the 16th century based on archaeological records , reducing human exploitation of coastal birds .\na tall , portly penguin with a pale yellow band of feathers that runs from each yellow eye around the nape , a long straight red - brown and pale cream bill , and pink and black feet . the rest of the head , neck and dorsal surface is slate blue ; the breast and belly white down to the feet .\nyellow - eyed penguins inhabit island shorelines in new zealand . most of the shore is covered in coastal forest , where the penguins live and nest . these birds are primarily terrestrial and only enter the water to hunt .\na joint project between the yellow - eyed penguin trust and the department of conservation , the commemorative planting of a rata tree and two hebe plants on the coastal cliffs marked the designation of the new reserve , which will include about 12km of coastline . the small ceremony was one of ms chadwick ' s first public appearances as the conservation minister .\nms young said the penguin was close to death when found . it was severely underweight at 3kg , dehydrated and still moulting .\nduring sea week in march , the yellow - eyed penguin trust staff and volunteers got involved in our seas our future\u2019s beach clean - up . we focused on the area around smaills beach and were shocked at the amount of rubbish dumped just off the road side into the bushes . after sea week we raised the issue with dunedin . . . continue\nyellow - eyed penguins have the most variable incubation period of any penguins , with eggs taking anywhere from 39 to 51 days to hatch . with the exception of emperor penguins , whose incubation period is two months , penguin eggs hatch in just over one month and , within any given species , this seldom varies by more than a day or two .\nyellow - eyed penguins breed on the southeast coast of the south island , on stewart island and adjacent islands , and in the subantarctic on the auckland and campbell islands . on the mainland , yellow - eyed penguins breed in four distinct breeding regions : the catlins , otago peninsula , north otago and banks peninsula . the few pairs on banks peninsula usually breed with little success , and recruitment appears to come from more successful breeding areas further south . on stewart island , yellow - eyed penguins breed along the northeastern and eastern shores , and on several offshore islands . vagrants have reached the north island as far north as the bay of plenty , chatham islands and snares islands .\nonce found , the team will tag the penguins and monitor their nests , keeping an eye on feeding and breeding . that means long walks . while most penguin species nest in massive colonies , yellow - eyeds spread out and nest alone .\nof the three clusters , the yellow - eyed penguins on the mainland are under the greatest threat of extinction , mattern said . \u201cif you look at the penguin species around the world , the ones really under threat are the ones that live and breed close to human settlements . the closer they are to humans , the greater they are in peril . \u201d\nthere is no evidence that commercial or recreational fisheries directly reduce prey availability to yellow - eyed penguins , however they do occur as by - catch in inshore set nets . there can be marked inter - annual variation in food supply for yellow - eyed penguins , with intermittent poor food years being marked by reduced numbers of breeding attempts , slow chick growth , higher pre - fledging chick mortality , low chick fledging weights and lower survival of juveniles and adults ."]}
{"id": 1252, "summary": [{"text": "fraus fusca is a moth of the hepialidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in the australian capital territory , new south wales tasmania and victoria . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "fraus fusca", "paragraphs": ["fraus fusca ( lucas , 1891 ) = hectomanes fusca lucas , 1891 = hectomanes rufula turner , 1927 = fraus rufula .\nfraus fusca ( t . p . lucas , 1891 ) mountain fraus hepialidae , hepialoidea\nthere is little knowledge about fraus fusca in adult form and in my area of victoria ( the wimmera ) collections are few and far between .\nfraus fusca ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus sp . photo courtesy of david fischer fraus simulans . victoria . march 31 , 2017 photo courtesy of nick temby\u00a9\nfraus quadrangula nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 130\nfraus serrata nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 137\nfraus minima nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 123 ; tl : australia\nfraus megacornis nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 125 ; tl : australia\nfraus basicornis nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 127 ; tl : australia\nfraus tedi nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 129 ; tl : australia\nfraus marginispina nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 132 ; tl : australia\nfraus latistria nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 138 ; tl : tasmania\nfraus linogyna nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 139 ; tl : australia\nfraus distispina nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 141 ; tl : australia\nfraus mediaspina nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 142 ; tl : australia\nfraus biloba nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 143 ; tl : australia\nfraus basidispina nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 145 ; tl : australia\nfraus furcata nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 148 ; tl : australia\nfraus pilosa nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 150 ; tl : australia\nfraus griseomaculata nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 161 ; tl : australia\nprimitive ghost moths : morphology and taxonomy of the australian genus fraus walker ( lepidoptera : hepialidae s . lat . )\nfraus orientalis nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 133 ; tl : new south wales\nfraus bilineata ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus serrata ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus ( hepialidae ) ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus minima ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus megacornis ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus basicornis ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus tedi ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus quadrangula ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus marginispina ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus orientalis ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus pteromela ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus latistria ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus linogyna ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus distispina ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus mediaspina ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus biloba ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus basidispina ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus nanus ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus furcata ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus pilosa ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus crocea ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus simulans ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus polyspila ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus griseomaculata ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus pelagia ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nadults fly mostly in the autumn and a few species occur in large numbers . larvae of fraus simulans construct vertical silk - lined tunnels in the soil and feed on surface grasses from within silk lined webbing ( grehan , 1989 )\nnielsen , e . s . & kristensen , n . p . 1989 ,\nprimitive ghost moths . morphology and taxonomy of the australian genus fraus walker ( lepidoptera : hepialidae s . lat . )\n, monographs on australian lepidoptera , vol . 1 , pp . i - xiii , 1 - 206\nthe adult moths are plain brown with variable vague markings and dark dots on the forewings . the males are inclined to have darker forewings than the females , and grey hindwings . the moths have very hairy legs and thorax . the male moths have a wingspan of about 2 cms . the females are bigger , with a wingspan of about 3 cms .\nmelbourne university press , 1990 , fig . 16 . 7 , p . 146 .\nseries 2 , volume 6 , part 2 ( 1891 ) , p . 283 .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nlucas , t . p . 1891 ,\non queensland and other australian lepidoptera with descriptions of new species\n, proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales , ser . 2 , vol . 6 , no . 2 , pp . 277 - 306\nturner , a . j . 1927 ,\nnew and little known tasmanian lepidoptera . part ii\n, papers and proceedings of the royal society of tasmania , vol . 1926 , pp . 119 - 164\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 2e27f4a8 - 9818 - 49a7 - 9a35 - 3f502a7c7b98\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 8d076f5e - 495a - 487b - 97af - 1347666be30c\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : e6d4b7bf - f661 - 4881 - b5df - 57f3d0bfbb0b\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : ec763eea - 1daa - 4e86 - b498 - 62d3ff45d868\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : be0342e9 - c9fe - 4980 - 9a11 - 1b6e9e7f3c8e\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 266997\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nis monophyletic with respect to ( 1 ) elongate elliptical scales with a short , finely serrated apical margin and ( 2 ) patch of hair - scales at the base of the female hindwing ( nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ) .\nnielsen , , e . s . and kristensen , n . p . 1989 .\ns . e . big desert at 15 . 5 km . w . s . w . of rainbow , victoria , australia , 22 april 2008\nparatype . australia : coolgardie , june 5 , 1965 . image courtesy of thomas j . witt\u00a9\ndet . e . s . nielsen , 1983 . new zealand arthropod collection . image : jane hyland ( cmnh )\nthe source code for museums victoria collections is available on github under the mit license .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\nthere are no photos of this species on the website yet . you can offer your photo by logging into your account\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nnielsen , e . s . , g . s . robinson , d . l . wagner . 2000 . ghost - moths of the world : a global inventory and bibliography of the exoporia ( mnesarchaeoidea and hepialoidea ) ( lepidoptera ) . journal of natural history 34 ( 6 ) : 823 - 878 .\n. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the\neach tol branch page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a branch of the tree of life . the major distinction between a branch and a leaf of the tree of life is that each branch can be further subdivided into descendent branches , that is , subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nbutterflies , moths plus other invertebrates found in my garden at great western , victoria . australia\nat the time , i decided this photograph was not good enough to post to this blog . however , after having the privilege of an expert opinion on some moth identifications , i ' ve changed my mind !\ni will be keeping my eyes open for future sightings of this moth . data , obviously , is pretty important .\ni spotted this one on my doorstep in april this year . it was quite a small moth .\nidentification updates of some hepialids plus a couple of other moth species will be made shortly , thanks to ' expert opinion ' .\nan interesting genus jl , i ' ve had a couple come in here , one still unidentified . i ' ll be looking out for them next season .\nhow are you feeling , duncan ? yes , particularly as there ' s not a lot known .\nif i am able to learn one new thing each day in the vast field of entomology , i shall be content .\nmuch of my learning experience has been due to the following : - don herbison - evans for helping me with moth and caterpillar identification . urltoken michael f . braby - the complete field guide to butterflies of australia paul zborowski and ted edwards - a guide to australian moths museum victoria urltoken\ni am a recently retired small - scale primary producer . i ' ve been a keen nature ( and animal behaviour ) observer for most of my life but now i have the time to direct my energy towards learning much more about the fauna and flora around me . i ' m a keen photographer and i credit the invention of digital photography steering me onto the path i am now so enjoying !\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\nnielsen , ebbe s . ; robinson , gaden s . ; wagner , david l . ( 2000 ) .\nthis page was last edited on 23 february 2018 , at 15 : 40 .\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .\n= ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\n= ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nhectomanes pteromela lower , 1892 ; trans . r . soc . s . austr . 15 : 5 ; tl : s . australia\nepiolus nanus herrich - sch\u00e4ffer , [ 1853 ] ; samml . aussereurop . schmett . ( i ) 1 ( 3 ) : pl . 10 , f . 46\nhectomanes crocea lucas , 1891 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . ( 2 ) 6 ( 2 ) : 283 ; tl : australia\n= ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list ) ; [ aucl ]\nhectomanes polyspila meyrick , 1890 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . ( 2 ) 4 ( 4 ) : 1127 ; tl : victoria\nhectomanes pelagia turner , 1927 ; pap . proc . r . soc . tasm . 1926 : 164 ; tl : tasmania\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nwalker , 1865 list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 31 : 1 - 322 ( [ 1865 ] ) , 32 : 323 - 706 ( 1865 ) , 33 : 707 - 1120 ( 1865 ) , 34 : 1121 - 1534 ( [ 1866 ] ) , 35 : 1535 - 2040 ( 1866 )\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome ."]}
{"id": 1255, "summary": [{"text": "istigobius is a genus of gobies found in fresh , brackish and marine waters of the regions along the coasts of the indian and western pacific oceans . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "istigobius", "paragraphs": ["istigobius ornatus is commercially collected for use in the aquarium trade ( baensch and debelius 1997 ) .\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nschmuckgrundel\nto\nistigobius ornatus ( r\u00fcppell , 1830 )\n.\nit ' s a bird ! it ' s a plane ! no , istigobius ! by henry c . schultz iii - urltoken\nmurdy , e . o . & hoese , d . f . 1985 . a revision of the gobioid fish genus istigobius .\nistigobius ornatus is not the subject of any known conservation measures , but its wide distribution throughout the indo - west pacific coincides with many marine protected areas .\na decorated sandgoby , istigobius decoratus , in nelson bay , new south wales . source : ian v . shaw / reef life survey . license : cc by attribution\nas with so many fish genera , istigobius was originally described as a subgenus , in this case , of the genus gobius ( whitley , 1932 ; murdy and hoese , 1985 ) . even so , many of the current istigobius species were not originally placed in this subgenus , but instead were spread out among genera such as acentrogobius , ctenogobius , and rhinogobius .\ngoldmann ' s sandgoby , istigobius goldmanni , at great keppel island , queensland , march 2017 . source : ian shaw / inaturalist . org . license : cc by attribution - noncommercial\nmurdy , e . o . and d . f . hoese , 1985 . revision of the gobiid fish genus istigobius . indo - pac . fish . ( 4 ) : 41 p\nan orangespotted sandgoby , istigobius rigilius , near corbett reef , great barrier reef , queensland , december 2001 . source : erik schlogl / inaturalist . org . license : cc by attribution - noncommercial\nthe behavior of istigobius allows a wide latitude of potential aquarium sizes . these fish have a tendency not to feel comfortable more than several inches from shelter . as a result , they should do well in aquariums as small as 10 gallons , provided predators are not present . larger aquariums will be more suitable for those hobbyists wishing to maintain a pair of istigobius , or those planning on including several tankmates .\nmurdy , e . o . and d . f . hoese , 1985 . revision of the gobiid fish genus istigobius . indo - pac . fish . ( 4 ) : 41 p . ( ref . 420 )\nthe 10 species ( see below ) of istigobius all have a few traits in common . possibly most important to hobbyists is the sexually dimorphic nature of all species . although the genital papilla is the deciding factor in all species of gobiidae , this feature is more pronounced in istigobius . additionally , several other sexually dimorphic traits are also present such as the longer pelvic fins , darker pigmentation in spots or blotches , and horizontal striping , found on the males .\nistigobius rigilius is distributed from the ryukyu islands ( japan ) to the great barrier reef ( australia ) , and east to new caledonia , fiji , tonga , palau , kiribati , ashmore and cartier reefs , and the marshall islands .\nwhile many of the fishes listed are good tank mates for istigobius species , one should research each fish individually before adding it to the aquarium . some of the fish listed above are better left in the ocean or for advanced aquarists .\njustification : istigobius rigilius has been assessed as least concern . it is a broad ranging species and while it may be undergoing localised declines due to factors relating to habitat degradation , these threats are not known to pose a significant threat to the global population .\nmurdy , e . o . & hoese , d . f . 1985 ,\na revision of the gobioid fish genus istigobius\n, indo - pacific fishes , vol . 4 , pp . 1 - 41 figs 1 - 8 pls 1 - 3\na photo of istigobius decoratus taken at a depth of 10m , rodda reef , great barrier reef , queensland , december 1999 . the original type specimens collected in 1927 were lost from manila as a casualty of world war ii . photo courtesy of erik schloegl .\nthe aquarium mates of istigobius should be restricted to peaceful fish . other gobies that maintain territories in the middle of the water column would be good choices . these would obviously include wormfish and cleaner gobies . gobies that maintain a territory within rocks , corals or burrows are also good choices .\nanother photo of istigobius decoratus , this one showing off the highly variable pigmentation possible for the decorated goby . as opposed to the previous photo which was likely collected closer to the eastern spectrum of its distribution , this photo was likely taken from waters near taiwan or the philippines . photo courtesy of mitsuaki takata .\nshiobara , y . and k . suzuki , 1983 . life history of two gobioids , istigobius hoshinonis ( tanaka ) and i . campbelli ( jordan and snyder ) , under natural and rearing conditions . . j . fac . mar . sci . tech . tokai univ . 16 : 193 - 205 .\nistigobius decoratus is one of the larger members of the genus , reaching nearly five inches . it is seen here amongst the preferred habitat of dark sand and coralline encrusted rubble . when threatened by a predator , it is more likely to remain in the open and stay still ( hopefully ) blending into the substrate . photo courtesy of roberto sozzani of scubabob .\nthe decorated goby , istigobius decoratus , differs slightly from other members of this genus . it prefers cleaner waters than do its close cousins . even so , these fish are rarely found below more than five feet of depth , although collections records do show several individuals taken from as deep as 50 feet . the clean water is probably a direct result of the substrate they prefer - coarse coralline - encrusted rubble .\nof course , predatory fish such as lionfish , groupers , or moray eels should be avoided . the gobies will become a quick snack for most any predatory fish . additionally , predatory invertebrates such as brittle starfish from the genus ophiarachna should also be avoided . small gobies such as istigobius are an easy meal for these aggressive predators . likewise , anemones such as the stichodactyla species should be avoided . all too often fish will fall victim to these anemones .\nin an attempt to find a fish that fits a niche often overlooked by many in this hobby - mini - reef and mangrove tanks - i decided to cover the sand - dwelling species of istigobius . their natural instincts and habitats lend a degree of flexibility that is not afforded to us by most ornamental marine fish . as such , these fish place themselves into a small , albeit focused , group of fish that do a fantastic job of filling a niche that the vast majority of fish cannot .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by cmilitante , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by cmilitante , 14 / 03 / 2013\ngreek , istios = sail + latin , gobius = gudgeon ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range ? - 10 m ( ref . 86942 ) . tropical ; 25\u00b0n - 30\u00b0s\nwestern pacific : philippines to fiji , north to taiwan , south to northwestern australia and southern queensland . recently recorded from tonga ( ref . 53797 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 6 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 48637 ) ; 4 . 7 cm tl ( female )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 7 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 10 - 11 ; anal spines : 1 ; anal soft rays : 9 - 10 ; vertebrae : 26 . upper pectoral fin rays entire . nape with as many as 30 dark spots . a prominent diagonal , black line from posterior part of upper jaw to operculum . 4 broad , dark bands on abdomen ; 2nd dorsal fin with 3 - 4 rows of black spots ; pectoral fin clear , base with 2 small dusky spots . predorsal cycloid scales 7 - 9 , trunk ctenoid . in male , anal fin when appressed reaching almost the caudal fin ; appressed 2nd dorsal fin overlapping caudal . anal and 2nd dorsal fins of female when appressed reaching to within a distance of 2 - 3 scales of caudal fin ( ref . 420 ) ; longitudinal scale series 30 - 32 ; depth of body 4 . 9 - 5 . 6 in sl ( ref . 90102 ) .\nfound in sandy areas with both living coral and coral rubble , and from both moderately clear and turbid water ( ref . 48637 ) .\ngenital papilla of male slightly pigmented , ending to side of anal spine . female genital papilla truncate , ending well before origin of anal fin ( ref . 420 ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5010 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00891 ( 0 . 00418 - 0 . 01902 ) , b = 3 . 07 ( 2 . 89 - 3 . 25 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 \u00b10 . 3 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 16 of 100 ) .\nmarine ; freshwater ; brackish ; benthopelagic ; amphidromous ( ref . 46888 ) ; depth range 0 - 6 m ( ref . 90102 ) . tropical\nasia and oceania : india , hong kong , malaysia , indonesia and australia .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 10 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 7050 )\ninhabits sand or mud bottoms of estuaries and sheltered shoreline reefs in 0 - 6 m ( ref . 90102 ) .\ngenital papilla of male sometimes heavily pigmented , reaching anal spine . genital papilla of female truncate , ending well short of anal spine .\nkottelat , m . , a . j . whitten , s . n . kartikasari and s . wirjoatmodjo , 1993 . freshwater fishes of western indonesia and sulawesi . periplus editions , hong kong . 221 p . ( ref . 7050 )\n) : 24 . 7 - 29 . 3 , mean 28 . 6 ( based on 2826 cells ) .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00617 ( 0 . 00279 - 0 . 01364 ) , b = 3 . 08 ( 2 . 89 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 \u00b10 . 3 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 26 of 100 ) .\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 0 - 30 m ( ref . 1602 ) . tropical ; 20\u00b0n - 25\u00b0s\nwestern pacific : philippines and indonesia to kiribati and fiji , south to rowley shoals in the eastern indian ocean and the great barrier reef . reported from the ryukyu islands ( ref . 559 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 10 . 8 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 11344 )\nsolitary ( ref . 90102 ) . occurs in sandy areas with living corals and coral rubble in clear waters , ref . 48637 .\ngenital papilla of male terminating to side of anal spine . papilla of female truncate and terminating posteriorly well before origin of anal fin .\n) : 25 . 5 - 29 . 3 , mean 28 . 6 ( based on 1556 cells ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 23 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\ndescription inhabits areas of coralline sand near clean coral reefs . observed to occur singly and picks at the substrate .\ndescription inhabits areas of coralline sand near clean coral reefs . observed to occur singly and picks at the substrate . [ details ]\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of ctenogobius decoratus ( herre , 1927 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of acentrogobius decoratus ( herre , 1927 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of rhinogobius decoratus herre , 1927 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhong kong marine fish database . afcd . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nlarson , h . k . , murdy , e . & van tassell , j .\nde silva , r . , milligan , h . , lutz , m . , batchelor , a . , jopling , b . , kemp , k . , lewis , s . , lintott , p . , sears , j . , wilson , p . , smith , j . & livingston , f .\nis reported as uncommon in the capricorn - bunker group ( lowe and russell 1990 ) . nevertheless , it is generally the most common\nspecies found on coral reefs ( e . murdy pers . comm . 2009 ) .\ncan be found resting on sand patches , amongst living coral and coral rubble , in clear water lagoons and bays . it occurs at a depth range of 0\u201330 m .\n, however its distribution may coincide with numerous marine protected areas ( mpas ) , including the great barrier reef marine park .\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\nlarson , h . k . , murdy , e . & van tassell , j . 2010 .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2010 : e . t154861a115244556 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthe gobiidae is the largest family of marine fish with over 2 , 000 members , and it is still growing . most gobiidae are characterized by a few notable attributes . other than the few gobies that swim above the substrate , most lack a swim bladder and lateral line . gobies do , however , have sensory ducts surrounding their heads that make up for the lateral line ' s absence ( smith and knopf , 1997 ) . another interesting characteristic is the condition of the ventral fins , which in most gobies are joined together and have small suction cups on the end .\ndespite the habitat preference of some species for mangroves and others for coral rubble , all species prefers water less than 20 feet deep . these shallow waters , combined with silty - sand substrate , typically yield water visibility of less than 20 feet . perhaps this limited visibility is a major reason the fish never move further than several inches from suitable cover .\nmaintenance of these sand - dwelling gobies is rather simple , provided the aquarist offers them the proper habitat . small , peaceful aquariums often provide the optimum environment for these gobies ' long - term care . one major consideration , however , is the temperature of the aquarium . maintaining any of the aforementioned temperate sea species will require an aquarium cooler than a typical reef aquarium . otherwise , a sooner - than - should - be - expected - death will result from the increased water temperature .\nprovided the aquarium is large enough for anthias and direct feeding is administered to the goby .\nmost dottybacks will hunt and kill small gobies - pseudochromis fridmani and p . springeri are possible exceptions .\nshould be ok provided the aquarium is large enough for the rabbitfish and enough food reaches the goby .\nmany wrasses are best avoided . the most peaceful ones will be good choices .\nanother husbandry concern should be the life of your sand bed . nowadays many hobbyists are concerned about predation upon the sand bed fauna . if this describes you - by all means avoid these fish . as noted earlier , they feed from the sand by sifting it and stripping the vital micro - fauna from it . if you are not concerned about the life within your sand bed , these sand sifters will do an excellent job of overturning the sand and generally keeping it clean . however , you should be concerned about where the sand gets dumped ; they are indiscriminate dumpers .\nbesides sifting through the sand bed , your new goby will require supplemental feedings of prepared foods . it is likely , especially in smaller aquariums , that the sand bed , by itself , will not provide enough food to sustain the fish . instead , expect to feed smaller foods designed for a carnivore ' s diet . such foods would include mysid shrimps , adult enriched brine shrimp , fish roe , and any of the copious offerings of flake foods .\nif you have any questions about this article , please visit my author forum on reef central .\nbaensch , h . a . 1994 . baensch marine atlas , volume 1 . microcosm . shelburne , vt . 1215 pp .\njordan , d . s . and j . o . snyder , 1901 . a review of the gobioid fishes of japan with descriptions of twenty - one new species . . proc . u . s . natl . mus . 24 ( 1244 ) : 33 - 132 .\nlieske , e . and r . myers , 1994 collins pocket guide . coral reef fishes . indo - pacific & caribbean including the red sea . harper collins publishers , 400 pp .\nmichael , s . w . 1999 . marine fishes 500 + essential - to - know aquarium species . microcosm . shelburne , vt . 448 pp .\nsmith , l . l . and knopf , a . a . 1997 . national audubon society : field guide to tropical marine fishes . new york . p . 615 .\nwhitely , g . p . 1932 . fishes , in sci . rept . , great barrier reef expedition . 1928 - 1929 , 4 ( 9 ) : 267 - 316 .\na pale sandgoby covered in orange - brown and white speckles , brown lines on the gill cover , a row of paired brown spots along body behind the pectoral fin separated by white spots or dashes , and sometimes 3 - 4 dusky vertical bars on the abdomen of males .\noffshore reefs of western australia , ashmore and cartier reefs , timor sea , and the northern great barrier reef and reefs in the coral sea , to one tree island , queensland ; also lord howe island in the tasman sea . elsewhere the species occurs in the tropical , west - central pacific . usually inhabits sandy patches amongst coral and rubble in lagoons and bays on oceanic and clear offshore reefs in depths to 35 m .\nbody yellowish white ; 2 brown diagonal lines from preoperculum to upper jaw , connected by a single line ; 2 almost vertical brown lines on operculum . males sometimes with 3 - 4 dusky vertical bars on abdomen .\npallidogobius rigilius herre 1953 , philippine j . sci . 82 ( 2 ) : 185 . type locality : rigili island , eniwetok atoll , marshall islands .\nallen , g . r . 1993 . fishes of ashmore reef and cartier island .\nherre , a . w . 1953 . tropical pacific gobies with vomerine teeth .\nhutchins , j . b . , williams , d . mcb . , newman , s . j . , cappo , m . & speare , p . 1995 . new records of fishes for the rowley shoals and scott / seringapatam reefs , off north - western australia .\npictorial guide to indonesian reef fishes . part 3 . jawfishes - sunfishes , opistognathidae - molidae\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2010 : e . t154861a115244556 . urltoken downloaded on 19 june 2018 .\n. tokyo : tokai university press vol . 1\u20132 437 pp . 247 figs 370 pls .\nreef and shore fishes of the south pacific . new caledonia to tahiti and the pitcairn islands .\nrussell , b . c . 1983 . annotated checklist of the coral reef fishes in the capricorn - bunker group , great barrier reef , australia . great barrier reef marine park authority . special publication series 1 : 1 - 184 figs 1 - 2\nthe blackspotted sandgoby is a small bottom dwelling species that occurs in tropical waters and some warm temperate waters of australia .\nthe map below shows the australian distribution of the species based on public sightings and specimens in australian museums . click on the map for detailed information . source : atlas of living australia .\nhoese , d . f . , bray , d . j . , paxton , j . r . & g . r . allen . 2006 . fishes . in beesley , p . l . & a . wells . ( eds ) zoological catalogue of australia . volume 35 . abrs & csiro publishing : australia . parts 1 - 3 , pages 1 - 2178 .\na common species that inhabits mangroves and silty , rocky areas ; occasionally found in rubble reef areas . only single individuals were observed ; many individuals found scattered over a small area ( ref . 420 ) . found primarily in lower estuaries , usually in mangroves . this is the species of the genus that is found farthest inland . feeds on small invertebrates ( ref . 12693 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ndescription occurs in turbid coastal areas near river mouths at less than 1 m to at least 12 m .\ndescription occurs in turbid coastal areas near river mouths at less than 1 m to at least 12 m . [ details ]\nsmith , j . l . b . & smith , m . m . ( 1963 ) . the fishes of seychelles . department of ichthyology , rhodes university . grahamstown . [ details ]\n( of acentrogobius aestuarius smith , 1959 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of acentrogobius spence ( smith , 1947 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of gobius spence smith , 1947 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of gobius spence smith , 1947 ) macnae , w . & m . kalk ( eds ) . ( 1958 ) . a natural history of inhaca island , mozambique . witwatersrand univ . press , johannesburg . i - iv , 163 pp . [ details ]\neschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of bikinigobius herre , 1953 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of innoculus whitley , 1952 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of pallidogobius herre , 1953 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nraminosoa , n . , rasoloariniaina , r , ravelomanana , t . & velosoa , j .\njustification : this is a very widespread species without any known major threats . it is assessed as least concern .\na pale sandgoby with a prominent black bar across the gill cover , up to 30 dark spots on the nape , a row of paired unfused black spots separated by white spots behind the pectoral fin , four broad dark bands on abdomen , 3 - 4 rows of black spots on the second dorsal fin , and clear pectoral fins with two small dusky spots on the base .\nmonte bello islands and offshore reefs of western australia , ashmore reef , timor sea , and the northern great barrier reef to at least the capricorn group , southern queensland . elsewhere the species occurs in the east - indo - west - central pacific . inhabits sandy patches among live coral and rubble , in moderately clear and turbid waters .\ndorsal fin vi , 10 - 11 ; anal fin 9 - 10 ; longitudinal scale series 30 - 32 ; vertebrae 26 . body depth 4 . 9 - 5 . 6 in sl ; predorsal cycloid scales 7 - 9 , trunk ctenoid ; upper pectoral fin rays entire . in male , anal fin when appressed reaching almost the caudal fin ; appressed 2nd dorsal fin overlapping caudal . anal and second dorsal fins of female when appressed reaching to within a distance of 2 - 3 scales of caudal fin .\ngobius goldmanni bleeker 1852 , natuurkundig tijdschrift voor nederlandsch indi\u00eb 3 : 167 . type locality : kupang , west timor .\nbleeker , p . 1852 . bijdrage tot de kennis der ichthyologische fauna van timor .\nhernaman , v . & munday , p . l . 2005 . life - history characteristics of coral reef gobies . ii . mortality rate , mating system and timing of maturation .\na variable brownish sandgoby becoming white below , with dark brown scale margins forming a honeycomb pattern and a midlateral row of double dark brown spots forming rectangular markings along the side , and usually black spots on the nape .\nashmore reef and cartier reef , timor sea , and the shark bay region , western australia , to moreton bay , queensland ; also diamond islets in the coral sea , and lord howe island in the tasman sea . elsewhere the species occurs in the tropical , indo - west - central pacific . inhabits coralline sand areas in clear lagoons and on seaward reefs .\ndorsal fin ( total spines ) vi + i , 10 - 11 ; anal fin i , 9 - 11 ; vertebrae 26 ; caudal fin segmented and non branching rays 2 - 3 , branched rays 14 - 15 ; predorsal cycloid scales 7 - 10 ; trunk scales ctenoid . isthmus narrow , scaled forward to vertical at posterior part of preoperculum . sexual dimorphism exhibited in anal , pelvic and 2nd dorsal fin genital papilla of male sometimes darkly pigmented and reaching to side of anal spine . female genital papilla truncate , ending well before origin of anal fin .\nhighly variable in colour , brownish on upper half , becoming white below ; dark brown scale margins forming honeycomb pattern and midlateral row of double dark brown spots forming rectangular markings ; two diagonal , dusky lines on operculum ; an inverted u - shaped spot prominent at the distal end of upper jaw . pectoral fin with small dusky spots ; two longitudinal lines on pectoral base spreading onto it fin rays .\nrhinogobius decoratus herre 1927 , monographs of the bureau of science . manila 23 : 181 , pl . 13 ( 3 ) . type locality : apo island , philippines ( neotype , original type material from leyte , philippines destroyed in wwii ) .\nallen , g . r . , hoese , d . f . , paxton , j . r . , randall , j . e . , russell , b . c . , starck , w . a . , talbot , f . h . & whitley , g . p . 1976 . annotated checklist of the fishes of lord howe island .\nthe marine fishes of north - western australia . a field guide for anglers and divers .\nperth , wa : western australian museum vi 201 pp . , 70 pls .\nfrancis , m . 1993 . checklist of the coastal fishes of lord howe , norfolk , and kermadec islands , southwest pacific ocean .\nherre , a . w . 1927 . gobies of the philippines and china seas .\nhobbs , j - p . a . , newman , s . j . , mitsopoulos , g . e . a . , travers , m . j . , skepper , c . l . , gilligan , j . j . , allen , g . r . , choat , h . j . & ayling , a . m . 2014 . checklist and new records of christmas island fishes : the influence of isolation , biogeography and habitat availability on species abundance and community composition .\nhutchins , b . 2004 . fishes of the dampier archipelago , western australia .\nhutchins , j . b . 1994 . a survey of the nearshore reef fish fauna of western australia ' s west and south coasts \u2014 the leeuwin province .\njohnson , j . w . 1999 . annotated checklist of the fishes of moreton bay , queensland , australia .\njohnson , j . w . 2010 . fishes of the moreton bay marine park and adjacent continental shelf waters , queensland , australia . pp . 299 - 353 in davie , p . j . f . & phillips , j . a . proceedings of the thirteenth international marine biological workshop , the marine fauna and flora of moreton bay .\nlarson , h . k . , williams , r . s . & hammer , m . p . 2013 . an annotated checklist of the fishes of the northern territory , australia .\nmoore , g . i . , morrison , s . m . , hutchins , b . j . , allen , g . r . & sampey , a . 2014 . kimberley marine biota . historical data : fishes .\nreef and shore fishes of the south pacific . new caledonia to tahiti and the pitcairn islands\nrussell , b . c . 1983 . annotated checklist of the coral reef fishes in the capricorn - bunker group , great barrier reef , australia .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nmarine ; brackish ; reef - associated ; depth range 0 - 5 m ( ref . 86942 ) . tropical ; 21\u00b0c - 29\u00b0c ( ref . 27115 ) ; 30\u00b0n - 25\u00b0s\nindo - pacific : red sea south to northern mozambique ( ref . 4343 ) and east to fiji , north to southern taiwan , south to new caledonia . recently recorded from tonga ( ref . 53797 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 11 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 9710 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 7 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 10 - 12 ; anal spines : 1 ; anal soft rays : 9 - 11 ; vertebrae : 26 . upper 3 - 4 pectoral fin rays free . body color pale gray ; operculum with 5 small blue spots interspersed with brownish red spots ; 5 vertical rows of white spots on pectoral fins ; anterior tip of first dorsal fin bright yellow . 4th spine of 1st dorsal fin longest . predorsal scales cycloid , trunk ctenoid . mouth with overhanging snout , lips greatly thickened . cheeks and operculae without scales . female pelvic and anal fins not as darkly pigmented as in male . also with terete body shape , slightly depressed ; eyes situated dorso - laterally ; reduced swim bladders ( ref . 92840 ) .\na common species that inhabits mangroves and silty , rocky areas ; occasionally found in rubble reef areas . only single individuals were observed ; many individuals found scattered over a small area ( ref . 420 ) . found primarily in lower estuaries , usually in mangroves . this is the species of the genus that is found farthest inland . feeds on small invertebrates ( ref . 12693 ) .\ngenital papilla , of male varying from lightly to heavily pigmented and terminating to side of anal spine . female genital papilla lightly pigmented and truncate , terminating well before anal spine ( ref . 420 ) . benthic spawner ( ref . 32023 ) .\n) : 25 . 5 - 29 . 3 , mean 28 . 5 ( based on 3131 cells ) .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00955 ( 0 . 00561 - 0 . 01627 ) , b = 3 . 08 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 22 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 5 \u00b10 . 37 se ; based on food items .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nbleeker , p . 1878 ,\nquatri\u00e8me m\u00e9moire sur la faune ichthyologique de la nouvelle - guin\u00e9e\n, archives n\u00e9erlandaises des sciences naturelles , vol . 13 , pp . 35 - 66 pls 2 - 3\nrichardson , j . 1844 ,\nichthyology\n, ed . richardson , j . & gray , j . e . ( eds ) , the zoology of the voyage of h . m . s . erebus and terror under the command of captain sir james clark ross , r . n . , f . r . s . , during the years 1839\u201343 , vol . 2 , pp . pp . 1 - 16 pls 1 - 6 , 7 - 8 ( parts ) , 9 - 10 , e . w . janson , london\nwhitley , g . p . 1932 ,\nfishes\n, scientific reports of the great barrier reef expedition 1928 - 1929 , vol . 4 , no . 9 , pp . 267 - 316 figs 1 - 5 pls 1 - 4\nwormuth , j . h . 1976 ,\nthe biogeography and numerical taxonomy of the oegopsid squid family ommastrephidae in the pacific ocean\n, bulletin de l ' institut oc\u00e9anographique monaco , vol . 23 , pp . 1 - 87\no ' sullivan , d . b . , johnstone , g . w . , kerry , k . w . & imber , m . j . 1983 ,\na mass stranding of squid martialia hyadesi rochebrune and mabille ( teuthoidea : ommastrephidae ) at macquarie island\n, papers and proceedings of the royal society of tasmania , vol . 117 , pp . 161 - 163\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 4583529c - 9f4a - 40ca - 886d - 8309ecc0c2b2\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : d74e27c4 - 0d3e - 4ee8 - a61b - ba500f1efb1c\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 344880\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country ."]}
{"id": 1257, "summary": [{"text": "proconsul africanus is an ape which lived from about 23 to 14 million years ago during the miocene epoch .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it was a fruit eater and had a brain larger than a monkey , although probably not as large as a modern ape .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it was named by paleontologist arthur hopwood in 1933 after chimpanzees all called consul , which performed human like circus acts , such as riding a bicycle and playing the piano , in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "other species of the genus proconsul have since been discovered . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "proconsul africanus", "paragraphs": ["new wrist bones of proconsul africanus and p . nyanzae from rusinga island , kenya\nnew wrist bones of proconsul africanus and p . nyanzae from rusinga island , kenya\nnew wrist bones of proconsul africanus and p . nyanzae from rusinga island , kenya .\nt1 - new wrist bones of proconsul africanus and p . nyanzae from rusinga island , kenya\nnew wrist bones of proconsul africanus and p . nyanzae from rusinga island , kenya \u2014 johns hopkins university\ntitle =\nnew wrist bones of proconsul africanus and p . nyanzae from rusinga island , kenya\n,\nproconsul africanus\ntype\ncranium with mandible from rusinga island , kenya . found in 1943 by mary leakey .\no\u2019connor , b . l . 1976 . dryopithecus ( proconsul ) africanus : quadruped or non - quadruped ? ] .\nmorbeck , m . e . 1977 . the use of casts and other problems in reconstructing the dryopithecus ( proconsul ) africanus wrist complex .\nthe morphology of mandibular molars of the two proconsul species , proconsul major and proconsul africanus , from the tinderet region , kenya was analyzed . while the molar size variability within the tinderet p . major was slightly greater than those of local african ape subspecies , the shape variability was comparable . because the two proconsul species show some differences in cusp areal proportions , p . major is not just a larger p . africanus in molar morphology . napak specimens are generally similar to the tinderet p . major .\na systematic revision of proconsul with the description of a new genus of early miocene hominoid .\nproconsul africanus knm ru 7290 rusinga island , kenya 22 - 17 million years bp discovered by m . d . leakey , 1948 facsimile photo : don hitchcock 2013 source : western australian museum\ni just found a partial skull fossil of proconsul africanus . this is crazy ! ! ! ! ! i ' ll be tweeting more about the discover . stay tuned ! ! ! : )\nbelow are some of the still unanswered questions about au . africanus that may be answered with future discoveries :\nzwell , m . , and conroy , g . c . 1973 . multivariate analysis of the dryopithecus africanus forelimb .\nproconsul africanus natural history museum , london . knm ru 7920 . age about 18 million years . rusinga island , kenya . the original in kenya national museum , nairobi . photo : nrkpan permission : gnu free documentation license , version 1 . 2\ndart , r . , 1925 . australopithecus africanus . the man - ape of south africa . nature 115 , 195 - 199 .\n* 1 . lightly built skull , lacking crests * 2 . cerebrum larger than monkeys * 3 . typical ape dental characteristics including 5 cusps on all three mandibular molars * 4 . p . africanus is an arboreal quadruped , and not a knuckle - walker like modern apes . like monkeys , its legs and arms are equal in length * in other words , proconsul africanus has an ape - like skull on a more monkey - like body\nwork done on a . africanus has been more quantitative but has focused on comparing this taxon to paranthropus robustus rather than to extant hominoids . grine ( 71 ) found that a . africanus molars have lower incidences of pitting than seen for paranthropus . a . africanus scratches are also longer and narrower and show more homogeneity in orientation . grine argued that compared with the \u201crobust\u201d forms , a . africanus ate more soft fruits and leaves . comparisons with work from teaford ( 72 ) places a . africanus between cebus olivaceus on one hand and pan troglodytes on the other . work on a . africanus incisors has shown that this taxon has higher microwear feature densities on all surfaces examined than does paranthropus ( 17 ) . this suggests that a . africanus processed a greater variety of foods with its front teeth , including larger , more abrasive ones , than were encountered by paranthropus . comparisons with an extant baseline series examined by ungar ( 73 ) puts australopithecus between pongo pygmaeus and the seed predator / folivore presbytis thomasi in degree of anterior tooth use in ingestion .\n\u2026kenya , of the remains of proconsul africanus , a common ancestor of both humans and apes that lived about 25 million years ago . at fort ternan ( east of lake victoria ) in 1962 , leakey\u2019s team discovered the remains of kenyapithecus , another link between apes and early man that lived about 14 million\u2026\n\u2026she discovered the skull of proconsul africanus , an ancestor of both apes and early humans that lived about 25 million years ago . in 1959 at olduvai gorge , tanzania , she discovered the skull of an early hominin ( member of the human lineage ) that her husband named zinjanthropus , or \u201ceastern man , \u201d though\u2026\n\u00a91 this is a reconstruction of proconsul africanus ( cast ) , found at rusinga island , victoria lake , uganda . these primitive , medium sized apes lived in rain forests between 18 and 22 million years ago . this species and others such as dryopithecus existed before the hominid line diverged on the path to humans .\nau . africanus is currently the oldest known early human from southern africa . where did it come from ? was it a descendent of au . afarensis from eastern africa ?\nmchenry , h . , 1998 . body proportions in australopithecus afarensis and a . africanus and the origin of the genus homo . journal of human evolution 35 , 1 - 22 .\nmary leakey made her first big discovery in 1948 : she found a partial skull fossil of proconsul africanus , an ancestor of apes and humans that later evolved into the two distinct species . her find was truly remarkable ; the fossil , believed to be more than 18 million years old , was the first species of the primate genus to be discovered from the miocene era .\nwalker and his field crew struggled against extreme weather , wildlife , and locals who misunderstood their aims , yet they managed to relocate the old proconsul sites . to their astonishment , they found that the original skeleton site preserved the contents of an ancient hollow tree : skeletons of carnivore ' s prey that had been carried to its lair . at least one proconsul , then , was found in a tree . the team also found incredibly rich new sites , returning triumphantly to nairobi with an unprecedented ten new partial skeletons of proconsul . as a bonus , they collected hundreds of specimens of contemporary species - rhinos , pigs , carnivores , rodents , hyraxes , reptiles , plants , and trees . they had gathered fossil evidence of almost every aspect of the miocene community in which proconsul lived .\nname : proconsul \u202d ( \u202cbefore consul\u202d ) . phonetic : pro - con - sul . named by : arthur hopwood\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202c1933 . synonyms : kenyapithecus africanus , sivapithecus africanus , ugandapithecus , \u202d \u202cxenopithecus koruensis . classification : chordata , \u202d \u202cmammalia , \u202d \u202cprimates , \u202d \u202chominoidea , \u202d \u202cproconsulidae . species : p . \u202d \u202cafricanus\u202d ( \u202ctype\u202d ) \u202c , \u202d \u202cp . \u202d \u202cheseloni , \u202d \u202cp . \u202d \u202cmajor , \u202d \u202cp . \u202d \u202cnyanzae . \u202d \u202cp . \u202d \u202cgitongai and p . \u202d \u202cmeswae are sometimes mentioned . diet : herbivore , \u202d \u202cprobably a specialist frugivore . size : around\u202d \u202c1\u202d \u202cmeter tall , \u202d \u202cbut exact size depends upon the species . known locations : east africa . time period : late oligocene through to the end of the miocene . fossil representation : multiple individuals .\nproconsul bauplan , or body plan . proconsul , a tailless quadruped , lived some 18 million years ago in africa and is one of the best documented old world monkeys ( catarrhini ) of the miocene : thousands of fossil bone fragments have allowed reconstructions of its body proportions and mode of locomotion . while its status as a genuine early ape is disputed , proconsul represents a suitable model for the blueprint of an early hominoid . here , a montage of the skeleton and a lifelike reconstruction of a young female are shown . artist : unknown rephotography : don hitchcock 2015 source and text : vienna natural history museum , naturhistorisches museum wien\n. . . proconsul major was renamed in a new combination ugandapithecus major ( senut et al . 2000 ; pickford et al . 2009b ) . this is still a matter of debate today ( see for example harrison , 2010 and the more recent but misleading paper by mcnulty et al . 2015 ) . however , the differences between proconsul and ugandapithecus are evident not only in the dentognathic anatomy but also in the postcranial morphology . . . .\nthe anatomy of the wrist of two species of the early miocene hominoid proconsul is described based on new material collected on rusinga island , kenya . these fossils generally confirm previous findings that the wrist of proconsul is monkey - like in much of its morphology . however , the structure of the ulnar side of the wrist , particularly the ulnocarpal joint , is significantly different from that of extant monkeys and suggests some functional affinities with extant hominoids . thus the wrist of proconsul is neither monkey - like nor ape - like in its total morphology . instead , it shows a unique combination of features which once again point to the oversimplicity of forcing fossil forms into categories based only on extant taxa .\nn2 - the anatomy of the wrist of two species of the early miocene hominoid proconsul is described based on new material collected on rusinga island , kenya . these fossils generally confirm previous findings that the wrist of proconsul is monkey - like in much of its morphology . however , the structure of the ulnar side of the wrist , particularly the ulnocarpal joint , is significantly different from that of extant monkeys and suggests some functional affinities with extant hominoids . thus the wrist of proconsul is neither monkey - like nor ape - like in its total morphology . instead , it shows a unique combination of features which once again point to the oversimplicity of forcing fossil forms into categories based only on extant taxa .\nab - the anatomy of the wrist of two species of the early miocene hominoid proconsul is described based on new material collected on rusinga island , kenya . these fossils generally confirm previous findings that the wrist of proconsul is monkey - like in much of its morphology . however , the structure of the ulnar side of the wrist , particularly the ulnocarpal joint , is significantly different from that of extant monkeys and suggests some functional affinities with extant hominoids . thus the wrist of proconsul is neither monkey - like nor ape - like in its total morphology . instead , it shows a unique combination of features which once again point to the oversimplicity of forcing fossil forms into categories based only on extant taxa .\nskeleton of the closely related species , proconsul nyanzae , now reclassified as ekembo nyanzae . photo : funkmonk permission : creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 unported license . source : mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle , paris .\nproconsul heseloni , now reclassified as ekembo heseloni . knm - ru 7290 , rusinga island , kenya , circa 18 million years bp . photograph : don hitchcock 2015 source and text : facsimile , vienna natural history museum , naturhistorisches museum wien\nabstract =\nthe anatomy of the wrist of two species of the early miocene hominoid proconsul is described based on new material collected on rusinga island , kenya . these fossils generally confirm previous findings that the wrist of proconsul is monkey - like in much of its morphology . however , the structure of the ulnar side of the wrist , particularly the ulnocarpal joint , is significantly different from that of extant monkeys and suggests some functional affinities with extant hominoids . thus the wrist of proconsul is neither monkey - like nor ape - like in its total morphology . instead , it shows a unique combination of features which once again point to the oversimplicity of forcing fossil forms into categories based only on extant taxa .\n,\n\u00a91 australopithecus africanus is one of the many species of this genus that is believed to be ancestral to humanity . however , with the many species to be found , the exact sequence of species leading to humanity , has not yet been established .\nearly research focused on the question of whether proconsul was an ape or a monkey , but years of research on the wealth of proconsul material has shown us that this question is inappropriate . proconsul was a creature that lived soon after these two major lineages had split , and it has many characteristics in common with both apes and monkeys . for example , it did not have a tail like living apes , but it was a slow moving arboreal quadruped like many monkeys . it had a pattern of growth intermediate between modern apes and monkeys . it lived during a time in which there were many different species of early apes co - existing in eastern africa but only a few monkeys , a situation very different from modern times .\nproconsul africanus this is a beautifully made and finished facsimile from skulls unlimited , who are suppliers of first class specimens of this kind . they seem to make a special effort to be as accurate as possible , and the results are better than most museums . note that the original specimen they have made this facsimile from , the almost complete 1948 discovery by leakey , has been distorted during its time of burial by overlying sediments , as shown in the photo on the right . proconsul skull - proconsul existed between 14 and 23 million years ago during the miocene epoch . this species is one of the better represented early hominid species due to the numerous specimens that have been excavated . this specimen is based on the 1948 leaky discovery at victoria lake , kenya . specifications : class : fossil hominids order : fossil hominids family : fossil hominidae origin : lake victoria 23 - 14 mya diet : omnivore skull length : 13 cm ( 5 . 1 in ) photo and text : urltoken\nwalker a . ( 1997 ) proconsul . in : begun d . r . , ward c . v . , rose m . d . ( eds ) function , phylogeny , and fossils . advances in primatology . springer , boston , ma\nthese vertebrate from the spine of an australopithecus africanus individual show it walked upright in a way very similar to modern humans . the uniquely human curve of your lower back absorbs shock when you walk . this early human ' s spine had the same curve .\nthis book , written for the general public , details the history of one of the lesser known branches in our family tree . the subject is the genus proconsul , a primate that lived in africa some 18 million years ago during the miocene epoch .\nwalker and shipman point out that in order to best understand the place of proconsul in our history , we should accept it as an early ancestral ape , and then build upon this understanding to redefine our definition of what it means to be an ape .\nholloway responded to falk\u2019s reinterpretation of australopithecus africanus by reiterating the claims of a hominid anterior placement of the lunate sulcus which dart originally proposed . today the debate still goes on between falk and holloway . figures 6 and 7 compare the taung child with an indian child .\nthe genus proconsul was recognized over 60 years ago as the first miocene anthropoid from sub - saharan africa ( hopwood , 1933 ) . the collections of proconsul fossils have grown steadily since then , so that it is now probably the best - known miocene primate . we have hundreds of fossils of several species from many localities in kenya and uganda . nearly every body part is now represented and much is known about sexual dimorphism , body proportions , growth and development , and paleoecology . because of this , the functional anatomy of the genus is relatively well known .\nthroughout history there have been many great historical discoveries all around the world . the many contributions that mary leakey and her family have made to the archaeological field have changed how history was viewed forever . her discoveries such as the partial skull fossil of proconsul africanus , partial skull of zinjanthropus boisei , fossils of homo habilis , and one of her greatest discoveries in 1979 , a trail of early human footprints in laetoli . how could the discoveries of partial skulls , and footprints left in the mud millions of years ago possibly help future archeologist and historians ? why are they so important ?\n. . . noteworthy are the five pronounced ridges between the fovea anterior and the hypocone that are running from the lingual cingulum towards the tip of the protocone , the crista transversa anterior , and the crista obliqua . a very similar morphology we observe at molars of ekembo heseloni ( knm - ru 2036 ) and proconsul africanus ( bmnh 14084 ) ( walker et al . 1993 , hartwig 2002 , mcnulty et al . 2015 ) , both species being considerably older than the eppelsheim finds . the fovea posterior of epp 13 . 16 is well defined ; oval shaped and has as already mentioned no distal transverse ridge . . . .\nin the context of describing the discoveries of proconsul in the field and in the lab , walker and shipman are able to touch on many important topics in the field of paleoanthropology , including species recognition in the fossil record , classification methods such as cladistics , the principle of uniformitarianism , determining life history strategies in extinct animals , and reconstructing aspects of paleobiology such as diet and locomotion in extinct animals . they explain these complicated topics clearly , which gives insight to the lay reader into the intricacies of our field . proconsul is an interesting taxon on which to focus , as it lived during a time in which old world higher primates were diversifying .\nfigure 5 . a comparison of the taung child endocast with apes and man . a . frontal lobe of an ape . b . taung specimen ( a . africanus ) . c . frontal lobe of a human . the simplicity and what seems to show sulcal pattern shows that the taung resembles the chimpanzee . adapted from reference 5 .\nwhile some features of proconsul ( such as its teeth , long arms , mobile shoulder and elbow , gasping toes , lack of an ischial expansion on the hip ) were more similar to those of modern apes , other features were more similar to those of old world monkeys ( hip , length of the back , back mobility , narrow trunk , kneecaps , leg , and semicircular canals ) . analysis of the sacrum indicates that it lacked an external tail like all modern apes . proconsul probably weighed 25 - 30 pounds and was adapted for life in trees . its teeth suggest that it primarily depended on fruit rather than leaves ( walker , 2005 ; kingdon , 2003 ) .\nthus , gould recognized the distinct division between the australopithecus and homo habilis ( recognized by most anthropologists as advanced a . africanus ) and homo erectus . the former two are on the mammalian line , whereas the latter is grouped with modern man . thus according to bbrs creationists would divide the two groups into a general mammalian kind and a human kind .\nin the first part of the twentieth century , fossil teeth , jaws , a spectacular skull of proconsul found by mary leakey , and a stunning partial skeleton shaped anthropologists ' ideas of our distant past . in 1980 , when walker happened to recognize some misidentified bones from the well - known partial skeleton in the national museum of kenya in nairobi , the chance find set him on his own quest to unravel\n\u2018some of our early ancestors , who were smaller than humans today , had brains closer to the average for their size of all mammals \u2026 this is australopithecus africanus and later african homo habilis \u2026 . the more recent , homo erectus and modern homo sapiens have much larger brains than predicted by body weight alone . this indicates that we have evolved larger brains at an exceptional rate and apparently have reached new levels of intelligence . \u2019 13\ncomparisons with extant hominoids have shown that a . afarensis and a . africanus have relatively thick mandibular corpora ( 74 , 75 ) . the same pattern was also found for paranthropus boisei and p . robustus . fig . 5 shows mandibular robusticity index values for extant great apes , some miocene apes , and early australopithecines . the early hominids show relatively thicker mandibular corpora than extant great apes and miocene catarrhines , suggesting a morphological shift in the former .\nshearing crest studies have been conducted on early miocene african apes and middle to late miocene european apes . these studies suggest a considerable range of diets in these forms . for example , rangwapithecus and oreopithecus have relatively long shearing crests , suggesting folivory ; ouranopithecus has extremely short \u201ccrests , \u201d suggesting a hard - object specialization ; whereas most other miocene taxa studied , such as proconsul and dryopithecus , have the intermediate length crests of a frugivore ( 14 , 45 ) .\nin sum , then , the microwear suggests that , by the end of the miocene , hominoids had a wide range of diets . in contrast , a . afarensis probably focused on soft fruit but also began to incorporate into its diet abrasive , terrestrial resources that required incisal stripping . a . africanus may still have focused on soft fruit , particularly that which required a moderate amount of incisal preparation . clearly , considerably more work is needed on these and other early hominids to put together a reasonable picture of diet based on microwear evidence .\nfurther field work by the leakeys , and then by walker and colleagues , expanded the number of proconsul fossils significantly , and today it is one of the best known fossil primates . walker and shipman describe the details of field work , and tell many interesting stories of encounters with curious natives , inclement weather , and cantankerous equipment . they are careful to break up the serious discussions of science with stories that describe the personalities of their colleagues or that highlight the excitement of discoveries , which will surely help to keep the interest of the reader .\nas for the early hominids , a . africanus had more occlusal relief than did paranthropus robustus , suggesting a dietary difference between these species ( 30 ) . additional preliminary shearing quotient studies support this idea while reaffirming that the australopithecines , as a group , had relatively flat , blunt molar teeth and lacked the long shearing crests seen in some extant hominoids ( 28 ) . by itself , this indicates that the earliest hominids would have had difficulty breaking down tough , pliant foods , such as soft seed coats and the veins and stems of leaves\u2014although they probably were capable of processing buds , flowers , and shoots .\nthere have been many attempts to measure the cranial capacity of man and his cranial configuration in order to directly measure his mentality . from what is now known of modern man , there is no relationship between cranial capacity and intelligence . in fossil man and apes the endocranial casts show arteries and the general shape of the inner aspects of the skull , but not the sulci and gyri which are important . the key transitional fossils proconsul and australopithecus have been challenged by falk and his group who demonstrate affinities of these organisms by \u2018reading\u2019 the sulci , especially the lunate sulcus on the endocranial casts . their work is disputed and so one must conclude that cranial configuration studies need further research .\nthe discovery of the fore - limb bones of p . africanus is therefore an event of considerable moment , for they constitute the oldest and most complete skeleton of the hominoid fore - limb so far known . it is clear that these bones belong to one of the most significant periods of primate evolution ; a period when the generalized catarrhine stock was emerging from a prolonged phase of arboreal quadrupedalism with its limited opportunities for adaptive radiation and was entering upon a phase that would provide a diversity of environmental opportunity leading ultimately to the emergence of four distinct patterns of locomotion among the anthropoidea : ( 1 ) arboreal quadrupedalism , ( 2 ) terrestrial quadrupedalism , ( 3 ) brachiation , ( 4 ) terrestrial bipedalism .\nthe only exception is ardipithecus , which is more chimp - sized in the p 4 \u2013m 1 region , but intermediate between chimpanzees and orangutans in the m 2 \u2013m 3 region . again , interpretations of such differences are hampered by the lack of body size estimates for ardipithecus , but if a body size estimate of 51 kg is used for a . anamensis ( the average of the two different estimates based on the tibia ) ( 18 ) , mchenry ' s \u201cmegadontia quotient\u201d for this taxon is essentially identical to that for a . afarensis ( fig . 3 ) . in other words , its molars are large for a hominoid , but smaller than those of a . africanus or the \u201crobust\u201d australopithecines .\n. . . we are assuming that the fossil represents the modal morphology for that species ( although this assumption might not hold in the future as more specimens become available ) . the miocene ape taxa included in the asrs are ekembo nyanzae ( knm - mw 13142 ; ward , 1993 ; ward et al . , 1993 ; re - assigned from the genus proconsul ; mcnulty et al . , 2015 ) , nacholapithecus kerioi ( knm - bg 35250 ; ishida et al . , 2004 ; nakatsukasa et al . , 2007 ) , and oreopithecus bambolii ( igf 11778 ; # 50 ; schultz , 1960 ; straus , 1963 ) . e . nyanzae preserves five presacral vertebrae . . . .\na prime example of how controversial endocranial casts can be involves the study of australopithecus . the taung child , australopithecus africanus , was found in late 1924 . dart published a preliminary report of this find in nature . in his report he stated that taung was a human - like ape with features intermediate between living anthropoids and humans . he pointed out that the brain was large ( 525cc ) , but now estimated by endocranial cast as ( 405cc ) and claimed that its general structure was more human than ape . in particular , the lunate sulcus , a groove on the rear portion of the brain which demarcates the visual portion of the brain , occupied a posterior position , as in humans ( see figure 5 ) .\n. . . ekembo nyanzae ( knm - mw 13142 ) was positioned as a stem hominoid . ekembo ( including proconsul sensu stricto ) is almost universally found to be a stem hominoid ( begun et al . , 1997a , b ; ward et al . , 1997 ; alba et al . , 2015 ; mcnulty et al . , 2015 ) , although others interpret early miocene taxa be either stem catarrhines or sister taxa to hominoids ( rossie et al . , 2002 ; harrison , 2010 ) . the hiwegi formation from which the knm - mw 13142 skeleton derives is dated to 17 . 9 myr ( drake et al . , 1988 ) , and so this was selected as the tip date . . . .\nstudies of corpus shape in a . anamensis and ardipithecus ramidus will likely provide further clues regarding differences in mandibular architecture between great apes and later australopithecines . corpus robusticity indices for a . anamensis below m 1 average 53 . 5 ( m . leakey , personal communication ) . these values fall at the upper range for extant hominoids ( pan = 39 . 2\u201357 . 8 ; gorilla = 43 . 5\u201359 . 7 ; pongo = 35 . 7\u201352 . 0 ) and at the lower end of the range for later fossil hominids ( a . afarensis = 48 . 4\u201368 . 9 , a . africanus = 54 . 8\u201379 . 0 ) ( fig . 5 ) ( data from daegling and grine and lockwood et al . ) ( 75 , 85 ) .\nunfortunately , little is known about the microwear of early australopithecines . no microwear research has yet been published for either ardipithecus ramidus or a . anamensis , although there has been some done on a . afarensis and a . africanus . the work done on a . afarensis has been largely qualitative and focused on the anterior teeth , and it suggests that these hominids were beginning to exploit savanna resources ( 69 ) . furthermore , ryan and johanson ( 70 ) argued that a . afarensis had a mosaic of gorilla - like fine wear striae and baboon - like pits and microflakes , indicating the use of incisors to strip gritty plant parts such as seeds , roots , and rhizomes . these authors also suggested that there was a functional shift in the p 3 complex from ape - like slicing and cutting to hominid puncture - crushing .\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\nhorse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , \u2026\nthank you for visiting nature . com . you are using a browser version with limited support for css . to obtain the best experience , we recommend you use a more up to date browser ( or turn off compatibility mode in internet explorer ) . in the meantime , to ensure continued support , we are displaying the site without styles and javascript .\nall prices are net prices . vat will be added later in the checkout .\n( eds ciochon , r . & corruccini , r . ) 239\u2013248 ( plenum , new york , 1983 ) .\n( eds ciochon , r . & coruccini , r . ) 30 ( plenum , new york , 1983 ) .\n( eds armstrong , e & falk , d ) 57\u201376 ( plenum , new york , 1982 ) .\nby submitting a comment you agree to abide by our terms and community guidelines . if you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate .\nnature is part of springer nature . \u00a9 2018 springer nature limited . all rights reserved .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsolvieux - a large open - air site near gabillou in the l ' isle basin .\nrusinga island , lake victoria , kenya - panorama taken from the south - eastern direction . it was on this island that louis leakey made an especially complete find of\nis the first species of the oligocene - era fossil genus of primate to be discovered and was named by arthur hopwood , an associate of louis leakey , in 1933 .\nthe 18 - million - year - old fossil species has been considered a possible ancestor of both great and lesser apes , and of humans . the palaeontologist louis leakey , who was one of the foremost fossil - hunters of the 20th century and a champion of evolution , said :\n. this , many authorities once concluded , gave us an indication of the common stock for apes and men . we have good forelimb bones for it , and in 1948 on rusinga island louis [ leakey ] discovered a skull , the first nearly complete specimen ever found . its canine teeth suggest an ape ' s , while its forehead reminds us of our own . it seems to me , however , to be neither an ancestral ape , nor yet an ancestor of man , but a side branch with characteristics of both stocks . '\n, as did most other palaeontologists . opinion currently favours a position between the monkeys and the apes .\nskull , shown here , was found in 1948 . additional pieces found in museum collections more than 30 years later glued on perfectly .\n( walker is probably best known for having found the nariokotome boy , a 1 . 7 - million - year - old specimen of\nfossils since his graduate - school days ; his wife pat shipman , is an anthropologist and celebrated science writer . together they have crafted a compelling and accessible narrative that educates and fascinates . both authors are faculty members at penn state university , where walker is distinguished professor of anthropology and biology and shipman is adjunct professor of anthropology .\nhe began by ' excavating ' in the museum , turning up still more pieces of the famous skeleton in the collections . then he moved on to field work , leading an expedition to remote rusinga and mfangano islands in lake victoria , where early finds had been made .\nvan den bergh g . et al . , 2016 : homo floresiensis - like fossils from the early middle pleistocene of flores , nature , 534 ( 7606 ) : 245\u2013248 . doi : 10 . 1038 / nature17999 . pmid 27279221 .\nthe ' ape to man ' evolutionary image is a fraud . ( creation magazine live ! 6 - 10 )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ncontent copyright www . prehistoric - wildlife . com . the information here is completely free for your own study and research purposes , but please dont copy the articles word for word and claim them as your own work . the world of prehistory is constantly changing with the advent of new discoveries , as such its best if you use this information as a jumping off point for your own research . privacy & cookies policy\nwe ' ve detected that javascript is disabled in your browser . would you like to proceed to legacy twitter ?\nthe skull is the first species of the primate genus to be discovered from the miocene era . # firstbigdicovery # 1948\nduring an exclusive interview with the today show , robin wright , michael kelly and constance zimmer opened up about the sexual assault controversy surrounding former co - star kevin spacey .\nwe were all surprised , of course , and ultimately saddened ,\nwright told today show host savannah guthrie .\ncostco is cutting the polish hot dog from the menu in its food courts across the united states and fans are furious . the polish dog is being cut to make room for more healthy and vegan options , such as a\u00e7ai fruit bowls and organic burgers .\nprince william and kate , the duchess of cambridge , attended the baptism of their third child on monday afternoon .\nmusk and his team of engineers built the 31cm ( 12 . 2 inches ) diameter escape pod and tested it in a swimming pool before shipping it to thailand . he hopes the pod will help rescue the boys still trapped in the tham luang cave .\nmoment activity data is only valid for moments created after december 23rd 2016 . data is updated hourly .\nyou can add location information to your tweets , such as your city or precise location , from the web and via third - party applications . you always have the option to delete your tweet location history . learn more\nhere ' s the url for this tweet . copy it to easily share with friends .\nby embedding twitter content in your website or app , you are agreeing to the twitter developer agreement and developer policy .\nnot on twitter ? sign up , tune into the things you care about , and get updates as they happen .\nthis timeline is where you\u2019ll spend most of your time , getting instant updates about what matters to you .\nhover over the profile pic and click the following button to unfollow any account .\nwhen you see a tweet you love , tap the heart \u2014 it lets the person who wrote it know you shared the love .\nthe fastest way to share someone else\u2019s tweet with your followers is with a retweet . tap the icon to send it instantly .\nadd your thoughts about any tweet with a reply . find a topic you\u2019re passionate about , and jump right in .\n, with a combination of human - like and ape - like features . compared to\nhousing a larger brain and smaller teeth , but it also had some ape - like features including relatively long arms and a strongly sloping face that juts out from underneath the braincase with a pronounced jaw . like\nhumans occurred in africa . after prof . raymond dart described it and named the\nfossils come from . he dubbed this fossil\nlittle foot\n, and has since found that it comes from a 3 . 3 - million - year - old partial skeleton , most of which is still embedded in the cave sediments . when this fossil is completely excavated , it will shed light on several questions about this species ( if it is designated as an\nberger , l . r . , clarke , r . j . , 1995 . eagle involvement of the taung child fauna . journal of human\nlacruz , r . s . , rozzi , f . r , bromage , t . g . , , 2005 . dental enamel hypoplasia , age at death , and weaning in the taung child . south african journal of science 101 , 567 - 569 .\nscott , r . s . , ungar , p . s . , bergstrom , t . s . , brown , c . a . , grine , f . e , teaford , m . f . , walker , a . , 2005 . dental microwear texture analysis shows within -\nwere found alongside broken animal bones . dart assumed these broken animal bones , teeth and horns were used by\nas weapons ; however , in the 1970s and 1980s , other scientists began to recognize that predators such as lions , leopards , and hyenas were instead responsible for leaving these broken animal bones . these predators even ate\nindividuals had a diet similar to modern chimpanzees , which consisted of fruit , plants , nuts , seeds , roots , insects , and eggs .\nmay have eaten from looking at the remains of their teeth - - - tooth - size , shape , and tooth - wear can all provide diet clues .\nate tough foods but also had a very variable diet including softer fruits and plants .\nwas once considered a \u201ckiller ape . \u201d now we know they were sometimes eaten by predators . living together in groups helped these early humans protect themselves . want to find out how this\nthis 3 - year - old child ' s skull is the first early human skull ever discovered in africa . it was found in 1924 , but it took over 20 years after that before scientists accepted the importance of africa as a major source of human\n, although not the first to find this species , is the first to find a very intact skull ; unlike others that were only pieces beforehand . this 18 - million year old species discovery is very important to the overall understanding of the evolution of man . at first thought to be possible ancestor of both apes , and of humans , it was later proved not to be the case at all . the leakey expedition later found that\nseems , \u201c\u2026to be neither an ancestral ape , nor yet an ancestor of man , but a side branch with characteristics of both stocks\u2026\u201d with this hypothesis more was discovered and added to the overall theories about the evolution of man . however over the years the exact placement of\nis a historic find as well . this species was discovered to be the first hominin species to use stone tools . this was just another piece to the larger picture of the evolution of mankind , and without it we would not know what we know today .\nthe amazing discovery of a set of footprints preserved and fossilized some 3 to 3 . 5 million years ago , was by far the greatest discovery that mary leakey had throughout her life . these footprints were not only an amazing discovery due to how well they were preserved , but because they left evidence of the passage of what appeared to be an upright ,\n. along with those reasons for its greatness , this find made it so that the very theories written at the time about the evolution of man , had to be revised ! these footprints showed that this species may have prevented brain expansion down the line of evolution .\nmary leakey , along with her family left behind a legacy of great archeological finds that helped to better understand the world we live in today . dying in 1996 at the age of eighty - three , leakey left behind her legacy , that her sons , and other family members continue to carry out today .\n\u201cno amounts of stone and bone could yield the kinds of information that the paintings gave so freely . \u201d\nmary leakey was a paleoanthropologist who , along with husband louis , made several prominent scientific discoveries . skull fossils found by the leakeys advanced our understanding of human evolution .\nmary leakey was born on february 6 , 1913 , in london , england . she married louis leakey and the pair soon became one of science & apos ; s best - known husband - wife teams . among several prominent archaelogical and anthropological discoveries , the leakeys discovered a skull fossil of an ancestor of apes and humans while excavating the olduvai gorge in africa in 1960\u2014a find that helped to illuminate the origins of humankind . mary continued working after her husband & apos ; s death . she died in kenya in 1996 .\nmary douglas leakey was a paleoanthropologist who is best known for making several prominent archaeological and anthropological discoveries throughout the latter half of the 20th century . working with husband louis leakey , her longtime colleague , she uncovered a number of fossils in africa , which significantly advanced scientific knowledge of the origins of humankind .\nmary leakey was born mary douglas nicol on february 6 , 1913 , in london , england . the daughter of an artist , at a young age , leakey excelled at drawing\u2014a talent that she later used to enter into the field of paleoanthropology . when she was just 17 years old , she served as an illustrator at a dig in england .\nin the 1930s , mary leakey was asked to illustrate a book entitled adam & apos ; s ancestors ( 1934 ) , authored by louis s . b . leakey , an archaeologist and anthropologist . the pair hit it off quickly and soon developed a personal relationship . they married in 1937 , forming one of science & apos ; s most well - known husband - wife teams . the couple moved to africa when louis embarked on an excavation project at the olduvai gorge , a steep ravine in what is now tanzania , east africa .\nmary leakey further helped to unravel mystery surrounding the origins of humankind with her 1959 find : that july , while louis was resting , recovering from a bout of the flu , mary discovered the partial skull of an early human ancestor . early analyses of the artifact\u2014initially named zinjanthropus boisei after louis leakey & apos ; s financial sponsor , charles boysey ( now known as australopithecus boisei ) \u2014showed that this species was equipped with a small brain but massive teeth and jaws , and muscles so large they had to be anchored to a ridge at the top of the skull . it was later determined that zinjanthropus boisei was nearly 2 million years old , showing how long the species had been in africa .\nin 1960 , the leakey team made its next major discovery : fossils of homo habilis , a species that is believed to be between 1 . 4 and 2 . 3 million years old , and to have originated during the gelasian pleistocene period . their find also provided evidence that the species were adept in making stone tools\u2014making them the earliest known experts in that field .\nafter louis leakey died in 1972 , mary continued to research and hunt for fossils . nearly two decades after finding homo habilis , in 1979 , she discovered a trail of early human footprints at laetoli , a site in tanzania . the find was the first in the history of science to provide direct evidence of physical activity by humankind & apos ; s apelike ancestors , changing previously held assumptions about primates .\nthroughout her decades - long career as a paleoanthropologist , mary leakey & apos ; s projects were funded in part by the national geographic society , through dozens of grants . she chronicled her experiences in the 1979 book olduvai gorge : my search for early man , as well as in her 1984 autobiography disclosing the past .\nmary leakey died on december 9 , 1996 , in nairobi , kenya . she was survived by three sons ( from husband louis leakey ) : richard , jonathan and philip . today , mary leakey & apos ; s work continues through both the leakey foundation and the younger generations of the leakey family : richard leakey , his wife , meave , and their daughter , louise , play active roles in carrying on the family legacy .\nwe strive for accuracy and fairness . if you see something that doesn ' t look right , contact us !\na member of the austrian habsburg royal family , marie louise married emperor napoleon bonaparte and became the mother of his son , napoleon ii .\nreality television star and\nmomager\nkris jenner appears on keeping up with the kardashians with her husband and daughters kim , kourtney and khlo\u00e9 .\non this day in 1587 , mary , queen of scots was executed by her cousin , queen elizabeth i . the queen of england had imprisoned mary for the previous 18 years after she\u2019d fled scotland . elizabeth signed mary\u2019s death warrant after finding out that catholics had been plotting to assassinate her to restore mary to power .\nmamie eisenhower was first lady of the united states when her husband , dwight eisenhower , was president from 1953 to 1961 .\nmaria tallchief was a revolutionary american ballerina who broke barriers for native american women .\nthe artist elisabeth louise vig\u00e9e le brun was one of the best - known and most fashionable portraitists of 18th century france ; her clients included the queen marie antoinette .\nsaint katharine drexel used her personal fortune to fund schools for native americans and african americans . she was canonized in 2000 .\nmary tudor was the first queen regnant of england , reigning from 1553 until her death in 1558 . she is best known for her religious persecutions of protestants and the executions of over 300 subjects .\n\u00a9 2018 bio and the bio logo are registered trademarks of a & e ; television networks , llc .\n( knm - ru 2036 ) , discovered in 1951 from the early miocene deposits of rusinga island , kenya . napier and davis ( 1959 , p . 1 ) describe the importance of the fossil :\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\nblackith , r . e . , and reyment , r . a . 1971 .\nconroy , g . c . , and fleagle , j . g . 1972 . locomotor behavior in living fossil pongids .\ncorruccini , r . s . , ciochon , r . l . , and mchenry , h . m . 1975 . osteometric shape relationships in the wrist of some anthropoids .\ncorruccini , r . s . , ciochon , r . l . , and mchenry , h . m . 1976 . the postcranium of miocene hominoids : were dryopithecines merely \u201cdental apes\u201d ?\njenkins , f . a . , jr . , and fleagle , j . g .\nle gros clark , w . e . , and leakey , l . s . b . the miocene hominoidea of east africa .\nle gros clark , w . e . , and thomas , d . p . 1951 .\nlewis , o . j . 1971 . brachiation and the early evolution of the hominoidea .\nlewis , o . j . 1973 . the hominoid os capitatum with special reference to the bones from sterkfontein and olduvai gorge .\nnapier , j . r . , and davis , p . r . 1959 . the forelimb skeleton and associated remains of\no\u2019connor , b . l . 1975 . the functional morphology of the cercopithecoid wrist and inferior radioulnar joints , and their bearing on some problems in the evolution of the hominoidea . am .\npilbeam , d . r . , meyer , g . e . , badgley , c . , rose , m . d . , pickford , m . h . l . , behrensmeyer , a . k . , and shah , s . m . i . 1977 . new hominoid primates from the siwaliks of pakistan and their bearing on hominoid evolution .\npilbeam , d . r . , rose , m . d . , badgley , c . , and lipschutz , b . 1980 . miocene hominoids from pakistan .\n( m . day , ed . ) , pp . 13\u201346 , symposium of the society for the study of human biology , volume 11 , barnes and noble , new york .\nsarich , v . m . , and cronin , j . e . 1977 . molecular systematics of the primates , in :\n( m . goodman and r . e . tashian , eds . ) , pp . 141\u2013170 , plenum , new york .\nsch\u00f6n , m . a . , and ziemer , l . k . 1973 . wrist mechanism and locomotor behavior of"]}
{"id": 1268, "summary": [{"text": "footstepsinthesand ( foaled 15 february 2002 ) is a retired , undefeated thoroughbred racehorse and active sire who was bred in the united kingdom but trained during his racing career in ireland .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "he won both his races as a two-year-old in 2004 and won the 2000 guineas stakes at newmarket on his three-year-old debut in 2005 .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "footstepsinthesand sustained an injury during the race and never ran again , retiring to stud undefeated after a career of only three races . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "footstepsinthesand", "paragraphs": ["son but others such as footstepsinthesand and first samurai have also had their share of success .\nfootstepsinthesand is standing at $ 33 , 000 at coolmore , while shamardal ' s price at darley is $ 55 , 000 .\no\u2019brien decided not to give footstepsinthesand a preparatory race for the 2 , 000 guineas , in which the colt clashed with another unbeaten colt , dubawi .\nin winning the gr . 1 2 , 000 guineas , footstepsinthesand went one better than his sire , who suffered one of his few defeats in the newmarket classic .\nfootstepsinthesand : shamardal and footstepsinthesand helped establish giant\u2019s causeway\u2019s talent as a sire , and now they are both contributing to his growing success as a sire of sires . whereas shamardal costs \u20ac50 , 000 , footstepsinthesand is standing his third consecutive season at \u20ac10 , 000 . the 2005 2 , 000 guineas winner has a fine record with danehill mares , notably siring the tough chachamaidee , and his pedigree becomes more impressive every year . his half - brother pedro the great won the group 1 phoenix stakes in 2012 , a few months after power \u2013 a colt out of a half - sister to footstepsinthesand \u2013 had won the irish 2 , 000 guineas . his 2013 two - year - olds should be well worth keeping an eye on .\nhis victory in the race also vindicated the jockey ' s judgment - fallon selected footstepsinthesand ahead of oratorio , the better of the pair at two , who finished fourth in the guineas .\nfootstepsinthesand is substituting for giant ' s causeway , who is to be rested following unprecedented demand for his services in kentucky this year , at a fee of us $ 200 , 000 .\ngiant\u2019s causeway and footstepsinthesand were both unbeaten at two and so were footstepsinthesand\u2019s first two dams , glatisant and the high - class dancing rocks . glatisant won the gr . 3 prestige stakes over 1 , 400 metres at goodwood , where dancing rocks triumphed in the gr . 2 nassau stakes over 2 , 000 metres . glatisant is also the grandam of this year\u00b9s gr . 2 ribblesdale stakes winner thakafaat\nwhile footstepsinthesand and oratortio have gone to join the enviable stallion roster at coolmore , there ' s plenty of juvenile talent waiting in the wings to bolster the classic challenge from the renowned tipperary stable next term .\na niggling problem with the foot he bruised on the very fast ground at newmarket has forced footstepsinthesand\u2019s premature retirement . although nothing major , the injury requires rest , which would rule him out of the summer\u00b9s major mile events .\nthe o ' brien - fallon team got off to a flier with a rare newmarket guineas double and , although the unbeaten footstepsinthesand had to be retired after his 2 , 000 guineas romp , this alliance unearthed other stars .\nfootstepsinthesand , who was produced from the rainbow quest mare glatisant , won all three of his starts , including the urltoken two thousand guineas ( eng - i ) . he began his stallion career this year in coolmore australia .\nafter finishing a respectable fifth in the queen anne stakes at royal ascot on his penultimate outing , the jane chapple - hyam - trained son of footstepsinthesand found only mutakayyef too strong in the summer mile back at the berkshire track last saturday .\nthe arrival of the unbeaten footstepsinthesand , just a few months after his victory in the gr . 1 2 , 000 guineas , will be all the more welcome because he is a son of giant\u2019s causeway , the so - called \u2018iron horse\u2019 who has made such a sensational start as a stallion . in addition to footstepsinthesand , giant\u2019s causeway has also enjoyed group 1 success with shamardal and maids causeway , who recently completed the very difficult st james\u2019s palace - coronation stakes double at the royal ascot meeting .\nfootstepsinthesand will begin his northern hemisphere stallion career at coolmore stud in ireland at a fee of 25 , 000 euros rather than for $ 30 , 000 at the farm ' s north american satellite , ashford stud near versailles , ky . , as originally planned .\nfootstepsinthesand , winner of the 2 , 000 guineas , has been retired because of injury . the giant ' s causeway colt is the second british classic winner to be retired this week and follows last year ' s derby winner , north light , off to stud .\nfather ' s sons : four weeks ago breeders received the shock news that emerging stallion giant ' s causeway would miss the 2005 australian breeding season . but now two of his sensational three - year - old sons , footstepsinthesand and shamardal , are heading to coolmore and darley studs .\nthis year ' s 2 , 000 guineas was not a vintage one but footstepsinthesand will be remembered as the first leg of an historic 1 , 000 / 2 , 000 guineas double for kieren fallon and aidan o ' brien and the brilliant start it gave the new trainer - jockey combination .\nfootstepsinthesand will be retired to coolmore along with antonius pius . a smart but somewhat quirky three - year - old last year , antonius pius threw away the french 2 , 000 guineas by swerving violently in sight of the winning post . he finished last in last week ' s golden jubilee stakes .\ncoolmore australia have announced two newcomers to its stallion roster for the forthcoming season . one , footstepsinthesand , is a winner of this year\u00b9s english 2 , 000 guineas in england , while the other , antonius pius , is a classic winner in all but name as he was a very unlucky loser of the 2004 equivalent in france .\npure champion is by the northern dancer line stallion footstepsinthesand , who won the english 2000 guineas , from a danehill mare . reflecting his own international career , close relations include hong kong horse of the year indigenous , champion english female miler nannina , star japanese galloper fenomeno , leading european stayer and successful new zealand stallion sea anchor and sydney cup winner\nchurchill gave o ' brien his eighth success in the race , all with horses carrying the coolmore silks . the winning sequence began in 1998 with king of kings and followed on with rock of gibraltar ( 2002 ) , footstepsinthesand ( 2005 ) , george washington ( 2006 ) , henrythenavigator ( 2008 ) , camelot ( 2012 ) and gleneagles ( 2015 ) .\nin the meantime , third dimension enjoyed a group 1 win in india when her grand - daughter maisha ( footstepsinthesand - my pension ) won the bangalore fillies championship stakes , gr . 1 . in great style . she is now india ' s leading 3yo filly having been first or second in all of her six starts to date ( www . indiaracing . com ) .\nshe seems to be cut from a different cloth and whilst most fillies shrivel up in the winter volunteer point refuses to comply with that assessment . last night at wolverhampton , the daughter of footstepsinthesand romped home in the seven furlong fast - track qualifier under graham gibbons to set her on what we all hope will be another tilt at the fillies & mares race on the all weather champions day in the spring .\nfootstepsinthesand was never seriously challenged in his three appearances . after leading throughout for a highly impressive 4 1 / 2 length debut victory in a 20 - runner maiden race over 1 , 200 metres last october , the blue - blooded colt immediately stepped up to group company . tackling the gr . 3 killavullan stakes over an extra 200 metres eight days later , he landed the odds by two lengths , with the rest well beaten off .\nat least as surprising as o ' brien ' s runners left in were those omitted . footstepsinthesand , whom we were belatedly told had suffered a stone bruise in the course of his 2 , 000 guineas victory , is out , as is albert hall , who was second to motivator in the racing post trophy at doncaster last season and ran in york ' s dante stakes this , both appointments suggesting epsom was a natural stopping - off point .\nthe offspring resultant from redoute ' s choice ' s first european season ( at haras de bonneval in 2013 ) will be making their debuts in the coming months . redoute ' s choice ' s first northern crop represent intriguing prospects , asimplied by the fact that his only representative in this weekend ' s arqana breeze - up sale at deauville fetched $ 775 , 000 , the daughter of sunday nectar ( ire ) ( footstepsinthesand { gb } ) being bought by stephen hillen bloodstock to join the english stable of kevin ryan .\nlike showcasing and hugely promising south african sire , querari , former irish 2000 guineas winner , power , is a son of champion sprinter and world class sire , oasis dream . also victorious in the gr1 national stakes at two , the blue blooded sire ( he is a half brother to gr1 ep taylor stakes winner , curvy ( galileo ) while his dam is a half sister to unbeaten 2000 guineas winner , footstepsinthesand ) has made a smart start with his first 2yos this year . power is currently the fourth leading first crop sire ( by prize money ) in the uk , with his first 11 winners numbering gr3 anglesey stakes winner , peace envoy , among them .\nafter a short but fantastic trip to india the foals that had been overdue finally came very close together . this is great as they make perfectly aged - matched pals . ezalli had a strong iffraaj colt and first time foaling pasalsa produced a bay filly by cape cross on st patrick ' s night . she can only be called patricia ! although it has remained quite cold recently both visiting mares kahara and path wind have been covered by sea the stars and bluebell visited newcomer australia at coolmore . also covered this week was nisriyna ( holy roman emperor ) while brushing had a positive heartbeat scan to footstepsinthesand . she will return home to dullingham park stud next week . also pregnant is khatela , she is in foal to born to sea .\nflat racing these days abounds with arabic names such as mutakayyef , bahaarah and elhaame , which don\u2019t mean much to the rest of us . but that is fair enough : most of them have arab owners who are crucial to the continuance of our sport . what irritates me is the modern fashion for compound names . you could excuse welliesinthewater , who was after all sired by footstepsinthesand . and i guess enough of us remember the exchanges between the voice of boxing harry carpenter and heavyweight frank bruno for unowhat - imeanharry to strike a chord . perhaps it solved a dispute when bryan smart\u2019s winning sprinter was called nameitwhatyoulike . imagine , though , being a racecourse commentator and having to cope at speed with a group including canicallyouback , formidableopponent , howyadoingnotsobad , douneedahand and alwaystheoptimist . a recent salisbury race was contested by , among others , whatdoiwantthatfor and thatsallimsaying . even less appropriate for me are the current names niqnaqaqpaadiwaaq , tukitinyasok , wernotfamusanymore and eeueteotl . they may have seemed like a good idea over a drink or two , but i could not look a horse in the face and land it with a moniker like those , or even the punctuated the geegeez geegee .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe colt , trained by aidan o ' brien , had a short but unbeaten racing career . he ran twice as a juvenile and only the once at three , in the newmarket classic . there , he quickened well to lead as they hit the rising ground and kept on to repel the runner - up rebel rebel by a length and a quarter .\nthough he is a classic winner , it will be argued that , in only one outing at three , his full potential on a racecourse was never realised . in the process of winning at newmarket , he bruised a foot , and the injury has caused his premature retirement .\nthe derby used to be such a simple race , with just one of the myriad questions that attached themselves to lesser races . all a punter had to do in the old days was consider a single issue : what is lester going to ride ?\nthese are more complex times , but the strategy does carry a modern application : what is kieren going to ride ? kieren fallon has won the last two derbys , on north light and kris kin , and whatever colt he decides to partner on 4 june will get a bashing in the bookmakers ' lists . whatever , though , is a rather grand question itself at the moment .\nwe can determine that fallon will ride an animal for his new employers at ballydoyle , but that was a flimsy tool of deduction yesterday when aidan o ' brien nominated seven contenders among the 27 horses left in the blue riband .\na last - minute search is now being conducted to find the magnificent one among the ballydoyle seven . the markets tell us that gypsy king , whom insiders at the ballydoyle yard tell us has always been o ' brien ' s idea of his derby horse , is the one . but then there is also grand central , who ran in the derrinstown stud derby trial , the modern pointer to blue riband success . grand central has been beaten twice this season yet still the money comes for him . he must be some sort of gallops horse .\nalso in the ballydoyle herd are falstaff , the early favourite to be the derby pacemaker , the apparently exposed indigo cat and almighty , as well as the more interesting scorpion and oratorio . the former is unbeaten , albeit after a single maiden race , and more will be known after he tackles another derby consideration in john oxx ' s ehsan in the gallinule stakes at the curragh on sunday . oratorio , the 2 , 000 guineas fourth , runs in the irish equivalent on the same card in another ballydoyle block booking .\no ' brien saddles almost half the field in his domestic colts ' classic , with albert hall being found a place there , in addition to the less vaunted showdance and hills of aran . also on a retrieval mission is godolphin ' s dubawi , a supposed wonder horse before the 2 , 000 guineas but just another disappointment afterwards as he trotted home in fifth place .\nteam dubai appear to have a weak challenge for the blue riband itself as dubawi is entered with another flop , the predominate stakes third , belenus , as well as shamardal , who is much more likely to go for the french version , the prix du jockey club .\nthe owner with the mostest is michael tabor , who has four declarations in his own name and one with sue magnier , sir michael stoute ' s chester maiden winner , mountain high .\nthe partnership is also represented by mona lisa in the oaks , for which 16 fillies were declared yesterday , though they also have the option of supplementing sunday ' s irish 1 , 000 guineas favourite , virginia waters , for \u00a320 , 000 at the five - day stage ( the derby supplementary fee is a more meaty \u00a375 , 000 ) .\nalso in the oaks mix are the trial winners eswarah , the ante - post favourite , cassydora and something exciting , the last - named having scooped the lupe stakes at goodwood on wednesday .\nsomething exciting is in good form and has come out of the race well ,\ndavid elsworth , her trainer , reported yesterday .\nshe ' s been led out for a pick of grass and has a great big smile on her face .\n* yesterday ' s meeting at goodwood had to be abandoned after a thick sea fret descended on the track just before the first race . officials at the sussex venue tried in vain to save the card by delaying the opening race but were forced to abandon at 2 . 45pm , 35 minutes after the race had been due off .\nbath : 6 . 20 mister right 6 . 50 mujood 7 . 20 von wessex 7 . 50 wingspeed 8 . 20 cape st vincent 8 . 50 music teacher\nstratford : 6 . 10 party games 6 . 40 viscount bankes 7 . 10 natal 7 . 40 jack of spades 8 . 10 lord beau 8 . 40 sungates\nfollow the independent sport on instagram here , for all of the best images , videos and stories from around the sporting world .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsky sports news takes you through all of the day ' s racing news , plus alex hammond ' s tip of the day .\nfollow the latest from the written press with the best gossip and speculation from the papers .\nsky has launched a pub finder for eager fans wanting to find a venue to watch sky sports .\nget a sports star to visit your old secondary school as part of our free schools initiative .\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\nstanding at : la mission - san andr\u00e9s de giles , ba . , gb\nthis stallion has not been subscribed to the el turf online data service , so visitors to urltoken are required to pay an annual fee for unlimited access to statistics . many el turf stallions are subscribed and their data is available for free .\nthe a - z ( australia - zoffany ) of coolmore\u2019s 2016 stud fees . .\nthis is the time of year in which studs announce their 2016 fees . in the coming weeks , i will consider the prices announced by the major operators and whether they match my idea of value . in the words of warren buffett \u201cprice is what you pay . value is what you get\u201d . i will begin with europe\u2019s dominant player , coolmore .\nstallion 2016 fee ( 2015 fee ) australia \u20ac50 , 000 ( \u20ac50 , 000 ) - ( 2011 by galileo ex ouija board by cape cross ) verdict : i thought that there might have been a slight reduction in his second year but obviously they are confident demand will remain strong . australia has everything you would want in a prospective stallion being a superior derby winner out of an outstanding oaks winner so difficult to really quibble with his fee .\nverdict : his reputation when he went to stud was a long way removed from what it was for most of his racing career . he was narrowly denied the honour of being the first triple crown winner since nijinsky by encke a horse who was subsequently caught up in the mahmood al zarooni steroid scandal . on that basis you could argue that he represents good value , however to date montjeu\u2019s sons are more miss than hit , and he seems fully priced .\nverdict : a good season with his first two years olds has seen him deliver plenty of winners ( 30 to date ) and a good sprinkling of quality as well with two group winners in painted cliffs and most beautiful and a listed winner in aktoria . his sales results were unexceptional to date and i\u2019m not sure his runners have done enough on the track to justify the increase .\nverdict : . a superb miler who was unfortunate to live in the era of frankel . excelebration\u2019s fee has dropped slightly each year and his sales medians are unremarkable . will have his first runners in 2016 so using him involves a punt on their likely performance .\nverdict : had a good season with three group 1 winners in qualify , fascinating rock and diamondsandrubies and a promising two year old in turret rocks . to me his overall european record is still modest given the quality of mares he covered in his first few seasons his last reported european fee was \u20ac30000 in 2011 and despite his recovery this season i wouldn\u2019t pay more than half that for him and i doubt very much coolmore would trade at anything like that price .\nverdict : has stood at this level for a number of years . commercially is facing a decline in popularity as new kids arrive on the block . a reasonable stallion but wouldn\u2019t be high on a wish list of stallions at that price .\nverdict : for much of the season it seemed he was going to be usurped by dubawi in the race for the title of european champion sire . however in the end it proved another remarkable year for galileo who sired an incredible 10 group or grade 1 winners . his fee is rumoured to be around the 300k mark and although you could never say that such a fee represents a bargain it can certainly be justified .\ngleneagles \u20ac60 , 000 new ( 2012 galileo ex you\u2019resothrilling by storm cat ) .\nverdict : a dual guineas winner , first past the post in 5 group 1\u2019s and out of a full sister to giant\u2019s causeway - what is there not to like ? well firstly his career ended in two underwhelming performances in the qe2 at ascot and in an overly optimistic attempt at the breeders cup classic . in addition the failure to run him from june to october using the ground as an excuse gave rise to a suspicion that he wasn\u2019t quite the superstar his connections had described him as being . to me his fee is too rich and i would have expected at most a 45k fee . given the choice of unproven stallion sons of galileo , i\u2019d opt for australia over gleneagles at their respective prices .\nverdict : a better horse than gleneagles but his fee has come down from an initial $ 65000 ( when he stood at ashford ) to next year\u2019s \u20ac7 , 500 . the reason for the decline is simply the lack of sufficient quality offspring ( c . 1 % stakes winners ! ) . his two year olds of 2016 will have been conceived from a 30k covering fee so he might show a small rebound but all aspects of his career to date show him to be a poor stallion that you could not recommend .\nverdict : had a very quiet year on the track in europe and is proving to be an inconsistent sire . his fee deserved a bigger reduction than the one he received . his yearling averages held up well in 2015 but the market may not be so forgiving if 2016 does not prove more rewarding on the track .\nverdict : really ! zebedee has had his fee reduced to \u20ac8000 and although this guy was classic placed and was the most expensive zebedee yearling , his overall record shows that he never won after july of his two year old days and was beaten in his final 7 runs . his fellow coolmore stallions should be insulted by his presence on the roster \ud83d\ude42\nverdict : unfortunate in that injury kept him off the track in 2015 . winner of the racingpost trophy at two , runner up to australia in the derby , winner of the st leger and a close up fourth to treve in the arc . ironically if he hadn\u2019t won the st leger his fee would probably be higher . his overall pedigree is unexceptional but given his quality as a racehorse i wouldn\u2019t quibble with his fee . mastercraftsman \u20ac35 , 000 ( \u20ac40 , 000 ) ( 2006 danehill dancer ex starlight dreams by black tie affair )\nverdict : a stellar first crop saw him provide two classic winners in 2015 in kingston hill and the grey gatsby . amazing maria become the third group 1 winner to emerge from that crop when she notched a group 1 double in 2016 . nothing comparable emerged from his subsequent crops to reach the track which explains the reduction in fee . still has a few crops conceived at much lower fees to work their way through the system so might be quiet for a period , before his better bred crops emerge .\nverdict : although he won a st james palace stakes this guy must be a hard sell even for the coolmore marketing team . a modest fee for a modest performer .\nverdict : a big powerful precocious two year old who dominated his contemporaries in the norfolk stakes and the prix morny . to be fair he also showed useful form at three including when runner up in a breeders cup sprint turf . his sire scat daddy had a very good year in 2015 and his fee has been hiked from $ 35000 to $ 100000 . regardless its a no nay never from me at the quoted fee . pour moi \u20ac10 , 000 ( \u20ac12 , 500 ) ( 2008 montjeu ex gwynn by darshaan )\nverdict : interesting at the price but still not quite cheap enough to represent value . the expectation was that he was not going to sire two year olds so it was a bonus that he sired a nice listed winner in only mine , however it is a decision for the brave to invest for next year .\nverdict : attractively priced for a group 1 winning two year old who went on to win an irish 2000 guineas and comes from a strong family . i\u2019d certainly use him over ivawood .\nverdict : was an unusual dansili in being so speedy and precocious ( just like his dam ) . i have a prejudice against atypical sons of stallions so that puts me off him and i\u2019m not sure what he did to justify an increase in fee for his fourth season\nverdict : interestingly he remains the second highest rated son of galileo after frankel . had a group 1 winner in his first crop with dick whittington but had a very quiet year in 2015 . seems destined for export unless things change quickly in 2016 . rock of gibraltar \u20ac10 , 000 ( \u20ac12 , 500 ) ( 1999 danehill ex offshore boom by be my guest )\nverdict : overall record is modest given the opportunities he received . has had his moments as a sire but not enough to still warrant a 10k fee .\nverdict : a beautifully bred derby winner who finished close up in a champion stakes . being a half brother to the now south african based duke of marmalade is also starting to look like a positive after duke of marmalade had a good season in europe . obviously his merit is still unknown but he is competitively priced given his pedigree and performance .\nverdict : a big beast of a horse but hard to argue with 10 group 1\u2019s between europe and australia . i didn\u2019t think much of high chaparral as a sire and the australian side of his pedigree will be unfamiliar to many here but did enough as a racehorse to justify his fee at least until his runners hit the track .\nverdict : a quality sprinter on two continents and a very good first crop of two year olds . didn\u2019t have a similar impact with his current two year olds and some of the initial fanfare has faded . also suffers from fertility issues so that will dissuade some mare owners but his fee probably reflects the additional risks .\nverdict : an impressive coventry winner and subsequent dewhurst winner but one who disappointed at three . the war front bandwagon rolls on , so commercially you can see how he would appeal . zoffany \u20ac45 , 000 ( \u20ac12 , 500 ) ( 2008 dansili ex tyranny by machiavellian )\nverdict : probably surprised even his biggest supporters at coolmore when he landed a royal ascot treble with waterloo bridge , washington dc and illuminate . champion first season sire and plenty of runners who look like they will train on including royal lodge winner foundation . its a huge fee increase but you can\u2019t say he didn\u2019t deserve it .\nbeauty is in the eye of the beholder and defining value is a very subjective measure . looking at the published fees for 2013 there were a few fees that took my eye as representing particularly poor value . i wouldn\u2019t have time to list all the overpriced first season sires , so i\u2019m restricting myself to those sires with runners\u2026\u2026\ni could just cut and paste my comments from last year regarding high chaparral - yes he was a great racehorse , yes he has done very well in australia / new zealand but there is no way his european results merit a \u20ac25000 fee . it is extraordinary to think that he has yet to sire a european group 1 winner from his huge number of european conceived progeny . his sales returns have been good for the past two years but sooner rather than later european breeders will wake up to the fact that he is only managing 3 % stakes winners and is due a significant cut in fee . by way of comparison for the same fee you could access dalakhani who has 5 % stakes winners and has sired 5 individual european group 1 winners .\nnot as egregiously bad value as his stud mate but nonetheless i think footsteps has been a disappointment and is now overpriced . he has managed only 2 % stakes winners and if you take into account that his stud fee was over 20k for his first three years at stud , his record is not going to improve in the coming years . his median for the past two years has hovered around his stud fee so the commercial market is hardly in love with him . interestingly he is the last and only storm cat line horse now in coolmore ireland but i\u2019m sure if a suitable offer came from overseas , coolmore would be happy to offload him and that particular experiment would come to an end without too many tears being shed by ireland\u2019s breeders . by way of comparison you could use azamour for the same fee and he has 4 % stakes winners .\ni wrote about elusive city last year when he was france\u2019s most expensive stallion at \u20ac15000 . he no longer holds this particular title but he still remains a sire who manages only 2 % stakes winners and he remains considerably overpriced . you could pick 20 stallions who represent better value but two similarly priced mr prospector line stallions that are far better sires ( albeit standing in the uk ) are medicean and zamindar .\ni might be eating my words on this one , given that he produced three very nice two year old colts last year in loch garman , havana gold and trading leather . however i\u2019m not arguing that teofilo isn\u2019t capable of producing high class horses but to me he didn\u2019t do enough last year to justify a hike from \u20ac25000 to \u20ac35000 . this is particularly the case when i felt that his three year olds were somewhat disappointing although admittedly the absence of his first crop star parish hall had a big impact on this . his stud fee owes a lot to the growing belief in galileo as a sire of sires and the fact that he shares the galileo / danehill cross with frankel probably helps along with some strong autumn sales results . people are taking a punt of fashion and on potential and although he is an interesting sire his fee should have stayed at its 2012 level until he truly delivered on that potential . by way of comparison at the exact same fee , his stud mate cape cross has demonstrated his ability to produce the goods and i would rather the proven over the possible any day .\nyou must confirm your email address by clicking on the link we\u2019ve sent to your email address .\nyou are only one short step away from reading 5 free field + articles .\nyes , i agree to receiving communications by email from the the irish field in relation to my membership , including editorial content and new marketing products and services from the the irish field .\nby registering an account you agree to our privacy policy and terms of service .\nget full unlimited access to our content and archive . subscribe to the irish field\nunlimited access to the irish field via your computer , mobile device , tablet or newspaper delivered to your door .\nthe new zealand thoroughbred industry is one of the most successful in the world . in 2010 - 11 , the industry produced over 4000 foals and exported 1600 horses at an estimated value of $ 150 million . so , what is the secret of new zealand ' s remarkable success as a thoroughbred breeding nation ? learn more \u203a\nwelcome to the gallery section of the website . here you can search the historical library for images of horses and participants by entering a key word in the search function eg . sunline . many of these photos have been provided by the new zealand press association and our friends at race images . if you would like to contact us about any of these images please email : office @ urltoken\nfertility rate : this is worked out as the total number of foals ( live , dead or slipped ) as a percentage of total mares covered less exported , not returned , dead or indeterminate results .\nindeterminate result : this exists where a mare is covered by more than one stallion and the result of these services is unable to be accurately credited to either of the respective stallions .\nprivacy policy / terms & conditions all content \u00a9 nztr 2012 . nztr holds the copyright in all material on this site . all rights reserved .\nestablished as a source of g1 juveniles and classic excellence . sire of 11 % stakes winner to runners . his 19 g1 winners are headed by lope de vega and mukhadram .\n1st dam : helsinki by machiavellian . winner ( 10f ) at 3 , 3rd prix melisande . sister to street cry . dam of 12 foals , 9 to race , 7 winners :\ngeoffrey chaucer ( c montjeu ) 2 wins ( 8f ) at 2 , beresford s ( g2 ) , 3rd derrinstown stud derby trial s ( g3 ) .\ndiamond necklace ( f unbridled\u2019s song ) 3rd victor mccalmont memorial s . dam of :\nyorgunnabelucky ( c giant\u2019s causeway ) 5 wins ( 10f - 14f ) at 3 and 4 .\nhelsinka ( f pennekamp ) 2 wins ( 10\u00bdf - 11f ) at 4 .\nvelikiy zevs ( c giant\u2019s causeway ) 2 wins ( 6f - 7f ) at 2 and 4 .\n2nd dam : helen street by troy . 3 wins ( 6f - 12f ) at 2 and 3 , irish oaks ( g1 ) , prix du calvados ( g3 ) , 3rd yorkshire oaks ( g1 ) . dam of 10 winners :\nstreet cry ( c machiavellian ) 5 wins , 2 to 4 , dubai world cup ( g1 ) , stephen foster h ( g1 ) , 2nd whitney h ( g1 ) , 3rd breeders\u2019 cup juvenile ( g1 ) . champion sire .\nhistorian ( f pennekamp ) 5 wins at 2 and 3 , prix rose de mai . dam of :\nantiquities ( f kaldounevees ) 2nd prix cleopatre ( g3 ) . dam of : mary tudor ( f dawn approach ) salsabil s , 2nd ebf naas oaks trial , 3rd debutante s ( g2 ) .\nsovetsky ( g soviet star ) winner at 3 to 4 , 2nd prix du lion d\u2019angers .\ngrecian slipper ( f sadler\u2019s wells ) 3 wins at 3 . dam of :\nmagna graecia ( f warning ) prix de barbeville ( g3 ) . dam of : taranto ( f machiavellian ) 2nd river eden fillies\u2019 s . grandam of : territories ( c invincible spirit ) prix jean prat ( g1 ) , prix de fontainebleau ( g3 ) , 2nd 2 , 000 guineas ( g1 ) , prix jacques le marois ( g1 ) , prix jean - luc lagardere ( g1 ) , 3rd prix la rochette ( g3 ) , prix du palais ( g3 ) . sire .\nlatona ( f fantastic light ) winner at 3 . dam of : paximadia ( c commands ) sandown guineas ( g2 ) , carbine club s ( g3 ) , 3rd t j smith s ( g1 ) .\nanna dana ( f chester house ) 2nd valdale s , cincinnati trophy s .\nhelena ' s secret ( f five star day ) winner at 2 . dam of : thronum ( c snitzel ) stanley wootton s ( g2 ) , 2nd william reid s ( g1 ) .\nilia ( f shadeed ) unraced . grandam of : dovil boy ( c clodovil ) 2nd prix du guiche ( g3 ) ; le roi mage ( g city on a hill ) 2nd prix altipan , prix lyphard ; street force ( f blue air force ) 2nd criterium femminile .\n, 7f , newmarket , by 2\u00bdl , beating oratorio , montgomery ' s arch , iceman , librettist , perfectperformance , etlaala .\n, 8f , york , by 3l , beating ad valorem , oratorio , rocamadour , kandidate , indesatchel .\n, 10\u00bdf , chantilly , beating hurricane run , rocamadour , gharir , ruwi , laverock , gold sound , vatori , scorpion .\n, 8f , longchamp , beating indesatchel , gharir , early march , helios quercus , laverock , tony james , montgomery ' s arch .\npakistan star recorded his second g1 victory with an impressive one - and - three - quarters length victory in the standard charter champions & chater cup at sha tin .\nkaspersky will tackle a new trip on his final start in britain next month in the betfred hungerford stakes at newbury .\nplans are in place to drop the six - year - old back to seven furlongs for the first time in his career in the group two on august 19 before he is shipped out to australia to resume his racing career .\nchapple - hyam said :\nthat was a good effort in the summer mile and he will probably be geared up for the hungerford at newbury before packing his bags and heading to australia .\nmartin ( harley ) said he probably ran better on saturday than he did at royal ascot . he is a trier and gives it a go . the handicapper must have thought he has done okay as he has put him up to 113 from 111 .\nit will be the newbury route rather than york for the strensall stakes as my own gut feeling is that i would rather come back than go up in trip , where he might just fade in the last furlong .\nyou have got to have a strong finisher to get the seven furlongs down the straight at newbury . i probably should be looking at a group three but i don ' t want to go up another furlong and i don ' t want to travel too far before australia , so the hungerford is the only real option .\nchapple - hyam ' s bullington bandit could drop back down to six furlongs on his next start , with the qatar richmond stakes earmarked as a potential target .\nafter springing an 80 / 1 shock on his debut , the son of canford cliffs finished down the field in last weekend ' s superlative stakes at newmarket .\nchapple - hyam added :\nthe draw in gate two had me on the wrong side of the track . coming into the dip i thought ' here we go ' and then he floundered in the dip .\nhe showed good speed to get into the race early on , so we might go for the richmond and come back to six .\ni might be out my depth at goodwood but i am never afraid of giving it a go . i believe in the horse so we might stick our neck out and have a go .\nkeith hamer previews the evening cards at windsor , ripon and roscommon and has a tip for every race .\nthe six - day entries are in for the darley july cup , john smith ' s cup and bet365 bunbury cup and aidan o ' brien has left ten in the former .\ndavid ord makes a rebecca bastiman - trained sprinter his best bet at pontefract on tuesday after he caught the eye last time .\ndavid ord has a horse - by - horse guide to saturday ' s darley july cup and he ' s siding with a potential improver to shake - up the established sprinting stars .\nashley iveson fancies shenanigans to land the feature race at pontefract - and he has a tip for every race in the uk and ireland .\nthe early results of this term ' s bunch of european first - season sires are providing the usual interest . several young sires have already made smart starts , while the most celebrated of the freshmen , frankel ( gb ) ( galileo { ire } ) , currently has statistics of one winner from one runner , courtesy of the victory at newbury which ensured that cunco ( ire ) has the distinction of being frankel ' s first foal , frankel ' s first runner and frankel ' s first winner .\nanother extremely distinguished horse among europe ' s current freshmen is a stallion who is a proven sire and first - season sire simultaneously : redoute ' s choice ( aus ) ( danehill ) has been champion sire of australia three times and notched his 30th group 1 winner on saturday , but he is a new - comer as far as european breeding is concerned .\nredoute ' s choice has found the perfect way of keeping his name in lights as we await the debuts of his first french - conceived youngsters . many stallions find their rates of success slowing down as their third decade looms . not so with redoute ' s choice , who will turn 20 on aug 1 and whose stock are currently doing him proud . at the start of march , his lifetime tally of individual group 1 winners stood at 27 . now it stands at 30 , courtesy of the successes of the ill - fated peeping ( aus ) in the coolmore classic at rosehill , abbey marie ( aus ) in the australasian oaks at morphettville and , most recently , howard be thy name ( aus ) in the south australian derby at the same venue on saturday .\nfor redoute ' s choice , a stint at stud in the northern hemisphere seems only natural . while he has been the pre - eminent australian - bred stallion of the current century , his background is one which is as synonymous with newmarket and belmont as it is with randwick and flemington . his family has only been in australia for two generations , the importation of his u . s . - bred granddam dancing show ( nijinsky ) to the antipodes in 1988 ranking in retrospect as one of most notable arrivals in australasian bloodstock history . thanks to dancing show , this family has become a notable part of the bloodstock scene down under , just as it already was on both sides of the atlantic , her granddam best in show ( traffic judge ) having been voted kentucky broodmare of the year in 1982 .\nby the late ' 80s , best in show was already ancestress of the likes of el gran senor ( northern dancer ) , try my best ( northern dancer ) and malinowski ( sir ivor ) . her subsequent descendants to have achieved celebrity status in the northern hemisphere include rags to riches ( a . p . indy ) , spinning world ( nureyev ) , xaar ( gb ) ( zafonic ) , peeping fawn ( danehill ) and jazil ( seeking the gold ) . furthermore , the hong kong champion designs on rome ( ire ) ( holy roman emperor { ire } ) descends from best in show ' s half - sister stolen date ( sadair ) . dancing show was imported into australia via new zealand .\nshe had been covered to southern hemisphere time in 1987 by miswaki at walmac international farm in kentucky , and the resultant colt was born in new zealand in 1988 . she subsequently moved on to australia , imported by norman carlyon of muranna stud in victoria . at what turned out to be the twilight of the era of the dominance of star kingdom ( ire ) ( stardust { gb } ) - - ie . just before danehill began to have runners - -\ncarlyon sent her to a couple of very good stallions from the star kingdom line . in 1990 she visited the 1988 g1 golden slipper winner star watch ( aus ) ( bletchingly { aus } ) , and in 1991 she visited the 1990 golden slipper winner canny lad ( aus ) ( bletchingly { aus } ) . dancing show ' s miswaki colt turned out to be umatilla ( nz ) , who won at group 1 level as a 2 - year - old in the 1990 / ' 91 season , taking the karrakata plate in perth at a time when it still was a race of national significance , worthy of group 1 status .\nher star watch colt became her second group 1 - winning juvenile : named hurricane sky ( aus ) , he landed the blue diamond s . in 1994 . her canny lad filly shantha ' s choice ( aus ) , a three - parts sister to hurricane sky , was less successful , winning one minor race over 1200 metres , but she now stands as a very high - achiever . by the time shantha ' s choice had retired to stud , the era of danehill had begun . shantha ' s choice duly did what many well - credentialed star kingdom - line mares did during the ' 90s and the early years of this century : she visited danehill , the consequence of which was that redoute ' s choice was born in 1996 . he went on to be a top - class racehorse , winning the blue diamond at two and the caulfield guineas at three .\neven greater achievements followed once he had retired to arrowfield , and dancing show ' s legend continued to grow with shantha ' s choice ' s subsequent children including platinum scissors ( aus ) ( danehill ) and manhattan rain ( aus ) ( encosta de lago { aus } ) .\ndancing show ' s next daughter after shantha ' s choice , show dancing ( nz ) ( don ' t say halo ) , also went on to be a top broodmare , most notably producing g1 australian guineas winner al maher ( aus ) ( danehill ) . redoute ' s choice has been australia ' s champion sire three times , and hasfinished in the top five on the general sires table in 10 of the past 11 years . he needs no introduction down under , and such is the freedom of information in the internet era , he needs no introduction anywhere else , either . he is adept at siring both high - class juveniles and classic horses , while eight of his aus - bred sons have sired at least one group 1 winner .\nthat number seems sure to rise , and one of the young sires who could swell that tally is elzaam ( aus ) , who was conceived at arrowfield to northern hemisphere time in february 2007 and who raced with distinction in england , landing the carnarvon s . at newbury in 2011 by six lengths after failing by only a nose in the previous year ' s g2 coventry s . at royal ascot . elzaam retired to ballyhane stud in ireland in 2013 . his first juveniles currently include three winners , headed by king electric ( ire ) , who scored at the curragh two weeks ago .\nin the two years in which he stood as a reverse - shuttler at haras de bonneville , redoute ' s choice was easily the most expensive stallion in france . he thus received some very good mares , and consequently it looks certain that some very good racehorses will eventuate . over and above the aforementioned filly out of sunday nectar , those for whom particularly high expectations might be held include two who sold very well as yearlings in 2015 : a half - sister to last year ' s g1 1000 guineas heroine legatissimo ( ire ) ( danehill dancer { ire } ) and a half - brother to g2 prix du conseil de paris winner vadamar ( dalakhani { ire } ) .\nthe former was bought by mv magnier in tattersalls book 1 for 725 , 000gns and is now named smoulder ( gb ) ; while the latter fetched i950 , 000 at arqana in august to the bid of john ferguson and is now named valcartier ( ire ) . redoute ' s choice ' s other european 2 - year - olds include the aga khan ' s homebred zarmitan ( fr ) , a son of the brilliant zarkava ( ire ) ( zamindar ) , who has joined alain de royer - dupre ' s stable and who holds an entry for next year ' s derby . redoute ' s choice ' s current total of 30 individual group 1 winners is remarkably good , but what is even better is that it is almost certain to continue to rise for years to come , courtesy of good horses in both hemispheres .\nmacquarie legal practice is a boutique commercial law firm that acts for private individuals , families and small to medium enterprises ."]}
{"id": 1270, "summary": [{"text": "lethrinops microdon is an endangered species of cichlid endemic to the southern part of lake malawi where it occurs at depths of 35 to 100 metres ( 115 to 328 ft ) in areas with soft substrates .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this species grow to a length of 13.1 centimetres ( 5.2 in ) sl . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "lethrinops microdon", "paragraphs": ["843 nt - - lethrinops microdon clone lmicro828 mitochondrial control region , complete sequence .\nlethrinops microdon eccles & lewis text & photo by guest author : prof . george f . turner university of hull , uk lethrinops microdon , male above , female below ; photo copyright more\nlethrinops microdon is a species of fish in the cichlidae family . it is endemic to malawi . its natural habitat is freshwater lakes . source - * kazembe , j . & darwall , w . 2005 . lethrinops microdon . more\nthe lethrinops microdon is classified as endangered ( en ) , considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild .\nan individual of lethrinops microdon freshly collected at the southeast arm of lake malawi [ malawi ] . photo by george turner . determiner ad konings\nlethrinops microdon eccles & lewis , 1979 , should you have one you would like to contribute , please get in contact the cichlid room companion editor . more\nconservation : lethrinops microdon is evaluated by the international union for the conservation of nature in the iucn red list of threatened species as ( en ) endangered ( 2006 ) .\n886 nt - - lethrinops auritus mitochondrion d - loop region , complete sequence .\nlethrinops cf . marginatus mri - 2005 clone lmarg132 control region , complete sequence ; mitochondrial .\nlethrinops cf . marginatus mri - 2005 clone lmarg131 control region , complete sequence ; mitochondrial .\nlethrinops cf . parvidens mri - 2005 clone lparv851 control region , complete sequence ; mitochondrial .\nlethrinops cf . parvidens mri - 2005 clone lparv852 control region , complete sequence ; mitochondrial .\nlethrinops sp . ' deep - water albus ' control region , complete sequence ; mitochondrial .\nsuggested citation of this page : turner , g . f . ( 2004 ) lethrinops microdon eccles & lewis . urltoken in :\nthe cichlid fishes of lake malawi , africa\n( m . k . oliver , webmaster ) , http : / / malawicichlids . com . accessed [ date ] .\njustification : l . microdon has suffered a recorded decline in fishery catches in the southern part of the lake of more than 70 % in the last 10 years . this species is not often recorded outside the southern part of the lake so it is assessed as endangered , on the assumption that the decline has affected the main part of the population . the threat is ongoing as the trawl fishery continues .\nsuggested citation of this page : turner , g . f . ( 2002 ) lethrinops ' oliveri ' . urltoken in :\nthe cichlid fishes of lake malawi , africa\n( m . k . oliver , webmaster ) , http : / / malawicichlids . com . accessed [ date ] .\neccles , david h . & d . s . c . lewis . 1979 .\na taxonomic study of the genus lethrinops regan ( pisces : cichlidae ) from lake malawi . part 3\n. ichthyological bulletin of the j . l . b . smith institute of ichthyology . n . 38 ; pp 16 - 19 ( crc01044 )\nmar\u00e9chal , c . , 1991 . lethrinops . p . 233 - 240 . in j . daget , j . - p . gosse , g . g . teugels and d . f . e . thys van den audenaerde ( eds . ) check - list of the freshwater fishes of africa ( cloffa ) . isnb , brussels ; mrac , tervuren ; and orstom , paris . vol . 4 . ( ref . 4985 )\nit has a larger number of lower gillrakers ( 24 - 29 ) than most similar species . it can be quickly distinguished from most superficially similar species by the number of bars below the dorsal fin ( 7 , compared to 8 - 9 ) and by the absence of a midlateral spot . it generally has a larger mental ( chin ) process than the similar , but smaller , lethrinops ' oliveri ' . individuals of the species reach a maximum size of around 20 cm ( 8 inches ) total length and feed on benthic diatoms , principally the filamentous aulacoseira , with occasional crustacean and chironomid fragments .\nfreshwater ; demersal ; depth range 35 - 100 m . tropical ; 13\u00b0s - 15\u00b0s\nafrica : endemic to the southern part of lake malawi , specially in the south - east arm .\nmaturity : l m 13 . 7 range ? - ? cm max length : 13 . 1 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 4985 )\noccurs over soft bottoms which have thick layer of sedimentary diatoms . feeds on diatoms ( ref . 5595 , 54527 ) . dominant species in malawian demersal trawl fishery .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 0 \u00b10 . 00 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 18 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nsnoeks , j . ( freshwater fish red list authority ) & darwall , w . ( freshwater biodiversity assessment programme )\nendemic to lake malawi where it is known to occur in the southeastern arm of the lake .\noccurs over soft bottoms that have a thick layer of sedimentary diatoms at depths of 35\u2013100 m . its preferred depth is 50 m where it is reported to be abundant . it feeds on the diatoms by scooping them from the substrate . also feeds in the open water on plankton when available . reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade ( 1990 ) . max . size : 15 cm tl .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\npam chin has been replying to cichlid questions for over twenty years . highly respected and experienced aquarist , pam has visited cichlid habitats around the world , and bred in her ' s and her husband gary fish house hundreds of cichlid species . besides her job , she still devotes time to help any person with a cichlid question !\narticles for sale beautifully formatted and wonderfully illustrated pdf articles about all matters relative to cichlids .\nbooks for sale cichlid books and dvds for sale at the cichlid room companion .\ne - books for sale pdf copies of popular cichlid books offered for sale at the best price .\ntrade section the master list of cichlid offers ordered by area and species name .\nto view the full profile . see this and all other species profiles , pictures and videos by becoming a\nof the cichlid room companion . become a subscriber and get a free book the same value of your membership ! you can also open the full profile for everyone to see by\nspecies . it gets to about 15 cm ( 6 inches ) total length and is a common cichlid species at depths of 65 - 130m ( approx . 210 - 425 feet ) or more in the se arm of lake malawi , between monkey bay and boadzulu island . it has fewer lower gillrakers ( 17 - 21 ) , a smaller head and a less prominent mental ( chin ) process than\n, which could not stand the heavy fishing pressure in that area . i am not sure who came up with the nickname , but when i worked at monkey bay in the early 1990s , this species had long been known as ' oliveri ' after mike oliver \u0097 none other than the webmaster of this site . the photo shown here is of a mature male , but not showing the brightest breeding dress .\nlast updated : 24 may 2008 page first posted : 1 december 2002 web author : m . k . oliver , ph . d . copyright \u00a9 1997 - 2018 by m . k . oliver - all rights reserved\ntext & photo by guest author : prof . george f . turner university of hull , uk\nspecies from the deep - water mud - bottom habitats of lake malawi . ( the upper fish is male ; the lower , female . ) it has suffered badly from heavy trawl fishing in the area where it was most abundant . in the se arm of the lake , it used to make up 44 % of the cichlid catch in experimental trawls between 60 and 80 m ( 200 - 260 ft ) depth , and it comprised 28 % of the catch of the commercial demersal trawls . it has not been observed at all in recent surveys , and it may be extinct in the area . although only a single specimen had previously been recorded by expert taxonomists from outside the se arm , fisheries recorders have recently reported that this species is still abundant near karonga , where the habitat is similar to the southern arms . this remains to be confirmed .\npage first posted : 14 february 2004 web author : m . k . oliver , ph . d . copyright \u00a9 1997 - 2018 by m . k . oliver - all rights reserved\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\n1 the fraction of non - missing nucleotides in an ideal alignment if no gaps had to be introduced . low values indicate that cluster sequences are heterogeneous in length , with possibly only local homologies ( for example , if one sequence is a complete mitochondrial genome , and others are single mt genes ) .\ndownload a raxml optimal tree with branch lengths ( muscle alignment ) . . .\ndownload a midpoint rooted raxml optimal tree with branch lengths ( muscle alignment ) . . ."]}
{"id": 1273, "summary": [{"text": "megarhyssa macrurus ( common name giant ichneumon wasp ) , is a species of large ichneumon wasp .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is a predatory insect , notable for its extremely long ovipositor .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it uses this to deposit an egg into a tunnel in dead wood bored by a similarly large species of horntail .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "another of its common names is ' stump stabber ' referring to this behaviour . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "megarhyssa macrurus", "paragraphs": ["ranges across the eastern nearctic to the eastern slopes of the rocky mountains . megarhyssa macrurus macrurus\nmegarhyssa macrurus ( male ) | hilda young conservation area , jefferson co . , missouri\nis found in arizona , colorado , new mexico , and utah . megarhyssa macrurus lunator\nbug of the week : megarhyssa macrurus ( a . k . a . really big freakin ' wasp )\nbug of the week : megarhyssa macrurus ( a . k . a . really big freakin\u2019 wasp ) | ottawa citizen\n\u201cthis is most likely a female megarhyssa macrurus , \u201d he wrote in an email . \u201cthey are very impressive insects indeed . \u201d\nyou can just go to this image and click on\nadd image\non the bottom of the screen to add additional images . if you are sure that this is megarhyssa macrurus lunator , then a new guide page can be created for this subspecies . if their is some doubt , i would leave at the species level ( megarhyssa macrurus ) .\nmegarhyssa atrata ( male ) | hilda young conservation area , jefferson co . , missouri\nthe larvae of m . atrata , m . greenei , and m . macrurus are parasitoids of grubs of the horntail tremex columba .\nback to google i went to determine megarhyssa macrurus ( the name means \u201cgiant wasp with a long tail\u201d ) is an ichneumon , one of the world\u2019s more than 100 , 000 species of parasitic wasps . naomi cappuccino , an entomologist at carleton university , offered more .\ned . note : this is not the first time megarhyssa atrata has been featured as bug of the month .\ngibbons , j . 1979 . a model for sympatric speciation in megarhyssa ( hymenoptera : ichneumonidae ) : competitive sepiciation .\ncrankshaw , o . , r . matthews . 1981 . sexual behavior among parasitic megarhyssa wasps ( hymenoptera : ichneumonidae ) .\ntheir article focuses on m . atrata . . . but most of it presumably applies to other megarhyssa species as well .\nit ' s a giant ichneumon wasp - megarhyssa macrurus . that long needle like thing is her ovipositor . she uses that to lay eggs in the body of insect larvae living in trees . it ' s like a wood drill ! hope you don ' t have any larvae living in your deck !\nwhen the megarhyssa egg hatches it behaves as an ectoparasitic idiobiont , completely consuming the grub . it pupates within the burrow and emerges in the summer .\nthe paper gibbons 1979 explores how the three species m . atrata , m . greenei , and m . macrurus exploit different niches , allowing them to coexist in the same locations and using the same host .\nheatwole , h . , d . davis . 1965 . ecology of three sympatric species of parasitic insects of the genus megarhyssa ( hymenoptera : ichneumonidae ) .\nfour species of giant ichneumons collectively occur over most of north america . the ones shown here are probably the species megarhyssa macrurus . females can vary considerably in size depending on the size of their host as larval wasps . smaller individuals tend to have reduced spotting on the wings ( or no spots at all ) . enjoy looking for these insects and observing their amazing behavior .\nle lannic , j . , j . nenon . 1999 . functional morphology of the ovipositor in megarhyssa atrata ( hymenoptera , ichneumonidae ) and its penetration into wood .\nto cite this page : klein , s . 2012 .\nmegarhyssa atrata\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nheatwole , h . , d . davis , a . wenner . 1964 . detection of mates and hosts by parasitic insects of the genus megarhyssa ( hymenoptera : ichneumonidae ) .\nleona , the one you describe that is all - black is likely the species megarhyssa atrata . it should have had at least a little yellow , though , on the head and front legs .\nhorntail adult females introduce wood - digesting fungi ( e . g . amylostereum ) when ovipositing , which helps their grubs extract food value while feeding on the wood . adult female megarhyssa are able to detect the odor of these fungi , and once they land on the bark of an infected tree the megarhyssa will walk along tapping the surface with their antennae ( or\nantennating\n) to further pinpoint the location of horntail grubs within the wood .\nkey to the species of megarhyssa ( hymenoptera , ichneumonidae , rhyssinae ) in america , north of mexico victoria pook , michael sharkey , david wahl . 2016 . deutsche entomologische zeitschrift 63 ( 1 ) : 137 - 148 .\ngibbons , john r . h . ( 1979 ) . a model for sympatric speciation in megarhyssa ( hymenoptera : ichneumonidae ) : competitive speciation . american naturalist , 114 ( 5 ) : 719 - 741 ( 1st page from jstor )\ngiant ichneumon ( megarhyssa species two ) is found in eastern north america . these images were all taken on a dead stump of an american elm amid a great deal of activity . both males and females of two species were present .\ni live in town and was suprise to find these big insects in one of my dying tree ' s in front of the house . i ' ve never seen these before but with some research i think they are megarhyssa macrurus lunator . there is over 10 of theses all in the same tree . are these usualy found in new - brunswick and in the city ? also are these type of bees or wasp dangerous ? can they sting you ? i have more pictures if you would like to see them . if you have any information can you email me at guygirouard @ urltoken . . thanks\nfallon : interesting . i see that megarhyssa nortoni was introduced to new zealand intentionally , sometime after 1962 , to battle a true invasive : sirex noctilio . so , the ichneumon is * still * a\ngood\nwasp , just not a native one .\noh , wow ! great video of a female megarhyssa atra that has really become\nimmersed\nin her work . i did not know the ovipositor could be deployed quite like that , but sure looks like the case here . nice find , jon , thanks for sharing !\npook , victoria g . , sharkey , michael j . & wahl , david b . , 2016 , key to the species of megarhyssa ( hymenoptera , ichneumonidae , rhyssinae ) in america , north of mexico , deutsche entomologische zeitschrift 1 , pp . 137 - 148 : 142\nle lannic , joseph & j . - p . n\u00e9non ( 1999 ) .\nfunctional morphology of the ovipositor in megarhyssa atrata ( hymenoptera , ichneumonidae ) and its penetration into wood\n, zoomorphology , volume : 119 , issue : 2 , pages : 73 - 79 . ( first page )\nmatthews , r . w . , j . r . matthews & o . crankshaw . 1979 . aggregation in male parasitic wasps of the genus megarhyssa : i . sexual discrimination , tergal stroking behavior , and description of associated anal structures behavior . the florida entomologist 62 ( 1 ) : 3\u20138 [ pdf ] .\nonce grubs are located , the female megarhyssa positions herself with back legs extended and ovipositor perpendicular to the bark , and drills into the tree to deposit an egg on or near a horntail grub within its burrow ( see videos here ) . while drilling the female wasp is immobilized and vulnerable to predation by birds .\nhi eric , great blog ! i found a female nortoni in my church tonight and in the process of researching it read that the hornwood wasp introduces a fungus along with its egg in order to help hide the hornwood larvae when it hatches . the megarhyssa can apparently use this fungus help it locate the location of an egg . have you heard anything about this ?\nthe shiny , black thorax features single yellow spots located on the prothorax , under each fore wing , and on either side of the propodeum . the metascutellum bears a yellow dash in its center . the brownish black abdomen is a distinguishing character for this species within the genus megarhyssa . the thorax also contains spiracles that run along its entire length . body length for this species averages 35 mm for males and 38 mm for females .\nsubject : female megarhyssa atrata location : st paul , mn june 25 , 2014 9 : 13 am after finding your great web site i learned the name of the bug in my back yard . they were on a tree we were cutting down . because it seemed to be laying eggs i decided to leave the stump for a while . attached are some photos you may use . it is interesting to me that i have never noticed these before . signature : ds in mn\nprowling around a pile of cut logs near my temporary residence in south deerfield , massachusetts on the evening of june second , i almost literally stumbled upon one of the most spectacular wasps on the continent . female giant ichneumon wasps in the genus megarhyssa may look menacing , wielding a whip - like \u201ctail\u201d that can exceed their own body length , but they cannot sting and in fact are quite shy , easily startled by sudden movements . it is a pity that people are often so alarmed by these insects , as they have an extraordinary life cycle .\npaul & asha , i wonder if the insect you have seen is actually one of the giant ichneumon wasp ( megarhyssa sp ) . when they aren ' t boring and injecting their eggs deep into wood , they do trail a long\nstinger\n( actually their ovipositor ) behind as they fly around . they look a bit scary , but as far as i know , they are not dangerous as they only use this appendage for boring into wood to lay their eggs . there are some photos of them in this gallery , so take a look . these are * very * large insects and could look quite scary to some people . bev\nupdate : june 26 , 2014 dear daniel marlos , i just had to write one more time . the first set of photos i sent were of the first time i had seen a flying insect of its kind , today i went to see if they were still on the stump , i found a new type . see attached photos . the first photo is from my phone . the second and fourth photos capture an ant crawling - shows size a little better . i am excited to show these , i hope you can use them . thanks dan p . s . there were ovipositing female megarhyssa strata remains ( wings and part of a tail ) left on the stump ! i guess a bird had a good snack .\na large stump stabber can have an ovipositor nearly five inches long , and one of your images captures the classic position of a female looping the organ as she drills beneath the bark to deposit her egg where the young will have a food source .\njust spotted one of these , and never seen such a thing . i live in east berlin , pa . just thought i would write since i never seen one before around here cause i have wood lying around all the time , cause i burn wood . 7 / 24 / 2014\nsave my name , email , and website in this browser for the next time i comment .\nnotify me of followup comments via e - mail . you can also subscribe without commenting .\nbuggy accessories the big 5 make my day northern california milkweed meadow calendar 2011 wtb ? down under nasty reader award bug love wtb ? mt . washington unnecessary carnage goldenrod meadow bug gems from our archives household pests edible insects : tasty morsels buggy vocabulary words unidentified bug humanitarian award top 10 buggy life cycles virginia countdown 10 000 bug of the month gardening blog fanmail what ' s on my woody plant ? virginia beach food chain 10 most beautiful spiders gift shop mysteries worst bug stories ever ! ! ! aquatic bugs invasive exotics tomato bugs snow bugs\nplease enter your username or e - mail address . you will receive a new password via e - mail .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ne na to rocky mtns . / n . mex . ( bg data )\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\ngatineau ' s wonders of sand festival adapts to move to city . . .\n20 photos from nathan ' s hot dog eating contest that will . . .\na giant ichneumon wasp on a tree in britannia . the fearsome looking wasp \u2014 with its 15 cm tail \u2014 is common , but rarely seen . despite their appearance , the wasp is harmless .\nthe brightly coloured , wasplike insect was on a tree that had been badly damaged by a pileated woodpecker . it was at least 15 centimetres long , with most of that being an enormous spike on its back end . if that\u2019s a stinger , i worried , it could likely deliver a dose of venom straight to my heart .\nafter getting as close as i dared for a few iphone pics , i did what any trained journalist would do : google \u201contario scary insects . \u201d\nthat was partially successful , but it was fran\u00e7ois g\u00e9nier of the canadian museum of nature who identified my bug for certain .\n\u201cwhat a beautiful wasp ! \u201d she wrote in an email . \u201cwhile they are not uncommon , big ichneumonids are always a treat to see . \u201d\nthe tail spike wasn\u2019t a stinger at all , but the wasp\u2019s impressive \u201covipositor\u201d or egg - laying tube . i needed to know more .\ndelving deeper into google ( finding information about parasitic wasps isn\u2019t as easy as it is for animal superstars like elephants and clown fish ) turned up an article , the amazing ichneumom , published in a 2002 issue of missouri conservationist .\nthe female ichneumon , wrote author connie hjelmeng - johnson , drums on a dead tree with its long antennae to sense the movement of larvae wriggling deep inside . if she finds some , it\u2019s bad news for the helpless young of its favourite host , another parasite , the horntail wasp . the female begins boring into the wood with her ovipositor , a process that takes anywhere from a few minutes to several hours , depending on the hardness of the wood . ( you can watch a 13 - minute video of that here , if that\u2019s your thing )\nhow does a bug sting through wood ? amazingly , hjelmeng - johnson writes , entomologists think the ovipositor might be hardened with ionized manganese or zinc , just like a steel - tipped drill bit . once deposited , the eggs hatch inside their larval hosts , literally eating them from the inside out until a mature ichneumon chews its way out through the wood to emerge as an adult .\nare they dangerous ? no . there\u2019s no evidence that the adults even eat , hjelmeng - johnson writes . nor are their any reports of stings .\n\u201cichneumonids that parasitize insects such as emerald ash borer , which attacks live trees , would definitely be considered as beneficial insects , since they can help protect the trees , \u201d cappuccino wrote in her email . \u201cichneumonids parasitizing dead - wood - consuming insects are more neutral in their effect ( from a human point of view ) \u2014 just another link in the food web . \u201d\ni knew none of this when i saw the wasp creep across the tree in britannia . but when it beat its wings and clumsily took flight , i took flight too \u2014 in the other direction .\n' aren ' t we amazing humans ? ' : after damage from gases , our ozone layer . . .\nif you ' re looking to escape canadian beaches , visit the desert where . . .\nwe encourage all readers to share their views on our articles and blog posts . we are committed to maintaining a lively but civil forum for discussion , so we ask you to avoid personal attacks , and please keep your comments relevant and respectful . if you encounter a comment that is abusive , click the\nx\nin the upper right corner of the comment box to report spam or abuse . we are using facebook commenting .\na giant wasp withdrawing her ovipositor from the bark of a tree . she lays her eggs on the larva of bark beetles . taken 9 / 9 / 06 , severson dells , rockford , il .\nthe female of this species of giant ichneumon is about 1 1 / 2 inches in length not including antennae and ovipositor . the ovipositor is black , threadlike and approximately 2 inches long . the head and thorax are red , as is the abdomen . the abdomen has transverse bands of black and pale yelllow stripes . the legs are red . wings are a tan color with a triangluar black mark on the leading edge of the forewing near the tip . the antennae are long , slender and black . the male ( photos e , f & h ) is approximately 1 - 1 1 / 2 inches in length . his abdomen is long and black to dark red . the thorax is black with yellow markings . the legs are mostly yellow .\nthis giant ichneumon is thought to be uncommon in fontenelle forest and neale woods . females and males can be found on dead or dying tree trunks . it has been seen in fontenelle forest in late april and mid - september .\nthe content of naturesearch is provided by dedicated volunteer naturalists of fontenelle nature association who strive to provide the most accurate information available . contributors of the images retain their copyrights . the point of contact for this page is :\n\u00a9 2008 fontenelle forest . all rights reserved . | website design by rebel interactive\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\nthe superfamily ichneumonoidea contains the two largest families within hymenoptera : ichneumonidae and braconidae . the group is thought to contain as many as 100 , 000 species , many of which have not yet been described . [ 1 ] like other parasitoid wasps , they were long placed in the\nparasitica\n, variously considered as an infraorder or an unranked clade , now known to be paraphyletic .\nthe name is derived from latin ' ichneumon ' , from ancient greek \u1f30\u03c7\u03bd\u03b5\u03cd\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd ( ikhne\u00fam\u014dn ,\ntracker\n) , from \u1f34\u03c7\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 ( \u00edkhnos ,\ntrack , footstep\n) . the name is shared with the egyptian mongoose , herpestes ichneumon .\nthe ichneumonid wasps may be more familiar to non - entomologists than braconids , as they are generally larger . the two families are distinguished from each other primarily by details of wing venation .\nmost are brownish or black , not brightly colored . [ 3 ] fore wings lack vein 2m - cu .\nichneumonids vary greatly in size and their color varies from brightly colored yellow to uniform black . fore wing with vein 2m - cu present and tubular . [ 2 ]\nparasitoidism evolved only once in the hymenoptera , during the permian , leading to a single clade , the apocrita . the apocrita emerged during the jurassic . [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ]\nichneumonoids are solitary insects , and the vast majority are parasitoids ; the larvae feed on or in another insect until it finally dies . most hosts are holometabolus insect larvae , but there are many exceptions . in general , ichneumonoids are host specific , and only attack one or a few closely related host species . many species use polydnaviruses to suppress the immune systems of their host insects . due to the wide variety in hosts and lifestyles , see subfamily pages for more detail .\nthe female ichneumonoid finds a host and lays an egg on , near , or inside the host ' s body . [ 8 ] the ovipositor of ichneumonoids generally cannot deliver a sting as many wasps or bees do . it can be used to bore wood and lay eggs on hosts deep inside , or reach hosts hidden inside leaf shelters . upon hatching , the larva feeds either externally or internally , killing the host when it is ready to pupate .\nvarious ichneumonoids are used as biological control agents in controlling horticultural or forest pests .\nan interesting example is the relationship between the species ichneumon eumerus and its host butterfly phengaris rebeli . [ 9 ] the butterfly larva is a parasite within myrmica ant nests . the adult i . eumerus searches for ant nests and only enters when they contain p . rebeli caterpillars . [ 9 ] once inside , they oviposit their eggs within the caterpillars and escape the nest by releasing a chemical which causes the worker ants to fight each other rather than the intruding wasp . [ 9 ] the wasp eggs then hatch inside the caterpillar and eventually consume and kill the host .\npennacchio , francesco ; strand , michael r . ( 2005 - 12 - 06 ) .\nbranstetter , michael g . ; danforth , bryan n . ; pitts , james p . ; faircloth , brant c . ; ward , philip s . ; buffington , matthew l . ; gates , michael w . ; kula , robert r . ; brady , se\u00e1n g . ( 2017 ) .\nphylogenomic insights into the evolution of stinging wasps and the origins of ants and bees\n.\nschulmeister , s . ( 2003 ) .\nsimultaneous analysis of basal hymenoptera ( insecta ) , introducing robust - choice sensitivity analysis\n.\npeters , ralph s . ; krogmann , lars ; mayer , christoph ; donath , alexander ; gunkel , simon ; meusemann , karen ; kozlov , alexey ; podsiadlowski , lars ; petersen , malte ( 2017 ) .\nhochberg , m ; elmes , g . w . ; thomas , j . a . ; clarke , r . t ( 1996 ) .\nwikisource has the text of the new student ' s reference work article ichneumon flies .\nu < br / > n < br / > i < br / > c .\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .\nphysocnemum brevilineum ( say , 1824 ) on fallen cottonwood ( populus deltoides ) | woods co . , oklahoma\ncrypsis , for that matter ) . evolution has no rule stating that only one survival strategy can be employed at a time , and if , as it seems to me , the beetle is utilizing both crypsis and mimicry\u2014the first to avoid detection and , failing that , the second to give the potential predator pause , then there is no reason why the mimicry portion of its defense couldn\u2019t be modeling both ants and wasps as a way to maximize an overall \u201cnasty hymenopteran\u201d appearance .\nchalcophora virginiensis ( drury , 1770 ) is the largest jewel beetle ( family buprestidae ) in eastern north america . this beetle is also known as the \u201csculptured pine borer\u201d , and its easy to see why\u2014its hyper - sculptured , shiny metallic body glitters like a jewel in the sunlight ! this feature is typical of many species in the family and , in fact , is the source of the family\u2019s other common name\u2014metallic wood boring beetles .\nthose interested in more information on this species and its close relatives may wish to consult the recent review of the genus in north america by maier & ivie ( 2014 ) ( see my review of this excellent paper here ) .\nmaier , c . a . & m . a . ivie . 2013 . reevaluation of chalcophora angulicollis ( leconte ) and chalcophora virginiensis ( drury ) with a review and key to the north american species of chalcophora dejean ( coleoptera : buprestidae ) . the coleopterists bulletin 67 ( 4 ) : 457\u2013469 [ abstract ] .\nthe wgnss entomology group takes in the view of rhyolite glades from atop hughes mountain .\neach spring the entomology group of the webster groves nature study society takes a field trip to one of the many natural areas outside of the st . louis area . this year the destination was hughes mountain natural area , about 75 miles ssw of st . louis in washington co . i especially looked forward to going there this spring , as my last visit to the area was close to 20 years ago . despite the long absence , i vividly recalled the spectacular vistas from atop the mountain of rhyolite and the diversity of unique plants and insects in the igneous glades that flanked its slopes . when we arrived , we found the glades ablaze with spring wildflowers in full bloom , the most prominent of which was lance - leaved coreopsis ( coreopsis lanceolata ) . as one of the so - called \u201cyellow composites\u201d , coreopsis is a favored source of pollen and nectar for a variety of insects , including beetles and especially the jewel beetles that i find so interesting .\nacmaeodera ornata ( fabricius , 1775 ) is more widespread than a . neglecta ( although not nearly so commonly encountered as a . tubulus ) . this handsome species is distinctly larger than a . tubulus and a . neglecta , usually around 8 - 11 mm in length , and has a broader , more flattened appearance with a distinct triangular depression on the pronotum . the elytra have a bluish cast rather than the bronzy sheen of a . tubulus and a . neglecta , and the spots on the elytra are smaller , more numerous , and more of a creamy rather than yellow color . no other species in the eastern u . s . can be confused with it , although there is a very similar species ( a . ornatoides barr , 1972 ) that occurs in oklahoma and texas . i have encountered this species numerous times on a variety of flowers in missouri but have never managed to rear it , and in fact larval hosts remain unknown with the exception of one very old ( and unreliable ) report of the species breeding in hickory ( carya ) and black - locust ( robinia ) .\nnote the flattened , scale - like setae covering both the dorsal and ventral surfaces as well as the legs .\nfall , h . c . 1899 . synonpsis of the species of acmaeodera of america , north of mexico . journal of the new york entomological society 7 ( 1 ) : 1\u201337 [ pdf ] .\njameson , m . l . & k . a . swoboda . 2005 . synopsis of scarab beetle tribe valgini ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : cetoniinae ) in the new world . annals of the entomological society of america 98 ( 5 ) : 658\u2013672 [ pdf ] .\nmacrae , t . c . 1991 . the buprestidae ( coleoptera ) of missouri . insecta mundi 5 ( 2 ) : 101\u2013126 [ pdf ] .\nnelson , g . h . 1987 . additional notes on the biology and distribution of buprestidae ( coleoptera ) in north america , ii . the coleopterists bulletin 41 ( 1 ) : 57\u201365 [ pdf ] .\nof course , replacement of one sound production mechanism by another begs the question\u2014is there a selective advantage to sound production by crepitation over timbals ? the fact that females also produce sound by crepitation hints at one possible advantage\u20142 - way communication between males and females may provide another mechanism for minimizing the chance of interspecies mate selection , in contrast to the one - way communication ( from males to females ) that occurs in species that use timbal organs . it is also possible that crepitation is metabolically more efficient than timbal singing , although experimental comparisons of the energetic cost of crepitation versus timbal singing in cicadas are lacking ( sanborn & phillips 1999 ) .\nsanborn , a . f . & p . k . phillips . 1999 . analysis of acoustic signals produced by the cicada platypedia putnami variety lutea ( homoptera : tibicinidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america 92 : 451\u2013455 [ pdf ] .\nsanborn , a . f . & p . k . phillips . 2013 . biogeography of the cicadas ( hemiptera : cicadidae ) of north america , north of mexico . diversity 5 ( 2 ) : 166\u2013239 [ abstract , pdf ] .\nyoung , d . & h . c . bennet - clark . 1995 . the role of the tymbal in cicada sound production . the journal of experimental biology 198 : 1001\u20131019 [ pdf ] .\namerican carrion beetles ( necrophila americana ) aggregation at sap flow on trunk of oak ( quercus sp . ) tree .\n\u00b9 not to be confused with the federally endangered american burying beetle ( nicrophorus americanus ) .\namong the many single adults present was a mating pair , which i selected as my subjects . as i was photographing the pair , i noticed the male had a firm grasp of one of the female\u2019s antennae within his mandibles . as i watched them through the lens , i saw the male suddenly release his hold of the female\u2019s antenna , move backward on top of her , and begin using his own antennae to stroke her pronotum ( sadly i was unable to snap a photograph at that time ) . as suddenly as he had released it , the male moved forward and grabbed hold of the female\u2019s antenna once again . it seemed unlikely to me that this represented an act of aggression , but instead must be an important part of their courtship behavior . the female , for her part , did not seem to be bothered too much by the grasping and continued to slowly lumber about around the sap flow as the male went through his routine under my voyeuristic watch .\nanderson , r . s . 1989 . potential phylogenetic utility of mating behavior in some carrion beetles ( coleoptera : silphidae : silphinae ) . the coleopterists bulletin 43 ( 1 ) : 18 [ pdf ] .\nchamplain , a . b . & j . n . knull . 1932 . fermenting bait traps for trapping elateridae and cerambycidae ( coleop . ) . entomological news 43 ( 10 ) : 253\u2013257 .\nevans , a . v . 2014 . beetles of eastern north america . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey , 560 pp . [ google books ] .\nearlier this month the webster groves nature study society ( wgnss ) sponsored their second nature photo contest . i\u2019ve been a member of this group since i first moved to st . louis after college in the early 1980s\u2014primarily as a participant in the entomology natural history group but for the past six years also as board member and editor of the society\u2019s newsletter , nature notes . the photo contest was run much like the first one in 2013 , again with nice cash prizes for the winners , except two things : 1 ) the categories were a little different ( see below ) , and 2 ) i was tapped to be one of the three judges in the two categories that i did not submit photos . the categories were :\ni submitted two photos each to the first three categories\u2014the maximum allowed in both cases . one limitation for me was that the photographs had to be taken in missouri or an adjacent state . remarkably , during the past few years i\u2019ve taken most of my photos in places further afield\u2014primarily in the western u . s . in states such as california , colorado , new mexico , and nevada . i have many photographs from earlier years , but frankly i don\u2019t consider much of that body of work to be photo contest worthy . still , i was able to come up with a few more recent photographs that i thought would be competitive .\nhow did it go for me ? pretty good , with two of my photos taking cash - winning prizes ( see below ) . this may not be as good as i did last time , when i won one 1st place , one 2nd place , and one 3rd place\u2014the last of these also voted by the audience as the grand prize winner . nevertheless , the cash award is much welcomed and will be put to good use . remarkably , it turns out that two winning photographs have never been posted at this site , so here they are :\neastern garter snake , thamnophis sirtalis | ozark trail , wappapello section , wayne co . , missouri\nthe judges regarded that it represents the true \u201cessence\u201d of a snake . technically they liked the position of and focus on the tongue , the contrasting red color working well in the composition , with the blurred , winding body of the snake adding depth in a cleaner fashion than a cluttered jumble of leaves . i can\u2019t tell you how many shots i took hoping to get one with the tongue in the perfect position\u2014knowing all along that at any moment the snake could stop flicking it or decide to make a run for it\ndutchman\u2019s breeches , dicentra cucullaria | battle of athens state park , clark co . , missouri\nunfortunately , i didn\u2019t get a chance to hear the judges\u2019 feedback regarded this photo , as i was busy judging the photos in the \u2018natural communities\u2019 and \u2018seasons\u2019 categories . this photo also took many shots , even though i didn\u2019t have to worry about the subject not cooperating . flash on white is tricky\u2014not enough and you don\u2019t get the stark contrast with the black background ; too much and you end up blowing the highlights and losing the delicate detail . add to that trying to get the subject perfectly symmetrical within the frame ( i wanted to achieve this \u2018for real\u2019 and not through subsequent cropping ) , and i probably took close to two dozen shots before i felt like i had it right .\nperhaps you noticed that neither of the photos were in the \u2018invertebrates\u2019 category . this just goes to show that the amount of interest in and effort one puts into a certain type of photography does not guarantee success\u2014or prevent success in photographing other , less - familiar subjects . for my part i am pleased that any of my photographs were deemed good enough to receive a cash prize and thank wgnss for giving local nature photographers the opportunity to have their work recognized and rewarded .\ni feel like an old war - horse at the sound of a trumpet when i read about the capture of rare beetles . - - charles darwin\nthe creator , if he exists , must have an inordinate fondness for beetles . - - j . b . s . haldane buy bitb apparel and gifts at cafepress .\nted c . macrae is an agricultural research entomologist with\nan inordinate fondness for beetles .\nprimary expertise includes taxonomy and host associations of wood - boring beetles , with more recent interest also in tiger beetle survey and conservation . i am currently serving as managing editor of the the pan - pacific entomologist , layout editor for the journal cicindela and newsletter editor for the webster groves nature study society . read my interview at nature blog network , and visit me at these other sites :\nall text and photos appearing on this website are \u00a9 ted c . macrae , all rights reserved . see\nimage use policy\nbelow for details regarding conditions for allowed use .\nenter your email address to follow this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email .\nbiodiversity in focus blog the musings of entomology graduate student and nature photographer morgan d . jackson\nbug eric \u2026 . about anything related to insects , spiders , and other arthropods .\nall images appearing on this website are \u00a9 ted c . macrae unless stated otherwise and may not be reproduced in any form without prior written permission . the following\nreposting online on social media ( e . g . , facebook , twitter , personal blogs , etc . ) by individuals acting in a strictly personal capacity .\nimages must be visibly credited to\nted c . macrae\nand , if posted online , include a link back to\nbeetlesinthebush . wordpress . com .\nany other use requires prior permission and may require a licensing agreement . direct all inquiries to\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\nwhat did the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees looked like ? this is not something we can triangulate simply by looking at a modern chimpanzee and human . all the evidence points that africa is the home continent for primates . paleontologists are working hard to find the fossils that help us understand the key stages in human evolution .\nmolecular genetic analysis of modern human and chimpanzee revealed a very high degree of similarity . through dna hybridization experiments it was estimated that humans , chimpanzees , and gorillas shared a common ancestor only 5 million years ago . sequencing of the genomes now confidently indicates that our common ancestry goes back to 7 million years before present . the 3 . 2 million year old lucy ( australopithecus afarensis ) fossil was already an upright bipedal walker . no other fossil was known before lucy . discovery of 4 . 4 million year old ardipithecus ramidus fossil provided a a big insight into how bipedality in humans started .\nfifteen years after its discovery in 1994 a special section including 11 manuscripts was published in science magazine in 2009 .\nbipedality , tool making , big brains . which one came first ? ardipethecus ramidus provided the mozaic anatomy of this most ancient human ancestor ever . she was bipedal on the ground but had very good climbing abilities . together with her other fossils found in the same age rock layer indicated that she was living in a wooded environment . her feet morphology was quite striking in revealing all .\nthe etymology of the name ardipethecus ramidus comes from two words . the word \u2018ramid\u2019 means \u2018root\u2019 in the afar language of ethiopia and refers to the closeness of this new species to the roots of humanity . the word \u2018ardi\u2019 means \u2018ground\u2019 or \u2018floor\u2019 .\nthis site uses akismet to reduce spam . learn how your comment data is processed .\nthe ichneumonidae are a parasitoid wasp family within the order hymenoptera . they are important parasitoids of other invertebrates ; common hosts are larvae and pupae of coleoptera , hymenoptera , and lepidoptera . over 24 , 000 species have been described worldwide . estimates of the total species range from 60 , 000 to over 100 , 000 - more than any other hymenopteran family .\nthe distribution of the ichneumonids was traditionally considered an exception to the common latitudinal gradient in species diversity , since the family was thought to be at its most species - rich in the temperate zone instead of the tropics , but numerous new tropical species have now been discovered .\ninsects in the family ichneumonidae are commonly called ichneumon wasps or ichneumonids . less exact terms are ichneumon flies ( they are not closely related to true flies ) , or scorpion wasps due to the extreme lengthening and curving of the abdomen ( scorpions are arachnids ) .\nthe name is derived from latin ' ichneumon ' , from ancient greek ( ikhne\u00fam ? n ,\ntracker\n) , from ( \u00edkhnos ,\ntrack , footstep\n) . the name first appeared in aristotle ' s\nhistory of animals\n, c . 343 bc . aristotle noted that the ichneumon preys upon spiders , is a wasp smaller than ordinary wasps , and carries its prey to a hole which they lay their larvae inside , and that they seal the hole with mud . [ 1 ]\nadult ichneumonids superficially resemble other wasps . they have a slender waist , two pairs of wings , a pair of large compound eyes on the side of the head and three ocelli on top of the head . their size varies considerably from a few millimetres to seven or more centimetres .\nthe ichneumonids have more antennal segments than typical , aculeate wasps ( aculeata : vespoidea and apoidea ) : ichneumonids typically possess 16 or more , while most other wasps have 13 or fewer . unlike the aculeate wasps , which sting in defense and do not pass their eggs along the stinger , ichneumonid females have an ovipositor ( homologous to the stinger ) which they use to lay eggs inside or on their host . ichneumonids generally inject venom along with the egg , but only larger species ( some in the genera netelia and ophion ) with relatively short ovipositors use the ovipositor in defense . males do not possess stingers or ovipositors in either lineage .\na female xanthopimpla punctata . the ovipositor is longer and more slender than the stingers of aculeate wasps\nichneumonids are distinguished from their sister group braconidae mainly on the basis of wing venation . the fore wing of 95 % of ichneumonids has vein 2m - cu , which is absent in braconids . vein 1rs - m of the fore wing is absent in all ichneumonids , but is present in 85 % of braconids . in the hind wing of ichneumonids , vein rs - m joins rs apical to ( or rarely opposite ) the split between veins rs and r1 . in braconids , vein rs - m joins basal to this split . the taxa also differ in the structure of the metasoma : about 90 % of ichneumonids have a flexible suture between tergites 2 and 3 , whereas these tergites are fused in braconids ( though the suture is secondarily flexible in aphidiinae ) . [ 2 ]\n) . the presence of vein 2m - cu and absence of vein 1rs + m distinguish the wing from that of braconids .\nichneumonid hind wing . vein rs - m joins rs after the split between veins rs and r1 .\nbraconid hind wing . vein rs - m joins rs before the split between veins rs and r1 .\nichneumonids are found on all continents with the exception of antarctica . they inhabit virtually all terrestrial habitats , wherever there are suitable invertebrate hosts .\nthe distribution of ichneumonid species richness is subject to ongoing debate . long believed to be rare in the tropics , and at its most species rich in the temperate region , the family became a classic textbook example of an ' exceptional ' latitudinal diversity gradient . [ 3 ] recently this belief has been questioned , after the discovery of numerous new tropical species . [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ]\nsome ichneumonid species lay their eggs in the ground , but most inject them either directly into their host ' s body or on its surface . after hatching , the ichneumonid larva consumes its still living host . the most common hosts are larvae or pupae of lepidoptera , coleoptera and hymenoptera . for example , a species of ichneumonid has been found to lay eggs in african sugarcane borer larva , a moth common in sub - saharan africa . [ 7 ] ichneumonids are also considered a primary enemy of the arctic woolly bear moth . [ 8 ] some species in the subfamily pimplinae also parasitise spiders . hyperparasitoids such as mesochorinae oviposit inside the larvae of other ichneumonoids . the hosts of many species are unknown ; host information has been summed up by e . g . aubert , [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] perkins . [ 12 ] [ 13 ] and townes . [ 14 ]\nichneumonids use both idiobiont and koinobiont strategies . idiobionts paralyze their host and prevent it from moving or growing . koinobionts allow their host to continue to grow and develop . in both strategies , the host typically dies after some weeks , after which the ichneumonid larva emerges and pupates .\nadult ichneumonids feed on a diversity of foods , including plant sap , nectar and other insects . they spend much of their active time searching , either for hosts ( female ichneumonids ) or for emerging females ( male ichneumonids ) .\nthe predation pressure exerted by ichneumonids can be tremendous , and they are often one of the major regulators of invertebrate populations . [ 15 ] [ 16 ] it is quite common for 10 - 20 % or more of a host ' s population to be parasitised ( though reported parasitism rates often include non - ichneumonid parasitoids ) . [ 17 ] [ 18 ]\nthe taxonomy of the ichneumonids is still poorly known . the family is highly diverse , containing 24 , 000 described species . approximately 60 , 000 species are estimated to exist worldwide , though some estimates place this number at over 100 , 000 . they are severely undersampled , and studies of their diversity typically produce very high numbers of species which are represented by only a single individual . [ 19 ] [ 20 ] due to the high diversity , the existence of numerous small and hard to identify species , and the majority of species being undiscovered , it has proven difficult to resolve the phylogeny of the ichneumonids . even the relationships between subfamilies are unclear . the sheer diversity also means dna sequence data is only available for a tiny fraction of the species , and detailed cladistic studies require major computing capacity .\nextensive catalogues of the ichneumonids include those by aubert , [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] gauld , [ 21 ] perkins , [ 12 ] [ 13 ] and townes . [ 14 ] [ 22 ] [ 23 ] [ 24 ] [ 25 ] due to the taxonomic difficulties involved , however , their classifications and terminology are often confusingly contradictory . several prominent authors have gone as far as to publish major reviews that defy the international code of zoological nomenclature . [ 22 ] [ 23 ] [ 24 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] [ 27 ]\nthe large number of species in ichneumonidae may be due to the evolution of parasitoidism in hymenoptera , which occurred approximately 247 million years ago . [ 28 ] [ 29 ] ichneumonidae is the basal branch of apocrita , the lineage in which parasitoidism in hymenoptera evolved , and some ichneumonids are thought to have been in stasis for millions of years and closely resemble the common ancestor in which parasitoidism evolved . this common ancestor was likely an ectoparasitoid woodwasp that parasitized wood - boring beetle larvae in trees . [ 30 ] the family has existed since at least the jurassic ( ca . 150 mya ) , but may have appeared some time before . it diversified during the oligocene .\nin 1999 , the ichneumonids were divided into 39 subfamilies , [ 31 ] [ 32 ] whose names and definitions have varied considerably . the phylogenetic relationships between the subfamilies are still unclear .\nthe apparent cruelty of the ichneumonids troubled philosophers , naturalists , and theologians in the 19th century , who found the parasitoid life style inconsistent with the notion of a world created by a loving and benevolent god . [ 33 ] charles darwin found the example of the ichneumonidae so troubling that it contributed to his increasing doubts about the nature and existence of a creator . in an 1860 letter to the american naturalist asa gray , darwin wrote :\ni own that i cannot see as plainly as others do , and as i should wish to do , evidence of design and beneficence on all sides of us . there seems to me too much misery in the world . i cannot persuade myself that a beneficent and omnipotent god would have designedly created the ichneumonidae with the express intention of their feeding within the living bodies of caterpillars , or that a cat should play with mice . [ 34 ]\nthe wasps that are nicknamed ' the ichneumons ' ( or hunters ) , less in size , by the way , than the ordinary wasp , kill spiders and carry off the dead bodies to a wall or some such place with a hole in it ; this hole they smear over with mud and lay their grubs inside it , and from the grubs come the hunter - wasps . . . . the eagle and the snake are enemies , for the eagle lives on snakes ; so are the ichneumon and the venom - spider , for the ichneumon preys upon the latter ."]}
{"id": 1274, "summary": [{"text": "lumholtz 's tree-kangaroo ( dendrolagus lumholtzi ) is a heavy-bodied tree-kangaroo found in rain forests of the atherton tableland region of queensland .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "its status is classified as least concern by the iucn , although local authorities classify it as rare .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is named after the norwegian explorer carl sofus lumholtz ( 1851 \u2013 1922 ) , who discovered the first specimen in 1883 . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "lumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo", "paragraphs": ["the lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo is the smallest of the tree kangaroo species , but one of the [ . . . ]\naustralian wildlife conservancy 2017 . lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo species profile , australian wildlife conservancy .\nthe lumholtz tree kangaroo is listed under the category of \u201cendangered\u201d by the iucn .\nconservation of a rare arboreal mammal : habitat preferences of the lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo , dendrolagus lumholtzi .\ncrater lakes national park where lumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo can be seen . ( image : tourism queensland )\nhttp : / / rainforest - australia . com / lumholtz _ tree _ kangaroo . htm\ncolin , our lumholtz\u2019s tree kangaroo has a brand new home ! this enclosure is much more [ . . . ]\nthe lumholtz tree kangaroo\u2019s behavioral patterns make an interesting study for the researchers . here are the main characteristic traits of these tree - hoping marsupials .\nthe lumholtz tree kangaroo is a heavy - bodied species of tree kangaroo that is found mostly in the rainforests of queensland . it gets its name from norwegian explorer and naturalist carl sofus lumholtz .\nup to 10 species of tree - kangaroo have been identified in new guinea and australia . two of those species , lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo , dendrolagus lumholtzi , and bennett\u2019s tree - kangaroo , dendrolagus bennettianus , occur only in australia . lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo is the smaller of the two species and can be distinguished from bennett\u2019s tree - kangaroo by its distribution , smaller size and by the lighter - coloured band across the forehead and down each side of the face .\nthe tree - kangaroo group ( urltoken ) provide the following tips for spotting tree - kangaroos .\nlumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo is the smaller of two species of arboreal macropods in australian rainforests . ( image : michael williams urltoken )\nstudying food preferences in captive cryptic folivores can assist in conservation planning : the case of the lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo ( dendrolagus lumholtzi ) .\nimproving reliability of scat counts for abundance and distribution estimations of lumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo ( dendrolagus lumholtzi ) in its rainforest habitats .\nthe lumholtz tree kangaroo has an interesting appearance that is distinct from the other tree kangaroos . here is a brief description of their physical features .\ninternational tree - kangaroo workshop in melbourne in october 2013 . title : \u201cpotential roles of semiochemicals in tree - kangaroos \u2013 the case study of the lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo ( dendrolagus lumholtzi ) \u201d with clare anderson and margit cianelli as co - authors\n. all of these endoparasites can be fatal . lumholtz\u2019s tree kangaroos are hosts to the heterodoxus louse , (\ninternational tree - kangaroo workshop in melbourne in october 2013 . s . heise - pavlov co - authored a presentation titled : \u201cregulat monitoring of captive lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo can assist in conservation planning\u201d based on her research in collaboration with the \u201cwildlife habitat\u201d in port douglas\nrelative to body size , the tail of lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo ( and of the other tree - kangaroo species ) is the longest in the kangaroo family . it is non - prehensile ( cannot be used to grip branches ) and is used for balance when the tree - kangaroo is resting or moving along a branch . the fur of lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo is blackish - brown sprinkled with a lighter colour on the lower part of the back and blackish - brown on the lower half of the tail .\nprocter - gray , e . , u . ganslosser . 1986 . the individual behaviors of lumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo : repertoire and taxonomic implications .\nevolutionary aspects of the use of predator odors in antipredator behaviors of lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroos ( dendrolagus lumholtzi ) .\nthe lumholtz tree kangaroo is vegetarian , eating leaves and fruits found high in the rainforest canopy up there the food is unspoilt by other animals . lumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo has a large stomach that allows the leaves etc the time to dissolve as they eat fairly large quantities of food\nlumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroos are found in the rainforest of tropical queensland , centred on the atherton tablelands , extending north as far as the carbine tableland , where the distribution of the bennett\u2019s tree - kangaroo begins . the original preferred habitat of the lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo was coastal lowland rainforest . however it is now more common at higher altitudes above 300 m due to clearing of lowland habitat .\njohnson , pm and newell , gr . 2008 . lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo dendrolagus lumholtzi . in van dyck , s and strahan , r . ( ed . s ) , the mammals of australia . reed new holland .\ngeographic distribution of the lumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo represented by coverage of 1 : 250 , 000 map sheets of australia ( see urltoken for australian maps ) .\nas generalist arboreal folivores , lumholtz\u2019s tree kangaroos fill a broad ecological niche . they occur sympatrically with other arboreal folivores ,\nthe lumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo is named after the norwegian naturalist - explorer , dr carl lumholtz , who obtained a number of animals during several months spent in the rocky districts of the herbert river in 1882 .\nthe lumholtz\u0092s tree kangaroo is predominantly a leaf eater , known to feed on the leaves of the silkwood as well as fruit and maize from farms on the rainforest edge .\nheise - pavlov , s . r . ; jackrel , s . l . * and meeks , s . * ( 2011 ) : conservation of a rare arboreal mammal : habitat preferences of the lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo , dendrolagus lumholtzi . \u2013 australian mammalogy 33 : 5 - 12 .\nnewell , gr . 1999 . responses of lumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo ( dendrolagus lumholtzi ) to loss of habitat within a tropical rainforest fragment . biological conservation 91 , 181 - 189 .\nannual meeting of the association of tropical biology and conservation in cairns in july 2014 . title \u201cusing community and project based records of lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo ( dendrolagus lumholtzi ) sightings for conservation planning\u201d\njohnson pm , delean s ( 2003 ) reproduction of lumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo , dendrolagus lumholtzi ( marsupialia : macropodidae ) in captivity with age estimation and development of the young . wildlife research 30 , 505 - 512 .\nnewell gr ( 1999 ) home range and habitat use by lumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo ( dendrolagus lumholtzi ) within a rainforest fragment in north queensland . wildlife research 26 , 129 - 145 .\nlumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo is restricted to rainforests between the cardwell range and mount carbine tablelands , north queensland . it is largely restricted to upland rainforest ; animals are regularly encountered in fragmented rainforest on the basalts of the atherton tablelands . the other australian species , bennett\u2019s tree - kangaroo , occurs further north , from mount windsor tableland to cooktown .\n, a closely related tree kangaroo , has been reported to live for up to 20 years in captivity .\nkanowski , j , winter , jw , simmons , t and tucker , nij . 2003 . conservation strategy for lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo on the atherton tablelands . ecological restoration and management 4 : 220 - 221 .\nthe lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo is primarily a folivore ( i . e . leaf - eater ) . it also feeds on many fruits and has been known to take cultivated maize from farms adjacent to its rainforest habitat .\njohnson , pm and delean , s . 2003 . reproduction of lumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo , dendrolagus lumholtzi ( marsupialia : macropodidae ) in captivity , with age estimation and development of the pouch young . wildlife research 30 ( 5 ) 505 - 512 .\nhabits : the lumholtz ' s tree kangaroo is found in montane rainforest of far north queensland , australia . it inhabits elevations from approximately 300 to 1600m . this species total distribution is about 5500 square kilometres . lumholtz ' s tree kangaroo is quite different from the other long - footed tree kangaroos ( the others being bennett ' s and grizzled ) in that it is usually just encountered in mountain forests , i . e restricted to the one type of habitat . lumholtz ' s are the smallest of all the tree kangaroos with males averaging 7 . 2kg and females 5 . 9kg in weight . with its smalll size and specific habitat requirements it has more in common with members of the short - footed group of tree kangaroos .\nlumholtz tree kangaroos are an arboreal species ; i . e . they spent most of their lives on trees .\nnewell , g . 1999 . australia\u2019s tree - kangaroos : current issues in their conservation .\nnewell , gr . 1999 . home range and habitat use by lumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo ( dendrolagus lumholtzi ) within a rainforest fragment in north queensland . wildlife research , 26 ( 2 ) , 129 - 145 .\nconservation status : in the past the lumholtz ' s tree kangaroo was hunted by aborigines and so was less common than it is now . today it is now common in rainforests areas where it was rare or absent beforehand . able to persist in the mosaic of fragmented habitat , particularly where there are available habitat corridors . however individuals are vulnerable to dog attacks and cars when moving in the open . lumholtz ' s tree kangaroo has been classified as least concern .\nwildlife habitat is proud to participate in the lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo population management program , which is authorised by the zoo and aquarium association to educate visitors , create conservation awareness , and directly contribute to a sustainable population of the species .\nthe diet of lumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo has been well - studied by direct observation of foraging individuals in the curtain fig forest . they eat mainly foliage ( leaves ) and some flowers from about 30 species of plant including 21 tree species and 6 vine species . the majority of observations were of consumption of mature leaves . a further study analysing faecal pellets at a higher elevation site added another 6 tree species and one vine to the diet . thus lumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo is a generalist in its diet . several interesting observations were made of consumption of normally toxic plants and weeds like lantana and wild tobacco . given that mature leaves often have deterrents against herbivory like tannins and toxins , the broad diet of lumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo suggest a powerful gut for a relatively small herbivore .\nin queensland , the lumholtz\u2019s tree kangaroo is classed as near threatened . here at the wildlife habitat we pride ourselves on the conservation activities that we organise and are associated with . for more information click through to our conservation breeding program page .\nin terms of the diet of the lumholtz\u2019s tree kangaroo , although they are primarily a folivore , they are known to feed on many types of fruit that grow within the tree canopies . so at the wildlife habitat you will notice that we do keep a variety of fruit in their enclosures .\nheise - pavlov , s . r . and meade , r . * ( 2012 ) : improving reliability of scat counts for abundance and distribution estimations of lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo ( dendrolagus lumholtzi ) in its rainforest habitats . \u2013 pacific conservation biology 18 ( 3 ) : 153 \u2013 163 .\n- - norwegian explorer carl lumholtz , on first hearing of the existence of tree - kangaroos in queensland , 1882 - 3 .\ncolin , our lumholtz\u2019s tree kangaroo has a brand new home ! this enclosure is much more stimulating than his previous one . there are natural vines and trees for him to make his way through and platforms for feeding and sleeping on a various levels .\nawc protects montane rainforest on brooklyn wildlife sanctuary . awc has established plots to monitor rainforest fauna and facilitates research by james cook university on montane rainforest . awc ecologists contribute to community - based conservation efforts for lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo on the atherton tablelands .\n. the tree kangaroos in this study had the largest home range size recorded for any tree kangaroo species ( 81 . 8\u00b128 . 3 ha ; 90 % hm ) , and larger core areas of activity ( 45 % ( 20 . 9\u00b14 . 1 ha ) and 70 % ( 36 . 6\u00b17 . 5 ha ) ) , which was between 40 and 100 times larger than ranges measured for the similar sized lumholtz ' s tree kangaroo (\nlumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo inhabits rainforest , including well - developed mature rainforest and regrowth . dispersing juveniles sometimes turn up in farmland , urban areas or eucalypt forest adjacent to rainforest . lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo is largely arboreal - it has strong forearms and claws for climbing trees and a long tail for balance . it is also well - adapted for travel across the ground , where it can hop like other kangaroos , although rather heavily . tree - kangaroos feed primarily on the leaves of rainforest trees and vines . they often descend to the ground to move between food trees .\ntail : the lumholtz tree kangaroo has a long , cylindrical , non - prehensile tail that is blackish - brown in color and tufted at the end . the tip of the tail is black in color .\nlumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo is by far the easiest of all tree - kangaroo species to observe in the wild . it is common in many of the small rainforest relics and nature reserves on the atherton tablelands , many of which are readily accessible to those wishing to spotlight mammals by night . ( indeed , guided tours are run for this purpose . ) furthermore , it seems to prefer forest margins and can thus sometimes be seen without venturing deep into the forest or even stepping from one ' s car . as with bennett ' s tree - kangaroo , its life history has recently been elucidated by an extensive field study .\nheise - pavlov , s . ; anderson , c . and moshier , a . * ( 2014 ) : studying food preferences in captive cryptic folivores can assist in conservation planning : the case of the lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo ( dendrolagus lumholtzi ) . \u2013 australian mammalogy 36 ( 2 ) : 200 - 211 .\nlumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo is found in north - east queensland including the popular tourism destination , the atherton tablelands . the species ' main habitat is upland closed forest . they are difficult to see when high up in the canopy and usually obscured by foliage .\nmartin rw ( 1996 ) tcharibeena : field studies of bennett ' s tree - kangaroo . in tree - kangaroos : a curious natural history ( eds t . fflannery , r . wmartin & aszalay ) . pp 36\u201365 . reed books , melbourne .\nburchill , s . ; cianelli , m . ; edwards , c . ; grace , r . ; heise - pavlov , s . ; hudson , d . ; moerman , i . and smith , k . ( 2014 ) : community action plan for the conservation of the lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo ( dendrolagus lumholtzi ) and its habitat 2014 - 2019 . - malanda , australia\nthe lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo is the smallest of the tree kangaroo species , but one of the largest of the arboreal mammals in australia . this arboreal species spends most of its life in the canopy of the australian rainforest . for high rise living , tree kangaroos must be agile and nimble , therefore they have regained the ability to walk . tree kangaroos can move their hind legs independently so that they are able to climb up and over branches . although rarely seen on the ground , these amazing marsupials can still hop just like kangaroos and wallabies .\nthe centre of diversity of the tree - kangaroos is png rather than australia . eight species are recognised in png and probably more remain to be formerly described by taxonomists . the tenkile ( dendrolagus scottae ) was described by flannery and seri as recently as 1990 . two species are found in tropical north queensland in australia . the larger is bennett ' s tree - kangaroo described by de vis in 1887 and named in honour of dr george bennett of the australian museum in sydney . the smaller species is lumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo described by\nprocter - gray e ( 1984 ) dietary ecology of the brushtail possum , green ringtail possum and lumholtz ' s tree kangaroo in north queensland . in : possums and gliders . ( eds a . psmith & i . dhume ) pp . 129\u2013135 . australian mammal society , sydney .\ndid not have exclusive home ranges , outside the inner cores . this finding differs from studies conducted on the australian lumholtz ' s tree kangaroo , which show that females have exclusive home ranges , while males overlap with other males as well as with several other females ( 90 % hm )\nlumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo is the smaller of the australian tree - kangaroos with mature males averaging 8 . 6 kg and females averaging 7 . 1 kg . the overall colouration is black - brown with lighter coloured fur on the lower part of the back . a light - coloured band across the forehead and down each side of the face is distinctive . the ears are rounded and the tail long . the arboreal habit clearly differentiates the species from other ground - dwelling macropods and the facial and tail markings distinguish it from bennett ' s tree - kangaroo .\nlumholtz tree kangaroos have developed several skills that have enabled them to adapt better to their forest habitat . some of their major adaptive features are mentioned below :\nkanowski , j . , l . felderhof , g . newell , t . parker , c . schmidt , b . stirn , r . wilson , j . winter . 2001 . community survey of the distribution of lumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo on the atherton tablelands , north - east queensland .\nposter at the annual meeting of the association of tropical biology and conservation in cairns in july 2014 . title \u201canalysis of factors influencing the distribution of road kill of lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo ( dendrolagus lumholtzi ) on the atherton tablelands in tropical north queensland , australia\u201d in co - authorship with two former crs students\nthe main anti - predator adaptation of lumholtz\u2019s tree kangaroos is crypsis . because they are small , solitary , nocturnal , and often high in the canopy , they are hard to find . known predators are feral dogs (\ncoombes ke ( 2005 ) the ecology and habitat utilization of lumholtz ' s tree kangaroos , dendrolagus lumholtzi ( marsupialia : macropodidae ) , on the atherton tablelands , far north queensland . phd dissertation , james cook university .\n( 1984 ) . dietary ecology of the coppery brushtail possum , green ringtail possum and lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo in north queensland . in \u2018possums and gliders\u2019 . ( eds a . p . smith and i . d . hume . ) pp . 129\u2013135 . ( surrey beatty & australian mammal society : sydney . )\nthe lumholtz tree kangaroo raises only one young at a time . the mother suckles and weans the baby until it becomes independent . the baby opens its eyes at about four months of age . a single young may accompany its mother for more than 2 years . it takes about 4 . 5 years for the male tree kangaroo to attain sexual maturity , whereas a female becomes sexually mature at about 2 years of age .\nlumholtz ' s tree kangaroo has a cream chest and stomach , black feet with a grey back consisting of black tips . adult males defend a home range which overlaps home ranges of several females . the home range size for this species is a lot smaller than other species which means it can live in higher densities .\nheise - pavlov , s . r . ; jackrel , s . l . * and meeks , s . * ( 2011 ) : - australian mammalogy 33 : 5 - 12 .\naccording to one extensive study , it spends over 99 per cent of its time in the treetops . s like bennett ' s tree - kangaroo , it subsists almost solely on leaves and is largely solitary and nocturnal . males defend a home range of approximately four hectares , which overlaps with that of several females . these usually defend home ranges of about two hectares each . the size of its territories is much smaller than those of bennett ' s tree - kangaroo . this means that it can live at much higher densities .\ncolor : the body of the lumholtz tree kangaroo is covered with fur that is of blackish - brown coloration . it has a cream - colored chest . its lower back side is light blackish - brown in color . its toes and muzzle are black in color .\nat the xiii international conference on chemical signals in vertebrates 2014 , an alumni from crs - sfs presented a paper \u201cevolutionary aspects of the use of predator odours in anti - predator strategies of lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroos ( dendrolagus lumholtzi ) \u201d with s . r . heise - pavlov as co - author .\nprojects under this topic encompass research on habitat requirements of the two species as well as their social and anti - predator behaviors . projects are linked with actions for the conservation of the lumholtz\u2019 tree - kangaroo which are outlined in the \u201ccommunity action plan for the conservation of lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo ( dendrolagus lumholtzi ) and its habitats 2014 to 2019\u201d , published by the local tree - kangaroo and mammal group , and the \u201cnational recovery plan for the yellow - bellied glider ( wet tropics ) ( petaurus australis unnamed subsp ) . research of students at crs - sfs support the work of the tablelands national parks volunteers , a conservation group involved in habitat surveys of the yellow - bellied glider . results of research projects will feed directly into the development of more effective conservation strategies for these species .\nnamed after the norwegian naturalist c . lumholtz they are also known as boongary and their scientific name is\ndespite their considerable size , lumholtz\u2019s tree kangaroos are usually very hard to see during the day , especially when at rest high in the rainforest canopy . however sometimes when alarmed , tree - kangaroos may jump to the ground from heights of up to 15 m . this is an impressive feat when observed in the forest .\nheise - pavlov , s . ( 2015 ) : evolutionary aspects of the use of predator odors in antipredator behaviors of lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroos ( dendrolagus lumholtzi ) . \u2013 in : chemical signals in vertebrates 13 , ( eds . schulte , b . goodwin , t . ) , springer new york , in print\nreproduction : the rate of reproduction is slow . pouch life is about eight months for young lumholtz ' s and youngsters can accompany their mothers for more than two years .\n. however , direct ecological competition is avoided by food partitioning - the diet of lumholtz\u2019s tree kangaroos consists of leaves higher in fiber and lower in nitrogen than the preferred foods of the other folivores . the role of this species\u2019 scat as a soil fertilizer or a seed dsiperser has not been well studied . as well as a prey species to dingoes , wild dogs , humans , and probably pythons , lumholtz\u2019s tree kangaroos are hosts to various parasites . they host microscopic pathogens , including the zoonotic bacterium\nlumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo is a distinctive kangaroo , with a short broad head , small ears , heavily muscled arms and very long black tail . animals are blackish brown with a black face and a pale band across the forehead and sides of the face ; some animals have a rufous ( reddish ) tinge to the fur . adults weigh up to 10 kg , have a body length of 420 - 710 mm and tail length of 470 - 800 mm .\nat birth , the baby kangaroo weighs just a few grams and it requires less than five minutes for the fetus to crawl with its forelimbs to the entrance of the mother\u2019s pouch . the newborn kangaroo then attaches itself to a teat within the pouch and continues growth for the next 3 months until it is fully developed . the pouch life of a single kangaroo lasts for nearly 9 months .\nwith questions or comments about this web site . text copyright \u00a9 2007 - present rootourism - the kangaroo trail\ndespite being considered endangered , huon tree kangaroos , along with new guinea ' s eleven other tree kangaroo species , are poorly studied in contrast to the two species of tree kangaroo found in australia [ 4 ] [ 5 ] . there is currently no information available on habitat requirements , home range or activity patterns of any new guinean tree kangaroo species . among other characteristics such as diet and predation , long - term conservation of huon tree kangaroos ( d . matschiei ) requires better understanding of ecological characteristics such as home range size , potential seasonal shifts in range , core areas , and dispersal rates and patterns . this ecological knowledge combined with mapping techniques can be used to ensure that representative habitat and ecosystems are present within an existing or proposed protected area or management zones [ 6 ] .\nschmidt , c , felderhof , l , kanowski , j , stirn , b , wilson , r and winter , jw . 2000 . tree - kangaroos on the atherton tablelands : rainforest remnants as wildlife habitat . tree kangaroo and mammal group inc . , atherton .\nin 1884 and named after rev . carl lumholtz a collector sponsored by the university of christiana in norway .\nthese kangaroos mostly spend their days crouched on a branch of a tree . they also come down occasionally to the ground and look for another tree to inhabit .\nlumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo is very different from the other long - footed tree - kangaroos . it is the only species that is restricted to high - elevation mountain forests ( above 800 metres ) and is by far the smallest member of its group . indeed , it is the smallest of all tree - kangaroos , with males averaging 7 . 2 kilograms and females only 5 . 9 kilograms in weight . in its small size and mountain habitat , it parallels many members of the short - footed group of new guinea .\n) . lumholtz\u2019s tree kangaroos have never been observed drinking water and there are no bodies of water within the home ranges of most individuals . they are thought to obtain enough water from moisture in and on their food . when feeding , they move the forelimbs simultaneously to grab leaves , bring them closer to the mouth , and then chew . digestion includes foregut fermentation . although foliage is abundant in the canopy , lumholtz\u2019s tree kangaroos cannot feed on all types of leaves ; it is therefore not known whether food is a limiting resource .\nfor an overlapping pair of females in her study . the two tree kangaroo species may be equally solitary , but range size and overlap may interact in a complex way with density as described above .\nhuon tree kangaroos ( d . matschiei ) were located for the study by a team of 6\u20138 local landowner hunters searching visually within the vicinity of one kilometre of the camp . after sighting a tree kangaroo , the hunters used a traditional method to live - capture the animal . the undergrowth within a radius of approximately 10 m around the tree in which the tree kangaroo was sitting was rapidly cleared and the cut vegetation was piled around the perimeter to create a temporary barrier , known in the local language as an \u201c im \u201d . one hunter then climbed a neighbouring tree and encouraged the tree kangaroo to jump to the ground , where it was hand - captured by the base of the tail , within the \u201c im \u201d . the captured tree kangaroo was then quickly placed into a hessian bag , which helped to minimise stress on the animal while it was transported back to the camp . the capture process took approximately 15\u201320 minutes once the animal had been sighted and generally occurred in the early hours of the day ( 0800 \u2013 1200 ) .\ntree kangaroos are listed as endangered due to loss of habitat due mainly to logging .\nlumholtz\u2019s tree kangaroos are generalist herbivores , feeding on the leaves of at least 37 species of plants , including trees , vines , shrubs , and epiphytes . while they most often consume adult leaves , individuals have been observed eating young leaves or flowers . examples of species eaten include\ntree kangaroos are the only macropods which can move their hind feet independantly of each other .\nthe crater lakes national park has two sections - lake barrine and lake eacham . both lakes are within the wet tropics world heritage area . the lakes are fringed by rainforest where the musky rat - kangaroo and red - legged pademelon can be seen by day . at night , lumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo may be viewed along the various walking trails at each lake . the park does not have accommodation or camping but is near cairns and other locations in the atherton tablelands of queensland that have a full range of accommodation . nearby curtain fig national park is also another likely place to see lumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo as it secures a remnant of mabi forest ( or notophyll vine forest ) . mabi is an indigenous name for the tree - kangaroo . there is no camping in this park but spotlighting is allowed following the advice given on the park ' s website ( note : a low - wattage bulb 30w or less should be used ) . advice from a local wildlife tour operator ( urltoken ) is that sightings are more likely in the curtin fig / yungaburra area than the crater lakes national park . he nominates petersen creek , yungaburra ; wongabel state forest ; and malanda falls conservation park as his ' best - place - to - see ' .\nthe authors would like to acknowledge in - kind and financial support from the following institutions , the national geographic society ( grant of $ 19 , 900 - determining activity patterns , home range size , and habitat use by the matschie ' s tree kangaroo ( dendrolagus matschiei ) on the huon peninsula , papua new guinea through radiotelemetry ) , conservation international , woodland park zoo , roger williams park zoo , and the american zoo and aquarium association ' s ( aza ) tree kangaroo species survival plan . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish or preparation of the manuscript .\nbreeding is aseasonal unlike bennett ' s tree - kangaroo but this observation may be an artefact of captivity where the species was studied . however , rainfall in the lumholtz ' s tree - kangaroo range is also less seasonal than the marked wet - dry of the more northerly bennett ' s tree - kangaroo habitat . male sexual behaviour is typical of macropods in general with the male consorting with a female sniffing her cloaca and pouch . if the female is receptive ( in oestrus ) the male proceeds to rub his head , neck and shoulders on her cloaca while she elevates her hindquarters supporting her weight on her forepaws . thus the male is coated with exudates from the cloaca which is an unusual behaviour in macropods . more typical is the male rubbing his neck and chest on the female while mounted and coating her with excretions from a sternal gland . males mount in from the rear in the typical fashion of macropods with the female elevating her rump to assist entry . during a copulation that lasts 10 - 35 min , the female makes a soft trumpeting sound .\nmartin rw ( 2005 ) tree kangaroos of australia and new guinea . csiro publishing , melbourne .\nlumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroos do travel between patches of rainforest for dispersal and mating . during this movement , they are susceptible to being killed on roads and through dog attacks . both roadkill and dog attacks are known threats . there is an unknown virus or disease that has been known to create blindness in some individuals .\nthe huon tree kangaroo ( dendrolagus matschiei ) is one of fourteen tree kangaroo species recognized by the iucn , twelve species of which are endemic to new guinea and two are endemic to australia [ 1 ] . huon tree kangaroos ( d . matschiei ) are endemic to high elevations of the huon peninsula , morobe province , papua new guinea , between 1 , 000 and 3 , 300 m above sea level , and a total geographic range of less than 14 , 000 km 2 [ 2 ] . the huon tree kangaroo is listed as endangered [ 1 ] . half of the fourteen species of dendrolagus are considered to be endangered or critically endangered , threatened by hunting or habitat loss , with poorly understood ecology , small and restricted geographic ranges , and specialized diet and habitat requirements [ 1 ] . tree kangaroos are an important component of new guinea ' s endemic marsupial fauna with special significance for indigenous landowners [ 3 ] and consequently have an important role as conservation flagship species for motivating the public and decision - makers to ensure that papua new guinea ' s ecosystems are protected and well managed .\nproportion of home range area overlap between adjacent huon tree kangaroos ( d . matschiei ) in upper montane forest at wasaunon on papua new guinea ' s huon peninsula ( mean \u00b1 sem ) .\nthis project is linked with component 3 ( effective response to change ) of crs\u2019s 5yrp .\nmale lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroos weigh an average 7 . 6 kg ( 5 . 4 - 9 . 9 kg ) and females 6 . 3 kg ( 5 . 1\u2013 7 . 8 kg ) . the head and body length of males averages 520 - 710 mm and tail length averages 655 - 800 mm . females are smaller in all dimensions ( head - body length 420 - 675 mm ; tail length 470 - 740 mm ) . the forearms of lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroos are long and heavily muscled , and the hindfeet are short and broad . both these features differ from the normal kangaroo pattern and are adaptations for a life in the trees . the under - surface of the hindfeet is fused into a soft pad that can mould itself around branches and tree trunks to help in climbing . the front feet also have curved claws and rough , bumpy pads on the underside for gripping when climbing .\nthis study describes the spatial use of habitat by huon tree kangaroos ( d . matschiei ) , focusing on estimating home range size as well as spatial distribution of male and females . based on expectations from home range and spatial distribution of australian tree kangaroos and other rainforest macropodids [ 7 ] [ 12 ] , we expect female huon tree kangaroos to have smaller , discrete home ranges with little overlap between adjacent individuals while males may have larger ranges overlapping with several females . this type of spatial arrangement would make it possible to estimate the density of tree kangaroo populations and support the development of effective management strategies to conserve populations of huon and other tree kangaroos in the wild .\nthis project is linked with component 2 ( conflict , vulnerability and change ) of crs\u2019s 5yrp .\nhome range areas ( ha ) for adult male and female huon tree kangaroos ( d . matschiei ) in upper montane forest at wasaunon on papua new guinea ' s huon peninsula ( means \u00b1 sem ) .\nlumholtz\u2019s tree kangaroos are a species of least concern on the iucn red list and are not listed on the cites appendices . however , relatively little of their range is protected , and habitat loss is the biggest potential threat to their well - being . given their low birthrate and preference for small patches of isolated forest , they are quite vulnerable to habitat loss .\nlength : the average total length of the head - body of a male tree kangaroo is around 520 mm to 710 mm . the length of the tail is around 655 mm to 800 mm . the females are smaller in size ; their head - body length ranges between 420 mm and 675 mm . the female\u2019s tail length lies between 470 mm and 740 mm .\naccording to the statement of the blacks , it was a kangaroo which lived in the highest trees on the summit of the coast mountains . it had a very long tail , and was as large as a medium - sized dog , climbed the trees in the same manner as the natives themselves , and was called boongary . i was sure that it could be none other than a tree - kangaroo ( dendrolagus ) . tree - kangaroos were known to exist in new guinea , but none had yet been found on the australian continent . . .\nmartin , r ( 2005 ) tree - kangaroos of australia and new guinea . ( csiro publishing : melbourne ) .\na major threat to this species in the past has been the large - scale clearing of its favoured rainforest habitat on the fertile basalt soils of the atherton tablelands . many animals still survive and breed in the tiny regrowth fragments there , however these are threatened by domestic dog attacks and are frequently killed on roads . in the longer term , global warming poses a threat to this species . like other leaf - eating marsupials in the wet tropics of north queensland , lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo is a high - altitude , cool rainforest specialist .\nposter at the xii international conference on chemical signals in vertebrates as collaborative work with two students , elizabeth forbes and denise stanton ( both wet 2011 ) . title : \u201cresponses of lumholtz\u2019 tree - kangaroos ( dendrolagus lumholtzi ) to semiochemicals may contribute to their vulnerability to human induced habitat modifications\u201d\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\nlumholtz , c . 1890 . among cannibals . an account of four years\u2019 travels in australia and of camp life with the aborigines of queensland . murray , london .\nlumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroo has a restricted distribution ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 and area of occupancy < 2 , 000 km 2 ) . the number of locations is unknown but probably not substantially more than 10 . the population size is > 10 , 000 mature individuals . there is no reliable assessment of trends in population size , but limited information provides weak ( and inconsistent ) inference of continuing population decline . declines over last , or next three generation period are unlikely to approach 30 % , so are insufficient to qualify for criterion a .\nthey climb trees by gripping the trunk or branch with the forelimbs and then pushing up with the hindlimbs ( moving in reverse , tail - first , when descending ) . nearing the ground , a tree - kangaroo will release its hold on the trunk and kick off with its hindlegs and land on the rainforest floor and hop away . on broad horizontal branches and on the ground they may use a hopping gait or walk . tree - kangaroos are the only group of macropods that can move their hindlimbs independently . when disturbed , they can jump to another tree or jump to the ground from a height of up to 15 m . generally , lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroos are solitary animals and males will be aggressive toward others entering their territory . however , in captivity males are usually tolerant of females . they are a sedentary species with small home ranges of around 0 . 7 ha for females and 2 ha for males , and may stay within their home range even after a large disturbance , such as tree felling , rather than retreating to nearby intact forest .\nhunting can also directly affect the behaviour of prey animals , influencing them to maintain lower densities to avoid predators and hunters [ 3 ] . martin [ 57 ] suggests that bennett ' s tree kangaroos were once restricted to \u201c taboo \u201d sites ( mt finnigan ) located on traditional aboriginal land on shipton ' s flat in far northeast queensland . this was attributed to no - hunting practices on sacred land where aboriginals believed their ancestors originated . traditional hunting has decreased over the past few decades and bennett ' s tree kangaroos are now commonly found in the lowlands outside those \u201ctaboo\u201d sites .\nheise , s . r . ( 1995 ) : report to the german federal ministry for education and research .\ntree - kangaroos are notoriously difficult to see in the wild , with this enclosure you can get close views of this amazing species .\nheise - pavlov , s . ; forbes , e . * ; andersen , c . and prince , m . ( 2013 ) : response of lumholtz\u2019 tree - kangaroos ( dendrolagus lumholtzi ) to odours from native and introduced terrestrial predators : a preliminary study . in : chemical signals in vertebrates 12 , ( eds . east , m . l . and dehnhard , m . ) , pp . 269 - 275 , springer new york\nthe main threat to lumholtz\u2019s tree - kangaroos is clearing of their rainforest habitat , although this has lessened with the declaration of the wet tropics world heritage area . the species appears to be able to persist in fragmented habitat and may use habitat corridors . it is possible that their unwillingness to move from their established home ranges may place them at risk where even small levels of clearing occur . this may also reduce the likelihood of successful relocation .\nthe fertile period for the female tree kangaroos ( estrous ) is nearly around 2 months . during this time , the male kangaroo chooses the female by making soft clucking noises and pawing her shoulders and head . the male also sniffs the female\u2019s cloaca and pouch as a form of courtship ritual . in case the female leaves , the male follows her and keeps on pawing her tail . he then starts to rub his shoulders , neck and head on the female\u2019s cloaca while she raises her hindquarters by supporting the weight of her body on her forepaws . the mating goes on for nearly 20 to 35 minutes and is quite aggressive from the male\u2019s side . a soft , trumpeting noise is emitted by the female during copulation . a successful mating session is followed by a long gestation period of about 42 to 48 days , after which the female kangaroo gives birth to a joey .\ntree - kangaroos are nocturnal and they spend the daylight hours sleeping hunched over in a sitting position high in tree canopies . living in high rainfall areas , tree - kangaroos need to be able to stay dry . to do this , the fur covering their bodies is arranged so that it points outward from a point near the middle of the back , allowing water to run off the fur while they are sleeping .\nhenley , s . r . , smith , d . g . , and raats , j . g . ( 2001\nflannery , tf , martin , r and szalay , a . 1996 . tree kangaroos . a curious natural history . reed books , melbourne .\nit is a nocturnal animal , thus , its days are spent asleep in a crouched sitting posture in the crown of a tree or branch .\n( 1999 ) . \u2018the conservation status of queensland\u2019s bioregional ecosystems . \u2019 ( environmental protection agency , queensland government : brisbane . )\nheise . s . and lippke , j . ( 1997 ) : aggressive behaviour 23 ( 4 ) , 293 - 298 .\nlumholtz tree kangaroos originally resided in the coastal lowland rainforests of australia . however , at present they are found mostly in the rainforests of the tropical queensland , along atherton tablelands , and extending to the north up to the carbine tableland . they are also abundant along the malanda falls environmental park , crater national park , and curtain fig tree . they are also found in eucalypt forests which are located along the western edges of wet tropics bioregion as well as in the riparian vegetation areas .\nburchill , s . ; cianelli , m . ; edwards , c . ; grace , r . ; heise - pavlov , s . ; hudson , d . ; moerman , i . and smith , k . ( 2014 ) : - malanda , australia\nweight : the male kangaroo weighs on an average between 7 . 2 kg and 8 . 6 kg . the average weight of the female is between 5 . 9 kg and 7 . 1 kg .\njones , k . m . w . , maclagan , s . j . , and krockenberger , a . k . ( 2006\nheise - pavlov , s . ( 2007 ) : bulletin of the german society for ecology , 37 ( 2 ) , 19 .\nheise - pavlov , s . ( 2006 ) : bericht der rheinh . - t\u00fcxen - ges . 18 : 207 - 218 .\nheise , s . r . and van acker , a . ( 2000 ) : physiology and behavior 71 , 289 - 296 .\nthe gestation period , averaging 45 days , is exceptionally long for macropods . oestrus is not post - partum ( 1 - 2 days after birth ) and there is no evidence of embryonic diapause . female lumholtz ' s tree - kangaroos come into oestrus about 2 months after permanent pouch exit of the current offspring following 9 months of pouch life . this is about the time the current offspring is weaned and leads to long birth intervals of about 1 . 4 years and relatively low fecundity .\nlooking up into the tree canopy is inferior to looking as horizontal as possible into it . thus find high ground in sloping terrain and look into canopy .\nmeans \u201ctree hare\u201d ) , but the practice has essentially stopped . the species may be of slight economic importance as a source of ecotourism in northeast queensland .\nheise , s . and wieland , h . ( 1991 ) : nachrichtenbl . deut . pflschutzd . 43 ( 2 ) , 30\u201133 .\nheise - pavlov , p . m . and heise - pavlov , s . r ( 2004 ) : galemys 16 , 211 - 220 .\nheise , s . r . and rozenfeld , f . m . ( 2002 ) : behaviour 139 ( 7 ) , 897 - 911 .\nwieland , h . and heise , s . ( 1991 ) : j . exp . anim . sci . 34 , 207 - 211 .\nheise , s . and stubbe , m . ( 1987 ) : \u2011 s\u00e4ugetierkdl . inf . 2 ( 11 ) , 403 \u2011 414 .\nthey are small objects ( dog sized ) , very hard to spot and may be high in the tree canopy . the long pendulous tail is the best cue .\nthank you ! you have successfully signed up to receive enews . we will keep you informed on awc\u2019s activities with updates from the field by email .\nthis project is linked with component 1 ( understanding ecological and social systems ) and component 2 ( conflict , vulnerability and change ) of crs\u2019s 5yrp .\nheise , s . ( 1991 ) \u2011 in : proceedings of the meeting\npopulation ecology of small mammals\n, 1991 , pp . 171\u2011181 .\nheise , s . ( 1990 ) in : proceedings of the xith symposium\nactual problems of phytopathology and plant protection\n, pp . 58\u201162 .\nnight spotlighting is possible with a dull ruby red eyeshine that is less intense than possums . tree - kangaroos are skittish at night and will readily retreat from the spotlighter .\nwe need your help to save australia ' s endangered animals . your tax deductible donation will make a difference where it really counts - in the field .\nreproduction in lumholtz ' s tree kangaroo , dendrolagus lumholtzi , was studied in captivity . the length of the oestrous cycle was 47\u201364 days and the gestation period was 42\u201348 days . post partum oestrus and embryonic diapause were not observed in this study . the interval between loss of a pouch young and a return mating was 22 days . pouch life was 246\u2013275 days long and weaning occurred 87\u2013240 days later . sexual maturity was obtained in females as early as 2 . 04 years and in males at 4 . 6 years . linear mixed - effects models are used to describe polynomial growth equations for age determination of pouch young using both head and pes length . the relationship between error in age prediction and each body measurement is also defined . head and pes measurements provide equally accurate estimates of the age of pouch young .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nheise - pavlov , s . r and longway , l . j . * ( 2011 ) : - ecological management and restoration 12 : 230 - 233 .\nheise - pavlov , s . ; h\u00fcppe , j . and pott , r . ( 2008 ) : phytocoenologia , 38 ( 3 ) : 213 - 219\nheise , s . r . and rozenfeld , f . m . ( 1999 ) : journal of chemical ecology 25 ( 7 ) , 1671 - 1685 .\nstubbe , m . and heise , s . ( 1987 ) : \u2011 wiss . beitr . mlu halle 14 ( p 27 ) , 279 \u2011 329 .\n; this is thought to be ancestral among tree kangaroos . while the basal metabolic rate is not known precisely , it is thought to be low for a mammal of its size .\n, where males had substantially larger ranges than females . understanding this large variation in home range between tree kangaroo species is particularly important to understanding the space use and habitat requirements for conservation of tree kangaroos . in this study we have reported results using a variety of calculation techniques ( harmonic mean , kernel and minimum convex polygon ) to maximize the potential for comparability with past and future studies . however , given that the pattern of results is very similar between the harmonic mean and kernel techniques , we only discuss the results of the harmonic mean algorithm , as it is the most commonly used technique in the literature .\nit was recorded at the time that aboriginal people who were very familiar with the tree - kangaroo called it\nboongarry\n. although it is also known as\nmabi\nor\nmuppie\nby the ngadjon - jii people of the larger malanda area ( atherton tableland ) . it is the totem of one of the elders and therefore enjoys special protection among the local population . the following largely focuses just on this species .\ncamera traps were used to study eastern grey kangaroo behaviour . findings compared with published data revealed that activity patterns were largely consistent with other methods although nocturnal behaviour was underrepresented . unusual fighting behaviour was observed . kangaroos became habituated to cameras after eight months .\nheise - pavlov , s . r . and meade , r . * ( 2012 ) : - pacific conservation biology 18 ( 3 ) : 153 \u2013 163 .\nheise - pavlov , s . ; heise - pavlov , p . and bradley , a . ( 2005 ) : journal of zoology 266 , 73 - 80 .\nheise , s . ; lippke , j . and wieland , h . ( 1991 ) : zool . jb . syst . 118 ( 2 ) , 257\u2011264 .\nwieland , h . ; sellmann , j . and heise , s . ( 1990 ) : \u2011 arch . phytopathol . pflanzenschutz , berlin , 26 , 569\u2011572 .\nhuon tree kangaroos had cores of activity within their range at 45 % ( 20 . 9\u00b14 . 1 ha ) and 70 % ( 36 . 6\u00b17 . 5 ha ) harmonic mean isopleths ("]}
{"id": 1276, "summary": [{"text": "shannon ( 1941 \u2013 1955 ) , named shannon ii in america , was an outstanding australian thoroughbred racehorse who was inducted into the hall of fame .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "he created new racecourse records in australia before he was sold to an american buyer who exported him to california in 1948 .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "there shannon equalled the world record of 1:47 \u00b3 \u2044 \u2085 for the nine furlongs ( 1,800 metres ) in winning the forty niner handicap stakes , then one week later equalled the world record of 1:59 \u2074 \u2044 \u2085 for a mile and a quarter ( 2,000 metres ) .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "shannon was named the 1948 american champion older male horse .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "at stud in america he proved to be a good sire . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "shannon ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["chris hemsworth and michael shannon are set to star in the afghanistan war drama \u201c horse soldiers \u201d for black label media .\nsometime after the publication of jessica owers\u2019 book about shannon , spendthrift farm erected two brass plaques to honour both bernborough and shannon ii .\ndr . fager recorded one of the greatest campaigns in the annals of american racing when he was named horse of the year , champion older horse , champion grass horse and champion sprinter in 1968 .\nshannon\u2019s dam was the australian idle words . her sire was the british horse magpie that made the passage to victoria in 1917 . her grandsire was irish horse dark ronald , one of the most renowned sires of all time .\nif the highest scoring horse is unable to participate , the next highest scoring horse earns the right for participation . if the second horse cannot participate the right will go to the next horse and so forth , as long as the horses have scored the minimum points of qualification set forth below .\nthere was , however , another aussie to arrive at spendthrift \u2014 the great shannon .\nandrew murphy , chief commercial officer for shannon group , which operates shannon airport , said the airlift was in keeping with the airport\u2019s target of growing its livestock cargo business .\nshannon was retired to stud in 1948 where he sired 99 winners in eight seasons .\ntoday\u2019s throwback takes us to stampede park in 2005 and apprentice rider sovereign award winner shannon beauregard . in 2005 shannon told us that \u201cnothing compares to riding horses \u2013 it\u2019s my life . it\u2019s my love\u201d and she still has that love . shannon had a fall from a horse in 2014 and most jockeys would have retired , but all shannon could think about was getting back on a horse . shannon\u2019s work ethic is second to none , and her hard work , dedication and love for the horses has her back on the track , and in the winner\u2019s circle . shannon is a veteran in the jockey\u2019s room at northlands park , and this winter she got her 800th win at turf paradise in phoenix . come see shannon ride on friday night and saturday afternoon at northlands park !\n* overs has shannon finishing 4th in this race however the atr records unplaced horses in weight order rather than place order . according to the smh felcorn finished 4th and shannon 5th .\nrider on the bronze horse . new york ; bobbs - merrill , 1942 .\nhe ' s probably the laziest horse i ' ve ever jogged or trained .\nshannon was purchased for the bargain price , or at least so it seems a bargain after the fact , of \u00a3367 by peter riddle , who also served as shannon\u2019s trainer in australia .\nstanding at spendthrift farm in kentucky , he was joined by another pretty good australian horse , bernborough . shannon\u2019s progeny would eventually produce over $ 4 million in prize money . <\n* * overs has shannon finishing 11th in this race however the atr records unplaced horses in weight order rather than place order . according to the smh goose boy finished 11th and shannon 8th .\na major airlift of irish thoroughbred horses has taken place from shannon airport , bound for china .\nsport horse breeding gb uses cookies . find out more about our use of cookies .\nall time results for caverna high school ( prior to 1950 , horse cave high school and cave city high school and prior to 1957 , horse cave colored school . )\nthe airlift of 76 horses in a boeing 747 cargo plane from shannon took place late last week .\nsword dancer was champion 3 - year - old and horse of the year for 1959 .\nwhatever the correct figure might be for either horse ( and some commentator ' s have phar lap on a lesser figure ) there is no doubt shannon retired as australasia ' s greatest stake winner .\nhe ' s probably the laziest horse i ' ve ever jogged or trained ,\nshared murphy , while also calling the horse one of the most intelligent he ' s met .\nan airport spokesperson said : \u201cwe are disappointed by united\u2019s decision to reduce its shannon / new york service for the winter period . united have operated services at shannon since 1999 and are a core and valued customer .\na chinese billionaire has bought up 76 irish thoroughbred horses which were airlifted to the asian country from shannon airport .\ndes hoysted back in the mid 70\u0092s called the wrong horse during a race and only realised his error after the horse had won . giving the prices and breeding info he gave the winner\u0092s breeding as\nbred and owned by christopher t . chenery , hill prince won six of seven starts as a juvenile before a horse of the year campaign at age 3 and further success as an older horse .\n1939 state tournament ( at alumni gym , u . k . , lexington ) horse cave season record 33 - 3 , coach w . b . owen first round \u2013 brooksville ( 10th region ) 42 horse cave ( 6th region ) 36 1939 all state tournament team included jack jennings of horse cave\n* * * overs has shannon finishing 4th in this race however the atr seems to record unplaced horses in this set weight race in betting order rather than place order . according to the smh accession finished 4th and shannon 5th .\ntom fool was champion 2 - year - old in 1951 and horse of the year in 1953 .\nstorm is the only horse sally competes , although she does have her retired eventer at home too .\nunited airlines\u2019 decision to suspend its daily shannon - new york route for the winter is a \u201cbombshell\u201d to the industry .\nhe broke his leg in 1955 , requiring his euthanization . rosehill racecourse runs the shannon stakes annually in his honour .\nthe airlift , it is hoped , will lead to further purchases by chinese horse racing / breeding interests .\nfrench - bred filly all along won four major races in the span of 41 days during 1983 en route to becoming the first foreign - based horse to be voted horse of the year in the united states .\nnamed after the guns of war , ack ack was the final horse bred and raced by harry guggenheim .\nfoiled again , with trainer shannon murphy , has an official doll modelled in his likeness . ( sara fraser / cbc )\nhe used what was thought - to - be undetectable horse tranquilizer to kill mohr , allegedly to collect on insurance policies totaling more than $ 300 , 000 . he bashed her head with a rock and blamed a horse . officials initially bought his story , calling mohr ' s death an accident caused by a fall from a horse .\n1938 state tournament ( at alumni gym , u . k . , lexington ) horse cave season record unavailable , coach w . b . owen first round \u2013 madisonville ( 2nd region ) 31 horse cave ( 6th region ) 30\nshannon\u2019s first months in california were a disaster . placed into the bay meadows barn of willie molter , the hall of fame trainer just didn\u2019t get it . shannon was a puzzle , had a running style unknown to molter\u2019s other charges . and johnny longden didn\u2019t fare much better . asking shannon to run from the front , the jock got nothing from the famous australian . shannon hung on the turns , choked in the straights , and became a laughing stock across california . it would take him six months to win a race .\nshannon queen took 3 minutes 22 . 4 seconds for the 2600 metre distance to win this covered group 3 sheikh zayed cup race .\nunited currently operates daily flights from shannon to newark , new jersey , a short distance from the biggest city in the united states .\nanother champion , albeit one who never met up with bernborough , was shannon ( 1941 ) . a remarkable thoroughbred described by author jessica owers as \u201cpeerless , \u201d he was also the fastest horse that johnny longden \u2014 who had ridden count fleet \u2014 had ever sat astride . racing to brilliance in australia , shannon was imported to the usa after being bought by harry curland . unlike ajax , who had also been acquired by american interests , shannon was bought to race in america , where he became shannon ii . for a summary of this great thoroughbred\u2019s career ( who is the subject of jessica owers\u2019 latest book ) please click on this link : urltoken\nafter 1936 there was a regional realignment where the 8th region , that included horse cave , became the 6th region .\nin the fourth race on opening day this year at brockton , amonte was involved in a three - horse collision .\nduring the time shannon raced in the usa the usd was pegged at usd3 . 224 to 1 . 00 aus pound ( wikipedia ) .\nback in 1963 , figueroa won five races in eight days on the circuit with a horse he trained named shannon ' s hope . figueroa said the society for the prevention of cruelty to animals came to investigate . ' ' i told them , ' i run shannon ' s hope short distances , six and a half furlongs , no farther , ' ' ' he said . ' ' this paul revere , he ' s a hero in massachusetts , but he ran his horse 26 miles in one night ! ' '\n1934 * * * 17th annual * * * state tournament ( at alumni gym , u . k . , lexington ) the year the system became what it is today : 16 regions ; 1 class ; \u201cthe greatest show on earth . \u201d horse cave season record unavailable , coach w . b . owen first round \u2013 horse cave ( 8th region ) 33 louisville manual ( 6th region ) 16 elite eight \u2013 horse cave 24 lexington henry clay ( 11th region ) 22 final four \u2013 danville ( 9th region ) 26 horse cave 24 1934 all state tournament team included ralph dorsey and leslie ross of horse cave\nin may 1948 , at the coming around of the hollywood park meeting , molter slung a new jockey into shannon\u2019s irons and found himself a different horse . johnny adams , and later jack westrope , rode the horse as he had been ridden in sydney \u2013 sit back and sprint later . and shannon unfurled . the argonaut , hollywood gold cup , forty - niners , golden gate , and san francisco handicaps . . . the australian swept them all . nine - furlong records , 10 furlongs , they all tumbled . they called him \u201cthe bullet from down under\u201d and , when it came to a proposed match race with citation , \u201cthe white hope of the west coast . \u201d but the match race never occurred . shannon was retired in november 1948 , champion older horse of his year .\nin the winter of 1947 , peter riddle passed away and shannon was sold at public auction . fetching the highest price ever paid for a thoroughbred at auction , he went to the randwick yard of trainer frank dalton for new owner w . j . smith . he raced four times in smith ' s colours for two wins and two seconds , but as a burgeoning seven year old shannon would not be able to recoup his purchase price . smith promptly shipped the horse to california , heralding a rough and rocky time for the sensitive shannon .\n\u201ci understand that the airline has assured shannon airport that it will begin flying from shannon again from march 10 , but there will still be over three months during the winter without such a service . i will be working hard over the coming weeks with businesses from the area to highlight to united airline and the aviation industry the need for a connection between new york and shannon during these winter months , \u201d added minister breen .\nshannon\u2019s sale to the u . s . followed a trend of australian bloodstock steaming its way to american farms at that time . beau pere , ajax , bernborough et al had all found stud careers in america . but shannon was to tread new territory . he wasn\u2019t sold to stud ; he was sold to race , and he became the first australian thoroughbred to infiltrate the highest levels of american horse racing .\nbred and owned by sam riddle , crusader was sired by man o\u2019 war out of the star shoot mare star fancy . crusader was recognized as horse of the year in 1926 and became the first horse to win consecutive runnings of the suburban handicap .\nshannon next won the hill stakes , and then took the epsom handicap running as the favourite . it does not take long in racing , just the time it takes for one of the bag men to pay rather than collect , for a horse to go from long to short . after four starts for four wins , flight beat shannon in the craven plate , and he was given an autumn and winter holiday .\neventing represents the strongest ab participation sport in the uk . owning an event horse with us could be really good for business .\nexclusively owning or part owning an event horse with us can create a unique and powerful shop window for your products and services .\n1945 khsal state tournament ( at kentucky state college gymnasium in frankfort ) ( khsal membership eventually reached a high of 69 schools and it was reported that horse cave won 65 straight games over two years , 1943 - 1945 . ) horse cave colored high school season record unavailable , coach newton stone thomas scores are unavailable championship \u2013 horse cave ( ky ) defeated rosenwald ( madisonville , ky )\nhe was syndicated and sent to spendthrift farm . leslie combs ii had much to advertise . shannon was arguably the most decorated horse in the stallion barn , commanding $ 2 , 500 a service , bettered only by his lofty neighbour , alibhai . and his books were good . both combs and mccarthy sent their own mares to shannon , and he produced 132 foals of racing age . one hundred nineteen made it to the racetrack , of which 100 were winners . but the blue - chip progeny were rare . shannon produced only six stakes winners before he died in 1955 .\nfarriers were in great demand by the australian light horse so when harold arthur mertin joined up 1914 he was welcomed with open arms .\nhorse of the year and champion 3 - year - old male in 1994 , holy bull was bred in florida by rachel carpenter\u2019s pelican stable . he was owned and trained by jimmy croll after carpenter died prior to the horse\u2019s career debut in 1993 at monmouth park .\ndon\u2019t miss the full report from the horse & hound grassroots eventing championships in h & h \u2014 on sale thursday , 8 june .\nthe shannon stakes is held on the same day as the group 2 stan fox stakes , group 3 research stakes & the group 3 colin stephen quality .\n1937 * * * 20th annual * * * state tournament ( at alumni gym , u . k . , lexington ) horse cave season record unavailable , coach w . b . owen first round \u2013 midway ( 11th region ) 43 horse cave ( 6th region ) 23\n[ 1 ] johnstone was a grazier from camperdown and never owned the horse in fact . he was paid , or rather laid \u00a3200 to nothing against don juan winning the melbourne cup by bookmaker joe thompson , for the use of his name . the horse was own by thompson\n[ 5 ] as soon as inglis claimed don juan thompson bought the horse back for \u00a32 , 000 . first prize in the elbourne cup was \u00a31360 but that was nothing compared with what thompson had won betting the unraced mystery horse down to 3 / 1 * in the cup\ndance smartly was the second filly to win the canadian triple crown and the first canadian - bred horse to win a breeders\u2019 cup race .\naffirmed became america\u2019s 11 th triple crown winner in 1978 during the first of his back - to - back horse of the year campaigns .\nshannon was foaled in the new south wales hunter valley in the spring of 1941 . his sire , midstream , was a son of blandford , and his dam , idle words , was by the champion stallion magpie . their union was then unremarkable . the blandford line was new to australian breeding , and shannon was dropped from only the second crop of midstreams . but though plain and small , he proved far from unremarkable . in five seasons of sydney racing , shannon was peerless .\nhazel on promise r performing in the dressage arena , early days with hazel on northern fable and hazel & clifford at the adelaide horse trials .\n1933 * * * 16th annual * * * state tournament ( at alumni gym , u . k . , lexington ) this was the last year that schools were divided into two classes\u2026and it was the 2nd of two years that only the overall region champions advanced to the state tourney with the \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb\u201d class system still in effect . five of the sixteen teams to reach the state tournament were designated as \u201cb\u201d schools : clear springs , guthrie , corinth , walton , and hazel green . horse cave was an \u201ca\u201d team . some 600 schools started district tourney play . horse cave season record unavailable , coach w . b . owen first round \u2013 horse cave ( 8th region ) 44 henderson ( 3rd region ) 29 elite eight \u2013 horse cave 28 hazard ( 16th region ) 22 final four \u2013horse cave 21 hazel green 20 ( 13th region \u2013 b ) 26 championship \u2013 ashland ( 14th region ) 33 horse cave 25 1933 all state tournament team included joe billy mansfield and ralph dorsey of horse cave\nbernborough lived until 1960 , when he died of a heart attack in his paddock as clem brooks cradled the great horse\u2019s head in his arms .\nbred in maryland by william l . brann and robert s . castle , challedon was recognized as horse of the year in 1939 and 1940 .\n\u201cwe are well used to \u2018firsts\u2019 at shannon but having a record airlift of irish horses to china from here was very exciting for all concerned , \u201d he said .\nas a three - year - old , shannon went through a bad patch , running unplaced in the stc flying handicap . he did win the hobartville stakes in 1944 , held at randwick during the years of world war ii . the previous year , flight had won the race , and he and shannon would stage several high - profile matchups further on . shannon then had two unplaced finishes , and the decision was made to spell him , resulting in his not starting again for 10 months .\nfor years shannon was not accepted into the english stud book . the story is that his maternal ancestor arrived in australia in 1826 . the ship on which she was travelling sank in a storm off sydney heads . she survived but her identification papers were lost . in 1949 the stud book rules were relaxed and shannon was included .\nthe 1st geelong troop was renamed the 1st geelong troop shannon ' s own and there were so many boys wanting to join it was necessary to divide it into the 1st and 3rd geelong shannon ' s own . percy stevens was scoutmaster of the 1st and his deputy , e . a . alsop , became scoutmaster of the 3rd .\npedigree questions caused shannon to be sold twice before he ever raced in california . an exhausting issue with the american stud book and a supposed flaw in his pedigree took months to sort out , and it was down to hollywood attorney neil steere mccarthy to do it . mccarthy paid w . j . smith a good , though discounted , price for shannon , and eventually he smoothed the passage for shannon ' s stud book eligibility . the horse debuted in california at santa anita racecourse , los angeles , on 24 january 1948 . but over raced and misunderstood , battling acclimatisation , a new surface and a furious , often cut - throat style of running , it took shannon six months to win a race . in that time , he became a physically different animal , much lighter than he had ever been in australia .\nthe first horse in more than 20 years to win consecutive division championships as a sprinter , housebuster was known for decimating his competition by wide margins .\nthe first horse to win both the kentucky derby and preakness stakes while undefeated , majestic prince also achieved fame as a record - priced auction yearling .\nover the years , the shannon stakes has seen a fair spattering of talent pass through where placegetters and winners have remained in contention in major group races throughout the spring carnival .\nthe bill shannon biographical dictionary of new york sports is an open database of sports biographies maintained by jordan sprechman and marty appel . we welcome public and scholarly contributions and suggestions .\na three - time horse of the year and winner of eight eclipse awards , forego was one of the most accomplished and popular horses of the 1970s .\n' he ' s coddled a little bit , ' says foiled again ' s trainer shannon murphy as he grooms the gelding after his morning jog . ( sara fraser / cbc )\nhorse cave\u2019s all - time record in seven state tournaments ( 1925 , 1926 , 1933 , 1934 , 1937 , 1938 , 1939 ) was 7 - 6 .\nlegendary jockey tod sloan , who rode hundreds of good horses in america and europe , stated flatly : \u201chamburg was the only great horse i ever rode . \u201d\nby the end of 1948 , it was believed there was only one horse in the united states that had any chance of defeating citation . a world - record holder over a mile , this horse was the first animal in america to crack two minutes for a mile - and - a - quarter . but you probably won\u2019t have heard of him . he\u2019s not in the american hall of fame . in fact , he\u2019s not even american . he was australian , a 1947 california import called shannon ii .\nthe world war ii era was a second great coming for australian racing . after the marvellous 1930s , it produced many of the great heroes that live on in memory \u2013 bernborough , flight , tranquil star . but with these champions came the great speedster shannon , a lightly waisted bay horse , foaled in september 1941 at famous kia ora stud .\nlongfellow was referred to as the \u201cking of the turf\u201d during the 1870s . racing historian walter vosburgh said longfellow was \u201cbeyond question the most celebrated horse of the 1870s . no other horse of his day was a greater object of public notice . his entire career was sensational ; people seemed to regard him as a superhorse . \u201d\n[ 6 ] a protest was lodged by samuel bowler against the horse ' s age . further objections are heard that the horse was not don juan at all by his stablemate mentor ( also owned by thompson ) . the horse ' s bona fides check out , the confusion stemming from his older brother don giovanni having raced in the st leger in adelaide in 1872 . trainer of dagworth etienne demestre refused to join the protest action on the grounds that there weren ' t any grounds .\n\u201cwe remain very committed to working with them and our other airline partners to continue to provide services and access to key markets . maximising shannon\u2019s potential will continue to be a priority . \u201d\nchris hemsworth and michael shannon are set to star in the afghanistan war drama \u201chorse soldiers\u201d for black label media . nicolai fuglsig is directing the film from a script by peter craig and ted tally . black label media is co - financing the project . molly smith , trent luckinbill , and thad luckinbill are producing with jerry bruckheimer through his [ \u2026 ]\nat the time of his retirement in 1959 , round table was the sport\u2019s all - time leading money earner . he had been named horse of the year in 1958 , grass champion three consecutive years ( 1957 through 1959 ) and handicap champion twice ( 1958 and 1959 . he was also the horse that literally saved claiborne farm .\nnamed horse of the year for five consecutive years from 1960 through 1964 , kelso was one of the most accomplished and unique thoroughbreds in the annals of american racing .\nsally pidsley proved she is still going strong in the saddle aged 71 after riding tranwheal tineth moon to 70cm victory at the inaugural horse & hound grassroots eventing championships .\nand he ' s not the only ron burke - owned horse up from new jersey who could be a contender : limelight beach , a much bigger and fitter horse who has more than $ 1 million in lifetime earnings , was in the stall next to\ngremlin\nand is one of the fastest in the field of 14 .\nmccarthy gave him to william molter for race conditioning . shannon then won several prestigious races , the argonaut handicap , and then the hollywood gold cup . in october of 1948 , he tied the world record for nine furlongs en route to winning the forty niner handicap stakes . he then ran the 2000 metre golden gate handicap in under two minutes , seemingly defying age and getting faster with the passage of time . in one race , he went up against the triple crown winner citation , running second to the horse that was four years his junior , if you neglect the horse birthday protocol regarding age dependent on hemisphere of birth and simply do the math . the following month , he ran his last race in november of 1948 , winning the san francisco handicap . he was declared the 1948 american champion older mare horse , whilst citation won the champion handicap horse .\nshannon was sold the following year when peter riddle died , first to w . j . smith , who raced the horse four times in australia . he won the canterbury stakes and another george main stakes , and was then sold again to american neil mccarthy for \u00a352 , 000 , so it is obvious that mccarthy was not connected to the mccarthy\u2019s of county dublin .\nthe 76 horses were airlifted in a four - month - old boeing 747 cargo plane from shannon , landing in beijing late on thursday night . they are being transported to stables over the weekend .\nunited airlines announced last week that due to a fall in demand from passengers , it would stop flying from shannon airport to newark , new jersey , between november 26 2017 and march 9 2018 .\nrecognized as horse of the year in 1936 \u2014 the first year of formal voting \u2014 granville was a son of triple crown winner gallant fox out of the sarmatian mare gravita .\nalysheba was a champion as a 3 - year - old , horse of the year at age 4 and retired with the highest purse earnings in the history of the sport .\nhe dr . yousif eisa hassan alsabri , uae ambassador to poland , ms . lara sawaya , executive director of the hh sheikh mansoor bin zayed al nahyan global arabian horse flat racing festival , chairperson of the international federation of horse racing academies ( ifhra ) and chairperson of ladies & apprentice racing committees in the international federation of arabian horse racing authorities ( ifahr ) and general manager of wathba stallions and ahmed al qubaisi , director of marketing and communication at the abu dhabi sports council attended the races and gave away the trophies .\nshannon was foaled in 1941 at st . albans stud . his sire , the british horse midstream , seems to have only the criterion stakes to his credit as a racer , but as a sire he accounted for 39 horses that produced stakes winners that won well over a hundred stakes races . the grandsire was blandford , a decent racer and like midstream , a prodigious sire .\nanother target may be the group 2 crystal mile at moonee valley . runner up in the 2009 shannon stakes , rangirandoo won the crystal mile after running a close second in the epsom handicap as well .\n3rd bn cef nominal roll ( pdf 7 . 8 mb ) raised in toronto and consisted primarily with soldiers from the 2nd regiment , queen\u2019s own rifles ; the 10th regiment ( later the royal regiment of canada ) ; and the governor general\u2019s body guards ( ggbg ) ( amalgamated in 1936 with the mississauga horse to become the governor general\u2019s horse guards ) .\n1869 bay horse ( lucifer gb - levity gb ) bred by hon . john baker , sth aust . owned by joe thompson trained by james wilson , st . albans , vic\nposted in thoroughbred horse , tagged athol george mulley , australia , azzalin romano , bernborough , bernborough phenomenon , duncan stearn , famous australian racehorses , flight , frank back , harry plant , jack bach , jessica owers , leslie coombs ii , louis b . mayer , phar lap , romano ' s restaurant , shannon , spendthrift farm , zeb armstrong on august 8 , 2014 | 8 comments \u00bb\na winner of 16 graded stakes races and four eclipse awards , including horse of the year in 1998 , skip away was one of the most popular and accomplished horses of the 1990s .\nswaps was the best horse to come out of california in years . he set five world records at a mile or more , three track records , and equalled an american turf record .\nthe top horse in america in 1889 and 1890 , salvator won 16 of his final 17 career starts to secure his legacy as one of the finest thoroughbreds of the 19 th century .\nthat\u2019s according to local businessman and shannon board member tony brazil , who added : \u201cairlines do not have an awful lot of sympathy for 20 years of success . they are only looking at today and tomorrow\n.\nshannon recently signed on to play george westinghouse in weinstein\u2019s \u201cthe current war\u201d and has two movies , \u201cnocturnal animals\u201d and \u201cloving , \u201d both bowing this fall and generating plenty of awards buzz . he is repped by caa .\nafter 46 years as manager , percy stevens died in march , 1945 . more than 5000 boys had come under his control during this period - and the 1st geelong shannon ' s own group of scouts had flourished .\nby the late ' forties the incumbent president , percy j . wilks , noted that because compulsory education in victoria\ndid not go far enough\nan increasing number of youth clubs were springing up . he was justly proud that the try boys ' brigade was the first of these clubs . wilks was the last direct link from the brigade with shannon . he had been a close neighbor and contemporary of the shannon family from childhood .\nbut let\u2019s begin at the end . by november 1948 , when shannon ran his last race in the san francisco handicap , there was no horse anywhere that held or shared more world records than he . he had broken watches at bay meadows , hollywood park , golden gate fields , tanforan , and sydney\u2019s randwick and rosehill racecourses . he had won the hollywood gold cup and the argonaut handicap , broke the hearts of the excellent on trust and mafosta , and his earnings were bettered by only citation that year . johnny longden said he had never been astride a faster horse . just who was he ?\nthe air was filled with the sound of thundering hoofs and the shouts of exhilaration from hundreds of young australian light horse troops as they raced across the desert towards the turkish lines at beersheba .\nbred in chile , cougar ii was a major stakes winner in his home country before enjoying success on both dirt and turf in america and winning the 1972 eclipse award for champion grass horse .\ndownload pdf document of awm28 2 / 136 - [ recommendation file for honours and awards , aif , 1914 - 18 war ] 2nd australian light horse regiment ( 92 . 69 kb pdf )\nin 1979 the shannon stakes was first held as a principal race and was promoted as a listed event the next year . it gained recognition as a group 3 race in 1985 and has enjoyed group 2 status since 2001 .\nin 1875 he married emily agnes strachan and they had eight children . he was chairman of the first council of management at the geelong college where four of his sons were students . one of the school houses is called shannon in his memory . the family lived at st . helen ' s for a few years before shannon commissioned a large two - storey home in prospect road , newtown , which today is a reception centre called kirrewur court .\nby the end of 1948 , shannon was the champion horse of california , defeating the likes of on trust and mafosta again and again , and he became the only horse in america given any chance of defeating the boom three year old citation . when a match between the pair almost occurred in the tanforan handicap on 11 december 1948 , it became the racing event of the year . but the handicapper didn ' t do the australian any favours , and when he was given three pounds more than citation , neil mccarthy promptly retired his horse . ' citation ' , he said , ' was no ordinary three year old , and should not be weighted as one . ' shannon was sold to a syndicate and went to spendthrift farm for stallion duties . he was one of the most popular horses to enter stud in america that year . but his career was short . on 14 may 1955 , he shattered a bone over his near hock and was put down that day . his life was never properly documented . . . until now .\nlake returned the following year to survey the colony . the first settlers traveled by railway from ontario to moose jaw and then made the grueling 160 mile trip to saskatoon in horse - drawn carts .\nbred and owned by calumet farm , citation became america\u2019s eighth triple crown winner in 1948 , fashioned a 16 - race win streak and was the first horse with $ 1 million in career earnings .\n\u201cmany of these horses might not have met the high standards of the irish and european market but they are still of a higher standard than the average horse currently racing in china . so irish breeders get a good price for horses they might not otherwise have got , the industry here further develops the emerging chinese market and china gets a higher quality race horse . everyone wins with this . \u201d\nby submitting your email , you agree to receive electronic communications from horse publications group , containing news , updates and promotions about the canadian equestrian industry . you may withdraw your consent at any time .\nshannon became sydney ' s champion two year old through the 1943 - 44 racing season . starting seven times for three victories and three seconds . his wins included the kirkham stakes and the rich sires ' produce stakes , but his three - year - old season was plagued by injury and mismanagement . peter riddle was in and out hospital with illness , and on an interrupted program shannon started four times for a single victory in the hobartville stakes at randwick .\nthe minister for trade , employment , business , eu digital single market and data protection will meet with senior management at united airlines this week to ask them to rethink the decision to suspend its new york winter flights from shannon .\ndespite the rain a large crowd of racing fans were on hand as shannon queen ridden by alexander reznikov finished a little over a length ahead shahad athbah under sergey vasyutov while just a head behind was mogadiusz ridden by szeczepan mazur .\nnamed horse of the year in 2001 , point given became the first thoroughbred to win four consecutive $ 1 million races when he won the preakness , belmont , haskell and travers in succession that year .\nin her career summary jessica owers has shannon ' s us winnings as usd 212 , 810 ( p398 ) however the total of all the winnings listed in the detailed table at pp399 - 402 adds up to usd 212 , 110 .\nover 90 % of thoroughbred horses in china are imported from australia and new zealand but industry experts have claimed that this airlift confirms the growing chinese interest in the more expensive , higher - quality irish horse .\ndescribed as a \u201conce in a lifetime\u201d horse by trainer kiaran mclaughlin , invasor defined himself as an elite thoroughbred by winning in three countries , at seven tracks and in some of the world\u2019s most prestigious races .\ndamascus was named horse of the year and set a single - season earnings record in 1967 when he turned in one of the most impressive seasons by a 3 - year - old colt in racing history .\nthe thought of spending five weeks travelling through the beautiful greek countryside would make most people ' s eyes light up but when sgt r a ' snow ' mcbain and his mate vic shannon had that experience , things were a bit different .\npurchased first by catering king harry curland , shannon ended up in the hands of hollywood attorney neil mccarthy . curland\u2019s exit from the ownership was no accident . shannon had barely touched foot in california in november 1947 when the jockey club deferred his registration . there was a flaw in his pedigree , they declared . it occurred 11 generations back , in 1823 or so , and u . s . racing flew into a flap . the blood - horse , daily racing form , even the new yorker , weighed in on the issue . and the problem went all the way back to the jersey act . when the issue was finally resolved , neil mccarthy had himself a heck of a famous racehorse .\n1926 * * * 9th annual * * * state tournament ( at alumni gym , u . k . , lexington ) this was the last of 5 years that there were \u201csectionals . \u201d there were 18 of them from 1924 - 26\u2026which required two \u201cpreliminary\u201d games at state . first round \u2013 horse cave ( 5th sectional ) 37 covington ( 10th sectional ) 23 elite eight \u2013 ashland ( 16th sectional ) 42 horse cave 22\n\u2026caverna ( cave city and horse cave ) \u2026 [ ended an ] amazing 26 - game win streak . it was the first setback for caverna since it was beaten in the opening game of the 1950 season .\nthe brigade was begun by a man who had emigrated to australia thirty - two years earlier . in 1865 the young charles shannon sailed from scotland with his family leaving behind their home in greenock on the firth of clyde not far from glasgow .\neveryone was delighted with the purchase and the committee agreed to pay \u00a330 ( $ 60 ) annual rent for the brigade ' s second home . this was later rescinded when brigade funds ran low and shannon granted use of the building rent free .\n1925 * * * 8th annual * * * state tournament ( at alumni gym , u . k . , lexington ) this was the last of 5 years that there were \u201csectionals . \u201d there were 18 of them from 1924 - 26\u2026which required two \u201cpreliminary\u201d games at state . first round \u2013 horse cave ( 5th sectional ) 22 campbellsville college high ( 6th sectional ) 16 elite eight \u2013 winchester ( 12th sectional ) 26 horse cave 15\nhe ' ll show up , they ' ll know he ' s in there ,\nsaid murphy , calling the horse ' s odds to win\nvery good \u2026 i love his chances this week .\n\u201ci am deeply concerned about the move to suspend the newark - shannon winter schedule , especially given the increase in investment into the mid west from across the atlantic and the huge potential for even more , \u201d added the minister of state from clare .\njackson , mi - a man infamous for drugging his wife to death in 1980 and masking it as a horse - riding accident has died at the michigan department of corrections ' duane l . waters health center in jackson .\nhorse cave colored high school\u2019s record in three state tournaments ( 1943 , 1944 , 1945 ) was apparently 11 - 1 . after finishing third in 1943 they won back - to - back state championships in 1944 and 1945 .\namerica\u2019s 10 th triple crown winner and the first to complete the series with an undefeated career record , seattle slew was horse of the year in 1977 and an eclipse award winner in each of his three years on the racetrack .\nan energetic and enterprising man , shannon was involved in community life in geelong and held office in civic and sporting organisations . after five years on the geelong town council he became mayor of newtown and chilwell and was the first captain of the barwon rowing club .\nshannon was a world class racehorse who ran record times on both sides of the pacific ocean . in australia he established an australasian record for the mile , his favourite distance , when he defeated flight by six lengths in the 1946 george main stakes at randwick .\nthe group 2 shannon stakes worth $ 175 , 000 is held at rosehill gardens racecourse in sydney during the spring racing carnival in september . the race attracts a quality field with many horses preparing for the group 1 epsom handicap at randwick racecourse , one week later .\nthe horses travelled with a team of professional flying grooms and a vet , with a team of 30 handlers on the ground involved in the three - hour process of loading the animals at shannon . the horses will go into training in china before becoming local racers .\nhigh school students from both towns attended school in the buildings in horse cave ; junior high school students from both schools attended classes in the buildings in cave city ; grades one through six in each town remained in their local schools .\nfuneral is at 2 p . m . wednesday at horse cave baptist church , with burial in horse cave municipal cemetery . visitation is from 10 a . m . to 9 p . m . monday at j . c . kirby & son funeral home , lovers lane chapel , from 9 a . m . to 9 p . m . tuesday at winn funeral home and from 9 a . m . to 2 p . m . wednesday at the church .\naccording to the 1949 american racing manual shannon earned usd 1 , 500 and not usd 2 , 000 from his third placing on 11 nov 1948 in the marchbank hcp . jessica owers had a figure of usd 2 , 000 in the table at appendix a of her book .\nshannon queen won the sheikh zayed bin sultan al nahyan - nagroda europy - group 3 race while jockeys hungarian csenge sutak and home favourite ireneusz wojcik won their respective races in hh sheikha fatima bint mubarak world championship ladies and apprentices races at the sluzewiec racecourse in warsaw on sunday .\nhe won his third consecutive campbelltown handicap as a five - year - old in the 1946 \u2013 47 season , although the handicappers had given him an extra 4 kg , compared to last year\u2019s race . he then took the theo marks quality handicap , but he could not reward the backers who had made him the favourite to repeat the epson handicap , because he spotted the field 100 metres before he began racing . his jockey , darby munro , almost got shannon back to the front and finished second by half a head . that disappointment was forgotten when , just two days later , shannon won the george main stakes in record time that saw flight six lengths behind . he then beat flight again , along with russia in the king\u2019s cup , just a month prior to that horse winning the melbourne cup .\nthis same group , joined by dr kennedy , held its first regular meeting the following month in the mechanics ' institute classroom - a galvanised iron shed in malop st . at the back of the old chamber of commerce building . at this meeting shannon introduced the committee members to joseph yeowart , manager of the melbourne try boys ' society , who had agreed to become leader and manager of their new club on an annual salary of \u00a3120 ( $ 240 ) . shannon generously guaranteed a sum of \u00a3200 ( $ 400 ) to fund the club for its first year .\nshannon\u2019s stud record did not reflect his racing record . he was a far better racehorse than stallion . the famous australian lies in an unmarked grave at spendthrift farm , and although a plaque commemorating his name was recently added to the stallion barn , shannon seemed to drift off into the hot twilight of memory after his death . but , pull out his life and you\u2019re met with an extraordinary story , one of racing fame in two hemispheres . it was a pioneering life that reads stranger than fiction , and it begs the question : how did we manage to forget him ?\ncaverna took its name from its location in the heart of kentucky\u2019s cave country . students chose the purple and white colors from the red and white of cave city and the purple and gold of horse cave . they also chose the school nickname \u2013 colonels .\nit was established at a time when horse - drawn vehicles clattered along streets lit by gas and continued without faltering to the electronic age of today . it remained strong through a century which saw two world wars and enormous political , social and economic upheaval .\nnamed for a mountain in scotland , ben nevis ii became the third american - based horse \u2014 joining battleship and jay trump \u2014 to win the historic grand national steeplechase at aintree , england , accomplishing the feat at odds of 40 - 1 in 1980 .\nthe first steeplechase horse to win five eclipse awards and the first to earn more than $ 1 million , lonesome glory was the most dominant american jumper of the 1990s , as he was named champion in 1992 , 1993 , 1995 , 1997 and 1999 .\ncaverna independent school district was formed in march 1950 by agreement between the cave city board of education and horse cave board of education to consolidate their respective schools , each too small to continue separately . doors opened on the new school on september 8 , 1950 .\na grade 1 winner as a 2 - year - old , a . p . indy won three grade 1 races at age 3 \u2014 the santa anita derby , belmont stakes and breeders\u2019 cup classic \u2014 en route to horse of the year honors in 1992 .\na small but quality field started in the 2600 - metre sheikh zayed bin sultan al nahyan - nagroda europy - group 3 , one of the three races held under the umbrella of the hh sheikh mansoor bin zayed al nahyan global arabian horse flat racing festival .\nobviously he ' s not the horse he was two years ago ,\nmurphy said , noting foiled ' s age is catching up to him \u2014 he ' s racing slower than he was , which is a mile in one minute and 50 seconds .\nwhat about his chances in the gold cup heat ? foiled again drew the rail position , which is a favoured spot to set the pace . he ' s sound and seems happy . but as everyone keeps repeating , anything can happen in a horse race ."]}
{"id": 1277, "summary": [{"text": "sir percy ( foaled 2003 ) is a british thoroughbred race horse and sire .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in a career which lasted from july 2005 to june 2007 he ran ten times and won five races .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he was among the leading british two-year-olds of 2005 , when his win included the dewhurst stakes .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in the following year he recorded his most important success when winning the epsom derby .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he was retired to stud after three unsuccessful starts in 2007 . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "sir percy", "paragraphs": ["sir percy hits back ( scar . . . has been added to your cart\nbbc sport | other sport . . . | horse racing | sir percy snatches dramatic derby\nshuttle sire sir percy produced his first stakes performer in europe when percy jackson made the trip from the uk to finish second in cologne .\nsir percy was towards the rear of the field towards tattenham corner as dragon dancer and dylan thomas disputed the lead .\nblack knight ( sir percy ) is a marvel super heroes minifigure that will appear in lego marvel super heroes 2 .\nit\u2019s sir andy murray and sir mo farah as tennis\u2019 world number one and the king of distance running are handed knighthoods .\ntwo derby winners also feature among the new stallions in authorized and sir percy , each also a group 1 winner at two .\nbut hala bek and sir percy suddenly caught up with the field , although a jink to the right cost hala bek vital ground .\nsir percy\u2019s racing career will always be remembered for the 2006 epsom derby where he came from an impossible position to win on the line .\nsir percy of scandia is the black knight of 6th century a . d . he ' s the ancestor of nathan garrett and dane whitman .\nmarcus tregoning has warned followers of his vodafone derby winner sir percy to hold their bets on the colt for the irish equivalent on july 2 .\nrich hill stud stallion sir percy made a dream start to his career in england overnight when his first northern hemisphere representative was successful on debut .\nsir percy , trained by marcus tregoning and ridden by martin dwyer , won the vodafone derby , snatching victory from dragon dancer in a dramatic finish .\nsir roger gilbert bannister , cbe . for services to sport . ( oxfordshire )\nian stuart , ' chatterton , sir percy ( 1898\u20131984 ) ' , pacific islander biography , national centre of biography , australian national university , urltoken accessed 10 july 2018 .\non 13 september it was announced that the retired admiral sir percy scott had been placed in charge of the air defences of london , specifically against attacks by enemy zeppelins .\nafter a couple of good years tregoning has a yard full of ordinary older horses and his season hinges on the two - year - olds , headed by sir percy .\nsir richard charles hastings eyre , cbe . for services to drama . ( london )\ntregoning hinted that sir percy would not have many more races this year as his owners anthony and victoria pakenham are keen to race him as a four - year - old .\nmark of esteem , whose best son sir percy will stand at rich hill this season , posted a major international double yesterday when he produced group winners in ireland and england .\nmrs isabel jane kilmaine percy green . for services to the community in dalham . suffolk .\nmarcus tregoning has been delighted with sir percy ' s progress since the four - year - old arrived in dubai ahead of his bid for glory in the sheema classic on saturday .\nthese include the group / grade 1 winners wake forest and sir john hawkwood , group 2 winners lady tiana and sir andrew , and group 3 scorers alla speranza and lady pimpernel .\nthe males in the first three removes of sir percy\u2019s pedigree provided an indication of what we should expect of him at stud . his sire , both grandsires , and three of his four great - grandsires were classic winners . it was no wonder that sir percy excelled at three , and to be expected that his stock , whatever they achieved at two , would tend to improve in their second season .\nformer kiwi galloper sin to win ( nz ) ( sir percy ) put the misfortune of his last start behind him when successful in the listed andrew ramsden stakes ( 3200m ) at flemington on saturday .\nto have achieved such results to date from comparatively few runners , and with so much potential from bigger crops coming through , sir percy remains tremendous value for money and an asset to the british stallion ranks .\nsir percy , winner of the 2005 dewhurst stakes , did not score after the derby but he has been supported by his owners anthony and victoria pakenham and his first crop are spread among several noted juvenile trainers .\njolyon horner , ' joske , sir percy ernest ( 1895\u20131981 ) ' , australian dictionary of biography , national centre of biography , australian national university , urltoken published first in hardcopy 2007 , accessed online 10 july 2018 .\ndavid lowe , ' spender , sir percy claude ( 1897\u20131985 ) ' , australian dictionary of biography , national centre of biography , australian national university , urltoken published first in hardcopy 2012 , accessed online 10 july 2018 .\nsir percy is by mark of esteem , sheikh mohammed\u2019s 2000 guineas and queen elizabeth stakes winner ( whose undeclared knee injury sustained as a juvenile had prompted the sheikh\u2019s split from trainer henry cecil ) . mark of esteem retired at a fee of \u00a320 , 000 but that had fallen to \u00a37 , 000 until sir percy\u2019s success justified an increase to \u00a312 , 000 before fertility problems forced his retirement from covering duties prior to the 2007 season .\nrich hill stud ' s new boy on the block , sir percy , is a stallion with serious sire potential . at two , he attained champion status as an unbeaten winner of 4 races from 1200 - 1400m .\nthe derby is the race that sets the middle - distance standard for the three - year - old generation and although sir percy now wears the mantle , after yesterday ' s blanket finish others will be tugging at it .\nthe trainer is tempted by several factors to go to sandown , including a desire to drop back to a mile and a quarter and not to subject sir percy to his first overnight stay in order to run in ireland .\nbut speaking at a media day at his kingwood house stables just outside lambourn , tregoning said he was : ' 60 / 40 ' in favour of running sir percy in the coral - eclipse stakes at sandown on july 8 .\nthere was another masterful piece of riding earlier in the day when martin dwyer straightened up marcus tregoning ' s promising two - year - old sir percy to win the group two veuve clicquot vintage stakes . the colt had ducked left under the whip but dwyer , having lost the lead , switched his stick and got sir percy back on an even - keel and back up in a driving finish to beat cool creek and black charmer a neck and a short - head .\nsold by denis mcdonnell ' s parkway farm , this colt is out of the mark of esteem mare miss corinne , is a half - brother to three winners , a grand - son of the listed winner percy ' s girl , and from the family of the champion two - year - old of 2005 , derby winner and now first - season sire sir percy .\nand while dylan thomas and dragon dancer duelled , and hala bek rallied there , charging from the pack into a charmed gap along the rails , was sir percy , gallantly answering every one of dwyer ' s questions in his late charge to glory .\ni ' d had him for three months ,\nsaid tregonning .\nit was getting to the stage when something had to go , either the car or sir percy and so it was sir percy . he ' s not a typical two - year - old , he ' s more of a three - year - old . i might run him in the dewhurst but if he goes weak on me i ' ll leave him alone .\nhe is now 40 - 1 for the derby .\nprofessor sir alec john jeffreys . emeritus professor . university of leicester . for services to medical research and society . ( leicestershire )\nprofessor sir cyril chantler . emeritus professor guy\u2019s . king\u2019s and st . thomas\u2019s medical school . for services to leadership in healthcare .\nafter the 2 , 000 guineas it was my worst nightmare when sir percy was not quite sound behind . we even wondered if we should go to france for the french derby [ at chantilly today ] where the track is flatter ,\nhe said .\nof course galileo\u2019s popularity will never wane , but high chaparral was never properly afforded the respect he deserved before his untimely death , sir percy is similarly overlooked and authorized was transferred from dalham hall stud to darley\u2019s french wing at haras du logis some years ago .\nsir percy cox , recently appointed a high commissioner for iraq , was responsible for carrying out the plebiscite . a provisional government set up by cox shortly before the cairo conference passed a resolution in july 1921 declaring fay\u1e63al king of iraq , provided that his \u201cgovernment shall be\u2026\nfor instance dragon dancer , the 66 - 1 outsider who has yet to win a race but failed by only a whisker in the biggest of all under darryll holland .\ni felt sure he could get a place ,\nsaid the trainer geoff wragg , who used to train sir percy ' s dam percy ' s lass ,\nbut this really was so near , yet so far .\nthe scarlet pimpernel was really sir percy blakeney , one of the richest men in england , seen by his peers as a fool , a brainless fop married in a loveless relationship to marguerite . which was , of course , just what percy wanted people to think , as he and his loving wife , herself one of the\nmost clever women in europe\ncontinued to run rings round their opponents .\nas inspector andrew macnutt\u2019s boss , chief commissioner sir percy sherwood needed patience to deal with some people\u2019s exuberance when it came to protecting canada\u2019s borders . it is he who recruits andrew to head his department\u2019s secret service and assigns staff sergeant lacelle to be his second in command .\nthe story starts in 1624 in the netherlands and concerns the scarlet pimpernel\u0092s ancestor , diogenes , aka the first sir percy blakeney . diogenes and his friends socrates and pythagoras swear allegiance to the royalist cause . their undivided loyalty results in many adventures \u0096 and more than one foe .\nrich hill stud have enjoyed outstanding success with foundation sire pentire and the farm ' s new signing has much in common with his established associate . the walton farm , on the outskirts of matamata , has secured the services of shuttle stallion sir percy for the 2009 southern hemisphere season .\nsir percy ernest joske ( 1895 - 1981 ) , politician and judge , was born on 5 october 1895 at albert park , melbourne , youngest of three children of ernest joske , a german - born solicitor , and his victorian - born wife evalyne , n\u00e9e richards . evalyne died giving birth to him and ernest remarried in 1898 . percy was educated at wesley college , where he formed a lifelong friendship with ( sir ) robert menzies and at the university of melbourne ( ll b , 1915 ; ll m , 1918 ; ba , 1921 ; ma , 1923 ) , winning the ( sir ) john madden exhibition and graduating with first - class honours . he signed the bar roll on 25 june 1917 .\nit is this precocity which made sir percy an exciting addition to the uk stallion ranks , and both breeders and purchasers alike have been quick to support him . they have been rewarded by the young sire posting a lifetime winners - to - runners strike - rate of 60 per cent .\nstan james introduced the colt at a top - priced 11 - 4 for the budweiser - sponsored contest at the curragh , a price he shares with hala bek , while coral have seen support for the latter and make him 2 - 1 favourite , with sir percy a 9 - 4 chance .\norczy became famous in 1905 with the publication of the scarlet pimpernel ( originally a play co - written with her husband ) . its background was the french revolution and its swashbuckling hero , sir percy blakeney , was to prove immensely popular . sequel books followed and film and tv versions were later made .\nthe first three foals by derby winner sir percy have arrived , including a colt out of codename , a daughter of the group - winning orford ness . in ireland , abbeville and meadow court studs has a filly out of millay who is closely related to the classic - winning fillies give thanks and harayif .\nsuccess on the racecourse means that sir percy\u2019s offspring have been well received at the sales . his yearlings have sold for up to 260 , 000gns , and his lifetime yearling average in britain and ireland stands at 27 , 072gns \u2013 almost four times his stud fee . in - training purchases include the baronet , selected by leading australian trainer gai waterhouse for 130 , 000gns , and salford art also sold to australia for 110 , 000gns . sir percy\u2019s stakes - placed daughter newsletter was bought by ballylinch stud for 230 , 000gns at the 2015 tattersalls december sale , the same year that love is blindness fetched 190 , 000gns .\nfrom a family that is not short of stamina , sir percy ran a remarkable race on his debut at three when he was second to that thrilling miler george washington in the 2000 guineas . despite that , he was sent off at 6 - 1 for the derby , which was ultimately to prove his last win .\nsir percy ( gb ) b . h , 2003 { 3 - c } dp = 1 - 0 - 5 - 1 - 3 ( 10 ) di = 0 . 54 cd = - 0 . 50 - 7 starts , 5 wins , 1 places , 0 shows career earnings : \u00a31 , 149 , 291\nrich hill stud stallion pentire is chasing his 10th individual group 1 winner when rangirangdoo tackles saturday ' s epsom handicap . rich hill ' s john thompson spoke to nathan exelby about the breeding of rangirangdoo , xcellent ' s exciting younger brother rockferry and the arrival of english derby winner sir percy for stud duties this year .\nbut oh , it was close . as dylan thomas , the perceived third string from ballydoyle - both horatio nelson and septimus were ahead of him in the betting - took the initiative from his 17 rivals after a couple of furlongs sir percy , with martin dwyer riding in only his second derby , was nearer last than first .\nthe pimpernel and his wife appeared in\nthe scarlet pimpernel\n( 1905 ) ,\ni will repay\n( 1906 ) ,\nelusive pimpernel\n( 1908 ) ,\neldorado\n( 1913 ) ,\nlord tony ' s wife\n( 1917 ) ,\nleague of the scarlet pimpernel\n( 1919 ) ,\ntriumph of the scarlet pimpernel\n( 1922 ) ,\nsir percy hits back\n( 1927 ) ,\nadventures of the scarlet pimpernel\n( 1929 ) ,\nway of the scarlet pimpernel\n( 1933 ) ,\nsir percy leads the band\n( 1936 ) and\nmam ' zelle guillotine\n( 1940 ) .\nmark of esteem - percy ' s lass , by blakeney bay , foaled 2003 . breeder : the old suffolk stud . other sons of mark of esteem at stud .\nit has come as no surprise that sir percy\u2019s first three - year - olds have been making their mark , most notably with a second win at listed level for coquet at goodwood and a group 3 placing for cavaleiro in lingfield\u2019s derby trial . bomar has been proving a star turn in scandinavia , collecting a listed win in the swedish derby before his second in the more competitive norwegian derby , while free house remains unbeaten after four starts in denmark and sweden . these are early days for sir percy\u2019s second crop of two - year - olds , but there have already been three winners at home and hyder has a second place in listed company to his credit in milan .\nthe mares that sir percy covered in his first season at lanwades were , with few exceptions , lacking in quality ; nor were they numerous , with a resulting crop of just 50 live foals . given such limited opportunity , it was much to the horse\u2019s credit that 11 of the 30 runners to represent him as juveniles in 2011 won 18 races between them , highlighted by the listed success of coquet in the montrose stakes at newmarket , and the listed placings of alla speranza in ireland and percy jackson in germany .\nthe dam , percy\u2019s lass won the group three september stakes as a four - year - old , having won an oaks trial and been a leading hope for epsom in her classic year . she disappointed her owner as a broodmare , leading to her sale , in foal to mark of esteem , to the old suffolk stud for 28 , 000 gns in 1998 . that foal was sufficiently imposing to see her returned to mark of esteem each year until 2002 , which mating produced sir percy , her final foal .\nthat said , the cheltenham festival provided a terrific advert for derby winners , with authorized , sir percy , high chaparral and none other than galileo each siring at least one winner . it is , however , a double - edged sword for those intent on trying to keep top - class middle - distance horses to the fore as flat sires .\nthe scene was set for a second raid on the prince of wales\u2019s stakes . physically imposing in the paddock beforehand , in the race itself manduro was settled to stalk the pace in third place behind sir percy and notnowcato . two furlongs from home , stephane pasquier pushed the button and manduro swept to the lead where he was quickly joined by dylan thomas .\nmore than half of sir percy\u2019s first crop of 50 foals raced as juveniles , resulting in 11 individual winners of 18 races from 30 starters . in total , he has been represented by 37 individual stakes horses and six group / grade winners , his versatility highlighted by the fact that these have competed in select company over distances ranging from six to 12 furlongs .\nill - fated danehill superstar george washington left behind just one yearling and the filly was offered for sale on day 2 of the tattersalls october yearling sale overnight . george washington ( ex bordighera , by alysheba ) was a dual group 1 winner at two and he returned at three to triumph in the g1 english 2000 guineas , beating subsequent derby winner sir percy .\nborn in ottawa in 1854 , sir percy was the chief of police of ottawa from 1879 to 1882 . he left the ottawa police to become a superintendent of the dominion police . he was made chief commissioner in 1885 . under his command , the force continually expanded its role and responsibilities and had gradually increased in numbers to about 140 when he retired in 1919 .\nthe latter\u2019s retirement from active stud duties made way for canadian champion with approval , group 1 sprinter piccolo and derby winner sir percy to join lanwades early in the new century . in 2009 , the importation of vita rosa from japan opens another chapter in lanwades\u2019 history . archipenko , a group 1 winning son of kingmambo , joined the stallion ranks for the 2010 season .\nour physiotherapist has done an amazing job in building up his muscles again . but every credit to the horse . we were struggling to get him here , but he ' s a street fighter and a battler .\ntregoning was let off with a warning after being stopped for speeding en route to the track , but his dash was nothing compared with sir percy ' s .\nprofessor christopher haslett , obe , frse . sir john crofton professor of respiratory medicine and director , queen\u2019s medical research institute , university of edinburgh . for services to medical research . ( edinburgh )\ndwyer had had a fall at bath the previous evening , but sir percy ' s road to epsom had been even bumpier . the son of mark of esteem was stiff and sore after his fine second place in last month ' s 2 , 000 guineas and tregoning and his team at kingwood stables in berkshire had a race against time to get him ready for his date with destiny .\nhowever , it is sir percy\u2019s achievements as a juvenile that make him such an exciting stallion prospect . the undefeated champion two - year - old in england with the highest \u2018top speed\u2019 rating of his generation , his first win was over six furlongs in may , with later victories coming in the group 2 veuve clicquot vintage stakes and culminating in the group 1 dewhurst stakes at newmarket in october .\ngeorge washington , a dual group one winner at the curragh , beat off competition from amadeus wolf , stablemate horatio nelson , red clubs and sir percy to be named cartier two - year - old colt while in the race for cartier two - year - old filly , group one prix marcel boussac heroine rumplestiltskin came out ahead of donna blini , flashy wings , nannina and silca ' s sister .\nabsent from the track due to injury until the champion stakes in october , sir percy never showed his best form again , well - beaten in four starts in group one company . a glimmer of hope came when fourth to hong kong\u2019s vengeance of rain in the dubai sheema classic after a troubled passage , but back in england trainer marcus tregoning drew stumps after the colt was last in manduro\u2019s prince of wales\u2019s stakes .\noracle west has probably achieved the most overseas courtesy of his second place behind the hong kong champion vengeance of rain in the 2007 dubai sheema classic ( when he finished ahead of such top - class international gallopers as youmzain , sir percy , pop rock , quijano and red rocks ) while surveyor also boasts international group one form , courtesy of his second behind epalo in the singapore airlines international cup at kranji in 2004 .\nit seems a long time since sir percy won the derby in 2006 , with his late thrust on the rail grabbing the spoils from dragon dancer and dylan thomas , and that makes it easy to forget how good he was as a juvenile , remaining unbeaten in four starts , including the group two vintage stakes at goodwood and the group one dewhurst stakes at newmarket , where he accounted for horatio nelson by a neck .\ntinkler has 65 horses in training with eight trainers around the country , including michael dods , who was the first to train for him , sir michael stoute , richard hannon , henry cecil and marco botti .\npercy hillary founded and edited the tuakau district news , and as a sideline , took up beekeeping on land allotted to him after service in the first world war . he believed in healthy eating and exercise and had strong egalitarian beliefs . percy was also a strict disciplinarian , and the young edmund found his beatings for misdemeanours humiliating and often unjust . however , in his mother , gertrude ( a teacher ) , he found a more gentle and nurturing parent .\nin a dramatic photo - finish of inches , with the likely result changing frame by flickering frame , stride by stretching stride to the line , the 6 - 1 shot sir percy stuck his head out as the camera clicked and won the 227th derby by the minimum margin , a short - head . there was not much further between the next three home , dragon dancer , dylan thomas and hala bek . it was the tightest derby finish since 1913 .\nquick - witted and versatile in conversations , legal and social , spender was independent and assertive , with great determination of purpose . his son john described him as \u2018constitutionally incapable of resisting a challenge\u2019 . survived by his wife and the two sons of his first marriage , he died on 3 may 1985 at his home at darling point and was cremated . a bronze bust of sir percy by alex kolozsy ( 1981 ) is held at the national portrait gallery , canberra .\nit all opened up for me . the man to thank is marcus [ tregoning ] . he did a good job just to get us here , and in such great form . it was a rough race and i had to go where i could get a run . he [ sir percy ] pulled up sore in the guineas and missed a fair bit of work - i didn ' t see him until last week , but he showed a tremendous turn of form . i ' m so pleased .\nbut to the victor , the spoils , in this case \u00a3740 , 695 . and the reward was a thorough justification of principals . sir percy , who is trained by marcus tregoning for retired solicitor anthony packenham and his wife victoria , cost just 16 , 000 guineas as a yearling , back - pocket change in the bloodstock world . despite his bargain - basement price tag , he proved himself one of last season ' s top juveniles and after he won the dewhurst stakes , telephone - number bids started coming in .\nafter sir percy\u2019s first two yearling crops sold so well \u2013 averaging more than four times his nomination fee - 25 , 823gns in 2010 and 29 , 789gns in 2011 with top prices of 260 , 000gns , 110 , 000gns , 80 , 000gns \u2013 and the successes achieved by his initial crop of runners , he has naturally proved more popular with breeders , so there are larger and higher - quality crops to follow . meanwhile , he has already got earners of \u00a3337 , 535 , establishing him as a sire with a rising reputation .\nsir percy was never going to be like that . he was a champion two - year - old , starting early with two wins over six furlongs in may and june , and remaining unbeaten , with a dewhurst victory to clinch his title . but those juvenile triumphs came as a bonus . he was actually bred to excel as a three - year - old and those expectations were duly fulfilled when he chased the brilliant miler george washington home in the guineas and gave a display of surpassing gameness to prevail in a hotly - contested derby .\nsir topham hatt , careful to curb over - confidence , expresses paternalistic disappointment in his engines with the admonishment that that they\nhave caused confusion and delay .\nas a reward for good behavior , he assigns them to hard labor on the ever - expanding\nduke and duchess ' summer house ,\nyet another\nspecial special .\nenforcing their role as grateful servants to the sodor upper class , sir topham hatt gives the trains demeaning tasks like picking up his niece , even when their paint jobs are not yet complete ! james the engine has to go out pink , even though his self - worth is tied to being red and he is teased mercilessly by the other engines ! still , the trains speak sir topham hatt ' s name in hushed tones and do whatever he commands without question .\nthe pimpernel has been portrayed several times on screen , starting in 1917 with dustin farnum as the pimpernel , and continuing in 1934 with leslie howard in the title role , 1955 with marius goring playing him for an 18 episode series , 1982 when anthony andrews played sir percy against ian mckellan ' s chauvelin , and 1999 ' s series with richard e . grant as the leading man . he was parodied in 1950 ' s cartoon the scarlet pumpernickel with daffy duck playing the lead , 1975 ' s scarlet pinkernel cartoon starring the pink panther , and in live action in carry on , don ' t lose your head , where sid james played sir rodney ffing a . k . a . the black fingernail . the pimpernel also turned up in blackadder the third , in the episode nob and nobility , where tim mcinnery played the part .\nif you observe closely , that destination is a nasty , brutish one . the trains , complicit in maintaining this unjust system , humiliate each other for the small scraps of praise the little tyrant doles out rather than banding together ( no unions on sodor ) . thomas and percy are supposedly best friends , but they bicker constantly over those\nspecial special\njobs . these rivalries are punctuated by nasty banter (\nthomas knew that percy was scared , so he teased him even more\ndoesn ' t sound like a very healthy friendship ) , which fuels the larger system of cruelty .\nhiro apologizes profusely , almost tearfully (\ni thought i was master of the rails , but i am only master of the muddle\n) , but that is not enough . hiro must go to each individual train to prostrate himself and explain that only sir topham hatt gives orders . he apologizes to each train for giving them instruction , saying\ni was wrong . sir topham hatt didn ' t want that at all .\nonce he has completed his shame tour ( one half - expects hiro to commit hara - kiri than face the depth of his dishonor ) , hiro chugs back to sir topham hatt ' s side , where the benevolent master tells him he is\nhelpful ,\nwhich in turn makes hero\nhappier than he had ever been .\nto say this is a little conservative is like saying that animal farm is a little allegorical .\nhis first sales offerings last year included a \u20ac400 , 000 filly bought by sir robert ogden at deauville in august and \u2013 as an unbeaten champion two - year - old \u2013 hopes must be high for the first runners by the son of galileo , who didn\u2019t run at three because of injury .\nsent off at 25 / 1 for the epsom derby , johnny murtagh sent dylan thomas to the front after 4f and having kicked clear with dragon dancer , it looked as though a fairytale may be about to unfold . however , murtagh mount hung slightly off the rail allowing sir percy up his inside to grab the glory in the final strides with dylan thomas being short - headed by dragon dancer for the runner - up position . it was a hugely promising performance nevertheless and four weeks later he was sent off as the 9 / 2 favourite to gain his revenge on dragon dancer in the irish derby .\nnorthern - based silvestre de sousa hit 100 winners in 2010 , including ladies are forever in redcar\u2019s very valuable two - year - old trophy , with his century supplied by 33 different trainers . sir mark prescott , paul cole and mark johnston are among the brazilian\u2019s admirers and his star is certainly in the ascendancy .\nteacher and educationalist , youth worker , pastor , linguist and bible translator , public speaker and politician , percy chatterton can look back on a remarkably varied career . the foundations were laid in a lower middle class london home before world war i and it was there that his interest in a wide range of subjects was originally stimulated and his particular talents sympathetically encouraged . percy was born at sale on the outskirts of manchester on 8 october 1898 . he was the younger child of henry and alice chatterton whose first child , a daughter , had been born seven years earlier . the family moved to london while percy was still a baby and he was educated first at the stationers\u2019 company school , an establishment of the ancient livery company , and later at the city of london school , which was run by the city corporation . henry chatterton was a freeman of the city and consequently was eligible for certain privileges such as a scholarship for his son at the corporation\u2019s school . without this assistance the chattertons would not have been able to afford the fees .\npercy saw this old hanuabada for the last time in 1942 . a few weeks later the pacific war had swept it away . the village was burned down by labourers living in it and of the pleasant , grass - thatched , palm - leafed walled houses , only the blackened stumps remained , sticking out of the water like betel - nut stained teeth .\nthe 2007 race was no exception . the six runners had won no fewer than nine g1s between them prior to the race , and by the time the sextet were all retired they would have amassed a grand total of 18 top - level victories around the world between them . the contestants included dylan thomas who had a hat - trick of g1 victories to his name including the irish derby , and would go on to land the prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe . joining him in the line - up was the subsequent eclipse stakes winner notnowcato , the previous year\u2019s epsom derby hero sir percy , the breeders\u2019 cup turf winner red rocks , and pressing , who would go on to land g1 races in italy and germany .\nbaroness orczy was born in hungary in 1865 , the daughter of baron felix orczy , a landed aristocrat and well - known composer and conductor . orczy moved with her parents from budapest to brussels and paris , where she was educated . she studied art in london and exhibited work in the royal academy . orczy married montagu barstow and together they worked as illustrators and jointly published an edition of hungarian folk tales . orczy became famous in 1905 with the publication of the scarlet pimpernel ( originally a play co - written with her husband ) . its background of the french revolution and swashbuckling hero , sir percy blakeney , was to prove immensely popular . sequel books followed and film and tv versions were later made . orczy also wrote detective stories .\nby a derby winner out of an oaks fourth , percy\u2019s lass has some serious speed further back in her pedigree , with sprinters urshalim and horama as her fourth and fifth dams . this exceptional family has produced a host of top - class winners including teenoso , most welcome , ashaya , old country , kirtling and lucky sovereign as well as recent winners imperial dancer , rule of law and harayir .\n' marize ' informs me\nthere ' s also a musical about him called the scarlet pimpernel . the plot is a bit different than the books . the show ran for over two years on broadway , closing on january 2 , 2000 . percy was played by douglas sills in the first and second version . this was followed by the first u . s . national tour , which played in thirty - two cities . the tour concluded on april 1 , 2001 in grand rapids , michigan . it is considered the fourth version of the show . scripts and lyrics are available as well as many cds and individual songs . also , for an alias , in the musical , percy ' s disguise is grappin , a belgian , and he works for chauvelin to keep an eye on him .\nshe also recommended the following links :\na keen advocate of uniform divorce law in australia , joske pressed the government to introduce a federal divorce bill . he drafted a private member\u2019s bill , passed as the matrimonial causes act ( 1955 ) , which enabled married women to institute divorce proceedings in the state or territory of their residence . in 1957 he introduced , again as a private member , a comprehensive measure that dealt with the grounds of divorce as well as with questions of jurisdiction . the bill was vigorously debated ; ( sir ) howard beale led the campaign against it on the grounds that it was too narrow and conservative . eventually it was replaced by a government bill that became law as the matrimonial causes act ( 1959 ) . the attorney - general , sir garfield barwick , acknowledged a ` great debt\u2019 to joske\u2019s efforts , which made the uniform divorce legislation possible .\nwhen , in march 1972 , percy was presented with his honorary doctorate of laws at the university of papua new guinea , stuart inder , editor of p . i . m . , was moved to commend his speech of acceptance \u2018for its brevity and the clarity of thought and the humanity that are so typical of the man himself\u2019 . it was a typical chatterton speech , delivered in his unmistakable deep stentorian tones : [ 15 ]\nthere would be no more popular winner of the derby than the queen and in carlton house , her majesty looks to have a live contender . trained by sir michael stoute , carlton house followed a debut second at salisbury with a ninth - length romp in a back - end mile maiden at newbury , after which he was as long as 25 - 1 for the blue riband . he is now half that price .\non the island of sodor , the sun has not yet set on the british empire , and the consequences of defiance are illustrated in parables like\nhiro helps out .\nhiro , asian immigrant ( he is voiced by japanese actor togo igawa , and the images of his island home mirror traditional ukiyo - e woodcuttings ) and onetime\nmaster of the rails ,\nhere oversteps his authority . in an effort to assist sir topham hatt , the\ncontroller of the rails ,\nwho is oddly discombobulated , hiro decides to give the other trains their orders himself . but initiative is not a virtue on the island of sodor , and stepping above one ' s station is a serious offense . when sir topham hatt finds that hiro has appointed himself middle - manager , he is furious (\ni am controller of the railway !\n) .\nin his middle teenage years hillary grew tall , and through boxing found some physical confidence . a school ski trip to mt ruapehu in 1935 gave him his first experience of mountains . \u2018i returned home in a glow of fiery enthusiasm for the sun and the cold and the snow \u2013 especially the snow . \u2019 1 that year the family moved to remuera road , auckland , although percy still had more than 1 , 000 beehives on south auckland farms .\npercy\u2019s decision not to stand for the third house of assembly in february 1972 was perhaps a wise one . had he stood successfully , he would certainly have supported the coalition government on most issues ; one wonders if he would have been temperamentally comfortable on the government benches . his scrutiny of proposed legislation , based on his own strongly held views regardless of party politics , could have been embarrassing to the coalition at times . papua new guineans , he wrote : [ 13 ]\nbecoming interested in state politics during the depression when new south wales premier jack lang introduced \u2018the lang plan\u2019 , in 1932 spender almost stood as a candidate for the recently formed united australia party in the seat of neutral bay , but withdrew in favour of another uap - endorsed candidate . in 1937 he contested the federal seat of warringah as an independent , winning a stunning victory over the incumbent uap member and minister for defence , sir ( robert ) archdale parkhill . campaigning on the lack of preparedness for australia\u2019s defence and the need for youth in government , spender won on australian labor party preferences .\non his appointment to delena , the l . m . s . had suggested to chatterton the possibility of ordination . percy accepted this call and , after some theological studies , was ordained to the ministry of the congregational church in australia in 1943 . this enabled him to exercise the full functions of a pastor , but it is characteristic of him that he did not use his new authority to set up his own little spiritual kingdom . instead he strengthened the l . m . s . system of village congregational meetings and established a central district church council made up of lay members and pastors representing the village congregations . the effect of this organisation was to involve the ordinary members more closely in the affairs of their church and , during chatterton\u2019s last years at delena , the council took an increasingly greater responsibility for the management of the church in the district . percy\u2019s own role was that of adviser , consultant and conciliator when requested by the councillors . this exercise in localisation was well under way at a time when the word was unheard of in the land and the concept , if thought of at all , was paid little more than lip service . the scheme of church government also helped to prepare the people for the later introduction of local government councils .\nwithin the engine ranks , the trains enforce clear hierarchies and mirror the class rigidity of their aristocratic masters .\nsteamies\nare better than\ndirty diesels ,\nand the number of tenders a train commands are his marks of distinction . in misty island rescue , sir topham hatt offers the privilege of pulling special\njobi\nwood to the most useful engine . when\ndiesel\n( that is his name ; his caste merits no proper name ) suggests that he might compete for this honor , thomas laughs at him , saying ,\ni ' m sure [ hatt ] means a really useful steam y ; you ' ll never be that !\nwhen diesel decides to prove thomas wrong by stealing the jobi logs and pulling them himself , thus reinforcing all negative diesel stereotypes , he speeds dangerously out of control . thomas , primarily concerned with saving the cargo , saves diesel as he hangs off a cliff , but loses the wood . thomas is unable to feel much pride in saving another ' s life and sighs balefully over the loss of such valuable timber . sir topham hatt reinforces this perverse value system by bemoaning the loss of the wood , and publicly shames diesel before sending him back to work in a dark tunnel . did i mention that diesel is black ?\nyet the conservatism of thomas and friends is not the conservatism of america . key to the\npick yourself up by your bootstraps\nmythos in the united states is the notion that anyone can rise to the top with hard work and initiative . the thomas series glories instead in true\nwhite man ' s burden\nstyle british imperialism . our hero , thomas , and his friends jockey for positions just below that of the bullying aristocrat sir topham hatt but never seek to rise to his level . the stern , dour little englishman in top hat and tails dangles meaningless honors like getting to\ncarry the most special special\nto divide and conquer the trains .\nanother of percy\u2019s favourite themes that was ahead of its time was the warning that , in allowing and encouraging massive overseas investment by big corporations without careful restrictions and control , the country was in danger of exchanging political for economic colonialism . this has since become a subject for worldwide discussion and concern and the papua new guinea government is now well aware of the problems involved . chatterton also had the satisfaction in 1971 of seeing certain jobs in the private sec\u00adtor , as well as in the public service , reserved for local workers . he had proposed this in november 1968 in the face of outraged opposition from many fellow members . in 1974 , the government was also proposing to set up a national capital district and an om\u00adbudsman\u2019s commission .\nhaving stood unsuccessfully as an independent liberal and country party candidate for the legislative council seat of monash in june 1949 , joske succeeded ( sir ) thomas walter white to the safe liberal seat of balaclava in the house of representatives at a by - election on 28 july 1951 . the sun - herald described him as a ` fluent debater\u2019 , although his ` thin voice\u2019 was ` sometimes lost in house debates\u2019 . he was a member of various parliamentary committees , an australian delegate ( 1955 ) to the tenth session of the general assembly of the united nations in new york , a councillor ( 1956 - 60 ) of the australian national university and chairman ( 1959 - 60 ) of the commonwealth immigration planning council .\nspender\u2019s rise in federal politics over the next four years was circuitous rather than meteoric . joining the uap parliamentary party in 1938 , he was passed over for ministerial positions in the jostling that followed the death of prime minister joseph lyons and the succession of ( sir ) robert menzies , and amid competing demands from the states on the breakdown of coalition with the country party . appointed minister assisting the treasurer ( menzies ) , he became acting - treasurer in november 1939 , then treasurer from march to october 1940 . he advocated high wartime taxes and spending , and allowed a talented young group of economists to apply keynesian ideas to australia\u2019s circumstances . progressive , and supportive of state - directed planning , he flagged industrialisation and population growth as the engines of australia\u2019s postwar economy .\nspender became minister for external affairs and minister for external territories in menzies\u2019 1949 government . although the minister for only sixteen months , he instigated and helped to implement the colombo plan\u2014called initially the \u2018spender plan\u2019\u2014and also negotiated with the us envoy , john foster dulles , the terms of the australia - new zealand - united states treaty . he represented australia at the treaty signing ceremony at san francisco in september 1951 . travelling widely , he had a highly developed sense of geopolitics and of change in the asia - pacific region . as a cold war realist he argued that the soviet union posed a global threat and believed that a soviet setback in europe would increase the prospect of communist interest in asia . he was a leading figure in the liberal party\u2019s plan to outlaw the communist party of australia . vice - president ( 1950 - 51 ) of the fifth general assembly of the united nations , he instructed ( sir ) keith shann , against menzies\u2019 wishes , to vote for a resolution condemning chinese aggression in korea .\nchatterton\u2019s championship of the underdog and his vigilant defence of all citizens\u2019 rights and freedoms is consistent with his background and upbringing . these had also been the concerns of his nonconformist forefathers and percy carried on in papua new guinea the causes of the english reforming dissenters . looking back over his time as a politician , he believes his efforts to raise local wages , the setting up of the national broadcasting commission and the promotion of the bill of human rights to have been his most important achievements . with regard to the last he says : \u2018just how many of the rights set out in the ordinance will survive remains to be seen , but at least it ensures that , if the people of papua new guinea decide to throw them away , or allow them to be taken away , they will know what they are losing\u2019 . his biggest disappointments were the rejection of the ombudsman and the suggestion that a national capital district be created . the latter was an attempt to benefit both the city of port moresby and the rural areas of the central district as well as papua as a whole . if expenditure on the national capital were to be subtracted from the amount allowed in the budget for papua , he believed that a true picture of papua\u2019s comparative neglect in relation to new guinea would be revealed .\nbut in the wake of yesterday ' s thrilling denouement came the chilling other side of the sport ' s spinning coin . inside the final two furlongs horatio nelson , the mount of kieren fallon , broke a foreleg , his gallop reduced in an instant to a grotesque stagger . fallon pulled up and dismounted and the colt was taken from the course in an equine ambulance , but his injuries proved too severe for him to be saved .\nthe newmarket - based packenhams kept their nerve and kept their young star . and all the faith , judgement and patience have been gloriously rewarded on the greatest stage of all .\ndylan thomas still held the call sweeping down the hill to tattenham corner and into the straight , closely pressed by dragon dancer . the pair began to stretch their lead , with no immediate pursuers and going to the final furlong they were still head - to - head in front .\nbut then , towards the middle of the track , the 2 - 1 favourite visindar began to make his move , with hala bek alongside and horatio nelson on their heels . the three came tight together and at this point horatio nelson sustained his fatal injury ."]}
{"id": 1285, "summary": [{"text": "the apeco oldfield mouse ( thomasomys apeco ) is a species of rodent in the family cricetidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is known only from a single locality in north central peru , which includes rio abiseo national park , where it was found in cloud forest at an elevation of 3300 m .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the species name comes from the acronym for the asociacion peruana para la conservacion de la naturaleza .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it is among the largest members of the genus . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "apeco oldfield mouse", "paragraphs": ["thomasomys apeco leo & gardner , 1993 ( apeco oldfield mouse ) apeco is an acronym for asociacion peruana para la conservacion de la naturaleza . [ proc . biol . soc . washington 106 : 417 - 428 . ]\nperomyscus polionotus , a north american cricetid species also called an\noldfield mouse\n.\nthomasomys apeco leo l . m . , gardner a . l . , 1993\nthomasomys is a genus of rodent in the family cricetidae , named after british zoologist oldfield thomas . nuclear dna sequence analysis has indicated that it is a sister taxon to rhagomys . it contains the following species :\nmicrocebus gerpi radespiel et al . , 2012 ( gerp ' s mouse lemur ) named after groupe d ' \u00e9tude et de recherche sur les primates de madagascar ( gerp ) , the research and conservation team that described it .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n- home - - rules - - etymology - - puns - - wordplay - - gene names - - misc . - - references - - feedback -\nadlafia g . moser , h . lange - bertalot & d . metzeltin 1998 ( diatom ) for the association des diatomistes de langue fran\u00e7aise ( a . d . la . f . )\nafgekia craib . ( fabaceae from southeast asia ) named for the collector a rthur f rancis ge orge k err .\nagra bci erwin , 2000 ( ground beetle ) from\nbarro colorado island\n( panama ) , where the beetle was discovered .\nagra catie erwin , 2002 ( carabid ) for centro agronomico tropical de investigacion y ensenanza , a forestry school at turrialba .\namargatitanis macni apestegu\u00eda , 2007 ( titanosaur ) the specific epithet honors the museo argentino de ciencias naturales ( macn ) . [ cretaceous res . 12 : 533 ]\naphandra ( palm ) a partial acronym from the palm genera a mmandra and ph ytelephas , plus - andra ( male , referring to the stamens ) because the stamens are intermediate between those of ammandra and phytelephas .\natelopus farci lynch ( toad ) named after farc , the colombian guerilla army , which used to be active in the toad ' s habitat . if the army had not taken shelter there , the region probably would have been devastated , and the toads would remain unknown to science .\nbacillus isronensis shivaji , et . al . , 2009 this highly ultraviolet - resistant bacterium from the upper stratosphere was discovered by balloon experiments and named for isro , the indian space research organization .\nbacillus safensis venkateswaran , 2004 this bacillus has evolved to survive on spacecraft surfaces in jpl ' s spacecraft assembly facility ( whence its name ) . it is highly resistant to gamma and uv radiation and presumably draws energy from ions of trace metals like aluminum and titanium . it is almost certainly living aboard the mars rovers and may survive as spores for millions of years .\nbacteroides thetaiotaomicron ( distaso 1912 ) castellani and chalmers 1919 ( gut bacterium )\na combination of the greek letters theta , iota , and omicron , relating to the morphology of vacuolated forms\n; i would like to see more explanation .\nbathynema nodinauti miljutin 2009 ( nematode ) honoring the nodinaut research cruise , from\nmanganese nodule area\nand the submarine nautile .\ncanthicaster criobe williams et al . , 2012 ( pufferfish ) after the centre de recherche insulaire et observatoire de l ' environnement in moorea . [ zootaxa 3523 : 84 ]\nchromidotilapia mrac lamboj , 2002 ( cichlid ) after mus\u00e9\u00e9 royal de l ' afrique centrale .\nconophytum armianum hammer , 1988 ( african plant ) from the initials arm of anthony r . mitchell .\ncopiapoa ahremephianus taylor & charles , 2002 ( s . american cactus ) for the initials rmf of roger m . ferryman .\ncsiro medvedev & lawrence , 1984 ( tenebrionid ) after commonwealth scientific and industrial research organisation in australia .\ncsiromedusa and family csirobedusidae ( jellyfish ) also after commonwealth scientific and industrial research organisation in australia .\ndiastylis andeepae alberico & m\u00fchlenhardt - siegel 2010 ( hooded shrimp ) and storthyngurella andeepae malyutina & brandt 2004 ( isopoda : munnopsididae ) both named after the antarctic deep - sea biodiversity expeditions ( andeep ) .\ndrinker nisti bakker et al . , 1990 ( ornithopod dinosaur ) after the national institute of standards and technology ( of the u . s . dept . of commerce ) .\nit ' s the only dinosaur named after an arm of the federal government . someday i ' m going to name one after the i . r . s .\n- robert bakker .\negatochoerus ( oldest named peccary ) from egat , electricity generating authority of thailand ( and choer , young pig ) .\nemausaurus haubold , 1990 ( jurassic thyreophoran dinosaur ) named for the ernst - moritz - arndt - universit\u00e4t of greifswald , germany .\neoabelisaurus mefi pol & rauhut , 2012 ( theropod dinosaur ) in recognition of the support of the museo paleontol\u00f3gico egidio feruglio ( mef ) in argentina .\nesconites thompson & johnson , 1977 ( fossil polychaete worm ) , and esconichthys bardack , 1974 ( fossil lungfish ) both are from the mazon creek formation in illinois and are named after the earth science club of northern illinois ( esconi ) .\neurycea sosorum chippindale , price , hillis , 1993 ( barton springs salamander ) the salamander has a very small range .\nthe species is named in honor of the citizens of austin , texas , whose efforts to protect the quality of barton springs resulted in the passage of a citizen ' s aquifer - protection initiative in 1992 . this initiative is known locally as the sos ( save our springs ) ordinance , and its supporters as sosers . the specific name sosorum is the plural mixed - gender genitive form of the acronym sos .\n[ herpetologica 49 : 248 - 259 ]\nfubarichthys ( fossil fish ) usually found with its head disarticulated , or fubar ( f * cked up beyond all recognition ) .\nhabronestes boq baehr , 2008 ( spider ) for the bank of queensland . ( see named after things . )\nhaptoclinus dropi baldwin and robertson , 2013 ( blenny fish ) discovered as part of the smithsonian ' s deep reef observation project ( drop ) .\nhelacyton van valen & maiorana , 1991 ( hela cell culture ) . hela is a cell culture derived from a cervical cancer of henrietta lacks , hence the name . (\nhela\nwas preoccupied by a crustacean . ) it is described as a new species because it is widespread and feral . by some systematics conventions , it is a unicellular species of human . [ evolutionary theory 10 : 71 ]\nhypogena cat steiner , 2005 ( tenebrionid beetle ) honoring tenebrionid specialist charles a . triplehorn . not coincidentally , the beetle has three horns . [ annales zoologici 55 : 574 . ]\ninpaichthys g\u00e9ry & junk , 1977 ( tetra ) named for inpa , the brazilian instituto nacional de pesquisas da amazonia . also : crenicichla inpa ploeg , 1991 ( cichlid ) and aguarunichthys inpai zuanon , rapp py - daniel & jegu , 1993 ( siluroid fish ) , bryconops inpai knoppel et al . , 1968 ( charaoid fish ) , and phytocerum inpa costa et al . , 2003\nisisaurus wilson & upchurch , 2003 ( cretaceous titanosaur ) named after the indian statistical institute .\nlasioglossum gattaca danforth & wcislo , 1999 ( halticid bee ) referring to the genetic code , whose bases abbreviated a , t , c , and g , and no doubt influenced by the 1997 sci - fi movie\ngattaca .\n[ annals of esa 92 : 624 ]\nmaelestes gobiensis wible et al . 2007 . ( late cretaceous placental mammal )\nmae\nis the acronym for mongolian academy of sciences - american museum of natural history expeditions .\nmelanotaenia angfa ( rainbowfish ) in honour of the australia new guinea fishes association .\nnatalichthys ori winterbottom , 1980 ( fish ) for the oceanographic research institute , durban , south africa .\nnatalichthys sam winterbottom , 1980 ( fish ) named for s . a . m . , the south african museum , where the specimen was found .\nocepechelon bardet et al . 2013 ( cretaceous sea turtle )\ngenus name from ocp , acronym for the groupe office ch\u00e9rifien des phosphates , the mining company exploiting phosphatic deposits in morocco\n, plus the greek for\nturtle\n.\npachyplichas jagmi millener 1988 ( new zealand stout - legged wren , now extinct ) . after the initials of palaeontologist john a . grant - mackie .\npangolinisis cia alderslade , 1998 ( gorgonian ) found attached to an australian submarine phone cable , although perhaps not listening in as one might expect from the american c . i . a .\nphysalaemus enesefae heatwole , solano & heatwole , 1965 ( leptodactylid frog ) named after nsf ( national science foundation ) .\npygopleurus rufovillescens undofi keith , 2001 ( beetle ) named after the united nations disengagement observer force . found on part of the golan hights controlled by un soldiers .\nrusichthys winterbottom , 1979 ( fish ) named for the collection at the jlb smith institute of ichthyology ( now the south african institute for aquatic biodiversity ) ;\nr . u . s . i .\n( rhodes university smith institute ) prefixes all specimen catalog numbers . mimoblennius rusi springer & spreitzer , 1978 ( rusi blenny ) gets its name from the same source .\nstenocrates inpai ratcliffe , 1978 ( scarab beetle ) for i . n . p . a . ( institutional nacional de pesquisas da amazonia ) in brazil .\ntanganicodus irsacae ( cichlid ) for irsac , the central african science research institute .\ntaymyroceras niiga bodylevski , 1958 ( jurassic cephalopod ) after nauchno issledovatelski institut geologii arctiki ( scientific institute of the arctic geology ) ; published in the transactions of the same institute .\ntianchiasaurus nedegoapeferkima dong & holden , 1992 ( ankylosaurid dinosaur ) after jurassic park stars\nsam ne ill , laura de rn , jeff go ldblum , sir richard a ttenborough , bob pe ck , martin fer rero , wayne k night , ariana r i chards , & joseph ma zzello\n. ( the genus is named after lake tian chi . ) the name was proposed by steven speilberg , who donated money for chinese dinosaur research . the genus was originally named jurassosaurus before it was formally described .\ntrichogramma esalqueanum querino & zucchi , 2003 ( wasp ) for escola superior de agricultura\nluiz de queiroz\n.\ntrophomera ifremeri ( miljutin , 2004 ) ( nematode ) after institut fran\u00e7ais de recherche pour l ' exploitation de la mer , brest ( ifremer ) .\ntrombicula fujigmo philip & fuller , 1950 ( chigger ) after wwii slang - -\nf * ck you , jack , i got my orders\n.\ntyphochlaena amma bertani , 2012 ( tarantula ) for the aracn\u00eddeos e miri\u00e1podes da mata atl\u00e2ntica project .\nvegavis iaai clarke et al . 2005 ( cretaceous bird ) named for the argentine antarctica institute ( iaa ) . [ nature 433 : 305 ]\nuladendron codesuri marcano - berti ( tree , malvaceae ) ula = universidad de los andes , m\u00e9rida , venezuela ; codesur = comisi\u00f3n para el desarrollo del sur ( de venezuela ) .\nunescoceratops niedzwiedzki et al . , 2012 ( ceratopsid dinosaur ) named to honor the unesco world heritage site where it was found . [ cretaceous research 33 : 7 ]\nurbacodon averianov & sues , 2007 ( theropod dinosaur ) the\nurbac -\nhonors the uzbek , russian , british , american , and canadian scientists who participated in the discovery . the description was based only on teeth , hence the\n- don\n, tooth .\nverma ansp b\u00f6hlke , 1968 ( now apterichtus ansp ) ( eel ) indicated to be an arbitrary combination of letters , but actually the acronym for academy of natural sciences of philadelphia , where the author worked .\nvnigriceras saveliev , 1973 ( cretaceous cephalopod ) named after vserossijskij neftjanoy nauchno - isdledovatelskij geologorazvedochnyi institut ( all - russian oil scientific and geological survey institute , in leningrad ) , abridged to vnigri in russian . saveliev also named myophorella vnigri 1960 ( jurassic bivalve ) and sonneratia ( eosonneratia ) vnigri , 1973 ( cretaceous cephalopod )\n< < - home - - rules - - etymology - - puns - - wordplay - - gene names - - misc . - - references - - feedback - > >\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\ncopyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 ebay inc . all rights reserved . accessibility , user agreement , privacy , cookies and adchoice\nmusser , g . g . ; carleton , m . d . ( 2005 ) .\nsuperfamily muroidea\n. in wilson , d . e . ; reeder , d . m . mammal species of the world ( 3rd ed . ) . johns hopkins university press . pp . 894\u20131531 . isbn 978 - 0 - 8018 - 8221 - 0 . oclc 62265494 .\nd ' el\u00eda , g . ; luna , l . ; gonz\u00e1lez , e . m . ; patterson , b . d . ( february 2006 ) .\non the sigmodontinae radiation ( rodentia , cricetidae ) : an appraisal of the phylogenetic position of rhagomys\n. molecular phylogenetics and evolution ( elsevier ) 38 ( 2 ) : 558\u2013564 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . ympev . 2005 . 08 . 011 . pmid 16213166 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ndelivery is free to any new zealand address . no matter where your item is going .\nwe use 100 % pci dss compliant payment services . that means your payment information is always protected , and never gets seen by anyone .\nreturn any item within 30 days of delivery . it doesn\u2019t matter why you want to return your item , you can free of charge !\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages ."]}
{"id": 1286, "summary": [{"text": "mimagoniates microlepis , also known as the blue tetra ( a common name shared with tyttocharax madeirae , knodus borki , and possibly other characidae , as well ) , the croaking tetra ( a name also applied to mimagoniates inequalis and mimagoniates lateralis ) , the small-scaled tetra , is a species of tetra in the genus mimagoniates .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "first identified by franz steindachner in 1876 and named coelurichthys microlepis , it has also been identified as coelurichthys iporangae ( miranda-ribeiro , 1908 ) , coelurichthys lateralis , and mimagoniates iporangae ( mcallister , 1990 ) besides its current taxonomic classification .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "there is evidence of a variety called m. microlepis ' joinville ' which might be synonymous with paragoniates microlepis . ", "topic": 16}], "title": "mimagoniates microlepis", "paragraphs": ["mimagoniates microlepis schultz , 1959 : 11 ( in part , 1 specimen of m . barberi in usnm 86296 , misidentified as m . microlepis ) .\nmimagoniates cf . microlepis g\u00e9ry , 1964 : 6 , ( discussion ; osteology of caudal and anal fins ) .\nmimagoniates inequalis , known as the croaking tetra , is a species of tetra in the genus mimagoniates .\nmimagoniates regan , 1907 : 402 [ type species : mimagoniates barberi regan ( 1907 : 402 ) by monotypy ] .\nmimagoniates inequalis schultz , 1959 : 63 ( in part only , one specimen of m . microlepis , usnm 177704 , was misidentified as m . inequalis ) .\ndiagnosis . mimagoniates rheocharis may be separated from all other species of mimagoniates by the presence of sturdy hooks on some principal caudal - fin rays . among the species of mimagoniates presence of hooks on some caudal - fin rays also occurs in m . microlepis and m . pulcher , but in these species they are spiny . mimagoniates rheocharis and m . microlepis , however , have fully developed caudal - fin ray pumps ( figs . 75 and 85 ) whereas in m . pulcher the pump is only partially developed ( fig . 47 ) . additionally m . rheocharis differs from m . microlepis by the number of scale rows around caudal peduncle ( 19 to 23 vs . 15 to 18 for m . microlepis ) and scales rows between dorsal - fin and anal - fin origins ( 17 to 21 vs . 13 to 16 for m . microlepis ) .\nin character descriptions below clade a outgroups refer to the taxa included in characid clade a of malabarba & weitzman ( 2003 ) . character descriptions refer comparatively to figures of each species presented along the text in this sequence : lophiobrycon weitzmani , figs . 3 - 10 ; glandulocauda melanopleura , figs . 11 - 19 ; glandulocauda caerulea , figs . 20 - 28 ; mimagoniates inequalis , figs . 29 - 35 ; mimagoniates barberi , figs . 36 - 44 ; mimagoniates pulcher , figs . 45 - 51 ; mimagoniates lateralis , figs . 52 - 62 ; mimagoniates sylvicola , figs . 63 - 69 ; mimagoniates rheocharis , figs . 70 - 76 ; mimagoniates microlepis , figs . 77 - 95 .\nkey words : south america , lophiobrycon , glandulocauda , mimagoniates , taxonomy , biogeography .\npresence of sturdy hooks on 11 th principal caudal - fin ray ( fig . 75 ) is an autapomorphy of mimagoniates rheocharis . the caudal - fin hooks in other species of mimagoniates are spine - like .\nremarks . myers , in eigenmann & myers ( 1929 : 492 ) examined the type of mimagoniates lateralis amnh 4072 , and identified it as a female m . microlepis . schultz ( 1959 : 11 ) did not examine the type but nevertheless identified the species as m . inequalis and confused specimens of both these species and m . microlepis as m . microlepis . see also discussions under m . microlepis and m . inequalis . the fine photograph of m . lateralis published in axelrod ( 1959 : 12 ) was identified as m . microlepis therein , as m . barberi in harald schultz ( 1959 : 47 ) , as m . inequalis in l . p . schultz ( 1959 : 8 ) and as m . tenuis by g\u00e9ry ( 1977 : 357 ) . l . p . schultz ( 1959 : 11 ) , again without examining the type specimen , identified m . tenuis actually a male of m . lateralis , as a specimen of m . microlepis .\ndistribution . mimagoniates microlepis is widely distributed in the coastal area from southern bahia to northern rio grande do sul and also in the upper rio igua\u00e7u and rio tibagi , upper rio paran\u00e1 basin , brazil . see figure 3 in menezes et al . ( 2008 ) .\nremarks . the discussion of meristic and morphometric differences as well as possible hybrid origins involving m . microlepis , m . rheocharis and m . inequalis in menezes & weitzman ( 1990 : 416 - 421 ) are not repeated here . for further comments on relationships of m . microlepis see the\nphylogeny\nsection .\nmimagoniates sp . c , weitzman et al . , 1988 : 411 - 412 ( osteology of caudal fin ) .\ncoelurichthys tenuis myers , in eigenmann & myers , 1929 : 491 , 492 ( type examined and erroneously referred it to m . microlepis ) . - rachow , in holly meinken & rachow , 1950a : 755 ( followed myers , in eigenmann & myers 1929 : 491 , 492 in referring this nominal species to m . microlepis ) .\nmimagoniates melanogenys schultz , 1959 : 10 ( in key ; new generic allocation ) . see below notes on type locality .\nmimagoniates sp . n . menezes et al . , 2008 : 39 , 40 ( distribution ; discussion of biogeography ) .\nin addition to the genera listed above under stevardiinae , weitzman ( 2003 ) listed glandulocauda and mimagoniates in his glandulocaudinae , but as discussed here , weitzman et al . ( 2005 ) restricted the use of this name to three genera , lophiobrycon , glandulocauda and mimagoniates .\nthe cladogram depicting the phylogenetic relationships of the genera and species of the group ( fig . 2 ) essentially confirms the results expressed in menezes et al . ( 2008 ) , the only difference being the lack of a sister group clade including mimagoniates rheocharis and m . microlepis in the cladogram herein included . the conclusions concerning the evolutionary history and present distribution of lophiobrycon , glandulocauda and mimagoniates and their respective species in that publication are here accepted and not repeated .\netymology . the name pulcher is from the latin meaning beautiful and refers to the usual blue color of the species of mimagoniates when alive .\nschultz , h . 1959 . the mimagoniates species . tropical fish hobbyist , 7 ( 10 ) : 46 - 53 . [ links ]\ndiagnosis . mimagoniates microlepis can be distinguished from all the other species of mimagoniates except m . rheocharis by the presence of a fully developed caudal - fin ray pump and hooks on some principal caudal - fin rays . in addition to having caudal - fin hooks spiny ( vs . sturdy in m . rheocharis ) , m . microlepis differs from m . rheocharis by the number of horizontal scale rows between dorsal - and anal - fin origins ( 15 - 18 vs . 17 - 22 for m . rheocharis ) , scales around caudal peduncle ( 15 - 18 vs . 19 - 23 for m . rheocharis ) , and coloration as discussed in the diagnosis of m . rheocharis .\ndistribution . mimagoniates sylvicola is known from small streams in southern bahia , brazil . see figure 3 in menezes et al . ( 2008 ) .\nremarks . the glandulocaudins examined and reported by schultz ( 1959 ) need critical discussion to clear up some of the confusion of the species names used in the texts and for the photographs published by axelrod ( 1958 ) , harald schultz ( 1959 ) , and l . p . schultz ( 1959 ) . the collecting trip reported by axelrod ( 1958 ) where specimens of mimagoniates were collected , was in the region near santos , in the state of s\u00e3o paulo . axelrod ( 1958 : 13 - 15 ) noted that mimagoniates species identifications were questionable . collections available to us from this region indicate that two species of mimagoniates occur there , m . lateralis from blackwater streams and m . microlepis from clear water streams . axelrod ( 1958 : 15 and the color photograph on page 12 ) discussed and illustrated a species of mimagoniates found in black acid waters identified as m . microlepis by harald schultz that we identify as m . lateralis . axelrod ( 1958 : 17 ) reported but did not illustrate another species , called mimagoniates barberi ( ? ) from open waters . this is possibly m . microlepis . a color photograph on page 13 , illustrates two specimens identified as m . inequalis . the fish pictured at the left is probably an adult m . inequalis because the dark stripe on the anal fin does not closely approach the distal margin of the fin , especially anteriorly . the specimen at right is most probably an immature moderate - sized specimen of m . microlepis because the dark anal - fin stripe does closely approach the distal margin of the fin . mimagoniates inequalis is unknown from the region near santos and the photograph is likely one that harald schultz made of specimens collected in rio grande do sul state . axelrod ( 1959 : 39 ) mentions collecting a species of mimagoniates on another expedition , this time to rio de janeiro state , but no photographs or comments were made about the species . this species would be been m . microlepis , the only species to occur in this state according information at hand .\nnelson ( 1964a : 63 - 65 ) in part reviewed the nomenclatural history of the nominal species of mimagoniates , glandulocauda , and coelurichthys . he also examined the types of m . barberi , specimens of m . inequalis , types of m . lateralis [ which both he and g\u00e9ry referred to as m . tenuis ( nichols ) ] and specimens of m . microlepis . note that weitzman & fink ( 1985 : 106 , 109 ) , just as nelson ( 1964a : 64 ) , after his study was in press , concluded that m . lateralis is a senior synonym of m . tenuis because the holotypes of these nominal species are a male and a female of the same species . mimagoniates lateralis has page precedence regarding m . tenuis . nelson ( 1964a ) further placed m . microlepis and m . lateralis in coelurichthys and based his judgment on the correct observation that m . inequalis was closer anatomically to the type species of mimagoniates , m . barberi . because m . lateralis and m . microlepis are different in their caudal structures from m . barberi and m . inequalis , he considered himself justified in placing m . lateralis and m . microlepis in coelurichthys . his observations of the differences in courtship behavior of m . inequalis , m . lateralis , and m . microlepis also influenced his decision . a decision to recognize coelurichthys using nelson ' s criteria remains subjective . below we explain our reasons for rejecting coelurichthys as a valid genus .\nfor example , schultz ( 1959 ) used the oldest available generic name , mimagoniates , for all the species of glandulocauda and mimagoniates . in this case the generic name would be equivalent in taxonomic level to the clade including the species of these two genera ( fig . 2 ) accepted here .\nmenezes & weitzman ( 1990 : 416 - 421 ) discussed the possible hybrid origins of m . rheocharis from m . inequalis and m . microlepis through introgression , concluding that although such an origin might be possible , the data then available allowed sister species status between m . rheocharis and m . microlepis . in view of the phylogenetic analysis undertaken herein , however , that tentative conclusion will have to be reevaluated .\nremarks . menezes & weitzman ( 1990 : 414 - 416 ) discussed statistical comparisons of meristic and morphometric data between m . rheocharis and m . microlepis . these are not repeated here . although some overlap was found in many characters , significant differences were found in most of the features compared . similar comparisons and results were made with mimagoniates inequalis in the same publication .\nmimagoniates inequalis schultz , 1959 : 11 , 63 ( in part , misidentified specimens of m . lateralis , usnm 94117 , as m . inequalis ) .\ninequalis , known as the croaking tetra , is a species of tetra in the genus mimagoniates . it was previously classified as glandulocauda inequalis . . . more\nscales cycloid , with more radii along posterior border , including terminal scale of modified caudal - fin series than in any other mimagoniates species ( fig . 48 ) .\ncoelurichthys lateralis myers in eigenmann & myers , 1929 : 491 , 492 ( type examined and erroneously referred it to m . microlepis ) . - rachow in holly , meinken & rachow , 1950a : 755 ( referred species to m . microlepis following myers , in eigenmann & myers , 1929 : 491 , 492 . - schultz , 1959 : 11 ( followed myers , in eigenmann and myers , 1929 : 491 , 492 ) . - nelson , 1964a : 65 ( in part ; found female type of c . lateralis difficult to identify and could not decide whether it was c . microlepis or c . tenuis but if latter , c . lateralis would have priority because of page precedence ) .\ncroaking tetra ( coelurichthys microlepis ) - not often found for sale , they are an attractive fish that is worth shopping around for . like other coldwater tetras , they are easy to care for and are suitable for community tanks . more\ntorres , r . a . , t . s . motta , d . nardino , m . l . adam & j . ribeiro . 2007 . chromosomes , rapds and evolutonary trends of the neotropical fish mimagoniates microlepis ( teleostei : characidae : glandulocaudinae ) from coastal and continental regions of the atlantic forest , southern brazil . acta zoologica ( stockholm ) , 88 : 1 - 7 . [ links ]\nlampert , v . r . , m . a . azevedo & c . b . fialho . 2003 . h\u00e1bito alimentar de mimagoniates microlepis steindachner , 1876 ( characidae : glandulocaudinae ) do canal de liga\u00e7\u00e3o entre as lagoas emboaba e emboabinha , rio grande do sul , brasil . comunica\u00e7\u00f5es do museu de ci\u00eancias e tecnologia da pucrs , s\u00e9rie zoologia , 16 ( 1 ) : 3 - 16 . [ links ]\nmimagoniates sp . menezes , 2007 : 38 ( listed ) . - menezes et al . , 2008 : 33 , 38 , 41 , 43 ( discussion of relationships ) .\nadult males of the species of mimagoniates have 0 to 1 hooks on those anal - fin rays that bear hooks ( figs . 33 , 39 , 50 , 56 , 65 , 73 and 81 ) , except that some might have an additional very small hook on anterior most branched anal - fin ray ( see fig . 33 of mimagoniates inequalis ) .\nremarks . the structure of the caudal organ of mimagoniates pulcher is more similar to that of m . barberi than to any other species of mimagoniates ( compare fig . 47 to fig . 38 ) . since fig . 47 is based on a developing male it might be possible that in mature males the caudal organ is more developed and attains a modified structure .\ncoalurichthys iporangae miranda - ribeiro , 1908 ( unpaginated ) ; type locality :\nribeir\u00e3o das pedras , iporanga\n; spelling error for generic name ; see generic synonymy for mimagoniates .\nhoutan , a . 1990b . mimagoniates barberi , regan . characoids , newsletter international characin association , lancashire , england , 1990 ( 6 ) : 1 - 21 . [ links ]\ndistribution . mimagoniates rheocharis occurs in small coastal streams and rivers from santa catarina to northern rio grande do sul , brazil . see figure 3 in menezes et al . ( 2008 ) .\ndata from costa ( 1987 ) indicate that m . microlepis lives near the surface and feeds mostly on terrestrial arthropods . sabino & castro ( 1990 ) found that it is primarily insectivorous and that 73 . 6 % of its diet consists of items that fall into the water , especially insects ( 63 . 15 % ) and arachnids ( 10 . 5 % ) . essentially the same results were obtained by lampert et al . ( 2003 ) who concluded that m . microlepis is insectivorous regardless of size and sex .\ncroaking tetra ( coelurichthys microlepis ) - easy to care for and are suitable for community tanks . guppy ( poecilia reticulata ) - many attractive variations hillstream loach es - not all of them like cool temperatures , but do well with temperatures in the upper sixties . more\ncroaking tetra ( coelurichthys microlepis ) - easy to care for and are fit for community tanks . guppy ( poecilia reticulata ) - many attractive variations hillstream loach es - not all of them like self - controlled temperatures , but do well with temperatures in the upper sixties . more\nharald schultz ( 1959 ) discussed the species of mimagoniates and glandulocauda but seemed aware of only three species , m . barberi , m . microlepis and g . inequalis . in this publication schultz recognized m . lateralis as m . barberi ( the name often used at that time for m . lateralis in the european and american ornamental fish trade ) . the photograph labeled as of m . barberi is of m . lateralis . schultz ( 1959 ) correctly gives the range of what he designates as m . barberi as found in blackwater streams from the city of santos south to the state of santa catarina . this time he appears to have correctly identified m . microlepis and states that it is found in the coastal plains from north of rio de janeiro south to paran\u00e1 and santa catarina states , a range nearly equal to that recorded below for that species . schultz ( 1959 : 52 ) found g . inequalis ( = m . inequalis of the present report ) south of the range of m . microlepis in rio grande do sul state . he found m . inequalis and m . microlepis only in clear water . interestingly in regard to menezes & weitzmann ( 1990 : 416 - 422 ) discussion of the possible hybrid origin of m . rheocharis , schultz found both m . inequalis and m . microlepis living together . ( see discussion under m . rheocharis ) . a jar of 14 specimens of m . inequalis plus one of m . microlepis , usnm 177704 ( all identified as m . inequalis by l . p . schultz , 1959 : 63 ) , and said to be collected in porto alegre might tend to confirm this overlap in geographical range . there is no information that all these specimens are from one locality near porto alegre . the lot was entered into the usnm catalog on 4 february , 1959 , and the fishes were collected sometime previous to that date .\nhoutan , a . 1990a . ( color photograph of live mimagoniates barberi ) . characoids , newsletter international characin association , lancashire , england , 1990 ( 4 ) : 1 - 21 . [ links ]\nmenezes & weitzman ( 1990 : 384 - 385 ) and weitzman & fink ( 1985 : 22 ) demonstrated that not only are the two species g . melanopleura and g . caerulea ( their g . melanogenys and g . melanopleura respectively ) distinct from the species of mimagoniates , including m . inequalis , but that the species of mimagoniates accepted by them form a monophyletic group with the two species of glandulocauda belonging to an outgroup of uncertain monophyly other than they are members of what we formerly considered to be the tribe glandulocaudini . they noted that they had no synapomorphies with testable polarity hypotheses to unite these two species in the monophyletic genus glandulocauda and left these terminal taxa in an unresolved trichotomy with a third line leading to the species of mimagoniates . weitzman & menezes ( 1998 ) considered glandulocauda as sister group of mimagoniates both genera forming clade 2 of their glandulocaudinae . more recently castro et al . ( 2003 ) included their new genus lophiobrycon in the glandulocaudini ( our glandulocaudinae ) as a sister group for the clade including glandulocauda and mimagoniates .\ndistribution . mimagoniates lateralis is restricted to small blackwater streams , rivers and ponds in the coastal area between santos , s\u00e3o paulo and santa catarina , brazil . see figure 3 in menezes et al . ( 2008 )\nschultz , l . p . 1959 . generic status of mimagoniates and glandulocauda , south american characid fishes . tropical fish hobbyist , 8 ( 2 ) : 6 - 10 , 63 , 64 . [ links ]\nanother name for a croaking tetra is a mimagoniates inequalis source : digital fish funnel , july 27 , 2004 report as bad entry | send to a friend via email add your own definition of croaking tetra . more\nanal - fin branched ray counts , number of scales ( horizontal scale rows on body , horizontal scale rows around caudal peduncle , lateral - series scales and predorsal scales ) , and number of vertebrae of mimagoniates microlepis showed significant differences among population samples of the species ( figs . 89 and 90 ) . for the purpose of comparison , the samples were grouped within the biogeographical coastal subregions defined by menezes ( 1988 : 300 ) . comparing only samples included in the north coastal subregion with the samples included in the more southern upland areas of paran\u00e1 the respective ranges and medians are significantly different , with very little overlap in some cases . however , the same values for the intermediate samples included in the south coastal and in the two central coastal subregions bridge the gap . thus there is a pattern of latitudinal variation of characters than sharp differences that would justify the recognition of more than one species . the recent discovery of specimens identified as m . microlepis from the rio tibagi basin ( sant ' anna et al . , 2006 ) flowing through the upper paran\u00e1 basin demonstrates that it is more widespread than previously indicated . the distribution of some isolated populations of m . microlepis is discussed by menezes et al . ( 2008 ) . until a more detailed analysis of character variation within the range of m . microlepis can be performed , we prefer for the moment to consider it a widespread species represented by isolated populations .\nanother sample of mimagoniates , usnm 177703 , listed as collected in porto alegre , and identified by schultz ( 1959 : 11 ) as m . microlepis , is rather m . lateralis . the known southern most locality for m . lateralis is santa catarina state , rio vermelho , barra do sul in ilha de s\u00e3o francisco , about 35 km from joinville , sc , 26\u00b014 ' s 48\u00b035 ' w , a location far from porto alegre , rs . this raises question to the locality information for usnm 177703 and 177704 .\nthe premaxillary teeth of mimagoniates are relatively compressed , suggesting a multicuspid incisor rather than the often thick , rounded basal portion multicuspid tooth typical of many\ntetragonopterines\n. in some of the smaller species of mimagoniates ( e . g . m . inequalis , approximately 30 . 0 - 35 . 0 mm sl ) the teeth on the premaxilla , are in a row . the two posterior most teeth are clearly in a single row , the next tooth inclines medially somewhat , but it is in line with the two posterior teeth . the next anterior tooth lies in the same somewhat curved plane as the two posterior most teeth . the next three teeth have their basal attachments not exactly aligned with the others , but it is difficult to characterize two rows . much larger ( 60 . 0 mm sl ) specimens of m . microlepis , for example , may have as many as 12 teeth on a premaxilla . gradations of the two arrangements just described occur in young to adult m . microlepis and many of the other species in the genus show intermediate conditions . under these circumstances we do not describe the premaxillary teeth of mimagoniates as being in two rows . we therefore consider the premaxillary teeth as forming a single unit rather than artificially divide the teeth into two rows .\nmimagoniates melanopleura schultz , 1959 : 8 , 9 ( in key , generic allocation ) . - duboc & menezes , 2008 : 63 ( conservation status ; general informations ; geographic distribution ; main threats ; conservation strategies ) .\na few life color characters differentiate in fully mature males : the pelvic - fin rays and membranes of adult males are distally white whereas in m . microlepis the yellow and / or black pigment of the pelvic fins are continuous to edge of the fin where fin is bordered by a narrow band of white ; the portion of the anal fin posterior to the anterior lobe is bordered by a broad band of deep yellow pigment , with very little to no black pigment on fin ; in m . microlepis the posterior portion of the anal fin is ventrally bordered by a narrow band of black pigment , and none or very little yellow pigment .\ndistribution . the only available sample of mimagoniates pulcher originated from an uncertain locality in the upper rio paraguai in mato grosso , brazil ( see notes on the type locality ) . see fig . 3 in menezes et al . ( 2008 ) .\nweitzman , s . h . & n . a . menezes . 1994 . as especies de glandulocauda e mimagoniates , peixes glandulocaud\u00edneos do brasil , paraguai e nordeste do uruguai . habitat , 1 ( 1 ) : 1 - 8 . [ links ]\ngraphs or tables presenting the mean , standard deviation or the 95 % confidence intervals , standardly presented in systematic research , often poorly represent the structure of nonparametric data sets and thus may be misleading . to better reflect the structure of non - normal data sets we use comparative box plots of meristic data . we suggest that graphs comparing such plots are useful for identifying clines of data from a series of isolated populations that are geographically arranged in a linear fashion , for example see our treatment of the series of geographically adjacent populations of mimagoniates microlepis . comparative graphs of nonparametric meristic data sets , represented by tukey box plots of ranked data , were prepared from combined population samples of each species , and for m . microlepis , for certain geographically isolated population samples . these graphs comparatively display ranked data sets as tukey box plots laid on their sides so that geographical and / or other information could be included . the methods are explained in weitzman & malabarba ( 1999 ) .\nparagoniates microlepis steindachner , 1877 : 33 ( type locality :\nb\u00e4che in der n\u00e4he von rio de janeiro , rio dos macacos\n; although this volume is for the year 1876 and often so cited the date of publication was 1877 ) . - eigenmann & eigenmann , 1891 : 57 ( listed ) . - eigenmann , 1910 : 441 ( listed ) .\npecio , a . & j . rafi\u00f1ski . 1994 . structure of the testes , spermatozoa and spermatozeugmata of mimagoniates barberi regan , 1907 ( teleostei : characidae ) , an internally fertilizing , oviparous fish . acta zoologia , 75 : 179 - 185 . [ links ]\nweitzman , s . h . , n . a . menezes and j . r . burns , 1996 . species of the glandulocaudine tetra tribe glandulocaudini : the genus mimagoniates . trop . fish hobbyist 19 ( 6 ) : 184 - 194 . ( ref . 30267 )\nweitzman , s . h . , l . palmer , j . r . burns & n . a . menezes . 1996 . breeding and rearing mimagoniates species , internally fertilized tetras . tropical fish hobbyist , 44 ( 12 ) : 196 - 205 . [ links ]\nglandulocaudinae eigenmann ( 1914 : 34 ) . eigenmann proposed this name for coelurichthys ( currently = mimagoniates ) , diapoma , gephyrocharax , glandulocauda , hysteronotus , microbrycon ( = pterobrycon ) , pseudocorynopoma , and stevardia ( = corynopoma ) , all of which ultimately proved to be inseminating .\nprincipal caudal - fin rays 10 / 9 in all specimens , ( n = 77 ) . modification of some rays in association with caudal pheromone pump as in figs . 38a and b . fin rays modified more like those in m . inequalis than any other species of mimagoniates .\nweitzman , s . h . , n . a . menezes & j . r . burns . 1996a . species of the glandulocaudine tetra tribe glandulocaudini : the genus mimagoniates ( part 3 ) . tropical fish hobbyist , 44 ( 6 ) : 195 - 210 . [ links ]\nweitzman , s . h . , l . palmer , j . r . burns & n . a . menezes . 1996b . breeding and rearing species of mimagoniates , internally fertilized tetras . ( part 2 ) . tropical fish hobbyist , 44 ( 10 ) : 196 - 205 . [ links ]\ndescription . table 12 presents morphometrics of the lectotype , paralectotype and topotypes . except where noted , the entire description refers to the population sample represented by specimens from rio macacu , the type locality or adjacent tributaries flowing into this river . these collections were treated statistically as one population sample in an attempt to represent the species . variations of meristic and morphometric data within the range of m . microlepis are discussed where appropriate .\ndiagnosis . synapomorphies 3 ( modified , hypertrophied terminal caudal peduncle squamation extending onto caudal fin from ventral region of dorsal caudal - fin lobe ) and 4 ( caudal gland cells consisting of modified club cells ) discussed above are unequivocal conditions that corroborate the hypothesis that lophiobrycon , glandulocauda , and mimagoniates form a monophyletic group .\necology . in addition to the scarce information available in the ecological notes in menezes & weitzman ( 1990 : 421 - 422 ) , recent data from malabarba et al . ( 2008 ) indicates that mimagoniates rheocharis lives in small streams with moderate flowing and shallow clear waters , with rocks and less abundant fallen leaves , sand or mud . specimens are usually found in small numbers in still waters near the banks where the water current is slower , under the shadow of marginal vegetation . few specimens can also be found in micro - habitats among rocks and macrophytes , especially when larger portions of still water are occupied by mimagoniates microlepis . the species seems to be very sensitive to change in water quality especially with respect to dissolved oxygen and ph . feeds mainly on a variety of terrestrial insects that fall from surrounding trees and are preyed upon on the water surface . small amounts of aquatic insects and micro - crustaceans are also eaten . like other members of the glandulocaudinae , m . rheocharis is forest - dependent and survives only in streams where the marginal vegetation is preserved .\nmenezes & weitzman ( 1990 : 383 - 384 ) , weitzman et al . ( 1988 : 384 - 413 ) , weitzman & fink ( 1985 : 109 ) provided evidence that the species they placed in glandulocauda and mimagoniates form a monophyletic group based on male secondary sexual synapomorphies . castro et al . ( 2003 ) included their new genus lophiobrycon in the glandulocaudini ( our glandulocaudinae ) and , based on the absence of certain secondary sexual characters in the genus , suggested that the tribal diagnosis should be reformulated . g\u00e9ry ( 1977 : 362 ) briefly discussed mimagoniates and his concept of glandulocauda but made no comments on their possible monophyly .\npresence of elongate scales at base of dorsal caudal - fin lobe extending posteriorly as a flap to loosely cover area of glandular tissue is an exclusive feature of mimagoniates . in species of this genus with more elongate caudal organ , scales are proportionally longer ( figs . 32 , 38 , 67 , 75 and 85 ) .\ndiagnosis . mimagoniates lateralis and m . sylvicola are the only species of the genus having a caudal fin - ray pump well developed and no hooks on caudal - fin rays ( figs . 58 and 67 ) . m . lateralis , however , has fewer lateral series scales ( 35 to 41 vs . 49 to 56 for m . sylvicola ) , fewer horizontal scale rows from dorsal - fin origin to anal - fin origin ( 13 to 15 vs . 16 to 18 for m . sylvicola ) , and fewer scale rows around caudal peduncle ( 16 to 18 vs . 19 to 20 for m . sylvicola ) . color differences between the two species are discussed in the diagnosis of m . sylvicola . mimagoniates rheocharis and m . microlepis also with a fully developed caudal - fin ray pump in mature males , have hooks on principal caudal - fin rays ( figs . 75 and 85 ) , absent in m . lateralis and m . inequalis ; m . barberi and m . pulcher has a rudimentary caudal - fin ray pump ( figs . 32 , 38 and 47 ) .\ncoelurichthys microlepis rachow , 1927 : 17 ( aquarium description ) . rachow in holly meinken & rachow , 1950a : 755 ( in synonymy ) . - nelson , 1964a : 62 , 63 , 68 ( anatomy ; systematics ; courtship behavior ) . - g\u00e9ry , 1966 : 228 , 230 ( discussion and in key ) . - g\u00e9ry , 1977 : 362 ( listed in discussion ) . - sterba , 1987 : 69 ( aquarium description ) .\nmimagoniates pulcher is known from only one collection taken in 1934 from the northern region of the pantanal . its precise locality remains unknown and despite two attempts to recollect this species we failed to find it . the fish may now be extinct from habitat alteration due to soy bean culture and / or repeated clearing of vegetation over by fire .\nthe functions of the genes encoded for lactate dehydrogenase ( ldh ) in six genera of characins ( teleost ) were examined by electrophoretic and immunochemical analyses of the ldh isozymes . the characins possess the ldh a and b loci present in all vertebrates . the eyeless mexican cave fish ( anoptichthys jordani ) and other characins possessing normal eyes , e . g . , mexican tetra ( astyanax mexicanus , which is able to hybridize with the cave fish ) , blue tetra ( mimagoniates microlepis ) , sailfin tetra ( crenuchus spilurus ) , head and tail light tetra ( hemigrammus ocellifer ) , and the piranha ( serrasalmus spilopleura ) , all lack the function of a third ldh locus ( the e locus ) present in many teleosts which codes for a distinctive isozyme synthesized in the nervous system , particularly in the neural retina .\nmenezes , n . a . & s . h . weitzman . 1990 . two new species of mimagoniates ( teleostei : characidae : glandulocaudinae ) , their phylogeny and biogeography and a key to the glandulocaudin fishes of brazil and paraguay . proceedings of the biological society of washington , 103 ( 2 ) : 380 - 426 . [ links ]\nthe least complex condition is found in the species of glandulocauda ( figs . 15 and 25 ) where principal rays 11 and 12 are simply bowed ventrally and no apparent pump is present although in bending the caudal fin during courtship the bowed rays of the male may cause water currents to pass over the organized glandular tissue of males . in the most intermediate species of mimagoniates ( m . barberi , m . inequalis and m . pulcher ) these two fin rays are strongly decurved and enlarged with a groove between them . in the more derived species of the genus , m . microlepis , a complex pump chamber is present and supported by modified principal caudal rays 9 - 13 and especially 11 and 12 , which are also strongly decurved ( compare figs . 32 , 38 and 47 with figs . 58 , 67 , 77 and 85 ) .\necology . weitzman et al . ( 1988 : 413 ) mentioned that m . microlepis occurs in clear running waters of small to large streams and is quite common and most abundant in forested areas near the shore . subsequently menezes & weitzman ( 1990 : 423 ) pointed out that it is rarely found in black acid waters . more recent collections of this species obtained from eastern and southeastern brazilian coasts , however , indicated that it is more common in blackwaters than previously thought . it has been recently collected in small black water streams with substrate consisting of clay , rocks and sand as well as in clear water streams in santa catarina . in most other places both in eastern and southern brazil , m . microlepis was caught in slow moving clear water streams and small ponds , even in areas where the original mata atl\u00e2ntica vegetation was removed . in the small streams the water was cool and rocks , sand , mud and twigs fallen from isolated trees were usually found on the bottom .\nno date of collection of the lectotype of m . microlepis , nmw 56534 , was provided , but nmw catalog cites the collector as steindachner and the date of receipt of specimens as 1874 . likely the specimens originated near town of macacu ( also called cachoeiras de macacu , approximately 22\u00b026 ' s 42\u00b049 ' w ) in 1874 by steindachner during hassler expedition , 1871 - 1872 . our observations indicate that species frequently occurs in small tributaries of rio macacu and along shores of main river in emergent vegetation .\nmust it be the first link ? sounds kind of restricted . . . . but fun ! ! ! mimagoniates microlepis mimagoniates genus biology natural science science knowledge fact _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ( i really thought i was going to start drifting away here ) information sequence mathematics quantity property ( philosophy ) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ woohoo ! ! ! modern philosophy philosophy win ! ! ! ! ! i take back my previous statement on the game . this was fun ! edit : on a second try , started on walwan dam , and reached science after 6 links . we have already seen that is a straight path to philosophy . edit : on a third try , started with ted zegwaard , and eventually reached aristotle . at this point i thought i was doomed , but it lead me to quantity . this leads to philosophy . edit : i refuse to believe there is a logical explanation to this behavior , and that either my sample size is too small , or that philosophy is simply a very cited article , or whatever reason . after 6 tries that took me straight to philosophy , i declare that the wikipedia gods are playing a mean joke on me , for disbelieving at first that this was gonna be so easy .\nmimagoniates inequalis rachow , 1928 : 16 ( aquarium description ) . - schultz , 1959 : 11 ( key , in part ; only specimens from porto alegre ; listed m . lateralis as a synonym ; of specimens listed , m . inequalis usnm 94117 are m . lateralis and usnm 177704 includes 1 spm of m . microlepis ; only usnm 94310 are all m . inequalis ) . - weitzman & fink , 1985 : 106 , 109 ( listed in materials examined with evidence for placement of in mimagoniates ) . - weitzman et al . , 1988 : 404 - 419 ( discussion of relationships and biogeography ) . - malabarba , 1989 : 136 ( listed in discussion ) . - menezes & weitzman , 1990 : 384 ( in key to glandulocaudini ) . - weitzman & menezes , 1994 : 3 ( general discussion in non - systematic literature ) . - weitzman et al . , 1996 : 200 , 205 , 209 ( courtship behavior ; reproduction ; breeding ) . - weitzman , in reis et al . , 2003 : 226 ( maximum length ; distribution ; remarks ; and references ) . - menezes , in buckup et al . , 2007 : 39 ( listed in catalog ; distribution ) . - menezes et al . , 2008 : 38 - 41 ( distribution ; discussion of relationships and biogeography ) .\nwith respect to the condition branched versus unbranched of the anterior pelvic - fin ray we feel that in spite of the very small specimens of some species included in the clade encompassing glandulocauda and mimagoniates not having the branched condition of the adults does not alter the unique nature of this feature at the level of the phylogeny of the glandulocaudinae . for this reason character state was not coded as polymorphic .\ndiagnosis . males of mimagoniates barberi , m . pulcher n . sp . , and m . inequalis have a rudimentary caudal - fin ray pump ( figs . 32 , 38 , and 47 ) and in this respect differ from males of their congeners which have a fully developed caudal - fin ray pump ( figs . 58 , 67 , 75 , and 85 ) . mimagoniates barberi can be distinguished from m . inequalis by having more branched anal - fin rays ( 30 - 36 vs . 23 - 30 ) , more scales in lateral series ( 41 - 48 vs . 34 - 41 ) , fewer scale rows between dorsal - fin origin and anal - fin origin ( 13 - 15 vs . 15 - 18 ) and the mid - lateral dark stripe of adult males nearly black ( vs . lateral body stripe of adult males diffuse , poorly developed , often not apparent ) . mimagoniates barberi differs from m . pulcher by the number of branched anal - fin rays ( 30 - 36 vs . 26 - 30 ) and by the absence of spines on principal caudal - fin rays ( fig . 38 ) , present in m . pulcher ( fig . 47 ) .\nmimagoniates barberi ( not of regan , 1907 : 402 ) , rachow , 1927 : 17 ( misidentification of m . lateralis for m . barberi ) . myers , 1928 : 120 ( misidentification ) . rachow , 1928 : 15 ( misidentification ) . - holly et al . , 1950 : 779 , ( misidentification ; list of aquarium and ichthyological literature mostly referring to m . lateralis prior to 1941 ) .\ndiagnosis . mimagoniates pulcher is apparently most similar to m . barberi and m . inequalis with respect to the modification of caudal - fin rays in association with caudal pump , but differs at once from these two species in having hooks on caudal - fin rays at least in adult male specimens ( compare fig . 47 with figs . 32 and 38 ) . additionally , from m . barberi it is distinguished in having anal - fin rays 26 - 30 ( 31 - 36 for m . barberi ) and from m . inequalis in having 43 - 46 lateral series scales ( 34 - 41 for m . inequalis ) . mature males of the remaining species of mimagoniates have principal caudal - fin rays modified to form a fully developed caudal - fin ray pump ( figs . 58 , 67 , 72 , and 80 ) .\ndistribution . mimagoniates inequalis is known from small streams and rivers tributaries of rio jacu\u00ed and lago gua\u00edba , from small streams flowing into laguna dos patos , and from small isolated coastal ponds and streams flowing into the atlantic ocean in southern rio grande do sul , brazil . it was also collected in tributaries of the upper rio negro , rivera , uruguay . see fig . 3 in menezes et al . ( 2008 ) .\nglandulocauda inequalis eigenmann , 1911b : 169 , plate 5 , fig . 5 , ( type locality :\nporto alegre , jan . 19 , 1909\n) . - eigenmann , 1914a : 42 ( listed ) . - henn , 1928 : 68 ( listed in type catalog ) . - eigenmann & myers , 1929 : 489 ( redescription based on type specimens ) . - innes , 1935 : 122 ( aquarium description ) . - holly , meinken & rachow , 1950 : 816 ( aquarium description ; citation of much aquarium and ichthyological literature previous to 1942 ) . - fowler , 1951 : 413 ( listed ) . - b\u00f6hlke , 1958 : 43 ( listed ) . - nelson , 1964a : 62 , 68 , 120 , 127 ( systematics ; morphology ; courtship behavior ) . - nelson , 1964b : 129 ( courtship behavior ) . - nelson , 1964c : 527 - 533 ( courtship behavior ) . - g\u00e9ry , 1964 : 8 ( noted differences between m . inequalis and m . microlepis ) . - g\u00e9ry , 1966 : 229 ( in key to males of glandulocauda and mimagoniates ; unsure of proper generic allocation of g . inequalis ) . - g\u00e9ry , 1977 : 362 ( listed in a brief discussion of glandulocauda and mimagoniates ; unsure of generic allocation of g . inequalis ) . - sterba , 1987 : 68 ( aquarium description ) . - ibarra & stewart , 1987 : 39 ( listed in type catalog ) .\ncoelurichthys tenuis nichols , 1913 : 152 ( type locality : none , same remarks as above under m . lateralis ) . - schultz , 1959 : 63 , ( erroneously referred to m . inequalis ) . - nelson , 1964a : 62 , 127 ( considered male holotype valid species distinct from m . microlepis ) . - g\u00e9ry , 1966 : 320 ( questioned whether m . tenuis is synonym of m . lateralis ) . - g\u00e9ry , 1977 : 362 ( listed and noted that m . barberi of aquarists is apparently c . tenuis ) . - sterba , 1987 : 69 ( aquarium description ) .\ndescription . table 9 presents morphometrics of the holotype and the population sample from canan\u00e9ia , s\u00e3o paulo . the entire description refers to this population sample which includes a large series from immature to fully mature male and female specimens and contains the ranges of meristic and morphometric variation in within the distributional area of mimagoniates lateralis . counts and ratios of measurements for other population samples taken from other areas are given only when they differ from those of canan\u00e9ia .\ncoelurichthys lateralis nichols , 1913 : 151 ( type locality : none ,\nthese two small aquarium fishes were presented to the american museum of natural history by mr . william mack , of new york . there was no accompanying data , but they are probably south american , and are referred to the genus coelurichthys of ribeiro\n) . - nelson , 1964a : 65 ( found female type of c . lateralis difficult to identify and could not decide whether it was c . microlepis or same as c . tenuis , but if it were latter , c . lateralis would have priority because of page precedence ) .\nremarks . lophiobrycon shares with glandulocauda plesiomorphic states of characters 9 , 10 and 11 discussed in the phylogeny section with respect to the derived conditions of these characters in mimagoniates . it was regarded by castro et al . ( 2003 : 14 ) as the sister group to the clade represented by glandulocauda and mimagoniates ( see castro et al . , 2003 , fig . 8 ) . their conclusion was based on the absence of modified scales on the upper caudal - fin lobe of lophiobrycon ( castro et al . , 2003 , fig . 4 ) . the state described as\nan apparent concentration of bead - like hypertrophied glandular tissue along the borders of the proximal portions of caudal - fin rays 11 and 12 , that are slightly decurved in their distal half\nwould represent the most plesiomorphic state of the caudal organ in any glandulocaudine . these characters are discussed in the phylogeny section above .\nthe subfamily glandulocaudinae ( = the glandulocaudini of menezes & weitzman , 1990 ) consists of three genera , lophiobrycon castro et al . ( 2003 : 13 ) with one species , glandulocauda eigenmann ( 1911b : 168 ) with two species , and mimagoniates regan ( 1907 : 402 ) with seven species . lophiobrycon weitzmani castro , ribeiro , benine & melo ( 2003 ) was assigned by its authors as a basal species related to all others within the glandulocaudini of the former glandulocaudinae .\nmalabarba , l . r . , m . a . azevedo & n . a . menezes . 2008 . mimagoniates rheocharis menezes & weitzman , 1990 . pp . 79 - 80 . in : machado , a . b . m . , g . m . drumond & a . p . paglia ( eds . ) . livro vermelho da fauna brasileira amea\u00e7ada de extin\u00e7\u00e3o . bras\u00edlia , mma ; belo horizonte , funda\u00e7\u00e3o biodiversitas , 2 : 1 - 907 . [ links ]\ndiagnosis . all glandulocaudine species belonging to mimagoniates have either a rudimentary or a fully developed caudal fin - ray pump ( figs . 32 , 38 , 47 , 58 , 67 , 75 , and 85 ) not present in the other two genera , in which principal caudal - fin rays 11 and 12 are not modified ( lophiobrycon , fig . 4 in castro et al . , 2003 ) or just decurved but not forming a pump ( glandulocauda , figs . 15 and 25 ) . additionally mimagoniates can be distinguished from these two genera by having the dorsal - fin origin posterior to vertical through anal - fin origin ( figs . 31 , 36 , 45 , 53 , 63 , 70 , and 78 ) . in lophiobrycon ( figs . 3 and 4 ) the dorsal - fin origin is anterior to vertical through anal - fin origin and closer to snout tip than to caudal - fin base and in glandulocauda ( figs . 11 - 12 and 20 - 21 ) the dorsal - fin origin is slightly ahead of vertical through anal - fin origin . also , in mimagoniates adult males have no more than 1 hook on anal - fin rays that bear hooks , although sometimes 2 hooks might be present on anterior most branched ray and 3 on longest unbranched anterior ray ( figs . 33 , 39 , 50 , 56 , 65 , 73 , and 81 ) whereas in glandulocauda species more than one hook are present on anal - fin rays that bear hooks ( figs . 16 and 26 ) .\necology . field data indicate that mimagoniates lateralis is entirely confined to acid black waters ( fig . 60 ) . mzusp 53275 ( 75 specimens ) and usnm 326250 ( 66 specimens ) were collected from a black water stream near canan\u00e9ia , s\u00e3o paulo , running in a disturbed stretch of mata atl\u00e2ntica . the stream was on the average 1 . 7 m wide and 0 . 4 deep and the fishes occurred in both sunlight or shaded areas over sandy - rocky bottoms covered with filamentous algae and dead leaves .\ndiagnosis . lophiobrycon can be distinguished from the other two genera of the subfamily by having the adipose fin long based in sexually mature males ( fig . 3 ) extending from posterior termination of base of dorsal fin to base of dorsal lobe of caudal fin , a urogenital papilla ( fig . 8 ) with a posterior opening and anus located at its base in the females , and the dorsal - fin origin closer to snout tip than to caudal - fin base . in glandulocauda and mimagoniates the males have a short based adipose fin ( figs . 11 and 20 ) , a urogenital papilla is lacking in females and the dorsal - fin origin is closer to caudal - fin base than to snout tip . also in lophiobrycon only 1 to 3 hooks ( fig . 6 ) are present on the anterior three branched anal - fin rays of adult males , contrasting with the presence of 5 to 15 hooks on the anterior three branched anal - fin rays of adult males ( figs . 16 and 26 ) in glandulocauda and mimagoniates .\nin lophiobrycon , outgroup clade a and stevardiines the anterior ray of the pelvic fin is unbranched . it is distally branched in species of glandulocauda and mimagoniates ( figs . 27 , 34 , 40 , 49 , 57 , 66 , 74 and 83 ) . this ray must not be confused with the pelvic splint attached to anterior ray . the extent of the branching of anterior ray varies according to the species , the size of the specimens and / or perhaps sometimes the sex of specimens for at least one species .\nmimagoniates barberi regan , 1907 : 402 ( type locality : arroyo y\u00e2c\u00e1 , estaci\u00f3n caballero , paraguay , fig . 6 ) . - myers , in eigenmann & myers , 1929 : 492 - 493 ( distinction between m . barberi and m . microlepis unclear ; uncertain of validity of m . barberi ) . pearson , 1937 : 108 ( m . barberi as endemic to paraguay basin ) . - travassos , 1952 : 93 ( listed ) . - schultz , 1959 : 63 ( designated lectotype ; recognized as a distinct species ) . - nelson , 1964a : 64 ( recognized m . barberi as valid species ) . - g\u00e9ry , 1964 : 6 ( recognized m . barberi as possible geographic form of m . microlepis ) . - g\u00e9ry , 1966 : 228 , 230 ( recognized as distinct species ) . - g\u00e9ry , 1977 : 362 ( recognized as distinct species ) . - weitzman & fink , 1985 : 105 ( in materials examined ) . - weitzman et al . , 1988 : 404 ( phylogeny , biogeography , figure ) . - menezes & weitzman , 1990 : 385 ( in key ) . - houtan , 1990 : 9 ( aquarium description ; color photograph ) . - vari & howe , 1991 : 30 ( listed in type catalog ) . - pecio & rafi\u00f1ski , 1994 : 180 ( histological and ultrastructure of testes ) . - weitzman & menezes , 1994 : 3 ( general discussion for non - systematic readers ) . - weitzman et al . , 1996a : 209 ( courtship behavior ) . - weitzman et al . , 1996b : 203 , 204 ( breeding and rearing ) . - malabarba & weitzman , 2000 : 279 ( listed in discussion ) . - weitzman , 2003 : 226 ( maximum length ; distribution ; remarks and references ) . - britski et al . , 2007 : 68 ( diagnosis ; figure ) . - menezes et al . , 2008 : 38 - 42 ( distribution ; discussion of relationships and biogeography ) ."]}
{"id": 1289, "summary": [{"text": "the cloaked pug ( eupithecia abietaria ) is a moth of the family geometridae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the species can be found in europe , east to siberia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 21 \u2013 23 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the moths flies from june to july depending on the location .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on picea abies , picea sitchensis and abies procera . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "cloaked pug", "paragraphs": ["cloaked pug ( eupithecia abietaria ) - norfolk moths - the macro and micro moths of norfolk .\nfreyers pug ( female ) upwell - 9 . vii . 2013 - j . wheeler\nsatyr pug ( eupithecia satyrata ) - norfolk moths - the macro and micro moths of norfolk .\nsatyr pug ( f ) - lynford arboretum - 19 . vii . 2013 - j . wheeler\nfreyers pug ( male ) - upwell 16 . 06 . 13 - gen . det . j . wheeler\nfreyer ' s pug ( eupithecia intricata arceuthata ) ( = eupithecia intricata ) - norfolk moths - the macro and micro moths of norfolk .\n, a relatively plain in appearance , non - descript weakly marked pug , occurs in norfolk and generally in the southern half of england .\nssp . arceuthata ( freyer ' s pug ) is the only one found in norfolk of the three british subspecies of eupithecia intricata . adults fly from dusk onwards and come to light in may and june . the larvae of the common race , arceuthata ( freyer ' s pug ) , feed on common juniper and various species of cypresses and false cypresses , exotic junipers and other conifers introduced to gardens and parks .\necology : a large distinctive pug mainly associated spruce plantations . all of the records to date have been of adults beaten from the foliage of various trees within a small area . the larvae feed inside on cones of norway spruce picea abies , noble fir abies procera and silver fir a . alba during august and september . it overwinters as a pupa .\nnotes : uncommon , in coniferous woodland and plantations , in northern england and mid - wales , with a thin scattering of records elsewhere . in hampshire and on the isle of wight the occasional records of this species in the area suggest migration , but it is possible that a resident population occurs , as it evidently did at one time in the new forest . there are a few recent records , at fareham in 1993 and romsey in 2008 . wingspan 21 - 25 mm . large size and prominent discal spot make this a fairly distinctive pug . larva feeds within young shoots of various coniferous trees , including norway spruce , sitka spruce , european silver - fir and noble fir , over - wintering as a pupa .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\na scarce species , once resident in a range of scattered locations throughout britain , but apparently dying out in the early part of the 20th century . since then it has been rediscovered in parts of england wales and scotland .\nthe species is also an immigrant , which may explain the re - occurrence .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 07 - 07 18 : 14 : 46 page render time : 0 . 2499s total w / procache : 0 . 3146s\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\napparently established in the new forest , hampshire , central scotland and ireland in the late 19th century , it went unrecorded for many years until found to be breeding again in the 1980s . now known from coniferous woodland and plantations in scattered localities across the country . records of singletons suggest migration , but it is also possible that additional resident populations occur .\nrecorded in 2 ( 3 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1909 . last recorded in 2008 .\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthere are 47 county records of 59 individuals from 14 different sites . first recorded in 1932 .\nclick here to support naturespot by making a donation - small or large - your gift is very much appreciated . thank you .\nthe larvae feed internally in the cones of norway spruce , sitka spruce and noble fir .\na scarce species , once resident in a range of scattered locations throughout britain , but apparently dying out in the early part of the 20th century . since then it has been rediscovered in parts of england wales and scotland . the species is also an immigrant , which may explain the re - occurrence . in a recent survey to determine the status of all macro moths in britain this species was classified as local .\nit appears to be uncommon in leicestershire and rutland , where there are few records . l & r moth group status = d ( rare or rarely recorded ) .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nfor the county , we have a total of 7 records from 7 sites . first recorded in 1883 .\n: there has only been one recent record of this moth in yorkshire . previous records are very scant - it was suggested in the ynu 1970 list that the record near bradford ( vc63 ) was probably an accidental introduction and porritt ( 1883 - 86 ) only recorded it once , from richmond ( vc65 ) . until 1984 it was doubtful whether this species was still breeding in britain ( skinner , 1984 ) . however it was then discovered to be resident in two woods in northumberland ( dunn & parrack , 1986 ) in 1984 and 1985 . both woods have a mixture of coniferous species and trees of different ages , which could be the key to this species ' survival . whether our recent record is from an as yet undiscovered colony or just a vagrant is uncertain but it would certainly be worthwhile to search for this species in suitable yorkshire woodlands .\n: we have one recent record of this species from mixed woodland at west tanfield in 2004 ( confirmed a . m . riley ) . a large and fairly distinctive species .\n: only the sixth county record . this scarce spruce - feeding species could be either native , introduced with conifers or a migrant .\nvc62 . skelton , 16 . 6 . 2013 ( dm ) . new vice - county record .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nkuusensiemenmittari\nto\neupithecia abietaria goeze 1781\n.\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nfichtenzapfen - bl\u00fctenspanner\nto\neupithecia abietaria goeze 1781\n.\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\ntannenzapfen - bl\u00fctenspanner\nto\neupithecia abietaria goeze 1781\n.\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nzapfenspanner\nto\neupithecia abietaria goeze 1781\n.\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nfichtenzapfenspanner\nto\neupithecia abietaria goeze 1781\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ndescription : wingspan 21 - 25 mm . forewings pale to darkish grey with dark broad crosslines . there is a large black discal spot near the median area of the forewing close to the costa and a fine broken black line along the outer margin of the forewing . hindwings paler with a small discal spot .\nflight period : end of may to late july . skinner gives june and july as the normal flight period in britain .\nstatus : this species was widely recorded in the early part of the nineteenth century and described by donovan ( 1936 ) as widespread among spruce . it then seemed to undergo a dramatic decline both here and in britain , with no reports in n . ireland for many years . in 1999 a single specimen was taken at bohill near ballynahinch , down which was initially thought to be a grey birch aethalura punctulata . this misidentification was subsequently corrected by a leading british expert . since then several other specimens have been taken in the same locality during 2000 .\nworld distribution : throughout central and southern europe , east to the urals . it has also been found in north america .\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nrecorded in 55 ( 80 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1982 . last recorded in 2018 .\nthis moth is represented by three subspecies or forms in the british isles . the nominate form\nshows chequered black and white veins in fresh specimens , may not be clear in worn examples .\nrecorded in 27 ( 39 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1971 . last recorded in 2018 ."]}
{"id": 1293, "summary": [{"text": "the eastern striped skink ( ctenotus robustus ) is a species of skink found in a wide variety of habitats in australia .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "a robust lizard with complex markings and patterns .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the snout to vent length is around 123 mm . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "ctenotus robustus", "paragraphs": ["note that skinks previously known as ctenotus borealis are now considered to be ctenotus robustus .\nctenotus : ' comb ear ' , refering to the comb - like projections at the ear opening . robustus : ' robust ' .\nlarge , easily recognised ( see photos ) ctenotus robustus is the most common of two ctenotis species of its size on magnetic island and has very distinctive striped patterning .\nbjursell , a . 2001 . ctenotus robustus , james cook university , urltoken . cogger , h . , 1988 . reptiles and amphibians of australia , reed books .\ndna testing has shown that specimens from nsw , victoria or southern qld as well as sa are actually ctenotus spaldingi which would make all the photos on this page ctenotus spaldingi . another name for ctenotus spaldingi is the straight - browed ctenotus however that common name may no longer remain in use !\nthe above specimen is from brisbane , qld . note that ctenotus arcanus found in south - east qld also looks very similar to the photos above !\nsome authors do not accept the recent name changes . it is possible that at some stage in the future the name ctenotus josephinae may be be used for some skinks in this complex\nas with all ctenotus species robusta has 5 fingers / toes on each limb , an easily seen ear opening , shiny skin , is diurnal , sun loving and very very quick .\nc . robustus is probably distributed all over magnetic island . it is definitely in all the bay areas and at west point and has also been noticed right up gustav creek and on hills bounding horseshoe bay and arcadia . this skink has a know association with granite areas .\nthe species most closely resembling the striped skink is the spotted - back skink ( ctenotus uber orientalis ) , however , the striped skink has a solid stripe running either side of its back , while the spotted - back skink has a row of dots .\nhorner , p . g . & king , m . 1986 ,\na new species of ctenotus ( scincidae , reptilia ) from the northern territory\n, the beagle , records of the museums and art galleries of the northern territory , vol . 2 , no . 1 , pp . 143 - 148\nrabosky , d . l . , hutchinson , m . n . , donnellan , c . c . , talaba , a . l . & lovette , i . j . 2014 ,\nphylogenetic disassembly of species boundaries in a widespread group of australian skinks ( scincidae : ctenotus ) .\n, molecular phylogenetics and evolution , vol . 77 , pp . 71\u201382\nnotes and disclaimer this information may not be complete . while all care is taken to ensure the accuracy of the information in this page , primary sources should always be consulted for definitive information . animals have an endearing habit of disobeying the rules , so the information on this page should be interpreted with a degree of flexibility . the author and site operator accepts no responsibility for any losses or damages incurred through using this web site or the information contained herein . don ' t get bitten by anything ! this page may be cited as : ctenotus robustus at the australian reptile online database . last updated 2017 - 02 - 21 09 : 21 : 22 . retrieved from urltoken on the 10th of july , 2018 . before citing information contained in arod , please read our citing arod page . copyright notice this page , its content and layout are copyright \u00a9 2007 - 2018 stewart macdonald / ug media , unless otherwise stated . all photographs in the australian reptile online database are \u00a9 the photographer and may not be reproduced in any form without the express written consent of the photographer . no part of the australian reptile online database may be reproduced without written permission from stewart macdonald .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nwells , r . w . & wellington , c . r . 1984 ,\na synopsis of the class reptilia in australia\n, australian journal of herpetology , vol . 1 , no . 3 - 4 , pp . 73 - 129\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 3f6c4529 - 1123 - 46e8 - b234 - b3745cfd2883\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 5ccc19f4 - ae4c - 4d17 - b1b1 - 7cb170259c46\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 63c418d0 - 4fbe - 402f - 9c5d - f6b4049e5757\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 70fbfd12 - 1823 - 4df5 - 9450 - af2e7d46b5af\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : ba87027c - a0c2 - 4440 - b8d5 - 4881ec9d836e\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : c2fc4b0b - 5469 - 4887 - 9f1a - f791ed556d40\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f2f438fc - ce60 - 48be - a6d7 - ffe83e9595f2\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 27a72cf9 - 2444 - 409d - 9668 - b34fb9e5cf84\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 324442\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nyou appear to have javascript disabled . some parts of this site won ' t work properly .\nnote : these are general threats and may not apply to this particular species .\nthere are many ways you can help our reptiles . here are my top three suggestions :\nnote : the links below are automatically generated . some may not take you to useful information .\nthis sleek lizard was basking at the edge of a steep incline just a foot or so off of the trail i was hiking . i was lucky to spot it in the mix of live and dry grasses . it had clearly also spotted me , and after two photos it rocketed off .\ni next encountered one of these skinks under a downed log . when i lifted the log , i saw a flash of movement as the skink dove into a nearby burrow . i stayed in the area for a little while to photograph other nearby lizards , and soon this skink reappeared at the edge of the log . i approached slowly , but it retreated under the log anyway . however , this time i knew where it might try to hide next , so i lifted the log again and quickly covered the burrow with my hand . the skink first ran toward the burrow , then noticed my hand and ran off to a nearby pile of small rocks , where it shimmied under one . when i carefully moved that one , it raced off to another . this went on for ten or fifteen minutes . it never stayed exposed for more than a few seconds , and eventually i gave up . the only photos i managed to get were with my iphone when the skink paused to decide how to navigate my shoe . ( its eventual decision : up and over . )\nthis one was on the move when i noticed it . i followed it around from a distance for a short while , until it paused to soak up some sun . apparently the undersides of its front legs especially needed warming .\nwilson , s . and swan , g . 2017 . a complete guide to reptiles of australia , fifth edition\naustralian reptile photos , distribution maps and information this site covers snakes and lizards , crocodiles and turtles , including colubrid snakes , pythons , elapids ( called cobras or coral snakes in some countries ) , sea snakes , file snakes , blind ( or worm ) snakes , sea turtles , freshwater turtles ( or tortoises ) dragon lizards ( agamas ) , gecko ' s , legless lizards , monitor lizards ( often called goanna ' s in australia ) , skinks and crocodilia .\na very common and widespread species often found under rocks . extremely fast runner in warm weather .\n\u00a92018 john fowler and john hollister . all rights reserved . reproduction or re - use of information or materials from this web site is strictly prohibited and against international law . ( note : - no permission is needed to link to this web page ) this site is supported by : - jsecoin ( affiliate ) , urltoken , urltoken and holiday in kos\ncontinent : australia distribution : australia ( new south wales , north territory , queensland , south australia , victoria , west australia ) type locality : barrow creek , in 21\u00b0 31\u2019 s , 133\u00b0 53\u2019e , n . t .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthreats to the species on a regional level include the modification of previous habitat areas for urban development .\nwithin the suburban area , the main threat to the species is disturbance within relatively unmodified habitats such as nature reserves .\nwithin the urban area , the main action canberrans can take for assisting the species is to minimise disturbance ( such as collection of wood or interference by pets ) to potential habitats .\nthe striped skink is mostly brown above , with a black stripe with white edges running down the centre of the back and tail . a black and a white line run side by side down the upper flanks , while the skink ' s sides are dark , speckled with paler brown . the sides become lighter towards the underside of the lizard . the striped skink is relatively large , growing to a maximum length of around 30cm , including the tail which may make up 2 / 3 of its length .\nthe striped skink occupies extensive areas of eastern and northern australia . its range extends from northern parts of western australia and the northern territory , through eastern queensland and into new south wales , victoria and eastern south australia . in the act , the striped skink occupies warmer areas to the north and east of the territory .\nthe striped skink is quite common in the region , although not often seen .\nnot common in urban areas , although relatively undisturbed parts of nature reserve may provide suitable habitat for the species .\nthe species prefers relatively undisturbed habitats or areas of low grazing pressure . human activities will tend to deter the lizards from otherwise appropriate habitat areas .\nthe female striped skink lays an average of six eggs , with larger skinks usually laying more eggs . eggs are laid in late winter or spring and these hatch about 2 months later .\nthe striped skink is surface active , using rocks , logs and ground litter for shelter . it creates burrows under rocks , which is uses for hibernation and nesting . it is diurnal .\nthe striped skink feeds mostly on arthropods , although young lizards are sometimes eaten .\nthe species has been recorded as being preyed upon by snakes and feral cats .\nthe striped skink is very shy , and it will disappear quickly into a hole or underneath shelter when humans approach . as such , it is uncommon to see the skinks .\nbennett , r . 1997 . reptiles & frogs of the australian capital territory , national parks association of the act , woden . s , t\ncogger , h . g . 1996 . reptiles and amphibians of australia , reed books australia , melbourne . s , t\nswan , g . , shea , g . and sadlier , r . 2004 . a field guide to reptiles of new south wal es , second edition , reed new holland , sydney . s , t\nit has a wide distribution , nationally found in all mainland states , in mostly dry open woodland , arid and coastal vegetation areas .\nthe largest specimens have been found in w . a at 125mm snout to vent length , but here , the largest this author has observed are about 100mm ( doesn\u0092t include tail ) .\nthis lizard will be found in areas outside the vine thickets although it will colonise paths . it prefers open areas that are warm and light . it can be seen early to mid morning sunning itself on rocks etc . until its body temperature rises to optimum , then it will remain out of the sun in the midday heat in summer .\nit is quick to run off unless it thinks you can ' t see it and then it will remain completely still , waiting for you to walk on . it will hide in leaf litter or under rocks and logs for example and will utilise burrows for safety if the soil is soft .\nindividuals can be repeatedly seen in the same spots , and this species is believed to have a territory or home area which it seldom leaves .\nthey have the ability to vocalise , often uttering a squeak when hand captured . if frightened it may dive into available water and if this happens its respiration has the ability to slow accordingly .\nlittle is known except that it is an egg - laying or oviparous skink .\nprimarily an insectivore with a wide flexible dietary range , its food can include grasshoppers beetles etc . it has been known to also eat other lizards and occasionally seeds . like all skinks it will stalk its food .\nknown predators include cats and the common death adde r - acanthophis antarcticus both of which exist on magnetic island , other reptiles and kookaburras , butcher birds etc would also be possibil ities .\ncouper , p . , covacevich , j . , janetzki , h . , mcdonald , keith . 2000 , lizards in ' wildlife of tropical far north queensland ' , editors ryan , m . and burwell , c . , queensland museum publication : 203 - 233 .\ngreer , a . e . 2004 . encyclopedia of australian reptiles . australian museum online urltoken version date : 23 november 2004 .\nsaylor , 1973 ( as # ) ; done and heatwole , 1977 ( as # ) ; storr , 1978 ; way , 1979 ; morley and morley , 1984 ; sadlier , wombey and braithwaite , 1985 ; shea , 1985 ; daniels , heatwole and oakes , 1987 ; henle , 1987 ; shea , weigel , harwood , floriani and hemsley , 1988 ; archer , twigg and fox , 1990 ; brown , 1991 ; twigg and fox , 1991 ; neindorf , 1994 ; annable , 1995a ; hadden and westbrooke , 1996 ; letnic and fox , 1997 ; horner and fisher , 1998 ; watharow , 1998a - b ; fearn , 2001 ; taylor and fox , 2001a - b . urltoken\noviparous ( egg laying ) . lay up to 6 eggs in a clutch .\nbrown in colour with a wide dark mid - ventral line running from the nape to the tail . this stripe is bordered by a narrow off white line . a narrow pale shoulder stripe is bordered by a dark streak . sides are brown with pale spots . grows to 110 mm from snout to vent .\nomnnivore . primarily ants but occasionally spiders , grasshoppers , termites , beetles and flies . in addition , small amounts of vertebrate and plant material .\nthe department of environment and primary industry ( depi ) advisory list consists of non - statutory advisory lists of rare or threatened flora and fauna within victoria .\nthe flora and fauna guarantee act 1988 ( ffg act ) lists threatened species in victoria . under the act , an action statement is produced for each listed species .\nthe environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 ( epbc act ) is the australian government\u2019s key piece of environmental legislation , listing nationally threatened native species and ecological communities .\na range of teacher professional learning programs will be developed to accompany the biodiversity of the western volcanic plains online outreach . . ."]}
{"id": 1294, "summary": [{"text": "the new zealand flatworm ( arthurdendyus triangulatus ) is a large land flatworm native to new zealand .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it can vary from 5 mm in length when hatched to approximately 17 centimetres ( 6.7 in ) in mature adults .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the ventral surface of the flatworm is a pale buff colour while the dorsal surface is dark brown .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "young flatworms vary in colour from white to pale orange and develop their adult colouration as they grow .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "during the day , flatworms can be found resting on the surface of soil underneath objects in close contact with the ground .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "they may also be found beneath the soil surface hunting for earthworms .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "reproduction involves the production of egg capsules of about 8 mm in length .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the capsules are shiny , flexible and cherry red in colour at first and later darken to black after several days .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "after an unknown incubation period , several pale , tiny flatworms hatch out of the brittle capsule .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "one egg capsule is produced at a time with the bulge clearly visible in the dorsum of the adult worm . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "new zealand flatworm", "paragraphs": ["the new zealand flatworm was introduced into the uk in the 1960s and feeds on earthworms .\nthe ' new zealand flatworm ' , ( arthurdendyus triangulatus ) extended and showing its speckled underside .\nthe new zealand flatworm has a widespread distribution and is relatively common in scotland and northern ireland .\nthe ' new zealand flatworm ' , ( arthurdendyus triangulatus ) , as collected within a plastic jar .\nthe ' new zealand flatworm ' , ( arthurdendyus triangulatus ) , as typically found , under plastic sheeting .\nthe dispersal of the new zealand flatworm is mainly dependent upon movement of contaminated soil probably with containerised plants .\ndendy a , 1894 . notes on new zealand land planarians . part 1 . transactions of the new zealand institute , 27 : 177 - 189 .\nbarker , g . m . 1989 . flatworm predation of terrestrial molluscs in new zealand and a brief review of previous records . new zealand entomologist 12 : 75 - 79 . [ links ]\nclose - up of a ' new zealand flatworm ' , ( arthurdendyus triangulatus ) extended and showing its speckled underside .\nclose - up of a ' new zealand flatworm ' ( arthurdendyus triangulatus ) , as collected within a plastic jar .\nonce established there are no known ways of eradicating the new zealand flatworm hence it is very important to stop its spread .\nstep 2 \u2013 explore your local outdoor space and look for new zealand flatworms .\ntrees ( new zealand ) hebes and their hybrids & cultivars ( photos ) .\nboag b . ( 2000 ) the impact of the new zealand flatworm on earthworms and moles in agricultural land in western scotland .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names a to f with photo .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names g to l with photo .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names m to q with photo .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names r to z with photo .\nyou can also use the sightings form to submit a photo of the new zealand flatworm and its location without entering full survey data .\nthe new zealand flatworm eats native earthworms - which are a vital part of healthy soil - but also has a slime that can cause skin rashes .\nno research has or is being specifically undertaken to quantify the deleterious impact the new zealand flatworm might have on vegetation and crop yield but anecdotal evidence from farmers has suggested that there has been an increase in flooding , the establishment of rushes and lower crop yields in areas that are infested with the new zealand flatworm .\nthere is evidence in scotland the new zealand flatworm spread form botanic gardens to nurseries and garden centres then to domestic gardens and only more recently to agricultural land .\nboag , b . & g . w . yeates ( 2001 ) the potential impact of the new zealand flatworm , a predator of earthworms in western europe .\nnote : your results are important to us even if you didn ' t find any new zealand flatworms .\nchristensen om ; mather jg , 1998 . the ' new zealand flatworm ' , artioposthia triangulata , in europe : the faroese situation . pedobiologia [ oecd workshop on terrestrial flatworms , new zealand , 1998 . ] , 42 ( 5 / 6 ) : 532 - 540 .\nthe new zealand flatworm is a flat , ribbon - like organism , and has a dark purple - brown upper surface with pale margins and a creamy pale underside .\nboag b ; neilson r , 2006 . impact of new zealand flatworm on agriculture and wildlife in scotland . proceedings crop protection in northern britain , 51 - 55 .\nboag b . , h . d . jones , r . neilson ( 1997 ) the spread of the new zealand flatworm ( artioposthia triangulata ) within great britain .\nwhile it is hard to control new zealand flatworm once present , learning more about their distribution can help target initiatives to prevent further introductions via gardens , soil movement etc .\nis a free - living terrestrial flatworm . native to new zealand , it was found outside its natural habitat in belfast , northern ireland in 1963 ( ministry of agriculture ,\nmurchie ak ; moore jp , 1998 . hot - water treatment to prevent transference of the ' new zealand flatworm ' , artioposthia triangulata . pedobiologia , 42 : 572 .\ncontainerised plants collected for edinburgh botanic gardens from new zealand and possibly initially taken to their benmore garden site near dunoon could be the initial source of infestation . however commercial traffic in containerised plants exported from new zealand from infested nurseries is possible e . g . rhododendrons from a garden centre on the banks penninsula , south island new zealand .\nnew zealand flatworms attack earthworms by wrapping their bodies around them and secreting digestive mucus to dissolve them before consuming them .\n) . perhaps of particular risk is tasmania , which would be climatically similar to the south island of new zealand .\nthe new zealand flatworm arrived on british soil over half a century ago but researchers have struggled to survey the species as they are typically found in gardens . although new zealand flatworms eat earthworms , it is not known what influence this has on earthworm numbers or on other animals that consume earthworms like moles .\na new national open air laboratories ( opal ) survey launches this month to help find out how far the new zealand flatworm has spread and how big an influence it is having on the environment . the new zealand flatworm survey is the latest addition to the range of citizen science activities offered by opal , which is led by imperial college london and run by a range of organisations including universities , wildlife groups , and museums .\nboag b ; yeates gw , 2001 . the potential impact of the new zealand flatworm , a predator of earthworms , in western europe . ecological applications , 11 : 1276 - 1286 .\nmurchie ak , 2008 . the problem of the ' new zealand flatworm ' : lessons for managing invasive alien species . proceedings crop protection in northern britain , 2008 : 51 - 56 .\nboag b ; yeates gw ; johns pm , 1998 . limitations to the distribution and spread of terrestrial flatworms with special reference to the new zealand flatworm ( artioposthia triangulata ) . pedobiologia [ oecd workshop on terrestrial flatworms , new zealand , 1998 . ] , 42 ( 5 / 6 ) : 495 - 503 .\nmoore jp ; dynes c ; murchie ak , 1998 . status and public perception of the ' new zealand flatworm ' , artioposthia triangulata ( dendy ) , in northern ireland . pedobiologia [ oecd workshop on terrestrial flatworms , new zealand , 1998 . ] , 42 ( 5 / 6 ) : 563 - 571 .\npopulations of new zealand and australian flatworms are already established in the uk and there are at least 18 flatworms that have been introduced in europe , including the new guinea flatworm , listed as one of the 100 worst invasive alien species in the world .\npeople with senstitive skin have reported a reaction when they have come in contact with the mucus on the surface of the new zealand flatworm and for this reason it is suggested that gloves be worn .\naccidental introduction ( blackshaw and stewart , 1992 ) . first confirmed record of this species outside of its native range in new zealand\ndespite the initial hysteria over new zealand flatworms , ken thompson says we needn\u2019t panic over this slimy kiwi critter and an earthworm shortage .\nthere are several native species and some non - native species of flatworm in the uk . the non - native australian and new zealand flatworms are two species that have become established . they feed on earthworms .\nannie robinson , an opal community scientist also from the university of aberdeen added : \u201cevery record submitted is invaluable and will help inform the development of our response to and research of the new zealand flatworm . people can go to the opal website and access identification , survey resources and submit pictures of the new zealand flatworm . together we can learn a lot about where this species is and what it\u2019s up to ! \u201d\nharia ah , 1995 . hydrological and environmental impact of earthworm depletion by the new zealand flatworm ( artioposthia triangulata ) . journal of hydrology ( amsterdam ) , 171 ( 1 / 2 ) : 1 - 3 .\nhogan rn ; dunne r , 1996 . the distribution of the new zealand flatworm artioposthia triangulata ( dendy ) in the republic of ireland . irish naturalists ' journal , 25 ( 6 ) : 210 - 212 .\n, d . sc . , f . l . s . , professor of biology in the canterbury college , university of new zealand .\nboag b ; neilson r ; palmer lf ; jones hd , 1994 . a further record of the new zealand flatworm artioposthia triangulata ( dendy ) in england . plant pathology , 43 ( 1 ) : 220 - 222 .\ncannon rjc ; baker rha ; taylor mc ; moore jp , 1999 . a review of the status of the new zealand flatworm in the uk . annals of applied biology , 135 ( 3 ) : 597 - 614 .\nchristensen , o . m . & j . g . mather . 2001 . long - term study of growth in the new zealand flatworm arthurdendyus triangulatus under laboratory conditions . pedobiologia 45 : 535 - 549 . [ links ]\nbaird j ; murchie ak ; fairweather i , 2000 . hatch of new zealand flatworm egg capsules at different temperatures . in : proceedings of environ 2000 , biology and environment : proceedings of the royal irish academy 100b . 138 .\ndynes c ; fleming cc ; murchie ak , 2001 . genetic variation in native and introduced populations of the ' new zealand flatworm ' , arthurdendyus triangulatus . annals of applied biology , 139 ( 2 ) : 165 - 174 .\nstockdill smj , 1982 . effects of introduced earthworms on the productivity of new zealand pastures . pedobiologia , 24 ( 1 ) : 29 - 35 .\ndr brian boag , one of the uks new zealand flatworm experts , based at the james hutton institute in dundee , said : \u201cavid gardeners will know whether they have new zealand flatworms on their premise or not , but this understanding is not passed on . therefore , we would love to learn from people to get a clear picture of where these creatures are present and where not . \u201d\nboag b , 2000 . the impact of the new zealand flatworm on earthworms and moles in agricultural land in western scotland . aspects of applied biology [ farming systems for the new millenium , 18 - 20 december 2000 , churchill college , cambridge , uk . ] , no . 62 : 79 - 84 .\nscottish executive rural affairs department , 2000 . biological and ecological studies of the new zealand flatworm , arthurdendyus triangulatus : towards a comprehensive risk assessment for the uk . scottish executive rural affairs department , flexible fund project no . csl / 002 / 96 . biological and ecological studies of the new zealand flatworm , arthurdendyus triangulatus : towards a comprehensive risk assessment for the uk . scottish executive rural affairs department , flexible fund project no . csl / 002 / 96 . 125 pp .\nit originated from new zealand where it is associated with native woodland in the canterbury area but also found throughout the south island in nurseries and garden centres .\nboag b ; jones hd ; neilson r ; santoro g , 1999 . spatial distribution and relationship between the new zealand flatworm arthurdendyus triangulata and earthworms in a grass field in scotland . pedobiologia , 43 ( 4 ) : 340 - 344 .\njones , h . d . , g . santoro , b . boag & r . neilson ( 2001 ) the diversity of earthworms in 200 scottish fields and the possible effect of new zealand flatworm ( arthudendyus triangulatus ) on earthworm populations .\nthe australian flatworm is orange or pinkish orange and reaches 2 - 8cm in length . it was first detected in south west england in the 1960s and since then has become more widespread in southern england and wales . this species does not seem to have had such a big impact as the new zealand flatworm on earthworm populations .\nthe large anecic earthworm species , lumbricus terrestris and aporrectodea longa which aid drainage and are a source of food for animals and birds , are affected by the new zealand flatworm . additionally a survey of 59 fields in western scotland found that where the flatworm had been established its presence was strongly associated with the eradication of moles .\ngibson ph ; cosens dj , 2004 . the predation of slugs by the new zealand flatworm , arthurdendyus triangulatus ( dendy ) ( terricola : geoplanidae ) . british journal of entomology and natural history , 17 ( 1 ) : 35 - 38 .\nthe only known invertebrate predator are ground beetles but their numbers are probably too small to have an impact on new zealand flatworm populations . ducks and geese are known to feed on them and there are records of robins , blackbirds and ferrets consuming them .\nthose of you who live in warmer parts of the country may not have new zealand flatworms , but you may have an australian relative , which turned up in the isles of scilly and south - west england in the eighties . it\u2019s smaller than the new zealand variety , orange - brown in colour , and also eats earthworms .\nonce established there are no known ways of eradicating the new zealand flatworm hence it is very important to stop its spread . initially garden centres and nurseries were probably mainly responsible for the distributing flatworms but now it could be neighbours , relatives and friends exchanging potted plants . gardeners should inspect any containerised plants and if they have the flatworm try to only give away cuttings , seed or bare rooted plants replanted in a known flatworm free medium .\nplease consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser .\nthe new zealand flatworm continues to spread in scotland but its detrimental impact on the environment and of below and above ground biodiversity is unknown . at present there is no systematic monitoring or research being undertaken to know what the situation or how it might be controlled .\nthe new zealand flatworm reproduces by producing an egg capsule ( which on average contains 6 - 7 small creamy coloured hatchlings ) and is whitecherry red and soft when expelled . this hardens and becomes shiny and black and probably more resistant than the adults to dessication .\nthe new zealand flatworm requires cool damp conditions to survive , it cannot tolerate temperatures below zero or above c . 20 c which is probably one of the reasons why they have becoming established in agricultural land in ireland , north and western scotland plus the faroe islands .\nboag b ; deeks l ; orr a ; neilson r , 2005 . a spatio - temporal analysis of a new zealand flatworm ( arthurdendyus triangulatus ) population in western scotland . annals of applied biology , 147 ( 1 ) : 81 - 88 . urltoken ; = aab\ngibson ph ; cosens d ; buchanan k , 1997 . a chance field observation and pilot laboratory studies of predation of the new zealand flatworm by the larvae and adults of carabid and staphylinid beetles . annals of applied biology , 130 ( 3 ) : 581 - 585 .\nharia ah ; mcgrath sp ; moore jp ; bell jp ; blackshaw rp , 1998 . impact of the new zealand flatworm ( artioposthia triangulata ) on soil structure and hydrology in the uk . science of the total environment , 215 ( 3 ) : 259 - 265 .\namazingly , new zealand flatworms can survive for over a year by shrinking in size to as little as 10 % of their full - grown body mass until they find another earthworm .\nmurchie ak ; gordon aw , 2013 . the impact of new zealand flatworms arthurdendyus triangulatus on earthworm populations in the field . biological invasions , 15 ( 3 ) : 569 - 586 .\nnew zealand flatworms are usually found under pieces of wood , stone or polythene or lying on bare earth often curled up like a swiss roll . they leave slime circles where they\u2019ve been resting .\nblackshaw rp , 1996 . control options for the new zealand flatworm . in : brighton crop protection conference : pests & diseases - 1996 : volume 3 : proceedings of an international conference , brighton , uk , 18 - 21 november 1996 . farnham , uk : british crop protection council , 1089 - 1094 .\njohns pm ; boag b ; yeates gw , 1998 . observations on the geographic distribution of flatworms ( turbellaria : rhynchodemidae , bipaliidae , geoplanidae ) in new zealand . pedobiologia , 42 : 469 - 476 .\ntaking an estimate that earthworms contribute 20 % towards grass yield and that a . triangulatus predation reduces earthworm biomass by 20 % , the effect of a . triangulatus colonisation could be a 4 % reduction in grass yield . boag and neilson ( 2006 ) calculated that the new zealand flatworm could conservatively cost scottish farmers c . \u00a317m .\nducey , p . k . & s . noce . 1998 . succesful invasion of new york state by the terrestrial flatworm , bipalium adventitium . northeastern naturalist 5 ( 3 ) : 199 - 206 . [ links ]\nan invasive flatworm from brazil that poses a threat to soil health and wildlife has made its way to mainland britain .\ngardeners are invited to report sightings of new zealand flatworms ( date , number of flatworms and postcode location ) during the summer months . in the winter months live samples of flatworm can also be posted to the institute in a sealed plastic container ( for example an old - style photo film canister ) along with the same reporting information .\nyeates gw ; boag b ; johns pm , 1998 . field and laboratory observations on terrestrial planarians from modified habitats in new zealand . pedobiologia , 42 ( 5 / 6 ) : 554 - 562 ; 30 ref .\nthe new zealand flatworm reaches 20cm ( 8in ) in length and is dark brown with a paler margin . it became established in britain during the 1960s and at first it was thought to be of no consequence . it was only when it had become widely distributed , that it was realised that it was feeding exclusively on earthworms , in some places reducing earthworm populations to a very low level . this has undesirable effects on soil structure and also denies earthworms as a food resource for those native animals that feed on them . this flatworm originates from new zealand and is now thriving , particularly in the wetter parts of britain , it is most common in scotland , northern england and northern ireland .\nwe need your help to find out how far this flatworm has spread and what influence it is having on the environment .\nenhancing earthworm populations through provision of soil organic matter ( e . g . farmyard manure ) may mitigate against flatworm predation .\nyeates , g . w . ; b . boag & p . m . johns . 1998 . field and laboratory observations on terrestrial planarians from modified habitats in new zealand . pedobiologia 42 : 554 - 562 . [ links ]\na survey of the new zealand flatworm in scotland showed that between 1965 and 1980 it was mainly recorded from garden centres and nurseries around glasgow and edinburgh . however by the 1990s it was mainly found in domestic gardens throughout scotland including some of the scottish islands with some records from farmland . a similar picture occurred in northern ireland but there surveys of farmland in 1991 and 19981999 found 3 % and 65 % respectively of farms infested . although the first record of the flatworm in england was in 1965 it was not until 1992 that it was again found and the rate of spread in england has been much slower than in scotland or northern ireland . the new zealand flatworm has also been recorded from the faroe islands in 1992 but never yet from continental europe or from any other part of the world even though climatic conditions would probably allow its establishment .\nthough most leeches live in fresh or saltwater environments new zealand has three known native species of terrestrial leeches that are adapted to live out of the water . they feed on the blood of seabirds , particularly penguins and shearwaters . to obtain blood the leeches after dark nestles into the webbing on the feet of ground - nesting birds . all new zealand\u2019s terrestrial species are now endangered and confined to rat - free offshore islands except one specimen found under a log in fiordland .\nall flatworms are predatory with some species feeding on slugs , others feed on earthworms . australian and new zealand flatworms are two species that have become established in the uk that feed on earthworms , in some areas earthworm populations have been affected .\nalford dv , 1998 . potential problems posed by non - indigenous terrestrial flatworms in the united kingdom . pedobiologia [ oecd workshop on terrestrial flatworms , new zealand , 1998 . ] , 42 ( 5 / 6 ) : 574 - 578 .\na . triangulatus could be confused with other flatworm species but is considerably larger that the native microplana flatworms in ireland and gb . the \u2018australian flatworm\u2019 , australoplana sanguinea is similar in body shape but is orange . terrestrial leeches also have a cursory similarity but are segmented .\nthe new zealand flatworm requires damp , cool conditions to survive i . e . it cannot live in dry soils or where the temperature is below 0 or above c . 20 degrees celcius . its distribution in gb is probably limited to areas which have earthworms ( soils with ph levels above 4 ) . the new zealand flatworm is nocturnal and probably feeds on the earthworm species which come to the soil surface at night to feed . during the day it takes refuge under stones , pieces of wood and piece of polythene . it itself does not seem to have the ability to make burrows but when conditions are unfavourable it relies on earthworm tunnels , dead root channels or cracks in the soil surface to access the deeper soil horizons where it is cool and damp .\nthe new zealand flatworm ( arthurdendyus triangulatus ) was first recorded form scotland in 1965 and is now widely distributed throughout scotland ( boag et al . , 1994 ) . all major islands are infested , for example , arran , skye . harris and lewis , coll , orkney , shetland and even fair isle . it is an obligate predator of our native earthworms and has been shown to have the ability to decrease earthworm populations to below detectable levels in northern ireland ( blackshaw , 1990 ) . in new zealand it is confined to the south island but there are probably over 100 other species of flatworms in new zealand many of which a ) have not been described , b ) belong to the genus arthurdendyus , c ) are in the north island and better equipped to withstand higher temperatures and therefore , if introduced into the british isles , could become a greater problem than a . triangulatus .\nmurchie ak ; mac an tsaoir s , 2006 . high densities of ' new zealand flatworms ' , arthurdendyus triangulatus ( dendy ) , in experimental orchard plots in northern ireland and implications for thatch formation . tearmann , no . 5 : 23 - 28 .\n\u201cwithout any screening in place we\u2019re playing a game of russian roulette with our countryside and native wildlife . the current guidance is utterly inadequate and without rigorous screening it\u2019s not surprising that new invasive plants \u2013 and their alarming hitchhikers like the obama flatworm \u2013 are arriving . \u201d\nwhile spreading the contents of my compost heap on the garden recently , i unearthed 10 new zealand flatworms , all of them now safely squashed . this worm has been in the garden for many years , but that\u2019s the largest number i\u2019ve come across at one time .\nnew zealand flatworms are spread by moving topsoil or rooted plants between places , which allows this species to move from garden to garden . current understanding of where all in the uk they exist is very limited , but knowing their distribution could help target initiatives to prevent further introductions .\njones hd ; boag b , 1996 . the distribution of new zealand and australian terrestrial flatworms ( platyhelminthes : turbellaria : tricladida : terricola ) in the british isles - the scottish survey and megalab worms . journal of natural history , 30 ( 7 ) : 955 - 975 .\nfraser pm ; boag b , 1998 . the distribution of lumbricid earthworm communities in relation to flatworms : a comparison between new zealand and europe . in : pedobiologia , 42 ( 5 / 6 ) [ ed . by yeates , g . w . ] . 542 - 553 .\njones hd ; santoro g ; boag b ; neilson r , 2001 . the diversity of earthworms in 200 scottish fields and the possible effect of new zealand land flatworms ( arthurdendyus triangulatus ) on earthworm populations . annals of applied biology , 139 ( 1 ) : 75 - 92 .\nturbellaria include the only free - living platyhelminthes , they are mainly aquatic , but there are a few terrestrial species inhabiting moist environments . a small number of terrestrial species have become pests where they have been unintentionally introduced in pot plants ( see the new zealand flatworm below ) . there are over 4000 species living on rock and sediments on water and in moist habitats on land , and they range in size from 1 mm - 50 cm .\nboag b ; evans ka ; yeates gw ; johns pm ; neilson r , 1995 . assessment of the global potential distribution of the predatory land planarian artioposthia triangulata ( dendy ) ( tricladida , terricola ) from ecoclimatic data . new zealand journal of zoology , 22 : 311 - 318 .\nnew zealand flatworms are quite remarkable creatures that eat earthworms by wrapping their bodies around them and secreting digestive mucus to dissolve and consume them . they can survive for over one year by shrinking in size to as little as 10 % of their full - grown body mass until they find another earthworm .\nbaird j ; fairweather i ; murchie ak , 2005 . long - term effects of prey - availability , partnering and temperature on overall egg capsule output of ' new zealand flatworms ' , arthurdendyus triangulatus . annals of applied biology , 146 ( 3 ) : 289 - 301 . urltoken ; = aab\nblackshaw rp , 1995 . changes in populations of the predatory flatworm artioposthia triangulata and its earthworm prey in grassland . acta zoologica fennica , 196 : 107 - 110 .\na . triangulatus is mainly detected by visual inspection under plant pots , stones , wood , plastic sheeting and other debris on the soil surface ( eppo , 2001 ) . the flatworm may also be detected by use of the expulsion techniques ( e . g . formalin or mustard ) used to assess earthworm populations ( gunn , 1992 ; murchie et al . , 2003 ) . shelter traps may be placed on the soil surface , these can be pieces of wood , tiles or plastic bags filled with soil . a sampling strategy to quantify the detection of the new zealand flatworm was published by boag et al . ( 2010 ) .\nis present here in new zealand . it has been found in taupo and auckland and its habitat is slow streams , irrigation ditches , drainage ditches . it is a small flat leech with a body length of 10\u201325 mm and can be easily recognized by its five lines of distinct conical black\u2013tipped papillae of the dorsum .\nresearchers are eager to know of new sightings . should you discover a possible flatworm in your garden , please take a digital photograph and email it to mike . lole @ adas . co . uk . when taking photos , place an object such as a pencil , or a key , alongside the creature to provide scale .\nthis is where scientists at aberdeen university and the james hutton institute , a leading research centre on the new zealand flatworm , would like the public\u2019s help . if you find one , in your garden or elsewhere , please take a photo and submit this along with its location to opal or get involved in a short survey of your outdoor space . this will give the team an idea of what influence these flatworms may have on earthworms across the uk , and other animals that consume earthworms like moles .\nnew zealand has a native blood sucking leech in the genus : richardsonianus with the scientific name of richardsonianus mauianus . it is commonly called the tiger leech and is easily recognised by its longitudinal stripes . it is a rare leech and is found in some slow - flowing weedy streams , ponds and lakes in northern new zealand and south to the waikato . they are common in the oruarangi creek in mangere and in lake puketirini , huntly . they will latch on to the bare legs of humans wading in their habitats . when removed they leave a distinctive triangular bite mark on the skin . it takes the leech about nine months to digest its food before it needs another meal .\nboag b ; jones hd ; evans ka ; neilson r ; yeates gw ; johns pm , 1998 . the application of gis techniques to estimate the establishment and potential spread of artioposthia triangulata in scotland . pedobiologia [ oecd workshop on terrestrial flatworms , new zealand , 1998 . ] , 42 ( 5 / 6 ) : 504 - 510 .\nwrona , f . j . & h koopowitz . 1998 . behavior of the rhabdocoel flatworm mesostoma ehrenbergii in prey capture and feeding . hydrobiologia 383 : 35 - 40 . [ links ]\ntheir egg capsules look like blackcurrants , though smaller , and contain about 7 young flatworms , so it\u2019s important to spot these and not move them to new locations .\nthe new zealand flatworm was first introduced to the uk in the 1960s , although it has never become as great a problem as was originally feared . it\u2019s purple - brown on top , and flat and pointed at both ends . when resting it coils up , is covered in mucus , and is about 1cm wide by 6cm long , although when extended it can be up to 30cm long . it lives on earthworms , covering them in digestive juices to dissolve them before sucking them up . the larvae of ground beetles prey on flatworms .\nlittle is known about the natural enemies of a . triangulatus in new zealand , although they are presumed to be ground beetles and other flatworms . planarivora insignis ( diptera : keroplatidae ) is a parasitoid of terrestrial flatworms in tasmania ( hickman , 1965 ) . it is possible that a similar species may exist in the native habitat of a . triangulatus .\nboag b ; jones hd ; neilson r , 2006 . proceedings of the 10th international symposium on flatworm biology , innsbruck , austria , july 2006 . innsbruck , austria : the james hutton institute .\nmembers of the public who are keen to embark on some \u2018citizen science\u2019 to see if there is any sign of the new zealand flatworm in their garden , are advised that the species is flat , dark purple - brown on top and creamy pale underneath and along the sides . they are usually 5 - 15 cm long and are pointed at both ends and covered in sticky mucus . they are found under pieces of wood , stone or polythene or lying on bare earth often curled up like a swiss roll and they leave slime circles where they\u2019ve been resting .\na . triangulatus was first found outside of new zealand in belfast , northern ireland , in 1963 . exactly how this species came to be in belfast is unknown but it is thought to have been carried inadvertently with ornamental plants such as daffodils , roses or rhododendrons ( willis and edwards , 1977 ; blackshaw and stewart , 1992 ) . a similar situation is likely to have happened in scotland . the first record was from the royal botanic gardens in edinburgh , and many flatworm records have been associated with botanic gardens , garden centres and nurseries ( boag and yeates , 2001 ) . as an example , 22 live flatworms ( though not a . triangulatus ) were found within a dicksonia antarctica ( tree fern ) from australia ( parker et al . , 2005 ) . the spread of a . triangulatus to the relatively isolated faroe islands , was thought to have occurred via goods from scotland , although direct transmission from new zealand cannot be excluded ( mather and christensen , 1992 ) .\nzaborski , e . r . 2002 . observations on feeding behavior by the terrestrial flatworm bipalium adventitium ( platyhelminthes , tricladida , terricola ) from illinois . american midland naturalist 148 : 401 - 408 . [ links ]\nthe flatworm is ribbon - flat , slimy , and pointed at both ends , growing up to 15cm long and 1cm wide , with purplish - brown on top with buff - coloured edge and a pale buff underside .\nthe james hutton research institute is the result of the merger in april 2011 of mluri and scri . this merger formed a new powerhouse for research into food , land use , and climate change .\nsluys r ; kawakatsu m ; riutort m ; bagu\u00f1\u00e0 j , 2009 . a new higher classification of planarian flatworms ( platyhelminthes , tricladida ) . journal of natural history , 43 : 1763 - 1777 .\nrae rg ; robertson j ; wilson mj , 2005 . susceptibility of indigenous uk earthworms and an invasive pest flatworm to the slug parasitic nematode phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita . biocontrol science and technology , 15 ( 6 ) : 623 - 626 . urltoken\nkoopowitz , h . ; d . silver & g . rose . 1976 . primitive nervous systems . control and recovery of feeding behavior in the plolyclad flatworm , notoplana acticola . biological bulletin 150 : 411 - 425 . [ links ]\nresearch in scotland has shown that while all native earthworms are eaten by the new zealand flatworm the large anecic species such as lumbricus terrestris are particularly at risk since they feed on the soil surface at night ( jones et al . , 2001 ) . in ireland a long term experiment by murchie and gordon ( 2012 ) have shown l . terrestris numbers reduced by 75 % and earthworm biomass down by 20 % in infested land . earthworms , particularly the anecic species have large , vertical burrows which open to the soil surface and therefore help soil drainage . research has shown that when earthworms are removed then drainage is impeded ( haria et al . , 1998 ) .\nonce in a garden there is nothing effective that can be done to reduce flatworm numbers . destroying any found underneath pots or stones will remove a few , but this is likely to be only a small proportion of the population in a garden\n, 1964 ) . the species is harmful because it is a predator of earthworms and a decline in earthworms could reduce soil fertility and earthworm - feeding wildlife . the flatworm is found in ireland , great britain and the faroe islands . although capable of active movement the flatworm has been spread mainly by the trade in containerised plants . its tendency to shelter under debris on the soil surface and its sticky body , have facilitated inadvertent carriage on plant containers , agricultural equipment and soil . there have been several scientific reviews of the biology of\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\na . triangulatus feeds on lumbricid earthworms in the invaded areas . little is known about its natural prey in new zealand , although it is assumed to be megascolecid earthworms ( johns et al . , 1998 ) . the matter is complicated because much of new zealand gardens and pasture have been colonised by european earthworm species ( stockdill , 1982 ) . in laboratory tests , where a . triangulatus was presented with earthworm prey in petri dishes , there was little evidence of direct preference for individual earthworm species ( stewart , 1993 ) . differential impacts on earthworm species observed in field sampling are likely due to earthworm niche characteristics , such as burrow width , which increase vulnerability to predation ( blackshaw and stewart , 1992 ; lillico et al . , 1996 ) . anecic earthworms , which come to the soil surface , are particularly at risk ( jones et al . , 2001 ) . when no earthworms are available , a . triangulatus may occasionally feed on slugs ( gibson and cosens , 2004 ) .\nit was possibly introduced into gb in the 1950s probably is soil associated with plants brought to britain . in scotland it was first recorded from edinburgh botanic garden . it is likely it was then spread in soil around the roots of containerised plants to nurseries , and garden centres then into domestic gardens . the importance of garden centres and nurseries has probably diminished and most of the spread to domestic gardens is from neighbours , relatives and friends exchanging plants . the spread to farmland is occurring mainly in the west of scotland and has occurred in northern ireland where over 70 % of farms are infested . the spread between fields and farms may be associated with the movement of hay and silage bales . field observations of the new zealand flatworm in the west of scotland have shown it can travel at 1 metreday .\nmcgee c ; wisdom gb ; fairweather i ; blackshaw rp ; mcilroy j ; walker b , 1998 . characterization of the proteins present in the mucus of the flatworm artioposthia triangulata ( dendy ) . comparative biochemistry and physiology b - biochemistry & molecular biology , 119 : 293 - 298 .\nducey , p . k . ; m . messere ; k . lapoint & s . noce . 1999 . lumbricid prey and potential hepetofaunal predators of the invading terrestrial flatworm bipalium adventitium ( turbellaria : tricladida : terricola ) . american midland naturalist 141 : 305 - 314 . [ links ]\njones hd ; gerard bm , 1999 . a new genus and species of terrestrial planarian ( platyhelminthes ; tricladida ; terricola ) from scotland , and an emendation of the genus artioposthia . journal of natural history , 33 ( 3 ) : 387 - 394 .\nthe flatworm crept with the anterior extremity raised and waving slightly from side to side showing sensory behavior . in some observations on the process , the isopod , when exploring the environment , collided with the anterior or median regions of the body of the flatworm ( figs 2 , 6 - 7 and 10 ) , and was then very quickly captured ( see below ) . in other observations , the isopod moved close to the anterior extremity or the median region of the body of the flatworm , touching it softly ( figs 14 - 16 ) , then being quickly captured . in another observation , the isopod moved to the side of the planarian , apparently touching it slightly ( figs 21 and 22 ) . muscular wave - movements were observed on the margin of planarian body , and when the isopod was at the level of the posterior third of the planarian body , it was captured .\ncarbayo , f . & a . m . leal - zanchet . 2003 . two new genera of geoplanid land planarians ( platyhelminthes : tricladida : terricola ) of brazil in the light of cephalic specialisations . invertebrate systematics 17 : 449 - 468 . [ links ]\nas highlighted by alford ( 1998 ) , one of the main economic effects of flatworm infestation could be limitations on trade . this applies to international trade and also to local trade in the sense that a garden centre , nursery or topsoil distributor may be held liable for distributing a harmful invasive species .\na 4 . 5cm obama flatworm ( obama nungara ) \u2013 not linked to the us president but named after the brazilian tupi words for leaf ( oba ) and animal ( ma ) \u2013 was discovered this summer crawling out of a heuchera plant imported from the netherlands at a garden centre in oxfordshire .\nthe new zealand is hermaphrodite and produces an egg capsule ( usually containing 6 - 7 young ) probably every 7 - 10 days in late spring and summer . the egg capsule ( usually 10 - 15 % of the adult flatworms weight ) can be white to cherry red and is extruded either through the reproductive opening on the ventral surface or through a slit opening up on the dorsal surface . this immediately heals up and leaves a small white scar . the young hatchlings initially are a creamy white but soon turn to the same colour as the adults .\nmany of our native mammals ( badgers , shrews , hedgehogs , moles etc . ) and birds rely on earthworms as their major source of food for at least some part of the year but there has been no investigation to quantify the deleterious impact the new zealand flatworm has on their populations . however , observations in an area between dunoon and loch eck ( where 55 of 59 fields were found to be infested with flatworms ) show that no moles can now be found even though they had been a problem there after world war ii . similarly in glen massan flatworms were found in seven fields none of which had moles while in another seven fields there were moles but no flatworms . since about 70 % of grass fields without flatworms in western scotland have moles it would seem that in the area south of loch eck flatworms have been responsible for the disappearance of moles ( boag , 2000 ) .\nthe worm , which has a broad , flattened , leaf - shaped body and can grow up to 7cm long , was first found in europe on guernsey in 2008 but has spread to france , italy and spain . it was only described as a new species last year .\nwhen capture was achieved using the anterior portion of the body , after immobilizing the prey , the flatworm turned the ventral surface to the ground and glided over the prey ( fig . 19 ) , until the prey was at the level of the mouth , which is located on ventral surface approximately at the end of the median third of the body . when capture occurred with the posterior extremity , after immobilizing the prey , the flatworm , bending the body posteriorly , gradually moved the anterior extremity towards the prey , freeing the posterior end to regain contact with the ground ( figs 26 - 28 ) . afterwards , the flatworm crept over the prey ( fig . 29 ) to bring it into contact with its mouth . the time for bringing the prey to the mouth ranged from 10 s to 2 min 42 s ( 1 min 31 s \u00b1 1 min 6 s , mean \u00b1 s . d . , n = 5 ) , with median of 2min3s .\nnew zealand flatworms are usually found during the day , often curled up like a swiss roll , under pieces of wood , stone or polythene lying on bare earth . they are relatively flat compared with earthworms , are pointed at both ends and covered with a sticky mucus . they can vary in colour but usually have a dark brown upper surface with a lighter beige speckled border which extends to cover the ventral surface . flatworms can also vary greatly in shape from long and narrow ( up to 15 cm ) to short and relatively fat . they produce egg capsules which look like small , shiny blackcurrants .\nducey , p . k . ; m . mccormick & e . davidson . 2007 . natural history observations on bipalium cf . vagum jones and sterrer ( platyhelminthes : tricladida ) , a terrestrial broadhead planarian new to north america . southeastern naturalist 6 ( 3 ) : 449 - 460 . [ links ]\npresumably my flatworms arrived the same way they got into the country \u2014 with contaminated plants . they have a tendency to hide under objects during the day and their sticky mucus means they can easily be transported stuck to the bottoms of things like plant pots and garden ornaments . they\u2019ve also been found among the roots of containerised plants , inside plant pots , in manure heaps and stuck to the bottom of silage bales . they are also extremely fond , as i can testify , of compost heaps . genetic analysis shows clearly that our flatworms are not the result of a single oversight ; they have been introduced from new zealand on several occasions .\nit is possible to inoculate depleted sites with earthworms ( van der werff et al . , 1998 ) , although this would only be justified if a . triangulatus were removed and would be dependent on the scale of their impact on the earthworm population . given time and removal of flatworm predation , it is expected that earthworms will naturally recolonise infested areas .\nohbayashi , t . ; i . okoshi ; h . sato & t . ono . 2005 . food habit of platydemus manokwari de beauchamp , 1962 ( tricladida : terricola : rhynchodemidae ) , known as predatory flatworm of land snails in the ogasawara ( bonin ) islands , japan . applied entomology and zoology 40 : 609 - 614 . [ links ]\nother stresses such as climate change and changes in land use have increased the risk of invasive species establishing themselves and spreading . the discovery of ash dieback in england in 2012 highlighted the risk posed to the uk\u2019s plants from new pests and diseases . imports were banned and an independent taskforce set up to assess the threats .\nprey capture was achieved by quickly moving the anterior or posterior region onto the prey , immediately enveloping it ( figs 3 and 23 ) . during entrapment the ventral surface of the flatworm made initial contact with the dorsum or side of the prey , pressing it against the substratum or against the median region of the planarian body ( figs 8 and 17 ) . in order to hold the prey against its body , the flatworm bent the anterior or the posterior third of the body laterally , so that the ventral surface was perpendicular to the ground . another type of capture was performed with the anterior region ( ca . 1 / 5 of the body length ) rapidly encircling the prey , so that it was lifted from the ground ( fig . 11 ) .\nnew zealand flatworms are hermaphrodite with the reproductive opening on the ventral surface . the egg capsules , which can contain between one and fourteen young but usually six to seven , are often white or cherry red when laid . observed births are usually through a spontaneous caesarean opening on the back of the flatworms which immediately heals over . the egg capsules are laid in summer under refugia similar to those where flatworms are found during the day . hatching , it is estimated , takes place about one month later , the hatchlings being creamy white but soon turn to the colour of the adults . probably one egg capsule is laid every seven to 10 days and can weigh 10 - 15 % of the adult weight .\nfor those of you who have yet to see one of these critters , nz flatworms are flattened and coated in a sticky mucus . the main colour is dark purple - brown , with a speckled buff / pale yellow margin and lower surface . they spend a lot of their time curled into a spiral , but when fully extended they can be up to 20cm ( 8in ) long . they first turned up in the uk in 1963 , in a couple of gardens in belfast , but very quickly spread to scotland . they are still much more common in the north of the uk , which fits with their distribution in new zealand , where they are confined to the cooler and damper parts of the south island .\nclassical biological control using the flatworm - parasitic fly , planarivora insignis , has been suggested ( blackshaw and stewart , 1992 ; blackshaw , 1996 ; cannon et al . , 1999 ) . however , there has been little work on p . insignis aside from the paper by hickman ( 1965 ) , who described the species and its basic biology . during 1962 , hickman ( 1965 ) collected 118 geoplana tasmaniana , of which 33 ( 28 % ) were parasitised by p . insignis . a . k . murchie ( agri - food and biosciences institute , northern ireland , personal communication , 2009 ) revisited the same site in tasmania and collected 37 terrestrial flatworms of various species in august 2004 , but found no evidence of parasitism . l . winsor ( james cook university , australia , personal communication , 2009 ) commented that parasitism of flatworms by p . insignis was relatively rare . the other problem is that it is not known whether p . insignis would parasitise a . triangulatus and to what extent . clearly more research is required in this area and especially whether a . triangulatus has a similar parasitoid attacking it in new zealand .\npresent contribution to our knowledge of the land planarians of new zealand deals exclusively with a number of specimens collected during a month ' s stay at springburn , at the foot of mount somers , in november and the early part of december of last year ( 1894 ) . in the immediate vicinity of the thick bush - scrub of the alford forest the locality appeared a good hunting - ground for cryptozoic animals , and experience showed that this was indeed the case . the very luxuriance of the vegetation , however , with its unlimited hiding - places for cryptozoic animals , made the task of collection more difficult than it would have been in a clearer neighbourhood , where the animals are concentrated , as it were , in a comparatively few spots ."]}
{"id": 1299, "summary": [{"text": "stigmella prunetorum is a moth of the nepticulidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in all of europe ( except the ireland , the iberian peninsula and the mediterranean islands ) .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 4.3-4.7 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing in may .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on prunus armeniaca , prunus avium , prunus brigantina , prunus cerasifera , prunus cerasus , prunus cocomilia , prunus domestica , prunus insititia , prunus spinosa and prunus triloba .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "they mine the leaves of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the mine consists of a corridor , running in several half or whole circles around the oviposition ( egg laying ) site .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the last segment breaks loose , and mostly runs along the leaf margin . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "stigmella prunetorum", "paragraphs": ["nepticula prunetorum stainton , 1855 . entomol . ann . : 50 . stigmella prunetorum ( stainton , 1855 ) .\n- ectoedemia cerris - ectoedemia contorta - ectoedemia gilvipennella - ectoedemia hexapetalae - ectoedemia klimeschi - ectoedemia leucothorax - ectoedemia liechtensteini - ectoedemia phyllotomella - ectoedemia preisseckeri - etainia albibimaculella - fomoria groschkei - fomoria viridissimella - stigmella buhri - trifurcula austriaca - trifurcula beirnei - trifurcula chamaecytisi - trifurcula iberica - trifurcula pallidella - trifurcula serotinella - trifurcula victoris - simplimorpha promissa - enteucha acetosae - stigmella lapponica - stigmella confusella - stigmella freyella - stigmella diniensis - stigmella tiliae - stigmella betulicola - stigmella sakhalinella - stigmella luteella - stigmella glutinosae - stigmella alnetella - stigmella microtheriella - stigmella prunetorum - stigmella aceris - stigmella malella - stigmella rhamnella - stigmella alaternella - stigmella catharticella - stigmella anomalella - stigmella centifoliella - stigmella ulmivora - stigmella viscerella - stigmella thuringiaca - stigmella rolandi - stigmella paradoxa - stigmella regiella - stigmella crataegella - stigmella magdalenae - stigmella nylandriella - stigmella oxyacanthella - stigmella pyri - stigmella minusculella - stigmella desperatella - stigmella hybnerella - stigmella mespilicola - stigmella floslactella - stigmella tityrella - stigmella salicis - stigmella myrtillella - stigmella obliquella - stigmella trimaculella - stigmella assimilella - stigmella sorbi - stigmella plagicolella - stigmella lemniscella - stigmella continuella - stigmella aurella - stigmella auromarginella - stigmella splendidissimella - stigmella aeneofasciella - stigmella tormentillella - stigmella dryadella - stigmella poterii - stigmella incognitella - stigmella perpygmaeella - stigmella hemargyrella - stigmella speciosa - stigmella suberivora - stigmella lonicerarum - stigmella basiguttella - stigmella svenssoni - stigmella zangherii - stigmella dorsiguttella - stigmella ruficapitella - stigmella atricapitella - stigmella samiatella - stigmella roborella - stigmella eberhardi - acalyptris platani - acalyptris minimella - glaucolepis alypella - glaucolepis melanoptera - glaucolepis headleyella - glaucolepis saturejae - glaucolepis thymi - glaucolepis teucriella - glaucolepis stoechadella - glaucolepis rosmarinella - glaucolepis bupleurella - glaucolepis bleonella - glaucolepis sp . - glaucolepis sp . - glaucolepis cryptella - glaucolepis eurema - glaucolepis ortneri - trifurcula luteola - trifurcula coronillae - trifurcula subnitidella - trifurcula josefklimeschi - trifurcula silviae - trifurcula immundella - trifurcula orientella - trifurcula aurella - trifurcula squamatella - parafomoria cistivora - parafomoria pseudocistivora - parafomoria helianthemella - parafomoria liguricella - bohemannia pulverosella - bohemannia quadrimaculella - bohemannia auriciliella - etainia obtusa - etainia sericopeza - etainia decentella - etainia louisella - laqueus euphorbiella - fomoria weaveri - fomoria septembrella - zimmermannia atrifrontella - zimmermannia liebwerdella - zimmermannia longicaudella - zimmermannia hispanica - zimmermannia amani - zimmermannia liguricella - ectoedemia intimella - ectoedemia hannoverella - ectoedemia turbidella - ectoedemia argyropeza - ectoedemia caradjai - ectoedemia suberis - ectoedemia andalusiae - ectoedemia quinquella - ectoedemia algeriensis - ectoedemia haraldi - ectoedemia ilicis - ectoedemia heringella - ectoedemia rufifrontella - ectoedemia albifasciella - ectoedemia pubescivora - ectoedemia subbimaculella - ectoedemia heringi - ectoedemia erythrogenella - ectoedemia agrimoniae - ectoedemia angulifasciella - ectoedemia atricollis - ectoedemia arcuatella - ectoedemia rubivora - ectoedemia spinosella - ectoedemia mahalebella - ectoedemia occultella - ectoedemia minimella\nstigmella prunetorum ( scarce sloe pigmy ) - norfolk micro moths - the micro moths of norfolk .\nthe adult is similar to many other stigmella species . stigmella prunatorum has a black head , white eye - caps and collar . the base of the wing is purplish with a golden area beyond . there is a silvery - white fascia beyond the middle bordered either side by a purplish band .\nnotes : nationally scarce ( nb ) in woodland , downland and clifftops along the south coast and in the west . on the isle of wight , a few recent records from the north of the island . in hampshire there have been no acceptable records since 1900 . wingspan 4 . 3 - 4 . 7 mm . adults difficult to distinguish from other stigmella species , and more frequently recorded in the larval stage , when mines are relatively easy to find where they are present . larva mines leaves of blackthorn , wild cherry and dwarf cherry , over - wintering as a pupa . the mines are described in the following link : urltoken .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ninsect systematics & evolution . ( ejournal / emagazine , 2000 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : insect systematics & evolution . publisher : stenstrup , denmark : apollo books , 2000 - isbn / issn : 1399 - 560x oclc : 526026810\nfull text available 10 / 1 / 2009 - . ( due to publisher restrictions , the most recent 36 months are not available . ) .\nmacewan university access : 2009 - . most recent 3 year ( s ) not available .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\ninsect systematics & evolution ( online ) insect systematics & evolution . insect systematics and evolution\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nurltoken ; % 5fver = z39 . 88 - 2004 & ctx ; % 5fenc = info : ofi / enc : utf - 8 & rfr ; % 5fid = info : sid / sfxit . com : opac % 5f856 & url ; % 5fctx % 5ffmt = info : ofi / fmt : kev : mtx : ctx & sfx . ignore ; % 5fdate % 5fthreshold = 1 & rft . object ; % 5fid = 111018467303010 & svc ; % 5fval % 5ffmt = info : ofi / fmt : kev : mtx : sch % 5fsvc &\nurltoken ; _ ver = z39 . 88 - 2004 & rfr ; _ id = info % 3asid % 2fualberta . ca % 3aopac & rft . genre ; = journal & rft . object ; _ id = 111018467303010 & rft . issn ; = 1399 - 560x & rft . eissn ; = 1876 - 312x & rft ; _ val _ fmt = info % 3aofi % 2ffmt % 3akev % 3amtx % 3ajournal & url ; _ ctx _ fmt = info % 3aofi % 2ffmt % 3akev % 3amtx % 3actx & url ; _ ver = z39 . 88 - 2004\nurltoken ; = % 2295ds % 22 & scope ; = site & loginpage ; = cpidlogin . asp & custid ; = s9204635\ninsect systematics & evolution . / societas entomologica scandinavica . ; ; stenstrup , denmark : apollo books , 2000 -\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies . by continuing to browse the site you are agreeing to our use of cookies .\nbrill\u2019s mybook program is exclusively available on brillonline books and journals . students and scholars affiliated with an institution that has purchased a brill e - book on the brillonline platform automatically have access to the mybook option for the title ( s ) acquired by the library . brill mybook is a print - on - demand paperback copy which is sold at a favorably uniform low price .\n< ? xml version =\n1 . 0\nencoding =\nutf - 8\n? > < event > < eventlog > < portalid > brill < / portalid > < sessionid > dwsejimanzfdaejpvslbehgc . x - brill - live - 03 < / sessionid > < useragent > python / 3 . 5 aiohttp / 3 . 3 . 2 < / useragent > < identityid > guest < / identityid > < identity _ list > guest < / identity _ list > < ipaddress > 35 . 232 . 247 . 97 < / ipaddress > < eventtype > personalisation < / eventtype > < createdon > 1531164193116 < / createdon > < / eventlog > < eventlogproperty > < item _ id > urltoken < / item _ id > < type > favourite < / type > < / eventlogproperty > < / event >\na checklist , containing all discribed nepticulidae from the western palaearctic region , is provided . all species - group names given to western palaeartic species are listed , including those in synonymy , whether available or not . eleven new synonymies are established at generic level , and 18 at species level ; 48 new combinations are made and two lectotypes are designated . the arrangement of species reflects present phylogenetic opinion . hostplant data are provided for each species , and a systematic catalogue concludes this paper .\nr . de jong ; r . i . vane - wright and p . r . ackery\na nationally scarce species with a rather scattered distribution across the south and west of the uk .\nthe larvae mine the leaves of prunus spinosa ( blackthorn ) , and occasionally other prunus species , in two generations during july and then september / october . the mine is a contorted gallery . larvae are green .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 06 - 16 07 : 25 : 44 page render time : 0 . 2826s total w / procache : 0 . 3426s\nleaf - miner : a contorted gallery filled with green frass ( british leafminers ) .\negg at the underside of the leaf , often close to a vein . the mine is a corridor , running in several half or whole circles around the oviposition site . only the last segment breaks loose , and often runs along the leaf margin . the frass is greenish , lying in coils that are so wide as to almost completely fill the corridor ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\nlarva : the larvae of moths have a head capsule and chewing mouthparts with opposable mandibles ( see video of a gracillarid larva feeding ) , six thoracic legs and abdominal legs ( see examples ) .\nthe larva is green ( british leafminers ) . bottle green . the larva is described by gustafsson and van nieukerken ( 1990a ) ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\npupa : the pupae of moths have visible head appendages , wings and legs which lie in sheaths ( see examples ) .\nadult : the adult is not illustrated in ukmoths ( check for update ) . the species is included in urltoken .\ncomments : in the older literature also crataegus and even mespilus are mentioned [ as hosts ] . this is surprising , because the mines are so unmistakable ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\ntime of year - larvae : july , september - early october ( british leafminers ) .\ndistribution in great britain and ireland : britain including carmarthenshire , dorset , east cornwall , herefordshire and west kent ( nbn atlas ) .\ndistribution elsewhere : widespread in continental europe including austria , belgium , bulgaria , croatia , czech republic , danish mainland , french mainland , germany , greek mainland , hungary , italian mainland , lithuania , luxembourg , macedonia , republic of moldova , poland , romania , russia - central , slovakia , slovenia , sweden , switzerland , the netherlands , ukraine and yugoslavia ( karsholt and van nieukerken in fauna europaea ) .\nprunus armeniaca , prunus avium , prunus cerasifera , prunus cerasus , prunus domestica , prunus domestiva subsp . insititia , prunus spinosa\ntaxa with small populations that are not at present endangered or vulnerable , but are at risk . ( in gb , this was interpreted as species which exist in fifteen or fewer 10km squares ) . superseded by new iucn categories in 1994 , but still applicable to lists that have not been reviewed since 1994 .\ntaxa with small populations that are not at present endangered or vulnerable , but are at risk . ( in gb , this was interpreted as species which exist in fifteen or fewer 10km squares ) . superseded by new iucn categories in 1994 , so no longer in use .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\nthe adults fly in two generations a year : may - june , and july - august .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nrecorded in 1 ( 1 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1874 . last recorded in 1874 .\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 1301, "summary": [{"text": "schaefferia profundissima is a species of springtail ( arthropods ) endemic to the krubera-voronja cave system in georgia .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is one of the deepest terrestrial animal ever found on earth , living at > 1,800 metres ( 5,900 ft ) below the cave entrance .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it was discovered in the cavex team expedition of 2010 . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "schaefferia profundissima", "paragraphs": [".\na new species of schaefferia absolon , 1900 ( collembola : hypogastruridae )\n.\nkey ; deepest cave of the world ; deuteraphorura kruberaensis n . sp . ; biospeleology ; cavernicolous fauna ; anurida stereoodorata n . sp . ; plutomurus ortobalaganensis n . sp . ; schaefferia profundissima n . sp .\nin the black sea , researchers have found springtails in a deep cave \u2013 plutomurus ortobalaganensis at 1980 metres and schaefferia profundissima at 1600 meters . springtails are hexapods ( have six legs ) and these both like cheese !\n.\ntrois esp\u00e8ces nouvelles du genre schaefferia absolon , 1900 ( insecte , collembole )\n.\n.\nune nouvelle esp\u00e8ce de schaefferia d\u2019une grotte des etats - unis d\u2019am\u00e9rique ( collembola , hypogastruridae )\n.\namphipoda zenkevitchia sp . collembola schaefferia profundissima jordana & baquero , 2012 anurida stereoodorata jordana & baquero , 2012 deuteraphorura kruberaensis jordana & baquero , 2012 plutomurus ortobalaganensis jordana & baquero , 2012 coleoptera carabus sp . duvalius abyssimus reboleira & ortu\u00f1o , 2014 catops cavicis giachino , 2011 diptera trichocera ( saltrichocera ) maculipennis ( meigen 1818 )\ndescribed by rafael jordana and enrique baquero from university of navarra ( spain ) , they are known for science as : anurida stereoodorata , deuteraphorura kruberaensis , schaefferia profundissima and plutomurus ortobalaganensis . the last one is the deepest arthropod ever found , at the remarkable depth of 1 . 980 meters ( 2 , 165 yards ) below ground surface .\nthe arthropod , known as plutomurus ortobalaganensis , was discovered 1980 metres below the surface , where it feeds off fungi and other decaying matter . three other new species were also found lurking in the cave : anurida stereoodorata , deuteraphorura kruberaensis and schaefferia profundissima . all four species have been classified as springtails , a type of small primitive wingless insect . living in total darkness , the species all lack eyes . however , a . stereoodorata compensates for this with a highly specialised form of chemoreceptor .\njordana , rafael , baquero , enrique , reboleira , ana sofia & sendra , alberto , 2012 , reviews of the genera schaefferia absolon , 1900 , deuteraphorura absolon , 1901 , plutomurus yosii , 1956 and the anurida laboulb\u00e8ne , 1865 species group without eyes , with the description of four , terrestrial arthropod reviews 5 , pp . 35 - 85 : 41\nmore information : reviews of the genera schaefferia absolon , 1900 , deuteraphorura absolon , 1901 , plutomurus yosii , 1956 and the anurida laboulb\u00e8ne , 1865 species group without eyes , with the description of four new species of cave springtails ( collembola ) from krubera - voronya cave , arabika massif , abkhazi , terrestrial arthropod reviews , volume 5 ( 2012 ) pp . 1 - 51\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies . by continuing to browse the site you are agreeing to our use of cookies .\nbrill\u2019s mybook program is exclusively available on brillonline books and journals . students and scholars affiliated with an institution that has purchased a brill e - book on the brillonline platform automatically have access to the mybook option for the title ( s ) acquired by the library . brill mybook is a print - on - demand paperback copy which is sold at a favorably uniform low price .\n< ? xml version =\n1 . 0\nencoding =\nutf - 8\n? > < event > < eventlog > < portalid > brill < / portalid > < sessionid > vgcvjk2mti - gqyzfgjxurler . x - brill - live - 03 < / sessionid > < useragent > python / 3 . 5 aiohttp / 3 . 3 . 2 < / useragent > < identityid > guest < / identityid > < identity _ list > guest < / identity _ list > < ipaddress > 35 . 232 . 247 . 97 < / ipaddress > < eventtype > personalisation < / eventtype > < createdon > 1531172319074 < / createdon > < / eventlog > < eventlogproperty > < item _ id > urltoken < / item _ id > < type > favourite < / type > < / eventlogproperty > < / event >\n1 : 1department of zoology and ecology , university of navarra , 31080 pamplona , spain e - mails : rjordana @ urltoken ; ebaquero @ urltoken ; 2 : 2department of biology , universidade de aveiro and cesam campus universit\u00e1rio de santiago , 3810 - 193 aveiro , portugal e - mail : sreboleira @ urltoken ; 3 : 3museu valenci\u00e0 d\u2019hist\u00f2ria natural ( fundaci\u00f3n entomol\u00f3gica torres sala ) paseo de la pechina 15 . 46008 valencia , spain e - mail : alberto . sendra @ urltoken\n.\nthe taxonomy and distribution of the genus anurida ( collembola : neanuridae ) in the northern palaearctic\n.\n.\nnew palaearctic species of the genus anurida ( collembola , neanurida )\n.\n.\nnuevas especies cavern\u00edcolas del g\u00e9nero onychiurus del grupo de o . boneti gisin , 1953 ( collembola : onychiuridae ) del karst de navarra y gipuzkoa ( espa\u00f1a )\n.\n.\nnuevos generos y especies de hipogastruridos de mexico ( collembola )\n.\n.\n\u00fcber einige theilweise neue collembolen aus den h\u00f6hlen der gegen von letmathe in westfalen\n.\n.\nsur un essai de classification des neanuridae holarctiques et sur quelques esp\u00e8ces de ce groupe ( collembola )\n.\n.\nfaune fran\u00e7aise des collemboles ( x ) esp\u00e8ces nouvelles ou peu connues des pyr\u00e9n\u00e9es et du sud - ouest\n.\n.\nfaune fran\u00e7aise des collemboles ix . les hypogastrura a . l . du massif du n\u00e9ouvielle ( hautes - pyr\u00e9n\u00e9es )\n.\n.\nthe collembola of north america , north of the rio grande\n.\n.\na new nearctic species of the genus tomocerus ( collembola : entomobryidae )\n.\n.\nsur quelques collemboles de la r\u00e9gion de banyuls ( pyr\u00e9n\u00e9es - orientales ) avec la description d\u2019une esp\u00e8ce troglobie\n.\n.\na new species of the genus plutomurus yosii , 1956 ( collembola , tomoceridae ) from georgian caves\n.\n.\nanurida frigida . a new species of collembola ( hypogastruridae ) from swedish lappland\n.\n.\narctic collembola . i \u2013 alaskan collembola of the families poduridae , hypogastruridae , odontellidae , brachystomellidae and neanuridae\n.\nnorth american springtails of the subfamily tomocerinae . proceedings of the united states national museum\n.\nnotes sur les collemboles , avec description de cinq esp\u00e8ces nouvelles d\u00e9couvertes dans le canton de gen\u00e8ve\n.\n.\na new species of the genus anurida laboulbene , 1985 ( collembola , neanuridae ) from romania\n.\n.\nespecies ib\u00e9ricas de hypogastrura ( ceratophysella ) de seis ojos con descripci\u00f3n de tres nuevas especies ( collembola , hypogastruridae )\n.\n.\nle genre plutomurus en russie et en g\u00e9orgie ( collembola , tomoceridae )\n.\n.\netude de la faune cor\u00e9enne des insectes collemboles vi . sur la famille des tomoceridae , \u00e9daphiques avec la description de quatre nouvelles esp\u00e8ces et d\u2019une nouvelle sous - esp\u00e8ce\n.\n.\nnew species of springtails of the genus hypogastrura s . l . in the north - eastern asia fauna\n.\n.\nonychiurus ( onychiurus ) diaelleni sp . n . , eine neue collembolenart aus der \u201craudner - h\u00f6hle\u201d ( steiermark )\n.\n.\nnuevos hypogastruridae anoftalmos ( collembola ) de cuevas y suelos de m\u00e9xico\n.\n.\nplutomurus carpaticus sp . n . ( collembola : tomoceridae ) from the carpathian mountains\n.\n.\na new humicolous species of plutomurus ( collembola , tomoceridae ) from hokkaido , north japan\n.\n.\ntwo new species of the family pseudachorutidae from mt . jizu , western yunnan , southwest china ( insecta : collembola )\n.\n.\nun nouveau genre d\u2019insectes collemboles onychiuridae cavernicoles des picos de europa ( espagne )\n.\n.\nnew species of the springtail genus anurida laboulb . ( collembola , neanuridae ) from the asiatic part of the ussr\n.\n.\ngeneric revision of onychiurinae ( collembola : onychiuridae ) with a cladistic analysis\n.\n.\nabout the proserpinae group of hypogastrura ( collembola ) in the caves of pref\n.\n.\nstudies on the collembolan family tomoceridae , with special reference to japanese forms\n.\n.\ntwo new species of collembola ( arthropleona : neanuridae , pseudachorutidae ) from shanghai , china\n.\njos\u00e9 h . schoereder ; tathiana g . sobrinho ; marcelo s . madureira ; carla r . ribas and paulo s . oliveira\nsubterranean community of krubera - voronya cave\nby alberto sendra and ana sofia p . s . reboleira\nscholar commons > usf libraries > environmental sustainability > ijs > vol . 41 ( 2012 ) > iss . 2\nalberto sendra , museu valenci\u00e0 d ' hist\u00f2ria natural ( fundaci\u00f3n entomol\u00f3gica torres sala ) paseo de la pechina 15 . 46008 valencia , spain follow ana sofia p . s . reboleira , universidade de aveiro , portugal follow\nsubsurface biota extends over a wide variety of habitats that can be spatially interconnected . the largest communities of this subsurface biota inhabit cavities and are well known mainly in caves where biologists are able to have access . data about deep subterranean communities and arthropods living under one thousand meters was unknown .\nthe biocoenosis and the vertical distribution of invertebrate fauna of krubera - voronja are provided , from its entrance to the remarkable depth of 2140 meters , including the discovery of world\u2019s deepest dwelling arthropod .\nsendra , alberto and ana sofia p . s . reboleira . 2012 . the world\u2019s deepest subterranean community - krubera - voronja cave ( western caucasus ) . international journal of speleology , 41 : 221 - 230 . available at : urltoken\n\u00a9 2018 american association for the advancement of science . all rights reserved . aaas is a partner of hinari , agora , oare , chorus , clockss , crossref and counter .\nthis treatment is a stub . you can help plazi making the full treatment available by uploading the source publication .\nno known copyright restrictions apply . see agosti , d . , egloff , w . , 2009 . taxonomic information exchange and copyright : the plazi approach . bmc research notes 2009 , 2 : 53 for further explanation .\nthe deepest - dwelling land animal in the world has been found almost 2 kilometres underground . fittingly , its home is krubera - voronja , the world ' s deepest cave , whose bottommost point is 2191 metres below its mouth . the cave is located near the black sea in abkhazia , a breakaway republic of georgia .\nthe animals were discovered by ana sofia reboleira from the university of aveiro , portugal , and alberto sendra of the valencian museum of natural history , spain . they were exploring the krubera - voronja cave as part of a 2010 expedition led by the ibero - russian cavex team .\nbefore this discovery , springtails had been found just half a kilometre below ground . in 1986 , ongulonychiurus colpus was found living 550 metres down in spanish caves , and last year , tritomurus veles was found at 430 metres in caves in croatia . the discovery of species living deep underground in total darkness gives new insights into the extreme conditions in which animals can survive . [ new scientist ]\nnew scientist reports , explores and interprets the results of human endeavour set in the context of society and culture , providing comprehensive coverage of science and technology news .\nkinja is in read - only mode . we are working to restore service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nenter your email address to follow this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\nsendra , a . & reboleira , a . s . p . s . ( 2012 ) . the world\u2019s deepest subterranean community - krubera - voronja cave ( western caucasus ) .\nan expedition to world\u2019s deepest cave , krubera - voronja in western caucasus , revealed an interesting subterranean community , living below 2000 meters and represented by more than 12 species of arthropods , including several new species for science . this deep cave biota is composed of troglobionts and also epigean species , that can penetrate until - 2140 m .\ninvertebrate fauna found in krubera - voronja cave : pseudoescorpiones neobisium ( blothrus ) birsteini lapschoff , 1940 opiliones nemaspela sp . araneae troglohyphantes sp . araneae gnaphosidae sp . indet acari sp . indet diplopoda chordeumatida sp . indet leucogeorgia sp . decapoda troglocaris sp .\nscientists have recently described the deepest terrestrial animal ever found , together with 4 new species for science . these animals are springtails ( arthropoda , insecta , collembola ) , a minute primitive wingless insect with six - legs and without eyes that live in total darkness .\nthese animals were collected during the biospeleological works of sofia reboleira , from the university of aveiro ( portugal ) and alberto sendra , from the valencian museum of natural history ( spain ) , both who were members of the ibero - russian cavex team expedition to the world ' s deepest cave , during the summer of 2010 .\nthe world ' s deepest cave , krubera - voronja , reaching nowadays the remarkable depth of - 2 . 191 meters below ground level , is located in abkhazia , a remote area near the black sea in the mountains of western caucasus , being the only cave in the world with more than 2 kilometres of depth .\n. in total absence of light and extreme low food resources , cave - dwelling animals have unique adaptations to subterranean life . they lack body pigmentation , they have no eyes and have been developing morpho - physological strategies for survival at such depth , during millions of years . one of the species has , for example , a spectacular chemoreceptor , a highly specialised type of the habitual post - antennal organ of the springtails .\nlast week the international journal of myriapodology published the first population genetic study of cave millipedes . this research highlights an important challenge in the conservation of cave biodiversity \u0096 that for . . .\n( physorg . com ) - - aberdeen scientists have photographed for the first time fish and shrimps at europe\u0092s deepest point - - 5111 meters or 3 . 2 miles deep below the surface of the mediterranean sea .\n( physorg . com ) - - it waits blindly in the darkness of granite caves in yosemite national park , moving little to conserve energy .\na northern arizona university doctoral candidate and a national park service researcher have discovered a new genus of cave cricket .\na research team led by professor michael chazan , director of the university of toronto ' s archaeology centre , has discovered the earliest evidence of our cave - dwelling human ancestors at the wonderwerk cave in south africa .\nthey are dark , sometimes forbidding landscapes molded by volcanic eruptions or subterranean streams , but caves are also home to a host of creatures strangely adapted to the underworld .\nthe co - evolution of plant\u2014pathogen interactions has been revealed in unprecedented detail in a study of one of the world ' s deadliest crop killers . this is the rice blast pathogen , which destroys enough food to feed more . . .\nusing genome editing to inactivate a protein called pcsk9 effectively reduces cholesterol levels in rhesus macaques , a species of monkey , according to researchers from the perelman school of medicine at the university of . . .\nfish that ' farm ' their own patches of seaweed alter their ' cropping ' practices under high co2 conditions , researchers at the university of adelaide in australia have found .\nmucus is able to protect us from infection thanks to ancient genes that have been conserved throughout 350 million years of evolution\u2014dating back to our days as a jellyfish .\nby proving a theory that was first proposed almost 40 years ago , researchers have confirmed a new way that cells conserve energy .\nour bodies consist of many different kinds of cells , each with their own role . the japanese scientist shinya yamanaka had made earlier the discovery , earning the nobel prize in 2012 , that cells from adult skin can be converted . . .\nplease sign in to add a comment . registration is free , and takes less than a minute . read more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en"]}
{"id": 1307, "summary": [{"text": "rhabdias bufonis is a species of parasitic nematode in the family rhabdiasidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was first described from the lungs of the european common toad ( bufo bufo ) but has also been found in a number of other species of frog . ", "topic": 22}], "title": "rhabdias bufonis", "paragraphs": ["ashleigh smythe marked\nrhabdias bufonis\nas trusted on the\nrhabdias bufonis ( schrank , 1788 ) stiles et hassall , 1905\npage .\nnegative effects of rhabdias bufonis ( nematoda ) on the growth and survival of toads ( bufo bufo ) .\n( 2008 ) rhabdias bufonis . in : mehlhorn h . ( eds ) encyclopedia of parasitology . springer , berlin , heidelberg\nnegative effects of rhabdias bufonis ( nematoda ) on the growth and survival of toads ( bufo bufo ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nhartwich g . uber rhabdias bufonis ( schrank , 1788 ) und die abtremmung von rhabdias dossei nov . spec . ( nematoda , rhabdiasidae ) / / mitt . zool . mus . berlin . - 1972 . - 48 . - s . 401 - 414\nkuzmin y . 2003 . rhabdias japalurae sp . nov . ( nematoda , rhabdiasidae ) from the japalures ( reptilia , agamidae ) and some notes on other rhabdias spp . from lizards . acta parasitologica , 48 ( 1 ) : 6 - 11\ngoodey t . 1924 . two new species of the nematode genus rhabdias . j . helminthol . , 2 : 203 - 208\ntravassos l . 1926 . enwicklung des rhabdias fulleborni n . sp . deut . trop . zeit . , 30 : 594 - 602\ntkach v . v . , kuzmin y . , pulis e . e . 2006 . rhabdias bakeri sp . n . from lungs of wood frog , rana sylvatica , in north america : the last sibling of rhabdias ranae ? j . parasitol . , 92 ( 3 ) : 631 - 636\nlu s . c . on rhabdias , a genus of parasitic nematoda of nanking . sinensia , 1934 , 5 ( 1 , 2 ) : 164 - 172 .\nbaker m . r . 1987 . rhabdias collaris n . sp . ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) from frogs of tanzania . systematic parasitology , 9 : 199 - 201\npereira c . 1928 . fauna helmintologica dos ophidios brasileiros ( 2o ) . rhabdias vellardi n . sp . bol . biol . sao paulo . - 11 : 13 - 22\nkloss g . r . 1971 . alguns rhabdias ( nematoda ) de bufo no brasil . papeis avulsos de zoologia , s . paulo . 24 ( 1 ) : 1 - 52\nmoravec f . 2010 . rhabdias lacertae n . sp . ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) , the first rhabdiasid species parasitising lizards in europe . syst . parasitol . , 77 : 23 - 27\nlhermitte - vallarino , n . , m . barbuto , k . junker , r . boistel , i . ineich , s . wanji , and o . bain . 2009 . rhabdias rhampholeonis n . sp . and rhabdias mariauxi n . sp . ( nematoda , rhabdiasoidea ) , first lung worms from leaf chameleons : description , molecular evidence and notes on biology . parasitology international 58 : 375 - 383\nbaker m . r . 1978 . morphology and taxonomy of rhabdias spp . ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) from reptiles and amphibians of southern ontario . can . j . zool . 1978 . 56 : 2127 - 2141\nlhermitte - vallarino , n . and o . bain . 2004 . morphological and biological study of rhabdias spp . ( nematoda ) from african chameleons with description of a new species . parasite 11 : 15 - 31\nlhermitte - vallarino n . , junker k . , bain o . 2009 . reappraisal of the specific status of rhabdias ( nematoda : rhabdiasoidea from malagasy chameleons in the paris museum collection . parasite , 16 : 111 - 123\nchabaud a . g . , brygoo e . r . , petter a . g . 1961 . description et caracteres biologiques de deux noveaux rhabdias malgaches . an . parasitol . hum . comp . , 36 : 752 - 763\nkuzmin , y . 1996 . new nematode species rhabdias vibakari sp . n . ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) from the lung of vibakari snake ( amphiesma vibakari , colubridae ) . vestnik zoologii , 1 - 2 : 73 - 75\nkuzmin y . 2001 . rhabdias africanus sp . nov . ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) - a new nematode species from the south african toads ( amphibia : bufonidae ) . acta parasitologica , vol . 46 ( 2 ) : 148 - 150\nkuzmin y . , tkach v . v . , snyder s . d . 2003 . the nematode genus rhabdias ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) from amphibians and reptiles of the nearctic . comparative parasitology , 70 ( 2 ) : 101 - 114\nyamaguti s . 1943 . rhabdias ( ophiorhabdias ) horigutii n . subg . , n . sp . ( nematoda ) from the lung of a japanese snake natrix tigrina . an . zool . jap . , 22 , 1 : 8 - 10\nkuzmin yu . , v . v . tkach . 2008 . rhabdias pearsoni sp . n . ( nematoda , rhabdiasidae ) from keelback , tropidonophis mairii ( reptilia , colubridae ) in australia . vestnik zoologii , 42 ( 6 ) : 483 - 488\nkuzmin , y . , v . v . tkach , and s . e . bush . 2012 . a new rhabdias species ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) from agamid lizards in luzon island , philippines . journal of parasitology , 98 ( 3 ) : 608 - 611\nkuzmin y . , tkach v . snyder s . d . 2001 . rhabdias ambystomae sp . n . ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) from the north american spotted salamander ambystoma maculatum ( amphibia : ambystomatidae ) . comparative parasitology , vol . 68 ( 2 ) : 228 - 235\nbursey c . r . , hoong d . c . , goldberg s . r . 2012 . a new species of rhabdias ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) in calotes versicolor ( squamata : agamidae ) from singapore . journal of parasitology , 98 ( 1 ) : 149 - 151 .\nrizvi a . n . , bursey c . r . , bhutia p . t . 2013 . two new species of rhabdias ( nematoda : rhabditida : rhabdiasidae ) in anuran hosts from dehradun ( uttarakhand ) , india . journal of parasitology , 99 ( 2 ) : 303 - 306\nmartinez - salazar e . a . , v . leon - regagnon . 2007 . new species of rhabdias ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) from bufo occidentalis ( anura : bufonidae ) from sierra madre del sur , mexico . j . parasitol . , 93 ( 5 ) : 1171 - 1177\nkuzmin , y . , v . l v . tkach and j . a . vaughan . 2005 . rhabdias kongmongthaensis sp . n . ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) from polypedates leucomystax ( amphibia : anura : rhacophoridae ) in thailand . folia parasitologica , 52 ( 4 ) : 339 - 342\nkuzmin y . , junker k . , du peez l . , bain o . 2013 . a new species of rhabdias stiles et hassall , 1905 ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) from blommersia domerguei ( guibe ) ( amphibia : mantellidae ) in madagascar . folia parasitologica [ accepted 25 april 2013 ] .\nbursey c . r . , s . r . goldberg , l . j . vitt . 2007 . new species of rhabdias ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) and other helminths from norops capito ( sauria : polychrotidae ) from nicaragua . j . parasitol . , 93 ( 1 ) : 129 - 131\njunker k . , lhermitte - vallarino n . , barbuto m . , ineich i . , wanji s . , bain o . 2010 . new species of rhabdias ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) from afrotropical anurans , including molecular evidence and notes on biology . folia parasitologica , 57 : 47 - 61\ntkach v . v . , y . kuzmin , r . m . brown . 2011 . rhabdias mcguirei sp . nov . ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) from the flying lizard , draco spilopterus , ( squamata : agamidae ) of the northern philippines . acta parasitologica . 56 ( 4 ) : 406 - 411\nmartinez - salazar e . a . , v . leon - regagnon . 2006 . rhabdias lamothei n . sp . ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) from leptodeira maculata ( colubridae ) in mexico , including new records of r . fuscovenosa ( railliet , 1899 ) goodey , 1924 . zootaxa 1257 : 27 - 48\nluciana de cassia silva do nascimento , evonnildo costa goncalves , francisco tiago de vasconcelos melo , elane guerreiro giese , adriano penha furtado , jeannie nascimento dos santos . 2013 . description of rhabdias breviensis n . sp . ( rhabditoidea : rhabdiasidae ) in two neotropical frog species . systematic parasitology , 86 , 69 - 75\nbarrella t . h . , k . r . dos santos , r . j . da silva . 2010 . rhabdias filicaudalis n . sp . ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) from the snake spilotes pullatus ( serpentes : colubridae ) in brazil . journal of helminthology , 84 ( 3 ) : 292 - 296 .\nlhermitte - vallarino n . , m . barbuto , k . junker , r . boistel , o . bain . 2010 . rhabdias ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) from chamaeleonidae ( sauria ) : two new species from trioceros ellioti in east africa and one from brookesia superciliaris in madagascar . parasite , 17 : 91 - 105\nbursey c . r . , goldberg s . r . 2005 . new species of oswaldocruzia ( nematoda : molineoidae ) , new species of rhabdias ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) , and other helminths in rana cf . forreri ( anura : ranidae ) from costa rica . j . parasitol . , 91 : 600 - 605\nbursey c . r . , s . r . goldberg , s . r . telford , jr . 2003 . rhabdias anolis n . sp . ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) from the lizard , anolis frenatus ( sauria : polychrotidae ) , from panama . j . parasitol . , 89 ( 1 ) : 113 - 117\n\u0440\u0430\u0443\u0448 \u0440 . \u043b . , \u0440\u0430\u0443\u0448 \u0432 . \u0440 . , \u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0448\u043a\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0433 . \u0438 . rhabdias bermani sp . n . ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) \u0438\u0437 \u0441\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u0433\u043b\u043e\u0437\u0443\u0431\u0430 ( hynobius keyserlingi ) \u0441 \u0441\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043e - \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043a\u0430 \u0430\u0437\u0438\u0438 / / \u0437\u043e\u043e\u043b . \u0436\u0443\u0440\u043d\u0430\u043b . - 1984 . - 63 , \u2116 9 . - \u0441 . 1297 - 1303 .\nlhermitte - vallarino n . , m . barbuto , i . ineich , s . wanji , m . lebreton , l . chirio , o . bain . 2008 . first report of rhabdias ( nematoda : rhabdiasoidea ) from lungs of montane chameleons in cameroon : description of two new species and notes on biology . parasite 15 : 553 - 564\nelgarhy , m . , and k . garo ,\nrhabdias aegyptiaca sp . n . ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) from the lungs of bufo regularis ( amphibia : bufonidae ) , in egypt : light and scanning electron microscopic study\n, j . union arab biol . , , vol . 26 , issue a , pp . 127 - 137 , 2006\nsarkar ( dutta ) m . , b . manna . 2004 . on a new species of the genus rhabdias stiles and hassall , 1905 ( nematoda : rhabditida ) from bufo melanostictus schneider , 1799 from belur and habra , west bengal , india , with a host - parasite list . philippine journal of science , 133 ( 1 ) : 55 - 69\np . cipriani , s . mattiucci , m . paoletti , m . santoro , g . nascetti . rhabdias esculentarum n . sp . ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) from green frogs of the rana esculenta species complex in italy : molecular evidence , morphological description and genetic differentiation from its congeners in frogs and toads . syst parasitol ( 2012 ) 82 : 131 - 146\nkuzmin y . , f . t . v . melo , h . f . da silva filho and j . n . dos santos . 2016 . two new species of rhabdias stiles et hassall , 1905 ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) from anuran amphibians in para , brazil . folia parasitologica , 63 : 015 . doi : 10 . 14411 / fp . 2016 . 015\nmaity , p . , a . n . rizvi , c . r . bursey . 2018 . nematode parasites of duttaphrynus stomaticus ( lutken , 1864 ) ( amphibia : anura ) with description of a new species of rhabdias stiles and hassall , 1905 ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) from dehradun ( uttarakhand ) , india . acta parasitologica , 63 ( 1 ) , 175\u2013183 .\nkuzmin y . , tkach v . v . , brooks d . r . 2007 . rhabdias alabialis sp . nov . and r . pseudosphaerocephala sp . nov . 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( jr . ) . 1952 . nematodos parasitarios de anfibios , pajaros y mamiferos de la republica argentina . de acta zoologica lilloana del instituto\nmiguel lillo\n, 10 : 315 - 400\nyuen p . h . 1965 . some studies on the taxonomy and development of some rhabdiasoid and cosmocercoid nematodes from malayan amphibians . zool . anz . , 174 : 275 - 298 .\nyamaguti s . 1935 . studies on the helminth fauna of japan . pt . 10 . amphibian nematodes . jap . j . zool . , 6 : 393 - 402\nmartinez - salazar e . a . , j . falcon - ordaz , e . gonzalez - bernal , g . parra - olea , g . perez - ponce de leon . 2013 . helminth parasites of pseudacris hypochondriaca ( anura : hylidae ) from baja california , mexico , with the description of two new species of nematodes . journal of parasitology 99 ( 6 ) : 1077 - 1085\nyamaguti s . 1941 . studies on the helminth fauna of japan . pt . 34 . amphibian nematodes , ii . jap . j . zool . , 9 ( 3 ) : 397 - 408\nwalton , a . c . 1929 . studies on some nematodes of north american frogs . i . journal of parasitology 15 : 227 - 240\nvon linstow o . 1906 . nematoden des zoologischen museums in konigsberg . arch . naturg . , 72 : 249 - 258\nsingh s . n . , r . ratnamala . 1975 ( 1977 ) . on a new genus and new species of rhabdiasoid nematode shorttia shortti n . g . , n . sp . , infesting lungs of amphibians . indian journal of helminthology , 27 ( 2 ) : 132 - 138\nbaker m . r . systematics and zoogeography of three new nematode parasites of the frog breviceps sylvestris sylvestris fitzsimons from south africa . can . j . zool . 1982 . 60 : 3134 - 3142\nsingh s . n . , r . ratnamala . 1977 . on shorttia thapari n . sp . ( nematoda ) from bufo melanostictus . all - india symposium on helminthology , spinagar , aug . 8 - 11 , 1977 . abstracts of papers : 41 - 42\nmoravec f . , h . kaiser . 1995 . helminth parasites from west indian frogs , with descriptions of two new species . caribbean journal of science , vol . 31 , no . 3 - 4 , 252 - 268\nwilkie j . s . 1930 . some parasite nematodes from japanese amphibia . an . mag . nat . hist . , 10 , 6 : 606 - 614\nsharpilo v . p . 1976 . parasitic worms of reptiles of the fauna of the ussr . kiev , naukova dumka , 288 p .\nkuzmin y . , f . t . de vasconcelos melo , j . nascimento dos santos . 2014 . a new species of serpentirhabdias tkach , kuzmin & snyder , 2014 ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) parasitic in the brown ground snake atractus major boulenger ( reptilia : serpentes : dipsadidae ) in brazil . systematic parasitology , 89 : 101 - 106 .\nkuzmin y . , e . g . giese , f . t . de v . melo , p . a . f . b . da costa , j . n . santos , g . f . maschio . 2016 . description of serpentirhabdias atroxi n . sp . ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) , a parasite of bothrops atrox ( linnaeus ) ( reptilia : serpentes : viperidae ) in brazilian amazonia . systematic parasitology , 93 : 37\u201345 .\nlucio - forster a . , liotta j . l . , rishniw m . , and bowman d . d . 2015 . serpentirhabdias dubielzigi n . sp . ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) from captive - bred ball pythons , python regius ( serpentes : pythonidae ) in the united states . comparative parasitology 82 ( 1 ) : 115 - 122 .\nagkistrodon piscivorus , lampropeltis sp . , elaphe vulpina , elaphe obsoleta quadrivittata , coluber constrictor\nmccallum , g . g . 1921 . studies in helminthology . zoopathologica 1 : 135 - 284\nin palaearctic : natrix tessellata , vipera berus , vipera ursinii ( renardi ) , coluber jugularis , vipera ammodytes , eryx johnii ( exp . ) ; in nearctic : heterodon platirhinos , storeria dekayi , storeria occipitomaculata , virginia stiatula , thamnophis ordinoides , thamnophis proximus , thamnophis sauritus , thamnophis sirtalis , lampropeltis triangulum , opheodrys vernalis , regina septemvittata , nerodia cyclopion , nerodia fasciata , nerodia rhombifera , nerodia sipedon , nerodia erythrogaster\nrailliet m . 1899 . evolution sans heterogonie d ' un angiostome de la couleure a collier . c . r . acad . sci . , 129 : 1271 - 1273\nd . h . morais , a . aguiar , m . i . muller , r . b . narciso , l . a . f . silva , r . j . silva . 2017 . morphometric and phylogenetic analyses of the serpentirhabdias viperidicus n . sp . ( nematoda : rhabdiasidae ) from the lancehead snake bothrops moojeni hoge , 1966 ( reptilia : serpentes : viperidae ) in brazil . journal of helminthology , 91 : 360\u2013370 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nzoologisches museum der universit\u00e4t z\u00fcrich , winterthurerstrasse 190 , 8057 , z\u00fcrich , switzerland .\noccupy . it has been found in north america , most notably canada . however , it is most common in the european toad and frog habitats .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nedited and published by : the japanese pharmacologicalsociety produced and listed by : nakanishi printing co . , ltd .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nalford ra , harris rn ( 1988 ) effects of larval growth history on anuran metamorphosis . am nat 131 : 91\u2013106\nanderson rm ( 1978 ) the regulation of host population growth by parasite species . parasitology 76 : 119\u2013157\nanderson rm ( 1980 ) depression of host population abundance by direct life cycle macroparasites . j theor biol 82 : 283\u2013311\nanderson rm ( 1982 ) epidemiology . in : cox feg ( ed ) modern parasitology . blackwell scientific publications , london , pp 204\u2013251\nberven ka , gill de ( 1983 ) interpreting geographic variation in life - history traits . am zool 23 : 85\u201397\ncox feg ( 1971 ) parasites of british amphibians . j biol educ 5 : 35\u201351\ncrofton hd ( 1971 ) a quantitative approach to parasitism . parasitology 62 : 179\u201394\ncrompton dwt ( 1984 ) influence of parasitic infection on host food intake . federation proc 43 : 239\u201345\nfrandsen f ( 1974 ) a study of danish amphibians parasite fauna . acta parasit polon 22 ( 6 ) : 49\u201366\n. in : rollinson d , anderson rm ( eds ) ecology and genetics of host - parasite interactions . academic press , london , pp 157\u201383\nhassell mp , may rm ( 1989 ) the population biology of host - parasite and host - parasitoid associations . in : roughgarden j , may rm , levin sa ( eds ) . perspectives in ecological theory . princeton university press , new jersey , pp 319\u2013347\nholmes jc ( 1982 ) impact of infectious disease agents on the population growth and geographical distribution of animals . in : anderson rm , may rm ( eds ) population biology of infectious diseases . springer - verlag , new york , pp 37\u201351\nholmes jc , zohar s ( 1990 ) pathology and host behaviour . in : barnard cj , behnke jm ( eds ) parasitism and host behaviour . taylor and francis ltd . , london , pp 34\u201363\n( digenea : diplostomatidae ) in perch . j fish biol , 31 : 571\u2013581\nkozak a ( 1973 ) the nematode fauna of frogs in the carpathian region of czeckoslovakia . biologia 28 ( 5 ) : 325\u2013334\nlincicome dr ( 1971 ) the goodness of parasitism : a new hypothesis . in : cheng tc ( ed ) the biology of symbiosis . university park press , baltimore , pp 139\u2013227\nmunger jc , holmes jc ( 1988 ) benefits of parasitic infection : a test using a ground squirrel - trypanosome system . can j zool 66 : 222\u2013227\nscott me ( 1988 ) the impact of infection and disease on animal populations : implications for conservation biology . conserv biol 2 : 40\u201356\nsmith dc ( 1987 ) adult recruitment in chorus frogs : effects of size and date at metamorphosis . ecology 68 : 344\u2013350\nsmyth jd , smyth mm ( 1980 ) frogs as host parasite systems i . macmillan press ltd . london\nthompson sn ( 1990 ) physiological alterations during parasitism and their effects on host behaviour . in : barnard cj , behnke jm ( eds ) parasitism and host behaviour . taylor and francis ltd . , london , pp 64\u201394\nhtml public\n- / / sq / / dtd html 2 . 0 hotmetal + extensions / / en"]}
{"id": 1310, "summary": [{"text": "the southern sennet , sphyraena picudilla , is an ocean-going species of game fish in the barracuda family , or sphyraenidae .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it was described by the cuban zoologist felipe poey .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the description was part of a two-volume work , which poey published in 1860 , entitled historia natural de la isla de cuba or natural history of the island of cuba .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "southern sennet are sometimes used as a food fish , and marketed either fresh or frozen .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "although they are generally harmless , southern sennet have been linked to ciguatera poisoning . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "southern sennet", "paragraphs": ["the southern sennet has a range from florida to louisiana . as you can probably see the southern sennet is closely related the great barracuda yet is considerably smaller . the southern sennet is a predatory fish that feeds on fish , shrimp and squid . good to eat though not commonly caught and utilized .\na giant barracuda is leading a school of southern sennet - - another type of barracuda . so unusual to see . the video was taken on my 500th dive at invisibles on bonaire .\ngreenish or grayish above , with silvery sides marked by numerous dark blotches . tall widely forked with pointed lobes . two other members of the cuda family might be encountered . the fairly uncommon southern sennet , sphyraena picudilla , grows to about 18 inches , but looks very similar to the bigger cuda and is usually found in schools . the guaguanche , sphyraena guachancho , is much like the sennet in size , shape and rarity . it can be distinguished by a yellow or gold mid - body stripe .\nmiller and jorgenson ( 1969 ) reported the southern sennet from st . simons beach . struhsaker ( 1969 ) considered the other three species to be coastal , and bearden ( 1961b ) listed them from south carolina . i collected one small guaguanche at sapelo beach . barracudas are rarely found inshore along georgia , and are represented inshore by juveniles .\ndaly , r . j . 1970 . systematics of southern florida anchovies ( pisces : engraulidae ) . bull . mar . sci . gulf caribbean 20 ( 1 ) : 70 - 104 .\nin southern nigeria , west africa they are smoked and used in the preparation of different soups . barracuda meat is smoked is because when cooked fresh , the fish is quite soft and disintegrates in the soup .\nlisted in this family are 14 species that occur within or are likely to occur within the range of the estuaries and coastal habitat . struhsaker ( 1969 ) lists five additional species which represent three additional genera for offshore waters . on the georgia coast , the summer flounder and southern flounder are the only flatfishes that are important in the sport and commercial fisheries .\nirl distribution : barracuda , especially juveniles , are found throughout the lagoon in mangrove and seagrass habitats ( fah 1976 ) where food and shelter are prominent . however , the distribution of the species in the irl may be linked in part to temperature . a study conducted by kupschus & tremain ( 2001 ) showed that the majority of fish collected were alongside other tropical and subtropical species at the southern end of the lagoon .\nactivity time : fah ( 1976 ) found that s . barracuda in the indian river lagoon are a diurnal species ( active during the day ) , feeding in seagrass and mangrove habitats two hours after sunrise to about two hours before sunset . the great barracuda shares a similar diet with the northern sennet , s . borealis , which is a nocturnal feeder most active between 3 : 00 am and approximately two hours before sunrise . differences in activity time between these two species are thought to be a method of niche separation to reduce competition for food resources .\nii . habitat and distribution regional occurrence : the range of s . barracuda is nearly circumtropical , encompassing the warm waters of most oceans . the species is rarely found in northern areas where winter temperatures dip below 20\u00b0c for extended periods of time . however , some individuals have been found in the cooler waters off the coast of the northeast united states , south africa and japan ( de sylva 1963 ) . on the east coasts of north , central and south america , the range of the great barracuda extends from massachusetts to southern brazil ( robins et al 1986 ) .\nreproduction : reproduction for s . barracuda occurs sexually through external fertilization . sexual maturity is reached between the second and third year for males , and the third to fourth year for females . barracudas do not exhibit sexual dimorphism , and sex can only be determined upon examination of the gonads . adults spawn between april and october in southern florida ( de sylva 1963 ) , releasing eggs and sperm into the water column . literature detailing spawning behavior in the great barracuda is lacking . however , in similar species , females may spawn several times in one season , releasing over 500 , 000 eggs each time ( de sylva 1963 ) .\ngreek , sphyraina , - es = the name of a fish ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 1 - 65 m ( ref . 9626 ) . tropical ; 32\u00b0n - 38\u00b0s , 97\u00b0w - 32\u00b0w\nwestern atlantic : bermuda , florida ( usa ) , and the bahamas to uruguay .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 61 . 0 cm fl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 40637 ) ; common length : 36 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3819 ) ; max . published weight : 1 . 1 kg ( ref . 40637 )\ninhabits coastal waters . found in rocky or coral reefs ( ref . 9710 ) . more abundant over muddy bottoms . juveniles are encountered in seagrass beds ( ref . 9626 ) . often occurs in large schools , sometimes near the surface ( ref . 9626 ) . marketed fresh and frozen .\nrobins , c . r . and g . c . ray , 1986 . a field guide to atlantic coast fishes of north america . houghton mifflin company , boston , u . s . a . 354 p . ( ref . 7251 )\n) : 22 . 7 - 28 , mean 26 . 1 ( based on 402 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00589 ( 0 . 00298 - 0 . 01164 ) , b = 2 . 93 ( 2 . 77 - 3 . 09 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 2 \u00b10 . 3 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 48 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ntropical and subtropical . distribution : atlantic , indian , and pacific oceans . elongated body . large - mouthed with the lower jaw projecting forward bearing strong fanglike teeth . upper jaw non - protractile , an adaptation to feeding on large prey . well - developed lateral line . gill rakers vestigial . position of pectoral fins relatively low . dorsal fins far apart . first dorsal fin with 5 spines ; second dorsal with 1 spine and 9 soft rays . vertebrae 24 ( 11 + 13 ) . usually to 1 . 8 m maximum length ; could grow longer . voracious predators of other fishes . attacks on humans have been reported . pelagic spawning in schools . food and game fishes , but large specimens may be ciguatoxic .\ngreek , sphyraina = a fish similar to an iron pin , a pike like fish , 1849 ( ref . 45335 ) .\nthe list below must not be used as an authority reference synonymy list like those found in scientific published revisions , which must be the source to be used and cited eventually when they exist .\nrather , it reflects the current content of fishbase , and the progress with respect to synchronization with the catalog of fishes . however , we think it can be useful for users to assess the quality of information in fishbase , to start new work on the family , or to cross - check with other lists .\nbut we appreciate to be cited in publications when this list has been of any working value . in particular , for published scientific , we suggest then to cite it in the material and method section as a useful tool to conduct the research , but again , not as a taxonomic or nomenclatural authority reference .\nunless it is explicitly precised , the list is not complete , please search all original names published for the family in the catalog of fishes ( genera , species ) , including those with uncertain or unknown status , that are not included in fishbase when they are not attached to a valid species .\nthis list uses some data from catalog of fishes ( not shown but used to sort names ) .\nin the column coff , the digit indicates the status of synchronization with coff : 0 : not checked ; 1 : same status ; 2 : different status ; 3 : other combination ; 4 : synonym in coff ; 5 : species / subspecies issue ; 6 : synonym of another species in coff ; 7 : not in coff ; 8 : should not be in coff . the coff version currently used is the one published on 23 - 07 - 2014 ( ref . 97102 ) .\nwhen subfamilies are recognized , nominotypical subfamily first then other subfamilies by alphabetical order .\ntype genus of the family first ( or of subfamily when subfamilies are recognized ) then other genera by chronological order of description ( and alphabetical order ) .\ntype species of the genus first by chronological order ( and alphabetical order ) , with last listed misapplied names in a light gray font .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\ninhabits coastal waters . found in rocky or coral reefs ( ref . 9710 ) . more abundant over muddy bottoms . juveniles are encountered in seagrass beds ( ref . 9626 ) . often occurs in large schools , sometimes near the surface ( ref . 9626 ) . marketed fresh and frozen .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\njuvenile sphyraena barracuda , like the one pictured above , inhabit seagrass beds and areas around mangroves where food and shelter are prominent . photo l . holly sweat , smithsonian marine station at fort pierce .\nadult s . barracuda in the florida keys . as barracuda grow larger , their coloration and pattern changes from the juvenile form seen above . solitary or small schools of adults are typically found on coral reefs . photo kathleen gifford , florida institute of technology .\nsynonomy : esox barracuda walbaum 1792 s . picuda bloch & schneider 1801 s . becuna lac\u00e9p\u00e8de 1803 s . commersoni cuvier 1829 s . dussumieri cuvier 1829 s . agam r\u00fcppell 1835 s . affinis r\u00fcppell 1835 s . nuageuse lienard 1843 s . kadenar montrouzier 1857 s . snodgrassi jenkins 1901 s . akerstromi whitley 1947 s . microps marshall 1953\nspecies description : the body of sphyraena barracuda is elongate to slightly compressed with small , cycloid scales . the head is long and pointed with a large , nearly horizontal jaw fitted with variably - sized flattened or conical canine teeth that extend to the roof of the mouth . two short dorsal fins are widely separated , with the first located opposite or directly behind the pelvic fins , and the second opposite the anal fin .\niii . life history and population biology age , size , lifespan : adult s . barracuda commonly reach 2m , with a maximum reported length of 2 . 3m ( russell 2002 ) . the maximum age of barracuda is unknown , but the typical lifespan may often exceed 14 years ( de sylva 1963 ) .\nabundance : while the great barracuda is generally a solitary species , juveniles and young adults are commonly found in seagrass beds and alongside mangrove forests . studies conducted in the indian river lagoon documented a catch of 376 individuals ranging from 122 to 840 mm over a 17 - month period from 1996 to 1998 ( kupschus & tremain 2001 ) .\nembryology : little is known about the embryology of s . barracuda . de sylva ( 1963 ) documented the collection of eggs from the ovaries of females , describing them as translucent and 0 . 74 to 0 . 81mm in diameter . however , these eggs were most likely immature and all attempts to culture embryos in the laboratory were unsuccessful .\niv . physical tolerances temperature : distribution of s . barracuda is primarily restricted to tropical and warm temperate waters worldwide , suggesting a narrow thermal tolerance in the species . in the indian river lagoon , hunting activity and gut contents of the great barracuda declined in cold / dry seasons . laboratory studies revealed less prey stalking activity in juveniles kept in water below 15\u00b0c than in those maintained at 21 - 27\u00b0c ( fah 1976 ) . galloway ( 1941 ) observed high mortality in barracudas in the florida keys during january 1940 , when water temperatures dropped to 6\u00b0c .\nsalinity : juvenile s . barracuda are common in estuaries where salinity may fluctuate seasonally and during tidal cycles by = 20 ppt . adults are found primarily in nearshore and coral reef areas where salinities are stable at approximately 35 ppt .\nv . community ecology trophic mode : barracudas employ ram strike feeding , quickly lunging to force prey to into the jaws where sharp teeth and head shakes shear it into manageable pieces ( grubich et al . 2007 , porter & motta 2004 ) . the diet of s . barracuda consists mainly of schooling fishes , however studies of gut contents in both juveniles and adults have revealed solitary fishes and small numbers of crustaceans , mollusks and plant material ( de sylva 1963 & fahs 1976 ) . prey selection is indiscriminate and determined by the mouth length of the barracuda , but certain prey items are found more frequently . in florida , approximately 70 % of the diet of juvenile s . barracuda is comprised of gobies , herrings , sardines and silversides ( de sylva 1963 ) . in the indian river lagoon , the dominant prey item of young barracuda is the bay anchovy , anchoa mitchilli ( fah 1976 ) . nearshore and coral reef fishes such as ballyhoo , triggerfishes and mullet are the primary prey of adult barracuda ( de sylva 1963 ) .\npredators : the speed and size of adult s . barracuda allows for few predators . however , juveniles and small adults have been reported in the guts of the goliath grouper , epinephelus itajara , the dolphinfish , coryphaena hippurus and several species of tuna ( de sylva , 1963 ) .\nhabitats : juvenile barracuda are commonly found in estuaries where they feed and take shelter in seagrass beds and among mangrove prop roots ( fah 1976 ) . solitary individuals or small groups of adults are typical on nearshore and coral reefs ( gudger 1918 ) .\nbarracuda is the common name for the various marine , ray - finned fish comprising the family sphyraenidae of the order perciformes , characterized by a long , fairly compressed , elongated body covered with small , smooth scales and with a large mouth with strong , fang - like teeth . they are notable for their long size , reaching up to six feet ( two meters ) or more in length . there is only one genus of barracudas , sphraena , which has about 20 species ( nelson 1994 ) .\ndespite an unfavorable reputation as dangerous to humans who are scuba diving , snorkeling , or swimming in their waters , unprovoked attacks by barracudas on humans are rare . rather , barracudas generally add value to human life as food and game fish and for the wonder they add to nature . ecologically , they are integral to many marine food chains , serving as the top predator in some tropical and subtropical waters and helping to maintain the balance of nature .\nbarracudas ( family sphyraenidae and genus sphyraena ) are found in tropical and subtropical oceans worldwide .\nbarracudas have an elongate body and large mouth , with the lower jaw jutting out beyond the upper ( nelson 1994 ) . their strong , fang - like teeth are unequal in size and set in sockets in the jaws on the roof of the mouth . the head is quite large , pointed , and pike - like in appearance . the gill - covers do not have spines and are covered with small scales . the two dorsal fins are widely separated , with the first having five spines and the second having one spine and nine soft rays ( nelson 1994 ) . the second dorsal fin and anal fin are the same size and are situated on the top and bottom of the barracuda , equidistant from the tail . the lateral line is prominent and extends straight from head to tail . the spinous dorsal fin is placed above the pelvics . the hind end of the caudal fin is forked or concave . it is set at the end of a stout peduncle . the pectoral fins are placed low down on the sides . the barracuda also has a large swim bladder .\nnelson ( 1994 ) reports that the maximum length of barracudas is normally to 1 . 8 meters ( almost 6 feet ) , but are said to reach somewhat longer lengths . only some species of barracuda grow to a large size . the species that do are the european barracuda , barracouta or spet ( s . sphyraena ) , found in the mediterranean and eastern atlantic ; the great barracuda , picuda , or becuna ( s . picuda ) , ranging on the atlantic coast of tropical america from florida to brazil and reaching the bermudas ; the california barracuda ( s . argentea ) , extending from puget sound southwards to cabo san lucas ; the indian barracuda ( s . jello ) and the black - finned or commerson ' s barracuda ( s . commersoni ) , both from the seas of india and the malay peninsula and archipelago .\nbarracudas typically have coloration that is dark green or gray above a chalky - white underbelly . sometimes there is a row of darker cross - bars or black spots on each side . the fins may be yellowish or dusky .\nbarracudas occur both singly and in schools around reefs , but also appear in open seas . swimming in schools , or individually , they are voracious predators and hunt using a classic example of lie - in - wait or ambush . they rely on surprise and short bursts of speed ( up to 27 mph or 43 km / h ) to overrun their prey , sacrificing maneuverability ( rqcsr 2007 ) . they also exhibit some scavenger - like feeding habits .\nthe larger barracudas are more or less solitary in their habits . young and half - grown fish frequently congregate in shoals . their food is composed of fish of all types . large barracudas , when gorged , may attempt to herd a shoal of prey fish in shallow water , where they guard over them until they are ready for another meal .\nlike sharks , barracudas have long had a bad reputation as being dangerous to humans . however , unprovoked attacks on humans are extremely rare and millions of scuba divers , snorkelers , and swimmers spend time with them in the water without any incidents . barracudas sometimes do follow snorkelers and scuba divers across a reef , which can make one feel uncomfortable , but they are harmless unless provoked . because barracudas have a scavenger - like tendency , it has been theorized that barracudas tend to follow snorkelers because they believe that the snorkelers might be large predators and if they were to capture prey it would be easy for the barracudas to scavenge whatever may be left behind .\nbeing formidable hunters , they should be respected , as barracudas are perfectly capable of defending themselves against humans that harass them . handfeeding or trying to touch them is strongly discouraged . spearfishing around barracudas can also be quite dangerous , as they are strongly attracted by the wounded fish .\nthere have been isolated cases where barracudas did bite a human , but these incidents are rare and are believed to be caused by bad visibility . barracudas will stop after the first bite as humans are not their normal food source .\nbarracudas are prize fish , and can be caught either fly or sea fishing . they are extremely powerful , and require tough and strong rods .\nbarracudas are caught as food and game fish . they are most often eaten as fillet or steak and have a strong taste like tuna or salmon . larger species , like the great barracuda , have in some areas been implicated in cases of ciguatera food poisoning ( usfda 2007 ) .\nagbayani , e . 2004 . sphyraenidae . fishbase ( eds . r . froese and d . pauly ) . retrieved december 2 , 2007 .\nhumann , p . , and n . deloach . 2002 . reef fish identification : florida , caribbean , bahamas . jacksonville , fl : new world publications . isbn 1878348302 .\nnelson , j . s . 1994 . fishes of the world , 3rd edition . new york : john wiley & sons . isbn 0471547131 .\nnorman , j . r . , and f . c . fraser . 1949 . field book of giant fishes . new york : g . p . putnam .\nreefquest centre for shark research ( rqcsr ) . 2007 . what ' s the speediest marine creature . biology of sharks and rays . retrieved october 26 , 2007 .\nrochefort , c . de . 1681 . histoire naturelle et morale des iles antilles de l ' am\u00e9rique enrichie d ' un grand nombre de belles figures en taille douce \u2026 avec un vocabulaire cara\u00efbe . rotterdam : r . leers .\nsloane , h . , m . van der gucht , and j . savage . 1707 . a voyage to the islands madera , barbados , nieves , s . christophers and jamaica , with the natural history \u2026 of the last of those islands to which is prefix ' d an introduction , wherein is an account of the inhabitants , air , waters , diseases , trade , & c . \u2026 ; illustrated with the figures of the things describ ' d . london : printed by b . m . for the author .\nu . s . food & drug administration ( usfda ) . 2007 . harzard , market , geographic and nomenclature information for great barracuda ( barracuda ; sphyraena barracuda ) . seafood products research center - center for food safety & applied nutrition - regulatory fish encyclopedia . retrieved october 26 , 2007 .\nnew world encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the wikipedia article in accordance with new world encyclopedia standards . this article abides by terms of the creative commons cc - by - sa 3 . 0 license ( cc - by - sa ) , which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution . credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the new world encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the wikimedia foundation . to cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats . the history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here :\nnote : some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed .\nthis page was last modified on 13 may 2016 , at 20 : 45 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution / share - alike license ; additional terms may apply . see terms of use for details .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwestern atlantic : bermuda , florida ( usa ) , and the bahamas to uruguay . ;\nattributes / relations provided by \u2666 1 jorrit h . poelen , james d . simons and chris j . mungall . ( 2014 ) . global biotic interactions : an open infrastructure to share and analyze species - interaction datasets . ecological informatics . \u2666 2 food habits of reef fishes of the west indies , john e . randall , stud . trop . oceanogr . 5 , 665\u2013847 ( 1967 )\nprotected areas provided by biological inventories of the world ' s protected areas in cooperation between the information center for the environment at the university of california , davis and numerous collaborators .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\npoey , f . in poey , f . 1860 . : 97 - 336 .\nbutsch , r . s . ( 1939 ) a list of barbadian fishes . : j . b . m . h . s . 7 ( 1 ) : 17 - 31 .\nb\u00f6hlke , j . e . and c . c . g . chaplin ( 1993 ) fishes of the bahamas and adjacent tropical waters . 2nd edition . : university of texas press , austin .\ncarl , h . ( 2003 ) danish fish names . : zoological museum of copenhagen . unpublished .\ncervig\u00f3n , f . ( 1993 ) los peces marinos de venezuela . volume 2 . : fundaci\u00f3n cient\u00edfica los roques , caracas , venezuela . 497 p .\nclaro , r . ( 1994 ) caracter\u00edsticas generales de la ictiofauna . : p . 55 - 70 . in r . claro ( ed . ) ecolog\u00eda de los peces marinos de cuba . instituto de oceanolog\u00eda academia de ciencias de cuba and centro de investigaciones de quintana roo .\ncrossman , e . j . ( 1972 ) collecting trip to st . lucia . : dept . ichthyology & herpetology . 32 p .\nerdman , d . s . ( 1983 ) nombres vulgares de los peces en puerto rico ( common names of fishes in puerto rico ) . : commonwealth of puerto rico . technical report , vol 3 . no . 2 , second revised edition . 44 p .\nfao - fies ( 2017 ) aquatic sciences and fisheries information system ( asfis ) species list . : retrievef from urltoken ( accessed 08 / 06 / 2017 ) .\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication .\ng\u00f3mez - canchong , p . , l . manjarr\u00e9s m . , l . o . duarte and j . altamar ( 2004 ) atlas pesquero del area norte del mar caribe de colombia . : universidad del magadalena , santa marta . 230 p .\nihering , r . v . ( 1968 ) dicion\u00e1rio dos animais do brasil . : editora universidade de bras\u00edlia , bras\u00edlia : 790 p .\nmartin , f . d . and j . w . patus ( 1984 ) an annotated key to the teleost fishes of puerto rico . : compendio enciclopedico de los recursos nat . 5 : 1 - 191 .\nmceachran , j . d . ( 2009 ) . fishes ( vertebrata : pisces ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 1223\u20131316 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m press , college station , texas .\nnah\u00edm , h . r . and f . cervig\u00f3n ( 2003 ) peces del archipi\u00e9lago los roques . : agencia espa\u00f1ola de cooperac\u00edon internacional . 304 p .\nnelson , j . s . , e . j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea and j . d . williams ( 2004 ) common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . : american fisheries society , special publication 29 , bethesda , maryland . ix , 386 p . + 1 cd .\nni\u00f3n , h . , c . r\u00edos and p . meneses ( 2002 ) peces del uruguay : lista sistem\u00e1tica y nombres comunes . : montevideo , dinara , infopesca .\nnomura , h . ( 1984 ) dicion\u00e1rio dos peixes do brasil . : bras\u00edlia : editerra . 482p .\nrandolph , s . and m . snyder ( 1993 ) the seafood list : fda ' s guide to acceptable market names for seafood sold in interstate commerce . : u . s . government printing office , washington , usa . pag . var .\nrobins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al . , 1991 : common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada , fifth edition . american fisheries society special publication , no . 20 . 183 .\nsilva , m . ( 1994 ) especies identificadas en las pesquerias costeras artesanales del suroeste de la republica dominica . : reportes del propescar - sur : contribuciones al conocimiento de las pesquer\u00edas en la rep\u00fablica dominicana . vol . 1 , 47p .\nsize : the great barracuda ranges from foot - long juveniles on shallow flats to 50 pounds or more offshore . usual maximum is around 30 pounds , with the average being 5 - 15 pounds . world record 85 pounds ( all above information from bigfishtackle . com ) .\nthe barracuda is at home almost anywhere from shorelines and bays out to blue water . great barracuda is seldom seen inshore , but is common offshore on wrecks and artificial reefs . found throughout the indian ocean .\ndark above with silvery sides . many spots , which are both yellow and brown . the body is proportionately deeper than with juvenile king mackerel , and the yellow spots appear rounder and brighter , but if in doubt , the only true identifier is the lateral line , which tapers rather gently from front to back with no severe dip .\nsize : common at 1 - 3 pounds ; not too unusual at 5 - 7 pounds ; maximum potential over 10 pounds . world record 13 pounds ( all above information from bigfishtackle . com ) .\nthis mackeral is largely coastal , but roams offshore at times . found throughout the indian ocean .\noverall brownish or goldish . heavy body . no scutes forward of tail fin . dark oblique line through the eye that ends at the dorsal fin .\nsize : schools of young fish are common at 5 - 20 pounds . average size over deep wrecks and reefs is 30 - 60 pounds , but 100 - pounders are not too rare and the potential maximum exceeds 150 pounds . world record 155 pounds ( all above information from bigfishtackle . com ) .\nadults are common at various depths , ranging from reefs several hundred feet deep to fairly shallow wrecks and reefs . big ones also come close to shore at times . found throughout the indian ocean .\nin the water , cobia look very much like sharks . the usual color is brown or dark gray above , whitish on the underside , with a dark stripe running from gills to base of tail . the striped appearance is more vivid in juveniles . several rather sharp finlets on the dorsal surface extend from behind the head to the dorsal fin .\nsize : common from 20 to 50 pounds ; sometimes up to 80 pounds , and possibly to 100 or more . world record 135 pounds ( all above information from bigfishtackle . com ) .\ncobia love to hang around navigation markers , wrecks and artificial reefs , where they swim both at the surface and down deep . they also escort wandering mantas and other large rays , and many are caught around those hosts . found throughout the indian ocean .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncumberland island an ecological survey of the coastal region of georgia nps scientific monograph no . 3\nthe following list includes those species of fish that are known from or likely to occur in estuarine and marine waters along the georgia coast seaward to a depth of 10 fathoms . this encompasses waters of the estuary , beach , and\ncoastal habitat .\nin the text the term coastal habitat refers to that region from the ocean beaches to a depth of 10 fathoms as in struhsaker ( 1969 ) . species listed are based primarily on my own records from georgia inshore waters , from south carolina by bearden ( 1961a , 1965 ) , and from the coastal habitat by struhsaker ( 1969 ) . for the benefit of sport fishermen , the common offshore sport fishes are also included . this list is extracted from my manuscript , a field guide to georgia coastal fishes . this manuscript and the paper by struhsaker ( 1969 ) report a large number of additional species that are restricted to deeper waters of the continental shelf ; most of these species occur primarily on reefs .\nseasonal records in the text are based on inshore collections , i . e . , beach and estuarine waters .\n1 present address : c . w . rice div . , nus corp . , pittsburgh .\nthe common sharks that occur inshore on the georgia coast are not restricted to well - defined habitats . they may be collected in shallow beach waters as well as deeper waters of the sounds and offshore . most of the sharks considered below prefer warmer waters and leave inshore waters of georgia in the winter . one exception is the spiny dogfish , a northern species that migrates southward to georgia in the winter .\nreported from south carolina but not georgia . mainly pelagic but sometimes found inshore .\nyoung are often collected on the south carolina coast in spring and summer and they probably occur on the georgia coast .\nstingrays are collected by hook , seine , and trawls in shallow beach waters and deeper estuarine waters .\nthe range of the devil ray , mobula hypostoma , includes the georgia coast , but it has not been reported from georgia or south carolina .\nlarge specimens are occasionally seen jumping in georgia coastal waters and one reported to weigh 2500 pounds was caught in a shrimp trawl .\nprimarily found in tidal waters but enters ocean . commonly caught in gill nets in the altamaha river .\nanadromous . commonly caught in gill nets in the altamaha river by shad fishermen .\nprimarily a freshwater species but often encountered in salt water on the georgia coast .\nsmall individuals are often collected in tidal pools and canals and occasionally along the beach , high marsh , and upper reaches , from may to november .\nlarge tarpon are commonly caught in warmer months on georgia beaches and in the lower altamaha river . juveniles occur in tidal pools and creeks in low - to high - salinities from july to november .\ncatadromous . common spring through fall in oligohaline and freshwater creeks , tidal creeks , low - and high - salinity tidal pools , and rare in high marsh .\nin addition to the species listed , three other ophichthids occur offshore on the georgia coast ; these are letharchus velifer , verma kendalli and mystriophis intertinctus .\nbeach , high marsh , and ologohaline creek . rarely seen on georgia coast .\nin addition to the species listed , the atlantic round herring ( etrumeus teres ) occurs off georgia , but it is not known from inshore waters .\nanadromous . an important commercial and sport fish in georgia rivers during the january - march spawning migration .\ncommon along beaches ; also found in the high marsh , tidal canals , and tidal pools , from may to november .\nschools are abundant in lower and middle reaches and near beaches of georgia estuaries in warmer months . some occur in the sounds throughout the winter . also found in the high marsh , tidal canals , and high - salinity tidal pools . rare in the oligohaline creeks and low - salinity tidal pools . most migrate south or offshore in winter .\ncommon in the lower reaches , high marsh , and probably in oligohaline creeks . rare along the beach .\ncollected at beaches at savannah , sapelo island , and brunswick . also collected in the high marsh and tidal canals .\noccasionally collected at beaches and in the lower reaches and rare in the high marsh , june to october . more abundant south and offshore .\nknown from the beaches , lower reaches , and high marsh , july to december . more abundant to the south .\ncommon at georgia beaches , lower and middle reaches , and high marsh , may to november .\nfound at beaches , lower , middle , and upper reaches , in the high marsh , and in high - salinity tidal pools , common throughout the year .\na bottom species occasionally collected at the beach , lower reaches , and middle reaches , april to november . more common in coastal and offshore habitats .\nadults are common on beaches and deeper estuarine waters and juveniles are common in the deeper waters . present in estuaries from march to november . migrates to ocean in autumn and winter .\nthe leopard toadfish ( opsanus pardus ) and atlantic midshipman ( ponichthys porosissimus ) are found only offshore , often in association with reefs .\ncommon in lower and middle reaches usually around debris . sometimes found in oyster reefs and along the beach .\nlower and middle reaches of estuary , in association with oyster reefs in shallows and shell in deeper waters .\nthe ocellated frogfish ( antennarius ocellatus ) was reported offshore by struhsaker ( 1969 ) , and the two species listed below , reported from st . simons beach ( miller and jorgenson 1969 ) , are stragglers from offshore .\nogcocephalus radiatus and halieutichthys aculeatus occur offshore on the georgia coast . one species reported from inshore is listed below .\nabundant offshore , sometimes collected in the coastal and lower reaches habitats ( anderson 1968 ) .\nthe carolina hake ( urophycis earlli ) and silver hake ( merluccius bilinearis ) probably occur offshore ( struhsaker 1969 ) .\nspecies reported from offshore by struhsaker ( 1969 ) include the bank cusk - eel ( ophidion holbrooki ) , polka - dot cusk - eel ( otophidium omostigmum ) , blotched cusk - eel ( ophidion grayii , and lepophidium spp .\ndeeper waters of lower and middle reaches , coastal habitat , and rare in beach habitat .\nin addition to the species listed , platybelone argalus occurs in the gulf stream off georgia .\nfound around docks in the lower and middle reaches , also known from the high marsh and the beach .\nthree species of halfbeaks apparently occur on the georgia coast but they have not been collected inshore . they may be restricted to offshore . flyingfishes do not normally occur in georgia estuaries or along the beaches although they are common offshore . listed here is a straggler from offshore and another species likely to occur near shore . two other flyingfishes probably occur offshore on the georgia coast . these are parexocoetus brachypterus and cypselurus cyanopterus .\nin the high marshes , tidal canals , high - and low - salinity tidal pools . euryhaline .\nbeach , high marsh , lower to upper reaches , oligohaline creek , tidal canal and tidal pools . abundant in shallow waters and not found in deep waters .\nthe only definite georgia records were collected at a marsh near the meridian dock ( miller and jorgenson 1969 ) . the spotfins apparently have disappeared since the collecting site became occupied with spartina and juncus .\npresent at beaches throughout the year and occasionally taken in the high marsh , tidal canals , and high - salinity tidal pools .\nmost abundant in fresh water but common in the high marsh , oligohaline creeks , tidal pools , tidal canals , and sometimes found at the beach .\ncommon in high marsh , fresh water , tidal canals , tidal pools , and rare at the beach and in oligohaline creeks .\nlower reaches , beach , and high marsh habitats . present throughout the year .\nmost abundant in oligohaline creek and fresh water near the coast , and also found in the upper reaches and at the beach . present throughout the year .\nbeach , high marsh , lower and middle reaches , and high - salinity tidal pools . present throughout the year .\none species of trumpetfish ( aulostomus maculatus ) is known from georgia offshore waters .\nthree pipefishes are known from the georgia coast\u0097 syngnathus fuscus , s . louisianae , and corythoichthys albirostris ( one record ) . additional forms which may occur inshore along the georgia coast are s . scovelli , s . floridae hubbsi , and s . f . mckayi ( dr . e . herald , pers . comm . ) . s . pelagicus and s . springeri may occur offshore .\noften found at the beach , upper and lower reaches , and rare in oligohaline creek .\ncommon in georgia estuaries . known from beach , high marsh , lower to upper reaches , high - salinity tidal pool , and rare in oligohaline creek .\nranges from north carolina to pensacola , fla . , but not known from georgia .\nyoung occur in tidal pools and tidal ditches from june to november in georgia .\nnumerous sea bass species occur on live - bottom areas off the georgia coast . the gag , mycteroperca microlepis , is a straggler to georgia estuaries . only two species ( centropristis ) are common in the estuary , centropristis ocyurus occurs offshore . two species of diplectrum occur in the coastal habitat and diplectrum bivittatum occurs offshore ( struhsaker 1969 ) . two more serranids , serraniculus pumilio and serranus subligarius , occur offshore and may be found in reefs in the coastal habitat .\nyoung are commonly in estuarine sounds and rivers throughout the year . large black sea bass are abundant offshore around reefs .\nthe white perch morone americana occurs in south carolina ( bearden 1961b ) but not georgia .\nmany species of sunfishes enter brackish waters occasionally . i collected four species in the oligohaline riceboro creek when the water was fresh . these were the flier ( centrarchus macropterus ) , warmouth ( lepomis gulosus ) , bluegill ( lepomis macrochirus ) , and largemouth bass ( micropterus salmoides ) .\nthe smaller\nsnapper blues\nare commonly caught with fishing poles on beaches , in sounds and estuarine rivers . large bluefish are caught offshore .\ncommonly caught around buoys offshore . found around mouths of sounds and rivers of south carolina ( bearden 1961a ) .\nmost offshore records of carangids are from struhsaker ( 1969 ) . a few additional species may be found in the gulf stream .\nprimarily offshore near the gulf stream . juveniles occasionally migrate or drift inshore ( berry 1959 ) .\ncollected in georgia estuarine and coastal waters ( anderson 1968 ) but most abundant offshore .\nadult crevalle jack are rarely caught with fishing poles on the georgia coast . young are sometimes collected along the beach and in the marsh ( miller and jorgenson 1969 ) .\ncommon june - december in waters of beach , lower reaches , and coastal habitat and rare in middle reaches and high - salinity tidal pools .\ncommon june - november along the beach and also occurring in the high marsh , middle reaches , and high - salinity tidal pools .\nsometimes collected in waters of the beach , lower reaches , and coastal habitat , may - september .\nyoung pompano are abundant along the beaches in the warmer months . all three species of trachinotus apparently occur offshore .\nyoung occur along the beach and sometimes in the high marsh , may - november .\nthe common dolphin ( conyphaena hippurus ) is often caught offshore by sport fishermen and the pompano dolphin ( c . equisetis ) also occurs offshore .\nthe snappers are tropical fishes that are represented by at least seven species offshore . the red snapper ( lutfanus campechanus ) supports a small commercial fisheries off georgia . included in the synonymy of the red snapper is l . aya and l . blackfordi ( anderson 1967 , rivas 1966 ) . one snapper ranges inshore .\non the georgia coast the mangrove snapper occurs primarily offshore . a few juveniles were collected in shallows of the lower reaches , beach , high marsh , low - and high - salinity tidal pools .\nbeach , high marsh , low - and high - salinity tidal pools , and rare in oligohaline creeks and tidal canals . euryhaline . collected july through november .\noccasionally collected in waters of beach , lower reaches to oligohaline creeks , high marsh , tidal canals , and low - and high - salinity tidal pools , july - november . mostly in shallows but some were collected while trawling in the lower reaches .\nrecorded for the beach and high marsh by miller and jorgenson ( 1969 ) . also reported for the coastal habitat ( bullis and thompson 1965 ) .\nthe grunts are primarily tropical fishes . the pigfish is the only species common in temperate atlantic waters and often found in the estuaries . the tomtate occasionally occurs in the coastal habitat and is more common around reefs and offshore . the white grunt ( haemulon plumieri ) occurs offshore on reefs .\nmost abundant offshore in reef and shelf - edge habitats and sometimes collected in coastal habitat .\ncollected in the lower and middle reaches of the estuary . also in coastal habitat and open shelf habitat . collected june through december inshore .\nsciaenids are predominantly temperate - water fishes that need estuarine waters for nursery grounds . the diverse and abundant sciaenids of georgia are the most important group to coastal sport fishermen . they are the most abundant fishes in terms of number available for trawling ( anderson 1968 ) and probably biomass .\nabundant in trawl catches in the coastal habitat and lower and middle reaches . mostly young are found in waters of the beach , high marsh , oligohaline creeks , tidal canals , and high - and low - salinity tidal pools .\na very popular sport fish along beaches and in lower and middle reaches , caught mostly in fall and winter . also in coastal habitat , high marsh , and high - salinity tidal pools .\nmost common in lower reaches . also in waters of coastal habitat , beach , middle reaches , high marsh , tidal canals , and high - salinity tidal pools . present throughout the years .\nbeach , lower reaches up the estuary to oligohaline creeks , high marsh , tidal canal , and high - and low - salinity tidal pools . present throughout the year .\nboth young and adults are common to abundant in the lower reaches throughout the year and beach habitat spring through fall . also known from the coastal habitat , high marsh , and middle teaches .\nyoung are common along the beach in warmer months and occur there throughout the year . also known from the lower reaches and high marsh .\nyoung are common along the beach . young and adults are sometimes caught in the lower reaches . rare in high marsh . occurs april through august .\nadults are abundant in the lower reaches . other habitats are the beach , high marsh , middle teaches , and high - salinity tidal pools . rare in oligohaline creeks and tidal canals . present throughout the year .\nlarge black drum are occasionally collected in the lower reaches . young occur in beach waters , high marsh , tidal canals , high - and low - salinity tidal pools . also recorded for the coastal habitat .\nlarge red drum are caught along the beaches and in the lower reaches . young are occasionally collected in high - salinity tidal pools and rarely in the high marsh , tidal canals , and low - salinity tidal pools .\nthis is the most abundant species in trawl catches in the lower reaches . most abundant in warmer months . sometimes occurs in the middle reaches and beach habitats .\ntwo species were collected at 10 - 11 fathoms off south carolina ( bullis and thompson 1965 ) and are listed here . the dwarf goatfish ( upeneus parvus ) occurs offshore .\nnine species were listed by struhsaker ( 1969 ) for offshore waters . four species that occur inshore are listed here .\nsheepshead support a sport fishery in the lower reaches . young sometimes occur along the beach and in the high marsh . also offshore on reef habitat .\nuncommon but widespread . they occupy beach waters , lower reaches , high marsh , tidal canals , and high - and low - salinity tidal pools .\nmoore ( 1962 ) reported juvenile yellow chubs from the georgia shore and juvenile bermuda chub from the south carolina and florida shores . adults occur offshore .\nranges from reefs and coastal habitat to beaches , lower and middle reaches , and high marsh .\nthis family includes at least four butterflyfishes of the genus chaetodon and angelfishes of the genus holacanthus off the georgia coast . only one is known from within the coastal habitat .\nfour species are known from the georgia coast , mostly from reefs . only one has been reported inshore .\nprimarily reefs . reported by miller and jorgenson ( 1969 ) from st . simons beach .\nubiquitous in shallow waters of the beach , from the lower reaches to the oligohaline creeks , and high - salinity tidal pools . also found in the high marsh , tidal canals , and low - salinity tidal pools .\nbeach , high marsh , lower to upper reaches , tidal canals , and high - and low - salinity tidal pools .\nseven species apparently occur within depths of the open - shelf and others occur farther offshore . the tautog ( tautoga onitis ) occurs inshore on the south carolina coast ( bearden 196la ) but does not range south to georgia . two species collected on a reef at a depth of 70 ft off the georgia coast are listed here .\ntwo species that have been collected offshore are the bucktooth parrotfish ( sparisoma radians ) and emerald parrotfish ( nicholsina usta ) ( struhsaker 1969 ) .\ntwo stargazer species occur off the georgia coast . the lancer stargazer ( kathetostoma albigutta ) occurs offshore .\nopen - shelf , coastal habitat , lower reaches and occasionally beach , high marsh , and middle reaches . usually on sandy bottoms .\nseveral specimens have been collected in the coastal habitat but not within the estuarine or beach waters .\noyster reefs and probably other cover in the lower reaches and along the beach .\nknown from a reef near the coastal habitat and from the lower reaches and beach .\na euryhaline species that i collected only in the low - salinity tidal pools .\ncollected in lower reaches and high - salinity tidal pools , and reported from coastal habitat by anderson ( 1968 ) .\ncollected in low - salinity tidal pools . also reported from st . simons beach and altamaha river ( miller and jorgenson 1969 ) .\ncommon in oyster reefs in the lower reaches . also collected in the upper reaches , oligohaline creeks , beach waters , high marsh , and high - salinity tidal pools .\noccurs over a broad salinity range and available data suggest preference for sandy substrates ( dawson 1969 ) . i collected this species only in a muddy high - salinity tidal pool ."]}
{"id": 1311, "summary": [{"text": "hawaiian gold coral ( kulamanamana haumeaae ) is a rare , extremely long-lived deep-sea coral found on seamounts near hawaii .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "one colony has been dated as 2,740 years old , while others are considered 5,000 years old .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "although it has been harvested commercially for use in jewellery for a long time , it was not formally described by taxonomists until 2012 when it was found to be related to both the genus savalia and the octocoral-associated zoanthid , corallizoanthus tsukaharai . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "hawaiian gold coral", "paragraphs": ["vintage gold fill gf hawaiian black coral pendant curb link chain necklace17 . 75\nthe hawaiian gold coral may also be one of the longest - lived . . .\nki - ele hawaiian red coral long necklace ! organic red coral . approximate coral pendant : 7mm x 70mm . 14k gold - filled .\nhawaiian gold coral is a long - lived , deep - sea coral found in the north pacific ocean . ( photo credit : hurl )\nhawaiian gold coral grew at a rate of approximately 3 inches per year , and only about 3 % of the bed could be harvested annually . both state and federal laws strictly regulated the harvest . of all gem corals , hawaiian gold coral was by far the rarest .\nin hawaiian deep coral assemblages . mar ecol prog ser 533 : 135 - 147\n14k delicate carved hibiscus flower rare natural coral ring sz 6 . 75 , hawaiian\nhawaiian black coral round bangle unisex bracelet for larger size , 9 . 5\nthe color of hawaiian gold coral varied widely and displayed many interesting patterns , unlike pink and black corals . its color ranged from a sandy beige to almost black . hawaiian gold coral has a special characteristic called \u201cchatoyance , \u201d from the french word for \u201ccats eye , \u201d which describes a mysterious moving inner light .\nmassive 32\nestate 14k black coral 9 . 5 10mm hawaiian bead necklace 53g + vintage\nabstract : the hawaiian gold coral is a parasitic zoantharian that colonizes other deep corals and secretes a protein skeleton that over millennia can grow and more than double the original mean size of the host colony . surveys at 6 known coral beds in the hawaiian archipelago found mature gold coral to be a common taxon and dominant at the geologically older sites . fewer than 5 % of the gold coral colonies seen were in the process of subsuming their host , described here as the \u2018midas\u2019 phase . bamboo coral (\nthe hawaiian gold coral ( kulamanamana haumeaae ) is a deep sea zoanthid coral found on seamounts throughout the hawaiian archipelago at depths of 343 m - 575 m . known mostly because of its beauty and rareness as a gem coral , it has been collected since the 1970s for the jewelry industry ( referred to as genus gerardia , a synonym of savalia ) , but was not scientifically described until 2013 . molecular evidence indicates that hawaiian gold coral belongs in its own genus .\ncitation : sinniger f , oca\u00f1a ov , baco ar ( 2013 ) diversity of zoanthids ( anthozoa : hexacorallia ) on hawaiian seamounts : description of the hawaiian gold coral and additional zoanthids . plos one 8 ( 1 ) : e52607 . urltoken\n( mean \u00b1 sd ) . cross sections of mature gold coral colonies show the host averages just 9 . 8 cm of the stem\u2019s core , indicating that much of the host skeleton is lost when subsumed by gold coral tissue . the absence of midas colonies in a bamboo coral assemblage found growing on a 76 yr old wreck close ( ~ 1 km ) to a mature gold coral patch suggests that gold coral recruitment is infrequent . this time lag between the growth of the host and the arrival of the gold coral successor is essential because otherwise the speed of the midas phase would subsume the host population faster than it could replenish .\ndistribution : so far found in the hawaiian archipelago with a distribution similar to the hawaiian gold coral , ku . haumeaae . similar and potentially identical zoanthid was observed in other pacific locations such as line , jarvis , palmyra and kingman [ 3 ] .\nblue coral is thought to be in the initial stage of disintegration . this color generally expands only below the surface . it is an unusual variety found off in cameroon . hawaiian gold coral is rare by far . its color tone ranges from sandy beige color to complete black . on the off side of maui in hawaii , this exquisite variety of coral is found with resin or lacquered texture . the only company in the world that creates jewelry from hawaiian gold coral is maui divers .\nhawaiian hibiscus flower hawaii coconut bracelet . size - elastic coconut bead band one size fits all . hawaiian jewelry & gift collection . order number - cb - 440 - coral orange .\nhawaiian gold coral : ( gerardia species ) hawaiian gold coral was discovered in small amounts in 1971 by dr . richard grigg using star ii submarine in the same general area as the pink coral discovery area off makapu ` u point in 1 , 200 feet of water . in the year 2000 , two new beds of hawaiian gold coral were discovered ; one atop an ancient underwater volcano called cross seamount , 100 miles south of oahu , the other off keahole point on the big island of hawai ` i . both beds were at a depth of 400 meters ( about 1 , 300 feet ) . the beds off makapuu were the only commercially harvested beds in the world .\neach coral gemstone color has its own distinct quality . black coral is exotic and dramatic and has long been considered to guard against misfortune . pink coral is delicate and is said to bring good health . red coral is best described as rich and romantic . and gold coral with its mysterious inner light , is the rarest of all corals .\nsymptomatic of the order , a suite of other zoanthids , besides the hawaiian gold coral , have been observed and collected in hawaii , but far less is known of their biology and ecology and they have not been described taxonomically .\netymology : this species name is dedicated to haumea , hawaiian goddess of fertility .\nsp . in the hawaiian archipelago . mar ecol prog ser 397 : 163\u2013172 .\ncolour : in vivo , polyps , tentacles and coenenchyme are brownish - yellow , similar to the hawaiian gold coral ku . haumeaae , but distinct enough in colour to be recognised as a different species from the submersible , ( fig . 1b ) .\ncoral jewelry is exciting to wear . with distinct look and features from gold , platinum or silver jewelry , coral jewelry has become popular quite fast . but don\u2019t get carried away with the luster . pause\u2026hold back . before you enter the market to buy your choice of coral jewelry designs , we have some important tips from the coral jewelry buying guide .\nalthough black and gold coral are relative newcomers to northern cultures , they have long been used as gem material in their native territories . they are found primarily off the coasts of hawaii and cameroon . akori corals from cameroon were highly prized before the eighteenth century . hawaiian gold coral is the rarest gem coral variety and harder than other varieties . it was first described scientifically in the 1970s . the harvesting of this gem material , however , is currently restricted and cost prohibitive due to environmental considerations .\netymology : the feminine name of this genus is derived from the hawaiian terms kula ( = gold ) and manamana ( = branch ) referring to the particular skeleton of the type species of this genus .\ngrade a - all natural black coral very rare find . about 34 large beads of a coral ranging from 27mm to 21mm .\nbleaching produces gold coral from black . this is a stable treatment . this process can be identified by magnification ( which reveals a different texture ) and lower sg and refractive index values .\nmature colonies may take 50 years to grow , so to ensure the future of hawaiian black coral , maui divers strictly adheres to both federal and state regulations that the company helped to establish , prohibiting the harvesting of immature colonies . in this way , not only sustainability , but also growth of precious hawaiian black coral is supported .\nblack coral is rare and , when polished , it shines with such luster you can almost see your own reflection in it . its stunning contrast against yellow gold makes it a wonderful gift as well as a beautiful keepsake to treasure forever . our popular paradise ring features an ocean wave shaped by a graceful cut of polished black coral , gold maile leaves representing hawaiian royalty , and diamonds that shine like the evening stars over paradise ; a perfect reminder of a trip to the islands .\nblack coral : ( antipathes grandis ) the first new black coral bed found in centuries was discovered by maui divers in deep waters off lahaina , maui in 1958 . today , hawaiian black coral - - the world ' s finest deep sea precious coral and the hawaii state gemstone - - is carefully collected by hand by our divers at depths that exceed 200 feet .\nhawaiian gold coral grows in a fan shape , up to 1 meter ( 3 feet ) in height . its skeleton ranges between golden yellow and orange in color , with polyp color , when living , bright yellow to orange . polyps will flash with bioluminescence and produce copious mucus when disturbed .\ntreasure - hunting divers , uncontrolled harvesting , pollution and climate change have all contributed to the decimation of our naturally occurring coral beds on the ocean floor surrounding the hawaiian islands .\ncalcite coral , 1 . 69 and 1 . 49 , not usually measurable . conchiolin ( black coral ) has ri of 1 . 56 .\nyou also have to be careful in picking the right coral . must buyers of coral end up in getting some other materials that are used to imitate the natural coral . there are all the chances for you to be mistaken with plastic , man made coral , howlite , shell , ivory , onyx / calcite and fossil ivory as coral . for conchiolin coral , the materials like plastic , chalcedony and jet are used for imitation .\nthe calcareous coral has hardness of - 3 1 / 2 to 4 and fair toughness . while the conchiolin coral has hardness of 3 and good toughness . both the varieties of coral have glass like waxy to vitreous polish luster .\ndespite its ecological significance and long history of exploitation , the hawaiian gold coral has never been subject to taxonomic studies or a formal species description . as a result of this , the nomenclature concerning the hawaiian gold coral has been relatively confused . this species was first mentioned as parazoanthus sp . [ 10 ] before being referred to as gerardia lacaze - duthiers , 1864 starting in 1976 in ageing studies [ 18 ] , due to its secretion of a scleroproteic skeleton . however , the genus gerardia had been recognised as a younger synonym from the genus savalia nardo 1844 already [ 19 ] . more recently this synonymy was mentioned in several publications [ 20 ] \u2013 [ 22 ] .\nthe purpose of this study is to re - examine specimens of the hawaiian gold coral and four other species of arborescent zoanthids from the hawaiian archipelago to evaluate the biodiversity of these ecologically important zoanthids and to provide taxonomic placement of these species in consideration of their evolutionary history . this aim was achieved and results in the description of several new zoanthid genera , a significant advance in the understanding of zoanthid biodiversity considering that until this study only 18 genera were recognised .\ncoral approx . 3mm to 10mm wide round . 2 beads 10mm 10mm 10mm .\ncoral is natural , not dyed or enhanced . strung on nylon coated wire .\nbased on the phylogenetic trees , several options could be considered to define the taxonomy of hawaiian deep octocoral - related zoanthids .\n) foraging in deep - water coral beds . mar mammal sci 18 : 244\u2013258 .\ncoral : south china sea ( red carving ~ 4 inch tall ) . photo \u00a9\nlayers of coral skeleton laid down over the past 1 , 000 years can be seen in this polished section of a deep sea coral . ( photo by m . mccarthy )\nthere are many common enhancements that are done on coral that spoil their natural qualities . dyeing the calcareous coral deepens and at times changes the color and saturation with epoxy . the dying will then hide cracks at the surface and make it fill with cavities in the low quality of coral . it is a quite common practice that cheats the coral customers .\n) comprised 85 % of the midas colonies , with two - thirds found at the youngest site , where the mean height of bamboo coral was significantly greater than at other sites . marked midas colonies revisited after 5 yr showed the gold coral tissue spreading across the host at an estimated rate of 2 . 2 \u00b1 0 . 69 cm yr\ncoral values are based on hue , saturation , size , cut , and polish . top values for calcareous coral go to red , pink , and orange pieces . other colors are graded separately . highest values for conchiolin coral go to black , then brown . gold color has additional value , especially if it shows a sheen . when polished , the color may shimmer through a transparent layer . coral carvings can be quite valuable . the determining factors are the size and color of the piece as well as the skill of the artist .\nsince 2001 , the fishing industry for hawaiian gold coral has been restricted to a point where it is no longer cost effective to collect it . the coral , which grows to a large size and in large numbers of individuals , dominates the coral biomass in its depth range and habitat , and is now recognized for its importance in its ecosystem . furthermore , recent dating studies show that k . haumeaae is one of the longest - living species on earth , with some individuals determined as 2740 years of age , growing at tremendously slow rates of about 15 - 45 micrometers in radius / year .\ncoral seems to be an excellent choice for jewelry . but , have you ever thought that where from coral comes actually ? coral is a sea product that grows in branches , which look much like dwarf underwater trees . in the whole cycle of making of coral , a marine gelatinous animal collects calcium carbonate around its body . it is a polyp made of calcite fibrous crystals .\ncoral is the external skeleton of a tiny , plantlike animal called the coral polyp . it lives in warm oceans in all tropical areas of the world . although these creatures are only one millimeter in length , they grow as a colony on top of each other for generations . the resulting structures can be quite massive . coral growths come in many shapes . the coral commonly used to make gems is branched and treelike . the largest sections of a coral ' s trunk are used for carvings . most coral is cut into cabochons or made into a variety of shapes for use in necklaces .\npink coral : ( corrallium secundum ) pink coral was first discovered off makapu ` u point , oahu , in 1 , 200 feet of water in 1966 , and we began making jewelry from it the same year . now it is found over the entire length of the hawaiian chain from oahu in the east to beyond midway island in the west .\nthe two have already teamed up with the monterey bay aquarium research institute to launch the next stage of their research . they are using remotely operated underwater vehicles to collect bamboo coral , another long - lived deep - sea species , in monterey bay ' s deep underwater canyon . the researchers plan to apply the same techniques they used with hawaiian gold coral to understand how el ni\u00f1o cycles have influenced california ' s dynamic coastal systems . ultimately , they want to better predict how a changing climate will shape the region ' s multimillion - dollar fisheries .\netymology : the genus name refers to hurl ( the hawaiian undersea research laboratory ) which has provided significant funding and the use of their submersible pisces for deep - sea coral research in the hawaiian archipelago . work with agency has provided many deep - sea coral species new to science . due to budget restrictions hurl was closed in the year of the description of these zoanthid species and this genus name is to acknowledge the important contribution of hurl in the discovery of deep - sea diversity around the hawaiian archipelago . the ending - zoanthus , is a common ending of genera names in the order , historically referring to the flower - like appearance of the animal polyps .\nthe hawaiian gold corals , however , produced a surprisingly clear record .\ni was amazed ,\nsaid mccarthy .\nit was a massive ' aha , ' lightning bolt moment that showed what we ' re doing actually works . you don ' t get those moments all that often . this is an amazing data set that kelton generated .\ngorgeous hawaiian , genuine black coral bracelet for larger size ( up to 9 . 5\n) . hard to find size ! inner circumference is 9 . 5\n( 23 . 4 cm ) . they don ' t make this kind of jewelry anymore .\nthe physical look of the carbonate type of coral is that it flaunts a distinct pattern of parallel stripes with a little different colour and transparence . the glass simulants of the coral lacks the ideal structure of coral . they have a glassy luster and tend to have bubbles . the glass simulants can also display conchoidal fracture . the plastics simulants of coral also do not have coral the structure and can possibly show molding lines . you can detect the shell simulants by their layered structure . it displays fine rippled lines on its surface .\npink coral is delicate found in utmost quantity in the entire length of hawaiian chain . it is very dense and solid . the shaded colors in the large pink corals are the gem\u2019s natural qualities . the value of pink coral depends on its rarity . the precious red coral is revered high since the early civilizations for its beautiful color , texture and luster . it is found in ocean depths of about 500 to 1 , 000 feet . its rate of growth is very slow , only about 1 / 4 inch each year . this makes the red coral really highly treasured and prized .\nyou can buy coral in a great variety of colours that range from dark red , pink , white , spotted pink , orange , blue , violet , black and golden brown . each coral color has its own unique quality . black coral is exotic and dramatic to look and rare to find . it is considered as a guard against misfortune for a long time now . when polished , the black coral shines with beautiful luster .\nwalsh ge , bowers rl ( 1971 ) a review of hawaiian zoanthids with descriptions of three new species . zool j linn soc - lon 50 : 161\u2013180 .\nthere are some facts and qualities about the real coral that you should keep in mind . the best coral should have a deep natural color . it is found in a standard ( round or oval shape ) and finished surface . the perfect coral does not have any dents or holes or perforations . it is smooth to touch .\nbased on our knowledge on zoanthid taxonomy and evolution , the hypothesis of the hawaiian zoanthids examined in this study belonging to 5 genera was retained and is presented here .\nignoring phylogenetic information at genus level and based on the history of referring to the hawaiian gold coral as gerardia sp . , all the skeleton secreting zoanthids could be grouped into savalia . however , the taxonomic significance of the skeleton is unknown as well as information on biochemical similarities between secretions of savalia and ku . haumeaae is still missing . the absence of sand incrustation in ku . haumeaae is at least as important character to separate kulamanamana from savalia as is the skeleton to group those species together .\nthe polyps then create a branch like shape , built in the shape of hollow tubes fitted in one another . this makes for a sort of axial skeleton upon which the boneless coral polyps grow . they thrive a colony of their own and create the coral . a fully - grown coral remains covered with lime , barnacles , and salt .\ncoral size : 7x9mm . coating : rhodium plated on sterling silver . stone : genuine natural black coral ( not treated , not enhanced ) . pendant size : 14mm ( w ) x 25mm ( l ) including the bail .\netymology : this species is dedicated to emily and acadia baco - taylor , both born during the taxonomical investigations of these hawaiian species and presenting positive taxis towards bubble gum .\n2 . 6 - 2 . 7 . note : black coral , composed of conchiolin , is 1 . 34 .\nyou can do some tests to identify the real coral . place the real coral in a glass of cow\u2019s milk . if the color of milk will change to the one with red tinge , the coral is real . the imitation coral cannot change the milk\u2019s whiteness . another interesting test you can carry out is by actually wearing it . a true coral changes its color as per the physical health of the wearer . it will resume its original color when the physical health of the person is restored . but , it will fade out prior to the disorder in the wearer\u2019s physical health is evident .\nthere are two types of coral . calcareous corals are composed primarily of calcite and come in whites , reds , and pinks . conchiolin corals are composed of conchiolin , the same substance found in pearls and other shells . they come in black , brown , and gold colors . the conchiolin type is tougher and less brittle than the calcareous type .\nreimer jd , nonaka m , sinniger f , iwase f ( 2008 ) morphological and molecular characterization of a new genus and new species of parazoanthid ( anthozoa : hexacorallia : zoantharia ) associated with japanese red coral . coral reefs 27 : 935\u2013949 .\nby analyzing the composition of long - lived , deep - sea corals , uc santa cruz researchers have been able to track how ocean ecosystems responded to climate shifts over the past 1 , 000 years . hawaiian gold corals , which can live to be over 4 , 000 years old , act as living records , or\npaleoarchives ,\nby recording in their growth rings the chemical signatures of past ocean conditions .\ngrigg rw ( 1974 ) distribution and abundance of precious corals in hawaii . proc 2nd int coral reef symp , brisbane 235\u2013240 .\ngrigg rw ( 1993 ) precious coral fisheries of hawaii and the us . pacific islands . mar fish rev 55 : 50\u201360 .\nroark eb , guilderson tp , dunbar rb , ingram bl ( 2006 ) radiocarbon - based ages and growth rates of hawaiian deep - sea corals . mar ecol prog ser 327 : 1\u201314 .\ncoral jewelry was an important part of na hoku for many years . while we enjoyed sharing the beauty of this unique gemstone with our customers , it became very clear to us that the ever - increasing harvest of coral is detrimental to the delicate ocean environment .\nparrish fa ( 2007 ) density and habitat of three deep - sea corals in the lower hawaiian chain . in : george ry , cairns sd , editors . conservation and adaptive management of seamount and deep - sea coral ecosystems . miami , fl : rosenstiel school of marine and atmospheric science , university of miami . pp 185\u2013194 .\ndistribution : besides collection locations , also observed in submersible and rov videos at the makapu ' u coral bed off oahu , hawaii .\nas a buyer , you should first obtain the scientific ( latin ) name present in the control list of the coral . check whether cites regulates it or not . cites regulates all hard corals . if it is a cites species , the buyer requires a cites export permit that the exporting country issues . make sure that the coral producer obtains the cites permit for you before your order your coral jewelry .\nprecious coral was used in the oldest form of gemstone jewelry with pieces dating back 25 , 000 years showcased in museums . the use of coral , whose distinctive feature is that it can take a perfect polish , even predates the use of another ancient favorite , the pearl .\nred coral : ( corallium japonicum ) with a history predating the ancient glories of rome , precious red coral has been revered since early civilizations for its color , luster and texture . found in ocean depths of approximately 500 to 1 , 000 feet , red coral grows only about 1 / 4 inch per year , making it a highly treasured gemstone . our red coral is harvested in waters off the island chains of ogasawara and ryuku , as well as the mediterranean . we also hand select both rough material and cut stones of the highest quality from markets around the world .\nthe appearance of calcareou coral can range from semi translucent to opaque . its color can go from light to dark pink and then to dark red . it is also found in white , orange and cream colors and also in purple and blue at times . the appearance of other variety of coral , conchiolin coral , can range from semi translucent to opaque . it is found in gray , black , yellow and dark brown colors .\nit is difficult to find all the ideal conditions for the making of coral , such as right depth , intensity and temperature at one place . this is the reason there are less places in the world that provide best quality of coral . the best quality coral can be found in the southern ireland , madeira , bay of biscay , canaries , mauritius , cape de verde islands , japan , hawaii , australia , mediterranean , red sea , malay archipelago and in the japanese waters . italy is the place that is considered the center of coral jewelry making . in italy , torre del greco , near naples is the place where the best quality of coral jewelry is made . you can buy a lot of jewelry designs of coral , such as beautiful earrings , pendants , brooches , rings , tie bars , cuff links , belt buckles , pillboxes and inlaid jewelry boxes .\nthe gem use of coral began before recorded history . the ancient greeks , romans , and native americans used red , pink , and white corals extensively . deep red , bright pink , and clear white corals were highly prized . inland cultures far from the sources of coral would trade for these resources .\nwe are therefore asking jewelers everywhere to stop the advertising and selling of coral jewelry , and we ask that consumers cease purchasing this precious , endangered resource .\nalthough coral reefs are more commonly found in tropical areas , they can occur in colder , deeper water , such as those found to the west of ireland .\nour incomparable collection of the finest hawaiian and island lifestyle jewelry is recognized in hawaii and throughout the world for our exquisite island - inspired designs . from our original hawaiian slipper ( flip flop ) pendant , our wave pendant collection , our waterfall pendant collection , our elegant palm tree jewelry collection , to our latest koa wood inlay jewelry designs , and exclusive na hoku koa wood watches . we also feature our traditional hawaiian jewelry , our popular plumeria jewelry collection , our exquisite collection of pearl jewelry , and the timeless na hoku diamond solitaire engagement ring and bridal ring collections . we feature the exclusive collections made by kabana , le vian , effy , and bellarri . na hoku earrings , bracelets , pendants , necklaces , and rings capture the essence of the hawaiian and island lifestyle , and is unmatched in quality and craftsmanship . we invite you to visit us online or in our fine jewelry stores located across the continental u . s . and throughout hawaii .\n16 . 5\u201d hawaiian puca ( pucca ) shell necklace . it is designed with disc and flat nugget puca shells with the screw on clasp . the middle is designed with shells that have a lei flower design along with br . . .\nauster pj ( 2007 ) conservation and adaptive management of seamount and deep - sea coral ecosystems . in : george ry , cairns sd , editors . conservation and adaptive management of seamount and deep - sea coral ecosystems . miami , fl : rosenstiel school of marine and atmospheric science , university of miami . pp . 93\u201399 .\nhawaiian gold coral , like other corals in its family ( parazoanthidae ) , is epizoic , specifically associated with bamboo corals ( isididae ; octocorallia ) . it is unclear whether k . haumeaae colonizes host skeletons once its host has died , or whether it parasitizes it , competing for resources ( as do some closely related savalia species ) . recent studies suggest that the speciation and radiation of parazoanthid corals is driven by their close host relationships , and the biology behind these host / epizoid interactions are the subject of understanding a newly - discovered diversity of deep - sea octocorals ; four other genera of which were collected and described in the same scientific publication as k . haumeaae ( sinniger et al . 2013 ) .\netymology : this species name is dedicated to dr . frank parrish for his contribution to the knowledge of the biology of ku . haumeaae and other precious corals in the hawaiian archipelago as well as his support of the research of arb and fs .\na close relative of conchiolin corals is the rare blue coral . the hues are very nice , but the saturation is low , so these pieces tend towards gray shades .\nto conclude , be very alert when you go off to buy the coral jewelry you like . remember the guiding tips above to get the best deal . happy shopping !\nthe coral that is suitable for jewelry is not generally formed in reefs . it is found in small branch - like structures . it can be seen as the skeletal remains of the marine animals or the polyp corallicum . the most worthful coral is the noble red , also called corallicum rubrum . a typical and unique feature of precious corals is that they have a wonderful polish .\nthe hawaiian gold coral , described here as ku . haumeaae , has historically been referred as \u201c gerardia sp . \u201d , a younger synonym of savalia nardo 1844 . based on the close molecular distances between all octocoral - associated zoanthids , all species examined could have been moved to the genus savalia which would then also include the genus corallizoanthus . however , savalia is characterised by its ability to secrete a skeleton and this ability is not shared by corallizoanthus , h . parrishi and ka . kerbyi ( unclear in h . ammophilus ) . morphology of the colonies is completely different between those species , with corallizoanthus colonies consisting of individual polyps connected together only temporarily after polyp division , b . emilyacadiaarum also presents a poorly developed coenenchyme and groups of polyps scattered along the host , and other species usually present dense colonies with well developed coenenchyme covering most of the host .\nparrish fa , baco a ( 2007 ) state of deep coral ecosystems in the united states western pacific region : hawaii and the united states pacific islands . in : lumsden se , hourigan tf , et al . . , editors . the state of deep coral ecosystems of the united states . noaa technical memorandum crcp - 3 . silver spring , md : national oceanic and atmospheric administration . pp . 155\u2013194 .\nonly the corals that grow slow and live long are selected for jewelry and other ornamental purposes . the intensive collection of reefs threatens them . if you wish to buy the coral jewelry from overseas , it is important to make sure that you find out if you should take a cites permit . when you are buying it at home , always enquire from the retailer whether the coral is imported with required cites permit .\nmiller k , neil h , tracey d ( 2009 ) recent advances in deep - sea coral science and emerging links to conservation and management of deep - sea ecosystems . mar ecol prog ser 397 : 1\u20135 .\nmurray roberts j , wheeler aj , freiwald a , cairns sd ( 2009 ) cold - water corals : the biology and geology of deep - sea coral habitats . cambridge : cambridge university press . 334 p .\na very dense and hard gemstone , its color runs the entire spectrum of pink , from almost white to hibiscus pink to salmon red . the marbled and shaded colorings in some larger pink corals are natural qualities of the gem . the value of pink coral gemstones vary according to rarity , but all shades of this coral are highly prized . maui divers hand selects only the highest quality stones that meet our rigorous standards of excellence .\nbiological interactions : this species colonises a paragorgiid coral , most likely paragorgia coralloides . due to the coexistence of the octocoral and the zoanthid , further studies are necessary to determine the type of relationship between the two organisms .\netymology : this species is named after terry kerby , who has been a hurl submersible pilot through most of the time period hurl has been in operation and was pilot during the collection of most of the specimens in this paper . his knowledge of the hawaiian deep - sea fauna considerably facilitated the sampling of the zoanthids described here .\nstrictly based on phylogenetic tree information , hawaiian species might be placed in the genus corallizoanthus , however , the remarks mentioned above apply also in this situation and while savalia would remain independent , the secretion of a skeleton by ku . haumeaae appears as a character difficult to ignore when grouping this species with non - skeleton secreting zoanthids .\nbayesian tree based on concatenated 18s , coi and 16s genes . values at the nodes represent posterior probabilities and bootstrap values respectively . \u201c s \u201d indicate the ability to secrete a skeleton . values below posterior probabilities of 0 . 5 or 50 % bootstrap were considered as unresolved . hawaiian zoanthids described here are indicated in bold . epizoanthidae are used as outgroup . vertical bars indicate the species belonging to epizoanthidae and parazoanthidae respectively .\nall those zoanthids were found in areas of seamount pinnacles or on the slope of hawaiian islands exposed to currents . this habitat was frequently shared with other precious corals such a corallium lauuense , other octocorals and antipatharians , as described in detail for ku . haumeaae in previous studies [ 3 ] \u2013 [ 5 ] . however , the distribution of those epizoic species is expected to be highly dependent on the distribution of the host organisms .\nthe coral skeletons contain essential amino acids left largely intact from when they were in the cells of phytoplankton from hundreds of years ago . by analyzing the composition of these amino acids in different growth rings , the researchers could tell what types of phytoplankton were dominant at different times in the past .\nwe thank dr . f . parrish dr . s . cairns , dr . h . zibrowius , dr . j . pawlowski , and dr . c . messing for their information on the gold coral and related zoanthids and advice in conducting this research . we also thank all the staff of the hawaii undersea research laboratory for the help in the sampling of the specimens . fs also which to thank dr . k . sakai and dr . s . harii for their help during the writing phase of this manuscript . dr . m . daly , dr . p . cartwright and dr . j . reimer contributed to obtaining several dna sequences of zoanthids used to compare to our samples . dr . p . chevaldonn\u00e9 and dr . m . bo kindly provided access to putative i . primnoidus specimens . the authors also wish to thank the anonymous reviewers for their contribution to improve this manuscript .\nin 2005 , na hoku made the decision to cease all manufacture and sales of coral jewelry . while some questioned the economic sense of our decision , we felt then as we do now , that we are all responsible for the stewardship of our environment and must act , in any way we can , to protect it .\nour pink coral designs reflect the beautiful and fragrant blossoms of the islands , such as the pikake flowers , which may well have been fashioned into the lei you received during a visit to hawaii . our princess ka ` iulani ring was named after the most beautiful princess of hawai ` i ; when you turn it to the side , it looks like a crown .\nin the 1970s , pierre gilson developed \u201ccreated corals\u201d to help protect the natural variety from destructive harvesting . this imitation red and pink coral has a specific gravity ( sg ) of 2 . 44 . this is always lower than natural red and pink material . this synthetic has weak birefringence and lacks natural structure . under high magnification , you can see a fine granular texture .\ncorals are formed deep undersea by microscopic animals called coral polyps . these tiny , soft - bodied creatures form minute , hard shells . as a colony grows , it takes on complex branching , tree - like forms which allows the maximum number of polyps to be fed by the nutrients in the water . over time , colonies can form structures ranging from a hand - sized fan to a continent - wide reef .\netymology : this masculine genus name is dedicated to dr . helmut zibrowius for his precious contribution to deep - sea zoanthid science through the collection of several important samples . he also introduced the first author to deep - sea zoanthid research and especially to octocoral - associated zoanthids such as savalia through his accurate naturalistic observations and critical comments . this genus should not be confused with the coral - parasitic crustacean genus zibrowia grygier , 1985 .\ndistribution : throughout the hawaiian archipelago seamount and island slopes between 343\u2013575 m on hard substrata in low - sediment areas with high relief . usually one of the most abundant taxa in this depth range and habitat type , often with other corals present . also observed in line and jarvis islands , palmyra atoll and kingman reef however at lower densities [ 3 ] . similar specimens with golden or dark brown , almost black axis , also referred as \u201c gerardia \u201d , were collected in the west atlantic [ 16 ] , [ 17 ] , and in new zealand [ 61 ] . if those zoanthids appear to be closely related enough to be congeneric , species - level relationships require further morphological and molecular analyses .\ndeep - sea corals , particularly on seamounts , have received significant attention over the last decade [ 1 ] . these corals have been shown to play a role as ecosystem biobuilders , acting as habitats for diverse invertebrate and fish communities [ 2 ] . in these studies , significant attention is given to scleractinians and more recently to octocorals . however , as in shallow water , the hexacorallian order zoantharia ( also sometimes called zoanthidea ) , may also make up a considerable component of some deep - sea coral communities [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 5 ] but have received little attention .\na ) kulamanamana haumeaae gen . n . sp . n . in situ , b ) zibrowius ammophilus gen . n . sp . n . in situ , c ) hurlizoanthus parrishi gen . n . sp . n . in situ , d ) axis of ku . haumeaae with the calcified skeleton of host bamboo coral visible in the center , e ) kauluzoanthus kerbyi gen . n . sp . n . fixed sample , polyps of ku . haumeaae can be seen on the right coloured in pink after reacting with formaldehyde , f ) bullagummizoanthus emilyacadiaarum gen . n . sp . n . fixed sample .\n\u00a9 2018 maui divers jewelry . all rights reserved . serviced by cybercom . powered by shopify\nnever miss a special offer or fabulous new product launches . unsubscribe any time .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncopyright : \u00a9 2013 sinniger et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : specimens were collected by arb through grants from the hawaii undersea research laboratory and hawaii seagrant and by the national oceanic and atmospheric administration ( noaa ) office of ocean exploration grant numbers na04oar4600071 , na0oar4600108 , and na03oar4600110 . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nin 1913 carglren , who was probably the most active researcher on this order , said \u201camong the anthozoa ( \u2026 ) there is hardly a group which is so uniform in its morphological characteristics as the zoantharia \u2026\u201d [ 23 ] . nearly a hundred years later , despite numerous taxonomical investigations of the morphological characteristics of this order , carlgren ' s statement is still accurate . the sphincter position has been traditionally used to identify zoanthid genera , although lwowsky [ 24 ] illustrated the risks of misidentification using this character . this is exemplified in the parazoanthidae , in which recent taxonomic work casts doubts on the significance of the sphincter muscle position ( the main distinguishing feature of isozoanthus ) as a valid character [ 7 ] and recent studies based on morphology assigned various unrelated zoanthids to the genus isozoanthus [ 25 ] \u2013 [ 28 ] , none of which matched with the ecological characteristics of previously described isozoanthus species . similarly , swain [ 29 ] showed clearly that the sphincter position did not allow proper identification at the genus level and does not represent the evolutionary history of this group .\nat the species level , nematocysts appear to be the most promising morphological character for use within the order [ 28 ] , [ 30 ] , [ 31 ] . however , ryland et al . [ 32 ] suggests using very large sample size to obtain reliable information , although such size are too large for most descriptions of new species ( which are often represented by only a few polyps ) . additionally , until now no studies have been made on the intraspecific and intra - individual variation of nematocysts sizes and assemblages in zoanthids through their life cycle and through changes in biological activity . for these reasons , nematocysts as a diagnostic character are to be interpreted with caution until more research is being made both on intra - and interspecific cnidome variations .\nrecently , dna information has shed light on the phylogenetic relationships among zoanthids and has also helped revise the taxonomy of several groups of zoanthids as well as describe new taxa [ 7 ] , [ 8 ] , [ 21 ] , [ 33 ] \u2013 [ 35 ] . however , the sole use of dna to identify zoanthid species might not be sufficient to distinguish closely related species [ 36 ] and it is therefore necessary to integrate not only dna and morphology but also ecological parameters to identify specimens .\ngeneral morphology and anatomy were studied by means of a stereo dissecting microscope . the anatomical and micro anatomical details were studied using staining in toto . nematocysts were examined with a light microscope equipped with a nomarski differential interference contrast optic system . a minimum of ten polyps for each species and all the colonies available were examined . the classification and terminology of nematocysts follows that of schmidt [ 40 ] , as adapted by den hartog [ 41 ] and den hartog et al . [ 42 ] , in table 2 we also include the terminology used by ryland and lancaster [ 43 ] . the surveys of the cnidome are summarised in table 2 in which the ranges of length and width of nematocysts are included .\ndistribution , type , relative abundances and size ranges of cnidae in the new zoanthids species described here .\nthe electronic edition of this article conforms to the requirements of the amended international code of zoological nomenclature , and hence the new names contained herein are available under that code from the electronic edition of this article . this published work and the nomenclatural acts it contains have been registered in zoobank , the online registration system for the iczn . the zoobank lsids ( life science identifiers ) can be resolved and the associated information viewed through any standard web browser by appending the lsid to the prefix \u201c urltoken \u201d . the lsid for this publication is : urn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 369f0bc5 - 9cdd - 496e - 8c21 - 2baa9e996531 . the electronic edition of this work was published in a journal with an issn , and has been archived and is available from the following digital repositories : pubmed central , lockss .\nabbreviation used : 16s = mitochondrial large ribosomal subunit ; arb = amy baco ; bpbm = bernice pauahi bishop museum ; mmc = museo del mar , ceuta ( spain ) ; mnhg = natural history museum of geneva ( switzerland ) ; niwa = national institute of water and atmospheric research ( wellington , new zealand ) ; nsmt = national museum of nature and science ( tokyo , japan ) ; usnm = smithsonian institution ( washington dc , usa ) ; rmnh = naturalis ( leiden , the netherlands ) .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : f1f3fe5d - 3482 - 4658 - a84b - 589d2c4e225e\ndiagnosis : macrocnemic genus associated with octocorals secreting a golden to dark brown scleroproteic skeleton . absence of mineral incrustations in the ectoderm , well developed coenenchyme completely covering the host , . characteristic insertion / deletion pattern in the 16s v5 region sensu sinniger et al . [ 21 ] ( fig . 2 ) .\nthis figure shows the v5 region sensu sinniger et al . [ 21 ] with characteristic insertion / deletion pattern specific to each genus . this region is located in the second half of the mt16s rdna gene . sequences are represented from 5\u2032 to 3\u2032 and the sequences used are ay995925 , eu035623 , kc218431 , kc218438 , kc218434 , kc218433 , kc218435 .\ncnidae in the different tissues of the zoanthids described here . letters correspond to the cnidae listed in table 2 .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : de4b202a - 3564 - 4111 - 8885 - 81b5ac0dbce7\nsynonyms : parazoanthus sp . [ 10 ] , gerardia sp . [ 1 ] , [ 3 ] \u2013 [ 5 ] , [ 11 ] , [ 13 ] \u2013 [ 15 ] , [ 18 ] , [ 49 ] \u2013 [ 58 ] , savalia sp . [ 59 ] .\nholotype : p5 593 , keahole point ( 19\u00b048 . 203\u2032 - 19\u00b047 . 943\u2032 n , 156\u00b008 . 047\u2032 - 156\u00b007 . 478\u2032 w ) , hawaii , 15 . 10 . 2004 , 396 . 5 m , coll . arb , more than 200 polyps on fragments of different sizes , presence of some polyps of the parasitic zoanthid kauluzoanthus kerbyi , usnm 1190187 ( formalin - fixed ) , fragment of 20\u201325 small polyps , usnm 1190188 ( ethanol - fixed ) .\nparatypes : p5 - 582 , makapuu , hawaii , 02 . 10 . 2004 , 395 m , two fragments of 30\u201335 and 20 polyps of small size , bpbm - d2250 ( ethanol - fixed ) ; p5 - 582 , makapuu , hawaii , 02 . 10 . 2004 , 401 m , three fragments of 18\u201320 , 15 and 25\u201330 polyps medium to large size , mnhg - inve - 82279 ( ethanol - fixed ) ; p5 - 583 , makapuu , hawaii , 03 . 10 . 2004 , 427 m , three fragments of 24 , 30\u201335 and 10\u201315 polyps of different sizes , niwa - 84101 ( ethanol - fixed ) ; p5 - 583 , makapuu , hawaii , 03 . 10 . 2004 , 432 m , two fragments of 90\u201395 and 30\u201335 polyps of different sizes , mmc - t3 ( ethanol - fixed ) ; p5 - 583 , makapuu , hawaii , 03 . 10 . 2004 , 406 m , two fragments from the same colony of 45\u201350 and 60\u201365 polyps of different sizes , mmc - t4 ( formalin - fixed ) ; p5 - 585 , lanikai , hawaii , 05 . 10 . 2004 , 400 m , fragment of 10 small polyps and also a fragment of 85\u201390 polyps of small size , usnm 1190189 ( formalin - fixed ) ; p5 - 586 , lanikai , hawaii , 05 . 10 . 2004 , 410 m , three fragments of , 10\u201315 , 10\u201315 and 30\u201335 polyps of different sizes , niwa - 84102 ( ethanol - fixed ) ; p5 - 588 , cross seamount , hawaii , 09 . 10 . 2004 , 394 m , three fragments of 15\u201320 and 20\u201325 polyps of medium to big sizes , nsmt - co 1547 ( ethanol - fixed ) , two fragments of 8\u201310 and 20\u201325 polyps of medium size , mnhg - inve - 82280 ( ethanol - fixed ) ; p5 - 589 , cross seamount , hawaii , 09 . 10 . 2004 , 388 m , two fragments from the same colony of 80\u201390 polyps of different sizes and 25\u201330 polyps of small size , bpbm - d2251 ( ethanol - fixed ) ; gp5 p5 - 523 , bank 8 , hawaii , 06 . 10 . 2003 , 526 m , usnm 1190190 ( ethanol - fixed ) ; gp6 p5 - 522 , bank 8 , hawaii , 05 . 10 . 2003 , two fragments of 75\u201380 and 35\u201340 polyps of different sizes , 544 m , nsmt - co 1548 ( ethanol - fixed ) ; p4 - 19 , keahole point , hawaii , 22 . 11 . 2000 , 385 m , fragment of 55 polyps of equal size , rmnh coel . 40076 ( ethanol - fixed ) . all samples collected by arb .\ndiagnosis : golden axis , tissue colour ranging from pale yellow to medium orange , secretion of excessive mucus when collected and absence of mineral incrustations are distinctive characters of this species , in terms of cnidome , the main diagnostic characters appear to be the presence of enlarged penicilli a ( p - mastogophores a ) in tentacles and body wall and penicilli e in all the tissues ."]}
{"id": 1315, "summary": [{"text": "icabad crane ( foaled april 9 , 2005 , in new york ) is an american thoroughbred racehorse by jump start out of adorahy .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in february 2007 , he was purchased as a two-year-old at the ocala breeders sale for $ 110,000 .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "icabad crane is consistent , finishing in the money in 23 out of his 29 starts for his trainer h. graham motion . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "icabad crane", "paragraphs": ["icabad crane will attempt to conclude his 6 - year - o . . .\nsee icabad crane ' s last win , the 2011 evan shipman at saratoga .\nicabad crane - zoe cadman will emcee the inaugural real . . . | facebook\nnot graham motion , the trainer of the third - place finisher , icabad crane .\nicabad crane winning the evan shipman stakes on july 25 , 2011 . photo by maggie kimmitt .\nto read what icabad crane\u2019s owner graham motion had to say about icabad , the america\u2019s most wanted thoroughbred contest , and aftercare , click here .\nthe retired racehorse project\u2019s thoroughbred makeover has just concluded , and the final votes were tallied to officially declare herringswell stable\u2019s icabad crane the 2014 winner . piloted by phillip dutton , icabad crane\u2019s story has been a\nphillip dutton and icabad crane at true prospect farm on april 4 , 2015 . photo by maggie kimmitt .\nphillip dutton and icabad crane at paradise farm horse trials on feb . 13 2015 . photo by jenni autry .\nlike a baseball player hanging up his spikes and turning to professional golf , thoroughbred icabad crane is trying something new .\neventing and horse racing enthusiasts from all around the world have followed icabad\u2019s journey , and now we want you all to come along for the ride as we see just how far phillip and icabad can go in the sport of eventing . help icabad reach for the stars by joining the icabad crane fan club !\nwe announced back in january that graham and anita motion had placed preakness stakes runner icabad crane in training with phillip dutton for a second career as an eventer . icabad did his first event a\nphillip dutton and icabad crane winning the america\u2019s most wanted thoroughbred contest on oct . 5 , 2014 . photo by megan stapley photography .\nicabad crane and phillip dutton showed off their jumping skills in the america ' s most wanted thoroughbred contest . ( megan stapley photography )\n\u2022 a limited edition icabad crane hat , plus access to t - shirts and other gear . \u2022 a photo of icabad crane signed by phillip dutton and graham motion . \u2022 an email newsletter with behind - the - scenes photos and training videos featuring phillip and icabad . \u2022 a chance to meet phillip and icabad at special events \u2014 like in kentucky at his first cci1 * at hagyard midsouth !\nicabad crane wins evan shipman stakes at saratoga 2011 with rajiv maragh up just a reminder of what a game race horse icabad was\u2026 here he is coming from behind to win in the slop at saratoga in 2011 .\nthe retired racehorse project\u2019s thoroughbred makeover has just concluded , and the final votes were tallied to officially declare herringswell stable\u2019s icabad crane the 2014 winner .\nthe videos upped the horse\u2019s popularity , but dutton made sure the win was secure when he showed off icabad crane\u2019s moves in front of the crowd at pimlico .\nreturning to that track where he finished third in the 2008 preakness stakes , icabad crane was able to better that performance on oct . 5 at pimlico race course .\nyou can call him icabad . not ichabod , like the character from \u201cthe legend of sleepy hollow . \u201d there is a thoroughbred named ichabod crane , a 1983 version .\nthis year we\u2019ve got three new york hunch - betting opportunities : spa city princess in the iroquois ; adirondack summer in the mohawk , and icabad crane in the classic .\nicabad crane took a huge leap forward this weekend at the plantation field horse trials in nearby unionville , pennsylvania . with partner phillip dutton aboard , icabad made his debut at the fei ( federation equestre internationale ) level , competing in \u2013 and winning \u2013 his first cic * event . sitting in fourth place after friday afternoon\u2019s dressage phase , icabad\nicabad crane already has had success in his first few events , and in may it was announced that he will tackle another challenge in the america\u2019s most wanted thoroughbred contest . icabad crane will represent the change from racehorse to eventer in the contest , in which he will be competing against nine other thoroughbreds transitioning into new careers from ranch work to fox hunting .\nthe end brought to mind a saratoga conversation between cohen and the motions . anita had said she wanted to add icabad crane to the retirement paddock at fair hill with former standouts better talk now and gala spinaway . of course , icabad crane competed for two more seasons - burnishing his reputation as a barn favorite and sought - after morning mount for exercise riders .\nthe new york - bred is the third horse the motions have sent to dutton . the other two , ballast and icabad crane ' s half - brother van tassel , came home quickly .\nicabad crane first did a demo with @ duttoneventing aboard , then was hacked around by a 13 - year - old girl . urltoken \u2014 jen roytz ( @ jenroytz ) october 5 , 2014\npost by anita motion . phillip dutton has begun preparing graham and anita motion\u2019s icabad crane for the 2015 season , and a new video series promises an inside look into phillip\u2019s training methods as well as\npopular ottb icabad crane had a busy weekend in kentucky last week , competing in the cci * as well as putting on a couple of exhibitions for the retired racehorse project thoroughbred makeover . that\u2019s what happens\n\u2022 help support icabad crane\u2019s career . all fan club dues go directly to funding his competition costs . \u2022 help support other ottbs . fan club dues will also go to support charities that help off - track thoroughbreds like icabad . \u2022 learn from a two - time olympic gold medalist . you\u2019ve seen phillip\u2019s training videos on icabad\u2019s facebook page . fan club members will receive even more exclusive training videos .\nmultiple stakes winner icabad crane raced in behind the leaders before rallying when asked and overtaking stormy\u2019s majesty at the finish line for a nose victory in the $ 75 , 000 evan shimpman s . at saratoga .\nlast week , we brought you a great video featuring phillip dutton and graham and anita motion\u2019s icabad crane as they prepare for their 2015 season . two more videos have since been published , taking a deeper look into\nhowever , this horse has shown the ability to compete with open company when properly spotted . this likes like one of those spots . if the pace proves faster than expected , icabad crane might provide a shocker .\nanyone even remotely familiar with herringswell stables knows that icabad crane is and always has been very special to the entire team . he earned his reputation first as a hard - knocking stakes winner on the racetrack , but in his second career as an event horse under the tutelage of olympic champion phillip dutton , icabad has become\nhe\u2019s not a loner . icabad likes a friend with him when he goes out in turn - out .\ndutton is based in pennsylvania , but heads to aiken , s . c . this week to get ready for the 2014 eventing season . icabad crane , now owned by his former trainer graham motion and wife anita , will go with the stable . the motions technically purchased icabad crane from mack for $ 1 and control his future as an eventer . it could be bright , even though he ' s a long way from the olympics .\ngraham and anita motion\u2019s former star racehorse , icabad crane , has made waves in the eventing world this year after transitioning to a second career under the tutelage of phillip dutton . not only has the 9 - year - old\nsince beginning his eventing career , icabad crane has made eight starts and is now competing at training level . most recently , under the tutelage of waylon roberts , icabad finished 13th at seneca valley . the former preakness stakes runner gained massive popularity with the eventing crowd for his easy demeanor and affinity for eventing that seemed to come naturally to him .\nin the last month , icabad crane learned to jump , took some early dressage lessons , even splashed through a water hazard while impressing his new trainer , an olympian for his native australia and the united states during a long eventing career .\njust 121 votes behind icabad crane was pookie\u2019s princess , who finished second in the contest . pookie\u2019s princess showed off a variety of skills under western tack , including reining and western dressage , before laying down on the track for her rider patrick king .\nactually dutton was given another horse before icabad . he didn ' t have the talent or desire that icabad does . this dicipline is not for every horse but it ' s nice to see that for some they can excell at multiple things .\nhe\u2019s got a huge fan club and his very own facebook page . when news that racehorse trainer graham motion was sending a thoroughbred from his herringswell stables to eventing star phillip dutton to re - train at the end of 2013 , interest in icabad crane skyrocketed .\nin november of 2008 , icabad crane was second in the itaka ( come on\u2026anyone ? anyone with an itaka / ithaca connection for me ? it really would pull all this together beautifully ) . last year , he was second to friend or foe in the empire classic .\nfoaled april 9 , 2005 in new york , icabad crane ( jump start \u2013 adorahy , by rahy ) started his career as a racehorse in 2007 , winning three of his first four starts and setting himself on the triple crown trail with kentucky derby winning trainer graham motion .\nyou can watch icabad crane go through some of these training steps on the herringswell stables youtube channel . the videos include several of dutton narrating the training process plus some post - event comments from dutton ' s assistant waylon roberts , who was aboard for two competitions in june .\nas well as our runners at pimlico this weekend icabad crane finished third on sunday at fair hill . this is his second attempt at preliminary level eventing . it was 2008 when he ran in the preakness where he finished third to big brown . obviously he\u2019s a pretty talented guy .\nthe retired racehorse project put up a poll for the public to vote for their favorite most wanted thoroughbred , which icabad crane handily won with 24 . 2 % of the final poll vote . phillip and icabad also impressed during their demo when they showed off their adjustability , riding a line in 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , and 8 strides before coming back down in 4 again . how\u2019s that for retraining ?\ndivision b had a decent shake - up of the top 10 at the conclusion of cross country . phillip dutton on icabad crane made this course look easy putting in one of the 10 double clears for the division . phillip holds on to his dressage score of 41 . 1 and moves into first place with a fast round 19 seconds inside the time . icabad handled his first fei cross country round with an expert attitude .\npiloted by phillip dutton , icabad crane\u2019s story has been a fun one to follow . \u201cthis is a cool horse , \u201d phillip dutton said upon accepting the first place awards , which include a $ 6 , 000 check and a revitavet therapy system . we couldn\u2019t agree more , phillip !\nthis afternoon , the demonstrations will include what we\u2019ve all been waiting for : eventing ! laine ashker , jennie brannigan , and phillip dutton will be on hand to strut their stuff . don\u2019t forget that phillip\u2019s mount , icabad crane , is one of the horses vying for the most wanted title !\nlast year , motion and his wife , anita , \u201cbought\u201d icabad crane , a motion - trainee and the 2008 preakness stakes third - place finisher , from owner earle mack for $ 1 when it was decided to retire the gelding . icabad crane was put in training with three - day event gold medalist phillip dutton later that year and motion\u2019s herringswell stables has been allowing the gelding\u2019s fans to track his progress with dutton with updates on facebook and through the stable\u2019s youtube page , which also features videos of other parts of stable life as well , in addition to a blog on this is horse racing .\nphillip , catch us up on how icabad crane is doing at your winter base in south carolina . \u201che just arrived here in aiken . he spent a little more time in pennsylvania with the idea being to bring him back a bit slower this year . he had such a whirlwind last year and i just wanted\nwith his partner phillip dutton aboard , icabad crane made an appearance at \u201ceventing with the stars\u201d this afternoon . the event was presented by dutton and fellow pan american games gold medalist boyd martin at windurra usa , the home base of martin and his wife silva in cochranville , pennsylvania . the appreciative and knowledgeable crowd spent the\nicabad crane ( usa ) dkb / br . g , 2005 { 4 - r } dp = 7 - 8 - 13 - 0 - 0 ( 28 ) di = 3 . 31 cd = 0 . 79 - 33 starts , 7 wins , 7 places , 9 shows career earnings : $ 585 , 980\nicabad crane is a new york - bred which had a long string of bridesmaid starts until posting a victory in march of 2010 . the gelding then managed to collect five more checks without winning until putting a pair of victories back - to - back over the winter . both came versus restricted state - bred company .\nafter phillip\u2019s demo ride , his 13 - year - old daughter , olivia , got on and hacked the gelding around , once again showing off his mild manner and rideability . phillip has done a great job with icabad crane , and the top prize comes as a well - deserved nod to his skills in the saddle .\nwhen voting started earlier this month , the icabad crane team released a series of videos with famous industry personalities talking about the horse . among the participants in the series were his trainer during his racing career and current owner graham motion plus jockey julien leparoux , with current rider phillip dutton and his daughter olivia also making videos .\nmy wife and i had always wanted to do something with phillip and [ his wife ] evie in this regard . it\u2019s something my wife had thought about quite a long time ago , and icabad crane just seemed like the perfect horse to pursue it with . he\u2019s a pretty well - known horse , he was an older horse with a tremendous disposition and he didn\u2019t have a career - ending injury . we just felt that it was time to call it a career for him . [ icabad crane\u2019s racing owner ] earle mack was gracious enough to give him to my wife to pursue this . so it just was kind of the perfect scenario .\nicabad won his first preliminary eventing title at shawan downs this saturday . i don ' t have the placings to post here but they are on his facebook page .\ni cabad crane has his own facebook page where you can follow along with his progress in his new career as an eventer . and , of course , we\u2019ll be sure to follow along with the story here as icabad learns the ropes and starts competing . kudos to the motions for giving a war horse a second chance at a new career .\nhe\u2019s famous . dutton\u2019s head groom emma ford was amused at a grooming clinic at dutton\u2019s true prospect farm ( pa . ) last summer . she made sure the four - star headliners at the farm were spiffed up for people to see\u2014mr . medicott , mighty nice and fernhill fugitive . \u201ci didn\u2019t even think about icabad , \u201d ford said . \u201cbut at the end of the clinic we let them meet the top horses , and everyone wanted to see him . nobody was that interested about the top horses . they all wanted to see icabad crane .\nat the end of his racing career , he was given to graham and anita motion and they are very involved with his new career . anita goes to dutton ' s stable and regularly videos icabad ' s training sessions and then posts them . icabad seems to be part of their family . icabad ' s progress is not hindered by having an olympic rider / trainer . but the talent and attitude all come from inside the horse . for him to have gone from beginner novice to preliminary in a little over a year is amazing .\nmake your payment of $ 50 online by clicking the paypal button below ( or by clicking here ) , or send a check for $ 50 with \u201cicabad crane fan club\u201d in the memo to phillip dutton eventing llc , 248 hood rd , west grove , pa 19390 . be sure to include your name and email address in order to receive the fan club email newsletter .\nthe retired racehorse made 33 starts for owner earle mack , winning stakes and placing third in the 2008 preakness . big brown won that day , but icabad crane parlayed that brush with greatness into a racing career that lasted until 2013 and he ' s not finished as the 9 - year - old gelding recently joined the barn of international three - day event rider phillip dutton .\nicabad crane , in his work with world - class event rider / trainer phillip dutton , is no exception . the training involves learning dressage - a series of precise movements in a ring under the watchful eyes of a judge . once a fast - galloping , lead - changing , powerful - starting racehorse , icabad crane must be a calm , collected , responsive , disciplined athlete now . his bold side gets to come out in cross country , where he navigates jumps over varying sizes and shapes , plus water obstacles , hills , banks and the like . finally , show jumping adds the final element and mixes the discipline of dressage with the bravery of cross country . a good show jumper must leap boldly when needed , but listen and relax and turn on demand .\nour favorite video is titled\nthe dreaded water ,\nand shows icabad crane learning the water obstacle - about as far from his racing career as you could get . it ' s not that bad , and it ' s only referred to as dreaded because he ' d probably prefer to lie down and roll in it rather than trot or canter through . regardless , he ' s learning .\nmultiple stakes winner icabad crane raced in behind the leaders before rallying when asked and overtaking stormy\u2019s majesty at the finish line for a nose victory in the $ 75 , 000 evan shimpman s . at saratoga . his fifth stakes win and seventh lifetime win for the six - year - old half brother to hip 258 selling at saratoga aug . 13 . breeder gallagher\u2019s stud has had a lot of updating on their bernstein filly\u2019s page in past few days . her half - brother won on opening day at the spa as well . icabad crane is also a denali sale graduate of the ny - bred preferred sale , he has won or placed in 21 of his lifetime starts including a third in the 2008 preakness s . - g1 . he races for another denali stud client , mr . earle i . mack .\nicabad crane , ridden by eventing olympic gold medalist phillip dutton , bettered nine other horses , showing off many different disciplines to take home the winner\u2019s share of the $ 10 , 000 prize . the disciplines on display were polo , show hunter , eventing , ranch work , steeplechase , fox hunter , show jumper , barrel racing , dressage , and pony club with each horse credibly showing off their chosen discipline .\nphillip told this is horse racing that icabad is \u201c naturally a very balanced horse who has a great attitude to being ridden and to learning . \u201d icabad is traveling to aiken this week to spend the rest of the winter at phillip\u2019s red oak farm , and he indicated the plan is to get the horse out to a few local shows this spring before entering him in his first event later this summer .\nthe bay gelding ( jump start\u2014adorahy , rahy ) won $ 585 , 980 on the track in 33 starts\u2014including placing third in the 2008 preakness stakes ( md . ) \u2014and retired from running at age 8 . and when icabad crane won the title of most wanted thoroughbred at the 2014 retired racehorse retraining project\u2019s thoroughbred makeover , he became a hero to off - the - track thoroughbred fans everywhere . dutton brought \u201cicabad\u201d up the levels carefully , from beginner novice to training level in 2014 , making his preliminary debut in february of 2015 . he finished last year with fifth place in the hagyard midsouth cci * ( ky . ) .\nwith a 5 - stride line of jumps set up on track , dutton adjusted icabad crane\u2019s stride so he took them in four , five , six , seven , and eight strides before taking another go at four strides . but that wasn\u2019t the end of the demonstration as dutton\u2019s 13 - year - old daughter , olivia , then got on the gelding and showed off his work when not jumping , winning over the crowd .\n\\ per phillip dutton eventing :\nicabad crane is officially a prelim horse ! he placed third today ( feb . 25 ) at full gallop farm horse trials in his debut at the preliminary level , finishing on his dressage score of 30 . 0 . he was the fastest horse on cross country in his division by 36 seconds \u2014 i think he had fun out there . . . i\u2019d like to think that at the higher levels he\u2019s going to be even more competitive when the fitness and endurance on cross country matter more . this is his career now , and we\u2019re committed to taking this as far as icabad wants to go . if today is any indicator , this journey is far from over . thank you to barry bornstein for the great photo of icabad at full gallop today .\nso happy to see this horse doing well .\nwinless in 2009 , icabad crane rebounded to win two stakes in 2010 and two more in 2011 while battling the likes of flat out , hymn book , compliance officer , haynesfield , banrock and others . a tendon injury stopped his racing career for more than a year ( he missed all of 2012 ) , and he returned for three starts in 2013 . all losses , the races convinced motion that the horse ' s racing days were over .\nlaunching a strong bid from between horses on the final turn , favored icabad crane ran down the front - running mint lane in the final sixteenth of a mile to register a head victory in the $ 100 , 000 federico tesio stakes on opening weekend at pimlico april 19 . the triumph could provide trainer h . graham motion and owner earle i . mack with a prospect for the may 17 preakness ( gr . i ) over the track .\ndutton will take 30 horses to aiken and does indeed like what he sees from one of the newest . icabad crane is\nnaturally a very balanced horse who has a great attitude to being ridden and to learning .\nhis winter will be spent continuing to learn about this new career , making some treks to local shows and events just to get a feel for them ( without competing ) with an eye toward his first true eventing competition by summer .\njoe clancy has the full story today over on his blog this is horse racing , which chronicles icabad\u2019s success on the track , as well as the decision to ultimately retire him last year when he came back sound from an injury but no longer had his old spark left . the story says graham knew icabad \u201cwasn\u2019t a gelding who just wanted to go out in a paddock , \u201d so he and anita approached phillip about a new career for the horse .\nin order to maximize the success of horses after leaving the track , aftercare organizations employ various screening processes to place horses with suitable adopters with goals the horse may thrive in . this evaluation process can , informally , start before a horse leaves the track . trainer graham motion and his wife , anita , have sent a number of former herringswell stable trainees on to successful second careers \u2013 including classic - placed icabad crane , now a winning eventer in two - time olympic gold medalist phillip dutton\u2019s barn .\ni think , in general , everyone has really stepped up and become much more aware of it . i think people certainly give us a lot of praise for what we\u2019re doing [ retraining icabad crane ] . but i think a lot of people in the business are doing this , we\u2019re certainly not the only ones . there are a lot of people doing a lot of good things out there whether they are owners , breeders or trainers . i think everyone is much more involved than they used to be and i think that\u2019s a good thing , obviously .\nnotice that , under the npp model , only the place and show odds on indyanne are lower than those computed before , while the corresponding odds on porte bonheur and informed decision are considerably higher . this is particularly significant to show bettors , as it allows value - oriented players to find viable alternatives to a heavy favorite without needing them to win . such was the case in the 2008 preakness stakes when big brown paid $ 2 . 40 straight , while the show returns on macho again and icabad crane checked in at $ 10 . 40 and $ 5 . 60 respectively .\nit\u2019s no secret we\u2019re suckers for a good ottb story here on en , and we especially love the latest news out of phillip dutton\u2019s camp . kentucky derby - winning trainer graham motion and his wife , anita , have sent 2008 preakness stakes runner icabad crane into training with phillip to become an eventer . in addition to placing third in the preakness , the now 9 - year - old gelding [ jump start x adorahy , by rahy ] , won or hit the board in numerous other stakes races , finishing his career last year with 33 starts and $ 585 , 980 in winnings .\nhe was also a horse who was not particularly nice to ride ; he was always very difficult , very quirky , ( laughs ) not a particularly nice horse to be around . so it was a situation where , probably the opposite of icabad crane , we always knew he would be a hard horse to place . we just thought he would really appreciate staying in the routine . he enjoyed his routine and he was 10 years old . i think sometimes it is hard for horses to be taken away from that , so that\u2019s kind of what we\u2019ve tried to do and he\u2019s done very well with it .\nicabad quickly learned the ropes of eventing , winning his first beginner novice event with phillip in march 2014 . he moved up to novice and then training level in six months , ending his first eventing season by winning the retired racehorse project\u2019s $ 10 , 000 america\u2019s most wanted thoroughbred contest in october 2014 .\nicabad finished 3rd in the preakness stakes and 8th in the belmont stakes in 2008 and went on to win four more races in a career that ultimately spanned six years on the racetrack . he hit the board in an impressive 75 percent of his 33 total starts to collect $ 585 , 980 in earnings .\namong the 18 nominees to next saturday ' s 30th running of the kings point for older new york - breds at 1 1 / 8 miles are almighty silver , a three - time winner at the meet ; driven by solar ( see this week ' s horses to watch ) ; icabad crane , a sharp second in open company last out to odds - on well positioned ; manteca , runner - up in the 2009 kings point ; mighty morris , coming off back - to - back allowance wins ; naughty new yorker , a 56 - race veteran who recently surpassed the $ 1 million earnings plateau ; and stud muffin , the 2008 empire classic winner .\nhere are a few photos of icabad and olivia dutton at plantation field horse trials this past weekend . competing together for the first time , the pair won the thoroughbred series novice division , finishing up on their dressage score of 28 . 00 with no penalties incurred in their stadium or cross country rounds ! and phillip dutton sent\njohn quidor\u2019s 1858 painting of the headless horseman pursuing ichabod crane hangs in the smithsonian american art museum . visit its site for more on \u201cthe legend of sleepy hollow , \u201d including a feature that weds the painting with excerpts from the story , written by new yorker washington irving and set in sleepy hollow , new york ( formerly north tarrytown ) .\nwhile only a minor event , the 1 1 / 8 - mile proud spell s . was dominated by the a . p . indy tribe . a . p . indy sired the 6 3 / 4 - length winner , love and pride , who is a close relative of bernardini . the runner - up and third - place finishers were by tapit and bernardini , respectively . the tale was the same in a couple of 1 1 / 8 - mile stakes restricted to new york - breds : mineshaft ' s daughter mineralogist landed the saratoga dew s . , and icabad crane , by a . p . indy ' s son jump start , scored in the evan shipman s .\nafter retiring sound from the track in 2013 , new owners graham and anita motion of herringswell stables saw icabad\u2019s athletic drive and desire and decided to put him in training for eventing . they sent him to double olympic gold medalist phillip dutton , who rode american thoroughbreds like truluck , house doctor and caymen went with much success at the upper levels .\nnow 10 years old , icabad is on his way to excelling in yet another career . he successfully moved up to the preliminary level in february 2015 and is now preparing to make his cci1 * debut at the hagyard mid - south three - day event in lexington , kentucky , in october 2015 , where he will also give a demonstration at the 2015 thoroughbred makeover .\nwhile the end product was on display sunday , the contest started this summer and fans were able to follow the progress of all 10 horses on the retired racehorse project website . fans were able to vote earlier this month for their favorite horse and again while the horses were showing off their moves at pimlico , leading team icabad to pull out all the stops to secure the win .\nicabad goes with the flow . \u201che\u2019s easy to deal with , \u201d ford said . \u201cwe take him to a show and there is no drama . he stands on the trailer and ties . he\u2019s just like , \u2018dude , whatever . \u2019 at a show if i need to take two out to hand graze at once , i always take him because he will always be fine . \u201d\nhe didn\u2019t catch on to cross - country right away , but it didn\u2019t take him long ! \u201cthe first time phillip did some banks with icabad , the horse came back with some scrapes , and i was like what happened here , \u201d ford said . \u201cbut by that weekend when he was competing , he had figured it out . the thing that is so special about him is just how he has taken to the sport . \u201d\ni think anyone who takes on an ex - racehorse just needs to be patient and give them time to adapt . icabad is a quick study in it but not all horses are going to adapt as quickly as he has . i think some horses for whatever reason , whether it is from an injury or just being wound up from being on the racetrack , i think some horses just need time to get away from the atmosphere that they are used to and settle down . that would probably be the biggest advice i would give .\nthis magnificent gelding ran out of graham and anita motion ' s herringswell stables at fair hill training center for six years , earning $ 586 , 000 in 33 starts . you might remember him running a close third to big brown in the preakness stakes . owner earl mack was thrilled to hand him over to graham and anita upon his retirement last fall , and we were thrilled to see him go to america ' s top event rider and trainer phillip dutton at true prospect farm in pennsylvania . phillip and icabad got started before most of the horses in this event , so they will demonstrate a slightly higher level of the training of an event horse . he is competing novice this summer and will most likely move up to training level by fall .\nwelcome to phillip dutton eventing . whether you are seeking our services or are just an eventing enthusiast , we hope you find the information you need and enjoy our site .\nit takes a lot of dedication and hard work to get a horse or horses to be successful in the sport of eventing , especially at the three - and four - star level . we\u2019re thrilled to recognize our team on our website and to give you the opportunity to get to know them .\nwe strive every day to do the best possible job with each and every horse and rider . we are a family - run and family - involved barn and take pride in our many years , knowledge and success in the sport . we invite you to learn about what we do and follow our progress .\nanita motion and maggie kimmitt grabbed their respective cameras and headed to phillip and evie dutton\u2019s true prospect farm in west grove , pennsylvania this morning for an update on herringswell\u2019s \u201ceventing team . \u201d anita did the videoing and maggie shot still photos , which you can see by following the link below to the brand new gallery\n\u201ci\u2019d rather not compete him until he\u2019s really ready , \u201d phillip told this is horse racing . \u201c i want to get him to understand that he\u2019s not going to get in a starting gate anymore . he\u2019s got to remember the stuff i teach him at home when we go places with a lot of other horses and loudspeakers and things . \u201d\nthis weekend , eventers and others from around the equine industry will be at pimlico racecourse to promote the wonderful ottb . the retired racehorse project has done a great job of putting together this event , which\nthe retired racehorse project\u2019s thoroughbred makeover kicks off today at pimlico racecourse in maryland , and eventers will take center stage all weekend to promote second careers for off - track thoroughbreds .\nthe second annual retired racehorse project thoroughbred makeover - a marketplace and national symposium will be held this october 4 and 5 at pimlico race course . at the event , a winner will be crowned for the new\nit\u2019s no secret we\u2019re suckers for a good ottb story here on en , and we especially love the latest news out of phillip dutton\u2019s camp . kentucky derby - winning trainer graham motion and his wife , anita , have\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwith seven stakes on a 10 - race card worth $ 1 milli . . .\nlooking for a horse that is in it for the long hau . . .\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\nthe bay gelding is now 11 and , after the winter spent solidifying his training , is gearing up for the spring season with dutton .\n\u201cwe\u2019ll go to a show and there are always people who want to see him , \u201d ford continued .\nhe does have a little bit of an edge , though . \u201che\u2019s normally quite personable\u2014you can go in the stall and cuddle with him\u2014but grooming you need to watch yourself , \u201d ford said . \u201che took time to come around to the tidying up , doing the ears and mane . the first few times , he was sort of like , \u2018what ? no ! \u2019 and when you wash him you have to be careful about the hind\u2014he has gotten me once , \u201d said ford .\nhe\u2019s not afraid to just say \u201cno . \u201d \u201chis reaction to things he doesn\u2019t like is just no , \u201d ford said . \u201cbut he does figure it out . when they installed the six - horse walker he wanted nothing to do with it . he was totally like , \u2018nope , i\u2019m not going in there . \u2019 it took a week , but now he walks fine in it in the middle of his space . \u201d\nhe doesn\u2019t seem to remember the word \u201cno\u201d when the tack is on , though . \u201chis whole attitude towards training is , you teach me and i\u2019m going to give it a go , \u201d said ford .\nhe\u2019s anything but a wimp . \u201che\u2019s tough horse , \u201d ford said . \u201cif he pulls a shoe , he\u2019s still going to do it . \u201d and he knows when it\u2019s time to shine\u2014when he\u2019s in the ring , \u201che puts on his twinkle toes . \u201d\ncopyright \u00a9 2017 \u00b7 all rights reserved \u00b7 showgrounds , llc . \u00b7 shelburne falls ma \u00b7 1 - 888 - 429 - 9495\n3rd preakness s [ g1 ] , rushaway s [ tp ] , alex m . robb h [ r , aqu , 8 . 5f ]\nwon kings point h [ r ] , alex m robb s [ r , aqu , 8 . 5f ]\nat 6 : won g ' day mate s [ r , aqu , 1m70y ] , evan shipman s [ r , sar , 9f ] 2nd alex m . robb s [ r , aqu , 8 . 5f ] 3rd william donald schaefer mem . s [ g3 , pim , 8 . 5f ] , adirondack holme s [ r , aqu , 8f ] foaled apr 9 , 2005 . obsfeb07 $ 110k updated 29jan14 urltoken won first start as an eventer in beginner novice c division at full gallop farm horse trials ( close )\na . p . indy ( usa ) dkb / br . 1989 [ ic ]\nstars and stripes racing festival at belmont , ride to the million at arlington highlight big day of racing action from coast to coast .\nactually less than that now . sean writes about another season at saratoga and looks back at some of his favorite spa moments in his the inside rail blog .\nmike smith and harry rice went all the way from aqueduct in 1989 to the triple crown in 2018 .\njump jockey riding out at fair hill , working as starter and race director at steeplechase meets .\nphillip likes him , it ' s not like he ' s doing this for the hell of it ,\nsaid anita .\nhe says he hasn ' t been around many horses that are so willing to please , so wanting to do well .\nhe was always like that , always very willing ,\nsaid graham .\nhe ' s athletic and his athleticism is one thing , but his disposition is so good . that helped him .\nhe ran a big race to win the tesio , so that ' s why we went to the preakness ,\nsaid cohen .\nthis was before animal kingdom ( won the kentucky derby for motion ) so it was a really neat thing for all of us . icky , that ' s what we called him , had a little trouble or he might have run second . he did us proud .\nhe came back fine from the injury ,\nsaid graham .\nhe trained fine , he just didn ' t run well . i guess he didn ' t want to do it anymore .\nyou learn to become disassociated with horses because you know they could be claimed , they could get hurt or the owners could take them away ,\nsaid anita of life with a racing stable .\nyou have to learn to kind of not get attached or get too sentimental , but when they ' re with you until they ' re 8 years old , you get attached . we had six years with the horse . that ' s a long time , and he always had a lovely personality and a friendly face . we wanted to keep him around and maybe see if he could do something else .\nas far as we were concerned , we just wanted him to have a good home ,\nsaid cohen .\nwe took a shot and brought him back ( in 2013 ) and he wasn ' t the same . we retired him and graham said he wasn ' t a gelding who just wanted to go out in a paddock .\nhe ' ll tell us ,\ndutton said .\ni ' d rather not compete him until he ' s really ready . i want to get him to understand that he ' s not going to get in a starting gate anymore . he ' s got to remember the stuff i teach him at home when we go places with a lot of other horses and loudspeakers and things .\ni don ' t know what it takes to do it at the level phillip does , but i always thought he could be that kind of horse ,\ngraham said .\nit would be very cool to see him go on and do something , for him and to show that horses like him can go on and do things like this . he could be a great example .\nof course , if it doesn ' t work out that paddock at fair hill will be there .\na new image every day \u2013 or thereabouts . click the photo to expand .\nfrom some of the world ' s best equine photographers ( and some other people ) . . .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nit rained on belmont day . it was cloudy on travers day . it rained on jockey club gold cup day . but this saturday is new york showcase day , and it looks like we\u2019re going to get perfect autumn weather on the day that to me embodies fall racing in new york .\nif we\u2019re lucky , the trees up the backstretch and in the backyard will be wearing their colors , having shed just enough of them to create a satisfying crunch underfoot . it will be time for boots and sweaters . a flask of bourbon to ward off the belmont chill will be practically de rigeur .\nin the clubhouse , grandstand , and backyard , we\u2019ll celebrate new york . the new york winery glenora will offer a tasting in the clubhouse lobby , and nearly two dozen new york crafters and food purveyors will set up in the grandstand , featuring local products including cheese , jams and fruit spreads for sampling and purchase , as well as hand - crafted items for sale .\nout in the back , an autumn carnival will feature a scarecrow hunt , a hayride and pumpkin patch , face painting , a pumpkin carver , and pony rides . all activities are free for children 12 and under .\nand on the track , we\u2019ll celebrate new york breeding and racing , with seven stakes races for new york - breds , headlined by the empire classic .\nsome aptly named horses have won races on these days over the years , beginning in 1980 , when adirondack holme took the empire stakes for two - year - olds . in 1994 , the empire stakes became the empire classic .\nadirondack holme was bred and raced by assunta louis farm in friends lake in the adirondacks . a star on the new york circuit , he was named champion new york - bred two - year - old in 1980 and champion new york - bred three - year - old the following year .\nin 1988 , caroline street won the mohawk for two - year - old fillies . while her racing career was undistinguished , her name is not : the street in saratoga that it recalls is a mainstay of spa city revelers .\nin 1992 , argyle lake won the hudson , and a little research reveals more than echoes of racing history in his name . in 1882 , august belmont \u2013 yes , the same august belmont for whom the stakes is named \u2013 built the argyle hotel in babylon , new york , on long island ; argyle lake was on its grounds . a magnificent edifice , the hotel was apparently a misguided exercise in opulence , as it was demolished in 1904 .\ni\u2019d like to think that itaka is somehow related to ithaca , but i can\u2019t find any evidence to support that theory . nonetheless , itaka is among the most consistent performers in new york - bred stakes races . in 1993 he won the joseph a . gimma as a two - year - old and returned the next year to win the empire classic . he was second in the classic in 1995 .\nbut it was the fudge that made the day ! it was a wonderful celebration of the season ; so glad i went .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nberkshire stud bred and denali sold hessonite wins the cupecoy\u2019s joy s . at belmont\nas kentucky derby winner animal kingdom resumes training for his four - year - old campaign next year , trainer graham motion hopes eclipse award voters don ' t forget about the colt ' s three - year - old season , which was cut short by an injury in the belmont stakes .\n\u201cultimately , he won the classic race that everyone wants to win in what was his first start on the dirt . i think people have overlooked that , \u201d motion tells the thoroughbred times . \u201che came back in his second start ever on dirt and was just beaten in the preakness , and then we all know what happened in the belmont .\n\u201ci just can\u2019t believe that ultimately his record doesn\u2019t say something . he\u2019s beaten these horses like stay thirsty . i think people were so quick to jump on that horse\u2019s bandwagon when he finished behind us in the derby , and i think ultimately the derby is still the classic that everyone wants to win . i think it\u2019s unfair for people to hold it against him that he wasn\u2019t able to race for the rest of the season , and really even in the belmont he ran a pretty remarkable race . [ animal kingdom ] is very highly rated internationally , and i think that\u2019s something that also has been overlooked a bit . \u201d\nyesterday we showcased the latest international thoroughbred rankings , which included the world top twenty . in what is quite the most emphathic recognition to date of the quality of horse racing in this country , all of sun classique ( the highest rated filly in the world ) , jay peg and pocket power weighed in on the list , and by our reckoning , that would put these horses in the top 0 , 5 % of the world\u2019s best runners , in a population of racehorses across the world in excess of 250 000 .\nit\u2019s a sobering thought then , that in very recent times , both jay peg and pocket power went down to summerhill - breds , in the case of jay peg when dynamite mike \u201csmoked\u201d him in the kzn guineas , and in pocket power\u2019s case , when imbongi ran him down at weight - for - age in last weekend\u2019s drill hall stakes .\nthere are all sorts of arguments about where these horses were in preparation terms at the time of their defeats , but there is one incontrovertible fact about the truth . malice may attack it , ignorance may deride it , but in the end , there it is !"]}
{"id": 1319, "summary": [{"text": "the roseate spoonbill ( platalea ajaja ) ( sometimes placed in its own genus ajaja ) is a gregarious wading bird of the ibis and spoonbill family , threskiornithidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is a resident breeder in south america mostly east of the andes , and in coastal regions of the caribbean , central america , mexico , the gulf coast of the united states , and on central florida 's atlantic coast at merritt island national wildlife refuge , adjoined with nasa kennedy space center . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "roseate spoonbill", "paragraphs": ["at the tip of south america . the roseate spoonbill is one of six spoonbill\nroseate spoonbill - big cypress national preserve ( u . s . national park service )\nroseate spoonbill hatchlings are fat , with salmon - pink skin covered in sparse white down .\nthe roseate spoonbill is easily identified thanks to its bright pink plumage and spoon - shaped bill .\nroseate spoonbill - j . n . ding darling - u . s . fish and wildlife service\n, egrets and ibises which they are closely related to . the roseate spoonbill is a fairly large\nthe roseate spoonbill lives in mangrove swamps , tidal ponds , saltwater lagoons and other areas with brackish water .\nthe roseate spoonbill is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe roseate spoonbill is designated as a species of special concern in both florida and louisiana ( 3 ) .\ninside them , enabling the roseate spoonbill to feed . although they will eat a number of both plant and\nroseate spoonbill : flamingo is larger and has a short , thick , hooked bill and black on wings .\nfound across the world , and although they all inhabit warmer , tropical climates , the roseate spoonbill is the only one that is found in the western hemisphere . like all spoonbill\nmuch of our general knowledge of the roseate spoonbill still comes from r . p . allen ' s monograph (\n, the roseate spoonbill is named for its spatula shaped beak , which becomes flatter and broader towards the end , allowing the roseate spoonbill to scoop food out of the water with ease . they are closely related to other large wading\nthe roseate spoonbill feeds by walking slowly through the water , swinging its distinctive spoon - shaped bill from side to side .\nthe roseate spoonbill is a sociable bird , and is known to feed , roost and fly in formation with others of its kind .\nthe roseate spoonbill is found throughout the entire gulf of mexico coastline , south to central america , south america , and the west indies .\ndevelopment of coastal habitats , climate change and polluted waters all currently threaten the habitat of the roseate spoonbill ( 4 ) ( 5 ) .\nsource / reference article learn how you can use or cite the roseate spoonbill article in your website content , school work and other projects .\nthe roseate spoonbill is a large wading bird most commonly found year round in southern florida . easily distinguishable by the large size and pink feathers ,\n. the roseate spoonbill can be found in fresh , salt or brackish waters , where the water level is low and is close to roosting sites . the roseate spoonbill is most commonly found in shallow wetlands from bays and estuaries , to mangrove swamps and tidal ponds . despite drastic falls in population numbers in the usa in the late 1800s , the roseate spoonbill colonies there are now healthy and sustainable through much of their native regions .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - roseate spoonbill ( platalea ajaja )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - roseate spoonbill ( platalea ajaja )\ntitle =\narkive species - roseate spoonbill ( platalea ajaja )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nit ' s easy to confuse an adult roseate spoonbill with a flamingo , until you look at their bills . though both wading birds are bright pink , it ' s not hard to know which species is called\nspoonbill .\nkeys birds like the reddish egret , roseate spoonbill , southeastern american kestrel , tricolored heron and white crowned pigeon are in the management plan as threatened .\nthe roseate spoonbill is found along north america ' s gulf coast , most notably in texas and florida . its range extends through central america , down to\nallen , r . p . 1942 . the roseate spoonbill . new york : natl . audubon soc . res . rep . no . 2 . close\nthe roseate spoonbill can be found on the coasts of texas , louisiana and southern florida . it is also found in the tropics and in central and south america .\nthe roseate spoonbill is protected by the u . s . migratory bird treaty act and as a state - designated threatened species by florida\u2019s endangered and threatened species rule .\nlike many other bird species with beautiful plumage , roseate spoonbills were nearly hunted to extinction during the 1800s . their striking pink feathers were popular on women ' s hats , and hunters from all over the united states competed for spoonbill plumes . in the early 1900s , roseate spoonbills began to recolonize areas along the gulf coast and slowly increase in number . today , threats to roseate spoonbill populations come as a result of habitat loss .\n, both the male and female construct a nest in trees , thick bushes or reeds where up to four eggs are laid per clutch . the roseate spoonbill chicks usually hatch after an\nsprunt , jr . , a . 1939b . the present status of the roseate spoonbill in the united states . fla . nat . no . 12 : 49 - 55 . close\nroseate spoonbill : eats minnows , small crustaceans , bits of plants , and insects ; forages by swishing its spoon - like bill from side to side in shallow , muddy water .\nthe roseate spoonbill gets much of its pink color from the food it eats . the crustaceans that it eats feed on algae which contain pigments that impart a pink / red color .\nroseate spoonbills have distinct physical characteristics that set them apart from other wading birds .\nroseate spoonbills have varied behavioral traits pertaining to feeding , breeding and general living .\nthe roseate spoonbill\u2019s post - breeding dispersal range can include georgia , alabama and mississippi ( 4 ) . in the past the species has been seen as far north as illinois ( 5 ) .\nthe roseate spoonbill spends a lot of its time in shallow water feeding . it sweeps its open bill from side to side in the water to sift up food like small fish , shrimp , mollusks , snails and insects . it has touch receptors in its bill that help it feel its prey . like the flamingo , the roseate spoonbill ' s pink color comes from the food it eats . some of the crustaceans it eats feed on algae that give the spoonbill ' s feathers their rosy pink color .\nthe specialized bill has sensitive nerve endings which help the birds search for food in shallow water . the diet of the roseate spoonbill primarily consists of crayfish , shrimp , crabs , and small fish .\nthe cypress swamp is home to our roseate spoonbills in our renovated 1904 flight cage .\none historical threat to the roseate spoonbill was hunting for their feathers , though this practice is now illegal which has allowed the population to rebound . another threat to the spoonbill is the availability of adequate food sources and habitat degradation . in the florida bay , the increased fresh water flow from the everglades may affect prey availability for the spoonbill . other threats include habitat loss and disturbance , pesticides , and illegal shootings ( dumas 2000 ) .\na spoonbill will also chase prey that it detects by sight , but its sense of touch is much more reliable .\nthe roseate spoonbill is a colonial nester , meaning that they gather in large numbers to produce and rear their young , possibly for protection . roseate spoonbills reach sexual maturity at the age of 3 or 4 , when they migrate to appropriate nesting grounds to find a mate . once paired up on coastal\nns , this bird species inhabits estuaries , marshes , and mangrove swamps along coastal areas . the pink coloration of spoonbill feather\n, the legs of the roseate spoonbill are thin and very long , allowing them to walk about in the shallow waters without getting their head or feathers wet . their distinctively long beak is very sensitive to enable the\nroseate spoonbill : large ibis with pink body and white upper back and neck . bill is long , gray , and spatulate . sexes are similar . juvenile is white with a hint of pink and has yellow bill .\n) , and known locally as pink , pinky , or pink curlew , the roseate spoonbill is unmistakable and one of north america ' s most unusual looking wading birds . its plumage is truly flamboyant , combining a pink body with carmine red on the wings and tail - coverts with a rich tawny , almost orange , tail . the bill is shaped like a spatula , giving this species its name . the roseate spoonbill is one of 6 species of spoonbills worldwide , the only one found in the new world , and the only spoonbill that has brilliantly colored plumage ; the others are chiefly white . it is also the only spoonbill whose head becomes completely unfeathered and colorful as the bird matures .\ndumas , j . v . ( 2000 ) roseate spoonbill ( platalea ajaja ) . in : poole , a . ( ed ) the birds of north america online cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca . available at : urltoken\nroseate spoonbill : one to five brown spotted white eggs are laid in a bulky nest made of sticks and built in a low bush or tree . incubation ranges from 22 to 24 days and is carried out by both parents .\nmost known breeding sites within florida occur within federally owned national parks , wildlife refuges and national audubon society sanctuaries , which started protecting the roseate spoonbill in 1902 ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . the taking of roseate spoonbills , their eggs and their nests is prohibited by the us migratory bird treaty act of 1918 ( 4 ) .\nthe most distinctive characteristic of the roseate spoonbill is its long spoon - shaped bill . it has a white head and chest and light pink wings with a darker pink fringe and very long pink legs . the roseate spoonbill is about two and a half feet in length with a wingspan of about four and a half feet . both males and females have the same plumage and coloring . the male is slightly larger than the female and its bill is a little longer .\nthe adult roseate spoonbill is most noted for its stunning pink color and its uniquely - shaped bill . it is the only one of the six spoonbill species with brilliantly colored plumage . its wings , abdomen and feathers on the side of its tail are bright pink , its tail is orange , and its legs are ruby - colored . the feather colors brighten in breeding season .\nthe roseate spoonbill is known to nest in a wide variety of marine , brackish and freshwater habitats ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . it requires shallow water in which it can feed using its long bill ( 3 ) ( 5 ) .\ndumas , jeannette v . 2000 . roseate spoonbill ( platalea ajaja ) , the birds of north america online ( a . poole , ed . ) . ithaca : cornell lab of ornithology ; retrieved from the birds of north america online .\nor migrating to their annual nesting sites . the roseate spoonbill is often seen in small flocks when feeding but they have also been found to do this on their own as well . in the wild , they are known to be particularly shy\ndumas , jeannette v . 2000 . roseate spoonbill ( platalea ajaja ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\nmonths between march and june are considered to be the mating season for the roseate spoonbills living in texas .\na spoonbill ' s nostrils are located at top of the bill , making it possible for the bird to breathe while the bill is under water .\nroseate spoonbills forage in shallow waters for aquatic invertebrates sweeping their head side to side with the bill partly opened .\nroseate spoonbills are very social . they live in large colonies with other spoonbills , ibises , storks , herons , egrets and cormorants . roseate spoonbills fly in flocks in long diagonal lines with their legs and neck stretched out .\nto derive nutrition , roseate spoonbills consume a diet comprising aquatic invertebrates , small fishes , plant matter and amphibians .\n, and has two small slits close to the top meaning that the roseate spoonbill can still breathe whilst its beak is submerged in the water . the skin on their head is featherless and often has a greenish tinge to it , leading to their lighter coloured beak .\nroseate spoonbills roost and nest in colonies with other waterbirds in trees and shrubs at the edges of wetlands and estuaries .\nfrom march through october , roseate spoonbills prefer the bays , marshes and estuaries along the gulf coast . occasionally they will travel inland through the eastern third of texas . in winter , most roseate spoonbills migrate to central and south america .\nthe roseate spoonbill population was once threatened by hunting . in the mid - to - late 1800s its feathers were used in ladies ' hats and fans . the population was also threatened by loss of habitat due to drainage and pollution in its habitat . by the early 20th century , the population had shrunk to only a few dozen nesting pairs in the united states . special protected areas were set aside for them and in the 1940s they were made a protected species . over time the population recovered and today the roseate spoonbill is no longer a protected species .\nonly this species amongst the other spoonbills are widely distributed in the western hemisphere . their range stretches from central to south america , along with coastal regions of mexico , bahamas and west indies . roseate spoonbill\u2019s breeding range in usa spreads across louisiana , texas and southern ranges of florida .\ntouch receptors located in the bill of roseate spoonbill assist it to fathom its prey underwater . whenever they feel any other aquatic creature inside their mouth they reflexively close their bills . this helps them to survive in the wild by finding food easily in muddy water and also at nights .\nroseate spoonbills eat primarily small fish and crustaceans . raccoons and coyotes eat roseate spoonbill eggs and young . spoonbills reach sexual maturity at approximately 16 weeks . in texas , their mating season lasts from march through june . nests are built in thick vegetation above water ; are well - built , and deeply cupped . females typically lay two to five brown - speckled white eggs , which hatch after about 24 days . in about eight weeks , the young roseate spoonbills are ready to fly . their life span is as long as ten years .\nroseate spoonbill : resident along the pacific coast of mexico south and along the gulf coast from louisiana to the yucatan peninsula . also found in southern florida and throughout the west indies . may stray farther inland during migration . preferred habitats include mangroves , saltwater lagoons , and large , shallow lakes .\nlike all other spoonbills , the roseate spoonbill frequents shallow aquatic habitats and feeds by tactolocation : while walking , it swings its head and the slightly open \u201cspoon\u201d of its bill in the water from side to side in a semicircular motion . the bill snaps shut when it contacts prey , mainly fish and aquatic invertebrates . it is gregarious while feeding , nesting , and roosting . the full behavioral repertoire of the roseate has yet to be described .\nthe roseate spoonbill will sleep standing , usually on one leg , with its head buried beneath back and shoulder feathers . the female is also able to rest when lying down during incubation . it is generally a silent bird , although it is known to make calls during breeding displays and when flying ( 3 ) .\nthe roseate spoonbill nests in colonies . males and females pair off for the breeding season and build a nest together . they build large nests of sticks lined with grass and leaves . the nests are built in trees . the female spoonbill lays two to four eggs . both the female and the male incubate the eggs . the chicks hatch in about three weeks and fledge in around 35 to 42 days . both the male and female feed the chicks until they are about eight weeks old . young roseate spoonbills have white feathers with a slight pink tinge on the wings . they don ' t reach maturity until they are three years old .\nspoonbills eat shrimp , shrimp eat algae , and the algae make their own red and yellow pigments , called carotenoids . some scientists believe that the pink coloration that roseate spoonbills acquire as they mature is due to their diet of carotenoid - rich organisms like shrimp . the more they eat , the pinker they get . flamingos are close relatives of the roseate spoonbill . they both have pink feathers , but the flamingos are much larger , with a longer neck .\nthis spoonbill species grows up to 38 inches tall with a 47 - 52 inch wingspan and can weigh up to 4 pounds . feeding primarily on small aquatic animals such as fish and crusta\ns is caused by an abundance of carotenoids , or algae pigments , present in the food the birds eat . as the spoonbill ages , the caroteniods accumulate from all of the aquatic anim\nthe roseate spoonbill feeds in groups , in both fresh and marine shallow waters ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . it feeds by walking slowly through the water , swinging its distinctive spoon - shaped bill from side to side ( 3 ) . the bill has sensitive nerve endings , allowing it to detect when it comes into contact with prey and snap shut ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . this species is known to shake and beat prey against hard surfaces to break shells and facilitate swallowing and digestion if necessary ( 3 ) . the roseate spoonbill generally feeds on a range of aquatic animals including small fish , crustaceans and insects ( 3 ) .\nsources : 1 . about roseate spoonbills ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 13 apr 2011 ] 2 . christopher perrins , oxford university press ( 2009 ) the encyclopedia of birds [ accessed at : 13 apr 2011 ] 3 . david burnie , dorling kindersley ( 2008 ) illustrated encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 13 apr 2011 ] 4 . david burnie , kingfisher ( 2011 ) the kingfisher animal encyclopedia [ accessed at : 13 apr 2011 ] 5 . dorling kindersley ( 2006 ) dorling kindersley encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 13 apr 2011 ] 6 . richard mackay , university of california press ( 2009 ) the atlas of endangered species [ accessed at : 13 apr 2011 ] 7 . roseate spoonbill breeding ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 13 apr 2011 ] 8 . roseate spoonbill conservation ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 13 apr 2011 ] 9 . roseate spoonbill information ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 13 apr 2011 ] 10 . tom jackson , lorenz books ( 2007 ) the world encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 13 apr 2011 ]\nroseate spoonbills build bulky stick nests in trees and shrubs that often hang over standing water . they typically raise 3 to 4 chicks every year .\nroseate spoonbills are among the most beautiful birds found in north america . they are often mistaken to be american flamingos due to their colored body type . these birds belong to the spoonbill family that are distributed largely across the coastal regions of america , mexico and caribbean . they are the only spoonbills that live beyond the tropical and warmer climates .\nhow you can help : join audubon florida\u2019s online advocacy campaign at urltoken , where you will find tips on boating responsibly , creating backyard wildlife habitat , and reporting a sighting of a banded spoonbill .\nthe roseate spoonbill is generally an uncommon resident in the united states , depending on location and season . historical records indicate that the u . s . population was more abundant before the plume - hunting era than today . it was decimated by feather hunters beginning as early as the 1830s , when john james audubon saw roseate wings being sold as fans in st . augustine , florida , but disturbance at shared rookeries for the highly prized plumes of egrets probably took the greatest toll on the species (\nthe roseate spoonbill is the only spoonbill endemic ( native ) to the western hemisphere ( bjork and powell 1996 ) . this species can reach a length of 30 - 40 inches ( 76 - 102 centimeters ) with a wingspan of 50 - 53 inches ( 127 - 135 centimeters ) . it has pink wings and underparts ( with some red on the tops of the wings ) with a white neck and back , and pinkish legs and feet . while the species looks almost entirely pink in flight , they actually have no feathers at all on their heads . the pink coloration comes from the organisms on which they feed , which are full of caroteniods ( organic pigment ) ( texas parks and wildlife department , n . d . ) . as the name implies , the roseate spoonbill also has a large , spoon - shaped bill , which it sweeps back and forth in shallow water to capture prey .\ngorgeous at a distance and bizarre up close is the roseate spoonbill . locally common in coastal florida , texas , and southwest louisiana , they are usually in small flocks , often associating with other waders . spoonbills feed in shallow waters , walking forward slowly while they swing their heads from side to side , sifting the muck with their wide flat bills .\nthe roseate spoonbill ( platalea ajaja ) is a striking wading bird that is easily identifiable thanks to its bright pink plumage and spoon - shaped bill ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . it is a large bird , with a wingspan of over a metre , but is mid - sized in comparison to other species in the order ciconiiformes to which the roseate spoonbill belongs ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . it is long - legged , long - necked ( 2 ) and has a bald head that is pale green in appearance , with a white neck , breast and back ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . the rest of the plumage is mostly various shades of pink , with dark reddish - pink wing and upper tail feathers ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . there is a yellow patch near the bend of the wing , and the tail is orange ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . the roseate spoonbill\u2019s bill is about 15 to 18 centimetres long and is grey , while the legs are reddish - pink ( 3 ) .\nbjork r . , g . v . n powell . , 1996 . roseate spoonbill . pages 295 \u2013 308 in j . a . rodgers , jr . , h . w . kale ii , and h . t . smith ( eds . ) . rare and endangered biota of florida , vol . v : birds . university press of florida , gainesville , fl .\nthe roseate spoonbill is a resident breeder in south america , generally east of the andes , and coastal areas of central america , the caribbean , and the gulf of mexico ( dumas 2000 ) . mangrove islands and occasionally dredge - spoil islands are the preferred nesting habitat for the species . in florida , the species is found in florida bay , tampa bay , and brevard county .\nroseate spoonbills are usually quiet but make low grunting sounds while they are eating with others . young ones emit soft calls unlike the adults who have a raspy voice .\nthe most devastating threat to the roseate spoonbill has historically been hunting by man ( 3 ) . population numbers dropped dramatically between 1850 and 1890 as a result of hunters selling the feathers for use in fans and hat - making , as well as hunting for meat ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . this species has also suffered from disturbance at breeding colonies shared with heavily hunted egrets ( 3 ) .\nroseate spoonbills fly with their head and feet outstretched elegantly looking straight . they form a long line and sometimes that line assumes a \u2018v\u2019 shape while flying in a flock .\ndistribution of the roseate spoonbill in north and middle america and the western caribbean . this species breeds locally within the distribution shown , and locally in south america . in the u . s . , it breeds during winter ( florida bay ) and spring ( elsewhere ) , and individuals regularly disperse north distribution shown during summer and fall . see text for timing of breeding and postbreeding dispersal in other regions .\nnot the roseate spoonbill ! having a\nbuilt - in\nspoon on its beak can be a big help at mealtime . all spoonbills take advantage of this adaptation with a special feeding style known as\nhead - swinging .\nthe birds plunge their bill nearly vertically under water and swing it side to side in wide arcs . in this way , they snag a host of small animals from the lake bottom .\nit ' s ironic that roseate spoonbills were hunted for their plumage : their feather color fades rapidly , so the fans and hats made from their plumes had only a limited lifespan .\nthe unique spoon - shaped bill of this species is also used in a courtship dance which includes nest material exchanges , dancing , and bill clapping . roseate spoonbills typically don ' t breed until they reach 3 years old , at which time they have reached full size and have grown breeding plumage . the attractive feathers used to attract a breeding mate also attracted plume hunters and poachers in the 1800s that used the feathers to make fashion pieces such as ladies hats . by the 1930s , poaching and low reproductive success rates lead spoonbill population numbers to frop to an estimated 30 breeding pairs . conservation efforts in the united states have allowed the species to reach an estimated 1000 breeding pairs along the florida coast , contributing to an estimated 4 , 000 total breeding pair population along the gulf coast of the united states including texas and louisiana populations . the biggest threat to the roseate spoonbill is now habitat loss , as coastal and estuary lands are drained for urban developments .\nroseate spoonbills don ' t mate for life , but they do keep the same mate for an entire breeding season . before they breed , the male and female tempt each other in ritual courtship displays .\ntoday the species has recovered so well that it has no special conservation status . yet scientists worry about a recent decline in the number of breeding pairs in various parts of its range . manmade causes are again suspected , specifically the broad use of pesticides to control mosquitoes and changes in the birds ' wetland habitats ( draining , pollution , etc . ) . with any luck , the roseate spoonbill will be able to cope and will have a rosy future for many centuries to come .\nthe roseate spoonbill is known to breed in southern usa in florida , louisiana and texas , along both coasts of central america , and south as far as central argentina ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . it is found on most islands in the caribbean sea , with the exception of the lesser antilles , where it is rare ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . this is thought to indicate that the south american populations are distinct from the remaining populations in the usa and central america ( 3 ) .\nroseate spoonbills forage in the shallows of fresh , brackish , and marine waters including bays , mangroves , forested swamps , and wetlands . they nest and roost in trees and shrubs along the water ' s edge .\nwhite , d . h . , c . a . mitchell and e . cromartie . 1982b . nesting ecology of roseate spoonbills at neuces bay , texas . auk no . 99 : 275 - 284 . close\nthe u . s . fish and wildlife service today released its gulf coast vulnerability assessment ( gcva ) , a comprehensive report that evaluates the effects of climate change , sea level rise and urbanization on four gulf coast ecosystems and 11 species that depend on them . the ecosystems are mangrove , oyster reef , tidal emergent marsh and barrier islands . the species are roseate spoonbill , blue crab , clapper rail , mottled duck , spotted seatrout , eastern oyster , american oystercatcher , red drum , black skimmer , kemp\u2019s ridley sea turtle and wilson\u2019s plover .\neven the size of the roseate spoonbills doesn\u2019t save themselves from the predators present in water and natural surroundings who hunt them for flesh and eggs . some of them are alligators , pumas , coyotes , raccoons , jaguars , hawks and even humans .\nthis medium - sized bird ' s body is rather stocky ; its long legs allow it to wade into water . both male and female roseate spoonbills have the same bright pink plumage , though males are somewhat larger and have somewhat longer bills .\nals it has eaten and the pink coloration becomes darker . a specialized spoon - shaped bill allows the bird to forage for its food by sweeping the head from side to side as it walks through shallow water . when sensitive nerves along the upper and lower bill feel prey move , the spoonbill clamps the bill shut and the prey is trapped .\n) . breeders persisted in only a few locations in florida and louisiana into the 1940s , and the species was virtually extirpated in texas until the 1920s . despite eventual population increases throughout its u . s . range , this spoonbill remains vulnerable , especially in florida , and it is designated a species of special concern in both florida and louisiana .\nmale and female roseate spoonbills are similar in appearance and colour , although males are slightly larger ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . juvenile roseate spoonbills are mostly white , with dusky - pink wing tips which develop and darken as they mature ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . they have fully feathered heads and pale yellowish - pink bills ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . full adult plumage is thought to develop after four moults , which takes about three years ( 3 ) .\nroseate spoonbills forage in the shallows of fresh , brackish , and marine waters with good sources of aquatic invertebrates . these include bays and mangroves to forested swamps and roadside ditches . they nest and roost in trees and shrubs along the water ' s edge .\nrobertson , w . b . , l . l . breen and b . w . patty . 1983b . movement of marked roseate spoonbills in florida with a review of present distribution . j . field ornithol . no . 54 : 225 - 236 . close\nroseate spoonbills are medium - sized waterbirds with a football - shaped body and long legs . the long bill that is flattened into a spoon at the end protrudes from their small head . they fly with their long necks outstretched and often rest with it curled into an s .\nroseate spoonbills are pale pink birds with brighter pink shoulders and rump . they have a white neck and a partially feathered , yellowish green head from which their red eyes shine . juveniles are paler pink and have a completely feathered head for 3 years until they attain adult breeding plumage .\nroseate spoonbills fly in flocks with other spoonbills , usually in long , strung - out diagonal lines . those that live in the tropics tend not to migrate . in temperate and sub - tropical climates , spoonbills migrate somewhat , mostly as a response to food availability and rainfall patterns .\nthroughout their distributional range , these beautiful roseate spoonbills inhabit ponds , marshes , swamps and rivers . they can survive in freshwater as well as saltwater habitats , which is why they feed in tidal ponds and estuaries . shallow water bodies adjacent to their nesting sites are preferred feeding areas during nesting .\nlook out for a long - legged wading bird with pale - pink feathers , but don ' t confuse this big cypress resident with the greater flamingo in the florida keys . spoonbills get their names from the spatulate shaped bill that strains shallow water like a straining spoon . the roseate spoonbill stands 28 - 34 inches tall , and can stretch its wings 47 - 51 inches . both eyes and legs are red , and feathers of the neck , chest and upper back are white . the pale pink body is complimented by bright orange tail feathers and a pale - gray , flattened , spoon - shaped bill . the immature bird ' s feathers are paler colors and each chick has a feathered head unlike their parents .\nroseate spoonbills grow to a height of 32 inches ( 81 cm ) , with an average wingspan of 50 inches ( 127 cm ) . their distinguishing characteristics include their pink body and legs , white neck and breast . pale green bald head , spoon - shaped bill , and bright red shoulder patch .\nthese migrate during the breeding season when they seek partners in distant areas . migratory range of roseate spoonbills extends to south and central america during the winters . it however does not travel beyond north carolina , towards the east . but not all of them are migratory , especially the ones inhabiting the tropical zones .\nby the early 20th century , there were only a few dozen nesting pairs of roseate spoonbills on this continent . various groups , including the national audubon society , set aside preserves for the birds . spoonbills received legal protection in the1940s and their numbers slowly started rebounding in parts of the southern u . s .\nin the 19 th century laws have been passed to prevent the killing of roseate spoonbills as they were becoming endangered during that time . there are no issues with its population now and hence at present iucn lists them as least concern birds . in louisiana and florida they have been enlisted as species of special concern .\nbreeding season of roseate spoonbills probably start in the beginning of summer . these spoonbills enter sexual maturity in the third year but some might take another year to start breeding . a typical cycle can be deciphered which can be classified into 4 phases including , formation of pair , phase of betrothal , copulation and nest formation .\nroseate spoonbills forage in shallow waters typically less than 5 inches deep . they sweep their partly opened spoon - shaped bill through the water , feeling and looking for crustaceans such as shrimp , prawns , aquatic insects , and fish . once they feel the prey on their bill they snap it closed , often swallowing the item whole .\na spoonbill feeds more by touch than by sight - - a handy adaptation for an animal that often feeds in water that ' s muddy or clogged with dense vegetation . the horny bill is equipped with sensitive touch receptors that detect vibrations given off by prey . when something touches the inside of the spoon , the bill closes on it quickly . this keen sense of touch and fast reflexes allow the bird to feed in cloudy water , and at night .\nroseate spoonbills nest in colonies with egrets , ibises , and herons , typically on islands or over standing water . they nest in mangroves , brazilian pepperbush , willows , sea myrtle , and other shrubs near the water . they tend to put their nests in the shadiest part of the tree or shrub , up to 16 feet high .\nof around three weeks , and fledge after about a month . the young roseate spoonbills have white plumage with a slight pink tinge , and often won ' t develop the colourful adult feathers for at least a couple of years . both the incubating of the eggs and the feeding of the chicks is shared by the male and female parents .\ncream colored eggs hatch in a month\u2019s time , producing pinkish chicks with orange colored bills . after a month they start flying across low lying branches around the nest but can completely fly after a couple of more months . till 3 years the young roseate spoonbills refrain from mating and above that age they follow the same life cycle like the adults .\nbjork , r . d . and g . v . n . powell . 1994 . relationships between hydrologic conditions and quality and quantity of foraging habitat for roseate spoonbills and other wading birds in the c - 111 basin . homestead , fl : south florida res . center , everglades natl . park , natl . park serv . , final rep . close\nroseate spoonbills wade through shallow water swinging their head side to side with their bill under the water feeling for prey . they tend to forage with their bodies held in a horizontal position just above the water with head hanging down . they fly with the neck outstretched , dipping slightly below the body . spoonbills forage , roost , and nest in groups often with other ibises , herons , and egrets .\nunlike most birds , roseate spoonbills are silent and often solitary when they feed . they swish their spoon - shaped bills back and forth in the water to find small invertebrates , fish and crustaceans . during breeding season , the male uses gifts of nesting material to attract the female . once mated , the pair remains monogamous . both male and female take turns sitting on the eggs and feeding the young .\nroseate spoonbills are plentiful in much of their range , but that hasn ' t always been the case . in the mid - to late - 1800s , they were driven to the brink of extinction in north america and cuba . spoonbills were intensely hunted for their beautiful feathers , used for ladies ' hats , fans and screens . their numbers also suffered with the draining and pollution of their wetland habitat .\nroseate spoonbills slowly walk through shallow water with their bodies held horizontally and their spoon - shaped bill underwater feeling for prey . they sleep while standing , often on one leg with the head tucked under a shoulder . roseate spoonbills are social birds that gather in small to large ( anywhere from 2 to around 400 ) groups when feeding and roosting . they fly to and from feeding and roosting areas with slow and deep wingbeats with their legs and neck fully extended . when foraging spoonbills spot a group of spoonbills flying overhead they stick their necks and bills straight up into the air in a posture called sky gazing . spoonbills share the roosting and nesting colony with egrets , herons , and ibises . at colonies males bob their heads up and down while shaking nearby twigs to get the attention of a female . interested pairs may bite each other ' s bills or may raise their outstretched wings above their body . once paired , males present females with sticks , which they shake while holding them in their bills . pairs generally stay together only for one breeding season .\nthere is no sexual dimorphism ( difference in form between individuals of different genders in the same species ) in roseate spoonbills . they nest in mixed colonies ( near other wading bird species ) in mangroves or trees and though most breed on the coast , some nest inland . nesting habitats include coastal mangroves and dredged - made islands . ( florida natural areas inventory 2001 ) . the female builds the nest while the male retrieves the nesting materials . the female lays up to three whitish - colored eggs and both adults incubate the eggs for up to 24 days ( smithsonian national zoological park , n . d . ) . the young remain in the nest for approximately 35 - 42 days and are fed by both adults .\nroseate spoonbills nest and forage in areas that can be difficult to reach , so obtaining an accurate estimate of their population is difficult . the best available estimates come from the north american breeding bird survey and partners in flight . according to the north american breeding bird survey their populations have increased by nearly 6 . 5 % between 1966 and 2015 . partners in flight estimates the global breeding population at 120 , 000 individuals . the species rates a 10 out of 20 on the continental concern score , which means it is not on the partners in flight watch list and is a species of low conservation concern . in florida , much of their nesting habitat occurs in protected areas including the everglades national park and national wildlife refuges , but their foraging areas are not always under protection and can be affected by changes in water management that increase salinity and affect food availability . nesting spoonbills are also vulnerable to human disturbance from boating and other recreation activities that can result in nest abandonment .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nfalkland islands ( malvinas ) ; grenada ; guadeloupe ; jamaica ; south georgia and the south sandwich islands ; virgin islands , british ; virgin islands , u . s .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : zootaxa . publisher : auckland , n . z . : magnolia press , 2001 - isbn / issn : 1175 - 5326 oclc : 49030618\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nan international journal of zootaxonomy .\ntitle from cover . some issues also have distinctive titles .\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nmales collect sticks for females to build a bulky platform lined with finer plant material such as moss and strips of bark . the completed nest is about 22 inches wide and 4 . 5 inches deep .\npink skinned and covered with white down . eyed closed and unable to stand .\ndunne , p . ( 2006 ) . pete dunne ' s essential field guide companion . houghton mifflin harcourt , new york , usa .\nlutmerding , j . a . and a . s . love ( 2016 ) . longevity records of north american birds . version 2016 . 1 . patuxent wildlife research center , bird banding laboratory , laurel , md , usa .\nsauer , j . r . , d . k . niven , j . e . hines , d . j . ziolkowski , jr . , k . l . pardieck , j . e . fallon , and w . a . link ( 2017 ) . the north american breeding bird survey , results and analysis 1966\u20132015 . version 2 . 07 . 2017 . usgs patuxent wildlife research center , laurel , md , usa .\nsibley , d . a . ( 2014 ) . the sibley guide to birds , second edition . alfred a . knopf , new york , usa .\nlarge , pink wading bird with a long , spoon - shaped bill . adults have brighter pink shoulders and a bare yellowish green head .\njuveniles look similar to adults , but are paler pink and have a completely feathered head . spoon - shaped bill is distinctive .\nnests and roosts in trees and shrubs including mangrove , sea myrtle , hackberry , and mesquite .\nfound in freshwater and saltwater wetlands , mangroves , forested swamps , rivers , bays , estuaries , mudflats , and lagoons .\nvery common in parts of the southeast until the 1860s , spoonbills were virtually eliminated from the united states as a side - effect of the destruction of wader colonies by plume hunters . began to re - colonize texas and florida early in 20th century . still uncommon and local , vulnerable to degradation of feeding and nesting habitats .\ncoastal marshes , lagoons , mudflats , mangrove keys . forages in shallow water with muddy bottom , in both salt and fresh water , including tidal ponds , coastal lagoons , extensive inland marshes . nests in colonies , in florida mainly in red mangroves , farther west in willows or on coastal islands in low scrub , including mesquite and salt cedar .\nforages by wading in shallow muddy water , sweeping bill from side to side with mandibles slightly open , detecting prey by feel . sometimes picks up items that it has found by sight .\n2 - 3 , sometimes 1 - 5 . white , spotted with brown . incubation is by both sexes , 22 - 24 days . young : both parents feed young . young clamber about near nest , may leave nest after 5 - 6 weeks , capable of strong flight at roughly 7 - 8 weeks .\nboth parents feed young . young clamber about near nest , may leave nest after 5 - 6 weeks , capable of strong flight at roughly 7 - 8 weeks .\nsmall fish , aquatic invertebrates . diet is mostly small fish such as minnows and killifish , also shrimp , crayfish , crabs , aquatic insects ( especially beetles ) , mollusks , slugs . eats some plant material , including roots and stems of sedges .\nbreeds mainly during winter in florida , during spring in texas . nests in colonies . at beginning of breeding season , entire flock may suddenly fly up , for no apparent reason , and circle the area . in courtship , male and female first interact aggressively , later perch close together , present sticks to each other , cross and clasp bills . nest site is in mangroves , tree , shrub , usually 5 - 15 ' above ground or water , sometimes on ground . nest ( built mostly by female , with material brought by male ) a bulky platform of sticks , with deep hollow in center lined with twigs , leaves .\npresent all year in coastal texas but more common in summer , with some migrating to mexico in winter . there is thought to be some regular seasonal movement between florida and cuba . after breeding season , a few ( mostly immatures ) may stray far north and well inland . rarely strays into southwest from western mexico .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\nin the broadest and most detailed study of its kind , audubon scientists have used hundreds of thousands of citizen - science observations and sophisticated climate models to predict how birds in the u . s . and canada will react to climate change .\nthe darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season .\neach map is a visual guide to where a particular bird species may find the climate conditions it needs to survive in the future . we call this the bird\u2019s \u201cclimatic range . \u201d"]}
{"id": 1320, "summary": [{"text": "salmo trutta morpha fario is the riverine form of the brown trout salmo trutta that spends its entire life cycle in running water .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "while previously considered a distinct subspecies or even species , it is currently not considered to be taxonomically different from other ecological or migratory forms of the brown trout , i.e. the sea trout ( salmo trutta morpha trutta ) or the lacustrine brown trout ( salmo trutta morpha lacustris ) .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the fario morph is often referred to as river trout in europe .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "riverine brown trout average 20 to 80 centimetres ( 7.9 to 31.5 in ) but can reach lengths of 1 metre ( 3.3 ft ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they usually attain a weight of up to 2 kilograms , but sometimes up to 13 kilograms ( 29 lb ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "their back is olive-dark brown and silvery blue , red spots with light edges occur towards the belly , the belly itself is whitish yellow .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they can live for up to 18 years . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "salmo trutta fario", "paragraphs": ["vittorio genovese added the italian common name\ntrota fario\nto\nsalmo trutta fario linnaeus , 1758\n.\nvariety salmo fario var . forestensis bloch & schneider , 1801 accepted as salmo trutta linnaeus , 1758 ( synonym )\nno one has contributed data records for salmo trutta fario yet . learn how to contribute .\nhigh rate of deformed larvae among gynogenetic brown trout ( salmo trutta m . fario ) doubled haploids\nhigh rate of deformed larvae among gynogenetic brown trout ( salmo trutta m . fario ) doubled haploids\nbrown trout salmo trutta f . fario liver ultrastructure as a biomarker for assessment of small stream pollution .\nthe reproductive traits of brown trout ( salmo trutta fario l . ) from the yadong river , tibet\nthe reproductive traits of brown trout ( salmo trutta fario l . ) from the yadong river , tibet | springerlink\nparental genetic diversity of brown trout ( salmo trutta m . fario ) brood stock affects offspring susceptibility to whirling disease\nseasonal and morphological variations of brown trout ( salmo trutta f . fario ) kidney peroxisomes : a stereological study .\nbrown trout salmo trutta f . fario liver ultrastructure as a biomarker for assessment of small stream pollution . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe hepatocytes of the brown trout ( salmo trutta f . fario ) : a quantitative study using design - based stereology .\nseasonal and morphological variations of brown trout ( salmo trutta f . fario ) kidney peroxisomes : a stereological study . - pubmed - ncbi\nyou selected salmo trutta lacustris linnaeus , 1758 . this is a synonym for :\njennifer hammock chose to hide data on\nsalmo trutta linnaeus , 1758\n.\nthe hepatocytes of the brown trout ( salmo trutta f . fario ) : a quantitative study using design - based stereology . - pubmed - ncbi\nglobal invasive species database , \u201csalmo trutta ( fish ) \u201d urltoken accessed november 2006 .\nfigure 1 : body deformities among gynogenetic brown trout ( salmo trutta ) doubled haploids .\nparental genetic diversity of brown trout ( salmo trutta m . fario ) brood stock affects offspring susceptibility to whirling disease | parasites & vectors | full text\nseasonal comparison of wild and farmed brown trout ( salmo trutta forma fario l . , 1758 ) : crude lipid , gonadosomatic index and fatty acids .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - brown trout ( salmo trutta fario )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - brown trout ( salmo trutta fario )\ntitle =\narkive species - brown trout ( salmo trutta fario )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\na common trout , salmo trutta , of n european streams : introduced in north america .\nillinois state department of natural resources , \u201cillinois exotic species : salmo trutta\u201d urltoken accessed november 2006 .\nacyl - coenzyme a oxidases 1 and 3 in brown trout ( salmo trutta f . fario ) : can peroxisomal fatty acid \u03b2 - oxidation be regulated by estrogen signaling ?\nseasonal comparison of wild and farmed brown trout ( salmo trutta forma fario l . , 1758 ) : crude lipid , gonadosomatic index and fatty acids . - pubmed - ncbi\nfishingnet , 2004 . brown trout ( salmo trutta ) . online at urltoken accessed 16 november 2004 .\nunited states geographical survey , \u201cnonindigenous aquatic species : salmo trutta , \u201d urltoken = accessed november 2006 .\nwith parasitic larvae ( glochidia ) encysting on the gills of juvenile brown trout ( salmo trutta f .\ninformations on salmo trutta has been recorded for the following locations . click on the name for additional informations .\nthe brown trout is found throughout europe ; those that live in rivers which empty into the north sea and the baltic sea belong to the subspecies salmo trutta fario , those that live in rivers that empty into the black sea are of the subspecies salmo trutta labrax , and those in rivers emptying into the mediterranean belong to the subspecies s . t . macrostigma ( 2 ) . the brown trout ( salmo trutta fario ) is found throughout the british isles ( 3 ) .\nanimal diversity web , 2004 . salmo trutta ( brown trout ) . online at urltoken accessed 15 november 2004 .\neffects of angling on population structure of brown trout , salmo trutta l . , in mountain streams of northern spain\nage and growth of the brown trout ( salmo trutta fario l . ) in the north branch of the au sable river , crawford county , michigan . ( fisheries research report : 1223 )\nacyl - coenzyme a oxidases 1 and 3 in brown trout ( salmo trutta f . fario ) : can peroxisomal fatty acid \u03b2 - oxidation be regulated by estrogen signaling ? - pubmed - ncbi\nby the genogenesis method of induction ( artifical ) through the thermal shocks , triple descendants ( 3n = 100 ) are obtained during the salmo gairdneri ( 2n = 58 ) and the salmo trutta fario ( 2n = 84 ) corss - breeding . the new triples possess higher growth rates than the descendants of salmo gairdneri\neffects of angling on population structure of brown trout , salmo trutta l . , in mountain streams of northern spain | springerlink\nbillard , r . ( 1987 ) . the reproductive cycle of male and female brown trout ( salmo trutta fario ) : a quantitative study . reproduction nutrition development , 27 ( 1a ) , 29 - 44 . urltoken\nage and growth of the brown trout ( salmo trutta fario l . ) in the north branch of the au sable river , crawford county , michigan . ( fisheries research report : 1223 ) tody , w . h .\nthe scientific name of the brown trout is salmo trutta . the specific epithet trutta derives from the latin trutta , meaning , literally ,\ntrout\n. behnke ( 2007 ) relates that the brown trout was the first species of trout described in the 1758 edition of systema naturae by swedish zoologist carl linnaeus . systema naturae established the system of binomial nomenclature for animals . salmo trutta was used to describe anadromous or sea - run forms of brown trout . linnaeus also described two other brown trout species in 1758 . salmo fario was used for riverine forms . salmo lacustris was used for lake - dwelling forms . [ 5 ]\nlaikre et al , 1999 . conservation genetic management of brown trout ( salmo trutta ) in europe . report by the concerted action on identification , management and exploitation of genetic resources in the brown trout ( salmo trutta ) . troutconcert , eu fair ct97 - 3882 .\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2005 ) .\nsalmo trutta\nin fishbase . 10 2005 version .\nrecommended citation : global invasive species database ( 2018 ) species profile : salmo trutta . downloaded from urltoken on 09 - 07 - 2018 .\nalthough there are currently no recognized subspecies of brown trout , there are three basic morphs ( distinct behavioral populations within a species ) : those that in habit freshwater rivers ( salmo trutta morpha fario ) , lake populations ( salmo trutta morpha lacustrine ) , and anadromous forms ( salmo trutta morpha trutta ) . browns that spend their lives in the ocean before entering rivers to spawn are called sea trout . the species name means \u201csalmon trout\u201d and described the anadromous morph . resident and anadromous browns that inhabit the same river are genetically identical , and biologists do not yet understand why some migrate to the salt and some stay in the river .\nthe brown trout ( salmo trutta ) is a european species of salmonid fish that has been widely introduced into suitable environments globally . it includes both purely freshwater populations , referred to salmo trutta morpha fario and s . trutta morpha lacustris , and anadromous forms known as the sea trout , s . trutta morpha trutta . the latter migrates to the oceans for much of its life and returns to fresh water only to spawn . [ 3 ] sea trout in the uk and ireland have many regional names , including sewin ( wales ) , finnock ( scotland ) , peal ( west country ) , mort ( north west england ) , and white trout ( ireland ) .\na european freshwater game fish ( salmo trutta ) that is brownish or greenish with red and black spots on the sides . it is naturalized in north america .\ntable 2 : summary of the examination of the body morphology among gynogenetic doubled haploid ( dh ) and normal ( c ) brown trout ( salmo trutta ) .\nczerniawski r . , pilecka - rapacz m . , domaga\u00b3a j . 2010 - growth and survival of brown trout fry ( salmo trutta m . fario l . ) in the wild , reared in the hatchery on different feed - ejpau , fisheries 13 ( 2 ) ; urltoken\n( animals ) a common brownish variety of the trout salmo trutta that occurs in the rivers of n europe and has been successfully introduced in north america . compare sea trout 1\n( of salmo fario linnaeus , 1758 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nczerniawski r . , domaga\u00b3a j . , pilecka - rapacz m . 2009 - rearing of sea trout fry ( salmo trutta m . trutta l . ) - as potential stocking material , with living zooplankton and dry prepared food - ejpau , fisheries 12 ( 4 ) ; urltoken\n( of trutta fario ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nferguson a , 1989 . genetic differences among brown trout ( salmo trutta ) stocks and their importance for the conservation and management of the species . freshwater biology , 21 : 35 - 46 .\ntesticular feed back on the hypothalamo - pituitary axis in rainbow trout ( salmo gairdneri r . )\ndepartment of fisheries , 2002 . the translocation of brown trout ( salmo trutta ) and rainbow trout ( oncorhynchus mykiss ) . fisheries management paper no . 156 . western australia : department of fisheries .\nelliott , j . m . ( 1967 ) . the food of trout ( salmo trutta ) in a dartmoor stream . journal of applied ecology , 4 ( 1 ) : 59 - 71 .\nfaur\u00e9 , a . 1991 . la truite fario , une fili\u00e8re salmonicole marine \u00e0 la fran\u00e7aise . aqua revue 35 : 7 - 13 .\nczerniawski r . , domagala j . , krepski t . , pilecka - rapacz m . 2015 - impact of live food on survival and growth of hatchery - reared sea trout ( salmo trutta trutta l . ) parr in the wild - j . appl . ichthyol . 31 : 95 - 99 .\nlargiader , c . r . & scholl , a . 1996 . genetic introgression between native and introduced sea trout salmo trutta l . populations in the rh\u00f4ne river basin . molecular ecology 5 : 417 - 426 .\nlack of genetic differentiation between anadromous and resident sympatric brown trout ( salmo trutta ) in a normandy population . . in aquatic living resources , volume 18 , n\u00b0 1 , january\u2013march 2005 . pages 65 - 69 .\nintroduction of salmo trutta has caused both negative and positive impacts on biodiversity . they compete with native trout and other fish species , but they are not known to have been the cause of any species ' ext . . .\nbugeon , j . , lefevre , f . & fauconneau , b . 2003 . fillet texture and muscle structure in sea trout ( salmo trutta ) subjected to long - term exercise . aquaculture research 34 : 1287 - 1295 .\nskaala o , j rstad ke , 1987 . fine spotted brown trout ( salmo trutta ) : its phenotypic description and biochemical genetic variation . canadian journal of fisheries and aquatic sciences , 44 ( 10 ) : 1775 - 1779 .\nzimmerman , c . e . & mosegaard , h . ( 1992 ) . initial feeding in migratory brown trout ( salmo trutta l . ) alevins . journal of fish biology , 40 ( 4 ) : 647 - 650 .\nsalmo trutta has been introduced around the world for aquaculture and stocked for sport fisheries . it is blamed for reducing native fish populations , especially other salmonids , through predation , displacement and food competition . it is a popular angling fish .\nmambrini , m . , labbe , l . , randriamanantsoa , f . & boujard , t . 2006 . response of growth - selected sea trout ( salmo trutta ) to challenging feeding conditions . aquaculture 252 : 429 - 440 .\nchevassus , b . , quillet , e . , krieg , f . , hollebecq , m . g . , mambrini , m . , faure , a . , labbe , l . , hiseux , j . p . & vandeputte , m . 2005 . improved mass selection for growth rate in sea trout ( salmo trutta fario ) : the\nprosper\nprocess . aquaculture 247 ; 8 .\narzel , j . , m\u00e9tailler , r . , kerleguer , c . , le delliou , h . & guillaume , j . 1997 . the protein requirement of sea trout ( salmo trutta ) fry . aquaculture 130 : 67 - 78 .\nbarbat - leterrier , a . , guyomard , r . & krieg , f . 1989 . introgression between introduced domesticated strains and mediterranean native populations of sea trout ( salmo trutta l . ) . aquatic living resources 2 : 215 - 223 .\nquillet , e . , chevassus , b . , krieg , f . & burger , g . 1986 . donn\u00e9es actuelles sur l ' \u00e9levage en mer de la truite commune ( salmo trutta ) . la pisciculture fran\u00e7aise 86 : 48 - 56 .\nintroduction of salmo trutta has caused both negative and positive impacts on biodiversity . they compete with native trout and other fish species , but they are not known to have been the cause of any species ' extinction ( animal diversity web , 2004 ) .\nin small streams , brown trout are important predators of macroinvertebrates , and declining brown trout populations in these specific areas affect the entire aquatic food web . [ 11 ] s . trutta morpha fario prefers well - oxygenated water in the temperature range of 60 to 65 \u00b0f ( 16 to 18 \u00b0c ) .\nhansen , m . m . 2002 . estimating the long - term effects of stocking domesticated trout into wild sea trout ( salmo trutta ) populations : an approach using microsatellite dna analysis of historical and contemporary samples . molecular ecology 11 : 1003 - 1015 .\nfjellheim a . , raddum g . g . , barlaup b . t . 1995 - dispersal , growth and mortality of brown trout ( salmo trutta l . ) stocked in a regulated west norwegian river - regul . rivers 10 : 137 - 145 .\narzel , j . , metailler , r . , huelvan , c . , faure , a . & guillaume , j . 1992 . the specific nutritional requirements of sea trout ( salmo trutta ) . b\u00fav\u00edsindi , icelandic agricultural science 6 : 77 - 92 .\nfishbase , 2003 . species profile salmo trutta trutta sea trout summary : fishbase is a global information system with all you ever wanted to know about fishes . fishbase on the web contains practically all fish species known to science . fishbase was developed at the worldfish center in collaboration with the food and agriculture organization of the united nations ( fao ) and many other partners , and with support from the european commission ( ec ) . since 2001 fishbase is supported by a consortium of seven research institutions . you can search on search fishbase this species profile is available from : urltoken ; = salmo & speciesname ; = trutta % 20trutta [ accessed 7 september , 2004 ]\nthe native range of salmo trutta includes europe , northern africa and western asia . the species is found in iceland and on the northwest coast of europe , along the mediterranean and south to india . s . trutta has been introduced to appropriate streams all over the world ( animal diversity web , 2004 ) and today is found in rivers , lakes and coastal areas ( nova scotia , 2004 ) .\nthe bow trout ( salmo gairdneri ) and the brook trout ( salvenilus ) with the same harvesting period , grayling ( thymalus ) .\nchampigneulle , a . & cachera , s . 2003 . evaluation of large - scale stocking of early stages of sea trout , salmo trutta , to angler catches in the french - swiss part of the river doubs . fisheries management & ecology 10 : 79 - 85 .\n{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . salmo trutta linnaeus , 1758 . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 10 , 2018 ] .\nchevassus , b . , quillet , e . , krieg , f . , hollebecq , m . g . , mambrini , m . , faure , a . , labbe , l . , hiseux , j . p . & vandeputte , m . 2004 . enhanced individual selection for selecting fast growing fish : the\nprosper\nmethod , with application on sea trout ( salmo trutta fario ) . g\u00e9n\u00e9tique , selection , evolution 36 : 643 - 661 .\nitis ( integrated taxonomic information system ) , 2005 . online database salmo trutta summary : an online database that provides taxonomic information , common names , synonyms and geographical jurisdiction of a species . in addition links are provided to retrieve biological records and collection information from the global biodiversity information facility ( gbif ) data portal and bioscience articles from bioone journals . available from : urltoken ; _ action = containing & taxa ; = salmo + trutta & p ; _ format = & p ; _ ifx = plglt & p ; _ lang = [ accessed march 2005 ]\n( of salmo fario linnaeus , 1758 ) linnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\narzel , j . , metailler , r . , le gall , p . & guillaume , j . 1998 . relationship between ration size and dietary protein level varying at the expense of carbohydrate and lipid in triploid sea trout fry , salmo trutta . aquaculture 162 : 259 - 268 .\ndomagala j . , krepski t . , czerniawski r . , pilecka - rapacz m . 2015 - prey availability and selective feeding of sea trout ( salmo trutta l . , 1758 ) fry stocked in small forest streams - j . appl . ichthyol . 31 : 375 - 380 .\ntable 1 : survival ( % \u00b1 sd ) of the normal ( c ) and gynogenetic doubled haploid ( dh ) brown trout ( salmo trutta ) ( bt ) produced with the use of uv - inactivated homologous ( bt ) and rainbow trout ( oncorhynchus mykiss ) ( rt ) sperm .\njensen , h . , kiljunen , m . & amundsen , p - a . ( 2012 ) . dietary ontogeny and niche shift to piscivory in lacustrine brown trout salmo trutta revealed by stomach content and stable isotope analyses . journal of fish biology , 80 ( 7 ) : 2448 - 2462 .\ncharles , k . , guyomard , r . , hoyheim , b . , ombredane , d . & bagliniere , j . l . 2005 . lack of genetic differentiation between anadromus and resident sympatric sea trout ( salmo trutta ) in a normandy population . aquatic living resources 18 : 65 - 69 .\nsalmo trutta has been implicated in reducing native fish populations ( especially other salmonids ) through predation , displacement , and food competition ( taylor et al . , 1984 ) . there are some negative effects from s . trutta since the species was introduced in america ( animal diversity web , 2004 ) . they compete with native trout and other fish species , but they are not known to have been the cause of any species ' extinction . in california , usa , competition and predation from s . trutta may have contributed to the decline of the dolly varden , salmo malma , in the mccloud river ( moyle , 1976 ) , and of the golden trout , oncorhynchus aguabonita , in the kern river ( courtenay and williams , 1992 ) . s . trutta may have also depleted the modoc sucker , catostomus microps , an endangered species , in rush creek , modoc county ( moyle and marciochi , 1975 ) . s . trutta have commonly replaced cutthroat trout , o . clarki , in large rivers ( behnke , 1992 ) . another negative effect is their contribution to the lamprey population in many rivers . the increased lamprey populations since s . trutta were introduced have been considered as a negative impact on biodiversity ( animal diversity web , 2004 ) . s . trutta introductions may have caused the decline of the tasmanian mountain shrimp , anaspides tasmaniae , and have eliminated or reduced several plecoptera and trichoptera species in streams in victoria , australia ( arthington , 1989 ) .\n. . . however , very few of the inter - specific and inter - generic hybrids of salmonids and cyprinids have any farming or restocking potential because of their low viability or inferior performance with respect to the parental species ( purdom , 1993 ) . studies on the hybridization between rainbow trout ( oncorhunchus mykiss ) and brown trout ( salmo trutta ) found that the hybrids of these two species resulted in poor hatching rate and survival ( blanc , 2003 ; blanc and maunas , 2005 ) . brown trout ( salmo trutta macrostigma ) is a salmonid species occurring in inland water habitats of southern europe , western asia , northern africa , and anatolia ( geldiay and balik , 1988 ) . . . .\nquillet , e . , faure , a . , chevassus , b . , krieg , f . , harache , y . , arzel , j . , metailler , r . & boeuf , g . 1992 . the potential of sea trout ( salmo trutta l . ) for mariculture . b\u00fav\u00edsindi , icelandic agricultural science 6 : 63 - 76 .\nshowing page 1 . found 27 sentences matching phrase\nfario\n. found in 0 ms . translation memories are created by human , but computer aligned , which might cause mistakes . they come from many sources and are not checked . be warned .\nhansen , m . m . , nielsen , e . e . , ruzzante , d . e . , bouza , c . & mensberg , k . l . d . 2000 . genetic monitoring of supportive breeding in sea trout ( salmo trutta l . ) , using microsatellite dna markers . canadian journal of fisheries and aquatic sciences 57 : 2130 - 2139 .\nguyomard , r . & krieg , f . 1986 . mise en \u00e9vidence d ' un flux g\u00e9nique entre populations naturelles de truite fario et souche de repeuplement dans deux rivi\u00e8res de corse . bulletin fran\u00e7ais de la p\u00e8che et de la pisciculture 303 : 134 - 140 .\nsalmo trutta is a common trout known by two different common names reflecting the alternative ecological strategies and associated morphological characteristics of this species . the freshwater morphs ( salmo trutta morpha fario and s . trutta morpha lacustris ) are known as brown trout . sea trout is the anadromous morph which migrates between the ocean , where it spends most of its life , and freshwater spawning grounds . the two morphs , which often share the same breeding grounds ( sympatric distribution ) , have in the past been classified as distinct species . the morphs do interbreed , but the extent of reproductive isolation between them varies by location and some studies have found genetic differentiation between morphs inhabiting the same territory . although native to europe , northern africa and western asia , s . trutta has been widely introduced for aquaculture and recreational fishing purposes and is found in streams , lakes , and coastal areas throughout the world . brown trout commonly mature at 13 - 16 inches long ( often longer in large streams ) ; sea - run morphs are larger and can be found up to 30 pounds and 3 feet long . an aggressive species , s . trutta has been responsible for declines in native fish populations , for example in the great lakes , where they displaced arctic greyling ( thymallus arcticus ) and in california , where they threaten native golden trout oncorhynchus mykiss aguabonita and dolly varden ( salvelinus malma ) . this species was nominated as one of the world\u2019s 100 worst invasive species by the invasive species specialist group ( issg ) . ( cabi 2010 ; charles et al 2005 ; fuller , larson and fusaro 2012 ; global invasive species database , invasive species specialist group ; idema 1999 ; wikipedia 2012 )\nthe covariation between diploid and triploid progenies from common breeders and the effect of triploidy on the parental variances were investigated in brown trout ( salmo trutta l . ) using two progeny testing experiments , sampling , sires and dams respectively , from the same population . the traits studied were body weight , growth , condition factor and red spotting of the skin . triploidization . . . [ show full abstract ]\n( of salmo faris ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nsize , growth rate and fry mortality were compared for diploids and triploids of three genetic types , brook trout and the two reciprocal tiger trout hybrids ( salmo trutta \u00d7 salvelinus fontinalis ) . fry mortality was higher for triploids of all three genetic types compared with the corresponding diploids . weights and fork lengths were recorded for three year classes at various times from 18 weeks . . . [ show full abstract ]\nfishbase , 2004 . entry for salmo trutta . main ref . : svetovidov an , 1984 . salmonidae . in : whitehead pjp , bauchot m - l , hureau j - c , nielsen j , tortonese e , eds . fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean . unesco , paris . vol . 1 , 382 - 383 . online at www . fishbase . org . accessed 26 november 2004 .\nthis study was approved by the local committee on the ethics of animal experiments in gdansk , poland ( number 28 / 2015 ) . gamete donors came from broodstocks of the brown trout ( salmo trutta m . fario ) and rainbow trout ( oncorhynchus mykiss ) kept in the department of salmonid research , inland fisheries institute in olsztyn , rutki , poland . eggs ( = c . 2150 ) from one brown trout female ( bt\u2640 ) were stripped , collected in the plastic bowl , and kept in 10\u00b0c pending activation . spermatozoa from one brown trout male ( bt \u2642 ) and one rainbow trout male ( rt \u2642 ) were collected to separate plastic containers . the motility of the collected sperm was checked under a microscope .\n. . . ally in salmonids , has been studied for a long time with the aim of obtaining nonmaturing individuals for \u00a2sheries and aquaculture ( blanc & maunas 2005 ) . hybrid viability , which is often poor , could be improved through arti\u00a2cial triploidization ( chevassus , guyomard , chourrout & quillet 1983 ; scheerer & thorgaard 1983 ; gray , evans & thorgaard 1993 ) . blanc and maunas ( 2005 ) reported a drastic increase in the survival rate in hybrids of rainbow trout ( oncorhynchus mykiss ) \u00e2 brown trout ( salmo trutta m . fario ) after triploidization . diploid hybrids of these species show very high mortality within a month post hatch ( buss & wright 1956 ; blanc & chevassus 1982 ) , whereas triploidized hybrids survive better , an . . .\nmorrison b . r . s . 1983 - observations on the food of juvenile atlantic salmon , salmo salar l . , reared in a scottish hill loch - j . fish biol . 23 : 305 - 313 .\ns . trutta closely resemble atlantic salmon and rainbow trout , but salmon have no red coloration on the adipose fin and rainbow trout have lines of black spots on the tail . young s . trutta ( parr ) have 9 - 14 dark narrow parr marks along the sides and some red spotting along the lateral line ( nova scotia , 2004 ) . s . trutta can grow to be quite large , especially sea - run fish . it can grow to a standard length of 140 cm ( muus and dahlstr\u00f6m , 1967 ) . maximum published weight is 50 . 0 kg ( muus and dahlstr\u00f6m , 1967 ) and maximum reported age is 38 years ( fishbase , 2004 ) .\nthe study has been carried in the year 2004 and describes fecundity , spawning season and sex ratio of brown trout , salmo trutta fario . a total of 121 brown trout ( 67 males and 54 females ) were captured by angling . gonad somatic index ( gsi ) confirmed that spawning lasted from october to december . the left ovary , with some exceptions , was found to be longer and heavier producing more eggs than the right one . the absolute fecundity of sampled population varied from 527 to 2445 and the relative fecundity had a mean value of 2 . 56 . fecundity was positively co - related with the total fish length ( r = 0 . 865 ) , fish weight ( r = 0 . 9426 ) ovary weight ( r = 0 . 952 ) and ovary length ( r = 0 . 845 ) .\nmuus , b . j . and p . dahlstrom 1967 guide des poissons d & quot ; eau douce et p\u00e3\u00aache . gec gads forlag , copenhague . 242 p . muus , b . j . and p . dahlstrom 1967 guide des poissons d & quot ; eau douce et p\u00e3\u00aache . gec gads forlag , copenhague . 242 p . svalastog , d . 1991 a note on maximum age of brown trout , salmo trutta l . j . fish biol . 38 ( 6 ) : 967 - 968 .\nsalmo trutta has a fusiform body with a small pointed head , large mouth , extending mostly after the eye ( rochard and elie , 1994 ) . s . trutta or brown trout get their name from the brown or golden brown hue on their bodies . body is grey - blue coloured with numerous spots , also below the lateral line ( rochard and elie , 1994 ) . blackish coloured on upper part of body , usually orange on sides , surrounded by pale halos . adipose fin is with red margin ( fishbase , 2004 ) . sea - run s . trutta have a more silvery coloration and the spotting is less visible ( nova scotia , 2004 ) . it has 3 - 4 dorsal spines , 10 - 15 dorsal soft rays , 3 - 4 anal spines and 9 - 14 anal soft rays ( fishbase , 2004 ) . caudal fin has 18 - 19 rays ( spillman , 1961 ) . caudal peduncle is thick and rounded ( rochard and elie , 1994 ) . it has a few scales ( rochard and elie , 1994 ) .\nwhirling disease , caused by the myxozoan parasite myxobolus cerebralis , has high economical and ecological importance worldwide . susceptibility to the disease varies considerably among salmonid species . in brown trout ( salmo trutta ) the infection is usually subclinical with low mortality , which increases the risk of parasite dissemination , especially when farm fish are used for stocking natural habitats . the influence of intraspecific genetic differences ( especially the level of homozygosity ) on susceptibility is unknown . therefore , we examined the possible correlations between parental genetic diversity and offspring susceptibility of brown trout stocks to whirling disease .\nclimate change influences air temperature and precipitation , and as a direct consequence , the annual discharge pattern in rivers will change as climate warming continues . this has an impact on bedload transport and consequently on aquatic life , because coarse sediments in streams provide important habitat for many species . salmonids , for example , spawn in gravel , and during their early life stages live in or on top of the substrate . we used a multiple model approach to assess how predicted discharge changes affect bedload transport and the vulnerable early life stages of brown trout ( salmo trutta fario ) in a prealpine catchment in switzerland . in the study area , future discharge scenarios predict an increased frequency of flood occurrence in winter and long - lasting low - flow periods in summer . as a result , bed erosion will become more frequent during winter , leading to less stable spawning grounds and deeper scouring , but during summer , an improvement in habitat diversity can be expected , which is advantageous for young - of - the - year fish . to face the future challenges of climate change , we recommend widening of riverbeds and improvements in longitudinal connectivity .\nt he effects of environmental pollutants from two small streams in south - west germany on the liver of brown trout ( s almo trutta f . fario ) were studied as biomarkers by means of quantitative and semi - quantitative electron microscopy , and quantitatively by morphometrical measurements . cellular damage was assessed semi - quantitatively based on a classification of ultrastructural responses . both methods revealed more severe cellular effects in the liver of trout which had been exposed to the highly polluted stream than in those exposed to the lightly polluted river . morphometrical studies showed a significant reduction of glycogen storage and a significant increase in number of mitochondria , peroxisomes and cisternae of the endoplasmic reticulum . the biomarker responses of this study were correlated with the results obtained by limnological and analytical investigations , and reflect the levels of pollution in each stream .\nlong dashes down stream taxed my unsteady footing ; the sharp click and whirr of the reel resounded in desperate efforts to hold him somewhat in check ; another headlong dash , then a vicious bulldog shake of the head as he sawed back and forth across the rocks . every wile inherited from generations of wily ancestors was tried until , in a moment of exhaustion , the net was slipped under him . wading ashore with my prize , i had barely time to notice his size\u2014a good four - pounder , and unusual markings , large yellow spots encircled by black , with great brilliancy of iridescent color\u2014when back he flopped into the water and was gone . however , i took afterward several of the same variety , known in the park as the von baer [ sic ] trout , and which i have since found to be the salmo fario , the veritable trout of izaak walton .\nthe brown trout ( salmo trutta ) has earned a reputation as the wariest and wiliest opponent a river angler can face . whereas a brookie or a cutthroat will often attack flies with gullible abandon , browns are usually more discriminating . the larger specimens , especially , are often reclusive\u2014hiding beneath a cutbank or hunkering near the bottom until darkness falls , and only then emerging to hunt baitfish . because of these sporting qualities , the species has been stocked in waters well outside its range , a result of the recreation craze and empire - building of the 19th century . in fact , the british were so determined to bring the brown trout to tasmania that they made three attempts to ship trout eggs around the african continent , finally succeeding in 1864 . fly fishers can now test their wits against browns on six continents .\nthroughout its native range , there are populations that are considered unique , even if science doesn\u2019t treat them as such . for instance , the ferox trout inhabits nutrient - poor lakes in great britain and ireland , and the gillaroo is a snail - eating trout of ireland\u2019s lough melvin . some scientists from northern ireland consider the gillaroo a separate species ( salmo stomachicus ) , while irish authorities do not .\nletcher b . h . , dubreuil t . , o\u2019donnell m . j . , obedzinski , m . , griswold k . , nislow k . h . 2004 - long - term consequences of variation in timing and manner of fry introduction on juvenile atlantic salmon ( salmo salar ) growth , survival , and life - history expression - can . j . fish . aquat . sci . 61 : 2288 - 2301 .\ntriploid hybrids between female rainbow trout ( oncorhynchus mykiss walbaum ) and male brown trout ( salmo trutta l . ) were tested for farming performances , with reference to parental species . the main drawback of hybrids lay in embryonic and larval mortalities , amounting to 60 % on average , and displaying a large variability between spawns . further survival was inferior to that of diploid , but similar to that of triploid rainbow trout . hybrid body weight was intermediate between weights of rainbow and brown trout of the same age , mainly as a consequence of differences in precocious growth . analysis of relative growth rates from 6 to 18 months showed that hybrids were surpassed by rainbow controls in common rearing , but not in separate rearing . hybrid behaviour was similar to that of rainbow trout . these results are discussed in the scope of providing fisheries managers with original and sterile game fishes .\n. . . where o indicates oncorhynchus mykiss , s indicates salmo labrax , c indicates unshocked control and t is shock - induced triploid . triploids were produced by a 26 . 5 1c thermal shock lasting 20 min and initiated 25 min after the fertilization of the eggs in each crossed groups ( blanc & maunas 2005 ) . fertilized eggs were incubated at 9 ^ 11 1c in spring water before and after shock treatment . . . .\ngenetic data indicate that s . trutta and some populations of hybrid origin are native in some rivers draining to the mediterranean , the black sea ( at least in upper danube drainage ) and the caspian sea ( at least in upper volga drainage ) . the present published data do not always enable to identify the head water populations of the different species on the basis of morphological characters ( they may be distinguishable , but this simply has not been investigated ) .\nacyl - coenzyme a oxidases 1 ( acox1 ) and 3 ( acox3 ) are key enzymes in the regulation of lipid homeostasis . endogenous and exogenous factors can disrupt their normal expression / activity . this study presents for the first time the isolation and characterization of acox1 and acox3 in brown trout ( salmo trutta f . fario ) . additionally , as previous data point to the existence of a cross - talk between two nuclear receptors , namely peroxisome proliferator - activated receptors and estrogen receptors , it was here evaluated after in vitro exposures of trout hepatocytes the interference caused by ethynylestradiol in the mrna levels of an inducible ( by peroxisome proliferators ) and a non - inducible oxidase . the isolated acox1 and acox3 show high levels of sequence conservation compared to those of other teleosts . additionally , it was found that acox1 has two alternative splicing isoforms , corresponding to 3i and 3ii isoforms of exon 3 splicing variants . both isoforms display tissue specificity , with acox1 - 3ii presenting a more ubiquitous expression in comparison with acox1 - 3i . acox3 was expressed in almost all brown trout tissues . according to real - time pcr data , the highest estrogenic stimulus was able to cause a down - regulation of acox1 and an up - regulation of acox3 . so , for acox1 we found a negative association between an estrogenic input and a directly activated ppar\u03b1 target gene . in conclusion , changes in hormonal estrogenic stimulus may impact the mobilization of hepatic lipids to the gonads , with ultimate consequences in reproduction . further studies using in vivo assays will be fundamental to clarify these issues .\nsome key aspects of the reproductive strategy of the brown trout ( salmo trutta fario l . ) in the yadong river , tibet , including spawning season , age at sexual maturity , fecundity and egg size , have been studied . the majority of the samples were less than 215 mm and age ranged from 1 to 4 in both sexes , indicating that the majority of the fish were younger and the pressure by overfishing was high . the spawning periodicity was determined to be between the end of october and january , mainly in november and december . the ratio of male to female brown trout population ( 1 . 29 : 1 with p > 0 . 05 ) suggested no sex significant differences , although males were significantly more abundant than females in october ( p < 0 . 0001 ) on monthly basis . age and size of males and females at maturity was different and males matured earlier than females . fecundity was markedly correlated with their body weight ( p < 0 . 001 , r = 0 . 9255 ) , standard length ( p < 0 . 01 , r = 0 . 8879 ) , and gonad weight ( p < 0 . 001 , r = 0 . 9366 ) . the mean size of mature eggs in the spawning season was : 4 . 0 \u00b1 0 . 45 mm and tended to increase along with the female spawners size ( p < 0 . 001 , r = 0 . 9641 ) . further researches about the brown trout population in the yadong river should be conducted on issues such as artificial reproduction , culture , conservation , management , and restocking .\ncowx i . g . , o\u2019grady k . t . , sv\u00e4sand t . , skilbre o . t . , van der meeren g . i . , holm m . 1998 - review of morphological and behavioural differences between reared and wild individuals : implications for sea - ranching of atlantic salmon , salmo salar l . , atlantic cod , gadus morhua l . and european lobster , homarus gammarus l . - fish . manag . ecol . 5 : 1 - 18 .\nsea trout is probably the first species of fish for which artificial reproduction was performed . this probably occurred in germany around 1739 and the first sea trout hatchery was established in 1841 in the uk . the technique of artificial fertilization was optimized in the 1850s . since then , sea trout has been produced extensively in europe and introduced to all continents as a sport fish . however , in north america sea trout is considered as invasive in many places as it can out - compete local species like brook trout ( salvelinus fontinalis ) . sea trout was never really domesticated for food fish production , as the principal aim of sea trout culture was always the restocking of natural waters . at the end of the 1980s the culture of sea trout in sea cages was seen as an alternative to salmon production in the french waters of brittany . this led to the development of sea trout strains selected for fast growth but the production of sea trout as a food fish never developed to a level other than for niche markets . fao statistics for \u2018sea trout\u2019 include the aquaculture production of salmo trutta in freshwater and sea water .\nthe aim of this study was to determine the best moment to stock trout , salmo trutta l . , larvae into the wild . this goal was accomplished by determining weekly changes in the growth parameters of larvae that were fed in seven variants : on the day of 2 / 3 yolk sac resorption ; from the first week after the day of 2 / 3 yolk sac resorption ; from the second week after the day of 2 / 3 yolk sac resorption ; from the third week after the day of 2 / 3 yolk sac resorption ; from the fourth week after the day of 2 / 3 yolk sac resorption ; from the fifth week after the day of 2 / 3 yolk sac resorption ; from the sixth week after the day of 2 / 3 yolk sac resorption . based on our results , we concluded the following : 1 ) trout larvae are ready to start eating at the time of the resorption of 2 / 3 of the yolk sac ; 2 ) trout larvae can live without food for three weeks following the resorption 2 / 3 of the yolk sac without any notable losses ; 3 ) the best moment to stock trout larvae into the wild is in the period from the resorption of 2 / 3 of the yolk sac to the third week after this resorption , so one week after full resorption . this is the optimal period to stock any waters with trout larvae .\non the other hand , some of the spinal deformities might be side effects of the physical treatments applied to the duplicate haploid genome in the gynogenesis process . crucian carp ( carassius auratus linnaeus 1758 ) eggs subjected to the hydrostatic pressure shock exhibited impaired embryonic development , including , for example , a delay of epiboly and suppression of the dorsoventral differentiation [ 36 ] . physical shock is also applied to newly fertilized eggs to produce polyploid fishes . triploid rainbow trout and atlantic salmon ( salmo salar ) usually show higher incidences of deformities than diploids [ 37 \u2013 39 ] , but it is difficult to evaluate which part of the malformation results from the triploidy itself and the physical treatment . moreover , studies performed on triploid rainbow trout showed that temperature shock induced a higher rate of deformities than hydrostatic pressure shock [ 40 ] .\nthe first introductions into the u . s . started in 1883 when fred mather , a new york pisciculturist and angler , under the authority of the u . s . fish commissioner , spencer baird , obtained brown trout eggs from a baron lucius von behr , president of the german fishing society . the von behr brown trout came from both mountain streams and large lakes in the black forest region of baden - w\u00fcrttemberg . [ 6 ] the original shipment of\nvon behr\nbrown trout eggs were handled by three hatcheries , one on long island , the cold spring hatchery operated by mather , one in caledonia , new york operated by pisciculturalist seth green , and other hatchery in northville , michigan . additional shipments of\nvon behr\nbrown trout eggs arrived in 1884 . in 1885 , brown trout eggs from loch leven , scotland , arrived in new york . these\nloch leven\nbrown trout were distributed to the same hatcheries . over the next few years , additional eggs from scotland , england , and germany were shipped to u . s . hatcheries . behnke ( 2007 ) believed all life forms of brown trout\u2014anadromous , riverine and lacustine\u2014were imported into the u . s . and intermingled genetically to create what he calls the american generic brown trout and a single subspecies the north european brown trout ( s . t . trutta ) . [ 6 ]\nfound in streams , ponds , rivers and lakes ( ref . 5951 ) . individuals spend 1 to 5 years in fresh water and 6 months to 5 years in salt water ( ref . 51442 ) . juveniles mature in 3 - 4 years ( ref . 6885 ) . lacustrine populations undertake migration to tributaries and lake outlets to spawn , rarely spawning on stone , wave - washed lake shores . spawns in rivers and streams with swift current , usually characterized by downward movement of water intro gravel ( ref . 59043 ) . spawning takes place normally more than one time ( ref . 51442 ) . they prefer cold , well - oxygenated upland waters although their tolerance limits are lower than those of rainbow trout and favors large streams in the mountainous areas with adequate cover in the form of submerged rocks , undercut banks , and overhanging vegetation ( ref . 6465 ) . life history and spawning behavior is similar to the salmon salmo salar ( ref . 51442 ) . each female produces about 10 . 000 eggs ( ref . 35388 , ref . 51442 ) . mainly diurnal ( ref . 682 ) . sea and lake trouts forage in pelagic and littoral habitats , while sea trouts mainly close to coast , not very far from estuary of natal river ( ref . 59043 ) . juveniles feed mainly on aquatic and terrestrial insects ; adults on mollusks , crustaceans and small fish ( ref . 26523 , ref . 51442 ) . marketed fresh and smoked ; eaten fried , broiled , boiled , cooked in microwave , and baked ( ref . 9988 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\na widespread species and overall least concern . however , anadromous part of populations ( sea trout ) and many lacustrine stocks have in many cases markedly declined because of pollution ( and possibly from impacts from salmon farming ) . the phylogeographic structure is almost destroyed by stocking .\natlantic , north , white and baltic sea basins , from spain to chosha bay ( russia ) . present in iceland and in northernmost rivers of great britain and scandinavia . in rh\u00f4ne drainage , native only to lake geneva basin , which it entered after last glaciation . native to upper danube and volga drainages . introduced throughout europe , north and south america , southern and montane eastern africa , pakistan , india , nepal , japan , new zealand and australia .\nlocally threatened by water pollution and impacts from salmon farming ( sea lice etc . )\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nbrown trout get their name from the brown or golden brown hue on their bodies . some of the other characteristics : their sides are silvery or yellow and bellies are white or yellowish ; dark spots , sometimes encircled by a pale halo , are plentiful on the back and sides ; spotting also can be found on the head and the fins along the back ; rusty - red spots also occur on the sides ; the small adipose ( or fatty ) fin in front of the tail has a reddish hue ; sea - run brown trout have a more silvery colouration and the spotting is less visible . brown trout closely resemble atlantic salmon and rainbow trout , but salmon have no red colouration on the adipose fin and rainbow trout have lines of black spots on the tail . young brown trout ( parr ) have 9 - 14 dark narrow parr marks along the sides and some red spotting along the lateral line . brown trout can grow to be quite large , especially sea - run fish . fish weighing up to 31kg ( 68 lb ) have been recorded in europe ( fisheries & oceans canada , 2004 ) . wild trout reach sizes of 9kg ( 20 lbs ) .\nlife history and spawning behaviour is similar to salmon , ( fishbase , 2003 ) . spawning takes place in shallow freshwater ( kroon , f . pers . comm , jan 2004 ) . \\\nfemale covers the eggs by restirring the sand and fine gravel . after hatching at 12mm , larval brown trout remain in the gravel for 2 - 3 weeks until they are about 25mm long , when they emerge to begin feeding in the water column . brown trout are territorial and begin establishing territories as juveniles . juvenile trout from lake populations move from their natal inlets to lakes during the first 2 years of life . \\\n( fishbase , 2003 ) . juvenile brown trout either migrate to the ocean or stay in freshwater ( kroon , f . pers . comm , jan 2004 ) .\nfisheries : commercial , aquaculture : commercial , gamefish , aquarium . marketed fresh and smoked ; eaten fried , broiled , boiled , cooked in microwave , and baked ( fishbase , 2003 ) .\nbrown trout are primarily a freshwater species , but can spend time in the sea , they hide in shallow water weed beds and rocky , boulder - strewn areas , and prefer a water temperature of 18 - 23 degrees c ( 65 - 75 degrees f ) . brown trout prefer cold , well - oxygenated upland waters although their tolerance limits are lower than those of rainbow trout ( fishbase , 2003 ) ."]}
{"id": 1321, "summary": [{"text": "the sarus crane ( antigone antigone ) is a large non-migratory crane found in parts of the indian subcontinent , southeast asia and australia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the tallest of the flying birds , standing at a height of up to 1.8 m ( 5 ft 11 in ) , they are conspicuous and iconic species of open wetlands .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the sarus crane is easily distinguished from other cranes in the region by the overall grey colour and the contrasting red head and upper neck .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they forage on marshes and shallow wetlands for roots , tubers , insects , crustaceans and small vertebrate prey .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "like other cranes , they form long-lasting pair-bonds and maintain territories within which they perform territorial and courtship displays that include loud trumpeting , leaps and dance-like movements .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "in india they are considered symbols of marital fidelity , believed to mate for life and pine the loss of their mates even to the point of starving to death .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the main breeding season is during the rainy season , when the pair builds an enormous nest \" island \" , a circular platform of reeds and grasses nearly two metres in diameter and high enough to stay above the shallow water surrounding it .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "sarus crane numbers have declined greatly in the last century and it has been suggested that the current population is a tenth or less ( perhaps 2.5 % ) of the numbers that existed in the 1850s .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the stronghold of the species is in india , where it is traditionally revered and lives in agricultural lands in close proximity to humans .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "elsewhere , the species has been extirpated in many parts of its former range . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "sarus crane", "paragraphs": ["sarus crane : feeding . sarus crane ( grus antigone ) feeding in its natural habitat and lighting conditions sarus crane ( grus antigone ) . a sarus crane ( grus antigone ) feeding in the water sarus crane pair in a misty morning seen at bharatpur . rajasthan , india sarus crane . a full shot of sarus crane in its natural habitat sarus crane pair dacing and courtship display at bharatpur . rajasthan , india sarus crane : pair . sarus crane ( grus antigone ) pair in its natural habitat sarus crane grus antigone in keoladeo ghana national park , bha . ratpur , rajasthan , india . sarus crane is the tallest of the flying birds sarus crane pair . close up photo of a sarus crane couple in keoladeo national park , bharatpur sarus crane calling . . sarus crane grus antigone calling portrait with beautiful background sarus crane . preening ( grus antigo portrait of sarus cranes . sarus crane grus antigone portrait with beautiful background sarus cranes courting . sarus crane grus antigone courting with beautiful background sarus cranes grus antigone in keoladeo ghana national park , bh . aratpur , rajasthan , india . sarus crane is the tallest of the flying birds sarus cranes grus antigone in keoladeo ghana national park , bh . aratpur , rajasthan , india . sarus crane is the tallest of the flying birds sandhill crane near the lake is drinking water . taken in florida cranes in beautiful pose . sarus crane ( grus antigone ) pair in its natural habitat cranes in beautiful pose . sarus crane grus antigone pair in its natural habitat pelican fishing in water seen at bharatpur . rajasthan , india\nareas contained the highest number of sarus cranes . our analysis showed that the population of sarus crane\n\u2193 india : sarus crane pair and goatherd . little is known about sarus - human interactions in australia\ninternational crane foundation , 2015 .\nsarus crane grus antigone\n( on - line ) . internation crane foundation . accessed may 29 , 2015 at urltoken .\nthe study areas where sarus crane were directly observed and nest sites were recorded .\ndescription : sarus crane is the tallest crane species and of all flying birds , with a height of about 176 cm .\nconservation of the species . we studied the sarus crane in the rupandehi district of nepal\nsarus crane ( antigone antigone ) is a species of bird in the gruidae family .\nthe current range of the indian sarus crane includes the plains of northwestern india , the western half of nepal\u2019s terai lowlands and parts of pakistan . the eastern sarus crane occurs in myanmar , laos , vietnam and cambodia . the australian sarus crane occurs in northern australia .\nsarus crane \u2013 grus antigone complete detail . description of sarus crane \u2013 grus antigone \u2013 saras . classification of sarus crane . habit and habitat of sarus crane . they prefer wetlands areas . they also found in cultivated areas , canals , ponds , and marshes . during dry season , sarus crane is found in shallow wetlands , cultivated fields , and wet grasslands . they roost in shallow water , where they may be safe from some ground predators .\nindian sarus crane chick , the second egg is pipping ( india , k . s . gopi sundar ) ; australian sarus crane egg ( mhnt , mus\u00e9um de toulouse , see sidebar )\n\u2191 l : atherton tablelands , sarus crane hunting invertebrates in hayfield ( sandy carroll ) ; r : india , sarus crane pecking rice grains from the stalks ( k . s . gopi sundar )\nmarital fidelity and congregation of indian sarus crane , grus antigone antigone in and around alwara . . .\nwhooping cranes are the least common crane species . red - crowned cranes are the second rarest crane species .\nthe idea for an eastern sarus crane reintroduction program in thailand\nhatched\nat an international . . .\nindian sarus crane shaking and stretching wings to dry off after bathing ( k . s . gopi sundar )\nduring the breeding season , the red legs , head , and neck of the sarus crane turn brighter .\neastern sarus cranes , phu my nature reserve , vietnam . courtesy mr pau tang & international crane foundation .\nthe sarus crane occurs in india , south - east asia and australia . genetic studies indicate it ' s more than 30 , 000 years since australian sarus cranes interbred with sarus from se asia , and there is no known migration of australian sarus outside northern australia .\nsarus crane is found in the northern , central and north - eastern pars of india . sultanpur bird sanctuary ,\nlongevity of sarus crane exceeds up to 15 - 20 years in the wild and for 40 years in captivity .\nmukharjee a , soni vc , borad ck , et al . 2000 . nest and egg of sarus crane (\nconservation of the vulnerable sarus crane grus antigone antigone in kota , rajasthan , india : a case . . .\n\u2191 eastern sarus cranes , phu my nature reserve , vietnam ; courtesy mr pau tang & international crane foundation .\npopulation structure , behavior , and current threats to the sarus crane ( grus antigone antigone ) in n . . .\nif a sarus crane lays two eggs , there is a 48 - hour gap between the first and second egg .\nsarus crane habitat is meagerly protected within reserves . in india , most sarus cranes are found scattered throughout private and village lands , but they do occur in many protected areas , including\nreducing threats to sarus crane populations from power line collisions , illegal conversion of wetlands and poisoning by agricultural and industrial chemicals .\nthey have black hair like bristles cover the upper throat and neck . the crown of sarus crane is grey or dirty white .\nrange : sarus crane is resident in n pakistan and india , nepal , south - east asia , and queensland in australia .\nnatural resource management group southern gulf nrm is continuing its recognition of champions of the land with the organisation\u2019s annual sarus crane awards .\na sarus crane flock rests beside a bustling village in central uttar pradesh . very little is known about sarus flocks , and our work is leading to new understanding of their requirements and behaviour .\nsarus crane is regarded as the threatened species . it is currently listed in the schedule iv of the wildlife ( protection ) act , 1972 . iucn ( red list ) classifies sarus crane as vulnerable . the total population of sarus crane approximately lies between 13 , 500 to 15 , 500 . loss of wetland areas , egg damage by the humans and heavy use of pesticides has seriously declined the population of sarus crane . it is widely haunted by the villagers and is also used for the trade purpose in many countries .\nlisten to short calls of sarus cranes\u00bb and brolgas\u00bb on ozcranes . long calls of australian sarus and brolgas in the field can be played for comparison at new zealand birds online . listen to a sarus crane calling near the curtain fig , yungaburra , atherton tableland .\nthe sarus crane ( grus antigone ) is a resident breeding bird in northern india , nepal , southeast asia and queensland , australia .\nmukherjee a . , borad c . k . and parasharya b . m . 2002 . the factors affecting distribution of the indian sarus crane\nsarus crane ( antigone antigone ) is a flagship species . its population is declining globally . first recorded in 1877 in nepal , so far only a few studies have been conducted on sarus crane and results of these studies confirm their declining state . based on previous studies , the author reviewed the status of sarus crane in nepal . studies show that it is uncommon with patchy distribution from . . . [ show full abstract ]\n\u2193 gulf of carpentaria . l : sarus subadult foraging on edge of borrow pit , miranda downs . r : sarus crane and juvenile hunting in borrow pit , gilbert river ( k . s . gopi sundar )\nmaterial from philippines sarus is being included in genetic analyses for the first time as part of tim nevard ' s phd study\u00bb , with the potential to add insight into relationships between the different forms of sarus crane .\nin india , they found in west bengal , assam , gujarat , punjab and uttar pradesh . sarus crane also found in bihar and rajasthan .\nthey prefer wetlands areas . sarus crane also found in cultivated areas , canals , ponds , and marshes . during dry season , sarus crane is found in shallow wetlands , cultivated fields , and wet grasslands . they roost in shallow water , where they may be safe from some ground predators .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - sarus crane ( grus antigone )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - sarus crane ( grus antigone )\ntitle =\narkive species - sarus crane ( grus antigone )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe size of a crane egg depends on the species . the larger the crane , the larger the egg . the largest of crane eggs will be about 4 . 6 inches long . they are usually tan with brown speckles .\nbirdlife international , 2015 .\nsarus crane antigone antigone\n( on - line ) . birdlife international . accessed april 02 , 2015 at urltoken .\nflight : sarus crane flies with straight neck , and long legs trailing behind them . they perform powerful wing beats , and they are good fliers .\n\u2191 indian sarus crane . the bird has dunked its head right underwater to probe for tubers , water flows off the bill as it lifts it head\nrange of sarus crane includes the plains of northern , northwestern , and western india and the western half of nepal\u00eds tarai lowlands . sarus cranes are most common in the indian states of uttar pradesh , rajasthan , gujarat , and\ndiet : sarus crane is omnivorous , feeding on wide range of food items such as aquatic plants including sedge tubers , rice , seeds and other grains , snails , crustaceans , grasshoppers and other large insects , amphibians , reptiles , fish and small vertebrates . sarus crane forages in both wetlands and uplands .\nsecuring the sarus crane population in south asia through community - supported conservation practices and governmental policies that maintain the rich biodiversity of agricultural landscapes . we are :\nsarus crane is a schedule \u2013 iv bird , according to wildlife ( protection ) act , 1972 and classified as vulnerable ( vu ) by the iucn .\nthe sarus crane is the tallest flying bird in the world , standing at a height of up to 180 cm . size of adult sarus crane is between 140 to 160 cm . the weight of adult is between 5 . 0 to 8 . 4 kg . they have a wingspan of 200 to 280 cm .\nbehaviour : sarus crane feeds on wide range of wetland plants materials , seeds and grains , and also large insects , molluscs , amphibians , reptiles and small vertebrates . when searching for food , sarus crane walks slowly , head down . it does not dig , but it probes the soil with its long bill .\nsarus crane is resident in australia and india , with only some seasonal dispersion in dry period . we can observe some limited migrations in south - east asia .\nvyas r . and kulshreshtha m . 1989 . sarus nidification , egg and embryo . paper presented in the asian crane congress at rajkot , gujarat , india .\nsarus cranes live in southeast asia , northern india and in northern australia . three populations are currently recognized , each one occupying a distinct range . the indian sarus crane lives in northern and central india , pakistan and nepal . the eastern sarus crane used to live throughout southeast asia but now is confined to vietnam and cambodia , with a small population in myanmar . the australian sarus crane lives in northern australia . these cranes live mainly in wetlands such as canals , marshes and ponds , sometimes near humans . they inhabit cultivated areas too , and high - altitude wetlands . breeding is further inland , but always in a wet area . during the dry season , the sarus crane occurs in shallow wetlands , wet grasslands or rice fields .\nthe sarus crane ( grus antigone antigone ) is listed as \u201cvulnerable\u201d in the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) red list of threatened species . sarus cranes are distributed in the lowlands , but most live outside protected areas , especially in agricultural areas and wetlands of nepal . the continuous expansion of agricultural land and the reduction of wetland habitats pose the greatest threats to the conservation of the species . we studied the sarus crane in the rupandehi district of nepal to understand their population structure , behavior , and current threats . we used the line ( i . e . , road ) transect method from august 2013 to february 2014 . the study area contained 147 sarus cranes . agricultural land and wetland areas contained the highest number of sarus cranes . our analysis showed that the population of sarus crane in the area has declined since 2007 . most sarus cranes lived in pairs . a single flock contained 13 cranes at maximum . sarus crane behavior was not significantly different before and after the breeding seasons . human\u2013sarus crane conflict began when cranes started utilizing agricultural areas . the main threats to the hatching success and survival of sarus cranes in the rupendehi district are egg theft and the hunting of cranes for meat . the findings of this study establish baseline information on the overall conservation status , habitat availability , and ecological behavior of sarus cranes in the district . we propose regular surveys to monitor sarus crane population levels in the face of multiple anthropogenic threats to their survival .\ncrane papercut \u00a9cranesnorth | site \u00a9cranesnorth & authors | xhtml1 . 0 : : css 3\nadult sandhill crane ; steveston waterfront , richmond , bc , canada ; 18 august .\nthe range , status and winter ecology of the siberian crane ( gus leucogenanus ) .\na positive correlation was observed between the crane numbers and the area of agricultural land .\ncrane were also recorded as shown in tables 1 , 2 and fig . 1 .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto sarus crane utters loud , high - pitched calls . during courtship displays , female utters two calls while male gives only one .\ndesai r . m . 1980 . studies in the biology of the indian sarus crane , m . phil . thesis , south gujarat university , surat , india .\nsarus cranes in seasonally - flooded savannah woodlands , gulf of carpentaria : the only known major breeding habitat for australian sarus ( k . s . gopi sundar )\nmortality of sarus cranes ( grus antigone ) due to electricity . . | inis\nwas it the sarus that valmiki referred to ? in different literature , the krau\u00f1cha has been described as a dove , flamingo , swan , snipe , curlew or even a demoiselle crane . the wiki for demoiselle crane has a reference to krau\u00f1cha and valmiki . however , more recent studies have established the identity of valmiki\u2019s krau\u00f1cha pair as sarus cranes .\nour monthly summary of media stories highlighting the international crane foundation\u2019s global programs . . . .\nadult sandhill crane ; bosque del apache nwr , socorro co . , nm ; january .\ncrane is inseparably associated with wetland habitats . several investigators have tried to study different aspects of\ncrane was recorded in all the three transects of the lake as shown in images 3\u20135 .\nsarus crane is a monogamous bird and well known as an eternal symbol of unconditional love , devotion and good fortune . its occurrence represents a healthy wetland ecosystem . these cranes are large , long - legged and long - necked birds belonging to family : gruidae , order : gruiformes , class : aves and phylum : chordata . indian sarus crane , grus antigone antigone is the largest of the crane species . . . [ show full abstract ]\nsarus crane footsteps are larger than a grown man ' s hand , as shown by this photograph from a trapeang ( watering hole ) in mondulkiri protected forest , northeastern cambodia .\n( 26 . 31 % ) were stolen by people . killing of some juvenile sarus\nmuralidharan s . 1992 . poisoning the sarus . hornbill 1 : 2 - 7 .\nsarus spreading wings in nest defence display ( research intruder ) , and sarus pair duetting in rice field . uttar pradesh , india ( k . s . gopi sundar )\n\u2191 sarus dance in rupandehi , nepal . \u2193 two out of three young indian sarus , in one brood ( \u2018triplets\u2019 ) . images by k . s . gopi sundar\nhabitat : sarus crane lives mainly in various wetlands such as canals , ponds , marshes , even near humans . they can be found in cultivated areas too , and also in high - altitude wetlands . they breed more inland , but always in wet areas . during dry season , sarus crane is found in shallow wetlands , rice fields or wet grasslands .\nozcranes is the website of the australian crane network so mainly concentrates on australian sarus cranes\u00bb , but we often refer to studies and include images from better - studied populations elsewhere . by contrast , this page specifically features resources and images for sarus cranes in other countries .\nsecuring crane dry season habitats in the mekong delta and breeding habitats in northern cambodia and vietnam by strengthening conservation practices at existing crane sites and safeguarding small remnant wetlands that cranes could use .\narchibald gw , sundar ksg , barzen j . 2003 . a review of three species of sarus crane grus antigone . j . of ecological soc . 16 : 5 - 15 .\neggs 2 to 3 , chalky white . incubation period is between 27 to 35 days . both parents take part in incubation . the average lifespan of sarus crane is 20 years .\nreproduction : sarus crane breeds during wet season in its range . they nest on the ground . bulky nest is made with wetland vegetation . nest materials are associated with breeding habitat .\n. very little is known about sarus - human interactions in australia , though observers and photographers agree that sarus seem more wary and prone to flight than brolgas in similar conditions .\nthree populations of the sarus crane are currently recognised and each occupies a distinct range . the indian sarus crane population is found in pakistan , northern and central india and nepal . the eastern sarus crane population was historically found throughout southeast asia but is now confined to cambodia and vietnam , with a small remnant population persisting in myanmar . finally , the australian sarus crane population is found in northern australia . although the indian population is largely resident , the eastern sarus crane populationin indochina migrates from breeding areas in cambodia to the mekong delta in vietnam outside of the breeding season ( 2 ) . there has been recent debate as to whether these populations are in fact distinct subspecies . however , a recent genetic assessment of the populations suggests that although previously classified as subspecies , they may not be genetically diverse enough to allow them to be regarded as such , and therefore should be regarded only as separate populations ( 6 ) .\nliebherr - installation work of a ltc 1045 - 3 . 1 mobile crane in carcassonne , france\nin the area has declined since 2007 . most sarus cranes lived in pairs . a single\nstudy . our study found that the density of sarus cranes as 4 . 2 in -\nsingh v . p . and khan s . a . 1989 . status of sarus (\nthere are four surviving sarus crane populations : south asia ( india , with some in nepal ) ; eastern ( southeast asia , mostly cambodia and vietnam ) ; myanmar - china ; and australia . these were previously thought to be three sub - species , combining myanmar and southeast asia , with the extinct philippines sarus as a possible fourth . genetic studies now show gradual variation across the range [ 1 ] , with myanmar - china sarus distinct from the eastern sarus . philippines sarus cranes are now being studied for the first time ( see below ) .\nthere have been no systematic studies of crane behaviour in australia , and for sarus cranes we even have few observations . roost behaviour , unison calling , pairbonding and dance displays are believed similar to\nour monthly summary of media stories highlighting the international crane foundation ' s global programs . . . .\n( blashfield , 2004 ; international crane foundation , 2015 ; yaseen , et al . , 2013 )\nimage : bugeranus carunculatus . jpg | thumb | right | a crane ( bird ) . wikipedia see | cr\u00e3\u00a2ne english image : towercrane . jpg | thumb | right | a crane ( mechanical ) .\nworld association of zoos and aquariums , 2015 .\nsarus crane grus antigone\n( on - line ) . world association of zoos and aquariums waza . accessed april 01 , 2015 at urltoken .\nthe image of the australian sarus crane egg is by d descouens from the collection of mhnt ( mus\u00e9um de toulouse ) and used under a creative commons attribution - share alike 4 . 0 international licence\nborad c . k . , mukherjee a . and parasharya b . 2001a . nest site selection by the indian sarus crane in the paddy crop agroecosystem . biological conservation 98 : 89 - 96 .\na comprehensive literature review for south asian sarus \u2013 ks gopi sundar & bc choudhury ( 2003 ) , \u2018the indian sarus crane grus a . antigone : a literature review\u2019 . journal of ecological society 15 : 5 - 15 \u2013 can be read online or downloaded free in various formats from urltoken .\n, there are a lot of positives in australia . brolgas and sarus cranes are widely respected across the pastoral rangelands or farmlands where they nest , and later feed and roost in flocks . the birds keep coming back , implying many properties are managed positively for brolgas and sarus cranes . for more on habitat and conservation , continue on to ozcrane brolga and sarus crane faqs , and check ozcranes\nhabitat availability , and ecological behavior of sarus cranes in the district . we propose regular surveys to\nand other sarus ( see links below ) . flight behaviour for both species is covered in ozcranes\nsundar , k . s . g . ( 2006 ) conservation of the sarus crane grus antigone in uttar pradesh , india . journal of the bombay natural history society , 103 : 182 - 190 .\nsarus cranes drink and bathe every morning and evening and often also during the day . unlike brolgas they have no specialised gland for excreting salt , but some eastern sarus cranes roost in saline wetlands and indian sarus sometimes feed on beaches and would ingest some salt from prey . sarus cranes have been seen on the beach at karumba , queensland ( j grant ) . there appear to be no published observations of australian sarus drinking , to document whether they drink brackish as well as fresh water .\nthe sarus crane , a bird species characteristic of wetlands , is categorized as vulnerable on the iucn red list . in india , sarus cranes occur mostly outside protected areas and use these unprotected areas for feeding and breeding . they are consequently threatened by poaching and the destruction of their eggs and juveniles . to protect the crane ' s habitat and nests a community education and . . . [ show full abstract ]\n2016 ) . although state and federal authorities list sarus crane as \u201ccommon\u201d or \u201cleast concern\u201d wildlife , it is included as a migratory species covered by international treaties to which australia is a signatory ( e . scambler\n[ 2 ] tin nwe latt , 2016 . sarus crane taxonomy , habitat and wetland conservation status in shan plateau and rakhine state . conference presentation , wetlands alliance cambodia : currently ( june 2017 ) offline .\nin india , sarus cranes nest during the annual monsoon , when yearly rains replenish the . . .\naustralian sarus cranes are mostly concentrated as shown , in far north queensland and the far ne of the northern territory . occasional records occur s of the area shown , and across the top end . sarus\nborad c . k . , mukherjee a . and parasharya b . m . 2001b . damage potential of the indian sarus crane in paddy crop agroecosystem . agriculture , ecosystems and environment 86 : 211 - 215 .\nauthenticated ( 31 / 03 / 05 ) by k . s . gopi sundar , international crane foundation . urltoken\net al . ( 2002 ) observed that openness of habitat is a requirement for the existence of the crane .\nthe sarus crane is the world ' s tallest flying bird . this crane , when standing , is as tall as a man . these elegant birds are predominantly gray , with long , pale red legs . their naked head is red , as is their neck . juveniles have buff feathers on their head and slightly darker plumage .\nthe sarus crane ( grus antigone antigone ) , one of the world\u2019s tallest flying birds , has been listed as \u2018vulnerable\u2019 in the iucn red list of threatened species . sarus cranes are distributed in the lowlands and most of them are found outside protected areas especially in agricultural areas and wetlands of nepal . continued expansion of agricultural land and reduction in wetland habitats pose the greatest threats to the conservation of the species . we conducted a study on sarus crane in rupandehi district of nepal and aiming to understand their population structure , behaviour and current threats .\nin addition to ensuring that sarus cranes at the att are protected , conservation staff also conduct annual surveys of crane numbers to determine population size and monitor project success . education campaigns help to raise local awareness of sarus cranes , and a nest protection scheme protects the cranes at their key breeding sites in cambodia ' s northern plains .\njones , j . l . , barzen , j . a . and ashley , m . v . ( 2005 ) geographical partitioning of microsatellite variation in the sarus crane . animal conservation , 8 : 1 \u2013 8 .\nsundar , k . s . g . and choudhury , b . c . ( 2003 ) the indian sarus crane grus a . antigone : a literature review . journal of the ecological society , 16 : 16 - 41 .\nsarus crane is omnivorous . it feeds on he diet includes frogs , reptiles , eggs of birds , turtles eggs , invertebrates , butterflies , grasshoppers , tubers of aquatic plants , cereals , potatoes , peas , berries and seeds .\nduring the breeding season , sarus cranes establish territories , but little is known about the size of the territories .\nvation of nature ( iucn ) red list of threatened species . sarus cranes are distributed in the lowlands , but\nramachandran n . k . and vijayan v . s . 1994 . distribution and general ecology of the sarus (\nmy sanskrit teacher in school , mrs . sulabha v hubli , explained ma nishada in great detail with its many meanings and interpretations , imprinting the epic scene on my memory . a few months ago , i had attended shyamal\u2019s talk , where he discussed melchior de hondecoeter\u2019s 1680 artwork , het drijvend veertje , one of the most accurate representations of the sarus crane . the sarus crane ( grus antigone ) at the center of the frame got me thinking about this verse again .\nsarus crane is a omnivorous bird . they feed on marshes , berries , seeds , roots , tubers , insects , frogs , reptiles , fishes , eggs of birds , invertebrates , butterflies , and grasshoppers . they forage in shallow water .\n[ 1 ] gw archibald & sr swengel ( 1987 ) . \u2018comparative ecology and behavior of eastern sarus cranes and brolgas in australia\u2019 proceedings of the 1985 crane workshop , ed . jc lewis : 107 - 116 . download article from ozcranes downloads\u00bb\nparasharya b . m . , mathew k . l . and yadav d . n . 1989 . status and habitat preference of indian sarus crane in gujarat , india . paper presented in the asian congress at rajkot , gujarat , india .\nvideos : brolga making single calls while walking through swamp ; indian sarus unison call at the nest ( youtube ) .\nsundar , k . 2009 . are rice paddies suboptimal breeding habitat for sarus cranes in uttar pradesh , india ? .\nare the only known stable areas for breeding sarus cranes in the state and have one breeding pair each . at the end of 1994 , icf signed an agreement with the lumbini development trust in nepal to lease 120 ha of land at lumbini , the birthplace of the buddha , to establish the lumbini crane sanctuary and to protect nepal\u00eds remnant population of sarus cranes .\nstrong cultural ties to cranes and wetlands in south / southeast asia provide unique opportunities to engage people in the conservation of these intensely settled landscapes using the sarus crane as a flagship species , which in turn also benefits local communities and other species .\nin asia , most sarus cranes breed in cultivated rice ( more in cranes on farms 2\u00bb ) . breeding habitat in the gulf of carpentaria is in different types of flooded grassy woodlands or savannah . many ( though not all ) sarus crane pairs apparently choose different habitat types for their nest sites than brolgas , however some are found close to brolga pairs in other habitat types . for more detail and references see sarus faq2 and john grant ' s article on his ongoing gulf study\u00bb .\njones , k . l . , f . chavez - ramirez , x . galvez - aguilera , l . torella and m . v . ashley . 2005b .\ngenetic assessment of non - migratory sandhill crane populations .\nin proceedings of the ninth north american crane workshop , edited by f . chavez - ramirez , 250 . sacramento : north american crane working group . close\nprange h . 1995 . crane research and protection in europe . europeanworking group and martin luther \u00a8 universitat , halle - wittenberg .\nconservation interventions focus on working with local communities , government agencies and other conservation partners to improve management and protection of sarus cranes at some of the most important non - breeding season refuges . the principal site is the ang trapeang thmor ( att ) sarus crane reserve , a permanently flooded , man - made reservoir situated in banteay meanchey province , north - west cambodia .\nthe main breeding season for sarus cranes typically lies within the rainy season , between the months of june and september . it has been suggested that sarus cranes will mate for life , though there has been little research to substantiate this claim .\nthe species is venerated in india and legend has it that valmiki cursed a hunter for killing a sarus and was then inspired to write the epic ramayana [ 1 ] . in australia , the sarus can easily be mistaken for the brolga .\nthe sarus crane is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) . listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) and appendix ii of the convention on migratory species ( cms or bonn convention ) ( 4 ) .\ngole p . 1987 . observing the sarus . in : archibald g . w . and pasquier r . f . ( eds ) , proceedings of the 1983 international workshop , bharatpur . international crane foundation , baraboo , pp . 107 - 114 .\nbrolgas are adapted to dry habitats provided water exists , even occupying some desert regions as well as higher rainfall areas ( see map in brolga faq 1\u00bb ) . all australian sarus cranes however , live in wet or seasonally wet regions in the northern tropics ( see maps in ozcranes crane intro\u00bb ) . brolgas occur throughout the range of australian sarus but based on records so far , seem to use a wider variety of habitats with sarus found mainly in swamp woodlands , swamps , croplands and grasslands .\nmigration : sarus cranes do not migrate but will make short seasonal movements between wet and dry habitats in asia and australia .\ncrane chicks grow very rapidly up to an inch per day some days , or five feet in three months . some growing crane chicks can put on almost one pound of weight for every pound of food they eat . in the wild , crane chicks may gain up to 20 % of their body weight per day , however , we limit them to about 10 % per day at icf .\nalthough sarus cranes are non - migratory , populations move on a seasonal basis in response to monsoons and droughts . indian sarus cranes are more sedentary than eastern and australian sarus cranes , undertaking extended movement only during times of severe drought . the indian sarus crane have adapted to the high growth of human population and they are able to use even small wetlands if they are not heavily disturbed . breeding pairs and families with pre - fledged chicks are typically dispersed among scattered natural and artificial wetlands . adult pairs will use drier habitats such as cultivated and fallow fields , and degraded ( saline and water - logged ) lands . eastern sarus cranes are less tolerant of people and are dependent on natural wetlands in both the wet and dry seasons . australian sarus cranes nest in open wetlands during wet season and feed in upland agricultural fields and grasslands at other times of the year .\n. in 2008 the atherton tablelands important bird area was established based on population distribution data from the annual counts , and continuing counts from 2009 monitor the iba and surrounding sites . authorities have flagged particular sections of powerline after sarus crane deaths or injuries were reported by concerned observers in the iba . the australian crane network ( website urltoken established in 2005 , remains a contact point for crane researchers , landowners and interested individuals , including international networks ; and provides updates on ongoing and completed research and conservation issues ( e . scambler\ncontinuing mekong delta community - based wetland and livelihood conservation programs and adapting these models to other important crane areas in cambodia and vietnam .\nin the last 50 years the eastern sarus crane has disappeared from thailand , malaysia and much of indochina . it is still in serious decline and multiple research and wetland conservation programs are underway in cambodia and vietnam . in thailand , a captive breeding program has released sarus into protected wetland areas in an attempt to restore the original population extinct since about 1980 . across southeast asia the major threats are wetland drainage or other habitat changes , as well as hunting , egg collection and taking sarus chicks as pets .\nthe sarus crane is the tallest flying bird in the world , standing at a height of up to 180 cm . size of adult sarus crane is between 140 to 160 cm . the overall body color is grey or dirty white . the upper neck and head is bright red in color . they have predominantly grey plumage . the bill is pointed , long and strong , the color of bill is paler grey or dirty white . the legs are also long and strong , and paler red or pinkish red in color .\nindian sarus show high nest site fidelity [ 1 ] , returning year after year to nest in the same place . offspring also return to nest close to their birthplace , sometimes many years later . in uttar pradesh , a 1 - month old male indian sarus crane was banded at the nest by ks gopi sundar in 2001 . fourteen years later the bird returned , paired and established a nesting territory within 500m of the original nest . in australia , no sarus cranes have been tracked so these factors are unknown .\nin mixed non - breeding season flocks one species usually predominates , but as yet there are no data on why brolgas concentrate in some dry season locations while sarus concentrate in others . even where mixed flocks forage during the day , the two species may choose different roost sites to spend the night . one example is the regular occurrence of feeding sarus cranes in the drier outer parts of the atherton tablelands , e . g . kaban and tumoulin , while roosts in these locations are almost exclusively used by brolgas ( see ozcranes research nq crane counts\u00bb ) . a significant phd study is now underway on brolga / sarus crane interactions and habitat differences in northern queensland .\ncrane , but the vegetation at the edge of the crop field and the type of crop grown also affected the availability of the cranes .\nsarus cranes have grown accustomed to living in large agricultural areas , specifically along low wetlands and flooded rice paddies . they tend to prefer natural wetlands over agricultural paddies however , there is still debate on which habitat these birds prefer . extensive research has been performed to understand the interaction of the sarus crane with paddy ecosystems . paddies have become more desirable habitats for these cranes because nesting sites are situated in proximity to areas with an abundance of food . sarus cranes , though likely to use wetlands adjoining flooded rice paddies , also have the ability to make use of drier habitats relative to other crane species . they have also adapted well to the increased presence of human activity .\nalthough overhead electrical wires are known to have caused severe declines of bird populations , there are no studies in india that address this danger , even for endangered species . rates of mortality , factors affecting mortality and population effects of electrical wires on the globally endangered sarus crane (\nsarus cranes time their breeding with the indian monsoon aided by the farmers whose rice planting in the same time ensures a flooded landscape .\nalthough the sarus crane was included in a set of postage stamps featuring important burmese birds in 1964 , very little is known about the sarus located in myanmar and adjoining parts of yunnan province , china . in his \u2018catalogue of mammals and birds of burma\u2019 ( 1875 ) , blyth described sarus as very numerous in the interior in large flocks , and cited a breeding reference . in \u2018the birds of burma\u2019 ( 1953 ) smythies gives more details of habitats and locations including breeding sites , and reports flocks of up to 60 in \u2018mid - monsoon\u2019 .\nadult sandhill crane flying at bosque del apache national wildlife refuge , socorro county , new mexico in january 2011 . photo credit : terry cacek .\nthe sg is located at , and affiliated to , the nature conservation foundation , the international crane foundation , and the complutense university of madrid .\na positive correlation was observed between the crane numbers and the area of agricultural land , e . g . , paddy field , sugarcane field ,\n) were assessed for breeding and non - breeding cranes in etawah and mainpuri districts , uttar pradesh , india . non - breeding cranes were most susceptible to wires and , within territories , mortalities were higher for pre - dispersed young . similar proportions of non - breeding and breeding cranes were killed , together accounting for nearly 1 % of the total sarus crane population annually . supply wires accounted for the majority of sarus crane deaths , and only non - breeding cranes were killed by both supply and high - tension power lines . non - breeding crane deaths at roost sites were correlated with numbers of roosting birds and numbers of wires at each site . over 40 % of 251 known sarus crane territories had at least one overhead wire posing a risk to breeding adults and pre - dispersed young . a risk index for wires over territories of cranes was computed ; mortality was not affected by increasing the number and therefore risk posed by wires . most crane deaths in territories occurred as a result of wires at edges of territories . wires around roosting sites , territoriality and age of sarus cranes appear to be the most important factors affecting their mortality due to wires . mitigation measures will be most effective around roost sites and for wires that border territories of breeding pairs .\nalthough overhead electrical wires are known to have caused severe declines of bird populations , there are no studies in india that address this danger , even for endangered species . rates of mortality , factors affecting mortality and population effects of electrical wires on the globally endangered sarus crane ( grus antigone ) were assessed for breeding and non - breeding cranes in etawah and mainpuri districts , uttar pradesh , india . non - breeding cranes were most susceptible to wires and , within territories , mortalities were higher for pre - dispersed young . similar proportions of non - breeding and breeding cranes were killed , together accounting for nearly 1 % of the total sarus crane population annually . supply wires accounted for the majority of sarus crane deaths , and only non - breeding cranes were killed by both supply and high - tension power lines . non - breeding crane deaths at roost sites were correlated with numbers of roosting birds and numbers of wires at each site . over 40 % of 251 known sarus crane territories had at least one overhead wire posing a risk to breeding adults and pre - dispersed young . a risk index for wires over territories of cranes was computed ; mortality was not affected by increasing the number and therefore risk posed by wires . most crane deaths in territories occurred as a result of wires at edges of territories . wires around roosting sites , territoriality and age of sarus cranes appear to be the most important factors affecting their mortality due to wires . mitigation measures will be most effective around roost sites and for wires that border territories of breeding pairs . ( author )\nthe moon sets as the day begins for sarus cranes , storks , herons and hundreds of other species in india ' s gangetic floodplains .\nin 2005 john grant published the first and only formal scientific paper so far , on sarus breeding success\u00bb in australia . mean recruitment rate for wintering sarus on the atherton tablelands was 6 . 5 % , this study has now covered 20 years . the study and its significance are discussed by k . s . gopi sundar in an ozcranes research report , breeding for success , a story of the sarus in queensland\u00bb .\nsarus cranes utter loud , high - pitched calls . in courtship displays , the female gives two calls while the male gives only one .\nthe sarus crane is found in south - east asia and australia and is the tallest of the crane species . they have light grey wings and bodies . the head and the upper neck is red bare skin and the crown is greenish skin . their pointed bill is long and greenish - grey . the legs and feet are pink and their iris is orange - red . both sexes are plumage is similar but the male are larger .\nthe above article has been updated with the help of sh . k . s . gopi sundar , research associate , international crane foundation and principal coordinator , indian cranes and wetlands working group ( a program of the wildlife protection society of india and affiliated to the international crane foundation ) . email :\nbesides actual sightings , inquiries from local people were also made to ensure the estimate of existing population and their perceptions about the existence of the crane .\nthere are references to instances where bereaved sarus cranes have pined away to death . you may call this poignant episode and the female lamenting as anthropomorphic . maybe it is , maybe it is not . all i can say is , most of mankind has transformed into a more vicious form of the hunter of valmiki\u2019s story . to make our lives better \u2013 be it in the form of more money , better infrastructure , real estate , agriculture \u2013 we destroy homes of not only the sarus crane , but of many other wild citizens . we kill them without giving a second thought . the sarus crane will continue to lament . there are people who narrate those stories . but will the audience read , listen and care ?\nlike brolgas , sarus cranes are omnivorous , eating many foods . however there are few feeding records for australian sarus . maize seeds , native plants including grasses , grasshoppers and rats have been recorded , and it ' s been suggested they may feed on plentiful pipis ( small molluscs ) along the shores of lake tinaroo , atherton tableland . there are occasional observations of sarus cranes stretching up to take ripe maize kernels from the cob on the edges of fields ( c edwards , j munro : atherton tablelands ) . dr john grant ' s 20 year study of sarus crane foraging on the atherton tablelands shows they feed preferentially on maize stubble , then plough , low - grazed pasture , and occasionally sugar cane trash .\nas a predator on small vertebrates and invertebrates , sarus cranes play an important role in maintaining these populations . abundance of their eggs can also influence food sources for jackals and house crows . they also help maintain vegetation . sarus cranes can be primary , secondary , and tertiary consumers .\nthis page covers sarus crane habitats and behaviour , including interactions with brolgas . features , locations and population numbers are in faq 1 , food , water and breeding are in faq 2 , and conservation is covered in faq 4 . the cranes intro has background and comparisons including images and calls .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - pair of sarus cranes feeding\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - pair of sarus cranes feeding\ntitle =\narkive photo - pair of sarus cranes feeding\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nwwf - india has provided technical support for the restoration and management of key wetlands , , such as the surajpur wetland in greater noida , uttar pradesh . two wetlands in kanpur , uttar pradesh have been adopted for restoration activities . local communities are made aware of the hazards of releasing agrochemicals into the wetlands and discouraged to continue practices that would be detrimental to the health of the wetland . policy and advocacy : wwf - india played an instrumental role in setting up the sarus crane conservation committee in uttar pradesh . it also assists the state in developing projects to enhance sarus crane conservation initiatives .\nthere are 15 species in the crane family gruidae . according to the conservation status designations assigned by icf , six of the species are considered endangered . these are the blue , red - crowned , sarus , siberian , wattled , and whooping cranes . icf classifies another five species as vulnerable , including the black crowned , black - necked , grey crowned , hooded , and white - naped cranes . we have all 15 species of cranes at icf . the total number of cranes we have varies from season to season , but we normally have between 100 - 120 birds . we typically have up to 30 birds on display in the wattled crane exhibit , johnson exhibit pod , and whooping crane exhibit , with approximately 70 additional birds housed in crane city .\nwhat made you want to look up sarus ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nsarus cranes fly with a straight neck , and their long legs trailing behind . they beat powerfully with their wings , and are good fliers .\nadult florida sandhill crane ( a . c . pratensis ) from venice , florida in april . photo credit : d . mcnicholas . ; photographer david mcnicholas\nplumage / molt like most cranes , molts annually during the post - breeding season . the main flight feathers are lost at the same time leaving the crane flightless\ncalls \u2013 hissing , shrill korrrs , and throaty hrrrrs . sarus crane utters loud , high - pitched calls . during courtship displays , female utters two calls while male gives only one . the unison call made by paired adults is the most well - known call and is a loud far - reaching trumpeting .\nas the story goes , the female lamented with a pitch and tonal quality so deep in emotion , that compassion welled up within valmiki . julia leslie\u2019s paper , a bird bereaved , does an exhaustive study of the verse , considering thirty two separate species , and eliminating all but one , the sarus crane .\nsarus cranes are omnivores , foraging for a wide range of food including seeds and grains as well as frogs , lizards and grasshoppers ( 7 ) .\nsarus cranes are monogamous and mate for life . they have long - lasting pair bonds and maintain territories within which they perform territorial and courtship displays .\nivey , g . l . , c . p . herziger and t . j . hoffman . 2005 .\nannual movement of pacific coast sandhill cranes .\nin proceedings of the ninth north american crane workshop , edited by f . chavez - ramirez , 25 - 36 . sacramento : north american crane working group . close"]}
{"id": 1325, "summary": [{"text": "the giant trevally , caranx ignobilis ( also known as the giant kingfish , lowly trevally , barrier trevally , ulua , or gt ) , is a species of large marine fish classified in the jack family , carangidae .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the giant trevally is distributed throughout the tropical waters of the indo-pacific region , with a range stretching from south africa in the west to hawaii in the east , including japan in the north and australia in the south .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "two were documented in the eastern tropical pacific in the 2010s ( one captured off panama and another sighted at the gal\u00e1pagos ) , but it remains to be seen if the species will become established there .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the giant trevally is distinguished by its steep head profile , strong tail scutes , and a variety of other more detailed anatomical features .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is normally a silvery colour with occasional dark spots , but males may be black once they mature .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "it is the largest fish in the genus caranx , growing to a maximum known size of 170 cm ( 67 in ) and a weight of 80 kg ( 176 lbs ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the giant trevally inhabits a wide range of marine environments , from estuaries , shallow bays and lagoons as a juvenile to deeper reefs , offshore atolls and large embayments as an adult .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "juveniles of the species are known to live in waters of very low salinity such as coastal lakes and upper reaches of rivers , and tend to prefer turbid waters .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the giant trevally is an apex predator in most of its habitats , and is known to hunt individually and in schools .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the species predominantly takes various fish as prey , although crustaceans , cephalopods and molluscs make up a considerable part of their diets in some regions .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the species has some quite novel hunting strategies , including shadowing monk seals to pick off escaping prey , as well as using sharks to ambush prey .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the species reproduces in the warmer months , with peaks differing by region .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "spawning occurs at specific stages of the lunar cycle , when large schools congregate to spawn over reefs and bays , with reproductive behaviour observed in the wild .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the fish grows relatively fast , reaching sexual maturity at a length of around 60 cm at three years of age .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the giant trevally is both an important species to commercial fisheries and a recognised gamefish , with the species taken by nets and lines by professionals and by bait and lures by anglers .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "catch statistics in the asian region show hauls of 4,000 \u2013 10,000 tonnes , while around 10,000 lbs of the species is taken in hawaii each year .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the species is considered poor to excellent table fare by different authors , although ciguatera poisoning is common in the fish .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "dwindling numbers around the main hawaiian islands have also led to several proposals to reduce the catch of fish in this region . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "giant trevally", "paragraphs": ["meyer cg , holland kn , papastamatiou yp . seasonal and diel movements of giant trevally\ninformation on the giant trevally is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\n* increased awareness of the need for conservation and management strategy for giant trevally in omani waters .\nfigure 2 . giant trevally are captured at night using pole & line , and fishing depths of 30 - 100m .\nben with an average sized hard fighting giant trevally , or gt , taken on spin gear . image : ben diggles\nall species of trevally are well known for their determined and powerful fighting ability , making them excellent sportfish on light tackle . various species of trevally offer plenty of action , from the aggressive golden trevally ( gnathanodon speciosus ) of the tropics and the dirty fighting coastal silver trevally ( pseudocaranx dentex ) to the powerful giant trevally ( caranx ignoblis ) .\nthe giant trevally movement data obtained in this study will be used to shape management strategies for this important food and game fish .\nthe giant trevally is a powerful apex predator in most of its habitats , and is known to hunt individually and in schools .\nthey are also often targetted for recreational fishing . the giant trevally in particular is often killed to become a trophy on display .\nthe giant trevally dominantly eats other fishes and likes to prey in packs - explaining the vast numbers of the fish in this video .\nfigure 4 : ( a ) color dimorphism in giant trevally from school at rapture reef . ( b ) giant trevally school at rapture reef ( ffs atoll ) , may 23 2006 . photographs reproduced by permission of jill zamzow . from meyer et al . [ 49 ] .\nc . g . meyer , k . n . holland , and y . p . papastamatiou , \u201cseasonal and diel movements of giant trevally\nthe giant trevally can be recognised by its steep head profile , strong scutes on the straight , posterior portion of the lateral line and its large size . it is the largest species of trevally in australian waters .\nthe recent capture on march 18 of a giant trevally off the pacific coast of panama is certain to stun fishery biologists and recreational fishermen alike .\nwetherbee bm , holland kn , meyer cg , lowe cg . use of a marine reserve in kaneohe bay , hawaii by the giant trevally ,\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - giant trevally ( caranx ignobilis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - giant trevally ( caranx ignobilis )\ntitle =\narkive species - giant trevally ( caranx ignobilis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\n( any angler catching what he or she believes to be a giant trevally off central america is encouraged to contact editor @ sportfishingmag . com . )\ngiant trevally are often confused for brassy trevally \u2013 caranx papuensis and although there are many similarities between the two species the brassy trevally is easily identified by its yellow fin colouration as opposed to the darker fins and body colouration of the gt . giant trevally generally have a much broader , deeper body shape to that of the brassy also . sharp tail scoots are present at the base of the tail and the mouth is extremely powerful with some nasty teeth present .\nthe heru cubera and heru skipjack , both excellent giant trevally lures . that red head / green body color has been excellent for me in various locations .\nwe are using an array of underwater listening receivers to study the long - term movements of giant trevally and answer key management questions , such as how far they range and what are their typical patterns of movement . this technology has already provided unprecedented insight into the scale and patterns of giant trevally movements in the remote north west hawaiian islands ( papahanaumokuakea marine national monument ) . giant trevally at remote nwhi atolls are site - attached to home ranges where they swim back and forth daily between separate day and night habitats . during the full moons in summer , giant trevally migrate up to 30km to reach traditional spawning grounds where they form large aggregations . we are now using this system to determine whether giant trevally show similar patterns of behavior in the main hawaiian islands ( mhi ) .\ngiant trevally is sought after for food . but catches have declined by 84 percent in the course of the last century , which implies the population is only getting smaller . if that ' s not enough to make you throw the fish back , remember that the hawaiians once revered the giant trevally as a god .\nrising or full tides are best suited for targeting most inshore species including trevally .\ngiant trevally can be located from as far south as shark bay right up to the magnificent kimberley region throughout western australia and also parts of queensland and the northern territory .\ngiant trevally grow to a staggering 60kg in weight and measure up to 1 . 9m in length although a typical sized gt is around 10 \u2013 15kg in most australian locations .\none species that has reached cult status in sportfishing circles in recent years is the giant trevally ( caranx ignobilis ) , better known as the\ngt\nby those who target them .\nwill giant trevally join their ranks as yet another great game fish available to anglers off central america ? that remains to be seen , but it is an interesting and for many fishermen tantalizing prospect .\nthis terrifying video shows a group of carnivorous gigantic trevally fish devouring a whole tuna within seconds .\nthe giant trevally a fish of many names is quickly becoming a premier target to hunt on the flats . it is an incredibly strong and ferocious reef fish that is aggressive and deliberate when hunting and takes no prisoners . it is a large member of the jack family and is also known as the giant kingfish , pacific jack fish , goyan fish , lowly trevally , barrier trevally , ulua in hawaii , mamulan in the marianas , r\u014dnin - aji in japan and just plain gt for short .\nthink of the giant trevally as the mr . t of the oceans , a burly , aquatic intimidator , that ' s so voracious and powerful , it doesn ' t have anything to fear besides sharks and humans . known to anglers as the\ngt ,\nthe giant trevally ranges in color from silver to jet black and grows to as much as 5 . 5 feet long and 175 pounds .\ngiant trevally are generally caught around coastal offshore reefs from the central wa coast north around to the central nsw coast . anglers target them with high quality , strong , lightweight outfits using large poppers and stickbait lures .\nthe giant trevally as its name suggests is the giant of the trevally species . its enormous size and incredible power have gained the gt a reputation of a tackle destroying monster ! they are a super aggressive predator that is capable of mind blowing surface strikes and is highly regarded around the world by many as being the hardest pulling sport fish imaginable . these bad boys are certainly not for the faint hearted or under gunned angler !\n< p > a phenomenal underwater shot from matt jones of a giant trevally in the . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : underwater giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > throwback to a great photo of jako lucas admiring a giant trevally in . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : seychelles giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > giant trevally attacked by barracuda from aos fly fishing on vimeo . another salty . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : barracuda attacks giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nthe giant trevally ( caranx ignobilis ) , better known in south africa by its common name , the giant kingfish , is considered an iconic top predator on coral and rocky reefs across the indo - pacific and is heavily targeted by recreational , commercial and artisanal fisheries . c . ignobilis has been overfished in the most - studied part of its range ( hawaii , usa ) , which raises concern for its status in less - studied areas , including the western indian ocean , where significant knowledge gaps concerning basic aspects of giant trevally biology remain .\nda silva , i . m . , hempson , t . and hussey , n . e . 2014 . giant trevally spawning aggregation highlights importance of community fisheries management no - take zone . marine biodiversity : 2 .\n< p > a nice christmas island giant trevally release photo from hawaii guide , jesse cheape ! . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : giant trevally release < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > an excellent shot of a christmas island giant trevally . what a beast of . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : christmas island giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nalso known as barrier trevally , black ulua , giant kingfish , giant ulua , goyan fish , great trevally , horse mackerel , horse mackerel trevally , jackfish , kingfish , lowly trevally , trevallies , white ulua , yellowfin jack . found singly over rock and sandy areas of clearwater lagoons and seaward reefs . they feed nocturnally on large crustaceans like crabs and lobsters as well as fish . juveniles found in estuaries . length - 120cm depth - 0 - 180m widespread indo pacific jacks are fast swimming fish that can roam over great distances . the larger fish hunt other fish and the smaller fish eat zooplankton . in turn they are hunted by large tuna and dolphins .\n< p > the seychelles is the place for giant trevally , and the crew at aos . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fly fishing for giant trevally in the seychelles < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > another great new video from kast takes on giant trevally in the south . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fly fishing for giant trevally in the south pacific < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > if anyone has been looking for increased motivation to pursue giant trevally ( gts ) . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fierce and speedy giant trevally on the attack < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\ngiant trevally baits i never fish for them with bait but i know in hawaii octopus and eels are popular baits to use from shore . i ' m sure various live and dead baitfish like mullet and flying fish work . where to get the big giant trevally the great barrier reef and new caledonia have some big ones that can be caught on poppers and stickbaits . indonesia has some good gt fishing , as does fiji and many of the remote pacific atolls . i have also heard about some good gt fishing in oman of all places . other giant trevally resources the above barely scratches the surface on how to catch giant trevally . the resources below will provide a wealth of information : urltoken is a great forum . everything you need to know , you can learn here . urltoken is the outfitter i used for my trip to new caledonia urltoken is probably the king of gts . not cheap but amazing trips .\nlowe cg , wetherbee bm , meyer cg . using acoustic telemetry monitoring techniques to quantify movement patterns and site fidelity of sharks and giant trevally around french frigate shoals and midway atoll . atoll res bull . 2006 ; 543 : 281\u2013303 .\n< p > gangsters of the flats 2 & # 8211 ; fly fishing for giant trevally from the . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fly fishing for giant trevally in gangsters of the flats 2 < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nc . g . lowe , b . m . wetherbee , and c . g . meyer , \u201cusing acoustic telemetry monitoring techniques to quantity movement patterns and site fidelity of sharks and giant trevally around french frigate shoals and midway atoll , \u201d\nthe giant trevally ( caranx ignobilis ) is a powerful oceanic predator fish also known as the gt for short . it\u2019s also called the giant kingfish , the lowly trevally , or the barrier trevally . like the mustang gt muscle car , this gt has its own muscle power : strong and thick midsection , and is distinguished by its steep and blunt head shape , and 26 to 38 scutes ( sharp , bony plates ) along its lateral line . its color ranges from silver to black , and on those with darker color , it can have remarkable silvery - white patterns on its upper body .\n< p > giant trevally aren & # 8217 ; t just big and fast & # 8212 ; they exhibit attractive physical characteristics . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : black giant trevally on the flats < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nlowe cg , wetherbee bm , meyer cg ( 2006 ) using acoustic telemetry monitoring techniques to quantify movement patterns and site fidelity of sharks and giant trevally around french frigate shoals and midway atoll . atoll research bulletin . 543 : 281 - 303 .\n< p > giant trevally at the lakshadweep islands ! from sportquest holidays : & # 8220 ; every now & # 38 ; then . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fly fishing for giant trevally at the lakshadweep islands < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nmeyer cg , holland kn , papastamatiou yp ( 2007 ) seasonal and diel movements of giant trevally ( caranx ignobilis ) at remote hawaiian atolls : implications for the design of marine protected areas . marine ecology progress series . 333 : 13 - 25 .\nfigure 3 . acoustically - tagged trevally range in size from 70 - 150cm total length ( 6 - 34 kg ) .\n< p > gt hunt - official trailer from black fly eyes on vimeo . giant trevally in cosmoledo . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> trailer : fly fishing for giant trevally in cosmoledo in & # 8220 ; gt hunt & # 8221 ; < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\ntop predators in the pmnm consume a wide variety of prey including invertebrates , fishes , marine mammals , turtles , and sea birds . giant trevally are the most abundant predator in the pmnm , and diet studies suggest their foraging activities significantly impact lower trophic levels [ 24 ] . their diet is dominated by reef fishes and invertebrates , including octopus and adult lobsters , but also includes pelagic species such as squid and mackerel scad ( decapterus macarellus ) . overall diet indicates giant trevally forage primarily in shallow - water reef habitats but also feed in open water [ 24 , 73 ] . their diet contains a large amount of nocturnally active prey indicating a significant amount of nighttime feeding by this species [ 24 ] . dietary overlap between giant and bluefin trevally ( another abundant reef - associated jack ) is moderate , with shallow - water reef fishes and small crustaceans , respectively , making larger and smaller contributions to bluefin trevally diet [ 24 ] . a low incidence of nocturnally active prey items and the absence of pelagic species suggest bluefin trevally are primarily diurnal foragers in shallow - water reef habitats . differences in foraging strategies and the ability of large adult giant trevally to feed on larger prey ( e . g . , adult lobsters ) may reduce niche overlap between these two sympatric species [ 24 , 73 ] .\n< p > gt hunt - cosmoledo from black fly eyes on vimeo . chasing giant trevally in the . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> film : fly fishing for giant trevally in & # 8220 ; gt hunt & # 8211 ; cosmoledo & # 8221 ; < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\ncitation :\ngiant trevally , caranx ignobilis ~ marinebio . org .\nmarinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 1 / 14 / 2013 2 : 22 : 00 pm ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio\nin an exclusive report to sport fishing , panama fishing - resort manager olivier charpentier shares a photo of his catch \u2014 leaving no doubt of its identity as a giant trevally ( caranx ignobilis ) \u2014 that he caught on a popper off montuosa island ( clearly visible in the background ) .\nfigure 2 . horizontal ( left ) and vertical ( right ) movements of a giant trevally captured outside kealakekua bay . daytime and nighttime movements are indicated in yellow and black respectively . this tracks was obtained after the fish had been at liberty for 74 days after initial capture and tagging .\none of the most distinguishing features of the giant trevally , or \u2018gt\u2019 as they are commonly called on the reef , is its speed . giant trevally will hunt on their own , or in large schools , and have a top speed estimated at over 60 kilometres per hour . the species predominantly takes various fish as prey , although crustaceans , cephalopods and molluscs make up a considerable part of their diets in some regions . the species has some quite novel hunting strategies , including shadowing monk seals to pick off escaping prey , as well as using sharks to ambush other smaller fish .\nabdussamad , e . m . , kasim , h . m . and balasubramanian , t . s . 2008 . distribution , biology and behaviour of the giant trevally , caranx ignobilis - a candidate species for mariculture . bangladesh journal of fisheries research 12 ( 1 ) : 89 - 94 .\nleis , j . , hay , a . , clark , d . , chen , i . and shao , k . 2006 . behavioral ontogeny in larvae and early juveniles of the giant trevally ( caranx ignobilis ) ( pisces : carangidae ) . fishery bulletin 104 : 401 - 414 .\nmeyer , c . g . , holland , k . n . and papastamatiou , y . p . 2007 . seasonal and diel movements of giant trevally caranx ignobilis at remote hawaiian atolls : implications for the design of marine protected areas . marine ecology progress series 333 : 13 - 25 .\nwetherbee , b . m . , holland , k . n . , meyer , c . g . and lowe , c . g . 2004 . use of a marine reserve in kaneohe bay , hawaii by the giant trevally , caranx ignobilis . fisheries research 67 : 253 - 263 .\nphysical description : trevally have deep , flat bodies that are silver to white in colour . they have large lips but no biting teeth . size : trevally range in size depending on the species . silver trevally grow from 500g to 10kg , golden trevally grow to 4kg - 8kg , and giant trevally can be anywhere between 1kg and 25kg . habitat : trevally occupy both coastal and offshore waters . the best way to spot trevally is to search for places where an obstruction has created eddies , as they tend to lay in wait for food in these areas . try the corner of an island where the current sweeps past a rocky outcrop or the junction where two streams meet in the mangroves . hint ! look for trawlers tied up and dumping trash as trevally know that this will attract potential food items . how to catch : bait - trevally hit both baits and lures hard and keep going hard until they break the line , pull the hook or are caught , and this is what makes catching them such great fun . generally , they prefer baits of yabbies , small poddy mullet , herrings , peeled prawns , whitebait , worms , pipis , and winter whiting . lures to try include medium to deep diving lures , small chrome jigs and leadheads . rod and reel - a medium to fast taper boat rod with sidecast reel or eggbeater reel should be all you need . line and tackle - smaller species will only need light line ( 2 - 4kg ) and small hooks with minimum lead . larger species will need heavy line and a heavy mono trace as they tend to rush for reefs and other structures to get rid of the hook . hot spots : trevally can generally be found from northern queensland down to tasmania and across to southern western australia . golden trevally can be found along the queensland coast in estuaries , surf beaches and rocky and coral reefs . silver trevally are present in all states of australia in inshore reefs , estuaries , beaches and bays . giant trevally occupy the warm tropical waters of northern queensland , western australia and the northern territory . hint ! the best times to catch trevally , in general , are winter and spring when there are plenty of small fish in southern estuaries and larger fish on southern offshore reefs . tropical species can be found in the cooler months of the dry season .\n< p > the venturing angler has a whole lotta love for the ferocity of giant . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fighting a kiritimati island giant trevally with a broken rod ! < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\ngiant trevally are found around reefs in the warmer waters of the pacific and indian oceans , from africa in the east to the hawaiian islands in the west , and from australia in the south to as far north as japan . it ' s known to venture into shallow bays , lagoons and estuaries as well .\nafonso p , fontes j , holland kn , santos rs . multi - scale patterns of habitat use in a highly mobile reef fish , the white trevally\ntrevallies grow fast , depending on species reaching sexual maturity between 3 and 5 years of age , and an average 300 to 500 mm in length . giant trevally can grow to be as big as 170 cm and weigh up to 80 kg . they can live up to 30 - 40 years , depending on species and habitat .\nthere are many species that you may encounter on scuba including giant , silver , gold - spotted , banded , blue , thicklip , black , bluefin , bigeye , golden , sand and diamond trevally . trevallies belong to the jack family , carangidae , which also includes pompanos , runners , amberjacks , pilotfish , jack mackerels and scads .\ngiant trevally prefer shallow sand flats and reef with near by access to deeper water with large numbers of small bait fish present , they also frequent areas such as jetty\u2019s , in shore reef systems and estuary\u2019s . gt\u2019s can also be encountered in deeper water to 50 meters when spawning and are often seen feeding amongst other pelagic species such as mackerel and tuna .\ngiant trevally grow slightly faster and reach a larger maximum size than the closely related bluefin trevally ( figure 8 ) , but the latter reproduce at an earlier age and smaller size [ 24 ] ( table 1 ) . based on the von bertalanffy growth coefficient ( ) , giant and bluefin trevally attain 95 % of their theoretical maximum sizes at 31 and 15 years , respectively , but these are likely only minimum estimates as maximum observed ages were 9 and 6 years ( table 1 , figure 9 ) . bluefin trevally are highly fecund ( > 4 million mature ova in the ovary of a 6 . 5 kg female ) , with an exponential increase in the number of eggs produced with size [ 24 ] . spawning activity peaks for both giant and bluefin trevally between may and august [ 24 ] . age , growth , and reproductive data are not available for other common teleost predators in the pmnm , but green jobfish in the mhi reach sexual maturity between 0 . 45\u20130 . 5 m fork length ( fl ) ( table 1 ) and have a protracted spawning season between may and october [ 26 ] . green jobfish on the great barrier reef ( gbr ) reach maximum ages of 16 years and a theoretical maximum size of 0 . 7 m fl [ 27 ] ( table 1 ) . size of sexual maturity for green jobfish on the gbr was not determined , but all sampled fishes were mature at 0 . 3 m fl .\nthe giant trevally can be recognised by its steep head profile , strong scutes on the straight , posterior portion of the lateral line and its large size . its colouration varies from uniform silvery to almost black . it can sometimes be a dusky golden colour and have dark irregular bands on the back , but never has a dark spot on the rear of the operculum .\nthe distribution of the giant trevally occurs in the tropical or coastal areas of the indian and pacific oceans . the range extends from the eastern coast of africa , along the coasts of india and pakistan , across the coast of northern australia , to as far east as hawaii . its habitat is in the shallow coral reefs and lagoons and channels in these tropical areas .\nin australia , gts are most commonly encountered by anglers fishing on or adjacent to coral or rocky reefs from perth in wa north around the top end to central nsw , with the best known locations for targeting large numbers of large fish being the outer drop offs of the great barrier reef and coral sea . also sometimes known as the lowly trevally ( or ulua in hawaii ) , the giant trevally is the largest member of the trevally family ( carangidae ) . the gt is a powerful apex predator of coral reefs , growing to at least 1 . 7 metres long and 180 pounds on the old scale ( 80 kg ) , but the current world record is \u201conly\u201d 160lb / 72 . 8 kg for a fish taken in japan .\ncovered with long , venomous spikes , the crown - of - thorns starfish ( acanthaster planci ) is a voracious feeder that can eat living corals because of a unique adaptation : a wax - digesting enzyme system . populations of the starfish were once kept low by a few key predators , namely the giant triton . since humans decimated giant triton populations , crown - of - thorns starfish outbreaks periodically kill vast expanses of hard coral .\ngiant trevally ( gt ) inhabit coastal and offshore waters from the central western australian coast north around to the central coast of new south wales . gt\u2019s are wide ranging and can be found cruising in shallower nearshore as well as offshore reef structures such as coral reefs and atolls , pinnacles and drop - offs . when targeting gt\u2019s look for washy areas where bait are holding up , particularly fusiliers around offshore reefs and atolls .\nhowever , upon seeing the photo of charpentier\u2019s catch , william smith - vaniz , ph . d . , one of the world\u2019s leading experts on carangids \u2014 the family of jacks and trevallies \u2014 agrees that \u201cthis fish is definitely a giant trevally . \u201d smith - vaniz tells sf that a comprehensive search of all electronic fish - collection data bases would seem to confirm this as the first gt caught along the coast of central america .\n< p > the gangster of the flats ! a very cool photo from matt jones of . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : cosmoledo giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nlarge mullet and whiting make great live baits for giant trevally , try fishing them on long , nylon or fluoro carbon leaders and running sinker rigs . it is also important to match your hook size to your bait . medium to large sized hard bodied lures are also ideal for both casting from shore and trolling from a boat at around 4 \u2013 6 knots for many species including trevally with metal slices , soft plastics , surface lures and fly\u2019s also proving to be incredibly effective on this super aggressive species . surface lures such as poppers and stick baits are not only especially effective but also visually spectacular when launched upon by large , powerful gt\u2019s !\n< p > nice shot ! eugene pawlowski made his way to christmas island last year among . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : christmas island giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > an amazing video that circulated a while back and never gets any less . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : giant trevally attacks and eats a bird < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > celebration time ! christiaan pretorius and lindi blaauw show some gt stoke in the . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : seychelles giant trevally celebration < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > flyfishing team sylt movie have a great video featuring a fly fishing trip . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fly fishing the seychelles for milkfish and giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nmeyer , cg & rr honebrink ( 2005 ) transintestinal expulsion of surgically implanted dummy transmitters by bluefin trevally\u2014implications for long - term movement studies . transactions of the american fisheries society 134 ( 3 ) : 602 - 606 .\nthere is evidence from studies done in the hawaiian islands and south africa that the black coloured gts are mature males , which most commonly take up this unusually dark colouration in spawning aggregations once they exceed around 70cm in length . juvenile gts can be harder to identify , however , as they often frequent estuaries and inshore waters which are home to populations of other trevallies of similar appearance like brassy trevally and juvenile bigeye trevally ( caranx sexfasciatus ) , which can also have the yellowish pelvic and anal fins ( as well as yellowish lower lobe of the tail ) possessed by juvenile gts . in these instances , it ' s worth looking at the \u201cchest\u201d ( pectoral girdle ) area , which is scaleless on gts , but not in the other species . while gts look very different to the beautiful bluefin trevally ( caranx melampygus ) , studies in hawaii have shown that gts can interbreed with bluefin trevally to form hybrids . the existence of the bluefin / gt hybrids was discovered after investigation of a world record claim for a 43 kg \u201cbluefin trevally\u201d that had bluish fins but other body shape characteristics typical of gts .\n< p > captain jako lucas just got back from astove and took on one of . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : capt . jako lucas with an astove giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nlargest trevally , usually reaching 5 . 7 feet ( 1 . 7 m ) in length and about 132 lbs . ( 60 kg ) . the maximum published weight is 176 lbs . ( 80 . 0 kg ) .\n< p > astove atoll & # 8211 ; flats fishing for gts from fin chasers magazine on vimeo . . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fly fishing for giant trevally at astove atoll < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > monster ! from captain jako lucas , a great - looking farquhar atoll geet . to check out more . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : farquhar atoll giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > in this photo , jako lucas of south africa hoists the gangster of the . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : capt . jako lucas with a nice giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > fly angler , mark hargadon , of california has one incredible photo to show for . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : mark hargadon with a christmas island giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > gts aren & # 8217 ; t just in the seychelles and christmas island . in a video from . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fly fishing for giant trevally in australia < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > maybe the ultimate flats specie & # 8212 ; at least when it comes to putting . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : christiaan pretorius and a giant trevally on the flats < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > in an episode of the endless session , jonathan jones takes on more australia . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fly fishing for barramundi , giant trevally , and coral trout in australia < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > the newest issue of fin chasers magazine is now live with a packed . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> features on giant trevally , permit , mongolia , tasmania , and more in fin chasers < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nto date we have captured 18 giant trevally off the kona ( west ) coast of hawaii island and surgically implanted them with small acoustic transmitters . we are monitoring their movements with the west hawaii listening array consisting of 37 underwater receivers deployed along 109km of coastline . these receivers identify and record the presence of any acoustic transmitters within range ( up to 250 m ) . the receivers have a battery life of approximately 15 months and are being downloaded at 3 - 6 month intervals .\nto date , our understanding of the ecological role of top predators in coral reef ecosystems is based largely on correlative studies ( e . g . , giant trevally density versus size at sex change of labroids [ 5 , 84 ] ) , but manipulative experiments are required to definitively demonstrate causation . the pmnm provides ideal environments for conducting manipulative experiments without the confounding effects of anthropogenic influences . such experiments would greatly increase our understanding of the specific biological and physical factors driving observed relationships .\n< p > from giant trevally to queenfish , there & # 8217 ; s a lot going on at the great . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fly fishing the claremont isles in aquasoul part 2 < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nthe bluefin trevally rarely reach the length of more than 80 cm . they have a much more pointed snout than most of the other carangides . this species is named after the electric blue of their dorsal , anal and caudal fins .\n< p > from rio products : idaho falls , idaho ( february 2 , 2015 ) \u2013 rio products , industry - leading . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> anglers chasing giant trevally get special line from rio products < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > um & # 8230 ; wow ! peter laurelli has been making saltwater fly fishing films for . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> trailer : giant trevally insanity and more in siff13 : islands from peter laurelli < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< div class =\njetpack - video - wrapper\n> < iframe class = ' youtube - player ' type = ' text / html ' width = ' 798 ' height = ' 479 ' src = ' urltoken ; rel = 1 & # 038 ; fs = 1 & # 038 ; autohide = 2 & # 038 ; showsearch = 0 & # 038 ; showinfo = 1 & # 038 ; iv _ load _ policy = 1 & # 038 ; wmode = transparent ' allowfullscreen = ' true ' style = ' border : 0 ; ' > < / iframe > < / div > < p > an amazing video that circulated a while back and never gets any less incredible . we all know that giant trevally are absolutely relentless and vicious predators . this might take things to a whole new level . < / p > < p > from the bbc : < / p > < p > & # 8220 ; watch what happens when a giant trevally versus an tern in this amazing fish eats bird clip from blue planet ii . usually giant trevally are solitary hunters but they have come in numbers to try their luck at catching potential prey . fledgling tern are wary to spend too much time on the water but even flying close to the surface puts them in grave danger . & # 8221 ; < / p > < p > to check out more videos from blue planet ii , please click < a href =\nurltoken ; list = pl50kw6at4ugyv68lmn5 - zjx4d250 - zsgv\ntarget =\n_ blank\nrel =\nnoopener\n> here < / a > . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : giant trevally attacks and eats a bird < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > & # 160 ; when cpt jack ( jako lucas ) gets back from the seychelles , it & # 8217 ; s a . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> photo : underwater giant trevally in the seychelles < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nbut of the 26 key species of sharks on coral reefs , only a few infrequent visitors\u2014namely tiger sharks , bull sharks , and hammerheads\u2014can be placed in the top tier of the food chain . \u201cshark\u201d isn\u2019t a blanket term for a huge voracious hunter , but a family of fish that encompasses a diversity of diets and lifestyles . the vast majority of species , such as whitetips and grey reef sharks , for example , are more akin to large - mouthed groupers and giant trevally\u2014they are all mesopredators .\n< p > t & # 38 ; t seychelles from thomas & # 38 ; thomas on vimeo . it & # 8217 ; s seychelles season and the . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : giant trevally in the seychelles < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > siff13 : islands from peter laurelli on vimeo . several months ago , peter laurelli offered . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : giant trevally and other salty beasts in & # 8220 ; siff13 : islands & # 8221 ; < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > kiritimati island is & # 8230 ; in the middle of the nowhere . that & # 8217 ; s the appeal . . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fly fishing for the flats of kiritimati island for giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > it & # 8217 ; s rare that a book tackles a new subject in fly fishing nowadays , . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> gt \u2013 a flyfisher & # 8217 ; s guide to giant trevally by peter mcleod coming soon < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nnature has gifted them with superior swimming abilities and power that they use when hunting prey . if the prey has not been killed by the first strike , they are then usually killed by the strike impact itself . the prey is eaten quickly as there is high competition with other specimens hunting together . some species hunt individually ( e . g . the giant trevally ) but some also in schools , which increases efficiency . group hunting seems to be a disadvantage only when single prey are present and close to the reef .\n< p > let & # 8217 ; s start by calling it like it is . there & # 8217 ; s no shortage of mediocre . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> book review : gt \u2013 a flyfisher\u2019s guide to giant trevally by peter mcleod < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< div class =\njetpack - video - wrapper\n> < div class =\nembed - vimeo\nstyle =\ntext - align : center ;\n> < iframe src =\nurltoken\nwidth =\n798\nheight =\n449\nframeborder =\n0\nwebkitallowfullscreen mozallowfullscreen allowfullscreen > < / iframe > < / div > < / div > < p > the venturing angler has a whole lotta love for the ferocity of giant trevally . these beasts are strong , fast , and & # 8230 ; giant . in the video above , chris eckley , will sands , and others chase gts at kiritimati island and offer a & # 8220 ; gorilla tape tough story & # 8221 ; after fighting a gt with a broken rod . < / p > < p > to check out more from chris eckley , please click < a href =\nurltoken\ntarget =\n_ blank\n> here < / a > . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fighting a kiritimati island giant trevally with a broken rod ! < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > from squidman productions is a great new video on fly fishing for bonefish . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fly fishing for giant trevally and bonefish in christmas island in & # 8220 ; bones & amp ; gts & # 8221 ; < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nwhat are those dark shapes circling the boat ? with sleek bodies and pointy fins , the back of your mind screams shark ! and with this , your thoughts begin race . i\u2019m definitely not getting in the water . what if the boat sinks ? am i going to get eaten ? ! well , you can put your mind at ease , because those large fish circling the boat aren\u2019t sharks . they are large ocean - going fish called giant trevally , and they are some of the largest , fastest predators in the world\u2019s oceans .\ntrevally are among the more common fish encountered by divers , in a variety of species . these powerful silvery predators patrol the reefs and are often seen preying on smaller fish , making exciting , sudden dashes around the reef and thrilling any on - looking scuba divers .\ncrabs and shrimps often form commensalistic symbiotic relationships with anemones in tropical waters , again for the purposes of protection from predation . for instance the anemone crab , neopetrolisthes oshimai , which is a filter feeding porcelain crab , lives and captures its food from within the tentacles of giant anemones .\ngiant trevally will take live or dead whole fish and fillet baits as well as soft plastics and trolled minnows , but by far the most exciting and sporting way to target them is on large surface lures like poppers and stickbaits . when targeting gt\u2019s by boat pull up in deeper water within casting distance of an area of interest , a reef outcrop for example , and cast large poppers or stickbaits towards the reef edge and work the lure back to the boat , imparting as much action to the lure as possible . upon hookup drive the fish off the reef fast !\na combined possession limit of 20 applies to members of the carangidae family ( including but not limited to trevallies , queenfishes , scads , darts and kingfishes ) except for amberjack , highfin amberjack , samsonfish , swallow - tailed dart , giant queenfish and yellowtail kingfish , where individual possession limits apply .\ngiant trevally , hereon referred to as gt , are a member of the jack family carangidae ( know in australia as trevallies ) . they are the largest growing member of the genus caranx , and are known for their immense power and high speed . they are thick and muscular through the body with a steep sloping forehead and a row of sharp horizontal scutes along the lateral line between the dorsal fin and tail . pattern and colour varies greatly in this species and individuals can display silvery grey to jet - black colouration and none to numerous tiny black dots scattered across the body .\nthe ability of gts to hybridise with other species might also explain the existence of some of the supersized \u201cbrassy trevally\u201d sometimes observed in australia ' s northern territory and kimberley regions , although to date i am not aware of any specific studies that have confirmed or ruled out this possibility .\ni received my b . s . in biology from yale college in 2010 , and a m . s . in fisheries from the university of alaska fairbanks in 2014 . broadly , i ' m interested in biological and physical drivers of evolution and translating my research into sustainable management practices of commercially and recreationally important marine fishes . i am studying phylogenetic relationships of marine fishes in a group known as the carangiforms , which includes the jacks , trevallies , scads , pompanos , remoras , dolphinfish , and cobia . i am also conducting population genetic and phylogeographic analyses on two carangid species important for recreational and small - scale fisheries throughout the indo - pacific : the giant trevally ( caranx ignobilis ) and bluefin trevally ( caranx melampygus ) . much of my research focuses on the western indian ocean , spanning south africa to seychelles , and i collaborate closely with scientists at the south african institute for aquatic biodiversity .\n< p > < div class =\njetpack - video - wrapper\n> < iframe class = ' youtube - player ' type = ' text / html ' width = ' 798 ' height = ' 479 ' src = ' urltoken ; rel = 1 & # 038 ; fs = 1 & # 038 ; autohide = 2 & # 038 ; showsearch = 0 & # 038 ; showinfo = 1 & # 038 ; iv _ load _ policy = 1 & # 038 ; wmode = transparent ' allowfullscreen = ' true ' style = ' border : 0 ; ' > < / iframe > < / div > < br / > if anyone has been looking for increased motivation to pursue giant trevally ( gts ) on the fly , check out the video above . this crew of gts is not to be messed with ( except with a fly rod , of course ) . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fierce and speedy giant trevally on the attack < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nalthough the effects of predation on lower trophic levels are fairly well documented [ 23 , 84 , 88 , 89 ] , the effects of inter - specific interactions between top predators are less well understood . we do know predatory fishes and sharks may be an important source of interference competition for critically endangered hawaiian monk seals in the pmnm . seal - borne video cameras show giant trevally , bluefin trevally , amberjacks , green jobfish , and reef sharks swimming in close association with monk seals , and competing for prey items flushed from cover by the foraging seals [ 91 ] . however , seals still have their greatest foraging success in the presence of these competitors , suggesting benefits of feeding in prey - rich patches may outweigh costs of interference competition [ 91 ] . new technologies such as hydrophone tags , which record biologically significant sounds and inter - animal interactions [ 72 ] , could further clarify the nature and importance of inter - specific competition between top predators .\n< p > < iframe src =\nurltoken\nwidth =\n640\nheight =\n360\nframeborder =\n0\nallowfullscreen =\nallowfullscreen\n> < / iframe > < / p > < p > < a href =\nurltoken\n> gt hunt - official trailer < / a > from < a href =\nurltoken\n> black fly eyes < / a > on < a href =\nurltoken\n> vimeo < / a > . < / p > < p > giant trevally in cosmoledo are the focus of a new upcoming film from black fly eyes . this is going to be a good one ! < / p > < p > to check out more from black fly eyes , please click < a href =\nurltoken\ntarget =\n_ blank\nrel =\nnoopener noreferrer\n> here < / a > . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> trailer : fly fishing for giant trevally in cosmoledo in & # 8220 ; gt hunt & # 8221 ; < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\ntrevally larvae are able to swim against a current when they measure 7 - 14 mm and feed on zooplankton while swimming . they avoid reefs and live pelagically , using jellyfish and other floating objects as protection . some species are known to prefer estuarine conditions and various species are known to have a wide salinity tolerance .\n< p > < img data - attachment - id =\n20125\ndata - permalink =\nurltoken\ndata - orig - file =\nurltoken ; ssl = 1\ndata - orig - size =\n6416 , 3285\ndata - comments - opened =\n1\ndata - image - meta =\n{ & quot ; aperture & quot ; : & quot ; 13 & quot ; , & quot ; credit & quot ; : & quot ; & quot ; , & quot ; camera & quot ; : & quot ; canon eos 7d mark ii & quot ; , & quot ; caption & quot ; : & quot ; & quot ; , & quot ; created _ timestamp & quot ; : & quot ; 1504465761 & quot ; , & quot ; copyright & quot ; : & quot ; & quot ; , & quot ; focal _ length & quot ; : & quot ; 15 & quot ; , & quot ; iso & quot ; : & quot ; 500 & quot ; , & quot ; shutter _ speed & quot ; : & quot ; 0 . 00125 & quot ; , & quot ; title & quot ; : & quot ; & quot ; , & quot ; orientation & quot ; : & quot ; 1 & quot ; }\ndata - image - title =\nchristmas island giant trevally\ndata - image - description =\ndata - medium - file =\nurltoken ; ssl = 1\ndata - large - file =\nurltoken ; ssl = 1\nclass =\nalignnone size - full wp - image - 20125\nsrc =\nurltoken ; ssl = 1\nalt =\nchristmas island giant trevally\nwidth =\n798\nheight =\n409\ndata - recalc - dims =\n1\n/ > < / p > < p > nice shot ! < a href =\nurltoken\ntarget =\n_ blank\nrel =\nnoopener\n> eugene pawlowski < / a > made his way to christmas island last year among many other destinations . along the way , he hooked up with gts everywhere from the seychelles to christmas island . in the photo above , eugene holds up a giant trevally from the pacific side . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : christmas island giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nyou can be gently finning alongside a colourful wall and then see a trevally or two swimming just off the reef . then , in a flash of bright silver they will hurtle into a school of small reef fish and , almost as quickly , retreat into the blue with a tasty snack firmly secured in their jaws .\nour knowledge of the species composition and abundance of coral reef - associated predators in the pmnm comes from studies utilizing a variety of fishing and visual census sampling methods , which collectively suggest reef habitats in this region are dominated , both numerically and in biomass , by a small number of predator species , especially the giant trevally ( caranx ignobilis ) and the galapagos shark ( carcharhinus galapagensis ) ( figure 2 ) . giant trevally account for 55 % of all top predators counted by divers in the pmnm ( figure 2 ) and comprise 71 % of apex predator biomass ( equivalent to about 39 % of total fish biomass ) in this region [ 1 , 21 ] . galapagos sharks are the most abundant elasmobranch , accounting for 9 . 3 % of all top predators counted during towed - diver surveys and comprising 36 to 53 % of all sharks sampled by towed - diver surveys or longline fishing methods ( figure 2 ) ( see [ 21 , 22 ] , j . dale , unpublished data ) . other relatively abundant top predators on pmnm reefs include tiger sharks ( galeocerdo cuvier ) , grey reef sharks ( carcharhinus amblyrhinchos ) , whitetip reef sharks ( triaenodon obesus ) , green jobfish ( aprion virescens ) , bluefin trevally ( caranx melampygus ) , amberjack ( seriola spp . ) , and the endemic hawaiian grouper ( epinephelus quernus ) ( see [ 1 , 21 \u2013 23 ] , j . dale , unpublished data ) ( figure 2 ) . less abundant predators documented from pmnm coral reefs include several other carcharhinid sharks , hammerhead sharks , and large jacks ( see [ 21 , 22 ] , j . dale , unpublished data ) ( figure 2 ) ."]}
{"id": 1328, "summary": [{"text": "alucita lalannei is a moth of the alucitidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by b.landry and j.-f .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "landry in 2004 .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is found in ontario , manitoba and alberta . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "alucita lalannei", "paragraphs": ["alucita lalannei landry & landry , 2004 , n . sp . , can . ent . , v . 136 , p . 553 - 579 .\na new species of alucita l . ( lepidoptera : alucitidae ) from northern chile\nalucita montana : southwestern quebec and vermont , west to british columbia , south to arizona , california , and texas .\nalucita montana : larvae are associated with snowberry ( symphoricarpos spp . ; caprifoliaceae ) in the north , and honeysuckle ( lonicera spp . ) in california\nalucita adriendenisi : northwestern quebec and new york , west to alberta and northwest territories , with more southern populations ( isolated ? ) in west virginia , arizona , and texas .\n. . . alucita l . is the more diverse and widespread genus in alucitidae ( dugdale et al 1998 , gielis 2003 ) . it comprises three nearctic ( landry & landry 2004 ) and 19 neotropical species ( gielis 2003 ) . the alucitids were unknown in chilean territory until some adults of an undescribed species of alucita be reared from larvae in fruits of tecoma fulva fulva ( cav . ) . . .\nthe genus alucita in north america , with description of two new species ( lepidoptera : alucitidae ) bernard landry , jean - fran\u00e7ois landry . 2004 . the canadian entomologist 136 ( 4 ) : 553 - 579 .\nlandry , b . , and j - f . landry . 2004 . the genus alucita in north america , with description of two new species ( lepidoptera : alucitidae ) . canadian entomologist 136 ( 4 ) : 553 - 579 .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nlandry & landry ( 2004 ) also mention an undescribed species found in southern florida .\nthe genus is also represented in europe and several other regions of the world .\nthe adults fly early in the evening or any time on cloudy days , and may sometimes be found in homes fluttering at windows .\nin north america , with description of two new species ( lepidoptera : alucitidae ) .\nan accentuated list of the british lepidoptera , with hints on the derivation of the names . anonymous . 1858 . the entomological societies of oxford and cambridge .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 3c641406 - eea2 - 4ce8 - 9aca - 3b27a8209227\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 7bb0e56d - 39b7 - 4d97 - a666 - 140e1cbadabe\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 245059\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\n. . . alucitidae is a worldwide family with more than 180 described species ( gielis 2003 , landry & landry 2004 , byun 2006 , byun & park 2007 ) . a conspicuous apomorphy of this family is the multiple and deep division of the fore and hindwings , which is little pronounced only in a few taxa ( dugdale et al 1998 ) . . . .\ncompilation of literature and collection records , for the provinces and territories of canada .\nkey to the paraplatyptilia species of eastern canada with description of a new species ( lepidoptera : . . .\nparaplatyptilia atlantica sp . nov . is described as new from northwestern newfoundland and the gasp\u00e9 peninsula , quebec , canada . a key to the four species of paraplatyptilia bigot and picard known to occur in eastern canada ( east of manitoba ) is provided .\nthe spatial and temporal distribution of microsympatric species of marsh - inhabiting agonum were investigated in central alberta . agonum nigriceps lec . , a . ferruginosum dej . , a . thoreyi dej . , and a . lutulentum ( lec . ) were the most abundant carabid species in the emergent vegetation of the flooded zone . agonum nigriceps was segregated from the other species through habitat use , being most . . . [ show full abstract ]\na new species of coleophora ( lepidoptera : coleophoridae : coleophorinae ) from the gal\u00e1pagos islands , . . .\ncoleophora darwini sp . nov . , is described from the gal\u00e1pagos islands . this is the first record of the family coleophoridae for the gal\u00e1pagos . adults were reared from larvae found mining leaves of amaranthus andersonii howell ( amaranthaceae ) on pinz\u00f3n island . adults of the species also were collected at light on the islands of espa\u00f1ola and pinta . coleophora darwini is similar to c . intexta . . . [ show full abstract ]"]}
{"id": 1330, "summary": [{"text": "the golden-tailed woodpecker ( campethera abingoni ) is a species of bird in the family picidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "its specific name commemorates the 5th earl of abingdon .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it belongs to a species complex that includes the knysna woodpecker to the south of its range , and the mostly allopatric mombasa woodpecker to the northeast , with which it perhaps hybridizes . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "golden - tailed woodpecker", "paragraphs": ["nobody uploaded sound recordings for golden - tailed woodpecker ( campethera abingoni ) yet .\ngolden tailed woodpecker , south africa . campethera abingoni stock photo : 5650411 - alamy\nfemale golden - tailed woodpecker , shamvura , namibia . [ photo trevor hardaker \u00a9 ]\nthe golden - tailed woodpecker is mainly seen singly or in pairs in the wild .\ngolden - tailed woodpecker ( campethera abingoni fam . picidae ) kruger park birds & birding .\nin terms of distribution of the golden - tailed woodpecker in the kruger national park you may not see it in all areas . golden - tailed woodpecker : see above distribution map .\nview all pictures of golden - tailed woodpecker view all pictures of golden - tailed woodpecker show section external links ( 0 ) we currently have no external links for this species . more\nthe golden - tailed woodpecker is a smallish bird but somewhat larger than a house sparrow . the height of the golden - tailed woodpecker is about 23 cms and its weight is about 70 gms\ngolden - tailed woodpecker ( campethera abingoni ) is a species of bird in the picidae family .\nmuseum specimens indicate historical distributions . the map below shows locations from which museum specimens of golden - tailed woodpecker were collected . you can see more information on the individual museum specimens of golden - tailed woodpecker here .\ngolden - tailed woodpecker - campethera abingoni ( a . smith , 1836 ) - details - encyclopedia of life\ngolden - tailed woodpecker - campethera abingoni ( a . smith , 1836 ) - overview - encyclopedia of life\nthe golden - tailed woodpecker is mainly found in light and densely wooded forests , where there are mopane trees .\nyou will not see golden - tailed woodpecker in flocks . the bird prefers to act singly or in pairs .\nthe golden - tailed woodpecker is neither endemic or near endemic to the kruger national park . it is however a common resident\ngolden - tailed woodpecker ( campethera abingoni ) a bird feeding on a palm trunk . | the internet bird collection | hbw alive\nthe golden - tailed woodpecker ( latin name campethera abingoni ) is described in roberts birds of southern africa , 7th edition . this bird has a unique roberts number of 483 and you will find a full description of this bird on page 131 also a picture of the golden - tailed woodpecker on page 145 . the golden - tailed woodpecker belongs to the family of birds classified as picidae .\nthe golde - tailed woodpecker has a gold tinge to its lower back and tail .\ngolden - tailed woodpecker ( campethera abingoni ) by derek solomon from zambia xc42968 : : golden - tailed woodpecker ( campethera abingoni ) = recording data recordist derek solomon date 16 - 09 - 06 time 12 : 50 country zambia location south luangwa national park home longitude e31 . more\nthe golden - tailed woodpecker is a southern african bird that belongs to the picidae bird family group which includes birds such as woodpeckers , wrynecks .\nthe golden - tailed woodpecker is monogamous unless its mate dies . in the event of a partner dying campethera abingoni will seek out a new mate\nthe golden - tailed woodpecker is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\nthe golden - tailed woodpecker ( campethera abingoni ) is a species of bird in the picidae family . it is found in angola , benin , botswana , cameroon , ce\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\n> if it ' s not an odd golden - tailed an isolated race of nubian would be more likely than an isolated race of speckle - throated ( on biogeographical grounds ) . you are quite correct that golden - tailed ( abingoni , all races ) is streaked below . don ' t pay any attention to the\ngolden tail\n, they all have this .\nsimilar to : green woodpecker . the ranges of green woodpecker and japanese green woodpecker do not overlap .\nthe description for the golden - tailed woodpecker ( latin name campethera abingoni ) can be found in the 7th edition of the roberts birds of southern africa . the campethera abingoni can be quickly identified by its unique roberts identification number of 483 and the detailed description of this bird is on page 131 . you will find a picture of the golden - tailed woodpecker on page 145 .\nthe nesting habit of golden - tailed woodpecker is to create the nest in a hole in a tree trunk . the bird lays eggs which are white in colour and number between 2 to 3\nthe golden - naped woodpecker has a yellow nape ; black back with white center streak ; black mask continuing along neck ; gray underparts with barred belly . male has red crown with yellow forehead . female has yellow crown with black arc . similar to : beautiful woodpecker . ranges of beautiful woodpecker and golden - naped woodpecker do not overlap . similar to : black - cheeked woodpecker . black - cheeked woodpecker has red nape ; golden - naped woodpecker has yellow nape .\nthe golden - olive woodpecker plain green upperparts ; barred underparts ( some subspecies yellow with no barring ) ; white cheeks continuing to nape . male has red malar . similar to : spot - breasted woodpecker . spot - breasted woodpecker has barred back ; golden - olive woodpecker lacks back barring .\npicture of the golden - tailed woodpecker has been licensed under a creative commons attribution - share alike . original source : flickr here author : flickr user alastair rae . photo uploaded to commons by user ltshears\nthe beautiful woodpecker has a yellow nape ; black back with white center streak ; black mask continuing along neck ; barred flanks . male has red crown . female has yellow crown with black forehead . similar to : golden - naped woodpecker . ranges of beautiful woodpecker and golden - naped woodpecker do not overlap .\n1870 goldsmith colour book plate golden eagle great sea eagle small cape eagle . .\nthe golden - tailed woodpecker is a monogamous bird which means that the bird finds and breeds with one partner for the rest of its life . the bird lays between 2 to 3 eggs and they are coloured white .\nthere have been no changes in the common name between the roberts 6th and roberts 7th edition . there have been no changes in the latin name for the golden - tailed woodpecker between the roberts 6th and roberts 7th edition .\nthe golden - tailed woodpecker is a southern african bird that belongs to the picidae bird family group which includes birds such as woodpeckers , wrynecks . the description for the golden - tailed woodpecker ( latin name campethera abingoni ) can be found in the 7th edition of the roberts birds of southern africa . the campethera abingoni can be quickly identified by its unique roberts identification number of 483 and the detailed description of this bird is on page 131 . more\nsave golden olive to get e - mail alerts and updates on your ebay feed .\nthe golden - tailed woodpecker is found in riparian woodlands , dry savannas , scrublands , grasslands , rural areas and parks and gardens within urban areas . they are found from sea level up to an altitude of 2 . 200 m .\nthe sooty woodpecker , mulleripicus funebris , has been split into sooty woodpecker / southern sooty - woodpecker , mulleripicus fuliginosus , and funereal woodpecker / northern sooty - woodpecker , mulleripicus funebris , based on dufort ( 2016 ) .\nthe golden - tailed woodpecker is known in afrikaans as goudstertspeg . this bird is very common in most of the southern african forests the golden - tailed woodpecker has a height of 23 cms and weighs around 70 gms . the head is coloured grey while the bill is coloured black . the campethera abingoni has a white coloured throat , grey legs and a yellow , green coloured back . the eyes are red brown . the male has physical features that are slightly different from the female bird . more\nthe spot - breasted woodpecker has olive barred upperparts ; yellowish underparts with spots ; black fore - crown ; red rear - crown , nape ; white face ; black throat . male has red between white of face and black of throat . similar to : golden - olive woodpecker . spot - breasted woodpecker has barred back ; golden - olive woodpecker lacks back barring .\nthe golden - tailed woodpecker is a monogamous bird which means that the bird finds and breeds with one partner for the rest of its life . the bird lays between 2 to 3 eggs and they are coloured white . the bird builds its nest within a tree cavity just a few meters above the ground . the hole in the tree is normally reused in the next nesting season . the golden - tailed woodpecker is mainly found in light and densely wooded forests , where there are mopane trees . more\nthe golden - fronted woodpecker has black and white barred back ; white rump ; yellowish orange nape ; golden forehead . male has red crown ; female does not . similar to : gila woodpecker , red - bellied woodpecker . the range of gila does not overlap with the other two . golden - fronted has orange - yellow nape , red - bellied has red nape . woodpeckers with similar backs : gila , golden - cheeked , hoffman ' s , ladder - backed , nuttall ' s woodpecker , red - bellied , red - cockaded , red - crowned .\nthe spot - tailed jacamar , galbula rufoviridis ( including heterogyna ) , has been split from the rufous - tailed jacamar , galbula ruficauda . there are indications that further splits might be needed . see witt ( 2004 ) .\nthe golden - green woodpecker has green upperparts ; green face with yellow stripe ; red cap , forehead ; light green underparts with darker green stripes .\nthe oliver gal artist co . 36 in . x 24 in . ' overhead golden forest ' by oliver\nthe black - cheeked woodpecker has black upperparts with white barring ; white spots on the wings and a white rump ; black tail with some white barring ; pale buff - olive underparts ; red central belly ; black patch around the eyes and on the cheeks ; yellow forehead ; red nape . similar to : golden - naped woodpecker . black - cheeked woodpecker has red nape ; golden - naped woodpecker has yellow nape .\nthe golden - tailed woodpecker has a height of 23 cms and weighs around 70 gms . the head is coloured grey while the bill is coloured black . the campethera abingoni has a white coloured throat , grey legs and a yellow , green coloured back . the eyes are red brown .\n7th dec 2015 amongst others we saw woodland kingfisher at badala park pool , black crake at the palm beach hotel track , giant kingfisher and golden - tailed woodpecker at kotu creek and lesser honeyguide , bearded barbet and white - crowned robin - chat at the golf course . ( greg baker )\nthe green woodpecker has green upperparts with yellow rump ; pale yellowish underparts ; red crown , nape ; black eye patch . male has red malar ; female has black malar . similar to : grey - headed woodpecker . green woodpecker has a black eye patch ; grey - headed woodpecker does not . similar to : japanese green woodpecker . the ranges of green woodpecker and japanese green woodpecker do not overlap . similar to : levaillant ' s woodpecker . green woodpecker has a black eye patch ; levaillant ' s woodpecker does not .\nthe golden - crowned woodpecker has dull brownish - olive upperparts sometimes slightly barred ; black eye - line extends to nape ; whitish face , throat ; brown underparts with white spotting on breast and white barring on lower belly . male has small golden patch with black flecking on crown .\nthe abyssinian woodpecker has a golden yellow mantle ; bright red rump ; barred winds , tail ; pale underparts ; brown eye - line . male has red crown , nape .\nintroduction : the golden - tailed woodpecker ( campethera abingoni ) is another caterpillar hunter , named after the 5 th earl of abingdon ( 1784 - 1854 ) who was possibly a member of an 1834 expedition led by andrew smith , when this species was collected . they inhabit woodland , mountain forests and acacia woodland .\nthe gila woodpecker has black upperparts with white barring ; grayish - tan neck , throat , belly and head . male has small red cap head ; female does not . similar to : golden - fronted woodpecker , red - bellied woodpecker . the range of gila does not overlap with the other two . golden - fronted has orange - yellow nape , red - bellied has red nape . in all 3 species the male has a red crown , the female does not . woodpeckers with similar backs : golden - cheeked , golden - fronted , hoffman ' s , ladder - backed , nuttall ' s , red - bellied , red - cockaded , red - crowned .\nthe great slaty woodpecker has gray plumage ; pale yellow throat . it may be the largest woodpecker in the world .\nthe red - cockaded woodpecker ' s most distinguishing feature is a black cap and nape that encircle large white cheek patches . woodpeckers with similar backs : gila , golden - cheeked , golden - fronted , hoffman ' s , ladder - backed , nuttall ' s , red - bellied , red - crowned .\nthe rufous - headed woodpecker has a red head , throat ; black bib , tail ; creamy colored with black bars . male has red moustache . similar to : ringed woodpecker . ringed woodpecker has darker upperparts than rufous - headed woodpecker .\nthe red - rumped woodpecker has golden - olive upperparts ; red rump ; buff - white underparts with dark brown barring ; blackish - brown tail ; black bill . it is found from costa rica south and east to ecuador , venezuela , trinidad and tobago . similar to : little woodpecker . red - rumped woodpecker has red rump ; little woodpecker has olive rump .\nthe red - bellied woodpecker has black and white barred upperparts ; light gray on the face and underparts ; red nape and red forehead . the belly may have a red tinge . the male also has a red crown . similar to : gila woodpecker , golden - fronted woodpecker . the range of gila does not overlap with the other two . golden - fronted has orange - yellow nape , red - bellied has red nape . in all 3 species the male has a red crown , the female does not . woodpeckers with similar backs : gila , golden - cheeked , golden - fronted , hoffman ' s , ladder - backed , nuttall ' s , red - cockaded , red - crowned .\nthe grey - headed woodpecker has green upperparts with yellow rump ; pale gray underparts , head ; black moustache . male has red crown . similar to : green woodpecker . green woodpecker has a black eye patch ; grey - headed woodpecker does not .\nwhile i ? m happy that it is just a golden - tailed woodpecker , a species which i commonly see in camp , i just wanted to gauge the feeling among the other members of the group as it shows some unusual spotting on the chest and belly where one would normally expect streaking ? which is supposedly the classic id feature for this species .\nthe golden - cheeked woodpecker has black and white barred back and tail ; pale gray underparts with yellow - tinged belly ; small black eye patch ; faint yellowish wash on cheeks ; yellow forehead and nape . male has red crown patch , ; female has pale gray crown patch . the\nblack eye\nof the golden - cheeked woodpecker is unique . woodpeckers with similar backs : gila , golden - fronted , hoffman ' s , ladder - backed , nuttall ' s , red - bellied , red - cockaded , red - crowned .\nthe scale - breasted woodpecker has barred ( scaly ) chestnut upperparts and breast ; chestnut head ; yellowish - brown flanks ; light eye - rings . similar to : chestnut woodpecker . scale - breasted woodpecker has\nscales\n; chesnut woodpecker is not barred .\ndistribution of golden - tailed woodpecker in southern africa , based on statistical smoothing of the records from first sa bird atlas project ( \u00a9 animal demography unit , university of cape town ; smoothing by birgit erni and francesca little ) . colours range from dark blue ( most common ) through to yellow ( least common ) . see here for the latest distribution from the sabap2 .\nthe ladder - backed woodpecker has a black and white barred back . the spacing of the bars is wide , resembling a ladder . it has cream colored underparts with spotted flanks . males have red cap . similar to : nuttall ' s woodpecker . nutthall ' s woodpecker has more black on the cheek . woodpeckers with similar backs : gila , golden - cheeked , golden - fronted , hoffman ' s , nuttall ' s , red - bellied , red - cockaded , red - crowned .\nthe cinnamon woodpecker has ( cinnamon ) rufous upperparts with thin black chevrons ; cinnamon crest ; light underparts with black chevrons ; pale yellow bill . it is found in colombia , costa rica , ecuador , nicaragua , and panama . similar to : chestnut - colored woodpecker . chestnut - colored woodpecker has dark upperparts and underparts ; cinnamon woodpecker has dark upperparts , lighter underparts . similar to : waved woodpecker . waved woodpecker has bolder bars on its back than does the cinnamon woodpecker .\nthe red - crowned woodpecker has black and white barred upperparts ; white rump ; pale buff underparts ; red nape . male has a red crown ; female has buff crown . woodpeckers with similar backs : gila , golden - cheeked , golden - fronted , hoffman ' s , ladder - backed , nuttall ' s , red - bellied , red - cockaded .\nthe white - headed woodpecker has a black body ; white head , white primarary feathers . male has red spot at back of head . similar to : acorn woodpecker . acorn woodpecker has black around base of bill ; white - headed woodpecker has a white face and throat .\nthe pale - billed woodpecker has red crest ; black upperparts ; white lines along side of neck ; white underparts barred with gray . male has red forehead and throat ; female has black forehead and throat . similar to : lineated woodpecker . pale - billed woodpecker is larger than lineated woodpecker . lineated woodpecker has white line from base of bill to neck .\nthe chestnut woodpecker has mainly chestnut plumage ; yellow rump , flanks ; black tail ; light yellow bill ; light eye - rings . male has a red malar stripe . similar to : scale - breasted woodpecker . scale - breasted woodpecker has\nscales\n; chesnut woodpecker is not barred .\nthe yellow - eared woodpecker has dark olive upperparts with mottling ; whitish underparts with gray bars ; yellowish nape ( yellow - eared is misnomer ) ; dark face . similar to : white - spotted woodpecker . yellow - eared woodpecker has yellowish nape ; white - spotted woodpecker has dark nape .\nthe ringed woodpecker has cinnamon head , neck ; light chestnut upperparts with blackish bars , tail ; black breast ; black back on one subspecies ; lower belly light cinnamon . male has red malar streak . similar to : rufous - headed woodpecker . ringed woodpecker has darker upperparts than rufous - headed woodpecker .\nthe blood - colored woodpecker has crimson upperparts , nape ; crimson ( male ) or brown ( female ) crown ; white underparts with gray - brown barring . similar to : red - stained woodpecker . the blood - colored woodpecker has more red on the upperparts than does the red - stained woodpecker .\nthe hoffman ' s woodpecker has black and white barred upperparts ; white rump ; pale buff - gray underparts with a yellow central belly patch ; white forehead ; yellow nape . the male has red crown ; female white crown . woodpeckers with similar backs : gila , golden - cheeked , golden - fronted , ladder - backed , nuttall ' s , red - bellied , red - cockaded , red - crowned .\nmoore et al . ( 2011 ) provided evidence that the bronze - winged woodpecker , colaptes aeruginosus , of ne mexico is sister to the gray - crowned woodpecker , colaptes auricularis , rather than being a subspecies of the golden - olive woodpecker , colaptes rubiginosus ( which itself is sister to black - necked woodpecker , colaptes atricollis ) . further , from dufort ( 2016 ) , it seems that the bronze - winged woodpecker also includes the subspecies yucatanensis . as a result , it takes the scientific name colaptes yucatanensis as yucatanensis ( s . cabot , 1844 ) has priority over aeruginosus ( malherbe , 1862 ) . these two taxa may be separate species , but more study is need here and elsewhere in the golden - olive complex .\nthe striped woodpecker has black upperparts with white barring ; black forehead , nape ; red hind - crown ( male ) ; white face with black eye - patch , malar stripe ; white underparts with black bars and streaks . similar to : checked woodpecker . striped woodpecker is larger than checked woodpecker and has bolder underparts .\nthe nuttall ' s woodpecker has black and white barred upperparts with an unbarred region at top of back ; black forehead with white stripes on the sides ; white throat and upper breast with the rest of the underparts having faint spots and bars . the male red area at back of the head . similar to : ladder - backed woodpecker . nutthall ' s woodpecker has more black on the cheek . woodpeckers with similar backs : gila , golden - cheeked , golden - fronted , hoffman ' s , ladder - backed , red - bellied , red - cockaded , red - crowned .\nas recommended by benz and robbins ( 2011 ) , i ' ve split ochre - backed woodpecker , celeus ochraceus , from blond - crested woodpecker , celeus flavescens .\ncampephilini : ivory - billed woodpecker , campephilus principalis has been split into american ivory - billed woodpecker , campephilus principalis , and cuban ivory - billed woodpecker , campephilus bairdii , based on fleischer et al . ( 2007 ) and dufort ( 2016 ) .\nthe cirmson - crested woodpecker has black upperparts ; red crest ; white lines running down the sides of the black throat and shoulders , which meet in a v on the back ; white underparts barred with black . adult females have white line from base of bill that connects with the white line on throat . in adult males the white line is not is not continuous ; instead there is a white above base of bill and white spot on cheek . female has black forehead . similar to : guayaquil woodpecker . male crimson - crested woodpecker has white above base of bill ; male guayaquil woodpecker has red above base of bill . female crimson - crested woodpecker has black forehead ; female guayaquil woodpecker has red forehead . similar to : lineated woodpecker . crimson - crested woodpecker has white lines on the back that form a v ; lineated woodpecker has parallel white lines on the back . similar to : powerful woodpecker . crimson - crested woodpecker has white underparts with black bars ; powerful woodpecker has black underparts .\nthe checkered woodpecker has black - and - white checkered upperparts ; black crown with white dots ; black nape ; white face with black eye - line ; whitish underparts with fine dark streaks . male has red spot at back of head . similar to : stiped woodpecker . striped woodpecker is larger than checked woodpecker and has bolder underparts .\nlewis ' s woodpecker can be identified by its dark head and red face . its flight is slow and even , more like a crow than a typical woodpecker flight .\nthe lita woodpecker has a large yellow facial patch . male has red crown pathc .\nthe golden - tailed woodpecker is a species of bird in the picidae family . it is found in angola , benin , botswana , cameroon , central african republic , chad , republic of the congo , democratic republic of the congo , ivory coast , gambia , ghana , guinea , guinea - bissau , kenya , malawi , mali , mauritania , mozambique , namibia , rwanda , senegal , south africa , sudan , swaziland , tanzania , uganda , zambia , and zimbabwe .\nin the golden - tailed woodpecker , the male has a red top to the head , with the forehead spotted with small black spots . the female has the forehead and mid - crown spotted white on black , and the hindcrown and nape is red . . this species has a small moustachial stripe from the base of the bill back towards the side of the neck - that of the male being dark red , and the females is black with fine white spots . more\nwinkler , h . , christie , d . a . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . golden - tailed woodpecker ( campethera abingoni ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe crimson - bellied woodpecker has black upperparts ; red creasted head ; red underparts ; off - white face with black eye - line ; off - white above base of bill . similar to : red - necked woodpecker . crimson - bellied woodpecker has off - white face with black eye - line ; red - necked woodpecker has red face .\nthe chestnut - colored woodpecker has mainly dark rufous plumage with black chevrons ; a lighter chestnut head ; pale yellow bill . similar to : cinnamon woodpecke r . chestnut - colored woodpecker has dark upperparts and underparts ; cinnamon woodpecker has dark upperparts , lighter underparts .\n2 spotted honeyguide , 1 greater honeyguide , 1 bronze - tailed starling coming to the drinking bowls . a short walk along the river to another roost brought african scops owl and 2 northern puffback ( martyn hnatiuk )\nthe blond - crested woodpecker has a blond head with long crest ; yellow throat ; black upperparts with white edging ; black underparts . male has a red malar stripe . similar to : pale - crested woodpecker . female pale - crested woodpecker has brown malar stripe ; female blond - crested woodpecker has negligble malar stripe . differentiating between males is problematic .\nthe lineated woodpecker has black upperparts ; white lines from base of bill continuning down the neck and then vertically down the back ( birds from southeastern part of range sometimes lack the lines on the back ) ; white underparts barred with black , red crest . bill usually black but may be pale . males have red line from bill to throat and red forehead . in adult females , these features are black . similar to : crimson - crested woodpecker . crimson - crested woodpecker has white lines on the back that form a v ; lineated woodpecker has parallel white lines on the back . similar to : pale - billed woodpecker . pale - billed woodpecker is larger than lineated woodpecker . lineated woodpecker has white line from base of bill to neck . similar to : pileated woodpecker . their ranges do not overlap .\nthe golden - tailed woodpecker ( campethera abingoni ) is a species of bird in the picidae family . it is found in angola , benin , botswana , cameroon , central african republic , chad , republic of the congo , democratic republic of the congo , ivory coast , gambia , ghana , guinea , guinea - bissau , kenya , malawi , mali , mauritania , mozambique , namibia , rwanda , senegal , south africa , sudan , swaziland , tanzania , uganda , zambia , and zimbabwe . more\nthe golden - tailed woodpecker ( campethera abingoni ) is a species of bird in the picidae family . it is found in angola , benin , botswana , cameroon , central african republic , chad , republic of the congo , democratic republic of the congo , ivory coast , gambia , ghana , guinea , guinea - bissau , kenya , malawi , mali , mauritania , mozambique , namibia , rwanda , senegal , south africa , south sudan , swaziland , tanzania , uganda , zambia , and zimbabwe .\nthe white - winged woodpecker has white wings , face , underparts ; rest is black .\nthe streak - breasted woodpecker is found in malaysia , myanmar , thailand and perhaps bangladesh .\nthe red - necked woodpecker has a red head , neck , underparts . the male has a white ear spot with black . female has white at base of bill . rest of plumage is black . similar to : crimson - bellied woodpecker . crimson - bellied woodpecker has off - white face with black eye - line ; red - necked woodpecker has red face .\nthe sooty woodpecker is also spit into two species : northern sooty woodpecker ( mulleripicus funebris ) and southern sooty woodpecker ( mulleripicus fuliginosus ) , northern found in : luzon , marinduque , catanduanes and the polillo island . southern found in : mindanao , leyte , biliran and samar .\nthe black woodpecker is a crow - sized woodpecker . it is entirely black apart from a red crown . in males , the entire crown is red , but in females only the top hind - crown is red . similar to : white - bellied woodpecker . the black wooedpecker is all black except for red crown ; white - bellied woodpecker has some white on it .\nthe little woodpecker has yellowish green upperparts with a few light - colored shoulder spots ; off - white underparts with gray barring ; gray crown ( males of some subspecies have red rear - crown and nape ) . it is found east of the andes . similar to : red - rumped woodpecker . red - rumped woodpecker has red rump ; little woodpecker has olive rump .\nmelanerpini : garc\u00eda - trejo et al . ( 2009 ) found that the northern subspecies of the golden - fronted woodpecker , melanerpes aurifrons , is more closely related to the red - bellied woodpecker , melanerpes carolinus , than to other golden - fronted races . accordingly , they recommend splitting the other races as the tropical melanerpes santacruzi , known as velasquez ' s woodpecker . it is possible that further splitting will be needed . the names lesson ' s woodpecker and truxillo woodpecker have been applied to some of the other tropical races . i had previously arranged the centurus woodpeckers based on their work . navarro - sig\u00fcenza et al . \\ ( 2017 ) have recently taken another look at the complex , using more genes . the current arrangement , as well as the recognition of centurus ( swainson , 1837 , type carolinus ) is based on navarro - sig\u00fcenza et al .\nthe wave woodpecker has cinnamon upperparts with bold wavy dark bars ; cinnamon head , neck have faint bars ; small crest ; lighter cinnamon underparts with black bars . male has red malar stripe . it is found in brazil , french guiana , guyana , suriname , venezuela . similar to : cinnamon woodpecker . waved woodpecker has bolder bars on its back than does the cinnamon woodpecker .\nthe black - bodied woodpecker has mainly black plumage ; broad white neck stripe ; red crest .\nthe downy woodpecker has mainly black upperparts with white in the center of the back ; white underparts ; white spotting on the wings ; white streak above and below the eye ; black eye - line . the male has red spot on back of the head . similar to hairy woodpecker . downy woodpecker has shorter bill than hairy woodpecker . hairy woodpeckers are considerably larger than downy woodpeckers .\nthe hairy woodpecker has mainly black upperparts with white in the center of the back ; white underparts ; white spotting on the wings ; white streak above and below the eye ; black eye - line . the male has red spot on back of the head . similar to downy woodpecker . downy woodpecker has shorter bill than hairy woodpecker . hairy woodpeckers are considerably larger than downy woodpeckers .\nthe levaillant ' s woodpecker has green upperparts ; lighter yellowish - green underparts ; crimson nape ; crimson ( male ) or black ( female ) crown ; black moustache ; yellow rump ; gray bill , feet . it is found im s morocco , algeria and tunisia . similar to : green woodpecker . green woodpecker has a black eye patch ; levaillant ' s woodpecker does not .\nthe great spotted woodpecker has black upperparts and crown ; large white shoulder patch ; white forehead , cheeks , breast , and upper belly ; reddish lower belly and undertail coverts ; black bill ; greenish gray legs . there is a black x shaped pattern on the side of the head that extends toward the chest . males have red spot on the nape . similar to : syrian woodpecker . great spotted woodpecker has bold black pattern in side of head ; syrian woodpecker has much less face markings . similar to : white - winged woodpecker . white - winged woodpecker more extensive white wing patch .\nthe american three - toed woodpecker has 3 toes versus the normal 4 for most woodpeckers . it has black back , wings , and rump ; black and white barred flanks with emphasis on the white ; white throat and belly ; white eye - ring continuing as white line to the back . the male has a yellow cap . similar to : black - backed woodpecker . both are three - toed . the three - toed woodpecker has some white on its back , the black - backed woodpecker does not . similar to : eurasian three - toed woodpecker . the american three - toed woodpecker and eurasian three - towed woodpecker were once consider one species . their ranges do not over lap .\nthe golden - tailed woodpecker is fairly common in sub - saharan africa , preferring riparian , miombo and mopane woodland . it mainly forages in trees , tapping and probing branches , looking for insects , licking them up with its barbed tongue . both sexes excavate the nest , which is usually a hole in the underside of a tree branch . here it lays 2 - 3 eggs , which are incubated by both sexes for about 13 days . the chicks are cared for by both parents , eventually leaving the nest after about 22 - 25 days . more\nthe robust woodpecker has red head , throat , neck ; white underparts barred with black . there is no white line on neck . the male has a light ear spot with black ; female has white malar stripe . it is found in argentina , brazil , paraguay . similar to : cream - backed woodpecker . cream - backed woodpecker has wider light colored stripe on back than does the robust woodpecker .\nthe yellow - tufted woodpecker has black upperparts , cap ; bold yellow eye - ring and arc .\nthe rufous - winge woodpecker has olive - green upperparts ; inconspicuous rufous on wings ; barred underparts .\nthe black - headed woodpecker is found in cambodia , laos , myanmar , thailand , and vietnam .\ngolden ripple xrp coin isolated on black background golden ripple xrp coin isolated on black background dalmatian pelican perched on a log looking at the camera blackbuck or indian antelope resting on the ground . dalmatian pelican perched on a log emerging from the water dalmatian pelican perched on a log cleaning its feathers snow leopard walking in the forest in the summer season frontal view of a amur tiger in the forest closeup view of a amur tiger in the forest\nthe gilded flicker most frequently nests in the saguaro cactus . similar to : red - shafted flicker . gilded flicker has golden underwings versus red underwings for the red - shafted flicker . gilded flicker has brighter cinnamon crown .\nthe acorn woodpecker has black back , wings , and tail ; black patch around the bill ; black eye patch ; white cheeks , throat , and forehead ; red crown . the female has black between the red crown and white forehead ; the male does not . similar to : white - headed woodpecker . acorn woodpecker has black around base of bill ; white - headed woodpecker has a white face and throat .\nthe cream - backed woodpecker has black upperparts with large cream colored stripe on back ; red head . male has black - and - white ear spot . female has black forehead ; black forecrest ; white malar stripe . it is found in argentina , bolivia , brazil , paraguay , and uruguay . similar to : robust woodpecker . cream - backed woodpecker has wider light colored stripe on back than does the robust woodpecker .\nthe pale - crested woodpecker has a pale - yellow crested head ; dark brown or black upperparts with yellow bars ; dark brown underparts with some barring . male has red malar stripe ; female has brown malar stripe which extends onto face . similar to : blond - crested woodpecker . female pale - crested woodpecker has brown malar stripe ; female blond - crested woodpecker has negligble malar stripe . differentiating between males is problematic .\nthe red - stained woodpecker has olive upperparts with red - tinged wing coverts ; dark crown ; dirty yellowish face ; yellowish nape with some red ; light underparts with dark brown barring . it is found in bolivia , brazil , colombia , ecuador , peru , and venezuela . similar to : blood - colored woodpecker . the blood - colored woodpecker has more red on the upperparts than does the red - stained woodpecker .\nthe gray woodpecker has gray head , underparts ; green upperparts ; red rump . male has red crown .\nthe golden - tailed woodpecker is fairly common in sub - saharan africa , preferring riparian , miombo and mopane woodland . it mainly forages in trees , tapping and probing branches , looking for insects and licking them up with its barbed tongue . both sexes excavate the nest , which is usually a hole in the underside of a tree branch . here it lays 2 - 3 eggs , which are incubated by both sexes for about 13 days . the chicks are cared for by both parents , eventually leaving the nest after about 22 - 25 days . they become fully independent a few weeks after fledging .\nthe guayaquil woodpecker has black upperparts ; red crest ; white lines running down the sides of the black throat and shoulders , which meet in a v on the back ; white underparts barred with black . adult females have white line from base of bill that connects with the white line on throat . in adult males the white line is not is not continuous ; instead there is a white spot on cheek . similar to : crimson - crested woodpecker . male crimson - crested woodpecker has white above base of bill ; male guayaquil woodpecker has red above base of bill . female crimson - crested woodpecker has black forehead ; female guayaquil woodpecker has red forehead .\nthe black - backed woodpecker has 3 toes versus the normal 4 for most woodpeckers . it has black upperparts ; black face with white stripe ; white underparts ; black and white barred flanks with emphasis on the white . the male has a yellow cap . similar to : three - toed woodpecker . both are three - toed . the three - toed woodpecker has some white on its back , the black - backed woodpecker does not .\nthe rufous - bellied woodpecker has rufous underparts ; rufous head with white face ; white - barred black upperparts .\nthe white - bellied woodpecker has many subspecies of varying appearance . all have mainly black plumage ; red crown ; white on some of the underparts . some have white on face or throat . similar to : black woodpecker . the black wooedpecker is all black except for red crown ; white - bellied woodpecker has some white on it .\nthe black - and - buff woodpecker is found in cambodia , laos , myanmar , thailand , and vietnam .\nthe stripe - cheeked woodpecker has olive - green upperparts ; off - white cheek stripe ; white spotted underparts .\nthe checker - throated woodpecker is found in brunei , indonesia , malaysia , myanmar , singapore , and thailand .\nthe crimson - winged woodpecker is found in brunei , indonesia , malaysia , myanmar , singapore , and thailand .\nthe powerful woodpecker has white lines running from the base of the bill , down the sides of the throat and shoulders , and meeting in a v on the back . the rest of the plumage is black , except the male has a red crest . it is found in colombia , ecuador , peru , and venezuela . similar to : crimson - crested woodpecker . crimson - crested woodpecker has white underparts with black bars ; powerful woodpecker has black underparts .\ndescription : yellow colouring in shafts of flight feathers and tail , small to medium - sized with greenish back woodpecker .\nin addition to the other goodies on show in camp today was a campethera woodpecker sp . , see images attached .\nthe black - necked woodpecker has a black neck , upper breast , and forehead ; white cheeks continuing to nape .\nthe campo flicker has black upperparts barred white ; yellowish golden ear - coverts , neck , and breast ; whitish belly thinly barred ; black top of head and nape ; black or white throat depending on subspecies . male has reddish tinge to malar .\nthe white - spotted woodpecker has olive upperparts with yellowish markings ; black slightly streaked with white throat and neck ; black and white barred underparts ; light curvy line above and below the eye ; dark brown forehead . male forehead has red streaks ; female forehead has white streaks . it is found in argentina , brazil , paraguay , and uruguay . similar to : yellow - eared woodpecker . yellow - eared woodpecker has yellowish nape ; white - spotted woodpecker has dark nape .\n11th dec 2015 we found this site to be rather disappointing with few raptors on show . we did see african hawk - eagle and dark - chanting goshawk plus a flushed black - bellied bustard , swallow - tailed bee - eater , senegal batis senegal eremomela and pygmy sunbird but had expected more . nearby , a walk along a track across fields near sotokoi produced an overhead european honey buzzard , a gabar goshawk , african golden orioles , pied - winged swallows , singing and whistling cisticolas , and red - winged warbler . ( greg baker )\nthe eurasian three - toed woodpecker has 3 toes versus the normal 4 for most woodpeckers . it has black on the head , wings , rump ; white underparts ; black and white barred flanks with emphasis on the white ; white in the center of the back . the male has a yellow cap . similar to : american three - toed woodpecker . the american three - toed woodpecker and eurasian three - towed woodpecker were once consider one species . their ranges do not over lap .\nthe stripe - breasted woodpecker is found in bhutan , china , india , laos , myanmar , thailand , and vietnam .\nthe gray - and - buff woodpecker is found in brunei , indonesia , malaysia , myanmar , singapore , and thailand .\nthe red - headed woodpecker has black upper back , tail ; red head , neck ; white lower back , belly .\nthe white - naped woodpecker has a white nape that extends down the back ; black eye - line extends down neck continuing down the back creating a v - shaped border of the white ; golden remaining upperparts , wings ; black tail , rump ; white underparts with black chevrons . there is white above the black eye - line . male has red crown ; female has yellow crown .\nthe cream - colored woodpecker has mainly creamy yellow plumage ; darker wingtips ; black tail . male has dark ring around eyes .\nthe heart - spotted woodpecker has black and white plumage . male has black forehead , crown ; they are buffy in female .\nthe gray - crowned woodpecker has a gray crown , nape ; olive upperparts ; light underparts with barring . male has red malar .\nthe pileated woodpecker has black upperparts and lowerparts ; white throat and neck ; black line on nape ; black eye - line . the male has red stripe above the chin ; female has black stripe . similar to : lineated woodpecker . their ranges do not overlap .\nthe laced woodpecker is found in cambodia , indonesia , laos , malaysia , myanmar , singapore , thailand , vietnam and perhaps bangladesh .\nthe syrian woodpecker has black upperparts and crown ; large white shoulder patch ; white forehead , cheeks , breast , and upper belly ; reddish lower belly and undertail coverts ; black bill ; greenish gray legs . there is a diagonal black line from base of bill to nape . male has crimson spot on nape , black crown . female has crimson crown , does not have crimson spot on nape . similar to : great spotted woodpecker . great spotted woodpecker has bold black pattern in side of head ; syrian woodpecker has much less face markings .\nthe magellanic woodpecker has dark bill ; black body with white secondaries . male has red head . female has black head with impressive crest .\nthe green - barred woodpecker has dark brown back barred white with some yellowish - green tinge ; black crown and forehead ; red nape .\nthe west indian woodpecker has black and white barred upperparts ; pale buff breast ; reddish belly ; red nape . male has red crown .\nthe arizona woodpecker has a brown back ; white underparts with black spots ; mainly white nape ; dark eye patch with white area above ; red crown , nape . female is duller than male . similar to : strickland ' s woodpecker . they used to be consider one species .\nfeb 2017 regular pygmy kingfishers coming to the drinking pots at the entrance , and the guides will find you roosting long - tailed and standard - winged nightjars within three minutes of the entrance \u2013 in each case , you can approach to within four or five feet . there are also roosting verreaux\u2019s eagle owls to be seen ( giles pepler ) .\nthe kaempher ' s woodpecker has buff upperparts ; wing coverts barred with black ; black upper - breast , tail . male has red malar .\nthe crimson - breasted woodpecker is found in bangladesh , bhutan , china , india , laos , myanmar , nepal , thailand , and vietnam .\nthe white woodpecker has white head , underparts with black undertail coverts ; black back ; yellow eye patch ; black line behind eye extending to back .\nthe iberian green woodpecker , picus sharpei , has been split from the european green - woodpecker , picus viridis , based on perktas et al . ( 2011 ) and pons et al . ( 2011 ) . the tif list tries to use the biological species concept when possible . as pointed out by perktas et al . , the case for biological species status for the zagros green - woodpecker remains weak , so it remains a subspecies , picus viridis innominatus .\n25th march 2013 we spent a whole day here from dawn till dusk , seeing 101 species - despite spending six hours drinking beer , spinning yarns and eating a wonderful goat curry with colin cross , the warden at the bird observatory ! highlights were 1 african crake , african green pigeons , 12 yellow wagtails ( of at least two races ) , grey - headed kingfisher , senegal eremomela , african golden oriole , tawny eagle , little bittern , splendid glossy starlings , black - headed bush - shrike , lavender waxbills , orange - cheeked waxbills , black crakes , purple gallinules , grey kestrel , long - tailed nightjars , african hobby , yellow - billed oxpeckers , common snipe etc . ( david bowman )\nthe brown - capped woodpecker has white - barred brown upperparts ; brown cap , eye - line ; white underparts with faint brown streaks ; white supercilium .\nthe little gray woodpecker has grayish - brown upperparts with white barring ; red rump ; brown head . male only has red hind - crown , nape .\nthe yellow - throated woodpecker has green upperparts ; green and white underparts ; red crown , forehead , nape , malar region ; yellow face , throat .\nthe gabon woodpecker has plain green upperparts ; darker plain tail ; yellowish underparts with black spots ; brownish crown . male has red hind - crown , nape .\nthe common flameback has a golden back ; black eyes - line joined to black rear neck stripe ; long black moustachial stripes ; black - scaled white underparts ; red rump contrasting , black tail . male has red crown , female black crown . similar to : greater flameback . common flameback has bold moustachial stripes ; greater flameback does not .\nbased on fuch et al . ( 2017 ) , i have split fine - banded woodpecker , geocolaptes taeniolaema , ( including hausburgi ) from tullberg ' s woodpecker , geocolaptes tullbergi . fuchs et al . ( 2017 ) have noted some other possible splits , but i find those splits less compelling in the absence of closer study .\nthe helmeted woodpecker has mainly brown - black upperparts ; cream lower back ; cream underparts with black barring ; cinnamon colored head brightening to red on crown , crest .\nthe streak - cheeked woodpecker has olive - green upperparts ; scaly off - white underparts ; yellowish rump ; red ( male ) or blackish ( female ) crown .\nthe okinawa woodpecker has mainly dark brown upperparts ; white spots on primaries ; paler head . male has dark - red crown ; female has blackish - brown crown .\nthe scaly - bellied woodpecker ( picus squamatus ) is a species of bird in the picidae family . it is found in the indian subcontinent and adjoining reg\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nthe middle - spotted woodpecker has black upperparts ; large white shoulder patch ; white cheeks and underparts ; red crown ; diagonal black line from nape to top of breast .\nthe hispaniolan woodpecker has black upperparts with yellow - green bars ; black tail ; red nape ; red ( male ) or black ( female ) crown ; olive underparts .\nthe strickland ' s woodpecker has brown on top with a dark rump ; white underparts speckled with many brown spots ; usually three white bars ; two white stripes across their face which join with another white bar on their neck . male has red patch on nape . similar to : arizona woodpecker . they used to be consider one species .\nthe puerto rican woodpecker has black upperparts ; red throat and breast ; tangerine flanks and belly . the male ' s throat and breast are brighter than the female ' s .\nthe rufous woodpecker has rufous plumage ; fine black barring on upperparts ; dark eye - stripe ; small and slightly curved bill . males has small red patches a the eyes .\nthe black - rumped flameback ' s golden yellow wing coverts are distinctive . it has a black rump ; white underparts with dark chevron markings ; black throat and nape ; black eye - line ; gray eye patch . nale has red crown ; female has black crown . similar to : greater flameback . greater flameback has white throat ; black - rumped flameback has black throat .\n5th dec 2015 unfortunately this area is apparently destined to be obliterated by the building of a new sports stadium ; there is already a huge track through the middle of the woods . we did manage to see the regular roosting verreaux ' s eagle owls and long - tailed nightjar . open habitat near the parking area produced african cuckoo , 3 pearl - spotted owlets , a violet turaco , northern black flycatcher , western violet - backed sunbird and african golden oriole plus a pair of lanner falcons and an african hobby overhead . the woods themselves were not very productive , with northern puffback , northern crombec , red - bellied paradise - flycatcher and little weaver the best birds seen , and the drinking pots at the woodland bar were very quiet ( although a large cobra had been seen here just before we arrived ) ."]}
{"id": 1331, "summary": [{"text": "thesaurica argentifera is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by hampson in 1913 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in australia , where it has been recorded from queensland .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the forewings are brown and yellow , with scattered dark grey and white spots .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are dark grey . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "thesaurica argentifera", "paragraphs": ["have a fact about thesaurica argentifera ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for thesaurica argentifera ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nthe adults are brown and yellow , with the forewings having scattered dark grey and white spots . the hindwings are dark grey . the wingspan is about 2 cms .\nseries 8 , volume 11 ( 1913 ) , p . 325 , no . 6a .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nhampson , sir g . f . 1913 ,\ndescriptions of new species of pyralidae of the subfamily pyraustinae .\n, annals and magazine of natural history , zoology , botany , geology , ser . 8 , vol . 11 , pp . 322 - 342 & 509 - 530\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 03535197 - f20a - 46c6 - 9578 - 9b32ce1e465d\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : d3bf5947 - 2f66 - 4f77 - b010 - 195e8f005c09\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : da59b722 - ba76 - 4b38 - ab21 - bc45634578af\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 7e1234de - f60c - 4089 - 81ab - d1ad71d801ab\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 419089\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nsameodes notodontalis hampson , 1899 ; proc . zool . soc . london 1899 : 175 ; tl : sandakan , borneo\nnoorda accensalis swinhoe , 1903 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 11 ( 65 ) : 507 ; tl : siam , muok - lek\nthis information is not automatically synchronized with globiz and can sometimes be lagging behind .\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\na revision of the moths of the subfamily pyraustinae and family pyralidae . part 2\nswinhoe , 1903 new species of eastern and african lepidoptera ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 11 ( 65 ) : 499 - 511\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation ."]}
{"id": 1332, "summary": [{"text": "the large-headed whiting , sillago megacephalus , is a dubious species of coastal marine fish in the smelt-whiting family that has only been recorded from one specimen captured off the coast of china in 1933 .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "although very similar to sillago sihama , the species is characterised by an unusually large head which accounts for 33 % of the total body length . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "large - headed whiting", "paragraphs": ["crotch -\nzimmermann ' s large - headed lady\n- e . us\nhorn -\nhorn ' s large - headed lady\n- southmost texas , az to s . ca\na large - headed elongated fish with long jaws and strong teeth . it is a valuable commercial food fish .\nthe large - headed seasnake occurs in the northern great barrier reef marine park ( fry et al . 2001 ) .\nthe warge - headed whiting is one of 29 species in de genus siwwago , which is one of dree divisions of de smewt whiting famiwy siwwaginidae . the smewt - whitings are perciformes in de suborder percoidei . [ 1 ]\n\u2018the main catches have been monk , megs , hake whiting and haddock . \u2019\nwhiting whiting , ( species gadus , or merlangius , merlangus ) , common marine food fish of the cod family , gadidae . the whiting is found in european waters and is especially abundant in the north sea . it is carnivorous and feeds on invertebrates and small fishes . \u2026\u2026\nmore specifically , the large - headed seasnake is active at night . as such , it is more likely to be caught during trawling at night than during the day ( milton 2001 ) .\nannotated and illustrated catalogue of the sillago , smelt or indo - pacific whiting species known to date .\n\u2018cod , hake , whiting , mackerel and skate as well as shellfish were pulled from the sea . \u2019\ngrenadier grenadier , any of about 300 species of abundant deep - sea fishes of the family macrouridae found along the ocean bottom in warm and temperate regions . the typical grenadier is a large - headed fish with a tapered body ending in a long , ratlike tail bordered\u2026\u2026\nthe onwy known specimen of warge - headed whiting was taken from taiwanese waters , wif no oder records known of , and no information of de habitat or depf de species wives at avaiwabwe . aspects of de species biowogy and importance to fisheries are compwetewy unknown at de present .\nmilton ( 2001 ) estimated that this species takes longer to reach sexual maturity than most other sea snakes in australia ( more than two years ) . this estimation was made using data on the size of large - headed seasnakes caught during trawling and the probability of breeding prior to capture .\nthe large - headed seasnake is one of the three least frequently caught species ( ward 2000 ) and its rarity makes it very difficult to assess changes in its population . however , its rate of capture appears to have decreased between the late 1980s and 2000 ( milton 2001 ; stobutzki et al . 2000 ) .\nthe large - headed seasnake has been identified as a conservation value in the north ( dsewpac 2012x ) marine region . see schedule 2 of the north marine bioregional plan ( dsewpac 2012x ) for regional advice . the\nspecies group report card - marine reptiles\nfor the north ( dsewpac 2012x ) marine region provides additional information .\n\u2018experts want a total ban on cod , whiting and hake fishing in the irish sea , a measure that would affect about a fifth of the irish fishing industry . \u2019\nthe large - headed seasnake is restricted to northern australia ( cogger 1996 ) , including areas of the gulf of carpentaria , the coast of the northern territory , and the hey , embley and mission rivers near weipa on cape york ( milton 2001 ; porter et al . 1997 ; t . m . ward 2002 pers . comm . ) .\n\u2018the bulk of the diet of large congers is made up of small fish , from cod and hake in deep water to mackerel and herring in shallow water . \u2019\nthe large - headed seasnake has been caught during trawling in open water up to 50 m deep on the northern australian continental shelf , and in rivers on cape york ( porter et al . 1997 ; ward 2000 ) . this species primarily occurs where the sea bed consists of soft sediments , such as that used for prawn trawling ( milton 2001 ) .\n\u2018the name , originally a german word , was a general one for any dried white fish , most often cod , but also pollack , whiting , hake , and others . \u2019\naccording to milton ( 2001 ) , the large - headed seasnake is the most susceptible to declines from over - fishing of any australian species of sea snake . this is because it is rare , restricted to the gulf of carpentaria and nearby regions , highly vulnerable to trawling , and has a particularly low reproductive rate ( due to its late age at maturity ) .\n\u2018not only will the cuts apply to cod but will apply also to associated species such as whiting , haddock , sole , saithe , monk , plaice , prawns , hake and megrim . \u2019\n( linnaeus ) -\ncactus lady\n- dorsal spots may be large or small , it ' s the vental pattern that ' s diagnostic . widely dist . across s . us\nsillaginid fishes of the world ( family sillaginidae ) : an annotated and illustrated catalogue of the sillago , smelt , or indo - pacific whiting species known to date / by roland j . mckay .\nsillaginid fishes of the world ( family sillaginidae ) : an annotated and illustrated catalogue of the sillago , smelt , or indo - pacific whiting species known to date / \u200b by roland j . mckay .\nas part of a bycatch risk assessment and mitigation document ( milton et al . 2008 ) , the research and trawl data available on sea snakes in northern australia since 1976 was gathered and analyzed to identify species specific distribution and catch rates . the large - headed seasnake was found to be one of the two species with a restricted distribution around the south and south - west gulf of carpentaria ( milton et al . 2008 ) .\nsillaginid fishes of the world ( family sillaginidae ) : an annotated and illustrated catalogue of the sillago , smelt , or indo - pacific whiting species known to date / by roland j . mckay . - version details - trove\nguinea , m . l . & s . d . whiting ( 2005 ) . insights into the distribution and abundance of sea snakes at ashmore reef . the beagle ( supplement 1 ) . page ( s ) 199 - 206 .\nhistorically , the large - headed seasnake comprised 0 . 4 % of the bycatch of sea snakes captured during trawling for banana prawns and tiger / endeavour prawns on the northern australian continental shelf ( ward 1996b ) . in addition , the species counted for 3 % of the sea snakes caught during the early northern prawn fishery observer program between 1996 and 1998 , and 1 % caught during research trawling operations on the great barrier reef between 1992 and 1995 ( fry et al . 2001 ) .\nparacanthopterygian paracanthopterygian , ( superorder paracanthopterygii ) , any member of a large group of predatory , primarily marine fishes that forms one of about six major branches of the teleostei , or bony fishes . approximately 1 , 340 living species of paracanthopterygian\u2026\u2026\nfrogfish frogfish , any of about 60 species of small marine fishes of the family antennariidae ( order lophiiformes ) , usually found in shallow , tropical waters . frogfishes are robust , rather lumpy fishes with large mouths and , often , prickly skins . the largest species\u2026\u2026\nhake hake , ( genus merluccius ) , any of several large marine fishes of the cod family , gadidae . they are sometimes classed as a separate family , merlucciidae , because of skeletal differences in the skull and ribs . hakes are elongated , largeheaded fishes with\u2026\u2026\nadriano , g . , n . vandenberg , j . mchugh , j . forrester , s . slipinski , k . miller , l . shapiro , m . whiting . 2009 . the evolution of food preferences in coccinellidae . biological control 51 ( 2 ) : 215 - 231 .\ncod cod , ( genus gadus ) , large and economically important marine fish of the family gadidae . the species gadus morhua is found on both sides of the north atlantic . a cold - water fish , it generally remains near the bottom , ranging from inshore regions to deep\u2026\u2026\nthe large - headed seasnake , like most sea snakes , is viviparous , that is giving birth to live young ( cogger 2000 ) . in addition , male sea snakes have two penises called hemipenes , and each is an autonomous independently functioning penis , though only one is used during mating . mating takes place for long periods and sea snakes must surface for air during that time . the female controls her breathing and , as she swims to the surface , the male is pulled along via the hemipenis . males are unable to disengage until mating is finished ( cogger 2000 ; heatwole 1999 ) .\nparacanthopterygian , ( superorder paracanthopterygii ) , any member of a large group of predatory , primarily marine fishes that forms one of about six major branches of the teleostei , or bony fishes . approximately 1 , 340 living species of paracanthopterygian fishes have been described . they range in . . .\ncusk cusk , ( brosme brosme ) , long - bodied food fish of the cod family , gadidae , found along the ocean bottom in deep offshore waters on either side of the north atlantic . the cusk is a small - scaled fish with a large mouth and a barbel on its chin . it has one\u2026\u2026\nas awready noted , de warge - headed whiting is very simiwar to siwwago sihama , but has a head wengf which is 33 % of de body wengf , compared to de 27 - 30 % observed in s . sihama . the first dorsaw fin has 11 spines , whiwe de second dorsaw fin has a singwe spine and 22 soft rays . the anaw fin is simiwar wif two spines and 23 soft rays . there are about 70 wateraw wine scawes . the cowour is uniform aww over de body , wif onwy de tip of de spinous dorsaw fins bwack . [ 3 ] littwe ewse is known , incwuding swimbwadder morphowogy and vertebrae numbers . the specimen described was 158 mm in wengf . [ 4 ]\nthe onwy specimen of de species ever recorded was taken from paoping harbour in hainan , china in 1933 . lin recorded de new species , designating de onwy sampwe to be de howotype of de species . in preparation of a 1985 review of de siwwaginids , rowand mckay was unabwe to wocate de howotype and has presumed it to be wost . [ 2 ] mckay noted dat based on its description , aww features except an unusuawwy warge head where characteristic of de common species siwwago sihama , suggesting de s . megacephawus is actuawwy a junior synonym of s . sihama . the common name of ' warge - headed whiting ' is a straight transwation from its binomiaw name , signifying de diagnostic head wengf . [ 2 ]\nmckay , r . j . , 1992 . fao species catalogue . vol . 14 . sillaginid fishes of the world ( family sillaginidae ) . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of the sillago , smelt or indo - pacific whiting species known to date . rome : fao . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 14 ) : 87p . ( ref . 6205 )\nwith 29 species , the genus sillago has the widest distribution of any smelt - whiting genus , spanning much of the indo - pacific . the genus ranges from the east coast of africa to japan in the east and southern australia in the south , with most species concentrated around south east asia , the indonesian archipelago and australia . many species have overlapping distribution , often making positive identification hard .\nsea snakes that inhabit coral reefs and lagoons can be surveyed by travelling slowly ( at about four knots ) along transects in a small boat and visually identifying snakes observed within 3 m of the path of the boat . species can be distinguished by this method if the water is up to 3 m deep . at low tide , surveys can be done on foot , for example by searching the reef flat along transects that are 1000 m long and 20 m wide ( guinea & whiting 2005 ) .\nrobertson , j . a . , a . s\u0301lipin\u0301ski , m . moulton , f . shockley , a . giorgi , n . p . lord , d . d . mckenna , w . tomaszewska , j . forrester , k . b . miller , m . f . whiting and j . v . mchugh . 2015 . phylogeny and classification of cucujoidea and the recognition of a new superfamily coccinelloidea ( coleoptera : cucujiformia ) . systematic entomology . doi : 10 . 1111 / syen . 12138\nit has been suggested that , for a brd to be effective , it must enable the sea snakes to detect the reduced flow posterior to the device ( milton et al . 2009 ) . when tested , the fishbox brd was found to have a relatively large region of reduced flow posterior to the device ( heales et al . 2008 ) . the position of the brd , forward of the codend , has a large effect on the escape of bycatch ( mainly fish ) ( milton et al . 2009 ) . this position , together with the total catch weight , has previously been found to have the largest effect on the survival of sea snakes ( wassenberg et al . 2001 ) . in addition , the length of hauls has been found to impact bycatch rates , with shorter hauls reducing the volume of bycatch ( milton et al . 2009 ; wassenberg et al . 2001 ) . therefore , the placement and the design of the brd and the length of hauls are clearly areas of future research and management solutions to reduce impacts on sea snake populations .\nsillago is one of three genera in the family sillaginidae containing the smelt - whitings , and contains 29 species , making sillago the only non - monotypic genus in the family . distinguishing among sillago species can be difficult , with many similar in appearance and colour , forcing the use of swim bladder morphology as a definitive feature . all whiting species are benthic in nature and generally coastal fish , living in shallow , protected waters , although there are exceptions . minor fisheries exist around various species of sillago , making them of minor importance in most of their range .\nmilton and fry ( 2002 ) found that the bycatch reduction device ( brd ) was more effective at reducing the number of sea snakes captured during prawn trawling than either the turtle excluder device ( ted ) , or a combination of both a brd ( for example the fisheye brd ) and a ted . brds are escape grids or openings designed to enable smaller animals to swim out of the net , and teds are hard grids placed in trawl nets to exclude turtles and other large animals . these devices have two functionalities . firstly , the devices reduce the number of fish caught which decreases the weight of the catch , therefore , reducing the physical damage to sea snakes caught in the nets . secondly , the devices enable any sea snake caught , to escape ( wassenberg et al . 2001 ) .\nanother cmo program ( called the crew member program or cmp ) was brought into effect in the queensland east coast trawl fishery ( qectf ) during july 2005\u0096october 2007 ( courtney et al . 2010 ) . as part of this program , bycatch data were collected from fisheries such as the shallow and deepwater eastern king prawn , scallop , banana prawn , redspot king prawn , north queensland tiger / endeavour prawn , black tiger prawn broodstock collection , beam trawl and stout whiting trawl fisheries . during the study from 8289 trawls , information on bycatch rates , composition and mortality was collected . a total of 3910 sea snakes were captured from the 8289 trawls . identification of the bycatch was made using digital photos taken by trained crew members . the study found that the highest catch of sea snakes was in redspot king prawn fishery , due to an overlap with sea snake habitat ( courtney et al . 2010 ) .\nprawn trawling is having a large negative impact on protected sea snake populations ( milton et al . 2008 ) . in order to monitor the sea snakes in the bycatch , and their numbers , a crew member observer ( cmo ) program was established in the northern prawn fishery ( npf ) in 2003 . this program aims to ( inexpensively ) collect data on bycatch such as composition , catch rates and distribution during both npf tiger and banana prawn fishing seasons . the initiative requires csiro and australian fisheries management authority ( afma ) to jointly run annual industry workshops to train the crew in the identification , photographing and recording of sea snakes from bycatch . during the 2003\u00962005 seasons , 21 crew member observers on 17 vessels collected data from 7602 tiger and prawn trawls . the observers recorded 4131 sea snakes from 12 species , with over half being photographed for identification and length estimation ( milton et al . 2008 ) .\nthis tool lets you describe a concept and get back a list of words and phrases related to that concept . your description can be anything at all : a single word , a few words , or even a whole sentence . type in your description and hit enter ( or select a word that shows up in the autocomplete preview ) to see the related words .\n. if you ' re really fond of the old system , or if you have javascript disabled in your browser , you can still access version 1 . 0\nor click on the link that says\ntry your query on the old system\nthat appears at the very bottom of the results page .\n, which in turn uses several linguistic resources described in the\ndata sources\nsection on that page .\nfor some types of searches only the first result or the first few results are likely to be useful . we urge you to click on a word to check its definition before using it in your oscars acceptance speech or honors thesis .\nif you get back nothing but junk , try restating your query so that it ' s just two or three simple words . some queries are very difficult for our system . that ' s because not every dictionary indexed by onelook is used by the reverse dictionary , and our search algorithm still needs a lot of work . we ' re continually adding more references and improving the precision of the system .\n) into any onelook search box , followed by your concept . if you put a\nbefore the colon , your results will be filtered by that pattern . ( this is particularly useful for crossword puzzle help , as shown in the examples above . )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nview at ftp : / \u200b / \u200bftp . fao . org / \u200bfi / \u200bdocument / \u200bsidp / \u200bt0538e % 5f14sillaginid / \u200bt0538e00 . pdf\nin order to set up a list of libraries that you have access to , you must first login or sign up . then set up a personal list of libraries from your profile page by clicking on your user name at the top right of any screen .\nwe were unable to find this edition in any bookshop we are able to search .\nyou also may like to try some of these bookshops , which may or may not sell this item .\nseparate different tags with a comma . to include a comma in your tag , surround the tag with double quotes .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all . . .\nbarcode of life data systems ( bolds ) stats public records : 58 specimens . . .\nbarcode of life data systems ( bolds ) stats public records : 0 specimens . . .\nnorthwest pacific : japan , korea , china , and taiwan . possibly to the philippines . . . .\nindian ocean : east and west coast of india . very similar in . . .\neastern indian ocean : india and thailand . sillago intermedius is similar to . . .\nnorthwest pacific : hainan , china . this species is possibly a junior synonym . . .\nnorthwest pacific : gulf of tonkin and china . this species is rare . . .\nindo - west pacific : india and sri lanka ; northern australia from exmouth gulf , . . .\nsillago sihama ( forssk\u00e5l , 1775 ) mediterranean sea : 12900 - 772 ( 1 . . .\nnorthwest pacific : taiwan . this new species is known only from the . . .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nthe genus sillago is one of three genera in the family sillaginidae , itself part of the percoidea , a suborder of the perciformes . the name sillago was first coined by famed taxonomist georges cuvier as a genus for his newly described species , sillago acuta , which was later found to be a junior synonym of s . sihama . john richardson placed the genus , along with sillaginodes and sillaginopsis in a family , which he named the sillaginidae in 1846 . many species , both valid and invalid were added to the genus , and it was not until 1985 when roland mckay of the queensland museum published a revision of the family sillaginidae that the complex relationships between these names was cleared up . mckay further divided sillago into three subgenera based primarily on the morphology of the swim bladder .\nthese subgenera are not universally accepted ; for example , fishbase does not currently use them .\nthe name sillago is derived from a locality or region within australia , possibly after sillago reef near whitsunday island in queensland .\nthis is an exhaustive list of all species currently considered valid by fishbase , itself based on roland mckay ' s 1992 fao synopsis of the sillaginidae .\nall species in the genus sillago are similar to other members of the sillaginidae family in profile , with the distinctive compressed , long , tapering body common to all species . the definitive characteristic for sillago is the presence of a swim bladder , in all but one case ( sillago chondropus ) having a duct - like process from the ventral surface to near the anus . their swim bladders are often complex , further distinguishing them from the genera sillaginodes and sillaginopsis ( which often lacks a swim bladder entirely ) .\nmembers of the genus usually have a silver to gold - brown colour depending on their habitat , with shallow sand flat fish having a more silver appearance , while estuary and silt bottom dwellers having a darker brown colour .\nsillagos are generally coastal fish , inhabiting a variety of shallow water habitats including open sand flats , muddy substrates and beaches with moderately strong wave action . some species enter estuaries and even penetrate fresh water for considerable periods , especially during vulnerable stages of their life cycle . shallow water of a few centimetres is also occupied by juvenile sillagos , especially in the vicinity of cover such as seagrass beds or mangroves . a few species are known to inhabit deeper offshore waters , with fish known from trawls up to 180 m ( 600 ft ) deep .\nvarious species of sillago represent minor local fisheries in their ranges , with many having commercial importance . fish are taken by a variety of methods including seine , gill and cast nets as well as by line . recreational fishing for sillago is common , especially in australia where they are valued as food fish or for live bait for larger species . estuarine aquaculture in india , japan and taiwan has utilized sillagos as an important species , and similar trials have been conducted in australia . they can be very delicious when deep fried .\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . this website uses cookies that provide targeted advertising and which track your use of this website . by clicking \u2018continue\u2019 or by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\n\u2018some of the fish should be firm - fleshed and gelatinous like halibut , eel , and winter flounder , and some tender and flaky like hake , baby cod , small pollock , and lemon sole . \u2019\n\u2018but if you can ' t find the best cod , then use chunky hake , haddock or sea bass fillets instead . \u2019\n\u2018fish such as hake , cod , tuna , swordfish , sole and sea bass could be on - grown by a ship restocking spanish waters according to those behind the project . \u2019\n\u2018the bulletin said the contraction during the fourth quarter was reflected in the species such as demersal hake , horse mackerel and rock lobster . \u2019\n\u2018it is only found in the muscles of amphibians and many fish species such as hake , yellowtail and pilchard . \u2019\n\u2018except for the poor appearance of the very valuable demersal species , hake , monk , kingklip and sole , the vessels also experience a lot of trouble with the ever - growing number of seals in namibian waters . \u2019\n\u2018the only other fish with three distinct dorsal fins are hakes and cods . \u2019\n\u2018the latest hamper included fresh turbot , hake and cod from aberdeen fish market as well as arbroath smokies , smoked salmon and kippers . \u2019\n\u2018the main species harvested are hake , horse mackerel and pilchard , whilst other species such as monk , anchovy , tuna and sole also contribute to this sector . \u2019\n\u2018ask your fishmonger what is best for grilling at this time of year - some suggestions are salmon , haddock , tuna , trout , hake , cod . \u2019\n\u2018other species to be avoided include hake , monkfish , halibut , skate , blue ling , sea bass and shark because they are all threatened species , the guide says . \u2019\n\u2018the hake industry is , commercially , the most valuable fishing industry in namibia . \u2019\n\u2018experts warn that continued intensive fishing would mean stocks of cod as well as other popular fish like hake and haddock might never recover . \u2019\n\u2018asked for his comment , he said it was true that many of south africa ' s quality products ranging from hake to chokka to fruit were exported for high prices . \u2019\n\u2018like all export related industries , the hake industry has been negatively affected by the strong local currency reducing the amount of money earned . \u2019\n\u2018they resemble the true hakes in having two dorsal fins and one anal fin and no barbel . \u2019\n\u2018contraventions of the act related to catching crayfish , hake and toothfish without a permit and offloading catches without inspectors present . \u2019\nstay up to date with our latest news and receive new words updates , blog posts , and more .\nin this article we explore how to impress employers with a spot - on cv .\narchaic words have a charm that never fades away , from french sounding to wondrously mysterious ones .\nanglerfish anglerfish , any of about 210 species of marine fishes of the order lophiiformes . anglers are named for their method of \u201cfishing\u201d for their prey . the foremost spine of the dorsal fin is located on the head and is modified into a \u201cfishing rod\u201d tipped with\u2026\u2026\nbatfish batfish , any of about 60 species of fishes of the family ogcocephalidae ( order lophiiformes ) , found in warm and temperate seas . batfishes have broad , flat heads and slim bodies and are covered with hard lumps and spines . some species have an elongated , \u2026\u2026\nbeardfish beardfish , any of the five species of fishes in the genus polymixia constituting the family polymixiidae ( order polymixiiformes ) . beardfishes are restricted primarily to deep - sea marine habitats in tropical and temperate regions of the atlantic and pacific\u2026\u2026\nbib bib , common fish of the cod family , gadidae , found in the sea along european coastlines . the bib is a rather deep - bodied fish with a chin barbel , three close - set dorsal fins , and two close - set anal fins . it usually grows no longer than about 30 cm ( 12\u2026\u2026\nbrotula brotula , any of about 200 to 220 species of marine fishes placed by some authorities with the cusk eels in the family ophidiidae , and separated by others as the family brotulidae . brotulas are primarily deep - sea fishes , although some inhabit shallow waters\u2026\u2026\nburbot burbot , ( lota lota ) , elongated fish of the cod family , gadidae , and the only member of the family found in fresh water . the burbot lives in cold rivers and lakes of europe , asia , and north america . a bottom dweller , it descends as deep as 210 metres ( 700\u2026\u2026\ncave fish cave fish , any of the pale , blind , cave - dwelling fishes of the genera amblyopsis and typhlichthys , family amblyopsidae . cave fishes are small , growing to about 10 cm ( 4 inches ) long , and are found in fresh water in dark limestone caves of the united states . \u2026\u2026\nclingfish clingfish , any of more than 150 species of small fishes of the family gobiesocidae ( order perciformes ) . clingfishes are characterized by a strong suction disk located on the undersurface and formed by the pelvic fins and adjacent folds of flesh . they\u2026\u2026\ncusk eel cusk eel , , any of about 30 species of slim , eel - like marine fishes of the family ophidiidae , found worldwide in warm and temperate waters . cusk eels are characterized by the union of their dorsal , anal , and tail fins into a single long fin , and by the\u2026\u2026\neelpout eelpout , any of more than 250 species of elongated marine fishes of the family zoarcidae , found in cold waters and abundant in arctic and antarctic regions . eelpouts are thick - lipped , eel - shaped fishes with the dorsal and anal fins connected around the\u2026\u2026\ngoosefish goosefish , , any of about 25 species of anglerfishes of the family lophiidae ( order lophiiformes ) , found in warm and temperate seas around the world . goosefishes are soft and flabby with wide , flattened heads and slender , tapering bodies . they may grow\u2026\u2026\nhaddock haddock , ( melanogrammus aeglefinus ) , valuable north atlantic food fish of the cod family , gadidae , that is often smoked and sold as \u201cfinnan haddie . \u201d the haddock is a bottom dweller and a carnivore , feeding on invertebrates and some fishes . it resembles\u2026\u2026\nling ling , ( molva molva ) , in zoology , commercially valuable marine fish of the cod family ( gadidae ) , found in deep northern waters near iceland , the british isles , and scandinavia . the ling is a slim , long - bodied fish with small scales , a long anal fin , and\u2026\u2026\npearlfish pearlfish , any of about 32 species of slim , eel - shaped marine fishes of the family carapidae noted for living in the bodies of sea cucumbers , pearl oysters , starfishes , and other invertebrates . pearlfishes are primarily tropical and are found around the\u2026\u2026\npirate perch pirate perch , ( aphredoderus sayanus ) , freshwater fish that is the sole member of the family aphredoderidae . the pirate perch is found in weedy or muddy creeks , rivers , and lakes of eastern north america . noteworthy is the peculiar position of its anus , \u2026\u2026\npollock pollock , , ( pollachius , or gadus , virens ) , north atlantic fish of the cod family , gadidae . it is known as saithe , or coalfish , in europe . the pollock is an elongated fish , deep green with a pale lateral line and a pale belly . it has a small chin barbel\u2026\u2026\ntoadfish toadfish , any of about 80 species of bottom - living fishes constituting the family batrachoididae and the order batrachoidiformes . they are found chiefly in the new world and mostly in warm seas\u2014occasionally in freshwater . toadfishes are heavy - bodied fishes\u2026\u2026\ntrout - perch trout - perch , , either of two species of small , dark - spotted fishes of the genus percopsis ( family percopsidae ) , found in freshwaters of north america . the larger species , p . omiscomaycus , grows about 15 cm ( 6 inches ) long and is found in central north\u2026\u2026\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nyour igfa account is your personal portal to member benefits , including world records , videos , photos , and the latest in game fish conservation .\nthe international game fish association is a not - for - profit organization committed to the conservation of game fish and the promotion of responsible , ethical angling practices through science , education , rule making and record keeping .\n\u00a9 2015 international game fish association , 300 gulf stream way , dania beach , fl 33004 .\nfor information to assist regulatory considerations , refer to policy statements and guidelines , the conservation advice , the listing advice and / or the recovery plan .\ndepartment of sustainability , environment , water , population and communities ( dsewpac ) ( 2012 ) .\n( great barrier reef marine park authority ( gbrmpa ) , 2011 ) [ admin guideline ] .\nlisted as near threatened ( global status : iucn red list of threatened species : 2017 . 1 list )\nthe distribution shown is generalised from the departments species of national environmental significance dataset . this is an indicative distribution map of the present distribution of the species based on best available knowledge . some species information is withheld in line with sensitive species polices . see map caveat for more information .\nnational : listed as a marine species under the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 .\nthe species is considered to be rare . it is known only from scattered localities , and is rarely caught ( cogger 1996 ; milton 2001 ; porter et al 1997 ) .\nsea snakes are air breathing reptiles and must come to the surface to breathe , however they can spend from 30 minutes to two hours diving between breaths . they have one elongate cylindrical lung that extends for almost the entire length of their body which is very efficient for gas exchange . they also carry out cutaneous respiration whereby oxygen diffuses from sea water across the snake ' s skin into the blood . the waste product , carbon dioxide , is then diffused out of the snake ' s body , via the skin ( heatwole 1999 ) .\nsea snakes have nostril valves that prevent air entering the lung while underwater . nostril valves open inwards and are held shut from behind by erectile tissue engorged with blood ( heatwole 1999 ) .\nsea snakes are able to avoid excess salt accumulation from sea water using a salt excreting gland , known as the posterior sublingual gland , which sits under the tongue . sea snakes shed their skin every two to six weeks , which is more frequently than land snakes and more often than needed for growth alone . the process involves rubbing the lips against coral or other hard substrate to loosen the skin . the snake ' s skin is then anchored to the substrate as it crawls forward , leaving the skin turned inside out behind it . skin shedding allows sea snakes to rid themselves of fouling marine organisms such as algae , barnacles and bryozoans ( heatwole 1999 ) .\nsixteen devices were tested during a 1998 study ( brewer et al . 1998 ) . brewer and colleagues ( 1998 ) found that the most effective brds , for most sea snakes , were the austed and nordmore grids with square mesh windows . these devices reduced the rate of sea snake capture from one every second tow to one every four or five tows , thus , reducing sea snake bycatch by up to 50 % ( milton et al . 2009 ) . all other devices resulted in capture rates that were equal to , or slightly higher than , standard trawler net figures . the austed and nordmore grids were found to be most effective when they were located within 50 meshes of the drawstrings and well within the maximum distance required by australian law ( 120 meshes ) ( milton et al . 2009 ) . a mesh pertains to a square of line in the net , one mesh being equal to one square of netting .\nduring the cmo project ( 2003\u00962005 ) , the species had a significantly lower survival rate than most other species in the npf ( milton et al . 2009 ) .\nthis cmo program has been used in conjunction with logbooks , requested industry collections , scientific observers and fishery - independent surveys for long term bycatch monitoring solutions , and reflects the npf ' s commitment to the sustainability of all species impacted by their fishing activities ( milton et al . 2008 ) .\nbrewer and colleagues ( 2006 ) found that there was no decrease in sea snake bycatch in the npf when the brd was placed at a distance of 120 meshes from the drawstring . this distance is the maximum allowable distance under australian law ( milton et al . 2009 ) . fishers installing their brds closer to the codend , ( that is , at approximately 70 meshes from the drawstring ) found that bycatch of sea snakes and fish was substantially reduced with negligible prawn loss ( heales et al . 2008 ) .\nduring the cmo program , cmos and scientific observers found that the ' popeye ' fishbox brd showed the greatest reduction ( 87 % ) in sea snake catch rates and overall bycatch by weight ( 48 % ) when compared to other brd types ( milton et al . 2009 ; raudzens 2006 ) . in addition , the commonly used fisheye brd was also found to have good exclusion ( 43 % reduction in bycatch by weight ) when placed at a distance of 66 meshes from the drawstring ( milton et al . 2009 ) . where sea snake mortality is high , more recent studies have suggested that the device should be placed closer to the drawstring , that is , 50 meshes ( courtney et al . 2010 )\nmarine bioregional plans have been developed for four of australia ' s marine regions - south - west , north - west , north and temperate east . marine bioregional plans will help improve the way decisions are made under the epbc act , particularly in relation to the protection of marine biodiversity and the sustainable use of our oceans and their resources by our marine - based industries . marine bioregional plans improve our understanding of australia ' s oceans by presenting a consolidated picture of the biophysical characteristics and diversity of marine life . they describe the marine environment and conservation values of each marine region , set out broad biodiversity objectives , identify regional priorities and outline strategies and actions to address these priorities . click here for more information about marine bioregional plans .\nbrewer , d . , d . heales , d . milton , q . dell , g . fry , b . venables & p . jones ( 2006 ) . the impact of turtle excluder devices and bycatch reduction devices on diverse tropical marine communites in australia ' s northern prawn trawl fishery . fisheries research . 81 : 176 - 188 .\nbrewer , d . , n . rawlinson , s . eayres & c . burridge ( 1998 ) . an assessment of bycatch reduction devices in a tropical australian prawn trawl fishery . fisheries research . 36 : 195 - 215 .\ncogger , h . g . ( 1996 ) . reptiles and amphibians of australia . chatswood , nsw : reed books .\ncogger , h . g . ( 2000 ) . reptiles and amphibians of australia - 6th edition . sydney , nsw : reed new holland .\ncourtney , a . , b . schemel , r . wallace , m . campbell , d . mayer & b . young ( 2010 ) . reducing the impact of queensland ' s trawl fisheries on protected sea snakes . department of employment , economic development and innovation , queensland government .\nfry , g . c . , a . milton & t . j . wassenberg ( 2001 ) . the reproductive biology and diet of sea snake bycatch of prawn trawling in northern australia : characteristics important for assessing the impacts on populations . pacific conservation biology . 7 : 55 - 73 .\nguinea , m . l ( in press ) . a technique for catching and restraining sea snakes . herpetological review .\nheales , d . , r . gregor , j . wakeford , y . yarrow et al ( 2008 ) . effective reduction of diverse fish and sea snake bycatch in a tropical prawn trawl fishery using the yarrow fisheye bycatch reduction device . fisheries research . 89 : 76 - 83 .\nheatwole , h . ( 1975 ) . sea snakes of the gulf of carpentaria . in : dunson , w . a . , ed . the biology of sea snakes . page ( s ) 143 - 149 . baltimore , university park press .\nheatwole , h . ( 1999 ) . sea snakes . in : australian natural history series . page ( s ) 148 . sydney , nsw : unsw press .\nlimpus , c . j . ( 1975 ) . coastal sea snakes of subtropical queensland waters ( 23\u00b0 to 28\u00b0 south latitude ) . in : dunson , w . a . , ed . the biology of sea snakes . page ( s ) 173 - 182 . baltimore : university park press .\nmarsh , h . , p . j . corkeron , c . j . limpus , p . d . shaughnessy & t . m . ward ( 1993 ) . conserving marine mammals and reptiles in australia and oceania . in : c . moritz & j . kikkawa , eds . conservation biology in australia and oceania . page ( s ) 225 - 44 . chipping norton , nsw : surrey beatty & sons .\nmilton , d . , g . fry & q . dell ( 2009 ) . reducing impacts of trawling on protected sea snakes : by - catch reduction devices improve escapement and survival . marine and freshwater research . 60 : 824 - 832 .\nmilton , d . , s . zhou , g . fry & q . dell ( 2008 ) . risk assessment and mitigation for sea snakes caught in the northern prawn fishery . fisheries research and development conservation corporation and csiro marine and atmospheric research , cleveland .\nmilton , d . a . ( 2001 ) . assessing the susceptibility to fishing of populations of rare trawl bycatch : sea snakes caught by australia ' s northern prawn fishery . biological conservation . 101 : 281 - 290 .\nmilton , d . a . & g . fry ( 2002 ) . assessment and improvement of brds and teds in the npf : a co - operative approach by fishers , scientists , fisheries technologists , economists and conservationists . fisheries research and development corporation and csiro marine research . cleveland , queensland : csiro marine research .\nporter , r . , s . irwin , t . irwin & k . rodrigues ( 1997 ) . records of the marine snake species from the hey - embley and mission rivers , far n qld . herpetofauna . 27 ( 2 ) : 2 - 7 .\nraudzens , e ( 2006 ) . at sea testing of ' popeye ' s fishbox ' bycatch reduction device onboard the fv adelaide pearl for approval in australia ' s northern prawn fishery . available from : urltoken .\nstobutzki , i . , s . blaber , d . brewer , g . fry , d . heales , p . jones , m . miller , d . milton , j . salini , t . van der velde , y - g . wang , t . wassenberg , m . dredge , a . courtney , k . chilcott & s . eayrs ( 2000 ) . ecological sustainability of bycatch and biodiversity in prawn trawl fisheries . page ( s ) 512pp . fisheries research and development corporation .\nward , t . m . ( 1996b ) . sea snake bycatch of prawn trawlers on the northern australian continental shelf . marine and freshwater research . 47 : 631 - 635 .\nward , t . m . ( 2000 ) . factors affecting the catch rates and relative abundance of sea snakes in the by - catch of trawlers targeting tiger and endeavour prawns on the northern australian continental shelf . marine freshwater research . 51 : 155 - 164 .\nwassenberg , t . j . , d . a . milton & c . y . burridge ( 2001 ) . survival rates of sea snakes caught by demersal trawlers in northern and eastern australia . biological conservation . 100 : 271 - 280 .\naustralian biological resources study , ed . ( 2013 ) . australian faunal directory . australian biological resources study . available from : urltoken .\ncommonwealth of australia ( 2000c ) . declaration under section 248 of the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 - list of marine species . f2008b00465 . canberra : federal register of legislative instruments . available from : urltoken .\nuetz , p . , ed . ( 2010 ) . the reptile database . zoological museum hamburg . available from : urltoken .\nepbc act email updates can be received via the communities for communities newsletter and the epbc act newsletter .\ncitation : department of the environment ( 2018 ) . leioselasma pacifica in species profile and threats database , department of the environment , canberra . available from : urltoken . accessed tue , 10 jul 2018 03 : 45 : 17 + 1000 .\n. rome : food and agricuwturaw organisation , uh - hah - hah - hah . pp . 19\u201320 .\nmckay , r . j . ( 1985 ) .\na revision of de fishes of de famiwy siwwaginidae\n.\nfroese , rainer and pauwy , daniew , eds . ( 2007 ) .\nsiwwago maegacephawus\nin fishbase . oct 2007 version , uh - hah - hah - hah .\ntext is avaiwabwe under de creative commons attribution - shareawike license ; additionaw terms may appwy . by using dis site , you agree to de terms of use and privacy powicy . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of de wikimedia foundation , inc . , a non - profit organization , uh - hah - hah - hah .\nmarine ; demersal ; non - migratory . tropical ; 23\u00b0n - 16\u00b0n , 105\u00b0e - 113\u00b0e ( ref . 6205 )\nnorthwest pacific : hainan , china . this species is possibly a junior synonym of sillago sihama .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 15 . 8 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 6205 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 12 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 22 ; anal spines : 2 ; anal soft rays : 23 . very similar to s . sihama but with the head length 33 % of standard length .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00468 ( 0 . 00220 - 0 . 00994 ) , b = 3 . 13 ( 2 . 95 - 3 . 31 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 2 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 15 of 100 ) .\ndownload ' aebr 142 monitoring new zealand\u2019s trawl footprint for deepwater fisheries : 1989\u20131990 to 2010\u20132011 ' | mpi - ministry for primary industries . a new zealand government department .\nyour document ' aebr 142 monitoring new zealand\u2019s trawl footprint for deepwater fisheries : 1989\u20131990 to 2010\u20132011 ' should start downloading automatically . if it does not , follow this link to your document .\ndownload ' aebr 110 monitoring new zealand ' s trawl footprint for deepwater fisheries : 1989 - 90 to 2009 - 10 ' | mpi - ministry for primary industries . a new zealand government department .\nyour document ' aebr 110 monitoring new zealand ' s trawl footprint for deepwater fisheries : 1989 - 90 to 2009 - 10 ' should start downloading automatically . if it does not , follow this link to your document .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nan annotated list of lady beetles (\nladybugs\n) of south - central u . s .\n-\nbell lady\n- common on juniper in may in central texas .\n( leconte ) -\nmicro lady\n- e . tx , n . amer . to pacific nw\ngordon -\ndevil lady\n- devils river to laredo , tx ( one spmn from latimer co . , ok , det . khs , 1987 . needs confirmation )\ngenus is very common in c . tx , numerous records from bexar , burnet , hays , kerr , travis , and burnet counties .\ngordon & chapin -\ncasey ' s lady\n- central to south texas , west to az and s . ut .\nound at two sites in the texas panhandle , amarillo and near hart . this is an old world sp . that ' s also present in chile and mexico .\nspecies common in the tx panhandle and western ok and ks . native to australia .\ncarrizo lady\n- only known from type locality , carrizo springs , dimmit co . , texas\n( leconte ) -\nspider mite destroyer\n- northern great plains to ok and east to the atlantic coast as well as along the west coast .\n( horn ) -\nuseful lady\n- coastal plains from brownsville to fl and nc .\n( blatchley ) -\neyed lady\n- mostly southmost tx to fl and scattered e . us records . native to c . amer .\n( melsheimer ) -\ntwice - stained lady\n- widely dist . across n . amer .\n-\ngolden lady\n- trans - pecos , c . az . known from less than 10 spmns .\nmulsant -\ndusky lady\n- common from sc us to s . ca with scattered se us record , south to s . amer .\nhorn -\ncircumspect lady\n- one record near palestine , tx , e . to al , n . to mo . only e . n . amer .\n-\npacific lady\n- trans - pecos , sw us , most records from throughout calif .\nhorn -\nvested lady\n- bastrop and lamar counties , e . us\nwingo -\narkansas lady\n- ok , ar , mo , and sc records , but not known from tx . - very rare sp ."]}
{"id": 1348, "summary": [{"text": "the moor frog ( rana arvalis ) is a slim , reddish-brown , semiaquatic amphibian native to europe and asia .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is a member of the family ranidae , or true frogs . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "moor frog", "paragraphs": ["scientific name of moor frog is\nrana arvalis\n. it means\nfrog of the field\nand it refers to the favorite habitat of this species . moor frog is also known as\naltai brown frog\nsince certain populations of moor frogs inhabit altai mountain in asia .\nmoor frogs / rana arvalis / blue frog . david attenborough ' s opinion - youtube\nmoor frog , rana arvalis nilsson , 1842 history and origin the moor frog was first described by nilsson in 1842 , the scientific name of this species is rana arvalis . rana is latin and means frog . more\nlocal adaptation and genetics of acid - stress tolerance in the moor frog , rana arvalis .\ngenetic population differentiation and connectivity among fragmented moor frog ( rana arvalis ) populations in the netherlands .\nthe moor frog inhabits the zones of tundra , forest tundra , forest , forest steppe , and steppe . in europe , the frog generally inhabits drier and more open sites than the common frog\nmoor frog has slim body , forked tongue , horizontal pupils , short hind legs and partially webbed feet .\nr\u00e4s\u00e4nen kr , laurila a , meril\u00e4 j . geographic variation in acid stress tolerance of the moor frog ,\ngeographic variation in acid stress tolerance of the moor frog , rana arvalis . ii . adaptive maternal effects .\nthe moor frog\u2019s scientific name is rana arvalis meaning \u201cfrog of the fields\u201d . it is also called the altai brown frog because frogs from the altai mountains in asia have been included in the rana arvalis species . more\nsherman cdh , sagvik j , olsson m . female choice for males with greater fertilization success in the swedish moor frog ,\nmilan vogrin | all galleries > > amphibians > moor frog rana arvalis plav\u010dek _ mg _ 6348 - 1 . jpg previous | next moor frog rana arvalis plav\u010dek _ mg _ 6348 - 1 . jpg 14 - mar - 2008 moor frog rana arvalis plav\u010dek _ mg _ 6348 - 1 . jpg canon eos 5d 1 / 400s f / 8 . 0 at 100 . more\nmoor frog is equally well adapted to the life in the water and on the solid ground ( semi - aquatic species ) .\nmoor frog is a carnivore ( meat - eater ) . its diet is based on insects ( aquatic beetles ) and slugs .\n[ geographic variation of sexual dimorphism in the moor frog ( rana arvalis ) as a result of differences in reproductive strategies ] .\ngeographic variation in acid stress tolerance of the moor frog , rana arvalis . ii . adaptive maternal effects . - pubmed - ncbi\nstugren b ( 1966 ) geographic variation and distribution of the moor frog , rana arvalis nilss . ann zool fenn 3 : 29\u201339\nmoor frog rana arvalis barska \u009eaba _ mg _ 1998 - 111 . jpg moor frog rana arvalis barska \u009eaba _ mg _ 1998 - 111 . jpg toads _ bufo toads _ bufo edible frog pelophylax ( rana ) kl . esculentus zelena \u009eaba _ mg _ 1049 - 11 . jpg edible frog pelophylax ( rana ) kl . esculentus zelena \u009eaba _ mg _ 1049 - 11 . more\nthe moor frog resembles the brown frog . he however has a more pointed snout and usually a wide light colored stripe on his back . the main difference between the two frogs is a lump on one toe of the hind leg . this protuberance is much thicker on the moor frog than on the brown frog . such a cusp is useful when digging a hole for his winter home . moor frogs hibernate namely on land and not in the water .\ncolour pattern morphs of the moor frog ( rana arvalis ) in europe k\u00e5re fog colour pattern morphs of the moor frog ( rana arvalis ) in denmark k\u00e5re fog determination of newly metamorphosed froglets of the brown frogs rana arvalis , r . temporaria and r . more\nwhen moor frog detects danger , it will try to jump away from potential predator and hide in the grass or in the soil .\na breeding aggregation of male moor frogs ( r . arvalis ) ( a ) and a pair of moor frogs in amplexus ( b )\ncommon frog ( that is mainly adult specimens ) exhibits nocturnal and crepuscular activity . moor frogs hibernate in scattering on land , in piles of\n[ geographic variation of sexual dimorphism in the moor frog ( rana arvalis ) as a result of differences in reproductive strategies ] . - pubmed - ncbi\n. four species of these frogs were noted in the area of the wigry national park ( there is no marsh frog and no agile frog ) .\nimprovement of breeding success of the moor frog ( rana arvalis ) by liming of acid moorland pools and the consequences of liming for water chemistry and diatoms .\nthe moor frog is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\nyoung moor frogs reach sexual maturity at the age of 2 to 5 years .\nthe moor frog inhabits the zones of tundra , forest tundra , forest , forest steppe , and steppe . in europe , the frog generally inhabits drier and more open sites than the common frog ( rana temporaria ) , including forest edges and glades , swamps , meadows , fields , bushlands gardens , etc . more\nspawning by the moor frog peaks later than that of the common frog . the clutch contains 500 - 3000 eggs deposited usually in one , rarely in two clumps . metamorphosis occurs from the beginning of june to october in different regions . more\nconstruction of underground tunnels across the road ( action c . 1 ) , in areas where there has been the largest amphibian mortality on roads , can help to protect these animals and maintain the proper size of their populations ; this risk occurs in all areas of the project and applies to all species of amphibians , especially the common toad , common frog , moor frog , pool frog and the european common frog .\n) . commercial paints absorb in the uv light , resulting in a maximum reflection of the blue model frog at longer wavelengths than in the actual moor frogs ( fig .\nin the netherlands , habitat fragmentation for small ground - dwelling animal species with limited dispersal capacity is relatively recent . an example of such a species is the moor frog (\nimprovement of breeding success of the moor frog ( rana arvalis ) by liming of acid moorland pools and the consequences of liming for water chemistry . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nries c , spaethe j , sztatecsny m , strondl c , h\u00f6dl w . turning blue and ultraviolet : sex - specific colour change during mating season in the balkan moor frog .\ncommon frog adopt bluish or blue - lilac pigmentation of their skin in the dewlap area .\nkaplan rh ( 1992 ) greater maternal investment can decrease o . spring survival in the frog\ngenetic structure , metapopulation processes and evolution influence the conservation strategies for two endangered frog species .\nis a little smaller than common frog , reaching the length of 8 centimetres , while the common frog reaches the length of even 10 centimetres . the end of the muzzle of the moor frog is narrowing and visibly sharpened while at common frog it is bluntly rounded . pigmentation of brown frogs is very changeable . generally saying , the dorsal part of the body is prevailingly pigmented with a brown colour , spots have a darker colour , which often is black . the ventral part of the body is often pigmented with a yellow or whitish colour and the spots - which are also present there - are less visible at a moor frog and more visible\nan edible frog exhibits typically diurnal activity and - contrary to its name - is a more land - like form in comparison to a pond frog . an edible frog is a large , stocky amphibian which reaches the length of 10 - 12 centimetres while a pond frog is smaller and much more delicate and reaches the length of only 7 , 5 - 8 centimetres .\nhere ' s a short video in case you were wondering what sound a moor frog ( rana arvalis ) makes during the mating season . this footage was shot in the netherlands in 2013 .\nlow phylogeographic structure in a wide spread endangered australian frog litoria aurea ( anura : hylidae ) .\nfine - scale genetic structure in the threatened foothill yellow - legged frog ( rana boylii ) .\nthe moor frog inhabits the zones of tundra , forest tundra , forest , forest steppe , and steppe , forest edges and glades , semi - desert , swamps , meadows , fields , bush lands , gardens . it generally inhabits drier and more open sites than the common frog ( rana temporaria ) , including forest edges and glades , swamps , meadows , fields , bushlands gardens , etc . indeed the moor frog is in the european region probably a more thermophilous species than the sympatric common frog . it frequently occurs in warmer and drier microhabitats . in siberia , the species lives mainly in open swamps .\nare amphibians with long , vivacious legs and well developed natatorial membranes , possess relatively smooth , moist skin and well developed tympanic membranes . there are six species of frogs in poland , whereas the edible frog is often regarded to be a fertile crossbreed created in the course of crossbreeding of a pond frog and a marsh frog . they are conventionally divided into the\ngreen frogs\n- that is pond frog\nlind mi , persbo f , johansson f . pool desiccation and developmental thresholds in the common frog ,\nlind mi , johansson f . costs and limits of phenotypic plasticity in island populations of the common frog\n) . genetic structure , metapopulation processes and evolution influence the conservation strategies for two endangered frog species .\nkeywords : amfibian , reptile , moor frog , rana arvalis make : nikon corporation model : nikon d80 orientation : 1 x resolution : 300 y resolution : 300 software : capture nx 1 . 2 . more\nnatural enemies of adult moor frogs are beavers , while insects such as dragonflies and hawkers hunt and eat tadpoles .\nhettyey a , herczeg g , hoi h . testing the phenotype - linked fertility hypothesis in male moor frogs (\nalthough the northern slopes of the hills still are covered with snow and ice in interdune depressions has not melted yet , spring has begun . eagles and ravens , for which there was no shortage of animal carcasses this winter , returns to their territories . sky is full of winged travelers going home . forests and grasslands are full of bird voices . it seems that the bird songs suppress all the other sounds of nature , and yet , if well - listened , from sun shined waters it can be heard something like a cat purring , whereas distant dog barking , there spawn brown frogs and toads . brown frogs are the very first that start to spawn . their body is in brown tones . in latvia there are two brown frog species - the common frog and the moor frog . both species are difficult to tell apart , but in the spring - mating time , it is a lot easier to do . frog mating songs are different . common frogs at spawning site purr as a cat , but moor frog sounds as if something was bubbling in a huge pot . often these two species are heard in one place . males of both species during mating time turn bluish . common frog male at this time obtains bluish dewlap , while moor frog males also have bluish flanks . in addition , the moor frog has more pointed nose and shorter limbs .\ngreene ae , funk wc . sexual selection on morphology in an explosive breeding amphibian , the columbia spotted frog (\nthe moor frog is heavily built with a wedge - shaped body . the colour varies from grey to yellow or brown . the belly is light in colour . the snout is pointed . the species thrives in moiste forests . more\nat northern coast of courland in suitable habitats frogs are found in large numbers . in snp the common frog is occurred more often , but in some places , such as p\u0113terezera viga moor frog spawn in large numbers . it is included in the latvian red list . as a specially protected brown frogs are included in the appendix of eu habitats directive and the berne convention . frog presence gives the evidence of environmental quality . frogs have priceless role in food chains .\npublications - moor frog ( rana arvalis , nilsson 1842 ) in press , 2009 , 2008 , 2007 , 2006 , 2004 , 2003 , 2002 , 2001 in press back to the top 2009 hettyey a . , g . herczeg , a . more\nfrog and pond frog are present in the central and eastern europe . they are common in the whole area of poland , especially in lowlands . they inhabit all sorts of environments , however , edible frog is mainly observed in larger ponds and lakes rich in water vegetation and much more seldom at riverbanks while a pond frog inhabits small and medium sized water reservoirs just like forest and field ponds , melioration ditches , flood waters in boggy meadows . edible frog is often present in the area of the wigry national park in larger lakes such us : the wigry lake , the pierty lake , the kr\u00f3l\u00f3wek lake while pond frog is often seen in smallish dystrophic lakes - that is so called\nsuchar\n. the dorsal part of the body of\nthe moor frog can be found along the whole coastline of the netherlands , however it is a rare species . there are none living on the frisian wadden islands . it is bonded to a low , damp terrain and needs open water for reproduction . more\njohansson f , veldhoen n , lind mi , helbing cc . phenotypic plasticity in the hepatic transcriptome of the european common frog (\n) that formerly contained large , continuous areas of moor frog suitable habitat . currently , moor frog habitat has been strongly reduced in area and increased in fragmentation . noord - brabant and drenthe differ in their extent of habitat fragmentation . the average distance among ponds in noord - brabant ( 8629 m ) is almost twice the distance among ponds in drenthe ( 4612 m ) . in addition , matrix permeability is lower in noord - brabant because of higher farming intensity , urbanisation , road density and traffic intensity ( van der sluis and vos\nries c , sztatecsny m , h\u00f6dl w ( 2008b ) geschlechtsspezifischer farbwechsel beim moorfrosch ( rana arvalis ) w\u00e4hrend der paarungszeit . in : glandt d , jehle r ( eds ) der moorfrosch / the moor frog . z feldherpetologie suppl . 13 , laurenti , bielefeld , pp 127\u2013134\n> 0 . 07 in all cases ) . in the behavioural experiments , male moor frogs spent almost four times as much time in contact and in amplexus with the brown as with the blue frog model with the differences being highly significant ( wilcoxon signed - rank test ; contact ,\nduring the mating season , males produce mating calluses ( these are black pachynses on the toes of the front limbs ) and resonators in even number inside the oral cavity . moreover , the back of males of a moor frog adopts intensively blue colour during the mating season . males of\njefferson , d . m . and russell , r . w . , ontogenetic and fertilizer effects on stable isotopes in the green frog (\ndriscoll da ( 1998 ) genetic structure , metapopulation processes and evolution influence the conservation strategies for two endangered frog species . biol conserv 83 : 43\u201354\nmonsen kj , blouin ms ( 2003 ) genetic structure in a montane ranid frog : restricted geneflow and nuclear\u2013mitochondrial disconcordance . mol ecol 12 : 3275\u20133286\n) . fragmentation started around 1910 in noord - brabant but only after 1932 in drenthe . because moor frogs become adult in the third year of life ( hartung\nmoor frogs hibernate during the winter . in the warmer areas , hibernation lasts from november to february , while in the colder areas it lasts from september to june .\nvos cc ( 1999 ) a frog\u2019s - eye view of the landscape . quantifying connectivity for fragmented amphibian populations . ph . d . thesis wageningen university , wageningen\nhettyey a , herczeg g , laurila a , crochet p - a , merila j . body temperature , size , nuptial colouration and mating success in male moor frogs (\npakkasmaa s , meril\u00e4 j , o ' hara r ( 2003 ) genetic and maternal effect influences on viability of common frog tadpoles under di . erent environmental conditions .\na fully grown adult male moor frog is up to seven centimeters long and reddish - brown in color . but every year , between march and june , the frog exhibits chameleon - like tendencies . during this period , the frogs emerge from their winter hibernation and are naturally in the mood to procreate . they populate the ponds in the lowlands of central and southern europe , completely filling the air with their mating calls . the sounds they create are similar to the noise of air released from a bottle under water .\nmoor frog has smooth , reddish - brown , or sometimes olive , grey or yellowish skin with dark spots on the back and lateral sides of the body . it has single pale stripe that runs centrally on the back . belly is white or yellow - colored , without any marks . black , bandit - like mask stretches from nose to ears .\nthe moor frog certainly cannot turn into a prince with true love\u2019s kiss . but this seemingly uninteresting amphibian is capable of something quite spectacular \u2013 it changes color from a boring brown to an azure blue , just to be able to distinguish between genders during mating season . the \u2018before\u2019 and \u2018after\u2019 pictures are really quite unbelievable \u2013 it looks they\u2019re two different frogs .\nhedengren i ( 1987 ) selection of body size , arm length and colour in male and female moor frogs ( rana arvalis ) . msc thesis . university of stockholm , stockholm , sweden\nmating season of moor frogs takes place during the spring ( from march to june ) . males become bluish - colored to facilitate identification of potential mating partners ( brown - colored females ) .\ncommon frog . there is a very distinct marking of the so - called\nmask\n- that is a black temple spot , linked with nasal spots in front of the muzzle .\ngrafe tu , preininger d , sztatecsny m , kasah r , dehling jm , proksch s , h\u00f6dl w . multimodal communication in a noisy environment : a case study of the bornean rock frog\n) . the dorsal body colouration in both sexes of the moor frog outside the breeding period is generally beige brown , grey and rufous with darker and lighter stripes running along the back . during their migration to the breeding pond , male colouration changes from beige to an almost uniformly dark greyish brown ( some males appearing almost pinkish before turning grey ) . males turn blue when they enter the pond ( fig .\nuntil 1850 , the two studied landscapes formed large areas of unfragmented habitat with many ponds as potential breeding sites for the moor frog . since then , habitat loss and fragmentation has been more pronounced in noord - brabant . for instance , a study on water retention in noord - brabant showed that the surface area of ponds has decreased by almost 97 % due to direct loss of ponds and lowered water tables (\n) , may contribute to the maintenance of genetic diversity in moor frog populations . alternatively , the numbers of alleles found in the populations may indicate that current population sizes are higher than estimated based on egg clump counts . population differentiation and assignment tests indicated that several populations belong to the same population complex . if populations encompass more than a single breeding pond , drift and local loss of genetic diversity would be diminished .\nthe moor frogs ( rana arvalis ) have finally woken up . normally they leave their hibernating homes around the half of march . this year , they are much later because of the prolonged cold weather in march .\nto make our model frogs , we created a silicone cast from a preserved male moor frog specimen and filled it with polyurethane resin ( neukadur multicast 1 , altropol , stocklsdorf , germany ) . the resulting cast frogs were fitted with artificial glass eyes and airbrush painted with acrylics in either brown or blue resembling the base colouration of non - breeding males or females and that of breeding males as assessed by the human eye ( fig .\ngomez d , richardson c , lengagne t , plenet s , joly p , l\u00e9na j - p , th\u00e9ry m . the role of nocturnal vision in mate choice : females prefer conspicuous males in the european tree frog (\nbut the male moor frogs aren\u2019t trying to attract females ; in fact the brown females do not actively pursue potential mates . it is the male frogs that are always on the look out for a partner , and choosing the wrong partner means wasting valuable time . moor frogs can be found in great numbers at the milicz group of ponds in south - western poland\u2019s barycz river valley . the frogspawn in the region get so thick that the waters of the ponds actually look muddy .\nthe spatial configuration of the moor frog habitat , the habitat types in the matrix between suitable habitat patches and linear elements such as roads , railroads and ditches were recorded from a topographical map 1 : 25 , 000 using a geographic information system . distances between all ponds were calculated from pond border to pond border . to correct for the relative permeability of the landscape mosaic , area and length of habitat types and linear landscape elements were calculated in a 200 m wide strip between ponds ( vos et al .\n) . from each pond all egg clumps found were sampled . from each single egg clump , a small number of eggs were sampled and risen in the laboratory . species - specific characteristics were checked at the tadpole stage . from each moor frog egg clump one tadpole was used for dna extraction . remaining tadpoles were returned to their pond of origin . due to small population sizes , mortality during raising and misidentification of egg clumps , the sample size of some populations dropped to less than 20 tadpoles ( table\n) . currently , breeding ponds are on average 8 . 6 km apart , compared to 4 . 6 km in drenthe . dispersal distances of individual moor frogs have been estimated to be 1\u20133 km , with a strong reduction in pond occupancy by roads ( hartung\nand strongly protected moor frogs and was luckly enough to get as near to them as possible . there are just few days in the year the male frogs changing their colour blue , and usually the time those behaviour takes place is from the mid of april to may . more\n) , and in our study population , both reached the highest intensity during sunny afternoons ( ms personal observation ) . we frequently observed male moor frogs actively searching for approaching females , attempting to take over mated females scrambling among each other . mating balls of several individuals clinging to a female ( verrell and mccabe\nwe collected data for a population of moor frogs at a pond in eastern austria ( 47\u00b010\u2032 n , 16\u00b05\u2032 e ) . as estimated by a spawn clump census , the number of breeding adults exceeded 5 , 000 individuals in 2011 , and spawning took place in dense assemblages where male densities reached 20 individuals m\nis a species easily adaptable to life in anthropogenic conditions . some urban populations of this species are fairly large and safe , if suitable habitats are available . some forms of human activity lead to an increase in the frog ' s number and their dispersal . for example , the construction of forest rides with numerous artificial holes filled with water .\nthe aim of our study was to assess the genetic differentiation between samples from the lowlands north of the carpathians and those from the pannonian basin , including the isolated romanian sample . we surveyed allozymic variation to measure the extent of genetic divergence among these three allopatric groups of populations . additionally we looked for patterns of genetic variation within and between populations to gain insight into the past history of the moor frog populations . since the subspecific status of european populations of rana arvalis was based on differences in body proportions , we also studied the morphometric differentiation of the same samples which were used for electrophoretic analysis to see if morphological variation is paralleled by genetic divergence . a more detailed report on the morphological differentiation will be given elsewhere .\nthere is an obvious lack of dimorphism in this species \u2013 both male and female frogs look pretty much the same . so , as thousands of moor frogs gather at the ponds , it becomes quite difficult for them to differentiate between the sexes . and nature has a perfect answer to this dilemma \u2013 the males magically transform their bodies to an attractive shade of blue .\ndid you know ? in the dense schools of tadpoles ( several hundred individuals per liter ) , density - dependent regulation of development takes place : the density does not influence larval survival rate directly but influences the probability of successful metamorphosis because fastly developing tadpoles often complete their transformation , while slowly developing specimens die in drying wetlands . the name rana arvalis means \u201cfrog of the fields\u201d .\nwe found small to moderate ( f st = 0 . 022 in drenthe ; f st = 0 . 060 in noord - brabant ) population differentiation in the two study areas in the netherlands . the relatively longer time - span and higher level of habitat fragmentation ( including increased interpond distances ) for noord - brabant could be the cause of the higher f st - values among its moor frog populations . the higher degree of population isolation in noord - brabant , compared to drenthe , can also be discerned from the lower numbers of alleles , the fixation of locus rrd590a in eight out of twelve populations , and the significantly lower degree of heterozygosity . a different recolonisation history of the two areas causing different basic population differentiation seems unlikely because both areas are only 150 km apart . furthermore , the range of allele sizes was comparable in both areas .\nincluding forest edges and glades , swamps , meadows , fields , bushlands gardens , etc . in siberia , the species lives mainly in open swamps . the frog penetrates tundra and steppe in association with arboreal vegetation , primarily along intrazonal landscapes of river valleys . at the southern and northern limits of its range , in tundra , forest , and true steppes , the species lives near water bodies : rivers , lakes etc . there the populations of\nwe have not been able to show any effects of other landscape elements . it may be that the positive and / or negative effects are too weak to have become significant after a limited number of generations . however , it may also be that the way in which we have calculated a type of structural connectivity measure , along 200 - m strips through the landscape , does not accurately reflect the landscape as experienced by moor frogs . for a more functional connectivity measure for\nsmall bulky frog , 5 , 5 - 6 cm long ( up to 7 cm ) . dorsal coloration grey , light - olive , brown , yellowish or rufous , during the breeding season bluish . dark spots of 1 - 3 mm on dorsal and lateral surfaces varying considerably in number , arrangement and size . light middorsal band with regular edges frequently present . \u201cbandid like\u201d black marking running from the nose to the ears . belly white or yellowish without pattern or with pallid - brownish or greyish spots on the throat and chest .\n) . finally , a clear coat was sprayed over the models to protect the paint from water and add a realistic sheen . to present the live moor frogs with the models , we attached a blue and a brown model 70 cm apart from each other on fishing rods ( 1 . 2 m long ) that were connected to the two ends of the cross section of a t - shaped handle . the handle allowed keeping a constant distance between the model frogs and moving both models synchronously with the handler keeping a distance of approximately 1 . 5 m from models and live frogs .\ncommon frogs spend the winter under the water , where they dig into the mud . most of the moor frogs spend winter on land . at spawning areas first arrive males . when they have found suitable place , they start singing and waiting for females , which arrive later and at the spawning site spends three times shorter time than the males . rut lasts only 2 - 3 weeks . males stick like a limpet to female . sometimes , unable to find a female , they tend to cling to one another , and even inanimate objects . females are larger than males and therefore are able to jump around with the lover on her back , as if it was a backpack and nothing more . female releases spawn at the bottom of water body , at the same time ' backpack ' - the male releases sperm and it is done - the spawn is fertilized . after a day pericarp swells up and rises to the surface . depending on water temperature , sooner or later from the spawn will hatch tadpoles .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthe intraspecific systematics of this species need further study . animals from the altai mountains have for a long time been considered as a separate subspecies of rana arvalis or as the species rana altaica . this has largely been on the basis of their shorter shins and large inner metatarsal tubercle . similar frogs have since been found in other parts of the range of rana arvalis ( e . g . . in the north of european russia and in the urals ) and in siberia some animals display transient characters between rana arvalis and the altaic taxon . until this taxonomic issue is fully resolved we include rana altaica within rana arvalis .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , tolerance of a broad range of habitats , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis species is found throughout most of the northern , central and eastern parts of europe , eastwards to siberia ( yakutia and baikal lake ) , russia and xinjiang province , china . it is no longer believed to be present in serbia and the original records were probably in error ( kalezic and dzukic 2001 ) . it is typically a lowland species , but can occur at altitudes close to 1 , 500 m asl ( altai mountains ) .\nit is generally common , and is abundant in central - eastern europe . it is extinct in switzerland in the extreme southwestern part of its wide range . it is considered to be rare and declining in china .\nit occurs in a wide variety of habitats including tundra , forest tundra , forest , forest steppe , steppe , forest edges and glades , semi - desert , swamps , peatlands , moorlands , meadows , fields , bush lands , gardens . it has a breeding season , and spawning and larval development takes place in various stagnant water bodies of low acidity , including lakes , ponds , swamps , puddles and ditches . there is some evidence that the species can occur in agricultural landscapes , and in some areas it appears to be adapting to urban conditions ( e . g . vershinin 1997 ) .\nit is threatened by the destruction and pollution of breeding ponds ( including acidification ) and adjacent wetland and terrestrial habitats , especially through urbanization , recreation , tourism , industry and overstocking of cattle . additional threats are prolonged drought and predation of spawn by waterfowl . chytrid fungus was detected in this species in berlin , germany - however the extent to which this is a threat is unknown .\nit is listed on appendix ii of the berne convention and on annex iv of the eu natural habitats directive . it is protected by national legislation in many countries and has been recorded in a number of national and sub - national red data books and lists . it is presumed to be present in a many protected areas . in parts of the species ' range , mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established .\nreformatted names of assessor ( s ) , reviewer ( s ) , contributor ( s ) , facilitator ( s ) and / or compiler ( s ) .\n( errata version published in 2016 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2009 : e . t58548a86232114 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ndistribution : eastern and northern parts of europe , normally at low altitudes . westernmost region is the alsace ; southernmost regions in croatia - romania . absent from great britain and ireland . size : about 4 - 6 . 5 cm ; about 4 - 6 . 5 cm pupil : , horizontally elliptic ;\nbern convention ( annex 3 ) ; red data books of rostov province and buryatia republic , both in russia .\nseem to be isolated . spawning and early development occurs in stagnant waters , including lakes , ponds , swamps , puddles and ditches , which are from several meters to some hectares in area and from few centimeters to two meters in depth .\nis one of the most abundant amphibians in the central and eastern europe , as well as west siberia . there , its population density reaches several hundred individuals per hectare . local density may be higher , such as in breeding ponds where 15 - 20 individuals per 1 m\nthe proportion of the two species varies also by year , and in some areas the dominance of one or another species alternates . density - dependent regulation is important in overcrowded tadpole groups , where several hundred individuals per liter sometimes occur , as well as in the dense groups of recently metamorphosed froglets . however , habitat peculiarities and fluctuations in weather and climate appear to be more important in terms of the overall population dynamics .\nthe species is generally neither declining , nor threatened . however , isolated peripheral populations may be vulnerable from human influences and deserve special attention or protection . only in some areas highly transformed by people ( destruction of breeding ponds and adjacent terrestrial habitats , especially during urbanization , recreation and the overpasturage of cattle ) have the populations declined .\nin addition to the above mentioned anthropogenic factors of the species local declines , industrial pollution also negatively affects populations , including those living in cities . it leads to an increase of frequency of morphological abnormalities and disturbances in embryonic and larval development . nevertheless ,\nbannikov , a . g . , darevsky , i . s . and rustamov , a . k . ( 1971 ) .\nbannikov , a . g . , darevsky , i . s . , ishchenko , v . g . , rustamov , a . k . , and szczerbak , n . n . ( 1977 ) .\nopredelitel zemnovodnykh i presmykayushchikhsya fauny sssr [ guide to amphibians and reptiles of the ussr fauna ] .\ndinamicheskii polimophizm burykh lyagushek fauny sssr [ dynamic polymorphism of the brown frogs of ussr fauna ] .\nishchenko , v . g . and ledentsov , a . v . ( 1985 ) . ' ' [ ecological aspects of the postmetamorphic growth in\nfauna of russia and adjacent countries : amphibians ( english translation of nikolsky , 1918 , faune de la russie et des pays limitrophes . amphibiens . acad\u00e9mie russe des sciences , petrograd , ussr ) .\nm\u00e9moires de l ' acad\u00e9mie imp\u00e9riale des sciences de st . - p\u00e9tersbourg , s\u00e9rie 8 , phys . - math , vol . 17 , sofia , moscow .\nszczerbak , n . n . and szczerban , m . i . ( 1980 ) .\nterent ' ev , p . v . and chernov , s . a ( 1965 ) .\nsergius l . kuzmin ( ipe51 at yahoo . com ) , institute of ecology and evolution , russian academy of sciences , moscow\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nadults consume mainly terrestrial prey , aquatic invertebrates ( slugs , diving beetles etc . ) are irregularly consumed in smaller proportions .\nfor air transport , container note 45 of the iata live animals regulations should be followed .\nthis species is found throughout most of the northern , central and eastern parts of europe , eastwards to siberia ( yakutia and baikal lake ) , russia and xinjiang province , china . it is no longer believed to be present in serbia and the original records were probably in error ( kalezic and dzukic , 2001 ) . it is typically a lowland species , but can occur at altitudes close to 1 , 500m asl . ( altai mountains ) .\nhans - martin braun removed a common name in an unknown language from\nrana arvalis nilsson , 1842\n.\nhans - martin braun added an unknown common name in an unknown language to\nrana arvalis nilsson , 1842\n.\nc . michael hogan marked\nrange description\nas visible on the\nrana arvalis nilsson , 1842\npage .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmales attract females via loud\nwaugh , waugh\ncalls , which resemble the sound that empty bottle produces when placed in the water .\nspawning lasts 3 to 28 days . females lay one or two sets of 1 . 000 to 3 . 000 eggs in the shallow , warm water .\ntadpoles feed on algae and small aquatic invertebrates . they complete their transformation into froglets ( young frogs ) from june to october ( depending on the location and temperature ) . slowly transforming tadpoles often die before they complete metamorphosis due to drying of the pools .\nthis is a clip from\nrhythms of nature in the barycz valley\nmovie . this film tells the story about nature in the barycz river valley and enormous milicz ponds . this area is located in the south - western part of poland ( in the middle of europe ) . i and my wife made it for 2 years . sir david attenborough , a world - famous bbc nature documentary film maker , after watching the film\nrhythms of nature in the barycz valley\nwrote :\ni have viewed rhythms of nature with great pleasure . a lovely place , beautifully filmed\nmore on urltoken\nthe males arrive at the shallowest ends of the ponds before the females . they turn blue for just a week and let out their mating calls , waiting for their partners to arrive . when the females finally decide to make an appearance , the males move around a lot , eager to find their potential mates . when a suitable female is spotted , they rush towards her all at once . in all the confusion , it\u2019s actually quite easy to make a mistake . but despite all the color change , the males do end up choosing the wrong partner at times !\nreal - life dr . doolittle claims she can communicate with animals , even dead ones\nwoman swept away by wave 1 . 5 years ago recently found unconscious on nearby beach , wearing the same clothes as when she disappeared\nurltoken 2008 - 2018 - oddity central is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial - no derivative works 3 . 0 unported license\nif you liked this story , like & follow us on facebook for more .\nwe use cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience on our website . if you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it . more info in our cookies policy page .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ndepartment of aquatic ecology and biogeology , catholic university of nijmegen , toernooiveld , 6525 ed nijmegen , the netherlands .\na curated database of candidate human ageing - related genes and genes associated with longevity and / or ageing in model organisms .\na curated database of genes associated with dietary restriction in model organisms either from genetic manipulation experiments or gene expression profiling .\nprojects focused on gene expression profiling of ageing and of dietary manipulations of ageing , such as caloric restriction .\nsoftware for ageing research , including the ageing research computational tools ( arct ) perl toolkit .\na curated database of ageing and life history information in animals , including extensive longevity records .\nthe benchmark genome assembly and annotation of the long - lived , cancer - resistant naked mole - rat ( heterocephalus glaber ) .\na high - coverage genome of the bowhead whale ( balaena mysticetus ) , the longest - lived mammal .\nanalyses using the anage database to study the evolution of longevity and ageing in vertebrate lineages .\na portal of ageing changes covering different biological levels , integrating molecular , physiological and pathological age - related data .\nthe whosage database contains people and biotech companies that are contributing to increase our understanding of ageing and life - extension .\nin the wild , females may live up to 11 years [ 0525 ] .\ncomments , suggestions , ideas , and bug reports are welcome . please contact us .\nreceived 2012 jun 16 ; revised 2012 sep 3 ; accepted 2012 sep 5 .\nthe online version of this article ( doi : 10 . 1007 / s00265 - 012 - 1412 - 6 ) contains supplementary material , which is available to authorized users .\n) is a typical explosive breeder but differs from many similar species by the spectacular blue and dynamically changing nuptial colouration of males , which is maintained during the breeding period ( ries et al .\n) , but the question of its communicative significance has remained largely unresolved . male blueness has been reported to be more intense in mated compared to non - mated males ( hedengren\n) . upon arriving at the breeding pond , males establish large assemblages of several hundred individuals around suitable communal spawning sites ( fig .\n) . we then measured body mass of each male to the nearest 0 . 1 g using an electronic miniscale and snout - urostyle length ( sul ) to the nearest 0 . 1 mm using vernier callipers and released all individuals immediately after data collection 100 m away from the spot of capture . from the obtained body measurements , we computed the scaled mass index\nwhere m i and l i are the body mass and the sul of individual i , respectively ; b sma is the scaling exponent estimated by the standardised major axis ( sma ) regression of m on l ; l 0 is the mean sul for our population . the sma regression was performed with the freeware program smatr ( falster et al . 2006 ) . male sul and ibc have been shown to influence male mating success in explosive breeders and could be indicative of male quality ( davies and halliday 1977 ; h\u00f6glund and s\u00e4terberg 1989 ; v\u00e1squez and pfennig 2007 ; hettyey et al . 2009d ) .\n) nor in sul , body mass or ibc from their non - mated rivals . average sul \u00b1 standard error ( se ) of the 19 non - mated and the 20 mated males was 56 . 96 \u00b1 1 . 13 and 56 . 57 \u00b1 0 . 8 mm ; mean body mass \u00b1 se was 27 . 28 \u00b1 1 . 77 and 25 . 26 \u00b1 1 . 49 g , and mean\n> 0 . 1 for all comparisons ) . we also found no significant correlation between colour variables and male frogs\u2019 body mass , sul and\nwe thank r . illek for his help with making the model frogs , s . sz\u00e1mad\u00f3 and two anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments on the manuscript , f . kottulinsky for the access to his property , and j . cornils , h . krebs , m . pluch , t . schernhammer , i . starnberger and k . veitschegger for their assistance in behavioural experiments . field work was conducted under permit number fa13c - 53s - 7 / 2011 - 89 , and the study was supported by the austrian science fund fwf - p22069 .\nall experiments reported in this article comply with the current laws of austria , the country in which they were performed .\nthis article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license which permits any use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author ( s ) and the source are credited .\namphibiaweb : information on amphibian biology and conservation . ( 2012 ) available at : urltoken . accessed : april 2012\narak a . male - male competition and mate choice in anuran amphibians . in : bateson p , editor .\nbagnara jt , fernandez pj , fujii r . on the blue coloration of vertebrates .\nbrehm ae ( 1893 ) brehms thierleben : allgemeine kunde des thierreichs , kriechthiere , lurche und fische : 1 . die kriechthiere und lurche . bibliographisches institut leipzig und wien\nbretman a , gage mjg , chapman t . quick - change artists : male plastic behavioural responses to rivals .\nchan r , stuart - fox d , jessop ts . why are females ornamented ? a test of the courtship stimulation and courtship rejection hypotheses .\ncharles gk , ord tj . factors leading to the evolution and maintenance of a male ornament in territorial species .\ndoucet sm , mennill dj . dynamic sexual dichromatism in an explosively breeding neotropical toad .\nfalster ds , warton di , wright j ( 2006 ) smatr : standardised major axis tests & routines version 2 . 0 . computer program available at urltoken\ngomez d ( 2006 ) avicol , a program to analyse spectrometric data . free program available at urltoken\nhebets ea , uetz gw . leg ornamentation and the efficacy of courtship display in four species of wolf spider ( araneae : lycosidae )\nhettyey a , baksay s , vagi b , hoi h . counterstrategies by female frogs to sexual coercion by heterospecifics .\nhettyey a , vagi b , hevizi g , toeroek j . changes in sperm stores , ejaculate size , fertilization success , and sexual motivation over repeated matings in the common toad ,\nh\u00f6dl w , amezquita a . visual signaling in anuran amphibians . in : ryan mj , editor .\nhoffman ea , blouin ms . a review of colour and pattern polymorphisms in anurans .\n: the effects of sex ratios and the time available for male male competition .\nh\u00f6glund j , robertson jgm . random mating by size in a population of common toads\nh\u00f6glund j , robertson jgm . chorusing behavior , a density - dependent alternative mating strategy in male common toads (\nh\u00f6glund j , s\u00e4terberg l . sexual selection in common toads : correlates with age and body size .\njohnstone ra , reynolds jd , deutsch jc . mutual mate choice and sex differences in choosiness .\nkelly cd , bussiere lf , gwynne dt . sexual selection for male mobility in a giant insect with female - biased size dimorphism .\nlachmann m , bergstrom ct . signalling among relatives ii . beyond the tower of babel .\nmarco a , lizana m . the absence of species and sex recognition during mate search by male common toads\nmilinski m , bakker tcm . female sticklebacks use male coloration in mate choice and hence avoid parasitized males .\nmoya - larano j , el - sayyid met , fox cw . smaller beetles are better scramble competitors at cooler temperatures .\npeig j , green aj . new perspectives for estimating body condition from mass / length data : the scaled mass index as an alternative method .\np\u00e9ter a ( 2011 ) solomon coder ( version beta 11 . 01 . 22 ) : a simple solution for behavior coding . computer programm available at urltoken\npomfret jc , knell rj . crowding , sex ratio and horn evolution in a south african beetle community .\nsheldon bc , arponen h , laurila a , crochet pa , meril\u00e4 j . sire coloration influences offspring survival under predation risk in the moorfrog .\nszamado s . the cost of honesty and the fallacy of the handicap principle .\nsztatecsny m , jehle r , burke t , h\u00f6dl w . female polyandry under male harassment : the case of the common toad (\nsztatecsny m , strondl c , baierl a , ries c , h\u00f6dl w . chin up : are the bright throats of male common frogs a condition - independent visual cue ?"]}
{"id": 1353, "summary": [{"text": "the pacific footballfish ( himantolophus sagamius ) is a species found in the pacific : kuril-kamchatka trough , coast of the hokkaido and honshu islands ( gulf of sagami ) , and from california to peru . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "pacific footballfish", "paragraphs": ["pacific footballfish , himantolophus sagamius ( tanaka ) ( teleostei : himantolophidae ) , found in the surf - zone at del mar , san diego county , california\nby cynthia klepadlo , phillip a . hastings et al .\npacific : new guinea , japan , hawaiian islands , california ( u . s . a . ) , ecuador .\npacific footballfish , himantolophus sagamius ( tanaka ) ( teleostei : himantolophidae ) , found in the surf - zone at del mar , san diego county , california , with . . . ( southern california academy of sciences ) publisher : learn how customers can search inside this book . more\nin 1985 , deep - sea fishermen in monterey bay , california , hauled up their nets to find a menacing - looking fish with a 6 - inch - long globular body , prickly skin , needle - sharp teeth , miniscule eyes , and a strange stalk on its head . this was the same pacific footballfish ( himantolophus sagamius ) we now have in our collections , and one of more than 300 living species of anglerfish ( of the order lophiiformes ) found around the world .\nh . sagamius lives in the pacific ocean at depths of 2 , 000 to 3 , 300 feet , where sunlight doesn ' t penetrate . food is scarce in the deep , and chance encounters in total darkness are rare , so the footballfish have evolved to feed on whatever fits in its mouth\u2014including other fish , squid , and crustaceans . using its esca as a lure , an anglerfish remains motionless until prey comes within striking distance . in a lightning - fast motion , it sucks the prey into its mouth , where its teeth\u2014which point inward\u2014ensure that what goes in doesn\u2019t come out .\ngreek , himas or himantos = leather strap , thong or leash ( referring to the thick leathery illicium ) + greek , lopho or lophio = crest or tuft ( referring to the baited illicium projecting from the head ) ( ref . 86949 )\nmarine ; bathypelagic ; depth range 613 - 1200 m ( ref . 82206 ) . deep - water\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 20 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 82206 )\ndorsal soft rays ( total ) : 5 ; anal soft rays : 4 . distinguishing characteristics of adult female : length of anterior escal appendage 11 - 38 % sl ; distal escal appendage 6 . 2 - 11 % sl ; blunt distal lobes of esca ; posterior escal appendage 12 - 41 % sl , simple or with bifid tip ; posterolateral appendages 2 - 4 pairs , situated on and below base of escal bulb , length of distal and longest pair 30 - 45 % sl ( ref . 86949 ) .\npietsch , t . w . , 1999 . himantolophidae . footballfishes ( deep - sea anglerfishes ) . p . 2029 . in k . e . carpenter and v . h . niem ( eds . ) fao species identification guide for fishery purposes . the living marine resources of the wcp . vol . 3 . batoid fishes , chimaeras and bony fishes part 1 ( elopidae to linophrynidae ) . fao , rome . ( ref . 12944 )\n) : 4 . 3 - 7 . 8 , mean 5 . 7 ( based on 325 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01995 ( 0 . 00906 - 0 . 04395 ) , b = 3 . 01 ( 2 . 83 - 3 . 19 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 5 \u00b10 . 37 se ; based on food items .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 14 of 100 ) .\nit seems javascript is either disabled or not supported by your browser . to view this site , enable javascript by changing your browser options and try again .\nexplore an aquarium , planetarium , and natural history museum\u2014all under one living roof .\nthe first spine of an anglefish ' s dorsal fins , called the illicium , extends outward to end in a fleshy , phosphorescent bulb ( or esca ) , which the fish use to lure prey . male and female anglerfish differ dramatically in size , with some females measuring up to ten times larger than their male counterparts . the males of some anglerfish species , including the football fish , have evolved into \u201csexual parasites . \u201d using well - developed olfactory organs , they find and fuse themselves to females , eventually losing their eyes , internal organs , and everything else but the testes . the male becomes a permanent appendage that draws nutrition from its female host and serves as an easily accessible source of sperm .\nthe bioluminescent glow of an anglerfish ' s esca comes from bacteria . these photobacteria ( light - emitting bacteria ) flow into the esca through small pores ; once inside , they multiply due to the protection and nutrition provided by its host .\nfish biomass estimates now 10 times as high as previously thought in the deep sea .\nanelasma squalicola , a parasitic barnacle , sucks the life and the reproductive capabilities out of its host .\nwelcome to the twilight zone of the ocean , where the sun barely reaches and the fish have big eyes .\nin 2014 , the academy ' s dave ebert added to his list of new - species discoveries with this deepwater sawshark .\nget hands - on at the naturalist center with real specimens , hundreds of books and films , and interactive games .\nwitness some of the active scientific research taking place at the academy every day .\nthe department of ichthyology is home to one of the largest and most important collections of fishes in the world , and is designated as one of eight international centers for ichthyology in north america . meet the researchers , explore projects and expeditions , and more .\nbe mesmerized by the brilliant colors of tropical fish , the grace of giant rays , and the busy waddling of african penguins . our webcams stream 24 hours a day .\nthe california academy of sciences is a renowned scientific and educational institution dedicated to exploring , explaining , and sustaining life on earth . based in san francisco\u2019s golden gate park , it is home to a world - class aquarium , planetarium , and natural history museum\u2014all under one living roof .\nstay curious\u2014every thursday at nightlife . sign up for event updates and exciting announcements .\nsign up for the academy\u2019s monthly newsletter and get a promo code for 10 % off at our online retail store .\ncynthia klepadlo , university of california at san diego phillip a . hastings , university of california at san diego richard h . rosenblatt , university of california at san diego\npietsch tw . 2009 . oceanic anglerfishes : extraordinary diversity in the deep sea . berkley : university of california press . 638 p .\nholotype of corynolophus sagamius : originally scmt 8201 ( lost or mislaid at zumt ) , 200 mm sl .\nwithin the size range of 111\u2013274 mm , no distinct changes evident in relative lengths of illicium and escal appendages or in diameter of escal bulb with increasing size of specimens ( the low value for length of the distal escal appendage of ish 18 / 55a , obtained from the stomach of a sperm whale , may be due to shrinkage , and the short posterior escal appendage of mcz 29854 appears to have been broken ) . each primary branch of distal escal appendage with a simple or bifurcated tip and a pair of short side branches ; anterior escal appendage simple in most specimens , bifurcated distally in ish 18 / 55b and an additional short appendage above and / or below anterior escal appendage present in lacm 43760 - 1 , ish 18 / 55b , and mcz 29854 ; posterior escal appendage simple in most specimens , bifurcated distally in ish 18 / 55a ; distal - most pair of illicial appendages bifurcate ; illicial appendages and anterior and posterior escal appendages black , with bright silvery tips in fresh and recently preserved specimens ; body and fin rays uniformly black or dark brown ; papillae of snout and chin low and darkly pigmented ; illicial stem , esca , and escal appendages densely covered with small dermal spinules ; 4 or 5 large skin spines on each pectoral peduncle , 40\u201375 spines on each side of body ( in specimens 111\u2013274 mm ) ; dorsal - fin rays 5 ; anal - fin rays 4 ; pectoral - fin rays 15\u201318 . the three tentatively identified specimens ( 32\u201340 mm ) are juveniles , that differ from the larger specimens described above in having much shorter relative lengths of the escal appendages , including a distal escal appendage of 1 . 0\u20131 . 6 % sl , less distinct snout and chin papillae , and fewer teeth and dermal spines .\nhimantolophus sagamius has been recorded from off japan and along the west coast of the americas from off northern california to ecuador and chile . two of the three tentatively identified specimens were caught at nearly the same position in the halmahera sea ; the third specimen is from off hawaii .\nfemales of the h . groenlandicus - group differ from those of other species of the genus in having the following combination of character states : the light - guiding distal escal appendage is divided at the base , its total length 0 . 4\u20132 % sl , shorter than the diameter of the escal bulb in specimens less than 110 mm , 1\u201311 % sl in larger specimens . each primary branch of the distal escal appendage has a simple or bifurcated tip and 0\u20132 tiny papilliform side branches . the base of the distal appendage is surrounded by four escal lobes of about equal size . an anterior escal appendage is present in most species ( but rudimentary or absent in h . paucifilosus ) , its length 1 . 5\u201342 % sl . the posterior escal appendage is longer ( about 1 . 5\u201334 % sl ) than the distal escal appendage ; its proximal part is undivided , with a simple bifurcated tip , or it is trifurcated ( but never bifurcated ) at its base ( in some specimens it is represented by a transverse series of 2\u20133 separate , simple filaments ) . two to 23 posterolateral appendages are present on and below the base of the escal bulb , the distal - most pair measuring 5 . 9\u201349 % sl , longer than the posterior escal appendage , and emerging just below the base of the bulb . small dermal spinules are present on the stem of the illicium , the escal bulb , and the escal appendages of specimens greater than 33 mm . the dermal papillae of the snout and chin are low and rather indistinct . the skin is devoid of \u201cwhite patches . \u201d the caudal - fin rays are white or only faintly pigmented , with dark tips in specimens less than 70\u2013100 mm , but covered with dark pigment in larger specimens .\n20 . 0 cm sl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 82206 ) )\ndistinguishing characteristics of adult female : length of anterior escal appendage 11 - 38 % sl ; distal escal appendage 6 . 2 - 11 % sl ; blunt distal lobes of esca ; posterior escal appendage 12 - 41 % sl , simple or with bifid tip ; posterolateral appendages 2 - 4 pairs , situated on and below base of escal bulb , length of distal and longest pair 30 - 45 % sl ( ref . 86949 ) .\nadult females ( 111\u2013380 mm ) of himantolophus sagamius differ from those of all other species of the himantolophus groenlandicus - group in having the following combination of character states : length of anterior escal appendage 11\u201338 % sl ; distal escal appendage 6 . 2\u201311 % ( 3 . 1 % ? ) sl ; distal lobes of esca blunt ; posterior escal appendage 12\u201341 % sl , simple or with bifid tip ; 2\u20134 pairs of posterolateral appendages situated on and below base of escal bulb , length of distal and longest pair 30\u201345 % sl .\nbathypelagic ; marine ; depth range 613 - 1200 m ( ref . 82206 )\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there is 1 barcode sequence available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is the sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of corynolophus sagamius tanaka , 1918 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nintergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]"]}
{"id": 1362, "summary": [{"text": "sunshack ( foaled 8 february 1991 ) is a british-bred thoroughbred racehorse and sire who was trained in france and the united states .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "he showed very good form as a two-year-old in 1993 when he won two of his four races including the criterium de saint-cloud .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in the following year he struggled for form before ending his season with a win in the prix du conseil de paris .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he reached his peak as a four-year-old in 1995 when he won the prix jean de chaudenay , defeated a world-class field in the coronation cup and then stepped up in distance to take the prix royal-oak .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "his later career was limited by injury and he failed to win again .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he stood as a breeding stallion in japan and france with very little success . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "sunshack", "paragraphs": ["sunshack pop up beach shade - uv30 + protection sun shelter . compact , light , easy , affordable\nafter raintrap , suntrap produced sunshack . after that she was introduced to sadler ' s wells , a preeminent stallion , but she lost that foal and in recent years has had problems getting in foal .\nmarlin , the high weight sunday at 119 pounds , beat sunshack by three - quarters of a length in the san luis rey stakes on march 23 , but that was at 1 1 / 2 miles . sunshack , a 6 - year - old with large lungs , might have the advantage at the capistrano distance , which at nearly 1 3 / 4 miles is about a quarter of a mile longer .\nthe frenchman has taken the prize five times - with saint estephe ( 1986 ) , in the wings ( 1990 ) , apple tree ( 1994 ) , sunshack ( 1995 ) and swain ( 1996 ) .\nsunshack ciders are made with love in mittagong , nsw , using only the finest apples and pears , and pure water from our sandstone spring . they\u2019re a perfect pair to share with good friends and good times .\nsip on a tall glass of sunshack cider over ice and you\u2019ll experience mouth - filling pure fruit flavours , perfectly balanced with a medium - to - dry sweetness , fine acidity and refreshingly crisp finish . you\u2019ll love it .\nraintrap was a chestnut horse bred in england by his owner khalid abdullah ' s juddmonte farms . he was sired by rainbow quest who won the prix de l ' arc de triomphe before becoming a very successful breeding stallion . rainbow quest ' s other progeny included quest for fame , saumarez , sunshack , nedawi , armiger , spectrum and millenary . [ 3 ] sunshack ' s dam suntrap was a successful racemare who won three minor races and finished third in both the prix d ' aumale [ 4 ] and the lupe stakes . [ 5 ] as a broodmare went on to produce raintrap ' s full - brother sunshack . [ 6 ] raintrap was sent into training with andre fabre in france .\nbon point races for juddmonte , the stable name for prince khalid abdullah of saudi arabia . juddmonte owns only 25 % of sunshack , having sold the rest of the horse to californians robert and geri witt , who raced him for the first time in the san luis rey .\nkhalid abdullah , victorious with rainbow quest ( 1985 ) and sunshack ( 1995 ) , is also responsible for brass ring ( john gosden ) and retirement plan ( lady cecil ) , who both had three starts last season , each winning a maiden and a handicap , before having their seasons cut short through injury .\njuddmonte farms , which raced suntrap , bred her back to rainbow quest the next year , and that resulted in the colt sunshack , who has a good chance sunday at santa anita to win the 58th running of the capistrano . it would be rare indeed for full brothers to win a major stake in consecutive years .\nshanawi , brice blanc , 113 pounds ; awad , pat day , 117 ; marlin , chris mccarron , 119 ; african dancer , mike smith , 113 ; joy of glory , julio garcia , 111 ; bon point , corey nakatani , 115 ; poliglote , alex solis , 117 ; and sunshack , kent desormeaux , 118 .\na r dennis : 5 - 1 lammtarra , 8 - 1 carnegie , 10 - 1 hernando , tamure , 12 - 1 winged love , 14 - 1 pure grain , valanour , 16 - 1 presenting , sunshack , 20 - 1 swain , 25 - 1 angel in my heart , diamond mix , lando , luso , strategic choice , 33 - 1 others .\nhis sire rainbow quest , champion older horse in europe , won the prix de l\u0092arc de triomphe ( albeit on protest ) and has sired some sixty - six stakes winners at stud including the champions saumarez , raintrap , sunshack , and group one winners knight\u0092s baroness , croco rouge , spectrum , armiger , rainbow dancer , right generation , nedwai , edabiya and japanese horse of the year sakura laurel .\nthe french classic clean sweep was achieved in 2004 when american post took the poule d\u2019essai des poulains . that followed the earlier juddmonte home - bred french classic triumphs in the prix du jockey club ( 1990 sanglamore ) , poule d\u2019essai des pouliches ( 1990 houseproud , 2002 zenda ) , prix de diane hermes ( 1992 jolypha , 2003 nebraska tornado ) and prix royal oak ( 1993 raintrap and 1995 sunshack ) .\na full - brother to raintrap , sunshack is one of eight fabre entries for the derby . he fulfilled his potential when beating zindari , a previous pattern race winner who was fourth to lost world in the grand criterium , by an effortless four lengths in the criterium de saint - cloud over 10 furlongs and has outstanding claims for the prix du jockey - club or derby . ( a fabre for k abdullah )\nladbrokes : 5 - 1 lammtarra , 10 - 1 hernando , pure grain , carnegie , 14 - 1 tamure , winged love , 16 - 1 sunshack , 20 - 1 lando , strategic choice , swain , valanour , 25 - 1 freedom cry , luso , millkom , monsun , muncie , only royale , poliglote , richard of york , rifapour , singspiel , spectrum , song of tara , 33 - 1 others .\nthe $ 400 , 000 san juan capistrano , which will be run on the second - last day of santa anita ' s 86 - day season , drew eight horses , including sunshack ' s stablemate , bon point , who will also be saddled by trainer bobby frankel . bon point , a 7 - year - old who last won in the oak tree championship at santa anita in october , finished fifth in the san luis rey .\nsir michael stoute enjoyed successive coronation cup victories with saddlers\u2019 hall in 1992 and outstanding middle - distance performer opera house a year later , before fabre rattled off a hat - trick of wins , starting with apple tree in 1994 , who had been demoted from second 12 months earlier . the french trainer returned in 1995 to saddle sunshack to victory and celebrated another win the following year when subsequent dual king george vi & queen elizabeth stakes winner swain took the spoils by a neck .\n1984 alphabatim ( 5th ) , cataldi ( 16th ) ; 1985 damister ( 3rd ) ; 1986 dancing brave ( 2nd ) ; 1987 bellotto ( 3rd ) ; 1990 quest for fame ( won ) , digression ( 11th ) , aromatic ( 17th ) ; 1991 toulon ( 9th ) , arokat ( 12th ) ; 1992 rainbow corner ( 11th ) ; 1993 commander in chief ( won ) , tenby ( 10th ) ; 1994 sunshack ( 19th ) ; 1996 dushyantor ( 2nd ) .\nbeaten a short - head by sunshack at longchamp in september , goldmine lost his maiden status over a mile at saint - cloud the next month . his sire comes from the same family as last year ' s royal ascot winner gold splash . ' goldmine is strongly built and has done extremely well over the winter . he ' s a nice prospect who ' ll have a prep race before the poule d ' essai des poulains , ' his trainer , says . ( c head for j wertheimer )\nrainbow quest ( usa ) ( bay 1981 - stud 1986 ) . 6 wins - 2 at 2 - from 7f to 1\u00bdm , longchamp prix de l ' arc de triomphe , gr . 1 . sire of 803 rnrs , 549 wnrs , 107 sw , inc . quest for fame ( the derby , gr . 1 ) saumarez , raintrap , sunshack , fiji , millenary , sought out , colour vision , nedawi , bright generation , rainbow dancer , croco rouge , spectrum , urgent request , edabiya , special quest , armiger , crowded house , knights baroness , abitara , fashion statement , etc .\nignore the french at your peril . in the last three seasons they have won 72 of the 22l group one races in europe at a strike - rate of over 32 per cent . although betting on this year ' s british classics is dominated by the home - trained horses , alhaarth and bosra sham , celtic swing held a similarly lofty perch in 1995 yet was toppled in the 2 , 000 guineas by andre fabre ' s pennekamp . he , along with sunshack and cherokee rose were winners at the highest level in britain and , with the leading arab owners continuing to patronise chantilly stables , the french have every chance of improving on that tally . fabre , with 11 group one wins in 1995 , dominates the training ranks , but there is a strong word for criquette head ' s 1996 team , and john hammond , jonathan pease , alain de royer - dupre and elie lellouche are also to be feared in the main events .\n1972 pentland firth ( 3rd ) ; 1973 freefoot ( 3rd ) ; 1974 charlie bubbles ( 13th ) ; 1975 grundy ( won ) ; 1976 oats ( 3rd ) ; 1977 night before ( pu ) ; 1978 formidable ( 9th ) ; 1979 new berry ( 17th ) ; 1980 pelerin ( 4th ) ; 1981 riberetto ( 8th ) ; 1982 golden fleece ( won ) ; 1983 salmon leap ( 4th ) ; 1984 el gran senor ( 2nd ) ; 1985 law society ( 2nd ) ; 1986 wise councillor ( 17th ) ; 1987 bellotto ( 3rd ) ; 1988 red glow ( 4th ) ; 1989 mill pond ( 5th ) ; 1990 quest for fame ( won ) ; 1991 toulon ( 9th ) ; 1992 rainbow corner ( 11th ) ; 1993 tenby ( 10th ) ; 1994 sunshack ( 19th ) ; 1996 dushyantor ( 2nd ) ; 1997 silver patriarch ( 2nd ) ; 1998 king of kings ( 15th ) ; 1999 salford express ( 14th ) .\nvodafone derby record : 1972 pentland firth ( 3rd ) ` ; 1973 freefoot ( 3rd ) ; 1974 charlie bubbles ( 13th ) ; 1975 grundy ( won ) ; 1976 oats ( 3rd ) ; 1977 night before ( pu ) ; 1978 formidable ( 9th ) ; 1979 new berry ( 17th ) ; 1980 pelerin ( 4th ) ; 1981 riberetto ( 8th ) ; 1982 golden fleece ( won ) ; 1983 salmon leap ( 4th ) ; 1984 el gran senor ( 2nd ) ; 1985 law society ( 2nd ) ; 1986 wise councillor ( 17th ) ; 1987 bellotto ( 3rd ) ; 1988 red glow ( 4th ) ; 1989 mill pond ( 5th ) ; 1990 quest for fame ( won ) ; 1991 toulon ( 9th ) ; 1992 rainbow corner ( 11th ) ; 1993 tenby ( 10th ) ; 1994 sunshack ( 19th ) ; 1996 dushyantor ( 2nd ) ; 1997 silver patriarch ( 2nd ) ; 1998 king of kings ( 15th ) ; 1999 salford express ( 14th ) .\nbower et al . 2012 reported two mtdna haplotypes in modern descendants of chelandry , one of which is the haplotype expected for family 1 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe 12 - year - old mare suntrap is out of the breeding business ahead of her time , but she already has made her mark .\nmated with rainbow quest in her first trip to the breeding shed in 1989 , suntrap produced raintrap , who won last year ' s san juan capistrano handicap .\nas a runner , suntrap wasn ' t much . she was bred in kentucky , a daughter of roberto , the english derby winner who was owned by the late john galbreath . galbreath once owned the pittsburgh pirates and named one of his best horses after his best ballplayer , the late roberto clemente .\nin england , france and ireland , suntrap won only three of 11 starts and earned less than $ 30 , 000 . she never won a stake . but as a broodmare , she and rainbow quest , an english champion who won the arc de triomphe , france ' s biggest race , were a dashing couple . their first offspring , raintrap , was france ' s champion 3 - year - old colt in 1993 . the next year , en route to california to join frankel ' s barn , juddmonte dropped off raintrap at woodbine near toronto and he won the $ 1 - million rothmans international .\nraintrap , a small - framed horse whose soundness problems have required special attention from frankel , has raced infrequently and accomplished little in california , but he out - finished the mare windsharp in last year ' s san juan capistrano . raintrap ' s next start will be in the elkhorn stakes at keeneland next friday .\ndeputy commander , fifth in the arkansas derby , will skip the kentucky derby and be pointed for the preakness at pimlico on may 17 . . . . hollywood park - based touch gold will run sunday in the lexington stakes at keeneland . . . . glitter woman , the probable likely favorite in the kentucky oaks at churchill downs on may 2 , is a possible for the preakness . laffit pincay , sidelined since march 26 , when he suffered three broken ribs in a spill at santa anita , hopes to return to action when hollywood park opens next friday . . . . a victory by funontherun in today ' s $ 200 , 000 california derby at golden gate fields might rekindle . kentucky derby fever for his owners , herb and david alpert . funontherun won the san rafael stakes at santa anita , beating hello , a horse who ' s derby - bound , but in his last start , the jim beam stakes at turfway park , he showed little . . . . corey nakatani has taken a derby mount on acceptable .\npersistence with ponies pays for garber : horse racing : tarzana man owns thoroughbreds for nearly a decade before hitting jackpot with quintana , who ran sixth in last year ' s kentucky derby .\nbush and breeder go way back : profile : will farish , who enjoys an extremely close relationship with the president , aims to raise the best racehorses in the world .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nwe harvest only the finest granny smith apples & williams pears from select high country orchards .\nour fruit is crushed into pulp then fed into the basket press which presses all the juicy juices out .\nwe filter the cloudy fermented cider into clear cider love , add a spoonful of sugar , a tickle of bubbles & a ray of sunshine .\nthe juice is coldfermented to retain all the natural apple & pear flavours , with pure water from our sandstone spring .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 frameset / / en\nfirst . . . no apologies ! no , not the nirvana song ( although it ' s not a bad one ) . there will be no apologies and no shaming for any of our picks !\ndebate ? sure , we can and will debate all night long . . .\nthis is our list of the 10 top music tracks to get your blood pumpin , as voted by our impartial panel of judges consisting of . . . me .\ninstead of spending the winter months cooped up inside grinding away on the treadmill , while trying to keep your fitness levels up to scratch , why not head out and brave the winter trail runs .\nfor those of us who love the wilderness and simply cannot keep away , running outside does not have to be as miserable as the war stories you hear .\n46 sir charles moses lane ( 7 , 494 . 90 mi ) woodlands 2575\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\nfrom now until new year ' s . . . . . . . .\n412 north country rd . ( rt . 25 ) | suite 6 st . james , ny 11780\n. . . the outcome was better than i expected . i would highly recommend this salon to anyone who is interested in trying spray tanning .\nyou could have a sun - bed ! we would advise you first . we\u2019d look at your skin type and tell you what happens and then put you on a bed for a certain number of minutes . people with olive skin go longer . usually we start you off with four minutes for fair skin .\nwell i wouldn\u2019t do more than four minutes because my skin is so fair . other people might do seven or eight minutes or up to fifteen minute sessions . everyone is different . try it at the lower times first .\nnot the wild background you ' d historically see behind a great blue heron .\nbusinesses are under no obligation to seek bbb accreditation , and some businesses are not accredited because they have not sought bbb accreditation .\nto be accredited by bbb , a business must apply for accreditation and bbb must determine that the business meets bbb accreditation standards , which include a commitment to make a good faith effort to resolve any consumer complaints . bbb accredited businesses must pay a fee for accreditation review / monitoring and for support of bbb services to the public .\nhave been operational ( actively selling products or services ) in any bbb service area for at least the most recent 6 months , unless the principle ( s ) previously operated a similar business with an eligible record ( one that qualifies for bbb accreditation ) .\nbe free from government action that demonstrates a significant failure to support bbb ethical principles in marketplace transactions ( this requires a determination by bbb as to the nature of any violation , whether it was caused or condoned by management , and actions taken to resolve underlying issues that led to the government action ) .\nbe free of an unsatisfactory rating and maintain at least a b rating at the accrediting bbb and the bbb where it is headquartered , if different .\nabide by the bbb code of advertising . supply , upon request , substantiation for advertising and selling claims . correct advertising and selling practices , when recommended by bbb .\nhonestly represent products and services , including clear and adequate disclosures of all material terms .\nmake known all material facts in both written and verbal representations , remembering that misrepresentation may result not only from direct statements but by omitting or obscuring relevant facts .\nensure that any written materials are readily available , clear , accurate and complete .\nopenly identify the nature , location , and ownership of the business , and clearly disclose all policies , guarantees and procedures that bear on a customer ' s decision to buy .\nupon request , provide bbb with all information required to evaluate compliance with bbb standards . this may include , but is not limited to business name , address and contact information ; names and background of principles ; business and banking references ; licensing and / or professional accreditation ; and a complete description of the nature of the business .\nany restrictions or limitations imposed ( e . g . limited supply , maximum number available per customer )\nexplains why any relief sought by the complainant cannot or should not be granted .\nmake a good faith effort to resolve disputes , which includes mediation if requested by bbb . other dispute resolution options , including arbitration , may be recommended by bbb when other efforts to resolve a dispute have failed . bbb may consider a business ' willingness to participate in recommended dispute resolution options in determining compliance with these standards .\ncomply with any settlements , agreements or decisions reached as an outcome of a bbb dispute resolution process .\ncooperate with bbb in efforts to eliminate the underlying cause of patterns of customer complaints that are identified by bbb .\nprotect any data collected against mishandling and fraud , collect personal information only as needed , and respect the preferences of customers regarding the use of their information .\nsecure sensitive data businesses that collect sensitive data online ( credit card , bank account numbers , social security number , salary or other personal financial information , medical history or records , etc . ) will ensure that it is transmitted via secure means . businesses will make best efforts to comply with industry standards for the protection and proper disposal of all sensitive data , both online and offline .\nhonor customer preferences businesses agree to respect customer preferences regarding contact by telephone , fax and e - 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year reporting period . bbb business profiles are subject to change at any time . if you choose to do business with this business , please let the business know that you contacted bbb for a bbb business profile .\nas a matter of policy , bbb does not endorse any product , service or business .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\np8143929 - y3k chip bug is coming for you mr trump . . . you cannot escape\nsun microsystems long sleeve polo shirt from the good times before oracle bought and destroyed . . .\nuse flickriver badge creator to create a badge linking to your photos , your group or any other flickriver view .\ncan display almost any flickriver view - most interesting today , by user , by group , by tag etc . once added to your personalized homepage , just edit widget settings to select your desired view .\nadds a ' flickriver ' button to your browser . while viewing any flickr photos page , click on this button to open the same view on flickriver .\nadd ' search on flickriver ' to your browser ' s search box . works with firefox and internet explorer . install search plugin\nscript that adds flickriver links to various flickr photo pages - user photos , favorites , pools etc , allowing to quickly open the corresponding flickriver view .\nalso , allows quickly viewing any flickr photo on black background in large size .\nwhile viewing any flickr photos page , click on the bookmarklet to open the same view on flickriver .\nis fully expected to live up to the expectations set by champion sires such as rainbow quest ( the producer of derby winner quest for fame ) , warning ( sire of cheveley park winner prophecy ) , zafonic ( sire of champion two - year - old xaar ) and also zamindar ( who produced the classic winning zenda from his first crop ) .\nbreeders have shown tremendous support for oasis dream , sending him the dams of a number of gr . 1 winners together with a further 58 blacktype performers including airwave ( cheveley park stakes gr . 1 in 2002 ) , attraction ( cherry hinton stakes gr . 2 in 2003 ) , acclamation ( diadem stakes gr . 2 in 2003 ) , superstar leo ( champion two - year - old filly of 2000 ) and definite article ( national stakes gr . 1 ) .\narrive ( kahyasi \u2013 kerali by high line ) won three races including bahrain trophy l . own - sister to hasili ( prix des sablonnets l . ; dam of the gr . 1 perfomers banks hill \u2013 champion three - year - old filly in europe , champion grass filly in usa , joint top - rated older mare in europe , dansili \u2013 prix du muguet gr . 2 and second poule d\u2019essai des poulains gr . 1 , heat haze \u2013 beverly d stakes gr . 1 and matriarch stakes gr . 1 and intercontinental \u2013 third 1000 guineas gr . 1 ) and half sister to skiable ( dam of three valleys ) .\ndance dress ( nureyev \u2013 private line by private account ) won three races in france including prix fille de l\u2019air gr . 3 , and prix madame jean couturie l . her dam private line ( atalanta mile stakes l . ) is half - sister to most precious ( second prix de la salamandre gr . 1 ; dam of matiara \u2013 poule d\u2019essai des pouliches gr . 1 ) .\ndaring miss ( sadler\u2019s wells \u2013 bourbon girl by ile de bourbon ) won four races including grand prix de chantilly gr . 2 , second grand prix de saint - cloud gr . 1 . half - sister to apogee ( prix de royaumont gr . 3 ; dam of dance routine \u2013 prix de royallieu gr . 2 , second prix diane hermes gr . 1 ) .\nfragrant view ( distant view \u2013 musicanti by nijinsky ) winning own sister to distant music ( joint second top - rated two - year - old in europe in 1999 , dewhurst stakes gr . 1 , third champion stakes gr . 1 ; sire ) . her dam musicanti is half - sister to vanlandingham ( washington dc international gr . 1 ) , jenkins ferry ( second san juan capistrano gr . 1 ) . family of temperance hill and kirkwall .\nimbabala ( zafonic \u2013 interval by habitat ) winner in france and dam of kalabar ( prix guillaume d\u2019ornano gr . 2 , second prix du conseil de paris gr . 2 , prix eugene adam gr . 2 and third prix la force gr3 in 2003 ) . half - sister to cheyenne dream ( prix de bagatelle l . ; dam of dream chief - second prix du gros - chene gr . 2 ) and krisia ( dam of continent \u2013 july cup gr . 1 , prix de l\u2019abbaye de longchamp gr . 1 ) . her dam interval ( prix maurice de gheest gr . 2 , second lowther stakes gr . 2 and third 1000 guineas gr . 1 ) .\ninsinuate ( mr prospector \u2013 all at sea by riverman ) won swanley stakes l . and third fern hill stakes l . half - sister to imroz ( third las cienegas handicap gr . 3 ) . her dam all at sea ( prix du moulin de longchamp gr . 1 , musidora stakes gr . 3 , pretty polly stakes l . , second juddmonte international gr . 1 ) .\norford ness ( selkirk \u2013 nesaah by topsider ) won three races in france including sandingham gr . 3 , third prix messidor gr . 3 and prix de lieurey l . ; dam of weightless ( prix dollar gr . 2 , prix du prince d\u2019orange gr . 3 at three years in 2003 ) . second dam sylph ( princess royal stakes gr . 3 , second park hill stakes gr . 2 ) is the dam of privity ( prix de malleret gr . 2 , third flower bowl invitational handicap gr . 1 ) and zindari ( prix saint roman gr . 3 ) ; also own - sister to leading counsel ( irish st leger gr . 1 ) .\nshining water ( kalaglow \u2013 idle waters by mill reef ) won three races including solario stakes gr . 3 , second park hill stakes gr . 2 and third hoover fillies ' mile gr . 2 ; dam of six blacktype performers including tenby ( joint top - rated three - year - old in europe in 1993 , grand criterium gr . 1 ; sire ) , bristol channel ( harvest stakes l . , third long island handicap gr . 2 ) .\ngr . 1 , racing post trophy gr . 1 , second great voltigeur stakes gr . 2 , third woodbine international gr . 1 , 2002 - 03 ) and half - sister to moon search ( prix de royallieu gr . 2 , prix de la pepiniere l . in 2003 ) . her dam eva luna ( park hill stakes gr . 3 ) is half - sister to rougeur ( dam of multiple gr . 1 winner flute ) .\nvalencia ( kenmare \u2013 de stael by nijinsky ) placed at two years and dam of deportivo ( flying five gr . 2 , rose bowl stakes l . , king of beers stakes l . , and balmoral handicap at royal ascot ) and irish vale ( harry roseberry stakes l ) . half - sister to wandesta ( champion turf mare in usa in 1996 , matriarch stakes gr . 1 , santa barbara stakes gr . 1 , santa ana handicap gr . 1 ) , de quest ( prix du conseil de paris gr . 2 ) , source of light ( chester stakes l . ) and turners hill ( prix la moskowa l . , second prix du conseil de paris gr . 2 ) .\nwince ( selkirk \u2013 flit by lyphard ) won four races including 1000 guineas gr . 1 , fred darling stakes gr . 3 , second milcars star stakes l . half - sister to fleeting glimpse ( second prix saint alary gr . 1 ; dam of half glance \u2013 may hill stakes gr . 3 ) and ulundi ( wolferton rated stakes l . ) . her dam flit is own sister to skimble ( wilshire handicap gr . 2 , third matriarch stakes gr . 1 ; dam of gr . 1 skimming ) .\nthis month stallion advertising begins in earnest and what better way to grab someone\u0092s attention than through a metropolitan treble . quest for fame let his progeny do his talking a fortnight ago when represented by winners in three separate states \u0096 the quaintly named i scream ( from the mare ice cream sundae ) won her sandown debut , cheam saluted at rosehill and questamatic at cheltenham .\ni scream and cheam are trained by john hawkes for woodlands stud proprietors jack and bob ingham who stand quest for fame at their hunter valley property . woodlands have supported the son of rainbow quest since his arrival in australia in 1993 and have enjoyed a virtual monopoly of the breed ever since . of the thirteen stakes winners sired by quest for fame in the southern hemisphere an amazing eleven have been bred by woodlands stud and raced out of their crown lodge stables .\nhe ' s had horses like unworldly and viscount in the past year or so ,\nsaid hawkes\nand then there ' s ones like tributes who won the oaks or a horse like this one ( i scream ) who won over the short trip on debut .\nviscount ( ajc sires\u0092 produce stakes - g1 , champagne stakes - g1 ) and unworldly ( ajc flight stakes - g1 , stc tea rose stakes - g2 , tatt\u0092s nsw furious s - g3 ) teetered on the brink of superstardom before injury and accident ended their respective careers .\ndracula ( ajc champagne stakes - g1 , ajc george main stakes - g1 , qtc sires\u0092 produce stakes - g1 ) and tributes ( vrc oaks - g1 ) , join viscount and unworldly at racing\u0092s elite level and lease ( stc tulloch stakes - g2 ; 2 nd ajc doncaster h - g1 , qtc classic - g1 ; 3 rd vrc australian guineas - g1 ) , hockney ( ajc expressway s - g2 , stc star kingdom s - g3 ) pursuits ( gosford guineas - lr ; 3 rd vrc emirates s - g1 , stc rosehill guineas - g1 ) salty ( ajc fernhill hcp - g3 ; 2 nd ajc champagne s - g1 ) , noise ( ajc carbine club - listed ; 2 nd ajc breeders plate - listed ; 3 rd ajc all aged s - g1 , stc phar lap s - g2 ) , undertone ( sajc walter brown s - listed ) , and le mans ( vatc debutante s - listed ; 3 rd ajc roman consul - g3 ) round out woodlands stakes successes with quest for fame\u0092s progeny .\nquest for fame is a grandson of blushing groom who has already known great success in this region through the deeds of nassipour , sire of melbourne cup heroine and australian horse of the year let\u0092s elope , multiple millionaire tie the knot , derby winners redding and shiva\u0092s revenge to name but a few .\na dual group one winner on two continents , quest for fame numbers the prestigious epsom derby amongst his five victories . richard ulbrich\u0092s weighty volume peerage describes him as\na rangy eye - catching individual , almost black in colour thoroughly game and absolutely genuine\n.\nquest for fame\u0092s dam , aryenne , was the original flag bearer for nijinksy\u0092s son green dancer . an unbeaten two - year - old , aryenne helped her father secure champion first season sire honours in france and went on to win five races from ten starts including the french one thousand guineas . once again ulbrich\u0092s peerage tells us aryenne\nusually raced from the rear , winning her races with a long last to first run . she loved to swoop down on her rivals and accelerate past them with arrogant nonchalance\n.\nthere is little doubt her grand children share her ability , if not her attitude .\nat the major sales this year , just seventeen quest for fame yearlings went under the auctioneer\u0092s hammer , a mere handful compared to his woodlands counterparts octagonal ( fifty three offered ) , strategic ( twenty eight ) , grand lodge ( sixty ) , canny lad ( twenty nine ) and desert prince ( forty six ) . the adage quality not quantity applied , with ten yearlings selling for an average price of $ 101 , 000 , the top lot ( at easter ) knocked down to tim martin for $ 175 , 000 was a colt from the bletchingly mare regina madre .\nthis small number of commercial yearlings is no reflection of the esteem in which quest for fame is held , however , with a further fifty - nine living foals in the corresponding crop . woodlands have been responsible for the returns of at least thirty - nine of those foals , now rising two - year - olds , and all but six of those have already been named . amongst those that will find their way into the crown lodge racing machine is a sister to dracula named\ninsouciance\n.\nquest for fame will stand his tenth season at woodlands this year for a fee of $ 33 , 000 . alongside him will be his sons viscount , at the introductory fee of $ 27 , 500 , and dracula ( $ 8 , 250 ) who was represented by his first crop of yearlings this year .\nthe trio are descendants of the direct male line of nasrullah through his son red god , sire of blushing groom . they offer breeders a high - class alternative to the danzig line horses prevalent today .\nowner - breeders who would like to utilise this sire line but are perhaps on a tighter budget might consider using the emirates park horse urgent request ( by rainbow quest ) who stands at a fee of $ 5 , 500 . an extremely fast horse from a mile to a mile and a quarter urgent request\u0092s biggest racetrack success came in the group one santa anita handicap ( 2000m ) . a striking , grey individual urgent request takes his coat colour from his dam oscura by caro from the olden times mare dusk . dusk is the dam of group one washington international stakes winner johnny d and has been represented at group one level in australia through the deeds of her great grandson sober suit ( group one vatc toorak handicap ) , a half - brother to the exciting two - year - old titanic jack .\nbullet train is the first foal of kind , a dual listed winner over five and six furlongs and half - sister to coolmore\u2019s globe - trotter powerscourt , who was victorious in the group one tattersalls gold cup and the grade one arlington million .\nthe sadler\u2019s wells colt made a winning debut in a mile maiden at yarmouth on 27 october , getting the better of lion mountain by a short - head , despite showing signs of greenness . he made his seasonal return in a competitive 10 - furlong conditions race at newbury on 16 april , which had been won in the past by the likes of 2007 investec oaks heroine light shift and high heeled , who was third in the epsom fillies\u2019 classic last year . after racing wide down the straight , bullet train took the lead inside the final furlong , but was unable to repel the challenge of myplacelater near the line and went down by half a length to the david elsworth - trained filly .\nbullet train announced himself as a live contender for the investec derby with victory in the group three urltoken derby trial on 8 may , as he made all of the running in the extended 11 - furlong contest to record a two and a quarter - length verdict over dubawi phantom .\nprince khalid abdulla , who prefers to be known just as mr abdulla on the racecard , is a first cousin to king abdullah of saudi arabia . he owns extensive racing and breeding interests in america , britain and ireland .\na businessman presiding over a huge international conglomerate known as \u201cmawared\u201d , he developed a love for british racing during the 1960s when renting a house in london and , with the help of former trainer humphrey cottrill , had his first winner on 14 may , 1979 , when charming native scored at windsor .\nborn in taif , saudi arabia , in 1937 , abdulla has been one of the most successful owner - breeders in europe in the past four decades and is the only current owner to have owned and bred the winners of all five british classics \u2013 his winners being investec derby ( 1990 quest for fame , 1993 commander in chief ) , investec oaks ( 1997 reams of verse ) , 2000 guineas ( 1980 known fact , 1986 dancing brave , 1993 zafonic ) , 1000 guineas ( 1999 wince , 2010 special duty ) and ladbrokes st leger ( 1991 toulon ) .\nhe has won most of the other major european races such as the prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe with rainbow quest ( 1985 ) , rail link ( 2006 ) and the legendary dancing brave ( 1986 ) , who was an unlucky loser in the investec derby . abdulla also races with great success in france and the united states , where under the juddmonte farms banner he won a first triple crown race in 2003 with empire maker in the belmont stakes .\nin 2003 his greatest successes in europe came with star sprinter oasis dream , winner of the july cup at newmarket and nunthorpe stakes at york and french oaks heroine nebraska tornado , while american post was triumphant in the prix jean - luc lagardere ( grand criterium ) at longchamp and the racing post trophy at doncaster , helping abdulla to become champion owner in both britain and france , while he also finished third in the usa owners\u2019 championship that year .\namerican post went on to classic success in the french 2 , 000 guineas in 2004 and polish summer triumphed in the dubai sheema classic the same year , while intercontinental gave abdulla a second breeders\u2019 cup filly and mare turf in 2005 , following full - sister banks hill three years earlier . abdulla\u2019s french - trained horses again led the way in 2006 , with prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe winner rail link proving the highlight .\nin 2007 , juddmonte farms bred 27 individual group / stakes winners of 33 races , including zambezi sun , who wore the famous abdulla colours to victory in the group one grand prix de paris , while in 2008 promising lead took the pretty polly stakes at the curragh , proportional won the prix marcel boussac and african rose landed the ladbrokes sprint cup .\nmidday , winner of the group one nassau stakes at goodwood and runner - up in the investec oaks , added victory in the breeders\u2019 cup filly & mare turf last season , while twice over captured the emirates airlines champion stakes . special duty was crowned champion two - year - old filly after her scintillating win in the group one electrolux cheveley park stakes at newmarket , while spanish moon was a group one winner in france .\nthis season special duty has claimed both the english and french 1 , 000 guineas with special duty with the filly awarded both races in the stewards\u2019 room after suffering interference .\nabdulla is an honorary jockey club member and his daughter was married to the late prince fahd salman , owner of 1991 derby victor generous .\nborn in aberdeen , scotland , on 11 january , 1943 , henry cecil has achieved just about everything he could have dreamed of in a training career spanning almost 40 years .\nif classic success is a measure of achievement on the flat , the 10 - time champion trainer is second to none among current trainers having won every domestic classic at least twice and amassed a total of 23 english classic victories . the lord howard de walden - owned slip anchor , partnered by steve cauthen , brought cecil the first of his four investec derby triumphs in 1985 with an emphatic victory . reference point , also ridden by cauthen , won the 1987 investec derby holding off the challenge of most welcome while commander in chief , cecil\u2019s supposedly second string behind tenby in the 1993 investec derby , and oath in 1999 \u2013 partnered by cecil\u2019s then stable jockey kieren fallon \u2013 provided his third and fourth successes .\ncecil has also landed the investec oaks eight times , the urltoken 2000 guineas twice , the urltoken 1000 guineas six times and the ladbrokes st leger on four occasions . having sent out 100 winners during the 1998 season , cecil\u2019s yearly tally dropped every year until 2006 , when his 25 victories included passage of time\u2019s group one success in the criterium de saint cloud \u2013 the stable\u2019s first group one victory since beat hollow in the 2000 grand prix de paris .\nhis passion for the turf was nurtured by his stepfather , sir cecil boyd - rochfort , with whom a young cecil served as assistant trainer between 1964 and 1968 , before taking out his own licence to train in 1969 . it was not long before he staked his claim among the ranks of the leading trainers with a victory by wolver hollow in the eclipse stakes of that year .\non the retirement of sir noel murless , father of his first wife julie , in 1976 , cecil took over warren place stables in newmarket where he has remained . he won the oaks for the eighth time in 2007 with light shift and has 126 horses in training in 2010 . he almost captured a ninth oaks in 2009 when midday only found sariska too good while the same filly went on to claim the group one nassau stakes at goodwood and also gave cecil a first success at the breeders\u2019 cup when taking the filly & mare turf at santa anita .\nhis other significant success in 2009 was provided by twice over , who landed the group one emirates airline champion stakes at newmarket .\ncecil has made a bright start to the 2010 campaign and had the first horse past the post in the urltoken 1000 guineas , jacqueline quest , although she was demoted for causing interference to the runner - up special duty .\ntom queally has come a long way since riding his first winner aboard the john roche - trained larifaari at clonmel on 13 april , 2000 . born on 8 october , 1984 , he was only 15 when enjoying that first success and was crowned ireland\u2019s champion apprentice the same season .\nfrom dungarvan in county waterford , where his father declan combines farming with a small training operation , tom was out hunting on his pony by the age of seven . after a spell showjumping , he was a leading figure on the pony racing circuit by the age of 13 and was apprenticed to trainer pat flynn two years later . but that apprenticeship was terminated when queally\u2019s parents insisted he finish his leaving certificate at school .\nat the end of a quiet 2002 season , when he was apprenticed to his father , he moved to aidan o\u2019brien at ballydoyle , winning the following year\u2019s group three ballysax stakes on balestrini . with the help of barney curley , he moved to britain in 2004 and joined david loder\u2019s newmarket stable , winning the british apprentices\u2019 championship that year . he won the 2008 group three princess elizabeth stakes at epsom aboard lady gloria and is now attached to henry cecil\u2019s warren place stable .\nsince his move to cecil\u2019s yard , he has recorded significant victories on midday , who finished runner - up in the 2009 investec oaks before going on to claim the group one nassau stakes at goodwood and the breeders\u2019 cup filly & mare turf . last season he also won two group one sprints , partnering the michael bell - trained art connoisseur in the golden jubilee stakes and fleeting spirit , trained by jeremy noseda , in the darley july cup at newmarket .\nallison is the publisher of eclipse magazine . she loves going to the races and is learning to bet ( despite being officially the worst bettor in the history of the universe ) , there\u2019s a lot more to learn\u2026\nallison is the publisher of eclipse magazine . she loves going to the races and is learning to bet ( despite being officially the worst bettor in the history of the universe ) , there ' s a lot more to learn . . .\nthis site uses akismet to reduce spam . learn how your comment data is processed .\njoin our free club to receive the latest news , features , fashion , updates , offers and competitions from us ! we send out ( approximately ) monthly emails , and we ' ll never share your email with anyone else . by signing up you indicate that you have read and agree with the privacy policy and terms and conditions displayed in the footer of every page on the website .\njoin our mailing list to receive the latest news , features , fashion , updates , offers and competitions from us ! we send out ( approximately ) monthly emails , and we ' ll never share your email with anyone else .\nby subscribing , you confirm that you agree with our privacy policy and terms and conditions - displayed in the footer of every page of the website .\ntimeform provisionally rate workforce on 132 after today\u2019s stunning seven - length victory , making it their best investec derby - winning performance since generous in 1991 .\ntimeform\u2019s flat editor jamie lynch explained : \u201cworkforce produced a remarkable performance \u2013 as good as has been seen in the investec derby since generous in 1991 \u2013 in winning by seven lengths , breaking the track record in the process .\n\u201cballydoyle\u2019s pacemaker at first sight slipped the field and it reflects great credit on workforce that , not only was he the only one to get to him , but that he ran right away from him and the rest in the finish .\n\u201cthis marks him down as potentially every bit as good as sea the stars , who ran to a timeform rating of 126 when he won at epsom last year . \u201d\nprogressed into a smart stayer last season , winning four races including a group 2 at longchamp and group 3 over nearly two miles at deauville . only seventh behind celtic swing in the prix du jockey - club and fifth to classic cliche in the st leger , but can improve further and become a contender for races like the ascot gold cup .\nunbeaten half - sister to prix du cadran winner shafaraz . won longchamp maiden in october and impressed in landing the group 3 prix thomas byron at saint - cloud the following month . should stay beyond a mile and is expected to prove one of the aga khan ' s best three - year - olds . ( trained by a de royer - dupre for aga khan )\nburst on to the classic scene when easily winning a listed contest at saint - cloud by six lengths last month . referring to her 1992 1 , 000 guineas winner , her trainer describes a votre sante as\nhatoof mark two\n. could run in the 1 , 000 guineas , although the french equivalent is more likely . her grandam , mrs penny , won the prix de diane and prix vermeille so should get further than a mile . ( trained by mme c head for marshall w jenney )\ndid the independent ' s french 12 - to - follow proud last season in landing the prix de diane and vermeille . returned with a satisfactory second to valanour in the prix d ' harcourt at longchamp on sunday when firm going was against her . ( trained by mme c barbe for t yoshida )\nthird on only juvenile start in a good longchamp maiden . held in high regard and should make mark in useful company over a mile and a half this season . comes from a quality family - dam was second to sagace in the 1994 arc - and has an oaks entry . ( trained by j pease for s niarchos )\nlike a votre sante , dark nile could hardly have scored in better fashion on his seasonal debut when landing the listed prix de courcelles at longchamp last week .\nhe has both stamina and speed and is the perfect type for the prix du jockey - club ,\nhis trainer said . ( trained by mme c head for k abdullah )"]}
{"id": 1363, "summary": [{"text": "neolamprologus niger is a species of cichlid endemic to lake tanganyika where it is only found along the northern shores .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is a crevice-dweller and feeds on molluscs .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this species reaches a length of 9 centimetres ( 3.5 in ) tl .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it can also be found in the aquarium trade . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "neolamprologus niger", "paragraphs": ["indeed - can anyone share a pdf of this paper ? based upon the abstract , it makes one wonder if n . schreyeni will / is synonymized with n . niger ? ?\nits lives in rocky shores , where it can be very abundant . in these areas several other rubble - dwellers are also abundant . it appears to share the same ecological niche as neolamprologus leleupi .\nmar\u00e9chal , c . and m . poll , 1991 . neolamprologus . p . 274 - 294 . in j . daget , j . - p . gosse , g . g . teugels and d . f . e . thys van den audenaerde ( eds . ) check - list of the freshwater fishes of africa ( cloffa ) . isnb , brussels ; mrac , tervuren ; and orstom , paris . vol . 4 . ( ref . 5667 )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\ngreek , neos = new + greek , lampros = torch + greek , lagos = hare ( ref . 45335 )\nfreshwater ; benthopelagic ; ph range : ? - 8 . 0 ; dh range : 10 - ? ; depth range 6 - 30 m . tropical ; 24\u00b0c - 28\u00b0c ( ref . 12468 ) ; 3\u00b0s - 7\u00b0s\nafrica : endemic to the northern democratic republic of the congo coast of lake tanganyika and bulu point in tanzania ( ref . 5667 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 9 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5667 )\nlives in the crevices of the sediment - rich biotope . feeds on mollusks which are crushed with the pharyngeal bones ( ref . 7343 ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00389 ( 0 . 00180 - 0 . 00842 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 6 \u00b10 . 50 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 11 of 100 ) .\nsnoeks , j . ( freshwater fish red list authority ) & darwall , w . ( freshwater biodiversity assessment programme )\njustification : endemic to lake tanganyika with a widespread distribution and no known major widespread threats .\nendemic to lake tanganyika where it is distributed in the northern shores of the democratic republic of congo and bulu point in tanzania .\nsedimentation and other human impact along the coast of the lake appear to have altered community structure and reduced biodiversity in adjacent sub - littoral areas .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\npronunciation : refer to our pronunciation key for an explanation of the phonetic symbols .\nhabitat : this is the primary location where the cichlid is found and is a generalization . this does not mean a fish cannot be found in other habitats .\ndiet : many cichlids specialize in eating one type of food ; notwithstanding , some of these specialized feeders are flexible and can be opportunistic feeders .\ntemperament : this describes the overall demeanor of a cichlid toward other tankmates that are of a different species . consider that there is variability in temperament due to various factors , including aquarium size , tankmates of similar appearance , stocking levels , and order of introduction . there may even be some variability among individual specimens .\nconspecific temperament : this describes the overall demeanor of a cichlid toward other tank - mates of the same species . consider that there is variability in temperament due to such factors as aquarium size , stocking levels and order of introduction . there may even be some variability among individual specimens .\nmaximum size : this is in regards to total length ( including the tail ) of typical aquarium specimens . wild specimens may not attain this size , or may in fact grow larger than aquarium raised individuals due to various factors . also consider that this is the typical maximum size and there are exceptional individuals that will exceed it .\ndifficulty : this measure is a relative value , comparing a single species against all other cichlids . this only accounts for maintanence in the aquarium and not breeding considerations . 1 = easy and forgiving , 5 = extremely challenging .\ndear philippe could you send me a pdf copy ? i send you a pm with my e - mail . livio\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\n. . . intraspecific geographic variation has increasingly been valued in cichlid taxa of the east - african great lakes ( hanssens and snoeks 2003 , risch and snoeks 2008 , anseeuw et al 2011 ) . in lake tanganyika , such variation is especially found in species from rocky shores , both in colour pattern ( kohda et al . 1996 , konings 1998 ) and in morphology ( risch and snoeks 2008 ) . . . .\na new species and geographical variation in the telmatochromis temporalis complex ( teleostei , cichli . . .\ntelmatochromis brachygnathus sp . n . is described from the southern and central parts of lake tanganyika . it can be distinguished from the similar t . temporalis mainly by its smaller mouth . morphological distinct populations were found in both species .\na revised synonymy of telmatochromis temporalis ( teleostei , cichlidae ) from lake tanganyika ( east af . . .\nthe taxonomic status of the nominal species telmatochromis temporalis , t . lestradei , t . burgeoni and julidochromis macrolepis has been reviewed . the synonymy of t . lestradei with t . temporalis is confirmed . a comparison of telmatochromis burgeoni with telmatochromis temporalis revealed no significant differences either . hence t . burgeoni is considered synonymous with t . temporalis . examination . . . [ show full abstract ]\ntaxonomic status of the six - band morph of cyphotilapia frontosa ( perciformes : cichlidae ) from lake t . . .\nsix - and seven - band morphs have been identified in a cichlid , cyphotilapia frontosa , that is endemic to lake tanganyika . these color morphs have allopatric distributions ; the six - band morph is widespread in the northern half of the lake while the seven - band morph is restricted to kigoma on the east coast of the lake . because no specimens of the seven - band morph have been available for . . . [ show full abstract ]\na review , based on personal experience of problems in systematic research on the fishes of the east african lakes , is given . a characteristic feature of most of these lakes is the high number of endemic cichlid species that they contain . it is estimated that for the three biggest lakes , victoria , tanganyika and malawi / nyasa , about 1000 species or more are still awaiting scientific description . . . . [ show full abstract ]"]}
{"id": 1364, "summary": [{"text": "the black howler ( alouatta caraya ) is a species of howler monkey , a large new world monkey , from northeastern argentina , eastern bolivia , eastern and southern brazil , and paraguay .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "together with the brown howler , it is the southernmost member of the alouatta genus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "only the adult male is black ; adult females and juveniles of both genders are overall whitish to yellowish-buff .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "however , variations occur even among the adult males ; some have patches of reddish-brown or buff fur .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they live in groups of three to 19 individuals ( usually seven to 9 ) .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the sex ratio is usually one to three males for every seven to nine females in a group .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "when mating , males and females within a single group pair off .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "named for their vocalizations , they may be heard most often around sunrise .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "this \" dawn chorus \" sounds much more like roaring than howling , and it announces the howlers ' position as a means to avoiding conflict with other groups .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "the call can be heard up to 5 km away .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "these monkeys commonly sleep or rest up to 70 % of the day , making it one of the least active monkeys in the new world .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "their habitat is forest , especially semideciduous and gallery .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "black howlers are folivorous , eating mostly leaves , and occasionally fruit , such as figs .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they generally prefer walking and climbing to running or leaping .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "the prehensile tail is very strong and acts as a fifth limb , allowing the monkeys greater versatility when climbing and allowing them greater safety in the occasional fall from a high branch .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "because their limb structure makes terrestrial movement awkward , they spend most of their time in the trees and only come down for water during dry spells .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "otherwise , the monkeys drink by wetting their hands on moist leaves , and then licking the water off their hands .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "their lifespans are up to 20 years , but more commonly 15 years in the wild .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "in argentina it is commonly kept as a pet due to its gentle nature . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "black howler", "paragraphs": ["black howler monkey , central american black howler , guatemalan black howler monkey , guatemalan howler , guatemalan howling monkey , mexican black howler monkey .\ndespite being called black howler monkeys , only the male is actually black - the female is blonde in colour .\nshoemaker , a . 1979 . reproduction and development of the black howler monkey .\npictures of belizean mammals . featuring pictures , photos of the black howler monkey .\nblack howler monkeys are not currently classed as endangered as most are found in protected areas .\ntogether with european zoos , bristol zoo is maintaining a population of black howler monkeys in human care .\nblack howler monkeys are one of the few primate species with different coat colors in males and females . males have a black coat , while females are blonde .\nyou find our black howler monkeys in the south american mixed species exhibit , which they share with our armadillos .\nthe black howler monkey is found from the dry forests of central brazil into the rainforests of paraguay , argentina , and bolivia .\nhowler monkeys are among the largest and noisiest of the \u2018new world\u2019 monkeys . although called black , it is only the adult males that are black . the females and infants are a pale grey / beige .\ncalegaro - marques , c . , j . bicca - marques . 1993 . allomaternal care in black howler monkey ( alouatta caraya ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - black howler monkey juvenile in tree\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - black howler monkey juvenile in tree\ntitle =\narkive photo - black howler monkey juvenile in tree\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nhowler monkeys have beards and long , thick hair which may be black , brown , or red . the red howler species is the most common , but it is often targeted by hunters eager for bushmeat . other species of howler monkey may be critically endangered over sections of their ranges .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - guatemalan black howler ( alouatta pigra )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - guatemalan black howler ( alouatta pigra )\ntitle =\narkive species - guatemalan black howler ( alouatta pigra )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nmonkey magic at the zoo for sixteen years , robin brockett lived in belize and pioneered howler monkey rehabilitation and release work . howler monkey . . .\nthe guatemalan black howler is classified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed under appendix i of cites ( 3 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - black howler monkey juvenile female resting in tree branch\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - black howler monkey juvenile female resting in tree branch\ntitle =\narkive photo - black howler monkey juvenile female resting in tree branch\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nblack howler monkeys can be found in southern brazil , paraguay , eastern bolivia , and northern argentina . they live in primary , arid deciduous , and broadleaf forests .\nbeing imported to the u . s . for use as laboratory animals little else has been reported about their use . several black howler monkeys can be found in zoos .\nare also sexually dichromatic . males usually have black hair , which gives the species the common name of black howler monkey . females however have more yellow - brown or olive colored hair . infants are born with a golden coat , which changes as the animal matures .\nrodrigues , f . , j . marinho - filho . 1995 . feeding on a marsh - living herbaceous plant by black howler monkeys ( alouatta caraya ) in central brazil .\nwhilst black howler monkeys are not officially threatened with extinction - they are classified as a species of least concern - as with many other species in south america their habitat is being steadily destroyed .\nthe black howler monkey , known as the\nbaboon\nin belize , is the largest monkey in belize and one of the largest in the americas . throughout most of its range , the howler monkey is endangered from hunting and habitat destruction . fortunately , belize has a healthy population of these loudest of primates .\nhowler monkeys filmed in belize . various locations : pook ' s hlll lodge , caracol , baboon sanctuary\nthe guatemalan black howler is found in belize , northern guatemala , south - eastern mexico and possibly northern honduras ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . this species can often be observed in the vicinity of mayan archaeological sites ( 2 ) .\nblack howler monkeys are one of the few primate species with different coat colors in males and females\u2014a trait called sexual dimorphism , which is a broad term that includes differences in size , behavior , and other characteristics between males and females of the same species . males have a black coat , while females are blonde . black howler monkeys have a prehensile tail without hair on the bottom side , which they use for grasping during locomotion . the upper molars have sharp , shearing crests that are used in grinding leaves . they move slowly using a quadrupedal mode of locomotion and they have five - toed , grasping feet . the large hyoid bone ( adam ' s apple ) that allows for their loud call restricts arm movement , so howler monkeys rely heavily on their tail for locomotion .\nthe guatemalan black howler is known to occur in six protected areas : cockscomb basin wildlife sanctuary , guanacaste and monkey bay national parks ( belize ) ; rio dulce and tikal national parks ( guatemala ) ; and palenque national park ( mexico ) ( 2 ) .\nhowlers are among the largest monkeys in the americas , and the guatemalan black howler ( alouatta pigra ) is among the largest of the genus ( 4 ) . the guatemalan black howler has a notably long , silky , dense coat of black fur with traces of brown on the shoulders , cheeks and back ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . a slight crest exists on the crown , and males over the age of four months have a conspicuous white scrotum ( 2 ) . the arms and legs are long but stout , and the tail is prehensile , lacks hair on its underside , and is used like a fifth limb to grasp branches and anchor the body ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .\nfemales generally give birth every two years , resulting in one offspring after a 180 - day gestation period . both sexes are blond until age 2 . 5 , when males turn black . they reach sexual maturity around 18 months . tongue flicking is a ritualized display of sexual solicitation , with an easily visible pink tongue with black bordering .\nsilver , s . c . , ostro , l . e . t . , yeager , c . p . and horwich , r . ( 1998 ) feeding ecology of the black howler monkey ( alouatta pigra ) in northern belize . american journal of primatology , 45 : 263 - 279 . available at : urltoken\ntreves , a . and brandon , k . ( 2005 ) tourism impacts on the behavior of black howler monkeys ( alouatta pigra ) at lamanai , belize . in : paterson , j . d . ( ed ) commensalism and conflict : the primate - human interface . university of oklahoma , tulsa . available at : urltoken\nthese monkeys are hunted for food and used as bait in traps . they are also threatened due to habitat destruction . agricultural development , particularly for soy and cattle , are the primary drivers of habitat loss . hunting is for subsistence , and is not in great amounts . black howler monkeys occur in many protected areas throughout their range .\nth guatemalan black howler is found in primary and secondary lowland tropical rainforest and semi - deciduous forest ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . one survey suggested riverine and seasonally flooded areas are particularly attractive to this species ( 9 ) . although primarily arboreal , individuals living in mangrove swamps have occasionally been seen to swim from one small island to another ( 2 ) .\nperes , c . 1997 . effects of habitat quality and hunting pressure on arboreal folivore densities on neotropical forests : a case study of howler monkeys ( alouatta spp . ) .\nin their phylogenetic analysis using the cytochrome b gene , nascimento et al . ( 2005 ) showed that populations of alouatta caraya from santa cruz , bolivia ( chaco ) are differentiated from those in various localities in the state of mato grosso and ( one specimen ) goi\u00e1s further north . this indicates the possibility of two taxa of the black howler monkey , rather than just one .\nhowler monkeys are herbivores . in the zoo , they are given fresh leaves , mixed fruit and vegetables , granary bread , nuts , sunflower seeds and specially made primate dietary supplements .\nleaves and fruit form the bulk of the diet , although flowers and insects may also be eaten . like other members of its genus , the guatemalan black howler has large salivary glands that help to break down the tannins in the leaves they eat ( 6 ) . this monkey is mainly active in the morning and evening , but also remains busy throughout the day ( 5 ) .\nbicca - marques , j . , c . calegaro - marquez . 1998 . behavioral thermoregulation in a sexually and developmentally dichromatic neotropical primate , the black - and - gold howling monkey ( alouatta caraya ) .\nhowler monkeys are vegetarians , feeding on flowers , fruits and leaves . within belize , a special community based conservation organization has protected land along the belize river for the howler , ensuring that their food trees are not destroyed to make way for pasture . this\ncommunity baboon sanctuary\nhas supplied numerous animals for translocation throughout belize , most successfully within the cockscomb basin wildlife sanctuary .\nthe guatemalan black howler is threatened throughout most of its range from hunting and habitat destruction ( 10 ) . suitable forest habitat has rapidly been lost and fragmented through conversion to pasture and agricultural lands , and to logging operations ( 8 ) . if such patterns continue , the population size of this species is projected to decline by around 74 % over three generations ( 30 years ) ( 1 ) .\nmost howler monkeys live in large social groups generally made up of family members . these groups appear to be matrilineal where the males disperse to non - natal groups , though not always . in\nblack howler monkeys live in troops of between 4 and 8 members . each troop has its own territory in which it feeds and lives . the size of the territory depends on the size of the troop , ranging from 3 to 25 acres . baboons defend this territory from other troops through the use of their voices . the howling is one of the loudest animal sounds in the tropical forest of belize .\nthese south american monkeys are the loudest terrestrial animal in the western hemisphere , and are usually the largest and most abundant primate wherever they live . blond at birth , males turn black as they mature , while females stay blonde their entire lives .\nother conservation measures implemented by the sanctuary include creative initiatives like building bridges made of rope and sticks that allow the monkeys to pass between gaps in the forest , and relocating a number of individuals to the cockscomb basin wildlife sanctuary ( 8 ) . if similar efforts were made in mexico and guatemala , and ecotourism was promoted as a viable means of profiting from protected forest habitats , the guatemalan black howler would perhaps have a much higher chance of long - term survival .\nthe low and guttural sound of howler monkeys is one of the loudest calls produced by any land animal . under certain conditions , a howler ' s call can be heard from about 3 miles ( 4 . 8 kilometers ) away . the male ' s call is typically louder than the female ' s and is produced by drawing air through a cavity in an enlarged hyoid bone in the throat , which is larger in males than in females .\nblack howler monkeys are the largest monkeys in latin american rainforests . males are much larger than females . males measure 24 to 26 inches ( 60 to 65 centimeters ) long with a 24 to 26 inch tail ( 60 to 65 centimeters ) . females ' bodies are slightly shorter at about 20 inches ( 50 centimeters ) . females typically weigh around 16 pounds ( 7 . 3 kilograms ) , while males weigh around 32 . 5 pounds ( 14 . 8 kilograms ) .\nhave long , strong prehensile tails . these tails are hairless on the underside , which allows them to be sensitive to touch and act in identifying things , much like a 5th hand . the black face is mostly hairless as well , with slightly bushy eyebrows .\nhowlers have both natural and human - induced threats to their existence . the black howler monkey , known as the\nbaboon\nin belize , is endangered throughout much of its range due to hunting and habitat destruction . as forests are cleared , howlers , who need several acres of forest per troop to survive , are becoming increasingly rare . throughout the region in which they are found , howlers are hunted both for food and for sport . some experts believe that howlers could become extinct within the next 35 years .\nadditionally , a community - based conservation organization in belize called the community baboon sanctuary ( this species is called ' baboon ' in the local creole dialect ) has protected land along the belize river , ensuring that this howler\u2019s food trees are not destroyed to make way for pasture ( 10 ) . over 200 private landowners here in seven villages , stretching over 20 square miles , have voluntarily pledged to conserve their land for the protection of the guatemalan black howler , many of which will consequently benefit from ecotourism . indeed , one of the main aims of the community baboon sanctuary is to help address habitat destruction by promoting sustainable tourism as an attractive alternative to destructive land management practices . at the same time , the sanctuary conducts conservation research and educates the local community and visitors about the importance of biodiversity ( 8 ) .\nadaptations : their tale is a prehensile tail and can support their whole body weight . living mostly in the canopy it helps to have an extra \u201chand\u201d to hold on with . the underside of the tail is even hairless with a gripping pad . males and females look are very different in both size and color . males can weigh up to 18 pounds and are black , females are a little smaller with 12 pounds being a typical weigh . they are also gold in color , this is called dimorphic coloration . infants are born with the gold coloration and as they mature if it is a male will turn black .\nhowler monkeys are so called because of their amazing howling calls which can be heard by humans up to 5km away . they tend to howl at the beginning and end of the day . the calls are so loud due to a special voice box and pouch in the throat that amplifies the sound .\nhowler monkeys are among the largest primates in the neotropics . they can grow to be 22 to 36 inches tall when standing . and , their tails are about the same size in length as their bodies ! male howlers are black , while females are brown . they have prehensile tails that they can use to grab onto branches . they make loud vocalizations to mark their territory , thus earning their name . their howls , which resemble a strong wind blowing through a tunnel , have been heard over two miles away by researchers . while most individuals do not live for more than 15 years in the wild , it is possible for howlers to reach over 20 years in age .\nwhen two howler troops do meet , males expend much energy in howling , leaping , running and fighting , which detract from time that could be spent eating or resting . these monkeys howl to let the other groups know where they are , eliminating the energy expenditure needed to patrol territories constantly , or to fight with other troops .\nhowler monkeys are found only in the rainforests of the americas . they live in tall rainforest trees in groups of between 4 and 19 members . they travel from tree to tree in search of food\u2014walking from limb to limb , rather than jumping . while not particularly perky primates , they are most active during the day ( diurnal ) , sleeping high in rainforest trees at night .\nguatemalan black howlers live in stable troops composed of one or two adult males , a few breeding females , and their offspring , with an average group size of between four and six individuals ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . groups of bachelor males also exist , the members of which will fight resident males for possession of their troop and access to breeding females ( 6 ) . the territory of each troop ranges between 3 and 25 hectares , depending upon the size of the group ( 10 ) . single offspring are usual , born after a gestation period of 180 \u2013 194 days ( 2 ) .\nthese vocal primates are the biggest of all the new world monkeys . unlike old world monkeys , howlers and other new world species have wide , side - opening nostrils and no pads on their rumps . howlers also boast a prehensile tail . they can use this tail as an extra arm to grip or even hang from branches\u2014no old world monkeys have such a tail . a gripping tail is particularly helpful to howler monkeys because they rarely descend to the ground . they prefer to stay aloft , munching on the leaves that make up most of their diet .\nhere at the cmc zoo : we have a small troop of howler monkeys that call our zoo home . ghelfing is our oldest , and mother to our two other howlers in the troop . ghelfing was born on october 13 , 1994 and came from the pittsburgh zoo in 1998 . her two offspring are bert and dj . bert was born october 25 , 2008 and his sister dj as born on september 2 , 2009 . their primary keeper said her favorite part of caring for them is they include her in their grooming sessions and make her feel like she is part of the troop as it is a social bonding for them .\nthese tree - dwelling herbivores mainly consume tree and vine leaves , flowers and tropical forest fruits . mammals do not have the enzymes capable of digesting cellulose , the carbohydrate that composes the leaf cell wall . instead , with the help of bacteria contained in a sacculated stomach , all monkeys in the subfamily colobinae ( e . g . colobus monkeys ) receive energy rich gases from the bacteria triggered reaction ( fermentation ) . unlike colobines , howler monkeys do not have the sacculated stomach , but rather a simple acid stomach that also contains two enlarged sections in the cecum and colon in which fermentative bacteria are found . as with colobines , the gases serve as the energy source . howlers also eat flowers and fruit , which are far less abundant than leaves and require greater energy expenditure to forage .\nthey are aptly named for their cacophonous cries . when a number of howlers let loose their lungs in concert , often at dawn or dusk , the din can be heard up to three miles away . male monkeys have large throats and specialized , shell - like vocal chambers that help to turn up the volume on their distinctive call . the noise sends a clear message to other monkeys : this territory is already occupied by a troop .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nn argentina to mato grosso ( brazil ) , bolivia ( see anderson , 1997 ) .\na . caraya species group . for the inclusion of straminea in this species , not in a . seniculus , see rylands and brandon - jones ( 1988 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfernandez - duque , e . , wallace , r . b . & rylands , a . b .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern considering its large range , presence in several national parks , and ability to adapt to modified habitats . at present , it is not likely that the species , while declining , warrants listing in a threatened category under criterion a . although its habitat is very fragmented , populations can live in relatively small areas and disturbed forest .\nalthough widespread , alouatta caraya is patchily distributed , and densities vary widely . in argentina , brown and zunino ( 1994 ) recorded high densities in a number of sites : chaco forest , formosa 111 individuals / km\u00b2 ; chaco forest , corrientes 90 individuals / km\u00b2 ; gallery forest , 63 individuals / km\u00b2 ; and inundated forest 283 individuals / km\u00b2 . arditi and placci ( 1990 ) carried out surveys in gallery forests of the chaco in argentina ( riacho pilag\u00e1 , estancia guaycolec ) and found lower numbers than those reported by brown and zunino ( 1994 ) resulting from surveys in 1980s : 11 . 7 individuals / km\u00b2 . dvoskin et al . ( 2004 ) repeated the surveys there in 2001 and found that numbers had increased to 26 individuals / km\u00b2 . the highest densities occur in flooded forests and there have been numerous surveys of alouatta caraya in this forest type ( pope 1968 ; thorington jr et al . 1994 ; rumiz 1990 ; zunino et al . 1996 , 2001 ) . codenotti et al . ( 2002 ; see also codenotti and silva 2004 ) conducted a state - wide survey of remnant a . caraya populations in rio grande do sul , brazil . populations were found to be small , isolated , mostly single groups , and densities were consistently low . of 13 localities , only three had densities above 2 individuals / km\u00b2 ( lageado do celso 6 . 5 individuals / km\u00b2 ; a location in the municipality of santiago 4 . 0 individuals / km\u00b2 ; and an urban park in the municipality of s\u00e3o francisco de assis 2 . 3 individuals / km\u00b2 ) .\nthis species is threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural development for soy and cattle ranching in the brazilian cerrado , soy in the bolivian chiquitano , and small - scale farms and cattle ranching in argentina . some subsistence hunting occurs across its range .\nalouatta caraya occurs in numerous protected areas : argentina iguaz\u00fa national park ( 55 , 000 ha ) ( brown and zunino 1994 ) pilcomayo national park ( 60 , 000 ha ) ( brown and zunino 1994 ) chaco national park ( 14 , 000 ha ) ( brown and zunino 1994 ) bolivia kaa - iya gran chaco national park ( 3 , 441 , 115 ha ) otuquis pantanal national park ( 903 , 350 ha ) otuquis natural area of integrated management ( 102 , 600 ha ) san mat\u00edas natural area of integrated management ( 2 , 918 , 500 ha ) noel kempff mercado national park ( 1 , 500 , 000 ha ) ( wallace et al . 1998 ) r\u00edos blanco y negro national reserve ( 1 , 423 , 900 ha ) ( wallace et al . 2000 ) brazil araguaia national park ( 557 , 726 ha ) ( in range ) bras\u00edlia national park ( 31 , 891 ha ) ( santini 1986 ) chapada dos veadeiros national park 965 , 034 ha ) ( in range ) grande sert\u00e3o veredas national park ( 241 , 000 ha ) ( in range ) chapada diamantina national park ( 152 , 105 ha ) ( in range ) pantanal matogrossense national park ( 136 , 046 ha ) taiam\u00e1 ecological station ( 914 , 300 ha ) ibirapuit\u00e3 state biological reserve ( 351 ha ) ( marques 2003 ) ibirapuit\u00e3 environmental protection area ( 318 , 000 ha ) ( marques 2003 ) ilha grande national park ( 108 , 166 ha ) ( aguiar et al . 2007 ) ilhas e v\u00e1rzeas do rio paran\u00e1 environmental protection area ( 1 , 003 , 059 ha ) ( aguiar et al . 2007 ) paraguay cerro cora national park ( 5 , 500 ha ) ( probably extinct , stallings 1985 ) ybicui national park ( 5 , 000 ha ) ( stallings 1985 ) tinfunque national park ( 280 , 000 ha ) ( the most important protected area in paraguay for this species ; stallings 1985 ) defensores del chaco national park ( 780 , 000 ha ) ( stallings 1985 ) caaguazu national park ( 6 , 000 ha ) ( stallings 1985 ) kuri y national reserve ( 2 , 000 ha ) ( stallings 1985 ) yakui protected forest ( 1 , 000 ha ) ( stallings 1985 ) nacunday protected forest ( 1 , 000 ha ) ( stallings 1985 ) . it is listed on appendix ii of cites .\nfernandez - duque , e . , wallace , r . b . & rylands , a . b . 2008 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nmammalogists for helping to forge the nomenclatural mesh that holds our science together . * journal of mammalogy * to refer to this work as a checklist undervalues it and does not give sufficient credit to the authors and editors for their meticulous efforts in its production . a valuable reference work and a vital tool , particularly for researchers . * journal of natural history * by far the most convenient source for finding the correct scientific name of any mammal and should be on the reference shelf of libraries striving to have useful science sections . * science books and films * the editors and authors are to be congratulated for undertaking such an outstanding and authoritative work , and it should serve as a standard reference for mammalian species taxonomy for many years to come . * journal of mammalian evolution * the third edition adds to its reputation as an outstanding and authorative work . * national museum of natural history weekly update & forecast * impressive and elegant work . - - g . r . seamons * reference reviews * a must - have text for any professional mammalogist , and a useful and authoritative reference for scientists and students in other disciplines . * southeastern naturalist * a magnificent work important to anyone seriously interested in mammals . this work is essential for academic or special libraries supporting zoology or conservation and for large public libraries . * american reference books annual * as were many of our colleagues , we were waiting for this revised edition since 2003 . . . we can say that the wait was worth it . - - sergio solari and robert j . baker * journal of mammalogy *\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\ntoday ' s hours : 8 a . m . to 7 p . m . last admittance 6 p . m .\nhead to freedom plaza for the fast & the fierce 5k and fun run . then , make your way to the zoo for an after - party on the great meadow !\nshow the animal lover in your life how big your heart is with the gift that supports animal care and conservation .\nsplash into fun with nature cubs summer preschool classes ! attend the beach buddies series starting july 10 , or pick a weekend class about elephants , monkeys , pandas and other zoo favorites .\nhowlers make up the highest percentage of the primates in the areas that they occupy .\nthey do not need to travel far to find leaves . for this reason , their total home size is about 77 acres ( 31 hectares ) for 15 to 20 animals , and they typically move about 1 , 300 feet ( 400 meters ) per day . in comparison , a spider monkey , which feeds primarily on fruit , has a home range of 1 , 000 acres ( 300 hectares ) .\nat the smithsonian ' s national zoo , they eat primate biscuits , browse , spinach , romaine lettuce , kale , other greens , broccoli , grapes , bananas , apples , melons , carrots , sweet potatoes and green beans .\nmale members of the troop awake each morning and give a dawn\nchorus\nthat is answered by other males . because howlers do not have an exclusive territory , sharing parts of their home range with others , the morning call and calls that occur when troops move to a new feeding site helps define , defend , and clarify the group ' s claim on feeding trees in their home range . weaker troops can identify the location of strong troops and avoid that area , where they would not be able to feed .\neven with fermentation , howlers can only extract limited calories from their food , so they must be cautious as to how much energy they expend . for this reason they will typically spend half of their waking day resting . males will settle disputes and defend the group from predators , allowing the females to spend more energy on reproduction and care of the young . as stated earlier , howling functions to help troops space themselves as efficiently as possible , allowing them to overcome the low - energy returns of leaf eating .\nin the wild , howlers live to be between 15 to 20 years old . in human care they often reach 20 years old .\nshare the story of this animal with others . simply raising awareness about this species can contribute to its overall protection .\nbeautiful and engaging , red pandas are classified as endangered on the iucn red list of threatened species . there may be fewer than 2 , 500 adult red pandas living in the wild today .\nsmithsonian\u2019s national zoo & conservation biology institute 3001 connecticut ave . , nw washington , dc 20008\nbreeding reach maturity : 4 years mating : non - seasonal gestation : ~ 180 days no . of young : 1 infant\nlifestyle habitat : lowland forests . highly social . food : fruit , leaves , flowers lifespan : 20 years\na summer of learning fun for all ! conservation camp : for the 24th year running , another super successful conservation camp was held in july at our tr . . .\nsummer reading camp meets junior buddy mrs . rebecca hernandez , a teacher based in orange walk , has a long history of performing educational magic for . . .\nzoo vet clinic in progress yes , for two years , efforts have been strongly focused upon the building of a state - of - the - art commissary and vet clinic . . .\nthere are many ways you can protect rainforests , fight climate change , and help people and wildlife thrive .\nthe rainforest alliance certified\u2122 seal is awarded to farms , forests , and businesses that meet rigorous environmental and social standards . learn more\ntheir howls , which resemble a strong wind blowing through a tunnel , have been heard over two miles away by researchers .\nforests are home to 80 percent of earth ' s terrestrial biodiversity ! we ' re preserving habitats for endangered species , conserving wildlife corridors , and saving breeding grounds . please join our alliance to keep forests standing :\nhowlers are strict vegetarians , eating only flowers , fruits and leaves . in belize , special community managed protected areas have been established to keep people from over - harvesting the fruit and flowers that the howlers need to survive .\njukofsky , diane . encyclopedia of rainforests . connecticut : oryx press , 2002 .\nhowlers earn their common name from the remarkably loud , rasping calls or howls that are characteristic of the genus ( alouatta ) , and emitted most elaborately and loudly by adult males ( 7 ) ( 8 ) . these calls can be heard over several kilometres and serve a range of functions , including territorial advertisement , mate attraction and intimidation of rivals or enemies ( 7 ) .\nauthenticated ( 19 / 06 / 2006 ) by matt richardson , independent primatologist and writer .\nrichardson , m . ( 2006 ) living primates of the world : an illustrated taxonomy . in press , unknown .\nanimals animals / earth scenes 17 railroad avenue chatham ny 12037 united states of america tel : + 01 ( 518 ) 3925500 fax : + 01 ( 518 ) 3925550 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is affected by global climate change . to learn about climate change and the species that are affected , visit our climate change pages .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nin the wild , the monkeys use their loud howls to defend food in their territory . almost all of their time is spent high in the trees , feeding on various sorts of leaves .\nin the wild , these monkeys live at the top of trees in tropical rainforests or tropical dry forests across south america - argentina , bolivia , brazil , paraguay and uruguay .\nthe mix of different species is enriching to the animals . both species get on very well , they are acive at different times of the day and they share space as they would potentially in the wild .\nbristol zoological society ltd , clifton , bristol bs8 3ha . company registered in england reg . no . 5154176 . charity reg . no . 1104986\nare found in the rainforests of central south america ranging through eastern bolivia , southern brazil , paraguay , and northern argentina .\nrange varies from tropical semi - deciduous gallery forest where rains are nearly constant throughout the year , to tropical deciduous forest spotted with savanna like openings where there is a marked wet , warm season and a dry , cool season .\nrequire forests with diverse species of plant life to supply their dietary needs . much of their habitat is currently being diminished by destruction of these forest types . ( welker et al . 1990 , rodrigues and marinho - filho 1995 , kowalewski and zunino 1997 )\nare sexually dimorphic where males average 6 . 7 kg and females average 4 . 4 kg . male body size ranges from 1 . 7 to 2 . 2 ft with tails of similar length to their body . females ' bodies average 1 . 6 ft with tails slightly longer than their bodies .\nhave brown , medium sized eyes set in a frontal position . the muzzle is prominent and the nostrils close together . like other howlers they have enlarged hyoid and larynx housing the vocal apparatus where the distinctive howling originates .\n( welker et al . 1990 , walker et al . 1999 , bicca marquez and calegaro marquez 1998 )\nis 187 days . studies have shown that younger females have gestation length of 10 to 12 months where more mature mothers have gestation length of only 7 - 10 months . females give birth to one offspring per birth and care for infants for about one full year before mating again . infants are about 125 g at birth .\nfemales care for their young for about 12 months after they are born . female offspring remain in their natal group and therefore stay with their mother long after they are independent .\ngroups there are usually between 5 to 8 , though they have been observed in the wild in groups up to 19 individuals . the groups have roughly equal sex ratio but may tend to have more females than males .\npractice allomothering where other females will carry , groom and protect infants other than their own . adult males are also sometimes seen alloparenting . young males are not allowed to handle infants since they often mistreat or even kill them . overt conflict has rarely been observed in\nit does however arise between young males at the time in their life that some set out to join other troops .\nare territorial but seem to only defend the immediate area where they are at the time , and territories often overlap . all members of the group\nhowl\neach morning to notify neighboring groups of their position presumably to maintain distance between groups .\nhave also been observed defecating , sometimes forming huge dung piles , in the mornings and evenings , and rubbing themselves on branches . this behavior is thought to be a way of marking territory .\n( welker et al . 1990 , shoemaker 1979 , erwin and mitchell 1986 , calegaro marques and bicca marques , 1993 )\nare folivorous . they eat mostly leaves but do compliment their diet with fruits , buds and flowers .\nrarely come down from the trees since their food source is entirely in the canopy and their water needs are met by their food . however in especially dry times they will come down to drink water in lakes or supplement their diet with marsh - living herbaceous plants\n( erwin and mitchell 1986 , welker et al . 1990 , rodrigues and marinho - filho 1996 )\nare threatened by clear - cutting and selective logging since they are heavily reliant on the biodiversity of predominantly primary forests for their diet . some populations are more threatened than others . according to the priority primate conservation projects for the neotropical region from the revised global action plan for primate conservation ,\nin the argentine provinces of formosa , misiones , salta and corrientes are threatened and a high priority for conservation . hunting pressure on\nranges from moderate in locations such as san jose , bolivia to none in northern argentina .\n( welker et al . 1990 , mitchell and erwin 1986 , peres 1997 )\nalicia lavalle ( author ) , university of michigan - ann arbor , phil myers ( editor ) , museum of zoology , university of michigan - ann arbor .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nthe kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males , each of which also pairs with several different females .\nrainforests , both temperate and tropical , are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground . epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant . precipitation is typically not limiting , but may be somewhat seasonal .\na terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .\na grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .\na terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5\u00b0 n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\nkowalewski , m . , g . zunino . 1997 . impact of deforestation on a population of alouatta caraya in northern argentina .\nmuckenhirn , n . 1976 . addendum to the non - human primate trade in colombia . pp . 99 - 100 in r thorington , p heltne , eds .\nwelker , c . , c . schafer - witt . 1990 . new world monkeys . pp . 122 - 177 in s parker , ed .\nto cite this page : lavalle , a . 2000 .\nalouatta caraya\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nflpa - images of nature pages green house wetheringsett stowmarket suffolk ip14 5qa united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 861 113 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 860 222 pictures @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nnature picture library 5a great george street bristol bs1 5rr united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4675 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4699 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nprimate info net is maintained by the wisconsin primate research center ( wprc ) library at the university of wisconsin - madison . wprc programs are supported by grant numbers rr000167 and rr015311 , national primate centers program , national center for research resources , the national institutes of health .\ndisclaimer : the wisconsin primate research center provides primate info net as an informational service . we are not responsible for the content of linked sites , nor does inclusion of a link imply endorsement of the views expressed in that content .\nyes man ! call belize today ! one lick rates starting at 16 . 7 \u00a2 a minute ! ! !\nyes man ! call home today . one lick rates starting at 16 . 7\u00a2 a minute ! ! u know u no call u mumma long time , she di wait fu you call man ! call now !\nsearch & compare flights to belize online , vacation packages , find great deals & low airfares , airlines , belize travel , and belize travel sites .\n\u00a9 all rights reserved . you may download any of these files on this page for personal non - commercial use only . we would appreciate a link back to us . note : please download and save pictures to your server or web space . please do not let your pictures load directly from my server , since this uses a tremendous amount of bandwidth , and resources on my server .\nwe have experience of working with well over 50 different species . the following list is not exhaustive but lists the species with which we work most frequently . in this list are three near threatened species and eight threatened species .\n( photos of each species will be uploaded soon , please bear with us in the meantime . )\nfriends of inti wara yassi ( fiwy ) is our sister organization in the uk . they have been a major source of support since their founding in 2008 . find out more about fiwy here .\nquest overseas organizes gap year trips for british and international students . since 2001 , quest has worked with ciwy to bring much needed volunteers and funds . if you are interested in the programs they have with us , find out more here .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 comunidad inti wara yassi . all rights reserved . this website uses cookies and your use of it implies acceptance of their use . todos los derechos reservados . este sitio web utiliza cookies y su uso del mismo implica la aceptaci\u00f3n de su uso .\nsize : male - 60 - 65cm , female - 50cm weight : male - 5 . 0 - 8 . 9kg , female - 3 . 8 - 5 . 4kg\ntheir diet consists of mainly flowers and leaves , with fruit being eaten when available . their ability to exist on foliage alone gives them an advantage when fruit is in short supply .\nafter a pregnancy of around 6\u00bd months a single infant is born , which at first clings to its mother , later riding on her back until they are about 1 year old .\n\u00a92018 the zoological society of east anglia limited . registered in england - company number 08250951 . registered charity in england and wales no . 1150158 . registered office : the grove , kenninghall road , banham , norfolk , nr16 2he ."]}
{"id": 1374, "summary": [{"text": "the south african cliff swallow ( petrochelidon spilodera ) , also known as the south african swallow , is a species of bird in the family hirundinidae native to central \u2212 western and southern africa .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is found in botswana , republic of the congo , democratic republic of the congo , gabon , lesotho , malawi , namibia , south africa , zambia , and zimbabwe .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "nests are commonly built from mud under artificial structures such as huts and bridges . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "south african cliff swallow", "paragraphs": ["bottom right : south african cliff swallow . [ photo johan van rensburg \u00a9 ]\nsouth african cliff - swallows at nest , bloemfontein , south africa . [ photo trevor hardaker \u00a9 ]\nintroduction : south african cliff - swallows ( hirundo spilodera ) inhabit namibian sparse savannah and grassland . flocks of between 10 and 1 , 000 birds are common . roosting is in nests .\ndistribution of south african cliff - swallow in southern africa , based on statistical smoothing of the records from first sa bird atlas project ( \u00a9 animal demography unit , university of cape town ; smoothing by birgit erni and francesca little ) . colours range from dark blue ( most common ) through to yellow ( least common ) . see here for the latest distribution from the sabap2 .\na small colony of cliff swallows nesting in a large culvert under the road . they are mainly alarm calling at my presence .\nturner , a . ( 2018 ) . south african swallow ( petrochelidon spilodera ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nintra - african breeding migrant , usually arriving from its drc non - breeding grounds around early august , leaving around late april .\nnamibia , zimbabwe and south africa , with scattered records from lesotho ; migrates n to se congo and w drcongo .\nthese monogamous , colonial nesters , with colonies comprising 20 to upwards of 900 nests , fly from the drc to south africa for breeding season .\nharrison , j . a . , allan , d . g . , underhill , l . g . , herremans , m . , tree . a . j . , parker , v . & brown , c . j . ( eds ) . 1997 . the atlas of southern african birds . vol . 2 : passerines . birdlife south africa , johannesburg .\nnot globally threatened . generally common in suitable habitat in main breeding range in south africa ; less common and more irregular in namibia , botswana , zimbabwe and . . .\nthe non - breeding season is mainly spent in western drc , flying to south africa for the breeding season . it also has localised breeding populations in eastern zimbabwe , namibia and possibly south - eastern botswana , with other records from botswana and namibia probably just stop off points on the way to the colonies . in south africa it is common in the free state province , north - west province , mpumalanga , gauteng , northern kzn , eastern cape and southern northern province . it generally prefers grassland , open savanna and karoo .\nit eats a variety of aerial and flightless insects , usually foraging less 3 metres above ground . it often hovers above a bush to flush insects , or alternatively it catches prey disturbed by grass fires , ploughs , sheep , cattle , helmeted guineafowl , cattle egret or common ostrich . it may also descend to the ground to feed on northern harvester termites ( hodotermes mossambicus ) and other insects . the following food items have been recorded in its diet :\nmonogamous , colonial nester , with colonies comprising 20 to upwards of 900 nests , often adjacent to little swift colonies . individual pairs defend a small territory around the nest entrance against other pairs .\nthe nest ( see image below ) is a gourd - shaped structure with a short entrance tunnel , built of mud pellets and lined wool , plant down and feathers . the entrance holes are packed tightly together , often often overlapping as in the photo . a horizontal ridge is often placed below the entrance which is lengthened as more nests are constructed . it is almost always placed in artificial site since the 1800s , such as in traditional huts and bridges but rarely on cliffs .\negg - laying season is from august - february , peaking around november - december .\nit usually lays two separate clutches per breeding season , each consisting of 1 - 4 , usually 2 - 3 eggs . they are incubated by both sexes for approximately 14 - 16 days , in shifts of 1 - 27 minutes .\nthe chicks are fed by both parents , leaving the nest after about 23 - 26 days , but it can be delayed if the chick is too heavy to fly . the juveniles return to the nest to roost for at least 4 days , often lured there by there with calling and coaxing by their parents .\nnot threatened , in fact its range has benefited from the introduction of man - made nest sites , which it now uses almost exclusively .\nhockey par , dean wrj and ryan pg 2005 . roberts - birds of southern africa , viith ed . the trustees of the john voelcker bird book fund , cape town .\n14 cm ; 16\u201326 g . has pale rufous forehead and lores , dark brown crown , black head side and hindneck ; upperparts deep blue - black , whitish streaks on mantle , rump pale . . .\nno clear song ; calls are a warbling chatter call , a threat call which is a harsher version of the . . .\ndiet includes beetles coleoptera ( especially scarabaeidae and curculionidae ) , dipterans ( especially muscidae and drosophilidae ) , bugs ( . . .\nsept\u2013apr ; two or three broods reported for small proportion of pairs . colonies of a few tens to several hundreds of pairs , up to c . . . .\nmigratory . highly gregarious after breeding . present on breeding grounds in s aug\u2013apr , a few . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nin past , often merged into hirundo , but dna studies support recognition of separate genera .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nflock of + / - 200 flying in and out of roosting site under bridge . recording taken from bridge height , roughly eye - level with birds in flight .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\npetrochelidon spilodera ( del hoyo and collar 2016 ) was previously listed as hirundo spilodera .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to breed commonly ( keith et al . 1992 ) . trend justification : the population is estimated to be increasing following a recorded range expansion , perhaps linked to the availability of artificial nest - sites ( del hoyo et al . 2004 ) .\n( amended version of 2017 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22712412a118750418 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 295 , 447 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nplease note that the google map for common species will load slowly as there is a lot of data to show . please be patient .\nan excellent site for these birds is the bridge on eendracht road ( near suikerbosrand nature reserve ) , where they breed every year alongside white - rumped and little swifts .\n\u00a9 2018 bird & wildlife photography by richard and eileen flack . all images are copyrighted to the author .\ndistribution : scattered populations in central and northern namibia including etosha national park and swakopmund .\ndescription : dark brown crown , nape brown with bluish gloss . rufous rump , blackish brown tail , square - tipped . upper wings blackish brown , upper breast rufous .\nbreeding : gourd - shaped nest with entrance tunnel built of mud pellets and lined with wool and feathers . females lay 1 to 4 eggs and incubated for up to 16 days .\ntop location , right on the beach . this is a very popular accommodation choice - and rightly so .\nslightly outide town on the banks of the swakop river and overlooking the dunes of the namib desert . excellent for those wanting a desert setting near the convenience of town\nabsolutely unique ! built on stilts into the swakop river - many units offer great views . feels more like a traditional country lodge rather than an establishment in a busy tourist town .\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : petrochelidon spilodera . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 ."]}
{"id": 1379, "summary": [{"text": "rhinconichthys is an extinct genus of bony fish which existed during the upper cretaceous period .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "along with its close cousins the great-white-shark-sized or larger bonnerichthys and the immense leedsichthys , rhinconichthys forms a line of giant filter-feeding bony pachycormid fish that swam the jurassic and cretaceous seas for over 100 million years . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "rhinconichthys", "paragraphs": ["the discovery , published in the journal cretaceous research , describes the us species \u2013 rhinconichthys purgatoirensis \u2013 and the japanese species \u2013 rhinconichthys uyenoi . the fish have joined just one other fossilised species in the rhinconichthys genus , discovered in england six years ago .\nrhinconichthys was estimated to be more than 6 . 5 feet and fed on plankton .\nthe more than 6 . 5 - feet - long rhinconichthys feasted on plankton using its oar - shaped mouth .\nrhinconichthys belongs to an extinct bony fish group called pachycormids , which contains the largest bony fish ever to have lived .\nwhere in the world ? : rhinconichthys purgatoirensis was found in eastern colorado , with other species turning up in england and japan .\nthe fossil , whose proper genus is rhinconichthys , was taken to the rocky mountain dinosaur resource center in woodland park for study and exhibit .\nrhinconichthys was first named in\u202d \u202c2010 , \u202d \u202cfrom fossils that had been discovered in england . \u202d \u202cthen in\u202d \u202c2016\u202d \u202ca description of two new species , \u202d \u202cr . \u202d \u202cuyenoi from japan and r . \u202d \u202cpurgatoirensis from the usa were described , \u202d \u202crevealing to us that this fish genus potentially had a global distribution . \u202d \u202crhinconichthys is noted for the large hyomandibulae bones which would have allowed this to have had an incredibly wide gape , \u202d \u202cin turn allowing rhinconichthys to filter\u202d \u202clarge amounts of plankton from the sea water . rhinconichthys is related to the genera bonnerichthys and leedsichthys .\nshimada first encountered a rhinconichthys fossil about 30 years ago in the office of his mentor , teruya uyeno , a curator emeritus of the national museum of science and nature in japan . later , in 2010 , shimada and his colleagues uncovered another rhinconichthys in england , which they named r . taylori .\nthe rhinconichthys lived in the seas of the dinosaur era , about 92 million years ago , and consumed plankton on an industrial scale , according to rmdrc .\none of the authors of the study , kenshu shimada , a paleobiologist at depaul university , said rhinconichthys are exceptionally rare , known previously by only one species from england .\nthe most defining aspect to the rhinconichthys genus is its peculiar mouth . similar to a modern - day pelican , the fish had a huge mouth that could open extremely wide .\n\u201cbased on our new study , we now have three different species of rhinconichthys from three separate regions of the globe , each represented by a single skull , \u201d he said .\nscientists have lately discovered two plankton - munching fossil fish species of the rhinconichthys genus from the cretaceous period , swimming the oceans around 92 million years ago when dinosaurs still roamed earth .\n' based on our new study , we now have three different species of rhinconichthys from three separate regions of the globe , each represented by a single skull , ' shimada noted .\nthree different rhinconichthys from three separate geographical regions now turn up in scientific literature , each represented by a single skull . to shimada , it isn ' t any less mind - boggling .\nmeaning : rhinconichthys is a tribute to an unpublished name coined by 19th century paleontologist gideon mantell for specimens of this genus found in england , while purgatoirensis for colorado\u2019s purgatoire river drainage where the new species was found .\nan international team of scientists have discovered two new plankton - eating fossil fish species of the genus called rhinconichthys from the oceans of the cretaceous period , about 92 million years ago , when dinosaurs roamed the planet .\nschumacher , b . , shimada , k . , liston , j . , maltese , a . 2016 . highly specialized suspension - feeding bony fish rhinconichthys ( actinopterygii : pachycormiformes ) from the mid - cretaceous of the united states , england , and japan highly specialized suspension - feeding bony fish rhinconichthys ( actinopterygii : pachycormiformes ) from the mid - cretaceous of the united states , england , and japan highly specialized suspension - feeding bony fish rhinconichthys ( actinopterygii : pachycormiformes ) from the mid - cretaceous of the united states , england , and japan . cretaceous research . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . cretres . 2015 . 12 . 017\nan international team of scientists have discovered two new plankton - eating fossil fish species , of the genus called rhinconichthys , which lived 92 million years ago in the oceans of the cretaceous period . ( image by robert nicholls )\nskulls of the fish known as rhinconichthys were found in colorado and the re - examination of a second one from japan \u2014 which triples the numbers of species in the genus known to science and greatly expands their geographical range .\nwe know such a fish existed thanks to fossils discovered by paleontologist bruce schumacher and described with his colleagues earlier this year . they named the filter - feeder rhinconichthys purgatoirensis , a new species of a genus that had previously been found in england and japan . the colorado species is significantly older than its evolutionary siblings , however , punting rhinconichthys back in time as well as establishing that these fish were present in the western hemisphere through much of the cretaceous .\n' i was in a team that named rhinconichthys in 2010 , which was based on a single species from england , but we had no idea back then that the genus was so diverse and so globally distributed , ' said shimada .\nrhinconichthys is part of a family called the pachycormids , which includes the largest known bony fishes to live on earth . species in this fish family don ' t have any living descendants , but they lived large during their day . for example , all of the known species of rhinconichthys had a skinny body , and measured at least 6 . 5 feet ( 2 meters ) long , including its immense 1 . 5 - foot - long ( 0 . 5 m ) head .\nthe new study , ' highly specialized suspension - feeding bony fish rhinconichthys ( actinopterygii : pachycormiformes ) from the mid - cretaceous of the united states , england and japan , ' will appear in the forthcoming issue of the international scientific journal cretaceous research .\nthis\nplanktivorous\ndiet , also known as suspension feeding , is still used by marine vertebrates today , including the blue whale , manta ray and whale shark . thanks to the rhinconichthys findings , researchers know that animals also used this method during the mesozoic era , when the dinosaurs were alive .\nbased on our new study , we now have three different species of rhinconichthys from three separate regions of the globe ,\nsaid kenshu shimada , researcher on the study .\nthis tells just how little we still know about the biodiversity of organisms through the earth ' s history . it ' s really mindboggling .\nuntil now , scientists had only identified one species of this fish , which belongs to the genus rhinconichthys ( rink - oh - neek - thees ) . the new study builds on that count , and shows that these fish lived all over the world , the researchers said . [ image gallery : ancient monsters of the sea ]\nmoreover , rhinconichthys ' long head housed a large jaw that gaped open like a muppet ' s mouth , shimada said . one pair of bones , called the hyomandibulae , formed a large , oar - shaped lever that helped the jaws protrude and swing open , helping the fish fill its mouth with tasty plankton , he said .\nrhinconichthys are outstandingly rare large - mouthed fish , previously known by a single species from england . but that count has been expanded to two more and from other geographical locations , thanks to a new skull discovered in colorado in the united states ( named r . purgatoirensis ) and a reexamined skull from japan ( r . uyenoi ) .\nthe species discovered in the us was found by bruce a schumacher , as he was conducting field research in 2012 . he noticed a potential fossil protruding from a rock in colorado , and began to slowly chisel away at the surrounding material to reveal the fin rays of a bony fish . his discovery is the most complete rhinconichthys yet .\nbased on our new study , we now have three different species of rhinconichthys from three separate regions of the globe , each represented by a single skull ,\nstudy co - researcher kenshu shimada , a paleobiologist at depaul university in chicago , said in a statement .\nthis tells just how little we still know about the biodiversity of organisms through the earth ' s history . it ' s really mind - boggling .\nnot that rhinconichthys was the only filter - feeding fish around . along with other research that has identified and named the giant bonnerichthys and planktivorous sharks , schumacher and coauthors point out that there was a wide array of filter - feeding fish throughout cretaceous time . this is about more than species counts . where there are big planktivores , there has to be enough plankton for them to eat . before mantas , before whales , fish such as these were the largest creatures to strain the seas .\nfurther reading - 100 - million - year dynasty of giant planktivorous bony fishes in the mesozoic seas . \u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202cscience\u202d \u202c327\u202d ( \u202c5968\u202d ) \u202c : \u202d \u202c990\u202d\u2013\u202c993 . \u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202cmatt friedman , \u202d \u202ckenshu shimada , \u202d \u202clarry d . \u202d \u202cmartin , \u202d \u202cmichael j . \u202d \u202ceverhart , \u202d \u202cjeff liston , \u202d \u202canthony maltese\u202d & \u202cmichael triebold\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202c2010 . - \u202d \u202chighly specialized suspension - feeding bony fish rhinconichthys\u202d ( \u202cactinopterygii : \u202d \u202cpachycormiformes\u202d ) \u202cfrom the mid - cretaceous of the united states , \u202d \u202cengland , \u202d \u202cand japan . \u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202ccretaceous research\u202d \u202c61 : \u202d \u202c71\u202d\u2013\u202c85 . \u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202cbruce schumacher , \u202d \u202ckenshu shimada , \u202d \u202cjeff liston , \u202d \u202canthony maltese\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202c2016 .\nname : rhinconichthys . phonetic : rin - kon - ik - fiss . named by : matt friedman , \u202d \u202ckenshu shimada , \u202d \u202clarry d . \u202d \u202cmartin , \u202d \u202cmichael j . \u202d \u202ceverhart , \u202d \u202cjeff liston , \u202d \u202canthony maltese\u202d & \u202cmichael triebold\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202c2010 . classification : chordata , \u202d \u202cactinopterygii , \u202d \u202cpachycormiformes , \u202d \u202cpachycormidae . species : r . \u202d \u202ctaylori\u202d \u202c , \u202d \u202cr . \u202d \u202cpurgatoirensis , \u202d \u202cr . \u202d \u202cuyenoi . diet : filter feeder . size : r . \u202d \u202cpurgatoirensis about\u202d \u202c2\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202c2 . 7\u202d \u202cmeters long . \u202d \u202cr . \u202d \u202cuyenoi . \u202d \u202cabout\u202d \u202c3 . 4 - 4 . 5\u202d \u202cmeters long . known locations : england . \u202d \u202cjapan\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202cmikasa formation . \u202d \u202cusa , \u202d \u202ccolorado\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202ccarlile shale . time period : turonian of the cretaceous . fossil representation : partial remains of several individuals .\nstudy author and paleobiologist kenshu shimada of depaul university was part of the team that named the genus back in 2010 .\n[ b ] ut we had no idea back then that the genus was so diverse and so globally distributed ,\nhe said in a press release .\nthis interesting genus belongs to a now - extinct group of bony fish known as pachycormids , which boasts of the largest bony fish ever to have existed on the planet .\nthe feeding process is a unique one : a pair of bones called hyomandibulae formed a huge lever to protrude and swing the animals ' jaws open like a parachute , extra wide to receive as much plankton - laced water into the mouth . think of the way sharks open their mouth to attack their food .\nsuspension - feeding or a plankton - rich diet during the dinosaur age is an emerging area of interest . it is , however , common today among certain marine vertebrates , such as the whale shark and blue whale .\nthis tells just how little we still know about the biodiversity of organisms through the earth ' s history ,\nhe said .\n\u00a9 2018 tech times , all rights reserved . do not reproduce without permission .\nsign up for our email newsletter today . tech times ' biggest stories , delivered to your inbox .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ncontent copyright www . prehistoric - wildlife . com . the information here is completely free for your own study and research purposes , but please dont copy the articles word for word and claim them as your own work . the world of prehistory is constantly changing with the advent of new discoveries , as such it is best if you use this information as a jumping off point for your own research . privacy & cookies policy\nscientists have found two new extinct fossil fish species in japan and colorado . both species are characterised by their huge mouths , which open so widely so that they could gather as much plankton as possible when feeding .\nthe researchers , from depaul university , say that these species lived about 92 million years ago , a time when dinosaurs were still alive . the us species , r . purgatoirensis , was believed to be around 2 - 2 . 7m long , with the japanese r . uyenoi slightly larger at 3 . 4 - 4 . 5m .\nthis is because one of its bones \u2013 the hyomandibulae \u2013 could extend like an oar - shaped lever to swing the jaws open to a wide angle , enabling it to draw in as much plankton as possible when swimming .\nthe hyomandibula acts as an elongate lever ,\nsaid shimada ,\nallowing greatly amplified protrusion of the jaws and expansion of the buccal cavity .\nthis specialised cranial construction was previously unknown among cretaceous bony fish , and functionally parallels that of the modern paddlefish polyodon and many sharks .\nthe researchers write in the report that discoveries like this are changing historical interpretations of fish that feed on plankton .\nif you could take a dip in the cretaceous sea that covered colorado around 92 million years ago , you might spot what would initially look like a pretty plain fish . around six feet long , or a comparable to a mid - sized tuna , the streamlined swimmer would have a bullet - like profile . until it opened its mouth . in one swift motion the long lower jaw would snap open , creating a planktivorous parachute to catch some of the ocean\u2019s smallest morsels .\nwhat sort of critter ? : a filter - feeder belonging to an extinct group of ray - finned fish called pachycormiformes .\nfriedman , m . , shimada , k . , martin , l . , everhart , m . , liston , j . , maltese , a . , triebold , m . 2010 . 100 - million - year dynasty of giant planktivorous bony fishes in the mesozoic seas . science . doi : 10 . 1126 / science . 1184743\nscientists have discovered the remains of an ancient fish that plied the world\u2019s oceans nearly 100 million years .\nscientists have discovered the remains of an ancient fish that plied the world\u2019s oceans nearly 100 million years and used its huge , swinging jaws to capture plankton .\nuntil now , the only fossils of this fish had been found in england .\npalaeobiologist at depaul university kenshu shimada said the species had been named r . purgatoirensis and r . uyenoi .\n\u201cthis tells just how little we still know about the biodiversity of organisms through the earth\u2019s history . it\u2019s really mind - boggling . \u201d\nestimated to have been than 6 . 5 feet , it\u2019s strangest feature might be the pair of bones called hyomandibulae that formed a massive oar - shaped lever to protrude and swing the jaws open extra wide , like a parachute .\nthat allowed it to ingest the plankton - rich water , similar to methods used by some modern sharks such as the basking and whale shark .\na study describing the new species will appear in the next issue of the journal cretaceous research .\nsydney weather : global heat map shows record - breaking heat a . . .\ndell g7 15 laptop review : a solid portable computer for game . . .\na note about relevant advertising : we collect information about the content ( including ads ) you use across this site and use it to make both advertising and content more relevant to you on our network and other sites . find out more about our policy and your choices , including how to opt - out .\nnews limited copyright \u00a9 2018 . all times aest ( gmt + 10 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\n/ / urltoken\nmeasuring about 6 . 5 feet long , it feasted on plankton using its giant ' oar like ' mouth .\nmeasuring about 6 . 5 feet long , it feasted on plankton using its giant ' oar like ' mouth from the oceans of the cretaceous period , about 92 million years ago , when dinosaurs roamed the planet .\none pair of bones called hyomandibulae formed a massive oar - shaped lever to protrude and swing the jaws open extra wide , like a parachute , in order to receive more plankton - rich water into its mouth , similar to the way many sharks open their mouth .\nthe new study specifically focuses on highly elusive forms of this fish group that ate plankton .\naccording to shimada , one pair of bones called hyomandibulae formed a massive oar - shaped lever to protrude and swing the jaws open extra wide , like a parachute , in order to receive more plankton - rich water into its mouth , similar to the way many sharks open their mouth .\ntv that really is touching : ' feelyvision ' uses bursts of air . . .\na planktivorous diet , also called suspension - feeding , is known among some specialized aquatic vertebrates today , including the blue whale , manta ray and whale shark .\nsuspension - feeding in the dinosaur era is a new emerging area of research .\n' this tells just how little we still know about the biodiversity of organisms through the earth ' s history . it ' s really mindboggling . '\nthe new skull from north america , discovered in colorado along with the re - examination of another skull from japan have tripled the number of species in the genus with a greatly expanded geographical range .\naccording to shimada , who played a key role in the study , these species have been named r . purgatoirensis and r . uyenoi , respectively .\nthe research team includes scientists from government , museum , private sector and university careers .\nthey include bruce a . schumacher from the united sates forest service who discovered the new specimen .\nit also includes researchers , jeff liston from the national museum of scotland and anthony maltese from the rocky mountain dinosaur resource center .\npolice find the body of a missing four - month - old boy near . . .\nbet you wish you bought here ! australia ' s top suburb for . . .\nbottleneck of 700 , 000 migrants wait in libya to cross the . . .\n' we know where you live ' : angry protesters confront mitch . . .\n' had to post this to show he is still alive ' : horrified . . .\n' i ' m alone ' : harrowing first words in hospital of mother . . .\n' they just didn ' t get it , but they do now ! ' trump shares . . .\npictured : british rugby - playing student , 19 , who drowned . . .\n' prostitutes , orgies , group sex - all of it ' : ex - wife of . . .\nstep inside the tomb of queen nefertari : immersive vr experience reveals the 3 , 000 - year - old artwork of . . .\nworld ' s first floating nation begins selling its own ' vayron ' cryptocurrency ahead of 2022 launch in the . . .\nbeing rich and successful really is in your dna : being dealt the right genes determines whether you get on . . .\nsnapchat is developing a ' visual image search ' that lets you point your camera at an item to see it on . . .\n' we ' re reminded what it ' s like to deal with the force of nature ' : from collecting molten lava in buckets to . . .\na new way to tackle climate change ? heat from underground rivers in london could help cut the capital ' s . . .\namazon is still selling nazi - branded merchandise , despite researchers first warning it about the products . . .\nhas kepler found its last alien world ? nasa reveals its planet hunting space telescope is about to run out . . .\n' like a symphony orchestra turned into light ' : iss astronaut captures lighting and auroras lighting up . . .\npeople who see themselves as albert einstein suddenly think they are smarter : being in the body of someone . . .\nsamsung opens the world ' s largest phone plant in india : 1 . 5 million square foot factory will produce 120 . . .\nhailey baldwin and justin bieber passionately kiss in the bahamas . . . as news of engagement spreads\nkylie jenner flashes underboob and her derriere in sheer orange ensemble . . . one day after revealing she took her lip filler out\nselena gomez is seen with same mystery man she was with in may . . . after news her ex justin bieber is engaged to hailey baldwin\nkhloe kardashian reveals she stopped breast - feeding daughter true . . . three months after giving birth\ngiuliana rancic takes a hike with bill . . . as the couple vacation with friends ahead of her return to e ! news\nkhloe kardashian shows off neon sign in true ' s nursery . . . as she reveals it ' s kris jenner ' s handwriting\nciara and husband russell wilson dance as they head to south africa for their honeymoon . . . two years after wedding\nrapper del the funky homosapian falls off stage during gorillaz set . . . but he reassures fans he ' s ' alright ' as he recovers in hospital\nmakeup artist joyce bonelli reaches out to the kardashian clan on instagram . . . after the famous family ' fire ' and unfollow her on social media\ndaddy daycare ! jared kushner takes kids back to d . c . after weekend in new jersey - as ivanka dons a short dress for visit to a nyc asphalt company\nsofia richie , 19 poses in a bikini top just after scott disick ' s ex kourtney kardashian , 39 , did the same . . . and fans call her out for it\nnaomi campbell wows in flamboyant feathered gown . . . while ashley graham sizzles in plunging lace dress as they walk in dolce & gabbana show in italy\nnaya rivera sells her five - bedroom la home for a cool $ 3 . 55 million after finalizing her divorce from ryan dorsey\nmel b ' is unable to pay her back taxes amid ongoing divorce battle with stephen belafonte . . . as it ' s estimated the pair owe up to $ 650k ' to the irs\nkylie jenner rocks curve - clinging attire as she shows off body . . . and considers going back to blonde\ndakota johnson dons striped wrap dress in la . . . after calling co - star chris hemsworth ' spectacular '\ncardi b hits back at troll who mocked her baby shower . . . as she shows off naked baby bump for photoshoot\nbuy your own celebrity hideaway ! castle adored by michael douglas and jack nicholson goes on sale for $ 5 . 2m ( and even comes with treehouse )\nant - man and the wasp soars to $ 76 million on opening weekend . . . beating its prequel by $ 19 million\nliam payne and cheryl split : carefree 1d star returns to stage for first time since break - up . . . as he poses happily with his backing dancers in france\ntristan thompson goes house hunting alone as he checks out $ 2m property in la with its own basketball court . . . just minutes from khloe ' s mansion\nchris hemsworth kicks off filming for the star - studded men in black spin - off as he cuts a sharp figure in london . . . 21 years after the first film hit screens\njill zarin admits she ' s ready to date again after being spotted with handsome businessman . . . following beloved husband bobby ' s death\ndj khaled cancels wireless performance due to ' travel issues ' just hours before his slot . . . as fans rage over his ' vacation ' snap\n13 reasons why villain justin prentice says he ' s not bothered by social media trolls . . . and that getting attacked online means he ' s doing his job as an actor\nfarm heroes saga , the # 4 game on itunes . play it now !\nit ' s eye - wateringly expensive at $ 2 , 999 , but naim ' s uniti atom is a revelation , an integrated amplifier than makes it easy to stream music at a quality you ' ve probably never heard before .\nafter a day with the iphone x , while face id isn ' t perfect , and the ' notch ' is an annoyance , the iphone x is a glimpse into the future of phones and the best handset of the market by a long way .\nthey aren ' t cheap , but shinola ' s $ 595 foray into headphones are the perfect accessory for design obsessives looking to upgrade their listening habits .\nwith the pixel xl , google has created a handset that is not only the best android device out there , but arguably matches the iphone 8 in terms of design and feel .\napple ' s watch will free you from your phone - while making sure you don ' t suffer the fear of missing out . it ' s a huge step forward , and a compelling reason for the average user to buy a smartwatch .\nwhile the iphone x may have stolen the headlines , in fact the iphone 8 could be the sleeper hit of apple ' s new range , offering the same power as the x but with features and a design users trust .\nwhile the design is impressive and easy to use , the game line up is disappointing .\nnaim ' s incredible mu - so qb takes you back to the good old days - where the music captivates and enthralls , rather that simply being something in the background .\nit might not be a name familiar to the us market , but naim is a legendary british brand hoping to make a splash with the american launch of its $ 1499 mu : so speaker .\npeloton ' s hi - tech bike lets you stream live and on demand rides to your home - and it ' s one of the best examples of fitness technology out there - at a price .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\ncomanche national grassland - a new fossil has been discovered in southern colorado that ' s being nicknamed a muppetfish .\nit was found in the comanche national grassland in 2013 by dr . bruce schumacher , a paleontologist from the us forest service .\nafter removing the rock and stabilizing the fossil , the dinosaur resource center started ,\njokingly referring to it as \u2018the muppetfish\u2019 after its resemblance to the character beaker .\nthe discovery is being published in the latest issue of the scientific journal cretaceous research .\nsign up for denver7 email alerts to stay informed about breaking news and daily headlines .\nor , keep up - to - date on the latest news and weather with the denver7 apps for iphone / ipads , android and kindle .\nor , keep up - to - date by following denver7 on facebook , instagram and twitter .\ncopyright 2016 scripps media , inc . all rights reserved . this material may not be published , broadcast , rewritten , or redistributed .\nwe ' ve detected that javascript is disabled in your browser . would you like to proceed to legacy twitter ?\ntwitter may be over capacity or experiencing a momentary hiccup . try again or visit twitter status for more information .\nyou can add location information to your tweets , such as your city or precise location , from the web and via third - party applications . you always have the option to delete your tweet location history . learn more\nhere ' s the url for this tweet . copy it to easily share with friends .\nby embedding twitter content in your website or app , you are agreeing to the twitter developer agreement and developer policy .\nnot on twitter ? sign up , tune into the things you care about , and get updates as they happen .\nthis timeline is where you\u2019ll spend most of your time , getting instant updates about what matters to you .\nhover over the profile pic and click the following button to unfollow any account .\nwhen you see a tweet you love , tap the heart \u2014 it lets the person who wrote it know you shared the love .\nthe fastest way to share someone else\u2019s tweet with your followers is with a retweet . tap the icon to send it instantly .\nadd your thoughts about any tweet with a reply . find a topic you\u2019re passionate about , and jump right in .\nthe discovery of fossilized skulls of a muppet - like cretaceous - age fish is helping researchers learn about its geographical distribution .\na muppet - faced fish with a lanky body more than 6 feet long gulped down plankton in earth ' s ancient oceans about 92 million years ago , a new study finds .\nresearchers identified two new species of the enormous fish , which lived during the cretaceous period , when dinosaurs roamed the world . but like many of its contemporaries , the fish went extinct after an asteroid struck the yucatan peninsula about 66 million years ago .\nwe had no idea back then that the genus was so diverse and so globally distributed ,\nshimada said .\nin 2012 , researchers unearthed a new specimen in southeastern colorado , named r . purgatoirensis for the rugged purgatoire river valley where it was found , shimada said . it took excavators more than 150 hours to remove the ancient skull from the surrounding rocks , he added .\nin the new study , the researchers described the colorado specimen and reanalyzed the fish fossil from hokkaido , japan , which they called r . uyenoi in honor of shimada ' s mentor . the new analyses helped them learn more about ancient sea life , the researchers said .\nthese pachycormids really cornered the market on industrial - scale plankton consumption during the age of the dinosaurs ,\nshimada said .\nthe fish had a highly expandable mouth that perhaps looked like a ' tube ' about 1 foot [ 0 . 3 m ] in diameter to take in a large amount of water to filter feed plankton using its gill apparatus .\nwe have just barely scratched the surface of what was likely a complex ecosystem that existed in oceans during the age of the dinosaurs ,\nshimada said .\nfollow laura geggel on twitter @ laurageggel . follow live science @ livescience , facebook & google + . original article on live science .\nas a senior writer for live science , laura geggel covers general science , including the environment and amazing animals . she has written for the new york times , scholastic , popular science and spectrum , a site covering autism research . laura grew up in seattle and studied english literature and psychology at washington university in st . louis before completing her graduate degree in science writing at nyu . when not writing , you ' ll find laura playing ultimate frisbee . follow laura on\nelon musk ' s plan to rescue trapped thai boys ? a kiddie submarine that looks like a coffin .\nsorry , preview is currently unavailable . you can download the paper by clicking the button above .\nenter the email address you signed up with and we ' ll email you a reset link .\nenter your login details below . if you do not already have an account you will need to register here .\nonce production of your article has started , you can track the status of your article via track your accepted article .\ncitescore measures the average citations received per document published in this title . citescore values are based on citation counts in a given year ( e . g . 2015 ) to documents published in three previous calendar years ( e . g . 2012 \u2013 14 ) , divided by the number of documents in these three previous years ( e . g . 2012 \u2013 14 ) .\nimpact factor : 2017 : 1 . 928 the impact factor measures the average number of citations received in a particular year by papers published in the journal during the two preceding years . 2017 journal citation reports ( clarivate analytics , 2018 )\nfive - year impact factor : 2017 : 2 . 046 to calculate the five year impact factor , citations are counted in 2017 to the previous five years and divided by the source items published in the previous five years . 2017 journal citation reports ( clarivate analytics , 2018 )\nsource normalized impact per paper ( snip ) : 2017 : 0 . 965 snip measures contextual citation impact by weighting citations based on the total number of citations in a subject field .\nscimago journal rank ( sjr ) : 2017 : 0 . 835 sjr is a prestige metric based on the idea that not all citations are the same . sjr uses a similar algorithm as the google page rank ; it provides a quantitative and a qualitative measure of the journal\u2019s impact .\nwhen authors co - submit and publish a data article in data in brief , it appears on sciencedirect linked to the original research article in this journal .\nwhen authors co - submit and publish a method article in methodsx , it appears on sciencedirect linked to the original research article in this journal .\nauthor stats : publishing your article with us has many benefits , such as having access to a personal dashboard : citation and usage data on your publications in one place . this free service is available to anyone who has published and whose publication is in scopus .\njames d . witts | neil h . landman | matthew p . garb | caitlin boas | ekaterina larina | remy rovelli | lucy e . edwards | robert m . sherrell | j . kirk cochran\noscar gonz\u00e1lez - le\u00f3n | josep anton moreno - bedmar | francisco j . vega | ang\u00e9lica oviedo - garc\u00eda | miguel franco - rubio\nst\u00e9phane reboulet | ottilia szives | beatriz aguirre - urreta | ricardo barrag\u00e1n | miguel company | camille frau | mikheil v . kakabadze | jaap klein | josep a . moreno - bedmar | alexander lukeneder | antoine pictet | izabela ploch | seyed n . raisossadat | zdenek va\u0161\u00ed\u010dek | evgenij j . baraboshkin | vasily v . mitta\nsally l . potter - mcintyre | jeremy r . breeden | david h . malone\nmatthias sinnesael | niels j . de winter | christophe snoeck | alessandro montanari | philippe claeys\nnew family apotomouridae fam . nov . ( coleoptera : tenebrionoidea ) from lower cenomanian amber of myanmar\ntong bao | katarzyna s . walczy\u0144ska | samantha moody | bo wang | jes rust\nvictor m . giraldo - g\u00f3mez | ibtisam beik | olaf g . podlaha | j\u00f6rg mutterlose\ncamille frau | anthony j . - b . tendil | cyprien lanteaume | jean - pierre masse | antoine pictet | luc g . bulot | tim l . luber | jonathan redfern | jean r . borgomano | philippe l\u00e9onide | fran\u00e7ois fournier | g\u00e9rard massonnat\nm\u00e1rio miguel mendes | eduardo barr\u00f3n | pedro dinis | jacques rey | david j . batten\nartai a . santos | uxue villanueva - amadoz | rafael royo - torres | luis miguel sender | alberto cobos | luis alcal\u00e1 | jos\u00e9 b . diez\ndaran zheng | edmund a . jarzembowski | su - chin chang | bo wang | haichun zhang\ntito aureliano | aline m . ghilardi | pedro v . buck | matteo fabbri | adun samathi | rafael delcourt | marcelo a . fernandes | martin sander\ndaniela e . olivera | marcelo a . mart\u00ednez | carlos zavala | germ\u00e1n othar\u00e1n | denis marchal | guillermina k\u00f6hler\nneil h . landman | brian r . jicha | j . kirk cochran | matthew p . garb | shannon k . brophy | neal l . larson | jamie brezina\nsara saber | joseph j . w . sertich | hesham m . sallam | khaled a . ouda | patrick m . o ' connor | erik r . seiffert\njason a . dunlop | paul a . selden | timo pfeffer | lidia chitimia - dobler\ntaxonomic revision of the genus ichthyosarcolites demarest , 1812 , and description of a new canaliculate rudist from the cenomanian of slovenia : oryxia sulcata gen . et sp . nov . ( bivalvia , hippuritida )\nlulu wu | lianfu mei | yunsheng liu | douglas a . paton | jin luo | lu yu | deliang wang | caizheng min | minghua li | libin guo | hui wen\nlida xing | martin g . lockley | ying guo | hendrik klein | junqiang zhang | li zhang | w . scott persons | anthony romilio | yonggang tang | xiaoli wang\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . careers - terms and conditions - privacy policy\ncookies are used by this site . to decline or learn more , visit our cookies page ."]}
{"id": 1387, "summary": [{"text": "hippocampus kuda , also known as the estuary seahorse , yellow seahorse or spotted seahorse is a seahorse of the family syngnathidae native to the indo-pacific . ", "topic": 10}], "title": "hippocampus kuda", "paragraphs": ["reproductive biology ; larval rearing ; hippocampus kuda ; taxonomy ; seahorses ; hippocampus spp . ; southern coast ; india\nhippocampus fuscus , h . kelloggi , h . kuda , h . histrix , h . mohnikei\nreproductive biology and larval rearing of hippocampus kuda , and the taxonomy of seahorses ( hippocampus spp . ) along the southern coast of india ( th 124 )\nreproductive biology and larval rearing of hippocampus kuda , and the taxonomy of seahorses ( hippocampus spp . ) along the southern coast of india ( th 124 ) .\nany number of species of seahorses can be suitable for the right aquarium . left to right : hippocampus erectus , hippocampus barbouri , hippocampus reidi\nreproductive biology and larval rearing of hippocampus kuda , and the taxonomy of seahorses ( hippocampus spp . ) along the southern coast of india ( th 124 ) - cmfri repository\ntwo species of seahorse , barbour ' s seahorse ( hippocampus barbouri ) and spotted seahorse ( hippocampus kuda ) in a 1m2 aquarium at the maritime museum and aquarium , g\u00f6teborg sweden .\nhippocampus kuda and h . trimacutus are the main cultured species dwelling in south china sea . the major external differences are the following :\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - common seahorse ( hippocampus kuda )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - common seahorse ( hippocampus kuda )\ntitle =\narkive species - common seahorse ( hippocampus kuda )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\njob , sd , do , hh , meeuwig , jj & hj hall . 2002 . culturing the oceanic seahorse , hippocampus kuda . aquaculture . 214 : 333 - 341 .\ntable 1 . 3 . the relationship between diets and growth of h . trimacutus and h . kuda .\nlu , jy , wu , jy & dw yang . 2001 . growth rate of hippocampus kuda bleeker under intensive culture . j . fish . china . 26 : 61 - 66 .\nfigure 1 . 1 . four species of sea - horses found in chinese waters : a ) hippocampus kuda , b ) h . japonicus , c ) h . trimacutus , and d ) h . histrix .\n( of hippocampus kuda multiannularis raj , 1941 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nlin , q , lu , jy & yl gao . 2006 . the effect of temperature on gonad , embryonic development and survival rate of juvenile seahorses , hippocampus kuda bleeker . aquaculture . 254 : 701 - 713 .\nthe 1996 and 2000 iucn red lists included hippocampus horai , h . novaehebudorum , h . raji , and h . taeniops . these are now all considered to be synonyms of h . kuda . according to vincent ( 1996 ) and lourie et al . ( 1999 ) , there may be as many as ten distinct species that are included under the name hippocampus kuda . further research into the literature on this species is needed to determine whether h . kuda is the correct name for populations occurring within the persian gulf ( t . munroe pers . comm . 2014 ) .\npartial fin - clipping as an effective tool for tissue sampling in seahorses , hippocampus spp .\ncaution : frequently sold in stores from questionable sources and too young . often misidentified as h . kuda , if they are different species .\ncomparing interview and trade data in assessing changes in the seahorse hippocampus spp . trade following cites listing\nzebra snout seahorse hippocampus barbouri , a beautiful seahorse but one that frequently does poor in captivity .\ncitation : department of the environment ( 2018 ) . hippocampus kuda in species profile and threats database , department of the environment , canberra . available from : urltoken . accessed tue , 10 jul 2018 03 : 45 : 27 + 1000 .\npanithanarak , t . , karuwancharoen , r . , na - nakorn , u . , & nguyen , t . 2010 . population genetics of spotted seahorses ( hippocampus kuda ) in thai waters . zoological studies 29 ( 4 ) : 564 - 576 .\njob , s . d . , do , h . h . , meeuwig , j . j . and hall , h . j . 2002 . culturing the oceanic seahorse , hippocampus kuda . aquaculture 214 ( 1 - 4 ) : 333 - 341 .\nfroese r , pauly d . fish base - hippocampus fuscus . 2014 . world wide web electronic publication .\ntheir is some debate whether this is distinct from h . kuda above , but much evidence , including size and behavior of young , suggests they are different .\nlin , q , gao , yl , sheng , jq , chen , qx , zhang , b & jy lu . 2007 . the effect of food and the sum of effective temperature on the embryonic development of the seahorse , hippocampus kuda bleeker . aquaculture . 262 : 481 - 492 .\nin short , you should consider treating your male kuda with a series of diamox baths . don \\ ' t treat the whole aquarium or any of the seahorses that have no symptoms .\nmarichamy , r . , lipton , a . p . , ganapathy , a . and ramalingam , j . r . 1993 . large scale exploitation of seahorse ( hippocampus kuda ) along the palk bay coast of tamil nadu . marine fisheries information service . january / february ( 119 ) : 17 - 20 .\ntiger tail seahorse , hippocampus comes , showing the distinctive tail coloration that earned this species it\u2019s name . photo courtesy of debby ng\nhippocampus kuda occurs from the persian gulf ( kuronuma and abe 1986 ) to southeast asia , australia , japan , and some of the pacific islands , including hawaii ( lourie et al . 1999 ) . the species has also been documented along the eastern coast of africa from tanzania to south africa ( teske et al . 2005 ) .\nscarratt , am . 1995 . techniques for raising lined seahorses ( hippocampus erectus ) . aquar . front . 3 : 24 - 29 .\nhippocampus subelongatus is frequently available in australia . unfortunately these are usually wild caught and do not fair well in captivity . photo by claire ross\n( of hippocamphus kuda bleeker , 1852 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nfish , mp . 1953 . the production of underwater sound by the northern seahorse , hippocampus hudsonius . copeia . 1953 : 98 - 99 .\nfoster , sj , marsden , ad & acj vincent . 2003 . hippocampus erectus . iucn 2004 . 2004 iucn red list of threatened species .\nthe common seahorse is a wide - ranging indo - pacific seahorse that inhabits waters from indonesia to the philippines , pakistan , and india to southern japan , hawaii , and the society islands . variations of this species reside in other areas outside of the indo - pacific region . approximately 23 countries have confirmed the native presence of hippocampus kuda ranging from australia to china .\nmatlock , gc . 1992 . life history aspects of seahorses , hippocampus , in texas . texas j . sci . 44 : 213 - 222 .\ncaution : often found as tank raised individuals from questionable sources with the species in question due to their similarity to h . taeniopterus . h . kuda is also often the generic name for seahorses when the identification is unknown .\nclose - up of hippocampus erectus among blades of the green alga , caulerpa prolifera . photo l . holly sweat , smithsonian marine station at fort pierce .\nall 33 species of hippocampus are listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ( cites 2004 ) .\nvincent , acj & lm sadler . 1995 . faithful pair bonds in wild seahorses , hippocampus whitei . anim . behav . 50 : 1557 - 1569 .\nwoods , cmc . 2003a . growth and survival of juvenile seahorse hippocampus abdominalis reared on live , frozen and artificial foods . aquaculture . 220 : 287 - 298 .\nstrawn , k . 1958 . life history of the pigmy seahorse , hippocampus zostrae jordan and gilbert , at cedar key , florida . copeia 1 : 16 - 22 .\nbergert , ba & pc wainwright . 1997 . morphology and kinematics of prey capture in the syngnathid fishes hippocampus erectus and syngnathus floridae . mar . biol . 127 : 563 - 570 .\nblasiola , gcj . 1979 . glugea heraldi n . sp . ( microsporida , glugeidae ) from the seahorse hippocampus erectus perry . j . fish diseases . 2 : 493 - 500 .\nthangaraj m , lipton ap . morphological characterization of four selected sea horse species ( genus : hippocampus ) from india . ann biol res . 2011 ; 2 ( 4 ) : 159\u201367 .\nlin , q , lin , j & d zhang . 2008 . breeding and juvenile culture of the lined seahorse , hippocampus erectus perry , 1810 . aquaculture . 277 : 287 - 292 .\nvincent , a . c . j . and sadler , l . m . 1995 . faithful pair bonds in wild seahorses , hippocampus whitei . . animal behaviour 50 : 1557 - 1569 .\nperante , nc , pajaro , mg , meeuwig , jj & acj vincent . 2002 . biology of hippocampus comes in the central philippines . j . fish biol . 60 : 821 - 837 .\nvincent , acj & rs clifton - hadley . 1989 . parasitic infection of the seahorse ( hippocampus erectus ) - a case report . j . wildlife . diseases . 25 : 404 - 406 .\nvincent , acj , evans , kl & ad marsden . 2003 . home range behavior of the monogamous australian seahorse , hippocampus whitei . env . biol . fishes . 72 : 1 - 12 .\nlinton , jr & bl soloff . 1964 . the physiology of the brood pouch of the male sea horse hippocampus erectus . bull . mar . sci . gulf carib . 14 : 45 - 61 .\nlockyear , j , kaiser , h , & t hecht . 1997 . studies on the captive breeding of the knysna seahorse , hippocampus capensis . aquat . sci . conserv . 1 : 129 - 136 .\n( of hippocampus chinensis basilewsky , 1855 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hippocampus horai duncker , 1926 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hippocampus melanospilos bleeker , 1854 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hippocampus moluccensis bleeker , 1852 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hippocampus novaehebudorum fowler , 1944 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hippocampus polytaenia bleeker , 1854 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hippocampus raji whitley , 1955 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hippocampus rhynchomacer dum\u00e9ril , 1870 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hippocampus taeniops fowler , 1904 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hippocampus taeniopterus bleeker , 1852 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hippocampus tristis castelnau , 1872 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nbaum , jk , meeuwig , jj & acj vincent . 2003 . bycatch of lined seahorses ( hippocampus erectus ) in a gulf of mexico shrimp trawl fishery . fish . bull . 101 : 721 - 731 .\ncolson , dj , patek , sn , brainerd , el & sm lewis . 1998 . sound production during feeding in hippocampus seahorses ( syngnathidae ) . env . biol . fish . 51 : 221 - 229 .\ncorrea , m , chung , ks & r manrique . 1989 . cultivo experimental del caballito de mar , hippocampus erectus . bol . inst . ocean . venezuela univ . oriente . 28 : 191 - 196 .\nthe study describes the range extension of the sea horse hippocampus fuscus from the south to north east coastal waters of the india , bay of bengal . after 99 years since initial discovery , the hippocampus fuscus was reported within the southern sector of the chilika lake . the extension range may be due to the east india coastal current of the bay of bengal and the predominance of extensive sea grass meadows within the southern sector of lake .\n( of hippocampus aterrimus jordan & snyder , 1902 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hippocampus hilonis jordan & evermann , 1903 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nvari , rp . 1982 . fishes of the western north atlantic , subfamily hippocampus campinae . the seahorses . 173 - 189 . sears foundation for marine research memoir 1 . yale univ . new haven , ct . usa .\nthe minimum tank size should be 60 litres , this will safely house 2 adult ( 12cm ) kuda seahorses . seahorses need objects in the tank that they can attach themselves to with their prehensile tails , artificial plants , smooth rocks and artificial branching coral are ideal ; avoid live corals and sharp rocks as these can injure the seahorses .\nteixeira , rl & ja musik . 2000 . reproduction and food habits of the lined seahorse , hippocampus erectus ( teleostei : syngnathidae ) of chesapeake bay , virginia . rev . bras . biol . 61 : 79 - 90 .\nsalin , k . r . , yohannan , t . m . and mohanakumaran . 2005 . fisheries and trade of seahorses , hippocampus spp . , in southern india . fisheries management & ecology 12 ( 4 ) : 269 .\nvincent , a . c . j . , evans , k . l . and marsden , a . d . 2005 . home ranges of the monogamous australian seahorse , hippocampus whitei . environmental biology of fishes 72 : 1 - 12 .\nkvarnemo , c , moore , gl , jones , ag , nelson , ws & jc avise . 2000 . monogamous pair bonds and mate switching in the western australian seahorse hippocampus subelongatus . j . evol . biol . 13 : 882 - 888 .\nmartinez , a , gardner , t & d littlehale . 2005 . lined seahorse , hippocampus erectus . in : koldewey , h , ed . syngnathid husbandry in public aquariums . project seahorse and zoological society of london . vancouver , bc . canada .\nwong , jm & jah benzie . 2003 . the effects of temperature , artemia enrichment , stocking density and light on the growth of juvenile seahorses , hippocampus whitei ( bleeker , 1855 ) , from australia . aquaculture . 228 : 107 - 121 .\nsea - horses are eurythermal , however changes in the seawater temperature have a direct influence on growth and survival . the optimum water temperature varies among species . for example , the temperature limits of h . japonicus are between 5\u201336 \u00b0c , 9\u201334 \u00b0c for h . kuda , and between 10\u201330 \u00b0c for h . trimacutus . in general , however , the optimum temperature for most species is around 28 \u00b0c .\nfortunately , gas bubble disease in general responds very well to treatment with carbonic anhydrase inhibitors such as acetazolamide . subcutaneous emphysema is the easiest form of gbd to cure and the tail bubbles usually respond very well to treatment with diamox ( the tablet form of acetazolmide ) . i would recommend treating your male kuda in isolation with a three - day series of diamox baths as soon as possible , as discussed below .\nperante , n . c . , pajaro , m . g . , meeuwig , j . j . and vincent , a . c . j . 2002 . biology of a seahorse species hippocampus comes in the central philippines . journal of fish biology 60 : 821 - 837 .\nsheng , jq , lin , q , chen , qx , gao , yl , shen , l & jy lu . 2006 . effects of food , temperature and light intensity on the feeding behavior of three - spot juveniles , hippocampus trimaculatus leach . aquaculture . 256 : 596 - 607 .\nevanson , m . , foster , s . j . & vincent , a . c . j . 2011 . tracking the international trade of seahorses ( hippocampus species ) - the importance of cites . fisheries centre research reports 19 ( 2 ) . fisheries centre , university of british columbia , canada .\nseahorses have a protruding snout and a body encased in bony rings . the tail is curled and prehensile . the common seahorse ( hippocampus kuda ) reaches a length of 30 cm although it appears shorter because the tail is coiled . it is variable in colour and has small knobs on the corners of the bony plates . common seahorses usually inhabit sheltered habitats such as bays and estuaries , but may occasionally be found on outer reefs down to depths of 30 m . seagrasses or seaweed provide a favourite habitat . seahorses live in pairs , and when breeding the female deposits her eggs in the male ' s brood pouch . they hatch there , and the male then takes care of them until they are ready to live independently . seahorses feed on small invertebrates , such as shrimps , which they suck into their tubular mouth .\nhippocampus brunneus bean , 1906 h . fascicularis kaup , 1856 h . hudsonius dekay , 1842 h . kincaidi townsend & barbour , 1906 h . laevicaudatus kaup , 1856 h . marginalis kaup , 1856 h . punctulatus guichenot , 1853 h . stylifer jordan & gilbert , 1882 h . tetragonous mitchill , 1814 h . villosus g\u00fcnther , 1880\nother forms of gbs are also believed to be depth related , but the aquarium must be greater than 30 inches deep to provide any significant protection against them , which is not feasible for most hobbyists ( giwojna , jan . 2004 ) . a depth of at least 3 feet is known to protect the hawaiian seahorse ( hippocampus fisheri ) against gbd ( karen brittain , pers . com . ) .\nhippocampus reidi are next on the list in both popularity and ease . they are highly sought after due to bright yellow , oranges , and reds but can be found in blacks , whites , and greys . they are a large seahorses . the do tend to be a bit more standoffish than h . erectus , and not quite as overly \u201cflirty\u201d\u009d , more likely to stay pair bonded in the aquarium .\ncan anyone help me ? i \\ ' ve had a male kuda who was doing very well . in fact , he had two batches of fry , last one in october . after the last batch , however , he began to develop air bubbles in his pouch , and i had to get them out about once every two or three days . my numbers at the time were . 023 , and 0 for all others except ph , which was 8 . 2 . temp . has been 74 . on nov . 20 , my cleaner shrimp and brittle starfish suddenly died ( the starfish lost all its legs the day before and then died . ) i immediately checked and found my nitrite had spiked to . 25 , as had ammonia and nitrate . i did an immediate 30 % water change and got them to within 0 again over the next three days . on dec . 6 , the male had 3 bumps on his tail and has not been eating well . in fact , for the last three days , i have not seen him eat at all . yesterday , i suddenly lost an 8 month old kuda who had been doing well . any ideas before i lose my other two ? : (\nhello thank you for your insightful page . i have been considering trying to raise seahorses for some time now . can you please suggest a breeder that would have the hippocampus errectus . i think id like to give this breed a try for my first attempt of raising seahorses . also could you please tell me where the best place to purchase a tank and all the needed items . perhaps a place educated in seahorses , where i can talk to a real person ? i greatly appreciate your help .\nanother factor the hobbyist can control is water temperature . heat stress must be avoided at all costs so it is vitally important to keep seahorses in their comfort range at all times . if you \\ ' ve had an episode of gbs in your tank , consider reducing the temperature . hippocampus erectus will fry that temperatures between 70 - 74\u00b0f ( of course they can tolerate considerably warmer temperatures than those , but it is healthier to maintain seahorses nearer the lower end of their comfort range for a number of reasons ) .\nurltoken - ( english ) henry c . schultz . 2003 . there ' s more to pipes than just pvc : the genus doryrhamphus and other pipefish - reefkeeping magazine - ( english ) scott w . michael . 2001 . reef fishes volume 1 - tfh publications / microcosm ltd . - ( english ) beth panocha . 2004 . aquarium fish : seahorse care : a basic guide to starting your first herd - advanced aquarist - ( english ) pete giwojna . 2007 . a seahorse reef part 1 : reef compatibility of hippocampus spp . - tropical fish hobbyist - ( english ) pete giwojna . 2007 . a seahorse reef , part two : choosing your seahorses - tropical fish hobbyist - ( english )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nbleeker , p . 1852 . bijdrage tat de kennis der ichthyologische fauna van singapore . natuurkd . tijdschr . neder . - indi\u00eb 3 : 51 - 86 .\nis listed as vulnerable ( vu a2cd + 3cd + 4cd ) based on suspected declines of at least 30 % , first reported in 1998 - 99 caused by targeted catch , incidental capture , and habitat degradation . while there is little information on changes in numbers of the species , there is indirect evidence to suggest that declines have taken place and are continuing . this listing is consistent with the precautionary approach of the iucn red list .\n. 2010 ) . the demand for this species is high due to its large size , smooth texture , and pale complexion when dried , all desirable qualities for traditional medicine purposes ( vincent 1996 ) . this species is also incidentally caught as bycatch in other fisheries and affected by habitat degradation ( giles\nlikely to continue into the future we therefore suggest a precautionary listing of vulnerable ( vu a2cd + 3cd + 4cd ) .\n2011 ) from coastal development and destructive fishing practices . land - based activities such as coastal construction can diminish seagrass beds and mangroves while leading to increased pollution and siltation in surrounding marine waters . some fishing methods such as trawling result in substantial damage seagrass beds ( short\n) . the decline in and fragmentation of the species\u2019 habitats throughout its range raise the possibility of declines in populations in addition to those caused by fisheries .\namerican samoa ; australia ( northern territory , queensland ) ; bahrain ; cambodia ; fiji ; french polynesia ; hong kong ; india ; indonesia ; japan ; kuwait ; malaysia ; micronesia , federated states of ; mozambique ; new caledonia ; pakistan ; papua new guinea ; philippines ; saudi arabia ; singapore ; solomon islands ; south africa ( kwazulu - natal ) ; taiwan , province of china ; tanzania , united republic of ; thailand ; tonga ; united states ( hawaiian is . ) ; viet nam\nremain unknown , project seahorse trade surveys conducted between 1995 and 2000 give us reason to suspect that seahorse numbers in the wild appear to have declined throughout its range . for example , in 1998 and 1999 in thailand 81 % of surveyed fishers ( n = 30 of 37 ) and 71 % of fishers in malaysia ( n = 37 of 52 ) reported that in general , seahorse numbers including\n. 2010 ) . in hong kong traders reported that local seahorses , while common 30 years ago , were rarely found in 2000 , with the decrease in availability attributed to habitat destruction and pollution ( b . kwan , unpublished data ) . these examples demonstrate that declines have been ongoing for well over 10 years . while measures are in place to regulate reported international trade , it has not declined and sub - national and illegal trade are expected to continue into the future .\nis the most widespread and commonly encountered seahorse in papua new guinea and indonesia ( baine 2008 , lourie 2001 ) .\ndiet consists of zooplankton ( paulus 1999 ) . the recorded maximum total length is 30 cm ( stretched ) ( paulus 1999 ) .\n2010 ) . this may be due to its large size , smooth texture , and pale complexion when dried ( vincent 1996 ) , all desirable qualities for traditional medicine purposes . trade in\n2011 , unep - wcmc 2012a ) . international trade 2004 - 2010 consisted primarily of live animals and dried bodies , with smaller quantities of specimens and derivatives also reported ( unep - wcmc 2012a ) . trade was principally wild - sourced ( evanson\nwas among the seven species accounting for more than 99 per cent of international trade in live captive - bred specimens . many range states report that illegal trading and incidental capture in shrimp trawl fisheries remain problematic ( unep - wcmc 2012b ) .\nthe australian populations of this species were moved under the australian wildlife protection act in 1998 , so export permits are now required . the permits are only granted for approved management plans or captive - bred animals . such management was transferred under the new environment protection and biodiversity conservation act in 2001 . many states also placed their own controls on the capture and / or trade of syngnathid fishes .\nall seahorses are listed on schedule i of india\u2019s wildlife ( protection ) act , 1972 , banning their capture and trade . in 2011 cambodia and china banned wild seahorse exports . in singapore ,\nis recognized as being threatened by habitat destruction and harvesting for medicinal use and the aquarium trade and harvest is not allowed except by permit .\nin general , incidental capture in shrimp trawl fisheries and habitat degradation and exploitation are the main threats to this species .\n. 2010 ) . in china , cambodia and the republic of korea seahorses are caught as bycatch although no information exists on volumes ( unep - wcmc 2012b ) .\n2011 ) from coastal development and destructive fishing practices . land - based activities such as coastal construction can diminish seagrass beds and mangroves while leading to increased pollution and siltation in surrounding marine waters . for example , in malaysia\n. 2011 ) . the decline in and fragmentation of the species\u2019 habitats throughout its range indicates possible declines in populations in addition to those caused by fisheries .\n. 1998 , foster and vincent 2004 ) . although seahorses also have some traits , such as small body size , fast growth and high fecundity , that may confer resilience to exploitation pressures ( morgan 2007 ) ,\n2008 ) . as a result of the lack of broadcast spawning of pelagic eggs , dispersal of potential recruits is limited . additionally , given the limited swimming abilities of seahorses , it is highly unlikely that rescue effects would occur from adjacent populations .\nspecies are listed under appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ( cites ) . this means that countries who are signatories to cites are subject to regulations on the export of seahorses . countries are required to provide permits for all exports of seahorses and are meant to provide evidence that these exports are not detrimental to wild populations . however a lack of basic information on distribution , habitat and abundance means many cites authorities cannot assess sustainability of their seahorse exploitation and meet their obligations to the convention . the challenge is particularly large in that most seahorses entering trade are caught incidentally as bycatch and thus imposing export quotas would achieve next to nothing for wild populations . since this listing , an average annual trade of over two million individuals of\n2011 , unep - wcmc 2012a ) . the general lack of capacity in funding and manpower devoted to realizing enforcement that has been demonstrated by cites authorities has further exacerbated trade issues .\ncites has recommended a minimum size limit of 10 cm height for all seahorse specimens in trade ( cites decision 12 . 54 ) . this limit represents a compromise between the best biological information available at the time of listing and perceived socioeconomic feasibility . but there is an urgent need for information on wild populations to assess their conservation status in order to take effective action and refine management recommendations . for example , evidence on variation in the spatial and temporal abundance of seahorses would enable areas of high seahorse density to be identified , as the basis for considering area restrictions on non - selective fishing gear that obtains\nspecies as bycatch . an understanding of the technical and logistical feasibility of returning to the sea live seahorses taken as bycatch in various types of fishing gear would provide the basis for considering the feasibility of minimum size limits and / or other output controls . establishing a monitoring program of landings of seahorses at representative sites , taking into account different gear types and means of extraction and recording catch and effort metrics would allow assessment of conservation status and development management recommendations for various fishery types .\nis listed as vulnerable in the national red data books of singapore and thailand , and endangered in the red data book of viet nam . in france it is illegal to import seahorses under the name\nhas been recorded in the jubail marine wildlife sanctuary in saudi arabia ( krupp and muller 1994 , krupp and almarri 1996 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nlike other seahorses , the common seahorse is an ambush predator , and lies in wait for small crustaceans to swim by ; it then sucks the prey into the tube - like mouth and swallows it whole , as it does not have any teeth ( 5 ) . seahorses do not have many natural predators , as they rely on their excellent camouflage for protection , and they are unpalatable due to their bony - plated bodies ( 5 ) .\nthe common seahorse is found throughout south east asia , australia , japan and some pacific islands ( including hawaii ) ( 1 ) . surveys on seahorse trade carried out by project seahorse in 2000 and 2001 have shown that the populations of this species have declined throughout the entire range , with fishers reporting massive decreases ( 1 ) .\nthis species typically inhabits shallow waters , in estuaries , reefs and on mud slopes where there is seagrass or marine algae . the common seahorse has also been found in open water and attached to drifting vegetation up to 20 kilometres off shore ( 2 ) .\nthe common seahorse is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) . all seahorses are listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .\nthe common seahorse is sold locally and internationally for use in traditional medicines , in the aquarium trade and as curios ( 1 ) . it is one of the most valuable seahorses in traditional chinese medicine and is very popular as an aquarium species . in 2001 , the global consumption of seahorses was estimated at 25 million seahorses ( over 70 metric tonnes ) ( 6 ) . furthermore , habitat degradation and pollution in some areas reduces the available habitat for the common seahorse , and it is also often accidentally caught as bycatch in the shrimp - trawling industry ( 1 ) .\nthe most pressing requirement to assist in the conservation of the common seahorse is the need for further research . in order to effectively conserve a species , its biology , ecology , range and abundance must be fully understood and the threats facing it must be known ( 7 ) . in november 2002 , all seahorses were listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) ; this means that the massive trade in seahorses must be regulated to ensure that the survival of wild populations is not threatened ( 3 ) . however , indonesia , japan , norway and south korea have opted out of the listing for seahorses ( 6 ) . the conservation organisation project seahorse was set up in 1994 in response to the massive pressures facing all seahorses around the world ( 5 ) .\nto learn more about a whitley award - winning conservation project for this species , click here .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nflpa - images of nature pages green house wetheringsett stowmarket suffolk ip14 5qa united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 861 113 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 860 222 pictures @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nwithout a doubt , with its\nhorse - like head\nand erect body , the seahorse is one of the most recognized fish in the world . the seahorse\nstands up\ninstead of laying flat as all other fish do . it propels itself through the water ( very slowly ) by vibrating its dorsal fin and steers with its tail . perhaps the most interesting fact about this fish is that it is the male seahorse that gives birth . seahorses have many natural predators that it evades with its ability to change its colors to blend in with almost any background .\nbecause spotted seahorses are popular ornamental aquarium fish , their captive distribution has become global .\nin the wild , the baby seahorses either become pelagic and ascend into the plankton layer on the surface of the ocean or descend to the bottom and attach themselves to algae , corals or other stationary objects with their prehensile tails and start feeding on small crustaceans as they drift by in the current .\nnot being strong swimmers , seahorses greatly prefer to inhabit the calmer shallow waters in mangroves , coastal seagrass beds , estuaries , coastal bays and lagoons , harbors , and rivers with brackish water where there is seagrass or marine algae for them to hold onto . common seahorses which have , for one reason or another been unable to make it to the shallows near land , have been found up to 10 miles offshore floating in the plankton layer at the water ' s surface with their tails wrapped around debris or pieces of floating algae .\ncommon seahorses range in color from black to orange and yellow . black individuals often have silvery stripes or other markings on the body , and sometimes unique yellow individuals can be dotted with red spots . a protective trait that this and many other seahorses have is the ability to change color to match its surroundings . it is not unusual for them to take on the coloration of a favorite object one has decided to adopt as a hiding place .\nseahorses are generally solitary , except for their mates , which they like to remain in close proximity to . they are active during the day and generally avoid associations with non - pair individuals .\nthey may be kept with small , shy fish such as small gobies , pipefish , dragonets , and firefish . but aggressive , territorial , or fast - moving fish do not make good companions . seahorses can be harmed by anemones and corals with stinging tentacles or corals that are large enough to consume them , such as brain corals . while sea fans , acropora corals , and other branching corals may be safe for seahorses , they can be irritated or damaged by a seahorse that continually hitches to them . crabs and clams may pinch a seahorse causing a wound that could lead to secondary infections . small ornamental crustaceans may be consumed by the seahorses .\na 30 - gallon aquarium is sufficient for a single pair . add 10 gallons to the size of the aquarium for each additional pair . since swimming is not its strong suit , the common seahorse does much better in an aquarium with a very little current .\nspray bars may be used to create gentle flow while eliminating stagnant areas in the aquarium . seahorses use their prehensile tails to hitch to branching live rock , algae , or artificial decorations .\nit also seems to do much better in a taller aquarium where it can drift up and down and attach to and hold fast to objects . this diy seahorse aquarium was specifically designed to give seahorses the area for vertical motion which they seem to prefer .\nseahorse hitch onto an object and wait for its food to drift by , which it sucks up and swallows whole since seahorses do not have teeth . captive - bred seahorses are accustomed to frozen mysis shrimp , making them a smart alternative to their wild - caught counterparts . they will also feed upon amphipods and other small crustaceans found in live rock . they will also accept vitamin - enriched adult brine shrimp , but this should not make up a majority of their diet . they are slow , deliberate feeders and prefer two or more small feedings per day .\nseahorses should be fed live or ( if they will take it ) vitamin - enriched frozen or freeze - dried mysid shrimp . seahorses should be fed several times per day with food available for 20 to 30 minutes per feeding . wild - caught seahorses may be slow to accept frozen or freeze - dried mysid shrimp as food , to begin with , and may have to be fed live foods until they are weaned onto prepared foods . tank - raised seahorses are normally trained to accept frozen or freeze - dried mysid shrimp at an early age and will make the transition to your tank much more easily than wild - caught specimens .\nas males are the pregnant partner in seahorse mating , males that have reached sexual maturity have a brooding pouch . this is where the male carries the fertilized eggs . breeding occurs year round , so , a rounder belly pouch can signify a male . around the breeding time , the male begins by changing its color patterns and does a dance around the female . it also produces clicking sounds with its coronet , a crown - shaped piece of skin or horn - like structure at the top of its head .\nseahorses choose a mating partner for life . they maintain a monogamous relationship with one partner until that partner dies at which time the remaining seahorse may search out a new mate . this seahorse becomes fully mature at about 14 weeks and can reproduce at that time .\nnot only does the male seahorse gives birth to the brood , but the male is responsible for attracting the female . after an elaborate courtship period , a dance , and intertwining of tails , the wooed female uses an ovipositor to insert her eggs into the male ' s pouch . it is in this brooding pouch where the eggs are fertilized and attach to the wall of the pouch . placental fluid removes waste products and supplies the eggs with oxygen and nutrients as they mature into baby seahorses . at the end of 20 to 28 days of pregnancy the male goes into labor , typically at night when there is a full moon . the baby seahorses are then ejected from the male ' s pouch . the brooding pouch may contain anywhere from 20 to 1 , 000 fertilized eggs .\nif the common seahorse appeals to you , and you are interested maintaining a saltwater aquarium , check out other saltwater fish that may be compatible with seahorses .\ncheck out additional fish breed profiles for more information on other freshwater or saltwater fish .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nunep - wcmc ( comps . ) 2011 . checklist of cites species ( cd - rom ) . cites secretariat , geneva , switzerland , and unep - wcmc , cambridge , united kingdom . isbn 2 - 88323 - 030 - 7 . available online at urltoken or from cites secretariat , chemin des an\u00e9mones , 1219 ch\u00e2telaine , gen\u00e8ve , switzerland\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndid you know ? that seahorses are generally monogamous ? the two partners of a pair will greet one another with courtship displays in the morning and sometimes in the evening to reinforce their pair bond .\nunknown . imports reported for the year 2005 to the cites trade daata base total 27 ' 664 live and 5762 dead specimens .\n527 specimens reported to isis ( 2007 ) . considering that most public aquaria are not part of the waza system and do not register their collections with isis , available isis data are not significant .\nduring transportation seahorses are enclosed in a restrictive container that does not allow for ideal water quality parameters and is subject to unpredictable movement orientation and noise levels . the following points , therefore , should be taken into consideration : transit time must be minimized wherever possible . only healthy individuals should be selected for transportation . packaging must be adequate . strong containers with good thermal retention qualities should be used ( i . e . polystyrene ) to allow for external temperature fluctuations . heat / coolpacks can be used should the transit conditions dictate . packs must not be placed directly next to the water . for air transport , container note 51 of the iata live animals regulations should be followed . fish must be unpacked carefully and under low illumination .\ncommon seahorses are not an endangered species but their habitats , are threatened in many places . they are thus presented by zoos and aquariums as an ambassador species for the protection of coasts and estuaries , and they are of educational intrerest because of their mode of reproduction .\ndescription inhabits sea grass and marine algae areas in estuaries to seaward reefs at depths to 30 m or more .\ndescription inhabits sea grass and marine algae areas in estuaries to seaward reefs at depths to 30 m or more . [ details ]\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nhong kong marine fish database . afcd . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nwhen you think about the visual look of a seahorse the one that will typically come to mind is that of the common seahorse . this is because it is the one that is found in art , used in various cultures for exhibits , and also found on tattoos that go on the human body .\nit can be hard to accurately describe what a common seahorse looks like based on the fact that there are so many sub species . they can be many different colors but they will always be able to blend into their natural surroundings . they are among the smallest of all the species of seahorses found in the world .\nmany people enjoy keeping them as pets in aquariums but that can be tough to do . they are very prone to bacteria and other types of disease that develop in the water . they are also going to experience high levels of stress in captivity . it is important to be fully trained before you pursue having one as a pet as it isn\u2019t a simple process to keep them alive .\nthe coloration of the common seahorse often depends on the gender . in many locations the females feature yellow and they have dark spots all over the body . the males also have dark spots but they are larger and the base color is a shade of gray .\nthe males grow larger than the females with a size of about 1 inch . the females range in size from \u00bd inch to \u00be inch . when you take a close look at the coral net on top of the head you will notice it looks like a crown . the design of it and the size will be different for every single one of them . they can be identified by this design just like humans can be identified by their fingerprints .\nthis particular species of seahorse has a very smooth texture to the body . the verdict is still out but there is plenty speculation about why they don\u2019t have the rough texture that the various other species around the world offer .\nthe common seahorse is very common along the coral reef areas . they will use their tails to lock onto it . this allows them to be able to remain in place in spite of the current around them . they aren\u2019t good swimmers at all so they need to do what they can to rest their bodies .\nthe males become very aggressive towards each other when it is time to find a mate . other than that they are usually very timid . they have been known to be aggressive though when they suffer from high levels of stress . should there be a lack of food or the habitat gets too small it will cause high levels of stress to occur .\nthe common seahorse has been observed in many different types of settings . the consensus is that that are very intelligent creatures . they are able to remember patterns of behavior . they know where they will get food both in the wild and in captivity .\nthere are several well known locations where the common seahorse lives . they include all over australia as well as places in indonesia . they prefer the warm tropical water locations along the shoreline . they live in bodies of water that have seawater in them .\nyou may find them well hidden among the sea grass that is found in those locations . you may have to look very close for them because they do blend in amazingly well . the water will need to be at least 72 degrees fahrenheit . however , they also don\u2019t do well if the water gets too hot . that is why they tend to stay in areas that do go about 77 degrees fahrenheit .\neven though there are some fossils of the common seahorse that date back 3 million years there isn\u2019t much at all known regarding the evolution process . it is believed that they used to be substantially larger than they are today . the ability to live on less food is part of why they got smaller . the theories continue to float around though but there is very little concrete about how they branched off from other seahorse species due to the evolution process .\nthe location where the common seahorse happens to live strongly influences what they will eat . the main items are very small guppies and small brine shrimp . they have a large snout that they consume the food with . they have no teeth and they will swallow their prey . they can\u2019t consume anything that is larger than that snout .\nwhat is very interesting is that no seahorse has a digestive system . that is why they spend so much time feeding . they also eat very slowly so it can take them many hours each day to feed . when they aren\u2019t eating they will typically be resting ."]}
{"id": 1389, "summary": [{"text": "polymixis lichenea , the feathered ranunculus , is a moth of the noctuidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in western europe and morocco .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is mainly found in coastal areas . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "polymixis lichenea", "paragraphs": ["polymixis lichenea subsp . lichenea polymixis lichenea subsp . lichenea ( h\u00fcbner , 1813 )\nfeathered ranunculus ( polymixis lichenea ) - norfolk moths - the macro and micro moths of norfolk .\nssp . lichenea found in norfolk . tends to be paler in calcareous areas .\npolymixis flavicincta - large ranunculus , found on my lavender just outside my front door .\nenter the name or part of a name you wish to search for . the asterisk character * can be used as wildcard . e . g . ' papilio * ' . keep in mind that the search is only based on the full taxon name .\nwe are still having problems with the search feature . unfortunately we cannot give a timeline when the advanced search will be fixed .\nthe id resolving service for stable taxon ids is currently under maintenance . meanwhile , please use the name search in order to find the taxon page .\nmuseum f\u00fcr naturkunde leibniz - institut f\u00fcr evolutions - und biodiversit\u00e4tsforschung invalidenstr . 43 10115 berlin germany e - mail : fauna - eu ( at ) mfn - berlin . de website : urltoken\nthe distribution of this moth is mainly coastal , in the southern half of britain and north - west england and wales , but occasional records do turn up in inland localities .\nit frequents a range of dry habitats , including waste ground , sandhills and shingle beaches , and flies from august to october .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 07 - 05 06 : 04 : 38 page render time : 0 . 2268s total w / procache : 0 . 2680s\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nrecorded in 27 ( 39 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1930 . last recorded in 2017 .\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhabitat : mainly coastal but also recorded inland . dry waste ground , shingle beaches\nreceive our free weekly newsletter which includes our popular photo of the week and review of the week features , plus competitions , special offers and much more . hide message .\nview thousands of photos and video of butterflies and moths from around the world , or upload your own . to search by species , use the species guide ( change\nioc\nto\nbutterflies & moths\nbefore searching by taxon ) .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nbiodivlibrary july is # nationalblueberrymonth ! the w . a . cox nursery co . of mississippi ' s 1920s catalog proclaimed # blueberries to\u2026 urltoken\nbiodivlibrary @ jzed _ trees @ kew _ laa awesome ! we ' re so honored to have this treasure in # bhlib . thanks @ kew _ laa ! now we can enjoy p\u2026 urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nnotes : local on sea cliffs , sand - dunes , shingle beaches and grassy slopes , on the coast of england and wales . in hampshire fairly common in the south and on the isle of wight , but very uncommon in the north . wingspan 39 - 43 mm . can only be confused with black - banded p . xanthomista or large ranunculus p . flavicincta , which see . larva feeds on hound ' s - tongue , sea plantain , thrift and biting stonecrop .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nfor the county , we have a total of 2308 records from 88 sites . first recorded in 1883 .\n: this mainly coastal species is now spreading again in yorkshire . it has been re - recorded from its scarborough haunts mentioned by porritt ( 1883 - 86 ) and other coastal areas as well as at several new inland localities . this is unusual for this species so far north .\nvc63 . elland , 25 . 9 . 2000 det . heb ( pt ) . new vice - county record .\n: this is predominantly a coastal moth in the uk and it is doing well in yorkshire particularly at flamborough and spurn . we also have two unusual inland sites where it is recorded regularly ; knaresborough where it has been known since the 1960s and in calderdale where it was discovered in 2000 and seems to be resident . records occasionally come from other inland sites but these seem to be wandering individuals .\nfact - sheet - eye - how - the - eye - and - brain - work - together . pdf\nnumber - 1 - way - to - improve - your - artwork - acrylics - ed . pdf\nthis action might not be possible to undo . are you sure you want to continue ?\nas it ' s national moth night in the uk , one of last night ' s catch .\nthis one came to my light trap - or living room as gill prefers to call it - last night . i had no idea what it was but am very grateful to eastendswift who was able to pin it down within minutes , even though they aren ' t found in scotland ! ! thanks again david !\nan odd name for a moth - ranunculus is the latin name for buttercup , yet they seem to like to feed on mint , and favour gardens . they had been absent from south herts for some years but appear to have recolonised since about 2006 .\na bit of an opportunistic shot here with an iphone , but i thought i ' d post it anyway . i ' ve not come across this attractive species before now .\ni had a devil of time focusing on this moth at my village shop this morning . i was not sure if my camera had picked up this moth as it was about four feet above my head and at an angle . also this was the first time i had seen this species and i did not want to get to close to it in case i disturbed it and it flew away .\ni have been getting reasonable numbers of these at a number of coastal sites in north antrim over the past couple of weeks .\nkononenko , vladimir - s . \uc774\uba54\uc77c ( institute of biology et pedology , far eastern branch of russian academy of sciences )\nout side my front door again this beauty was loving the lavender , i watched it for over half and hour and it was digging in deep just like the bee ' s were also .\nthere are still straw dots , mother of pearls and small phoenix flying , last night i went out on a field trip and we managed some great moths including a few shockingly late species . . . more on that tomorrow now .\ni trapped once more last week on the 17th and managed a very small catch with just one new moth for the year , a lovely large ranunculus after having a ( rarely recorded ) second brood small ranunculus last week .\ni also saw my second of the year at work today which was indoors .\nmay be edible . see the plants for a future link below for details .\nattributes / relations provided by \u2666 1 plants for a future licensed under a creative commons license \u2666 2 ecofact 2a technical annex - ellenberg\u2019s indicator values for british plants , m o hill , j o mountford , d b roy & r g h bunce ( 1999 ) \u2666 3 kattge , j . et al . ( 2011b ) try - a global database of plant traits global change biology 17 : 2905 - 2935 \u2666 4 biological records centre database of insects and their food plants \u2666 5 hosts - a database of the world ' s lepidopteran hostplants gaden s . robinson , phillip r . ackery , ian j . kitching , george w . beccaloni and luis m . hern\u00e1ndez \u2666 6 robertson , c . flowers and insects lists of visitors of four hundred and fifty three flowers . 1929 . the science press printing company lancaster , pa .\nprotected areas provided by biological inventories of the world ' s protected areas in cooperation between the information center for the environment at the university of california , davis and numerous collaborators . \u2666 natura 2000 , uk data : \u00a9 crown copyright and database right [ 2010 ] all rights reserved . ordnance survey licence number 100017955 \u2666 gbif global biodiversity information facility \u2666 chippewa nature center \u2666 edwin s . george reserve , university of michigan , department of ecology and evolutionary biology\nbrassica oleracea is the species of plant that includes many common foods as cultivars , including cabbage , broccoli , cauliflower , kale , brussels sprouts , collard greens , savoy , kohlrabi and kai - lan . in its uncultivated form , it is known as wild cabbage . it is native to coastal southern and western europe .\nprotected areas provided by gbif global biodiversity information facility \u2666 biological inventories of the world ' s protected areas in cooperation between the information center for the environment at the university of california , davis and numerous collaborators ."]}
{"id": 1392, "summary": [{"text": "the elopiformes / \u1d7b\u02ccl\u0252p\u1d7b\u02c8f\u0254\u02d0rmi\u02d0z / are the order of ray-finned fish including the tarpons , tenpounders , and ladyfish , as well as a number of extinct types .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "they have a long fossil record , easily distinguished from other fishes by the presence of an additional set of bones in the throat .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they are related to the order of eels , although the adults superficially resemble very large or giant herrings in appearance .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the larvae , however , are leptocephali , looking very similar to those of eels . ", "topic": 16}], "title": "elopiformes", "paragraphs": ["no one has contributed data records for elopiformes yet . learn how to contribute .\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30ab\u30e9\u30a4\u30ef\u30b7\u76ee\nto\nelopiformes\n.\nelopiformes ( ladyfish and tarpon ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nthe order elopiformes includes two small families of medium to large - sized fishes found in coastal marine , estuarine and freshwater environments . elopiformes have well - developed gular plates , or extra bones in the throat between the lower jaws , found only in some primitive bony fishes .\nelopiformes ( ladyfish and tarpon ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\norder elopiformes is one of four orders that make up the superorder elopomorpha , a group considered to be one of the most primitive of bony fishes ( infraclass teleostei ) . the other living orders in the superorder include the anguilliformes ( eels ) , saccopharyngiformes ( bobtail eels , swallowers , and gulpers ) , and albuliformes ( bonefish ) . most taxonomists divide order elopiformes into the families elopidae ( ladyfishes ) and megalopidae ( tarpons ) .\nrecent molecular work has shown that the order elopiformes is basal to other groups within the subdivision elopomorpha , which also contains the true eels ( order anguilliformes ) and the bonefishes ( order albuliformes ) . like their relatives , tarpons and tenpounders have a leptocephalus larval stage , that unlike most elopomorph fishes , has a forked caudal fin .\nplacement of the fossil taxa remains particularly problematic . much work remains to be done to understand the limits and relationships among the fossil and living elopomorph fishes . for example , members of the suborder crossognathoidei are considered to be part of order elopiformes by some authorities , such as british paleontologist john g . maisey , and more derived by others , such as british paleontologist colin patterson and american ichthyologist donn rosen .\nsmith , d . g . 1999 . order elopiformes , pp . 1619 - 1622 . in carpenter , k . e . & v . h . niem . the living marine resources of the western central pacific . the living marine resources of the western central pacific . volume 3 . batoid fishes , chimaeras and bony fishes part 1 ( elopidae to linophrynidae ) . rome , fao . 1999 . pp . 1397 - 2068 .\nthe order elopiformes contains two families : the elopidae and the megalopidae . the family megalopidae contains the single genus megalops . two species of tarpon exist worldwide . the atlantic tarpon occurs in the eastern and western atlantic , and the oxeye tarpon occurs in the indian and pacific oceans . morphologically the two species are quite similar ; however , the atlantic tarpon reaches a much larger size and can exceed 220 lb ( 100 kg ) and a length of over 6 . 6 ft ( 2 m ) . the oxeye tarpon is smaller and seldom exceeds 3 . 3 ft ( 1 m ) .\npreviously , the elopiforms and albuliforms had been classified together as suborders in an enlarged order elopiformes . the albuliforms are now placed in their own order ( albuliformes ) . the association between elopiforms and albuliforms was based on only negative evidence\u2014that is , the two groups were elopomorph fishes that lacked the eel - like characters of the two other orders ( anguilliformes and saccopharyngiformes ) in the superorder elopomorpha . limits among these orders vary from taxonomist to taxonomist . for example , british ichthyologist peter l . forey , one of the principal elopomorph taxonomists , and coworkers classify the anguilliforms and saccopharyngiforms together in an expanded angulliformes .\nan order of teleost fishes , comprising the ladyfishes , tenpounders , and tarpons , in the superorder elopomorpha . the members of the order elopiformes ( elopiforms ) are actinopterygian ( ray - finned ) fishes and are characterized by the following features : a slender body with abdominal pelvic fins and a deeply forked caudal fin supported by seven hypurals ( flattened bones along the ventral side of the urostyle ) ; a large mouth , terminal or superior , bordered by premaxillae and toothed maxillae ; teeth also present on the parasphenoid and mesopterygoid bones and the tongue ; mesocoracoid and postcleithra bones ; a well - developed gular plate ; and cycloid scales . in addition , all elopomorphs , including the elopiforms , share a distinctive type of larvae , namely , the leptocephalus - type larvae ( elliptical , slender , transparent larvae ) . elopiforms have small leptocephali , about 5 cm ( 2 in . ) in length , with a well - developed , forked caudal fin and strong teeth ( in contrast , eel leptocephali lack a caudal fin ) . there are two families of elopiforms : elopidae and megalopidae . see also : actinopterygii ; osteichthyes ; scale ( zoology ) ; teleostei\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nforey , p . , d . littlewood , p . ritchie and a . meyer , 1996 | helfman , g . , b . collette and d . facey , 1997\npelvic fins abdominal ; body slender , usually compressed ; gill openings wide ; caudal fin deeply forked ; caudal fin with seven hypurals ; scales cycloid ; mesocoracoid and postcleithra present ; gular plate well developed ( median ) ; branchiostegal rays 23 - 35 ; mouth bordered by premaxilla and toothed maxilla ; upper jaw extending past eye ; tip of snout not overhanging mouth ( mouth terminal or superior ) ; no sensory canal extending onto the small premaxilla . leptocephali small , maximum length about 5 cm , with a well - developed , forked , caudal fin , a posterior dorsal fin ( pelvic fins in older larvae ) , and about 53 - 86 myomeres .\ngreek aktis = ray , thunderbolt , beam + greek pterygion , diminutive of pteryx = wing , fin . ref . 45335 .\ngreek , ellops = a kind of serpent + latin , forma = shape ( ref . 45335 ) .\ntarpon , along with bonefish and ladyfish , are primitive fishes , and while tarpon and ladyfish are considered to be more closely related to each other than to any other elopomorph group , their distinct lineages extend more than 100 million years back in the fossil record . the structure of the skull , fin placement , and large thick scales are characteristic of ancient fishes .\ntarpon and ladyfish are united by the common possession of a leptocephalus larvae and a variety of primitive features . the leptocephalus larvae is shared with a diverse group of other elopomorph fishes including the eels ; however , the leptocephalus larvae of tarpon and ladyfish are the smallest of all leptocephali and possess a forked tail . leptocephali of some albuliformes also have a forked tail .\nthe family elopidae contains the single genus elops , which occurs worldwide . as many as six morphologically similar species of elops are thought to exist . the genus is in need of revision , and the total number of species is unclear .\nthese are silver , elongate herring - like fishes with large upturned mouths , large eyes , and deeply forked tails . an important structural character is the presence of a long , bony gular plate between the branches of the lower jaw , a feature that the ladyfish shares with the tarpon but not with herring .\ntarpon and ladyfish are coastal in habitat and often occur in estuarine waters . both tarpon and ladyfish are quite tolerant of low salinities . tarpon commonly enter freshwater and often travel far up freshwater rivers and enter lakes far from sea .\ntarpon and ladyfish are pelagic predators that feed principally on mid - water prey . both have small sandpaper - like teeth , and their prey is swallowed whole . they often occur in large schools in shallow coastal and inshore waters .\nsmall tarpon feed predominantly on cyclopoid copepods , fishes , caridean shrimp , and mosquito larvae . no detailed studies have examined the feeding habits of large tarpon , but anecdotal information suggests that a wide variety of fishes are consumed . ladyfish feed principally in midwater on pelagic prey . feeding is mainly on fish , but decapod crustaceans also are consumed .\nladyfish are probably preyed upon by a wide variety of inshore predators including sharks , porpoises , snook , and tarpon . they are occasionally used as bait by recreational anglers for tarpon and other species . juvenile tarpon are also likely preyed upon by a variety of species such as gar , snook , and larger tarpon . because juvenile tarpon are most often found in poorly oxygenated waters , they are probably vulnerable to a more limited suite of predators than ladyfish . large tarpon are preyed upon only by large coastal sharks including bull sharks and hammerheads .\nboth tarpon and ladyfish spawn offshore in high salinity oceanic waters . precise spawning areas are unknown , and fertilized eggs are undescribed . tarpon and ladyfish are broadcast spawners that produce large numbers of buoyant eggs that float in the surface waters of the ocean . the eggs hatch into the distinctive leptocephalus larvae characterized by an elongate , laterally compressed body consisting principally of an acellular mucinous material , large well - developed eyes , and large fang - like teeth . larvae of tarpon and ladyfish reach a length of from 1 . 0 to 2 . 0 in ( 25\u201350 mm ) before metamorphosis . metamorphosis occurs as the larvae enter coastal waters and pass through inlets into the inshore waters where juveniles are found . recruitment of tarpon through inlets appears to be pulsed and related to storm events .\ntarpon and ladyfish are abundant , and there is no evidence that stocks of these species have been depleted by overfishing . it is unknown to what extent habitat loss has affected stocks .\ntarpon support important recreational fisheries in florida and the caribbean . ladyfish are a food fish of minor importance in some areas .\nmegalops atlanticus valenciennes , 1847 , guadeloupe , santo domingo , martinique , and puerto rico .\nanglers have long believed that the tarpon in some areas were different and larger than in other areas , but there is no genetic basis for this belief . while some areas may attract larger fish , these fish are not different genetically from those found elsewhere in the western atlantic , and they all appear to interbreed freely . however , the tarpon of the eastern atlantic do appear to be genetically distinct from their western atlantic cousins . these populations have probably been isolated by the vast expanse of the atlantic ocean , and there is little or no interbreeding with western atlantic tarpon . in is not known if the exceptionally large sizes attained by african tarpon have a genetic or environmental basis , but the isolation of the two stocks indicates that the differences could be genetically based .\nelongate and highly compressed body . eye large . mouth oblique with a prominently projecting lower jaw . large , thick , prominent scales . teeth small and feel like sandpaper when touched . all fins are soft rayed . a single dorsal fin is located behind the pelvic fins but entirely before the anal fin ; the dorsal fin has a distinctive and greatly prolonged final ray . the final ray of the anal fin is also somewhat elongate , but much less so than that of the dorsal fin . deeply forked caudal fin . tarpon are bright silvery all over , and the back is darker than the sides or belly .\nboth sides of the tropical and subtropical atlantic ocean . in the western atlantic , tarpon regularly occur from the eastern shore of virginia to central brazil and throughout the caribbean sea and gulf of mexico , as well as off central and south america . at least seven records exist from as far north as nova scotia , where a few large tarpon have been captured between august and october . tarpon also are present in the eastern atlantic off the coast of tropical africa and are occasionally found as far north as portugal and france . there is a single record of a tarpon from ireland . african tarpon are known to reach exceptionally large sizes , and many recent world records have come from this area , including some unconfirmed reports of 330 . 7 - lb ( 150 - kg ) fish . tarpon are sexually dimorphic , and females reach much larger sizes than males .\nyoung - of - the - year tarpon occur in small stagnant pools and sloughs of varying salinity and have been reported from north carolina , georgia , florida , texas , caribbean islands , costa rica , and venezuela . in tropical areas , juvenile tarpon typically occur in mangrove habitats , often in water with low dissolved oxygen levels . tarpon occur in salinities ranging from freshwater to more than 45 parts per thousand and are capable of surviving temperatures of at least 105\u00b0f ( 65 . 6\u00b0c ) , but they suffer mortalities at temperatures of 50\u201355\u00b0f ( 10\u201312 . 8\u00b0c ) . large numbers of tarpon die during severe cold fronts off florida .\nanglers often detect the presence of schools of tarpon by observing individuals\nrolling\nat the surface . the tarpon ' s habit of rising to the surface and breathing air is unusual among marine species , although this practice is common among tropical freshwater swamp - dwelling fishes . breathing air is accomplished by way of a highly vascularized swimbladder that functions as an air - breathing organ . the swimbladder is an elongate , balloon - like sac located above the viscera and just below the backbone . in most fish species , the swimbladder acts as a buoyancy control mechanism . the fish can adjust the volume of air in the bladder and remain neutrally buoyant . in tarpon , this swimbladder is connected to the gut by a duct enabling the tarpon to gulp air and ventilate the swimbladder . young tarpon , when held in experimental chambers from which all of the dissolved oxygen has been removed , are able to meet their oxygen needs by breathing air . this adaptation allows tarpon to survive in water with low dissolved oxygen concentrations such as commonly encountered by juveniles in hot , stagnant mangrove marshes . experimental work also suggests that tarpon are facultative air - breathers , and in well - oxygenated waters are able to meet their oxygen requirements without breathing air . young tarpon can survive in well - oxygenated water when deprived of the opportunity to reach the surface and breathe air . however , after several unsuccessful attempts to reach the surface they have emptied their swimbladders and become negatively buoyant until allowed access to the surface again .\nsmall tarpon ( 0 . 6\u20133 . 0 in [ 16\u201375 mm ] ) feed predominantly on cyclopoid copepods , fishes , caridean shrimp , and mosquito larvae . no detailed studies have examined the feeding habits of large tarpon , but anecdotal information suggests that a wide variety of fishes are consumed , including mullet ( mugil spp . ) , pinfish ( lagodon rhomboides ) , ariid catfishes , and clupeids , as well as crabs and shrimp .\nfemale tarpon are larger than males regardless of capture location , and average fish size varies geographically . sexually mature florida females average about 110 lb ( 50 kg ) and can exceed 220 lb ( 100 kg ) . in contrast , sexually mature florida males average only 66 lb ( 30 kg ) , and they rarely exceed 110 lb ( 50 kg ) .\ntarpon from costa rican waters are year - round spawners , unlike tarpon from other areas . inactive or resting ovaries are rare in costa rica females , suggesting that females spawn repeatedly throughout the year and have no extended period of inactivity . in florida , tarpon spawning is seasonal and peaks between may and july . by august , most females are finished spawning . in the southern hemisphere , off the northeast coast of brazil , researchers have reported that tarpon spawn from october to january\u2014during the southern hemisphere ' s spring and summer .\nripe tarpon ovaries are large and can contain up to 20 million maturing oocytes and many more small resting oocytes .\noocyte\nis the proper name of a developing egg that has not ovulated and is not yet ready to be spawned . although hundreds of mature female tarpon have been examined during the spawning season , none have been caught in the act of spawning . this is probably because spawning occurs in areas not typically fished . even though the number of eggs released by a female in a single spawning event is unknown , the numbers of developing oocytes in the ovary suggests that their reproductive output is immense .\ntarpon are relatively long lived and can live more than 50 years . by age one , tarpon are about 1 . 5 ft ( 450 mm ) long and are common in rivers and the upper reaches of estuaries , where they remain until reaching sexual maturity . in florida , sexual maturity is reached at an age of about 10 years . after attaining sexual maturity , tarpon become more coastal in habitat and are most numerous around inlets and off beaches . large tarpon targeted by anglers in florida are typically from 15 to 35 years old .\nflorida ' s fishery is intensely regulated , and anglers must purchase a $ 50 permit before harvesting a fish . since the establishment of the permit system in 1989 , the harvest of tarpon in florida has declined to fewer than 100 fish per year , and the fishery is now mostly catch - and - release . encouraging catch - and - release fishing for tarpon has been an effective management strategy , because the vast majority of released fish survive to be caught again . the sale of tarpon in florida is prohibited , but in most of their range tarpon have never been considered a desirable food fish .\nin central america and south florida , tarpon are the basis of economically important recreational fisheries . tarpon occur in a variety of habitats ranging from freshwater lakes and rivers to offshore marine waters , but large tarpon targeted by florida ' s fishery are most abundant in estuarine and coastal waters . in florida , the fishery is seasonal ; most tarpon are caught between may and july , although some fish are caught in all months . tarpon are known for their spectacular leaps from the water when hooked and for their willingness to enter shallow water and eat artificial baits . probably more than any other species , tarpon offer anglers in small boats an opportunity to pursue a large gamefish . tarpon are pursued by a large for - hire charter boat fleet in florida .\nelops saurus linnaeus , 1766 ,\ncarolina .\nthe taxonomic status of elops saurus is unclear , and this name may be applied to more than one species .\nabundant from north carolina south through the gulf of mexico and into the caribbean .\nladyfish have a single , soft - rayed dorsal fin that originates about midway along the back . the pelvic fins are located midway between the tip of the snout and the fork of the deeply forked caudal fin . scales are small and thin . ladyfish are silvery all over ; the back is bluish , and the lower parts of the sides and the belly are yellowish .\ncommon in estuaries and coastal waters of tropical and subtropical latitudes . often occur in large schools . tolerant of a wide range of salinities but seldom occur in freshwater .\nlittle is known other than general descriptions of feeding habits and reproductive migrations . ladyfish can be extremely abundant and most often occur in large schools . they are voracious predators .\nladyfish feed principally in midwater on pelagic prey . feeding is mainly on fish , but decapod crustaceans also are consumed .\nspawning appears to occur offshore . larvae are common in the gulf of mexico and off the southern united states , where they have been reported as far north as virginia . fertilized eggs are undescribed . spawning may occur throughout the year but probably peaks during fall in florida and in the gulf of mexico .\nladyfish are often caught by recreational anglers but are seldom a targeted species . ladyfish are voracious predators and will attack a variety of lures and baits . the species is fished commercially in florida and sold both for human consumption and as bait to recreational anglers .\nhildebrand , s . f .\nfamily elopidae .\nin fishes of the western north atlantic , edited by h . b . bigelow . new haven , ct : sears foundation for marine research , 1963 .\nandrews , a . , e . burton , k . coale , g . cailliet , and r . e . crabtree .\nradiometric age validation of atlantic tarpon , megalops atlanticus .\nfishery bulletin 99 ( 2001 ) : 389\u2013398 .\ncrabtree , r . e . , e . c . cyr , r . e . bishop , l . m . falkenstein , and j . m . dean .\nage and growth of larval tarpon , megalops atlanticus , in the eastern gulf of mexico with notes on relative abundance and probable spawning areas .\nenvironmental biology of fishes 35 ( 1992 ) : 361\u2013370 .\ncrabtree , r . e . , e . c . cyr , d . chacon , w . o . mclarney , and j . m . dean .\nreproduction of tarpon , megalops atlanticus , from florida and costa rican waters and notes on their age and growth .\nbulletin of marine science 61 ( 1997 ) : 271\u2013285 .\ngeiger , s . p . , j . j . torres , and r . e . crabtree .\nair - breathing and gill ventilation frequencies in juvenile tarpon , megalops atlanticus : responses to changes in dissolved oxygen , temperature , hydrogen sulfide , and ph .\nenvironmental biology of fishes 59 ( 2000 ) : 181\u2013190 .\nzale , a . v . and s . g . merrifield\nspecies profiles : life histories and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates ( south florida ) \u2014ladyfish and tarpon .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service biological report 82 ( 1989 ) .\nurltoken gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the modern language association ( mla ) , the chicago manual of style , and the american psychological association ( apa ) .\nwithin the \u201ccite this article\u201d tool , pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style . then , copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list .\nbecause each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article , urltoken cannot guarantee each citation it generates . therefore , it\u2019s best to use urltoken citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication\u2019s requirements and the most - recent information available at these sites :\nmost online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers . therefore , that information is unavailable for most urltoken content . however , the date of retrieval is often important . refer to each style\u2019s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates .\nin addition to the mla , chicago , and apa styles , your school , university , publication , or institution may have its own requirements for citations . therefore , be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list .\nvan der laan , r . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ( 2014 ) . family - group names of recent fishes . zootaxa . 3882 ( 1 ) : 1 - 230 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\neschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nthe elopiform fossil record dates back 135 million years ago to the upper cretaceous period , with fossils resembling tarpons .\nforey , p . , d . littlewood , p . ritchie & a . meyer . 1996 . interrelationships of elopomorph fishes . p . 175 - 192 . in m . stiassny , l . parenti & g . johnson ( eds . ) interrelationships of fishes . academic press , new york . 496 p .\nhelfman , g . , b . collette & d . facey . 1997 the diversity of fishes . blackwell science , malden , ma . 528 pp .\ninoue , j . g . , m . miya , k . tsukamoto & m . nishida 2004 . mitogenomic evidence for the monophyly of elopomorph fishes ( teleostei ) and the evolutionary origin of the leptocephalus larva . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 32 ( 1 ) : 274 - 286\nmccosker , j . f . 1998 . eels and their allies , pp . 85\u201386 . in paxton , j . r . & w . n . eschmeyer ( eds . ) encyclopedia of fishes . 2nd ed . san diego : academic press .\nnelson , j . s . 2006 . fishes of the world . new york : john wiley & sons 601 pp .\na taxonomic order within the class actinopterygii \u2013 ray - finned fish including tarpons , tenpounders , and ladyfish .\nruggiero ma , gordon dp , orrell tm , bailly n , bourgoin t , brusca rc , et al . ( 2015 ) a higher level classification of all living organisms . plos one 10 ( 4 ) : e0119248 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0119248 . pmid : 25923521\nthis page was last edited on 13 april 2018 , at 10 : 32 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30a4\u30bb\u30b4\u30a4\u79d1\nto\nmegalopidae\n.\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30ab\u30e9\u30a4\u30ef\u30b7\u79d1\nto\nelopidae\n.\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30bd\u30c8\u30a4\u30ef\u30b7\u79d1\nto\nalbulidae\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nformerly , department of biological sciences , university of alabama , tuscaloosa , alabama .\nto learn more about subscribing to accessscience , or to request a no - risk trial of this award - winning scientific reference for your institution , fill in your information and a member of our sales team will contact you as soon as possible .\nlet your librarian know about the award - winning gateway to the most trustworthy and accurate \u0003scientific information .\nrecognized as an award - winning gateway to scientific knowledge , accessscience is an amazing online resource that contains high - quality reference material written specifically for students . its dedicated editorial team is led by sagan award winner john rennie . contributors include more than 9000 highly qualified scientists and 42 nobel prize winners .\ncopyright \u00a9 mcgraw - hill global education holdings , llc . all rights reserved .\nprivacy notice . any use is subject to the terms of use . additional credits and copyright information .\nresearch curator of fishes , north carolina state museum of natural sciences , research laboratory , 4301 reedy creek rd . , raleigh , nc , 27607 , usa\nbanks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , a . l . gardner , and w . c . starnes\nchecklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada\nnelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .\nfull author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h\u00e9ctor espinosa - p\u00e9rez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\n) . elopiforms live in marine and brackish water habitats . a few are prized game fishes , but only the pacific tarpon ( or oxeye ) is of economic importance as food ; it supports a major fishery in\n. as is usual with primitive groups , the elopiforms have an extensive fossil record\u2014with many more fossils than modern species .\nelopiforms are coastal fishes , and adults are able to enter brackish or fresh water . adult ladyfishes ( several species of\n) are typical predators of coastal waters , feeding mainly on other fishes . tarpons grow to adult lengths of up to 2 . 5 metres ( approximately 8 feet ) , whereas ladyfishes average about 1 metre ( about 3 feet ) . the silverfish , or atlantic tarpon , (\n) and ladyfishes behave similarly , \u201crolling\u201d at the surface . the purpose of this behaviour seems to be the\n, and air that is taken in at the mouth can be passed into it .\nin tarpons the swim bladder is lunglike , partially compartmented and highly vascularized . tarpons are obligate air breathers , dying from asphyxiation if prevented from reaching the surface , an unusual condition for a species in which adults normally inhabit well - oxygenated waters . such an adaptation , however , is certainly advantageous in the stagnant pools where postlarval life is spent . the tarpons exhibit a further modification of the swim bladder , a pair of forward outgrowths that contact the auditory region of the braincase and are partially enclosed in bony bullae , a modification that presumably improves the sense of hearing .\ntarpons and ladyfishes spawn close to shore , and the eggs are shed and fertilized in shoal water , sinking to the bottom . in addition , they are prolific breeders . for example , a large atlantic tarpon ( tarpon atlanticus ) was estimated to contain more than 12 million eggs , about seven times as many as in the proverbially fecund cod .\ninvolving shrinkage to about half the maximum larval size . the newly hatched leptocephali may be carried out to sea by offshore currents , but metamorphosis only occurs close inshore , and it is probable that larvae carried far out to sea die . during or immediately after their metamorphosis , the postlarvae migrate inland and accumulate in brackish pools or creeks , often connected with open water only at extreme high tide . such\nare stagnant and low in oxygen , and air breathing is an important aid to survival . the juvenile\nfeed on small crustaceans , insect larvae , and other small animals , moving back to the sea as young adults .\nthe family elopidae is the only extant teleostean family whose fossil record extends back into the jurassic period ( 199 . 6 million\u2013145 . 5 million years ago ) . the late jurassic genus anaethalionis is included in this family on the basis of some forms that were extremely similar to the modern elops . the genera notelops , from the early cretaceous ( 145 . 5 million\u201399 . 6 million years ago ) of brazil , and osmeroides , widely distributed in the seas of the late cretaceous ( 99 . 6 million\u201365 . 5 million years ago ) , were probably true elopids . at present the allocation of numerous little - known cretaceous genera , such as notelops and osmeroides , to the family elopidae , often on the basis of negative evidence , must be considered tentative .\nthe earliest known member of the tarpon family appears to be the fossil sedenhorstia , from the upper cretaceous of europe and lebanon . fossils assigned to megalops appear in eocene deposits . the earliest member of the extinct suborder pachyrhizodontoidei is rhacolepis ( from the lower cretaceous of brazil ) . rhacolepis was small and resembled the ladyfishes , but later ( upper cretaceous ) members of this group become considerably more specialized . pachyrhizodus , from the cretaceous chalks of europe and north america , exceeded 3 metres ( about 10 feet ) in length and superficially resembled a tuna . pachyrhizodontoids may well have been large fast - swimming predators of the open sea , a niche which is now filled by the tunas ( thunnus ) .\nleptocephalus larva ( ribbonlike and translucent , unlike the adult and typically longer ) ; hypurals , when present , on 3 or more centra ; branchiostegal rays usually more than 15 .\nmouth terminal and snout unmodified ; 2 supramaxillaries ; many branchiostegal rays ( 23\u201335 ) ; teeth small ; large gular plate between the lower jaws ; 7 hypural bones .\nvery generalized fish , the living forms having 32\u201335 branchiostegal rays and the swim bladder unmodified . length to 0 . 9 metre ( about 3 feet ) ; weight to about 13 kg ( 28 . 5 pounds ) . 1 living genus (\n) with 5 or 6 species ; circumtropical . numerous fossil genera . late jurassic to present .\nswim bladder partially cellular , lunglike , and connected with the ear ; scales large ; 23\u201325 branchiostegal rays . length to 2 . 5 metres ( about 8 feet ) and weight to 150 kg ( about 330 pounds ) in\norder elopiform es ( tarpons and ten - pounders ) body fusiform , typical fishlike shape ; bone - enclosed ethmoid commissure present ; roofed post - temporal fossae ; primary bite a tongue - parasphenoid type . 2 families , 2 genera , and 8 species . marine ; worldwide in temperate and tropical zones . late jurassic to present . order\u2026\nfish , any of more than 30 , 000 species of vertebrate animals ( phylum chordata ) found in the fresh and salt waters of the world . living species range from the primitive , jawless lampreys and hagfishes through the cartilaginous sharks , skates , and rays to the abundant and diverse bony fishes . most fish species are\u2026\ntarpon , any of certain marine fish of the family megalopidae ( order elopiform es ) , related to the bonefish and the ladyfish and identified by the elongated last dorsal fin ray and the bony throat plate between the sides of the protruding lower jaw . the scales are large , thick , and silvery . \u2026\nbony fish , any member of the superclass osteichthyes , a group made up of the classes sarcopterygii ( lobe - finned fishes ) and actinopterygii ( ray - finned fishes ) in the subphylum vertebrata , including the great majority of living fishes and virtually all the world\u2019s sport and commercial fishes . the scientific term pisces has also been used\u2026\neel , ( order anguilliformes ) , any of more than 800 species of teleost fishes characterized by elongate wormlike bodies . anguilliforms include the common freshwater eels as well as the voracious marine morays . \u2026\nwe welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles . you can make it easier for us to review and , hopefully , publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind .\nencyclop\u00e6dia britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience .\nyou may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered .\nat the bottom of the article , feel free to list any sources that support your changes , so that we can fully understand their context . ( internet urls are the best . )\nyour contribution may be further edited by our staff , and its publication is subject to our final approval . unfortunately , our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions .\nour editors will review what you ' ve submitted , and if it meets our criteria , we ' ll add it to the article .\nplease note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors , and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed .\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\ndog , ( canis lupus familiaris ) , domestic mammal of the family canidae ( order carnivora ) . it is a subspecies\u2026\ncorrections ? updates ? omissions ? let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article ( requires login ) .\nif you prefer to suggest your own revision of the article , you can go to edit mode ( requires login ) .\nour editors will review what you\u2019ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nbanks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , a . l . gardner , and w . c . starnes , 2003 : null . checklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada .\neschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version .\nnelson , joseph s . , 1994 : null . fishes of the world , third edition . xvii + 600 .\nnelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds . , 2004 : common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico , sixth edition . american fisheries society special publication , no . 29 . ix + 386 .\nshiino , sueo m . , 1976 : list of common names of fishes of the world , those prevailing among english - speaking nations . science report of shima marineland , no . 4 . 262 .\nvan der laan , r . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ( 2014 ) . family - group names of recent fishes . < em > zootaxa . < / em > 3882 ( 1 ) : 1 - 230 .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 335115f7 - cf42 - 45a1 - 8e8c - 2f225ac37668\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 6bd0ed94 - bd19 - 4fa4 - a6ab - 0c106eeee8c5\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 954dc00c - ed1b - 48a8 - a21f - 4f56fff85419\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f2b40f9a - fb9b - 4e22 - ba18 - c19d286708de\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 266588\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country ."]}
{"id": 1397, "summary": [{"text": "eptatretus deani , known as the black hagfish , is a species of hagfish .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "common to other species of hagfish , their unusual feeding habits and slime-producing capabilities have led members of the scientific and popular media to dub the hagfish as the most \" disgusting \" of all sea creatures .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "although hagfish are sometimes called \" slime eels \" , they are not eels at all . ", "topic": 16}], "title": "black hagfish", "paragraphs": ["another hagfish species that may occur in california is the black hagfish ( eptatretus deani ) ; it is found in deeper water , is darker in coloration ( purplish black ) , and has a shorter head in proportion to the body .\na mongoose is lightning fast and has razor - sharp teeth . a black mamba can kill 15 grown men with just one bite . which of these two mortal enemies will win ?\nhagfish lack bones , paired fins , and a true jaw . the hagfish skeleton is composed of\n14 . hagfish are threatened from both intentional fishing and unintentional bycatch . hagfish weren\u2019t always fished , but because several more preferable fish species are overfished and hard to catch , fishermen have moved down to catching hagfish .\na mature pacific hagfish female will produce between 20 - 30 eggs per reproductive cycle . there is no known reproductive season or cycle length for hagfish .\nthe slime could also give the hagfish a competitive edge among other scavengers . if many hagfish were feeding off zintzen\u2019s bait , it soon became draped in slime . the mucus puts off fish competitors , allowing the hagfish to monopolise their morsels .\nthought the hagfish day was the 19th of oct . enjoyed reading this ! ~\ndon ' t worry the hagfish is not hurt , it ' s just anaesthetised .\nthe hagfish is preyed upon by some marine mammals and large sea living invertebrates . most animals do however stay away from the hagfish since they risk being suffocated by the slime .\npacific hagfish - eptatretus stoutii the hagfish can tie itself into a knot . source : aquarium of the pacific intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nthe hagfish eats marine worms and other invertebrates . it has a very low metabolism and can go for as long as seven months without eating . newly hatched hagfish are miniature copies of the adult hagfish . the hagfish is found in cold ocean waters in the northern and southern hemispheres . it is found on muddy sea floors and may live in very large groups of up to 15 , 000 individuals . there are about 60 species of hagfish .\npacific hagfish are not currently exhibited . this information is supplied for use as a reference .\npacific hagfish - eptatretus stoutii the pacific hagfish is also known as the slime eel . source : monterey bay aquarium intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nthe metabolism of the hagfish is remarkably slow and up to seven months can pass between meals .\n\u201c atlantic hagfish \u201d , sea and sky . retrieved on 2008 - 03 - 28 . urltoken\n10 . this slime gives hagfish a slippery exit when attacked by predators . a larger fish looking for a meal instead gets a mouth full of slime , while the hagfish can slide away .\nwe are developing standard procedures for sampling hagfish landed by commercial fisheries and collected during scientific surveys .\ntable 29 . 1 . recreational and commercial landings of atlantic hagfish ( thousand metric tons ) .\nforster , m . e . ( 1990 ) confirmation of the low metabolic rates of hagfish .\nshelton , r . g . j . ( 1978a ) of hagfish , goats and sprats .\nthe pacific hagfish is listed on the iucn red list as \u201cdata deficient , more research needed\u201d to quantify the impacts of fishing on the population of this species . the red list states : \u201cthis species is only known from the northeastern pacific where it is heavily targeted in at least half of range for the asian eel - skin leather market , ( wallets , leather , and boots ) . reported landings for this species are mixed with the black hagfish ( e . deani ) and have been quite variable in both total catch and effort over the past 20 years . the reasons for the variability in catch and effort trends are not well understood . \u201d\ncommercial interest has developed in pacific ( eptatretus stoutii ) and black hagfish ( e . deani ) in southeast alaska with information lacking to properly develop a fishery . currently , the fishery is targeted using a commissioner\u2019s permit in which the alaska department of fish game decides harvest level , gear type , season , etc to prosecute the fishery . the primary market is freezing hagfish in blocks and / or shipping them live to korea . little is known on both species life history within southeast alaska including : distribution , size at maturity , fecundity , sex ratio , length and weight frequencies . preliminary life history information will be collected on experimental longline trap sets .\natlantic hagfish - myxine glutinosa the atlantic hagfish is found on both sides of the north atlantic ocean . source : sea and sky intended audience : student reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nin asia , over fishing has led to a significant decrease in the local hagfish population and asian fisheries have therefore begun to show an interest in the hagfish populations in the atlantic . while this might be beneficial for local economies along the atlantic coasts , it could also pose a threat to the atlantic hagfish population . care and caution must be exercised unless we wish to see the atlantic hagfish population go the same way as the asian one . as mentioned above , studies indicate that the hagfish female only produces a low number of eggs each breeding period and hagfish are therefore extra sensitive to over - fishing .\nbraun , c . b . ( 1994 ) a novel cutaneous sensory system in hagfish . soc .\nwhere present at high densities , hagfish burrowing and feeding activities have a significant impact on substrate turnover .\nhagfish are significant as predators on benthic invertebrates and , in some cases , mesopelagic invertebrates and vertebrates .\nwhen studied , hagfish females have produce up to 30 yolky one inch long eggs with tough shells . if this low number is true for all hagfish , it means that it might take a long time for a hagfish population to recover when harmed , e . g . by over - fishing or pollution .\nin most parts of the world hagfish is viewed as a useless by - catch , but there are a few countries in south east asia where hagfish is appreciated on the dinner table . nearly 5 million pounds ( 2 268 000 kg ) of hagfish meat is for instance consumed in south korea each year .\njustification : this species is only known from the northeastern pacific , where it is heavily targeted in at least half of range for the asian eel - skin leather market . reported landings for this species are mixed with the black hagfish ( e . deani ) and have been quite variable in both total catch and effort over the past 20 years ( 1988 - 2007 ) . the reasons for the variability in catch and effort trends are not well understood . this species is therefore currently listed as data deficient . more research is needed to quantify the impacts of fishing on this species population .\nalthough a hagfish fishery exists in the gulf of maine , the resource is not actively managed at present .\nfernholm , b . and holmberg , k . ( 1975 ) the eyes in three genera of hagfish (\nthe hagfish needs the salinity in its habitat to be stable , because these fishes have virtually no osmoregulation and are therefore highly vulnerable to salinity changes . the hagfish is the only known vertebrate with body fluids isosomotic with seawater . this means that the body fluids of the hagfish have the same total osmotic pressure or osmolality as seawater .\nps it\u2019s sad that this paper didn\u2019t come out on october 16 th , which was designated as hagfish day .\nhagfish adults , juveniles , and eggs can represent a significant prey item for marine mammals and large predatory invertebrates .\nslip ' n ' slime . the slime that an annoyed hagfish oozes through its skin can fill a bucket .\nhagfish are found in temperate seas in both hemispheres , but hagfish has not been found in the red sea . a majority of the species live in rather cold environments where the water is at least 20 meters ( 66 feet ) deep . when hagfish live in warmer parts of the world , they are normally only found in really deep waters . hagfish can survive at remarkable depths and have been found 1700 metres ( 5600 feet ) down into the ocean .\nin the western pacific ocean a fishery for hagfish has existed since world war ii . overharvesting lead to the expansion of hagfish fisheries into the eastern pacific off the northwestern us and british columbia , and then during the late 1980\u2019s to the mid 1990\u2019s to the western atlantic off of maritime canada and new england . hagfish are utilized as a food source and their skins are valued for leather products . all hagfish are exported whole to korea ( nefsc 2003 ) .\npacific hagfish - eptatretus stoutii hagfish have been around , mostly unchanged , since the paleozoic era 450 million years ago . source : california department of fish and wildlife intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nthe inshore hagfish , eptatretus burge , is listed on the iucn red list as near threatened . this hagfish species is commonly found in the western north pacific off the coasts of southern japan , south korea , northern , and northwestern taiwan . in these geographic locations hagfish is a native ( endemic ) species . they are very heavily fished in the china sea for their skin and for food . approximately five million pounds of hagfish meat is eaten yearly in korea .\nhagfish represent one of the most important mechanisms for the rapid cleanup and processing of carrion - falls . in areas subject to intensive commercial fisheries , hagfish probably play a key role in the removal and recycling of discarded by - catch .\nmunz , f . w . and morris , r . w . ( 1965 ) metabolic rate of the hagfish ,\nus navy scientists have produced a synthetic version of hagfish slime that they hope to use in protective gear for troops .\ndining in . hagfish swarm to a corpse and bury themselves in it before eating their way out with their skin .\na data collection program has been proposed for atlantic hagfish by nmfs requiring seafood dealers to acquire permits and report on the purchase of hagfish made from commercial fishing vessels to aid in the future management of this species ( federal register 2006 ) .\nall these interesting properties make hagfish slime dead useful for lots of potential applications . there\u2019s even an online recipe for scones made with hagfish slime\u2014courtesy of the museum of awful food\u2014for the culinarily adventurous . the slime is a handy substitute for egg whites . ( by the way , that trendy \u201ceel skin\u201d wallet or purse in your collection might actually be hagfish leather . )\nthe tough and soft skin of the hagfish is also a popular commodity and is used to make wallets , purses , handbags , boots and similar items . the skin is normally market under the name \u201ceelskin\u201d or \u201ceel skin\u201d , not hagfish skin .\na hagfish usually swims slowly along the seafloor in a snake - like fashion although it may have occasional bursts of speed .\nmcinerney , j . e . and evans , d . o . ( 1970 ) habitat characteristics of the pacific hagfish ,\nhall - arber , m . ( 1996 ) workshop probes hagfish processing potential in us : fishery discards worry fishermen . in\nmartini , f . h . and heiser , j . b . ( 1989 ) field observations on the atlantic hagfish ,\nwisner , r . l . and mcmillan , c . b . ( 1988 ) a new species of hagfish , genus\npacific hagfish - eptatretus stoutii hagfish eat worms and invertebrates , but they also enter both dying and dead fish and eat them from the inside out . source : oregon coast aquarium intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\n\u201d disgusting hagfish and magnificent sharks \u201d , tammy frank , noaa ocean explorer . retrieved on 2008 - 03 - 28 . urltoken\nit is estimated that hagfish may live 40 years in the ocean and 17 years in a protected environment such as an aquarium .\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 0 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 0 . no true fins - one dorsal finfold , far back , median , very low , continuous with the caudal ; caudal moderately broad , and round with ray - like markings ; ventral finfold very low , origin somewhat posterior to last gill aperture , extending to anus ( ref . 6885 ) . prune colored , preserved specimens black ; frequently piebald with light spots ; the very edges of caudal and ventral finfolds may be light colored ( ref . 6885 ) .\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 0 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 0 . no true fins - one dorsal finfold , far back , median , very low , continuous with the caudal ; caudal moderately broad , and round with ray - like markings ; ventral finfold very low , origin somewhat posterior to last gill aperture , extending to anus ( ref . 6885 ) . prune colored , preserved specimens black ; frequently piebald with light spots ; the very edges of caudal and ventral finfolds may be light colored ( ref . 6885 ) .\nthe hagfish is famous for its ability to emit mucus and even its scientific name is derived from the greek word for slime . one single hagfish can fill a milk jug with slime in no time . the slime is probably a way for the hagfish to fend of predators , since the slime can be used to form a protective slime - cocoon . if a fish tries to eat the cocoon , the slime can clog its gills and make it suffocate . if you try to chew hagfish slime , it will expand .\nafter the shark encounter , we looked for a good place to deploy the baited benthic traps we were carrying . the mussel beds around the brine pool are covered with hagfish , so we placed the traps on its periphery , in hopes of trapping fewer hagfish and perhaps a crab or two . remarkably , hagfish were even swimming in the brine pool , which is four times saltier than seawater . on other expeditions , scientists have taken pictures of dead fish floating up in the brine ; hagfish must have a remarkable salt tolerance .\nhagfish may be one of the most abundant groups of demersal fishes in many areas , in terms of numbers and / or biomass .\ncailliet , g . m . , mcnulty , m . and lewis , l . ( 1991 ) habitat analysis of pacific hagfish (\nlesser , m . , martini , f . h . and heiser , j . b . ( 1996 ) ecology of hagfish ,\npacific hagfish - eptatretus stoutii the pacific hagfish is found on muddy bottoms in cold ocean waters along the pacific coast from vancouver , canada south to baja california , mexico . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nthe atlantic hagfish or \u201cslime eel\u201d , myxine glutinosa , is found in deep , cold waters to depths of at least 1100 m . in the western north atlantic , hagfish are distributed from davis straits , greenland to the continental slope waters off of florida . in the gulf of maine the distribution of hagfish is primarily affected by salinity , temperature and substrate type ( collette and klein - macphee 2002 ) .\nhagfish is considered to be the most primitive vertebrate species either living or extinct ( collette and klein - macphee 2002 , powell et al 2005 ) . hagfish evolved over at least 300 million years and have the same basic morphological traits of fossilized specimens ( bardack 1991 ) .\nronan , m . ( 1988 ) the sensory trigeminal tract of the pacific hagfish : primary afferent projections and neurons of the tract nucleus .\n, n . sp . , a new hagfish ( family eptatretidae ) from south australia , with a key to the 5\u20137 gilled eptatretidae .\nthe hagfish is a true monster of the deep . to see why , one only has to examine its greusome feeding habits . a hagfish begins its feeding process by attaching itself to a passing fish . once firmly attached , it then bores its way inside its unsuspecting host . once inside , the hagfish will actually eat the fish ' s flesh with a specialized rasping tongue . it literally eats its victim from the inside out . when no large prey can be found , hagfish will feed on worms and other small invertebrates they find on the ocean floor . hagfish have a very slow metabolism and can go for months without feeding . they can sometimes be a nuisance to fishermen because they can spoil an entire catch of deep sea fish before the catch can be hauled to the surface . one catch of fish can contain hundreds of hagfish .\n6 . a 2011 report from the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) found that 12 % of hagfish species are at an elevated risk of extinction . one hagfish species is critically endangered , two are endangered , six are vulnerable to extinction and two are near - threatened .\nthese fish are affected by the trash and chemicals that we put into the ocean . pacific hagfish are a crucial part of the cycle of life as they eliminate dead and dying organisms . there could be a significant impact on the ecosystem should there be a large scale removal of hagfish .\nthe seal shark dalatias licha ( a\u2013c ) and the wreckfish polyprion americanus ( d\u2013f ) fare poorly when they attack the hagfish . ( image :\nas late as 2006 , a new member was added to the hagfish family myxinidae when the goliath hagfish was scientifically described by mincarone & stewart and given the name eptatretus goliath . eptatretus goliath was described from a specimen caught at a dept of 811 metres ( 2 , 661 feet ) at the head of the hauraki canyon off the northeast north island in new zealand . the species was named goliath since it was a true giant in the world of hagfish ; the specimen measured an astonishing 127 , 5 cm ( approximately 50 inches ) . this makes eptatretus goliath the largest known species of hagfish .\nreference : zintzen , roberts , anderson , stewart , struthers & harvey . 2011 . hagfish predatory behaviour and slime defence mechanism . scientific reports . urltoken\nhorn - like teeth . atlantic hagfish belong to the family myxinidae which have one pair of gill openings attached to 6 - 7 internal gill pouches per opening . the species has paired barbels on the tip of its snout and four barbels surrounding the mouth . hagfish are almost blind because their eyes are rudimentary but their sense of smell is keen . the skin of the atlantic hagfish is smooth and scale - less with a series of slime glands along both sides of the ventral midline ( collette and klein - macphee 2002 ) . these glands produce fibrous mucus that protects hagfish from predators and possibly parasites .\nthe humble hagfish produces a sticky slime to defend itself from predators , as well as to hunt for its own food . now a team of swiss scientists has figured out the physics behind how the hagfish can use the same slimy substance for both purposes , according to a new paper in scientific reports .\n\u201coregon had a limit on permits for a while , but now it\u2019s an open - access fishery , \u201d he said , noting that \u201cno one knows the science\u201d of hagfish . while the slimy eels seem plentiful for the moment , he doesn\u2019t want to see a repeat of korea\u2019s depletion of homegrown hagfish .\nmartini , f . h . , heiser , j . b . and lesser , m . p . ( 1997 ) a population profile for hagfish ,\nthe mouth of the hagfish is perfectly adapted to tearing flesh away from dead and dying animals and is also great when it comes to catching marine invertebrates such as bristleworms . inside the mouth you will find a single tooth and a tongue equipped with pairs of rasps . every time the hagfish pulls back its tongue into the mouth , the rasps will pinch together . the hagfish attach its mouth to a fish or other animal and gradually work its way through the animal .\nbottom dwellers , pacific hagfish are typically inhabits temporary burrows in mud and other soft substrate at depths of 18 - 900 m ( 584 - 2970 ft ) .\nwicht , h . and northcutt , r . g . ( 1992 ) the forebrain of the pacific hagfish : a cladistic reconstruction of the ancestral craniate forebrain .\nthe atlantic hagfish is a deep - water fish . they can be found at depths of up to 5 , 600 feet ( about 1 , 800 meters ) . they are known on both sides of the north atlantic ocean as far north as norway . hagfish prefer soft sea bottoms where they can quickly bury themselves when threatened .\ndr . frank holds a hagfish caught in one of the benthic traps . these fish appear to be prevalent at the brine pool . click image for larger view .\nthe hagfish has a fairly primitive look and since it was viewed as a form of parasite earlier , scientists suggested that its primitiveness was caused by this parasitic lifestyle . today , most scientists instead think that the hagfish is so perfectly adapted to its environment that no changes have been necessary during the most recent several hundred million years .\nbardack , d . 1991 . first fossil hagfish ( myxinoidea ) : a record from the pennsylvanian of illinois . science , vol . 254 : 701 - 703 .\nfalkmer , s . , marklund , s . , mathisson , p . and rappe , c . ( 1977 ) hepatomas and other neoplasms in the atlantic hagfish (\nhagfish are well known for their ability to tie themselves in knots , which can travel down the length of their bodies . this could help to clear their own bodies of slime ( they can choke on their own mucus ) or free themselves from the grip of a predator . here , the knot seemed to give the hagfish leverage for pulling the bandfish from its burrow . zintzen thinks that the hagfish may even have used its mucus as an offensive weapon , to choke the bandfish inside its burrow .\nreporting of atlantic hagfish landings is presently not required by law and fishery data are therefore incomplete . atlantic hagfish landings first appear in the nefsc commercial database in 1993 with a reported landing of approximately 500 metric tons . annual reported landings during 1994 - 2000 ranged between 1 , 100 and 3 , 000 metric tons with a peak in 2000\ncrewmembers from the f / v first hope unload hagfish \u2013 otherwise known as slime eels \u2013 at the port dock in newport , oregon . vessel owner frank button has plied the waters off the oregon coast for hagfish for the past three years . it\u2019s a wide - open , year - round fishery with an eager market in korea .\nas mentioned above , a hagfish will contain both ovaries and testes , but these fishes are functionally non - hermaphroditic . young fishes are hermaphroditic , but as they age they will become either male or female . the hagfish may however switch sex from season to season if it finds itself in a group where another sex would be more favourable .\nzintzen filmed slender hagfish chasing after red bandfish , ensconced in sandy burrows . the hagfish completely ignored the bait that zintzen was offering . instead , they seemed to search the ocean floor for hidden burrows , using the whisker - like barbels on their faces . once they found an entrance , they rapidly burrowed inside , emerging several minutes later .\nkabasawa , h . and ooka - souda , s . ( 1991 ) circadian rhythms of locomotory activity in the hagfish and the effect of the light - dark cycle .\nooka - souda , s . , kadota , t . and kabasawa , h . ( 1991 ) in the hagfish visual information sets the circadian pacemaker via the pretectum .\n9 . to ward off predators and other fish trying to steal their meals , hagfish produce slime . when harassed , glands lining their bodies secrete stringy proteins that , upon contact with seawater , expand into the transparent , sticky substance . according to common hagfish mythology , they can fill a 5 - gallon bucket with the stuff in mere minutes .\nmatsuda , h . , goris , r . c . and kishida , r . ( 1991 ) afferent and efferent projections of the glossopharyngeal - vagal nerve in the hagfish .\njanuary 13 , 2012\u2014for the first time , scientists have recorded the defense strategy of the hagfish , which , when attacked , secretes slime from hundreds of pores on its body .\nin the gulf of maine ( gom ) , atlantic hagfish are caught using modified 55 - gallon plastic barrels , called hagfish pots , attached to sinking line and buoys . typically 20 - 40 traps are deployed in a string for a small commercial vessel and 80 - 200 traps for larger vessels ( nefsc 2003 ) . a series of funneled holes in the side of the barrel allow hagfish to enter the baited pot but doesn\u2019t allow them to escape . several rows of 3 / 8\u201d holes allow smaller animals to escape the traps .\nferocious fangs aren\u2019t the purpose this weird fish is included in our list , however . hagfish have an entirely revolting trick up their sleeves to avoid predators . when disturbed , the hagfish will ooze proteins from slime glands in its skin that interact with the surrounding water to form a thick , slimy outer coating which ultimately expands into a huge mass of slime . in fact , deep - sea diving equipment has been thwarted from reaching its final destination in the past by large amounts of hagfish slime , produced when the fish are alarmed .\n7 . no one is sure whether hagfish belong to their own group of animals , filling the gap between invertebrates and vertebrates , or if they are more closely related to vertebrates .\nzintzen also filmed some hagfish hunting , a behaviour that had been suspected but never witnessed . while they\u2019re typically regarded as scavengers , some scientists have suggested that their numbers are so great that they couldn\u2019t possibly be sustained by corpses alone . on top of that , some people have found the flesh of prawns , worms and fish among the stomach contents of hagfish .\nwalvig , f . ( 1967 ) experimental marking of hagfish ( myxine glutinosa l . ) . norwegian j . zool . ( nytt . mag . zool ) , 15 , 35\u20133\nhagfish slime can be both . it turns out that the suction feeding employed by many of the hagfish\u2019s predators creates a unidirectional flow . the elongated stress of that sucking flow increases the goo\u2019s viscosity , the better to suffocate said predators by clogging of the gills . but when the hagfish is trying to escape from its own slime , its motion creates a shear - thinning flow that actually reduces the viscosity of the slime , making it easier to escape . in fact , the slimy network quickly collapses in the face of a shear - thinning flow .\nconsidered a scavenger , the hagfish feeds mostly on dead and dying fish and marine mammals , thereby playing an important role in the ecosystem . using its keen sense of smell , the hagfish will identify its food source and either burrow into its prey by making a hole with its rasping teeth , or entering through an existing opening to consume it from the inside out , usually only leaving skin and bones when it is done . due to its slow metabolism , the hagfish may survive for up to seven months without eating . when other food sources are not available , it subsists on worms and other bottom fauna . the hagfish is preyed upon by some marine mammals and large invertebrates , but most stay away due to the risk of slime suffocation .\nspitzer , r . h . , downing , s . w . and koch , e . a . ( 1979 ) metabolic - morphologic events in the integument of the pacific hagfish (\npacific hagfish are among the very first arrivals at a whale fall in deep waters off the california coast . called mobile scavengers , they feast on the soft tissue of the whale carcass / .\nnishizawa , h . , kishida , r . , kadota , t . and goris , r . c . ( 1988 ) somatotopic organization of the primary sensory trigeminal neurons in the hagfish ,\npacific hagfish , like other hagfish , represent an ancient form of life that has remained virtually unchanged since the paleozoic era 450 million years ago . it is a cartilaginous fish that lacks scales , paired fins , a stomach , and true jaws . it has rudimentary eyes ( eye spots ) that are only able to detect light , and relies on its keen sense of smell and touch to get around ( using a single nostril and barbels , respectively ) . the hagfish ' s jawless mouth contains two parallel rows of pointed keratinous teeth , which are secured to rasping dental plates .\nthe hagfish looks like an easy meal . its sinuous , eel - like body has no obvious defences , but any predator that moves in for a bite is in for a nasty surprise . the hagfish releases a quick - setting slime that clogs up the predator\u2019s gills , causing it to gag , choke and flee . scientists have known about this repulsive defence for decades , but vincent zintzen has finally filmed it in the wild . his videos also prove that hagfish , generally thought to be scavengers of the abyss , are also active hunters that can drag tiny fish from their burrows .\nunique vertebrates , hagfish are able to absorb nutrients through their skin . they prefer polychaete worms for a meal but also prey on small invertebrates and are scavengers of dead and dying marine life . once a firm hold is established on the prey , the hagfish ties and untied a knot within its own body to create a ripping force . it then burrows into dead carcasses exposing its skin to the nutrient - rich decomposing matter while eating away at the dead animal\u2019s inside . it leaves the skin and bones behind . due to their slow metabolism , hagfish can survive for several months without eating .\nhagfish play an important role in the ocean\u0092s ecosystem , getting rid of ( e . g . , eating ) decaying material on the sea floor . as a biological oceanographer , i ' m intrigued by the functions lifeforms perform in the deep . this does not mean , however , that i enjoy being up close and personal with hagfish , as my graduate student nicole mcmullen and i were last night .\n\u201c friends of oceanography public lecture series explores the strange , wondrous , and disgusting hagfish \u201d , university of rhode island , 2002 - 03 - 25 . retrieved on 2008 - 03 - 28 . urltoken\n11 . to prevent choking on its own slime , a hagfish can \u201csneeze\u201d out its slime - filled nostril , and tie its body into a knot to keep the slime from dripping onto its face .\nto retrieve the slime , they placed the hagfish in a bucket of cold seawater and used a mix of clove bud oil and ethanol to anesthetize them . then they put the hagfish on a dissection tray , blotted them dry , and zapped them with electricity to make the muscles contract and expel the milky pre - slime from the pores . finally , the fish were transferred to nice , comfy recovery bath .\ndavison , w . , baldwin , j . , davie , p . s . , forster , m . e . and satchell , g . h . ( 1990 ) exhausting exercise in the hagfish ,\nthe hagfish is almost completely blind , but it has a good sense of touch and smell . it has a ring of tentacles around its mouth that it uses to feel for food . it has a tongue - like projection that comes out of its jawless mouth . at the end of the projection are tooth - like rasps that close when the\ntongue\nis pulled back into the hagfish ' s mouth .\nthe hagfish is almost blind , but it has not problem detecting food since it is equipped with highly developed senses of touch and smell . no less than four pairs of sensing tentacles are located around its mouth .\nwe still know very little about how hagfish reproduce , but we do know that each fish contains both ovaries and testes and that the parents do not guard their offspring . one and a half century ago , the royal danish academy of sciences and letters ( kongelige danske videnskabernes selskab ) announced an award to anyone who could solve the mystery about how the hagfish reproduces . as of 2008 , no one has received the award .\nthe pacific hagfish ( eptatretus stoutii ) is eel - like , with 10 to 14 pores along its elongated body . it usually ranges in color from tan to brown or grey on the top and lighter on the bottom . it can be found at depths ranging from 60 to 3000 feet on mud substrate . sampling of california commercial fishery landings has shown that the average pacific hagfish measures between 12 and 18 inches in length .\n8 . the only known fossil hagfish , from 300 million years ago , looks very much like a modern hagfish , leading some scientists to speculate that it has changed little since then . \u201cit\u2019s an indication , not that they\u2019ve stalemated and are not evolving , but that they have arrived at a body plan that is still very successful today , \u201d says tom munroe , a fish zoologist at the smithsonian national museum of natural history .\nthe larval stage can last as long as seven years ! at the end of the larval state , the lamprey changes into an eel - like creature that swims and usually attaches itself to a fish . there are around 50 living species of lampreys . the hagfish is also know as the slime fish . it is eel - like and pinkish in color . it has glands along its sides that produce a thick , sticky slime that it uses as a defense mechanism . the hagfish can also twist its body into knots ! it may do this to clean off slime or escape predators . the hagfish may also sneeze to clear its nostrils of slime .\nscience now hagfish just got more disgusting urltoken proc . r . soc . b adaptations to in situ feeding : novel nutrient acquisition pathways in an ancient vertebrate http : / / rspb . royalsocietypublishing . or . . .\nit seems to be working because most fishes don\u2019t only bite : they open their mouth quicky to suck water and prey into their mouth before biting . in the case of hagfish , they suck the slime as well .\nit ' s an interesting and novel result ,\nsays fish ecologist jeffrey drazen of the university of hawaii , manoa . when it ' s not busy consuming cadavers , the hagfish ' s larger role in the food web remains a mystery , he says , as it ' s difficult to study fish that live this deep in the ocean . the new finding is the latest in a list of hagfish feeding habits that would make miss manners weep . for instance , hagfish coat a corpse they ' re interested in with slime exuded from pores in their bodies , keeping other scavengers at bay .\nnobody else wants it after that ,\ndrazen says .\nresearch is being done on hagfish slime in which the mechanical properties of threads made from the slimy mucus are being studied . the threads are both strong and stretchy , features that may lead to development of superior new materials .\nstarting off our list of weird animals with absolutely disgusting defense strategies is the particularly handsome hagfish ( eptatretus stoutii ) . these jawless , spineless denizens of the deep are a throwback to the paleozoic era when fish evolved . using feelers located on the ends of its face , the hagfish locates dead and rotting animals that have sunk to the bottom of the ocean floor . swarms of hagfish will penetrate the decomposing carcass and feast on the body from the inside out . it uses its razor sharp teeth to bite and tear rotting flesh right off the bones . it\u2019s a good thing the poor animal is dead when all of this is happening because good god that sounds painful .\nsince the hagfish feed on carcases , it might be able to worn us about cancerogenous compounds in the environment . it is a well known fact that many dangerous pollutants congregates along the food chain , and a scavenger like the hagfish will therefore ingest large amounts of pollutants . today , primary liver cancer is rare in humans living in western europe , but fairly common in africa and china where the environmental laws tend to be less strict or poorly enforced .\n12 . although their eating habits seem disgusting , hagfish help clean and recycle dead animals from the seafloor . they also serve as a food source for fish , seabirds and seals\u2014at least those that can make it through the slime .\nin areas where there is considerable bycatch discarded by fishermen , or falls of marine mammals such as whales and sea lions , hagfish may play a significant role in recycling and maintaining the seafloor by savaging and burrowing through the substrate .\nagnatha are jawless fish . lampreys and hagfish are in this class . members of the agnatha class are probably the earliest vertebrates . scientists have found fossils of agnathan species from the late cambrian period that occurred 500 million years ago .\nin the early 1990s , the exported hagfish were used primarily for eel - skin leather , not food . as demand for eel - skin leather dropped , so did west coast exports . by 2000 , overfishing had depleted korea\u2019s hagfish stocks , so buyers looked elsewhere , including the west coast . processors learned that korean buyers rarely purchased west coast hagfish because they didn\u2019t like the method oregon processors used to freeze the eels . that changed in 2002 , when mike erdman of oregon sea green products in coos bay / north bend decided to do something about it , traveling to korea to learn their freezing techniques and in the process creating a niche for oregon , washington and to some extent california .\nalthough hagfish was a traditional food item in japan and korea , harvesting of the fish for their skin to be used as soft leather did not start until world war ii brought about a shortage in japan for leather from land animals .\nafter the catch , fishermen and processors stay busy removing slime from hagfish tanks to keep them alive . for shipping , processors pack the eels into containers filled with saltwater and liquid oxygen to keep them breathing and keep the containers cool .\nthere are a few reasons why the slime might be useful in the fashion world : it\u2019s incredibly strong , easily stretched , and when it dries , the texture becomes silky . while a hagfish only reaches up to a foot in length , one animal alone contains hundreds of miles of slime . that\u2019s why researchers are trying to replicate the proteins of hagfish slime as we speak , in order to be able to manufacture an artificial product with similar properties . ( source )\nthis is the first time such feeding habits have been observed in a non - invertebrate animal , suggesting that hagfish may be a transitional organism between modern fish and invertebrates such as aquatic worms , which can absorb food through their skin .\nthe hagfishes are believed to have been around for at least 500 million years without changing much and are therefore of great interest for scientists that wish to understand more about how different life forms have evolved on our planet . the hagfish is for instance equipped with an anatomical feature that is believed to be the beginning of a vertebral column . the hagfish has no cerebrum or cerebellum , no jaws and no stomach , and its skeleton is made up by cartilage instead of bones .\nwe placed the traps in two different locations , then motored back to pick up the eits camera . on the way , i saw several hagfish swimming happily toward my traps . sigh . the glamorous life of a marine biologist . . .\npowell , m . l . , s . i . kavanaugh and s . a . sower . 2005 . current knowledge of hagfish reproduction : implications for fisheries management . integrative and comparative biology 45 ( 1 ) : 158 - 165 .\nshelton , r . g . j . 1978 . on the feeding of hagfish myxine glutinosa in the north sea . j . mar . biol . assoc . u . k . , vol . 58 , pp . 81 - 86 .\nnicole and i carried the traps to the light - tight cold room , where we excitedly opened them under dim red light . instead of seeing beautiful shrimp and crabs with glowing eyes , we saw blind hagfish heads poking up at us from the traps .\nhagfish slime is strong and hard to remove , because unlike the other known forms of slime found in nature hagfish slime is reinforced with special fibres . inside the slime , each fibre is no thicker than a thousandth of a millimetre , but the fibres are very strong and can reach a length of half a metre ( 1 foot 8 inches ) . we still do not know how the fibres are put together , but scientists are trying to find out since that knowledge might make it possible to create really strong synthetic materials .\nprobably eating their way out of the carcass , according to a new study\u2014and not with any sort of politesse , either . when they can ' t pack enough flesh into their tentacle - lined mouths , hagfish absorb the carcass ' s nutrients right through their skin .\natlantic hagfish inhabit soft clay or muddy sediments and spend much of their time in temporary burrows in the sea floor ( collette and klein - macphee 2002 ) . they prey primarily on shrimp , worms and small crabs ( gustafson 1935 , shelton 1978 , collette and klein - macphee 2002 ) . they are also scavengers that feed upon dead and dying fish , mammals and shellfish . hagfish are often considered a nuisance by commercial fishermen because they can feed on targeted species ( martini et al 1997 , collette and klein - macphee 2002 ) .\ngrant , s . m . 2006 . an exploratory fishing survey and biological resource assessment of atlantic hagfish ( myxine glutinosa ) occurring on the southwest slpoe of the newfoundland grand bank . j . northw . atl . fish . sci . , v 36 : 91 - 110 .\nmartini , f . m . lesser and j . b . heiser . 1997 . a population profile for atlantic hagfish , myxine glutinosa ( l . ) , in the gulf of maine . part i : morphometrics and reproductive state . fishery bulletin 95 : 311 - 320 .\nwells , r . m . g . , forster , m . e . , davison , w . , taylor , h . h . , davie , p . s . and satchell , g . h . ( 1986 ) blood oxygen transport in the free - swimming hagfish ,\nthe most distinguishing hagfish behavior is its ability to produce copious amounts of mucilaginous slime nearly instantaneously . pores along the degenerate lateral line secrete the slime as a defense mechanism . as the slime contacts seawater , it rapidly expands into a sticky gel that can suffocate an attacker or foul mechanical equipment . another unique a hagfish behavior is its ability to tie a knot in its body and then slide in and out of the knot . they can use this behavior to bury into a carcass to elude predators , gain leverage to tear off pieces of flesh , or clean slime from itself .\nthe hagfish has for instance been used by researchers studying the islets of langerhans , a special type of pancreatic cells responsible for producing insulin . hagfishes are of special interest since their insulin is the most primitive form of insulin known to science . in hagfish , insulin is produced in a small organ named the islet organ which is located on the bile duct wall at the section where the bile duct opens into the bowels . by learning more about this primitive form of insulin , researchers hope to understand more about how the insulin production works in the human body and why it sometimes malfunctions .\n\u201cwhen i first reviewed this video , i thought : those hagfish are not very clever . they have the bait right above their head and they keep on searching the sediment for it . \u201d then , zintzen noticed one particular hagfish that had stuck the front third of its body inside a hole . it twisted its body into a knot , using it for leverage to push against the sediment . twenty seconds later , it withdrew from the burrow with a red bandfish , dead and motionless , in its mouth . \u201ci then only understood what was actually happening : they were hunting ! \u201d\nhagfish , the eel - like , slime - emitting wrigglers of the sea floor , just can ' t get enough of decaying corpses . when they come across a dead fish , they snuggle their sinewy bodies down into its cavities and stay there , writhing blissfully . but what are they doing ?\nthe ability of a hagfish to tie itself into a knot and then untie is believed have several purposes . it may pull its body through the knot so as to remove itself from its own slime that would otherwise suffocate it or the knot can be used as leverage for tearing meat from a carcass .\nthe salt concentration of a hagfish ' s tissue is the same as that of the seawater it normally swims in , suggesting that dissolved substances can cross the skin . to determine whether the animals can soak up nutrients as well as salt , physiologist chris glover of the university of canterbury in christchurch , new zealand , and colleagues took a piece of hagfish skin and stretched it out in a flask containing a seawater - like solution on one side and a solution resembling a hagfish ' s own bodily fluids on the other . in the seawater , they dissolved radioactive amino acids and sugars , along with food coloring to test how permeable the skin was . after a few hours , the skin started to become radioactive as it absorbed the amino acids , the researchers reveal online this week in the proceedings of the royal society b . the skin didn ' t allow food coloring through , however , suggesting that it selects nutritious detritus .\nthere have been prior studies on the unusual fluid properties of hagfish slime . but lead author lukas boni of eth zurich in switzerland and his colleagues wanted to focus specifically on how those properties played a role in the animal\u2019s defense system\u2014as well as its trick of tying itself in knots to escape from its own slime .\nfernholm , b . , 1998 . hagfish systematics . p . 33 - 44 . in j . m . j\u00f8rgensen , j . p . lomholt , r . e . weber and h . malte ( eds . ) the biology of hagfishes . chapman & hall , london . 578 p . ( ref . 31276 )\n5 . although they are jawless , hagfish have two rows of tooth - like structures made of keratin that they use to burrow deep into carcasses . they can also bite off chunks of food . while eating carrion or live prey , they tie their tails into knots to generate torque and increase the force of their bites .\nbut the more promising applications are far less frivolous . it could be used to staunch bleeding in accident victims during surgery , for instance , expanding upon contact with the salty blood . the stretchiness\u2014akin to the plastic rings that hold together six packs of beer\u2014would make hagfish slime useful in biomedical devices , tissue engineering , or biosensors .\nyou can see the results below . the hagfish in the videos are attacked by sharks , conger eels , wreckfishes and more . in less than half a second , the predator\u2019s mouth and gills are filled with slime . it leaves , gagging and convulsing , slime hanging in long wisps from its head . even voracious seal sharks turn tail . the cameras didn\u2019t follow the fleeing predators , so zintzen doesn\u2019t know if they eventually died or if the slime dissolved away . either way , the hagfish , uninjured and oblivious , just carried on feeding . its defence is so effective that it can totally ignore the fact that a shark just tried to bite it ."]}
{"id": 1421, "summary": [{"text": "synodontis is the largest genus of mochokid catfishes .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is the biggest genus within the 10 genera and 190 different species in the mochokidae family .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "synodontis has over 131 different species within the genera .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "synodontis are also known as squeakers , due to their ability to make stridulatory sounds through their pectoral fin spines when handled or disturbed .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "synodontis make a sound that sounds like squeaking by rubbing their spines together .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "they do this when they have been frightened or when they become angry .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "\" synodontis \" may also squeak when they are taken out of the water .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "these catfish are small - to medium-sized fish with many species exhibiting attractive spotted markings .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "some species are also known for naturally swimming belly-up , earning the name upside-down catfish .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "some of these species are synodontis contractus and synodontis nigriventris .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "while some of these species are known to swim upside down , another species , synodontis multipunctatus , is a brood parasitic cuckoo catfish . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "synodontis", "paragraphs": ["lateral view of synodontis ornatipinnis , illustrating the striking patterns seen in some species of synodontis ; cu 91403 . \u00a9\nsynodontis schall surface shore bottom habitats araoye , p . a . spatio - temporal distribution of the fish synodontis schall ( teleostei : mochokidae ) in asa lake , ilorin , nigeria\nsynodontis ocellifer was , at one time , a fairly rare fish in the hobby . what was once a fish shipped accidentally with other synodontis is now imported separately in fairly decent numbers .\nspine anatomy reveals the diversity of catfish through time : a case study of synodontis ( siluriformes ) .\nsynodontis schoutedeni is known from pool malebo ( stanley pool ) and from the central congo river basin .\na synonym of brachysynodontis barensoda ( r\u00fcppel , 1932 ) . see the species synodontis batensoda r\u00fcppel , 1932 .\ni think i may be experiencing auditory hallucinations . i am convinced i have heard my synodontis squeaking at me .\nsynodontis schall is able to adapt to many different kinds of food and habitats , increasing the chances of survival .\nsynodontis soloni is a benthopelagic species . it is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding ( breder and rosen 1966 ) .\nsynodontis pleurops is a benthopelagic species . it is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding ( breder and rosen 1966 ) .\nspine anatomy reveals the diversity of catfish through time : a case study of synodontis ( siluriformes ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nbi tree of synodontis catfish . voucher and field numbers ( see the electronic supplementary material ) are used to distinguish multiple specimens . lm , lake malawi ; lv , lake victoria ; rm , river malagrasi ; sa , south africa . photographs top to bottom : s . nigromaculatus , s . njassae , s . granulosus , s . multipunctatus , s . victoriae , synodontis cf . tanganaicae , s . af . petricola , synodontis dhonti , synodontis polli and s . cf . petricola .\nif you really want to know , this article from planet catfish is an excellent in depth guide to identifying hybrid synodontis .\nsynodontis species vary greatly in adult size , from 5 cm total length ( tl ) in the recently described s . acanthoperca ( friel & vigliotta , 2006 ) up to 80 cm in other species . larger synodontis are important food fishes in many parts of africa . species in other mochokid genera are even smaller as adults ( e . g . , microsynodontis and chiloglanis ) , but none are larger than the largest synodontis . synodontis angelicus may reach about 25 cm tl ( poll , 1971 ) .\nwhether you care if your synodontis is a hybrid or not will depend on whether you intend to attempt breeding ( a very noble goal indeed , given the difficulty of breeding synodontis , ) or whether you are paying a premium for a ' pure ' fish .\nif you are keeping several synodontis in the same tank , ensure that you provide plenty of hiding places and have a spacious aquarium .\nalso look out for synodontis sp . ' golden eye ' , which is a bit like synodontis multipunctatus . it ' s being bred in the uk and some specialist stores are stocking the very attractive juveniles . look out in this mag next month for more details .\na large - scale phylogeny of synodontis ( mochokidae , siluriformes ) reveals the influence of geological events on continental diversity during the cenozoic .\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2011 ) .\nsynodontis schall\nin fishbase . december 2011 version .\nthere are many species of synodontis , and there are many hybrids and crossbreeds between the species which pop up as well , quite often in pet shops . synodontis appear to be quite happily and readily crossbred to the chagrin of purists who do not approve of such abominations .\nmusschoot , t . , and p . lal\u00e8y\u00e8 . 2008 . designation of a neotype for synodontis schall ( bloch and schneider , 1801 ) and description of two new species of synodontis ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) . journal of natural history 42 ( 17 - 18 ) : 1303\u00961331 .\nfossil mochokids ( almost exclusively synodontis ) are widespread in africa and date as far back as the early miocene ( stewart , 2001 ) . interestingly , fragments of synodontis pectoral spines dating from the early oligocene have been found in oman , an area where mochokids do not exist today .\nsynodontis : from the greek syn , meaning together , and odontos , meaning tooth ; in reference to the closely - spaced lower jaw teeth .\nevaluation of the fossil fish - specific diversity in a chadian continental assemblage : exploration of morphological continuous variation in synodontis ( ostariophysi , siluriformes ) .\nfossil mochokids , of the genus synodontis , have been found in deposits from eastern and northern africa dating to at least the early miocene ( at least 20 mya ) ( stewart , 2001 ) . interestingly , fragments of pectoral spines of synodontis dating from the early oligocene have been found in oman , an area where mochokids do not exist today ( otero & gayet , 2001 ) . fossil mochokids outside of the genus synodontis are presently unknown .\nthe true upside - down catfish , synodontis nigriventris , is adapted for feeding from the surface on insects and other items that fall into the water .\nsynodontis multipunctatus is native to lake tanganyika and therefore also a suitable inhabitant for rift lake cichlid fish aquariums . s . multipunctatus is one of the most popular of the synodontis catfishes . this popularity started with those aquarists who kept cichlids from lakes tanganyika and malawi and has spread widely from that base .\nsynodontis is a genus of upside - down catfishes . they are members of the african catfish family mochokidae which contains about 150 different species in 10 genera .\nfavours fast - flowing rocky habitats and is the only synodontis species found in rapids , where it lives in crevices ( tweddle et al . 2004 ) .\nsynodontis pleurops is known from the lower congo , pool malebo ( stanley pool ) and the congo river basin , with exception of the luapula - mweru system .\n6a . eyes with free orbital margin ; 17 principal caudal - fin rays ( only 13 in synodontis contracta ) ; tail forked ; 6 to 10 pectoral - fin rays ( usually 8 or 9 ) ; lateral mandibular barbels with single , gracile branches at each point along length or doubly branched ( fig . 27a\u2013b ) \u2026 synodontis\ndon ' t worry . synodontis do sometimes make noises that are audible outside the aquarium . this has earned them the name ' squeakers ' in parts of africa .\na large - scale phylogeny of synodontis ( mochokidae , siluriformes ) reveals the influence of geological events on continental diversity during the cen . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nto cite this page : mr . thomas vigliotta , 2006 ,\nsynodontis angelicus\n( on - line ) , digital morphology . accessed july 9 , 2018 at urltoken\nsynodontis schall has a shield on its body and has strong bony spines on the pectoral and dorsal fins . some areas of new evolutionary forces have allowed for the synodontis schall to have different phenotypes . recent studies have found evidence for an increase number of teeth and gill rakers which could possibly point to a change from them being herbivores to carnivores .\none in particular \u2014 a small , \u201ccommon\u201d synodontis \u2014 can be considered the standard bearer for the genus . the upside - down catfish ( synodontis nigriventris ) is without doubt the most popular and widespread ( in aquariums ) of the synodontis catfishes . this popularity is certainly not as a result of its color . the base color is generally brown , with small darker spots scattered on the body and head . two broad bands of lighter color may be seen on the body to the front and rear of the adipose fin .\nday , j . j . , and m . wilkinson . 2006 . on the origin of the synodontis catfish species flock from lake tanganyika . biology letters 2 : 548\u0096552 .\n. . . the consumption of fish scales by synodontis species has been observed by several authors ( e . g . lauzanne , 1988 ; ofori - danson , 1992 ) . however , whether or not the synodontis , especially s . koensis actively searches for scales or ingest them at random is a question that remains to be investigated . . . .\na much deeper - bodied synodontis , the synodontis eruptus is also known as the featherfin squeaker because off its beautiful feathered dorsal fin and the fact that it can produce a high pitched squeaking with it . these fish grow up to 20 centimeters , though 15 to 17 is more common , and have been reported as being more aggressive than other catfish .\nfor the concatenated data set , a total of 7 partitions were identified using partitionfinder ( table 1 ) . based on the concatenated data set and individual gene trees , the genus synodontis is monophyletic ( fig . 1 ; supplementary fig . s1a\u2013d , doi : 10 . 5061 / dryad . b6225 ) . synodontis forms a clade with its successive sister taxa microsynodontis , mochokus , and mochokiella , which itself is sister to a clade , including chiloglanis , atopochilus , and euchilichthys . brachysynodontis batensoda and hemisynodontis membranaceus , 2 previously monotypic genera ( poll 1971 ) , nest within synodontis supporting morphological data ( vigliotta 2008 ) . based on our results and previous morphological findings , we therefore place these genera in the synonymy of synodontis .\nbishai h . m . and y . b . abu gideiri . 1968 . studies on the biology of genus synodontis at khartoum . iii . reproduction . hydrobiologia 31 : 193\u0096202 .\nsanyanga , r . a . 1998 . food composition and selectivity of synodontis zambezensis ( pisces : mochokidae ) in lake kariba , and the ecological implications . hydrobiologia 361 : 89\u009699 .\ngastrointestinal helminth parasites of the fish synodontis clarias ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) from lekki lagoon , lagos , nigeria por : akinsanya , bamidele , et al . publicado : ( 2007 )\nthere is also evidence of other recent dispersal events between the biogeographic clades . this is apparent within the ea clade , with dispersal into the cb ( 95 % hpd : 0 . 8\u20132 . 9 ma ) as the distinctive congolese taxon synodontis acanthomias is sister to the southern african synodontis nigromaculatus . in the reverse direction , the ea taxon synodontis afrofischeri ( lakes victoria / albert ) nests within the cb clade ( 95 % hpd : 4 . 0\u20138 . 6 ma ) . the single taxon ( synodontis aff . laessoei ) described from the cuanza ( angola ) ichthyo - province is also identified as having originated within the cb , but diverged much earlier from its congolese ancestor 11 . 9\u201321 . 3 ( 95 % hpd ) ma .\nlal\u00e8y\u00e8 , p . , chikou , a . , gnohossou , p . , vandewalle , p . , philippart , j c . & teugels , g .\nstudies on the biology of two species of catfish synodontis schall and synodontis nigrita ( ostariophysi : mochokidae ) from the ou\u00e9m\u00e9 river , b\u00e9nin\n. belgian journal of zoology 136 ( 2 ) : 193\u2013201 .\nsynodontis generally mix well with other fishes and are easy to keep . larger ones could eat very small fishes , and they are often quite territorial towards other catfishes , especially other synos .\nbishai h . m . and y . b . abu gideiri . 1965a . studies on the biology of genus synodontis at khartoum . i . age and growth . hydrobiologia 26 : 85\u009697 .\nsanyanga , r . a . 1998 . food composition and selectivity of synodontis zambezensis ( pisces : mochokidae ) in lake kariba , and the ecological implications . hydrobiologia 361 : 89 - 99 .\nthey are also known as the cuckoo synodontis as they have a habit of eating the eggs of other fish and depositing their own in place for the other fish to tend as they grow .\nbishai h . m . and y . b . abu gideiri . 1965b . studies on the biology of genus synodontis at khartoum . ii . food and feeding habits . hydrobiologia 26 : 98\u0096113 .\nif you are trying to identify whether or not a synodontis is pure , pay special attention to fin shape , size and coloration , to the nature of the barbs around the mouth , to the overall body shape of the fish and to its markings . if your synodontis seems to have the characteristics of more than one species , there is a fairly decent chance that it is a hybrid .\na peaceful synodontis species , these do not grow much over 12 centimeters . unlike other species of synodontis , these have been bred in captivity relatively easily , but prefer to live and spawn in groups , so a pair may not spawn alone . these are easily confused with multipunctatus , however they sport a white trim which is not present in the multipuncatus . they tend to be quite expensive .\nthe mochokid fossil record is represented largely by synodontis , predominately isolated robust fin spines ( pinton et al . 2006 ) . there are good diagnostic characters for fin spines of african catfish genera developed through extensive comparative material ( gayet and van neer 1990 ; pinton et al . 2006 ) , although extant synodontis are currently defined by 2 synapomorphies based only on soft tissue characters ( see vigliotta 2008 ) .\npoll , m . 1971 . r\u00e9vision des synodontis africains ( famille mochocidae ) . annales de mus\u00e9e royale de l ' afrique centrale ( ser . 8 ) , sciences zoologiques 191 : 1 - 497 .\nsynodontis decorus is one of the most magnificent of the synodontis species ! it is hard to find a more stunning sight than that of an adult s . decorus swimming in an aquarium with its long , black dorsal fin trailer flowing behind . when seeing this species at the smaller sizes they are usually imported at , they are quite attractive , but this is merely a hint of the beauty to come .\nsynodontis schoutedeni is a benthopelagic species . its electric organ is located dorsally and consists of modified striated muscle ( m\u00f8ller 1995 ) . it is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding ( breder and rosen 1966 ) .\nlt cichlids are both polyphyletic , implying independent colonizations of the lake , and paraphyletic , demonstrating that radiations within the lake have subsequently become a source for secondary seeding of rivers and younger lakes ( salzburger et al . 2002 ) . in contrast , platytelphusidae crabs ( marijnissen et al . 2006 ) and cleopatra gastropods ( west & michel 2000 ) are monophyletic , consistent with single origins and no dispersal out of tanganyika . a current phylogeny is lacking for east african synodontis and thus it is not known whether the lt species flock is a single radiation . molecular markers have undermined the traditional taxonomies of some other lt groups ( e . g . r\u00fcber et al . 1999 ) , but have not yet been applied to synodontis , so that the extent of phylogenetic diversity of the lt flock is unclear . here , mtdna data are used to test current species concepts and to infer a dated phylogeny for lacustrine and fluviatile species of primarily east african synodontis . the phylogeny is used to test alternative hypotheses of the evolutionary history of synodontis in east africa , and in particular , whether the lt synodontis constitute a single radiation . synodontis catfish provide a parallel system that can be compared to other lake faunas to test the extent to which there are common patterns and processes of diversification in lt .\nbishai , h . m . and y . b . abu gideiri . 1965 . studies on the biology of the genus synodontis at khartoum . i . age and growth . hydrobiologia 26 : 85 - 97 .\nwright , j . j . and l . m . page . 2006 . taxonomic revision of the lake tanganyikan synodontis ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) . the bulletin of the florida museum of natural history 46 : 99\u0096154 .\nsynodontis schall is a benthopelagic , potamodromous species . it is found both in deep , open water and in quite shallow water , but it is never close to the shore ( worthington , 1929 ) . this species is an omnivore and feeds on insect nymph , larvae , eggs and detritus ( willoughby 1974 ) . it also feeds on fish , bivalves in the sudd and snails in gezira irrigation canals . synodontis schall is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding ( breder and rosen 1966 ) . breeding occurs during the flood season ( bailey 1994 ) in comparatively shallow and sheltered waters ( worthington and ricardo 1936 ) . synodontis schall is utilized for human consumption .\nin another article , i presented a brief overview of some of the basic principles for maintaining synodontis catfishes in the aquarium . now i would like to introduce a few of the various species that are available to hobbyists .\nthe genus synodontis is by far the largest and most well known in the family , and dozens of species are available in the hobby , ranging in size from just a few cm to well over 30cm / 12\n.\nwright , j . j . and l . m . page . 2008 . a new species of synodontis ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) from tributaries of the kasai river in northern angola . copeia 2008 ( 2 ) : 294\u0096300 .\nin the wild the synodontis live in lagoons and other slow - flowing waters , often forming good sized groups . they are fish of the twilight and darkness and spend much of the day hidden under submerged tree trunks or riverbanks .\nsynodontis nummifer is known from throughout the congo river basin . it has not been found in centre of the democratic republic of the congo and in the southern tributaries of the congo river . records from the lower congo require confirmation .\nsynodontis soloni is known from the pool malebo ( stanley pool ) rapids and from libenge . it is also widely distributed in the lower congo ( roberts and stewart 1976 ) and from the ubangui river at zongo ( gosse 1968 ) .\naraoye , p . a . ( 2000 ) .\npectoral spine size in synodontis schall ( teleostei : mochokidae ) from asa lake , ilorin , nigeria\n. revista de biolog\u00eda tropical 48 ( 2 - 3 ) : 509\u201310 .\nsynodontis eupterus is , to my mind , one of the most outstanding of the synodontis catfishes . although it is not especially notable for its coloration ( a base gray - yellow to gray violet with darker markings in the form of winding lines in the young and small spots in the adult ) , the finnage , especially the dorsal , is what catches the eye . this fish well deserves its common name : feather fin synodontis . the dorsal fin , even in many juveniles , shows a distinct feathering . as the fish grows , this is additionally accentuated by increased prolongations of the soft rays , along with the accompanying membrane . the dorsal spine also shows similar extension with the growth of the fish .\nmonsters , these synodontis can grow over two feet in length . not at all recommended unless you have a very , very large fish tank , even 100 gallons won ' t cut it with one of these fish when they reach maturity .\nsynodontis nummifer is a demersal species . it is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding ( breder and rosen 1966 ) . stomach contents contained sand , mud , plant debris , herbs and insect larvae ( mainly chironomids ) ( matthes 1964 ) .\nkoblm\u00fcller , s . , c . sturmbauer , e . verheyen , a . meyer , and w . salzburger . 2006 . mitochondrial phylogeny and phylogeography of east african squeaker catfishes ( siluriformes : synodontis ) . bmc evolutionary biology 6 : 49 .\n. . . gy of synodontis in lake kanji ( nigeria ) described s . schall as omnivorous feeding on insect nymph and larvae , fish eggs , and detritus . hickley and bailey ( 1987 ) studying s . schall in the sudd swamps of the river nile ( sudan ) have pointed out the importance of detritus , benthic algae , macrophytes , benthic crustaceans , insects and fish in its diets . ofori - danson ( 1992 ) working on the ecology of some synodontis species in kpong headpond ( ghana ) indicated the dominant food items of s . schall as detritus , insects , oligochaeta , nematoda and hirudinea . sanyanga ( 1998 ) studied the food composition and selectivity of synodontis zambezensis in lake kariba and reported molluscivorous feeding habits . the specie . . .\nsynodontis ( mochokidae , siluriformes ) is a freshwater catfish endemic to africa . the 118 extant species are present in almost all hydrographic basins . some species are restricted to a single stream , whereas others have a vast distribution . synodontis is known in the fossil record since the miocene , and its history depends on the connections among african basins through time . the identification of species in the fossil record is essential to reconstruct this historical pattern . catfish pectoral and dorsal spines are robust , they preserve well and they form most of the fossil remains for the genus synodontis . unfortunately , the criteria for the identification of extant synodontis species are not applicable to fossil specimens . here , we define 11 original morphological characters that permit to discriminate four extant species from the chad - chari hydrographic system . six of these characters are defined on pectoral spines and five on dorsal spines . we then show that these characters can be used successfully for identifying fossil specimens . in particular , we present a case study in which we identify synodontis cf . schall and brachysynodontis cf . batensoda in the hominid - bearing sector toros - menalla ( late miocene , northern chad ) . we show that spine anatomy can be a powerful tool to recognise catfish species through time and thus to identify historical diversity pattern .\nbeyond diet , there isn\u2019t a great deal known about the ecology of synodontis or other mochokids . synodontis stomach contents have included insects , nematodes , crustaceans , mollusks , annelids , seeds , algae , fish scales and incidentally sand ( bishai & abu gideiri , 1965 ; sanyanga , 1998 ; winemiller & winemiller , 1996 ) . the diets of the three sucker - mouthed genera ( see above ) may contain a higher proportion of plant matter , but it seems likely that all members of the family are omnivorous .\nfriel , j . p . , and j . p . sullivan . 2008 . synodontis woleuensis ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) , a new species of catfish from gabon and equatorial guinea , africa . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 157 : 3\u009612 .\nfriel , j . p . and t . r . vigliotta . 2006 . synodontis acanthoperca , a new species from the og\u00f4ou\u00e9 river system , gabon with comments on spiny ornamentation and sexual dimorphism in mochokid catfishes ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) . zootaxa 1125 : 45\u009656 .\nde weirdt , d . , e . vreven , and y . fermon . 2008 . synodontis ngouniensis , a new species ( siluriformes : mochikidae ) from ngouni\u00e9 and nyanga basins , gabon and republic of congo . ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 19 ( 2 ) : 121\u0096128 .\nmost fish have a cryptic colour pattern called countershading and their backs are darker than their bellies , making them more difficult for predators to see . but because synodontis swim the wrong way up , they use reverse - countershading so that their bellies are darker than their backs .\nbayesian phylogenetic hypothesis of synodontis catfish reconstructed from the concatenated data set . outgroups ( gray branches ) , bpps are given in full below nodes , bs values are given above nodes : black square > 95 % , gray square 94\u201390 % , and gray star 89\u201385 % .\nabu - gideiri , y . b . & nasr , d . h . ( december 1973 ) .\nsound production by synodontis schall ( bloch - schneider )\n. hydrobiologia 43 ( 3 - 4 ) : 415\u2013428 . doi : 10 . 1007 / bf00015360 .\nfriel , j . p . and t . r . vigliotta . 2006 . synodontis acanthoperca , a new species from the og\u00f4ou\u00e9 river system , gabon with comments on spiny ornamentation and sexual dimorphism in mochokid catfishes ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) . zootaxa 1125 : 45 - 56 .\nsynodontis is by far the largest genus in the family mochokidae and , indeed , one of the largest among all catfishes ( about 120 species , a close second to corydoras , about 150 species ) . and so , synodontis is often the stand - in when people think about mochokid catfishes . but , in fact , the family ( 10 genera , ~ 190 species ) is much more morphologically diverse when you consider some of the other recognized genera . euchilichthys , atopochilus and chiloglanis are particularly notable for their ventrally - directed sucker - shaped mouths . others like mochokus and acanthocleithron are very poorly known , but exhibit unique morphologies of their own . synodontis angelicus , like many mochokids , is typified by branched mandibular barbels , well - developed nuchal plates , a large cleithral process and s - shaped mandibular teeth set in a deep cavity / cup of the dentary .\nthe earliest synodontis is 21 . 8\u201316 . 6 myr old ( burdigalian ) , but younger fossils cannot be reliably assigned to extant species ( pinton et al . 2006 ) . molecular divergence time estimates were calculated using a pruned tree ( eliminating intraspecific data ) , assuming either 21 . 8 or 16 . 6 myr as the age of synodontis , and using the optimal smoothing parameter value , determined through cross - validation in penalized likelihood as implemented in r8s ( sanderson 2003 ) . confidence limits on age estimates were based on two mcmc chains sampling 500 generations and enforcing topological constraint .\nnine genera and approximately 200 valid species are currently recognized . some fossilized pectoral spines have been attributed to synodontis , but none of them are described as new . phylogenetic relationships among the mochokid genera were investigated by vigliotta ( 2008 ) who found that chiloglanis is possibly a paraphyletic assemblage , that synodontis must include s . membranaceous and s . batensoda ( formerly placed in hemisynodontis and brachysynodontis respectively ) and that the reciprocal monophyly of atopochilus and euchilichthys are questionable at best ; all remaining genera are recovered as valid and monophyletic . the general relationships between mochokid genera are illustrated in the phylogeny below .\nlt radiations leading to secondary colonization of rivers are rare in lt cichlid tribes ( salzburger et al . 2002 ) . the occurrence of a non - endemic synodontis within the lt species flock might be similarly explained if the flock were monophyletic . the phylogeny does not support this , but it and the time - scale are consistent with s . victoriae having originated in this way . thus , synodontis may provide a second example of recolonization . it is tempting to suggest that the ability to recolonize rivers is correlated with mobility , and that synodontis are more similar to cichlids than to benthic invertebrates , for which there is no evidence of recolonization ( e . g . marijnissen et al . 2006 ) , in this respect . unfortunately , the placement of s . victoriae is not compelling . we cannot reject the alternative hypothesis that the lt endemics are a single monophyletic radiation , which has not seeded any other rivers or lakes . east\u2013west african faunal divisions , consistent with continental - scale vicariance , are reported for many terrestrial ( e . g . matthee et al . 2004 ) , but few aquatic groups . synodontis phylogeny reveals an initial east\u2013west split and subsequent dispersal between the regional faunas .\nmy synodontis was 2\nlong in 1986 ! no typo . . . 1986 ! i know because in 11 / ' 86 we took our appaloosa stallion to the world champ show 100 ' s of miles away , for a week . had so many fish i got an amateur to feed while i was gone but worried what syno would eat . never let an amateur feed pellets ! the fish lucked out as the amateur quit the job after 1 day ( went deer hunting ) . this synodontis is still going as of 10 / 6 / 2013 . . . 27 yrs later !\njulia j . day , claire r . peart , katherine j . brown , john p . friel , roger bills , timo moritz ; continental diversification of an african catfish radiation ( mochokidae : synodontis ) , systematic biology , volume 62 , issue 3 , 1 may 2013 , pages 351\u2013365 , urltoken\nsynodontis catfishes span the entire geographic range of mochokids ; they inhabit a large proportion of african freshwaters including most of sub - saharan africa and the nile river basin and can be found in large rivers , smaller fast - flowing streams and the massive african rift lakes . some species are known to swim in mid - water and some will shoal ; others are primarily benthic and relatively solitary . synodontis angelicus is distributed throughout the congo river drainage ( poll , 1971 ) . anecdotal reports tell of angel squeakers using holes in submerged logs for shelter ; this practice is probably more widespread in the family .\nin african freshwater , curved teeth are typical of mochokid fish . within the family , this shape is observed in synodontis , microsynodontis , mochokus and chiloglanis members ( pinton , otero , pers . obs . ) . this kind of tooth is usually attributed to synodontis in the fossil record because living species of microsynodontis are very small and because chiloglanis is a genus that inhabits fast moving waters , whereas synodontis are large - bodied and widespread , living in a variety of habitats . however , the description of giant fossil fish in another minute mochokid genus in the late miocene of chad , i . e . , mochokus [ 32 ] , suggest that one should not rely on size features to assign fossil remains to a given genus , notably in the case of mochokids . finally , the identification of mochokids at dur at - talah based on a single minute tooth is rather fragile and needs further confirmation .\nltt plots for the original synodontis data set ( dark gray ) and including missing species added at random ( light gray ) , estimated from sampling 100 bayesian trees generated from the concatenated data set . the solid line indicates the expected number of lineages under a constant rate model of diversification with no extinction .\nunless you have a very common species , it may be difficult to tell if what you have is a hybrid or not . there are currently well over 100 different identifies species of synodontis , and more than one syno has been misidentified as a hybrid when it was , in fact a new species .\nsynodontis notatus is not one of the most attractive of the synodontis , but because of its general availability it deserves note here . this species has a gray - brown body color , with the ventral region being white . on the sides there are varying numbers of round , black spots along the midline . there may be as few as one spot per side \u2014 usually there are less than five \u2014 but on occasion there are more . the numbers of spots on each side of the body do not necessarily match . very rarely , an individual without spots on one side or the other may be seen .\na native of lake malawi , synodontis njassae is a pretty catfish with lovely coloration which can vary widely from fish to fish . some specimens may have many spots covering their body , others have but a few . some keepers break these into large and small spotted varieties . they grow to around 20 centimeters .\none species of synodontis is known for an interesting bit of its ecology ; s . multipunctatus is a brood parasite of mouth brooding cichlids such as haplochromis ( sato , 1986 ; wisenden , 1999 ) . adults of this species will \u2018dump\u2019 their own fertilized eggs into the mix while cichlids are breeding and the catfish eggs are taken into the mouth of a cichlid . the synodontis eggs hatch first and will eat the host eggs before they leave the host mouth . visit this link to see video of s . multipunctatus spawning with cichlids , and this link to see pictures of s . multipunctatus fry emerging from a cichlid mouth .\neven more peculiar is the habit of some species of synodontis that are known to swim upside - down . this habit seems to be correlated with feeding while upside - down at the water\u2019s surface ( bishai & abu gideiri , 1965b ) , but upside - down catfishes will rest and swim in the inverted position on a regular basis . chapman et al . ( 1994 ) showed that an upside - down posture near the surface also facilitates respiration in poorly oxygenated water . while the genus synodontis presents the most well - known species with their fascinating behaviors and natural histories , the family is actually much more interesting when taken as a whole .\nthe oldest reported fossil synodontis comes from the earliest lower oligocene , sultanate of oman at thaytiniti dated to 34 ma ( roger et al . 1993 ; otero and gayet 2001 ) and is represented by fin spines . these fossils possess a number of characters that in combination are used to diagnose synodontis from other african catfish ( gayet and van neer 1990 ) . these include : strong denticulation on the posterior border , round tubercles on the anterior border , a cleithral surface developed ventrally , a dorso - lateral process developed both anteriorly and laterally , and a well - developed auxiliary process ( gayet and van neer 1990 ; otero and gayet 2001 ) .\nsince the publication of the most recent taxonomic review of synodontis ( poll 1971 ) , a further 13 species have been described . the inclusion of multiple samples for species that have broad distributions within our study reveal reasonably distinct genetic divergences within taxa with large ranges , particularly across the n - s biogeographic region . k2p distances based on cyt b and coi range between 0 . 7 % and 2 . 1 % and may imply at least some cryptic speciation within the following taxa ( k2p distances for cyt b and coi given in parenthesis ) : synodontis sorex ( 2 % , 1 . 6 % ) , synodontis schall ( 2 % , 2 . 1 % ) , synodontis nigrita ( 1 . 6 % , 1 . 2 % ) , synodontis obesus ( 1 . 8 % , 1 % ) , synodontis clarias ( 1 % , 0 . 8 % ) , and the congo species synodontis angelica ( 1 . 2 % , 0 . 7 % ) . although not all these distances are > 2 % , often indicative of distinct species ( see april et al . 2011 ) , they are much greater than mean within species divergence ( 0 . 39 % based on coi ) reported in various marine fish species , for example ( ward et al . 2005 ) . the minimum timing of divergences within those taxa whose distances are < 2 % is 0 . 7\u20135 ma based on our multi gene data set . this pliocene\u2013pleistocene timeframe was when the subtropical african climate periodically fluctuated between distinctly wetter and drier conditions , with evidence for increases in aridity at 2 . 8 , 1 . 7 , and 1 . 0 ma ( demenocal 2004 ) . these oscillations would have led to expansion and contractions of waterways potentially leading to isolation of populations . however , more extensive sampling of populations is needed to fully test the hypothesis for cryptic speciation in these taxa . additional new species from the cb that are highly cryptic in nature are also identified in this study ( fig . 1 , s . sp . nov . 2\u20134 ) . as such , our study highlights the need for further biodiversity surveys of african rivers , particularly the comparatively unexplored congo basin that will undoubtedly yield further species new to science and enhance the opportunity to test hypotheses of diversification scenarios .\nsynodontis schall was caught throughout the year , but highest catches were recorded in january and february , while total catch decreased from september to november when the lake became flooded as a result of increased water levels ( monthly mean range = 12 . 20 to 12 . 80 cm ) due to the rains that commenced in april (\nall synodontis catfishes originate from africa . there are three areas of that continent where the majority of synodontis seen in the hobby come from : west africa ( mainly nigeria ) , zaire ( the \u201ccongo\u201d ) and the rift lakes . i will discuss briefly , by geographical origin , some of the more than 100 species in this genus . although there is only space to deal with a small number of these fish , i hope you will have at least a better understanding about some of these fascinating catfishes . ( note : all sizes given are in total length [ tl ] , which is the full length of the fish including the tail fin . )\nin the wild , this species is known to feed heavily on algae , so the addition of this or other vegetable fish foods to its diet is strongly recommended . with its small adult size and other similarities to s . nigriventris , this species offers good potential for someone wishing to try their hand at spawning a synodontis species .\nlagrange recovered both dispersal and extinction rates of synodontis to be 0 . 003 per million years , respectively . figure 2 shows the most likely scenario of ancestral area reconstructions for nodes of interest summarized on the dated species - tree of the study group . three distinct biogeographical groupings are identified for synodontis based on the analysis combining wa regions . these comprise wa ( that includes the combined ichthyo - provinces : n - s , lgf , ugf ) ea and the cb , with wa rendered polyphyletic . in this scenario , the genus synodontis is inferred to have originated in the broad region of wa with subsequent dispersal within this region ( relative probability [ rp ] 0 . 99 ) . the picture is , however , less clear when these regions are coded separately , with the best likelihood reconstruction inferred for the origin of this genus as n - s with subsequent dispersal within this region , although this finding is equivocal ( likelihood scores were not significantly different between multiple reconstructions , rp 0 . 44 ) .\nday , j . j . , peart , c . r . , brown , k . j . , friel , j . p . , bills , r . and moritz , t . 2013 . continental diversification of an african catfish radiation ( mochokidae : synodontis ) . syst biol 62 ( 3 ) : 351 - 365 .\nthe mochokidae are a family of catfishes ( order siluriformes ) that are known as the squeakers and upside - down catfish . there are 10 genera and about 188 species of mochokids here i will just deal with the most popular genera , the synodontis catfish . they are becoming more popular as availability increases , the synodontis are an interesting addition to any aquaria . their native ranges are the rivers and lakes of africa south of the sahara desert . all the family members are found only in africa . in the home they are most commonly seen in african cichlid tanks fulfilling the role of scavengers . to view some statistics on many individual fish , just click on any picture .\nvisual inspection of the ltt plot for synodontis indicates a near constant rate of diversification with no strong indication of a slowing down , irrespective of missing species added ( fig . 3 ) . net diversification rate for synodontis is 0 . 12 per ma assuming no extinction ( \u03f5 = 0 ) , decreasing to 0 . 07 per ma when assuming a high relative rate of extinction ( \u03f5 = 0 . 9 ) . our data , however , are better explained by low - extinction rates , that is , a pure - birth model ( \u03f5 = 0 ) , as opposed to a birth\u2013death model ( \u03f5 = 0 . 9 ) , based on likelihood ratio tests generated in laser ( rabosky 2006a ) .\nthese are synodontis with shark - like fins which have made them very popular indeed . they can command quite high prices both in pet stores and out of them . these synos grow to around 12 centimeters , so they are not terribly large , and if you have the funds , you can quite happily keep several of them in a 90 gallon tank .\nsynodontis contractus is a small species ( 4 inches [ 10 centimeters ] ) and one of my personal favorites . it is somewhat similar in appearance to s . nigriventris but has a generally more thickset body and \u201cchunky\u201d build . like s . nigriventris , it will spend a good amount of its time in the inverted position and is also a schooling species .\nbeyond information gleaned from captive breeding of certain species of synodontis , very little is known about reproduction in mochokids . the best studied mochokids in this regard are most likely nile river synodontis ( including s . membranacea and s . batensoda , previously placed in other genera ) . still , details are limited ; the studies indicate that spawning occurs from july to october , which coincides with the flooding season , and that pairs swim in unison during spawning bouts ( bishai & abu gideiri , 1968 ) . the most interesting and detailed information on mochokid reproduction relates to a species from lake tanganyika , synodontis multipunctatus , which is a brood parasite of mouth brooding cichlids such as simochromis and haplochromis ( sato , 1986 ; wisenden , 1999 ) . adults of this species spawn in the midst of spawning cichlids and the fertilized catfish eggs are taken into the mouth of a cichlid . the catfish eggs hatch first and will eat the host eggs before they leave the host mouth . most amazingly , this species has been able to parasitize mouth brooding cichlids from south america in captivity ( loiselle , 1998 ) .\nsynodontis gambiensis is one of the more recognizable species that is seen regularly mixed in with shipments of catfish from the group above . it is easily spotted among such imports because it is a solid gray - colored fish . the ventral region is whitish . other identifying characteristics include whitish barbels and a somewhat indistinct dark band on each lobe of the caudal ( tail ) fin .\nspace considerations dictate that this article must come to a close . i have barely scratched the surface in regards to this interesting group of catfishes . i do hope that i\u2019ve provided at least some useful information on synodontis and strongly suggest that if you haven\u2019t kept them before , consider doing so now . i think you will receive as much enjoyment from them as i have .\nbased largely on coloration and pattern some scientists and aquarists have recognized \u2018species flocks\u2019 of synodontis . the largest and most visually impressive of these is the lake tanganyika synodontis species flock . the flock consists of at least six species , all endemic to the lake , that show amazingly similar coloration and patterning . recent work suggests that this \u2018flock\u2019 is not monophyletic and that the biogeographic scenario is more complicated than a simple radiation after lake formation ( day & wilkinson , 2006 ; koblmuller et al . , 2006 ) . regardless , in this group of species , the nearly constant color pattern consists of a light brown base color and darker brown polka - dots . it is made more impressive by the fins , which have dark brown membranes basally and stark white trailing edges . the cryptic nature of lake tanganyika synodontis has led to an underestimate of the actual number of species present ( wright & page , 2006 ) ; three new species were described and two others were resurrected in that work . there are several other smaller flocks with their own unique patterns and pigmentation outside of the lake , and cryptic species probably exist for these as well .\nspatio , temporal distribution of synodontis scha ! l in asa lake was studied for 24 months ( march 1991 to february 1993 ) . distribution of individual was : 28 . 40 % ( surface ) , 35 . 60 % ( shore ) , and 36 . 0 % ( bottom ) . catches wilhin lhe habitat were nol significantly differen ! . similarly catches within lhe ha . . .\nkoblm\u00fcller , s . , sturmbauer , c . , verheyen , e . , meyer , a . , & salzburger , w . ( 2006 ) .\nmitochondrial phylogeny and phylogeography of east african squeaker catfishes ( siluriformes : synodontis )\n. bmc evolutionary biology 6 : 49 . doi : 10 . 1186 / 1471 - 2148 - 6 - 49 . pmc 1543664 . pmid 16784525 .\nquite common , these synos reach just four inches in length , which makes them the perfect catfish for a smaller aquarium . they are known widely as the ' upside down catfish ' . they reach around 10 centimeters , or four inches and are very pretty and entertaining to watch as they defy gravity . it is best to keep this type of synodontis in groups of three or more .\ndorsal view of heads illustrating sexual dimorphism of the opercular spine in synodontis acanthoperca : a . cu 89005 , male holotype , 44 . 1 mm sl ; b . cu 89006 , female paratype , 40 . 4 mm sl . the pectoral spines in both specimens have been removed from the images to make the margins of the head more distinct against the background . scale bar equals 1 mm . \u00a9\nchronogram , where synodontis are dated at either 21 . 8 ma ( blue ) or 16 . 6 ma ( green ) , with confidence limits calculated as 95 % credible intervals conditional on the tree topology . inset with ages ( and confidence limits in parenthesis ) for nodes a\u2013g . 1 , age of lt ; 2 , onset of deep water conditions in lt ; 3 , age of lm .\nthe surprise is baby s . multipunctatus ! this species is by far the most commonly spawned ( in captivity ) synodontis . what makes them unique is that they will spawn in conjunction with the cichlid fish and that the female cichlids will then incubate the catfish eggs along with their own . there is not enough room here to go into detail , but do be aware that it can and does happen .\nlittle is known about the ecology of most mochokids . what is known pertains mostly to diet and is biased towards species of synodontis . stomach contents from synodontis have included insects , nematodes , crustaceans , mollusks , annelids , seeds , algae , diatoms , fish scales and , incidentally , sand ( bishai & abu gideiri , 1965a ; bishai & abu gideiri , 1965b ; winemiller & kelso - winemiller , 1996 ; sanyanga , 1998 ) . from observations of stomach contents , the diet of most mochokids is probably very similar ; that is , they are omnivores . for some of the larger sucker - mouthed species ( i . e . , atopochilus and euchilichthys ) the stomach contents contain a high proportion of silt , algae and detritus . for these taxa it seems likely that scraping or grazing is the predominant method of feeding .\nwithin synodontis 2 principal clades are identified ( a and b ) , which are further subdivided into the 4 main subclades ( a1 , a2 and b1 , b2 , fig . 1 ) . support for a monophyletic synodontis and main subclades based on bpps is excellent , with all major nodes except clade a ( 0 . 55 bpp ) receiving > 98 % support , with bs values slightly lower ( fig . 1 ) . support for internal nodes within the main clades is generally good , although some relationships forming the base of clade a1 are less well supported by bpp and receive no bs support . support for clade a is considerably improved ( > 0 . 95 bpp ) by the removal of the unstable sister taxa synodontis albolineatus and synodontis batesii that are sister to clade a2 ( 0 . 53 bpp ) . the position of these taxa is contentious , as while they are also placed as sister to clade a2 in the cyt b gene tree ( supplementary fig . s1b ) and mtdna tree , they are alternately sister to all other synodontis taxa in the rag2 gene tree ( supplementary fig . s1d ) . their placement in the co1 gene tree is unresolved ( supplementary fig . s1a ) , but these taxa are not resolved as sister to clade a2 as found in the cyt b tree . unfortunately , these taxa did not amplify for s7 ( supplementary fig . s1c ) . the disparity in placement of these taxa may represent insufficient data or real conflict , for example , homoplasy or cyto - nuclear discordance . however , to test between these hypotheses additional nuclear genes and samples of these taxa would need to be sequenced . support for the position of synodontis ocellifer as sister to clade b2 is weak ( 0 . 70 bpp , 57 % bs ) with this taxon also indicated as unstable using leaf stability metrics . individual gene trees for cyt b + trna - pro , coi , and s7 reveal reasonably good support for the majority of relationships identified when these data are concatenated and although there is no support for clades a1 , b1 in the co1 or s7 gene trees , there is no support for alternative hypotheses ( supplementary fig . s1b and c ) . conversely , rag 2 ( supplementary fig . s1d ) does not perform as well and yields only partial support for these clades . comparison of the concatenated tree ( p = 0 . 577 ) to the mtdna ( p = 0 . 414 ) and ncdna ( p = 0 . 000 ) trees based on au tests rejects the latter tree as a significantly worse fit to the data .\nas noted above , these catfish are suitable inhabitants of malawi cichlid fish aquariums . the water conditions maintained for the cichlids are also excellent for the catfish . s . njassae is generally active enough to stay out of the way of the often aggressive cichlid fish . this synodontis appears to prefer the company of its own kind , so it would be a good idea to try to keep at least two together in an aquarium ."]}
{"id": 1422, "summary": [{"text": "meld ( foaled 1952 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "when she completed the british fillies triple crown by defeating nucleus in the 1955 st. leger , she was only the fourth filly to do so in the 20th century .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "she was undefeated as a three-year-old ( 3yo ) and was head of the 3yo handicap . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "meld ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["mini meld horse racing form , betting odds , breeding and other horse racing information .\nmini meld ( g . by meld ) . 2 wins . see below .\nfor everything you need to know about horse racing . free horse racing tips from professional punters and betting secrets to increase your horse racing profits .\nmeld is a 12 year old bay horse . meld is trained by m t eggleston , at gold coast and owned by a n eggleston .\nmeld was sired by royal academy out of the dam risky banter meld was foaled on 22 of september in 2004 .\nmeld has a 9 % win percentage and 27 % place percentage . meld ' s last race event was at ipswich .\nthoroughbred horse ( aus ) [ 2011 ] . mini meld ( aus ) is a gelding born in 2011 by meld out of rhell love , trained by the m t eggleston stable .\nthe current horse racing record for mini meld is 3 wins 3 placings from 12 starts with prizemoney of $ 37 , 450 .\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for meld . meld is a stallion born in 2004 september 22 by royal academy out of risky banter\nwhat made her special : champion sprinter and british horse of the year in 1983 .\nwhat made her special : french - trained us champion female turf horse in 1994 .\nmeld has managed to win 1 race in his career so far . on 26th oct 2008 at terang , meld scored his most significant win to date , getting the money in the\ndavid ord has a horse - by - horse guide to saturday ' s darley july cup and he ' s siding with a potential improver to shake - up the established sprinting stars .\nmeld has concluded his racing career , last running on the 22nd jan 2011 at gold coast .\nthe icon meld stakes is the main attraction at leopardstown , with group three honours up for grabs .\nwhat made her special : the only horse in history to win the champion hurdle and cheltenham gold cup in addition to being the only horse in history to win the champion hurdle in great britain , ireland and france .\nmeld ' s exposed form for its last starts is 0 - 9 - 5 - 0 - 6 .\nmeld\u2019s last race event was at 04 / 02 / 2011 and it has not been nominated for any upcoming race .\nmeld career form is 2 wins , 4 seconds , thirds from 22 starts with a lifetime career prize money of $ .\nwhat made her special : the winner of seven group / grade 1 races in three different continents who was european champion three - year - old filly in 2004 , european horse of the year in 2004 and 2006 and european champion older horse in 2006 .\nwhat made her special : unbeaten since may 2009 and the only horse to win the same race at six successive cheltenham festivals .\nwhat made her special : progressed from top class handicapper to champion sprinter for two seasons and european horse of the year in 1993 .\nwhat made her special : an unbeaten prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe and dual french classic winner and european horse of the year for 2008 .\n55003 ( d9003 )\nmeld\napproaching wescoe hill tunnel with the 1a12 09 . 04 harrogate - kings cross on 13 april 1979 .\ncarla bianca made all the running as she got her season back on track with a group three victory in the meld stakes at leopardstown .\nwhat made her special : a dual yorkshire oaks winner who also won at the breeders\u2019 cup thus ending 1993 with the title of american champion female turf horse .\nscintillula over - turned the odds on favourite mars ( 8 / 11 ) , as she took the group 3 meld stakes for jim bolger and kevin manning .\ngolden meld m , 1969 { 22 - d } dp = 14 - 6 - 4 - 2 - 6 ( 32 ) di = 2 . 20 cd = 0 . 63\nwhat made her special : the only three - time winner of any breeders\u2019 cup race and winner of more group 1 races ( 14 ) than any other european - trained horse in history .\nwhat made her special : led home a 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 for fillies in the prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe and the only european - trained horse and first filly to be crowned american horse of the year following four group / grade 1 wins in three different countries during an incredible autumn of 1983 and also went on to finish second in the inaugural breeders\u2019 cup turf in 1984 .\nmeld was the only filly of the eight deltic racehorses and was in fact sired in 1952 by alycidon . she was owned by lady zia wernher and trained by sir cecil boyd - rochfort . in 1955 , as a three year old , she won the oaks , st . leger , 1000 guineas and the coronation stakes . total prize money for five wins was \u00a343 , 051 . meld foaled charlottown which won the 1966 derby . the last reports of meld were during 1979 when the deltic preservation society reported she was still enjoying retirement and living in ayrshire , then aged twenty - seven .\nsakura meld ( jpn ) b . m , 1980 { 12 } dp = 7 - 0 - 7 - 0 - 4 ( 18 ) di = 1 . 40 cd = 0 . 33\nwhat made her special : the first british - trained horse to win at the breeders\u2019 cup after beating an exceptionally strong field in the champion stakes and becoming the first filly to ever win the eclipse .\ngay meld ( aus ) ch . m , 1967 { 7 - b } dp = 9 - 6 - 5 - 2 - 8 ( 30 ) di = 1 . 40 cd = 0 . 20\nfeile na mban provided jim bolger with a double on the evening ( took the meld stakes with scintillula ) , as she ran out a good winner of the last , the irish stallion farms ebf 3yo maiden .\nmeld ( aus ) ( bay 2004 - stud 2010 ) . 2 wins at 1000m , 1200m , 2d mvrc dandenong club h . half - brother to sp leapfrog ( 2d gold coast guineas , gr . 3 ) . out of a sister to sw real jester ( vatc merson cooper s . , l ) and sw seidnazar ( mvrc st albans s . , l ) . grandson of sw dangerous seam ( vrc maribyrnong trial s . , l ) . related to sw evandale star ( stc tea rose s . , gr . 2 ) , etc . sire of mini meld , royal meld and of the placegetters heza demon , etc .\nwhat made her special : the first filly to win the preakness stakes for 85 years after winning the kentucky oaks by 20 lengths , she was american horse of the year in a perfect 8 - 8 season in 2009 .\nwhat made her special : attained international superstar status being undefeated in 25 starts , 15 of which were grade or group 1 event and she was officially the best horse in the world for 18 months and european champion sprinter in 2012 .\nwhat made her special : the best filly or mare trained in ireland over at least the last three decades being european horse of the year in 1995 , all four of her group / grade 1 wins were achieved in different countries .\nwhat made her special : the fillies\u2019 triple crown winner of 1985 , a feat last achieved by meld in 1955 , who went on to sire a group 1 winner and was the granddam of the st leger winner , shantou .\nspeers added , \u201cwe had a galileo out of miss beatrix in training with henry cecil but he sadly got injured , and her son tamga ( ire ) is a group 1 horse in turkey so it\u2019s a family we know well . \u201d\nironically , mellay\u2019s success down under was a factor in the transfer to australia of meld\u2019s outstanding son , derby and coronation cup victor charlottown in 1976 . the classic star never matched the record of his unraced half - brother at stud .\nwhat made her special : horse of the year in britain in 1976 winning two classics by a combined total of 16\u00bd lengths and is just one of two three - year - old fillies to beat colts and older horses in the king george vi & queen elizabeth stakes .\nwhat made her special : godolphin\u2019s first big success story was named horse of the year in 1994 following wins in the oaks ( after a narrow defeat in the 1000 guineas ) and against the colts in the irish derby easily beating the subsequent king george winner , king\u2019s theatre .\nmeld sport ( jpn ) ch . m , 1979 { 22 - d } dp = 8 - 1 - 9 - 4 - 2 ( 24 ) di = 1 . 29 cd = 0 . 38 - 0 starts , 0 wins , 0 places , 0 shows career earnings : unraced\nof course , once the breed had become established , racing had become more organised and records of performances were kept , a racing career was pretty much a basic requirement for any horse with pretensions to stand as a stallion . breeders not unnaturally operated on the principle that like would beget like and favoured horses who had achieved a measure of high - class performance on the racecourse . the horse who , for whatever reason , had failed to make it into competition and provide evidence of merit , was unlikely to be given the chance to procreate , unless taken out of the mainstream of flat race breeding .\nmeld ( gb ) b . m , 1952 { 2 - i } dp = 16 - 0 - 18 - 4 - 26 ( 64 ) di = 0 . 64 cd = - 0 . 38 - 6 starts , 5 wins , 1 places , 0 shows career earnings : $ 123 , 742\ndesigning for behaviour change forms a large part of the work we do at meld studios . we spend a lot of time trying to understand the best way to approach each project so that it is most beneficial for the audience without it being unnecessarily disruptive . i\u2019m generally a bit uncomfortable with the idea of disruption , as i feel it\u2019s most often promoted by those who\u2019ve never had disruption forced upon them . to help us be more mindful of this , at meld we sense check our change ideas by imagining \u201cwhat if a change maker came into the office right now and told us we had to [ insert change concept here ] ? \u201d . if we flinch at the concept then we should be careful of proposing it for others .\nwhat made her special : described by sir henry cecil , who trained 15 british classic winners with fillies , as the best filly that he ever trained despite her feet causing serious training difficulties . the highest rated horse in europe or america over 1m2f as a three - year - old and the top rated older filly / mare in europe as a four - year - old .\nan unraced horse of impeccable lineage had done the trick once for white robe lodge , so why not try the same ruse again ? noble bijou was about as well - bred as a horse could be in the 1970s , a son of vaguely noble out of priceless gem , the dam of allez france . but he was desperately unsound and there was never going to be a chance of his having a racing career . like mellay , he found the ideal home in new zealand , and he enjoyed much of his success with the products of mellay mares . i saw plenty of noble bijou\u2019s stock in action on a visit to new zealand , and they were uniformly tough , honest individuals , competitive on any ground , typically best at distances beyond a mile .\nincluding derrinstown stud 1000 guineas trial , leopardstown , l . and eyrefield 2 year old stakes , leopardstown , l . , placed 6 times including second in airlie coolmore irish 1000 guineas , curragh , group 1 and third in meld stakes , curragh , group 3 and debutante stakes , leopardstown , l . , from only 10 starts . full sister to imagine ( ire ) .\nwhat made her special : a 13 - times grade 1 winner and , in doing so , broke the world record of eight consecutive group / grade 1 races with her only defeat in 20 career starts when given an injudicious ride attempting to defend her breeders\u2019 cup classic title ( beaten only a head ) and remains the only filly / mare to win the race . american horse of the year for 2010 .\nnoble bijou headed the sires\u2019 table four times , the first three consecutively , and in the 1992 - 93 season he notched an amazing double , also finishing on top of the broodmare sires\u2019 list . among his progeny were 65 stakes winners , including a horse of the year in the phantom , whose brother the phantom chance , successful in a cox plate , was a joint - champion australasian three - year - old . one of his daughters delivered melbourne cup victor tawriffic .\njarvis won only nine classics and did not even have a full set , missing out on the oaks . ironically , when he died at the end of 1968 , his successor , doug smith , took charge of a filly \u2013 sleeping partner \u2013 who would win that race in the colours of lord rosebery , his chief patron for nigh on half a century . three times champion trainer , jarvis always spoke in glowing terms of rosebery\u2019s blue peter , the best horse he ever handled and deprived of a possible triple crown by the cancellation of the st leger following the outbreak of war .\nwhen filly triple crown heroine meld delivered a colt by dual classic winner never say die in 1961 there must have been high hopes for his future , but a bone problem meant that his future did not include a racing career . mellay , as he was called , was not going to appeal as a stallion in britain or ireland , but new zealand had long provided an outlet for well - bred horses surplus to requirements at home , and away he went as a four - year - old to the anderton family\u2019s white robe lodge stud in mosgiel , in the south island .\nboyd - rochfort waited a long time for his only derby win , with parthia in 1959 , but he had previously saddled guineas winners in the royal colours in hypericum and pall mall , and for decades was recognised as the nation\u2019s top trainer of stayers . six of his 13 classic successes came in the st leger and he had an outstanding record in cup races . he saddled meld for her fillies\u2019 triple crown wins in 1955 , a year after the ascot triumph that probably gave him more satisfaction than any other \u2013 that of the queen\u2019s aureole in the race named in honour of her parents .\n) , and it was bolger\u2019s redmondstown stud that offered the daughter of the proven black - type producer scribonia ( ire ) ( danehill ) . the 14 - year - old\u2019s offspring include g1 1000 guineas runner - up cuis ghaire ( ire ) ( galileo { ire } ) and her full - sister scintillula ( ire ) , winner of the g3 jockey club of turkey meld s . dermot farrington signed the ticket at \u20ac450 , 000 for an undisclosed client and said , \u201cshe\u2019s just a lovely filly with a great page . she has everything really . she\u2019s been bought as a long - term racing and breeding prospect . \u201d\nthree or four years back i had the idea to write a book on such a subject featuring the top fillies and mares from the last 50 years but never got round to it despite preparing a lot of the groundwork . the idea was for an a - z double spread of the top 50 with a secondary listing of the next 50 fillies / mares that would be given one page each . such a book might have seemed strange not to also recognise the all - time great fillies / mares from further back in time so would have included a third section to recognise those including pretty polly , sceptre , sun chariot , petite etoile , meld , kincsem , musidora , sweet solera , godiva , mumtaz mahal , coronation , pearl cap , noblesse , diadem , gladness etc . etc .\ni made mention of immortality last month , as i had ready recall of seeing fleet win her classic and in several other races , but i might well have cited another even more striking case involving an irish - bred and - based horse from a slightly earlier period . arctic star , a son of nearco from the family which would provide joe mcgrath with his 1951 derby winner arctic prince . arctic star , born in 1942 , damaged a shoulder in his foalhood , which prevented him from going into training , but he was put to stud at four , trading on his excellent pedigree , and he did well over an extended period . among his stock were irish 2000 guineas winner arctic wind , derby third and irish derby runner - up roistar and a couple who had their moments as sires themselves in arctic slave and arctic time .\nnamed : 7th july 1961 at doncaster works without ceremony ( in honour of racehorse owned by lady zia wernher . won the oaks , 1 , 000 guineas , coronation stakes and st . leger . note :\nran light from vulcan foundry , newton - le - willows , to doncaster - accepted into br service and allocated 34g finsbury park tmd .\nexhibited at marylebone station : golden jubilee of the institution of locomotive engineers exhibition . also present : hymek d7000 , 9f 92220\n01 . 02 . 63 1e15 17 : 00 bradford - king ' s cross , from leeds to grantham ( engine failure ) a3 pacific 60112\nst . simon\nforward . 03 . 03 . 63 1a35 10 : 50 edinburgh - king ' s cross , to grantham ( engine failure ) a3 60106\nthe flying fox\nforward .\n23 . 12 . 65 released from doncaster works after fitting of cast bogies ( bogies no . 1 1015 replaced by 9000 - 1 & no . 2 1016 replaced by 9000 - 2 ) .\n21 . 03 . 66 1st ee maintenance contract expires - mileage recorded at 813 , 865 . 23 . 12 . 66 released from doncaster works , after general repair , with full yellow ends applied ( not officially applied until light repair in may 1967 ) ( d9003 & d9010 out - shopped same day , 23 . 12 . 66 , were the first to be so treated ) .\n14 . 09 . 67 water scoop test runs at wiske moor troughs : up runs , 300 & 190 gallons at 100mph . down runs , 250 & 190 gallons at 90 mph . 03 . 12 . 67 transferred to 64b haymarket ( ex 34g finsbury park ) until completion of dual braking to the fleet .\n14 . 02 . 68 released from doncaster works , after general repair , repainted in blue livery and equipped for dual braking . 16 . 06 . 68 officially transferred to 34g finsbury park ( ex 64b haymarket ) after completion of dual braking to the fleet ( transfer moves actually occurred early may 1968 to coincide with the new timetable ) . 18 . 06 . 68 3z29 king ' s cross - edinburgh ( racing pigeon special ) .\n15 . 08 . 70 - 11 . 09 . 70 carrying ' d ' prefix on 15 / 08 but reported dropped by 11 / 09 ( though most likely date for this would be after intermediate repair dated 16 / 09 - 05 / 12 ) . 05 . 12 . 70 released from doncaster works , after intermediate repair , fitted with eth equipment .\n28 . 05 . 72 1e09 11 : 00 edinburgh - king ' s cross , to chathill ( coaches derailed at 82 mph - due to rail fracture ) .\n18 . 02 . 74 1b66 11 : 30 king ' s cross - cambridge and 1b66 15 : 30 cambridge - king ' s cross . 23 . 02 . 74 locomotive renumbered 55003 . 01 . 09 . 74 immingham tmd - open day exhibit .\nrailtour and 1zxx cardiff - paddington return ( the first deltic railtour on the western region ) . . .\n. . . to commemorate the first deltic railtour on the western region british rail published the booklet seen above . the front cover sees d9015\ntulyar\nwaiting departure with the 1a16 10 : 00 king ' s cross - edinburgh\nthe flying scotsman\nservice .\n18 . 10 . 76 to doncaster works for final intermediate repair , during which the headcode boxes wee plated over ( off 14 . 01 . 77 ) .\nrailtour ( via newcastle - ex 44002 & 44005 ) and 1z33 15 : 30 carlisle - derby , to york return ( via lancaster & leeds - 44002 & 44005 forward ) .\nduring the week commencing 17th october 1977 unofficial industrial action led to the removal of deltics from all ecml workings . action was taken by maintenance staff angry at the proposed closure of finsbury park depot with the introduction of the new hst fleet , which was to be maintained at the new bounds green depot . maintenance staff ' blacked ' the deltic fleet thus all engines remained ' laid - up ' at various installations until the dispute was settled on october 21st . a list of how the dispute affected the class is as follows :\nhaymarket tmd 13 / 10 - 23 / 10 . worked 1e35 20 : 20 edin - kx 23 / 10 .\nfinsbury park tmd 14 / 10 - 23 / 10 . worked 1n29 19 : 00 kx - n ' lce 23 / 10 .\nhaymarket tmd 14 / 10 - 23 / 10 . worked 1e25 12 : 15 aber - kx from edin 23 / 10 .\nfinsbury park tmd 13 / 10 - 23 / 10 . worked 1s21 11 : 00 kx - edin 24 / 10 .\ndoncaster works ' intermediate ' 31 / 03 - 21 / 10 . worked 1e48 21 : 15 aber - kx from doncaster 26 / 10 .\nfinsbury park tmd 11 / 10 - 24 / 10 . worked 1l22 15 : 55 kx - leeds 24 / 10 .\nyork tmd 10 / 10 - 25 / 10 . worked 1a06 08 : 05 yk - kx 25 / 10 .\ngateshead tmd 13 / 10 - 24 / 10 . worked 1a40 20 : 30 n ' cle - kx 24 / 10 .\nyork tmd 17 / 10 - 23 / 10 . worked 0d01 12 : 00 yk - doncaster 23 / 10 .\nhaymarket tmd 13 / 10 - 24 / 10 . worked 1e20 15 : 00 edin - kx 24 / 10 .\ngateshead tmd 14 / 10 - 24 / 10 . worked 1a07 07 : 25 n ' cle - kx 24 / 10 .\nyork tmd 14 / 10 - 24 / 10 . worked 1a06 08 : 05 yk - kx 24 / 10 .\nhaymarket tmd 15 / 10 - 23 / 10 . worked 1e39 22 : 30 edin - kx 23 / 10 .\ngateshead tmd 14 / 10 - 25 / 10 . worked 1a15 09 : 20 n ' cle - kx 25 / 10 .\nfinsbury park tmd 08 / 10 - 25 / 10 . worked 1n00 01 : 00 kx - n ' cle 26 / 10 .\nhaymarket tmd 15 / 10 - 19 / 10 . sent to doncaster works 19 / 10 for ' light repair ' behind 40063 .\ndoncaster works ' intermediate ' 03 / 10 - 19 . 01 . 78 .\nfinsbury park tmd 14 / 10 - 23 / 10 . worked 1d00 08 : 25 kx - cleethorpes 24 / 10 .\nholbeck tmd 10 / 10 - 23 / 10 . worked 1a47 00 : 43 leeds - kx 24 / 10 .\ngateshead tmd 14 - 10 - 24 - 10 . worked 1s28 07 : 00 n ' cle - edin 24 / 10 .\nfinsbury park tmd 14 / 10 - 23 / 10 . worked 1s43 18 : 00 kx - edin 23 / 10 .\n05 . 03 . 78 1z15 08 : 15 paddington - paignton ,\nthe deltic ranger\nrppr railtour ( re - run from 19 / 02 after heavy snow forced 55018\nballymoss\nback at bristol ) ) and 1z15 12 : 35 paignton - newton abbott and 1z15 17 : 25 newton abbott - paddington return legs . 23 . 07 . 78 1zxx chesterfield - carlisle , to carnforth , br\nmerrymaker\nservice ( via sheffield , barnsley & settle jn - 84003 fwd ) . then 0zxx carnforth - carlisle and 1zxx carlisle - chesterfield return ( via s & c , skipton , barnsley & sheffield ) . 07 . 12 . 78 one nameplate from 55003 was removed whilst the locomotive was at doncaster works during november 1978 . it was sent to derby where a plastic injection mould was taken from it . the plate was returned to doncaster by the 7th december .\n1d03 13 : 04 king ' s cross - cleethorpes and 1a32 17 : 33 cleethorpes - king ' s cross .\nwhite window surrounds applied ( first of the finsbury park allocated ' rachorse ' deltics to be so treated ) . 55003 was the only ' white - cab ' deltic to visit the king ' s cross loco , the stabling point and maintenance shed , as the servicing point closed in may 1979 prior to any other ' racehorse ' deltic receiving the same treatment .\nperhaps the most notable event in 55003 ' s career occurred during april 1979 when the white window surrounds , previously carried with the two - tone green livery , were re - applied . this action was in fact a moral boosting enterprise by allan baker ( then finsbury park depot manager ) to his staff at ' the park ' after the announcement of the deltics impending withdrawals and the obvious implications that the depot would close . they were applied to no . 3 on the 6th april 1979 and her first outing in the revised livery was the very next day , when she hauled the ' the northumbrian ' railtour . this form of livery was to be applied to all the remaining finsbury machines by the end of 1979 after the approval of the then british rail chairman mr . peter parker .\nwhilst on fp from 10 . 07 . 79 , prior to going to stratford for open day on the 14th july . worked 1d04 17 : 05 king ' s cross - hull on 15 . 07 . 79 .\nwhilst stopped on fp from 25th or 26 . 07 . 79 . worked 1l42 12 : 20 king ' s cross - york on 03 . 08 . 79 .\nworked 1l44 16 : 05 king ' s cross - york on 15 . 08 . 79 .\nwhilst on fp for ' c ' exam 16 / 8 - 21 / 8 . first train believed to be 1l42 12 : 20 king ' s cross - york on 21 . 08 . 79 .\nwhilst on fp 11 . 10 . 79 - 15 . 10 . 79 . first train unknown but worked 1m58 08 : 15 newcastle - liverpool on 16 . 10 . 79 .\n07 . 04 . 79 1g31 08 : 15 king ' s cross - york ,\nthe northumbrian limited\nsloa railtour ( v2 60800\nthe green arrow\nforward ) and 1g31 york - king ' s cross return ( ex 60800 ) . 14 . 05 . 79 1d04 17 : 05 king ' s cross - hull ,\nthe hull executive\n( with headboard - inaugural ' accelerated ' service ) . 27 . 10 . 79 1m67 09 : 28 newcastle - liverpool and 1e88 16 : 05 liverpool - newcastle .\n19 . 02 . 80 1a38 14 : 55 edinburgh - aberdeen and 1g20 18 : 20 aberdeen - edinburgh . 07 . 09 . 80 1z27 09 : 00 castleford - blackpool , br\nmerrymaker\nservice and 1z27 18 : 10 blackpool - castleford return . 29 . 12 . 80 1s27 07 : 22 plymouth - edinburgh , to newcastle ( power unit failure at thirsk due to coolant leak ) . 30 . 12 . 80 locomotive withdrawn ( 7 , 219 days in service ) . 31 . 12 . 80 towed to doncaster works for disposal by 55006 ( official date of withdrawal ) .\n09 . 03 . 81 cutting - up begins at doncaster works ( completed by w / e 21 / 03 ) .\nowner : lady zia wernher breeder : someries stud winnings : 6 starts : 5 - 1 - 0 , $ 123 , 742 at ; 1st 1000 guineas ( gb , 8f ) , the oaks ( gb , 12f ) , the st . leger ( gb , 14 . 6f ) , coronation s . ( gb , 8f ) . only defeat was in 5f debut at 2 when a 20 - 1 outsider ; she was beaten 2 lengths by her experienced stablemate corporal ( a colt owned by the queen ) ! ( close )\n* new customers only . turnover and bet requirements apply . t & c ' s apply . excl nsw , wa , sa & vic . gamble responsibly .\ntips the major focus on any saturday is metropolitan racing but there ' s plenty of us out there that don ' t mind a dabble at the support meetings across the country so here are our best bets .\n* new customers only . turnover & bet requirements apply . t & c ' s apply . excl nsw , wa , sa & vic . gamble responsibly .\nis gambling a problem for you ? call gambling help on 180 0858 858 or visit www . gamblinghelponline . org . au\nyour screen name will be seen by the racenet community when you participate in discussions or comment on our content .\nyou ' ll receive an email shortly with instructions on how to reset your password .\n{ { race . shorttrack } } r { { race . number } }\n\u00a9 2018 racing victoria limited ( rv ) and other parties working with it . vic and sa racing materials , including fields , form and results , is subject to copyright which is owned respectively by rv and trsa and other parties working with them .\n, who is based at gold coast . he is sired by the stallion royal academy out of the dam risky banter .\nr8 cl2 ( of $ 10 , 000 ) barrier 16 , winning time : 1 : 24 . 80 , sp : $ 31 in - running : settled 14th , 800m 12th , 400m 12th sectionals : 600m 0 : 35 . 52\nr2 cl2 ( of $ 10 , 000 ) barrier 3 , winning time : 1 : 19 . 72 , sp : $ 9 in - running : settled 4th , 400m 4th sectionals : 600m 0 : 37 . 35\nr8 cl2 ( of $ 12 , 000 ) barrier 3 , winning time : 1 : 23 . 23 , sp : $ 4 . 40f sectionals : 600m 0 : 35 . 32\nr6 cl3 ( of $ 10 , 000 ) barrier 5 , winning time : 1 : 23 . 08 , sp : $ 6 . 50 in - running : settled 10th , 800m 9th , 400m 12th sectionals : 600m 0 : 34 . 50\nr6 cl2 ( of $ 12 , 000 ) barrier 3 , winning time : 1 : 03 . 18 , sp : $ 5 . 50 in - running : 800m 5th , 400m 5th sectionals : 600m 0 : 33 . 66\nr4 cg & e cl2 $ 2 , 400 ( of $ 12 , 000 ) barrier 4 , winning time : 1 : 10 . 70 , sp : $ 3 . 80 in - running : 800m 2nd , 400m 2nd sectionals : 600m 0 : 35 . 62\nr6 cg & e cl3 ( of $ 13 , 000 ) barrier 8 , winning time : 1 : 21 . 02 , sp : $ 7 in - running : 800m 10th sectionals : 600m 0 : 35 . 74\nr8 cg & e cl2 ( of $ 12 , 000 ) barrier 2 , winning time : 1 : 04 . 62 , sp : $ 5 . 50 in - running : 800m 6th , 400m 9th sectionals : 600m 0 : 34 . 93\nr6 cl2 $ 500 ( of $ 10 , 000 ) barrier 10 , winning time : 1 : 11 . 11 , sp : $ 3 . 60 in - running : 800m 11th , 400m 10th sectionals : 600m 0 : 35 . 84\nr8 cg & e cl3 $ 650 ( of $ 13 , 000 ) barrier 7 , winning time : 1 : 04 . 77 , sp : $ 8 . 50 in - running : 800m 11th , 400m 11th sectionals : 600m 0 : 34 . 37\nr8 cl2 ( of $ 10 , 000 ) barrier 1 , winning time : 1 : 16 . 61 , sp : $ 3 . 50f in - running : 800m 4th , 400m 5th sectionals : 600m 0 : 38 . 32\nr9 cl2 $ 2 , 000 ( of $ 10 , 000 ) barrier 10 , winning time : 1 : 13 . 96 , sp : $ 4 . 60 in - running : 800m 3rd , 400m 3rd sectionals : 600m 0 : 36 . 70\nr4 cl3 $ 500 barrier 10 , winning time : 0 : 56 . 01 , sp : $ 4 . 80 in - running : 800m 6th , 400m 6th sectionals : 600m 0 : 32 . 66\nr5 0 - 68 $ 250 barrier 6 , winning time : 1 : 16 . 79 , sp : $ 1 . 75f in - running : 800m 4th , 400m 4th\nr8 cl1 $ 6 , 500 barrier 4 , winning time : 1 : 09 . 77 , sp : $ 3 . 10f\n18 + know when to stop . don\u2019t go over the top . gamble responsibly . think ! about your choices . call gambling help on 1800 858 858 or visit urltoken or urltoken .\nso how might one practice behaviour change in a way which is more respectful of the audience , lessens negative disruption , whilst still has the beneficial outcomes you are desiring ? recently i\u2019ve noticed a few behaviour change initiatives which involve something a little different\u2026 i\u2019m writing this post to \u2018think aloud\u2019 and see what comes of it .\nat first i called them \u201cdesign macguffin\u2019s\u201d * . dan hill uses the term in his book \u201c dark matter and trojan horses \u201d . this is based on the term often associated with alfred hitchcock\u2014although not termed by him\u2014 describing the object in a film which appears to be the focal point of a character\u2019s quest , yet lacks any real importance other than being useful narrative device . think about the suitcase in \u201cpulp fiction\u201d .\nbut that didn\u2019t seem quite right . when dan hill talks about them , it seems as though the macguffin ( the device ) doesn\u2019t matter . but in the examples i am seeing , it does matter . perhaps i will just call it a \u2018design prop\u2019 .\nthis design prop * is used in a behaviour change programme ( often public health or safety campaigns ) . the prop is so appealing to the audience that they will focus their attention on the acquisition of this prop , even if it means taking part in activities which may not have as much appeal , especially if offered without the prop . by taking part in the programme , the person gets access to the desirable prop , the programme benefits them , the programme achieves success . win win .\nthe latest example i\u2019ve seen is called the \u201c \u201cp\u0113pi - pod\u00ae\u201d \u201c . the p\u0113pi - pod\u00ae is an approach being trialled in new zealand and queensland to help vulnerable babies have a safe place to sleep . the p\u0113pi - pod\u00ae is similar to the \u201c \u201cfinnish baby box\u201d \u201d which is given to new parents as part of a larger programme to teach safe sleep methods and reduce infant mortality . the box is loaded with baby clothes and other desirable items but can only be acquired by a parent who takes part in the related education programmes . a reduction in infant mortality is often attached to the boxes , yet it appears from research that the benefits come from programme attendance\u2014something which may not ever seem that attractive to the intended audience .\nperhaps there\u2019s a proper term for this ? it could be a \u2018ritual which changes identity\u2019 , a term i learned during dave snowden\u2019s cynefin framework training . in the course snowden spoke of a project which was intended to reduce the incidence of injuries at a truck depot . through research he found that the drivers were driving all night and not \u2018switching behaviours\u2019 when they arrived at the truck depot from \u2018driver\u2019 to delivery person\u2019 . because they didn\u2019t change behaviours , they would become injured when they lifted heavy items unsafely . by introducing a ritual to change the driver\u2019s identity from \u2018driver\u2019 to \u2018delivery person\u2019 , the number of injuries was reduced .\nanother example of a design prop as physical habit is the way that many people open car doors in the netherlands . dutch drivers use the hand which is opposite to the car door to open it . in this way they look over their shoulder as they open the door and thereby see oncoming cyclists . this habit is tested in driving exams and has become normalised . as an example it loosely fits in with my categorisation as it involves getting people to do something which has more appeal than something else . other ways you might try to lessen the injuries to cyclists is to ask drivers to \u201clook when opening your car door for cyclists\u201d but believe me , this has not had the same cut through .\ni have been searching for a correct term for this thing but have come up dry . i thought it might be something related to behavioural psychology in a public health context , but have yet to unearth the right term . if you know it , please put me out of my misery so i can update this post .\n* other working titles : the innovation diffuser , behavioural affordance device , behaviour macguffins / programme props / trojan foals ( the cuter version of horses ? ) . i am bad at names .\n* * thanks to a few people on twitter ( dan szuc , nick bowmast and eric schied ) for helping me think through this all .\nhmmm . maybe a term including the word \u2018catalyst\u2019 . you are right that , in your examples , the artefact does matter ( if it was not there the behaviour would not change ) but it is not necessarily consumed or changed by the chain of cause and effect . also , catalysts don\u2019t \u2013 by themselves \u2013 make things happen , they reduce the amount of energy required to initiate and sustain a chain reaction .\nalas , the \u2018catalyst\u2019 is already overused in the field . the chem4kids website suggests that a catalyst is like a piece of magic , so maybe a design \u2018charm\u2019 ( control or achieve as if by magic ) . if you wanted to make it more specific , how about a \u2018rabbit\u2019s foot\u2019 ?\ninteresting eddy \u2013 i hadn\u2019t ever realised just how far the use of the term \u2018catalyst\u2019 had strayed from the scientific meaning .\nthanks for the interesting read . the behavioral examples provided excellent support to each concept .\nmy first query is whether the use of the word totem would be deemed cultural appropriation . it makes me slightly uncomfortable ( as does people using the term \u2018spirit animal\u2019 \u2013 but that\u2019s a whole other conversation ! )\nwe have offices in sydney and melbourne , australia . if you are inspired by what you\u2019ve read , or want to talk to us more about our services , please get in touch : email at principals @ urltoken or speak to one of us directly .\nthere are many problems associated with beating the trifecta . punters probably don\u2019t realise the task they are taking on when they tackle this bet . question 1 : can you predict the 1 - 2 - 3 finishin . . .\nthere are two groups of punters who invariably go to the races , or their tab agencies , with the percentages piled high against them . they are the backers of favourites and longshots . no matter wh . . .\ngreyhound racing is probably the best system under which a punter in australia can risk - or rather , invest - his hard earned dough . to my way of thinking there is nothing so good as a standout\n. . .\nthe late don scott once wrote that the best form of exotic betting is the trifecta . i think he was right . don said picking a trifecta winning bet was a test of skill rather than a game of chance . . . .\nppm reader kerrin brown has been enjoying success as a \u201clay\u201d operator on betfair . in this article he relates his personal story , and how he makes money from his operation . the first time i w . . .\nyou would like to back a winner every two selections ? that\u2019s a 50 per cent win strike . some dream ! but maybe it\u2019s not so crazy . after all , picking two horses a race and making a \u2018book\u2019 by savin . . .\nthis is part 1 of a two - part exclusive interview with australia ' s greatest professional punter , the late don scott , by ppm ' s brian blackwell . scott discusses his lifestyle , his approach to punting . . .\ni\u2019ve spent years trying to beat the tab and bookies and i\u2019ve lost my bank more times than i can remember . there have been a few big wins ; as many as a man with only three fingers could count on . . .\nin fast month ' s p . p . m . we began our 100 great betting ideas series . sixteen ideas were listed . in this second article , we take a look at another 20 betting tips . staking is a key part of any punt . . .\nin this article , our senior contributor ( the late and great ) e . j . minnis replied to queries sent in by ppm readers . letter from a reader : i have been a ppm reader for quite a while now and al . . .\ngold coast acceptances on saturday 15th january , 2011tab meeting . rail : 1 . 5 metres 1000 - 400 ; 0 . 5 metre remainder . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - 11 . . .\none of our great packages ! you save over $ 800 , our new blockbuster collection selection service includes tips a gift , a bonus & more . . .\naustralia ' s leading tipping service . daily specials , longshots & ratings . run by professionals with one aim : to make money for members . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsky sports news takes you through all of the day ' s racing news , plus alex hammond ' s tip of the day .\nfollow the latest from the written press with the best gossip and speculation from the papers .\nsky has launched a pub finder for eager fans wanting to find a venue to watch sky sports .\nget a sports star to visit your old secondary school as part of our free schools initiative .\ncookies facilitate the provision of our services . by using our services you agree that we may use cookies .\nthe toby edmonds - trained tyzone is the ramornie handicap favourite ahead of his stablemate havasay .\ninvited for the second year running to ride at the vodacom durban july meeting in greyville , nooresh juglall made the trip to south africa count with one winner \u2013 just like last year .\nbon hoffa\u2019s g1 winning son bon aurum will stand at glen eden stud in victoria this spring .\nexciting sprinter nature strip was a sale ring reject who could be racing for a share of $ 13 million in the everest in october after recording another brilliant win at flemington on saturday .\nclick here for an in - depth description of racing and sports\u2019 racing analytics .\n* state exclusions apply . please check t & cs of each offer with the bookmaker . all offers / promotions on this site exclude nsw residents .\nthis site is maintained by racing and sports ( \u00ae ) pty ltd ( abn 093 360 108 ) (\nr & s ;\n) . copyright in all r & s ; materials is owned by racing and sports pty ltd ( r & s ; ) . racing and sports is a registered trademark . r & s ; takes all care in the preparation of information appearing on the site , but accepts no responsibility nor warrants the accuracy of the information displayed . this information is provided for entertainment purposes only . all information including race fields and tab numbers should be checked with an official source . * t & c ; and state exclusions may apply . ( ras - www02 )\nthey say that death and taxes are the only two certainties in life . to expand that expression for the bloodstock industry , there\u2019s also dubawi ( ire ) and galileo ( ire ) .\nsales - ring appearances by dubawi\u2019s young stock are becoming ever more infrequent , but when one does take a turn , john ferguson is never far away . the darley maestro\u2019s appearance on the goffs complex this morning will have been a welcome sight for henry beeby and his team , and indeed ferguson\u2019s principal aim was to ensure that the regally bred colt (\n) out of galileo\u2019s first - ever group 1 and classic winner nightime ( ire ) was added to sheikh mohammed\u2019s team of nascent racehorses . that mission was accomplished after \u20ac1 . 1 million was exchanged and a determined attempt by ibrahim araci and his bloodstock advisor rob speers was dispatched , their battle ensuring that the prized colt became the most expensive weanling of his sex ever to be sold at auction in ireland .\nheading a strong final day of trade for the foal section of the goffs november sale , the colt was one of 155 foals sold on friday , representing a clearance rate of 84 % at an average of \u20ac80 , 894 , which fell by 8 % compared to the final day of the 2014 auction , and median of \u20ac55 , 000 , which was up by 6 % . the session\u2019s turnover contributed \u20ac12 , 538 , 500 to the sale\u2019s total of \u20ac25 , 847 , 500 , which was down by 6 % on last year\u2019s aggregate of \u20ac27 , 492 , 700 for 67 fewer foals sold in 2014 .\naverage and median figures for the sale as a whole both declined , as expected under the increased numbers , at \u20ac31 , 950 ( down 14 % ) and \u20ac18 , 000 ( down 18 % ) , while the clearance rate fell from 85 % last year to 77 % .\nwe are of course delighted to have smashed a foal record for the second year in succession , \u201d said goffs\u2019 chief executive henry beeby . \u201cthe dubawi was the highlight of another superb goffs foal sale that enjoyed a trade of depth , consistency and real fireworks . whist we have not quite kept pace with the records set last year [ turnover up 52 % , average up 41 % and median up 29 % ] , the statistics are the second - best on record , which is the cause for some celebration although it must be noted that the clearance rate is less than 2014 , which mirrors the trends seen throughout the autumn at the yearling sales to an extent . \u201d\ncommenting after buying the record - breaking dubawi colt , john ferguson said , \u201ci don\u2019t really need to say anything about the sire , and nightime was an exceptional mare . fingers crossed we have a racehorse on our hands . dick o\u2019gorman and the team had seen the colt on the farm over the summer and we liked how he\u2019s progressed . \u201d\ndermot weld , whose late mother marguerite bred irish 1 , 000 guineas winner nightime and her listed - winning daughter zhukova ( ire ) ( fastnet rock { aus } ) , was the first to congratulate ferguson on his purchase . in fact , it was the second of nightime\u2019s offspring bought by darley this year as ferguson also signed for her yearling daughter by raven\u2019s pass for 450 , 000gns at the tattersalls october sale .\nit wasn\u2019t just the dubawi colt that sparked ferguson\u2019s interest on the final day of foal trade . also among the darley list of nine purchases was springfort park stud\u2019s colt by dark angel ( ire ) (\n) out of a winning half - sister to top sprinter kingsgate native ( ire ) ( mujadil ) at \u20ac300 , 000 . oghill house stud\u2019s invincible spirit ( ire ) half - brother to listed winner dusky queen ( ire ) ( shamardal ) (\n) , the first foal of listed winner boastful ( ire ) ( clodovil { ire } ) , acquired for \u20ac190 , 000 from the irish national stud . a colt by kodiac ( ire ) (\n) out of foxland stud\u2019s homebred listed winner duchess of foxland ( ire ) ( medecis ) also made the cut at \u20ac170 , 000 .\ndes leadon and mariann klay of swordlestown little stud bought nine - furlong winner sogno verde ( ire ) ( green desert ) from lady clague for 60 , 000gns back in 2005 , and the grand - daughter of champion stayer dark lomond ( gb ) ( lomond ) has proved to be an inspired purchase . her second foal was g2 railway s . winner and young sire lilbourne lad ( ire ) ( acclamation { gb } ) and four of the mare\u2019s offspring to have passed through the ring since then have all returned six - figure sums . the latest , her colt foal by galileo ( ire ) (\n) and the only one by that sire in the sale , is the most expensive to date and sold for 475 , 000gns to pinhooker eugene daly as the extended five - day auction drew to a close on friday evening .\ntwelve months ago , farrington played his part in a new record price for an irish foal when the frankel ( gb ) filly out of dual classic winner finsceal beo ( ire ) ( mr greeley ) was sold by al eile stud for \u20ac1 . 8 million . the agent was able to issue an update on the filly , whose racecourse debut will be eagerly awaited .\nshe left ireland about a week ago and she\u2019s now in the north of england , under tack and being broken in . she will stay in england to be trained but it has not been decided who will train her , \u201d he commented .\njoining his father new approach among the stallions in the top 10 on friday was freshman dawn approach ( ire ) , who had a number of high - profile weanlings go under the hammer at goffs . the overall leader at \u20ac300 , 000 was esker lodge stud\u2019s colt out of the listed - placed simonetta ( ire ) ( lil\u2019s boy ) (\n) and from a jim bolger family that includes the stallions intense focus ( ire ) , sholokhov ( ire ) , soldier of fortune ( ire ) and heliostatic ( ire ) . the april - born colt was another to be bought by the darley team , while shadwell also got involved when buying\n, a half - brother to stakes winners forthefirstime ( gb ) ( dr fong ) and pyman\u2019s theories ( ire ) ( exceed and excel { aus } ) for \u20ac180 , 000 . we bloodstock and phillip stauffenberg also opted for colts by dawn approach , going to \u20ac160 , 000 (\n) whose family has special resonance for the turkish owner - breeder . the hammer fell at \u20ac370 , 000gns for the grey son of g1 moyglare stud s . winner miss beatrix ( danehill dancer { ire } ) , affording the balintougher stud offering his own record as the most expensive weanling by his sire , whose popularity in the sales ring has gone though the roof this season .\nprices at this level usually mean that even the boldest pinhookers aren\u2019t involved , and speers explained that araci had taken the decision to buy a handful of select foals owing to the strength of the yearling market at the top end . he said , \u201cit\u2019s hard to compete at the top level in book 1 so we\u2019re delighted to have bought such nice prospects . we\u2019ll take home this colt and the camelot colt we bought earlier and look forward to putting them into training in a year\u2019s time . \u201d\naraci and speers also selected one of the members of the first crop of camelot ( ire ) , which have been well received this week . their selection was"]}
{"id": 1424, "summary": [{"text": "lejopyge laevigata is a species of agnostid trilobite belonging to the genus lejopyge .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it existed during the guzhangian to the paibian age ( around 500.5 to 497 million years ago ) of the cambrian .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it has a cosmopolitan distribution and is an important index fossil in biostratigraphy . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "lejopyge laevigata", "paragraphs": ["the last occurrence of lejopyge calva is below the gssp . just above the gssp is the highest occurrence of agnostoid trilobite ptychagnostus atavus . conodonts : conodont laiwugnathus laiwuensis occurs immediately below the fad of trilobite lejopyge laevigata . carbon isotopes : the fad of lejopyge laevigata is near the peak of a long negative \u03b4 13 c excursion .\nthe gssp coincides with the lowest occurrence of the cosmopolitan agnostoid trilobite lejopyge laevigata at a level 121 . 3 m above the base of the huaqiao formation .\na new species of trilobite , pianaspis ( ? ) leveni , is described from the radfords creek group , dial range trough , north - western tasmania . its age is late middle cambrian , either of the lejopyge laevigata ii zone , or the l . laevigata iii zone .\nproposed gssp for the base of cambrian stage 7 , coinciding with the first appearance of lejopyge lae . . .\nthe base of the guzhangian stage is defined at the base of a limestone ( calcisiltite ) layer , 121 . 3 m above the base of the huaqiao formation in the louyixi section along the youshui river in northwestern hunan , china . this level coincides with the lowest occurrence of the agnostoid trilobite lejopyge laevigata . the horizon corresponding to the fad of lejopyge laevigata is near the peak of a rather long negative \u03b4 13 c excursion of up to 0 . 58\u2030 .\nniklas axheimer , mats e . eriksson , per ahlberg , anders bengtsson ; the middle cambrian cosmopolitan key species lejopyge laevigata and its biozone : new data from sweden . geological magazine ; 143 ( 4 ) : 447\u2013455 . doi : urltoken\nthe species and subspecies of the late middle cambrian agnostid trilobite lejopyge are reviewed . lejopyge cos opik is shown to be a junior synonym of lejopyge laevigata armata . in sweden the middle - upper cambrian boundary is placed at the boundary between the lejopyge laevigata and agnostuspisiformis zones . the reassignment of l . cos to l . l . armata and other criteria suggest that this boundary in australia should be drawn within the mindyallan cyclagnostus quasivespa zone between the l . cos and blackwelderia sabulosa faunas . it is suggested that the middle - upper cambrian boundary in north america be placed well up into the cedaria zone ; in china it is at some as yet undefined position within the blackwelderia sinensis zone ; on the siberian platform it should be placed between the zones of lejopyge laevigata armata - lomsucaspis alta and agnostus pisiformis - ' homagnostus fecundus ' ; and in north - west siberia between the zones of maiaspis spinosa - oidalagnostus trispinifer and acrocephalella granulosa - koldiniella prolixa .\nten species of agnostid trilobites , including a new species , utagnostus ( ? ) nevel , are described from two localities within the lower sedimentary succession of the radfords creek group , dial range trough , north - western tasmania . the faunas from both localities ( near gunns plains ) are of late middle cambrian age ; one is either of the lejopyge laevigata ii zone or the l . laevigata iii zone and the other is either of the l . laevigata iii zone or the damesella torosa - acsionepea janitrix zone .\nin the northeastern wall of the quarry the rock sequence is about 3 . 6 m thick , and includes the middle - upper cambrian boundary . the lower and middle part of this section contains agnostids indicative of the lejopyge laevigata zone . these include , e . g . , lejopyge laevigata , diplagnostus planicauda , and peronopsis insignis . a bradoriid arthropod , anabarochilina primordialis ( linnarsson , 1869 ) , is common throughout the l . laevigata zone . stinkstone lenses in the topmost part of the section contain agnostus pisiformis in abundance , indicating the a . pisiformis zone . a conglomeratic limestone ( the exporrecta conglomerate ) was previously exposed at the base of the section ( wallerius 1895 , 1930 ) .\nthe first occurrence of lejopyge laevigata has been recognized worldwide . this species has been identified from rocks in argentina , australia , china , denmark , england , germany , norway , sweden , north greenland , india , kyrgyzstan , turkestan , uzbekistan , kazakhstan , northern poland , russia , and the usa .\n( 2002 ) late middle cambrian trace fossils from the lejopyge armata horizon , zanskar valley , india and the use of precambrian / cambrian lithostratigraphy in the indian subcontinent .\ndaily , b . , jago , j . b . 1975 . the trilobite lejopyge hawle and corda and the middle\u2013upper cambrian boundary . palaeontology , 18 , 3 , 527\u2013550 .\nrelationships of australian species of the agnostoid genera goniagnostus and lejopyge are discussed and some revisions made . goniagnostus consists of g . ( goniagnostus ) , containing g . ( g . ) nathorsti and g . ( g . ) scarabaeus ; g . ( criotypus ) containing g . ( c . ) oxytorus and g . ( c . ) lemniscatus ; and g . ( allobodochus ) containing g . ( a . ) fumicola and g . ( a . ) spiniger . representatives of lejopyge are l . armata , l . laevigata , l . calva , l . dubium , l . multifora and l . cosfordae . goniagnostus is considered to have evolved from triplagnostus ( triplagnostus ) and lejopyge possibly from onymagnostus .\nin the southwestern wall of the quarry the rock sequence is 1 - 3 m thick . a fairly diverse fauna , including abundant l . laevigata , l . armata , hypagnostus sulcifer , diplagnostus planicauda and anabarochilina primordialis along with agnostus neglectus , a . pater , acrocephalites stenometopus , toxotis pusilla , proceratopyge conifrons and peronopsis insignis , shows that this section is referable to the l . laevigata zone . in the northwestern part of the quarry , this zone is overlain by the a . pisiformis zone . as in the northeastern wall , unfossiliferous alum shales occur between stinkstones containing the l . laevigata and a . pisiformis faunas . hence there is an interval ( ~ 70 cm ) of uncertainty concerning the zonal and series boundaries .\nin the luuoyixi section the huaqiao formation consists of dark , thin - bedded , thinly laminated lime mudstones , argillaceous limestones , and fossiliferous limestone lenses . light - colored ribbbon limestones are present in places . the gssp occurs in a succession of dark gray to black limestones ( lime mudstones , or calcimicrites and calcisiltites ) and fine - grained argillaceous limestones interbedded with lenses of fossil rich limestone ( calcisiltie ) . lejopyge laevigata first appears in the lower part of a 82 cm thick layer of dark gray , thinly laminated calcisiltite , overlying another layer of thinly laminated , dark gray calcisiltite .\na core drilling at almbacken in the village sodra sandby , scania , southern sweden , penetrated a c . 30 in thick succession of upper lower cambrian and middle cambrian strata . only the uppermost part of the lower cambrian ( gislov formation ) was recovered , comprising c . 1 . 50 m of unfossiliferous siltstones and a thin limestone bed at the base of the core . the core contains the most complete middle cambrian succession so far documented in scania . it contains a stratigraphical sequence from the lejopyge laevigata zone ( upper paradoxides forchhammeri superzone ) to the holmia kjerulfi - group zone ( upper lower cambrian ) . there is no faunal evidence for the presence of the acadoparadoxides oelandicus superzone . the middle cambrian is 28 . 30 m thick . . .\n. . . all agnostoid species recovered from the gudhem quarry are very well known and have been described in detail ( e . g . westerg\u00e5rd , 1946 ; robison , 1984 robison , , 1988 laurie , 1989 ; peng & robison , 2000 ) . because the fad of l . laevigata is currently under discussion as a potential stage base marker , only this species and the closely related material . . . .\n. . . however , the latter is now recognized as a separate species ( e . g . robison , 1984 robison , , 1988 laurie , 1989 ; peng & robison , 2000 ) , although minute marginal spines are occasionally present in l . laevigata ( daily & jago , 1975 ; laurie , 1989 ; peng & robison , 2000 ; babcock et al . 2005 ) . specimens from gudhem , like elsewhere in the world , show variation in the degree of effacement of furrows on the acrolobes . . . .\n. . . outside this , only lejopyge and pseudophalacroma were recognised as monophyletic groups . consequently westrop et al . ( 1996 ) stated that their analysis did not support the \u0093finely divided , gradistic classifications of \u00f6pik ( 1979 ) or laurie ( 1988 laurie ( , 1989 ) but are consistent with robison\u0092s ( 1982 ) more conservative approach\u0094 . in an analysis of constraint trees based on the classification of species by robison ( 1984 robison ( , 1994 ) and laurie ( 1988 laurie ( , 1989 ) the most parsimonious trees in both analyses , as expected , had greater lengths than the unconstrained analysis ( westrop et al . , 1996 ) . . . .\ndoctype public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nin the image above , agnostida ( yellow ) is seen as an early order , arising in the early cambrian and persisting to the late ordovician .\ncephalon : no facial sutures or eyes ; glabella divided by transglabellar suture into anteroglabella and posteroglabella ; cephalothoracic aperture present . thorax : 2 thoracic segments bearing distinctive articulating structures , but no articulating half - ring on anterior thoracic segment . pygidium : axis usually wide , inflated , 3 or fewer segments , one of which usually carries a tubercle ; posterior axial rings effaced ( posteroaxis ) ; pygidial margin often bearing posterolateral spines . cuticle thin . superfamilies : agnostoidea and condylopygoidea ( each described below ) .\nsuperfamily condylopygoidea cephalon : with transversely oriented basal glabella lobes , separated by medial plate , together forming a clear occipital structure , anterior glabellar lobe laterally expanded around anterior end of posteroglabella , sometimes separated by a median sulcus . thorax : as in typical agnostina . pygidium : axis with 3 - segmented anteroaxis ; broad , posteriorly rounded posteroaxis . family : condylopygidae genera : condylopyge ( / paragnostus ; fallagnostus ) , miraculaspis , pleuroctenium ( = dichagnostus ) .\nthe arrangement of genera and families for suborder agnostina is via jell and adrain 2003 , superceding some of the classification of agnostida in the 1997 treatise . for listed genera , synonyms are shown in parentheses .\n( see figure at right ) were first documented ( muller and walossek 1987 ) , they proved very different from previously described trilobite limbs ( e . g . , those of\n, etc . ) . this cast doubt about the presumed inclusion of the suborder agnostina within the class trilobita . however , no appendages from fully grown holaspid agnostines have ever been documented , leaving room for the contention that larval limbs may not resemble those of adults . the argument has also been made that agnostid trilobites may represent evolution via progenesis ( maturity achieved while the body retains immature morphology ) , which suggests that even adult agnostines could retain the presumed larval form . no limbs of protaspides or meraspides of\nconventional\ntrilobites has been described either , so the speculation that the limbs of\ncotton , t . j . & r . a . fortey . 2005 . comparative morphology and relationships of the agnostida .\nfortey , r . a . 2001 . trilobite systematics : the last 75 years .\nramskold , l . & g . d . edgecombe . 1991 . trilobite monophyly revisited .\nit has been suggested that agnostida , via their small size , widespread distribution , and large numbers , might have been planktonic . however , there are a number of logical inconsistencies with this contention ( via pers . comm . brian chatterton 2003 ) :\n1 ) most agnostida are blind , while most modern pelagic arthropods are sighted .\n2 ) they are often found complete , articulated , right way up among complete articulated , right way up ptychopariid and other trilobites that everyone would accept as benthic .\n3 ) agnostid numbers often vary radically in different beds when collecting through a section ( richard fortey , in his work on spitsbergen , argued that pelagic forms should occur in small numbers throughout the section rather than in great numbers at some levels and few or none at others ) .\n5 ) the widespread occurrence of species of agnostids does not require they be pelagic ; deep cold water benthic species usually have much more widespread dispersal patterns than shallow shelf species ( there have been a number of papers pointing this out for a wide range of organisms ) . agnostids are typically associated with deep , cold water deposits .\n6 ) the morphology of agnostids ( low , flat bottomed , wide ) is much more typical of benthic than pelagic forms . the latter are often as high as wide , and with obvious adaptations for powerful swimming appendages .\n7 ) while agnostids are small , they are not so small that they would have been operating in a very low reynolds number environment ( hydrodynamically speaking ) . therefore , to stay up in the water column , they would either have to work hard ( to counteract the weight of their shell ) , or have some buoyancy mechanism to achieve neutral buoyancy . there is no evidence for this . agnostid trilobites are not particularly thin shelled and some could even be argued to be moderately thick shelled .\n8 ) agnostid appendages ( only known from orsten deposits ) may appear slightly unusual when compared with those of adult benthic trilobites . however , the only known appendages are for very small agnostids ( meraspides ) . we do not know what the appendages of other trilobites at that stage would have looked like .\n9 ) most enrolled agnostids seem to be juveniles . adult forms are almost all outstretched , and preserved dorsal side uppermost ( if they are not disarticulated ) . this suggests that the mature stages at least were crawling around on the sea floor , dorsal side uppermost ( not partly enrolled in the water column as suggested by some ) .\nin summary , at the very least , agnostids spend some of their adult lives on the sea floor . they did not just come down to the sea floor to moult ( otherwise we would only find moults in reasonable articulated form , the correct way up ) . why did they not spend all of their adult lives on or close to the sea floor ? the pelagic argument does not explain all of the data . arguing that most or all agnostids were benthic , widespread , deep , cold water forms explains more of the available facts .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nthe louyixi section is situated along the south bank of the youshui river ( fengtan reservoir ) , about 4 km northwest of luoyixi ( 4 km southeast of wangcun ) , in northwestern hunan , china at a latitude of 28\u00b043 . 20\u2019 n and a longitude of 109\u00ba57 . 88\u2019 e .\npeng , s . , babcock , zuo , j . , lin , h . , zhu , x . , yang , x . , l . e . , robison , r . a . , qi , y . , bagnoli , g . , chen , y . , 2009 . the global boundary stratotype section and point ( gssp ) of the guzhangian stage ( cambrian ) in the wuling mountains , northwestern hunan , china . episodes 32 / 1 , p . 41 - 55 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\njavascript is not activated in your browser . this website needs javascript activated to work properly .\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nas part our commitment to scholarly and academic excellence , all articles receive editorial review .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\ncopyright \u00a9 2006 nanjing institute of geology and palaeontology , cas . published by elsevier b . v . all rights reserved .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\n. . . robison ' s concept of ptychagnostidae taxonomy was not accepted unconditionally by other authors . laurie ( 1988 laurie ( , 1989 ) reinstated the generic status of triplagnostus , zeteagnostus , and acidusus and subgeneric status of aotagnostus . but , according to robison ' s criticism , laurie emended the generic diagnoses . . . .\n. . . the differential characters of this species included a spiny pygidium ( with long posterolateral spines ) , a narrow axis on both the cephalon and pygidium . the width of glabella and rachis was not measured and , thus , the variability of these characteristics was not indicated in the original publication ; also , the width of rachis and glabella did not differ superficially from g . scarabeus whitehouse , 1939 ( laurie , 1989 ) . specimens from siberia which were assigned to g . longispinus ( egorova et al . , 1982 ; here pl . 2 , fig . . . .\n. . . the border furrow is narrow and evenly impressed and the border is narrow , roll - like and of even width . this specimen most likely belongs to criotypus , but in that genus , the arcuate scrobicules are usually well developed ( laurie 1989 ) , which is certainly not the case in this specimen . goniagnostus does not have arcuate scrobicules , but it tends to have a less tapered posteroglabella which is often expanded . . . .\n. . . ordinary vehicles can be driven along the length of the section , and can be parked adjacent to the gssp point . westerg\u00e5rd , 1946 ; pokrovskaya , 1958 ; \u00f6pik , 1961 , 1979 palmer , 1968 ; khairullina , 1970 khairullina , , 1973 robison et al . , 1977 ; yang , 1978 , ergaliev , 1980 egorova et al . , 1982 ; robison , 1984 robison , , 1988 robison , , 1994 laurie , 1989 ; lu and lin , 1989 ; yang et al . , 1991 ; dong , 1991 ; tortello and bordonaro , 1997 ; geyer and shergold , 2000 ; peng and robison , 2000 ; jago and brown , 2001 ; babcock et al . , 2004 babcock et al . , , 2005 axheimer et al . , 2006 ; ) , and its first appearance has . . .\n. . . the ptychagnostidae have received a considerable amount of taxonomic treatment over the last 20 years or so with disparate views on the arrangement of species being presented by \u00f6pik ( 1979 \u00f6pik ( ) , laurie ( 1988 \u00f6pik ( , 1989 ) , robison ( 1982 robison ( , 1984 robison ( , 1994 ) , westrop et al . ( 1996 ) and peng & robison ( 2000 ) . \u00f6pik ( 1979 recognised as many as 15 genus group names , and laurie ( 1988 laurie ( , 1989 ) 12 , while robison ( 1984 ) recognised only five . westrop et al . ( 1996 ) undertook a cladistic analysis of 42 species from the family , using agnostus pisiformis and peronopsis brighamensis as outgroups . . . .\n. . . consequently westrop et al . ( 1996 ) stated that their analysis did not support the \u0093finely divided , gradistic classifications of \u00f6pik ( 1979 ) or laurie ( 1988 laurie ( , 1989 ) but are consistent with robison\u0092s ( 1982 ) more conservative approach\u0094 . in an analysis of constraint trees based on the classification of species by robison ( 1984 robison ( , 1994 ) and laurie ( 1988 laurie ( , 1989 ) the most parsimonious trees in both analyses , as expected , had greater lengths than the unconstrained analysis ( westrop et al . , 1996 ) . however , the tree based on laurie\u0092s classification was considerably shorter than that based on the classification of robison . . . .\n. . . almbacken core . goniagnostus nathorsti is known from several regions in scandinavia , as well as from , e . g . , canada , australia , siberia , and china ( westerg\u00e5rd 1946 ; \u00f6pik 1979 ; laurie 1989 ; peng & robison 2000 ; jago & brown 2001 ) . . . .\na core drilling through cambrian strata at almbacken , scania , s . sweden : trilobites and stratigraphical assessment\nto calibrate australian spore - pollen zones to the international geological timescale using high precision u - pb dating of tuffs interbedded with fossil - bearing strata .\nthe taxonomic relationships of some australian species of the agnostid subfamily ptychagnostinae are discussed and some revisions made . the genus ptychagnostus consists of two species , p . punctuosus and p . affinis . zeteagnostus is emended to include z . incautus and z . scarifatus . acidusus is emended to include a . atavus , a . acidusus , a . germanus , a . occultatus , a . michaeli , a . aculeatus and . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe type species of phoidagnostus , p . limbatus whitehouse , 1936 , is redescribed on the basis of further excavation of the holotype which has revealed an associated pygidium . this also demonstrates that the species hypagnostus varicosus \u00f6pik , 1961 is a junior subjective synonym of p . limbatus . phoidagnostus is closely related to toragnostus and cotalagnostus .\na re - assessment of the brachiopod genus spanodonta prendergast from the lower ordovician of western . . .\nthe poorly known plectambonitacean genus spanodonta prendergast is re - assessed and its type species , s . hoskingiae prendergast 1935 from the lower ordovician of western australia , redescribed . the only other species assigned to the genus , s . tingriensis liu , is rejected from it . the genus is considered to be most closely related to aporthophyla ulrich & cooper and is therefore assigned to the . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe types and other specimens of agnostus fallax linnarsson 1869 are examined and reinterpreted . it is shown that the application of this specific name to many specimens from around the world is largely in error . the species is considered sufficiently different from the type species of peronopsis , p . integra ( beyrich , 1845 ) to warrant erection of a new genus axagnostus with a . fallax as the . . . 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( in chinese )\n( 1994 ) geology of western gondwanaland ( 2000 - 500ma ) . a . a . balkema , rotterdam , 350p .\n( 1905 ) cambrian faunas of china . proceedings of the u . s . national mus . , v . 29 , pp . 1\u2013106 .\n( 1986 ) late middle cambrian trilobites from zanskar , ladakh , northern india . riv . ital . di paleo . strati . , v . 92 , pp . 171\u2013188 .\n( 1978 ) middle and upper cambrian trilobites of western hunan and eastern guizhou . professional papers of strat . and palaeo . , v . 4 , pp . 1\u201382 . ( in chinese ) .\n( 1993 ) early cambrian paleobiogeography and revision of positions of paleocontinents . stra . and paleo . china , v . 2 , pp . 223\u2013234 .\npalaeontological atlas of southwest china ; guizhou province , pt . 1 . geological publishing house , beijing . pp . 385\u2013595 ( in chinese ) .\n( 1981 ) trilobite , in geological surveying team of xinjiang bureau of geology , institute of geological sciences of xinjiang bureau of geology , and investigating department of xinjiang bureau of petroleum ( ed . ) , palaeontological atlas of northwestern china , xinjiang volume ( late proterozoic - early palaeozoic ) . geological publishing house , beijing , pp . 134\u2013214 ( in chinese ) .\n( 1988 ) the cambrian system in eastern asia , correlation chart and explanatory notes . international union of geological sciences , pp . 1\u201381 .\n( 1987 ) cambrian trilobites of north china : chinese cambrian trilobites housed in the smithsonian institution . science press , beijing , pp . 1\u2013459 .\n( 1980 ) cambrian trilobite faunas of southwestern china . palaeo . sinica n ser . b , v . 16 , pp . 1\u2013497 .\nzhang [ chang ] , w . - t . , xiang , l . - w . , liu , y . - h .\n( 1995 ) cambrian stratigraphy and trilobites from henan . palaeontologia cathayana , v . 6 , pp . 1\u2013166 .\nzhou , t - m . , liu , y . - r . , meng , x . - s .\ngeological institute of hubei , geological bureaus of henan , hubei , guandong and guanxi ( eds . ) , palaeontological atlas of south - central china , 1 , palaeozoic . geological publishing house , beijing . ( in chinese ) , pp . 104\u2013266 .\n( 1989 ) upper cambrian trilobites from tangshan , hebei province , north china . palaeontologia cathayana , v . 4 , pp . 199\u2013259 .\nsingh , b . p . j geol soc india ( 2011 ) 77 : 219 . urltoken\nthe global standard stratotype - section and point ( gssp ) of the furongian series ( uppermost series of the cambrian system ) and the paibian stage ( lowermost stage of the furongian series ) , has been recently defined and ratified by the international union of geological sciences ( iugs ) . the boundary stratotype is 369 metres above the base of the huaqiao formation in the paibi section , northwestern hunan province , china . this point coincides with the first appearance of the cosmopolitan agnostoid trilobite glyptagnostus reticulatus , and occurs near the base of a large positive carbon isotopic excursion ( spice excursion ) .\n. . . this species occurs at 25 . 73 - 25 . 35 m and is indicative of the o . gibbosus zone , the base of which coincides with the first appearance datum ( fad ) of glyptagnostus reticulatus ( see peng et al . 2004 ; ahlberg & terfelt , 2012 ; nielsen et al . 2014 ) . the o . gibbosus zone is succeeded by a 20 cm thick suc - cession with o . truncatus ( fig . 4b - d ) , agnostus ( ho - magnostus ) obesus ( fig . 4g , h ) and the phosphatocop - ine cyclotron cf . . . .\n. . . ripperdan et al . 1992 ; saltzman et al . 2000saltzman et al . , 2004miller et al . 2015 ) . the onset of the spice is associated with the base of the furongian series ( peng et al . 2004 ) , whereas the toce occurs in the lower eoconodon - tus conodont zone near the top of the cambrian ( e . g . miller et al . 2014miller et al . , 2015 . . . .\n. . . it obviously means that if you find rocks hosting a . pisiformis you know that those particular beds should belong to the biozone with the same name . stratigraphically this belongs to the topmost part ( the global guzhangian stage ) of the informal cambrian series 3 ( e . g . , peng et al . , 2004 peng et al . , , 2006peng et al . , , 2009 ) . the first appearance datum ( fad ) of a . pisiformis marks the base of the eponymous biozone . . . .\n. . . in december 2004 , the international subcommission on cambrian stratigraphy held a ballot on the subdivision of the cambrian system and a fourfold subdivision was approved ( babcock et al . 2005 ) . the global stratotype section and point of the paibian stage ( and the furongian series ) was defined at the lowest occurrence of theagnostid trilobite glyptagnostus reticulatus by peng et al . ( 2004 ) . the lowermost cambrian series and stage were named in 2007 ( terreneuvian and fortunian , respectively \u2013 seelanding et al . 2007 ) . . . .\n. . . h\u00f8yberget & bruton , 2008 ) . thus , the base biostratigraphy of the middle cambrian series 3 ( fig . 2 ) is most precisely defined by the fads of a number of agnostids ; these have commonly been used to define chronostratigraphic units in the cambrian ( e . g . , peng & robison , 2000 ; peng et al . , 2004 peng et al . , , 2009a peng et al . , , b , 2012 peng et al . , , 2014 babcock et al . , 2005 babcock et al . , , 2007 babcock et al . , , 2015 ) . fortunately , cambrian agnostids are often abundant in shaly environments and can be associated with fossil graptolites . . . .\n. . . based on the significant works of westerg\u00e5rd ( 1922westerg\u00e5rd ( , 1947 ) and henningsmoen ( 1957 ) , terfelt et al . ( 2008terfelt et al . ( , 2011 ) divided the furongian ( roughly corresponding to the traditional\nupper cambrian\n, excluding the a . pisiformis zone ) of scandinavia into two parallel zonations based on agnostoids and polymerids , respectively . this biostratigraphical scheme is used herein ( fig . 4 peng et al . 2004 ; ahlberg & terfelt 2012 ; nielsen et al . 2014 ) , which is not found in the drill core . however , olenus gibbosus ( fig . 6e\u2013g , m , n ) occurs at 11 . 56\u201311 . 14 . . .\n. . . the cambrian epoch 3 was dominated by thrombolites and dendrolites ( zhuravlev , 1996 ; woo et al . , 2008 ; woo and chough , 2010 ) , whereas maze - like maceriate reefs ( most likely sponge - microbial reefs ) ( shapiro and awramik , 2006 ; lee et al . , 2010lee et al . , , 2014a ) and columnar stromatolites ( campbell , 1976 ; ) flourished during the furongian ( cf . zhuravlev , 1996 ) . at the same time , several geological events are known to occur across the cambrian epoch 3\u2013furongian boundary , including a positive excursion of \u03b4 13 c ( steptoean positive carbon isotope excursion : spice ) and a major trilobite faunal turnover ( saltzman et al . , 2000 ; peng et al . , 2004 ) . the primary purpose of this study is to re - examine the characteristics of cambrian epoch 3 and furongian reefs , and the related geological events . . . .\n. . . the cambrian epoch 3\u2013furongian boundary was placed where there is a great faunal turnover among polymerid trilobites ( saltzman et al . , 2000 ; peng et al . , 2004 peng et al . , , 2012 ) . recent geochemical and sequencestratigraphic studies suggest that there were global events across the cambrian epoch 3\u2013furongian boundary , including carbon and sulfur isotope excursions and a eustatic sea - level fall ( saltzman et al . , 2000saltzman et al . , , 2004chen et al . , 2011 ) . . . .\n. . . many polymerid trilobites became extinct and were replaced by new trilobite fauna across the cambrian epoch 3\u2013furongian boundary ( pratt , 1998 ; saltzman et al . , 2000 ; peng et al . , 2004 peng et al . , , 2012\u00e1lvaro et al . , 2013b ) . several workers argued that this event indicates a mass extinction that also affected other organisms such as inarticulate brachiopods ( e . g . , bambach , 2006 ) . . . .\n. . . the cambrian period is characterized by four positive and six negative excursions in the marine \u03b4 13 c record that were related to eustatic sea - level changes , perturbations in the oceanic carbon cycle and , as a consequence , extinctions and evolutionary radiations in the cambrian fauna ( peng et al . 2004 ; babcock et al . 2005 ; zhu , babcock & peng , 2006 ; peng , babcock & cooper , 2012 ) . one of the prominent positive excursions , the steptoean positive carbon isotope excursion ( spice ) , is situated at the base of the paibian stage ( furongian series ; saltzman , runnegar & lohmann , 1998 ; saltzman et al . 2000 ) . . . .\n. . . it has been identified in carbonate and organic - rich successions of slope and platform environments of antarctica , argentina , australia , england , kazakhstan , newfoundland , north and south china , siberia , sweden and the usa ( e . g . glumac & walker , 1998 ; saltzman , runnegar & lohmann , 1998 ; saltzman et al . 2000 saltzman et al . , 2011 peng et al . 2004 ; zhu et al . 2004 ; lindsay et al . 2005 ; gill , lyons & saltzman , 2007 ; gill et al . 2011 ; kouchinsky et al . 2008 ; sial et al . 2008 sial et al . , 2013 ahlberg et al . 2009 ; hurtgen , pruss \u2020author for correspondence : thomas . wotte @ urltoken & knoll , 2009 ; chen et al . 2011 chen et al . , 2012 woods et al . 2011 ; ng , yuan & lin , 2014 ) . . . .\n. . . global migration of cosmopolitan agnostoids must have been a rapid and synchronous event ( ahlberg et al . 2009 ) . the onset of spice correlates with biomere extinctions in laurentia , as well as extinctions recognized in correlatable beds in australia and south china ( saltzman et al . 2000 ; peng et al . 2004 ) . thus , as shown by ahlberg et al . ( 2009 ) , the barren and phosphatocopine intervals recognized by eriksson and terfelt ( 2007 ) coincide with the extinction event at the end of the marjumiid biomere and the same driving mechanism is postulated . . . .\n. . . the two taxa are regarded either as valid ( palmer 1962 ) or invalid subspecies , with the two morphotypes intergrading into one another ( pratt 1992 ) . on a global scale , the weakly reticulated morphotype always precedes the strongly reticulated one ( peng et al . 2004 ) . in scandinavia , g . reticulatus is represented by the strongly reticulated morphotype , i . e . , g . reticulatus reticulatus , which occurs in the olenus gibbosus through the olenus truncatus zones ( ahlberg and ahlgren 1996 ) . . . .\nto better understand the environmental conditions that promoted early animal evolution and the environmental changes that ensued from early animal evolution ( i . e . , co - evolution of life and environm\u2026\n[ more ]\npotential global standard stratotype - section and point ( gssp ) for a cambrian stage boundary defined . . .\nthe base of the ptychagnostus ( or acidusus ) atavus zone is one of the most clearly recognizable horizons on an intercontinental scale in the cambrian system , and would serve as an excellent position for the base of a new stage - level chronostratigraphic subdivision . among well - exposed , readily accessible sections in laurentia , the \u201cstratotype ridge\u201d section , drum mountains , western utah , usa , . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe global boundary stratotype section and point ( gssp ) of the drumian stage ( cambrian ) in the drum . . .\nthe global boundary stratotype section and point gssp ) for the base of the drumian stage ( cambrian series 3 ) is defined at the base of a limestone ( calcisiltite ) layer 62 m above the base of the wheeler formation in the stratotype ridge section , drum mountains , utah , usa . the gssp level contains the lowest occurrence of the cosmopolitan agnostoid trilobite ptychagnostus atavus ( base of the p . . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe luoyixi section , exposed in a roadcut along the youshui river ( fengtan reservoir ) , guzhang county , hunan province , china , is proposed as the stratotype for the base of an unnamed stage boundary ( base of the cambrian stage provisionally termed stage 7 ) . the proposed position of the gssp is 121 . 3 m above the base of the huaqiao formation , at a horizon coinciding with the first appearance of . . . [ show full abstract ]\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nyou could not be signed in . please check your email address / username and password and try again .\nthis site uses cookies . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our privacy policy .\nthis guidebook provides detailed itineraries of three of the geological field trips related to the 2017 joint meeting of the gsa northeastern and north - central sections in pittsburgh . the first chapter outlines a walking trip of downtown pittsburgh and the escarpment to its south , consisting of seven \u201cpitt stops\u201d investigating geological , archaeological , and historical aspects of the gateway to the west . venturing further afield , the second chapter describes a trip that explores periglacial features as far as the upper youghiogheny river basin in maryland and the laurel highlands of pennsylvania . the third chapter investigates hydrologic aspects of the 1889 johnstown , pennsylvania , flood , largely following the progress of the flood from its point of origin to the city of johnstown .\nthis volume includes seven field guides that explore the diverse geology of virginia from its appalachian highlands to the atlantic shore . the guides cover an array of topics ranging from cave and karst development in the valley and ridge to the exceptional fossil localities at the carmel church quarry and the cliffs near stratford hall to precambrian rocks in the blue ridge mountains . three guides focus on the paleozoic to proterozoic tectonic history of the blue ridge and piedmont provinces , two guides discuss the stratigraphy and fossil assemblages preserved in cenozoic deposits on the atlantic coastal plain , one guide examines paleozoic stratigraphy and cave formation in western virginia , and the final guide explores the relationship between the geology of the fall zone and the civil war during the petersburg campaign in 1864\u20131865 .\nthis volume accompanies an emu school intended to bring contemporary research on mineral reaction kinetics to the attention of young researchers and to put it into the context of recent developments in related disciplines . a selection of topics , methods and concepts , which the contributors deem currently most relevant and instructive , is presented .\nnew technology has opened vast reserves of\nunconventional\nnatural gas and oil from shales like the marcellus in the appalachian basin , making the united states essentially energy independent for the first time in decades . shale gas had its origins in the oil embargos and energy crises of the 1970s , which led to government research to increase domestic energy supplies . the first large - scale shale gas production was successful on the barnett shale in texas in the late 1990s , followed a few years later by the marcellus shale in pennsylvania . shale gas has changed thinking about fossil energy supplies worldwide , but the development of these resources has been controversial . activists have made claims that hydraulic fracturing may contribute to climate change , threaten groundwater resources , and pose risks to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems , and human health . this volume explores the geology , history , technology , and potential environmental impacts of marcellus shale gas resources .\n1 . introduction 2 . strata of the changhia formation 3 . the zonations and ranges of the trilobite genera and species of the changhia formation 4 . correlationof the changhia formation with its age - equivalent strata in other regions of china and other countries 5 . crisis events and faunal recoveries of cambrian trilobites 6 . the research on trilobite taxonomy based on disarticulated elements 7 . phylogeny of the trilobite genera of the families dolichometopidae walcott , 1916 , solenopleuridae angelin , 1854 and menocephalidae hupe , 1953a 8 . description of main genera and species\nthere are currently no reviews for this book . be the first to review this book !\nit ' s @ solitarybeeweek - a week of action and education , raising awareness about solitary bees . if you ' d like to lea\u2026 urltoken\nmiddle and basal upper cambrian strata are well exposed in an old quarry at gudhem in the falbygden area of v\u00e4sterg\u00f6tland , south - central sweden . the exposures consist of finely laminated alum shale with scattered stinkstone ( orsten ) lenses , up to 2 . 3 m in diameter . four sections have been measured and sampled in order to establish the succession of trilobite species . fossils are generally preserved only in the stinkstone , and not in the shale . trilobites , including agnostids , and bradoriid arthropods are generally common , whereas lingulate brachiopods and hyoliths are minor faunal constituents .\nin the northeastern wall of the quarry the rock sequence is about 3 . 6 m thick , and includes the middle - upper cambrian boundary . the lower and . . .\nat the northwestern entrance to the quarry there are exposures of the hypagnostus parvifrons zone . a section here consists of a more or less coherent limestone bed at the top , underlain by at least 4 m of unfossiliferous alum shales . the limestone bed has yielded h . mammillatus in abundance , as well as h . parvifrons and fragmentary specimens of paradoxides paradoxissimus ."]}
{"id": 1425, "summary": [{"text": "dickens hill ( foaled 25 january 1976 ) was an irish thoroughbred racehorse and sire .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "the colt showed promising form as a two-year-old in 1978 , winning the anglesey stakes and being narrowly beaten by the english-trained tap on wood in the national stakes .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in the following year he emerged as the best irish racehorse of his generation , winning the ballymoss stakes and the irish 2000 guineas in ireland in spring and the weight-for-age eclipse stakes in britain in july .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he also finished runner-up to the outstanding english-trained colt troy in both the epsom derby and the irish derby .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "at the end of his three-year-old season he was sold and exported to the united states where he made little impact as a racehorse and proved to be a disappointment as a breeding stallion . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "dickens hill ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["where was dickens born ? on 7 february 1812 , charles dickens was born in portsmouth . his parents named him charles john huffam dickens .\nwhen did dickens live ? dickens was born in england in 1812 . he died in 1870 .\nvalerie , the sleigh with the dickens carolers really needs a horse . maybe you could bring the horse back in the future . . my sleigh needs some\nhorse power\n.\nhow did dickens die ? in 1864 dickens and ellen ternan were in a train crash . dickens was not badly hurt , but he was never very well after this accident .\nhappy times the dickens family never had much money . charles had seven brothers and sisters . mr dickens dreamed of being rich . mrs dickens dreamed of owning a school . somehow things never went right .\nwe suggest a visit to blists hill victorian town will take at least 3 hours .\naoc , 8\u00bdf , gulfstream park , beating monument hill , tannersville , midnight mischief .\nexcellent quality , beautiful horse . the horse is beautiful by itself but i love it with the 4 - piece dickens carolers in sleigh by valerie . they are both exquisite . thanks valery and qvc .\ndickens is a success in 1833 , he sold his first story . at first dickens called himself ' boz ' . this was his pen - name .\npictures in dickens many of dickens ' s books had pictures . the pictures helped readers follow the story . two artists were famous for their dickens drawings . they were george cruikshank and hablot k browne , known as ' phiz ' .\ntwo famous books of his many books , dickens liked david copperfield best . in it he wrote about mr micawber , who seems very like dickens ' father .\nmy horse arrived today and it would not stand up . it falls over all the time . i guess my sleigh will have no horse .\nsee the night sky spectacularly lit up over blists hill victorian town with a fantastic family fireworks display .\ngrowing up by 1824 mr dickens had enough money to send charles back to school .\ndickens loved acting . he had his own little theatre at home . while acting in a play in 1857 , dickens fell in love with ellen ternan , an actress .\nwhy do people read dickens ? many of dickens ' stories came out in weekly or monthly parts , as serials . each month people could read a new chapter in the story . perhaps this is why dickens ' books make good films and tv serials too .\nmaybe horse who revealed his brilliance at epsom . - free online library\none of dickens\u2019s goals in writing nicholas nickleby was to expose the ugly truth about yorkshire boarding schools . in the preface to the novel dickens has this to say about yorkshire schoolmasters :\nwhile working in the blacking factory , dickens visited his parents on sundays - in prison .\ngrand parade was the first black horse for 106 years to win the epsom derby .\ndickens ( c kallisto ) grosser freiberger premium - preis , 2nd deutsches derby ( g1 ) .\ndickens walked for miles around the city , watching and listening . he made notes for new stories .\nhow was britain changing ? dickens saw many changes during his life , made by the industrial revolution .\nthe dickens family had a pet raven ( a large black bird ) . its name was grip .\nin the summer of 1948 my love became the third french - trained horse to win the epsom derby and the fifth horse to win both the derby and the grand prix de paris .\ndickens lived through the industrial revolution . he wrote about how life was changing , especially for poor people .\nc : highclere , agent for rancho rosada , agent b : ky . horse center , agent\nadhir says mukul is being used by bjp as troy horse to break tmc to reap benefit .\nwho was charles dickens ? charles dickens is a famous english writer . people all over the world enjoy his stories . one of them is oliver twist , the story of a poor boy in victorian times . books by dickens can be funny and sad . his stories are full of interesting ' characters ' ( people ) .\na famous man dickens became so famous people knew him as he walked about london . he was a celebrity .\ndickens almost became an actor not a writer . having a bad cold stopped him getting his first acting job .\npearl diver became the first french - trained horse to win the epsom derby since durbar in 1914 .\nthe name\ncaptain cuttle\nwas taken from a character in dombey and son by charles dickens , captain edward cuttle .\nterimon , second to nashwan at 500 / 1 , is the longest - priced horse placed in any classic .\nin early 1838 dickens and hablot browne , the illustrator for nickleby , travel to yorkshire to see the boarding schools for themselves .\ndickens was a show - off . he loved to give public readings from his books . in 1842 , he visited america .\ndickens was the most famous novelist in britain . there were lots of others , such as sir walter scott and charlotte bront\u00eb .\nfamily life dickens and his wife had 10 children . but their marriage was not happy . in 1858 , they split up .\nwhat made dickens angry ? dickens was angered by the sad things he saw . in his books , he tried to show what was wrong . in nicholas nickleby , he wrote about a terrible school , dotheboys hall , where unwanted children were cruelly treated .\ndickens\u2019s own mother , elizabeth dickens , was the model for the always - confused , comic mrs . nickleby . luckily for charles she didn\u2019t recognize herself in the character . in fact , she asked someone if they \u201creally believed there ever was such a woman\u201d .\ndickens keeps busy in 1846 dickens became editor of the daily news , a newspaper . he did not like being told what to do by the owners , so in 1850 he started his own magazine , household words . now he could write what he liked .\nthe original winner running rein was disqualified as he was actually an ineligible four - year - old horse named maccabeus .\nready for his sleigh ! equipped with a black bridle and reins , this charming , tan - colored horse is prepared to pull a cart of passengers through the winter snow . he sports dark hooves and a brushed , or flocked , appearance . from the valerie parr hill collection .\nsugarman jr , hill g , forquera r , frost fj . coding of race on death certificates of patients of an urban indian health clinic , washington , 1973\u20131988 .\nsinndar is the first horse to capture the derby , irish derby and prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe in the same season .\ndickens hill ( ire ) ch . h , 1976 { 11 - e } dp = 13 - 8 - 7 - 0 - 0 ( 28 ) di = 7 . 00 cd = 1 . 21 - 14 starts , 5 wins , 4 places , 3 shows career earnings : $ 435 , 301\napril the fifth was a very popular winner and the first epsom - trained horse to win the derby since amato in 1838 .\ndickens died in june 1870 , at home in kent . he was working on a new book . it was the mystery of edwin drood .\nthis is a very large horse , probably unrealistic during victorian times . it does make a statement . thanks val for excellent execution .\nhubbard rl , marsden me , rachal jv , et al . drug abuse treatment : a national study of effectiveness . chapel hill , nc : university of north carolina press ; 1989 .\nlyphard ' s wish set a hot pace until tattenham corner closely followed by milford . at tattenham corner , willie carson on troy seemed to be getting nowhere on his horse , being stuck in on the rails in 7th place . into the straight , milford faded and 3 furlongs from home , the irish 2 , 000 guineas winner dickens ' s hill , took charge and was shaping like a likely winner when troy arrived on the scene on the outside like a torrent erupting .\nnijinsky became the 15th horse to gain the triple crown after winning the derby and 2000 guineas with success in the st leger at doncaster .\nin 1979 hern won his first derby , with sir michael sobell ' s troy , who beat dickens hill by a spectacular seven lengths . the following year he regained the trainers ' championship after bringing off the epsom classic double , winning the derby with mrs arpad plesch ' s henbit , and the oaks with r d hollingsworth ' s bireme .\nit was a harder day\u2019s journey than yesterday\u2019s , for there were long and weary hills to climb ; and in journeys , as in life , it is a great deal easier to go down hill than up . however , they kept on , with unabated perseverance , and the hill has not yet lifted its face to heaven that perseverance will not gain the summit of at last .\ndickens is here describing the kind of three - cornered hat worn by men in the 18th century , familiar to us from historical paintings and costume dramas . planch\u00e9\u2019s\nhard times in 1822 the family moved to london . now times were hard . mr dickens was sent to prison for six months for not paying his bills .\ndr devious is the first horse to win the derby after contesting the kentucky derby , in which he had finished seventh to lil e tee .\nin 1843 , dickens wrote a christmas carol . it is one of his most famous stories . in it , we meet the miser scrooge - and three ghosts !\nnicholas nickleby was the third novel of charles dickens . the first installment was published on march 31 , 1838 and the last installment was published on october 1 , 1839 .\ncharles dickens was born on february 7th in 1812 and died in 1870 . view a timeline of noteworthy events and facts , both professional and personal , in his life .\nphil drake ran five times and won three races , becoming the fifth and last horse to win both the epsom derby and the grand prix de paris .\nshowing true boldness of a soldier the great horse resisted gay mecene ' s challenge to win by a length and a half . troy had crowned himself the european horse of the year , although he didn ' t beat his rivals as comprehensively as in the two derbies , he turned in a most gallant performance .\nin 1820 most people in england worked on farms . when dickens died in 1870 , most people worked in towns . many poor people worked in factories and lived in slums .\nthe great horse had become the first to win the epsom derby . irish derby , king george vi and queen elizabeth diamond stakes and the benson and hedges .\nwe love to see dogs at blists hill victorian town . they\u2019re welcome to visit with you so long as they\u2019re kept on their leads . sadly , we can\u2019t let them inside any exhibits with food or our eating places .\npossibly perfect , 1990 , american champion female turf horse , won yellow ribbon invitational stakes , santa ana handicap , gamely handicap , ramona handicap , beverly d . stakes\nsanta claus won the irish 2 , 000 guineas , the epsom derby and the irish derby . his performances earned him the title of british horse of the year .\npont l\u2019eveque was a very late foal , born at the end of the breeding season on 25 may , making him probably the youngest horse to win the derby .\nshooter\u2019s hill was not always a place whereon one could rest in safety . indeed , it bore for long years a particularly bad name as being the lurking - place of ferocious footpads , cutpurses , highwaymen , cut - throats , and gentry of allied professions who rushed out from [ the ] leafy coverts and took liberal toll from wayfarers\u2026 . so long ago as 1767 [ eight years before the date of the mail - coach\u2019s passage over shooter\u2019s hill in\ndon ' t miss out ! pre - purchase a souvenir guide , to be collected with your tickets on arrival at blists hill victorian town . the guide is already great value so we can ' t offer an online discount .\nchildren love blists hill victorian town . there is plenty of space for them to run around , animals for them to see , sweets to buy and in the summer they can join in all the fun of the victorian fair .\ntroy became the fourth horse to complete the treble of the epsom derby , irish derby and king george . he followed the footsteps of nijinsky , grundy and the minstrel .\nthe great bay horse simply flew past the field like a plane taking of a runaway . the way troy won that day was like a cheetah laying an ambush for his prey and then launching a devastating assault in the appropriate time to pounce on his victims . the acceleration showed was phenomenal . troy had won by the largest margin since manna won in 1925 ( 8 lengths ) . it was perhaps the most convincing derby win since sea bird won in 1965 . troy left the field as if they were pillars . dickens hill finished second followed by northern baby and the favourite ela - mana - mou .\nmahmoud was a light - coloured grey horse of distinctly arab appearance , standing just under 15 . 3 hands high , and bred in france by his owner the aga khan .\npossibly perfect , 1990 , american champion female turf horse , won yellow ribbon invitational stakes , santa ana handicap , gamely handicap , ramona handicap , beverly d . stakes [ 13 ]\nabelson , edward ; tyrrel , john ( 1993 ) . the breedon book of horse racing records . breedon books publishing . isbn 978 - 1 - 873626 - 15 - 3 .\nblists hill victorian town is our largest attraction , and we recommend you allow at least 3 hours to see everything . you can pick up a free attraction map on the day , or download it to help you plan your trip before you arrive .\non 6 june , northern baby started at 66 / 1 outsider for the 200th running of the derby stakes over one and a half miles at epsom downs racecourse . he raced just behind the leader before turning into the straight in third place before moving up to dispute the lead with two furlongs left to run . he was quickly overtaken by troy and dickens hill but stayed on to finish third , beaten seven lengths and three lengths . northern baby returned to england for one of britain ' s most prestigious weight - for - age races , the eclipse stakes over ten furlongs at sandown park racecourse and finished third behind dickens hill and crimson beau . in august , the colt was dropped in class for the group three prix de la cote normande at deauville racecourse in which he started second favourite behind wolverton . northern baby won the race easily by two and a half lengths from lord zara , with wolverton in fourth .\ndickens got the idea for smike as he wandered through a churchyard near bowes academy . he read the engravings on the tombstones of the boys who died while attending bowes and the idea sprang into his mind .\nmaine law requires at least five residents to sign an application for a ballot initiative . the richardsons were joined on the application by bucksport police chief sean geagan , laurie fogelman , who is involved in domestic violence issues , father and gun owner christopher dickens of blue hill , and mother amy fiorilli of otis . the richardsons have become involved in the gun control and gun safety debate in maine and nationally in the years since their daughter died in a slaying that remains unsolved .\ni just love my horse and the carolers in the sleigh too . i also have the 26\nstreet lamp from valerie and i ' m going to put something under it to make it look taller and then put a blanket of snow down . dashing through the snow in a one horse open sleigh . i just love christmas and i can ' t wait to start decorating .\non 6 june , northern baby started at 66 / 1 outsider [ 6 ] for the 200th running of the derby stakes over one and a half miles at epsom downs racecourse . he raced just behind the leader before turning into the straight in third place before moving up to dispute the lead with two furlongs left to run . he was quickly overtaken by troy and dickens hill but stayed on to finish third , beaten seven lengths and three lengths . northern baby returned to england for one of britain ' s most prestigious weight - for - age races , the eclipse stakes over ten furlongs at sandown park racecourse and finished third behind dickens hill and crimson beau . in august , the colt was dropped in class for the group three prix de la cote normande at deauville racecourse in which he started second favourite behind wolverton . northern baby won the race easily by two and a half lengths from lord zara , with wolverton in fourth . [ 3 ]\ni just received this huge horse and he is beautiful . my horse fell over too , so i just broke a popsicle stick to fit under his front leg and glued it on and now he is proud to stand tall and pull the sleigh and the stick doesn ' t show . perfect . . . try to think of a quick fix before returning , you will glad that you did .\ni received my horse same day as the sleigh . my horse would not stand up and believe the legs were uneven and the horse was top heavy to cause this problem . i did not want to return it as no more were available . i decided to try to remedy the problem some how and went to a near by craft store . they were so nice and while i was there i was stopped by several people who admired the horse and how beautiful and big it was . working with the craft store folks we decided on some drapery weights and glue for the back uneven leg to hold it in place better . it did help . they also suggested i glue the legs to a board so it would never fall over . not sure if i want to do that , or purchasing some fishing weights and wrap around the back unstable leg . when i put the horse and sleigh together . the straps to the sleigh seemed to help hold the horse up better too . i love this set so much as as winter sleigh ride is something i have always wanted to do . i will place on my table with fluffy fake snow around it for the holidays . i love it so much , it is beautiful .\nportsmouth was the home of the royal navy . his father , john dickens , worked as a clerk for the navy . his mother ' s name was elizabeth barrow . she wanted to be a teacher and run a school .\nthe horse didn ' t stand well at first , but after i attached it to valerie ' s carolers in the sleigh , it was perfect . love the whole look . i recommend getting the sleigh also ! !\nthis clydesdale - like horse is an ideal addition to the dickens ' family of carolers in the sleigh ! he arrived in great condition ; flocking , mane and tail ( looks like doll hair ) are beautifully done ! his uplifted leg gives a feeling of movement ! will display on dining room buffet to be reflected in the mirror . will add cotton around the display to depict snowfall and maybe a snowman on order . looking fwd to the holidays ! ! !\nshahrastani holds off the strong late challenge of dancing brave in a memorable finish . bold arrangement becomes the first horse to contest both the kentucky derby and derby , finishing second at churchill downs to ferdinand and 14th at epsom .\nreaders like a good story , with interesting characters . dickens was very clever at making up characters . people all over the world know oliver twist , scrooge and david copperfield , even if they have not read the books in which these characters appear .\nin 1939 , he was commissioned into the north irish horse before seeing active service in north africa and italy . together with a fellow officer , major michael pope , he organised an impromptu race meeting on the trotting course at ravenna .\na top - class middle distance runner . in 1979 , troy blazed the british racetrack like a true champion . he was head and shoulders above any other british racehorse in that year . willie carson places him amongst the three best horses he has ever ridden . his trainer dick hern , at that time rated him to be the best horse he had ever trained ( brigadier gerard , who dick hern trained was rated the 2nd best horse of the century by timeform ) .\nthe original illustrator was hablot knight browne , who was better known as phiz . when browne as selecting a pen name he originally thought he might use the name nemo . however , he changed it to phiz because it sounded better with dickens\u2019s pen name , boz .\nduring the school holidays there are great family friendly activities and drop - in workshops . every day during our main summer season children love meeting the animals , getting stuck in at the fairground and taking a ride on the horse & carriage .\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for de ' colletage ( nzl ) . de ' colletage ( nzl ) is a mare born in 2006 october 7 by ekraar out of cashcade\nin their book\na century of champions\n, john randall and tony morris rated windsor lad the nineteenth best horse of the 20th century and the sixth best derby winner , behind sea bird , hyperion , mill reef , nijinsky and shergar .\ntroy ' s third - place prize money from the arc took his total earnings to \u00a3450 , 428 , a record for a horse trained in britain or ireland , which stood for three years until it was surpassed by glint of gold . [ 17 ]\nthus , troy was bred to be a typical top class middle - distance horse with the combination of speed and staying blood . his breeding gave him the ability to launch his run 3 to 4 furlongs from home rather than produce a great burst in the end .\n] a project was set afoot for building a town on the summit of shooter\u2019s hill , but it came to nothing , which is not at all strange when one considers how constantly the dwellers there would have been obliged to run the gauntlet of the gentlemen whom americans happily call \u201croad - agents . \u201d and here is a sample of what would happen now and again , taken \u2026 from the \u2026 columns of a london paper , under date of 1773 . \u201con sunday night , \u201d we read , \u201cabout ten o\u2019clock , colonel craig and his servant were attacked near shooter\u2019s hill by two highwaymen , well mounted , who , on the colonel\u2019s declaring he would not be robbed , immediately fired and shot the servant\u2019s horse in the shoulder . on this the footman discharged a pistol , and the assailants rode off with great precipitation . \u201d that they rode off with nothing else shows how effectually the colonel and his servant , by firmly grasping the nettle danger , plucked the flower safety . ( 36 - 7 )\ntroy had been syndicated for 7 , 2 millions pounds , a record sum at the time . timeform gave him a rating of 137 . he was rated as one of the top middle distance horse of the decade ( compared to mill reef , nijinsky and alleged ) .\nsadly schools like dotheboys hall really did exist . in early 1838 dickens and hablot browne , the illustrator of nicholas nickleby , visited yorkshire to get a firsthand look at the situation . it was a very short visit , just two days , but it was enough to gather all the material they needed .\nsnow knight won the the epsom derby , then the following year earned an eclipse award as the american champion male turf horse . at stud he sired awaasif , the dam of snow bride , winner of the 1989 epsom oaks and the dam of lammtarra , winner of the 1995 epsom derby .\ntroy that day proved he was a truly great horse and not just a very good horse . he claimed a permanent place in the list of all - time greats like nijinsky or mill reef , however that day , it was a great regret to racing that ile de bourbon , the 1978 champion could not participate , due to fitness . it would have been one of flat racing ' s great spectacles witnessing the two champions take on each other ( ile de bourbon won the 1978 king george against a top class field the previous year and that season decimated rivals in the coronation cup , including gay mecene ) .\nan implement used for attaching to the hind - wheel of a vehicle when about to proceed down hill , with a view of regulating its momentum . no carriage or other vehicle should be without this convenience , as it is rarely applied , is never in the way , and prevents accidents and damage . an implement acting on the same principle as the skid , and known as a stop - drag , consists of five or more pieces of wood , united on the outside by a strong joined iron hoop , the wood pressing on the nave of the wheel . the annexed figure [ see illustration ] shows a wheel on a declivity , the chain drawn tight by the pressure of the breeching on the horse ; the brake closely surrounding the nave , and forming an effectual drag . ( 917 )\nafter years of negotiation with the quebec government , punctuate by protests on parliament hill and blockades of the roads leading into the contested forest , the algonquin briefly celebrated an agreement with the quebec government and a local logging company . the agreement was to preserve half of the old - growth trees still remaining within the wildlife reserve and an important moose corridor . the agreement also was to provide for a comprehensive study of the 10 , 000km area used by the algonquin .\nsadly , in the arc troy was beaten by three troikas . he finished a gallant third . had troy been his old self he surely would have won . it was a sad sight that in his farewell race he couldn ' t be the first horse to complete the historic epsom derby , irish derby , king george and arc combination .\nwilliam richard hern was born on january 20 1921 at holford , near bridgwater in somerset , the eldest of the three sons of captain roy hern , who farmed some 300 acres . educated at monmouth school before spending a year at millfield , dick had been winning prizes at horse shows since early boyhood , and hunted with the west somerset foxhounds .\nthe messenger , jerry cruncher , has galloped from temple bar ( a large gate marking the entrance to the city of london between london and westminster [ gaspey , vol . 1 , 51 ] ) . temple bar is a little over a mile west of london bridge ( where the dover road begins ) , so the gallop to catch the mail - coach at shooter\u2019s hill would be a gallop of a little over nine miles ( harper , \u201cthe road to dover\u201d ) .\nlammtarra becomes the first horse to win the derby on his seasonal return since grand parade in 1919 and sets a record time of 2m 32 . 31s , beating mahmoud\u2019s 2m 33 . 8s which was hand - timed in 1936 . the race is switched permanently from wednesday to saturday . vodafone takes over the sponsorship and remains the backer up to 2008 .\n\u2026carrying their divine rights with a high hand . according to the oed , the \u201cdivine right of kings\u201d is the monarchical doctrine that \u201ckings derive their power from god alone , unlimited by any rights on the part of their subjects . \u201d the dover road that lay \u2026 beyond the dover mail , as it lumbered up shooter\u2019s hill . the dover road , 70 . 75 miles long , ran from london bridge ( on the surrey side of the thames river ) to dover ( harper , \u201cthe road to dover\u201d ) . shooter\u2019s hill , 8 . 25 miles along the dover road from london bridge , is an eminence from which the city of london could be seen during the daytime ; in the 18th century it was known for a mineral spring where queen anne herself ( r . 1702 - 1714 ) was said to take the waters . at night , however , it was dangerous . according to charles harper , in his account of the dover road ( 1922 ) ,\nnorthern baby did not appear on the racecourse until october 1978 when he was one of eighteen two - year - olds to contest a maiden race over 1600 metres at saint - cloud racecourse and won by one and a half lengths . later that month he was moved up sharply in class when he was sent to england for the group one william hill futurity over one mile at doncaster racecourse . he started third favourite , but was never in contention and finished eighth behind the irish - trained sandy creek .\nchampion three - year - old and brilliant winner of the kentucky derby and dubai world cup rated 128 by timeform . uniquely talented : a g1 horse on dirt , turf and synthetic tracks . brilliantly consistent : out of the first two only twice in his career . three stakes winning juveniles in his first crop , including g2 winner untamed domain and g2 - placed sunny skies .\nnorthern baby did not appear on the racecourse until october 1978 when he was one of eighteen two - year - olds to contest a maiden race over 1600 metres at saint - cloud racecourse and won by one and a half lengths . later that month he was moved up sharply in class when he was sent to england for the group one william hill futurity over one mile at doncaster racecourse . he started third favourite , but was never in contention and finished eighth behind the irish - trained sandy creek . [ 5 ]\nkris kin is the first supplementary entry to win the derby . the sir michael stoute - trained colt had initially been entered in the classic as a yearling but was scratched at the start of his three - year - old campaign . connections paid \u00a390 , 000 to add the horse to the line - up at the five - day stage following his victory in chester\u2019s dee stakes .\ntraders in the avarice , indifference , or imbecility of parents , and the helplessness of children ; ignorant , sordid , brutal men , to whom few considerate persons would have entrusted the board and lodging of a horse or a dog ; they formed the worthy cornerstone of a structure , which , for absurdity and a magnificent high - minded laissez - aller neglect , has rarely been exceeded in the world .\nanne m . libby , heather d . orton , and paul spicer are with the american indian and alaskan native programs at the university of colorado , denver , and health sciences center , aurora . richard p . barth is with the university of north carolina , chapel hill . mary bruce webb is with the administration for children and families , us department of health and human services , washington , dc . barbara j . burns is with duke university , durham , nc . patricia wood is with the child and adolescent services research center , san diego , calif .\nat stud the great horse produced five group winners and seven stakes winners . his progeny includes pilsudski ( 1986 breeders ' cup turf , 1997 champion stakes , irish champion stakes , japan cup ) , oath ( 1990 epsom derby ) , fastness ( eddie read handicap and 1996 america ' s best miler ) and pelder ( prix ganay , premio parioli and the best 3yo of italy ) , all of them , classic winners .\nharper goes on to record that blackheath was a popular meeting - place in english history , and the \u201cmutinous intent\u201d of dickens\u2019 horses to return the carriage to blackheath might be taken as an allusion to blackheath\u2019s history as a site of collusion and revolt . two famous revolts \u2013 one led by wat tyler in 1381 and another by jack cade in 1450 \u2013 began with the gathering of rebels on blackheath ; and the place gained a milder reputation as a rendezvous for various more peaceful assemblies . as harper puts it :\ncamelot becomes the 37th horse to follow up victory in the first british classic , the 2000 guineas over a mile at newmarket , with success in the investec derby as he records a convincing five - length win at epsom downs . jockey and trainer , joseph and aidan o\u2019brien , become the first father / son combination to win the premier classic . camelot narrowly fails in his bid to win the triple crown , finishing second behind encke in the st leger at doncaster three and a half months later .\na multi - horse finish rivals that of 1913 as the closest ever . in a four - way photo , sir percy beats dragon dancer , dylan thomas and hala bek a shorthead , a head and a short - head . seven winners have had the prefix sir : sir peter teazle ( 1787 ) , sir thomas ( 1788 ) , sir harry ( 1798 ) , sir bevys ( 1879 ) , sir visto ( 1895 ) , sir ivor ( 1968 ) , and most recently sir percy .\nthis illustration , from fairholt\u2019s costume , gives us an idea of the kind of boots the coach - passengers are wearing as they trudge up shooter\u2019s hill beside the mail . \u2026 every posting - house and ale - house \u2026 a posting - house was named for the post \u2013 the conveyance of letters around the country . to travel or ride post was , in one sense , to ride with the mail , and a posting - house was a kind of way station where travelers could change horses and refresh themselves in the course of a journey ( oed ) . \u2026the guard got down to skid the wheel for the descent\u2026 a skid , according to the dictionary of daily wants ( 1859 ) , is\nin the 2 , 000 guineas en route . therefore the colt made his seasonal debut in 1979 in the 9 - furlong heath stakes ( now known as the feilden stakes ) at newmarket , which he won with enough ease to see him start favourite in the derby . as it happened , the 200th running of the derby might as well have been a one - horse race as troy won by a street , but ela - mana - mou still ran well , finishing fourth ( just ahead of lyphard ' s wish ) with\nin the official international classification for 1978 , troy was rated the tenth best two - year - old in europe , seven pounds behind the top - rared tromos . troy was given a rating of 122 by the independent timeform organisation , twelve pounds behind tromos and was described in their annual racehorses of 1978 as\njust the type to develop into a high - class three - year - old\n. [ 6 ] troy was given an end of season rating of 137 by timeform in 1979 , the fourth highest awarded to a derby winner up to that time , [ 17 ] and was named their horse of the year . in the gilbey racing awards , based on poits accrued in major races troy was named champion racehorse of the year and middle distance champion . the compilers of the international classification was less impressed : he was named the best three - year - colt in europe but was rated a pound behind three troikas . [ 10 ] he was named british horse of the year for 1979 by the racecourse association , taking twenty - seven of the thirty - two votes . [ 17 ]\nhis epsom derby win , was one of the most emphatic victories ever in the history of the blue riband . troy in my rating would rank amongst the british all - time greats . he could be categorized with great horses like crepello , sir ivor , alleged , generous , nashwan grundy , etc . . . all great horses in their own right but marginally below the superstars like mill reef , nijinsky , shergar or dancing brave ( horse one can see once in a lifetime ) . troy had truly remarkable acceleration and in top gear looked like a missile cruising .\ngalileo\u2019s half - brother sea the stars shows he is one of the greats as he powers to glory under veteran jockey mick kinane . the john oxx - trained colt becomes the first horse for 20 years to follow up victory in the 2000 guineas with success in the epsom classic and goes on to complete an unbeaten campaign with four further group one wins , annexing the coral - eclipse , juddmonte international , irish champion stakes and prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe . investec takes over sponsorship of the derby and backs all the races at the two - day meeting at epsom .\ntroy , a big , powerfully built bay horse with three white socks , was bred in county meath , ireland , by the ballymacoll stud , the breeding operation of his owners , industrialist sir michael sobell and his son - in - law lord weinstock . [ 3 ] he was sired by petingo , the leading english two - year - old of 1967 , and was out of the mare la milo . [ 4 ] la milo had previously produced washington d . c . international winner admetus . troy was sent into training with dick hern at west ilsley in berkshire .\nthe comparisons made here ( of the three - cornered hat to a church spout , a flour - scale , a greyhound\u2019s nose , etc . ) suggest that dickens\u2019 comparison of the three - cornered hat to a spittoon participates in a tradition of pejorative similes . ( a spittoon is a \u201creceptacle for spittle , usually a round flat vessel of earthenware or metal\u201d [ oed ] in which saliva and tobacco might be deposited ; the shallow basin of the spittoon must have borne some resemblance to the hat\u2019s shallow crown . ) the three - cornered hat was the typical head - dress for men until the late 18th century , and planch\u00e9 attributes its demise to the french revolution :\nnorthern baby was a small , lightly - built chestnut horse with a narrow white blaze , two white socks and one white coronet , bred by the kinghaven farm stud in ontario . he was one of many important winners sired by the canadian - bred northern dancer , who won the kentucky derby in 1964 before becoming one of the most successful breeding stallions in thoroughbred history . he was the first foal of two rings , a tough and consistent racemare who won nine of her thirty - one races including the nassau stakes . two rings was great - granddaughter of the broodmare gallita , whose other descendents included nadir , mashaallah and mark of esteem .\nin 1978 the independent timeform organisation gave northern baby a rating of 109 , twenty - five pounds below their top - rated two - year - old tromos . in the following year he was rated 127 by timeform , ten pounds below the top - rated racehorse troy . in the official international classification he was rated thirteen pounds below the top - rated three troikas . as a four - year - old , northern baby was rated 119 by timeform , eighteen pounds below the top - rated moorestyle . in the international classification he was rated eight pounds behind moorestyle and seven pounds inferior to the top - rated older horse ela - mana - mou .\na fortnight later , troy ran in the irish derby . rivadon set a scorching pace being a pacemaker for troy . the bart and the two french colts , fabulous dancer and scorpio followed him . just before the turn , the bart took the lead . at this point , troy was moved up into a handy position behind them and when pulled to the outside cruised to a most facile win . the pacemaker , rivadon played an instrumental win in troy ' s victory as he had got the field well strung out . it was also enough to get troy of the bit . troy had won by 4 long - looking lengths . no horse had any hope of catching him .\nnorthern baby was a small , lightly - built chestnut horse with a narrow white blaze , two white socks and one white coronet , [ 2 ] bred by the kinghaven farm stud in ontario . he was one of many important winners sired by the canadian - bred northern dancer , who won the kentucky derby in 1964 before becoming one of the most successful breeding stallions in thoroughbred history . he was the first foal of two rings , a tough and consistent racemare who won nine of her thirty - one races including the nassau stakes . [ 3 ] two rings was great - granddaughter of the broodmare gallita , whose other descendents included nadir , mashaallah and mark of esteem . [ 4 ]\nin 1978 the independent timeform organisation gave northern baby a rating of 109 , twenty - five pounds below their top - rated two - year - old tromos . [ 5 ] in the following year he was rated 127 by timeform , ten pounds below the top - rated racehorse troy . in the official international classification he was rated thirteen pounds below the top - rated three troikas . [ 3 ] as a four - year - old , northern baby was rated 119 by timeform , eighteen pounds below the top - rated moorestyle . in the international classification he was rated eight pounds behind moorestyle and seven pounds inferior to the top - rated older horse ela - mana - mou . [ 9 ]\nin truth , ela - mana - mou ' s pedigree looked rather old - fashioned even at the time of his birth , hence the fact that he cost a mere 4 , 500 gns as a yearling . he proved a rare bargain at this price , thus providing a dream start to racehorse ownership for max and audry muinos , for whom he was trained in 1978 and ' 79 at pulborough in sussex by guy harwood . their luck didn ' t end with him , either , because they celebrated ela - mana - mou ' s sale at the end of the horse ' s three - year - old campaign in 1979 by re - investing some of their profits in a 20 , 000 - gns yearling - who , named\ni feel like a little girl who just got her very first horse ! i was waitlisted for him last year , but did not get one . i was so excited when qvc sent me an e - mail indicating he was back in stock . i ordered him immediately , he arrived within days and he is perfect . he stands up properly , his mane and tail are in nice condition , his bells jingle when shook and his coat looks great . i haven ' t brought the sleigh out of storage yet but i do have a fine purpose for him in the meantime . my lord of the rings barbie doll legolas is currently seated on him , bow in hand ready to ride into battle ! lol i may have to see how king aragorn looks on him next .\nin a very short career , troy proved particularly successful as a sire of fillies and broodmares . he sired helen street , winner of the 1985 irish oaks and france ' s prix du calvados : helen street produced street cry , the sire of 2007 kentucky derby winner street sense . by another daughter , sheer audacity , troy was also the damsire of the 1999 epsom derby winner , oath . troy also sired walensee , who raced in france and won the 1985 prix vermeille and was voted that country ' s champion 3 - year - old filly . she was the dam of westerner , the 2004 and 2005 european champion stayer . through another daughter , cocotte , troy was the damsire of pilsudski , the 1997 european champion older horse . troy ' s son tropular sired the prix du jockey club winner ragmar .\njockey : jeff teter trainer : janet e . elliot owner : william c . lickle breeder : john hartigan\n* current year statistics include all north american races and dubai world cup day . career statistics include results from all countries .\n* current year includes north american and dubai world cup day statistics ; all previous years include results from all countries .\nequibase company is the official supplier of racing information and statistics to america ' s best racing , breeders ' cup , daily racing form , ntra , the jockey club , tra , tvg and xpressbet .\nproprietary to and \u00a9 2018 equibase company llc . all rights reserved . the terms of use for this web site prohibit the use of any robot , spider , scraper or any other automated means to access the contents of this site . the terms of use also expressly prohibit the republication or dissemination of the contents of this screen without the prior written consent of equibase company llc .\njockey : alex o . solis trainer : robert b . hess , jr . owner : jones - jones - smith breeder : hughes farm , inc .\naccording to the australian stud book [ 6 : 413 ] merman ' s grandam , surf , was bred to rosicrucian in 1882 . she proved barren and was covered by coltness and exported to australia , where she foaled seaweed , a chesnut filly , in 1883 . contrarily the general stud book [ 15 : 459 ] records that surf produced her first foal ( by coltness ) in 1882 , was then covered by rosicrucian and exported that year . merman was sent to england in 1897 and there won his share of races , including the cesarewitch , the jockey club cup stakes ( now the british champions long distance cup ) , the goodwood cup , the goodwood plate ( now the goodwood stakes ) and the ascot gold cup .\nowner : mrs j . binet breeder : egmont stud winnings : 14 starts : 5 - 4 - 3 , $ 435 , 301 at 2 won anglesey s . - g3 ( ire ) , 2nd national s . - g2 ( ire ) , 3rd tyros s . ( ire ) at 3 won ballymoss s . - g2 ( ire ) , air cool irish 2 thousand guineas - g1 , coral eclipse s . - g1 ( eng ) , 2nd vauxhall trial s . - g3 ( ire ) , derby s . - g1 ( eng ) , irish sweeps derby - g1 ( ire ) at 4 3rd canadian turf h . - g3 ( 50 , 000 ) sold 34 , 000 gns . newmarket houghton sale . second hwt in ireland ( close )\nfeb . 26 , 1979 : total solar eclipse turns day into night in brandon , man .\nflashback : how tv news covered the last total eclipse to cross the u . s . mainland\nas images come flowing from the rail at churchill downs and pimlico , documenting every move of kentucky derby winner nyquist\u2019s quest for the triple crown , a dedicated team in paris , ky . is still drowning in images from triple crowns past . kate lossen isn\u2019t quite sure what her official title is in her capacity with the [ \u2026 ]\npublisher ray paulick ( 859 312 . 2102 ) director of advertising emily alberti ( 859 913 . 9633 ) editor - in - chief scott jagow features editor natalie voss bloodstock editor joe nevills racing news editor chelsea hackbarth contributing writers sarah e . coleman frank mitchell tom pedulla jen roytz denise steffanus photography equisport photos ( matt and wendy wooley ) eric kalet business manager carol paulick\nurltoken is published by blenheim publishing llc , 3070 lakecrest circle , suite 400 - 292 , lexington , ky 40513 . copyright blenheim publishing llc .\nt & cs apply on all offers . new customers only ; debit / credit cards only ."]}
{"id": 1427, "summary": [{"text": "mystus is a genus of fish in the family bagridae native to asia .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "phylogenetic relationships within this genus are poorly understood , though it has been suggested that there are two major lineages . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "mystus", "paragraphs": ["mystus cineraceus , m . gulio , m . falcarius , m . leucophasis , m . pulcher\nsystematic studies conducted on mystus species of northern kerala are very rare . it is due the taxonomic ambiguity which had existed in many species of this genus ? to solve this dilemma , during this study , all mystus species were collected from their type localities and taxonomically analysed . examination of meristic , metric and major morphometric characters helped to prove the identity of all mystus species of these regions .\ncitation : plamoottil m ( 2017 ) taxonomic notes on mystus species of northern kerala . j aquac res development 8 : 495 . doi : 10 . 4172 / 2155 - 9546 . 1000495\nmystus bleekeri was described from the ganges river drainage and myanmar ( day 1877 ) , but the lectotype designation of sharma and dutt ( 1983 ) restricts the type locality to the ganges river drainage .\n( of mystus mukherjii ganguly & datta , 1975 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of mystus cavassius ( hamilton , 1822 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nasia : lowland rivers in most major basins of the indian subcontinent ( pakistan , nepal , india , sri lanka and myanmar ) , including but not limited to the indus , brahmaputra - ganges , krishna , cauvery , irrawaddy , salween and tenasserim . reports of this species from the chao phraya and mekong basins , malaysia , and indonesia are based on misidentifications of mystus albolineatus or mystus singaringan . occurs in thailand , but only in the salween basin .\njustification : since mystus tengara identity is now confirmed ( darshan et al . 2010 ) , it is known to have a fairly wide distribution in the ganges and brahmaputra river basins in northern and northeastern india . the species does not face any major threats and is therefore assessed as least concern .\njustification : although there is no information on the population and its trends for this species , current evidence indicates that it is still relatively widespread and abundant . despite being targeted in fisheries in some regions of its distribution , the level of exploitation is not deemed high enough to be a threat to long - term survival of this species . mystus bleekeri is therefore assessed as least concern .\nmystus cavasius was described from the atrai river ( hamilton 1822 ) . this species was previously thought to occur throughout the indian subcontinent and myanmar , but chakrabarty and ng ( 2005 ) showed that the name should be restricted to the populations from northern part of the subcontinent , those from the southern part are referable to m . seengtee and those from myanmar are referable to m . falcarius .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by cmilitante , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by cmilitante , 14 / 03 / 2013\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nby jerdon ( 1849 ) from manantoddy ( mananthavady ) in wynaad , kerala , india . day ( 1877 ) changed the generic status of the fish to\nmadhusoodana kurup , b . , basheer , v . s . , arunachalam , m . & molur , s .\nis assessed as least concern because it is widely distributed in the peninsular india and it is also common in several areas . it is cultivated commercially in tamil nadu . furthermore , there are no specific threats identified for this species .\nis definitely found in kerala and tamil nadu . in kerala it is known from manantoday in wynaad ( jerdon 1849 ) , ponmni estuary ( bijukumar and sushama 2000 ) and in chalakkudy river , muvattupuzha river and periyar river ( beevi and ramachandran 2009 ) . in tamil nadu it is known from thiroomurthi dam , parambikulam , kallapuram and amaravathi ( devi\n2005 ) but exact point localities are missing . this species is also recorded from the kancheepuram and kanyakumari districts in tamil nadu but the exact locations are missing ( rajagopal and davidar 2008 ) . it is reported from the nilgiris bisophere , travancroe , achankovil , periyar and kabani rivers ( kurup\n2007 ) and bhima river ( suter 1944 ) in maharashtra . yadav ( 2003 ) has suggested that the species is found in krishna river system and cauvery river system , however , exact localities are missing . it is also reported from madhya pradesh ( sarkar and lakra 2007 ) . all these records need validation .\nis unknown . however , it is very common in chalakkudy river , muvattupuzha river and periyar river ( beevi and ramachandran 2009 ) . the species may be common in other parts of its distribution range .\n. 2005 , 2007 ) . it is also found in estuaries ( bijukumar and sushama 2000 ) . it attains a total length of 15 cm ( menon 1999 ) . it is found in deep pools in higher altitudes with sandy or muddy substrate ( kurup\n2004 ) . no information is available about habitat changes and its effects on this species .\nis of minor interest to fisheries ( talwar and jhingran 1991 ) . it is cultured in trichy in tamil nadu ( haniffa 2009 , m . arunachalam pers . comm . 2010\n. research is essential on taxonomic ambiguity , population status , distribution , life history , ecology , harvest trends and threats to the species . some population of the species is likely to be protected in the indira gandhi wildlife sanctuary ( devi\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis species is known from the brahmaputra - ganges system , as well as the indus and mahanadi river drainages ( roberts 1994 ) .\nthere is no information on the population size or trends for this species , although this is a fairly common species in the ganges - brahmaputra system .\nthis species inhabits a large variety of freshwater bodies , primarily rivers and lakes .\nthis species is targeted as a food fish in west bengal , assam and tripura in india and in bangladesh ( w . vishwanath , s . c . dey pers . comm . ) . in other parts of its range , no major fishery exists for this catfish ; but is obtained in the fishing operations along with other fishes . it is also sporadically caught and exported as an ornamental fish ( h . h . ng pers . comm . ) .\nthe current rate of fishing for this species is not a threat in eastern and northeastern india . in other regions , the threats to this species are unknown , since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats ( especially those of an anthropogenic nature ) remains unknown . despite the paucity of knowledge regarding potential threats , this species is still relatively abundant and widespread . this may be an indication that there are no major widespread threats to this species at the moment .\nthere is insufficient information on the distribution , biology and potential threats for this species . catch data for this species is also needed .\nthis species is known from the ganges and brahmaputra river drainages in india . it is thought to be widely distributed in the northern and northeastern parts of the indian subcontinent ( ferraris 2007 ) .\nalthough the current population and its trends are unknown for this species , current indications from field surveys are that this species is still relatively widespread and abundant .\nthis species is caught as a food fish and is regularly caught and exported as an ornamental fish .\nmore research about the population size and trends , distribution and the biology of this species is needed , as there is insufficient information available . potential threats to this species also need to be identified .\nknown from the ganges , brahmaputra , mahanadi , subarnarekhar and godavari river drainages in northern india , nepal and bangladesh . the conspecificity of material identified as this species from the indus river drainage awaits further verification ( chakrabarty and ng 2005 ) .\nalthough mishra et al . ( 2009 ) reported a mean decline of 29 . 9 % in catch for this species in southwestern bengal ( lower ganges - brahmaputra system and subarnarekha river ) for the period 1960 - 2000 , and an average decline of 57 % each decade from 1980 - 2000 ; there is insufficient data from other areas where this species is naturally distributed . data from throughout the ganges - brahmaputra system suggests that this species is still relatively common .\nthis species inhabits a wide variety of freshwater habitats , although it is chiefly found in larger rivers , primarily with a sandy or muddy substrate ( h . h . ng and w . vishwanath pers . comm . ) .\nthis species is heavily utilized as a food fish in some parts of its range , and is occasionally caught and exported as an ornamental fish .\nalthough there is a marked decline in the population in southern west bengal due to overfishing , the threats to this species in other areas of its distribution are unknown . since there is no information on the biology of this species , the impact of potential threats ( especially those of an anthropogenic nature ) remains unknown . the current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified . although iucn bangladesh ( 2000 ) identify habitat loss as a major threat to this species , this has not been verified by an empirical evidence .\nthere is insufficient information on the distribution , biology and potential threats for this species . catch data for this species is also needed from areas other than southern west bengal .\ngreek , mystax = whiskered , used by belon in 1553 to describe all fishes with whiskers ( ref . 45335 )\nfreshwater ; brackish ; demersal ; amphidromous ( ref . 51243 ) . tropical ; 5\u00b0n - 38\u00b0s\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 40 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 4833 ) ; max . published weight : 10 . 0 kg ( ref . 4833 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 1 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 7 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 10 - 11 . body elongate and compressed ; head conical ; occipital process narrow . maxillary barbels , in adults , extend posteriorly beyond the caudal fin base , but in young specimen , do not extend beyond the anal fin . dorsal spine weak , often feebly serrated . color is grayish with a more or less well - defined midlateral longitudinal stripe . a dark spot emphasized by a white or pale area along its ventral margin is just anterior to the first dorsal spine . dorsal , adipose and caudal fins shaded with melanophores .\nfound in tidal rivers and lakes ; also beels , canals , ditches , ponds , and inundated fields . its pectoral spine can cause painful wounds ( ref . 4833 ) . found in the basin - wide tributary of the lower mekong ( ref . 36667 ) . oviparous , distinct pairing possibly like other members of the same family ( ref . 205 ) .\ntalwar , p . k . and a . g . jhingran , 1991 . inland fishes of india and adjacent countries . volume 2 . a . a . balkema , rotterdam . ( ref . 4833 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00933 ( 0 . 00603 - 0 . 01443 ) , b = 2 . 98 ( 2 . 86 - 3 . 10 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 \u00b10 . 5 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( fec = 3 , 314 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 54 of 100 ) .\nthe generic name is probably derived from the latin mystax , meaning moustache , in reference to the long barbels . it was first used by scopoli in 1777 making it a very old genus that has included many catfishes from throughout the world at one time or another .\neasily adapts to a wide variety of frozen and prepared food in the aquarium . may eat very small fish .\nsmallest 48mm , largest 400mm , average 172mm , most commonly 120mm . all sl .\nhas this page been useful ? please donate to our monthly hosting costs and keep us free for everyone to enjoy ! explore our youtube channel , facebook page or follow us on twitter .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 urltoken , part of the aquatic republic network group of websites . all rights reserved . cite this website . by accessing this site you agree to our terms and conditions of use . our privacy policy .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nomics international organises 3000 + global conferenceseries events every year across usa , europe & asia with support from 1000 more scientific societies and publishes 700 + open access journals which contains over 50000 eminent personalities , reputed scientists as editorial board members .\ncopyright : \u00a9 2017 plamoottil m . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\n\u00a9 2008 - 2018 omics international - open access publisher . best viewed in mozilla firefox | google chrome | above ie 7 . 0 version\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of bagrus cavasius ( hamilton , 1822 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of pimelodus cavasius hamilton , 1822 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of pimelodus seengtee sykes , 1839 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of aoria cavasius ( hamilton , 1822 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hypselobagrus nigriceps ( peters , 1868 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of macrones cavasius ( hamilton , 1822 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of macrones nigriceps peters , 1868 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nwe have kept jott a free peer - reviewed scientific journal to promote conservation . we have not put up a paywall to readers , and we do not charge for publishing . but running a monthly journal costs a lot . while we do have some partners , we still require support to keep the journal alive . if our readers help fund it , our future will be more secure .\njott allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non - profit purposes , reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication .\n. he is working on the phylogeny of catfishes based on classical and molecular techniques .\nis a professor in the department of life sciences , manipur university . his field of specialization is fish and fisheries . he is presently engaged in taxonomy and systematics of freshwater fishes of northeastern india .\nis the director of directorate of coldwater fisheries research ( dcfr ) , bhimtal , uttarakhand ( under icar ) . he is presently engaged in various aspects of coldwater fishery including exploration and documentation of coldwater fishes of india . he is also supervising the\nis a principal scientist in dcfr , bhimtal . his field of specialization is cytogenetics and fish molecular biology . he is presently engaged in the molecular characterization and phylogeny of coldwater fishes of india . he also supervises doctoral and post doctoral research in fish and fisheries .\nad survey , collection , morphometric and anatomic study and phylogeny of catfishes of northeast india ; wv supervision of taxonomy and phylogeny of freshwater fishes of northeastern india ; pcm inventory and cataloguing of coldwater fishes of india ; ab supervise phylogenetic study of coldwater fishes .\nab differential diagnosis , interpretation of the results , comparison with available literature and discuss taxonomic status .\nwe are thankful to heok hee ng for providing us valuable literature required for this study . the first author is grateful to department of biotechnology , government of india for awarding fellowship under dbt - postdoctoral program in biotechnology and life sciences .\n, a new species of bagrid catfish from the headwaters of chindwin drainage in manipur , india , is described here .\nit is distinguished from its congeners in having a unique combination of the following characters : a colour pattern of the body consisting of a distinct dark tympanic spot and three brown stripes separated by pale narrow longitudinal lines , cranial fontanel reaching the base of the occipital process , a long - based adipose fin contacting the base of the last dorsal - fin ray anteriorly , 16 - 19 gill rakers on the first branchial arch , a slender cleithral process , pectoral spine with 9 - 11 serrations on the posterior edge , eye with a diameter of 16 . 5\u201319 . 8 % hl and prepectoral length 22 . 2\u201326 . 0 % sl .\nthe new species has been compared with its congeners from myanmar and also from northeastern india .\nto have an elongate cranial fontanel reaching up to the base of the occipital process , long maxillary barbel , very long adipose fin , 11\u201330 gill rakers on the first gill arch and 37\u201346 total vertebrae , about equally divided between abdominal and caudal regions . he included only eight species under the genus .\nmo ( 1991 ) characterized the genus to have a thin needle - like first infraorbital , twisted and thickened metapterygoid loosely attached to the quadrate by means of ligament or a small extent of cartilage .\nmanipur state in the northeastern corner of india has two headwaters : that of the brahmaputra basin in the west and of the chindwin in the east .\nfrom the lakes and streams of manipur valley , including the loktak lake ( all headwaters of the chindwin river drainage ) .\nhora ( 1936 ) also collected the species from the brahmaputra basin in nagaland and menon ( 1954 ) from manipur .\nthe species was also reported from the chindwin basin of manipur by menon ( 1953 , 1954 ) , singh & singh ( 1985 ) , vishwanath et al . ( 1998 ) , arunkumar & singh ( 1997 ) and vishwanath\ndorsal fin height was measured from the base of the spinelet to the highest point of the dorsal fin .\nmethods for counting gill rakers and vertebrae follow roberts ( 1992 ) and roberts ( 1994 ) , respectively .\nhora , 1921 : 165\u2013214 ( brief description of specimens from manipur valley , chindwin basin ) .\nsingh & singh , 1985 : 87 ( reported from sekmai & chakpi rivers , manipur ) ; vishwanath et al . 1998 : 323 ( reported from chatrikong river , manipur ) ;\narunkumar & singh , 1997 : 131 ( reported from yu - river in manipur ) ; jayaram & sanyal , 2003 : 42 ( in part , synonymy and description ) .\n12 . viii . 2000 , 7ex . , 87 . 0\u201371 . 6 mm sl , wangoi - ngarian lake , ( chindwin drainage ) , a . drashan ( mumf 9502 / 1 - 9502 / 7 ) ; 08 . ix . 2000 , 4 ex . , 79 . 9\u2013108 . 7 mm sl , khuga river ( chindwin drainage ) , churanchanpur district , k . santa devi ( mumf 9503 / 1 - 9503 / 4 ) ; 02 . xi . 2006 , 14 ex . , 60 . 5\u201386 . 3 mm sl , nambul river at naoremthong , imphal - west district , h . joyshree devi , ( mumf 9504 / 1 - 9504 / 14 ) .\n70 . 2\u201396 . 2 mm sl , iril river at keibi ( chindwin river drainage ) , i . linthoingambi , ( mumf 9505 / 1 - 9505 / 22 ) ; 06 . vi . 1996 , 4 ex . , 83 . 1\u2013104 . 7 mm sl , chatrickong river at sanalok ( chindwin river drainage ) , ukhrul district , k . selim ( mumf 1096\u20131099 ) .\nmorphometric data are shown in table 1 . dorsal profile rising evenly ( at an angle of 20\u201325\nto the horizontal ) from tip of snout to origin of dorsal fin then goes almost horizontal to anterior third of adipose fin , then sloping gradually ventrally from there to end of caudal peduncle .\nventral profile roughly straight to end of anal - fin base , then sloping gently dorsally to the end of caudal peduncle .\nanterior cranial fontanel extending from level of posterior nasal opening to posterior orbital margins , separated from posterior fontanel by epiphyseal bar .\nsupraoccipital process long , reaching basal bone of dorsal fin , its base narrow with about one - fifth of its length , distally tapered .\neye ovoid , horizontal axis longest , located entirely in the dorsal half of the head .\ntooth band on vomer continuous across midline and crescentic , slightly broader than premaxillary in middle , tapering posterolaterally , extending to level of lateral end of premaxillary tooth band .\ndentary tooth band separated in the middle by thick skin , tapering laterally on each side , broader than premaxillary and vomerine tooth band at symphysis , length of one side equals lateral span of vomerine tooth band . gill openings wide , free from isthmus . first branchial arch has 16\u201319 gill rakers .\nbarbels in four pairs , maxillary barbel not reaching anal - fin origin , nasal reaching posterior rim of eye , outer mandibular barbel reaching base of pectoral fin and inner mandibular barbel slightly shorter .\ndorsal - fin origin slightly anterior to the middle of the body , with spinelet , spine , and seven branched rays .\ndorsal spine three - fifths to three - fourths of dorsal - fin height , smooth on both edges .\nadipose fin long , spanning most of postdorsal distance , its origin in contact with base of last dorsal - fin ray and deeply incised posterior portion .\npectoral spine backwardly curved with 9\u201311 large posterior serrations and anteriorly rough . pelvic fin short with i\nanal - fin origin inserted at vertical through middle of adipose - fin base , with iii - v , 8\u20139 rays , anterior two simple rays minute , visible in alizarin stained specimens . caudal fin deeply forked with i\nribs : commonly 12 , rarely 11 ; vertebra with 40\u201341 ( 21 + 19 = 40 or 22 + 18 = 40 or 23 + 18 = 41 ) .\ncaudal skeleton composed of five hypural plates ( two on lower and three on upper lobe ) .\ndorsal and ventral lobes of caudal fin with 10 and 11 procurrent rays , respectively .\nmales with long genital papilla reaching to the base of the second branched anal - fin ray .\nin life or freshly dead : dorsal portion of the head and body brownish - grey with greenish reflection ; tympanic spot without distinct margin , with greenish reflection that is more pronounced in the middle ; lateral surface of body silvery with brownish - golden reflection without prominent stripes , ventrally dull white .\nin 10 % formalin : dorsal portion of the head and body brownish - gray , tympanic spot with distinct margin , three brown lateral stripes on body separated by pale longitudinal lines , lower pale longitudinal line about twice as wide as the upper .\nthe specific epithet is derived from the manipuri local name of the fish : \u2018ngasep\u2019 .\nare very similar to the new species in having a long - based adipose fin that contacts the base of the last dorsal - fin ray anteriorly and cranial fontanel reaching to the base of the occipital process .\nfrom the chindwin - irrawaddy and ganga - brahmaputra river drainages is given in table 2 .\nin having three brown stripes on the body separated by pale narrow longitudinal lines above and below the lateral line ( vs . a brownish body with a midlateral stripe lacking the pale longitudinal lines ) .\nin having more gill rakers on the first branchial arch ( 16\u201319 vs . 13\u201315 ; table 3 ) , more pectoral - fin rays ( 9\u201310 vs . 7\u20138 ) , more anal - fin rays ( 8\u20139 vs . 6\u20137 ) and a shorter maxillary barbel ( 200 . 0\u2013235 . 0 % hl vs . 247 . 4\u2013345 . 0 ) .\ncollected from the chindwin basin in the indo - burma border in manipur were examined and found to have a long - based adipose fin contacting the base of the last dorsal - fin ray anteriorly , a cranial fontanel reaching the base of the occipital process and a black spot at the base of the caudal fin .\nvinciguerra\u2019s ( 1890 ) description of the species clearly states the presence of a black spot at the base of the caudal fin .\nlabelled as zsi 781 , collected from prome ( = pyay ) , myanmar . the zsi specimen has all the diagnostic characters of\nand also bears a noticeably darker region at the base of the caudal fin .\nby the absence of a black or dark brown spot at the base of the caudal fin ( vs . spot present ; image 2 ) , shorter maxillary barbel ( 200 . 0\u2013235 . 0 % hl vs . 255 . 3\u2013290 . 2 ) and smaller eye ( eye diameter : 16 . 2\u201319 . 8 % hl vs . 20 . 8\u201323 . 5 ) .\nin having ( vs . lacking ) brown lateral stripes on the body , a shorter maxillary barbel ( 200 . 0\u2013235 . 0 % hl vs . 355 . 8\u2013538 . 0 ) , a lower dorsal fin ( dorsal - fin height : 20 . 8\u201321 . 8 % sl vs . 25 . 7\u201333 . 6 ) and lacking the black spot in front of dorsal spine ( vs . spot present ) .\nin having a longer cranial fontanel reaching the base of the occipital process ( vs . not reaching , but extending up to half the length of supraoccipital bone ) ; adipose - fin base in contact ( vs . not in contact ) with the base of the last dorsal - fin ray anteriorly , and a smooth ( vs . serrated ) dorsal spine .\nfurther differs from the new species in having ( vs . lacking ) a filamentous extension of the upper principle - ray of the caudal fin .\nin having a wider vomerine tooth - band ( as wide as the premaxillary tooth - band vs . about one - third of the premaxillary tooth - band ) , fewer vertebrae ( 41\u201342 vs . 35 ) and lacking ( vs . having ) a black spot at the base of the caudal fin .\nfrom manipur based on five specimens ( 92 . 2\u2013125 . 6 mm sl ) , but they did not provide the exact collection site of the specimens .\nwith a black spot at the base of the caudal fin from our extensive surveys of the brahmaputra river drainage in manipur .\nhowever , we were unable to verify the identity of jayaram & sanyal\u2019s ( 2003 ) material , as we were unable to locate this material for study in the collections of the zoological survey of india in kolkata .\nin having a slender ( vs . broad ) cleithral process , smaller eye ( diameter 16 . 2\u201319 . 8 % hl vs . 20 . 2\u201325 . 9 ) , shorter maxillary barbel ( 200 . 0\u2013235 . 0 % hl vs . 241 . 3\u2013330 . 0 ) , more gill rakers on the first branchial arch ( 16\u201319 vs . 11\u201315 ) , fewer pectoral spine serrations on the posterior edge ( 9\u201311 vs . 11\u201316 ) and longer prepectoral length ( 22 . 2\u201326 . 0 % sl vs . 19 . 5\u201321 . 8 ) and dorsal spine that extends to about three - fifths to three - quarters ( vs . nearly half ) of the fin height .\nin having a narrower base of the supraoccipital process , its width at the base being about one - fifth of its length ( vs . two - fifths to half of its length ) ; more vertebrae ( 40\u201341 vs . 37\u201340 ) , with the closure of the haemal arches appearing from the 12 th \u201314 th ( vs . commonly 11 th or rarely 12 th ) vertebra onwards .\nin having fewer gill rakers ( 16\u201319 vs . 28 ) on the first arch , more vertebrae ( 40\u201341 vs . 36 )\nthin black mid - lateral line connecting the tympanic spot and the black spot at the base of the caudal fin .\nin having a smooth ( vs . with 8\u20139 serrations posteriorly ) dorsal spine , longer adipose - fin base ( 37 . 1\u201344 . 5 % sl vs . 24 . 0\u201331 . 7 ) ,\nfewer gill rakers on the first arch ( 16\u201319 vs . 31\u201342 ) , 11\u201312 ( vs . 8\u20139 ) ribs and 40\u201341 ( vs . 34\u201337 ) vertebrae\nin having more vertebrae ( 40\u201341 vs . 32 ) , a longer adipose - fin base ( 37 . 1\u201344 . 5 % sl vs . 8 . 5\u201311 . 9 ) , vomerine tooth - band continuous ( vs . interrupted in the middle ) , fewer gill rakers on the first arch ( 16\u201319 vs . 23\u201324 ) and lacking ( vs . having ) the coracoid shield below the pectoral fin .\nin having a longer occipital process ( reaching to the basal bone of dorsal fin vs . not reaching ) , origin of adipose - fin base in contact ( vs . not in contact ) with the base of the last dorsal - fin ray , and a smooth ( vs . posteriorly serrated ) dorsal spine .\n: zsi kolkata 1076 ( lectotype ) , 101 . 5mm sl ; india : yamuna river .\nmumf 9521 ( 10 ) , 85 . 6\u2013108 . 3 mm sl ; india : ganga river at patna . mumf 9522 ( 10 ) , 74 . 2\u201398 . 8 mm sl ; india : guwahati : brahmaputra river .\n] , 95mm sl ; burma : prome . mumf 9530 ( 5 ) , 84 . 5\u2013101 . 1 mm sl ; india : manipur : chandel district , moreh market .\n: mumf 9513 ( 10 ) , 74 . 8\u2013109 . 7 mm sl ; india : guwahati : brahmaputra river .\n: mumf 9514 and 9517 ( 9 ) , 96 . 5\u2013206 mm sl ; india : manipur : lokchao river .\nzsi kolkata f 4716 - 19 / 1 ( 4 syntypes ) , 51 . 7\u201355 . 5 mm sl ; burma : bhamo . mumf 1100\u20131105 ( 6 ) , 55 . 8\u201369 . 9 mm sl ; india : manipur : ukhrul district : chatrikong river ( headwater of chindwin river drainage ) .\n: mumf 9520 / 1 - 9520 / 20 ( 20 ) , 67 . 9\u201375 . 7 mm sl ; india : west bengal : kolkata .\nmumf 9523 ( 15 ) , 52 . 1\u201377 . 5 mm sl ; india : brahmaputra river at guwahati .\n: zsi ff4081 ( 1 ) , 47 . 9mm sl ; india : assam : brahmaputra river at guwahati .\nzsi ff4080 ( 1 ) , 42 . 9mm sl ; same data as above .\nmumf 9518 / 1 ( 1 ) , 39 . 0mm sl ; india : assam : brahmaputra river at guwahati .\nmumf 9518 / 3 - 9518 / 10 ( 8 ) , 30 . 2\u201347 . 9 mm sl ; same data as above .\nmumf 9519 / 1 - 9519 / 17 ( 17 ) , 39 . 0\u201347 . 0 mm sl ; same data as above .\nmumf 9531 ( 1 ) , 36 mm sl ; india : assam : ujan bazar , guwahati .\n( hamilton , 1822 ) ( teleostei : bagridae ) , with a description of a new species from myanmar .\nchecklist of catfishes , recent and fossil ( osteichthyes : siluriformes ) and catalogue of siluriform primary types .\nfish and fisheries of manipur with some observations on those of the naga hills .\nanatomy , relationships and systematics of the bagridae ( teleostei : siluroidei ) with a hypothesis of siluroid phylogeny .\non the collection of fishes from tengnoupal district of manipur with some new records .\nnational bureau of fish genetic resources , lucknow , up , india , 264pp .\ncopyright ( c ) 2011 a . darshan , w . vishwanath , p . c . mahanta , a . barat\nthe journal of threatened taxa is an open access and print , peer - reviewed , monthly , international journal on conservation and taxonomy . the aim of the journal is to promote wildlife research and conservation action worldwide at no cost to authors , no subscription or membership cost , and no hidden cost , on a regular basis without compromising on ethics , standards and pre - requisites of scientific publications .\nthis site is run on the open journal system ( ojs ) . this work is licensed under creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international license ."]}
{"id": 1428, "summary": [{"text": "spain ( foaled 1997 in kentucky ) is an american thoroughbred racehorse who retired as the most financially successful mare in north american racing history in her time . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "spain ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["caballo blanco horse riding & trekking centre \u2013 horse trekking centre of lanjaron , alpujarras , spain offers horse riding holidays in spain , horse riding andalucia , trail riding , hacks , lessons on spanish horses . the riding stables near granada welcomes children and novices\nrain in spain is a 20 year old bay horse . rain in spain is trained by e a martinovich , at success and owned by .\nrain in spain was sired by unfuwain out of the dam maria isabella rain in spain was foaled on 01 of august in 1996 .\nfor everything you need to know about horse racing . free horse racing tips from professional punters and betting secrets to increase your horse racing profits .\ntraditional horse and cart at cordoba spain - travel background stock photo , picture and royalty free image . image 13436037 .\nif you are intending to volunteer in spain you should seek medical advice before starting your social journey . check your required vaccinations for spain .\nphoenix of spain was sired by lope de vega out of the dam pantomime peggy phoenix of spain was foaled on 04 of october in 2014 .\nphoenix of spain has a 0 % win percentage and 0 % place percentage . phoenix of spain ' s last race event was at ballina .\njoin hidden trails on some of the best horse riding vacations in spain . spanish horse riding holidays have a lot to offer and are as diverse as dressage clinics , trail rides , and gourmet food vacations . hidden trails offer equestrian tours in some of spain\u2019s most stunning locations \u2013 from catalonia to central spain , mallorca to southern spain . on a horseback riding holiday in spain you will uncover hidden valleys , bask in the mediterranean sunlight and dine of the finest wine and food .\nrain in spain has a 0 % win percentage and 100 % place percentage . rain in spain ' s last race event was at g b - newmarket .\nthe current race record for lady of spain is 1 wins from 11 starts .\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for lady of spain . lady of spain is a filly born in 2007 november 11 by encosta de lago out of zagalia\nhorse riding in spain there is more to spain that just bullfights and flamenco dancers . this vast country in the mediterranean is home to mountains , hills , valleys , never ending beaches , island getaways and amazing wine regions .\nestablished horse trekking and horse riding holiday\u00b4s in the alpujarras , costa tropical , andalucia , spain ! a unique trekking centre based in the heart of andalucia , spain . made famous by its moorish influences and impressive horses . come and experience the spanish trails and countryside . hassle and trouble free .\nthe alpujarra white village ride , take in the beauty of horse riding in spain ' s famous white villages and beautiful backdrop views of the sierra nevada mountains .\nmountains of southern spain . spectacular and stunning scenery and incredibly well schooled horses characterise this ride .\nphoenix of spain ' s exposed form for its last starts is 4 - 9 - 9 .\nhorse riding is deeply ingrained into spanish culture and there are many equestrian vacations in spain to choose from . with a combination of quality horses , warm dry climate and a wide choice of good value flights , spain remains our most popular european riding holiday destination .\non this horse riding holiday , you will need to dismount and walk next to your horse over short distances so good walking boots are required .\nphone : + 34 985 59 73 23 - lamu\u00f1o - cudillero , asturias - spain . nfo @ urltoken\nthe nearest airport is malaga airport ( agp ) in malaga . we assist you to find cheap flights to spain .\n( children from age six ) . from one to several hours . spectacular horse riding\nproportional contribution of different pathways to median overall probability of exporting an undetected infected horse .\nour horses are fully trained to be ridden either western style or traditional style . we have a wide choice of horses of varying ages to suit the beginner and advanced rider for our horse riding holidays in spain .\ntornado plots of correlation coefficients for input variables and probability of exporting an undetected infected horse .\nrain in spain\u2019s last race event was at 21 / 07 / 2000 and it has not been nominated for any upcoming race .\nrain in spain career form is wins , 1 seconds , thirds from 1 starts with a lifetime career prize money of $ .\nphoenix of spain\u2019s last race event was at 06 / 11 / 2017 and it has not been nominated for any upcoming race .\nphoenix of spain career form is wins , seconds , thirds from 3 starts with a lifetime career prize money of $ 600 .\nhorse riding vacation in spain - horse adventures in asturias . enjoy a superb riding holiday , disconnect and indulge yourself in the sensations of a beautiful riding that will make you feel free . all routes are nature taught for riding from the youngest to the oldest , horses as well as the most experienced and inexperienced .\nspain , horse racing ' s greatest female money - winner at $ 3 , 540 , 542 , has been retired from racing and sent to three chimneys farm in midway , ky . , to continue her career as a broodmare .\nraise awareness of the requirements for a happy , healthy , emotionally and physically well - balanced horse .\nscenario tree depicting pathways by which an undetected ahsv - infected horse could be exported from south africa .\ngenerally , volunteering abroad involves certain costs . in case you need financial support , we will assist you to fundraise your volunteer program in spain .\nthe spanish andalusian horse is believed to be the most ancient riding horse in the world and spanish experts maintain that it does not owe a single feature of its make up to another breed . in the sixteenth century the horses were taken to austria to found the spanish riding school of vienna and its lippizaner horses and the portugese lusitano have evolved from the spanish andalusian . consequently , the spanish are justly proud of their history with the horse and today you will find this wonderful breed all over spain justly admired for its temperament and empathy with the rider . if you ride in spain you may well be riding one of these lovely horses .\nintermediate has had a number of lessons and is reasonably confident on a horse at walk , trot and canter .\nmordecai shares dallas ' s passion for horses and has studied , worked and trained horses in spain , portugal , australia and the u . s . a .\nthe dutch suspect oversaw operations from alicante , spain , and had a network of\nhis most trusted men in charge in every country affected by the scam .\nthe industry operates the horse comes first campaign to raise awareness of the high levels of equine welfare in the sport .\nspanish weather and climate summers in spain generally experience highs of around 28 \u00b0c in the height of summer . winters are mild , with lows around 10 - 13 \u00b0c .\nboth are very knowledgeable concerning the region and as the trainers of the horses the perfect people to match horse to rider .\nyou will have a project horse or two throughout your stay , and will continue with this horse whichever program you are on . so on top of your five working hours per day you will have time set aside for practice , training ( and\nuse the search below to find breeding information on an individual horse or select one of the other specific search options available .\ni have just returned from yet another fantastic riding holiday in spain . this andalusian , spain holiday which you describe as \u2018luxury just 40 minutes outside malaga\u2019 is certainly a must for another visit again . the whole holiday has proved yet again , to be a treasure of wonderful experiences .\nto read equestrian escapes reviews click on the link !\non the pony club children will ride lots of course but also they learn points of the horse - often in more than one language . how to wash off their horse or pony , parts of the tack , they solve horse problems and take part in quizzes . there is no reduction in prices for children due to the staffing required , but they do have fantastic fun !\n\u201cit was the kind of adventure i had dreamed of since i was a girl riding my horse through the basque forests . \u201d\nyou can volunteer at the project site in atajate / spain between 1 week and 50 weeks . please note that the above shown program fees are estimated and subject to exchange rate fluctuations .\nspain , the 5 - year - old daughter of thunder gulch , the 1995 kentucky derby winner , competed in her last two races while in foal to the popular sire storm cat .\nlukas has been so pleased with spain ' s current condition and form that he ' s not going to waste any time getting back in the starting gate . her next race will be saturday ' s molly pitcher handicap at monmouth . he ' s also confident he can make the july 28 go for wand at saratoga and the aug . 23 personal ensign , also at saratoga . by late august , spain will be nearly three months pregnant . the normal gestation period for a horse is 11 months .\nwghansa ' s membership numbers around 20\u201325 people , including about 10\u201314 scientists from france , portugal , spain , and occasionally the uk . the group meets annually in june for the assessment . wghansa previously worked with the group for the assessment of mackerel and horse mackerel , but since 2008 / 2009 it has operated alone .\njoin our team looking after the horses and promoting the sanctuary whilst working on your natural horsemanship skills with a project horse and guidance .\nthe overall probability of an exported horse being infected and undetected is then calculated as the sum of the probabilities for the five pathways .\ni stumbled across ibiza horse valley on one of my google searches in readiness for my holiday to ibiza . ibiza horse valley came up and was extremely excited . emailed over and a very polite and informative response from the owners - david and monique . we . . .\nbeginner someone who has never sat on a horse or had only limited very easy rides . probably not able to rise to the trot .\na highlight of her riding career was participating in the 2015 mongol derby , which at 1000km is the longest horse race in the world .\ngoing abroad is an adventure and it is always best to be prepared . sudden illness or injury , cancellation or theft - a travel insurance for spain provides security and is a plus to have .\nmallorca \u2013 a mediterranean island paradise - is another excellent horse riding location . andalucia - southern spain is also a popular horse riding region . the atlantic coast ride will take you from the wide open beaches of the atlantic to the white villages in the interior . there is and then there is jerez , home to the annual \u201cferia del caballo\u2019 ( horse festival ) . at europe\u2019s southernmost tip , the tarifa riding week offers a relaxing coastal ride while staying at a lovely 4 - star hotel . interested in training on one of these beautiful andalusian horses ? check out our dressage clinics under the instruction of former olympian medalists .\n9410 can be a spanish microchip , my mare has one and was registered with r . a . i . a in andalucia in spain . i ' ve posted more on your post in new lounge .\na stochastic simulation model was developed to estimate the probability of an undetected ahs - infected horse being exported from south africa , under a variety of scenarios . the model was developed in the r statistical environment , version 3 . 1 . 1 , [ 11 ] . all simulations were run for 10 000 iterations to produce probability distributions for all outputs . outputs are presented as probability distributions of an individual undetected infected horse being exported , the expected number of horses per exported infected horse and the annual probability of an undetected infected horse being exported , assuming an annual export throughput of 300 horses .\nmore than fifty million foreigners visit spain each year , yet you can also travel for days and hear nothing but spanish . visiting spain is not only about sun , great cuisine , and a warm welcome , but also its rich monumental heritage and dazzling natural environment . there are many wonderful places in which to ride whether a trail in the mountains , through one of the national parks or a gallop along the beach .\nbeing pregnant should not adversely affect her ability to run for four to five months ,\nleblanc said .\nin the performance - horse industry , we believe you can continue to perform the horse for about six months of gestation and after that point in time it ' s best not to be jumping or to be using the mare for a reining horse . the fetus gains 66 percent of its body weight in the last three months .\nwest of madrid , these trail rides explore the mountains of castile and leon . this undiscovered region of spain boasts a friendly welcome , lovely horses , stunning views and amazing tapas . plus of course the stunning gredos mountains .\nwith its rich variety of landscapes and consistently beautiful scenery , la alpujarra and the sierra nevada mountains offers some of the most spectacular horse riding countryside in europe .\nintermediate plus confident and in control on a forward going horse at a steady canter in the open over uneven ground . has ridden for a number of years .\nthe suspect was later identified as the ringleader of an operation investigated in 2016 in which horses unfit for human consumption were being killed in two abattoirs in northern spain and then sent to belgium after their paperwork and microchips were altered .\n\u201cit\u2019s a sport that requires concentration , endurance , and strategic thinking , all of which are key to making sure that the horse reaches the finish line in good shape , \u201d mencia said . \u201cin short , what i love about endurance is that it is a multifaceted sport in which the horse is the center around which all resources \u2013 those of the team and the rider \u2013 are dedicated to ensuring that the horse reaches the finish line in the quickest time possible and in good health . \u201d\nof a mile , man o\u2019 war was 20 lengths ahead . despite kummer\u2019s holding his horse in , man o\u2019 war won by a modestly estimated 100 lengths , nearly\nmedian and 95 % predictive limits for probability of undetected ahs - infection for a single exported horse and annual probability of one or more undetected infected horses being exported .\na riding holiday that was designed for those who share our passion for horses . the combination of\ntrail and training\nis ideal for riders who believe thattrail riding is one of the best ways to have fun , make new friends , relax fromthe stress of modern - day lifestyles and see spain from another angle , whiledevoting some time to improving your horse riding skills so that your confidencein , an .\na key input variable for the model is the probability of infection for a single horse either prior to entering pre - export quarantine or during the quarantine period . this was estimated as the dailyrisk ( mean cases per horse - day at risk ) of ahs based on existing data , adjusted for the efficacy of vector protection during the quarantine period .\na unique trail ride over the sierra nevada mountains of southern spain . spectacular and stunning scenery and incredibly well schooled horses characterise this ride . your breath will be taken away by the views and the terrain that these horses can easily clamber over .\nyour fees and deposit are calculated in american dollars to book your place . as we work in euros in spain , your remaining fees are due upon arrival and are set at 140\u20ac per week per person to allow for fluctuation in exchange rates .\nour travel consultants are experienced horse people . many have their own horses and ride regularly . they visit the rides and can describe the holiday from first hand experience . . .\nas seen in the guardian \u201crule number one . you are on a horse , not a chopper , so do not lean back hoping for a wheelie . you will look stupid\nthe horses\u2019 owners relented to the pressure and agreed to the meeting . the event , deemed at the time the \u201crace of the century , \u201d would determine the top horse in\nis the case - fatality rate , modelled as a beta ( 12 , 64 ) probability distribution , based on data from the 2014 outbreak . horse - days at risk (\nmellor ps , hamblin c . african horse sickness . vet res . 2004 ; 35 ( 4 ) : 445\u201366 . epub 2004 / 07 / 09 . pmid : 15236676 .\ngrewar jd , weyer ct , guthrie aj , koen p , davey s , quan m , et al . the 2011 outbreak of african horse sickness in the african horse sickness controlled area in south africa . j s a vet assoc . 2013 ; 84 ( 1 ) : art . # 973 , 7 pages . epub 15 nov . 2013 .\nauthors : pedernera c , k de roest , w ouweltjes , m marahrens , k steinkamp , b mounaix , m g\u0119bska , s messori , a velarde . source : ufaw international animal welfare science symposium , barcelona ( spain ) , july 2013 .\nin catalonia our horse rides meander through volcanic landscapes , canter along beautiful beaches and traverse the mighty pyrenees mountain range or you can opt for a coastal gourmet ride . central spain is a gourmet extravaganza \u2013 our \u201c vineyard trail \u201d ride is in an area boasting over 8000 wine makers ! here you will also encounter the wonders of madrid , and many small medieval villages - or we explore the kingdom of castile across the gredos mountains .\ndallas came to spain from the u . k . as a child and has rarely been far from a saddle since . working with horses most of her adult life , she established the first stables in the alpujarra and now has more than 20 horses .\nauthors : pedernera , c . , velarde , a . , mounaix , b . , raflegeau , f . and spoolder , h source : proceedings of the annual meeting of the international society for applied ethology , vitoria gasteiz , spain , august 2014 .\nalternatively you could look at the trail rides we offer in both extremadura and the gredos mountains . these trail rides take you on a journey through a part of spain that not many tourists frequent , and therefore allows you to experience the tranquility of this region .\nwe offer horse riding holidays in spain\u00b4s most southern mountain range . we are situated on a small plateau at a height of 1200 metres above the spa town of lanjaron in the alpujarra region of andalucia , close to granada and the costa tropical resorts of nerja , almu\u00f1ecar and salobre\u00f1a . wonderful views of the surrounding countryside , hills and sierra nevada mountains are evident in all directions ! you can even see the coastline of africa on a clear day .\nthese short breaks are 4 nights and include three full days riding through some of the most spectacular parts of the sierra nevada mountains . the horses are well loved and easy to ride . when not riding take time to wander around the most charming villages of spain .\ntarifa is the southernmost village of spain and europe and it offers many diverse possibilities for excursions , riding or otherwise ! from tarifa you can journey to jerez , which is the home of the royal andalusian riding school , c\u00e1diz , ronda , gibraltar , and sevilla .\nabout three weeks earlier , spain was successfully bred to the stallion storm cat . in the fleur de lis , she ran arguably the best race of her career , winning by 3 1 / 4 lengths over a very good field . a coincidence ? maybe not .\ndue to the way we handle , train and ride our horses here . this will also enable you to have a project horse with whom you can carry on playing with on this program .\nbut enduring racing is more than just a solo effort , menica explained . the rider is assisted by a support team that helps the horse through veterinary checkpoints and provides water and other necessities .\nclarence kummer , was given instructions to hold him back and win by not too big of a margin . it was a tall order for the fiercely competitive horse , and at the end of\nphoenix of spain is a 3 year old chestnut gelding . phoenix of spain is trained by s b lee , at gold coast and owned by s b lee , s e bolger , d orlanno , mrs k greely , g greely , mrs m luscombe , s luscombe , r englebrecht , mrs e englebrecht , g l bond , s carnovale , s j collis , ms c n fabian , g e barnes , g j mcguire , mrs m t mcnamara , p c webber , c maclean & hamilton racing ( mgr : i hamilton ) .\n\u201cmy interest in endurance horse racing began when i was a young girl , \u201d mencia said . \u201cit was a sport that combined both my passion for the outdoors and my love for horses . \u201d\nas wayne lukas was preparing spain for the june 15 fleur de lis at churchill downs , he noticed the veteran mare seemed more on top of her game than ever . it ' s something a trainer can sense , that everything is clicking , mentally and physically , and the end result will be a sensational performance on the racetrack . preparing for her 34th career start in her fourth year in competition , spain seemed , on the surface , to have picked an odd time to blossom . there had been , however , one major change in her life .\nno special health precautions are required for visits to spain , for further details please see your local doctor . we do advise taking plenty of sunscreen ! for up to date information on specific health concerns please contact the medical advisors for travellers abroad . their website can be found at urltoken\nhi wow he sounds a lovely chap . i have lived in spain for the last four years and all so purchased a cross bred . i am now back in the uk . the rules are that if the horse has to travel he has to be microchiped . but it only goes on his identity . how big what markings etc . if the old owner when asked what breed , just said cross then that is all the infomation that will be provided on the paper work .\nthe median probabilities and 95 % predictive intervals of undetected infection in a single exported horse and the annual probability of one or more undetected infected horses being exported , assuming an annual throughput of 300 horses , are summarised for the main scenarios in table 5 . briefly , the median probability of an exported horse being infected and not detected prior to export was 5 . 4 x 10 \u22126 ( equivalent to one undetected infected horse in every 187 000 horses exported ) for scenario lr . nopaq , from the low - risk area . inclusion of post - arrival quarantine and pcr at the destination reduced the median probability of an undetected introduction by approximately 12 - fold , to 4 . 6 x 10 \u22127 ( equivalent to one undetected infected horse in every 2 . 2 million horses exported ) for scenario lr . paq . the median probability of exporting an undetected infected horse from the endemic area was 15 to 17 times higher than for the low - risk area for comparable scenarios en . nopaq and en . paq .\nspain ' s guardia civil , in coordination with europol , the european police agency , charged the individuals with crimes including animal abuse , document forgery , perverting the course of justice , crimes against public health , money laundering and being part of a criminal organization , the press release says .\nan adventurous and tough trail ride ( over 350kms ) through the pyrenees mountains , visiting spain , france and andorra along the way . this is possibly the toughest riding trip we know of and is only for fit and experienced riders who love the outdoors and enjoy camping in remote locations .\nthe investigation is related to 2013 ' s horsemeat scandal , which came to light after the food safety authority of ireland found that 10 out of 27 hamburger products it analyzed in a study contained horse dna .\nthere will be the opportunity to take part part in carriage rides with training to drive and tack up a carriage horse . this is included in the price and may be taken in place of a lesson .\nthere is also a trip to cordoba once a week to to see the city and the horse show - price 50 euros including a ticket to see the show ( subject to a minimum of 5 ) .\noie . african horse sickness . 2013 [ cited 9 october 2015 ] . in : technical disease cards [ internet ] . paris : world organisation for animal health , [ cited 9 october 2015 ] . available :\nduring an outbreak ( the average number of cases per horse day at risk ) for the low - risk area was modelled for the four recorded outbreaks as gamma distributions , with parameters of the observed or estimated number of cases during the outbreak and the number of horse - days at risk . for the 2011 and 2014 outbreaks actual numbers of cases recorded were used , while for the 1999 and 2004 outbreaks , the total number of\nspanish history and culture spain has a tremendous history \u2013 reflected in prehistoric cave paintings , moorish palaces , crumbling castles , roman ruins , gothic and renaissance cathedrals as well as some very distinctive modern architecture . the uniqueness of spain lies in the separate kingdoms which made up the original spanish nation . these regions remain diverse in their language , culture , cuisine and art . they include : andaluc\u00eda , aragon , asturias , basque country , the balearic islands , the canary islands , cantabria , castilla la mancha , castilla le\u00f3n , catalonia , extremadura , galicia , la rioja , madrid , murcia , navarra and valencia .\nices working group on southern horse mackerel , anchovy and sardine ( wghansa ) is in charge of assessing the status of and providing short - term predictions for several populations of small pelagic fishes inhabiting the southwestern european waters .\ncitation : sergeant es , grewar jd , weyer ct , guthrie aj ( 2016 ) quantitative risk assessment for african horse sickness in live horses exported from south africa . plos one 11 ( 3 ) : e0151757 . urltoken\noie . african horse sickness . 2014 [ cited 9 october 2015 ] . in : terrestrial animal health code [ internet ] . paris : world organisation for animal health , [ cited 9 october 2015 ] . available :\nde vos cj , hoek ca , nodelijk g . risk of introducing african horse sickness virus into the netherlands by international equine movements . prev vet med . 2012 ; 106 ( 2 ) : 108\u201322 . pmid : 22341773\nthe median outbreakfrequency for the low - risk area was 3 . 8 % of days ( 95 % predictive interval ( pi ) : 3 . 4 % \u20134 . 3 % ) and for the endemic area 73 . 1 % ( 95 % pi : 70 . 4 % \u201375 . 9 % ) . median incidence during outbreaks ( outbreakincidence ) was 369 cases per 10 000 horse - years at risk ( 95 % pi : 227\u20131380 ) for the low - risk area and 453 cases per 10 000 horse - years ( 95 % pi : 62\u20131562 ) for the endemic area . median overall dailyrisk was 14 . 3 cases per 10 000 horse - years at risk ( 95 % pi : 8 . 5\u201353 . 4 ) for the low - risk area compared to 331 cases per 10 000 horse - years at risk ( 95 % pi : 45\u20131134 ) for the endemic area .\nspain ( usa ) b . m , 1997 { 9 - f } dp = 5 - 2 - 8 - 1 - 2 ( 18 ) di = 1 . 57 cd = 0 . 39 - 35 starts , 9 wins , 9 places , 7 shows career earnings : $ 3 , 540 , 542\numa mencia uranga , graduate student in the walsh school of foreign service , is working towards her master of arts in arab studies ( maas ) . but outside of her academic career , she is a professional endurance horse racer .\nfantastic trail rides led by manolo from our almeria horse riding destination on the southern coast of spain . these rides are based in the sierra nevada national park , which is home to some of the most impressive terrain in andalucia . with landscapes ranging from high mountains to deep river valleys and gorges and out to the stark wilderness of desert and farmland beyond , you will experience a land almost designed for discovery and adventure . these impenetrable mountainous barriers have for centuries played major roles in the historic battles and conquests of these lands ; abetting and impeding military advances in equal measure .\nyou can enjoy the 3 air horse ( trot and gallop step ) . we have more routes all time duration and are open to suggestions . located in the central area of asturias close deaviles , gij\u00f3n and oviedo , next to the airport\nibiza horse valley offers all year round stunning rides in the north of ibiza ( half day - mountains & full day - beach and if applicable swimming with the horses & special requests ) . ibiza horse valley is an unique sanctuary that saves maltreated horses and rehabilitate them in a natural herd . the valley is located on private land , we treasure the peaceful , silent surroundings . bookings , special requests and visits ( only winter months ) are all upon request and by appointment .\noie . african horse sickness . 2012 [ cited 9 october 2015 ] . in : manual of diagnostic tests and vaccines for terrestrial animals [ internet ] . paris : world organisation for animal health , [ cited 9 october 2015 ] . available :\nexperienced confident and in control on a forward going horse at a fast canter in the open over rough and variable ground . there are likely to be long stretches of fast riding and / or you will be riding in areas with potentially dangerous game .\nyou are not require to have previous experience with horses or farm work , but you will need a hard working attitude . we are flexible and do like to make this opportunity available for everyone as we enjoy seeing people learn and develop . if you are an experienced horse person , then you will already know that you can never finish learning and that the horse is the best teacher of which we have plenty . if you are under 16 then we can accept you with permission from a legal guardian .\n\u2026\u201cthe horse of the century , \u201d man o\u2019 war . in 1920 man o\u2019 war won all 11 races in which he ran , set five records , and became the first thoroughbred to bring his total earnings to more than $ 200 , 000 . \u2026\nexpertly led week long horse riding holidays ( 6 days 7 nights ) and short breaks ( 3 days , 4 nights ) traverse the sierra nevada national and natural parks . the rides are designed to explore as much as possible of these unique and captivating lands .\nit was the best riding experience on a holiday trip ever . monique and dave were very kind and you can tell that they know their horses by heart . if you are expecting that your horse will already be cleaned and sattled , you are definitly wrong . . .\ni had ridden a horse only once before and i was very upfront about this . i was in a group with all experienced riders so i was the only beginner . the owners of the sanctuary , david and monique were a little strange to say the . . .\nnext you will be given a time for your assessment . at the assessment the trainer will discuss with you your hopes and aspirations for your holiday with us at hacienda horses . the trainer will gauge your riding level and a horse will be allocated for your next outing .\nweyer ct , quan m , joone c , lourens cw , maclachlan nj , guthrie aj . african horse sickness in naturally infected , immunised horses . equine vet j . 2013 ; 45 ( 1 ) : 117\u20139 . epub 2012 / 05 / 23 . pmid : 22612775 .\nthis paper describes the results of a quantitative risk assessment undertaken to estimate the probability of exporting an ahs - infected horse through a vector - protected quarantine facility in an infected country or zone , in accordance with oie recommendations and allowing for additional biosecurity measures to provide further risk reduction .\nmencia grew up in a small town in the basque country of northern spain . taking lessons from the endurance team at her riding school , she participated in her first race at the age of twelve and never looked back . since 2008 , mencia has been based out of dubai in the united arab emirates , working with the fazza endurance team ( now referred to as al aryam endurance team ) .\nextremadura is a region in western spain which is a paradise for horse riders . boasting a fabulous climate in autumn , winter and spring , with hot summers , it has excellent preserved natural reserves and historical sites , many of which are unesco protected . characterised by\ndehesa\n- wooded pasture - it is one of the most prized destinations in europe for bird - watching enthusiasts and nature lovers the world over . crossing this land are wide grassy pathways or canadas reales , which are ancient routes used by cattle herders for moving their stock between summer and winter pastures . these routes offer safe and enjoyable trots and canters for riders on the beautifully cared for horses of your host and guide .\nsome days were easy riding but day 4 was tough with steep up and down and a difficult rocky trail . the horses knew what to do but the rider needs good footwear and to be reasonably fit as you have to lead your horse for some distance down hill with difficult footing .\ntheir main activity is horse - riding but they can also tailor make trips for 4 or more people , including mixed programmes in jeeps and on horseback , picnics and visits to the most interesting places in the area such as museums , artisans\u2019 workshops , wine bodegas and serrano ham curing establishments .\nthoroughbred , breed of horse developed in england for racing and jumping ( see photograph ) . the origin of the thoroughbred may be traced back to records indicating that a stock of arab and barb horses was introduced into england as early as the 3rd century . natural conditions favoured development of the original\u2026\nclare comes from a traditional english riding background . she arrived in spain in 2010 to work with a free - roaming herd who taught her a completely new way of relating to horses . at the same time , she was deeply moved by the plight of many of the horses and horsemanship practices . she saw horses hobbled , confined in tiny dirty stables all day , every day , and ridden in the extremely harsh serraton bridle . these two extremes represented the very best and worst of horse management and inspired the project . the sanctuary is in its infancy having moved to new premises in february 2016 . there is a lot of work to do and your help is important to get this exciting project off the ground .\nfaverjon c , leblond a , hendrikx p , balenghien t , de vos cj , fischer eaj , et al . a spatiotemporal model to assess the introduction risk of african horse sickness by import of animals and vectors in france . bmc veterinary research . 2015 ; 11 ( 1 ) : 1\u201315 .\ndiscover the beautiful sierra de gredos of central spain , with it ' s numerous river valleys and medieval villages , whilst riding beautiful and well - loved lusitano or cross - bred horses . your guides have been running rides in this area for over 20 years and are very knowledgable about the area . different trails head in various directions and there is even a centre based option for those who prefer to relax in one place .\nhere is an exclusive holiday retreat with heated pool , jacuzzi and horse riding set in the beautiful olive groves and pine clad national park area of andalucia , southern spain , just 40 minutes from granada and malaga airports . the breathtaking mountain views and spectacular rural location offers our holiday guests a truly memorable and relaxing holiday . whether you come to ride , or just enjoy the facilities and surroundings , you will love meeting the friendly herd of horses , many of them rescued from sad past lives and now all living happily together . catering specifically for beginners , nervous riders and families with children . non riders are also very welcome , with full board or self - catering options available . we tailor your riding holiday to suit you .\nguthrie aj , maclachlan nj , joone c , lourens cw , weyer ct , quan m , et al . diagnostic accuracy of a duplex real - time reverse transcription quantitative pcr assay for detection of african horse sickness virus . j virol methods . 2013 ; 189 ( 1 ) : 30\u20135 . pmid : 23291102\non saturday 13th january , breeders of the top british - bred horses from around the country converged in london at the grange city hotel , for the 21st anniversary british breeders dinner and awards ceremony , organised by the british horse foundation . there has been much to celebrate for british . . . + continue reading\nalmost one hundred readers of landbouwleven voted for a new landbouwleven horse of the year 2017 . don vhp z became the winner . together with his rider harrie smolders the stallion performed very well the whole year long . he continued in delivering clear rounds course after course . beside individual . . . + continue reading\nat the 2004 miami masters nadal faced world number one roger federer for the first time , the first encounter in what was to be one of the greatest rivalries in tennis history , and he beat the world number one in straight sets . an ankle injury kept him out of much of the 2004 clay court season , but a four - set victory over world number two andy roddick helped spain to the davis cup victory over the usa .\n\u201cit was an honor to be able to ride the horses of a people who come from such a strong tradition of horsemanship , \u201d mencia said . \u201cin fact , some of the most talented horse riders i have ever seen were the children of the host families who fearlessly rode their horses among the herds . \u201d\nspain has so much more to offer than flamenco music and dance , bull - fights , fantastic beaches and lots of sunshine , it is one of the cultural centres of europe . it has beautiful cities and towns and wonderful countryside and coastline . there are endless tracts of wild and crinkled sierra to explore , as well as some spectacularly rugged stretches of coast between the beaches . one of the best ways to explore this diverse countryside is on horseback .\nthe do\u00f1ana national park is a paradise for horses and horse lovers . as one of the most important wetlands of continental europe , the region is well conserved and steeped in rich cultural heritage . situated between the provinces of huelva , seville and cadiz , do\u00f1ana is now a labrynth of tracks and waterways which have shaped marshes , ponds and streams , interspersed with native pine forests , sand dunes , beaches and spectacular cliffs too . this range of habits offers a diverse home for many rare and endangered species of bird life . all this ends in miles of beautiful and pristine , white sand beaches stretching between matalascanas and the mouth of the guadalquivir river . above all this , it is a place where the horse is still king ! within the park boundary there are still over a thousand wild horses living free - the native marisme\u00f1a breed ; the ancient ancestor of the horses first taken to the new world by spanish conquistadors , as well as being one of the founding breeds of the modern andalucian horse .\nprobabilities associated with each pathway were combined multiplicatively , as described in the model calculations section , to calculate a pathway probability for each pathway . pathway probabilities were then summed across pathways to provide an overall probability of a single exported horse being infected and not detected and aggregated to produce an annual probability estimate , as described under model calculations .\nguthrie aj , quan m , lourens cw , audonnet j - c , minke jm , yao j , et al . protective immunization of horses with a recombinant canarypox virus vectored vaccine co - expressing genes encoding the outer capsid proteins of african horse sickness virus . vaccine . 2009 ; 27 ( 33 ) : 4434\u20138 . pmid : 19490959\nintroduced to the tennis court at the tender age of three by his uncle toni , nadal was destined for sporting greatness . while toni , a former professional tennis player himself , remains his coach to this day , another uncle , miguel angel nadal , was a professional footballer , played for barcelona and spain . nadal was also a talented footballer , but at the age of twelve his father made him choose between tennis and football in order that his schoolwork didn ' t suffer .\nhere you can browse or search the database . you will find the pedigree , siblings , competition level achieved , life numbers , family numbers details of progeny , tail lines , photographs , videos , movies , where the horse was born , where he is now , details of his competition record , everything you need to know in one place .\nwe have two programs available : sanctuary student program and sanctuary helper program ( this one ) . each applicant takes part in a minimum of two weeks on our sanctuary student program before they can apply for the helper program . this is so they learn how to handle and be with the horses first as the student program includes classes . natural horsemanship is what we are about , so even people with experience with horses still take this option . we look a lot more at the horse and human psychology and body language to help us learn to communicate and understand each other by responding appropriately rather than using force . this inevitably builds confidence in both horse and human and leads to more beautiful results .\nthe possibility of escape of ahsv from post - arrival quarantine was also not included in the model , for relevant scenarios . this was excluded from the model because it would require a breakdown of vector protection sufficient for one or more midges to enter the facility , feed on an infected horse , escape from the facility and subsequently feed on a susceptible horse . post - arrival quarantine is the responsibility of the importing country and therefore beyond the capability of south african authorities to control . further , assuming that the facility is of a similar standard to the existing pre - export facility , the likelihood of midges entering and subsequently escaping was considered sufficiently low to be ignored for the purpose of this model .\nwill almost always be rated from 45 - 54 with the exception of those that perform in a higher class or in say a black - type three year old race . they can expect a higher rating . after three \u201cmisses\u201d a maiden horse will revert to a mark of 45 . these races will continue to be raced under set - weight conditions .\nthis unique trekking centre centre , based in the heart of andalucia , offers 2 - 8 day treks and trail rides for families , friends and singles , and from the beginner to the experienced rider . from this base you will explore a beautiful part of spain , riding free from traffic and walkers , following secret trails in the wonderful countryside . your hosts ' knowledge of the local terrain means that they know all the best trails to suit all abilities or rider . you will ride in remote locations .\ndue to the interaction of mediterranean and mountain climate in this region , you will find ideal conditions for horse back riding the whole year round . in spring the climate is mild , summer is not too hot , the autumn pleasantly warm and winter with its clear air , not too cold . especially recommended are february , march and april as well as november !\ninspired by genghis khan\u2019s postal system , where messages would be swiftly carried across the mongolian steppes , the 1000km derby is divided into segments of 30 - 40km . at each stop , the rider switches to a new horse \u2013 mencia rode 28 different mongolian horses over the course of the journey . along the way , riders are hosted by families of nomadic herders .\nvarying the probability of breakdown of vector protection from 1 / 5000 ( 0 . 02 % ) to 1 / 10 ( 10 % ) per day had only minimal effect on the annual probability of exporting an undetected infected horse , compared to the base scenario , until the probability of breakdown was around 2 % per day or greater , for scenarios from both the low - risk and endemic areas ( see s2 fig ) . similarly , varying the probability of breakdown of vector protection at loading from 1 / 500 ( 0 . 2 % ) to 1 / 5 ( 20 % ) had no noticeable effect on the annual probability of exporting an undetected infected horse , even up to 20 % probability of breakdown ( see s3 fig ) .\nin addition to catches - at - age , the basic data input for the assessment of anchovy and sardine come from depm and acoustic surveys , and for horse mackerel from bottom trawl surveys . depm and acoustic surveys inputs are revised within ices wgacegg ( the working group on acoustic and egg ( depm ) surveys for sardine and anchovy in ices areas 8 and 9 ) .\nhorse riding on the beautiful island of mallorca will give you a different experience of this gloriously picturesque island . this ride will take you high up into the tramuntana mountains that run for about 90 kilometres from the south west to the north east of the island ; the range runs close to the sea and offers breathtaking views of the coastline from many of the higher peaks .\nfive pathways were identified by which an undetected infected horse could be exported from south africa . these pathways are summarised in table 2 and graphically in figs 1 and 2 . briefly , a horse could be infected in any one of five time periods identified in fig 1 and then proceed to export undetected by the various pcr testing regimens applied . for horses infected during pre - export quarantine the relevant pathways assume a breakdown of vector protection , that the breakdown was not detected by vector surveillance within the facility and that infection was not detected by testing either at the end of quarantine or in post - arrival quarantine ( where applicable ) . the time periods chosen reflect an assumption that pcr may not detect an incubating infected animal until seven or more days post - infection ."]}
{"id": 1433, "summary": [{"text": "the palm lorikeet ( charmosyna palmarum ) is a species of parrot in the family psittaculidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is found in solomon islands and vanuatu .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests and plantations .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "palm lorikeet", "paragraphs": ["the rainbow lorikeet ( trichoglossus haematodus ) is much larger and has dark head and red breast .\nfeeds on coconut and sago palm blossoms , nectar , fruits , pollen and possibly insects .\nspecies : scientific : charmosyna palmarum aka hypocharmosyna palmarum . . . english : palm lorikeet . . . dutch : palmlori . . . german : palmzierlori . . . french : loriquet des palmiers\n16 cm . bright green lorikeet . variable , small red patch on chin , yellow tips to long tail and slightly darker upperparts .\ncites lexicon of parrots birdlife international a guide to parrots of the world , juniper and parr , 1998 parrots of the world , forshaw , 2006 . 2010 edition ml media collection catalogue 515782 palm lorikeet ( charmosyna palmarum ) , andersen , michael j . , torba , vanuatu , dec . 6 2014 , cornell lab of ornithology .\ncollar , n . , de juana , e . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . palm lorikeet ( charmosyna palmarum ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe palm lorikeets ( charmosyna palmarum ) have a fluctuating range in the santa cruz islands of the solomon islands and in vanuatu ( an island nation located in the south pacific ocean ) . these lorikeets are often found in coconut trees or in flowering trees .\npalm lorikeets average 16 - 17 cm ( ~ 6 . 8 inches ) in length - including the long tail . most of their plumage is bright green . they have a variable small red patch on the chin and their long tail has yellow tips .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\nnomadic and erratically common in coconuts on small islands . on santo , common in flowering trees on the highest mountain ridges .\nvulnerable b1b ( iii , v ) c ( ii , iii ) ; c2a ( i ) ver 3 . 1\nbirchenough , s . , dutson , g . , evans , s . , leary , t . , totterman , s . & van oosten , j .\nthis enigmatic species is rare in some locations ; it is classified as vulnerable on the basis of its small and fluctuating range in which the population is suspected to be declining overall through habitat degradation .\n. in santa cruz , it is known from nendo ( relatively common in higher inland forests in 1990 but no definite records subsequently ) , the duff islands ( where 30 were seen around one village in 1997 ) , tinakula ( where encounter rates of 9 . 8 per hour in 2014 [ pierce 2014 ] ) , vanikoro ( where it recently appears to have become extinct ) , tikopia ( where very small numbers have recently colonised ) vanua lava ( where common around langletak village in the east ) , gaua ( regular visitor to coconut blossoms at sea level and also recorded in flocks in the forest on the ridge around lake letas [ c . 500 m above sea level ] ) , mere lava ( fairly common in small flocks higher up and visits lower altitudes during the day ) and ambae ( flocks at higher altitudes only , in forest and at forest edge starting from duviara village , 500 m above sea level ) ( g . dutson pers . obs . 1997 - 8 ,\n. it is usually seen in small flocks of 10 - 30 birds ( bregulla 1992 , g . dutson pers . obs . 1997 - 8 , barr\u00e9\nbut its irregular distribution and nomadic habits make it difficult to estimate the total population .\nbased on the small numbers recorded everywhere , and the small size of most islands with recent records ( except santo ) , the total population size is estimated to fall within the band 1 , 000 - 2 , 499 mature individuals . this equates to 1 , 500 - 3 , 749 individuals in total , rounded here to 1 , 500 - 4 , 000 individuals . trend justification : there are no data , however it is suspected to be declining , primarily due to deforestation .\nit appears to occupy high montane altitude forest at elevations in excess of 1 , 000 m , but flocks regularly descend to coastal trees , especially to feed on coconut blossoms ( diamond 1975b , diamond and marshall 1976 , bregulla 1992 , g . dutson pers . obs . 1997 - 8 , s . totterman\n. lowland forest , especially on small islands with high human populations , is being cleared for agriculture , domestic timber demand and commercial logging , but observations suggest that this habitat type may not be regularly used by this species ( s . totterman\ncites appendix ii . it is protected by law in vanuatu and occurs in the proposed lake letas reserve on gaua . there are plans to research the solomon islands population and breeding ecology ( j . r . van oosten\nsurvey other islands in northern vanuatu . estimate population density in santo mountains . determine any habitat or altitudinal requirements . research tolerance of logged and degraded forest . research breeding success and population cycles on small isolated islands . investigate the role of malaria in causing population fluctuations . ascertain genetic isolation of subpopulations on dispersed islands . relate distribution to that of introduced mammalian predators . designate the proposed lake letas reserve on gaua . increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nforms a species - group with c . rubrigularis , c . meeki and c . toxopei . monotypic .\nextreme e solomon is ( santa cruz is , duff is , reef is ) , banks is and vanuatu ; range seems to be somewhat irregular and fluctuate with cycles of extinctions and recolonizations over decades # r # r # r .\n15\u201317 cm . green , with rather small red patch around bill from lores to chin ; mantle washed pale brown ; underwing - coverts greyish green ; tail tipped yellow ; bill and . . .\ncommonest vocalization a high - pitched short \u201ctseet\u201d . when perched , also utters a high - pitched . . .\nmontane and lowland forest , but seemingly intolerant of disturbed areas at lower levels .\none nest on vanuatu in dec , was in hollow limb of tree c . 6 m up , in cloud forest ( at 1600 m ) , with two half - grown young .\napparently nomadic , travelling widely between feeding areas and appearing unpredictably in coastal . . .\nvulnerable . cites ii . previously considered near \u00adthreatened . a birdlife \u201crestricted - range\u201d species . commoner in hills above 1000 m than in lowlands .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nif you have videos , photographs or sound recordings you can share them on the internet bird collection . it ' s free and easy to do .\nrecent reappraisal of higher taxonomy of parrots # r proposed arrangement into three superfamilies , here treated as families ( strigopidae , cacatuidae , psittacidae ) ; same study split psittacidae , as here defined , into three families , with additional recognition of psittrichasidae ( psittrichas to coracopsis , below ) and psittaculidae ( psephotus to micropsitta , below ) ; in present work , separation of these families considered to require further study and perhaps additional support . in the past , present family was often split into two , with recognition of family loriidae ; at the other extreme , it was sometimes considered to include all psittaciformes .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\n. only wpt members gain exclusive access to some of the world ' s top parrot specialists .\nlisten to exciting podcast interviews with parrot specialists from around the world , many available for wpt members only .\nthese parrots are virtually undetectable because of their resemblance to the surrounding foliage . they are only found by their occasional high , shrill calls .\nboth adults red on chin , lores , and base of bill ( less in female ) ; mantle washed with olive / brown , often missing in female ; underwing band absent ; green tail with wide yellow tip ; orange bill ; yellow eye .\nas in female but with orange / brown bill and brown / yellow eye .\ncalls are short and high pitched ; more rapid when given in flight . shrill twittering heard when bird is feeding and softer notes emitted while at rest .\nenclosure , easily cleaned , 2 . 5 x 1 x 2m ( 8 x 3 x 6 ft ) . minimum temperature 20c ( 68f ) , not less than 24c ( 75f ) during acclimatisation .\nlory nectar of thin porridge , honey , pollen , brewer ' s yeast , vitamins and mineral supplements or commercial nectar ; different fruits such as pear , peach , passion fruit and apple ; greenfood such as kale and dandelion ; different wild edible berries ( rowan , pyracanthus and rose hips ) .\nbox 20 x 20 x 40cm ( 10 x 10 x 20 in ) .\nthreats to this species include avian malaria , cyclones and natural cycles . lowland forest , which may or may not be used by this species , is being cleared for agriculture , timber and commercial logging .\nsanta cruz , duff and possibly reef islands , easternmost solomon islands , and vanuatu , including banks islands .\nfound above 1000m ( 3280ft ) in undisturbed montane forest , irregularly in lowlands .\nnomadic , traveling widely between feeding sites in pairs and medium - sized flocks . appears in lowlands sporadically . pair bonds strong in large flocks .\ngain exclusive access to 600 + pages of additional research , seminars and podcasts , specialists to ask your toughest questions , and dozens of other fun resources - when you become a wpt member . join today > >\n\u2191 contact us | terms & conditions | privacy policy | disclaimer | \u00a9 2018 world parrot trust . all rights reserved . | design : david occhino design\nsmall groups were fairly common on the island during a day ' s visit . mostly feeding in coconut inflorescences . [ same location ]\nsmall groups were fairly common on the island during a day ' s visit . mostly feeding in coconut inflorescences .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nthis species is rare in some locations and is classified as vulnerable as its numbers are suspected to be declining due to loss of habitat . they are listed as an endangered species ( cites ii )\ndue to their endangered status , any suitable specimen that cannot be released back into their natural habitat ( native range ) should preferably be placed into a well - managed breeding program to ensure the continued survival of this species .\ngenus : scientific : charmosyna . . . english : honey lorikeets . . . dutch : honingpapegaaien . . . german : zierloris . . . french : loriquet de miele\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 298 , 745 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en"]}
{"id": 1435, "summary": [{"text": "mesaxonians are a clade of ungulates whose weight is distributed on the third toe on all legs through the plane symmetry of their feet .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "for a while it was often seen to only contain the order perissodactyla ( which includes the equines , rhinos and tapirs ) .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "recent work in morphological cladistics and ancient dna suggests that several extinct lineages , like the desmostylia and some of the south american ungulates of meridiungulata ( both groups seen as afrotherian relatives ) are related to the perissodactyls . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "mesaxonia", "paragraphs": ["the mesaxonia , as defined here , include the horses , rhinos , elephants , and dugongs , among others . the group shares a number of foot , skull , and tooth characteristics which support its monophyly . however , no official name has been published for this group , and so we have borrowed the term mesaxonia , which is still used by some authors to refer to the perissodactyla .\nshowing page 1 . found 0 sentences matching phrase\nmesaxonia\n. found in 0 ms . translation memories are created by human , but computer aligned , which might cause mistakes . they come from many sources and are not checked . be warned .\nfisher ms , tassy p ( 1993 ) the interrelation between proboscidea , sirenia , hyracoidea , and mesaxonia : the morphological evidence . in : szalay fs , novacek mj , mckenna mc , editors . mammal phylogeny : placentals . new york : springer - verlag . pp . 217\u2013234 .\nfischer ms , tassy p ( 1993 ) the interrelations between proboscidea , sirenia , hyracoidea , and mesaxonia : the morphological evidence . in : szalay fs , novacek mj , mckenna mc , editors . mammal phylogeny : placentals . new york : springer - verlag . pp . 217\u2013243 .\n[ mesaxonia ] include the perissodactyla and some related fossil types . the middle toe may be the only one ( e . g . in present day horses ) , or may be the largest of three , as in some ancestral horses and in the hind - foot of the rhinoceros .\nmesaxonians are a group of mammals that form the , not widely accepted , superorder mesaxonia . the superorder includes the perissodactylids , hyracoids , proboscidians , and sirenians , all part of the infraclass eutheria . however , this group is not yet published , it ` s a theory based on the number of digits , teeth , and skull characteristics . . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : nature . publisher : new york : nature publishing group . oclc : 499775149\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\nanthracobunidae is an eocene family of large mammals from south asia that is commonly considered to be part of the radiation that gave rise to elephants ( proboscideans ) and sea cows ( sirenians ) . we describe a new collection of anthracobunid fossils from middle eocene rocks of indo - pakistan that more than doubles the number of known anthracobunid fossils and challenges their putative relationships , instead implying that they are stem perissodactyls . cranial , dental , and postcranial elements allow a revision of species and the recognition of a new anthracobunid genus . analyses of stable isotopes and long bone geometry together suggest that most anthracobunids fed on land , but spent a considerable amount of time near water . this new evidence expands our understanding of stem perissodactyl diversity and sheds new light on perissodactyl origins .\ncitation : cooper ln , seiffert er , clementz m , madar si , bajpai s , hussain st , et al . ( 2014 ) anthracobunids from the middle eocene of india and pakistan are stem perissodactyls . plos one 9 ( 10 ) : e109232 . urltoken\neditor : andrew a . farke , raymond m . alf museum of paleontology , united states of america\ncopyright : \u00a9 2014 cooper et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\ndata availability : the authors confirm that all data underlying the findings are fully available without restriction . all relevant data are within the paper and its supporting information files .\nfunding : the national science foundation is acknowledged for support to m . t . c . ( ear - 0847413 ) , e . r . s . ( bcs - 0819186 and bcs - 0416164 ) , and j . g . m . t . ( ear - 0207370 ) . also , s . b . acknowledges financial support received from the department of science and technology , government of india for field work in the eocene sections of gujarat . the funders had no role in the study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nanthracobunidae is a family of large mammals that is only known from the middle eocene of south asia . historically , anthracobunids have played a prominent role in debates surrounding the origin of tethytheria , the group that includes the living and extinct members of the placental mammalian orders sirenia ( sea cows ) and proboscidea ( elephants ) . anthracobunids are often considered to have branched off near the base of tethytheria [ 1 ] \u2013 [ 8 ] , sharing most recent common ancestry with either proboscidea [ 1 ] , [ 9 ] \u2013 [ 13 ] , sirenia [ 14 ] , [ 15 ] , or the extinct desmostylia . however , until now , no cranial parts , only some partial dentitions and two postcranial elements ( a scapula associated with a maxilla [ 11 ] and an isolated astragalus [ 13 ] ) , were known for the group .\nthe paucity of fossil evidence has left anthracobunidae as a phylogenetically and adaptively enigmatic group [ 2 ] , [ 8 ] , [ 16 ] \u2013 [ 20 ] , with little known about their diets , habitats , and time and place of origin . in light of this , anthracobunid genera have also been aligned with two other , non - tethytherian clades , including artiodactyla [ 21 ] \u2013 [ 23 ] and perissodactyla [ 24 ] , as well as phenacodontids [ 25 ] , [ 26 ] , one of the extinct families of basal ungulates . the convergent evolution of \u201cungulate\u201d - like features in paenungulata ( containing tethytheria ) and laurasiatheria ( containing artiodactyla and perissodactyla ) revealed by molecular data [ 27 ] requires that anthracobunidae be re - evaluated within this new phylogenetic context .\nhere we describe new anthracobunid fossils from the kuldana and subathu formations of the early - middle eocene of pakistan and india [ 28 ] \u2013 [ 32 ] . these new findings more than double the number of anthracobunid fossils , and include cranial and postcranial material . we test the phylogenetic relationships of anthracobunids using a taxonomically rich morphological data set and investigate anthracobunid diet and habitat . our results have important implications for character transformations near the origins of perissodactyla , the habitats of stem perissodactyls , and the early biogeography of paenungulata and perissodactyla .\nfossils were collected in punjab province , pakistan , under a collaborative agreement of howard university and the geological survey of pakistan ( h - gsp ) . localities where fossils were collected , with topographical coordinates , were described in thewissen et al . [ 33 ] . specimens were prepared in the u . s . a . at northeast ohio medical university ( neomed ) and are catalogued using the h - gsp acronym and accessioned into the collections of the geological survey of pakistan ( gsp ) . since the gsp is a branch of the pakistani government , all collected fossils are the property of the pakistani state . at present , fossils are for study in the u . s . a . , but they will be returned to pakistan and will be permanently housed at the natural history museum of pakistan , located in islamabad . gsp geologists are collaborators on all field work as part of their official assignment and all permitting is internal to the different pakistani government agencies involved . all necessary permits were obtained for the described study , which complied with all relevant regulations .\nwe also studied fossils from the locality kalakot in jammu & kashmir state , india , the location of which is described by russell and zhai [ 32 ] . this locality was discovered by a . ranga rao , a geologist of the oil and natural gas commission , and he quarried large quantities of fossiliferous rock matrix from this locality . after his death , we were given access to these by his widow , f . obergfell . fossils were prepared at neomed in the u . s . a . , and are the property of the rangarao - obergfell trust for geosciences , located in dehra dun , india , and are catalogued using the acronym rr . they will be housed on the trust campus on rajpur road in dehra dun .\nthe electronic edition of this article conforms to the requirements of the amended international code of zoological nomenclature , and hence the new names contained herein are available under that code from the electronic edition of this article . this published work and the nomenclatural acts it contains have been registered in zoobank , the online registration system for the iczn . the zoobank lsids ( life science identifiers ) can be resolved and the associated information viewed through any standard web browser by appending the lsid to the prefix \u201c urltoken \u201d . the lsid for this publication is : urn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : cd33f507 - 0d06 - 4de1 - a3c8 - 8bf9e7697114 . the electronic edition of this work was published in a journal with an issn , and has been archived and is available from the following digital repositories : pubmed central , lockss .\nwhenever possible , characters were scored based on analysis of original fossil material and / or casts housed in either the department of vertebrate paleontology at the american museum of natural history , the department of anatomical sciences at stony brook university , or the department of anatomy and neurobiology at northeast ohio medical university . as noted above , some taxa and / or characters were scored from the literature . some dental characters were rescored for arsinoitherium , taking into account new evidence for cusp homologies provided by the more basal embrithopod namatherium [ 52 ] . furthermore , a new character state ( \u201clarge , inflated\u201d ) was added for the character \u201cm1 - 2 metaconules\u201d ( number 18532 ) to take into account the condition seen in anthracobunids and some other ingroup taxa , and the character \u201cshape of astragalar ectal facet\u201d was excluded , because it could not be consistently scored across the new taxa that were sampled .\nmidshaft cross - sections of fossil and extant large - bodied ungulate long bones and ribs [ 71 ] were visualized via paleohistological sections or high resolution micro - ct scans . bone compactness ( total amount of bone per section ) was calculated via published methods [ 72 ] .\nfor the analysis of stable isotopes , three or more specimens of each species were analyzed ( when available ; see tables s8 and s9 ) to provide an estimate of the population mean \u00b1 s . d . for carbon and oxygen isotope values [ 73 ] urltoken - b33 . about 5 mg of enamel powder was collected from each specimen , either by drilling directly from the tooth or by grinding enamel chips in an agate mortar and pestle . before collection , contaminants were removed by abrading the outer surface of the specimen after cleaning the outer surface to a depth of \u223c0 . 5 mm using a dremel drill with a 1 mm diameter diamond - coated bit .\npreparation of powders for stable isotope analysis followed published methods [ 74 ] , [ 75 ] . powders were first transferred to 1 . 5 ml microcentrifuge vials and then soaked sequentially overnight in about 0 . 20 ml of a sodium hypochlorite solution ( 1\u20132 g dl - 1 ) and then in about 0 . 20 ml of calcium acetate buffered acetic acid ( ph about 5 ) following published procedures [ 31 ] . on addition of each reagent , samples were agitated for 1 min on a vortex genie vortex mixer . after each soak , the supernatant was removed by aspiration and the residual powder was rinsed five times with deionized water . samples were then freeze - dried overnight and about 1 . 5 mg of powder from each was weighed into individual test tubes for analysis on a thermo - finnigan gas bench autosampler attached to a thermo - finnigan deltaplusxp continuous - flow isotope - ratio mass spectrometer at the university of wyoming stable isotope facility .\nall values for stable isotopes are reported in delta ( \u03b4 ) notation , using the equation \u03b4 ( \u2030 ) = 1 , 000 \u00d7 ( rsample / rstandard - 1 ) , where rsample is the observed isotope ratio of the sample ( 13 c / 12 c or 18 o / 16 o ) and rstandard is the accepted ratio for an appropriate international standard ( vienna pee dee belemnite for \u03b4 13 c ; vienna standard mean ocean water for \u03b4 18 o ) . analytical precision is typically better than 0 . 1\u2030 for \u03b4 13 c values and 0 . 2\u2030 for \u03b4 18 o values ( \u00b11\u03c3 ) .\nenamel \u03b4 18 o values are influenced by the oxygen isotope compositions of oxygen sources ( atmospheric o 2 , food and water ingested by the animal ) , certain physiological processes that affect intake or loss of oxygen by an animal ( sweating , panting , respiration , and elimination of urine and feces ) , and body temperature [ 76 ] \u2013 [ 78 ] . for aquatic and semi - aquatic mammals , the flux of environmental water by means of direct ingestion and transcutaneous exchange [ 79 ] overwhelms all other oxygen sources , which reduces inter - individual variation [ 76 ] , [ 80 ] and causes enamel \u03b4 18 o values of freshwater taxa ( for example hippopotamus ) to be lower than those for terrestrial mammals ( \u223c2\u20133\u2030 ) ; [ 81 ] \u2013 [ 83 ] . the magnitude of offset between freshwater and terrestrial mammals can vary in response to changes in humidity , such that faunas experiencing drier conditions show a greater offset ( \u223c3 . 0\u2030 ) than those living under wetter conditions ( < 1 . 0\u2030 ) [ 84 ] .\nin combination with enamel \u03b4 18 o values , we also determined enamel \u03b4 13 c values of fossil species , which were used to infer diet and past environmental conditions . for herbivorous ungulates , enamel carbon isotopic compositions are enriched in 13 c relative to diet by \u223c14\u2030 [ 85 ] . variation in enamel \u03b4 13 c values among ungulate species is most strongly affected by the carbon isotopic composition of the plants they ingest . in the eocene , terrestrial ecosystems were dominated by plants performing c3 photosynthesis , a process that discriminates against the heavier carbon isotope ( 13 c ) , causing plant tissue \u03b4 13 c values to be considerably lower than those of plants exploiting other photosynthetic pathways ( c4 plants , cam plants ) [ 86 ] , [ 87 ] . the carbon isotopic compositions of c3 plants are more variable than other plant types and are strongly affected by temperature and aridity , causing c3 plants grown under hot dry conditions to have higher \u03b4 13 c values than those grown in cooler and wetter environments [ 88 ] , [ 89 ] . since enamel \u03b4 13 c values reflect the carbon isotopic composition of the plants in an animal ' s diet , consumer enamel \u03b4 13 c values can be used to infer past environmental conditions ( wet vs . dry ) as well as dietary information for extinct species .\nincluded genera . jozaria wells and gingerich , 1983 ; and obergfellia , new genus .\ndiagnosis . stem perissodactyls with premolars increasing in complexity from anterior to posterior , but never molariform ; molars brachyodont , but with high cusps and low valleys between cusps ; upper molars increasing in size from m1 to m3 ; lower molars with a distinct trigonid elevated above the talonid ; large caudally - projecting angular process of the mandible .\ndescription . unlike tethytheres and other paenungulates , anthracobunids have small and simple upper and lower incisors and relatively large canines ( figs . 1 , 2 ) . cheek teeth are bunodont and brachyodont and each cusp has a high apex , but there are deep valleys between cusps . premolars are never totally molariform , and diastemata , if present at all , are short . upper p3 and p4 are shorter than the molars , and have a paracone , protocone , and metacone , but no hypocone . the m1 and m2 have four well - developed cusps , as well as strong para - and metaconules , without lophs . the distance between proto - and paracone is longer than that between the hypo - and metacone , giving the tooth a posteriorly pinched appearance . lower molars have a trigonid with two large cusps , and large , sometimes twinned , hypoconulid on the third lobe ( figs . 1g\u2013i , s1 ) .\n( a ) crushed skull of a . pinfoldi ( h - gsp 97106 ) in ventro - lateral view ( left maxilla detached ) and ( b ) dorsal view ; ( c ) p2 of a . wardi ( h - gsp 30229 ) in lingual view and ( d ) occlusal view ; ( e ) skull fragment of a . wardi ( rr 411 ) in occlusal view , and ( f ) lateral view ; ( g ) mandible of a . wardi ( h - gsp 96434 ) in occlusal view ; ( h ) mandible of a . wardi ( h - gsp 96258 ) in lateral view , and ( i ) occlusal view . ( j ) proximal phalanx of a . pinfoldi ( h - gsp 97106 . 105 ) in dorsal view ; ( k ) proximal phalanx of a . pinfoldi ( h - gsp 97106 . 101 ) in ventral view , and ( l ) lateral view ; ( m ) head of a metapodial of a . pinfoldi ( h - gsp 97106 . 250 ) in dorsal view ; ( n ) phalangeal fragment of a . pinfoldi ( h - gsp 97106 . 257 ) in dorsal - superior view ; ( o ) terminal phalanx of a . pinfoldi ( h - gsp 97106 . 302 ) in dorsal - superior view . scale bar is 1 cm in length .\n( a ) right p2 - m2 of a . wardi ( luvp - 15006 ) in occlusal view , and ( b ) labial view ; ( c ) left m1 - m3 of a . wardi ( rr - 411 ) in occlusal view , and ( d ) labial view ; ( e ) left p3 - m3 of a . pinfoldi ( h - gsp 82 - 31p ) in occlusal view ; ( f ) left m3 of a . pinfoldi ( h - gsp 82 - 31p ) in labial view ; ( g ) right c - m3 of the cambaythere kalitherium ( iitr - sb - vlm 931 ) in occlusal view ; ( h ) right m3 of kalitherium ( iitr - sb - vlm 931 ) in labial view ; ( i ) left p4 - m2 of nakusia [ 6 ] in occlusal view ; ( j ) left m2 of nakusia [ 6 ] in labial view ; ( k ) mx of cambaytherium ( iitr - sb - vlm - 521 ) in occlusal view ; ( l ) right m3 of the phenacodontid \u2018condylarth\u2019 tetraclaenodon ( ku - 8052 ) in occlusal view ; ( m ) left p1 - m3 of a . wardi ( wif / a 1101 ) [ 15 ] in occlusal view ; ( n ) left c - m3 of a . wardi ( h - gsp 96258 ) in occlusal view , and ( o ) labial view ; ( p ) left p1 - m3 of obergfellia occidentalis ( h - gsp 1981 ) in occlusal view , and ( q ) labial view ( m1 inverted from right side ) . scale bar is 1 cm in length . illustrations by jacqueline dillard .\npartial skulls are known for two anthracobunids ( h - gsp 97106 and rr 411 ) , and both show the presence of a very thick bony shelf over the orbits ( fig . 1b , f ) . the palate is concave mediolaterally , with the areas near the midline much higher than the alveolar processes . the lateral sides of the basisphenoid and basioccipital are recessed ; this is particularly true for the basioccipital , which suggests that the petrosal , which is not preserved , was also deeply recessed . the mandibular fossa is concave and is located just lateral to the ear region . the postglenoid process is oval and does not extend along the entire width of the mandibular fossa .\nh - gsp 97106 includes , among other elements , metapodials and phalanges ( fig . 1j - o ) . the heads of most metapodials are wider than deep , strongly convex , and the posterior side bears a strong crest . proximal phalanges show a broad , oval articular surface for the metapodial and are squat : nearly as wide mediolaterally as they are long proximodistally . their distal articular facet is rectangular in outline and deeply incised caudally , indicating the presence of a caudal crest on the middle phalanx . most prominent on the proximal phalanges is the deeply excavated posterior side which is concave both mediolaterally and proximodistally .\nthe genera of the family anthracobunidae . we restrict the family anthracobunidae to the genera anthracobune ( which includes most specimens previously referred to pilgrimella and lammidhania ) , jozaria , and the new genus obergfellia . there are several other families of medium - sized bunodont \u201cungulates\u201d from the eocene of india and pakistan , such as quettacyonids [ 90 ] and cambaytheres [ 4 ] , [ 91 ] . while all of these groups are brachyodont , anthracobunids are unique among them in having tall cusps on their molars , while retaining valleys between the cusps that are low and close to the cingulum ( fig . 2 ) . the new genus obergfellia differs from other anthracobunids in exhibiting the following combination of features : ( i ) lower molars broad , ( ii ) lower m3 relatively short , and ( iii ) angular process of the mandible long but shorter than that of anthracobune ( figs . 1 , 2 , s1 . ) . the last of these features is not known in jozaria .\nwe exclude ishatherium subathuensis from anthracobunids . its holotype consists of the lingual side of an upper molar , referred originally to sirenia [ 15 ] , [ 92 ] . wells and gingerich [ 1 ] referred ishatherium to anthracobunidae . the holotype and only specimen shares with anthracobunids the strong development of conules and the deep transverse wear along the protocone - paraconule - paracone and along the hypocone - metaconule - metacone . the specimen is decidedly unlike anthracobunids in that the distance between protocone and paracone is similar to that between hypocone and metacone , and in that its cusps are not highly raised . we also exclude nakusia shahrigensis [ 6 ] from anthracobunids ( fig . 2 i , j ) . its holotype is a maxilla with p4 - m2 and the base of p3 . the base of p3 is elongate , the cusps on the relatively unworn m2 are low , and the molars are relatively wide . anthracobunids have a short p3 , high molar cusps , and squarish upper molars . nakusia is more likely a quettacyonid or cambaythere than an anthracobunid .\nthe genus indobune was included in anthracobunidae [ 4 ] , but it has low cusps on its teeth and is better classified as a cambaythere . ducrocq et al . [ 7 ] described hsanotherium parvum on the basis of two specimens with upper molars from myanmar . these specimens are bunodont , with small conules and lack a hypocone . the transverse wear pattern of anthracobunids is also absent . hsanotherium displays similarities to medium - sized bunodont artiodactyls , such as haqueina [ 22 ] , and we do not include it in anthracobunids .\nreferred species . anthracobune wardi ( dehm and oettingen - spielberg , 1958 ) .\ndiagnosis . anthracobunid with narrow lower molars and a very large angular process of the mandible ( fig . 1 , fig . s1 ) .\ndiscussion . we refer to most of the specimens formerly included in lammidhania and pilgrimella in the past to anthracobune .\nholotype . bmnh m . 15792 , left m2\u20133 and right m3 , from \u2018 lammidhan \u2019 and \u2018 planorbis freshwater beds . \u2019 pilgrim never visited the type region , and the fossils were collected by a geological surveyor ( t . g . b . davies ) . lammidhan appears on davies\u2019 unpublished map and is located on a broad alluvial plain . however , it does not match a modern topographical landmark and its meaning is not known to local people . eocene deposits occur to the north and south of the plain , with marine limestones and muds forming ledges usually towering over the unconsolidated muds that form the bottoms of valleys . these muds are the \u201c planorbis freshwater beds , \u201d and it is our contention that the specimen may have been found on these beds , but that it rolled down from overlying marine beds . gingerich [ 23 ] improved the holotype by fitting bmnh m . 15794 ( the trigonid of the left m2 ) to it .\ndescription . h - gsp 97106 is the most complete specimen known for any anthracobunid . upper incisors are similar in size ( based on their alveoli ) ; the crown of i3 shows that there is a single , large pointed cusp , with small basal thickening on the cingulum anterior and posterior to it . canine is long and compressed mediolaterally and p1 is two - rooted , with single cusp . p2 has a small protocone and two cuspules on the posterior crest of the paracone . p3 has a protocone , paracone , metacone and two conules , and a strong postprotocrista . upper molars with four main cusps as well as strong para - and metaconule . instead , protocone - paraconule - paracone have aligned wear surfaces , and similar wear surfaces on hypocone - metaconule - metacone . with wear , these surfaces resemble crests .\nlower p1 with two roots , strong protoconid , high but narrow paraconid and low metaconid , lacking talonid . lower p2 is similar to p1 but larger . lower p3 and p4 are similar with a well - developed trigonid having three cusps , and two cusps on the talonid . lower molars with strong crests between protoconid and metaconid , and between hypoconid and entoconid ; weak hypoconulid on anterior molars . these crests are stronger than the cristid obliqua . paraconid usually absent on molars .\nupper anterior teeth lined up in a parasagittal row , and rostrum ends in a narrow point . the caudal edge of the nasal opening of h - gsp 97106 is over the upper canine , and the infraorbital foramen is dorsal to p3 . the zygomatic arch projects lateral from the base of m1 and m2 , and extends caudally from there . the orbit is located over m2 and m3 . the skull roof dorsal to the orbits is a thick bony plate that is flat and stretches rostrally to the nasal aperture , and caudally to the temporal crests . left and right temporal crests form the caudal extent of this plate and join into a strong sagittal crest that delineates the large temporal fossae . this crest ends at the left and right nuchal crests , which extend ventral to the ear region .\nthe palate is narrow rostrally , and concave mediolaterally . a weak postpalatine torus is present , and the hard palate is indented caudally with the choana reaching rostrally medial to m3 . the pterygoid process is thick . the periotics are deeply recessed between basioccipital and mandibular fossa . basisphenoid and basioccipital slope strongly from medial to lateral . the postorbital process is strong and oval in cross - section , the mandibular fossa is cylindrical , its rostrocaudal extent is as large as its mediolateral extent . the external auditory meatus is immediately caudal to the postorbital process , there is no postglenoid foramen . the external auditory meatus is directed caudolaterally . the suture between mastoid and squamosal is on the nuchal crest , and there is a mastoid emissary foramen just below it . a large emissary foramen also occurs on the parietal in the temporal fossa . the foramen magnum faces more caudal than ventral and the supraoccipital immediately dorsal to it is flat . near the sagittal crest , the supraoccipital plane is concave .\ndiscussion . specimens referred to a . pinfoldi are known from the upper part of the kuldana formation . these are coastal beds , as indicated by the sedimentology and invertebrate paleontology of their localities , although isotopic evidence implies that the individuals fed on land . the upper part of the kuldana formation is well known for its fossil whales : ambulocetus and attockicetus .\nholotype . bmnh m . 15799 , isolated talonid , most likely of m1 based on its size . locality given as \u2018 lammidhan \u2026 planorbis freshwater beds of chharat stage\u2019 ( see discussion under holotype of anthracobune pinfoldi ) . unlike other specimens from pilgrim ' s \u2018 lammidhan , \u2019 this specimen is probably indeed from the planorbis beds , an inference based on its preservation .\ndiagnosis . lower molars with high length / width ratio , the m3 short , paraconid and metaconid of lower premolars small , anterior premolars long .\ndescription . new material referred to this species includes two complete lower jaws that include the entire post - incisor dentition ( h - gsp 96258 and 96434 ) , a skull fragment that includes orbit and supraorbital region ( rr 411 ) , and part of the deciduous dentition .\nlower incisors are similar in size to each other , based on their alveoli . canines with short crown , larger than the incisors , small diastemata on either side of p1 , but no other diastemata present . lower p1 and p2 with one main cusp and two roots , and small cusp on pre - and postprotocristid . lower p3 and p4 with well - developed trigonid and talonid . protoconid and metaconid on these teeth similar in height and paraconid lower , much lower on p4 . talonid of posterior premolars with high hypoconid , and entoconid high or barely distinguishable . lower molars with distinct trigonid and talonid . protoconid and metaconid similar in height , paraconid absent , but paracristid well developed . hypoconid and entoconid similar in height , cristid obliqua strong , hypoconulid weak on m1 and m2 , but strong and placed on third lobe in m3 , and sometimes twinned . coronoid process of the mandible small and with steep anterior slope . length of mandible anterior to anterior edge of coronoid process ( to rostral end of the fused symphysis ) is approximately two times as long as that posterior from this edge ( to the tip of the angular process ) . this indicates that the angular process is enormous . lower p3 with three cusps on trigonid , and two on talonid ; trigonid long . lower p4 with shorted trigonid , resembling lower m1 ( h - gsp 96052 ) . mandibular angle of juveniles small ( h - gsp 30349 , fig . s1 ) .\nupper dentitions of a . wardi are mostly known from india ( luvp 15006 , rr 411 , wif / a 616 ) . the p2 is longer than wide , unlike the p3 and p4 . p2 has connate paracone and metacone , and a lingual bulge with a small protocone ( luvp 15006 , h - gsp 30229 ) . p3 and p4 are similar in shape , with connate para - and metacone , and large protocone . paraconule and metaconule are strong in p3 ( luvp 15006 ) , whereas in p4 transverse crests are well developed and conules less so . upper molars have four strongly developed cusps , with smaller but distinct paraconule and metaconule . transverse crests are absent , but cusps are lined up in such a way that they form an anteriorly convex arch .\ntooth wear in anthracobunids tends to be distinct on the posterior side of the protoconid - metaconid , and the anterior side of the protocone - protoconule - paracone , and is accentuated by the deep valleys behind these rows . this transverse wear pattern is consistent with the large and caudally - projecting angular process of the mandible , the area of insertion for the medial pterygoid and masseter muscles .\nspecimen rr 411 reveals some details about the orbit and zygomatic arch . the zygomatic arch has a weak postorbital process and the dorsal part of the zygomatic arch is made up of the maxilla in the orbital rim , but not posterior to the orbit . the ventral edge of the zygomatic arch is made up of the jugal . the morphology of the root of the zygomatic arch , the postorbital process of the frontal , and the mandibular fossa in this specimen resembles that of h - gsp 97106 .\nthe anterior edge of the ascending ramus of the mandible of h - gsp 96259 is vertical , whereas it slopes slightly caudal in h - gsp 96434 : the superior part overhanging the inferior part . h - gsp 30349 is a juvenile in which the anterior edge of the ramus slopes slightly rostral . in h - gsp 96149 this ramus is vertical . the mandibular symphysis of all jaws , except h - gsp 30349 , is strongly fused , and slopes caudal ending ventral to the premolars .\ndiscussion . most specimens of anthracobune wardi are known from the lower redbeds of the kuldana formation of pakistan , where pakicetid cetaceans are common . these are freshwater deposits and the specimens of anthracobune found here pertain to a . wardi . additional specimens of a . wardi are from the freshwater deposits of the subathu formation of india .\nobergfellia , new genus . urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 952704f2 - f029 - 4643 - b791 - b30e7c71aa0a .\nanthracobune ( in part ) , west , 1980 , 1981 , 1983 , 1984 .\npilgrimella ( in part ) , wells and gingerich , 1983 ; kumar , 1991 .\netymology . in honor of the late vertebrate paleontologists dr . friedlinde obergfell and her husband a . ranga rao . both were instrumental in the initial discovery and description of the kalakot fauna . this fauna became the best - known eocene land mammal fauna from india , mostly due to the efforts of a . sahni and k . kumar .\nobergfellia occidentalis , new species , urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : b5a9a6da - db8f - 4498 - 8bf2 - 3812b98458d9 .\nanthracobune pinfoldi ( in part ) , west , 1980 , p . 518 , pl . 2 . 5 .\nanthracobune pilgrimi , west , 1981 ; west , 1983 ( in part ) , p . 367 , fig . 5 , fig . 6 ; west , 1984 ( in part ) , p . 187 , fig . 4 , fig . 5 .\nadams consensus of all trees recovered from parsimony analyses that included some ordered multistate characters , with continental geography ( see states in upper left - hand corner ) optimized onto the tree using parsimony ( relationships among extant taxa were constrained by a \u201cmolecular scaffold\u201d ) .\nbootstrap support for clades derived from each analysis contributing to the consensus is depicted by colored circles . a1 = atlantogenata constraint , transitions between polymorphic and \u201cfixed\u201d states in ordered morphoclines weighted as 0 . 5 steps ; a2 = atlantogenata constraint , transitions between polymorphic and \u201cfixed\u201d states in ordered morphoclines weighted as one step ; e1 = exafroplacentalia constraint , transitions between polymorphic and \u201cfixed\u201d states in ordered morphoclines weighted as 0 . 5 steps ; e2 = exafroplacentalia constraint , transitions between polymorphic and \u201cfixed\u201d states in ordered morphoclines weighted as one step . across all trees , anthracobunids and desmostylians were placed as perissodactyls , along with two enigmatic asian taxa , the late paleocene \u201ccondylarth\u201d radinskya and early eocene cambaytherium .\n( d ) bar diagram of bone compactness , a quantification of the amount of bone per midshaft cross - section , compared here between fossil and extant ungulates .\nc values for enamel samples of early and middle eocene mammals from india and pakistan .\nresults shown as mean \u00b1s . d . for the sample populations . data from ( a ) early eocene and ( b , c ) middle eocene taxa from india and pakistan . circles , perissodactyls ; red circles , anthracobunids ; squares , artiodactyls ; triangles , cetaceans ; inverse triangles , creodonts ; diamonds , condylarths . see suppl . info . for details .\npilgrimella pilgrimi , wells and gingerich , 1983 ( in part ) , p . 122 , fig . 2c\u2013d ; kumar , 1991 ( in part ) , p . 230 .\netymology . specific epithet is from occidentalis , latin for west , in honor of robert m . west , who discovered and described the holotype .\nholotype . h - gsp 1981 , mandibles with left p1 - m3 and right p4 - m3 ( fig . 2p\u2013q ) .\ntype locality . h - gsp locality 62 , ganda kas area , punjab province , pakistan .\nformation and age . kuldana formation , kala chitta hills of northeastern pakistan , early lutetian in age ( \u224848 ma ) .\ndiagnosis . differs from other anthracobunids in exhibiting the following combination of features : ( i ) lower molars broad , ( ii ) lower m3 short , and ( iii ) angular process of the mandible long but shorter than that of anthracobune .\ndescription . the most complete specimen for this species is h - gsp 1981 , a left and right mandible not larger than a . wardi ( h - gsp 96258 and 96434 ) , but with lower molars much broader than a . wardi . h - gsp 1981 lacks the angular process , due to post - mortem damage but it is preserved in h - gsp 96214 , a specimen with an erupting m3 . in this specimen , the angular process is 80 % as long , rostro - caudally , as in a . wardi . the angular process is not preserved in h - gsp 96149 , but its root is preserved and the slope thereof indicates that the process is small h - gsp 96149 has extremely worn teeth , but its molars are similar in size to h - gsp 1981 ( fig . s1 ) , premolars and canine are larger and the depth and robusticity of the jaw is much greater than in h - gsp 1981 . the wear stage is most consistent with advanced age , and makes it unlikely that the smaller angular process is the result of young age . eventually this specimen may be shown to pertain to a new species of obergfellia .\nfew upper molars have been discovered for o . occidentalis . h - gsp 538 is a large tooth , and an interstitial facet on its posterior side indicates that it is not an m3 . m1 and m2 of p . pilgrimi do not reach this size , and we therefore refer this tooth to p . obergfelli .\ndiscussion . west [ 10 ] , [ 93 ] recognized that his collection of specimens from the ganda kas region of pakistan contained two species of anthracobunids from the freshwater part of the formation and used the names anthracobune pilgrimi and lammidhania wardi for them . unfortunately , the type specimen for l . wardi is an isolated trigonid , and pertains to the same species as several large complete lower jaws collected by us ( h - gsp 96258 and 96434 ) , and these match upper dentition material referred to pilgrimella pilgrimi ( the type of which is an upper molar ) . hence a new genus and species name is needed . a specimen described by west , h - gsp 1981 , is the most appropriate holotype for this species .\ndiscussion . wells and gingerich [ 1 ] described jozaria palustris on the basis of a single specimen which shows the diagnostic features of anthracobunids . the lower premolars of this specimen are large compared to the molars , confirming it as distinct from other anthracobunid species and genera .\nparsimony analyses were first run to determine the most parsimonious placement of xenarthra ( represented in this analysis by dasypus ) given different placements in placental phylogeny \u2013 i . e . , as either the sister group either of afrotheria ( the atlantogenata hypothesis ) or of laurasiatheria + euarchontoglires ( the exafroplacentalia hypothesis ) , as this is one of the nodes that was not convincingly resolved by meredith et al . ' s [ 27 ] analysis , and continues to be debated in the literature on placental phylogenetics [ 94 ] . a placement with afrotheria was more parsimonious [ ( 3704 . 5 versus 3716 steps ( i . e . , constraint a1 versus e1 , with 0 . 5 weighting of ordered multistate characters with intermediate polymorphic states ; fig . s2a versus fig . s2c ) and 5758 versus 5773 steps ( a2 versus e2 , no weighting of ordered multistate characters with intermediate polymorphic states , fig . s2b versus fig . s2d ) ] , and all subsequent alternative constraints accordingly employed an atlantogenata , rather than an exafroplacentalia , constraint .\nthe placement of cambaytherium within perissodactyla is consistent with bajpai et al . ' s [ 38 ] , [ 91 ] assessment of the genus . confusion surrounding the dental similarities that cambaytherium shares with perissodactyls and anthracobunids [ 102 ] is resolved by the placement of cambaytheriids and anthracobunids as closely related sister taxa of crown perissodactyla , thereby indicating that similarities to tethytheres are entirely due to convergence . bajpai et al . [ 38 ] argued that the middle eocene european genus hallensia , which was originally identified as a \u201ccondylarth\u201d [ 50 ] and later placed within perissodactyla as either a possible equoid [ 51 ] , [ 103 ] , might be a cambaytheriid . in our analyses hallensia was usually placed as a stem perissodactyl ( a1 , e1 , e2 ) or in an unresolved position relative to these taxa ( a2 ) . the monophyly of a clade containing anthracobunidae , cambaytherium , hallensia , radinskya , and \u201cadvanced\u201d perissodactyls is supported by 11 unambiguous synapomorphies ( table s2 ) . the clade containing anthracobunids , cambaytheriids , radinskya , crown perissodactyla , and hallensia was reconstructed as having been equivocally of either asian or european origin ( table s3 ) , while the anthracobunid - desmostylian - hippomorph - tapiromorph clade was optimized as having been of asian origin .\nwe quantified the midshaft cross - sectional geometries of limb and rib bones of anthracobunids and other ungulates . long bone and rib cross - sectional phenotypes are a reliable indicator of vertebrate habitat , with most taxa occupying a shallow - water habitat displaying the greatest amount of bone per cross - section via thickened cortices and / or bone - filled medullary cavities [ 71 ] , [ 104 ] , [ 105 ] . in contrast , bones of terrestrial taxa typically display thin cortices and vacant medullary cavities . bone compactness values , a combined measure of cortical and medullary bone area [ 72 ] , indicate that anthracobune limb bones display values between 0 . 85\u20130 . 96 . this range is greater than values observed in a sample of fossil and extant artiodactyls and perissodactyls ( 0 . 42\u20130 . 83 ) , with the exception of modern hippopotamus ( 0 . 94 , 0 . 96 ) and rhinoceros ( 0 . 64\u20130 . 85 ) , and semi - aquatic pakicetid and remingtonocetid eocene cetaceans ( 0 . 93\u20130 . 96 ) ( fig . 4 ) . similar results were documented in rib elements ( table s7 ) .\nwe also studied the oxygen and carbon isotope composition of structural carbonate in tooth enamel [ 75 ] , [ 106 ] for anthracobunids and coeval taxa from the early and middle eocene of india and pakistan ( fig . 5 , table s8 , table s9 ) . mammal fossils sampled from early eocene localities ( fig . 5c ) , including cambaytherium , spanned a narrow range of \u03b4 18 o values , and are consistent with occupation of a wet and forested habitat . enamel \u03b4 13 c values showed more than 3\u2030 range in individual values ( \u221212 . 4\u2030 to \u22129 . 1\u2030 ) , and , when corrected to present - day atmospheric \u03b4 13 c values [ 107 ] , suggest foraging in a relatively wet environment . conversely , taxa sampled from middle eocene deposits of northern pakistan displayed a much wider range of \u03b4 18 o values ( 21 to 27\u2030 ) and much higher enamel \u03b4 13 c values ( fig . 5b , c ) .\ntwo specimens of a . wardi collected from middle eocene deposits of northern india had low enamel \u03b4 18 o values ( 21 . 3\u2030 and 21 . 8\u2030 ) that approached values for aquatic taxa , but also overlapped with values for terrestrial rhinocerotoids ( 20 . 6\u2030 to 24 . 7\u2030 ) from the same formation . these low enamel \u03b4 18 o values are more consistent with a freshwater habitat for these individuals , but , again , low sample size complicates differentiating \u03b4 18 o values for these specimens from \u03b4 18 o values for taxa assumed to be fully terrestrial .\nanthracobunids have not previously been incorporated into taxonomically broad phylogenetic analyses of morphological data that incorporate the molecular evidence for placental supraordinal relationships . we tested for the possibility that anthracobunidae and various laurasian \u201ccondylarths\u201d ( phenacodontids , louisinids ) are not members of afrotheria by adding a number of living and extinct laurasiatherians to a morphological character matrix that has previously been employed to reconstruct afrotherian phylogeny [ 19 ] , [ 35 ] , [ 108 ] . we constrained relationships of extant taxa , based largely on the results of meredith et al . [ 27 ] , using the \u201cmolecular scaffold\u201d technique proposed by springer et al . [ 109 ] . we also employed several alternative constraints to obtain tree lengths for competing topologies .\nwhen continental geography is mapped onto the adams consensus in fig . 3 , crown and advanced stem perissodactyls ( including cambaytherium and radinskya ) are optimized as having originated in asia ( fig . 3 ) , while the perissodactyl stem lineage is of ambiguous ( but certainly laurasian ) continental origin . later colonization of north america by crown perissodactyls was presumably facilitated by global warming at the paleocene - eocene boundary [ 111 ] , [ 112 ] . afrotheria is unambiguously of afro - arabian origin on the adams topology , and the recently described paleocene african \u201ccondylarth\u201d ocepeia [ 58 ] was placed as either a stem paenungulate or as a stem atlantogenatan , depending on whether atlantogenata or exafroplacentalia was constrained ( respectively ) . the consistent recovery of the european louisinids paschatherium and teilhardimys as stem perissodactyls challenges the view that they are afrotherian macroscelideans [ 62 ] .\nsome early tethytheres are thought to have had a semi - aquatic lifestyle ( proboscideans [ 81 ] , [ 116 ] , desmostylians [ 117 ] , sirenians [ 104 ] , [ 118 ] \u2013 [ 120 ] ) , but no evidence suggests that stem perissodactyls occupied an aquatic habitat . to reconstruct the ancient habitat preferences of anthracobunids , we analyzed bone geometry of the postcranial skeleton as well as stable isotope values within tooth enamel .\nwe quantified the midshaft cross - sectional geometries of limb and rib bones of anthracobunids and other ungulates . anthracobune limb bones displayed bones that were more hyperostotic and therefore more compacted compared to most extant ungulates . exceptions included extant taxa that are known to frequently swim or wallow in shallow water habitats ( i . e . , hippopotamus and rhinoceros ) [ 121 ] , and fossil eocene cetaceans that are thought to be semi - aquatic and also occupy shallow water habitats ( i . e . , pakicetid and remingtonocetids ) ( fig . 4 ) . thus , anthracobunids display a variety of skeletal modifications consistent with taxa that exploit shallow - water habitats , including thickened postcranial elements and widened elements of the autopodium , in addition to large body size .\nwe also studied the oxygen and carbon isotope composition of structural carbonate in tooth enamel [ 75 ] , [ 106 ] for anthracobunids and coeval taxa ( fig . 5 ) . the anthracobunids recovered from the kuldana formation ( anthracobune and obergfellia ) displayed enamel \u03b4 18 o values suggesting some evidence of aquatic habits , and enamel \u03b4 13 c values showed they fed on land . anthracobunids recovered from northern india displayed enamel \u03b4 18 o values consistent with occupation of freshwater habitats . although all sampled anthracobunids may have had some aquatic preferences , stable isotopic evidence alone is inconclusive as there is overlap in range of isotopic values between terrestrial and aquatic taxa .\ntaken together , skeletal and isotopic evidence are most consistent with an interpretation of anthracobunids ( especially anthracobune ) as having had ecological preferences similar to those of modern rhinos and tapirs , but not exhibiting the same degree of commitment to aquatic habits as hippopotamus [ 84 ] , [ 122 ] . most rhinos and tapirs have a restricted range near permanent bodies of water in which they frequently wallow and wade [ 121 ] , and obtain most of their drinking water [ 84 ] , [ 122 ] . modern rhinos may be a good model for the anthracobunid lifestyle as both display thickened limbs and intermediate oxygen isotope values relative to hippopotamus and terrestrial ungulates .\nstable isotopic evidence also showed mammal fossils sampled from early eocene localities ( fig . 5c ) occupied and foraged within a wet and forested habitat . conversely , taxa sampled from middle eocene deposits of northern pakistan ( fig . 5b , c ) indicated shifts in the climate toward increased aridity . this climate change was most likely caused by the northward movement of the indian plate , which pushed these areas out of an equatorial zone of high precipitation in the middle eocene [ 123 ] , [ 124 ] . vegetation would have opened up , and shifted to a drier , tropical forest or savanna habitat .\nbased on new dental , cranial , and postcranial material , our phylogenetic analysis is the first to suggest that anthracobunids are stem members of the laurasiatherian order perissodactyla , rather than members of the afrotherian clades tethytheria , proboscidea , or sirenia . the strictly asian distribution of anthracobunids is consistent with the isolation of afrotherian and laurasiatherian clades through the early paleogene [ 19 ] , [ 113 ] , while the phylogenetic result is consistent with the recent recovery of very primitive basal stem proboscideans such as phosphatherium [ 125 ] and eritherium [ 18 ] , from the early eocene and paleocene of africa . analyses of postcranial bones and stable isotopes also indicate that anthracobunids were large and lumbering , and suggest at least some taxa spent time in the water similar to modern rhinos , and that all known anthracobunids fed on land . our results therefore identify an old world radiation of large , non - cursorial , partly aquatic perissodactyls that convergently came to occupy a basal tethythere - like niche on the northern coast of the tethys sea ."]}
{"id": 1443, "summary": [{"text": "the german cockroach ( blattella germanica ) is a small species of cockroach , typically about 1.1 to 1.6 cm ( 0.43 to 0.63 in ) long .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "in colour it varies from tan to almost black , and it has two dark , roughly parallel , streaks on the pronotum running anteroposteriorly from behind the head to the base of the wings .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "although blattella germanica has wings , it can barely fly , although it may glide when disturbed .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "of the few species of cockroach that are domestic pests , it probably is the most widely troublesome example .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "it is very closely related to the asian cockroach , and to the casual observer the two appear nearly identical and may be mistaken for each other .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "however , the asian cockroach is attracted to light and can fly rather like a moth , while the german cockroach can not . ", "topic": 19}], "title": "german cockroach", "paragraphs": ["german cockroach diseases german cockroach life cycle german cockroach nests german cockroach nymphs german cockroach vs . american cockroach\ninsect management guide for cockroaches . least toxic methods of cockroach control . german cockroach management in low income housing\nthe german cockroach is the most common species of the cockroach . german cockroaches can breed at a rate of up to six generations per year . the german cockroach can fit through an opening as small as 3 / 8 inch in width .\ngerman cockroaches can be found all over the world . they are the most common cockroach in the united states . each german cockroach can live about 100 - 200 days .\nthe german cockroach eats almost anything but prefers starchy foods like potatoes , rice and cereal .\ni saw one small german cockroach in my home and now i am worried . how long before they overrun my home ? keep reading to learn how fast german cockroach reproduction occurs .\nthe german cockroach , which originally came from africa , is the smallest of the pest species .\ndifferential development and reproduction of the german cockroach ( dictyoptera : blattellidae ) on three laboratory diets .\nthe american cockroach is the largest cockroach found in houses . despite its name , the american cockroach is not native to north america , but was likely introduced via ships from africa in the 1600s .\nprof essional roach baits , pesticide dusts , aerosols or residual spray concentrates can be used to eliminate german cockroach infestations .\ndifferential development and reproduction of the german cockroach ( dictyoptera : blattellidae ) on three laboratory diets . - pubmed - ncbi\nwondering how to get rid of german cockroaches ? the best advice for german cockroach control is to practice good sanitation . to prevent german cockroaches from infesting the space , vacuum often , keep a spotless kitchen , seal all entrances around utility pipes and ventilate crawl spaces to prevent moisture buildup . if there is evidence of a cockroach infestation , contact a licensed pest professional to inspect and treat the german cockroach problem .\nrobinson , w . 1999 . worries over german cockroach resistance fades . pest control 67 ( 7 ) : 40 - 42\nthe smallest cockroach known is attaphila fungicola , measuring 1mm wide and 3mm long . this cockroach lives in the nest of leaf cutter ants .\nthe german cockroach is the cockroach of concern , the species that gives all other cockroaches a bad name . it occurs in structures throughout florida , and is the species that typically plagues multifamily dwellings . in florida , the german cockroach may be confused with the asian cockroach , blattella asahinai mizukubo . while these cockroaches are very similar , there are some differences that a practiced eye can discern .\nfigure 4 . third instar nymph of german cockroach blattella germanica ( linnaeus ) . photograph by james castner , university of florida .\nrust mk , owens jm , reierson da . 1995 . understanding and controlling the german cockroach . oxford university press , oxford .\nnalyanya g . , gore j . c . , linker h . m . , schal c . german cockroach allergen levels in north carolina schools : comparison of integrated pest management and conventional cockroach control .\nrobinson , w . 1996 . resistance remediation in the german cockroach . resistant pest management 8 ( 1 ) : 34 - 35 .\nwang c . , bennett g . w . comparative study of integrated pest management and baiting for german cockroach management in public housing .\nfigure 1 . adult female german cockroach , blattella germanica ( linnaeus ) , with ootheca . photograph by james castner , university of florida .\nfigure 6 . adult male german cockroach , blattella germanica ( linnaeus ) . photograph by p . g . koehler , university of florida .\nfigure 7 . adult female german cockroach , blattella germanica ( linnaeus ) . photograph by p . g . koehler , university of florida .\ntsai , y . , k . cahill . 1970 . parasites of the german cockroach ( blattella germanica l . ) in new york city .\nfigure 2 . oothecae ( egg cases ) of the german cockroach , blattella germanica ( linnaeus ) . photograph by james castner , university of florida .\nthe german cockroach is also the most sociable of the pest species and is often found in large groups , especially near warm areas like water heaters .\ncheck out the tips in this video to help you prevent and treat cockroach infestations .\nfind more facts about and information on cockroach pest control at the official npma website .\nithe german cockroach is the hardest pest cockroach to get rid of and is the most troublesome in sydney . it can be found anywhere in the home but is probably most common in the kitchen , frequently inside cupboards , drawers and electrical appliances .\nrobinson , w . 1996 . how the german cockroach has adapted to the household environment . pest control 64 ( 7 ) : 43 , 44 , 46 .\n2004 .\ngerman cockroach - blattella germanica\n( on - line ) . north carolina museum of natural sciences . accessed october 18 , 2008 at urltoken .\nthe world ' s smallest cockroach is only 0 . 3mm long and lives in ant nests\ncornwell pb . 1968 . the cockroach , volume i . hutchinson of london , london .\nsurvey - to control german cockroaches , it is important to do a thorough inspection . a cockroach survey ( trapping ) is sometimes necessary to determine the extent of an infestation , as even a thorough inspection will not reveal all cockroach harborages or foraging areas .\nthe german cockroach is one of the most common roaches found in apartment houses , restaurants , and hotels . german cockroaches ( eggs included ) , are brought inside or hitchhike on man ' s belongings , luggage , boxes or packages . a large german roach population will produce a foul odor . these roaches prefer moisture , food , and warmth . sanitation measures are critical in controlling german roaches . german roaches can be a serious health hazard in restaurants .\nfasulo tr . ( 2002 ) . stored product pests and german cockroach . bug tutorials . university of florida / ifas . cd - rom . sw - 165 .\nchai r . y . , lee c . y . insecticide resistance profiles and synergism in field populations of the german cockroach ( dictyoptera : blattellidae ) from singapore .\nif you have ever seen a particularly long cockroach , then you may have seen a female carrying its egg case on its abdomen . the egg case , an ootheca , of a german cockroach typically carries 30 to 40 eggs . the german cockroach will carry this egg case up to nearly the time when the eggs are ready to hatch , and once the new baby roaches hatch , they are initially bright , white nymphs .\nthe german cockroach is found throughout the world in association with humans . they are unable to survive in locations away from humans or human activity . the major factor limiting german cockroach survival appears to be cold temperatures . studies have shown that german cockroaches were unable to colonize inactive ships during cool temperatures and could not survive in homes without central heating in northern climates . the availability of water , food , and harborage also govern the ability of german cockroaches to establish populations , and limit growth .\ndroppings german cockroach droppings may appear as small , dark , \u201cpepper - like\u201d material left on countertops or in drawers . fecal staining may appear as dark spots or smears :\negg capsules since german cockroach females carries their egg case until 1 to 2 days before depositing it , empty egg cases may be found in areas that the females frequent .\nsnell , e . and w . h robinson . 1991 . bait stations and german cockroach management programs . pest control technology 19 ( 8 ) : 55 - 57 .\nrobinson , w . 1996 . more good news from the field ( german cockroach resistance ) . pest control technology 24 ( 6 ) : 56 , 61 , 62 .\nwatch this video to learn more about the most common cockroach species that can infest your home .\nkoehler pg , strong ca , patterson rs . 1994 . rearing improvements for the german cockroach ( dictyoptera : blattellidae ) . journal of medical entomology 31 : 704 - 710 .\nzhai , j . and w . h robinson . 1992 . chemical control of the german cockroach . pest control technology 20 ( 3 ) : 40 , 41 , 44 .\nsince the german cockroach is considered an aesthetic pest , the action threshold for this insect depends upon the tolerance of the people living in the infested dwelling . however , most people associate cockroach infestations with poor sanitary conditions and typically go to excessive lengths to eradicate them from their houses .\nthe german cockroach is a widely distributed urban pest . it is also the most common cockroach species in houses , apartments , restaurants , hotels , and other institutions . this is true not only in pennsylvania but also throughout the united states and in most parts of the civilized world .\nfigure 3 . first instar nymphs emerging from the oothecae ( egg case ) of a german cockroach , blattella germanica ( linnaeus ) . photograph by james castner , university of florida .\nthe german cockroach ranges in size from about one - eighth of an inch in length when it hatches , to a little over one - half of an inch as an adult .\nzhai , j . and w . robinson . 1996 . antennal and leg grooming in two strains of the german cockroach ( orthoptera : blattellidae ) . med . entomol . zool .\nmccandless , l . 2005 .\ncu scientists unravel mating clues of the german cockroach\n( on - line ) . cornell chronicle . accessed november 14 , 2008 at urltoken .\nlifespan as adults , german cockroaches can survive anywhere from 100 to 200 days .\nfigure 5 . newly molted adult german cockroach , blattella germanica ( linnaeus ) . within a few hours the cuticle will harden and darken . photograph by james castner , university of florida .\nrobinson , w . h and j . zhai . 1992 . insecticide rotation and german cockroach control . pest control technology 20 ( 12 ) : 24 , 28 , 30 . 31 .\nrobinson , wm . h and j . zhai . 1992 . insecticide rotation and german cockroach control . pest control technology 20 ( 12 ) : 24 , 28 , 30 , 31 .\ngerman cockroaches produce odorous secretions that can affect the flavor of various foods . when cockroach populations are high , these secretions may result in a characteristic odor in the general region of the infestation . disease - producing organisms such as bacteria , protozoans , and viruses have been found on cockroach bodies .\nwhen beginning your german roach control program , sanitation is one of the first things to consider . german roaches only need a small amount of food to sustain them .\nnature has provided german roaches the means to ensure their survival in a splendid way . german roaches protect their eggs to help ensure hatching and reproduce at astounding rates .\ngerman cockroaches are one of the most common cockroach species found in households . german cockroaches undergo three distinct life phases : egg , nymph and adult . their entire life cycle spans approximately 100 days , although this is dependent on factors such as temperature , diet and injuries .\nasian cockroaches , a pest of the southeastern united states , are often mistaken for the german cockroach . similar in appearance , the main differences between the two cockroaches are evident in their behavior .\ndurier v , rivault c . 2003 . improvement of german cockroach ( dictyoptera : blatellidae ) population control by fragmented distribution of gel baits . journal of economic entomology 96 : 1254 - 1258 .\nphantom aerosol may be used with roach baits and will enhance your german roach control .\nbreeding season german cockroaches breed continuously year round , though breeding slows during colder months .\nadvion arena roach bait advion cockroach bait arena can be used to control cockroach populations indoors and outdoors with the active ingredient indoxacarb , an insecticide that acts through ingestion by cockroaches . advion roach bait arena ( 60 ctn )\nthe german cockroach was once the no . 1 pest in residential and commercial buildings . that changed with the introduction of cockroach baits , which resulted in one of the great success stories in insecticide development . cockroaches became almost a second tier pest , and remained so for more than a decade . but have you noticed ? they\u2019re back ! it\u2019s time for pest management service technicians to review some of the critical aspects of german cockroach biology and habits that can make it one of our more challenging pests .\nzhai , j . and w . h robinson . 1992 . measuring cypermethrin resistance in the german cockroach ( orthoptera : blattellidae ) . j . econ . entomol . 85 : 348 - 351 .\n] . the german cockroach has been reported to have developed resistance to 42 unique insecticide active ingredients in 219 documented cases worldwide and is ranked as the world\u2019s no . 2 insecticide resistant urban pest [\nday , e . august 1996 .\ngerman cockroach .\n( on - line ) . virginia cooperative extension , virginia polytechnic institute and state university . accessed october 14 , 2008 at urltoken .\nvalles , s . 2008 .\ngerman cockroach\n( on - line ) . university of florida institute of food and agricultural sciences \u2013 featured creatures . accessed october 10 , 2008 at urltoken .\nhighly magnified footage of these experiments clearly shows a glucose - averse cockroach reacting to a dose of the sugar .\nin addition to being a nuisance , the german cockroach has been implicated in outbreaks of illness and allergic reactions in many people . cockroaches have been reported to spread at least 33 kinds of bacteria , six kinds of parasitic worms and at least seven other kinds of human pathogens . they can pick up germs on the spines of their legs and bodies as they crawl through decaying matter or sewage and then carry these into food or onto food surfaces . medical studies have shown that german cockroach allergens cause allergic reactions and can exacerbate asthma attacks , especially in children . this makes german cockroach control incredibly vital .\nreproduction & life cycle the female german cockroach produces an egg capsule every 3 to 4 weeks , with each capsule containing 25 - 45 eggs . rather than depositing the sack , the female carries the capsule with her and protects it until it hatches . this is another reason the german cockroach is so difficult to get rid of - its nymphs are well protected . these young nymphs will begin breeding again in as little as 36 days . adult german cockroaches can live up to 365 days .\nfemale german cockroaches carry the oothecae attached to their abdomens until about two days prior to hatching and then deposit them in a protected location . oothecae may be seen protruding from the abdomens of german cockroach females . nymphs emerge from the oothecae as tiny insects . they gradually darken into dark brown or black cockroaches with parallel lines visible upon the pronotum . german cockroach nymphs are wingless and incapable of reproduction . nymphs molt six to seven times and can develop completely within 100 days under optimal conditions .\nnot applying insecticides effectively . whether baits , liquids , dusts , or other formulations , cockroach insecticides need to be applied in cracks , crevices , voids , and other sites where german cockroaches are aggregating .\nzungoli , p . a . and w . h robinson . 1984 . feasability of establishing an aesthetic injury level for german cockroach pest management programs . environ . entomol . 13 : 1453 - 58 .\na flashlight would be a handy tool to inspect evidences of german roaches the following places .\nwings : while adult german cockroaches have wings , they rarely fly , preferring to run .\nrobinson , w . 1996 . antennal grooming and movement behavior in the german cockroach , blattella germanica ( l . ) . proc . internat . conf . insect pests urban environment 1996 : 361 - 369 .\nnot rescheduling problem apartments . when cockroach populations become large , service needs to be repeated every few weeks to succeed .\nthe largest winged cockroach in the world is megaloblatta blaberoides from costa rica ( wingspan of 7 . 3 inches ) .\nmaxforce\u00ae forte contains fipronil 0 . 03 % along with gel that delivers quick results for treatment of cockroach . . .\nthe german cockroach is a highly pestiferous insect that produces asthma - inducing allergens , and is closely associated with areas of human habitation . as such , the german cockroach is transported through human activities , such as food and equipment dispersal . in connected apartments and buildings , german cockroaches can also move between units , making control difficult in heavy infestations . it has previously been shown that the bacterial flora transmitted by german cockroaches presents a serious epidemiological problem for human health and well - being , especially to those living in low - income housing . because german cockroaches are able to vector antibiotic - resistant bacteria , its presence must be controlled to reduce the threat of bacterial contamination in hospitals and swine farms .\nfor effective control , cockroaches must prefer to eat the bait product over surrounding , non - toxic foods . that means cleaning the dishes in the sink , removing trash in a timely fashion , properly storing food , cleaning spills quickly , and identifying potential water sources ( such as leaky pipes ) . cleaning and sanitation has been shown to be effective at reducting german cockroach population numbers , and reducing cockroach allergen levels . reduce clutter to reduce possible cockroach harborages .\nthe german cockroach , blattella germanica ( l . ) , is a common indoor cockroach species . infestations of this pest are associated with poor sanitation , particularly in and around food - handling facilities , and also tend to be associated with lower socioeconomic status . cockroach infestations lead to food damage and contamination because cockroaches can vector human and domesticated animal pathogens . cockroach feces , saliva and cast skins contain allergens that may trigger allergic reactions and psychological distress in sensitive individuals [ 46 ] . cockroaches are among the most problematic urban pests in initiating asthmatic and allergic reactions in children [ 47 ] .\nfarmer , b . r . and w . h robinson . 1984 . harborage limitation as a component of a german cockroach pest management program . proc . entomol . soc . wash . 86 : 269 - 73 .\nteachers can find additional information on german cockroaches to share with students at the official npma website .\nthe adult stage begins with the last successful molting . at this point , german cockroaches are approximately 15 mm in length and are winged . adult german cockroaches are nocturnal insects that hide during the day and scavenge at night . despite their fully developed wings , german cockroaches very rarely fly .\n3 . german cockroaches spend most of their lives hidden and protected . for every cockroach in view in daytime , hundreds can be hidden inside wall and ceiling voids , behind cabinets , inside appliances , and the like . a german cockroach\u2019s favorite location is inside a narrow crevice with its antennae extended out . typical \u201cprime\u201d locations are the cracks between cabinets and walls , the flange under the kitchen sink , and the space between door corners and jambs .\nzhai , j . and w . h robinson . 1996 . instability of cypermethrin resistance in a field population of the german cockroach ( orthoptera : blattidae ) . j . econ . entomol . 80 : 332 - 336 .\ngondhalekar a . d . , scherer c . w . , saran r . k . , scharf m . e . implementation of an indoxacarb susceptibility monitoring program using field - collected german cockroach isolates from the united states .\nzhai , j . and w . h robinson . 1991 . pyrethroid resistance in a field population of german cockroach , blattella germanica ( l . ) . jpn . j . sanit . zool . 42 : 241 - 244 .\najjan , i . and w . h robinson . 1996 . measuring hydramethylnon resistance in the german cockroach , blattella germanica ( l . ) . proc . internat . conf . insect pests urban environment 1996 : 135 - 144 .\nrobinson , w . 1999 . the changing pest status of the german cockroach in the urban environment . proceedings of the fifty second new zealand plant protection conference , new zealand plant protection society inc . , 1999 : 16 - 21\ngerman cockroaches breed continually . in a lifetime , a female cockroach is capable of producing almost 400 eggs . populations grow quickly in optimal conditions . a typical thriving population is comprised of 75 percent nymphs and 25 percent adult roaches .\ngerman cockroaches do not have a specific home range . they usually dwell in homes and in garbage .\nif insecticides have been used in a building , there is a possibility that the german cockroach simply scattered to another area . these harborages need to be located and treated . it may not be possible to eliminate all the german cockroaches in a building completely if a consistent supply of cockroaches is carried into the premises via packages or food shipments .\nwhat are the most common areas in the home where cockroaches are found ? dr . jim fredericks discusses the most popular cockroach hangouts .\nrobinson , w . h and j . zhai . 1993 . insecticide program to manage a cypermethrin - resistant population of the german cockroach , blattella germanica ( l . ) . resistance pest managt . 5 ( 1 ) : 21 - 23\nmiller , d . m . , koehler , p . g . 2000 . novel extraction of german cockroach ( dictyoptera : blattellidae ) fecal pellets enhances efficacy of spray formulation insecticides . j . econ . entomol . 93 : 107 - 111\norkin can provide the right solution to keep german cockroaches in their place\u2026out of your home , or business .\nif you think you might have german roaches , then don\u2019t wait ! call bug zapper pest control for a free inspection . let our trained technicians accurately identify possible german roaches and help you find the best solution .\ntemprid is a combination product suitable as residual spray for the control of american cockroaches and german . . .\nmiller , d . m . , koehler , p . g . 2000 . trail following in the german cockroach , blattella germanica ( l . ) ( dictyoptera : blatellidae ) . . j . econ . entomol . 93 : 1241 - 1246\nthoms , e . m . and w . h robinson . 1987 . potential of the cockroach oothecal parasite prosevania punctata ( hymenoptera : evaniidae ) as a biological control agent for the oriental cockroach ( orthoptera : blattidae ) . environ . entomol . 16 : 938 - 944 .\ngerman cockroaches will feed on almost anything , including soap , glue and toothpaste . german cockroaches are good hitchhikers and often find their way into new structures via grocery bags , cardboard boxes , drink cartons and secondhand appliances .\nthe german cockroach is the most successful of the species infesting buildings in pennsylvania . there are several reasons for this cockroach\u2019s persistence and the difficulty of controlling it . german cockroaches produce a larger number of eggs per capsule and they undergo the shortest time from hatching until sexual maturity , resulting in a rapid population growth . a greater number of nymphs hatch successfully because the female carries the egg capsule during the entire time the embryos are developing within the eggs . also , and most importantly , german cockroaches are smaller than most other cockroaches and can conceal themselves in many places inaccessible to individuals of the larger species .\n5 . german cockroaches protect their egg cases . the female german cockroach carries her egg case for as long as a month , dropping it just before it hatches . while she is carrying the egg case , the female german cockroach is less active and tends to stay hidden away in cracks and crevices and protected voids . for this reason , when applying residual insecticides , it is especially important to ( 1 ) treat deep inside cracks , crevices , and voids , and ( 2 ) schedule follow - up treatments from a few weeks to a month later in problem locations to control newly - emerged nymphs .\ntekko pro stops the reproduction and reduces the survival of the german roach with two different modes of action . it effects the molting process , making the german roach vulnerable to survival and it stops it at the larvae state .\nbesides physiological resistance to bait insecticides , german cockroaches have developed behavioral resistance to various phagostimulants of bait formulations , typically d - glucose and d - fructose [ 65 , 66 , 67 ] . the glucose aversion in field german cockroach populations resulted in the failure of attracting cockroaches to toxic baits and protected them from receiving lethal doses of insecticides [ 65 , 66 ] .\nthe german cockroach has three life stages typical of insects with incomplete metamorphosis : the egg , nymph , and adult . the entire life cycle is completed in about 100 days . however , factors such as temperature , nutritional status , and strain differences may influence the time required to complete a life cycle . german cockroaches breed continuously with many overlapping generations present at any one time . under ideal conditions , population growth has been shown to be exponential . actively growing field populations are comprised of 80 percent nymphs and 20 percent adults . the german cockroach is omnivorous , eating table scraps , pet food , and even book bindings .\nfor german roach control in restaurants we recommend the use of insecticides , aerosols , dusts , and insect growth regulators instead of baits . there is too much competing food sources for effective control of german roaches in restaurants with bait .\nmany times , german roaches in restaurants require insecticides as opposed to baiting . using baits in german roach control requires that their is no competing food sources . in restaurants , it is almost impossible to eliminate all competing food sources .\nrobinson , w . h 1988 . bait stations in cockroach pest management programs . pest control 56 ( 8 ) : 56 , 57 , 60 .\ngeneral the german cockroach is the most common roach found in apartments , houses , hotels , and restaurants . german cockroaches and their eggs are usually transported into buildings on a person ' s belongings , luggage , or boxes . it only takes one small egg capsule and you have an infestation six months later . this species is also one of the most challenging to get rid of .\ndust should only supplement any insecticide of bait control program for german roach control , not as a stand alone solution .\nadult german roaches can live up to one year . they adapt quickly to changing environments , and evolve to survive .\nas they are quite abundant , german cockroaches are not considered a species of concern in any part of their range .\ngerman cockroaches live in warm and damp places , like kitchens , bathrooms , and places where people eat and drink .\n4 - eliminating harborages german roaches prefer a tight crack or crevice , or a dark wall void in which to hide out of sight during daylight areas . eliminate as many harborages as you can and german roaches will hit the road .\ngerman cockroaches adulterate food or food products with their feces and defensive secretions , physically transport and often harbor pathogenic organisms , may cause severe allergic responses , and in extremely heavy infestations have been reported to bite humans and feed on food residues on the faces of sleeping humans . in addition , some scientists suggest that german cockroach infestations may cause human psychological stress and that the stigma associated with infestations alters human behavior . for example , people with infested houses do less entertaining , and avoid the kitchen at night for fear of encountering a cockroach .\neliminating nesting sites by improving sanitation and reducing clutter and the elimination of food and water sources is imperative to eliminate german cockroach infestations and will help protect you from future infestations . you can also help prevent infestations by sealing any areas where roaches could enter from other units in multi - unit buildings and by checking items such as shipping boxes , school bags and grocery bags for cockroach hitchhikers before bringing them into your home .\nthe german cockroach is a small , noctural , dime / penny sized , fast moving cockroach that can quickly escape into cracks and crevices in the wall . adults are elongated , light carmel - colored brown , with two longitudinal black stripes running along the pronotum . adult females may be seen carrying an egg case ( shown to the right ) . nymphs are darker brown / black colored , smaller , and oval shaped .\nmiller , d . m . , meek , f . 2004 . cost and efficacy comparison of ipm strategies with monthly spray insecticide applications for german cockroach ( dictyoptera : blattellidae ) control in public housing . . j . econ . entomol . 97 : 559 - 569 .\nmiller , d . m . , koehler , p . g . , nation , j . l . 2000 . fecal extract trails enhance trap catch in german cockroach ( dictyoptera : blattellidae ) monitoring stations . j . econ . entomol . 93 : 865 - 870 .\nthe process of natural selection would strongly favour any chance genetic change that caused a cockroach to avoid the bait and therefore death . since individuals with the trait would have a greater chance of surviving and reproducing , their descendants with the trait would in time replace those that lacked the trait in the cockroach population .\ntee h . , lee c . sustainable cockroach management using insecticidal baits : formulations , behavioral responses and issues . in : dhang p . , editor .\nin addition to robotic intervention , there are several steps that people can take to reduce or eliminate cockroach populations . we ' ll look at these next .\nthe german cockroach can move well within a building . they also can travel from a neighboring apartment or location to another and can pass through small openings like light switch plates . many times they are brought in with grocery items , grocery bags , cartons , handbags , and luggage .\nthere are about 4 , 600 species of cockroach and fewer than 30 of these are considered pests . ( there are about 5 , 400 species of mammals )\navert dry flowable cockroach bait remains effective for more than one year after initial treatment . the dry formula reaches void areas that gels and bait stations cannot reach .\nzhai , j . and w . h robinson . 1991 . cockroach distribution in urban buildings . pest control technology 19 ( 2 ) : 36 - 39 .\ncypermethrin insecticides are the most popular for killing german cockroaches . mop up can also be used when mopping kitchen floors and is used primarily in restaurant roach control . the best professional baits for german roaches are invict gold cockroach gel and maxforce magnum . demon insecticide is the best residual spray and can best be used in conjunction with baygon aerosols . if you prefer to use professional dusts , delta dust and drione dust are the best dusts for roach control . for more help in ridding yourself of this pest , refer to german roach elimination .\najjan , i . and w . robinson . 1996 . measuring hydramethylon resistance in the german cockroach , blattella germanica ( l . ) . in k . wildey and w . robinson , eds . proceedings international conf . on urban pests , prague , edinburgh , pp . 135 - 144\nadult german cockroaches are light - brown and have two stripes on their pronotum , which is the \u201cshield\u201d just behind their head .\n7 . german cockroaches regularly disperse to new areas . older , larger nymphs are most likely to disperse , followed by adult males and then adult females without egg cases . small nymphs are least mobile . during an outbreak of german cockroaches , technicians need to expand their search for cockroaches into adjacent rooms above and below , even into sites that are not typically infested with german cockroaches .\negg carrying patterns and rapid reproduction rates allow german roaches to quickly infest a home . don\u2019t take chances with your family\u2019s health .\nempty cabinets and clean them out . another common food source for german roaches are the crumbs and food spills inside kitchen cabinets .\nstore food in sealed containers . german roaches are small enough to slip into the cardboard packaging that many foods are stored in .\nfemales carry an egg capsule containing 30 - 48 eggs at the end of their abdomen . when the eggs are close to hatching , the females attach the capsule in a dark corner where the young can emerge safely . one female german cockroach can produce up to 20 , 000 young annually .\nan allergy to cockroaches could set off adult or pediatric asthma . cockroach allergens can be environmental triggers for asthma . learn more about the health implications of cockroaches here .\nthe information for roaches should help not only identify pests but also help to differentiate types of roaches that are given common or incorrect names . to many people , any large roach , roaches that live primarily outdoors or any cockroach that is not a german cockroach is considered a woods roach . the wood roach is a distinct species of roach , not a group of bugs . however , many pest control experts do consider roaches that are not german roaches to belong to a generic\nlarge roach\nor\noutdoor roach\nbecause their primary source is the outdoors .\nwater bugs\nis a term many people use to describe german cockroaches . there are no roach pests that are technically water bugs . when our customers say that water bugs are a problem in their home , we can usually assume that they have an infestation of german roaches .\nin three to four months , those baby roaches will develop into fully grown adults . the lifespan of a cockroach is usually one year , and in any female roach\u2019s lifetime , she can produce anywhere between 200 to 300 offspring or 6 generations a year . the number of eggs a single cockroach can produce will vary from species to species . potentially , and with optimal conditions , one female german cockroach and her offspring could produce 300 , 000 roaches in a year . this means that if you are not careful , a relatively small roach infestation can quickly develop into a much larger problem that needs to be dealt with quickly .\nwhat do they eat ? german cockroaches are scavengers , capable of feeding on most any food source available . the pests will eat :\n6 . german cockroach egg capsules are not susceptible to insecticides . most insecticides do not have the ability to penetrate the egg case , even if directly applied to the case . the unaffected egg cases will hatch days after treatment . this is another reason to schedule follow - up treatments in heavy infestations .\nmiller , d . m . , koehler , p . g . , patterson , r . s . 1997 . use of german cockroach ( blattella germanica ) fecal extract to enhance toxic bait performance in the presence of alternative food sources . j . econ . entomol . 90 : 483 - 487 .\nfeeding habits the german cockroach will eat practically anything and will live very close to food and water sources . they eat sweets , starches , grease , and meat products ; but will also feed on beer , leather , book bindings , hair , glue , dried skin , dead animals and plant material .\npest control effort ! failure to practice good housekeeping is the primary reason for outbreaks of german roaches . like most pests , german roaches require 3 things to thrive - food , water , and harborage . if you can eliminate even one of these things through proper sanitation ,\nto inspect for the presence of german cockroaches , one can use pheromone sticky traps ( commonly found in hardware / supermarket stores ) to attract and trap german cockroaches . however , the use of these traps requires vigilant inspection over time ( traps are only as useful as the person that monitors them ) . for an easy - to - make homemade trap for a possible german cockroach infestation , take a baby food jar and coat the inside - upper walls with vasoline . put a small amount of beer and bread inside the baby food jar , and place jar along the wall underneath the kitchen sink . the smell of fermentation and yeast from this attractive mixture will lure nearby cockroaches , and when the cockroach falls into the jar it won\u2019t be able to run up the vasoline !\nanother study suggests that cockroaches have a collective intelligence made up of the decisions of individual roaches . european scientists developed a robot called insbot that was capable of mimicking cockroach behavior . the researchers applied cockroach pheromones to the robot so real roaches would accept it . by taking advantage of roaches ' tendencies to follow each other , insbot was able to influence the behavior of entire groups , including convincing roaches to leave the shade and move into lighted areas . scientists theorize that similar robots could be used to herd animals or to control cockroach populations .\nin the cockroach case , sugar actually tastes bitter - an effective way for natural selection to quickly produce cockroaches that won ' t accept the sugar baits that hide poison .\nfarmer , b . r . and w . h robinson . 1984 . is caulking beneficial for cockroach control . pest control 52 ( 6 ) : 28 , 30 , 32 .\nthis kit contains invict roach bait with gentrol point source igr for the best combination for german roach control , it kills the adult population and prevents new births . invict gold cockroach gel rapidly kills roaches with its bait matrix of 11 food attractants as a lure . it is known to maximize roach control and fight against bait aversion .\nwhether mother roaches care for their young also varies from one species to another . some mothers hide or bury their ootheca and never see their offspring . others care for their offspring after birth , and scientists believe that some offspring have the ability to recognize their mothers . the number of young that one roach can bear also varies considerably . a german cockroach and her young can produce 300 , 000 more roaches in one year . an american cockroach and her young can produce a comparatively small 800 new roaches per year .\nrobinson , w . h . 1985 . german cockroaches , facts or fiction . pest control 53 ( 10 ) : 70 , 75 - 76 .\nthe mating behavior of german cockroaches is driven by pheromones given off by females , which are detected by the antennae of males . german cockroaches breed continuously with many overlapping generations present at any one time . as a result of continuous breeding and promiscuity , population growth has been shown to be exponential .\nmale german cockroaches , on average , live 100 to 150 days . females live much longer , with an average lifespan of 190 to 200 days .\nthoms , e . m . and w . h robinson . 1987 . distribution and movement of the oriental cockroach around urban apartment buildings . environ . entomol . 16 : 731 - 737 .\n) . conventional cockroach control programs have used spray formulations containing carbamates , ops , organochlorines and pyrethroids . consequently , high levels of resistance to these insecticides have been documented in many field populations [\ngerman cockroaches , believed to have originated in southeast asia , are the most widely distributed urban pests . they have been introduced to all parts of the globe including north america , australia , africa , and the oceanic islands . this ubiquity makes german cockroaches cosmopolitan , with the only deterrent being cold temperatures .\nmale adult german cockroaches are slender and a little smaller than the females , who are a little larger and wider in the abdomen . when female adult german roaches are \u201fgravid , \u201d or pregnant , they have an egg capsule , or ootheca , that can be seen protruding about one quarter - inch from the end of the abdomen . the egg capsule contains about 40 german cockroach eggs , more or less , that will be carried with her until about 24 hours before the new roaches are ready to hatch . she then drops the egg capsule in a concealed location . when the new roaches open it and crawl out , they are on their own .\ngerman cockroach females , unlike most other roaches , carry the egg capsule protruding from their abdomen until their capsules ready to split open . during the last three or four days prior to dropping her egg case , the female german cockroach does not forage for food or water . the case is then placed in a secluded location , with the nymphs emerging sometimes within the hour or as long as a week . a female may produce four to six cases during her lifetime , each containing 30 to 40 eggs . eggs hatch in 28 to 30 days , and nymphs develop in 40 to 125 days . female roaches live about 200 days , with males living not quite as long . the german roach produces more eggs and has more generations per year ( three to four ) than other roaches , and only a few individuals are needed to develop into troublesome infestations .\nrobinson w . h and j . zhai . 1990 . pyrethroid resistance in german cockroaches . pest control technology 18 ( 10 ) : 26 - 28 .\nalthough german cockroaches are capable of living outdoors , they are often found in homes where food is widely available . learn more in the orkin pest library urltoken\nit shakes its head and refuses to imbibe that liquid , at the end , you can see the [ glucose ] on the side of the head of the cockroach that has refused it .\nthe saliva , droppings and decomposing bodies of cockroaches contain allergen proteins which are known to trigger allergies and increase the severity of asthma symptoms . for more on cockroaches , check out the cockroach pest guide .\nthoms , e . m . and w . h robinson . 1986 . the oriental cockroach : new insights on an old foe . pest control 54 ( 7 ) : 30 - 32 , 36 .\nat rentokil , our british pest control association ( bpca ) certified technicians are able to provide customised , targeted treatments to guarantee complete control of your cockroach problem and help to prevent a re - infestation .\ngerman cockroaches have three developmental stages : egg , nymph , and adult . females develop 4 to 8 capsules containing 30 to 48 eggs each in their lifetime . capsules hatch about 28 days after they begins to form . a few weeks thereafter , a new egg capsule begins to form . the egg stage varies in duration from 14 to 35 days . german cockroaches have 6 to 7 nymphal stages occurring over a period of 6 to 31 weeks . they express incomplete metamorphosis : zygotes develop within eggs and hatch directly into nymphs , which then grow into adult cockroaches . the complete life cycle of the cockroach is roughly 100 to 200 days for females , during which 10 , 000 descendants of a single cockroach can be produced .\nthe most common and effective igr used for german roach control is gentrol igr , which comes in an aerosol , concentrated liquid , and point - source tablet .\ndue to resistance to most insecticides on the market , professional roach baits are by far the most effective products to use when german cockroach extermination is needed . there is an insecticide concentrate that can be used against these resistant roaches but it is labeled for use only in commercial kitchens - and it has a very high odor . commercial kitchens should either bait or use orthene\nthe best way to get rid of german roaches is place out a high quality roach bait like invict gold to kill the adult german roaches and an insect growth regulator ( igr ) like gentrol point source igr to stop the reproduction of roaches . we have both products in a kit , invict gold roach kit for savings .\nadult german cockroaches are 1 / 2 to 5 / 8 inch long and tan to light brown ( fig . 1 ) . although they have fully developed wings , they do not fly . nymphs are similar in appearance to adults except that they are smaller and lack wings . the german cockroach is best identified by its small size and by two dark parallel lines running from the back of the head to the wings . it is usually found in kitchens ( near dishwashers , stoves , and sinks ) and in bathrooms of homes .\ngerman roach infestations are usually are generally found in kitchens and bathrooms . if the population is large enough , they will spill over to other rooms . these roaches are mostly active at night . if german roaches are seen active during the day , it most likely is due to overcrowding in their hiding places or a shortage of food and water supply . cracks and crevices are their harborage areas ; they spend about 75 % of their time in such harborages . first instar nymphs require a crack of about 1 / 32\nwhereas , adults require an inch width . german cockroach nymphs are smaller than most other cockroaches ; thus , they are able to conceal themselves in many places and remain protected .\nnon toxic and low toxic alternatives for german cockroach control are available . sticky traps can be used to monitor or reduce population size . improving sanitation by eliminating food and water sources and clutter can have a significant impact on reducing the chances of infestation population size . finally , exclusion practices such as sealing cracks and crevices will reduce harborage space and also negatively impact population size .\ngerman cockroaches prefer to live in warm , humid places close to food and moisture sources . they are frequently found in residential and commercial kitchen environments , and bathrooms .\nzhai , j . and w . h robinson . 1991 . the walking behavior of german cockroaches . pest control technology 18 ( 7 ) : 44 - 46 .\njacobs , s . 2007 .\ngerman cockroaches\n( on - line ) . entomology notes , pennsylvania state university . accessed october 15 , 2008 at urltoken .\nbao , n . and w . h robinson . 1990 . morphogenetic effects of hydroprene on genitalia of the oriental cockroach ( dictyoptera : blattidae ) . j . econ . entomol . 83 : 1415 - 1421 .\nif a german roach infestation is found , treatment will be applied in areas where roaches have been or may be hiding . knowledge about the german cockroach is vital for effective treatment . for example , young roaches often feed on the fecal droppings of the adult cockroaches in \u201caggregation\u201d areas , while the adults are out looking for food . as grotesque as this may sound , it is a key to pest control that helps achieve timely and effective cockroach elimination . professional baits are slow - acting by design . when the adults start feeding on baits , they are preparing a final meal for the young roaches . they live just long enough to digest the bait , get back to their aggregation hangout , and leave their final legacy for the up and coming young roaches .\nhabitat german roaches require moisture to thrive and so tend to dwell in moist places , such as kitchens and bathrooms . however , they may inhabit any room of a structure or home , particularly if the infestation is severe . german cockroaches spend about 75 % of their time hanging out in cracks and crevices near food and water sources . adult german cockroaches can hide inside cracks as small as 3 / 16\nwide , while the nymphs can fit into cracks as small as 1 / 32\nwide .\nif you have a german roach problem , it could be that you are at your wits ' end wondering how to get rid of one of the most stubborn household pests in existence . german roaches get into everything , multiply rapidly , and can survive for several months without food and up to two weeks without water . these little guys definitely pose a challenge , but with the proper tools and products , you can win the battle over german roaches by following this strict integrated pest management ( ipm ) program .\neliminating food sources is a constant battle in german roach control . while this effort involves a great deal of work and vigilance , the results are well worth the effort .\nnymphs molt several times as they become adults . the period between each molt is known as an instar . each instar is progressively more like an adult cockroach . in some species , this process takes only a few weeks . in others , like the oriental cockroach , it takes between one and two years . the overall life span of cockroaches differs as well - - some live only a few months while others live for more than two years ."]}
{"id": 1445, "summary": [{"text": "ophyx pseudoptera is a moth of the erebidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in papua ( including roon island , supiori , biak island ) , papua new guinea and australia , where it has been recorded from queensland .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of lowland areas .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the forewings have a vague pale spot near the wingtip , and a dark brown band across the middle . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "ophyx pseudoptera", "paragraphs": ["no one has contributed data records for ophyx pseudoptera yet . learn how to contribute .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\npratti ( bethune - baker , 1906 pg . 260 ) callipepla ( bethune - baker , 1916 )\npapua localities : roon island : yende ; supiori : nansfori ; biak island : japanese cave ; new guinea : ampas , borme , depapre , marina valen , sinimburu , taja rifi . details in gazetteer .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthe adult moth of this species has forewings that each have a vague pale spot near the wingtip , and a dark brown band across the middle . the male has a darker\nsometimes has a shield of black hairs just behind the head . the wingspan is about 6 cms .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nlower , o . b . 1903 ,\ndescriptions of new australian noctuina , etc\n, transactions of the royal society of south australia , vol . 27 , pp . 27 - 74\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 154a37bd - 4055 - 424f - af69 - e3e33e5a8e91\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 343834ff - 4786 - 4a89 - ab5c - c0e3c500a91c\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : e8447211 - cb3e - 4641 - 8f75 - 610bcbb0ea33\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 501637\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 142809bf - fc70 - 45f7 - 927e - 7e8a5a6a6599\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : a41fb12c - d956 - 4e40 - a3b4 - ecff227ab470\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 949cc0c1 - 82f1 - 45b5 - 8091 - 273e31175725\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 499250\nthe forewings have a vague pale spot near the wingtip , and a dark brown band across the middle .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 / / en\nall rights reserved . no part of this publication may be reproduced ( except brief passages for the purpose of a review ) , stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means , electronic , mechanical , photocopying , recording or otherwise , without the prior written permission of the author .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . ."]}
{"id": 1447, "summary": [{"text": "gunsynd ( 4 october 1967 \u2013 29 april 1983 ) was a champion australian thoroughbred racehorse who won 29 races and a$ 280,455 in prize money .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in his seven starts over one mile ( 1,600 metres ) he was only once defeated , by half-a-head in the epsom handicap . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "gunsynd", "paragraphs": ["dont forget gunsynd was the sire of ammo girl , who gave us emancipation .\nthe people ' s champion : gunsynd won over racing fans all over australia .\n' ' gunsynd did for racing what muhammad ali did for boxing . ' '\nmr clift was most famously known for breeding the champion racehorse gunsynd in the later 1960s .\ncandysynd , by gunsynd , turned into a super broodmare , producing a number of top horses .\ngunsynd was no . 1 with many racegoers , who loved the goondiwindi grey ' s courage .\nthe goondiwindi grey : the gunsynd song / \u200b words by nev hauritz ; music by brian wallace .\noops . . . there aren ' t any events involving gunsynd . you can help by contributing .\nthe people ' s champion : gunsynd won over racing fans all over australia . photo : bruce postle\na statue commemorates the racehorse gunsynd known as the\ngoondiwindi grey .\nthe apex club of goondiwindi commissioned the memorial from brisbane stonemason tom farrell . it is a white bas - relief representation of gunsynd .\nthe goondiwindi grey [ music ] : the gunsynd song / words by nev hauritz ; music by brian wallace .\nwhy is gunsynd so special ? phil percival ' s book , the goondiwindi grey , examines the great horse .\nthere is also a statue of gunsynd at goondiwindi and he entered the australian racing hall of fame in 2005 .\nsuper impose holds the title but a statue was erected for gunsynd at goondiwindi and tex morton sang his praises .\nwhile he bred gunsynd and had a large number of family present , he has led a busy racing life .\ni apologise to subzero . . . he can replace my last gunsynd . . . very underrated horse . . .\nthis prodigious season resulted in gunsynd ' s being declared australia ' s champion racehorse for the 1972 / 73 season .\nthus a title was coined for the mighty gunsynd , drawn from the town in queensland from whence his owners hailed .\nqueensland trainer bill wehlow knew the feeling . he prepared the goondiwindi grey , gunsynd , through the early years of its stunning career . under his tutelage gunsynd won 12 of 22 starts . however , it wasn ' t until gunsynd was transferred to the legendary tommy smith that the mighty grey rose to greatness as one of australia ' s true turf champions .\nstill the autumn of 1972 didn\u2019t end there for gunsynd . smith had also set him for the sydney cup over 3200 metres .\nit was also a day where clift , the man feted for breeding the goondiwindi grey , gunsynd , received a deserving honour .\ngunsynd was one of the most courageous and charismatic horses to race in australia . he loved the crowds and the crowds loved him .\nthe goondiwindi grey [ music ] : the gunsynd song / words by nev hauritz ; music by brian wallace . - version details - trove\ngunsynd hit his true form thereafter . 1971 brought the rawson stakes , epsom handicap , toorak handicap , sandown cup and george adams handicap .\ngunsynd humped 60kg and took on a classy field including the great new zealander triton ( 55kg ) , trained by canny kiwi syd brown .\nclift looked after gunsynd\u2019s dam woodie wonder , a newtown wonder twin who was sold for $ 100 twice as a yearling at the1960 scone sale .\nhe is the only animal gracing the queensland icon list , the group 3 gunsynd classic , it is run to honour him at doomben racecourse .\nthis story gunsynd ' s doncaster win another chapter in the career of one of racing ' s greats first appeared on the sydney morning herald .\ntoday we will have a look at the career of one of the most popular horses to ever run in australia , the goondiwindi grey , gunsynd .\ngunsynd , under 60 . 5kg in the 1972 cup , went down by two lengths to piping lane ( 48kg ) after being three wide throughout .\nthe australian stud book credits breeza plains farmer joe mcnamara as being the breeder of folklore racehorse gunsynd but his actual breeder was his near neighbour john clift .\nwhen he finished racing , gunsynd stood at the historic kia ora stud near scone , then under the ownership of eminent breeding and racing identity george ryder .\nalthough the stud book credits breeza plains farmer joe mcnamara with being the breeder of now folklore racehorse gunsynd , his actual breeder was near neighbour john clift .\nyes , and only 20 , 000 in an era of dwindling crowds were present for the super impose ovation but he never maintained the popularity of gunsynd .\ngunsynd ' s record of being the only horse to win at 10 tracks in the three eastern seaboard capitals - melbourne , sydney and brisbane - indicated his willingness to run anywhere in any conditions . a travel company in goondiwindi ran special buses to brisbane whenever he was racing there . when the grey began running interstate , the company chartered planes . no matter where gunsynd was racing , the goondiwindi tab had a special window at which only bets on gunsynd were taken .\nbut perhaps gunsynd\u2019s mightiest performance came in the 1972 melbourne cup where he ran third carrying 60 . 5kg . the winner , piping lane had 48kg , or 12 . 5kg less than gunsynd . this was a time when the melbourne cup was actually a handicap race , not a quality like it is today . gunsynd was handicapped out of this cup , not because of the 60 . 5kg , he could carry that on his ear , but because of the low limit .\nconsistency , too , added to gunsynd\u2019s appeal . while 1600 metres was his best distance , like super impose , he did race boldly in the melbourne cup .\nironically kia ora stud came under the ownership of john clift in the 1970s and over a decade he stood sunset hue , gunsynd and the latter\u2019s remote relation baguette .\nthe next season saw gunsynd switching stables from bill wehlow to tommy smith for the 1970 / 71 season , and the rest , as they say , is history .\nthe photo pretty much says it all . its a statue and not much else . however there is a gunsynd museum with a bit more to e inside the visitor centre\nin trackwork gunsynd showed enough promise for his connections to think he might turnnout to be a handy racehorse but when he lined up at the official barrier trials he showed a glimpse of what was to come . in september 1969 gunsynd went to the eagle farm barrier trials . he was steadied off the early pace but stormed home to win easily by 5 lengths .\nit was a move which saw clift at one stage standing at kia ora , a stud he operated for a decade , sunset hue , gunsynd and the latter\u2019s remote relation baguette .\nammo girl , a daughter of gunsynd bred by hall of fame trainer tommy smith , produced emancipation , a grey bletchingly mare who was 1983 - 84 australian horse of the year .\nsuch a gorgeous town . lovely shopping but the pride of the place is the magnificent statue of my favourite grey , gunsynd . such fond memories of him racing and as steward .\nno doubt character contributed to his appeal . gunsynd loved the limelight . at times on leaving the enclosure before a race , the stallion would prop until he received the necessary applause .\ndue to the handicap trainer tommy smith decided to use the heavier roy higgins on gunsynd and not langby , the stable jockey , to cut down on the dead - weight factor .\npart replay of 1972 $ 40k aud w s cox plate at moonee valley vic 28 / 10 / 1972 won by gunsynd rider roy higgins gunsynd , 6 / 4 second 7 all shot 4 / 1 third 10 magnlfique 33 / 1 was one of the most popular racehorses in australia for many years . in winning the 1972 cox plate took his earnings to $ 235 , 815 which surpassed tulloch ' s record of $ 220 , 247 which had stood for years . gunsynd at his next start ran third in 1972 vrc melbourne cup . full result\nas a three - year - old gunsynd had six wins ( four in brisbane , two in sydney ) . this was the period when the horse was transferred to the legendary tommy smith to train . in his three - year - old season , gunsynd won the time honoured rawson stakes and the chelmsford stakes . both these races had been won in the past by phar lap , bernbrough and tulloch . so to win them as a three - year - old was another indication of the champion horse that gunsynd was to become , if he was not there already .\ngunsynd may never have been to goondiwindi in country queensland , that is up for debate , but his owners were definitely from this town that can be found a few hours\u2019 drive straight west from the gold coast . gunsynd was one of the most popular horses to ever run in australia . it is even said , that after a particularly good victory , gunsynd would stop in front of the grandstand and bow to the applauding crowd . he is also the best grey horse to ever run in this country . it has even been said that his win in the 1972 cox plate re - energized the race and allowed it to become the spectacle it is today . there is a good argument for this considering the prize money for the cox plate went up by 50 % from 1971 to 1972 . bernborough is probably the most popular horse to ever run in australia ; however , gunsynd might be a close second . gunsynd even has a song about him !\non monday , gunsynd plc ( gun : lse ) closed at 0 . 0375 , 25 . 00 % above the 52 week low of 0 . 03 set on nov 29 , 2017 .\nconnections of victorian colt violate are likely to continue with court action in an attempt to overturn last month ' s gunsynd classic result at eagle farm despite the queensland racing integrity commission rejecting their complaint .\nthe grey colt that would one day become famous as gunsynd the goondiwindi grey was foaled at the dip stud at breeza in northern nsw between gunnedah and tamworth on october 4 1967 . although there were no outward signs of the champion of the future when he was a young horse gunsynd did carry the blood of both the barb and carbine in his pedigree both australian racing greats of the late 1800s .\ngunsynd drew 50 , 000 to randwick for his second - last race , the autumn stakes , little more than an exhibition gallop against common opposition , and was cheered as he bolted away down the straight .\ngunsynd plc , formerly evocutis plc , is an investing company . the company operates in investment activities segment . the company ' s principal activity is that of investing by focusing on acquiring companies and / or projects with\ngunsynd was a favorite of australian punters as the result of being one of the finest greys to ever take the turf and a tenacity when running that served to take the victory when other horses pulled up as beaten .\ngunsynd was bought for $ 1300 at a brisbane sale by four businessmen from the queensland town of goondiwindi : jack bishop , jim coorey , germaine\nwinks\nmcmicking and george pippos . pippos was the publican at goondiwindi ' s victoria hotel , where his three friends drank . the colt ' s name was a portmanteau word for\ngoondiwindi syndicate\n( the town is pronounced gun - diwindi ) . brisbane trainer bill wehlow guided gunsynd to 12 wins in 22 starts before the grey was sent to randwick to be trained by tommy smith , a move that was unpopular with queenslanders . smith guided gunsynd to 17 wins from 32 starts and into the history books .\nwhen he finished racing , gunsynd went to stud at the historic kia ora stud near scone , one then conducted by eminent breeding and racing identity george ryder but one which in the mid 1970s became the property of clift .\nclift was not only a legacy as the breeder of gunsynd but for his wise counsel as a long - time director on the board of the bloodhorse breeders\u2019 association of nsw and seventy years\u2019 very active involvement in country racing .\ngunsynd was foaled in australia in 1967 , sired by native son sunset hue had damned by woodie wonder . he was a good grey , a not all that common color , from the dips stud at breeza , nsw .\ngunsynd never won a melbourne cup but is possibly australia ` s most famous horse after phar lap . a song that topped the hit parade was written in his honour while goondiwindi abounds in memorials - a motel , a hotel lounge , and a local grey - haired medico and sportsman ( nicknamed the goondiwindi grey ) are named after gunsynd . his name was coined from ` goondiwindi syndicate ` which owned the horse during his racing years . from 54 starts , gunsynd won 29 races , including the 1971 epsom handicap and the 1972 cox plate , and came third in the 1972 melbourne cup setting a stakes winning record in 1972 . the horse retired from racing in 1973 .\nlining up for the golden slipper gunsynd took on fellow future champions including baguette and dual choice . as they flew from the start gunsynd struggled to stay in touch and was ninth turning for home . he ran on in the straight but passed the post in 7th position as baguette defeated royal show with dual choice in third place . ten days later gunsynd started in the fernhill hcp over the mile course at randwick . after being well back early he moved to 9th by the 800m and was 5th around the turn . despite being burdened with 60kg he hit the front by the 200m and came away to win by 1 1 / 4 lengths from the favourite tumberlina with ishkoodah third .\nthe australian stud book credits breeza plains farmer joe mcnamara as being the breeder of folklore racehorse gunsynd but his actual breeder was his near neighbour john clift , the renowned racing figure who died last week at the age of 91 .\nrevered as the goodiwindi grey and immortalised in a ballad of that name by singer tex morton , gunsynd was one of three stakes winner resulting from matings of sunset hue with woodie wonder , all produced under the care of john clift .\ngunsynd overall record of 29 wins , 7 seconds and 8 thirds is all the more impressive given that his two - year - old season featured only one major win , the 1969 hopeful stakes , and only the chelmsford stakes in 1970 .\ngunsynd stood stud commencing in 1973 . like many overachievers before and since , his progeny was not particularly productive , but he did sire a filly , ammo girl , who was the dam of australian champion racehorse 1983 / 84 , emancipation .\ngunsynd ' s run in the 1971 sandown cup was the final run of a long campaign . after transferring to the smith stable early in his four - year - old season , he had six races for wins in three premier mile races - the epsom , toorak and george adams handicaps - a second in a rosehill flying and unplaced finishes in the cox plate and caulfield cup . the sandown cup was his seventh race in two months . higgins said sandown ' s spacious track and uphill straight suited the grey ' s swooping style . after starting 7 - 4 favourite , gunsynd won comfortably .\ni ' ve always said light fingers was my favourite horse , but gunsynd was the most fun ,\nhiggins said .\ngunsynd was the most popular horse to come out of queensland . he cost only $ 1300 as a yearling and ended up australia ' s top money earner in the early 1970s . a brilliant miler who is the only horse to win australia ' s four group 1 miles - epsom , toorak , emirates and doncaster - in the one season . ran third in a melbourne cup carrying a mammoth 60kgs . throughout his career , gunsynd was trained by h . wehlow and t . j . smtih .\ngoondiwindi was first proclaimed a municipality on 20 october 1888 . the town boundaries have not altered to this day , and before federation the town served as a border crossing between queensland and new south wales . the customs house from that era is now a museum . the most famous resident of goondiwindi was gunsynd , a thoroughbred race horse known as\nthe goondiwindi grey\nguided by tim lowe , in the late 1960s and early 1970s gunsynd had 29 wins including the 1971 epsom handicap and the 1972 cox plate and came third in the 1972 melbourne cup . the name\ngunsynd\ncame from goondiwindi syndicate goondiwindi , syndicate . there is a statue of gunsynd in the town centre . geography goondiwindi is on the macintyre river in queensland near the new south wales border , 350 kilometres ( 220 mi ) south west of the queensland state capital , brisbane . the twin town of boggabilla is nearby , on the new south wales side of the border . most of the area surrounding the town is farmland .\nno gunsynd was the grey baguette was just standing at the same stud . maybe greys are so popular because they are so easy to find in the field . with my failing sight its hard to spot the differences in bays with similar colour jockey silks .\nthere is no doubt that gunsynd was so popular because he was a stand - out grey that had a tremendous will to win . his record is unbelievable when we consider some of the horses that are labelled champions today . take a look at this record\u2026\nthe colt was sold at the brisbane yearling sale for $ 1300 to a goondiwindi syndicate . named gunsynd , he won 29 races including the ws cox plate , doncaster , epsom , caulfield stakes and futurity stakes and was placed in the caulfield and melbourne cups .\naccording to roy higgins , who rode gunsynd more than did any other jockey , you could attribute the horse ' s enormous popularity mostly to his colour and his pattern of racing . after settling towards the rear of the field , his grey coat made him easy to follow as he swooped home with a late run . the late racecaller bert bryant was famous for heralding a gunsynd swoop with the announcement :\nhere comes the goondiwindi grey !\nthen there was gunsynd ' s courage . he was bred to run 1000 metres but his favoured distance was 1600 metres , as indicated by winning five races over a mile and finishing second in his other race at the distance . yet he won up to 2500 metres and famously finished third in the 1972 melbourne cup while carrying 60 . 5 kilograms . higgins this week remembered the roar of the flemington crowd when gunsynd received the nod for third place after a photo finish .\nyou ' d swear he ' d won ,\nhiggins said .\nthey knew he ' d given his all .\ni apologise to subzero . . . he can replace my last gunsynd . . . very underrated horse . . . < ! - - bmi _ safeaddonload ( bmi _ load ,\nbmi _ orig _ img\n, 0 ) ; / / - - >\nhis sire sunset hue was a talented racehorse and as a 2yo won over 5 furlongs and was second in the ajc sires produce . in 18 race starts he also won an encourage hcp and ajc trial hcp over 10 furlongs before being injured in vrc derby which resulted in an early retirement to stud . in addition to gunsynd sunset hue also sired thge stakeswinners sunset sue , sun opal , sunset gem , sunset red and thumb print . gunsynd was a member of his third crop and sunset hue was ultimately at stud for 8 seasons .\nresuming over 6 furlongs ( 1200m ) at eagle farm in february gunsynd sat in second position before winning hard held by 1 1 / 2 lengths from orange spec to whom he conceded 9 . 5kg in weight . it was then onto sydney and the endeavour hcp over 7 furlongs ( 1400m ) a fortnight later . showing signs of greeness gunsynd tried to duck in after turning for home before drifting out to the centre of the track . despite this the grey colt had too much in hand for his rivals and defeated medici by 2 lengths .\nhe gave me one of the best days of my life when i visited kia ora as a teenager ( birthday present ) to meet gunsynd . my father got permission so we turned up and literally went down to the stallions by ourselves . gunsynd did his usual performances - even in retirement he was a character and when we said hello to baguette ( also there ) he sulked like a spoiled child . i had a ball and will always remember that day . mind you wouldn ' t expect studs today to be so free and easy !\nas a five - year - old gunsynd won eight races ; the rosehill stakes , the colin stephens stakes , the yalumba stakes , the cox plate , the blamey , the queen elizabeth at flemington , the rawson again and the autumn stakes . then he went to stud !\ngunsynd went for a well - earned spell before running his heart out for another three campaigns , over two autumns and one spring . his greatest triumph was the 1972 cox plate , having finished seventh and fourth at two previous attempts . before his last race , the 1973 queen elizabeth stakes at randwick , he reportedly walked on to the track and bowed to the crowd in a final salute . the result was a gallant second to apollo eleven . on retirement , a statue of gunsynd was struck in apex park , goondiwindi , on the banks of the macintyre river . in 2004 , gunsynd was one of the first 12 inductees on to the queensland heritages icons list , as ratified by the national trust of queensland . his fellow icons included goanna oil , bundaberg rum , the backyard mango tree , and finishing sentences with the word\nhey\n.\nhe returned to eagle farm two weeks later for the hopeful stakes over 5 furlongs ( 1000m ) . gunsynd was near the rear early before moving up to 10th around the home turn but soon exploded in the straight to win going away by 3 lengths in race record time . three weeks later he lined up in the sapling stakes again over the 5 furlongs at eagle farm . again he was amongst the pack around the turn before racing away to win from gentle anthony . gunsynd was then given a let up before preparing for a tilt at the 1970 golden slipper stakes .\nafter a moderately successful career as a two and three - year - old , gunsynd was transferred to tommy smith under whose care he realised his full potential . under smith he had 32 starts for 17 victories and only one unplaced run . in the spring of 1971 he won the epsom , toorak and george adams handicaps and the sandown cup , and in the autumn of 1972 he recorded five straight wins including the futurity stakes and the doncaster handicap . the following spring gunsynd captured the w . s . cox plate , and ran a magnificent third in the melbourne cup under 60 . 5kg .\nmaybe it was the melbourne aspect but the lee freedman - conditioned gelding lacked gunsynd\u2019s consistency . in a savage reversal super impose was last of six in the bmw at rosehill on march 23 , 1991 , but a week later again showed his affinity for randwick by winning the doncaster to a cool reception .\nwith higgins just waving the whip , gunsynd coasted to the line two lengths ahead of raad , with better talk a close third . big philou ran a good race to finish fourth , and will now be given a spell .\n- tony kennedy in the age on monday , november 15 , 1971\nthe pendock family was associated with \u201cthe vic\u201d for three generations before selling it in the 1960\u2019s to mr george pippos . george pippos was a member of the syndicate who raced gunsynd and he named his new gunsynd lounge after the champion . he has made many other improvements in the past decade , smoothly blending the old with the new . large clear windows have replaced the stained glass , but the main entrance still has its art deco front door ; and the graceful panels of art nouveau glass still adorn shop fronts in the hotel building . the wide verandahs today are still unchanged \u2013 a superb vantage point for street processions !\nthe colt entered training with bill wehlow as the syndicate started to think of what to call their new acquisition . a number of names were thought of such as woodie go , we wonder and hue wonder but ultimately he was named gunsynd a mixture of his owners home town - gun - and syndicate - synd .\nclift , who died last week in sydney aged 91 , got the use of woodie wonder who in 1967 produced a colt he reared on the family\u2019s the dip , a major producer of wheat , sheep and cattle and breeder and owner of racehorses , that carried the jc brand under the name of gunsynd to glory on the racetrack .\nif you are ever in goondiwindi the # 1 must - see attraction would have to be statue of the famous stallion , gunsynd ( aka ' the goondiwindi grey ) . the statue is nicely rendered in bas - relief and definitely not garish or over - the - top , which was good to see . ' the big . . .\nanother factor in gunsynd ' s popularity was the kinks in his personality . the grey had a fascination with flashlights . if photographers started shooting , he would remain rooted to the spot and try to track all the flash bulbs . when the flash bulbs stopped , he would move on .\nlittle things intrigued him ,\nhiggins said .\nas for violate , he won ' t have to wait long for a chance to prove his gunsynd classic run was no fluke as he lines up this saturday in the rough habit plate at doomben over 2000 metres before progressing to the grand prix stakes in two weeks and then his ultimate aim , next month ' s g1 queensland derby .\nloved gunsynd when he was racing . he was a real star . after he had retired we had to drop a horse off at the camden vet hospital . as we were leaving the very nice vet asked us we would like to meet gunsynd , who was there for an operation on his nose from memory . saw the familiar head hanging over the stable door but didn ' t even get to pat him before he tried to take a hunk out of my shoulder . he wasn ' t the nicest of horses to handle , but it is funny a lot of the really good ones are a bit cranky . he was just about white by then . i was also a huge fan of gold edition . gutsy mare .\nas a four - year - old , gunsynd did something that had never been done before and will probably never be done again . he won all four of the major mile handicaps in australia ; the epsom , the doncaster , the toorak and the emirates ( it was known as the george adams back then ) . he seems to have snuck into the spring - run epsom with 8 . 1 ( 51kg ) , then he won the toorak at caulfield with 9 . 3 ( 58kg ) , the emirates with 9 . 3 ( 58kg ) and the autumn doncaster with a staggering 9 . 7 ( 60 . 5kg ) . in between all these feature mile wins , gunsynd also managed to pick up a flying at doomben , the 2400m sandown cup , the 1200m clissold handicap at randwick , the futurity , the 2000m queens plate and the 2400m queen elizabeth at flemington . so in his four - year - old season , as well as winning all four major mile handicaps , gunsynd won six other races , all of group standing , over distances between 1200m and 2400m . extraordinary stuff !\nversatility is an apt adjective to describe gunsynd ' s running style . he won at distances as short as 1200 metres and as long as 2500 metres . neither a true sprinter or stayer , he was well nigh unbeatable in the mile . in fact , his only loss at this distance out of seven starts , by less than a head , was the epsom handicap of 1972 .\nwhoooshhhh ! ! outstanding last to first win from the big grey linton yesterday . we ' ve had some outstanding greys race down under . who has been the best of the white warriors ? ? greys like gunsynd , schillaci , subzero , ming dynasty , efficient , linton , emancipation and more . can you name more ? also who is your top 5 greys ? cheers , jamal .\nrevered as the goodiwindi grey and immortalised in a ballad of that name by singer tex morton , gunsynd was one of three stakes - winning offspring of matings by sunset hue and woodie wonder produced in the care of clift , the others being sunset red ( who won the stc w . j . mckell cup , queensland cup ) and sunset sue ( winner of qtc c . e . mcdougall stakes ) .\ngee baguette i visited gunsynd up at kia ora where he let the whole family pet him until we decided to go across and say hello to baguette . he was so offended he went into his shed and then there was this little grey head looking around the corner to see if we ' d come back to him ! he was very gentle that day and he had been at stud at least one season .\nfurious wrote : gee baguette i visited gunsynd up at kia ora where he let the whole family pet him until we decided to go across and say hello to baguette . he was so offended he went into his shed and then there was this little grey head looking around the corner to see if we ' d come back to him ! he was very gentle that day and he had been at stud at least one season .\ngunsynd , bred in breeza by john clift , appeared to love the crowd and to play up to it . and the crowd reciprocated . he was , without doubt , one of the most popular horses to grace the australian turf , and his win in the 1972 cox plate at moonee valley , when he was ridden by roy higgins , underscored his class and courage , and the affection the crowd had for the horse . photo : urltoken\ngunsynd ' s dam was woodie wonder and as a twin it was amazing she survived let alone going on to produce a champion at stud . she started in only one race where she ran third at tamworth before going to stud . her first foal was by grenfell star and named kilkenny star in 1964 before she missed the following year . in 1966 she produced the stakeswinner sunset sue before gunsynd was foaled in 1967 . in 1968 she foaled sunset red who included the wj mckell cup amongst his wins and this was the third and last union of sunset hue and woodie wonder . her remaining foals were 1969 curra royale by game of chance , 1970 gunwyne by tourmaline , 1973 gunslinger by high hat , 1974 woodie ever by emerilo , 1976 bold illusion by rascolnik and 1978 wonderful feeling by rascolnik . she missed in 1971 , 1972 , 1975 and 1977 while her last foal who was produced to rascolnik died young . woodie wonder died in april 1980 .\ngoldslick ( 08f , encounter , alleged ) . 10 wins from 1100m to 1800m , a $ 372 , 815 , 1st qld tatt ' s rc southbank insurance brokers h . , vrc eugene gorman h . , gctc stuart james memorial h . , vrc dover h . , 2nd brc gunsynd classic , gr . 3 , 3rd mvrc sunline s . , gr . 2 , vrc headquarters tavern s . , l , sctc sunshine coast guineas , l , 4th mrc ladies day vase , gr . 3 , brc brisbane h . , l , qld tatt ' s rc members ' cup , l\nthe connections of violate have lodged an official complaint against the result of last weekend ' s gr3 gunsynd classic with the queensland racing integrity commission , reports aap . the brent stanley - trained violate was beaten a nose by the john zielke - trained dreams aplenty whose jockey , tiffani brooker , was later suspended for excessive whip use . brooker was suspended for seven days and fined $ 2 , 000 for using the whip 17 times before the 100m , 12 times more than permitted under the australian rules of racing . however , brooker ' s breach of the rules was not detected until after correct weight was declared , meaning violate ' s owners were denied the opportunity to lodge a protest .\nthe result of the consideration will be made public at a later stage ,\na spokesperson for qric said yesterday .\n1 . gunsynd ( four - year - old grey horse ; trainer : t . smith ; jockey : r . higgins ; weight : 57 . 5 kilograms ; win : $ 1 . 40 ; place : $ 0 . 85 ) ; 2 . raad ( 7yo brown gelding ; a . bentley ; b . gilders ; 48kg ; $ 1 . 50 ) ; 3 . better talk ( 8yo chestnut gelding ; m . willmott ; r . setches ; 49 . 5kg ; $ 2 . 30 ) . margin : two lengths by a half - head . time for 2400 metres : two minutes 33 . 3 seconds . prize - money : $ 12 , 000 plus a gold cup worth $ 1000 ( first $ 8400 ; second $ 2160 ; third $ 960 ; fourth $ 480 ) .\none of australian horse racing ' s most beloved champions , gunsynd was named after the goondiwindi ( popularly pronounced gundawindi ) syndicate who purchased him , which is where the horse got his name . his heart , sheer courage and will to win was astounding - the crowds adored him and he adored them too . as a born & bred\ngundy - ite\n, his deeds still affect me to this day , so i thought i might put together a little personal memento of some of his finest group 1 wins , together with some pictures of the famous grey fellow , so that people both new & old can reflect on just how great he was , and just what he meant ( and still means ) to the people of goondiwindi and indeed , to all australian racegoers . hope you all enjoy a little trip back down memory lane & cheers to everyone back in gundy . . . . .\nas a yearling gunsynd didn ' t particularly stand out from his paddock mates and was described as perhaps more placid than other yearlings and preferred to stay behind in the pack in the paddock however he was considered a nice moving horse . soon it was time for the grey colt to head to the sales but in transit he knocked a leg which left a nasty looking lump . ironically the truck passed through goondiwindi as his breeder stopped to get lunch though none of the onlookers could have guessed the fame one of the young thoroughbreds in the truck would bring to the small town . scheduled as lot 28 the colt had at least one person interested in buying him despite the lump . g mcmicking had been interested in his year older sister the year before but missed out . this year he got together a group of 3 others from his home town of goondiwindi consisting of a bishop , j coorey and a pippos to put in $ 1000 each to purchase a horse . mr mcmicking ' s first choice was the grey colt and with many turned off due to his leg the colt was knocked down to the syndicate for only $ 1 , 300 .\ninitial thoughts were to head back to the brisbane winter carnival but connections decided that a spell and back to prepare for the ajc derby ( then held in the spring ) would be the best plan .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nin order to set up a list of libraries that you have access to , you must first login or sign up . then set up a personal list of libraries from your profile page by clicking on your user name at the top right of any screen .\n2061820 ; mus n mbc 784 . 687984 w187 ; mus nl mbc 784 . 687984 w187\nthe national library may be able to supply you with a photocopy or electronic copy of all or part of this item , for a fee , depending on copyright restrictions .\nseparate different tags with a comma . to include a comma in your tag , surround the tag with double quotes .\n\u2018king\u2019 wally lewis , the great barrier reef , world expo \u201988 and the royal flying doctor service are among the people , places and events that queenslanders have voted as their q150 icons .\npremier anna bligh today released the official list of 150 icons , across 10 categories , as voted by queenslanders .\nthe premier was joined by official icons wally lewis , susie o\u2019neill , dick johnson , hugh lunn and representatives from surf lifesaving queensland . suncorp stadium provided a fitting backdrop for the announcement \u2013 voted an iconic structure and engineering feat .\n\u201cin our q150 year , queenslanders are celebrating the people , places and stories that have made our state the great place it is today , \u201d ms bligh said .\n\u201cand the official q150 icons illustrate what a diverse and colourful history it is , from charles kingsford smith to allan border , from australia zoo to the xxxx brewery , from the daintree rainforest to carnarvon gorge .\n\u201cfrom the internationally renown steve irwin to the controversial sir joh bjelke - petersen \u2013 queensland means something different , but something special to all of us , \u201d she said .\nms bligh said almost 30 , 000 votes were received to compile the official list , from a short - list of 300 .\n\u201cthe list of q150 icons will be added to the official q150 archive at the state library and 15 , 000 lucky queenslanders will also have the opportunity to win a commemorative q150 icons post card pack .\n\u201centry forms will be in local papers tomorrow and i urge queenslanders to get in quickly because stocks are limited . \u201d\ncategory 1 : state - shapers queenslanders or queensland organisations that have influenced or made a significant contribution to queensland .\ncategory 2 : influential artists those musicians , authors , actors , painters , designers , or pieces of art from queensland that have left a lasting impression on the people of our state .\ncategory 3 : sports legends those queensland greats that have made a significant contribution to sport in our state .\ncategory 4 : locations the towns , parks , recreation attractions in queensland that put our state on the map .\ncategory 5 : natural attractions those iconic locations in queensland that are naturally formed .\ncategory 7 : defining moments those memorable moments from our state\u2019s past , moments that highlight our triumphs and our hardships .\ncategory 8 : innovations and inventions inventions or innovative concepts that queenslanders have pioneered .\ncategory 9 : events and festivals those iconic queensland events that bring queenslanders together to celebrate .\ncategory 10 : typically queensland what is queensland all about ? those things , behaviours or traditions that define queensland and its people .\nthe company\u2019s investing policy is to invest in and / or acquire companies and / or projects within the natural resources sector which the board considers , in its opinion , has potential for growth . the company will consider opportunities in all sectors as they arise if the board considers there is an opportunity to generate potential value for shareholders . the geographical focus will primarily be europe , however , investments may also be considered in other regions to the extent that the board considers that valuable opportunities exist and potential value can be achieved .\nafter recent investments , the company has now substantially implemented its investing policy in accordance with rule 15 of the aim rules for companies .\n/ home / queensla / public _ html / system / plugins / pi . linkage . php\nto use this website , cookies must be enabled in your browser . to enable cookies , follow the instructions for your browser below .\nthere is a specific issue with the facebook in - app browser intermittently making requests to websites without cookies that had previously been set . this appears to be a defect in the browser which should be addressed soon . the simplest approach to avoid this problem is to continue to use the facebook app but not use the in - app browser . this can be done through the following steps :\nbefore the cookie settings change will take effect , safari must restart . to restart safari press and hold the home button ( for around five seconds ) until the iphone / ipad display goes blank and the home screen appears .\na note about relevant advertising : we collect information about the content ( including ads ) you use across this site and use it to make both advertising and content more relevant to you on our network and other sites . this is also known as online behavioural advertising . you can find out more about our policy and your choices , including how to opt - out here .\ndata delayed at least 20 minutes , as of jul 09 2018 16 : 21 bst .\nyou must be a registered user to save alerts . please sign in or register .\ngun : lse price rises above 15 - day moving average to 0 . 0377 at 13 : 24 bst\nin the natural resources sector . the geographical focus of the company will be europe , however , investments may also be considered in other regions . the company ' s interests in an investment and / or acquisition may range from a minority position to full ownership and may comprise one investment or multiple investments . the investments may be in either quoted or unquoted companies ; be made by direct acquisitions or farm - ins , and may be in companies , partnerships , earn - in joint ventures , debt or other loan structures , joint ventures or direct or indirect interests in assets or projects . cairn financial advisers llp is nominated advisor of the company .\nall content on urltoken is for your general information and use only and is not intended to address your particular requirements . in particular , the content does not constitute any form of advice , recommendation , representation , endorsement or arrangement by ft and is not intended to be relied upon by users in making ( or refraining from making ) any specific investment or other decisions .\nany information that you receive via urltoken is at best delayed intraday data and not\nreal time\n. share price information may be rounded up / down and therefore not entirely accurate . ft is not responsible for any use of content by you outside its scope as stated in the ft terms & conditions .\nalthough markit has made every effort to ensure this data is correct , nevertheless no guarantee is given to the accuracy or completeness . any opinions or estimates expressed herein are those of markit on the date of preparation and are subject to change without notice ; however no such opinions or estimates constitute legal , investment or other advice . you must therefore seek independent legal , investment or other appropriate advice from a suitably qualified and / or authorised and regulated advisor prior to making any legal , investment or other decision . this is intended for information purposes only and is not intended as an offer or recommendation to buy , sell or otherwise deal in securities .\nmarkets data delayed by at least 15 minutes . \u00a9 the financial times ltd . ft and \u2018financial times\u2019 are trademarks of the financial times ltd . the financial times and its journalism are subject to a self - regulation regime under the ft editorial code of practice .\nthe new zealand thoroughbred industry is one of the most successful in the world . in 2010 - 11 , the industry produced over 4000 foals and exported 1600 horses at an estimated value of $ 150 million . so , what is the secret of new zealand ' s remarkable success as a thoroughbred breeding nation ? learn more \u203a\nwelcome to the gallery section of the website . here you can search the historical library for images of horses and participants by entering a key word in the search function eg . sunline . many of these photos have been provided by the new zealand press association and our friends at race images . if you would like to contact us about any of these images please email : office @ urltoken\nfertility rate : this is worked out as the total number of foals ( live , dead or slipped ) as a percentage of total mares covered less exported , not returned , dead or indeterminate results .\nindeterminate result : this exists where a mare is covered by more than one stallion and the result of these services is unable to be accurately credited to either of the respective stallions .\nprivacy policy / terms & conditions all content \u00a9 nztr 2012 . nztr holds the copyright in all material on this site . all rights reserved .\nthe toby edmonds - trained tyzone is the ramornie handicap favourite ahead of his stablemate havasay .\ninvited for the second year running to ride at the vodacom durban july meeting in greyville , nooresh juglall made the trip to south africa count with one winner \u2013 just like last year .\nbon hoffa\u2019s g1 winning son bon aurum will stand at glen eden stud in victoria this spring .\nexciting sprinter nature strip was a sale ring reject who could be racing for a share of $ 13 million in the everest in october after recording another brilliant win at flemington on saturday .\nshe couldn\u2019t win a bush maiden for mcnamara before she was mated with clift\u2019s new sire sunset hue on an alternate service arrangement .\njohn clift got the use of woodie wonder in 1967 when she produced a grey colt he reared on the family\u2019s property the dip , a major producer of wheat , sheep and cattle and also his base as a breeder of racehorses that carried the jc brand .\nwhen he retired from racing he was the highest earner in australian racing history to that time and was subsequently inducted into the racing hall of fame .\nthe others were sunset red , a w . j . mckell cup and queensland cup winner , and sunset sue ( qtc c . e . mcdougall stakes ) .\nall inherited the grey colouring of their sire sunset hue , a freakish roman nosed , swaybacked stallion who retired to the dip in 1964 in the ownership of john clift and n . s . lane after breaking down while in the victoria derby .\nhe had contested 10 races as a 2yo for a win and eight minor places including a second in the ajc sires\u2019 produce stakes .\nwhile at kia ora , john had the tragedy of losing his wife patricia in a car accident after they had eight children .\njohn clift\u2019s legacy to the racing and breeding industry extended to many roles including director of the bloodhorse breeders\u2019 association of nsw and 70 years active involvement with country race clubs in the hunter valley and north west nsw where he also served as a local government councillor ."]}
{"id": 1451, "summary": [{"text": "turbonilla argentina is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family pyramidellidae , the pyrams and their allies .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was formerly placed in the genus in eulimella , but a study published in november 2011 in zootaxa , concluded that it did not belong there . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "turbonilla argentina", "paragraphs": [", archangelsky , miguel ( argentina ) & torres , patricia l . m . ( argentina )\neulimella schlumbergeri ( dautzenberg & fischer , 1896 ) : synonym of turbonilla schlumbergeri dautzenberg & h . fischer , 1896\nantoniazzi , leandro r . ( argentina ) - see couri , m\u00e1rcia s . ( brazil ) , antoniazzi , leandro r . ( argentina ) , beldomenico , pablo ( argentina ) & quiroga , martin ( argentina )\nachiorno , c . ( argentina ) - see zanca , f . ( argentina ) , schmidt - rhaesa , a . ( germany ) , de villalobos , c . ( argentina ) & achiorno , c . ( argentina )\nalvarez , leopoldo j . ( argentina ) - see abrahamovich , alberto h . ( argentina ) , lucia , mariano ( argentina ) , alvarez , leopoldo j . ( argentina ) & smith , david r . ( usa )\nturbonilla is a large genus of ectoparasitic sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family pyramidellidae , the pyrams and their allies .\nalberico , natalia a . ( argentina ) - see cristales , pedro a . ( brazil ) , roccatagliata , daniel ( argentina ) & alberico , natalia a . ( argentina )\nardohain , diego ( argentina ) see - rossi , gustavo . , claps , maria & ardohain , diego ( argentina )\nazpelicueta , mar\u00eda de las m . ( argentina ) - see almir\u00f3n , adriana e . ( argentina ) , casciotta , jorge r . ( argentina ) , azpelicueta , mar\u00eda de las m . ( argentina ) & loureiro , marcelo ( uruguay )\narbino , manuel o . ( argentina ) - see rubio , gonzalo d . & arbino , manuel o . ( argentina )\nardohain , diego m . ( argentina ) - see muz\u00f3n , anal\u00eda garr\u00e9 javier & ardohain , diego m . ( argentina )\navila , l . ( argentina ) - see de la cruz , k . d . ( usa ) , morando , m . ( argentina ) & avila , l . ( argentina )\nacosta , luis e . ( argentina ) - see rubio , gonzalo d . ( argentina ) , rodrigues , everton n . l . ( brazil ) & acosta , luis e . ( argentina )\naschero , v . ( argentina ) - see erwin , t . l . ( usa ) & aschero , v . ( argentina )\naquino , daniel a . ( argentina ) - see triapitsyn , serguei v . ( usa ) & aquino , daniel a . ( argentina )\nalmir [ n , walter ricardo ( argentina ) - see laurito , magdalena . , almir\u00f3n , walter ricardo & rossi , gustavo carlos ( argentina )\narchangelsky , miguel ( argentina ) - see torres , patricia l . m . , michat , mariano c . & archangelsky , miguel ( argentina )\narias , federico ( argentina ) - see sanabria , eduardo . , quiroga , lorena . , arias , federico & cortez , ricardo ( argentina )\nagnolin , federico l . ( argentina ) - see ezcurra , mart\u00edn d . , agnolin , federico l . & novas , fernando e . ( argentina )\nenrique gonz\u00e1lez olazo ( argentina ) , and maurice j . tauber ( usa )\nazpelicueta , mar\u00eda de las mercedes ( argentina ) - see aguilera , gast\u00f3n . , mirande , juan marcos & azpelicueta , mar\u00eda de las mercedes ( argentina )\namedegnato , c . ( france ) - see cigliano , m . m . ( argentina ) , amedegnato , c . ( france ) , pocco , m . e . ( argentina ) & lange , c . e . ( argentina )\narchangelsky , miguel ( argentina ) - see alarie , yves ( canada ) , michat , mariano c . ( argentina ) , nilsson , anders n . ( sweden ) , archangelsky , miguel ( argentina ) & hendrich , lars ( germany )\narchangelsky , m . ( argentina ) - see alarie , y . ( canada ) , michat , m . c . ( argentina ) , archangelsky , m . ( argentina ) & barber - james , h . m . ( south africa )\nabdala , c . s . ( argentina ) - see laspiur , a . , acosta , j . c . & abdala , c . s . ( argentina )\nacosta , j . c . ( argentina ) - see laspiur , a . , acosta , j . c . & abdala , c . s . ( argentina )\narchangelsky , m . ( argentina ) - see torres , p . l . m . , michat , m . c . & archangelsky , m . ( argentina )\nalmir [ n , walter ricardo ( argentina ) - see stein , marina . , laurito , magdalena . , rossi , gustavo carlos & almir\u00f3n , walter ricardo ( argentina )\nabdala , c . s . ( argentina ) - see quinteros , a . s . , abdala , c . s . & lobo , f . j . ( argentina )\nansaldi , m . j . ( argentina ) - see ram\u00edrez , m . j . , ansaldi , m . j . & puglisi , a . f . ( argentina )\nacosta , luis e . ( argentina ) - see florez , eduardo d . ( colombia ) , botero - trujillo , ricardo ( colombia ) & acosta , luis e . ( argentina )\naquino , daniel a . ( argentina ) - see triapitsyn , serguei v . ( usa ) , huber , john t . ( canada ) , logarzo , guillermo a . ( argentina ) , berezovskiy , vladimir v . ( usa ) & aquino , daniel a . ( argentina )\nzo otaxa 3010 : 31\u201346 ( 31 aug . 2011 ) 5 plates ; 40 references accepted : 1 aug . 2011 a new species of liolaemus ( squamata , iguania , liolaemini ) endemic to the auca mahuida volcano , northwestern patagonia , argentina lorena elizabeth martinez ( argentina ) , luciano javier avila ( argentina ) , cristian her - nan fulvio perez ( argentina ) , daniel roberto perez ( argentina ) , jack w . sites , jr . ( usa ) & mariana morando ( argentina ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 2 , 000kb ) order pdf\nabrahamovich , alberto h . ( argentina ) , lucia , mariano ( argentina ) , alvarez , leopoldo j . ( argentina ) & smith , david r . ( usa ) type specimens of sawflies ( insecta : hymenoptera : symphyta ) housed in the museo de la plata , argentina zo otaxa 2360 : 63\u201368 ( 16 feb . 2010 ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 70kb ) order pdf\nazpelicueta , m . d . l . m . ( argentina ) - see mirande , j . m . , aguilera , g . & azpelicueta , m . d . l . m . ( argentina )\nazpelicueta , m . d . l . m . ( argentina ) - see mirande , j . m . , aguilera , g . & azpelicueta , m . d . l . m . ( argentina )\npe\u00f1as a . & rol\u00e1n e . ( 1997 ) la familia pyramidellidae gray , 1840 ( mollusca , gastropoda , heterostropha ) en africa occidental . 2 . los g\u00e9neros turbonilla y eulimella . iberus suplemento 3 : 1 - 105 .\nto biodiversity heritage library ( 108 publications ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 24 publications ) ( from synonym turbonilla areolata a . e . verrill , 1873 ) to encyclopedia of life to pesi to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection to itis\navila , luciano javier ( argentina ) , perez , cristian hernan fulvio ( argentina ) , morando , mariana ( argentina ) & sites , jack walter , jr . ( usa ) a new species of liolaemus ( reptilia : squamata ) from southwestern rio negro province , northern patagonia , argentina zo otaxa 2434 : 47\u201359 ( 23 apr . 2010 ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 790kb ) order pdf\nalmir\u00f3n , adriana e . ( argentina ) , casciotta , jorge r . ( argentina ) , azpelicueta , mar\u00eda de las m . ( argentina ) & loureiro , marcelo ( uruguay ) redescription of astyanax stenohalinus messner , 1962 ( characiformes : characidae ) , a poorly known species from argentina and uruguay zo otaxa 2434 : 60\u201368 ( 23 apr . 2010 ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 560kb ) order pdf\nzo otaxa 3123 : 32\u201348 ( 08 dec . 2011 ) 5 plates ; 62 references accepted : 18 oct . 2011 new species of lizard from the magellanicus clade of the liolaemus lineomaculatus section ( squamata : iguania : liolaemidae ) from southern patagonia maria florencia breitman ( argentina ) , cristian hern\u00e1n fulvio p\u00e9rez ( argentina ) , micaela parra ( argentina ) , mariana morando ( argentina ) , jack walter sites , jr . ( usa ) & luciano javier avila ( argentina ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 1 , 800kb ) order pdf\navila , luciano javier ( argentina ) , morando , mariana ( argentina ) , perez , daniel roberto ( argentina ) & sites , jack w . , jr ( usa ) a new species of the liolaemus elongatus clade ( reptilia : iguania : liolaemini ) from cordillera del viento , northwestern patagonia , neuqu\u00e9n , argentina zo otaxa 2667 : 28\u201342 ( 4 nov . 2010 ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 1 , 640kb ) order pdf\navila , l . j . ( argentina ) , morando , m . ( argentina ) , perez , c . h . f . ( argentina ) & sites , jr . j . w . ( usa ) a new species of liolaemus ( reptilia : squamata : liolaemini ) from southern mendoza province , argentina zo otaxa 1452 : 43 - 54 ( 19 apr . 2007 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 20kb ) free | full article ( pdf ; 470kb ) subscription required\nzo otaxa 2935 : 41\u201346 ( 01 jul . 2011 ) 3 plates ; 14 references accepted : 9 may 2011 walkeromya plumipes ( philippi ) ( diptera : bombyliidae ) , a parasitoid associated with carpenter bees ( hymenoptera : apidae : xylocopini ) in argentina omar \u00e1valos - hern\u00e1ndez ( mexico ) , mariano lucia ( argentina ) , leopoldo j . \u00e1lvarez ( argentina ) & alberto h . abrahamovich ( argentina ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 500kb ) order pdf\nalbarracin , erica luft ( argentina ) , triapitsyn , serguei v . ( usa ) & virla , eduardo g . ( argentina ) annotated key to the genera of mymaridae ( hymenoptera : chalcidoidea ) in argentina zo otaxa 2129 : 1 - 28 ( 10 jun . 2009 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 20kb ) free | full article ( pdf ; 810kb ) subscription required\nagusto , p . ( chile ) - see ojanguren - affilastro , a . a . ( argentina ) , agusto , p . ( chile ) , pizarro - araya , j . ( chile ) & mattoni , c . i . ( argentina )\nalarie , y . ( canada ) - see michat , m . ( argentina ) & alarie , y . ( canada )\nagrain , federico . ( argentina ) - see dominguez , m . cecilia . , blas , san german . , agrain , federico . , roig - ju\u00f1ent , sergio a . , scollo , ana m . & debandi , guillermo o . ( argentina )\navila , luciano javier ( argentina ) , morando , mariana ( argentina ) , perez , daniel roberto ( argentina ) & sites , jack w . jr . ( usa ) a new species of liolaemus from a\u00f1elo sand dunes , northern patagonia , neuqu\u00e9n , argentina , and molecular phylogenetic relationships of the liolaemus wiegmannii species group ( squamata , iguania , liolaemini ) zo otaxa 2234 : 39 - 55 ( 17 sep . 2009 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 20kb ) free | full article ( pdf ; 660kb ) subscription required\nabdala , c . - see abdala , v . , abdala , c . & tulli , m . j . ( argentina )\npe\u00f1as a . & rol\u00e1n e . ( 2000 ) . the family pyramidellidae gray , 1840 ( mollusca , gastropoda , heterostropha ) in west africa . 7 . addenda to the genera eulimella and turbonilla , with a list of the east atlantic species and synonyms . argonauta 13 ( 2 ) : 59 - 80 .\nzo otaxa 2787 : 19\u201336 ( 10 mar . 2011 ) 9 plates ; 42 references accepted : 20 jan . 2011 cranial anatomy of tadpoles of five species of scinax ( hylidae , hylinae ) leandro alcalde ( argentina ) , florencia vera candioti ( argentina ) , francisco kolenc ( uruguay ) , claudio borteiro ( uruguay ) & diego baldo ( argentina ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 1 , 280kb ) order pdf\naguilera , g . & mirande , j . m . ( argentina ) a new species of jenynsia ( cyprinodontiformes : anablepidae ) from northwestern argentina and its phylogenetic relationships zootaxa 1096 : 29 - 39 ( 16 dec . 2005 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) free | full article ( pdf ; 120kb ) subscription required\naguilera , g . - see mirande , j . m . , aguilera , g . & azpelicueta , m . d . l . m . ( argentina )\naguilera , g . - see mirande , j . m . , aguilera , g . & azpelicueta , m . d . l . m . ( argentina )\nalonso , g . m . - see gappa , j . l . , alonso , g . m . & landoni , n . a . ( argentina )\nangrisano , elisa b . & sganga , julieta v . ( argentina ) new species of hydroptilidae ( trichoptera ) from salto encantado provincial park ( misiones province , argentina ) zo otaxa 2162 : 57 - 68 ( 20 jul . 2009 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 20kb ) free | full article ( pdf ; 290kb ) subscription required\nthe subgenus name ptycheulimella sacco , 1892 or turbonilla ( ptycheulimella ) sacco , 1892 has been used to describe species whose shells show a weak fold on the columella and frequently a brownish spiral band . van aartsen decided not to subdivide eulimella s . l . because of the uncertainty of the identification of the type species of this subgenus compared with tornatella pyramidata deshayes , 183\nabdala , c . s . & g\u00f3mez , j . m . d . ( argentina ) a new species of the liolaemus darwinii group ( iguania : liolaemidae ) from catamarca province , argentina zo otaxa 1316 : 21 - 33 ( 21 sept . 2006 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 20kb ) free | full article ( pdf ; 670kb ) subscription required\nzo otaxa 2789 : 35\u201348 ( 11 mar . 2011 ) 5 plates ; 39 references accepted : 2 feb . 2011 a new species of liolaemus of the liolaemus montanus section ( iguania : liolaemidae ) from northwestern argentina andr\u00e9s sebasti\u00e1n quinteros & cristian sim\u00f3n abdala ( argentina ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 3 , 210kb ) order pdf\nalarie , yves ( canada ) - see michat , mariano c . ( argentina ) , alarie , yves ( canada ) & watts , chris h . s . ( australia )\nzootaxa 73 : 1 - 6 ( 26 september 2002 ) 1 plate ; 11 references accepted : 24 september 2002 interstitial water mites of argentina : omartacarus cook ( omartacaridae ) and meramecia cook ( limnesiidae ) ( acari : hydrachnidia ) h . r . fern\u00e1ndez ( argentina ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 50kb ) order pdf\nacosta , l . e . ( argentina ) rediscovery of orobothriurus bivittatus ( thorell 1877 ) stat . n . , comb . n . in the sierra del tontal , argentina ( scorpiones , bothriuridae ) zootaxa 916 : 1 - 15 ( 24 mar . 2005 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) free | full article ( pdf ; 200kb ) subscription required\naquino , daniel a . , gaddi , ana l . , hern\u00e1ndez , emilia p . & mart\u00ednez , juan j . ( argentina ) the types of braconidae and ichneumonidae ( hymenoptera : ichneumonoidea ) in the museo de la plata , argentina zo otaxa 2487 : 43\u201351 ( 28 may 2010 ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 130kb ) order pdf\nacosta , j . c . - see monguillot , j . c . , cabrera , m . r . , acosta , j . c . & villavicencio , j . ( argentina )\nzo otaxa 2924 : 1\u201321 ( 20 jun . 2011 ) 9 plates ; 33 references accepted : 30 may 2011 two new mountain lizard species of the phymaturus genus ( squamata : iguania ) from northwestern patagonia , argentina luciano javier avila , cristian hernan fulvio perez , daniel roberto perez & mariana morando ( argentina ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 3 , 000kb ) order pdf\nzo otaxa 3038 : 61\u201367 ( 22 sep . 2011 ) 5 plates ; 20 references accepted : 24 aug . 2011 host records of physocephala wulpi camras , with a description of the puparium ( diptera : conopidae ) jens - hermann stuke ( germany ) , mariano lucia ( argentina ) & alberto h . abrahamovich ( argentina ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 400kb ) order pdf\naguilera , gast\u00f3n . , mirande , juan marcos & azpelicueta , mar\u00eda de las mercedes ( argentina ) a new species of cnesterodon ( cyprinodontiformes : poeciliidae ) from a small tributary of arroyo cu\u00f1\u00e1 - pir\u00fa , r\u00edo paran\u00e1 basin , misiones , argentina zo otaxa 2195 : 34 - 42 ( 12 aug . 2009 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 20kb ) free | full article ( pdf ; 180kb ) subscription required\nanderson , r . s . ( canada ) - see oberprieler , r . g . ( australia ) , marvaldi , a . e . ( argentina ) & anderson , r . s . ( canada )\nlos pyramidellidae de la republica argentina ( moll . entomotaeniata ) comunicaciones del museo argentino de ciencias naturales\nbernardino rivadavia\n, hidrobiolog\u00eda 2 ( 7 ) 61 - 85 . [ stated date : - - dec 1982 . ]\nzootaxa 78 : 1 - 16 ( 11 october 2002 ) 8 plates ; 30 references accepted : 1 october 2002 on the taxonomy of turbonilla puncta ( c . b . adams , 1850 ) ( gastropoda , pyramidellidae ) , with the description of a new species from brazil and remarks on other western atlantic species a . d . pimenta & r . s . absal\u00e3o ( brazil ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 1200kb ) order pdf\nabrahamovich , a . h . , lucia , m . , diaz , n . b . , batiz , m . f . r . & castro , d . d . c . ( argentina ) types of lice ( insecta , phthiraptera ) housed in the museo de la plata , argentina zo otaxa 1344 : 43 - 58 ( 26 oct . 2006 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 20kb ) free | full article ( pdf ; 90kb ) subscription required\nalarie , yves ( canada ) , michat , mariano c . ( argentina ) , nilsson , anders n . ( sweden ) , archangelsky , miguel ( argentina ) & hendrich , lars ( germany ) larval morphology of rhantus dejean , 1833 ( coleoptera : dytiscidae : colymbetinae ) : descriptions of 22 species and phylogenetic considerations zo otaxa 2317 : 1 - 102 ( 22 dec . 2009 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 20kb ) free | full article ( pdf ; 1970kb ) order pdf\nalarie , y . ( canada ) , michat , m . c . ( argentina ) , archangelsky , m . ( argentina ) & barber - james , h . m . ( south africa ) larval morphology of liodessus guignot , 1939 : generic characteristics , descriptions of five species and comparisons with other members of the tribe bidessini ( coleoptera : dytiscidae : hydroporinae ) . zo otaxa 1516 : 1 - 21 ( 2 8 jun . 2007 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 20kb ) free | full article ( pdf ; 260kb ) subscription required\nacosta , l . e . ( argentina ) & fet , v . ( usa ) nomenclatural notes in scorpiones ( arachnida ) zootaxa 934 : 1 - 12 ( 8 apr . 2005 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) free | full article ( pdf ; 90kb ) subscription required\narchangelsky , miguel ( argentina ) larval and pupal morphology of pyractonema nigripennis solier ( coleoptera : lampyridae : photinini ) and comparative notes with other photinini larvae zo otaxa 2601 : 37\u201344 ( 2 sep . 2010 ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 870kb ) order pdf\nangrisano , elisa b . & sganga , julieta v . ( argentina ) preimaginal stages of acostatrichia simulans mosely 1939 , a neotropical microcaddisfly ( trichoptera : hydroptilidae : leucotrichiinae ) zo otaxa 2480 : 54\u201360 ( 21 may 2010 ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 170kb ) order pdf\nabdala , c . s . ( argentina ) phylogeny of the boulengeri group ( iguania : liolaemidae , liolaemus ) based on morphological and molecular characters zo otaxa 1538 : 1 - 84 ( 30 jul . 2007 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 20kb ) free | full article ( pdf ; 2550kb ) subscription required\nalberico , natalia ( argentina ) & m\u00fchlenhardt - siegel , ute ( germany ) two new diastylis ( cumacea : diastylidae ) from antarctic waters : diastylis andeepae and d . catalinae zo otaxa 2440 : 33\u201348 ( 29 apr . 2010 ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 380kb ) order pdf\nacosta , l . e . ( argentina ) marayniocus martensi , a new genus and a new species of peruvian harvestmen ( arachnida : opiliones : gonyleptidae ) zo otaxa 1325 : 199 - 210 ( 28 sept . 2006 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 20kb ) free | full article ( pdf ; 120kb ) subscription required\nzootaxa 107 : 1 - 35 ( 20 november 2002 ) 10 plates ; 24 references accepted : 8 november 2002 a taxonomic revision of the afrotropical species of selenops latreille , 1819 ( araneae , selenopidae ) j . a . corronca ( argentina ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 1520kb ) order pdf\narchangelsky , m . & michat , m . c . ( argentina ) morphology and chaetotaxy of the larval stages of andogyrus seriatopunctatus regimbart ( coleoptera : adephaga : gyrinidae ) zo otaxa 1645 : 19 - 33 ( 23 nov . 2007 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 20kb ) free | full article ( pdf ; 190kb ) subscription required\nacioli , a . n . s . ( brazil ) - see constantino , r . ( brazil ) , acioli , a . n . s . ( brazil ) , schmidt , k . ( brazil ) , cuezzo , c . ( argentina ) , carvalho , s . h . c . & vasconcellos , a . ( brazil )\ndistribution range : 47\u00b0n to 41 . 7\u00b0s ; 97 . 7\u00b0w to 37\u00b0w . distribution : canada ; canada : gulf of st . lawrence , nova scotia ; usa : massachusetts , rhode island , new york , new jersey , georgia , florida ; florida : east florida , west florida ; usa : louisiana , texas ; mexico ; mexico : tabasco , veracruz , campeche state , yucatan state , quintana roo ; venezuela ; venezuela : falcon ; st . vincent & the grenadines : grenada ; barbados , brazil ; brazil : amapa , para , ceara , rio grande do norte , rio de janeiro , sao paulo , parana ; uruguay , argentina ; argentina : buenos aires , rio negro [ details ]\nzootaxa 103 : 1 - 23 ( 14 november 2002 ) 8 plates ; 32 references accepted : 7 november 2002 rheophilic water mites from southern argentina , with the description of one new genus and three new species ( acari : hydrachnidia ) h . smit ( the netherlands ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 160kb ) order pdf\nzo otaxa 3043 : 1\u201324 ( 28 sep . 2011 ) 10 plates ; 64 references accepted : 17 aug . 2011 geographical distribution of discocyrtus prospicuus ( arachnida : opiliones : gonyleptidae ) : is there a pattern ? luis e . acosta & eli\u00e1n l . guerrero ( argentina ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 1 , 500kb ) order pdf\nagrain , federico a . & marvaldi , adriana e . ( argentina ) morphology of the first instar larva in the tribe clytrini , with two new descriptions in the subtribe megalostomina ( coleoptera : chrysomelidae : cryptocephalinae ) zo otaxa 2147 : 59 - 68 ( 2 jul . 2009 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 20kb ) free | full article ( pdf ; 770kb ) subscription required\nzo otaxa 2916 : 65\u201368 ( 14 jun . 2011 ) 1 plates ; 12 references accepted : 17 may 2011 description of the last instar larva of neoneura kiautai machado ( odonata : protoneuridae ) danielle anjos - santos ( brazil ) , pablo pessacq ( argentina ) & janira martins costa ( brazil ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 230kb ) order pdf\nzo otaxa 2915 : 29\u201338 ( 13 jun . 2011 ) 5 plates ; 5 references accepted : 24 may 2011 description of the immature stages and redescription of the adults of culex ( culex ) lahillei bachmann & casal ( diptera : culicidae ) magdalena laurito , walter ricardo almir\u00f3n & gustavo carlos rossi ( argentina ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 920kb ) order pdf\nzo otaxa 2994 : 1\u201320 ( 12 aug . 2011 ) 12 plates ; 32 references accepted : 4 jul . 2011 a threatened new species of oligosarcus and its phylogenetic relationships , with comments on astyanacinus ( teleostei : characidae ) juan marcos mirande , gast\u00f3n aguilera & mar\u00eda de las mercedes azpelicueta ( argentina ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 2 , 400kb ) order pdf\nzo otaxa 2810 : 56\u201362 ( 6 apr . 2011 ) 3 plates ; 12 references accepted : 1 mar . 2011 a new species of the south american genus arthurella albuquerque ( diptera : muscidae ) , with a key to species and new records luciano dami\u00e1n patitucci , juan carlos mariluis & fernando hern\u00e1n aballay ( argentina ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 450kb ) order pdf\narticle zo otaxa 2990 : 30\u201344 ( 09 aug . 2011 ) 9 plates ; 43 references accepted : 22 jun . 2011 three pseudocerotidae species ( platyhelminthes , polycladida , cotylea ) from the argentinean coast ver\u00f3nica n . bulnes , mariano j . albano , sandra m . obenat & n\u00e9stor j . cazzaniga ( argentina ) preview ( pdf ; 40kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 2 , 500kb ) order pdf\nzo otaxa 2797 : 2 1\u201324 ( 22 mar . 2011 ) 1 plates ; 7 references accepted : 14 feb . 2011 chalepogenus roitmani roig alsina ( hymenoptera : apidae : tapinotaspidini ) : description of the male and new geographical records for the species juan pablo torretta , hugo j . marrero & arturo roig alsina ( argentina ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 220kb ) order pdf\nzo otaxa 3104 : 52\u201358 ( 21 nov . 2011 ) 3 plates ; 13 references accepted : 11 oct . 2011 the spider micrathena shealsi chickering , 1960 ( araneae , araneidae ) : description of the male , with new data on its geographic distribution carina i . arga\u00f1araz & gonzalo d . rubio ( argentina ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 2 , 200kb ) order pdf\nzo otaxa 2787 : 37\u201354 ( 10 mar . 2011 ) 10 plates ; 33 references accepted : 2 feb . 2011 two new species of cnemidophorus ( squamata : teiidae ) from the caatinga , northwest brazil federico arias ( argentina ) , celso morato de carvalho ( brazil ) , miguel trefaut rodrigues & hussam zaher ( brazil ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 10 , 240kb ) order pdf\nzo otaxa 3087 : 1\u201355 ( 01 nov . 2011 ) 37 plates ; 39 references accepted : 30 sep . 2011 notation of primary setae and pores on larvae of dytiscinae ( coleoptera : dytiscidae ) , with phylogenetic considerations yves alarie ( canada ) , mariano c . michat ( argentina ) & kelly b . miller ( usa ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 3 , 000kb ) order pdf\napanaskevich , dmitry a . ( usa ) - see guglielmone , alberto a . ( argentina ) , robbins , richard g . ( usa ) , apanaskevich , dmitry a . ( usa ) , petney , trevor n . ( germany ) , estrada - pe\u00f1a , agust\u00edn ( spain ) , horak , ivan g . ( south africa ) , shao , renfu ( australia ) & barker , stephen c . ( australia )\nzo otaxa 3041 : 51\u201362 ( 24 sep . 2011 ) 3 plates ; 35 references accepted : 01 sep . 2011 a new hyladelphine marsupial ( didelphimorphia , didelphidae ) from cave deposits of northern brazil \u00e9dison vicente oliveira ( brazil ) , patricia villa nova ( brazil ) , francisco j . goin ( argentina ) & leonardo dos santos avilla ( brazil ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 900kb ) order pdf\nerratum\u2014 aguilera , g . , mirande , j . m . & azpelicueta , m . m . ( 2009 ) a new species of cnesterodon ( cyprinodontiformes : poeciliidae ) from a small tributary of arroyo cu\u00f1\u00e1 - pir\u00fa , r\u00edo paran\u00e1 basin , misiones , argentina . zootaxa , 2195 , 34\u201342 . zo otaxa 2220 : 68 ( 4 sep . 2009 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 20kb ) free | full article ( pdf ; 20kb ) subscription required\nalarie , yves ( canada ) , michat , mariano c . ( argentina ) & watts , chris h . s . ( australia ) larval morphology of paroster sharp , 1882 ( coleoptera : dytiscidae : hydroporinae ) : reinforcement of the hypothesis of monophyletic origin and discussion of phenotypic accommodation to a hypogaeic environment zo otaxa 2274 : 1 - 44 ( 28 oct . 2009 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 20kb ) free | full article ( pdf ; 860kb ) order pdf\nzo otaxa 3022 : 1\u201321 ( 12 sep . 2011 ) 11 plates ; 47 references accepted : 01 jul . 2011 two new species of cnemidophorus ( squamata : teiidae ) of the c . ocellifer group , from bahia , brazil federico arias ( argentina ) , celso morato de carvalho ( brazil ) , miguel trefaut rodri - gues ( brazil ) & hussam zaher ( brazil ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 9 , 000kb ) order pdf\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmany species are poorly known . the elongated , turriculate shells are small , mostly under 1\ncm . they are somewhat glossy and show no sculpture except a few microscopic growth lines . the\n, a thin projection below the mouth , is lobed in front . the anterior extremity of the foot is truncated .\nauthority : authority of octopus in vaught , k . c . et al . ( 1989 ) . a classification of the living mollusca . american malacologists : melbourne , fl ( usa ) . xii , 195 pp . t is jeffreys , 1847 . for the authority we followed itis database\neulimella polita ( a . e . verrill , 1872 ) ( invalid : junior homonym of eulimella polita de folin , 1870 ; no substitute name available )\neulimella chariessa ( verrill , 1884 ) : synonym of melanella chariessa ( a . e . verrill , 1884 )\neulimella minor e . a . smith , 1904 : synonym of pyramidella minor ( e . a . smith , 1904 )\neulimella minuta ( h . adams , 1869 ) : synonym of syrnola minuta adams h . , 1869\nbouchet , p . ; gofas , s . ( 2011 ) . eulimella forbes & m ' andrew , 1846 . accessed through : world register of marine species at urltoken on 27 august 2012\ngofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 180 - 213\nspencer , h . ; marshall . b . ( 2009 ) . all mollusca except opisthobranchia . in : gordon , d . ( ed . ) ( 2009 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity . volume one : kingdom animalia . 584 pp\nvan aartsen j . j . ( 1988 ) . nomenclatural notes . 6 . the generic name eulimella ( gastropoda , opisthobranchia , pyramidellidae ) , authorship and type species . basteria 52 ( 4 - 6 ) : 171 - 174\nj . j . van aartsen , e . gittenberger & j . goud , pyramidellidae ( mollusca , gastropoda , heterobranchia ) collected during the dutch cancap and mauritania expeditions in the south - eastern part of the north atlantic ocean ( part 2 )\npimenta a . d . , f . n . dos santos & r . s . absal\u00e3o ( 2011 ) taxonomic revision of the genus eulimella ( gastropoda , pyramidellidae ) from brazil , with description of three new species . zootaxa 3063 : 22 - 38 ; issn 1175 - 5334\naartsen , j . j . van , 1994 . european pyramidellidae : iv . the genera eulimella , anisocycla , syrnola , cingulina , oscilla and careliopsis . \u2014 bull , malac . 30 : 85 - 109 .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 10 / 20 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nbeitr\u00e4ge zur kenntnis der molluskenfauna der magalhaen - provinz . no . 3 zoologische jahrb\u00fccher , abteilung f\u00fcr systematik , geographie und biologie der tiere 22 575 - 666 , pl . 21 - 24 . [ stated date : 24 oct 1905 . ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\n. if you continue to use the site we will assume that you agree with this .\nthis translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nzootaxa 127 : 1 - 7 ( 20 december 2002 ) 2 plates ; 10 references accepted : 14 december 2002 two new water mite species from iran of the water mite families torrenticolidae and hygrobatidae ( acari : hydrachnidia ) v . m . pesic ( yugoslavia ) & m . asadi ( iran ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 110kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 126 : 1 - 20 ( 20 december 2002 ) 8 plates ; 34 references accepted : 4 december 2002 scottia birigida sp . nov . ( cypridoidea : ostracoda ) from western honshu , japan and a key to the subfamily scottiinae bronstein , 1947 r . j . smith ( uk ) , r . matzke - karasz ( germany ) , t . kamiya ( japan ) & y . ikeda ( japan ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 480kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 125 : 1 - 12 ( 20 december 2002 ) 3 plates ; 28 references accepted : 16 december 2002 wetapolipus jamiesoni gen . nov . , spec . nov . ( acari : podapolipidae ) , an ectoparasite of the mountain stone weta , hemideina maori ( orthoptera : anostostomatidae ) from new zealand r . w . husband ( usa ) & z . - q . zhang ( new zealand ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 150kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 123 : 1 - 16 ( 20 december 2002 ) 1 plate ; 70 references accepted : 3 december 2002 peracarid crustaceans from three inlets in the southwestern gulf of mexico : new records and range extensions s . ch\u00e1zaro - olvera ( mexico ) , i . winfield ( mexico ) , m . ortiz ( cuba ) & f . \u00e1lvarez ( mexico ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 220kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 122 : 1 - 16 ( 16 december 2002 ) 7 plates ; 32 references accepted : 24 november 2002 revision of some dexosarcophaga species described by r . dodge ( diptera : sarcophagidae ) c . a . de mello - patiu ( brazil ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 220kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 121 : 1 - 28 ( 16 december 2002 ) 34 references accepted : 4 december 2002 chrysomelidae ( coleoptera ) types in the hope entomological collections , oxford c . l . staines ( usa ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 120kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 120 : 1 - 12 ( 16 december 2002 ) 50 references accepted : 2 december 2002 nomenclatural and taxonomic notes on agrilus ater ( linn\u00e9 ) , a . biguttatus ( fabricius ) and a . subauratus gebler ( coleoptera : buprestidae : agrilinae ) e . jendek ( slovakia ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 80kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 118 : 1 - 14 ( 12 december 2002 ) 2 plates ; 22 references accepted : 2 december 2002 pristina trifida sp . nov . , a new soil - dwelling microannelid ( oligochaeta : naididae ) from amazonian forest soils , with comments on species recognition in the genus r . collado ( spain ) & r . m . schmelz ( germany ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 230kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 117 : 1 - 8 ( 12 december 2002 ) 3 plates ; 33 references accepted : 3 december 2002 a new species of axinyssa lendenfeld , 1897 ( porifera , demospongiae , halichondrida ) from the senegalese coast n . boury - esnault , c . marschal , j . - m . korn - probst & g . barnathan ( france ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 210kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 116 : 1 - 12 ( 12 december 2002 ) 3 plates ; 7 references accepted : 4 december 2002 paranarthrura hansen , 1913 ( crustacea : tanaidacea ) from the angola basin , description of paranarthrura angolensis n . sp . j . guerrero - kommritz , a . schmidt & a . brandt ( germany ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 100kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 115 : 1 - 6 ( 12 december 2002 ) 2 plates ; 11 references accepted : 25 november 2002 redescription of the milliped myrmecodesmus mundus ( chamberlin ) ( polydesmida : pyrgodesmidae ) r . m . shelley ( usa ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 50kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 111 : 1 - 8 ( 26 november 2002 ) 3 plates ; 5 references accepted : 21 november 2002 three new species of anthracine bee flies ( diptera : bombyliidae ) from egypt m . s . el - hawagry ( egypt ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 70kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 110 : 1 - 12 ( 26 november 2002 ) 1 plate ; 63 references accepted : 14 november 2002 the mastogenius solier , 1849 of north america ( coleoptera : buprestidae : polycestinae : haplostethini ) c . l . bellamy ( usa ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 190kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 105 : 1 - 10 ( 20 november 2002 ) 1 plates ; 13 references accepted : 24 october 2002 history and status of the genera enneanectes and axoclinus ( teleostei : blennioidei : tripterygiidae ) d . g . smith & j . t . williams ( usa ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 70kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 102 : 1 - 6 ( 14 november 2002 ) 1 plate ; 12 references accepted : 5 november 2002 a new species of galendromimus ( acari : phytoseiidae ) from brazil m . s . zacarias ( brazil ) , g . j . de moraes ( brazil ) & j . a . mcmurtry ( usa ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 60kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 101 : 1 - 7 ( 14 november 2002 ) 2 plates ; 7 references accepted : 1 november 2002 pedinonotus , a new southern neotropical genus ( heteroptera , pentatomidae , pentatomini ) jos\u00e9 ant\u00f4nio m . fernandes & joc\u00e9lia grazia ( brazil ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 320kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 100 : 1 - 15 ( 8 november 2002 ) 6 plates ; 24 references accepted : 2 november 2002 review of the tertiary microbombyliids ( diptera : mythicomyiidae ) in baltic , bitterfeld , and dominican amber n . l . evenhuis ( usa ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 420kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 99 : 1 - 4 ( 8 november 2002 ) 2 plates ; 3 references accepted : 1 november 2002 contribution to the knowledge of parantiteuchus ( heteroptera , pentatomidae , discocephalinae ) : description of the male of p . hemitholus ruckes , 1962 1 j . a . m . fernandes & j . grazia ( brazil ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 400kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 98 : 1 - 9 ( 8 november 2002 ) 3 plates ; 8 references accepted : 2 november 2002 a new species of elachiptera macquart from the gal\u00e1pagos islands , ecuador , and the taxonomic status of ceratobarys coquillett ( diptera : chloropidae ) t . a . wheeler & j . forrest ( canada ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 140kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 97 : 1 - 16 ( 8 november 2002 ) 6 plates ; 15 references accepted : 30 october 2002 revision of the ant genus streblognathus ( hymenoptera : formicidae : ponerinae ) h . g . robertson ( south africa ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 370kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 94 : 1 - 6 ( 5 november 2002 ) 3 plates ; 6 references accepted : 24 october 2002 a new species of loxosceles of the laeta group from brazil ( araneae : sicariidae ) r . martins , i . knysak & r . bertani ( brazil ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 240kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 91 : 1 - 6 ( 31 october 2002 ) 2 plates ; 8 references accepted : 24 october 2002 picobia paludicola sp . n . a new species of quill mite ( acari : prostigmata : syringophilidae ) from the aquatic warbler acrocephalus paludicola ( passeriformes : sylviidae ) m . skoracki & g . kiljan ( poland ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 80kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 90 : 1 - 16 ( 31 october 2002 ) 6 plates ; 5 references accepted : 24 october 2002 two new species of eupholus boisduval ( coleoptera , curculionidae , entiminae ) from west new guinea , a discussion of their taxonomic characters , and notes on nomenclature a . riedel ( germany ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 1560kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 89 : 1 - 32 ( 31 october 2002 ) 5 plates ; 26 references accepted : 17 october 2002 nomenclatural notes and new species of sceloenoplini ( coleoptera : chrysomelidae : cassidinae ) c . l . staines ( usa ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 830kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 88 : 1 - 36 ( 24 october 2002 ) 22 plates ; 15 references accepted : 1 october 2002 new species of nannoniscidae ( crustacea , isopoda ) and saetoniscus n . gen . from the deep sea of the angola basin a . brandt ( germany ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 950kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 86 : 1 - 12 ( 21 october 2002 ) 2 plates ; 20 references accepted : 26 september 2002 a new mecistocephalid centipede from ryukyu islands and a revisitation of \u2018 taiwanella\u2019 ( chilopoda : geophilomorpha : mecistocephalidae ) l . bonato , d . foddai & a . minelli ( italy ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 180kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 85 : 1 - 16 ( 21 october 2002 ) 5 plates ; 23 references accepted : 14 october 2002 a new species of cribrarula ( gastropoda : cypraeidae ) from new south wales , australia f . moretzsohn ( usa ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 710kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 84 : 1 - 8 ( 21 october 2002 ) 2 plates ; 18 references accepted : 10 october 2002 on the new status of agrilus perisi cobos , 1986 ( coleoptera : buprestidae ) l . arn\u00e1iz - ruiz & p . bercedo - p\u00e1ramo ( sapin ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 420kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 83 : 1 - 10 ( 21 october 2002 ) 4 plates ; 6 references accepted : 9 october 2002 a new species of south american whitefly ( sternorrhyncha : aleyrodidae ) colonising cultivated bay laurel j . h . martin & c . p . malumphy ( uk ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 180kb ) order pdf\ni . d . zannou ( benin ) , g . j . de moraes ( brazil ) & r . hanna ( benin )\nzootaxa 77 : 1 - 11 ( 11 october 2002 ) 39 references accepted : 1 october 2002 nomenclatural and taxonomic notes on agrilus cyanescens ( ratzeburg , 1837 ) , a . pratensis ( ratzeburg , 1837 ) and a . convexicollis redtenbacher , 1849 ( coleoptera : buprestidae : agrilinae ) e . jendek ( slovakia ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 60kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 75 : 1 - 12 ( 3 october 2002 ) 5 plates ; 8 references accepted : 30 september 2002 new brazilian eriophyid mites ( acari : eriophyidae ) c . h . w . flechtmann & g . j . de moraes ( brazil ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 190kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 74 : 1 - 18 ( 3 october 2002 ) 9 plates ; 20 references accepted : 23 september 2002 two new species of deutella mayer , 1890 ( crustacea : amphipoda : pariambidae ) collected by the r . v .\nanton bruun\nduring the international indian ocean expedition 1963 - 1964 j . m . guerra - garc\u00eda ( spain ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 260kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 71 : 1 - 43 ( 26 september 2002 ) 114 references accepted : 15 september 2002 new combinations and synonymies of leafcutter and mason bees of the americas ( megachile , hymenoptera , megachilidae ) a . raw ( brazil ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 200kb ) order pdf\nz ootaxa 70 : 1 - 32 ( 23 september 2002 ) 2 plates ; 12 references accepted : 18 september 2002 publication and dating of the two\nbulletins\nof the soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de france ( 1873 - 1894 ) n . l . evenhuis ( usa ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 170kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 69 : 1 - 19 ( 20 september 2002 ) 11 plates ; 108 references accepted : 13 september 2002 a revision of the genus heinzia korge , 1971 ( coleoptera : staphylinidae : quediina ) , with description of a new species and its probable larva v . i . gusarov ( usa ) & a . g . koval ( russia ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 280kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 68 : 1 - 8 ( 20 september 2002 ) 1 plate ; 10 references accepted : 3 september 2002 the spittle bug philaenus tesselatus melichar , 1899 ( hemiptera , auchenorrhyncha , cercopidae ) is a distinct species s . drosopoulos ( greece ) & j . a . quartau ( portugal ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 80kb ) order pdf\nz ootaxa 67 : 1 - 40 ( 29 august 2002 ) 25 plates ; 32 references accepted : 19 august 2002 an illustrated key to neotropical termite genera ( insecta : isoptera ) based primarily on soldiers r . constantino ( brazil ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 720kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 66 : 1 - 15 ( 29 august 2002 ) 4 plates ; 21 references accepted : 23 august 2002 on a new species of potamocypris ( crustacea , ostracoda ) from chalakkudy river , kerala ( india ) , with a checklist of the potamocypris - species of the world s . george ( india ) & k . martens ( belgium ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 250kb ) order pdf\nd . s . sikes ( usa ) , r . b . madge ( canada ) & a . f . newton\nzootaxa 64 : 1 - 12 ( 22 august 2002 ) 4 plates ; 9 references accepted : 20 august 2002 review of the genus onchopelma hesse , with descriptions of new species ( diptera : mythicomyiidae ) n . l . evenhuis ( usa ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 150kb ) order pdf\nzootaxa 63 : 1 - 37 ( 22 august 2002 ) 49 references accepted : 23 july 2002 addenda and corrigenda to \u2018a world catalogue of families andgenera of curculionoidea ( insecta : coleoptera ) \u2019 m . a . alonso - zarazaga ( spain ) & c . h . c . lyal ( uk ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 190kb ) order pdf\ng . williams ( australia ) & c . l . bellamy ( usa )\na . a . kubesy ( egypt ) & b . a . dehority ( usa )\nr . m . j . de vis & g . j . de moraes ( brazil )\ncarlos j . e . lamas ( brazil ) , neal l . evenhuis ( usa ) & m\u00e1rcia s . couri ( brazil )\njohn e . randall , carole c . baldwin & jeffrey t . williams ( usa )\nz . olszanowski ( poland ) & r . a . norton ( usa )\npapers published in 2001 , 2002 , 2003 , 2004 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 , 2008 , 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , 2013 , 2014 , 2015 , latest .\ndepth range based on 100 specimens in 20 taxa . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 69 samples . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 0 - 2000 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 3 . 616 - 24 . 954 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 615 - 20 . 681 salinity ( pps ) : 33 . 843 - 37 . 039 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 4 . 183 - 6 . 847 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 094 - 1 . 506 silicate ( umol / l ) : 1 . 329 - 14 . 845 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : 0 - 2000 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 3 . 616 - 24 . 954 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 615 - 20 . 681 salinity ( pps ) : 33 . 843 - 37 . 039 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 4 . 183 - 6 . 847 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 094 - 1 . 506 silicate ( umol / l ) : 1 . 329 - 14 . 845 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\nmany species are poorly known . the elongated , turriculate shells are small , mostly under 1 cm . they are somewhat glossy and show no sculpture except a few microscopic growth lines . the teleoconch has numerous whorls . the apex is sinistral . the aperture is subquadrangular . the outer lip is not continuous . the columella is straight , without plications . they lack a columellar tooth .\nthis section is empty . you can help by adding to it . ( october 2011 )\ng . w . tryon ( 1889 ) , manual of conchology vol . viii p . 319\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nzo otaxa 2913 : 1\u201315 ( 10 jun . 2011 ) 7 plates ; 8 references accepted : 11 may 2011 a new genus microphylacinus and revision of the closely related phylacinus fairmaire , 1896 ( coleoptera : tenebrionidae : pedinini ) from madagascar dariusz iwan ( poland ) , marcin kami \u0144 ski ( poland ) & rolf aalbu ( usa ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 5 , 600kb ) order pdf\naarvik , leif ( norway ) & karisch , timm ( germany ) revision of multiquaestia karisch ( lepidoptera : tortricidae : grapholitini ) zo otaxa 2026 : 18 - 32 ( 4 mar . 2009 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 20kb ) free | full article ( pdf ; 800kb ) subscription required\nabadie , e . i . ( brazil ) - see grossi , p . c . & abadie , e . i . ( brazil )\nabadjiev , s . p . ( bulgaria ) an annotated catalog of types of neotropical pierinae ( lepidoptera : pieridae ) in the collection of the national museum of natural history , smithsonian institution , washington dc zootaxa 1022 : 1 - 35 ( 25 jul . 2005 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) free | full article ( pdf ; 980kb ) subscription required\nabadjiev , s . p . ( bulgaria ) types of neotropical pierinae in the collection of department of entomology , natural history museum , london ( lepidoptera : pieridae ) zootaxa 1143 : 1 - 218 ( 10 mar . 2006 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 10kb ) free | full article part a , b , c ( pdf ; 5800kb ) subscription required\nzo otaxa 2899 : 60\u201368 ( 31 may 2011 ) 3 plates ; 18 references accepted : 9 may 2011 cordulegaster sarracenia , n . sp . ( odonata : cordulegastridae ) from east texas and western louisiana , with a key to adult cordulegastridae of the new world john c . abbott & troy d . hibbitts ( usa ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 670kb ) order pdf\nabdala , cristian sim\u00f3n - see nori , javier . , abdala , cristian sim\u00f3n & scrocchi , gustavo jos\u00e9 ( agrentina )\nabdul muin , mohd ( malaysia ) - see grismer , l . lee ( usa ) , onn , chan kin ( malaysia ) , quah , evan ( malaysia ) , abdul muin , mohd ( malaysia ) , savage , anna e . ( usa ) , grismer , jesse l . ( usa ) , ahmad , norhayati ( malaysia ) , greer iii , lee f . ( usa ) & remegio , ana - caroline ( usa )\nabd - rabou , s . ( egypt ) - see evans , g . a . ( usa ) & abd - rabou , s . ( egypt )\nzo otaxa 3098 : 64\u201368 ( 15 nov . 2011 ) 4 plates ; 10 references accepted : 10 oct . 2011 redescription of sphenanthias whiteheadi talwar ( perciformes : cepolidae ) with dna barcodes from the southern coasts of india k . k . bineesh , k . a . sajeela , k . v . akhilesh , n . g . k . pillai & e . m . abdussamad ( india ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 400kb ) order pdf\nabe , yoshihisa ( japan ) - see melika , george ( hungary ) , pujadevillar , juli ( spain ) , abe , yoshihisa ( japan ) , tang , chang - ti ( r . china ) , nicholls , james ( uk ) , wachi , nakatada ( japan ) , ide , tatsuya ( japan ) , yang , man - miao ( r . china ) , p\u00e9nzes , zsolt ( hungary ) , cs\u00f3ka , gy\u00f6rgy ( hungary ) & stone , graham n . ( uk )\nabello , pere ( spain ) - see palero , f . & abello , p . ( spain )\nabello , pere ( spain ) - see guerao , g . , abello , p . & hispano , c . ( spain )\nabell\u00f3 , pere ( spain ) - se palero , ferran ( austria ) , guerao , guillermo ( spain ) , clark , paul f . ( uk ) & abell\u00f3 , pere ( spain )\naberlenc , h . - p . ( france ) - see viette , p . ( france ) , bellamy , c . l . ( usa ) & aberlenc , h . - p . ( france )\nabhitha , p . ( india ) - see sabu , t . k . ( india ) , merkl , o . ( hungary ) & abhitha , p . ( india )\nabhitha , p . ( india ) - see sabu , t . k . ( india ) , abhitha , p . ( india ) & zhao , d . y . ( p . r . china )\nabhitha , p . & sabu , t . k . ( india ) rare ground - beetle species of leleuporella basilewsky ( coleoptera : carabidae : scaritinae : scaritini ) from indian sub - continent zo otaxa 2310 : 59 - 63 ( 14 dec . 2009 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 20kb ) free | full article ( pdf ; 290kb ) order pdf\nabilhoa , v . & duboc , l . f . ( brazil ) a new species of the freshwater fish genus astyanax ( ostariophysi : characidae ) from the rio iguacu basin , southeastern brazil zo otaxa 1587 : 43 - 52 ( 17 sep . 2007 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 20kb ) free | full article ( pdf ; 410kb ) subscription required\nzo otaxa 2804 : 56\u201364 ( 30 mar . 2011 ) 4 plates ; 13 references accepted : 8 mar . 2011 description of distolabrellus magnivulvatus sp . n . ( nematoda , rhabditida , mesorhabditidae ) from iberian peninsula , the second species of a rare genus joaqu\u00edn abolafia & reyes pe\u00f1a - santiago ( spain ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 870kb ) order pdf\nzo otaxa 2922 : 1\u201314 ( 17 jun . 2011 ) 6 plates ; 34 references accepted : 30 may 2011 ablechroiulus spelaeus sp . n . and a . dudichi andr\u00e1ssy , 1970 from andaluc\u00eda oriental , spain , with a discussion of the taxonomy of the genus ablechroiulus andr\u00e1ssy , 1966 ( nematoda , rhabditida , rhabditidae ) joaqu\u00edn abolafia & reyes pe\u00f1a - santiago ( spain ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 1 , 200kb ) order pdf\nabraham , k . j . ( india ) zo otaxa 2886 : 1\u201318 ( 23 may 2011 ) 2 plates ; 38 references accepted : 30 mar . 2011 taxonomy of the fishes of the family leiognathidae ( pisces , teleostei ) from the west coast of india k . j . abraham , k . k . joshi & v . s . r . murty ( india ) preview ( pdf ; 20kb ) | full article ( pdf ; 590kb ) order pdf\n\u00e1brah\u00e1m , levente ( hungary ) - see ao , weiguang ( p . r . china ) , zhang , xubo ( p . r . china ) , \u00e1brah\u00e1m , levente ( hungary ) & wang , xili ( p . r . china )\nabrahamson , warren g . ( usa ) - see dorchin , netta . , mcevoy , miles v . , dowling , todd a . , abrahamson , warren g . & moore , joseph g . ( usa )\nabramov , a . v . ( russia ) - see jenkins , p . d . ( uk ) , abramov , a . v . ( russia ) , rozhnov , v . v . ( vietnam ) & makarova , o . v . ( russia )\nabramov , alexei v . , meschersky , ilya g . & rozhnov , viatcheslav v . ( russia ) on the taxonomic status of the harvest mouse micromys minutus ( rodentia : muridae ) from vietnam zo otaxa 2199 : 58 - 68 ( 17 aug . 2009 ) abstract & excerpt ( pdf ; 20kb ) free | full article ( pdf ; 590kb ) subscription required"]}
{"id": 1452, "summary": [{"text": "linckia laevigata ( sometimes called the \" blue linckia \" or blue star ) is a species of sea star ( commonly known as a starfish ) in the shallow waters of tropical indo-pacific ( a biogeographic region of the earth 's seas , comprising the tropical waters of the indian ocean , the western and central pacific ocean , and the seas connecting the two in the general area of indonesia . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "linckia laevigata", "paragraphs": ["what type of species is linckia laevigata ? below , you will find the taxonomic groups the linckia laevigata species belongs to .\nforma linckia laevigata f . hondurae domantay & roxas , 1938 accepted as linckia hondurae domantay & roxas , 1938 accepted as linckia laevigata ( linnaeus , 1758 )\nwhich photographers have photos of linckia laevigata species ? below , you will find the list of underwater photographers and their photos of the marine species linckia laevigata .\nhow to identify linckia laevigata marine species ? below , you will find the list of main identification criteria and physical characteristics of marine species linckia laevigata . for each identification criteria , the corresponding physical characteristics of marine species linckia laevigata are marked in green .\nwhere is linckia laevigata found in the world ? below , you will find the list and a world map of the geographic distribution where the marine species linckia laevigata can be found .\nlinckia laevigata . dendrogram showing genetic relationships of ten reef . . . | download scientific diagram\n1 . linckia laevigata ' s reproductive strategy is not well - suited to a heavy fishery .\nyamaguchi m . 1977 . population structure , spawning , and growth of the coral reef asteroid linckia laevigata ( linnaeus ) . pac sci 31 ( 1 ) : 13 - 30 .\nbased on data from a paper by micael , alves , costa and jones from 2009 , it turns out that linckia laevigata is the most commonly collected seastar in the aquarium trade .\nlinkia laevigata from the solomons . this one was in deeper water and was brown . photo : julian sprung .\nlinckia browni gray , 1840 ( synonym according to h . l . clark ( 1921 ) )\nlinckia typus nardo , 1834 ( synonym according to h . l . clark ( 1921 ) )\naquarium invertebrates : sea stars - - linckia spp . \u2014 advanced aquarist | aquarist magazine and blog\na paper by masashi yamaguchi ( 1977 ) who studied population and reproductive biology of lincki a laevigata had an answer that was not encouraging .\nwilliams , s . t . , and j . a . h . benzie . 1993 .\ngenetic consequences of long larval life in the starfish linckia laevigata ( echinodermata : asteroidea ) on the great barrier reef .\nmarine biology 117 : 71 - 77 .\nfig . 2 linckia laevigata . dendrogram showing genetic relationships of ten reef populations based on nei ' s ( 1978 ) unbiased genetic distance d . populations with the same superscript are not significantly different ( p < 0 . 01 ) ( abbreviations , see table 1 )\nlaxton , j . h .\na preliminary study of the biology and ecology of the blue starfish linckia laevigata on the australian great barrier reef and an interpretation of its role in the coral reef ecosystem .\nbiological journal of the linnean society 6 ( 1974 ) : 47\u201364 .\nminale , l . , c . pizza , r . riccio , f . zollo , j . pusset , and p . laboute . 1984 .\nstarfish saponins 13 . occurrence of nodososide in the starfish acanthaster planci and linckia laevigata .\njournal of natural products 47 : 558 .\nriccio , r . , o . s . greco , l . minale , j . pusset , and j . l . menou . 1985 .\nstarfish saponins : 18 . steroidal glycoside sulfates from the starfish linckia laevigata .\njournal of natural products 48 : 97 - 101 .\nprobably one of the most widespread and incorrect assumptions ( like this one ) about tropical sea stars , such as linckia laevigata is that it eats clams and meat in a manner similar to cold - water starfish species such as asterias forbesi or pisaster ochraceus . i have complained about this misunderstanding in other blogs . .\negloff , d . a . , d . t . smouse , jr . , and j . e . pembroke . 1988 .\npenetration of the radial hemal and perihemal systems of linckia laevigata ( asteroidea ) by the proboscis of thyca crystallina , an ectoparasitic gastropod .\nveliger 30 : 342 - 346 .\nbouillon , j . , and m . jangoux . 1984 .\nnote on the relationship between the parasitic mollusk thyca crystallina ( gastropoda , prosobranchia ) and the starfish linckia laevigata ( echinodermata ) on laing island reef ( papua new guinea ) .\nannales de la societe royale zoologique de belgique 114 : 249 - 256 .\nwilliams , s . t . 2000 .\nspecies boundaries in the starfish genus linckia .\nmarine biology . 136 : 137 - 148 .\nzagalsky , p . f . , f . haxo , s . hertzberg , and s . liaaen - jensen . 1989 .\nstudies on a blue carotenoprotein , linckiacyanin , isolated from the starfish linckia laevigata ( echinodermata : asteroidea ) .\ncomparative biochemistry and physiology b comparative biochemistry and molecular biology 93 : 339 - 354 .\nso , here ' s the thing - l . laevigata feeds on bacterial biofilm , algae and / or whatever nutritious goo it can get its stomach on . they are considered herbivorous .\nwilliams , s . t . ( 2000 ) . species boundaries in the starfish genus linckia . marine biology 136 : 137 - 148 . [ details ]\n( of linckia laevigata f . hondurae domantay & roxas , 1938 ) domantay , j . s . and roxas , h . a . ( 1938 ) . the littoral asteroidea of port galera bay and adjacent waters . philippine journal of science . 65 ( 3 ) : 203 - 237 , 17 plates . page ( s ) : 221 [ details ]\nmy guess is that feeding l . laevigata clams without any of their primary food - would be like feeding any human pork rinds for a whole year . it might be\nfood\nbut it would be a slow death . . .\nas i mentioned above , there are several species of linckia , and not all of them are blue , red or purple , and some of the stars commonly sold in pet shops under the name of linckia may very well belong to other genera . i have no doubt as to the authenticity of these reports - i . e . , that some people have been sold a sea star that was labeled\npurple linckia\nand have subsequently had problems with that animal in their tanks . however , that does not mean that the\npurple linckia\nin their tank is the same species as the one in yours or mine . the variation reported in the behavior of these stars may represent a case of individual variation , or it could indicate that there is a lot of misidentification going on .\nmost of these attached shells are apparently female and the degree of infection of thyca tends to be correlated with the degree of water movement with more active water associated with fewer thyca per individual linckia . .\n( of linckia typus nardo , 1834 ) nardo , j . d . ( 1834 ) . de asteriis . isis von oken . 1834 : 716 - 717 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 717 [ details ]\nusually five arms with a body diameter that can reach 12 in ( 30 cm ) . adults have brilliant blue coloration . juveniles are blue - green , purplish with dark spots . the genus linckia has many color morphs , making it difficult to identify species .\nalthough these stars require extra care in the initial selection , once a blue linckia is successfully introduced into a large , well established aquarium with plenty of live rock to explore , they are usually quite hardy and are certainly a beautiful addition to a reef aquarium .\nok , so even now that we ' re all aware that there is an important distinction between the true linckia and other look - alike sea stars , we ' re still only slightly further ahead in terms of understanding exactly what they need in an aquarium . even if we limit the discussion here to only the true linckia stars , the problem is that there is just not a lot of good information on their biology . despite the beauty and obvious widespread interest in these stars , surprisingly little is really known about the exact feeding behaviors or preferences of these animals in the wild , and only anecdotal accounts are available for their needs in the aquarium . that is kind of surprising , given that linckia is one of the most common and obvious sea stars on many indo - pacific reefs .\n( of linckia miliaris ( muller & troschel , 1840 ) ) clark , a . m . & courtman - stock , j . ( 1976 ) . the echinoderms of southern africa . publ . no . 766 . british museum ( nat . hist ) , london . 277 pp . [ details ]\nthis is an intrinsic part of their biology . some papers such as this one by laxton ( 1974 - i told you information was few and far between ! ) determined that l . laevigata ' s ecological significance may lie in its relationship to become more widespread following algal growth on coral following a big predatory binge by the coral eating crown - of - thorns starfish ( acanthaster planci ) .\n( of linckia rosenbergi von martens , 1866 ) martens , e . von ( 1866 ) . ueber \u00f6stasiatiche echinodermen . i . asteroiden ( fortsetzung ) . 3 . seesterne des indischen archipels . ii . ophiuren . archiv f\u00fcr naturgeschichte 32 : : 57 - 88 ; 133 - 189 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of linckia suturalis von martens , 1866 ) martens , e . von ( 1866 ) . ueber \u00f6stasiatiche echinodermen . i . asteroiden ( fortsetzung ) . 3 . seesterne des indischen archipels . ii . ophiuren . archiv f\u00fcr naturgeschichte 32 : : 57 - 88 ; 133 - 189 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of linckia hondurae domantay & roxas , 1938 ) domantay , j . s . and roxas , h . a . ( 1938 ) . the littoral asteroidea of port galera bay and adjacent waters . philippine journal of science . 65 ( 3 ) : 203 - 237 , 17 plates . page ( s ) : 221 [ details ]\n( of linckia browni gray , 1840 ) gray , j . e . ( 1840 ) . xxxii . a synopsis of the genera and species of the class hypostoma ( asterias , linnaeus ) . annals of the magazine of natural history . 6 : 275 - 290 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 285 [ details ]\n( of linckia crassa gray , 1840 ) gray , j . e . ( 1840 ) . xxxii . a synopsis of the genera and species of the class hypostoma ( asterias , linnaeus ) . annals of the magazine of natural history . 6 : 275 - 290 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 284 [ details ]\n( of linckia miliaris ( muller & troschel , 1840 ) ) jangoux , m . ( 1973 ) . les ast\u00e9ries de lile inhaca ( mozambique ) ( echinodermata , asteroidea ) . i . les esp\u00e8ces r\u00e9colt\u00e9es et leur r\u00e9partition g\u00e9ographique . kmma annalen serie in - 8o - zoologische wetenschappen nr 208 . 50 pp , 7 pl . [ details ]\n( of linckia typus nardo , 1834 ) clark , a . m . ; downey , m . e . ( 1992 ) . starfishes of the atlantic . chapman & hall identification guides , 3 . chapman & hall . london , uk . isbn 0 - 412 - 43280 - 3 . xxvi , 794 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of asterias laevigata ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nalthough these stars require extra care in the initial selection , once a blue linckia is successfully introduced into a large , well established aquarium with plenty of live rock to explore , they are usually quite hardy and are certainly a beautiful addition to a reef aquarium . in closing , i just want to thank everyone at the omaha marine society for some great discussions about sea stars that have helped with this article .\nlike the majority of other sea stars , the sexes appear to be separate in linckia , and the animals spawn gametes freely into the water column . most often , they will hold onto the substrate with the tips of their arms , arch the body high into the water and spray either sperm or eggs into the water above them . if a male and female happen to spawn in close proximity to one another , the fertilized eggs develop into feeding larvae within a couple of days . these larvae spend about 28 - 30 days in the water column before settling onto a hard surface on the reef and metamorphosing into a tiny version of the adult star . spawning of these stars in home aquaria is rare , and although larval culture techniques for echinoderms are well - established ( see toonen 1996 for details ) , the long planktonic lifespan of the larvae of linckia makes raising them at home a difficult prospect .\nthe blue starfish has a bright blue or light blue body , more seldom green , pink or yellow , and there are also red linckia , which are still widely referred to as l . multifora ( see under \u201cdid you know\u201d ) . the animals get their colour from a blue pigment called linckiacyanin and some accessory yellow carotenoids . depending on the exact ratio and combination of pigments in the star , the colours of the starfish can vary . although certain colour variations are more common in some areas than others , it is not clear whether there are any behavioural or ecological differences among sea stars that have these different colours .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nbenjamin mueller 1 , 2 , 4 , * , arthur r . bos 2 , 3 , gerhard graf 1 , girley s . gumanao 2\ncite this article as : mueller b , bos ar , graf g , gumanao gs ( 2011 ) size - specific locomotion rate and movement pattern of four common indo - pacific sea stars ( echinodermata ; asteroidea ) . aquat biol 12 : 157 - 164 . urltoken\npublished in ab vol . 12 , no . 2 . online publication date : april 28 , 2011 print issn : 1864 - 7782 ; online issn : 1864 - 7790 copyright \u00a9 2011 inter - research .\nophidiaster clathratus grube , 1865 ( synonym according to h . l . clark ( 1921 ) )\nophidiaster crassa ( gray , 1840 ) ( synonym according to h . l . clark ( 1921 ) )\nophidiaster miliaris m\u00fcller & troschel , 1842 ( synonym according to h . l . clark ( 1921 ) )\nnote unknown ( ' mediterranean and ? indian seas\n) . . . .\ntype locality unknown ( ' mediterranean and ? indian seas\n) . also recorded from ' coin peros ' by bell ( 1909 ) - locality can ' t be traced . type data : syntypes whereabouts undetermined ( rowe & gates , 1995 ) . [ details ]\ndescription colour in life : uniformly blue , grey , pink , purple or fawn . this contrasts with pacific specimens from palao examined by . . .\n( of ophidiaster clathratus grube , 1865 ) grube , a . e . ( 1865 ) . der resultate seines aufenthaltes auf der insel lussin . jahres - bericht der schlesischen gesellschaft f\u00fcr vaterl\u00e4ndische cultur . 42 : 47 - 54 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 51 [ details ]\n( of ophidiaster miliaris m\u00fcller & troschel , 1842 ) m\u00fcller , j . and troschel , f . h . ( 1842 ) . system der asteriden . 1 . asteriae . 2 . ophiuridae . vieweg : braunschweig . xxx + 134 pp . 12 pls . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 30 [ details ]\n( of ophidiaster propinquus livingstone , 1932 ) livingstone , a . a . ( 1932 ) . asteroidea . british museum ( natural history ) scientific reports / great barrier reef expedition 1928 - 29 . 4 ( 8 ) : 241 - 265 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 255 [ details ]\nclark , a . m . ; rowe , f . w . e . ( 1971 ) . monograph of shallow - water indo - west pacific echinoderms . trustees of the british museum ( natural history ) . london . x + 238 p . + 30 pls . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nludwig , h . ( 1899 ) . echinodermen des sansibargebietes . abhandlungen der senckenbergischen naturforschenden gesellschaft , bonn . 21 ( 1 ) : 537 - 563 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of ophidiaster laevigatus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) m\u00fcller , j . and troschel , f . h . ( 1842 ) . system der asteriden . 1 . asteriae . 2 . ophiuridae . vieweg : braunschweig . xxx + 134 pp . 12 pls . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 30 [ details ]\nintergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nclark , a . m . ( 1982 ) . echinoderms of hong kong . in : morton b , editor . proceedings of the first international marine biological workshop : the marine flora and fauna of hong kong and southern china . hong kong university press , hong kong . 1 : 485 - 501 . [ details ]\nunknown , but it is one of the most common and obvious sea stars on many indo - pacific reefs although some populations declined significantly due to harvesting for pet trade and by tourists .\nblue starfish are notoriously delicate shippers , and post - transport mortality is rather high . therefore , it is exceptionally important to acclimate these animals carefully . for air transport , container note 51 of the iata live animals regulations should be followed .\nzoos and aquariums keep blue star fish for educational reasons as part of their efforts to familiarise visitors with invertebrate biodiversity . sea stars may be kept in touch pools where they will come into close contact with visitors and may play a role as ambassadors for marine and coastal conservation .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nrowe , f . w . e . & pawson , d . l . 1977 ,\na catalogue of echinoderm type - specimens in the australian museum , sydney\n, records of the australian museum , vol . 30 , no . 14 , pp . 337 - 364\nlivingstone , a . a . 1932 ,\nasteroidea\n, scientific reports of the great barrier reef expedition 1928 - 1929 , vol . 4 , pp . 241 - 265 figs 1 - 2 pls 1 - 12\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 2d802d5f - 33df - 4315 - 98ef - bf592bc6999b\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : fb5a195d - 37e8 - 4b39 - 8446 - 29fa728852de\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 328698\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmah , c . l . ( 2014 ) world asteroidea database . accessed through : world register of marine species at urltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nplease email libraryada - l @ urltoken if you need this content in an ada - compliant format .\nitems in scholarspace are protected by copyright , with all rights reserved , unless otherwise indicated .\nscholarspace is the institutional repository for the university of hawai ' i at manoa and is maintained by hamilton library . built on open - source dspace software .\nechinodermata ! starfish ! sea urchins ! sea cucumbers ! stone lillies ! feather stars ! blastozoans ! sea daisies ! marine invertebrates found throughout the world ' s oceans with a rich and ancient fossil legacy . their biology and evolution includes a wide range of crazy and wonderful things . let me share those things with you !\nfor such a well - known species , i was surprised at how little was known about it . .\naka\nfinger starfish\noccurs widely throughout the tropical pacific and indian oceans in shallow - water reef type settings .\nand made into garishly - colored ornaments , such as the ones below . . .\nis heavily trafficked in the aquarium trade and can be seen in many tropical fish tank videos . . .\nmost specimens are taken from the wild throughout its indo - pacific range . it can be commonly encountered and easy to collect . few if any are the result of captive breeding programs .\nyamaguchi both surveyed individuals in the field and also grew out juveniles and inferred growth rates based on the overall changes in size of those lab - grown specimens .\nplus - smaller individuals were often absent from population surveys - suggesting that the number that reach breeding age ( i . e . , are\nadults\n) is relatively low .\na large sized animal ( and these approach about 1 . 5 feet in diameter ) could easily be several years old . . .\nso - bottom line is that these guys grow slowly and have a low turnover rate with few juveniles ascending into\nadulthood\nat a given time . .\nit seems likely that the reason for the abundance of these animals is largely due to long - term accumulation of those adults over time . and when those guys are wiped out - they ' re gone .\nyamaguchi noted that days after releasing marked individuals for his study - several of the tagged animals had vanished - likely taken by\nreef - gleaners\n. . . .\nyes , some of the more experienced aquarists are probably saying\nbut i have seen and fed this species clam meat ( or fish or whatever ) before . . .\nand yes - that may be true - but honestly , how long do those animals live after that ? ? ?\ni ' ve reactions by people that this is some kind of bad thing . truth is , these critters would only be found on a healthy animal . discovering one of these is basically like an extra bonus - so , best to leave em ' be . . .\nprobably one of the most noticeable is thyca crystallina - a parastic snail that lives attached to the ( usuallly oral ) surface of an individual starfish . data on this relationship can be found here in a paper by hugh elder ( 1979 ) . the snails are attached to the coelom via a proboscis .\nyup . it actually belongs to a family of snails that are parasites on echinoderms . .\nthey tend not to do well in aquaria based on what i ' ve experienced .\ni have a blue star - fish in my fish tank and it has been doing great for a year , now in the last 2 weeks it has dropped 2 limbs , what is going on , can anyone explain ? i don ' t want to loose him he is awesome . thanks in advance .\nits unfortunately not likely to do well after this point . there are multiple reasons for why this cold be happening ranging from environmental stress to starvation and they are all quite difficult to ascertain . sorry . . but its most likely you will lose your starfish .\ni pursue starfish related adventure around the world with a critical eye and an appreciation for weirdness . support has been courtesy of the national science foundation but the views and opinions presented herein are mine and do not reflect the opinions of them or any affiliated institutions . need to hire an invertebrate zoologist / marine biologist ? please contact me !\n( photo by km6xo ) so , last week , i was contacted by an intrepid member of the public who was quite interested in finding out more about s . . .\nif you ' ve ever enjoyed the fine diversity of japanese cuisine , and are a serious sushi connaisseur ( as i am ) you have probably experienc . . .\nlast week the foks over at newswatch national geographic proclaimed that they had the\n5 weirdest antarctic species\n. hyperbo . . .\n( from clipart etc - florida educational claringhouse ) i was casually checking the numbers for the echinoblog over a july 4th weekend in . . .\n( photo by emily miller kauai ) so , recently i ' ve gotten a bunch of questions about these peculiar sea urchins via email - and so i thou . . .\nthe other day , i was thinking of big stuff . and then , a bit later , i was thinking of starfish stuff . and then i thought of cake . ( mmm . . . .\nimages here from the encyclopedia of life this week , something about the many different kinds of asteroids ( aka sea star or starfish ! ) t . . .\ntoday ' s topic : starfish defense ! ! its curious how often this question comes up . people see starfish and other echinoderms that are just . . .\nfrom wikipedia ! sea urchins ! who doesn ' t love em ? the spiny balls of the sea ! we eat em ! they ' re important to marine ecosystems . . .\ntoxopneustes ! aka the\nflower urchin\nis one of four species of toxopneustes ( all of which occur throughout the tropical pacifi . . .\nthe blue sea star has 5 cylindrical arms with rounded tips and an eye at each end . the eyes see only light and darkness . the mouth is found in the centre of the body on the underside . animals less than 5 cm wide are blue - green with dark spots . as they mature they most commonly acquire a bright blue colour , although there are colour variants throughout the indo - pacific ranging from bright blue to green , pink or yellow . juveniles have pale yellow tube feet and adults have dark yellow feet . maximum size is approximately 30cm .\nwhen sea stars eat , they sit on top of the food and push their stomach out through their mouth to cover the food and digest it externally . the blue sea star is an omonivore ( eats both plants and animals ) . it is predominantly a scavenger , living on dead organisms within the coral reef and on rocks , but also feeds on algae and microbes .\nsea stars move very slowly using their water filled tubes and tube feet that stick out through the skin to hold onto surfaces . they use a water - vascular system that works on water pressure , creating a network of tube feet that look like hundreds of tiny , hydraulically operated legs .\ncommonly found on coral reef flats , rocky reefs and other shallow areas , especially in areas with wave action .\nblue sea stars have separate sexes ( male and female ) . to reproduce , they release large numbers of eggs into the water . sea stars are restricted to their home reef as adults , but are able to disperse as larvae .\na special feature about sea stars is that they can regenerate their arms if damaged or lost , growing back into a full sea star ( although they are fragile and often do not survive a lot of damage to their limbs ) . the blue sea star frequently plays host to a tiny shrimp and sometimes a small gastropod snail that are identical in colour to the sea star . the shrimp or snail live in the grooves on the underside of the arms .\nthey are found throughout the indo - pacific region from eastern africa ( absent from the red sea ) to hawaii , the south pacific islands , australia , thailand , and japan .\nthumbnail description conspicuous and successful bottom - dwelling animals that can survive without food for months and feed on almost every type of marine organism encountered on the seabed ; they range in size from 0 . 4 in ( 1 cm ) in diameter to more than 3 ft ( 91 cm ) across and inhabit virtually every latitude and ocean depths\nthe class asteroidea is a highly diverse group comprised of seven orders , 35 families , and an estimated 1 , 600 known living species , although their precise phylogenetic relationship and hence classification still proves challenging to taxonomists .\nasteroids belong to a major group of other bottom - dwelling animals called echinoderms . collectively this group includes echinoids ( sea urchins ) , holothurians ( sea cucumbers ) , crinoids ( feather stars ) , and ophiuriods ( brittle stars ) , the latter group closely resembling sea stars . all echinoderms share similar pentamerous radial symmetry and spiny skin characteristics , although sea stars differ slightly because they have five or more arms large enough to contain space for digestive and reproductive glands . another group of animals thought to belong to echinoderms are concentricycloids , or sea daisies . these small disc - shaped animals discovered in the abyssal seas off new zealand and bahamas in the late 1980s are considered an evolutionary forerunner to asteroids .\nsea stars have an ancient linage that shows embryologically they are not too distantly related to the phylum chordata ( back - boned animals ) . the fossil record places a form of asteroid over 300 millions years before the dinosaurs , sharing a common ancestry with ophiuroids , yet within 50 million years of their appearance they became clearly differentiated . their evolutionary path has included some bizarre taxa that have been hard to classify , yet this successful group has persisted and remain ecologically important to many marine communities worldwide .\nthe skeleton of a sea star consists of small calcium carbonate plates called ossicles . these are often studded and spiny , and provide a firm but flexible skeleton of connective tissue . flexibility enables a variety of postures to be adopted without muscular effort , thus providing an effective means to capture and handle prey and allow individuals to closely follow irregular substrates in search of food . alternatively , their flexibility can enable sea stars to upright themselves if over - turned .\nthe surface of a sea star looks and feels rough because of the numerous small and transparent sacs called papulae that cover the body , which provide a respiratory surface for exchanging oxygen . the upper and lower body surfaces also contain pincer - like structures called pedicellariae , which come in a variety of forms from simple modified spines to highly specialized opposing hooks . their function is to rid areas around the papulae of small organisms and debris , and in some species capture prey by detecting their presence . these are\nusually small fish or shrimp - like crustaceans on which the sea star feeds . the shape of pedicellariae is an important characteristic for asteroid taxonomy .\nsea stars have an unusual way of moving . water is taken in through the madreportite , a small , perforated plate on the upper surface of the disc , and into the water vascular system , a canal of tubes connected to the tube feet . following muscular contraction water is directed under pressure to the tube feet , which then extend under its force . movement is achieved through a coordinated stepping motion where , on muscle contraction , the feet adhere to the sediment surface , pushing the individual forward . depending on the species , tube feet have suckers that help stick the sea star to hard surfaces or assist in prying open the shells of its mollusk prey . besides involvement in prey capture ; tube feet also have a respiratory function . species with more than five arms and reproduce asexually will have numerous madreportites .\nas a group , sea stars live in virtually every habitat found in the sea , ranging from tidal pools , rocky shores , sea grass and kelp beds , beneath rock rubble , on coral reefs , sand , and mud . in some species a broad and flattened body may act as a snowshoe when foraging on very soft mud . in the upper shore , they are periodically exposed by the retreating tide , resulting in extended periods of desiccation . the only refuge is cover in moist crevices beneath rocks . by contrast , in the deep sea at depth greater than 29 , 530 ft ( 9 , 000 m ) they are found inhabiting sandy bottoms and steep cliffs .\nthey are prominent seafloor predators . perhaps their success and influence comes from a unique combination of attributes . these include indeterminate growth , a morphology and digestive system generalized enough to capture , handle , and ingest many different prey types and sizes , and a sensory ability sophisticated enough to respond quickly to the presence of prey and changes in the prevailing environment . moreover , their flexible bodies and suckered tube feet enable them to adhere firmly to the seabed whilst manipulating prey , thus enabling them to survive in high stress environments by withstanding the full force of crashing waves .\nsea stars have a\ncentral nervous system ,\nor diffuse nerve net , but lack anything identified as a brain . despite this , they are sophisticated enough to adapt to change based on previous experiences ( conditioning ) , whereby behavior that is persistently unsuccessful , usually a feeding one , is stopped .\nthey are not considered social animals , yet many species tend to aggregate or swarm in large numbers during certain times of the year . these events tend to be triggered during spawning periods , feeding frenzies , or seasonal migrations to deeper waters offshore . some sea stars show avoidance behavior to other species or attraction towards members of the opposite sex . feeding is perhaps the most common cause of aggregation , where sea stars can appear in thousands to prey on mussels , oysters , or coral .\nthe daily activity patterns in many sea stars are synchronized to changes in light intensity , usually around dawn and dusk . such activity may help to avoid predators and coincide sea star foraging activity with the activity of their preferred prey . in others such as astropecten irregularis , daily activity patterns are synchronized to periods of slack water on a high and low tide when velocities are low enough to optimize foraging success .\nsea stars are carnivorous , preying on sponges , shellfish , crabs , corals , worms , and even on other echinoderms . most are generalists , feeding on anything that is too slow to escape , such as mussels and clams , whilst others are specialized feeders preying exclusively on sponges , corals , bivalves , or algae . prey is located by the chemical odors emanating from its waste products or by small movements that betray its presence when detected by a sea star . food preferences can change depending on availability of prey , which change geographically and seasonally . even weather conditions in temperate species and reproductive state ( usually during gonad growth ) affects dietary requirements .\nfeeding strategies can be divided into those that are scavengers , feeding mainly on decaying fish and invertebrates ; those that are deposit feeders , filling their stomachs with mud from which they extract microscopic organisms and organic matter ; and those that are suspension feeders , filtering prey and food particles from the water ( e . g . , novodinia antillensis ) .\ndepending on the species , sea stars have two different feeding methods . intra - oral feeders ingest their prey into their stomach alive , sometimes distending or rupturing their disc in the process . the burrowing sand star astropecten irregularis , for example , can swallow hundreds of live juvenile mollusks during one foraging period . in some cases prey such as clams\nthey have few predators as adults due to their armored spiny skeleton and rigid nature . in less heavily armored and juvenile sea stars , protection from predators comes from having a cryptic coloration . other defensives include toxic spines or skin ( e . g . , crossaster papposus and acanthaster planci ) and predator avoidance by burrowing beneath the sediment surface ( e . g . , astropecten irregularis and anseropoda placenta ) . some crabs , fish , birds , and other echinoderms are known to prey on sea stars . usually , they feed on arm tips , as their calcified bodies are difficult to eat and not very nutritious .\nsome sea stars brood their young , where females hold their fertilized eggs in a brood space under the arm ( e . g . , asterina phylactica ) , in the stomach ( e . g . , leptasterias hexactis ) , or incubate them in the gonads ( e . g . , patiriella parvivipara ) . in the last two cases , young develop internally and escape through small openings the female ' s body wall called gonopores . many brooding sea stars inhabit polar and deep - sea regions . some brooding sea stars , however , produce unguarded egg masses that they attach to the seabed ( asterina gibbosa ) .\nno asteroid is listed in the iucn red list of threatened species . some species are protected , however , at local levels , particularly in tropical destinations where souvenir hunters have lead to a decline in numbers . in the caribbean , for example , the sea star oreaster reticulatus has protection .\nhowever , sea stars do have some commercial value . in denmark , asterias are used as an ingredient in fish meal , which is fed to poultry . the ancient indians of british columbia and the egyptians used them as fertilizer . some companies collect sea stars for biological supplies to schools and collectors . their multi - rayed image is emblematic of the sea , making their dried bodies a valuable commodity to the souvenir trade .\nthe sea star has between 10 and 14 arms with rows of spines and teeth - like pedicellaria . arms are long and thin . red brick coloration .\natlantic ocean , west indies down to depths of 1 , 970\u20132 , 625 ft ( 600\u2013800 m ) .\nfound attached to hard substratum with steeply sloping rocky surfaces ; under cliffs . prefers areas where current speeds are relatively strong . often associated with large semi - sedentary filter - feeding animals such as large sponges , sea fans , and stony corals .\nsemi - sedentary . spiny arms and pedicellaria act like velcro \u00ae by sticking the sea star to virtually any surface .\nan opportunistic suspension - feeder . characteristic arm posture creates a basket - like appearance as arms extend into the water column and their tips curl inwards over its mouth , providing maximum exposure to currents . food is captured as it becomes impinged on the array of arm spines and hook - like structures adapted to piercing and gripping objects . feeds on planktonic crustaceans such as copepods , mysids , and amphipods . remain relatively inactive whilst in the feeding posture , but slowly bend their arms to envelope captured prey .\ndiameter of 16\u201320 in ( 40\u201350 cm ) , with five arms that are distinctly turned up at the tips . colors can include rosy brown , ochre and yellowish brown , red , and purple . the underside is very flat . skin covered with numerous unevenly arranged small spines with jagged ends .\nfar east , russia , korea , japan , china , alaska ( north and south of the alaska peninsula ) , and ranges from british columbia , canada , and the northern pacific down to a depth below 820 ft ( 250 m ) .\nfound in shallow water on sheltered coasts . it can tolerate a range of temperatures ( 45\u00b0f [ 7\u00b0c ] and 72\u00b0f [ 22\u00b0c ] ) and salinities , which is unusual in many sea stars ; hence is also found living in estuaries . found on sandy , mud and rock sediments , among stones and algae thickets .\nforms dense spawning aggregations , where the females have been observed lifting themselves above ground on their rays and release the eggs between the arms while the male sea star crawls beneath . polychaete actonoe has a symbiotic relationship with the sea stars and serves to clean its surface of unwanted microorganisms .\na generalist feeder . diet includes scallops , oysters , mussels , shrimp , and even other echinoderms . juvenile king crab paralithodes shelter between its arms , presumably for protection against predators . feeds by using its tube feet and arms to pull apart the shells of its prey before everting its stomach .\nsexual reproduction . spawning geographically variable ; in russia , june\u2013july and september , and in australia , july\u2013october . estimated 20 million eggs are released , and develop into free - living larvae .\naccidentally introduced into southeastern australia and tasmania , causing extensive commercial and ecological damage .\nlarge central disc with stout tapering arms , varying from four to seven , but usually five . size variable but can reach 11 in ( 28 cm ) . commonly yellow , orange , brown , and purple in color . body covered with numerous small white spines .\npacific coast from alaska to california and down to a depth of 328 ft ( 100 m ) .\nintertidal rocky shores exposed to strong wave action ; predator of kelp forests . also found inhabiting tide pools at low tide .\nkeystone predator because it has impact on its marine community that is disproportionately large . can withstand 50 hours exposed to air if among moist algae .\nfeeds mainly on the mussel mytilus californinus , although can feed on other bivalves , snails , limpets , and chitons . uses tube feet to pull apart shells and everts stomach to digest soft tissue . few predators , but some are eaten by sea otters and gulls .\nsexual reproduction , shedding eggs and sperm into water column . spawn between april and may . free - swimming larvae that feed on small planktonic organisms until they settle out on rocks . can regenerate arms .\nadults usually have between 10 and 24 arms , while juveniles have only 5 . one of the largest and heaviest sea stars ; sizes can range between a radius of 16 in ( 40 cm ) and 35 in ( 90 cm ) . color variable from pink , purple , brown , red , orange , or yellow . a broad central disc and armed with over 15 , 000 tube feet . skeleton has few ossicles , so the species has a soft and flexible body wall ideal for stretching mouth to accommodate large prey .\nnortheast pacific coastal waters . found inhabiting the intertidal and subtidal zones from alaska to california down to a depth of 1 , 640 ft ( 500 m ) .\ncommonly found in dense seaweeds in low intertidal zones on rocky shores because their fragile bodies need the support of surrounding water .\nsolitary . a fast - moving predator that can reach speeds of 5 ft ( 1 . 6 m ) per minute . when two individuals meet , they display aggressive or combative behavior .\nfeeds on bivalves , polychaetes , chitons , snails , crabs , sea cucumbers , sea urchins ( e . g . , strongylocentrotus purpuratus ) , sand dollars , sea stars ( e . g . , leptasterias ) , and dead or dying squid when seasonally available . uses sucker feet when capturing prey and swallows whole , although has the ability to partly evert stomach . main predator is the king crab paralithodes .\nsexual reproduction . shed eggs and sperm into water column . spawn from march to july , peaking in may and june . planktonic larvae stage lasts between 2 and 10 weeks . have the ability to regenerate arms .\nvaries in size , but commonly between 2 in ( 5 cm ) and 4 in ( 10 cm ) , but up to 8 in ( 20 cm ) in deep waters . pale violet to yellowish color with five relatively short and tapering arms that form stiff and distinct angles . it has well - developed upper and lower marginal plates fringed with small spines . the tube feet are pointed and sucker - less .\ngeographical range extends from norway to morocco and found sub - tidally between 16 ft ( 5 m ) and 3 , 281 ft ( 1 , 000 m ) .\ninhabits a variety of different substratum ranging from coarse gravel to fine mud , although it is more commonly found in sandy substrata . usually buried either partially or completely within the sediment .\nmigrates offshore into deeper water during the winter months to avoid cooling seawater temperatures and being dislodged by strong onshore storm surges . they show quadri - diurnal pattern of locomotory activity that coincide with periods of slack water during high and low tidal cycles , enabling prey buried in sediment to be detected more easily . it has a commensal worm acholoe squamosa , which freely enters the stomach and lives in the ambulacral grooves .\nintra - oral feeder , prey are excavated from the sediment and swallowed whole . voracious predators of mollusks , particularly the clam spisula subtruncata , polychaetes , crustaceans , and other echinoderms . it has a limited olfactory ability and relies on detecting prey by touch .\nsexual reproduction . spawning occurs between may and july following a rise in seawater temperature . prior to spawning sea stars aggregate together to reproduce .\nsize over 16 in ( 40 cm ) in diameter with between 10 and 30 arms covered in dense thorn - like spines , which are mildly venomous ; can inflict painful wounds that are slow to heal . red and green coloration with reddish tips to spines . juveniles are cryptic in color . tube feet can function in gas exchange and feeding .\npacific and indian coral reefs , particularly associated with reefs in hawaii , australia , the red sea , india , and south africa .\nadults found on open sand and feed among coral , whilst juveniles tend to hide among the coral , under rocks , and coral rubble .\nsedentary dwellers of reef habitats . large numbers may suddenly appear feeding on coral and then disappear .\nsolitarily , generally feeds at night . a voracious predator of hard corals . digests food by everting its stomach over coral , releasing a digestive enzyme and then absorbing liquefied tissue . can survive without food for six months and feed on an estimated 3 . 1 mi 2 ( 8 km 2 ) of coral per year , leaving behind dead coral skeletons .\nsexual reproduction . planktonic larvae undergo bipinnaria and brachiolaria development . regenerates broken arms to form another individual .\nhave caused widespread damage to coral reefs in the indo - pacific ocean , red sea , and australia ' s great barrier reef . toxic spines capable of stinging humans , inflicting pain at site of sting and causing nausea .\none of the world ' s smallest known sea stars , measuring up to 0 . 4 in ( 1 cm ) in diameter with stout arms . they are conspicuous yellow - orange color . morphologically , they are similar to a co - occurring species patiriella exigua .\namong sea stars , this species has the most restricted distribution . currently found only within the coastal waters of southern australia .\nin either sheltered or exposed shores , usually under small boulders . at low tide , they remain covered with a few centimeters of water , although occasionally they are completely exposed .\nslow - moving and spends most of their time beneath the underside of boulders to avoid predators and desiccation at low tide .\nopportunistic feeder , consuming essentially algal growth and detritus , although small epifaunal organisms and decaying animals are also eaten .\nunusual life - history . it is simultaneous hermaphrodite ( self - fertilizing ) , has intragonadal fertilization , and incubates its young in the gonads . the strategy is to produce few eggs and small amounts of sperm at any one time . the advantage is a higher survival rate of offspring compared to the more usual strategy of broadcasting species . cannibalism by juveniles feeding on other juveniles is common in this species . most juveniles crawl away from the parent when sufficient size is reached . emergence of juveniles appears to be influenced by temperature increases during the summer months .\nbroad central disc with five short arms tapering to a blunt tip . can reach a size of 5 . 5 in ( 14 cm ) in diameter and adopts a characteristic position with arm tips slightly raised . colors variable , ranging from dark brown , purple , purple - red , orange , red - orange , red , brick red , dark carmine , and pink . it may have light - colored arm tips with yellowish white under surface .\nfound throughout antarctica and the antarctic peninsula , south shetland islands , south orkney islands , south sandwich islands , south georgia island , shag rocks , marion and prince edward islands , and bouvet island at depths down to 2 , 950 ft ( 900 m ) .\ncommonly found inhabiting the shallow shelf waters of antarctica , usually occurring between 49 ft ( 15 m ) and 660 ft ( 200 m ) depths .\nattack large prey in gangs ( e . g . , the sea urchin sterechinus neumayeri and sea star acodontaster conspicuus ) . recognizes chemical odor of individuals from the same species during feeding , minimizing the risk of cannibalism .\nan omnivore , capable of filter - feeding and eating a varied diet , including detritus , weddell seal feces , diatoms , algae , crustaceans , mollusks , hydroids , bryozoans , sponges , polychaetes , and sea urchins . everts stomach to feed . predator is another sea star macroptychaster accrescens and anemone urticinopsis antarcticus .\nsexual reproduction . broadcast spawning . larvae feed on bacteria and algae , and have exceptionally low metabolic rates , which are ideal for long - term survival . slow - growing , taking up to nine years to reach normal adult size .\ncommon in shallow waters of indo - pacific oceans . in particular , eastern africa to hawaii and the south pacific islands to japan .\nadults found along coral gravel substrates of reef terraces in direct sunlight , sandy sediments , and under rocks ."]}
{"id": 1455, "summary": [{"text": "chikilidae is a family of indian caecilians , the 10th and most recent ( 2012 ) family of caecilians ( legless amphibians ) to be identified , although the type species , chikila fulleri ( formerly herpele fulleri ) was first described in 1904 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the discovery that this was a separate lineage resulted from genetic analyses of specimens collected during about 250 soil-digging expeditions over five years that covered every northeast indian state .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "a team of biologists led by university of delhi herpetologist sathyabhama das biju described the family as representing as many as seven species apparently endemic to the region .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "in september 2012 , some of these species were also found in lawachara national park in the sylhet region of northeastern bangladesh .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the family 's lineage is believed to have originated in africa , where their closest living relatives are found .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "chikilids grow to about 4 in ( 10 cm ) in length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they have very limited eyesight and skulls adapted for burrowing .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "their eggs hatch into adult caecilians , with no larval stage in between .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "the mothers stay wrapped around their developing eggs for two to three months , apparently not eating at all during this period .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "until this discovery , only nine families of caecilians were known from across the wet tropical regions of southeast asia , india , sri lanka , parts of east and west africa , the seychelles , central america and northern and eastern parts of south america .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "from morphological and dna analyses , the researchers concluded the new family had evolved independently of other caecilians since the time of the dinosaurs . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "chikilidae", "paragraphs": ["dana campbell selected\nchikilidae\nto show in overview on\nchikilidae\n.\nan adult chikilidae with eggs and hatchlings . ( sathyabhama das biju / ap )\nthe name chikilidae was chosen because it mirrors what the locals call it in their garo language .\nthe chikilidae is a caecilian , the most primitive of three amphibian groups that also include frogs and salamanders .\nhis first effort in conserving the chikilidae was to give it a scientific name mirroring what the locals use in their garo language . the chikilidae is a caecilian , the most primitive of three amphibian groups that also include frogs and salamanders .\nbiju ' s team worked best during monsoon season , when the digging is easier and chikilidae lay eggs in waterlogged soils .\ndr . biju and his colleagues named the new family chikilidae and describe it in the proceedings of the royal society b .\nthe chikilidae stems from the caecilians family and is the most primitive of three amphibian groups that also include frogs and salamanders .\naccording to relaxed molecular clock analyses , the lineage of chikilidae diverged in the early cretaceous , about 140 million years ago .\ndelhi professor sathyabhama das biju displays an adult chikilidae in his laboratory in new delhi , india . ( mustafa quraishi / ap )\nhis first effort in conserving the chikilidae was to give it a scientific name mirroring what the locals use in their garo language .\nsystematics of the caecilian family chikilidae ( amphibia : gymnophiona ) with the description of three new species of chikila from northeast india .\nan egg of a chikilidae , which researchers found digging through mud in north - eastern india . ( sathyabhama das biju / getty images )\nwithin the chikilidae family , the team has already identified three species , and is on its way to classing three more , he said .\nan adult chikilidae , a new species of legless amphibian known as a caecilian , with eggs and hatchlings . ( sathyabhama das biju / ap )\nsystematics of the caecilian family chikilidae ( amphibia : gymnophiona ) with the description of three new species of chikila from northeast india . - pubmed - ncbi\na possibly superfluous set of eyes is shielded under a layer of skin , and may help the chikilidae gauge light from dark as in other caecilian species .\nan indo - european team of scientists has discovered a new family of legless amphibians called chikilidae , adding a major branch to the amphibian tree of life .\nover five years of digging through forest beds in the rain , the team has identified an entirely new family of amphibians - called chikilidae - endemic to the region but with ancient links to africa .\nin fact , the chikilidae is harmless , and may even be the farmer ' s best friend \u2014 feasting on worms and insects that might harm crops , and churning the soil as it moves underground .\nthe chikilidae ' s discovery , made along with co - researchers from london ' s natural history museum and vrije university in brussels , brings the number of known caecilian families in the world to 10 .\nin fact , the chikilidae is harmless , and may even be the farmer ' s best friend - feasting on worms and insects that might harm crops , and churning the soil as it moves underground .\nchikilidae is the latin version of the word chikilid , which originates from the garo language , kamei said . the garo language is used in the indian state of meghalaya , as well as in neighboring bangladesh .\nasianscientist ( mar . 5 , 2012 ) \u2013 an indo - european team of scientists has discovered a new family of legless amphibians which they called chikilidae , adding a major branch to the amphibian tree of life .\nunexpected to many , molecular phylogenetic analyses of dna ( mitochondrial and nuclear ) and comparative cranial anatomy showed a sister - group relationship with the herpelidae , african relatives found more than 7 , 000 miles away from the chikilidae .\nthe chikilidae ' s home in long - ignored tropical forests now faces drastic change under programs to cut trees , plant rice paddy , build roads and generate industry as india ' s economic growth fuels a breakneck drive in development .\nso far , biju ' s team has determined that an adult chikilidae will remain with its eggs until they hatch , forgoing food for some 50 days . when the eggs hatch , the young emerge as tiny adults and squirm away .\ncommonly known as tailless - burrowing caecelians , the chikilidae is a legless , snake - like caecilian , the most primitive of three amphibian groups that also include salamanders and frogs . all 180 species of caecelians are restricted to the wet tropics of the world .\ndna testing suggests the chikilidae ' s closest relative is in africa \u2014 with the two evolutionary paths splitting some 140 million years ago when dinosaurs roamed what was then a southern supercontinent called gondwana , since separated into today ' s continents of africa , antarctica , australia , south america and the indian subcontinent .\ndna testing suggests the chikilidae ' s closest relative is in africa - with the two evolutionary paths splitting some 140 million years ago when dinosaurs roamed what was then a southern supercontinent called gondwana , since separated into today ' s continents of africa , antarctica , australia , south america and the indian subcontinent .\n\u201cfor the last four or five years , we have extensively studied all kinds of habitats . we have received tremendous support from the local people . we found a group of animals ; we gave them a new family status , and we named it chikilidae , \u201d said lead author rachunliu g . kamei .\nbiju ' s team worked best during monsoon season , when the digging is easier and chikilidae lay eggs in waterlogged soils . gripping garden spades with blistered hands , the researchers along with locals they hired spent about 2 , 600 man hours digging for the elusive squigglers , usually found about 16 inches ( 40 centimeters ) deep .\nbut this legless amphibian ' s time in obscurity has ended , thanks to an intrepid team of biologists led by university of delhi professor sathyabhama das biju . over five years of digging through forest beds in the rain , the team has identified an entirely new family of amphibians \u2014 called chikilidae \u2014 endemic to the region but with ancient links to africa .\nfamily chikilidae jurassic ( 200\u2013145 . 5 million years ago ) to present ; perforate stapes ; septomaxillae and prefrontals absent ; lower jaws possess two rows of teeth ; 1 genus , 7 species ; northeastern india . family dermophiidae cretaceous ( 145 . 5\u201365 . 5 million years ago ) to present ; secondary annuli and annular scales present ; viviparous ; 4 genera , \u2026\nthe chikilidae ' s discovery , made along with co - researchers from london ' s natural history museum and vrije university in brussels , brings the number of known caecilian families in the world to 10 . three are in india and others are spread across the tropics in southeast asia , africa and south america . there is debate about the classifications , however , and some scientists count even fewer caecilian families .\nthe chikilidae ' s home in long - ignored tropical forests now faces drastic change under programs to cut trees , plant rice paddy , build roads and generate industry as india ' s economic growth fuels a breakneck drive in development . more industrial pollutants , more pesticides and more people occupying more land may mean a world of trouble for a creature that can be traced to the earliest vertebrates to creep across land .\na taxonomic review of the monogeneric northeast indian caecilian family chikilidae is presented based on 64 specimens . chikila fuilleri ( alcock , 1904 ) , known previously only from a single specimen collected more than 100 years ago , is rediagnosed and characterised based on recent collections . we describe three additional species new to science , chikila alcocki sp . nov . , chikila darlong sp . nov . , and chikila gaiduwani sp . nov . this species - level taxonomy is consistent with mitochondrial dna sequence data . a key to the species of chikila is presented .\na team of scientists led by dr . sd biju of university of delhi ( urltoken ) has discovered an entirely new family of legless amphibians from india and named it chikilidae . their closest relatives are found around 7 , 000 miles away in africa highlighting ancient biogeographical links between india and africa . chikilids live exclusively under the soil and hence the common name tailless burrowing caecilians . this rare find is a result of over 2000 person hours of digging in more than 250 localities in northeast india . chikilids show interesting parental care : mother lays transparent eggs and she guards her egg clutch constantly without feeding for up to 70 days .\nthis family was recently described in 2012 ( kamei et al ) after extensive survey efforts in the northeast india . a total of 1177 person hours were dedicated in the discovery of the caecilian chikila fulleri , the first described species in the new family chikilidae . from molecular phylogenetic analyses ( both mitogenomic and nuclear dna ) and comparative cranial anatomy , they determined chikilids were more closely related to the african family herpelidae than indotyphlidae , diverging about 140 \u00b1 ca 20 ma . further , they propose this family represents an ancient radiation in wet tropical forests and thus evidence for the persistence of cretaceous period habitat in the northeastern india region .\nnew delhi \u2014 since before the age of dinosaurs it has burrowed unbothered beneath the monsoon - soaked soils of remote northeast india \u2014 unknown to science and mistaken by villagers as a deadly , miniature snake .\ntheir discovery , published wednesday in a journal of the royal society of london , gives yet more evidence that india is a hotbed of amphibian life with habitats worth protecting against the country ' s industry - heavy development agenda .\nit also gives exciting new evidence in the study of prehistoric species migration , as well as evolutionary paths influenced by continental shift .\nthis is a major hotspot of biological diversity , but one of the least explored ,\nbiju said in an interview with the associated press .\nwe hope this new family will show the importance of funding research in the area . we need to know what we have , so we can know what to save .\nan egg clutch of the new species . ( sathyabhama das biju / ap )\nwe hope when the locals see the name , and their language , being used across the world , they will understand this animal ' s importance and join in trying to save it ,\nbiju said .\nindia ' s biodiversity is fast depleting . we are destroying these habitats without mercy .\nbiju \u2014 a botanist - turned - herpetologist now celebrated as india ' s\nfrogman\n\u2014 has made it his life work to find and catalog new species . there are too many cases of\nnameless extinction ,\nwith animals disappearing before they are ever known , he said .\nwe don ' t even know what we ' re losing .\namphibians are particularly vulnerable , and have drastically declined in recent decades . the same sensitivity to climate and water quality that makes them perfect environmental barometers also puts them at the greatest risk when ecological systems go awry .\nbiju , however , is working the reverse trend . since 2001 , he has discovered 76 new species of plants , caecilians and frogs \u2014 vastly more than any other scientist in india \u2014 and estimates 30 - 40 percent of the country ' s amphibians are yet to be found .\nbecause they live hidden underground , and race off at the slightest vibration , much less is known about them than their more famous \u2014 and vocal \u2014 amphibious cousins , the frogs . only 186 of the world ' s known amphibious species are caecilians , compared with more than 6 , 000 frog species \u2014 a third of which are considered endangered or threatened .\neven people living in northeast indians misunderstand the caecilians , and rare sightings can inspire terror and revulsion , with farmers and villagers chopping them in half out of the mistaken belief that they are poisonous snakes .\nmuch remains to be discovered in further study , biju said , as many questions remain about how the creatures live .\nthey grow to about 4 inches ( 10 centimeters ) , and can ram their hard skulls through some of the region ' s tougher soils , shooting off quickly at the slightest vibration .\nit ' s like a rocket ,\nbiju said .\nif you miss it the first try , you ' ll never catch it again .\nit was backbreaking work ,\nsaid research fellow rachunliu kamei , who even passed out in the forest once , and some days found not even one specimen .\nbut there is motivation in knowing this is an uncharted frontier ,\nsaid kamei , lead researcher and main author of the study paper .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : biology letters publisher : london : royal soc . , 2003 - isbn / issn : 0962 - 8452 oclc : 265429584\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\n/ / urltoken\nsince before the age of dinosaurs it has burrowed unbothered beneath the monsoon - soaked soils of remote northeast india - unknown to science and mistaken by villagers as a deadly , miniature snake .\nbut this legless amphibian ' s time in obscurity has ended , thanks to an intrepid team of biologists led by university of delhi professor sathyabhama das biju .\ntheir discovery , published today in a journal of the royal society of london , gives yet more evidence that india is a hotbed of amphibian life with habitats worth protecting against the country ' s industry - heavy development agenda .\n' this is a major hotspot of biological diversity , but one of the least explored , ' biju said .\n' we hope this new family will show the importance of funding research in the area . we need to know what we have , so we can know what to save . '\n' we hope when the locals see the name , and their language , being used across the world , they will understand this animal ' s importance and join in trying to save it , ' biju said .\n' india ' s biodiversity is fast depleting . we are destroying these habitats without mercy . '\nmore industrial pollutants , more pesticides and more people occupying more land may mean a world of trouble for a creature that can be traced to the earliest vertebrates to creep across land .\nbiju - a botanist - turned - herpetologist now celebrated as india ' s ' frogman ' - has made it his life work to find and catalog new species .\nthere are too many cases of ' nameless extinction , ' with animals disappearing before they are ever known , he said . ' we don ' t even know what we ' re losing . '\nthe same sensitivity to climate and water quality that makes them perfect environmental barometers also puts them at the greatest risk when ecological systems go awry .\nbiju , however , is working the reverse trend . since 2001 , he has discovered 76 new species of plants , caecilians and frogs - vastly more than any other scientist in india - and estimates 30 - 40 percent of the country ' s amphibians are yet to be found .\nthree are in india and others are spread across the tropics in southeast asia , africa and south america .\nthere is debate about the classifications , however , and some scientists count even fewer caecilian families .\nbecause they live hidden underground , and race off at the slightest vibration , much less is known about them than their more famous - and vocal - amphibious cousins , the frogs .\nonly 186 of the world ' s known amphibious species are caecilians , compared with more than 6 , 000 frog species - a third of which are considered endangered or threatened .\nthey grow to about 4 inches , and can ram their hard skulls through some of the region ' s tougher soils , shooting off quickly at the slightest vibration . ' it ' s like a rocket , ' biju said . ' if you miss it the first try , you ' ll never catch it again . '\ngripping garden spades with blistered hands , the researchers along with locals they hired spent about 2 , 600 man hours digging for the elusive squigglers , usually found about 16 inches deep .\n' it was backbreaking work , ' said research fellow rachunliu kamei , who even passed out in the forest once , and some days found not even one specimen .\n' but there is motivation in knowing this is an uncharted frontier , ' said kamei , lead researcher and main author of the study paper .\npolice find the body of a missing four - month - old boy near . . .\nbet you wish you bought here ! australia ' s top suburb for . . .\nbottleneck of 700 , 000 migrants wait in libya to cross the . . .\n' we know where you live ' : angry protesters confront mitch . . .\n' had to post this to show he is still alive ' : horrified . . .\n' i ' m alone ' : harrowing first words in hospital of mother . . .\n' they just didn ' t get it , but they do now ! ' trump shares . . .\npictured : british rugby - playing student , 19 , who drowned . . .\n' prostitutes , orgies , group sex - all of it ' : ex - wife of . . .\nstep inside the tomb of queen nefertari : immersive vr experience reveals the 3 , 000 - year - old artwork of . . .\nworld ' s first floating nation begins selling its own ' vayron ' cryptocurrency ahead of 2022 launch in the . . .\nbeing rich and successful really is in your dna : being dealt the right genes determines whether you get on . . .\nsnapchat is developing a ' visual image search ' that lets you point your camera at an item to see it on . . .\n' we ' re reminded what it ' s like to deal with the force of nature ' : from collecting molten lava in buckets to . . .\na new way to tackle climate change ? heat from underground rivers in london could help cut the capital ' s . . .\namazon is still selling nazi - branded merchandise , despite researchers first warning it about the products . . .\nhas kepler found its last alien world ? nasa reveals its planet hunting space telescope is about to run out . . .\n' like a symphony orchestra turned into light ' : iss astronaut captures lighting and auroras lighting up . . .\npeople who see themselves as albert einstein suddenly think they are smarter : being in the body of someone . . .\nsamsung opens the world ' s largest phone plant in india : 1 . 5 million square foot factory will produce 120 . . .\nhailey baldwin and justin bieber passionately kiss in the bahamas . . . as news of engagement spreads\nkylie jenner flashes underboob and her derriere in sheer orange ensemble . . . one day after revealing she took her lip filler out\nselena gomez is seen with same mystery man she was with in may . . . after news her ex justin bieber is engaged to hailey baldwin\nkhloe kardashian reveals she stopped breast - feeding daughter true . . . three months after giving birth\ngiuliana rancic takes a hike with bill . . . as the couple vacation with friends ahead of her return to e ! news\nkhloe kardashian shows off neon sign in true ' s nursery . . . as she reveals it ' s kris jenner ' s handwriting\nciara and husband russell wilson dance as they head to south africa for their honeymoon . . . two years after wedding\nrapper del the funky homosapian falls off stage during gorillaz set . . . but he reassures fans he ' s ' alright ' as he recovers in hospital\nmakeup artist joyce bonelli reaches out to the kardashian clan on instagram . . . after the famous family ' fire ' and unfollow her on social media\ndaddy daycare ! jared kushner takes kids back to d . c . after weekend in new jersey - as ivanka dons a short dress for visit to a nyc asphalt company\nsofia richie , 19 poses in a bikini top just after scott disick ' s ex kourtney kardashian , 39 , did the same . . . and fans call her out for it\nnaomi campbell wows in flamboyant feathered gown . . . while ashley graham sizzles in plunging lace dress as they walk in dolce & gabbana show in italy\nnaya rivera sells her five - bedroom la home for a cool $ 3 . 55 million after finalizing her divorce from ryan dorsey\nmel b ' is unable to pay her back taxes amid ongoing divorce battle with stephen belafonte . . . as it ' s estimated the pair owe up to $ 650k ' to the irs\nkylie jenner rocks curve - clinging attire as she shows off body . . . and considers going back to blonde\ndakota johnson dons striped wrap dress in la . . . after calling co - star chris hemsworth ' spectacular '\ncardi b hits back at troll who mocked her baby shower . . . as she shows off naked baby bump for photoshoot\nbuy your own celebrity hideaway ! castle adored by michael douglas and jack nicholson goes on sale for $ 5 . 2m ( and even comes with treehouse )\nant - man and the wasp soars to $ 76 million on opening weekend . . . beating its prequel by $ 19 million\nliam payne and cheryl split : carefree 1d star returns to stage for first time since break - up . . . as he poses happily with his backing dancers in france\ntristan thompson goes house hunting alone as he checks out $ 2m property in la with its own basketball court . . . just minutes from khloe ' s mansion\nchris hemsworth kicks off filming for the star - studded men in black spin - off as he cuts a sharp figure in london . . . 21 years after the first film hit screens\njill zarin admits she ' s ready to date again after being spotted with handsome businessman . . . following beloved husband bobby ' s death\ndj khaled cancels wireless performance due to ' travel issues ' just hours before his slot . . . as fans rage over his ' vacation ' snap\n13 reasons why villain justin prentice says he ' s not bothered by social media trolls . . . and that getting attacked online means he ' s doing his job as an actor\nfarm heroes saga , the # 4 game on itunes . play it now !\nit ' s eye - wateringly expensive at $ 2 , 999 , but naim ' s uniti atom is a revelation , an integrated amplifier than makes it easy to stream music at a quality you ' ve probably never heard before .\nafter a day with the iphone x , while face id isn ' t perfect , and the ' notch ' is an annoyance , the iphone x is a glimpse into the future of phones and the best handset of the market by a long way .\nthey aren ' t cheap , but shinola ' s $ 595 foray into headphones are the perfect accessory for design obsessives looking to upgrade their listening habits .\nwith the pixel xl , google has created a handset that is not only the best android device out there , but arguably matches the iphone 8 in terms of design and feel .\napple ' s watch will free you from your phone - while making sure you don ' t suffer the fear of missing out . it ' s a huge step forward , and a compelling reason for the average user to buy a smartwatch .\nwhile the iphone x may have stolen the headlines , in fact the iphone 8 could be the sleeper hit of apple ' s new range , offering the same power as the x but with features and a design users trust .\nwhile the design is impressive and easy to use , the game line up is disappointing .\nnaim ' s incredible mu - so qb takes you back to the good old days - where the music captivates and enthralls , rather that simply being something in the background .\nit might not be a name familiar to the us market , but naim is a legendary british brand hoping to make a splash with the american launch of its $ 1499 mu : so speaker .\npeloton ' s hi - tech bike lets you stream live and on demand rides to your home - and it ' s one of the best examples of fitness technology out there - at a price .\ncatching the craziest of critters : nature , travel , herping , fishing , 4k .\nfamily named for chikila , a northeastern ( meghalaya state ) indian tribal name for the included caecilians .\nkamei , r . g . , d . san mauro , d . j . gower , i . van bocxlaer , e . sherratt , a . thomas , s . babu , f . bossuyt , m . wilkinson , and s . d . biju . 2012 . discovery of a new family of amphibians from northeast india with ancient links to africa . proceedings of the royal society of london . series b , biological sciences 279 : 2396\u20132401 .\nurltoken no longer supports internet explorer 9 or earlier . please upgrade your browser .\na new family of limbless , tail - less amphibians has been discovered in northeastern india .\nover the course of five years , researchers identified five species belonging to the family in 250 locations throughout the vast region .\n\u201cthe complete life cycle , everything , is happening under the soil , \u201d said s . d . biju , an environmental scientist at the university of delhi who led the research . \u201cso far we don\u2019t have much information about feeding ; we think they eat earthworms . \u201d\nthe amphibians look like earthworms themselves , or small snakes , though they are not poisonous . unlike worms , they also have strong backbones .\nthe researchers suspect that the amphibians\u2019 reach extends into myanmar , bhutan and nepal , dr . biju said ; they also appear to be related to another family of limbless amphibians in africa that diverged from the indian family 140 million years ago .\ndr . biju said the discovery underscored the need for amphibian conservation in india , where larger , charismatic species like the tiger and the elephant get far more attention .\n\u201cthe northeast india region is having a great habitat destruction simply because of human indifference , \u201d he said . \u201cthis area is a major biodiversity hot spot . \u201d\nwe\u2019re interested in your feedback on this page . tell us what you think .\naccessibility concerns ? email us at accessibility @ urltoken . we would love to hear from you .\nsmarter homes are better for the planet . here ' s how to get on board\na new family of legless amphibians has been found burrowing in the earth of a remote northeastern village in india .\nthe worm - like creatures evolved separately from other caecilian species more than 140 million years ago and are endemic to the region , although with ancient links to africa .\nthe find is significant in the study of prehistoric species migration , as well as evolutionary paths influenced by continental shift , cbs news said .\nthe discovery , published this week in a journal of the royal society of london , was made by a team of biologists , led by professor sathyabhama das biju , of the university of delhi .\nprofessor biju told ap : \u201cthis is a major hotspot of biological diversity , but one of the least explored . \u201d\nhe added : \u201cwe hope when the locals see the name , and their language , being used across the world , they will understand this animal\u2019s importance and join in trying to save it .\n\u201cindia\u2019s biodiversity is fast depleting . we are destroying these habitats without mercy . \u201d\nget top stories and blog posts emailed to me each day . newsletters may offer personalized content or advertisements . learn more\nthank you for signing up ! you should receive an email to confirm your subscription shortly .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nsystematics lab , department of environmental studies , university of delhi , delhi , 110 007 , india .\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\ndescribed the family as representing as many as seven species apparently endemic to the region .\n, with no larval stage in between . the mothers stay wrapped around their developing eggs for two to three months , apparently not eating at all during this period .\nkamei , r . g . ; san mauro , d . ; gower , d . j . ; van bocxlaer , i . ; sherratt , e . ; thomas , a . ; babu , s . ; bossuyt , f . ; wilkinson , m . ; biju , s . d . ( 2012 - 02 - 22 ) .\ndiscovery of a new family of amphibians from northeast india with ancient links to africa\n. proceedings of the royal society b : biological sciences 279 ( 1737 ) : 2396\u20132401 . doi : 10 . 1098 / rspb . 2012 . 0150 . issn 0962 - 8452 . pmc 3350690 . pmid 22357266 .\nnew amphibian family find for india\n. bbc news . february 22 , 2012 .\nnew family of legless amphibians found in india\n. boston globe . february 21 , 2012 .\nfrost , darrel r . 2011 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 5 ( 31 january 2011 ) url = urltoken\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nled by dr . s . d . biju of the university of delhi \u2013 also fondly known as india\u2019s frogman \u2013 the team explored more than 250 locations in northeast india , leading to the discovery of the new amphibians described in the journal , proceedings of the royal society b , london .\nthis surprising ancient geographical link to africa adds to growing evidence of how continental movements have affected the geographical distribution of floral and fauna , the authors say in the youtube video .\nan interesting factoid about chikilids : in a wonderful show of parental care , the chikilid mother lays transparent eggs and guards her egg clutch constantly without feeding for up to 70 days .\nthe article can be found at : kamei rg et al . ( 2012 ) discovery of a new family of amphibians from northeast india with ancient links to africa .\nsource : systematics lab , university of delhi . disclaimer : this article does not necessarily reflect the views of asianscientist or its staff .\njuliana is the founder and editor - in - chief of asian scientist magazine , and a young global leader of the world economic forum . she received a phd in biology from mit and a ma , ba ( first class hons . ) in natural sciences from cambridge university , uk . juliana regularly moderates scientific panel discussions and gives talks on science communications .\nseven new night frogs discovered in india seven new species of night frog\u2014including four miniature - sized species\u2014have been discovered in india ' s western ghats region , a frog hot spot .\ndrowning in university degrees a decision to allow indian students to pursue dual degrees has drawn flak by critics , writes prof . pushkar .\nindia to host african delegates at ministerial conference in new delhi under the framework of the s & t ; initiatives for africa , india is hosting an india - africa s & t ; ministers conference & tech expo in new delhi from march 1 - 2 this week .\nsand - burrowing tadpole discovered in india part of the indian dancing frog family , these odd fossorial tadpoles ingest sand , possess ribs and have skin - covered eyes .\nfunding boost for australia india research institute the australia india institute will receive a us $ 2 . 78 million fund injection from the australian government .\naustralia & india establish joint education council during the annual india - australia ministerial dialogue on education cooperation , india and australia announced the launching of the india - australia education council to strengthen bilateral ties .\nyou may have read about some amazing immunotherapy cures , but for every anecdotal success there have been many more experimental failures .\nscientists in south korea have found that insufficient or excess sleep is associated with metabolic syndrome and poor health .\nasian scientist magazine caught up with our first - ever intern , mr . alan aw , on his recent scientific publications and his aspirations for the future .\nscientists have developed an inexpensive detector that works like velcro to capture prostate cancer cells on frosted glass slides , allowing for easy diagnosis .\ndeciding you don\u2019t want to be an academic scientist doesn\u2019t mean you\u2019ve failed\u2014other pastures abound beyond the walls of your lab ."]}
{"id": 1469, "summary": [{"text": "leptograpsus variegatus , known as the purple rock crab , is a marine large-eyed crab of the family grapsidae , found in southern subtropical indo-pacific oceans .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it grows to around 50 millimetres ( 2.0 in ) shell width .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is the only species in the genus leptograpsus . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "leptograpsus", "paragraphs": ["species leptograpsus ansoni h . milne edwards , 1853 accepted as leptograpsus variegatus ( fabricius , 1793 )\nspecies leptograpsus gayi h . milne edwards , 1853 accepted as leptograpsus variegatus ( fabricius , 1793 )\nspecies leptograpsus verreauxi h . milne edwards , 1853 accepted as leptograpsus variegatus ( fabricius , 1793 )\nworms - world register of marine species - leptograpsus h . milne edwards , 1853\nspectral sensitivity and retinal pigment movement in the crab leptograpsus variegatus ( fabricius ) .\nthe retina - lamina projection in the crab leptograpsus variegatus . - pubmed - ncbi\nspecies leptograpsus gonagrus h . milne edwards , 1853 accepted as pachygrapsus crassipes randall , 1840\nthe purple shore crab , leptograpsus variegatus | marine life society of south australia inc .\nspecies leptograpsus bertheloti h . milne edwards , 1853 accepted as pachygrapsus marmoratus ( fabricius , 1787 )\nspecies leptograpsus rugulosus h . milne edwards , 1853 accepted as pachygrapsus transversus ( gibbes , 1850 )\nspectral sensitivity and retinal pigment movement in the crab leptograpsus variegatus ( fabricius ) . - pubmed - ncbi\npatrick leary set\na pinch ? it wasn ' t me !\nas an exemplar on\nleptograpsus\n.\n( it is ) \u201c leptograpsus variegatus and the photo is the yellow variant . common name , would you believe , is purple shore crab ( but the taxonomic species name is perfect ) ! \u201d\nat some stage , i told david , \u201c leptograpsus variegatus is illustrated on p . 507 of \u201cmarine decapod crustacea of southern australia \u2013 a guide to identification\u201d by gary cb poore ( but no photo ) .\nto antarctic invertebrates to barcode of life to biodiversity heritage library ( 52 publications ) to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 2 nucleotides ; 0 proteins ) to mnhn crustaceans type collection ( syntype ( s ) : 2000 - 3519 ) ( from synonym leptograpsus ansoni h . milne edwards , 1853 ) to mnhn crustaceans type collection ( syntype ( s ) : 2000 - 3531 ) ( from synonym leptograpsus gayi h . milne edwards , 1853 ) to mnhn crustaceans type collection ( syntype ( s ) : 2000 - 4024 ) ( from synonym leptograpsus verreauxi h . milne edwards , 1853 ) to usnm invertebrate zoology arthropoda collection ( 17 records ) to usnm invertebrate zoology arthropoda collection ( 2 records ) ( from synonym grapsus planifrons dana , 1851 )\nhow to cite this page : ' large shore crab , leptograpsus variegatus ' , from an encyclopaedia of new zealand , edited by a . h . mclintock , originally published in 1966 . te ara - the encyclopedia of new zealand url : urltoken ( accessed 10 jul 2018 )\ngriffin , d . j . g . 1973 ,\na revision of the two southern temperate shore crabs leptograpsus variegatus ( fabricius ) and plagusia chabrus ( linnaeus ) ( crustacea , decapoda , grapsidae )\n, journal of the royal society of new zealand , vol . 3 , no . 3 , pp . 415 - 440 15 figs\nin the crab , leptograpsus variegatus , the projection of retinula cell axons to the lamina was investigated by tracing them through a series of semi - thin sections . forty - four such axons were traced from a single group of ommatidia as far as the distal layers of the lamina . the eight receptor axons of one ommatidium project to a single lamina cartridge . therefore , because the crab has a fused rhabdom , angular information is conserved in vision , and the outside world is projected literally onto the lamina , just as it is in the standard non - dipteran pattern of insects . the belief of previous workers that other decapod eyes show neural superposition was an inference based primarily on the patterns of penetration of the basement membrane by receptor axons , and on degeneration experiments . this evidence is reviewed , shown to be inadequate and discussed in the light of the projection now demonstrated for leptograpsus .\nhe later posted , \u201chmm , not as uncommon a thing as i would have friends believe ! correctly spelled as leptograpsus . ( and i have overestimated the size of the ones i photographed northwest of coffin bay five years ago ! but the carapace is quite small compared with the overall width of the body and especially once you factor in the extra \u2018meaty solidity\u2019 afforded by the closely grouped legs on each side behind the big bright main nippers ? \u201d\n1 . the retina of leptograpsus contains five types of movable screening pigment . the positions of these were found under various conditions of illumination in the day and at night . 2 . intracellular recordings were made of the spectral responses of retinula cells r1 - 7 under the same conditions , with the eye in situ . 3 . the spectral absorptions of the individual screening pigments were measured by ultramicrospectrophotometry . 4 . calculations based on a simple model of screening pigment action suggest that the observed variation in spectral sensitivity with light and dark adaptaton may be largely explicable in terms of the effects of these screening pigments on a rhodopsin of peak absorbance at 485 nm . 5 . light - adapted angular sensitivities are comparable to those of insects with high acuity apposition eyes .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nthe family of grapsid crabs are those that look very much like ' normal ' crabs , usually flat in shape , with long legs radiating outward , moving sideways , and having strong nippers . this family is widely spread all over the world and in new zealand , and contains a high proportion of endemic species ( marked in red ) . this family of crabs is interesting because many of its members can readily be observed in the intertidal .\nfamily grapsidae - ( l : graphium = sharp - pointed pen ; grapa = hook ; sidere = radiate ; grapsidere = radiating pointed legs ) - the ordinary , fast moving crabs .\nsally lightfoot crab grapsus grapsus , not found in new zealand but known from south america and the galapagos islands , resembling our purple rock crab in appearance , habitat and behaviour .\nplagusia depressa tuberculata , seldom found in new zealand . occurs in the tropics and subtropics .\nnote ! for best printed results , set your page up with a left margin of 1 . 5cm ( 0 . 6\n) and right margin of 1 . 0cm ( 0 . 4\n)\n= varied in colour , marked with irregular patches ) the purple rock crab is large , strong , and moves fast . when wedged into a crevice , it is not easily dislodged . handling a ferocious crab like this requires skill , and risks painful nips . the purple rock crab is the largest native shore crab , exceeded in size only by paddle crabs\nit is found between high tide and above it , often occupying moist crevices up to two metres above high tide . it can remain out of the water for days , but equally happily can stay submerged . the crab measures up to 5cm across its back , and its long , flat legs fold neatly together as in an oriental fan , giving it a very flat profile .\nthe purple rock crab is active particularly by night , when it leaves its crevice , scaling the vertical rocks and navigating its way over the rock flats and into the water , in search of flea mussels , which it cracks without effort . at night it has no fear and can be approached and photographed from close up , even in bright lamp light . however , the crabs are inactive during the full moon phase . towards the morning , the crab navigates flawlessly all the way back to its home crevice . yet , by day , this large crab is extremely wary , scuttling away noisily , its legs grating the rocks . when a group of these forays by day , large males can be seen taking guard in a defensive posture , warning the others at the slightest disturbance . to see several of these beautiful purple and white crabs feeding off green seaweeds , is spectacular . this crab is an omnivore , feeding on both animal ( flea mussels , barnacles ) and plant matter ( seaweeds , plankton slime ) .\nlarge crabs migrate all the way down the shore to the sublittoral fringe where food is more abundant . small crabs foray more in restricted areas .\nthis crab runs fast and when cornered , can be very aggressive with its nippers , which makes it difficult to capture and handle .\nthe purple rock crab mates in october - november when the female is hard - shelled . before mating , the crabs make leg contact , during which the legs are rapidly vibrated . the male crab may then mount the underside of the female . the female moults before laying her eggs . females with eggs are found from november till january / february ( auckland / wellington ) . the incubation period is about 6 weeks and the crab spawns only once a year . newly laid eggs are about 0 . 36mm in diameter , and develop from a dark brown colour to light brown just before hatching . the female carries 55 , 000 - 144 , 000 eggs ( depending on her size ) , attached to her pleopods under her broad abdomen . this crab can become five years old .\nnorth island , kermadec islands , australia and the islands of the south pacific . this crab is found in southern warm temperate ( subtropical ) indian and pacific oceans from western australia to western south america . in nz from the top of the north island to kaikoura or westport .\nthis crab can run over the rocks , half by swimming with its flattened long legs . when approached cautiously by divers , it shows no fear .\nthis crab does not seem to be territorial but may put up a fight when foraging or courting . it is aggressive to other species of crab , but not to crayfish with which it often shares a crevice . studies with tagged crabs suggest that they spend about 50 % of their time foraging , 25 % feeding , 20 % in agonistic ( combative , contestant ) encounters and 5 % in reproductive behaviour .\nin australia this crab is favoured by fishermen for use as bait . groupers seem to relish it .\nmating between hardshelled crabs lasts about 7 minutes , with the female on top . small females carry eggs from september to february but large females from late october . eggs are about 0 . 4mm in size and change colour from brick red to light green just before hatching . during the release of the hatched larvae , the female assists departure by flexing her body up and down , vibrating her abdomen and pulling the hatching eggs from her pleopods with her nippers . juveniles and small crabs moult throughout the year but but large crabs mainly in winter from may to september , before the breeding season .\nthe southern indo - pacific from south africa to chile . southern australia , tasmania , south africa , juan fernandez , chile , tonga . in new zealand from parengarenga hr to lyttleton hr .\nf003215 : a female red rock crab ( small nippers ) is taking a break , not far from a wharf pile where she hides inside crevices between encrusting organisms . here she is standing tall , not showing any fear for the photographer . interestingly , she has perched herself on top of two cushion stars , one with five legs , which is the norm , the far one with six legs , which is unusual .\n= a taxonomist ? ) a common intertidal crab , occurring in a variety of habitat : under boulders , on the rocky reef , on sand and mud flats . they are rarely found outside the intertidal zone . they can reach 4cm across their backs , and their colour is often a reddish purple , mottled with dirty white patches . they are usually found sheltering underneath rocks , extending from the high tide mark down to about mid tide . it is recognisable by the six teeth , from the eyes half way down on its carapace (\n= toothed ) . it has a smooth skin . the males have enormous chelae ( nippers ) with great pads of muscle bulging at the angles of the nippers . the two nippers are equal in size and shape .\nthere are two colour types : light and dark . the lighter crabs have either a grey or cream - coloured background with markings of light or dark chestnut - red . darker crabs are marked with dark purple , sometimes almost purplish black , and their legs are banded . usually the front half of the carapace is more deeply pigmented than the rest . the eyestalks are white , speckled with dark red . basal antenna segments arebanded . antennules are pale green with dark red spots . belly surface is white .\nis a very agile , rapidly moving crab , although easy to handle . males have very large nippers and are able to crush oyster borers (\n. ) . the crabs emerge from under boulders and crevices to forage for mainly plant food at night . this crab is most active when the tide is in . it lives in the middle region of the intertidal rocky shore .\n: this crab is a late winter breeder , with females in berry from march to august . females carry their 26 , 000 eggs ( size 0 . 3mm ) for about 6 weeks , during which time they change colour from light brown to transparent .\n: found abundantly throughout the north and south islands , endemic in new zealand . not in chatham islands or southern islands . this crab is more abundant on southern shores than in the north , where its intertidal habitat is taken by the blackfinger crab\n= wide ) the hairy - handed crab is often found where the tunnelling mud crab is found , on mud flats and sand flats , but it may also occur under boulders on the rocky shore intertidal . it has a dull colour and slightly hairy legs . its main distinguishing features are the two hairy pads on the inner / under side of its nippers , but a crab needs to be handled in order to be able to view this . these crabs are much less wary than the other mud crabs , often going about their business without taking much notice of observers .\nit is thought that the hairy pads on its nippers allow it to wipe the bottom and objects such that food particles such as diatoms are caught in it . with its mouth parts , it can then feed from its hairy hands . these crabs are quite sturdy and in the aquarium they have been seen hunting and eating the smaller mud crabs . they are also very effective scavengers .\nmales have larger nippers than females , but left and right hand nippers are similar . the colour of its back is greeny - yellow with white patches , covered with tiny dark purple or reddish spots . the upper sides of their forearms ( cheliped carpus and prodopus ) are marked with deep purple - brown . the fingers of their nippers are white with small brown tips . legs are greeny yellow with dark purple spots .\nthis crab occurs in a wide variety of habitats , under stones , burrowing insand and mud , but always in sheltered places .\n: males mature in about 1 year and live for 5 years . females mature earlier and die earlier . large males mate with smaller females . mating takes about 10 minutes . the females come in berry in spring , from october to december . they may spawn more than once each year ( june - february ) . their 8 , 000 - 30 , 000 eggs ( 0 . 27mm ) change colour from brownish - yellow to almost transparent , and hatch after 8 - 12 weeks . when releasing her offspring , the female raises hereself on her legs , opening her tail wide and beating it in rhytmical fashion . the nippers were alternatively dug into the brood to propel the newly hatched larvae in the surrounding water .\nthis crab is a great survivor , being able to live in brackish water . its main predators are fish like rig , red cod , sea perch and red gurnard . when small , more types of fish eat it .\n: a new zealand species , occurring along the coasts of north and south islands and stewart island . it is possible that the chilean species is identical . it is interesting that two so widely separated species , look so much alike , but the chilean species is grey , grey - brown and black .\nf026934 : a large hairy - handed crab seen blowing bubbles while posturing on its patch in the sandy eelgrass habitat . its hairy patches on the insides of its nippers are only just visible .\nf215306 : hairy - handed crabs do not bother to burrow or run away in case of danger . they seem to be confident that they are inedible to birds and other predators . roaming around over the sand , and following the tide in and out , they move fast to arrive timely on the scene of death of other creatures .\nf215302 : shying away from the photographer , this hairy - handed crab starts digging itself in , releasing bubbles of methane gas rising from the putrid sand below . notice that the orange coloured ' hairs ' on its exoskeleton are actually brown algae . the hairy pads after which it is named , lie on the insides of its nippers .\nf215328 : two hairy - handed crabs have arrived on the scene of a casualty , but long after whelks beat them to it . with their strong nippers , these crabs are able to tear the flesh apart . the whelks however , can drill through skeletons and reach the smallest corners inside , by means of their flexible trunks ( probosces ) .\n= dull ) the tunnelling mud crab is found in large numbers on healthy mud flats , where they burrow . these small crabs , measuring up to 4cm across their backs , are very wary , scuttling and scurrying in hordes at the slightest sign of movement , making the mud flats seem to move for a fraction of a second . they take time to dig elaborate tunnels in the mud , often with more than one entrance . active by day , the tunnelling mud crabs sleep by night , often closing their burrows with a plug of mud .\nthese mud crabs are actively preyed upon by birds and many other animals . their survival depends on how quickly they can withdraw into their burrows , and how capricious and unpredictable such tunnels are formed . it will occupy its tunnel for a long period of time and will defend it against intruders . competitors are warned off with a typical threatening posture .\nthe colour of these crabs is tawny brown in juveniles , becoming green to yellow in large adults . small patches of bright orange can be seen in the joints . its antennae are brown , antennules light purple , eyestalks pale green dorsally ( on top ) but white ventrally ( below ) . legs are dark green with pale yellow margins . males grow to 21mm measured over the width of their carapace ( cw ) , and females are slightly smaller . these crabs are larger in the south island .\nthe tunnelling mudcrab lives in sheltered places where it can burrow in the sand or mud , or well - drained sediment exposed to the air for more than six hours on each tidal cycle ( upper intertidal region ) . in places , up to 500 - 1800 crabs can be counted per square metre !\ntunnelling mudcrabs become suddenly active as soon as the tide moves out around them . they start cleaning the area around their burrow , and also themselves . when feeding on mud , the crab walks slowly forward with the nippers held in front , while probing the surface . small pinches of surface sediment ( algae and detritus ) are transferred to the mouth parts . wastes ( sand , silt ) accumulate at the bottom of the mouth frame , and these are wiped off by the nippers . these wastes ( pseudo - faeces ) form small pellets . h . crassa seldom forages more than 200mm from its burrow , often defending its territory against other mudcrabs .\nin mangrove swamps , where mangrove trees shade the mud underneath , resulting in lower algal productivity , crabs may climb up the trees to a height of 1m , feeding from the mud on branches and leaves .\ntheir burrows have complicated shapes , often joining up with those of other mud crabs . the end of their burrow slopes down , holding 20 - 50mm of water at low tide . when the tide moves in again , the crabs plug up the entrances to their burrows .\nhas many enemies , from wading shore birds to fish ( parore , cod , flounder , yellow - eyed mullet ) , including eels .\nmate in hard - shell condition . mating occurs august to may , with peak periods in october and may . copulation occurs on the surface of the ground , or still partly covered by water , with the male flat on his back and the female uppermost . males usually mate with smaller females . the female carries her eggs in early spring and summer ( august to march ) . females mature at cw of 10mm . a 16mm female will carry about 16 , 000 eggs of 0 . 3mm , which change colour from brownish - yellow to transparent green during 42 days of incubation . females may reproduce more than once per season , and do not require to mate for this .\nappear to reach maturity after 1 year , and they can live a 5 - 6 year life .\n: this is a new zealand species , widely distributed over the north and south islands and stewart island .\nf992724 : above , a tunnelling mud crab in its burrow . this is a large and old one , beautifully coloured .\nf992725 : on left the burrows of a community of old and large mud crabs , who survived to an old age , perhaps because the sand here is consolidated and hardened by iron leachates .\nf215226 : a tunnelling mudcrab postures near its burrow . notice its wide but flat nippers , which are eminently suitable for moving soil , like a spade . this is a large specimen , perhaps over ten years old .\nf215237 : as this mudcrab is cautiously leaving its burrow , it affords us a view of its back , characterised by its square shape and three spines along the edge .\nf215229 : a mudcrab is disappearing sideways into the mud . this is how it starts a new tunnel .\nf215227 : frontal view of a large specimen of helice crassa . when mudcrabs grow old , their skins also become more colourful .\nf215227 : closeup of helice ' s face . its mouth parts are shaped for sieving mud and sand .\n, which has a wider range in new zealand , but similar habitat and eating habits . in first instance , this crab is distinguished by its smoothly graded colour from brown / purple in front , to paler brown towards the back , whereas\n( cw 22mm versus 28mm ) . its legs are not pointed and sharp but end in a kind of nipple . its nippers are smooth , and so are their cutting edges . the righthand claw shows a distinctive gape between fingers .\nwhen the two are found together . it can be found in densities of over 30 / m2 . for further specifics , see those of the smooth shore crab .\n: this crab breeds in winter from june to august , in a very short season of 9 weeks . they produce only one brood . eggs are relatively large , measuring 0 . 45mm across and they are dark purple . they hatch after 7 weeks .\n: lord howe island , norfolk island , kermadec islands and in new zealand from north cape to east cape .\n= name of an explorer ) the smooth shore crab is a new zealand species , common on rocky shores all around new zealand . it is also found in estuaries and mud flats . usually hiding at high intertidal levels , under boulders , it looks at first sight like a young ( 15mm ) common rock crab , but its carapace is smoother ( missing the six teeth ) and elegantly curved . the eye orbits ( sockets ) are curved . a rare species exists ,\n, which looks the same , but does not have the carved eye sockets .\nthe colour of the smooth shore crab is distinctly speckled in dark reddish - brown on a background varying through slate blue , bluish grey , fawn to yellowish brown . its underside is pale . its nippers are white . this is a small crab , measuring only 28mm cw in adult males .\nthis crab is claimed the most terrestrial of the common crabs , living in the upper intertidal area around the high tide level . it spends a great deal of time out of the water . it usually outnumbers the hairy handed crab\nwhich lives lower down the shore . it normally rests under stones , becoming active only once daily during the night high tide .\nthe smooth shore crab is usually found under stones , and may be heard making clicking sounds . it has the curious habit of grasping stones with its rear legs , presumably to stabilise itself in the presence of wave action . when prodded , this crab takes a defensive posture , which is often explained as aggressive .\nthis crab normally dines on tough seaweeds , but it will also scavenge and predate on worms .\n: females start breeding at around 11mm cw . their egg - carying period runs from september to january . their eggs are 0 . 32mm across , coloured dark purple , becoming paler as development proceeds . incubation time is about 8 weeks . some females can produce two clutches of eggs in a season . most crabs die after 2 - 3 years but some may live up to 5 years .\n: this crab is found mainly in two places , very far apart : new zealand and juan fernandez in chile . it may well be that the one in juan fernandez is a different species , not capable of interbreeding with its nz relative . for this reason we consider c lavauxi an endemic species ( found in nz only ) .\n= blue ; blue wandering crab ) the pacific weed crab is a small crab ( 12mm across its back , 25mm length ) , living in the open ocean , often clinging to seaweed and flotsam . in this way it is a frequent visitor to new zealand waters , where it may get beached with its raft of flotsam , debris , fishing float , pumice , dead shell or rams horn shell . it is sometimes seen attached to sea turtles .\nthis crab has a variable and protective colouration ranging from blue , bluish brown to yellowish , clouded with brown . it is likely that this crab is able to change its colours when moulting , in a similar manner as its relative\n. with its chromatophores , this crab can respond to white , black , blue , yellow and green backgrounds .\n: not much is known about this crab . females start to breed at about 8mm cl , and like\n, may breed all year round . crabs in berry have not been recorded from nz .\n= of the sea ; sea wanderer ) the brown pacific weed crab is an oceanic species , found attached to seaweed and flotsam , often between goose barnacles . it is a small crab ( 20mm cw ) with a squarish back and dark reddish - brown colour . very little is known about it . ovigerous ( in berry ) females have been found in nz .\ndistribution : indo - pacific , japan , west coast of n america , australia , kermadec islands , in new zealand from the bay of plenty to chatham islands .\nthe sally lightfoot crab is found in south america and features on many shore photographs of the galapagos islands . it is not found in new zealand . it resembles the purple rock crab in behaviour , feeding and habitat preference .\nthe depressed red rock crab is similar to the red rock crab plagusia chabris and occupies a similar niche in the tropics . it is sometimes encountered in new zealand , clinging to floating objects like driftwood . this crab is recognisable by its flat shape and slightly hollow ( convex ) back , which is covered with flattened tubercles . its colour is reddish with darker blood - red spots and speckles .\nwebber , w . r . ; fenwick , g . d . ; bradford - grieve , j . m . ; eagar s . g . ; buckeridge , j . s . ; poore , g . c . b . ; dawson , e . w . ; watling , l . ; jones , j . b . ; wells , j . b . j . ; bruce , n . l . ; ahyong , s . t . ; larsen , k . ; chapman , m . a . ; olesen , j . ; ho , j . ; green , j . d . ; shiel , r . j . ; rocha , c . e . f . ; l\u00f6rz , a . ; bird , g . j . ; charleston , w . a . ( 2010 ) . phylum arthropoda subphylum crustacea : shrimps , crabs , lobsters , barnacles , slaters , and kin , in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) ( 2010 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity : 2 . kingdom animalia : chaetognatha , ecdysozoa , ichnofossils . pp . 98 - 232 . [ details ]\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nmilne edwards , h . 1853 ,\nm\u00e9moires sur la famille des ocypodiens , suite\n, annales des sciences naturelles , paris , ser . zoology 3 , vol . 20 , pp . 163 - 228 pls 6 - 11\nhutton , f . 1875 ,\ndescriptions of two new species of crustaceans from new zealand : sesarma pentagona and palinurus edwardsii\n, transactions and proceedings of the new zealand institute , vol . 7 , pp . 279 - 280\nwhite , a . 1842 ,\ndescription of an orthopterous insect and two new species of crustacea , from new zealand\n, ed . gray , j . e . ( ed . ) , the collections of the british museum , pp . 78 - 79 , the zoological miscellany , london\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 0a9ce6b8 - 663a - 4679 - ac6d - c66352ebcd50\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 295990a7 - 4ee7 - 44b4 - 8b19 - 17985ae2da55\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : adb1c40f - 3970 - 4ed3 - a263 - 0e3f5c807d45\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 3d3aebe8 - c88e - 4d8e - 8d4e - 6ecd0c324616\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 425250\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nnudus . frons fere horizontalis , sat latus . margo carapaces lateralis bene arcuatus , antero - lateralis bi - emarginatus . epistoma brevissimum . articulus maxillipedis externi 3tius vix longior quam latus . pedes antici sat crassi , manu supra pustulat\u00e2 , extus infraque l\u00e6vi ; brachio apicem anticum 5 - 6 denticulato . pedes 8 postici valde compressi , articulo 3tio pedis postici ad apicem inferiorem integro , articulo penultimo supra scabro .\nnaked . front nearly horizontal , rather broad ; lateral margin of carapax arcuate , antero - lateral bi - emarginate . epistome very short . third joint of outer maxillipeds as long as broad . anterior feet rather stout ; hand above small postulate , externally and below smooth ; arm with five or six teeth at anterior apex . eight posterior feet much compressed , third joint of posterior pair entire at inferior apex ; penult joint scabrous above .\nplate 21 , fig . 3 a , animal , natural size ; b , abdomen and sternum of male ; c , outer maxillipeds , natural size ; d , hand , natural size ; e , spine of tarsus .\nlength of carapax , seventeen and one - third lines ; breadth , nineteen lines ; length of front , six and three - fourths lines ; breadth of front to front of pr\u00e6medial areolets ( which but slightly project ) , two and one - fourth lines . colour , finely lined and spotted irregularly with brown - ish black or black , with intervening spaces a little yellowish .\nsides of carapax much arcuate . the species is near g . variegates ; but according to edwards\u2019s description of that species , and the figure in guerin\u2019s \u201ciconographie . \u201d it has the third joint of the outer maxillipeds much oblong , while in this species , the joint is not longer than broad .\nthe figure in the voy . de l\u2019uranie , under freycinet , pl . 76 , f . 2 , may be this species . \u201d ( dana , 1852 )\njeremy rice changed the thumbnail image of\na pinch ? it wasn ' t me !\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhe wrote , \u201cthese large and gaudy crabs are favourites of mine . they only inhabit the intertidal zone ( mainly northwest of about coffin bay in sa ) and are beautiful to behold as they watch inquisitively from the safety of large jagged granite boulders and crevices with their carapace washed over by the gentle wind ripples and slight swells that manage to ruffle the otherwise mirror smooth surface of the crystal clear rock pools found along many parts of this remote coastline . \u201d\nhe went on to say , \u201cthis crab is approximately the same size and weight as a blue swimmer crab ! ( i\u2019m guessing about the weight comparison but i am certain about the size ! so much so , i am a bit perplexed as to why nobody has chosen them as a regional tourism promotional icon ! honestly they are spectacular crabs and easily seen in delightful rock pools and tide pools of that western section of coast . \u201d\nhe then added , \u201cbut i am rather surprised to see the stated maximum carapace width of this very widely distributed subtropical shore crab is 80mm . i will have to go back to point dutton and refresh my memory with regard to the size of the crabs there because i have already claimed that they are as big as , or nearly as big as , the ( roughly equally widespread through subtropical oceans ) blue swimmer crab , portunus pelagicus and i will be embarrassed to be proven wrong . \u201d\ndavid later told me , \u201cthe crab also features on pages 214 - 5 in the revised edition of \u201caustralian marine life \u2013 the plants and animals of temperate waters\u201d by graham j edgar ( and it is heavily harvested in nsw for fishing bait ! ) . \u201d\nns wherever they meet ( mainly rocky ) coastline . how about the common name purple shore crab ? ! no wonder i took ages to get an accurate provisional id for the yellow form which , as far as i\u2019m aware , is the only colour variant of the species i\u2019ve seen here in south australia . surely i must have seen the purplish or other coloured crabs of the same species ( ? ? species complex ? ? ) in my travels to other subtropical regions . but i would not have known their identity nor taken photos of them , so any body\u2019s guess ! \u201d\nsteve reynolds is the current president of mlssa and is a long - standing member of the society . steve is a keen diver , underwater explorer , photographer and is chief author of the society ' s extensive back catalogue of newsletters and journals .\nperhaps \u201cpassionfruit shore crab\u201d would be a more useful common name ? fyi , i\u2019ve seen and photographed these at various locations on kangaroo island , including : hanson bay , harvey\u2019s return , antechamber bay and vivonne bay . i made several sighting reports ( and submitted photos ) to the atlas of living australia in recent years .\nstudent : $ 20 . 00 aud - yearly individual : $ 25 . 00 aud - yearly family / business / corporate : $ 30 . 00 aud - yearly\nthis information was published in 1966 in an encyclopaedia of new zealand , edited by a . h . mclintock . it has not been corrected and will not be updated .\n\u00a9 all text licensed under the creative commons attribution - noncommercial 3 . 0 new zealand licence unless otherwise stated . commercial re - use may be allowed on request . all non - text content is subject to specific conditions . \u00a9 crown copyright 2005 - 2018 | disclaimer | isbn 978 - 0 - 478 - 18451 - 8 ministry for culture and heritage / te manat\u016b taonga\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 ."]}
{"id": 1473, "summary": [{"text": "xerocrassa molinae is a species of air-breathing land snail , a pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family hygromiidae , the hairy snails and their allies .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this species is endemic to spain , where it is restricted to the islands of columbrete grande ( illa grossa ) and mancolibre ( columbretes islands group ) . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "xerocrassa molinae", "paragraphs": ["information on xerocrassa molinae is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - xerocrassa ( xerocrassa molinae )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - xerocrassa ( xerocrassa molinae )\ntitle =\narkive species - xerocrassa ( xerocrassa molinae )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nxerocrassa molinae is classified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nhygromiidae \u00bb xerocrassa molinae , id : 815639 , shell detail \u00ab shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc .\n- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : amandana molinae ( j . g . hidalgo , 1883 ) - id : 5814000050\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is endemic to two columbretes islands and has a very restricted range ( extent of occurrence = 14 km 2 and area of occupancy = 14 km 2 ) . the islands are protected areas and the population is thought to be increasing . currently , there are no major threats to this species , however , fires or stochastic events could affect this species and lead it to extinction . the species is therefore listed as near threatened .\nthis species is endemic to spain , where it is restricted to the columbretes islands ( castell\u00f3n province ) to two islands : columbrete grande ( l ' illa grossa ) and mancolibre .\nthere has been a slight increase in the population of this species since the islands they inhabit have been protected .\nthis species lives in exposed places on the stems of bushes and under stones .\npotential threats to this species include fires , depredation by rats and birds and tourism .\nthis species is currently abundant on the columbrete islands but the habitat is fragile and a plan of conservation and the inclusion of this species in protected species catalogues is recommended . the specific status of this taxon should be investigate as it is possible that it was introduced to the columbrete islands from the pine islands ( balearic islands ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhidalgo , j . g . 1883 . description de deux esp\u00e8ces nouvelles d ' helix . - journal de conchyliologie 31 : 56 - 58 , pl . ii [ = 2 ] . paris .\nshell horny coloured with transparent dark and whitish bands and dashes ( or whitish with horny transparent spots , or brown with white spots ) , finely striated , last whorl not always rounded at the periphery , umbilicus narrow , aperture inside with a thin lip .\nendemic species of columbretes islands . threatened by fires . since the islands have been protected , the number of populations has increased ( mart\u00ednez - ort\u00ed & robles 2003 ) . red list spain 2001 : sensitive to habitat change ( g\u00f3mez moliner et al . 2001 ) . red list spain 2006 : vulnerable ( verd\u00fa & galante 2006 ) .\nreferences : westerlund 1889 : 259 , g\u00f3mez moliner et al . 2001 : 148 , mart\u00ednez - ort\u00ed & robles 2003 : 135 , puente et al . in verd\u00fa & galante 2006 : 387 , urltoken ( 3 - 2008 ) , welter - schultes 2012 : 524 ( range map ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nalberto martinez - ort\u00ed departamento de zoologia . facultad de ciencias biol\u00f3gicas . universitat de val\u00e8ncia . av . dr . moliner , 50 . 46100 burjassot , valencia spain tel : 0034670342546 amorti @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nbank , r . a . ; neubert , e . ( 2017 ) . checklist of the land and freshwater gastropoda of europe . last update : july 16th , 2017 . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 002 seconds . )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncopyright \u00a9 2014 - 2017 babylon software ltd . all rights reserved to babylon translation software"]}
{"id": 1477, "summary": [{"text": "goniatites bohemicus is a species of extinct cephalopods belonging to the family goniatitidae , included in the superfamily goniatitaceae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "these fast-moving nektonic carnivores lived in the silurian period , from 443.4 to 419.2 million years ago . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "goniatites bohemicus", "paragraphs": ["goniatites is a genus of extinct cephalopods belonging to the family goniatitidae , included in the superfamily goniatitaceae . beyrichoceras and cravenoceras are among related genera .\nthis lithograph of goniatites bohemicus appeared in joachim barrande\u2019s syst\u00eame silurien du centre de la boh\u00eame . 1 the artist , m . humbert from lemercier in paris , prepared the solnhofen lithographic limestone plate to barrande\u2019s exacting requirements using fossils from his extensive collection ( as shown ) . it is one of more than a thousand similarly executed plates in the monumental syst\u00eame .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\njoachim barrande , the son of the shopkeeper augustin barrande and his wife charlotte , was born on 11 aug 1799 in saugues , haute loire . 2 he studied civil engineering at the \u00e9cole polytechnique in paris , graduated at the top of his class and in 1826 he came into the service of king charles x as the science tutor of his grandson henry , the comte du chambord . after charles x was forced to abdicate in the july revolution of 1830 barrende followed the royal court to dorset , edinburgh and finally prague . 1\ncharles x and his family eventually moved on to trieste but barrande stayed in prague where he began work as a road and bridge engineer . barrande had a keen interest in the natural sciences and the story goes that his interest in paleontology was piqued while observing fossils found during his surveying work on the planned radnice - plze\u0148 - bud\u011bjovice railway . whatever the reasons he started collecting fossils , however , it was the publication of murchison\u2019s silurian system in 1839 that focused his interest . 3 he realized that his finds were the same ones that murchison was describing and soon he began a much more systematic study .\nphragmoceras sp . ( left ) , trochoceras and gyroceras sp . ( right )\nbetween 1840\u201350 barrande travelled on foot through the mountains between prague and beroun and created a stratigraphic map of central bohemia . he identified paleozoic rock formations and hired workers \u2013 as many as 20 or 30 at a time \u2013 to dig for fossils . he was so successful in finding fossil beds that his laborers \u201cattributed to him a mastery of the black art of divination and a possible intimacy with the devil himself . \u201d by the time he died he had amassed a collection of more than 100 , 000 specimens .\nhe began organizing his notes and in 1852 , under the fitting motto of \u201cc\u2019est ce que j\u2019ai vu\u201d ( this is what i have observed ) , published the first folio of his remarkable syst\u00eame silurien du centre de la boh\u00eame .\nover the next 31 years \u2013 until his death in 1883 \u2013 he published 22 quarto folios covering trilobites , cephalopods , pteropods , brachiopods and molluscs . in all the syst\u00eame included 6887 pages of text , 1078 plates and described 3560 lower palaeozoic species . it was a monumental work that simply has no parallel in the history of palentology .\nmonomercella and orthonychia sp . ( left ) , herecynella bohemica and philhedra humillima ( right )\nbarrande found it necessary to act as his own publisher and set up his own press in prague . there was no part of the project that escaped his obsessive supervision \u2013 especially the plates . he personally designed and laid out the illustrations and left extensive instructions to his artists including j . fetters ( prague ) , a . swoboda ( vienna ) and m . humbert ( paris ) . he routinely demanded revisions and even discarded perfectly usable plates at the last minute when a better specimen became available . as science noted in their 1888 obituary \u201c [ they ] could not have been printed with greater technical elegance by any press in paris . \u201d 4\nof course barrande\u2019s obsessiveness was expensive . the project required continual financial support from the academy of science in vienna and the comte du chambord . even with a prohibitive price of 1575 francs the publication never broke even .\nbarrande\u2019s publication would turn out to be critically important to charles darwin . he mentioned his work no less than five times in the origin of the species . 5 barrande , on the other hand , felt that his work was \u201cto ascertain the reality , not to create ephemeral theories\u201d and his idea of \u201ccolonies\u201d would become one of the chief scientific alternatives to darwin\u2019s theory of evolution .\nbarrande had amassed so much material that after his death in 1883 three volumes describing an additional 1000 species were published . today , more than a century later , his work is still routinely referenced by paleontologists .\n1 . barrande , joachim . syst\u00eame silurien du centre de la boh\u00eame ( the silurian system of central boehmia ) ( 8 volumes ) . prague : chez l\u2019auteur , 1852\u20131911 . volumes 2\u20138 are online . the missing volume , unfortunately , is the trilobite volume \u2013 hence no trilobite scans in the post . sorry . if a version of volume 1 ever becomes available \u2013 trust me \u2013 i\u2019ll be all over it .\n2 . for a more complete biography of barrande see radvan horn\u00fd , radvan and turek vojt\u011bch . jaochim barrande : his life , work and heritage to world palaeontology . prague : praha n\u00e1rodn\u00ed muzeum , p\u0159\u00edrodov\u011bdeck\u00e9 muzeum , 1999 . ( worldcat , online ) , or k\u0159\u00ed\u017e , ji\u0159\u00ed . joachim barrande . prague : \u010desk\u00fd geologick\u00fd \u00fastav , 1999 ( online )\n3 . murchisen , roderick . the silurian system . london : john murray , 1839 ( online ) .\n4 . joachim barrande , his life . science . 30 nov 1883 ; 2 ( 43 ) : 699\u2013701 ( online )\n5 . darwin , charles . on the origin of the species . london : john murray , 1859 ( worldcat , online ) .\nthe shell is generally globose with an open but narrow umbilicus , the surface commonly reticulate resulting from longitudinal lirae crossing transverse striae . the ventral lobe of the suture is rather narrow with a median saddle about or little less than half the height of entire lobe . the first lateral saddle is subangular to angular .\nfossils of species within this genus have been found widespread in north america , eurasia , and north africa . in particular they have been found in the\nmiller , furnish , and schindewolf , 1957 . paleozoic ammonoidea , treatise on invertebrate paleontology , part l . geological society of america .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\non andrew wyeth\u2019s 22nd birthday he ventured to cushing , maine to meet the artist merle james but instead met james\u2019 17 - year old daughter betsy . instantly smitten , he asked her to show him around town and she was more than happy to oblige . she thought \u201ci\u2019ll show him a real maine building\u201d and as something of a test took him to the hathorne point home of her friends christina and alvaro olson . 1\nthroughout his life andrew had a rather contentious relationship with women ; indeed with anyone who didn\u2019t in some way directly support his painting , but on that day in july 1939 he met what would become two of the most important women in his life . 1\nlike andrew , betsy had health problems as a child and grew up a loner . \u201ci was the flawed child\u201d she said . they married in may 1940 and she was initially dismissed by andrew\u2019s domineering father , n . c . , as a lightweight dillitente . she would prove n . c . and the rest of wyeth\u2019s family wrong , becoming not only andrew\u2019s wife and model but his staunchest supporter and most severe critic , his business manager and eventually his archivist .\nbetsy knew that the olsen\u2019s were difficult , reclusive people . andrew , however , was completely unfazed by their dilapidated house and as he later recalled \u201cowing to christina\u201a\u00e4\u00f4s real fondness for betsy , she accepted me much more readily than i suppose she ordinarily would have . \u201d\nby this time christina , who had an undiagnosed neuromuscular disease ( likely polio ) was reduced to crawling and urinating on stacks of discarded newspapers . andrew however felt that \u201cshe was so much bigger than all the little idiosyncrasies . \u201d and found her a symbol of fierce independance - an extraordinary conquest of life . the result of this friendship was christina\u2019s world , one of the iconic paintings of the 20th century .\nandrew and betsy spent their winters in chadds ford , pennsylvania and their summers in cushing where he routinely returned to the olsons and their saltwater farm as a subject . he eventually had free run of their house , even setting up his studio in an upstairs bedroom .\nchristina\u2019s death in jan 1968 deeply affected andrew and marked the end of a seminal two decade long period in his painting . faced with a blank canvas \u2013 as it were \u2013 it was time for a reappraisal of his art . it was then that he met siri , the daughter of the cushing farmer george erickson . siri was exotic , untouched and had an electrifying effect on his work . \u201ca burst of life , \u201d he later said , \u201clike spring coming through the ground , a rebirth of something fresh out of death . \u201d\nit was betsy ( much to her later chagrin ) who pushed him to do nudes . because his model was only 14 years old it became \u2013 as you could imagine \u2013 something of a scandal .\nwyeth painted siri for ten years , until betsy \u2013 worried that their relationship had turned sexual \u2013 put a stop to it . she told andrew \u201cif you do this again , don\u2019t tell me . \u201d her request would have rather far - reaching consequences because andrew had just met helga .\nhelga was born in konigsberg , prussia in 1939 . after surviving the war her family was held as prisoners in denmark . at age 16 she entered the convent but left a few years later and met john testorf . they married , moved to philadelphia and finally settled in chadds ford . by the time she met andrew she was a lonely , unhappy , homesick housewife and posing for andrew was her answer . \u201ci became alive , \u201d she said , \u201cit shows in the pictures . i became young overnight . i\u2019ve never done anything more worthwhile . \u201d\nwyeth spent the next 15 years painting helga in near complete secrecy . to hide her from betsy he shuttled her from studio to studio ( \u201clike a hamster in a cage\u201d ) and began finding excuses to remain in chadds ford while betsy was in maine . what few pieces he showed betsy carefully concealed helga\u2019s identity . he even changed her skin color in barracoon :\neventually he tired of the subterfuge and showed his work \u2013 some 240 pieces \u2013 to betsy . her first reaction was that \u201c whew , i was absolutely overcome , \u201d and her next was \u201cwho the fuck was this woman ? \u201d the wyeths sold the entire collection to the publisher leonard e . b . andrews and in a masterful piece of public relations the story spread beyond art circles , with the salacious details of wyeth\u2019s secret model becoming the simultaneous cover story in both time and newsweek .\nwyeth\u2019s artwork remains to this day a polarizing subject \u2013 either you love it or you hate it . it would be difficult , however , to deny his love of his models . as one of them stated \u201cits a romance to to the degree where you\u2019re the most important thing in the world to him . \u201d\n1 . for a complete biography see : meryman , richard . andrew wyeth : a secret life . new york : harpercollins , 1996 ( worldcat ) .\n2 . all of the helga images are from wilmerding , john . andrew wyeth : the helga pictures . new york : harry abrams , 1987 ( worldcat ) ."]}
{"id": 1479, "summary": [{"text": "shamshir ( foaled 21 february 1988 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse and broodmare .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in racing career which lasted from august 1990 until october 1991 she won two of her eleven races .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "as a two-year-old in 1990 she was one of the best fillies of her generation in britain , winning a maiden race and being narrowly beaten in the may hill stakes before recording her biggest win in the group one fillies ' mile .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "she failed to win as a three-year-old but finished second in the epsom oaks and the nassau stakes and third in the yorkshire oaks .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "she was retired at the end of the year to become a broodmare . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "shamshir ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["a shamshir shekargar ( shamshir - e shek\u00e2rgar ; literally ,\nhunters ' sword\nor\nhunting sword\n) is the same as a shamshir , except the blade is engraved and decorated , usually with hunting scenes .\nhorse racing stats \u2013 runner and rider profiles for epsom oaks \u2013 . . .\n2 ) mr . ali ghourchani from iran is an accomplished horse archer who has gained many places in international horse archery competitions . i will test many horseback wrestling and horseback lance and swordfighting in cooperation with ali . he is an accomplished horse archer .\nblack caviar : the horse of a lifetime . . . the story and the wins\nmughal style carved jade shamshir grip , horse form gem set spinach jade with inset white jade disk , 20th c . 6 1 / 4\nx 5\nx 1\n, estimate : $ 700 - $ 900\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\na shamshir , shamsher , shamsheer or chimchir ( from shamshir ) is a type of sabre with a curve that is considered radical for a sword : 5 to 15 degrees from tip to tip . the name is derived from shamsh\u012br , which means\nsword\n( in general ) . the radically curved sword family includes the shamshir , scimitar , talwar , kilij , pulwar and the sabre .\nuse the search below to find breeding information on an individual horse or select one of the other specific search options available .\nin addition to oh so sharp , his other top runners included fitnah , common grounds , flash of steel , shamshir , sure blade , unite , and balisada .\ni was with luca cumani when falbrav had his special season , and his owner also has horses with my father , so i had known him for many years ,\nhe says .\nhe promised to send me a horse when i set up , and luckily , the horse was sesmen .\nshamshir and separ ( buckler ) vs mace and buckler . in razmafzar the small shield ( separ ) is used with a variety of weapons , including the sword , mace , axe and dagger .\nshamshir ( gb ) ch . f , 1988 { 12 - d } dp = 8 - 1 - 10 - 5 - 4 ( 28 ) di = 1 . 00 cd = 0 . 14 - 9 starts , 2 wins , 3 places , 2 shows career earnings : $ 346 , 708\n\u201cour first big winner was shamshir , the first foal of free guest , who i suppose was our foundation mare , \u201d she says of the daughter of kris , who in 1990 became the second group 1 winner for cumani\u2019s then - stable jockey frankie dettori in the fillies\u2019 mile , 45 minutes after he won the queen elizabeth ii stakes on markofdistinction .\n\u201cwe\u2019ve always had some boarders . we keep it as limited as we possibly can but it helps with the cashflow , \u201d explains sara . \u201cit\u2019s just really for some of our owners because we don\u2019t want to over - horse the place and we\u2019re comfortable with the numbers we have . \u201d\nt is 16 years since a young italian called lanfranco dettori established himself at the top of his profession with a group one double on festival day at ascot . shamshir , who won the fillies ' mile , and markofdistinction , in the queen elizabeth ii stakes , were both trained by another italian , luca cumani , and between them , the jockey and trainer have kept the tricolore prominent at the meeting ever since .\nwill almost always be rated from 45 - 54 with the exception of those that perform in a higher class or in say a black - type three year old race . they can expect a higher rating . after three \u201cmisses\u201d a maiden horse will revert to a mark of 45 . these races will continue to be raced under set - weight conditions .\n\u201cbreeding and training compliment each other \u2013 from the trainer\u2019s perspective you get to know a bit about soundness and temperament and therefore you can use that when you get to the breeding side . on the training front , knowing the horse from the very beginning and having seen it from when it was born , all the way through , is a bonus . \u201d\ndespite having planned her mating and known her since birth , luca cumani maintains that lady of dubai receives no favourable treatment in training . he says : \u201cthe moment the homebreds are in the training yard they are the same as the others \u2013 all the horses here are my babies . winning is the same for any horse in the yard , though of course it\u2019s satisfying if you\u2019ve bred them and known them all their lives . \u201d\nfor eight centuries the arab sword makers succeeded in concealing their techniques from competitors - and from posterity . those in europe only revealed that they quenched in ' ' red medicine ' ' or ' ' green medicine . ' ' a less abrupt form of cooling , according to one account , was achieved when the blade , still red hot , was ' ' carried ina furious gal lop by a horseman on a fast horse . ' '\nhe is equally unequivocal about any twinges when horses he and sara have bred succeed for other stables , adding : \u201cin each case it has been my decision to sell so i have no regrets . it\u2019s not a question of that horse being one that got away \u2013 any success helps our families and helps the stud . and quite often there are those that you\u2019ve kept because they wouldn\u2019t have made a good sales yearling but they turn out to be very good racehorses . \u201d\nbackground : garry and suzanne brandt had their first runner in 2014 . the couple run the north london - based import business harlequin direct ltd and were tempted to dip their toes into racehorse ownership when meeting owner derrick bloy on holiday . harlequeen was only the second horse owned by the brandts , with their first being the four - time winner harlequin striker , also with mick channon before being switched to dean ivory\u2019s yard this year . garry gave suzanne harlequeen for her birthday and his mother telma went racing for the first time at goodwood last year when harlequeen won .\nthe oaks stakes is a group 1 flat horse race in great britain open to three - year - old fillies . it is run at epsom downs over a distance of 1 mile , 4 furlongs and 10 yards ( 2 , 423 metres ) , and it is scheduled to take place each year in early june . ( it has also been known as the oaks . increasingly it is coming to be referred to as the epsom oaks in both the uk and overseas countries , although ' epsom ' is not part of the official title of the race . )\nkhorasani : thanks for asking ! my next project is finishing my book on historical firearms from iran . this book contains translated and annotated persian texts on cannon making , rockets , etc . i have also measured and pictured over 100 unique examples of persian firearms from iranian museums . a treasure . i have been classifying and researching all techniques of traditional wrestling arts of iran . these will be published in different books by me . i am also planning a book on armored combat and horse combat in persian tradition . and of course together with mr . dwyer we are writing a book on persian archery . thanks for the interview .\nkhorasani : they will learn sword and shield combinations and spear combinations on foot first . accompanied by wrestling techniques of course . war wrestling based on persian manuscripts play an important role in razmafzar . persian manuscripts stress that a good warrior is a good wrestler . then we move to dagger and knife fighting in combination with a shield . then axe and mace techniques are taught . more complex techniques of sword and shield and wrestling always accompany the curriculum . then short sword techniques qame and qaddare as civilian weapons follow as the former are battlefield weapons . the whole would take 4 - 5 years to master . then they learn archery on foot and then horse archery . the last step will be fighting with weapons and wrestling on horseback . the whole techniques comprise all techniques from ancient iran into islamic period . of course as far as they are evidenced . we do not make up techniques . but razmafzar deals with all periods of iran . participants should also learn about some aspects of historical arms and armor from iran as well .\nkris , a champion racehorse and sire in england , died thursday at lord howard de walden ' s plantation stud . he was 28 .\na report on the plantation web site said the stallion , who was pensioned in february 2002 , was found dead in his paddock of heart failure .\nby sharpen up - - doubly sure , by reliance , kris was the sire of 80 stakes winners from 810 named foals of racing age . among them are classic winner oh so sharp , who was a member of his first crop . with just two crops racing in 1985 , he was the leading sire in england / ireland .\nkris , bred and raced by howard de walden , won 14 of 16 starts and ran second in the other two . he was a champion miler in england . kris was unbeaten at two when he won the horris hill stakes ( eng - iii ) . his victories at three included the sussex stakes ( eng - i ) , st james ' s palace stakes ( eng - ii ) , waterford crystal mile ( eng - ii ) , and queen elizabeth ii stakes ( eng - ii ) . he was retired after his 4 - year - old season , his career ending with a second to known fact in the queen elizabeth ii stakes . he was trained by henry cecil .\nkris was syndicated for 4 million pounds and began his stud duties at de walden ' s thornton stud . that nursery was sold in 1994 and he was moved to plantation stud .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\nowner : sk . mohammed breeder : fittocks stud ltd . winnings : 9 starts : 2 - 3 - 2 , $ 346 , 708 1st fillies mile gr . 1 ( gb ) . 2nd may hill s . gr . 3 ( gb ) , the oaks gr . 1 ( gb ) , nassau s . gr . 2 ( gb ) . 3rd yorkshire oaks gr . 1 ( gb ) , musidora s . gr . 3 ( gb ) . ( close )\nopen an account with betfair and bet at least \u20ac5 at min odds of 1 / 5 on the sportsbook . win or lose betfair match your first bet up to \u20ac50 . free bet stakes not returned\nnow they may have some backup . marco botti is not a familiar name to british racegoers yet , but like dettori before him , he goes to ascot this weekend with a serious chance to make his reputation on one of the most important afternoons of the flat racing year . his unbeaten juvenile sesmen , who was added to the fillies ' mile at a cost of \u00a320 , 000 earlier this week , will be his first runner in a group one contest , and if breeding counts for anything , she will go to the start with every chance .\nsesmen ' s pedigree is the result of meticulous planning by peter ebdon , the former world snooker champion , who applies the same driven intensity to the business of breeding thoroughbreds that he does to building breaks . but it is botti ' s own family tree that bears the closest inspection , since his name would be as familiar to an italian racegoer as a hills or a dunlop in this country .\nmy father [ alduino ] and his brother [ giuseppe ] train together in italy ,\nbotti says ,\nand they have been the champions of the country many , many times . they have won all of the classics in italy , and they will be champions again this year for sure , as they have more than 220 winners already .\nsuch is the status of the botti family in italian racing that marco , who rode nearly 400 winners during a five - year career as a professional jockey , would have found it easy to start a training career in his native country . instead , he chose to launch himself as a virtual unknown in the sink - or - swim surroundings of newmarket .\nhe is becoming more familiar by the week , though , having saddled seven winners from 44 runners so far this season , a strike - rate of 16 % . with victories at prices including 33 - 1 , 20 - 1 , 12 - 1 and 9 - 1 , his level - stake profit is running at \u00a348 . 25 .\nof course it would have been easier for me to go back to italy ,\nbotti says .\ni don ' t think that it would have been any problem finding owners there , when in england , all new trainers struggle to find owners and good horses at the beginning .\nbut i decided to give it a go here , to take a shot , and i can ' t complain so far . we have 22 horses here now , and we ' ve had a group three winner . winning a group three in england means much more to me than it would in italy , as it is so much more difficult to win races here .\nthe decision to run sesmen in saturday ' s race owes something to cumani , who employed botti as a pupil assistant for two years when he first arrived in britain .\nhe then moved on to spend a year with ed dunlop , and six months as head lad with sheikh mohammed ' s collection of blue bloods at godolphin .\nafter she won at goodwood , luca rang me and said , marco , you should have a look at the ascot race and think about supplementing her . it would come at just the right time for her . the owner said that if i was happy with her , it would be worth taking a chance . it is a lot of money , but that ' s part of the game sometimes .\nwe ' re running against the big yards and the best trainers so it ' s not going to be easy ,\nbotti says .\nbut she travels so well and quickens so well , and if everything goes right , we will definitely aim her for the 1 , 000 guineas .\ni ' ve worked with group one horses like falbrav and ouija board in the past , so now i just hope that i ' ve learned enough about how to train them .\na regular at this track , blue maeve has three course wins from ten starts , as well as three seconds and a third . he ' s been in the form of his life this season , scoring on his last two visits and going close off his revised mark in two subsequent runs elsewhere . there seems to be plenty of pace drawn near the rail here and it is to be hoped that silvestre de sousa has the sense not to fight for an early lead .\n\u00a9 2018 guardian news and media limited or its affiliated companies . all rights reserved .\nour new search experience requires javascript to be enabled . please enable javascript on your browser , then try again .\nebay determines this price through a machine - learned model of the product ' s sale prices within the last 90 days .\ncopyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 ebay inc . all rights reserved . user agreement , privacy , cookies and adchoice\namounts shown in italicized text are for items listed in currency other than canadian dollars and are approximate conversions to canadian dollars based upon bloomberg ' s conversion rates . for more recent exchange rates , please use the universal currency converter\nthis page was last updated : 09 - jul 15 : 34 . number of bids and bid amounts may be slightly out of date . see each listing for international shipping options and costs .\nrohani ya abbas hadid stone islamic ring \u062e\u0627\u062a\u0645 \u0646\u0642\u0634 \u0645\u0635\u0648\u0631 \u064a\u0627\u0639\u0628\u0627\u0633 . . \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0635\u064a\u0646\u064a\nrohani viper snake stone \u062d\u062c\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u062d\u0627\u0646\u064a , \u062d\u062c\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0641\u0639\u0649 . . \u062d\u062c\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0639\u0628\u0627\u0646 , \u0639\u0642\u064a\u0642\ngift for man vintage ring size 12 \u0627\u062c\u0645\u0644 \u0647\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0631\u062c\u0644 , \u0627\u0631\u0648\u0639 \u062e\u0627\u062a\u0645 \u0631\u062c\u0627\u0644\u064a . . \u062e\u0627\u062a\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0647\u064a\u0628\u0629\ninternational shipping - items may be subject to customs processing depending on the item ' s declared value .\nsellers set the item ' s declared value and must comply with customs declaration laws .\nyour country ' s customs office can offer more details , or visit ebay ' s page on international trade .\nthis amount includes applicable customs duties , taxes , brokerage and other fees . this amount is subject to change until you make payment . for additional information , see the global shipping program terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab\nthis amount includes applicable customs duties , taxes , brokerage and other fees . this amount is subject to change until you make payment . if you reside in an eu member state besides uk , import vat on this purchase is not recoverable . for additional information , see the global shipping program terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab\nestimated delivery dates - opens in a new window or tab include seller ' s handling time , origin zip code , destination zip code and time of acceptance and will depend on shipping service selected and receipt of cleared payment - opens in a new window or tab . delivery times may vary , especially during peak periods .\nany international shipping and import charges are paid in part to pitney bowes inc . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\ninternational shipping and import charges paid to pitney bowes inc . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\ninternational shipping paid to pitney bowes inc . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\nany international shipping is paid in part to pitney bowes inc . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\nthis item will be shipped through the global shipping program and includes international tracking . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\nthere are 1 items available . please enter a number less than or equal to 1 .\n* estimated delivery dates - opens in a new window or tab include seller ' s handling time , origin zip code , destination zip code and time of acceptance and will depend on shipping service selected and receipt of cleared payment - opens in a new window or tab . delivery times may vary , especially during peak periods .\nwill usually ship within 2 business days of receiving cleared payment - opens in a new window or tab .\nqualifying purchases could enjoy no interest if paid in full in 6 months on purchases of $ 99 or more . other offers may also be available .\ninterest will be charged to your account from the purchase date if the balance is not paid in full within 6 months . minimum monthly payments are required . subject to credit approval . see terms - opens in a new window or tab\nwe essentially require buyer phone number / mobile no . for international shipment . buyers will pay the shipping & handling charges and no return policy apply . buyer need to pay within a week . item will be shipped within a week after receiving the payment . please ask for shipping cost\nthis is a private listing and your identity will not be disclosed to anyone except the seller .\ncopyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 ebay inc . all rights reserved . accessibility , user agreement , privacy , cookies and adchoice\nmartial artist , linguist , historian and tireless arms and armour researcher , dr . manouchehr moshtagh khorasani ( germany ) is an award - winning author who won the prestigious awards of the book prize of the islamic republic of iran ( 2012 ) for his book lexicon of arms and armor from iran : a study of symbols and terminology and arms and armor from iran : the bronze age to the end of the qajar period ( 2009 ) , which also won the world book prize in the field of iranian studies in 2009 . the latter book is based on over 800 primary and secondary sources and features a detailed analysis of over 520 artifacts from ten iranian museums for the first time . some selected items from private collections are also featured in this book .\ndr . khorasani is also the author of the book antique oriental and arab weapons and armour : the streshinskiy collection ( published 2010 ) and has written well over 100 print articles , lexicon entries and book contributions related to arms and armor from iran in 30 print journals and magazines , an encyclopedia and one in a book in english , german , spanish , french and persian for american , argentinian , austrian , british , canadian , french , german , indian , iranian , south korean and spanish magazines .\nwe have known dr . khorasani for many years in his role as a moderator and consultant at swordforum international , and were particularly excited when we learned that he had been combining all of his passions and backgrounds in a new project : razmafzar \u2013 persian martial arts . his latest book , persian archery and swordsmanship : the martial arts of iran , is the first publication of his results , another massive , meticulously documented analysis of artifacts , artwork , and literature , this time cross - analyzed with surviving persian fencing , archery and riding manuscripts and the many living - traditions of iranian wrestling . we are pleased to offer this interview , where dr . khorasani gives us some insights into the ( re ) development of razmafzar , living martial traditions in iran , and what is forthcoming from his prolific pen .\nkhorasani : this is a combined persian term , a new persian lexeme which consists of razm ( battle / fight ) and afzar ( tools / weapons ) . it means \u201cbattle weapons\u201d . actually , this word is related to zinabzar or zinafzar which means the weapons for a mounted warrior . the term zinafzar can already be found in the poems of onsori balkhi ( 1990 , p . 22 ) . this word is an old word which derives from the middle persian word z\u0113n afz\u0101r ( war implements / weapons ) that can be found in karnameye ardeshir babakan ( see farahvashi , 2007 , p . 30 ) . the reason for choosing razmafzar and not zinafzar for this historical martial art is that it deals not only with cavalry techniques and tactics but also with infantry techniques and tactics . so it is a more general term encomassing both fields . although the fomer has received some cursory look , the latter has been completely ignored in the studies of martial hertitage of iran / persia . it entails all techniques which are documented in manuscripts , poems , battlefield accounts , miniatures , arts , stone reliefs from ancient iran and also islamic period of iran .\nkhorasani : i have been an active martial artist almost all my life and surely after years of research , measurement and recording hundreds of iranian arms and armor in 14 museums in iran and many private collections in europe , russia and usa , the intriguing question has always been how these weapons were used . that is why i turned my attention to a detailed study of these weapons .\nfap : one of the unique things in persian archery and swordsmanship is your detail to language \u2013 in tracking a lexicon of martial terminology or technical vocabulary , that can be found in non technical literature and then comparing that to iconographic depictions of the same actions . this is an area that is still awaiting more serious attention in historical european martial arts ( hema ) . can you discuss the process you used in going about this ?\nfap : hema practitioners are fortunate in having a a larger number of technical works , \u201cfight books\u201d , on which to base their reconstruction . is there a similar body of persian martial texts to draw from ?\nkhorasani : yes , there are . i have presented many complete manuals in my last book . five complete ones on persian archery . one on mounted lance fighting . one on spearfighting on foot . three on war wrestling . one on swords . as we are talking , i have received some new ones . this area has been neglected for years . i have received new manuscripts on archery , swordsmanship , mounted combat , etc .\nfap : in the west , many traditional martial arts , particularly \u201caristocratic\u201d or \u201cchivalric\u201d ones became extinct in the 18th and 19th centuries , and have had to be reconstructed . how does this compare to the situation in iran ? have you been able to find living sword or weapon arts , and if so , have they played a role in creating modern razmafzar ?\nkhorasani : chivalric code of iran is best expressed in the javanmardi code which is similar to european chivalric code or japanese bushido . we have a living tradition of zurkhane ( house of strength ) . wrestling in iran is considered as a sacred sport , where the mat is still considered a place to respect and to be respected and one needs to show humbleness and also help people in need . my project of razmafzar is based on academic reconstruction of techniques in manuscripts , miniatures and reliefs . but it does not stop there . as i have shown in my last book , the tenets and training methods of the house of strength will be integrated in it . additionally , we have over 24 styles of traditional wrestling in iran , we have sword dancing , we have different stick fighting methods in iran . they are in the process of being researched . we will make comparative analysis and then set up a big data bank and integrate them in razmafzar as well .\nwrestling remains an important sport , fighting tradition and cultural treasure in iranian culture even today , and was considered the basis of persian warrior training .\nfap : at the same time , there are many european folk traditions , particularly for wrestling and stick or knife fighting , that have survived . in persian archery and swordsmanship you touch on this with traditional iranian wrestling or varzesh pahlavani . can you tell us a little about pahlavani \u2013 both as it exists now and as it might have related to earlier persian fighting arts ?\nkhorasani : the house of strength symbolizes a sacred place where practitioners not only develop strength , but they need to learn javanmardi rules . they need to be role models for the young generation . wrestling is one of the most effective combat systems as proven again and again . this plays a major role in iran .\nkhorasani : yes i am fortunate enough to be in contact with leading pahlavans in iran and i trained and even documented their training in the house of strength . they are greatly interested in razmafzar .\nkhorasani : yes , without name dropping , my students and friends know that . i hold three black belts , a 4th dan in one of them , the others 2nd dan . i have trained and competed in many full - contact sports such as boxing , muay thai and of course wrestling . i experimented with bjj and trained in a team . besides i also trained in a japanese koryu sword art extensively . but i have always wrestled and love this sport . wrestling has helped me the most , as this is the tenet of persian armored and unarmored fight . but i have to say that all martial arts and fighting i have done have played a part , by helping me universal principles of combat , like distance and lines of attack and defence . i have to say i love realistic and full - contact sparring and think that is important in all martial arts , including swordfighting .\na persian warrior should be able to grab and throw in close range at anytime . and then of course to deliver fast and powerful blows with his weapons .\nfap : persia has long been a cross - roads between the mid and far east . have you found commonalities between persian arts with those of the arabs to the west or indians , such as the sikh gatka or shastar vidiya to the east ?\nkhorasani : well possibly , but as i have not trained in indian or arab arts , i cannot pass judgments . what i can say is that there always commonalities with certain arts , especially when the arms and armour are similar , but i would say that what i know defines persian arts is an emphasis on developing strength , stamina , power and only then techniques . this is why wrestling plays a crucial role \u2013 it trains the body that is at the core of the entire art . a persian warrior should be able to grab and throw in close range at anytime . and then of course to deliver fast and powerful blows with his weapons .\nfap : you have chosen to create an international research and development team to develop razmafzar . can you tell us a bit about who comprises the team and how your team works together ?\nkhorasani : i have a very dedicated team and i am in constant contact with them . my team comprises of three different groups . researchers who write and do research on historical arms and armor from iran , the other section comprises experienced martial artists and another who work and help in the realm of public relations and also editorial process . to enter my group and be marked as a member one needs to fulfill certain criteria . i am really proud of the members of razmafzar team and many thanks for asking me questions about them . these are :\n1 ) mr . bede dwyer from australia is a leading researcher on asian composite bow . bede has published many articles in many leading academic journals . he plays a very important role in razmafzar team . he has been my editor from 2004 and has made useful comments on archery sections on my books . we have written many important articles on persian archery based on persian archery manuscripts which have been translated by me . at the moment , i am planning to write a book on persian archery together with mr . bede dwyer on persian archery . this book will not only comprise archery techniques and annotated archery texts but we will show techniques and how to execute them with a replica persian composite bow .\n3 ) mr . heiko grosse from germany is an accomplished swordsman who has been training and learning razmafzar under my direct supervision . he is a black belt in kendo with ten years experience in kendo competitions and a cateran and an expert in scottish swordsmanship with five - year experience . he plays a pivotal role in learning and teaching razmafzar .\n4 ) ms . mitra haji is a museum curator of bonyad museums from tehran , iran . i have been working with ms . haji over 7 years . i have analyzed over 500 historical arms and armor from iran which are kept in bonyad museum . she has translated and edited many of my articles in persian . we organized two historical arms and armor exhibitions \u201cthe power of iranian steel\u201d and \u201cweapons and combat in the shahname\u201d in tehran .\n5 ) mr . mark mcmorrow from the usa is the executive editor and director of swordforum international , the biggest online community dedicated to the study of historical arms and armor . mark plays a very important role in making razmafzar public and we have an excellent working relationship together ,\n6 ) mr . richard nable is a police lieutenant for a metropolitan police department in the southeastern united states . he is a swat sniper and team leader , department rangemaster , and instructor primarily in police weapons , tactics and survival . richard is our advisor on the mechanisms of historical firearms and has edited a number of articles on historical firearms which i have written and also has been editing parts of my books . 7 ) mr . greg thomas obach has been on my team for over 12 years . greg is a leading and very experienced smith who makes wonderful crucible steel . he has edited the chapters on crucible steel in my books and also articles . his insights into making crucible steel and above all his down - to - earth approach and willingness to learn and experiment make him truly a unique smith .\n8 ) ms . venous pirmomen from iran is an archaeologist with a master and a bachelor degree in archaeology from islamic azad university . her areas of interest and concentration are bio - archaeology , biological anthropology and forensic anthropology . she has played an important role in accessing data for research of razmafzar team and public relations in iranian universities . she has found many new manuscripts from iranian libraries and museums for primary research materials on persian arms and armor .\n9 ) mr . hessamoddin shafeianis a phd candidate at university of california , riverside in the field of electrical engineering department . he obtained his msc degree from the prestigeous sharif university of technology . he has been a very important team member with unflagging determination to find and access data which are extremely important for the research of razmafzar team . together with venous , hessam has found and gained access to many important persian manuscripts .\n10 ) dr . denis toichkin from ukraine is a leading arms and armor historian and researcher and the author of a book on the history of cossack cold steel . he is recognized as a specialist in the late medieval and modern history of eastern european arms and armor . he has published on persian arms with me in leading ukranian journals and we are going to publish further articles on persian arms and armor in future . he plays a pivotal role in arms and armor research in our team .\nfap : razmafzar is a large , complex art . when a new student wishes to begin training , where do they start ? what are the root disciplines of the system ?\nfap : you\u2019ve created the largest single source on persian arms and armour , a companion lexicon , and now a giant overview of persian martial arts and martial culture . all in your spare time ! so what is next for manouchehr khorasani and razmafzar ?\nfreelance academy press is proud to be distributing dr . khorasani\u2019s books here in the united states , and look forward to working with him in the future on other projects .\nenter your email address to subscribe to this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\nwe have profiles of all nine runners and riders for the english biggest filly\u2019s classic the epsom oaks , start time 4 : 30pm . back minding at 8 / 1 to win .\n* worked over the unique epsom downs course during the breakfast with the stars morning on tuesday , may 24 .\n* beaten a neck by seventh heaven on reappearance in listed betfred mobile oaks trial at lingfield park on may 7 .\n* success came with a length and a half victory in a mile maiden on good to soft going at nottingham in october .\n* debut came in a mile maiden at haydock park on september 26 last year when third on soft ground .\nborn : december 5 , 1980 based : kremlin cottage stables , newmarket background : he is the eldest son of lord adrian palmer and grew up in the scottish borders , learning to ride at a very young age . he went to eton . before becoming a trainer , he spent time working for cheveley park stud and john warren at highclere stud . he was assistant to trainer patrick chamings and then spent three seasons as hughie morrison\u2019s assistant . after five years as an assistant in the uk , he enjoyed a successful 15 - month spell in australia with leading trainer gai waterhouse . he returned to the uk , took out a licence in 2011 and has made an increasing impact , sending out 35 british & irish winners who earnt more than \u00a31 million in prize money last year .\n* beaten nine lengths into fifth by so mi dar in group three musidora stakes at york on may 11 .\n* got off the mark at the third attempt in a mile polytrack maiden at lingfield park in february .\n* made her debut in a mile maiden on kempton park\u2019s polytrack on november 30 , finishing fifth of 10 .\n* out of high - class racemare barshiba & a half - sister to last year\u2019s 50 / 1 group one juddmonte international heroine arabian queen .\n* stayed on take third , beaten a length , behind somehow in the listed cheshire oaks on may 4 .\n* made a winning debut in a mile polytrack maiden at kempton park on november 30 .\nother major wins include : breeders\u2019 cup marathon ( 2008 muhannak ) . , middleton stakes ( 2015 secret gesture ) , german 1 , 000 guineas ( 2012 electrelane ) , fred darling stakes ( 2005 penkenna princess , 2010 puff , 2012 moonstone magic , 2015 redstart ) , qipco british champions fillies & mares stakes ( 2015 simple verse )\nborn : september 6 , 1995 background : nephew of former jump jockey jim culloty , who won three cheltenham gold cups on best mate and trained the 2014 winner lord windermere . murphy began riding at the age of four and competed in pony races and show jumping . joined culloty\u2019s cork yard at the age of 13 before teaming up with tommy stack two years later . started riding out for ireland\u2019s champion flat trainer aidan o\u2019brien at 16 and then moved to england to work for andrew balding in october , 2012 . first win came aboard imperial glance at salisbury on june 16 , 2013 . capped 2013 with a memorable four - timer on ayr gold cup day , including in the feature on highland colori . had a three - month spell with leading australian trainer danny o\u2019brien in 2013 / 2014 . was appointed second jockey behind andrea atzeni to qatar racing ltd ahead of 2015 flat season and become first jockey to the organisation when atzeni returned to roger varian .\n* exercised at the course during the breakfast with the stars morning on tuesday , may 24 .\n* beaten four and half lengths into fourth by so mi dar in group three musidora stakes at york on may 11 .\n* runner - up to godolphin\u2019s linguistic on reappearance in the valuable tattersalls millions 3 - y - o trophy at newmarket on april 14 .\n* sole victory came easily in a mile maiden at goodwood on september 1 , 2015 .\nfirst winner : gained his first two successes on the same day when golden scissors was successful on the flat at beverley and wessex warrior over hurdles at wincanton on march 30 , 1990 .\nsuccess in uk : after a relatively slow start in his first few years in britain , with the winters spent riding in india , de sousa nearly returned to brazil but the 2010 uk season saw a distinct upturn in his fortunes as he rode 100 winners , for trainers such as david o\u2019meara , geoff harker and mark johnston . in 2011 , he rode primarily for johnston and enjoyed 161 uk victories , challenging for the british jockeys\u2019 title . de sousa\u2019s first british classic ride came on outsider danum dancer in the 2007 2000 guineas , while he won the indian derby on antonios in 2009 . he was appointed as a retained rider to godolphin in february , 2012 but parted ways with maktoum family\u2019s operation in mid - 2014 despite enjoying considerable success . he has ridden as a freelance since then and became champion jockey in britain for the first time in 2015 .\nbig - race wins : dubai world cup ( 2014 african story ) , qipco champion stakes ( 2013 farhh ) , lockinge stakes ( 2013 farhh ) , dubai duty free stakes ( 2013 sajjhaa ) , premio roma ( 2012 hunter\u2019s light ) , juddmonte international ( 2015 arabian queen ) . accolades : stobart champion flat jockey 2015\n* bidding to become the first filly since kazzia in 2002 to complete the 1000 guineas - investec oaks double .\n* crowned european champion two - year - old filly last season following victories in the g1 moyglare stud stakes at the curragh & g1 dubai fillies\u2019 mile at newmarket .\n* comes in on the back of defeat having gone down by a head to jet setting in the irish 1 , 000 guineas at the curragh on may 22 , the pair clear . minding banged her head leaving the stalls . a cut and bruising were minor and have healed .\n* made her debut on june 11 , 2015 in a leopardstown seven - furlong maiden and finished second . she got off the mark next time out a similar race over six furlongs at the same course on june 25 .\n* dam was top - class over a mile and galileo won the investec derby in 2001 .\n* unbeaten in two starts this season and last time out got the better of architecture by a neck in the listed oaks trial at lingfield park on may 7 .\n* odds - on favourite when making a winning return in a mile polytrack maiden at dundalk on april 18 .\n* had the first of two starts as a juvenile at leopardstown when seventh of 13 in a seven - furlong maiden on september 12 , 2015 . two weeks later , she finished fourth in another seven furlong at newmarket .\nborn : buttevant , co cork , ireland , november 13 , 1980 . background : joined aidan o\u2019brien\u2019s ballydoyle stable as a teenager and gained his first british classic success on 50 / 1 chance qualify in the 2015 investec oaks . has ridden across the world with major success in ireland , france , the uae , the usa , canada and india . first winner : my - lorraine , sligo , june 24 , 1997 . british classic wins ( 1 ) : investec oaks ( 2015 qualify ) big - race wins include : irish derby ( 2011 treasure beach ) , irish oaks ( 2014 bracelet ) , secretariat stakes ( 2011 treasure beach ) , phoenix stakes ( 2002 spartacus ) , poule d\u2019essai des poulains ( 2007 astronomer royal ) , criterium international ( 2009 jan vermeer ) , canadian international ( 2010 joshua tree ) , american st leger ( 2012 jakkalberry ) , uae derby ( 2012 daddy long legs ) , queen elizabeth ii challenge cup ( 2011 together ) . has also enjoyed significant success in india , winning the indian derby , calcutta derby and bangalore derby in 2007 , and also rode one winner in hong kong in the 2013 / 14 season .\n* supplemented at a cost of \u00a330 , 000 following her length victory in the listed height of fashion stakes at goodwood on may 19 . snow fairy took the same 10 - furlong contest at goodwood in 2010 on her way to investec oaks glory .\n* third on debut in a 10 - furlong maiden at ascot on may 6 .\nchampion owner in britain ( 10 times ) : 1996 , 1998 , 1999 , 2001 , 2004 , 2006 , 2007 , 2012 , 2013 and 2015 .\n* overcame greenness to win the listed cheshire oaks by half a length on may 4 , with diamonds pour moi back in third .\n* made a successful reappearance on heavy ground in a 10 - furlong maiden at leopardstown on april 6 .\n* debut came in a leopardstown seven - furlong maiden on october 25 , 2015 when third to stable companion pretty perfect .\n* fifth foal of alexandrova who captured the investec , irish and yorkshire oaks in 2006 for same connections .\nborn : james anthony heffernan on july 17 , 1972 . background : based at aidan o\u2019brien\u2019s ballydoyle stable since 1996 . like o\u2019brien , gained his grounding at jim bolger\u2019s stable . twice second in the investec derby and won the investec oaks on was in 2012 . accolades : jointly ireland\u2019s champion apprentice in 1994 . british classic wins ( 1 ) : investec oaks ( 2012 was ) . other major wins include : irish derby ( 2007 soldier of fortune , 2008 frozen fire ) , irish 1 , 000 guineas ( 2001 imagine , 2008 halfway to heaven , 2011 misty for me ) , irish st leger ( 2008 septimus ) , irish champion stakes ( 2010 cape blanco , 2011 so you think ) , eclipse stakes ( 2011 so you think ) , sun chariot stakes ( 2008 halfway to heaven ) , moyglare stud stakes ( 2008 again , 2010 misty for me , 2015 minding ) , national stakes ( 2000 beckett , 2010 power ) , keeneland phoenix stakes ( 2012 pedro the great ) , pretty polly stakes ( 2011 misty for me , 2015 diamondsandrubies ) , crit\u00e9rium international ( 2006 mount nelson ) , middle park stakes ( 2011 crusade ) , secretariat stakes ( 2015 highland reel )\n* high - class two - year - old over a mile , winning the group two may hill stakes at doncaster before taking second behind ballydoyle in the group one prix marcel boussac at longchamp .\n* six and a half lengths to make up on minding after coming home sixth on return in the qipco 1000 guineas at newmarket on may 1 .\nownership of turret rocks was recently transferred from jackie , jim bolger\u2019s wife , to june judd who owned the 2009 investec oaks seventh oh goodness me . judd first owned horses in 2001 . she has had success in ireland , including with free judgement in the 2010 g3 tetrarch stakes and 2009 g3 killavullan stakes plus abigail petit in the 2005 g3 tower stakes , though she has yet to have a winner in britain .\nthis site uses akismet to reduce spam . learn how your comment data is processed .\nsarah healy wins her second gold as she takes 1 , 500m title . . .\nat casinorella you will find all new casino sites that is launching with a uk license .\nthe casino market in sweden is one of the fastest growing markets within the entertainment industry . urltoken has analyzed new casinos here ( in swedish ) : urltoken sinon\nurltoken offers the latest reviews of the best new online casinos in finland . visit the website to find more information about the gambling industry .\nfind yourself a brand new online casino and choose from the best at urltoken where you\u2019ll find bonuses and online slots to play for free .\nsportsnewsireland is an irish website launched in 2009 to offer sports fans in ireland an alternative and independent source to keep them up to date with all the news from around the country . every week we bring you live score updates from all levels of gaa , rugby , soccer , racing and athletics .\nthis website uses cookies to improve your experience . we ' ll assume you ' re ok with this , but you can opt - out if you wish . accept read more\nboxing : kildare\u2019s eric donovan teams up with \u2018old friend\u2019 egan for . . .\ngaa fixtures \u2013 hurling & gaelic football in munster , ulster , leinster . . .\nwrite css or less and hit save . ctrl + space for auto - complete .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nurltoken no longer supports internet explorer 9 or earlier . please upgrade your browser .\ntwo metallurgists at stanford university , seeking to produce a ' ' superplastic ' ' metal , appear to have stumbled on the secret of damascus steel , the legendary material used by numerous warriors of the past , including the crusaders . its formula had been lost for generations ."]}
{"id": 1484, "summary": [{"text": "macroscelides is a genus of small shrew-like animals , the round-eared sengis ( also called elephant shrews ) , found in western namibia and in south africa ; they are members of the clade afrotheria .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "there are three known species : namib round-eared sengi , macroscelides flavicaudatus etendaka round-eared sengi , macroscelides micus , which is only found in gravel plains in the etendaka formation of north-west namibia karoo round-eared sengi , or short-eared elephant shrew , macroscelides proboscideus", "topic": 3}], "title": "macroscelides", "paragraphs": ["macroscelides typus a . smith , 1829 ( = sorex proboscideus shaw , 1800 ) .\nspecies account of macroscelides proboscideus on the animal diversity web ( the university of michigan museum of zoology ) .\nnamib round - eared sengi ( macroscelides flavicaudatus ) from wlotzkasbaken , namibia . may 2000 . photo : g . rathbun\nunger , r . , h . kratochvil . 1999 . feeding preferences of short - eared elephant shrews ( macroscelides proboscideus , smith 1829 ) .\nto cite this page : dohring , a . 2002 .\nmacroscelides proboscideus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nto cite this page : dr . ted macrini , 2004 ,\nmacroscelides proboscideus\n( on - line ) , digital morphology . accessed july 9 , 2018 at urltoken\nmacroscelides proboscideus , the short - eared elephant shrew , is one of 15 extant species of the clade macroscelidea . elephant shrews are small mammals ( head and body length : 95 - 315 mm ) characterized by long slender tails ( length : 80 - 265 mm ) , long slender legs , and a long , narrow , semi - flexible snout from which the name derives ( nowak , 1991 ) .\nwe investigated the state of dental eruption in specimens of macroscelides proboscideus and erinaceus europaeus of known age . when m . proboscideus reaches adult size and sexual maturity , few or none of its replaced permanent cheek teeth have erupted . the approximate sequence of upper tooth eruption is p1 , [ i3 , c , m1 ] , [ i1\u20132 ] , m2 , p4 , [ p2 , p3 ] . chronologically , e . europaeus erupts its molars and most premolars prior to m . proboscideus ; but its first two upper incisors erupt after those of m . proboscideus , and its canines erupt around the same time . the approximate sequence of upper tooth eruption in e . europaeus is [ m1 , m2 , p2 , i3 ] , c , m3 , p4 , p3 , i2 , i1 . unlike m . proboscideus , e . europaeus does not reach adult size until all permanent teeth except for the anterior incisors have erupted . while not unique among mammals , the attainment of adult body size prior to complete eruption of the permanent cheek teeth is particularly common among macroscelidids and other afrotherians .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nclick on images for enlargement . click here to see the gallery of photos for the newly discovered gray faced sengi .\ngolden - rumped sengi rhynchocyon chrysopygus weight = 550 g . gedi ruins , kenya photo : galen rathbun\nblack and rufous sengi rhynchocyon petersi minja forest reserve , north pare mountains , tanzania . 28 july 2006 photo : bill stanley\ncheckered sengi rhynchocyon cirnei ( camera trap image ) burigi game reserve , kagera , tanzania . june 2007 photo : charles foley , tanzania mammal atlas project\ncheckered sengi rhynchocyon cirnei ( camera trap of likely estrus female followed by male ) burigi game reserve , kagera , tanzania . june 2007 photo : charles foley , tanzania mammal atlas project\ncheckered sengi rhynchocyon cirnei mareja community reserve , pemba , cabo delgado province , mozambique . 16 june 2011 . photo : galen rathbun\nshort - snouted sengi elephantulus brachyrhynchus weight : 50 g . mankwe wildlife reserve , northwest province , south africa photo : richard yarnell\nshort - snouted sengi elephantulus brachyrhynchus weight : 45 g . zambezi province ( caprivi strip ) , namibia photo : galen rathbun\ncape rock sengi elephantulus edwardii weight = 50 g . traveller\u2019s rest , clanwilliam , northern cape province , south africa photo : galen rathbun\nkaroo rock sengi elephantulus pilicaudus weight = 50 g . loxton , northern cape province , south africa photo : galen rathbun\nbushveld sengi elephantulus intufi weight = 40g . zwartmodder farm , maltahohe district , namibia photo : jack dumbacher\nbushveld sengi elephantulus intufi weight = 40g . windpoort farm , outjo , namibia photo : galen rathbun\neastern rock sengi elephantulus myurus weight = 50 g . matopos national park , zimbabwe , august 1982 photo : tim osborne\neastern rock sengi elephantulus myurus weight = 50 g . weenen game reserve , kwazulu - natal province , south africa photo : david ribble\nnorth african sengi petrosaltator rozeti weight : 50 g midlet , morocco photo : g . rathbun\nrufous sengi elephantulus rufescens mother and young resting on trail through leaf litter . kibwezi , kenya photo : galen rathbun\nrufous sengi elephantulus rufescens neonate - one day old . photo : gene maliniak , national zoological park\nwestern rock sengi elephantulus rupestris weight = 50 g . rehoboth , namibia photo : galen rathbun\nwestern rock sengi elephantulus rupestris weight = 50 g . namibrand nature reserve , namibia photo : jack dumbacher\nwestern rock sengi elephantulus rupestris weight = 50 g . captive eating a grasshopper . photo : chris and tilde stuart\nthe short - eared elephant shrew mostly inhabits namibia , southern botswana , and south africa .\nthe animal only lives in desert and semi - desert areas of the countries in which it is found . it hides in the sparse grass cover or bushes that are a part of these dry areas . they also burrow into the sand .\ncompared to members of the other elephant shrew genus , the short - eared elephant shrew has shorter and rounder ears and lacks the pale rings around the eyes that are typical of those animals . the tail is hairy , with a visible gland on the underside . on the hind feet , the first digit is small and has a claw . the fur is usually long , soft , and is an orange , brown or grayish color on top and a lighter color on the underside . adults often weigh between 40 - 50 grams with 100 - 110mm long bodies and 97 - 130mm long tails . defining skull features include an enlarged auditory bullae and the appearance of three upper incisors , as well as a short rostrum and crowded teeth . females also have six mammae .\nthe breeding season is in the warm , wet months of august and september . a female may have many pregnancies during one breeding season . ( shaw , 1934 )\ngestation for these animals is typically about 56 days and only two young are born , sometimes one . they are born in a very precocial state ; they can run within a few hours after birth , are large in size , and are born with hair and their eyes open . babies are weaned at 16 - 25 days and reach sexual maturity after about 43 days . ( rathbun & fons )\nthe female does not make a nest for the young ; however , she will find a sheltered area and give birth to the young in it . the mother does not guard her young and is gone from the litter most of the time , coming back once a day to feed the young . ( smith , 1829 )\nin the wild , these animals only live for 1 - 2 years . in captivity they can live as long as 3 - 4 years .\nthese animals are mostly diurnal except when threatened by predators . they are usually solitary animals in the wild except when they come together to mate . when mating , females fend off other females and males fight off other males .\nthese elephant shrews take refuge under bush or rocks but also dig burrows or use shelters previously built by other small species , typically rodents . the animals use the burrows like roads to get from place to place . they keep them clean by kicking any debris that clogs their tunnels . they also sand bathe to help keep clean .\nshort - eared elephant shrews typically eat insects , usually termites and ants , and other small invertebrates . they may also feed on plant parts such as roots , shoots , and berries .\nthe animal usually jumps from bush to bush during the day or basks in the sun , but if harassed by diurnal predators , such as hawks , it switches its schedule and looks for food at dusk , hiding in bushes during the day . also , by using their forelimbs these animals can dig tunnels very rapidly to quickly escape predators . few predators prey on the young because the young mature and leave the nest shortly after birth .\nthese elephant shrews help move soil around to create their burrows as well as recycle vacant burrows left from rodent species .\ndue to destruction of its habitat , this species is labeled \u201cvulnerable\u201d by the iucn .\nalyce dohring ( author ) , university of michigan - ann arbor , kate teeter ( editor ) , university of michigan - ann arbor .\nliving in sub - saharan africa ( south of 30 degrees north ) and madagascar .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nin deserts low ( less than 30 cm per year ) and unpredictable rainfall results in landscapes dominated by plants and animals adapted to aridity . vegetation is typically sparse , though spectacular blooms may occur following rain . deserts can be cold or warm and daily temperates typically fluctuate . in dune areas vegetation is also sparse and conditions are dry . this is because sand does not hold water well so little is available to plants . in dunes near seas and oceans this is compounded by the influence of salt in the air and soil . salt limits the ability of plants to take up water through their roots .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\nlincoln park zoo ,\nshort - eared elephant shrew\n( on - line ) . accessed october 4 , 2001 at urltoken .\nregina , u .\nshort - eared elephant shrew\n( on - line ) . accessed october 4 , 2001 at urltoken .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncorbet , g . b . and hanks , j . 1968 . a revision of the elephant - shrews , family macroscelididae . bulletin of the british museum of natural history ( zoology ) 16 : 1 - 111 .\na widespread species occurring in southern namibia , extreme southwestern botswana , and western south africa , particularly the northern , western , and eastern cape ( rathbun 2009 , dumbacher et al . 2012 ) .\nit is believed that over much of its range its numbers are relatively low ( corbet and hanks 1968 , rathbun 2005 , smit et al . 2009 , schubert 2011 , dumbacher et al . 2012 , perrin and rathbun 2013 ) . there are no data on population dynamics of this species , but it is expected that populations will vary greatly in the arid habitats that it occupies , which is possibly correlated to climate regimes and climatic variability , and there are no reasons to believe that these variations , if they indeed occur , are abnormal .\nthere is no indication that this species has ever been used by people for any purposes . it rarely has been exported to various zoological gardens over the last few decades , where husbandry techniques have been developed , breeding has been achieved , and research results have been published ( olbricht 2009 ) .\nthere are no known major threats to the species . habitat modification to relatively small areas may occur near rivers and human population centres due to small - holder and industrial agriculture , mineral extraction , and urban development . changes in habitats due to desertification and bush encroachment and proposed wind and solar energy facilities may adversely alter habitats for sengis and displace them from such areas , but at present these changes do not appear widespread or serious , especially since the species is associated with arid habitats to begin with .\nbecause this species is widespread , it is not in conflict with most human activities ; captive husbandry and breeding methods are well - established ; and it likely occurs in many protected areas ( i . e . , goegap nature reserve , gamkaberg nature reserve , skilpad nature reserve , tankwa karoo national park , mokala national park , ricthersveld national park , augrabies falls national park , namagua national park , and karoo national park ) , therefore there are no conservation actions recommended at present or in the foreseeable future . research topics of conservation relevance include determining the impacts of habitat shifts , including livestock grazing , on local populations , determining the proportion of the total distribution range that occurs in protected areas , and continue to accumulate information on occurrence points ( see urltoken ) .\nrathbun , g . b . & smit - robinson , h . 2015 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nall elephant shrews are endemic to africa . the short - eared elephant shrew is native to namibia , cape province of south africa , and southern botswana ( corbet and hanks , 1968 ; nowak , 1991 ) . the fossil record of macroscelidea also is restricted to africa and extends back to the eocene , but with only three pre - miocene taxa ( butler , 1995 ) .\nrecent analyses of molecular data place macroscelidea in the clade afrotheria , which also includes aardvarks , elephants , hyraxes , golden moles , tenrecs , and sirenians ( murphy et al . , 2001 ) . within afrotheria , elephant shrews form a clade with golden moles and tenrecs ( murphy et al . , 2001 ) . morphological data place macroscelidea as the sister taxon to glires ( rabbits + rodents ; novacek , 1992a , b ) .\nmacrosclides proboscideus inhabits sandy and gravel thornbrush plains and refuges in shallow burrows under bushes ( nowak , 1991 : 183 - 184 ) . the short - eared elephant shrew is mainly diurnal but sometimes crepuscular or nocturnal in activity , and it primarily feeds on insects along with roots , tender shoots , and berries ( nowak , 1991 : 184 ) . this species is mainly solitary in the wild ( nowak , 1991 ) . young are very precocial at birth , being covered with hair and able to move about soon after they are born ( nowak , 1991 ) . four species of elephant shrews are listed as either endangered or vulnerable by iucn , but m . proboscideus is not one of them .\nthis specimen ( amnh 161535 ) was collected from cape province , south africa by tom larson . it was made available to the university of texas high - resolution x - ray ct facility for scanning by ted macrini of the department of geological sciences , the university of texas at austin . funding for scanning was provided by a national science foundation ( nsf ) dissertation improvement grant to mr . macrini . funding for image processing was provided by a nsf digital libraries initiative grant to dr . timothy rowe of the department of geological sciences , the university of texas at austin .\nthe specimen was scanned by matthew colbert on 31 october 2003 along the coronal axis for a total of 630 slices , each slice 0 . 055 mm thick with an interslice spacing of 0 . 055 mm .\ncorbet , g . b . , and j . hanks . 1968 . a revision of the elephant - shrews , family macroscelididae . bulletin of the british museum ( natural history ) . zoology 16 : 47 - 111 .\nmurphy , w . j . , e . eizirik , s . j . o\u2019brien , o . madsen , m . scally , c . j . douady , e . teeling , o . a . ryder , m . j . stanhope , w . w . de jong , and m . s . springer . 2001 . resolution of the early placental mammal radiation using bayesian phylogenetics . science 294 : 2348 - 2351 .\nnovacek , m . j . 1992a . fossils , topologies , missing data , and the higher level phylogeny of eutherian mammals . systematic biology 41 : 58 - 73 .\nnovacek , m . j . 1992b . mammalian phylogeny : shaking the tree . nature 356 : 121 - 125 .\nnowak , r . m . 1991 . walker\u2019s mammals of the world . volume 1 . fifth edition . the johns hopkins university press , baltimore .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 091 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\njoel is a popular keynote speaker with conservation , corporate , and civic groups .\njoel is the founder of the photo ark , a groundbreaking effort to document every species in captivity before it\u2019s too late .\nevery purchase goes directly to support our mission : getting the public to care and helping to save species from extinction .\nraw data on state of eruption and jaw length . \u201cerupt / 10\u201d indicates the number of completely erupted permanent cheek teeth with interlocking occlusion , taken as a proportion out of ten ( indicating presence of all normally erupted cheek teeth ) . in cases where the dentition was incomplete ( e . g . , dentary lost ) , the proportion was calculated out of the maximum possible number of interlocking permanent cheek teeth for that specimen and species . \u201csymph - cond\u201d indicates the distance in mm from the anterior margin of the mandibular symphysis to the posterior margin of the mandibular condyle ( asher and lehmann\n: fig . 1 ) . \u201cprop adult jaw\u201d indicates a given specimen\u2019s symphysis - condyle length divided by the median length obtained for all specimens of that species with the permanent cheek teeth completely erupted ( i . e . , with a \u201cerupt / 10\u201d value of ten ) , as indicated in the column \u201cmedian jaw\u201d . institutional abbreviations are as follows :\nasher rj ( 2005 ) insectivoran grade placental mammals : character evolution and fossil history . in : rose kd , archibald d ( eds ) the rise of placental mammals : origin and relationships of the major clades . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , pp 50\u201370\nasher rj , lehmann t ( 2008 ) dental eruption in afrotherian mammals . bmc biol 6 : 14 doi :\nbeatty b ( 2008 ) craniodental ontogeny in the desmostylia . j vertebr paleontol 283 : 49a\nbronner g ( 1992 ) notes on the early postnatal development of a giant golden mole . koedoe 35 : 57\u201358\ncorbet gb , hanks j ( 1968 ) a revision of the elephant - shrews , family macroscelididae . bull brit mus nat hist zool 16 : 47\u2013111\nde magalhaes jp , costa j , toussaint o ( 2005 ) hagr : the human ageing genomic resources . nucleic acids res 33 : d537\u2013d543 doi :\ndouady cj , catzeflis f , raman j , springer ms , stanhope mj ( 2003 ) the sahara as a vicariant agent , and the role of miocene climatic events , in the diversification of the mammalian order macroscelidea ( elephant shrews ) . proc natl acad sci usa 10014 : 8325 doi :\neisenberg jf , gould e ( 1970 ) the tenrecs : a study in mammalian behavior and evolution . smithson contrib zool 27 : 1\u2013138\nevans fg ( 1942 ) the osteology and relationships of the elephant shrews ( macroscelididae ) . bull am mus nat hist 80 : 85\u2013125\nholroyd p ( 2008 ) new data on dental eruption patterns in condylarths and afrotheres . j vertebr paleontol 283 : 93a\nkellas l ( 1954 ) observations on the reproductive activity , measurement and growth - rate of the dik - dik . proc zool soc lond 124 : 751\u2013784\nlaws r ( 1968 ) dentition and ageing in the hippopotamus . afr wildl j 6 : 19\u201352\nleche w ( 1907 ) zur entwicklungsgeschichte des zahnsystems der s\u00e4ugetiere , zugleich ein beitrag zur stammengeschichte dieser tiergruppe . zoologica stuttg 49 : 1\u2013157\nmorris pa ( 1970 ) a method for determining absolute age in the hedgehog . j zool ( lond ) 161 : 277\u2013281\nmorris pa ( 1978 ) the use of teeth for estimating the age of wild mammals . in : butler pm , joysey ka ( eds ) development , function and evolution of teeth . academic , london , pp 483\u2013494\nolbricht g , kern c , vakhruscheva g ( 2006 ) einige aspekte der fortpflanzungsbiologie von kurzohr - ruesselspringern . zool gart 5\u20136 : 304\u2013316\nrathbun g ( 1979 ) the social structure and ecology of elephant - shrews . fortschr verhaltensforsch 20 : 1\u201376\nrees j , kainer r , davis r ( 1966 ) chronology of mineralization and eruption of mandibular teeth in mule deer . j wildl manage 30 : 629\u2013631 doi :\nrobinette w , jones d , rogers g , gashwiler j ( 1957 ) notes of tooth development and wear for rocky mountain mule deer . j wildl manage 21 : 134\u2013153 doi :\nsauer em ( 1973 ) zum socialverhalten der kurzohrigen elefantenspitzmaus . z saugetierkd 38 : 65\u201397\nsauer fg , sauer em ( 1972 ) zur biologie der kurzohrigen elefantenspitzmaus . (\n( afrosoricida : chrysochloridae ) from kwazulu - natal , south africa . afr zool 39 : 41\u201346\nsmith bh ( 1989 ) dental development as a measure of life history in primates . evolution 43 : 683\u2013688 doi :\nsmith bh ( 2000 ) \u201cschultz\u2019s rule\u201d and the evolution of tooth replacement patterns in primates and ungulates . in : teaford mf , smith mm , ferguson mwj ( eds ) development , function and evolution of teeth . cambridge university press , cambridge pp 212\u2013227\nspringer ms , stanhope mj , madsen o , de jong ww ( 2004 ) molecules consolidate the placental mammal tree . trends ecol evol 19 : 430\u2013438 doi :\ntabuce r , asher rj , lehmann t ( 2008 ) afrotherian mammals : a review of current data . mammalia 72 : 2\u201314 doi :\nvan nievelt a , smith kk ( 2005 ) to replace or not to replace : the significance of reduced tooth replacement in marsupial and placental mammals . paleobiol 31 : 324\u2013346 doi :\nasher , r . j . & olbricht , g . j mammal evol ( 2009 ) 16 : 99 . urltoken"]}
{"id": 1485, "summary": [{"text": "turneria bidentata is a species of ant in the genus turneria .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "described by forel in 1895 , the species is endemic to australia , mostly found in the north ends of the country . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "turneria bidentata", "paragraphs": ["the above specimen data are provided by antweb . please see turneria bidentata for further details\nturneria bidentata occurs in the top end of the northern territory and along the east australian coast from the cape york peninsula to extreme north - eastern new south wales . it is a twig - nesting species that is reasonably common although it is infrequently encountered because of its arboreal nesting habits . it is known to nest in a wide range of tree and shrub species .\nshattuck , s . o . 1990 . revision of the dolichoderine ant genus turneria ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . syst . entomol . 15 : 101 - 117 pdf\nshattuck , s . o . ( 2011 ) turneria rosschinga sp . n . ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , a new dolichoderine ant from australia . myrmecological news 15 , 125 - 128 .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\ncephalic index ( head length / head width ) < 0 . 88 , relative eye length ( eye length / head width ) > 0 . 40 , frontal lobes without erect hairs , lateral areas of head moderately imbricate and with integument opaque , area between propodeal protuberances concave . in lateral profile , the concave region of the declivitous face of the propodeum is more rounded than in other species .\nthe following information is derived from barry bolton ' s new general catalogue , a catalogue of the world ' s ants .\nlectotype ( designated by shattuck , 1990 ) , worker , mackay , queensland , australia , m . g . turner , musee d ' histoire naturelle gen\u00e8ve ; ( lower specimen on pin ) .\nparalectotype ( designated by shattuck , 1990 ) , 1 worker , mackay , queensland , australia , m . g . turner , musee d ' histoire naturelle gen\u00e8ve .\nthe clypeus possesses 8 to 14 erect hairs . color varies from uniform dark brown or black to strongly bicolored with the head , alitrunk , legs and petiole yellow and the gaster brown . in lighter colored individuals , the dorsum of the head may be slightly darker than the mesosoma .\nworker measurements ( n = 25 ) : ood 0 . 15 - 0 . 21 , el 0 . 24 - 0 . 28 , ocd 0 . 10 - 0 . 13 , cl 0 . 13 - 0 . 19 , hl 0 . 65 - 0 . 75 , les 0 . 03 - 0 . 05 , ew 0 . 11 - 0 . 15 , es 0 . 24 - 0 . 28 , hw 0 . 55 - 0 . 66 , sl 0 . 41 - 0 . 46 , pnl 0 . 30 - 0 . 42 , ml 0 . 27 - 0 . 37 , ppl 0 . 23 - 0 . 30 , pnw 0 . 36 - 0 . 43 , mw 0 . 23 - 0 . 30 , ppw 0 . 25 - 0 . 29 , po - 0 . 01 - 0 . 04 , ffl 0 . 41 - 0 . 53 , ffw 0 . 16 - 0 . 21 , mh 0 . 31 - 0 . 39 , pph 0 . 22 - 0 . 29 , ci 0 . 80 - 0 . 88 , oi 0 . 43 - 0 . 57 , rel 0 . 40 - 0 . 48 , si 0 . 70 - 0 . 79 , fi 0 . 34 - 0 . 48 , pi 0 . 63 - 0 . 71 , ppi 0 . 87 - 1 . 10 , rood 0 . 28 - 0 . 33 , poi - 0 . 04 - 0 . 17 , rpo - 0 . 02 - 0 . 07 , rmw 0 . 42 - 0 . 47 , rles 0 . 05 - 0 . 09 , res 0 . 41 - 0 . 45 , rffl 0 . 66 - 0 . 94 .\nbody color in this species is highly variable . populations from the vicinity of cairns are uniform dark brown , mackay - area populations are strongly bicolored , while southern collections from burleigh heads are yellowish brown with the gaster slightly darker ; in extreme cases some workers are yellow - brown with a black gaster . none of these populations diverge in any of other morphological traits , although the cairns - vicinity specimens average slightly , but insignificantly , smaller . for most traits all known specimens broadly overlap . the cairns - vicinity populations diverge slightly from the more southern ones in two metric traits , mw and pph , as follows : mw 0 . 23 - 0 . 27 vs . 0 . 25 - 0 . 30 and pph 0 . 22 - 0 . 25 vs . 0 . 23 - 0 . 29 . the broad overlap in the ranges of these characters make them of little value in separating these populations .\nforel , a . 1895g . nouvelles fourmis d ' australie , r\u00e9colt\u00e9es \u00e0 the ridge , mackay , queensland , par m . gilbert turner . ann . soc . entomol . belg . 39 : 417 - 428 ( page 419 , worker described )\nthis page was last modified on 6 july 2018 , at 19 : 14 .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 02aa5edd - fad6 - 4d09 - 8b7e - c2800d7ad60b\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 0c7269f4 - 32a6 - 41f6 - acef - e1196012a6f4\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 0cdbe1fb - 9c3e - 423a - ba46 - ef8b1724b4c3\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 3f65c802 - 976d - 48a7 - 9e7d - b969c738e786\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : adb80b81 - 29ed - 45e1 - b5f3 - e6087c6f8d33\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : adbcbc0f - 6923 - 413b - baf8 - 22c0f331d576\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f11267f8 - 8878 - 4548 - b313 - 7e9087b01a4c\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f2b5e6b6 - 7d35 - 4845 - 91c0 - 4a359ff5bf11\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 40e82464 - 30c8 - 4921 - 94d9 - 847d0bf98c82\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\na tiny orange ant seen running ( light trail ) along the branches of a shrub , in a suburban yard . they were entering and leaving a hole at the end of a branch , so seems to be a tree - nesting ant . i also accidentally photographed a jumping - spider that appears to be mimicking them ( the disguise worked ) .\nthis sighting hasn ' t been described yet ! be the first to describe this sighting .\n: 419 - worker ; type locality : mackay [ 21 / 149 ] , queensland .\nforel , a . 1895b . 1895 639 nouvelles fourmis d ' australie , recoltees a the ridge , mackay , queensland par m . gilbert turner . annales de la soci _ t _ entomologique de belgique 39 : 417 - 428 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 1488, "summary": [{"text": "the genus spilogale includes all skunks commonly known as spotted skunks and is composed of four different species : s. gracilis , s. putorius , s. pygmaea , s. angustifrons . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "spotted skunk", "paragraphs": ["not all skunk spray is the same . the striped skunk , spotted skunk and hog nosed skunk all have different compounds present in their defensive secretion .\n\u201cmost people think a skunk is a skunk is a skunk , \u201d dowler says .\nentryway to a male eastern spotted skunk\u2019s den . photo courtesy of virginia tech .\n\u00a9 copyright roger barbour . all rights reserved . spilogale putorius - - eastern spotted skunk\nmorphological changes in the blastocyst of the western spotted skunk during activation from delayed implantation .\neastern spotted skunk being fitted with a radio collar . photo courtesy of virginia tech .\nthey found another spotted skunk two days later , on the survey ' s last day .\nisland spotted skunk - channel islands national park ( u . s . national park service )\nisland spotted skunks on the two islands differ only slightly , with those on santa rosa spotted skunk being slightly longer than those on santa cruz .\nexpression of epidermal growth factor receptor in the preimplantation uterus and blastocyst of the western spotted skunk .\nfrostburg state university conducted meso - carnivore surveys within the believed range of the eastern spotted skunk .\nthe eastern spotted skunk is a very small skunk , which ( for comparison sake ) is no larger than a good - sized tree squirrel .\ninhabits the western half of the united states . some taxonomists call the western spotted skunk a subspecies of\nyou are here : home > natural history > nature notes by dr . frank lang > spotted skunk\nmorphological changes in the blastocyst of the western spotted skunk during activation from delayed implantation . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe spotted skunk is not found in new england or the north - central states . spotted skunks are less common and occur most frequently in the highlands of the state .\nthe eastern spotted skunk ( spilogale putorius ) is a small , relatively slender skunk found throughout the eastern united states and in small areas of canada and mexico .\ninformation on the western spotted skunk ( spilogale gracilis ) is being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nthe western spotted skunk is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nexpression of epidermal growth factor receptor in the preimplantation uterus and blastocyst of the western spotted skunk . - pubmed - ncbi\na western spotted skunk stands on its hands to deliver a smelly attack . ( credit : jerry w . dragoo )\nnortheastern state university and dickinson state university are currently studying \u201cfringe mammals\u201d in western north dakota . this includes eastern spotted skunk .\njellison , w . l . 1945 . spotted skunk and feral nutria in montana . j . mammal . 26 . 432 pp .\n\u2022 determine presence of eastern spotted skunk in the state . \u2022 develop a protocol to monitor the eastern spotted skunk in the state . \u2022 develop research to define ecology , resource needs , and population dynamics of this species in the state if found to be present .\nsince insects are the spotted skunk ' s primary source of food , spotted skunks play an important role in insect control . they may also affect predator populations ( great horned owls ) , as items of prey .\nflath , d . 1978 . written communication of western spotted skunk observation and specimen collection to montana natural heritage program , helena , mt .\nkaplan , j . , r . mead . 1994 . seasonal changes in testicular function and seminal characteristics of the male eastern spotted skunk .\nthe eastern spotted skunk ranges from northeastern mexico through the great plains to the canadian border and throughout the southeastern united states north to pennsylvania .\ni first spotted this plant last year while out picking . . . read more\neastern spotted skunk ready to be fitted with a radio collar for the dgif - funded virginia tech research study . photo courtesy of virginia tech .\nif you see a spotted skunk , especially in the eastern half of the state or the panhandle , robert dowler would like to know about it . report your sighting to him at skunk . project @ urltoken .\nclick to enlarge this image . ( 25kb ) spilogale putorius ( eastern spotted skunk ) , appalachian trail click to enlarge this image . ( 326kb )\nthe species of greatest conservation concern is the eastern spotted skunk , or plains spotted skunk , which is found in the eastern half of texas and the panhandle and in the eastern united states . the u . s . fish and wildlife service is considering listing it as a threatened or endangered species .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - western spotted skunk ( spilogale gracilis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - western spotted skunk ( spilogale gracilis )\ntitle =\narkive species - western spotted skunk ( spilogale gracilis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\n: the spotted skunk is the smaller and less common of the two skunks inhabiting the park and has been recorded up to 2 , 900 feet elevation .\nloss of riparian areas is a major concern for eastern spotted skunk . it uses these areas to hunt , and also dens in logs and brush piles .\naverage size spotted skunks , weighing 1 to 4 pounds , are smaller than striped skunks .\nthe eastern spotted skunk is often confused with the more common striped skunk which is a different species . as you can see from the diagram above , compared to spotted skunks , striped skunks are larger in size ( although young striped skunks are often confused with spotteds ) and lack the distinctive spots compared to stripes along their body . more information on the natural history of eastern spotted skunks can be found here .\njellison , w . c . 1931 . little spotted skunk ( spilogale gracilis saxatilis ) , recorded for montana . journal of mammalogy . v12 . page 314 .\nmead , r . a . 1968 . reproduction in western forms of the spotted skunk ( genus spilogale ) . journal of mammalogy 49 : 373 - 390 .\nrecently described as a separate species from the eastern spotted skunk because of differences in color pattern , cranial features , reproductive physiology , and breeding season ; the western spotted skunk is neither endangered nor threatened . it is adapting readily to the new sources of food and habitats provided by civilization ( davis and schmidley 1994 ) .\nthe eastern spotted skunk was once a widespread species across the midwestern and southeastern states , with harvests exceeding 100 , 000 animals a year for pelts . in the 1940s , populations seemed to crash across the animal\u2019s range . texas put the plains spotted skunk on its watch list and awarded dowler a contract to assess its status .\na year later , he finally got rid of the skunk , though the use of the freezer never quite returned to pre - skunk levels .\nisland spotted skunks are only about a third as large as their competitor , the island fox .\njellison , w . l . 1945 . general notes : spotted skunk and feral nutria in montana . journal of mammalogy . 26 ( 4 ) : 432 - 443 .\nwe are all familiar with the striped skunk . bambi ' s friend flower and pepe le pew were striped skunks . in southern oregon we have another , less commonly seen skunk ; spilogale putorius , the spotted skunk , civet , or polecat . spilogale is the greek word for spotted polecat : putorius is latin for stench . some mammalogists consider our more slender western version , s . gracilis , a separate species . gracilis means slender .\neastern spotted skunks are mostly nocturnal . spotted skunks are much more alert and active than most skunks . when threatened , a foul - smelling oily secretion from the skunk ' s anal glands can be projected up to 4 m and is usually directed at the face of the threatening animal . the spotted skunk is noted for its characteristic\nhandstand\nstance that it takes when threatened . before spraying its opponent , this skunk raises up on its front legs and turns its head to watch as it sprays . it is also the only member of the skunk family that can climb . ( davis and schmidley 1994 , grzmek 1972 )\n( common skunk ) , with remarks on the physiological properties of this secretion .\n1990 . new components in defensive secretion of the striped skunk , mephitis mephitis .\neastern spotted skunk is widely distributed and was once common but no overall population estimate is available . currently this species is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) and its numbers today are decreasing .\nrange channel islands spotted skunks currently occur only on santa cruz and santa rosaislands where they are widely distributed . spotted skunks occurred on san miguel island , probably until the late nineteenth century . fossil material has been collected on san miguel island and a spotted skunk was reportedly collected from san miguel island sometime during the 1870s . however , there have been no records of skunks on san miguel since then .\nthe spraying of the extremely foul - smelling fluid from the tail end of a skunk is something that predators , and spouses of skunk researchers , don\u2019t soon forget .\nhooded skunk : the hooded skunk looks much like the striped , but has a ruff of fur around the neck , and a very long , lush white plume for a tail . hog - nosed skunk : this is the least common skunk ; it is all white on the top of head , back , and tail . the underparts are black . there is a bare patch of skin on this skunk\u2019s long nose .\nnowhere in its range is the spotted skunk as common as the striped skunk , and in recent years it has declined drastically due to loss of habitat . formerly , the plains spotted skunk subspecies ( spilogale putorius interrupta ) was most common in the western half of the state , but it is now extremely rare and is listed as endangered in missouri . the decline is due to \u201cclean\u201d farming , which eliminates cover this species requires . pesticides have hastened the decline of these insectivores .\nthe average spotted skunk litter size is 3 to 5 . the young of both species are born blind and are not weaned until 8 to 9 weeks of age . family units stay together until fall\nthe spotted skunk has a range that covers most of the us and mexico , although the species is a bit less populous than the striped skunk . even less common are the hooded and hog - nosed species , which are only native to parts of the midwest , southwest and mexico .\nwhen texas parks and wildlife department mammalogist jonah evans came across a road - killed spotted skunk and decided to save the specimen in the freezer at work , his co - workers were less than enthusiastic .\nit is distinguished from spotted skunk subspecies on the mainland by its shorter tail and less white abdominal coloration , slightly larger size , broader skull , and proportionately less white and blacker in the fur . like the mainland subspecies , the island spotted skunks exhibit sexual size differences , with males averaging 28 % larger than females . this skunk is considerably smaller than striped skunks on the mainland and has softer , glossier fur .\n= 0 . 034 ) . a posteriori tests revealed nonsignificant effects of overall predator abundance on the likelihood of pausing and scan length . there was a significant interaction between shape and skunk abundance with animals more likely to pause at skunk - shaped models with increasing skunk abundance (\nthe most well - known skunk characteristic is , of course , its ability to spray .\n, 1982 . chemical constituents of the defensive secretion of the striped skunk ( mephitis mephitis ) .\nevans\u2019 sticky note that said \u201cdo not eat\u201d on the skunk\u2019s ziploc bag wasn\u2019t too funny either .\ndowler and evans both want to know more about how the different skunk species divide up habitat .\nooooh , that smell . . . must be skunk : the humane society of the united states\ndowler\u2019s team is in the process of surveying 10 sites to find where the eastern spotted skunk is , and isn\u2019t . at each site , his team uses 120 traps or detection devices , checked daily during a weeklong survey .\nreproduction the breeding season for spotted skunks on the islands is probably similar to spotted skunks on the mainland . western spotted skunks mate in september and october , and following delayed implantation and a 210 - 310 day gestation , give birth in april and may to 2 - 6 . counts of three and five uterine scars were recorded from two skunks collected at santa cruz island in september .\nas north america ' s smallest skunk , these nocturnal mammals weigh two pounds or less and are under 20 inches long . the weasel - like spotted skunk differs from other skunks by its extremely silky fur and an arrangement of irregular elongated white patches the length of its body . spotty ' s tail is tipped in white .\nstriped skunks are native to north america , and can be found in northern mexico , throughout the united states , and as far north as central canada . other species of skunks , such as the spotted skunk and the hog - nosed skunk , can be found further south , ranging from canada to central and south america . stink badgers , which resemble the hog - nosed skunk , are strictly found in the philippines , malaysia , and indonesia . the striped skunk can be found throughout florida , except for in the keys .\nimage source : photo taken by the skunk stripe at the san bernardino county museum , with permission .\ni had an encounter with a skunk a few years back which ended very quickly . the reason ?\na striped skunk skull description : similar to a mink skull but larger . photo credits : dallas virchow\ntheir markings are different , too . spotted skunks have multiple , broken white stripes , plus spots on the rump and the head .\nconservation status according to the iucn red list ( 2008 ) , the western spotted skunk is listed as least concern as they are widely distributed in a variety of habitats including human altered habitats . the species may be declining in parts of the united states but not at a rate fast enough to be threatened . in contrast , prior to the recent upswing in skunk numbers on the islands , the island spotted skunk was thought to be rare , and was listed as a species of special concern by the state of california . when the island spotted skunk had a small population and was not well - studied , the skunk that time was designated as a species of concern . however , recent surveys now show a remarkable recovery in the species . on santa rosa island , skunks are marked and counted during annual population monitoring for island foxes , and as of 2011 there were approximately 3 , 000 skunks on santa rosa island .\nthe most common and recognized skunk species in north america is the striped skunk , whose range extends from the southern half of canada to the northernmost parts of mexico , covering most of the continental united states .\nthe western spotted skunk is as cute as a button , and pretty nifty too . before spraying predators in the face with pungent chemicals , the little creature hops up onto its forelimbs and charges forward . this behavior is meant to intimidate foes , but if you aren\u2019t on the receiving end of the skunk\u2019s stinky ire , it\u2019s delightful to watch .\nthe hooded skunk ( mephitis macroura ) is primarily a mexican species that has been known to inhabit the big bend region of texas . it is more secretive than the striped skunk , with which it is often confused . the hooded skunk has longer , softer fur and a hood of longer hair on the neck and head . it has two color patterns : a white back similar to the hog - nosed skunk , and a black back with white stripes similar to the striped skunk . hooded skunks eat mice , insects and occasionally prickly pear cactus . it is the rarest skunk in texas , though it is abundant in mexico .\nbadger : the badger is a wide - bodied , short - legged creature of about 22 pounds . it has a distinctive white stripe running over its forehead and down its nose . its coat is shaggy , with a yellowish brown color . spotted skunk : the spotted skunk is easy to identify . smaller than the other skunks at about 2 pounds , its bold black and white pattern resembles spots instead of stripes . the tail is black at the base and white at the tip .\nstriped skunks , hog - nosed , and hooded skunks breed in february and march and the babies are born in may and june . spotted skunks breed either later in the spring , in early summer , or in the fall \u2014 as is the case with western spotted skunks .\neastern spotted skunks are very good at catching rodents . they sometimes knock down beehives to get the honeycomb , despite being stung many times .\nimage source ( skunk only ) : robert barber / painet inc . , illinois department of natural resources .\nfrom the back of a pickup , they patrol properties at night , when the skunks are out , and scan the countryside with spotlights and flashlights . when they see one , they\u2019ll bang on the roof of the pickup , yell \u201cskunk ! skunk ! \u201d and jump out in a mad dash to capture the skunk .\nthese methods worked to remove the skunk odor from my home and they should work for you , too .\nskunk plasti - catch cage trap manufactured by minnesota plasti - catch provides a safer way to capture skunks .\nwestern spotted skunks are a bit smaller than the more common striped skunk , and their coat patterns are much more complex . they also seem to have something of an exhibitionist streak : when spraying their trademark noxious musk , western spotted skunks will occasionally flip themselves into a handstand , legs and bushy tail akimbo , as a jet of foul - smelling chemicals shoots from glands on their posteriors .\ndid you know that it is estimated that spotted skunks have undergone a > 99 % decline range - wide since the 1940 ' s . unfortunately , because we know so little about the eastern spotted skunk , we still don ' t completely understand the reason for this decline or even where the species still persists . more information on the conservation status of the species can be found here .\nhabitat spotted skunks on the channel islands show habitat preferences similar to those reportedfor the mainland subspecies . based on radio telemetry studies , spotted skunks on santa cruz island showed a preference for chaparral - grassland , open grassland , fennel - grassland , and ravines . on santa rosa island , spotted skunks were found to be associated with rocky canyon slopes , cactus patches , chaparral , coastal sage scrub , open woodland , other scrub - grassland communities , and riparian habitat along streams . on both islands , the species has also been recorded in or under human dwellings and ranch outbuildings . the elevational range of the channel islands spotted skunk extends from sea level to approximately 2000 feet .\ni was surprised to learn there are four types of skunks in north america : striped , spotted , hog nose and hooded . photos of each are shown below . a wild skunk ' s lifespan is only a few years , but a domesticated pet skunk can - - with proper medical care and a good diet - - live more than a decade .\nsadly , texas is not one of the states that allows pet skunks , so i will probably never have one of my own . however , if i could have a pet skunk , i think my choice would be the spotted skunk . not only are they unique looking , they are also the smallest - - about the same size as a squirrel .\nthe spotted skunk has various areas of white on the body that mix with the black . they don\u2019t feature the famous white stripe that goes down the middle of the back . the spots can be varied through the four species and even by individuals .\nwhen a skunk is ready to spray , nozzles emerge from either side of the skunk\u2019s anus . each nozzle is surrounded by muscle tissue that can contract to direct the discharge 15 feet or more with highly coordinated control .\neastern spotted skunks breed mostly in the later winter months and give birth in late spring to early summer . on average the female skunk will give birth to 4\u20135 baby skunks ( kits ) at a time . it takes twelve weeks before newborn skunks will become fully developed into adult skunks and two months before they develop skunk musk to use as self - defense .\nspotted skunks may inhabit forested and brushy areas as well as agricultural regions . they are often found in crevices in cliffs and in rock slides .\njoyce b . kaplan , rodney a . mead ; seasonal changes in testicular function and seminal characteristics of the male eastern spotted skunk ( spilogale putorius ambarvilus ) , journal of mammalogy , volume 75 , issue 4 , 18 november 1994 , pages 1013\u20131020 , urltoken\nit is extremely difficult to get skunk spray out of fabric , carpet and furniture because it is naturally oily .\ni personally know how difficult it is to remove skunk odor from my home , so do not give up .\nplease note that it\u2019s illegal to trap or shoot spotted skunks in virginia ( unless they are causing damage ) and their pelts may not be sold .\nthe eastern spotted skunk is omnivorous . it feeds primarily on small mammals , fruits , insects , birds , lizards , snakes , and carrion . the stomach of a specimen found near park headquarters in november , 1950 , contained the remains of a northern spring peeper (\na skunk ' s spray is an oily liquid produced by glands under its large tail . to employ this scent bomb , a skunk turns around and blasts its foe with a foul mist that can travel as far as ten feet .\nwant more natural history and wildlife videos ? visit the official bbc earth channel : urltoken bbc earth the bbc earth youtube channel is home to over 50 years - worth of the best animal videos from the bbc archive . with three new videos released every week there\u2019s something for all nature loves from astounding animal behaviour to beautiful imagery . click here to find our more : urltoken enter the amazing world of the spotted skunk with this brilliant clip from bbc wildlife show ' weird nature ' . a chance to see skunk defences at first hand , this short video includes images of a spotted skunk performing foot stomping , hand stands , and predatory spraying to ward off potential attackers .\nspotted skunks are often found near or within forests . their ability to climb trees and move agilely amongst branches in a squirrel - like fashion is most likely the cause of this habitat preference . spotted skunks are also notorious for digging underground burrows on private properties , residing within barns , and constructing burrows near trash receptacles .\nin january , planes dropped doses of oral rabies vaccine across parts of 17 counties in an attempt to fight skunk rabies .\nlead author adam ferguson protects himself from the smell as he works with a skunk . ( credit : the field museum )\neastern spotted skunks seem to prefer forest edges and upland prairie grasslands , especially where rock outcrops and shrub clumps are present . in western counties , it relies heavily on riparian corridors where woody shrubs and woodland edges are present . woody fencerows , odd areas , and abandoned farm buildings are also important habitat for eastern spotted skunks .\nthe western spotted skunk prefers rocky bluffs and brush - bordered canyon stream beds . they make dens in rocky outcrops or hollow logs in the wild ; however , they often live in close association with people , frequently nesting in rock fences or even attics ( davis and schmidley 1994 ) .\ncrabb , w . d . 1944 . growth , development , and seasonal weights of spotted skunks . journal of mammalogy 25 ( 3 ) : 213 - 221 .\na final note of advice to new skunk owners : be diligent and don ' t allow your skunk to wander away from the safe confines of your house . unlike dogs and cats , skunks do not have a homing instinct , so a skunk that gets loose probably will not return home on its own . in the wild , a pet skunk no longer has the ability to defend itself , and is at greater risk of being killed by a dog or fearful human , or hit by an automobile .\n\u201cthe grass was pretty thick , and we couldn\u2019t see into the trap , \u201d perkins says . \u201cwe could just see that the trap was closed . and we could see that the animal had pulled grass into the trap to make a little nest . we gently lifted the cover and saw that a skunk had wrapped itself in the grass . alex was the first one to tell that we had a spotted skunk . \u201d\noption 3 . ( professionals only ) use cat grasping tongs to grab hold of skunk and rescue him from the window well .\nappearance the island spotted skunk can be identified by its complex pattern of white markings on a blackbackground consisting of four to six broken white stripes , a triangular white forehead patch , a series of shorter white stripes resembling spots , and white on part of the abdominal surface and tip of the tail .\nthough they are closely related to striped skunks , spotted skunks are smaller in size and more agile that their cousins . they are omnivores and gladly take advantage of any available food source , like berries , carrion , rodents , and snakes . spotted skunks are mostly known for the pungent and foul - smelling odor they produce to repel predators .\ndowler and his students have been systematically collecting such information , especially on western spotted and hog - nosed skunks , since those species have been studied less than striped skunks . in one three - year study funded by tpwd , dowler monitored the comings and goings of striped , western spotted and hog - nosed skunks at san angelo state park .\nspotted skunks , like their striped cousins , are members of the skunk family and will spray an odorous secretion in self - defense as suggested by their latin scientific name , which translates to \u201cstinking spotted weasel . \u201d however , at just 1\u20132\u00bd pounds , spotted skunks are noticeably more slender and smaller than striped skunks and are not much bigger than a large squirrel . their glossy black fur has 4\u20136 broken white stripes along the back and sides that resemble \u201cspots , \u201d versus the two solid white bands that extends down the back of striped skunks . the feet of spotted skunks are more specialized for climbing ( they are adept tree climbers ) , compared to the powerful feet of striped skunks that are adapted for digging . spotted skunks are more carnivorous than striped skunks , primarily feeding on small mammals , insects , eggs , and even carrion . they typically breed in the later winter or early spring , giving birth to a single litter of 1 \u2013 6 young born in may or june .\nthe hog - nosed skunk presents a particular risk , mostly because of its method of capture . the other skunk species can be trapped , but the hog - nosed typically won\u2019t go into a trap . that means the researchers basically have to chase them down .\nrobert dowler is one of the world\u2019s leading skunk researchers , and he oversees one of the world\u2019s biggest skunk specimen collections . he is a professor at angelo state university in san angelo , which , it turns out , is practically the epicenter of skunkdom in texas .\navoid getting skunk spray in your eyes . wash your hands as soon as you touch the musk with the strongest soap you have .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - striped skunk defence behaviour\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - striped skunk defence behaviour\ntitle =\narkive video - striped skunk defence behaviour\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nmultiple states have ongoing research and monitoring efforts for spotted skunks . a list of current research projects can be found here , and biologists are always eager to hear about new sightings .\nwhen frightened or angered , the eastern spotted skunk may engage in several unique behaviors that may serve as either a bluff or a warning prior to the discharge of the scent . it may stomp or pat its front feet in rapid succession on the floor or ground . it can also do a\nhandstand\non its front feet . the skunk upends itself , holds its tail in the air , and may walk up to several yards in this manner .\nskunks are known to release a powerful smell through their anal glands when threatened . skunks will usually only attack when cornered or defending their young , and spraying is not the first method of defense . a skunk will growl , spit , fluff its fur , shake its tail , and stamp the ground . if the intruder does not leave , the skunk will then lift its tail and spray its famous skunk odor .\nfor the skunk , there\u2019s no better time to spray than when a handful of angelo state students are chasing you with nets and buckets .\nif a skunk has sprayed on any wood or concrete items in your home , you can use this bleach solution to clear the smell .\nskunks follow their noses , so if a garage door is open , a skunk will likely amble in . if the skunk enters the garage , the hsus recommends leaving a garage door open at night and sprinkling flour along the bottom of it so you can see exiting tracks .\nvan gelder , r . g . 1959 . a taxonomic revision of the spotted skunks ( genus spilogale ) . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 117 : 229 - 392 .\nverts , b . j . 1967 . the biology of the striped skunk . univ . illinois press , urbana . vii + 218 pp .\nthe habitat of the western spotted skunk in montana is not well known , but they have been found in arid , rocky and brushy canyons and hillsides . information from other portions of its range suggest that when they are inactive or bearing young they occupy a den in rocks , burrows , hollow logs , brush piles , or under buildings .\na skunk ' s sulfuric spray has a range of up to 10 feet , and its odor can be detected up to 1 . 5 miles .\n) . there was no effect of skunk abundance on mean pause length , total pause length , or time to contact the models . the likelihood of approaching near enough to make contact was unrelated to skunk abundance , although more time was spent in contact with models in areas of higher fox abundance (\nskunks live in a variety of habitats from riparian canyons and wooded areas to arizona uplands and suburbs . they prefer thick , brushy areas . the spotted skunk is most common in rocky , riparian canyons , while the hog - nose is usually found in the middle to higher elevations . none of the skunks are common in the low , dry flats .\nwith the study now in its third year , researchers at virginia tech are beginning to report some interesting preliminary results . using trail cameras stationed at 128 sites in 10 counties , the researchers have documented spotted skunks at 23 different locations . habitat data collected at the surveyed sites suggest that spotted skunks prefer forests with thick understory vegetation , most likely to avoid detection from predators , particularly great horned owls .\nefforts are currently underway to radio - collar spotted skunks , monitor their movements and locate den sites . initial data from 11 radio - collared spotted skunks has tracked them to multiple den sites in underground burrows , hollow logs , and tree cavities . their night time movements have generally been within close range of their den sites . radio tracking data will continue being collected throughout the spring and summer months .\n\u201cmost other skunks are kind of heavy - bodied and not very aware , \u201d evans says . \u201cthey lumber around , and if a predator shows up , they have their defenses , and that\u2019s their game . spotted skunks are more like a skunk crossed with a squirrel . they bound all over the place , and they can climb trees pretty well . \u201d\nrelationship between the relative abundance of striped skunks and the proportion of pauses during approaches to skunk - shaped mounts . two sites ( deer creek hills and sagehen creek field station ) had no visits to skunk - shaped mounts and were thereby excluded from this figure , although all sites were included in statistical analyses .\nopen all windows and doors . turn on a fan . fresh air is the most effective remedy when it comes to removing skunk odor from your home .\nthey often fight over food and location , but they don\u2019t spray each other with their oils . instead , they will bite and scratch until one of them runs away from the battle . many people worry about being bitten by a spotted skunk due to the risk of rabies . it is possible so any human or any pet that gets bit should be tested .\nthey are much more active than any other type of skunk . they have mostly the same predators as any other skunk ( big cats , bobcats , owls , humans , etc . ) . up to eight skunks may share an underground den in the winter . they can also climb and take shelter in trees .\noverall , given the lack of knowledge regarding primary threats ( see threats ) and causes of decline , research is urgently needed to guide conservation action . fortunately , researchers from multiple states and universities currently have ongoing research projects on the species , and in 2015 the eastern spotted skunk cooperative study group was formed to help inform managers of research priorities and potential conservation actions .\nthe coloration scheme isn\u2019t the only difference for the spotted skunk . they have a body that seems very similar in style to that of the weasel . they have short feet and they are very slow moving . they have scent glands that enable them to release powerful scents that are very strong and foul . this is able to help them to defend themselves from predators .\nif your rags reek of skunk afterwards , then then just mix together the same solution as stated above and throw it in the washer with your smelly laundry .\noption 1 . carefully place an 8\nwide board , with cleats to allow skunk to climb out . it is critical that the board not be too steep or a skunk won ' t be able to climb it . endeavor to make the slope less than a 45 degree angle . photo by : dallas virchow .\nthe spotted skunk survey project is not a statewide project in the vmn volunteer management system . virginia master naturalist volunteers who want to participate should make sure that it is an approved project within their chapter . a project proposal form is provided below to aid in that process . chapters may adapt this form by adding a local contact person or other details pertinent to their areas .\nskunks often issue warnings before spraying . striped and hooded skunks stomp their feet . hog - nosed skunks may rear up on their hind legs . spotted skunks get acrobatic and perform a handstand with their tail aloft .\nthe musk is stored in two large scent glands near the anus . each scent glad has an associated nipple that the musk is sprayed from . there is one on the left side of the anus , and the other on the right side . muscles around the scent glands allow the skunk to aim its spray with a great degree of accuracy . in fact , a skunk can hit a target up to fifteen feet away ! normally , a skunk will aim for the eyes of whatever animal is threatening it , but if the threat is not within sight , a skunk will instead spray a cloud of musk that the pursuing animal will have to run through .\ni found the tracks of spotted , hog - nosed and striped skunks all within a few feet of each other . that\u2019s three skunks cohabitating in the exact same area . but they all have their own approach . \u201d\nstriped skunks are considered fur - bearing animals throughout their range . typically , they are abundant enough to permit unlimited taking . spotted and hog - nose skunks are less plentiful and may have harvest restrictions in your area .\nwhen a skunk is being chased , it can emit an atomized cloud that the pursuing predator must run through . when a skunk is under a bush or cornered , it can aim a direct stream of yellow discharge at a predator\u2019s face . both are effective methods of deterring an intruder . the active ingredient of the foul - smelling discharge is a sulphide known as n - butyl mercaptan , which can sting the skin , cause temporary blindness and produce a pungent , gagging odor that is unmistakably skunk .\nthere are no major threats to this species . the main cause of current mortality of this species is represented by automobile roadkills ( rosatte , 1987 ) . the pelts of both eastern and western spotted skunks represent an insignificant fraction of the modern fur trade . in the 1983 - 1984 trapping season , 5 , 588 pelts described as spotted skunk were harvested in the united states ( novak et al . , 1987 ) . the species is declining in the midwest and portions of the east , but common in southern florida ( reid 2006 ) . pesticides present a threat to the species in areas with intensive agriculture .\naverage home range is around 1 / 4 sq mi ( schwartz and schwartz 1981 ) . not as abundant as striped skunk ( mephitis mephitis ) in most of range .\nstriped skunk : there is variation in patterning among the skunks , but the striped usually has a black back with a white stripe along its sides . the tail is black with a white tip . the striped is a medium - to large - sized skunk at about 6 to 10 pounds ( 2 . 7 - 4 . 5 kg ) .\nwhich are broken in pattern , giving it a\nspotted\nappearance . they have a white spot on their forehead . they are found in canada ( southeast manitoba and northwestern ontario ) , the united states and northeastern mexico .\nsince the animal is being considered for endangered species status , that means finding one can be akin to searching for bigfoot . dowler and his students surveyed a site in fort worth for a week and found no spotted skunks , despite a trail camera having shown one there earlier in the year . at lake somerville state park , a week\u2019s worth of trapping and camera surveillance turned up no spotted skunks either . they were getting \u2014 you guessed it \u2014 skunked .\ndespite this potent defense , the skunk isn ' t without preditors . occasionally a wolf , fox , or bobcat will kill a skunk , but the main danger is from birds of prey . hawks , falcons , and owls have excellent vision and hunt mainly by sight . one thing they don ' t have is a good sense of smell . lacking this , they have never learned to fear skunks . the great horned owl , in particular , makes the skunk a mainstay of its diet , and is the single greatest predator of skunks .\nwhat all skunk species have in common is that their oily , yellow secretion contains sulfur compounds ( namely , thiols and their acetate derivatives ) which gives it the infamously repulsive odor .\nskunk spray is a bit like glitter or poison oak ; it gets on anything you touch . so don ' t touch furniture or other people because they will stink , too .\nthe eastern spotted skunk remains a level iii species of conservation priority . efforts to document the species in swg t - 12 - r evaluating the distribution and abundance of river otters and other meso - carnivores in eastern north dakota drainage : applications of gis , genetic and digital technologies for conservation planning were unsuccessful . it has recently been petitioned for protection under the endangered species act and north dakota is considered within its range .\nif you have trail camera photos or other verifiable evidence regarding occurrences of spotted skunks in virginia , please contact dgif\u2019s furbearer biologist , mike fies , at 540 - 248 - 9390 or by e - mail at mike . fies @ urltoken .\nthe spotted skunk is the only one able to climb trees , which expands its foraging opportunities . this small skunk breeds in september and october , but delayed implantation results in the young being born in may . the other skunks all breed in the spring , with most babies born in may . the 3 to 7 kits stay with the mother through the summer , accompanying her on nocturnal hunting forays , before dispersing in the fall . evidence of skunks in an area includes many divots in the earth and other signs of rooting , as well as scat containing berries , insect parts , and bits of fur .\n\u201call the people at work were frustrated because they wanted to use the freezer , and i just took a long time to hand the skunk off to bob dowler , \u201d evans says .\nwell , the smell ( eventually ) dissipated from my body . . . but now i was left with a putrid skunk smell inside from everything i ' d touched or passed by .\neastern spotted skunks are omnivores . in winter they eat corn and cottontails ; in spring , insects and native field mice ; in summer , insects and small amounts of fruit , birds , and birds ' eggs ; in fall , mostly insects .\nin general , spotted skunks grow between one to two feet in length and weigh around a pound and a half . they have black fur with erratic white striping , and many individuals also bear a single white spot on their foreheads . their loud and striking coloration is thought to function as a warning for predators . animals and humans who fail to recognize the threat are sprayed with the odor that emanates from the skunk ' s anal glands .\nthe western spotted skunk looks much like the eastern spotted skunk except that the white areas are more extensive . both are relatively small and slender . they are black with a white spot on their forehead and in front of each ear . they have a pair of dorsolateral white stripes on the anterior portion of their bodies beginning at the back of their head , a pair of lateral stripes confluent with the spots in front of the skunk ' s ears , and a ventrolateral pair which begins just behind the forelegs . these cut off at mid - body and the posterior portion of the skunk ' s body has two interrupted white bands , a white spot on each side of the rump and two more at the base of the tail . the underside of the tail is white for nearly half its length and the tip is extensively white . the ears are short and low on the sides of the head . they have five toes on each foot but the claws on the front feet are more than twice as long as those on the back feet , sharp , and recurved . males average 423mm in length ( 134 of that being tail ) and 565 g in weight . females average 360 mm ( 129 tail ) and 368 g ( davis and schmidley 1994 ) .\nonly great horned owls\u2014with built - in protective \u201cgoggles\u201d and very little sense of smell\u2014seem to prey on skunks regularly . many big owls smell skunky and have skunk - bitten feet . as far as the oddsmakers of natural selection are concerned , skunk defenses are superlative . but like porcupines , skunks seem to be as vulnerable to tiny parasites as they are well - defended against big predators .\nthe eastern spotted skunks is a small , relatively slender skunk with a body shape like a weasel . its black - and - white color is a warning against harming this small creature , as its defense mechanism is the emission of noxious odors from its well - developed scent glands . this mammal is also known as the civet cat , but this is incorrect and misleading because it is neither closely related to old world true civets nor to cats .\ngc - ms analysis of the anal sac secretion from the spotted skunk , spilogale putorius , showed three major volatile components : ( e ) - 2 - butene - 1 - thiol , 3 - methyl - 1 - butanethiol , and 2 - phenylethanethiol . minor volatile components identified from this secretion were : phenylmethanethiol , 2 - methylquinoline , 2 - quinolinemethanethiol , bis [ ( e ) - 2 - butenyl ] disulfide , ( e ) - 2 - butenyl 3 - methylbufyl disulfide , bis ( 3 - methylbutyl ) disulfide . all of these compounds except 2 - phenylethanethioi have been identified previously from the striped skunk , mephitis mephitis . the thioacetate derivatives s - ( e ) - 2 - butenyl thioacetate , s - 3 - methylbutanyl thioacetate , and s - 2 - quinolinemethyl thioacetate found in the striped skunk were not seen in this species .\ntexas has five species of skunk \u2014 more than any other state \u2014 and that makes texas a darn good place to study skunks , if you\u2019re into that kind of thing . bob dowler is .\na skunk may send its musk flying into the air if it feels threatened in any way whatsoever , or if it is startled ( a word of advice : skunks are startled very easily ) .\nuntil just a few years ago , very little was known about the distribution and ecology of spotted skunks in the central and southern appalachian region . to help address this knowledge gap , the virginia department of game and inland fisheries ( dgif ) recently funded a 3 - year research project conducted by virginia tech\u2019s department of fish and wildlife conservation . the project seeks to determine the population status of spotted skunks in virginia , investigate forest and landscape conditions that influence their distribution , and study their movement patterns and habitat selection .\nin addition to performing a handstand before spraying a potential predator , the skunk also performs what foot stamping , which involves the skunk stamping its feet on the ground in order to warn an approaching predator . the stamping can be heard for several meters away and is usually followed by the skunk spraying its odorous solution . when these skunks encounter an egg that they want to eat they will straddle the egg with their front legs and bite the egg open . if this fails they will then proceed to use their front legs to push the egg back and kick it with one of their hind legs .\ni couldn ' t wait to see what had been going on at the site . while no spotted skunks were discovered in my area , many other species and interesting behaviors were documented . i look forward to the opportunity to participate in this study again .\nskunk coloration is the opposite of camouflage ; it\u2019s to a skunk\u2019s advantage to be conspicuous and recognized , since its defenses are so good . the rare animal that fails to stay clear may receive additional warnings such as forefoot stamping , tail raising , or a handstand with tail displayed forward like a big white pom - pom . spotteds can spray from the handstand , but usually return to all fours ."]}
{"id": 1489, "summary": [{"text": "pseudaelurus is a prehistoric cat that lived in europe , asia and north america in the miocene between approximately 20 to 8 million years ago .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it is an ancestor of today 's felines and pantherines as well as the extinct machairodont saber-tooths , and is a successor to proailurus .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "it originated from eurasia and was the first felid to reach north america , when it entered the continent at about 18.5 ma ending a ' cat-gap ' of 7 million years .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the slender proportions of the animal , together with its short , viverrid-like legs , suggest that it may have been an agile climber of trees . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "pseudaelurus", "paragraphs": ["' felis ( pseudaelurus ) intrepidus is recombined as pseudaelurus intrepidus ' according to t . rothwell 2004 ' felis quadridentata is recombined as pseudaelurus quadridentatus ' according to gervais 1850 ' felis quadridentata is recombined as pseudaelurus quadridentatus ' according to t . rothwell 2004 ' lynx stouti is recombined as pseudaelurus stouti ' according to t . rothwell 2004 ' pseudaelurus aeluroides belongs to pseudaelurus ' according to t . rothwell 2004 ' pseudaelurus cuspidatus belongs to pseudaelurus ' according to x . wang et al . 1998 ' pseudaelurus cuspidatus belongs to pseudaelurus ' according to t . rothwell 2004 ' pseudaelurus guangheensis belongs to pseudaelurus ' according to z . cao et al . 1990 ' pseudaelurus guangheensis belongs to pseudaelurus ' according to t . rothwell 2004 ' pseudaelurus lorteti belongs to pseudaelurus ' according to t . rothwell 2004 ' pseudaelurus marshi belongs to pseudaelurus ' according to t . rothwell 2004 ' pseudaelurus romieviensis belongs to pseudaelurus ' according to roman and viret 1934 ' pseudaelurus romieviensis belongs to pseudaelurus ' according to t . rothwell 2004 ' pseudaelurus skinneri belongs to pseudaelurus ' according to t . rothwell 2003 ' pseudaelurus skinneri belongs to pseudaelurus ' according to t . rothwell 2004 ' pseudaelurus turnauensis belongs to pseudaelurus ' according to hoernes 1882 ' pseudaelurus turnauensis belongs to pseudaelurus ' according to t . rothwell 2004 ' pseudaelurus validus belongs to pseudaelurus ' according to t . rothwell 2004 ' pseudaelurus belongs to felidae ' according to t . rothwell 2004\nphylogenetic systematics of north american pseudaelurus ( carnivora , felidae ) . american museum novitates ; no . 3403\ndata table results : there are arguments for and against sexual dimorphism being the explanation for some character differences between species of fossil felids . arguments for include : ( 1 ) sexual dimorphism is seen in modern felid species , at the very least in body size and skull length in small felids . ( 2 ) the fossil felids pseudaelurus skinneri and pseudaelurus stouti display differences in c - - p3 length that could also be interpreted as sexual dimorphism . ( 3 ) the fossil felids pseudaelurus intrepidus and pseudaelurus marshi are size and temporally equivalent . specimens of the two species are sometimes found in the same paleontological localities ( quarries ) . arguments against include : ( 1 ) a similar range in c - - p3 length and dentary height and width is not seen in the fossil felid pseudaelurus validus . pseudaelurus validus and some modern species do not exhibit sexual dimorphism in the lower jaw . ( 2 )\nrothwell , t . 2002 . phylogenetic systematics of north american pseudaelurus ( carnivora : felidae ) . bulletin of the american museum of natural history ( in press )\nmodern assemblages of felids sometimes contain at least two species that are indistinguishable in jaw length . ( 3 ) the p error for the hypothetical pseudaelurus intrepidus - - pseudaelurus marshi ( male - female ) species that i created in this tab le ( 0 . 0001 ) is far outside the range of p error seen in the four modern species studied ( 0 . 28 - - 0 . 008 ) . the results appear inconclusive , due primarily to the variability of the sexual dimorphism displayed by different species of living felids . however , if pseudaelurus intrepidus and pseudaelurus marshi were indeed sexually dimorphic members of the same species , the males and females differed far more than any of the four living felids that i studied .\nall modern day cats in the americas are descended from the pseudaelurus , which crossed over to north america using the bering land bridge that once connected alaska with asia 18 . 5 million years ago .\nrothwell , t . 2001 . a partial skeleton of pseudaelurus ( carnivora : felidae ) from the namb\u00e9 member of the tesuque formation , espa\u00f1ola basin , new mexico . american museum novitates 3342 : 1 - 31 .\nthe oldest known true felid ( proailurus ) lived in the oligocene and miocene eras . during the miocene , it gave way to pseudaelurus . pseudaelurus is believed to be the latest common ancestor of the two extant subfamilies , pantherinae and felinae , and the extinct subfamily , machairodontinae . this group , better known as the sabertooth cats , became extinct in the late pleistocene era . it includes the genera smilodon , machairodus , dinofelis , and homotherium .\npseudaelurus (\nfalse cat\n) was named by french zoologist paul gervais in 1850 , who based the designation on a single mandible that had been described over a decade earlier by another frenchman , edouard lartet , who thought it resembled that of the modern hyena .\nthe first cat to immigrate into the americas ( which it did via the land bridge across the bering sea during the early miocene ) , pseudaelurus gave rise to the saber - toothed cats known as smilodon . it is also believed to be the ancestor of all modern cats , including the domestic house cat .\ni review the fossil felid literature , researching the early history of the genus pseudaelurus in europe . i examine type pseudaelurus specimens from europe , asia , and north america and emend the generic diagnosis . a large body of new material from the frick collection of the american museum is described and specimens are assigned to one of six species . one species is new and one is transferred from lynx . new material includes two partial skeletons assigned to two separate species , several skulls , one skull with associated lower jaws and intact basicranium , numerous maxillary and lower jaw specimens , and isolated postcranial items . cranial , basicranial , and postcranial material of the frick specimens is compared to that of european taxa as well as to modern felids . a cladistic analysis of 10 taxa and 23 characters produces hypotheses of felid relationships\n- - p . 2 .\napproximately twelve species of pseudaelurus once roamed the plains of eurasia , africa , and north america between 20 and 8 million years ago . all of them looked much like modern cats except for having shorter\nhand\nand\nfoot\nbones , hind limbs longer than forelimbs , and a long , flexible back . the smallest species was about the size of a modern house cat , the largest about the size of a modern cougar ( about 5 feet long and 50 pounds ) .\nthis is an illustration of the type specimen of pseudaelurus marshi , a fossil lower jaw of a cat who lived in north america in the middle miocene , approximately 13 million years ago . the illustration is featured in the original description of this fossil , written by the paleontologist malcolm rutherford thorpe in 1922 . i scanned this illustration and then added the reference to the distance from c - p3 . early on in my research on the early cats of north america , i realized that the space between the lower canine ( c ) and the third premolar ( p3 ) was a character that could possibly differentiate species in both extinct and modern felid taxa .\nthis wonderful fossil ( unsm 25490 ) is a partial skull , the type specimen of pseudaelurus stouti , a small cat who lived in north america approximately 14 million years ago . it is housed in the university of nebraska state museum . we are looking at the upper dentition . this cat was similar in size as our domestic cats of today . however , notice that this cat has four upper premolars . the cat in your house or barn would have p2 , but no longer has p1 . the modern , domestic cat has evolved without a first upper premolar ( p1 ) . it has lost this anatomical feature or character . photo by tom rothwell\nstratigraphic chart : this is a rough estimate of stratigraphic ranges for various fossil felids . as new specimens are discovered , or as fossil localities are dated more precisely , these ranges will change . the first north american felids arrived during a major dispersal from eurasia to north america that began approximately 20 m . y . ago . the early fossil felid record of asia is poor . only a small number of specimens have been recovered from early and middle miocene localities . therefore , the stratigraphic range of pseudaelurus in asia is less certain than europe and north america . my present felid research project is a study of the early north american saber - tooth cats , often referred to as the machairodont felids . nimravides and machairodus are two of the earliest north american saber - tooth cats . na felis refers to the stratigraphic range of fossils of the modern felids .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\namerican museum novitates . ( ejournal / emagazine , 2000 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : american museum novitates . publisher : new york , ny : american museum of natural history . , 2000 - isbn / issn : 0003 - 0082 oclc : 290015062\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nfull reference : j . leidy . 1858 . notice of remains of extinct vertebrata , from the valley of the niobrara river , collected during the exploring expedition of 1857 , in nebraska , under the command of lieut . g . k . warren , u . s . top . eng . , by dr . f . v . hayden , geologist to the expedition . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 10 : 15 - 89\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\nfull - text is provided in portable document format ( pdf ) . to view articles you must have the free adobe acrobat reader . click here to download the latest version . the . epub version displays best on an ipad , but may work on other devices that accept . epub format . download directly to your device\u2019s book reader ( e . g . , ibooks ) or drag into your e - books collection on your computer .\namerican museum novitates novitates ( latin for\nnew acquaintances\n) , published continuously and numbered consecutively since 1921 , are short papers that contain descriptions of 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commons licensing , . . .\nplease note that the content of this book primarily consists of articles available from wikipedia or other free sources online . hephaestus books represents a new publishing paradigm , allowing disparate content sources to be curated into cohesive , relevant , and informative books . to date , this\nplease note that the content of this book primarily consists of articles available from wikipedia or other free sources online . hephaestus books represents a new publishing paradigm , allowing disparate content sources to be curated into cohesive , relevant , and informative books . to date , this content has been curated from wikipedia articles and images under creative commons licensing , although as hephaestus books continues to increase in scope and dimension , more licensed and public domain content is being added . we believe books such as this represent a new and exciting lexicon in the sharing of human knowledge . this particular book is a collaboration focused on prehistoric mammals of europe .\nwe will send you an sms containing a verification code . please double check your mobile number and click on\nsend verification code\n.\nfrom the tall grass savanna of kenya to the forested slopes of the rockies , from the steaming jungles of indonesia and the crags of the himalayas to your very own living room , cats prowl our planet . some are large and imposing , celebrated for their predatory power . others are small and elusive , their spots blending into the shadows . not to mention our familiar moggie companions that purr and yowl for a tender back scratch . at whatever size , and whatever form , we seem to have limitless adoration and fascination for the felines that inhabit our planet . our affection for them runs so deep that we\u2019re even transfixed by those that slipped into extinction long ago . there is no more potent symbol of the ice age than smilodon fatalis , the great saber - toothed cat preserved by the hundreds in the thick muck of the la brea asphalt seeps . living or dead , we love cats .\nbut where did cats come from ? they did not spontaneously burst from the grass to ambush their prey . the world\u2019s cats , both large and small , wild and domestic , have as deep and circuitous an evolutionary history as any other species . and while they\u2019re all consummate predators , the cat family has taken a variety of forms . their remarkable flexibility has allowed them to flourish , whether in the shape of lanky speed demons like cheetahs or the extinct sabercats who stalked baby mastodons , or domestic tabbies that are the scourge of backyard wildlife . cats have always been malleable beasts , changing with the shifts in climate and habitat that the earth has undergone since their origin over 25 million years ago . and while there are various points at which we could start the great cat tale , let\u2019s begin with one of the worst days in the planet\u2019s history .\nexactly what the founder of the cat family looked like is unknown . the fossil record , as charles darwin once wrote , is like a stone book for which we only have a few words or sentences in an incomplete array of chapters . this makes it all the more difficult to pin down precise ancestors , especially the further back in time you go . therefore paleontologists look for animals that have what they call transitional features \u2013 traits that bridge gaps between groups and act as proxies for those ancestors , tracing the chaotic route of evolution from the present way back into the past . for cats , that search has led fossil experts to a little mammal called proailurus . the naturalist henri filhol named this extinct beast back in 1879 from fossils found in france , and even then he could tell that the mammal had something to do with the origin of felines : proailurus means \u201cfirst cat . \u201d\na 20th century reconstruction of smilodon , the great sabertoothed cat . | credit : the prelinger archive\nnot all sabercats were exactly alike . one of the earliest , the 15 - million - year - old paramachairodus from europe , was about the size of a leopard and had relatively short canines compared to its later relatives . much closer to us in time , from 2 . 5 million years ago to about 10 , 000 years ago , the famous smilodon line had species that exceeded a siberian tiger in size and grappled prey to the ground with burly forelimbs . the much more slender homotherium had shorter canines and a rangier build better suited for running after victims . then there was xenosmilus \u2013 the \u201calien knife\u201d \u2013 who mixed short , broad sabers with a muscular build , mixing and matching traits seen in the smilodon and homotherium lines . there were many ways to be a sabercat .\nthose fearsome teeth have long had a hold on our imagination . so much so that there\u2019s been no shortage of ideas about how sabercats used their fangs . over the years these cats have been cast as stabbers , armor - piercers , and even blood - suckers , but the modern consensus is that smilodon and its relatives used their extended canines to slice through the soft parts of their ancient prey . a sabertoothed bite to the neck or belly of a victim would have caused catastrophic blood loss , if not immediate death .\nthe last of the sabercats died out about 8 , 000 years ago . why they disappeared is a mystery . while art works , museum displays , and movies have often depicted the cats trying to take down giant sloths and mammoths , recent studies have suggested sabercats preferred mid - sized prey such as camels and baby mastodons . still , it seems that these cats specialized in hunting the megafauna that once flourished during the last ice age , and when many of these creatures died , so did the cats . for the first time in over 20 million years there were no more sabercats , although , given how many times they\u2019ve evolved , it\u2019s likely that something resembling smilodon could eventually evolve again . for now , though , the world belongs to the short - fanged cats .\nthe felids we know \u2014 and love all the cats we know today \u2013 from the biggest siberian tiger of the frigid forests to the tiny margay of the american tropics \u2013 are felids . they split from the sabercats over 20 million years ago , and today represent about 40 distinct species spread across the americas , europe , africa , and asia . of all the wild cats , though , it\u2019s the big cats that get the lion\u2019s share of our attention . despite sharing a large body size , though , not all \u201cbig cats\u201d are close relatives . there are two subdivisions of living cats . one group , the pantherinae , includes tigers , lions , jaguars , leopards , and snow leopards , as well as the smaller clouded leopards ( the most ancient lineage of the pantherine group ) . a second group \u2013 the felinae \u2013 includes cheetahs and cougars in addition to the comparatively diminutive fishing cats , sand cats , jaguarundis , and their relatives . the cat family tree is a tangle of surprising connections .\nin terms of the world\u2019s beloved big cats , though , paleontologists have recently started to zero in on where they came from . in 2013 , paleontologists working in tibet announced the discovery of panthera blytheae . up until the cat\u2019s discovery , the oldest known pantherine cats were thought to be from the 3 . 6 million year old bedrock of tanzania . panthera blytheae moved back the group\u2019s origins to older than 4 . 4 million years , and in a place that wasn\u2019t expected . big cats were thought to have originated in africa , but the recent discovery seems to point to asia , and , more specifically , the tibetan plateau . other mammals \u2013 such as woolly rhinos and himalayan blue sheep \u2013 seem to have gotten their start in the same place , leading paleontologists to suggest that mammals whoevolved in this chilly place developed adaptations for cooler conditions , which allowed them to spread outward and thrive as the planet started to go through the ebb and flow of ice ages . this doesn\u2019t mean that panthera blytheae was the direct ancestor of today\u2019s lions and tigers , but the cat points to a deeper and more complex story for our favorite carnivores than anyone previously knew .\nof course , there\u2019s more to cat evolution than the backstories of fierce sabercats or lions teaming up to take down water buffalo . many of us live with cats . the aspca estimates that there are between 74 and 96 million domestic cats in american households alone . that number even outstrips the count for dogs \u2011 our supposed \u2018best friends\u2019 . you may even be feeling the rumble of your feline companion\u2019s purr on your lap as you read this . how did this special connection between our species and a fuzzy carnivore with sharp teeth and retractable claws come to be ?\nour inadvertent partnership with cats changed them just as they changed our daily lives . biologists have even been able to see this in cat genes . on the surface , the feline that struts around your home doesn\u2019t seem much different from their wild counterparts . ( this is part of what makes feral cats such an ecological nightmare \u2013 they\u2019re adept hunters of native species that has led countries like australia from banning outdoor cats . ) but get down into the dna and biologists can see that our favorite pets show at least 13 genetic markers that distinguish domestic breeds from wild ones . some of these differences are associated with behavior , such as changes in when cats feel fear or how they\u2019re able to learn when provided food as a reward , showing how their brains changed as they came in to settle down with us .\nlooking back at our own history , it may seem a little strange that we keep cats so close to us . the very first humans evolved in africa over six million years ago , and by then there was a wide array of sabertoothed and non - sabertoothed cats on the scene . some human fossils \u2013 such as the skull of one of our australopithecine cousins dubbed sk - 54 with two puncture marks matching the tooth width of a leopard \u2013 indicate that cats even ate some of our relatives . coming down from the trees meant that we were entering a world ruled by cats ready to pounce from the grass . we evolved alongside cats , undoubtedly fearful as well as fascinated . for while each cat species differs , they all share elements of the same grace and charm we\u2019ve admired for as long as human memory can trace back . through our own history we\u2019ve been cat food , stolen their kills , admired them from afar , treated them as gods , and , unfortunately , brought far too many to the brink of extinction . if we truly love cats as much as our culture professes we do , then the best we can do to honor them is let cats continue their 30 million year evolutionary journey into the future .\nbrian switek is a freelance science writer and author of the books my beloved brontosaurus , written in stone , and prehistoric predators . he also writes the blog laelaps for scientific american , and when not writing about fossils he can be found helping museum and university crews excavate fossil wonders across the western deserts .\nstriking out in the love department ? 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new app . . .\n' old age suit ' reveals what it ' s like to be a pensioner : . . .\n' we usually expect climate changes to play an overwhelming role in the evolution of biodiversity , ' said leading author daniele silvestro at the department of biological and environmental sciences , university of gothenburg .\n' instead , competition among different carnivore species proved to be even more important for canids . '\ndomestic cats and dogs , along with other carnivorous animals like lions and bears , all share lineage with a tree - dwelling mammal whose origins remain a mystery .\nyet paleontologists believe there are even earlier ancestors explaining the evolutionary line of these much loved animals .\nnow scientists in belgium have unearthed fossils of one of the earliest of these mammals which roamed through humid forests 55 million years ago .\nthe remains of the new species , which also had ankle bones , has been named dormaalocyon latouri after the belgian village of dormaal where it was found .\ndormaalocyon latouri was a 1kg ( 2lb ) tree - dweller that is thought to have fed on even smaller mammals and insects .\nan international team , including scientists from the universities of gothenburg , sweden , s\u00e3o paulo , brazil and lausanne , switzerland , published the findings in the journal proceedings of the national academy of science .\nthe dog family , which includes wolves and coyotes , originated in north america about 40 million years ago .\nthey reached maximum diversity in the continent 22 million years ago when , at their peak , more than 30 species roamed the land mass at the same time .\nhowever , since they were introduced dozens of species have emerged and become extinct over a period of millions of years .\nonly nine species of canid inhabit the continent today , including the domestic dog .\nancient dogs progressively increased in size , some exceeding 66 pounds ( 33 kg ) , with some examples including the extinct dire wolf and the epicyon reaching about double this size .\nthe introduction of cats from asia into the americas is thought to have drastically decreased the biodiversity of dogs , according to researchers . pictured , a north american bobcat\nthe findings suggests that ancient north american cats were more efficient hunters than most extinct species from the dog family .\n' we do not know exactly which species of felids had the strongest competitive effects on ancient dogs , ' silvestro told mailonline .\n' however an entire subfamily of dogs , known as bone - crushing dogs , started to decline sharply around 15 million years ago , when felids started to be numerous in north america , and was completely extinct around 2 million years ago .\n' bone - crushing dogs , which in total included more than 60 species , included some of the largest canids that ever existed and our results show that it was the most affected by competition with felids . '\nthe survival of any carnivorous species is linked to its ability to effectively hunt prey , and the availability of food .\nlimited amounts of resources \u2013 in this case prey - imposes strong competition among carnivores sharing the same geographic range .\nthis can be seen today in africa , with wild dogs and hyenas competing with lions and other big cats for food .\nnorth american carnivores in the past may have followed similar dynamics and much of the competition is found among species of the dog family and from ancient felids and dogs .\nthe dog family , which includes wolves and coyotes ( pictured ) , originated in north america about 40 million years ago . they reached maximum diversity in the continent around 22 million years ago when more than 30 species roamed the land mass at the same time\n' we know where you live ' : angry protesters confront mitch . . .\n' diana would be ashamed ' : meghan ' s bitter half - sister . . .\npolice find the body of a missing four - month - old boy near . . .\n' prostitutes , orgies , group sex - all of it ' : ex - wife of . . .\nwoman , 38 , ' shoots her father in the head and then lives . . .\nalive ! four thai boys who made it out of cave in daring . . .\nbottleneck of 700 , 000 migrants wait in libya to cross the . . .\nwhat was agreed at chequers . . . and how the three - page . . .\n' this is no sell - out ' : theresa may insists she has chosen . . .\nsydney tower skywalk was ' shut down due to unsafe winds ' . . .\ncontroversial ai that ' detects political beliefs , sexuality and iq ' based on facial features could be used . . .\na new way to tackle climate change ? heat from underground rivers in london could help cut the capital ' s . . .\nhas kepler found its last alien world ? nasa reveals its planet hunting space telescope is about to run out . . .\namazon is still selling nazi - branded merchandise , despite researchers first warning it about the products . . .\nhidden artwork from chapel inside underground quarry that was used as a hideout in the second world war . . .\n' gentle giant ' dinosaur the size of a double decker bus that roamed the earth more than 200 million years . . .\nsamsung opens the world ' s largest phone plant in india : 1 . 5 million square foot factory will produce 120 . . .\nai learns the basics of driving a car using trial and error after being let loose on the road for just ' 15 . . .\nwant to appear rich ? buy an iphone , a samsung tv and soy sauce : scientists reveal the top 10 items that make . . .\nfascinating pictures reveal how britain ' s heatwave has exposed historical secrets including a roman - era . . .\nmesmerising maps reveal record - breaking temperatures across the world as the earth experiences ' one of the . . .\npeople who see themselves as albert einstein suddenly think they are smarter : being in the body of someone . . .\nmassive timehop data breach exposes the private details of 21 million users including names , email addresses . . .\nselena gomez is seen with same mystery man she was with in may . . . after news her ex justin bieber is engaged to hailey baldwin\nkhloe kardashian reveals she stopped breast - feeding daughter true . . . three months after giving birth\ngiuliana rancic takes a hike with bill . . . as the couple vacation with friends ahead of her return to e ! news\nmakeup artist joyce bonelli reaches out to the kardashian clan on instagram . . . after the famous family ' fire ' and unfollow her on social media\ndaddy daycare ! jared kushner takes kids back to d . c . after weekend in new jersey - as ivanka dons a short dress for visit to a nyc asphalt company\nsofia richie , 19 poses in a bikini top just after scott disick ' s ex kourtney kardashian , 39 , did the same . . . and fans call her out for it\nnaomi campbell wows in flamboyant feathered gown . . . while ashley graham sizzles in plunging lace dress as they walk in dolce & gabbana show in italy\nnaya rivera sells her five - bedroom la home for a cool $ 3 . 55 million after finalizing her divorce from ryan dorsey\nmel b ' is unable to pay her back taxes amid ongoing divorce battle with stephen belafonte . . . as it ' s estimated the pair owe up to $ 650k ' to the irs\nkylie jenner rocks curve - clinging attire as she shows off body . . . and considers going back to blonde\ndakota johnson dons striped wrap dress in la . . . after calling co - star chris hemsworth ' spectacular '\ncardi b hits back at troll who mocked her baby shower . . . as she shows off naked baby bump for photoshoot\nbuy your own celebrity hideaway ! castle adored by michael douglas and jack nicholson goes on sale for $ 5 . 2m ( and even comes with treehouse )\nant - man and the wasp soars to $ 76 million on opening weekend . . . beating its prequel by $ 19 million\nliam payne and cheryl split : carefree 1d star returns to stage for first time since break - up . . . as he poses happily with his backing dancers in france\ntristan thompson goes house hunting alone as he checks out $ 2m property in la with its own basketball court . . . just minutes from khloe ' s mansion\nchris hemsworth kicks off filming for the star - studded men in black spin - off as he cuts a sharp figure in london . . . 21 years after the first film hit screens\njill zarin admits she ' s ready to date again after being spotted with handsome businessman . . . following beloved husband bobby ' s death\ndj khaled cancels wireless performance due to ' travel issues ' just hours before his slot . . . as fans rage over his ' vacation ' snap\n13 reasons why villain justin prentice says he ' s not bothered by social media trolls . . . and that getting attacked online means he ' s doing his job as an actor\n' she didn ' t get those from me ' : kylie jenner says daughter stormi has dad travis scott ' s lips . . . as star reveals her breasts are ' three times the size ' post - baby\nkevin hart celebrates 39th birthday in las vegas . . . nearly a year after sin city cheating scandal\ndakota fanning joins michael b . jordan in voice cast of western anime series gen : lock\nfarm heroes saga , the # 4 game on itunes . play it now !\nit ' s eye - wateringly expensive at $ 2 , 999 , but naim ' s uniti atom is a revelation , an integrated amplifier than makes it easy to stream music at a quality you ' ve probably never heard before .\nafter a day with the iphone x , while face id isn ' t perfect , and the ' notch ' is an annoyance , the iphone x is a glimpse into the future of phones and the best handset of the market by a long way .\nthey aren ' t cheap , but shinola ' s $ 595 foray into headphones are the perfect accessory for design obsessives looking to upgrade their listening habits .\nwith the pixel xl , google has created a handset that is not only the best android device out there , but arguably matches the iphone 8 in terms of design and feel .\napple ' s watch will free you from your phone - while making sure you don ' t suffer the fear of missing out . it ' s a huge step forward , and a compelling reason for the average user to buy a smartwatch .\nwhile the iphone x may have stolen the headlines , in fact the iphone 8 could be the sleeper hit of apple ' s new range , offering the same power as the x but with features and a design users trust .\nwhile the design is impressive and easy to use , the game line up is disappointing .\nnaim ' s incredible mu - so qb takes you back to the good old days - where the music captivates and enthralls , rather that simply being something in the background .\nit might not be a name familiar to the us market , but naim is a legendary british brand hoping to make a splash with the american launch of its $ 1499 mu : so speaker .\npeloton ' s hi - tech bike lets you stream live and on demand rides to your home - and it ' s one of the best examples of fitness technology out there - at a price .\nwhile a research associate in the division of paleontology , i focused my research on fossil members of the family felidae ( fossil felids , fossil cats ) . i continue to study primarily the fossil felids of north america , focusing on the specimens present in the frick - amnh collection of fossil mammals .\n2004 . rothwell , t . new felid material from the ulaan tologoi locality , loh formation ( early miocene ) of mongolia . in g . c . gould and s . k . bell ( editors ) , tributes to malcolm c . mckenna : his students , his legacy . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 285 : 157 - 165 .\nrothwell , t . 2002 . new felid material from the ulaan tologoi locality , loh formation ( early miocene ) of mongolia . bulletin of the american museum of natural history , number 285 ( chapter 12 ) .\nrothwell , t . 1982 . aerobic and anaerobic conditioning of the three - day event horse . uscta news june : 6 - 8 .\nrothwell , t . 1981 . the ahsa drugs and medications rule - know your facts , avoid needless elimination . uscta news april : 20 - 21 .\nrothwell , t . 1980 . re - training the horse with navicular disease . long island horse world 2 : 30 - 31 .\nrothwell , t . 1978a , the tragedy of hip dysplasia . in : caras , r . ( ed . ) dog owner ' s bible , pp . 277 - 280 . south hackensack : stoeger publishing company .\nrothwell , t . 1978b , the crucial business of immunization . in : caras , r . ( ed . ) dog owner ' s bible , pp . 32 - 38 . south hackensack : stoeger publishing company\ncladogram : this is a manually constructed cladogram that i use when teaching . it demonstrates the three major clades , or divisions of living families within the order carnivora . in blue is the large and diverse group known as the arctoids . the canids ( dogs , wolves , coyotes , etc , ) are represented by a single lineage in green . the cats , hyenas , mongoose and viverrids are the red group known as the aeluroids . characters 1 , 2 , and 3 are hypothesized to unite all of carnivora :\ncharacter 1 is use of the upper fourth premolar ( p4 ) and lower first molar ( m1 ) by all members of the order carnivora to eat meat . this is called the p4 / m1 carnassial apparatus .\ncharacter 2 is near and dear to all veterinarians who practice on dogs and cats . character 2 is the presence of anal sacs . anal sacs are hypothesized to be present in the ancestor of carnivora due to its widespread distribution among all of the living members . anal sacs are lost or reduced only in bears and in the aquatic families ( seals , sea lions , walrus and otters ) .\ncharacter 3 is the primitive carnivoran dentition : 4 premolars and 3 molars in both the upper and lower dentition .\ncharacter 4 unites all of the living families of carnivora . character 4 is the development of an ossified bulla covering the middle ear , a bony covering for the ear apparatus . the primitive carnivorans ( carnivoran = member of the order carnivora ) had a single - chambered bulla covered by cartilage .\ncharacter 6 diagnoses the four closely related families referred to as the aeluroids or the sub - order aeluroidea . character 6 is a modification of the primitive single - chambered bulla : the development of a two - chambered bulla . evidence of character 6 can be seen in the ventral skull and in the basicranial photograph .\nfrom 1932 to 1965 , childs frick sent numerous collecting parties into the fossiliferous terrestrial localities of tertiary north america . the frick laboratory assembled a magnificent collection of fossil mammals as a result of these expeditions . now referred to as the frick collection , this assemblage of fossil mammals is housed in the collections of the division of paleontology of the american museum of natural history . within the frick collection is the world ' s most comprehensive fossil felid collection . fossils of the first felids to arrive in north america , in the late hemingfordian , were collected in localities of the sheep creek formation of nebraska and the tesuque formation of new mexico . the earliest known partial felid skeleton ( fam 62128 ) was recovered from the namb\u00e9 member of the tesuque formation of new mexico and described by me in 2001 . photo by chester tarka of the amnh .\n, i was able to determine how closely it resembled other fossil cats and the cats who are alive today . photo by mick ellison . upper third incisor ( i3 ) , upper canine ( c ) , upper first premolar ( p1 ) , alveolus or socket for upper second premolar ( p2 alv ) , petrosal ( p ) , mastoid ( m ) , paroccipital process ( pp ) .\nof fam 62128 . third phalanges ( ph3 ) are the bones of the toes that include the cats ' claws . the ph2 lateral concavity is referring to the place where this cat could retract his claws , just as today ' s cats do . mc5 , mc2 are the fifth and second metacarpal bones . photo by mick ellison\nof the new mexico skeleton ( fam 62128 ) in dorsal ( a ) and ventral ( b ) views . ( ses ) = sesamoid bones , nav = navicular , cu = cuboid , ent = entocuneiform , lat conc = lateral concavity of second phalanx . photo by mick ellison\n( cp ) or vertical ramus of the lower jaw of felids is another anatomical feature that is variable in fossil felids . a is proailurus lemanensis , the earliest known felid , with a short , wide , and erect coronoid process . this cat lived approximately 23 million years ago . b and c are felids that are approximately 16 million years old . their coronoid processes have become relatively taller , but are still erect . the felid labeled d has a tall coronoid process that is no longer erect . it slopes to the right , to the rear of the cat ' s skull . this cat lived in north america approximately 13 million years ago . e is a modern , extant , or living cat ( panthera leo , the lion ) . this coronoid process is tall , sloping , and has a terminal hook .\nfam 61835 , the echo quarry felid skull : this is the basicranium , the left side of the base of the skull of a north american cat who lived approximately 16 million years ago . by comparing this part of the skull with other extinct carnivores and with cats that are alive today , i am able to hypothesize or speculate on the relationships of this cat . photo by tom rothwellectotympanic ( t ) , limit of the caudal entotympanic chamber ( ce ) , paroccipital process ( pp ) , anteromedial process of the auditory bulla ( am ) , petrosal ( p ) , paroccipital process ( pp ) , entotympanic ( e ) , hypoglossal foramen ( hf ) .\nif your cat needs a vet , if you are looking for a cat veterinarian in the utica and new hartford , ny area , or an animal hospital in the mohawk valley that specializes in cats , you are in the right place . we are a full - service veterinary hospital dedicated solely to the care of cats and kittens . our well - equipped and stress - free facility is staffed by a friendly and passionate team of veterinary professionals . we are a central new york regional resource for feline health . our goal is to provide you with appropriate , affordable , and effective care for your family cat ."]}
{"id": 1496, "summary": [{"text": "tippity witchet ( foaled 1915 ) was an american thoroughbred racehorse , noted for his durability and consistency in a career which lasted from 1917 until 1929 . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "tippity witchet", "paragraphs": ["broomstick led american sires from 1913 - 1915 , and only averaged about 11 foals per crop . he sired such notable horses as whisk broom ii , regret , cudge and tippity witchet .\non warm , sunny afternoons , you ' re likely to find children knocking on the door of tippity witchet ' s windmill house asking her to tell them a beantime story . tippity is always happy to see them . she invites the children to pick ripe jellybeans from her garden to eat while she tells her tales . you should find a comfy place to sit and join them to hear some of their favorite stories . tippity might even recite a poem or two .\nhappy easter , everyone ! love from tippity , frogwart , weebit , and everyone on the island of meddybemps . pigmoose sends a happy snort , too .\ncolin ' s ghost - the great thing about writing for colin\u2019s ghost is there\u2019s always something to write about and , sometimes , the ideas fall right into my lap . over the weekend , while researching a \u201cten things\u201d post for hello race fans , i found a wikipedia page for a horse named tippity witchet . i have a great\u2026\nthe children and their families arrived the next day for the easter egg hunt . frogwart came , too . the hunt was going to be more exciting than anyone expected because of her trick . tippity gathered all of the children together and gave each one a little basket and a sheet of paper . then she whispered some secret instructions in their ears . frogwart wondered what tippity was whispering and what was on the pieces of paper .\neveryone ready ?\nasked tippity .\nyes !\n, shouted the children .\ngo !\nsaid tippity , and the children dashed around her flower garden , looking for eggs under the tulips , behind the roses , and among the hollyhocks .\nshe is such a delicate filly , it is doubtful if she will ever emulate our old favorite paz zareta , who ran up a total of 76 firsts , a record for one of her sex . or that she will even try , as her owner is a keen devotee of horse ( and cattle ) breeding . only the stallion kingston and the gelding tippity witchet won more races than did \u201cpansy , \u201d the former taking 89 firsts , the other 78 .\none would have to go back to 1915 and tippity witchet , with 266 starts and 78 wins , to surpass malicious in number of starts . champion fillies imp ( 1894 ) , with 62 wins from 171 starts ; pan zareta ( 1910 ) , 76 from 151 ; along with princess doreen , gallorette , and bewitched , led durable distaffers of old . the aforementioned stymie ( 1941 ) , a $ 1 , 500 claim , gutted it out with 35 victories in 131 starts .\npurchased by harry payne whitney , broomstick was sent to stand at his brookdale farm in new jersey where he continued as a great sire . even with only an average eleven foals per crop , of those eleven foals twenty five percent were stakes winners . the best of the lot was regret , the first filly to win the kentucky derby which she did in 1915 . he also sired cudgel who , in his time , beat exterminator , sun briar , johren , and roamer . and then there was the extraordinary tippity witchet who raced 266 times over thirteen seasons and won 78 of those starts , came in second 52 times , and third 42 times .\nbroomstick ranked among the top 10 sires in progeny earnings from 1911 through 1927 . he topped the list in 1913 , 1914 and 1915 . the best of broomstick\u2019s progeny was regret , the first filly to win the kentucky derby . other good ones included cudgel , wildair , spot cash , halcyon and bostonian . those whose sturdiness outlasted their class included dr . clark , winner of 44 of 265 starts in 13 years . he was broomstick\u2019s lone $ 100 , 000 earner . other notables included tippity witchet , who won 78 of 266 starts and had earnings of $ 88 , 241 in 13 years , and leochares , winner of 62 races and $ 68 , 867 in nine years .\n\u201ctippity witchit sulked . the idea of telling him he was only a little kitten ! giving himself a shake , he got up from the straw . he was as big as the next cat and able to meet all adventures that might befall the cat tribe \u2013 anywhere in the world ! sneaking off to the door , he slipped across the barnyard and out on the long stretch of highway that ran to the wide , wide world . oh , what a moon was shining ! it turned all the fields to silver . and little mists were rising shimmering over the meadows . he was out in a white world of moonlight with little black shadows dancing here and there on the edges . he was out like a great big cat in the mystery of the night !\nbig profits in racing . ; six horses costing $ 12 , 600 sold for $ 131 , 600 . - the new york times\nurltoken no longer supports internet explorer 9 or earlier . please upgrade your browser .\nbig profits in racing . ; six horses costing $ 12 , 600 sold for $ 131 , 600 .\na striking illustration of the value of good judgment in buying and selling thoroughbreds is furnished by the noteworthy sales of the year in which six horses originally costing about $ 12 , 600 were disposed of for $ 131 , 600 . even at that tremendous increase a big profit is likely for the purchasers of some of . . . view full article in timesmachine \u00bb\nwe are continually improving the quality of our text archives . please send feedback , error reports , and suggestions to archive _ feedback @ nytimes . com .\nwith the headline : big profits in racing . ; six horses costing $ 12 , 600 sold for $ 131 , 600 . .\naccessibility concerns ? email us at accessibility @ urltoken . we would love to hear from you .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\nwe ' ve detected that javascript is disabled in your browser . would you like to proceed to legacy twitter ?\nnew and fun : be a zoo planner . pick homes for 18 animals . put up signs and guide visitors through zoo . go to :\nsee beautiful new coral reef artwork and cool videos in fun in the deep blue sea area . nice additions to\nread stories about hurricane sandy by seven new jersey school children . links on the young writers workshop page :\nfall is fantastic ! explore leaf colors and shapes . tour a lovely state park . see :\none - ton pudding rides again at revived banana festival . head for fulton , ky , saturday . see :\nharry and larry were curious apes . they wondered about the things we call shapes . to see what happened , go to :\ntour germany with the pumpkin pirates . see castles , hay ghosts , trains and more : urltoken\nthere are now 33 structures in our miniature village , plus people and vehicles . build your own . urltoken\nsome very interesting animals live in australia . see five of the coolest at : urltoken\ncoming soon : the meddybemps miniature village is about to get a grocery store . clever !\nword puppies , pirates , glaciers , and moose ? head for alaska to discover interesting new words . see : urltoken cool !\ncoming soon : what could be more fun than a room full of puppies ? find out soon .\ni ' m decorating a tree and i love it . you will , too . urltoken\nstarting saturday , you will be able to decorate christmas trees on meddybemps . com . what fun ! jingle bells , jingle bells , . . . fa la la . .\ntwitter may be over capacity or experiencing a momentary hiccup . try again or visit twitter status for more information .\nyou can add location information to your tweets , such as your city or precise location , from the web and via third - party applications . you always have the option to delete your tweet location history . learn more\nhere ' s the url for this tweet . copy it to easily share with friends .\nby embedding twitter content in your website or app , you are agreeing to the twitter developer agreement and developer policy .\nnot on twitter ? sign up , tune into the things you care about , and get updates as they happen .\nthis timeline is where you\u2019ll spend most of your time , getting instant updates about what matters to you .\nhover over the profile pic and click the following button to unfollow any account .\nwhen you see a tweet you love , tap the heart \u2014 it lets the person who wrote it know you shared the love .\nthe fastest way to share someone else\u2019s tweet with your followers is with a retweet . tap the icon to send it instantly .\nadd your thoughts about any tweet with a reply . find a topic you\u2019re passionate about , and jump right in .\ni grew up with this story and it\u2019s still my favorite . if you can find anywhere to look at the illustrations , they\u2019re wonderful , too ! i\u2019ve just included a couple of snippets , but at the end is a link to a blog that has the whole story . enjoy !\n\u2026just the same , he trembled when he came to the very next cornfield . the corn here had not been cut ; it stood in ghostly rows , like a bank of withered old witches . its long dried leaves hung down like ghostly withered old arms , its tassels streamed out every which way like straggly hair on a hag . \u201ci\u2019m not afraid of a thing , \u201d he had to repeat to himself\u2026\nenter your email address to subscribe to this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\npaint a picture and print it - - choose from background colour , paint colour , and paintbrush size .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nword bank : halloween is a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ celebrated on the last night of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . on _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , many people dress up in _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ and go trick or _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . children _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ up in costumes and go from house to house around their _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ collecting _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .\nparts of speech : nouns students will define different types of nouns - proper nouns , pronouns , singular , and plural nouns . nouns introduction an introduction to nouns , including common and proper nouns .\nthe reading enriches learning website aims to stimulate and motivate all students to become confident readers . each themed collection highlights a topical issue ( i . e . values , history , sustainability ) that is critical to australian schooling today . these themes act as a springboard for learning as students actively make connections between literature and the world in which they live .\nglencoe literature offers a collection of hardcover books that allows you to extend the study of literature to your choice of full - length novels and plays . each glencoe literature library book consists of a complete novel or play accompanied by several related readings , such as short stories , poems , essays , or informational articles . to order one or more glencoe literature library book , please contact our customer service department at customer . service @ mcgraw - hill . com , or by calling 1 - 800 - 334 - 7344 ( between 8 : 00 a . m . and 6 : 00 p . m . est ) .\nthis interactive site is a must - have for anyone who teaches reading . to get started , simply type in your name and you will be given a user id ( for example , melissa might be melissa0039 ) . * be sure to save the user id provided . the site saves your work and you can log - in with the user id to go right back to where you left off ! the site includes sections for both students and teachers .\nthese resources are meant for teaching the parts of a book or story such as title , setting , characters , plot , climax , resolution , literary devices , and criticism . the resources are intended for elementary or possibly middle school students , both regular and esl . book reports :\nglencoe literature offers a collection of hardcover books that allows you to extend the study of literature to your choice of full - length novels and plays . each glencoe literature library book consists of a complete novel or play accompanied by several related readings , such as short stories , poems , essays , or informational articles . to order one or more glencoe literature library book , please contact our customer service department at customer . service @ mcgraw - hill . com , or by calling 1 - 800 - 334 - 7344 ( between 8 : 00 a . m . and 6 : 00 p . m . est ) . click on a glencoe literature library title below for a brief description of the novel or play , a list of its related readings , and a link to its individual study guide . each study guide includes background information and reproducible activity pages for students .\ndrag and drop the number tiles to their correct position on the venn diagram . place the number tiles into the correct order on the track . there are 3 levels of difficulty . change the numbers in the blocks at the bottom of the pyramids and explore the effect on the number in the top block . what ' s the highest total you can get using the numbers 1 to 5 only once ? an enhancement of the sequencer found in the toolkit section .\nabbott , edwin a . , 1838 - 1926 about , edmond , 1828 - 1885 adams , henry , 1838 - 1918 aeschylus , 525 - 456 bce aesop , 620 - 560 bce\nwe ' ve heard it all before . you can ' t find your homework , but you swear you just had it in front of you . avoid the embarrassment of misplacing your report 5 minutes before you have to turn it in \u2014 and all the other following scenarios \u2014 by putting some method in the your messes ' madness . you hand in the homework due nov . 11 . . . on nov . 12time flies when you ' re having fun \u2014 especially when you ' re having fun instead of keeping up with your assignments . one of the best ways to make sure you don ' t miss a due date is to hang a calendar on a wall in your room . stick a tack on the wall next to it ( just tell your parents that sacrificing wall paint is a small price to pay for organization ) and tie a string with a pen on the end to the tack .\nazrael is a dynamic dns service provider . azrael offers free accounts to anyone . each account can have up to 25 hosts with dynamically assigned ipv4 addresses . azrael provides an update api to allow for easy and quick host updates . the api mimics the dyndns2 protocol so that many common ddns update clients will work with it . it has been known to work with ddclient , dd - wrt , tomato usb , open - wrt , curl , and most other ddns clients .\nusername [ required ] your azrael account username . password [ required ] your azrael account password . hostname [ required ] comma separated list of your azrael hostnames to update ( up to 10 hostnames per request ) . myip [ optional ] the ip v4 address that your azrael hostname ( s ) will be updated to . if no ip address is specified the azrael system will attempt to obtain the ip address .\ngood ip address for specified hosts have been updated . nochg there is no update or change required . ( no need to update more than once an hour without an ip change ) nohost one or more hosts are invalid . numhost more than the maximum of ten hosts specified . badaddress ip address form is invalid .\nusername : bob password : 12345 hostname : urltoken myip : 172 . 16 . 1 . 1\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nbroomstick was foaled in 1901 and died in 1931 . he was a bay colt by ben brush out of elf by galliard . he was bred by colonel milton young of mcgrathiana stud , owned by s . s . brown and trained by peter wimmer at 2 and bob tucker at 3 .\nhe raced a total of 39 times , won 14 , placed 11 times and showed 5 times for total career earnings of $ 74 , 730 .\nbroomstick was a smallish colt , and won his first 3 starts at 2 ; the juvenile , expectation and great american stakes . because of these victories , later in his 2yo season he was assigned higher weights and his winning percentage fell .\nben brush was a bay colt foaled in 1893 and dies in 1918 . he was by bramble out of roseville by reform . he was bred by runnymeade farm , owned by eugene leigh and ed brown and also trained by ed brown .\nben brush raced a total of 40 time , winning 25 of those races . he placed 5 times and showed 5 times for career earnings of $ 65 , 208 .\nben brush began racing in the midwest and won his first 5 races . afte that he shipped to new york where he won his last 6 races as a two year old . he won the prestigious champagne stakes , which led to 2 year old championship honors .\nhe also won the kentucky derby and latonia derby . at 4 he proved himself as a top handicap horse winning the suburban , brighton and citizens handicap . at stud he was sold to james r keene and led the sire list in 1909 . he sired champions delhi , sweep and pebbles , and was also responsible for the sire lines of broomstick , sweep , the porter , whisk broom ii , jack high and rosemont .\nhamburg was a bay colt foaled in 1895 and died in 1915 . he was by hanover out of lady reel by fellowcraft . hamburg was bred by con enright and owned by john madden , w . c . whitney , h . p . whitney and trained by john madden and bill lakeland .\nhe raced a total of 21 times , winning 16 times , placing 3 times and showing twice for a career total of $ 60 , 380 in earnings .\nhamburg was a beast ! he could break fast and stay in front . high weights never slowed him down , and he raced under the highest weights ever carried by a 2yo .\nat 3 , hamburg beat ky derby winner , plaudit in the lawrence realization and also won the brighton cup over brooklyn handicap winnder howard mann .\nin 1900 , hamburg was bought by w . c . whitney for stud duty . he was the leading sire in 1905 and produced at least 27 stakes winners including burgomaster , pegasus , frizette and borrow .\nbroomstick ( 1901\u20131931 ) was a thoroughbred race horse born and bred at the famous mcgrathiana stud in kentucky , but more importantly , he was one of the great sires of american racing . out of another great sire , the hall of famer ben brush , broomstick went on after his racing career to produce champion after champion for many years .\nthe important horseman , james r . keene ( who owned domino , kingston , colin and sysonby among so many other memorable horses ) , also owned elf , broomstick ' s dam . believing she was barren , he sold her to milton young . one year later she foaled broomstick . as a yearling broomstick then went to a pittsburgh , pennsylvania coal millionaire named captain samuel s . brown who was a member of the jockey club and the owner of two racetracks .\nbroomstick was small , but he won his first three stakes at two . because of this , he was weighted down rather heavily for such a young horse and consequently won fewer races at that age . he placed in the saratoga special , the walden stakes , the flatbush stakes , the great trial stakes and the spring stakes .\nat three , and under another trainer , he won the travers stakes . in the brighton handicap he beat older horses and set a record that stood for nine years . in that race he was up against the truly game irish lad who broke down nearing the wire , but finished on three legs , only barely beaten .\nstill heavily weighted , he placed in the merchants and citizens handicap , the hindoo handicap , and his second saratoga special .\nbroomstick was retired to stud duty at capt . brown ' s senorita stock farm near lexington , kentucky where he sired three crops including 1911 kentucky derby winner meridian , sweeper ii who raced in england and in 1912 won the classic 2 , 000 guineas stakes , and the 1913 american horse of the year whisk broom ii who went on to sire whiskery , the winner of the 1927 kentucky derby . capt . brown died in late 1905 and his brother , w . harry brown , continued on with the business until november 23 , 1908 when he sold broomstick and twenty - eight other horses at a fasig - tipton auction .\nbroomstick was america ' s leading sire from 1913 to 1915 and among the top ten for 17 years : 1910 to 1927 . he died when he was thirty years old , only a few years past being at his best .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 11 / 9 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nracing fans shopping for that increasingly scarce commodity , the equine hero , are finding slim pickings these days as the shelf life of star thoroughbreds continues to deteriorate at an alarming rate .\nfactors include the increasing fragility of today ' s racehorse and the tendency of owners to desert the racetrack early for the more lucrative lure of the breeding shed .\nand while 2003 champion 2 - year - old filly halfbridled could loom as the turf ' s next hero , her future value as a broodmare appears so enormous as to make her racing career predictably brief .\nthus are nostalgic racegoers turning to reminiscences of yesteryear and iron - horse heroes such as john henry , kelso , forego , stymie , exterminator , and , among numerous others , malicious .\nafter seabiscuit , he was the most popular horse in the west in the ' 30s ,\nsaid lifelong racing fan dan arrighi , who as a youngster growing up in southern california saw both run .\nfew people today can believe that an $ 800 claimer could be that charismatic . but he was such an honest horse - - and he was around for a very long time .\nwhat made malicious so enduringly popular were his dramatic last - to - first finishes in marathon races , accomplished over a remarkable span of a dozen years , on as many tracks . called\namerica ' s two - mile champion ,\nmalicious drew adoring crowds , got big press coverage , and , like seabiscuit , was the centerpiece of merchandising promotions , including a personal appearance at san francisco ' s 1939 world ' s fair .\nsired by 1917 kentucky derby and travers winner omar khayyam , malicious , a foal of 1927 , began his racing career as a 2 - year - old . from 1929 to early 1940 , the tireless brown gelding competed up and down the west coast , from agua caliente to longacres , compiling a record of 185 starts , from which he emerged victorious 32 times .\naccording to trainer noble threewitt and his wife , beryl , who also saw him run , malicious was trained for several years by lonnie copenhaver .\nlonnie was known as ' king of the gypsies , '\nthe threewitts remembered .\nhe and his claimers traveled a lot , but in those days you didn ' t ship east unless you had a stakes horse like seabiscuit .\ntoday , thanks to a best - selling book and popular movie , seabiscuit ( 33 victories in 89 starts ) is back in memory ' s spotlight - - a spotlight arrighi believes malicious deserves to share .\nsaturday after saturday ,\nhe remembered ,\nsanta anita would card a two - miler as the last race , knowing fans would stick around just to root for malicious .\na retired transportation company executive now living in the town of washington , utah , arrighi recalled one saturday when he sneaked into the infield and positioned himself at the far turn .\nmalicious was next to last when they went by me , and ( jockey ) johnny adams let out this loud shriek . the horse took off . and in the distance i could hear ' and here comes malicious ! ' . . . it was a thrill i ' ll never forget .\nas a teenager in the autumn of 1939 , this writer witnessed a series of saturday marathons at bay meadows for top routers . old malicious showed up for the nov . 11 finale , the four - mile thornton stakes . the weary road warrior , who hadn ' t started since that spring at santa anita , made his patented late surge to gain fourth in a blanket finish .\nthat was his final race in the u . s . on jan . 28 , 1940 , at age 13 , one of the toughest iron horses of all time closed out his gallant career - - a marathon in itself - - by running second at agua caliente . his final paycheck was $ 100 ; his legacy , a claimer ' s place in the pantheon of sound , stout - hearted stakes horses - - and in the hearts of a devoted public .\nretired newspaperman morton cathro ' s marathon affair with horse racing began in the 1930s .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\nbred at col . milton young\u2019s mcgrathiana stud in kentucky , broomstick was a small bay son of the great ben brush out of the galliard mare elf . he was included in a lot of 10 yearlings col . young sold for a total of $ 17 , 100 to capt . samuel s . brown .\na millionaire coal magnate , capt . brown was a member of the jockey club , a major stockholder in churchill downs . he had been a fixture in racing since his troubadour had won the 1896 suburban handicap and had beaten miss woodford in a match race .\ntrained as a 2 - year - old by peter wimmer , broomstick made his debut may 7 , 1903 , winning the $ 4 , 860 juvenile stakes at morris park by a head over the favored precious stone . three weeks later , broomstick won the $ 5 , 540 expectation stakes with \u201cridiculous ease\u201d and then won the $ 10 , 600 great american stakes at gravesend .\nbroomstick\u2019s early success led to an increase in the weights he was forced to carry . with an impost of 129 pounds , broomstick lost for the first time that june by a length to pulsus ( carrying 122 pounds ) in the great trial stakes . with 128 pounds , broomstick then finished second to gallant ( 114 ) in the spring stakes . he did not win another race that year , finishing his juvenile campaign with a record of 3 - 4 - 0 and earnings of $ 25 , 400 from nine starts .\nbob tucker took over the training of capt . brown\u2019s horses in 1904 and broomstick made his 3 - year - old debut a winning one may 12 in an overnighter at morris park . broomstick\u2019s finest performance took place in the $ 25 , 000 brighton handicap . with tommy burns in the irons , broomstick set an american record for 1\u00bc miles of 2 : 02\u2158 , breaking the previous mark set a year before by waterboy by two - fifths of a second . broomstick\u2019s record stood until broken by whisk broom ii , a son of broomstick , in the 1913 suburban handicap .\ncarrying 129 pounds , broomstick won the travers stakes in impressive fashion , defeating bobadil ( 116 ) and auditor ( 111 ) . he added avictory in the flying handicap at sheepshead bay later in the year for his final career stakes win . broomstick posted a record of 6 - 4 - 3 and earnings of $ 37 , 970 as a 3 - year - old .\nas a 4 - year - old , broomstick ran into one of the top horses of the early 20 th century in the 3 - year - old sysonby , owned by james r . keene . in each of the four times they met in 1905 , sysonby got the better of his older foe , winning the commonwealth handicap , great republic stakes , century stakes and annual champion stakes .\nwhen sysonby ran elsewhere , broomstick won five races , but none of them were stakes . he carried 133 pounds to victory in a six - furlong overnighter at sheepshead bay and he defeated ort wells and pulsus at one mile at sheepshead , but broomstick was not considered to have the same quality he displayed the previous two years .\nbroomstick was retired to capt . brown\u2019s senorita stud near lexington , ky . , with a career record of 14 - 11 - 5 and earnings of $ 74 , 730 from 39 starts . he was bred to a small book of mares , including audience , winner of the kentucky oaks and tennessee oaks . audience produced a chestnut colt that was sold as a yearling for $ 2 , 500 to harry payne whitney . capt . brown died in 1906 and his thoroughbred interests were inherited by his brother , capt . w . harry brown , who eventually decided to sell . the dispersal was held nov . 23 , 1908 in lexington .\ntrainer a . j . joyner was breaking the broomstick\u2014audience colt at the time and liked what he saw . he advised whitney to buy broomstick and anything else in the sale by him . broomstick topped the sale , going to whitney for $ 7 , 250 . at the time , whitney was collecting the finest broodmare band in america and broomstick was established as a quality young stallion even before his reputation was gained from progeny out of the whitney mares .\nbroomstick sired seven foals in his first crop from senorita stud mares . all seven won at age 2 , including whisk broom ii and scarpia . broomstick sired a dozen foals in his second crop , including kentucky derby winner meridian . in his third and last crop at senorita , broomstick sired 17 foals , getting three more stakes winners , including english two thousand guineas winner sweeper .\nwhisk broom ii raced in england while the sport was shut down in new york during 1911 and 1912 . when racing returned to new york in 1913 , whisk broom ii was brought back from england and won the metropolitan handicap with 126 pounds , the suburban handicap with 139 and the brooklyn handicap with 130 . forty years had passed when tom fool was able to become the next horse to win the handicap triple crown in 1953 .\ntravers eve member wine and cheese social featuring greg montgomery : celebrate the racing season at the museum on travers stakes eve .\ntravers stakes preview panel : top racing handicappers analyze the field for the 149 th running of the travers stakes . time : 11 a . m .\ncharles hatton on 1969 champion three - year - old filly gallant bloom from the 1970 american racing manual .\nthe 1969 record compiled by robert j . kleberg jr . \u2019s three - year - old filly gallant bloom was one of really challenging , not to say unmitigated perfection . she made eight public appearances and every time planted the brown and white \u201crunning w\u201d of the king ranch in the disputed territory of the winner\u2019s circle , though the stewards interceded in her behalf in the delaware oaks , when pit bunny was held to have restricted her .\nwintered at columbia , s . c . , she was intended for the nyra\u2019s triple crown for fillies series , but the fatal illness of her developer max hirsch retarded her conditioning in the spring . she was turned over to hirsch\u2019s son , \u201cbuddy\u201d hirsch , on the former\u2019s demise april 3 .\nthere were many tributes to the deceased horseman , and everyone was inexpressibly sad . a . g . vanderbilt stated the sport\u2019s sentiment gracefully , saying . . . \u201chis humor , charm and attractiveness as a human being equaled his ability . his loss is a personal one to more people in racing than can be counted . the world of racing can ill afford to be diminished by one\u2013when that one is a man of the calibre of max hirsch . \u201d\nin a melancholy manner of speaking , gallant bloom pounded out an eloquent posthumous tribute with her flying heels , as the last of the champions he developed , a series including also grey lag , sarazen , bold venture , assault and middleground .\ngallant bloom could compete for none of the filly triple crown events , of which shuvee made a clean sweep . this was hideously bad luck for king ranch . later on she debited shuvee with defeat , also venturing out of her age division to beat older mares , and in the end there was none to question her supremacy . for openers , she won the 6 - furlong liberty belle at aqueduct may 28 , in a homeric duel with clems fairy gold the last furious yards . a delicate filly , her races were spaced usually about a month apart , except for three in july .\nthe post deb , monmouth and delaware oaks , gazelle , matchmaker and spinster found her winning by from half a length to 12 , and from a mile and 70 yards to a mile and three sixteenths , versus such as gamely , process shot and hail to patsy . these were no riff - raff , and we should think that even her sophisticated owner - breeder must sometimes feel tremendously proud of her . she earned the texan $ 220 , 514 in the course of her stainless campaign , after winning the title in her age and sex divisions and a handsome $ 231 , 400 at two . it is tempting to say she proved the best filly ever kleberg owned .\nconceivably , gallant bloom also might readily enough have won the \u201969 alabama , except that it was belatedly discovered she was omitted from the nominations owing to a clerical oversight . this was depressing for her connections , but they were less morbid and more philosophical by year\u2019s end , considering it may have been for the best , affording her a month\u2019s sojourn at the spa , which is a heaven of a place for horses . as you may know , shuvee won the alabama with gallant bloom absent .\npeople found it vastly agreeable to look at the eye - filling shuvee in the paddock , and we wish we might say gallant bloom looked the part . but to be relentlessly truthful , she was something of a plain jane , proving once again that appearances may be deceptive . she did \u201cpick to pieces well , \u201d and her appearance finally became an injunction to bet .\nour heroine is a mousy bay or brown , whose head does not fit her , albeit it is boney and clean cut . but then , she is not the sort of female whose face would go to her head . she is of only moderate size and lacks substance . also she is a quiet filly , not given to any colorful whimsy , indeed is something of a pet .\nas you see , she is neither a terribly big filly nor yet a runt , and perhaps therein lies something of the secret of her virtuosity , as she is balanced like a see - saw and is always in cadence . also , she is a filly of wire - hung organization with lean , rather stringy muscularity .\nthe shoulder might profitably have more angle , the pelvis is rather short and sloping , while her back is relatively long , to be gratuitously hypercritical .\nshe does have long forearms in relation to the cannons , and fairly long , sloping pasterns , while there is considerable length from hip to hock in proportion to the rest of her sparse format . she is a trifle sickle hocked and we think that we have seen better ankles . she was blistered against a curb and her ankles fired . the hooves are black , excepting the near hind , which has an accompanying white pastern that is her only marking .\nthere is a protuberance between her eyes which is the seat of the brain pan and a desideratum of her deceased developer in criticizing yearlings . when she is relaxed , gallant bloom seems noticeably deficient in muscularity about the gluteus maximus at the bow of the quarters and the flexor pedis perforatus above the hock . one hastens to add they afford momentum enough for one of her slight frame .\nfor all her gothic construction , never let it be said she has what cynics term a cardiac condition when they mean no heart . rather , she is all heart and no peel . it is in action she is seen to best advantage , for she is then a thing of air and fire . she has stealthy , syncopated action and is exciting to watch .\ngallant bloom sports cutaway blinkers and usually is equipped with rundown bandages , her hind pasterns being a trifle low , but she handles beautifully for j . l . rotz and braulio baeza . as an early two - year - old it was feared she was becoming impetuous , or speed crazy , but canny octogenarian hirsch outsmarted her . this involved thinking like a horse , as every successful trainer knows .\nafter she had won the matron from end to end at two , the texan thought it a shame she did not retail her speed , and set about teaching her to rate , which would build her character , broaden her horizons and enhance her potential earnings . first he allowed the filly her own way , or to think she was getting it , by telling her exercise boys to just sit still and see how far she would go independently . then he took a chance and worked her behind horses , and was delighted when she proved a quick study , relaxing until given the word .\n\u201cyou cannot achieve this with all horses , \u201d he commented . \u201coftener than not , they change their stride and lose their action or fight the bit , becoming confused and tiring more rapidly than when given their heads . \u201d\ngallant bloom has the dash to follow any pace and at three customarily reserved her resources for a compelling maneuver through the stretch .\ngallant bloom argues for those who contend an ounce of blood is worth a pound of bone . she is by the belmont , travers and woodward winner gallant man out of multiflora , by beau max , the next dam flower bed by beau pere and the next that wonderful matriarch boudoir ii by mahmoud .\ngallant man has two crosses of mah mahal , the dam of epsom derby winner mahmoud . turf romanticists will be pleased to note mah mahal has a dash of norfolk , the unbeaten heat champion by lexington , though this is remote . boudoir ii was a little gray mare who exerted a large influence as the ancestress of majestic prince , your host , kelso , bowl of flowers , flower bowl , graustark and others in the very first class .\ngallant bloom is a first foal and usually mares include their best progeny among their first two .\nmultiflora will scarcely ever be cited as an instance of class in the dam , as she could not win in 14 starts and earned a poverty level $ 995 . here is a case of \u201cthe family is stronger than the individual . \u201d that is the great thing about experience in pedigrees ; one can find a bromide to convenience him in almost any position he cares to assume .\nin leon rasmussen\u2019s thoughtful and educated view , gallant bloom\u2019s pedigree \u201creeks of classicism . \u201d explain her how you like , she is a runner .\nraceland and badge visited the winner\u2019s circle enclosure 70 times each , the mare imp and the gelding leochares 62 . another repeatedly successful racemare was pearl jennings , who won 59 races and thus equaled the records of strathmore and the american - bred parole , a champion both here and in england .\nnor does it seem likely gallant bloom will attempt any histrionics in the field of weight carrying , such as the brilliant little bay sprinting mare lady amelia did , winning with imposts up to 154 pounds soon after the turn of the century .\nthe longest string of consecutive victories in an undefeated career on the turf was put together by the mitteleuropean mare kincsem , who won all her 54 races , and incidentally was a granddaughter of the great british mare bee\u2019swing , who won even more races though she was occasionally beaten . she produced newminster .\nkingston , who cost a princely $ 2 , 200 as a yearling , was a champion sire on conclusion of his long and illustrious racing career . he got the futurity winners ballyhoo bey and novelty , and in king\u2019s courier a winner of the 2 - mile doncaster cup and 2 3 / 8 miles jockey club stakes . his daughter admiration beat may hempstead in a match on long island and foaled five winners , including detective , winner of a liverpool cup .\nkingston would try long as he had a leg under him . so will gallant bloom ."]}
{"id": 1499, "summary": [{"text": "linatella caudata , common name : the girdled triton or poulsen 's triton , is a species of predatory sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family ranellidae , the triton snails , triton shells or tritons . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "linatella caudata", "paragraphs": ["\u25ba we present data on recruitment of linatella caudata in culture of pinctada imbricata . \u25ba also present results on predation rates of linatella caudata on pinctada imbricata . \u25ba we analyze influence of environmental variables on linatella caudata recruitment . \u25ba sea urchins were used as an effective biocontrol on l . caudata recruitment rates . \u25ba we present a review of l . caudata predation on cultured bivalves worldwide .\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nh\u00e4utiges tritonshorn\nto\nlinatella caudata ( gmelin , 1791 )\n.\nannual recruitment , predation rates and biocontrol of linatella caudata ( mollusca : gastropoda ) in suspended enclosure culture of the pearl oyster p . . .\nbiplex perca cymatium sp . ( leopard triton snail ) cymatium caudatum = ^ ranularia caudata cymatium cutaceum = ^ linatella caudata cymatium labiosum = ^ turritriton labiosus cymatium pfeifferianum = ^ reticutriton pfeifferianus cymatium tranquebaricum = ^ monoplex tranquebaricus gyrineum bituberculare gyrineum gyrinum gyrineum lacunatum gyrineum natator ( common triton snails )\nlilac - breasted roller , coracias caudata , gewone troupant . kgalagadi transfrontier park , south africa .\nmorton , b . 1989 . prey capture , preference and consumption by linatella caudata ( gastropoda : tonnoidea : ranellidae ) in hong kong . j . moll . stud . 56 , 477 - 486 . summary : a paper that discusses the prey species of l . caudata in hong kong .\nlilacbreasted roller ( coracias caudata ) . taken in the kruger national park on the s21road . south africa\nmorton , b . 1989 . prey capture , preference and consumption by linatella caudata ( gastropoda : tonnoidea : ranellidae ) in hong kong . j . moll . stud . 56 , 477 - 486 .\nyou selected cymatium ( linatella ) cingulatum ( lamarck , 1822 ) . this is a synonym for :\nlinatella poulsenii m\u00f6rch , o . a . l . , 1877 : florida , usa - west indies & venezuela\nlilac - breasted roller , coracias caudata , gewone troupant . photographed at farm windhoek townlands , eastern outskirts of windhoek , namibia .\nlilac - breasted roller ( coracias caudata ) . . . . . masai mara . . . . . . sept 2015 by zulfi malik\n( of linatella neptunia garrard , 1963 ) beu , a . ( 2010 ) . catalogue of tonnoidea . pers . comm . [ details ]\nlinatella caudata ( gmelin , 1791 ) fine + + , perfect lip , micro eroded apex ; superb ! ; live taken w / op . and periostracum ; 60 . 4 mm ; south - east india , tamil nadu , rameshwaram island ; from local fisherman ; december 2009 . [ ran016 ]\n( of triton ( linatella ) poulsenii m\u00f6rch , 1877 ) beu , a . ( 2010 ) . catalogue of tonnoidea . pers . comm . [ details ]\nstyela plicata ( sea squirt ) is a suspension filter feeds that preys primarily on phytoplankton , zooplankton and organic materials . snails , crustaceans , sea stars and fish have been known to prey on s . plicata ( nimpis , 2002 ) . specifically , the species linatella caudata preys upon s . plicata ( morton , 1989 ) .\nnutrition styela plicata ( sea squirt ) is a suspension filter feeds that preys primarily on phytoplankton , zooplankton and organic materials . snails , crustaceans , sea stars and fish have been known to prey on s . plicata ( nimpis , 2002 ) . specifically , the species linatella caudata preys upon s . plicata ( morton , 1989 ) .\n( of cymatium ( linatella ) cingulatum peninsulum m . smith , 1937 ) beu , a . ( 2010 ) . catalogue of tonnoidea . pers . comm . [ details ]\non sheltered rocky beaches in hong kong , linatella caudata preys upon the lower - littoral and sub - littoral fringe fauna . ascidian tests are cut with the radula , while the proboscis is inserted between the parted shell valves of bivalves . the salivary glands secrete sulphuric acid that is not used in prey penetration , as in the cassidae , but is more likely used in digestion or defence .\ngrange , r . c . nov / 1983 : a new record for new zealand . linatella cutacea ( link , 1816 ) , poirieria , 13 ( 2 ) ( p . 4 )\n( of triton ( linatella ) poulsenii m\u00f6rch , 1877 ) m\u00f6rch o . a . l . ( 1877 ) . synopsis molluscorum marinorum indiarum occidentalium imprimis insularum danicarum ( contin . ) . malakozoologische bl\u00e4tter , 24 : 14 - 66 , 93 - 123 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 33 [ details ]\ncalibration plots of total weight against wet and dry tissue weight of prey ( barbatia virescens ) and , finally , the predator were obtained and used in estimations of consumption . on average , an adult linatella caudata ( 10 - 15g ) consumed three b . virescens . week \u22121 the mean weight of b . virescens flesh consumed . week \u22121 ranged between 0 . 208\u22120 . 412g dry weight prey . g dry weight predator \u22121 , i . e . , a mean of 28 . 2 % of the predator ' body weight . week \u22121 or 4 % . day \u22121 . such a figure accords well with estimates of consumption obtained for other adult predatory gastropods from hong kong .\nmapania caudata is a species in family of cyperaceae that ' s endemic to peninsular malaysia . its hallmark is narrow strap leaves with heavy metallic blue sheen . this makes it well worth growing though it ' s rather a challenging plant which needs warmth , humidity and partial shade to grow well . does best in perlite based medium with a little peat or sphagnum . urltoken\n. . . under laboratory conditions t . gradata individuals often accessed the mussels in , 7 hours and consumed nearly their own body weight of mussel tissue in 4 days . this prey consumption rate contrasts strikingly with that of other predatory whelks ; for example , linatella caudata showed a mean consumption rate of 28 % of its body weight in a week and hexaplex trunculus consumed 40 % of its body weight in 5 weeks ( morton , 1990 ; peharda & morton , 2006 ) . although these laboratory consumption rates may overestimate natural feeding rates considering that the prey was deprived of its natural defences ( such as a byssal cocoon and embedment in the sediment ; see morton , 2004 ) and that whelks had probably not reached satiation , concomitant with a non - feeding , resting state ( see figure 5 ) , these data nevertheless indicate a considerable capacity for rapid food intake by t . gradata . . . .\n( of cymatium ( linatella ) cingulatum ( lamarck , 1822 ) ) spencer , h . g . , marshall , b . a . & willan , r . c . ( 2009 ) . checklist of new zealand living mollusca . pp 196 - 219 . in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) new zealand inventory of biodiversity . volume one . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . canterbury university press , christchurch . [ details ]\n. . . this is low in comparison with g . natator ( ~ 14 % per day ) but information on the reproductive state of neither of these species was available at the study times . bearing in mind that neither l . caudata nor cymatium muricinum used their sulphuric acid potential to access their prey ( morton 1990a ; govan 1995 ) , whereas the g . natator in the filtered seawater aquarium was forced to , in order to access its sole choice of oyster prey , the ~ 10 % difference in estimated consumption between these similar - sized ranellids and cymatiids might , therefore , represent the increased costs of using the acid to access bivalve prey . . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\n( pl . 48c ) : te piki , cape runaway , near east cape , haweran ( oxygen isotope stage 7 ; m49096 , national museum of n . z . )\nby its much taller and narrower protoconch , its less inflated shell , its taller spire , and its long anterior canal . beu and cernohorsky ( 1986 ) discussed the variation , range , synonymy and fossil record of\nranellid is very widespread ( but uncommon ) today throughout the red sea , the entire indo - west pacific province as far north as southern japan , as far east as hawaii , and as far south as northern new zealand , in the western atlantic from south carolina to brazil , and at the canary and cape verde islands off west africa . a single recent specimen has been collected in central eastern northland , new zealand , washed ashore after severe storms . it seems to live only on soft substrates on the shelf in about 20 to 100 m . this distribution makes it somewhat surprising to find that\nhave recently been recognised in 2 opoitian collections from northern hawke ' s bay . these localities are outside its present range and point to the warm climate of the eastern bay of plenty at the times when the ohope and te piki faunules lived . it also occurs in pliocene rocks of the tropical pacific ( taiwan , java , sumatra ) and in zanzibar , east africa , and in miocene and pliocene rocks of the central western atlantic .\ncite this publication as :\na . g . beu and j . i . raine ( 2009 ) . revised descriptions of new zealand cenozoic mollusca from beu and maxwell ( 1990 ) . gns science miscellaneous series no . 27 .\n\u00a9 gns science , 2009 isbn 978 - 0 - 478 - 19705 - 1 issn 1177 - 2441 ( included with a pdf facsimile file copy of new zealand geological survey paleontological bulletin 58 in cd version from : publications officer , gns science , p . o . box 30368 lower hutt , new zealand )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nversion 43 . 0 went live 11 / 6 / 2018 - i hope that the majority of issues have been fixed . my email address is on the home page if you see anything wrong .\nfusus cutaceus lamarck , j . b . p . a . de , 1816 : circumtropical\ncassidaria cingulata lamarck , j . b . p . a . de , 1822 : n carolina , usa - e brazil ; indo - pacific ; s africa\ncymatium cingulatum lamarck , j . b . p . a . de , 1822 : philippines\nranularia rostratus\nmartini , f . h . w .\nm\u00f6rch , o . a . l . , 1852\n( of buccinum caudatum gmelin , 1791 ) gmelin j . f . ( 1791 ) . vermes . in : gmelin j . f . ( ed . ) caroli a linnaei systema naturae per regna tria naturae , ed . 10 . tome 1 ( 6 ) . g . e . beer , lipsiae [ leipzig ] . pp . 3021 - 3910 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cassidaria cingulata lamarck , 1822 ) lamarck [ j . - b . m . ] de . ( 1822 ) . histoire naturelle des animaux sans vert\u00e8bres . tome septi\u00e8me . paris : published by the author , 711 pp . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 216 [ details ]\n( of fusus voigtii anton , 1838 ) anton h . e . ( 1838 [\n1839\n] ) . verzeichniss der conchylien welche sich in der sammlung von herrmann eduard anton befinden . herausgegeben von dem besitzer . halle : anton . xvi + 110 pp . [ title page dated 1839 , but volume actually published in 1838 ; see cernohorsky , 1978 , the veliger 20 ( 3 ) : 299 . ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ngofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nsteyn , d . g . & lussi , m . ( 1998 ) marine shells of south africa . an illustrated collector\u2019s guide to beached shells . ekogilde publishers , hartebeespoort , south africa , ii + 264 pp . page ( s ) : 78 [ details ]\nbeu , a . ( 2010 ) . catalogue of tonnoidea . pers . comm . [ details ]\n( of cymatium cingulatum ( lamarck , 1822 ) ) rosenberg , g . 2004 . malacolog version 3 . 3 . 2 : western atlantic gastropod database . the academy of natural sciences , philadelphia , pa . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cymatium cingulatum ( lamarck , 1822 ) ) rosenberg , g . ; moretzsohn , f . ; garc\u00eda , e . f . ( 2009 ) . gastropoda ( mollusca ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 579\u2013699 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cymatium cutaceum ( lamarck , 1816 ) ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cymatium cutaceum ( lamarck , 1816 ) ) liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of cassidaria cingulata lamarck , 1822 ) beu , a . ( 2010 ) . catalogue of tonnoidea . pers . comm . [ details ]\n( of fusus cutaceus lamarck , 1816 ) beu , a . ( 2010 ) . catalogue of tonnoidea . pers . comm . [ details ]\n( of buccinum caudatum gmelin , 1791 ) beu , a . ( 2010 ) . catalogue of tonnoidea . pers . comm . [ details ]\n( of triton undosum kiener , 1842 ) beu , a . ( 2010 ) . catalogue of tonnoidea . pers . comm . [ details ]\n( of tritonium caudatum ( gmelin , 1791 ) ) gray , j . e . ( 1839 ) . molluscous animals and their shells . pp . 103 - 155 , pls 33 - 34 [ in ] the zoology of capt . beechey ' s voyage , compiled from the collections on notes made by captain beechey , the officers and naturalist of the expedition during a voyage to the pacific and behring ' s straits in his majesty ' s ship blossom , under the command of captain f . w . beechey in the years 1825 , 26 , 27 and 28 . london pp . xii + 186 + 44 pl . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of fusus voigtii anton , 1838 ) beu , a . ( 2010 ) . catalogue of tonnoidea . pers . comm . [ details ]\n( of ranularia ( lagena ) rostratus \u201cmartini\u201d m\u00f6rch , 1853 ) beu , a . ( 2010 ) . catalogue of tonnoidea . pers . comm . [ details ]\nknudsen j . ( 1992 ) . preliminary list of common marine prosobranch gastropods ( mollusca ) from hoi ha wan . in : morton b , editor . proceedings of the fourth international marine biological workshop : the marine flora and fauna of hong kong and southern china . the marine flora and fauna of hong kong and southern china iii . hong kong university press , hong kong . 2 : pp 919 - 921 . [ details ]\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nbiju kumar , a . 2012 . \u2018kerala theerathe kadal jeevikal\u2019 ( marine animals of kerala coast - a field guide ) . kerala state biodiversity board , thiruvananthapuram , kerala , 304 pp . ( in malayalam )\nthe contents of this website is licensed under the creative commons attribution - sharealike 4 . 0 international license .\nbijukumar , a . and nair , a . s . ( eds ) . 2014 . marine biodiversity informatics for kerala . < www . keralamarinelife . in > .\nturgeon , d . d . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , w . k . emerson , w . g . lyons , w . pratt , et al .\nturgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , et al .\ncommon and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks , 2nd ed .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 001 seconds . )\nshells for sale , shells online \u00ab shells for sale , conchology , inc .\nclick on an image to view all the information : family , species , author , date , and full locality .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 352 seconds . )\ngmelin , j . f . [ 1791 ] . caroli a linn\u00e9 , systema naturae . tom . i . pars vi . - pp . 3021 - 3910 . lipsiae . ( beer ) .\nj . l . varela , f . de la g\u00e1ndara , a . ortega , a . medina\nbochao hu , matthew ferrell , chhorn e . lim , d . allen davis\nsten ivar siikavuopio , philip james , hege lysne , bj\u00f8rn steinar s\u00e6ther , . . . atle mortensen\neduardo maldonado turra , denise aparecida andrade de oliveira , bruno dourado valente , edgar de alencar teixeira , . . . martinho de almeida e silva\naditya kesarcodi - watson , heinrich kaspar , m . josie lategan , lewis gibson\nk . la fauce , e . ariel , s . munns , c . rush , l . owens\nyuexing zhang , margareth \u00f8verland , shouqi xie , zhiyong dong , . . . trond storebakken\ncarmen malav\u00e9 , luis freites , cesar lodeiros , jeremy mendoza , . . . andrew w . dale\npei zhao , jie huang , xiu - hua wang , xiao - ling song , . . . guo - cheng wang\nalbumin and globulin rapeseed protein fractions as fish meal alternative in diets fed to rainbow trout ( oncorhynchus mykiss w . )\nflorian nagel , hanno slawski , halime adem , ralf - peter tressel , . . . carsten schulz\nculture , yield and bioremediation potential of palmaria palmata ( linnaeus ) weber & mohr and saccharina latissima ( linnaeus ) c . e . lane , c . mayes , druehl & g . w . saunders adjacent to fish farm cages in northwest scotland\nthe symbols k . a . c . f . m . an . are used to indicate the geographical range of the species . they have been adopted to give an approxomation of the range of each species within new zealand .\nbeu , a . g . 1998 : indo - west pacific ranellidae , bursidae and personidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) : a monograph of the new caledonian fauna and revisions of related taxa , m\u00e9moires du mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle , 178 ( p . 83 )\nbeu , a . g . , maxwell , p . a . 1990 : cenozoic mollusca of new zealand , new zealand geological survey , 58 ( p . 355 )\nbeu , a . g . 1976 : new records of cymatiidae ( gastropoda : prosobranchia ) from kapitean to castlecliffian ( late miocene to early pleistocene ) rocks of east cape district , new zealand , new zealand journal of geology and geophysics , 19 ( 2 ) ( p . 308 )\nnote : localities are approximate , and represent only some of the known localities for the species .\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c1faa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322fc869 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322fc9b6 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 3242651f - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 3263aa0c - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 327060d2 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 3845efa6 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 974fbba2 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\n. if you continue to use the site we will assume that you agree with this .\nlike most websites we use cookies . this is to ensure that we give you the best experience possible .\ncontinuing to use urltoken means you agree to our use of cookies . if you would like to , you can learn more about the cookies we use .\nwe\u2019d value your feedback on the tool . our survey takes only five minutes to complete .\ns . plicata is a widely distributed , temperate to subtropical tunicate . as a pest species , s . plicata can outcompete native encrusters and exclude them from hard substrates . it is\ns . plicata is a widely distributed , temperate to subtropical tunicate . as a pest species , s . plicata can outcompete native encrusters and exclude them from hard substrates . it is a known fouler of sea vessels and other hard substrates , travelling the oceans in this fashion .\nstyela plicata , the pleated sea squirt , is an ascidian ( the term ascidian can be used interchangeably with the term ' sea squirt ' ) . in other words , it belongs to the class ascidiacea , subphylum tunicata , ( hence , it is also a tunicate ) .\nis an ovular , greyish to tannish - white benthic tunicate . this solitary sessile ascidian is cloaked in an unstalked tunic that is large , tough , warty and ridged (\nreport that the lumpy surface of the tunic gives it the appearance of a cobblestone pavement . internal structures are protected by this tunic , which is composed largely of cellulose and contains a circulatory system of\nblood\ntransport vesicles . dividing the tunic is a membrane which allows fluid to flow up one side and down the other .\nis a eurythermal tunicate ; it is able to tolerate changes in seawater between 10\u00b0 - 30\u00b0c . it can tolerate salinities between 22 % - 34 % ( thiyagarajan &\ncan tolerate brackish waters and some level of pollution . adults can reach sizes between 40 - 70mm , even up to 90mm in some cases (\nis a protandric hermaphrodite , meaning it is male earlier in life and turns female later in life .\nthe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .\nis a suspension filter feeder that preys primarily on phytoplankton , zooplankton and organic materials . snails , crustaceans , sea stars and fish have been known to prey on\nis a male then later it changes to a female . fertilization is external ; eggs and sperm are released into the water column in the late afternoon and the larvae - 1 . 3mm in total length - hatch the next morning and settle that day (\nundergoes reproductive cycles yearly in conjunction with annual temperature changes . according to west &\nmust experience a period of darkness ; approximately 8 . 5 hours long , prior to the release of gametes . spawning can occur between 11\u00b0 - 28\u00b0 c ( west &\nreached sexual maturity in 2 months during the summer and 5 months during the winter .\n, limiting its northern distribution to cape hatteras , north carolina . one way this is thought to happen is by dislodgement from substrates during cold ( growth inhibiting ) periods (\nexhibits anti - hepatitis b properties ( stri , undated ) . the presence of secondary metabolites on the body wall of\nlocal dispersal methods other ( local ) : s . plicata can be spread by fouling of recreational boats ( wyatt et al . 2005 ) .\ncompetes with other organisms , excluding them from the space it occupies . its larvae are capable of invading occupied space and growing to a large size in a relatively short period of time . it can attach to other organisms and\nthen sloughs off because of its large size , often taking other marine organisms with it . the presence of this tunicate also inhibits the recruitment or growth of other larval species (\n, as well as an initial reduction of growth in the native , possibly due to competition for food . in addition to its potential to impact upon native species ,\nis a host to several different kinds of organisms , including brittle stars , mussels , chitons , sponges , polychaete worms , diatoms , eggs , etc . , that live on its tunic (\nis tough but not leathery . its gut loop is deeply curved ,\nwithout a distinct stalk , but attached directly by the side or base .\n: tributylin ( tbt ) has been used in anti - fouling paints , wood preservation , slime control in paper mills and other industrial processes . it affects\n) . copper sulphate was proposed as a broadcast spray control method , but scientists deemed it too expensive and non - specific , lethal to non - target species . it is also absorbed by the soil and ineffective at high ph levels .\ncentre for environment , fisheries & aquaculture science ( cefas ) . , 2008 . decision support tools - identifying potentially invasive non - native marine and freshwater species : fish , invertebrates , amphibians . urltoken\nconabio . 2008 . sistema de informaci\u00f3n sobre especies invasoras en m\u00e9xico . especies invasoras - otros invertebrados . comisi\u00f3n nacional para el conocimiento y uso de la biodiversidad . fecha de acceso . urltoken\nfiala - medlioni , a . 1978 . filter - feeding ethology of benthic invertebrates ( ascidians ) . iii . recording of water current in s i t u - rate and rhythm of pumping . marine biology 45 , 185 - 190\nfisher , t . 1976 . oxygen uptake of the solitary tunicate styela plicata . biol bull 151 : 297 - 305 . urltoken\nfisher , t . 1977 . metabolic maintenance costs of the suspension feeder styela plicata . marine biology 41 , 361 - 369\nfuller , pam . , 2007 . styela plicata . usgs nonindigenous aquatic species database , gainesville , fl . urltoken\nhayes , k . , sliwa , c . , migus , s . , mcennulty , f . , dunstan , p . 2005 . national priority pests : part ii ranking of australian marine pests . an independent report undertaken for the department of environment and heritage by csiro marine research . urltoken\nhowey , r . 1998 . tunicates with salad on the side . micscape magazine . urltoken\ninvasions lab online databases ( ilod ) . 2006 . styela plicata . marine invasions research lab . smithsonian environmental research center .\nlambert , c . & g . lambert . 1998 . non - indigenous ascidians in southern california harbors and marinas . marine biology 130 : 675\u00b1688\nlambert , g . , faulkes , z . , scofield , z . , and c . lambert . 2005 . ascidians of south padre island , texas , with a key to species . texas j . sci . 57 ( 3 ) : 251 - 262 .\nmansueto , c . , villa , l . , d\u2019agati , p . marcian ` , v . , pellerito , c . , fiore , t . , scopelliti , m . , nagy , l . , and l . pellerito . 2003 . effects of tributyltin ( iv ) chloride on fertilization of styela plicata ( ascidiacea : tunicata ) : ii . scanning and transmission electron microscopy studies . appl . organometal . chem . 17 : 553\u2013560\nnational exotic marine and estuarine species information system ( nemesis ) . 2006 . styela plicata . smithsonian environmental research center . urltoken\nnational introduced marine pest information system ( nimpis ) , 2002 . styela plicata species summary . national introduced marine pest information system ( eds : hewitt c . l . , martin r . b . , sliwa c . , mcennulty , f . r . , murphy , n . e . , jones t . & cooper , s . ) . urltoken\norme , s . and s . kegley , 2006 . pan pesticide database , pesticide action network , north america ( san francisco , ca . 2006 ) .\nperry & larson . 2004 . styela plicata . guide to shelf invertebrates , gulf of mexico . urltoken\npisut , p . & j . pawlik . 2002 . anti - predatory chemical defenses of ascidians : secondary metabolites or inorganic acids ? journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 270 ( 2002 ) 203\u2013 214 .\nport survey for introduced species [ psis ] . undated . sydney harbour . australian museum business services . urltoken\nsmithsonian tropical research institute ( stir ) . undated . styela plicata . bocas del toro species database . urltoken\nsutherland , p . 1978 . functional roles of schizoporella and styela in the fouling community at beaufort , north carolina . ecology , 59 ( 2 ) . pp . 257 - 264 .\nthiel , m . 1998 . host - use and population demographics of the ascidian - dwelling amphipod leucothoe spinicarpa : indication for extended parental care and advanced social behaviour . journal of natural history , 33 , 193\u00b1 206\nthiyagarajan , v . & p . qian . 2003 . effect of temperature , salinity and delayed attachment on development of the solitary ascidian styela plicata ( lesueur ) . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 290 ; 133\u2013 146 .\nvarnham , k . 2006 . non - native species in uk overseas territories : a review . jncc report 372 . peterborough : united kingdom . urltoken\nwest , a . & c . lambert . 1975 . control of spawning in the tunicate styela plicata by variations in a natural light regime . j . exp . zool . , 195 : 263 - 270 .\nwyatt , a . , hewitt , c . , walker , di . , & t . ward . 2005 . marine introductions in the shark bay world heritage property , western australia : a preliminary assessment . diversity and distributions , ( diversity distrib . ) 11 , 33\u201344\nyamaguchi , m . 1975 . growth and reproductive cycles of the marine fouling ascidians ciona intestinalis , styela plicata , botrylloides violaceus , and leptoclinum mitsukurii at aburatsubo - moroiso inlet ( central japan ) . ymrine biology 29 , 253 - 259 .\nbarros rcde ; rocha rmda ; pie mr , 2009 . human - mediated global dispersion of styela plicata ( tunicata , ascidiacea ) . aquatic invasions [ proceedings of the 2nd international invasive sea squirt conference , prince edward island , canada , 2 - 4 october 2007 . ] , 4 ( 1 ) : 45 - 57 . urltoken\ncestone a ; natale mdi ; rosa sde , 2008 . toxicity and biodegradation of the las surfactant 1 - ( p - sulfophenyl ) nonane in presence of the ascidian styela plicata . chemosphere , 71 ( 8 ) : 1440 - 1445 . urltoken ; = c07103e00289eecb0cafe89b82183d29\ndraughon ld ; scarpa j ; hartmann jx , 2010 . are filtration rates for the rough tunicate styela plicata independent of weight or size ? journal of environmental science and health . part a , toxic / hazardous substances & environmental engineering , 45 ( 2 ) : 168 - 176 .\ninternational maritime organization , 2002 . focus on imo - anti - fouling systems . urltoken\nissg , 2011 . global invasive species database ( gisd ) . invasive species specialist group of the iucn species survival commission . urltoken\nrius m ; turon x ; marshall dj , 2009 . non - lethal effects of an invasive species in the marine environment : the importance of early life - history stages . oecologia , 159 ( 4 ) : 873 - 882 . urltoken\nsmithsonian institute , 2012 . smithsonian marine station at fort pierce . styela plicata . urltoken\nworld register of marine species ( worms ) , 2012 . styela plicata . urltoken ; = 103936 .\none or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using .\nplease consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser .\nstyela plicata ( sea squirt ) is a pandemic , temperate to subtropical tunicate . as a pest species , styela plicata outcompete native encrusters and excludes them from hard substrates . it is a known fouler of sea vessels and other hard substrates , travelling the oceans in this fashion . few places classify styela plicata as an invasive species , but some effective management options are available to control this tunicate .\nas a defence mechanism , styela plicata ( sea squirt ) concentrates deterrant chemical compounds in its gonads so that they may be passed on to larvae , thus protecting them from predation ( pisut & pawlik , 2002 ) . alcohol from the body of s . plicata exhibits anti - hepatitis b properties ( stri , undated ) . s . plicata harbours the amphiped leucothoe spinicarpa and an ascidicolous copepod ( thiel , 1998 ) . cold winters kill s . plicata , limiting its northern distribution to cape hatteras , north carolina . one way this is thought to happen is by dislodgement from substrates during cold ( growth inhibiting ) periods ( fisher , 1976 ) . populations of s . plicata fluctuate ; they may be abundant one year and absent the next ( lambert & lambert , 1998 ) .\nthe eggs of styela plicata ( sea squirt ) are surrounded by a complex ovular envelope ( mansueto et al . 2003 ) that supplies the larvae with its nutritional requirements ( pisut & pawlik , 2002 ) . once hatched , the larvae attempt to find a suitable substrate . s . plicata can have an extended swimming period of over 2 days prior to settlement without a cost to metamorphosis ( thiyagarajan & qian , 2003 ) . larval settlement is most successful in the spring and fall ( fisher , 1977 ) . s . plicata has a life span of less than one year that is characterised by rapid growth . some sea squirts can live between 2 - 3 years ( lambert & lambert , 1998 ) . yamaguchi ( 1975 ) reported that s . plicata reached sexual maturity in 2 months during the summer and 5 months during the winter . s . plicata has an extended breeding season , reproducing all year except during winter ( nimpis , 2002 ) .\nstyela plicata ( sea squirt ) is a host to several different kinds of organisms , including brittle stars , mussels , chitons , sponges , polychaete worms , diatoms , eggs , etc . , that live on its tunic ( howey , 1998 ) .\nthe different life cycle stages of styela plicata ( sea squirt ) have different habitat requirements for survival . the larval and juvenile stages of s . plicata live on marinas and docks , oyster reefs , rocks and coarse woody debris , while the adults prefer marinas , docks and hard rocky substrates ( nemesis , 2006 ) . s . plicata also live in coral reef habitats ( stir , undated ) . s . plicata is found from the low intertidal zone to depths of 30m ( nimpis , 2002 ) .\nstyela plicata ( sea squirt ) is a protandric hermaphrodite . initially , s . plicata is a male , then later it changes to a female . fertilisation is external ; eggs and sperm are released into the water column in the late afternoon and the larvae , 1 . 3mm in total length ( yamaguchi , 1975 ) , hatch the next morning and settle that day ( nimpis , 2002 ) . s . plicata undergoes reproductive cycles yearly in conjunction with annual temperature changes . according to west & lambert ( 1975 ) , s . plicata must experience a period of darkness ; approximately 8 . 5 hours long , prior to the release of gametes . spawning can occur between 11\u00b0 - 28\u00b0 c ( west & lambert , 1975 ) , with 20\u00b0c being optimal ( yamaguchi , 1975 ) . water filtration is not optimal during the release of gametes ( fiala - medlioni , 1978 ) .\nhayes et al ( 2005 ) report that styela plicata was introduced to australia accidently with the translocation of fish or shellfish . styela plicata can be introduced to new locations in ship ballast water ( fuller 2007 ) . styela plicata can be introduced to new locations by hull / ship fouling ( fuller 2007 ) .\nreview : expert review underway : dr . richard osman , senior scientist smithsonian environmental research center . , edgewater , maryland , usa\nrecommended citation : global invasive species database ( 2018 ) species profile : styela plicata . downloaded from urltoken on 09 - 07 - 2018 .\n: tributylin ( tbt ) is used in anti - fouling paints , wood preservation , slime control in paper mills and other industrial processes . it affects\ncells aquired post - fertilisation ( pan , 2006 ) . copper sulphate was proposed as a broadcast spray control method , but scientists deemed it too expensive and non - specific , lethal to non - target species . it is also absorbed by the soil and ineffective at high ph levels .\nphysical : plastic wraps have been applied to timber pylons in intertidal to subtidal zones , which prevent oxygenated water from touching s . plicata , thus suffocating it ( nimpis , 2002 ) .\ninformations on styela plicata has been recorded for the following locations . click on the name for additional informations .\nhayes , k . , sliwa , c . , migus , s . , mcennulty , f . , dunstan , p . 2005 . national priority pests : part ii ranking of australian marine pests . an independent report undertaken for the department of environment and heritage by csiro marine research . summary : this report is the final report of a two year study designed to identify and rank introduced marine species found within australian waters ( potential domestic target species ) and those that are not found within australian waters ( potential international target species ) . available from : urltoken [ accessed 25 may 2005 ]\nmansueto , c . , villa , l . , d\ufffdagati , p . marcian ` , v . , pellerito , c . , fiore , t . , scopelliti , m . , nagy , l . , and l . pellerito . 2003 . effects of tributyltin ( iv ) chloride on fertilization of styela plicata ( ascidiacea : tunicata ) : ii . scanning and transmission electron microscopy studies . appl . organometal . chem . 17 : 553\ufffd560 summary : this report discusses the use of tbt in industrial systems . it also explains the affect of this chemical on s . plicata and gives some management information .\nnational introduced marine pest information system ( nimpis ) , 2002 . styela plicata species summary . national introduced marine pest information system ( eds : hewitt c . l . , martin r . b . , sliwa c . , mcennulty , f . r . , murphy , n . e . , jones t . & cooper , s . ) . summary : this autralian based website provides a wealth of information about s . plicata . gives information concerning management , similar species , reproduction and growth , general biology . available from : urltoken [ accessed 16 january 2007 ]\norme , s . and s . kegley , 2006 . pan pesticide database , pesticide action network , north america ( san francisco , ca . 2006 ) . summary : information on toxicity studies with styela plicata . tells exactly what each chemical will do and in what life cycle phase they are effective .\nvarnham , k . 2006 . non - native species in uk overseas territories : a review . jncc report 372 . peterborough : united kingdom . summary : this database compiles information on alien species from british overseas territories . available from : urltoken [ accessed 10 november 2009 ]\nfiala - medlioni , a . 1978 . filter - feeding ethology of benthic invertebrates ( ascidians ) . iii . recording of water current in s i t u - rate and rhythm of pumping . marine biology 45 , 185 - 190 summary : this article discusses the pumping and filtration of s . plicata to determine if patterns are evident . it gives information on pumping during reproduction as well .\nfisher , t . 1976 . oxygen uptake of the solitary tunicate styela plicata . biol bull 151 : 297 - 305 . summary : this paper discusses oyxgen uptake and metabolic coasts of s . plicata and hypothsizes as to why the tunicate reproduces at certain times of the year . available from : urltoken [ accessed 16 january 2007 ]\nfisher , t . 1977 . metabolic maintenance costs of the suspension feeder styela plicata . marine biology 41 , 361 - 369 summary : this journal article describes the different energy demands of s . plicata . it discusses temperature ranges and how they relate to reproduction and evergy costs .\nfuller , pam . , 2007 . styela plicata . usgs nonindigenous aquatic species database , gainesville , fl . summary : a us webstite that gives information about non - indigenous aquatic species . good information about native and introduced ranges and impacts of invasive species . available from : urltoken [ accessed 17 january 2007 ]\nhowey , r . 1998 . tunicates with salad on the side . micscape magazine . summary : a good source for general infromation on tunicates . explains their reproductive capabilities and organ functions and gives physical descriptions of tunicates . available from : urltoken [ accessed 18 january 2007 ]\ninvasions lab online databases ( ilod ) . 2006 . styela plicata . marine invasions research lab . smithsonian environmental research center .\nitis ( integrated taxonomic information system ) , 2007 . online database styela plicata summary : an online database that provides taxonomic information , common names , synonyms and geographical jurisdiction of a species . in addition links are provided to retrieve biological records and collection information from the global biodiversity information facility ( gbif ) data portal and bioscience articles from bioone journals . available from : urltoken ; _ value = 159338 [ accessed 15 january 2007 ]\nlambert , c . & g . lambert . 1998 . non - indigenous ascidians in southern california harbors and marinas . marine biology 130 : 675\ufffd688 summary : gives geographic information about s . plicata in california harbors and marinas .\nlambert , g . , faulkes , z . , scofield , z . , and c . lambert . 2005 . ascidians of south padre island , texas , with a key to species . texas j . sci . 57 ( 3 ) : 251 - 262 . summary : this article gives a key to ascidians , providing very scientific information about ascidians . it also describes the presence of s . plicata in different location on south padre island .\nnational exotic marine and estuarine species information system ( nemesis ) . 2006 . styela plicata . smithsonian environmental research center . summary : a website that provides thorough information about taxonomy , impacts , trophic interactions , invasion history , and general ecology concerning styela plicata . available from : urltoken [ accessed 19 january 2007 ]\nperry & larson . 2004 . styela plicata . guide to shelf invertebrates , gulf of mexico . summary : this page gives good range information and diagnostic characteristics . available from : urltoken [ accessed 18 january 2007 ]\npisut , p . & j . pawlik . 2002 . anti - predatory chemical defenses of ascidians : secondary metabolites or inorganic acids ? journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 270 ( 2002 ) 203\ufffd 214 . summary : the composition of anti - predatory chemicals is the main focus on this article . it talks about what compounds in s . plicata are thought to be for defense and gives some information on reproduction .\nport survey for introduced species [ psis ] . undated . sydney harbour . australian museum business services . summary : this survey gives geographic information for introduced species in australia . available from : urltoken [ accessed 17 january 2007 ]\nsmithsonian tropical research institute ( stir ) . undated . styela plicata . bocas del toro species database . summary : available from : urltoken ; _ key = styela [ accessed 12 march 2010 ]\nsutherland , p . 1978 . functional roles of schizoporella and styela in the fouling community at beaufort , north carolina . ecology , 59 ( 2 ) . pp . 257 - 264 . summary : this report details what s . plicata has been doing to the marine community at beaufort , north carolina . it discusses impacts and alterations that the tunicate has made in the ecosystem .\nthiel , m . 1998 . host - use and population demographics of the ascidian - dwelling amphipod leucothoe spinicarpa : indication for extended parental care and advanced social behaviour . journal of natural history , 33 , 193\ufffd 206 summary : an article that discusses the presence of the amphipod l . spinicarpa in s . plicata .\nthiyagarajan , v . & p . qian . 2003 . effect of temperature , salinity and delayed attachment on development of the solitary ascidian styela plicata ( lesueur ) . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 290 ; 133\ufffd 146 . summary : a great article that discusses environmental tolerances of s . plicata and its ability to delay metamorphosis by swimming to a suitable substrate .\nwest , a . & c . lambert . 1975 . control of spawning in the tunicate styela plicata by variations in a natural light regime . j . exp . zool . , 195 : 263 - 270 . summary : a scholarly article that tests s . plicata in different light regimes to determine if a dark period is needed for reproduction .\nwyatt , a . , hewitt , c . , walker , di . , & t . ward . 2005 . marine introductions in the shark bay world heritage property , western australia : a preliminary assessment . diversity and distributions , ( diversity distrib . ) 11 , 33\ufffd44 summary : this article discusses the presence of s . plicata in the protected area of the shark bay world heritage property and the mechanism of introduction . it also provides information about other marine introductions to this area .\nyamaguchi , m . 1975 . growth and reproductive cycles of the marine fouling ascidians ciona intestinalis , styela plicata , botrylloides violaceus , and leptoclinum mitsukurii at aburatsubo - moroiso inlet ( central japan ) . ymrine biology 29 , 253 - 259 . summary : a journal article that gives specific reproduction information about s . plicata , including what temperature is optimal , how fast they reach maturity , and other life cycle events .\nthe global invasive species database was developed and is managed by the invasive species specialist group ( issg ) of the species survival commission ( ssc ) of the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) . it was developed as part of the global initiative on invasive species led by the erstwhile global invasive species programme ( gisp ) in 2000 . the gisd over the past two years and has been redesigned with support from the abu dhabi environment agency , the italian ministry of environment and ispra - the institute for environmental protection and research , italy . terms and conditions of use\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\n. . . true gastropod predators are , however , somewhat different from scavenging nassariids although consumption figures can still be impressive . these are identified in table 2 , wherein most values are expressed in terms of wet weights and although a few , for example , paine ( 1965 ) and edwards and hubner ( 1977 ) , are expressed in terms of dry weight , such values typically show a difference of but 1\u20132 % from those of wet weight ( morton 1990a ) . two - week - old hatchlings of the melongenid whelk hemifusus tuba ( gmelin ) ate approximately 92 % of their body weight ( of carrion ) each day , which equates to > 40 % of their wet tissues weight per day . . . .\n. . . david j . marshall the sungai brunei estuary have probably never encountered these mussels ( see marshall et al . , 2008 ) . recognition of and attraction to novel bivalve prey probably depends on the level of feeding specialization ( morton , 1990 morton , , 1999morton , , 2008 taylor & morton , 1996 ) . some predatory whelks attack novel prey in preference to natural prey while the opposite is found in others ( morton , 1994 ; reusch , 1998 ) . . . .\n. . . it seems unlikely that a narrow buccal cavity and oesophagus could occur in a type such as tonna , which morton ( 1991 ) observed swallowing holothurians whole . both the naticoidea and tonnoidea include borers and may take in food in a fluid or semi - fluid state ( day , 1969 ; taylor et al . , 1980 ; morton , 1990 ; fretter & graham , 1994 ) , and they show similarities in the organization of the mid - gut . in polinices lewisii ( gould ) the mid - oesophageal gland is subdivided from the food channel to which it remains connected along its whole length ( reid & friesen , 1980 ; page & pederson , 1998 ) . . . .\n. . . the large scale positive growth potentials estimated on a pyura diet raises the ques - tion of possible food selectivity as documented among predatory gastropods ( garton , 1986 ; hughes , 1986 ; berry & thomson , 1990 ; burrows & hughes , 1990 morton , 1990b ; hughes et a1 . , 1992 ) . indeed , field observations have shown that although cnidaria constitute by far the most readily available food , other carrion of higher calorific value such as pyura is preferred when present ( brown , 1961 ( brown , , 1964 ( brown , , 1981 . . . .\n. . . prey consumed were not replaced , thereby progressively requiring the predator to consume subsequent prey in order of preference over the duration of the experiments . data from this experiment were expressed as an accumulative ranking similar to the method used by morton ( 1990 ) . data from the three replicates for each predator were pooled . . . .\n. . . the first individual prey chosen by a predator species was allotted a number equivalent to the total number of prey consumed by that predator species , the second individual prey was allotted that number minus one and so on until the last prey individual chosen which was accordingly allotted the number one . summing of the numbers for each species gives an approximate indication of overall prey preference as shown by morton ( 1990 ) . in the second series of preference experiments ( performed at iclarm cac ) two tridacnid species , t . gigas and h . hippopus ( 4 ( } - so mm sl ) were offered to the predator , c . muricinum , in 24 litre flow - through aquaria . . . .\n\u0434\u0432\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0447\u0430\u0442\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043b\u044e\u0441\u043a - \u0432\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0446 a . inaequivalvis ( \u0441\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e arcidae l . ) \u043f\u043e\u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0447\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043c\u043e\u0440\u0435 \u0432 1980 - 1982 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0445 [ gomoiu , 1984 ; \u0437\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0435\u0432 , 1987 ] . \u0433\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u0444\u0430 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043b\u044e\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0438\u0442 \u044d\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0433\u043b\u043e\u0431\u0438\u043d , \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043e\u0442\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0435\u0435 \u043e\u0442 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u0447\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0434\u0432\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043a [ carpene et al . , 1985 ; de zwaan et al . , 2002 ] . \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0431\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c\u0430 a . inaequivalvis \u0441\u043d\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u044b [ \u0441\u043e\u043b\u0434\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u0434\u0440 . , 2005 ] . \u0432\u0438\u0434 . . . [ show full abstract ]\nresource of bivalves in a number of typical mangrove areas in vietnam - ngu\u1ed3n l\u1ee3i \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1eadt th\u00e2n m\u1ec1m . . .\nbivalve molluscs are one of species groups which play the important role contributing to high biodiversity of fauna in mangrove ecosystem . research and monitoring results indicated that 66 species of bivalves ( belong to 21 families ) were initially classified in 4 mangrove areas such as ca mau national park ( ca mau ) , long son ( vung tau ) , hung hoa ( nghe an ) , dong rui ( quang ninh ) . among them , . . . [ show full abstract ]\nhabitat description the different life cycle stages of styela plicata ( sea squirt ) have different habitat requirements for survival . the larval and juvenile stages of s . plicata live on marinas and docks , oyster reefs , rocks and coarse woody debris , while the adults prefer marinas , docks and hard rocky substrates ( nemesis , 2006 ) . s . plicata also live in coral reef habitats ( stir , undated ) . s . plicata is found from the low intertidal zone to depths of 30m ( nimpis , 2002 ) .\nuses styela plicata ( sea squirt ) is a host to several different kinds of organisms , including brittle stars , mussels , chitons , sponges , polychaete worms , diatoms , eggs , etc . , that live on its tunic ( howey , 1998 ) .\nnotes as a defence mechanism , styela plicata ( sea squirt ) concentrates deterrant chemical compounds in its gonads so that they may be passed on to larvae , thus protecting them from predation ( pisut & pawlik , 2002 ) . alcohol from the body of s . plicata exhibits anti - hepatitis b properties ( stri , undated ) . s . plicata harbours the amphiped leucothoe spinicarpa and an ascidicolous copepod ( thiel , 1998 ) . cold winters kill s . plicata , limiting its northern distribution to cape hatteras , north carolina . one way this is thought to happen is by dislodgement from substrates during cold ( growth inhibiting ) periods ( fisher , 1976 ) . populations of s . plicata fluctuate ; they may be abundant one year and absent the next ( lambert & lambert , 1998 ) ."]}
{"id": 1511, "summary": [{"text": "the mauritius fody ( foudia rubra ) is a rare species of bird in the weaver family .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it is endemic to the island of mauritius .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is classified by birdlife international as being endangered .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is also on the united states ' endangered species list with an endangered status .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "this bird is 14 centimeters long .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "breeding males are olive brown with a red head , breast and rump patch and black lores .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "while females , non-breeding males and juveniles are olive brown with white wing bars and a brown bill .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the bird lives in several types of forest , including degraded areas , as well as plantations .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "stands of japanese cedar ( cryptomeria japonica ) have replaced native vegetation and now provide protection against predators .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it feeds on insects like grasshoppers , beetle larvae , caterpillars , and also spiders .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "berries are eaten regularly by some individuals .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it feeds on nectar regularly , using its specialised brush-tipped tongue .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the bird is a weaver , the male and female cooperating to weave each nest , from material like grass , moss and small twigs .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the mauritius fody is threatened by the loss of its habitat and predation from introduced predators .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "beginning in the 1970s much of its habitat was lost when the land was cleared for plantations .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "by 2001 there were perhaps no more than about 100 breeding pairs .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "nests are raided by predators , especially the black rat ( rattus rattus ) and the crab-eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "this is currently the main cause of the bird 's decline .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "some areas of intact habitat have high nest predation , but areas of low nest predation may be poor habitat .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the common myna has also been observed preying on nests .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "nest failure may occur when it is infested with tropical nest fly .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the larvae of the fly attack the chicks , latching on and feeding on their blood , causing dehydration and anemia in the chicks .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "conservation efforts include the control of rats and macaques .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "a captive breeding program carried out by the mauritan wildlife foundation has produced many chicks .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "eggs are removed from nests in the wild and hatched in captivity as the wild pairs produce and rear another clutch simultaneously .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "nests are treated for tropical nest fly .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "supplemental food and water are given .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the population has increased recently due to conservation programs establishing sub-populations on offshore islands .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "due to these conservation efforts the species was downlisted from critically endangered to endangered in 2009 .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "\u00eele aux aigrettes , an islet off the main island of mauritius , is now home to a number of mauritius fodies and other threatened species that have been translocated there . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "mauritius fody", "paragraphs": ["insula franciae = mauritius . the historic distribution of the mauritius fody ranged over much of mauritius , so the type could have been collected anywhere on the island .\nthe endemic fody bears a close resemblance to the exotic madagascar fody which is very common in mauritius . . the male madagascar fody , however , has completely bright red plumage during breeding season .\nthe mauritius fody is classified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe population of the mauritius fody suffered a rapid decline in the 1970s due to nest predation and habitat loss .\noften mistaken : the madagascar fody ( foudia madagascarensis ) is very common in mauritius . photo \u00a9 g . gerra & s . sommazzi\nthe mauritius fody is found only on the island of mauritius . the male mauritius fody boasts a brilliant red head , neck and breast , while females have drabber olive - brown plumage . adults are approximately 14 centimetres long . this solitary songbird prefers native scrub and forest habitat and feeds mainly on insects , supplemented by fruit and nectar .\nsafford , rj . the annual cycle and breeding behaviour of the mauritius fody , foudia rubra . ostrich , 68 , 58 - 67 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - mauritius fody captive breeding program\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - mauritius fody captive breeding program\ntitle =\narkive video - mauritius fody captive breeding program\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - mauritius fody ( foudia rubra )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - mauritius fody ( foudia rubra )\ntitle =\narkive species - mauritius fody ( foudia rubra )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nclearing mauritius\u2019s forests has been catastrophic to the fody , while predators such as black rats and crab - eating macaques that have been brought to the island have caused almost total breeding failure in most areas . the native fodies may also face competition from the madagascar fody , which has been introduced to mauritius .\nthe mauritius fody inhabits remaining native forest but also survives in degraded forest that has been invaded by exotics , as well as forests of exotics such as pines .\nsafford rj . nesting success of the mauritius fody foudia rubra in relation to its use of exotic trees as nest sites . ibis , 139 , 555 - 559 .\nsafford , r . j . ( 1997 ) the annual cycle and breeding behaviour of the mauritius fody foudia rubra . ostrich , 68 ( 2 ) : 58 - 67 .\nthe diet of the mauritius fody is comprised primarily of invertebrates , but nectar , fruit , seeds and the eggs of birds and geckos are also consumed ( 5 ) . some females have even been seen feeding on the eggs of other mauritius fodies ( 3 ) .\nthe mauritius fody has suffered a constant and severe decline in range and numbers since 1975 , and is now found only in southwest mauritius ( 2 ) , and on the small , offshore island of ile aux aigrettes , where captive - bred fodies were released in 2003 ( 3 ) .\npeter brown was the first to illustrate , the mauritius fody . he called it the red - headed finch and gave a description of the bird . brown notes that the bird was in the collection of\nsafford , rj . the destruction of source and sink habitats in the decline of the mauritius fody , foudia rubra , an island - endemic bird . biodiversity and conservation , 6 , 513 - 527 .\nthe mauritius fody is restricted to south - west mauritius ( see red polygon on map ) where there are 3 small sub - populations . in 2005 , hand reared chicks were released onto the offshore islet ile aux aigrettes where the species apparently occurred historically ( red arrow on map , see also\non january 12 , 1995 , the mauritius fody was designated as endangered in the entire range . within the area covered by this listing , this species is known to occur in : mauritius . the u . s . fish & wildlife service ( null ) is the lead region for this entity .\nsafford , r . j . ( 1997 ) nesting success of the mauritius fody foudia rubra in relation to its use of exotic trees as nest sites . ibis , 139 ( 3 ) : 555 - 559 .\nthe mauritius fodies ( foudia rubra ) - also known as mascarene fodies - are only found on the island of mauritius off the southeast coast of africa , where they inhabit forests and plantations .\n, an english ornithologist and collector . the fody would have been brought by ship from mauritius to england , where it would have been purchased by tunstall . tunstall kept it in captivity for several years ( fox 1827 ) .\nmauritius fodies mostly feed on insects ; but they will also take fruit , nectar , seeds , geckos and - on occasion - the eggs of other birds ( including those of other mauritius fodies ) .\n. the illustration in daubenton 1783 is of a male , and the first female to be painted , but buffon does not appear to have written about it . gmelin noted the locality for the mauritius fody as\ninsula franciae\n.\n, an english naturalist and illustrator . gmelin did not realise that the same species was involved , due to the slight differences in the artwork . the latin name he provided here was invalid . gmelin noted the locality for this mauritius fody specimen as\ninsula mauritii\n.\ngmelin 1789 syst . nat . , 1 ( 2 ) , p . 877 isle de france [ = mauritius ] .\nsafford , rj . distribution studies on the forest - living native passerines of mauritius . biological conservation , 80 , 189 - 198 .\nsimilar spp . non - breeding male , female and juvenile separated from madagascar red fody f . madagascariensis by darker , less streaked plumage , plumper body and relatively shorter tail .\ninhabits all types of forest , even degraded forest invaded by introduced plant species ( 2 ) . on the mainland , the highest densities of this bird are found in small plantations of exotic trees surrounded by degraded native forest . on ile aux aigrettes , the mauritius fody inhabits lowland ebony forest and coastal scrub ( 3 ) .\nendangered . restricted range species : present in mauritius eba . formerly listed as critically endangered , but downgraded to endangered because population , albeit extremely . . .\nalthough threatened by the clearance of upland forest , the mauritius fody has also been suddenly lost from areas of intact habitat ( 2 ) . it is thought that these regions have been affected by particularly high levels of egg predation by both the black rat ( rattus rattus ) and the crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) ( 6 ) .\ngarrett , l . j . h . , jones , c . g . , cristinacce , a . and bell , d . j . ( 2007 ) competition or co - existence of reintroduced , critically endangered mauritius fodies and invasive madagascar fodies in lowland mauritius ? . biological conservation , 140 : 19 - 28 .\nsafford , rj . a survey of the occurrence of native vegetation remnants on mauritius in 1993 . biological conservation , 80 , 181 - 188 and 84 , 197 .\nthese brightly colored birds are now only found in southwest mauritius and on the small , offshore island of ile aux aigrettes , where captive - bred birds were released in 2003 .\nmauritius fodies generally form monogamous pair bonds ; although males have on occasion been observed with more than one female . pairs maintain a breeding territory that they defend throughout the year .\ncraig , a . ( 2018 ) . mauritius fody ( foudia rubra ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe mauritius fody is mainly insectivorous , and feeds on grasshoppers , beetle larvae , caterpillars , and also spiders . berries are eaten regularly by some individuals . it feeds on nectar regularly , using its specialised brush - tipped tongue . it forages in dead leaves , and probes bark and epiphytes , and gleans from leaves , for invertebrates . it is usually found singly , in pairs or in family groups .\nsafford , r . j . and jones , c . g . ( 1998 ) strategies for land - bird conservation on mauritius . conservation biology , 12 : 169 - 176 .\nchinese : ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . czech : snovatec mauricijsk\u00fd . . . danish : mauritiusv\u00e6ver . . . dutch : mauritiuswever . . . finnish : mauritiuksenkutoja . . . french : cardinal de maurice , foudi de l ' ile maurice , foudi de maurice . . . german : mauritius weber , mauritiusweber . . . italian : fody di mauritius , tessitore di mauritius . . . japanese : benihataori , moarishasubeninojiko . . . norwegian : mauritiusvever . . . polish : wiklacz maurytyjski , wik ? acz maurytyjski . . . russian : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . slovak : fodia maur\u00edcijsk\u00e1 . . . spanish : fodi de mauricio , fodi de mauritana . . . swedish : mauritiusfody\n. however , since 1993 , the population has been stable due to conservation action , the population being about 140 - 170 adults and an estimated 108 pairs in 2012 . it can co - exist with the introduced madagascar red fody .\nhistorically , fodies inhabited the upland areas of southwest mauritius . today , this critically endangered bird is found in just three areas of the island : bassin blanc , macchabee forest road and ile aux aigrettes .\nat present , it would be impossible to eliminate all rats and macaques from the whole of mauritius , and therefore conservation efforts have focussed on establishing populations on offshore , predator - free islands ( 3 ) . the release of captive - bred individuals onto the predator\u2013free island of ile aux aigrettes in 2003 has proved successful , with the population , which is provided with supplementary food , increasing to 151 individuals by july 2008 ( 3 ) . other conservation measures in place to help protect the mauritius fody include restoring native forests and establishing plantations of non - invasive , exotic trees such as japanese red cedar ( cryptomeria japonica ) which mammalian predators appear to avoid ( 7 ) .\nmy thanks go to mr . vikash tatayah of the mauritius wildlife foundation for letting me have access to the conservation area where i was able to take photographs of the endemic birds held at the black river aviaries .\nunusually for weaver birds , species of foudia are often monogamous . the mauritius fody generally holds territories of over one hectare exclusively with just one mate ( 4 ) , although some male mauritius fodies have been observed with more than one female ( 3 ) . breeding between late june and early april ( 3 ) ( 4 ) , both sexes help to build the nest , which is then lined by the female only . between two and four eggs are laid and incubated by the female , with the male helping to feed the chicks after hatching for two weeks , before they fledge and leave the nest to disperse . at the end of the breeding season , the adults undergo a complete moult . pairs defend the territory all year , and do not make seasonal migrations ( 4 ) .\nin 2003 , the mauritius wildlife fund started a program of captive breeding at the black river aviaries . 14 birds were released in the \u00eele aux aigrettes nature reserve . but in early 2004 only 9 survived . no trace was found of the other 5 . for the next release , the implant of chips is planned to follow their movements .\nthe mauritius fody is monogamous and territorial . birds may have long - term pair bonds and remain on their territories year - round . the nest is domed , with a side entrance and often with a porch . nests are built by both sexes using grass with moss , lichens or small twigs . nest material is gathered within 100 m of the nest . the female adds lining , mainly feathers , before egg - laying and up to 8 days into incubation . nests may be strong , able to withstand gale force winds , but others have less secure attachments leading to active nests falling to the ground . nests are built in trees , usually hidden in foliage . many tree species have been recorded as nest sites , but with exotics being used increasingly since the 1970s .\nis found only on mauritius island and is listed as endangered since it has an extremely small population . the male in breeding plumage has the head red or orange - red , with a black mask through the eye ; the lower rump and uppertail - coverts are orange - red , and the rest of the body is olive - grey . the female and non - breeding male are dull olive - green , with a yellowish wash below . the juvenile resembles the female , except for a paler brown bill , which may be retained for its first year . the non - breeding male , female and juvenile may be separated from the\nin 1993 , roger safford completed an intensive four - year phd study on all of the mauritian passerine species . since 1993 some work has been done on a volunteer basis since we have not yet been able to secure funding to help save our passerines . volunteers and students have been conducting population surveys on all the critically endangered species to gain knowledge of the ecology of each species for future conservation . conservation efforts to help passerines will be more difficult than for the larger , more resilient birds mwf is working with . only one other research station in the world , hawaii , is attempting to restore highly endangered passerine populations through captive breeding . hawaii\u2019s passerine program is still in the preliminary stages and much remains to be learned to develop strategies that will best help conserve these tiny birds . interestingly , the methods used by conservationists in hawaii have been adapted from mwf\u2019s work on pink pigeons . the story will come full circle if we can learn from them on how to care for our passerine species . in 1999 , 21 new territories of olive white - eyes , 8 new pairs of paradise flycatchers and 3 new pairs of mauritius fody were found near newest mwf field station at combo . in addition to many hours of observation resulting in previously unknown nesting behaviour ( male olive white - eyes were seen to share in the care of eggs and nestlings ) , 3 nests of olive white - eyes were found and monitored . previous to this only 2 nests had ever been recorded for this species . unfortunately , all 3 nests were predated by ship\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nchoose different species from drop - down list and press ' go ' button . see\n, a german naturalist . gmelin described many new bird species in a book in 1789 in the style of linnaeus ' publications , giving a brief description in latin and a synonomy , including a reference to the coloured engraving by francois - nicolas martinet in the book edited by\nbrown ' s painting appeared before that of daubenton , but these paintings were probably based on different specimens , so all that can be said about the collection details is that the type specimen was taken before 1783 by an unknown collector . this is the last weaver described by gmelin .\ntype specimen no longer exists ; the illustration of daubenton 1783 serves as a type .\nthe above is based on weaver wednesday 2 , a weekly series about the discovery of each weaver species .\nby their darker , less streaked plumage , plumper body , relatively shorter tail , and different calls .\nsome pairs habitually desert their nests , while others rarely do so . the clutch is 2 - 3 pale blue eggs . incubation is by the female . initially the female feeds the young , and later chicks are fed by both sexes . breeding success is low , with predation being the major cause of nest loss .\nthe above is based on weaver wednesday , a weekly series about weaver species .\npair bond monogamous breeding season oct - feb nest site placed 2 - 9 m above ground in tree nest building division of work unclear , as both sexes seen to carry material , but in some cases female did most building colony size no information clutch size 2 - 3 eggs egg colour pale blue egg size average size of ten eggs 19 . 2 x 13 . 9 mm incubation incubation apparently by female only , period reported as 14 days chicks and nestling period chicks fed by both sexes , nestling period recorded as 18 days\nphown ( photos of weaver nests ) provides valuable info on breeding distribution and colony sizes of weavers . you can contribute by registering and submitting photos at virtual museum webpage .\nthe above is based on weaver wednesday 3 , a weekly series about range changes in south african weaver species .\ndurrell wildlife conservation trust is a member of the association of jersey charities , membership number 69 . patron : hrh the princess royal . founder : gerald durrell , obe , lhd . durrell wildlife conservation trust - uk is registered in england and wales . a charitable company limited by guarantee . registered charity number : 1121989 . registered company number : 6448493 . registered office : c / o elian corporate services ( uk ) limited , 35 great st . helen ' s , london ec3a 6ap\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\n14 cm . medium - sized , brown forest weaver . vermilion - red head , neck and breast with black loral area . dark brown back , wings and tail streaked with buff . reddish rump and uppertail - coverts .\nthis species is classified as endangered because it has an extremely small population . the population has been stable since the early 1990s but then increased following an island translocation , and if it remains stable or increasing with over 250 mature individuals it may warrant downlisting to vulnerable in the future .\n, suffered rapid population declines since 1975 , descending from 247 - 260 pairs to c . 108 - 122 pairs in late 2001 ( nichols 2002 )\n; no doubt following long - term historic population declines owing to heavy predation by invasive mammals . between 1975 and 1993 , a 55 % decline in both population size and area of occupancy occurred ( safford 1997c )\n, and the number of locations fell from six in 1975 to three ( r . nichols\n, and an increase in range has been recorded in the main breeding subpopulation ( c . jones\n. the long term viability of these small subpopulations is in doubt ( r . nichols\nin 2005 , 45 hand reared chicks were released onto ile aux aigrettes ( where the species apparently occurred historically , v . tatayah\n2010 ) , where two pairs from previous releases have raised chicks ( anon . 2005 )\n. following that success , in 2006 , c . 40 young fledged on ile aux aigrettes and the total population on the island stood at 140 individuals in 2008 ( l . garrett\n2012 ) . the most recent population estimate is 180 - 200 individuals in 2011 - 2014 ( v . tatayah , c . jones and n . zuel\n. 2015 ) . it is hoped that the population will increase further in the coming years as it expands on ile aux aigrettes . a second translocation to round island began in 2010 ( v . tatayah\nhowever of 32 birds released here between october 2010 and january 2011 all had died by early 2012 , most or all having been predated by round island boas ( v . tatayah\nthe mainland population was estimated at 216 - 244 individuals in 2002 , with a minimum of 108 breeding pairs , and the population was estimated to have remained at 108 pairs in 2012 ( v . tatayah\n2012 ) . this is roughly equivalent to 140 - 170 mature individuals . the latest population estimate for the mainland population in 2011 - 2014 is 240 - 330 individuals ( v . tatayah , c . jones and n . zuel\n. 2015 ) , equivalent to 160 - 220 mature individuals . it has since increased following the release of birds on ile aux aigrettes in 2006 with a total of 110 adults there in 2012 and an estimated 180 - 200 individuals in 2011 - 2014 ( v . tatayah , c . jones and n . zuel\n. 2015 ) . the pre - release population estimate will be retained until the population is confirmed to have sustained itself above 250 mature individuals for five years .\nthe population declined rapidly until the early 1990s since which time it has been stable or possibly increasing on the mainland ( cristinacce 2007 , v . tatayah\n2011 ) . following translocations to ile aux aigrettes it increased but has since dropped and then stabilised ; translocations to round island have so far been unsuccessful .\nit holds territories in all types of native forest , including degraded forest , and it shows an increasing reliance on non - native plantations that afford some protection from nest predators ( c . jones\n2010 ) , c . 2 months earlier than the mainland population ( safford , 2013 ) . breeding may be terminated if there is a prolonged period of rain ( > 1 month ) , but dry conditions will not cause an interruption ( safford , 2013 )\nhistorically , clearance of upland forest , particularly for plantations in the 1970s , catastrophically affected this species . introduced predators , notably black rat\nand nest predation is regarded as the major cause of present - day decline in this species ( r . switzer\n. released birds on round island in 2010 suffered predation by round island boas , with none surviving by early 2012 ( v . tatayah\nrats and macaques were controlled as part of a programme to rehabilitate plots of native vegetation ( safford and jones 1998 ) , however macaque control has since dropped to nearly nil ( v . tatayah\n. a captive - rearing programme implemented by the mauritian wildlife foundation , the gerald durrell endemic wildlife santuary and the national parks and conservation service is proving highly effective and in 2005 produced 47 individuals from captive parents ( 25 ) and hand reared wild born chicks ( 22 ) ( anon . 2005 )\n. protocols for captive husbandry and artificial propagation were developed to facilitate the translocation objectives ( r . switzer\n2010 ) . the black river national park partly covers its range , and the habitat around bassin blanc , not originally included within the boundary , is a priority for compulsory government purchase in the future ( jones and hartley 1995 , r . safford\n, but this had not happened by 2012 . research into the species ' s ecology is ongoing , and prospective surveys to assess the suitability of round island for translocation were conducted ; initial releases on the island began in 2010 ( l . garrett\nand native forest . develop a conservation management area at combo , stocked with favoured nectar - producing plants and with predator controls . increase breeding productivity by supplemental feeding , double clutching and captive - rearing of harvested wild clutches ( c . jones\n. identify possible native habitat refuges on both the mainland and offshore islands ( safford 2013 ) . continue releases on offshore islands , including flat island when management allows , and monitor the population on ile aux aigrettes . advocate for the compulsory purchase of land separating bassin blanc from the black river national park and ensure that the national park boundary is extended and appropriate management activities implemented .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\na 1999\u20132001 survey revealed that the number of fodies in the wild had shrunk substantially since 1975 , from 247\u2013260 pairs to just over 100 . thanks to intensive management , including hand - rearing and translocations to offshore islands , the population has stabilized and is increasing . according to the most recent population estimates , there are 160\u2013220 individuals on the mainland , with an additional 180\u2013200 individuals on offshore island ile aux aigrettes . in 2009 , the species was downlisted from critically endangered to endangered .\nwildlife preservation canada saves animals on the brink of extinction . since 1985 , we\u2019ve been saving critically endangered species \u2013 species whose numbers in the wild are so low that a great deal more than habitat protection is required to recover them .\nhas been thought to include \u2020 f . delloni as a race . monotypic .\n14 cm ; 16\u201320 g . male breeding has forehead , crown , nape , chin , throat , cheek , ear - coverts and breast red or orange - red , black mask through eye ; mantle and back greyish - . . .\nsong of male an extended series of disyllabic notes , generally terminating in buzzy sound ; female . . .\nremaining native forest ; also degraded forest invaded by exotics , as well as forests of exotic . . .\nprimarily insectivorous ; seen to take grasshoppers ( orthoptera ) , beetle larvae ( coleoptera ) , caterpillars ( lepidoptera ) , also spiders ( . . .\nseason oct\u2013feb . monogamous . occupies permanent territory 4\u20135 ha in size in sparsely populated areas , or down to as small as 0 . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nbreeding males of this medium - sized forest weaver bird are highly distinctive , with a bright red head , neck and breast , and dark olive - brown back , wings and tail streaked with pale brown ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . the rump is also reddish ( 2 ) , and two white bars pattern the wings ( 3 ) . in the non - breeding season , males lose their vivid red colouration and resemble females . the slightly hooked beak of males is black , while that of females and juveniles is horn - coloured ( 3 ) .\ninvertebrates animals with no backbone . monogamous having only one mate during a breeding season , or throughout the breeding life of a pair . territory area occupied and defended by an animal , a pair of animals or a colony .\nnhpa / photoshot holdings ltd 29 - 31 saffron hill london ec1n 8sw united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 7421 6003 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 7421 6006 sales @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is affected by global climate change . to learn about climate change and the species that are affected , visit our climate change pages .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nmaster tracks 33 west park clifton bristol avon bs8 2lx united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 973 6833 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 923 7090 neil @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nby clicking the links above , you agree to continue to use this material in accordance with the below terms of use .\narkive videos are protected by copyright and usage is restricted . details of the copyright owners are given at the end of each video . please carefully read the following before downloading this video .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : foudia rubra . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nfoudia rubra male at the black river aviaries of the mauritian wildlife foundation . photos \u00a9 peter m . c . werner 2 - 2004\nfoudia rubra female . photo \u00a9 peter m . c . werner 2 - 2004\nthe sexes are different , the female being rust - brown , the male basically grey .\nthe preferred habitat includes native scrub vegetation with a few scattered taller trees , but the species also inhabits low native scrub and native forest .\nits diet is comprised primarily of insects , but also fruit and nectar . occasionally robs nests of other birds , such as the pink pigeon , sucking the eggs\nclearance of upland forest has catastrophically affected this species . introduced predators , notably black rat rattus rattus and crab - eating macaque macaca fascicularis and mongoose , have caused almost total breeding failure in most areas . introduced f . madagascariensis may compete and restrict its range .\nit has unexpectedly disappeared from areas of apparently intact habitat , possibly regions of severe nest - predation , previously sustained by relatively predator - free areas which have now been degraded and can no longer supply new recruits .\nit was already becoming fairly rare at the turn of the twentieth century , although it was still not considered uncommon as late as the 1950s .\nbetween 1971 to 1974 , the clearing of an upland forest at les mares on plaine champagne had a devastating effect on the species , decreasing its population by more than 50 % . since then , its habitat has been better protected , as remaining native forest habitat received almost complete protection with the creation of the macabe / bel ombre nature reserve in 1974 .\nfoudia rubra has suffered rapid population declines since 1975 , descending from 247 - 260 pairs to c . 105 - 125 pairs in late 1999 . from 1975 to 1993 , a 55 % decline in both population and area of occupancy occurred . however , since 1993 , the decline rate has slowed , and an increase in range has been recorded in the main breeding subpopulation .\nthe tiny mare aux vacoas subpopulation has remained stable ( four pairs ) , but numbers and range have continued to decline in the bel ombre subpopulation ( seven pairs ) . research indicates that there is no population fragmentation during winter .\ntwo or three pale - green spotted eggs laid in a rough , cup - shaped nest of thin plant parts bound by cobwebs and placed high in trees . both parents sit on the eggs . nest predated by rats .\nan attempt was made to introduce the species to the island of reunion , but it was unsuccessful it is uncertain whether further attempts will be made . the introduction and establishment of two species of nectar - producing shrubs on the high plateau has been suggested .\nthe main goal should be to eliminate the introduced rats and mice that plague the species .\nillustrated on a 10 cent stamp and a calendar published by the state commercial bank .\nsafford rj and jones cg . did organochlorine pesticide use cause declines in mauritian forest birds ? biodiversity and conservation , 6 , 1445 - 1451 .\ni thank particularly mrs . fr\u00e9d\u00e9rique koenig , aviararies manager , who was a helpful , friendly and competent guide .\nthis small island is a great place to see this rare species , introduced here where there are no land predators , though i did regrettably see a house crow fly over .\ni don ' t know which species makes the high pitched call ( for exemple : 00 : 18 ) . there was a female - like bird next to the male foudia rubra , so maybe a ( female ? ) call of that species as well .\ni don ' t know which species makes the high pitched call ( for exemple : 00 : 10 ) . there was a female - like bird next to the male foudia rubra , so maybe a ( female ? ) call of that species as well .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\noverview , distribution , range and status . . . alternate ( global ) names\nthese rare weavers are in danger of becoming extinct . in 2011 , less than 170 individuals were believed to still have survived in the wild .\nas part of conservation efforts , the mauritian wildlife foundation removed eggs from active nests prompting the parents to get started on a new clutch . those eggs that were taken were artificially incubated and the resulting chicks were handraised ; hence doubling the number of offspring per pair . thirty - two of these hand - raised birds were then released back into the wild between october 2010 and january 2011 . unfortunately , most or even all of them are believed to have perished .\ntheir sharp declines are attributed to habitat loss and predation by introduced mammals ( black rats and macaque monkeys ) and the native round island boa ( snake ) .\nbreeding males : plumage olive - brown , except black lores ( area between the beak and the eyes ) ; red head , chest and rump patch ; two white wingbars ; and pale - brown streaked wings and tail . after the breeding season , the male molts into the plainer\nwinter plumage\n( described below ) .\nmost breeding occurs from late june to early april . both parents weave the nest ; but only the female lines it . the average clutch consists of 2 - 4 eggs which are incubated by the female for about two weeks to hatching . the male feeds the female and the young .\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nconservationists believe that between 1975 and 1993 the foudia ruba suffered a loss of 55 percent both in terms of population size and area of occupancy .\nin 1994 its status on the iucn red list was categorised as critically endangered .\nnow due to massive conservation efforts its population is stable and its status downlisted to endangered .\na captive - rearing programme is implemented by the mauritian wildlife foundation , the gerald durrell endemic wildlife sanctuary and the national parks and conservation service ."]}
{"id": 1513, "summary": [{"text": "merry hampton ( foaled 1884 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse and sire .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in a career that lasted from 1887 to 1888 he ran four times and won once in a career that was restricted by injuries and training difficulties .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "his sole victory came on his racecourse debut when he won the 1887 epsom derby as an 11/1 \" dark horse \" .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he never won again but did finish second in the st. leger stakes at doncaster .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he was retired to stud after a single start as a four-year-old in which he aggravated a chronic leg injury . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "merry hampton", "paragraphs": ["merry hampton does not have any memberships or affiliations listed . if you are merry hampton and would like to add memberships or affiliations , please update your profile .\nmerry hampton is a radiologic technologist in modesto , ca . she specializes in radiologic technology .\n230 blackman rd , nashville , tn - owner : hampton , merry p . & teixeira ,\nwe welcomed the last remaining hampton . . . - hampton parks , recreation & leisure services | facebook\nluxury properties specialist - westport office 47 riverside avenue , westport , ct 06880 email : merry . hampton @ urltoken\nthis parcel is owned by hampton , merry p . & teixeira , and can be described as a single fam .\nmerry hampton was fantastic to work with . she was truly a trusted advisor during the process . we love our new home and don ' t plan on moving any time soon . if we do , our first call will be to merry . thank you , merry !\nmahubah ( 1910 ) ( filly ) rock sand - merry token by merry hampton . 4x5 to lord clifden , 5x5 to newminster , 5x5x5x5 to stockwell . 5 starts 1 win 1 second $ \u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nthree of his four grandparents were products of english studs , one being the 1903 triple crown victor rock sand , his maternal grandsire . his granddams fairy gold and merry token were daughters of epsom derby winners bend or and merry hampton respectively .\nmerry hampton is an outstanding , hard working realtor . john grosso and team were easy to work with for our mortgage . brad kerner ( fairfield , ct )\nmerry hampton - aroma ( craig millar ) dp = 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 ( 0 ) di = inf cd = 0 . 00\nmahubah ( usa ) 1910 - 1931 b . m . ( rock sand ( gb ) - merry token ( gb ) by merry hampton ( gb ) dam of only 5 foals , but 2 of them were stakes winners and anot\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nmerry hampton ( gb ) b . h , 1884 { 22 - c } dp = 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 ( 0 ) di = inf cd = inf\nblair athol and colonel towneley ' s kettledrum , who won in 1864 and 1861 respectively , ran the derby course in the same time as merry hampton , and that record has not been feaafcen .\n, and the horse came back to newmarket . his first race was for none other than the derby ! it was a poor year and merry hampton led into the straight and was never extended .\ni ' m writing you to tell you how pleased we were with our realtor , merry hampton . this transaction is my third real estate transaction in the last four years and i was really impressed with merry . she provided me with information , market analysis and market updates that were above and beyond any . . .\nben and i wanted to pass on a few thoughts regarding our experience with raveis and , more importantly , the excellent work provided to us by merry hampton . to begin , we are first time homebuyers and as such entered the home buying process with many questions . merry worked with us every step of way he . . .\nas a sire of racehorses , merry hampton was a failure . he got only one decent runner , the colt pride , who raced just as a four - year - old and gained distinction by defeating the star french runner omnium in the alexandra plate . merry hampton ' s daughter , merry wife , became the dam of 1901 ascot gold cup winner santoi . another daughter , merry token , was exported to america by august belmont , assuring her sire some measure of immortality , for through her , he became the broodmare sire of mahubah , the rock sand filly destined to become the dam of the incomparable man o ' war and ancestress of american triple crown champion assault .\nmerry hampton , out of doll tearsheet , by broomielaw , has sometimes been criticized as one of the worst winners of the derby . his only victory came in the derby , though he did finish second in the st . leger . he might have won that classic , too , had he not been boxed in badly , for when free , he ran the winner kilwarlin to within half a length . the harsh assessment of merry hampton as a racer in some quarters is not quite fair , for he had talent . merry hampton was an unsound colt , which made him difficult to train . in fact , the derby was the first race of his abbreviated career , which was hampered by his delicate legs .\nfor the st . leger merry hampton is first favourite at 1000 to ' 300 , while florentine and eiridspord are backed at 9 to 1 each . details of the principal races at the ascot ' meeting will be found in another column .\nfeaturing unique vendors and taking place at the hampton history museum , the hampton holiday market features arts and traditional crafts , demonstrations , food , entertainment , holiday ornament making , face painting , a train display , and much more .\nthe colt never won again although he was runner - up in the st leger and fourth in the grand prix de paris . at the disposal of baird ' s stud , merry hampton was sold to the jockey george barratt for 1 , 150\ni ' m writing to commend and thank merry hampton for the exceptional work she did on our behalf in helping us to purchase our first home . my wife mary and i first met merry in 2010 when , amidst a career change and relocation , she helped us rent the condo where we had our first child and started ou . . . mary and kevin ( weston )\nlike blair athol , who carried silk for the first time when he won the derby in 1864 , merry hampton had not been seen in public before running at epsom , and he won the race in the same time \u2014 2min 43sec \u2014 that the son of stockwell did . another coincidence may be noted id in the fact that jem snowden scored his first and only derby victory on blair athol , and j . watts steered his first blue riband winner in merry hampton . the latter colt , too , is the first derby winner sired by hampton , and blair athol was the first of stockwell ' s get to take the same race .\nmr crowther harrison , sheriff of hull in 1851 and a county magistrate , founded the cottingham stud in yorkshire and in 1884 the future derby winner merry hampton was foaled . other good horses bred by mr harrison included merry hampton ' s half - brother gay hermit ( 13 1 / 2 races including the royal hunt cup ) , tomahawk ( lincolnshire handicap ) and lowland chief ( portland handicap ) . harrison ' s son , john simons harrison , took over the management of the stud in 1885 . they were both assisted by their exemplary stud groom tom wilberforce .\nbay colt , 1893 . by hampton - black duchess by galliard . darley arabian sire line : newminster branch . family 3 - o\nmerry has been a fantastic agent to work with , she is extremely diligent in her research , fully understand what we were looking for and make very educative recommendations on towns and areas that will suit our needs . merry is always available if we have any question or need any further clarificatio . . .\nhampton had three other good sons who were good racers , and also very good sires - - royal hampton and bay ronald , the latter of whom perpetuated the hampton male line well into the twentieth century . the third , sheen , lived to a great age , siring foals to the end of his life . royal hampton was produced from the king tom mare princess , and bred by famed breeder william blenkiron . royal hampton suffered a serious foot injury as a foal in which his foot became lodged in a stall door , the effects of which stayed with him throughout his life , as he was a very unsound horse . nevertheless , sir blundell maple liked the colt and purchased him for his stable .\nbay ronald was a moderately good racehorse who , unlike his staying sire , hampton , could not run beyond 1 - 1 / 2 miles . never especially robust , he nonetheless ran for four seasons with top company . little was really expected of him at the outset of his breeding career and he had limited access to top quality mares ; despite this , he became an influential stallion who continued the hampton sire line , getting two top sire sons in england , and a good sire son in france . bay ronald was foaled on may 3 , 1893 at leybourne grange stud . his sire , hampton , was 21 at the time of bay ronald ' s birth , and had already sired classic winners ayrshire , merry hampton , and reve d ' or . hampton ' s fourth classic champion , ladas , would win the epsom derby in the year following bay ronald ' s birth .\n. however he did not make a great name for himself as a sire . his best son was pride , winner of the ascot gold vase , and his daughter merry wife bred the evil - tempered ascot gold cup winner santoi . another daughter , merry token , was granddam of the famous american racehorse man o ' war .\nif you want get off the treatment merry - go - round once and for all and start feeling better , moving better and performing better book your appointment today .\nboat parade sets sail at 7 p . m . on the downtown hampton waterfront . music by full spectrum . bedtime story with santa in the crowne plaza maria hotel lobby at 8 : 45 p . m . don\u2019t have a boat ? join santa aboard the miss hampton ii tour boat .\nas matthew dawson followed the baron into ihe paddock after the race was over , he exclaimed :\nif freddy had been alive he would have got him home first !\nseeing that merry hampton won in a common canter , and that tlie baron could never get near him , that was a rather ungenerous remark .\nstay plugged into everything that ' s happening in and around hampton roads . sign up for our weekly email updates and find out what ' s hot .\njlarqais ii . , late wicked bill ) , by hampton - . i hose of lancaster , 4 yre , 8st 101b - ( t . weidon ) o\nthat it has not even yet been discussed formally , and certainly nothing definite has been decided , i , . a report was current at ascot that ormonde had ended his racing career with the hardwicke stakes . this is ' untrue , as the duke of westminster has no present intention of taking that ; step . mr abington made watts a present of \u00a31000 for winning the derby on merry hampton .\nwe were very pleased with the service . merry was wonderful to work with and we plan on recommending her to friends and family . john and robert made the mortgage and insurance process seamless . a great team !\nour service carries a 100 % satisfaction guarantee . don\u2019t remain on the treatment merry - go - round any longer . book online now or contact us at the injury rehab centre today on 95537024 to book your appointment today .\ncameo was the second mare to be purchased in australia . she is by the very successful sire syon royal portrait ( imp uk ) who is by the renowned sandbourne royal ensign and her dam syon petite has had a huge influence on the english riding pony in australia . petite is the dam of , possibly , australia\u2019s most successful riding pony royalwood merry music who won nearly every major award in the ridden pony ring when shown under saddle . merry music is by oakvale serenade who is by syon royal portrait making cameo a three quarter sister to merry music . when merry music was retired to stud she was bred to syon royal portrait and produced the already highly acclaimed young stallion royalwood boy soprano . boy soprano is proving to be an excellent sire leaving some top winning youngsters with beautiful long fronts , pretty pony heads and magnificent movement . cameo is a seven eighths sister in blood to boy soprano .\nalthough adolescent athletes are those that frequently experience pfps people of any age and activity level can experience symptoms related to pfps . if you start to notice knee pain or crepitus within your knee hampton physical therapy can help you . if you have any questions regarding this condition feel free to call or stop into one of our two locations in either hampton or seabrook to speak to one of our physical therapists .\nthe virginia beach chorale provides musical entertainment at its best to the hampton roads area . it is one of the oldest continuous performing arts groups in virginia beach and is dedicated to quality performances and community service .\nqueen mary ' s 1862 colt , broomielaw ( by stockwell ) was sold ( along with breadalbane , noted previously ) to henry chaplin . infamous for his bad temperament , despite his antics , his wins included the goodwood ' s 1866 chesterfield cup . broomielaw proved an influence through his daughter doll tearsheet , dam herself of the derby winner merry hampton ( sire of the second dam of man o ' war ) and his half - brother gay hermit ( who became an important sire in argentina ) .\nhampton ' s daughter , fota , produced 1907 oaks heroine glass doll to the cover of isinglass , while another daughter of fota , angelic , became the dam of leading american sire , north star iii . gadfly , an 1896 sister to butterfly , out of merry duchess , won the newmarket oaks , and at age four , the alexandra plate and the whip . she produced six winners , including cylgad , winner of the newmarket stakes and later a sire , and flying bridge , who won the newmarket oaks .\ncolor : b height : 16 . 1 ( gb ) owned by f . p . harrison esq . listed in one stud book as a brown stud , 18 1 / 2 inches below the knee , girth 6 ft , 6 in . he won the derby , 2nd in the st legar . sire of king hampton , merry buck , jeanie filly , etc . stood at stud in 1900 at the aislabie stud farm , stetchworth , new market for 25 guineas plus 1 guinea groom fee . ( close )\nroyal hampton ran ten times during his career and only won twice - - on his debut in the national breeders produce stakes at two and in his last race , the city and suburban handicap at four . in the latter race , the colt ' s fragile legs gave way , but he still managed to win the race on heart . in between , royal hampton secured placings in a host of important races - - the woodcote stakes , champagne stakes , middle park plate , the derby , prince of wales stakes , and sussex stakes . only once was royal hampton unplaced . he was a courageous and honest campaigner , and after his career - ending injury , he was retired to sir maple ' s childwick bury stud .\nhampton was a horse with a high class pedigree and a poor race record , until he finally matured into a solid winning stayer with great weight - carrying ability . he became a stallion of significant influence and a source of stamina , siring numerous classic champions and founding a powerful branch of the stockwell male line . hampton was bred by lord norreys , later created lord abington , and was foaled at his breeder ' s farm , tetsworth , near the ancient university town of oxford , in 1872 .\nmerry was outstanding . she managed our expectations , guided us through the purchase and sale without issue and generally made the experience a seamless one . she was outstanding in every way - - without her , we would not now own the house of our dreams . we are forever grateful .\nthis young 5 year old mare is our most recent purchase . her sire oakvale serenade is a son of the successful sire syon royal portrait . oakvale serenade has had a great influence on australia\u2019s riding ponies and has produced many top show ponies including the great mare royalwood merry music . the dam of heaven\u2019s serenade hamptonne heaven sent is a three quarter sister to the uk pony of the year winner hampton prince of thieves . heaven sent is sired by keston tribune while prince of thieves is by , the great son of keston tribune , camargue tribute .\nold original antique victorian print historic fine art - horse merry hampton 1887 winner derby race jockey old antique print . part page , from the illustrated london news 1840 - 1902 . or the graphic 1870 - 1900 . the date if known is in the titleeach part page varies in size but is prorata of a full page of the coloured background in each image . size of each full page is approx ( including margins as shown ) 16 x 11 inches ( 410 x 280 ) all are genuine antique and not modern reproductions over 100 years old\nselling at your price\nsanta claus is coming to town and he\u2019s stopping by to be a part of the virginia symphony orchestra\u2019s ever - popular jingle bell jam ! celebrate the magic of the season with an afternoon that showcases the music of the holidays performed by the best talent in hampton roads .\nhampton roads\u2019 newest holiday tradition returns in 2016 with an entirely new entertainment line - up of musicians , parlor magicians , jugglers , actors , and carolers ! plus , a new enchanted christmas tree forest , an animated puppet show , a magical snow fall , a petting zoo and more .\nthere were 22 nominations short of the stipulated 80 reqnired by the kerapton park executive before they guaranteed \u00a33000 for the . jubilee stakes , but the promoters did not reduce the prize , and it is estimated that the race will land them in a loss of \u00a31200 or \u00a31300 . the acceptances , however , number 43 , which is more than was expected . minting is top weigh ! ; with lost , then come harpenden , kilwarlin , and merry hampton , each bst 131b ; followed by fullerton ( bst 81b ) , exmoor ( bst 71b ) , & c . the race is to be run on the 11th may .\nother good running sons sired by hampton included ladislas , who was the top of his generation , winning the dewhurst stakes , the king edward vii stakes and the jockey club cup ; duke of richmond , who won the richmond stakes ; grandison , winner of the champagne stakes and the windsor castle stakes ; gay hampton , winner of the craven stakes ; lord lorne , a great stayer , who won the ascot stakes twice ; fitz hampton , another good stayer , who , in italy , won a number of races , including el premio presidente de la republica over 2 , 400 meters , and the gran premio de milan ; balmoral , winner of the manchester cup ; bushey park , winner of the queen alexandra stakes , phocion , who won the st . james palace stakes and the kind edward vii stakes ; troon , another st . james palace stakes winner ; speed , winner of the july stakes .\nborn in east ilsley , william stevens started training in 1871 . described by george lambton as ' the most able and patient of men ' , he never trained a classic winner in the trueist sense , but did all the preparation for merry hampton , only for the colt to be whisked away a fortnight before the derby , however , another horse he trained , martley , was placed third in that classic of 1887 and four years later martenhurst was also third when making his three - year - old debut at epsom at 50 - 1 . other successful campaigners from the yews included comfrey and sailor prince ( cambridgeshire handicap ) , despair ( royal hunt cup ) and bentworth ( gimcrack stakes ) .\nother good hampton daughters on the turf included rookery , from an oxford mare , who won the windsor castle stakes ; belinda , a great staying mare who won the park hill stakes and the ascot stakes over 4 , 023 meters ; maize , a sister of st . florian , out of palmflower , won the nassau stakes ; butterfly , whose dam was merry duchess by speculum , won the nassau stakes and the coronation stakes and ran third in the doncaster st . leger , among her other placings ; rambling katie , from the galliard daughter barmaid , won the 2 , 414 meter manchester cup ; hawamdieh , out of the galopin daughter boyne water , won the 2 , 200 meter prix de la rochette .\nat the injury rehab centre our point of difference is we service the cheltenham , moorabbin , mentone , highett , hampton , black rock , beaumaris and heatherton suburbs using the most advanced assessment technology to set baselines and understand why you have pain or injury to formulate a plan on how you will overcome it tracking your progression over time .\nwe are the chosen therapists for many patients and athletes from the cheltenham , moorabbin , mentone , highett , hampton , black rock , beaumaris and heatherton suburbs because we get results for our patients . using a science based approach to patient assessment , treatment and rehabilitation we aim to help decrease your pain and get you better as quickly as possible .\nthe late lamented , non political correct named a3 no . 66 merry hamptons name plate is up for sale at sheffield railwayana auctions limited sale on 10th december at derby . this loco survived two major derailments one caused by striking miners during the general strike and one at goswick just before nationalisation . i wonder what it will fetch , bet it wont fetch as much as 61662s plate at the same auction .\nmerry hampton was bred by mr crowther harrison , and sold as a yearling by his son , mr j . simons harrison , at the doncaster september meeting of 1885 . prior to the colt being taken to doncaster he had been seen in the hone paddock by mr t . spence , the well - known gentleman rider , who , having taken a great fancy to him , determined to obtain him for his friend , mr abington . in the sale - ring he w\u00ab opposed on mr lea ' s behalf by sam darling ; the trainer , who bid 3000gs for the son of hamp * ton and doll tearsheet , but this offer was capped by one of 3100gs by mr t . spence , and the colt became mr abingtou ' s property for that sum .\nan american gentleman named lowe , who | has lately joined the kingsclere stable . mr . s . harrison was the breeder of merry hamp ton , but sir tatton sykes this year sent up an own sister to this year ' s derby winner , but she was not sold , as the reserve ( 2 , 000 guineas ) was not reached . still , five of sir ' fatton ' s yearlings sold well , as the following\na bodywise health gift certificate is the perfect way to say , \u201dthankyou\u201d , \u201ccongratulations\u201d , merry christmas\u201d or i love you\u201d . guaranteed to make you and that special person feel fantastic , a bodywise health gift certificate is a sensational gift for any occasion . whether it be a luxurious massage , a physical health assessment or an introduction to clinical pilates , you can be sure that your gift will make an impression that will long be remembered .\nhampton ' s daughter maid marian , foaled in 1886 , became the dam of one the most influential british stallions of the twentieth century - - polymelus . out of the toxophilite mare quiver , maid marian was bred by queen victoria and was a product of the hampton court stud . as a racehorse , maid marian proved useless , as she started only as a two - year - old , running seven times without notching a single victory . maid marian ' s value as a broodmare went up considerably due to the exploits of her younger half sisters - - memoir and la fleche - - classic winning daughters of st . simon . maid marian was owned by the earl of crewe when she was covered by cyllene in 1901 and foaled the bay colt polymelus the following spring .\nimported from australia in 2013 this lovely three year old is by the hugely successful sire royalwood boy soprano and her dam is oakvale carousel who had a successful show career from very limited outings . merry - go - round ( chloe ) is a full sister to oakvale chorus girl & oakvale rock star who have been shown in australia with many wins to their credit and the beautiful pony oakvale music box who was a winner at several of australia ' s royal shows a few years back .\nhampton ' s daughters hampton ' s best running daughter was reve d ' or , out of queen of the roses , by sundeelah . she was kept in training an unusually long time for a classic winning filly , for she raced until she was seven . as a juvenile , she captured the dewhurst plate . at three , reve d ' or was a dual classic champion , for she won both the one thousand guineas and the oaks , as well as the yorkshire oaks . during her career , she won eleven other races , including the sussex stakes , jockey club cup , and the city and suburban handicap . as a broodmare , reve d ' or failed to come up with anything remotely like herself . she spent her producing career in france , and one of her daughters , oussouri , became the dam of a good performer named opott ii , winner of several stakes races in france and placed in the grand prix prix de paris . opott ii went on to sire l ' olivete , dam of mieuxce .\nthe sale3 of blood stock at doncaster are nlwavs important , and this year formed no ex ception to the rule . on thursday some really cood priceb were obtained . mr . s . harrison only sent up tour yearlings , and the hrst , a brown colt , napoleon , by galopin out of crucible , went to john porter for no lebs a 6uin than 2 , 400 guineas ; and the very next lot a bay colt , gay hampton , by hampton out of rosy morn , realised 600 gnineab more , for it was not until 3 , 000 guineas was reached that it was found john porter bad again stalled off all opposition and seenred the colt a third colt , coorabe royal , bv springfield \u2014 lady chelmsford , also went to porter , but at a very dif ferent figure , viz . , 310 guineas ; and mr . hamar bass took the fourth , viz . , a bay filly by galopin out of loch garry , at 850 gnineaa the 3 , 000 - guinea lot was bought by porter for\nthe st leger of 1889 has closed with 204 entries ; this is 12 more than in 1888 , and 22 more than were engaged in the one just de cided . the new \u00a310 , 000 newmarket stakes to be run in 1889 has closed with 204 . i notice several of the highly - priced yearlings which changed hands at doncaater are entered , including those bonght for mr . lowe , the american , by john porter . i refer to gay hampton and napoleon , whose purchase and price are referred to elsewhere\n- was that of lord lyon in 1866 , who then won for his owner \u00a37350 . merry hampton won the derby in 2min 43sec , against the 2min 45 3 - ssec of the duke of westminster ' s ormonde last year , and the 2min . 41 l - ssee \u00ab\u00a3 lord hastings ' melton the previous season . in 1884 mr j . hammond ' s st . < gattce and sir j . willoughby ' s harvester , who tjan a dead heat , covered the course in 2min 46 i - ssec , and sir f , johnstone ' s st . blaise , in 1883 , in 2min 48 2 - ssec . the times for several \u25a0previous anniversaries follow : \u2014 1882 , duke of - westminster ' s shotover , 2min 45 3 - ssec ; 1881 , mr p . lorillard ' s iroquois , 2min 50sec ; 1880 , duke of westminster ' s bend or , 2min 46sec ; 1879 , mr acton ' s sir bevys , 3min 2sec ; 1878 , mr w . s . crawf urd ' s sefton , 2min 56sec ; 1877 , lord falmouth ' s silvio , 2min 50sec ; 1876 , mr ji . baltazzi ' s kisber , 2atin 44sec . mr i ' anson ' s\nmerry hampton wrenched a shoe off while ffl his stable on the evening of his derby victory , and one of the nails pricked his foot , causing him lameness sufficient to prevent his running into a place for the grand prix de paris . the value of the derby this year was \u00a34525\u2014 the race last year , , when the duke of wesfcnm 1 ' ster ' s ormonde was successful , being worw \u00a34700 . the previous season melton credited lord hastings with \u00a34525 ; in 1884 the stake * ( divided between mr j . hammond ' s st . gaties and sir j . willoughby ' s harvester ) amounts to \u00a34850 ; in 1883 , when sir f . johnstone ' s 8 * blaise won , to \u00a35150 ; and in 1882 , when tbe duke of westminsters shotover was the w\nncr , to \u00a34775 . some previous values folio * 1881 , mr p . lorillard ' s iroqueis , \u00a35925 ; w\u00bbj duke of westminster ' s bend or , \u00a36375 ; i\u00ab ' } mr acton ' s sir bevys , \u00a37o2s ; 1878 , mrw . \u00bb crawfurd ' s sefton , \u00a35825 ; 1877 , lord 1 * mouth ' s silvio , \u00a36050 ; 1876 , mr a . baltajoj 1 kisber , \u00a35575 . the richest derby on t # w\nspaniel began his four - year - old season with three defeats . he was unplaced in the oatlands stakes at newmarket on 25 april , and unplaced again in a plate race at ascot on 20 june . eight days later he ran in the gold cup at hampton racecourse . this race was run in heats . this was an old - fashioned form of racing in which the horses ran twice over the same course . if a horse won both heats it took the prize : otherwise the two heat - winners had a deciding run - off . spaniel finished second in both heats to a three - year - old named sluggard .\nsheen , a bay son of hampton from the tibthorpe mare radiancy , was bred by prince saltykoff and foaled in 1885 . he was a high class campaigner , but not quite up to classic standard . at three , he won the ascot derby and placed third in the sussex stakes . at four , he captured the important jockey club cup , and at five , the cesarewitch handicap . at stud , his best representative was batt , a half - brother to flying fox . batt was narrowly defeated by the longshot jeddah in the 1898 derby stakes . sheen was a long - lived and active stallion , and was still covering mares in scotland , at a fee of nine guineas , in 1915 at the age of 30 . bay ronald was foaled in 1893 , when hampton was 21 - years - old , and he was the son which kept the line of his sire in the limelight for many more succeeding generations . bay ronald was produced from the mare black duchess , a daughter of two thousand guineas winner galliard , a son of galopin . many years later , this female family would become famous when the stallion blandford became a leading sire in the late 1920s and early 1930s . blandford was a son of blanche , whose dam , black cherry , was a half - sister to bay ronald .\nthe person who cannot dream winners nowadays is of little tise as a 6leeper , for such dreams ' are numerous . here , however , is the latest , which my friend captain hawley , smart kindly ' writes me ; and this dream , it will be perceived , differs f rom ' ithe great majority because it was , not made current after the event , - when most of these visionaries remember what j tips they had ' in their slumbers .\nthe following dream ,\nthe author of -\nbound to win writes ,\nwas told , me pn ' the saturday before the derby by captain , a famous plunger of the days ' just previous ' to the crimean war , but if you think it worth recording please keep his name\nout of it . a friend of his dreamt , some years ago , ' that a horse in a green jacket won the derby , and that a horse in a green jacket with white sleeves was second / . ' no such combination of colours has ever occurred till this year , ' captain said to me , , ' but should merry hampton win and the 1 baron run second that vision will have been accomplished . ' i wish i could add that both ray informanttand ' the ' dreamer won rnking slakes , but veracity compels me to admit i don ' t know what either backed .\n\u2014\nrapier ,\nin the sporting and drama ' io news .\n- *\nhampton was by lord clifden , a son of newminster from the melbourne mare the slave . lord clifden had been a winner of the classic st . leger , as had his sire , newminster . the latter was an impeccably bred individual , being by touchstone , another st . leger champion and the pre - eminent stallion of his era . dam of newminster was the celebrated racemare beeswing . lord clifden continued the impeccable siring record of his male line , as during his stud career he sired four classic winners , all of whom numbered the st . leger among their triumphs - - hawthornden and wenlock , winners of the st . leger ; petrarch , winner of the two thousand guineas , st . leger and ascot gold cup ; and jannette , winner of the oaks and st . leger .\nin the 1930s , aging teddy himself was exported to the u . s . , and sired two more influential sons - - sun teddy , whose male line culminated with damascus and private account , important sources of stamina , and case ace , broodmare sire of raise a native . bay ronald died in may , 1907 at the early age of fourteen . at the time , though his loss was keenly felt , the magnitude of it was not realized until ten years later when his best son , bayardo , also suffered a premature death . what might have been had father and son been blessed with normal life spans is one of the great\nwhat ifs\nof breeding history . but bay ronald left a lasting legacy , nonetheless , for his sons bayardo , dark ronald , and macdonald ii each ensured the continuation of the hampton sire line . - - liz martiniak\nanother son of hampton , gotten , like bay ronald , when his sire was in his advanced years , was star ruby . he was foaled in 1892 , out of the bend or mare ornament . the colt was sold to american horseman green morris and sent to america . he was a useful runner , but more successful as a stallion . purchased by james ben ali haggin , star ruby stood at stud in california . he got two american classic winners , cairngorm , a winner of the preakness , and africander , a winner of the belmont stakes , suburban handicap , saratoga cup , and the lawrence realization . star ruby ' s son rubio was a chestnut colt sent to race in england , where in 1908 , he became the first american - bred to capture the grand national steeplechase at aintree . star ruby ' s daughter , ruby nethersole , became the second dam of questionnaire .\nas a sire of broodmares , hampton boasted some impressive representatives , including perdita ii and maid marian . perdita ii , out of hermione , by young melbourne , was a temperamental mare , and transmitted her nervous energy to her offspring . she was a moderately successful race mare of staying class , winning the ayr gold cup , the liverpool cup , and the great cheshire stakes ( twice ) . purchased by albert edward , prince of wales ( afterward king edward vii ) for 900 guineas , perdita ii went on to become the jewel of the prince ' s broodmare band . to the cover of st . simon , she produced three extraordinary full brothers - - persimmon , florizel ii , and diamond jubilee . all three were top racehorses , and good sires . persimmon sired five classic winners and was twice leading broodmare sire in england . florizel ii was among the leading sires seven times in england , and also was a good broodmare sire ; he got three classic winners . diamond jubilee won the english triple crown , and after export to argentina became the leading sire there four times .\noaks stakes , a sweepstakes of 50sovs each , for three - year - old fillies ; 88t 101b each . second , horse , 300sovs ; third , 150sovs from the stakes . ' duke of beaufort ' s eh f reve dor , by hampton\u2014 queen of the roses . . . . . . ' . . . i ' lord falmouth ' s b f st . helen , by sbridgfield\u2014 bt . hilda . . . . . . \u201e . \u25a0 \u2022 . . . 2 duke of westminster ' s eh f - freedom , by bend ' \u25a0 or - freia . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 reve dors performances for last season were given by us a few week ' s back on the occasion of her winning the one thousand guineas . she is not engaged in the st . leger . st . helen last year ran five times and won one race , the doveridge stakes of 550aovs , at derby . she , however , got a place in all her other races , finishing second to guadiard in the manchester foal stakes of 900sovs ; ' third in the midland foal plate of 900sovs , at four oaks park ; second to purple emperor in champion ' breeders ' foal stakes of 1214sovs , at ; derb ' y ; and . third in the devonshire - handicap of * 500sov8j at the same meeting . she is not engaged in the st . leger . \u25a0 ' freedom ' s performances were given by us when she ran third to reve dor and porcelain in the one thousand guineas . she is not ' en * gaged in the st . leger .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nbay colt , 1872 - 1897 by lord clifden - lady langden by kettledrum . darley arabian sire line : newminster branch . family 10 - a\nayrshire , out of atalanta , by galopin , was bred and raced by the duke of portland . ayrshire was a top performer all three seasons he ran , winning many important races , including the champagne stakes at two , the two thousand guineas and derby at three , and the eclipse stakes at four . at stud , ayrshire was noted for the quality of his fillies over his colts . his two classic winners were fillies - - oaks winners airs and graces and our lassie . daughters of ayrshire made wonderful producers . daughter gas produced derby champion cicero ; glare produced one thousand guineas heroine flair and also became the second dam of prince palatine ; cannie lassie produced one thousand guineas winner witch elm . st . leger winner night hawk and one thousand guineas winner roseway were also products of ayrshire mares . ayrshire ' s best son was robert le diable , winner of several races , including the city and suburban handicap and doncaster cup . robert le diable sired wrack , a stallion who did well in the united states as the sire of thirty stakes winners .\nladas , out of illuminata , by rosicrucian , was a lovely animal with a superb pedigree . third dam paradigm was a half sister to the dam of bend or . his dam illuminata would later produce one thousand guineas winner chelandry as well as gas , dam of the aforementioned derby winner cicero . bred and raced by archibald philip primrose , 5th earl of rosebery , ladas was unbeaten at age two , winning the woodcote stakes , coventry stakes , champagne stakes , and the middle park plate . at three , ladas captured both the two thousand guineas and derby and placed in the eclipse stakes , princess of wales ' s stakes , and the st . leger . at stud , ladas was somewhat disappointing , as he did not yield a son which carried his line forward . but he did get epsom lad , winner of the eclipse stakes ; gorgos , winner of the two thousand guineas and july stakes ; and troutbeck , winner of ten races including the st . leger . none of these became very notable sires . montem was a speedy daughter of ladas which captured the new stakes at ascot and the july stakes . baroness la fleche , another filly by ladas , was exquisitely bred , being from st . simon ' s classic - winning daughter la fleche . she won the acorn stakes at epsom , but was more noted as a broodmare , as she produced cinna , a polymelus filly who won the one thousand guineas and placed second to charlebelle in the oaks . cinna became the dam of beau pere , a leading sire in new zealand and the united states .\nwinner of eleven of his thirty - one races , including the duke of york stakes twice , and the cambridgeshire handicap , polymelus retired to the stud of s . b . joel . polymelus led the english sire ' s list five times and was second twice : he sired five classic winners , including the english triple crown champion , pommern , and got the extremely significant sire son , phalaris .\npapers past | notes by beacon . ( otago witness , 1887 - 11 - 04 )\nhelp us improve papers past : do our short survey and let us know how we ' re doing .\nthis article displays in one automatically - generated column . view the full page to see article in its original form .\nman ' s first lord covered a mile and threequarters steadily . j . smith ' s drover ( sharp up ) went a similar distance at a better pace , as did also g . smith ' s dunluce . ' - poole ' s trapper ( dyer riding ) was given a switching gallop twice round , accompanied over the last circuit by miss guy , who appears to be a fair\nsprinter . ; and jenny went a mile sharply . \u25a0 cotton sent garibaldi two miles on the racing track , going / the second round at a fast rate . fireball and le temps went ' twice * ' round the tan at top , and gitana colt cantered seven furlongs ; camerine going three circuits at a like pace . tumbull ' s st . clair was sent three and a - half miles in sweaters , st . malo attending him over the ' last half - mile . st . ives negotiated a mile and threequarters at an easy rate , and ' wolverine and mokoia went a like . . distance steadily . the dodger was sent , two miles sharply in view of his taieri engagements , and taniwa cantered . later on turnball ' s and waddell ' s two - year - olds did slow work ; and cotton ' s ishmael went twice round the course proper at an easy rate . !\nthis article text was automatically generated and may include errors . view the full page to see article in its original form .\npapers past now contains more than just newspapers . use these links to navigate to other kinds of materials .\nthese links will always show you how deep you are in the collection . click them to get a broader view of the items you ' re currently viewing .\nenter names , places , or other keywords that you ' re curious about here . we ' ll look for them in the fulltext of millions of articles .\nbrowsed to an interesting page ? click here to search within the item you ' re currently viewing , or start a new search .\nuse these buttons to limit your searches to particular dates , titles , and more .\nswitch between images of the original document and text transcriptions and outlines you can cut and paste .\nif you ' d rather just browse through documents , click here to find titles and issues from particular dates and geographic regions .\nthe\nhelp\nlink will show you different tips for each page on the site , so click here often as you explore the site .\npapers past | sporting notes . ( wanganui chronicle , 1887 - 07 - 28 )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\npapers past | epsom . ( otago witness , 1887 - 07 - 22 )\npapers past | winners of tradesmen & # 39 ; s handicap . ( otago witness , 1888 - 06 - 01 )\nyear . strts . winner . age . weight . time . 1873 1876 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 8 7 6 7 5 s 4 3 8 2 5 4 10 6 10 bobtiy burns rory o ' more hob hoy ! sir william blue peter - . blue - peter adamant ooldstream luna adamant minerva capt . webster marion the bard ' sultan a 6 4 a 6 a 3 \u20224 at . lb . 8 7 8 6 8 8 7 0 8 0 7 10 7 11 7 3 8 2 9 0 7 9 7 7 9 3 7 2 7 7 m . b . 2 57 * 2 22 $ 2 21 2 29 2 17 2 13 * 2 21 2 11 a 6 4 4 4 6 3 1 51 $ 1 51 1 51 1 50 1 50 $\nwinners of tradesmen ' s handicap . , otago witness , issue 1906 , 1 june 1888\nwinners of tradesmen ' s handicap . otago witness , issue 1906 , 1 june 1888\npapers past | talk of the day . ( otago witness , 1888 - 04 - 06 )\none day since last publication i paid a visit to mr s . mercer ' s training stables , opposite the gate of the forbury oourse . i think that sam must have the instincts of an old\nshellback ,\nfor he is particular enough to suit an eld maid , and has his place as tidy and clean as a new pin , there being no trace of a bad smell about the premises . the stable originally consisted of three boxes , but mr mercer has added another three , each 13 x 12 , all being well lighted , ventilated , and drained , while the boys ' room attached to the establishment contains ample accommodation for four sleepers .\nthe first box i was taken into was tenanted by gold dust , an aged chestnut mare by papapa out of lady grey that was brought ap from southland , and ran respectably at toko , and dunedin . she had a foal by hilarious last spring , and was covered by everton lad , to whom she is now in foal . gold dust is a useful htamp of a mare ? being very compactly framed , with powerful shoulders , good quarters , and an cxcelleut set of legs ; but as a picture horse sbe is at a disadvantage , owing to her rather short neck and coarse head .\nmr h . goodman bought gold dust for \u00a328 at the dunedin anniversary meeting , his idea being that she would be a serviceable member to lead his youngsters at exercise . but tbe mare oa being brought on to the course displayed a certain amount of perversity . this iier new owner had not bargained for , and concluding that the first loss would be the best he t xpressed his willingness to lose a fiver on her . ' j he offer was no sooner uttered than it was t napped up , and the mare is now the property of mr s . mercer , who thinks he can make something out of her as soon as cshe is properly - sub - jugated . the taming process is already well ; . ilvanced , and i hope that the patience and care being expended on her will be rewarded .\nthe occupant of the next box is an unnamed four - year - old grey , by le loup out of an arab mare . he is the property of a taieri owner , and is untried either hi public or in private , and it is hard to say as yet how he will turn out ; but as he is a strong looking horse with good legs , it is quite on the cards that he may make a name for himself ."]}
{"id": 1515, "summary": [{"text": "eupterote splendens is a moth in the eupterotidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by n\u00e4ssig and c.h. schulze in 2007 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in indonesia ( sulawesi ) . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "eupterote splendens", "paragraphs": ["a second species with diurnal males of the genus eupterote from indonesia : eupterote ( eupterote ) splendens sp . n . from sulawesi\na second species with diurnal males of the genus eupterote from indonesia : eupterote ( eupterote ) splendens sp . n . from sulawesi ( insecta , lepidoptera , bombycoidea , eupterotidae )\ngravimetric analysis of pupal weight loss in eupterote mollifera w . ( lepidoptera : eupterotidae ) - a pest of mulberry\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnb : the taxon name search is for single names only . for example , to locate dysodia vitrina flammata warren , 1904 you should enter flammata only .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\n( from n\u00e4ssig & schulze 2007 ) : male genitalia with uncus broad and strongly developed , uniformly sclerotised , firmly fixed with tegumen , ending distally in a pair of strong hook - like prongs that are dorsally widely separated ; valves short , narrow , strongly fused with vinculum and with each other at base , costa not developed , valvula forming a sharp stout process pointed ventrally , resembling a hook ; juxta fused with phallus and valves ; phallus basally inflated , apex acute , vesica with or without scobination ; vinculum narrow , saccus long and thin .\n[ no08 ] n\u00e4ssig , w . a . , & r . g . oberprieler . 2008 . an annotated catalogue of the genera of eupterotidae ( insecta , lepidoptera , bombycoidea ) .\nsp . n . from sulawesi ( insecta , lepidoptera , bombycoidea , eupterotidae ) .\n( t . p . lucas ) , with a revised classification of the family eupterotidae ( lepidoptera ) .\ni ' m an entomologist and taxonomist , currently based in perth , western australia . if you ' d like to comment ( or offer work ) , i can be e - mailed at gerarus at westnet . com . au .\nthe information presented on this site has been collated from a number of external sources . apart from the time taken to bring it all together , very little of it represents my own work . all images and quoted text remain the intellectual property of their original owners , and remain subject to all relevant copyrights and controls . if you re - use anything taken from this site , please attribute it to the original owner . if you are the intellectual owner of anything presented and you are unhappy with the manner of its usage , please do not hesitate to contact me so that i may rectify things .\non the authorships of the lepidoptera altas of the\nreise der novara\n, with a list of the taxa of bombycoidea [ s . l . ] therein described ( insecta , lepidoptera , bombycoidea ) | request pdf\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\non the authorships of the lepidoptera altas of the\nreise der novara\n, with a list of the taxa of bombycoidea [ s . l . ] therein described ( insecta , lepidoptera , bombycoidea )\n. . . it was resurrected from synonymy and listed unassigned to a tribe by p\u00fchringer & kallies ( 2004 ) . following n\u00e4ssig & speidel ( 2007 ) , cajetan and rudolph felder are the authors of\nheterocera\nfigured on plates 75\u2013107 ( felder & felder 1874 ) and hence of austrosetia . distribution and life history . . . .\n. . . johnson , 1937 ) , d . m\u00adulticolor ( walker , 1855 ) , and d . wanderbilti pearson , 1958 . ( felder authorships in the\nreise der novara\naccording to n\u00e4ssig & speidel 2007 . ) in the following , a new species is described , dirphiopsis lom\u00adbardi ( bouvier , 1924 ) stat . . . .\nmolecular phylogenetics , biogeography and systematics of dreissena in the balkans . - freshwater biol . , 52 : 1525 - 1536 . anders , u . , engels , s . , hansen , j . ( 2007 ) : nahrungspr\u00e4ferenzen und entwicklungstendenzen im gebiss omnivorer carnivora . - hallesches jahrb . geowiss . , beih . , 23 : 121 - 124\ncomment on the proposed designation of type species of nymphula schrank , 1802 . z . n . ( s . ) 2384\nfor luh campus users we will be happy to check if free access is available for you .\nregrettably , indication of copyright fee is not available . for further questions please contact our customer service .\n\u00a9 metadata copyright the british library board and other contributors . all rights reserved .\nsingh , j . / tamil selvan , m . / kumaresan , d . et al .\nthe table of contents of the conference proceedings is generated automatically , so it can be incomplete , although all articles are available in the tib .\neffect of refrigeration on fecundity and hatching potentiality of silkworm , bombyx mori l . ( race nistari )\nfactors affecting resistance of urdbean ( vigana mungo l . ) to pulse beetle , callosobruchus maculatus ( f . )\nbiology and control of hairy caterpillar , euproctis fraterna moore ( lepidoptera : lymantriidae ) on jujube ( zizyphus mauritiana lamk . )\nefficacy of petroleum ether extracts of certain plants in the control of brinjal spotted leaf beetle , henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata ( fabr . )\nmortality of the silkworm larvae ( bombyx mori l . ) on feeding mulberry leaves sprayed with insecticides\neffect of synthetic pyrethroids on gram cicer arietinum ( l . ) and correlation studies\nlaboratory evaluation of insecticides for the control of henosepilachna vigintiocpunctata ( fabricius ) on brinjal ( solanum melongena l . ) ( coleoptera : coccinellidae )\n\u00a9 2018 by schweizerbart science publishers johannesstr . 3a d - 70176 stuttgart , germany phone + + 49 - ( 0 ) 711 - 3514560 / fax + + 49 - ( 0 ) 711 - 351456 - 99 2018 - 07 - 09 20 : 53 : 19 contact us | general business terms | privacy policy | rss feeds | press | impress"]}
{"id": 1516, "summary": [{"text": "ophlitaspongia papilla is a species of demosponge belonging to the family microcionidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found along north east atlantic coastlines .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "this is a red sponge which forms thin , smooth encrusting patches , up to 5 cm across , with regularly spaced oscula . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "ophlitaspongia papilla", "paragraphs": ["howson , c . m . ; chambers , s . j . 1999 . ophlitaspongia and ophlitaspongia papilla reinstated , and a new species of ophlitaspongia described ( porifera : demospongiae : microcionidae ) . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom 79 ( 4 ) : 609 - 620 .\nhowson , c . m . ; chambers , s . j . ( 1999 ) . ophlitaspongia and ophlitaspongia papilla reinstated , and a new species of ophlitaspongia described ( porifera : demospongiae : microcionidae ) . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom . 79 ( 4 ) : 609 - 620 . page ( s ) : 609 - 614 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\npicton , b . e . & morrow , c . c . ( 2016 ) . ophlitaspongia papilla bowerbank , 1866 . [ in ] encyclopedia of marine life of britain and ireland . urltoken accessed on 2018 - 07 - 09\nhowson , c . m . ; chambers , s . j . ( 1999 ) . < i > ophlitaspongia < / i > and < i > ophlitaspongia papilla < / i > reinstated , and a new species of < i > ophlitaspongia < / i > described ( porifera : demospongiae : microcionidae ) . < em > journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom . < / em > 79 ( 4 ) : 609 - 620 .\nidentity : superficially ophlitaspongia papilla could be confused with several other species . however the spiculation is distinctive and the form , colour and habitat make it readily identifiable . it could be confused with amphilectus fucorum ( q . v . ) but when alive the strong smell of amphilectus can be used as an initial indication ; amphilectus has a much softer consistency . it could also be confused with microciona atrasanguinea ( q . v . , a shallow sublittoral species which also forms thin sheets ) , but whereas ophlitaspongia can be peeled off the rock , microciona usually crumbles and tears and is much thinner . the spiculation is also very different .\n( of ophlitaspongia seriata ( sensu johnston , 1842 ) ) sol\u00f3rzano , m . r . ( 1990 ) . por\u00edferos del litoral gallego : estudio faun\u00edstico , distribuci\u00f3n e inventario . phd thesis unversidad de santiago de compostela . 1036 pp . page ( s ) : 924 - 926 ; l\u00e1m . 118 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of ophlitaspongia seriata ( sensu johnston , 1842 ) ) l\u00e9vi , c . ( 1963 ) . spongiaires d\u2019afrique du sud . ( 1 ) poeciloscl\u00e9rides . transactions of the royal society of south africa . 37 ( 1 ) : 1 - 72 , pls i - x . page ( s ) : 59 - 60 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of ophlitaspongia seriata ( sensu johnston , 1842 ) ) bowerbank , j . s . ( 1874 ) . a monograph of the british spongiadae . volume 3 . ( ray society : london ) : i - xvii , 1 - 367 , pls i - xcii . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 167 , pl lxv 1 - 4 [ details ]\n( of ophlitaspongia seriata ( sensu johnston , 1842 ) ) borojevic , r . ; cabioch , l . ; l\u00e9vi , c . ( 1968 ) . inventaire de la faune marine de roscoff . spongiaires . cahiers de biologie marine . 9 ( 1 ) : 1 - 44 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 25 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of ophlitaspongia seriata ( sensu johnston , 1842 ) ) l\u00e9vi , c . ( 1960 ) . les d\u00e9mosponges des c\u00f4tes de france : 1 . les clathriidae [ the demospongiae of the french coasts : 1 . the clathriidae . cahiers de biologie marine . 1 ( 1 ) : 47 - 87 . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 64 - 65 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of ophlitaspongia seriata ( sensu johnston , 1842 ) ) hayward , p . j . ; ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) . ( 1990 ) . the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe : 1 . introduction and protozoans to arthropods . clarendon press : oxford , uk . isbn 0 - 19 - 857356 - 1 . 627 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of ophlitaspongia seriata ( sensu johnston , 1842 ) ) muller , y . ( 2004 ) . faune et flore du littoral du nord , du pas - de - calais et de la belgique : inventaire . [ coastal fauna and flora of the nord , pas - de - calais and belgium : inventory ] . commission r\u00e9gionale de biologie r\u00e9gion nord pas - de - calais : france . 307 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of ophlitaspongia seriata ( sensu johnston , 1842 ) ) kelly , m . ; edwards , a . r . ; wilkinson , m . r . ; alvarez , b . ; cook , s . de c . ; bergquist , p . r . ; buckeridge , st j . ; campbell , h . j . ; reiswig , h . m . ; valentine , c . ; vacelet , j . ( 2009 ) . phylum porifera : sponges . in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) ( 2009 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity : 1 . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . pp . 23 - 46 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nbowerbank , j . s . ( 1866 ) . a monograph of the british spongiadae . volume 2 . ( ray society : london ) : i - xx , 1 - 388 . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 378 - 380 [ details ]\nvan soest , r . w . m ; boury - esnault , n . ; hooper , j . n . a . ; r\u00fctzler , k . ; de voogd , n . j . ; alvarez , b . ; hajdu , e . ; pisera , a . b . ; manconi , r . ; sch\u00f6nberg , c . ; klautau , m . ; picton , b . ; kelly , m . ; vacelet , j . ; dohrmann , m . ; d\u00edaz , m . - c . ; c\u00e1rdenas , p . ; carballo , j . l . ; r\u00edos , p . ; downey , r . ( 2018 ) . world porifera database .\n( of halichondria seriata sensu johnston , 1842 ) johnston , g . 1842 . a history of british sponges and lithophytes . ( w . h . lizars : edinburgh ) : i - xii , 1 - 264 , pls i - xxv . page ( s ) : 125 [ details ]\nhooper , j . n . a . 2002 . family microcionidae carter , 1875 . pp . 432 - 468 . in hooper , j . n . a . & van soest , r . w . m . ( ed . ) systema porifera . guide to the classification of sponges . 1 ( kluwer academic / plenum publishers : new york , boston , dordrecht , london , moscow ) . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nbowerbank , j . s . ( 1874 ) . a monograph of the british spongiadae . volume 3 . ( ray society : london ) : i - xvii , 1 - 367 , pls i - xcii . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 177 , pl . lxx 1 - 4 [ details ]\nackers , r . g . ; moss , d . ; picton , b . e . ( 1992 ) . sponges of the british isles ( \u2018sponges v\u2019 ) . a colour guide and working document . marine conservation society . 1 - 175 . page ( s ) : 86 [ details ]\ncruz , t . ( 2002 ) . esponjas marinas de canarias . consejer\u00eda de pol\u00edtica territorial y medio ambiente del gobierno de canarias . s / c tenerife . 260 pp . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of chalinula seriata ( grant , 1826 ) ) bowerbank , j . s . ( 1866 ) . a monograph of the british spongiadae . volume 2 . ( ray society : london ) : i - xx , 1 - 388 . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 376 - 378 [ details ]\n( of chalina seriata ( sensu johnston , 1842 ) ) bowerbank , j . s . ( 1866 ) . a monograph of the british spongiadae . volume 2 . ( ray society : london ) : i - xx , 1 - 388 . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 376 - 378 [ details ]\n( of clathria seriata ( sensu johnston , 1842 ) ) van soest , r . w . m . ( 2001 ) . porifera , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels . 50 : 85 - 103 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of clathria seriata ( sensu johnston , 1842 ) ) babi\u00e7 , k . 1922 . monactinellida und tetractinellida des adriatischen meeres . zoologische jahrb\u00fccher . abteilung f\u00fcr systematik , geographie und biologie der tiere 46 ( 2 ) : 217 - 302 , pls 8 - 9 . page ( s ) : 244 - 245 ; fig t [ details ]\n( of clathria seriata ( sensu johnston , 1842 ) ) muller , y . ( 2004 ) . faune et flore du littoral du nord , du pas - de - calais et de la belgique : inventaire . [ coastal fauna and flora of the nord , pas - de - calais and belgium : inventory ] . commission r\u00e9gionale de biologie r\u00e9gion nord pas - de - calais : france . 307 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n) is a firm , smooth , bright orange - red flat crust with regularly spaced perfectly round holes ( oscules ) . freshly exposed specimens have a distinct gleamy aspect ; dried out they become corky - crumbly . it is common under intertidal boulders and on\nthin sheets , usually 2 - 3 mm thick , but can develop into cushions of uniform thickness up to 10 mm thick . diameter of an individual may be up to 10 cm . surface very finely granular , even . the oscules (\n) are conspicuous , numerous and evenly distributed in a regular fashion between 5 and 10 mm apart over the surface . neat , round and mostly flush with the surface , but the margins can be raised slightly above the surface . no smell . consistency moderately firm and elastic . compressible , resilient . breaks somewhat in the manner of a soft biscuit .\nare thin subtylostyles ; they measure : 86 - 130 x 2 \u00b5m . the principal megascleres of the main\n: slightly curved robust toxas with smooth tips : 10 - 150 \u00b5m . chelas are absent .\nof spongin can be seen , which forms an anisotropic reticulation of well - developed fibres . the primary ascending fibres are semi - cored by plumosely arranged megascleres ; the same\nechinate the fibres at variable angles . the secondary connecting fibres usually do not contain\nstipes in areas of strong water movement ( either tidal or wave action ) .\nno type material in bmnh ; possibly in royal college of surgeons or edinburgh museum . (\n) ; mcs voucher : belum mc 588 , rutland harbour , donegal , ireland .\nsuperficially it could be confused with several other species . however the spiculation is very distinctive and the form , colour and habitat make it readily identifiable . it could be confused with\n, but when alive the strong smell of that species can be used as an initial indication . it could also be confused with\nusually crumbles and tears . the spiculation is also very different . fry ( 1971 , as\nackers , r . g . , d . moss , b . e . picton and s . m . k . stone , 1985 . sponges of the british isles (\nsponge iv\n) . ii . marine conservation soc . , ross on wye , u . k . : 108 - 197 .\nackers , r . g . a . , d . moss and b . e . picton , 1992 . sponges of the british isles (\nsponge v\n) , a colour guide and working document . marine conservation society , 175 pp .\narndt , w . , 1935 . porifera . tierwelt nord . - ostsee , iiia : 1 - 140 , figs . 1 - 239 .\nbeauchamp , p . de , 1914 . les gr\u00e8ves de roscoff . lechevalier , paris .\nform : thin sheets , usually 2 - 3mm thick , but can develop into cushions of uniform thickness up to 10mm thick . diameter of the animal may be up to 10cm .\nconsistency : moderately firm and elastic .\ncompressible , resilient . breaks somewhat in the manner of a soft biscuit .\nsurface : very finely granular ,\neven , hispid\n,\nminutely wrinkled\n. the surface has a smooth dense appearance which is quite distinctive .\napertures : the oscules are conspicuous and evenly distributed in a regular fashion between 5 and 10mm apart over the surface . neat , round and mostly flush with the surface , but the margins can be raised slightly above the surface .\noccasionally sub - fistular .\nskeleton : very characteristic . in cross - section a ladder - like skeleton of spongin can be seen , which forms an anisotropic reticulation of well developed fibres . the primary ascending fibres are semi - cored by plumosely arranged megascleres , which often quasi - echinate the fibres . the secondary connecting fibres usually do not contain spicules . accessory spicules are usually interstitial , rather than at the surface .\nspicules : the principal megascleres of the main skeleton are short fat styles or subtylostyles ( a ) 110 - ( 117 ) - 130\u00e1m . the accessory spicules are thin subtylostyles ( b ) 105 - ( 118 ) - 130\u00e1m . the microscleres are toxa ( c ) with smooth tips 50 - ( 55 ) - 60\u00e1m . chelae are absent .\nhabitat : on rock , commonly under boulders on the lower shore and also in the shallow sublittoral ( to 5m cd ) .\non clean rock , shells , fucus ,\nand laminaria stipes in areas of strong water movement ( either tidal or wave action ) .\ndistribution :\nbritish isles ; france and spain .\na common shore species with recent records from south - west england , western ireland , strangford lough and tiree . fry ( 1971 ) did research on this species from the menai straits and anglesey .\ndistribution map from nbn : grid map ( fast ) : interactive map ( slower , requires login to view records ) : national biodiversity network mapping facility , data for uk .\npicton , b . e . , morrow , c . c . & van soest , r . w . b . , 2011 . [ in ] sponges of britain and ireland urltoken\ndistribution map from nbn : interactive map : national biodiversity network mapping facility , data for uk .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nbowerbank , j . s . ( 1866 ) . a monograph of the british spongiadae . volume 2 . ( ray society : london ) : i - xx , 1 - 388 .\nackers , r . g . ; moss , d . ; picton , b . e . ( 1992 ) . sponges of the british isles ( \u2018sponges v\u2019 ) . < em > a colour guide and working document . marine conservation society . < / em > 1 - 175 .\nbowerbank , j . s . ( 1866 ) a monograph of the british spongiadae . volume 2 . ( ray society : london ) : i - xx , 1 - 388 .\nbowerbank , j . s . ( 1874 ) . a monograph of the british spongiadae . volume 3 . ( ray society : london ) : i - xvii , 1 - 367 , pls i - xcii .\ncruz , t . ( 2002 ) . esponjas marinas de canarias . < em > consejer\u00eda de pol\u00edtica territorial y medio ambiente del gobierno de canarias . < / em > s / c tenerife . 260 pp .\nferrer hern\u00e1ndez , f . ( 1914 ) . esponjas del cant\u00e1brico . parte 2 . iii . myxospongida . iv . tetraxonida . v . triaxonida . < em > trabajos del museo nacional de ciencias naturales ( zool\u00f3gica ) . < / em > 17 : 1 - 46 .\nhooper , j . n . a . 2002 . family microcionidae carter , 1875 . pp . 432 - 468 . in hooper , j . n . a . & van soest , r . w . m . ( ed . ) systema porifera . guide to the classification of sponges . 1 ( kluwer academic / plenum publishers : new york , boston , dordrecht , london , moscow ) .\nvan soest , r . w . m . 2001 . porifera , < b > < i > in < / i > < / b > : costello , m . j . < i > et al . < / i > ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . < i > european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , < / i > 50 : pp . 85 - 103\nwe use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites . close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings .\n( porifera : microcionidae ) from wave - exposed sublittoral rock in the north - east atlantic is described and compared to the two other species recorded from the genus in the north - east atlantic . the species known as\nhas been separated from related genera and reinstated for species in the north atlantic .\nemail your librarian or administrator to recommend adding this journal to your organisation ' s collection .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nan educational resource dedicated mainly to the photography and diversity of marine life that can be found in coastal waters and intertidal areas of great britain and ireland .\nscroll down and rollover titles to change screen image or click on title to view image .\nimages of species taken at long rock , penzance , cornwall . found on the extreme lowershore , in water filled gulley , on side of a rock with lomentaria articulata and chrondus crispus algae . 09 . 03 . 12 . sw4974530820 ; also found on lowershore overhang at stackhouse cove , near rosudgeon , cornwall . 21 . 01 . 11 .\naphotomarine supports open source data recording and sharing for the benefit of wildlife , recorders , research , science and education . the project recommends the following websites and works with the following bodies and organisations .\na website based on sponges of the british isles 1992 edition , revised and extended , 2007 , by bernard picton , christine morrow & rob van soest . without a shadow of a doubt the best online resource to sponges of britain and ireland .\nthe marine biological association or mba , based in plymouth , is one of the world\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s longest - running societies dedicated to promoting research into our oceans and the life they support . since 1884 the mba has been providing a unified , clear , independent voice on behalf of the marine biological community . it has a growing membership in over 40 countries .\nthe cisfbr or cornwall and isles of scilly federation of biological recorders is an independent umbrella organisation supporting independent recorders and recording groups in the county of cornwall .\nthe cornish biodiversity network or cbn is the largest open source wildlife database in cornwall that sends open source data to the nbn ( national biodiversity network ) . it is a new recording system based on the erica database , the largest recording resource in cornwall . the cbn best supports the activities and needs of the independent recording community and recording groups in cornwall .\nthe national biodiversity network or nbn is a charity that supports open source data sharing and recording supporting conservation , science and education .\nwhy do recorders need open source ?\n. simply because it supports the core values of wildlife recording and the free use of records and data over a very wide network that includes partners like the natural history museum . the link here is to the nbn atlas . the link here is to the nbn atlas .\nthe taxonomy used here is based on that of the following database , which is also used by the mba , nhm and the nbn .\nover 99 % of the species records on aphotomarine are open source but they are also copyright david fenwick . species records published on aphotomarine may not be used on any database , list or distribution map , without a signed user agreement . cornish records that appear on aphotomarine are recorded using the erica database to benefit recording in cornwall and scientific and historical recording in general . no financial benefit must be taken from any record produced by david fenwick , records are of educational benefit only . records by david fenwick must ' ' never ' ' be financially traded .\nthe main objective of this website is in furthering environmental awareness and education through the medium of photography . to increase awareness and access to the wildlife of the region and help\npeople find and identify it . sometimes the difference between species is obvious but many species can only be determined by observing microscopic characteristics that are specific to any one species .\nbowerbank , j . s . 1866a . a monograph of the british spongiadae . volume 2 . ( ray society : london ) : i - xx , 1 - 388 .\ncruz , t . 2002 . esponjas marinas de canarias . consejer\u00eda de pol\u00edtica territorial y medio ambiente del gobierno de canarias , s / c tenerife . 260 pp .\nbowerbank , 1866 . in : van soest , r . w . m ; boury - esnault , n . ; hooper , j . n . a . ; r\u00fctzler , k . ; de voogd , n . j . ; alvarez de glasby , b . ; hajdu , e . ; pisera , a . b . ; manconi , r . ; schoenberg , c . ; janussen , d . ; tabachnick , k . r . , klautau , m . ; picton , b . ; kelly , m . ; vacelet , j . ; dohrmann , m . ; cristina d\u00edaz , m . ; c\u00e1rdenas , p . ( 2014 ) world porifera database . in : costello , m . j . ; bouchet , p . ; boxshall , g . ; arvantidis , c . ; appeltans , w . ( 2014 ) european register of marine species , accessed through pesi at\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 license\npesi is funded by the european union 7th framework programme within the research infrastructures programme . contract no . ri - 223806 . activity area : capacities . period 2008 - 2011 - website hosted & developed by vliz banner picture : gannet ( morus bassanus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) by karl van ginderdeuren - contact pesi\nall british coasts except the southeast . predominantly recorded on the west coasts of england and wales .\nand lives in shallow water . it occurs on the lower shore and shallow sub - littoral on rocky coasts .\nhayward , p . , nelson - smith , t . & shields , c . 1996 . collins pocket guide . sea shore of britain and northern europe . london : harpercollins .\nhowson , c . m . & picton , b . e . , 1997 . the species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the british isles and surrounding seas . belfast : ulster museum . [ ulster museum publication , no . 276 . ]\njncc ( joint nature conservation committee ) , 1999 . marine environment resource mapping and information database ( mermaid ) : marine nature conservation review survey database . [ on - line ] urltoken\nmarlin ( marine life information network ) , 2005 . searchable benthic data ( seabed ) map [ on - line ] . data access sub - programme , marine life information network for britian and ireland http : / / www . marlin . ac . uk ,\nnational biodiversity network ( nbn ) atlas website . available from : http : / / www . nbnatlas . org . accessed 01 april 2017\npicton , b . e . & costello , m . j . , 1998 . biomar biotope viewer : a guide to marine habitats , fauna and flora of britain and ireland . [ cd - rom ] environmental sciences unit , trinity college , dublin . , urltoken\nrudman , w . b . , 2002b . rostanga rubra [ on - line ] . urltoken\nthompson , t . e . & brown , g . h . , 1976 . british opisthobranch molluscs . london : academic press . [ synopses of the british fauna , no . 8 . ]\nthompson , t . e . & brown , g . h . , 1984 . biology of opisthobranch molluscs , vol . ii . london : ray society .\noakley , j . a . 2007 . rostanga rubra a sea slug . in tyler - walters h . and hiscock k . ( eds ) marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information reviews , [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom . [ cited 09 - 07 - 2018 ] . available from : urltoken\nmarine life information network ( marlin ) , the marine biological association of the uk ( see contact us ) \u00a9 2018 the marine biological association of the uk , all rights reserved .\nthe information ( text only ) provided by the marine life information network ( marlin ) is licensed under a creative commons attribution - non - commercial - share alike 2 . 0 uk : england & wales license . note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own terms and conditions and they may or may not be available for reuse . permissions beyond the scope of this license are available here . based on a work at urltoken\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nsupplementary material 1 incident light ( lux , raw data and third order moving average ) monitored every 15 min within a kelp - cleared plot ( 3 m diameter ) between april , 14th and june , 19th 2014 on the study site using onset hobo \u00ae data loggers pendant temp - light , onset computer corporation . courtesy of thibaut de bettignies and thomas wernberg . * : tidal range > 6 . 5 m ( jpeg 541 kb )\nsupplementary material 2 macroalgae identified during the survey across the different strata ( lamina , stipe , holdfast and rock ) . relative occurrence in samples is indicated : x : 1 - 6 samples , xx : 7 - 13 samples , xxx : 14 - 20 samples . \u00b0 : species identified underwater by scuba - divers ( xlsx 15 kb )\nsupplementary material 3 sessile macrofauna identified during the survey across the different strata ( lamina , stipe , holdfast and rock ) . relative occurrence in samples is indicated : x : 1 - 6 samples , xx : 7 - 13 samples , xxx : 14 - 20 samples . \u00b0 : species identified underwater by scuba - divers ( xlsx 16 kb )\nsupplementary material 4 mobile macrofauna identified during the survey across the different strata ( lamina / stipe , holdfast and rock ) . relative occurrence in samples is indicated : x : 1 - 6 samples , xx : 7 - 13 samples , xxx : 14 - 20 samples . \u00b0 : species identified underwater by scuba - divers ( xlsx 23 kb )\nsupplementary material 5 results of simper analyses of bray\u2013curtis similarity among consecutive sampling dates for biomass abundance of seaweeds associated with the different kelp forest strata . seaweed average abundances ( ab . ) were square - root - transformed . relative contributions of species to the dissimilarity (\n% ) between consecutive sampling dates are presented depending on permanova results . values in bold : species abundances and contribution to dissimilarity for species found in the cut - off levels of 50 % in pairwise comparisons . phy ( phyllum ) : och : ochrophyta , chl : chlorophyta , rho : rhodophyta . ( xlsx 13 kb )\nsupplementary material 6 results of simper analyses of bray\u2013curtis similarity among consecutive sampling dates for biomass abundance of sessile fauna associated with the different kelp forest strata . fauna average abundances ( ab . ) were square - root - transformed . relative contributions of species to the dissimilarity (\n% ) between consecutive sampling dates are presented depending on permanova results . values in bold : species abundances and contribution to dissimilarity for species found in the cut - off levels of 50 % in pairwise comparisons . phy ( phylum ) : por : porifera , bry : bryozoa , cho : chordata ( xlsx 13 kb )\nsupplementary material 7 results of simper analyses of bray\u2013curtis similarity among consecutive sampling dates for numerical abundance of mobile fauna associated with the different kelp forest strata . fauna average abundances ( ab . ) were square - root - transformed . relative contributions of species to the dissimilarity (\n% ) between consecutive sampling dates are presented depending on permanova results . values in bold : species abundances and contribution to dissimilarity for species found in the cut - off levels of 50 % in pairwise comparisons . phy ( phylum ) : ann : annelida , mol : mollusca , art : arthropoda , ech : echinodermata , sip : sipunculida . tg ( trophic group ) : g : grazer , df : deposit - feeder , sf : suspension - feeder , sf - p : sessile fauna - predator , mf - p : mobile fauna - predator ( xlsx 20 kb )\nairoldi , l . , 2003 . the effects of sedimentation on rocky coast assemblages . oceanography and marine biology : an annual review 41 : 161\u2013236 .\naltieri , a . h . & j . van de koppel , 2014 . foundation species in marine ecosystems . in bertness , m . d . , j . f . bruno , b . r . silliman & j . j . stachowicz ( eds ) , marine community ecology and conservation . sinauer associates inc , sunderland , ma : 37\u201356 .\nanderson , m . j . , 2001 . a new method for non - parametric multivariate analysis of variance . austral ecology 26 : 32\u201346 .\nanderson , m . j . , c . e . diebel , w . m . blom & t . j . landers , 2005 . consistency and variation in kelp holdfast assemblages : spatial patterns of biodiversity for the major phyla at different taxonomic resolutions . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 320 : 35\u201356 .\nanderson , m . j . , r . n . gorley & k . r . clarke , 2008 . permanova + for primer : guide to software and statistical methods . primer - 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nielsen , e . , h . christie & e . rinde , 2003 . short - term dispersal of kelp fauna to cleared ( kelp - harvested ) areas . hydrobiologia 503 : 77\u201391 .\nwafar , m . v . m . , p . le corre & j . l . birrien , 1983 . nutrients and primary production in permanently well - mixed temperate coastal waters . estuarine , coastal and shelf science 17 : 431\u2013446 .\nwernberg , t . & n . goldberg , 2008 . short - term dynamics of algal species in a subtidal kelp bed in relation to changes in environmental conditions and canopy biomass . estuarine , coastal and shelf science 76 : 265\u2013272 .\n( gunn . ) fosl . ( phaeophyta : laminariales ) in s . e . scotland . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 73 : 1\u201310 .\nwulff , j . l . , 2006 . ecological interactions of marine sponges . canadian journal of zoology 84 : 146\u2013166 .\nguide to marine life of britain and ireland . last indexed march 30 , 2010\nopen coasts , on bedrock and boulders in strong tidal streams or . . .\nthinly encrusting sheet or cushion , 3 - 5 cm in diameter , 1 - 3 mm . . .\nevidence of unique and generalist microbes in distantly related sympatric intertidal marine sponges ( porifera : demospongiae ) .\nauthors : lynne a . fieber , stephen l . carlson , andrew t . kempsell , justin b . greer , michael c . schmale .\nauthors : audrey r . matteson , charles r . budinoff , claire e . campbell , alison buchan , steven w . wilhelm .\ngenetics , issue 74 , developmental biology , molecular biology , cellular biology , anatomy , physiology , biochemistry , marine biology , disciplines and occupations , whole mount in situ hybridization , rna in situs , rna , acid mucins , alcian blue , nuclear fast red stain , elasmobranch , marine elasmobranchs , l . erinacea , shh , hoxa13 , gene expression , hybridization , histology , skate , embryos , animal model\nauthors : colin w . bell , barbara e . fricks , jennifer d . rocca , jessica m . steinweg , shawna k . mcmahon , matthew d . wallenstein .\ninstitutions : colorado state university , oak ridge national laboratory , university of colorado .\nauthors : desirae l . deskins , shidrokh ardestani , pampee p . young .\ninstitutions : vanderbilt university school of medicine , the department of veterans affairs medical center , vanderbilt university school of medicine .\nauthors : steven robbins , jisha jacob , xinxin lu , mary ann moran , xiaozhen mou .\nauthors : andreas florian haas , ben knowles , yan wei lim , tracey mcdole somera , linda wegley kelly , mark hatay , forest rohwer .\nauthors : daniel t . claiborne , jessica l . prince , eric hunter .\nauthors : michael j . rothrock jr . , kelli l . hiett , john gamble , andrew c . caudill , kellie m . cicconi - hogan , j . gregory caporaso .\ninstitutions : usda - agricultural research service , usda - agricultural research service , oregon state university , university of georgia , northern arizona university .\njared leadbetter takes us for a nature walk through the diversity of life resident in the termite hindgut - a microenvironment containing 250 different species found nowhere else on earth . jared reveals that the symbiosis exhibited by this system is multi - layered and involves not only a relationship between the termite and its gut inhabitants , but also involves a complex web of symbiosis among the gut microbes themselves .\njared leadbetter explains why the termite - gut microbial community is an excellent system for studying the complex interactions between microbes . the symbiotic relationship existing between the host insect and lignocellulose - degrading gut microbes is explained , as well as the industrial uses of these microbes for degrading plant biomass and generating biofuels .\ncopyright \u00a9 jove 2006 - 2015 . all rights reserved . policies | license agreement | issn 1940 - 087x\njove visualize is a tool created to match the last 5 years of pubmed publications to methods in jove ' s video library .\nwe use abstracts found on pubmed and match them to jove videos to create a list of 10 to 30 related methods videos .\nin developing our video relationships , we compare around 5 million pubmed articles to our library of over 4 , 500 methods videos . in some cases the language used in the pubmed abstracts makes matching that content to a jove video difficult . in other cases , there happens not to be any content in our video library that is relevant to the topic of a given abstract . in these cases , our algorithms are trying their best to display videos with relevant content , which can sometimes result in matched videos with only a slight relation .\nthe gray cells of four orders of demosponges contain basophilic inclusions and glycogen . they are capable of synthesis and accumulation of glycogen and responsible for its transfer to sites of more intense metabolism ( growth , bud , blastema ) . they do not occur in larvae ; but all the phases of their differentiation from the flagellar cells of the larva have been demonstrated .\nborojevi\u0107 , r . : diff\u00e9renciation cellulaire dans l ' embryog\u00e9n\u00e8se et la morphog\u00e9n\u00e8se chez les spongiaires . symp . zool . soc . lond .\nborojevi\u0107 , r . , fry , w . g . , jones , w . c . , l\u00e9vi , c . , rasmont , r . , sar\u00e0 , m . , vacelet , j . : mise au point actuelle de la terminologie des \u00e9ponges , bull . mus . natn . hist . nat . paris\n( grant ) au cours de la r\u00e9organisation apr\u00e8s dissociation . z . zellforsch .\nborojevi\u0107 , r . , l\u00e9vi , c . : morphog\u00e9n\u00e8se exp\u00e9rimentale d ' une \u00e9ponge \u00e0 partir de cellules de la larve nageante dissoci\u00e9e . z . zellforsch .\nboury - esnault , n . : une structure inhalante remarquable des spongiaires : le crible \u2014 \u00e9tude morphologique et cytologique . arch . zool . exp . g\u00e9n .\nboury - esnault , n . : structure et ultrastructure des papilles d ' eponges du genre\n( schmidt ) d\u00e9mosponge , poecilosclerida ) . origine des cellules grises . cah . biol . mar .\nboury - esnault , n . : morphog\u00e9n\u00e8se exp\u00e9rimentale des papilles inhalantes de l ' \u00e9ponge\nnardo . i - etude histologique et cytologique . bull . mus . natn . hist . nat . paris\ncotte , j . : contribution \u00e0 l ' \u00e9tude de la nutrition chez les spongiaires . bull . sci . fr . belg .\n. le vitellus , formation , teneur en arn et glycog\u00e8ne . j . microscopie\nfando , j . j . , garcia - fernandez , m . c . , candela , j . l . : glycogen metabolism in\n( l . ) \u2014 factors affecting glycogen synthesis . comp . biochem . physiol .\nl\u00e9vi , c . : le glycog\u00e8ne chez les spongiaires . c . r . soc . biol . ( paris )\nl\u00e9vi , c . : les cellules des eponges . symp . zool . soc . lond .\nreynolds , e . s . : the use of lead citrate at high ph as an electron - opaque stain in electron microscopy . j . cell biol .\nseligman , a . m . , hanker , j . s . , wasserkrug , h . , dmochowski , h . , katzoff , l . : histochemical demonstration of some oxidized macromolecules with thiocarbohydrazide ( tch ) or thiosemicarbazide ( tsc ) and osmium tetroxide . j . histochem . cytochem .\n( ellis and solander ) . i . a study of cellular function and differentiation . j . exp . zool .\nthi\u00e9rry , j . p . : mise en \u00e9vidence des polysaccharides sur coupes fines en microscopie \u00e9lectronique . j . microscopie\nwillmer , e . n . : cytology and evolution . new york : academic press 1960\nboury - esnault , n . cell tissue res . ( 1977 ) 175 : 523 . urltoken"]}
{"id": 1517, "summary": [{"text": "trochomorpha apia is a species of air-breathing land snail , a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family trochomorphidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this species is endemic to american samoa . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "trochomorpha apia", "paragraphs": ["information on trochomorpha apia is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\ntrochomorpha apia ( j . b . hombron & c . h . jacquinot , 1852 )\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - trochomorpha ( trochomorpha apia )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - trochomorpha ( trochomorpha apia )\ntitle =\narkive species - trochomorpha ( trochomorpha apia )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nillustration of trochomorpha apia , a snail endemic to samoa and american samoa . it is classified as endangered by the iucn .\nmollusc specialist group ( 1996 ) . trochomorpha apia . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 7 august 2007 .\ntrochomorpha apia illustration of trochomorpha apia , a snail endemic to samoa and american samoa . it is classified as endangered by the iucn . vector image ( 8 kb ) only available for download by registered users - login or register now ( free & quick ! )\nwikipedia article copyright notice : this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . it uses material from the wikipedia article\ntrochomorpha apia\n.\nfacts summary : trochomorpha apia is a species of concern belonging in the species group\nsnails\nand found in the following area ( s ) : american samoa .\nglenn , c . r . 2006 .\nearth ' s endangered creatures - trochomorpha apia facts\n( online ) - licensed article from wikipedia : the free encyclopedia . accessed\ngenus : trochomorpha j . a . albers , 1850 ( db : 53 sp )\n{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . trochomorpha apia ( hombron & jacquinot , 1852 ) . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 9 , 2018 ] .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nclassified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\n| | best supported on google chrome , firefox 3 . 0 + , internet explorer 8 . 0 + , safari 4 . 0 + , opera 10 + . powered by the open source biodiversity informatics platform . technology partner strand life sciences\ncontribute more detail to this record by adding your own names , classifications or categories via a tag . tags also make this record more findable on search .\nthe development of the auckland war memorial museum online collection is an ongoing process ; updates , new images and records are added weekly . in some cases , records have yet to be confirmed by museum staff , and there could be mistakes or omissions in the information provided .\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ngenus : bertia c . m . f . ancey , 1887 ( db : 2 sp )\nsubgenus : bertia ( exrhysota ) f . c . baker , 1941 ( db : 1 sp )\nbertia ( exrhysota ) brookei ( a . adams & l . a . reeve , 1848 )\ngenus : brazieria c . m . f . ancey , 1887 ( db : 6 sp )\nbrazieria entomostoma ( j . b . hombron & c . h . jacquinot )\ngenus : coxia c . m . f . ancey , 1887 ( db : 1 sp )\ngenus : hogolua f . c . baker , 1941 ( db : 1 sp )\ngenus : kondoa f . c . baker , 1941 ( db : 3 sp )\ngenus : trochositala a . a . schileyko , 2002 ( db : 1 sp )\ngenus : videna h . adams & a . adams , 1855 ( db : 28 sp )\ngenus : vitrinoconus j . o . semper , 1873 ( db : 2 sp )\nthis article is only an excerpt . if it appears incomplete or if you wish to see article references , visit the rest of its contents here .\nback in october , the toledo zoo received new additions to their creature family . . . two orphaned cougar cubs , rescued from washington state when they were 3 weeks old .\nlist of all endangered animals . list of all endangered plants . list of all endangered species ( animals & plants ) . by species group ( mammal , birds , etc ) . . . united states endangered species list . browse by country , island , us state . . . search for an endangered species profile .\nare you inspired by endangered animals ? check out our games and coloring pages ! more to come soon .\nthis page is based on a wikipedia article written by authors ( here ) . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 license ; additional terms may apply . images , videos and audio are available under their respective licenses .\nthe ian / umces symbol and image libraries are provided completely cost and royalty free for any use , with attribution , except redistribution or sales . required attribution : author name , integration and application network , university of maryland center for environmental science urltoken\nif you need to use our images without the attribution ( credit ) , you can purchase non - attribution rights to many of our images by clicking the add to cart link once you are registered and logged in . home : : register : : faq : : login browse all : : album list : : last uploads : : last comments : : most viewed : : most downloaded : : top rated : : lightbox : : advanced search\nbrowser sidebar for easier navigation and searching . library guide - contains a list of instructions on navigating , uploading and downloading files . ian symbol libraries - download all ( or a custom set ) of the vector illustrations in our image library ."]}
{"id": 1524, "summary": [{"text": "xenia is a genus of photosynthetic soft marine coral resembling a mushroom , with \" arms \" coming out from the top that end in many-fingered \" hands \" .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is unique among corals because of its ability to use its \" hands \" to \" pulse \" or push water away from the colony in a constant , grabbing motion .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "common names include : xenia elongata , fast-pulse xenia , xenia is sometimes referred to a pulse corals . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "xenia ( genus )", "paragraphs": ["genus has been propagated in captivity , and acquiring these types of specimens is a good idea , since they are hardier than their wild counterparts . some aquacultured names are white pom pom xenia , silver branch pumping xenia , and blue xenia .\nstudies in the genus , typha : i . metaxenia , xenia , and heterosis . ii . i\nby leland c . marsh\npink & white redsea xenia ( umballata ) - the fastest pulsating of all xenia species . silver / green pumping xenia ( elongata ) - extremely fast pulsing , grows fast . waving hand pom pom xenia - so named for it ' s arm - like stalk , topped by a pom pom like top .\nspecies to the new genus . those assignments were made based on examination of type colonies of\nxenia is a genus of photosynthetic soft marine coral resembling a mushroom , with\narms\ncoming out from the top that end in many - fingered\nhands\n.\ni saw this soft coral colony , of the genus xenia , in the egyptian red sea ; each many tentacled polyp feeding at the end of a smooth unbranched stalk .\nthree new xenicane diterpenoids , xeniaol , xeniadiol and xeniatriol , were isolated from the okinawan soft coral of the genus , xenia . their structures were elucidated by spectroscopic analysis .\nxenia nana ; benayahu 1990 : 117\u2013118 , fig . 3 , table 1 .\ngenus was described by lamarck in 1816 . there are over 60 species , and a few are\na revision of the octocoral genus ovabunda alderslade , 2001 ( anthozoa , octocorallia , xeniidae ) .\n. some common names these corals are know for are pulse coral , red sea xenia , pulsing xenia , encrusting coral , pom pom coral , and bouquet encrusting coral .\nlist of xenia type material examined during the current study along with corresponding museum numbers .\nxenia ainex reinicke , 1997 : 45\u201348 , figs 19a\u2013b , plates 6 , 26 .\nxenia hamsina reinicke , 1997 : 49 - 50 ; figs 20a\u2013b , plate 30 .\na new genus of a soft coral of the family xeniidae ( cnidaria : octocorallia ) from japan .\na new genus of nephtheid soft corals ( octocorallia : alcyonacea : nephtheidae from the indo - pacific .\nthe structure of xenia hicksoni nov . sp . with some observations on heteroxenia elizabethae k\u00f6lliker .\na revision of the octocoral genus ovabunda ( alderslade , 2001 ) ( anthozoa , octocorallia , xeniidae ) .\nxenia crista reinicke , 1997 : 38 , figs 16a\u2013b , plate 23 , syn . n .\nxenia crenata reinicke , 1997 : 41\u201342 , figs 3c , 15 ; plates 5 , 25 .\nstudies in the genus , typha : i . metaxenia , xenia , and heterosis . ii . interspecific hybridization and the origin of typha glauca . iii . autecology , with special reference to the role of aerenchyma\nwhile retaining those with the dendritic surface in the original genus . consequently , he assigned seven of the originally described\nxenia arabica reinicke , 1995 : 37 , figs 47\u201349 ; 1997 : 36 , fig . 14 .\nxenia miniata reinicke , 1997 : 39\u201340 figs 17a - b , plate 24 , syn . n .\nxeniidae ( coelenterata : octocorallia ) of the red sea with descriptions of six new species of xenia .\na revision of the octocoral genus ovabunda alderslade , 2001 ( anthozoa , octocorallia , xeniidae ) . - pubmed - ncbi\na new species of the genus anthelia ( octocorallia : alcyonacea ) from the gulf of aqaba ( red sea ) .\nmost xeniids feature a high density of sclerites in all parts of the colony , such as members of the genera asterospicularia utinomi , 1951 ; sansibia alderslade , 2000 ( see fabricius and alderslade 2001 ) and xenia including xenia blumi schenk , 1896 ; xenia garciae bourne , 1894 ( see gohar 1940 ) and xenia benayahui reinicke , 1995 ( see reinicke 1997 ) ; while other species have no sclerites or only a few ( e . g . , xenia hicksoni ashworth , 1899 and heteroxenia ghardaqensis gohar , 1940 ) .\nreinicke ( 1997 ) noted under the description of xenia obscuronata ( p . 33 ) : \u201cnec xenia ternatana ; k\u00fckenthal 1913 : 8 ( in part ) \u201d . the type of xenia ternatana was examined during the present study and its features do not agree with those of ovabunda obscuronata . xenia ternatana features platelets composed of dendritic rods , measuring up to 0 . 022 mm in maximal diameter . it should be noted that the description of xenia ternatana by k\u00fckenthal also does not correspond to the features of ovabunda obscuronata .\nthe frugal reefer , you can mass produce xenia for trade or sale , garf . org , referenced 2010\nxeniidae ( coelenterata : octocorallia ) of the red sea , with descriptions of six new species of xenia .\nreinicke ( 1997 ) noted under the species xenia ainex n . sp . ( p . 44 ) : \u201cnec xenia ternatana ; k\u00fckenthal 1913 : 8 ( partim . nhmw 2250 ) \u201d and \u201c xenia crassa ; reinicke 1995 : 43 , fig . 32\u201d . the description of xenia ternatana given by k\u00fckenthal ( 1913 ) indicated two rows of pinnules , with 18 pinnules on average , and sclerites measuring 0 . 017 mm in diameter , thus differing from the features of ovabunda ainex ( see above ) . the nhmw 2250 specimen of xenia ternatana was examined and found to match ovabunda ainex , as stated by reinicke ( 1997 ) . xenia crassa was suggested to be a synonym of ovabunda ainex ( reinicke 1997 ) . the current examination of the types of xenia crassa and xenia ternatana indicates that their sclerites distinctly differ from those of ovabunda ainex , and thus those species\u2019 original generic assignment should be retained .\nsclerites reveal the morphological features of the sclerites , composed of corpuscular microscleres that are diagnostic for that genus . the current findings reveal that\non the structure and affinities of heliopora coerulea , pallas . with some observations on the structure of xenia and heteroxenia .\none of the attractive white xeniids known as\npom - pom\nxenia , or\nxenia umbellata ,\nthis variety can be adaptable but fares best under moderate to bright illumination ( with slow acclimatization ) . photo courtesy of greg rothschild .\nxenia verseveldti benayahu , 1990 : 115\u2013116 , fig . 2 , table 1 ; reinicke 1997 : 29\u201330 , plate 16 .\n* alderslade established a new and similar looking genus , sansibia in 2000 . data on this genus is presently limited , but some pictures of sansibia look grossly similar to xeniid varieties known from the aquarium trade . sansibia is noted as having high concentrations of zooxanthellae and occurring in turbid waters .\n) , including sem of their sclerites , has furnished the required data for revision of that genus ( hal\u00e1szet al . in prep . ) .\nxenia benayahui reinicke , 1995 : 26\u201327 , figs 1c , 15 ; 1997 : 29 , fig . 12 , plate 16 .\na study of the xeniidae ( octocorallia , alcyonacea ) collected on the \u201ctyro\u201d expedition to the seychelles with a description of a new genus and species .\nxenia macrospiculata gohar , 1940 : 96\u201398 ; benayahu 1990 table 1 listed only ; reinicke 1997 : 42 , plates 1\u20133 , 29 .\njanes ( 2008 ) described ovabunda hamsina from the seychelles and the current findings confirm the assignment of ovabunda hamsina to the genus ovabunda based on sclerite microstructure .\nalderslade , 2001 , following examination of relevant type material . examination of the types has confirmed the previous assignment of the following four species to this genus :\na new genus of soft coral of the family alcyoniidae ( cnidaria , octocorallia ) with re - description of a new combination and description of a new species .\nmarsh , leland c . ,\nstudies in the genus , typha : i . metaxenia , xenia , and heterosis . ii . interspecific hybridization and the origin of typha glauca . iii . autecology , with special reference to the role of aerenchyma\n( 1962 ) . biology : dissertations . 66 . urltoken\nxenia biseriata verseveldt & cohen , 1971 : 60 , table 1 ; benayahu 1990 table 1 listed only ; reinicke 1997 : 33 , plate 20 .\noctocorals ( cnidaria , anthozoa ) from reunion , with a description of two new species of the genus sinularia may , 1898 and notes on the occurrence of other species .\nfatty acid , lipid class , and phospholipid molecular species composition of the soft coral xenia sp . ( nha trang bay , the south china sea , vietnam ) .\nhere we describe a new species of ovabunda from recent collections in the andaman sea . additionally , we report the first record of this genus outside of the eastern indian ocean and red sea .\nbenayahu y , loya y . ( 1985 ) settlement and recruitment of a soft coral : why is xenia macrospiculata a successful colonizer ? bulletin of marine science 36 : 177\u2013188 .\ngenus tend to grow on vertical surfaces in the wild . they are found at depths of 0 to 30 feet ( 0 - 9 m ) in bright light , and are exposed to tidal conditions .\nxenia impulsatilla verseveldt & cohen , 1971 : 59\u201360 , table 1 ; verseveldt 1974 : 2 listed only ; benayahu 1990 , listed only ; reinicke 1997 : 32 , plate 19 .\nfatty acid , lipid class , and phospholipid molecular species composition of the soft coral xenia sp . ( nha trang bay , the south china sea , vietnam ) . - pubmed - ncbi\n. the tiny xenia crab is usually found in pairs at night , on top of the closed heads , and it slowly eats the pulse coral away . polychaete worms can also chew at your\nbaba , k . ( 1991 ) taxonomical study on some species of the genus phyllodesmium from cape muroto - misaki , shikoku and okinawa province , southern japan ( nudibranchia : facelinidae ) . venus , 50 , 109\u2013123 .\nrudman , w . b . ( 1991 ) further studies on the taxonomy and biology of the octocoral - feeding genus phyllodesmium ehrenberg , 1831 ( nudibranchia , aeolidacea ) . journal of molluscan studies , 57 , 167\u2013203 .\ngenus is susceptible to stress from shipping and they do not travel well . when stressed they produce lots of mucous . this production of mucous attracts bacteria , and being trapped in the shipping bag causes the bacteria to consume the\n) and , therefore , the species should be reassigned to that genus . sclerite sizes given for the holotype and paratype in the original description exceed those obtained by us , as follows : holotype 0 . 043\u20130 . 053 mm\nscanning electron micrographs of polyp sclerites of xenia miniata reinicke , 1997 holotype ( rmnh coel . 23514 ) . a regular sclerites b pear - shaped sclerite c fused sclerites . scale bar 10 \u00b5m .\nboth the original description of xenia crista and the current examination revealed two rows of pinnules ; however , we found 22\u201330 pinnules in the holotype and 26\u201329 in the paratypes , compared to 29\u201333 and 28\u201332 , respectively , in the original description . the taxonomic features of xenia crista overlap those of ovabunda arabica and , therefore , they should be considered as synonyms , giving an alphabetical priority to ovabunda arabica .\nscanning electron micrographs of polyp sclerites of xenia crista reinicke , 1997 holotype ( rmnh 18677 ) . a regular sclerites b\u2013c fused sclerites d white rectangle in c indicates magnified area . scale bar 10 \u00b5m .\nthis fast - pulse xenia is commonly called\nxenia elongata ,\nand ranges from being a long - stemmed and dark brown variety in lower light , to lighter bodied and more compact forms under brighter light , as seen here . while the validity or accuracy of nomenclature for xeniids may be unclear in the hobby , our fascination and love for these magnificent corals is not . photo by anthony calfo .\nxenia obscuronata verseveldt & cohen , 1971 : 60 , table 1 , fig 10 ; benayahu 1990 table 1 listed only ; reinicke 1997 : 33 , 35 , plates 2 , 4 , 7 , 21 .\nxenia faraunensis verseveldt & cohen , 1971 : 62 , table 1 ; benayahu 1990 table 1 listed only ; reinicke 1997 : 35 , figs 3b , 9a - b , plates 2 - 4 , 7 , 22 .\nthe xenia we ship you is many generations aquacultured . this is very important since aquacultured xenia are hardier than wild - collected specimens and are without the potential to carry sea born infections , or disease to your tank . they have lived there entire life under aquarium lighting and with aquarium type water flow and movement . a fast growing coral , provide adequate space between them and other types of soft corals . care level : moderate temperature : 77 - 83\u00b0f\nthe pulse coral is one of the most sought after of the xenia genus ! they are either very easy or very difficult and no one knows why ! one of my tanks killed them and another tank they flourished ! the movement of the tentacles makes them appear to be\nclapping\nand in certain conditions can almost spread and become plague like ! many put them on equipment to help hide pump inlets , etc . small additions of iodine are okay , but too much can melt them !\ngenus is susceptible to a periodic die off that seems to coincide with lunar events . clipping the tips of a dying colony and letting them settle on their own may help preserve some colonies . also watch out for a little nasty crab that assumes the color of the\n) . undoubtedly , when measuring sclerites under a light microscope , the existence of both individual spheroids and fused ones should be taken into account . the occurrence of fused sclerites and their significance to the taxonomy of the genus and other xeniid genera should be further examined .\nhal\u00e1sz , a . , c . s . mcfadden , d . aharonovich , r . toonen & y . benayahu , 2014 . a revision of the octocoral genus ovabunda alderslade , 2001 ( anthozoa , octocorallia , xeniidae ) . zookeys 373 : 1\u201341 . [ details ]\nhal\u00e1sz a , mcfadden cs , aharonovich d , toonen r , benayahu y ( 2014 ) a revision of the octocoral genus ovabunda alderslade , 2001 ( anthozoa , octocorallia , xeniidae ) . zookeys 373 : 1\u201341 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 373 . 6511\njanes mp , mcfadden cs , chanmethakul t ( 2014 ) a new species of ovabunda ( octocorallia , xeniidae ) from the andaman sea , thailand with notes on the biogeography of this genus . zookeys 431 : 1\u201317 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 431 . 7751\ngenus is non - aggressive as far as stinging or affecting nearby corals . they do not do as well in tanks with low nutrient levels , such as for small polyp stony corals sps and other corals that need a more pristine environment , yet they will not harm these corals chemically . the\nthis attractive and fast - pulsing xennid is commonly called\nsilver - tip\nor\nblue\nxenia for its magnificent tendency to brighten with strong blue - green color when kept under cool colored lamps ( 10 - 20k kelvin ) . photos courtesy of james fatherree .\na survey of xeniid octocorals was carried out in the waters off southwestern thailand in september , 2007 . microscopic investigation of the colonies revealed that three specimens belonged to the genus ovabunda . gross morphological examination is presented here accompanied by scanning electron micrographs of the sclerites . molecular phylogenetic analysis showed identical genotypes at mtmuts , coi , and 28s rdna for all three specimens and supports their generic assignment . colony size and shape , sclerite size , and pinnule arrangement differ from nominal species of ovabunda and thus a new species , o . andamanensis is introduced here . this work also presents a new eastern geographical record for the genus ovabunda .\npulsate , but the species that do will generally pulse about 8 times per minute , yet there can be quite a variation in the strength and speed of the pulsing action . xenia can live from 1 to 7 years , with 3 - 7 being most common in captivity .\ngenus have unbranched stalks that are short , thick and smooth , from which the polyps arise . they can be cream , white brown , ivory and light green . the color is uniform with just a little contrast between the stalks and polyps . the polyps can contract considerably but do not retract inside the coral . not all\nas referenced in this paper , the x . elongata has beautiful contrasting polyps and tentacles . they are one of the more sought after because of this . check your new xenia for xenid craps which will come out at night and look just like the polyps that they sit on top of and eat !\n, were also recorded in the west indian ocean ( e . g . , madagascar and the seychelles ) . the possibility that the genus has a wider distributional range is not excluded , and remains to be confirmed by re - examination of already collected material deposited in various collections , or of freshly collected material from throughout the indo - pacific basin .\nthe paratype of xenia crista ( rmnh coel . 18678 ) features tentacles with two rows of pinnules and 26\u201329 pinnules in the outermost row . the sclerites are ovabunda - type , 0 . 025\u20130 . 036 mm in maximal diameter . the original description of the species indicated non - pulsating polyps in live colonies .\nholotype : rmnh coel . 23538 , sudanese red sea , sanganeb atoll , 20 km off port sudan , s - slope near jetty ( 19\u00b021 ' 33 . 81\nn , 37\u00b019 ' 37 . 66\ne ) , 10 m , april 1991 , coll . g . b . reinicke ; additional material : rmnh coel . 23517 , sudanese red sea , sanganeb atoll , lagoon slope , tq ii station , 8 m , march 1991 , coll . g . b . reinicke ; type of xenia viridis smf 42 , indonesia , ternate island , 1894 , coll . k\u00fckenthal ; type of xenia blumi smf 44 , indonesia , ternate island , 1894 , coll . k\u00fckenthal .\ngenus . doing water changes of 20 % a month or 10 % biweekly is needed , although it is suggested that doing 5 % water changes once a week will replenish many of the needed additives . soft corals still need to have proper chemical levels for proper growth . adding trace elements helps to keep those nutrients in the water which benefit them . maintain ph at least at 8 . 3 .\namong species of xenia , xenia puerto - galerae roxas , 1933 most closely resembles ovabunda andamanensis sp . n . the holotype is described by roxas ( 1933 ) as branched , measuring 20 . 0 mm tall and 8 . 0 mm in diameter with polyps comprised of thick tentacles that are proportionately small and \u201ctwo rows of slender pointed pinnules , fifteen to seventeen in a row\u201d . the tentacles are 8 . 0 mm long by 1 . 0 mm wide at the base and pinnules measure 0 . 7 to 0 . 8 mm long by 0 . 2 to 0 . 3 mm wide . however , in the colony with two rows ( pmbc 11862 ) in ovabunda andamanensis sp . n . , the stalks are smaller , 8 . 0 mm by 5 . 0 mm , the tentacles are narrower , 8 . 0 mm by 0 . 2 mm , the pinnules are smaller , 0 . 2 to 0 . 3 mm by 0 . 1 mm , and there are fewer pinnules ( 13 to 14 ) . most notable are the sclerites , which are described as \u201cthin , oval discs 0 . 018 mm long and 0 . 018 to 0 . 0124 mm wide\u201d in xenia puerto - galerae compared to the 0 . 010 to 0 . 018 mm in diameter sphere shaped sclerites observed in ovabunda andamanensis sp . n . unfortunately , the location of the holotype of xenia puerto - galerae remains unknown so a direct sem comparison of the sclerites could not be performed .\neven this tiny fragment of cespitularia has begun to show its telltale irridescent glimmer as light is reflected off of tiny sclerites . with strong vho blue or 20k kelvin radium lamps , for example , they often turn a stunning solid blue color - hence the legendary name\nblue xenia .\nthey are one of the most highly sought after of all xeniids . photo by anthony calfo .\none of the most amazing things about most xeniids is their remarkable range of reproductive strategies . a new colony can be formed from fragments as small as a single pinnule ! infected xenia with necrotic stalks and captitulums (\ncrowns\n) can still be salvaged by snipping off tentacles , and even the feathery pinnules , to start new colonies elsewhere . photo courtesy of amy larsan ( tippytoex ) .\ngenus have unbranched stalks that are short , thick and smooth , from which the polyps arise . these stalks can have small oval sclerites , depending on the species . sclerites are small calcareous bodies that can help support soft corals . the polyps do not retract inside the coral , but can contract considerably . they can be cream , white brown , ivory and light green and the color is uniform with just a little contrast between the stalks and polyps .\nholotype : huj i co . 84 northern red sea , gulf of aqaba , near solar pond ( sinai ) , ( 29\u00b025 ' 44 . 43\nn , 34\u00b049 ' 50 . 31\ne ) , 2 m , 15 august 1969 , coll . y . cohen . eight colonies on a sponge , one of them is the holotype . additional material : the holotype of xenia miniata : rmnh coel . 23514 , sudanese red sea , sanganeb atoll , 20 km off port sudan , w - slope , tq iv , ( 19\u00b021 ' 33 . 81\nn , 37\u00b019 ' 37 . 66\ne ) , 12 m , march 1991 ; paratypes of xenia miniata : rmnh coel 25412 , rmnh coel 25413 , details as above , rmnh coel . 25411 , same location , sw - corner slope , tq i , 12 m , march 1991 , coll . g . b . reinicke ; rmnh coel . 6848 , northern red sea , gulf of suez , el tur ( 28\u00b014 ' 10 . 99\nn , 33\u00b036 ' 51 . 06\ne ) , 6 july 1969 , coll . l . fishelson ; rmnh coel . 6847 , same details ; rmnh coel . 8938 , same details , abu durbah ( 28\u00b028 ' 27 . 56\nn , 33\u00b019 ' 30 . 13\ne ) ; the holotype of ovabunda aldersladei rmnh coel . 38681 , indian ocean , seychelles , northern coast of bird island ( 03\u00b042 ' s , 55\u00b012 ' e ) , < 30 m , 21 december 1992 , tyro expedition ; type of xenia ternatana smf 43 , indonesia , ternate island , 1894 , coll . k\u00fckenthal ; type of xenia garciae bml 1921 . 11 . 18 . 1 , indian ocean , chagos archipelago , coll . diego garcia ; rmnh coel . 8938 red sea , gulf of suez , abu zanima ; rmnh coel . 6847 , red sea , gulf of suez , el tur , 6 july 1969 , coll . l . fishelson ; rmnh coel . 6848 , same location , misidentified as xenia miniata\nholotype : rmnh coel . 23539 , sudanese red sea , sanganeb atoll , 20 km off port sudan , southern - slope near jetty ( 19\u00b021 ' 33 . 81\nn , 37\u00b019 ' 37 . 66\ne ) , 6 m , april 1991 , coll . g . b . reinicke ; paratype : rmnh coel . 23540 , same location , 5 m s - jetty , october 1992 , coll . g . b . reinicke ; additional material : rmnh coel . 23535 , red sea , gulf of aqaba , aqaba , saudi arabian border bay ( 29\u00b021 ' 37 . 31\nn , 34\u00b057 ' 39 . 48\ne ) , october 1989 , coll . g . b . reinicke ; nhmw 2250 , saudi arabia ; holotype of xenia crassa smf 39 , indonesia , ternate island , 1894 , coll . k\u00fckenthal ; holotype of xenia ternatana smf 43 , indonesia , ternate island , 1894 , coll . k\u00fckenthal .\ngenus reach sexual maturity within one year , and have several methods of reproduction . they will reproduce naturally in captivity by longitudinal fission , notably several times a month once the colony is mature . they will also use budding as another way of reproducing , or pinnitomy ( pinnules falling from the polyps and attaching to the substrate to start new colonies ) . some aquarists have actually snipped off individual polyps from the cap of dying colonies , and found that they will settle elsewhere in the aquarium and start new colonies . some species will expel brooded planulae ( free - swimming larvae ) in some captive environments .\nholotype and five paratypes : huj i co . 72 , northern red sea , gulf of aqaba , marsa murach ( 29\u00b025 ' 34 . 44\nn , 34\u00b050 ' 10 . 46\ne ) , 1\u20134 m , 15 september 1969 , coll . y . cohen ; holotype of ovabunda obscuronata huj i co . 120 , northern red sea , gulf of aqaba , ras el muqebla ( 29\u00b024 ' 1 . 20\nn , 34\u00b048 ' 41 . 99\ne ) , 12 m , 16 august 1971 , coll . y . cohen ; holotype of xenia ternatana smf 43 , indonesia , ternate island , 1894 , coll . k\u00fckenthal .\nholotype : rmnh coel . 18673 , northern red sea , gulf of aqaba , saudi arabian border bay , 20 km south of aqaba ( 29\u00b021 ' 37 . 31\nn , 34\u00b057 ' 39 . 48\ne ) , 15 m , 12 november 1991 , coll . g . b . reinicke . paratypes : rmnh coel . 18675 , northern red sea , gulf of aqaba , nature reserve ( aqaba ) , marine science station ( mss ) , 10 km south of aqaba ( 29\u00b027 ' 27 . 33\nn , 34\u00b058 ' 24 . 19\ne ) , 15 m , 4 november 1991 , coll . g . b . reinicke ; rmnh coel . 18676 , location as above , 12 m , 5 november 1991 , coll . g . b . reinicke ; additional material : holotype of xenia crista rmnh coel . 18677 , northern red sea , gulf of aqaba , nature reserve ( aqaba ) , marine science station ( mss ) , 10 km south of aqaba ( 29\u00b027 ' 27 . 33\nn , 34\u00b058 ' 24 . 19\ne ) , 12 m , october 1989 , coll . g . b . reinicke ; paratype of xenia crista rmnh coel . 18678 , location as above , 15 m , october 1990 , coll . g . b . reinicke .\ncould this be sansibia ? many odd little soft corals are acquired as incidental growths on rock and with other collected invertebrates . wishful aquarists like myself retreat to the scientific and hobby literature to try to find a name for such surprise guests . identification by image alone , however , is impractical and unrealistic for most any coral - to the genus level , let alone species . i think i can hear my dear friend eric borneman weeping in a corner as i declare that this must be sansibia because i just bought a new book with a picture that looks just like it ! and for our next trick , lets rename all of the acroporids in our tanks because charlie veron came out with a new book series , shall we ? photo by anthony calfo .\nre - examination and appropriate re - descriptions of octocoral type material , as conducted in the current study , is highly important in an era of molecular phylogeny and increasing phylogeographic studies , despite the difficulty or inability to extract dna from the types themselves . this kind of comprehensive study based mainly on type material is a critical first step in the process of understanding phylogenetic relationships among species and genera , and their ecology . due to similar morphologies in the case of xenia and ovabunda , further analysis is needed in order to reveal their radiation , especially in regions where they have a sympatric distribution . there is also a need to validate the current ovabunda species , through an integrated taxonomic effort , combining molecular genetic evidence of species boundaries , ecological , and reproductive differences .\nat the time of examination the holotype was dry , and therefore precise dimensions of the pinnules could not be obtained . the original description ( verseveldt and cohen 1971 : 62 ) indicated that : \u201cthe colony is 25 mm high . the stem is 15 mm high and 5\u20136 mm wide at the base , then narrows to 3\u20134 mm and widens again to 7 mm or more at the beginning of the polyparium . the anthocodiae are up to 10 mm long . . . the tentacles are 5\u20136 . 5 mm long\u201d . it is evident that the dimensions of the dried holotype are smaller than those of the original . the other features of the holotype recorded correspond to the original description , including two rows of pinnules , 17\u201324 pinnules in the outermost row , and sclerite diameter up to 0 . 044 mm ( vs . 17\u201323 and 0 . 042 mm , in the original description ) . reinicke ( 1997 ) presented a sem micrograph of a single sclerite of ovabunda faraunensis which later led alderslade ( 2001 ) to assign it to the genus ovabunda .\nxenia macrospiculata was originally described by gohar ( 1940 ) from ghardaqa , egyptian red sea , as having pulsating tentacles , bearing three , occasionally two , rows of pinnules , with 12\u201316 pinnules in the outermost row ( and 10\u201314 pinnules on the middle row , 0\u201310 on the oral one ) . that study did not indicate the museum in which the type was deposited . the last author of the current study searched in the museums listed in the methods and found no trace of it ; over time this type was probably lost . the designation of a neotype in this revision is thus necessary . the purpose of the designation is to clarify the species\u2019 taxonomic status and its assignment to ovabunda . although the sclerites were described quite accurately in the original description ( 0 . 024\u20130 . 036 mm in diameter , and \u201cspicules fused in pairs\u201d ) , sem micrographs of the sclerites are essential as in the other species of the revision .\nwe also examined additional colonies that were identified by reinicke ( 1997 ) as xenia miniata . specimen rmnh coel . 6848 has two rows of pinnules , with 12\u201314 pinnules in the outermost row ; its sclerites are ovabunda - type , reaching up to 0 . 051 mm in maximal diameter . based on sclerite size , number of pinnule rows and number of pinnules in the outermost row , this specimen should be reassigned to ovabunda biseriata . specimen rmnh coel . 6847 has two rows of pinnules , with 10\u201311 pinnules in the outermost row ; and its sclerites are also of the ovabunda - type , reaching up to 0 . 045 mm in maximal diameter . rmnh coel . 8938 has two rows of pinnules , but with only 8\u20139 in the outermost row ; its sclerites are ovabunda - type , reaching up to 0 . 047 mm in maximal diameter . based on the number of rows of pinnules on the tentacles , the number of pinnules in the outermost row , and the size and microstructure of sclerites , the latter two colonies also belong to ovabunda impulsatilla .\nholotype : rmnh coel . 23904 , sudanese red sea , sanganeb atoll , off port sudan , reef flat ( 19\u00b021 ' 33 . 81\nn , 37\u00b019 ' 37 . 66\ne ) , 6 april 1991 , coll . g . b . reinicke ; paratypes : rmnh coel . 23902 , same data as above , april 1991 ; rmnh coel . 25906 , same locality sw corner , 15 m ; rmnh coel . 23553 , sudanese red sea , sanganeb atoll , lagoon slope near tq ii , 12 m , october 1992 , coll . g . b . reinicke ; additional material : rmnh coel . 23552 , same locality , w - slope , tq iv , 12 m , april 1991 , coll . g . b . reinicke ; rmnh coel . 25903 , same locality , se corner , reef flat ; rmnh coel . 25905 sw corner , 15 m ; rmnh coel . 23907 , near southern jetty , 10 m ; all april 1991 , all coll . g . b . reinicke ; rmnh coel . 23908 , indian ocean , madagascar , 1960 , coll . m . cherbounier , mnhn oct . a . 1993 . 16 ; holotype of xenia grasshoffi smf 2616 , northern red sea , gulf of aqaba , elat , 1 january 1968 , coll . grasshoff m .\ncordeiro , r . ; van ofwegen , l . ; williams , g . ( 2018 ) . world list of octocorallia .\nbenayahu , y ( 1993 ) . corals of the south - west indian ocean . i . alcyonacea from sodwana bay , south africa . oceanographic research institute , investigational report no . 67 . 16 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nfabricius , k . & p . alderslade , 2001 . soft corals & sea fans : a comprehensive guide to the tropical shallow water genera of the central - west pacific , the indian ocean and the red sea . australian institute of marine science , pp . i - vii + 1 - 264 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwe ' ve sent an email to please follow the instructions to reset your password .\nenter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .\nif is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .\nmini reef aquarium guide . reef aquarium setup for large reef tanks , nano reef tanks , pico reef or micro reef aquariums with reef tank lighting , filtration , choosing coral reef animals , and problem solving !\nsetting up a saltwater aquarium . guide to marine supplies , putting the aquarium together , cycling the aquarium water and adding fish !\nenter your freshwater aquarium enter parameters for your freshwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nenter your saltwater aquarium enter parameters for your saltwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nfish finder search our database for compatible pets ! enter characteristics of what you are looking for and find them instantly .\ndr . jungle ' s pets and animal speak - newsletter featured pet of the week and more . . .\ni ' d love to give your clam a new house . i have 110g reef tank set up 25 hrs . he ' d love it !\ni would like to purchase a quantity of aiptasia for my berghia nudibranch . if you have some available , please respond . bobtc100 @ urltoken\nare some of the most endearing corals , and are highly favored by reef enthusiasts . with their pulsing heads and the gentle waving of their polyps in the water , they produce an almost mesmerizing affect to the viewer . since they tend to grow in the direction of the water flow that they are near , you can get them to grow where you want in the reef tank . getting them to grow up the back wall of the aquarium makes for an interesting display .\npulsate , but the species that do will generally pulse about 8 times per minute , yet there can be quite a variation in the strength and speed of the pulsing action .\ncorals pulse . many experts and aquarists attribute a variety of reasons for the pulsing phenomena . one thought is that they are pulsating to help with respiration and gas exchange . water chemistry also plays a role in their pulsing , along with lighting and current , just what combination is hard to tell . they are sensitive to falling or low ph and will stop pulsing when the ph is below 8 . 3 . adding small amounts of carbon will take some organics out of the water . some aquarists have found this to induce the polyps to pulse , as if the coral is trying to try pull more nutrients from the water . supplements of iodine are also suggested by some , but with caution as lugol ' s has been found to be detrimental to some\ncorals are not the only pulsing corals . the xeniidae family itself is considered unique in the coral world because of this ability . from this family , at least five other genera will pulse . some of those common to aquarists include the pom pom zenias of the\ncorals form an encrusting mat and their cylindrical polyps grow directly from that base .\npolyps rise from a capitulum ( top of the stalk ) forming small colonies that are only a few inches tall ( up to 4\n) .\ncan be easy to care for , depending on proper handling procedures . if you need to handle them , do so very briefly and with gloved fingers . when handled they stress and produce lots of mucous , which in turn attracts bacteria , leading to death . this is also the reason they do not travel well . this production of mucous attracts bacteria , and being trapped in the shipping bag causes the bacteria to consume the\n. though their primary difficulty is in shipping , once established in the aquarium they can be very hardy and are one of the fastest corals to multiply .\nxeniids have been found growing in water polluted by pipes of hotels and resorts . they are almost like an aquatic weed . they are the first to form colonies on a reef area and can\nwalk\nwith attachment and detachment of their stalks and branches . in the wake of their\nwalk\nthey will encrust over other living corals and plants .\nthe stalk has a grouping of feathery polyps at the end , with each polyp having a 1\nto 2\nlong stem . their tentacles are pinnate , or feathering to different degrees , depending on the species . deep water species have thinner tentacles and pinnules , and shallower species are thicker with more robust attributes . for example ,\npolyps rise from a capitulum ( top of the stalk ) and form small colonies that are only a few inches tall ( up to 4\n) .\ncan be easy to care for , depending on proper handling procedures . if you need to handle them , do so very briefly and with gloved fingers . when handled they stress and produce lots of mucous , which in turn attracts bacteria , leading to death . though their primary care difficulty is in shipping , once established in the aquarium they are can be very hardy and are one of the fastest corals to multiply .\ncorals have developed several feeding strategies . they can absorb dissolved organic matter , some species capture microscopic food particles from the water column , and they have a symbiotic relationship with a marine algae known as zooxanthellae , where they also receive some of their nutrients .\nin captivity target feeding is pretty much pointless , and stocking enough fish as a source of dissolved organics is all you need . tanks without fish need a mature sand that can be stirred to get the organics in the the water column . some have stated micro zooplankton may be added if desired .\nsome have indicated the use of iodine , yet use sparingly and do not exceed manufacturers suggested doses . it is suggested to only use 1 / 2 the dosage amount as you start off with your new colony , and then increase it slowly over time as the colony becomes established . one way you can gauge the amount is by watching the development of brown algae , diatoms . established , well maintained aquariums only need the glass scraped free of brown algae about once a week or even longer . too much iodine is indicated by excessive algae growth .\n1200 - 1350 ppm . ( magnesium makes calcium available , so if your calcium is low , check your magnesium levels before adding any more calcium . )\na typical live rock / reef environment is what is needed for your pulse coral , along with some fish for organic matter production . attach the pulse coral to a hard substrate once introduced to the tank .\ncorals like a moderate to high , and turbid water flow . they grow fast under metal halides and high intensity t5 bulbs and similar bulbs . if the tank is shallower than 18\n, even standard output fluorescent lighting can be used . if the levels are not high enough in the lighting scheme you have , or you need new bulbs , some xeniids will change color or increase in size . this deepening color change is from the coral actually cultivating more zooxanthellae to catch the lowered light levels . the\nif your xeniid is starved for light , it will expand and extend its stalks to try and get more light . this can give the aquarist the illusion of health , when in fact this is a good indication that your lighting is deficient .\nleather corals seem to help xeniids flourish , though this is not entirely understood .\ncorals can move , and will actually\nclimb\nup to areas where there is more light if they need to . make sure no corals are around that can be\ngrown\nover .\ncan also ' walk ' to split a colony , leaving a trail of tissue that will start into a new colony .\nin captivity , be sure to use gloves and be aware that your pulse coral will stink once you pull it from the water . stalked\nshould be cut longitudinally between the branches and affixed to a solid surface with a rubber band or reef glue . because they are so fast growing , some reef farmers allow the\nto grow over netting . they then cut those into small frags and use reef glue to affix them to plugs or rock . the product , seachem ' s reef plus , has been suggested to add to the tank at 3 to 6 times the recommended dosage to help with healing frags .\ncan be shipped dry for short distances ( less than 12 hours on average and not in extreme weather ) since this will help with keeping the bacteria level down from the mucous they produce . they will produce a mucous layer to protect themselves from the air ( just like in the wild during low tide ) , but the benefit is that they do not suffer from fouled shipping water .\n. ( in extreme temperatures , very hot or very cold , submerging them in water would be better , rather than dry shipping . )\nsuspend the coral in the shipping container to prevent it from hitting the sides of the package , and prevent it from coming in contact with the small amount of water at the bottom . suspend the\nwhen acclimating them , match the water parameters of your tank to those from where they were shipped .\nthey will shed the mucous they accumulated when placed in the new tank ( just as if the tide had come back ) , so must be exposed to strong water movement to help them recover .\nis very easy to find pet shops and on line . online they can run about $ 20 . 00 to $ 50 . 00 usd and up , depending on size and / or color .\ni ' m looking to buy a variety of pulsating xenias , pom poms and others i have about 200 dollars to spend please help .\ncopyright \u00a9 [ animal - world ] 1998 - 2015 . all rights reserved .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\npresent address : school of life science , tokyo university of pharmacy and life science .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nhal\u00e1sz a 1 , mcfadden cs 2 , aharonovich d 1 , toonen r 3 , benayahu y 1 .\ndepartment of zoology , george s . wise faculty of life sciences , tel aviv university , ramat aviv , tel aviv 69978 , israel .\ndepartment of biology , harvey mudd college , 1250 n . dartmouth ave . , claremont , ca 91711 , usa .\nhawai ' i institute of marine biology , university of hawaii at manoa , 46 - 007 lilipuna road , kane ' ohe , hi 96744 , usa .\npmid : 24493958 pmcid : pmc3909805 doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 373 . 6511\nillustration of colony dimensions . a colony height b stalk length c stalk width at base d stalk width at uppermost part . illustration adopted from .\nillustration of polyp dimensions . a pinnule width at its base b gap between adjacent pinnules ; asterisk indicates magnified area . illustration adopted from encyclopedia britannica , 11th edition , volume 3 urltoken @ 34018 @ 34018 - h @ 34018 - h - 7 . htm ) .\nscanning electron micrographs of polyp sclerites of ovabunda ainex ( reinicke , 1997 ) paratype ( rmnh coel . 23540 ) . a regular sclerites b fused sclerites c irregular sclerite . arrows indicate surface dents . scale bar : 10 \u00b5m .\nscanning electron micrographs of polyp sclerites of ovabunda arabica ( reinicke , 1995 ) paratype ( rmnh coel . 18675 ) . a regular sclerites b fused sclerites c pear - shaped sclerite . arrow indicates surface irregularity , might represent the fusion area of two individual sclerites . scale bar 10 \u00b5m .\nscanning electron micrographs of polyp sclerites of ovabunda benayahui ( reinicke , 1995 ) holotype ( rmnh coel . 19664 ) . a regular sclerites b fused sclerite . arrows indicate surface dents . scale bar 10 \u00b5m .\nscanning electron micrographs of polyp sclerites of ovabunda benayahui reinicke , 1995 ( zmtau co 26043 ) . a regular sclerites b fused sclerites c egg - shaped sclerite d rectangular sclerite . arrow indicates surface crest . scale bar 10 \u00b5m .\nscanning electron micrographs of polyp sclerites of ovabunda biseriata ( verseveldt & cohen , 1971 ) holotype ( huj i co . 72 ) . arrow indicates surface dents . scale bar 10 \u00b5m .\nscanning electron micrographs of polyp sclerites of ovabunda obscuronata ( verseveldt & cohen , 1971 ) holotype ( huj i co . 120 ) . scale bar 10 \u00b5m .\nscanning electron micrographs of polyp sclerites of ovabunda crenata ( reinicke , 1997 ) ( rmnh coel . 23517 ) . a regular sclerites b fused sclerites c egg - shaped sclerites d rectangular sclerite . arrows indicate surface dents . scale bar 10 \u00b5m .\nscanning electron micrographs of polyp sclerites of ovabunda faraunensis ( verseveldt & cohen , 1971 ) holotype ( huj i . co . 140 ) . a regular sclerites b fused sclerite . scale bar 10 \u00b5m .\nscanning electron micrographs of polyp sclerites of ovabunda gohari ( reinicke , 1997 ) paratype ( rmnh coel . 23436 ) . a regular sclerites b fused sclerite . scale bar 10 \u00b5m .\nscanning electron micrographs of polyp sclerites of ovabunda hamsina ( reinicke , 1997 ) holotype ( rmnh coel . 23904 ) . a regular sclerites b fused sclerites . scale bar 10 \u00b5m .\nscanning electron micrographs of polyp sclerites of ovabunda impulsatilla ( verseveldt & cohen , 1971 ) holotype ( huj i co . 84 ) . a regular sclerites b fused sclerites . scale bar 10 \u00b5m .\nscanning electron micrographs of polyp sclerites of ovabunda aldersladei janes , 2008 holotype ( rmnh coel . 38681 ) . arrow indicates surface crest . scale bar 10 \u00b5m .\nscanning electron micrographs of polyp sclerites of ovabunda macrospiculata ( gohar , 1940 ) neotype ( zmtau co 25635 ) . a pear - shape sclerite b regular sclerites c fused sclerite . scale bar 10 \u00b5m .\nscanning electron micrographs of polyp sclerites of ovabunda macrospiculata ( gohar , 1940 ) paratype ( zmtau co 35790 ) . a regular sclerites b irregular sclerite c fused sclerites d pear - shaped sclerite . scale bar 10 \u00b5m .\nscanning electron micrographs of polyp sclerites of ovabunda macrospiculata ( gohar , 1940 ) paratype ( zmtau co 35791 ) . a regular sclerite b irregular sclerites c fused sclerites . arrows indicate surface dents . scale bar 10 \u00b5m .\nscanning electron micrographs of polyp sclerites of ovabunda verseveldti ( benayahu , 1990 ) holotype ( zmtau co 26048 ) . a egg - shaped sclerite b regular sclerite c rectangular sclerites d fused sclerites e irregular sclerite . scale bar 10 \u00b5m .\nthe present study is intended to cast some light on the problem of t . glauca , but in so doing a slightly different experimental approach has been developed and applied . in the first part , intra - and interspecific hybridization of the three species , t . latifolia , t . angustifolia , and t . glauca , produced significant alterations in certain seed characteristics . there were color , dimensions of the external cellular layer , endosperm width , embryo width , and embryo length . . . . in the second part , the relative fecundity of the species as measured by seed yield , together with external seed dimensions , seed weight and the above seed characteristics , were related to the issue of the origin of t . glauca . . . .\nmagnesium : 1250 - 1350ppm lighting : moderate to high lighting levels with either power compact fluorescents or t5 fluorescents should be adequate for aquariums 25 inches in height or less . on deeper aquariums , metal halides should be used to make sure that adequate lighting intensity makes it to the bottom of the aquarium where waving hand corals are typically placed . water flow : indirect medium to strong water currents are required , along with excellent water quality .\nlighting : moderate to high lighting levels with either power compact fluorescents or t5 fluorescents should be adequate for aquariums 25 inches in height or less . on deeper aquariums , metal halides should be used to make sure that adequate lighting intensity makes it to the bottom of the aquarium where waving hand corals are typically placed . water flow : indirect medium to strong water currents are required , along with excellent water quality .\nselect a size small - $ 139 . 99 medium - $ 199 . 99\nwhy phytoplankton : phytoplankton is very important to marine life . it is the primary producers in the ocean . crucial to the development and survival of most , if not all marine animals . but what is phytoplankton ? it is just a fancy word for tiny floating plants ( such as diatoms and dinoflagellates ) , which serve the same role in the food chains of the oceans as grass and shrubs serve on land ; namely small things eat them . many coral reef animals feed directly on phytoplankton . some essential nutrients provided by phytoplankton cannot be synthesized by animals , and therefore are extremely important components of a healthy diet . click here for more information on the importance of phytoplankton for your corals"]}
{"id": 1525, "summary": [{"text": "the koo-wee-rup swamp was a large freshwater swamp located to the south east of melbourne , victoria .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it was drained an area of west gippsland , with several waterways including cardinia creek and the bunyip river .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the koo-wee-rup swamp originally covered more than 40 000 hectares , of dense swamp paperbark ( melaleuca ericifolia ) , some open grasslands , reed beds ( phragmites australis ) and bullrushes ( typha spp ) .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "known as the great swamp it was an impassable barrier for travelers between melbourne and gippsland .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "although the fringes of the swamp were settled by the mid-1800s , farming was not possible in much of the land because of frequent flooding and the rapid re-growth of paperbark and other swamp vegetation .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "however , in the 1870s , efforts were made by the victorian department of lands to drain the swamp and open up the area for agriculture .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "a koo-wee-rup swamp drainage committee was formed by local landowners and in february 1876 excavation of the main channel to take water from cardinia creek was commenced .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this channel was 8 km long and 1.2 m deep , leading into western port at moody 's inlet .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "other drains including those for toomuc creek and the bunyip river were also dug . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "koo - wee - rup swamp", "paragraphs": ["koo - wee - rup swamp history : a short overview of the drainage of the koo - wee - rup swamp .\na short overview of the drainage of the koo - wee - rup swamp .\nget quick answers from koo wee rup swamp lookout tower staff and past visitors .\nthe koo wee rup swamp lookout tower is located right by the main highway leading towards phillip . . .\nkoo wee rup observation tower overlooks the wetlands , with views south to westernport bay and . . .\nin the 1800 ' s the koo - wee - rup swamp extended over an area of approximately 40 000 hectares . it was covered by dense stands of swamp paperbark (\nthis blog is about the history of the koo - wee - rup swamp and neighbouring areas , such as pakenham , cranbourne and garfield , and any other historical subjects i feel like writing about . it ' s my own original research and writing and if you live in the area you may have read some of the stories before in the koo - wee - rup swamp historical society newsletter or the koo - wee - rup township newsletter ,\na short overview of the drainage of the koo - wee - ru . . .\nkoo wee rup observation tower overlooks the wetlands , with views south to westernport bay and french island . the tower is located on the south gippsland highway , just south of koo wee rup if you are driving to phillip island . it is a great place to . . .\ngoudie , a . g . ( 1942 ) . a survey of the soils and land utilisation in the parishes of koo - wee - rup and koo - wee - rup east . proc . roy . soc . victoria , 54 ( ns ) pt . 1 : 93 - 130 .\nnumerous small and medium - size towns have been established in the former swamp . the largest town is koo wee rup . smaller places include bayles , catani , cora lynn , dalmore and yannathan .\nif a picnic is not on your agenda the town of koo wee rup is only a few minutes away . road signage beside the reserve encourages visitors .\ndespite the drainage improvements there is occasional flooding . in february 2011 koo wee rup , iona , cora lynn and bayles were evacuated because the lower bunyip river overflowed .\n, formed the koo - wee - rup swamp drainage committee . from 1876 this committee employed over 100 men and created drains that would carry the water from the cardinia and toomuc creeks to western port bay at moody\u2019s inlet .\nroberts , d . ( 1985 ) . from swampland to farmland - a history of the koo - wee - rup flood protection district . rural water commission of victoria .\nyou will find the lookout tower off to the left of the south gippsland hwy and adjacent the bunyip river just before you get to koo wee rup travelling from tooradin . the tower overlooks both the swamp land and westernport bay and once you ascend . . .\ni am the local history librarian at at public library service in the south - east suburbs of melbourne . i am also the president of the koo - wee - rup swamp historical society , the secretary of the south eastern historical association and the trafalgar truck restorers club .\nthere was pastoral settlement around the swamp in the late 1840s . a large landowner , william lyall , had holdings at tooradin and at yallock , a slightly elevated area at the east of the swamp . he attempted a private drainage scheme at yallock . in 1875 land was sold in the west of the swamp and the koo - wee - rup swamp drainage committee was formed by local landowners , to drain water from cardinia creek into western port bay . heavy rain in 1891 , coming from the gembrook ranges by the toomuc , bunyip and tarago rivers , inundated the swamp and its reclaimed western sector . successful drainage required a scheme for all of the swamp .\nthe koo wee rup swamp lookout tower is located right by the main highway leading towards phillip island / wonthaggi / inverloch from melbourne . it basically consists of a fair sized parking area and then some historical information boards and a few other bits ' n ' pieces . the main attraction . . .\nthe koo wee rup swamp was an area north of western port bay . its western limit was in the vicinity of tooradin and its easterly limit was bunyip and the lang lang river . the gippsland ( oakleigh to bunyip ) railway line marked the northern edge . estimates of its area vary , but it was about 400 sq km .\nif you ' re travelling the south gippsland highway , the col utber swamp tower reserve just south of koo wee rup is a great place for a rest or a picnic . this day time rest area has off road parking suitable for caravans and big rigs and is easily spotted by the high wooden lookout tower that dominates the picnic grounds .\ntoday we look at swamps as wetlands , worthy of preservation , but we need to look at the drainage of the swamp in the context of the times . koo - wee - rup was only one of many swamps drained around this time ; others include the carrum swamp and the moe swamp . to the people at the time the drainage works were an example of victorian engineering skills and turned what was perceived as useless land into productive land and removed a barrier to the development of other areas in gippsland .\nthe land act of 1865 opened up land along the fringes of the swamp for selection . however , farming was not possible due to potential flooding and dense stands of vegetation . by 1870 the lands department decided that the swamp should be drained and opened up for agriculture . further land was sold at auction in 1875 . the largest landholders at the time were scottish and may have believed that the swamp soils were favourable for farming , based on their knowledge of peaty soils in their mother country . landholders formed the koo - wee - rup swamp drainage committee which would be responsible for draining the area .\nthe following history of the koo - wee - rup region in terms of drainage and agricultural production has been largely summarised from the book ' from swampland to farmland ' by david roberts . it is essential reading for anyone interested in the history of this region .\nunder this scheme , all workers had to be married , accept a 20 acre block and spend a fortnight working on the drains for wages and a fortnight improving their block and maintaining adjoining drains . the villages were koo - wee - rup , five mile , cora lynn , vervale , iona and yallock .\ndrainage works on the swamp began in the 1850\u2019s on a small scale and in 1875 , landowners formed the koo - wee - rup swamp drainage committee . this committee employed over 100 men and created drains that would carry the water from the cardinia and toomuc creeks to western port bay . you can still see these drains when you travel on manks road , between lea road and rices road \u2013 the five bridges you cross span the cardinia and toomuc creek canals ( plus a few catch drains ) which were dug in the 1870\u2019s .\npotato growing has diversified into other vegetables as the fringe of metropolitan melbourne has come closer . by the 1930s koo wee rup and dalmore were major asparagus - growing areas , and by the early 2000s the former swamp produced 95 % of australia\u2019s asparagus . market gardens draw water from the drains and from the ground by bores , but some areas have suffered from excessive take - off , with a consequent risk of mineralisation and salting of the water .\nthe original drainage works were completed in 1897 but later floods saw more drainage work undertaken , including widening of the main drain and additional side drains . none of these works protected the swamp against the big flood of december 1 , 1934 . the entire swamp was inundated ; water was over six feet deep in the town of koo - wee - rup and over a thousand people were left homeless . another bad flood hit the swamp in april 1935 and yet another one in october 1937 . a royal commission was also established in 1936 and its role was to investigate the operation of the state rivers and water supply commission regarding its administration of flood protection districts , amongst other things . the royal commission report was critical of the srwsc\u2019s operation in the koo - wee - rup flood protection district in a number of areas and it ordered that new plans for drainage improvements be established . the subsequent works saw the creation of the yallock outfall drain and the spillway at cora lynn , the aim of which was to take the pressure off the main drain in flood times and channel the flood waters directly to western port bay .\nit was obvious however that major works needed to be undertaken to sucessfully drain the swamp thus the chief engineer of the public works department , william thwaites ( 1853 - 1907 ) , surveyed the swamp in 1887 and his report recommended the construction of the bunyip main drain from where it entered the swamp in the north to western port bay and a number of smaller side drains .\nwhat you will not find at the col utber swamp tower reserve is a swamp . drainage works began in the area as far back as 1856 . the drain carrying water from the cardinia and toomuc creeks to westernport bay was created in 1875 . hundreds of men were employed for further work on drainage and by 1893 the swamp was declared drained and the area suitable for settlement .\nwe will start this blog off with a brief overview of the drainage works on the swamp . small scale efforts to drain the 96 , 000 acre ( 40 , 000 hectare ) swamp began in the 1850s and in 1875 landowners including duncan macgregor , who owned\nthe col utber swamp tower reserve is a daylight hour reserve on the south gippsland highway , koo wee rup . it is immediately west of the road bridge across the bunyip river and east of the rossiter road intersection with the highway . entry to the car park is on the west ( melbourne side ) of the lookout tower which is easily spotted from the road . the car park is suitable for caravans and big rigs , there is mobile ' phone coverage , and picnic facilities . there are no public toilets . pets are permitted .\nin march 1878 the gippsland railway which ran from melbourne to east gippsland was completed . residents of cranbourne and port albert made demands for a rail service in their districts which would necessitate a railway going through the koo - wee - rup swampland . plans were developed for a great southern railway between dandenong and port albert with profits from the sale of drained land to be used for it ' s construction .\nextensive flooding occurred in many areas of victoria in 1934 , and resulted in a flood in the former swamp area which was three and a half times larger than the record flood of 1924 . over one thousand people were made homeless and the koo - wee - rup hotel had almost 2 metres of water in it . a royal commission was established in 1936 and resulted in a drainage improvement scheme being implemented . this scheme involved alterations ( eg . levee construction , sediment removal ) and extensions to main drains . other floods occurred in 1937 .\nan information board has useful area maps , and a town map of koo wee rup . the history of the area is documented on one side . wander about and you will find a number of historic information and dedication plaques . a set of wheels from a german dredge , imported in the early 1900 ' s is proudly displayed . the late 1800 ' s release of deer into the area is commemorated . another plaque commemorates the 1991 opening of the south gippsland highway duplication .\nin the early 1900 ' s , hills to the north of the swamp area were cleared of trees in order to develop farms and to supply the many saw mills established due to a growing timber demand . increased runoff resulted into the tarago and bunyip catchments . erosion occurred in the steeper sections of the bunyip main drain and sediments were deposited in the lower sections of the drain . in 1911 severe flooding occurred . a drainage improvement plan was proposed by the state rivers and water supply commission to give the area complete protection from a flood this size . the lower koo - wee - rup flood protection district was proclaimed in 1917 and work commenced .\nthu 10 oct 1918 - dandenong advertiser and cranbourne , berwick and oakleigh advocate ( vic . : 1914 - 1918 ) page 2 - the great kooweerup swamp drainage muddle\ndandenong advertiser and cranbourne , berwick and oakleigh advocate ( vic . : 1914 - 1918 ) , thu 10 oct 1918 , page 2 - the great kooweerup swamp drainage muddle\nthe soils of the swamp were found to be particularly fertile for crops and dairying . during the early 1890s the victorian public works department\u2019s carlo catani supervised the great southern railway across the swamp from tooradin to loch . village settlements housed construction workers and creameries were opened at iona ( 1897 ) and elsewhere . soldier - settler farms were taken up during the 1920s .\ncatani implemented the village settlement scheme . under this scheme , all workers had to be married , accept a 20 acre block and spend a fortnight working on the drains for wages and a fortnight improving their block and maintaining adjoining drains . the villages were at koo - wee - rup , five mile , cora lynn , vervale , iona and yallock . many of the settlers were unused to farming and hard physical labour , others were deterred by floods and ironically a drought that caused a bushfire . my great grandfather , james rouse , a widower , arrived on the swamp with his nine year old son joe , in 1903 . james , who had been a market gardener in england , was part of a second wave of settlers who were granted land as they had previous farming experience . by 1904 , over 2 , 000 people including 1 , 400 children lived on the swamp . by the 1920s , the area was producing one quarter of victorian potatoes and was also a major producer of dairy products .\nby 1940 the area planted to potatoes had fallen to approximately 570 hectares , due mainly to low prices in the 1930 ' s . smaller areas were planted to maize , onions , carrots , peas and asparagus ( goudie 1942 ) . vegetable demand increased during the second world war and carrots , peas and cabbages were processed in the dalmore area . the koo - wee - rup district became the prime supplier of vegetables and milk to melbourne . only minor flooding occurred after this period as drainage works continued . the whole reclaimed swampland came under the control of one authority ( state rivers and water supply commission ) in 1962 .\nit soon became apparent that drainage works needed to be carried out on a large scale if the swamp was to be drained and landowners protected from floods . the chief engineer of the public works department , william thwaites , surveyed the swamp in 1888 and his report recommended the construction of the bunyip main drain from where it entered the swamp in the north to western port bay and a number of smaller side drains as well . a tender was advertised in 1889 . even with strikes , floods and bad weather , by march 1893 the contractors had constructed the 16 miles of the drain from the bay to the south of bunyip and the public works department considered the swamp was now dry enough for settlement . in spite of this , the public works department was unhappy with the rate of progress and took over its completion in 1893 and appointed the engineer , carlo catani to oversee the work .\nwork commenced on the bunyip main drain in 1889 in order to channel water from the bunyip river as it entered the swamp . this main drain would be fed by smaller drains . by 1892 the main drain had been cut 14 km inland from reeces inlet and at this time some 500 men were working on the project and excavating drains using picks , shovels and wheelbarrows . by 1893 the main drain had met the bunyip drain . these two drains together with four smaller drains formed the foundation of the swamp drainage system . a village settlement was started on the partly reclaimed swamp , whereby settlers were responsible for the maintenance of drains adjoining their blocks . the main drain overflowed in 1893 and much of the land was flooded . in response , the main drain was widened and deepened .\nirrigation due to urban expansion in the 1950 ' s and 60 ' s , market gardeners were forced away from the city region . the koo - wee - rup region became an area of market garden expansion and potatoes replaced dairying as the dominant land use . a system of irrigation was developed to provide for this expansion . in the 1950 ' s , permits were issued to allow a number of landholders to pump water directly from the main drain . further permits were granted . the amount of water that could be pumped varied according to the size of the farm . groundwater comes from the western port groundwater basin which is fed by water entering via tertiary period gravels and basalts along the eastern and western margins . also , recharge occurs via quaternary sediments in the north - east ( eg . bunyip and tarago river basins ) .\nwater becomes stored in a groundwater aquifer underneath the impermeable clay and peat layers . the first bore was sunk in 1922 near cora lyn to tap underground water . other bores were sunk and used for stock and domestic requirements . bore sinking went unchecked in the 50 ' s and 60 ' s and a decline in water levels of up to 15 metres was recorded in 1961 - 62 . during the 1967 - 68 drought the water level in the koo - wee - rup aquifer fell to below pumping levels . the groundwater act was passed in 1969 and control of groundwater extraction was given to the state rivers and water supply commission . parts of the westernport groundwater basin were declared a groundwater conservation area in 1971 . controls were placed on the maximum rate and volume of groundwater that could be extracted . zones were established to manage groundwater use and in some areas no further bores were permitted .\ntwo creameries were established in 1896 and by 1897 drainage works were completed . in 1898 bushfires spread to the swamp area and underlying peat soil caught fire and burnt beneath the surface for months . the results of drainage and several dry years resulted in the soil shrinking and compacting and the level of the land surface fell .\nmany of the settlers were unused to farming and hard physical labour , others were deterred by floods and ironically a drought that caused a bushfire , however many stayed and communities developed . by 1904 , over 2 , 000 people including 1 , 400 children lived on the swamp . by the 1920s , the area was producing one quarter of victorian potatoes .\na tender was advertised in 1889 . in spite of strikes , floods and bad weather by march , 1893 , the private contractors had constructed the 16 miles of the drain from the bay to the south of bunyip and the public works department considered the swamp was now dry enough for settlement . at one time over 500 men were employed and all the work was done by hand , using axes .\nthere was a second wave of settlers in the early 1900s where those selected had previous farm experience , such as my great grandfather , james rouse who had been a market gardener in england . james , a widower , arrived in 1903 with his eleven year old son , joe . he had selected 56 acres on murray road at cora lynn and his arrival started the rouse family ' s 110 year connection to the swamp .\nin spite of what seemed to be good progress - the public works department had been unhappy with the rate of progress and took over its completion in 1893 and appointed the engineer , carlo catani ( 1852 - 1918 ) . the 1890s was a time of economic depression in australia and various government schemes were implemented to provide employment and to stop the drift of the unemployed to the city . one of these schemes was the village settlement scheme . the aim was for the settlers to find employment outside the city and to boost their income from the sale of produce from their farms . it was in this context that catani implemented the village settlement scheme on the swamp .\na major flood ( double the size of 1911 ) occurred in 1923 , which resulted in significant crop damage . an even larger flood occurred in 1924 that covered the former swampland in water 1 . 5 metres deep . in 1925 a royal commission investigated the entire soldier settlement scheme and assistance was given . drier periods existed after 1924 and the land proved to be very fertile . italian migrants bought many of the properties abandoned after the floods . they practised labour intensive farming methods and district production rose . it was estimated by the department of agriculture that in 1926 the former swamp area produced approximately 25 % of victorian potatoes . however , the great depression in the late 1920s resulted in reduced prices and financial ruin for some farmers . drainage digging was provided by the government as a form of relief work for the unemployed .\nin february 1876 works commenced on excavation of a main channel ( 8 km long and 1 . 2 m deep ) which tapped the cardinia creek and channelled water into westernport bay at moody ' s inlet . other smaller drains ( eg . toomuc ) were dug . one of the landholders ( mcgregor ) also built an embankment to hold back water on his property called ' dalmore ' . landholders carried out drainage works with shovels and wheelbarrows . vegetation was knocked down and burnt and the land was ploughed . some farmers flooded each other ' s land with their own drainage works and major floods still occurred ( eg . 1891 ) .\na major flood in 1900 resulted in damage to crops ( eg . potatoes , onions , oats ) and dairy cows drowned . further widening of the main drain took place and more subsidiary drains were dug . a change from block allocation to land selection resulted in farmers from other regions ( eg . ballarat , drouin ) moving in to the area and bringing cropping skills . in the first decade of the 1900 ' s this area became the ' potato capital ' of victoria .\nincreased demands for vegetables for canning was generated during world war 1 ( 1914 - 1918 ) and vegetable growing was encouraged . labour shortages at this time were offset by the introduction of a steam - driven bucket dredge , which was used on the wider sections of the larger drains ( eg . main , yallock , cardinia ) . it had a capacity of 60 cubic metres per day ( versus 8 . 5 for a ' good man ' ) .\nat the end of world war 1 , the government purchased large properties in a number of regions of victoria and divided them into smaller holdings , which were allocated to returned soldiers . within this area some of the larger properties ( such as ' dalmore ' ) were subdivided under this scheme . some minor flooding occurred in 1920 and 1921 . by 1923 almost 6500 hectares of potatoes were planted ( goudie 1942 ) .\na thriving sand industry also developed in the area . sand was excavated from the main drains and transported to melbourne by railway where it was in demand as building material . the rate of erosion upstream decreased ( naturally and as a result of control measures ) and the supply of sand was depleted within a few years .\nthe tarago reservoir was constructed in 1969 ( to supply water to the mornington peninsula ) which enabled more flood control downstream .\nexample of subsurface drainage in dalmore clay soil . these drains are generally located just below the peat layer and are partially backfilled with gravel\nin recent years the groundwater levels have recovered . this has been largely due to groundwater extraction controls and the construction of dams to store water pumped from drains during periods of high water flow .\nannett and imhof ( 1991 ) assessed changes in landuse for the former shire of cranbourne from 1979 to 1989 . these changes were estimated from aerial photo interpretation . urban land use increased by an estimated 2200 hectares and in 1989 covered some 8 % of the study area . much of this urban expansion has occurred around cranbourne , hampton park , langwarrin and carrum downs . associated with this urban increase has been an increase in sand quarrying . the area excavated for sand had increased an estimated 390 hectares ( 83 % ) over the same period . sand mining in the cranbourne region supplies about 15 % of melbourne ' s sand requirements ( cochrane\n1991 ) . a large area of quaternary sand deposits are preserved in the cranbourne royal botanic gardens extension .\nmarket gardening on sandy soils had also increased significantly ( approximately 40 % ) over this period . this expansion has occurred primarily as consolidation of existing farms around cranbourne , fiveways and devon meadows . smaller , new operations have developed around pearcedale and langwarrin . the increase in market gardening has no doubt been a result of migration of these activities from other areas closer to melbourne ( eg . dingley , oakleigh ) as a result of urban expansion pressures . continued urban expansion around cranbourne , pearcedale and langwarrin may impact greatly on these operations . in the south - eastern growth corridor it is expected that the metropolitan area will expand to cranbourne in the south . cranbourne is anticipated to house about 80 000 people (\n24 / 11 / 90 ) . apart from using land suitable for market gardening ( eg . cranbourne sands ) , urbanisation will invariably result in an increase in land prices in surrounding areas . other problems faced by farmers on the urban fringes include the need for greater security and community concern over some farming practices ( eg . spraying near urban areas ) .\nannett , s and imhof , m . p . ( 1991 ) assessing changes in rural land use in gippsland - a case study using geographic information systems ( gis ) . draft report , department of agriculture .\ncochrane , g . w . , quick , g . w . and spencer - jones , d . ( eds . ) ( 1991 ) . introducing victorian geology . geological society of australia ( victorian division ) . melbourne .\nfloods in 1911 and 1934 required the enlargement of drains and construction of additional outfalls . clearing of land at the headwaters has caused increased run - off , and floodwater detritus that banks up where stream velocities falter causes flooding unless removed . improvements and maintenance are therefore continual . moving from west to east there are drains into western port bay at sawtell inlet ( tooradin ) , at 4 km eastwards for the toomuc , cardinia and deep creeks , at 2 km further eastwards for the bunyip and tarago rivers ( the main drain ) , and at the yallock creek .\nthat ' s james rouse , my great grandfather , above . he was born july 26 , 1862 at stratford on avon in england and died at cora lynn on august 29 , 1939 . he had married annie glover of clydebank ( victoria ) on february 2 , 1892 and they had five children . sadly annie , born july 7 , 1865 died in february 7 , 1899 aged 33 . she was pre - deceased by their two daughters ruth and annie . another daughter emily died in tragic circumstances - she was found drowned in the yarra on august 24 , 1919 aged 25 . lucy ( born september 2 , 1895 ) died october 27 , 1981 . we knew her very well and saw a lot of her . she was living at garfield when she died . finally , my grand father joseph albert rouse was born at clydebank on november 9 , 1892 and died september 3 , 1954 .\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\nto me this tower was built so there was a place to sell the best donuts ever . checked out the . . .\nto me this tower was built so there was a place to sell the best donuts ever . checked out the tower . . . not bad . wandered over to grab a couple of donuts . . . i had low expectations . . . then my mind was blown , i wanted to go back for more , omg . . .\nwe came for the views and stayed for the amazing dim sims and jam doughnuts that a sold most days out of a van in car park . the lookout itself is quite plan but a very worthwhile sight . plenty of points of historical interest at . . .\ni ' ve passed this lookout so many times before . we decided to pull in and see what it has to offer . beautiful views of the surrounding area , that ' s what . well worth a stop to break up a long drive if you ' re passing by .\nnote : your question will be posted publicly on the questions & answers page .\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content .\ndandenong advertiser and cranbourne , berwick and oakleigh advocate ( vic . : 1914 - 1918 )\nnote : only lines in the current paragraph are shown . click on current line of text for options .\nparagraph operations are made directly in the full article text panel located to the left . paragraph operations include :\nzone operations are made directly in the full article text panel located to the left . zone operations include :\nthe national library of australia ' s copies direct service lets you purchase higher quality , larger sized photocopies or electronic copies of newspapers pages .\nclicking on the order now button below will open the ordering form in a new window which will allow you to enter the details of your request .\nto help safeguard the users of this service from spam , we require you to enter the characters you see in the following image .\nif you can ' t read the image , click here to listen to the same characters being read .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\ngayle is an accountant . shh \u2013 don\u2019t tell . she thinks she\u2019s a writer . check out her short stories and nano fiction at\nit ' s worth stopping just for the vistas from the tower which provides 360 degree sweeping views of the surrounding area . the waters of westernport bay are visible to the south . a distance and direction marker on the top platform points to over 30 different locations ; san remo 35km south , tooradin 7km west , melbourne 58km north - west , warragul 40km north - east .\nthe tower is accessed by stairs which curve around supporting poles . it is rather tall but even though heights bother me i felt secure enough to get to the top . the structure is very stable , the stairs and platform are enclosed by high , closely spaced railings and the stairs themselves are wide enough to be comfortable but narrow enough to enable you to hold the railings on both sides .\nthe car park and reserve are well maintained and the grass looked freshly mowed when i arrived . there is a shelter with a picnic table , and several open air tables . a ring of wooden benches would serve well for group seating . a small bridge crossing a dip in the picnic grounds adds charm to the area . there are ample rubbish bins .\nduring busy periods , a van selling hot donuts can be found at the reserve and is easily visible from the road . just another reason to take a break .\nthe reserve is fenced but there is access to a small path at the back which leads through interesting vegetation to the bunyip river . i walked the path but plants are encroaching on either side making it unsuitable for children . walkers would be advised to keep an eye out for snakes in the warmer months . shrubbery with a variety of flowers and reeds along the water are worth a look . birdlife is prevalent in the bushland around the reserve . fairy wrens were about in abundance .\nwhy ? take a break from the drive and soak up some superb views .\nwhat a good place to stop and rest on the way to phillip island .\ngreat article - well written and great photos gayle . there is so much to discover about australia .\nwe have driven past this so many times and never stopped to look . it ' s so easy to miss things ."]}
{"id": 1528, "summary": [{"text": "the pygmy three-toed sloth ( bradypus pygmaeus ) , also known as the monk sloth or dwarf sloth , is a sloth endemic to isla escudo de veraguas , a small island off the coast of panama .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "the species was first described by robert p. anderson of the university of kansas and charles o. handley jr. , of the smithsonian institution in 2001 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the pygmy three-toed sloth is significantly smaller than the other three members of its genus , but otherwise resembles the brown-throated three-toed sloth .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "according to anderson and handley jr. , the head-and-body length is between 48 and 53 centimetres ( 19 and 21 in ) , and the body mass ranges from 2.5 to 3.5 kg ( 5.5 to 7.7 lb ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this sloth , like other sloths , is arboreal ( tree-living ) and feeds on leaves .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is symbiotically associated with green algae , that can provide it with a camouflage .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "details of mating behavior and reproduction have not been documented .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the pygmy three-toed sloth is found exclusively in the red mangroves of isla escudos de veraguas , restricted to an area of 4.3 square kilometres ( 1.7 sq mi ) .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "a 2012 census of pygmy three-toed sloths estimated the total population at 79 .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the iucn lists the pygmy three-toed sloth as critically endangered and they are listed on the world 's 100 most threatened species . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "pygmy three - toed sloth", "paragraphs": ["the pygmy three - toed sloth was recognised as a distinct species in 2001 .\npygmy three - toed sloths on the edge of existence ( edgeofexistence . org )\na 2011 study found only 79 pygmy three - toed sloths on escudo de veraguas .\nthe pygmy three - toed sloth is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nof those , the pygmy sloth is critically endangered and the maned sloth is vulnerable .\nbrown - throated three - toed sloth dallas world aquarium and zoo , dallas , tx .\npygmy three - toed sloths have been found living only in coastal , red mangroves at sea level .\npygmy three - toed sloths have home ranges that are small , on average 1 . 6 ha .\nthe pygmy three - toed sloth is found in a tiny area of red mangrove forests on isla escudo de veraguas , panama .\npygmy three - toed sloths are 15 % smaller in total length , and 40 % smaller in their mass .\nthe pygmy three - toed sloth has rapidly evolved a much smaller body size in its short 8 , 900 years of isolation from mainland species .\nthe pygmy three - toed sloth is known exclusively in red mangrove forests surrounding the island at near sea level ( 1 ) ( 3 ) .\nfemale pygmy three - toed sloths invest heavily in young through gestation and lactation , as do females in other sloth species . details of parental care are not reported for pygmy three - toed sloths , but related species care for their young for up to 6 months .\nmain characteristics pygmy three - toed sloths have a body length between 44 and 47 cms ( 17 - 18 . 5 inches ) , a tail length between 4 and 6 cms ( 1 . 5 - 2 . 4 inches ) and they weigh between 2 . 5 and 3 . 5 kgs ( 5 . 5 - 7 . 7 lbs ) . they have long , coarse fur that is pale grey / brown in colour and they have a tan coloured face with a dark band across their forehead . they have three long , hook - clawed toes on each of their front feet . habitat pygmy three - toed sloths are found in the mangrove forests of the island of isla escudo de verguas off the coast of panama . they are arboreal and solitary . diet pygmy three - toed sloths feed on variety of leaves , buds and soft twigs . breeding little is known about reproduction in the pygmy three - toed sloth . it is assumed that it is similar to that of the other species of three - toed sloth . predators humans and habitat loss are the main threats to the pygmy three - toed sloth . subspecies there are no subspecies of the pygmy three - toed sloth . interesting facts pygmy three - toed sloths are also known as : monk sloth dwarf sloth similar animals linnaeus ' s two - toed sloth hoffmann ' s two - toed sloth maned three - toed sloth pale - throated sloth brown - throated sloth\nthe pygmy three - toed sloth is known only from isla escudo de veraguas in the archipelago of bocas del toro , panama ( 1 ) ( 3 ) .\npygmy three - toed sloths are arboreal folivores . they eat leaves from many different kinds of trees and have low metabolic rates .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - pygmy three - toed sloth ( bradypus pygmaeus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - pygmy three - toed sloth ( bradypus pygmaeus )\ntitle =\narkive species - pygmy three - toed sloth ( bradypus pygmaeus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe behavior of pygmy three - toed sloths has not been reported , but can be inferred from the behavior of its close relative , the brown - throated sloth .\nthree - toed sloths may have quite small or absent canine - like upper teeth .\nthree - toed sloths ( bradypus ) do not survive out of their natural habitat .\nthe following habitats are found across the pygmy three - toed sloth distribution range . find out more about these environments , what it takes to live there and what else inhabits them .\nsloth distribution . black box represents approximate range of hoffmann ' s two - toed sloth ; red box represents linnaeus ' two - toed sloth . adapted from urltoken according to iucn fact sheets for hoffman ' s two - toed and linnaeus ' two - toed sloths . see iucn fact sheets for detailed distributions .\ndo you know of or are you a part of an organisation that work to conserve the pygmy three - toed sloth , then please contact us to have it featured on our endangered world .\nsloths are identified by the number of long , prominent claws that they have on each front foot . there are both two - toed and three - toed sloths .\n. like other sloths , pygmy three - toed sloths are likely to have relatively poor eyesight . they may use vocalizations and are likely to use chemical cues in communication .\ntwo - toed sloths are generally faster moving than three - toed sloths . both types tend to occupy the same forests : in most areas , one species of three - toed sloth and one species of the larger two - toed type will jointly predominate . they are arboreal and sleep , eat , and travel among the trees , moving very slowly and generally hanging upside down .\nthe pygmy three - toed sloth was only described scientifically in 2001 and is critically endangered . a team of conservationists from zsl are surveying them to build the first picture of how these little - known animals are faring .\ncitation : kaviar s , shockey j , sundberg p ( 2012 ) observations on the endemic pygmy three - toed sloth , bradypus pygmaeus of isla escudo de veraguas , panam\u00e1 . plos one 7 ( 11 ) : e49854 . urltoken\nbezerra , b . 2008 . observation of brown - throated three toed sloths , mating behavior and simultaneous nurturing of two young .\nthe pygmy sloth is listed on cites appendix ii ( notification to the parties 2013 / 052 , 20 november 2013 ) .\nhistorically there has been little conservation attention or support for the pygmy sloth and the island habitat it depends on . this project seeks to address the threats facing the pygmy sloth , while helping to ensure the sustainable livelihoods of the ngobe bugle people .\nanderson , r . , c . handley . 2001 . a new species of three - toed sloth ( mammalia : xenarthra ) from panama , with a review of the genus bradypus .\nthe living sloths are placed in one of two families , known as the megalonychidae (\ntwo - toed\nsloths ) and the bradypodidae ( three - toed sloths ) , with the former limited to the genus choloepus and the later to the genus bradypus . all living sloths have in fact three toes , that is three toes on the hindfeet . however , the\ntwo - toed\nsloths have only two fingers , versus three for the three - toed sloths . the living sloths are characterized by short , flat heads , big eyes , a short snout , long legs , and tiny ears .\n, commonly called monk , dwarf , or pygmy three - toed sloth , is found only on the isla escudo de veraguas of bocas del toro , which is located off the coast of panama . this island is small , only about 5 square kilometers in area .\na three - toed sloth can rotate its head nearly 90 degrees or more , and its mouth is shaped in a way that makes the animal appear as if it ' s always smiling .\nnice ' n ' slow : a three - toed sloth climbs a liana to the forest canopy . lianas provide critical connections among trees to allow arboreal animals to move from tree to tree .\nisla escudo de veraguas is protected as a wildlife refuge and is contained within the comarca indigenous reserve . however , law enforcement within this protected area is currently inadequate , and needs to be improved , in order to benefit the pygmy three - toed sloth ( 1 ) .\nthe pygmy three - toed slothis on the iucn species survival commission ' s top 100 list of most threatened species . these tiny sloths can only be found on escudo island , which is found off the coast of panama .\nsloths mate and give birth while hanging in the trees . three - toed sloth babies are often seen clinging to their mothers\u2014they travel by hanging on to them for the first nine months of their lives .\nthe three - toed sloth emits a long , high - pitched call that echoes through the forests as \u201cahh - eeee . \u201d because of this cry these sloths are sometimes called ais ( pronounced \u201ceyes\u201d ) .\npredators of pygmy three - toed sloths have not been reported . however , like other sloths , they are very slow - moving animals with long , hair that often grows algae , allowing them to blend in well in their leafy habitats . other sloth species are preyed on by harpy eagles (\nbecause pygmy three - toed sloths are a recently described species , little is known about their ecosystem roles . they are hosts to various parasites , may influence vegetation through their browsing , and act as prey for larger , arboreal predators .\nour long term aim is to establish and implement a participatory management plan that engages all stakeholders in the conservation of escudo and the pygmy sloth .\nshockey , who has now graduated , considers himself lucky to have seen and studied the rare pygmy three - toed sloths .\nduring my time on escudo , i witnessed their daily routine of long afternoon naps , casual eating and climbing into the sunny branches to dry off after a downpour . ultimately , i hope our work will help maintain that reality for the pygmy sloth .\ntwo - toed and three - toed sloths were formerly placed in the same family but the two genera have profound behavioral and anatomical differences and are believed to come from two different fossil lineages . they are now placed in separate families .\nthree - toed sloths also have an advantage that few other mammals possess : they have extra neck vertebrae that allows them to turn their heads some 270 degrees .\nthere are two categories of sloths . the two - toed sloth is slightly bigger than the three - toed sloth , though they share many of the same features . they are about the size of a medium - sized dog at around 23 to 27 inches ( 58 to 68 cm ) and 17 . 5 to 18 . 75 pounds ( about 8 kilograms ) .\nwe found evidence for three different patterns of algae that occur in the hair of five sloth species : 1 ) the green alga in the fur of the brown - throated sloth , bradypus variegatus , and the pygmy three - toed sloth , b . pygmaeus , is a unique species and no other green algal species were found in their fur . microscopy of the alga on the hair revealed characteristic features to the description of trichophilus ( weber - van bosse 1887 ) , which has indeed been described from the hair of bradypus . 2 ) the maned three - toed sloth bradypus torquatus was shown in our study to host a variety of algae belonging to genera known to be terrestrial , e . g . trentepholia and myrmecia . 3 ) the hoffmann ' s two - toed sloth choloepus hoffmanni and the pale - throated sloth bradypus tridactylus , showed both patterns ; they hosted terrestrial green algae from their surroundings , as well as the unique genus trichophilus .\nlocation : separated from the panamanian coast by 17 kilometres of ocean , the island of escudo de veraguas is the only home of the pygmy three - toed sloth . the sloths live only in red mangroves found in a narrow band along the seaside , which are estimated to cover just 1 . 5 square kilometres .\nthe sloth\u2019s fur is grey , though the face is tan with chocolate stripes , and the male has an orange patch on the back divided lengthwise by a black stripe . there is long hair on this sloth\u2019s head , hanging down and giving the appearance of a hood , inspiring the alternative name of \u201cmonk sloth\u201d . a unique species of symbiotic algae grows in the fur of the pygmy three - toed sloth , giving their fur a greenish tint that acts as excellent camouflage when combined with their slow movements .\nmontgomery gg , sunquist me : habitat selection and use by two - toed and three - toed sloths . the ecology of arboreal folivores . edited by : montgomery g . 1978 , washington , dc : smithsonian institution press , 329 - 359 .\n] . it is a popular assumption that the association between the three - toed sloth and the alga embedded in its hairs is a symbiotic relationship with the alga obtaining shelter in the cracks of the hair while providing green camouflage for the sloth . it also has been proposed that the alga offers no benefit to the sloth , but is able to survive in the hair because the sloth does not prevent the alga growing [\nwith only a small population confined to a single tiny island off the coast of panama , the pygmy three - toed sloth is the most endangered of all xenarthra . as its name suggests , this recently discovered species is a dwarf compared with its mainland relatives ( 4 ) . in addition to its small size , the pygmy three - toed sloth is characterised by usually blotchy , pale grey - brown fur and a tan - coloured face with a distinctive dark band across the forehead , from which long , shaggy hair hangs over the face , giving a hooded appearance . sloths have an unusual means of camouflage to avoid predation ; their outer fur is often coated in algae , giving the pelage a greenish tint that helps hide them in their forest habitat . three - toed sloths ( bradypus ) can be distinguished from their distant relatives , the two - toed sloths ( choloepus ) , by the three digits on their forelimbs , blunter muzzle , and simpler , peg - like teeth ( 3 ) .\ngreen , h . ( 1989 ) .\nagonistic behavior by three - toed sloths , bradypus variegatus\n. biotropica 21 ( 4 ) : 369\u2013372 . jstor 2388289 .\n\u2014 1985a . use of hands and feet of three - toed sloths ( bradypus variegatus ) during climbing and terrestrial locomotion . journal of mammalogy 66 : 359 - 366 .\nwith only a small population confined to a single tiny island off the coast of panama , the pygmy three - toed sloth ( bradypus pygmaeus ) is the most endangered of all xenarthra . as its name suggests , this recently discovered species is a dwarf compared with its mainland relatives ( 4 ) . in addition to its small size , the pygmy three - toed sloth is characterised by usually blotchy , pale grey - brown fur and a tan - coloured face with a distinctive dark band across the forehead , from which long , shaggy hair hangs over the face , giving a hooded appearance . sloths have an unusual means of camouflage to avoid predation ; their outer fur is often coated in algae , giving the pelage a greenish tint that helps hide them in their forest habitat . three - toed sloths ( bradypus ) can be distinguished from their distant relatives , the two - toed sloths ( choloepus ) , by the three digits on their forelimbs , blunter muzzle , and simpler , peg - like teeth ( 3 ) .\nvery little is known about the biology of the pygmy three - toed sloth , although much can be inferred from what is known about three - toed sloths generally . three - toed sloths are arboreal folivores that eat the leaves of a variety of trees . this is an energy - poor diet , and these animals have a very low metabolic rate ( 3 ) . their main defences are camouflage , stealth and stillness , whereby they avoid predation largely by avoiding detection ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . however , should they be attacked , sloths also have a remarkable capacity to survive due to their tough hides , tenacious grips and extraordinary ability to heal from grievous wounds ( 5 ) .\nvery little is known about the biology of the pygmy three - toed sloth , although much can be inferred from what is known about three - toed sloths generally . three - toed sloths are arboreal folivores that eat the leaves of a variety of trees . this is an energy - poor diet , and these animals have a very low metabolic rate ( 3 ) . their main defences are camouflage , stealth and stillness , whereby they avoid predation largely by avoiding detection ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . however , should they be attacked , sloths also have a remarkable capacity to survive due to their tough hides , tenacious grips and extraordinary ability to heal from grievous wounds ( 5 ) .\nthe evolutionary history of the three - toed sloths is not at all well - known . no particularly close relatives , ground - dwelling or not , have yet been identified .\nalmost all mammals have seven cervical vertebrae or\nneck bones\n( including those with very short necks , such as elephants or whales , and those with very long necks , such as giraffes ) . the two - toed sloths and the three - toed sloths are among the few exceptions . the two - tailed sloths and manatees have only six cervical vertebrae , and three - toed sloths had nine cervical vertebrae ( narita and kuratani 2005 ) .\npygmy three - toed sloths have a tan face with a dark brown band across the brow and orange eye patches . the back can exhibit either uniform or blotchy color distribution , but is usually dark brown with an obvious dorsal stripe . pygmy sloths are unique in that they have long hairs on the crown and the sides of the head , giving the distinct impression of a hood .\nthe pygmy three - toed sloth has an extremely restricted range on one very small island . although the island is uninhabited , fishermen , farmers , lobster divers and local people are all seasonal visitors , and are thought to hunt the sloths illegally . the growing tourism industry is also a potential threat to the species , by degrading its habitat ( 1 ) .\nthe pygmy three - toed sloth has an extremely restricted range on one very small island . although the island is uninhabited , fishermen , farmers , lobster divers and local people are all seasonal visitors , and are thought to hunt the sloths illegally . the growing tourism industry is also a potential threat to the species , by degrading its habitat ( 1 ) .\nwujek de , cocuzza jm : morphology of hair of two - and three - toed sloths ( edentata : bradypodidae ) . rev biol trop . 1986 , 34 : 243 - 246 .\npygmy three - toed sloths are mainly arboreal , although they can walk on the ground and also swim . like other sloths , they can be active at any time of the day and spend much of their time sleeping or sedentary . they are generally solitary and do not tend to travel far .\nlimited to central and south america . the 2 species are partially sympatric ( overlap ) in the andean regions and western amazonia . both overlap with the 3 - toed sloth .\ntwo - toed sloths live 10 to 15 years in the wild and over 30 years in zoos .\nbezerra , b . 2008 . observation of brown - throated three toed sloths , mating behavior and simultaneous nurturing of two young . journal of ethology , 26 / 1 :\n175 - 178\n.\nafter around nine hours of sleep , the sloth still doesn ' t make an attempt at getting friendly with others . they live solo lives . the closest a sloth gets to social time is sleeping in the same tree with another sloth .\nin may 2011 , after months of preparation , jakob shockey and two fellow biology students from evergreen state college in washington state found themselves on a tiny panamanian island staring at one of the rarest mammals in the world : the pygmy three - toed sloth ( bradypus pygmaeus ) .\ni felt humbled to finally stand knee - deep in the mud of a mangrove thicket on isla escudo de veraguas and watch this sloth move so comfortably through its world , entirely unconcerned by my presence or anticipation ,\nhe says .\nthe species is not utilized . although it was previously thought that locals would eat pygmy sloths , this was recently disproven .\nthe living sloths are omnivores . they may eat insects , small lizards , and carrion , but their diet consists mostly of buds , tender shoots , and leaves . the three - toed sloths in particular feed almost exclusively on leaves . the two - toed sloths eat fruits , nuts , berries , bark , and occasionally small rodents .\nthe u . s . fish and wildlife service ( fws ) last week announced that the world ' s rarest and smallest sloth could deserve protection under the endangered species act ( pdf ) . the pygmy three - toed sloth ( bradypus pygmaeus ) lives only on the tiny isla escudo de veraguas off the coast of panama and is probably one of the rarest mammals in the world . when i last wrote about the species back in 2012 , surveys had only managed to locate 79 of these critically endangered tree - dwellers .\nanderson , r . p . and handley jr . , c . o . ( 2001 ) a new species of three - toed sloth ( mammalia : xenarthra ) from panama , with a review of the genus bradypus . proceedings of the biological society of washington , 114 ( 1 ) : 1 - 33 .\nanderson , r . , c . handley . 2001 . a new species of three - toed sloth ( mammalia : xenarthra ) from panama , with a review of the genus bradypus . proceedings of the biological society of washington , 114 :\n1 - 33\n. accessed july 27 , 2009 at urltoken .\nin response to this incident , a nonprofit called the animal welfare institute filed an emergency petition with the fws this past november seeking to add the pygmy sloth to the endangered species list . this protection , if granted , would require any person or organization seeking to import a pygmy sloth into the u . s . to first receive a permit from the fws , the same process that is required for any other foreign endangered species .\na newly discovered , rare species of sloth looks like a teddy bear and can swim .\nhabitat : pygmy three - toed sloths spend most of their lives in trees , though they must descend to the ground to urinate and defecate . they can only crawl while on the ground , though they are good swimmers . in the trees , they hook themselves securely to branches with the three large claws on each of their feet . they often hang upside down from branches while in the trees . their sole food is the leaves of the red mangrove trees where they live .\nthe two - toed sloths are somewhat larger and generally faster moving than the three - toed sloths , but all are noted for their very slow , graceful movements . they also are noted for their almost exclusively arboreal existence , descending to the ground only rarely to urinate and defecate and generally hanging upside - down from branches with their long , curved claws .\nmammalian species include the collared - peccary , who may be found in mainland bocas del toro lowland moist forest or grasslands . also found here is the critically endangered pygmy three - toed sloth , bradypus pygmaeus , whose extant population of no more than a few hundred animals is restricted to the tiny ( 3 . 4 km 2 ) island of isla escudo de veraguas . there are also central american red brocket , mazama temama , a species of forest deer widespead in mesoamerica .\ncompared to the related brown - throated three - toed sloth , the pygmy species is , on average 40 % smaller in body mass , weighing 2 . 5 to 3 . 5 kilograms ( 5 . 5 to 7 . 7 lb ) , and 15 % smaller in body length . adults measure 48 to 53 centimetres ( 19 to 21 in ) , with a 4 . 5 to 6 . 0 centimetres ( 1 . 8 to 2 . 4 in ) tail .\nwhen frightened , young sloth ' s hair\npuffs out\n, almost doubling its size .\na rare pygmy sloth that looks like a teddy bear and can swim , an insect as long as your arm and a fish from the deep with a face like a headlight . just some of the extraordinary and weird new species chosen by\npygmy three - toed sloths are an excellent example of insular dwarfism , which occurs when a population is confined to an island and must adapt to the limited resources of space and food . these sloths look compact and are approximately 40 % smaller than the mainland sloths they are descended from . weight is just 2 . 5 to 3 . 5 kilograms , while length ranges from 48 to 53 centimetres .\na typical case of island dwarfism , the pygmy sloths are about 40 percent smaller than brown - throated sloths ( b . variegatus ) , which can be found across the water on the panama isthmus as well as throughout the southern half of central america and the northern half of south america . other than size , pygmy sloths look almost exactly like their mainland cousins\u2014so much so , in fact , that the pygmies were only identified as a separate species in 2001 . at that time scientists estimated the pygmy sloth population at about 300 to 500 animals , enough to consider them critically endangered , the only sloth species with that designation .\nadditional file 1 : sloth sample collection details . collection details of the sloth samples which sequence data was used in the study and the number of clones sequenced from each sample . ( pdf 30 kb )\nsloth is the common name for any of the slow - moving , new world arboreal mammals comprising the families megalonychidae ( two - toed sloths ) and bradypodidae ( three - toed sloths ) of the order pilosa . there are six extant species . the four living species of bradypodidae are about the size of a small dog and are characterized by three - clawed digits on their forelimbs and a short tail . the two living species of megalonychidae are characterized by only two digits on their forefeet , the absence of a tail , and a more prominent snout , and longer fur . sloths are found in central and south america .\nthe pygmy three - toed sloth , bradypus pygmaeus , was first described as a species in 2001 [ 1 ] . bradypus pygmaeus is morphologically distinct from bradypus variegatus , most obviously in their reduced body size , although genetic differentiation has not been shown [ 2 ] . bradypus pygmaeus are found only on the 4 . 3 km 2 island of isla escudo de veraguas ( = isla escudo ) , 17 . 6 km off the caribbean coast of panama [ 1 ] . to date , researchers have only observed pygmy sloths in the red mangroves ( rhizophora mangle ) of isla escudo\u2019s tidal areas , leading to the working hypothesis of obligate red mangrove dietary specialization within the species [ 1 ] .\nthreats : since they are confined to one island surrounded by oceanic waters , every hectare of habitat is vitally important to pygmy three - toed sloths . unfortunately , vigorous cutting of mangrove trees is occurring on escudo de veraguas . if unchecked , this could lead to the outright extinction of these intriguing , dwarf mammals . surreptitious hunting by fishermen operating near the island may also be occurring , since the sloths are an easy source of meat .\nsloth fur exhibits specialized functions . the outer hairs grow in a direction opposite from that of other mammals . in most mammals , hairs grow toward the extremities , but because sloths spend so much time with their legs above their bodies , their hairs grow away from the extremities in order to provide protection from the elements while the sloth hangs upside down . sloth fur is also host to algae ; this algae colors the coat green and acts as camouflage ( butler 2007 ; kissell 2008 ) . because of this algae , sloth fur is a small ecosystem of its own , hosting many species of non - parasitic insects ; one sloth was found to host about 950 beetles ( butler 2007 ) . one species of moth is dependent on the sloth for its life cycle , traveling with the sloth to the ground when the sloth defecates and laying its eggs at that time ( butler 2007 ) .\n, a new species of bluegreen alga from sloth hair . brenesia . 1988 , 29 : 1 - 6 .\nthe sloth ' s scientific name is bradypus tridactylus . here is its taxonomy according to the national history museum :\nthree - toed sloths are about the size of a small dog , with the head and body having a combined length of around 60 centimeters , and the animal having a weight of 3 . 5 to 4 . 5 kilograms ( or between 7 and 10 pounds ) . unlike the two - toed sloths , they also have a short ( 6 - 7 centimeters ) tail , and they have three clawed toes on all four of their limbs . the generally larger two - toed sloths have a body length of between 58 and 70 centimeters , and weigh between 4 and 8 kilograms . other distinguishing features of the two - tailed sloths include a more prominent snout , longer fur , and the absence of a tail .\n) . the first two pco axes explained 40 . 6 % of the variability . however , the canonical analysis of the three species of sloths that had been sampled from several locations showed a separation of the different sloth species with squared canonical correlations of \u03b4\nthe members of the two families of living sloths , megalonychidae and bradypodidae , have similar adaptations , but the actual relationships of the living sloth genera are more distant from each other than their outward similarity suggests . the two - toed sloths of today are far more closely related to one particular group of ground sloths than to the living three - toed sloths . whether these ground - dwelling megalonychidae were descended from tree - climbing ancestors or whether the two - toed sloths are really miniature ground sloths converted ( or reverted ) to arboreal life cannot presently be determined to satisfaction . the latter possibility seems slightly more likely , given the fact that the small ground sloths acratocnus and synocnus , which were also able to climb , are among the closer relatives of the two - toed sloths , and that these together were related to the huge ground sloths megalonyx and megalocnus .\nlike many other mammals , sloths only have one baby at a time . baby sloths have a gestation of five to six months for some types sloths and as much as 11 . 5 months for others , such as the hoffman ' s two - toed sloth .\n) . similarly , ciliates were different on the three compared species . this can be due to differing hair structure and possibly chemistry as well as differing ecology of the species . it may also reflect the divergence of the two sloth genera about 20 million years ago [\n2 - toed is larger , faster , and nocturnal . diet is more varied - eats leaves and fruit . 6 or 7 neck vertebrae and vestigial tail\nshockey had originally planned to travel to panama to study the local manatee population , but contacts with a local nongovernmental organization told him they were hearing reports of\nimminent risk\nto the pygmy sloths .\nlittle was known by the scientific community about the actual conditions on the island , and it was hard to separate fact and rumor , but the pygmy sloth seemed to be in trouble ,\nshockey says . they decided to study the sloths instead .\npygmy three - toed sloths are pretty laid back even as sloths go , but there ' s serious trouble in the caribbean paradise where these highly specialised mangrove dwellers hang out . they were only recognised as a species in 2001 , and with their population perhaps already numbering less than 1 , 000 , time is rapidly running out . these diminutive sloths are fairly decent swimmers , can turn their heads 360 degrees and have a unique green algae that grows in their fur and provides camouflage .\n. additional clones originated from sloth hairs and tree bark which were positioned within the ulvophyceae in the phylogenetic analyses of fig .\n) . this systematic visual survey was conducted throughout all mangrove thickets . when we encountered a sloth an identity number was assigned , and the sloth ' s location recorded with a gps . date , time , and notes on the physical appearance and dorsal coloration of each sloth were recorded . this strictly observational study was conducted under permit # sea4311 , titled\nstatus de\nwas found . the clade was subdivided into three subclades that received moderate to high internal node support . two clades , a and c in ( fig .\nmating , gestation , birth and post - birth dynamics have not been observed for pygmy sloths , but these features may be inferred from studies of other species in the genus .\nhere we investigate the genetic diversity of the eukaryotic community present in fur of all six extant species of sloth . analysis of 71 sloth hair samples yielding 426 partial 18s rrna gene sequences demonstrates a diverse eukaryotic microbial assemblage . phylogenetic analysis reveals that sloth fur hosts a number of green algal species and suggests that acquisition of these organisms from the surrounding rainforest plays an important role in the discoloration of sloth fur . however , an alga corresponding to the morphological description of trichophilus welckeri was found to be frequent and abundant on sloth fur . phylogenetic analysis demonstrated the retention of this alga on the fur of sloths independent of geographic location .\nhair samples were examined from 71 sloth individuals , which originated from french guiana , panama , costa rica and brazil ( fig .\nthis article mainly deals with the living tree - dwelling sloths . until geologically recent times , large ground sloths such as megatherium ( bbc 2008 ) lived in south america and parts of north america . ground sloths disappeared soon after humans arrived , suggesting that humans drove ground sloths to extinction ( mason 2005 ) . of the six living species , only one , the maned three - toed sloth ( bradypus torquatus ) , has a classification of\nendangered\nat present . the ongoing destruction of south america ' s forests , however , may soon prove a threat to other sloth species .\nthe young researchers also learned how little of the island constituted suitable habitat for the animals .\nwe had expected to find pygmy sloths using the interior forests of the isla escudo , but it seems they are completely reliant on mangroves for food and primary habitat ,\nshockey says .\nwe found the intertidal mangrove thickets on only 0 . 024 percent of the already small island , and these were fragmented by upland forest and logging . this is a sobering reality for the pygmy sloth .\nthis project aims to improve our understanding of the pygmy sloth population and the threats to the species . to ensure the conservation of the species , it also carries out educational programmes and workshops to increase local awareness , enhance support for conservation , establish sustainable resource management , and support local authorities in enforcing legal regulations .\n\u2014 1981a . use of hands and feet of two - toed sloths ( choloepus hoffmanni ) during climbing and terrestrial locomotion . journal of mammalogy 62 : 413 - 421 .\nfrom manuel antonio , costa rica ( three sequences ) have been excluded from this analysis . ( a ) the principal coordinate analysis ( b ) the canonical analysis of\nthe critically endangered pygmy sloth is only found on escudo de veraguas , a tiny island off the east coast of mainland panama . the island is the only land mass in the 41 , 596 ha escudo de veraguas - dego protected sanctuary and is a part of the natural heritage of the local ngobe - bugle people .\nsloth hair grows in the opposite direction to most animals , so water runs away from the skin when the animal is upside down .\nmartins bezerra , b . , a . da silva souto , et al . ( 2008 ) ,\nobservation of brown - throated three - toed sloths : mating behaviour and the simultaneous nurturing of two young\n, journal of ethology 26 ( 1 ) : 175\u2013178 , doi : 10 . 1007 / s10164 - 007 - 0038 - z\n( porphyridiales , phragmonemataceae ) , a new red alga from sloth hair . brenesia . 1986 , 25 - 26 : 163 - 68 .\nweignberg , i . 1999 . speed of a sloth . in g . elert , the physics factbook . retrieved october 15 , 2008 .\n\u2014 1981b . the hand of two - toed sloths : its anatomy and potential uses relative to size of support . journal of morphology 169 ( 1 ) : 1 - 19 .\nat least three genera of giant ground sloths lived in southern california during the pleistocene . a shasta ' s ground sloth skeleton was recently excavated in carlsbad ( thought to be about 2 . 1 m ( 7 ft ) long and weighing about 136 - 181 kg ( 300 - 400 lbs ) \u2014 bear sized .\nbut smaller . pygmy three - toed sloths have buff - colored faces with dark circles that surround the eye and go outwards to their temples . clay - orange fur covers the face , starting underneath the dark eye circles . the hair on the head and shoulders is long and bushy , distinctive against the shorter facial hair and making it look as if these sloths have a hood . the throat is brown - gray and the dorsum is speckled and has a dark mid - sagittal stripe . males differ in that they have a dorsal ginger speculum with fuzzy hair following the margin . pygmy three - toed sloths have in total 18 teeth , 10 from the upper jaw which consists of 2 anterior chisel - shaped teeth and 8 molariform teeth . on the bottom jaw there are 8 teeth ; 2 anterior chisel - shaped , and 6 molariform teeth . the skull is small in comparison to other closely related species , lacks foramina in the anterodorsal nasopharynx , and doesn ' t have pterygoid sinuses that are inflated . the zygomatic arch is incomplete with slim roots , and the process of the jugal descends long and thin .\ndiorene smith successfully completed her edge fellowship in 2015 . in 2016 , diorene was awarded the disney conservation hero award for her impressive dedication and hard work towards the conservation of this species . diorene has joined the iucn xenarthan specialist group and has helped to establish a collaborative \u2018committee for the protection of the pygmy sloth\u2019 overseeing conservation and research activities .\nmendel , f . c . 1979 . the wrist joint of two - toed sloths : its relevance to brachiating adaptations in the hominoidea . journal of morphology 162 : 413 - 424 .\nmake a symbolic sloth adoption to help save some of the world ' s most endangered animals from extinction and support wwf ' s conservation efforts .\nthere ' s still a long way to go in the process to get the pygmy sloth protected in the u . s . the fws will now spend the next 12 months officially conducting a status review of the species , which will gather scientific data about the sloth ' s population , ecology and threats . once that step is done , fws will then declare if protection is warranted , which could kick off another 15 - month process ( at minimum ) before any legal protections can be enacted .\nthe pygmy sloth ' s fates have been up and down over the past 18 months . newer surveys this past april found\na bunch of very healthy babies ,\naccording to the friends of the pygmy sloth facebook page . but seven months before that a u . s . zoo called the dallas world aquarium almost set off an international incident by trying to export six sloths from panama to the u . s . , something it had permits from the panamanian government to do but which set off protests at the airport . the animals , plus two more that were bound for a zoo in panama , were all returned to isla escudo but one of the sloths reportedly died in october following the stressful experience .\nbeall , l . 2009 .\nanimal facts : sloth\n( on - line ) . helium . accessed august 17 , 2009 at urltoken .\na sloth only has its claws for defense against predators . however , its very low level of movement and the camouflage make it difficult to notice .\n] found uv - absorbing mycosporine - like amino acid ( 324 nm - maa ) from a green alga found in sloth hair . reduced exposure to uv - light could also be seen as beneficial to the sloth over the long run . however , there is no clear evidence supporting any hypothesis at present .\nbriggs , h . 2008 . sloth ' s lazy image\na myth .\nbbc news may 13 , 2008 . retrieved october 15 , 2008 .\n3 - toed is smaller , slower and both diurnal and nocturnal . highly specialized browsers - eat only leaves . 8 or 9 neck vertebrae . stout tail is 68 mm ( 2 . 7 in ) long\nhere we collected 71 sloth hair samples from all six extant sloth species as well as 12 environmental samples from tree trunks to survey the diversity of eukaryotic organisms present there . we found evidence for the acquisition of green algae from the environment as well as retention of green algae in the hair independent of the sloths geographic location .\nbritton sw : form and function in the sloth . q rev biol . 1941 , 16 : 13 - 34 . 10 . 1086 / 394620 . 190 - 207\nis endemic to a single island of panama , which is protected as a wildlife refuge and is contained within the ng\u00e4be bugle comarca . there is a need to improve the enforcement of this protected area . a comprehensive conservation plan is underway , bringing together the local community , wildlife authorities in panama , and the national and international scientific community to protect the island , using the pygmy sloth as a flagship species .\nis endemic to a single island of panama , which is protected as a wildlife refuge and is contained within the ngbe bugle comarca . there is a need to improve the enforcement of this protected area . a comprehensive conservation plan is underway , bringing together the local community , wildlife authorities in panama , and the national and international scientific community to protect the island , using the pygmy sloth as a flagship species .\ncompared to most mammals , a sloth moves very slowly . sloths can climb only 6 to 8 feet ( 1 . 8 to 2 . 4 meters ) per minute .\n] . the algae growing on sloth hair may also produce exopolymeric substances that may give the hair a desired texture or allow beneficial bacteria to grow . karsten et al . [\nsloths are an integral part of tropical rain forest ecosystems . among the most common mid - sized mammals in central and south american rain forests is the brown - throated sloth .\nthe u . s . fish and wildlife service ( fws ) last week announced that the world\u2019s rarest and smallest sloth could deserve protection under the endangered species act ( pdf ) .\n] but has not yet been isolated into pure culture and sequenced before . it is likely not to occur in any other environment besides sloth hair given that tropical terrestrial green algal species like\nthe ensuing decade has not been kind to the sloths . families of indigenous fishermen from the ng\u00f6be\u2013bugl\u00e9 comarca ( a semiautonomous region roughly equivalent to a native american reservation ) began moving to the island around 1995 and quickly started cutting down mangrove trees for firewood and lumber . unfortunately , pygmy sloths depend on those mangroves for their food and habitat . as the trees disappeared , so did the sloths . shockey and fellow researchers sam kaviar and peter sundberg spent three days counting the animals and found that just 79 remained .\nwe were all surprised to find such a low population ,\nhe says . a paper detailing their census of the sloth population was published november 21 in plos one .\nsimilarly , intriguing questions about the origins of life and why our planet is blessed with such a variety of life forms could remain unanswered . fascinating discoveries about our world , such as the dinosaur - tree wollemi pine , the glow - in - the - dark cockroach and a pygmy sloth living on its own caribbean island don\u2019t contribute majorly to gdp . one could argue that humans would survive , albeit with diminished lives , if that\u2019s all taxonomists did .\nthe field team , led by former edge fellow diorene , visit escudo twice a year to monitor the pygmy sloth population . transects are walked through the mangroves and forest , where the team record the number of sloths and other important data on their activity and habitat use . we have also put radio collars and gps backpacks on the sloths to help us find out how large an area each individual needs and which parts of the island they use in different seasons .\nsome reports suggest that female sloths give birth to a single offspring , but observations of a female brown - throated sloth in the wild with two infants suggest that they are capable of producing twins .\nthe tough leaves in a sloth ' s diet are difficult to digest . sloths have a four - part stomach that slowly digests the leaves with bacteria . it can take up to a month for a sloth to digest one meal . their leafy diet isn ' t very nutritious though , so they don ' t get much energy from it . this may be why sloths are so slow .\nour objective was to ascertain the population status of the pygmy three - toed sloth , bradypus pygmaeus , an iucn critically endangered species , on isla escudo de veraguas , panama . bradypus pygmaeus are thought to be folivorous mangrove specialists ; therefore we conducted a visual systematic survey of all 10 mangrove thickets on the island . the total mangrove habitat area was measured to be 1 . 67 ha , comprising 0 . 024 % of the total island area . the population survey found low numbers of b . pygmaeus in the mangrove thickets and far lower numbers outside of them . the connectivity of subpopulations between these thickets on the island is not established , as b . pygmaeus movement data is still lacking . we found 79 individuals of b . pygmaeus ; 70 were found in mangroves and 9 were observed just beyond the periphery of the mangroves in non - mangrove tree species . low population number , habitat fragmentation and habitat loss could lead to inbreeding , a loss of genetic diversity , and extinction of b . pygmaeus .\n. green algae were neither found in microscopic examinations of these two samples . an average of 27 % of the sloth samples for which 18s rrna gene clone libraries were constructed contained green algae ( fig .\n. a small tuft of sloth hair was sampled from a greenish patch , if the animal was visibly green or a darker patch if no greenish coloring was observed . the hair was removed with scissors and preserved in a plastic vial containing silica gel . samples were stored in silica gel at ambient temperature until further processing , which usually varied from one to three months . all hair samples were studied with a light microscope . if green algae were visibly present they were photographed for further comparison and preserved samples were kept in silica gel for herbarium material . in addition to the sloth hair samples we collected environmental samples from 12 locations on barro colorado island ( additional file\nalthough the island is uninhabited , there are seasonal visitors ( fishermen , campesinos , lobster divers , tourists , and local people ) who harvest timber to maintain wooden houses on the island . preliminary studies suggest a reduced level of genetic diversity for pygmy sloths compared to its putative population of origin , the common sloth population from mainland panama . this is expected , considering the history of species diversification and isolation on the island . however , signs of a more recent population bottleneck were also detected ( silva\nits scientific name , bradypus , is greek for\nslow feet ,\nwhich makes sense since it is the world ' s slowest animal . it is so slow , in fact , that algae grows on its fur , according to national geographic . the algae works to the sloth ' s advantage , though . the green of the algae helps the sloth blend into the trees , hiding it from predators .\nfor the most part , a sloth ' s life revolves around sleeping and eating in their tree homes . the only times these mammals leave their tree is to use the bathroom and to take a swim ."]}
{"id": 1529, "summary": [{"text": "the cape hairy bat , also known as little brown bat , temminck 's mouse-eared bat , cape myotis , tricoloured mouse-eared bat , cape hairy myotis , temminck 's hairy bat and three-coloured bat ( myotis tricolor ) is a species of vesper bat that is found in sub-saharan africa . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "cape hairy bat", "paragraphs": ["zool . cape hairy bat [ myotis tricolor , syn . : vespertilio tricolor ]\na young / baby of a cape hairy bat is called a ' pup ' . a cape hairy bat group is called a ' colony or cloud ' .\napproximately 18 species of bats have been recorded in the fynbos biome of the cape peninsula including the insectivorous schreiber\u2019s long - finger bat , cape serotine bat , darling\u2019s horseshoe bat and temminck\u2019s hairy bat and the fruit - eating straw coloured fruit bat and wahlberg\u2019s epauletted fruit bat .\nzool . hairy - faced bat [ myotis annectans , syn . : pipistrellus annectans ]\ncape of good hope ( cape town ) research report : mammals 1978 : 23\u201341 .\nthe cape hairy bat is listed as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category , on the iucn red list of threatened species\nrecords from the western cape . vernon ( 1972 ) recorded a collection from little brak\ncape province : descriptions of some new subgenera and subspecies . annals of the south african museum\npellets from 10 or more western cape province quarter - degree squares . white circles indicate dominance in\nzool . northern long - eared bat [ myotis septentrionalis , syn . : myotis keenii septentrionalis , vespertilio gryphus septentrionalis ] [ north american bat species ]\nafrica ( avery et al . 2002 , 2003 ) , examines for the first time all western cape\ncape province quarter - degree squares . white circles indicate dominance in squares yielding remains of at least 100\nin the southern cape province , south africa . annals of the south african museum 86 : 183\u2013374 .\nmills g , hes l . 1997 . the complete book of southern african mammals . cape town :\npellets from the western cape province ( list according to bronner et al . 2003 and musser and carleton 1993\nsouthern cape . in : vogel jc , editor . late cainozoic palaeoclimates of the southern hemisphere . rotterdam :\n. in : mills g , hes l , editors . the complete book of southern african mammals . cape\nlynch cd . 1989 . the mammals of the north - eastern cape province . memoirs of the national museum\nstuart ct , lloyd ph . 1978 . preliminary distribution maps of the cape province ( excluding chiroptera , cetacea\nzool . kashmir cave bat [ myotis longipes , syn . : vespertilio longipes ]\nzool . singapore whiskered bat [ myotis oreias , syn . : vespertilio oreias ]\nzool . sakhalin bat [ myotis petax , syn . : myotis daubentonii petax ]\nstuart ct , palmer ng , munnik bm . 1978 . a preliminary report on the vertebrate fauna of cape provincial\nzool . brandt ' s bat [ myotis brandtii , syn . : myotis brandti ]\nzool . daubenton ' s bat [ myotis daubentonii , syn . : myotis daubentoni ]\nzool . eastern water bat [ myotis petax , syn . : myotis daubentonii petax ]\nif a bat flies into your house open the doors and windows and quietly watch until it leaves . the bat is most likely young , lost and eager to leave .\nde hoog rj . 1967 . a survey of small mammals at the provincial wildlife farm , de hoop . cape provincial\nzool . malagasy mouse - eared bat [ myotis goudoti , syn . : vespertilio goudotii ]\nzool . eastern small - footed bat [ myotis leibii , syn . : vespertilio leibii ]\nzool . western small - footed bat [ myotis ciliolabrum , syn . : vespertilio ciliolabrum ]\ndepending on the type of bat , their life span is between 4 and 30 years .\nlawson ab . 1982 . notes on the mammals of the gamka mountain reserve , cape province . bontebok 2 : 1\u20138 .\nzool . formosan mouse - eared bat [ myotis taiwanensis , syn . : myotis adversus taiwanensis ]\nzool . maghreb mouse - eared bat [ myotis punicus , syn . : myotis blythi punicus ]\nzool . maghrebian mouse - eared bat [ myotis punicus , syn . : myotis blythi punicus ]\nlarge - spotted genet genets are associated with fynbos in the southern cape . they feed on insects , rodents , birds and reptiles .\nwe first checked the bat house where the one yellow house bat had been seen on my previous visit . to my surprise this bat house was again occupied with a colony of angolan free - tailed bats \u2013 perhaps 150 of them . then we went to the bat house where we hoped to find out what type of yellow house bats had caused me such confusion the last time i was there .\na medium sized antelope with a long hairy coat . the colour of mountain reedbuck varies from grey to reddish - brown and the neck is always brown . the belly is white , the tail bushy with white underneath . . .\ncorrespondence : iziko south african museum , p . o . box 61 , cape town , 8000 south africa . email : mavery @ urltoken\ngrindley j , siegfried wr , vernon cj . 1973 . diet of the barn owl in the cape province . ostrich 44 : 266\u2013267 .\nhen suddenly at about 18 . 45 hrs \u2013 about 25 minutes after the emergence of the angolan free - tailed bat from other bat houses , there was a sudden thump into the upper mist net and we were confident that we indeed had something unusual on account of size alone . i rushed to remove the bat from the mist net in case it might free itself . with the light available from our torches i could see that it was a yellow house bat and that this would not be the normal yellow house bat on account of the much greater size . we had , indeed , captured the first giant yellow house bat ,\nlarge grey mongoose ( cape ichneumon ) these mongoose occur in various vegetation types , but they\u2019re always associated with rivers . they feed on rodents , birds , reptiles , snakes , frogs and insects . the cape grey mongoose and the water mongoose are lso fairly common in the knysna area .\nzool . bechstein ' s bat [ myotis bechsteinii , syn . : m . bechsteini , vespertilio bechsteinii ]\nin response to the early success of the superman in action comics , bob kane of national publications ( later dc comics ) created the ' bat - man ' , a caped crusader , fighting crime whilst incorporating the imagery of a bat in order to frighten criminals . he wore a scallop - hem cape , a cowl covering most of the face featuring a pair of batlike ears , a stylized bat emblem on the chest , and the ever - present utility belt .\nzool . rufous mouse - eared bat [ myotis bocagii , syn . : m . bocagei , vespertilio bocagii ]\nzool . bat volute [ cymbiola vespertilio , syn . : c . ( cymbiola ) vespertilio , voluta vespertilio ]\nbut the whole story started on 12th october 2004 when i was doing some work in the komatipoort area in preparation for a documentary on a breeding colony of sundevall\u2019s leaf - nosed bats . in a moment of spare time i was checking on some bat houses that i had previously supplied to a time - share resort . i was concerned that while these bat houses had been occupied by well - established colonies of angolan free - tailed bats , mops condylurus , it now seemed that these bats may have left these bat houses . so when checking in one bat house i could only find a single yellow house bat tucked in high up between the crevices within the bat house .\nthe intermediate slit - faced bat ( nycteris intermedia ) , wood ' s slit - faced bat ( nycteris woodi ) , and n . aurita are considered by the iucn to be lower risk / near threatened . the javan slit - faced bat ( nycteris javanica ) and ja slit - faced bat ( nycteris major ) are considered vulnerable , the former because of declining range , the latter because of restricted range . too little is known about the madagascar slit - faced bat ( nycteris madagascariensis ) to assess its conservation status , and it is listed as data deficient .\nbatman was really bruce wayne , who lived in wayne manor . when he is needed , gotham city police would activate a searchlight with a bat - shaped insignia over the lens called the bat - signal , which shines into the night sky , creating a bat - symbol on a passing cloud . on a clear night , gotham city police commissioner gordon would call him on the bat - phone , situated in the study with an extension into the batcave .\nzool . rickett ' s big - footed bat [ myotis pilosus , syn . : myotis ricketti , vespertilio ricketti ]\nthe vampire bat is a fascinatingly unique creature in many ways . here ' s something more about it . . .\nvampire bats do indeed feed on blood , however , rather than being the huge monstrous creatures depicted in fiction and film , they are actually not larger than a mouse . there are only three species of bats that have this feeding habit\u2015the desmodus rotundus , or the common vampire bat , the diphylla ecuadata , or the hairy legged vampire bat , and the diaemus youngi , or the white winged vampire bat . and all these species are in the americas , in the regions of mexico , chile , brazil , and argentina . amongst these , as is evident from its name , the common vampire bat is the species that is most widespread . these bats feed on cattle , birds , horses , pigs , donkeys , goats , and so on .\nnever touch or pick up a bat : it may bite in self - defense , just like any other wild animal .\nthe banana bat is a tiny bat which is 77 mm long and weighs 4 . 0 grams . the dense fur on the back can be various shades of brown , whereas the undersides are always of a lighter shade than the dorsal colouration . . .\nsharpe ' s grysbok is a shy antelope , which is slightly smaller than the cape grysbok , and which has a thick - set body and a rich rufous - coloured coat . . .\nwhether in the folklore of central and south america , where the vampire bat is mainly found , as well as the mythology of european cultures and various others too , or in popular film and fiction , vampire bats have always been depicted as monstrous blood - sucking creatures . it was the movie ' dracula ' , based on bram stoker ' s novel , featuring count dracula , with his bat - like cape and fangs , prowling for victims to suck blood from in the dead of the night , while he slept all day long , which also featured bats , that has left lasting images of the vampire bat .\nbats have teeth and chew their food . seventy percent of all bats eat insects . one bat can eat more than a thousand insects in 1hr !\nto continue benefitting from having bats nearby , but not in your roof , you can construct a \u2018bat box\u2019 to provide them with a vital roosting site . for instructions on how to construct a bat box go to the endangered wildlife trust\u2019s website : urltoken or email kathp @ urltoken for more information .\nwidespread in savanna woodlands of sub - saharan africa from sierra leone in the west through east africa and north to the middle east on either side of the red sea ; occur south in africa to the cape .\ni debated in my mind the best way to check out my hunch . i concluded that it would be essential to have some companions with me who were active bat workers with good knowledge to help out . i contacted lientjie cohen and koos de wet , who regularly work with us on bat outings and who do a lot of bat work within their department duties . we agreed to meet at ngwenya lodge , near komatipoort , in the late afternoon of monday 25th october .\nfor the record the average forearm length of the four captured bats was about 79 . 76mm and their average weight ( mass ) with empty stomachs prior to evening feeding was 84 . 95gms ( about three times the weight of the standard yellow house bat , scotophilus dinganii ) while considering that the three females were probably in about mid pregnancy . these figures reveal that this species is the second largest insectivorous bat in south africa with the commerson\u2019s leaf - nosed bat , hipposideros commersoni , being somewhat larger .\nalthough the average bat weighs just about 40 grams , it usually drinks more than 20 grams of blood in a 20 - minute feeding session . this adds another element of complexity , since this weight would make flying after a session of feeding quite impossible . but , the bat ' s digestive system has adapted itself to process its food rapidly and digest it .\nthe mention of bats does not usually evoke feelings of love and warmth in most people . misconceptions about bats have not made them very popular creatures even though they play a vital role in maintaining biodiversity and in the sustainability of the environment . bats are the only mammals that can fly and south africa boasts some 7 fruit - eating bat species and 65 insect - eating bat species .\nthe female cape hare is slightly larger than the male . the mass varies from 1 . 5 - 2 . 5 kg . the fur is pale brownish - grey . the long ears and black - and - white tail is most obvious in flight . . .\nbut for girlie , it was not just a matter of eating as much as she could . she also had a number of engagements to fulfil ; she had to attend a committee meeting and meet the members , she had an appointment with a visiting bat zoologist from cape town , who needed an extra biopsy from the wing for dna information to go towards a phd and to trace the wing shape to assess manner of flight , and she was to visit the taxonomist at the transvaal museum for an acquaintance , but she was not destined to remain there . ( to the inexperienced eye i believe from the wing shape that this is a very fast flying bat ) .\ncape clawless otter these otters always live near water ( fresh or salt ) and they\u2019re often seen playing and hunting in the breakers . they do sometimes wander onto dry land in search of food , which includes crabs , frogs , fish , small mammals , insects and birds .\nbut by having now supplied the transvaal museum with a specimen of the species of the giant yellow house bat , there is now no necessity for another of this species to be collected from that same region .\nbody stripes of the burchells zebra are less numerous and broader than that of the cape mountain zebra , whereas body stripes extend around the belly . leg striping is less prominent . measures 1 . 3 to 1 . 4 metres at the shoulder and weighs 300 - 320 kg . . .\ndespite these , and many more , fantastic benefits of bats over one fifth of all bat species are threatened and some people still consider them loathsome creatures . below is a list of myths and misconceptions about bats ;\nthe cape clawless otter is larger than the only other species which occurs in southern africa , the spotted - necked otter . it is long - necked , sleek - furred and short - legged with a long , flattened but pointed - tipped tail which it uses as a rudder . . .\nwith lientjie , koos and me were my wife , rose , who was also our photographer , and adam palmer , who was again kindly helping us with ladders and other logistics . koos looked up at the bat house and noticed that a large lizard was in the bat house with it\u2019s head sticking out . this dampened our spirits , as we were worried that something unexpected may be interfering with our hopes to make a strange finding .\nthe bat - eared fox has a shoulder height of only 30cm , a length of about 75cm and weighs less than 5 kilograms . it has a beautiful silver - gray fluffy coat with a black - tipped bushy tail . . .\nthere are approxiamately 900 species of bat worldwide , all with a unique lifestyle as different from each other as a cheetah from a leopard . they are divided into two sub - orders . most of the species found in namibia belong to :\nbats do not suck blood and are not vampires . only 3 bat species , all from south america , feed on cow , horse and chicken blood by making a small incision on their skin and licking \u2013 not sucking - the blood .\na medium - sized bat ; forearm ranging 1 . 6\u20132 in ( 4 . 2\u20135 . 1 cm ) ; weight 0 . 2\u20130 . 4 oz ( 7\u201312 g ) . long , fine fur is gray to red . large ears .\nin typical manner girlie devoured a full meal of scarab and dung beetles on the evening of 17th november , and then i returned her into the bat house from which she had been captured 22 days earlier . we were always conscious that we did not want to take a female bat that was likely to be pregnant at that time of the year as a scientific voucher for museum records . by the time that girlie was released , there was every indication that she was indeed well pregnant .\nthe vampire bat has developed a unique social behavioral pattern which can be seen in their reciprocal altruism , wherein , bats that feed successfully come back to their roost and regurgitate some of the blood to a hungry bat . according to studies , it has been found that this behavior of blood sharing by regurgitation occurs amongst both related as well as unrelated bats in a group . in fact , they even set up a buddy system , wherein , pairs of bats form relationships based on blood sharing .\nlike all so - called ' free - tailed ' bats , the distal portion of the tail of the ansorgi ' s free - tailed bat is not encased in the interfemoral membrane , and thus presents as a protrusion above the flying membrane . . .\nmost species of slit - faced bats occur in africa , one ranging from the north ( israel and adjacent countries ) to the south ( the cape ) . two other species occur in southeast asia , from myanmar , thailand , and malaysia to sarawak , sumatra , java , borneo , and bali . one species has been reported from madagascar .\nafrican elephant large herds of elephant roamed the cape until well into the 19th century . in 1876 the local forestry officer reported that there were between 400 and 600 elephants in the knysna - tsitsikamma district . but hunting , poaching , the great fire of 1869 , and human encroachment on their environment almost wiped out the elephants of the southern cape . a few survivors still range freely in the knysna area , and although they ' re associated with the forests , reay smithers noted in his mammals of the southern africa sub - region that \u201celephants are not a forest species , and their occurrence in the knysna forest appears to be due to their being forced into this unnatural environment by man . \u201d\nas implied by the popular name , the lesser yellow house bat is similar in general appearance to its sister species , but is slightly smaller and leaner with a total head - to - tail length of 120 mm and a body mass of about 16 gr . . .\n. . . data based on records in the durban natural science museum ) . similarly , d . capensis was relatively infrequently sampled through barn owl ( tyto alba ) pellets in the western cape province ( avery et al . 2005 ) . as a wetland specialist that rarely emerges from the wetlands , it is trap - shy and thus difficult to monitor . . . .\naldridge , h . d . j . n . , m . obrist , h . g . merriam , and m . b . fenton .\nroosting , vocalizations and foraging by the african bat , nycteris thebaica .\njournal of mammalogy 71 ( 1990 ) : 242\u2013246 .\nrose and i returned to gauteng with the one female giant yellow house bat . she became a bit of a celebrity over the next three weeks as keen members wished to view the bat , take photographs and try to get some echolocation records . the bat , called \u2018girlie\u2019 over that period , performed wonderfully by impressing visitors with her rugged ability to decimate the biggest and hardest beetles available . for the 3 to 3 . 5gm rhino beetles and similar sized scarabs , she would ambush them in her cage with rapid powerful chomps with her well developed mouthful of incisors and molars . with these large beetles she would seize the prey in her teeth , then hang up by her thumbs on the cage mesh and devour the beetle with noisy chewing within the chamber formed by her interfemoral membrane . she was able to consume five standard size chafer beetles every thirty seconds .\nthis paper provides a basis for conservation work by detailing the micromammalian taxa occurring in the northern cape province . it presents new evidence from 30 barn owl pellet collections , augmented by previously published material from trapping or observation ( here called \u2018conventional\u2019 reports ) and owl roosts , divided into pre - 1930 , 1930\u20131979 and 1980 and newer as an indication of . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe bat is a mouse - like flying mammal . it belongs to the order chiroptera which is greek for ' hand wing ' . it ' s forelimbs are modified to form wings , consisting of mainly elongated fingers between which the wing membrane , ( a double layer of skin ) is stretched .\nthen on monday 25th october 2004 we had a major breakthrough in the positive finding of a species of bat that had never been located before in south africa . in fact , it is a very poorly known species throughout it\u2019s distribution range almost throughout sub saharan africa . so the species is only recorded from isolated spots , with nine known records from nine different countries . these separate records are from senegal , ghana , nigeria , sudan , eastern congo , malawi , zimbabwe , mozambique and now south africa . but in some of those discoveries more than a single bat of the species was encountered but only at single localities .\nand then i went to check another of the same type of bat house , and when i opened the bottom cleaning door , i saw the rapid shuffling away and up into the crevices of several yellow house bats that just looked very unusual to me as they seemed larger than usual . but i did not have any reference literature with me and it was frustrating to not be able to search for some explanation on what i had just seen . i was aware , though , from memory , that there was another larger species of yellow house bat , but i would have to wait until i returned to gauteng to consult the literature .\nthe blood plasma , which has no nutritive value , is absorbed rapidly by the lining of the stomach , which is then swiftly taken to the kidneys by the circulatory system . from there , it goes into the bladder and is excreted . in fact , the common vampire bat begins expelling extremely dilute urine , mainly comprising blood plasma , within 2 minutes of starting to feed .\nthen it goes back to its roost , settling down for the remaining part of the night to digest its meal of blood . but , it now faces a new digestive problem . since blood is basically protein , it creates a large amount of urea which has to be eliminated . therefore , the bat ' s urinary system utilizes a number of hormones which makes the urine very concentrated , containing less water and more urea .\nthey may not depend upon to find their prey , relying instead on sound cues such as the songs or footfalls of prey . slit - faced bats also take flying prey . accumulations of discarded pieces of prey under feeding roosts provide biologists with a picture of the diets of slit - faced bats . unlike other species of bat , slit - faced bats are warm - blooded and cannot enter torpor , a state of total inactivity .\nlight brown above , ventral side is lighter brown or grayish white . medium - sized bat with large ears and well - developed calcar . muzzle has deep median furrow . head and body length 3 . 8\u20134 . 3 in ( 9 . 7\u201311 cm ) , tail length 1 . 8\u20132 . 2 in ( 4 . 7\u20135 . 8 cm ) , forearm length 1 . 6\u20131 . 9 in ( 4 . 3\u20134 . 7 cm ) .\nat the back of my mind , has been that some four to five years ago , dr brian whiting and i , who have put in many hours working with and studying the bats at ngwenya together , had on two occasions sighted single much larger insect eating bats that had exited from a bat house , but we were never able to find out what we had seen . were we about to get to the moment of unravelling this puzzle ?\nthe best way to attract bats to your area or garden is to provide them with feeding sites . bats like a diversity of habitat and are more likely to forage in gardens planted with a diverse collection of indigenous vegetation . there is little or no danger or risk of disease if bats live in your roof , in fact , having a resident bat colony may go a long way in reducing mosquito problems ! here are some tips to help you live harmoniously with bats in your area ;\nother animals that feed on blood , such as leeches and ticks , do not have the same problem , because they can go for weeks , or months , and sometimes even years without feeding themselves . however , since the vampire bat is a warm - blooded animal , the necessity of it staying warm means that if it fasts it can die soon . this is one of the reasons why they are not found in the cooler regions of north , or central , or south america .\nhowever , the common vampire bat does have the ability of maneuvering on the ground as well as in the air . and they have strong pectoral muscles which they use , along with their long thumb and their hind knees to launch themselves into the air , catapulting about 4 feet high . once airborne , it transitions into flight in a single fluid motion , all of which takes just 30 milliseconds . as they need to feed close to the ground , this rapid take - off is highly advantageous .\nthe saliva is one of the most important elements used in their system of feeding . it contains a number of ingredients which help in prolonging bleeding . one of them is an anticoagulant , called draculin , that prevents clotting . another ingredient prevents red blood cells from sticking together , while a third prevents the veins at the wound from constricting . it then uses its tongue to lap up the blood , and not suck it , as is the common misconception . each bat requires about 2 tablespoons of blood per day .\nmany fruit bats are responsible for pollinating flowing and fruit trees , including bananas , mangos , wild guavas and even the iconic african baobab . bat guano , or faeces , is considered one of the most nutrient - rich types of plant fertilizer and is sold all over the world . research is currently underway to use unique anticoagulant , extracted from the saliva of south american vampire bats , to help stroke and heart attack victims and studies of bats\u2019 use of echolocation have resulted in the design of navigation systems for the blind .\n. . . barn owl ( tyto alba ) pellets from de hoop nature reserve contained all seven species of bats but in small proportions relative to the proportions of other species of prey taken . amongst bat species , more n . capensis are taken by owls ( avery et al . , 2005 ) probably because , as a clutter - edge forager , it combines relatively slow flight with foraging at the edge of vegetation rather than under its cover . bats have been reported to reduce or suppress activity in bright light with increased activity on cloudy and moonless nights , leading to the inference of predation as the cause of the behavioural changes ( reith , 1982 ; welbergen , 2006 ) . . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthis species has been patchily recorded in sub - saharan africa . in west africa the species has currently only been reported from the northwestern uplands of liberia ( koopman 1995 ) , while in central africa it is known only from a few records in the democratic republic of the congo and rwanda ( hayman et al . 1966 ; baeten et al . 1984 ) . the species is much more widely recorded in east africa , ranging from ethiopia in the north , through uganda , kenya , tanzania , malawi , zambia , mozambique and zimbabwe through to southern south africa .\nit has been recorded from the virunga national park in the democratic republic of the congo ( baeten et al . 1984 ) and in view of its east african range , it seems likely that it is present in additional protected areas . further studies are needed into the range of this species in west and central africa .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis species has been patchily recorded in sub - saharan africa . in west africa the species has currently only been reported from the northwestern uplands of liberia ( koopman 1995 ) , while in central africa it is known only from a few records in the democratic republic of the congo and rwanda ( hayman\n1984 ) . the species is much more widely recorded in east africa , ranging from ethiopia in the north , through uganda , kenya , tanzania , malawi , zambia , mozambique and zimbabwe through to southern south africa .\nclassification from integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) selected by jakob fahr - see more .\njakob fahr marked the classification from\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis )\nas preferred for\nmyotis tricolor ( temminck , 1832 )\n.\njakob fahr set\nimage of myotis tricolor\nas an exemplar on\nmyotis tricolor ( temminck , 1832 )\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsimmons , nancy b . / wilson , don e . , and deeann m . reeder , eds .\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vols . 1 & 2\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 2nd ed . , 3rd printing\nwith contributions by bernadette n . graham , adam p . potter , and mariana m . upmeyer\ncomments : includes eptesicus loveni , see schlitter and aggundey ( 1986 ) . see taylor ( 2000a ) for distribution map\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nwelcome to itis , the integrated taxonomic information system ! here you will find authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world . we are a\n) ; other organizations ; and taxonomic specialists . itis is also a partner of\nzool . temminck ' s myotis [ myotis tricolor , syn . : vespertilio tricolor ]\nbot . granny vine / grannyvine [ ipomoea tricolor , syn . : i . rubro - coerulea , violacea , pharbitis rubro - caerulea , p . tricolor ]\nbot . tricolored morning glory [ am . ] [ ipomoea tricolor , syn . : i . rubro - coerulea , violacea , pharbitis rubro - caerulea , p . tricolor ]\nbot . heavenly - blue morning glory [ ipomoea tricolor , syn . : i . rubro - coerulea , violacea , pharbitis rubro - caerulea , p . tricolor ]\nbot . flying saucers { pl } [ treated as sg . ] [ ipomoea tricolor , syn . : i . rubro - coerulea , violacea , pharbitis rubro - caerulea , p . tricolor ]\nbot . three - colored morning glory [ am . ] [ ipomoea tricolor , syn . : i . rubro - coerulea , violacea , pharbitis rubro - caerulea , p . tricolor ]\nzool . rickett ' s big - footed myotis [ myotis pilosus , syn . : myotis ricketti , vespertilio ricketti ]\nzool . northern myotis [ myotis septentrionalis , syn . : myotis keenii septentrionalis , vespertilio gryphus septentrionalis ]\nbot . silver ( tree ) fern [ cyathea dealbata , syn . : alsophila tricolor ]\nbot . silver treefern / tree fern [ cyathea dealbata , syn . : alsophila tricolor ]\nbot . kaponga [ nz ] [ cyathea dealbata , syn . : alsophila tricolor ] [ silver tree fern ]\nbot . ponga [ nz ] [ cyathea dealbata , syn . : alsophila tricolor ] [ silver tree fern ]\nzool . bechstein ' s myotis [ myotis bechsteinii , syn . : m . bechsteini , vespertilio bechsteinii ]\nzool . brandt ' s myotis [ myotis brandtii , syn . : m . brandti , vespertilio brandtii ]\nzool . david ' s myotis [ myotis davidii , syn . : vespertilio davidii ]\nunter folgender adresse kannst du auf diese \u00fcbersetzung verlinken : urltoken tipps : doppelklick neben begriff = r\u00fcck - \u00fcbersetzung \u2014 neue w\u00f6rterbuch - abfrage : einfach jetzt tippen ! suchzeit : 0 . 362 sek .\n) , m\u00f6glichst mit einem guten beleg im kommentarfeld . wichtig : bitte hilf auch bei der\nlimited input mode - mehr als 1000 ungepr\u00fcfte \u00fcbersetzungen ! du kannst trotzdem eine neue \u00fcbersetzung vorschlagen , wenn du dich einloggst und andere vorschl\u00e4ge im contribute - bereich \u00fcberpr\u00fcfst . pro review kannst du dort einen neuen w\u00f6rterbuch - eintrag eingeben ( bis zu einem limit von 500 unverifizierten eintr\u00e4gen pro benutzer ) .\ndieses deutsch - englisch - w\u00f6rterbuch basiert auf der idee der freien weitergabe von wissen . mehr informationen ! enth\u00e4lt \u00fcbersetzungen von der tu chemnitz sowie aus mr honey ' s business dictionary ( englisch / deutsch ) . vielen dank daf\u00fcr ! links auf dieses w\u00f6rterbuch oder einzelne \u00fcbersetzungen sind herzlich willkommen ! fragen und antworten\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspecies can be found everywhere in namibia from the orange river into the namib desert ( including sossusvlei ) , the kalahari desert , etosha national park and as far north as the zambezi region ( formerly the caprivi strip ) .\nbats are amazing animals . they can see , they ' re harmless , nocturnal and are the only mammals that can truly fly . other types of mammals , such as flying lemurs , sugar gliders ( marsupials commonly found in australia ) and flying squirrels , glide . african bats are not vampires nor do they transmit parasites to human beings .\ndepending on the species , bats can be grey , brown , white or reddish brown .\nbats sleep upside down . they use their feet to grasp onto a twig or board , and when it is cold , they hang close together .\nso off he would go in the batmobile and more often that not , a battle of wits would ensue in a contest with his ' most implacable foe ' - ' the joker ' - who represents everything batman opposes . the batman stories have been told in many forms over the years . to this day the master sleuth and scientist remains a popular rival to superman - who of course wears his underpants over his tights !\na privately owned game farm , with a good variety of wildlife just a short distance south of windhoek .\nthis lodge is very popular amongst those seeking leopard and cheetah viewing close to windhoek . regular feedings guarantee great sightings and photographic opportunities\nopposite the windhoek international airport , close enough to be extremely convenient but far enough away that planes are not a distraction . great for those arriving late or leaving early , as cuts out the 45km drive from windhoek /\none of namibia ' s most popular spas with the added bonus of top game viewing .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nbeen augmented periodically ever since . the present paper follows vernon ( 1972 ) and grindley et al .\nrepresentation of some species and rainfall , either its amount per annum or its seasonality . variation\nsuggests that mean size in this species may be influenced by rainfall seasonality . although the vlei rat ,\nowls are more nearly opportunistic while in others they appear to be considerably more selective .\nafrica to attract the attention of european naturalists . unfortunately , few of the rec\nsome 70 years later the first systematic collections were made in southern africa by c . b .\n( shortridge and carter 1938 ; shortridge 1942 ) . during the last 40 years publication has\nafrican national parks staff or concerning reserves administered by these bodies ( e . g . de\nhoog 1967 ; robinson 1976 ; stuart and braack 1978 ; stuart et al . 1978 ; lawson 1982 ; de\ngraaff and rautenbach 1983 ; avery et al . 1990 ) . apart from the preliminary distri\nriver near mossel bay and grindley et al . ( 1973 ) reported collections from\nof the samples discussed here in other contexts ( e . g . avery 1977 , 1982 , 1992 , 1999 ; avery\nthree areas regular collections were made over a period of years . these latter are the west\npotberg ) and vrolijkheid nature reserve . in cases where regular collections were made , the\nidentification methods is given in avery et al . ( 2002 ) . the nomenclature of bronner et al .\nexamined for evidence of changes in population structure . estimates of age at death were\non discrete changes in the pattern of the teeth as wear progresses ( e . g . hanney 1963 ) . in\nsurface and maximum length of tooth was calculated as a proportion of the latter . the\nobserved range in this occlusal index has been found to be between 0 . 50\n( neo - natal ) animals to zero in old animals ( avery 1984 ) . the age of the old animals\ntaken as 24 months ) . this function was employed to accommodate the fact that occlusal\nlength does not increase at a steady rate throughout life . ages were estimated to the nearest\nin 3318da ( philadelphia ) and 9945 in 3318aa ( west coast national park ) . in all , 56\nmandibles and maxillae , number of mandibles and maxillae measured ; map , mean annual precipitation . % win ,\nandriesgrond ; bbs , blombos ; kfn , kraaifontein ; stb , stellenbosch airfield .\nrepresented ( total ) and is dominant ( dom . ) , with the range of percentage representation of the dominant species\nanimals ( classes 5\u20138 ) are not well represented at any time of the year . when estimat\nborn in a given month varied between 4 . 3 % in june and 11 . 3 %\npresent data add to what was previously known . however , stuart and lloyd\u2019s ( 1978 )\nsquares . white circles indicate dominance in squares yielding remains of at least 100 individuals .\nseen ; it is also readily identifiable because of the stripes along its back .\n( friedmann and daly 2004 ; venturi et al . 2004 ) although it is not\nin the de hoop nature reserve ( 3420ad ) . present data confirm that the species has\n7 ) , is apparently affected by rainfall seasonality rather than by amount . its\nmm , no more than about 65 % of which falls in winter . this reflects the fact that these\nand climate variables in the de hoop nature reserve ( geelbek and bottelary ) . ( a ) same - season rainfall and\nmean annual precipitation increasing from left to right . sfn and sfs , steenbokfontein north and south\nbreeding is offset by a month or more from rainfall . according to the pres\ncan re - grow . conversely , the low proportion of births in june at geelbek could reflect\nrainfall in late summer . it is probably less likely that night - time temperatures are sufficien\nbe expected in the unpredictable climate of the north - west coast . it would appear therefore\nrainfall , diversity is also relatively low despite quite high numbers of species . in this case the\nequable climate of the area . there are , however , extensive reed - beds round a series of lakes ,\nwhich are likely to be favoured hunting grounds for the owls . in this case , therefore , it is not\npellets from the west coast national park ( avery 1992 ) . at the time this was\ntaken as evidence that the species concerned inhabited the same or nearby microhabitats . it\nspecies in a single pellet than are the larger species . however , the commonly co - occurri\namong the dense reed beds and thick grass . in this case the quite high numbers of\nprincipal co - occurrence among 10 best represented species at four sites in different parts of the province .\neach sample has a dominant species ( dom sp . ) representing approximately one - fifth to one - quarter of the sample\n( % dom sp . ) . the sample size is the number of micromammalian prey individuals in each sample .\npossible , as more samples are studied , to confirm or modify conclusions reached so far .\nmr r . k . brooke , and ms a . scott and co - workers at the\nl . avenant , national museum bloemfontein , and dr g . malan , tshwane university of\ntechnology , offered useful comments on a previous draft . the ongoing project of which\nwillem pretorius nature reserve , free state , south africa . south african journal of wildlife research\nthe korannaberg conservancy . in : singleton gr hinds la krebs cj spratt dm , editors . rats , mice &\nprovince , south africa : new information . annals of the south african museum 74 : 201\u2013209 .\navery dm , avery g , colahan bd . 2003 . micromammal distribution in the free state , south africa : barn owl\navery dm , avery g , roberts a . 2002 . a contribution from barn owl pellets to\ndistributions in kwazulu - natal , south africa . african zoology 37 : 131\u2013140 .\navery dm , rautenbach il , randall rm . 1990 . an annotated checklist of the land mammal fauna of the west\nbronner gn , hoffmann m , taylor pj , chimimba ct , best pb , matthee ca , robinson tj . 2003 . a revised\nsystematic checklist of the extant mammals of the southern african subregion . durban museum novitates\ndavis dhs . 1974 . the distribution of some small southern african mammals ( mammalia : insectivora , rodentia ) .\ndavis rm , meester j . 1981 . reproduction and postnatal development in the vlei rat ,\nde graaff g . 1981 . the rodents of southern africa . durban : butterworths .\nde graaff g , rautenbach il . 1983 . a survey of mammals in the newly proclaimed karoo national park , south\nfriedmann y , daly b editors . 2004 . red data book of the mammals of south africa : a conservation assessment .\nascertaining population dynamics of rodent prey . annals and magazine of natural history ( series 13 )\n. in : mills g , hes l , editors . the complete book of southern african\nlongland ws . 1985 . comments on preparing owl pellets by boiling in naoh . bird - banding 56 : 277 .\nlynch cd . 1983 . the mammals of the orange free state . memoirs of the national museum bloemfontein\nmeester j , lambrechts a von w . 1971 . the southern african species of\nmeester jaj , lloyd cnv , rowe - rowe dt . 1979 . a note on the ecological role of\nmeester jaj , rautenbach il , dippenaar nj , baker cm . 1986 . classification of southern african mammals .\nmusser gg , carleton md . 1993 . family muridae . in : wilson de , reeder dm , editors . mammal species of the\nrautenbach il . 1982 . the mammals of the transvaal . pretoria : ecoplan .\nrobinson ga . 1976 . notes on mammals encountered in the tsitsikama national parks . koedoe 19 : 145\u2013152 .\nrookmaker lc . 1989 . the zoological exploration of southern africa 1650\u20131790 . rotterdam : balkema .\nshortridge gc , carter d . 1938 . a new genus and new species and subspecies of mammals from little\nskinner jh , smithers rhn . 1990 . the mammals of the southern african subregion . 2nd ed . pretoria : university\nsmuts j . 1832 . dissertation zoologica , ennumerationem mammalium capensium . leiden : cyfveer .\nstuart ct , braack hh . 1978 . preliminary notes on the mammals of the bontebok national park . koedoe\nthomas o , schwann h . 1906 . the rudd exploration of south africa . iv . list of mammals obtained by mr\nat knysna . proceedings of the zoological society of london 1906 ( i ) : 159\u2013168 .\nvelleman pf . 1988 . datadesk 6 . 0 statistics guide . ithaca ( ny ) : data description .\nventuri fp , chimimba ct , van aarde rj , fairall n . 2004 . the distribution of two medically and agriculturally\nvernon cj . 1972 . an analysis of owl pellets collected in southern africa . ostrich 43 : 109\u2013124 .\n. . . as they are nocturnal , they are often preyed on by barn owls ( tyto alba ) as documented in studies analysing owl pellets ( avenant 2005 ; avery et al . 2005 ) . they live in burrows or crevices ( de graaf 1981 ; armstrong & van hensbergen 1996b ) , and can also swim ( hickman & machin\u00e9 1986 ) . . . .\n. . . ecosystem and cultural services : they have been recorded as a forage species for owls ( dean 1978 ; avery et al . 2002avery et al . , 2003 avery et al . , 2005 ; avery & avery 2011 ) . previously they were considered susceptible to plague which occurs sporadically in free - living populations but the national institute for communicable diseases ( 2005 ) did not list them as plague - carrier . . . .\na conservation assessment of mystromys albicaudatus . the 2016 red list of mammals of south africa , swaziland and lesotho .\n. . . micromammals are suitable as palaeoenvironmental in - dicators due to their limited territorial ranges , precise ecological requirements and their role as primary consumers in the food chain . analyses of modern micromammal samples have demonstrated close correlation between relative abundance of species and composition of vegetation substrate in the vicinity of sample sites ( andrews , 1990 ; reed , 2003reed , , 2005 avery et al . , 2005 ) . local alterations in vegetation substrate and climatic conditions may thus be reflected in presence / absence and / or variations in proportions of micromammal species in an archaeological assem - blage . . . .\n. . . reed ( 2005 ) and matthews ( 2008 ) found similar ranges of micromammal species when comparing modern spotted eagle owl and african barn owl pellets . both species are claimed to be nocturnal ( andrews , 1990 ) , however modern pellet samples show that they hunt species such as otomyinae ( diurnal ) and r . pumilio ( crepuscular ) ( avery et al . , 2005 ; matthews , 2008 ; matthews et al . , 2011 ) . certain micromammal taxa are found in relatively high frequencies in spotted eagle owl and african barn owl pellets . . . .\n. . . certain micromammal taxa are found in relatively high frequencies in spotted eagle owl and african barn owl pellets . species typical for the south coast are otomyinae , gerbillinae and soricids ( avery et al . , 2005 ; matthews , 2008 ; matthews et al . , 2011 ) . . . .\n. . . the interaction between the southern hemisphere tropical and temperate climate systems are the main cause of the current rainfall pattern in southern africa [ 35 ] . bbc is situated in an intermediate gradient rainfall zone ( yrz ) , characterized by aseasonal rainfall with 54 % precipitation during the winter half year [ 36 ] ( fig 1 ) . to the west of this region is a winter rainfall zone ( wrz ) where more than 60 % of precipitation occurs during the winter months . . . ."]}
{"id": 1534, "summary": [{"text": "the wreckfish are a family , polyprionidae , of perciform fish .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "they are deep-water marine fish and can be found on the ocean bottom , where they inhabit caves and shipwrecks ( thus their common name ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "their scientific name is from greek poly meaning \" many \" and prion meaning \" saw \" , a references to their prominent spiny fins .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "they stay together in schools of at least five .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "wreckfish ( polyprion americanus ) are a long-lived commercial species in the mediterranean , the south-eastern pacific and the atlantic ocean .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the fish is commonly known as chernia in spanish-speaking latin america , and as cherne in portugal . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "wreckfish", "paragraphs": ["portugal , spain , greece and the u . s . are the largest sources of wreckfish . most wreckfish on the u . s . market are caught domestically .\nwhen you check it out . hats off to wreckfish bistro on stater street for beautifull\na close - up of a tasty dish of wreckfish at michael ' s genuine restaurant .\nwreckfish come from marine fisheries , not farms . they are caught with hydraulic rod and reel .\notherwise , sam ray says he ' ll be out of the wreckfish business , and romo will lose a valuable local resource . the implicit result would be a loss of charleston ' s unique wreckfish cookery altogether .\nsunday 5th novemeber 2017 duck & waffles exec chef dan doherty comes to wreckfish to cook sunday brunch with us .\ntrip limit : individual transferable quota system in place ; only itq shareholders or their designees may commercially harvest wreckfish .\nthe single , greatest threat to the wreckfish is from overfishing ( 1 ) . since the 1970s , fisheries specifically targeting wreckfish have existed ( 1 ) , with the large size , quality flesh and high market price of the wreckfish attracting a lot of interest ( 5 ) . despite a lack of data on some wreckfish populations , it is believed that global wreckfish stocks may now be in decline ( 1 ) . this assumption is based on the fact that wreckfish are slow to reproduce , which makes it susceptible to overexploitation , and due to signs that populations are being overexploited in some areas ( 1 ) . for example , wreckfish fisheries in brazil , bermuda and portugal began to decline within five years of their commencement ( 1 ) . in addition , the habit of wreckfish to form aggregations when spawning increases its vulnerability to overfishing , as large groups are an easy target for fisheries ( 1 ) .\nsix years down the line and three successful restaurants later , we\u2019re trying for another\u2026 this time in liverpool . introducing wreckfish\ntom kerridge of the 2 starred hand and flowers , marlow is coming to liverpool to do one night at wreckfish .\nwreckfish are found in temperate and subtropical waters over continental and island slopes ( 4 ) . juvenile wreckfish inhabit the open ocean and are often associated with floating seaweeds and wreckage , as the name implies ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . as adults , wreckfish are demersal , inhabiting the seabed at depths from 40 to 1 , 000 metres ( 5 ) ,\nsix years down the line and three successful restaurants later , we\u2019re trying for another\u2026 this time in liverpool . introducing wreckfish .\neffective april 16 , 2012 - 5 % of the annual catch limit for wreckfish has been allocated to the recreational sector .\nidentification & biology : wreckfish are a bass - like species . they are bluish grey on the back and paler with a silvery sheen on the belly . their fins are blackish brown . juveniles have black blotches on their head and body . wreckfish have a big head with a big mouth and a rough bony ridge across the upper part of the gill cover . wreckfish grow slowly , up to a maximum about 220 pounds and 6 . 5 feet in length . however , a typical wreckfish weighs 40 to 60 pounds and is 2\u00bd to 4 feet long . cousin of grouper and sea bass , wreckfish was first harvested by accident in the south atlantic in the early 1980s . a fisherman was using longline gear to try to recover lost equipment and caught a wreckfish by mistake .\nwreckfish is a relatively slow - growing species . an innovative fisheries management system in the southeastern u . s . mandates conservative fishing .\nadult wreckfish continue to feed on fish , but also consume squid found in their deep water habitat ( 1 ) . during spawning , which takes place between late july and early october , wreckfish come together in aggregations and females release their eggs into the deep ocean water ( 4 ) . being a multiple spawner , wreckfish release multiple batches of eggs during the spawning season ( 4 ) . the oldest known wreckfish was a male , found to be 81 years old ; the oldest known female was 64 years old ( 1 ) .\nsix years down the line and three successful restaurants later , we\u2019re opening another\u2026 this time in liverpool . introducing wreckfish . 23rd october 2017 .\nwreckfish management shows promise some larger , slower - growing fish populations are being managed with apparent success . the north atlantic wreckfish ( polyprion americanus ) is one such example . in the mid - 1980s , a few commercial fishermen started catching the wreckfish in areas around the charleston bump , a rocky outcropping on the continental slope off the coast of south carolina . the south atlantic fishery management council soon began formulating a plan to manage this growing fishery . creating this plan was initially difficult , however , because information on the biology of the wreckfish was scarce .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - wreckfish ( polyprion americanus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - wreckfish ( polyprion americanus )\ntitle =\narkive species - wreckfish ( polyprion americanus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nfishing regulations , which may help conserve stocks of wreckfish , are only in place in the usa and new zealand ( 1 ) . in the usa , commercial fishers must have permits , quotas are in place , and wreckfish are not allowed to be caught during the spawning season . the commercial fishery in new zealand also has quotas in place ( 1 ) . elsewhere , particularly in brazil , conservation measures for the wreckfish are worryingly absent ( 1 ) .\nseasonal availability : the wreckfish fishery is closed during their spawning season ( mid - january to mid - april ) . * wreckfish fish is rated a\nbest choice\nby seafood watch . it is also recommended by the sustainable seafood initiative , a group headed up by the s . c . aquarium .\ngot a little something else in the works . . . . . \u2018wreckfish\u2019 , summer herb and veg broth . it\u2019s very green , so healthy right ? ?\nthe wreckfish is a demersal offshore species usually found off rocky and sandy bottoms at a depth range of 100 - 200 m . younger individuals may be epipelagic .\ntwo characteristics of the wreckfish make conservation and management difficult . one is that the wreckfish migrates throughout the north atlantic during its life cycle ; and the other is that all of the wreckfish in the north atlantic ( from europe and america ) seem to come from a single population . nations on both sides of the atlantic must work together to ensure that the population remains large enough to support a fishery . historically , the species has suffered in the hands of industry . the high fishing pressure on the wreckfish around bermuda , for instance , caused its commercial extinction in those waters in the 1980s . u . s . management policy is aimed at preventing that from happening here .\nspend a morning with gary & luke at wreckfish preparing lunch , getting to see what goes in to the dishes behind the scenes before sitting down and enjoying lunch together .\nwreckfish are a bass - like species . they are bluish grey on the back and paler with a silvery sheen on the belly . their fins are blackish brown . juveniles have black blotches on their head and body . wreckfish have a big head with a big mouth and a rough bony ridge across the upper part of the gill cover .\nthe u . s . wreckfish fishery is possibly the most sustainable fishery in the world . there are less than 10 boats with commercial wreckfish licenses , and each boat is issued a specific quota for the entire year . fisherman are limited to using bandit rigs , which are large hydraulic reels that send a vertical cable line and multiple baited circle hooks nearly 1 , 500 feet to the bottom . this creates a very selective method of fishing that results in nearly zero environmental impact or bycatch . wreckfish also have no known predators .\nwe are in the process of trying to understand the general biology of the barrelfish , such as how long they live and when they mature . most barrelfish are caught on the blake plateau as bycatch of the wreckfish fishery . however , like the wreckfish in the 1980s , the barrelfish may rapidly become popular . we are already beginning to study this fish so that we will have data to develop a management plan , if necessary . some of the strategies in place for the wreckfish fishery may apply to the barrelfish , as well .\nwreckfish are large predators in the dynamic food chain of the charleston bump . the charleston bump deflects the gulf stream offshore , causing upwelling of nutrient - rich water that supports the growth and production of phytoplankton ( tiny plants ) , and the zooplankton ( tiny animals ) that feed on phytoplankton . fish and squid living in the water column travel toward the surface at night to feed on the zooplankton . during the day , these fish return to the deep to avoid predators and digest their meal in the dark , cooler waters where wreckfish live . wreckfish lurk in caves and under overhangs on the bump and come out to feed on these fish and squid migrating during the day . there are no known predators of wreckfish .\nthe wreckfish has an incredibly large distribution , primarily occurring in the atlantic ocean but also ranging into the mediterranean , southern indian ocean and south - western pacific ocean ( 1 ) .\nin general , wreckfish live in water ranging from 140 feet up to 3 , 300 feet deep . in the first several years of their life , they ' re found in surface waters , often near floating debris . as adults , wreckfish prefer steep , rocky bottoms and deep reefs , which provide food and shelter . they ' re often found near caves and overhangs .\nthe charleston bump , an upwelling of cliffs and ledges off the coast of south carolina that is severe enough to substantially divert the northern flow of the gulf stream itself , is the only commercial atlantic wreckfish zone in the united states . only three boats routinely even try for them . as far as local and sustainable goes , wreckfish is charleston ' s deep sea trophy .\nif you are an atlantic wreckfish , sam ray is not a man you want to meet . neither is micah laroche , who offloads sam ' s boat the lien machine at his cherry point seafood dock at the far end of wadmalaw island . chances are , if you have eaten wreckfish in charleston , it most likely surfaced on the end of ray ' s commercial line .\nmost wreckfish are between 20 and 60 pounds , but can reach weights of well over 200 pounds . this average large size helps create thick , meaty fillets and impressive portions . the meat of wreckfish is much like grouper - - firm , white , and mild with large flakes . the cold , deep water they live in also imparts a clean , slightly sweet taste to the fillet .\nthe wreckfish ( polyprion americanus ) is a large , slow - growing , deep - water fish . currently , commercial fishermen catch this fish on the blake plateau . click image for larger view .\nthe wreckfish is classified as data deficient ( dd ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) . the brazilian subpopulation is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nif all goes to plan , we\u2019re hoping to open wreckfish in september 2017 . the bistro will be similar to all of our other restaurants , with a relaxed and welcoming feel and have an 90 cover capacity .\nperes , m . b . and klippel , s . ( 2003 ) reproductive biology of the southwestern atlantic wreckfish polyprion americanus ( teleostei : polyprionidae ) . environmental biology of fishes , 68 : 163 - 173 .\nthe wreckfish ( polyprion americanus ) , named for the tendency of juveniles to associate with floating ocean wreckage ( 3 ) , is a large bluish - grey fish , with a paler , silvery underside and blackish - brown fins ( 2 ) . the rough , scaly body is flattened sideways and the caudal , or tail , fin is gently rounded and edged with white . the wreckfish has a large mouth , with the lower jaw projecting considerably beyond the upper jaw ( 3 ) , and a bony ridge protrudes across the upper part of the gill cover ( 2 ) . juvenile wreckfish bear black blotches on the head and body ( 2 ) .\nbarrelfish may become popular like the wreckfish , the barrelfish is a relatively large and probably long - lived , deep - water fish . only the adults are found around the charleston bump area ; the juveniles apparently live elsewhere .\nrecommended preparation : the flavor and texture of the wreckfish is light , delicate and clean - tasting\u2026 it has a flavor similar to grouper but its texture and consistency are similar to swordfish . the meat is firm and white and has a large flake .\na week in advance , i booked a table for sunday brunch at wreckfish bistro . when we arrived , the hostess sat us at a table in front of a speaker . the place was almost empty , so i asked to sit at an equ\nthe information obtained from the wreckfish , together with what we learn about the barrelfish during this expedition , may help us manage the red bream on the blake plateau - - even before we have the chance to learn all we can about this fish .\nour aim has always been to provide perfectly simple food in a relaxed environment , using the best quality produce possible . everything in our restaurants is made from scratch , including fresh bread daily , all stocks and sauces , ice creams and sorbets . wreckfish is no different .\nour aim has always been to provide perfectly simple food in a relaxed environment , using the best quality produce possible . everything in our restaurants is made completely from scratch , including fresh bread , all stocks and sauces , ice creams and sorbets . wreckfish will be no different .\nsam ray is something of a legend out there and probably the most knowledgeable source about atlantic wreckfishing in the world . he ' s been targeting them since the fishery was discovered in 1987 . outside of some agricultural work as a younger man , wreckfish is all he knows .\nwe know little about the barrelfish , but we believe it may move about the north atlantic like the wreckfish . barrelfish are found throughout the north atlantic ( sometimes in different life stages ) , but only large adults are found in the western north atlantic off the coast of south carolina .\nmachias , a . , somarakis , s . , papadroulakis , n . , spedicato , m . t . , suquet , m . , lembo , g . and divanach , p . ( 2002 ) settlement of the wreckfish ( polyprion americanus ) . marine biology , 142 : 45 - 52 .\nwreckfish fishermen do catch red bream from the waters over the blake plateau , though not much information is available on exactly where in the water column it lives . in the canary islands , red bream live in water 400 - 800 m deep . some research indicates that red bream move to deeper waters as they grow and that spawning occurs , at least for the population in the eastern north atlantic , around the canary and madeira islands . they probably do not migrate around the north atlantic , as do the wreckfish . the red bream does , however , appear to be a long - lived , deep - water species .\nthis long - lived fish has two distinct stages in its life history . juvenile wreckfish inhabit the open ocean , where they feed on bony fishes , particularly trachurus species ( jack mackerels ) ( 1 ) . they live for more than two years at the sea surface before settling on the ocean bottom at great depths ( 4 ) ( 5 ) .\nscientists also worry about the problem of bycatch ( unintentional catching of one species when fishing for another ) of both adult and juvenile wreckfish . for example , the juveniles are often caught in tuna nets in the eastern north atlantic . this could have serious effects on that population since the younger fish would never mature to produce more fish . all of these issues must be considered when determining the best way to manage the wreckfish . to date , the restrictions set in place have helped to keep this population size at a constant , which gives hope to those trying to manage potential fisheries for other deep - water species , like the barrelfish ( hyperoglyphe perciformis ) and the red bream ( beryx decadactylus ) .\nin february , 2017 , we held a five day pop up in the currently derelict wreckfish building , where guests were invited to pay what they thought the meal was worth . reservations were launched a month in advance and booked up in less than 10 minutes ( despite all guests knowing that there was no gas , electricity or running water\u2026 ) we had to get seriously creative but we were completely humbled by the response . it made us realise that this is what liverpool wants . opening in a city centre is something new for us , but with the community spirit and neighbourhood feel that liverpool has , as well as the rise in demand for new restaurants in the area , we know wreckfish will fit right in .\nbarnes , m . k . s . 2008 . polyprion americanus wreckfish or stone bass . in tyler - walters h . and hiscock k . ( eds ) marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information reviews , [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom . [ cited 09 - 07 - 2018 ] . available from : urltoken\nbut if the southeast atlantic fisheries management council goes through with its proposed change in regulation , it could divvy up the allotted catch between numerous boats , many of which may not even attempt to harvest the fish . proponents of the local fishery prefer that the allotments go to fishermen that have demonstrated a record of achievement , leaving enough annual catch to target the wreckfish full - time .\nokay , so\u2026 wreckfish is a type of fish that lives at the bottom of the sea ( like sea bass ) and twitter ( some of twitter\u2026 ) thought it was a good name for a restaurant . anyway , in november 2016 , we were tipped off about a building on the corner of slater and seel street in liverpool city centre and we immediately fell in love with it .\ntoday , the wreckfish management plan includes a total allowable catch ( tac ) that limits the amount of fish that can be taken by the fishery , an individual transferable quota ( itq ) that limits the landings of each fishermen , restrictions on the types of gear that can be used , and closing of the fishing grounds during the main spawning season ( january 15 through april 15 ) .\nwreckfish are found in the western atlantic ocean from grand banks , newfoundland , to la plata river , argentina , and in the eastern atlantic ocean from norway to south africa . they migrate throughout the north atlantic during their life cycle . although they ' re found all along the u . s . east coast , most of the commercial fishery operates over the charleston bump , located 80 to 100 miles southeast of charleston , south carolina .\nbut even this esoteric fishery is in danger of extinction \u2014 not from overfishing , if you believe the likes of laroche and the men who depend on the catch for their livelihood , but from the regulation of the federal government . recreational fishing for wreckfish is not even allowed , and the south atlantic fishery management is currently considering reducing the annual commercial catch from 2 million pounds to 237 , 000 , effectively reducing each fisherman ' s take by 89 percent .\nandrew zimmern visits miami for an all - new episode of bizarre foods america . andrew visits michael ' s genuine food & drink , a miami hot spot that prides itself on its farm - to - table attitude . here he tries wreckfish , named for its tendency to take up residence in shipwrecks . michael ' s genuine food & drink also posted an interview with andrew on their blog . find more photos , video and a travel guide from this episode here .\nwe\u2019re really lucky because , not only did we find a site that we immediately fell in love with , but we have incredibly supportive landlords . work has already begun on the building , but we will need \u00a3500 , 000 to launch the restaurant . we have an amazingly talented team ready to go and the bank has agreed to lend us \u00a3300 , 000 , but we just need you to help us raise that extra \u00a3200 , 000 to make wreckfish happen\u2026 no pressure .\nenjoying the toil of targeting wreckfish takes a special person , at least according to the people who consider sam a sort of mythic hero .\npeople don ' t understand what he does ,\nchimed in a younger man from a swordfish boat , out of earshot of ray .\nhe ' s out there alone , a hundred miles offshore in the middle of a huge ocean . he ' s burnt a week ' s pay getting out there , and he ' s dropping a line 1 , 200 feet to the bottom of the ocean in the middle of a swirling gulf stream current . if he ' s off by 30 [ feet ] , there ' s not a single fish , and it takes an hour to move to another spot .\nwe ' ve turned what was a derelict building in the centre of liverpool into a 90 cover restaurant , serving simple bistro food . as well as individual tables , we have a communal table available so you can enjoy your meal in some great company . \u200bwe also have a private dining room , which can seat between up to 14 people . perfect for business meetings or for special occasions with friends and family . the room is free of charge , though a deposit is required to secure your booking . \u200bplease call us for more information .\nwe opened sticky walnut in hoole , chester , in january 2011 on a budget that meant famously choosing between an all singing rational combi oven or new tables and chairs . we went for the oven . it was the right decision .\nsince opening , sticky has been awarded catey \u2018menu of the year\u2019 , aa \u2018restaurant of the year\u2019 , cheshire life \u2018restaurant of the year\u2019 and many more amazing awards .\nafter a few very successful years , we decided to open a second bistro , burnt truffle in heswall , thanks to incredible kickstarter supporters . the restaurant has been awarded an aa rosette and received really lovely reviews from the likes of lisa markwell and jay rayner . after burnt truffle , we then launched a third restaurant in 2016 . hispi ( it\u2019s a type of cabbage ) opened its doors in didsbury , south manchester in september 2016 . manchester\u2019s been absolutely amazing and welcomed hispi with open arms . it\u2019s also received lots of lovely reviews and two aa rosettes .\nthankfully we have already secured the site and have the support of our two amazing landlords so we don\u2019t have that risk this time .\ncurry night extravaganza by farokh talati head chef at st john bread & w . 7pm sunday 28th may at burnt truffle\nsummer bbq at burnt truffle , soak in the rays on the piazza del terrazzo with manager adam hosting and wongo & gary throwing shrimps on the barbie .\nspend a morning with gary & wongo at burnt truffle preparing lunch , getting to see what goes in to the dishes behind the scenes before sitting down and enjoying lunch together .\nspend a morning with gary & rich at hispi preparing lunch , getting to see what goes in to the dishes behind the scenes before sitting down and enjoying lunch together .\na 3 course + coffee private dinner at your home for up to 10 people .\ngary and the gang ( including waiter / waitress ) will turn up and cook a bespoke meal in your home .\ngourmet curry night created and cooked by farokh talati for up to 40 people . exclusive use of any of our four ( hopefully ! ) restaurants on a mutually agreeable date .\ntravel to london get to meet and spend the morning with simon hanging around back stage on channel 4 ' s sunday brunch . then off to the guinea grill for a slap up meal\noften found in caves or shipwrecks , these solitary fish are found on both sides of the atlantic ocean in temperate and sub - tropical waters .\nthis chart shows how much can safely be eaten each month ( assuming no other contaminated fish is consumed ) . the advice is based on epa guidance and the latest mercury data . more on contaminants \u00bb\nthe primary gear used is hydraulic hook - and - line , which has little bycatch and does not damage the seafloor .\noverfishing is a serious problem , but there is reason for hope . edf offers a different approach for recovery that works . more \u00bb\nsaving migratory shark populations is just one way we\u2019re safeguarding cuba\u2019s vast undersea wonders . more \u00bb\nget our news updates and action alerts to find out how you can create solutions that help people and nature prosper .\nconserving and managing america ' s fisheries from three to 200 nautical miles off the coasts of north carolina , south carolina , georgia and florida .\nrecreational and commercial fishermen are required to use dehooking tools when fishing for snapper grouper species .\nthe use of non - stainless steel circle hooks ( offset or non - offset ) is required for all species in the snapper grouper complex when using hook - and - line gear with natural baits in waters north of 28 degrees n . latitude .\nafter the commercial quota is met , all purchase and sale is prohibited and harvest and / or possession is limited to the recreational bag limit . this prohibition does not apply to fish harvested , landed , and sold prior to the quota being reached and held in cold storage by a dealer . quotas are given in gutted weights .\ncommercial snapper grouper vessels must have onboard nmfs approved sea turtle release gear and follow smalltooth sawfish release protocol . see the handling and release protocol from noaa fisheries or call 727 - 824 - 5312 .\nannual catch limit ( acl ) - this species is managed under an acl . see current information on commercial acls ( quotas ) from noaa fisheries .\nopen . the fishery will close september 1 , 2018 - june 30 , 2019 .\nannual catch limit ( acl ) - this species is managed under an acl . see current information on recreational acls from noaa fisheries .\n4055 faber place drive , suite 201 . north charleston , sc 29405 843 - 571 - 4366 phone | 866 - safmc - 10 toll free | 843 - 769 - 4520 fax\neaters ! ! bumped up with lovely spices and flavours . just gorgeous ! will definitely\n18 . the food was excellent and there is a great menu . however i really need to thank the staff on this occasion . they are extremely professional and approachab\nan who brought us our champagne \ufffd , which was a birthday surprise from a friend , to the wonderful lady who took our order and brought us the amazing food . thank you so much for creating such a memorable evening .\nwe booked our table in feb and all i can say it was totally worth the wait . the food is seriously stunning just so good . i would thoroughly\nrecommend it to anyone and we can ' t wait to go back . . . . . t\nally sized table in the corner , but she refused . ( the table remained empty during most of our stay . ) then , after 1 hour and 15 minutes , the wait staff wanted to kick us out - - - sayi\nn was only for 75 minutes and the next booking was arriving soon . the manager actually took my plate although i asked him not to . he then grabbed the coffee mug out of my hand .\nfor me to judge the quality of the food , so i have no idea if it was any good . my friends , however , say they enjoyed it . so if you don ' t mind eating super quick and then being kicked out while you ' re in the middle of a good conversati\n. i hear they do fast food , too . they also won ' t kick you out .\ns nonsense here - just good food well prepared . from the moment you arrive it\u2019s just a feeling of being welcomed and relaxed .\nthe bar area is a very welcome addition for a pre lunch cocktail , the house specials are well worth a try .\nhad a fantastic sunday lunch today . great table right in front of the open kitchen . great to watch the chef and kitchen staff take time and precision over everything\nwent for the early bird 3 course last night - fabulous . i had the ox heart starter , braised beef , some parmesan chips and marmalade pudding and couldnt fault anything\nand gorgeous food . lunch is very good value at \u00a320 for 3 courses and good value wine too . however it would still be fab even if it was considerab\n. but the star of the show was the rice pudding with rhubarb and granola . oh my word ! ! ! we\u2019ll definitely\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\npolice audit committee will meet to narrow list of firms next wed . july 11\ntickets for rudolph ( yes , rudolph ) at the npac go on sale this fri . july 13\nvickery ' s , wich doctor featured on beach bites with katie lee airing thurs . july 12\nwic mobile clinic will provide services at n . chs . farmers market this july and september\ni tried farming for a while back home in barnwell , and it nearly drove me crazy ,\nhe told me when i was out at the docks one day last fall ,\nbut then i came out here to cherry point and started fishing and i ' ve never wanted to do anything else .\nwe are already limited with what we can get locally . this will just be one less fish we can source ,\nhe says .\nchefs , like romo , prize the fish for its clean flavor and its affordability as a local alternative to pricier grouper varieties , which it is often compared to .\nit has a nice carcass yield ,\nromo says ,\nand we like to support the local fishery .\nthe fish is so special , in fact , that when it ' s in season ( regulations already close the spawning grounds during much of the year ) , it demands a high level of attention in the local market . romo ' s favorite method for serving it ? naked .\nwhen it ' s here , it comes straight off the boat , and it ' s so clean and fresh , that we make it our ' naked fish ' special \u2014 just a little salt and pepper , and maybe a good sear in a hot pan with a little oil .\nit ' s kind of like gold when it comes in . you sort of fight for it ,\nsays romo .\npolitical turbulence aside , becoming a u . s . citizen remains an exciting prospect 2 comments\ni picked some really great tomatoes corn and a watermelon last week . i ' m going back\u2026\ni had dinner there last night with my family . it ' s a pretty big place with\u2026\ni ' ve been going to this store since it opened . good selection of wine and liquor\u2026\nuneeda sicilian , 2nixons , and second state host a\nblunch\nmash - up tues . july 3\nwatch andrew zimmern cook asopao de pollo y mariscos . then prepare the dish in your own kitchen\nwatch andrew zimmern cook shrimp with green chilies and avocado sauce . then prepare the dish in your own kitchen .\nwatch andrew zimmern cook braised pork with chilies and black beans . then prepare the dish in your own kitchen .\n10 road - trip - worthy summer eats from ' man v . food '\njoin the party ! don ' t miss travel channel in your favorite social media feeds .\ncernia , cernier , cernier atlantique , cernier commun , cernio escourpena , franfr\u00e9 rascas , lucerna , m\u00e9rot gris , m\u00e9rou , m\u00e9rou de bosques , m\u00e9rou fanfr\u00e9 , p\u00e9ro - m\u00e9rot , peskar goat , poisson de bois .\ncherna , chernia , chernoda , girom , jorna , mero chernia , mero de roca , pampol .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\ndemersal fish that live on or near the ocean bottom . they are often called benthic fish , groundfish , or bottom fish . spawning the production or depositing of large quantities of eggs in water .\nbigelow , h . b . and schroeder , w . c . ( 1953 ) fishes of the gulf of maine . us fish and wildlife service fishery bulletin , 74 ( 53 ) : 1 - 577 .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nargentina ; australia ( new south wales , south australia , victoria , western australia ) ; belgium ; brazil ; canada ( newfoundland i , nova scotia ) ; cape verde ; denmark ; france ; ireland ; italy ; netherlands ; new zealand ( north is . , south is . ) ; norway ; portugal ; saint helena , ascension and tristan da cunha ( tristan da cunha ) ; south africa ; spain ( canary is . ) ; united kingdom ; united states ( district of columbia , florida , georgia , maryland , new jersey , north carolina , south carolina , virginia ) ; uruguay\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nfemale picture by cambraia duarte , p . m . n . ( c ) imagdop\ngreek , poly = a lot of + greek , prion = saw ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; demersal ; oceanodromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 40 - 600 m ( ref . 7251 ) , usually 100 - 200 m ( ref . 36731 ) . deep - water ; 70\u00b0n - 55\u00b0s , 82\u00b0w - 179\u00b0e\neastern atlantic : norway to south africa ( ref . 6633 ) , including the mediterranean , canary islands , madeira , cape verde , and tristan da cunha . western atlantic : newfoundland , canada and gulf of maine to north carolina , usa ( ref . 7251 ) . recorded from uruguay to argentina ( ref . 9050 ) . western indian ocean : st . paul and amsterdam islands ( ref . 6633 ) . southwest pacific : new zealand ( ref . 5755 , 9072 ) .\nmaturity : l m 77 . 9 range ? - 90 cm max length : 210 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 7251 ) ; common length : 80 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3397 ) ; max . published weight : 100 . 0 kg ( ref . 35388 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 10 - 12 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 11 - 13 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 8 - 10 . bluish grey above , paler below with a silvery sheen ; fins blackish brown ( ref . 6633 ) . juveniles have black blotches on head and body ( ref . 6633 ) . body tall , compressed . big mouth with big head and a rough bony ridge across upper part of the gill cover ( ref . 35388 ) .\nadults prefer to inhabit caves and shipwrecks ( ref . 27121 ) . juveniles congregate below floating objects ( ref . 27121 ) . usually solitary . feed on large crustaceans , cephalopods and benthic fishes ( ref . 27121 ) . spawn in the summer ( ref . 35388 ) . are primary gonochorists ( ref . 58421 ) . marketed fresh or frozen ; eaten steamed , fried , broiled , boiled , microwaved and baked ( ref . 9988 ) . minimum depth reported from ref . 6633 .\nwheeler , a . , 1992 . a list of the common and scientific names of fishes of the british isles . j . fish biol . 41 ( suppl . a ) : 1 - 37 . ( ref . 5204 )\n) : 5 . 2 - 19 , mean 9 . 4 ( based on 672 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 8125 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01318 ( 0 . 00966 - 0 . 01799 ) , b = 3 . 00 ( 2 . 91 - 3 . 09 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 1 \u00b10 . 64 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( k = 0 . 05 - 0 . 08 ; tmax = 76 ; tm = 9 - 10 yrs estimated from vbgf ; fec = 3 million ) .\nprior r = 0 . 26 , 2 sd range = 0 . 14 - 0 . 48 , log ( r ) = - 1 . 35 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 31 , based on : 4 k , 1 tmax , 2 fec records\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high to very high vulnerability ( 72 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\npolyprion americanus has a deep and robust body that can reach up to 2 m in length . it has a large head with a rough bony ridge across the upper part of the gill . it has 11 spines on its dorsal fin and as many rays , the second part of the fin being much taller . the anal fin has three spines and 8 - 10 soft rays . the pelvic fins are longer than the pectoral fins . its body is a uniform brown to bluish - grey with a silvery sheen . juveniles may have irregular light and dark marblings on the head and body .\nrecorded in the eastern english channel but may be found throught british and irish waters with the exception of the southern north sea area .\nfroese , r . & pauly , d . , 2007 . fishbase . a global information system on fishes . [ on - line ] http : / / www . fishbase . org , 2008 - 02 - 18\nhowson , c . m . & picton , b . e . , 1997 . the species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the british isles and surrounding seas . belfast : ulster museum . [ ulster museum publication , no . 276 . ]\nobis , 2018 . global map of species distribution using gridded data . available from : ocean biogeographic information system . www . iobis . org . accessed : 2018 - 07 - 09\nwhitehead , p . j . p . , bauchot , m . - l . , hureau , j . - c . , nielson , j . & tortonese , e . 1986 . fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean . vol . i , ii & iii . paris : united nations educational , scientific and cultural organisation ( unesco ) .\nmarine life information network ( marlin ) , the marine biological association of the uk ( see contact us ) \u00a9 2018 the marine biological association of the uk , all rights reserved .\nthe information ( text only ) provided by the marine life information network ( marlin ) is licensed under a creative commons attribution - non - commercial - share alike 2 . 0 uk : england & wales license . note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own terms and conditions and they may or may not be available for reuse . permissions beyond the scope of this license are available here . based on a work at urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncommercial fisheries have traditionally been based on fast - growing shallow - water species that live in the productive waters on the continental shelf . more recently , as fishing technology has improved and the populations of shallow - water species have declined , fishermen have ventured out into deeper waters to find new types of fish to catch .\nthis new deep - water fishery presents a problem for fisheries management . the deep - water fish are larger than their shallow - water counterparts and often grow more slowly . most management models , however , are based on data pertaining to the smaller , faster - growing species . to ensure that the deep - water fisheries will be around for a long time , fisheries scientists are developing new models that take into account the longer life spans and the longer period it takes for these deep - water fish to reach sexual maturity .\na specimen of barrelfish ( hyperoglyphe perciformis ) . we are trying to learn more about the biology of this fish to determine if it can support a fishery on the blake plateau . click image for larger view .\nthe red bream shows commercial potential the red bream ( beryx decadactylus ) is another species with commercial fishery potential on the blake plateau . we know very little about its life cycle . in the canary islands and off the coast of portugal , the fishing pressure on red bream ( and the only other member of the genus , beryx splendens ) has caused the annual catch to decrease in recent years . the same thing is happening in other areas where beryx species are being fished , such as hawaii .\nthe red bream ( beryx decadactylus ) supports fisheries in parts of the north atlantic and may have commercial fishery potential on the blake plateau . click image for larger view .\ndeep - water commercial fisheries will continue to grow . since models for management plans for shallow - water species do not translate to these new target species , fisheries scientists must continue to learn as much as they can about these deep - water fish in order to preserve large stocks for future generations .\ne - mail updates | user survey | contact us | report error on this page | privacy policy | disclaimer | site info | site index revised august 25 , 2010 by the noaa ocean explorer webmaster office of ocean exploration and research | national oceanic and atmospheric administration | u . s . department of commerce urltoken"]}
{"id": 1537, "summary": [{"text": "texella cokendolpheri is a rare species of arachnid known by the common name cokendolpher cave harvestman .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it may also be called the robber baron cave harvestman .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it is endemic to texas in the united states , where it is only known from a single cave in bexar county .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is a federally listed endangered species of the united states .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "this is \" a small eyeless or essentially eyeless \" harvestman .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it is pale orange in color .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is a troglobite that lives its whole life in a subterranean karst cave .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it is known only from robber baron cave in bexar county , a cave which runs underneath a heavily urbanized area .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the cave is owned by the texas cave management association .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "this cave is also the only home for the robber baron cave meshweaver ( cicurina baronia ) , a spider .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the worst threat to this and other rare local troglobites is the outright loss of their cave habitat , which is destroyed as the land is consumed for urban development , or during quarrying operations .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "caves are also altered and polluted so that they can not support this and other species . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "texella cokendolpheri", "paragraphs": ["beetles : rhadine exilis / rhadine infernalis / batrisodes venyivi harvestman : texella cokendolpheri spiders : cicurina baronia / c . madla / c . venii / c . vespera / neoleptoneta microps\ntexella mulaiki c . j . goodnight and m . l . goodnight , 1942\ntexella reddelli c . j . goodnight and m . l . goodnight , 1967 \u2013 bee creek cave harvestman\nthe harvestman family phalangodidae . 5 . new records and species of texella goodnight and goodnight ( opiliones : laniatores )\nubick , d . and t . s . briggs . 1992 . the harvestman family phalangodidae . 3 . revision of texella goodnight and goodnight ( opiliones : laniatores ) . texas mem . mus . , speleol . monogr . 3 : 155 - 240 .\nubick , d . and t . s . briggs . 2004 . the harvestman family phalangodidae . 5 . new records and species of texella goodnight and goodnight ( opiliones : laniatores ) . texas memorial museum . speleological monographs , 6 : 101 - 141 .\nrhadine exilis and rhadine infernalis were first collected in 1959 and described by barr and lawrence ( 1960 ) as agonum exile and agonum infernale , respectively . barr ( 1974 ) assigned the species to the genus rhadine . batrisodes venyivi was first collected in 1984 and described by chandler ( 1992 ) . texella cokendolpheri was first collected in 1982 and described in ubick and briggs ( 1992 ) . cicurina baronia , cicurina madla , cicurina venii , and cicurina vespera were first collected in 1969 , 1963 , 1980 , and 1965 , respectively . in 1992 , gertsch described these species . neoleptoneta microps was first collected in 1965 and described by gertsch ( 1974 ) as leptoneta microps . the species was reassigned to neoleptoneta following brignoli ( 1977 ) and platnick ( 1986 ) .\nsummary : we , the u . s . fish and wildlife service ( service ) , determine nine cave - dwelling invertebrates from bexar county , texas , to be endangered species under the authority of the endangered species act of 1973 , as amended ( act ) . rhadine exilis ( no common name ) and rhadine infernalis ( no common name ) are small , essentially eyeless ground beetles . batrisodes venyivi ( helotes mold beetle ) is a small , eyeless beetle . texella cokendolpheri ( robber baron cave harvestman ) is a small , eyeless harvestman ( daddy - longlegs ) . cicurina baronia ( robber baron cave spider ) , cicurina madla ( madla ' s cave spider ) , cicurina venii ( no common name ) , cicurina vespera ( vesper cave spider ) , and neoleptoneta microps ( government canyon cave spider ) are all small , eyeless or essentially eyeless spiders .\nknown from a single locality , robber baron cave in bexar county , texas . although the cave entrance is protected as a preserve by the texas cave management association ( tcma ) , this cave is relatively large , and the land that overlies the cave is heavily urbanized . the cave has also been historically subject to extensive commercial and recreational use ( veni 1988 ) . in addition , the current gate on the cave is blocking organic material from entering and may be severely limiting food input and impacting the cave fauna ( veni and reddell , pers . comm . 2001 in cockendolpher and reddell , 2004 ) . while no regular biomonitoring occurs in robber baron cave , there are no records of specimens of t . cokendolpheri collected since october 1993 ( usfws 2008 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthis species has been referred to by two common names , the robber baron cave harvestman ( usfws 2000 ) and the cokendolpher cave harvestman ( breene et al . 2003 ) . the latter name has been accepted as the official common name ( breene et al . 2003 , usfws 2003 ) .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\nthere are nine bexar county , texas invertebrates that were listed as endangered on december 26 , 2000 . the recovery priority number for all bexar county karst invertebrates is 2c , which means that these species face a high degree of threat with a high potential for recovery and there may be conflict between species recovery and economic development .\nknown only from robber baron cave in the alamo heights karst region , bexar county , texas .\npopulation estimates are unavailable for any of the nine troglobites listed as endangered in bexar county ( usfws , 2000 ) due to lack of adequate techniques , their cryptic behavior , and inaccessibility of habitat ( usfws , 2008 ) . culver et al . ( 2000 ) states that while some troglobites are known from a few specimens , detailed studies suggest that\nas a rule\nmost troglobites\nare not numerically rare and thus are not susceptible to the problems of small populations .\nhowever , considering the lack of population estimates and limited study of these species , data are insufficient to indicate whether bexar county karst invertebrates are numerous enough to rule out small population concerns ( usfws , 2008 ) .\nbased on usfws ( 2008 ) , reduce threats to the species by securing an adequate quantity and quality of caves , including selecting caves or cave clusters that represent the range of the species and potential genetic diversity , then preserving these caves , including their drainage basins and surface communities upon which they rely . maintenance of these cave preserves involves keeping them free from contamination , excessive human visitation , and non - native fire ants by regularly tracking progress and implementing adaptive management to control these and any new threats when necessary . monitoring the population status and threats are also components of recovery . because many aspects of the population dynamics and habitat requirements of the species are poorly understood , recovery is also dependant on incorporating research findings into adaptive management actions .\n( < 100 square km ( less than about 40 square miles ) ) known only from robber baron cave in the alamo heights karst region , bexar county , texas .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nculver , d . c . , l . l . master , m . c . christman , and h . h . hobbs iii . 2000 . obligate cave fauna of the 48 contiguous united states . conservation biology 14 ( 2 ) : 386 - 401 .\nelliott , w . r . 2000 . conservation of the north american cave and karst biota . pages 665 - 689 in wilkens , h . , d . c . culver , and w . f . humphreys ( editors ) . subterranean ecosystems . ecosystems of the world , 30 . elsevier , amsterdam . xiv + 791 pp . corrected version online . available : urltoken\nlongacre , c . 2000 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; final rule to list nine bexar county , texas invertebrate species as endangered . u . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . federal register 65 ( 248 ) .\nrappaport , c . j . 1998 . department of interior fish and wildlife service 50 cfr part 17 , rin 1018 - af33 , endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; proposal to list nine bexar county , texas invertebrate species as endangered . federal register , 63 ( 250 ) : 71855 - 71867 .\nstanford , r . , and a . shull . 1993 . department of interior fish and wildlife service 50 cfr part 17 ; 90 - day finding on a petition to list nine bexar county , tx , invertebrates . federal register , 58 ( 229 ) : 63328 - 63329 .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 1994 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; animal candidate review for listing as endangered or threatened species . federal register 59 ( 219 ) : 58982 - 59028 .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 2003 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; designation of critical habitat for seven bexar county , texas , invertebrate species ; final rule . federal register 68 ( 67 ) : 17156 - 17231 .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 2008 . draft bexar county karst invertebrate recovery plan . 125 pp .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\ndesignation of critical habitat for nine bexar county , tx , invertebrates final rule . and a 12 - month finding on a petition to revise critical habitat designation by removing unit 13 from designation under the act - not warranted .\ndesignation of critical habitat for nine bexar county invertebrates : proposed rule ; reopening of comment period .\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\ndata and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\naction : final rule . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -\nthese species ( referred to in this final rule as the nine invertebrates ) are known from karst topography ( limestone formations containing caves , sinks , fractures and fissures ) in north and northwest bexar county . threats to the species and their habitat include destruction and / or deterioration of habitat by construction ; filling of caves and karst features and loss of permeable cover ; contamination from septic effluent , sewer leaks , run - off , pesticides , and other sources ; predation by and competition with nonnative fire ants ; and vandalism . this action will implement federal protection provided by the act for these species . we based our decision on the best available information , including that received during public comment on the proposal to list these species .\neffective date : the effective date of this rule is december 26 , 2000 .\naddresses : the complete file for this rule is available for inspection , by appointment , during normal business hours at the austin ecological services field office , 10711 burnet road , suite 200 , austin , texas 78758 .\nfor further information contact : alisa shull , supervisory fish and wildlife biologist , austin ecological services field office ( telephone 512 / 490 - 0057 ; facsimile 512 / 490 - 0974 ) .\nthese nine invertebrates are obligate ( capable of surviving in only one environment ) karst or cave - dwelling species ( troglobites ) of local distribution in karst terrain in bexar county , texas . ` ` karst ' ' is a type of terrain in which the rock is dissolved by water so that much of the drainage occurs into the subsurface rather than as runoff . the subsurface drainage leads to passages or other openings within the underground rock formations . some of the features that develop in karst areas include cave openings , holes in rocks , cracks , fissures , and sinkholes .\nhabitat required by the nine karst invertebrate species consists of underground , honeycomb limestone that maintains high humidity and stable temperatures . the surface environment of karst areas is also an integral part of the habitat needed by the animals inhabiting the underground areas . openings to the surface allow energy and nutrients , in the form of leaf litter , surface insects , other animals , and animal droppings to enter the underground ecosystem . mammal feces provide a medium for the growth of fungi and , subsequently , localized population blooms of several species of tiny , hopping insects . these insects reproduce rapidly on rich food sources and may become prey for some predatory cave invertebrates ( service 1994 ) . while the life habits of the nine invertebrates are not well known , the species probably prey on the eggs , larvae , or adults of other cave invertebrates .\nwe funded a status survey ( veni 1994a ; reddell 1993 ) of all nine species through a grant to the texas parks and wildlife department ( tpwd ) under section 6 of the act . researchers obtained landowner permission to study and assess threats to 41 caves in north and northwest bexar county , texas . landowners denied permission to access an additional 36 caves that biologists believed likely to contain species of concern . researchers described all 77 caves , to some extent , before the status survey was conducted and some were already known to contain at least one of the nine invertebrates .\nduring the status survey , the researchers made a collection of the invertebrate fauna at each cave studied , assessed the condition of the cave environment and threats to the species , and collected geological data . they used this information to prepare two reports . one report discusses the overall karst geography in the san antonio region and the potential geologic and geographic barriers to karst invertebrate migration ( on an evolutionary time scale ) and limits to their distribution ( veni 1994a ) . the other report ( reddell 1993 ) details the fauna of each cave visited during the study and presents information obtained from invertebrate collections .\nveni ' s ( 1994a ) report delineates six karst areas ( hereafter referred to as karst regions ) within bexar county . the karst regions he discusses are stone oak , utsa ( university of texas at san antonio ) , helotes , government canyon , culebra anticline , and alamo heights . the boundaries of these karst regions are geological or geographical features that may represent obstructions to troglobite movement ( on a geologic time scale ) which has resulted in the present - day distribution of endemic ( restricted in distribution ) karst invertebrates in the san antonio region .\nbatrisodes venyivi , the helotes mold beetle , is known from only three caves in the vicinity of helotes , texas , northwest of san antonio . two of these caves are located in the helotes karst region on private property . we do not have reliable information on the collection from the third cave . the collector of the specimen declined to give us a specific site collection record , but we believe it is located on private property .\nrhadine exilis is known from 35 caves in north and northwest bexar county . twenty - one are located on department of defense ( dod ) land in the stone oak karst region . the remainder are distributed among the helotes , utsa , and stone oak karst regions , while one location lies in the government canyon region . one of the non - dod sites is located in a county road right - of - way , one is located in a state - owned natural area , and the remainder are located on private property . ongoing efforts by the dod to locate and inventory karst features on camp bullis and to document the karst fauna communities in caves on camp bullis resulted in discovery of 18 of the 35 caves mentioned above ( veni 1994b ; james reddell , pers . comm . 1997 ) .\nrhadine infernalis is known from 25 caves . this species occurs in five of the six karst regions - - helotes , utsa , stone oak , culebra anticline , and government canyon . scientists have delineated three subspecies ( rhadine infernalis ewersi , rhadine infernalis infernalis , rhadine infernalis ssp . ) , and described and named two of these in scientific literature ( barr 1960 , barr and lawrence 1960 ) . in a recent report , scientists characterized the third subspecies as distinct , but not named ( reddell 1998 ) . only three caves , all on dod land , contain the subspecies rhadine infernalis ewersi . sixteen caves contain the subspecies rhadine infernalis infernalis and lie in the government canyon , helotes , utsa , and stone oak regions . six caves in the culebra anticline region contain the unnamed subspecies .\ncicurina venii is known from only one cave , which is located on private property in the culebra anticline karst region . the species was collected in 1980 and 1983 , but the cave itself was not initially described until 1988 ( reddell 1993 ) . the cave entrance was filled during construction of a home in 1990 . without excavation , it is difficult to determine what effect this incident had on the species ; however , there may still be some nutrient input , from a reported small side passage .\ncicurina baronia , the robber baron cave spider , is known only from robber baron cave in the alamo heights karst region . although the cave entrance is owned and operated by the texas cave management association , it is located in a heavily urbanized area .\ncicurina madla , madla ' s cave spider , is known from six caves . one cave is within the government canyon karst region in government canyon state natural area , one is on dod land , three are located in the helotes karst region on private property , and one is located on private property in the utsa karst region .\nbiologists have found cicurina vespera , the vesper cave spider , in two caves . one cave is government canyon bat cave in the government canyon state natural area , and the other is a cave 5 miles northeast of helotes . the location and name of this latter cave have not been revealed to us , but we believe it is located on private property .\nneoleptoneta microps is known only from the government canyon karst region , from two caves within government canyon state natural area .\nin the course of conducting the 1993 status survey , veni contacted landowners and requested access to as many caves as possible that were believed to be potential habitat for the nine invertebrates . it is possible that these species occur in some of the caves that could not be visited and that new locations of the nine invertebrates will be discovered in the future . although these new discoveries may increase the number of locations where the species are found , they are expected to fall within the same general range and are expected to face the same threats as the known occurrences of these species . the listing of these species is not based on a demonstrable decline in the number of individuals or the number of known locations of each species , but rather on reliable evidence that each species is subject to threats to its continued existence throughout all or a significant portion of its range ."]}
{"id": 1538, "summary": [{"text": "the campbell 's mona monkey , also known as campbell 's guenon and campbell 's monkey , ( cercopithecus campbelli ) , is a species of primate in the family cercopithecidae found in the ivory coast , gambia , ghana , guinea , guinea-bissau , liberia , senegal , and sierra leone .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it was named for henry dundas campbell , in 1838 .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "lowe 's mona monkey was previously considered a subspecies of campbell 's mona monkey .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the international union for conservation of nature has rated this species as being of \" least concern \" because it has a wide range and is able to adapt to degraded habitats . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "campbell ' s mona monkey", "paragraphs": ["lowe ' s mona monkey was previously considered a subspecies of campbell ' s mona monkey .\nwolf ' s mona monkey was previously considered a subspecies of the crested mona monkey .\ncampbell ' s mona monkeys , boabeng - fiema monkey sanctuary . # 2 - youtube\ncampbell ' s mona monkeys , boabeng - fiema monkey sanctuary . vitts in ghana 2010\nmore campbell ' s mona monkeys , boabeng - fiema monkey sanctuary . vitt family , ghana 2010\nwolf ' s mona monkey - cercopithecus wolfi a . meyer , 1891 - details - encyclopedia of life\nand arnold et al . ( population differences in wild campbell\u2019s monkeys alarm call use ,\nkeenan , s . , lemasson , a . , & zuberbu\u00a8hler , k . ( 2013 ) . graded or discrete ? a quantitative analysis of campbell\u2019s monkey alarm calls .\nwolf ' s mona monkey is known to associate with several guenon and non - guenon species such as the black crested mangabey , the red - tailed monkey , the angola colobus , allen ' s swamp monkey , and the bonobo . no viable offspring or interspecific mating occurs during its associations with other primates .\nwhen forming associations with other primates it is necessary that there is a difference in diet or feeding height between the species to reduce competition . when in a mixed group , wolf ' s mona monkey will move and forage at a mean height of 17 metres . wolf ' s mona monkey is mainly found in association with the red - tailed monkey ( which forages at 12 m ) and the black crested mangabey ( which forages at 21 . 5 m ) , two species with similar diets to wolf ' s mona monkey . these mixed groups most likely form for predator detection .\nspectrographic illustrations of the different loud call types produced by male campbell ' s monkeys in different contexts .\nlemasson a , gautier jp , hausberger m ( 2003 ) vocal similarities and social bonds in campbell ' s monkey ( cercopithecus campbelli ) . comptes rendus biologies 326 : 1185\u20131193 .\nwolf ' s mona monkey is also sexually dimorphic in size . males weigh , on average , almost twice as much as females ( 4 . 5 kg and 2 . 5 kg respectively ) .\nbasic acoustic measurements of the stem of the six different loud calls produced by adult male campbell ' s monkeys .\nthe wolf ' s mona monkey ( cercopithecus wolfi ) , also called wolf ' s guenon , is a colorful old world monkey in the cercopithecidae family . it is found in central africa , primarily between the democratic republic of the congo and uganda . it lives in primary and secondary lowland rainforest and swamp forest .\nzuberb\u00fchler k ( 2001 ) predator - specific alarm calls in campbell ' s guenons . behavioral ecology and sociobiology 50 : 414\u2013422 .\ncampbell ' s monkeys appear to combine the same calls in different ways , using rules of grammar that turn sound into language .\nkamara , t . 2001 . saddam ' s oil and taylor ' s timber . urltoken\nis most commonly found in the democratic republic of congo and areas in uganda . there are three subspecies of wolf\u2019s monkey :\nlemasson , a . , ouattara , k . , bouchet , h . , & zuberb\u00fchler , k . ( 2010 ) . speed of call delivery is related to context and caller identity in campbell\u2019s monkey males .\nwolters s , zuberb\u00fchler k ( 2003 ) mixed - species associations of diana and campbell ' s monkeys : the costs and benefits of a forest phenomenon . behaviour 140 : 371\u2013385 .\n, are very colorful . their color is used in intraspecific communication for recognizing individuals , species , and potential mates . wolf ' s mona monkey is dark grey with a red\nsaddle\non its back . the pelage depends on the subspecies .\nlemasson , a . , zuberb\u00fchler , k . , & hausberger , m . ( 2005 ) . socially meaningful vocal plasticity in campbell\u2019s monkeys .\nouattara , k . , lemasson , a . & zuberb\u00fchler , k . ( 2009a ) . campbell\u2019s monkeys use affixation to alter call meaning .\nzuberb\u00fchler , k . ( 2002 ) . a syntactic rule in forest monkey communication .\nouattara k , lemasson a , zuberb\u00fchler k ( 2009 ) the alarm call system of female campbell ' s monkeys . anim behav 78 : 35\u201344 .\nkuhn . j . ( 2013 ) . do campbell\u2019s monkeys have linguistic morphology ? seminar paper , nyu . available online march 10 , 2014 , from\nthe diet of wolf ' s mona monkey differs depending on location . although predominantly a frugivore , it may also forage for seeds and insects for protein . since it has no adaptations for leaf eating , its leaf diet mainly consists of young and easily digestible leaves .\nlemasson , who is further investigating campbell ' s monkey talk by measuring their reactions to recorded calls , suspects that a dense jungle environment drove the evolution of syntax . since the monkeys had trouble seeing each other , they compensated by talking .\nouattara , k . , lemasson , a . , & zuberb\u00fchler , k . ( 2009b ) . campbell\u2019s monkeys concatenate vocalizations into context - specific call sequences .\narnold , k . , keenan , s . , lemasson , a . , & zuberb\u00fchler , k . ( 2013 ) . population differences in wild campbell\u2019s monkeys alarm call use . manuscript , university of st andrews .\n) . when a mixed group was involved in the association , it always lasted for over an hour . interactions occurred once every seven hours . associations mainly occurred while the bonobos were feeding or resting . wolf ' s mona monkey was found to feed in the trees while the bonobo fed or rested .\narnold k , pohlner y , zuberb\u00fchler k ( 2008 ) a forest monkey ' s alarm call series to predator models . behav ecol sociobiol 62 : 549\u2013559 .\nlemasson ' s analysis was based on a vast set of recordings , gathered from 10 monkey groups observed for two full years in their african rain forest homes .\nzuberb\u00fchler k ( 2002 ) a syntactic rule in forest monkey communication . anim behav 63 : 293\u2013299 .\nlemasson a , hausberger m , zuberb\u00fchler k ( 2005 ) socially meaningful vocal plasticity in adult campbell ' s monkeys ( cercopithecus campbelli ) . j comp psychol 119 : 220\u2013229 .\namong cercopithecines , forest guenons such as wolf ' s mona monkey have very developed cheek pouches . these cheek pouches are second only to macaques . the evolution of these cheek pouches in both genera may be a response to the increased potential for interspecific competition in the mixed - species associations which these monkeys frequently form .\narnold , k . , pohlner , y . , & zuberb\u00fchler , k . ( 2008 ) . a forest monkey ' s alarm call series to predator models .\ncitation : ouattara k , lemasson a , zuberb\u00fchler k ( 2009 ) campbell ' s monkeys use affixation to alter call meaning . plos one 4 ( 11 ) : e7808 . urltoken\nthere is little hard data on threatened and declining species in the gambia . there has been a considerable decline in the diversity of large mammalian species , which commenced during the latter part of the nineteenth century . from the species in the gambia in the late 1960s , it was estimated that of the 67 species of mammals listed , 13 had become extinct and a similar number were threatened with extinction ( dpwm 1991 ) . a number of species of mammals still migrate into the gambia including roan antelope ( hippotragus equinus ) and campbell\u2019s mona monkey ( cercopitheocus mona campbell ) , wild dogs ( lycoon pitus ) and lio ( panthera leo ) still infrequently enter the eastern end of the gambia , invariably as vagrants from niokolokoba national park in senegal .\naccording to lemasson and to jared taglialatela , a chimpanzee communication researcher at clayton state university , it ' s too soon to say whether the monkey talk is proto - human .\nlemasson a , hausberger m ( 2004 ) patterns of vocal sharing and social dynamics in a captive group of campbell ' s monkeys ( cercopithecus campbelli campbelli ) . j comp psychol 118 : 347\u2013359 .\nlemasson a , blois - heulin c , jubin r , hausberger m ( 2006 ) female social relationships in a captive group of campbell ' s monkeys . american journal of primatology 68 : 1161\u20131170 .\nouattara , k . , zuberb\u00fchler , k . , n\u2019goran , e . k . , gombert , j . - e . , & lemasson , a . ( 2009c ) . the alarm call system of female campbell\u2019s monkeys .\ncitation :\ngenerating meaning with finite means in campbell\u2019s monkeys .\nby karim ouattara , alban lemasson , and klaus zuberbuhler . proceedings of the national academy of sciences , vol . 106 no . 48 , december 7 , 2009 .\nprimates , this is not the case with the bonobo . no aggressive interactions occurred during the study period . the red - tailed monkey (\nkarim ouattara , alban lemasson , klaus zuberb\u00fchler ( 2009 ) ,\ncampbell ' s monkeys use affixation to alter call meaning\n, plos one 4 ( 11 ) : e7808 , doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0007808\nhere , we studied the alarm calling behavior of free - ranging campbell ' s monkey males in natural and experimental predator situations . we were particularly interested in how males concatenated their repertoire of six call types into call sequences . to this end , we sought to describe the principles governing the organization of sequences in terms of composition and call order and how the different sequences related to external events .\nkarim ouattaraa , alban lemassona , and klaus zuberb\u00fchler ( december 22 , 2009 ) ,\ncampbell ' s monkeys concatenate vocalizations into context - specific call sequences\n, pnas 106 ( 51 ) : 22026\u201322031 , doi : 10 . 1073 / pnas . 0908118106\nriede t , zuberb\u00fchler k ( 2003 ) pulse register phonation in diana monkey alarm calls . journal of the acoustical society of america 113 : 2919\u20132926 .\nmeyer , ab ( 1894 ) .\nremarks on an african monkey , cercopithecus wolfi\n. proceedings of the zoological society of london : 83\u201384 .\nin one study , wolf ' s mona monkeys were found associating with bonobos within 20 metres for an average time of 20 minutes ( although sometimes for over an hour ) . these interactions were mainly initiated by , and departed by , the guenons ; this indicates that the guenons most benefited from these associations . although the\nthe birth season for wolf ' s mona monkey is from june through december due to rainfall and resource availability . it lives in a single male / multi - female group . it is female philopatric , with males dispersing from the group at sexual maturity . because one male controls several females there is extreme competition for the alpha male position . females , on the other hand , are generally amicable and participate in grooming and allomothering . unlike macaques there are no strong linear dominance hierarchies .\nzuberb\u00fchler k , no\u00eb r , seyfarth rm ( 1997 ) diana monkey long - distance calls : messages for conspecifics and predators . anim behav 53 : 589\u2013604 .\nthe degree to which the communication system found in campbell ' s monkey is unique or a general feature of primate communication is currently unknown . we suspect the latter , especially for forest primates whose vocal skills must have been under considerable pressure by natural selection due to high levels of predation and low levels of visibility in their dim habitats . the lack of articulatory control , which characterizes nonhuman primates , may have favored the evolution of combinatorial signaling .\nthompson , h . s . s . 1993 . status of white - necked picathartes \u2013 another reason for the conservation of the peninsula forest , sierra leone . oryx 27 : 155 - 158 .\noates , j . f . , m . abedi - lartey , w . s . mcgraw , t . t . struhsaker and g . h . whitesides . 2000 . extinction of a west african red colobus monkey . conservation biology 14 : 1526 - 1532 .\n\u201cwak - oo\u201d calls are given to the same events as \u201chok - oo\u201d calls ( eagles , other flying animals , diana monkey eagle alarms ) , but not to neighbours .\nriede t , zuberb\u00fchler k ( 2003 ) the relationship between acoustic structure and semantic information in diana monkey alarm vocalization . journal of the acoustical society of america 114 : 1132\u20131142 .\nthough some researchers have ascribed syntax to animals , it ' s never been formally demonstrated \u2013 until now .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\nanstey , s . 1991 . wildlife utilization in liberia . wwf and liberian forestry development authority , uk .\ncomments : c . mona species group . mcallan and bruce ( 1989 ) argued that the original publication of this species should be : the analyst , 24 : 298 - 299 [ publ . 2 july 1838 ] . does not include lowei : see kingdon ( 1997 )\nzuberb\u00fchler , k . , no\u00eb , r . r . , & seyfarth , r . m . ( 1997 ) . diana monkey long - distance calls : messages for conspecifics and predators .\nseyfarth , r . m . , cheney , d . l . , & marler , p . ( 1980b ) . vervet monkey alarm calls : semantic communication in a free - ranging primate .\nuniversit\u00e9 de rennes 1 , laboratoire d\u2019\u00e9thologie animale et humaine , umr 6552 \u2013 c . n . r . s .\nwolf ' s monkeys occasionally raid local agricultural crops and have a potential for carrying diseases that can be contagious to humans .\nseyfarth , r . m . , cheney , d . l . , & marler , p . ( 1980a ) . monkey responses to three different alarm calls : evidence of predator classification and semantic communication .\nthe study was conducted in the ta\u00ef national park ( 5\u00b050\u2032n , 7\u00b021w ) , ivory cost , the largest remaining block of intact rainforest in west africa . data were collected between january 2006 and september 2007 on two groups of campbell ' s monkeys ( cercopithecus c . campbelli ) that were fully habituated to the presence of human observers . campbell ' s monkeys routinely form polyspecific groups with other primates , particularly diana monkeys , which whom they spend 77\u201389 % of their time during feeding , travelling and resting [ 29 ] . campbell ' s monkeys live in small one - male groups with 3\u20137 adult females with their offspring [ 23 ] . the two study groups have been followed on a regular basis since the early 1990s and all individuals can be recognised individually . we had additional access to four other groups that were partly habituated to human observers . during the study period , we observed one replacement of the single adult male in one habituated group . the new male became quickly habituated to human observers , which effectively increased the sample size of habituated individuals to n = 3 .\nwolf ' s monkeys are probably important in seed dispersal of food trees and they may contribute to pollination when they drink nectar .\nnowak , r . 1999 . walker ' s primates of the world . baltimore , maryland : the johns hopkins university press .\nthe third sequence also consisted of a pair of boom calls followed by a k + sequence ( overall median = 12 calls ; range : 9\u201316 calls ; n = 76 ) , but here the sequence was interspersed with 1\u20137 h + calls ( fig . 2 ) . this combined sequence was recorded from all four habituated males and two semihabituated groups and always in response to neighboring campbell ' s monkey groups or single stranger males , suggesting that it functioned in territorial defense . to further test this hypothesis , we investigated whether the location of call production varied in systematic ways . we predicted that sequences given in the periphery of a group ' s home range contained significantly more h + calls than sequences given in the center , which turned out to be the case ( fig . 3 ; fisher ' s exact test , p < 0 . 001 ) .\nsavill , p . s . and j . e . d . fox . 1967 . trees of sierra leone . government printers .\nin earlier work , we have shown that campbell ' s monkey males use an affixation rule to increase the size of their call repertoire . adding the suffix \u201coo\u201d to krak ( k \u2192 k + ) or hok ( h \u2192 h + ) calls altered these calls ' meanings in predictable ways ( 50 ) . here , we describe regularities at another level , i . e . , in how monkeys combined this repertoire of six call types into nine distinct call sequences ( fig . 2 ) . these call combinations were not random , but the product of a number of principles , which governed how semantic content was obtained .\nwe develop a formal semantic analysis of the alarm calls used by campbell\u2019s monkeys in the tai forest ( ivory coast ) and on tiwai island ( sierra leone ) \u2014two sites that differ in the main predators that the monkeys are exposed to ( eagles on tiwai vs . eagles and leopards in tai ) . building on data discussed in ouattara et al . ( plos one 4 ( 11 ) : e7808 ,\nmulavwa , m . 1991 . notes on the call of mona monkeys ( cercopithecus wolfi ) in the mabali forest : frequency of emission and daily activities . pp . 1 in a ehara , t kimura , o takenaka , m iwamoto , eds . primatology today proceedings of the xiii congress of the international primatological society . amsterdam : elsevier science publishers .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\ndavies , g . and b . birkenhager . 1990 . jentink\u2019s duiker in sierra leone : evidence from the freetown peninsula . oryx 24 : 143 - 146 .\nmayers , j . , s . anstey and a . peal . 1992 . liberia . pages 214 - 220 in j . a . sayer , c . s . harcourt , and n . m . collins , editors . the conservation atlas of tropical forests : africa . iucn and macmillan publishers , united kingdom .\nschel am , tranquilli s , zuberb\u00fchler k ( 2009 ) the alarm call system of black - and - white colobus monkeys . j comp psychol 123 : 136\u2013150 .\n* brandon keim ' s twitter stream and reportorial outtakes ; wired science on twitter . brandon is currently working on a book about ecosystem and planetary tipping points . *\npapworth s , b\u00f6se as , barker j , zuberb\u00fchler k ( 2008 ) male blue monkeys alarm call in response to danger experienced by others . biology letters 4 : 472\u2013475 .\nlike other primates , wolf ' s monkeys also extensively use grooming for tactile social communication . the use of chemical cues , such as pheromones , is likely , but undocumented .\nare these results relevant for understanding the evolution of syntax ? as outlined before , this system pales in contrast to the communicative power of grammar ; using calls in different sequences , even highly predictable sequences , is not the same as grammar . nevertheless , the call sequences observed in this primate were not the results of individuals responding to serial or compound stimuli ( such as \u201cwater\u201d and \u201cbird\u201d combined to \u201cwaterbird\u201d ) . in campbell ' s monkeys , the different sequences were given to highly discrete external events with very little conceptual similarities .\nwe carried out long - term observations and predator model experiments to investigate how free - ranging male campbell ' s monkeys of ta\u00ef national park , ivory coast , communicated about external events . in previous research , we found that males and females produced different alarm calls that , in some cases , were combined into meaningful sequences [ 23 ] , [ 31 ] - [ 34 ] . here , we were interested in how acoustically flexible males were with some of their alarm call types , and how they applied this variation to external events . our study showed that male campbell ' s monkeys produced six different loud alarm calls in response to disturbing or dangerous events . \u201cboom\u201d calls were acoustically and contextually unique , whereas the other five calls shared a number of acoustic features . the most relevant finding was that these five calls consisted of a call stem that differed in terms of the basic frequency contours and could be followed by an optional suffix - like small and inconspicuous vocal unit , which altered the semantic content of the full call in significant and predictable ways .\nhohmann and surbeck published in 2008 that bonobos sometimes do hunt monkey species . having observed a group of bonobos in salonga national park for five years they witnessed five incidents where bonobos preyed on groups of monkeys . their research indicates it was deliberate hunting , where a group of bonobos would coordinate their actions\u2014contrary to their normal hunting behaviour , which is quite solitary and less purposeful . in three occasions the hunt was successful and infant monkeys were captured , once a redtail monkey and twice a cercopithecus wolfi . the spoils , however , were distributed quite peacefully among the members of the group . [ 17 ] [ 18 ]\nlaboratoire ethos \u201cethologie animale et humaine\u201d , u . m . r . 6552 - c . n . r . s . , universit\u00e9 de rennes 1 , station biologique , paimpont , france\nwolf ' s monkeys are frugivorous , but they supplement their diet heavily with leaves , seeds , and flowers . at salonga national park in the democratic republic of congo , wolf ' s monkeys have been recorded consuming 32 % fruit ( 4 % fleshy and 27 % arils ) , 27 % seeds , 29 % leaves , and 11 % flowers . though not a primary means of sustenance , wolf\u2019s monkeys will occasionally feed on nectars and insects if they are readily available . the principal feeding time for this species is during the early morning and early afternoon .\ncall sequences to leopards were always composed of krak ( k ) calls , sometimes combined with krak - oo ( k + ) calls ( median = 21 calls ; range : 12\u201335 ; n = 26 ; fig . 2 ) . in the sequences recorded from the three most habituated males , we found that the level of urgency was associated with a high proportion of k calls in the sequence . sequences with just k calls were given in response to real leopards and leopard models . k + calls were far more common when callers responded to leopard vocalizations or diana monkey leopard alarm calls . compared to real leopards and leopard models , k calls were given significantly less often to leopard vocalizations and diana monkey leopard alarm calls ( fisher ' s exact tests , p < 0 . 001 ; fig . 4 b ) .\nwhen comparing human language to primate communication systems , such as this one , a number of interesting similarities and fundamental differences emerge . first , male campbell ' s monkeys are limited to a relatively small range of messages that they can convey to their audience . this is partly because callers do not take full advantage of the potential of their communicative system . for example , they do not inverse the order of calls ( e . g . , ab to ba ) to generate differences in meaning , and a large number of other possible call combinations are not realized . second , human language is symbolic in the sense that signalers can inform listeners about referents that are not physically present ( 55 ) . in campbell ' s monkeys , we only observed calling in response to real life experiences , and some observations suggested that callers did not attempt to inform others . further research will have to test whether some of the observed contingencies between acoustic morphology and external events were intentionally produced or biproducts of other processes . whatever the outcome , our results demonstrate that the evolution of complex morphology has begun early in primate evolution , long before the emergence of hominids , and hence preceded the evolution of intentional communication .\nsayer , j . a . , c . s . harcourt , and n . m . collins . 1992 . the conservation atlas of tropical forests : africa . iucn and simon & schuster , cambridge .\nwhether their rudimentary syntax echoes the speech of humanity ' s evolutionary ancestors , or represents an emergence of language unrelated to our own , is unclear . either way , they ' re far more sophisticated than we thought .\noates , j . f . , gippoliti , s . & groves , c . p . ( 2008 ) . cercopithecus campbelli . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . retrieved 4 january 2009 .\nguschanski , k . , krause , j . , sawyer , s . , valente , l . m . , bailey , s . , finstermeier , k . , sabin , r . , gilissen , e . , sonet , g . , nagy , z . t . , lenglet , g . , mayer , f . , & savolainen , v . ( 2013 ) . next - generation museomics disentangles one of the largest primate radiations .\nspecies and related genera . wolf ' s monkeys have ischial callosities ( callus - like areas of skin on the buttocks ) . this provides a degree of comfort while sitting on branches and night resting . these callosities are typical of the family\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\noccupies primary and secondary lowland rainforest habitats . wolf ' s monkeys are commonly found in swamp forests and secondary forests along riverbanks . they spend a majority of their time between 15 and 25 meters high in the canopy where they forage and sleep .\ngrubb , p . , t . s . jones , e . edberg , e . d . starin , j . e . hill . 1998 . mammals of ghana , sierra leone , and the gambia . tenderine press , london , uk .\nthe gambian forest contributes immensely to the gambia\u2019s economy and the social well being of gambia\u2019s population and provide several environmental services . in additional to maintaining the micro - climatic balance , the stabilisation of the river banks and providing life support systems to many other plants , animals and aquatic life , forests are important to the local communities who depend on them for food , medicines , wood products for construction and energy ( particularly to women who rely on the forests for their subsistence ) . particularly important forest products are for women .\nwolf ' s monkeys are one of the species hunted in the bushmeat market . their meat provides food to local inhabitants and a product to trade for other goods . they are also likely to play a role in the regeneration of healthy forests through seed dispersal .\nbakarr , m . i . , b . bailey , d . byler , r . ham , s . oliverieri , m . omland . 2001 . from the forest to the sea : biodiversity connections from guinea to togo . conservation international , washington d . c .\nkingdon ( 1997 ) included this taxon within his cercopithecus mona superspecies group , groves ( 2001 ) followed the same arrangement whereas grubb et al . ( 2003 ) considered it the nominate subspecies of c . campbelli . the latter treatment was followed for the 2008 red list assessment . groves ( 2005 ) classified c . lowei as a distinct species and that approach is now followed here ( mittermeier et al . 2013 ) , hence the former nominate subspecies is now the species - concept for c . campbelli . this is an updated assessment to reflect the promotion of the nominate subspecies to species - level and the inclusion of information previously contained within the former species - level assessment .\nthe four habituated males were directly observed in dense forest vegetation for a total focal duration of 43 h ( male 1 , 11 months ; male 2 , 6 months ; male 3 , 15 months ; male 4 , 2 months ) . scan animal samples ( n = 4 , 425 ) were collected every 30 min , during which we recorded ( i ) the presence of other monkey species and ( ii ) the location within the group ' s home range . we also collected ad libitum samples from all habituated and semihabituated groups during \u22482 , 000 h total contact time . this enabled us notably to report on the response of males to their main predators , leopards ( n = 3 ) and crowned eagles ( n = 11 ) .\nthe baobolon wetland reserve was designated as a ramsar site upon the gambia\u2019s ratification of the ramsar convention in 1996 . a comprehensive study of baobolon along with two additional sites , nuimi national park and the tanji wetland complex , was conducted in 1997 with a view to designating them as ramsar sites .\nstuart , s . n . , r . j . adams and m . d . jenkins . 1990 . biodiversity in sub - saharan africa and its islands : conservation , management and sustainable use . occasional papers of the iucn species survival commission no . 6 . iucn , gland , switzerland .\na first sequence , recorded from all four habituated males and one semihabituated male , consisted of k + calls only ( median = 15 calls ; range : 3\u201325 ; n = 18 ; fig . 2 ) . this sequence was rare and given to any auditory sign of a predator , typically after hearing diana monkey alarm calls ( n = 15 / 18 ) or , more rarely ( n = 3 / 18 ) , after hearing predator vocalizations , but never to any visual signs of a predator .\njenkins , m . and a . hamilton . 1992 . biological diversity . pages 26 - 32 in j . a . sayer , c . s . harcourt , and n . m . collins , editors . the conservation atlas of tropical forests : africa . iucn and macmillan publishers , united kingdom .\nvooren , f . and j . sayer . 1992 . c\u00f4te d\u2019ivoire . pages 133 - 142 in j . a . sayer , c . s . harcourt , and n . m . collins , editors . the conservation atlas of tropical forests : africa . iucn and macmillan publishers , united kingdom .\nrelative distribution of different call types within predator sequences with varying levels of predator threat . ( a ) eagle , ( b ) leopard . fisher exact test ( * * * , p < 0 . 001 ) were used to compare the relative contribution of obligatory ( black ) vs . optional ( white ) call types in low threat situations ( 1 , mainly diana monkey alarms ; 2 , playback of predator vocalizations ) or high threat circumstances ( 3 , visual predator models ; 4 , real predator encounters ) .\nbefore each experiment , the following conditions had to be met : ( i ) the study group was aware of the presence of human observers for at least 30 min ; ( ii ) no alarm calls were produced for at least 30 min ; ( iii ) the predator model ( or playback speaker ) was positioned ahead of the group ' s estimated travel direction ensuring that no associated monkey species could detect it first . one observer ( k . o . ) and one field assistant were necessary for these experiments . the observer walked with the group and recorded the male ' s behavior , while the assistant operated the predator model . for eagle trials , the model or loudspeaker was positioned at an elevation of 2\u20133 m off the ground . for leopard trials , the model or loudspeaker was positioned on the ground . eagle shrieks were recorded in the study area ; leopard growls were purchased from the national sound archives , london . all acoustic stimuli were broadcast with a sony wmd6c professional walkman connected to nagra dsm speaker - amplifier with the amplitude level adjusted so that the calls sounded natural and could be clearly heard by the group .\nnot much information is known about the parental investment of wolf ' s monkeys , though it has been observed that infants will ride on the backs of their mothers for the first few months after birth . female young stay in their natal group , male young disperse from their natal group when they become independent .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nobservations were conducted in 15 - min blocks under a focal animal sampling regime ( 56 ) between 08 : 00 and 17 : 00 gmt . during each observation period , the observer ( k . o . ) recorded all loud calls produced by the focal male . the single adult male is the only one to produce loud calls in the group , so there was no risk of confusion in terms of caller identification . if the male produced a loud call , the observer determined its likely cause among the following : ( i ) predator , presence of a leopard ( panthera pardus ) or crowned eagle ( stephanoaetus coronatus ) ; ( ii ) intergroup , presence of neighboring group ( usually inferred by loud calls of their adult male ) ; ( iii ) tree / branch , crashing sound of falling tree or large branch ; ( iv ) monkey alarm , diana monkey eagle or leopard alarm calls ( 54 ) ; and ( v ) cohesion and travel , male spatially separated far from the group ( < 30\u201350 m ) or beginning of group travel after spatial separation .\none way of studying language evolution is to compare the communicative abilities of humans and animals . parallels with human language can be found at various levels , both in terms of production and comprehension . particularly relevant are cases of social influences on vocal development ( 1 ) , cases of infant babbling ( 2 ) , and other types of vocal learning ( 3 \u2013 5 ) . in some species , there is evidence for population - wide convergence effects in the form of culturally transmitted dialects [ e . g . , starlings ( 6 ) , whales ( 7 ) , and japanese macaques ( 8 ) ] . in terms of pragmatic use , there is good evidence that call production can be influenced by specific audiences ( 9 , 10 ) . in terms of comprehension , primates and possibly many other species are able to assign meaning to different calls if there is a strong relation between a call ' s acoustic morphology and its eliciting context ( 11 \u2013 14 ) . in some species , there is some evidence for hemispheric specialization when processing conspecific calls [ e . g . , horses ( 15 ) , campbell ' s monkeys ( 16 ) , rhesus macaques ( 17 ) , starlings ( 18 ) , and sea lions ( 19 ) ] .\nthe second sequence type consisted of a pair of boom calls followed by a k + sequence ( median overall = 10 calls ; range : 4\u201315 calls : n = 53 ; fig . 2 ) . this combined sequence , recorded from all four habituated males , was mainly given to falling trees or branches with no other noticeable disturbance ( 85 % ) . in the remaining cases ( 15 % ) , the sequence was given in response to fights between other monkey species in the canopy , although this usually led to branches falling as well .\nthe majority of call sequences to crowned eagles were composed of wak - oo ( w + ) and krak - oo ( k + ) calls , sometimes with the addition of hok ( h ) and hok - oo ( h + ) calls ( median = 25 calls ; range : 15 to 40 ; n = 38 ; fig . 2 ) . by analyzing in more details the sequences produced by the three most habituated males , we found that high levels of urgency were associated with a high proportion of h and h + calls in the sequence . there was a significant difference in the proportion of h and h + calls if the caller spotted a real eagle or encountered the eagle model compared to when he only heard eagle vocalizations or diana monkey eagle alarm calls ( fisher ' s exact test , p < 0 . 001 ; fig . 4 a ) .\nthis ecoregion also has a diverse fauna ( martin 1991 , happold 1996 , bakkar et al . 1999 ) . there are nearly 1 , 000 vertebrates recorded in ta\u00ef national park , and the park holds viable populations of the near - endemic pygmy hippopotamus ( hexaprotodon liberiensis , vu ) . in the order artiodactyla , two duikers , jentink\u2019s duiker ( cephalophus jentinki , vu ) and zebra duiker ( cephalophus zebra , vu ) are strictly endemic to this ecoregion . the liberian mongoose ( liberiictis kuhni , en ) is also strictly endemic , and another small carnivore , johnston\u2019s genet ( genetta johnstoni , dd ) , is known from small populations in liberia and c\u00f4te d\u2019ivoire ( hayman 1958 , schlitter 1974 , taylor 1989 , 1992 ) . miller\u2019s striped mouse ( hybomys planifrons ) is the only other strictly endemic mammal , although more than 15 species of mammal are regarded as near - endemic , with all of these species shared only with the adjacent eastern guinea lowland forest and / or the guinea montane forest ecoregions .\nmammals : a list of mammals complied in the late 1960\u2019s indicated that there are 67 species of mammals but may have omitted many of the smaller rodents ( rodentia ) and bats ( chiroptera ) . the most recent assessment ( murphy , 1998 ) , puts the total number of mammals at 99 including marine mammals recorded form gambian waters .\nsome calls were given to a broad , others to a narrow range of events . crucially , \u201ckrak\u201d calls were exclusively given after detecting a leopard , suggesting that it functioned as a leopard alarm call , whereas the \u201ckrak - oo\u201d was given to almost any disturbance , suggesting it functioned as a general alert call . similarly , \u201chok\u201d calls were almost exclusively associated with the presence of a crowned eagle ( either a real eagle attack or in response to another monkey ' s eagle alarm calls ) , while \u201chok - oo\u201d calls were given to a range of disturbances within the canopy , including the presence of an eagle or a neighbouring group ( whose presence could sometimes be inferred by the vocal behaviour of the females ) . on a few occasions , \u201chok\u201d and \u201chok - oo\u201d calls were produced in response to a flying squirrel , whose silhouette somewhat resembles a flying eagle , but never to any other large bird .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nin forest guenons , the single adult male of the group mainly vocalizes in response to predators and other significant external disturbances ( 5 , 48 , 53 ) . females are vocally active in social situations ( 44 \u2013 46 ) and to predators to which they produce a diverse alarm call repertoire that encodes information about predator type and level of threat ( 47 ) . whether campbell ' s monkeys produced these calls to intentionally inform others about the event they have experienced cannot be decided with our data . some observations suggest not . for example , it is puzzling that males produce loud calls in response to the thundering sound of falling trees , as all other group members will have perceived the event as well . the collapse of a large tree provides a significant danger to arboreal animals and fatalities are not unusual . thus , calling males may have the urge to advertise their uninjured state and provide an acoustic focal point for scattered or disoriented group members , rather than attempting to inform others about the danger .\nwolf ' s monkeys give birth to one offspring at a time , though twins occur rarely . most births occur from june to december when there is the greatest abundance of food . gestation length is from 160 to 170 days and the young are nursed for 3 months after birth . females produce their first young at 4 to 5 years old .\nlaboratoire ethos \u201cethologie animale et humaine\u201d , u . m . r . 6552 - c . n . r . s . , universit\u00e9 de rennes 1 , station biologique , paimpont , france , centre suisse de recherches scientifiques , abidjan , c\u00f4te d ' ivoire , laboratoire de zoologie et de biologie animale , universit\u00e9 de cocody , abidjan , c\u00f4te d ' ivoire\nthe total staff demand was estimated based on the assumptions that the gfmc is implemented country - wide and that fd\u2019s administrative structure is further streamlined by putting afforestation under divisional management , abolishing the beekeeping section , up - grading training and adaptive research , merging the extension unit with the cf unit , and by transferring management responsibilities to local communities represented by forest committees .\nwe are grateful to \u201coffice ivoirien des parcs et r\u00e9serves\u201d ( oipr ) for permission to conduct research in the ta\u00ef national park . our special gratitude goes to the field assistants of the ta\u00ef monkey project for all their invaluable help during data collection and for their stamina and support during the political turmoil of the previous years . we are equally grateful to n ' goran kouakou elizer , gombert jean emile , tecumseh fitch , catherine blois - heulin , laurence henry , isabelle charrier , julia fischer and martine hausberger for various contributions , including h\u00e9l\u00e8ne bouchet , pascaline legouar , v\u00e9ronique biquand and muriel guernion for their help with the statistics .\nimpressive as that was , however , it was still relatively one - dimensional , not much different from verbalizations heard in many animal species , from other non - human primates to songbirds . the team ' s latest findings , published monday in the proceedings of the national academy of sciences , describe something far more complicated : syntax , or principles of word sequence and sentence structure .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\n) . when these birds are spotted by wolf ' s monkeys , they will sound an alarm call and retreat to the ground . though less common , leopards also pose a threat to this species . more recently , humans have become a major predator of this species for the bush meat market . in addition , their primary habitat is being destroyed at an extremely rapid pace for lumber .\nforest resources are a source of biological diversity in themselves . the forest resources are also important for the conservation of biological diversity and for overall environmental protection . a good amount of vegetative cover for the land provides a good measure against soil erosion and other forms of land degradation . the gambia\u2019s biodiversity resources are under increasing pressures and there is an alarming decline in both faunal and floral specie numbers .\nalthough private forest both natural and plantations are foreseen in the forest policy and legislation , to date only one private gmelina plantation of about 100 ha exits which was even established before the new policy was formulated . at the moment the fd\u2019s highest priority is to bring as much as possible of forest reserves under community management . considering the increasing wood demand , however the fd should pay equal attention to promotion and supporting private woodlots .\nharcourt , c . , g . davies , j . waugh , j . oates , n . coulthard , n . burgess , p . wood and p . palmer . 1992 . sierra leone . pages 244 - 250 in j . a . sayer , c . s . harcourt , and n . m . collins , editors . the conservation atlas of tropical forests : africa . iucn and macmillan publishers , united kingdom .\nbakarr , m . i . , b . bailey , m . omland , n . myers , l . hannah , c . g . mittermeier and r . a . mittermeier . 1999 . guinean forests . pages 239 \u2013 253 in r . a . mittermeier , n . myers , p . r . gil and c . g . mittermeier . hotspots : earth\u2019s biologically richest and most endangered terrestrial ecoregions . toppan printing company , japan .\nbeing an arboreal quadruped , wolf ' s monkeys have forelimbs and hindlimbs that are fairly equal in length giving it an intermembral index number close to 100 . the head and body length of males varies from 445 to 511 mm with an average of 485 mm . the length of the tail in males ranges from 695 to 822 mm with an average of 779 mm . there has not been enough data collected from females to adaquetely determine these measurements .\nwe thank the office ivoirien des parcs et r\u00e9serves for permission to conduct research in the ta\u00ef national park , the field assistants of the ta\u00ef monkey project for all their invaluable help during data collection , and n . elizer , g . emile , c . blois - heulin , v . biquand , h . bouchet , j . fischer , m . hausberger , and the gis ( groupement d ' int\u00e9r\u00eat scientifique ) \u201ccerveau , comportement , soci\u00e9t\u00e9\u201d for support and discussions . this work was supported by the european commission ( sixth framework programme , what it means to be human ) , european science foundation eurocore programmes ( origin of man language and languages ) , the wissenschaftskolleg zu berlin , the french ministry of foreign affairs ( egide ) , and the centre suisse de recherches scientifiques in abidjan .\nthe wildlife conservation et , 1977 , has defined protected areas as any area of land set aside by the government for purposes of preserving and managing the habitat and ecology , including any forest park or local sanctuary . the current protected area system in the gambia comprises six national parks and nature reserves under the mandate of the department of parks and wildlife management , dpwm covering a total land area of 39 , 772 ha i . e . about 3 . 7 % of the gambia\u2019s land area .\nplantation establishment , using gmelina aborea was the main preoccupation of the department of forestry in the years between 1953 and 1985 . a total of about 13000 hectares of monoculture of gmelina aborea and very small amount of tectona grandis were planted mainly in the western division . the high cost of plantation establishment and fire protection as well as to conserve biodiversity caused the department to reconsider it\u2019s forest management priorities and potentials and since 1985 , a policy decision was reached to re - orient forestry department to focus more on natural forest management .\nperelman , p . , johnson , w . e . , roos , c . , seu\u00e1nez , h . n . , horvath , j . e . , moreira , m . a . m . , kessing , b . , ponitus , j . , roelke , m . , rumpler , y . , schneider , m . p . c . , silva , a . , o brien , s . j . , & pecon - slattery , j . ( 2011 ) . a molecular phylogeny of living primates .\nthe gambia has designated 6 protected areas for the conservation of wildlife resources . in addition to fulfilling that function , the protected areas also contain significant amounts of plant species , particularly the rare plant species . the total area under this form of land use currently stands at around 3 . 4 % of the gambia\u2019s total land area . following the ratification of the international convention on biological diversity in 1994 , the government of the gambia under the auspices of its department of parks and wildlife management elaborated the biodiversity strategy and action plan ( bsap ) . the bsap provides a coherent framework for the management of the gambia\u2019s biological resources on a sustainable basis as well as to ensure the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising . one of the policy objectives of the bsap is to increase the area under wildlife to about 5 % of the total land area of the gambia . furthermore , the policy also aims to involve local communities in the management of biological resources . the implementation of such a policy is likely to promote to the better management and enhancement of forest - based biodiversity .\nthe herpetofauna is also diverse ( welch 1982 ) , and contains a large number of endemic species . in the amphibians there are 13 strictly endemic species and a number of others shared with the eastern guinea lowland forest ecoregion . the strict endemics include the rare frog merlin\u2019s clawed frog ( pseudhymenochirus merlini ) known only from guinea and sierra leone ( chabanaud 1920 , menzies 1967 ) , and the freetown long - fingered frog ( cardioglossa aureoli ) , which is only known from the mountains close to freetown in sierra leone . other notable endemics include the tai river frog ( phrynobatrachus taiensis ) , liberian long - fingered frog ( cardioglossa liberiensis ) and ivory coast toad ( bufo danielae ) ( schi\u00f8tz 1964 , 1967 , wcmc 1994 , harcourt et al . 1992 , vooren and sayer 1992 ) . the reptile fauna is less rich in endemics , with three strictly endemic species and thirteen shared only with other ecoregions in the upper guinea forest block . the strict endemics are los archipelago worm lizard ( cynisca leonine ) , benson\u2019s mabuya ( mabuya bensonii ) and liberia worm snake ( typhlops leucostictus ) .\nlemasson ' s team previously described the monkeys ' use of calls with specific meanings in a paper published in november . it detailed the monkeys ' basic sound structures and their uses :\nhok\nfor eagle ,\nkrak\nfor leopard ,\nkrak - oo\nfor general disturbance ,\nhok - oo\nand\nwak - oo\nfor general disturbance in forest canopies . a sixth call ,\nboom ,\nwas used in non - predatory contexts , such as when calling a group together for travel or arguing with neighboring groups .\nto leopards , males sometimes produced pure k sequences ( n = 9 / 26 ) , but if k + calls were added , then typically toward the end of the sequence . we compared the number of k and k + calls in the first and second half of the sequences and found a significant difference ( fisher ' s exact test , p < 0 . 001 ) . to crowned eagles , most sequences began with a series of h ( 16 of 38 sequences ) and typically ended with a series of k + ( 36 of 38 sequences ) . this specific order probably reflected the decrease in urgency or threat perceived by the caller . if w + or h + were produced , then they appeared more or less randomly throughout the sequence without any detectable patterns , while h and k + followed the ordering outlined before . there was a significant difference between the number of h and k + at the beginning and at the end of sequences ( fisher ' s exact test , p < 0 . 001 ; n = 38 ) , which had the effect that the distribution patterns differed significantly between the four call types ( \u03c7 2 test x 2 = 311 . 3 ; dl = 21 ; p < 0 . 001 ) ."]}
{"id": 1559, "summary": [{"text": "un de sceaux ( foaled 5 may 2008 ; [ \u025b\u0303 d\u0259 so ] ) is a french-bred aqps racehorse who competes in national hunt racing .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "after winning both his races in france he was transferred to ireland where he won two novice hurdles .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in the 2013/14 national hunt season he was undefeated in five races including the red mills trial hurdle in ireland and both the prix hypothese and the prix leon rambaud in france .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "when switched to steeplechases he recovered from a fall on his debut to win the arkle novice chase , arkle challenge trophy and ryanair novice chase in the 2014-15 season .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in 2015-16 he won the clarence house chase but was beaten by sprinter sacre when favourite for the queen mother champion chase in what his defeat when completing a steeplechase .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he began the 2016-17 with a win in the tingle creek chase and followed up with his second victory in the clarence house chase before taking the ryanair chase in march . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "un de sceaux", "paragraphs": ["1 : un de sceaux . 2 : felix yonger . 3 : god\u2019s own\nhot favourite un de sceaux will face nine rivals in the betway queen mother champion chase at cheltenham .\nun de sceaux ' s trainer willie mullins has also left in in douvan and vroum vroum mag .\nun de sceaux has managed to win 22 races in its career so far . on 16th mar 2017 at cheltenham , un de sceaux scored its most significant win to date , getting the money in the\nhenry de bromhead is happy to let special tiara take on the formidable un de sceaux in the queen mother champion chase at cheltenham .\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for un de sceaux . un de sceaux is a gelding born in 2012 october 5 by hinchinbrook out of cross dresser\nfor o\u2019connell , un de sceaux is just the most obvious example of willie mullins\u2019s genius for talent spotting .\ncheltenham and the betway queen mother champion chase can barely come quick enough for willie mullins with un de sceaux .\nun de sceaux justified prohibitive odds at punchestown when taking the ryanair novice chase in the hands of ruby walsh .\nun de sceaux recorded another facile victory as he claimed the conditions hurdle at navan by a stunning 53 lengths .\nante - post favourite un de sceaux is one of 18 confirmations for the ryanair chase at cheltenham on thursday .\nfrom then on un de sceaux proceeded to put the opposition to the sword with a series of spectacular leaps .\nun de sceaux blew away his two rivals with an electric display in the frank ward solicitors arkle novice chase at leopardstown .\nimpressive punchestown winner open eagle is set to follow in the hoofprints of willie mullins\u2019 un de sceaux with raids on france .\nchampion chase favourite un de sceaux and 2014 champion chase hero sire de grugy will meet for the first time in saturday\u2019s grade one sodexo clarence house chase at ascot .\nun de sceaux ' s connections are looking forward to a clash with cue card in thursday ' s ryanair chase at cheltenham .\nun de sceaux headlines 23 entries for the \u00a3350 , 000 betway queen mother champion chase at cheltenham on wednesday , march 16 .\nthe current race record for un de sceaux is 3 wins from 22 starts with prizemoney of $ 111 , 050 . 00 .\nun de sceaux lived up to his billing as he duly landed the odds in the racing post arkle trophy at the cheltenham festival .\nun de sceaux will face a maximum of 11 rivals in the betway queen mother champion chase at next week ' s cheltenham festival .\nfor one thing o\u2019connell is 37 today : what are the odds , he asks - a lot longer than un de sceaux\u2019s certainly .\nsecond in that contest was tom george\u2019s gods own , a horse that previously finished second to un de sceaux in the 2015 arkle .\nconnections of un de sceaux feel saturday ' s display at ascot sets him up perfectly for the\nfinal\nat cheltenham in march .\nun de sceaux , like so many times before , galloped his rivals into the ground to land the boylesports champion chase at punchestown this afternoon .\nruby walsh and un de sceaux lead all the way to win the sodexo clarence house steeple chase at ascot in january . photograph : alan crowhurst\nhe put up a benchmark performance when landing the championship in 2013 and the idea of him in his pomp keeping tabs on un de sceaux is one to savour . even nicky henderson concedes that pomp is in the past but today\u2019s sprinter sacre chasing un de sceaux is still an enticing prospect .\nun de sceaux and fox norton lock horns in what promises to be a fascinating renewal of the boylesports champion chase at the punchestown festival on tuesday .\nun de sceaux pulled walsh to the front at the fifth fence and proceeded to put the opposition to the sword with a series of spectacular leaps .\nun de sceaux completed a 28 / 1 plus grade 2 treble on the day at fairyhouse for willie mullins and paul townend when landing the devenish chase .\nun de sceaux ' s victory at ascot will have worked wonders for the confidence of both the horse and ruby walsh , according to trainer willie mullins .\nun de sceaux got his chasing career off to an unfortunate start when falling three out while holding a clear advantage in the killinan beginners chase at thurles .\nyou wait two days for a winner then two come at once . . . un de sceaux wins the ryanair chase for mullins & walsh # thefestival urltoken\nthere was also triumph for the o\u2019connell family of glanmire , co cork , with un de sceaux\u2019s win . some 25 supporters travelled over for the day .\nwillie mullins ' exciting french recruit un de sceaux has his next test when he lines up for the follow navan on facebook hurdle at the county meath course .\nwalsh made a brave call to take un de sceaux to the front as early as the fifth fence as the horse was keen to get on with things .\nthe french connection has continued for un de sceaux , who is ridden every day by ex - pat virginie bascop , the resident vet at the mullins stable .\nany mishap for un de sceaux and mullins\u2019s chances of a first champion chase won\u2019t disappear : however it looks a cheltenham championship event that revolves around the favourite .\nthere can be no denying it , the second of the cheltenham festival championship races is at the mercy of another willie mullins - trained runner , un de sceaux .\nnicky henderson was impressed with un de sceaux ' s performance in the clarence house chase and is looking forward to taking on the irish ace with sprinter sacre at cheltenham .\nthe new champion will have plenty on his plate next march with the emergence of the exhilarating un de sceaux , in a class of his own among the 2m novices .\nun de sceaux attempts to live up to his billing as the most exciting novice chaser around when he lines up for the racing post arkle challenge trophy at cheltenham on tuesday .\nowner edward o\u2019connell\u2019s son colm dedicated the win to his parents . four horses bought for festival running by the o\u2019connells failed the veterinary test . un de sceaux was the fifth .\nwho could possibly have guessed after that scintillating performance that by the end of the week two novices would be rated even higher than un de sceaux , albeit over longer distances .\nsean - un de sceaux is an unoriginal selection , but it is hard to argue with the ability of the arkle winner . has pace and stamina on his side and should be the best of a relatively shallow division . dodging bullets will be rock solid as always , but un de sceaux is the class of the division , as the betting suggests .\nborn in sceaux d\u2019anjou in the west of france at rene choveau\u2019s farm , un de sceaux is out of a mare , hotesse de sceaux ( april night ) , who was never placed in her races and hadn\u2019t produced much at stud . but pierre de la guillonniere of haras de la rousseli\u00e8re , the owner of denham red , had noticed that his stallion\u2019s offspring had a certain affinity with april night mares , so he made a foal - share deal with choveau .\nun de sceaux put an unfortunate exit on his chasing debut at thurles last month well behind him when readily landing prohibitive odds in the irish stallion farms ebf beginners chase at fairyhouse .\nun de sceaux is now the odds - on favourite at 10 - 11 for the champion chase , the feature race of cheltenham festival ladies day \u2013 wednesday 16 th march 2016 .\nvictory for un de sceaux on saturday will see his price of 13 - 8 for the 2016 champion chase tumble dramatically , as mullins continues to dominate the ante - post markets .\nlike him those horses are usually and eventually taught to settle and save their energy but , my goodness , until un de sceaux learns to do that , he will be incredibly exciting .\nun de sceaux made all in the grade 2 kerry group hilly way chase , coming home in splendid isolation under david mullins for his uncle willie ( third winner of the day ) .\nin a week of some mesmerising performances at punchestown , un de sceaux put in another one , as he defied logic with his display in the star best for racing coverage novice hurdle .\nit has proven a profitable horse for the punters over the journey . if you had backed un de sceaux throughout its career you ' d have achieved a 9 % return on investment .\n, who is based at carlow . it is sired by the stallion denham red out of the dam hotesse de sceaux .\nun de sceaux put up a tremendous performance to win the ryanair chase and give trainer willie mullins and jockey ruby walsh a big - race double on the third day of the cheltenham festival .\nruby walsh has revealed that his most important role when riding red - hot favourite un de sceaux in the arkle chase will be to prevent the prodigious chaser from boiling over in the preliminaries .\nracing enthusiasts not already in the un de sceaux fan club are surely members now after the ' sixteens on ' chance bolted up in the three runner horse & jockey hotel hurdle at thurles .\nthe mullins bandwagon rolled onto the big race of the day as un de sceaux cemented his place as queen mother champion chase favourite with a decisive victory in the grade one clarence house chase .\nun de sceaux won the prix la barka last year , picking up \u20ac110 , 000 ( \u00a393 , 000 ) before finishing unplaced behind paul nicholls ptit zig in the grande course de haies d ' auteuil ( french champion hurdle ) at the paris track .\nun de sceaux may have lost his unbeaten record elsewhere on the card but clondaw court maintained his perfect cv by making all for a very comfortable success in the rock of cashel hurdle at thurles .\nthe going remains soft for this afternoon ' s meeting at thurles where the chasing debut of un de sceaux in the opening killinan beginners chase kick starts a seven - race card full of talent .\nfriday\u2019s gold cup is the cheltenham festival prize willie mullins cherishes most but his illustrious cv also has a notable betway queen mother champion chase blank , one which un de sceaux looks set to fill .\ncolm o\u2019connell believes it isn\u2019t just impeccable form and a very short price that make un de sceaux a sure thing for this afternoon\u2019s queen mother champion chase . there\u2019s destiny involved too , he reckons .\nsince then , with the breeders\u2019 premiums un de sceaux has earned for her , monique choveau , rene\u2019s widow , has completely rebuilt her house , which would have been impossible on her meagre farmer\u2019s pension .\nin un de sceaux\u2019s career to date , he has only been beaten when falling , an instinct to throw his heart over a fence , hoping the rest of him follows , occasionally catching him out .\nthough sub lieutenant made inroads into the deficit on the run to the line , un de sceaux ( 7 - 4 favourite ) was not for stopping and passed the post a length and a half clear .\nvirginie bascop is the team - member responsible for un de sceaux day - to - day , entrusted with the mixed blessing of riding a potential champion every morning while trying not to get run away with .\nmaybe it is punters , many jumping fans , that had doubts and looking at him from an analytical point of view you can see why , un de sceaux has often had that crazy horse look about him .\nthe main selection therefore is traffic fluide . he\u2019s a horse that caught our eye last season as a novice , but his recent return behind un de sceaux in the clarence house chase really , really impressed us .\nun de sceaux ( first victory at graded level ) gained his fifth win in ireland and remained unbeaten after seven outings all told with another demolition of the opposition in the grade 2 red mills trial hurdle at gowran .\nthis is especially the case when running first - time out after an extended break . well in himself after a rest , un de sceaux can race far too aggressively and it can hinder his ability to jump accurately .\nhis fourth dam may have been gorda , who was fourth in the g1 prix saint - alary back in 1967 , but that made little difference to potential buyers , so pierre de la guillonniere leased un de sceaux to trainer fabrice foucher , based by the ocean in saint - michel - chef - chef . it didn\u2019t work well initially as un de sceaux was already quite a character , and only by galloping him on a 20km beach did they finally manage to teach him to somehow settle and get ready to race .\nthe champion jockey - elect fractured an arm and dislocated a shoulder on the final day of cheltenham . but just six weeks later he will be on board the unbeaten un de sceaux in a grade two contest at auteuil this afternoon .\nas discussed in our champion hurdle preview , faugheen was the horse in question over hurdles . over fences in the two - mile division , un de sceaux was the horse bookmakers , early doors , felt was the one to beat .\nthe second race we\u2019ve covered where a willie mullins horse holds strong claims . un de sceaux is the obvious horse to beat , but at a price of 4 / 5 we\u2019ll be taking him on with an each - way play .\nun de sceaux put up a tremendous performance to win the ryanair chase and give trainer willie mullins and jockey ruby walsh a big - race double on the third day of the cheltenham festival after taking the jlt novices ' chase with yorkhill .\nand that there lies the potential problem , his form ties him closely with sire de grugy who has since been put in his place by un de sceaux . it must also be said sprinter sacre was a slightly fortunate winner at kempton , a last fence mistake from the runner - up certainly helped his cause .\no\u2019connell\u2019s father , eddie , in whose colours un de sceaux runs , has been ill and again chosen to stay home in cork while his horse attempts to pick up a prize widely presumed all season to be his for the taking all season .\nthough sub lieutenant made inroads into the deficit on the run to the line , un de sceaux ( 7 - 4 favourite ) was not for stopping and passed the post a length and a half clear . aso was six lengths away in third .\nun de sceaux wins the 2017 clarence house chase . urltoken racing uk is the uk ' s leading horse racing tv channel , broadcasting over 4 , 000 live races every year . relive all the best action here : urltoken racing uk - pure racing entertainment\nun de sceaux may have only won a beginners chase at fairyhouse as you would expect at 1 - 5 shot to , by 12 lengths barely coming off the bridle , but his style was reminiscent of a young , carefree , tearaway desert orchid . apart from steering , at this stage of the five - year - old\u2019s career ruby walsh seems to have a minimal input into un de sceaux\u2019s tactics , which are as breathtaking as they are simple \u2013 go as fast as you can for as long as you can .\nhowever un de sceaux is the first outstanding candidate mullins has had for the race . and just the press the point home fully , in felix yonger the champion trainer looks to have another good chance , perhaps even a shot at saddling a 1 - 2 .\nshould un de sceaux become the 18th individual irish trained champion chase winner his addition to the two - mile roll of honour will be apt . in a discipline devoted to speed , dash and inch - accurate jumping , the mullins star is almost a caricature .\nwe\u2019ve always felt soft ground and tracks like ascot and kempton are ideal for him despite the son of my risk winning many good races on quicker terrain . back at cheltenham on potential spring ground means others are better equipped to get closer to un de sceaux .\nthis most dynamic of racing duos won the three biggest races of the day , the sky bet supreme novices\u2019 hurdle with douvan , the arkle won by un de sceaux and the brilliant faugheen destroyed the opposition in the biggest race of the day , the champion hurdle .\nwalsh again sent the eight - year - old to the front from the start and allowing him to find a superb rhythm with his jumping . turning for home he was travelling by the far the best , sire de grugy tried desperately to mount a challenge , but un de sceaux had far too many gears and eased to a five length win .\njosses hill surprised many by finishing third in last season\u2019s arkle behind un de sceaux , but he\u2019s a horse that has never convinced over fences and is easily left . the old warrior somersby is too old to go close in these events now and is another to duck .\nfor many this will be a classic case of \u2018bar a fall . \u2019 the only two occasions un de sceaux has been beaten have come when he has hit the floor . it\u2019s somewhat simplistic to boil it down to his greatest danger being himself but hardly completely ridiculous either .\nfor most people lucky enough to have a birthday coinciding with the cheltenham festival , a pair of tickets to the meeting is a valued present - but colm o ' connell might just enjoy the best celebration of all , a betway queen mother champion chase win for un de sceaux .\nun de sceaux himself isn\u2019t a natural candidate for the comfortable role of cool , clean hero . as befits the king of the speed division , he\u2019s more high - strung than cuddly , fiercely resentful of being stuck behind anyone or anything , and certainly not one for the niceties .\ntwice this has been seen in recent seasons : un de sceaux in each of his last two campaign openers has fallen . while worrying , it\u2019s encouraging to note on his second start back after a break he has been far more tractable , intelligent in jumping and won in style .\nwith un de sceaux so readily turning over sire de grugy ( 12 / 1 ) , it\u2019s hard to envisage the tables being turned at cheltenham come march . gary moore\u2019s charge is a top - class racehorse , a winner of five grade 1s , including the 2014 queen mother champion chase , but at the age of ten , it\u2019s hard to see him improving .\nhenry de bromhead is busy preparing his strongest ever raiding party on the cheltenham festival .\nwhat makes it even more difficult for his opposition now however is that he looked to have learned the lessons from that with a subsequently faultless victory at ascot where the flamboyance of old was somewhat contained . a repeat of such controlled aggression will make un de sceaux an even tougher opponent .\nspecial tiara and his former stable companion sizing granite are two other irish hopefuls and it will be fascinating to see if special tiara takes on un de sceaux for the lead in the early stages . such a tactic might have been productive in the past although the ascot evidence suggests maybe not now .\nthe current season started slowly , we saw him for the first time in the clarence house chase at ascot . on his seasonal debut , he ran an absolute cracker finishing third behind un de sceaux , registering a career best in the process , beaten just five lengths with near guaranteed progress to come .\nun des sceaux\u2019s support team : colm o\u2019connell , eamon o\u2019connell , carol o\u2019connell , tony twomey , kay o\u2019connell , paul o\u2019connell , colm o\u2019keeffe with children , luke and katelyn o\u2019connell . photograph : inpho / morgan treacy\neven so , un de sceaux had all his rivals at full stretch coming down the hill . god ' s own ( 33 - 1 ) tried to make a race of it but he could not compete on the run to the line and had to settle for being beaten six lengths in second place .\non 16 march 2016 , sprinter sacre contested his third queen mother champion chase at the cheltenham festival . he started the 5 / 1 second favourite behind the irish - trained un de sceaux , whilst the other eight runners included dodging bullets , sire de grugy , felix yonger ( punchestown champion chase ) , special tiara , and somersby . special tiara and un de sceaux set a very fast pace with nico de boinville settling sprinter sacre behind the leaders . despite a mistake three fences from home , sprinter sacre made rapid progress to take the lead approaching the second last and quickly went several lengths clear . he stayed on up the run - in to win the race by three and a half lengths and a nose from un de sceaux and special tiara . commenting on the ten - year - old ' s return to form , henderson said ,\nhe\u2019s just been so feisty and aggressive all season . . . i\u2019ve been looking at him every night for the last three weeks and i just knew that it was still there , and his whole body said that it was . it\u2019s just talent , isn\u2019t it ?\nhowever all eyes will be firmly fixed on the two headline attractions . un de sceaux enjoyed a fantastic campaign last season culminating with a victory in the racing post arkle at the cheltenham festival . the eight - year - olds seasonal return didn\u2019t go to plan as he fell when going well at leopardstown over christmas .\ntour de france : team sky finish second in 35 . 5km team time trial 19 : 07\nthere is no hiding place when you employ those tactics and until un de sceaux , who remains unbeaten in all races except for his novices fall first time out over fences , gets his jumping totally together there is an added harum - scarum element to his racing . he must be white - knuckle exhilarating to ride .\nwith his trainer enda bolger always considering him a chasing type , gilgamboa had shown plenty over the smaller obstacles to suggest he could compete to a high level over fences . he went unbeaten in his opening two chase starts before finding the brilliant un de sceaux too hot to handle over two miles in the irish arkle .\non last season\u2019s arkle second behind the current race - favourite un de sceaux , god\u2019s own looks a pretty big price at 33 / 1 . he\u2019s only run once this campaign due to unsuitable going , but that third in the haldon gold cup at exeter on terrain too slow was a good effort all things considered .\nun de sceaux misses out on next week\u2019s punchestown festival and runs instead in the grade two prix leon rambaud where he will again clash with the french champion gemix . just a short neck separated them at the course a month ago when barry geraghty stepped in for the injured walsh . today\u2019s race is at 1 . 35 .\ndjakadam , owned by susannah and rich ricci , made an impressive return to action winning the grade one john durkan memorial chase at punchestown by 12 - lengths . and after seeing faugheen , douvan and un de sceaux lay down massive festival markers , mullins will be hoping for a similar performance from the cheltenham gold cup favourite .\nthe 2015 supreme novice hurdle winner was sent off as 1 - 14 favourite for the irish arkle and produced a flawless round of jumping to win by 15 - lengths . the six - year - old is now 4 - 7 to emulate un de sceaux and win the racing post arkle on day one of the cheltenham festival .\nsteve - emphatic arkle winner un de sceaux will step up to the big time this season , but if his jumping stays together then there ' s nothing in training that live with his cruising speed and at 5 / 4 for the queen mother champion chase it ' s going to be most punter ' s banker of the festival , and it will certainly be mine .\nwearing his heart on his sleeve , the un sceaux battle - plan classically involves going as fast as possible for two miles , daring anyone else to try and keep up . it\u2019s a high - risk strategy and it helped catch him out at leopardstown over christmas .\nwith the likes of vautour and un de sceaux going chasing , and hurricane fly stepping up in trip it seems that faugheen is the only one to fly the flag in the two mile division for the dominant willie mullins . he is generally a 5 / 1 chance for the champion hurdle but in my mind as long as he gets there he will be winning , famous last words eh !\ncaroline tisdall and bryan drew leading in un temps pour tout after back - to - back festival wins in the g3 ultima chase . urltoken\nwhile de boinville added : \u201caltior is quite a star . just to ride a smashing horse like this is quite something .\nthe heir apparent to sire de grugy at the sussex yard , this young french import has made remarkable progress in his five runs since arriving in this country , particularly after he was dropped to the minimum trip . he won off 129 and then 135 before producing a highly respectable performance when stepped up to grade one company at aintree . he is bound to be stronger and more mature this season and could progress into one of the chief rivals of un de sceaux in the queen mother champion chase that stablemate grugy won last year .\nhenry de bromhead flies the irish flag in the grade one celebration chase although special tiara has considerable ground to make up on sire de grugy from cheltenham\u2019s champion chase while co . dublin based patrick griffin runs maggio against menorah in the listed oaksey chase .\neven though most hardcore jumps fans know him very well by now , there is something about the aqps un de sceaux that keeps them on their toes every time he\u2019s out on the course , mostly as favourite . few horses sprint down the hill leading to the final steep straight line of prestbury park after showing the way a few lengths ahead of the field , jumping fences with a boldness not many jockeys would find comfortable .\nnot straightforward trainer willie mullins reported yesterday : \u201cun de sceaux is not the easiest of horses to ride but ruby looks fit and well riding out at home . if he didn\u2019t run [ in france ] he\u2019d have to take on hurricane fly and jezki and we\u2019ve time enough for all that . and the way he jumped the french hurdles , who knows whether he\u2019ll go jumping fences next year or come back over hurdles . \u201d\nhaving first dipped her toes into graded water in november 2013 when being caught out slightly one - paced up auteuil\u2019s long straight in the grande course de haies de 3 ans , one of france\u2019s top juvenile hurdle races , she proved a consistent performer , adding a first and two seconds at grade 3 to add to her grade 1 3rd place , a grade 2 second , and finally a grade 3 and a grade 1 victory in the final juvenile race of the season at auteuil in june , the prix alain du breil \u2013 course de haies d\u2019ete de quatre ans .\nval de ferbet put in a fine round of jumping on his chasing debut to take the three - mile beginners ' event in decisive fashion at fairyhouse .\ngary moore says sire de grugy is in great shape ahead of the betway champion chase and may turn to headgear in order to eke out a little more improvement .\na horse whose collateral form links him strongly with both sprinter sacre and sire de grugy is special tiara ( 12 / 1 ) , the 2015 champion chase third . a two - time grade one - winning chaser for henry de bromhead , he beat sprinter sacre in april 2015 by five lengths in the celebration chase at sandown .\nboth sire de grugy and special tiara are more than twice the price of the aforementioned nicky henderson horse , but others look to offer better value at this stage .\nspecial tiara showed a great attitude to stick out his neck and keep up the pace , beating fox norton . giving trainer henry de bromhead another champion chase victory .\nthe son of kayf tara hasn\u2019t been seen since , but is due to run at punchestown in the tied cottage chase . there is a chance he will shorten in the betting in the run - up to the champion chase \u2013 he already offers better value than sprinter sacre \u2013 and while a positive where this blog is concerned , we are not quite sure he offers enough each - way value at this stage especially when you consider he\u2019ll not get an easy lead with un de sceaux in the field . with that said , he holds strong claims of hitting the frame .\nfor the third season in a row the top 2m chaser scooped the grade 1 treble of tingle creek , clarence house and queen mother champion chase , writes john de moraville .\nthe pair dominated the market for the queen mother chase but sire de grugy finished a laboured fourth , running over a stone below his best , while sprinter sacre pulled up .\nif nichols canyon is now a more settled creature according to his trainer , the same cannot be said for his stablemate , the tearaway un de sceaux . but what he lacks in restraint he more than makes up for in ability and he soon had some strongly fancied rivals toiling in his wake as he set a relentless gallop in the g1 ryanair chase . walsh made vain attempts to anchor the exuberance of his partner in the early stages of the race but eventually allowed him to tug his way to the front and hurtle from fence to fence , eliciting gasps from the crowd with his almost recklessly bold jumping .\n\u201ci have ridden as an amateur and i also have an eventing background , \u201d she explains . \u201cthat led me to take care of some \u2018problem\u2019 horses at willie\u2019s and that\u2019s how i had un de sceaux allotted to me . he was pulling hard all the time and , eventually , that hurt him . i started to do some flat work with him in a manege . the idea was to make him understand that i was in charge , but that i also was his friend . it has been a long process and it\u2019s not an exact science , but i somehow have some control on his speed now . \u201d\nto some extent , mullins had been enduring a festival to forget , with a number of his high - profile horses having suffered injuries in the build - up , while odds - on favourite douvan ( fr ) ( walk in the park { ire } ) disappointed in the g1 queen mother champion chase and was subsequently found to be lame . but thursday quickly became a day to remember as first yorkhill ( ire ) ( presenting { gb } ) then un de sceaux ( fr ) ( denham red { fr } ) and nichols canyon ( gb ) ( authorized { ire } ) restored natural order in the mullins camp .\nlast year ' s champion chase winner sire de grugy has come out of his cheltenham warm - up at chepstow with his confidence boosted and is\ngood as gold\naccording to jockey , jamie moore .\nthe firm celebrates its twentieth anniversary , with two commissions in a row for the city of paris : an elementary school near the arc de triomphe , and 85\ngreen\napartments in the boucicaut district .\nafter falling at christmas there were question marks hanging over the head of last season\u2019s racing post arkle winner , but he put any doubts to bed by galloping his main rival sire de grugy into the ground .\nvautour , along with un de sceaux , was the great disappointment of the season for mullins and he remains without a win in one of the championship chases at the festival - you may rate the ryanair one of those but i don\u2019t . wins in the stella artois 1965 , clarence house and ryanair chases were scant return for a pair so talented and their jumping was found out in other races . strong travelling rather than good jumping tends to be a feature of the mullins horses and while his fall / unseat rate over fences in ireland and the uk was actually lower than previous seasons in ireland ( 10 . 8 % as against 11 . 4 % ) his runners seemed to make errors at the most crucial times .\ndodging bullets at cheltenham was left to account by just over a length for the admirable veteran somersby , who 12 months previously had bravely succumbed to an on - song sire de grugy by almost six times that margin .\nhis 2013 / 14 campaign was a disaster , however . health issues with a defibrillating heart ( has also struggled with his wind ) saw him race just once where he was pulled up at kempton behind sire de grugy .\nwe have much more positive feelings about traffic fluide , however , another horse trained by gary moore . moore , famous for his exploits with sire de grugy , has a potential heir apparent in this young and improving chaser .\nsent - off as the 30 / 100 favourite , nicky henderson\u2019s leading light made all under nico de boinville , producing a sequence of spectacular leaps . from four out the race was put to bed within a few strides .\nthere is every chance he can turn that form around with sire de grugy on better ground especially considering , despite winning many good races going right - handed , he gave the impression reverting to a left - handed track would suit .\nbut , although dodging bullets proved a revelation and comprehensively upstaged his two predecessors sprinter sacre and sire de grugy at cheltenham in march , his end - of - term rating of 171 is the lowest in this category since 2002 - 03 .\ncourt minstrel was a very decent hurdler and landed a valuable handicap hurdle at this meeting last year . the evan williams trained 8 year old made the perfect start to his chasing career when winning his first two races , including a 2 \u00be lengths defeat of chris pea green at cheltenham in october . in december he headed to sandown park for the grade 1 henry viii novices\u2019 chase but jumped far less fluently than normal and eventually finished last of the 4 runner behind vibrato valtat , beaten 32 lengths . he was off the track then until last month\u2019s arkle at cheltenham , where he stayed on late to finish 19 lengths fifth to un de sceaux . court minstrel then contested the grade 1 maghull novices\u2019 chase at aintree two weeks ago and was not disgraced when finishing 6 \u00bd lengths fourth to sizing granite .\ntaken to fences really well was rather unlucky sort over hurdles . he can win either way round and from back or front on all ground types and with doubts about sprinter sacre he must be value to give sire de grugy a race this season .\nhenry de bromhead has a nice bunch of two mile chasers this season and special tiara could easily have made this list instead of sizing granite , but it\u2019s the latter\u2019s versatility in terms of handling softer ground and being a year younger that secured his inclusion .\nthe formbook tells us there is very little between sprinter sacre ( 4 / 1 ) , sire de grugy ( 12 / 1 ) and special tiara ( 12 / 1 ) . former great sprinter sacre is easily discarded here of the trio on value grounds .\nunder a confident ride from aidan coleman , the colin tizzard chaser jumped enthusiastically from the front immediately putting his rivals under pressure . in contrast bristol de mai didn\u2019t show the same level of form as he did at haydock , struggling to jump with any fluency .\nsire de grugy was one of the most popular cheltenham festival winners when he flew up the hill to claim the 2014 queen mother champion chase and he has slowly returned to form this season . he was way below his best at exeter in the haldon gold cup .\nthis season , he returned to winning ways with a heart - warming and visually brilliant 15 lengths victory in the grade 2 shloer chase at cheltenham in november before he just got the better of sire de grugy at kempton in the grade 2 desert orchid chase over christmas .\njamie moore on behalf of betracingnation listed ubak as his horse to follow and gave a glowing report of the novice chaser . \u201ci think he is going to be a very very good horse , apart from sire de grugy he is definitely the best horse in the yard\u201d .\nit was also a historic opening day for eventmasters horse racing hospitality ambassador tom scudamore , who partnered un temps pour tout to victory in the ultima handicap chase . david pipe\u2019s eight - year - old won the same race in 2016 and became the first horse since scot lane in 1983 to win back - to - back renewals .\nthat is down to the calibre of opposition as both the two previous champions explicitly failed to reignite their former brilliance winning just one race between them all season . and that was sire de grugy\u2019s victory \u2013 albeit stylishly under top - weight \u2013 in a muddling four - runner chepstow handicap .\nheading into saturday\u2019s denman chase at newbury , many were expecting an epic battle between native river and bristol de mai \u2013 who have both claimed major handicap victories this season . but at the winning post there was little doubt who will pose the biggest threat to thistlecrack in the gold cup .\n2015 / 16 was largely in line with previous seasons for henry de bromhead , sending out 48 winners after 49 and 48 in the campaigns beforehand , and that levelling off is not something that pleased his principal patron alan potts who recently announced that he will have runners with a handful of other trainers next term . it is hard to avoid the notion that potts is difficult to deal with \u2013 he constantly moves horses around \u2013 but apart from going back into the willie mullins fold , a bridge he has already burned it would seem , there are few better around than de bromhead .\nthis season he was a hugely unlucky runner - up behind sire de grugy in the tingle creek , again at sandown , where a last fence mid - air clash with the winner may well have cost him the race . in the end , he was beaten by three parts of a length .\nwith front - runner charbel setting a very strong pace , nico de boinville and altior were taken outside of their comfort zone . but the fall of kim bailey\u2019s runner left altior clear in front and he stormed up the famous cheltenham hill , to give henderson a record breaking sixth win in the race .\nfollowing education , culture , commerce and offices , the agency now addresses the design of facilities for public safety : police stations in sceaux and villepinte . ttwo years later , ameller & dubois wins the montmartre fire station competition ( completed in 2008 ) . mary warburton , a young stage design oriented architect , joins the firm . she remains its most steady project manager .\ngod\u2019s own really blossomed around this time last year but didn\u2019t record a first victory over fences until winning a grade 1 contest at punchestown last spring , which meant he retained his novice status for the current season . the tom george trained 7 year old beat the ill - fated moscow mannon by \u00bd a length in the ryanair novice chase , in a field that also contained balder succes , felix yonger and champagne fever . he returned to action in november at exeter and landed the haldon gold cup by 5 lengths from balder succes but a month later his jumping let him down as he disappointed badly in the tingle creek chase . god\u2019s own then headed to kempton park over christmas to contest the grade 2 wayward lad novices\u2019 chase but went down to a 10 \u00bd lengths defeat when third to vibrato valtat . he was then off the track until last month\u2019s arkle at cheltenham , when he came back to his very best to chase home un de sceaux , eventually finishing 6 lengths second . god\u2019s own then headed to aintree and finished a length second to sizing granite in the grade 1 maghull novices\u2019 chase .\nthe amateur four - mile contest takes place on the opening day of the 2016 cheltenham festival \u2013 tuesday 15 th march ; with irish champion trainer mullins holding the first three in the betting . black hercules is the 4 - 1 favourite , followed by roi de francs ( 6 - 1 ) and pont alexandre ( 8 - 1 ) .\nas is his way , might bite set a blistering pace at the front and was 20 - lengths clear of his rivals coming to the final fence . after a crashing fall at kempton at the final fence in a similar position , nico de boinville got his mount to the other side \u2013 but that\u2019s where it all went a bit wrong .\nif that sounds presumptive in a field containing one of the most outstanding two - mile champions of all , sprinter scare , other previous title - holders in dodging bullets and sire de gruggy , not to mention a handful of other proven grade 1 winners , it does allow for the suspicion that sprinter & co appear to be lights of other days .\nwhile defi de seuil proved to be the finest juvenile hurdler in training as he swept aside the competition in the jcb triumph hurdle . phillip hobbs horse has been imperious all season , winning on each of his six starts . it was another victory in the race for jp mcmanus who now has owned 50 winners at the festival \u2013 the most in history .\nde bromhead has become more of a summer trainer in recent years and won a galway plate in 2015 with shanahan\u2019s turn which might be his aiming to avoid some of the better mullins horses in softer races ; he has started this new season well already with three winners . the national hunt season \u2018proper\u2019 will tell the tale however with his number of potts runners cut .\nvibrato valtat was a useful novice hurdler last term and has improved with each run this season over fences . after a good run back over hurdles at cheltenham\u2019s october meeting , vibrato valtat beat the useful thomas crapper by a length on his chasing debut at warwick in early november . the paul nicholls trained 6 year old was then second best by 1 \u00be lengths to dunraven storm at cheltenham\u2019s open meeting later that month , but reversed those placings when staying up the sandown park hill to beat his old rival by 2 lengths in the grade 1 henry viii novices\u2019 chase in early december . vibrato valtat was out again three weeks later and ran on well to beat three kingdoms by \u00bd a length in the wayward lad novices\u2019 chase at kempton park . he then headed to the kingmaker novices\u2019 chase at warwick in february and jumped well and looked really impressive when defeating the useful top gamble by 4 \u00bd lengths . he then headed to the arkle at cheltenham and tried to lay - up behind un de sceaux but paid the price in the home straight , eventually finishing 13 lengths fourth . once again vibrato valtat put up a game performance at aintree two weeks ago when 4 lengths second to clarcam in the grade 1 manifesto novices\u2019 chase .\nscudamore has won nine times at the cheltenham festival \u2013 thistlecrack , ryanair world hurdle 2016 ; un temps pour tout , ultima handicap chase 2016 ; next sensation , grand annual chase 2015 ; moon racer , wetherby\u2019s champion bumper 2015 ; ballynagour , byrne group plate 2014 ; dynaste , ryanair chase 2014 ; western warhorse , racing post arkle 2014 ; salut flo , byrne group plate 2012 ; and an accordion , william hill trophy handicap chase 2008 .\nif that poor performance can be forgiven , and it should , there was enough in his previous start at kempton to be enthused by his prospects over hurdles this season ; having travelled smoothly throughout the contest on the all - weather circuit , bringithomeminty displayed an impressive gear - change as he stretched 8 lengths clear of a well - regarded paul nicholls inmate , alibi de sivola , who himself was clear of the rest .\nrunner - up on his sole start in an irish point - to - point , stellar notion made a winning debut under rules in a bumper at bangor - on - dee in december before making a successful start to his hurdles career , in a heavy ground novice at newcastle the following month . a strapping son of presenting , there was no disgrace in failing to concede 6lbs to un ace on his only subsequent outing and he is certainly worth following off his opening handicap mark of 121 .\nthe pair have since bounced back in fantastic style , winning the grade 1 sodexo clarence house chase at ascot . in beating an inform sire de grugy by five lengths under the gary moore\u2019s horse ideal conditions , it was a big statement pre - cheltenham . quite simply , he\u2019s the one they all have to beat , but at a price of 4 / 5 is no good to us from an ante - post betting perspective ."]}
{"id": 1564, "summary": [{"text": "oligodon is genus of colubrid snakes that was first described by the austrian zoologist fitzinger in 1826 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "this genus is widespread throughout central and tropical asia . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "oligodon", "paragraphs": ["oligodon everetti boulenger 1893 : 524 oligodon everetti \u2014 manthey 1983 oligodon everetti \u2014 manthey & grossmann 1997 : 369 oligodon everetti \u2014 malkmus et al . 2002 oligodon everetti \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 487 oligodon everetti \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 497\nkeywords : reptilia , quang nam province , hemipenis , maxillary teeth , oligodon chinensis , oligodon culaochamensis sp . nov .\ncoronella taeniolata jerdon 1853 : 528 ( nomen protectum ) coluber taeniolatus daudin 1803 ( nomen oblitum ) oligodon taeniolatus \u2014 wall 1921 xenodon dubium jerdon 1853 ( fide smith 1943 ) oligodon subgriseum dum\u00e9ril & bibron 1854 : 59 ( fide smith 1943 ) oligodon subgriseus \u2014 g\u00fcnther 1864 ( fide smith 1943 ) oligodon spilonotus g\u00fcnther 1864 ( fide smith 1943 ) oligodon fasciatus \u2014 g\u00fcnther 1864 ( fide smith 1943 ) oligodon elliotti \u2014 g\u00fcnther 1864 ( fide smith 1943 ) oligodon subgriseus alternans bethancourt - ferreira 1897 ( fide smith ) oligodon subgriseus \u2014 wall 1905 : 298 oligodon elliottii \u2014 wall 1909 : 533 oligodon taeniolatus var . ceylonicus wall 1921 : 240 ( fide smith 1943 ) oligodon taeniolatus \u2014 smith 1943 : 223 contia transcaspica nikolsky 1903 ( fide khalikov , pers . comm . ) oligodon taeniolatus \u2014 das 1996 : 58 oligodon taeniolatus ceylonicus \u2014 janzen et al . 2007 oligodon taeniolatus \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 503 oligodon taeniolatus fasciatus ( g\u00fcnther 1864 ) oligodon taeniolatus fasciatus \u2014 murthy 2010\nsimotes taeniatus g\u00fcnther 1861 : 267 simotes quadrilineatus jan & sordelli 1865 simotes quadrilineatus jan 1866 : 7 ( fide saint - girons 1972 , david et al . 2008 ) simotes taeniatus \u2014 boulenger 1894 : 227 simotes taeniatus var . mouhoti boulenger 1914 : 70 ( fide smith 1943 ) holarchus taeniatus taeniatus \u2014 cochran 1930 oligodon taeniatus \u2014 smith 1943 : 208 oligodon quadrilineatus \u2014 smith 1943 : 210 oligodon quadrilineatus \u2014 taylor 1965 oligodon taeniatus \u2014 manthey & grossmann 1997 : 372 oligodon taeniatus \u2014 cox et al . 1998 : 61 oligodon quadrilineatus \u2014 zug et al . 1998 oligodon quadrilineatus \u2014 chan - ard et al . 1999 : 176 oligodon taeniatus \u2014 chan - ard et al . 1999 : 34 oligodon taeniatus \u2014 green et al . 2010 oligodon quadrilineatus \u2014 das 2012 oligodon taeniatus \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 503\nwagner , f . w . ( 1975 ) a revision of the asian colubrid snakes oligodon cinereus ( g\u00fcnther ) , oligodon joynsoni ( smith ) , and oligodon cyclurus ( cantor ) . unpublished ms thesis , baton rouge , louisiana state university , 97 pp .\nreptilia , hon ba , hemipenis , indochina , maxillary teeth , oligodon condaoensis sp . nov .\ncoronella cyclura cantor 1839 : 50 coronella violacea cantor 1839 simotes bicatenatus g\u00fcnther 1864 simotes cochinchinensis g\u00fcnther 1864 simotes brevicauda steindachner 1867 simotes bicatenatus \u2014 anderson 1871 : 170 simotes bicatenatus \u2014 stoliczka 1873 simotes cyclurus \u2014 boulenger 1890 simotes cyclurus \u2014 wall 1908 : 780 simotes albocinctus dorsolateralis wall 1909 ( fide wagner , pers . comm . ) simotes albocinctus var . dorsolateralis \u2014 wall 1910 holarchus cyclurus \u2014 smith 1920 oligodon purpurascens wall 1923 ( non schlegel ) simotes smithi werner 1925 ( fide smith 1928 ) holarchus purpurascens \u2014 cochran 1930 oligodon cyclurus \u2014 smith 1943 : 202 oligodon dorsolateralis \u2014 taylor 1965 rhynchocalamus violaceus olygodon [ sic ] cyclurus \u2014 schulz 1988 oligodon dorsolateralis \u2014 das 1996 : 58 oligodon dorsolateralis \u2014 chan - ard et al . 1999 : 34 oligodon dorsolateralis \u2014 pauwels et al . 2002 oligodon cyclurus \u2014 green et al . 2010 oligodon cyclurus \u2014 david et al . 2011 oligodon cyclurus \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 496\nreptilia , thailand , oligodon saiyok sp . nov . , new species , taxonomy , limestone cave , buddhist temple\nelaps octo - lineatus schneider 1801 : 299 coluber octolineatus \u2014 shaw 1802 coronella octolineata \u2014 boie 1827 simotes octolineatus \u2014 dum\u00e9ril , bibron & dum\u00e9ril 1854 : 634 simotes octolineatus \u2014 boulenger 1885 : 389 simotes octolineatus var . a \u2014 lampe 1902 simotes octolineatus \u2014 lidth de jeude 1922 : 245 holarchus octolineatus \u2014 barbour 1912 oligodon octolineatus \u2014 wall 1923 oligodon octolineatus \u2014 manthey & grossmann 1997 : 369 oligodon octolineatus \u2014 tillack & g\u00fcnther 2010 oligodon octolineatus \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 501\ncampides - main , simon m . 1969 . the status of oligodon taeniatus ( g\u00fcnther ) , 1861 , and oligodon mouhoti ( boulenger ) , 1914 ( serpentes , colubridae ) . herpetologica 25 ( 4 ) : 295 - 299 - get paper here\nbauer , a . m . 2003 . on the status of the name oligodon taeniolatus ( jerdon , 1853 ) and its long - ignored senior synonym and secondary homonym , oligodon taeniolatus ( daudin , 1803 ) . hamadryad 27 : 205 - 213 .\ntillack , frank 2008 . oligodon rhombifer werner , 1924 , a junior synonym of oligodon ancorus ( girard , 1857 ) ( reptilia : squamata : colubridae ) . russ . j . herpetol . 15 ( 2 ) : 122 - 128 - get paper here\ntillack , frank and rainer g\u00fcnther 2010 . revision of the species of oligodon from sumatra and adjacent islands , with comments on the taxonomic status of oligodon subcarinatus ( g\u00fcnther , 1872 ) and oligodon annulifer ( boulenger , 1893 ) from borneo ( reptilia , squamata , colubridae ) . russ . j . herpetol . 16 ( 4 ) : 265 - 294 [ 2009 ] - get paper here\na new species of kukri snake ( oligodon fitzinger , 1826 ; squamata : colubridae ) from the cat tien national park , southern vietnam .\ncampden - main , s . m . 1970 . the identity of oligodon cyclurus ( cantor , 1839 ) and revalidation of oligodon brevicauda ( steindachner , 1867 ) ( serpentes : colubridae ) . proc . biol . soc . washington 82 ( 58 ) : 763 - 765 - get paper here\npauwels o s g ( 2007 ) . a new species of the genus oligodon fitzinger , 1826 ( squamata : colubridae ) from southern vietnam and cambodia .\na new species of kukri snake ( oligodon fitzinger , 1826 ; squamata : colubridae ) from the cat tien national park , southern vietnam . - pubmed - ncbi\nwhen disturbed and threatened , oligodon ornatus may put on quite a show of theatrics , including open display of its hemipenes , as well as tail coiling and thrashing .\ndotsenko i b 1984 . morphological characters and ecological peculiarities of oligodon taeniolatus ( serpentes , colubridae ) . vestnik zoologii , kiev 1984 ( 4 ) : 23 - 26\ndavid , patrick & gernot vogel 2012 . a new species of the genus oligodon fitzinger , 1826 ( squamata : colubridae ) from pulau nias , indonesia . zootaxa 3201 : 58\u201368\nschulz , klaus - dieter 1987 . erfahrungen mit kukri - nattern der gattung oligodon ( boie 1827 ) . herpetofauna 9 ( 52 ) : 32 - 34 - get paper here\nleviton , a . e . ( 1953 ) a new snake of the genus oligodon from annam . journal of the washington academy of sciences , 43 ( 12 ) , 422\u2013424 .\nwall , f . ( 1905 ) description of a new snake from burma . oligodon mcdougalli . the journal of the bombay natural history society , 16 ( 2 ) , 251\u2013252 .\nwall , f . 1909 . discovery of a second specimen of the rare snake oligodon elliottii . j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 19 : 533 - get paper here\nkreutz , r . 1993 . zur ern\u00e4hrung der kukri - natter oligodon cyclurus smithi ( werner , 1925 ) . sauria 15 ( 3 ) : 25 - 26 - get paper here\ngrossmann , w . 1992 . beitrag zur biologie der kukri - natter oligodon cyclurus smithi ( werner , 1925 ) . sauria 14 ( 2 ) : 3 - 10 - get paper here\npellegrin , j . ( 1910 ) description d\u2019une vari\u00e9t\u00e9 nouvelle de l\u2019 oligodon herberti boulenger , provenant du tonkin . bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 zoologique de france , 35 ( 2 ) , 30\u201332 .\nboulenger , g . a . ( 1918 ) description of a new snake of the genus oligodon from upper burma . proceedings of the zoological society of london , 89 ( 1 ) , 9\u201310 .\nvassilieva , a . b . ( 2015 ) a new species of the genus oligodon fitzinger , 1826 ( squamata : colubridae ) from coastal southern vietnam . zootaxa , 4058 ( 2 ) , 211\u2013226 .\ndeepak , v . and s . harikrishnan . 2013 . on the identity of two oligodon species in the collection at zoological survey of india , kolkata . hamadryad 36 ( 2 ) : 182 - 184\nvassilieva , a . b . ( 2015 ) a new species of the genus oligodon fitzinger , 1826 ( squamata : colubridae ) from coastal southern vietnam . zootaxa , 4058 ( 2 ) , 211\u2013226 . urltoken\nneang , t . & hun , s . ( 2013 ) first record of oligodon annamensis leviton , 1953 ( squamata : colubridae ) from the cardamom mountains of southwest cambodia . herpetology notes , 6 , 271\u2013273 .\ndavid , patrick ; gernot vogel , johan van rooijen 2011 . the name - bearing type of oligodon quadrilineatus ( jan & sordelli , 1865 ) ( squamata : colubridae ) . zootaxa 3111 : 67\u201368 - get paper here\ndavid , patrick ; indraneil das & gernot vogel 2011 . on some taxonomic and nomenclatural problems in indian species of the genus oligodon fitzinger , 1826 ( squamata : colubridae ) . zootaxa 2799 : 1\u201314 - get paper here\ngreen , m . d . , orlov , n . l . & murphy , r . w . ( 2010 ) toward a phylogeny of the kukri snakes , genus oligodon . asian herpetological research , 1 , 1\u201321 .\nleong , t . m . & grismer , l . l . ( 2004 ) a new species of kukri snake , oligodon ( colubridae ) from pulau tioman , west malaysia . asiatic herpetological research , 10 , 12\u201316 .\ngreen , marc d . ; nikolai l . orlov and robert w . murphy 2010 . toward a phylogeny of the kukri snakes , genus oligodon . asian herpetological research 1 ( 1 ) : 1 - 21 - get paper here\ngreen , m . d . ( 2010 ) molecular phylogeny of the snake genus oligodon ( serpentes : colubridae ) , with an annotated checklist and key . master of science thesis , university of toronto , viii + 161 pp .\npauwels , o . s . g . , kunya , k . & vogel , g . ( 2008 ) \u00fcber ein albinoexemplar von oligodon fasciolatus ( serpentes : colubridae ) aus thailand . elaphe , 16 ( 2 ) , 54\u201356 .\nseetharamaraju , midathala ; chelmala srinivasulu and bhargavi srinivasulu . 2011 . new records of oligodon taeniolatus ( jerdon , 1853 ) ( reptilia : colubridae ) in andhra pradesh , india . herpetology notes 4 : 421 - 423 - get paper here\ndavid , p . , das , i . & vogel , g . ( 2011 ) on some taxonomic and nomenclatural problems in indian species of the genus oligodon fitzinger , 1826 ( squamata : colubridae ) . zootaxa , 2799 , 1\u201314 .\ngreen , m . d . , orlov , n . l . & murphy , r . w . ( 2010 ) toward a phylogeny of the kukri snakes , genus oligodon . asian herpetological research , 1 ( 1 ) , 1\u201321 .\ndeshmukh , r . v . , sager a . deshmukh & swapnil a . badhekar 2016 . first records of oligodon taeniolatus and bungarus sindanus walli from nagpur district , maharashtra , india reptile rap ( 18 ) : 40\u201342 - get paper here\npauwels , o . s . g . ; kunya , k . & vogel , g . 2008 . \u00fcber ein albinoexemplar von oligodon fasciolatus ( serpentes : colubridae ) aus thailand . elaphe 16 ( 2 ) : 54 - 56 - get paper here\ndavid , p . , vogel , g . & pauwels , o . s . g . ( 2008a ) a new species of the genus oligodon fitzinger , 1826 ( squamata : colubridae ) from southern vietnam and cambodia . zootaxa , 1939 , 19\u201337 .\njablonski , d . , bursey , c . r . , christophoryov\u00e1 , j . , luu , v . q . & goldberg , s . r . 2017 . oligodon taeniatus ( striped kukri snake ) endoparasite . herpetological review 48 ( 4 ) : 864\ndavid , p . ; vogel , g . & pauwels , o . s . g . 2008 . a new species of the genus oligodon fitzinger , 1826 ( squamata : colubridae ) from southern vietnam and cambodia . zootaxa 1939 : 19\u201337 - get paper here\nneang , thy ; l . lee grismer & jennifer c . daltry 2012 . a new species of kukri snake ( colubridae : oligodon fitzinger , 1826 ) from the phnom samkos wildlife sanctuary , cardamom mountains , southwest cambodia . zootaxa 3388 : 41\u201355 - get paper here\nsynonymy tentatively ( mostly ) after smith 1943 : 202 . oligodon kheriensis acharji & ray 1936 has been removed from the synonymy of oligodon cyclurus by david et al . 2011 . oligodon cyclurus smithi and o . c . superfluens ( taylor 1965 ) become synonyms of o . fasciolatus fide pauwels et al . ( 2003 ) . types : note that two neotypes have been designated : one by ( campden - main 1970 ) and one by wagner ( 1975 ) in an unpublished thesis . similar species : has been confused with o . fasciolatus , a population with 21 or 23 scale rows at midbody from se myanmar , thailand , cambodia , laos and vietnam . o . cylurus has 19 scale rows and is restricted to india , bangladesh and myanmar fide pauwels et al . 2002 . distribution : possibly in bhutan ( lenz 2012 ) .\nnguyen , sang ngoc ; vu dang hoang nguyen , son hong le , robert w . murphy 2016 . a new species of kukri snake ( squamata : colubridae : oligodon fitzinger , 1826 ) from con dao islands , southern vietnam zootaxa 4139 ( 2 ) : 261\u2013273 - get paper here\ndavid , p . , vogel , g . & van rooijen , j . ( 2008b ) a revision of the oligodon taeniatus ( g\u00fcnther , 1861 ) group ( squamata : colubridae ) , with the description of three new species from the indochinese region . zootaxa , 1965 , 1\u201349 .\nhasan , m . k . , feeroz , m . m . , ahmed , s . , ahmed , a . & saha , s . ( 2013 ) the confirmed record of oligodon albocinctus ( cantor , 1839 ) from bangladesh . taprobanica , 5 ( 1 ) , 77\u201380 .\nneang , t . , grismer , l . l . & daltry , j . c . ( 2012 ) a new species of kukri snake ( colubridae : oligodon fitzinger , 1826 ) from the phnom samkos wildlife sanctuary , cardamom mountains , southwest cambodia . zootaxa , 3388 , 41\u201355 .\ndavid , p . ; vogel , g . & van rooijen , j . 2008 . a revision of the oligodon taeniatus ( g\u00fcnther , 1861 ) group ( squamata : colubridae ) , with the description of three new species from the indochinese region . zootaxa 1965 : 1\u201349 - get paper here\nhuang , w . - s . , greene , h . w . , chang , t . - j . & shine , r . ( 2011 ) territorial behavior in taiwanese kukrisnakes ( oligodon formosanus ) . proceedings of the national academy of sciences , 108 ( 18 ) , 7455\u20137459 .\ndavid , p . , vogel , g . & rooijen , j . v . ( 2008b ) a revision of the oligodon taeniatus ( g\u00fcnther , 1861 ) group ( squamata : colubridae ) , with the description of three new species from the indochinese region . zootaxa , 1965 , 1\u201349 .\nzhang , j . , jang , k . , li , p . - p . , hou , m . & rao , d . - q . ( 2011 ) taxonomic revisions on genus oligodon of china ( serpentes , colubridae ) . acta zootaxonomica sinica , 36 ( 2 ) , 423\u2013430 .\ndavid , patrick ; truong quang nguyen , tao thien nguyen , ke jiang , tianbo chen , alexandre teyni\u00e9 & thomas ziegler 2012 . a new species of the genus oligodon fitzinger , 1826 ( squamata : colubridae ) from northern vietnam , southern china and central laos . zootaxa 3498 : 45\u201362 - get paper here\njiang , ke ; tianbo chen , patrick david , gernot vogel , mian hou , zhiyong yuan , yuanjun meng and jing che 2012 . on the occurrence of oligodon joynsoni ( smith , 1917 ) in china ( squamata : colubridae ) . asian herpetological research 3 ( 4 ) : 316\u2013321 - get paper here\npauwels , o . s . g . , wallach , v . , david , p . & chanhome , l . ( 2002 ) a new species of oligodon fitzinger , 1826 ( serpentes , colubridae ) from southern peninsular thailand . natural history journal of chulalongkorn university , 2 ( 2 ) , 7\u201318 .\npauwels , o . s . g . , wallach , v . , david , p . & chanhome , l . 2002 . a new species of oligodon ( serpentes , colubridae ) from southern peninsular thailand . natural history journal of chulalongkorn university , 2 ( 2 ) : 7 - 18 - get paper here\nnguyen , s . n . , nguyen , v . d . h . , le , s . h . & murphy , r . w . ( 2016 ) a new species of kukri snake ( squamata : colubridae : oligodon fitzinger , 1826 ) from con dao islands , southern vietnam . zootaxa , 4139 ( 2 ) , 261\u2013273 .\nvassilieva , anna b . ; peter geissler , eduard a . galoyan , nikolay jr a . poyarkov , robert wayne van devender , wolfgang b\u00f6hme 2013 . a new species of kukri snake ( oligodon fitzinger , 1826 ; squamata : colubridae ) from the cat tien national park , southern vietnam . zootaxa 3702 ( 3 ) : 233\u2013246 - get paper here\nvan rooijen , j . , wood , p . l . , grismer , j . l . , grismer , l . l . & grossmann , w . ( 2011 ) color pattern dimorphism in the colubrid snake oligodon purpurascens ( schlegel , 1837 ) ( reptilia : squamata ) . russian journal of herpetology , 18 ( 3 ) , 215\u2013220 .\nhawkeswood , t . j . & b . sommung 2018 . a further record of the striped kukri snake , oligodon taeniatus ( gu\u0308nther , 1861 ) ( reptilia : colubridae ) from ubon ratchathani province , thailand , with a review of literature on the biology and distribution of the species in thailand . calodema , 605 : 1 - 6 - get paper here\nteyni\u00e9 , alexandre and patrick david . 2007 . additions to the snake fauna of southern laos , with the second laotian specimen of naja siamensis ( laurenti , 1768 ) and the forst country record of oligodon taeniatus ( g\u00fcnther , 1861 ) ( squamata , serpentes ) . russ . j . herpetol . 14 ( 1 ) : 39 - 44 - get paper here\nthis dataset contains the digitized treatments in plazi based on the original journal article david , patrick , vogel , gernot , pauwels , olivier s . g . ( 2008 ) : a new species of the genus oligodon fitzinger , 1826 ( squamata : colubridae ) from southern vietnam and cambodia . zootaxa 1939 : 19 - 37 , doi : 10 . 5281 / zenodo . 274609\ndavid , p . , nguyen , t . q . , nguyen , t . t . , jiang , k . , chen , t . , teyni\u00e9 , a . & ziegler , t . ( 2012 ) a new species of the genus oligodon fitzinger , 1826 ( squamata : colubridae ) from northern vietnam , southern china and central laos . zootaxa , 3498 , 45\u201362 .\njiang , k . , chen , t . , david , p . , vogel , g . , hou , m . , yuan , z . , meng , y . & che , j . ( 2012 ) on the occurrence of oligodon joynsoni ( smith , 1917 ) in china ( squamata : colubridae ) . asian herpetological research , 3 ( 4 ) , 316\u2013321 .\ndavid , p . , nguyen , t . q . , nguyen , t . t . , jiang , k . , chen , t . , teynie , a . & ziegler , t . ( 2012 ) a new species of the genus oligodon fitzinger , 1826 ( squamata : colubridae ) from northern vietnam , southern china and central laos . zootaxa , 3498 , 45\u201362 .\nsimilar species : gaulke ( 1996 ) allocates oligodon specimens form sibutu to o . meyerinkii but notes the similarity in coloration with o . octolineatus . distribution : the latest record of this species from sulawesi is from de rooij , 1917 . de lang & vogel ( 2005 ) and koch 2012 : 318 thus consider this species as doubtful for this island . synonymy mostly after tillack & g\u00fcnther 2010 .\nvassilieva , a . b . , geissler , p . , galoyan , e . a . , poyarkov , n . a . , wayne van devender , r . & b\u00f6hme , w . ( 2013 ) a new species of kukri snake ( oligodon fitzinger , 1826 ; squamata : colubridae ) from the cat tien national park , southern vietnam . zootaxa , 3702 ( 3 ) , 233\u2013246 .\nvassilieva , a . b . , geissler , p . , galoyan , e . a . , poyarkov , n . a . , van devender , r . w . & bohme , w . ( 2013 ) a new species of kukri snake ( oligodon fitzinger , 1826 ; squamata : colubridae ) from the cat tien national park , southern vietnam . zootaxa , 3702 ( 3 ) , 233\u2013246 . urltoken\norlov , n . l . , ryabov , s . a . , nguyen , t . t . & nguyen , t . q . ( 2010 ) rediscovery and redescription of two rare snake species : oligodon lacroixi angel et bourret , 1933 and maculophis bellus chapaensis ( bourret , 1934 ) [ squamata : ophidia : colubridae ] from fansipan mountains , northern vietnam . russian journal of herpetology , 17 ( 4 ) , 310\u2013322 .\njustification : oligodon lacroixi has provisionally been assessed as vulnerable as it has an known extent of occurrence of approximately 9 , 150 km 2 ( based on its distribution in vietnam , as no meaningful estimate of its extent of occurrence around either chinese locality is possible ) , it is known from only three locations , defined by a threat from agricultural expansion , and there is a continuing decline in the quality and extent of its forest habitat .\nsimilar species : note that specimens of this species may have been confused with o . mouhoti , o . deuvei , o . pseudotaeniatus , or o . theobaldi . distribution : records from yunnan may be erroneous ( jiang et al 2012 , zhang et al . 2011 ) and actually represent o . cinereus . not listed by zhao 2006 for china . illustration : in chan - ard et al . 2015 , although the drawings of oligodon joynsoni and o . taeniatus have been mixed up ( fide pauwels & grismer 2015 ) .\ncasuarina oligodon is an evergreen tree growing to 25 m ( 82ft ) by 25 m ( 82ft ) at a medium rate . it is hardy to zone ( uk ) 10 . and are pollinated by wind . it can fix nitrogen . suitable for : light ( sandy ) , medium ( loamy ) and heavy ( clay ) soils and prefers well - drained soil . suitable ph : acid , neutral and basic ( alkaline ) soils and can grow in very acid and very alkaline soils . it cannot grow in the shade . it prefers moist soil .\ncasuarina oligodon is an evergreen tree with foliage consisting of slender , well - branched green to grey - green twigs bearing minute scale - leaves in whorls of 5 - 20 . it grows up to 30 m tall and is a tropical highland species . it is considered to be one of the best firewood producing trees in the world . its wood is hard and heavy and used as material for fences , houses , poles , and general construction . also , it has an extensive root system making it an ideal species to control soil erosion on steep slopes . found in : indonesia , papua new guinea , israel\nsnakes that specialize on the eggs of birds usually swallow eggs whole then crush them . oligodon instead uses enlarged , blade - like rear maxillary teeth to make repeated slashes in the leathery egg shell , inserts its head , and swallows the yolk . the mechanics of cutting involve cycles of extreme displacement of the maxillary bone , whose blade - like teeth are swung in arcs to make ever deeper slashes in the shell until a slit is formed . the cycles during cutting involve protraction , engagement , and retraction of the palatomaxillary arch of one side while the contralateral jaws maintain a continuous hold on the egg surface\n. ( source )\nwe describe oligodon saiyok sp . nov . from benjarat nakhon cave temple , sai yok district , kanchanaburi province , western thailand . it is characterized by a maximal known svl of 626 . 1 mm ; 13 maxillary teeth , the posterior two enlarged ; 8 supralabials ; 17 - 17 - 15 dorsal scale rows ; 181\u2013187 ventrals and 38\u201343 subcaudals ; a single anal ; hemipenes extending in situ to the 18 th subcaudal ; dorsum with 21\u201322 dark blotches or white rings without vertebral or lateral stripes ; and venter with a dense network of subrectangular dark blotches . it is the 7 th squamate species believed to be endemic to sai yok district .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nboulenger , g . a . 1885 . a list of reptiles and batrachians from the island of nias . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 5 ) 16 : 388 - 389 - get paper here\ndas , i . 2012 . a naturalist ' s guide to the snakes of south - east asia : malaysia , singapore , thailand , myanmar , borneo , sumatra , java and bali . oxford j , ohn beaufoy publishing - get paper here\ndavid , p . & vogel , g . 1996 . the snakes of sumatra . an annotated checklist and key with natural history notes . b\u00fccher kreth , frankfurt / m .\nfilippi , f . de 1840 . catalogo raggionato e descrittivo . . . serpenti del museo dell\u2019 i . r . universit\u00e1 de pavia . bibliot . ital . 99 : 163 - 187 , 306 - 343\ngaulke , maren 1996 . die herpetofauna von sibutu island ( philippinen ) , unter ber\u00fccksichtigung zoogeographischer und \u00f6kologischer aspekte . senckenbergiana biologica 75 ( 1 / 2 ) : 45 - 56\njan , g . 1865 . iconographie g\u00e9n\u00e9rale des ophidiens . 12 . livraison . j . b . baili\u00e8re et fils , paris - get paper here\nlang , r . de & g . vogel 2005 . the snakes of sulawesi . a field guide to the land snakes of sulawesi with identification keys . frankfurter beitr\u00e4ge zur naturkunde , 25 , edition chimaira , frankfurt am main , 312 pp .\nlidth de jeude , t . w . van 1922 . snakes from sumatra . zoologische mededelingen 6 : 239 - 253 . - get paper here\nmalkmus , r . ; manthey , u . ; vogel , g . hoffmann , p . & kosuch , j . 2002 . amphibians and reptiles of mount kinabalu ( north borneo ) . a . r . g . ganther verlag , rugell , 404 pp .\nmanthey , u . & grossmann , w . 1997 . amphibien & reptilien s\u00fcdostasiens . natur und tier verlag ( m\u00fcnster ) , 512 pp . - get paper here\nrooijen , j . van & myriam van rooijen . 2007 . the land snakes of the santubong peninsula , sarawak , borneo : a preliminary list of species with natural history notes . russ . j . herpetol . 14 ( 1 ) : 27 - 38 - get paper here\nschneider , johann gottlob 1801 . historiae amphibiorum naturalis et literariae . fasciculus secundus continens crocodilos , scincos , chamaesauras , boas . pseudoboas , elapes , angues . amphisbaenas et caecilias . frommanni , jena . 374 pp . - get paper here\nteo , r . c . h . & rajathurai , s . 1997 . mammals , reptiles and amphibians in the nature reserves of singapore - diversity , abundance and distribution . proc . nature reserves survey seminar . gardens\u2019 bulletin singapore 49 : 353 - 425\nteynie\u0301 , alexandre ; patrick david , & annemarie ohler 2010 . note on a collection of amphibians and reptiles from western sumatra ( indonesia ) , with the description of a new species of the genus bufo . zootaxa 2416 : 1\u201343 - get paper here\nwallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nholotype : bmnh 1946 . 1 . 3 . 27 ( male ) . collected by henri mouhot . holotype : mnhn ; note that the neotypes were designated erroneously by david et al . 2008 , see david et al . 2011 [ quadrilineatus ]\nbarbour , thomas 1909 . notes on amphibia and reptilia from eastern asia . proc . new england zool . club 4 : 53 - 78 , 2 plates - get paper here\nboulenger , george a . 1894 . catalogue of the snakes in the british museum ( natural history ) . volume ii . , containing the conclusion of the colubrid\u00e6 aglyph\u00e6 . british mus . ( nat . hist . ) , london , xi , 382 pp . - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1914 . descriptions of new reptiles from siam . j . nat . hist . soc . siam 1 : 67 - 76\nchan - ard , t . , parr , j . w . k . & nabhitabhata , j . 2015 . a field guide to the reptiles of thailand . oxford university press , ny , 352 pp . [ see book reviews by pauwels & grismer 2015 and hikida 2015 for corrections ] - get paper here\nchan - ard , t . ; grossmann , w . ; gumprecht , a . & schulz , k . d . 1999 . amphibians and reptiles of peninsular malaysia and thailand - an illustrated checklist [ bilingual english and german ] . bushmaster publications , w\u00fcrselen , gemany , 240 pp . [ book review in russ . j herp . 7 : 87 ] - get paper here\ncox , merel j . ; van dijk , peter paul ; jarujin nabhitabhata & thirakhupt , kumthorn 1998 . a photographic guide to snakes and other reptiles of peninsular malaysia , singapore and thailand . ralph curtis publishing , 144 pp .\ndeuve , j . 1961 . liste annotee des serpents du laos . bull . soc . sci . nat . laos 1 : 5 - 32 .\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1861 . second list of siamese reptiles . proc . zool . soc . london 1861 : 187 - 189 - get paper here\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1861 . second list of siamese reptiles . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 3 ) 8 : 266 - 268 - get paper here\nhartmann , timo ; flora ihlow , sarah edwards , sovath sothanin , markus handschuh and wolfgang b\u00f6hme 2013 . a preliminary annotated checklist of the amphibians and reptiles of the kulen promtep wildlife sanctuary in northern cambodia . asian herpetological research 4 ( 1 ) : 36\u201355 - get paper here\njan , g . 1866 . in : in f . bocourt , notes sur les reptiles , les batraciens et les poisons recueilis pendant un voyage dans le royaume de siam . nouv . arch . mus . paris 2 ( 4 ) : 4\u201320 - get paper here\nkarns , d . r . ; murphy , j . c . ; voris , h . k . & suddeth , j . s . 2005 . comparison of semi - aquatic snake communities associated with the khorat basin , thailand . the natural history journal of chulalongkorn university 5 ( 2 ) : 73 - 90\npauwels , olivier s . g . and l . lee grismer . 2015 . book review : a field guide to the reptiles of thailand . herpetological review 46 ( 3 ) : 456 - 459\nsaint - girons , h . 1972 . les serpents du cambodge . m\u00e9moires du mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle , s\u00e9rie a , zoologie 74 : 1 - 170\nsang , nguyen van ; ho thu cuc , nguyen , quang truong 2009 . herpetofauna of vietnam . chimaira , frankfurt , 768 pp .\nsmith , m . a . 1943 . the fauna of british india , ceylon and burma , including the whole of the indo - chinese sub - region . reptilia and amphibia . 3 ( serpentes ) . taylor and francis , london . 583 pp .\ntaylor , e . h . 1965 . the serpents of thailand and adjacent waters . univ . kansas sci . bull . 45 ( 9 ) : 609 - 1096 - get paper here\nvoris , h . k . 2006 . assessment of biodiversity among southeast asian amphibians and reptiles . the natural history journal of chulalongkorn university 6 ( 1 ) : 1 - 10 - get paper here\nziegler , thomas ; ralf hendrix , vu ngoc thanh , martina vogt , bernhard forster & dang ngoc kien 2007 . the diversity of a snake community in a karst forest ecosystem in the central truong son , vietnam , with an identification key . zootaxa 1493 : 1 - 40 - get paper here\nzug , george r . ; win , htun ; thin , thin ; min , than zaw ; lhon , win zaw ; kyaw , kyaw 1998 . herpetofauna of the chatthin wildlife sanctuary , north - central myanmar with preliminary observations of their natural history . hamadryad 23 ( 2 ) : 111 - 120\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthis is a species complex , containing at least two recognized forms ( q . t . nguyen pers . comm . august 2011 ) . it has also been confused with\nshould be confined to eastern india , bangladesh , myanmar and west thailand . research is ongoing to clarify the taxonomy of this group . this concept is applied here .\nthy , n . , chan - ard , t . & nguyen , t . q .\njustification : listed as least concern on the basis that this species is widespread and somewhat adaptable , it occurs in several protected areas and is not subject to major threats , and is therefore presumed to occur as a stable population .\n2009 , t . chan - ard pers . comm . august 2011 ) . in viet nam it has been reported from the provinces of lai cau , cao bang , vinh phuc , hai duong , son la , ha tay , nghe an , ha tinh , quang tri , da nang , gia lai , dak lac , lam dong , dong nai , ba ria - vung tau , an giang , kien giang and ca mau , and from ho chi minh district ( ngueyn\nthis snake is common in thailand , but known from few specimens in indochina . the population is thought to be stable in the absence of major threats .\nthis oviparous , terrestrial snake has been found in both open , disturbed habitats and lowland evergreen forest , including both primary and secondary forest ( t . chan - ard and q . t . nguyen pers . comm . august 2011 ) ; in the latter it is sometimes found along streams ( t . chan - ard pers . comm . august 2011 ) . it is active both by day and at night .\nthere are no major threats to this species , which adapts well to open and degraded habitats .\nno species - specific conservation measures are in place , although it has been recorded from protected areas . research is underway to clarify the taxonomy of this species complex .\nthy , n . , chan - ard , t . & nguyen , t . q . 2012 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthe species was described in 2004 , although specimens are known since 1962 ( leong & grismer 2004 ) .\njustification : this species is only known from a single location on the island of tioman , a patch of less than 100 km 2 which is all that remains of the original forest . this forest is not legally protected and deforestation is already becoming a problem . as the island itself has an area of little over 130 km 2 , ongoing commercial development activities are likely to further accelerate habitat loss . in addition , due to the very small size of the population , there is also the potential for stochastic events to lead to extinction ( r . inger pers . comm . 2011 ) . the species is listed as critically endangered as it is confined to an area of less than 100 km 2 , it is found in a single location at risk from development , and there is a continuing decline in the quality and extent of remaining forest habitat . in addition , as it is projected that the present rate of habitat loss due to deforestation could lead to the destruction of the entire forested area , and hence a reduction in the population of this snake by as much as 100 % , in the next 10 years .\nthis species is endemic to the seribuat archipelago in west malaysia , where it is only known to occur on tioman island ( grismer et al . 2006 ) . the maximum area in which this species is known to be distributed is the area of forest on the island , which is less than 100 km\u00b2 .\ntwo specimens were recorded at 98 m . asl . in one pitfall trap ( i . das pers . comm . 2011 ) . only three specimens are known and were used to describe the species . there are no population data available for this species . due to the rate of deforestation on tioman , which may result in the complete loss of forest from the island within the next 10 years , the species is likely to be already declining or to decline in the near future , and is likely to become extinct within the same time period without preventative action to preserve its forest habitat .\nthe forests of tioman are not protected and are currently subject to private management . the island is a well - known tourist destination and development for both residential and tourist areas is both ongoing and expanding , which is degrading and removing this species ' forest habitat at a rate which may result in the complete loss of forest from the island within ten years .\nwhile there are no direct conservation measures for this species in place at present , most of tioman was declared a ' state wildlife reserve ' in 1972 ( ng et al . 1999 ) . according to i . das ( pers . comm . 2011 ) , this is not part of the protected area system and is currently under of the management of private hands .\ntwenty additional lizards and snakes are endemic to the same forest patch , making this a priority area for conservation in malaysia ( i . das and g . vogel pers . comm . 2011 ) . conservation measures should be undertaken , along with further research into the trends in abundance , and the impact of altered habitat status on this species . due to the number of endemic species known to be present in the island , the distribution should be included within the national protected area system .\nfurther research into the abundance , habitat requirements and ecology of this species is suggested , and population monitoring is recommended .\nde silva , r . , milligan , ht , wearn , o . r . , wren , s . , zamin , t . , sears , j . , wilson , p . , lewis , s . , lintott , p . & powney , g .\nthis species is found in yunnan and southern sichuan provinces , china , and in northern vietnam . specimens from vietnam have been reported from sa pa ( lao cai province ) , in the fan si pan mountains ( nguyen\n2010 ) . the snake has been reported from 1 , 400 to 1 , 900 m asl . its extent of occurrence in vietnam is approximately 9 , 150 km\n; based on the paucity of records in china its global extent of occurrence cannot meaningfully be estimated .\nthis is a very rare species , and only eight specimens have been recorded despite intensive surveys in sa pa over the past 50 years . it is known from only two specimens in china , one from sichuan and one from yunnan ( orlov\n2010 ) . as the three known localities are widely separated , it is expected to occur as a severely fragmented population .\n2010 ) . no other ecological information is available . it is likely to be nocturnal and oviparous , in common with other species of\nit is likely that this species is experiencing habitat loss and degradation in portions of its inferred range , as some deforestation is occurring in this region due to the expansion of agriculture for cardamom production , and logging for timber .\nthere are no species - specific conservation measures in place , although it has been reported from protected areas . research into its population status , distribution and natural history is needed , as well as on its exposure and sensitivity to threats .\ngreek , poly = a lot of + greek , daktylos = finger ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; brackish ; demersal . tropical ; 29\u00b0n - 25\u00b0s , 81\u00b0w - 34\u00b0w ( ref . 57343 )\nwestern atlantic : southern florida to santos , brazil . not occurring in the gulf of mexico and western caribbean sea .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 46 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 7251 ) ; common length : 25 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3796 ) ; max . published weight : 620 . 00 g ( ref . 40637 )\noccurs along sandy or muddy shores ( ref . 7251 ) . not of great commercial importance ( ref . 26938 ) .\nmotomura , h . , 2004 . threadfins of the world ( family polynemidae ) . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of polynemid species known to date . fao spec . cat . fish . purp . rome : fao . 3 : 117 p . ( ref . 57343 )\n) : 26 . 1 - 28 , mean 27 . 3 ( based on 118 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 7 \u00b10 . 5 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 27 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nnorthern and central taiwan , at altitudes of 500 - 1000 m . endangered . ( distribution map )\nsouth china ( sichuan , hunan , fujian , anhui , guangxi , jiangxi , zhejiang ) , taiwan .\nthis cathemeral ( diurnal or nocturnal ) snake inhabits mountainous regions or plantations . it preys mainly on reptile eggs ; the large , laterally flattened posterior teeth in the upper jaw and the large rostral shield are adapted to cut open and thrust into the eggs . oviparous .\ns gurkha soldiers . in defense , these teeth are used in a slashing manner which can cause gaping wounds that may bleed profusely - probably an effect of the snake ' s saliva which is rumored to possess anticoagulant qualities .\nmeans\ntooth\n; referring to the low number of teeth in the upper jaw .\n( 1 )\nopisthoglyphous snakes are similar to aglyphous ( fangless ) snakes , but possess weak venom , which is injected by means of a pair of enlarged teeth at the back of the maxillae ( upper jaw ) . these\nfangs\ntypically point backwards rather than straight down , possess a groove which channels venom into the prey , and are located roughly halfway back in the mouth , which has led to the vernacular name of\nrear - fanged snakes\n. ( source )\nnew & recent described flora & fauna species from all over the world esp . asia , oriental , indomalayan & malesiana region\nnatural history . all specimens were collected . . on the ground in dry primary forests or plantations , usually near the bank of small streams . the stomach of the holotype contained two soft shell eggs ( size 15 mm x 7 mm ) . these eggs probably belong to a snake or lizard .\ndistribution . the new species is currently known only from cu lao cham islands , quang nam province , vietnam .\netymology . the specific epithet culaochamensis is derived from cu lao cham islands , where the new species was discovered .\nsang ngoc nguyen , luan thanh nguyen , vu dang hoang nguyen , hoa thi phan , ke jiang and robert w murphy . 2017 . a new species of the genus\nwuodendron b . xue , y . h . tan & chaowasku wuodendron praecox ( hook . f . & thomson ) b . xue , y . h . tan & x . l . hou in xue , tan . . .\n[ botany \u2022 2017 ] begonia fulgurata | \u0e14\u0e32\u0e14\u0e14\u0e32\u0e23\u0e32\u0e23\u0e31\u0e28\u0e21\u0e35 \u2022 a new species ( sect . diploclinium , begoniaceae ) from chiang mai , northern thailand\nbegonia fulgurata c . - i peng , c . w . lin & phutthai \u0e14\u0e32\u0e14\u0e14\u0e32\u0e23\u0e32\u0e23\u0e31\u0e28\u0e21\u0e35 | | doi : 10 . 3767 / blumea . 2017 . 62 . 03 . 01 urltoken be . . .\nchamaelirium viridiflorum l . wang , z . c . liu & w . b . liao in liu , feng , wang & liao , 2018 . doi : 10 . 11646 / phytotaxa . 357 . . . .\ngreat - billed seed - finch sporophila maximiliani ( cabanis , 1851 ) in ubaid , silveira , medolago , et . al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 11646 / . . .\nendocerids with their filtering apparatus in mironenko , 2018 . doi : 10 . 1080 / 08912963 . 2018 . 1491565 reconstruction by andre . . .\naristolochia tongbiguanensis j . y . shen , q . b . gong & s . landrein in gong , landrein , xi , et al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 6165 / tai . . . .\nbagualosaurus agudoensis pretto , langer & schultz , 2018 doi : 10 . 1093 / zoolinnean / zly028 illustration : jorge blanco c . . .\nthe hypothetical phylogenetic relationships of ceratosaurs based on current topologies . the main source is from wang et al . ( 2016 . . .\nnipponosaurus sachalinensis nagao , 1936 in takasaki , chiba , kobayashi , et al . , 2018 \u30cb\u30c3\u30dd\u30ce\u30b5\u30a6\u30eb\u30b9 | | doi : 10 . 1080 / 08912963 . 2017 . . . .\nbegonia medogensis jianw . li , y . h . tan & x . h . jin in li , tan , wang , et al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 3897 / phytokeys . 103 . 25392 . . .\n[ botany \u2022 2017 ] zingiber alba \u2022 a new species and . . .\n[ herpetology \u2022 2017 ] bufo ( anaxyrus ) williamsi \u2022 a . . .\non this day ( july 10th ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .\nanomaloglossus meansi : a new species of cryptic forest frog from the wokomung and ayanganna sky islands of southern guyana .\nthe benefits and costs of academic travel . or\nthere and back again ; again and again\ncanon renueva su gama de 70 - 200 mm f : 2 . 8 y f : 4\nplants go extinct , but sometimes species are rediscovered . this one after 151 years .\ni ' m killing antediluvian salad but even in death there is rebirth . . .\nnecps carnivorous plant show : sept . 9 - 10 at tower hill botanical garden\nthis is a particularly beautiful species of centrolenid - the granular glass frog , cochranella granulosa .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwe need help ! in recent months our income dropped considerably and we need more donations from our users to avoid getting into financial difficulty .\nforms extensive pure stands along river beds and on ridge tops at elevations up to 2 , 500 metres [ 303 ] .\nyou can translate the content of this page by selecting a language in the select box .\nplants for a future can not take any responsibility for any adverse effects from the use of plants . always seek advice from a professional before using a plant medicinally . none known\nseed - sow in seed beds [ 303 ] . germination usually starts after 10 days , though viability is naturally low [ 303 ] . pricking out is carried out when the seedlings are about 50 - 60 mm high and are ready for transplanting into polythene tubes [ 303 ] . seed production by the species is very good . storage is mainly in household refrigerators where they are kept until needed for sowing [ 303 ] . no research has been carried so far into their longevity under these conditions , but appears to be orthodox for this family [ 303 ] .\nright plant wrong place . we are currently updating this section . please note that a plant may be invasive in one area but may not in your area so it\u2019s worth checking .\niucn red list of threatened plants status : this taxon has not yet been assessed .\nfor a list of references used on this page please go here a special thanks to ken fern for some of the information used on this page .\nthis is a qr code ( short for quick response ) which gives fast - track access to our website pages . qr codes are barcodes that can be read by mobile phone ( smartphone ) cameras . this qr code is unique to this page . all plant pages have their own unique code . for more information about qr codes click here .\n1 . copy and print the qr code to a plant label , poster , book , website , magazines , newspaper etc and even t - shirts .\n2 . smartphone users scan the qr code which automatically takes them to the webpage the qr code came from .\n3 . smartphone users quickly have information on a plant directly for the urltoken website on their phone .\nif you have important information about this plant that may help other users please add a comment or link below . only comments or links that are felt to be directly relevant to a plant will be included . if you think a comment / link or information contained on this page is inaccurate or misleading we would welcome your feedback at\n. if you have questions about a plant please use the forum on this website as we do not have the resources to answer questions ourselves .\n* please note : the comments by website users are not necessarily those held by pfaf and may give misleading or inaccurate information .\nstay informed about pfafs progress , challenges and hopes by signing up for our free email epost . you will receive a range of benefits including : * important announcements and news * exclusive content not on the website * updates on new information & functionality of the website & database we will not sell or share your email address . you can unsubscribe at anytime .\nall the information contained in these pages is copyright ( c ) plants for a future , 1996 - 2012 . plants for a future is a charitable company limited by guarantee , registered in england and wales . charity no . 1057719 , company no . 3204567 , web design & management this work is licensed under a creative commons license . some information cannot be used for commercial reasons or be modified ( but some can ) . please view the copyright link for more information .\nwas first described by g\u00fcnther in 1862 basing on specimens collected from anaimalai hills , coimbatore district , tamil nadu ( smith 1943 ) .\ncaptain , a . , de silva , r . , milligan , h . t . , wearn , o . r . , wren , s . , zamin , t . , sears , j . , wilson , p . , lewis , s . , lintott , p . & powney , g .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its relatively wide distribution , and because threats appear to be localized .\nis endemic to the western ghats of india , south of the goa gap ( wynaad to travancore ) ( wall 1907 ) . presently it is known from wyanad , wyanad district ; ashambu hills , ponmudi hills ( chandramouli and ganesh 2011 ) and arippa ( near thiruvananthapuram ) , thiruvananthapuram district ; kulathapuzha , kollam district ( j . joyce in litt . ) in kerala , anaimalai hills , top slip ( v . deepak pers . comm . 2011 ) and valparai , coimbatore district in tamil nadu ( whitaker and captain 2004 ) and talakaveri , kodagu district , karnataka ( s . p . vijaykumar pers . comm . 2011 ) . found at elevations of 150 to 1 , 100 m asl .\nthis species inhabits tropical lowland moist forests . it has also been recorded from teak plantations .\nhabitat loss and degradation due to expanding agriculture , urbanization and mining is a problem in the western ghats and this is likely to be causing localized declines in this species .\nthere are no species - specific conservation measures in place for this species . this species occurs in indira gandhi national park and brahmagiri wildlife sanctuary . further research into the population and habitat status of this species should be carried out .\nbiostor is built by @ rdmpage , code on github . page images from the biodiversity heritage library .\nif you believe that digital publication of certain material infringes any of your rights or ( privacy ) interests , please let the library know , stating your reasons . in case of a legitimate complaint , the library will make the material inaccessible and / or remove it from the website . please ask the library , or send a letter to : library of the university of amsterdam , secretariat , singel 425 , 1012 wp amsterdam , the netherlands . you will be contacted as soon as possible .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nmalaysia ( borneo : sabah ) indonesia ( kalimantan ) type locality : mt . kina balu [ borneo ]\nbeolens , bo ; michael watkins , and michael grayson 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , usa - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1893 . description of new reptiles and batrachians obtained in borneo by mr . c . hose and mr . a . everett . proc . zool . soc . london 1893 : 522 - 528 - get paper here"]}
{"id": 1575, "summary": [{"text": "trisopterus esmarkii , the norway pout , is a species of fish in the cod family .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is found in the barents sea , north sea , baltic sea , off the coasts of norway , iceland , the british isles and elsewhere in the northeast atlantic ocean .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it prefers depths between 100 and 200 m ( 330 \u2013 660 ft ) , but occurs from 50 to 300 m ( 160 \u2013 980 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "norway pout can reach 35 cm ( 14 in ) , but are more common at around 19 cm ( 7.5 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is extensively fished , mostly for conversion into fishmeal , with 877,910 t taken in 1974 , and only 39,223 t taken in 2008 . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "trisopterus esmarkii", "paragraphs": ["jennifer hammock chose to hide data on\ntrisopterus esmarkii ( nilsson , 1855 )\n.\nraitt , d . f . s . 1968a . synopsis of biological data on the norway pout trisopterus esmarkii ( nilsson , 1855 ) . f . a . o . fish . biol . synopses , ( 33 ) 1968 : 32 p . , 7 fig .\ntrisopterus esmarkii is the direct target of small - mesh fisheries for fish meal and fish oil ( ices 2007 ) . this species population is also impacted by other commercial species , as it is an important prey species of other commercially important fishes , such as cod , saithe , haddock , mackerel and whiting .\ntrisopterus esmarkii is restricted to the northeastern atlantic ocean , where it is distributed from svalbard and the southwest barents sea , south to the english channel , including bear island , around iceland and at the faroe islands ( cohen et al . 1990 ) . it is found at depths ranging from 50 to 300 metres .\nscientific synonyms and common names trisopterus esmarki ( nilsson , 1855 ) synonyms : gadus esmarkii nilsson , 1855 , scand . fauna , 4 : 565 ( after esmark , 1844 ; christianiafjord ) . gadus esmarkii : smitt , 1893 , 1 : 508 , fig . 122 , pl . xxviiia ( col . fig . i ) sund , in andersson et al . , 1942 , 1 : 184 , pl . 52 ( col . ) . trisopterus esmarkii : svetovidov , 1948 : 143 , fig . 22 , pl . vll ( fig . 2 ) , pl . xlv , pl . lxx ( fig . 3 ) raitt , 1968a ( 33 ) : 1 , fig . 1 - 2 wheeler , 1969 : 270 , fig . trisopterus esmarki : andriashev , 1954 : 156 , fig . 77 . common names : norway pout [ en ] \u00f6gerp\u00e5l [ no ] spaerling [ da ] stintdorsch [ de ] tacaud norv\u00e9gien [ fr ] kever [ ne ]\njustification : trisopterus esmarkii , the norway pout , is distributed from the southwest barents sea , sometimes at bear island , south to the english channel , around iceland and at the faeroe islands . it is caught in the industrial fishery and estimates of ssb from the only available stock assessment in the north sea fluctuates over the past 30 years due to variable recruitment and short - life span caused by high natural mortality , with no observable trend . within the last 10 years ( three generation lengths ) there is also no observable trend . fishing mortality has been reduced due to implementation of bi - annual recommendations for total allowable catch . trisopterus esmarkii is therefore listed as least concern .\nsweet , n . a . 2008 . trisopterus esmarkii norway pout . in tyler - walters h . and hiscock k . ( eds ) marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information reviews , [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom . [ cited 09 - 07 - 2018 ] . available from : urltoken\n( of gadus esmarkii nilsson , 1855 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of trisopterus esmarki ( nilsson , 1855 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nthe norway pout is dark greeny brown dorsally , with distinct silver sides and a small but conspicuous dark spot above the base of the pectoral fin . the maximum recorded size for this species is 35 cm . trisopterus esmarkii has an elongate body whose depth is less than the head is long . the snout is pointed with a prominent lower jaw and large mouth extending to the level of the middle of the pupil . its eyes are large , greater than the snout length . it has a conspicuous moderately long , thin chin barbel . there are 3 dorsal and 2 anal fins , with the origin of the anal fin positioned below or slightly behind the first dorsal interspace .\ntrisopterus esmarkii is a relatively abundant gadoid in the north sea and barents sea . a stock assessment in the north sea ( including skagerrak and kattegat ) shows ssb for this species in the north sea as widely fluctuated over the past 30 years ( 1983\u20132014 ) with an apparent increase in biomass from the mid - 2000s to 2013 . this is a short - lived species . the abundance of this species is closely linked to recruitment , which has varied considerably over the last decade ( ices 2014 ) . due to the relatively short lifespan of this species , stock dynamics are highly variable . this species is also fished in the industrial fishery ( e . g . harvested for fishmeal and oil ) throughout the region , but no other stock assessments are available .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nen - norway pout , fr - tacaud norv\u00e9gien , sp - faneca noruega .\nlower jaw slightly longer than upper . greatest body depth less than head length . colour : grey - brown dorsally , sides silvery belly white ; a dark blotch at upper edge of pectoral base .\nsouthwest barents sea , sometimes at bear island , south to the english channel , around iceland , and at the faeroe islands .\nbenthopelagic to pelagic over muddy bottomsat depths of 50 - 300 m , but mostly found between 100 and 200 m . first maturity is reached at 2 years ( l4 to 15 cm ) and sex ratio of adults in the north sea is 93 males : 57 females . a 15 to 19 cm fish lays 27 000 to 51 200 eggs ; the spawning period extends from january to july ( mostly from march to may ) . migrates for spawning between the shetland islands and norway and out of the skagerrak , the mayor spawning grounds being located between nw scotland , norway , faeroe islands and iceland . growth is rapid : at 1 year , 13 cm ; 2 years , 19 cm ; 3 years , 21 cm ; maximun age is 4 to 5 years . it is a pelagic feeder , mostly on planktonic crustaceans ( copepods , euphausids , shrimps , amphipods ) but also on small fish and various eggs and larvae .\nan exceptional specimen reached 35 cm ; however , less than 20 cm is the more ordinary size .\nthe catch reported for 1987 in the fao yearbook of fishery statistics was 208 864 t , down from 428 374 t in 1979 . major exploiting countries are denmark ( ca . 119 000 t ) , norway ( ca . 81 000 t ) and the faeroe islands ( ca . 10 000 t ) , using bottom trawls and danish seines . the major fishing grounds are the northern north sea and skagerrak and to a lesser extent , the norwegian more coast , between 100 and 250 m depth . the total catch reported for this species to fao for 1999 was 112 556 t . the countries with the largest catches were denmark ( 57 441 t ) and norway ( 51 067 t ) . used mainly for fish meal and oil .\nfao species catalogue . vol . 10 . gadiform fishes of the world ( order gadiformes ) . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of cods , hakes , grenadiers and other gadiform fishes known to date . daniel m . cohen tadashi inada tomio iwamoto nadia scialabba 1990 . fao fisheries synopsis . no . 125 , vol . 10 . rome , fao . 1990 . 442p .\ngreek , tris = thrice + greek , pteron = wing , fin ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; benthopelagic ; oceanodromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 50 - 300 m ( ref . 54932 ) , usually 100 - 200 m ( ref . 54932 ) . temperate ; 79\u00b0n - 48\u00b0n , 27\u00b0w - 30\u00b0e ( ref . 54932 )\nnortheast atlantic : southwest barents sea , sometimes at bear island , south to the english channel , - and the bay of biscaye ( ref . 90172 ) - , around iceland and faeroe islands .\nmaturity : l m ? , range 11 - 15 cm max length : 35 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 1371 ) ; common length : 19 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 4645 ) ; max . reported age : 5 years ( ref . 273 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; anal spines : 0 . gray - brown dorsally , silvery on sides , white on belly . a dark blotch is at the upper edge of the pectoral - fin base .\nbenthopelagic to pelagic over muddy bottoms . mostly found between 100 and 200 m . feeds mostly on planktonic crustaceans ( copepods , euphausiids , shrimps , amphipods ) but also on small fish and various eggs and larvae ( ref . 1371 ) . caught mainly for reduction to fishmeal ( ref . 3383 ) , trout pellets , fodder ( ref . 35388 ) .\noviparous , sexes are separate ( ref . 205 ) . migrates for spawning between the shetland islands and norway and out of the skagerrak . major spawning grounds are northwestern scotland , norway , faeroe islands and iceland .\ncohen , d . m . , t . inada , t . iwamoto and n . scialabba , 1990 . fao species catalogue . vol . 10 . gadiform fishes of the world ( order gadiformes ) . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of cods , hakes , grenadiers and other gadiform fishes known to date . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 10 ) . rome : fao . 442 p . ( ref . 1371 )\n) : 5 . 9 - 10 . 1 , mean 7 . 8 ( based on 185 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5625 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00617 ( 0 . 00535 - 0 . 00710 ) , b = 3 . 06 ( 3 . 02 - 3 . 10 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 2 \u00b10 . 0 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 0 . 36 ; tm = 2 . 3 ; tmax = 5 ; fec = 27 , 000 ) .\nprior r = 0 . 88 , 2 sd range = 0 . 48 - 1 . 60 , log ( r ) = - 0 . 13 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 3 , based on : 2 m , 6 k , 7 tgen , 1 tmax , 3 fec records\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 26 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nvan der land , j . ; costello , m . j . ; zavodnik , d . ; santos , r . s . ; porteiro , f . m . ; bailly , n . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; froese , r . ( 2001 ) . pisces , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 357 - 374 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\ngulf of maine biogeographic information system ( gmbis ) electronic atlas . 2002 . november , 2002 . [ details ]\ndyntaxa . ( 2013 ) . swedish taxonomic database . accessed at urltoken [ 15 - 01 - 2013 ] . , available online at http : / / urltoken [ details ]\nnilsson , s . ( 1855 ) . skandinavisk fauna . fjerde delen : fiskarna . f\u00f6rsta h\u00e4ftet . lund . i - xxxiv + 1 - 768 . page ( s ) : 565 [ details ]\nwheeler , a . ( 1992 ) . a list of the common and scientific names of fishes of the british isles . j . fish biol . 41 ( suppl . a ) : 1 - 37 ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 565 [ details ]\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of boreogadus esmarki ( nilsson , 1855 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhabitat benthopelagic to pelagic over muddy bottoms . mostly found between 100 and 200 m . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nnorway pout is a benthopelagic to pelagic species which is typically found over muddy bottoms at depths of 50 to 300 meters , but more commonly between 100 and 200 meters . it feeds primarily on copepods ( bromley et al . 1997 ) , but also consumes decapod larvae , mysids and euphasiids ( gordon 1977 ) . norway pout is an important prey species in the north sea ecosystem ( ices 2011 ) . this species spawns in the north sea at depths of > 100 m , with a peak in spawning occurring between march and april , with more northern populations ( off the coast of norway ) spawning in late march and continuing through to june . the principal spawning area of norway pout in the north sea is in the northwestern region ( nash et al . 2012 ) . this species most likely spawns only once , and natural mortality is significantly correlated with sexual maturity , sex , growth and intra - specific stock density , indicating that this species may die as a direct or indirect result of spawning ( nielsen et al . 2012 ) . females are generally more abundant than males , with female dominance increasing by age ( albert 1994 ) . males mature younger than females ( age at 50 % maturity : males = 1 . 2 years , females = 1 . 5 years ) ( lambert et al . 2009 ) and longevity is four to five years . generation length is therefore estimated to be about two to three years .\nthis species is a direct target of small - mesh fisheries for fish meal and fish oil ( ices 2007 ) . it is primarily caught using bottom trawls and danish seines ( cohen et al . 1990 ) .\nharvest control rules based on total allowable catches are in place for norway pout and are frequently re - evaluated due to this species ' short lifespan ( ices 2014 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nnorway pout belongs to the cod family and lives in schools . it is commonly found in the northern north sea . it is rare to find it along the dutch coast . this species likes to swim close to the bottom . other fish species such as mackerel , coal fish , whiting , haddock and cod love to eat norway pout . all together , these species consume an estimated 1 . 3 million tons of norway pout in the north sea per year . the norwegian and danish industrial fleet used to fish norway pout on a large scale , however interest in this fish species decreased in the mid 1980s . norway pout is still used as food for fish farms and cattle .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nfinrays 23 - 29 ; first anal finrays 26 - 31 , second anal finrays 25 - 31 .\ngrey - brown on back , dull silvery on sides , belly more pale .\nandersson , k . a . , ed . 1942 . fiskar och fiske i norden . 1 , fiskar och fiske i havet . stockholm , xvi + 540 pp . , 83 col . pl . , 230 fig . 2 , fiskar och fiske i sj\u00f6r och floder : pp . xvii - xxiv + 541 - 1016 , fig . 231 - 426 , col . pl . 84 - 128 . ( new edition in 1954 , 2 : pp . 425 - 769 , 190 fig . , 42 col . pl . )\nandriashev , a . p . 1954 . ryby severnykh morei sssr . izv . akad . nauk sssr . moskwa - leningrad . ( english trans . 1964 , jerusalem , ipst , 617 pp . , 300 fig . )\nehrenbaum , e . 1905 - 1909 . eier und larven von fischen der nordischen planktons , teil i , 1905 , 4 : iv + i 1 - i 216 + iii , fig . 1 - 82 ; teil ii , 1909 , 10 : i 217 - i 413 , fig . 83 - 147 .\nfries , b . f . ; ekstr\u00f6m , c . u . ; sundevall , c . j . 1893 - 1895 . a history of scandinavian fishes , rev . and compl . by f . a . smitt , stockholm & paris , i , 1893 : pp . 1 - 566 + viii , fig . 1 - 134 ; ii , 1895 : pp . 567 - 1240 , fig . 135 - 380 ; atlas , pt . i , 1893 , pl . i - xxvii ; pt . ii , 1895 , pl . xxvii a - liii .\nnilsson , s . 1855 . skandinavisk fauna . fjerde delen : fiskarna , lund : xxxiv + 768 p .\nschmidt , e . j . 1905 - 1906 . the pelagic post - larval stages of the atlantic species of gadus , part i . meddr . kommn havunders . , ser . : fisk . , 1905 , 1 ( 4 ) : 77 pp . , 16 fig . , 3 pl . ; part ii , ibid . , 1906 , 2 ( 2 ) : 20 pp . , pl . i .\nschmidt , w . 1968 . vergleichend morphologische studie \u00fcber die otolithen mariner knochenfische . arch . fischwiss . , 19 ( 1 ) : pp . 1 - 96 , 184 fig . , 25 pl .\nscott , t . 1906 . observations on the otoliths of some teleostean fishes . 24 . rep . fishery bd scotl . , 1905 [ 1906 ] , 3 : 48 - 82 , 5 pl .\nsmitt , f . a . 1893 - 1895 . ( ed . ) a history of scandinavian fishes , stockholm and paris , atlas , i , 1893 , pl . i - xxvii .\nsmitt , f . a . ed . , 1893 - 1895 . see fries , b . f . ; ekstr\u00f6m , c . u . ; sundevall , c . j . , 1893 - 1895 .\nsvetovidov , a . n . 1948 . [ gadiformes . fauna u . s . s . r . , fishes ] , 9 ( 2 ) : 222 pp . , 39 fig . , pl . i - lxxii ( in russian , transl . jerusalem , 1962 , 232 pp . ) .\nwheeler , a . 1969 . the fishes of the british isles and north - west europe . macmillan , london , melbourne and toronto : pp . i - xvii + 1 - 163 , 5 + 177 fig . , 392 fig . ( princ . sp . ) , 92 n . num . fig . , 16 pl . , maps .\nthe norway pout fishery is relatively small and confined principally to norway and denmark . the by - products are probably blended into other fishery by - products and not available as a separate product . blue whiting is a large fishery primarily confined to the eu and northern european countries with a smaller catch controlled by 25 other countries .\nreports the landings and potential yield of fish oil from these fisheries . blue whiting fish oil is a potential source of omega - 3 fatty acids and\npresents some fatty acid profile data on blue whiting , southern blue whiting and norway pout .\n) , which can dive into the krill sl at depth during daytime or when it is closer to the surface during its upward dvm during night - time or in response to some physical forcing under certain circumstances .\namong these predators , baleen whales are unique , since they do not feed on individuals but on bulk amounts of krill , targeting aggregations that they engulf in mouthfuls . the whales take advantage of krill swarming behaviour which is otherwise a beneficial anti - predation strategy (\n) . nevertheless , aggregation may not be completely ineffective against whale predation , since it at least minimises the spatial extent of the krill distribution and makes it harder for roaming predators to detect them . however , once a predator has detected the edge of an aggregation , the probability of it being of considerable biomass is high , since aggregations often extend over kilometre scales (\nhow do changes in the ocean environment affect the productivity of marine fish ? apart from the obvious effects of temperature on metabolic rates , it is most likely that changes in the ocean environment manifest themselves through the food web . according to the hypothesis of bottom - up control , productivity at higher trophic levels is limited by primary production . just as a rising tide floats all boats , one would expect an increase in primary production to benefit all the species that rely on this production . we might expect to find the best evidence for bottom - up control in ecosystems with seasonal production and relatively simple food chains , such as boreal and upwelling ecosystems . in the north sea there have been parallel changes in abundance of phytoplankton , zooplankton , herring , and seabirds , which can be interpreted as bottom - up control of the pelagic food chain . during the gadoid outburst in the north sea , recruitment of five demersal species \u2013 cod , haddock , whiting , saithe , and norway pout \u2013 increased by a factor of 4 or 5 between the early and late 1960s . the gadoid outburst has been interpreted as bottom - up control of recruitment by zooplankton abundance and availability . though the gadoid outburst ended in the 1980s , debate continues on the cause of this phenomenon .\ngiven that primary production limits production at higher trophic levels , species replacements may be caused by competition for limiting resources . according to accepted ecological methods , for species to compete , they must use the same resource , which must be in limiting supply . removal of one species should result in increased use of the resource by the other species . because of the difficulty of manipulating marine fish populations it has been very difficult to demonstrate competition , except for some sedentary species such as reef fishes . for many fish species that are mobile and differ in their feeding preferences , opportunities for interference competition are few . however , the species may still compete if one species eats food that the other species would have eaten . the limited energy in a food web may be channeled to one species or another , and this partitioning process can be considered exploitative competition .\nfor example , sardines and anchovies have a broad diet overlap and may potentially compete . the japanese sardine fluctuations (\n) have been explained with a cyclic advantage hypothesis . a mathematical model of this hypothesis , which incorporates competition between the sardines and the other species groups , is able to reproduce the sequential replacement of the species groups . the replacement of the gadoids on georges bank by elasmobranches can also be interpreted as competition between the species groups . the abundance of the two species groups is inversely related in phase space (\n) , and reciprocal negative interaction terms were estimated between these groups in a multispecies model . as there is little predation between the gadoids and elasmobranches , the negative interaction terms support the competition hypothesis . an alternative hypothesis is that the different species groups simply respond differently to varying oceanographic conditions . however , this simplistic explanation begs the question of what changes in the environment caused the dramatic fluctuations and whether these changes occurred in the food web .\nthe bottom - up hypothesis implies that prey density limits the feeding rate , growth and production of predators . the best evidence of this limitation is shifts in the mean size at age of predator species in response to changing prey abundance . for example , the growth rate of icelandic cod was significantly related to the biomass of capelin , one of its primary prey species (\n) . faster - growing cod mature at a younger age and larger females produce more eggs ; hence faster growth rates should translate to higher per capita fecundity . however , care must be taken when interpreting size - at - age data because growth rates are influenced by factors in addition to food availability , such as temperature .\none of the most widely expressed concerns about the intensive and selective fishing activities of humans is that they will lead to imbalances in ecosystem function which have ramifications for non - target species . thus fishers who capture small \u201cforage fishes\u201d such as sardines or pilchards\n( nilsson ) will compete with other predators in the marine ecosystem . industrial fisheries in the north sea , for example , accounted for over half the total catch by the late 1980s (\n) . there is increasing pressure to manage marine ecosystems with a view to ensuring the well - being of birds and marine mammals rather than maximizing fish production for humans . moreover , some fishery biologists have also expressed concern about the\nintensive fishing of forage fishes since these may provide food for more valuable fished species .\n) , but these reductions may lead to responses in non - target species through changes in competitive interactions and predator\u2013prey relationships . the indirect effects of fishing on trophic interactions in marine ecosystems have become a major concern of the conservation movement (\n) and a good scientific basis for management decisions is essential . in addition , it is in this field that improved links between fish population biology and ecology would have particular benefits . the current debates amongst fisheries ecologists invoke comparison with debates about the relative roles of \u201ctop down\u201d ( predator ) or \u201cbottom up\u201d ( environmental and prey ) control in ecosystems and the relative significance of \u201cdonor controlled\u201d dynamics ( in which victim populations influence enemy dynamics but enemies have no significant effect on victim populations ) in food webs .\n) but empirical evidence suggests it is wrong to assume that most predator\u2013prey relationships are tightly coupled and that the removal or proliferation of one species which eats another will result in detectable changes in ecological processes . in particular , simplistic models of predator\u2013prey interactions often take no account of prey switching , ontogenetic shifts in diet , cannibalism or the diversity of species in marine ecosystems and thus they often fail to provide valid predictions of changes in abundance . in\nwe review the empirical evidence for and against the proliferation of prey species following the removal of their predators . this is of particular significance because it has been suggested that the deliberate removal of predatory fishes ( or other top predators ) may allow fishers to harvest more of their prey (\njones , 1982 ; grigg et al . , 1984 ; munro and williams , 1985\nbirds and mammals may prey on marine fishes and humans compete with them as top predators . in\nwe consider whether the removal or proliferation of prey has significant impacts on predator populations , discussing the relative roles of fisheries and environmental change in determining the availability of prey and how these processes affect the abundance and life histories of predators .\n) and yet there have been marked changes in the species that dominate the biomass and yield from many of the most productive marine fisheries . there has been much debate as to whether these changes are natural fluctuations in marine\nwe consider the significance of species replacements and whether these have been stimulated by fisheries which remove biomass and therefore reduce interactions between species which formerly competed with , or ate , one - another . in\ncompositional analyses have been used both for characterisation and for authentication purposes . the lipid content and to a greater extent the fatty acid composition of tissue lipids of animals are closely related to diet , making these suitable markers for identifying wild or cultured production methods . chromatographic techniques are the methods of choice for the analysis of fatty acid mixtures , the old bligh and dyer method (\n) being the most frequently used to isolate and purify lipids from biological materials . it is based on a liquid - liquid extraction , a mild treatment so as to minimise oxidative decomposition of fish lipids due to their highly unsaturated structure .\nmost of the gc techniques developed to study fish lipids require a derivatisation step prior to analysis . transesterification with methanol is the most commonly used ; the fatty acids are then studied as fatty acid methyl esters or fames . most studies have focused on the liver oil or the fish flesh ; however ,\nother parts of the fish have also been investigated . for example , for atlantic salmon , total lipid content and composition have been characterised for different anatomical fractions : skin , red and white muscle , belly flap , dorsal fat depot , backbone , head , visceral tissue , liver (\nthe long chain n - 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( pufa ) are the most characteristic components of fish lipids , the main polyenoic acids being eicosapentaenoic acid ( epa or 20 : 5n - 3 ) and docosahexenoic acid ( dha or 22 : 6n - 3 ) . levels of linoleic ( 18 : 2n - 6 ) and linolenic ( 18 : 3n - 3 ) acids , more commonly found in vegetable oils , are generally low in marine lipids . feed formulations used in aquaculture are made up of fishmeal and fish oil , often derived from species such as capelin , menhaden ( brevoortia spp . ) , sand eel , sprat , norway pout , blue whiting , horse mackerel , atlantic herring ( clupea spp . ) , anchovy ( engraulis spp . ) , and pilchard . since fatty acid profiles can vary from species to species , these differences can be found in the farmed fish fed on specific fishmeal . with declining fish stocks and the corresponding growth in the use of fishmeal and fish oil for aquaculture , there is a move towards incorporating plant - derived products such as soybean meal or vegetable oils in the fish feed . the variations in fatty acid profiles due to these changes also offer a useful means of differentiating between wild and farmed fish .\nvarious studies have confirmed these differences in fatty acid composition in wild and cultured fish .\nreported dissimilarities in fatty acid profiles of the flesh lipids of cultured and wild sea bass , with oleic acid ( 18 : 1n - 9 ) and linoleic acid ( 18 : 2n - 6 ) being significantly higher in the farmed fish . both these fatty acids can be linked to the use of plant - derived oils in the feed . on the other hand , cultured sea bass contained lower amounts of epa and dha , with a higher ratio of n - 3 to n - 6 in the wild fish .\non the characterisation of the fatty acid compositions of cultured and wild sturgeon , it was found that wild sturgeon have lower levels of dha or epa . the higher amounts of long chain n - 3 fatty acids in the cultured fish were attributed to the use of herring or menhaden in the fishmeal .\npotential fraudulent practices do not always entail substituting cheaper farmed fish for its more valuable wild counterpart . in areas where fishing rights are restricted , to protect certain fish populations for instance , there is the potential for endemic fish species to be illegally sold as cultured fish .\nused fatty acid composition and chemometric data treatment to discriminate between wild and farmed largemouth bass , black and white crappies , all freshwater fish that are popular with anglers . this study focused on four main fatty acids : linoleic ( 18 : 2n - 6 ) , linolenic ( 18 : 3n - 3 ) , arachidonic ( 20 : 4n - 6 ) and docosahexaenoic ( 22 : 6n - 3 ) . the statistical models built up using different data treatments all gave good classification rates were obtained for the wild and cultured species . this work was unusual in that it examined juvenile , age - 0 , rather than adult fish .\nalthough it has been clearly demonstrated that fatty acid composition is closely linked to the fish feed , there are other factors that may affect the overall profile , such as age , fatty acid metabolism and so on . add to this the possible changes in the feed composition to farmed fish to reflect available supplies , and the fact that the diet of wild fish can vary with season , migration patterns and other external factors , it is clear that most discriminant models based on fatty acid profiles may be subject to a number of uncontrolled variables . to provide a more robust solution it is probably best to envisage other complementary methods .\nm in length landed 248 , 036 tonnes of seafood worth \u00a3159 . 1 million in 2010 (\n) . bottom trawlers , however , dominate the uk fleet in terms of vessel numbers and days spent at sea , and the target roundfish and flatfish species are caught as part of a mixed fishery . the food web of the north sea is complex , and there is a trade - off in the yields of different species . for example , low fishing mortality on cod is predicted to lead to an increase in its spawning stock biomass ( ssb ) but a decrease in the ssb and yield for whiting and haddock through their increased direct predation by cod . effects may cascade , with the potential to also increase the ssb and yield for herring , sandeel , norway pout and sprat due to their reduced predation by whiting and haddock (\npresent the ices data for the top 25 finfish species caught in the north sea and the top 19 recorded invertebrate species . the data are a fascinating window on the social , ecological and economic history of the north sea . some major trends evident , such as the disappearance of herring and the gadoid outburst are examples of nature determining landings (\n) . others , such as the catches of blue whiting , mackerel and wolf fish show how technological advance or culinary fashions can encourage fishers to target new species . latterly declines in landings of some species are clearly , at least in part , a result of over - exploitation ( e . g . cod and whiting ) . other declines may be the result of climate change , managing down exploitation or mis - management (\n) . decreases in landings of bivalves such as mussels and oysters reflect a shift from fisheries to mariculture for these species ( david jarrad , shellfish association of great britain , pers . com . ) .\njennings and lee , 2012 ; jennings et al . , 1999 ; rijnsdorp et al . , 1998 ; stefc , 2012\n) . these fishing footprints are also affected by the local seabed substrate type . mixed sediments are the predominant bottom type in the north sea . coarser sands are dominant in the shallower more tidally active south . mud is generally more prevalent in the deeper northern parts , with substantial areas of exposed bedrock found mainly around the coasts of scotland and norway .\nat the finer scale , there remain significant gaps in our empirical understanding about both the spatial and temporal effects of fishing gear\u2013habitat interactions . this uncertainty is manifest when attempts are made to value the economic benefits and costs of restricting fishing over large spatial scales (\n) , with assumptions made on the impact of different fishing gears reflecting pre - conceived biases . indeed , this knowledge deficit has become increasingly relevant to the debates over management measures for mpas , particularly the ongoing revision of fishing activities to be restricted in european marine sites ( emss ) ,\nand current debates on the management restrictions to be placed in mczs . importantly , regional scale modelling exercises reveal that there are trade - offs in designing mpa networks to achieve different sets of conservation objectives (\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncohen , daniel m . , tadashi inada , tomio iwamoto , and nadia scialabba\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\na benthopelagic to pelagic species found over muddy bottoms , at depths between 100 to 200 m .\nnorway pout is an important food item in the diet of several prime species including hake , cod , whiting and pollack . this is a highly commercial species caught mainly for fishmeal .\nspawns from january to july off of north and north west scotland , faroes , iceland and norweigan coast .\nfishbase , 2000 . fishbase . a global information system on fishes . [ on - line ] http : / / www . fishbase . org , 2001 - 05 - 03\nhowson , c . m . & picton , b . e . , 1997 . the species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the british isles and surrounding seas . belfast : ulster museum . [ ulster museum publication , no . 276 . ]\nnational biodiversity network ( nbn ) atlas website . available from : http : / / www . nbnatlas . org . accessed 01 april 2017\nobis , 2018 . global map of species distribution using gridded data . available from : ocean biogeographic information system . www . iobis . org . accessed : 2018 - 07 - 09\nwheeler , a . , 1969 . the fishes of the british isles and north - west europe . london : macmillan .\nworms 2007 . the world register of marine species ( worms ) . http : / / www . marinespecies . org , 2008 - 10 - 31\nmarine life information network ( marlin ) , the marine biological association of the uk ( see contact us ) \u00a9 2018 the marine biological association of the uk , all rights reserved .\nthe information ( text only ) provided by the marine life information network ( marlin ) is licensed under a creative commons attribution - non - commercial - share alike 2 . 0 uk : england & wales license . note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own terms and conditions and they may or may not be available for reuse . permissions beyond the scope of this license are available here . based on a work at urltoken"]}
{"id": 1577, "summary": [{"text": "the red stingray ( dasyatis akajei ) is a species of stingray in the family dasyatidae , found in the northwestern pacific ocean off japan , korea , and china , and possibly elsewhere .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it primarily inhabits shallow , sandy habitats close to shore , and has been known to enter brackish water .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the red stingray has a diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc and gains its common name from its bright orange-red underside ; there may also be patches of orange at various spots on its upper surface .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "most individuals are no more than 1 m ( 3.3 ft ) long .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "feeding mainly on crustaceans and bony fishes , the red stingray plays a key ecological role as an apex predator in its environment .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "reproduction is aplacental viviparous , with females giving birth to 1 or up to 10 pups at a time .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the red stingray is valued as food in japan ; large numbers are caught as bycatch and brought to market , which has seemingly led to a population decline in this unprolific species .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "as a result , the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has assessed it as near threatened . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "red stingray", "paragraphs": ["phylogeography and population structure of the red stingray , dasyatis akajei inferred by mitochondrial control region .\nthe red stingray is a species of ray with the scientific name dasyatis akajei found in both games .\nphylogeography and population structure of the red stingray , dasyatis akajei inferred by mitochondrial control region . - pubmed - ncbi\nclassified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nclassified as data deicient ( dd ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nssg asia northwest pacific red list workshop , valenti , s . v . 2016 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - red stingray ( dasyatis akajei )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - red stingray ( dasyatis akajei )\ntitle =\narkive species - red stingray ( dasyatis akajei )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ntake a trip to stingray city aboard one of red sail sports 65 ' luxury sailing catamarans . get in the water with the rays at stingray city sandbar and snorkel on of cayman ' s vibrant reefs .\nvelvet slipper . genuine stingray trim in red with signature diamond heel and bracelet with mark chris monogram accessory . leather sole and lining . handmade in italy .\n) are marked with a star . amino acid positions that are identical are marked in red .\n) is marked with a star . amino acid positions that are identical are marked in red .\nvalenti , s . v . ; ssg asia northwest pacific red list workshop ( 2007 ) .\nred sail sports is the only premier operation delivering full - service dive and watersports services island - wide .\nbennett ' s stingray , dasyatis bennetti ( m\u00fcller & henle , 1841 ) .\npale - edged stingray , dasyatis zugei ( m\u00fcller & henle , 1841 ) .\nthere is little information on the natural history of the bennett ' s stingray .\nno information exists on population abundance and trends for the round stingray in central america .\nshort - tail stingray or bull ray , dasyatis brevicaudata ( hutton , 1875 ) .\nround stingray , taeniura grabata ( \u00e9 . geoffroy saint - hilaire , 1817 ) .\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nred sail sports offers scuba experiences for newbies , dive trips for certified divers and even private dive guides for a more personalized dive experience .\nthere are no specific conservation measures known to be in place for the red stingray . recommended conservation actions for this commercially important but relatively little - known stingray include the collection of data to accurately assess its population levels , and the development and implementation of management plans for all rays and sharks in the region ( 1 ) .\ninformation on the common stingray is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nthe red stingray is believed to be endemic to the northwest pacific ocean , occurring around japan , taiwan and china ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . its possible presence in the western central pacific is uncertain ( 1 ) .\nmost stingrays live on or near the ocean bottom in inshore waters ( 2 ) . the red stingray is reported to occur in shallow coastal waters and bays , and over the continental shelf ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 6 ) .\nstingray city means big business in the cayman islands , where each stingray generates as much as $ 500 , 000 annually in tourism income , harvey said . the team plans to continue to monitor stingray city ' s population to track its health\u2014and the industry ' s impact\u2014over time .\nlike other stingrays , the red stingray is likely to be ovoviviparous , a method of reproduction in which the eggs develop and hatch inside the female and are born live ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . in most stingrays , litter size ranges from two to six young , born after a long gestation period of up to twelve months ( 2 ) . however , the red stingray may have smaller litter sizes than most , reportedly giving birth to just one pup per litter ( 1 ) .\niucn ( 2013 ) iucn red list of threatened species . version 2013 . 2 . http : / / www . iucnredlist . org . accessed 4 april 2014\nthe amino acid sequences of human ( h ) mc2r and stingray ( s ) mc2r were aligned .\nstingray city in grand cayman allows swimmers , snorkelers , and divers to swim with and feed the stingrays .\n) , elephant shark ( e ) mc2r ( faa704 . 1 ) , stingray ( s ) mc4r (\nyou may have heard that the ability to chew food separates mammals from other animals . but new footage reveals that stingrays\u2014at least the ocellate river stingray\u2014chew their food too . watch how one stingray chomps down on dragonfly larvae .\nmeyer , p . 1997 . stingray injuries . wilderness environ med 8 ( 1 ) : 24 - 8 .\na biologist from the university of toronto scarborough ( utsc ) has discovered a new kind of tropical freshwater stingray .\nthe range of the bennett ' s stingray is somewhat uncertain due to confusion with other species . it is a\na stingray buried in the sand in saba . stingrays can be hard to see when they cover themselves with substrate .\ntourists interact with southern stingrays at stingray city / sandbar at the study site in the cayman islands . credit : guy harvey\nm range . in this example , mc5r rather mc2r may be the \u201cacth\u201d receptor in the hpi axis of the stingray .\n) were aligned , and amino acid positions in which four of the five sequences were identical are marked in red . the position of critical amino acids in the hfrw - binding site of mc4r orthologs (\nthe amino acid sequences of human ( h ) mc5r ( np _ 005904 . 1 ) and stingray ( s ) mc5r (\nred sail sports has you covered for watersports in grand cayman . from stand - up paddleboards to kayaks , waverunners to sail boats and everything in between . we ' ll make sure you have fun on the water !\na stingray in dark waters . stingrays are dangerous for humans because it is hard to see them when they ' re in dark waters .\nthe stingray ' s spine , or barb , can be ominously fashioned with serrated edges and a sharp point . the underside may produce venom , which can be fatal to humans , and which can remain deadly even after the stingray ' s death . in greek mythology , odysseus , the great king of ithaca , was killed when his son , telegonus , struck him using a spear tipped with the spine of a stingray .\n) is a small , common inshore stingray found along the coastal waters of the eastern pacific . it is distributed from northern california to panama .\na , a comparison of stingray mc2r and human mc2r , vertebrates that last shared a common ancestor over 420 million years ago , the amino acid sequence identity is 37 % ( positions in red ) . given the apparent role of the hypothalamus / pituitary / adrenal ( hpa ) axis and the hypothalamus / pituitary / interrenal ( hpi ) axis in maintaining the fitness of vertebrates (\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - common stingray ( dasyatis pastinaca )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - common stingray ( dasyatis pastinaca )\ntitle =\narkive species - common stingray ( dasyatis pastinaca )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nwhile not independently valuable as a food source , the stingray ' s capacity to damage shell fishing grounds can lead to bounties being placed on their removal .\n, the human , zebrafish , elephant shark , and stingray mc2r amino acid sequences could be aligned to the stingray mc4r sequence by inserting a minimum of two gaps . the positions of critical residues in tm2 , tm3 , tm6 , and tm7 that correspond to the hfrw - binding site for a mc4r ortholog (\ninformation on population abundance for the round stingray is only known for southern california , where they are highly abundant . because this species is large and mobile ( lowe\nmartin , r . a . 2008 . biology of sharks and rays : stingray city limits . reefquest centre for shark research . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\npassarelli , n . , and a . piercy . 2008 . atlantic stingray . florida museum of natural history , ichthyology department . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\nsome adult rays may be no larger than a human palm , while other species , like the short - tail stingray , may have a body of six feet in diameter , and an overall length , including their tail , of fourteen feet . stingrays can vary from gray to bright red in color and be plain or patterned . dasyatids are propelled by motion of their large pectoral fin ( commonly mistaken as\nwings\n) .\nthe researchers found that stingray city ' s stingrays show distinctly different patterns of activity than their wild counterparts , who don ' t enjoy daily feedings or close human contact .\nresearchers from nova southeastern university ' s guy harvey research institute in hollywood , fla . , and the university of rhode island studied the southern stingray population of stingray city\u2014a sandbar in the cayman islands that draws nearly a million visitors each year to feed , pet and swim with its stingrays\u2014to assess how the intensive ecotourism has affected the animals ' behavior .\nmost demersal fishes maintain strong relations with bottom substrates and bottom depths and / or topography during their lives . it is important to know these relations to for understand their lives . in tokyo bay , red stingray , dasyatis akajei , classified as near - threatened species by iucn , has increased since the 1980s . it is a top predator and engages in ecosystem engineer by mixing the sand bed surface through burring behavior , and greatly influences a coastal ecosystem . it is reported that this species invades in plage and tidal flats and has sometimes injured beachgoers and people gathering clams in tokyo bay . thus , it is necessary to know its behavior and habitat use to avoid accidents and to better conserve the biodiversity of ecosystems . however , previous studies have not examined its relationship with the bottom environment . this study aims to describe its behavior in relation to the bottom environment . we sounded three dimensional bottom topography of their habitat off kaneda cove in tokyo bay with interferometric sidescan sonar system and traced the movement of red stingrays by attaching a data logger system to survey their migration . the results revealed that red stingray repeated vertical movement between the surface and bottom , and used not only sand beds but also rocky beds .\nwhile the stingray ' s eyes peer out from its dorsal side , its mouth , nostrils , and gill slits are situated on its underbelly . its eyes are therefore not thought by scientists to play a considerable role in hunting . like its shark relatives , the stingray is outfitted with electrical sensors called ampullae of lorenzini . located around the stingray ' s mouth , these organs sense the natural electrical charges of potential prey . many rays have jaw teeth to enable them to crush mollusks such as clams , oysters , and mussels .\nthe red stingray is valued for its meat , and is caught commercially in the coastal waters of japan . it is also commonly taken as bycatch in other fisheries , and this , combined with the strong commercial fishing pressure , appears to be leading to population declines ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . the low reproductive rate of this species makes it particularly vulnerable to overfishing ( 1 ) , with populations potentially taking a long time to recover from any losses .\njustification : the reticulated freshwater stingray ( potamotrygon falkneri ) is a little known freshwater stingray from the paran\u00e1 river basin . there is essentially no information available on this species ' ecology or biology . as other potamotrygonids , it faces numerous identified threats including habitat degradation and fishing activities . further evaluation when more information available will be required to assess this species beyond data deficient .\njustification : this demersal ray is reported from a wide range in the mediterranean sea , eastern atlantic and red sea in the western indian ocean . very little is known of its biology . the round fantail stingray ( taeniura grabata ) is vulnerable to capture in demersal trawl and trammel net fisheries , although no specific information is currently available on its capture . at present insufficient information is available to assess the species beyond data deficient and this assessment should be revisited as soon as information becomes available .\nthe red stingray is a top predator in its ocean bottom habitat , feeding mainly on crustaceans and small fish , and also taking various worms and molluscs ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 6 ) . however , very little is known about the life history of this species . male red stingrays are thought to reach sexual maturity at a disc width of around 35 centimetres , and females between 50 and 55 centimetres ( 6 ) . interestingly , at maturity the male and female develop markedly different teeth , with those of the female being virtually flat , and those of the male developing pointed cusps . no large differences in diet have been detected , and it is thought that the differences in the teeth are related to mating behaviour , with the male using the teeth to grip onto the female\u2019s pectoral fins during copulation ( 6 ) .\n. the amino acid sequences of human ( h ) mc2r ( np _ 001278840 . 1 ) , zebrafish ( z ) mc2r ( xp _ 00518229 . 1 ) stingray ( s ) mc2r (\nred sail sports is dedicated to creating unforgettable memories by connecting people with new experiences . our philosophy has remained the same throughout the years : to turn everyday moments into memories with a constant focus on quality and service standards . for over thirty years we are proud to be the most diversified supplier of grand cayman watersports services .\n\u2191 t . r . roberts , makararaja chindwinensis , a new genus and species of freshwater dasyatidid stingray from upper myanmar , the natural history bulletin of the siam society 54 ( 2006 ) : 285\u2013293 .\nthe reticulate whipray is widespread in the indo - west pacific , from south africa to northern australia , including the red sea , the persian / arabian gulf , india , and southeast asia ( north to at least the philippines ) ( white et al . 2006 ; w . white and b . m . manjaji - matsumoto , pers . obs . 2007 ; last and stevens 2009 ) . the species is thought to be a lessepsian immigrant , having entered the mediterranean sea from the red sea through the suez canal ( serena 2005 ) . in northern australia , it occurs widely from shark bay in western australia to brisbane in queensland ( last and stevens 2009 ) .\ntaniuchi , t . and shimizu , m . ( 1993 ) dental sexual dimorphism and food habits in the stingray dasyatis akajei from tokyo bay , japan . nippon suisan gakkaishi , 59 : 53 - 60 .\nflint , d . , and w . sugrue . 1999 . stingray injuries : a lesson in debridement . new zealand med j 112 ( 1086 ) : 137 - 8 . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\nthe biology and habitat of bennett ' s stingray ( hemitrygon bennetti ) are poorly known . the species reaches a maximum size of at least 130 cm tl and about 50 cm dw ( compagno 1998 ) .\nits your vacation , take your adventures on your schedule ! take advantage of a private snorkel boat charter and experience some of grand cayman ' s top snorkel spots including stingray city , starfish point and more .\nalthough edible , stingrays are not a dietary staple and are not considered a high - quality food . however , they are consumed , including fresh , dried , and salted ( mceachran 2004 ) . stingray recipes abound throughout the world , with dried forms of the wings being most common . for example , in singapore and malaysia , stingray is commonly barbecued over charcoal , then served with spicy sambal sauce . generally , the most prized parts of the stingray are the wings , the\ncheek\n( the area surrounding the eyes ) , and the liver . the rest of the ray is considered too rubbery to have any culinary uses .\nhonma , y . and sugihara , c . ( 1971 ) a stingray , dasyatis akajei , with aberrant pectoral fins from the japan sea . japanese journal of ichthyology , 18 ( 4 ) : 187 - 189 .\namino acid alignment of gar mc2r , mc4r , and mc5r . the amino acid sequences of gar mc2r ( ensloct00000011667 ) , gar mc4r ( ensloct00000022303 ) , and gar mc5r ( enslocg00000018340 ) were aligned and positions that were identical are marked in red . ( a ) alignment of gar mc2r and gar mc5r ; ( b ) alignment of gar mc4r and gar mc5r .\nthe stingray ' s coloration commonly reflects the seafloor ' s shading , camouflaging it from predatory sharks and larger rays . their flattened bodies are composed of pectoral fins joined to their head and trunk with an infamous tail trailing behind .\njustification : the maracaibo river stingray ( potamotrygon yepezi ) is a little known freshwater stingray , endemic to the river catacumbo and its tributaries in colombia , and the maracaibo drainage in venezuela . there is essentially no information available on this species ' ecology or biology . as with other potamotrygonids it faces numerous identified threats including habitat degradation and fishing activities , particularly for the ornamental fish trade . further evaluation when more information is available will be required to assess this species beyond\nthe successive genome duplications during the radiation of the chordates theoretically should yield four paralogous genes in the genomes of extant cartilaginous fishes , non - teleost ray finned fishes , and tetrapods . however , in the genomes of the japanese stingray (\nin the magdalena basin , the young are captured for ornamental purposes and due to the collapse of fisheries of other species , adults of the magdalena stingray are captured for subsistence ( lasso et al . 2011 , m\u00f3jica et al . 2012 ) .\na visit to stingray city is a must while visiting grand cayman . the sandbar is home to many friendly stingrays and is just a short boat ride from rum point . looking for evening activities ? try a sunset sail from rum point too .\nreproductive cycle , making it a relatively productive batoid . this stingray is not targeted but is taken incidentally by commercial , recreational and artisanal fisheries . it is generally discarded , as its small size and large tail spine make it an undesirable target species , however\n. 2012 ) . exploitation rates for the round stingray exceeded biological reference points ( jensen ' s and pauly ' s exploitation rates were calculated to 0 . 77 and 0 . 84 , respectively ) , suggesting that this species may be overexploited ( morales - azpeitia\nthe round stingray is a benthic warm - temperate to tropical round stingray usually found in nearshore waters < 15 m deep , but may occur down to 91 m depth ( mceachran and notarbartolo di sciara 1995 , ebert 2003 ) . these stingrays prefer soft bottoms composed of mud or sand , often in areas where eelgrass ( used for camouflage ) is quite abundant . water temperature plays an important role in the distribution of these stingrays since they prefer temperatures above a minimum of 10\u00b0c ( ebert 2003 , jirik and lowe 2012 ) .\nthe mangrove whipray is likely widespread in the indo - west pacific , around the red sea , maldives , new guinea , micronesia , gulf of thailand , the philippines , eastern indonesia , and off the andaman , santa cruz , and solomon islands ( last and stevens 2009 ) . in australia , it is reported inshore from western australia ( ningaloo reef ) to queensland ( whitsunday passage ) ( last and stevens 2009 ) . there have been records from southern queensland , but these are likely erroneous ( last and stevens 2009 ) . records from the western indian ocean are documented by moore ( 2012 ) and include a specimen from a fish market in bir ali , gulf of aden , yemen in july 2009 , as well as a further specimen captured on video being landed in the gulf of aqaba ( red sea ) near aqaba , jordan in april 2010 .\n( physorg . com ) - - which island of south - east asia has the most stingray species in the world ? according to the new book ' sharks and rays of borneo ' , the island of borneo has 30 different stingrays : not surprising for the most . . .\nlike other stingrays , the red stingray has a flattened body and a long , whip - like tail bearing a strong , saw - edged stinging spine on the upper surface , used as a defensive weapon ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . generally orange - brown above and white to pale pink below , with yellowish margins ( 2 ) ( 4 ) , the body and large pectoral fins form a flattened , diamond - shaped disc , with a moderate snout at the front and a pair of single - lobed pelvic fins at the back . like other stingrays , this species lacks dorsal and caudal fins ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . the gills and mouth are located on the underside of the body , with the eyes situated on top , just in front of openings known as spiracles , through which the stingray can take in water whilst lying on the seabed . water enters the spiracles and is passed out over the gill openings , bypassing the mouth ( 2 ) ( 5 ) .\nthe distribution of this indo - west pacific stingray is not well known , but probably ranges from southern japan to india , possibly including the philippines ( compagno 1998 , compagno et al . 2005 ) . one record from trinidad possibly refers to another species ( compagno et al . 2005 ) .\n) observed that replacing the n - terminal domain of human mc4r with the n - terminal domain of human mc2r inhibited trafficking of the chimeric mc4r protein to the plasma membrane . however , since the n - terminal of stingray mc4r is nearly the same length as the human mc2r domain ( figure\n) . in addition , only the partial c - terminal sequences for the mrap2 orthologs are presented . predicted n - linked glycosylation sites are underlined . note that there are two potential n - linked glycosylation sites in the putative elephant shark mrap1 amino acid sequence . the amino acids in the activation motif for mouse mrap1 are highlighted in red . conserved amino acid positions in the proposed activation motifs of the chicken , zebrafish , elephant shark mrap1 orthologs are also highlighted in red . the amino acids in the reverse topology motif of mouse mrap1 were highlighted in green . conserved amino acid positions in the reverse topology motif of chicken , zebrafish , elephant shark , mouse , and lamprey mrap1 and mrap2 sequences , respectively , were also highlighted in green . finally , the amino acids in the transmembrane domain of mouse mrap1 are highlighted in blue , and the conserved amino acid positions in the chicken , zebrafish , elephant shark , mouse and lamprey mrap1 and mrap2 sequences , respectively , were also highlighted in blue .\nstingrays living in one of the world ' s most famous and heavily visited ecotourism sites\u2014stingray city / sandbar in the cayman islands\u2014have profoundly changed their ways , raising questions about the impact of so - called\ninteractive ecotourism\non marine wildlife , reports a new study published march 18 in the journal plos one .\nfrom a pharmacological perspective , the presence of the putative elephant shark mrap1 ortholog is perplexing . an earlier study had shown that the elephant shark mc2r ortholog could be functionally expressed in cho cells in the absence of co - transfection of an exogenous mrap1 cdna ( 38 ) . elephant shark mc2r could be stimulated in a dose - dependent manner by either human acth ( 1\u201324 ) or by dogfish ( squalus acanthias ) acth ( 1\u201325 ) . more recently , a mc2r cdna cloned from the genome of the stingray , dasyatis akajei , was also functionally expressed in cho cells in the absence of co - transfection of an exogenous mrap1 cdna ( 39 ) . the stingray mc2r ortholog also could be stimulated by stingray acth ( 1\u201324 ) and stingray des - acetyl - \u03b1 - msh . hence , there are several issues with respective to the putative elephant shark mrap1 that need to be resolved . it will be important to determine whether the elephant shark mrap1 mrna is expressed in the same cells as elephant shark mcr mrnas . in addition , pharmacological studies are needed to determine whether co - expression of cartilaginous fish mcr orthologs with the putative elephant shark mrap1 ortholog have any effect on either trafficking of the mcr orthologs to the plasma membrane or sensitivity to melanocortin ligands .\nin the cayman islands , there are several dive sites called stingray city , grand cayman , where divers and snorkelers can swim with large southern stingrays ( dasyatis americana ) and feed them by hand . there is also a\nstingray city\nin the sea surrounding the caribbean island of antigua . it consists of a large , shallow reserve where the rays live , and snorkeling is possible . in belize , off the island of ambergris caye there is a popular marine sanctuary called hol chan . here divers and snorkelers often gather to watch stingrays and nurse sharks that are drawn to the area by tour operators who feed the animals .\n\u2191 p . r . last , b . m . manjaji , and g . k . yearsley , pastinachus solocirostris sp . nov . , a new species of stingray ( elasmobranchii : myliobatiformes ) from the indo - malay archipelago , zootaxa 1040 ( 2005 ) : 1 - 16 . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\njustification : the giant freshwater stingray ( potamotrygon brachyura ) is the largest species of the potamotrygon genus ; this freshwater stingray is probably endemic to the paran\u00e1 - paraguay river drainages in southern south america . a moderately common but poorly known species . its fecundity is relatively high compared with other potamotrygonids ( up to 19 pups ) but , in general , limited life history and population data are available . it is harpooned for food and also captured for the ornamental fish trade , especially juveniles . given its limited distribution in areas subject to habitat degradation through various human activities further studies , monitoring and a revised assessment in the near future are highly recommended .\nround stingray ranges from humboldt bay in northern california to panama in central america , but appears to be most common between southern california and baja california ( babel 1967 , nordell 1994 , lowe et al . 2007 ) . individuals identified as this species from central america should be examined carefully as the genus is poorly known in this region .\ngrand cayman is the world ' s best - known dive destination . some say it ' s because of the warm , crystal - clear water year - round . others love the stretches of magnificent , unspoiled coral reefs , the schools of colorful fish , the friendly stingrays , the spectacular shipwrecks , the vertical walls teeming with sealife , even the dramatic underwater drop - offs . and most cayman visitors agree that there ' s simply no better way to discover the island ' s many underwater beauties than with red sail sports , the watersports experts .\neastern central and southeast atlantic , mediterranean sea and western indian ocean : mediterranean sea ( serena 2005 ) , eastern atlantic southward from cape verde island to senegal and angola ( whitehead et al . 1984 ) and the indian ocean ( the red sea ) . the species is mostly known from the southern shores of the mediterranean , with a single record from the northern mediterranean ( tuscany : serena et al . 1999 ) , and one from turkey ( basusta et al . 1998 ) . fao fisheries areas : 27 , 34 , 47 , 51 .\nstingray is the common name for any of the various cartilaginous fish comprising the family dasyatidae , characterized by enlarged and flat pectoral fins continuous with the side of the head , no caudal fin , eyes on the dorsal surface , and narrow , long , and whip - like tail , typically with one or more venomous spines . marine , brackish water , and freshwater species are known .\nbennett ' s stingray is presumably taken in demersal trawl and net fisheries operating within its range , but no specific information is available on catches of this species . ray fisheries are important in many areas of the western central pacific , with substantial landings off thailand and singapore ( compagno 1998 ) . stingrays are also taken in various intensive demersal fisheries operating off india ( hanfee 1999 ) .\nstingrays are popular targets of ecotourism . dasyatids are not normally visible to swimmers , but divers and snorkelers may find them in shallow sandy waters . usually very docile , their usual reaction being to flee any disturbance . nevertheless , certain larger species may be more aggressive and should only be approached with caution by humans , as the stingray ' s defensive reflex may result in serious injury or even death .\ndasyatids generally do not attack aggressively or even actively defend themselves . when threatened , their primary reaction is to swim away . however , when attacked by predators or stepped on , the barbed stinger in their tail is whipped up . this attack is normally ineffective against their main predator , sharks . the breaking of the stinger in defense is non - fatal to the stingray , as it will be regrown .\n) observed that exchanging the tm2 / ec1 / tm3 region of human mc2r with the corresponding region of human mc4r resulted in a chimeric mc2r protein that could be activated by either acth or ndp - msh . presumably making a similar chimeric protein for human mc2r , but using the tm2 / ec1 / tm3 region of either elephant shark or stingray mc2r should yield the same outcome . finally , fridmanis et al . (\njustification : the magdalena freshwater stingray ( potamotrygon magdalenae ) is a small freshwater stingray ( adults 19 - 21 cm dw ) that is restricted to the magdalena and atrato river basins in northern colombia . the biological information available indicates that it has low fecundity ( 2 - 4 pups ) and feeds on insect larvae , but further data are needed on its life history . this species is in the ornamental trade and is a by - catch species in other fisheries but no other information is available . monitoring and specific management for the ornamental trade and by - catch are recommended . habitat maintenance and conservation are also required conservation measures . due to its low fecundity and threats , this species is presumed to be declining in abundance . however , it has a wide range and is frequently caught . hence , it is listed as least concern .\nas the species appears to be generally abundant where it occurs , is relatively productive , and appears to be stable or increasing in the northern part of its range , this species is assessed as least concern . however , this stingray may be overexploited as a bycatch species in commercial shrimp trawl fisheries operating in the gulf of california . more data are needed in order to determine how this high exploitation rate may be affecting the population over time .\nall species of river stingray in the parano - plata basin have delicious meat and are harpooned by fishermen when seen in shallow water . artisanal and commercial fishermen also catch some specimens on lines . the attractively patterned juveniles of this species are collected for the ornamental fish trade . the major threats to the species possibly derive from habitat degradation caused by the damming of the r\u00edo paran\u00e1 system for navigation and hydroelectric plants and the construction of many ports along the river .\nwild stingrays are active at night and solitary\u2014they forage through the night over large distances to find food , and rarely cross paths with other stingrays . to see if stingray city ' s fed stingrays stray from this behavior , mark corcoran , lead author of the study who did the research as part of his graduate work at nsu , and the research team tagged and monitored both wild and fed stingrays over the course of two years and compared their patterns of movement .\ndepending on the size of the stingray , humans are usually stung in the foot region . surfers or those who enter waters with large populations of stingrays have learned to slide their feet through the sand rather than stepping , as the rays detect this and swim away . stamping hard on the bottom as one treads through murky water will also cause them to swim away . humans who harass stingrays have been known to be stung elsewhere , sometimes leading to fatalities . contact with the stinger causes local trauma ( from the cut itself ) , pain and , swelling from the venom , and possible later infection from bacteria . immediate injuries to humans include , but are not limited to , poisoning , punctures , severed arteries , and possibly death . fatal stings are very rare . on september 4 , 2006 , australian wildlife expert and television personality steve irwin was pierced in the chest by a stingray barb while snorkeling in australia and died shortly after .\nright now , these animals have no protection at all ,\nharvey said .\nwithout more studies like these , we won ' t know what that means for the wildlife or if we need to take action . it ' s unclear how much of the stingray ' s daily diet comes from tourism provided food , but the good news is we have seen the animals forage when tourists are absent suggesting that these animal are not completely dependent on these handouts .\nsince 1970 , sdrp scientists have operated the world\u2019s longest - running study of a wild dolphin population , assessing the behavior , health , movement , prey and other characteristics of long - term resident bottlenose dolphins in their sarasota bay home . with such a long - range study , czs\u2019s sdrp scientists are experts in field techniques and methodologies for data collection . mote\u2019s stranding investigations program \u2014 a 24 - hour response service for sick and injured marine life in sarasota and manatee counties \u2014 collects multiple types of data from each dolphin rescued or recovered dead , complementing sdrp efforts for a cradle - to - grave understanding of wild dolphins and the threats they face . in the study area of sarasota and manatee counties , the human population has more than tripled and the number of registered boats has quadrupled since 1970 \u2014 increasing the chances of dolphin - human encounters . meanwhile , periodic blooms of florida red tide algae have at times reduced available prey fish along west florida by more than 90 percent , and major red tides of 2005 and 2006 overlapped with intriguing increases in dolphin - human interactions . however , statistical analysis in the new study found that less prey and more human encounters in sarasota bay couldn\u2019t fully account for the dolphins\u2019 behavior . mchugh suggests that more data may be needed to understand these influences . for instance , direct data on dolphin - boat encounters aren\u2019t available for much of the study period , so the researchers relied on indirect indicators \u2014 such as number of boats in a given area \u2014 to estimate human exposure . however , the analyses strongly suggested that dolphins learn unhealthy feeding behavior from one another .\nbefore the current study , one of the strongest cautionary tales came from a long - term resident sarasota bay dolphin nicknamed \u201cbeggar\u201d because people fed him often . according to sdrp and mote scientists , beggar was found dead in 2012 with fish hooks in his stomach , broken bones , signs of old wounds , a history of abnormal behavior and health issues likely related to his human - altered diet . though natural causes \u2014 stingray barbs \u2014 were suspected factors in his death , getting food from people didn\u2019t help .\nthe red stingray dasyatis akajei is distributed in both marine and freshwater , but little is known about its phylogeography and population structure . we sampled 107 individuals from one freshwater region and 6 coastal localities within the distribution range of d . akajei . analyses of the first hypervariable region of mitochondrial dna control region of 474 bp revealed only 17 polymorphism sites that defined 28 haplotypes , with no unique haplotype for the freshwater population . a high level of haplotype diversity and low nucleotide diversity were observed in both marine ( h = 0 . 9393 \u00b1 0 . 0104 , \u03c0 = 0 . 0069 \u00b1 0 . 0040 ) and freshwater populations ( h = 0 . 8333 \u00b1 0 . 2224 , \u03c0 = 0 . 0084 \u00b1 0 . 0063 ) . significant level of genetic structure was detected between four marine populations ( tz , wz , nd and zz ) via both hierarchical molecular variance analysis ( amova ) and pairwise fst ( with two exceptions ) , which is unusual for elasmobranchs detected previously over such short geographical distance . however , limited sampling suggested that the freshwater population was not particularly distinct ( p > 0 . 05 ) , but additional samples would be needed to confirm it . demersal and slow - moving characters likely have contributed to the genetically heterogeneous population structure . the demographic history of d . akajei examined by mismatch distribution analyses , neutrality tests and bayesian skyline analyses suggested a sudden population expansion dating to upper pleistocene . the information on genetic diversity and genetic structure will have implications for the management of fisheries and conservation efforts .\nthis stingray is susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear and is caught mainly as bycatch ( hooking , netting and entanglement ) in both artisanal and industrial fisheries aimed at large catfish that are present in the amazon estuary . however , recently a directed fishery has commenced and the local industrial fleet started capturing this species to be exported . it is now being currently exported to european countries by a few fishing industries located in the state of par\u00e1 ( brazil ) . intrinsic factors probably also represent a threat for this species as to most other elasmobranchs ( camhi et al . 1998 ) .\nthey found that fed stingrays swapped their normal nighttime foraging for daytime feeding , and in contrast to their wild counterparts , began to rest at night . they also didn ' t mind rubbing shoulders with their neighbors : at least 164 stingrays abandoned the species ' normal solitary behavior , crowding together in less than a quarter square mile of space at stingray city . they even formed schools and fed together . the fed stingrays mated and became pregnant year - round , instead of during a specific mating season , and also showed signs of unusual aggression , biting each other more frequently than their wild counterparts .\njustification : a large ( to 200 cm disc width ) tropical stingray that is distributed in the western central and southwest atlantic ocean from mexico to brazil including the lesser and greater antilles . almost no data is available on its habitat , biology , ecology and population trends . however , it is caught as bycatch and used as a subsistence food source . base - line studies , including taxonomic aspects , need to be elucidated for this species . given its probable inshore occurrence in fished areas its conservation status will need to be reassessed once data are collected , particularly concerning catch levels . in the first instance though , the species ' taxonomic status needs resolution .\nb ) , and this condition may reflect the close interaction with mrap1 . that interaction most likely started in the ancestral bony fishes , and while the interaction may not have \u201crescued\u201d mc2r functionality , the interaction appears to have stabilized the functional capabilities of teleost and tetrapod mc2r orthologs . tetrapod mc2r orthologs show a similar level of primary sequence conservation . as a result , selection pressures on teleost and tetrapod mc2r orthologs may involve maintaining the close interaction between mrap1 and mc2r . for the cartilaginous fishes , the mrap1 / mc2r relationship is unclear or may not exit , and the selection pressures to maintain mc2r primary sequence identity does not appear to be as strong . for example , in a recent study , on stingray mcrs (\nstudies on the ligand selectivity of dogfish , squalus acanthias ( order squaliformes , subclass elasmobranchii ) , mc3r , mc4r , and mc5r paralogs ( 44 \u2013 46 ) , and the mc1r , mc3r , mc4r , and mc5r paralogs of the stingray , d . akajei [ order rajiformes , subclass elasmobranchii ; ( 39 ) ] found that these mcr paralogs could be activated by either acth or msh - sized ligands in a manner analogous to the corresponding mcr paralogs in teleosts or tetrapods . hence , these paralogs have an hfrw - binding site . however , the mc2r ortholog of the stingray , d . akajei , and the mc2r ortholog from the elephant shark , c . milii ( order chimaeriformes , subclass holocephali ) could also be activated by either acth or msh - sized ligands ( 38 , 39 ) , and as noted in phylogeny and proposed evolution of the mraps , both of these mc2r orthologs could be functionally expressed in cho cells without co - expression of an exogenous mrap1 cdna . the two cartilaginous fish mc2r orthologs , from different subclasses of the cartilaginous fishes , have ligand selectivity properties more similar to mc4r paralogs , and most likely have only a hfrw - binding pocket . this apparent feature for the cartilaginous fishes mc2r orthologs would be quite distinct from teleost and tetrapod mc2r orthologs . whether the ligand selectivity properties of the cartilaginous fishes mc2r orthologs are an ancestral trait or a derived trait unique to the cartilaginous fishes is not clear at this time .\njustification : this is an amended version of the 2007 assessment to accommodate the recent change in genus name from dasyatis to hemitrygon . this indo - pacific stingray\u2019s distribution is not well known , but it probably ranges from japan to india , possibly including the philippines . its habitat and biology are poorly known and it reaches a maximum size of 130 cm total length ( tl ) and 50 cm disc width ( dw ) . it is presumably taken in demersal fisheries operating within its range , but no information is currently available on catches of this species . at present insufficient information is available on the species\u2019 distribution , biology and capture in fisheries to assess it beyond data deficient . further investigation is required and this assessment should be revisited in the near term .\nin m\u00e9xico , a moratorium on the allocation of additional elasmobranch fishing permits was enacted in 1993 , but no formal management plan has been implemented for the round stingray specifically or most other chondrichthyans in m\u00e9xico . however , legislation is being developed in m\u00e9xico to establish national elasmobranch fishery management . currently , elasmobranch landings in m\u00e9xico are poorly monitored and lack species - specific details . all batoids are generally broadly termed \u201cmanta raya\u201d . improved clarity in catch records would provide an essential basis for detecting fishery trends and are needed throughout the species\u2019 range . expanded monitoring of directed elasmobranch catches and bycatch in m\u00e9xico are necessary to provide valuable information on the population status of these rays . fishery - independent surveys of this and other demersal elasmobranchs are also necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass .\ncalifornian waters , a network of 29 marine protected areas ( mpas ) were implemented in 2007 under california ' s marine life protection act , representing approximately 204 square miles ( ~ 18 % ) of state waters in the central coast region ( california department of fish and wildlife 2015 ) . due to these mpas , most trawlers are restricted to operating in deeper waters , and only in central and northern california . as a result , fishing effort in the california trawl fishery has been reduced , and catches of this species have also likely been reduced ( d . ebert pers . obs . 2007 ) . the california department of fish collects annual data on commercial fishery landings , however this species is lumped under the general category of\nstingray\n( california department of fish and wildlife 2000 - 2015 ) .\nhemitrygon fluviorum is listed as near threatened , using the previous iucn red list system in the conservation overview and action plan for australian threatened and potentially threatened marine and estuarine fishes published by environment australia ( pogonoski et al . 2002 ) . this report emphasises , however , that there is significant concern for this species and that it needs to be closely monitored to ensure that its conservation status is not raised into the vulnerable category in the near future ( pogonoski et al . 2002 ) . here , however , the species meets the criteria for a vulnerable listing . pogonoski et al . ( 2002 ) recognise critical habitat for h . fluviorum as relatively shallow mangrove and estuarine areas and suggest that habitat protection is required as a recovery objective . while h . fluviorum is likely to occur in a number of marine protected areas in nsw and queensland waters , the zoning plans for these parks and reserves restrict fishing activities in only small areas and do not generally protect sufficient areas of the habitat of this species . the species is still relatively common in some southern queensland estuaries and bays ( hervey bay , parts of moreton bay ) , and these areas may be important for habitat protection ( they are however , also heavily fished both commercially and recreationally and face development pressure ) . education of commercial fishers , aquaculturists and recreational fishers is a priority to halt the destruction of incidental catches of the species .\nthe tail is usually cleaved off before it is returned to the sea , which increases discard mortality . in southern california , the population abundance of this stingray fluctuates seasonally but seems overall to be stable or increasing . in the gulf of california ( mexico ) this species was rarely encountered in artisanal gillnet and trawl fisheries along the coast of baja california sur , but was a dominant bycatch species in commercial shrimp trawl fisheries . exploitation rates in these mexican commercial shrimp trawl fisheries exceeded biological reference points , suggesting that this species may be overexploited , however , no time series data are available . nothing is known of the state of exploitation or population status for this species in central america . no species - specific conservation measures are in place , however , marine protected area implementation ( leading to a redistribution of fishing effort ) in california may have positive effect on this species .\ndental sexual dimorphism was observed in the stingray dasyatis akajei . there was no difference between sexes in dentition at the juvenile stage . however , mature males had a pointed cusp for each tooth while mature females had virtually flat teeth with irregular surfaces . sexual dental dimorphism occurred between a disc width of 350 and 400mm for males collected in tokyo bay , japan . this size range was almost identical to the size at maturity for males , estimated from abrupt increments in clasper length and testis weight . food habits expressed by frequency of occurrence of prey items showed no large difference between sexes . the main food items were crustaceans and fishes . the findings suggest that sexual heterodonty is closely related to the mating behavior of male stingrays . another form of sexual dimorphism was found in size at maturity , i . e . smaller in males than females by a disc width of approximately 200mm .\nthe evolution of the melanocortin receptors ( mcrs ) is closely associated with the evolution of the melanocortin - 2 receptor accessory proteins ( mraps ) . recent annotation of the elephant shark genome project revealed the sequence of a putative mrap1 ortholog . the presence of this sequence in the genome of a cartilaginous fish raises the possibility that the mrap1 and mrap2 genes in the genomes of gnathostome vertebrates were the result of the chordate 2r genome duplication event . the presence of a putative mrap1 ortholog in a cartilaginous fish genome is perplexing . recent studies on melanocortin - 2 receptor ( mc2r ) in the genomes of the elephant shark and the japanese stingray indicate that these mc2r orthologs can be functionally expressed in cho cells without co - expression of an exogenous mrap1 cdna . the novel ligand selectivity of these cartilaginous fish mc2r orthologs is discussed . finally , the origin of the mc2r and mc5r genes is reevaluated . the distinctive primary sequence conservation of mc2r and mc5r is discussed in light of the physiological roles of these two mcr paralogs .\njustification : this stingray occurs in the eastern atlantic and mediterranean sea . it occurs from the shore to about 200 m depth , but is more commonly found in shallow waters ( < 50 m ) . this depth distribution makes it more vulnerable to small - scale inshore fisheries than to offshore trawling . for example , dasyatis pastinaca made up more than 40 % of the elasmobranch biomass captured in the trammel net fishery off the balearic islands . in the northeast atlantic , it is a less common species , generally showing a low abundance index in comparison to the mediterranean sea and may have disappeared from the south of the bay of biscay . data from comparative trawl surveys ( 1948 and 1998 ) conducted in the adriatic sea suggest that this species may have decreased in abundance . although few data are available , this species appears to be less common than it once was in the mediterranean and northeast atlantic . it is currently assessed as near threatened there and further investigation is required into catches and the taxonomic status of population throughout this species ' global distribution before it can be assessed beyond data deficient globally ."]}
{"id": 1584, "summary": [{"text": "planes minutus is a species of pelagic crab that lives in the north atlantic ocean .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it is typically less than 10 mm ( 0.4 in ) long across the back , and is variable in colouration , to match its background .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it may have been the crab seen by christopher columbus on sargassum weed in the sargasso sea in 1492 . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "planes minutus", "paragraphs": ["a cleaning association between the oceanic crab planes minutus and the loggerhead sea turtle caretta caretta .\na small crab , planes minutus ( columbus crab ) , living on an in . . .\nobservations on the ecology , behaviour , swimming mechanism and energetics of the neustonic crab , planes minutus .\na small crab , planes minutus ( columbus crab ) , living on an individual of caretta caretta ( loggerhead sea turtle ) .\nfirst finding of the pelagic crab planes marinus ( decapoda : grapsidae ) in the southwestern atlantic .\n\u201ca small crab , planes minutus ( columbus crab ) , living on an individual of caretta caretta ( loggerhead sea turtle ) . this crab is known to prey upon other sea turtles epibionts . \u201d\nplanes is\nfound in all tropical and temperate seas .\n[ chace , 1951 , p . 77 ] .\nplanes minutus is omnivorous when symbiotic with oceanic - stage loggerhead sea turtles . the diet of p . minutus presented here probably represents a combination of epibionts of host turtles , pelagic and neustonic organisms captured near turtles , and food particles seized by crabs while turtles are feeding . ours is the first in - depth analysis of the diet of p . minutus when symbiotic with c . caretta . studies are needed that quantify prey items of columbus crabs from other animate flotsam ( e . g . , pelagic snails , colonial cnidarians ) . the foraging ecology and other aspects of the life history of p . minutus may well vary with respect to substrate type .\nseveral studies have investigated the association between p . minutus and young loggerhead turtles ( see frick et al . , 2000 ) . however , little is known of the foraging ecology and fecundity of columbus crabs , and there are no studies that quantify the diet and number of eggs of p . minutus . we identify and quantify the food items consumed by 71 p . minutus from loggerhead turtles captured near the azores . we also report dietary data from 14 p . minutus collected from inanimate flotsam near the azores . the size and number of eggs of p . minutus were determined and compared between crabs collected from loggerhead turtles and those collected from flotsam .\ncitation :\nsargassum crabs , planes minutus ~ marinebio . org .\nmarinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 3 / 21 / 2014 6 : 10 : 45 pm ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio\nsmall oceanic crabs lead a cozy life . planes minutus often snuggle into the space between loggerhead turtles ' shells and tails , a spot that ' s just big enough for a mating pair . but if their aquatic apartments were larger , would they broaden their sex lives to include more partners ?\nplanes minutus arrives here on driftwood and other flotsam from the tropics . the crab does not survive here because of the colder waters around our coast . if found they will happily live indoors at room temperature in a saltwater aquarium , and can be fed on live prey or pieces of white fish or shellfish .\ngrapsid crabs of the genus planes are colloquially known as columbus crabs , apparently due to the discovery of a crab , likely a planes , from \u201cfloating weed\u201d during christopher columbus\u2019 voyage to the new world . like other members of its genus , planes minutus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) is a relatively small pelagic species that is dependent upon flotsam for survival ( chace , 1951 ) , occupying a variety of flotsam types as clinging substratum , including oceanic - stage loggerhead sea turtles , caretta caretta ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , from the eastern north atlantic ( dellinger et al . , 1997 ; frick et al . , 2003 ) .\nplanes minutus is found in the north atlantic ocean , between the scopes of 11degree n and 32degree n , and furthermore from the west shoreline of africa , the mediterranean and the indian ocean . once in a while the crab has been recorded on the cornish drift , the primary distribute record was at falmouth in 1845 by william pennington cocks . others examples took after , for example , in 1848 ( falmouth ) and 1899 on the manacles . the most recent occurred in 2015 . related species , for example , planes major ( earlier p . cyaneus ) and planes marinus , happen in different parts of the world ' s seas .\ndiet composition of p . minutus collected from inanimate flotsam ( buoy and wood ) . cirriped material ( * ) was represented solely by lepas sp . cyprids\nmichael g . frick , kristina l . williams , alan b . bolten , karen a . bjorndal , helen r . martins ; diet and fecundity of columbus crabs , planes minutus , associated with oceanic - stage loggerhead sea turtles , caretta caretta , and inanimate flotsam , journal of crustacean biology , volume 24 , issue 2 , 1 april 2004 , pages 350\u2013355 , urltoken\n( of planes testudinum ( roux , 1828 ) ) froglia , carlo ( 2006 ) . decapoda , in : revisione della checklist della fauna marina italiana . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nadult crabs confined to the same turtle fed on similar prey types and quantities of each type ( table 2 ) . there are no studies that investigate the foraging behavior of p . minutus when sharing a substrate with conspecifics . the presence of competitors may alter the observed foraging behavior of p . minutus ( davenport 1992 ) . crabs may lose portions of captured prey in disputes with other crabs sharing the same substrate , which could contribute to the similarity in diets between adult crab pairs . laboratory studies would help to determine the foraging behavior of multiple p . minutus when sharing the same substrate .\nagonistic behavior in p . minutus is suggested by the presence of conspecifics within stomach contents . the size of the conspecific fragments encountered suggests that large juvenile crabs , similar in size to those reported from this study , were consumed by p . minutus . conspecifics were only consumed by adult crabs collected from turtles also hosting juvenile specimens . moulted crab exuvia could be a possible source of conspecific fragments .\ngastropods ( janthina sp . ) were represented in the diet of p . minutus as minute shell fragments and egg capsules . janthina sp . are pelagic snails that create bubble rafts of air trapped in mucus to remain afloat and on which they lay their eggs . columbus crabs would undoubtedly be capable of capturing janthina and associated eggs while hunting from c . caretta . however , janthina is a reported food item of young loggerheads from the azores ( van nierop and den hartog , 1984 ) , so p . minutus may consume fragments of prey items initially captured and crushed for consumption by host turtles . during the initial stages of food consumption , scraps of food often drift out of and away from the mouth the turtle . planes minutus may retrieve food particles released by their host turtles , possibly accounting for similarities between the diets of columbus crabs and oceanic - stage loggerhead turtles .\ndiet composition for p . minutus collected from loggerhead turtles . data are number of points totaled for each food type present with percent composition in parentheses . see text for generic or specific designation of selected ( * ) food types\nresearch planes minutus \u00bb barcode of life ~ bioone ~ biodiversity heritage library ~ cites ~ cornell macaulay library [ audio / video ] ~ encyclopedia of life ( eol ) ~ esa online journals ~ fishbase ~ florida museum of natural history ichthyology department ~ gbif ~ google scholar ~ itis ~ iucn redlist ( threatened status ) ~ marine species identification portal ~ ncbi ( pubmed , genbank , etc . ) ~ ocean biogeographic information system ~ plos ~ siris ~ tree of life web project ~ unep - wcmc species database ~ worms\nwere encountered in december , january february , march and april 2002 and 2003 . as previously mentioned , columbus crabs cling to most anything that floats . physically and physiologically , planes are surface - water specialists and these aspects are likely attributable to the colonization of other grapsid species into supra - littoral habitats and maritime forests ( williams 1984 ) .\n( of cancer minutus linnaeus , 1758 ) linnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of planes clypeatus bowdich , 1825 ) adema , j . p . h . m . ( 1991 ) . de krabben van nederland en belgie ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura ) [ the crabs of the netherlands and belgium ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura ) ] . nationaal natuurhistorisch museum : leiden , the netherlands . isbn 90 - 73239 - 02 - 8 . 244 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nlaboratory studies by davenport ( 1992 ) represent the only information on prey capture and food handling in adult p . minutus . the crabs observed by davenport ( 1992 ) obtained some food items via grazing flotsam that was placed into tanks , but crabs would also lunge or swim into the water column to obtain prey items ( salps , postlarval flying fish , juvenile puffer fish , pilot fish , euphausids , isopods , or small squid ) . some crabs would carry surplus prey using the dactyl spines of the walking legs for up to 24 hours before the item was consumed .\nbiostor is built by @ rdmpage , code on github . page images from the biodiversity heritage library .\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\n( mf , kw ) caretta research project , p . o . box 9841 , savannah , georgia 31412 , u . s . a .\n( ab , kb ) archie carr center for sea turtle research , department of zoology , university of florida , p . o . box 118525 , gainesville , florida 32611 , u . s . a .\n, and inanimate flotsam near the azores . the numbers of eggs carried by ovigerous crabs\nare also presented . numbers of eggs between turtle crabs and flotsam crabs were similar . dietary analysis yielded 11 food types from\n. crabs from turtles contained a higher diversity of food items than crabs from inanimate flotsam . the diet of\nwas composed primarily of neustonic invertebrates and algae\u2014similar to prey items found from oceanic - stage loggerhead turtles in past studies . the types of food consumed by\nsuggest that crabs may obtain food by consuming other epibionts , by hunting neuston from their substrate , or by capturing food particles expelled by host turtles .\nturtles were captured using dipnets near the azores from 1986 through 1994 during the months march\u2013november . curved carapace length\nof each turtle was measured from the anterior point at midline ( nuchal scute ) to the posterior notch at midline between the supracaudals with a flexible fiberglass tape measure . turtles were released soon after capture .\nwere also removed from inanimate flotsam during the same period . crabs were assigned to gender and maturity following\n. maximum carapace length and width were recorded from crabs in millimeters ( mm ) using vernier calipers . species determination was made by comparing the combined lengths of the three distal segments of the second walking leg with the carapace length ( see\n) . stomach contents and digesta strings were then identified to the lowest taxon possible . the composition of the diet for each crab was recorded using a points system developed by\nin which 20 points are assigned to a full stomach , 10 to a half full stomach , etc . these points are then allocated among the diet items in the digestive tract according to their volume . the points allocated to each type of food are summed for all crabs and expressed as a percentage of the total number of points , giving the composition of the diet as percent of volume .\nand counted to determine fecundity . pleopods bearing eggs were cut from the female\u2019s abdomen with a scalpel , placed in a sodium solution and shaken until the eggs separated from the pleopods . egg counts were made under light microscopy ( magnification up to\nsquare was counted and multiplied by the number of squares containing eggs . the diameters of 10 randomly chosen eggs per ovigerous crab were recorded in microns using a computer interfaced digital stereomicroscope / micrometer .\nwas collected from oceanic - stage loggerhead turtles near the azores , usually in the space above the tail and beneath the carapace ( upper shell ) of the host turtle . however , two\nsp . ) on the host\u2019s carapace . fifty - six crabs were collected from 38 individual turtles . these turtles hosted crabs as singletons (\n) . in addition , 15 crabs were collected from an unknown number of turtles with no supporting host data . of the crabs collected , 65 were adults ( 35 females and 30 males ) and 6 were juveniles ( 4 males and 2 females ) . juvenile crabs always occurred in association with adult crabs ; no turtle hosted only juvenile crabs .\n$ $ ( 10 - 19 \\ ; { \\ rm { mm } } ; { \\ rm { mean } } = 15 . 03 \\ ; { \\ rm { mm } } ; n = 30 ) $ $\n$ $ 9 . 25 - 13 . 5 \\ ; { \\ rm { mm } } \\ ; ( { \\ rm { mean } } = 11 . 34 ) $ $\n$ $ 6 - 8 . 5 \\ ; { \\ rm { mm } } \\ ; ( { \\ rm { mean } } = 6 . 63 \\ ; { \\ rm { mm } } ) $ $\n$ $ ( 11 - 22 \\ ; { \\ rm { mm } } ; { \\ rm { mean } } = 17 . 32 ) $ $\n$ $ ( 13 . 5 - 18 . 5 \\ ; { \\ rm { mm } } ; { \\ rm { mean } } = 15 . 35 ; n = 15 ) $ $\nclutches ) of the eggs measured from crabs taken from turtles . stage 2 eggs , eggs containing a clear area devoid of yolk , and stage 3 eggs , eggs containing pigmented eyespots , represented\nclutches ) of the eggs measured from crabs taken from turtles , respectively . stage 4 eggs ( hatching ) and stage 5 eggs ( hatched or empty eggs ) were not observed from this group of crabs . the diameters of the\npiece of wood ) . of these crabs , 4 were adult males and 10 were adult females . a single heterosexual pair was collected from wood flotsam , and the remainder of the sample of crabs from flotsam was taken from the buoy . the mean carapace widths of adult male and female\neight female crabs from flotsam were ovigerous . the mean carapace width of ovigerous crabs from flotsam was greater\n$ $ ( 16 . 7 \\ ; { \\ rm { mm } } ; { \\ rm { range } } = 15 . 75 - 17 . 75 \\ ; { \\ rm { mm } } ) $ $\n$ $ ( 13 . 9 \\ ; { \\ rm { mm } } ; { \\ rm { range } } = 13 . 75 - 14 \\ ; { \\ rm { mm } } ) $ $\nand between ovigerous and nonovigerous crabs from inanimate flotsam . ovigerous females collected from flotsam carried an average of 8907 eggs ( range :\nclutches ) of the eggs measured from crabs taken from the buoy , respectively . stage 4 and 5 eggs were also absent from ovigerous females inhabiting flotsam . stage 1 eggs from crabs taken from flotsam were smaller in diameter (\n) of food regardless of sex , reproductive condition ( ovigerous or nonovigerous ) , or mean carapace width ( which varied significantly between some crab groups ) . of the material that could be identified , diatoms composed the highest percentage\n, which was consistent across the three groups of adults . juvenile crab diets were composed of more algae than those of adult crabs , and juvenile male crabs consumed more animal material than did juvenile females . the cirriped material from juvenile male crabs was represented solely by\nthe diets of crabs that occurred on the same host turtles as heterosexual pairs are compared in table 2 . overall , there appears to be no marked gender - based resource partitioning occurring between adults that , theoretically , have access to the same food resources on a shared host .\ncrabs from flotsam consumed fewer types of food than crabs from turtles ( table 3 ) . unidentified algae represented the bulk of the diets observed from those crabs . male crabs from flotsam contained only algae . conspecifics and cirriped material were only found in female crabs . the cirriped material from female crabs from flotsam was represented solely by lepas sp . cyprids .\nalthough few juvenile crabs were available for stomach contents analysis , it is apparent that algae are important in the diet of immature crabs . the presence of animal material in the diets of juvenile male crabs\ncould be an artifact of sample size . the lower diversity of prey items consumed by juvenile\ncompared with adults may be real or an artifact of the small sample size . perhaps juvenile\nlack the ability to capture motile or floating prey , or adults may steal high quality prey captured by juveniles . additional studies on the diets of juvenile\nare needed to evaluate differences in diet selection between juvenile males and females and between juveniles and adults .\nthe mean adult sizes of crabs from turtles and crabs from flotsam were not significantly different , and ovigerous crabs from flotsam carried similar amounts and sizes of eggs . therefore , type of substrate does not appear to be related to egg production . however , columbus crabs may benefit by association with loggerhead turtles because agonistic interactions with other\nseem to be more uncommon on turtles than on inanimate flotsam . conspecifics were more common in the diets of crabs on flotsam than in crabs on turtles ,\nreported that agonistic interactions were more common in crabs inhabiting inanimate flotsam than those found on turtles . increased agonistic interactions between\nwould decrease survival probabilities and reproductive output as energy is diverted from reproduction to repair injuries . larger sample sizes of crabs from a variety of substrate types are necessary for evaluation of effects of substrate on the demography of columbus crabs .\nthis project would not have been possible without the support of our colleagues at the department of oceanography and fisheries , university of the azores . for assistance in turtle capture and crab collection , we thank j . and g . franck ( shanghai ) , j . gordon ( song of the whale ) , international fund for animal welfare , l . steiner , s . viallelle , b . herbert , and w . thompson .\nthis work was funded by the marine entanglement research program of the u . s . national marine fisheries service ( nmfs ) to kab and abb . all necessary permits were obtained . all animal care was in full compliance with the university of florida institutional animal care and use committee . the padi foundation provided funds for the microscopy equipment used in this study . mgf thanks arnold ross , scripps institution of oceanography , for his guidance and comments .\nthe templeton crocker expedition , iii : brachygnathous crabs from the gulf of california and the west coast of lower california .\ncomparisons of social structure of columbus crabs living on loggerhead sea turtles and inanimate flotsam .\nadditional evidence supporting a cleaning association between epibiotic crabs and sea turtles : how will the harvest of sargassum seaweed impact this relationship ? .\nthe food of the freshwater sticklebacks ( gasterosteus aculeatus and pygosteus pungitius ) with a review of methods used in the study of the food of fishes .\na study on the gut contents of five juvenile loggerhead turtles , caretta caretta ( linnaeus ) ( reptilia , cheloniidae ) , from the south - eastern part of the north atlantic ocean , with emphasis on coelenterate identification .\noxford university press is a department of the university of oxford . it furthers the university ' s objective of excellence in research , scholarship , and education by publishing worldwide\nfor full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription .\nlinnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ndescription restricted to the atlantic ocean ( chace , 1951 ; crosnier , 1965 ; holthuis , 1977 ) < 153 > . according to bouvier 1915 < 204 > travels over all oceans . . .\ndescription restricted to the atlantic ocean ( chace , 1951 ; crosnier , 1965 ; holthuis , 1977 ) < 153 > . according to bouvier 1915 < 204 > travels over all oceans attached to floating debris . [ details ]\ndistribution associated with floating ' gulf weed ' ( sargassum spp . ) , pieces of which are occasionally cast ashore on european coasts from . . .\ndistribution associated with floating ' gulf weed ' ( sargassum spp . ) , pieces of which are occasionally cast ashore on european coasts from the channel coasts to portugal and mediterranean . native in sargasso sea , florida straits . [ details ]\nt\u00fcrkay , m . ( 2001 ) . decapoda , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 284 - 292 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\npohle , g . w . ( 1990 ) . a guide to decapod crustacea from the canadian atlantic : anomura and brachyura . canadian technical report of fisheries and aquatic science . 1771 . 29 p . [ details ]\nvannini , m . ( 1976 ) . researches on the coast of somalia . the shore and the dune of sar uanle . 10 . sandy beach decapods . monitore zoologico italiano ns supplemento viii 10 : 255 - 286 [ details ]\nmuller , y . ( 2004 ) . faune et flore du littoral du nord , du pas - de - calais et de la belgique : inventaire . [ coastal fauna and flora of the nord , pas - de - calais and belgium : inventory ] . commission r\u00e9gionale de biologie r\u00e9gion nord pas - de - calais : france . 307 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nadema , j . p . h . m . ( 1991 ) . de krabben van nederland en belgie ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura ) [ the crabs of the netherlands and belgium ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura ) ] . nationaal natuurhistorisch museum : leiden , the netherlands . isbn 90 - 73239 - 02 - 8 . 244 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of cancer pusillus fabricius , 1775 ) adema , j . p . h . m . ( 1991 ) . de krabben van nederland en belgie ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura ) [ the crabs of the netherlands and belgium ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura ) ] . nationaal natuurhistorisch museum : leiden , the netherlands . isbn 90 - 73239 - 02 - 8 . 244 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\na collection of crabs from bermuda rarely seen in the uk have washed up on the shores of the south west .\nthey live on floating objects and have been carried by atlantic currents and storms , experts said .\nthe marine conservation society ( mcs ) said the first uk sighting of the crabs was reported in 2007 and it could be happening more due to changing weather patterns .\nrichard harrington , from the society , said :\ncolumbus crabs live amongst goose barnacles so they live on floating material in the ocean . they wash up , particularly on westerly coasts , very occasionally . they ' re quite unusual .\nmeasure around four centimetres and have quite large claws which they use to hold on to floating objects .\nalso known as the gulfweed crab , it gets its common name from the belief it was identified by christopher columbus on his first voyage to the new world .\nusually spend their lives drifting on weed , driftwood , buoys or even attached to turtles in the open ocean .\nmr harrington said marine life including crabs , mauve stingers and by - the - wind - sailors had been carried over\nfor a number of years\non currents that come from the caribbean and america , but it appears the number of sightings is increasing .\nhe said :\nweather patterns certainly come into it . we are seeing quite a lot of westerly and south - westerly storms and gales along with the currents that drift over the atlantic towards us .\nsteve trewhella , who has been beachcombing in cornwall for 30 years , said he believed it was also down to an\nastonishing amount of debris and litter going into the sea , creating artificial habitats for these species to come over .\nmr harrington said there is no evidence of that but it was a\nplausible theory\nand more research was needed .\ntheresa may moves to shore up her position after a day of high profile resignations over her brexit strategy .\n( linnaeus , 1758 ) description : carapace dorsally convex ; frontal region broad , margin sometimes faintly bibbed , orbits wide , eyes conspicuous ; outer epibranchial , meso - and metabranchial regions with faint , obliquely placed carinae . antero - lateral margins of carapace sometimes with a faint notch . chelipeds equal in size , distal inner margins of merus serrate ; merus of third to fifth pereiopods broad , lower margins of propodus and of dactylus of second to fifth with spines . size : carapace length up to 10 ( 17 . 5 ) mm . habitat : depth range ; reported as pelagic and inhabiting sargassum weed , also on bottoms of ships and among lepas on floating timber . breeding march - october , occasionally other months . distribution :\nmoyse , j . , & g . smaldon , 1990 . crustacea iii : malacostraca eucarida . in : the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe ( eds . hayward and ryland , 1990 ) . clarendon press , oxford .\nsorry , there are no other images or audio / video clips available for this species .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nan educational resource dedicated mainly to the photography and diversity of marine life that can be found in coastal waters and intertidal areas of great britain and ireland .\nscroll down and rollover titles to change screen image or click on title to view image .\nspecimens above were found on a fishing buoy that was washed - up from the americas at marazion , cornwall . 26 . 12 . 15 .\nspecimen found amongst stalked barnacles , lepas anatifera , on a commercial fishing float , washed - up at perranporth , cornwall . 25 . 11 . 15 .\nspecimen found amongst stalked barnacles , lepas anatifera , on a commercial fishing float , washed - up at praa sands , , cornwall . 02 . 12 . 15 .\naphotomarine supports open source data recording and sharing for the benefit of wildlife , recorders , research , science and education . the project recommends the following websites and works with the following bodies and organisations .\nthe marine biological association or mba , based in plymouth , is one of the world\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s longest - running societies dedicated to promoting research into our oceans and the life they support . since 1884 the mba has been providing a unified , clear , independent voice on behalf of the marine biological community . it has a growing membership in over 40 countries .\nthe cisfbr or cornwall and isles of scilly federation of biological recorders is an independent umbrella organisation supporting independent recorders and recording groups in the county of cornwall .\nthe cornish biodiversity network or cbn is the largest open source wildlife database in cornwall that sends open source data to the nbn ( national biodiversity network ) . it is a new recording system based on the erica database , the largest recording resource in cornwall . the cbn best supports the activities and needs of the independent recording community and recording groups in cornwall .\nthe national biodiversity network or nbn is a charity that supports open source data sharing and recording supporting conservation , science and education .\nwhy do recorders need open source ?\n. simply because it supports the core values of wildlife recording and the free use of records and data over a very wide network that includes partners like the natural history museum . the link here is to the nbn atlas . the link here is to the nbn atlas .\nthe taxonomy used here is based on that of the following database , which is also used by the mba , nhm and the nbn .\nover 99 % of the species records on aphotomarine are open source but they are also copyright david fenwick . species records published on aphotomarine may not be used on any database , list or distribution map , without a signed user agreement . cornish records that appear on aphotomarine are recorded using the erica database to benefit recording in cornwall and scientific and historical recording in general . no financial benefit must be taken from any record produced by david fenwick , records are of educational benefit only . records by david fenwick must ' ' never ' ' be financially traded .\nthe main objective of this website is in furthering environmental awareness and education through the medium of photography . to increase awareness and access to the wildlife of the region and help\npeople find and identify it . sometimes the difference between species is obvious but many species can only be determined by observing microscopic characteristics that are specific to any one species .\ntaken at male on a floating cuttle - bone .\n( borradaile , 1903 )\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nspp . ) , pieces of which are occasionally cast ashore on european coasts from the channel coasts to portugal and mediterranean . native in sargasso sea , florida straits .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmclaughlin et al . 2005 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : crustaceans . american fisheries society special publication 31\nproceedings of the biological society of washington , vol . 116 , no . 1\nwilliams , austin b . , lawrence g . abele , d . l . felder , h . h . hobbs , jr . , r . b . manning , et al .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nassociated with floating ' gulf weed ' ( sargassum spp . ) , pieces of which are occasionally cast ashore on european coasts from the channel coasts to portugal and mediterranean . native in sargasso sea , florida straits .\nhayward , p . j . ; ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) . ( 1990 ) . the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe : 1 . introduction and protozoans to arthropods . clarendon press : oxford , uk . isbn 0 - 19 - 857356 - 1 . 627 pp .\nrestricted to the atlantic ocean ( chace , 1951 ; crosnier , 1965 ; holthuis , 1977 ) < 153 > . according to bouvier 1915 < 204 > travels over all oceans attached to floating debris .\nvannini , m . ( 1976 ) . researches on the coast of somalia . the shore and the dune of sar uanle . 10 . sandy beach decapods . monitore zoologico italiano ns supplemento viii 10 : 255 - 286\nthis home page section for this species is currently being developed and will be completed asap ! if you would like to help out or know of a great video , photo or site about this species , let us know and we ' ll notify you as soon as it is finished . our current project plan is to have all marine species home pages finished before christmas this year . if you ' d like to find out more about our ongoing projects here at marinebio , check out our marinebio projects page .\nstart or join a discussion about this species below or send us an email to report any errors or submit suggestions for this page . we greatly appreciate all feedback !\nhelp us protect and restore marine life by supporting our various online community - centered marine conservation projects that are effectively sharing the wonders of the ocean with millions each year around the world , raising a balanced awareness of the increasingly troubling and often very complex marine conservation issues that affect marine life and ourselves directly , providing support to marine conservation groups on the frontlines that are making real differences today , and the scientists , teachers and students involved in the marine life sciences .\nwith your support , most marine life and their ocean habitats can be protected , if not restored to their former natural levels of biodiversity . we sincerely thank our thousands of members , donors and sponsors , who have decided to get involved and support the marinebio conservation society .\ndeep music digitally imported urltoken proton radio * radio paradise radiotunes somafm wers 88 . 9 fm\n~ sharing the wonders of the ocean to inspire conservation , education , research , and a sea ethic ~ marinebio . org , inc . is a u . s . 501 ( c ) 3 charitable , nonprofit organization . contact : info @ urltoken all marinebio conservation society memberships and donations are tax deductible in the united states . > < ( ( ( ( \u00b0 > \u00a9 1998 - 2017 marinebio copyright & terms of use . privacy policy . > - < \u00b0\u00b0 > - <\nfor all at last returns to the sea \u2014 to oceanus , the ocean river , like the everflowing stream of time , the beginning and the end .\n- rachel carson\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c1faa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c25e1 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c4c75 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c4d67 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 324badbf - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 324bb28c - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 3681f81f - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nng p . k . l . & davie p . ( 2018 ) . worms brachyura : world list of marine brachyura ( version 2015 - 09 - 01 ) . in : roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , bailly n . , kirk p . m . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , nieukerken e . van , zarucchi j . , penev l . , eds . ( 2018 ) . species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 30th june 2018 . digital resource at urltoken species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 04d605c1 - 6387 - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\n. if you continue to use the site we will assume that you agree with this .\nit needs to confirm the presence of this species in the black sea . presumably it penetrates to\nthis water area from time to time . it is not possible to find the species in museum black sea\u2019s\nczerniavsky from odessa , black sea : \u201cmus . zool . univ . odess . ( prof . marcusen ) . \u201d\nprevalence of flotsam or of floating or swimming organisms to which the crabs may cling .\nnorth atlantic than in any other part of the world . records of their occurrence in other areas\namerica , florida to bahamas ; west indies . \u201d [ abele & kim , 1986 , p . 63 ] .\nsize of carapace . up to 19 mm ( length ) . [ chace , 1951 , p . 68 ] .\na columbus crab , living on a loggerhead sea turtle . room for two ?\nresearchers joseph pfaller at the university of florida and michael gil at the university of california sought the answer in their study published in biology letters . they found that as long as a dwelling - - whether it was a turtle shell or a piece of flotsam - - was small enough to be manageably defended by two crabs , they kept it monogamous . but once the spaces got larger , the pair recruited new crabs to mate with and to help hold down the fort .\na crab might not have much choice on dwelling - size , as turtles and floating debris are typically spread out - - and these crabs aren ' t good at swimming to the next available home . the polyamory arises from a need to make the most of what they have at the moment : a crab pleasure palace , or a little love bungalow .\nmany products featured on this site were editorially chosen . popular science may receive financial compensation for products purchased through this site .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 popular science . a bonnier corporation company . all rights reserved . reproduction in whole or in part without permission is prohibited .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\ncaretta research project , p . o . box 9841 , savannah , georgia , usa . ( e - mail :\nfrom oceanic - stage loggerheads from uruguay . the remaining recognized species of columbus crab ,\nand neritic - stage ( subadult and adult ) sea turtles . that is , such observations simply report the occurrence of\nas an epibiont with no supporting biological or ecological information regarding the observed relationship . here , we report the occurrence of\nas an epibiont of large , immature and adult loggerhead turtles from st . lucie county , florida , usa . we also report behavioral , ecological and physical data from\nfrom this population of turtles can be used to elucidate some aspects of the behavior of loggerheads from florida during the winter and early spring .\ncollections for this study began in march of 2002 and ended in april 2003 . loggerheads that hosted\nwere encountered from march - april 2002 , and from december 2002 \u0096 april 2003 , after turtles were incidentally entrained into intake canals at the st . lucie nuclear power plant ( slnpp ) . the slnpp is located on hutchinson island in st . lucie county , florida and draws cooling water from the atlantic ocean through three large diameter pipes ( 3 . 9 - 4 . 9 m ) . cooling water then flows into a 1500 m long intake canal . the structures housing the intake pipes are 365 m offshore in approximately 7 m of water . the pipe openings are vertically oriented and are situated 3 m above the ocean floor . a large velocity cap sits approximately 2 m above each pipe opening and extends more than 3 m beyond the pipe diameter . turtles encountering these structures are often transported into the intake canal where they are captured with tangle nets , dipnets and by scuba divers . morphometric data are collected from each turtle , tags are applied to both front flippers and turtles are returned to the ocean approximately 750 m north of the canal .\nfrom march 2002 through april 2003 594 loggerheads were captured at the slnpp . of these turtles , 22 individual loggerheads ( mean straight carapace length ( scl ) = 74 . 6 \u00b1 3 . 4sd cm , range = 65 \u0096 105 . 6 cm ) hosted 28 crabs ( 3 . 7 % occurrence of\nis likely much higher ; as crabs can be dislodged or flee host turtles during entrainment and hand - capture .\nof the crabs collected , all were adults ( 15 males , 13 females ) . six turtles hosted heterosexual crab pairs ( 27 . 3 % ) and 16 turtles hosted crabs as singletons ( 72 . 7 % ) . only one female crab was not ovigerous . ovigerous crabs carried eggs pertaining to stages 1 ( 50 % ) , 2 ( 16 . 7 % ) and 3 ( 33 . 3 % ) as defined by hartnoll ( 1963 ) where stage 1 eggs are eggs of uniform color and even yolk distribution , stage 2 eggs are eggs containing a clear area devoid of yolk and stage 3 eggs are eggs containing pigmented eyespots . stage 4 eggs ( hatching ) and stage 5 eggs ( hatched or empty eggs ) were not observed from this group of crabs .\nmale crabs and female crabs were similar in size . the average straight carapace widths ( scw ) of males and females , including range , were 11 . 9 mm ( 9 . 1 \u0096 16 . 5 mm ) and 12 . 9 mm ( 9 . 8 \u0096 18 . 9 mm ) , respectively . a single non - ovigerous crab , included within the above average for females , was 18 . 9 mm scw .\nprevious agonistic interactions were apparent in 7 specimens ( 3 males , 4 females ; 25 % of the crabs encountered ) . injuries resulting from these interactions included missing chelipeds and walking legs ; however , none of these injuries were severe as all crabs had developed leg buds and no crab was missing more than a single appendage . four injured crabs occurred as singletons upon their respective host turtle and three injured crabs were from heterosexual pairings . no heterosexual pair contained more than one injured crab .\na few points concerning aspects of the natural history of both host loggerheads and columbus crabs can be gleaned from our data . the morphometric data we present for ovigerous\ncontain some of the smallest specimens reported for females with eggs . data from other studies presenting similar information suggest that crabs approximately 11 mm scw and smaller are juveniles and most often found as\nassociates ( see chace 1951 ) . these crabs then emigrate to flotsam and turtles at the onset of sexual maturity . although sexually immature\nare capable of attaining sexual maturity as small as 9 . 1 mm scw . moreover , it is possible that juvenile crabs collected from flotsam and turtles in other studies represent sub - adult specimens undergoing the initial stages of sexual maturity .\n. ( 2004 ) for crabs from loggerhead turtles . the same studies also found that\nfrom turtles suffered markedly fewer instances of missing appendages when compared to collections obtained from inanimate flotsam and jetsam . additionally , the large proportion of ovigerous crabs from our collection coincides with data from dellinger\n. ( 1997 ) , one from turtles and the other from inanimate flotsam , demonstrate that female crabs from turtles were brooding eggs more often ( 71 % ) than female crabs from inanimate flotsam ( 21 % ) . dellinger\n. ( 1997 ) suggest that , given their reported data , turtles appear to offer a substantially better platform for egg brooding and , likely , production than inanimate flotsam . these authors speculate that the higher instances of egg - brooding observed in\nfrom turtles could be attributed to the fact that turtle crabs are likely exposed to better food or a larger variety of food items than those clinging to inanimate flotsam .\n. ( 2004 ) determined that turtle crabs do feed upon a larger variety of food items than crabs inhabiting inanimate flotsam . however , the same study found that crabs inhabiting inanimate flotsam contained similar amounts of food , albeit a lower diversity of prey types , as crabs from loggerhead turtles . moreover , crabs from inanimate flotsam produced similar sizes and numbers of eggs as those from turtles . yet , frick\n. ( 1997 ) . therefore , the former study could not offer any supporting evidence that a higher proportion of turtle crabs were brooding eggs when compared to crabs inhabiting inanimate flotsam . instead , a higher proportion of ovigerous crabs and , consequently , an increased chance of encountering ovigerous crabs from turtles than from inanimate flotsam suggest that multiple annual broods produced by crabs from turtles might be occurring with greater frequency than from crabs inhabiting inanimate flotsam . because agonistic interactions between crabs on turtles are proportionately lower than agonistic interactions between crabs inhabiting inanimate flotsam ( dellinger\n. 2004 ) , crabs from inanimate flotsam would likely experience decreased survival probabilities and reproductive output as energy is diverted from reproduction to repair injuries .\nfrom neritic - stage loggerhead turtles suggests that these turtles were exhibiting a great deal of surface - oriented or pelagic behavior prior to their entrainment at the slnpp ; particularly during the winter and early spring . loggerhead turtles are captured at the slnpp year - round and turtles that hosted\nalthough loggerhead turtles inhabiting the western north atlantic , particularly the southeastern us , are most often referred to as largely benthic - associated animals , dietary studies reveal that some prey items consumed by neritic - stage loggerheads are actually largely pelagic species ( i . e . aurelia aurita and physalia physalis ; bjorndal 1997 ; frick\n) \u0096 a turtle species that is well - documented to spend a great deal of time in the pelagic environment ( bolten 2003 ) . such observations might indicate why the turtles encountered during the present study hosted a pelagic species such as\n. 2000 ) might explain why large adult - sized turtles ( > 80 cm scl for atlantic u . s .\n; dodd 1988 ) sampled during this study ( n = 5 ; 22 . 7 % ) hosted\nduring their first decade of life loggerheads are highly pelagic , particularly within oceanic habitats ( water masses away from the continental shelf \u2265 200 m deep ; hedgpeth 1957 ; bolten 2003 ) . such behavior decreases in frequency as turtles migrate from their nursery habitats to the neritic habitats that will support them for the remainder of their life ( musick & limpus 1997 ) . however , it appears from data collected during epibiont and dietary studies that , while benthic habitats are heavily utilized by neritic stage loggerheads , the pelagic environment still represents an important habitat for loggerheads as they mature , even into adulthood ( frick\nwe thank the padi foundation for providing the microscopy equipment used in this study and the florida power and light company for continuing to support sea turtle research at the st . lucie power plant . we also thank m . godfrey , l . campbell and two anonymous reviewers for comments that greatly improved the manuscript ."]}
{"id": 1586, "summary": [{"text": "heppnerographa ecuatorica is a species of moth of the tortricidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in ecuador .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 12.5 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the ground colour of the forewings is yellowish brown , but paler beyond the end of the median cell near a whitish streak .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are brownish cream , but more fuscous outwards . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "heppnerographa ecuatorica", "paragraphs": ["this is the place for ecuatorica definition . you find here ecuatorica meaning , synonyms of ecuatorica and images for ecuatorica copyright 2017 \u00a9 urltoken\nhere you will find one or more explanations in english for the word ecuatorica . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word ecuatorica and , of course , ecuatorica synonyms and on the right images related to the word ecuatorica .\nheppnerographa circinnata is a species of moth of the tortricidae family which is endemic to venezuela .\nhave a fact about heppnerographa tricesimana ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for heppnerographa tricesimana ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nthe species described to this date from venezuela are listed . 34 new species and 9 new genera are described :\nrazowski & wojtusiak , sp . n . two species are new to venezuela :\nse da un listado de las especies descritas de venezuela hasta la fecha . se describen 34 nuevas especies y 9\nrazowski & wojtusiak , sp . n . dos especies son nuevas para venezuela :\nmentioned in the literature ( e . g . , bosc\u00e1n mart\u00ednez & godoy 1990 ) , there has been no compre -\nhensive or even summary treatment of the tortricid fauna of that country . even the most significant con -\ntribution to our knowledge of the venezuelan fauna , amsel\u2019s ( 1956 - 1957 ) listed only two tortricids .\nthe goal of the present paper is to provide the first general overview of the tortricidae of venezuela .\ntities or taxonomic status . instead , the primary objective is to present a list of all species described from\nwork . where relevant , new data on some of the known species also are presented . although preliminary ,\nthis study represents a critical first step in understanding the tortricid fauna of venezuela .\nof the 45 species described from venezuela , two are synonyms . in the descriptive part of this pa -\nper we add 34 new species , bringing the total to 79 . in comparison to other south american countries ,\nseen through a comparison of taxonomic studies on specific groups of neotropical tortricinae ( e . g . ,\nadamski 2003 ; brown , 1999 ; razowski , 1993 , 1994 , 1999 ; razowski & becker , 2000 ) .\nthus any comparison among countries or regions is premature at present . however , even with our lim -\nited knowledge it appears that the most diverse tribes in the neotropics ( i . e . , cochylini , euliini ) also are\nextremely species - rich in venezuela , but these are the groups that have received the greatest attention .\ncordillera de m\u00e9rida , province m\u00e9rida , venezuela . two of them , monte zerpa and la culata , are situ -\nated in the central part of the massive called the serran\u00eda de la culata . the third , p\u00e1ramo el batall\u00f3n , is\nchama ( 8\u00ba 36\u2019 n , 71\u00ba 10\u2019 w ) on the southern slopes of the serran\u00eda de la culata . the site is at 3025 m\nelevation near a trail leading from m\u00e9rida to p\u00e1ramo de los conejos , in forest - paramo ecotone . the\ncloud forest vegetation at the site is relatively undisturbed , largely exhibiting its primary character .\nas follows : 2000 m , 14 . 8\u00ba c ; 2500 m , 11 . 8\u00ba c ; 3000 m , 8 . 7\u00ba c . mean precipitation in m\u00e9rida is 1743\nmm at 1600 m and 2025 mm at 2000 m ( veillon , 1989 ) . during the dry season , which extends from\njanuary to the end of march , the slopes of the mountains are free of clouds only early in the morning .\nlater in the day clouds build up quickly , and the sun usually is completely obscured between 11 . 00 and\np\u00e1ramo zumbador to the south and by p\u00e1ramo la negra to the north . the collection site , quebrada de\ncot\u00edes facing southwards toward bailadores , about 300 m below the upper limit of the cloud forest .\nzone between the cloud forest and subparamo vegetation . the climate of this part of the mountains is\ncharacterized by high precipitation , low temperatures , strong winds , and limited sunshine .\npowered by batteries . collections were made consistently between 19 . 00 and 22 . 30 hrs .\n. \u2013 collection site in p\u00e1ramo el batall\u00f3n on the road from bailadores to pregonero .\nholotype , male : \u201cvenezuela , stan tachira , p . n . batall\u00f3n , p\u00e1ramo el rosal , v\u00eda san jos\u00e9 de bol\u00ed -\nvar , 2900 m , 4 - iii - 1966 , leg . j . wojtusiak\u201d ; gs 40 .\nparatypes : male , venezuela , stan tachira , p . n . batall\u00f3n , p\u00e1ramo el rosal , v\u00eda san jos\u00e9 de bol\u00ed -\nvar , 2900 m , 4 - iii - 1966 , leg . j . wojtusiak ; male : venezuela , p\u00e1ramo el batall\u00f3n , quebrada de los p\u00edos ,\n2950 m , 4 - iii - 1996 , leg . j . wojtusiak .\ndescription : male . wing span 24 mm ( 23 mm in one paratype ) . head cream , labial palpus 1 . 5 ,\ndirty white sprinkled with brownish ; thorax brownish . forewing weakly expanding terminally , termen\nbasally and near dorsum , mixed with rust in posterior half of wing . costa tinged grey basally , costal\nand terminal dots blackish . pattern brown in form of two elongate marks extending from median area\nof costa connected in median cell by a paler mark ; some brownish dots at mid - termen . cilia cream ; a\nfew divisions brown . hindwing cream slightly tinged brownish at apex ; cilia pale cream .\nholotype male : \u201cvenezuela , cordillera de m\u00e9rida , m\u00e9rida , monte zerpa , 3250 m , 13 - ii - 1996 , leg .\ndescription : male . wing span 21 mm . head grey , labial palpus over 2 , greyish sprinkled with dark\ngrey ; vertex and thorax brownish . forewing broadest at 2 / 3 where costa bent . ground colour cream\nsprinkled dark brown . cilia cream with brown divisions . hindwing cream slightly tinged brownish to -\nholotype male : \u201cvenezuela , tachira , p . n . batall\u00f3n , p\u00e1ramo el batall\u00f3n , san jos\u00e9 de bol\u00edvar , 4 -\niii - 1996 , 2950 m , leg . j . wojtusiak\u201d ; gs 80 . allotype , female : venezuela , cordillera de m\u00e9rida , vuelta\nde lola , 23 - ii - 1996 , 1950 m , leg . j . wojtusiak ; gs 79 .\ndescription : male . wing span ca 35 mm . labial palpus 4 , whitish sprinkled with brownish ; vertex\nand thorax slightly browner . forewing pale brownish cream , densely sprinkled and suffused with\nbrownish especially along dorsum ; three brown dots at costa subapically . cilia concolorous with\nground colour . hindwing cream , slightly tinged with brownish apically , with fine brownish strigulation .\ndistinctly suffused with brown ; brown suffusion on vein cua1 . hindwing slightly darker than in male ,\nfemale genitalia ( fig . 105 ) : papillae anales slender , tapering terminad , well sclerotized ; apophy -\netymology : the species name refers to the asymmetry of the sacculus ; greek : cholo - lame .\nholotype male : \u201cvenezuela , cordillera de m\u00e9rida , m\u00e9rida , monte zerpa , 3070 m , 20 - ii - 1996 , leg .\ndescription : male . wing span 26 mm . head whitish , labial palpus whiter above , tinged pale\nochreous to middle laterally ; thorax white cream , base of tegula tinged brownish . forewing slightly ex -\npanding terminally , termen fairly oblique . ground colour white cream , sprinkled and partially suffused\nand costal markings pale brownish ; some brown dots along termen . cilia concolorous with ground\netymology : the species name refers to the asymmetry of the sacculus ; latin : claudia - lame .\ndescription : female : wing span ca 26 mm . head and thorax whitish , labial palpus ca 2 . 5 .\nbrown spot and tornal spot ; broad subterminal brownish grey blotch extending from tornus to costa .\nfemale genitalia ( fig . 106 ) : eighth tergite large , rounded proximally ; apophyses long ; sterigma ex -\nposterior part rather small , armed with a pair of wing - shaped lateral plates ; corpus bursae small , spinose .\nis much larger . the female genitalia differ from all known species of the tribe .\ndirected proximally ; vesica with three strong , capitate , spine - like cornuti .\netymology : the genus name is an anagram of the type - species . feminine .\nholotype , male : \u201cvenezuela , p\u00e1ramo el batall\u00f3n , quebrada de los p\u00edos , 2950 m , 4 - iii - 1996 , leg . j .\nwojtusiak\u201d ; gs 75 . allotype , female ( gs 74 ) and one paratype , male with same labels .\ndescription : male . wing span ca 17 mm . head pale brownish cream , labial palpus ca 3 , browner\nthan head ; thorax slightly darker than head , tegula with postbasal brown strip . forewing expanding\nposteriorly ; costa weakly convex ; apex fairly long ; termen oblique , sinuate . ground colour pale brown -\nwith brown proximal edges . cilia concolorous with ground colour . hindwing , browner in apical third .\nhindwing cream , tinged yellowish in distal third , with weak strigulation . cilia cream . male paratype\nfemale : as described for male , except darker , with distinct brown median fascia .\nmale genitalia ( figs 51 , 52 ) : as described for the genus .\nsal thorns present on all but median portion ; juxta small ; aedeagus slender , vesica without cornuti .\nin the broad uncus , broad gnathos arms , and thorny transtilla . the dorso - basal process of the\npowell & brown , 1991 it differs in lack of sclerite of corpus bursae . they also are similar to\nm , 4 - iii ; monte zerpa 3070 m , , 20 - ii ; la culata , 3400 m , 16 - ii .\ndescription : male . wing span ca 20 mm . head brownish grey , labial palpus ca 3 , brownish lateral -\nly , greyish above ; thorax brownish , scaled with grey . forewing expanding terminally ; costa convex ;\napex rather short ; termen fairly oblique , slightly sinuate . ground colour reddish , densely sprinkled grey ,\nstrigulated rust - red ; costal half of underside tinged ferruginous . cilia brownish ochreous to mid - termen ,\nconcolorous with ground colour towards tornus . hindwing creamy white with grey strigulation in apex\narea ; cilia whitish . forewing of paratype rubbed , much more grey than in holotype .\nfemale : as described for male , except one paratype browner , with dense darker strigulation .\nmale genitalia ( fig . 53 ) : uncus broad ; socius slender ; gnathos arms broad , dentate latero - posteri -\nfemale genitalia ( fig . 108 ) : papilla analis broad ; anteostial part of sterigma very large , rather\ndescription : male . wing span 21 mm . head and thorax brownish grey , labial palpus ca 4 , brown -\nsuffused with purple rust , with darker strigulae and dots . trace of median marking and indistinct sub -\napical spots brown . cilia grey . underside brownish grey , orange rust in costal third . hindwing dirty\netymology : the species name refers to its type locality , mt . zerpa .\nholotype female : \u201cvenezuela , cordillera de m\u00e9rida , la culata , 3400 m , 16 - ii - 1996 , leg . j . wojtu -\ndescription : female . wing span 26 mm . head dirty cream , vertex slightly darker ; labial palpus ca\n6 , browner ; thorax cream , tinged with brownish grey . forewing weakly expanding terminad ; costa con -\nvex to before middle ; termen weakly oblique , somewhat sinuate . ground colour cream brown , suffused\nwith brown , sprinkled and dotted with dark brown . markings pale grey brown , dotted with blackish\nterminal fascia parallel to termen , followed by terminal suffusion . underside tinged with brownish fer -\nruginous mainly in apex third and subcostally . hindwing cream ; strigulae and spots greyish ; cilia\nfemale genitalia ( fig . 109 ) : papilla analis large , broadening proximally ; apophyses very slender .\nholotype male : \u201cvenezuela , cordillera de m\u00e9rida , la culata , 3500 m , 4 - ii - 1996 , leg j . wojtusi -\ndescription : male . wing span 29 mm . head and thorax chestnut brown , labial palpus ca 3 , brown -\ner , tinged grey above . forewing slightly expanding terminally ; costa curved outward mostly in distal\nthird ; apex very short ; termen rather not oblique to 2 / 3 . wing chestnut brown , sprinkled brownish ;\nstrigulation and veins browner . cilia paler than wing , tinged with pinkish . hindwing cream , slightly\ntinged brownish on periphery , with weak strigulation . cilia cream brownish , paler towards anal portion\nmale genitalia ( figs . 56 , 57 ) : uncus slightly convex postmedially ; socius slender in basal half ; ter -\nholotype male : \u201cvenezuela , p\u00e1ramo el batall\u00f3n , quebrada de los p\u00edos , 2950 m , 4 - iii - 1996 , leg j .\ndescription : male . wing span ca 30 mm . head and thorax whitish scaled brownish ; labial palpus\nca 3 , dark brown , whitish dorsally . forewing broad , somewhat expanding terminally ; costa convex ,\nmostly at middle ; apex rounded ; termen weakly oblique . ground colour whitish , sprinkled greyish rust\nespecially in dorsal half of wing , with pinkish grey in terminal third and in part at costa . markings grey\nly . cilia concolorous with ground colour , brownish grey in costal third . hindwing greyish cream ,\nwhiter towards base , densely strigulated cream grey ; cilia ( worn ) concolorous with wing .\ndiagnosis : this species is easily distinguished by it large size and distinct colouration . it likely is\netymology : the specific epithet refers to large size of the moth ; greek : colossos - gigantic .\ngnathos broad , minutely bristled terminally ; terminal plate strong , short . costa of valva distinct ; disc\nlarge lateral sclerites connected by membrane ; juxta simple ; aedeagus slender , bifid .\nis distinct in the shapes of the transtilla , uncus , and eighth abdominal segment of the female .\netymology : the genus name is an anagram of the name of type - species .\nholotype male : \u201cvenezuela , stan tachira , p . n . batall\u00f3n , p\u00e1ramo el rosal , v\u00eda san jos\u00e9 de bol\u00ed -\nvar , 2900 m , 4 - iii - 1996 , leg j . wojtusiak\u201d ; gs 25 . allotype , female from p\u00e1ramo el rosal , 3000 m , 3 -\ndescription : male . wing span 24 mm ( in paratypes 24 - 26 mm ) . head ochreous cream , labial pal -\npus over 2 . 5 , darker ; thorax rusty ochreous . forewing somewhat expanding posteriorly ; costa gently\nconvex ; apex short , slightly oblique , weakly sinuate . ground colour yellow , tinged ochreous ; strigula -\ntion , dots , and some veins brownish ochreous . markings brownish ochreous with some browner dots\nfasciae ; apex tinged rust . cilia darker than ground colour , brown at apex , more ochreous cream at tor -\nslender , dorsal arm one thirds as long , twice as broad ; coecum penis slender ; cornuti absent .\nfemale genitalia ( fig . 110 ) : papilla analis rather well sclerotized ; apophyses posteriores long ;\napophyses anteriores very short ; ostium in a collar , open proximally ; antrum sclerite small . otherwise\nvar , 2900 m , 4 - iii - 1996 , leg j . wojtusiak\u201d ; gs 27 .\nparatypes : 4 males : venezuela , stan tachira , p . n . batall\u00f3n , p\u00e1ramo el rosal , v\u00eda san jos\u00e9 de\ndescription : male . wing span 26 mm . head and thorax creamy brownish ; labial palpus ca 2 ,\nslightly browner . forewing broadest at middle ; termen oblique , almost straight . ground colour cream\nbrownish , sprinkled with brownish . markings brown , consisting of costal remnants of postbasal fascia\nand median fascia , subapical suffusion and a curved row of dots representing subterminal fascia . cilia\nconcolorous with ground colour . hindwing cream , somewhat mixed with brownish on periphery ; cilia\ncream . variation . some specimens with brownish ground colour and more complete brown markings .\nmale genitalia ( figs . 62 , 63 ) : uncus rather short , with strong lateral lobes ; gnathos simple ; valva\nminal process ; vesica with a single , long cornutus ; anellus above aedeagus provided with bristles .\nfemale genitalia ( fig . 111 ) : sterigma large , rather weakly sclerotized , with median postostial plate\nand postero - lateral spinulate lobes ; antrum short , broad [ corpus bursae damaged ] .\nseven specimens collected by j . wojtusiak , of which 4 from cordillera de m\u00e9rida , m\u00e9rida , monte\nvuelta de lola , 22 - ii ; 1 from cordillera de m\u00e9rida , m\u00e9rida , monte zerpa , 3250 m , 13 - ii .\nthe species was known from a few specimens from different parts of venezuela . the male geni -\ndescription : male . wing span 22 mm . head cream , thorax more yellow , with brown basal spot of\ntegula ; labial palpus 1 . 5 , brownish along middle of outer side . forewing slightly expanding terminad ;\napex rather short ; termen somewhat oblique , weakly sinuate . ground colour yellowish cream ; costal\ned with one another by small prominences of subtornal and submedian parts of their edges . cilia con -\ncolorous with ground colour . hindwing whitish cream , slightly darker at apex , with traces of greyish\npecially in the possession of a strong process of the postbasal part of sacculus .\netymology : the name refers to the presence of a long terminal plate of the gnathos ; ceros - a horn .\ndescription : male . wing span ca 20 mm . head and thorax snow white ; labial palpus ca 2 , tinged\ntively straight , weakly oblique . ground colour white , with traces of grey dorsal dots , somewhat darker\ndarker marks . cilia whitish , browner at apex , with rust divisions medially . hindwing white , tinged\nfrom ecuador , from which it can be distinguished by the broad distal part of the uncus . the colouration\nis very distinct : ground colour of the forewing clear white , with the blotches brownish black .\nholotype male : \u201cvenezuela , p\u00e1ramo el batall\u00f3n , quebrada de los p\u00edos , 2950 m , 4 - iii - 1996 . leg . j .\ndescription . male . wing span 16 mm . head dirty cream ; labial palpus ca 1 . 5 tinged brown espe -\ncially dorso - laterally ; thorax cream tinged with brownish . forewing not expanding posteriorly ; costa\nweakly convex ; apex short , rounded ; termen weakly oblique , rather straight . ground colour cream\ntinged pale yellowish brown , darker in distal half , strigulated and partly suffused with brownish . mark -\nminal fasciae indistinct , greyish brown . cilia concolorous with ground colour . hindwing cream , whiter\nat base , more brownish yellow on periphery , with indistinct brownish strigulation . cilia concolorous\nbroadening terminally ; aedeagus broad to middle , with slender terminal part ; cornutus small .\netymology : the name refers to the type - locality , quebrada de los p\u00edos .\nbasal third ; in hindwing m3 - cua1 very close to one another at median cell .\nmembrane , each with a large apodeme of muscle ; aedeagus slender ; caulis small ; cornutus a single spine .\neral parts of the sterigma , the presence of distinct apodemes , and a broad aedeagus . in the shapes of un -\ndescription : male . wing span 13 mm . head and thorax brown ; labial palpus ca 2 , creamy , brown\nalong middle of second joint and terminally . forewing weakly expanding terminally , broadest at 2 / 3 of\ncosta where distinctly bent . wing brown with indistinct darker transverse lines in posterior half ; cilia\nbrown . hindwing dirty whitish in basal part , brownish on periphery ; cilia pale brownish .\nmale genitalia ( figs . 70 , 71 ) : as described for the genus .\ndescription : male . wing span 22 mm . head pale ochreous cream , thorax brownish grey , tegula\nedged laterally with cream ; labial palpus 1 . 3 , pale brownish , cream terminally . forewing weakly ex -\npanding terminally , termen rather not oblique , tolerably straight . ground colour cream , slightly tinged\nochreous , sprinkled and dotted with brown . markings brown , consisting of remnants of basal blotch ,\nmedian fascia , and subterminal fascia . cilia cream ; divisions brown . hindwing brownish , cilia mostly\nvar , 2900 m , 4 - iii - 1996 , leg . j . wojtusiak\u201d ; gs 7 .\ndescription : male . wing span 29 mm . head and thorax creamy brownish ; labial palpus ca 1 . 5 ,\nstraight ; apex triangular followed by distinct concavity of termen . ground colour cream brownish\nveins ; distal part of wing more strongly suffused , with small cream spots . costa spotted brown ; sub -\napical blotch divided into three costal and one inner spots ; some brown dots present . median fascia\nrudimentary , diffuse , brownish . cilia [ worn ] cream brown with brownish basal line . hindwing cream ,\ntinged with brownish in apical third , with weak brownish strigulation . cilia cream , tinged with pale\netymology : the species name is derived from the name of type locality : batall\u00f3n .\none specimen from venezuela , cordillera de m\u00e9rida , m\u00e9rida , monte zerpa , 3070 m , 20 - ii .\nsimilar male genitalia from various countries from mexico to ecuador . an examination of the female\ngenitalia should resolve the conspecificity of the venezuelan specimens with those from costa rica .\nm , 4 - iii - 1996 , leg . j . wojtusiak\u201d , gs 35 .\ndescription : male . wing span 20 - 23 . 5 mm , 2 mm in holotype . head pale brownish , thorax darker\nbrown , labial palpus brown , 1 . 5 . forewing slightly expanding terminally , termen fairly oblique , rela -\nbrownish scales and browner strigulation . markings chestnut brown , dark brown in costal and median\nblotch accompanied by a subtornal spot . cilia ochreous , blackish at apex , greyer at tornus . hindwing\nwhitish , mixed with pale brownish cream in distal half , with indistinct brownish strigulation . cilia\ncream brownish , whitish in anal area . variation . ground colour of forewing more or less dark , in some\nfemale genitalia ( fig . 112 ) : cup - shaped part of sterigma large ; ductus bursae long with rather\nfers in the rounded apical part of the uncus , the short cornuti , and the long ductus bursae .\netymology : the specific epithet is based on the spanish name \u201ccordillera\u201d or mountain range .\ndescription : male . wing span 17 mm . head brownish , labial palpus ca 1 . 5 ; thorax brownish ,\nweakly oblique , relatively straight . ground colour dirty pink , rather dark , with ill - defined strigulae .\nmarkings dark brown , paler in basal and distal part of wing where tinged yellowish or grey . basal\nto costal and subterminal parts ; terminal fascia ill - defined , best developed below apex . cilia pale rust .\ntinguished by its much shorter uncus and smaller valva . the ventral aspect of the uncus is similar to\netymology : the name refers to colouration of forewing ; latin : ferrugineus - rusty .\nleg . j . wojtusiak\u201d ; gs 71 . paratype an identically labelled male .\npus ca 1 . 5 ; thorax concolorous with head , scaled with brown . forewing costa convex to middle then\ning mid - costa . ground colour pale brownish cream , sprinkled with brownish , with some brown suffu -\nsions and costal dots . markings ill - defined , consisting of brown remnants of basal blotch , median fas -\ncia , and subterminal fascia ; spot at apex . cilia brownish cream . hindwing cream , darker on periphery ;\nsimilar externally and in the male genitalia . it is readily distinguished by the large , broad , terminally\ndescription : male . wing span 19 mm . head cream , vertex tinged brownish , labial palpus over 2 ,\nbrowner ; thorax brownish cream with browner suffusions . forewing distinctly expanding terminally , ter -\nmen oblique weakly concave towards middle . ground colour white cream , somewhat glossy in distal third\nof wing ; suffusions pale ochreous . markings ochreous , browner at dorsum in form of transverse fasciae ,\ndorsum where ochreous scaled with brownish black . cilia pale cream ; divisions light ochreous . hindwing\nwhitish cream tinged pale ochreous in distal area , with brownish ochreous strigulation . cilia white cream .\netymology : the name refers to the shape of end of socius ; circinnatus - rounded .\nholotype male : \u201cvenezuela , cordillera de m\u00e9rida , la culata , 3400 m , 16 - ii - 1996 , leg . j . wojtusi -\ndescription : wing span ca 22 mm . head and thorax greenish , labial palpus ca 3 , white dorsally\nand terminally , black laterally ; base of tegula black . forewing expanding posteriorly , costa weakly con -\ning mid - costa . ground colour greenish white along distal half of costa , edges of median blotch and sub -\nlarge , black , greyer subcostally , atrophying at costa . cilia greenish white with some black scales at\napex and mid - termen . hindwing white tinged greyish brown in apex area ; cilia white .\netymology : the species epithet refers to colouration of forewing ; latin : chlorizans - verdant .\nwing rs - m1 strongly approaching to one another in basal thorn ; m3 - cua1 on a very short stalk .\ncolliculum membranous ; cingulum weakly sclerotized extending distally ; cornuti two , funnel - shaped .\nmini as the shape of cornuti , sterigma and signa show . its supposed autapomorphies are the shape of\n3250 m , 20 - ii - 1996 , leg . j . wojtusiak\u201d ; 1 specimen : \u201cvenezuela , cordillera de m\u00e9rida , m\u00e9rida , monte\nzerpa , 3270 m , 24 - ii - 1996 , leg . j . wojtusiak ; 1 specimen : \u201cvenezuela , cordillera de m\u00e9rida , la culata ,\ndescription : wing span 19 - 20 mm . head greyish with slight brownish cream admixture ; labial\npalpus ca 3 , broad terminally , brownish ; thorax slightly darker than head . forewing slender ; costa gen -\ntly gradually convex ; termen somewhat oblique , slightly concaving towards middle . ground colour\nof costa ochreous rusty . markings grey sprinkled or spotted with brownish grey ; basal blotch incom -\nplete , darkest along middle , protruding as a median rust spot , marked with black at dorsum . median\nish . cilia whitish suffused with greyish , grey at apex and near middle distally . hindwing whitish tinged\nmale genitalia ( figs 86 , 87 ) : as described with the genus .\ndescription : in male costal fold slender reaching mid - costa . venation : in forewing remnant of\ncosta ; termen oblique , distinctly concave at middle . ground colour creamy in basal half and in specu -\nof wing black . cilia blackish grey . hindwing whitish tinged pale brownish creamy in distal third ; cilia\nwojtusiak\u201d ; gs 74 . paratypes : 1 male from stan tachira , p . n . batall\u00f3n , p\u00e1ramo el rosal , v\u00eda san jos\u00e9 de\nbol\u00edvar , 2900 m , 4 - iii and 1 male : venezuela , p\u00e1ramo el batall\u00f3n , quebrada de los p\u00edos , 2950 m , 4 - iii .\ndescription : wing span 17 mm . head , thorax and end of labial ( 1 . 5 ) palpus white the latter with\ntwo black fasciae , head tinged sea - green . forewing slender , expanding terminad with costa hardly con -\nvex ; termen oblique to beyond middle , then convex ; costal fold to beyond middle . ground colour white\nsea - green , whitish along costa and inside speculum . costal and median areas black to termen beneath\ncolorous dots ; basal area strigulated with whitish . cilia black - grey with whitish interruptions near mid -\netymology : the species name refers to the geographic name quebrada de los p\u00edos .\niii ; 1 specimen in cordillera de m\u00e9rida , la culata , 3400 m , 16 - ii .\nthis species was described and known to date only from colombia . the description of genitalia\nfemale genitalia ( fig . 114 ) : ovipositor long ; cup - shaped part of sterigma long probably fusing\ndescription : wing span ca 20 mm . head whitish , labial palpus over 2 concolorous dorsally ,\nbrownish laterally with two brown strips ; thorax creamy , base of tegula brown . forewing somewhat ex -\nat middle ; costal fold slender reaching to beyond third of costa . ground colour whitish slightly sprin -\nkled and strigulated with brown ; costal strigulae blackish , dorsal dots minute . markings brownish\naccompanied by much lighter subdorsal part and terminal fascia . cilia whitish strongly mixed with\nblackish , white at tornus . hindwing whitish tinged with grey in terminal third , with darker strigulation ;\ntermen more oblique , indistinctly concave . ground colour tinged pale ochreous especially toward apex ,\ndotted brown - black throughout . markings brown - black , distinct ; median fascia beneath median cell\ngrey and pale ochreous ; terminal fascia rust ochreous brown edged between apex and mid - termen .\nly ; arms of henion slender , long ; aedeagus proportionally small , slender .\nfemale genitalia ( fig . 115 ) : cup - shaped part of sterigma short , postostial part broad , straight ter -\nminally ; cingulum sclerite long ; signa two , one smaller than the other .\ndisc bristled and hairy ; anellus forming a broad sclerite around aedeagus ; this last slender , simple .\nis distinct by large dentate socii , the long , rod like uncus and the well sclerotized anellus .\netymology : the genus name is referable to the locality name , la culata in the cordillera de m\u00e9rida .\ndescription : wing span 18 mm . head pale ochreous creamy , thorax slightly darker ; labial palpus\nca 2 , creamy brown with two brown transverse fasciae . forewing slightly expanding terminad , costa\nta and obliquely from there to before tornus ; paler green suffusion in middle subterminally . strigulation\nlines . dorsum brownish black to middle and towards tornus , paler from mid - costa to apex . cilia grey -\nmale genitalia ( figs 96 , 97 ) : uncus very long , slender , pointed ; socius very broad , dentate . other -\netymology : the species name refers to the shape of socii ; latin : asymmetricus - asymmetric .\ndescription : wing span 20 mm . head and thorax greenish white ; labial palpus broad , greenish\nabove , black in ventro - lateral part . forewing slender , expanding terminally ; costal fold to middle ; apex\nshort , rounded ; termen oblique , concave just beneath middle . ground colour greenish , with white spots\nbefore and beneath apex . markings and spots along costa and dorsum black ; median fascia tinged pale\nby means of pale ochreous and greyish suffusions . cilia greenish , black at apex . hindwing whitish\ndescription : wing span 16 mm . head whitish , brownish laterally , labial palpus ca 2 , analogically\ncoloured with whitish terminal joint ; thorax whitish , tegula brown . forewing slightly expanding termi -\nmiddle of costa , brownish grey . ground colour whitish sprinkled and dotted with brownish ; costal\nlum ; the latter without inner spots or refractive markings ; terminal area greyish brown , apex darker .\ncilia whitish densely scaled with brown , brownish terminally . hindwing whitish tinged pale brownish\ndescription : wing span ca 21 mm . head creamy brown , head paler , labial palpus ca 3 , rather con -\ncolorous , paler basally . forewing not expanding terminally , apex rounded , termen oblique , concave be -\nneath middle . ground colour creamy brownish sprinkled with brown ; a few brown dots along dorsum .\ncilia brownish grey , whitish at tornus . hindwing slender , creamy , tinged with brownish distally ; cilia\nincision ; cucullus rather small , ovate , without pollex ; aedeagus slender , fairly long .\nzeller , 1877 from colombia . it differs from it in much shorter uncus and more elongate extending ven -\ndescription : labial palpus long , costal fold of forewing absent or rudimentary . venation : in forewing\nsite base of chorda ; in hindwing rs - m1 closely approaching basally , m3 - cua1 stalked to middle .\nslender , ventral incision short ; cucullus slender , long ; aedeagus short ; henion short .\nin olethreutini but the female genitalia are of the eucosmine type . two species included .\n3070 m , 20 - ii - 1996 , leg . j . wojtusiak\u201d ; gs 15 .\ndescription : wing span 21 mm in holotype , 20 mm in female paratype . head and thorax creamy\nsparcely scaled with brownish grey ; labial palpus 3 , white with brownish marks . forewing weakly ex -\nminal markings indistinct ; speculum with a few brown dots . cilia ( worn ) , whitish . cilia creamy ,\nfemale genitalia ( fig . 116 ) : sclerite of cingulum weak ; signa equal in size .\nleg . j . wojtusiak\u201d ; gs 117 . allotype an identically labelled female , gs 118 .\ndescription : wing span 26 mm in holotype , 23 mm in paratype . forewing broad , costa convex ,\napex very short , rounded ; termen weakly oblique , somewhat concave beneath apex . ground colour\nwith similar suffusions between veins of posterior fourth of wing . costal strigulae blackish brown , con -\ndots ; other markings ill - defined . cilia creamy with blackish median line and a few dividings . hindwing\nfemale genitalia ( fig . 117 ) : cup - shaped part of sterigma fairly broad with rather differentiated\nproximal portion ; sclerite of cingulum fairly well developed ; one signum large , one minute .\netymology : the species name refers to the number of species included in the genus .\none specimen from p\u00e1ramo el batall\u00f3n , quebrada de los p\u00edos , 2950 m , 4 - iii .\nthe authors express special thanks to dr . john w . brown , washington , usa , who not only dis -\ncussed some important systematic questions but also edited the text of this paper . we also thank dr .\njoaquin baixeras , valencia , spain and mr . kevin r . tuck , london , england , for comparing specimens\nwith their material in their care and providing taxonomic suggestions . we also thank mr . artur czekaj\nfor digital arrangement of plates , dr . jolanta g\u00f3rska - andrzejak for preparation of the genitalia and mr .\nfor digital arrangement of the plates . we want to express our special thanks to dr .\ntomasz pyrcz for his help and assistance in the field work . the field works were supported by the grant\nds - zoological museum of jagiellonian university , 1996 . we want also thank dr . angel l . viloria and\nmr . jes\u00fas camacho , caracas , venezuela , for their assistance in the field , and mr . magaly quiroz , cara -\nbrown , j . w . , 1999 . \u2013 a new euliine genus from costa rica and venezuela ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) . \u2013\n: 138 - 152 . checklist , part 2 , hyblaeoidea - pyraloidea - tortricoidea .\nrazowski , j . & becker , v . o . , 2000 . \u2013 a review of the new world chlidanotini ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) . \u2013\nrazowski & wojtusiak , sp . n . , paratype ( gs 5 ) ;\ngithub is home to over 28 million developers working together to host and review code , manage projects , and build software together .\nyou signed in with another tab or window . reload to refresh your session .\nyou signed out in another tab or window . reload to refresh your session ."]}
{"id": 1593, "summary": [{"text": "the crab-eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) , also known as the long-tailed macaque , is a cercopithecine primate native to southeast asia .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is referred to as the cynomolgus monkey in laboratories .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it has a long history alongside humans ; they have been alternately seen as agricultural pests , sacred animals in some temples , and more recently , the subject of medical experiments .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the crab-eating macaque lives in matrilineal social groups with a female dominance hierarchy , and male members leave the group when they reach puberty .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they are opportunistic omnivores and have been documented using tools to obtain food in thailand and myanmar .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the crab-eating macaque is a known invasive species and a threat to biodiversity in several locations , including hong kong and western new guinea .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the significant overlap in macaque and human living space has resulted in greater habitat loss , synanthropic living , and inter - and intraspecies conflicts over resources . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "crab - eating macaque", "paragraphs": ["the crab - eating macaque . cool mohawk , bro . credit : shawn allen\ncrab - eating macaque can survive from 15 to 30 years in the wild .\ncontaining between 5 and 60 crab - eating macaque individuals . the crab - eating macaque troops are centred around the female crab - eating macaques are they remain in the same place for their whole lives . there are often half as many males in a crab - eating macaque troop than there are females .\ngenomic data from the crab - eating macaque / cynomolgus monkey ( macaca fascicularis ) .\nis made up from fruits , nuts and seeds . the crab - eating macaque also eats\nof around six months , the female crab - eating macaque gives birth to a single infant ( baby ) crab - eating macaque . male crab - eating macaque babies remain with their mothers until they are a couple of years old and are independent enough to find another troop , but the crab - eating macaque babies tend to remain in the troop for their whole lives .\nthe long - tailed macaque is also called the crab - eating macaque , or the cynomolgus or ' java ' monkey .\ninformation on the crab - eating macaque is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nthe crab - eating macaque is a primarily arboreal macaque native to southeast asia . it is also called the cynomolgus monkey and the long - tailed macaque .\n< 0 . 05 , grubbs ' test ) . ce , crab - eating macaque ; cr , chinese rhesus macaque ; ir , indian rhesus macaque .\ncrab - eating macaque has 16 to 26 inches long tail that provides balance when it moves in the treetops . crab - eating macaque is also able to jump horizontal distance of up to 16 . 4 feet .\nthe cynomolgus monkey is the name used in research for macaca fascicularis , sometimes also called the crab - eating macaque or long tailed macaque .\nloss in the form of pollution and deforestation is causing severe declines in the crab - eating macaque population numbers .\ninfant crab - eating macaques are born black , and change colour as they mature .\nmale crab - eating monkeys have moustaches and cheek whiskers , while females have only whiskers .\none group of crab - eating macaques occupies territory of 125 hectares . grooming strengthens social bonds in the group . crab - eating macaques are very aggressive toward other groups or intruders .\ngenetic differentiation of the indonesian crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis / it ) : i . preliminary report on blood protein polymorphism\nin the fact that the crab - eating macaque has a long tail which is about the same length as it ' s body .\ncrab - eating macaque is covered with black fur on birth . it drinks mother ' s milk until the age of 420 days .\ncrab - eating macaques are also called long - tailed macaques , due to their exceedingly long tails .\nthe crab - eating macaque is an arboreal primate meaning that it spends most of its life in the safety of the trees . the crab - eating macaque has a long tail which helps it to balance and sharp nails and its fingers to toes which help with grip .\ngenetic differentiation of the indonesian crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis / it ) : i . preliminary report on blood protein polymorphism | springerlink\nthe crab - eating macaque monkey also easily adjusts to human settlements and are considered sacred at some hindu temples and on some small islands .\ngigadb dataset - doi 10 . 5524 / 100003 - genomic data from the crab - eating macaque / cynomolgus monkey ( macaca fascicularis ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - crab - eating macaque troop\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - crab - eating macaque troop\ntitle =\narkive photo - crab - eating macaque troop\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) is a primarily arboreal macaque native to southeast asia . it is also called the cynomolgus monkey and the long - tailed macaque . the crab - eating macaque is found in a wide variety of habitats , including primary lowland rainforests , disturbed and secondary rainforests and riverside and coastal forests of nipa palm and mangrove .\ncrab - eating macaque can reach 15 to 22 inches in length and 3 to 20 pounds of weight . males are much larger than females .\ncrab - eating macaque , also known as cynomolgus monkey , belongs to the group of old world monkeys . there are 10 subspecies of crab - eating macaque that are native to southeast asia . they inhabit subtropical and tropical forests , coastal lowland forests , deciduous and evergreen forests , mangroves and swamps . the greatest threat for the survival of crab - eating macaques in the wild is habitat loss . also , crab - eating macaques are often collected from the wild for the purpose of medical researches and due to pet trade . despite these factors , population of crab - eating macaques is large and stable in the wild .\nsource / reference article learn how you can use or cite the crab - eating macaque article in your website content , school work and other projects .\nthis is a video of the crab - eating macque taken from the bbc ' s planet earth documentary series .\nthreat ( s ) : some believe that the crab - eating macaque is responsible for the extinction of forest birds in and the destruction of agriculture , raiding crops ( sugar cane ) and eating food such as rice and taro plants . crab - eating macaques threaten critical bird breeding areas . the crab - eating macaque has made it to the invasive species specialist group of the world conservation union ' s list of\n100 of the world ' s worst invasive alien species .\nunknown but it has the third largest range of any primate species and the total population of the crab - eating macaque is currently not under significant threat .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis )\ntitle =\narkive species - crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nsussman , r . w . and tattersall , i . 1980 . a preliminary study of the crab - eating macaque macaca fascicularis in mauritius , the maurutius institute bulletin 9 ( 1 ) : 31 - 51 . summary : general ecology of crab - eating macaques on mauritius .\nthe crab - eating macaque is found in a wide variety of habitats , including primary lowland rainforests , disturbed and secondary rainforests and riverside and coastal forests of nipa palm and mangrove . the crab - eating macaque monkey also easily adjusts to human settlements and are considered sacred at some hindu temples and on some small islands .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - juvenile crab - eating macaque sitting in a tree\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - juvenile crab - eating macaque sitting in a tree\ntitle =\narkive photo - juvenile crab - eating macaque sitting in a tree\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nzoos keep crab - eating macaques primarily for educational purposes , because of their interesting social life and because they may be used as an exampke of an introduced invasive species . crab - eating macaques may also serve as ambassadors for the conservation of mangrove forests .\nlike other primates , crab - eating macaques can be quite clever . in thailand and myanmar scientists have documented macaques using tools to help with food preparation . the crab - eating macaque uses stones to open nuts , snails , crabs and other hard to get food items . they also have been observed washing fruits such as papaya and sweet potato before eating them .\ncrab - eating macaque lives in large groups called troops . each group consists of around 20 females and one or few males . dominant female is the leader of the troop .\nwe first used the degree of asymmetry in the divergence between ce macaque / cr macaque and ce macaque / ir macaque to estimate the proportion of the ce macaque genome that is of cr macaque origin . in particular , the proportion of the genome that is introgressed (\ncrab - eating macaques communicate via sounds , visual cues ( body postures ) and olfactory signals ( chemical substances produced in the body ) .\n) a potential introgression region ( shaded blue ) , which contains fewer variations between ce macaque and cr macaque than between the two rhesus macaques ( ir macaque and cr macaque ) . (\nalso called crab - eating or long - tailed macaque . there are ten sub - species . conservation status : iucn red list \u2018 least concern \u2018 physical characteristics | habitat | ecology and behaviour\nadmiralty park probably holds the last population of crab - eating macaques on mainland singapore that inhabits a back mangrove , which partially lines sungei cina .\ncrab - eating macaques use tools such as rocks to break shell of crabs , nuts and oysters and teeth to peel skin of sweet potato .\nother names : m . cynomolgus or m . irus ; crab - eating macaque , cynomolgus monkey , kera macaque , or longtail macaque ; macaque crabier or macaque de buffon ( french ) ; macaca cangrejera ( spanish ) ; javaapa or krabbmakak ( swedish ) ; m . f . atriceps : dark - crowned long - tailed macaque ; m . f . aurea : burmese long - tailed macaque ; m . f . condorensis : con song long - tailed macaque ; m . f . fusca : simeulue long - tailed macaque ; m . f . karimondjawae : kemujan long - tailed macaque ; m . f . lasiae : lasia long - tailed macaque ; m . f . philippinensis : philippine long - tailed macaque ; m . f . tua : maratua long - tailed macaque ; m . f . umbrosa : nicobar long - tailed macaque\ndid you know ? that the crab - eating macaque is rated by the iucn / ssc invasive species specialist group as being among the 100 world ' s worst invasive alien species ? crab - eating macaques are highly adaptable because they are generalist feeders . if expanding outside their origonal range , the may be responsible for the extinction of forest bird species .\nwith a name like crab - eating macaque you might think that these primates enjoy a diet of mostly seafood . however , crab - eating macaques are actually frugivorous , meaning their diet consists mainly of tropical fruit . they also eat a large portion of seeds . together , fruits and seeds make up between 60 % to 90 % of their diet .\nthe native range of the crab - eating macaque includes most of mainland southeast asia , including the malay archipelago islands of sumatra , java and borneo , the islands of the philippines and the nicobar islands in the bay of bengal . although this monkey is often referred to as the crab - eating macaque , its diet is by no means limited to crabs . other food items are in fact far more common .\ncrab - eating macaque is covered with grayish brown or reddish brown fur on dorsal side of the body and pale grey fur on ventral side of the body . tail is dark grey or brown in color .\n, the crab - eating macaque , it sports a cute little punk - rock mohawk . appropriately enough , this species is alternatively known as the egret monkey , which brings us full circle on our linguistic journey .\nsussman , r . w . and tattersall , i . 1980 . a preliminary study of the crab - eating macaque macaca fascicularis in mauritius , the maurutius institute bulletin 9 ( 1 ) : 31 - 51 .\nnatural predators of crab - eating macaques ( macaca fascicularis ) include large carnivores ( panthers and sun - bears in java ) , snakes and possibly large raptors .\nwith broad diets , crab - eating macaques mainly eat fruit , but also feed on items such as insects , bird eggs and as their name suggest , crabs .\nthere are two subspecies of the japanese macaque monkey , macaca fuscata fuscata and yakushima macaque , macaca fuscata yakui .\ncrab - eating macaque is an omnivore ( it eats plants and meat ) . its diet is based on fruit , leaves , nuts , seed , crabs , oysters , small birds and their eggs , lizards and frogs .\nis a crab - eating macaque or long - tailed macaque ( 38 - 55 centimeters long with a tail , 40 - 65 centimeters in length , weighing 4 - 8 kilograms ) . the males and females are both born with black fur , which turns a grey to dark brown or yellowish - brown with lighter underparts and crown hairs which form a small crest . crab - eating macaques are a quadrapedal and diurnal ( active during the day ) species , highly adapted for swimming and climbing trees with tails used for balance when leaping between trees . crab - eating macaques have an average group size of 30 individuals .\na tourist took the footage of a lifetime when she stumbled across a wild long - tailed macaque ( also called a crab - eating macaque ) monkey nuzzling and grooming a small kitten at the monkey forest park in the ubud region of bali , indonesia . the bond isn ' t so surprising though , considering that crab - eating macaques are highly social animals and babies learn from interacting with both their mother and other females in their large groups of up to 60 individuals .\ncrab - eating and long tailed macaque make sense , as the monkeys are often seen eating crabs and they have rather long tails . the name cynomolgus , however , is rather strange so i was curious as to where it came from and why it is used . i checked wikipedia and the following section provided some information :\nclassification : macaca fascicularis is in the family cercopithecidae and subfamily cercopithecinae . there are 16 species of macaques . based on mating style and reproductive systems , there are 4 subgroups . the crab - eating or long - tailed macaque group , also includes the rhesus macaque , the japanese macaque ( snow monkey ) , and the formosan rock macaque . the other three groups are the silenus - sylavanus , sinica , and artoides .\nmacaca fascicularis aureus i . geoffroy saint - hilaire , 1831 \u2013 myanmar long - tailed macaque , burmese long - tailed macaque\n) . we then constructed 19 and 18 multiple paired - end genomic dna libraries with gradually increasing insert sizes for the cr macaque and ce macaque , respectively . the total size of the assembled cr macaque and ce macaque genomes was , respectively ,\nin this lesson you ' ll be learning about the ubiquitous crab - eating macaque . we ' ll be learning about where it lives in southeast asia , its fruit based diet , and unique behaviors including social dominance , tool use and reproductive strategies .\nm . fascicularis , the crab - eating macaque , is native to south - east asia and has been introduced into mauritius , palau ( angaur island ) , hong kong and parts of indonesia ( tinjil island and papua ) . they are conside . . .\nthe crab - eating macaque is a very social animal that lives in groups anywhere from 5 - 60 individuals . these groups are multi - male groups , normally containing 2 - 5 males and 2 - 3 times as many females . their groups are female orientated .\nthe celebes crested macaque ( macaca nigra ) is also known as the crested black macaque , sulawesi crested macaque , or the black \u2018ape\u2019 . the celebes crested macaque lives in the northeast of the indonesian island of sulawesi ( celebes ) as well as on smaller neighbouring islands .\nthe crab - eating macaque is a very social animal that lives in groups anywhere from 5 \u2013 60 individuals . these groups are multi - male groups , normally containing 2 \u2013 5 males and 2 \u2013 3 times as many females . their groups are female orientated . they will remain in a a group up to 4 or 5 years and will emigrate several times throughout their life . crab - eating macaques have a strict dominance hierarchy . adult males rank higher than females .\nis also commonly known as the cynomolgus monkey or cynomolgous macaque . native to malaysia , indonesia and the philippines , crab - eating macaques are closely related to rhesus macaques but have a smaller body size and higher susceptibility to stress as well as other physiological and immunological differences .\ncrab - eating macaques like to live in large , social groups called troops . some troops may have up to 58 members . one benefit is protection against predators . large predators are much less likely to take on a large , howling group of macaques than a single macaque .\nthey will remain in a a group up to 4 or 5 years and will emigrate several times throughout their life . crab - eating macaques have a strict dominance hierarchy . adult males rank higher than females .\n. the two sequenced genomes allowed us to quantify the influence of this introgression at the whole - genome level . specifically , we explored whether a dna signal consistent with interspecies hybridization was apparent within the cr macaque and ce macaque genomes . we calculated the divergence ratio between the ce macaque and cr macaque and compared it with the divergence ratio between the cr macaque and ir macaque for 50 - kb windows across the aligned genomes (\nbenefit ( s ) : the crab - eating macaques were extensively used as the laboratory animal for the research and development of the polio vaccine . in addition , they help in the distribution of introduced plant species .\n, and the population indices are ce macaque : 1 , cr : 2 , ir macaque : 3 . using this equation , we found that\ncontrol level diagnosis : the control level does not seem to be a high priority in all the areas it inhabits . the level of control varies from virtually no protection to being well - protected depending on the region . there seems to be some regulation through export regulations but none that are extensive . the crab - eating macaque inhabits two sanctuaries , nine national parks , and nine reserves . they receive some protection in temple ruins where they are hand fed on a regular basis . the crab - eating macaque is legally protected in the parks and urban forests of malaysia . they are threatened in some of the reserves due to oil drilling and harvesting plans . they are considered sacred by some in bali . this may increase the chances of their survival in these reserves . crab - eating macaques are hunted for food in thailand and borneo and because they are agricultural pests , which remains a growing problem . as a result , this has impeded the government from following through with conservation efforts . crab - eating macaques were exported to the united states and great britain for biomedical research . in the wild , there are currently approximately 2 . 5 million crab - eating macaques , but they are threatened by extensive logging causing habitat loss .\nthe rhesus macaque ( macaca mulatta ) is one of the commonest monkeys in india , often living close to urban areas . in indonesia the crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) has become a competent swimmer and dives in the mangrove swamps for crabs and other crustaceans . in malaysia , the pig - tailed macaque ( macaca nemestrina ) has been trained to harvest coconuts . the japanese macaque ( macaca fuscata ) is the most northerly living monkeys and has a shaggy coat to protect it from the cold winters .\n\u2026of two clones of the crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) , the first primate clones using the scnt process . ( scnt has been carried out with very limited success in humans , in part because of problems with human egg cells resulting from the mother\u2019s age and environmental factors . )\n. they use their incisors and canine teeth to peel sweet potatoes before eating to avoid the bitter skins .\nthe booted macaque is an omnivore and feeds on figs , buds , invertebrates and cereals . there are two subspecies of the booted macaque that are recognized : macaca ochreata ochreata and muna - buton macaque , macaca ochreata brunnescens .\nthe long - tailed macaques or crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) is the only macaque native to singapore . they are also the most common species of non - human primate in singapore and are characterised by their long tails . adults have white fur on their eye lid , whiskers on their cheeks and are brown and grey in colour . babies are born with black coat .\nthe nonhuman primates most commonly used in medical research are from the genus macaca 1 . to better understand the genetic differences between these animal models , we present high - quality draft genome sequences from two macaque species , the cynomolgus / crab - eating macaque and the chinese rhesus macaque . comparison with the previously sequenced indian rhesus macaque reveals that all three macaques maintain abundant genetic heterogeneity , including millions of single - nucleotide substitutions and many insertions , deletions and gross chromosomal rearrangements . by assessing genetic regions with reduced variability , we identify genes in each macaque species that may have experienced positive selection . genetic divergence patterns suggest that the cynomolgus macaque genome has been shaped by introgression after hybridization with the chinese rhesus macaque . macaque genes display a high degree of sequence similarity with human disease gene orthologs and drug targets . however , we identify several putatively dysfunctional genetic differences between the three macaque species , which may explain functional differences between them previously observed in clinical studies .\nthe rhesus macaque monkey had been on the loose in the tampa - st .\na total frequency of macaque - to - human interactions at each study site .\n) . this supports the occurrence of strong gene flow from the cr to the ce macaque genome . by screening the degree of asymmetry in the divergence between the ce and cr macaque and between the ce and ir macaque , we estimated that\ntroops of the toque macaque are a common sight in the cultural triangle , where many ancient temples are situated , hence earning them the nick name of \u2018temple monkey\u2019 . the other two subspecies of toque macaque that have been described are dryzone toque macaque ( macaca sinica sinica ) and wetzone toque macaque ( macaca sinica aurifrons ) .\ncrab - eating macaques are promiscuous ( they mate with more than one partner ) . pregnancy in females lasts 162 to 193 days and ends with one baby . dominant female produces offspring each year . other females usually breed once every two years .\nthe tibetan macaque ( macaca thibetana ) , also known as milne - edwards\u2019 macaque , is found in china , tibet and vietnam . the tibetan macaque lives in subtropical forests either mixed deciduous or evergreen at altitude that range from 800 to 2000 metres .\n, 1973 . polymorphism of red cell nadp - dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase in macaque monkeys .\n, 1969 . geographic variations of transferrin allelic frequencies in continental and insular macaque populations .\nsussman , r . w . and tattersall , i . 1981 . behavior and ecology of macaca fascicularis in mauritius : a preliminary study , primates 22 ( 2 ) : 192 - 205 . summary : general ecology of crab - eating macaques on mauritius .\necological role : crab - eating macaques are the most extensively used laboratory animal next to the rhesus monkey . they are able to easily adapt to mangrove forests , distributed throughout a variety of island habitats , feeding on native fruits and subsequently competing with native birds .\nthe native range of the crab - eating macaque includes most of mainland southeast asia , including the malay archipelago islands of sumatra , java and borneo , the islands of the philippines and the nicobar islands in the bay of bengal . although this monkey is often referred to as the crab - eating macaque , its diet is by no means limited to crabs . other food items are in fact far more common . they are an opportunistic feeding omnivore , meaning they can and will eat a wide variety of animals , plants and other materials , it also eats leaves , flowers , roots and bark . it also preys on bird chicks and nesting female birds , lizards , frogs , fishes and bird eggs .\nand bird ' s eggs particularly during the colder winter months when their are slim pickings on the branches . japanese macaque babies feed on their mother ' s milk until they are able to begin eating more solid foods .\nthe behavioral repertoire of the stumptail macaque . a descriptive and comparative study . bibliotheca primatologica 11\nwe aren ' t monkeying around when we say that this macaque apes albert einstein perfectly .\nmacaca fascicularis philippinensis i . geoffroy saint - hilaire , 1843 \u2013 philippine long - tailed macaque\n, meaning \u201cof mixed breed . \u201d the species name of the long - tailed macaque is\nlong - tailed macaque on nick baker ' s ecologyasia website : fact sheet with photos .\n, the japanese macaque is often loved and protected by the native people . however , growing\nlong tailed macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) | s . a . f . e . project\nlong - tailed macaques are mainly frugivorous but may seasonally focus on other food sources including insects , stems , young and mature leaves , flowers , seeds , grass , mushrooms , invertebrates , bird eggs , clay and bark . crab - eating macaques are excellent swimmers . where they forage in mangroves , they catch crabs , frogs , shrimps and other invertebrates . like other macaques they have cheek pouches in which they can store food as they forage , and transport it away from the foraging site to eat crab - eating macaques live in big groups , which can contain more than 100 individuals . the groups are divided in sub - groups . it is very uncommon to see a macaque living alone . after a pregnancy of 7 to 8 months the females will give birth to a single infant . new - born crab - eating macaques are sparsely haired and dark and weigh about 150 - 470 grams .\n: the home range of crab - eating macaques varies greatly depending on the location and whether they are in their native range or an introduced range . in their native range the home range size may vary from between 50 hectares and 100 hectares , although the national primate conservation\nfemales reach sexual maturity at the age of 4 years , males at the age of 6 years . males leave native group to join other , unrelated group of crab - eating monkeys . young males often fight to establish dominance and ensure higher rank in the new group .\nbut , part of the reason crab - eating macaques are so successful is that they are versatile consumers . they will also eat flowers , honey , bird eggs , fungi , leaves , bark and even clay . macaques sometimes consume clay for the minerals in it , like potassium .\nlocal ganglion cell contr ibutions to the macaque electroretinogram revealed by experimental nerve fiber layer bundle defect .\n, 1973 . genetic variation in the carbonic anhydrase isozymes of macaque monkeys . ii . inheritance of red cell carbonic anhydrase levels in different carbonic anhydrase i genotypes of the pig - tailed macaque ,\n, 1971 . genetic variation and evolution in the red cell carbonic anhydrase isozymes of macaque monkeys .\nfound in a wide range of habitats : primary and secondary forests , mangrove forests , swamps and riverine forests , plantations and the outskirts of towns and villages , often near bodies of water . the crab - eating macaque was introduced to several locations ( hong kong , western new guinea , angaur island in palau , and mauritius ) where they are a threat to many native species .\njiang z ; meng z ; zeng y ; wu z ; zhou z , 2008 . cites non - detrimental finding case study for the exporting of crab - eating macaques . ( macaca fascicularis ) from china . df workshop case studies wg 5 - mammals case study 5 macaca fascicularis .\nthe life span of the tibetan macaque is over 20 years . there are four recognized subspecies of this macaque , macaca thibetana thibetana , macaca thibetana esau , macaca thibetana guiahouensis and macaca thibetana huangshanensis .\nthe number and characteristics of chromosomes of the crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) were studied . karyo - types obtained from cultured leukocytes were similar to those of other species of the genus macaca ( 2n = 42 ) . the diploid chromosome number was 42 : 15 pairs of submetacentric autosomes and 5 metacentric . the x - chromosome was metacentric and the y - chromosome was probably acrocentric .\nmuch like raccoons , the crab - eating macaque is keen to take advantage of human activities . macaques make themselves pests to farmers , stealing crops like rice , fruit , sugarcane and taro . they even will steal food from the garbage in cities and villages . unfortunately , these primates can be dangerous . macaques have long canine teeth that can be used to display threatening behavior and even attack enemies .\n1997 . female dominance relationships and food competition in the sympatric thomas langur and long - tailed macaque .\nreferred to as the cynomolgus monkey . in its natural environment , the long - tailed macaque is found\nb mean frequency of macaque - to - human interactions for each behavior investigated across all observation sites .\nin addition to what nishrat has written , crab - eating macaque has a long tail which is the size of its body . their tails also provide balance to their body . they vary in color from light brown to grayish brown fur that covers their legs and arms . they are very sociable and live in groups of about 5 to 60 individuals . they have sharp nails and fingers and toes to help them grip on to things . they also have human life hands . they do not only eat crabs but half of their diet is made up of fruits , nuts and seeds . since they look similar to humans they are our competitors because they eat the same types of foods as we do . crab - eating macaque . ( n . d . ) . retrieved may 17 , 2015 , from urltoken\nm . thibetana , the milne - edwards ' s macaque , is from central china . it is the largest macaque , very short - tailed , dark brown with a bushy pale beard and cheek whiskers .\nsome macaques are nearly tailless , such as the stump - tailed macaque ( m . arctaides ) , some are tailless , such as the barbary ape ( m . sylvanus ) and some have long tails , such as rhesus monkey ( m . mulataa ) . the crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) , also known as the cynomolgus monkey and long - tailed macaque , has a very long tail , which is longer than the body , with the body length of the adult monkey about 38 to 55 centimeters ( 15 to 22 inches ) and the tail typically 40 to 65 centimeters ( 16 to 26 inches ) .\nin their natural range , crab - eating macaques ( macaca fascicularis ) are occasionally used as a food source for some indigenous forest dwelling peoples . in mauritius , they are sold to the pharmaceutical industry with a value of approximately us $ 1500 per individual , and in angaur , palau they are sold as pets .\nbertram , b . and ginsberg , j . 1994 . monkeys in mauritius : potential for humane control ( confidential report by the zoological society of london commissioned by the rspca ) : 25 . summary : confidential report summarising the problems posed by crab - eating macaques on mauritius and the feasibility of humane population control .\n1996 . sexual behaviour and mating system of the wild pig - tailed macaque in west sumatra . in :\nthe booted macaque ( macaca ochreata ) is a macaque of the sulawesi island , indonesia . the booted macaque monkey is diurnal ( active during the daytime ) and spends most of the day in the trees . they can grow to a length of 50 \u2013 59 centimetres long plus a tail of 35 \u2013 40 centimetres .\n) single nucleotide divergence between macaque species in 100 - kb windows across the genome . heterozygous variants were ignored in this calculation . the divergence of x chromosomes between the two rhesus macaque subspecies was a significant outlier (\nbats are important pollinators in our ecosystem . contrary to popular belief , bats in singapore do not harm people and have a diet consisting mainly of fruits or insects . fruit - eating bats pollinate the beautiful flowers you see around your neighbourhood while insect - eating bats control insect populations ( including mosquito populations ) !\nclassified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 2 ) . subspecies : dark - crowned long - tailed macaque , macaca fascicularis atriceps , the burmese long - tailed macaque , m . f . aureus , the simeulue long - tailed macaque , m . f . fuscus , the kemujan long - tailed macaque , m . f . karimondjawae , the lasia long - tailed macaque , m . f . lasiae , and the maratua long - tailed macaque , m . f . tua , are classified as data deficient ( dd ) , the con song long - tailed macaque , m . f . condorensis , and the nicobar long - tailed macaque , m . f . umbrosa , are classified as vulnerable ( vu ) , the long - tailed macaque , m . f . fascicularis is classified as least concern ( lc ) and the philippine long - tailed macaque , m . f . philippensis , is classified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nuses in their natural range , crab - eating macaques ( macaca fascicularis ) are occasionally used as a food source for some indigenous forest dwelling peoples . in mauritius , they are sold to the pharmaceutical industry with a value of approximately us $ 1500 per individual , and in angaur , palau they are sold as pets .\ncrab - eating macaques ( macaca fascicularis ) may negatively impact biodiversity by eating the eggs and chicks of endangered forest birds . they compete with native birds for resources such as native fruits . they may aggravate the negative effects of exotic plant species by consuming their fruits and aiding dispersal of their seeds . macaques feed on sugar cane and other crops , affecting agriculture and livelihoods , and can be aggressive towards humans . macaques may carry potentially fatal human diseases , including b - virus .\nto characterize the polymorphisms of several important variants between the ce and cr macaques , we carried out a population survey in 33 unrelated ce macaque individuals of vietnamese origin and 28 cr macaque individuals using pcr amplification and sequencing .\nthe moor macaque ( macaca maura ) is an macaque with brown / black body fur with a pale rump patch and pink bare skin on the rump . it is about 50 \u2013 58 . 5 centimetres in length . the moor macaque monkey eats figs , bamboo seeds , buds , sprouts , invertebrates and cereals in tropical rainforests .\n30 % of the ce macaque genome is of cr macaque origin . we next sought to identify putative introgression regions ( pirs ) in the macaque . we noted that if a given chromosomal region had originated as a consequence of hybridization between ce macaques and cr macaques , the sequence diversity between ce macaques and cr macaques ( denoted as\nhappel r ( 1988 ) seed - eating by west african cercopithecines , with reference to the possible evolution of bilophodont molars . am j phys anthropol 75 : 303\u2013327\ngeneral impacts crab - eating macaques ( macaca fascicularis ) may negatively impact biodiversity by eating the eggs and chicks of endangered forest birds . they compete with native birds for resources such as native fruits . they may aggravate the negative effects of exotic plant species by consuming their fruits and aiding dispersal of their seeds . macaques feed on sugar cane and other crops , affecting agriculture and livelihoods , and can be aggressive towards humans . macaques may carry potentially fatal human diseases , including b - virus .\n\u2014 ( ma ka k ) s . m . et f . 1\u00b0 genre de singes \u00e0 t\u00eate plate et \u00e0 queue courte . un macaque . une macaque . 2\u00b0 ver macaque , ver maringouin , flugacuru , ou berne , larves , dans l am\u00e9rique m\u00e9ridionale , qui sont redout\u00e9es \u00e0 l \u00e9gal des moustiques ; dites , \u2026 \u2026\n\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014 , 1973 . blood protein variations in asian macaques . iii . characteristics of the macaque blood protein polymorphism .\nthe rhesus macaque ( macaca mulatta ) , often called the rhesus monkey , is one of the best known species of old world monkeys . it is a typical macaque , common throughout afghanistan to northern india and southern china .\nwe sequenced the genomes of a female cr macaque and a female ce macaque using a whole - genome shotgun strategy on a next - generation sequencing platform . briefly mitochondrial genome sequence analysis verified the predicted origin of both individuals (\nunder this definition , a negative indicates that cr macaque is closer to ce macaque than to ir macaque . to filter out the regions where the cr macaque sequence was closer to ce macaque by chance alone , we generated simulation data assuming a neutral model using parameters estimated by demographic analysis . the demographic model used for simulation assumed no migration between ce macaque and cr macaque . the program ms 26 was used to generate segregating sites for the three macaques . then , we calculated r diff for each window in the simulated data . the 1 % quartile of r diff in the simulated data was used as a cut - off ( denoted as r cutoff ) , that is p ( r diff < = r cutoff ) = 0 . 01 , for all windows in simulated data .\nmhc class i a region diversity and polymorphism in macaque species . otting n , et al . immunogenetics 2007 may\nmacaques are similar in genetic makeup to humans and have similar immunological , neurological , and reproductive systems ( shidler 2007 ) . combined with the fact that some , such as the rhesus monkey and the crab - eating monkey , adapt well to captivity and are not endangered in the wild , they are popular animals for use in medical and scientific research ( shidler 2007 ) . the rhesus monkey ( macaca mulatta ) , for example , is used in research projects involving understanding genetic and reproductive disorders , exploring age - related health conditions , and developing an aids vaccine ( shidler 2007 ) . the cynomolgus monkey or crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) is best known for its use as the first test animal in clinical studies for development of the polio vaccine ( shidler 2007 ) .\nthe females have a rigid hierarchy with infants inheriting their mother\u2019s rank . female gestation period is 173 days , females bear only one young , which weighs about 500 grams at birth . the japanese macaque has an average life span of 30 years . the japanese macaque is very smart . it is the only animal other than humans and raccoons that is known to wash its food before eating it .\nthe moor macaque is sometimes called dog - ape because of its dog - like muzzles , although they are no more closely related to apes than any other old world monkey . the moor macaque inhabits only sulawesi ( indonesia ) .\nso , what ' s the problem with having an extra guest at the table ? crab - eating macaques have a highly varied diet . they compete with native species for all types of food , and can decimate local bird populations by dining on eggs . without natural predators , their population booms out of control and can outcompete native species .\nthis animal has several common names . it is often referred to as the long - tailed macaque due , unsurprisingly , to its unusually long tail that is often longer than the body . the species is also commonly known as the crab - eating macaque because it is often seen foraging beaches for crabs . another common name for m . fascicularis is the cynomolgus monkey , which literally means\ndog - milker\nmonkey ; this is the name most commonly used in laboratory settings . in indonesia , m . fascicularis and other macaque species are known generically as kera , possibly because of the high - pitched alarm calls they give when in danger (\nkrra ! krra !\n) .\n) . in addition , > 93 % of 50 - kb genomic windows displayed a lower divergence rate between the ce and cr macaques in comparison with the ce and ir macaques . therefore , unsorted ancestral polymorphisms could not entirely explain the high proportion of inconsistent regions observed between the ce macaque and cr macaque . furthermore , by combining previous single nucleotide polymorphism ( snp ) data from ir and cr macaque populations with data from our own sequenced cr and ce macaque individuals\ncrab - eating , or long - tailed , macaques ( m . fascicularis ) of southeast asia have whiskered brown faces ; they live in forests along rivers , where they eat fruit and fish for crabs and other crustaceans . rhesus monkeys ( m . mulatta ) are native to northern india , myanmar ( burma ) , southeast asia , and eastern\u2026\nthe cynomolgus , or crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) is native to southeast asia . they are widely distributed in malaysia , indonesia and the philippines . they inhabit tropical forests , but are quite tolerant of captive housing and diets . there are several major breeding colonies in the u . s . , but large numbers of these animals can be imported from indonesia and other sources , making them readily available to laboratories at much lower cost than rhesus monkeys .\nthat one always loses the best specimens , is proverbial : this monkey was the biggest macaque i had ever seen .\nfuentes a . patterns and context of human\u2013macaque interactions in gibraltar . in : hodges jk , cortes kj , editors .\nthe long - tailed macaque \u2013 an ecologically important animal with a society that is similar to ours in many ways .\nnparks has carried out research collaborations with local and international researchers since 2003 , which help to manage our macaque population .\nmacaca fascicularis ( primates : cercopithecidae ) long - tailed macaque by tan qiao hao joys , 2014 , on taxo4254 .\nnative to southeast asia , the crab - eating macaque is an adaptable species that has spread to many parts of the world . these primates are far from endangered , and have actually been classified as an invasive species due to their disruption in non - native ecosystems . although they are native to southeast asia , they are now found in parts of mainland asia , mauritius island in the indian ocean , and some islands in indonesia due to human introduction of the species .\nhowe hf ( 1986 ) seed dispersal by fruit - eating birds and mammals . in : murray dr ( ed ) seed dispersal . academic press , sydney , pp 123\u2013189\n( a ) schematic of protein encoded by trim5 in macaque . annotated functional domains are marked with the names of domains in the colored boxes . the positions of nonsynonymous polymorphisms and the two - amino - acid deletion ( in red ) are marked . ( b ) the frequencies of all the nonsynonymous polymorphisms and the two - amino - acid deletion in the cr macaque and ce macaque populations . the frequency is counted for the genotype that appears in the ir macaque reference .\nfuruichi , t . ( 1983 ) . interindividual distance and influence of dominance on feeding in a natural japanese macaque troop .\nyamada , m . ( 1963 ) . a study of blood - relationship in the natural society of the japanese macaque .\n. we\u2019ll get back to the macaque in a moment , but , for now , let\u2019s move on to our wrasse .\na rhesus macaque monkey sits on a perch at the national institutes of health ' s animal center in poolesville , md .\nthe lion - tailed macaque primarily eats fruits , however , it also eats leaves , buds , insects and small vertebrates .\ndistribution and status of long - tailed macaque ( macaca fascicularis aurea i . geofroy saint - hilaire , 1830 ) in bangladesh\nthe bonnet macaque ( macaca radiata ) is a macaque that resides in india . the bonnet macaque is a diurnal monkey which means it is mostly active during the daytime . bonnet macaques are around 35 \u2013 60 centimetres long plus a tail of 35 \u2013 68 centimetres . male bonnet macaques weigh 5 . 5 to 9 kilograms and females 3 . 5 to 4 . 5 kilograms .\nnatural predators of crab - eating macaques ( macaca fascicularis ) include large carnivores ( panthers and sun - bears in java ) , snakes and possibly large raptors . some primate taxonomists consider m . fascicularis to be more of a species group or superspecies , as it has a complex relationship with other species such as m . mulatto , m . cyclopis , and m . fuscata .\nthe common macaque is a strong , well - built monkey , of a dark grey colour , with a short stubby tail .\nwe constructed 19 and 18 paired - end libraries , with spanning size ranges of 200 bp to 10 kb ( supplementary section 1 ) , from the cr macaque and ce macaque , respectively . the libraries were prepared following the manufacturer ' s standard instructions and sequenced on illumina hiseq ( 2000 ) platform . whole genome sequencing was done as described previously 22 . a total of 178 . 98 gb data and 198 . 39 gb data were generated from these libraries for the cr macaque and ce macaque , respectively .\nnotes natural predators of crab - eating macaques ( macaca fascicularis ) include large carnivores ( panthers and sun - bears in java ) , snakes and possibly large raptors . some primate taxonomists consider m . fascicularis to be more of a species group or superspecies , as it has a complex relationship with other species such as m . mulatto , m . cyclopis , and m . fuscata .\nand human genome sequences . about 97 % of cr macaque scaffolds and 92 % of ce macaque scaffolds could be placed onto chromosomes . we also applied rna - seq to profile transcripts in various tissues from one ir macaque and two ce macaques ( online methods ) . an integrated analysis combining genomic and transcriptome data was then used to define transcript structure and ascertain the expression profile of each gene (\ncrab - eating macaques are arboreal primates living in many habitats of southeast asia , but they have become an invasive species in nearby islands and mainland asia . they are small with long tails , gray fur , and pinkish - brown faces , and sharp canines that are used to fight predators and each other . they are frugivorous , eating a diet mostly of fruit , but also flowers , leaves , insects , eggs , sea animals and even human garbage . they live in large troops with dominant males and females . females give birth to one offspring , but demonstrate limited parental care .\nbut of course , there must be a reason for their name . crab - eating macaques that live near water particularly in coastal forests or mangroves are known for their seafood diet . they can be seen scavenging for crabs and frogs near the water . species in indonesia have even evolved to become strong swimmers . they dive for aquatic species , such as crabs that are underwater , shrimps , and octopuses .\nfuentes a , kalchik s , gettler l , kwiatt a , konecki m , jones - engel l . characterizing human\u2013macaque interactions in singapore .\nthe development of disease in baboons is somewhat slower than in the rhesus macaque . infection of wild troops with bovine tb has been described (\nmacaque monkeys that have developed the ability to use stone tools to open shellfish are in danger of losing the skill because of human development .\nsource / reference article learn how you can use or cite the japanese macaque article in your website content , school work and other projects .\nlocal dispersal methods escape from confinement : the risk of pet crab - eating macaques ( macaca fascicularis ) escaping and forming new populations is significant as many people import these animals to keep or sell as pets ( kemp and burnett , 2003 ) . natural dispersal ( local ) : the home range of crab - eating macaques ( macaca fascicularis ) varies greatly depending on the location and whether they are in their native range or an introducted range . in their native range the home range size may vary from between 50 hectares and 100 hectares . the mean troop home range in their introduced range is estimated to be only 800 m\u00b2 in mauritius ( sussman and tattersall , 1986 , carter and bright , 2002 ) . in their introduced range in papua ( indonesia ) the home range size may vary between 3 hectares and 22 hectares .\nthe scientific name of the crab - eating macaque is macaca fascicularis . macaca comes from the portuguese word macaco , which was picked up from makaku , a fiot ( west african language ) word ( kaku means ' monkey ' in fiot ) . fascicularis is latin for ' a small band or stripe ' . sir thomas raffles , who gave the animal its scientific name in 1821 , did not specify what he meant by the use of this word , although it is presumed it had something to do with his observation of the animal ' s color ."]}
{"id": 1594, "summary": [{"text": "opisthoproctus soleatus is a species of fish in the family opisthoproctidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was first described in 1888 by l\u00e9on vaillant .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the species lives in most tropical seas , but is more common from western ireland to mauritania and from sierra leone to angola and in the south china sea .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "o. soleatus can grow to a standard length of 10.5 centimetres ( 4.1 in ) and usually live from about 500 to 700 metres ( 1,600 to 2,300 ft ) deep .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this species is the only member of its genus . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "opisthoproctus soleatus", "paragraphs": ["froese , rainer , and daniel pauly , eds . ( 2012 ) .\nopisthoproctus soleatus\nin fishbase . february 2012 version .\njustification : european regional assessment : least concern ( lc ) opisthoproctus soleatus is circumglobal in temperate to tropical waters and is thought to be rare . however , it is described as more common in the northeastern atlantic and adjacent regional waters than other areas of its range . life history information is limited for this species . opisthoproctus soleatus is not of interest to fisheries and there do not appear to be any major threats . therefore , o . soleatus is assessed as least concern .\ntrewavas , e . 1933 . on the structure of two oceanic fishes , cyema atrum gunther and opisthoproctus soleatus vaillant . proc . zool . . soc lond . . 2 : pp . 601 - 614 , pl . 1 - 2 .\nillustrations and photographs of freshly caught sole - bearing opisthoproctids ( a\u2013d ) . a , monacoa grimaldii , after zugmayer ( 1911 ) . b , m . grimaldii , zmub 18926 , freshly caught , photo by d . shale . c , opisthoproctus soleatus , after brauer ( 1906 ) . d , o . soleatus , photo by s . johnson . note the large snout and developed anal fin in m . grimaldii separating the two genera .\nbekker , v . e . 1968 . novye darmye o mezopelagicheskikh rybakh roda opisthoproctus vaillant . vop . ikhtiol , 8 ( 2 ) 49 : 241 - 246 .\nscientific synonyms and common names opisthoproctus soleatus vaillant , 1888 synonyms : opisthoproctus soleatus vaillant , 1888 , poissons , exp\u00e9d . scient . ' travailleur ' et ' talisman ' : 105 , pl . 14 ( sg . l - la ) ( off coast of mororco ) . holotype : mnhn no . 83 - 62 . opisthoproctus soleatus : brauer , 1906 : 15 , pl . 1 ( fig . 8 - 10 ) murray & hjort , 1912 : 90 , 94 , 602 , 611 , fig . 72 schmidt , 1918 : 28 , fig . 18 roule & angel , 1933 : 35 , pl . 2 ( fig . 16 - 19 trewavas , 1933 : 601 , fig . 4 - 8 , pl . 2 parr , 1937 : 33 , fig . 9 - 13 maul , 1949 : 19 , fig . 7 marshall , 1960 : 27 , fig . 14d cohen , 1964 : 65 , fig . 20 bertelsen & munk , 1964 : 4 , fig . 1 - 5 bekker , 1968 : 241 geistdoerfer et al . , 1971b : 1181 . common names : none\nbertelsen , e . ; munk , 0 . 1964 . rectal light organs in the argentinoid fishes opisthoproctus and winteria . dana rep . , ( 62 ) : 17 p . , pl . 1 - 2 .\nsnout slightly pointed , relatively rounded , not protruding into tube ( 10\u201315 % sl ) ; anal fin retrorse , often absent ; sole length approx . 90 % sl ; dorsal fin base approx . 20 % sl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . opisthoproctus soleatus\nfish illustrations included for all short - bodied opisthoproctids and other representative protacanthopterygians , including all sole pigmentation patterns currently recognized in the genus monacoa . note the relatively large molecular distance separating the two genera opisthoproctus and monacoa , supporting generic status based on morphology .\nalthough united by the sole , the two opisthoproctus species show striking differences concerning the snout and in the configuration of the anal fin ( fig 1 ) . these differences convinced chapman [ 17 ] of generic status and he erected o . grimaldii to grimaldia grimaldii , although renamed to monacoa grimaldii by whitley [ 18 ] as the former name was linked to a previously described genus of amphipods . the only subsequent change to the classification of sole - bearing opisthoproctids occurred when cohen [ 19 ] removed the genus name monacoa , largely because only two sole - bearing opisthoproctids were known and therefore rendering generic status trivial . considering the substantial morphological differences between the two previously recognized species , in combination with the two additional species presented in the current study , and including unambiguous molecular support , the generic status of monacoa is resurrected and opisthoproctus is from here on only used in reference to o . soleatus .\nthe protacanthopterygian mitogenomic ml - phylogenetic tree shows the family opisthoproctidae sister family to the argentinidae . short - bodied opisthoproctids are found monophyletic with sole - bearing opisthoproctids representing the sister clade to macropinna microstoma . the three species of monacoa are found relatively distinct from other ophistoproctids , including opisthoproctus soleatus , with interspecific edge lengths ranging between 4\u20136 % within monacoa . the juvenile specimen included shows almost 100 % dna sequence similarity to adults of m . griseus , with only 12 ( 0 . 07 % ) and 14 ( 0 . 08 % ) base pairs differences comparing the whole mitogenomes . the atlantic species m . grimaldii and the pacific species m . griseus are supported as sister taxa , both constituting a sister clade to the pacific m . niger . all nodes are supported by bootstrap values of 100 except a node denoting two specimens of m . griseus showing almost complete dna sequence identity ( fig 6 ) .\nthe orientation of the anal fin base changes through development , being almost horizontally positioned in the juveniles and transforming into the oblique or almost vertical position observed in adult monacoa species . the anal fin is located on the outer posterior margin of the sole , with the transformation into adulthood resulting in a different orientation also noted by schmidt [ 47 ] when only one juvenile specimen was known . noteworthy , the anal fin is present in juveniles of the closely related o . soleatus , although becoming reduced , retrorse or disappears in larger specimens .\nin order to avoid confusion utilizing comparative material degraded by preservation without molecular tissue available , we have not included eastern pacific and indian ocean material for the purpose of this study . inclusion of additional preserved material would only confuse the species separation at this point ( fig 4 ) . we note that bekker [ 42 ] only listed o . soleatus from the indian ocean , monotypic and considered circumglobal at this point . considering the mesopelagic habitat of monacoa spp . , we expect m . griseus and m . niger to be present across the pacific ocean .\nfresh material is therefore needed in order to establish pigmentation and distribution patterns of monacoa spp . more satisfactorily . however , indications are that m . grimaldii is found in the atlantic ocean and m . griseus and m . niger are found in the pacific ocean . this is supported from pigmentation patterns listed for the type material of m . grimaldii by zugmayer ( table 3 ) that unambiguously show both specimens to have the four - spot pattern ( fig 5b ) . the two specimens of m . grimaldii have only 31 verterbrae as opposed to 34 or more in m . niger and m . griseus . however , the latter is based on few specimens ( tables 2 and 3 ) . chapman [ 17 ] noted that the differences observed between m . grimaldii and o . soleatus warrant generic status and we confirm this notion with two new species of monacoa and mitogenomic data ( figs 3 and 6 ) .\nthe light and dark musculatures of m . grimaldii specimens , preserved in ethanol only , are apparently not taxonomic informative , as this feature is also found in formalin fixed and ethanol preserved specimens of m . griseus . however , the holotype of m . niger shows a very different body coloration ( scale pockets ) freshly caught compared to congeners and probably distinguishes this species on this feature ( fig 3 ) . one formalin fixed specimen is showing a very dark body color ( ams i . 25919 - 001 ) and one juvenile is also appearing much darker than the other preserved juvenile specimens ( ams i . 20942 - 001 ) . we have tentatively identified them as m . niger although the body coloration of the different species is also an issue that requires future verification from fresh material and subsequent fixation ( figs 3 and 4 ) . variation in body color was noted by bekker [ 42 ] although only as variable between m . grimaldii and o . soleatus .\nthe family opisthoproctidae ( barreleyes ) constitutes one of the most peculiar looking and unknown deep - sea fish groups in terms of taxonomy and specialized adaptations . all the species in the family are united by the possession of tubular eyes , with one distinct lineage exhibiting also drastic shortening of the body . two new species of the mesopelagic opisthoproctid mirrorbelly genus monacoa are described based on pigmentation patterns of the \u201csole\u201d\u2014a unique vertebrate structure used in the reflection and control of bioluminescence in most short - bodied forms . different pigmentation patterns of the soles , previously noted as intraspecific variations based on preserved specimens , are here shown species - specific and likely used for communication in addition to counter - illumination of down - welling sunlight . the genus monacoa is resurrected from opisthoproctus based on extensive morphological synaphomorphies pertaining to the anal fin and snout . doubling the species diversity within sole - bearing opisthoproctids , including recognition of two genera , is unambiguously supported by mitogenomic dna sequence data . regular fixation with formalin and alcohol preservation is shown problematic concerning the retention of species - specific pigmentation patterns . examination or photos of fresh material before formalin fixation is shown paramount for correct species recognition of sole - bearing opisthoproctids\u2014a relatively unknown issue concerning species diversity in the deep - sea pelagic realm .\ngreek , opisthe = behind + greek , proktos = anus ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; bathypelagic ; depth range 300 - 800 m ( ref . 6542 ) , usually 500 - 700 m ( ref . 6542 ) . deep - water ; 51\u00b0n -\ncircumglobal in tropical to temperate waters . eastern atlantic : western ireland to mauritania and from sierra leone to angola ( ref . 6542 ) . south china sea ( ref . 74511 )\nmaturity : l m ? , range 1 - ? cm max length : 10 . 5 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 6542 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 11 - 13 ; anal spines : 0 . sides of body dark ; head below and behind eye sprinkled with large melanophores ; snout translucent ventrally , transparent dorsally ( ref . 6597 ) . anal fin either with 2 - 3 rudimentary rays or not visible externally ( ref . 6597 ) .\nmesopelagic ( ref . 58302 ) . probably not exhibiting vertical migration ( ref . 6686 ) . the limits of its distribution coincide with the 400m - isotherm for 8\u00b0c ( ref . 6542 ) .\nqu\u00e9ro , j . - c . , 1990 . opisthroproctidae . p . 241 - 243 . in j . c . quero , j . c . hureau , c . karrer , a . post and l . saldanha ( eds . ) check - list of the fishes of the eastern tropical atlantic ( clofeta ) . jnict , lisbon ; sei , paris ; and unesco , paris . vol . 1 . ( ref . 6542 )\n) : 1 . 5 - 5 . 7 , mean 3 . 1 ( based on 89 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01995 ( 0 . 00906 - 0 . 04395 ) , b = 3 . 01 ( 2 . 83 - 3 . 19 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 6 \u00b10 . 1 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 26 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nis circumglobal in temperate to tropical waters and is known to be rare . it is not of interest to fisheries and there do not appear to be any major threats . it is listed as least concern .\nis circumglobal in temperate to tropical waters ( carter 2002 ) . this species is also reported from the south china sea and over the iberian basin ( byrkjedal\noccurs from western ireland to mauritania and from sierra leone to angola in the eastern atlantic . the depth range for this species is 300 - 800 m but it usually occurs from 500 - 700 m ( quero 1990 ) . this species has also been reported from the gulf of guinea at 4 , 000 m ( noaa 2012 ) .\nangola ; anguilla ; antigua and barbuda ; aruba ; bahamas ; barbados ; benin ; bermuda ; bonaire , sint eustatius and saba ; brazil ; british indian ocean territory ; brunei darussalam ; cameroon ; cape verde ; china ; christmas island ; cocos ( keeling ) islands ; colombia ; comoros ; congo ; congo , the democratic republic of the ; c\u00f4te d ' ivoire ; cuba ; cura\u00e7ao ; disputed territory ( paracel is . , spratly is . ) ; dominica ; dominican republic ; equatorial guinea ; france ( france ( mainland ) ) ; french guiana ; french southern territories ( mozambique channel is . ) ; gabon ; ghana ; grenada ; guadeloupe ; guernsey ; guyana ; haiti ; hong kong ; india ; indonesia ; ireland ; jamaica ; japan ; jersey ; kenya ; kiribati ; liberia ; madagascar ; malaysia ; maldives ; marshall islands ; martinique ; mauritania ; mayotte ; micronesia , federated states of ; montserrat ; morocco ; mozambique ; nauru ; nicaragua ; nigeria ; palau ; panama ; papua new guinea ; philippines ; portugal ( azores , madeira , portugal ( mainland ) , selvagens ) ; puerto rico ; r\u00e9union ; saint barth\u00e9lemy ; saint helena , ascension and tristan da cunha ( ascension , saint helena ( main island ) ) ; saint kitts and nevis ; saint lucia ; saint martin ( french part ) ; saint vincent and the grenadines ; sao tom\u00e9 and principe ; seychelles ; sierra leone ; sint maarten ( dutch part ) ; solomon islands ; somalia ; spain ( canary is . , spain ( mainland ) ) ; sri lanka ; suriname ; taiwan , province of china ; tanzania , united republic of ; togo ; tokelau ; trinidad and tobago ; turks and caicos islands ; tuvalu ; united kingdom ; united states ; united states minor outlying islands ( howland - baker is . , johnston i . , us line is . ) ; venezuela , bolivarian republic of ; viet nam ; virgin islands , british ; virgin islands , u . s . ; wallis and futuna ; western sahara ; yemen\nspecies in the family opisthoproctidae are oviparous , feed mainly on small crustaceans , mostly copepods and have pelagic eggs and larvae ( carter 2002 ) .\nthe limits of its distribution coincide with the 400 m - isotherm for 8\u00b0c ( qu\u00e9ro 1990 ) . the maximum length for\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n: iiving mainly between 500 and 700 m , but ranging between about 300 and 800 m . probably not a vertical\nbrauer , a . 1906 . die tiefseefische . 1 . systematischer teil . wiss . ergebn . dt . tiefsee - exped . ' valdivia ' , iena , 15 ( 1 ) : pp . 1 - 432 , 18 pl . , 176 fig .\ncohen , d . m . 1964a . suborder argentinoidea . mem . sears found . mar . res . , new haven , 1 ( 4 ) : pp . 1 - 70 .\ngeistdoerfer , p . ; hureau , j . c . ; rannou , m . 1971b . liste pr\u00e9liminaire des esp\u00e8ces de poissons de profondeur r\u00e9colt\u00e9es au cours de la campagne ' noratlante ' du n . o . jean charcot en atlantique nord ( aout - octobre 1969 ) . bull . mus . hist . nat . , paris , 42 ( 6 ) : 1177 - 1185 .\nmarshall , n . b . 1960 . swimbladder structure of deep - sea fishes in relation to their systematics and wology . ' discovery ' rep . , 31 : 1 - 122 , 47 fig . , pl . 1 - 3 .\nmurray , j . ; hjort , j . 1912a . the depths of the ocean . a general account of the modern science of oceanography based largely on the scientific researches of the norwegian steamer michael sars in the north atlantic . london , 1912 : pp . xx + 821 , 575 fig . , unnumbered fig . , 4 maps , 9 pl .\nparr , a . e . 1937 . concluding report on fishes with species index for articles 1 - 7 . ( fishes of the third oceanographic expedition of the ' pawnee ' . ) bull . bingham oceanogr . coll , 3 ( 7 ) : 79 pp . , fig . 1 - 22 .\nroule , l . ; angel , f . 1933 . poissons provenant des campagnes du prince albert i de monaco . r\u00e9sult . camp . scient . prince albert 1 , 86 : pp . 1 - 115 .\nschmidt , e . j . 1918b . argentinidae , microstomidae , opisthoproctidae , mediterranean odontostomidae . rep . dan . oceanogr . exped . mediterr . , 1908 - 1910 , 2 , biol . ( as ) : pp . 1 - 40 , 23 fig . , 4 charts .\nvaillant , l . 1888 . poissons in exp\u00e9ditions scientifiques du ' travailleur ' et du ' talisman ' pendant les ann\u00e9es 1880 - 1883 . masson , paris , 406 pp . , 28 pl .\nmaul , g . e . 1949d . lista sistem\u00e1tica dos peixes da madeira , 2 : 41 p . ( see also 1948b ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmoore , jon a . , karsten e . hartel , james e . craddock , and john k . galbraith\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\n) : 1 . 5 - 5 . 7 , mean 3 . 1 ( based on 89 cells ) . phylogenetic diversity index ( ref .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01995 ( 0 . 00906 - 0 . 04395 ) , b = 3 . 01 ( 2 . 83 - 3 . 19 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref .\n) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the annotation score provides a heuristic measure of the annotation content of a uniprotkb entry or proteome . this score < strong > cannot < / strong > be used as a measure of the accuracy of the annotation as we cannot define the \u2018correct annotation\u2019 for any given protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / annotation _ score ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this indicates the type of evidence that supports the existence of the protein . note that the \u2018protein existence\u2019 evidence does not give information on the accuracy or correctness of the sequence ( s ) displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ existence ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides any useful information about the protein , mostly biological knowledge . < p > < a href = ' / help / function _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\natp synthase or complex v ) produces atp from adp in the presence of a proton gradient across the membrane which is generated by electron transport complexes of the respiratory chain . f - type atpases consist of two structural domains , f\n- containing the membrane proton channel , linked together by a central stalk and a peripheral stalk . during catalysis , atp synthesis in the catalytic domain of f\nis coupled via a rotary mechanism of the central stalk subunits to proton translocation .\n< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000256\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the < a href =\nurltoken\n> gene ontology ( go ) < / a > project provides a set of hierarchical controlled vocabulary split into 3 categories : < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ ontology ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > uniprotkb keywords constitute a < a href =\nurltoken\n> controlled vocabulary < / a > with a hierarchical structure . keywords summarise the content of a uniprotkb entry and facilitate the search for proteins of interest . < p > < a href = ' / help / keywords ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information about the protein and gene name ( s ) and synonym ( s ) and about the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / names _ and _ taxonomy _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides an exhaustive list of all names of the protein , from commonly used to obsolete , to allow unambiguous identification of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ names ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section indicates the name ( s ) of the gene ( s ) that code for the protein sequence ( s ) described in the entry . four distinct tokens exist : \u2018name\u2019 , \u2018synonyms\u2019 , \u2018ordered locus names\u2019 and \u2018orf names\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been imported from another database using automatic procedures . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000313\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section indicates if the gene coding for the protein originates from the hydrogenosome , the mitochondrion , the nucleomorph , different plastids or a plasmid . the absence of this section means that the gene is located in one of the main chromosomal element ( s ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / encoded _ on ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides information on the name ( s ) of the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / organism - name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section shows the unique identifier assigned by the ncbi to the source organism of the protein . this is known as the \u2018taxonomic identifier\u2019 or \u2018taxid\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ identifier ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section contains the taxonomic hierarchical classification lineage of the source organism . it lists the nodes as they appear top - down in the taxonomic tree , with the more general grouping listed first . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ lineage ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on the location and the topology of the mature protein in the cell . < p > < a href = ' / help / subcellular _ location _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> ' subcellular location ' < / a > section describes the extent of a membrane - spanning region of the protein . it denotes the presence of both alpha - helical transmembrane regions and the membrane spanning regions of beta - barrel transmembrane proteins . < p > < a href = ' / help / transmem ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on the quaternary structure of a protein and on interaction ( s ) with other proteins or protein complexes . < p > < a href = ' / help / interaction _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> ' interaction ' < / a > section provides information about the protein quaternary structure and interaction ( s ) with other proteins or protein complexes ( with the exception of physiological receptor - ligand interactions which are annotated in the < a href =\nurltoken\n> ' function ' < / a > section ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / subunit _ structure ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on sequence similarities with other proteins and the domain ( s ) present in a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / family _ and _ domains _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018family and domains\u2019 section provides information about the sequence similarity with other proteins . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ similarities ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section displays by default the canonical protein sequence and upon request all isoforms described in the entry . it also includes information pertinent to the sequence ( s ) , including < a href =\nurltoken\n> length < / a > and < a href =\nurltoken\n> molecular weight < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequences _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is complete or not . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the checksum is a form of redundancy check that is calculated from the sequence . it is useful for tracking sequence updates . < / p > < p > it should be noted that while , in theory , two different sequences could have the same checksum value , the likelihood that this would happen is extremely low . < / p > < p > however uniprotkb may contain entries with identical sequences in case of multiple genes ( paralogs ) . < / p > < p > the checksum is computed as the sequence 64 - bit cyclic redundancy check value ( crc64 ) using the generator polynomial : x < sup > 64 < / sup > + x < sup > 4 < / sup > + x < sup > 3 < / sup > + x + 1 . the algorithm is described in the iso 3309 standard . < / p > < p class =\npublication\n> press w . h . , flannery b . p . , teukolsky s . a . and vetterling w . t . < br / > < strong > cyclic redundancy and other checksums < / strong > < br / > < a href =\nurltoken\n> numerical recipes in c 2nd ed . , pp896 - 902 , cambridge university press ( 1993 ) < / a > ) < / p >\n< p > this section provides links to proteins that are similar to the protein sequence ( s ) described in this entry at different levels of sequence identity thresholds ( 100 % , 90 % and 50 % ) based on their membership in uniprot reference clusters ( < a href =\nurltoken\n> uniref < / a > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / similar _ proteins _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section is used to point to information related to entries and found in data collections other than uniprotkb . < p > < a href = ' / help / cross _ references _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides general information on the entry . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ information _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides a mnemonic identifier for a uniprotkb entry , but it is not a stable identifier . each reviewed entry is assigned a unique entry name upon integration into uniprotkb / swiss - prot . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides one or more accession number ( s ) . these are stable identifiers and should be used to cite uniprotkb entries . upon integration into uniprotkb , each entry is assigned a unique accession number , which is called \u2018primary ( citable ) accession number\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / accession _ numbers ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section shows the date of integration of the entry into uniprotkb , the date of the last sequence update and the date of the last annotation modification ( \u2018last modified\u2019 ) . the version number for both the entry and the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > are also displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ history ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section indicates whether the entry has been manually annotated and reviewed by uniprotkb curators or not , in other words , if the entry belongs to the swiss - prot section of uniprotkb ( < strong > reviewed < / strong > ) or to the computer - annotated trembl section ( < strong > unreviewed < / strong > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nformat summary genbank genbank ( full ) fasta asn . 1 xml insdseq xml tinyseq xml feature table accession list gi list gff3\nfinds sub - sequences or patterns in the sequence and highlights the matching regions . the tool works with standard single letter nucleotide or protein codes including ambiguities and can match prosite patterns in protein sequences . more . . .\nfinds sub - sequence or patterns in the sequence and highlights the matching region . the tool works with standard single letter nucleotide or protein codes including ambiguities and can match prosite patterns in protein sequences . more . . .\noops . a firewall is blocking access to prezi content . check out this article to learn more or contact your system administrator .\nneither you , nor the coeditors you shared it with will be able to recover it again .\nreset share links resets both viewing and editing links ( coeditors shown below are not affected ) .\nmesopelagic ( ref . 58302 ) . probably not exhibiting vertical migration ( ref . 6686 ) . the limits of its distribution coincide with the 400m - isotherm for 8\u00b0c ( ref . 6542 ) .\ncircumglobal in tropical to temperate waters . eastern atlantic : western ireland to mauritania and from sierra leone to angola ( ref . 6542 ) . south china sea ( ref . 74511 )\n10 . 5 cm sl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 6542 ) )\nsides of body dark ; head below and behind eye sprinkled with large melanophores ; snout translucent ventrally , transparent dorsally ( ref . 6597 ) . anal fin either with 2 - 3 rudimentary rays or not visible externally ( ref . 6597 ) .\ndepth range based on 76 specimens in 1 taxon . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 61 samples . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 30 - 3000 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 1 . 749 - 22 . 330 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 158 - 38 . 732 salinity ( pps ) : 34 . 089 - 36 . 537 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 1 . 036 - 6 . 178 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 034 - 2 . 808 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 953 - 145 . 704 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : 30 - 3000 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 1 . 749 - 22 . 330 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 158 - 38 . 732 salinity ( pps ) : 34 . 089 - 36 . 537 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 1 . 036 - 6 . 178 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 034 - 2 . 808 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 953 - 145 . 704 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\nbathypelagic ; marine ; depth range 300 - 800 m ( ref . 6542 ) , usually 500 - 700 m ( ref . 6542 )\ndepth : 300 - 800m . from 300 to 800 meters . habitat : bathypelagic . females off hawaii mature at about 6 mm . eggs and larvae are pelagic ( ref . 6686 ) . the limits of its distribution coincide with the 400m - isotherm for 8\u00b0c ( ref . 6542 ) .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there are 2 barcode sequences available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is a sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nknown for their barrel - shaped eyes which are used to find their prey .\nthey are found in tropical - temperate waters , throughout the atlantic , pacific , and indian oceans .\nwhat little is known of barreleye reproduction indicates that the eggs and sperm are released directly into the water .\nglass frogs are generally small , ranging from 3 to 7 . 5 cm ( 1 . 2 to 3 . 0 in ) in length .\nduring the breeding season they live along rivers and streams where they lay their eggs on leaves that overhang the water .\nand has a horrific haircut . ( i\u2019m pretty sure that that\u2019s not his real hair . )\ntrump tower is a 58 - story , mixed - use skyscraper at 725 fifth avenue , at the corner of east 56th street in midtown manhattan , new york city .\nthere was no reproduction of the trump , it has been here since the world began .\nthe trump has always been a pompous , know - it - all jerk , and he always will be .\nzebra duikers are found only in closed - canopy rainforests in west africa and they are very sensitive to forest disturbance .\nzebra duikers breed year - round . mothers hide their babies for the first 2 - 3 weeks after birth and visit it , on average , four times daily for nursing . young zebra duikers have a bluish cast to their coat and very closely - spaced stripes . beginning at two months of age , the coat gradually turns golden ; adult coloration is reached by 7 - 9 months .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncitation : poulsen jy , sado t , hahn c , byrkjedal i , moku m , miya m ( 2016 ) preservation obscures pelagic deep - sea fish diversity : doubling the number of sole - bearing opisthoproctids and resurrection of the genus monacoa ( opisthoproctidae , argentiniformes ) . plos one 11 ( 8 ) : e0159762 . urltoken\ncopyright : \u00a9 2016 poulsen et al . this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\ndata availability : all relevant data are within the paper and its supporting information file .\nfunding : this research was funded by mext / jsps kakenhi grant number 26291083 , jst ( crest ) and the canon foundation . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nillustrations of the \u201csole\u201d and hyaloid body ( reflector ) found in species of the genus monacoa ( a\u2013b ) . a , the sole\u2014a large flattened structure covered with large pigmented scales . b , light organ and hyaloid body ( reflector ) , controlling bioluminescence . bioluminescence is produced in the large black light organ , a modification of the distal intestinal tract , situated above the anal opening . modified for monacoa after bertelsen & munk [ 12 ] .\nnomenclatural acts : the electronic edition of this article conforms to the requirements of the amended international code of zoological nomenclature , and hence the new names contained herein are available under that code from the electronic edition of this article . this published work and the nomenclatural acts it contains have been registered in zoobank , the online registration system for the iczn . the zoobank lsids ( life science identifiers ) can be resolved and the associated information viewed through any standard web browser by appending the lsid to the prefix \u201c urltoken / \u201d . the lsid for this publication is : urn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 713edab6 - 040a - 4067 - a842 - de592a82f29a . the electronic edition of this work was published in a journal with an issn , and has been archived and is available from the following digital repositories : pubmed central and lockss .\nphotographs , x - rays and sole pigmentation patterns of type and comparative material included for both morphological and molecular comparisons in this study .\nethanol fixation used for all specimens\u2013type material 99 . 5 % and comparative material 70 % . scale bars equal 10 mm ( a\u2013f ) . a , monacoa niger , new species , holotype , cbm - zf 14683 . note the strong pigmentation along the entire sole ( anterior part partly damaged ) . b , monacoa grimaldii , zmub 18926 , ( b * newly caught with specimen shown in fig 1b ) . c , m . grimaldii , zmub 18977 ( anterior part partly damaged ) . d , monacoa griseus , new species , holotype , cbm - zf 14677 . e , m . griseus , new species , paratype , cbm - zf 14681 ( anterior part partly damaged ) . f , m . griseus , new species , paratype , cbm - zf 14757 ( juvenile ) . insert shows protruding rectal organ being particular distinct in juveniles compared to adults .\nmonacoa niger sp . nov . holotype ( unique ) . natural history museum and institute , chiba ( cbm - zf 14683 ) , 48 . 0 mm sl unsexed specimen . holotype caught december 24\u201325 2013 , 22 : 43\u201300 : 40 local time , north - north - east off american samoa ( 05\u00b005 ' s , 170\u00b003 ' w ) at depth 0\u2013520 m ( station 2 ) .\nmonacoa griseus sp . nov . holotype . natural history museum and institute , chiba ( cbm - zf 14681 ) , 63 . 9 mm sl unsexed specimen . holotype caught january 13 2014 , 17 : 20\u201319 : 15 local time , east of new zealand ( 40\u00b006 ' s , 169\u00b058 ' w ) at depth 0\u2013521 m ( station 9 ) .\nparatype . natural history museum and institute , chiba ( cbm - zf 14677 ) , 64 . 5 mm sl unsexed specimen . paratype caught january 13 2014 , 17 : 20\u201319 : 15 local time , east of new zealand ( 40\u00b006 ' s , 169\u00b058 ' w ) at depth 0\u2013521 m ( station 9 ) .\nparatype . natural history museum and institute , chiba ( cbm - zf 14757 ) , 17 . 8 mm sl unsexed specimen . paratype caught january 13 2014 , 17 : 20\u201319 : 15 local time , east of new zealand ( 40\u00b006 ' s , 169\u00b058 ' w ) at depth 0\u2013521 m ( station 9 ) .\nmonacoa grimaldii . zoological museum university of bergen , bergen ( zmub 18926 ) , 28 . 6 mm sl unsexed specimen . caught june 28 , 2004 , at 42\u00b047 ' n , 29\u00b032 ' w off the mid - atlantic ridge in the north atlantic at fishing depth 0\u2013795 m .\nzoological museum university of bergen , bergen ( zmub 18977 ) , 34 . 0 mm sl unsexed specimen . caught june 30 , 2004 , at 41\u00b042 ' n , 29\u00b060 ' w off the mid - atlantic ridge in the north atlantic at fishing depth 205\u2013684 m .\nadult formalin fixed and alcohol preserved specimens of monacoa spp . ( a\u2013f ) , and juvenile formalin fixed and alcohol preserved specimens of monacoa spp . ( g\u2013i ) . the following species designations ( \u201ccf\u201d ) are tentative . a , monacoa cf . niger , ams i . 25919 - 001 . b , monacoa cf . griseus , ams i . 21744 - 001 . c , m . cf . griseus , ams i . 16494 - 030 . d , m . cf . griseus , ams i . 21366 - 001 . e , m . cf . griseus , ams i . 16492 - 025 . f , m . cf . griseus , ams i . 24031 - 002 . g , m . cf . niger , juvenile , ams i . 20942 - 001 . h , m . cf . griseus , juvenile , ams i . 19751 - 022 . i , m . cf . griseus , juvenile , ams i . 21748 - 001 .\nmonacoa cf . niger . ams i . 20942 - 001 , 17 . 1 mm sl ( east of cape york , queensland , australia ) ; ams i . 25919 - 001 , 33 . 1 mm sl ( east of crowdy head , new south wales , australia ) .\nmonacoa cf . griseus . ams i . 21748 - 001 , 15 . 9 mm sl ( east of botany bay , new south wales , australia ) ; ams i . 19751 - 022 , 17 . 3 mm sl ( 33\u00b020 ' s , 152\u00b017 ' e ) ; ams i . 21748 - 001 , 17 . 7 mm sl ( east of botany bay , new south wales , australia ) ; ams i . 20064 - 058 , 25 . 7 mm sl ( east of sydney , new south wales , australia ) ; ams i . 16492 - 025 , 33 . 3 mm sl ( east of sydney , new south wales , australia ) ; ams i . 16494 - 030 , 33 . 6 mm sl ( east of sydney , new south wales , australia ) ; ams i . 21744 - 001 , 47 . 4 mm sl ( east of wilsons promontory , victoria , australia ) ; ams i . 21366 - 001 , 49 . 8 mm sl ( east of newcastle , new south wales , australia ) ; ams i . 24031 - 002 , 56 . 0 mm sl ( east of newcastle , new south wales , australia ) .\nillustrations of sole pigmentation patterns found in the genus monacoa ( a\u2013d ) . a , m . niger . b , m . grimaldii . c , m . griseus . d , m . griseus ( juvenile ) . juveniles of all monacoa species are likely appearing similar to m . griseus illustrated here .\netymology : the genus name monacoa is re - erected in this study and was constructed by whitley [ 18 ] without giving any etymological reason for the chosen name . however , it is likely referring to the state of monaco in which the research expedition that sampled the two syntypes originated .\nsuggested vernacular name : long - nosed mirrorbellies . japanese : hikari - deme - nigisu .\nsize : species of monacoa are deep - bodied and relatively small fishes with a maximum sl of 64 . 5 mm for m . griseus reported at present ( this study ) . the total lengths are considerably longer although caudal fin rays always damaged .\nmonacoa niger sp . nov . : this species shows black sole pigmentation along the entire sole and possibly have a darker or more blackish body color compared to congeners ( scale pockets are darker ) . the black streak on the sole possibly consists of distinct patches posteriorly ( fig 3a and fig 5a ; table 2 ) . the holotype is slightly damaged on the sole and variation of the sole pigmentation pattern in this species must be assessed with future fresh material .\nfour different sole pigmentation patterns have currently been observed within monacoa ( a\u2013d ) and are explained in the results section .\ncbm - zf 14683 ( holotype ) . genbank / genseq : ap017322 / genseq - 1 mitogenome .\nzoobank lsid : urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : c7619c68 - c720 - 43d8 - 9400 - afef7e9be840 .\nmonacoa griseus sp . nov . : this species shows a greyish anterior part of the sole , abruptly changing just in front of the pelvic fins , to a dense pigmented posterior part . the two adult specimens of this species ( fig 3d\u20133e ; fig 5c ; table 2 ) show in addition a relatively weak irregular large blotch just in front of the change in pigmentation , centered approximately below the anterior part of the dorsal fin in the vertical plane . scale pockets are possibly relatively light .\ncbm - zf 14681 ( holotype ) . genbank / genseq : ap017326 / genseq - 1 mitogenome .\ncbm - zf 14677 ( paratype ) . genbank / genseq : ap017328 / genseq - 2 mitogenome\ncbm - zf 14757 ( paratype ) . genbank / genseq : ap017324 / genseq - 2 mitogenome\nnote : cbm - zf 14757 is a juvenile , confirmed as m . griseus from identical molecular dna sequences . juveniles discussed below .\nzoobank lsid : urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 1e9ddcc2 - 0ac2 - 41e6 - 93b5 - db9398d34058 .\nonly zmub specimens included with molecular data . all specimens , included with \u201ccf\u201d , are tentative due to formalin fixation possibly changing pigmentation patterns . sole patterns a\u2013d correspond to fig 5 .\nfour sole pigmentation patterns ( a\u2013d ) have been identified in the genus monacoa from this study and we have designated them as follows ; a ) a black streak of pigmentation , likely patchy at the posterior end , running along the entire sole , possibly covering most of the sole , although variation not presently known ( m . niger \u2014 fig 5a ) ; b ) four - spot pattern , including two distinct larger patches in between two weaker smaller patches , all located at the posterior part of the sole ( m . grimaldii \u2014 fig 5b ) ; c ) greyish uniform sole pattern in the anterior part , with a stronger tint in the anterior - posterior direction , with the posterior part abruptly turning much darker , with a poorly defined weaker patch present immediately in front of the abrupt change ( m . griseus \u2014 fig 5c ) ; d ) uniform sole with minute scattered pigmentations in no distinct patterns , appearing iridescent in fresh material ( currently observed in all juveniles across species\u2014 fig 5d ) . preservation is an important caveat concerning patterns of sole pigmentation and is discussed below . the sole pigmentation patterns of all species and the juvenile are illustrated in fig 5 .\netymology : monacoa niger sp . nov . the species derivative is originating from latin \u201cniger\u201d ( black ) referring to the black streak of pigmentation present on the sole . suggested vernacular name : black mirrorbelly . japanese : kuro - hikari - deme - nigisu .\netymology : monacoa griseus sp . nov . the species derivative is originating from latin \u201cgriseus\u201d ( grey ) referring to the uniform greyish anterior part of the sole lacking distinct patterns of pigmentation . suggested vernacular name : grey mirrorbelly . japanese : haiiro - hikari - deme - nigisu .\nsnout slightly pointed , relatively rounded , not protruding into tube ( 10\u201315 % sl ) ; anal fin retrorse , often absent ; sole length approx . 90 % sl ; dorsal fin base approx . 20 % sl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .\nsnout prominent , protruding into distinct tube ( 18\u201325 % sl ) ; anal fin present , easily discernible , situated on posterior outer margin of sole ; sole length approx . 80 % sl ; dorsal fin base approx . 25 % sl ( genus\nanterior part of sole without distinct pigmentation , posterior part darkly pigmented or showing distinct pigmented blotches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3\nmitogenomic phylogeny of argentiniformes and sole - bearing opisthoproctids using other protacanthopterygians as outgroups .\nindications are that m . grimaldii is the only species present in the atlantic ocean between approximately 45\u00b0n and 45\u00b0s , m . griseus is apparently the common monacoa species in the southwestern pacific ocean and m . niger is a tropical pacific species , although the latter is only confidently known from the holotype at present . the two ams specimens identified as m . cf . niger in this study are both from the southwestern pacific ( figs 4 and 7 ) . however , formalin fixed / alcohol preserved material are currently ambiguous concerning proper species identification ( see below ) and future molecular data and examination of fresh specimens with intact sole patterns should determine distributions more adequately .\nsquared records are tentatively identified from formalin fixed material ( fig 4 ) . reprinted from urltoken [ 39 ] under a cc by license , with permission from t . grajeda ( urltoken ) .\nthe depth ranges reported in past literature include catch data of monacoa in bathypelagic depths below 2000 m . however , no reliable data are present from closing nets and we question the occurrence of these fishes in bathypelagic depths . we note that all material used in this study were caught in mesopelagic depths above 800 m with the exact catch depths unknown .\nallometric growth changes are present in monacoa witnessed in for example the body depth to sl ( tables 1 \u2013 3 ) . this character was noted by bekker [ 42 ] to separate the two genera of sole - bearing opisthoproctids . however , the inclusion of data on several juveniles in this study shows this character ambiguous .\nthe juvenile snout of m . griseus is comically and proportionately enormous compared to the adult equivalent concerning width , length and girth ( fig 3d\u20133f ) . large snout function is also speculative at this stage . however , opisthoproctids are likely pelagic throughout most life stages , although adults might be more or less demersal [ 16 ] . large surface area for detecting water movement and organism - emitted substances seems likely at this point .\nthe peculiar appearance and lack of diagnostic traits for species identification in juveniles has obviously confused in the past . for example , clarke & wagner [ 51 ] tentatively referred a 17 . 0 mm specimen caught off hawaii to m . grimaldii , although with reservations [ 52 ] . as no juveniles that unambiguously can be referred to m . niger are known and can be compared to m . griseus ( cbm 14757 ) , we note only that the central pacific and hawaii waters possibly have both m . niger and m . griseus present .\ns1 file . jupyter notebook illustrating the illumina data processing and assembly of mitogenomes using mitobim .\nwe thank all the crew and scientists onboard the r / v hakuho - maru for assistance and sampling , e . katayama , t . p . satoh and g . shinohara ( nsmt ) for tissues and help during tsukuba visits for jyp , h . j . walker ( sio ) , k . maslenikov ( uw ) , g . langhelle ( zmub ) and d . bray ( nmvm ) for tissues , d . shale ( mar - eco ) and s . johnsen ( duke uni . ) for courtesy of photos , j . hlidberg for courtesy of illustrations , k . and e . hj\u00f8rne for help with illustrations , e . hiromitsu ( bsku ) for specimen loan , a . m . orlov ( vniro ) and s . w . knudsen ( zmuc ) for literature , k . graham , a . hay , j . king , m . lockett , m . mcgrouther , k . parkinson , j . paxton and s . reader ( ams ) for help with x - rays , photography and logistics , and two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments . we owe a special thanks to t . fukuchi ( cbm ) for help during jyp\u00b4s visit to chiba in 2014 . zff . masatoshi moku passed away before the submission of the final version of this manuscript . jan yde poulsen accepts responsibility for the integrity and validity of the data collected and analyzed .\nconceived and designed the experiments : jyp ib m . moku m . miya . performed the experiments : jyp ts m . miya . analyzed the data : jyp ch . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : jyp ts ch ib m . moku m . miya . wrote the paper : jyp . taxonomy : jyp . finalized manuscript : jyp ts ch ib m . miya .\nfroese r , pauly d , editors . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication 2011 . available :\nbetancur - r r , wiley e , bailly n , miya m , lecointre g , ort\u00ed g . phylogenetic classification of bony fishes , version 3 . 2014 . available :\nahlstrom eh , moser hg , cohen dm . argentinoidei : development and relationships . in : moser hg , richards wj , cohen dm , fahay md , kendall aw jr , richardson sc , editors . ontogeny and systematics of fishes . lawrence , ka : am soc ichthyol herpetol spec publ ; 1984 1 : pp . 155\u2013169 .\njohnson gd , patterson c . relationships of lower euteleostean fishes . in : stiassny mlj , parenti lr , johnson gd , editors . interrelationships of fishes . new york , ny : academic press ; 1996 . pp . 251\u2013332 .\nishiguro nb , miya m , nishida m . basal euteleostean relationships : a mitogenomic perspective on the phylogenetic reality of the \u2018\u2018protacanthopterygii\u201d . mol phylogenet evol . 2003 ; 27 : 476\u2013488 . pmid : 12742752\nwagner hj , douglas rh , frank tm , roberts nw , partridge jc . a novel vertebrate eye using both refractive and reflective optics . curr biol . 2009 ; 19 : 108\u2013114 . pmid : 19110427"]}
{"id": 1598, "summary": [{"text": "the common chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs ) , usually known simply as the chaffinch , is a common and widespread small passerine bird in the finch family .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the male is brightly coloured with a blue-grey cap and rust-red underparts .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the female is much duller in colouring but both sexes have two contrasting white wings-bars and white sides to the tail .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the male bird has a strong voice and sings from exposed perches to attract a mate .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the chaffinch breeds in much of europe , across asia to siberia and in northwest africa .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "the female builds a nest with a deep cup in the fork of a tree .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the clutch is typically 4 \u2013 5 eggs , which hatch in about 13 days .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the chicks fledge in around 14 days but are fed by both adults for several weeks after leaving the nest .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "outside the breeding season chaffinches form flocks in open countryside and forage for seeds on the ground .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "during the breeding season they forage on trees for invertebrates , especially caterpillars , and feed these to their young .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the chaffinch is a partial migrant ; birds breeding in warmer regions are sedentary while those breeding in the colder northern areas of its range winter further south .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the eggs and nestlings of the chaffinch are taken by a variety of mammalian and avian predators .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "its large numbers and huge range mean that chaffinch is classed as of least concern by the international union for conservation of nature . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "common chaffinch", "paragraphs": ["common chaffinch are common at feeders in their normal range , attending for most commonly offered seeds .\ndescription : common and familiar , the common chaffinch lives close to humans in the most part of its range .\ncommon chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs ) is a species of bird in the fringillidae family .\nparticularly common in wood pigeons ( columba palumbas - common wood - pigeon ) . fractured coracoid and clavicle common . ( v . w26 )\nthe common chaffinch is a singing bird and thus the \u201cchaffinch lovers\u201d breed them to take part in singing contests . some expressions that refer to its singing abilities like \u201cgay or happy as a chaffinch\u201d are still common nowadays .\nthe common chaffinch is the most common finch in western europe . it is also called a spink , from its fink or vink sounding call .\nseen occasionally in wild common buzzards ( buteo buteo - common buzzard ) . ( v . w26 )\ncommon chaffinch , hout bay , western cape , south africa . [ photo duncan robertson \u00a9 ]\nthe song of a common chaffinch is often referred to as chip chip chip chewy chewy chewy .\ncommon chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs ) a female feeding on the ground . | the internet bird collection | hbw alive\nremember that\ncommon things occur commonly\n; in wildlife casualties trauma ( physical damage ) is a common reason for presentation .\nflight : common chaffinch performs undulating flight . it hovers before to alight , displaying the white patches of wings and tail .\nsvensson 2015 . a new north african subspecies of common chaffinch fringilla coelebs . bull boc 135 ( 1 ) : 69\u009676 .\nlouse flies ( hippoboscidae family ) are common external parasites in buzzards ( buteo buteo - common buzzard ) . ( v . w26 )\nsvensson , l . 2015 . a new north african subspecies of common chaffinch fringilla coelebs . bulletin of the british ornithologists\u2019 club 135 : 69\u201376 .\nthis entry was posted in libya , north africa , taxonomy and tagged common chaffinch , endemic species and subspecies , fringilla coelebs . bookmark the permalink .\ncomplete mitochondrial genomes from four subspecies of common chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs ) : new inferences about mitochondrial rate heterogeneity , . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe common chaffinch is a widespread species in europe , and is the most common finch found there . its range extends throughout western asia , northwestern africa , the azores and madeira , and is also found on the canary islands of tenerife and gran canaria . an occasional common chaffinch may be seen in north america , but these may be escaped caged birds . an introduced colony of common chaffinches also still exists in south africa near cape town . this species prefers open woodlands , gardens and farms , and primarily eats seeds while feeding its young a diet of insects . the common chaffinch has a conservation rating of least concern .\nprotection / threats / status : common chaffinch is very common and widespread in its range . it may be vulnerable to pesticides and herbicides included in the seeds . domestic cats are their main predators . however , populations are not threatened at this moment .\nebcc . 2015 . pan - european common bird monitoring scheme . available at : urltoken .\nrange : common chaffinch is found throughout europe . it lives from western europe to western asia , middle - east , north africa and the macaronesian islands in atlantic ocean .\ndiet : common chaffinch feeds mainly on seeds taken on the ground , but it also consumes insects , spiders and earth worms , and some fallen fruits such as apples .\ncomplete mitochondrial genomes from four subspecies of common chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs ) : new inferences about mitochondrial rate heterogeneity , neutral theory , and phylogenetic relationships within the order passeriformes .\nlike the bullfinch , the chaffinch used to be a common visitor in the winter , but in recent years the numbers have dwindled and now we hardly ever see them .\nandrea corso , birding frontiers , 3 jun 2014 : identification of african chaffinch .\nrodrigues et al 2014 . genetic diversity and morphological variation of the common chaffinch fringilla coelebs in the azores . j avian biol 45 ( 2 ) : 167\u2013178 . [ pdf ]\nhabitat : common chaffinch is found in various kinds of woodlands , as deciduous or coniferous . it prefers open woodlands , and it is very common in parks and gardens , cultivated areas , orchards and hedgerows . outside the breeding season , it performs some dispersion and frequents open farmlands .\nit is neither the house sparrow nor the common blackbird but the common chaffinch which is our most abundant breeding bird . it occurs almost anywhere where there are several trees , for it is not very choosy . in winter , the chaffinch is a very common visitor to bird tables . here it mostly makes do with gleaning seeds that have fallen to the ground . since the females are a little smaller and therefore not so well adapted to winter conditions , they migrate further to the west and south than males . therefore , in switzerland and especially in northern europe , males predominate in winter . this may be the reason why the common chaffinch was given its scientific name fringilla coelebs , the \u0093bachelor finch\u0094 .\nsu\u00e1rez et al 2009 . phylogeography and genetic structure of the canarian common chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs ) inferred with mtdna and microsatellite loci . mol phylogenet evol 53 ( 2 ) : 556\u2013564 . [ pdf ]\nrodrigues , lopes , reis , resendes , ramos & trist\u00e3o da cunha ( in press ) . genetic diversity and morphological variation of the common chaffinch fringilla coelebs in the azores . j avian biol . [ abstract ]\nthe chaffinch was slow to become established in new zealand , but is now abundant throughout the country .\npopulation differentiation , historical demography and evolutionary relationships among widespread common chaffinch populations ( fringilla coelebs ssp . ) . master of science , university of toronto . full text auteur : samarasin - dissanayake , pasan advisor : baker , allan\nin this recent taxonomic paper , lars svensson described a new subspecies of common chaffinch from north cyrenaica , libya : fringilla coelebs harterti subsp . nov . until now , the birds breeding in this region were generally included in fringilla coelebs africana .\ninsects , caterpillars , seeds and nuts are common foods of the beautiful chaffinch . in the garden , you ' ll find the chaffinch enjoys rummaging around for sunflower hearts and seeds . they are a little shy and don ' t take too well to feeding openly on hanging feeders . therefore , chaffinches can often be found feeding under hedges and bird tables .\nbirds of spain common chaffinch is one of the 567 treated in lynx ' s field guide birds of spain . recommended by seo / birdlife , it contains updated information on all bird species present in spanish territories . in english . also available in spanish .\nchaffinch . adult male singing . anderson park , taradale , napier , november 2011 . image \u00a9 adam clarke by adam clarke\nthe chaffinch is one of the most common bird species in the uk and one of the top 10 most reported birds in garden birdwatch gardens . in britain , the highest breeding densities are found in southern , central and eastern england , and on upland edges in northern england and scotland .\nwith its colourful plumage and distinctive song , the chaffinch is the bird that is most commonly seen and heard in the caledonian forest .\nthe brambling is similar but has white rump and all - black tail , the chaffinch has white outer tail feathers in both sexes . they often form mixed flocks in the winter ; the brambling ' s white rump and chaffinch ' s white wing bars are diagnostic features .\ncommon chaffinch : eurasian species ; widely scattered as far as north africa , western asia , southern russia , and western siberia . accidental during migration in the maritimes and in massachusetts and maine ; found almost anywhere with scattered shrubs and trees , orchards , farmlands , parks , gardens , and suburbs .\nangus , d . j . 2013 . chaffinch . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online .\nwe present new insights into the genetic diversity and phylogeography of the common chaffinch fringilla coelebs from the azores , based on sequences of mitochondrial and nuclear genes from 44 individuals and an outgroup / comparison of 44 birds from madeira , the canary islands and the continental western palearctic . to understand the level of concordance between the genetic data and morphometric variability we analysed eight morphometric characters from 413 adult living birds from all the azores islands and compared the population genetic distances with quantitative morphometric traits . our results indicate the occurrence of gene flow among the common chaffinch populations in the archipelago revealing the lack of current genetic structure within it and the existence of two co - occurring lineages . results also indicate the existence of morphometric differences among islands that could be due to ecological features instead of island isolation . this study also confirms the genetic distance among the common chaffinch populations within macaronesia and between these archipelagos and the continental western palearctic .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs )\ntitle =\narkive species - chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe chaffinch is well known for its\nrain\ncall which is a repetitive short trill , and a loud\npink pink\ncall .\nchaffinch populations were affected in the 1950s by use of agricultural chemicals and changes in farming practice , but now seems to be doing all right .\ndespite the attentions of predators and parasites the chaffinch population in the uk is thriving , and it is the second most abundant bird in the country .\ncommon chaffinch usually returns to the same territory every year . male is very aggressive , chasing away intruders or other birds . female arrives in march . mates stay together about six weeks before to breed . the male performs courtship displays but the female may be aggressive towards him . however , they feed together on the ground .\nclement , p . 2016 . common chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . and de juana , e . ( eds ) , handbook of the birds of the world alive , lynx edicions , barcelona .\nbehaviour : common chaffinch feeds in large groups in winter , taking seeds in farmlands and gardens . but in breeding season , this bird is strongly territorial . they usually feed on the ground and often mix with other fringillidae and sparrows . it walks on the ground with fast and short steps , hops , and flies from tree to tree .\ncommon findings and reasons for presentation - crow , jay , magpie etc . considerations ( the species - specific sections should be read in association with the general physical / clinical examination section above )\nthe chaffinch is the most abundant finch in the uk . with its striking pinkish - red breast and cheeks , grey - blue crown and nape and characteristic white wing bars , the chaffinch is arguably our most ' underrated ' bird . watch carefully and you ' ll notice that throughout summer the plumage is brighter than in winter .\ncommon findings and reasons for presentation - garden birds etc . ( small passerines ) considerations ( the species - specific sections should be read in association with the general physical / clinical examination section above )\ncorso , a . , vigan\u00f2 , m . & starnini , l . 2015 . identification of african chaffinch . dutch birding 37 ( 6 ) : 392 - 402 .\nthe chaffinch is noted for its characteristic ' rain ' call , with a memorable\nchip , chip , chip . chooee , chooee , cheeoo\n. listen below .\nthe chaffinch is a sparrow - sized bird in the finch family fringillidae , in the order passeriformes , which is the taxonomic category that covers perching birds ( more than half of all bird species ) . an adult chaffinch is 14 - 16 cm . in length , with a wingspan of up to 28 cm . , and weighs 20 \u2013 25 gm .\nclement , p . ( 2018 ) . common chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nchaffinch numbers start to increase in gardens in the winter thanks to the addition of migrants from the continent . in the autumn , however , their use of gardens reflects the size of the seed crop produced by beech trees . in years where there has been a poor crop , chaffinch numbers in gardens are higher because they are taking advantage of the supplementary food provided .\nthere have been several records of african chaffinch in great britain . these birds looked very similar to african and different from european ( greenish mantle , rosy belly , grey hood ) . however , they had also some diagnostic features not found in african chaffinch ( grey wash on the breast , pale or colourless underparts , orange tone on the belly , reduced pink belly , pink tones on the ear coverts and the malar area , mantle greenish - brown ) . the british committee did not recognize them as true african chaffinch . the may be some aberrant european ones .\npredators of the chaffinch include raptors such as the sparrowhawk ( accipiter nisus ) , goshawk ( accipiter gentilis ) , merlin ( falco columbarius ) and tawny owl ( strix aluco ) . chaffinches will engage in mobbing behaviour to discourage predators , for example if they see a tawny owl roosting in a tree during the day . the pine marten ( martes martes ) will take both eggs and chicks if it finds a chaffinch nest . unlike some other similar - sized birds , the chaffinch rarely suffers from brood parasitism by the common cuckoo ( cuculus canorus ) , whereby the cuckoo dupes an unsuspecting host bird into raising a cuckoo chick as though it was its own . this is possibly explained by the fact that chaffinches have been observed making an aggressive response to cuckoos that approach their nesting sites .\nthe common chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs ) is a widespread passerine species in the west palearctic , and is a common breeder in most of europe , western asia , northern africa , and the macaronesian islands in the atlantic ocean . a total of 19 subspecies are described , whereas five of these are located on the macaronesian islands . three subspecies are found in the canary islands , one in madeira , and one in the azores . each of these three archipelagos has a unique climate and ecology , and together with the different geological age and the variation in distance to land these archipelagos provide us with a good background to study evolutionary changes and speciation .\nthe chaffinch is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) . included in the birds of conservation concern green list ( low conservation concern ) ( 4 ) .\nlibyan chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs harterti ) : a new subspecies found only in cyrenaica , north - east libya ( photo : encyclopedia of wild birds in libya \u2013 \u0645\u0648\u0633\u0648\u0639\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u064a\u0648\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0644\u064a\u0628\u064a\u0627 ) .\nchaffinch nests are cup shaped , built primarily from moss , grass and feathers , and lined with feathers and wool . these nests can often be spotted in forks of branches or buried within shrubs .\nthe chaffinch is a popular pet bird in many countries . in belgium , the ancient traditional sport of vinkenzetting pits male chaffinches against one another in a contest for the most bird calls in an hour .\nlibyan chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs harterti ) : a new subspecies found only in cyrenaica , north - east libya . ( \u200ephoto : encyclopedia of wild birds in libya \u2013 \u0645\u0648\u0633\u0648\u0639\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u064a\u0648\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0644\u064a\u0628\u064a\u0627 ) \u200e\nthe chaffinch is resident year - round and breeds in scotland . the uk population has been estimated at about 6 million pairs , and in winter this is boosted by birds , often predominantly females , which migrate southwards from scandinavia . the chaffinch\u2019s specific name \u2018coelebs\u2019 means \u2018bachelor\u2019 and was given to it based on the observation in sweden that the males stayed there over the winter , while the females moved south .\nthe natural range of the chaffinch is europe , western and central asia , the middle east and north africa . it also inhabits islands in the north atlantic . it was also successfully introduced to south africa .\ncareful examination for puncture wounds should be made in all casualties with a history of possible cat attack . in small garden birds ( passerines ) it is particularly common for bite wounds to be located on the bird ' s chest underneath the wings .\nthe average lifespan of the chaffinch is estimated at 3 years , although individuals have been known to live to a maximum of 12 or even 14 years . the song of the male chaffinch is one of the most distinctive of all bird songs in the uk and consists of a series of sharp , quick notes followed by a flourish at the end . it lasts for up to 5 seconds , and is often repeated constantly for a minute or more . the chaffinch also makes another call , consisting of a repeated trill , and this is known as the \u2018rain call\u2019 , as in the past it was thought to foretell rain .\nthe male chaffinch has a pink breast and cheeks , blue - grey crown and nape , and chestnut brown back . in summer , its bill is grey - blue , turning to pale brown in the winter .\noccurs from europe to western asia but was introduced to cape town , south africa in ca . 1898 , where it is locally common from rondebosch to tokai . it almost exclusively occupies plantations , alien woodlands , parks and gardens , rarely moving into mountain fynbos .\nthe chaffinch is common and widespread throughout scotland , except in the largely treeless areas of some of the remoter islands , such as the outer hebrides and shetland , where it is scarce or absent . it occurs wherever there are bushes , scrub or woodland , and is found in gardens , hedgerows and town parks . it is the commonest bird in the caledonian forest , living in both scots pine - and birch - dominated areas , and has also adapted to live in conifer plantations .\non the head , forehead is blackish . crown , nape and neck sides are grey . cheeks and ear - coverts are pinkish - brown , as underparts . in winter plumage , chaffinch male has same pattern but duller plumage .\ngryczynska a , dolnik o , mazgajski td . ( 1999 ) parasites of chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs ) population . part i . coccidia ( protozoa , apicomplexa ) . wiad parazytol . 45 ( 4 ) : 495 - 500 .\nthe chaffinch is our commonest finch and has striking double white wing bars . the wing bars are formed by white patches on the wing coverts , and primary and secondary wing feathers . its summer plumage is brighter that its winter plumage .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto common chaffinch\u2019s typical call when perched is a \u201cpink - pink\u201d very sharp . we can also hear a thin \u201cseee\u201d as alarm call . the flight - call is a \u201cyup - yup\u201d . the song is a short and vigorous series of descending notes ending in a \u201cchip - chip - chip - chip - chett - chett - chett - chett - diddip - diddiooo\u201d very variable . the song may be heard from far , and varies according to the region , forming local dialects .\nthe common chaffinch is a bird of the old world , with a range that covers most of europe , northwest africa , and northwestern parts of asia . a popular bird in great britain , they were also introduced in a number of former british colonies . populations persist in new zealand where they are one of the most numerous songbirds , while small populations persist in south africa . in the western hemisphere , they are rare vagrants , with most birds found near the atlantic coastline of eastern canada and the northeastern united states .\nchaffinches occupy a wide range of habitats from sea - level to 1400 m , wherever there are trees or scrub . they inhabit pine and other exotic forests , indigenous forests and sub - alpine scrub , and are common in gardens , parks , orchards and farmland with shelterbelts and hedgerows .\nyablonovska - grishchenko , grishchenko & tsvelykh 2014 . geographic variation of song of the crimean chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs solomkoi ) . berkut 23 ( 1 ) : 40\u009655 . [ abstract ] [ with thanks to alain foss\u00e9 for reporting on avianreferences . ]\nthe main food of the chaffinch is seeds , although its diet also includes berries and fruits . the chicks are fed insects , especially caterpillars , and in the breeding season the adults also eat insects . in some places , including the visitor car parks in glen affric , chaffinches have become accustomed to being fed breadcrumbs by people , particularly in the spring . in winter , the chaffinch forms large feeding groups , sometimes in mixed flocks with the closely - related brambling ( fringilla montifringilla ) .\na detailed list of the species of the family is displayed to our subscribers , showing the following columns : genus , species , common name , conservation status , figure , and the check mark . above the table , a tiny search engine is displayed to facilitate the filtering of the species .\nalarm calls have some acoustic characteristics common to a number of species . some birds tend to have relatively high - pitched , pure tone alarm calls that can make them difficult to locate . among some bird species , such as the reed bunting , blackbird , great titmouse , blue titmouse , and\nsimilar species : males are not readily confused with any other species , but the female can be mistaken for a female house sparrow . however , the female chaffinch is slimmer , lacks dark streaks on the upper surface and has prominent white wing markings .\nwith its wide geographic range , large population size and stable numbers , the chaffinch is not at risk at all , and in the iucn red list of threatened species it is classified as \u2018least concern\u2019 , meaning that it is at the lowest risk of extinction .\nfringillidae are known for their seed - eating behavior and cheery songs ; characteristics that facilitated and popularized the domestication of the island canary . finches such as white - winged crossbills are also known for their\nirruptive\nmigrations in search of food sources that can make them locally common one winter and absent the next .\nthe eggs of the chaffinch are about 20 mm by 15 mm in size , and are smooth , glossy , and light blue with purple - brown blotches . the duties of incubating the eggs are performed by the female . the newly - hatched young are fed by both adults .\ncorso , a . , vigan\u00f2 , m . & starnini , l . 2015 . identification of african chaffinch . dutch birding 37 ( 6 ) : 392 - 402 . i see that harterti also mentioned . i saw 2 pages on twitter , many photos of birds in hand and drawings .\nthe male chaffinch is unmistakeably handsome with a blue - grey cap , pink cheeks and breast and a reddish - brown mantle . females and juveniles are much duller , consisting of grey - brown upper - parts and dull greyish - white underparts . all chaffinches , however , have distinct wing bars .\nthe source of mites was a second year aged female of the common chaffinch , fringilla coelebs , which accidentally died in the mist net during a field study of tick communities of birds in dumbrava ( 46 . 825287 n , 23 . 220062 e ) , romania in march 2011 . careful examination of the specimen revealed the presence of extensive hyperkeratotic lesions on both legs . few crusts were scraped from one of the legs using a sterile scalpel blade , and mites were collected under a dissection microscope . individual mites were preserved in 96 % ethyl alcohol for further molecular analysis . the other leg was preserved in 10 % buffered formalin for subsequent histological investigation .\nthe male chaffinch establishes a breeding territory in february , usually returning to the same territory each year . the male sings and performs courtship displays to attract a female , and a pair will spend about six weeks together before breeding begins . reproduction takes place in april and may , and the female builds the\nthis section provides a general indication of the common conditions seen with uk wildlife casualties . it is not an all - encompassing overview of the diseases / conditions recorded in those species . further diagnosis and treatment of disease may require the veterinary clinician to familiarise themselves with the diseases , agents and treatment protocols from external texts and other references , or to take further advice .\nas a mainly seed - eating bird the chaffinch has a negative effect on the ability of plants to reproduce , by consuming their seeds , but this rarely makes a significant difference , because of the volume of seed produced by most plants . however , in some cases its feeding behaviour is beneficial , for instance with the berries of the rowan tree ( sorbus aucuparia ) . when the chaffinch eats those , it digests the pulp of the berries , but the seeds pass through its gut unharmed and germinate where they are deposited in its droppings \u2013 often underneath where it perches , on the branches of old scots pines ( pinus sylvestris ) .\nthe colonization history of the macaronesian islands is not well understood , but my data support the hypothesis of marshal and baker ( 1999 ) . they argue for a north african origin of the common chaffinch , and that the radiation followed two main routes : one colonizing the macaronesian islands , while the other spread northwards trough europe . a macaronesian colonization from the mainland , to the azores , trough madeira , and finally to the canary islands seems most likely . further , the homogeneity on all measured traits among the azorean populations is in contrast to the large differences between populations in the canary islands . different levels of gene flow among the azores and the canary islands can be the origin of these findings .\na number of ectoparasites , or external parasites , feed on the chaffinch , including fleas such as the european chicken flea ( ceratophyllus gallinae ) and the moorhen flea ( dasypsyllus gallinulae ) , chewing lice ( menacanthus sp . ) and three species of feather mites ( analges passerinus ) , ( monojoubertia microphylla ) and ( pteronyssoides striatus ) . the larvae of a blood - sucking blowfly ( protocalliphorus sp . ) have been found feeding on chaffinch chicks in the nest . the sheep or deer tick ( ixodes ricinus ) also occurs on the chaffinch , and some birds have been recorded containing the bacterium ( borrelia burgdorferi ) that causes lyme disease , which is transmitted by the tick . several species of intestinal parasites , or coccidia , in the genus isospora and a blood parasite ( haemoproteus sp . ) have been found in chaffinches . a virus known as fringilla papillomavirus causes a wart - like growth on the legs of chaffinches , with the warts sometimes covering a whole leg .\n\u201cas with any star athlete , like lance armstrong , what separates a champion bird from a loser is natural talent , \u201d said filip santens , a leading vinkenier , who prepares his five - time champion chaffinch for matches by pumping heavy - metal guns n\u2019 roses music into his cage and feeding him high - protein birdseed .\nthe chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs ) is one of the best - known and most common of all british birds ( 5 ) . both sexes can be easily identified in flight when they reveal double white flashes on the wings and white tail - sides ( 3 ) . in summer the males have colourful plumage , with a rosy - red breast and cheeks and a bluish - grey crown and nape of the neck . these colours fade somewhat in winter . adult females and juveniles have a buff or greyish coloured breast and greyish - green upperparts ( 2 ) . chaffinches produce a variety of calls , including a loud , clear pink call when perched ( 2 ) . the musical rattling song is also loud ( 6 ) .\nbto researchers , working alongside others involved in the garden bird health initiative , used garden birdwatch and other data to establish the impact of this disease on greenfinch and chaffinch populations . the results of this work revealed a substantial population decline in those areas where disease incidence was greatest . find out more about this work and read the paper .\na new subspecies of common chaffinch fringilla coelebs in north africa is described . it is restricted to northern cyrenaica in north - east libya . differences from the other north african subspecies , f . c . africana and f . c . spodiogenys , are discussed , the main ones being that males invariably possess a prominent white patch on the central nape , a hint of a white post - ocular supercilium , a more yellowish tinge both above and below , stronger yellow fringes to the tertials and wing - coverts , and a less clean blue - grey head . reasons for not recognising the subspecies f . c . koenigi are reconfirmed . there is some variation in size and in saturation of male plumage within the range of africana , making separation of koenigi untenable .\nwidespread throughout britain ; the chaffinch is absent only from high ground such as the scottish highlands ( 5 ) . during winter , birds from northern europe migrate to britain . it is typically the females that migrate , and linnaeus named the species coelebs , meaning \u2018the bachelor\u2019 because it was the male birds that remained in his native sweden for the winter ( 5 ) .\nmouth should be opened and checked for plaques , discoloration or necrotic areas . oral plaques are particularly common in birds of prey , pigeons and doves ( columbidae ) . a number of diseases can cause oral lesions including trichomoniasis (\ncanker\n,\nfrounce\n) , candidiasis ( see : candidiasis in waterfowl ) , avian pox and capillariasis . diagnosis of the condition requires examination of a direct wet smear and stained preparation of the lesion .\nduring the last few years it has been a female chaffinch that has visited most frequently , though occasionally a male has accompanied her . once in the garden , they seem to become almost panic stricken for no apparent reason and then disperse . this behaviour is in stark contrast to those in other areas , such as snowdonia , where they are somewhat extroverted , and is presumably because they are so few in number in our garden .\nthe chaffinch is one of the most widespread and abundant bird in britian and ireland . its patterned plumage helps it to blend in when feeding on the ground and it becomes most obvious when it flies , revealing a flash of white on the wings and white outer tail feathers . it does not feed openly on bird feeders - it prefers to hop about under the bird table or under the hedge . you ' ll usually hear chaffinches before you see them , with their loud song and varied calls .\nindeed , harterti has not included in the paper with more photos and no illustration by lorenzo , as recently has been impossible to visit lybia : - ( ( ( ( and there are very few photos of alive birds available . so , lorenzo did not wanted to work out on plates without see many photos or the birds in the field , and i did not menaged to find photos of alive birds . further , skins are not so common around . nb : the artworks by lorenzo starnini in our paper have been printed way too dark compared to the original : - ( ( (\nthe chaffinch occurs throughout all of europe and western asia , including russia , georgia , armenia , azerbaijan , turkey and northern iran . it also occurs in northwest africa , in morocco , algeria and western tunisia , and in the macaronesian islands , where there is an endemic subspecies in each of madeira and the azores , and three subspecies in the canary islands . it has been introduced from britain to new zealand , where it has become well - established , and to south africa , where there is a small population near cape town .\nrichardson & borden ( 1972 ) suggested that the braconis parasitoid coeloides vancouverensis found the location of its host , the bark beetle dendroctonus pseudotsugata , through the intervening bark by detecting the heat generated by host individuals . their evidence has since been disputed ( mills et al . 1991 ) , and i am not aware of any further instances of host or prey location by local temperature . if this were a common phenomenon , then some crypsis would be achieved by inhabiting already warm microhabitats . for example , a bark beetle might gain protection by being preferentially located to parts of trees which are reliably exposed to the warming effects of direct sunlight .\nduring the breeding season , the male chaffinch performs a courtship display , showing off his bright breeding plumage ( 6 ) . the female builds the nest ( 5 ) , typically in the fork of a tree and camouflages it with lichen and moss ( 2 ) . the female incubates the eggs alone ( 6 ) for 11 to 14 days . one brood of around four eggs is produced each year ( 5 ) . the young chaffinches will have fully fledged 13 to 14 days after hatching from the egg , and the maximum known lifespan of this species is 14 years ( 3 ) .\n. . . pteronyssoides striatus ( robin , 1877 ) ( pteronyssidae ) , a monoxenous inhabitant of the european f . coelebs [ 25 , 27 ] , presumably is not present on this host in the azores . these three hosts , turdus merula , pyrrhula murina and fringilla coelebs , are the oldest passerine species to have colonized the archipelago , doing so more than 1 million years ago [ 38 , 42 , 51 ] . one possible explanation for the absence of some common feather mites on these passerines in the azores could be the founder effect inherent to the colonization processes of isolated islands , called ' ' missing the boat ' ' by macleod et al . [ 22 ] , in which colonizing hosts may reach the islands carrying only a subset of their respective native feather mites assemblages [ 20 , 32 , 44 ] . . . .\nthe female lays 3 \u2013 5 eggs , one per day , and they are pale greenish - blue in colour with purple speckled markings . incubation is done by the female alone , and takes 11 \u2013 14 days . after hatching , the chicks are fed in the nest by the female for about 12 \u2013 16 days . once the chicks leave the nest they stay nearby , and the male joins in with feeding them , for another 15 \u2013 20 days , until they are able to feed for themselves . the chaffinch will raise either one or two broods per year . experiments have shown that male chicks need to hear the song of adult males during a critical time period after hatching , in order to become proficient singers themselves when mature .\nthe right - hand page is part of the ' ordinary of the mass ' , the central canon of the mass which is recited every time the eucharist is celebrated . this section is famous for its realistically depicted english birds , which seem to be singing in celebration alongside the chant . the birds represent a range of species found chiefly in north - east england and were probably copied from an artist ' s sketchbook . the bishops of sherborne appear in a series of miniatures and events in the development of christianity are described in roundels in the lower margins . the left - hand page has an illustration of the feeding of the five thousand , showing the biblical characters in stylised clothes , rather than 15th - century dress . birdsong : the song of the chaffinch , which can be seen in the bottom right - hand corner of page 18 , can be heard here .\nlike most finches , it features sexual dimorphism , meaning that the male and female have clear physical differences , which in the case of the chaffinch take the form of distinct colour variation between the sexes . the male is more brightly - coloured than the female , with reddish - orange underparts and cheeks , blue - grey on the top of the head and back of the neck , a green rump and double white bars on the wings , which are visible both when it is at rest and in flight . the female is duller overall , with the body being mainly greenish - brown , but the double white wing bars are similar to those on the male . the plumage of the male becomes brighter in spring , for the breeding season , and after moulting in early autumn it is paler throughout the winter until the following spring . both the male and female have a short , thick , conical beak .\na particularly satisfying study is that of the calling by katydid insects that are predated by bats , as reported by belwood & morris ( 1987 ) . in a cross - species comparison , they show that species in a habitat where bat predation was common spent less time producing mate - attraction noises ( termed singing ) than species in a nearby habitat without bats . the one species from the bat - vulnerable habitat that sang for a high proportion of time specialized in singing from a particularly spiny plant that offered excellent protection from bats . in cage experiments , the authors further demonstrated that bats took longer to locate infrequent callers and entirely failed to locate silent insects . although this study demonstrates conclusively that call production is modulated in accordance with control of predation risk , whether it is best described as hiding or \u2018crypsis\u2019 , according to my definitions in the introduction , is less clear . i would describe complete cessation of calls as hiding . if bats spend some time attempting to locate an insect ( equivalent to several inter - call intervals ) , then reduction in calling rate might usefully be described as crypsis if the longer inter - call interval disrupts localization . alternatively if bats simply pounce on any insects that reveal their position with a call when the bat happens to be passing close by , then reduction in call frequency might more usefully be described as hiding . in the first case , protection from predation occurs because the prey ' s rate of detection per unit time decreases , but the prey is always at some risk , whereas in the second case , the fraction of time when detection is possible at all is decreased . this discussion illustrated that , just as visual crypsis , evaluation of whether a specific trait is cryptic or not is a function of the ecology of the viewer as well as the focal organism .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nthis version of turning the pages does not require the shockwave plug - in . it foregoes the interactive animation that lets you ' virtually ' turn pages and brings you the same high - quality images of our greatest books in standard web pages .\nlongevity lists were in the 1970s compiled by w . rydzewski and published several times in the journal the ring . these lists were the basis for updated lists published by roland staav in euring newsletters in 1998 and 2001 . the list has successively been updated during recent years , but there are still many recoveries of old birds hidden in the archives of the ringing schemes .\nbirds ringed as full - grown or adults have been included with a minimum age based on age at ringing ( start of year set to 1st of july ) and in those recoveries are age preceded by a > .\nthe plan is to include the two oldest individuals of a species in the list and the minimum age for a recovery to be included is five years . recoveries of birds in the list where ring number and details are not included are published in atlases by those schemes .\nall schemes are kindly requested to support updates of this list . new longevity records ( either oldest or second oldest ) should be sent to the bird ringing centre at the swedish museum of natural history in stockholm by email .\nthis longevity list should be cited as : fransson , t . , kolehmainen , t . , kroon , c . , jansson , l . & wenninger , t . ( 2010 ) euring list of longevity records for european birds .\ncombined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : fringilla coelebs . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nfollowing the taxonomy applied to hbw alive , derived from the recently published hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world , this family now contains species that were formerly considered to comprise the family hawaiian honeycreepers ( drepanididae ) . see link for information on this group .\nonly subscribers have complete access to the families of the hbw alive . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nforms three well - defined subfamilies # r , including euphoniinae , previously placed in thraupidae . also includes drepanidini , sometimes treated as a separate family ( as in hbw ) , but here considered merely a tribe of carduelinae . extensive phylogenetic data available , and comparatively few species remain wholly unscreened ; nonetheless , study of internal relationships has been confounded by recurring plumage patterns and use of similar feeding niches by taxa that prove to be far from closely related .\nthe finches , as presently defined , comprise two distinct subfamilies , fringillinae and carduelinae , sometimes regarded instead as tribes , fringillini and carduelini . nevertheless , the systematics of the \u201cseed - eaters\u201d , small to medium - sized passerines with a relatively stout conical bill and . . .\nonly members are able to see the rest of the text . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now .\nfringilline and cardueline finches range in size from 9 cm to 25 cm and in mass from 8 g to 99 g . both subfamilies exhibit slight sexual size dimorphism , females being fractionally smaller than males , and both have fairly long , blunt - pointed wings and scutellate tarsi , booted at the side and . . .\nas members of a family that has evolved to exploit a wide variety of seeds within largely temperate regions , finches are most typically birds of habitats which show strong seasonal changes . these habitats produce food in localized flushes , and finches are adapted to move between them , taking . . .\nthe flight of finches is typically undulating , with periodic brief closure of the wings , at speeds which can appear quite leisurely , although this impression may be deceptive . more heavily built species such as the hawfinch achieve considerable momentum in their flights , but when covering . . .\nas finches are for the most part highly sociable species , it is unsurprising that they should have developed considerable vocabularies by which to communicate , their vocal patterns varying with the behavioural ecology of the species . fringilline finches , which hold breeding - and - feeding . . .\nfinches are specialized to varying degrees as seed - eaters . there is a certain amount of niche separation from emberizid buntings and sparrows , which tend towards grass - seed specialization supplemented by insects . . .\nfinches are almost entirely socially monogamous , at least during each nesting season , but their breeding strategies divide up largely on phylogenetic lines . fringilline finches are far more strongly territorial , and feed their young on invertebrates , with the result that breeding activity is . . .\nmigration from the breeding area is a response to reduced food availability . since , in temperate climates , seeds persist in the environment across seasonal boundaries with greater predictability and constancy than invertebrates do , seed - eating species such as finches are far less constrained . . .\ntypically , seed - eating birds such as finches are rather abundant . many have profited from the global growth in agriculture , which has produced huge areas of cultivated lands and orchards , created long lines of hedgerows and woodland edge , and broadly generated the conditions for the spread of . . .\nthe great majority of true finches , almost 90 % of the family total , enjoy a secure conservation status at the global level , being placed in the iucn category of least concern . as already noted , this is likely to be attributable , at least in part , to the fact that finches have actually profited . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to access to a lot of extra features !\nlist of species of the finches ( fringillidae ) family . each species provides information on taxonomy , descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation and bibliography .\nyou don ' t have any subscription to the hbw alive . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\ncollar , n . , newton , i . & bonan , a . ( 2018 ) . finches ( fringillidae ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncramp , s . and simmons , k . e . l . ( eds ) . 1977 - 1994 . handbook of the birds of europe , the middle east and africa . the birds of the western palearctic . oxford university press , oxford .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern ."]}
{"id": 1603, "summary": [{"text": "sir tatton sykes ( 1843 \u2013 1860 ) , who also raced under the name tibthorpe , was a british thoroughbred racehorse and sire .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in a career that lasted from spring 1846 to summer 1848 he ran eleven times and won four races .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "as a three-year-old in 1846 he won two of the three races which became known as the triple crown , taking the 2000 guineas at newmarket and the st leger at doncaster .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he was considered by some to have been unlucky when he was narrowly defeated in the epsom derby .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the rest of his career was a disappointment as he won only one race in the next two seasons .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "after being retired to stud he had some success as a sire of winners . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "sir tatton sykes", "paragraphs": ["sir tatton sykes monument , sledmere : address , phone number , sir tatton sykes monument reviews : 4 . 5 / 5\nsir tatton sykes ' memorial on the road to driffield from sledmere , east yorkshire .\nsir tatton sykes ' s 5 - generation coefficient of inbreeding is 3 . 14 % .\nit was the sykes family of sledmere house we have to thank for this , specifically the fourth baronet , sir tatton sykes , and his son the fifth baronet , also sir tatton .\nsledmere stud , one of the most important thoroughbred nurseries of the last 200 years is founded by sir tatton sykes .\nshe was discovered on february 15 at the home she shared in sledmere , east yorkshire , with her husband jeremy sykes , brother of sir tatton sykes .\nhis background notwithstanding , sir tatton sykes was not quite the textbook victorian squire . he would be largely unknown today to anyone other than racing , church and local historians , if not for the fact that sir tatton sykes was a gentleman of peculiar likes and dislikes .\nsir tatton sykes was inbred 3x4 to comus , meaning dat dis stawwion appears in bof de dird and fourf generations of his pedigree .\nt he englishman was sir mark sykes . the frenchman was fran\u00e7ois georges picot . 1\nsir tatton was clearly an odd ball - loved by his tenants but not by his son .\ntatton sykes in england & wales , death index , 1866 - 1920 & 1984 - . . .\n. . . sophia frances pakenham ( born sykes ) , katherine lucy cholmondeley ( born sykes ) , christopher sykes , eleanor sutton ( born sykes ) , emma jul . . .\nthe name\nsir tatton sykes\nhas a ring of distinction to it , and around sledmere in yorkshire , it has indeed been distinguished for quite some time . the name has been used by several generations of the sykes family , right down to the current sir tatton sykes , 8th baronet sledmere , who still inhabits the ancestral home .\n\u201cher husband jeremy was very patient with her and received much valued support from lord and lady swinton and her brother - in - law sir tatton sykes .\n. . . louisa ann sykes , sophia frances pakenham ( born sykes ) , emma julia davies - cooke ( born sykes ) , elizabeth beatrice herbert ( born sykes ) , l . . .\n. . . christopher sykes , sophia frances pakenham ( geb . sykes ) , emma julia davies - cooke ( geb . sykes ) , katherine lucy cholmondeley ( geb . sykes ) , . . .\nit was the younger sir tatton who was chiefly responsible for this astonishing legacy of churches . \u201csir tatton sykes ii has been called england\u2019s greatest 19th century church builder , \u201d says catharine otton - goulder , from bainton , who jointly founded the east yorkshire churches trust nearly ten years ago and who has worked tirelessly to protect the sykes churches .\ntoday sledmere house is lived in and looked after by 70 - year - old sir tatton sykes , the 8th baronet and one of the great yorkshire characters . sir tatton , a bachelor with a penchant for wearing cowboy boots , has stamped his own personality on the house , which gives it a unique and very personal feel .\nhe was a crucial figure in middle east policy decision - making during the first world war and his papers are a very rich source of material on policy . he was succeeded at sledmere by sir richard sykes 7th baronet ( 1905 - 1978 ) who was succeeded by the current owner sir tatton sykes ( 8th baronet ) .\nat stud , sir tatton sykes sired a few good winners , but was not a great success . he was based at a stud farm owned by mr eyke at stanton , near shifnaw in shropshire . the best of his progeny were de fiwwy ronzi , who won de prix de diane and mr sykes , who won de cesarewitch handicap . [ 5 ] sir tatton sykes died in may 1860 at stanton from\nan infwammation of de bowews\n. [ 20 ]\nmiss sykes ( fl . 1850 ) , miniaturist after sir francis grant pra ( kilgraston 1803 - melton mowbray 1878 ) , artist\nsir tatton sykes ii died on may 4 , 1913 , at the grand age of 87 . and throughout the bank holiday period next weekend all of the celebrated sykes churches on the yorkshire wolds will be open to the public , to commemorate the 100th anniversary of his death .\nmiss sykes ( fl . 1850 ) ( 2 ) sir francis grant pra ( kilgraston 1803 - melton mowbray 1878 ) ( 85 )\nbill scott has scored on a record nine occasions in this classic . jack spigot was his first winning ride in 1821 , while 25 years later he was also on board sir tatton sykes in 1846 for win number nine .\nthe estate as it presently exists was established by sir christopher sykes after the land was originally bought by wealthy hull merchant mark kirkby in 1721 .\nhistory lovers get a bonus at sledmere with a small museum devoted to the wagoners\u2019 special reserve , established by sir mark sykes , sixth baronet .\ndoncaster , later later to win the derby and ascot gold cup is bred at sledmere stud , by sir tatton sykes . a mainstay of the famous eaton stud he was later to sire the derby winner and premier sire bend or .\nhis solution was to have the late sir tatton discreetly removed inside a hollowed out sofa . sir tatton ' s heir found disguising the deceased as upholstery undignified , and insisted that\nhowever my father leaves this hotel , he shall leave it like a gentleman\n. eventually , something more fitting to his station was devised .\nat doncaster in september , twewve horses ran in de st . leger stakes , wif sir tatton sykes being made joint favourite wif brocardo at odds of 3 / 1 . biww scott ' s condition was cwosewy monitored , wif wiwwiam oates prepared to take de ride in case of drunkenness , but he arrived at de start compwetewy sober . [ 15 ] scott tracked de weaders on sir tatton sykes , den moved forward in de straight to dispute de wead wif iago , a cowt from de stabwe of his broder john scott . the two scott horses drew cwear of de oder runners , wif sir tatton sykes prevaiwing by hawf a wengf after making a\ntremendous rush\nin de cwosing stages . the win was weww - received , wif scott being woudwy cheered by de yorkshire crowd . [ 16 ] the originaw sir tatton sykes , who was den seventy - five years owd and a popuwar racecourse figure , wed his eqwine namesake into de winner ' s encwosure . [ 17 ] on his finaw start of de season , sir tatton sykes was beaten by iago in de grand duke michaew stakes at newmarket after he had\nswerved at de finish\n. [ 14 ]\nthe grounds were landscaped and 1000 acres of trees planted . the entire village of sledmere was relocated . sir christopher left a vast estate of nearly 30 , 000 acres and a large mansion set in its own 200 acre parkland which survives in the family to the present day . his son , sir mark masterman sykes 3rd baronet ( 1771 - 1823 ) , was a knowledgeable collector of books and fine arts , but these were sold when he died childless and was succeeded by his younger brother , sir tatton sykes 4th baronet ( 1772 - 1863 ) . sir tatton , had an interest in agricultural techniques and horse racing .\nif any member of the sykes family who was to be buried at sledmere expected a memorial over their resting place , sir tatton would have none of it while he was master . his dislike of headstones condemned his relatives to unmarked graves .\nthe last episode of sir tatton sykes ' life was like something out of fawlty towers . he died at the metropole hotel , london , in 1913 , leaving the manager agonising about the effect a corpse might have on the living guests .\nno fewer than 18 rural churches in east and north yorkshire were built or restored by sir tatton sykes of sledmere house . next weekend , to mark the centenary of his death , they will all be open to the public . stephen lewis reports\nowner : sir tatton sykes acreage : approx . 150 acres type : was public , now private stallions : river falls ( 2002 : \u00a3800 ) previous stallions : ardkinglass , insan , claude monet , waki river , superpower , prince sabo , factual\nportrait miniature , chalk on cartridge paper , sir tatton sykes , 4th bt ( after sir francis grant pra ) , by miss sykes ( fl . 1850 ) . c . 1850 . rectangular . half - length portrait of a man , turned slightly to the right , gazing at the spectator , blue eyes , fair hair and ruddy complexion , aged about 50 . sky background . reduced head and shoulders from a portrait by sir francis grant , p . r . a\nthe sykes family has been major landholders around sledmere for centuries , and made improvements in the agriculture of the district . the sir tatton of interest here , born in 1826 , was in many ways typical of the landed gentry of his time : proprietorial and quite comfortably off . apart from the income from the estate , extra profits came from the breeding of thoroughbred horses , and sledmere remains an eminent thoroughbred stud . a 19th century sledmere champion was actually named sir tatton sykes , presumably out of family pride .\neach , with 100 added , \u00bbvas won by sir r . pigot ' s\nsledmere tenants had to put up with more from sir tatton than his summary execution of rogue flowers , as their domestic lives were affected by another of his dislikes . for reasons known only to himself , he had an aversion to the use of front doors , and frontal entry was forbidden at sledmere . to reinforce the message , sir tatton had houses built with false front doors .\nwhat does the present owner sir tatton sykes , see as future challenges for his home and estate ? \u201ci believe our main challenges at sledmere are threefold : first it must remain commercially successful to ensure it continues as an entity and as one of the main economic drivers in the area .\nat epsom on 27 may , sir tatton sykes started at odds of 10 / 1 for de derby in a fiewd of twenty - seven runners . biww scott had reportedwy been drinking heaviwy on de morning of de race and had a wong and noisy argument wif de racecourse starter , which resuwted in him missing de start and being weft behind by de oder runners . [ 4 ] scott made up de wost ground and was abwe to bring sir tatton sykes drough de fiewd to chawwenge for de wead in de straight . in de cwosing stages , however , it became cwear dat scott was in no condition to ride a strong finish and despite briefwy taking de wead his cowt was caught and beaten by pyrrhus the first . [ 10 ] after de race scott was reported to de racecourse stewards and fined \u00a35 for\ndisobeying orders\nand\nusing improper wanguage\n. [ 11 ] whiwe many bwamed scott for his horse ' s defeat , oders pointed out dat sir tatton sykes was a difficuwt horse to ride and may weww have been beaten on merit by de winner . [ 12 ] on his first start after his epsom defeat , sir tatton sykes started 4 / 7 favourite but faiwed to finish de course in de norf derby stakes at newcastwe racecourse on 23 june after swipping on de turn and drowing his jockey . [ 13 ] at york in august , sir tatton sykes won de knavesmire stakes , beating wrestwer\nin a canter\n. [ 14 ]\nsledmere monument is a stone structure standing 120 feet high along the b1251 on garton hill and is visible for miles around . the monument was built in memory of the 4th baronet , sir tatton sykes , by his friends and neighbours in 1865 . the inscription reads : \u2018erected to the memory of sir tatton sykes baronet by those who loved him as a friend and honoured him as a landlord . \u2019 a heavy wooden door at the base of the monument leads to a spiral staircase up to a small chamber at the top . the views from here , as you can imagine , are stunning .\noddly enough , laurence sterne once unsuccessfully applied for a job as richard sykes\u2019s chaplain . there\u2019s a sternean quality to some of the stories here , not least the obsessive building of fortifications in the garden with which the young sir mark sykes amused himself . the eccentricities , too , have a whiff of tristram shandy . one sir tatton couldn\u2019t abide parsons ; another hated flowers ( he forbade the villagers to grow them ) and front doors ( he forbade the villagers to use them ) .\nthis chart excludes winners descending from melbourne ' s sons , west australian and sir tatton sykes ; refer to the godolphin arabian sire line chart to view grand national winners and other top steeplechasers who descended from those tail - male lines . this chart has been reformatted from a chart provided by andreas haberbeck .\njeremy , the brother of bachelor baronet sir tatton sykes , was in hospital in hull . says younger brother , writer christopher sykes : \u2018a friend in the village had arranged to drive annabel to visit jeremy . but when he knocked on the door of her house , he couldn\u2019t get a response . he was concerned about going inside on his own , so he went over to pamela\u2019s for help .\nin among the artefacts bought by the family\u2019s successive generations of wealthy merchants are the present sir tatton\u2019s collection of ceramic pigs . they\u2019re not necessarily valuable \u2013 he \u201cjust has a thing about pigs\u201d , say the staff .\nmargaret richardson , who brought her home , had become friendly with mrs sykes through the church .\nhe was a man of puritanical habits whose only son , sir tatton sykes 5th baronet ( 1826 - 1913 ) , developed into a rather withdrawn man who sold his father ' s stud for \u00a330 , 000 and restored seventeen churches . he married jessica cavendish - bentinck ( d . 1912 ) and they had one son , sir mark sykes 6th baronet ( 1879 - 1919 ) . sir mark travelled in the middle east and wrote ' through five turkish provinces ' and ' the caliph ' s last heritage ' . he married edith gorst and their honeymoon took them to paris , rome , constantinople and jerusalem .\nsir tatton benvenuto mark sykes , a conservative mp from yorkshire , had already played a part in one of the greatest disasters of the great war for the allies , being the first to suggest to winston churchill , the first lord of the admiralty , that it would be a good idea to land troops in gallipoli .\nrichard sykes married mary kirkby , co - heiress to the sledmere estates of mark kirkby , and , secondly , martha donkin . two of his sons , joseph sykes ( 1723 - 1805 ) and richard sykes ( 1706 - 1761 ) , managed the family business jointly and joseph sykes bought estates around west ella and kirk ella . richard sykes demolished the old sledmere house and built a new one in 1751 , planting 20 , 000 trees on the wolds . he married twice but died without leaving an heir and the estates passed to another brother - mark sykes ( 1711 - 1783 ) , rector of roos , and 1st baronet .\nsir tatton sykes was born in 1843 from a mare by margrave . jockey william scott , who was an alcoholic , purchased him for \u00a3100 as a yearling from william hudson , who had bought his dam , in foal to melbourne , from j . stables , a farmer near brigham in yorkshire . when scott bought him , he named the colt tibthorpe , after the village where a friend of his was born . after his 2 , 000 guineas win , scott renamed him in honor of sir tatton sykes , the yorkshire sportsman and owner of sledmere , who had periodically employed scott , one of the most successful of the great yorkshire jockeys who was then nearing the end of his career .\ntwo or three years ago , i was invited with my rather posh then girlfriend to a grand party up in yorkshire somewhere , and we were billeted for the night with a fellow guest who lived nearby . our host was one sir tatton sykes , bt \u2014 known around those parts , as \u2018sir satin tights\u2019 \u2014 an immensely dapper and personable toff , who showed not a flicker of dismay at our dishevelled clothes and overnight luggage scrunched up into old woolworths bags .\nsir tat\u2019s son , also named tatton , was similarly eccentric in his dress , wearing eight coats at the same time , and discarding them throughout the day in order to keep his body temperature constant . the 5th baronet didn\u2019t marry until he was 48 \u2013 and then disastrously , having chosen a beautiful , but wayward , 18 - year - old bride called jessie cavendish - bentinck . jessie , known as lady satin tights , reportedly took a string of lovers , ran up massive debts and almost , but not quite , brought ruin on sledmere and the sykes . as if that wasn\u2019t enough for sir tatton , disaster struck in 1911 , when fire raged through the house and reduced it to ashes and rubble . rumour has it that sir tatton refused to leave his burning house until he had finished his pudding . whatever the truth of this somewhat scurrilous tale , the house was beautifully restored by sir tatton\u2019s son mark , before mark died suddenly from a virulent strain of spanish flu while helping to broker peace at the paris conference after the first world war in 1919 . he was only 40 .\nby the time the house opens to the public the 14 rooms they can visit must be in tip - top shape . if sledmere house\u2019s owner , sir tatton sykes , has friends staying for a house party or shoot , then cynthia\u2019s team will have the added workload of dusting , tidying and vacuuming bedrooms and bathrooms and replacing sheets and towels every day .\n\u201cthe music room and sir tatton\u2019s private sitting room are quite cluttered because he uses them regularly , as he does most of the rooms seen by visitors . this afternoon he may well be in there reading and writing . but he\u2019s not that tidy . \u201d\nduring his life , sir tatton benvenuto mark sykes succeeded \u2013 quite literally \u2013 in leaving his mark on the world map . as the british government ' s lead negotiator in a secret 1916 deal with france to carve up the ottoman empire , he laid the groundwork for the boundaries of much of the present - day middle east and , according to some critics , its current conflicts .\nthe sykes family settled in sykes dyke near carlisle in cumberland during the middle ages . william sykes ( 1500 - 1577 ) , migrated to the west riding of yorkshire , settling near leeds , and he and his son became wealthy cloth traders . daniel sykes ( b . 1632 ) , was the first member of the family to begin trading in hull and amassed a fortune from shipping and finance . richard sykes ( 1678 - 1726 ) diversified further , concentrating on the flourishing baltic trade in pig iron and the wealth of the family was built on this in the first half of the eighteenth century .\na man who disliked flowers , gravestones and front doors had to like something . sir tatton liked milk pudding , thinking it the best food for his sensitive stomach . he liked it so much that he travelled with his chef , to ensure that he would not be without\nstarted at 10 / 1 . ridden by his trainer ' s uncle , the forty - four - year - old sam day , pyrrhus the first was not among the early front - runners , but had moved up to join the leading group on the turn into the straight . sir tatton sykes , who had made up a great deal of ground after being left behind at the start ,\non inheriting sledmere in 1863 , one of sir tatton ' s first moves was to have the lawns and gardens on his personal domain ploughed up . sir tatton disliked flowers . he saw them as nasty , untidy things , and had them banned from the nearby village . if he happened to spot any blooms that escaped the prohibition , he would deal with them with a blow of his walking stick .\nif you wish to grow flowers , grow cauliflowers ,\nhe told a tenant who persisted in having a bit of colour about the place .\njockey bill scott rode the first of his record 9 winners of the st leger some 8 years later and was successful on : jack spigot ( 1821 ) , memnon ( 1825 ) , the colonel ( 1828 ) , rowton ( 1829 ) , don john ( 1838 ) , charles the twelfth ( 1839 ) , launcelot ( 1840 ) , satirist ( 1841 ) and sir tatton sykes ( 1846 ) .\neighty - nine years after he died in a flu pandemic , the body of sir mark sykes was dug up last week & ndash ; in the hope that his uniquely preserved remains may help provide a weapon against the killer virus . by cahal milmo\nnone of the sykeses , in this account , seems to have been drab . some were local legends ( like the indefatigable horseman and sheep - drover , old sir tatton ) ; some featured in national scandals ( like the next sir tatton , who ended up in a terrible courtroom showdown with his gambling - addicted , alcoholic wife ) ; a good few served in parliament . sledmere\u2019s inhabitants \u2014 inconveniently for the author , though he handles it ably \u2014 passed the same three or four names back and forth . there have been three sir tattons , for example , and though the present one seemed to me nice and mostly sane , the previous two were both stinkers , and mad to boot .\nsquire watt of bishop burton ( nr . beverley ) wins the st . leger with home bred altisidora , trained by t . sykes\none hundred years ago this week , sir mark sykes was at a meeting in downing street persuading herbert asquith\u2019s war cabinet to accept a plan he had drawn up with the french diplomat , fran\u00e7ois georges - picot , to carve up the middle east between britain and france .\nbaron de hirsch died in 1896 , and la fl\u00e8che was the inevitable headline - maker when his bloodstock was dispersed at auction . sir tatton sykes made the successful bid of 12 , 600gns that meant she spent the rest of her life at sledmere , but her stud career proved less productive than one might have hoped . she was barren nine times , delivered one set of dead twins , and had a filly who died as a yearling .\nsledmere village ( all but two houses ) belongs to the estate , and many a new baby is baptised in the church built by a previous sir tatton . it all sounds sort of medieval but then sledmere is a blissful place whose charm lies in being in some ways forgotten by the march of time .\n\u201ci love being asked questions by visitors , whether they\u2019re about sir tatton\u2019s pigs or why the chains on the chandeliers are covered in cloth . i spend a week\u2019s holiday a year visiting other stately homes , and many don\u2019t feel like living homes , but this does \u2013 because it is . it\u2019s so friendly . \u201d\nan inquest heard mrs sykes , 58 , younger daughter of the late sir alexander macdonald of sleat and the late lady mary macdonald , of thorpe hall , rudston , had struggled with alcohol addiction and attended several clinics . empty bottles of wine and vodka were found in the house .\nisis , in its rampage through syria and iraq , has declared that one of its main goals is to right the wrongs of sykes - picot . it has even produced a video called \u201cthe end of sykes - picot\u201d . abu bakr al - baghdadi , the group\u2019s \u201ccaliph\u201d , in his address at the great mosque in mosul pledged : \u201cthis blessed advance will not stop until we hit the last nail in the coffin of sykes - picot . \u201d in london , the recent commons debate was about whether air strikes would be extended across the now non - existent sykes - picot border from iraq to syria , although one wonders if much was known about sykes - picot by many of the mps present .\nchestnut colt , 1809 . by sorcerer - houghton lass by sir peter godolphin arabian sire line . matchem sire line quick chart . family 25 .\nthe inquest heard that earlier that day lady swinton had found mrs sykes \u201ca little unsteady on her feet\u201d when she had gone to her house to take the dog for a walk . they returned to the villa just before 9am in time for mrs sykes to get her lift to church .\nshe said mrs sykes was coping \u201cbut very worried about jeremy ; like all people who drink i know , it didn\u2019t appear to excess . \u201d\nsykes was a pioneer of agriculture in the yorkshire wolds , which , at the time of his succession , were described as a \u2018barren waste\u2019 .\nthere is the odd nit to pick : sterne\u2019s christian name is misspelled ; stoke poges is , i think , regarded as the best candidate rather than a dead cert to have been the setting for gray\u2019s \u2018elegy in a country churchyard\u2019 ; and evelyn waugh\u2019s gadabouts were bright young \u2018things\u2019 rather than \u2018people\u2019 . also , sykes swa llows whole some stories about the feats of mad old sir tatton that surely can\u2019t be true . can you really ride a horse 400 miles in 61 hours ?\nthe sykes family itself features an array of colourful and eccentric aristocrats , striding through the ages like the cast of an extravagant costume drama . one of the most extraordinary was sir tatton \u2018tat\u2019 sykes , the 4th baronet , said to be one of the great sights of yorkshire in his prime , who sold a copy of the gutenberg bible to support his foxhounds and racing stables , and who wore 18th century dress until the day he died , aged 91 , in 1863 . among other attributes , he was a first - class bare - fisted boxer and amateur jockey , who rode down to london from sledmere in his eighties .\nwhen the mighty australian champion carbine left his homeland aboard the liner orizaba on april 13 , 1895 to start a new phase of his stud career in great britain , those thousands who saw him off and those who greeted him upon his arrival on english soil , had every reason to think the stallion ' s future was bright . he had been a good stallion in australia , and was purchased by the duke of portland as an outcross to the st . simon and donovan blood prevalent in his stud . unfortunately , over the next several years , carbine failed to live up to expectations - - until the appearance of spearmint , undoubtedly the best horse carbine sired as both a racetrack performer and a progenitor . in the spring of 1902 , an elderly sir tatton sykes , master of the prestigious sledmere stud , was looking for a good young mare to add to his already deep broodmare band . during a visit to the duke of portland ' s welbeck abbey stud to check on two of his mares , which were scheduled to be bred to st . simon and carbine , the old gentleman asked the groom where a good mare might be obtained . john huby , welbeck ' s stud groom , told sir tatton that there was a mare in residence belonging to sir james duke named maid of the mint . after a long walk in inclement weather to see the mare in her paddock , sir tatton decided he had to have her . sir james duke put a price of \u00a31500 on her , with \u00a3500 more to be paid if she produced a colt the next spring , she recently having been pronounced in foal to carbine . sir tatton duly paid the price , and also the extra \u00a3500 the next spring , for maid of the mint produced spearmint , a fine bay colt with a blaze and a white sock on his left foreleg .\nmrs sykes was well - known for her charity work and was a keen supporter of riding for the disabled at rudston and the bridlington ladies lifeboat guild .\nthere has already been a memorial service in the chapel at the sykes\u2019s sledmere estate . adds the friend : \u2018it has all been very sad and very unexpected . \u2019\nwith privilege and breeding on his side , sir tatton lived the life of an english gentleman . he travelled extensively , and exceeded the general orbit of his class by venturing as far as japan and mexico . his experience of the world did not stand in the way of his commitment to victorian piety , as he provided endowments for the building of several churches in yorkshire .\nthis transcribed and searchable work by sir william musgrave contains 10 , 000s of brief obituaries . the work is a reference point for other works containing information on an individual .\nthe second sir tatton also bred john o ' gaunt ( 2nd in both the 1904 2000 guineas and derby and sire of st . leger winner and important sire swynford ) , hapsburg ( eclipse s ) and lemonora ( grand prix de paris - which in those days held comparable prestige to the arc today ) . john o ' gaunt was by triple crown winner isinglass out of 1000 guineas , oaks and st . leger winner la fleche . la fleche was bought on sir tatton ' s behalf ( ie . by his wife ! ) for a record 12 , 600 guineas in 1896 . however he initially refused to accept her , thinking the price too much , and this great racemare endured two weeks at sledmere train station before finally arriving at the stud !\nsir tatton sykes stayed in training as a four - year - owd but faiwed to reproduce his best form . in apriw he ran in de port stakes over two miwes at newmarket ' s craven meeting , but was easiwy beaten by sting , after which he was sowd by scott to captain o ' kewwy . [ 5 ] at ascot in june he contested de emperor ' s pwate in which he finished unpwaced behind the hero over two and a hawf miwes . [ 18 ] later dat summer he won a \u00a3500 match race against the traverser over one miwe at york .\nwere it not for the fact that sir mark ' s body was hermetically sealed by a thick layer of lead , the story of his life would have passed quietly into history .\nhe was succeeded at sledmere by his one surviving child , christopher sykes ( 1749 - 1801 ) , who was mp for beverley 1784 - 90 . in 1770 he made a fortuitous marriage with elizabeth egerton of tatton whose inheritance of \u00a317 , 000 from her father was hugely augmented by her inheriting her brother ' s cheshire estates and another \u00a360 , 000 from her aunt in 1780 . christopher sykes sold off shipping interests and government stock and he and his wife expanded the sledmere estate . they bought and enclosed huge areas of land for cultivation and built two new wings to the house .\nsir mark ' s descendants are delighted that his influence may reach a different sphere of human endeavour . his grandson , christopher sykes , said :\nwe were all agreed that it was a very good thing and should go ahead . it is rather fascinating that maybe even in his state as a corpse , he might be helping the world in some way .\nthey had six children . sir mark was elected mp for central hull in 1911 and occupied himself for the early part of the first world war establishing the waggoner ' s special reserve . from may 1915 he was called to the war office by lord kitchener and is largely remembered for the part he played in forging an inter - allied agreement about the middle east in 1916 called the sykes - picot agreement . while in paris during the peace conference sir mark contracted influenza and died at the age of only 39 . see the museum in the old courtyard\nthe sykes family were a rich mercantile and banking family from hull , who were looking to expand their interests inland into rural east yorkshire . they inherited the sledmere estate through their relationship with the equally wealthy kirkby family , and richard sykes , an energetic and far - sighted man , began work immediately to transform sledmere into the superb stately home that it is today .\nthe brother of charity stalwart annabel sykes , who was found dead after losing a long battle with drink , has told of his regret at the \u201csad and wasteful\u201d way her life ended .\nbooks and journals borg , alan ( author ) , war memorials , ( 1991 ) , 95 girouard , m , the return to camelot : chivalry and the english gentleman , ( 1981 ) macmillan , m ( author ) , peacemakers , ( 2001 ) , 385 - 455 neave , d ( co - author ) , neave , s ( co - author ) , the victoria history of the county of yorkshire : east riding volume viii , ( 2008 ) pevsner , n , neave , d , the buildings of england : yorkshire - york and the east riding , ( 1995 ) , 692 - 693 banbury , paj , ' the sledmere cross ' in yorkshire archaeological journal , , vol . 72 , ( 2000 ) , 193 - 216 websites moore , temple lushington ( 1856\u20131920 ) , accessed 10 nov 2015 from urltoken sykes , sir mark , sixth baronet ( 1879\u20131919 ) , accessed 10 nov 2015 from urltoken sykes , sir tatton , fourth baronet ( 1772\u20131863 ) , accessed 10 nov 2015 from urltoken war memorials online , accessed 1 february 2017 from urltoken war memorials register , accessed 1 february 2017 from urltoken other a modern crusader , daily sketch , 6 april 1921 fifth yorks war memorial , hull daily mail , 9th august 1919 , column 4 , page 4 hull daily mail , page 4 , column 5 memorial to sir mark sykes , m . p . and col . j . a . r . thomson , d . s . o . - yorkshire post and leeds intelligencer , 22 march 1921 , column 6 , page 8 queen eleanors cross at sledmers - leeds mercury , 21st september 1899 , column 8 , page 7 sir mark sykes and colonel thomson , memorials unveiled at sledmere , yorkshire herald , 4 april 1921\nif you just explore the house , though , you don\u2019t get the whole sledmere experience . the sykes influence and heritage permeates the whole village from the roman catholic chapel to the sledmere monument . the chapel is the perfect place for a spot of quiet contemplation and prayer . dedicated to sir mark sykes , the 6th baronet , it has the prettiest of ceilings painted by tom errington . the artwork took four years to complete and depicts the four winged creatures of the evangelist in the chancel and in the nave , a variety of birds including a swan , heron , swallow and lapwing .\nduring her long life lily agnes was a great racemare , and an even finer broodmare . her mother , polly agnes , was a product of the famed sledmere stud , but she had been such a tiny and weak foal , that sir tatton sykes , the owner of the stud , gave her to his stud groom , james snarry . the catch was that sir tatton wanted the scrawny filly removed immediately from his property . little polly agnes was kept as a broodmare by her new owner , and he sent her to macaroni , a derby winner . the result was lily agnes . not much was expected of lily agnes as a racer , described as a\n. . . light - fleshed , ragged - hipped , lop - eared filly .\nduring her turf career she developed into a roarer , but that did not prevent her from winning . in training from two through the age of five , she won 19 races at distances ranging from five furlongs to three miles . among the races she captured were the northumberland plate , the great ebor handicap , and the doncaster cup .\nvillage cross / first world war memorial . erected in 1896 - 8 to the designs of temple moore , built by thompsons of peterborough , with mr g mills being the foreman of the masons and john barker of kennington undertaking the ornamental carving . converted to a war memorial in 1918 , designed by sir mark sykes , with effigies manufactured and engraved by gowthorpe and sons , memorial brass engravers of london .\nthis monument can bee seen from miles away and close up is massive , it was built by the tenants of the sykes estate and you can view the surrounding countryside and open clear sky ' s .\nin the case of the countess of swinton , who has stayed close to both her first husband , jeremy sykes , and his second wife , annabel , it has proved a bitter - sweet experience .\nthe cowt who wouwd become sir tatton sykes was bred near driffiewd by a farmer named hudson , uh - hah - hah - hah . he was a bright bay horse standing 15 . 2 hands high wif warge , drooping ears , a white bwaze and one white foot and was described as having a\nqwiet and dociwe\ntemperament . [ 1 ] he was sired by mewbourne , a member of de godowphin arabian sire - wine who went on to get de tripwe crown winner west austrawian and de outstanding fiwwy bwink bonny . [ 2 ] his dam , an unnamed mare by margrave went on to produce de important broodmare lady ewizabef . [ 3 ]\nampleforth - educated jeremy , 65 , married pamela in 1982 and they divorced in 1996 after she fell for swinton . he is heir to his brother , who is known to his circle as sir satin tights .\nat a solemn service before sunset in a rural yorkshire churchyard eight days ago , a battered lead - lined coffin was reburied hours after being opened for the first time in 89 years . as prayers were recited , samples of the remains of sir mark sykes , the aristocratic diplomat and adventurer whose grave had been exhumed , were being frozen in liquid nitrogen and transported to a laboratory with the aim of saving millions of lives .\nat a time when we are on the verge of the first influenza epidemic of the 21st century , the samples we have taken from sir mark have the potential to help us answer some very important questions .\nit will take several months to study the 17 samples taken from sir mark ' s remains before any new findings are confirmed from the exhumation project , which has been chronicled by bbc1 ' s inside out documentary series .\nin a statement read to the inquest , her brother sir ian macdonald of sleat said : \u201cit was apparent from her early 20s she was a great party girl and enjoyed a drink . regretfully over time her drinking became worse . \u201d\nsledmere is a village of design , not accident . it is an estate village which was built to support the magnificent 18th century sledmere house , which is owned by the sykes family , and it is they who have created and shaped this very special place . there had been a manor house at sledmere from medieval times , when wolves used to roam the forbidding countryside , but this fascinating story really starts in 1748 , when the sykes family first moved to sledmere .\nthe stud flourished with it ' s boarders as well . owners who have used the stud in the past include charles engelhard ( of nijinsky fame ) , jack swift ( mount rosa stud ) , daniel wildenstein , who boarded the brilliant pawneese here ( see copgrove page for more information on the wildenstein operation in yorkshire ) and the marquesa de moratella , who now owns jim joel ' s former property , the historic childwick bury stud . another long term patron was mrs . margaret butler who owned and bred that good middle distance horse k - battery , later to stand at theakston stud . indeed not only was k - battery reared at sledmere , but his dam was actually bought from the stud . sir tatton sykes had the occasional filly in training with jimmy fitzgerald .\nwhen the friend christopher barr was unable to find her he called on lady swinton \u2013 mr sykes\u2019 first wife \u2013 who lives nearby , and they both went to the villa to look for her . they discovered her body in the downstairs lavatory .\non the morning of february 15 , mrs sykes , of the villa , sledmere , had attended communion at all saints\u2019 church in driffield , and was due to be taken by a friend to visit her husband who was in castle hill hospital for surgery .\nit was announced in september 2002 however that a large part of the stud would be closed down . basically the boarding side , which has served the stud so well in recent years , is ceasing , with some of the 40 boxes being used to improve facilities for the tourists who visit the stately home . the stud will instead concentrate on the breeding side , albeit only in a small way as they currently only have 2 broodmares . on a more positive note sir tatton sykes is a part owner in stanley leisure sprint cup g1 , prix de la foret g1 , hackwood stakes l , st . leger yearling stakes and redcar trophy winner somnus ( champion older sprinter in 2004 ) , who spent his formative years at the stud , and whose dam was originally based there . the intention is to re - invest some of his share of the ever - increasing prize money this money spinner is generating into improving the quality of the sykes broodmares . meanwhile since late 2006 trainer declan carroll has utilised around 50 of the boxes at sledmere together with 2 grass gallops and an all - weather gallop .\nspearmint is profiled in chapter 12 of sir charles leicester ' s bloodstock breeding ( 1957 , j . a . allen & co . ltd . ; re - released by the same publisher in 1983 as a 2nd edition updated and revised by howard wright ) .\nhe also liked maintaining a constant temperature , and went to extraordinary ends to do so . sir tatton would leave the house wearing a series of colour - coded overcoats , designed to fit over each other in the correct sequence . as the outside temperature dictated , he would remove coats and leave them where they fell . local children received a reward of a shilling for each coat collected and returned . in addition to the overcoats , the pursuit of the right temperature involved the wearing of two pairs of trousers , and sometimes demanded the removal of shoes and socks and placing the feet out a window .\none of the most illuminating of his lists \u2014 if only because it reminds you how incredibly horrible it must have been living in the 18th century \u2014 is that of the ailments sledmere\u2019s builder , kindly old richard sykes , suffered from . in addition to excruciating gout he had\n\u201cthe church of st edith is a jewel , \u201d notes an official guide to what is known as the sykes church trail , a route which takes in many of the churches . \u201ccome and be dazzled by the sheer opulence of victorian ornament inside this medieval church . \u201d\na friend tells me : \u2018it is unclear whether she had a heart attack or stroke , but the funeral has been arranged for thursday at rudston church , which is near annabel\u2019s family home , thorpe hall \u2014 she is the daughter of the late clan chief , sir alexander macdonald of sleat . \u2019\nthe great sir henry cecil won the first of his 4 st legers \u2013 all achieved in the same decade , in 1980 , thanks to light cavalry , a colt owned by jim joel . light cavalry\u2019s main rival was the major dick hern colt watermill who was unable to match joe mercer\u2019s colt .\nthere are also a number of very individual bedrooms , including red bedroom , which features a mahogany four - poster bed that belongs to the george iii period ; the orange bedroom with a dressing table and stool were designed and made by david linley furniture ; and the chinese bedroom with a chinese - style chippendale bed which originally came from grimston garth , another yorkshire house designed by john carr . the turkish room is also remarkable , designed for sir mark sykes , 6th baronet , by an armenian artist , david ohanessian , and is a copy of one of the sultan ' s apartments in istanbul .\nit is not , however , easy to undo the damage that has been done by colonial greed and arrogance . the legacy of sykes - picot is not just the turmoil in the middle east and north africa ; it is in the jihad which has been coming to paris and london with such devastating effect .\nwhile negotiating terms of the peace negotiations to end the first world war in paris early in 1919 , sir mark became one of the estimated 50 million victims of the so - called spanish flu and died in his hotel near the tuilleries gardens . like many victims , he was in his prime at just 39 .\nher gp dr guy clarkson , also in a statement , said he\u2019d personally seen mrs sykes on three occasions \u2013 including in october 2010 when she had fallen and broken her collar bone after drinking . he added : \u201cat that time she said she was back on track and was going to attend alcoholics anonymous . \u201d\nthe italian occupation of libya , and the suppression of its population , was a spin - off from sykes - picot . the current semi - anarchic state of the country is due to another anglo - french production , the overthrow of the gaddafi regime for which david cameron and nicolas sarkozy were the chief cheerleaders .\nsledmere was built midway through the 18th century by the author\u2019s great - great - great - great - great - grandfather \u2014 a prosperous hull merchant named richard sykes \u2014 on the site of an old tudor grange on an unpromising bit of land in the yorkshire wolds . it became , as each inheritor followed his own bent , a lovely area of landscaped parkland , a repository of objets d\u2019art , a stud farm , and the home of a library containing a gutenberg bible . the history of the sykes clan , as they migrated from trade to gentry , moved in and out , too , of the wider history of the country .\ni particularly loved the large partner\u2019s desk in the middle of the library , whose multitude of drawers revealed , when opened , all kinds of curiosities : old coins , medals , bills , pieces of chandelier , seals , bits of broken china , etchings , ancient letters and the charred foot of an early sykes martyr .\nhis remains were sealed in a lead - lined coffin , according to the customary practice of the era , and transported to sledmere house , the handsome stone mansion in east yorkshire which has served as the sykes family seat since the 1780s . he was buried in the graveyard of st mary ' s church , adjoining the house .\nkurdish as well as arab aspirations were stymied by sykes - picot . any chance of a change to it disappeared when the british discovered oil in kirkuk . today , as the upheavals in the middle east have given fresh impetus to the hopes of an autonomous kurdistan , the perceived iniquities of the agreement are again being aired loudly .\na year later doncaster was the setting as commanche run provided an emotional record 28 th classic victory for jockey lester piggott , breaking frank buckle\u2019s long - standing record . however , 1984 saw piggott part company with trainer sir henry cecil and that meant he would lose the 1985 ride on a filly of great potential : oh so sharp ."]}
{"id": 1604, "summary": [{"text": "canine transmissible venereal tumors ( ctvts ) , also called transmissible venereal tumors ( tvts ) , canine transmissible venereal sarcoma ( ctvs ) , sticker tumors and infectious sarcoma is a histiocytic tumor of the external genitalia of the dog and other canines , and is transmitted from animal to animal during mating .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "it is one of only four known transmissible cancers ; another is devil facial tumor disease , a cancer which occurs in tasmanian devils .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "the tumor cells are themselves the infectious agents , and the tumors that form are not genetically related to the host dog .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "although the genome of a ctvt is derived from a canid ( probably a dog , wolf or coyote ) , it is now essentially living as a unicellular , asexually reproducing ( but sexually transmitted ) pathogen .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "sequence analysis of the genome suggests it diverged from canids over 6,000 years ago ; possibly much earlier .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the most recent estimates of its time of origin place date it to about 11,000 years ago .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "however , the most recent common ancestor of extant tumors is more recent : it probably originated 200 to 2,500 years ago .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "canine tvts were initially described by russian veterinarian m.a. novinsky ( 1841 \u2013 1914 ) in 1876 , when he demonstrated that the tumor could be transplanted from one dog to another by infecting them with tumor cells . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "canine transmissible venereal tumor", "paragraphs": ["the first thing you should know about canine transmissible venereal tumor is that you should never do a google image search for \u201c canine transmissible venereal tumor . \u201d\ncanine transmissible venereal tumor ( tvt ) : a review . - pubmed - ncbi\n1 .\noverview of canine transmissible venereal tumor .\nmerck veterinary manual . web .\n2 .\ncanine transmissible venereal tumor : a review .\ninternet scientific publications . web .\ncanine transmissible venereal tumour : cytogenetic origin , immunophenotype , and immunobiology . a review .\ntheriogenology question of the month . transmissible venereal tumor ( tvt ) . - pubmed - ncbi\ng purohit . canine transmissible venereal tumor : a review . the internet journal of veterinary medicine . 2008 volume 6 number 1 .\nkroger d , grey rm , boyd jw . an unusual presentation of canine transmissible venereal tumor . canine practice santa barbara . 1991 ; 16 ( 6 ) : 17\u201321 .\nin healthy dogs , spontaneous regression of a transmissible venereal tumor will indicate full cure .\ncanine transmissible venereal tumour : cytogenetic origin , immunophenotype , and immunobiology . a review . - pubmed - ncbi\nr - 10 . cohen d . ( 1985 ) the canine transmissible venereal tumor : a unique result of tumor progression . adv cancer res . 43 : 75 - 112 .\nmozos e , mendez a , gomez - villamandos jc . immunohistochemical characterization of canine transmissible venereal tumor . vet pathol . 1996 ; 33 : 257\u201363 .\nr - 26 . hoque , m ( 1995 ) . different modes of therapy for canine transmissible venereal tumor . veterinarian . 19 : 1 - 2 .\nr - 29 . idowu , a . l . ( 1985 ) cryosurgery of canine transmissible venereal tumor . tropical vet . 3 : 74 - 78 .\nr - 57 . richardson rc . ( 1981 ) . canine transmissible venereal tumor . comp contin educ pract . vet . 3 : 951 - 956 .\ndas u , das ak . review of canine transmissible venereal sarcoma . vet res commun . 2000 ; 24 : 545\u20136 .\nr - 27 . hoque , m ( 2002 ) . an update on canine transmissible venereal tumor . intas polivet . 3 ( ii ) : 227 - 234 .\neffective treatment of transmissible venereal tumors in dogs with vincristine and il2 . - pubmed - ncbi\nr - 23 . higgins da . ( 1966 ) observations on the canine transmissible venereal tumor as seen in the bahamas . vet rec . 79 ( 3 ) : 67 - 71 .\nr - 67 . vermooten mi . ( 1987 ) canine transmissible venereal tumor ( tvt ) : a review . j s afr vet assoc . 58 ( 3 ) : 147 - 150 .\nr - 73 . yang tj . ( 1988 ) . immunobiology of a spontaneously regressive tumor , the canine transmissible venereal sarcoma ( review ) . anticancer res . 8 : 93 - 96 .\nin this issue of cell , murgia et al . ( 2006 ) confirm that the infectious agent of canine transmissible venereal tumor is the cancer cell itself and that the tumor is clonal in origin . their findings have implications for understanding the relationship between genome instability and transmissible cancer and for conservation biology , canine genomics , and companion animal medicine .\nr - 44 . mukaratirwa , sand gruys e ( 2003 ) canine transmissible venereal tumor : cytogenetic origin , immunophenotype and immunobiology . a review . vet q . 25 ( 3 ) : 101 - 111 .\nthe occurrence , transmission , clinical appearance , histological findings , chromosome studies , immunity , different methods of treatment and the prevention of canine transmissible venereal tumour are reviewed .\ntransmissible venereal tumor ( tvt ) is a tumor of dogs that is surprisingly common and widely distributed . canine tvt occurs primarily in dogs that are largely uncontrolled and allowed to breed indiscriminately . it also affects other canids such as coyotes , foxes and jackals .\nr - 74 . yang tj , palker tj and harding mw . ( 1991 ) . tumor size , leukocyte adherence inhibition and serum levels of tumor antigen in dogs with the canine transmissible venereal sarcoma . cancer immunol immunoth . 33 : 255 - 256 .\ncanine transmissible venereal tumour ( ctvt ) , also known as transmissible venereal tumour ( tvt ) or sticker\u2019s sarcoma , is a transmissible cancer that affects dogs . ctvt is spread by the transfer of living cancer cells between dogs , usually during mating . ctvt causes tumours which are usually associated with the external genitalia of both male and female dogs .\nr - 25 . hill dl , yang tj and wachtel a . ( 1984 ) canine transmissible venereal sarcoma : tumor cell and infiltrating leukocyte ultra structure at different growth stages . vet pathol . 21 : 39 - 45 .\nr - 53 . prier , j . e and johnson , j . h ( 1964 ) malignancy in a canine transmissible venereal tumor . j . amer . vet . med . assoc . 145 : 1092 - 1094 .\nr - 58 . rogers ks . ( 1997 ) . transmissible venereal tumor . comp contin educ pract vet . 19 ( 9 ) : 1036 - 1045 .\nr - 72 . yang , t . j ( 1987 ) parvovirus induced regression of canine transmissible tumor . amer . j . vet res . 48 : 799 - 800 .\nr - 54 . powers , r . d . ( 1968 ) immunologic properties of canine transmissible venereal sarcoma . am . j . vet . res . 29 , 1637 - 1645 .\ndas u , das ak , das d , das bb . clinical report on the efficacy of chemotherapy in canine transmissible venereal sarcoma . indian vet j . 2009 ; 68 : 249\u201352 .\nrogers ks , walker ma , dillon hb . transmissible venereal tumor : a retrospective study of 29 cases . j am anim hosp assoc . 1998 ; 34 : 463\u20139 .\nthe histopathology report will give your veterinarian the specific diagnosis that indicates how it is likely to behave . in healthy dogs , spontaneous regression of a transmissible venereal tumor will indicate full cure and the tumor is unlikely to regrow .\nr - 7 . cockrill jn and beasly jn . ( 1975 ) . ultra structural characteristics of canine transmissible venereal tumor various stages of growth and regression . am . j . vet . res . 36 ( 5 ) : 677 - 681 .\nr - 28 . hoque , m . , singh , g . r and pawde , a . m . ( 1995 ) electrosurgery versus scalpel surgery in canine transmissible venereal tumor . j . vet . serg . 4 : 51 - 54 .\ncohen d . the transmissible venereal tumor of the dog a naturally occurring allograft ? : a review . isr j med sci . 1978 ; 14 ( 1 ) : 14\u20139 .\n. . . it is a well characterized sexually transmitted neoplasm but can also be transmitted by other social behaviours such as licking , sniffing and biting of the tumor affected areas [ 3 , 4 ] . canine transmissible venereal tumor is generally considered as a benign tumor [ 5 ] and it is rarely reported in extragenital locations [ 3 , 6 ] . the present report records primary extragenital transmissible venereal tumors in a pup and two adult dogs and their successful treatment . . . .\nr - 13 . das , a . k . , das , u , das , d . , sengupta , j . ( 1990 ) . histopathologial study of canine transmissible venereal tumor . indian vet . j . 67 : 473 - 474 .\nr - 62 . souza ff de , tinucci - costa m and faria jr d . ( 1998 ) . doxorubicin treatment for recurrent canine transmissible venereal tumor . in : proceedings of the xxiii congress of the world small anim vet assoc . 772 .\nbastan a , baki acar d , cengiz m . uterine and ovarian metastasis of transmissible venereal tumor in a bitch . turk j vet anim sci . 2008 ; 32 : 65\u20136 .\nr - 24 . harmelin , a . , zuckerman , a . and nyska , a . ( 1995 ) correlation of ag - nor protein measurements with prognosis in canine transmissible venereal tumor . j . comp . pathol . 112 , 429 - 433 .\nr - 20 . gandotra , v . k . , chauhan , f . s and sharma , r . d ( 1993 ) . occurrence of canine transmissible venereal tumor and evaluation of two treatments . indian vet . j . 70 : 854 - 857 .\namber ei , henderson ra , adeyanju jb , gyang eo . single - drug chemotherapy of canine transmissible venereal tumour with cyclophosphamide , methotrexate or vincristine . j vet intern med . 1990 ; 4 : 144\u20137 .\na transmissible venereal tumor , or tvt , is a naturally occurring tumor that is sexually transmitted from one dog to another . a high number of cases tend to be seen in large cities and temperate areas . tvt is usually seen in young ,\nr - 1 . amber ei , henderson ra and adeyanju jb , ( 1990 ) . single - drug chemotherapy of canine transmissible venereal tumor with cyclophosphamide , methotrexate , or vincristine . j . vet . intern . med . 4 ( 3 ) : 144 - 147 .\nr - 47 . nayak , r . c . , nandi , s . n . and bhowmik , m . k . ( 1987 ) canine transmissible venereal tumor ( ctvt ) with a note on metastasis . indian vet . j . 64 : 252 - 253 .\nr - 59 . saratsis ph , ypsilantis p and tselkas ( 2000 ) . k . semen quality during vincristine treatment in dogs with transmissible venereal tumor . theriogenology . 53 : 1185 - 1192 .\ntwenty - nine cases of naturally occurring , transmissible venereal tumor were studied retrospectively . the external genitalia was the primary site of tumor involvement in 27 dogs , with the remaining two dogs having primary intranasal involvement . extragenital tumor involvement was identified in six cases , including five cases with metastatic disease . fifteen cases were treated effectively with radiation therapy alone . radiation therapy also was effective in four cases that were resistant to chemotherapy . four of five cases treated with at least four doses of vincristine as a solitary agent also achieved complete remissions . transmissible venereal tumor remains a unique canine tumor that often is curable despite the development of extragenital primary lesions or metastasis .\np\u00e9rez j , bautista mj , carrasco l , g\u00f3mez - villamandos jc , mozos e . primary extragenital occurrence of transmissible venereal tumors : three case reports . canine pract . 1994 ; 19 ( 1 ) : 7\u201310 .\ntransmissible venereal tumors are a cancer that causes nodular tumors in sexually active dogs of both sexes , often in the genital area . this sexually transmitted disease is also referred to as sticker\u2019s sarcoma , venereal granuloma , infective venereal tumor , and transplantable lymphosarcoma . tumors of this type are common in stray , roaming dogs , and those residing in shelters .\nr - 71 . yang t . j . and jones j . b . ( 1973 ) . canine transmissible venereal sarcoma : transplantation studies in neonatal and adult dogs , journal of the national cancer institute 51 : 1915 - 1918 .\nr - 4 . calvet ca . ( 1983 ) . transmissible venereal tumor in the dog . in : kirk rw , ed . current veterinary therapy viii . philadelphia : wb saunders co . 413 - 415 .\nr - 30 . idowu , a . l . ( 1977 ) . the chromosomes of the transmissible venereal tumor of dogs in ibadan , nigeria . res . vet . sci . 22 : 271 - 273 .\nstockmann d , ferrari hf , andrade al , lopes ra , cardoso tc , luvizotto maria cr . canine transmissible venereal tumors : aspects related to programmed cell death . braz j vet pathol . 2011 ; 4 ( 1 ) : 67\u201375 .\nr - 9 . cohen , d . ( 1980 ) in vitro cell mediated cytotoxicity and antibody dependent cellular cytotoxicity to the transmissible venereal tumor of the dog . j national cancer institute . 64 : 317 - 21 .\nr - 32 . jain , a . , tiwari , r . p . , tiwari , s . k , gupta , n and awasthi , m . k ( 2002a ) . histopathological studies in canine transmissible venereal tumor . indian j . anim . reprod . 23 ( 1 ) : 60 - 62 .\ncanine transmissible venereal tumor , also called sticker ' s sarcoma , is a naturally occurring , horizontally transmitted round cell tumor found in domestic dogs and potentially other canids such as gray wolves and coyotes . 1 , 2 although there have been reports of this tumor in most parts of the world , a high incidence seems to exist in temperate climates . the tumor is seen most commonly in young , sexually active , intact dogs allowed to roam freely ( including stray dogs ) . 1 - 3 these tumors are usually spread during coitus or other social behaviors such as sniffing and licking . 1 , 2 thus , the typical locations of these tumors are the external genitalia and the nasal and oral cavities . 1 - 3 other less common locations include the anal mucosa and the skin and subcutaneous areas . 3 , 4 a recent report of a multicentric , extragenital , cutaneous canine transmissible venereal tumor in a sexually immature 11 - month - old virgin female mixed - breed dog suggests that transmissible venereal tumor cells can be inoculated into puppy skin lesions by the mother during social interactions such as grooming and other mothering behavior . 4 transmissible venereal tumor metastasis has been seen involving the lymph nodes , skin , eyes , liver , musculature , abdominal viscera , lungs , and brain . 3 - 5\nr - 45 . mukaratirwa , s . , chimonyo , m . , obwolo , m . , gruys e and nederbragt , h ( 2004 ) . stromal cells and extracellular matrix components in spontaneous canine transmissible venereal tumor at different stages of growth . histol . histopathol . 19 ( 4 ) : 1117 - 23 .\npark ms , kim y , kang ms , oh sy , cho dy , shin ns , kim dy . disseminated transmissible venereal tumor in a dog . journal of veterinary diagnostic investigation 2006 ; 18 ( 1 ) 1 : 130\u2013133 .\nr - 14 . das , a . k . , das , u , das , b . b . ( 1991 ) . clinical report on the efficacy of chemotherapy in canine transmissible venereal sarcoma . indian vet . j . 68 : 249 - 252 .\nr - 40 . mizuno , s . , fujinaga , t . and hagio , m . ( 1994 ) role of lymphocytes in spontaneous regression of experimentally transplanted canine transmissible venereal sarcoma . j . vet . med . sci . 56 , 15 - 20 .\nr - 51 . pandey , s . k . , dhawedkar , r . g and patel , m . r ( 1977 ) . canine transmissible venereal sarcoma : clinical trial with autogenous formalized vaccine . indian vet . j . 54 : 852 - 853 .\nr - 48 . ndirty , c . g . , mbogwa , s . w and sayer , p . d ( 1977 ) extragenitally located transmissible venereal tumor in dogs . mod . vet . prac . 58 : 945 - 46 .\ntransmissible venereal tumor is a transplant of cancer cells . the cancer cells always have an abnormal number of chromosomes ( 59 instead of the normal canine 78 ) . the original cell type is probably a histiocyte ( part of the body ' s own immune system ) but other types of white blood cells have also been suggested as the origin .\nr - 34 . kennedy , j . r . , yang , t - j . and allen , p . l . ( 1977 ) canine transmissible venereal sarcoma : electron microscopic changes with time after transplantation . br . j . cancer 36 , 375 - 385 .\nr - 3 . calvet ca , leifer ce , mcewen eg . ( 1982 ) . vincristine for the treatment of transmissible venereal tumor in the dog . j amer . vet . med . assoc . 181 ( 2 ) : 163 - 164 .\nmello martins mi , ferreira de souza f , gobello c . the canine transmissible venereal tumor : etiology , pathology , diagnosis and treatment . in : recent advances in small animal reproduction . p . w . concannon , g . england , j . veretgegen , c . linde - forsberg ( eds ) . international veterinary information service , ithaca ny (\nalso known as infectious sarcoma , venereal granuloma , transmissible lymphosarcoma or sticker tumor , this disease is a benign tumor that occurs primarily on the external genitals of both male and female dogs . it is one of a very few tumors that can be transmitted by direct contact . it acts like a freely living organism - - more a parasite than a cancer .\nyes . this cancer grows rapidly at first and then remains static before the dog ' s immune system produces specific antibodies that cause the tumor to spontaneously regress . once the tumor regresses , that dog is then highly resistant to further tumor implantation .\nthe dog was treated weekly with intravenous vincristine . a dramatic reduction in tumor size occurred after the first dose , with complete tumor remission after seven doses . the dog was tumor - free at its last recheck one month after the last vincristine injection .\ntransmissible venereal tumor is transmitted from dog to dog . preventing physical contact between your infected dog and others is essential . you should also wash your hands after handling your dog and disinfect anything that may be contaminated with living cells from your dog that could come into contact with other dogs . the tumor cannot be transmitted from dogs to other animal species or to people .\nr - 52 . pandey , s . k . , chandpuria , v . p . , bhargawa , m . k . and tiwari , s . k . ( 1989 ) . incidence , treatment approach and metastasis of canine transmissible venereal sarcoma . indian j anim . sci . 59 : 510 - 513 .\nr - 22 . gonzalez c . m . , griffey s . m . , naydan d . k . , flores e . , cepeda r . , cattaneo g . , madewell b . r . ( 2000 ) canine transmissible venereal tumor : a morphological and immunohistochemical study of 11 tumors in growth phase and during regression after chemotherapy . j . comp . pathol . 122 : 241 - 248 .\nthe second thing you should know about canine transmissible venereal tumor , which we\u2019ll shorten to ctvt , is that it\u2019s actually the business end of a contagious cancer that seems to have plagued a small population of dogs for the past 11 , 000 years . this makes ctvt one of just three cancers we know of that can pass from animal to animal like a rock \u2019n\u2019 roll - loving demon . the other cases include tasmanian devil facial tumor disease and a sarcoma scientists infected syrian hamsters with in the 1960s\nr - 17 . erunal - maral , n . , fidnik , m and aslan , s ( 2000 ) . use of exfoliative cytology for diagnosis of transmissible venereal tumor and controlling the recovery period in the bitch . dtsch . tierarztl . wochenschr . 107 ( 5 ) : 175 - 80 .\nr - 16 . dinesh , n . m . , ranganath , b . n . , jaydevappa , s . m . and srinivas , c . l . ( 1993 ) . effect of vincristine sulfate on canine transmissible venereal tumors : - haematological and biochemical studies . indian vet . j . 70 : 741 - 744 .\nhelp canines worldwide . your donation helps us continue our educational work and assists organizations which help canine recovery . please donate today .\nr - 0 . aprea , a n , allende m g and idiard r . ( 1994 ) tumor ven\u00e9reo transmissible intrauterino : descripci\u00f3n de un caso . vet argentina xi . 103 : 192 - 194 .\ner\u00fcnal - maral n , findik m , aslan s . use of exfoliative cytology for diagnosis of transmissible venereal tumour and controlling the recovery period in the bitch . dtsch tierarztl wochenschr . 2000 ; 107 ( 5 ) : 175\u201380 .\nr - 38 . maiti , s . k . , roy , s . , ali , s . l . and ghosh , r . c . ( 1995 ) . therapeutic management of transmissible venereal tumor with vincristine in dog . a case report . indian vet . j . 72 ( 6 ) : 614 - 615 .\nr - 35 . liao , k . w , lim , z . y . , pao , h . n . , kam , s . y . , wang , f . i and chu , r . m . ( 2003 ) . identification of canine transmissible venereal tumor cells using in situ polymerase chain reaction and stable sequence of the long interspersed nuclear element . j . vet . diag . invest . 15 ( 5 ) : 399 - 406 .\nr - 63 . tella , m . a . , ajala , o . o and taiwo , v . o ( 2004 ) . complete regression of transmissible venereal tumor ( tvt ) in nigerian mongrel dogs with vincristine sulfate chemotherapy . afr . j . bio . med . res . 7 ( 3 ) : 133 - 138 .\nthe cancer is transmitted by sexual contact or direct contact with the infected tumor ( e . g . by licking ) . therefore , an infected dog transmitted this tumor to your dog through direct contact .\nclinically , this tumor has a fairly typical appearance . definitive diagnosis relies upon microscopic examination of tissue .\nthe probability is that you have never seen a tumor that can be spread from one individual to another . but did you know that there is a tumor that can be transmitted from dog to dog ?\nsingh j , rana js , sood n , pangawkar gr , gupta pp . clinico - pathological studies on the effect of different anti - neoplastic chemotherapy regimens on transmissible venereal tumours in dogs . vet res commun . 1996 ; 20 : 71\u201381 .\nwe will explore extinct canine species including prehistoric , wild extinct canines , and extinct domestic species . learn how and why these species became extinct .\nr - 46 . nak , d . , nak , y , cangul , i . t and tuna , b ( 2005 ) . a clinico - pathological study on the effect of vincristine on transmissible venereal tumor in the dog . j . vet . med . a . physiol . pathol . clin . med . 52 ( 7 ) : 366 - 70 .\nallen sw , prasse kw , mahaffey ea . cytologic differentiation of benign from malignant canine mammary tumours . vet pathol . 1986 ; 23 : 649\u201355 .\nanother experimental method is the use of biotherapy , or biologic response modifiers . these are antigen vaccines , growth factors , or immunomodulators that change the tumor\u2019s relationship with the host by affecting the tumor directly , or it\u2019s environment .\nkunakornsawat s , yippaditr w , jamjan n , bootcah r , netramai s , viriyarumpa j , kornkaewrat k . surgical correction of transmissible venereal tumor with vincristine - resistance using episiotomy and vulvovaginoplasty in female and subtotal penile amputation and scrotal ablation in male dogs . in proceeding of 48th kasetsart university annual conference : veterinary medicine . feb 3\u20135 , bangkok , thailand . 2010 : 191\u2013200 .\nd . nak , y . nak , i . t . cangul , b . tuna , a clinico - pathological study on the effect of vincristine on transmissible venereal tumour in dogs , journal of veterinary medicine series a . 2005 ; 52 : 7 366 - 370\nr - 60 . singh , j . , rana , j . s . , sood , n . , pangawkar , g . r and gupta , p . p ( 1996 ) . clinico - pathological studies on the effect of different anti - neoplastic chemotherapy regimens on transmissible venereal tumor in dogs . vet . res . commun . 20 ( 1 ) : 71 - 81 .\nr - 66 . tiwari , s . k . , ghosh , r . c . , mascasenhas , a . r and chauhan , h . v . s ( 1991 ) . canine venereal sarcoma and its surgical management . indian . vet . j . 68 : 1078 - 1079 .\ncanine transmissible venereal tumor ( tvt ) is a commonly occurring tumor of dogs affecting both sexes . it is common in dogs which have an uncontrolled sexual behavior with incidence ranging from 2 to 43 percent of all tumors in temperate climates . the etiology appears to be cell transplant from affected to unaffected dogs . the pathogenesis , gross and microscopic findings , diagnosis , prognosis and therapies have been reviewed . gross findings of small nodule like lesions which bleed is the most consistent clinical finding . smears made from the tumor reveal round cells with vacuoles and mitotic figures . the tumor is many times self limiting and vincristine sulfate is currently considered the most effective therapy . the use of vincristine sulfate in male dogs must balance the potential benefits to the patient and the interest in using the animal for breeding as vincristine sulfate impairs the semen quality . immune therapy of tvt is still to be validated for clinical use .\nr - 6 . chauhan , h . v . s . , ghosh , r . c . , mascrenhas , a . r and tiwari , s . k . ( 1991 ) canine venereal sarcoma and its surgical management . indain vet . j . 68 ( 11 ) : 1078 - 79 .\nelizabeth p . murchison et al . \u2019s article \u201c transmissible dog cancer genome reveals the origin and history of an ancient cell lineage \u201d in science\nwe know of few cancers that are contagious . the ones we\u2019re most familiar with are caused by viruses , such as the human papillomavirus ( hpv ) , which can cause cervical cancer , and hepatitis b , which can cause liver ( hepatic ) cancer . ( to read more about these virus - caused cancers and their vaccines , check out my book biology bytes : digestible essays on stem cells and modern medicine . ) that\u2019s why it\u2019s so surprising , and fascinating , to find cancers that are contagious and not caused by viruses . one example is canine transmissible venereal tumor ( ctvt ) .\nfeldman ec , nelson rw . canine and feline endocrinology and reproduction . philadel - phia , pa : w . b . saunders company ; 1987 . p . 475\u20137 .\nr - 12 . das , a . k . , das , u , das , s . k . , sengupta , j . , das , b . b and bose , p . k . ( 1989 ) metastasis of canine venereal sarcoma in a dog . indian j vet surg . 10 : 75 - 76 .\ncanine tvt is cauliflower - like , pedunculated , nodular , papillary , or multilobulated in appearance . it ranges in size from a small nodule ( 5 mm ) to a large mass\n, iv , once weekly for 3\u20136 wk ) is reported to be effective . the rate of tumor regression is negatively correlated with tumor size , older age , and season . usually , total remission can be expected by the sixth treatment . adriamycin ( 30 mg / m\nthe main symptom of this disease is the presence of tumors which are usually located in the genitals of both sexes , as well as the nasal and oral cavities . while tumor spread is uncommon , it can occur without a genital tumor being present . locations can include :\nreif js , maguire tg , kenney rm , brodey rs . a cohort study of canine testicular neoplasia . j am vet med assoc . 1979 ; 175 ( 7 ) : 719\u201323 .\n. . . antineoplasm , dog , venereal lymphosarcoma , sticker tumor . introdu\u00e7\u00e3o o tumor ven\u00e9reo transmiss\u00edvel ( tvt ) foi constatado em todos os continentes , com maior preval\u00eancia nas zonas de clima tropical e subtropical ( rogers et al . , 1998 ) . acomete a esp\u00e9cie canina , apresentando uma predomin\u00e2ncia maior em animais jovens , errantes e sexualmente ativos ( rogers et al . , 1998 ; silva et al . , 2007 ) . . . .\nr - 70 . wright , d . h . , peel , s . , cooper , e . h . and hughes , d . t ( 1970 ) . transmissible venereal sarcoma of dogs : a histochemical and chromosomal analysis of tumors in uganda . eur . j . clin . biol . res . 15 : 155 .\nhenson kl . reproductive system . in : raskin r , meyer d , editors . atlas of canine and feline cytology . firstth ed . philadelphia : w . b . saunders ; 2001 .\nr - 19 . ferreira , a . j . , jaggy , a . , varej\u00e3o , a . p . , ferreira , m . l . p . , correia , j . m . j . , mulas , j . m . , almeida , o . , oliveira , p . and prada , j . ( 2000 ) brain and ocular metastases from a transmissible venereal tumor in a dog . j . small anim . pract . 41 , 165 - 168 .\nr - 55 . rao , t . m . , kumar , v . g . , raghvender , k . b . p . , joshi , m . r and rao , r . l . n . ( 1993 ) cryosurgical treatment of transmissible venereal tumors . j . vet . anim . sci . 24 : 149 - 152 .\nboscos cm , ververidis hn . canine tvt\u2014clinical findings , diagnosis and treatment . in proceedings of the 29th world small animal veterinary association , oct 6\u20139 . rhodes , greece . [ online ] . available from\nto improve treatment of inoperable transmissible venereal tumors ( tvts ) in dogs . recently , we showed that tvt is sensitive to intratumoral treatment with interleukin - 2 ( il2 ) . in addition it is known that tvt is sensitive to intravenous treatment with vincristine . in the present study we tried to establish the therapeutic effect of intratumoral treatment with vincristine and il2 .\nimmunological studies have clearly demonstrated that tvt is antigenic in the dog and an immune response against the tumor plays a major role in determining the course of the disease ( mizuno et al . , 1994 ) . in most adult dogs the tumor regresses spontaneously after a period of logarithmic growth , and the development of tumor immunity prevents successive occurrences ( powers , 1968 ) . in contrast , the tumor progresses to ulceration and metastasis in the immunologically incompetent or compromised host ( cohen , 1973 ) . nevertheless , metastases have been reported in occasional cases ( ferreira et al . , 2000 ) . the biological behavior of canine tvt can be estimated by the demonstration of agnors ( harmelin et al . , 1995 ) . the poor prognosis in tvt is due to an increase of the agnors in the nucleus of tvt cells .\nr - 5 . chaudhary , c and rao , m . r . k ( 1982 ) . certain canine neoplasms encountered in andhra pradesh . indian . vet . j . 59 : 100 - 102 .\nr - 33 . johnston sd . ( 1991 ) performing a complete canine semen evaluation in a small animal hospital . vet clin north amer small anim pract . 21 ( 3 ) : 545 - 551 .\n3 . borrell , brendan .\nhow a contagious dog tumor went global .\nurltoken . nature publishing group , 23 jan . 2014 . web .\nwhile this type of tumor has been diagnosed throughout many areas of the world , it seems to favor temperate climates , such as the united states , southern europe , asia , africa , and the caribbean . it is believed that transmissible venereal tumors ( tvt ) are the oldest known form of cancer , and first emerged 11 , 000 years ago . all tvt tumors contain dna belonging to the first dog infected with this cancer , and researchers are analyzing the mutations seen in these tumors to figure out how tvt first developed and spread .\nthis is the place to visit for all dogs wild . learn about the differing species of canine , how they live , reproduce , their diet , their genetics , and what you can do to ensure their survival .\ndifferences in cell types have been found between stages of tumor progression . tumors in progressive growth have round cells with microvilli while regressing tumors present transitional rather fusiform cells .\n. . . vincristine sulphate is among the most used agents in small animal clinical oncology ( cave et al . 2007 ) . its application has been reported in illness such as canine transmissible venereal tumor ( ctvt ) ( nak et al . 2005 ; rogers et al . 1998 ) , lymphomas ( ponc\u00e9 et al . 2004 ; rodaski and nardi 2006 ) , leukemia ( rodaski and nardi 2006 ) , and kidney nephroblastoma ( seaman and patton 2003 ) . vincristine used alone as a chemotherapeutic agent is able to induce a total remission of ctvt in most cases ( nak et al . 2005 ; rodaski and nardi 2006 ) , while in certain types of sarcoma , its use must be combined with other drugs for a satisfactory therapeutic response ( cave et al . 2007 ) . . . .\ncanine transmissible venereal tumour ( ctvt ) is the only known naturally occurring tumour that can be transplanted as an allograft across major histocompatibility ( mhc ) barriers within the same species , and even to other members of the canine family , such as foxes , coyotes and wolves . the progression of this tumour is unique in that , it follows a predictable growth pattern . in natural and experimental cases , the growth pattern includes progressive growth phase , static phase and regression phase , and this is followed by transplantation immunity in immunocompetent adults , while metastasis occurs in puppies and immunosuppressed dogs . because of the uniqueness of ctvt transmission and progression , experimental investigations of various aspects of the biology of ctvt have been used to provide clues to the immunobiology of both animal and human tumours . this review examines the current state of knowledge of the aspects of the cytogenetic origin , immunophenotype , immunobiology and immunotherapy of ctvt .\ntransmissible venereal tumor ( tvt ) is a coitally transmitted tumor of dogs with widespread distribution . the present study describes the occurrence of the primary oral and nasal tvt in a 10 - year - old , female , mix - breed dog . the case was presented with a history of anorexia , inability to swallow and dyspnea . clinical examinations revealed the emaciation , muzzle deformity due to the presence of a friable , fleshy , cauliflower - like mass in the oral cavity and submandibular lymphadenopathy . tvt was diagnosed based on histopathological findings . the dog was discharged with therapeutic intervention with vincristine . unfortunately , the case died before readmission because of the progressive worsening of the general condition . our findings highlight the need for considering tvt for the differential diagnosis of the extragenital masses in dogs .\ncanine transmissible venereal tumors ( tvts ) are cauliflower - like , pedunculated , nodular , papillary , or multilobulated in appearance . they range in size from a small nodule ( 5 mm ) to a large mass ( > 10 cm ) that is firm , though friable . the surface is often ulcerated and inflamed and bleeds easily . tvts may be solitary or multiple and are almost always located on the genitalia . the tumor is transplanted from site to site and from dog to dog by direct contact with the mass . they may be transplanted to adjacent skin and oral , nasal , or conjunctival mucosae . the tumor may arise deep within the preputial , vaginal , or nasal cavity and be difficult to see during cursory examination . this may lead to misdiagnosis if bleeding is incorrectly assumed to be hematuria or epistaxis from other causes . initially , tvts grow rapidly , and more rapidly in neonatal and immunosuppressed dogs . metastasis is uncommon ( 5 % ) and can occur without a primary genital tumor present . when metastasis occurs , it is usually to the regional lymph nodes , but kidney , spleen , eye , brain , pituitary , skin and subcutis , mesenteric lymph nodes , and peritoneum may also be sites .\nbased on its genetics , ctvt is thought to have started as a tumor in a dog that looked similar to an alaskan malamute ( shown here ) or husky . ( image credit :\nmaiolino p , restucci b , papparella s , paciello o , de vico g . correlation of nuclear morphometric features with animal and human world health organization international histological classifications of canine spontaneous seminomas . vet pathol . 2004 ; 41 ( 6 ) : 608\u201311 .\ncytologic examination of impression smears made from tissue excised from the mass revealed a markedly cellular sample with a predominant population of homogeneous , discrete round cells with mild anisocytosis and anisokaryosis ( figure 2 ) . these cells had a moderate amount of pale - blue cytoplasm , often containing a few small punctate vacuoles . the nuclei were round with coarse chromatin and a single prominent nucleolus . moderate mitotic activity was observed ( 0 to 2 / 50x field ) ( figure 3 ) . occasional neutrophils , lymphocytes , plasma cells , and squamous cells were noted in the background , as were variable numbers of erythrocytes . the cytologic diagnosis was transmissible venereal tumor .\nbut unlike the afflictions of devils and hamsters , ctvt is an std\u2014a sexually transmitted disease . the cancer spreads when tumor cells are shed by the host during a moment of intimacy and make contact with another canine , at which point they set up shop in the new dog\u2019s private parts . symptoms of infection range from bleeding genitals to what an early 19 th century veterinary practitioner described as \u201c an ulcerous state , accompanied with a fungous excrescence . \u201d\nr - 2 . boscos , cm and ververidis , hn . ( 2004 ) . canine tvt : clinical findings , diagnosis and treatment . sci . proc wsva - fecava - hvms world congress , rhodes , greece . ( 2 ) : 758 - 761 .\ncell line ( somatic cells are ones that aren\u2019t sperm or eggs ) . based on the number of dna mutations in the tumor cells , and how quickly they\u2019re likely to arise over time , it\u2019s thought that the original tumor formed in a dog living around 10 , 200 to 12 , 900 years ago . amazingly , based on the tumor\u2019s genetics and what we know of dog breed genetics today , scientists figured out that the dog was likely medium - to - large in size and may have looked similar to an alaskan malamute or husky \u2013 it was solid black or had black - and - white banded coloring .\ncanine tvt was initially described by novinsky in 1876 , who demonstrated that the tumor could be transplanted from one susceptible host to another by inoculating it with tumoral cells ( richardson , 1981 ) . some workers attributed this neoplasia to be because of viral agents ( cockril and beasly , 1975 ) , however , the tumor could not consistently be transmitted by cell free extracts ( demonbreun and goodpasture , 1934 ; calvet , 1983 ) and oncogenic viral particles have never been seen in the tumor cells with the electron microscope ( moulton , 1990 ) . the current consensus view is therefore that the abnormal cells of the neoplasm are the vectors of transmission . the exfoliation and transplantation of neoplastic cells during physical contact provide the main mode of transmission onto genital mucosa , and also onto nasal or oral mucosa , during mating or licking of affected genitalia , respectively ( cohen , 1985 ; johnston , 1991 ) . the loss of mucosal integrity favors transmission ( vermooten , 1987 ) .\nr - 42 . moulton je . ( 1978 ) . tumor of genital systems . in : moulton je , ed . tumors in domestic animals . 2 . ed . california : university of california . 326 - 330 .\na sample of lymph fluid will be sent to laboratory for further evaluation , to determine if cancerous cells are in the sample . the presence of cancerous cells in the lymph nodes is often a strong indication that the tumor is not\nr - 68 . weir ec , pond mj and duncan jr . ( 1987 ) . extragenital located tvt tumor in the dog . literature review and case reports . j am anim hosp assoc . 14 : 532 - 536 .\nresistant cases can be treated with doxorubicin , 30 mg / m 2 , iv , with 3 applications every 21 days ( richardson , 1981 ; souza et al . , 1998 ) . when total disappearance of the tumor cannot be achieved by chemotherapy , electro - cauterization or cryo - cauterization can be useful ( rogers , 1997 , vermooten , 1987 ) . after therapy , small remnant lesions can disappear spontaneously after 1 or 2 weeks ( unpublished observations ) . in cases that fail to resolve with chemotherapy , radiotherapy has been reported to yield good results ( boscos et al . , 2004 ) . the tumor immunity plays a role in tumor regression after modest chemotherapy ( gonzalez et al . , 2000 ) .\nbrand\u00e3o cvs , borges ag , ranzani jjt , rahal sc , teixeira cr , rocha ns . tumor ven\u00e9reo transmiss\u00edvel : estudo retrospectivo de 127 casos ( 1998\u20132000 ) . rev educ contin crmv - sp . 2002 ; 5 ( 1 ) : 25\u201331 .\nin dogs whose immune systems are unable to properly respond , tumors will continue to grow and spread into other areas , and will need to be treated . surgical excision of small or localized tumors can be effective , but may not be the best choice when external genitalia is affected , and also carries the risk of tumor implantation into surgical wounds from instruments and gloves that have become contaminated . recurrence has been seen to occur even in successful tumor removal . most often , surgery is followed by other therapies .\namaral as , gaspar lfj , bassani - silva s , rocha ns . diagn\u00f3stico citol\u00f3gico do tumor ven\u00e9reo transmiss\u00edvel na regi\u00e3o de botucatu , brasil ( estudo descritivo : 1994\u20132003 ) . revista portuguesa de ci\u00eancias veterin\u00e1rias . 2004 ; 99 ( 551 ) : 167\u201371 .\nbut a lineage that dates back to columbus\u2019s time is still relatively recent compared to how long ago the cancer itself originated . the team estimates that ctvt blinked into existence in a dog that lived between 10 , 179 and 12 , 873 years ago\u2014this dog\u2019s mutated cells were the source of the endlessly contagious cancer . by comparing dna from the modern tumor cells to the genotypes of 1 , 106 dogs , wolves , and coyotes , the researchers conclude that the first animal to suffer from ctvt was a black - ish , relatively inbred canine resembling a malamute . and from this whelp , a miracle was born .\nthis condition is the result of direct contact with tumor cells from a diseased animal . it is transmitted through the act of sex , and can also be transmitted by oral contact . intact , free roaming dogs are at greater risk of acquiring and spreading this disease .\na urinalysis is performed , along with blood tests that include a cbc and serum analysis , all of which can rule out the presence of parasites that can cause many of the same symptoms . it can also reveal abnormalities that can point to organs that may be affected . tissue samples can be collected by a fine needle aspiration , surgical excision , or punch biopsy , and are analyzed to discover the nature and type of tumor your dog has . this tumor has a characteristic appearance which can help to diagnose this particular type of cancer .\nmoreover , regressing tumors have a high number of t lymphocytes ( hill et al . , 1984 ) . it is thought that substances secreted by the lymphocyte infiltrate are responsible for the tumor\u2019s regression by inducing cellular differentiation ( yang , 1988 , yang et al . , 1991 ) . a recent study suggested the role of hyaluronan in the growth of the tumor . this study also emphasized that the modulation of stromal cells that occur during the regression of tvt is similar to that occurring during wound healing ( mukaratirwa et al . , 2004 ) .\nwhilst a first assumption is that this tumour is transmissible through mating , it is also possible for the oral and nasal cavities of dogs to be affected by this tumour too so social behaviour like sniffing and licking may also transmit the tumour . these tumours may spontaneously resolve , but normally chemotherapy is required . regards dr callum turner dvm\nshafiee r , javanbakht j , atyabi n , kheradmand p , kheradmand d , bahrami a , daraei h , khadivar f . diagnosis , classification and grading of canine mammary tumours as a model to study human breast cancer : a clinico - cytohistopathological study with environmental factors influencing public health and medicine . cancer cell int . 2013 ; 9 ; 13 ( 1 ) : 79 .\nin some dogs , tumors can trigger an immunologic response that can result in spontaneous regression of the tumor . often , tumors will grow rapidly , then remain at a certain size before regression can occur , after which your dog may be resistant to a future implantation of tvt cells .\nctvt is a cancer that can be transmitted between dogs when they breed . instead of being transmitted by the usual infectious agents \u2013 such as viruses or bacteria \u2013 the tumors are spread by the tumor cells themselves . and , based on a genetics study published just last week in the journal\noverall , this is an eye - opening finding \u2013 while we usually only think of \u201cdescendants\u201d in terms of an animal\u2019s progeny , ctvt ( and its 11 , 000 - year - old tumor cell line ) is an example of how that can be a limited view of the world .\nctvt tumors in dogs today have an astounding 1 . 9 million mutations . this is impressive considering that the tumor has been able to survive and spread for so many years while carrying along this huge number of mutations that could easily make it unstable . ( most human cancers only get about 1 , 000 to 5 , 000 mutations , but obviously aren\u2019t anywhere near 11 , 000 years old . ) that said , the tumor\u2019s genetics appear to have stabilized in the last few centuries ( or before this ) \u2013 the researchers compared the genetics of ctvt in dog populations that have been separated for about 500 years and found that their tumors were very similar ( about 95 % of the same mutations ) . this stabilization may have been needed for the ctvt tumors to continue to survive \u2013 it\u2019s possible that if it gets any more mutations , the tumor will be unstable .\nsquamous cell carcinoma of the canine nasal cavity and frontal sinus was diagnosed in eight cases between may 1988 and april 1994 . the most common presenting complaints were nasal discharge , including epistaxis ; sneezing ; and facial deformity or exophthalmos . metastasis was not identified in any case , but bone lysis and invasion into tissues outside the nasal cavity were noted in five cases . . . . [ show full abstract ]\nhowever , cancer biologists like elizabeth murchison have learned to look past ctvt\u2019s cauliflower - like exterior to appreciate the science within . a native tasmanian , murchison was lured into the wonderful world of transmissible cancers by studying her island\u2019s devils . \u201cfrom there , i learnt about the dog cancer , and found it completely fascinating , \u201d she told me in an email .\nr - 50 . padile , r . d . , panchbhai , v . s . , bhokre , a . p . , jadhao , p . t and baoat , s . t ( 1988 ) . haematological and blood biochemical changes in dogs after vincristine administration for treatment of venereal granuloma . j . vet . surg . 19 ( 1 ) : 47 .\nimmunotherapy studies have also been reported . there are reports to show that generalized form of tvt may regress following transfusion of whole blood or serum from a recovered animal or after treatment with tumor homogenate used as an autocthonius vaccine ( prier and johnson , 1964 ; powers , 1968 ) . a very few paramunity activators have been tried in tvt . the intra - lesional application of calmette - gu\u00e9rin ' s bacillus ( bcg ) was used for three weeks with sporadic success ( johnston , 1991 ) . recurrences have been described after immunotherapy using staphylococcus protein a , bcg or a vaccine made from tumoral cells ( amber et al . , 1990 ; rogers , 1997 ) . biotherapy has unfortunately also resulted in a high rate of recurrence ( richardson , 1981 ; vermooten , 1987 , amber et al . , 1990 ) . parvovirus vaccine has been shown to prevent experimental tumor transplantation when the vaccine was inoculated simultaneously with the tumor ( yang , 1987 ) , but the routine use of this vaccine is not reported . paramunity activators are given with the intention of enhancing the non - specific immune reactivity to the host , and this non - specific immunity is both humoral and cellular ( mayr , 1981 ) . since humoral and cellular immunity is known to play an important role in the regression of tvt ( cohen , 1980 ; mizuno et al . , 1994 ) paramunity activators are expected to be effective in both prophylaxis and treatment of this tumor . local injection of interleukin - 2 has been tried for immunotherapy with 32 % success ( otter et al . , 1999 ) . the mechanism how il - 2 causes regression of the tumor is not clear .\nthis is a common tumor , only found in dogs . it has a patchy worldwide distribution including parts of the caribbean , usa , southern europe , asia and africa . it is transmitted by direct physical contact . it occurs in both sexes and may appear as multiple subcutaneous nodules on the genitalia , lips and other parts of the body .\nmost often , the presence of a tumor in the genital region will prompt a veterinary visit . a physical examination may include a digital vaginal examination in females , and possibly a vaginoscopy , as tumors can grow inside the vagina and be hard to see . a diagnosis is based on symptoms , the presence of tumors , and the results of testing .\n. . . tvt is a radiosensitive tumor and substances generating orthovoltage ( thrall 1982 ) or megavoltage ( rogers et al . 1998 ) like cobalt are used for this purpose . radiotherapy , as an alternative to chemotherapy treatment in tvt , can be used for the treatment - resistant lesions or the lesions forming in brain , testis or eyes . . . .\nr - 49 . otter , w . d . , cadee , j . , gavhumende , r , degroot , c . j . , hennick , w . e . and stewart , r ( 1999 ) . effective cancer therapy with a single injection of interleukin - 2 at the site of tumor . cancer immunology immunotherapy . 48 : 419 - 420 .\nthe management of tvt has not been very easy . several treatments including surgery , radiotherapy , immunotherapy , biotherapy and chemotherapy have been applied for tvt . surgery has been used extensively for the treatment of small , localized tvts , although the recurrence rate can be as high as 50 - 68 % in cases of large invasive tumors ( rogers , 1997 ; weir et al . , 1987 ) . contamination of the surgical site with tvt cells is also a source of recurrence ( boscos and ververidis , 2004 ) . methods to prevent recurrence subsequent to surgery include excision along with cauterization ( hoque , 1995 ) , electrosurgical or cryosurgical excision ( idowu , 1985 ; rao et al . , 1993 ; hoque et al . , 1995 ) or chemotherapy subsequent to surgical excision . transmissible venereal tumors are radiosensitive and orthovoltage as well as cobalt have been used for this purpose ( weir et al . , 1987 ) .\nsquamous cell carcinoma of the nasal planum was diagnosed in eight dogs between march 1988 and january 1994 . epistaxis , sneezing , and ulceration or swelling of the nasal planum were the most common presenting complaints . although no evidence of metastasis was identified , the primary tumor in all cases was locally invasive with extensive involvement of underlying tissues . advanced imaging . . . [ show full abstract ]\nearly therapeutic effects were : three complete regressions , four partial regressions , three stable disease , and two progressive disease . late therapeutic effects were established 45 - 60 months after the first presentation ; there were five complete regressions , no partial regressions , nor stable or progressive diseases . interestingly , all five dogs with late therapeutic effects were in good health . no tumor recurrence was noted .\n. . . however , some studies have reported a higher prevalence in females , 4 , 15 likely associated with areas with no birth control or many females and fewer males . however , other studies have shown a higher prevalence in males , 6 , [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] suggest - ing a strong relationship between ctvt and promiscuous reproduction behavior in dogs that directly sniff and lick the vaginal tumor . . . .\nwhat is the prognosis with tvt ? initially , tvts grow rather fast and more rapidly in neonatal and immuno - suppressed dogs . metastasis ( spreading ) is uncommon ( 5 % ) . many cases resolve spontaneously and self cure . complete surgical removal is difficult and recurrence is likely . radiation therapy is effective but the tumor is very responsive to chemotherapy 1 . currently a drug called vincristine is helpful with a period of 6 - 7 weeks as the recommended treatment .\n. . . ctvt primarily affects the genital external epithelium of male dogs and bitches . 6 , 7 ctvt is transmitted when malignant cells are transferred directly from 1 dog to another dog via coitus , licking , biting or sniffing tumor areas , such as the external genitalia or skin . 6 , 8 , 9 ctvt presents a low metastatic potential 7 , 10 ; however , metastases to the skin , lungs , abdominal organs , and central nervous system have been described . . . .\nall things canid has joined with the american society of animal naturopathy to offer you a 50 % discount on your first animal naturopathy course . canine natural educational classes are available through the\u0101 american society of animal naturopathy . these include nutrition , homeopathy , naturopathy , breeding , and vaccines as well as many more . you will receive a 50 % discount on classes ( books not included ) if you mention all things canid when ordering your classes . for the discount just visit the site , chose your classes , and email your list of the classes you want to take using the form provided . a invoice will be sent to you with your 50 % discount applied .\ntvt has continued to be a serious problem around the world ( moulton , 1961 ) occurring at same frequencies in both male and female dogs ( smith and washbourn , 1998 ) . it is estimated to be more prevalent in temperate climates ( ndirty et al . , 1977 ; withrow and mcewen , 1989 ; rogers , 1997 ) . a large number of reports have been produced in india ( pandey and dhawedkar , 1977 ; chaudhary and rao , 1982 ; nayak et al . , 1987 ; padile et al . , 1988 ; das et al . , 1989 ; pandey et al . , 1989 ; das and sahay , 1990 ; chauhan et al . , 1991 ; das et al . , 1991 ; tiwari et al . , 1991 ; dinesh et al . , 1993 ; gandotra et al . , 1993 ; hoque et al . , 1995 ; maiti et al . , 1995 ; jain et al . , 2002 a , 2002b ) . it is commonly observed in dogs that are in close contact with one another , or in stray and wild dogs that exhibit unrestrained sexual activity ( cangul , 2003 ) . in india tvt is known to be the most frequently reported tumor in dogs ranging from 23 - 43 % of the total number of tumors in canine population ( gandotra et al . , 1993 ; chaudhary and rao , 1982 ) . uncontrolled sexual behavior and a large stray dog population appear to be one reason for such a high incidence of tvt . an age related incidence has been shown for tvt ( higgins , 1966 ; pandey et al . , 1997 ; thakur and bradley , 1983 ) with the tumor being common at 2 - 5 years of age ."]}
{"id": 1608, "summary": [{"text": "sepia ivanovi is a species of cuttlefish native to the southwestern indian ocean , probably throughout southeast africa , including kenya , mozambique , to the mouth of the zambezi river .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it lives at depths to 50 m. s. ivanovi grows to a mantle length of 70 mm .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the type specimen was collected near mombasa , kenya ( 04 \u00b0 03 \u2032 s 40 \u00b0 00 \u2032 e ) .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is deposited at the zoological museum in moscow . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "sepia ivanovi", "paragraphs": ["what type of species is sepia ivanovi ? below , you will find the taxonomic groups the sepia ivanovi species belongs to .\nwhich photographers have photos of sepia ivanovi species ? below , you will find the list of underwater photographers and their photos of the marine species sepia ivanovi .\nhow to identify sepia ivanovi marine species ? below , you will find the list of main identification criteria and physical characteristics of marine species sepia ivanovi . for each identification criteria , the corresponding physical characteristics of marine species sepia ivanovi are marked in green .\nwhere is sepia ivanovi found in the world ? below , you will find the list and a world map of the geographic distribution where the marine species sepia ivanovi can be found .\ngps coordinates of sepia ivanovi , kenya . latitude : - 4 . 0500 longitude : 40 . 0000\nsepia ivanovi is a species of cuttlefish native to the southwestern indian ocean , probably throughout southeast africa , including kenya , mozambique , to the mouth of the zambezi river .\na new species of cuttlefish , sepia vecchioni ( cephalopoda , sepiidae ) from colachal coast , south india .\nsepia is a genus of cuttlefish encompassing some of the best known and most common species . the name of the genus is the latinized form of the greek \u03c3\u03b7\u03c0\u03af\u03b1 , s\u0113p\u00eda , cuttlefish .\n^ whiteaves , j . f . 1897 . on some remains of a sepia - like cuttle - fish from the cretaceous rocks of the south saskatchewan . the canadian record of science 7 : 459\u2013462 .\nhewitt , r . ( 1978 ) .\nthe preservation of the shells of sepia in the middle miocene of malta\n. proceedings of the geologists ' association 89 : 227\u2013237 . doi : 10 . 1016 / s0016 - 7878 ( 78 ) 80013 - 3 .\nthis genus is probably the most speciose in the cephalopoda . because of the great variability among species , the genus is best defined by the other two genera ; that is , sepia is the sepiid that doesn ' t have the major characters that define metasepia and sepiella .\nyes , it ' s a cephalopod ! this squid and other cephalopods are featured in the cephalopod pages maintained at the national museum of natural history , department of invertebrate zoology ! see the following links for more information on cephalopods .\ncephalopods in action . this is a multimedia appendix to published papers , that features video clips of cephalopods filmed from submersibles . included are :\nthe list of species featured in the videos , arranged as a taxonomic list , only relevant taxa included .\nintroducing an interactive key to the families of the decapodiformes . try this , it ' s exciting !\nexpedition journals from the search for the giant squid off new zealand , 1999 .\nthis page was created by jim felley , mike vecchione , clyde roper , mike sweeney , and tyler christensen . if you have questions or comments , contact mike vecchione .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nkhromov , d . n . , c . c . lu , a . guerra , zh . dong et al . / n . a . voss , m . vecchione et al . , eds .\nsystematics and biogeography of cephalopods . smithsonian contributions to zoology , 586 ( i - ii )\nsweeney , m . j . and c . f . e . roper / n . a . voss , m . vecchione , r . b . toll and m . j . sweeney , eds .\ntaxon validity : [ fide khromov et al . ( 1998 ) ] . repository : zmmgu holotype n - 172 [ fide khromov et al . ( 1998 ) ] . type locality : mombasa , zambezi ( south - east africa )\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n\u00a9 richard e . young , katharina m . mangold ( 1922 - 2003 )\nbeaks : representative descriptions can be found here : lower beak ; upper beak .\nfunnel component of locking apparatus without pit - like depression at midpoint of groove .\ndepth range based on 5379 specimens in 84 taxa . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 2958 samples . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 0 - 795 . 5 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 6 . 055 - 28 . 954 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 054 - 32 . 133 salinity ( pps ) : 34 . 112 - 38 . 661 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 1 . 362 - 6 . 244 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 054 - 2 . 285 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 380 - 63 . 602 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : 0 - 795 . 5 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 6 . 055 - 28 . 954 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 054 - 32 . 133 salinity ( pps ) : 34 . 112 - 38 . 661 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 1 . 362 - 6 . 244 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 054 - 2 . 285 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 380 - 63 . 602 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\nthe species listed above with an asterisk ( * ) are questionable and need further study to determine if they are a valid species or a synonym . the question mark ( ? ) indicates questionable placement within the genus .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !"]}
{"id": 1609, "summary": [{"text": "the brownstriped grunt ( anisotremus moricandi ) is a species of grunt native to the atlantic waters off brazil , where it can be found at depths of 9 to 12 m ( 30 to 39 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it can reach 15.1 cm ( 5.9 in ) in sl . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "brownstriped grunt", "paragraphs": ["brownstriped grunt anisotremus moricandi - / animals / aquatic / fish / g / grunt / brownstriped _ grunt _ _ anisotremus _ moricandi . png . html\nthe brownstriped grunt primarily inhabits rocky reefs in shallow , turbid water ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - brownstriped grunt\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - brownstriped grunt\ntitle =\narkive photo - brownstriped grunt\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - brownstriped grunt ( anisotremus moricandi )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - brownstriped grunt ( anisotremus moricandi )\ntitle =\narkive species - brownstriped grunt ( anisotremus moricandi )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nwikipedia article copyright notice : this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . it uses material from the wikipedia article\nbrownstriped grunt\n.\nglenn , c . r . 2006 .\nearth ' s endangered creatures - brownstriped grunt facts\n( online ) - licensed article from wikipedia : the free encyclopedia . accessed\nthe primary threat to the brownstriped grunt is habitat degradation , with recreational activities , high sedimentation rates from runoff , and pollution all contributing to a decline in the quality of this species\u2019 reef habitat ( 3 ) . although not of commercial importance ( 2 ) , the brownstriped grunt is taken incidentally in other fisheries and is being increasingly caught for the marine aquarium trade ( 3 ) .\nfacts summary : the brownstriped grunt ( anisotremus moricandi ) is a species of concern belonging in the species group\nfishes\nand found in the following area ( s ) : brazil , colombia , panama , venezuela .\nthere are currently no known conservation measures in place for the brownstriped grunt , but specific recommendations have been made for the protection of its reef habitat , through the designation of marine protected areas , and the regulation of its exploitation . in addition , owing to the paucity of information available on this species , further research into its ecology and population parameters is considered a high priority ( 3 ) .\nthe brownstriped grunt appears to be a nocturnal species , spending considerable time during the day hidden in reef crevices ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . although it was originally thought to be solitary ( 4 ) , observations have been made of this species in small groups comprising up to 12 individuals ( 3 ) . its diet is poorly known , but analyses of stomach contents indicate an omnivorous diet that includes crabs , gastropods , polychaete worms and algae ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .\nalthough the brownstriped grunt was discovered as long ago as 1842 , very little is known about this reef fish , having been misidentified on several occasions prior to its eventual rediscovery in 1982 ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . it is a relatively small species of anisotremus , with a deep , compressed body . the head and body are primarily dark - brown in colour , with six narrow whitish - gold , horizontal stripes , giving the converse impression of six wide brown stripes , hence the common name . the pelvic fins are black , while the other fins are light yellow ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . all species in the family haemulidae are known as grunts because of the noise they make by grinding their well - developed pharyngeal teeth together ( 5 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) . 2015 . catalog of fishes . updated 2 june 2015 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 2 june 2015 ) .\nanderson , w . , claro , r . , cowan , j . , lindeman , k . , padovani - ferreira , b . , rocha , l . a . & sedberry , g .\ncomeros - raynal , m . , linardich , c . & polidoro , b .\njustification : this species was previously assessed as endangered in 1996 under vers 2 . 3 criteria ( 1994 ) , it is now known to be relatively widespread on the atlantic coast of south america and brazil . there is currently little evidence of population declines from fishing . it can be very common in brazil which corresponds to at least 50 % of its range and it is not heavily fished . export prohibition is in place in brazil for the ornamental trade . it is listed as least concern . the species is associated with hardbottom habitats and could incur local impacts in the event of loss of hardbottom or associated coral habitats .\n1999 , dias 2007 , r . robertson pers . comm . 2014 ) . its depth range is 2 - 12 m .\nthis species is common in parts of its range . for example , it is very common in northeastern and eastern brazilian coastal reefs ( dias 2007 , chaves et al . 2010 , l . a . rocha pers . comm . 2015 ) and in the espirito santo state . this species has shown significant differences in abundance at two reef sampling locations in brazil ( 5 % frequency / 0 . 6 % abundance ) on a reef visited frequently by recreational boaters and tourists ; ( 18 . 33 % frequency / 1 . 34 % abundance ) in a reef not frequently visited by recreational boaters and tourists ( medeiros et al . 2007 ) . it is rare and appears only in spotty localities where it ranges outside brazil in the southern caribbean ( j . tavera and a . acero pers . comm . 2015 ) .\nthis species is typically found in association with hardbottom reef habitats . although this species has been thought to avoid blue - water insular conditions , with a preference for turbid waters , recent observations have shown this species to remain in environments that experience seasonal fluctuations in turbidity due to rain ( dias 2007 ) . this species has been observed in tropical coastal rock reef tidepools ( cunha et al . 2008 ) . this species is often solitary and nocturnal , frequenting reef crevices during daylight . however , it also exhibits diurnal and gregarious habits , mixing with other haemulid species or schooling with conspecifics ( nunes and sampaio 2006 ) . gut content analysis from one individual revealed the digested remains of crabs , filamentous algae , gastropod shells and polychaete worms ( acero and garzon 1982 ) .\nin some coastal areas of brazil , this species is used as food by small - scale fishers and it is caught by spearfishing , net fishing , and hook and line ( dias 2007 ) . this species does not appear to be a main target , neither for commercial or artisanal fisheries in the states of bahia and paraiba , brazil ( nunes and sampaio 2006 ) . this species is not highly commercially exploited in northeastern brazil ( nunes and sampaio 2006 , dias 2007 ) . the species has been cited as experiencing substantial fishing pressure in the guarapari islands , brazil ( floeter et al . 2006 ) , but there is little empirical evidence of this pressure ( l . rocha pers . comm . 2011 ) . it is a minor component of the aquarium trade ( gasparini et al . 2005 ) .\nanisotremus moricandi is of relatively minor commercial importance and is rarely targeted . there are no major threats from fisheries . populations can be impacted by human activities in coastal areas , both on reefs and in tidepool habitats ( dias 2007 ) . unregulated recreational boating and tourist activity on reefs has been shown to negatively affect abundance of this species on reefs ( medeiros et al . 2007 ) . high sedimentation rates coming from land discharges of pollutants that reach coastal reefs may also negatively affect this species ( hodgson 1999 ) . additionally , tidepools may be impacted by development in the coastal zone ( cunha et al . 2008 ) .\nit has been suggested that strategies to conserve a . moricandi populations in ne brazil should place strong emphasis on the conservation of their habitats , especially the biogenic coastal reefs ( nunes and sampaio 2006 , dias 2007 ) . in brazil , this species is not included in the list of species that can be exported , protecting this species from ornamental trade exploitation . since the listing , there has been been an increase in the number of brazilian reef fish studies over the past decade , many of which have cited this and other endangered brazilian species as reasons to establish and monitor marine protected areas ( chaves et al . 2010 ) .\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\nanderson , w . , claro , r . , cowan , j . , lindeman , k . , padovani - ferreira , b . , rocha , l . a . & sedberry , g . 2015 .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2015 : e . t1308a115056181 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\ngreek , anisos = unequal + greek , trema , - atos = hole ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 9 - 12 m ( ref . 40101 ) . tropical ; 10\u00b0n - 16\u00b0s , 82\u00b0w - 34\u00b0w\nwest atlantic : panama , colombia , aruba , orchilla island ( venezuela ) and brazil .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 15 . 1 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 40101 )\nhilton - taylor , c . , 2000 . 2000 iucn red list of threatened species . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk . xviii + 61 p . ( with 1 cd - rom ) . ( ref . 36508 )\n) : 27 - 28 . 3 , mean 27 . 5 ( based on 106 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5039 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01622 ( 0 . 00743 - 0 . 03541 ) , b = 3 . 03 ( 2 . 85 - 3 . 21 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 25 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\na seemingly discontinuous distribution in the western atlantic , with records from the coasts of panama , aruba , columbia , orchila island ( venezuela ) , and brazil , from cear\u00e1 to espirito santo ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nclassified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nacero , p . a . and garz\u00f3n , f . j . ( 1982 ) rediscovery of anisotremus moricandi ( perciformes : haemulidae ) , including a redescription of the species and comments on its ecology and distribution . copeia , 1982 ( 3 ) : 613 - 618 .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\ngastropods a group of molluscs that have a well - defined head , an unsegmented body and a broad , flat foot . they can possess a single , usually coiled , shell or no shell at all . includes slugs , snails and limpets . nocturnal active at night . omnivorous feeding on both plants and animals . pharyngeal to do with the pharynx or throat . polychaete worms polychaeta means \u2018many bristled\u2019 ; this class of worms are segmented and bear many \u2018chaetae\u2019 ( bristles ) .\ncarpenter , k . e . ( 2002 ) the living marine resources of the western central atlantic . volume 3 : bony fishes . part 2 ( opistognathidae to molidae ) , sea turtles and marine mammals . food and agriculture organization of the united nations , rome .\ndias , t . l . p . ( 2007 ) what do we know about anisotremus moricandi ( teleostei : haemulidae ) , an endangered reef fish ? . biota neotropica , 7 ( 2 ) : 317 - 319 .\nacero , p . a . and garz\u00f3n , f . j . ( 1982 ) rediscovery of anisotremus moricandi ( perciformes : haemulidae ) , including a redescription of the species and comments on its ecology and distribution . copeia , 1982 ( 3 ) : 613 - 618 .\ncampbell , a . and dawes , j . ( 2004 ) encyclopedia of underwater life . oxford university press , oxford .\nurltoken urltoken inc . 77 - 6425 kuakini hwy . ste c2 - 200 kailua kona , hi 96740 usa info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nthis article is only an excerpt . if it appears incomplete or if you wish to see article references , visit the rest of its contents here .\nwant to help save endangered species , but don ' t have a lot of money to donate ? there are actually a lot of creative ways you can help endangered species , even if you are an individual and not a funded organization . we ' ve put together a list of ways you as an individual can help save endangered species .\nlist of all endangered animals . list of all endangered plants . list of all endangered species ( animals & plants ) . by species group ( mammal , birds , etc ) . . . united states endangered species list . browse by country , island , us state . . . search for an endangered species profile .\nare you inspired by endangered animals ? check out our games and coloring pages ! more to come soon .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n\u00a92008 - 2014 xavier cortada . all text content , videos , and images are the property of xavier cortada .\nany reproductions , revisions or modifications of this website without expressed consent of xavier cortada is prohibited by law ."]}
{"id": 1611, "summary": [{"text": "the pygmy seahorses comprise several species of tiny seahorse in the syngnathid family or syngnathidae ( seahorses and pipefish ) .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "family syngnathidae is part of order syngnathiformes , which contains fishes with fused jaws that suck food into tubular mouths .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they are found in southeast asia in the coral triangle area .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "they are some of the smallest seahorse species in the world , typically measuring less than 2 centimetres ( 0.79 in ) in height .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the first pygmy seahorse known to science was hippocampus bargibanti .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "at least six more species were named after 2000 .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the first species discovered lives exclusively on fan corals and matches their colour and appearance .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "so effective is pygmy seahorse camouflage that it was discovered only when a host gorgonian was being examined in a laboratory .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "in 1969 a new caledonian scientist , georges bargibant , was collecting specimens of muricella spp gorgonians for the noum\u00e9a museum and whilst one of these was on his dissection table he happened to notice a pair of tiny seahorses .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the next year they were officially named by whitley as bargibant 's pygmy seahorse .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "other species live on soft corals or are free-ranging among seagrasses and algae . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "pygmy seahorse", "paragraphs": ["not many creatures can match the pygmy seahorse for being so simultaneously enigmatic and simply gorgeous . the cryptic pygmy seahorse\nthis pygmy seahorse is one of 9 known species of pygmy seahorse . due to their amazing camouflage ability and tiny size , many pygmy seahorse species have only been discovered over the past 10 years , and more may be discovered . in addition , many species have different color morphs , making identification even more difficult .\nthe dwarf seahorse ( hippocampus zosterae ) is a small seahorse found in the western atlantic ocean . they are also known as little seahorses or pygmy seahorses .\nthe common pygmy seahorse or bargibant ' s seahorse is one of the tiniest known vertebrates . this seahorse was named after the scuba diver who discovered the species in 1969 while collecting specimens for the noumea aquarium in new caledonia .\nmcgrouther , m . pygmy seahorse , hippocampus bargibanti whitley , 1970 . australian museum . accessed january 30 , 2016 .\nthe kenyan pygmy chameleon isn ' t the only adorably tiny pygmy species . there are also marshall ' s pygmy chameleon and spectral pygmy chameleon . below is the brookesia minima , or commonly called the madagascan dwarf chameleon , the minute leaf chameleon , the pygmy leaf chameleon , the nosy be pygmy leaf chameleon , and the tiny ground chameleon . in other words , chameleons can blend in not only with their colors but also with their names !\nas its name implies , the pygmy seahorse is a tiny fish . it lives on gorgonians ( sea fans ) of the genus muricella .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - pygmy seahorse ( hippocampus bargibanti )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - pygmy seahorse ( hippocampus bargibanti )\ntitle =\narkive species - pygmy seahorse ( hippocampus bargibanti )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nonly known to occur on gorgonian corals of the genus muricella , the pygmy seahorse is typically found between 16 and 40 metres depth ( 2 ) .\nthe pygmy seahorse is classified as data deficient ( dd ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .\nthe pygmy seahorse has a short snout , rounded knob - like coronet and irregular bulbous tubercles on the body . it has a rounded spine above each eye and on each cheek .\nwhy are they only being discovered now ? since no one knew they existed , they were not being looked for . because of their astonishing camouflage , they were easily overlooked until 1969 in new indonesia when h . bargibanti was discovered . it was found on accident when a biologist was observing muricella sp . gorgonians which were retrieved by divers . the biologist found the tiny seahorse was using the gorgonian as its host . this species was so well hidden that they were not even noticed until the coral was examined in a lab ! many species of pygmy seahorses were discovered just recently , including hippocampus debelius , or the soft - coral seahorse , which was revealed in 1993 by an underwater photographer . severn\u2019s pygmy seahorse , pontoh\u2019s pygmy seahorse , and satomi\u2019s pygmy seahorse were just named at the end of 2008 ! the majority of pygmy seahorses have been found by divers instead of scientists . scientists then later verified the divers findings .\nunder the care of experienced researchers at national aquaria , all pygmy seahorses and their gorgonians have died .\nnoaa fisheries . dwarf seahorse ( hippocampus zosterae ) . accessed september 30 , 2014 .\n. other distinctive pygmy seahorse characteristics include a fleshy head and body , a very short snout , and a long , prehensile tail . this is also one of the smallest seahorse species in the world , typically measuring less than 2 centimetres ( 0 . 79 in ) in height .\nvincent , a . 1995 . a role for daily greetings in maintaining seahorse pair bonds .\nhello , my names angela . where can i buy a seahorse in ma or nh ?\nthere are a number of enrichments available to improve brine shrimp . you can even make your own . probably the most popular among seahorse keepers is dan\u2019s feed , available through seahorse source .\npygmy seahorses have such a weird but elegant look to them , their bright colors are so attractive as well .\nthe pygmy seahorse is known from coral reefs in the tropical western pacific around australia ( queensland ) , indonesia , japan , new caledonia , papua new guinea and the philippines ( 1 ) ( 2 ) .\nbefore getting into dwarf seahorse care , it\u2019s important to understand a little bit about their biology .\nwhat is a pygmy seahorse ? pygmy seahorses are part of the genus hippocampus which all seahorses belong . they are minute seahorse species found through the world , most less than one inch in size . while they have been known about to science since the discovery of h . bargibanti in 1969 , most species have been discovered within the past 10 years . since then , they have become one of the most popular creatures for recreational divers to seek out .\nstockton , n . 2014 . baby pygmy seahorses are even cuter than you think . wired . accessed january 30 , 2016 .\nthe first time i saw pygmy seahorse in bali . i didn\u2019t know what my guide show me , and he bring me more close with the gorgonian and finally i saw very2 small things moving . i am very happy diving in bali \ud83d\ude00\nmasonjones , h . , s . lewis . 1996 . courtship behavior in the dwarf seahorse , hippocampus zosterae .\nlourie , s . a . and randall , j . e . ( 2003 ) a new pygmy seahorse , hippocampus denise ( teleostei : syngnathidae ) from the indo - pacific . zoological studies , 42 ( 2 ) : 284 - 291 .\nauthenticated ( 19 / 12 / 2006 ) by sara lourie , project seahorse / redpath museum , mcgill university . urltoken\nthe walea seahorse is named after an island in central sulawesi , indonesia\u2014the only place it has so far been found .\ngomon , m . f . 1997 . a remarkable new pygmy seahorse ( syngnathidae : hippocampus ) from south - eastern australia , with a description of h . bargibanti whitley from new caledonia . memoirs of the museum of victoria 56 ( 1 ) : 245\u2013253 .\npygmy seahorses are unique from other seahorse species in that they are much smaller , less than an inch tall . in fact , they are the smallest seahorses in the world , and the record holder h . satomiae is only 13mm tall when fully grown . that\u2019s just barely over a half an inch ! they are also closely associated with their host as they possess the amazing ability to mimic it which protects them from predators . because of this , new species of pygmy seahorses are still being discovered ! unlike many other seahorses , the pygmy seahorse does not have recognizable body rings . other things that make them different from other species of seahorse not having a fully formed pouch and some types having a single gill slit such as h . colemani , h . pontohi , and h . severnsi .\npygmy seahorses are listed as data deficient on the iucn red list due to lack of published data on population sizes or trends for the species .\nlike other seahorses , it\u2019s the male pygmy that becomes pregnant . he gives birth to around a dozen young after a gestation of 10 - 14 days\ndue to the very small size of the pygmy seahorse they can\u2019t eat anything large at all . they tend to consume very small particles of food from their environment . mainly this is in the form of the young brine shrimp but they do consume some other types of crustaceans .\n2003 .\nbiology of seahorses\n( on - line ) . project seahorse . accessed october 13 , 2004 at urltoken .\nthe pygmy seahorse is one of the newest that have been identified . since they are so tiny and they blend so well with the surroundings . they weren\u2019t even known to exist until they were accidentally placed in captivity on some coral reef and then they were detected and closely examined .\nreijnen , b . t . , et al . 2011 . fish , fans and hydroids : host species of pygmy seahorses . zookeys 103 : 1\u201326 .\nall but one of the seven species so far identified is found in southeast asia . coleman\u2019s pygmy is confirmed only from lord howe island off australia\u2019s east coast\nepoch times staff . ( 8 / 11 / 2011 . )\nscience in pictures : pygmy seahorses .\nthe epoch times , northern california edition .\npygmy seahorses can be found coastal areas ranging from southern japan and indonesia to northern australia and new caledonia . they normally reside in depths of 10 - 40m on reefs . these distinctive pygmy seahorse species have attracted the attention of divers worldwide , making it extremely valuable to the diving industry . in sabah , a colony of pygmy seahorses is visited by about 100 divers per day . unfortunately , these visits can be dangerous to the seahorses . with photographers constantly taking pictures , the flashes from cameras could possibly influence them in negative ways . at this time , there are no policies to protect them from harm .\nmasonjones hd and sm lewis . 1996 . courtship behavior in the dwarf seahorse , hippocampus zosterae . copeia 1996 : 634 - 640 .\nthere are three species of pygmy shrew in the world , the american pygmy shrew ( pictured above ) , eurasian pygmy shrew , and the etruscan pygmy shrew . of the three , the etruscan pygmy shrew , pictured below , is the smallest and it is also considered the smallest mammal in the world by mass ( the kitti ' s hog - nosed bat is the smallest by skull size ) . the tiny creature grows to only about 1 . 4 inches in body length , but despite that size , it will eat 1 . 5 to 2 times its own body weight in food a day , scarfing down everything from small vertebrates and invertebrates , to prey as large as itself ! if you think that ' s amazing , the 2 - inch long american pygmy shrew eats three times its body weight a day , requiring it to capture and eat a meal every 15 - 30 minutes just to stay alive . small body , but enormous appetite !\nif you happen to come across a pygmy seahorse , please remember to follow these tips . you may look at them but always be careful around pygmy seahorses . do not touch or attempt to move them . obviously , do not try to collect them for pet - owning or trade purposes . keep flashlights and flash photography away from them . avoid touching or destroying the seafan and take note of the coral around you . they are sensitive to stress and dislike flashes and harassment from divers . pygmy seahorses are safe as long as they are not disturbed in any way . we want these beautiful and colorful creatures to stay .\nmuch has changed regarding our understanding of seahorse care , and many other species are now commonly available . yet the dwarf seahorse remains an ever popular , easy to care for aquarium pet . the basics of keeping them are quite simple as long as you follow a few guidelines .\nadults are usually found in pairs or clusters of pairs , with up to 28 pygmy seahorses recorded on a single gorgonian , and may be monogamous . as with other\nvery little is known about the total number of pygmy seahorses , population trends , distribution , or major threats . it has therefore been classified as data deficient on the\n@ paul no they are two different species . they are very similar , but they are not the same animal . pygmy seahorses are slightly smaller than dwarf seahorses .\nif one wants to keep a miniature species of seahorse in an aquarium , consider looking into the hippocampus zosterae , also known as the dwarf seahorse , instead . dwarf seahorses are much less sensitive to captive conditions and are easier to take care of . pygmy seahorses are often confused with dwarf seahorses in literature . although both are similarly tiny , they are not the same . dwarf seahorses do have the similar appeal of being tiny but make better pets .\nproject seahorse . 2003 . hippocampus bargibanti . the iucn red list of threatened species 2003 : e . t10060a3158205 . accessed january 30 , 2016 .\npygmy seahorses live on gorgonian corals off australia , new caledonia , indonesia , japan , papua new guinea , and the philippines , in water depths of about 52 - 131 feet .\nproject seahorse ( 2003 ) . hippocampus bargibanti . 2006 . iucn red list of threatened species . iucn 2006 . urltoken . retrieved on 12 may 2006 .\nproject seahorse 2003 . hippocampus zosterae . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2014 . 2 . < urltoken > . accessed september 30 , 2014 .\nvincent , a . 1997 .\nnova - kingdom of the seahorse\n( on - line ) . pbs . accessed october 13 , 2004 at urltoken .\nstrawn k . 1958 . life history of the pigmy seahorse , hippocampus zosterae jordan and gilbert , at cedar key , florida . copeia 1958 : 16 - 22 .\njordan , , gilbert . 1882 .\nhippocamous zosterae ( dwarf seahorse )\n( on - line ) . fishbase . accessed october 13 , 2004 at urltoken .\nfound in the swamps and forests of west africa , the pygmy hippo is one of the only two species of hippo on earth , and it is endangered . the elusive and nocturnal pygmy hippo is vulnerable not only to the loss of habitat to agriculture , but also to hunting and poaching . experts estimate there are fewer than 3 , 000 of these unique little guys left in the wild .\npygmy seahorses are only found living in coral reefs , sea grass beds , and algae , which makes them vulnerable to habitat destruction of that species of coral is destroyed . most of the host corals have been found to be nearly impossible to maintain in captivity . because these corals can only thrive in the wild , it is possible that divers may disrupt the environment of the pygmy seahorses . gorgonian corals are susceptible to destruction by divers and that is not good for the pygmy seahorses , since their survival largely depends on the corals . it is important that divers follow recommended guidelines to viewing these animals .\nthough small in size , these animals are not small on personality nor good looks ! check out these fascinating and , let ' s admit it , simply adorable pygmy species from all over the globe .\nthe small size of the pygmy seahorse makes it very hard for them to be able to live along . they attach to a host \u2013 gorgonian corals \u2013 in order to survive . the coloring of them will blend with them . this is how they are able to survive since they can\u2019t swim well and they are too small to handle the water currents without an anchor .\nvery little is known about the total number of pygmy seahorses , population trends , distribution , or major threats . it has therefore been classified as data deficient on the iucn red list 2006 . because of the unusual and attractive colouration of this small seahorse it is possible that it could be being collected for the aquaria trade , although no international trade in the species has been recorded .\nit ' s amazing how many pygmy bird species exist , including this pygmy cormorant . a seabird of southeastern europe and southwestern asia , they live among reedbeds and near open waters , and are often found in rice fields and other flooded crop areas . because they require wetlands to survive , their populations have been dramatically affected over recent decades as wetlands have been drained for agricultural purposes and other changes to their watery habitats .\nthey are easily identified by their small size , as well as by amount of body rings ( 9 or 10 ) and dorsal fin rays ( 12 ) . this seahorse ' s common name could be used for other small species of seahorse , but this species is on of the smallest at around 2 . 5cm ( 1\n) total length in adult males .\nthis gremlin - looking critter made headlines when it was\nrediscovered\nin 2000 after one was accidentally killed in a trap set for rats . the species hadn ' t been spotted since the 1920s and was thought to be extinct , but finally in 2008 researchers from texas a & m university spotted the first living pygmy tarsiers in decades . the 4 - inch long pygmy tarsiers weigh only about 2 ounces , and prey entirely on insects .\nvery little is known about the total number of pygmy seahorses , population trends , distribution , or major threats . it has therefore been classified as data deficient on the iucn red list ( 1 ) . because of the unusual and attractive colouration of this small seahorse it is possible that it could be being collected for the aquaria trade ( 1 ) , although no international trade in the species has been recorded ( 2 ) .\nthere are five species of pygmy possum , four endemic to australia and one found in papua new guinea and indonesia . the eastern pygmy possum , pictured above and below , is one of the australian species . it is only about 2 . 8 - 3 . 5 inches long , and a 3 - 4 . 3 inch long tail . meanwhile , the tasmanian pygmy possum , pictured perched on the rocks in the image below , is the world ' s smallest possum , weighing in at only about . 25 oz and growing to only about 2 . 5 - 3 inches in body length . these teensy possums need to keep a sharp eye out for owls , which readily prey on them .\nthe color and shape of this seahorse nearly perfectly matches the corals on which it lives . check out a video of these tiny seahorses to experience their incredible ability to blend in with their surroundings .\nthe small size and specific body ring and dorsal ray counts should be sufficient to allow the dwarf seahorse to be distinguished from the larger congener hippocampus erectus , with which it may co - occur .\nvery little is known about the total number of pygmy seahorses , population trends , distribution , or major threats . it has therefore been classified as data deficient on the iucn red list 2006 ( 1 ) . because of the unusual and attractive colouration of this small seahorse it is possible that it could be being collected for the aquaria trade ( 1 ) , although no international trade in the species has been recorded ( 2 ) .\nlast but certainly not least , not even by pygmy standards , is the pygmy three - toed sloth . this is one of the world ' s most endangered species with only about 100 left in the wild on isla escudo de veraguas , panama . after a controversial issue of dallas aquarium attempting to import eight of these sloths , supposedly for a captive breeding program in texas , the captured sloths were released . the above video is one of them being returned to its home .\nwilson mj , and acj vincent . 1998 . preliminary success in closing the life cycle of exploited seahorse species , hippocampus spp . , in captivity . aquarium sciences and conservation 2 : 179 - 196 .\nyes , even the largest animal alive on earth today , the blue whale , has a pygmy relative . this subspecies is found in the indian and pacific oceans , and grows to 79 feet ( which apparently is puny in the world of blue whales ) . they ' re described as\ntadpole\nshaped compared to their larger cousin , with a shorter tail and proportionately larger head . it ' s estimated that there are around 10 , 000 pygmy blue whales traveling the oceans .\ni am looking to buy two small seahorse\u2019 to keep as pets and i wld like to know where t obuy them at email me back at beall . jasmine @ urltoken they are really kool creatures ilove them\nthey carry about 10 - 20 eggs per breeding . the eggs are fertilized and incubated until hatching time . offspring are born live about two weeks later and are then independent from parents . fry , or baby seahorses , usually cling to coral reefs and feed immediately after birth . they look just like miniature versions of the parents . little is known about the pygmy seahorse\u2019s life cycle , although other small seahorses species are known to live for around a year .\npygmy seahorses are found in the costal regions of the indo - pacific ocean , including indonesia , new guinea , great barrier reef , new caledonia , japan , and the philippines . they range from 3 \u00b0n \u2013 23 \u00b0s and do not migrate .\nreijnen , b . t . , van der meij , s . e . t . , van ofwegen , l . p . ( 2011 )\nfish , fans and hydroids : host species of pygmy seahorses .\nzookeys 103 : 1 - 26 .\nthough they may be tiny , these itty bitty raptors are fierce , and there are a bunch of them ! roughly 25 - 35 species of pygmy owl , or owlet , can be found all over the world , but they ' re mainly found in western north america and central america . the northern pygmy owl , pictured below , ranges all the way from canada to honduras . with a wingspan of only 30 - 40 centimeters , the raptor usually goes after insects or smaller prey like lizards , rodents and small birds .\npygmy seahorses are not suitable for home aquariums because their survival likely depends on host corals . waikiki aquarium has attempted to keep the host gorgonian for h . bargibanti , and was unable to keep it alive more than a few months . these species of seahorses have very small mouths , making them difficult to feed in a closed system . not only is the environment for pygmy seahorses hard to maintain , it is probably impossible to obtain the seahorses themselves anyway since they are so rare . they are extremely delicate and are better off living in the wild .\nlourie , s . a . , vincent , c . j . & h . j . hall . 1999 . seahorses . an identification guide to the world ' s species and their conservation . project seahorse . pp . 214 .\ndwarf seahorses are also collected in florida for the marine ornamental aquarium industry . annual seahorse landings vary widely , but adams et al . ( 2001 ) indicates more than 80 , 000 h . zosterae were collected in florida in 1992 .\n, commonly known as the dwarf seahorse , inhabits coastal waters of the western atlantic ocean , including the caribbean sea , the gulf of mexico , and the continental shelf of the southeastern united states ( jordan and gilbert , 1882 ) .\nand other seahorse species produce a rapid clicking sound as a form of communication . these clicking sounds have been observed during courtship and copulation , inter - male competition , feeding , and stress produced , for example , by moving a seahorse from one tank into another . dwarf seahorses produce these clicking sounds by stridulation , which is the production of sound through the grinding together of hard , usually bony structures . in this case the skull grinds against the vertebrae . more specifically ,\nthe ( appropriately named ) pygmy mouse lemur is a tiny primate only about 4 . 7\u20135 . 1 inches long , including the tail ! found only in a localized area of kirindy forest in western madagascar , the species is threatened by poachers who capture them for the pet trade .\nlives well camouflaged amongst the branches of the gorgonian coral . it is a tiny timid creature with a maximum length of less than an inch , however watch out if you are a little shrimp , this cute seahorse has a sharp eye and a big appetite . this is a very popular seahorse amongst underwater enthusiasts which is why roger and catherine have released it as a limited edition print on archival paper which is signed by the artist . ( print run limited to rogers lifetime )\nrange from 5 to 20 milliseconds in length and are between 2 . 65 and 3 . 43 khz . also , as size of the seahorse increases the peak frequencies of the clicking sounds decrease ( colson et al . , 1998 ) .\nthat\u2019s a tough call . the tankmates article says that they are a one \u2013 good with everything but might not be safe with seahorse fry . dwarfs are a bit of an anomaly , being so small , but they\u2019re larger than fry .\nis one of the smallest of the many different seahorse species , ranging in size between 2 to 2 . 5 cm . the maximum reported size was a male of 5 . 0 cm ( jordan and gilbert , 1882 ) . this species of seahorse can be distinguished from other western atlantic seahorse species by the presence of 10 to 13 dorsal and pectoral fin rays ( daswon and vari , 1982 ) . also , dwarf seahorses possess 9 to 10 trunk rings , a high knob - like coronet that lacks spines or projections , knob - like spines on the body , a short snout that is one - third the length of the head , and skin covered in tiny warts ( lourie et al . , 2004 ) .\nthe western pacific is where you will find this species of seahorse living . from southern japan to northern australia you will find them . they are found in caledonia . the shallow areas that are also very warm are where they will be living .\nlourie , s . , s . foster , e . cooper , a . vincent . 2004 .\na guide to the identification of seahorses\n( on - line pdf ) . project seahorse . accessed october 14 , 2004 at urltoken .\nthe seahorses refered to in the above article are dwarf seahorses not pygmy seahorses . the main article refers to this confusion . so long as you can supply daily live food ( enriched brine shrimp ) then dwarfs will readily breed , mine had 10 babies within 1 month of arrival into the aquarium \ud83d\ude42\nthe maximum length of a dwarf seahorse is just under 2 inches . like many other seahorse species , it has a variety of color forms , which range from tan to green to almost black . their skin may be mottled , have dark spots , and covered in tiny warts . these seahorses have a short snout , and a coronet on top of their head that is very high and column - like or knob - like in shape . they may also have filaments extending from their head and body .\nthe first known pygmy seahorse species was hippocampus bargibanti , which was actually discovered on a gorgonian coral that was being examined in a laboratory . and no wonder ; the species is only about 2 centimeters in length and is exceptional at blending with its host coral . even so , scientists have managed to discover six more species since 2000 . very little is known about these species , and they do not survive in aquariums even under the most expert of care , which is why it is good they are listed under cites and the australian wildlife protection act .\nall seahorses are carnivores . pygmy seahorses feed on zooplankton , primarily copepods . h . bargibanti has been observed eating zooplankton captured in the polyps of its host coral . they do not have tongues or teeth . prey is sucked into the seahorse\u2019s mouth once it is within range . they have very small mouths so they require areas that flourish with its natural food . this species also does not have a stomach for digestion , making their digestive systems inefficient . therefore , food must constantly be ingested to survive since they do not have a place to store its food .\nif you thought bunny rabbits couldn ' t get any cuter , meet the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . this species - - the smallest rabbit in north america - - is found only in one area of washington state , the ( you guessed it ) columbia basin . because of the specific location , the species is subject to threat by habitat loss and wildfires . the pygmy rabbit was listed under the endangered species act in 2003 and a recovery plan , including captive breeding program and collaborative recovery effort with oregon zoo , washington state university , northwest trek wildlife park , usfws and other state wildlife agencies , is in place .\njustification : hippocampus bargibanti is a coral reef - inhabiting pygmy seahorse that inhabits the indo - west pacific from southern sumatra to new caledonia and from tokyo , japan , to the southern edge of australia ' s great barrier reef . the species is only found on muricella corals . they may be threatened by habitat loss due to coastal development , polllution , destructive fishing practices , and the effects of climate change . further research is needed to determine population size , trends in abundance , and how these threats are affecting the species . therefore h . bargibanti is listed as data deficient .\nof its host species of gorgonian coral , while its body matches the gorgonian stem . it is not known whether individuals can change colour if they change hosts , although the ability to change colour according to their surroundings does exist in some other seahorse species , such as\nlourie , s . a . , a . c . j . vincent and h . j . hall , 1999 . seahorses : an identification guide to the world ' s species and their conservation . project seahorse , london . 214 p . ( ref . 30915 )\nlourie , s . a . , foster , s . j . , cooper , e . w . t . and a . c . j . vincent . 2004 . a guide to the identification of seahorses . project seahorse and traffic north america . 114 pp .\nthe ability of seahorses to change color in many social situations is most likely a form of communication about the state or mood of the seahorse to its mate or other members of its species ( indiviglio , 2002 ) . mates also communicate with nose pointing and body vibrations .\ndwarf seahorses look similar to other common seahorse species . they have cirri , for camouflage , but these usually disappear when kept in the aquarium . their colouration varies from beige to yellow to green to black to mottled , and they are capable of colour change like a chameleon .\nall pygmy seahorses are distinguished as having a plump head and body , a short truncated snout , and a long tail capable of clinging to coral . species can be differentiated by colors , size , and other characteristic appearances . h . severnsi , for example , lacks tubercles on its head . all seahorses swim upright with their head up and tail down , and are propelled forward with their dorsal fin . these seahorses normally stay still and will let go of its host to relocate a few centimeters at a time when disturbed . they can swim for about a minute and can also float . different species of pygmy seahorses vary in color and distinctness of tubercles .\nsince pygmy seahorses are camouflaged so well , specific information of the population trends , distribution , and amount of pygmy seahorses is unknown . because little is known , they are classified as \u201cdata deficient . \u201d\u009d it is probable that they will be collected for trade for their remarkable beauty . research must be administered to this species in order to find out its status so that policies can be implemented to keep them safe and protected . however , this will prove to be challenging because of its ability to hide so well . it is important that they are secure from exploitation of their stunning appearance . there are already projects and teams committed to conserving seahorses and their habitats .\nthe pygmy seahorse is undoubtedly one of the most well camouflaged species in the oceans , being extremely difficult to spot amongst the gorgonian coral it inhabits . so effective is this camouflage that the species wasn ' t actually discovered until its host gorgonian was being examined in a lab . large , bulbous tubercles cover this species ' body and match the colour and shape of the polyps of its host species of gorgonian coral , while its body matches the gorgonian stem . two colour morphs exist \u2013 pale grey or purple individuals scattered with pink or red tubercles are found on the similarly coloured gorgonian coral muricella plectana , and yellow individuals with orange tubercles are found on gorgonian coral muricella paraplectana . it is not known whether individuals can change colour if they change hosts , although the ability to change colour according to their surroundings does exist in some other seahorse species , such as h . whitei . other distinctive characteristics include a fleshy head and body , a very short snout , and a long , prehensile tail . this is also one of the smallest seahorse species in the world , typically measuring less than 2 cm in height . the male carries eggs and young concealed within the trunk region .\nlourie , s . a . , a . c . j . vincent and h . j . hall , 1999 . seahorses : an identification guide to the world ' s species and their conservation . project seahorse , london . 214 p . via fishbase , september 30 , 2014 .\npygmy seahorses are marine fish and live in coastal reefs on gorgonians . different species live on different kinds of gorgonian corals ranging from anella to muricella . h . colemani is found among zostera and halophila plants . the coral provides a safe hiding place for them . they blend in perfectly with their colors matching that of the coral as well as similar texture , since they have tubercles that go with the polyps of coral . h . waleananus are often found on soft corals and have exceptionally long tails . up to 28 pairs of adult pygmy seahorses can be found on a single gorgonian , as adults are usually paired together and are often monogamous . they are mostly found in tropical waters .\nlourie , s . a . , foster , s . j . , cooper , e . w . t . and vincent , a . c . j . ( 2004 ) a guide to the identification of seahorses . project seahorse and traffic north america , washington d . c . .\nlourie , s . a . , foster , s . j . , cooper , e . w . t . and vincent , a . c . j . ( 2004 ) a guide to the identification of seahorses . project seahorse and traffic north america , washington d . c . .\nthe dwarf seahorse , hippocampus zosterae , is a small seahorse common to florida seagrass flats . it is variable in color , often tan and unpatterned , but individuals can also range in color from green to nearly black . the snout is long relative to body size and the coronet ( head projection ) is high and knob - like . the dorsal fin has 11 - 13 fin rays and a dark submarginal stripe that may aid in identification . body ring counts reveal 10 - 14 trunk rings and 31 - 33 tail rings ( hoese and moore 1977 , robins et al . 1986 ) .\ni think i ay still stick with dwarf as i dont have the room for a full sized seahorse , but i may keep them in a breeding net so they breed and then i will have more in the tank , and i have found instant brineshrimp that has been used on dwarves before .\nmaintenance is extremely important in dwarf seahorse aquariums . it is probably one of the trickiest aspects of keeping them . because the amount of food that goes into the aquarium , their water is fouled easily . 25 % water changes every other week are a bare minimum , and a weekly schedule is ideal .\nthe pygmy seahorse is undoubtedly one of the most well camouflaged species in the oceans , being extremely difficult to spot amongst the gorgonian coral it inhabits . so effective is this camouflage that the species wasn ' t actually discovered until its host gorgonian was being examined in a lab . large , bulbous tubercles cover this species ' body and match the colour and shape of the polyps of its host species of gorgonian coral , while its body matches the gorgonian stem . two colour morphs exist \u2013 pale grey or purple individuals scattered with pink or red tubercles are found on the similarly coloured gorgonian coral muricella plectana , and yellow individuals with orange tubercles are found on gorgonian coral muricella paraplectana ( 4 ) . it is not known whether individuals can change colour if they change hosts , although the ability to change colour according to their surroundings does exist in some other seahorse species , such as h . whitei ( 5 ) . other distinctive characteristics include a fleshy head and body , a very short snout , and a long , prehensile tail ( 4 ) ( 6 ) . this is also one of the smallest seahorse species in the world , typically measuring less than 2 cm in height ( 1 ) . the male carries eggs and young concealed within the trunk region ( 5 ) .\nthis poses a problem for dwarf seahorses for two reasons . in such large numbers , they can quickly consume all the food in the aquarium . however , a much bigger threat comes from stinging cells . their sting isn\u2019t particularly potent to most animals , but for the tiny dwarf seahorse , the sting can be deadly .\nas for filtration type , it varies quite a bit . people are moving away from sponge filters , but using the integrated filters can be difficult ; either the flow ends up too high , or their isn\u2019t a good way to protect the intake . there is a lot of experiments going on by dwarf seahorse keepers on the best way to handle dwarf seahorse filtration . putting sponges and hose over the intakes has mixed results too . they frequently get clogged to quickly . and you have to be careful with filters removing food . that\u2019s one advantage of sponge filters ; they don\u2019t remove food from the water column . however they can get clogged too .\nthe pygmy raccoon , or cozumel raccoon , is a critically endangered species found only on cozumel island off the yucatan peninsula . these tiny versions of their much larger and more populous cousins are on the verge of extinction , with only around 500 left . recently conservation photographer kevin schafer spent time photographing these adorable critters in an effort to help bring awareness to them and promote conservation of the species .\noh yeah ! , that something else i wanted to ask . what would be the best kind of filter to use ? my bf asked our local fish shop and one of the guys who had just set up a seahorse tank said a gravel filter , but i\u2019ve read these arent good to use in with the dwarves ? ? ?\npygmy seahorses are ovoviviparous , but unlike most animals , the male carries the eggs , which are contained in an on his underside . when mating occurs , the female transfers her eggs into the male ' s pouch , where he fertilizes the eggs . about 10 - 20 eggs are carried at one time . the gestation period is about 2 weeks . the young hatch looking like even tinier , mini seahorses .\naustralian populations of pygmy seahorses are listed under the australian wildlife protection act , so that export permits are now required , although they are only granted for approved management plans or captive - bred animals . with such limited data available , there is an urgent need for further research to be conducted on its biology , ecology , habitat , abundance and distribution , before its status can be properly assessed and conservation measures implemented accordingly .\nwe ' re used to seeing the enormous size of african and indian elephants , but the borneo pygmy elephant is no less special despite its smaller size . according to dna analysis , it is thought that this species was isolated about 300 , 000 years ago from their mainland cousins , making them a subspecies of asian elephant . found in tropical rainforest habitats in north borneo , it is estimated there are fewer than 2 , 000 left .\ndwarves , just like large seahorses , need places to hitch . many keepers opt for artificial decorations because of the risk of hydroids ( see below . ) most basic aquarium plants work well . macro algae can be used but must be treated for hydroids . live rock should be used with caution , as many pest can hitch hike in and harm the diminutive seahorse .\nwith a head about the size of a human thumb , the pygmy marmoset is the smallest monkey in the world and among all primates , only the mouse lemur ( listed below ) is smaller . it is found in the rainforests of the amazon basin , where it uses its sharp nails to cling to the branches of trees and its specialized teeth to feed on tree gum . it also makes a snack of insects , fruit and nectar .\n. frankly , thank goodness for multiple species because we can ' t get enough of the cuteness ! the pygmy jeroba is considered the world ' s smallest rodent and , as andrew sullivan put it , has\na rabbit ' s face on tweety - pie ' s body\n. though tiny , its long legs allow it to hop as far as nine feet in a single bound . here is some of that famous cuteness in action :\nlourie , s . a . , a . c . j . vincent and h . j . hall , 1999 . seahorses : an identification guide to the world ' s species and their conservation . project seahorse , london . 214 p . in froese , r . and d . pauly . editors . 2015 . fishbase ( 10 / 2015 ) . accessed january 30 , 2016 .\nthank you so much for you hard work and research . i had seahorse\u2019s many years ago back in the days when you use to ordered them from the backs of comic books i was about 12 . i loved having them but back then information was limited . there was no internet and the information on then was very limited from pet shop owners if accurate . i had them and made every mistake on the book . i had them in large tank with other mates , feeding regiment was off , enrichment wasn\u2019t even heard off no one really new about and i could go on and on but ill leave out the details even though i always had marine tanks i just gave up on seahorse keeping all together because it was not fair for the horses cruel and expensive . i went trough dwarf , large seahorse\u2019s you name it . i was always intrigued by them and love them . i would make frequent trips to the mystic and boston aquarium whenever i get and urge to see them , and they were subjects of my artwork . recently i have taken up the hobby but not before reading and re reading and researching before i even set the tank up . i must say after countless of articles yours is the easiest to understand and the most detailed by far . here i am at 53 years old enjoying once again on of my childhood dreams a successful seahorse aquarium . i have purchase tank raised dwarfs and the are doing great and i have pair that mated and already have raise young that only home has been my tank . thank you so much for your webpage is valuable information .\nhi brenda ! that\u2019s a fairly complex question and a lot of it will be based on what you want to accomplish . i suggest signing up at our forums so we can get more details about what you\u2019re looking for , and what your experience level is . it sounds like you\u2019re looking for larger seahorse to keep , not dwarves due to the tank size you have . you\u2019ll want to make sure you get captive bred seahorses .\ndwarf seahorse are subtropical , but can handle a wide range of temperatures as long as the change isn\u2019t too quick . you can expect to successfully keep them between the temperatures of 65 and 80 degrees , with 68 - 74 being optimal . this means they don\u2019t need a heater if kept in a normally heated house . a thermometer is a must though , to monitor for large temperature swings and the temperature going outside of the safe zone .\nvery little is known about the ecology of this species . it is one of the smallest seahorse species , measuring less than 2 cm in height ( lourie et al . 1999 ) . it has a specific habitat , being found only on gorgonian corals muricella plectana ( gomon 1997 , tackett and tackett 1997 , whitley 1970 ) at depths ranging from 16\u201340 m ( tackett and tackett 1997 ) . hippocampus bargibanti appears to form pairs and may be monogamous .\nthese are among the smallest of all living things in the water when they are born . they do have a higher rate of survival than most species of seahorses though . this is due to the fact that they are among the best at hiding in their natural setting . their color allows them to blend easier than any other type of seahorse in the world . they have to care for themselves immediately after birth as there is no parental care at all .\nvery little is known about the ecology of this species . it is one of the smallest seahorse species , measuring less than 2 cm in height ( lourie et al . 1999 ) . it has a specific habitat , being found only on gorgonian corals muricella plectana ( gomon 1997 , tackett and tackett 1997 , whitley 1970 ) at depths ranging from 1640 m ( tackett and tackett 1997 ) . hippocampus bargibanti appears to form pairs and may be monogamous ( tackett and tackett 1997 ) .\nseahorse populations are declining mainly due to large quantities collected and sold for the aquarium trade and for traditional chinese medicine . chinese medicine alone is the largest consumer of seahorses , with an estimate of 20 million seahorses used per year for this economic market . evidence from the year 2000 showed that more than 50 tons of dried seahorses were collected for the trade in asia alone . research has estimated that populations are declining at rates of anywhere between 15 to 50 % over 5 year periods , depending on the species .\nit\u2019s recently come to my attention that very young seahorses of larger species are being sold as dwarf seahorses . these seahorses have much different requirements , and will quickly outgrow the small aquarium hippocampus zosterae require . if you found this article after purchasing a \u201cdwarf seahorse\u201d , please take a look at our article on the species mix up to ensure what you got was actually what you were told it was . if you\u2019re unsure , please take a moment and post a picture to our forums . added 8 / 8 / 2015\nthere are many features that mark the development of young seahorses within the brood pouch . for example , dorsal fin rays develop first , followed by anal fins . both of these structures form before the complete growth of the mouth apparatus . during the larval stage of seahorse development external feeding is not necessary because the brood pouch provides larvae with nutrients . also , the yolk sack , which provides the young with nutrients , is preserved throughout the postembryonic period and disappears only moments before birth . therefore , the mouth apparatus does not become functional until young are released from the brood pouch ( kornienko , 2001 ) . compared to an adult seahorse , offspring within the brood pouch have a rounded tail instead of tetrahedral tail , a wider and shorter snout , a dorsal fin that is closer to the tail , and pectoral fins that are closer to the back of the head ( kornienko , 2001 ) . in addition , the season and the environment , such as water temperature , disproportionately influences the sex ratio of developing seahorses ( dawson and vari , 1982 ) .\nomg they are soooooo beautifull . i would love to see these guys introbuced into the aquariums . but if they cant survive then id love to make sure their habbitat isnt disrupted . i read on a website that someone had actually had these guys in a aquarium and had breed them but i cant rember were i seen it if i come across it again ill post it . there my favorit seahorse . i also read that up to 100 + of these guys can live on 1 host plant . it was on a youtude video ."]}
{"id": 1617, "summary": [{"text": "synodontis clarias , known as the red tailed synodontis , or the mandi , is a species of upside-down catfish that that occurs widely in the waters of northern africa .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it was first described by swedish zoologist carl linnaeus in 1758 as silurus clarias .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the original specimens were obtained in egypt , near cairo .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the meaning of the species name clarias is not certain , but may possibly have been used to mean \" bright \" or \" clear \" . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "synodontis clarias", "paragraphs": ["key words : synodontis clarias , helminth , parasites , proteocephalus , laguna lekki , lagos , nigeria .\nkey words : synodontis clarias , helmintos , par\u00e1sitos , proteocephalus , laguna lekki , lagos , nigeria .\nsynodontis annectens boulenger 1911 linking or joining , believed to be intermediate in form between s . sorex and s . clarias\nspecies of the genera proteocephalus have also been documented in some synodontis species , for instance proteocephalus beauchampi occurred in synodontis schall , and proteocephalus synodontis in synodontis batensoda and in s . schall .\nlateral view of synodontis ornatipinnis , illustrating the striking patterns seen in some species of synodontis ; cu 91403 . \u00a9\nsynodontis : from the greek syn , meaning together , and odontos , meaning tooth ; in reference to the closely - spaced lower jaw teeth . clarias means lively .\nthe rich fish fauna of the lagoon includes heterotis niloticus , gymnarchus niloticus , clarias gariepinus , malapierurus electricus , synodontis clarias , chysichthys nigrodigitatus , parachanna obscura ; mormyrus rume , calabaricus calamoichthys , tilapia zilli , tilapia galilae , hemichromis fasciatus and sarotherodon melanotheron ( kusemiju 1981 ) .\naccording to the host - parasite checklist of khalil and polling ( 1997 ) none of the collected parasites described above have been recorded for s . clarias . therefore , this study is the first scientific record of these helminth parasites in synodontis clarias . the parasite w . acuminata has only been documented to infect s . membranaceus in sudan .\nakinsanya and otubanjo ( 2006 ) also found w . acuminata from clarias gariepinus collected from lekki lagoon . the prevalence of w . acuminata in different fish species could be an indication that there is no strict host specificity by this parasite . other species of wenyonia however have been found in some synodontis species : w . longicauda ( woodland , 1937 ) occurred in synodontis gambiensis , wenyonia minuta ( woodland , 1923 ) in chrysichthys auratus , and wenyonia virilis ( woodland , 1923 ) in svnodontis batensoda , synodontis schall and synodontis clarias ( khalil and polling , 1997 ) . wenyonia species has therefore been known to infect members of the family mochokidae .\nsynodontis : ancient name for an undetermined fish from the nile ( cuvier 1816 ) .\nmonitor - synodontis are food hogs and slow eaters may not get enough to eat .\nsynodontis clarias is easily recognised by its distinct colour pattern and long dorsal fin spine . i would suggest that you would expect to pay around \u00a325 - \u00a350 . 00 per fish ( 2008 u . k . prices ) depending upon size .\nsynodontis membranaceus ( geoffroy st . hilaire 1809 ) referring to membranes on maxillary and mandibular barbels\ns . but once the featherfin synodontis grows well past four inches their identity becomes clear .\nthere are no documented reports of aquarium spawnings of synodontis clarias as far as i am aware , most likely due to the fact that this catfish is not commonly imported . they are documented as forming distinct pairs during spawning scattering their eggs over the substrate .\nbaron , v . d . , orlov , a . a . , and golubtsov , a . s . , african clarias catfish elicits long lasting weak electric pulses ,\nyes - they can be kept with other synodontis if the tank is large with many hiding places .\nas a catfish in the wild , it would have spent its days at the bottom of the rivers and lakes prowling for food with its three pairs of barbells ( another characteristic feature of this catfish , since only three other synodontis sport three pairs of barbells - synodontis decorus , synodontis clarias and synodontis flaevitaeniatus ) . being opportunistic and not such a finicky eater , it would have eaten whatever fits in its mouth . in the aquarium it will eat flakes , shrimp pellets and whatever falls at the bottom , but the diet should be enriched with frozen bloodworms and shrimp to keep its diet in a healthy balance .\nthe behaviour of the featherfin is peaceful , even with the other synodontis , and he is a marvel to watch .\nthe prevalence of the nematode species of the genera raphidascaroides is the first scientific reports in synodontis clarias of lekki lagoon . rajyalakshmi ( 1995 ) also collected a new species of this nematode genera from the intestine of hammer - headed shark , sphyrna zygaena ( linnaeus ) in sisakhapatnam , and this new species did not coincide with the description of already known species .\nsynodontis bastiani daget 1948 in honor of m . ( probably monsieur ) bastian ( no other information available ) , who collected type\nsynodontis dekimpei paugy 1987 in honor of p . de kimpe , mus\u00e9e royal de l\u2019afrique centrale ( tervuren ) , who collected type\nsynodontis macrops greenwood 1963 macro - , large ; ops , eye , referring to larger eye compared to the similar s . schall\nakinsanya , b . & o . a . otubanjo . 2006 . helminth parasites of clarias gariepinus ( clariidae ) in lekki lagoon , lagos , nigeria . rev . biol . trop . 54 : 93 - 99 . [ links ]\nthree hundred and sixty two specimens of s . clarias were examined for parasitic helminth fauna . all helminthic infections observed and recorded were restricted to the intestine . one hundred and forty specimens were found to be infected ( 38 . 2 % ) .\nsynodontis : ancient name for an undetermined fish from the nile ( cuvier 1816 ) acanthomias : very spiny . pertaining to the humeral process .\nfeatherfin synodontis have not been successfully bred in home aquariums , though they have been bred in fish farms with the help of added hormones .\nmusschoot , t . , and p . lal\u00e8y\u00e8 . 2008 . designation of a neotype for synodontis schall ( bloch and schneider , 1801 ) and description of two new species of synodontis ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) . journal of natural history 42 ( 17 - 18 ) : 1303\u00961331 .\ntable 2 shows intestinal helminth infections in relation to size of s . clarias . the group with a length between 10 - 15 cm showed 42 . 1 % of infection , the group with a length between 16 - 20 cm showed 36 . 6 % of infection , the group with a length between 21 - 25 cm showed 48 . 1 % of infection , and the group with a length between 26 - 30 cm showed 50 % of infection . the weight of the specimens examined ranged between 29 . 0 and 174 . 10 g . there was no relationship between sex and size in relation to gastrointestinal helminth infections in s . clarias . see the scatter diagram of male , female and combined sexes of s . clarias ( figs 1 - 3 ) .\nwriting for us this month ( august 2009 ) is regular contributor chris ralph . he is having a look at a member of the mochokidae family and one of the more impressive looking syno ' s , synodontis clarias . i now hand you over to chris for his in depth look at this african catfish . ynodontis clarias belongs to the family mochokidae from africa ; namely cameroon , chad , egypt , ethiopia , gambia , ghana , mali , niger , nigeria , nile , senegal and sudan and is documented as being found in lakes and rivers . this catfish is also documented as being found in the gambia and volta basins ; niger including the b\u00e9nou\u00e9 river .\nsynodontis longispinis pellegrin 1930 longus , long ; spinis , spine , described as a variety of s . batesii with a longer dorsal - fin spine\nfossil mochokids , of the genus synodontis , have been found in deposits from eastern and northern africa dating to at least the early miocene ( at least 20 mya ) ( stewart , 2001 ) . interestingly , fragments of pectoral spines of synodontis dating from the early oligocene have been found in oman , an area where mochokids do not exist today ( otero & gayet , 2001 ) . fossil mochokids outside of the genus synodontis are presently unknown .\nsynodontis gobroni daget 1954 in honor of m . ( probably monsieur ) gobron , a volunteer at laboratoire de diafarab\u00e9 ( mail ) , who collected type\nsynodontis irsacae matthes 1959 of i . r . s . a . c . ( institut pour la recherche scientifique en afrique centrale ) , matthes\u2019 employer\nsynodontis thysi poll 1971 in honor of poll\u2019s mus\u00e9e de l\u2019afrique centrale colleague , dirk thys van den audenaerde ( b . 1934 ) , who collected type\ndescription : s . clarias has maxillary barbels branched , 5 - 9 mandibular teeth only . the color of the adult is gray with a white belly and tail red . the dorsal soft rays extended its by black filaments . lt : 31cm , d : 1 . 11 kg .\ncollection and examination of specimens for parasites : from march 2003 to april 2004 , a total of 362 randomly selected fresh specimens of s . clarias obtained from lekki lagoon were purchased at oluwo market , epe , lagos , nigeria . the fresh specimens were immediately examined for gastrointestinal helminth parasites .\nsynodontis obesus boulenger 1898 fat , allusion not explained , perhaps referring to less - elongate body shape compared to s . serratus , with which it had been misidentified\nsynodontis soloni boulenger 1899 in memory of alexandre solon , a young traveler who died in congo after helping capt . capra ( no other information available ) collect fish\nthe featherfin synodontis is considered to be one of the ' upside - down ' catfish species . like their well - known relatives , the upside - down catfish\nthe featherfin can swim upside down at will . they are called squeakers because they produce a squeaking sound as a warning to both predators and competitors during spawning time . the squeaking is accomplished by rubbing the spines of its pectoral fins into grooves on its shoulders . other common names they are known by include featherfin catfish and featherfin synodontis . they are also referred to as the lace cat or synodontis lace catfish , though this name is more often applied to its very similar cousin the lace synodontis\n6a . eyes with free orbital margin ; 17 principal caudal - fin rays ( only 13 in synodontis contracta ) ; tail forked ; 6 to 10 pectoral - fin rays ( usually 8 or 9 ) ; lateral mandibular barbels with single , gracile branches at each point along length or doubly branched ( fig . 27a\u2013b ) \u2026 synodontis\nsynodontis haugi pellegrin 1906 in honor of protestant missionary ernest haug ( d . 1915 ) , a correspondent of m\u00faseum national d\u2019histoire naturelle ( paris ) , who collected type\nsynodontis polyodon vaillant 1895 poly , many ; odon , tooth , referring to greater number of mandibular teeth ( ~ 75 ) compared to s . schall ( ~ 25 )\nday , j . j . , and m . wilkinson . 2006 . on the origin of the synodontis catfish species flock from lake tanganyika . biology letters 2 : 548\u0096552 .\nsynodontis robbianus smith 1875 \u2013 anus , belonging to : rev . alexander robb , who provided specimens from the \u201cold calavar district of tropical africa , \u201d including type of this one\nbishai h . m . and y . b . abu gideiri . 1968 . studies on the biology of genus synodontis at khartoum . iii . reproduction . hydrobiologia 31 : 193\u0096202 .\nsanyanga , r . a . 1998 . food composition and selectivity of synodontis zambezensis ( pisces : mochokidae ) in lake kariba , and the ecological implications . hydrobiologia 361 : 89\u009699 .\nsynodontis nummifer boulenger 1899 nummus , coin ; fero , to bear , referring to 1 - 2 rounded ( i . e . , coin - like ) black spots on the sides\nin nigeria the demand for fish exceeds supply and the proportion of animal protein in the diet is generally low . parasitic diseases of fish seem to be one of the major problems confronting fish culturists . the squeaker or upside - down catfish synodontis clarias ( linnaeus , 1758 ) is a benthopelagic , potamodromous fresh water fish that inhabits water with a ph range of 6 . 5 - 9 . 5 ( reids 2004 ) . the fish has been reported to present dioecism with external fertilization ( breeder and rosen 1966 ) .\nalthough it will grow to around the 12\u00bc\nmark ( 30 . 5cm ) in the aquarium it is reported to grow to twice this size in its natural habitat . the genus synodontis sports three pairs of barbels 1pair : maxillary , 1 pair : outer mandibular and one pair of inner mandibular barbels that are branched ( filaments ) . there are only three species that have filaments on their maxillary barbels as well as the mandibular , and they are , s . clarias , s . decorus and s . flavitaeniatiatus .\nbishai h . m . and y . b . abu gideiri . 1965a . studies on the biology of genus synodontis at khartoum . i . age and growth . hydrobiologia 26 : 85\u009697 .\nbishai h . m . and y . b . abu gideiri . 1965b . studies on the biology of genus synodontis at khartoum . ii . food and feeding habits . hydrobiologia 26 : 98\u0096113 .\nfeatherfin synodontis ( eupterus ) is a relatively peaceful community fish , that cohabitates in my 90g tank with 5 bumblebee gobies , one gold nugget pleco , one zebra . . . ( more ) alexander\nfeatherfin synodontis ( eupterus ) is a relatively peaceful community fish , that cohabitates in my 90g tank with 5 bumblebee gobies , one gold nugget pleco , one zebra pleco and one gold line pleco .\nsynodontis courteti pellegrin 1906 in honor of m . ( probably monsieur ) courtet , member of french 1902 - 1903 mission to study the region between ubangi river and lake chad , during which type was collected\nmicrosynodontis boulenger 1903 micro - , small , referring to small size of m . batesii ( 10 cm tl ) , i . e . , a small synodontis ( all other species are small , too )\nsynodontis robertsi poll 1974 in honor of ichthyologist tyson r . roberts ( b . 1940 ) , who helped collect type during a national geographic society expedition to zaire ( now democratic republic of the congo ) in 1973\nsynodontis serpentis whitehead 1962 snake , allusion not explained , perhaps referring to marbled pattern on caudal peduncle of juveniles ( e . schraml , pers . comm . ) , which resembles the marbled pattern seen on many constrictors\nwright , j . j . and l . m . page . 2006 . taxonomic revision of the lake tanganyikan synodontis ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) . the bulletin of the florida museum of natural history 46 : 99\u0096154 .\nsynodontis polli gosse 1982 in honor of belgian ichthyologist max poll ( 1908 - 1991 ) , for his revision of the genus [ replacement name for s . eurystomus matthes 1959 , preoccupied by s . eurystomus pfeffer 1889 ]\narticle supplied by alex gourgiotopoulos of kingston , ontario - the featherfin synodontis originates from the rivers of the white nile in africa . it is also know as the squeaker synodontis or the featherfin squeaker . the featherfin is a catfish whose name originates from the greek words \u201csyno\u201d meaning \u201cclose\u201d and \u201codontis\u201d meaning \u201ctooth\u201d , which refers to the teeth of the lower jaw of the fish that are spaced close together . the second attribute of its name , \u201ceupterus\u201d , refers also to the greek word \u201cbeautiful wings\u201d , which refers to its dorsal fin . the featherfin belongs to the family of mochokidae and shares its place among approximately 170 species , 50 of which belong to the same group of synodontis .\nwright , j . j . and l . m . page . 2008 . a new species of synodontis ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) from tributaries of the kasai river in northern angola . copeia 2008 ( 2 ) : 294\u0096300 .\nthe high worm burden in the intestine of the fish may be due to its omnivore nature . khalil ( 1971 ) , van as and basson ( 1984 ) , reported that a variety of adult stage tapeworms occur in native african fish especially the caryophyllaeidae as well as one amphilinid representative , the segmented pseudophyllideans , and proteocephalidae . these findings coincide with the present study which also isolated caryophyllaeid and proteocephalid cestodes from s . clarias .\nwilloughby , n . g . 1974 . the ecology of the genus synodontis ( pisces : siluriodei ) in lake kainji , nigeria . ph . d . thesis , university of southampton , u . k . 288 p . [ links ]\nkoblm\u00fcller , s . , c . sturmbauer , e . verheyen , a . meyer , and w . salzburger . 2006 . mitochondrial phylogeny and phylogeography of east african squeaker catfishes ( siluriformes : synodontis ) . bmc evolutionary biology 6 : 49 .\nsynodontis acanthomias boulenger 1899 acanthus , thorn ; omias , perhaps from the greek omos , shoulder or humerus , referring to humeral process armed with spines ( name may also refer to s . omias , to which this species had incorrectly been identified )\nwas described by boulenger in 1901 . they inhabit much of central africa , including nigeria , chad , sudan , ghana , mali , niger , and cameroon . they are found in the famous white nile river system as well . other common names they are known by include featherfin catfish , featherfin synodontis , synodontis lace catfish , and lace cat . due to their wide distribution they are not considered threatened and are listed as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list of endangered species .\ntable 1 shows the presence of gastrointestinal helminth infections in relation to sex of s . clarias in lekki lagoon , lagos , nigeria . a total of 196 male specimens were examined and 97 were infected with helminth parasites , which shows an infection of 37 . 8 % of the total sample . a total of 166 female specimens were examined and 43 were infected with helminth parasites , which shows an infection of 23 . 5 % of the total sample .\nse muestrearon aleatoriamente un total de 362 espec\u00edmenes de synodontis clarias , los cuales fueron sometidos a an\u00e1lisis parasitol\u00f3gicos . los especimenes fueron recolectados durante un per\u00edodo de un a\u00f1o del lago lekki , nigeria . la existencia de infecciones gastrointestinales fue de un 38 . 7 % del total de espec\u00edmenes examinados , lo cual represent\u00f3 114 espec\u00edmenes infectados con par\u00e1sitos helmintos . los gusanos helmintos encontrados incluyen dos c\u00e9stodos , especies de proteocephalus , wenyonia acuminata , y una especie de nem\u00e1todo , raphidascaroides sp . los espec\u00edmenes machos ( 196 ) presentaron una tasa de infecci\u00f3n mayor ( 37 . 8 % ) que la presentada por hembras ( 23 . 5 % ) . la cantidad total de gusanos par\u00e1sitos fue alta ( 678 ) y fue independiente del sexo y la talla del pez .\nfriel , j . p . , and j . p . sullivan . 2008 . synodontis woleuensis ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) , a new species of catfish from gabon and equatorial guinea , africa . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 157 : 3\u009612 .\nfriel , j . p . and t . r . vigliotta . 2006 . synodontis acanthoperca , a new species from the og\u00f4ou\u00e9 river system , gabon with comments on spiny ornamentation and sexual dimorphism in mochokid catfishes ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) . zootaxa 1125 : 45\u009656 .\nsynodontis ornatissimus gosse 1982 very ornate or decorated , referring to its \u201cstriking\u201d coloration ( translation ) , with many black spots on body and dorsal fin and black bands on tail [ replacement name for s . ornatus boulenger 1920 , preoccupied by s . ornatus pappenheim 1914 ]\nde weirdt , d . , e . vreven , and y . fermon . 2008 . synodontis ngouniensis , a new species ( siluriformes : mochikidae ) from ngouni\u00e9 and nyanga basins , gabon and republic of congo . ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 19 ( 2 ) : 121\u0096128 .\nsynodontis vanderwaali skelton & white 1990 in honor of zoologist ben van der waal , university of venda ( south africa ) , who collected type , for his donations of fishes from northern namibian rivers to the j . l . b . smith institute of ichthyology and the albany museum\nnine genera and approximately 200 valid species are currently recognized . some fossilized pectoral spines have been attributed to synodontis , but none of them are described as new . phylogenetic relationships among the mochokid genera were investigated by vigliotta ( 2008 ) who found that chiloglanis is possibly a paraphyletic assemblage , that synodontis must include s . membranaceous and s . batensoda ( formerly placed in hemisynodontis and brachysynodontis respectively ) and that the reciprocal monophyly of atopochilus and euchilichthys are questionable at best ; all remaining genera are recovered as valid and monophyletic . the general relationships between mochokid genera are illustrated in the phylogeny below .\ncomments by lemulepr : - this fish is very beautiful . but as most big mouth fish , they will eat whatever fits inside it . thats why most people recommend to not mix small tetras with cichlids . the thing with the neons is that they are small , not so fast , and during the night they tend to\nsleep\nin the bottom . synodontis are kind of nocturnal , so probably they found a snack there . guppies appear bigger because their tails and tend to stay on the top , where is safer in this case ( this is only my opinion ) . synodontis require a 50 gallon tank , as they can grow big . if you want to keep the synodontis , think about adding bigger tank mates . can be other cichilds or bigger tetras , like the congo , emperor , buenos aires , black skirts , etc . rainbows are medium size and fast moving . keep an eye on the guppies , but there is always something about the guppies that help them survive with weird tanks mates , with bigger tanks , better fish behavoir ( my opinion ) . hth pd : synodontis like hidding , so provide a\ncave\n. be careful with its spikes , as they can harm you when they protude through the fish net .\neven more peculiar is the habit of some species of synodontis that are known to swim upside - down . this habit seems to be correlated with feeding while upside - down at the water\u2019s surface ( bishai & abu gideiri , 1965b ) , but upside - down catfishes will rest and swim in the inverted position on a regular basis . chapman et al . ( 1994 ) showed that an upside - down posture near the surface also facilitates respiration in poorly oxygenated water . while the genus synodontis presents the most well - known species with their fascinating behaviors and natural histories , the family is actually much more interesting when taken as a whole .\nsynodontis ricardoae seegers 1996 in honor of cicely kate ricardo ( later ricardo - bertram , 1912 - 1999 ) , who , together with ms . r . j . owen , collected in the lake rukwa drainage ( where this species occurs ) and co - authored several important papers on the fishes of east and central africa\nrecently , i added one synodontis angelicus after changes in the tank , that made it more structurally complex ( meaning adding more hiding spaces in the form of rocks and caves , but also mopani wood - specially treated , so it doesnt give the water a tea colour , but it maintains its nutritional characteristics . - )\ns . clarias is also a non - guarding , substratum and open water egg scatterer , oviparous , and distinct pairing during breeding ( breeder and rosen 1966 ) . this fish species has been reported to occur in different ecosystems such as benue river , ( paugy and roberts 1992 ) , in the zoogeographic realm of ethiopia ( gosse 1986 ) , in kainji lake ( willoughby 1974 ) , in lake chad ( gosse 1986 ) , in niger , ( paugy et al . 1994 ) , and in the nile river , senegal and volta ( gosse 1986 ) . the genus synodontis belongs to the family mochokidae and is the most common for commercial purposes ( reed et al . 19 67 ) . twenty - one species of this genus have been reported in nigerian inland waters and most of these have also been found within the sudanean and guinean zones ( mcconnell 1965 , reed et al . 1967 ) .\nnematode species of the genera raphidascaroides have not been documented to infect any species of synodontis . akinsanya et al . ( 2007 ) , in a comparative study of the parasitic helminth fauna of two fish species , collected species of the nematode genus raphidascaroides from the stomach of gymnarchus niloticus collected from lekki lagoon , lagos , nigeria .\nbanhawy , m . a . , m . fa . saoud , i . m . anwar & m . k . el - naffar . 1975 . the histopathological effects of tine parasitic tapeworm wenyonia virilis on the ileum and liver of the silurid fish synodontis schall . ann . zool . 11 : 83 - 101 . [ links ]\nthese synodontis are not picky about their aquarium conditions . little maintenance has to be done to keep them in good condition . regular siphoning of the gravel is recommended to remove waste and keep the tank in a clean state . the recommended water change is 10 - 15 % every other week to keep up with the bio - load . .\nbeyond information gleaned from captive breeding of certain species of synodontis , very little is known about reproduction in mochokids . the best studied mochokids in this regard are most likely nile river synodontis ( including s . membranacea and s . batensoda , previously placed in other genera ) . still , details are limited ; the studies indicate that spawning occurs from july to october , which coincides with the flooding season , and that pairs swim in unison during spawning bouts ( bishai & abu gideiri , 1968 ) . the most interesting and detailed information on mochokid reproduction relates to a species from lake tanganyika , synodontis multipunctatus , which is a brood parasite of mouth brooding cichlids such as simochromis and haplochromis ( sato , 1986 ; wisenden , 1999 ) . adults of this species spawn in the midst of spawning cichlids and the fertilized catfish eggs are taken into the mouth of a cichlid . the catfish eggs hatch first and will eat the host eggs before they leave the host mouth . most amazingly , this species has been able to parasitize mouth brooding cichlids from south america in captivity ( loiselle , 1998 ) .\nall in all not a beginners fish , not in the sense of managing to keep them , but of their aggressive behavior towards other inhabitants in the community tank . best left to catfish enthusiasts who know the nature of this animal and can spot problems and are on hand to remedy them , such as moving from the tank any fish that is getting bullied . i am not being pessimistic here as i think that the genus synodontis is a fascinating group of fish and my tanks have always housed one or two as their interaction in the tank when feeding or just going about their business is worth it alone in keeping them . the side map shows where the first discovery of synodontis acanthomias was made by boulenger in 1899 .\nfeatherfin catfish prefer living near muddy or rocky bottoms of rivers in their natural habitat , preying upon insect larvae and even eating algae . they prefer moderately fast flowing rivers . like most catfish , they are primarily scavengers and will eat most available items that are edible . featherfin synodontis enjoy each other\u2019s company in the wild and often live in small , fluctuating groups .\nwould it be ok to keep a featherfin squeaker in a 55 gallon tall tank with 1 yoyo loach ( i lost the rest to skinny disease ) , 1 banjo catfish , 3 johanni cichlids , 1 synodontis nigritis , and 1 upside down cat . could i get a featherfin squeaker , and two peacock eels as well ? ? ? thanks ! - ? ? ?\ndorsal view of heads illustrating sexual dimorphism of the opercular spine in synodontis acanthoperca : a . cu 89005 , male holotype , 44 . 1 mm sl ; b . cu 89006 , female paratype , 40 . 4 mm sl . the pectoral spines in both specimens have been removed from the images to make the margins of the head more distinct against the background . scale bar equals 1 mm . \u00a9\nlittle is known about the ecology of most mochokids . what is known pertains mostly to diet and is biased towards species of synodontis . stomach contents from synodontis have included insects , nematodes , crustaceans , mollusks , annelids , seeds , algae , diatoms , fish scales and , incidentally , sand ( bishai & abu gideiri , 1965a ; bishai & abu gideiri , 1965b ; winemiller & kelso - winemiller , 1996 ; sanyanga , 1998 ) . from observations of stomach contents , the diet of most mochokids is probably very similar ; that is , they are omnivores . for some of the larger sucker - mouthed species ( i . e . , atopochilus and euchilichthys ) the stomach contents contain a high proportion of silt , algae and detritus . for these taxa it seems likely that scraping or grazing is the predominant method of feeding .\nthe featherfin squeaker enjoys the company of its own genus , but like the majority of synodontis they have an intricate hierarchy system , mainly based on size . the most dominant featherfin will get the best hiding place . the ' species internal ' bullying is rarely life threatening but can cause substantial stress which may lead to illness . watch for any individual fish getting bullied too much . featherfins are often an excellent addition in african cichlid tanks .\nsynodontis are known as squeaker catfish because they produce a squeaking sound by rubbing the spines of the pectoral fins into grooves on the shoulders . they use this sound as a warning to both predators and competitors during spawning time . like their relatives the upside - down catfish , they can also swim upside down at will . for idedntification , their distinctive characteristics are the long , flowing fins , delicately spotted body , and their eventual adult size .\nthe mochokidae are a family of african catfishes known commonly as \u2018squeakers\u2019 and \u2018upside - down catfishes . \u2019 these common names refer to some unusual habits of certain members of the large genus synodontis . the name squeaker refers to the fact that , when agitated , many species in the genus are capable of making a squeaking noise by stridulation of the pectoral spine against the pectoral girdle ( jubb , 1967 ) ; stridulation is also apparent in mochokiella paynei and some species of atopochilus .\nhow to cite this article : midhat a . el - kasheif , mohammad m . n . authman and seham a . ibrahim , 2012 . environmental studies on synodontis schall ( bloch and schneider , 1801 ) ( pisces : siluriformes : mochokidae ) in the river nile at gizza sector , egypt : biological aspects and population dynamics . journal of fisheries and aquatic science , 7 : 104 - 133 . doi : 10 . 3923 / jfas . 2012 . 104 . 133 url : urltoken\nfeatherfin catfish have a flattened underside and triangular flanks leading up to their sharp , spined dorsal fin that develops lacy extensions on the adults . the barbels are quite pronounced and very flexible allowing them to seek food and warn other competitors off with a \u2018tickle\u2019 . these catfish are often spotted or patterned with varying degrees of browns and sometimes grays . called featherfin synodontis , they are particularly noted for their huge , feathery fins . because featherfins can range greatly in color , they can easily be confused with similar\nfreshwater fishes are important and valued resources for food , sport and ornament ( authman et al . , 2009 ) . catfishes of the genus synodontis , belonging to the family mochokidae , support the commercial fisheries in egypt ( mekkawy and hassan , 2011 ) . so , the present investigation into the biology of s . schall was meant to shed more light into the dynamics of its populations , in the river nile at gizza , for understanding their role in biodiversity , as well as their fishery development in egypt .\nthe featherfin is quite hardy and can be forgiving and accommodating to a variety of water conditions and tankmates ( since it has the protection of his spiked fin ) , making it an ideal beginner ' s fish . it is relatively peaceful in temperament , and despite its omnivorous nature , hardly ever bothers other bottom dwellers even if they are very small in size , but can be picky with its tankmates , harassing the unlucky one that it dislikes . synodontis eupterus is also quite moody in attitude , therefore it should have caves to dwell in and feel at ease . they usually like a piece of bogwood or a raised area at the bottom of the tank , preferably to overview the tank from a pot of clay and to patrol to show who is the boss . it is not advised to put more than one of its species in a tank , since it can be very territorial with its own and it is a loner . nevertheless , other species of synodontis can be added , but keep in mind the prospect of aggressive behaviour toward some synos and also some plecos .\nbuenos aires tetra , danios , dwarf gourami , emperor tetra , flame tetra , harlequin rasbora , head and tail light tetra , kuhli loach , mollies , platy , red eye tetra , rosy barb , sailfin molly , serpae tetra , silver dollar , silver hatchetfish , silver tip tetra african and south american cichlids , provided they are not small . caution should be used in combining with other synodontis and plecos , as the featherfin can sometimes be aggressive toward these . there are sad stories out there about the plight of neon tetras with the featherfin .\nsynodontis acanthomias is found in the rivers of the congo basin of africa in the country of zaire which is now renamed the democratic republic of the congo . it was first discovered by boulenger in 1899 in boma , leopoldville , just south of the capital kinshasa on the congo river near the confluence with the south atlantic ocean in the aforementioned country . the holotype resides in the natural history museum , london . as mentioned previously this is quite an aggressive syno and can grow quite large . its certainly not in the same league as s . schall but never the less still a bit of a ' grump ' when housed especially with its own kind .\nfeatherfin synodontis are omnivores that feed on insect larvae , algae , and any other foods source they can scavenge in the wild . in the aquarium they are not hard to feed at all . they are enthusiastic eaters will consume nearly any food they can locate with a rambunctious attitude . even though they prefer to be under cover during day time , the tantalizing smell of food in the water will often bring them out of their domain for a good feasting time . meaty foods , vegetable tablets , and anything in between will be appreciated by these hardy eaters . brine shrimp and blood worms ( either live or frozen ) , or even small earthworms are an excellent once a week snack .\nwe studied the effects of illumination and alarm pheromone on emition of specialized electric discharges in the broadhead catfish clarias macrocephalus ( clariidae , siluriformes ) during aggressive - defensive interactions . the discharges were recorded with a special hardware in two adult fish of a similar size placed into an aquarium , during a period of 24 h , under alternating 30 - min - long light ( 700 lx ) and dark periods . the electrical activity of the broadhead catfish was found to be higher in the dark than under the light ; by the end of the trial , the frequency of electrical discharges gradually decreased . the overall number of discharges recorded in different pairs of the fish was significantly different , which is evidence of individual variability in the electrical activity . changes in the illumination regime in many cases increased the emition of electrical discharges , which could be a result of a stress - response . however , the stimulation of the fish by alarm pheromone ( extract of the skin , 0 . 5 g / l ) caused no pronounced changes in the electrical activity . it is supposed that aggressive motivation caused in the broadhead catfish by the presence of another individual of the same species dominated over the defensive response initiated by the alarm pheromone and , thus , dominated in the development of the electrical response .\na minimum 50 gallon aquarium is recommended for a full sized featherfin squeaker . this synodontis catfish enjoys a tank with lots of hiding places , particularly driftwood . they have fun chasing each other around all the tunnels and holes , while feeling secure under the driftwood . once they find their favorite spot , they will stay there much of their lives unless the tank is revamped or a competitor out competes them for the space . porous rocks , such as the tufa used for african cichlid tanks , are also welcomed by these catfish . substrate should be sand or some type of smooth gravel to reduce the chance of barbel damage . plants also provide cover , but they must be tough and resilient since these catfish often shove\u0080\u0099 away anything in their path .\nthe river nile is considered one of the most important fishery resources in egypt ( authman et al . , 2009 ) . it contributes about 7 . 99 % ( 87335 tons ) of the annual total egyptian fish production ( gafrd , 2009 ) . according to bishai and khalil ( 1997 ) survey , 71 fish species have been recorded in the nile system from egypt , 22 species are common in the commercial catch while 49 are rare ( el - kasheif et al . , 2007 ) . among the nile fishes , fishes of family mochokidae ( squeakers and upside - down catfishes ) ( nelson , 2006 ) are one of the most common groups and includes 4 genera and 7 species in egypt ( bishai and khalil , 1997 ) one of these species is synodontis schall .\npigmentation and patterning of mochokid skin is also diverse . mochokids are popular in the pet trade because they have showy colors , sharply contrasting patterns like stripes and polka - dots and , quite often , extravagant fins . as some of the largest and most active mochokids , species of synodontis display an amazing array of patterns and pigmentation that may , in some cases , serve as visual cues to conspecifics . it might also be true that the bright , contrasting coloration found in some species serves as a warning to predators . like many catfishes , some mochokids possess specialized poison glands for delivering offensive chemicals along with a \u2018stick\u2019 by the pectoral spine ; anecdotal accounts indicate that these wounds can be very painful . however , field studies that might demonstrate function of these varied patterns have not been done .\nall species in the genus synodontis have a hardened head cap that has attached a process ( humeral process ) which is situated behind the gill opening and pointed towards the posterior . the dorsal fin and pectoral fins have a hardened first ray which is serrated . caudal fin is always forked . there is one pair of maxillary barbels , sometimes having membranes and occasionally branched . the two pairs of mandibular barbels are often branched and can have nodes attached . the cone - shaped teeth in the upper jaw are short . s - shaped and movable in the lower jaw . these fish produce audible sounds when disturbed rubbing the base of the pectoral spine against the pectoral girdle . a species made distinctive by its red tail . both sexes have this although it is not clear if it is present in young fish .\nmany mochokid species exhibit obvious sexual dimorphism . for example , many species in the genus chiloglanis show dimorphism of the caudal and anal fins ( roberts , 1989 ; seegers , 1996 ; friel & vigliotta , 2006 ) ; some chiloglanis also display sexual dimorphism of the cleithral process , wherein males possess a greatly enlarged process shielding the flank . in the closely related genus atopochilus , sexual dimorphism of the anal fin is sometimes evident . some mochokids exhibit spiny ornamentation of the skull roof bones , opercular series and pectoral girdle ( friel & vigliotta , 2006 ) . in the case of synodontis acanthoperca , a spine found at the rear of the opercle is , itself , sexually dimorphic . the spines of males are much larger than those of females . this is also true for mochokiella paynei ( personal observation ) , which was previously unknown to possess opercular spines or exhibit sexual dimorphism .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\ncatalogue of the fresh - water fishes of africa in the british museum ( natural history ) . .\nthe bookreader requires javascript to be enabled . please check that your browser supports javascript and that it is enabled in the browser settings . you can also try one of the other formats of the book .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe root of the current tree connects the organisms featured in this tree to their containing group and the rest of the tree of life . the basal branching point in the tree represents the ancestor of the other groups in the tree . this ancestor diversified over time into several descendent subgroups , which are represented as internal nodes and terminal taxa to the right .\nyou can click on the root to travel down the tree of life all the way to the root of all life , and you can click on the names of descendent subgroups to travel up the tree of life all the way to individual species .\nfor more information on tol tree formatting , please see interpreting the tree or classification . to learn more about phylogenetic trees , please visit our phylogenetic biology pages .\nmochokid catfishes are currently restricted to the freshwaters of africa , but are nearly ubiquitous in the habitable waters of the continent . a high degree of morphological diversity allows mochokid catfishes to inhabit some of the fastest flowing streams and cataracts to the widest and deepest stretches of the congo river . mochokids also inhabit the massive african rift lakes like tanganyika , victoria and nyasa . the greatest diversity of mochokids almost certainly occurs in the congo river and its numerous tributaries , but they are also found in many of the rivers and lakes of western africa , southern africa , eastern africa and in the nile . like a handful of other catfishes , some mochokids are known to swim in mid - water ; other members of the family are primarily benthic . likewise , some mochokids shoal while others are rather solitary . as a rule they are most active during the night , but they can be found hiding amongst plants , logs and other submerged structure during the day .\nlateral view of atopochilus vogti , illustrating typical body shape in sucker - mouthed mochokids ; cu 93752 . \u00a9\nvigliotta ( 2008 ) provides several synapomorphies as diagnostic features for the mochokidae including : absense of the ascending process of meckel\u2019s cartilage ; a shortened horizontal process of meckel\u2019s cartilage ; coronomeckalian extremely reduced or even absent ; absence of a coronoid process ; absence of an interhyal ; presence of a pectoral locking foramen ( absence / reversal in most suckermouthed species ) ; seven pelvic - fin rays ; fusion of upper caudal - fin elements ( absence / reversal in atopochilus and euchilichthys ) ; a reduced number of mandibular sensory canal pores ( 3 or fewer ) ; and distinctive , ramified inner and outer mandibular barbels ( absence / reversal in suckermouthed mochokids where these barbels are partially or completely incorporated into an expanded lower lip ) .\n1a . lips and barbels modified into oral disc ( fig . 27c ) ; postcleithral process short ( fig . 22c ) ; 5 infraorbitals ( figs . 2c , 4b ) ; pelvic - fin origin at vertical at end of dorsal - fin base . . . 2\n1b . lips and barbels not modified into oral disc ; postcleithral process quite long ( fig . 22b ) ; 4 infraorbitals figs . 2b , 4a ) ; pelvic - fin origin beyond end of dorsal - fin base . . . 5\n2a . mandibular teeth bunched ( in bouquet ) at midline ( fig . 3d in friel and vigliotta , 2008 ) in or spread across mouth opening in one or two discrete rows ( fig . 3e\u2013f in friel and vigliotta , 2008 ) ; eyes without free orbital margin ; mandibular sensory - canal absent ; 4 to 6 dorsalfin rays ( typically 5 ) ; 5 to 7 branchiostegal rays ( typically 5 or 6 ) \u2026 chiloglanis\n2b . mandibular teeth spread across mouth opening in more than two discrete rows ( fig . 3a\u2013c in friel and vigliotta , 2008 ) ; eyes with free orbital margin ; mandibular sensory canal present , with 2 pores on each side ; 6 to 7 dorsal - fin rays ; 7 to 8 branchiostegal rays . . . 3\n3a . small anteriorly directed pocket underneath lower lip produced by folds of skin ( fig . 4a in friel and vigliotta , 2008 ) ; width of mandibular tooth rows less than 66 % width of paired premaxillae ( fig . 3a in friel and vigliotta , 2008 ) ; caudal fin emarginate ; gas bladder extremely reduced to two small bulbs ( fig . 5 ) \u2026 atopodontus\n3b . small anteriorly directed pocket underneath lower lip absent ( fig . 4b in friel and vigliotta , 2008 ) ; width of mandibular tooth rows more than 66 % width of paired premaxillae ( fig . 3b\u2013c in friel and vigliotta , 2008 ) ; caudal fin forked ; gas bladder only modestly reduced ( fig . 3c ) . . . 4\n4a . mandibular teeth spatulate and unicuspid ( fig . 10c ) ; large posterior pectoral - spine serrae ; one or only a few pores at sites along the cephalic sensory canals ; fewer than 40 vertebrae \u2026 atopochilus\n4b . mandibular teeth with lengthwise keel creating trowel shape and sometimes bicuspid from wear ( fig . 10a ) ; small posterior pectoral - spine serrae ; several pores at various sites along the cephalic sensory canals ; more than 40 vertebrae \u2026 euchilichthys\n5a . s - shaped auxiliary dentary teeth present ( fig . 10a , c\u2013f ) ; premaxillary teeth differentiated by shape and size front to back ; lips plicate ( with folds at corners of mouth ) . . . 6\n5b . s - shaped auxiliary dentary teeth absent ( fig . 10b ) ; premaxillary teeth showing little , if any , differentiation from front to back ; lips papillose , but not plicate ( without folds ) . . . 7\n6b . eyes without free orbital margin ; 12 to 14 principal caudal - fin rays ; tail truncate or rounded ; 6 or 7 pectoral - fin rays ( typically 6 ) ; lateral mandibular barbels with single , gracile branches at each point along length ( fig . 27a ) \u2026 microsynodontis\n7a . dorsal surface of the head and nuchal shield covered by large ridges and spinous projections ; cleithrum bearing spine in males ; rounded , blunt postcleithral process ; anus and urogenital opening distant ; free orbital margin present ; gill openings open to isthmus ; tips of mandibular teeth spatulate ; medial mandibular barbels with multiple , thick branches at each point along length ( fig . 27b ) ; 8 to 9 pectoral - fin rays ; 17 caudal - fin rays ; more than 40 vertebrae \u2026 acanthocliethron\n7b . dorsal surface of the head and nuchal shield without ridges and spinous projections ; cleithrum without spine in males ; pointed postcleithral process ; anus and urogenital opening very close ; free orbital margin absent ; gill openings restricted to sides of the head ; tips of mandibular teeth pointed ; medial mandibular barbels with single , gracile branches at each point along length ( fig . 27a ) ; 5 to 7 pectoral - fin rays ; 13 or 15 caudal - fin rays ; fewer than 36 vertebrae . . . 8\nchapman , l . j . , l . kaufman , and c . a . chapman . 1994 . why swim upside - down - a comparative study of 2 mochokid catfishes . copeia 1994 : 130\u0096135 .\nferraris , c . j . , jr . 2007 . checklist of catfishes , recent and fossil ( osteichthyes : siluriformes ) , and catalogue of siluriform primary types . zootaxa 1418 : 1\u0096628 .\nfriel , j . p . and t . r . vigliotta . 2008 . atopodontus adriaensi , a new genus and species of african suckermouth catfish from the og\u00f4ou\u00e9 and nyanga river systems of gabon ( siluriformes mochokidae ) . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 157 : 13\u009623 .\njubb , r . a . 1967 . freshwater fishes of southern africa . cape town , amsterdam , balkema , 248 pp .\nng , h . h . and r . m . bailey . 2006 . chiloglanis productus , a new species of suckermouth catfish ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) from zambia . occasional papers of the university of michigan museum of zoology 738 : 1\u009613 .\notero , o . and m . gayet . 2001 . palaeoichthyofaunas from the lower oligocene and miocene of the arabian plate : palaeoecological and palaeobiogeographical implications . palaeogeography palaeoclimatology palaeoecology 165 : 141\u0096169 .\nroberts , t . r . 1989 . systematic revision and description of new species of suckermouth catfishes ( chiloglanis , mochokidae ) from cameroun . proceedings of the california academy of sciences series 4 , 46 : 151\u0096178 .\nsato , t . 1986 . a brood parasitic catfish of mouthbrooding cichlid fishes in lake tanganyika . nature 323 : 58\u009659 .\nseegers , l . 1996 . the fishes of the lake rukwa drainage . mus\u00e9e royal de l\u0092afrique centrale , annales , sciences zoologiques 278 : 1\u0096407 .\nseegers , l . 2008 . the catfishes of africa . a handbook for identification and maintenance . aqualog verlag , rodgau , germany . 604 pp .\nstewart , k . m . 2001 . the freshwater fish of neogene africa ( miocene - pleistocene ) : systematics and biogeography . fish and fisheries ( oxford ) 2 : 177\u0096230\nvigliotta , t . r . 2008 . a phylogenetic study of the african catfish family mochokidae ( osteichthyes , ostariophysi , siluriformes ) , with a key to genera . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 157 : 73\u0096136 .\nwinemiller , k . o . , and l . c . kelso - winemiller . 1996 . comparative ecology of catfishes of the upper zambezi river floodplain . journal of fish biology 49 : 1043\u00961061 ."]}
{"id": 1618, "summary": [{"text": "the boodie ( bettongia lesueur ) , also known as the burrowing bettong , is a small marsupial .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "its population is an example of the effects of introduced animals on australian fauna and ecosystems .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "once the most common macropodiform mammal on the whole continent , the boodie now only lives on off-lying islands and in a newly introduced population on the mainland at shark bay .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this animal , first collected during an 1817 french expedition of the west coast , was named after charles lesueur , an artist and naturalist who accompanied a previous french expedition .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "b. lesueur is known by many common names , including the tungoo , lesueur \u2019s rat-kangaroo , and the short-nosed rat-kangaroo . ", "topic": 29}], "title": "boodie", "paragraphs": ["everybody by this time is looking at the boodie , and the boodie is steadfastly regarding stephen gower .\nboodie cave is located on the second bluff in the centre of the photograph .\n\u201c boodie \u201d in oxford dictionaries , oxford university press , accessed 2012 september 12 .\nsurveys of the barrow and boodie islands subspecies have been opportunistic ( richards 2007 ) .\nafraid they ' ll try to take the boodie away from him , i guess .\ncontrol / management of weeds on bernier , dorre , boodie , barrow and faure islands .\nthere are an estimated 3400 individuals on barrow island and 200 on boodie island ( richards 2007 ) .\njessie\u2019s research examines the translocation success of the nationally vulnerable burrowing bettong ( bettongia lesueur ) or \u2018boodie\u2019 .\npeter veth ( left ) with thalanyi elders anne hayes , roslyn davison and jane hyland at boodie cave .\nlead archaeologist peter veth excavating a rich layer of dietary remains and artefacts below the surface of boodie cave .\nto see ' m s ' ill shaken up an ' duddy , he looks just like a tattie boodie .\nthe boodie ( or burrowing bettong ) was once widespread across the rangelands to nsw and queensland . ( image :\nthe total extent of occurrence of the barrow and boodie island subspecies of the burrowing bettong is approximately 233 km\u00b2 ( short & turner 1991 ) . the total area of barrow and boodie islands combined is 23 503 hectares ( ecosure 2009 ) .\nthe barrow and boodie islands subspecies of the burrowing bettong occur on the aforementioned islands off western australia . the small population on boodie island was reintroduced from nearby barrow island in the 1990s after the death of the last individuals on boodie island in 1985 during a poisoning campaign targeting the black rat ( rattus rattus ) ( burbidge 1999 ; short & turner 1993 ) .\ncomb . : boodie - bo , \u201ca bug - bear , an object of terror\u201d ( abd . 1825 jam . 2 ) .\nthe western australian department of environment and conservation ( wa dec ) manages boodie and barrow islands as nature reserves ( richards 2007 ) .\nthese dates make boodie cave one of the earliest known locations in the settlement of australia and the earliest site anywhere near the coast .\nboodie cfs \u00e9 a cadeirinha de bicicleta que permite transportar crian\u00e7as at\u00e9 22kg e aplica em bicicletas com bagageiras . a cadeirinha boodie apresenta um design cl\u00e1ssico e \u00e9 compat\u00edvel com a utiliza\u00e7\u00e3o de capacete . com apoios de p\u00e9s ajust\u00e1veis em 4 posi\u00e7\u00f5es , reten\u00e7\u00e3o de p\u00e9s e cinto de seguran\u00e7a com 3 pontos de ajuste , boodie \u00e9 o modelo cl\u00e1ssico da marca e n\u00e3o necessita de qualquer ferramenta adicional para ser instalado ou removido .\nthe barrow and boodie island subspecies is the smallest of three subspecies : the mainland subspecies , now extinct ; the shark bay subspecies ; and the barrow and boodie islands subspecies . mainland individuals were the largest ( short & turner 1999 cited in richards 2007 ; strahan 1998 ) .\nwhen boodie cave was first occupied , barrow island was part of the mainland , with the shoreline between 10 and 20 kilometres further west .\nthe work on boodie island was the first attempt in australia to eradicate black rats in the presence of a threatened , non - target mammal .\nboodie n . 1\n. dictionary of the scots language . 2004 . scottish language dictionaries ltd . accessed 9 jul 2018 < urltoken >\nboodie cave provides the earliest evidence for coastal living in australia and gives us an indication that coastal resources have been important to people since initial colonisation .\nthe earliest dates for occupation of boodie cave , based on results from four international dating laboratories , are between 51 , 100 and 46 , 200 years ago .\nmarine shells dating up to 40 , 000 years ago were excavated from boodie cave , including this baler shell artefact dating to around 6 , 800 years ago .\nboodie ff \u00e9 a cadeirinha de bicicleta que permite transportar crian\u00e7as at\u00e9 22kg e aplica no quadro da bicicleta . compat\u00edvel com tubos redondos e ovais \u00e9 ideal para crian\u00e7as at\u00e9 aos 22 kg . a cadeirinha boodie apresenta um design cl\u00e1ssico e \u00e9 compat\u00edvel com a utiliza\u00e7\u00e3o de capacete . com apoios de p\u00e9s ajust\u00e1veis em 4 posi\u00e7\u00f5es , reten\u00e7\u00e3o de p\u00e9s e cinto de seguran\u00e7a com 3 pontos de ajuste , boodie \u00e9 o modelo cl\u00e1ssico da marca e pode ser instalado em bicicletas com e sem bagageiras .\ndr jeff short holding young boodie . jeff has played a primary role in the scientific effort which has brought boodies back to mainland australia . ( image : csiro )\ndietary remains in addition to shell artefacts , incised shells , shell beads and thousands of stone artefacts show that boodie cave was a frequently visited location on the landscape .\nthreatened species of the northern territory - burrowing bettong ( inland subspecies ) , boodie bettongia lesueur graii ( pavey , c . , 2006d ) [ information sheet ] .\nold boodie warrens are still readily observed in central australia , particularly in calcareous country where excavated stones and gravels form humps or mounds around the entrance of long abandoned warrens .\nthe introduction of exoctic animals such as the european red fox , feral cats and the european rabbit contributed to the disappearance of the boodie . foxes and cats preyed upon the boodie and rabbits may have also played a part in their decline by competing for food and shelter although there is some evidence they may have co - existed in shared burrows .\nthe results from radiocarbon and optically stimulated luminescence dating techniques from four independent dating laboratories show that boodie cave was first occupied between 51 , 100 and 46 , 200 years ago .\ngovernment of western australia , 2006 .\nburrowing bettong ( boodie )\n( on - line ) . department of conservation and land management . accessed november 14 , 2006 at urltoken .\nsome body or boodie , o ' some kin ' or ither , had come roun ' the way , an ' wi ' nae mickle swither , by them frae the shambles the carcase was torn .\nthe boodie belongs to the family potoroidae , which includes the rat - kangaroos , potoroos , and other bettongs . four species make up the genus bettongia . also , three subspecies of bettongia lesueur exist :\nwe argue that boodie cave was used as an inland hunting shelter between about 50 , 000 and 30 , 000 years ago before becoming a residential base for family groups by 8 , 000 years ago .\nfauna species profiles - burrowing bettong ( boodie ) bettongia lesueur ( quoy and gaimard , 1824 ) ( western australia department of environment and conservation ( wa dec ) , 2010e ) [ information sheet ] .\n1985 , australia ' s amazing wildlife , page 304 , the bettongs live in moderately dry country and with the exception of the boodie , which digs burrows , all make nests of grass on the ground .\nthe boodie is very vocal and makes a variety of squeals , hisses and grunts and they move in a bipedal fashion , not making use of their tail or fore - limbs for support , except when stationary .\n\u201cboodie cave was used predominately as a hunting shelter between about 50 , 000 and 30 , 000 years ago before becoming a residential base for family groups after 10 , 000 years ago , \u201d prof . veth said .\nastron has been engaged since 2004 to control weeds on boodie island for chevron australia pty ltd . the long term objective is to eradicate buffel grass ( cenchrus ciliaris ) , which once dominated the vegetation on parts of the island .\nit was typical for the boodie to be shot by farmers protecting their crops that were being eaten by the species . in addition , agricultural practices ( such as establishing crops and pastures ) removed much of this species preferred habitat .\nlocated on the northwestern coast of barrow island , boodie cave is optimally positioned near the edge of the australian continental shelf . for most periods of lower sea level this cave would have been within the foraging range of the pleistocene coastline .\nhowever , the boodie , once common over much of southern australia , is now only found in numbers on offshore islands on the mid - west coast . boodies are sociable animals and since they dig burrows , considerable warrens can be formed .\nthe decline of the boodie on the mainland commenced in the nineteeth century and had disappeared from victoria and nsw by the 1860s and from south - western australia by the 1930s . however , it persisted until approximately the 1940s in some central desert areas .\nfor the past five years an international team of 30 scientists has been working in collaboration with the buurabalayji thalanyji aboriginal corporation and kuruma marthudunera aboriginal corporation on boodie cave , a deep limestone cave on the remote barrow island , off the western australia coast .\nother marsupial forms are more unique in their adaptations for example the boodie ( bettongia lesueur ) a shy , strictly nocturnal rat kangaroo , possessing small pointed canine teeth to help fed on other small animals . it makes its nest in a burrow , industriously collecting material for it in a most ingenious way . it picks up a few straws in its mouth , stacks them in a bundle on the ground and then pushes them back over its long tail with its hind legs . the tail then curls up tightly so that the straw is effectively baled and the boodie move away by hopping . boodies locomote using only their back legs which have very long feet . an animal like the boodie may have been the ancestor to the spectacular radiation of bipedalism that resulted in the kangaroos and wallabies\nsince the initial early dates for boodie cave were reported in 2015 , our team has been forensically analysing the archaeological and palaeoenvironmental remains , as well as re - dating the site to build up a robust picture of the lives of the people who lived here .\ncitation : department of the environment ( 2018 ) . bettongia lesueur barrow and boodie islands subspecies in species profile and threats database , department of the environment , canberra . available from : urltoken . accessed tue , 10 jul 2018 03 : 58 : 19 + 1000 .\nthe boodie was once the most widespread of all the potoroids . its range extended right across western australia and the northern territory , through south australia into western new south wales , south - western queensland and north - western victoria . except for reintroductions , it is extinct on mainland australia and occurs naturally only on bernier , dorre , barrow and boodie islands off the west australian coast . black rats caused its extinction on boodie island but a successful eradication of the rat has enabled the boodie to be re - introduced to the island bearing one of its common names . the boodie has been successfully reintroduced into mainland west australia in the francois peron national park . it is also being reintroduced into fenced fauna reserves in south australia and new south wales . given that the species was once widespread across the rangelands of australia , it occupied a range of open habitat types . its current habitat on the islands off the coast of western australia is low heath , scrub and hummock ( spinifex ) grassland . however , introduction show is that it can live in spinifex grasslands , chenopod shrublands and mallee . the species need to burrow and so a rocky substrate obviously precludes its occupation of some areas . the burrows , however , have persisted in some parts of the rangelands and certainly can be found in new south wales rangelands in national parks such as kinchega national park .\nthreats to the habitat of the barrow and boodie islands subspecies include : disturbance by oilfield activities , especially gravel extraction and road construction ; fire ; and exotic invasive species ( butler 1987 ) . disease and climate change are also identified as potential threats ( richards 2007 ) .\nbefore its extinction on the mainland , the boodie served a very important function in the australian grassland ecosystem . as it foraged , it mixed organic matter into the soil , spreading fungi and seeds . this mixing also increased water absorption into the soil and reduced the combustible material under trees , decreasing the likelihood of fire . these actions helped maintain the balance of trees , shrubs , and grasses . the loss of small , ground foraging animals after european settlement contributed to widespread soil deterioration . also , the boodie may have helped to thin woody weeds on rangeland by grazing shrubs regenerating after fires .\nthe boodie once lived in a range of dry subtropical and tropical habitats , from open eucalyptus and acacia woodlands to arid spinifex grasslands . in its current range on the islands , it seems to prefer open triodia ( spinifex ) and dune habitats , but will burrow anywhere except places with rocky substrate .\ncurrent taxonomic research based on mitochondrial dna and morphological data indicates that two separate species might be contained within bettongia lesueur ( richards 2005 ) . fossil and subfossil remains also point to the presence of two sympatric taxa similar to the two extant populations on barrow and boodie and the ones on bernier and dorre .\nlongevity for the barrow and boodie island subspecies is not recorded . however , the bernier and dorre islands subspecies ( shark bay ) have a life span of over three years , and the reintroduced population at heirisson prong ( also shark bay ) contains eleven year old individuals ( richards 2007 ; short & turner 1999 ) .\nthe boodie is nocturnal , sheltering during the day in burrows and foraging widely at night for food . locomotion is mainly with the hind legs . the forelimbs are used for support when the boodie is stationary . this bettong exhibits a slow gait and fast gait . the fast gait ( or bipedal hop ) is characteristic of the macropodiforms and uses only the hind limbs , with the forelimbs held close to the body and tail acting as a counterbalance . the slow gait ( or quadrupedal crawl ) is used during foraging and other unstressed times . nighttime movement is usually fairly limited , averaging less than 200 m . however , researchers have measured this marsupial traveling 2 . 2 km searching for food . one individual tracked on barrow island traveled 5 km . b . lesueur uses scent to locate food , which it digs up with the claws on its strong forelimbs . the boodie will even climb into low shrubs to find food . demonstrating little interspecific interactions , bettongs are apparently undisturbed by run - ins with other non - predators .\nproposed factors leading to its overall decline include the general diversion of environmental resources to humans and introduced species , a reduction in vegetative cover by introduced herbivores and changed fire regimes , predation by introduced foxes , direct killing by people , predation by cats ( particularly on islands ) , competition from rabbits , and competition from black rats on boodie island .\nthe boodie is the exception amongst the rat - kangaroos as it eats few if any fungal fruit - bodies . rather it predominately eats roots and tubers along with some bulbs , leaves and stems of plants , seeds . in the island populations , it may eat some carrion scavenging along the sea shores . on the mainland , fruit such a quandong is eaten along with various native yams .\n[ prob . from gael . bodach ( cf . gael . bodach rocais , a scarecrow ) , influenced by bo , bu , a hobgoblin . bodach is used to designate the ghostly familiar of several highland families \u2014 e . g . the bodach glas or grey spectre of the grants of rothiemurchus . see jam . 1808 s . v . boodie and etym . note to bamullo . ]\nthe diets of boodies and european rabbits have been compared at herrison prong in shark bay ( wa ) . greatest overlap in diets occurred in summer ( 56 % overlap ) when boodies ate seeds , stems and the foliage of shrubs and rabbits ate roots , stems and browse from some shrubs . overlap was less in winter ( 43 % ) when the boodie diet was more typical of the rat - kangaroos with 19 - 23 % hypogeal fungi , along with fruit and forbs . rabbits similarly ate forbs but browsed the foliage and stems of shrubs . there is a widespread belief that rabbits were a significant cause of the mainland extinction of boodies through competition for food and shelter . the herrison prong study has cast doubt on both assertions . boodies better utilised common resources and boodie and rabbit diets diverged . boodies maintained populations when rabbits boomed and then busted as they depleted pasture under unfavourable conditions . boodies typically forage in areas where the canopy cover is above the average for the habitat , and ground cover and height is relatively high . livestock , particularly sheep , remove such cover and so the introduction of pastoralism , not the rabbits , cats and foxes that followed , is the prime cause of boodie extinction .\nresearchers have proposed many possible causes for the boodie ' s decline on mainland australia , which began once australia was colonized . nineteenth - century colonists killed boodies , considering them a destructive garden pest . as ranches spread over the grasslands , livestock grazing reduced vegetation cover , shrinking their habitat . also , introduced species such as foxes , cats , and rabbits took a severe toll on the boodie , especially on islands . rabbits competed with them for food and shelter , and the foxes and cats became their major predators . the theory that rabbits compete with boodies for food has been disputed in a study done in 2002 although further investigation is needed . finally , the indigenous australians maintained certain fire regimes , and when these ceased , the habitat probably changed . by the 1960s , all the boodies on the mainland were extinct .\nthis bettong had one of the most extensive continental ranges of any of the australian marsupials , originally occurring in all mainland states except perhaps queensland over the region from about 14 degrees south in the northwest down to the extremity of the southeast coast ( 37 degrees 50 minutes south ) , and from the west coast almost across to the great dividing range in new south wales . it had disappeared from victoria and new south wales by the 1860 ' s . it remained common in parts of central and southwestern australia until the 1930 ' s . by 1966 it appeared to be virtually extinct over most of its former range , with remnant pockets possibly remaining in northwestern and central australia . it was common on bernier and dorre islands . by 1987 it occurred only on barrow , boodie , dorre and bernier islands off of western australia ; by 1992 had become extinct on boodie island .\nthe barrow and boodie islands subspecies of the burrowing bettong is a compact marsupial with grey fur , and a ventral surface that tends to be lighter . legs , feet and tail are yellowish in colour . it has short , rounded ears , grows to 28 cm in length and has a fat tail which grows to 21 . 5 cm in length . in some animals , the tail has a distinctive white tip ( strahan 1998 ) .\nwas once one of the most widespread mammals inhabiting the australian mainland . it could be found in all suitable habitats throughout mainland australia , yet by the early 1960\u2019s had become extinct on the mainland and could only be found on the australian islands of bernier and dorre in shark bay , and boodie island and barrow island near the pilbara coast . burrowing bettongs used to live on dirk hartog island , but have gone extinct from there as well .\nin late 2004 , calm ( now wa dec ) established a recovery team for marsupials of shark bay to coordinate conservation actions for the subspecies including the barrow and boodie islands subspecies ( richards 2007 ) . through this team , wa dec has prepared the western barred bandicoot perameles bougainville , burrowing bettong bettongia lesueur and banded hare - wallaby lagostrophus fasciatus recovery plan 2007 - 2011 ( richards 2007 ) . recovery objectives that relate to the burrowing bettong include :\nin 1817 the french ship uranie anchored off dirk hartog island in shark bay as part of its exploration of the west coast of australia . its crew collected a specimen of a small kangaroo unknown to science . it was subsequently described and named after charles le sueur , the artist and naturalist on a previous french expedition to the islands in 1802 . it became known as lesueur ' s rat - kangaroo bettongia lesueur . today it is more commonly known as the burrowing bettong or boodie .\nbetween 1988 and 1990 csiro conducted surveys of bernier , dorre , barrow , and boodie islands to establish the size and stability of populations of endangered mammals . surveys in 1988 and 1989 revealed a population of some 5 , 000 bettongs distributed between three islands . barrow island ( 240 square kilometres ) contained the greatest number with some 3 , 500 animals . subsequent surveys have revealed that these populations fluctuate strongly in size , building up steadily over several years of average to above average rainfall and then crashing in drought .\nthe boodie like most of the rat - kangaroos has a gestation period just shorter than the oestrous cycle and thus has a post - partum oestrus with mating taking place very soon after the current pouch young vacates the pouch permanently . they show embryonic diapause and breed continuously regardless of season but some bias towards the wetter winter months was noted on bernier and dorre islands . pouch life is around 4 months and thus they are able to produce more than one young per year but island populations do not reach the theoretical maximum of three young .\nand sea eagles ; on barrow island , monitor lizards appear to be a significant predator . before its extinction on the mainland , the boodie served a very important function in the australian grassland ecosystem . as it foraged , it mixed organic matter into the soil , spreading fungi and seeds . this mixing also increased water absorption into the soil and reduced the combustible material under trees , decreasing the likelihood of fire . these actions helped maintain the balance of trees , shrubs , and grasses . the loss of small , ground - foraging animals after european settlement contributed to widespread soil deterioration . also ,\nthe boodie once lived in a range of dry subtropical and tropical habitats , from open eucalyptus and acacia woodlands to arid spinifex grasslands . in its current range on the islands , it seems to prefer open triodia ( spinifex ) and dune habitats , but will burrow anywhere except places with rocky substrate . the burrowing bettong eats a variety of foods , such as seeds , fruits , flowers , tubers , roots , succulent leaves , grasses , fungi , termites , and marine refuse . it will also raid vegetable gardens . current populations fluctuate , building up during the years with average or good rainfall and crashing during drought years . these marsupials are known to live at least three years in the wild .\nburrowing bettongs were once widespread across arid and semi - arid areas in the south , central and western parts of australia . their range contracted dramatically following european settlement and extant populations are now present only on a small number of islands off the coast of western australia . re - introductions to predator - proof enclosures have resulted in the successful establishment of a number of populations in western australia , new south wales and south australia . three sub - species , with distinct ranges , are recognised : b . lesueur graii ( mainland australia , now extinct ) , b . lesueur lesueur ( bernier and dorre islands , shark bay , wa ) and b . lesueur unnamed subspecies ( barrow and boodie islands , wa ) .\nif conditions were good , the boodie mated throughout the year , utilising a polygynous mating system . males did not appear to have dominance hierarchies ; rather , they defended females against other males . some females seemed to establish associations with other females ; whether these contribute to increased reproductive success is unknown . gestation lasts 21 days , with only one young per litter . like other marsupial newborns , the newborn was altricial . about four months elapse until weaning . after young leave the pouch , they take 6 - 7 months to sexually mature . females mated the day after giving birth , and the fertilised egg arrested development until the young was weaned . in captivity , females are able to bear three young per year .\nthe rat - kangaroos have fared very poorly with the advent of agriculture and pastoralism compounded by the introduction of competitors ( european rabbits and hares ) and predators ( red foxes and domestic cats ) . the potoroids generally have much reduced ranges relative to the first settlement of australia by europeans and two of the 10 species are extinct . the most dramatic of the declines is the boodie ( burrowing bettong ) which was widespread across the rangelands of australia and ended up marooned on a few offshore islands in western australia . reintroductions are in progress and this species is on the first hops to making a comeback on the mainland . like the potoroids , the musky rat - kangaroo has lost much of its habitat in the highly prized real - estate of the tropics .\nit is abundant on barrow ( total 3 , 400 individuals ) , bernier ( total of 650 individuals ) , and dorre ( 1 , 000 individuals ) . these populations appear to be stable ( richards 2005 ) . the populations on bernier and dorre islands ( and presumably barrow island and possibly mainland populations ) are known to undergo extreme fluctuations in response to rainfall and drought ( short et al . 1997 ) . estimates for the reintroduced island populations are as follows : boodie ( few hundred ) , faure island ( 150 individuals ) ; it is extinct on dirk hartog island ( burbidge and short 2008 ) . reintroduced mainland populations include : arid recovery ( 500 ) , scotia ( 300 ) ; heirisson prong ( 20 ) . populations are increasing where reintroduced .\nthe boodie is a small , rat - like marsupial with short , rounded ears and a lightly haired , thick tail . this animal has a pointed rostrum and beady black eyes , hind limbs longer than the forelimbs , and large hind feet . this bettong is yellow - gray above and light gray below . its short , dense fur feels soft and woolly . the animal bears a faint hip stripe and a distinctive white tail tip . this tail is weakly prehensile and used to carry nest material . about the size of a wild rabbit , this little marsupial weighs an average of 1 . 5 kg . head and body length is an average of 40 cm . little to no sexual dimorphism seems to exist . however , morphology varies among subspecies and between islands .\nif conditions are good , the boodie seems to mate throughout the year , probably using a polygynous mating system . males do not seem to have dominance hierarchies ; rather , they defend females against other males . some females seem to establish associations with other females ; whether these contribute to increased reproductive success is unknown . gestation lasts 21 days , with only one young per litter . like other marsupial newborns , the newborn is altricial . about four months elapse until weaning . after young leave the pouch , they take six to seven months to mature sexually . females mate the day after giving birth , and the fertilized egg arrests development until the young is weaned . this is an example of facultative embryonic diapause . in captivity , females are able to bear three young per year .\nthis species is endemic to australia , where it was formerly widespread in central , southern , and south - western parts of the country . while it is now presumed to be extinct on the australian mainland , it persists in insular populations on bernier and dorre islands in shark bay ( western australia ) and on barrow island off the pilbara coast ( western australia ) ( richards 2005 ; burbidge and short 2008 ) . there are reintroduced populations on faure island in shark bay and boodie island ( both western australia ) , as well as on the mainland in scotia wildlife sanctuary ( new south wales ) , arid recovery reserve at roxby downs ( south australia ) , and heirisson prong ( western australia ) ( all three mainland sites are fenced reserves within the historical range of the species ) .\nonce present in all mainland states except queensland , the boodie survived as three remnant populations on small offshore islands . these islands include bernier and dorre islands in shark bay and barrow island off the northwest coast of western australia . the marsupial was listed on the 2006 iucn red list as vulnerable due to acute restriction of its area of occupancy to less than 100 km\u00b2 . in 2008 , however , due to successful conservation efforts both by government agencies and the private sector , boodies have been listed on the 2008 iucn red list as near threatened , as its range and population have increased , and are still increasing . newly established populations included herrison prong on mainland shark bay by the dec , as well as faure island , scotia sanctuary , and yookamurra sanctuary , which were established by the australian wildlife conservancy .\nmodelo boodie cfs seguran\u00e7a maior prote\u00e7\u00e3o lateral cresce com a sua crian\u00e7a : cinto de seguran\u00e7a ajust\u00e1vel em 3 pontos fivela de seguran\u00e7a \u00e0 prova de crian\u00e7a 1 autocolante refletor traseiro fivela de seguran\u00e7a \u00e0 prova de crian\u00e7a . forma ergon\u00f3mica para usar com o capacete conforto cresce com a sua crian\u00e7a - 3 op\u00e7\u00f5es de altura para qualquer o cinto de seguran\u00e7a cresce com a sua crian\u00e7a - apoio de p\u00e9s ajust\u00e1vel em 4 posi\u00e7\u00f5es outras caracter\u00edsticas n\u00e3o necessita de ferramentas , \u00e9 f\u00e1cil montar o porta - beb\u00e9 no porta - bagagem . isto significa que \u00e9 f\u00e1cil trocar e guardar a cadeira . . o boodie cfs \u00e9 fornecido totalmente montado e , por isso , pode ser usado assim que se retira da caixa . capacidade de mover a cadeira para a frente e para tr\u00e1s , de acordo com o tamanho da crian\u00e7a e da bicicleta . normas em conformidade com t\u00fcv gs - en 14344 caracter\u00edsticas t\u00e9cnicas sistema de fixa\u00e7\u00e3o ao porta - bagagem encaixa em bicicletas com porta - bagagem em conformidade com a norma iso 11243 - 120 a 175 mm - at\u00e9 25 kg . encaixa em tubos de porta - bagagem entre 10 e 16 mm recomendado para bicicletas de 26\ne 28\nesta cadeira n\u00e3o pode ser montada em bicicletas com amortecedores traseiros . esta cadeira n\u00e3o pode ser montada em bicicletas de corrida , com guiador invertido ( quando usada para efeitos de corrida ) . esta cadeira n\u00e3o pode ser montada em ve\u00edculos motorizados tal como motos , ciclomotores e scooters . peso da crian\u00e7a 9 to 22 kg esta cadeira apenas \u00e9 adequada para o transporte de crian\u00e7as com um peso m\u00e1ximo de 22 kg ( e para crian\u00e7as com idades recomendadas entre os 9 meses e os 5 anos - sendo o peso a vari\u00e1vel decisiva ) . peso da cadeira 2 , 32 kg dimens\u00f5es da cadeira largura 398 x altura 756 x profundidade 344\nmodelo boodie ff seguran\u00e7a maior prote\u00e7\u00e3o lateral cresce com a sua crian\u00e7a : cinto de seguran\u00e7a ajust\u00e1vel em 3 pontos fivela de seguran\u00e7a \u00e0 prova de crian\u00e7a 1 autocolante refletor traseiro cinto de seguran\u00e7a extra no quadro forma ergon\u00f3mica para usar com o capacete . conforto cresce com a sua crian\u00e7a - 3 op\u00e7\u00f5es de altura para colocar o cinto de seguran\u00e7a cresce com a sua crian\u00e7a - apoio de p\u00e9s ajust\u00e1vel em 4 posi\u00e7\u00f5es outras caracter\u00edsticas encaixa em bicicletas com ou sem porta - bagagem . - capacidade demover a cadeira para a frente e para tr\u00e1s , em 3 posi\u00e7\u00f5es , de acordo com o tamanho da crian\u00e7a e da bicicleta . a abra\u00e7adeira permite colocar / retirar o porta - beb\u00e9 da bicicleta em segundos apertando o bot\u00e3o . isto tamb\u00e9m significa que \u00e9 f\u00e1cil trocar ou guardar a cadeira . todas as ferramentas e o kit de montagem necess\u00e1rios para a fixa\u00e7\u00e3o est\u00e3o inclu\u00eddos . normas em conformidade com t\u00fcv gs - en 14344 caracter\u00edsticas t\u00e9cnicas sistema de fixa\u00e7\u00e3o ao quadro compat\u00edvel com bicicletas com ou sem porta - bagagem compat\u00edvel com tubos redondos ou ovais entre28 a 40 mm a abra\u00e7adeira requer um comprimento de 80mm para instala\u00e7\u00e3o recomendado para bicicletas 26\ne 28\n. esta cadeira n\u00e3o pode ser montada em bicicletas com quadros de carbono , triangulares e quadrados esta cadeira n\u00e3o pode ser montada em bicicletas com amortecedores traseiros esta cadeira n\u00e3o pode ser montada em bicicletas de corrida , com guiador invertido ( quando usada para efeitos de corrida ) . esta cadeira n\u00e3o pode ser montada em ve\u00edculos motorizados tal como motos , ciclomotores e scooters . peso da crian\u00e7a 9 to 22 kg esta cadeira apenas \u00e9 adequada para o transporte de crian\u00e7as com um peso m\u00e1ximo de 22 kg ( e para crian\u00e7as com idades recomendadas entre os 9 meses e os 5 anos - sendo o peso a vari\u00e1vel decisiva ) . peso da cadeira 3 , 27 kg dimens\u00f5es da cadeira largura 398 x altura 756 x profundidade 344\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nlamoreux , j . & hilton - taylor , c . ( global mammal assessment team )\njustification : listed as near threatened because its extent of occurrence is small and it is known from just 6 - 8 locations , making it close to qualifying for vulnerable under criterion b1 . the natural populations of this species are considered stable and reintroduced populations are increasing , habitat for the species is considered stable , and although there are major threats potentially from introduced predators , fire , and disease , this species has genuinely improved in status since the prior assessment . the species occurs naturally on 3 islands , and has been introduced to another 5 localities . there is , however , uncertainty as to whether 2 of these reintroduction sites can be counted as\nself - sustaining\n, and thus be included in the number of locations used in the assessment . this species is also close to qualifying as having\nextreme fluctuations\nin population , which would also qualify it for a threatened category .\nthis species is found in arid and semi - arid areas of shrubland and woodland , on sandy or loose soils . currently it is found in areas with calcrete rock and sandy areas . it is nocturnal and omnivorous , and lives as loose colonies in a complex warren of underground burrows . the females breed throughout the year and usually give birth to a single young three times a year ( j . richards pers . comm . ) .\nthis species is listed as a threatened species under australian law . bernier , dorre , and barrow islands are all protected areas , as are all the areas where the species has been reintroduced . studies are underway into the taxonomic identity of remaining populations . there is a need to actively manage and monitor populations . this species is listed on appendix i of cites . a recovery plan for the species has been developed for the 2005 - 2010 period ( richards 2005 ) . recommendations in this plan include : protect wild populations and their habitat so that the species does not fall below the level of natural fluctuations ; maintain captive populations ( currently there are captive breeding populations at yookamurra wildlife sanctuary , scotia wildlife sanctuary , and return to dryandra field breeding facility ) ; use of population viability analysis to compare the viability of wild , current and potential reintroduced populations , and ; enhance community participation and education . the recovery plan also recommends initiating three reintroductions to the mainland within a five year period ( 2005 - 2010 ) ( richards 2005 ) . there have been reintroduction attempts in the past . many of these failed do to the presence of introduced predators , and it is clear that success of reintroductions requires sites to be free from cats and foxes . there is a proposed reintroduction to dirk hartog island , which is not possible unless feral cats there have been eradicated ( a . burbidge pers . comm . ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . this website uses cookies that provide targeted advertising and which track your use of this website . by clicking \u2018continue\u2019 or by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\n\u2018paisley had a gecko to release and we saw two bilbies and two burrowing bettongs . \u2019\n\u2018the company which values its boodies , bandicoots and other animals on its balance sheet , issued shares at a $ 2 . 50 when it listed . \u2019\n\u2018when we started , people didn ' t know what bilbies and boodies and bettons and numbats were , and now they do . \u2019\nstay up to date with our latest news and receive new words updates , blog posts , and more .\nin this article we explore how to impress employers with a spot - on cv .\narchaic words have a charm that never fades away , from french sounding to wondrously mysterious ones .\nalso known as lesueur\u2019s rat kangaroo , the burrowing bettong is similar in appearance to a rat .\nburrowing bettongs can live in simple burrows or large warrens with over 100 entrances inhabited by more than 50 individuals .\nthe burrowing bettong is a marsupial and the only burrowing member of the kangaroo family ( 4 ) ( 5 ) though , as its other common name , the lesueur\u2019s rat kangaroo , indicates , it actually bears some resemblance to a rat . originally there were two subspecies , bettongia lesueur graii and bettongia lesueur nova , though the former subspecies is now extinct ( 1 ) . like a kangaroo , it has well developed , muscular hind limbs and short muscular forearms . the head is small with a pointed muzzle , short rounded ears and beady black eyes ( 6 ) . this mammal is covered in short dense hair which is brown to grey in colour , and has been described as \u2018woolly\u2019 as its hair is softer than that of other bettong species . burrowing bettongs also bear a faint hip stripe on the body and a distinctive white tail - tip ( 2 ) .\nburrowing bettongs are strictly nocturnal and use scent to locate food , which they then dig out of the ground using their muscular limbs . this species feeds on tubers , bulbs , seed nuts , plants and fungi , termites and marine refuse ( 4 ) . burrowing bettongs have also been observed eating carrion and raiding vegetable gardens ( 4 ) .\nsocial groups consist of one male and several females . they dig and occupy a simple burrow which may have a short tunnel and 1 - 2 entrances or a large warren with more than 100 entrances . one of these warrens may house more than 50 individuals from several groups . males are aggressive towards other males and defend the females in their group ( 4 ) .\nfemales produce up to three litters each year with one offspring per litter , though twins are occasionally born . females will mate again shortly after giving birth . however , the second offspring is not born for around four months as embryonic development is delayed . this allows the first - born to be nurtured by the mother and gives it a better chance of survival ( 4 ) . if the first young dies , embryonic development of the following offspring begins . gestation lasts for only 21 days , and sexual maturity is attained within one year ( 4 ) .\nthis species no longer exists on mainland australia , and until recently was only found on three islands off the coast of western australia : barrow , dorre and bernier island ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . following a successful reintroduction by the australian wildlife conservancy ( awc ) in 2002 , this species is now also found in faure island ( 7 ) .\nthis small marsupial inhabits a variety of habitats from spinifex deserts to woodlands ( 5 ) .\nclassified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix i of cites ( 3 ) .\nthis australian species has been completely lost from the mainland , though in 1855 - 56 they were reported as being abundant . they were considered as agricultural pests by farmers who settled in australia in the 19th century , and were shot and poisoned in their hundreds ( 2 ) . introduced feral animals such as foxes are thought to have kept their numbers low , as has competition from other introduced species such as rabbits , cattle and black rats ( rattus rattus ) ( 4 ) . increased grazing and changes to fire regimes have also significantly reduced vegetation cover for this species ( 5 ) .\nthe four islands on which this species occurs have been declared as nature reserves ( 5 ) . dirk hartog island and the gibson desert nature reserve have also been recommended as sites for translocation of populations following the success on faure island ( 5 ) ( 7 ) . in addition , research is underway to identify the causes of this species\u2019 decline so that conservation practices are well informed ( 5 ) . the western australian department of conservation and land management ( calm ) is responsible for the conservation of this species and it is hoped that these new efforts will enable this unique species to recover ( 5 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nmarsupial a diverse group of mammals characterised by their reproduction . the embryo is born 11 - 35 days after conception . the tiny newborn crawls into the marsupium ( pouch ) and attaches to a teat where it stays for a variable amount of time . they also differ from placental mammals in their dentition . nocturnal active at night . subspecies a population usually restricted to a geographical area that differs from other populations of the same species , but not to the extent of being classified as a separate species .\nrichardson , b . j . and walton , d . w . ( 1989 ) fauna of australia : mammalia . australian government publishing service , canberra .\nkennedy , m . ( 1992 ) australian marsupials and monotremes , an action plan for their conservation . iucn , gland , switzerland .\nmacdonald , d . ( 2001 ) the new encyclopedia of mammals . oxford university press , london .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - burrowing bettong ( bettongia lesueur )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - burrowing bettong ( bettongia lesueur )\ntitle =\narkive species - burrowing bettong ( bettongia lesueur )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is found in barrow island . visit our barrow island topic page to find out more .\nthis species is affected by global climate change . to learn about climate change and the species that are affected , visit our climate change pages .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\n1 . profile ( picture ) 2 . tidbits 3 . status and trends ( iucn status , countries where currently found , population estimates , history of distribution , threats and reasons for decline ) 4 . data on biology and ecology ( weight , habitat , age to maturity , gestation period , birth season , birth rate , early development , diet , behavior , social organization ) 5 . references\npictures : burrowing bettong # 1 ( 28 kb jpeg ) ( milamba aust . ) ; burrowing bettong # 2 ( 62 kb jpeg ) ( aust . wildl . cons . )\n* * * the burrowing bettong is the only burrowing species of the kangaroo family .\n* * * it uses scent to locate its food , which it then digs out of the ground .\n* * * in the 19th century it was considered a destructive pest of settlers ' gardens .\nthe burrowing bettong weighs about 2 kg ( 4 . 4 lb ) but can be lighter in some areas .\non the mainland , habitats ranged from open eucalypt or acacia woodland with a grass and shrub understory to sandridge desert covered with spinifex hummocks and sparse shrubs . in island habitats the vegetation cover consists of a variety of shrubs , herbs and grasses .\nthe burrowing bettong is one of the species that live in the southwest australia biodiversity hotspot ( cons . intl . ) .\nsexual maturity is attained within a year . females apparently are capable of giving birth when about 200 days old .\nundelayed gestation is about 21 days . ( but see birth rate below . )\na female burrowing bettong can produce up to three litters per year . breeding may go on throughout the year in some areas , but in the bernier island population most births occur between february and september .\njust after one young is born the female mates again , but because of embryonic diapause development is delayed , and the second young is not born for about four months , unless the first young is lost .\nthe young leaves the pouch at about 115 days after birth but is not weaned for a further 3 - 10 weeks .\nit mainly consumes tubers , bulbs , seed nuts and the green parts of plants . some communities have been known to eat fungi , termites and marine refuse , as well as to raid vegetable gardens .\na male and several females form a social group and occupy a burrow . the burrow may be a simple structure with only 1 - 2 entrances and a short tunnel , or a large warren with more than 100 entrances . one of these warrens may house more than 50 individuals . males are aggressive toward one another , and seem to defend groups of females but not a particular territory . females generally are amicable , but sometimes will establish a territory and exclude other females .\naust . wildl . cons . , burbidge & mckenzie 1989 , burton & pearson 1987 , cons . intl . , earth sanct , flannery 1990 , iucn 1966 , iucn 1994 , iucn 1996 , iucn 2000 , iucn 2003a , iucn 2004 , kennedy 1992 , maxwell et al . 1996 , milamba aust . , nowak & paradiso 1983 , short & turner 1994\n\u00a9 1999 - 2014 animal info . endangered animals of the world . sj contact us .\nthis species is unique among the kangaroos in that it shelters underground in burrows or large communal warren systems . bettongs are approximately the size of a wild rabbit , are stocky in build and pugnacious in disposition . they are strictly nocturnal , sheltering during the day in burrows and foraging widely at night in search of seeds , fruits , flowers , tubers and roots and succulent leaves and grasses . they will often climb into low shrubs to feed ."]}
{"id": 1626, "summary": [{"text": "struthiomimus ( meaning \" ostrich mimic \" , from the greek \u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03cd\u03b8\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2/stroutheios meaning \" of the ostrich \" and \u03bc\u1fd6\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2/mimos meaning \" mimic \" or \" imitator \" ) is a genus of ornithomimid dinosaurs from the late cretaceous of north america .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "ornithomimids were long-legged , bipedal , ostrich-like dinosaurs with toothless beaks .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the type species , struthiomimus altus , is one of the more common small dinosaurs found in dinosaur provincial park ; its abundance suggests that these animals were herbivores or omnivores rather than pure carnivores . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "struthiomimus", "paragraphs": ["' struthiomimus samueli belongs to struthiomimus ' according to w . a . parks 1928\nstruthiomimus was medium sized among other dinosaurs , light in build and had long limbs and a long neck . the brain of struthiomimus is noted for being large in proportion to its small skull . struthiomimus also had large eyes .\n, chosing the name\nstruthiomimus\n- which means\nostrich mimic\n.\na dead struthiomimus is about to be eaten by the three remaining pack of velociraptors .\nthe carcasse of struthiomimus was stripped clean by the velociraptors before the 2 carnotaurs came .\nit is thought that struthiomimus would have had feathers , being of the coelurosauria family .\nstruthiomimus has been found in great numbers since the first discoveries , and has often changed the minds of scientists as each new piece of the struthiomimus puzzle has been garnered and considered .\n' struthiomimus samueli is recombined as dromiceiomimus samueli ' according to d . a . russell 1972\nstill today scientists hope for further discovery regarding struthiomimus , in order to better understand its lifestyle and demise .\nstruthiomimus was a species of dinosaur that existed during the cretaceous period . it looked like an ostrich , hence , that is how it got its name , which means\nostrich mimic\n. several struthiomimus appeared in disney ' s 2000 film , dinosaur .\n. what this means , is that although struthiomimus was not closely related to lizards , it did have similarly shaped pelvic bones .\nbelow is a struthiomimus skeleton in jigsaw puzzle form . if you can correctly assemble the puzzle you will be admitted to the portion of the collection with all of the struthiomimus bones . ( to skip the puzzle , click on the link below the puzzle . )\nstruthiomimus lived during the late cretaceous period , about 76 million years ago in what is now wyoming , utah , usa ; and in alberta , canada . struthiomimus was another dinosaur which its hindlimbs were made for speed . its back legs were powerful and struthiomimus was a lightly built dinosaur . struthiomimus is thought to have lived in herds . it had a long and curved neck , at the top , a small head with a toothless beak . it had powerful arms , and its fingertips ended with a curved claw . struthiomimus had a long , stiff tail . this carnivore used its speed and great eye sight to hunt for food and to escape from predators .\nclassification kingdom : animalia phylum : chordata class : stem - aves order : ornithomimosauria family : ornithomimidae genus : struthiomimus species : s . altus\nthe name struthiomimus actually means \u201costrich mimic , \u201d or ostrich copycat . this dinosaur was actually the first ornithomimosaur to be discovered . like other members of this group , it is believed that struthiomimus probably ate bugs , seeds , berries , and just about anything else it could find .\nstruthiomimus was about 14 feet ( 4 . 3 meters ) long , and about 4\u00bd ( 1 . 4 meters ) tall at the hips .\ndiscoveries of fossilized struthiomimus bones are generally sparse , disarticulated and fragmented , the bones being hollow , weak and crushed over time . there are several struthiomimus species types : s . altus , s . brevetertius , s . samueli , s . currellii , s . ingens and s . sedens .\nlike the other dinosaurs , the struthiomimus in the herd were trying to get to the nesting grounds for safety and survival . not all of them survived ; at least one perished from thirst and starvation and was eaten by velociraptors , its carcass picked clean to the bones . at the end of the movie , the surviving struthiomimus make it to the nesting grounds and live in peace and harmony . none of the struthiomimus speak in this movie .\n- a member of a group of related bipedal dinosaurs that included the ancestors of birds ( although struthiomimus was not itself an ancestor of birds ) .\nthis scene , taken from a short stop - motion film which was later re - used in a special hosted by christopher reeve in the late 1980s , is what truly sparked my interest in dinosaurs and solidified one of my favorite prehistoric creatures : struthiomimus altus . in reality , deinonychus lived several million years before struthiomimus , and realistically , struthiomimus could have easily outrun those slow little ambush predators , had they gotten out into the open . struthiomimus , along with other ornithomimids , were built for speed , and ( based on trackway evidence and hind limb ratio studies ) could have reached speeds exceeding 40mph .\nin the primeval world section of the disneyland railroad , three struthiomimus can be seen drinking from a small pond in a desert area . however , it ' s possible that these can be a different species of dinosaur related to struthiomimus , since none of the dinosaurs ' names are mentioned on the ride .\nthe appearance of struthiomimus in many films and television programs has lent an awareness of the life of prehistoric dinosaurs for years . popularized by our modern culture , the dinosaur has been portrayed in toys also . in a popular scene , the challenging life of struthiomimus was depicted by showcasing the likely sequence of struthiomimus feeding on exposed dinosaur eggs , subsequently losing its attention and fighting off their mother and , eventually to be mauled by a pair of carnivores moments later .\nstruthiomimus was a lightweight member of the prehistoric dinosaur world . named officially as \u201costrich mimic\u201d ( greek ) , struthiomimus is a genus of the ornithomimidae family from the late cretaceous period of alberta , canada . the actual history of struthiomimus is plagued with inadequate information and convolution . initial discoveries were inaccurately assigned and it was many years before an adequate number of fossilized bone specimens prompted today\u2019s greater accuracy in assignation . family members include ornithomimus , sinornithomimus , gallimimus and dromiceiomimus .\na close relative of ornithomimus , which it closely resembled , struthiomimus (\nostrich mimic\n) galloped across the plains of western north america during the late cretaceous period .\nstruthiomimus was a herbivore / omnivore . it lived in the cretaceous period and inhabited north america . its fossils have been found in places such as texas , montana and colorado .\n\u2026the ostrichlike dinosaurs , such as struthiomimus , ornithomimus , gallimimus , and dromiceiomimus , had long hind legs and must have been very fleet . the dromaeosaurs , such as deinonychus , velociraptor \u2026\nfull reference : h . f . osborn . 1916 . skeletal adaptations of ornitholestes , struthiomimus , tyrannosaurus . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 35 ( 43 ) : 733 - 771\nnotes : found in alberta , canada , struthiomimus is the best known of all ornithomimids . like other ornithomimids , struthiomimus was built for speed , with large hind legs and a tail that could be stiffened to provide balance and the ability to make quick turns . it had no teeth , but it is still a carnivore eating soft foods such as eggs , insects , and small animals .\nstruthiomimus was initially regarded as a carnivore , but has since come to be considered omnivorous . being an opportunistic feeder , this dinosaur would have enjoyed plants and small animals , insects , fish and carrion .\nwith its long and powerful hind limbs , struthiomimus was a powerful mover and runner . it is thought that the entire defense of struthiomimus would have been its haste and speed in flight ( running ) . it\u2019s theorized that this dinosaur would have been capable of sprinting fifty miles per hour , and commonly cruised at thirty to forty miles per hour . its tail would have been quite useful in form and balance .\nstruthiomimus was first discovered in 1901 when lawrence lambe found scattered remains that were largely incomplete . however , subsequent discoveries would prove to enlighten scientists as to a truer origin of this prehistoric animal . in 1914 , barnum brown discovered a nearly complete skeleton at the red deer river site in alberta and further described struthiomimus , although again inaccurately . many discoveries and assignations have taken place since , up until as recently as 1998 .\nfurther reading - skeletal adaptations of ornitholestes , struthiomimus , tyrannosaurus . - bulletin of the american museum of natural history 35 ( 43 ) : 733 - 771 - h . f . osborn - 1916 . - struthiomimus brevetertius - a new species of dinosaur from the edmonton formation of alberta . - transactions of the royal society of canada , series 3 . 20 ( 4 ) : 65 - 70 . - w . a . parks - 1926 . - struthiomimus samueli , a new species of ornithomimidae from the belly river formation of alberta . - university of toronto studies , geology series 26 : 1 - 24 . - w . a . parks - 1928 . - a new specimen of struthiomimus altus from alberta , with comments on the classificatory characters of upper cretaceous ornithomimids . - canadian journal of earth sciences 18 : 518 - 526 . - e . l . nicholls & a . r . russel - 1981 .\nmost theropods were carnivorous . struthiomimus and other related taxa appear to be exceptions . the toothless beak ( see image to right ) would have been well suited for eating either insects or perhaps soft plant tissues or seeds and fruits .\nthe beak of struthiomimus had a straight edge . since its fingers appear to have been largely immobile , it has been suggested that they may have been bound together as a single unit , as a webbed foot would be for a creature of the coast or shoreline . it is theorized that struthiomimus was a shore - dweller and could have been a filter feeder at times , in addition to the plant life of leaves from trees and shrubberies , along with buds and grasses . struthiomimus likely still could have grasped at branches with its forelimbs and webbed fingers . its long neck would have been useful both in the water and out , reaching the tops of trees and into the depths of the shallowest waters .\nsince struthiomimus has no teeth , and teeth are the most abundant and easiest means to recognize the presence of a specific dinosaur type , we have only a few phalanges from the foot that we can definitely attribute to this taxon in our collection .\nstruthiomimus was probably an omnivore - although there have also been theories that it may have been a carnivore ( meat - eater ) , herbivore ( plant - eater ) , or even a filter feeder ( straining food from water like a flamingo ) .\nstruthiomimus is notable for its lack of general defense against the more carnivorous and powerful dinosaurs of its time . however , this was a fast animal that had powerful legs and is compared to today\u2019s ostrich in speed , strength , nimble nature and even its likely feathers .\nstruthiomimus was an ornithomimosaur , or ostrich - like dinosaur . the ornithomimosaurs , which came in a variety of species , were all very similar to one another . they typically had toothless beaks , long slender fingers , and were bipedal , meaning they walked on only two legs .\nunlike the ridiculously - named struthiosaurus ( the\nostrich lizard\nthat ' s an armoured , four - legged , nodosaurid ankylosaur ) , struthiomimus ( the\nostrich mimic\n) actually boasts some similarities to its namesake . it has long legs , a small toothless skull , and the ability to outrun most things , just like the modern ostrich ( struthio ) . however , so does a dinosaur called ornithomimus , and that ' s exactly where struthiomimus spent the best part of two decades , having been assigned there as ornithomimus altus by lawrence lambe in 1902 .\nexcept for its speed , struthiomimus appears to have been unprotected . however , appearances can be deceptive . this specimen was equipped with formidable claws on its hands ( left ) and feet ( right with phalanges ) that certainly could have been turned to defensive use should the occasion require .\n, there has been considerable debate about the diet of struthiomimus . based on its straight - edged beak , some scientists believe it to have been an omnivore . other scientists have thought it to be a carnivore ( meat - eater ) , because some of its relatives were carnivores . many scientists ( including\ndinosaur genera found in the park include brachylophosaurus , centrosaurus , chasmosaurus , chirostenotes , corythosaurus , daspletosaurus , dromaeosaurus , edmontonia , elmisaurus , euoplocephalus , gorgosaurus , gryposaurus , hesperonychus , lambeosaurus , leptoceratops , ornithomimus , panoplosaurus , parasaurolophus , prosaurolophus , ricardoestesia , saurornitholestes , stegoceras , struthiomimus , styracosaurus , and troodon .\nthe legs ( hind limbs ) of struthiomimus were long , powerful and seemingly well - suited to rapid running , much like an ostrich . the supposed speed of struthiomimus was , in fact , its main defense from predators ( although it may also have been able to lash out with its hind claws when cornered ) , such as the dromaeosaurids ( e . g . saurornitholestes and dromaeosaurus ) and tyrannosaurs ( e . g . daspletosaurus and gorgosaurus ) , which lived at the same time . it is estimated to have been able to run at speeds between 50 to 80 km / h ( 31 to 50 mph ) .\na well - known example is struthiomimus . most were ostrich - sized and were adapted for fast running , with particularly long foot bones , or metatarsals . the largest was deinocheirus from asia , known only from one specimen consisting of complete arms and hands almost 3 metres ( 10 feet ) long\u2014nearly four times longer than those\u2026\nthe tracks are all of three - toed animals ( that is , three toes to walk on \u2013 digitgrade stance ) . the narrow toes and their overall size indicate the bird - like prints of a type of bipedal dinosaur belonging to the theropod group \u2013 ornithomimids . these light , cursorial dinosaurs had compact bodies , long tails , long necks and very long legs . they were swift runners and palaeontologists believe that some of the larger species such as the four metre long struthiomimus ( struthiomimus sedens ) , that lived in north america during the late cretaceous ( campanian faunal stage ) , could have reached speeds in excess of sixty kilometres an hour .\nstruthiomimus was of a medium size , bipedal and bird - like in appearance . its long rear limbs appear to be built for great speed and distance coverage , like that of today\u2019s ostrich . while struthiomimus stood about four feet at the hips , actual height to the head was more like fourteen feet . the head of struthiomimus was very small in proportion to the rest of its body , including the brain . the head was slender and seemed a simple extension from the much larger body and long neck . the jaws of this omnivore were edentulous . its tail must have been quite useful in balance and aerodynamics , since it consisted of significantly more vertebrae than either its neck or back . the tail of this ostrich like dinosaur was stiff , and most significant to its build and performance , with at least 35 tail vertebrae and only six to the hip area and thirteen in the back . it is surprising that the neck , although very long , had only ten vertebrae .\n) have suggested struthiomimus was probably a herbivore ( plant - eaters ) - its hands seem well - adapted to hooking branches and fern fronds . finally , there is also a possibility that it may have lived on the shoreline and been a filter feeder , straining water for food particles in a way similar to modern flamingo birds .\nthis study provides the first description of an ornithomimid bonebed known from north america , and one of only three such sites worldwide . although the taxonomic identity of the specimens could not be determined beyond the clade containing ornithomimus and struthiomimus , it provides further evidence of gregarious behavior in ornithomimids , and highlights some of the outstanding problems within ornithomimid classification .\nthe arms of struthiomimus were long and slender and sported the longest hands of any ornithomimid . the three fingers were all about the same length , with slightly curved and particularly long claws . the forearm to the fingers were immobile ( no wrist ) , with only slight mobility of the fingers themselves . its arms have been compared to those of a sloth .\nstruthiomimus was about 14 feet ( 4 . 3 meters ) long , and about 4\u00bd ( 1 . 4 meters ) tall at the hips . it is believed to have weighed around 330 pounds ( 150 kilograms ) . it was probably a fast - runner , perhaps being able to reach speeds of 30 to 50 miles per hour ( 50 to 80 kilometers per hour ) .\nstruthiomimus pronunciation : strooth - ee - uh - my - mus translation : ostrich mimic also known as : description : carnivore , bipedal order : saurischia suborder : theropoda infraorder : tetanurae superfamily : ornithomimosauria ( of the microorder coelurosauria ) family : ornithomimidae height : 7 feet ( 2 . 1 meters ) length : 12 feet ( 3 . 7 meters ) weight : period : late cretaceous\nthe phylogenetic analysis of the dry island bonebed ornithomimid specimens generated 5 most parsimonious trees each of 75 steps length ( consistency index = 0 . 667 , retention index = 0 . 747 ) . the strict consensus of those five trees is shown in figure 5 , with bootstrap ( 100 , 000 replicates ) and bremer support values indicated . ornithomimus + struthiomimus + dry island specimens form an unresolved polytomy nested within ornithomimidae , sister clade to qiupalong henanensis .\nstruthiomimus sedens , the ostrich - mimic dinosaur ( strouthion - ostrich , mimos - mimic ) was a medium - sized ( up to 15 feet long ) ostrich - like theropod found in the lance formation and in other upper cretaceous deposits in north america . this creature appears to have been a fast runner that may have relied upon its speed to escape from other carnivorous dinosaurs that might have wanted to make a meal out of this tasty morsel .\nthe stratigraphic position of the specimens can also be of assistance in the taxonomic identification of the bonebed material ( figure 6 ) . known ornithomimid material from the section of the horseshoe canyon formation containing the bonebed ( tolman member / unit 4 , above the drumheller marine transgression ) almost exclusively represents ornithomimus edmontonicus ( six skeletons in various states of completeness ) , with the exception of one specimen of struthiomimus altus [ 1 ] , [ 13 ] , [ 21 ] . this further supports the placement of the bonebed specimens within the clade containing ornithomimus and struthiomimus [ 11 ] , [ 16 ] . although only one specimen of s . altus is currently known from this unit , it contains diagnostic forelimb material that makes misidentification unlikely [ 13 ] . in combination with the inconclusive phylogenetic and pca results , we conclude that an exact species determination for the dry island bonebed material cannot be confirmed at this time .\nthis ornithomimid (\nbird mimic\n) dinosaur was distinguished from its more famous cousin by its slightly longer arms and stronger fingers , but because of the position of its thumbs it couldn ' t grasp food quite as easily . like other ornithomimids , struthiomimus likely pursued an opportunistic diet , feeding on plants , small animals , insects , fish or even carrion ( when a kill was left unattended by other , larger theropods ) . this dinosaur may have been capable of short sprints of 50 miles per hour , but had a less taxing\ncruising speed\nin the 30 to 40 mph range .\nname : struthiomimus \u202d ( \u202costrich mimic\u202d ) \u202c . phonetic : stru - fee - oh - mime - us . named by : henry fairfield osborn\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202c1917 . synonyms : ornithomimus altus , \u202d \u202cornithomimus sedens . classification : chordata , \u202d \u202creptilia , \u202d \u202cdinosauria , \u202d \u202csaurischia , \u202d \u202ctheropoda , \u202d \u202cornithomimidae . species : s . \u202d \u202caltus\u202d ( \u202ctype\u202d ) \u202c , \u202d \u202cs . \u202d \u202csedens . diet : uncertain but possibly an omnivore . size : 4 . 3\u202d \u202cmeters long , \u202d \u202c1 . 4\u202d \u202cmeters high at the hip . known locations : canada , \u202d \u202calberta\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202cdinosaur park formation and horseshoe canyon formation . \u202d \u202cusa\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202chell creek formation . time period : late campanian / early maastrichtian of the cretaceous . fossil representation : many individuals .\nbonebeds can provide a wealth of anatomical , taphonomic , and ontogenetic information about the specimens preserved within them , and can provide evidence for inferred behavior . the material described here represents the first known bonebed of ornithomimids in north america , and the fourth record of an ornithomimosaur bonebed in the world . partial skeletons representing three individuals are preserved in this assemblage , each comprising primarily portions of the posterior postcrania ( pelvis , hind limbs and tail ) . all three individuals are morphologically similar , although one is larger in overall size . given the stratigraphic position of the site , and the morphology of the postcrania , the preserved material represents a taxon from the clade containing ornithomimus and struthiomimus . pedal ungual morphology is examined and found to be too variable to be useful in distinguishing these species taxonomically . this site provides additional evidence of gregarious behavior in ornithomimids and the first probable record of that behavior in north american forms .\nspecimens were prepared from their plaster jackets using standard paleontological preparation techniques . taphonomic condition scales used in this study follow ryan et al . [ 2 ] . to assess the relationship of the dry island bone bed specimens described here to other ornithomimid taxa we scored them for a cladistic data matrix ( table s2 ) , modified from xu et al . [ 16 ] . the \u2018dry island bonebed specimens\u2019 were scored as a combination of cmn 12068 , 12069 , and 12070 , which were coded the same for each specimen and therefore analyzed as a single operational taxonomic unit . we performed a phylogenetic analysis using tnt [ 34 ] , with a traditional wagner search with 1000 replicates using tree bisection reconnection branch swapping . a principal component analysis ( pca ) was performed in an attempt to further classify the dry island ornithomimid bonebed specimens beyond the polytomy resolved in the phylogenetic analysis . the pca was performed using the lengths , proximal and distal heights , and proximal and distal widths of each pedal phalanx from the dry island bonebed specimens and several articulated specimens of ornithomimus and struthiomimus ( cmn 8632 [ o . edmontonicus ] , cmn 930 [ s . altus ] , rom [ royal ontario museum , toronto , canada ] 852 [ \u201c o . edmontonicus \u201d ] , rom 851 [ o . edmontonicus ] , rom 797 [ \u201c o . edmontonicus \u201d ] ) , rom 1790 [ \u201c s . altus \u201d ] ) . left / right averages were produced for each specimen , and unshared material was removed . the full list of measurements can be found in table s3 . a canonical variate analysis ( cva ) was then performed , on the measurements identified in the pca as most affecting the variation , to test the significance of clustering in the morphospace . the pca and cva were performed on these data using past [ 35 ] . resultant plots can be found in figures s1 and s2 , respectively . no permits were required for the described study , which complied with all relevant regulations .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\n! \u0084\u00f0h0a\u0084\u00e2\u00a6\u0083a\u00a7i\u00a6\u009fj\u009ak u4\u00f5sms\u00b5u\u00f6\u00f3 _ \u00edf\u00f5\u00ec\u0086p\u00a5\u00fbu \u00e3\u00fbu\u00e3\u0010\u0093 shs j\u00e7 \\ uk\u00b4\u00f6\u00f40a\u0084\n, & \u0010ha\u0082\u0016\u0083\u0004\u0018a\u0082 0\u0083m\u0006\u009bamsl - \u00e8pi\u0084\u00f0a4\u00f3m4\u0018i4\u00fc ) \u0006\u00e3\u00fa\u00f0\u00f3m0\u00b6\u0083m5\u00fb\u00b5m4\u00e80 > \u0083 \u00b8\u00fd\u00f8t\u00e8\u0010\u00e9\u0090 ! \u00e88\u00fa\u00afh ; mddxb\n\n\u008de\u00b0a \u00f0a\u0006\b4\u0018m\u0006\u0010\u0089\u0011\u0095hdc\u0004\u0018 \u00e1t\u00f3a\u0084\u00f3\u00bb\n\u00b8 \u00f3l & n ; : * \u00e2 \u00f3\u00b4\u00ef\u0086\u0016\u00f3 [ & \u00e84\u00f3 / k\u0086\u0014\u00bc \u0084\u00e1 a\u00a6 \\ ' i\u0090 ` xa0\u00b6\u00a2\u0018y1\u0088\u0088\u0088\u0088\u0088\u0088\u0086\u0015 ; \bdd0\u0084d\u0018 @ \u00e2\u0011\u0010i\u0093\u0006\u0081\u00a6 \u00a1e\u00f6w eac\u009c\u009c\u008a\u0098\u0090\u0081xa\u00984\u0018l\u0013\by ! \u0005zki\u00a6\u0098l\u00e5\u00a8\u00eci <\n\u0016\u0093\u0006\u00102 ( \u00e0\u0081\u00a1 f\u00e4tdddi8\u0018 ! \u0011\u0012\u0086\n4 ! \u0093\u00fe\u0087\u0095h4 \u00ea\b\u0010h\u0018b , \u00b0p\u0083\bdd\u008d ! \u00bab\n\u001a\u0011\u0011\u0011\u0011\u0011\u0011\u00fe6\u00e2v\u00ea\u00fa\u00ed + i [ j\u00eb\u00b4\u0015\u00ae \u00a8\u00b0\u00a3\u00f96 ) \u00b5 \u00fe @ } \u0090b\u00acd\u00dfb & \u00fa\u00e6\u000e\u0013 & \u00f9 ! \u00b72\n\u00a7\u0018 : d\u00f8\u00f4\na\u0006\byn . ! s\u00b0p\u00e7c ` \u00e7r * ` \u0084\u00fdq\u0096\u00e2\u0081\u00ee\u00f4\u00ec \u00f9tw\u00e0\u009c ' \u00f6 \u00a6\u009ai\u0099je\u007f\u0089 ( r\u0080\u00e7e ` \u0081\u0006vj\u0018\bcn\u009d\u00fa ~ \u009e\u009a ` \u0083a\u00a6\u009e\u009ak\u00f3\u00f3\u00d7\u00f3\u00e2 \u00f5n\u00ee \u00f3 n\u00f5\u00be\u00e88 } \u00fe\u00b7\u00e4o\u0007\u00e3\u00b4\u00d7\u00ba\u00a7\u00f3\u00bb\u00ab\u00f5wp\u00e5\u00b9 ` . \u000e \u000e\u0088\u00a3\u00b4f\u00ec884\u00e1\u00f3\u0007\u00d7\u00f4\u00e1 \u00e1\u00f7\u00ad , ; \u00b8pjd \u00e5b\u0083q\u0092\u00fb } \u00fd\u00fd . \u0093\u00fc ; \u00e6\u00fd\u0082\u00ef + \u0081\u00f5\u00957gb\u00eb\u007f\u00f3uw } \u00ec\u0096u\u00e7 ] 6\u00bb\u00f3\u00f6\u00b2w _ \u00ffz\u00a8o \u008c\u007f\u00e1 \u00ae\u009f\u00b5\u00a7 \u00ff\u00fa } 28oq\u00ff\u00f0\u00e1 } - \u007f\u00af\u00fe\u00af\u00ff\u00fc\u007f\u00eb\u00fd\u007f\u00e1\u00ad\u00ff\u00ff\u00f9\u0014u\u00bf\u00ff\u00ffi\u007f _ \u007fz { k\u00eb\u00f2 _ \u008f\u00ff\u00af\u00bf\u00b5\u00d7\u00fb\u00e8gz\u00fa\u00d7\u00af _ \u00f3 \u007f\u00fd\u00af\u00eb\u00fa\u00eb _ \u00ff\u00fb\u00e3\u00bc\u009b\u0094z\u00aa\u00eb\u00ff\u00af\u00be\u00ff\u00fc\u009b\u00f8\u00a4vu\bm\u0091 | \u008e2s : \u008a @ \u0082\u001a\u00e1\u000e \u0084d\u00ecxn\u008e\u00e5\u0012\u00eb\u00af\u00ff\u00ae\u00bd\u007fb\u00f0i\u00a1\u0006\u0011 ph\u001ah3\u00a8rh\u000eu\u0007 % \u00a3\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nzelenitsky , darla k . ; therrien , fran\u00e7ois ; erickson , gregory m . ; debuhr , christopher l . ; kobayashi , yoshitsugu ; eberth , david a . ; hadfield , frank\nscience , volume 338 , issue 6106 , pp . 510 - ( 2012 ) . ( sci homepage )\npreviously described feathered dinosaurs reveal a fascinating record of feather evolution , although substantial phylogenetic gaps remain . here we report the occurrence of feathers in ornithomimosaurs , a clade of non - maniraptoran theropods for which fossilized feathers were previously unknown . the ornithomimus specimens , recovered from upper cretaceous deposits of alberta , canada , provide new insights into dinosaur plumage and the origin of the avian wing . individuals from different growth stages reveal the presence of a filamentous feather covering throughout life and winglike structures on the forelimbs of adults . the appearance of winglike structures in older animals indicates that they may have evolved in association with reproductive behaviors . these specimens show that primordial wings originated earlier than previously thought , among non - maniraptoran theropods .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ncontent copyright www . prehistoric - wildlife . com . the information here is completely free for your own study and research purposes , but please dont copy the articles word for word and claim them as your own work . the world of prehistory is constantly changing with the advent of new discoveries , as such its best if you use this information as a jumping off point for your own research . privacy & cookies policy\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\ndinosaurs have a new family tree . find out how it has changed and what the new tree reveals about dinosaurs ' origins and evolution .\nthese popular dinosaur reconstructions from the 1960s are no longer scientifically accurate . can you spot the errors ?\nfossil poo may not be a glamorous fossil find , but it can reveal a lot about prehistoric animals .\ncheck out the range of dinosaur toys , games , books and clothes in the museum shop .\nfind out the many ways you can join dippy the museum ' s famous diplodocus cast on his natural history adventure .\nroarrr . come face - to - face with some of the museum ' s most famous dinosaurs .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\ncopyright 2018 . kids dinosaurs . kids know it network . all rights are reserved .\nads help our organization grow to help people learn more and develop our site . maintenance is not cheap .\n( meaning \u201costrich mimic\u201d ) was about 2 . 5 metres ( 8 feet ) long and was obviously adapted for rapid movement on strong , well - developed hind limbs . the three - toed feet were especially birdlike in that they had exceedingly long\n( foot bones ) , which , as in birds ( and some other dinosaurs ) , did not touch the ground .\nhad a small , light , and toothless skull perched atop a slender and very flexible neck ; the jaws were probably covered by a rather birdlike horny beak . the forelimbs were also long and slender , terminating in three - fingered hands with sharp claws adapted for grasping . the hand , as in all members of the\n) , is diagnostic in that all three fingers are nearly the same length .\nornithomimus , ( genus ornithomimus ) , ostrichlike feathered dinosaurs found as fossils in mongolian , european , and north american deposits dating from 125 million to 66 million years ago during the cretaceous period . ornithomimus was about 3 . 5 metres ( 11 . 5 feet ) long , and , although it was a theropod dinosaur , it was likely omnivorous . its\u2026\ndinosaur , the common name given to a group of reptiles , often very large , that first appeared roughly 245 million years ago ( near the beginning of the middle triassic epoch ) and thrived worldwide for nearly 180 million years . most died out by the end of the cretaceous period , about 66 million\u2026\ncretaceous period , in geologic time , the last of the three periods of the mesozoic era . the cretaceous began 145 . 0 million years ago and ended 66 million years ago ; it followed the jurassic period and was succeeded by the paleogene period ( the first of the two periods into which the tertiary\u2026\nwe welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles . you can make it easier for us to review and , hopefully , publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind .\nencyclop\u00e6dia britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience .\nyou may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered .\nat the bottom of the article , feel free to list any sources that support your changes , so that we can fully understand their context . ( internet urls are the best . )\nyour contribution may be further edited by our staff , and its publication is subject to our final approval . unfortunately , our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions .\nour editors will review what you ' ve submitted , and if it meets our criteria , we ' ll add it to the article .\nplease note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors , and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed .\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\nhorse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , \u2026\ncorrections ? updates ? omissions ? let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article ( requires login ) .\nif you prefer to suggest your own revision of the article , you can go to edit mode ( requires login ) .\nour editors will review what you\u2019ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article .\ndinosaur jungle dinosaur crosswords dinosaur facts amazing dinosaurs classification ornithischia ankylosaurs ceratopsians marginocephalia ornithopods pachycephalosaurs stegosaurs saurischia prosauropods sauropods theropods definition diet eggs extinction family tree fossils footprints life span living dinosaurs ? myths timeline triassic period jurassic period cretaceous period world african dinosaurs antarctic dinosaurs asian dinosaurs australian dinosaurs european dinosaurs indian dinosaurs n . american dinosaurs s . american dinosaurs dinosaur jokes dinosaur museums australia dinosaur museums canada dinosaur museums uk dinosaur museums usa dinosaur museums dinosaur names dinosaur pictures dinosaur scientists charles darwin mary anning sir richard owen more dinosaur scientists dinosaur types allosaurus ankylosaurus apatosaurus baryonyx brachiosaurus centrosaurus ceratosaurus coelophysis deinonychus dilophosaurus diplodocus euoplocephalus iguanodon kentrosaurus lambeosaurus maiasaura megalosaurus microraptor monoclonius pachycephalosaurus parasaurolophus pentaceratops protoceratops saltopus saurolophus seismosaurus spinosaurus stegosaurus styracosaurus supersaurus triceratops tyrannosaurus rex velociraptor more dinosaur types dinosaur word search other prehistoric animals aetosaurs ambulocetus ammonites andrewsarchus archaeopteryx basilosaurus belemnites brontotheres chalicotheres champsosaurs coelacanth cynodonts dicynodonts dimetrodon gastornis\nwe do hope that you find this site useful . we welcome people linking to this website or citing us .\nurltoken is copyright \u00a9 2006 - 2018 , answers 2000 limited disclosure : our company ' s websites ' content ( including this website ' s content ) includes advertisements for our own company ' s websites , products , and services , and for other organization ' s websites , products , and services . in the case of links to other organization ' s websites , our company may receive a payment , ( 1 ) if you purchase products or services , or ( 2 ) if you sign - up for third party offers , after following links from this website . unless specifically otherwise stated , information about other organization ' s products and services , is based on information provided by that organization , the product / service vendor , and / or publicly available information - and should not be taken to mean that we have used the product / service in question . additionally , our company ' s websites contain some adverts which we are paid to display , but whose content is not selected by us , such as google adsense ads . for more detailed information , please see advertising / endorsements disclosures our sites use cookies , some of which may already be set on your computer . use of our site constitutes consent for this . for details , please see privacy . click privacy for information about our company ' s privacy , data collection and data retention policies , and your rights . contact us privacy terms of use advertising / endorsements disclosures\nt . rowe and r . l . cifelli . 1992 . the campanian terlingua local fauna , with a summary of other vertebrates from the aguja formation , trans - pecos texas . journal of vertebrate paleontology 12 ( 4 ) : 472 - 493\ns . g . lucas and n . j . mateer . 1987 . dinosaurs , the age of the fruitland and kirtland formations , and the cretaceous - tertiary boundary in the san juan basin , new mexico . j . e . fassett and j . k . rigby , jr . ( eds . ) , the cretaceous - tertiary boundary in the san juan and raton basins , new mexico and colorado , geological society of america special paper 209 : 35 - 50\nr . s . lull and n . e . wright . 1942 . hadrosaurian dinosaurs of north america . geological society of america special paper 40 : 1 - 242\nstaurikosaurus pronunciation : stor - ik - uh - sawr - us translation : ( southern ) cross lizard also known as : description : carnivore , bipedal superorder : dinosauria order : saurischia ( not confirmed ) suborder : theropoda ( not confirmed ) family : height : 2 . 5 feet ( 0 . 8 meters ) length : 6 feet ( 1 . 8 meters ) weight : 66 pounds ( 30 kg ) period : late triassic\nnotes : found in southern brazil and argentina , staurikosaurus is one of the earliest known and most primitive dinosaurs . it appears to predate the saurischian and ornithiscian orders , having characteristics of neither . however , new studies suggest that staurikosaurus , eoraptor and herrerasaurus are definite theropods and probably do not predate a split between the two orders .\nstegoceras pronunciation : steg - oss - er - us translation : covered horn , or horny roof also known as : description : herbivore , bipedal order : ornithischia suborder : marginocephalia infraorder : pachycephalosauria family : pachycephalosauridae height : 3 . 5 feet ( 1 . 1 meters ) length : 6 feet ( 1 . 8 meters ) weight : 100 pounds ( 45 . 4 kg ) period : late cretaceous\nnotes : first discovered in montana and alberta , canada , stegoceras is the best known of all north american\nbone - head\ndinosaurs . the relatively large brain of this dinosaur was encased in a dome of 3 inches ( 7 . 6 cm ) thick bone divided into two parts . the males had larger and thicker domes than the females . small spikes fringed the back of the head . stegoceras males may have butted competing males for mating territory but it is unlikely that they butted heads as commonly portrayed .\nstegosaurus pronunciation : steg - uh - sawr - us translation : roof lizard also known as : description : herbivore , quadrupedal order : ornithischia suborder : thyreophora infraorder : stegosauria family : stegosauridae height : 14 feet ( 4 . 3 meters ) length : 28 feet ( 8 . 5 meters ) weight : 6 , 000 pounds ( 2 , 722 kg ) period : late jurassic\nnotes : stegosaurus is the only plated dinosaur ever found in western north america . the large triangular plates that ran along its back were probably arranged in a double row , and its tail was armed with four long spikes . the plates may have served the purpose of regulating stegosaurus ' internal temperature , dissipating heat when turned from the sun , absorbing heat when faced into the sun . the size of plates may also have made stegosaurus appear larger to predators and served to deter them from attacking .\nstenopelix pronunciation : sten - uh - pay - lix translation : narrow helmet , or narrow pitcher also known as : description : herbivore , bipedal order : ornithischia suborder : marginocephalia family : height : 2 . 5 feet ( . 76 meters ) length : 5 feet ( 1 . 5 meters ) weight : period : early cretaceous\nnotes : discovered in germany , stenopelix had a narrow parrot - like beak .\nstokesosaurus pronunciation : stokes - uh - sawr - us translation : stokes ' s lizard also known as : description : carnivore , bipedal order : saurischia suborder : theropoda infraorder : tetanurae micro - order : carnosauria ( not confirmed ) family : height : 7 feet ( 2 . 1 meters ) length : 13 feet ( 4 meters ) weight : period : late jurassic\nnotes : this dinosaur may have been related to the tyrannosaurid albertosaurus . it was discovered in utah and named for lee stokes , american paleontologist .\nstruthiosaurus pronunciation : strooth - ee - o - sawr - us translation : harsh lizard also known as : description : herbivore , quadrupedal order : ornithischia suborder : thyreophora infraorder : ankylosauria family : nodosauridae height : 1 . 5 feet ( . 46 meters ) length : 5 ( 1 . 5 meters ) weight : period : late cretaceous\nnotes : found in austria , struthiosaurus is the smallest known ankylosaur . its head had no armor ; however , its sides were probably well protected .\nstygimoloch pronunciation : stig - ih - moe - lock translation : demon from the river styx also known as : description : herbivore , bipedaly order : ornithischia suborder : marginocephalia infraorder : pachycephalosauria family : pachycephalosauridae height : 4 feet ( 1 . 2 meters ) length : 6 . 6 feet ( 2 meters ) weight : period : late cretaceous\nnotes : stygimoloch received its name from the unusual appearance of its skull , which is adorned with three or four massive spikes , the largest of which was about 4 inches ( 100 mm ) long . like other pachycephalosaurs , stygimoloch may have used its horns in butting heads with rivals , like present - day bighorn sheep .\nstyracosaurus pronunciation : stih - rak - uh - sawr - us translation : spiked lizard also known as : description : herbivore , quadrupedal order : ornithischia suborder : marginocephalia infraorder : ceratopsia micro - order neoceratopsia family : ceratopsidae height : 9 feet ( 2 . 7 meters ) length : 17 feet ( 5 . 2 meters ) weight : 6 , 000 lb ( 2 , 722 kg ) period : late cretaceous\nnotes : found in alberta , canada , styracosaurus was a short - frilled ceratopsian with 6 long spikes along the edge of its frill . its snout was shaped like a parrot ' s beak . and on its snout grew a horn that was nearly 2 feet ( 0 . 6 meters ) long and 6 inches ( 15 cm thick ) . possibly it used this great horn for self - defense .\nsupersaurus pronunciation : soo - per - sawr - us translation : super lizard also known as : description : herbivore , quadrupedal order : saurischia suborder : sauropodomorpha infraorder : sauropoda family : diplodocidae height : 65 feet ( 20 meters ) length : 120 feet ( 36 . 6 meters ) weight : 120 , 000 pounds ( 54 , 432 kg ) period : late jurassic\nnotes : an immense dinosaur found in colorado in 1972 by\ndinosaur jim\njensen , supersaurus had a 39 - foot long neck . most notable about the rather incomplete material is a scapula or shoulder bone 8 feet long , which suggests an overall height of 65 feet . supersaurus is a diplodocid , characterized by a long , narrow head , very long neck , and a tail that ended in a tapering whiplash . the same quarry that produced supersaurus also produced ultrasauros .\nsyntarsus pronunciation : sin - tar - sus translation : fused ankle also known as : description : carnivore , bipedal order : saurischia suborder : theropoda infraorder : ceratosauria family : podokesauridae height : 4 . 5 feet ( 1 . 4 meters ) length : 9 . 8 feet ( 3 meters ) weight : 65 pounds ( 29 . 5 kg ) period : early jurassic\nnotes : found in zimbabwe and arizona , syntarsus was a slender predator with short arms and long legs with fused foot bones . related to coelophysis .\nwe\u2019ve partnered with invision to make it easier to search and download our images in sketch and adobe\u00ae photoshop\u00ae .\n{ { t ( ' more _ than _ one _ credit ' , { zero : calc . totalcreditcost } ) } }\nonce this video clip is done converting , you ' ll be able to download it from your video conversion queue or download history .\neditorial use only photos don ' t have any model or property releases , which means they can ' t be used for commercial , promotional , advertorial or endorsement purposes . this type of content is intended to be used in connection with events that are newsworthy or of general interest ( for example , in a blog , textbook , newspaper or magazine article ) .\nthis format requires a quick conversion ( usually under 5 mins ) before download begins , or you can get the largest and smallest formats immediately .\nby clicking\nconfirm download\nyou agree that you ' ve read and agree to all applicable license agreements for this download .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nstood about 3 . 7 meters long and 1 . 4 meters ( 4 ' 6\n) tall at the hips and weighed around 150 kg ( 330 lb ) .\nhenry fairfield osborn , in 1917 . of the specimens found in alberta , some were found in and under piles of ash , suggesting a forest fire may have killed them .\nwere long , powerful and seemingly well - suited to rapid running , much like an ostrich . the supposed speed of\nwas , in fact , its only defence from predators , such as the dromaeosaurs ( e . g .\n) , which lived at the same time . it is estimated to have been able to run at speeds between 50 to 80 km / h ( 30 to 50 mph ) .\nits neck was slender and ended in a small , toothless , beaked skull , with relatively large eyes . the ' arms ' of\nsloths . it also had the typical characteristics of most ornithomimids : a long , stiff tail and a toothless beak .\nshrimp and possibly eggs from other dinosaurs . some paleontologists noted that it was more likely to be a carnivore given that it was nested within the likewise carnivorous theropod group . this theory has never been discounted but osborn , who described and named the dinosaur , proposed that it probaby ate buds and shoots from trees , shrubs and other plants , using its forelimbs to grasp branches and its long neck to enable it accurately to select particular items .\n, before the later more balanced depictions with stiffened horizontal tails and bodies were widely accepted . this newer view creates an image much more reminiscent of modern flightless birds , such as the ostrich to which this dinosaur ' s name refers .\nthis reference article is mainly selected from the english wikipedia with only minor checks and changes ( see urltoken for details of authors and sources ) and is available under the gnu free documentation license . see also our disclaimer .\nan international group of researchers led by bradley mcfeeters , currently a ph . d . student at carleton university in ottawa , canada , has announced the discovery of a new ostrich - mimic dinosaur ,\n, from the lower dinosaur park formation near dinosaur provincial park , alberta . the new species lived about 76 million years ago during the late cretaceous period . research describing the new species is published online in the\n( rat - iv - ate - eez ) would have resembled a modern ostrich , but with long , fingered arms instead of wings , and a long tail . it would have been approximately 3 . 3 meters ( 11 feet ) long , about 1 . 5 meters ( 5 feet ) tall and weighed about 90 kilograms ( 200 pounds ) .\n, but lacks the key diagnostic characters of that species , \u201d said mcfeeters . \u201cwe can tell that it is a new species based on features of its skull , tail , pelvis and feet , including the shape of the long bones of the feet .\nskull ( without lower jaw ) of rativates evadens , a newly described ostrich mimic dinosaur from alberta . credit : journal of vertebrate paleontology\nfield locality where the partial skeleton of rativates evadens was discovered near dinosaur provincial park in alberta in 1934 . credit : indiana university press , 2005\nbradley mcfeeters of carleton university led research describing a new species of ostrich mimic dinosaur . credit : michael j . ryan\ndr . michael ryan of the cleveland museum of natural history co - described a new species of ostrich - mimic dinosaur . credit : laura dempsey , cleveland museum of natural history\n( latin ratis + vates ) means \u201cratite ( large flightless bird ) foreteller\u201d and alludes to the paradox of an ostrich mimic dinosaur existing before ostriches . the name\nmeans to evade , in reference to this swift - footed dinosaur\u2019s ability to evade predators in the late cretaceous , as well as its recognition as a new species 80 years following the discovery of the original fossil .\nlacked teeth and , similar to birds , had beaked mouths . they are believed to have been omnivorous , meaning they ate plants , insects and other small animals . their long , powerful legs would have made them fast runners ( like the\n, also from alberta , is known to have had a downy covering over most of its body . it may have had true feathers as well .\nto analyze its growth and determined it was at least eight years old and nearly adult - sized at the time of death . this is only 80 percent as long , and half as massive as , the adult size of the closely related\n, that is estimated to have weighed approximately 175 kilograms ( ~ 385 pounds )\n, said co - author thomas cullen , a ph . d . candidate at the university of toronto .\n\u201cthis suggests that there are at least two differently - sized , but closely - related dinosaur species that lived together on the ancient landscape , similar to what we see today in the closely related predators like foxes , coyotes and wolves , \u201d said mcfeeters\u2019 former co - supervisor and co - author claudia schr\u00f6der - adams , of the department of earth sciences at carleton university .\nis another exciting example of a new species of dinosaur being discovered among museum collections , \u201d said ryan . \u201cthese valuable collections allow modern researchers to build on the work of earlier scientists to advance what we know about the ancient earth and provide new insights into evolution . \u201d\nenter your email address to subscribe to cleveland museum of natural history ' s weekly enews .\nis derived from the greek\nstrouthion\n( ostrich ) and\nmimos\n( mimic ) because the shape of its head , neck and legs are similar to those of a modern ostrich .\n( nmc 930\u2014a partial skeleton ) was discovered in the oldman formation ( belly river group ) , steveville , alberta , canada , by lawrence lambe in 1901 .\n\u2022 l . m . lambe ( 1902 )\nnew genera and species from the belly river series ( mid - cretaceous )\n.\n, a new species of ornithomimidae from the belly river formation of alberta\n.\n\u2022 parks , w . a . , ( 1933 )\nnew species of dinosaurs and turtles from the upper cretaceous formations of alberta\n.\n\u2022 d . a . russell ( 1972 )\nostrich dinosaurs from the late cretaceous of western canada\n.\ntime stands still for no man , and research is ongoing . if you spot an error , or want to expand , edit or add a dinosaur , please use\n. where applicable , these images link to the artist ' s credit page . please respect their conditions for re - use .\nyup , we use cookies . but it doesn ' t make us bad people .\nthe ornithomimidae ( ostrich mimics ) , so called as their skeletons superficially resemble modern , ground living birds are known from extensive fossil material from the northern hemisphere . however , the discovery of a set of dinosaur tracks , in south australia indicates that theropods such as members of the ornithomimidae may have roamed gondwanaland too . these trackways support body fossil evidence that suggest that these dinosaurs were indeed common in the southern hemisphere . indeed , the tracks made during the cretaceous period provide evidence of such dinosaurs living in polar regions in the southern hemisphere . scientists have speculated that with these trace fossils , plus evidence from dig sites in northern latitudes , the \u201costrich mimics\u201d may have been warm - blooded .\nas the dinosaurs roamed the southern polar regions , they left a series of distinctive three - toed prints in the wet , sandy soil as they crossed a flood plain . over time , these trace fossils became compacted into cliffs and it was anthony martin ( emory university ) who discovered them in what is now victoria , ( australia ) .\nall together he found twenty - four complete prints , their different sizes perhaps representing different species or may be juveniles and adults of a single type of dinosaur .\na single three - toed print can be made out in the picture , the ruler helps to provide scale .\nthe tracks indicated that the theropods were of three different sizes , ranging from the size of a chicken to around the size of a crane . their size and fossil bones found at other locations in victoria , suggest to the researchers that these tracks represent evidence of \u201costrich mimics\u201d .\nthe slabs of sandstone were found along the rocky and remote milanesia beach in otways national park , west of melbourne . the rough surf pounds the coastal cliffs , frequently fracturing slabs and breaking them away from the cliff face . when the tracks were made , australia was connected to antarctica and was located much closer to the south pole , as a part of the ancient continent of gondwanaland . it is thanks to amazing fossil sites such as the famous dinosaur cove and east gippsland locations ( victoria , australia ) that scientists have learnt about the incredible fauna and flora of the cretaceous polar regions .\nmartin set off on the trail toward the footprints among the ragged slabs scattering the shore after he noticed ripple marks and trace fossils of insect burrows ."]}
{"id": 1629, "summary": [{"text": "marginella liparozona is a species of colorful small sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the marginellidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the species is endemic to s\u00e3o tom\u00e9 and pr\u00edncipe . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "marginella liparozona", "paragraphs": ["marginella liparozona tomlin & shackleford , 1913 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella jousseaumei locard , 1897 : synonym of marginella subturrita p . fischer , 1884\nmarginella jousseaumi locard , 1897 : synonym of marginella subturrita p . fischer , 1884\nmarginella gorii t . cossignani , 2012 : synonym of marginella gemma a . adams , 1850\nmarginella unifasciata turton , 1932 : synonym of marginella munda e . a . smith , 1904\nmarginella tomlini shackleford , 1916 : synonym of marginella bicatenata g . b . sowerby iii , 1914\nmarginella nimbosus s . g . veldsman , 2013 : synonym of marginella nimbosa s . g . veldsman , 2013\nmarginella intermedia g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 : synonym of marginella floccata g . b . sowerby iii , 1889\nmarginella savignyi . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella suezensis . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella arcana s . g . veldsman , aiken & j . h . veldsman , 2014\nmarginella mzimayiensis s . g . veldsman , aiken & j . h . veldsman , 2015\nmarginella obliqua s . g . veldsman , aiken & j . h . veldsman , 2014\nmarginella umzumbeensis s . g . veldsman , aiken & j . h . veldsman , 2016\nmarginella amydrozona melvill . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella persicula linnaeus . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella pygmaea issel , 1869 : synonym of marginella isseli g . nevill & h . nevill , 1875 : synonym of granulina isseli ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1875 )\nmarginella lamarck , 1799 . 6 december 2010 . retrieved through : world register of marine species .\nmarginella epipolia tomlin 1921 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella pachista tomlin 1913 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella barnardi tomlin , 1919 : synonym of gibberula differens ( e . a . smith , 1904 )\nmarginella borealis verrill , 1884 : synonym of prunum boreale ( a . e . verrill , 1884 )\nmarginella deburghi a . adams , 1864 : synonym of persicula deburghi ( a . adams , 1864 )\nmarginella evelynae bayer , 1943 : synonym of prunum evelynae ( f . m . bayer , 1943 )\nmarginella ithychila tomlin , 1918 : synonym of gibberula dulcis ( e . a . smith , 1904 )\nmarginella lactea kiener , 1841 : synonym of volvarina abbreviata ( c . b . adams , 1850 )\nmarginella mirabilis h . adams , 1869 : synonym of glabella mirabilis ( h . adams , 1869 )\nmarginella nobiliana bayer , 1943 : synonym of prunum nobilianum ( f . m . bayer , 1943 )\nmarginella taylori shackleford , 1916 : synonym of gibberula differens ( e . a . smith , 1904 )\nmarginella virginiana verrill , 1885 : synonym of dentimargo smithii ( a . e . verrill , 1885 )\nmarginella adamkusi bozzetti , 1994 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella amazona bavay , 1912 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella anapaulae massier , 2004 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella anna jousseaume , 1881 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella aurantia lamarck , 1822 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella bavayi dautzenberg , 1910 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella belcheri hinds , 1844 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella broderickae hayes , 2001 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella caterinae bozzetti , 1991 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella cosmia bartsch , 1915 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella croukampi hayes , 1996 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella emmae bozzetti , 1998 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella eucosmia bartsch , 1915 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella felixi massier , 2004 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella festiva kiener , 1841 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella fishhoenkensis massier , 2004 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella gabrielae bozzetti , 1998 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella geraldi lussi , 2006 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella gloriosa jousseaume , 1884 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella hayesi bozzetti , 1993 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella helmatina rang , 1832 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella huberti clover , 1972 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella hybrida cossignani , 2006 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella irrorata menke , 1828 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella joanae bozzetti , 2001 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella joanmassierae bozzetti , 1992 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella lamarcki boyer , 2004 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella limbata lamarck , 1822 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella lineatolabrum gaskoin , 1840 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella lineofasciata bozzetti , 1992 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella marocana locard , 1897 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella millardi lussi , 1993 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella monicae bozzetti , 1997 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella musica hinds , 1844 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella natalcinerea massier , 1993 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella nevillana kilburn , 1977 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella ornata redfield , 1870 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella orstomi coomans , 1975 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella peelae bozzetti , 1993 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella petitii duval , 1841 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella piperata hinds , 1844 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella pseudornata bozzetti , 1992 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella pseudosebastiani mattavelli , 2001 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella purpurea cossignani , 2006 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella rosea lamarck , 1822 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella roseafasciata massier , 1993 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella roseolineata turton , 1932 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella senegalensis clover , 1990 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella sergioi bozzetti , 1997 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella stuarti kilburn , 1977 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella tuguriana lussi , 1993 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella verrilli morrison , 1967 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella vexillum redfield , 1852 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella werneri bozzetti , 1993 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella westhuizeni massier , 1993 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella decaryi bavay , 1920 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella delphinica bavay , 1920 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella virgula jousseaume , 1922 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella granum philippi , 1849 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella angustata sowerby , 1846 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella burnupi sowerby , 1897 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella cherubini bavay , 1922 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella henrikasi bozzetti , 1995 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella lantzi jousseaume , 1875 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella marianae bozzetti , 1999 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella pulchella kiener , 1834 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella pumila redfield , 1870 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella sandwicensis pease , 1860 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella alabaster reeve , 1865 : synonym of volvarina fauna ( g . b . sowerby i , 1846 )\nmarginella albina gaskoin , 1853 : synonym of mesoginella turbinata ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella attenuata weinkauff , 1879 : synonym of austroginella translucida ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella candida bivona ant . , 1832 : synonym of ringicula auriculata ( m\u00e9nard de la groye , 1811 )\nmarginella ignota jousseaume , 1875 : synonym of dentimargo neglecta ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella imperatrix sykes , 1905 : synonym of glabella pseudofaba ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella inflexa sowerby g . b . i , 1846 : synonym of volvarina mitrella ( risso , 1826 )\nmarginella leia cotton , 1944 : synonym of mesoginella turbinata ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella lepta bartsch , 1915 : synonym of gibberula burnupi ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1897 )\nmarginella marianae bozzetti , 1999 : [ 123 ] synonym of prunum pyrumoides lussi & g . smith , 1999\nmarginella multizonata krauss , 1848 : synonym of hyalina cylindrica ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella pattisoni cotton , 1944 : synonym of mesoginella turbinata ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella pellucida weinkauff , 1879 : synonym of volvarina fauna ( g . b . sowerby i , 1846 )\nmarginella petterdi beddome , 1883 : synonym of ovaginella ovulum ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella reevei krauss , 1852 : synonym of dentimargo neglecta ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella rufula gaskoin , 1853 : synonym of dentimargo neglecta ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella volutiformis reeve , 1865 : synonym of austroginella translucida ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella claudoni bavay , date unknown . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella scalariformis duclos , date unknown . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella bellii sowerby ii , 1846 : synonym of glabella bellii ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella harpaeformis sowerby ii , 1846 : synonym of glabella harpaeformis ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella pseudofaba sowerby ii , 1846 : synonym of glabella pseudofaba ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella aequinoctialis boyer & simbille , 2004 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella aronnax bouchet & war\u00e9n , 1985 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella carquejai gofas & fernandes , 1994 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella celestae massier & rosado , 2008 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella chalmersi tomlin & shackleford , 1912 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella cloveri rios & matthews , 1972 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella colomborum ( bozzetti , 1995 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella desjardini marche - marchad , 1957 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella gemma a . adams , 1850 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella gemmula bavay in dautzenberg , 1913 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella genessi h . fisher , 1901 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella gilva goud & neefs , 1996 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella glabella ( linnaeus , 1758 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella himburgae massier & zettler , 2009 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella immelmani hart m . , 2001 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella impudica p . fischer , 1883 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella joostei liltved & millard , 1994 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella lemaitrei liltved & millard , 1994 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella luculenta gofas & fernandes , 1994 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella lussii hayes & millard , 1995 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella marimba gofas & fernandes , 1994 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella mauretanica boyer & neefs , 1999 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella melvilli tomlin & shackleford , 1913 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella minuscula ( turton , 1932 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella poppei boyer & neefs , 1999 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella simulata gofas & fernandes , 1994 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella spinacia gofas & fernandes , 1988 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella spiralineata b . hayes , 1994 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella subturrita p . fischer , 1883 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella susanae veldsman & jooste , 2009 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella undulans gofas & fernandes , 1994 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella verdascai hayes & rosado , 2007 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella xhosa liltved & millard , 1994 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella eveleighi tom & schackelford , 1913 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella extra ( jousseaume , 1894 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella lateritia melvill & sykes , 1903 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella reeveana ( petit , 1851 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella signali dautzenberg & fischer , 1896 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella angustata sowerby , 1846 : [ 115 ] synonym of volvarina angustata ( g . b . sowerby , 1846 )\nmarginella cypraeoides tenison - woods , 1878 : synonym of ovaginella ovulum ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella cleryi petit de la saussaye , 1836 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella matthewsi van mol & tursch , 1967 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella abbreviata c . b . adams , 1850 : synonym of volvarina abbreviata ( c . b . adams , 1850 )\nmarginella algoensis e . a . smith , 1901 : synonym of crithe algoensis ( e . a . smith , 1901 )\nmarginella burnupi sowerby , 1897 : [ 116 ] synonym of gibberula burnupi ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1897 )\nmarginella carinata e . a . smith , 1891 : synonym of alaginella carinata ( e . a . smith , 1891 )\nmarginella differens e . a . smith , 1904 : synonym of gibberula differens ( e . a . smith , 1904 )\nmarginella fallax e . a . smith , 1903 : synonym of canalispira fallax ( e . a . smith , 1903 )\nmarginella fluctuata c . b . adams , 1850 : synonym of gibberula fluctuata ( c . b . adams , 1850 )\nmarginella guillaini petit de la saussaye , 1851 : synonym of glabella obtusa ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella ingloria e . a . smith , 1910 : synonym of volvarina ingloria ( e . a . smith , 1910 )\nmarginella onychina a . adams & reeve , 1850 : synonym of cryptospira onychina ( a . adams & reeve , 1850 )\nmarginella pygmaea g . b . sowerby , 1846 : synonym of mesoginella pygmaea ( g . b . sowerby , 1846 )\nmarginella rubella c . b . adams , 1845 : synonym of volvarina rubella ( c . b . adams , 1845 )\nmarginella shepstonensis e . a . smith , 1906 : synonym of persicula shepstonensis ( e . a . smith , 1906 )\nmarginella walkeri e . a . smith , 1899 : synonym of dentimargo walkeri ( e . a . smith , 1899 )\nmarginella diadochus a . adams & reeve , 1848 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella goodalli g . b . sowerby , 1825 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella mosaica g . b . sowerby , 1846 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella munda e . a . smith , 1904 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella nebulosa ( bolten in r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella punctilineata e . a . smith , 1899 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella sebastiani marche - marchad & rosso , 1979 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella inconspicua g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 : synonym of mesoginella inconspicua ( g . b . sowerby , 1846 )\nmarginella vignali dautzenberg & fischer , 1896 : [ 132 ] synonym of gibberula vignali ( dautzenberg & h . fischer , 1896 )\nmarginella bairstowi g . b . sowerby iii , 1886 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella bicatenata g . b . sowerby iii , 1914 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella floccata g . b . sowerby iii , 1889 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella lineolata g . b . sowerby iii , 1886 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella lutea g . b . sowerby iii , 1889 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella curta g . b . sowerby i , 1832 : synonym of prunum curtum ( g . b . sowerby i , 1832 )\nmarginella cylindrica g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 : synonym of hyalina cylindrica ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella electrina g . b . sowerby iii , 1892 : synonym of hyalina electrina ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1892 )\nmarginella evanida g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 : synonym of volvarina evanida ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella fauna g . b . sowerby i , 1846 : synonym of volvarina fauna ( g . b . sowerby i , 1846 )\nmarginella neglecta g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 : synonym of dentimargo neglecta ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella obtusa g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 : synonym of glabella obtusa ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella ovulum g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 : synonym of ovaginella ovulum ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella perminima g . b . sowerby iii , 1894 : synonym of granulina perminima ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1894 )\nmarginella ponsonbyi g . b . sowerby iii , 1897 : synonym of hyalina cylindrica ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella princeps g . b . sowerby iii , 1901 : synonym of closia princeps ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1901 )\nmarginella ringicula g . b . sowerby iii , 1901 : synonym of dentimargo rincigula ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1901 )\nmarginella robusta g . b . sowerby iii , 1904 : synonym of persicula robusta ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1904 )\nmarginella sauliae g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 : synonym of volvarina sauliae ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella taeniata g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 : synonym of volvarina taeniata ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella translucida g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 : synonym of austroginella translucida ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella turbinata g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 : synonym of mesoginella turbinata ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella picturata g . nevill & h . nevill , 1874 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 31 may 2010 .\nmarginella isseli g . nevill & h . nevill , 1875 : synonym of granulina isseli ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1875 )\nmarginella bella auct . : synonym of volvarina lactea ( kiener , 1841 ) : synonym of volvarina abbreviata ( c . b . adams , 1850 )\nmarginella jousseaumi rochebrune , 1881 : synonym of prunum sauliae ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 ) : synonym of volvarina sauliae ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1846 )\nmarginella is a genus of small tropical and temperate sea snails , marine gastropod molluscs in the family marginellidae , the margin snails . it is the type genus of the family . [ 1 ]\nmarginella pseustes e . a . smith , 1904 : synonym of granulina pseustes ( e . a . smith , 1904 ) : synonym of cystiscus pseustes ( e . a . smith , 1904 )\nmalacolog ( four marginella species names are listed for the western atlantic ocean , one name is not available ) . malacolog is created by dr . gary rosenberg , the academy of natural sciences , philadelphia\nthe higher classification of the family marginellidae has long been in a state of confusion . many popular works still treat all members of this family under the single genus marginella , basing them primarily on superficial similarities of the shell .\ntomlin j . r . le b . & shackleford l . j . 1913 . description of new species of marginella and mucronalia from s\u00e3o thom\u00e9 . journal of conchology , 14 : 43 , pl . 1 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 43 [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\ncossignani t . ( 2006 ) . marginellidae & cystiscidae of the world . l ' informatore piceno . 408pp . [ details ]\ngofas s . & fernandes f . 1988 . the marginellids of s\u00e3o tom\u00e9 , west africa . journal of conchology 33 ( 1 ) : 1 - 30 , pls . 1 - 2 . page ( s ) : 8 - 9 [ details ]\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nlabel : s . thom\u00e9 . tomlin , 1913 : island of sao thom\u00e9 .\nt & s ( pl . i . , f . 5 , 6 ) , and\nt . & s . ( pl . i . , 1 , 2 ) . \u201d two paratypes - nmw 1955 . 158 . 01177\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\nthe shells of species in this genus are rounded , smooth and glossy , with a large aperture that appears to be toothed because it shows the edge of the columellar folds . in many species the shells are colorful . the glossy surface of the shell results from the fact that the mantle covers most of the shell when the animal is active . as is typical in the neogastropoda , the animal has a long siphon . when the animal is active , the foot extends much further out than the edge of the shell .\nas is also typical for the neogastropoda , species in this genus are carnivorous and predatory .\nthe shells of the species in this genus have spires which range from moderately elevated to flattened . the surface of the shell is glossy and porcellaneous , and it is often but not always colourful . the columella has four definite , subequal plaits on its anterior half . the outer lip is thickened , and generally denticulate inside , with distinct teeth or folds . [ 2 ] the siphonal canal is not deeply incised .\nin the living animal , the mantle only partly extends over the shell when the animal is moving .\nthe head is bifurcated , with slender tentacles and eyes in small bulges lateral to the base of tentacles . the siphon is large and protrudes over the head . the foot is large and flat , and when it is extended is slightly longer than the shell .\nbartsch , p . 1915 . report on the turton collection of south african marine mollusks , with additional notes on other south african shells contained in the united states national museum . bulletin of the united states national museum , issued july 28 , 1915 .\ncossignani t . ( 2006 ) . marginellidae & cystiscidae of the world . l ' informatore piceno . 408pp\nthis page was last edited on 27 march 2018 , at 16 : 59 .\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .\nmarginellidae , or the margin shells , are a taxonomic family of small , often colorful , sea snails , marine gastropod molluscs in the clade neogastropoda .\nthe confusion over the classification stems from the fact that the earlier classifications were based rather crudely on shell characters . although many good differential shell characters do exist within this group , those characters were generally misinterpreted or not recognized as significant . such information as did exist on the radulae and the external anatomy of the living animals was widely scattered in the scientific literature , and internal anatomical descriptions were not available until fairly recently .\nthe shell of marginellidae is usually small , but varies in different species from minute to medium - sized . the external color of the shell can be white , cream , yellow , orange , red , or brown , and can be uniformly colored , or patterned in various ways . the protoconch is paucispiral . the lip of the shell is thickened , and can be smooth or denticulate . an external varix may be present or absent , a siphonal notch may be present or absent . the columella may have 2 - 6 plications . the operculum is absent in this family .\nsubfamily granulininae : this subfamily was originally placed in family cystiscidae by coovert & coovert ( 1995 ) but placed back in marginellidae , following la perna ( 1999 ) and based on the morphology of living animals ."]}
{"id": 1636, "summary": [{"text": "diadectomorpha are a clade of large reptile-like amphibians that lived in euramerica during the carboniferous and early permian periods and in asia during late permian ( wuchiapingian ) , and are very close to the ancestry of the amniota .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they include both large ( up to 2 meters long ) carnivorous and even larger ( to 3 meters ) herbivorous forms , some semi-aquatic and others fully terrestrial .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the diadectomorpha seem to have evolved during late mississippian times , although they only became common after the carboniferous rainforest collapse and flourished during the late pennsylvanian and early permian periods . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "diadectomorpha", "paragraphs": ["diadectomorpha have been nested in and out of the amniota . they\u2019re in here .\nlinks : diadectomorpha ; phylogeny of stegocephalians ( note figures of limnoscelis ) ; biology 356 .\ndiadectomorpha : ( limnoscelis + diadectidae ) + * . or limnoscelis + ( diadectidae + * ) .\nkissel , r . a . , 2010 : morphology , phylogeny , and evolution of diadectidae ( cotylosauria : diadectomorpha ) . \u2013phd dissertation , university of toronto , canada .\nkissel , r . 2010 . morphology , phylogeny , and evolution of diadectidae ( cotylosauria : diadectomorpha ) . thesis ( graduate department of ecology & evolutionary biology university of toronto ) .\nkissel , r . a . , 2010 : morphology , phylogeny , and evolution of diadectidae ( cotylosauria : diadectomorpha ) . \u2013phd dissertation , university of toronto , canada , [ url : urltoken ]\n\u201csimilarly , michel laurin ( 1996 ) uses the term in a cladistic sense to refer to only the most advanced reptile - like amphibians . thus his definition include the ( diadectomorpha and solenodonsauridae ) and the amniotes . \u201d\nis the taxon basal to all other lepidosauromorpha including diadectomorpha , chelonia and lepidosauria . ( sorry , cut off from bottom of cladogram , fig . 1 ) . it was considered the most complete captorhinid from the late permian .\nlimnoscelis paludis ( diadectomorpha - limnosceliidae ) , early pemian , texas and new mexico an animal very close to the ancestry of amniotes . length about 1 . 5 meters life reconstruction , by dmitry bogdanov ( larger image ( wikimedia ) )\nberman , d . s , s . s . sumida , and t . martens . 1998a . diadectes ( diadectomorpha : diadectidae ) from the early permian of central germany , with description of a new species . annals of carnegie museum 67 : 53 - 93 .\n\u201chowever , michael benton ( 2000 , 2004 ) makes the anthracosaurs a paraphyletic order within the superorder reptiliomorpha , along with the orders seymouriamorpha and diadectomorpha , thus making the anthracosaurians the \u201clower\u201d reptile - like amphibians . in his definition , the group encompass the embolomeri , chroniosuchia and possibly the family gephyrostegidae . \u201d\nty - jour ti - new cranial material of the rare diadectid desmatodon hesperis ( diadectomorpha ) from the late pennsylvanian of central colorado t2 - annals of the carnegie museum . vl - 64 is - 4 ur - urltoken pb - published by authority of the board of trustees of the carnegie institute , cy - [ pittsburgh ] : py - 1995 sp - 315 ep - 336 sn - 0097 - 4463 au - berman , david s au - sumida , stuart s er -\nfigure 1 . most parsimonious tree . the nodes are numbered in alphabetical order from the in - group node up . when a name is given , the letter designating the node is omitted but it is still reserved for this node . several clades are named in the text but could not be labeled on the figure . these include the following clades : k ( embolomeri ) , n ( seymouriamorpha ) , y ( apoda ) , z ( gymnophiona ) , aa ( salientia ) , ab ( anura ) and ad ( diadectomorpha ) . 4\nsynapsida ^ diadectomorpha ( ? ) sauropsida amphibian ( anamniote ) - grade taxon has ever managed to invade the niche of terrestrial herbivore , and a causal reason has been suggested for this . the endosymbionts required for digestion of high fiber vegetation must be obtained immediately after hatching fromterrestrial microbial decomposers ( modesto , 1992 ; zug , 1993 ; hotton and beerbower , 1994 ; hotton et al . , this volume ) . this constraint therefore prevents anamniote ( aquatically reproducing ) taxa from feeding on high - fiber vegetation . the fact that advanced diadectomorphs invaded this niche suggests that diadectomorphs had evolved the amniote egg .\n@ article { bhlpart226640 , title = { new cranial material of the rare diadectid desmatodon hesperis ( diadectomorpha ) from the late pennsylvanian of central colorado } , journal = { annals of the carnegie museum . } , volume = { 64 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder } , url = urltoken publisher = { [ pittsburgh ] : published by authority of the board of trustees of the carnegie institute , 1901 - } , author = { berman , david s and sumida , stuart s } , year = { 1995 } , pages = { 315 - - 336 } , }\nrelatively few large - scale phylogenetic studies on early tetrapods have been performed , and the origin of amniotes has generally been studied separately from the origin of lissamphibians . studies on the origin of amniotes usually only dealt with anthracosaurs ( carroll , 1970a ; gauthier et al . , 1988 ) because these have been presumed to be the closest relatives of amniotes . a consensus emerged that diadectomorpha is the sister - group of amniota whereas seymouriamorphs are among the next closest relatives of amniotes ( panchen and smithson , 1988 ; laurin and reisz , 1995 ) . research on the origins of lissamphibians concluded that\ndissorophoids\nwere the closest relatives of lissamphibians ( trueb and cloutier , 1991 ) .\nname : diadectes ( penetrating bite ) . phonetic : die - ah - deck - tees . named by : edward drinker cope - 1878 . synonyms : nothodon , empecocles , helodectes , empedias , chilonyx , bolbodon , diadectoides , animasaurus . classification : chordata , amphibia , reptiliomorpha , diadectomorpha , diadectidae . species : d . sideropelicus , d . lentus , d . tenuitectus , d . carinatus , d . sanmiguelensis , d . absitus . type : herbivore . size : between 1 . 5 and 3 meters long . known locations : usa , concentration in the texas red beds . time period : asselian through to the kungurian of the permian . fossil representation : many specimens are known allowing for accurate reconstruction .\ncomments : traditionally considered the most primitive diadectomorphs , although a recent analysis ( kissel 2010 ) makes them the sister group to the diadectidae . limnoscelid - like in appaerance , but tending to an omnivorous or herbivorous diet . only one species is known , a single late surviving form , essentially a\nliving fossil\nco - existing with its more advanced and successful contemporaries . from wikipedia : tseajaia was described from a single , fairly complete specimen and was given its own family by robert l . carroll . it was originally thought to be an seymouriamorph ( moss 1972 ) additional finds allowing for a better taxonomic analysis indicate they belong in the diadectomorpha , as the sister group to the large and more derived diadectidae . tseajaia itself being a fairly generalized form , gives a reasonable indication of the build and looks of the closest relatives of the amniotes ( berman et al 1992 , kissel 2010 )\nto study the impact of the topology ( that only represents a consensus of current phylogenies ) and internal branch lengths ( that are not known and difficult to estimate within nested clades that appear simultaneously in the fossil record ) , two strategies have been used . a second topology , incorporating relationships between the main clades from panchen and smithson ( 1988 ) was examined . this was done because the topology suggested from these authors represents the \u201ctraditional\u201d point of view and because it presents a great number of differences with the preferred phylogeny ( fig . 2 ) . in this phylogeny , only the relationships between the large clades are different ; the topology within temnospondyls , \u201cmicrosaurs , \u201d nectridea , baphetidae , seymouriamorpha , anthracosauria ( embolomeres and gephyrostegus ) , and cotylosauria ( diadectomorpha and amniota ) is identical to that of the main phylogeny ( fig . 1 ) . this reflects the fact that few phylogenies ( sometimes only one ) are present within these clades ( temnospondyls are an exception ) .\nfurther reading - a new diadectes . - the american naturalist 12 : 565 . - e . d . cope - 1878 . - new or little known reptiles and amphibians from the permian ( ? ) of texas . - bulletin of the american museum of natural history 28 : 163 - 181 . - e . c . case - 1910 . - a description of the skulls of diadectes lentus and animasaurus carinatus . - american journal of science 33 ( 30 ) : 339 - 348 . - e . c . case & s . w . williston - 1912 . - early permian vertebrates from the cutler formation of the placerville area , colorado . - united states geological survey professional papers 503 - c : c1 - c46 - g . e . lewis & p . p . vaughn - 1965 . - diadectes ( diadectomorpha : diadectidae ) from the early permian of central germany , with description of a new species . - annals of carnegie museum 67 ( 1 ) : 53 - 93 . d . s . berman , s . s . sumida & t . martens - 1998 .\n< mods xmlns : xlink =\nurltoken\nversion =\n3 . 0\nxmlns : xsi =\nurltoken\nxmlns =\nurltoken\nxsi : schemalocation =\nurltoken urltoken\n> < titleinfo > < title > new cranial material of the rare diadectid desmatodon hesperis ( diadectomorpha ) from the late pennsylvanian of central colorado < / title > < / titleinfo > < name > < namepart > berman , david s < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > sumida , stuart s < / namepart > < / name > < typeofresource > text < / typeofresource > < genre authority =\nmarcgt\n> < / genre > < note type =\ncontent\n> 64 < / note > < relateditem type =\nhost\n> < titleinfo > < title > annals of the carnegie museum . < / title > < / titleinfo > < origininfo > < place > < placeterm type =\ntext\n> [ pittsburgh ] : < / placeterm > < / place > < publisher > published by authority of the board of trustees of the carnegie institute , < / publisher > < / origininfo > < part > < detail type =\nvolume\n> < number > 64 < / number > < / detail > < extent unit =\npages\n> < start > 315 < / start > < end > 336 < / end > < / extent > < date > 1995 < / date > < / part > < / relateditem > < identifier type =\nuri\n> urltoken < / identifier > < accesscondition type =\nuseandreproduction\n> in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder < / accesscondition > < / mods >\nthank you for visiting nature . com . you are using a browser version with limited support for css . to obtain the best experience , we recommend you use a more up to date browser ( or turn off compatibility mode in internet explorer ) . in the meantime , to ensure continued support , we are displaying the site without styles and javascript .\nall prices are net prices . vat will be added later in the checkout .\n( eds sumida , s . s . & martin , k . l . m . ) 353\u2013398 ( academic , san diego , ( 1997 ) .\ndeposition , diagenesis and structures of the cheese bay shrimp bed , lower carboniferous , east lothian .\nshrimp - bearing sedimentary successions in the lower carboniferous ( dinantian ) cementstone and oil shale groups of northern britain .\nreport on the fossil fishes collected by the geological survey of scotland from the shales exposed on the shore near gullane , east lothian .\nfrom the vis\u00e9an of east kirkton , west lothian , scotland and the amniote stem .\nwe thank s . finney for preparation of the specimen and assistance with photographs . this work was supported by an nerc grant ( to j . a . c . ) .\nby submitting a comment you agree to abide by our terms and community guidelines . if you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate .\nnature is part of springer nature . \u00a9 2018 springer nature limited . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\n$ more derived axis - atlas complex ; $ sacrum with at least 2 vertebrae , $ robust claws on pes ; $ loss of lateral line system .\nlinks : phylogeny of stegocephalians ; amphibia et reptilia ngiana ( chinese ) ; v the four other mass extinctions . atw020623 .\ncotylosauria : stem amniota + * : tseajaia + ( limnoscelis + diadectidae ) .\n1 . 5 - 3 m ; some fully terrestrial ;\nswollen\nneural arches ; some ( diadectes ) herbivorous .\ncomments : primitive , small to large , carnivorous diadectomorphs . these animals must have lived a very similar life to ophaicodontid , varanopsid , and sphenacodontid pelycosaurs , which they resembled in overall size and shape ; presumably relied on niche partitioning . teeth retained labyrinthodont infolding of the enamel , and were pointed and slightly recurved at the tip ( carroll 1967 , via wikipedia ) traditionally divided into two genera , limnoscelis and limnostygis , although these may be synonyms\ncomments : highly successful clade of large herbivores , include the largest animals of their time and teh first exploitation of vegetable matter by tetrapods . previously tentrapods ( amphibians and reptiles ( ) had been carnivores only , feeding on insects , crustacea and other invertebrates , fish , and smaller tetrapods . this means that eco \\ ystems were inefficent ( becaise of long food chains , and tied to water or water margins . while edphosaurs were also herbivores , they never challenged the supremacy of the diadectids . diadectid extinction at the end of the early permian allowed caseid pelycosaurs to replace them as the large herbivores ; they were in turn replaced by herbivousrous therapsids ( dinocephalia and anomodonts ) later in the permian .\nleft : life reconstruction of diasparactus zenos , by dmitry bogdanov . length 1 . 35 metres . wikipedia , gnu free documentation / creative commons attribution below left : the skulls of orobates , oradectes , silvadectes and diadectes from kissel 2010 , via david peters , reptile evolution . scale bar = 2 cm . below right : cladogram from kissel 2010 via wikipedia :\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nparent taxon : cotylosauria according to m . laurin and r . r . reisz 1995\nsee also colbert 1946 , gauthier et al . 1989 , gauthier et al . 1988 , haughton and brink 1954 , huene 1954 , kissel and lehman 2002 , lewis and vaughn 1965 , martens et al . 2005 , olson 1947 , price 1947 and romer 1956\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ntspace is a free and secure research repository established by university of toronto libraries to disseminate and preserve the scholarly record of university of toronto . learn more\n\u00a9 2018 university of toronto . all rights reserved . tspace @ urltoken | telephone : 416 - 946 - 0113 university of toronto libraries , 130 st . george street , toronto , on m5s 1a5 canada\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nlevis & vaughn , 1965 ; l . perm . swnam . | | - - \u2020\ngenera et species indet . ( berman & henrici , 2003 ) ] l . perm . ceu . ` - - + ? - \u2020\nliu , j . & bever , g . s . , 2015 : the last diadectomorph sheds light on late palaeozoic tetrapod biogeography . \u2013biology letters : vol . 11 , # 5 , in press [ doi : 10 . 1098 / rsbl . 2015 . 0100 ]\nberman , d . s . & henrici , a . c . , 2003 : homology of the astragalus and structure and function of the tarsus of diadectidae . \u2013journal of paleontology : vol . 77 , # 1 , pp . 172 - 188\ncarroll , r . l . , 1988 : vertebrate paleontology and evolution . \u2013w . h . freeman and company , new york , 1988 , 698 .\ncarroll , r . l . , 1988 : appendix . 594 - 648 . in carroll , r . l . 1988 : vertebrate paleontology and evolution . \u2013w . h . freeman and company , new york , 1988 , 698 .\ncarroll , r . l . , 1967 : a limnoscelid reptile from the middle pennsylvanian . \u2013journal of paleontology : vol . 41 , # 5 , pp . 1256 - 1261\nclack , j . a . , 1998 : a new early carboniferous tetrapod with a m\u00e9lange of crown - group characters . \u2013nature : vol . 394 , 2 july , pp . 66 - 69\nlaurin , m . & reisz , r . r . , 1992 : a reassessment of the pennsylvanian tetrapod romeriscus . \u2013journal of vertebrate paleontology : vol . 12 , # 4 , pp . 524 - 527\nlaurin , m . & reisz , r . r . , 1997 : a new perspective on tetrapod phylogeny . 9 - 59 in sumida , s . s . & martin , k . l . m . , 1997 : amniote origins : completing the transition to land . \u2013academic press , san diego , 1997 , pp . x - 510\nlee , m . y . s . & spencer , p . s . , 1997 : crown - clades , key characters and taxonomic stability : when is an amniote not an amniote ? 61 - 84 in sumida , s . s . & martin , k . l . m . , 1997 : amniote origins : completing the transition to land . \u2013academic press , san diego , 1997 , pp . x - 510\npaton , r . l . , smithson , t . r . , & clack , j . a . , 1999 : an amniote - like skeleton from the early carboniferous of scotland . \u2013nature : vol . 398 , 8 april , pp . 508 - 513\nruta , m . & milner a . r . & coates , m . i . , 2000 : the scottish carboniferous tetrapod caerorhachis bairdi \u2013journal of vertebrate paleontology : vol . 20 , # 3 , suppl . to # 3 ,\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\nlimnoscelis ( new mexico and colorado ) and limnostegis ( nova scotia ) ; williston ( 1911b ) , carroll ( 1967 ) , fracasso ( 1980 ) , berman and sumida ( 1990 ) , and berman ( 1993 ) .\ndesmatodon ( colorado , new mexico , and pennsylvania ) and diasparactus ( new mexico ) ; case ( 1908 ) , case and williston ( 1913 ) , romer ( 1952 ) , vaughn ( 1969 , 1972 ) , fracasso ( 1980 ) , berman ( 1993 ) , eberth and berman ( 1993 ) , and berman and sumida ( 1995 ) .\nlimnosceloides ( new mexico and west virginia ) limnoscelops ( colorado ) , and limnoscelid ( utah ) ; romer ( 1952 ) , vaughn ( 1962 ) , lewis and vaughn ( 1965 ) , langston ( 1966 ) , and berman ( 1993 ) .\ntseajaia ( new mexico and utah ) ; vaughn ( 1964 ) , moss ( 1972 ) , and berman ( 1993 ) .\nfigure 3 . late carboniferous distributions of the diadectomorph families limnoscelidae ( l ) and diadectidae ( d ) . localities , latitidue and longitude may be found in appendix 1 .\n( 1860 ) , geinitz and deichmuller ( 1882 ) , olson ( 1947 , 1967 , 1975 ) , langston ( 1963 ) , lewis and vaughn ( 1965 ) , berman ( 1971 , 1993 ) , and berman and martens ( 1993 ) .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nbiodivlibrary july is # nationalblueberrymonth ! the w . a . cox nursery co . of mississippi ' s 1920s catalog proclaimed # blueberries to\u2026 urltoken\nbiodivlibrary @ jzed _ trees @ kew _ laa awesome ! we ' re so honored to have this treasure in # bhlib . thanks @ kew _ laa ! now we can enjoy p\u2026 urltoken\nwe use cookies to improve our service and to tailor our content and advertising to you .\nyou can manage your cookie settings via your browser at any time . to learn more about how we use cookies , please see our cookies policy\naccess this article for 1 day for : \u00a323 / $ 37 / \u20ac30 ( inc . vat )\nplease note : your email address is provided to the journal , which may use this information for marketing purposes .\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ncontent copyright www . prehistoric - wildlife . com . the information here is completely free for your own study and research purposes , but please dont copy the articles word for word and claim them as your own work . the world of prehistory is constantly changing with the advent of new discoveries , and its best if you use this information as a jumping off point for your own research . privacy & cookies policy\ndiadectes was a large reptile - like tetrapod that lived in the late carboniferous and early permian periods . fossils of diadectes have been discovered in new mexico , colorado , oklahoma and texas ( usa ) and one species described from germany .\ndiadectes latibuccatus cope 1878a ; empecocles latibuccatus ( cope 1878a ) ; empedias latibuccatus ( cope 1878a ) ; bolosaurus rapidens cope 1878a ; chilonyx rapidens ( cope 1878a ) ; empedocles alatus cope 1878a ; empedias alatus ( cope 1878a ) ; diadectes molaris cope 1878b ; empedocles molaris ( cope 1878b ) ; empedias molaris ( cope 1878b ) ; diadectes phaseolinus cope 1880b ; empedias phaseolinus ( cope 1880b ) ; helodectes paridens cope 1880b ; helodectes isaaci cope 1880b ; empedias fissus cope 1883 ; diadectes biculminatus cope 1896 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe phylogeny of early groups of amniotes has been in a state of flux in the last few years , but the first phylogeny based on a data matrix was published in the eighties ( gauthier et al . , 1988 ) . the origins of mammals and saurians from early synapsids and early diapsids , respectively , has been relatively non - controversial , but the origin of turtles has been problematic . the most widespread view , at least until the last few years , was that the closest extinct relatives of turtles were the captorhinids ( gaffney & mc kenna , 1979 ; gaffney & meylan , 1988 ; gaffney , meylan , & wyss , 1991 ; gauthier et al . , 1988 ) . the study of gauthier et al . ( 1988 ) is probably the best documented study supporting close affinities between captorhinids and turtles :\nthis study is also significant in giving the first phylogenetic definitions for the names of many amniote taxa . in this tree , parareptiles are not closely related to turtles , but gauthier et al . ( 1988 ) were not confident in this part of their tree ( which is why they did not erect a formal parareptilia ) .\nlaurin & reisz ( 1995 ) suggested that many of the taxa that gauthier et al . ( 1988 ) considered parareptiles represented early relatives of turtles . furthermore , laurin & reisz ( 1995 ) suggested that mesosaurs were the closest known relatives of reptiles :\nthis study used a terminology derived from olson ( 1947 ) . unfortunately , this terminology includes some junior synonyms ( according to the rules of priority suggested by de queiroz & gauthier in 1990 , 1992 , and 1994 ) of the taxa defined by gauthier et al . ( 1988 ) and the terminology used in the main phylogeny ( in the page on amniota ) corrects this .\nlee ( 1995 , 1996 ) studied in detail the phylogeny of the presumed relatives of turtles , and argued that pareiasaurs are the closest known relatives of turtles , rather than procolophonids ( as argued by laurin & reisz , 1995 ) . furthermore , he believed that pareiasaurs are the stem - group of turtles ( some pareiasaurs are more closely related to turtles than to other pareiasaurs ) . his phylogeny is as follows :\nall the studies mentioned above agree that turtles are the sister - clade of saurians among extant amniotes . however , the old idea that turtles are closely related to placodonts ( broom , 1924 ) has been revived recently ( rieppel , 1994 , 1995 ; rieppel & debraga , 1996 ; debraga & rieppel , 1997 ) . if this theory is accurate , turtles are saurians and are more closely related to lepidosaurs than to archosaurs .\nan exhaustive list of autapomorphies of various amniote taxa cannot be provided here , but a sample of these characters can be given . the list given below assumes that the phylogeny presented at the beginning of the page on amniota is essentially correct . phylogenetic definitions , when available , are also given for the main taxa . amniote classification can be summarized as such :\nparts of the phylogeny are poorly documented ( most of the unnamed clades ) and will not be discussed below . furthermore , if the suggestion of modesto ( 1999 ) that mesosaurs are anapsids is accepted , this classification and the list of apomorphies will have to be modified .\namniota is defined as\nthe most recent common ancestor of extant mammals and reptiles , and all its descendants\n( gauthier et al . , 1988 ) . it is divided into two stem - based taxa : synapsida ( mammals and their extinct relatives ) and sauropsida ( reptiles and their fossil relatives ) . the autapomorphies of amniota are listed in the\ncharacteristics\nsection of the tree of life page .\nsauropsida is defined as\nreptiles plus all other amniotes more closely related to them than they are to mammals\n( gauthier , 1994 ) . the characters supporting sauropsida include the following :\npresence of a single coronoid . synapsids and the diadectomorph limnoscelis have two coronoid elements . the coronoids are bones on the dorsomedial surface of the lower jaw .\nsupinator process parallel to humeral shaft and separated from it by a groove . in synapsids and diadectomorphs , the supinator process is strongly angled relative to the shaft .\npresence of a single pedal centrale . two centralia were present in the tarsus ( ankle ) of synapsids and diadectomorphs .\nreptilia is defined as\nthe most recent common ancestor of extant turtles and saurians , and all of its descendants\n( gauthier et al . , 1988 ) . characters supporting reptilia include :\ntabular small . the tabular ( a bone on the posterolateral corner of the skull table ) of early synapsids and diadectomorphs is large , but reptiles have only a small tabular , when it is present .\nsuborbital foramen present ( fig . 1b - d ) . the suborbital foramen is a small hole near the lateral edge of the palate , between the pterygoid , palatine , and ectopterygoid ( or jugal , when the ectopterygoid is absent ) . this structure was not found in early synapsids and diadectomorphs ( fig . 1a ) .\nsupraoccipital anterior crista present . the supraoccipital of mesosaurs , synapsids , and diadectomoprhs lacks anterior parasagittal flanges . the supraoccipital of reptiles has a paired anterior parasagittal flange called an anterior crista .\nsupraoccipital plate narrow . the supraoccipital is a bone in the back of the braincase . the supraoccipital plate of mesosaurs , synapsids , and diadectomorphs is broad and extends farther laterally than the postparietal .\nfigure 1 . amniote skulls in palatal view . a , cotylorhynchus , a lower permian synapsid ; b , captorhinus , a lower permian romeriid ; c , procolophon , a triassic anapsid ; d , proganochelys , the oldest known turtle ( upper triassic ) . redrawn from a , laurin & reisz ( 1995 ) ; b , heaton ( 1979 ) ; c , carroll & lindsay ( 1985 ) ; and d , gaffney ( 1990 ) . abbreviations : bc , braincase ; ec , ectopterygoid ; m , maxilla ; n , nasal ; pa , palatine ; pm , premaxilla ; ps , parasphenoid ; pt , pterygoid ; q , quadrate ; qj , quadratojugal ; s , stapes ; sq , squamosal ; v , vomer .\nanapsida is defined as\nextant turtles , and all other extinct taxa that are more closely related to them than they are to other [ extant ] reptiles\n( gauthier et al . , 1988 ) . characters supporting anapsida include :\nforamen orbito - nasale enclosed between prefrontal , lacrimal , and palatine . there is no foramen between these bones in diapsids , synapsids , and diadectomorphs .\nanterior lateral maxillary foramen distinctly larger than other foramina . in romeriids , mesosaurs , synapsids , and diadectomorphs , several small foramina ( holes ) may be present on the lateral surface of the maxilla , but none of these foramina is much larger than the others .\nquadratojugal expanded dorsally ( fig . 2c , d ) . the quadratojugal of romeriids , mesosaurs , synapsids , and diadectomorphs is a low bone narrowly exposed on the lateral surface of the cheek ( fig . 2a , b ) .\nfigure 2 . amniote skulls in lateral view . a , cotylorhynchus , a lower permian synapsid ; b , captorhinus , a lower permian romeriid ; c , procolophon , a triassic anapsid ; d , proganochelys , the oldest known turtle ( upper triassic ) . redrawn from a , laurin & reisz ( 1995 ) ; b , heaton ( 1979 ) ; c , carroll & lindsay ( 1985 ) ; and d , gaffney ( 1990 ) . abbreviations : bc , braincase ; e , epipterygoid ; f , frontal ; l , lacrimal ; m , maxilla ; n , nasal ; p , parietal ; pm , premaxilla ; po , postorbital ; pof , postfrontal ; prf , prefrontal ; pt , pterygoid ; q , quadrate ; qj , quadratojugal ; sq , squamosal ; st , supratemporal ; t , tabular .\ntemporal emargination bordered by quadratojugal and squamosal ( fig . 2c , d ) . the temporal emargination supports a tympanum in turtles , and the presence of a slender stapes in several anapsids suggests that a tympanum appeared fairly early in this group . there is no temporal emargination in romeriids , mesosaurs , and synapsids ( fig . 2a , b ) .\njaw articulation anterior to occiput ( fig . 1c , d ) . the jaw articulation of romeriids , mesosaurs , synapsids , and diadectomorphs is at the level of the occiput ( fig . 1a , b ) .\nedentulous ectopterygoid . the ectopterygoid bears a shagreen of small denticles in romeriids , early synapsids , and diadectomorphs .\nstapedial dorsal process unossified . the stapes of most early romeriids , mesosaurs , synapsids , and diadectomorphs has an ossified dorsal process .\nsacral ribs with narrow distal contact . the sacral ribs of romeriids , mesosaurs , and synapsids are broad distally and a broad contact between successive ribs leaves only a small gap . the sacral ribs of anapsids are more slender and contact each other distally .\niliac blade dorsally expanded . the iliac blade of romeriids , mesosaurs , and synapsids has a long , low posterodorsal process and lacks an anterior expansion . the iliac blade of anapsids has a dorsal expansion directly above the acetabulum , a short anterior process , and it is short posteriorly .\nfigure 3 . skulls of early amniotes in dorsal view . a , cotylorhynchus , a lower permian synapsid ; b , captorhinus , a lower permian romeriid ; c , procolophon , a triassic anapsid ; d , proganochelys , the oldest known turtle ( upper triassic ) . redrawn from a , laurin & reisz ( 1995 ) ; b , heaton ( 1979 ) ; c , carroll & lindsay ( 1985 ) ; and d , gaffney ( 1990 ) . abbreviations : bc , braincase ; f , frontal ; j , jugal ; l , lacrimal ; m , maxilla ; n , nasal ; p , parietal ; pa , palatal ; pm , premaxilla ; po , postorbital ; pof , postfrontal ; pp , postparietal ; prf , prefrontal ; qj , quadratojugal ; sq , squamosal ; st , supratemporal ; t , tabular .\nprocolophonia is defined as\nthe most recent common ancestor of pareiasaurs , procolophonids , and testudines ( chelonia ) , and all its descendants\n( laurin & reisz , 1995 ) . it is diagnosed by several autapomorphies , including the following :\npineal foramen close to fronto - parietal suture ( fig . 3c ) . the pineal foramen of most other amniotes is located close to the mid - length of the interparietal suture , or slightly anterior to this ( fig . 3a , b ) .\ntabular absent ( fig . 3c , d ) . most other amniotes have a tabular ( fig . 3a ) , but this bone has been lost convergently in captorhinids ( fig . 3b ) .\ncranio - quadrate space large . in most other amniotes , the cranio - quadrate space ( the space between the braincase and the quadrate ramus of the pterygoid ) is narrow and the paroccipital process and the quadrate ramus of the pterygoid converge posterolaterally ( fig . 1a , b ) . in procolophonoids , pareiasaurs , and turtles , the cranio - quadrate space is wide and the paroccipital process is parallel to the quadrate ramus of the pterygoid ( fig . 1c , d ) .\npterygoid palatal ramus not reaching level of internal naris ( fig . 1c , d ) . the palatal ramus of millerettids , romeriids , mesosaurs , and early synapsids extends anteriorly medial to the internal naris ( fig . 1a , b ) .\ntransverse flange of pterygoid directed anterolaterally ( fig . 1c , d ) . the transverse flange of other amniotes extends transversely or posterolaterally from the area of the basicranial articulation ( fig . 1a , b ) .\ncultriform process short ( fig . 1c , d ) . the cultriform process of other amniotes is long ( fig . 1a , b ) .\nparoccipital process antero - posteriorly expanded . the paroccipital process of most other amniotes is a broad , thin , vertical flange .\nquadrate condyle articular surfaces nearly flat and antero - posteriorly short . in other amniotes , the articular surfaces of the quadrate are strongly convex and short .\nastragalus and calcaneum ( two ankle bones ) sutured or fused to each other .\nromeriida is defined as\nextant saurians , and all other taxa that are more closely related to them than they are to anapsids\n( gauthier et al . , 1988 ) . romeriida possesses the following autapomorphies :\npostorbital separated from supratemporal ( fig . 3b ) . the postorbital contacts the supratemporal in most anapsids ( fig . 3c ) , in mesosaurs , in early synapsids ( fig . 3a ) , and in diadectomorphs .\nsupratemporal small ( fig . 3b ) . the supratemporal is large in most other groups of amniotes ( fig . 3a , c ) .\ncaniniform maxillary tooth present . romeriids have a large anterior maxillary tooth ( fig . 2b ) . most other early amniotes have a relatively homodont dentition and no anterior maxillary tooth is much larger than the other teeth ( fig . 2a , c ) .\nquadrate anterior process short ( fig . 1b ) . the anterior process of the quadrate extends anteriorly along more than 55 % of the quadrate ramus of the pterygoid in most other amniotes ( fig . 1a , d ) .\nanterior pleurocentra keeled ventrally . the anterior pleurocentra of other amniotes is rounded ventrally .\nmetapodials overlapping . the proximal heads of the metapodials of other amniotes barely contact each other . the metapodials of\nprotorothyridids\nand diapsids are expanded proximally and overlap the metapodial lateral to them .\nwe thank miss diane scott for scanning the figures of amniote skulls , and ms . patricia lai for proof - reading this page .\nbroom r . 1924 . on the classification of the reptiles . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 51 : 39 - 65 .\ncarroll r . l . & w . lindsay . 1985 . cranial anatomy of the primitive reptile procolophon . canadian journal of earth sciences 22 : 1571 - 1587 .\nde queiroz , k . & j . gauthier . 1990 . phylogeny as a central principle in taxonomy : phylogenetic definitions of taxon names . systematic zoology 39 : 307 - 322 .\nde queiroz , k . & j . gauthier . 1992 . phylogenetic taxonomy . annual review of ecology and systematics 23 : 449 - 480 .\nde queiroz , k . & j . gauthier . 1994 . toward a phylogenetic system of biological nomenclature . trends in ecology and evolution 9 : 27 - 31 .\ndebraga m . & o . rieppel . 1997 . reptile phylogeny and the interrelationships of turtles . zoological journal of the linnean society 120 : 281 - 354 .\ngaffney e . s . 1990 . the comparative osteology of the triassic turtle proganochelys . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 194 : 263 .\ngaffney , e . s . & m . c . mc kenna 1979 . a late permian captorhinid from rhodesia . american museum novitates 2688 : 1 - 15 .\ngaffney , e . s . & p . a . meylan 1988 . a phylogeny of turtles . in m . j . benton ( ed . ) the phylogeny and classification of the tetrapods : 157 - 219 . oxford : clarendon press .\ngaffney e . s . , p . a . meylan , & a . r . wyss . 1991 . a computer assisted analysis of the relationships of the higher categories of turtles . cladistics 7 : 313 - 335 .\ngauthier j . a . 1994 . the diversification of the amniotes . in : d . r . prothero and r . m . schoch ( ed . ) major features of vertebrate evolution : 129 - 159 . knoxville , tennessee : the paleontological society .\ngauthier , j . , a . g . kluge , & t . rowe . 1988 . the early evolution of the amniota . in m . j . benton ( ed . ) the phylogeny and classification of the tetrapods , volume 1 : amphibians , reptiles , birds : 103 - 155 . oxford : clarendon press .\nheaton m . j . 1979 . cranial anatomy of primitive captorhinid reptiles from the late pennsylvanian and early permian oklahoma and texas . bulletin of the oklahoma geological survey 127 : 1 - 84 .\nlaurin , m . & r . r . reisz . 1995 . a reevaluation of early amniote phylogeny . zoological journal of the linnean society 113 : 165 - 223 .\nlee , m . s . y . 1995 . historical burden in systematics and the interrelationships of ' parareptiles ' . biological reviews of the cambridge philosophical society 70 : 459 - 547 .\nlee m . s . y . 1996 . correlated progression and the origin of turtles . nature 379 : 812 - 815 .\nmodesto s . p . 1999 . observations on the structure of the early permian reptile stereosternum temidum cope . palaeontologia africana 35 : 7 - 19 .\nolson e . c . 1947 . the family diadectidae and its bearing on the classification of reptiles . fieldiana geology 11 : 1 - 53 .\nrieppel , o . 1994 . osteology of simosaurus gaillardoti and the relationships of stem - group sauropterygia . fieldiana geology 1462 : 1 - 85 .\nrieppel o . 1995 . studies on skeleton formation in reptiles : implications for turtle relationships . zoology - analysis of complex systems 98 : 298 - 308 .\nrieppel o . & m . debraga . 1996 . turtles as diapsid reptiles . nature 384 : 453 - 455 .\n. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the\nthis page is an article that is attached to a branch of the tree of life .\ntol articles provide more in - depth information about important features of a given group of organisms .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\nscientists have found evidence that about 2 . 4 million years ago a gene regulating jaw muscles mutated and may have led to the more graceful human jaw we see today . which statement most closely explains the link between jaw size and hominid evolution\nsome characteristics of recently discovered organism are listed in the table . based on the given characteristics , this organism would be classified in which kingdom\nthe classification of four birds are listed . based on the classification which two birds are most closely related\nscientists are studying the evolutionary history of a group of plants in the us . what information about the organisms best helps the scientists to determine the evolutionary relationships among them\nmany scientists think that the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells originated in independent prokaryotes . which characterisitc of mitochondira most strongly supports this conclusion\nmodern classification of the related organisms in a diagram . which two groups are most closely related\n- like taxon first crawled out on dry land . then , according to the widely accepted paradigm , certain lineages returned to the water while others ventured forth onto higher and drier environs .\n( lrt , 1033 taxa ) documents a bushier conquest of land , occurring in at least seven devonian waves until the beachhead was secured by our reptile ancestors .\ndr . jennifer clack and her team have shown us that fish / amphibians can have limbs ( acanthostega and ichthyostega ) and not be interested in leaving the water . that comes later and later and , well , seven times all together .\nfigure 1 . colosteus relatives according to the lrt scaled to a common skull length . their sizes actually vary quite a bit , as noted by the different scale bars . only pholidogaster and colosteus are taxa in common with traditional colosteid lists .\nhad small limbs with toes . the smaller , but equally scaly and eel - like\n, reduced those limbs to vestiges , showing they were not that important for getting around underwater in that wriggly clade . neither shows signs of ever leaving the water and phylogenetically neither led to the crawling land tetrapods . however , like the living peppered moray eel (\nfigure 2 . greererpeton reduced to a blueprint of body parts . here there may be one extra phalanx on pedal digit 5 and one missing on pedal digit 2 compared to sister taxa . so an alternate is shown with that repair . the skulls at left are juveniles .\nwere likewise flat - and long - bodied aquatic forms that seem unlikely to have been able to support themselves without the natural buoyancy of water . their descendants in the lrt likewise look like they were more comfortable lounging underwater like living\nthe hellbender has working lungs , but gill slits are often retained , although only immature specimens have true gills ; the hellbender absorbs oxygen from the water through capillaries of its side frills . \u201d\nonly rarely do hellbenders leave the water , perhaps to climb on low pond rocks . if the\nfigure 3 . pederpes is a basal taxon in the whatcheeria + crassigyrinus clade .\n( with its flattened skull ) appear to have opted for a return to a watery environment . and who could blame them ? in any case , their big lumbering bodies were not well adapted to clambering over dry obstacles , like rocks and plants , that made terrestrial locomotion more difficult . and the biggest best food was still in the water . no doubt limbs helped many of them find new ponds and swamps when they felt the urge to do so , like living crocs . and they probably left the water after some of the smaller and more able taxa listed below .\ntook the first steps toward more of a land - living life . the nostrils shifted forward , but were still tiny , at first . bur the ribs were slender without any overlap . perhaps this signaled improvements in lung power . larger nostrils appeared in\n. all these taxa were still rather large and lumbering and so were probably more at home in the water .\nfigure 5 . eucritta in situ and reconstructed . note the large pes in green .\nlike ancestors . one descendant clade begins with a several long - bodied , short - legged salamander - like taxa . discosauriscus is one of these . it begins life in water , but grows up to prefer dry land . seymouria is the culmination of this clade .\n, a short - legged , flat - bodied aquatic taxon . that plesiomorphic taxon gives rise to legless\ntheir marriage to or divorce from water varies across a wide spectrum in living taxa .\nfigure 7 . various stem amniotes ( reptiles ) that precede tulerpeton in the lrt . so these taxa likely radiated in the late devonian . and taxa like acanthostega and ichthyostega are late - survivors of earlier radiations documented by the earlier trackways .\nno one should have ever said you have to look like a typical reptile to lay an amnion - covered egg . and if they did , they were not guided by a large gamut phylogenetic analysis .\nthis clade become fully divorced from needing water for reproduction , but basal members still liked the high humidity and wet substrate of the swamp .\n. these were small agile taxa with relatively long legs that would have had their genesis in the late devonian . their first appearance in the fossil record was much later . the development of the amnion - enclosed embryo may have taken millions of years . the first phylogenetic reptiles appear in the form of amphibian - like\n, according to the lrt , from distinct clades that were more or less ready to do so and in different ways . and , of course , odd extant fish , like the peppered moray eel (\n) continue this tradition . what will they eventually evolve into , given enough time ?\nthe fin to limb transition : new data , interpretations , and hypotheses from paleontology and developmental biology . annual review of earth and planetary sciences . 37 : 163\u2013179 .\njarvik : postcranial anatomy , basal tetrapod interrelationships and patterns of skeletal evolution . earth and environmental science transactions of the royal society of edinburgh .\npolydactly in the earliest known tetrapod limbs . nature 347 : 66 - 69 .\ndiurnal , land - based predation on shore crabs by moray eels in the chagos archipelago . coral reefs 28 ( 2 ) : 387\u2013397 .\non the fish - like tail in the ichtyhyostegid stegocephalians . meddelelser om gr\u00f8nland 114 : 1\u201390 .\nfigure 1 . the complete skull of anthracosaurus greatly resembles its relative , neopteroplax .\nanthracosaurus russelli ( huxley 1863 , panchen 1977 , clack 1987 ; westphalian , late carboniferous , 310 mya , skull length 40cm ; figs . 1 , 2 ) was originally considered a labyrinthodont . the wide , yet pointed , triangular skull and tall orbits recall traits found in labyrinthodonts , like sclerocephalus , and in the basal tetrapod , tiktaalik . here , in the large reptile tree ( lrt , 967 taxa ) , anthracosaurus nests with neopteroplax ( fig . 3 ) as a derived embolomere , the clade that likely gave rise to seymouriamorpha , lepospondyli and reptilia\nhas an inverted teardrop shape . the marginal and palatal fangs are quite large . although flattened in dorsal view , comparisons suggest the jaw margin was convex , as in\nis basal in the embolomeri . those giant marginal and palatal fangs indicate a predatory niche .\nfigure 2 . left : anthracosaurus chimaera from clack 1987 . right : older tracing in dorsal view of the complete skull and palatal view attributed to anthracosaurus from an online photo . the narrower skull is made of several different specimens ( chimaera ) and produces a loss of resolution in the lrt .\n( fig . 2 ) based on a chimaera of specimens . unfortunately , plugging that data into the lrt produced loss of resolution over several nodes . using the older single skull in dorsal view had no such problems .\nfigure 3 . neopteroplax has a skull quite similar to the older single skull of anthracosaurus and they nest together in the lrt .\n\u201cgauthier , kluge and rowe ( 1988 ) defined anthracosauria as \u2018amniota plus all other tetrapods that are more closely related to amniotes than they are to amphibians\u201d ( amphibia in turn was defined by these authors as a clade including lissamphibia and those tetrapods that are more closely related to lissamphibians than they are to amniotes ) . \u201d\nin this definition non - amniote anthracosauria does not include anthracosaurus , but only silvanerpeton and gephyrostegus in the lrt because more basal taxa are also basal to amphibians .\n\u201cas ruta , coates and quicke ( 2003 ) pointed out , this definition is problematic , because , depending on the exact phylogenetic position of lissamphibia within tetrapoda , using it might lead to the situation where some taxa traditionally classified as anthracosaurs , including even the genus anthracosaurus itself , wouldn\u2019t belong to anthracosauria .\nlaurin ( 2001 ) created a different phylogenetic definition of anthracosauria , defining it as \u201cthe largest clade that includes anthracosaurus russelli but not ascaphus truei\u201d .\nin the lrt ascaphus , the tailed frog , is derived from the large clade , the embolomeri , that includes anthracosaurus . however the small clade that includes just anthracosaurus and neopteroplax does not include the tailed frog .\nin the lrt the embolomeri are basal to eucritta and the seymouriamorpha , which are basal to the reptilia ( = amniota ) and lepospondyli ( including amphibia ) . the chroniosuchia and gephyrostegus are both amphibian - like reptiles in the lrt .\ns the exact phylogenetic position of lissamphibia within tetrapoda remains uncertain , it also remains controversial which fossil tetrapods are more closely related to amniotes than to lissamphibians , and thus , which ones of them were reptiliomorphs in any meaning of the word . \u201d\n( amphibia : anthracosauria ) from the northumberland coal measures . palaeontology 30 ( 1 ) : 15 - 26 .\ndescription of anthracosaurus russelli , a new labyrinthodont from the lanarkshire coalfield . quartery journal of the geological society 19 : 56 - 58 .\nhuxley . philosophical transactions of the royal society of london , b . 269 : 581 - 640 .\nhuxley ( amphibia : labyrinthodontia ) and the family anthracosauridae . philosophical transactions of the royal society b . 279 ( 968 ) : 447\u2013512 ."]}
{"id": 1640, "summary": [{"text": "colomesus is a genus of pufferfishes confined to tropical south america .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "apart from differences in size , the two species are superficially similar , being green above , white below , and patterned with black transverse bands across the dorsal surface .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "c. asellus is commonly found in the aquarium trade while c. psittacus due to its size and more specialized requirements is not found as often . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "colomesus", "paragraphs": ["the analyses included the following taxa : tetraodon nigroviridis , tetraodon biocellatus , sphoeroides testudineus , lagocephalus laevigatus , colomesus asellus , colomesus psittacus , and the freshwater colomesus from the tocantins drainage .\na ) colomesus tocantinensis nov . sp . \u2013 tocantins ( holotype pnt . uerj . 405 highlighted in white ) ; b ) colomesus asellus \u2013 iquitos ; c ) colomesus asellus \u2013 bel\u00e9m .\ncolomesus psittacus is a component of the marine aquarium trade , however there no indications at present time of declines from harvesting .\nthere are no known species - specific conservation measures in place for colomesus psittacus however its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas .\ncolomesus tocantinensis nov . sp . urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 9b8accb5 - ff55 - 4514 - 901b - 6366fb6ea307\nthe hydrodynamic trails of lepomis gibbosus ( centrarchidae ) , colomesus psittacus ( tetraodontidae ) and thysochromis ansorgii ( cichlidae ) investigated with scanning particle image velocimetry .\nthe hydrodynamic trails of lepomis gibbosus ( centrarchidae ) , colomesus psittacus ( tetraodontidae ) and thysochromis ansorgii ( cichlidae ) investigate . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nhere we used both morphological and molecular methodologies in an integrative taxonomical approach to investigate the diversity of the amazonian freshwater pufferfishes of the genus colomesus based on specimens collected from three distinct populations from both brazil and peru . additionally , we describe a new colomesus species from the upper tocantins drainage based on both morphological and molecular data .\nthe neighbor - joining ( nj ) and maximum - likelihood ( ml ) result trees are presented in figures 2 and 3 , respectively . the genus colomesus was recovered as monophyletic inside the group formed by the sampled sphoeroides species , in except for sphoeroides pachygaster . lagocephalus was recovered in a basal phylogenetic position in relation to sphoeroides and colomesus , therefore corroborating recent results such as those presented by [ 43 ] \u2013 [ 45 ] .\nbased on a comprehensive analysis including both morphological and molecular methodologies using the cytochrome c oxidase i gene , we were able to discuss aspects of the phylogeny and phylogeography of the south american freshwater pufferfishes of the genus colomesus .\nthe use of molecular systematic techniques together with morphological methodologies confirmed the identification of a new cryptic pufferfish species from the upper tocantins drainage , colomesus tocantinensis nov . sp . morphological features such as the color pattern , the absence of dermal flaps across the chin , the distinct \u2018inverted v\u2019 opercle shape , and the caudal peduncle morphology , all support the description of colomesus tocantinensis nov . sp . , as a new pufferfish species from the south american freshwater drainages .\ntyler , j . c . , 1964 - proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 116 : 119 - 148 a diagnosis of the two species of south american puffer fishes ( tetraodontidae , plectognathi ) of the genus colomesus .\nthe color pattern of colomesus tocantinensis nov . sp . is essentially the same as that of colomesus asellus , with five transverse dark bars across the dorsal region of the body . a dark blotch on the underside of the caudal peduncle , which is a state used by [ 46 ] to diagnose colomesus asellus , is present or absent , being vestigial to unobservable or absent in several specimens . the interspaces between the dark bars are light yellow , with gradually decreasing pigmentation and becoming white in the ventral region ( figure 6 ) . however , the light yellow to pale pattern presented by c . tocantinensis nov . sp . clearly contrasts with the gold - yellow pattern present in specimens from iquitos and bel\u00e9m .\ncolomesus was recovered deep inside the group formed by the remaining sphoeroides species , therefore suggesting sphoeroides as paraphyletic , with s . pachygaster being recovered as basal in relation to all the remaining sphoeroides species in all the analyses . additionally , colomesus was also recovered as the sister - taxa of the group formed by the species sphoeroides nephelus , s . tyleri , and s . greeleyi in the nj result , although it was recovered as the sister - taxa of s . greeleyi in the ml results .\ndeep sequence divergence was observed regarding the freshwater colomesus from the tocantins drainage ( figure 5 ) . the mean sequence divergence of the specimens from both bel\u00e9m and iquitos was estimated at 1 . 079 % , while the tocantins distances ranged from 1 . 955 % to 3 . 063 % , with a mean distance of 2 . 166 % . the observed sequence divergence values together with the congruence observed from both molecular and morphological phylogenetic approaches used here suggest the existence of an overlooked species within the genus colomesus .\ncoi amplicons were obtained from all the specimens included in the analyses . the obtained sequences clearly identified both previous accepted colomesus species ( c . asellus and c . psittacus ) , therefore being in accordance with the previous morphological diagnose presented by [ 46 ] .\nthe neighbor - joining ( nj ) and maximum - likelihood ( ml ) trees that encompass the genera triodon , diodon , chilomycterus , lagocephalus , tetraodon , takifugu , sphoeroides , and colomesus , were constructed using the mega 5 . 06 software [ 40 ] .\nour molecular results based on the coi marker agrees with the recent results such as [ 43 ] \u2013 [ 45 ] , and suggest that the genus sphoeroides should be revised , mainly regarding the phylogenetic position recovered for the genus colomesus , deeply nested within the sphoeroides tree , and the basal position recovered for s . pachygaster . we plan further investigations along these lines to reconcile any conflicts between these molecular hypotheses presented herein and morphologically based interpretations [ 47 ] of the phylogeny of the taxa of colomesus , sphoeroides , and lagocephalus .\ncitation : amaral crl , brito pm , silva da , carvalho ef ( 2013 ) a new cryptic species of south american freshwater pufferfish of the genus colomesus ( tetraodontidae ) , based on both morphology and dna data . plos one 8 ( 9 ) : e74397 . urltoken\naraujo - lima , c . a . r . m . , d . savastano , and l . cardeliquio jord\u00e3o , 1994 - revue d ' hydrobiologie tropicale 27 ( 1 ) : 33 - 38 drift of colomesus asellus ( teleostei : tetraodontidae ) larvae in the amazon river .\nkrumme , u . , h . keuthen , u . saint - paul , and w . villwock , 2007 - brazilian journal of biology 67 ( 3 ) : 383 - 392 contribution to the feeding ecology of the banded puffer fish colomesus psittacus ( tetraodontidae ) in north brazilian mangrove creeks .\nspecimens of colomesus asellus were collected from three distinct populations with about 2200 km of mean distance separating them . the collection localities were ilha do mosqueiro , bel\u00e9m , brazil ; upper tocantins river - porto nacional , tocantins , brazil ; and nanay river - iquitos , peru ( figure 1 ) .\namazon puffer fish aka colomesus asellus are awesome fish . they are generally considered as peaceful and get to about 4 inches and can live in planted tanks with other fish . if you ' ve enjoyed this video and haven ' t already subscribed to our channel , please click that subscribe button now .\namaral , c . r . l . , p . m . brito , d . a . silva and e . f . carvalho , 2013 - plos one 8 ( 9 ) : 1 - 15 a new cryptic species of south american freshwater pufferfish of the genus colomesus ( tetraodontidae ) , based on both morphology and dna data .\nwithin the genus colomesus , it can be immediately identified from congeners by its larger adult size , possession of 17 - 19 ( vs . 13 - 16 ) pectoral - fin rays , presence of 6 ( vs . 5 ) transverse dark bands dorsally on the body , and predominantly brackish , coastal ( vs . freshwater , fluvial ) ecology .\ncolomesus : from the ancient greek \u03c7\u03c9\u03bb\u00f3\u03c2 ( chol\u00f3s ) , meaning \u2018physically defective , crippled\u2019 , and \u03bc\u03ad\u03c3\u03bf\u03c2 \u200e ( m\u00e9sos ) , meaning \u2018middle\u2019 , presumably in reference to the frontal bones being narrowed , not connected to the orbit , and with the elongated postfrontals connected to the prefrontals ( see gill 1884 , also note misspelling of \u03c7\u03c9\u03bb\u00f3\u03c2 as \u03ba\u03bf\u03bbo\u03c2 ) .\noliveira , j . s . , s . c . rego fernandes , c . a . schwartz , c . bloch jr . , j . a . taquita melo , o . r . pires jr . , and j . c . de freitas , 2006 - toxicon 48 ( 1 ) : 55 - 63 toxicity and toxin identification in colomesus asellus , an amazonian ( brazil ) freshwater puffer fish .\nin lateral view , the skull is characterized by the wide preopercle with about 110 degrees between both horizontal and vertical rami ( figure 7 ) , with the preopercular canal running along its anterior border , and by the opercle which is divided in two distinct regions , having ventral and posterior wings , the herein called \u201cinverted v\u201d shape , distinct from the condition found in all other examined specimens of colomesus ( figure 10 ) . the subopercle is sturdy , with two small dorsal processes .\npuffer flesh is toxic and can cause clinical poisoning and human mortality , although it is regarded as a delicacy in certain countries . the predominant toxin , usually either tetrodotoxin or saxitoxin , is dependant on species , geographic area , and time of year . the toxins are not produced by the fishes themselves , but by bacteria living in symbiotic association , or they are acquired via the food chain . colomesus species accumulate saxitoxin , although it is unclear whether eating their flesh represents a danger to humans .\namong the amazonian taxa exploited by the ornamental fish industry in south america are those of colomesus [ 2 ] , a genus confined to south america , with what is presently considered two species , c . asellus and c . psittacus . c . asellus [ 3 ] is spread in the entire amazon , tocantins - araguaia drainages , and coastal environments from the amazon mouth to venezuela , being the only freshwater puffers on that continent . c . psittacus [ 4 ] is found in coastal marine and brackish water environments from cuba and the northern coast of south america to sergipe in brazil .\nwithin the genus colomesus , c . asellus can be immediately identified by possessing a unique transverse row of dermal flaps across the chin which is absent in its congeners c . psittacus and c . tocantinensis . it can be further told apart from the very similar c . tocantinensis by possession of 10 ( vs . 9 in c . tocantinensis ) anal - fin rays , 11 ( vs . 10 ) dorsal - fin rays , a triangular ( vs . notched ventrally , appearing as an inverted v ) opercle , base colour in dorsal portion of body golden yellow ( vs . light yellow to pale ) .\ncolomesus species diagnosed by six to seven basal pterygiophores and nine rays in the anal fin ( contra ten to eleven in both c . asellus and c . psittacus ) ; ten basal pterygiophores and rays in the dorsal fin ( contra eleven for both c . asellus and c . psittacus ) ; the absence of dermal flaps across the chin ( contra its presence uniquely in c . asellus ) ; a caudal peduncle with eight vertebrae ; and an opercle with a posterior ventral border subdivided in a ventral and a posterior region , the herein called \u201cinverted v\u201d shape ( contra the triangular opercle exhibited by both c . asellus and c . psittacus ) .\nalthough the influence of marine incursions after the miocene is still under debate , the caribbean ( or miocene ) marine incursion , via the llanos basin ( colombia - venezuela ) , is well accepted based on both geological and paleontological evidence , suggesting that these incursions may have isolated marine taxa within the western south america freshwater environments [ 48 ] \u2013 [ 52 ] . this might be the case for the freshwater tetraodontids . as pointed by [ 53 ] , this scenario predicts that the distribution of the marine sister groups of marine lineages should be related with the caribbean or western atlantic , the age of freshwater taxa should be coincident with marine incursions , and the biogeographic congruence should be observed among multiple unrelated taxa , conditions only partially filled by the genus colomesus .\nthe skull is partially similar to those found in colomesus asellus described and figured by [ 46 ] , although the frontals exhibit a wide posterior border and prominently participate in the orbital margin ( figures 7 \u2013 9 ) . the prefrontals are triangular and articulate medially with the ethmoid , which posteriorly articulates with the frontals and anteriorly with the palatines ( figure 8 ) . the supraoccipital is roughly triangular and well developed , with an elongate posterior process which covers the first vertebrae ( figure 8 ) . the sphenotics articulate postero - laterally with the frontals and , in the examined specimens , they neither contact nor closely approach the prefrontals . the lateral wing of the sphenotics is only partially developed ( figure 8 ) . posterior to the sphenotics , the pterotics ( figures 7 and 8 ) articulates posteriorly with the slender supracleithrum and medially with the epiotics , which articulates medially with the supraoccipital ( figure 9 ) .\nthe genus colomesus is restricted to south america ( amaral et al . 2013 ) . tetraodontids are characterized by a tough skin that is often covered with small spinulous scales , a beak - like dental plate divided by a median suture , a slit - like gill opening anterior to the base of the pectoral fin , no pelvic fins , no fin spines , a single usually short - based dorsal fin , a single usually short - based anal fin , and no ribs . they are capable of inflating their abdomens with water when frightened or disturbed and are capable of producing and accumulating toxins such as tetrodotoxin and saxitoxin in the skin , gonads , and liver . the degree of toxicity varies by species , and also according to geographic area and season ( allen and randall 1977 , allen and erdmann 2012 ) . fishes in the family tetraodontidae have the smallest vertebrate genomes known to date ( neafsey and palumbi 2003 )\ngreek , kolos = short , truncated + greek , mesos = a half ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; freshwater ; brackish ; demersal ; ph range : 7 . 0 - ? ; dh range : 10 - ? ; depth range 1 - 40 m ( ref . 5217 ) . tropical ; 23\u00b0c - 26\u00b0c ( ref . 2060 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 29 . 3 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 71685 ) ; common length : 25 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5217 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 11 - 12 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 11 . body except for snout , pectoral base and caudal peduncle covered with prickles ; teeth fused into plates , two plates on each jaw ; nostril with two openings ; body dark green dorsally with six transverse black bars , white ventrally ; fins dusky green or dark brown ( ref . 13608 ) .\nsolitary or in groups of 2 or 3 individuals but never in schools ( ref . 35237 ) . inhabits shallow inshore waters usually on soft bottoms . frequently found in freshwater ( ref . 13608 ) . when threatened , it becomes inflated like a balloon , in order to ward off predators . carnivorous , feeding mainly on mollusks which crushes with its powerful teeth ( ref . 35237 ) . of negligible commercial importance and usually not marketed ( ref . 5217 ) .\ncervig\u00f3n , f . , r . cipriani , w . fischer , l . garibaldi , m . hendrickx , a . j . lemus , r . m\u00e1rquez , j . m . poutiers , g . robaina and b . rodriguez , 1992 . fichas fao de identificaci\u00f3n de especies para los fines de la pesca . gu\u00eda de campo de las especies comerciales marinas y de aquas salobres de la costa septentrional de sur am\u00e9rica . fao , rome . 513 p . preparado con el financiamento de la comisi\u00f3n de comunidades europeas y de norad . ( ref . 5217 )\n) : 25 . 6 - 28 , mean 27 . 3 ( based on 210 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 7500 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 02570 ( 0 . 01637 - 0 . 04036 ) , b = 2 . 86 ( 2 . 73 - 2 . 99 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 6 \u00b10 . 50 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 25 of 100 ) .\nfreshwater ; demersal ; ph range : 5 . 5 - 7 . 2 ; dh range : 5 - 15 . tropical ; 22\u00b0c - 28\u00b0c ( ref . 13614 )\nsouth america : amazon river basin from peru to maraj\u00f3 island , including tributaries araguaia and guapor\u00e9 rivers ; orinoco river basin near the mouth ; essequibo river basin .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 12 . 8 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 79673 )\nfound mostly in freshwater and coastal streams , but can tolerate brackish water . sometimes kept in aquariums ( ref . 26938 ) .\nortega , h . and r . p . vari , 1986 . annotated checklist of the freshwater fishes of peru . smithson . contrib . zool . ( 437 ) : 1 - 25 . ( ref . 6329 )\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 03236 ( 0 . 01891 - 0 . 05537 ) , b = 2 . 85 ( 2 . 71 - 2 . 99 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 \u00b10 . 51 se ; based on food items .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 14 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncarpenter , k . e . , comeros - raynal , m . , harwell , h . & sanciangco , j .\nis known from the gulf of paria to northern brazil where it is common and locally abundant in mangrove creeks and estuaries at depths ranging from 0 to 32 metres . it appears to be common and abundant in parts of its range .\nis a component of the marine aquarium trade , however there are no indications of population declines from harvesting at present time . there have been no documented population declines in\n, however due to its affinity with mangroves this species may be experiencing population declines due to habitat loss in parts of its range .\n, however its distribution overlaps with several marine reserves in parts of its range . it is therefore listed as least concern .\n2010 ) . its range extends eastward the gulf of paria and orinoco river region on the eastern coast of venezuela to the amazon river basin in northern brazil . it is found as far south as sergipe in brazil ( amaral 2013 ) . it is known from marine and freshwaters around trinidad and tobago ( tyler 1964 , philip\n. 2013 ) . it is also found in cuba ( amaral 2013 ) . it can also be found in freshwater , and is known from several hundred kilometres upstream in the amazon and its tributary river system .\nis a dominant component of northern mangrove estuaries , both numerically and by weight .\n2007 ) accounting for between 19 and 52 % of total catch mass ( giarrizzo and krumme 2009 ) . this species is the second most abundant estuarine species in tidal mangrove creeks of the lower caet\u00e9 estuary , with population density and biomass fluctuating seasonally ( barletta\n2003 ) but with a continuous occurrence ( giarrizzo and krumme 2009 ) . in mangrove creeks in northern brazil , there were no major changes in the mean size of juvenile\n2013 ) . this species exhibited a geographic consistence in abundance in northern brazilian estuaries ( between 7 . 7 % and 11 . 4 % ) ( vilar\nare very common in museum collections ( accessed through the fishnet2 portal , www . fishnet2 . org , 2014 - 03 - 17 ) .\nmay be experiencing population declines due to habitat loss in parts of its range .\nis thought to have relatively continuous reproductive activity in brazilian mangrove creeks ( giarrizzo and krumme 2009 ) . different estuarine habitats are inhabited by different size classes of resident\n, and are likely connected by regular tidal migrations ( giarrizzo and krumme 2009 ) . the estimated consumption / biomass ratio of this species in a mangrove estuary in northeastern brazil was 8 . 8 , which was relatively low - q / b ratios varied from between 2 . 3 for\nis a component of the aquarium trade , and is exported from brazil , colombia , and peru ( prang 2007 ) . in brazil , this species is of no commercial interest to fishermen and is rarely marketed due to its toxicity ( krumme\n2007 ) . under the name baiacu , this species is valued for its medicinal properties . the bile and liver oil are used to treat breast cancer , backache , and warts ( alves and rosa 2007 ) . the japanese name for this species is kuro - obifugu .\nmay be experiencing population declines due to habitat loss in parts of its range . it is taken as bycatch in the laulao catfish (\nglobally , 16 % of mangrove species are at elevated risk of extinction . particular areas of geographical concern include the atlantic and pacific coasts of central america , where as many as 40 % of mangroves species present are threatened with extinction . ( polidoro et al . 2010 ) . in the caribbean , approximately 24 % of mangrove area has been lost over the past quarter - century ( fao 2007 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\npsittacus : from the ancient greek \u03c8\u03b9\u03c4\u03c4\u03b1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 \u200e ( psittak\u00f3s ) , meaning \u2018parrot\u2019 , persumably in reference to this species\u2019 beak - like mouthparts .\nthis species\u2019 known range extends eastwards from the parque nacional natural tayrona in magdalena department , colombia , across northern venezuela , the gulf of paria and orinoco delta , then southwards via the guyanas and past the mouth of the amazon , with the southernmost records from sergipe state in northeastern brazil . it is also known from trinidad and tobago and caribbean islands including the greater antilles , lesser antilles , and bahamas .\nrecords from the middle and upper amazon basins appear to represent misidentifications of the congener c . asellus .\nalthough it does penetrate the lower basins of rivers , particularly the amazon where it has been collected from the rio xingu several hundred kilometres from its mouth , this species is predominantly an inhabitant of mangrove swamps , estuaries , and other such saline habitats .\nit is particularly common in tidal channels , shallow inshore lagoons , and the lower reaches of rivers .\nis suggested as a bare minimum , but even this may prove too small for long - term care .\nchoice of d\u00e9cor is not especially critical though it should be maintained in a well - decorated set - up , perhaps containing some driftwood roots or branches in order to mimic its natural mangrove habitats .\nit is intolerant of organic waste and require spotless water in order to thrive . moderate levels of dissolved oxygen and water movement are also recommended , meaning additional powerheads , pumps , etc . , should be employed as necessary . a linear flow pump may prove a useful addition , while weekly water changes of 30 - 50 % should be considered mandatory .\nwild examples can be delicate and sensitive to white spot / ich post - import , so a lengthy quarantine period may be required . maintenance in pure freshwater may also present problems , so the addition of marine salt to a standard gravity of \u22651 . 010 is recommended .\nchiefly carnivorous and feeds almost exclusively on molluscs and crustaceans such as cirripedia ( barnacles ) and brachyuran crabs , taking increasingly mobile prey as it matures . there is also evidence to suggest seasonal changes in diet , with crabs favoured during drier periods .\nin the aquarium offer unshelled crab legs , cockles , mussels , prawns , etc . tetraodontids lack true teeth , the jawbone itself being modified into four fused toothlike structures . these grow continuously at a surprising rate , so such a diet is essential in order to maintain them at a reasonable length .\njuveniles apparently form loose aggregations in the wild , but in the confines of an aquarium this species is likely to prove aggressive in all but the largest systems .\nthis species is also referred to as \u2018parrot puffer\u2019 in the ornamental trade , although it is not a popular aquarium fish .\nother defining characters of tetraodontids include a tough skin usually covered with small spines , a beak - like dental plate divided by a median suture , a reduced gill opening anterior to the pectoral - fin base , no pelvic fins or spinous fin rays , typically short - based dorsal and anal fins , and no ribs .\nbloch , m . e . and j . g . schneider , 1801 - gottlob schneider , saxo . berolini . sumtibus auctoris impressum et bibliopolio sanderiano commissum : i - lx + 1 - 584 m . e . blochii , systema ichthyologiae iconibus cx ilustratum . post obitum auctoris opus inchoatum absolvit , correxit , interpolavit jo .\ncamargo , m . , t . giarrizzo , and v . isaac , 2004 - ecotropica 10 : 123 - 147 review of the geographic distribution of fish fauna of the xingu river basin , brazil .\ngill , t . n . , 1884 - proceedings of the united states national museum 7 ( 26 - 27 ) : 411 - 427 synopsis of the plectognath fishes .\nhelfman , g . , b . b . collette , d . e . facey , and b . w . bowen , 2009 - wiley - blackwell : 1 - 736 the diversity of fishes : biology , evolution , and ecology , 2nd edition .\nnelson , j . s . , 2006 - john wiley & sons , hoboken , n . j . : i - xix + 1 - 601 fishes of the world . 4th edition .\nphillip , d . a . t . , d . c . taphorn , e . holm , j . f . gilliam , b . a . lamphere and h . l\u00f3pez - fern\u00e1ndez , 2013 - zootaxa 3711 ( 1 ) : 1 - 64 annotated list and key to the stream fishes of trinidad & tobago .\nreis , r . e . , s . o . kullander and c . j . ferraris , jr . ( eds ) , 2003 - edipucrs , porto alegre : i - xi + 1 - 729 check list of the freshwater fishes of south and central america . cloffsca .\nthe best way to identify c . asellus from c . psittacus is the number of bands on their back . c . asellus having 5 when c . psittacus having 6 . the black band at the nose doesn\u2019t count . even if the band is very faint , it counts .\nasellus : derivation unclear ; possibly from the latin asellus , meaning \u2018small donkey\u2019 .\noccurs throughout much of the amazon basin in brazil , colombia , peru , and ecuador , including the amazonas / solim\u00f5es main channel plus the rios par\u00e1 , tocantins , jari , xingu , tapaj\u00f3s , uatum\u00e3 , madeira , trombetas , negro , purus , tef\u00e9 , japur\u00e1 / caquet\u00e1 , juru\u00e1 , juta\u00ed , i\u00e7\u00e1 / putomayo , javary , ampiyacu , amacayac\u00fa , napo , nanay , mara\u00f1\u00f3n , and ucayali , with its range extending at least as far upstream as pucallpa in eastern peru .\nthere are also numerous records from drainages north of the amazon mouth including the essequibo and waini in guyana , and lower orinoco in venezuela . it appears to be absent from french guiana and suriname .\nhas been recorded in lower , middle , and upper river basins with habitats including sandbars , beaches , floodplain lakes , banks with overhanging vegetation , and fast - flowing rapids over bedrock , boulders , and stones . it is mostly collected from habitats with high oxygen levels , suggesting that it may be sensitive to low oxygen availability .\nit is adaptable , penetrating into tributaries of the upper amazon , but also occuring in the amazon and orinoco delta regions , although it does not tend to be found in highly acidic black - waters .\nthe maximum recorded length in wild specimens is 128 mm , but aquarium reports suggest 70 \u2013 80 mm to be typical .\nchoice of d\u00e9cor is not especially critical though it should be maintained in a well - decorated set - up . the addition of floating or overhanging vegetation and driftwood roots or branches also seems to be appreciated .\nthis species is intolerant of organic waste and require spotless water in order to thrive . moderate levels of dissolved oxygen and water movement are also recommended , meaning additional powerheads , pumps , etc . , should be employed as necessary . a linear flow pump may prove a useful addition , while weekly water changes of 30 - 50 % should be considered mandatory .\nwild examples can be delicate and sensitive to white spot / ich post - import , so a lengthy quarantine period may be required .\ntetraodontids lack true teeth , the jawbone itself being modified into four fused toothlike structures . these grow continuously at a surprising rate , so offer regular meals of shelled invertebrates such as snails , crab legs , cockles , etc . , in order to maintain them at a reasonable length . there is some evidence to suggest that aufwuchs form a significant proportion of the natural diet , therefore it may be worth permitting or even encouraging algal growth on hard items of d\u00e9cor .\nadditional foods can include chopped shellfish , small earthworms , and live or frozen chironomid larvae ( bloodworm ) , artemia , etc . dried products should not form the principal component of the diet , although pelleted formats with a very hard consistency may prove useful .\nnot aggressive as such but unsuitable for the general community aquarium , and best - maintained alone or in a larger set - up with other fluvial fishes .\nthis species naturally forms loose aggregations and can behave nervously in the absence of conspecifics . ideally a group of 6 or more should be purchased .\nthis species exhibits a spawning strategy comparable to that of marine puffers and in contrast to the majority of freshwater tetraodontids , with high fecundity , relatively small eggs , and no parental care . limited studies in the central amazon basin suggest that spawning occurs in main river channels or close to banks at the mouths of floodplain lakes and tributaries during periods of high water . the pelagic larvae are washed into nursery zones in floodplain lakes where they complete their development , returning to river channels when flood waters recede .\nthis species is also referred to as \u2018south american puffer\u2019 , \u2018sap\u2019 , \u2018amazonian puffer\u2019 , \u2018peruvian puffer\u2019 , or \u2018brazilian puffer\u2019 in the ornamental trade .\nit is distinguished from c . psittacus by its smaller adult size ( max . 128 mm sl vs . 289 mm sl in c . psittacus ) , possession of 13 - 16 ( vs . 17 - 19 ) pectoral - fin rays , presence of 5 ( vs . 6 ) transverse dark bands dorsally on the body , and predominantly freshwater , fluvial ( vs . brackish , coastal ) ecology .\nm\u00fcller , j . and f . h . troschel , 1849 - im auftrag sr . m\u00e4jestat des k\u00f6nigs von preussen ausgef\u00fchrt von richard schomburgk v . 3 . berlin : 618 - 644 fische . in : reisen in britisch - guiana in den jahren 1840 - 44 .\nortega , h . and r . p . vari , 1986 - smithsonian contributions to zoology 437 : iii + 1 - 25 annotated checklist of the freshwater fishes of peru .\nits really hard to identify c . asellus from c . psittacus , the best way i found out is to count the black bars on their body . c . asellus has 5 bars and c . psittacus has 6 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed ) . catalog of fishes . urltoken electronic version accessed 03 - nov - 2014\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of tetrodon psittacus bloch & schneider , 1801 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nmy amazonian , a . k . a . patagonian puffer fish , i love him ! i breed snails for him in a separate 2 , 5 gallon tank . he also loves frozen bloodworms , but he really needs snail to keep his teeth at correct size .\ntypes of freshwater puffer fish for your aquarium | golden puffer , dwarf , amazonian etc .\nmy own fish store tour . freshwater pufferfish , nano fish , rare plecos , planted aquariums .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ninstitut f\u00fcr zoologie der rheinischen friedrich - wilhelms - universit\u00e4t bonn , poppelsdorfer schloszligbeta ; , d - 53115 bonn , germany . hanke @ urltoken\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncopyright : \u00a9 2013 amaral et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : this study was supported by the brazilian national counsel of technological and scientific development and funda\u00e7\u00e3o carlos chagas filho de amparo \u00e0 pesquisa do estado do rio de janeiro . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nthe tetraodontidae is an acantomorpha fish family with circumglobal distribution composed of 189 species in 19 genera , occurring in seas , estuaries , and rivers between the tropical and temperate regions [ 1 ] . they are mainly characterized by their typical four large dental plates ; the ability to inflate their body in stressful situations ; the presence of the neurotoxin tetrodotoxin / saxitoxin in its tissues , being responsible for numerous cases of fatal poisoning in many countries , including brazil ; and by having the smallest genome among vertebrates , therefore being considered as a model for the genome evolution of the group .\nmainly located in tropical and subtropical regions all around the world , including the amazon region , the ornamental fish industry is one of the largest transporters of live animals and plants with an annual trade volume estimated at u $ 15\u201325 billion [ 5 ] \u2013 [ 7 ] , in a scenario where species identification problems , mainly related to border biosecurity are not rare .\nthe dna barcode is a widely accepted tool for species determination mainly due to its enhanced attention on standardization and data validation [ 8 ] , being a rapid and low cost method of identification [ 9 ] . the use of dna barcoding techniques has been utilized in many taxa , including bacteria , birds , bivalves , butterflies , fishes , flies , macroalgae , mammals , spiders , sprigtails , and also for plants [ 10 ] \u2013 [ 27 ] .\nthe dna barcode technique for metazoans uses a short ( \u223c650 bp ) and standardized gene region from the mitochondrial 5\u2032 region of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit i ( coi ) for a rapid and cost - effective animal identification . this has been demonstrated to be an effective fish identification tool in numerous situations , including consumer protection [ 28 ] \u2013 [ 30 ] , fisheries management / conservation [ 31 ] , border biosecurity in the ornamental fish trade [ 5 ] , and in the identification of overlooked or cryptic species [ 32 ] .\nmap of south america showing the northern hydrology and the localities where the specimens were collected ( grey and green marks ) .\nno statement from an ethics committee was necessary , and the manuscript did not involve any endangered or protect species . all samples were extracted from dead specimens collected with appropriate permissions under authorization number 22512 issued by sisbio / instituto chico mendes de conserva\u00e7\u00e3o da biodiversidade . we used the ice - slurry method for killing following [ 33 ] as they are tropical warm water species and the collected specimens are all smaller than 5 cm sl . all specimens were preserved in alcohol . the reported localities do not include protected areas .\nthe electronic version of this document does not represent a published work according to the international code of zoological nomenclature ( iczn ) , and hence the nomenclatural acts contained in the electronic version are not available under that code from the electronic edition . therefore , a separate edition of this document was produced by a method that assures numerous identical and durable copies , and those copies were simultaneously obtainable ( from the publication date noted on the first page of this article ) for the purpose of providing a public and permanent scientific record , in accordance with article 8 . 1 of the code . the separate print - only edition is available on request from plos by sending a request to plos one , 1160 battery street , suite 100 , san francisco , ca 94111 , usa along with a check for $ 10 ( to cover printing and postage ) payable to \u201cpublic library of science\u201d .\nin addition , this published work and the nomenclatural acts it contains have been registered in zoobank , the proposed online registration system for the iczn . the zoobank lsids ( life science identifiers ) can be resolved and the associated information viewed through any standard web browser by appending the lsid to the prefix \u201c urltoken \u201d . the lsid for this publication is : urn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 033a323a - 18f7 - 4788 - 8405 - 32d78bf65b13 .\nspecimens from all three localities were cleared and stained following the methodology of [ 34 ] .\nthe molecular systematic analyses used newly determined sequences obtained from the mitochondrial barcode marker coi as well as previously published sequences obtained from the ncbi and bold databases .\nfor the newly determined sequences , a fragment of epaxial musculature was submitted to the standard protocol for dna extraction and purification from the qiagen qiaamp dna ffpe tissue kit . the fragments were amplified and sequenced using the primers vf2 _ t1 and fishr2 _ t1 [ 35 ] \u2013 [ 37 ] . all primers were appended with m13 tails on sequencing reactions . the pcr profile consisted of 2 min at 95\u00b0c , 35 cycles of 30 sec at 94\u00b0 , 40 sec at 52\u00b0c , and 1 min at 72\u00b0c , with a final extension step for 10 min at 72\u00b0c . sequencing reactions were performed with the use of the bigdye\u00ae terminator v . 3 . 1 cycle sequencing kit ( applied biosystems , inc . ) , with 25 cycles of 10 sec at 95\u00b0c , 5 sec at 50\u00b0c and 4 min at 60\u00b0c . sequencing products were processed in an abi 3500 capillary system ( applied biosystems , inc . ) .\nthe chromatograms were checked and aligned using the bioedit 7 . 053 [ 38 ] software with its built - in clustalw routine [ 39 ] . the alignment was visually inspected for accuracy and to minimize missing data . all the newly determined sequences are available at the bold database ( urltoken ) under the project acronym pufer . the genbank accession numbers for all newly determined and previously published sequences used in the present manuscript are summarized in table 1 . the dataset consisted of a 651 bp coi matrix , and we used the mega 5 . 06 software [ 40 ] to determinate the tn93 + g + i as the most appropriate model of sequence evolution based on the akaike criterion ( aic ) [ 41 ] .\nthe neighbor - joining sequence divergences were calculated based on the kimura two parameter ( k2p ) distance model [ 42 ] on bold workbench and mega 5 . 06 software [ 40 ] . the haplotype determination was carried with the use of the server fabox ( urltoken ) .\nthe k2p divergence distances between congeneric species ranged from 5 . 557 % to 12 . 394 % with a mean distance of 8 . 546 % , while the uncorrected k2p distance ranged from 0 to 4 . 472 % within species . the mean k2p distance within the analyzed populations was 0 . 657 % and the mean normalized distance within species is 1 . 079 % ( figure 4 ) .\ndistribution of k2p distances ( % ) for coi : a ) within species ; b ) within genera ; c , normalized distribution of k2p distance ( % ) within species .\nthe specific epithet tocantinensis refers to the type locality , porto nacional , state of tocantins , brazil .\nthe specimens are from the tocantins river near porto nacional , state of tocantins , brazil .\nthe holotype ( pnt . uerj . 405 ) is 29 , 62 mm sl ( figure 6 ) , with 10 , 37 mm hl ; the entire type - series ranges from 27 . 02 mm to 34 . 9 mm sl . the meristic and morphometric data of the type series is presented in table 2 . the extent of the dorsal and ventral lateral lines is similar to those found in c . asellus . the prickles extend along the dorsal , lateral , and ventral surfaces of the body , from the level of the eye to the origin of the dorsal fin .\nthe nasal sac is higher than that presented in the specimens of c . asellus . two large lateral and anteromedial nostrils are present . they are similar to those found on c . psittacus , rather than the two small nostrils exhibited by c . asellus . the anterior surface of the nasal sac is smooth while the posterior surface of it is folded as in c . psittacus , exhibiting a \u201ct - shaped\u201d ridge with a relatively small dorsal flap . this flap seems much smaller than the one found on c . asellus , although more flexible when compared to c . psittacus .\nthe presence of dermal flaps across the chin is another character used by [ 46 ] to distinguish c . asellus from c . psittacus . no dermal flaps could be seen in the examined specimens from the tocantins river , although they are always present in examined specimens from iquitos and bel\u00e9m .\na ) left photograph of the head ; b ) anatomical interpretations . abbreviations : ang , angular ; art , articular ; boc , basioccipital ; brstgs , branchiostegals ; cl , cleithrum ; den , dentary ; epi , epiotic ; ethm , ethmoid ; exo , exoccipital ; fr , frontal ; hyo , hyomandibula ; ecptg , ectopterygoid ; mept , mesopterygoid ; mtptg , metapterygoid ; mx , maxilla ; op , opercle ; pal , palatine ; pcl . l / r , ventral post - cleithrum left and right ; pfr , prefrontal ; pmx , premaxilla ; pop , preopercle ; pro , prootic ; psph , parasphenoid ; pto , pterotic ; qua , quadrate ; r , radials ; scl , supracleithrum ; soc , supraocciptal ; sop , subopercle ; sphe , sphenotic ; sym , sympletic ; vo , vomer . scale bar equals 5 mm .\na ) top photograph of the head ; b ) anatomical interpretations . abbreviations : epi , epiotic ; ethm , ethmoid ; exo , exoccipital ; fr , frontal ; pal , palatine ; pfr , prefrontal ; pmx , premaxilla ; pto , pterotic ; scl , supracleithrum ; soc , supraocciptal ; sphe , sphenotic . scale bar equals 5 mm .\nthe parasphenoid is elongate and does not exhibit any developed dorsal flange ( figures 7 and 9 ) . the hyomandibula is roughly triangular and has a slender ventral region ; its wide head articulates dorsally with the sphenotics , and its upper posterior edge with the anterior end of the opercle ( figure 7 ) .\nthe palatine is wide and somewhat triangular , with a robust anterior process for the maxilla ( figure 7 ) . the maxilla is robust , with an anterodorsal region articulating with the premaxilla and a posterior expanded region , medially concave for muscle insertion . the ectopterygoid articulates dorsally with the palatine and ventrally with the anterodorsal border of the quadrate . the metapterygoid is wide and composes almost the entire ventral orbital region ( figure 7 ) . it articulates anteriorly with the mesopterygoid ( figure 7 ) , and with the posterior end of the large and triangular quadrate ( figure 7 ) . the quadrate exhibits a well - developed posteroventral spine articulating posteriorly with the slender symplectic ( figure 7 ) , and anteriorly with the articular . the articular is \u201cl\u201d shaped and articulates anteriorly with the robust dentary and ventrally with the small angular ( figure 7 ) .\nfive branchiostegal rays ( figure 7 ) are present and the branchial apparatus is strikingly similar in all the examined specimens ( figure 11 ) .\nthe pectoral girdle is robust and formed by a wide cleithrum , somewhat triangular and posteriorly expanded , articulating dorsally with the slender supracleithrum . the supracleithrum articulates ventrally with the two postcleithra ; a slender dorsal postcleithrum , followed by the posteriorly expanded ventral postcleithrum ( figure 7 ) . there are four radials and sixteen pectoral fin rays ( figure 7 ) .\nthe axial skeleton has 19 vertebrae . the dorsal fin originates between vertebrae 7\u20138 and has ten basal pterygiophores and ten fin rays ( figures 12 \u2013 14 ) . the anal fin is located beneath the 9 th vertebra and has six basal pterygiophores and nine fin rays .\na ) left photograph of the unpaired fins and caudal endoskeleton ; b ) anatomical interpretations . abbreviations : e , epural ; h , dorsal hypural plate ; h - h , ventral hypural plate fused with the ural centrum ; phy , parhypural ; pu , pre - ural vertebrae ; pbd , dorsal - fin basal pterigiophores ; pba , anal - fin basal pterigiophores . scale bar equals 5 mm .\nthe caudal skeleton ( figure 12 ) has a wide ural centrum formed by the preural centrum 1 , the ural centrum , the ventral hypural plate , and the postero - dorsal expansion which articulates anteriorly with the almost triangular epural , and posteriorly with the dorsal hypural plate ( figure 12 ) . eleven caudal fin rays , five dorsal and six ventral , are present in all of the specimens , both the uppermost and the two lowermost rays are unbranched .\nit was recently proposed [ 55 ] , based on the distribution of characiforms , that recent marine incursions would have isolated fish populations in upland terrains or refuges , where lineage divergence is maximized , followed by dispersal episodes back to the lowlands . the \u201cmuseum hypothesis\u201d predicts that lowlands exhibit a higher number of species , but lower levels of endemism , than highlands , and that the upland refuges would represent areas of high endemism .\nlooking on the molecular phylogeny of the serrasalmids pygocentrus and serrasalmus , [ 56 ] proposed a phylogenetic test which predicts that basal lineages in a phylogeny of widespread fishes would occur in highland areas , and lowland lineages would have originated only during the last 5 ma . additionally , [ 57 ] studying the genetics of symphysodon cichlids , indicated the effects that marine incursions would have in population structure , stating that populations in upland terrains or refuges would exhibit reduced genetic variation , while populations in lowlands would represent multiple upland sources , therefore exhibiting a high level of genetic variation , and that populations in lowlands would show a demographic pattern of expansion .\nour results recovered the upper tocantins lineages in a basal position in relation to all the remaining specimens , with the sequences being collapsed in uniquely two haplotypes ( figure 5 ) , the first one ( h1 ) , represented by eight sequences , and the second haplotype ( h2 ) , represented by a unique sequence . this suggests low genetic variation , at least among the studied sampling , and a history initially related with the eastern amazon , followed by a subsequently expansion to the western south america .\nthe tocantins - araguaia drainage is the fourth largest brazilian drainage , draining part of the northern end of the brazilian shield directly to the eastern end of the amazon basin . it exhibits a recent geomorphological history , within a still tectonically active sedimentary basin with recent subsidence episodes , which are related with the high load of sediments observed within the basin , leading the development of the bananal plain , in the lower part of the drainage , mainly during the quaternary [ 58 ] \u2013 [ 59 ] .\nfinally , our results reinforce the upper tocantins drainage as an area of high endemism within the tocantins - araguaia drainage , although the composite nature of the entire drainage is unquestionable .\nwe would like to thank dr . james c . tyler ( smithsonian institution , washington ) for his support and helpfull comments on the manuscript . we are also grateful to dr . francesco santini ( universit\u00e1 degli studi di torino ) , dr . doroth\u00e9e huchon ( tel aviv university ) , and an anonymous reviewer for the valuable suggestions during the review of the manuscript , dr . leonor gusm\u00e3o and dr . antonio amorim ( universidade do porto ) for the comments during the initial discussion of the results , yuri modesto ( universidade do estado do rio de janeiro ) for the specimens from the tocantins drainage , l\u00facio paulo machado and diogo de mayrink ( universidade do estado do rio de janeiro ) for the specimens from iquitos ; ms . sandra raredon ( smithsonian institution , washington ) for the x - rays of tetraodontids , dr . richard pyle ( hawaii biological survey ) for the lsid numbers , and kleyton m . c . severiano and anna carolina chaves ( universidade do estado do rio de janeiro ) for the technical assistance ."]}
{"id": 1647, "summary": [{"text": "the comet or marine betta ( calloplesiops altivelis ) is a species of reef-associated tropical marine fish in the longfin family plesiopidae , most commonly found between 3 and 50 m deep .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is native to the indo-pacific ocean .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it can reach a maximum length of 20 cm . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "comet ( fish )", "paragraphs": ["hybridization ( fish ) , to specifically label dna sequences of interest . comet - fish exists in two versions , based on the neutral and the alkaline comet assays . a detailed description of the comet assay is given in\nidentification : any goldfish with the characteristic comet tail is classed as a comet , be it metallic orange , red and white or calico .\ni have a beautiful white comet / koi fish that i immediately removed from the tank where it was attacked by one of the other fish - possibly a tin foil barb - in the tank . the comet / koi is recovering but i ' m worried about the eyes of this fish ; it seems the tin foil barb bit / destroyed the eyes of the comet / koi fish . can the comet / koi fish ' s eyes grow back ? it ' s such a beautiful fish ! ! !\ncomet - fish with strand - specific probes reveals transcription - coupled repair of 8 - oxoguanine in human cells .\nfish tank care . guide to fish care with a simple look at aquarium filtration , how to clean a fish tank , and a fish tank maintenance schedule .\none key to successful comet husbandry is to provide plenty of suitable caves and crevices for this fish to hide in .\npopular is the red and white pond fish known as sarasa comet . having deep red and pure white coloration , they are attractive , hardy and large fish .\n, 15 years as a serious fish keeper , with 3 tanks and 15 fish .\ni started a fish aquarium with 5 gold comet fish in a 10 gallon aquarium filled with tap water and a filter , but they died with in an hour . how do i start a fish aquarium ?\nhi , i have one moor gold fish and one comet goldfish , can i know the best way to breed them .\nthe adult comet is a sight to behold ! not only is it beautiful , it is also a durable aquarium fish .\ni started a fish aquarium with 5 gold comet fish in a 10 gallon aquarium filled with tap water and a filter , but they died with in an hour . how do i start a fish aquarium ? - quora\ni have two comet fish . can someone tell me how to give care to them ? and when they will give babies etc ?\ncomet - fish with strand - specific probes reveals transcription - coupled repair of 8 - oxoguanine in human cells . - pubmed - ncbi\nif you have any additional information about the comet grouper please leave us a comment below .\nthe correct comet tail should be forked and well spread , and not droop or overlap .\nas long as the pellets are for fish , it should be ok . you should not feed anything to your fish that is not fish food .\nbetta fish care infographic , a handy cheat sheet that will benefit any keepers of siamese fighting fish .\nthe comet is the most popular coldwater fish and will be found in many ponds and aquariums across australia , its ability to adapt to a variety of water temperatures makes it a wonderful pond fish .\nboumis , robert .\ncare instructions for comet goldfish\naccessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken\njust for starters , you had way too many fish in an aquarium of that size . \u201cgold comet fish\u201d are goldfish . they need a minimum of 8 gallons of water per fish . they don ' t stay little , they can grow fairly large .\ndoes the fish look sick at all ? they often exhibit that behavior when one of the fish are sick .\nother types of comet goldfish include the sarasa comet . this variety has long flowing fins and is characterized by a red - and - white coloration that holds a resemblance to a koi color pattern called ' kohaku . ' the tancho single - tail comet is a silver variety with a red patch on its head .\nalthough these fish are very durable , comet keeping is not without some drawbacks . when initially introduced into an aquarium , these fish are very shy . your new comet may hide for a week or more before you even catch a fleeting glimpse of it . their timid nature can present a problem when feeding time rolls around , especially when included in a tank with more aggressive tankmates . the comet is a rather meticulous stalking predator . if it is with fish that quickly dash in and ingest introduced food , the comet may never have a chance to fill its belly . this can be particularly problematic if the comet is kept in a tank that lacks live substrate ( more on this later ) .\nother types of comet include the sarasa comet . this variety has long flowing fins and is characterized by a red - and - white coloration that holds a resemblance to a koi color pattern called ' kohaku . ' additionally , the tancho single - tail comet is a silver variety with a red patch on its head .\nthe comet is an incredibly hardy aquarium fish . i have had several individuals that survived otherwise total tank wipe outs caused by parasitic infections . in fact , i have yet to see a comet with a severe case of saltwater ich ( cryptocaryon irritans ) , even in aquaria where every other fish was covered with cysts !\nthe comet goldfish is also called the comet - tail goldfish or pond comet . this fish was the first variety of single - tail goldfish to be developed with a long caudal ( tail ) fin . it was developed in the united states from the common goldfish in the early 19th century , presumably by hugo mullert of philadelphia , who then introduced them in quantity into the market .\nboumis , robert .\ncare instructions for comet goldfish .\nanimals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / care - instructions - comet - goldfish - 4397 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .\nbeing a further development of the common goldfish , the comet is sometimes confused for its close relative . the comet goldfish and common goldfish have an almost identical body shape . however , the fins on the comet goldfish are much longer , especially the caudal ( tail ) fin . its caudal fin is also more deeply forked . on both these fish , the caudal fin is held fully erect .\npeaceful - although rarely aggressive , comet goldfish are very active and might annoy tankmates that prefer a peaceful environment .\nboumis , robert . ( n . d . ) . care instructions for comet goldfish . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / care - instructions - comet - goldfish - 4397 . html\ncomets have few options in terms of tank mates . most fish sold at pet shops are tropical fish , which require warmer water than goldfish . thus , either the goldfish will be stressed from increased temperature or the tropical fish will get stressed from the low temperature . however , any temperate - water fish that will not pick on a comet can share a tank or pond . koi may work , so long as they are not large enough to eat the comet .\ni just got 2 comet fish 2 days ago and right now they are in a 1 gallon fish bowl . they are small right now but i know they will get bigger . what size tank should i . . . ( more ) anonymous\ni just got 2 comet fish 2 days ago and right now they are in a 1 gallon fish bowl . they are small right now but i know they will get bigger . what size tank should i get so that they can grow bigger ? and i also want to add more fish with them . what ' s some good options of different fish to add ?\nthe comet acts as a predator on smaller fish and crustaceans in the reef environment ( field and field , 1998 ) . it also serves as a source of food for larger predators .\ncotelle , s . and ferard , j . f . ( 1999 ) comet assay in genetic ecotoxicology : a review .\n\u2013 is your fish big enough to eat pellets ? some pellets can be too big to fit in the mouths of young fish .\none of the hardiest of the goldfish varieties , comet goldfish are recommended for beginners . they are an easy fish to keep as they are not picky and will readily eat what is offered .\nmenke , m . , angelis , k . j . , and schubert , i . ( 2000 ) detection of specific dna lesions by a combination of comet assay and fish in plants .\nfor juveniles a general rule of thumb is 1 inch of fish ( 2 . 54 cm ) per 1 gallon of water . however , this rule only applies to young fish . larger gold fish consume much more oxygen than young fish so maintaining this formula for growing fish will stunt them and could contribute to disease and even death .\nmy comet goldfish , pam , looking good in her tank at night . she comes to the surface for a quick snack .\nthe comet has been successfully bred and raised in captivity ( this little beauty is from c - quest in puerto rico ) . note that there are larger and fewer spots on this juvenile fish .\nwelcome to the fish index ! we are maintaining a growing encyclopedia of fish species listed from a - z ! choose from our categories or browse the fish featured along the sides by clicking their pictures . each fish includes detailed information , pictures , video and user comments ! with over 30 , 000 different species in the world , our team of fish experts are constantly being challenged to discover new species . sample\nthe fish of the day\nor browse our impressive selection of aquarium fish !\nmy parents are looking to get some comet goldfish to put in their small pond outside . what are the first steps to take ?\ni want to have 3 comet goldfish . do i need a filter as well as the pump ? and is that enough space ?\nhi i have a pond with one red comet and 2 koi . the red comet seems to have become really fat the past 3 days it has not come up to eat iether . could it be laying eggs and if so can those eggs get fertilised by the koi ?\n, so readers who are not familiar with this technique can work directly with the protocol described here , without referring to additional protocols reported elsewhere . the neutral version of the comet assay detects double - strand breaks , while the alkaline version detects both double - and single - strand breaks as well as abasic sites or sites of incomplete repair . this chapter also details cell preparation and production of the hybridization probes adapted to the comet - fish technique . finally , microscopic analysis of comet - fish results is described , and possible procedures of quantification of the specific dna damage are presented .\nthe comet - fish technique described in this protocol is a tool to detect genome region - specific dna damage and repair . it is a combination of two established techniques , the comet assay ( or single - cell gel electrophoresis , or the single - cell gel test ) , to separate highly fragmented from moderately or nonfragmented dna and to measure it , and fluorescence\ni am going to get a couple of comet goldfish and could they live without a bubbler / filter ? i have not enough for one .\nthe adult size of the comet goldfish is also smaller than the common goldfish . yet they are every bit as durable and can be kept in either an aquarium or outdoor pond . both fish are inexpensive and readily available .\nhello dave . thanks for reaching out . in the world of fish , the goldfish and koi are probably the worst parental fish out there so the hiding is certainly not any protective measure by the fish . good luck ! - mike\nwith time and conditioning , your comet will spend more time in view . some individuals will even beg for food when you approach the aquarium . in general , a comet is more likely to spend time in the open in tanks with dim - lighting or when light levels are reduced ( this makes sense when you consider that they are nocturnal fish ) . but do not expect your comet to constantly swim about at the front of the aquarium and entertain your guests - this is not the nature of this beast .\nsasaki , y . f . , sekihashi , k . , izumiyama , f . , et al . ( 2000 ) the comet assay with multiple mouse organs : comparison of comet assay results and carcinogenicity with 208 chemicals selected from the iarc monographs and u . s . ntp carcinogenicity database .\nfrieauff , w . , hartmann , a . , and suter , w . ( 2001 ) automatic analysis of slides processed in the comet assay .\nbaez , j . 1998 . breeding the marine comet : a challenge for the best . sea scope 15 ( summer ) : 1 , 3 .\nlooking for medaka rice fish . what ever species you may have for sale .\nwhen first acquired , the comet will usually only eat live food . try adding feeder mollies , guppies , ghost shrimp , or brine shrimp to entice you comet . if this does not elicit a feeding response try dimming the lights and then adding the food . acquaint yourself with your comet ' s preferred hide outs and attempt to present the food near these areas . although these fish may only accept live food at first , they can be weaned onto frozen preparations ( e . g . , lifeline foods ) , frozen mysid shrimp , and chopped seafoods . one way to dupe your comet into accepting these substitutes is to place the food in the current produced by a water pump .\nhi , i have a white comet about 10 cm . long it started changing into orange , is it normal chance of color or is sick ? ?\nthe comet is generally more reddish orange in color while the common goldfish is more orange . while the comet goldfish is typically a reddish orange , this fish is also available in yellow , orange , white , and red . they can also be found as a bi - color red / white combination , and occasionally they are available with nacreous ( pearly ) scales , giving them a variegated color .\ngeoff rogers , nick fletcher , focus on freshwater aquarium fish , firefly books . 2004\nplease , please , don ' t get anymore fish until you ' ve done the necessary research , and have aquired the proper equipment to maintain happy , healthy fish .\nrapp , a . , bock , c . , dittmar , h . , and greulich , k . o . ( 1999 ) comet - fish used to detect uv - a sensitive regions in the whole human genome and on chromosome 8 .\nkeep watch over the relationship between your goldfish and any other tank mates . some species of fish are much more aggressive than others , and your goldfish may become victim to other fish in the tank . goldfish , unlike other families of fish , should actually be kept in goldfish - only tanks rather than mixed with tropicals or other types of fish .\nunfortunately , that is too small for comet goldfish . i would recommend going with mosquitofish or rosy red minnows . the goldfish will outgrow that size within a season .\nwhen it is threatened , the comet often enters a crevice headfirst , leaving its tail exposed . the tail is thought to mimic the head of a moray eel .\nthe comet is an incredibly hardy aquarium fish . i have had several individuals that survived otherwise total tank wipe outs caused by parasitic infections . in fact , i have yet to see a comet with a severe case of saltwater ich ( cryptocaryon irritans ) , even in aquaria where every other fish was covered with cysts ! during attempts to extract several of these fish from aquariums , i have had them tear their fins up and scales off after they wedged themselves between pieces of live rock . these wounds healed quickly without any signs of bacterial infection . yes , i am convinced these fish are almost indestructible ! the only malady i have seen comet\u2019s suffering from , and only on rare occasions , is lateral line and fin erosion . this can typically be prevented or even reversed by feeding a varied diet , soaking the fish\u2019s food in selco or by using a ecosystem filtration system ( a . k . a . miracle mud filter ) .\nthe comet goldfish is one of the oldest and best known variants of the common goldfish . it was first bred in the late 1800\u2019s in the united states , and has since become one of the best known and most widespread fish in the aquarium hobby .\ni have one comet goldfish and would like to get another \u2013 but all the ones i see at the pet store are much smaller \u2013 i\u2019m afraid it will be attacked . is that a misconception or should i keep looking for a similarly sized fish ?\ndavid alderton , encyclopedia of aquarium and pond fish , dk publishing , inc . , 2005\nprice : \u00a31 each upwards , though a lot more for larger and high quality fish .\nrapp , a . , bock , c , dittmar , h . , and greulich , k . o . ( 2000 ) uv - a breakage sensitivity of human chromosomes as measured by comet - fish depends on gene density and not on the chromosome size .\nbocker , w . , bauch , t . , muller , w . u . , and streffer , c . ( 1997 ) image analysis of comet assay measurements .\nfairbairn , d . w . , olive , p . l . , and o\u2019neill , k . l . ( 1995 ) the comet assay : a comprehensive review .\nrapp a . , hausmann m . , greulich k . o . ( 2005 ) the comet - fish technique . in : keohavong p . , grant s . g . ( eds ) molecular toxicology protocols . methods in molecular biology\u2122 , vol 291 . humana press\nhi mike i have a 40 litre fish tank with 4 lion head gold fish . have noticed the water becoming very murky there was a bit of aggression over the one fish at one point and now this particular fish continues to lay still on the floor of the tank and every now and then swims quickly to the surface and settles back down on the floor . the other fish are now quite sedate and swim around normally . is this a sign of spawning ?\nwassink , h . 1990 . a successful cultivation of the comet calloplesiops altivelis ( steindachner , 1903 ) . sea scope 7 ( spring ) : 1 , 2 , 3 .\nhello . i have a question . i have two comet goldfish , both are orange . one of them , is chasing the other around my tank should i be concerned with this behaviour ? i\u2019ve been told that they can attack other fish but i\u2019m not entirely sure .\ncommon goldfish , comet crosses , 5 to 8 cm babies , straight from the pond . the olive coloured youngsters will still colour up to orange or gold . these fish grow large ! only to pond owners please ! contact doerte via whatsapp 0846589928 or email sacrebleurabbits @ urltoken\nthere ' s so much you need to learn before a second attempt . please , please don ' t try keeping fish again until you ' ve learned the very basics of fish care .\nsmall fish tankmates are also at some risk when introduced in with a resident comet . i had a large individual that persistently stalked small dottybacks and shrimp gobies . fortunately , it never succeeded in capturing either of its more diminutive tankmates . usually comets are a minimal danger to piscine tankmates that are established residents . however , any fish that can be ingested is potential prey .\nlike most cold - water fish , comet goldfish require a trigger to start spawning . the easiest way to do this is to lower the temperature for a period of around one month , and to reduce the light period to less than 8 hours a day for the tank .\nbock , c . , monajembashi , s . , rapp , a . , dittmar , h . , and greulich , k . o . ( 1999 ) localisation of specific sequences and dna single strand breaks in individual uv - a irradiated human lymphocytes observed by comet fish .\naquarium industries has been supplying live aquarium fish since 1968 and we are proud to house australia ' s largest range of freshwater and marine aquarium fish . we also provide a range of fresh and frozen food products for reptiles , turtles and fish . click here to find out more about aquarium industries .\ncollins , a . , dusinska , m . , franklin , m . , et al . ( 1997 ) comet assay in human biomonitoring studies : reliability , validation , and applications .\ntake the dead fish out . leave the filter running for a few days . then , change 50 % of the water and get some new fish . change 50 % of the water once a week . done ! eventually every fish in an aquarium will die - besides swim its what they do !\nthe comet is found throughout the indo - west pacific . in australia it is found around north - western coast of western australia , western northern territory and the great barrier reef , queensland .\nspeit , g . and hartmann , a . ( 1999 ) the comet assay ( single - cell gel test ) . a sensitive genotoxicity test for the detection of dna damage and repair .\na good rule of thumb is one inch of fish per square foot of pond surface area . so you may have to do a little bit of math to figure out how many fish you can have . it\u2019s also a good idea to use the maximum size as a guideline , and not the size the fish currently are . with the massive size of comet goldfish though , you\u2019re not going to be able to have a lot . probably somewhere in the neighbourhood of a half dozen or slightly more .\ngood quality young comet goldfish for sale colours : bronze , red , white , yellow and combinations 1cm : 50 for r100 2 - 3cm : 50 for r250 4 - 5cm : 20 for r150 5 - 7cm fully coloured : 10 for r100 all fish are randomly selected and sold per batch .\ngetting comet goldfish to accept food is not difficult \u2013 they will eat nearly anything that will fit in their mouth . with that being said , feeding them properly is what can be more difficult .\nangelis , k . j . , mcguffie , m . , menke , m . , and schubert , i . ( 2000 ) adaptation to alkylation damage in dna measured by the comet assay .\nweekly - goldfish produce more waste than most other freshwater fish and benefit greatly from more frequent water changes .\nunfortunately goldfish tend to get aggressive with each other and start nipping at other fish when they are stressed .\nthank you for this info . had a pond over 10 years and never seen this activity . i was pretty worried about 1 fish beaching itself in the weed then getting good trapped beaten bitten poked etc by another one and then sandwiched between two fish literally squashing it . i now know it\u2019s a lady fish being attacked by the bad guys . is it usual for lady fish to be catatonic like state for a while ?\nmixed koi for sale - 12 to 32 cmonly 22 fish left in stock and best prices offered . red comet goldfish x 5 available - 15 to 25 cm . whatsapp stefan on - 074 311 9962based in amanzimtoticontact me for your aquaponics related species as well , i breed and supply hybrid o . m .\nhey i\u2019m building a aquaponics system for my classroom , and i was wondering what plant would be a good choice to balance life between the comet goldfish and the plant , and keep them both alive .\ni think you could probably get away with 40 gallons , but 29 is too small for a comet goldfish . the water is very difficult to keep clean and you usually end up with some stunting .\nif both fish are healthy , it could be that the goldfish are competing for space . they tend to get very aggressive when the tanks are too small for them , and they\u2019re trying to drive the other fish so they can get more space \u2013 but there\u2019s no where for the other fish to go in the aquarium .\nbecause of its extremely prolific nature , comet goldfish are usually sold for mere pennies and can often be found in crowded feeder tanks or in tiny prize bags at fairs and carnivals . these terrible conditions lead to shortened life - spans , and often result in the fish suffering from any number of parasites and diseases .\nnotes : comets are now the world\u2019s most common goldfish variety , as many standard single - tail goldfish we buy for tanks and ponds have an elongated , comet tail . they are large fish , regularly reaching 30cm / 12\u201d in length , and so are best kept in filtered outdoor ponds or very large aquaria .\nthe comet is a wide - ranging species , having been reported from the red sea east to the line islands , north to southern japan and south to the great barrier reef and tonga . it is a medium - sized fish , attaining a maximum length of 20 cm ( 7 . 9 in . ) .\na goldfish personality can vary from fish to fish . i have owned timid goldfish as well as some very outgoing . let me tell you this : goldfish are typically non aggressive to goldfish or any other fish , but as weird as it sounds they love to eat their own eggs if these are not removed from the aquarium .\nolive , p . l . and banath , j . p . ( 1995 ) radiation - induced dna double - strand breaks produced in histone - depleted tumor cell nuclei measured using the neutral comet assay .\nif the fish lived a few days to a few weeks it could be diseases or or ammonia build ups .\nthe comet goldfish was the first variety of the single - tail goldfish to be developed with a long caudal ( tail ) fin . it was developed in the united states from the common goldfish in the early 19th century , presumably by hugo mullert of philadelphia , who then introduced them in quantity into the market . the comet goldfish is one of more than 125 captive - bred varieties of goldfish that have been developed .\ngoldfish food contains less protein and more carbohydrates than other fish food ( such as tropical fish food ) . manufacturers of goldfish food have produced food with the specific dietary requirements of goldfish in mind , so you shouldn\u2019t just pick up a tub of generic \u201cfish food\u201d . your goldfish need to eat proper goldfish food that meets their specific needs .\nadding some high quality foods to their diet can also help to condition the comet goldfish for breeding , and frozen or live foods should be fed daily in addition to the usual vegetables and herbivore flakes and pellets .\ntice , r . r . , agurell , e . , anderson , d . , et al . ( 2000 ) single cell gel / comet assay : guidelines for in vitro and in vivo genetic toxicology testing .\nbut if you can find a healthy comet goldfish , they can grow up to 13 inches in length , with some being reported much larger . they will also live up to 15 years if provided with a proper housing and food \u2013 a far cry from the month or two that most will survive when kept in cramped fish bowl .\nfish finder search our database for compatible pets ! enter characteristics of what you are looking for and find them instantly .\nshrimp and worms from the pet store will live longer than their wild counterparts before you feed them to your fish .\nautomatic fish feeders are also available . visit your local pet store to learn more about these feeders . [ 17 ]\nmind . i now know a lot of dos and don ' ts . thanks , what an interesting fish !\nif the fish don ' t have enough oxygen in the water ( no air pump , or too small an air pump , or too many fish ) , they ' ll gasp at the surface like they are trying to feed .\nbuy a bigger pump and make sure you ' re diffusing enough of the oxygen for the fish to use it .\nhello , we had ducks in our pond and bought 10 feeder gold fish to see if the ducks liked them . they didn\u2019t ? ? ? ? . that was last summer . now we have \u2026 . umh maybe 150 mixed colored gold fish . not sure what to do now , but i have been feeding the fish since the water temp reached 50 degrees . my husband\u2019s now laughs cause i chase the ducks out of the pond so they don\u2019t eat the fish .\nsince comet goldfish require coldwater , they should never be kept with tropical fish , as the tank will either be too warm for the goldfish , or too cold for the tropical fish . some good tank mates are gold barbs , dojo loaches and some people have had success with zebra danios . but the danios will nip at the goldfish if they aren\u2019t kept in a school of at least six , and some are nippers regardless , so add danios with caution .\nthe comet is a dark brown or black coloured fish with many small white or pale blue spots . it has an eye shaped spot at the base of the last 3 rays of the dorsal fin . the tail is diamond shaped . the comet is nocturnal and hides in rock crevices during the day . when disturbed it darts head first into the coral , leaving the back end of the body exposed . the false eye on the dorsal fin and the pointed tail give it the appearance of a moray eel . the fins are dark orange - brown , with small blue spots .\nmccosker , j . 1977 . fright posture of the plesiopid fish * calloplesiops altivelis * : an example of batesian mimicry .\nas for the algae there isn\u2019t many rocks and a smallish - medium plant and some lily pads . the fake owl is a good idea \u2013 but the fish come up to eat the floating food \u2013 won\u2019t that scare the fish to eat ?\nalso your fish is very large i hope he is in a large tank . about 60 gallon tank or a pond .\navoid fish with blood visible in fins as this may be a result of poor water quality and / or poor health .\nit is never a pleasant experience to look in one\u2019s goldfish tank after finally perfecting the water quality , watching that last bout of illness disappear and becoming attached to a beautiful fish only to find them tearing at the other fish\u2019s fins , pursuing the others around the tank , and generally wreaking havoc . observing a hostile fish in action is always sure to cause feelings of frustration and helplessness as a fish keeper . while goldfish are by far one of the most peaceful fish to keep and are generally good tempered , there are sometimes situations that will arise due to various fluctuations in its environment or other contributing factors .\nbut , it could be temperature difference and failure to acclimate the fish , or it could be a vastly different ph too . fish will dart around a lot too if the ph is vastly different ( it ' s irritating their skin ) .\ni ' m thinking of buying an aquarium and gold fish . about how much should a small aquarium in delhi cost ?\nthis fish exhibits a series of unique motor patterns when stalking its prey . when it hunts benthic prey , it tips its body forward , erects its huge pelvic fins , and curls its tail to one side . the comet then propels itself towards its potential victim by undulating the pectoral fins . this hunting behavior appears awkward and conspicuous to the human observer , but it may be that this exaggerated approach distracts the comet ' s victim and the extended pelvics and laterally directed tail form a barrier to impede the prey items escape ( similar in function to the lionfish\u2019s enlarged pectoral fins ) .\ngoldfish can become incredibly contentious when a sick or injured fish is displaying signs of weakness and ruthlessly attack such a fish , sometimes even banding together to tear at the fins and pursue the sick fish around the tank . this behavior is a very natural response and is nature\u2019s way of trying to protect the other fish in the community from coming down with the problem . putting the ailing goldfish in a quarantine tank is the best way to prevent it from getting stressed or killed . it is also much easier to treat such a fish in a smaller volume of water where the others will not be able to harm it .\nsetting up a saltwater aquarium . guide to marine supplies , putting the aquarium together , cycling the aquarium water and adding fish !\nyou shouldn ' t put fish in until the tank has cycled like this and the other factors above are taken care of .\ncomet - fish with strand - specific probes . ( a ) after dna - damaging treatment , cells are lysed , incubated with endonucleases or glycosylases and subjected to electrophoresis . hybridization of strand - specific probes to the termini of the dna segments of interest permits the quantification of tcr ; staining the bulk of the dna allows the analysis of ggr . ( b ) schematic representation of comet - fish . adjacent green and red probe signals indicate an intact dna strand with no lesions within the segment ; separated green and red probe signals suggest a damaged dna strand with a lesion within the segment . representative comet - fish images of a cell damaged with uv showing ( c ) the bulk dna stained with dapi , ( d ) alexa 488 - labeled probes targeting the 3\u2032 regions of the transcribed atm strands , ( e ) alexa 594 - labeled probes targeting the 5\u2032 regions of the transcribed atm strands and ( f ) an overlay of c , d and e ( scale bars , 5 \u00b5m ) ; ( g ) , ( h ) and ( i ) show enlargements of the probes signals from panel f .\nsome breeds of fish can be more aggressive than others . the ryukin goldfish has a more pointed head shape than other varieties , equipping them to more effectively pick on others . such fish should not be housed with more docile ones , such as the telescope eye , lest the former prevent the delicate fish from getting their share of food and attempt to assert its dominance through physical means .\nfifteen gallons is the absolute minimum required to house a comet goldfish . it ' s best to start with a 20 - 30 gallon tank for your first goldfish and then increase the size of the tank by 10 gallons for each additional goldfish . providing a large amount of water per fish will help dilute the amount of waste and reduce the number of water changes needed .\nbreeding comet goldfish in the home aquarium is difficult and should generally only be done in outdoor ponds . if you do plan on breeding them in an aquarium , then a separate tank must be set up to separate the parents from the eggs .\nit depends on your filtering system , but in general , the water will become clogged with by - products of the fish digestion , including ammonia , which can lead to bacteria and algae overgrowth and the fish will become sick . if there is no filter , the fish will die . the recommendation is to change 1 / 4 of the water once a week for tanks with filtration system .\nmost fancy goldfish will thrive in both freshwater and tropical aquariums as long as there are no aggressive or territorial fish in the tank . some good tankmates for fancy goldfish are the chinese blue bitterling and the northern redbelly dace . comet goldfish can be kept with other varieties of elongated goldfish , such as the common goldfish and the shubunkin , and they also do fine with koi .\ni would recommend feeding the fish lightly boiled and shelled peas for the next few days . quite often , this will fix a swim bladder problem in fish . i would also try more vegetables like zucchini in its diet for to help it clear out its system .\nhaving trouble with your fish ? ask a professional veterinarian and get answers in minutes . use the box below to start the conversation .\nhello joe . sorry to hear about the fish loss . its hard for me to say why the fish have died since there are lots of possible reasons for fish to die , especially in spawning season . females will typically die from stress and exhaustion since the males are relentless during spawning time . i wish i could give you a better answer but i\u2019m missing information ! good luck . - mike\nis a relatively shy fish and during the day is primarily found dwelling in reefs and caves , yet has been spotted showing activity in poorly lit areas ( field and field , 1998 ; randall , 1986 ) . beginning at twilight and throughout the night the fish is active in its search for food ( field and field , 1998 ) . the comet is a stalking predator that often approaches its prey with a sideways swim using the pectoral fins . when close enough it will lunge forward ( michael , 2002 ) .\nthe comet goldfish can grow up to a foot long . in light of this , they need a larger aquarium . a 55 gallon aquarium will accommodate them , though ponds work best . in either a pond or an aquarium , plants are important . plants provide cover , which makes the fish feel safe . live plants also provide a bit of a meal , as goldfish are known to nibble on them for extra nutrition . temperate fish comets do not require additional heating in most of the united states and europe .\nthe stocking level of the pond is critical to the health of your fish . too many fish leads to decreased oxygen levels and the extra fish waste leads to ammonia and nitrite build - up . to a certain degree , your fish load can vary based on your level of filtration . a pond with an undersized filter will not be able to keep as many fish , while an oversized filter will allow you a few extra fish . with an average - sized filter , your preferred stocking level will be based on surface area of the pond . for goldfish you can keep one average size fish for every 3 - 4 square feet of surface area . for koi , it should be limited to one fish for every 10 square feet of surface area . for example ; a 10 x 10 pond will have a surface area of 100 square feet ( assuming that it is a perfect rectangle ) . with an average filter this pond could house up to 30 goldfish or 10 koi . of course , keeping fewer than this would make keeping good water quality even easier .\ncomet goldfish are some of the hardier species of goldfish . they are very undemanding of water quality and temperature . they can do well in a goldfish aquarium or even a pond as long as the environment is safe and their tankmates are not competitive .\nhi traci . yes , try to catch them if you\u2019d like to tank raise them , otherwise just let them be . most baby fish will probably need to be around a full inch or so before the bigger fish may ignore them as a possible snack . \u2013 mike\n4 . 0 inches ( 10 . 16 cm ) - comet goldfish housed in small aquariums will have stunted growth that will limit their size to four inches . in larger aquariums , they will reach about eight inches and up to twelve in a pond .\ncenturies of selective breeding have produced a huge amount of variation in goldfish . one variety is the comet . this goldfish has a slender body , with long , flowing fins and a forked tail fin . they are not as inbred as many variates of fancy goldfish , so they are more robust fish . while they are hardier than some goldfish , they also grow larger and require more space .\nvery helpful , the instructions are very clear and easy to understand . now i know how and what to feed my fish .\nashby , j . , tinwell , h . , lefevre , p . a . , and browne , m . a . ( 1995 ) the single cell gel electrophoresis assay for induced dna damage ( comet assay ) : measurement of tail length and moment .\nhi ! i have around a 4400 litre pond outdoors \u2013 we currently have 1 9yo large comet in it with a smaller fish which i\u2019m not sure of the breed , would you be able to tell me how many we could have . i\u2019ve found over the years that a lot of fish tend to eat them , which is a bit annoying but i guess that\u2019s nature ! so , i guess any tips for training the fish to avoid the birds or should i just leave them to learn to be quick ? also \u2013 one other question , how clear should the pond be ? we change the water well , but it\u2019s really quite green \u2013 we tried algae remover by the way !\nhello mike , i live in orlando , florida and i think i have some comet goldfish fry in my backyard pond . generally , i would go outside to see the pond everyday but lately , i had been busy and hadn\u2019t seen it for about 3 days . i came back and the water did smell a bit fishy and i saw little fry looking things . i also saw some black dots on plants that were submerged in the water . also , i see that the adult comets seem kind of isolated , under the waterfall and not swimming around / being as energetic in a school as they used to . do you think my comet gold fish may have spawned ?\nhere is a video of my comet goldfish , awaiting new home and bigger filter . . ive had them for nearly 2 years and there great fish with there own unique characters . . i also have 2 recent additions , a pair of hong kong plecos called waldorf & statler . they are quite shy just now , but will upload a video of them when the new aquarium is up and running . .\nin his book aquarium care of goldfish , david boruchowitz states , \u201ca fish without food for a week is just hungry , not starved . \u201d\n, the white - spotted moray eel , which is much more dangerous to the would - be predators , and they often leave the comet alone ( froese and pauly , 2002 ; michael , 2002 ; randall , 1997 ; randall , 1986 ; wood , 1945 ) .\nthe comet ' s eye - spots might also serve another function . because many predators go for the head in order to incapacitate their prey , the eye - spots on the posterior part of the body may serve to deflect such attacks to the less vulnerable tail region .\nplease visit urltoken for aquarium and fish information as well as information on breeding fish . thank you for viewing my video . please don ' t forget to subscribe to my channel for tons of aquarium information . here are some products that i love and use . if your looking to set up a tank come view this equipment . fluval fx6 filter : urltoken fluval fx4 filter : urltoken finnex titanium heater : urltoken northfin fish food krill : urltoken prime water conditioner : urltoken hydor powerhead : urltoken digital thermometer : urltoken current usa led light : urltoken floramax substrate : urltoken floramax light : urltoken fluval co2 system : urltoken aquaclear 50 : urltoken industrial air pump : urltoken check out urltoken it ' s like a magazine subscription you can use . sign up for your box today ! ! learn how to breed comet goldfish . learn what to look for when looking to get a male and female goldfish . comet goldfish can be easy as long as given the right age and size . urltoken\ngoldfish are a cold water fish and will do best at temperatures between 65 - 72\u00b0 f ( 18\u00b0 - 22\u00b0 c ) . the comet goldfish are one of the most hardy varieties and can tolerate temperatures a few degrees above freezing , as long as the cooling drops only a few degrees a day . a quick temperature drop can kill them , so if you live in a very cold climate , a heater is advisable .\nit may take a bit of time , but you could take individual fish out of the tank and into a smaller container to feed them separately .\nan overcrowded tank can cause goldfish to become more edgy and feel as if they have to compete for space . check to make sure the water volume is sufficient to sustain the amount of fish in the tank . the general rule of thumb is 20 gallons of water for the first fish , then 10 gallons for each additional fish . if the tank is too small it would be in the fishes\u2019 best interest to upgrade , both for their health and the aquarist\u2019s nerves . goldfish may also develop aggressive behavior when a new fish is introduced into the tank and disrupts the \u201cbalance\u201d of the social hierarchy .\ngoldfish are a species of a carp , and while they won\u2019t grow to the same monstrous size in the photo , they can grow absolutely huge in an outdoor pond . and comet goldfish are the same as common goldfish , with the exception of the tail shape and other minor differences .\nto line breed for finnage and colour these fish must be selected and culled where necessary to prevent them reverting back to olive green , wild type goldfish .\ngoldfish are fairly social fish , and are also credited with the ability to learn by association . unless they are in competition with each other for food , even goldfish of different sizes and ages will rarely behave aggressively towards each other , and will come to recognize the other fish in their tank over time .\nthis happens when they are not eating well , don ' t have enough room to move about and it rarely happens to pick on other sick fish .\ncustomer says : \u201chey my fish are fighting and it looks like mr . bubble may have fallen into my pond . the pond kinda smells a bit too\u2026\u201d\nhello janice . your fish should have not problem carrying the eggs during winter months , but they may also \u201creabsorb\u201d the eggs during those months . - mike\nkuiter , r . h . and h . debelius . 1994 . southeast asia tropical fish guide . ikan , frankfurt , germany , pp . 321 .\ndetermining what and how often to feed your fish depends primarily on water temperature . in warmer water ( 60 - 85 degrees ) the metabolism of the fish is high and they can be fed 2 - 4 times per day . at this time you should be feeding a food with a high protein level such as legacy variety mix . if the water rises to 90 degrees or above you should stop feeding . in spring and fall when your water temperatures fall to 50 - 60 degrees , you should reduce feeding to once every 1 - 2 days and feed a low protein food such as legacy cold weather food . when the temperatures drop to below 50 degrees stop feeding the fish . on warm days the fish may become active and\nbeg\nfor food . don ' t be fooled . stay strong and do not feed . if the fish do need a little food , they will find enough growing in the pond . the algae that coats the pond liner is all they need . these cold temperatures slow the metabolism of your fish and food will not be properly digested . it can take 3 - 4 days for the fish to digest the food . it ' s not worth the fish ' s life to give it food ."]}
{"id": 1649, "summary": [{"text": "tursiops truncatus , commonly known as the common bottlenose dolphin or the atlantic bottlenose dolphin ( and in older literature simply as the bottlenose dolphin , a term now applied to the genus ) , is the most well-known species from the family delphinidae .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "common bottlenose dolphins are the most familiar dolphins due to the wide exposure they receive in captivity in marine parks and dolphinaria , and in movies and television programs .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "t. truncatus is the largest species of the beaked dolphins .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "they inhabit temperate and tropical oceans throughout the world , and are absent only from polar waters .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "all bottlenose dolphins were previously known as t. truncatus , but recently the genus has been split into three species , t. truncatus , t. aduncus ( indo-pacific bottlenose dolphin ) and t. australis ( burrunan dolphin ) .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "although t. truncatus has been traditionally called the bottlenose dolphin , many authors have used the name common bottlenose dolphin for this species since two other species of bottlenose dolphins were described .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the dolphins inhabit warm and temperate seas worldwide .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "considerable genetic variation has been described among members of this species , even between neighboring populations , and so many experts believe multiple species may be included within t. truncatus . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "common bottlenose dolphin", "paragraphs": ["the common bottlenose dolphin is one of the most commonly observed dolphins in coastal waters throughout the world . it also maintains large populations offshore , but is not as common as other open water dolphins , such as the short - beaked common dolphin and others .\ntaxonomy of bottlenose dolphins family delphinidae genus tursiops the genus tursiops contains two species : common bottlenose dolphin tursiops truncatus and the indo - pacific bottlenose dolphin tursiops aduncus . more recently a third species has been described burrunan dolphin tursiops australis .\npowell jr , wells rs . recreational fishing depredation and associated behaviors involving common bottlenose dolphins (\nsummary of half - weight association indices for common bottlenose dolphins tursiops truncatus near savannah , georgia .\nthe maximum observed swim speed of a common bottlenose dolphin was about 18 mph ( 29 km / hr ) for a very short distance .\nberens mccabe ej , gannon dp , barros nb , wells rs . prey selection by resident common bottlenose dolphins (\nits presence in aquariums and dolphinariums is also very common which makes it the most familiar and recognized species of dolphin .\nadd your name to stop the reintroduction of deadly longlines off the u . s . west coast and protect common bottlenose dolphins !\na social species , the bottlenose dolphin may live in groups of 100s of individuals .\nbottlenose dolphin sightings ( n = 13 ) associated with catfish decapitation in the ngomx .\nstephen leatherwood , randall r . reeves . the bottlenose dolphin . elsevier , 2012 .\nthe common bottlenose dolphin swims in all of the world ' s tropical and temperate seas . some populations are strictly local ; others migrate extensively . there are offshore and inshore populations as well . in california , coastal common bottlenose dolphins stay close to shore between cabo san lucas to just north of san francisco .\nthe common bottlenose dolphin ( tursiops truncatus ) , which is the most widely recognized dolphin species , is found worldwide in warm and temperate seas . in contrast , the indian ocean bottlenose dolphin ( t . aduncus ) inhabits continental shelf areas of the indian ocean and the waters fringing southeast asia , indonesia , \u2026\nthe bottlenose dolphin is recognized today as two distinct species\u2014the common bottlenose dolphin and the indo - pacific bottlenose dolphin . the common bottlenose dolphin can be found around the world in tropical and temperate oceans . they live in groups numbering about a dozen individuals , and learn at an early age the complex social skills they need to survive . dolphins live off fish , and they work cooperatively to herd their prey to the surface for easier feeding . because they live so close to the shore , they are threatened by bycatch , coastal development and environmental degradation .\na trained coastal bottlenose dolphin reached depths of 1 , 280 feet ( 390 m ) .\nclark ls , cowan df , pfeiffer dc . morphological changes in the atlantic bottlenose dolphin (\ndos santos me , coniglione c , louro s . feeding behaviour of the bottlenose dolphin ,\nthe bottlenose dolphin has a broad diet , preying on a range of fish and invertebrate species .\nbalmer b , sinclair c , speakman t , quigley b , barry k , cush c , et al . extended movements of common bottlenose dolphins (\nrommel s . osteology of the bottlenose dolphin . in : leatherwood s , reeves rr , editors . the bottlenose dolphin . san diego , ca : academic press ; 1990 . p . 29\u201349 .\nits range is about 230 feet ( 70 m ) . field studies have shown that the common bottlenose dolphin uses its echolocation only as necessary . field studies have shown that individuals do not continuously produce clicks .\nbottlenose dolphin - tursiops truncatus . a dolphin surfs the wake of a research boat on the banana river - near the kennedy space center . credit : public domain\nstandardization and application of metrics to quantify human - interaction behaviors by the bottlenose dolphin ( tursiops spp . )\nthe bottlenose dolphin is sleek and streamlined and can travel at speeds of up to 35 km per hour .\nbalmer b , wells r , nowacek s , nowacek d , schwacke l , mclellan w , et al . seasonal abundance and distribution patterns of common bottlenose dolphins (\nshane sh . comparison of bottlenose dolphin behavior in texas and florida , with a critique of methods for studying dolphin behavior . in : leatherwood s , reeves rr , editors . the bottlenose dolphin . san diego , ca : academic press ; 1990 . p . 541\u201358 .\nperrtree rm . begging behavior by the common bottlenose dolphin tursiops truncatus near savannah , georgia : prevalence , spatial distribution , and social structure . m . sc . thesis , savannah state university , savannah , ga . 2011 .\na newborn bottlenose dolphin calf swimming alongside its mother at seaworld amusement park , san diego , california , 2009 .\nlocations and time frames of observed severed catfish heads associated with bottlenose dolphin sightings in the northern gulf of mexico .\nscientists recognize two bottlenose dolphin ecotypes ( forms ) : coastal and offshore . in the northwest atlantic , bottlenose dolphin coastal and offshore ecotypes can be differentiated by skull and body measurements as well as by characteristics of their blood .\nthis species is hunted for human consumption and for use as fishing bait in several places around the world , but global numbers are generally considered to be in good shape . population trends for common bottlenose dolphins are not well known , but scientists believe this dolphin to be a species of least concern . in the united states and some other places , the common bottlenose dolphin is given complete legal protection as a result of it being a highly intelligent , marine mammal .\nthat night , in the dolphin bar , i showed them a bbc film about the latest research on dolphin intelligence .\nprobably you have seen how this dolphin confidently approaches humans and jumps in the air . the bottlenose dolphin is very common in dolphinariums due to its excellent adaptability and relatively easy training . it is an intelligent animal , and most knowledge about dolphins is the result of research made on this species .\nidentification commmon bottlenose dolphins are a combination of gray tones lighter on the underside and darker on the upper part of the body . they have a distinct medium - sized beak . not all dolphins with a distinct beak are common bottlenose dolphins\nshane sh . behavior and ecology of the bottlenose dolphin at sanibel island , florida . in : leatherwood s , reeves rr , editors . the bottlenose dolphin . san diego , ca : academic press ; 1990 . p . 245\u201365 .\nin the water , common bottlenose dolphins make an incredible array of squeaks , grunts , grinds , and whines . these sounds fall into three categories : whistles , echolocation clicks , and pulse sounds . additionally , dolphins communicate non - vocally through touch . common bottlenose dolphins , like most dolphins , are highly social . they form many kinds of social groups ; mother - calf pairs , bands of mothers , and large societies . common bottlenose dolphins never fall completely asleep because their breathing is under voluntary control , when not resting , dolphins are among the fastest swimmers of all marine mammals achieving speeds up to 22 mph in bursts of speed . common bottlenose dolphins eat a variety of fish as well as crabs , squid , shrimp , and similar prey .\nmortalities and serious injuries from entanglement in recreational and commercial fishing gear are currently among the most serious threats to bottlenose dolphin .\nlockyer , c . 1990 . review of incidents involving wild , sociable dolphins , worldwide . in : the bottlenose dolphin .\nthe bottlenose dolphin is found right around the coast of australia and can sometimes be seen catching waves with surfers in sydney .\nthe california common bottlenose dolphin coastal population is estimated to be a mere 323 dolphins . the offshore bottlenose population within 300 miles of the west coast of north america may be more than 3 , 000 , and to the south of the mexican border , surveys have yielded an overall estimate of 336 , 000 dolphins .\nammpa standardized information : bottlenose dolphin . association of marine mammal parks and aquariums ( 2 / 21 / 2011 ) 25 pp .\nconnor r . c , smolker r . a . \u201cpop\u201d goes the dolphin : a vocalization male bottlenose dolphins produce during consortships .\nridgway s . h . the central nervous system of the bottlenose dolphin . in : leatherwood s , reeves r , editors .\nperrtree rm , kovacs ck , cox tm . standardization and application of metrics to quantify human - interaction behaviors by the bottlenose dolphin (\ncommon bottlenose dolphins have a wide distribution and can be found in coastal and continental shelf waters in tropical and temperate zones . found in most enclosed and semi - enclosed seas , for example the black sea and the mediterranean sea , they also frequent river mouths , lagoons and shallow bays . unfortunately , bottlenose dolphins have a high rate of accidental mortality through bycatch . other threats to this species include direct hunting in japan and other countries , chemical and noise pollution , and habitat degradation . in some countries they are still captured live and exported for public display . the iucn classify the common bottlenose dolphin as of least concern worldwide . however , many inshore bottlenose dolphins exist in small , relatively isolated populations and these groups may be especially vulnerable to human activities . for example there remains only one resident population in the north sea and the black sea common bottlenose dolphin is classified as endangered .\ncoastal common bottlenose dolphins are primarily found in groups of 2 to 15 individuals . these associations are fluid , often repeated but not constant . solitary coastal animals can be observed in various regions of the world .\nsinclair c . comparison of group size , abundance estimates and movement patterns of common bottlenose dolphins ( tursiops truncatus ) in mississippi sound , mississippi : m . sc . thesis , louisiana state university ; 2016 .\njanik v . m , slater p . j . b . context - specific use suggests that bottlenose dolphin signature whistles are cohesion calls .\ntwo forms of bottlenose dolphin are currently recognised - the ' inshore ' form and the ' offshore ' form , which could possibly be different species . the bottlenose dolphin is commonly seen in groups or pods , containing anything from two or three individuals to more than a thousand .\nthe rounded region of a dolphin ' s forehead is called the melon . the melon contains fat and plays an important role in dolphin echolocation .\nthe oldest dolphin in human care was born on february 27 , 1953 and resided for 61 years at marineland dolphin adventure in marineland , florida .\nthe bottlenose dolphin is the most well - known of all dolphins , likely because of its frequent appearances on television and in film and its popularity with the captivity industry . they were one of the first species ( and continue to be the most popular ) regularly captured live for display purposes and by the us navy for \u2018research ' . bottlenose dolphins are highly intelligent , adaptable predators , capable of problem solving , tool - use and exhibiting some flexibility in terms of prey . until recently all bottlenose dolphins were classified as the same species , tursiops truncatus . in recent years , however , a distinct species found in the indo - pacific region has been recognised , tursiops aduncus , hence now the recognition of 2 species of bottlenose dolphin ; the\ncommon\n( t . truncatus ) and the\nindo - pacific\n( t . aduncus ) bottlenose dolphin . in addition , the population found in the black sea is recognised as a separate subspecies , t . t . ponticus , the black sea common bottlenose dolphin .\ncitation : kovacs cj , perrtree rm , cox tm ( 2017 ) social differentiation in common bottlenose dolphins ( tursiops truncatus ) that engage in human - related foraging behaviors . plos one 12 ( 2 ) : e0170151 . urltoken\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - bottlenose dolphin ( tursiops truncatus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - bottlenose dolphin ( tursiops truncatus )\ntitle =\narkive species - bottlenose dolphin ( tursiops truncatus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nlifespan : most dolphins live long lives . the bottlenose dolphin can live over 40 years , and the orca can live to be 70 or 80 !\nthe average dive duration for the coastal bottlenose dolphin ranges from 20 to 40 seconds . the maximum voluntary breath hold recorded was 7 minutes 15 seconds .\ninjurious catfish spines found during the necropsy of a single bottlenose dolphin ( 176 cm male , seus id no . ser13 - 1180 , mmpl1312 ) .\nstudies of bottlenose dolphins suggest that the most sensitive areas on the dolphin ' s body are the blowhole region and areas around the eyes and mouth .\ndolphin lover\ni like this website because it helped me on my animal adaptations project . i got so many adaptations about the bottle nose dolphin .\nthe common bottlenose dolphin is the best known species and inhabits warm and temperate waters of the world . it is in fact only absent from polar waters . the grey , 2 - 4 meter ( 6 . 6 - 13 feet ) long dolphin lives in pods of typically 15 animals near shores \u2014 offshore groups of several hundreds have been seen \u2014 and uses sound for echolocation and communication .\nchromosome banding techniques have proven useful in bottlenose dolphin population studies . in some areas , scientists can identify individuals and determine relationships among dolphins in a group .\nburdin v . i , reznik a . m , skornyakov v . m , chupakov a . g . communication signals of the black sea bottlenose dolphin .\n\u2026species are the common and bottlenose dolphins ( delphinus delphis and tursiops truncatus , respectively ) . the bottlenose , characterized by a \u201cbuilt - in smile\u201d formed by the curvature of its mouth , has become a familiar performer in oceanariums . it has also become the subject of scientific studies because of its intelligence and ability to\u2026\ncitation : ronje ei , barry kp , sinclair c , grace ma , barros n , allen j , et al . ( 2017 ) a common bottlenose dolphin ( tursiops truncatus ) prey handling technique for marine catfish ( ariidae ) in the northern gulf of mexico . plos one 12 ( 7 ) : e0181179 . urltoken\ngonzalvo j , valls m , cardona l , aguilar a . factors determining the interaction between common bottlenose dolphins and bottom trawlers off the balearic archipelago ( western mediterranean sea ) . j exp mar biol ecol . 2008 ; 367 : 47\u201352 .\ndolphin - human interaction behaviors , including begging , depredating , patrolling , provisioning , and scavenging as defined previously [ 20 \u2013 22 ] , are common in the waterways near savannah , georgia . common bottlenose dolphins exhibited human - interaction behaviors on 69 . 6 % of days and 23 . 5 % of sightings near savannah in 2009 and 2010 [ 22 ] . the most common human - interaction behavior observed was begging ( 22 . 4 % of sightings ) [ 22 ] . in addition , 59 individuals were observed interacting with humans at least once , yielding 20 . 1 % of identified animals in the population known to interact with humans [ 22 ] .\nrichard c connor . dolphin social intelligence : complex alliance relationships in bottlenose dolphins and a consideration of selective environments for extreme brain size evolution in mammals . 2007 .\nsmolker r . a , mann j , smuts b . b . the use of signature whistles during separations and reunions among wild bottlenose dolphin mothers and calves .\nbarros nb , odell dk . food habits of bottlenose dolphins in the southeastern united states . in : leatherwood s , reeves rr , editors . the bottlenose dolphin . san diego , ca : academic press ; 1990 . p . 309\u201328 .\nj . , giovos i . , mazzariol s . 2015 . prevalence of epidermal conditions in common bottlenose dolphins ( tursiops truncatus ) in the gulf of ambracia , western greece . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 463 : 32 - 38 . urltoken\nbarros nb , wells rs . prey and feeding patterns of resident bottlenose dolphins (\nrossbach ka , herzing dl . underwater observations of benthic - feeding bottlenose dolphins (\nindo - pacific bottlenose dolphins are abundant , but the overall population is unknown .\nreiss d , mccowan b . spontaneous vocal mimicry and production by bottlenose dolphins (\njohn elliott reynolds , randall s . wells , and samantha d . eide . the bottlenose dolphin : biology and conservation . gainesville : university of florida , 2000 .\nconnor r . c , heithaus m . r , barre l . m . complex social structure , alliance stability and mating access in a bottlenose dolphin \u2018super - alliance\u2019\nrichards d . g , wolz j . p , herman l . m . vocal mimicry of computer generated sounds and vocal labeling of objects by a bottlenose dolphin ,\na tagged offshore dolphin reached depths of 1 , 614 feet ( 492 m ) .\n. 2008 ) and this may have reduced predation pressure considerably . other potential dolphin predators\nthere is a strong likelihood that eventually the dolphin may be harmed or even killed .\na bottlenose dolphin ' s skin color is gray to dark gray on its back , fading to white on its lower jaw and belly . this coloration , a type of camouflage known as countershading , may help conceal a dolphin from predators and prey . when viewed from above , a dolphin ' s dark back surface blends with the dark depths . when seen from below , a dolphin ' s lighter belly blends with the bright sea surface . some bottlenose dolphins show spots on their bellies or light streaks along their sides . many populations of indo - pacific bottlenose dolphins are ventrally spotted .\na bottlenose dolphin ' s dorsal fin is often falcate ( curved back ) , although the shape is quite variable . it is located at the center of the back .\n) at sanibel island , florida . in : leatherwood s , reeves rr , editors . the bottlenose dolphin . academic press , san diego ; 1990 . pp 245\u2013265 .\n. 1994 , tudela 2004 ) represents another fishery - related threat to bottlenose dolphins . though impact at the basin level is probably low , it may be significant locally and a few bottlenose dolphin deaths suspected to have been caused by explosives have been reported .\nhouser ds , finneran jj . a comparison of underwater hearing sensitivity in bottlenose dolphins (\nthe size of bottlenose dolphin groups varies according to biogeographic region , prey availability , activity and other factors . most encounters have been with groups of fewer than ten individuals ( bearzi\n) . it has been said that healthy bottlenosed dolphin populations indicate a healthy marine ecosystem .\na dolphin ' s pectoral flipper contains five digits similar to that of a human hand .\nnearctic , neotropical , atlantic ocean , pacific ocean : common bottlenose dolphins , t . truncatus are found primarily in temperate and tropical waters of the atlantic and pacific ocean and adjoining seas . in us waters , bottlenose dolphins range as far north as cape hatteras , nc in the summer and in the west to point conception , ca . they are found off the coasts of hawaii and florida year - round . t . aduncus is also common in the temperate and tropical waters of the indian ocean and adjoining seas , including the red sea .\nthere are two species of bottlenose dolphins , the common bottlenose dolphin ( scientific name : tursiops truncatus ) and the indo - pacific bottlenose dolphin ( scientific name : tursiops aduncus ) . bottlenose dolphins can be found in temperate and tropical waters . they are frequently seen within 20 miles ( 32 km ) of shore in harbors , bays , lagoons , estuaries , around islands and in large rivers . in the pacific ocean , these dolphins range from northern japan and southern california , to australia and chile . they can also be found in the atlantic and southwestern indian ocean along with the baltic , mediterranean and black seas . the only waters in which bottlenose dolphins are not found are cold waters ranging from 45 degrees poleward in either hemisphere . some bottlenose dolphins have been known to stay in the same location throughout their lives , while others have been seen migrating to other parts of the ocean .\nrigley l , vandyke v , cram p , rigley i , editors . shallow water behavior of the atlantic bottlenose dolphin ( tursiops truncatus ) . proc pa acad sci ; 1981 .\nthe mean and maximum half - weight association indices for non - trawler ( nt ) and trawler ( t ) common bottlenose dolphins tursiops truncatus near savannah , georgia , as well as non - begging ( nb ) and begging ( b ) dolphins . standard deviations are in parentheses .\nmean half - weight association indices between pairs of common bottlenose dolphins tursiops truncatus near savannah , georgia that associate with trawlers ( t ) and do not associate with trawlers ( nt ) , and separately for dolphins that are beggars ( b ) and non - beggars ( nb ) .\ncitation :\ncommon bottlenose dolphins , tursiops truncatus ~ marinebio . org .\nmarinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 1 / 14 / 2013 2 : 22 : 00 pm ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio\nurian kw , wells rs . bottlenose dolphin photo - identification workshop : march 21\u201322 , 1996 , charleston , south carolina . noaa technical memorandum nmfs - sefsc - 393 . 92 pp .\nwells r . s . the role of long - term study in understanding the social structure of a bottlenose dolphin community . in : pryor k , norris k . s , editors .\nscott md , wells rs , irvine ab . a long - term study of bottlenose dolphins on the west coast of florida . in : leatherwood s , reeves rr , editors . the bottlenose dolphin . san diego , ca : academic press ; 1990 . p . 235\u201344 .\nallen sj , bejder l , krutzen m . why do indo - pacific bottlenose dolphins (\nbottlenose dolphins live in a variety of habitats , from coastal waters to the open ocean .\ncaldwell m . c , caldwell d . k . individual whistle contours in bottlenose dolphins (\ncan environmental heterogeneity explain individual foraging variation in wild bottlenose dolphins ( tursiops sp . ) ?\nlewis j , schroeder w . mud plume feeding , a unique foraging behavior of the bottlenose dolphin in the florida keys . gulf mex sci . 2003 ; 21 ( 1 ) : 92\u20137 .\nfood source : officially , the main purpose of the dolphin hunt is to provide dolphin meat to the japanese people . but only a small minority of people in japan actually eats the meat . during our many campaigns in japan , we even got the impression that dolphin meat is considered \u201ctrashy , \u201d unlike the much more expensive whale meat . dna tests on meat labeled \u201cwhale meat\u201d in japanese markets have sometimes revealed the meat is , in fact , dolphin meat . whale meat sells for more money than dolphin meat ; so japanese consumers are tricked into buying dolphin meat falsely labeled as \u201cwhale\u201d meat .\nthe sound of human speech falls well within this range , so dolphin can hear what we say .\nljungblad dk , scoggins pd , gilmartin wg . auditory thresholds of a captive eastern pacific bottle\u2010nosed dolphin ,\nbest r . c , da silva v . m . f . amazon river dolphin , boto ,\ntavolga m . c , essapian f . s . the behavior of the bottle - nosed dolphin (\ng . , fortuna c . m . , reeves r . r . 2009 . ecology and conservation of common bottlenose dolphins tursiops truncatus in the mediterranean sea . mammal review 39 ( 2 ) : 92 - 123 . doi 10 . 1111 / j . 1365 - 2907 . 2008 . 00133 . x\nshane s . the population biology of the atlantic bottlenose dolphin , tursiops truncatus , in the aransas pass area of texas . m . sc . thesis : texas a & m university ; 1977 .\nthe bottlenose dolphin ( tursiops truncatus ) is the second place in a list of species with a higher encephalization ratio ( eq ) , which compares the mass of the encephalon against its body size .\nbottlenose dolphins have been seen with groups of toothed whales such as spotted dolphins , stenella attenuata .\nsmolker r . a , pepper j . whistle convergence among allied male bottlenose dolphins ( delphinidae ,\ncommon bottlenose dolphins and other dolphins are thought to be some of the smartest animals on the planet , challenging the great apes ( chimps and gorillas ) for the top spot . they are also extremely curious and often approach people to investigate . their intelligence is likely both a result of and a driver of their complex social structures . they generally live in small groups and organize complex , group behaviors when mating and hunting . their preferred prey includes small , schooling fishes and squids . adult common bottlenose dolphins have no known predators , and juveniles are likely only rarely taken by large sharks or perhaps other predatory marine mammals .\ncommonly seen in aquariums , sea parks , tv shows , and movies , the bottlenose dolphin is a wildly recognizable cetacean ( marine mammal ) . in the wild , bottlenose dolphins inhabit the temperate and tropical oceans around the world , with coastal populations entering into bays , estuaries , and river mouths .\nbottlenose dolphins have been known to interact with humans . a bottlenose dolphin that was named percy resided off the coast of cornwall , england . he followed local fishing boats , played with their crab pots , and even allowed strangers to hang onto his dorsal fin as he pulled them through the water .\ncaldwell m . c , caldwell d . k , tyack p . l . review of the signature\u2013whistle hypothesis for the atlantic bottlenose dolphin . in : leatherwood s , reeves r . r , editors .\ndolphin watch , one of western australia ' s premier citizen science projects , focuses on one of the swan canning riverpark ' s most iconic species ; indo - pacific bottlenose dolphins ( tursiops aduncus ) .\ndolphinariums are always looking for ways to obtain more dolphins . this is because , unbeknownst to the public , dolphins die prematurely in captivity at a very high rate . many times , the dolphin hunters of taiji will drive a large school of bottlenose dolphins , pilot whales , or false killer whales into the killing cove , and dolphin trainers and marine mammal veterinarians flock to the scene to seek out the best - looking dolphins for their display facilities . by doing business with the dolphin killers , they are helping to maintain the dolphin drive hunts . a live dolphin sold to live in captivity can go for as much as $ 155 , 000us , whereas the meat only brings in $ 500 - 600us , depending on the size of the dolphin . the captivity industry is a major reason that the dolphin slaughter is still going on .\na single blowhole , located on the dorsal surface of the head , is covered by a muscular flap . the flap provides a water - tight seal . a bottlenose dolphin breathes through its blowhole . the blowhole is relaxed in a closed position . to open the blowhole , the dolphin contracts the muscular flap .\nthe species is listed in appendix ii of cites . the bottlenose dolphin has been afforded special protected status under annex ii of the european union\u2019s habitats directive . commercial hunting of black sea cetaceans including bottlenose dolphins was banned in 1966 in the former ussr , bulgaria and romania , and in 1983 in turkey .\ntwo days after arriving in japan , i was in the dolphin hunters ' co - operative in taiji .\ndive into the science of dolphin cognition with researchers studying how these amazing creatures make sense of their world .\nultrasound image of a dolphin fetus from national geographic\u2019s book , in the womb : animals by michael sims .\nall sighting data including sighting locations and human - interaction behaviors observed and dolphin group size ; sighting data by individual dolphins ; beg and trawler status for each dolphin ; and social clusters with beg and trawler status .\nthe dolphin ' s sleek , fusiform body , together with its flippers , flukes , and dorsal fin , adapt this animal for ocean life . a dolphin ' s forelimbs are pectoral flippers . as it swims , a dolphin uses its pectoral flippers to steer and , with the help of the flukes , to stop .\nbottlenose dolphins routinely swim at speeds of about 5 - 11 kph ( 3 - 7 mph ) .\n. 2008 , 2010 ) . reduced carrying capacity ( i . e . , fewer prey available ) due to overfishing was proposed as one explanation for the low densities of bottlenose dolphins in the adriatic and ionian seas . conversely , bottlenose dolphin densities tend to be high in areas where prey is still abundant ( bearzi\ncommon bottlenose dolphins can be quite large , reaching weights of up to 1400 pounds ( ~ 640 kg ) and lengths of 12 . 5 feet ( ~ 4 m ) . they are relatively long - lived ( 40 - 50 years ) and reach sexual maturity at ages between 5 and 14 years old . some individuals are known to be reproductively active for their entire lives , a rare characteristic among mammals . like all mammals , common bottlenose dolphins reproduce through internal fertilization , and females give birth to live young . juveniles are able to swim from the moment they are born , but they are totally dependent on nursing their mothers\u2019 milk for nearly two years .\nno other dolphin species is known , studied and beloved in the world more than the bottlenose dolphin . charismatic , playful and intelligent are some of the words often associated with this dolphin . and it has been presented in several manifestations of human culture such as films , literature , television , and much more , but not only in modern times , since the age of the greek civilization , there are records of interaction with this cetacean .\nas of 2010 , the oldest dolphin in the wild was 60 years , documented in the sarasota bay population .\nthe dolphin becomes familiar with the presence of one or more people who have deliberately attempted to habituate it \u2013 this process may be assisted or even initiated by the dolphin . at this stage , the dolphin interacts with only a limited number of people in the water . behaviour may include swimming in close proximity or diving side by side ; the dolphin being touched including having its dorsal fin held to allow swimmers to be pulled along by the animal .\na bottlenose dolphin ' s diet usually consists of a wide variety of foods including fish , squid and crustaceans . an adult dolphin may eat 15 - 30 pounds ( 6 . 8 - 13 . 5 kg ) of food each day . bottlenose dolphins do not use their teeth to chew their food . instead , they swallow their meal whole and head first to avoid the spines present on many of the fish they like to eat .\nconnor r . c , wells r , mann j , read a . the bottlenose dolphin : social relationships in a fission\u2013fusion society . in : mann j , connor r , tyack p , whitehead h , editors .\ntheir intelligence , friendly disposition , and \u201csmiling\u201d faces make bottlenose dolphins popular in large aquariums and with divers .\nalthough they have little to no sense of smell , bottlenose dolphins have other well - developed sensory organs .\npatterson em , mann j . the ecological conditions that favor tool use and innovation in wild bottlenose dolphins (\nmullin k , lohoefener r , hoggard w , roden c , rogers c . abundance of bottlenose dolphins ,\nsize : the familiar bottlenose dolphin is around 8 feet ( 2 . 5m ) long and weighs between 440 - 660 lbs ( 200 - 300kg ) . because the forty species of dolphins are so diverse , they range in size . the smallest of the dolphin species , maui ' s dolphin , is around 4 feet ( 1 . 2m ) long and weighs around 90 lbs ( 40 kg ) . the largest dolphin species is the orca , or killer whale . male orcas grow to about 25 feet in length and weigh about 19 , 000 pounds .\nthe bottlenose dolphin is still an abundant species , despite incidental kills by the fishing industry . however , habitat degradation and pollution are of increasing concern for bottlenose dolphins . pollution is thought to have resulted in some cases of mass die - offs which occurred off the coast of the united states of america and in the gulf of mexico .\nsome researchers think that the size and complexity of the brain at birth is a better measure of intelligence . if that statement holds up , however , once more the dolphin comes out on top . the bottlenose dolphin has a brain mass at birth that is 42 . 5 % of the brain mass of an adult . in contrast , human babies at birth have 28 % of their adult counterparts . at 18 months , the brain mass of a bottlenose dolphin is 80 % of the adults , while humans don\u2019t achieve this level until the age of three or four .\ndolphin hunters was broadcast on tuesday , 9 november , 2004 , in the uk on bbc two at 1930 gmt .\noily mucus is secreted that lubricates the eye , washes away debris and possibly streamlines the eye as the dolphin swims .\nusing echolocation , a dolphin can determine size , shape , structure , composition , speed , distance , and direction .\nlinear epidermal tears at right are typical of dolphin rake marks and are near the point of amputation in each sch .\nin front of the melon , a bottlenose dolphin has a well - defined rostrum ( snout - like projection ) . the rostrum is typically 7 to 8 cm ( 3 in . ) long , marked by a lateral crease .\nindirect but convincing evidence of dolphin abundance in historical times can be found in early accounts describing interactions with fisheries and systematic attempts to exterminate dolphins ( including bottlenose dolphins ) in mediterranean coastal waters ( bearzi et al . 2008 ) .\nfishermen sometimes shoot bottlenose dolphins because they believe the dolphins are competing with them for fish and other desirable catch .\nresearchers have observed bottlenose dolphins chasing and displacing other species of dolphins from prime bow - riding spots in waves .\nduffy - echevarria ee , connor rc , aubin djs . observations of strand - feeding behavior by bottlenose dolphins (\nstolen m , leger js , durden wn , mazza t , nilson e . fatal asphyxiation in bottlenose dolphins (\nsee leatherwood and reeves ( 1990 ) . ross and cockroft ( 1990 : 124 ) considered aduncus to be synonymous with truncatus . hall ( 1981 : 885 - 887 ) considered nesarnack and gillii distinct species , and synonymized truncatus with nesarnack . opinion 1413 of the international commision on zoological nomenclature ( 1986 ) conserved truncatus montagu , 1821 and suppressed nesarnack lac\u00e9p\u00e8de , 1804 . rice ( 1998 : 106 ) provisionally recognized t . t . truncatus ( bottlenose dolphin ) , t . t . ponticus ( black sea bottlenose dolphin ) and t . t . gillii ( cowfish ) . the relationship of tursiops gephyreus ( south american bottlenose dolphin ) , to either t . truncatus or t . aduncus remains uncertain .\nthis is an inshore bottlenose dolphin photographed in the texas coastal waterway by david berg on a bill drummond trip . to see the whooping cranes at aransas nwr . passengers on the boat could distinctly hear the communication clicks between the dolphins .\nin northwest atlantic bottlenose dolphin studies , researchers determined that dolphins within 7 . 5 km ( 4 . 65 mi . ) of shore were coastal ecotypes . dolphins beyond 34 km ( 21 mi . ) from shore were offshore ecotypes .\nthe dolphin ' s auditory nerve is about twice the diameter of the human eighth nerve ( connecting the inner ear to the brainstem ) leading to more rapid sound processing for dolphins . in addition , a dolphin ' s auditory nerve supply is about three times that of humans \u2014 possibly providing more ultrasonic information to a dolphin ' s central nervous system for echolocation .\nproducing educational materials ( and japanese translation services ) to distribute to the japanese public about the dangers of eating dolphin meat .\nbut , the dolphin hunters surprised me . they were not the callous animal rights abusers i had been led to expect .\nthe shark bay dolphin society is large and apparently unbounded . we have currently identified over 600 dolphins in our approximately 200 km\njust like human skin , dolphin skin constantly flakes and peels as new skin cells replace old cells . a bottlenose dolphin ' s outermost skin layer may be replaced every two hours . this sloughing rate is nine times faster than in humans . this turnover rate ensures a smooth body surface and probably helps increase swimming efficiency by reducing drag ( resistance to movement ) .\nbottlenose dolphin females produce a single calf in the summer after a gestation period of 12 months . the calf suckles for up to 18 months and stays close to the mother until it reaches four or five years of age ( 7 ) .\nthe bottlenose dolphin has a vast diet based on the consumption of fish , cephalopods , and crustaceans . but , given their extensive and differentiated distribution , their feeding habits vary depending on the region they inhabit and the habitat where they dwell .\nwe usually receive this question from the dolphin hunters who make a living hunting dolphins . government officials in japan are trying to turn the dolphin slaughter issue into one of \u201ccultural imperialism . \u201d but we are not telling the japanese people what to do . on the contrary , we are fighting for the japanese public\u2019s constitutional right , given in article 21 of the japanese constitution , to know the facts about an issue that the taiji dolphin hunters and their government are systematically hiding from them . most people in japan have no idea that the dolphin slaughter is going on . and they have no idea that the dolphin meat that is served to their children in their schools\u2019 lunch programs or sold in markets is poisoned with mercury . the taiji dolphin hunters once told us that the public has no right to know about the dolphin hunts and the mercury contamination of dolphin meat . we say the japanese public has every right to know about it . they have a right to make up their own minds regarding their food culture , rather than have the government and some few dolphin hunters dictate to them what their \u201cculture\u201d should be .\nthe dolphin institute states that bottlenose dolphins and other marine mammals face a number of conservation threats due to anthropogenic , or human - induced , impacts on the marine environment . among the common threats to dolphins are habitat degradation , boat traffic , fishing interactions , pollution and direct takes . find them all further explained here . it is protected in the u . s . by the marine mammal protection act . they are still generally plentiful in numbers , but are already almost depleted in some areas .\nconnor r . c , heithaus m . r , barre l . m . super - alliance of bottlenose dolphins .\nm\u00f6ller l . m , beheregaray l . b . genetic evidence of sex - biased dispersal in resident bottlenose dolphins (\nfor several years , the dolphin drive hunt in taiji had taken place from the beginning of october through march . in recent years , however , the dolphin hunters in taiji have started the dolphin - killing season in early september . in the past few years , the dolphin hunters , due to a lack of demand for dolphin meat in japan ( inspired by our efforts to educate people about the high mercury levels in the meat ) have ended the hunts a month early , at the end of february , rather than the end of march . some harpooning of dolphins continues offshore of taiji in march and sometimes in april .\nbottlenose dolphins generally do not need to dive very deeply to catch food . depending on habitat , most bottlenose dolphins regularly dive to depths of 3 - 46 m ( 10 - 150 ft . ) . they are , however , capable of diving to some depth . under experimental conditions , a trained dolphin dove 547 m ( 1 , 795 ft . ) .\na coastal and oceanic species , the bottlenose dolphin occurs in a range of habitats from open water and lagoons to rocky reefs ( 10 ) . it also occurs in large estuaries and even the lower reaches of rivers and harbours ( 6 ) .\nbottlenose dolphins living in high seas feed on several species of fish and pelagic squids , while dolphins near the coasts consume fish and benthic invertebrates found in coastal areas . the diet of any dolphin depends on the availability of prey in the environment .\nthe bottlenose dolphin engages in unihemispheric slow wave sleep ( usws ) in which one half of its brain is in a sleep state , while the other half maintains visual and auditory awareness of the environment , while allowing it to surface to breathe .\nin the atlantic ocean , bottlenose dolphins are found from nova scotia to patagonia and from norway to the tip of south africa . they are the most abundant dolphin species along the united states ' coast from cape cod through the gulf of mexico .\nbottlenose dolphins breed year round once they reach maturity ( 5 - 10 years for females and 10 years for males ) . ultrasound images of pregnant dolphins show that at 9 weeks , the dolphin fetus starts swimming inside the womb . these images also reveal that dolphin fetuses develop hind limbs which later retract and disappear before the calf is born . in fact , in 2006 , japanese fishermen found a bottlenose dolphin whose limbs didn\u2019t disappear . these limbs served as a second set of flippers . this phenomenon of hind limbs developing and then retracting in utero points to the idea that dolphins evolved from four - legged land animals .\ntaiji dolphin hunters also caught ten orca whales in 2007 for captivity . they have all subsequently died an early death in captivity .\nlongitudinal muscles of the back and peduncle ( tail stock ) move the flukes up and down to propel a dolphin through water .\nthe accumulation of chemicals and heavy metals released into the environment by human activities continues to impact dolphin populations both directly and indirectly .\nherman l . h . intelligence and rational behaviour in the bottlenosed dolphin . in : hurley s , nudds m , editors .\nthe dolphin appears and remains in a new home range , sometimes restricting itself to a small , protected part of the range often < 1km2 . dolphin may follow boats ( usually fishing boats ) or inspect fishing gear , but does not yet approach humans .\nfor reasons that are not fully understood , bottlenose dolphins are sometimes encountered which are living on their own . this seems very odd for what is normally a highly sociable species , and which more usually lives in a group . however , the same thing has been recorded for other species of social cetaceans including belugas and orcas , and solitary dolphins are actually quite common around the world .\nincidents of injuries attributed to catfish ingestion ( n = 38 ) found in stranded bottlenose dolphins in the southeastern united states .\nhubard cw , maze - foley k , mullin kd , schroeder ww . seasonal abundance and site fidelity of bottlenose dolphins (\nwatwood s . l , tyack p . l , wells r . s . whistle sharing in paired male bottlenose dolphins ,\ndolphins have acute vision both in and out of the water . a dolphin ' s eye is particularly adapted for seeing under water .\nbottlenose dolphins live in fluid social groups . in the past , bottlenose dolphin groups have been referred to as pods \u2014 social groups of unchanging composition . more recently , long - term studies of bottlenose dolphins have now shown that their group composition changes . bottlenose dolphins commonly swim in groups of 2 to 15 individuals . several groups may temporarily join ( for several minutes or hours ) in open ocean waters to form larger groups during which the dolphins may change associates . in general , group size tends to increase with water depth and openness of habitat . this may correlate with foraging strategies and protection . some group members establish strong social bonds .\nthe bottlenose dolphin faces a number of threats including human disturbance , entanglement in fishing nets , and hunting . like all cetaceans it is vulnerable to chemical and noise pollution . the captivity industry that supplies the world aquarium trade is also a problem ( 8 ) .\ndaura - jorge fg , cantor m , ingram sn , lusseau d , sim\u00f5es - lopes pc . the structure of a bottlenose dolphin society is coupled to a unique foraging cooperation with artisanal fishermen . biol lett . 2012 ; 8 : 702\u2013705 . pmid : 22552635\nthe presence of both begging and associating with shrimp trawlers within the same study area provides a unique opportunity to examine the social structure of a group of dolphins as it pertains to two different human - related foraging behaviors . this study attempts to determine whether the social structure of common bottlenose dolphins near savannah , georgia is differentiated based on begging or associating with shrimp trawlers and the implications of any such differentiations .\nbottlenose dolphins live in fluid social groups . although some dolphins may repeatedly associate with one another , these associations are rarely permanent .\nsargeant bl , wirsing aj , heithaus mr , mann j . can environmental heterogeneity explain individual foraging variation in wild bottlenose dolphins (\ngannon dp , barros nb , nowacek dp , read aj , waples dm , wells rs . prey detection by bottlenose dolphins ,\ntorres lg , read aj . where to catch a fish ? the influence of foraging tactics on the ecology of bottlenose dolphins (\n. 1996 , o\u2019shea and aguilar 2001 ) , the risk of disease outbreaks in bottlenose dolphins in the mediterranean may be considerable .\nmann j , sargeant b . like mother , like calf : the ontogeny of foraging traditions in wild indian ocean bottlenose dolphins (\nthe dolphin ' s dorsal fin contains no bone , cartilage , or muscle . the shape varies among individuals but it is usually falcate .\nthe dolphin becomes habituated to new range and may start to follow boats . local people aware of its presence may attempt to swim with the animal . dolphin appears curious but remains at a distance from swimmers . may bow ride or inspect ropes , chains and buoys , etc .\nbottlenose dolphins are very social animals known for their carefree and playful behavior . often times , bottlenose dolphins can be seen living in groups called pods . these groups may contain only a few members or many hundreds when different pods meet up and join one another . bottlenose dolphins have been known to hunt in groups , taking turns chasing through schools of fish or cornering fish against sandbars or mudbanks .\nbottlenose dolphin calves are born in the water after a gestation period of one year and suckle for about 18 months . they remain with the mother for about four years . they are a long - lived species , with an extensive life span of up to 45 years .\nthe bottlenose dolphin occupies a wide range of habitats , giving it access to a huge variety of organisms including invertebrates , bottom - dwelling fish and squid , plus the full range of pelagic ( oceanic ) fish species . bottlenose dolphins are a very social species and feed together , although they are known to feed alone . they also take advantage of human - induced prey abundance and regularly approach fishing trawlers .\nlarge bottlenose dolphins in the pacific may be 3 . 7 m ( 12 ft . ) and weigh 454 kg ( 1 , 000 lb . ) . in the mediterranean , bottlenose dolphins can grow to 3 . 7 m ( 12 ft . ) or more .\nmaresh jl , fish fe , nowacek dp , nowacek sm , wells rs . high performance turning capabilities during foraging by bottlenose dolphins (\nmarley sa , cheney b , thompson pm . using tooth rakes to monitor population and sex differences in aggressive behaviour in bottlenose dolphins (\n. 2001 ) . bottlenose dolphins elsewhere have experienced mass mortality from such outbreaks , e . g . in black sea waters ( birkun\nbottlenose dolphins are probably the species of dolphins more researched , and most of this investigation is oriented to measure and assess their intelligence .\nconnor r . c , smolker r . a , richards a . f . two levels of alliance formation among male bottlenose dolphins (\njanik v . m , sayigh l . s , wells r . s . signature whistle shape conveys identity information to bottlenose dolphins .\nmann j , connor r . c , barre l . m , heithaus m . r . female reproductive success in bottlenose dolphins (\nsource / reference article learn how you can use or cite the bottle nosed dolphin article in your website content , school work and other projects .\nthey also have an excellent sense of hearing . sounds travel through their lower jaw to their inner ear . bottlenose dolphins communicate with each other using a collection of chirps , whistles , and clicks . they create these sounds using nasal sacs in their heads and their blowholes . each dolphin has a signature whistle used to identify itself . when lost or isolated , a dolphin uses the signature whistle to call out to the group ."]}
{"id": 1651, "summary": [{"text": "palace music ( april 12 , 1981 \u2013 january 7 , 2008 ) was an american thoroughbred racehorse and a champion sire who won group/grade 1 stakes in both europe and the united states . ", "topic": 22}], "title": "palace music ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["palace line was sired by palace music out of the dam mamarracha palace line was foaled on 01 of august in 1998 .\nfor everything you need to know about horse racing . free horse racing tips from professional punters and betting secrets to increase your horse racing profits .\npalace music , whose son cigar became the world ' s richest racehorse , was euthanized .\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for good music . good music is a mare born in 2010 september 22 by primus out of naturalist\ni got the music from this one thanks entirely to this post on boing boing by david pescovitz . this is the first episode where the music ( horse ) led the cart ( story ) . i wanted to write a story that fit this music . because it is incredible .\nseattle slew was a great horse , and the only undefeated kentucky derby and triple corwn winner . he was truly a horse of class .\nenjoy finest chamber music and orchestra concerts with compositions of mozart and his contemporaries .\npalace line is a 18 year old gelding . palace line is trained by peter shaw , at singapore and owned by .\ntabletop games like dungeons & dragons or pathfinder can be incredibly immersive with the right music . this playlist has all the music you\u2019ll ever need to paint a picture for your party .\npalace line has a 62 % win percentage and 69 % place percentage . palace line ' s last race event was at singapore .\npalace music finished second in both the breeders ' cup mile ( gr . it ) in 1985 - 86 , but was disqualified in the 1985 running and placed ninth .\nwelcome to horseracing . com . au , australia ' s premier site for horse racing news .\npalace music was the leading sire by progeny earnings in 1995 . cigar , who earned a career total of $ 9 , 999 , 815 , was both horse of the year and champion older male in 1995 - 96 , plus a 1996 champion in dubai . unfortunately for paulson , he proved sterile at stud . he resides at the kentucky horse park near lexington .\nbred in kentucky by mereworth farm , palace music first raced for nelson bunker hunt and bruce mcnall ' s summa stable . paulson later came aboard as a part owner with hunt .\npalace music retired in 1986 with seven wins from 21 races and earnings of $ 918 , 700 . in france , where he initially raced , he was a multiple group iii winner .\n\u201che was the best of his generation and certainly the best horse i ever rode , \u201d bailey said .\nthis year\u2019s july falls exactly 40 years after part - owner rick nidd\u2019s equine favourite jamaican music won the big race .\npalace music , whose son cigar became the world ' s richest racehorse , was euthanized jan . 7 at rangal park stud in the australian state of victoria . the pensioned son of the minstrel was 27 .\nthree winners on wednesday of last week were from mares by palace music , a world class racehorse who was responsible as a sire himself for outstanding performers in both hemispheres , in particular naturalism in australia and cigar in america .\nthis palace doubled as the trapp family estate in the film . the picturesque pond in front of the palace was where the children took their boat ride and fell into the water . the palace\u2019s \u201cvenetian room\u201d also served as the inspiration for the ballroom in the film . leopoldskron palace is located only five kilometers from the hotel . you can get there using public transport or by bicycle .\npleased to meet you , ma ' am : spain ' s king felipe vi greets the monarch warmly during wednesday ' s official welcome ceremony on horse guards parade . the royal party will now make their way to buckingham palace\nhowever , the major success that day for offspring of daughters of palace music was provided by the eye - catching victory of for valour in the listed ramornie , the historic sprint at the annual grafton carnival . he is by beautiful crown , the former dashing american sprinter who has done such a good job for andrew and lasca bowcock at their alanbridge stud , a near neighbour of vinery in the hunter valley , and from the non - winning palace music mare quick glance .\nused in america and at segenhoe stud ( now vinery ) near scone , the 1981 foaled palace music , won group1 middle distance races in england and america and finished second in the breeders ' cup mile and third in the washington international .\ncigar , the 1990 son of palace music , had an impressive racing career with 16 consecutive wins , including the 1995 breeders ' cup classic , and earnings of $ 9 , 999 , 815 . after twice earning the eclipse horse of the year award , cigar was inducted into the hall of fame in 2002 . he retired to ashford stud in 1997 but after failing to impregnate a single mare was later moved to the kentucky horse park ' s hall of champions in lexington where he became a visitor favorite .\nthe queen was joined by king felipe vi in a state carriage as the royal procession made their way from horse guards parade to buckingham palace . the action - packed tour will see the king and queen enjoy a private lunch with the british royals\nnow that ' s a welcome ! the kings troop royal horse artillery fire a 41 gun salute in green park this morning to kick off the state visit . following a ceremonial welcome , the royal party proceeded to buckingham palace for a private lunch\n' the duke of edinburgh and i are delighted to welcome you and queen letizia to buckingham palace this evening .\npalace line ' s exposed form for its last starts is 0 - 2 - 6 - 6 - 1 .\npalace music stood one season at hunt ' s bluegrass farm near lexington before heading to brookside . during his career , he also stood in australia , new zealand , and japan . his 33 stakes winners included australian champion naturalism , plus palace line , a champion in south africa and singapore , as well as several other group i winners . ric chapman contributed to this story .\npalace line\u2019s last race event was at 25 / 08 / 2002 and it has not been nominated for any upcoming race .\npalace glow , by palace music . 3 wins - 2 at 2 - at 1000m , 1100m , a $ 128 , 500 , vrc il globo rete italia h . , vatc hurricane sky 2yo h . , 2d vatc swinburne alumni h . , 3d vrc red roses s . , l , vatc gwyn nursery s . , l . dam of 13 named foals , 11 to race , 5 winners , inc : -\npalace line career form is 8 wins , 1 seconds , thirds from 13 starts with a lifetime career prize money of $ .\npalace music ( usa ) ch . h , 1981 { 13 - b } dp = 9 - 6 - 19 - 2 - 0 ( 36 ) di = 2 . 13 cd = 0 . 61 - 21 starts , 7 wins , 7 places , 2 shows career earnings : $ 918 , 700\nthe king and queen of spain will formally bid farewell to the queen and the duke of edinburgh at buckingham palace in the morning .\nthe royal visit began one day later than is usual , meaning theresa may will miss prime minister ' s questions in the commons in order to attend the horse guards welcome .\nthis palace right outside the walls of salzburg was built in the 17th century . on the grounds of hellbrunn\u2019s expansive park , you can still find the pavilion where liesl and franz first met . the elegant palace and gardens of hellbrunn are within walking distance of the hotel .\nsalzburg is where you will find the famous shooting locations for the \u201cthe sound of music . \u201d let these stunningly beautiful places work their magic as you follow in the footsteps of the trapp family !\npalace ' s $ 140 , 000 weanling filly , hip no . 18 , at the 2017 fasig - tipton november sale - photo by z\ncigar proved infertile as a stallion and lived out the remainder of his retirement at the kentucky horse park\u2019s hall of champions . he died oct . 7 , 2014 at the age of 24 .\nthe highest - earning colt at stud by the prolific sire , city zip , sprint star palace won six stakes\u2014four graded , including two grade one events .\npalace music , who was produced from the prince john mare come my prince , was both a grade / group i winner . he captured the 1984 dubai champion stakes ( eng - i ) over the top english filly pebbles . his u . s . grade i win came in the 1986 john henry handicap ( gr . it ) while trained by charles whittingham .\nthe queen and the duke of edinburgh formally welcomes the king and queen on horse guards parade . presentations were made , the guard of honour gave a royal salute and the spanish national anthem was played .\ntwo of the winners extending the excellence of palace music through his daughters last week were successful at the eagle farm meeting in the shape of mellifluous ( a representative of the first crop of two - year - olds by the kingmambo american champion grass performer king cugat , another visitor to the widden stud ) and checkit ( a filly by the deceased danehill sire lion hunter ) .\nthe background music featured a nod to the spanish guests , with tunes such as lady of spain - a 1931 song which became popular in the late 1940s - and the roi d ' espagne , the royal spanish waltz .\nthis entry was posted in bloodstock and tagged allen paulson , cigar , horse racing , new vocations , new vocations racehorse adoption program , thoroughbred , thoroughbred aftercare , thoroughbred retirement by press release . bookmark the permalink .\npalace music stood at allen paulson ' s brookside farms near versailles , ky . , the year he sired cigar . bred and raced by paulson , cigar went on a winning rampage starting in 1994 that resulted in a record - tying 16 straight wins . included in those scores was the 1995 breeders ' cup classic ( gr . i ) and the inaugural dubai world cup in 1996 .\npalace music raced in both europe and north america . as a 3 and 4 year old in europe , he raced 10 times winning 4 times . he was then sent to north america where he raced 11 times winning three times . his overall race record is 21 7 - 5 - 3 with earnings , gbp 111 , 163 , us $ 584 , 300 and 729 , 350 ff .\nthe easiest way to hit all these \u201csound of music\u201d locations during your stay in salzburg is to take a \u201csound of music\u201d tour . you will be accompanied by a knowledgeable travel guide . after taking the tour , you can enjoy a live performance of the songs of the \u201ctrapp family singers\u201d in salzburg . make the amadeo hotel your home base in salzburg as you wander in the footsteps of the trapps ! you can make a non - binding room request here .\nletizia , felipe , charles and camilla leave the me hotel , on the strand , where they are believed to have stayed last night . following their awkward encounter this morning , they headed to horse guards parade for the welcome ceremony\nthe queen greets theresa may as they await the spanish royals at horse guards parade . the prime minister appeared to have got into a spot of bother after her liz helix hat was blown off in the wind as she made her entrance\nfrankie dettori , the most successful royal ascot jockey currently riding with 56 winners at the meeting , suffered an injury scare only a week before opening day when he was thrown from a horse in the parade ring at yarmouth on tuesday .\nfelipe greets the queen on horse guards parade . ahead of the meticulously - planned ceremony , the mall was decked out in spanish flags this week and gun salutes were fired from green park and the tower of london to welcome the spanish royals\nthis afternoon , the queen and the duke of edinburgh will formally welcome the king and queen on horse guards parade where presentations will be made , the guard of honour will give a royal salute and the spanish national anthem will be played .\ntake a stroll through the same scenes and scenery you saw in your favorite movie \u2026 more than 300 , 000 \u201csound of music\u201d fans come to this city every year so as to walk in the footsteps of the trapp family at the original shooting locations .\nfollowing a private lunch at buckingham palace , the monarch invited the king and queen of spain to view an exhibition in the picture gallery of items from the royal collection relating to spain .\nin the evening the queen will give a state banquet at buckingham palace for the king and queen . the queen and the king will both make speeches at the start of the banquet .\nking felipe vi and queen letizia gathered with the queen and the duke of edinburgh in the opulently decorated buckingham palace ballroom as the countess of wessex ' s string orchestra provided the musical entertainment .\nin his second come back run , in a 1600m event on the greyville turf , he announced himself as a horse who could go to the top as his long stride carried him to an eyecatching victory . he duly won three of his next five starts and was strongly fancied for the gr 2 peermont emperor\u2019s palace charity mile at turffontein . however , much to the disappointment of connections , he was made first reserve and didn\u2019t get a run .\nthe vip visitors enjoy a military ceremonial welcome on horse guards parade to mark the start of their visit to britain . the captain of the guard of honour major charlie gair , irish guards , presented his guard of honour to the king of spain in spanish\nthe kings troop royal horse artillery make sure they are perfectly turned out before firing their 41 gun salute in green park . the much anticipated state visit is the first of its kind in 31 years - king juan carlos visited the uk in 1986 before addicating\nletizia travelled to the palace in the state landau - the carriage which was built for the coronation of king edward vii in 1902 - alongside prince philip , while her husband travelled with the queen .\nqueen letizia and the duchess of cambridge both plumped for family heirlooms as they dazzled in diamonds at an extravagant state banquet at buckingham palace in king felipe and queen letizia ' s honour on wednesday night .\npalace is very good value . i see a lot of similarities to the good city zips . we have four , and he ' s upgrading his mares .\n\u2014 jody huckabay , elm tree farm\nthe action - packed first day saw the king and queen enjoy a private lunch at buckingham palace , afternoon tea at clarence house - and culminated in the state banquet with senior members of the royal family .\nthe duchess of cornwall chats to queen letizia at their hotel in central london this morning , before heading to buckingham palace flanked by a grand military procession . they enjoyed tea together at clarence house later this afternoon\nthe royal mews staff were decked out in their full state livery \u2013 a uniform that has changed little in over 200 years - ahead of the ceremonial welcome , while horses were hitched to their respective carriages , ready to be inspected by the master of the horse before departing .\nfollowing a private lunch at buckingham palace , given by the queen , her majesty invited the king and queen of spain to view an exhibition in the picture gallery of items from the royal collection relating to spain .\npalace tycoon . 2 wins at 2000m , 2200m , a $ 116 , 840 , in 2015 - 16 , 2d vrc saintly h . , mrc wilson medic one h . , 3d mrc helen egan h .\nbuckingham palace said the last foreign royal to be invested as a knight of the garter was king harald v of norway in 2001 . the decision demonstrates the cordial nature of the royals ' relations with their spanish counterparts .\ncity zip has a multiple graded stakes winner from a mare by a son of sadler\u2019s wells , who might be introduced in the u . s . through el prado and sons medaglia d\u2019oro and kitten\u2019s joy , and through horse chestnut , broodmare sire of city zip grade one winner zipessa .\nit is also the largest reception held at buckingham palace , requiring hours of intricate planning by the master of the household and the marshal of the diplomatic corps , as well as the commandeering of almost every member of waiting staff .\nthe prince of wales and the duchess of cornwall greeted the spanish royal couple on behalf of the queen , at their hotel , the me on the strand , on wednesday morning . their royal highnesses then travelled with their majesties to horse guards parade , where the king and queen received a ceremonial welcome .\nthe reigning monarchs make their way to the palace . felipe , 49 , is expected to raise the thorny issue of gibraltar during his stay this week . he will deliver an address at westminster from the royal gallery to parliamentarians on wednesday\nthe spanish king , followed by the duke of edinburgh , inspects the guard of honour , the 1st battalion irish guards . afterwards , he joined the queen and duke of edinburgh for a state carriage procession along the mall to buckingham palace\nafter a gloomy arrival at luton airport on tuesday night , the sun came out for king felipe ( pictured ) and wife letizia for today ' s ceremonial welcome . after arriving at buckingham palace they headed inside to enjoy a lunch reception\nletizia , 44 , travelled to buckingham palace in the state landau - the carriage which was built for the coronation of king edward vii in 1902 - alongside the duke of edinburgh . the sunny weather saw the royals travelling with the roof down\nthe queen and prince philip arrive at buckingham palace . later this week , the king will attend a uk - spain business forum at mansion house with the duke of york , visit westminster abbey accompanied , and meet theresa may at downing street\nonce inside the palace , the king and queen enjoyed a private lunch with the royal family where they were served laureate ' s choice , a sherry selected by poet carol ann duffy . a poem inspired by the sherry appears on the label .\nwatchful eye : police officers are seen on the roof of buckingham palace before a procession along the mall on wednesday . the couple ' s trip to london is the first state visit to take place since the recent terror attacks in manchester and london\nthese stately gardens were created in the 18th century . take a leisurely stroll past the statue of the winged horse pegasus . in the film , this is where maria and the children sang \u201cdo - re - mi\u201d and danced together . you can easily get to the mirabell gardens from the amadeo hotel using public transport .\nsaratoga dancer has won over 2000m before , but howells does admit the 2200m trip of the july might \u201cstretch him . \u201d he is the lowest rated horse in the race on 95 and has once again had bad luck with the draw , so is not surprisingly the biggest outsider with betting world at 66 / 1 .\ntoday ' s carriage procession marks the start of an action - packed first day . later on , the royal couple are expected to meet prince harry and the duke and duchess of cambridge when they are feted with the grand state banquet in palace ballroom\nonce inside , the spanish royals enjoyed a private lunch with the royal family where they were served laureate ' s choice , a sherry selected by poet carol ann duffy . a poem inspired by the sherry appears on the label , according to buckingham palace\nthis , bonheur\u2019s best - known painting , shows the horse market held in paris on the tree - lined boulevard de l\u2019h\u00f4pital , near the asylum of salp\u00eatri\u00e8re , which is visible in the left background . for a year and a half bonheur sketched there twice a week , dressing as a man to discourage attention . bonheur was well established as an animal painter when the painting debuted at the paris salon of 1853 , where it received wide praise . in arriving at the final scheme , the artist drew inspiration from george stubbs , th\u00e9odore gericault , eug\u00e8ne delacroix , and ancient greek sculpture : she referred to the horse fair as her own\nparthenon frieze .\n\u201cduring his last race he was hit by another horse behind and hurt his leg , \u201d de royer - dupr\u00e9 said . \u201chis career is not finished but ascot and the gold cup will come too soon . we will see how he recovers , but the plan could now be the goodwood cup [ on 1 august ] . \u201d\nthe pair share a laugh as they exit the carriage at buckingham palace . according to the olive press , felipe is fluent in english because his mother spoke it to him - and he speaks only english at home so that his daughters will also grow up bilingual\nthe royal couple , who are staying at buckingham palace , are expected to meet prince harry and the duke and duchess of cambridge when they are feted with the grand state banquet in the ballroom on wednesday evening . it will be the first state visit for harry\nhowells , who also has ten gun salute in the race , has only had one previous july runner . he was happy with saratoga dancer\u2019s july gallop and his overall preparation . the best of this horse has likely not been seen and he could surprise a few people . chris winter concluded , \u201cjust remember leicester city won the league ! \u201d\nwell known kzn - racing couple rodney and jane trotter had a dream come true when the horse they spelled and own , the duncan howells - trained saratoga dancer , was included in the vodacom durban july final field . it was also a momentous occasion for two other part - owners , passionate kzn - based racing fans rick and thora nidd .\nthe king , accompanied by the duke of edinburgh , inspected the guard of honour , which are the 1st battalion irish guards . afterwards , the king and queen joined the queen and the duke of edinburgh for a state carriage procession along the mall to buckingham palace .\nthe spanish king , accompanied by the duke of edinburgh , inspected the guard of honour , which are the 1st battalion irish guards . afterwards , the king and queen joined the queen and the duke of edinburgh for a state carriage procession along the mall to buckingham palace .\nwhile it ' s understood to be prince philip ' s last - ever state banquet before he retires this autumn , it was prince harry ' s first as he moves into a more full - time royal position . the duke of cambridge attended his first palace banquet last year\nthe trapp family lived in salzburg before emigrating to the usa . thus , the film \u201cthe sound of music\u201d is also set in the midst of this spectacular region . equipped with background information from the amadeo hotel salzburg , you can embark on a journey of discovery to the most important shooting locations of the film . you will also receive background on the true story of the trapp family .\nnamed after a navigational intersection for airplanes by aerospace magnate allen paulson , cigar was foaled at country life farm near bel air , md . after enjoying modest success early in his career , cigar won back - to - back horse of the year awards , compiled a 16 - race win streak and retired with the all - time record for purse earnings in north america .\nqueen letizia joins prince philip in the state landau as the travel to the palace . this week ' s visit is seen as a significant step in securing relations with spain as the uk leaves the eu ; the last incoming state visit by a spanish king was 31 years ago in 1986\na member of the grenadier guards is seen at the mall at the start of spanish king felipe vi and queen letizia ' s three - day state visit . letizia , 44 , wil travel to buckingham palace in the state landau with her husband - the carriage which was built in 1902\nthe same year of jamaican music\u2019s july win , chris winter was playing rugby for natal u20 . chris had followed horseracing since his junior school days and he and his friends often found ways to get their place accumulators on . he began buying horses as soon as he could afford them . he had a break from owning for some time , but since coming back ten years ago howells has always been his trainer .\nafterwards , the king and queen will visit the palace of westminster , where they will be welcomed by the speaker of the house of commons and the lord speaker . the king will deliver an address in the royal gallery to parliamentarians and other guests , followed by a reception with members and invited guests .\neurope\u2019s oldest german - speaking cloister , nonnberg abbey was also featured in the \u201cthe sound of music . \u201d this was the location for the scene in which maria arrives late for mass and then sings the song \u201cmaria . \u201d in real life , this is where maria and the baron were married in 1927 . the abbey is also easily accessible from the amadeo hotel via public transport . the footpath up to the mountain is particularly scenic .\nguests at the spanish state banquet dined on medallion of scottish beef and truffles in a madeira sauce as they gathered in the opulently decorated buckingham palace ballroom as the countess of wessex ' s string orchestra provided the musical entertainment - including curious tunes such as the theme from the bond film skyfall and coldplay ' s viva la vida .\nthe playlist , curated by spotify user kingslayer133 , features nearly 500 tracks of ambient , instrumental music that fits right in with a fantasy , renaissance theme . some tracks are the kind you might hear the bard playing at the inn , while others set the stage while fighting an epic enemy on a mountaintop . if you\u2019re building a tabletop campaign or just want to put something on in the background at work , you can find tons of great tracks in here .\nafterwards , the king and queen will visit the palace of westminster , where they will be welcomed by the speaker of the house of commons and the lord speaker . the king will deliver an address in the royal gallery to parliamentarians and other guests , followed by a reception with members and invited guests ahead of tonight ' s state banquet .\nthe minstrel was horse of the year in england and victories include larkspur s . ( ire ) , dewhurst s . gr . 1 ( gb ) , irish 2000 guineas gr . 1 ( ire ) , derby s . gr . 1 ( gb ) , irish sweeps derby gr . 1 ( ire ) , king george vi and queen elizabeth diamond s . gr . 1 ( gb ) . 3rd 2000 guineas gr . 1 ( gb ) .\njane trotter bought the gary player stud - bred saratoga dancer at the national yearling sales for r95 , 000 with the aim of selling him on at the emperor\u2019s palace ready to run sale . jane is one of the country\u2019s most respected pre - trainers and backed and prepared him for the latter sale from the trotter\u2019s ambleway thoroughbred stables farm near pietermaritzburg .\ncigar ' s halter was generously donated to new vocations by halters for hope , an organization that collects leather halters worn by famous thoroughbred and standardbred racehorses around the nation and then sells them to fans and collectors to raise proceeds for horses in need . all proceeds of every sale , 100 percent , go to charitable horse rescue organizations . for more information on available halters or donating a halter from a famous racehorse , follow them on facebook and leave a message .\nwhile it ' s understood to be prince philip ' s last - ever state banquet before he retires this autumn , it was prince harry ' s first as he moves into a more full - time royal position . the duke of cambridge attended his first palace banquet last year , while prince charles was 20 at his first state banquet in the london residence .\nthe film\u2019s opening scenes were shot on the shores of the fuschlsee ( lake fuschl ) , which is on the way to the town of st gilgen . in this spectacular region of alpine lakes , known as the salzkammergut , lies the \u201cmoon lake\u201d or mondsee . here you will find the church where maria and the baron held their wedding in the film . the distance from the amadeo hotel is about 30 - 40 kilometers . you can also explore the salzkammergut with a guided \u201csound of music\u201d bus tour .\nhowever , there was not much interest and howells ended up buying him on behalf of the trotters for r140 , 000 . the probable reason for the lack of interest was his one knee being offset . however , jane revealed the horse had not had a single day of unsoundness in his entire life to date . the only reason there have been a couple of gaps in his racing career was due to howells always believing he would make a better four - year - old .\nrick recalled standing to win a lot of money on this popular ralph rixon - trained grey in 1974 and was so confident he had asked a motor car company to have the car he intended buying with the winnings polished and ready for him to collect the following monday . in those days rick and his family used to huddle around the radio to listen to the july and he could not believe what he was hearing when commentator ernie duffield broke the news shortly after the start that jamaican music had dislodged his jockey .\nhe duly won by a comfortable two lengths and a subsequent third in a handicap on the poly was enough to qualify him for the r3 , 85 million emperors palace ready to run cup , which was at that stage the richest race even run in south africa . he finished a decent 1 , 5 length sixth , but had a tough race and returned to ambleway for a rest .\namong o\u2019brien\u2019s major candidates for next week\u2019s meeting , only caravaggio , an 11 - 10 chance for friday\u2019s commonwealth cup , is now widely available at odds - against . churchill and winter , who completed doubles for the trainer in the english and irish guineas last month , are respectively top - priced at 8 - 11 and 4 - 6 for the st james\u2019s palace stakes and the coronation stakes .\n\u201cthe great cigar overcame a lot in his long life , year after year after year , and gave back so much to his millions of fans . so it seems fitting that he continue to give to other horses , less celebrated but no less valuable , who are in need today , \u201d shared halters for hope founder andrew cohen . \u201cif the proceeds of the sale of this halter help just a few of those horses get through the coming winter it will be a wonderful tribute to a horse that always seemed to try his hardest even when the odds against him seemed great . \u201d\nnorth american auction listings are included for the progeny and covered mares of all featured stallions . expand each sale by clicking the + symbol to the left of the sale name . entries include hip number , name ( when applicable ) , sex , year of birth , type [ a = stallion ; b = broodmare ; c = stallion season ; d = broodmare prospect ; e = racing or broodmare prospect ; f = racing or stallion prospect ; g = stallion prospect ; h = horse ; i = racing prospect ; s = stallion share ; w = weanling ; y = yearling ; 2 ( or other numeral ) = age of hip ] , sire , dam , broodmare sire , and consignor . cover sire information is available for broodmares that have been bred by hovering the cursor over the \u201cb\u201d designation .\nat 3 : dubai champion s . ( eng - g1 ) , prix daphnis ( fr - g3 ) , 2nd prix jacques le marois ( fr - g1 ) , la coup de de maisons - laffite ( fr - g3 ) , prix messidor ( fr - g3 )\nat 4 : la coup de de maisons - laffite ( fr - g3 ) , 3rd dubai champion s . ( eng - g1 ) , 4th benson & hedges gold cup ( eng - g1 )\nat 5 : john henry h . ( g1t ) , bay meadows h . ( g2t ) , colonel f . koester h . , 2nd breeders ' cup mile ( g1 ) , inglewood h . ( g3 ) , 3rd washington d . c . international ( g1 ) , hill rise h .\nwon or placed in 14 stakes . concluded his career with a win in the bay meadows handicap ( g2 )\nstood in 1996 at yushun stallion station , hokkaido , on 1 - year lease from segenhoe stud .\ndied on january 7 , 2008 , at rangal park stud , vic australia . ( close )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\njason servis is on the best run of his career , wi . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\njockey : fernando toro trainer : charles e . whittingham owner : hunt & paulson breeder : mereworth farm\n* current year statistics include all north american races and dubai world cup day . career statistics include results from all countries .\n* current year includes north american and dubai world cup day statistics ; all previous years include results from all countries .\nracing achievements and top 100 rankings include north american ( u . s . , canada and puerto rico ) thoroughbred races only .\nequibase company is the official supplier of racing information and statistics to america ' s best racing , breeders ' cup , daily racing form , ntra , the jockey club , tra , tvg and xpressbet .\nproprietary to and \u00a9 2018 equibase company llc . all rights reserved . the terms of use for this web site prohibit the use of any robot , spider , scraper or any other automated means to access the contents of this site . the terms of use also expressly prohibit the republication or dissemination of the contents of this screen without the prior written consent of equibase company llc .\nhe was by the nijinsky ' s english derby winning three - quarter brother the minstrel and from the prince john mare come my prince , a close relation of johann quatz , a sadler ' s wells sire who shuttled to the widden stud .\nthe six - year - old gelded for valour has been a very tough , sound galloper , typical of the progeny of beautiful crown , a son of chief ' s crown , one of the best racing and sire sons of danzig . for valour has to date won seven races including two stakes , the ramornie and ajc june stakes , and been second seven times , third on five occasions ( two stakes ) and fourth in three stakes .\nbred by his part owner peter jensen , croyden park , nsw and trained at warwick farm by michel hudson , for valour is one of 33 winners in the first crop of beautiful crown , a sire represented all told by 166 individual winners of over 400 races and $ 8 . 8million . he should finish the current racing year with about 80 winners of 140 races and $ 1 . 7million and once again has been one of the leading sources of earners of cheques in the nsw bonus scheme , bobs .\nthoroughbrednews is an independently owned and operated industry news platform with 25 years of experience of working with industry partners and publishing news content from around the world .\nthis season\u2019s leading moonee valley hoop craig newitt was seen at his desperate best when exceed and excite led throughout to win the mazda 72 955m sprint at moonee valley tonight . newitt come into the meeting on eight wins , one ahead of both dwayne dunn and luke nolen . those two rode earlier winners dunn ( anjea ) [ \u2026 ]\nearly favourite to take out saturday\u2019s group 1 $ 1 , 000 , 000 robert sangster stakes ( 1200m ) in adelaide , local hope viddora has come up trumps with barrier one in the morphettville feature .\nthe world\u2019s best racehorse , winx , has been celebrated by the australian turf club ( atc ) getting the warwick stakes renamed in her honour .\nthe championships day 2 results will be known shortly and you can stay up to date with all the news at horseracing . com . au .\none of america ' s top sprinters from 2014 - 15 : won saratoga ' s $ 500 , 000 forego s . [ g1 ] , saratoga ' s $ 350 , 000 vanderbilt h . [ g1 ] , and belmont ' s $ 250 , 000 true north h . [ g2 ]\nwinning efforts in 1 : 08 . 29 ( true north h . ) , 1 : 08 . 56 ( vanderbilt h . ) , and 1 : 08 . 97 ( hudson h . ) at six furlongs , and 1 : 21 . 95 ( forego ) at seven furlongs\none of the fastest winner of the prestigious vanderbilt h . since eclipse champion & leading sire speightstown ( 1 : 08 . 04 ) ; faster than rock fall , war front , majesticperfection , etc .\nan allowance race at aqueduct ( 6 . 5f , defeating pearl of wisdom , jeter , towering moon , lord of love , preachintothedevil , greeley ' s law , ezzy )\nan allowance race at aqueduct ( 7 . 5f , defeating tug of war , what ' s the record , cap the moment , ground force , fortitude , lil o ' s expression )\nchowder ' s first s . at saratoga ( 6f , by 3 lengths , defeating the lumber guy , night maneuver , spa city fever , even got quiet , n . f . ' s destiny )\nalfred g . vanderbilt h . at saratoga ( g1 , 6f , defeating happy my way , falling sky , vyjack , capo bastone , lemon drop dream , bahamian squall ) .\nbelmont sprint championship s . at belmont park ( g3 , 7f , to clearly now , defeating salutos amigos , moonlight song , dads caps , central banker , mezzano , big screen , declan ' s warrior )\ngold and roses s . at belmont park ( 6f , to moonlight song , defeating night maneuver , dan ' s gold , uncle t seven , bug juice )\nhudson h . at belmont park ( 6 . 5f , defeating captain serious , weekend hideaway , drama king , noble cornerstone , loki ' s revenge , john ' s island , tug of war , ostrolenka )\ngravesend s . at aqueduct ( 6f , to green gratto , defeating alex the terror , jake n elwood , fabulous kid ) .\nfrank j . de francis memorial dash at laurel park ( 6f , to gentlemen ' s bet , trouble kid , defeating stallwalkin ' dude , sonny inspired , sir rockport , spring to the sky , cutty shark ) .\njohn morrissey s . at saratoga ( 6 . 5f , to moonlight song , john ' s island , defeating noble cornerstone , readbytheline , smooth bert ) .\ndosage profile : dp = 11 - 4 - 5 - 0 - 0 ( 20 ) di = 7 . 00 cd = 1 . 30\ncity zip has been extremely successful with mares from the storm cat line , getting graded stakes winner city to city out of a mare by storm cat himself ; grade one winner collected out of a mare by johannesburg ; future storm , stormin fever , forest wildcat , tactical cat and stormy atlantic , so most storm cat line mares should suit here . the danzig branch of northern dancer has supplied the dams of four city zip stakes winners . there are city zip stakes winners out of mares by dixieland band , and his son citidancer , which also suggests dixie union . city zip is half - brother to ghostzapper , a son of awesome again ( by deputy ministe r ) , and city zip has stakes winners out of mares deputy minister and his son , touch gold .\ncity zip\u2019s champion sprinter , work all week , is out of a mare by the roberto stallion , repriced , and this strain could be brought in through lear fan , dynaformer , red ransom , kris s . and silver hawk . roberto is a hail to reason line stallion , and from the halo branch of that line , city zip has a graded stakes winner out of a mare by more than ready , as well as stakes winners out of mares by devil\u2019s bag and saint ballado .\ncity zip carries blushing groom through his sire , city zip , and he has seven stakes winners with blushing groom inbreeding . city zip is out of a mare by relaunch , but he has already sired a grade one winner out of a mare by relaunch line stallion tiznow , and a stakes winner out of a mare by relaunch son honour and glory .\nfinest city , by city zip , is out of a mare by lemon drop kid , from his own mr . prospector line , and has also worked with this cross through distorted humor , street cry , thunder gulch , lemon drop kid and broken vow .\nseason inquiries to : des dempsey : 859 . 509 . 2106 mark toothaker : 859 . 421 . 0151 brian lyle : 859 . 519 . 6477 garry cuddy : + 61 410 451 595 ( australia )\n884 iron works pike | lexington ky 40511 ( map ) farm phone : 859 . 294 . 0030 | fax : 859 . 294 . 0050 toll free : 888 . 816 . 8787\nwelcome to the middle ages ! hohensalzburg fortress is a powerful symbol and offers a fascinating journey back to the middle ages .\nhere you will find your ideal accommodations , sightseeing tours of salzburg , special events and tickets , along with all the benefits of the salzburg card .\nthe many - and - varied cultural events represent the heart & soul of salzburg . book your tickets right here :\nthe salzburg card provides you with free or discounted admission to numerous sightseeing attractions , along with free use of public transportation .\nby checking the box , you consent to the processing of the aforementioned personally identifiable data for the purposes of sending you an email newsletter based upon your expressed agreement and until such point as you wish to revoke or rescind your consent .\nwelcome to our featured playlist series . each week , we\u2019ll share a new themed playlist , embedded for your convenience ! you can copy the track list to your service of choice , or listen right here . have a sweet playlist of your own ? share it with us in the comments below !\nkinja is in read - only mode . we are working to restore service .\nstays from \u20ac 108 , - in a double room incl . parking , breakfast and wifi internet access .\nthis website uses cookies that are necessary for full use of the website . detailed information about the use of cookies on this website can be found in our data privacy policy . . there , the use of cookies can also be declined .\nartist : rosa bonheur ( french , bordeaux 1822\u20131899 thomery ) date : 1852\u201355 medium : oil on canvas dimensions : 96 1 / 4 x 199 1 / 2 in . ( 244 . 5 x 506 . 7 cm ) classification : paintings credit line : gift of cornelius vanderbilt , 1887 accession number : 87 . 25\ninscription : signed and dated ( lower right ) : rosa bonheur 1853 . 5\n[ ernest gambart , london , 1855\u201357 ; bought from the artist for fr 40 , 000 ; sold for fr 30 , 000 to wright ] ; william p . wright , weehawken , n . j . ( 1857\u201366 ; sold to stewart ) ; alexander t . stewart , new york ( 1866\u2013d . 1876 ) ; his widow , cornelia m . stewart , new york ( 1876\u2013d . 1886 ; her estate sale , american art association , new york , march 23\u201328ff . , 1887 , no . 217 , for $ 53 , 000 to samuel p . avery for vanderbilt ) ; cornelius vanderbilt , new york ( 1887 )\none met . many worlds . the metropolitan museum of art . vol . 7 , europe in the age of enlightenment and revolution the metropolitan museum of art : masterpiece paintings the metropolitan museum of art guide ( spanish ) the metropolitan museum of art guide ( russian ) the metropolitan museum of art guide ( portuguese ) the metropolitan museum of art guide ( korean ) the metropolitan museum of art guide ( japanese ) the metropolitan museum of art guide ( italian ) the metropolitan museum of art guide ( german ) the metropolitan museum of art guide ( french ) the metropolitan museum of art guide ( chinese ) the metropolitan museum of art guide ( arabic ) the metropolitan museum of art guide the metropolitan museum of art guide masterpieces of the metropolitan museum of art masterpieces of the metropolitan museum of art masterpieces of european painting , 1800\u20131920 , in the metropolitan museum of art french paintings : a catalogue of the collection of the metropolitan museum of art . vol . 2 , nineteenth century european paintings in the metropolitan museum of art by artists born before 1865 : a summary catalogue a concise catalogue of the european paintings in the metropolitan museum of art the artist project : what artists see when they look at art the artist project art and the empire city : new york , 1825\u20131861\nlearn more about the curatorial staff and the scientists and conservators who collaborate to study , exhibit , and care for the objects in the met collection .\nstay up - to - date on the museum ' s open access initiative , which makes more than 375 , 000 images of public - domain artworks from the met collection available for free and unrestricted use .\nexplore publications and products inspired by the met collection , which spans 5 , 000 years of culture from around the world .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\n/ / urltoken\nnumber of refugees accepted into the u . s . falls below the rest of the world combined for the first time since 1980\nkate , 35 , donned the diamond and pearl cambridge lover ' s knot tiara so beloved by william ' s late mother , diana , princess of wales - which she also wore to her first state banquet last year . the duchess looked resplendent in a dusky marchesa pink dress offset with her favourite pearl and diamond earrings .\nqueen letizia also wore her husband ' s mother ' s tiara ; the piece is called the fleur de lys tiara or la buena . made in 1906 as a wedding gift from king alfonso xiii to queen victoria eugenia , the great - granddaughter of queen victoria , it was passed down the generations to felipe ' s mother , queen sofia .\nthe spanish queen plumped for her country ' s national colour and stunned in a bejewelled red gown , which accentuated her curves .\nthe spanish royals were hosted by the queen and prince philip last night along with duchess of cambridge , princes william and harry , prince charles and camilla , with britain treating them to the full pomp and pageantry traditionally rolled out for visiting heads of state .\nkate looked chic in a custom made marchesa gown with a plunging v - neck in blush lace , bell sleeves and shirred ballgown skirt at tonight ' s state banquet . this is second time in the last few months that the duchess has worn marchesa to a public engagement\nit was all about the high - octane glamour at tonight ' s state banquet celebrating the first official visit of king felipe vi and queen letizia , with the duchess looking her usual resplendent self in a blush pink lace dress by marchesa ."]}
{"id": 1658, "summary": [{"text": "the underworld windowskate ( fenestraja plutonia ) is a species of cartilaginous fish in the family rajidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is also known as the pluto skate .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the underworld windowskate is known from patches of continental slope in the western atlantic ocean between the coasts of the southern united states and suriname . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "fenestraja plutonia", "paragraphs": ["the following term was not found in genome : fenestraja plutonia [ orgn ] .\nexternal morphology of fenestraja and gurgesiella . adult male 232 mm tl . . . | download scientific diagram\nfigure 3 : external morphology of fenestraja and gurgesiella . adult male 232 mm tl ( zmh 119851 ) of fenestraja plutonia ( garman , 1881 ) in ( a ) dorsal and ( b ) ventral views , as well as adult male holotype 424 mm tl ( zmh 25046 ) of gurgesiella dorsalifera mceachran & compagno , 1980 in ( c ) dorsal and ( d ) ventral views .\nfenestraja maceachrani ( s\u00e9ret 1989 ) in honor of john d . mceachran ( b . 1941 , note latinization of \u201cmc\u201d to \u201cmac\u201d ) , for his major contributions to skate and ray systematics\n( of raja plutonia garman , 1881 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of breviraja plutonia ( garman , 1881 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of gurgesiella plutonia ( garman , 1881 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\njustification : fenestraja plutonia is a small ( to 27 cm tl ) deepwater skate known from depths of 293\u20131 , 024 m with a patchy distribution in the western central atlantic . virtually nothing is known of this species ' biology . no information is available on interactions with fisheries and while it is a potential bycatch of deeper water demersal trawling , its wide bathymetric range probably provides it with refuge at depth . however , at present this species cannot be assessed beyond data deficient .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by cmilitante , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by cmilitante , 14 / 03 / 2013\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nwestern central atlantic : recorded from north carolina to florida keys , bahamas , northeastern gulf of mexico , costa rica , colombia , venezuela , guyana and suriname ( mceachran and carvalho 2002 ) .\nbathydemersal deepwater species reported at depths from 293\u20131 , 024 m ( mceachran and carvalho 2002 ) . maximum size 27 cm total length ( tl ) , and males mature at about 23 cm tl ( mceachran and carvalho 2002 ) . reproduction is presumably oviparous , like other skates . little else is known of the biology of this species .\nno specific information is available on the bycatch of this species in any fisheries but it may be vulnerable to bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries off southern usa , in the gulf of mexico , and potentially elsewhere . there is probably some refuge for this species in deeper water beyond the depth of current fishing activities .\nfurther surveys are required to better define the species ' distribution , depth range and biology . careful monitoring should also be undertaken should fisheries expand to greater depths in the region . the development and implementation of management plans ( national and / or regional e . g . , under the fao international plan of action for the conservation and management of sharks : ipoa sharks ) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nlatin , fenestra , - ae = small hole or opening in a bone + latin , raja , - ae = a fish , raja sp . ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; bathydemersal ; depth range 290 - 750 m ( ref . 28767 ) . deep - water\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 25 . 3 cm tl ( female )\nfirst and dorsal confluent . thorns on anterior part of tail and disc are larger and more conspicuous . upper surface from pale yellowish brown to darker greyish brown , purplish brown or mouse gray . lower surface yellowish white ( ref . 6902 ) .\ndeep water species ( ref . 6902 ) . oviparous ( ref . 50449 ) . eggs have horn - like projections on the shell ( ref . 205 ) .\noviparous , paired eggs are laid . embryos feed solely on yolk ( ref . 50449 ) .\nmceachran , j . d . and k . a . dunn , 1998 . phylogenetic analysis of skates , a morphologically conservative clade of elasmobranchs ( chondrichthyes : rajidae ) . copeia 1998 ( 2 ) : 271 - 290 . ( ref . 27314 )\n) : 8 . 5 - 15 . 9 , mean 11 . 5 ( based on 77 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5039 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00302 ( 0 . 00137 - 0 . 00665 ) , b = 3 . 21 ( 3 . 03 - 3 . 39 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 6 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( fec assumed to be < 100 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 26 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncompagno , leonard j . v . / hamlett , william c . , ed .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\ndeep water species ( ref . 6902 ) . oviparous ( ref . 50449 ) . eggs have horn - like projections on the shell ( ref . 205 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nmceachran , j . d . ( 2009 ) . fishes ( vertebrata : pisces ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 1223\u20131316 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . [ details ]\n( of raja acanthiderma fowler , 1947 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nintergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nreports on the results of dredging , under the supervisionof ' alexander agassiz , along the atlantic coast of the united states during the summer of 1880 , by the u . s . coast survey steamer\nblake ,\ncommander j . r . bartlett , u . s . n . , commanding . xii . reports on the selachians .\n( garman , 1881 ) : in : database of modern sharks , rays and chimaeras , www . shark - references . com , world wide web electronic publication , version 07 / 2018\nfirst and dorsal confluent . thorns on anterior part of tail and disc are larger and more conspicuous . upper surface from pale yellowish brown to darker greyish brown , purplish brown or mouse gray . lower surface yellowish white\nhost - parasite list / parasite - host list ( version : 01 . 04 . 2015 ) 544 pp , 5 , 37 mb new !\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nthe list below must not be used as an authority reference synonymy list like those found in scientific published revisions , which must be the source to be used and cited eventually when they exist .\nrather , it reflects the current content of fishbase , and the progress with respect to synchronization with the catalog of fishes . however , we think it can be useful for users to assess the quality of information in fishbase , to start new work on the family , or to cross - check with other lists .\nbut we appreciate to be cited in publications when this list has been of any working value . in particular , for published scientific , we suggest then to cite it in the material and method section as a useful tool to conduct the research , but again , not as a taxonomic or nomenclatural authority reference .\nunless it is explicitly precised , the list is not complete , please search all original names published for the family in the catalog of fishes ( genera , species ) , including those with uncertain or unknown status , that are not included in fishbase when they are not attached to a valid species .\nthis list uses some data from catalog of fishes ( not shown but used to sort names ) .\nin the column coff , the digit indicates the status of synchronization with coff : 0 : not checked ; 1 : same status ; 2 : different status ; 3 : other combination ; 4 : synonym in coff ; 5 : species / subspecies issue ; 6 : synonym of another species in coff ; 7 : not in coff ; 8 : should not be in coff . the coff version currently used is the one published on 23 - 07 - 2014 ( ref . 97102 ) .\nwhen subfamilies are recognized , nominotypical subfamily first then other subfamilies by alphabetical order .\ntype genus of the family first ( or of subfamily when subfamilies are recognized ) then other genera by chronological order of description ( and alphabetical order ) .\ntype species of the genus first by chronological order ( and alphabetical order ) , with last listed misapplied names in a light gray font .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 28 . 08 . 01 , php script by cmilitante , 04 / 03 / 10 , last modified by cmilitante , 11 / 12 / 12\natlantoraja menni 1972 atlanto , referring to distribution of a . castelnaui and a . cyclophora in southwestern atlantic ocean ; raia , latin for ray or skate\nbathyraja ishiyama 1958 bathy , deep , referring to deepwater habitat of b . trachouros ; raia , latin for ray or skate\nbathyraja diplotaenia ( ishiyama 1952 ) diplo , double ; taen , band or ribbon , referring to how ventral fin is divided into \u201cdouble ribbons\u201d ( i . e . , deeply notched between anterior and posterior lobes )\nbathyraja eatonii ( g\u00fcnther 1876 ) in honor of naturalist and explorer rev . alfred edmund eaton ( 1845 - 1929 ) , who collected type\nbathyraja ishiharai stehmann 2005 in honor of hajime ishihara ( b . 1950 ) , stehmann\u2019s \u201cskatology\u201d colleague and friend for more than 25 years , who devoted his life\u2019s research to chondrichthyan fishes , producing important revisions of north pacific bathyraja\nbathyraja longicauda ( de buen 1959 ) longus , long ; cauda , tail , referring to long caudal region , 52 . 9 % of total length in holotype\nbathyraja maccaini springer 1971 in honor of antarctic zoologist john c . mccain ( b . 1939 , note latinization of \u201cmc\u201d to \u201cmac\u201d ) , collector of the type , aboard the m / v hero in 1967 ( mccain later became a senior research scientist at the university of petroleum and minerals , dharan , saudi arabia , where he investigated the effects of oil spills in the persian gulf )\nbathyraja richardsoni ( garrick 1961 ) in honor of l . r . richardson , victoria university of wellington , \u201cfor his extensive contribution to deep water research in new zealand , and especially in cook strait where the type specimen was taken\u201d\nbathyraja schroederi ( krefft 1968 ) in honor of william c . schroeder ( 1895 - 1977 ) , woods hole oceanographic institution , for his outstanding contribution to the study of western atlantic elasmobranchs\nbathyraja shuntovi dolganov 1985 in honor of russian zoologist vyacheslav shuntov ( b . 1937 )\nbathyraja tunae stehmann 2005 in honor of m . sc . student lic . mar\u00eda cristina oddone f . , nicknamed \u201ctuna , \u201d the \u201cmost enthusiastic elasmobranch student\u201d stehmann has ever met ; \u201cthe author wishes her luck in her further career , and that all her dreams may come true . \u201d\nbathyraja tzinovskii dolganov 1983 in honor of arctic oceanographer vladimir diodorovich tzinovskiy ( b . 1964 , also spelled tzinovsky ) , p . p . shirshov institute of oceanology ( moscow ) , who collected type\nbathyraja smirnovi ( soldatov & pavlenko 1915 ) in honor of \u201cmr . smirnov , \u201d inspector of fishes , who collected fishes from the sea of okhotsk\nbrochiraja heuresa last & s\u00e9ret 2012 latinized from the greek heuresis ( that which is found , discovered ) , based on the ancient greek heureka ( \u201ci have found it\u201d ) or , in modern english , \u201c eureka , \u201d referring to its being discovered among a collection of skates the authors initially thought represented a different species , b . aenigma\nbrochiraja microspinifera last & mceachran 2006 micro - , small , being a dwarfed version of its larger new zealand sibling species , b . spinifera\nirolita waitii ( mcculloch 1911 ) patronym not identified but clearly in honor of zoologist and museum director edgar r . waite ( 1866 - 1928 ) , who works on fishes are frequently cited by mcculloch\nnotoraja ishiyama 1958 etymology not explained , perhaps notos , back , referring to numerous prickles on dorsal surface , or notos , south , referring to occurrence of n . tobitukai in \u201csouthernmost regions within the seas inhabited by the northern members\u201d of breviraja ; raia , latin for ray or skate\nnotoraja inusitata s\u00e9ret & last 2012 unusual or strange , referring to its \u201cstrange\u201d appearance , i . e . , head and disk morphology resembling some species of sinobatis , bathyraja and insentiraja\nnotoraja tobitukai ( hiyama 1940 ) in honor of t . tobituka , under whose direction the trawling fishery survey collected the type\npavoraja alleni mceachran & fechhelm 1982 in honor of ichthyologist gerald r . allen ( b . 1942 ) , western australia museum ( perth ) , who furnished the authors with specimens\npavoraja pseudonitida last , mallick & yearsley 2008 pseudo - , false , i . e . , although this species may superficially resemble p . nitida , such an appearance is false\npsammobatis g\u00fcnther 1870 psammos , sand , referring to sandy point , magellan strait , argentina , type locality of p . rudis ; batis , greek for a flat fish , usually applied to a skate or ray\npsammobatis normani mceachran 1983 in honor of ichthyologist j . r . ( john roxborough ) norman ( 1898 - 1944 ) , british museum ( natural history ) , who first described this ray but identified it as p . scobina in 1937\npseudoraja bigelow & schroeder 1954 a pseudo - , or false , raja : authors believed lack of dorsal fin and well - developed caudal fin on p . fischeri were sufficiently distinct to forbid its placement in rajidae\npseudoraja fischeri bigelow & schroeder 1954 in honor of zoological artist e . n . fischer , for the \u201cskillful portrayals of elasmobranchs\u201d featured in many publications by bigelow and schroeder\nrhinoraja taranetzi dolganov 1983 in honor of the \u201ceminent expert\u201d on fishes of the far - eastern seas of the u . s . s . r . , anatoly yakovlevich taranetz ( 1910 - 1941 ) [ often placed in bathyraja ]\ncruriraja hulleyi aschliman , ebert & compagno 2010 in honor of percy alexander \u201cbutch\u201d hulley ( b . 1941 ) , iziko south african museum , for his \u201cpioneering\u201d research on southern african skates ( where this skate occurs )\ngurgesiella de buen 1959 etymology not explained ; probably derived from gurges , abyss , referring to deepwater habitat of g . furvescens\namblyraja frerichsi ( krefft 1968 ) in honor of th . frerichs , captain of the research vessel walther herwig , from which type was collected , for \u201chis keen interest in deep - sea catches , which assured us many precious discoveries\u201d ( translation )\nberingraja ishihara , treloar , bor , senou & jeong 2012 bering , referring to the bering sea , where b . binoculata and b . pulchra are presumed to have originated since they are allopatrically distributed on both sides of the sea ; raia , latin for ray or skate\nbreviraja colesi bigelow & schroeder 1948 patronym not identified , possibly in honor of angler and amateur shark and ray biologist russell j . coles ( 1865 - ? )\ndactylobatus clarkii ( bigelow & schroeder 1958 ) in honor of robert s . clark , for his 1926 revision of european skates and rays\ndentiraja whitley 1940 denti - , referring to numerous denticles embedded in skin of raja dentata ( = dentiraja lemprieri ) , i . e . , a denticulated raja\ndentiraja australis ( macleay 1884 ) southern or australian , this being the first time macleay has known of a \u201ctrue\u201d skate ( i . e . , raja and its relatives ) being found in port jackson\ndentiraja confusa ( last 2008 ) referring to previous confusion with two other australasian skates , d . cerva and zearaja nasuta\ndentiraja endeavouri ( last 2008 ) \u201cafter the ill - fated f . i . s . endeavour , the federal fisheries survey vessel that was responsible for collecting the first specimens of this species and so many of australia\u2019s continental shelf fishes in the early 20th century before it along with all hands was lost at sea in 1914\u201d\ndentiraja lemprieri ( richardson 1845 ) in honor of deputy assistant commissary - general f . j . lempriere , \u201cto whose exertions the ichthyology of van diemen\u2019s land [ tasmania ] is much indebted\u201d\ndipturus bullisi ( bigelow & schroeder 1962 ) in honor of marine biologist harvey r . bullis , jr . , for providing the batoid fishes collected during the exploratory cruises of u . s . fish and wildlife service vessels in the gulf of mexico , caribbean and along the south american coast\ndipturus campbelli ( wallace 1967 ) in honor of g . g . campbell , \u201cwho was instrumental in the establishment of a marine biological research institute on the east coast of south africa\u201d\ndipturus crosnieri ( s\u00e9ret 1989 ) in honor of carcinologist alain crosnier ( b . 1930 ) , who initiated the deep trawling surveys off madagascar in the 1970s , and who entrusted s\u00e9ret with his valuable collection of madagascar skates\ndipturus doutrei ( c adenat 1960 ) in honor of m . p . doutre , veterinary surgeon , labaortoire national de l\u2019\u00e9levage et de recherches v\u00e9t\u00e9rinaires , dakar , senegal , and chief fisheries officer for senegal , off the coast of which this skate occurs ( note : doutre named a cod , merluccius polli cadenati , after cadenat the same year )\ndipturus garricki ( bigelow & schroeder 1958 ) in honor of j . a . f . ( jack ) garrick ( 1928 - 1999 ) , victoria university college , wellington , for his work on the elasmobranchs of new zealand\ndipturus gigas ( ishiyama 1958 ) large , i . e . , being the largest member of a raja subgenus ishiyama named tengujei ( now a junior synonym of dipturus )\ndipturus intermedius ( parnell 1837 ) presumably referring to its being intermediate in form between d . batis and d . oxyrinchus\ndipturus olseni ( bigelow & schroeder 1951 ) in honor of yngve h . olsen , assistant editor of the authors\u2019 \u201cfishes of the western north atlantic\u201d monographs , for his \u201cexcellent editorial work\u201d\ndipturus oregoni ( bigelow & schroeder 1958 ) in recognition of the fishery explorations of the u . s . fish and wildlife service vessel oregon in the gulf of mexico and the caribbean sea\nleucoraja malm 1877 leukos , white , referring to pale color of l . fullonica and l . lintea ( = rajella lintea ) ; raia , latin for ray or skate\nleucoraja compagnoi ( stehmann 1995 ) in honor of leonard j . v . compagno , for his \u201cfundamental contributions to chondrichthyan systematics , mainly on sharks , and his research devoted to south african chondrichthyans\u201d\nleucoraja leucosticta ( stehmann 1971 ) leukos , white ; stiktos , spotted or blotched , referring to relatively indistinct pale blotching on upper disc in contrast to clearly defined , small circular white spots in symmetric pattern of l . circularis\nleucoraja wallacei ( hulley 1970 ) in honor of j . h . wallace , oceanographic research institute ( durban ) , whose 1967 study of east coast south african rajiform fishes is a companion to wallace\u2019s 1970 study covering the west and south coasts\nneoraja stehmanni ( hulley 1972 ) in honor of skate taxonomist matthias stehmann ( b . 1943 ) , institut f\u00fcr seefischerei ( hamburg )\nokamejei heemstrai ( mceachran & fechhelm 1982 ) in honor of ichthyologist phillip c . heemstra , rhodes university ( grahamstown ) , who furnished specimens of the new species and for being \u201cextremely cooperative\u201d in supplying the authors with elasmobranch material from south africa\nokamejei hollandi ( jordan & richardson 1909 ) in honor of zoologist - paleontologist william j . holland ( 1848 - 1932 ) , director of the carnegie museum , for supporting the authors\u2019 study of taiwanese fishes\nokamejei schmidti ( ishiyama 1958 ) patronym not identified , presumably in honor of soviet ichthyologist petr yulievich schmidt ( 1872 - 1949 ) , who identified this skate as raja fusca ( = o . kenojei ) in 1931\norbiraja powelli ( alcock 1898 ) in honor of lt . frederick thomas powell of the indian navy , \u201ca colleague , in the old marine survey branch of the service , of captain [ robert ] moresby , \u201d hydrographer , maritime surveyor and draughtsman\nrajella stehmann 1970 diminutive of raja , referring to small size of type species r . fyllae\nrajella bathyphila ( holt & byrne 1908 ) bathys , deep ; philios , loving , i . e . , lover of the deep , referring to its deepwater ( up to 2050 m ) habitat\nrajella bigelowi ( stehmann 1978 ) in honor of the late henry b . bigelow ( 1879\u20131967 ) , woods hole oceanographic institution , who , with william c . schroeder , wrote numerous standard - setting publications on cartilaginous fishes , especially among the rajid fauna of the western atlantic ; by resurrecting r . bathyphila , bigelow and schroeder provided the first comprehensive description and illustrations of this new species\nrajella eisenhardti long & mccosker 1999 in honor of e . roy eisenhardt , director emeritus of the california academy of sciences , for \u201cgenerously\u201d assisting the authors and their colleagues\nrajella kukujevi ( dolganov 1985 ) in honor of ichthyologist efim izrailevich kekuev ( b . 1947 , also spelled kukujev and kukuyev ) , atlantic scientific research institute of marine fisheries & oceanography ( atlantniro )\nrostroraja ackleyi ( garman 1881 ) in honor of lieut . seth m . ackley ( 1845 - 1908 ) , united states navy , \u201cto whose energy and enthusiasm we were indebted for much valuable assistance\u201d\nrostroraja cervigoni ( bigelow & schroeder 1964 ) in honor of ichthyologist and marine biologist fernando cervig\u00f3n marcos ( b . 1930 ) , estacion de investigaciones marinas de margarita , for the opportunity to describe the venezuelan specimens\nrostroraja velezi ( c hirichigno f . 1973 ) in honor of juan v\u00e9lez d . , instituto del mar del per\u00fa , for his dedication to ichthyology and for collaborating with chirichigno f .\nspiniraja whitley 1939 spini - , spiny , referring to how raja ogilbyi ( = s . whitleyi ) \u201cdiffers from true raja in being very spiny above and below\u201d ; raia , latin for ray or skate\nspiniraja whitleyi ( iredale 1938 ) in honor of australian ichthyologist - malacologist gilbert percy whitley ( 1903 - 1975 ) , as a replacement name for the preoccupied raja scabra ogilby , which whitley had used in a recent article ; \u201cmr . whitley\u2019s oversight , \u201d wrote iredale , \u201cis the more remarkable as he and i pride ourselves that we carefully check all of our references many times , yet even with our meticulousness errors may slip through\u201d ; whitley later wrote that iredale \u201csupplied a barrage of vigorous criticism\u201d\nzearaja whitley 1939 etymology not explained , perhaps zea , a kind of grain , referring to its rough disk , or an abbreviation of new zealand , referring to type locality of z . nasuta ; raia , latin for ray or skate\nanacanthobatis von bonde & swart 1923 a - , without , akantha , thorn , referring to smooth skin of a . marmorata ; batis , greek for a flat fish , usually applied to a skate or ray\nschroederobatis hulley 1973 patronym not identified but clearly in honor of william c . schroeder ( 1895 - 1977 ) , woods hole oceanographic institution , co - author of type species , a . americanus ; batis , greek for a flat fish , usually applied to a skate or ray\nsinobatis hulley 1973 sino - , of sinica ( china ) , probably referring to south china sea distribution of s . melanosoma and s . borneensis ; batis , greek for a flat fish , usually applied to a skate or ray\nsinobatis kotlyari stehmann & weigmann 2016 in honor of alexander kotlyar ( b . 1950 ) , p . p . shirshov institute of oceanology , russian academy of sciences , who collected type in 1979 ; through his \u201ckind assistance\u201d the authors were able to \u201creconstruct and verify from his original logbook\u201d the type locality\neschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n: urltoken contains images of sharks , skates , rays , and a few chimaera ' s from around the world . elasmodiver began as a simple web based\nto help divers find the best places to encounter the different species of sharks and rays that live in shallow water but it has slowly evolved into a much larger project containing information on all aspects of shark diving and shark photography .\nthere are now more than 10 , 000 shark pictures and sections on shark evolution , biology , and conservation . there is a large library of reviewed shark books , a constantly updated shark taxonomy page , a monster list of shark links , and deeper in the site there are numerous articles and stories about shark encounters . elasmodiver is now so difficult to check for updates , that new information and pictures are listed on an elasmodiver updates page that can be accessed here :\nthe taxonomy of sharks and rays is a subject that remains in hot debate . although the majority of elasmobranch families have been nailed down there will always be individual species that don ' t quite fit the characteristics of their sibling species . consequently species are occasionally reclassified or simply listed as awaiting review . one of the most confusing of families is the potamotrygonidae - the fresh water stingrays of south america . not only do these ray species adopt extremely varied patterns that are sometimes visually indistinguishable from other species , they also produce hybrids in certain parts of their ranges leaving us wondering what exactly a true species is anyway .\namong shark taxonomists conservative estimates of the number of known shark species is now approaching 500 . combined with the 700 or more species of rays and skates there are well over a thousand valid species of elasmobranches . in the past many more species were described only to be discounted later as being synonymous with elasmobranches already described from other geographic areas . in recent years this problem has lessened because taxonomic data has become easier to share over the internet . however , taxonomists are as vain as the rest of us and in their efforts to be the first to describe ( and name ) a new species there is often a counterproductive lack of collaboration .\nsome abyssal species have been described from only one or two specimens captured during deep water trawls . this implies that in all likelihood there are many shark and ray species lurking on the abyssal plain that have not yet been seen or captured . the best example being the relatively recent discovery of the megamouth shark . if this large and slow moving shark could remain hidden until the 1980 ' s , who knows how many other elasmobranches have gone unnoticed .\nfollowing is a list ( in need of an update ) of all the described species of elasmobranchs . included at the bottom are the holocephali ( the chimaeras or ghost sharks ) that share many characteristics with modern sharks and rays but are thought to be descended from a different group of cartilaginous fishes that thrived during the late devonian period .\noccasionally new species of sharks and rays are described by science . in some cases they have been well known for a while e . g . the western wobbegong but no one has gotten around to describing them . more exciting is when a deep water trawl or a lucky diving expedition uncovers a species that the scientific community was completely unaware of . this page on elasmodiver highlights the discovery of these species . many thanks to helmut nickel who somehow manages to find out whenever a new species is described and diligently informs the rest of the lay community of shark fanatics through shark - l . without his input i wouldn ' t have a clue .\nif you have information about a species i have overlooked please email me the information and i will add it to the list .\nincludes a key to identifying the genus of the dasyatidae ( whiptail stingrays ) .\nincludes a key to identifying the genus of the potamotrygonidae ( river stingrays ) .\nphylum chordata - animals that at some point in their life cycle have the following : pharyngeal slits ( a series of openings connecting the inside of the throat to the outside of the neck . in fish these become gill slits ) , dorsal nerve cord ( a bundle of nerve fibres running down the back , connecting the brain with the organs and extremities , a notochord ( a cartilaginous rod supporting the nerve cord ) , post anal tail ( an extension of the ' back ' past the anal opening ) .\nsubphylum vertebrata - animals with a vertibral column or backbone and neural crest cells which are released as the nerve cord is forming , these cells move through the body to form major nerves , neural ganglia , and many head and facial features . other features that separate vertebrates from other chordates include : a relatively well - developed brain , paired complex eyes , a muscularized mouth and pharynx , and a well - developed circulatory system with a heart .\nclass chondrichthyes - cartilaginous fishes lacking true bone . chondrichthyes can be split into two distinct subclasses elasmobranchii and bradyodonti .\nsubclass elasmobranchii - sharks , skates and rays ( and some fossil relatives ) . elasmobranchs have an upper jaw that is not fused to the braincase and separate slitted gill openings .\nsubclass holocephali - includes forms with an upper jaw fused to the braincase and a flap of skin , the operculum , covering the gill slits . the holocephalii includes the chimaeras and ratfishes , which are relatively rare , often deep - water , mollusc - eating forms .\nnarcine brevilabiata - ( offshore species found on continental tropical waters , known from a depth of 49 m ) .\nnarcine prodorsalis - ( continental waters both inshore and offshore . known from a depth of 49m ) .\nnarcine vermiculatus - vermiculate electric ray ( benthic on soft bottoms in protected coastal areas ) .\ntemera hardwickii - pari karas ( malay / indonesian . found inshore and offshore )\nj . p . c . b . da silva & m . r . de carvalho , 2011\ntarsistes philippii jordan , 1919 no common name . known from one dried head from chile\nrhynchobatus immaculatus peter r . last1 , hsuan - ching ho2 , 3 , * & rou - rong chen3 2013\ncallorhinchus milii ( elephantfish ) occurs on continental shelves of cool temperate areas of australia and new zealand to depths of at least 200 m . migrates into large estuaries and inshore bays in spring to breed .\nchimaera monstrosa ( rabbit fish ) atlantic . upper continental slopes , 40 to 100m .\nhydrolagus affinis ( smalleyed rabbitfish , atlantic chimaera ) eastern atlantic , mediterranean . continental slopes to deep - sea plains .\nhydrolagus lemures ( blackfin ghostshark ) common and wide - ranging chimaera of the australian outer continental shelf and upper slopes .\nhydrolagus mirabilis ( large - eyed rabbitfish ) moderately common on continental slopes . feeds on small fishes and invertebrates . oviparous\nharriotta haeckeli ( smallspine spookfish ) north atlantic , taken in 1800 - 2600 m ; specimens collected by russian vessels from submarine seamounts of the indian ocean in 1400 - 1730 m ; off st . helens ( tasmania ) in 1480 - 1700 m .\np . o . box 8719 station central , victoria , bc . , v8w 3s3 , canada\nthanks to institutional support and generous donors , our collection of historical artifacts , documents , photography and media , now numbers close to 37 , 000 .\nthe national museum of african american history and culture , like all other smithsonian museums , hopes to benefit from donations of historical artifacts , archival documents , and works of art . if you have an important item you believe the museum should consider for its permanent collections , start by submitting our collections information form .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\njoin researchgate to access over 30 million figures and 118 + million publications \u2013 all in one place .\nthe museum is open daily from 10 am to 5 : 45 pm except on thanksgiving and christmas .\nthe richard gilder graduate school embraces graduate training , post - doctoral fellowships , and undergraduate training programs at the museum , through both independent activities and partnerships with universities .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\ndatabase copyright proquest llc ; proquest does not claim copyright in the individual underlying works .\nyour library or institution may also provide you access to related full text documents in proquest ."]}
{"id": 1661, "summary": [{"text": "the four-eyed fishes are a genus , anableps , of fishes in the family anablepidae .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "they have eyes raised above the top of the head and divided in two different parts , so that they can see below and above the water surface at the same time .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "like their relatives , the onesided livebearers , four-eyed fishes only mate on one side , right - \" handed \" males with left - \" handed \" females and vice versa .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "these fish inhabit freshwater and brackishwater and are only rarely coastal marine .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "they originate from lowlands in southern mexico to honduras and northern south america . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "four - eyed fish", "paragraphs": ["a\nfour - eyed\nfish swims along the surface with eyes appearing both in and out of the water .\neye development in the four - eyed fish anableps anableps : cranial and retinal adaptations to simultaneous aerial and aquatic vision .\neye development in the four - eyed fish anableps anableps : cranial and retinal adaptations to simultaneous aerial and aquatic vision . - pubmed - ncbi\nin the case of the\nfour - eyed fish ,\nor anableps , and its sister species a . microlepis and a . dowei , the fish have two large eyes .\nbrenner , m . and u . krumme . 2007 - j . fish biol . 70 ( 2 ) : 406 - 427 . tidal migration and patterns in feeding of the four - eyed fish anableps anableps l . in a north brazilian mangrove .\nthe four - eyed name derives from the fact that it divides each pupil into two , one above the water and one below ,\nlead author gregory owens told discovery news .\nan anableps ' eye at the water surface . the fish actually has only two eyes , and the four - eyed name\nderives from the fact that it divides each pupil into two , one above the water and one below ,\nresearcher gregory owens explained .\nto compensate for this problem , certain other marine dwellers , such as archerfish , have to mentally calculate refraction to find the true position of objects they encounter . the\nfour eyed\nanableps instead sees a broader angle .\none of the strangest fish in the world is anableps anableps , commonly called the \u2018four - eyed fish\u2019 because of the unique configuration of its eyes . 1 these are large and bulging , like those of a frog , and are located on the top of its head so that it swims with its eyes half in and half out of the water .\n\u2026\u201cfour - eyed fish\u201d of the genus anableps , which cruises the surface meniscus with the upper part of the eye looking into air and the lower part looking into water . it makes use of an elliptical lens , with the relatively flat sides adding little to the power of the cornea and the\u2026\nkanungo , j . , s . k . swamynathan and j . piatigorsky . 2004 - exp . eye res . 79 ( 6 ) : 949 - 956 . abundant corneal gelsolin in zebrafish and the ' four - eyed ' fish , anableps anableps : possible analogy with multifunctional lens crystallins .\n\u2026the eye of anableps , the four - eyed fish , so named because each eye is a double structure . the eye is set high on the head and the upper part projects above the water . the cornea is divided by a horizontal band of pigment , separating an upper , strongly convex part from a\u2026\nnew research explains how the fish simultaneously sees in these two very different environments .\ndoes this fish really have four eyes ? the generic name\nanableps\nis derived from the greek for\nup - looking .\nas you can see from the picture at the left , the fish appears to be gazing meditatively upward , as though it were trying to remember how to multiply 9 x 16 .\nduring neap tides the fish were observed feeding on exposed areas of mud in the furo do meio .\n( family anablepidae , order atheriniformes ) . four - eyed fishes are surface dwellers and have eyes adapted for seeing both above and below the water surface . the eyes are on top of the head , and each is divided into two parts , an upper half for vision in air , and a lower half for vision in water ; hence , the common name . the\nthe fish literally ' surf ' the peak of the flood tide into temporarily - inundated zones . . .\nspiny - finned fish , any member of the superorder acanthopterygii , including four orders of marine and freshwater fishes having fins with some spiny ( as opposed to soft ) rays\u2014atheriniformes , beryciformes , zeiformes , and lampridiformes . the atheriniform is the best known of the spiny - finned group , \u2026\nthe vision system and associated over water and under water lifestyle comes at a price , though . as one might imagine , it ' s not hard for predators to miss a bug - eyed fish skimming along the surface . but anableps is forever on the lookout , with large areas of its brain devoted to vision .\nhomepage : urltoken facebook : urltoken twitter : urltoken + + + this is none of my own tanks . in this video you can see a fish tank of a zoo aquarium called\nallwetterzoo m\u00fcnster\n. we have videos of many tanks of this zoo . + + + the population of this tank : - largescale four - eyed fish / vierauge ( anableps anableps ) - more coming soon ( if you are intrested in helping me classifying the other species in this tank , post your suggestions ) + + + intro : 5xlmusic weitere informationen unter urltoken + + + ver\u00f6ffentlichung des videomaterials mit der freundlichen genehmigung des allwetterzoos m\u00fcnster . weitere informationen unter urltoken\nfour - eyed fishes are classified as order atheriniformes , suborder cyprinodontoidei , family anablepidae , genus anableps . they live in shallow , muddy freshwater streams in central america and mexico , are born live , and grow from 4\u20136 cm ( 1 . 5\u20132 . 5 inches ) at birth to 15\u201330 cm ( 6\u201312 inches ) . they usually travel in schools , cruising the surface to feed on insects and other small invertebrates . return to text .\nthe red and green algae upon which the fish feed during high tide is clearly visible on these mangrove stilt roots in the high inter - tidal zone .\nin nature it has a diverse , but highly adapted , feeding strategy dependant on environmental conditions . at low tide it seldom forages at all except during neap tides when fish carcasses or small quantities of mud are consumed . terrestrial insects along the shoreline may also be attacked with the fish leaping onto the exposed banks .\nat the waterline , the eyes are divided by a band of epithelium ( tissue ) into upper and lower parts , with separate corneas and retinas , which function for aerial and underwater vision respectively . 2 , 3 the lens is more egg - shaped than convex and can focus two images simultaneously , one from above the water and the other from below ( see diagram ) . this means that the fish\u2019s two eyes actually function as four eyes ; hence its name .\nterrestrial insects and small crabs of the family grapsidae are the other main sources of food ; these are captured by jumping attacks or the fish leaping onto the stilt roots themselves . the above water eye is actually thought to have evolved to allow the fish to exploit such high protein food sources ; for example , small crabs climb down the stilt roots to moisten their gills and the fish is able to sneak up on them before using its elongated body to launch a powerful leap . gammarid amphipods , snails , mussels and worms are also eaten in smaller amounts .\nduring high tides , when the fish move into inundated first order channels to feed , the majority of the diet is composed of red macroalgae ( catanella and bostrychia spp . ) which grows on the exposed mangrove stilt roots at around the average high water level . this activity is thought to be mutually beneficial as the fish perform a cleaning function which is useful to the trees in terms of growth and productivity . the water in the temporary channels is very clear compared to the turbid main channel so the fish also use the below water part of the eye to search for submerged algae and other items .\nthe fish does not actually have four eyes , but the eye is divided to allow the fish to see both above and below the waterline . a narrow band of epithelium divides the upper and lower halves of the eye . each half of the eye has a separate pupil , iris and cornea , but the retina is divided . both halves of the eye use the same lens , with the upper light path traveling through the short axis of the lens , while the lower light path travels through the long axis . this dual use of the lens corrects for the different behavior of light in air and in water , with the underwater lens face more strongly curved . the underwater half of the eye projects an image to the upper half of the retina , while the part of the eye above water projects to the lower retina .\nthe upper eye must be occasionally wetted to prevent dehydration , but when the fish is completely submerged , the image from the upper half of the eye is out of focus . click here for more information about the anableps eye .\nwhen anableps is looking out into the air , the light rays pass through the shorter width of the lens , which gives good distance vision for locating its prey of insects ; it also means that the fish is difficult to catch , as it can see fishermen approaching ! from under the water , the light rays pass through the full length of the lens , so that the fish is near - sighted under water . 4 one is reminded of a bifocal lens in spectacles .\nthe researchers suspect that anableps used to just have eyes suitable for the aerial environment . over time , they think the fish lost green sensitivity in the lower eye halves , gaining yellow sensitivity there for better aquatic vision , particularly in muddy yellow water .\nhe said several fish , amphibians , pigeons , other birds and certain primates , including humans , all possess what is known as\nintraretinal variability ,\nmeaning that variations in spectral sensitivity exist across the retina , which is a delicate , light - sensitive membrane lining the inner eyeball .\nfish , any of more than 30 , 000 species of vertebrate animals ( phylum chordata ) found in the fresh and salt waters of the world . living species range from the primitive , jawless lampreys and hagfishes through the cartilaginous sharks , skates , and rays to the abundant and diverse bony fishes . most\u2026\ndevelopment is viviparous , with the young nourished by nutrient diffusion across the reproductive tract of the female . the fry are retained until they reach a length of about 45 mm . probably because of the size of the young fish at\nbirth\nonly 14 to 20 embryos develop from a brood . sexual maturity occurs at about 9 months .\nthere are three species in the genus anableps . the species found in the james r . record aquarium is anableps anableps . the genus belongs to the order cyprinodontes , small , often colorful livebearing fish with complex behaviors . the famous desert pupfish is also in this order . anableps is found in coastal waters from the yucatan peninsula to the equator .\ntwo horizontal flaps of the iris are thought to reduce glare from the water surface . these adaptations allow the fish to see above and below the water simultaneously , and because there exists no predator which specialises on anableps the split eye is thought to have evolved specifically in order to allow exploitation of the narrow ecological niche between aquatic and terrestrial habitats .\nwe used in situ hybridization with opsin riboprobes to map cone opsin expression in the retina of a . anableps . this was repeated for jenynsia onca , a species with normal eye morphology in the sister genus to anableps . recently , both species have had their cone opsin repertoires characterized , revealing nine genes in a . anableps , ( one sws1 , two sws2 , two rh2 and four lws genes ) , and eight in j . onca ( one less lws gene ) [ 9 , 10 ] . by studying j . onca , we have inferred ancestral expression patterns and identified changes that have evolved in concert with the unique eye morphology of a . anableps .\ninhabits brackish - water rhizophora mangrove forests where it has come to forge an extraordinary existence at the water\u2019s edge of inter - tidal zones . these constantly fluctuating habitats are subjected to at least one , usually two , daily tidal movements and this fish has evolved to move with the water , inhabiting the shallow margins of permanent water channels during low tide and moving into inundated zones to forage when the water level rises .\nfor the study , owens , a university of victoria biologist , and his colleagues analyzed the eyes of the fish , focusing on light - sensitive proteins called visual opsins . each is most sensitive to a particular wavelength of light . humans , for example , have three visual opsins sensitive to blue , green and red light . they absorb light at slightly different wavelengths , enabling us to see those three colors and others .\nthe unique visual system allows the fish to avoid a problematic phenomenon\nsnell ' s window ,\nwhich occurs when you are underwater while looking up out of the water . due to the refraction of light at the water ' s surface , after a certain angle you no longer see out of the water , and instead see a reflection on the water ' s surface . thus , your field of vision is limited to about 96 degrees .\nthis is supposed to mean that \u2018right - sided\u2019 males are only able to copulate with \u2018left - sided\u2019 females and vice versa . however sf members who have kept this species found that the gonopodium is flexible to a certain degree meaning it\u2019s possible that males can mate with any partner . certainly if the former theory is true then the fish have 50 % less chance of finding a suitable partner compared with other livebearers , though perhaps they occupy such a unique ecological niche that no evolutionary bottleneck has occurred .\nit\u2019s exposed to highly variable salinity levels between 5 - 30\u2030 in the wild so water chemistry isn\u2019t too much of a concern ; for ease of maintenance a specific gravity between 1 . 005 - 1 . 015 is normally recommended . apart from this the most important provision is shallow water with a depth of 15cm / 6\u2033 or so being more than adequate ; the fish will spend almost all their time at the water surface and actually bob back up to the surface in a cork - like fashion if submerged for too long .\nduring low water the fish congregated in marginal zones of the main channel ( usually < 1 m away from the bank ) and the authors hypothesised that this allows them to maximise foraging time by always being close to the mouths of the temporary channels , as well as providing protection against potential predators and preventing them being swept away by strong currents in the central , deeper section . large areas of mud and sand banks are exposed during these periods and some individuals were observed to leap out of the water to lay in the sun , often for minutes at a time .\nthe best conditions for foraging were found to be at spring tide during daylight hours when the water level is highest and the fish are able to take full advantage of the above water eye ( see \u2018notes\u2019 ) , whereas when high tide occurred during the night less individuals were found to migrate . there is an initial rapid rise in water levels as the tide comes in and young specimens were observed swimming at the peak of the first wave to enter the marginal creeks , with adults behind . this \u2018first flood rise\u2019 was the trigger for the \u201cvirtual disappearance of a . anableps from the main channel\u201d .\nthe encyclopaedia britannica describes anableps as \u2018an extreme example of adaptation to life near the air - water interface\u2019 . 5 if this is the case , how did it develop its multi - functional eyes , beginning as an ordinary fish with normal , single - function eyes ? it is extremely difficult to see how something as complex as this could develop by gradual stages , and the more parts that have to develop , the greater the difficulty . this includes the complex brain setup needed to simultaneously decode the double images being received by the two retinas . how did all this evolve until it was fully functional ?\narcherfish ( toxotes chatareus ) experience a similar light environment to a . anableps and have had their vision studied using msp [ 4 ] . they were found to have double cones in the dorsal retina that were most sensitive to the most prevalent wavelengths of upwelling light . however , unlike a . anableps , double cones in the ventro - nasal retina in archerfish were shifted to even longer wavelengths , suggesting that the ventral exclusion of lws opsin expression seen in three surface - dwelling , cyprinodontiformes fish has not occurred . this implies that other features beyond light environment , such as phylogeny or the visual tasks required , may affect opsin expression .\nfieldwork by brenner and krumme ( 2007 ) in the furo do meio , a tidally - influenced tributary of the caet\u00e9 mangrove estuary located to the north of bragan\u00e7a city , 200 km south of the amazon delta , revealed that these daily migrations are entirely related to feeding ( see \u2018diet\u2019 ) . at low tide the permanent channel of the tributary measures just 30 m across , but during high water this increases to between 50 m in its upper reaches and 400 m near its mouth . smaller channels around its margins therefore become temporarily flooded and the fish move into these to forage , sometimes up to 1 km away from the main tributary .\nin situ hybridization was used to characterize the topography of cone photoreceptor subtypes . anableps anableps and j . onca exhibited uniform distributions of cones expressing sws1 , sws2b and rh2 - 2 ( figure 2 and figures in the electronic supplementary material ) . neither species exhibited detectable sws2a expression in the retina . species - specific differences were noted for the rh2 - 1 - expressing cones . in j . onca , rh2 - 1 had uniform expression across the retina in all sections , whereas adult a . anableps had rh2 - 1 in a large number of ventral cone cells and in a small patch of cones at the dorsal tip of the retina . this pattern was observed in all adults . in juveniles , rh2 - 1 expression was confined to a smaller number of cells in the ventral half of the eye , or was entirely absent . the lws riboprobe , which was designed to bind all lws paralogues , revealed inter - individual and interspecific differences in lws cone photoreceptor distributions . in j . onca , lws - expressing cones were limited to the dorsal retina in two fish ( a male and a female ) and to a transverse streak in the middle of the eye in one male . in a . anableps , lws cones were detected only in the dorsal half of the retina . this pattern appears to be the inverse of the rh2 - 1 cone distribution ( figure 1 ) .\n[ hd ] tank of the giants : 13200 us gallon / 50 . 000 liter landschafts - aquarium @ aquazoo [ 7 / 52 ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nthe findings , published in the latest royal society biology letters , help to explain how animal visual systems , including human ones , evolve in response to different light environments .\nthe scientists determined that the top part of anableps ' eyes , the set that sticks out of the water , possess opsins sensitive to green . the bottom half of the eyes , actually in the water , are sensitive to yellow . the entire eye has genes sensitive to ultraviolet , violet and blue light .\nthis tells us that anableps is more sensitive to yellow light from the water and green light from the air ,\nowens said .\nwe hypothesize that this functions to match their sensitivity with the light available . the water anableps lives in is generally muddy ( mangrove forests of northern south america ) and in this muddy water yellow light transmits best .\nall lightning on earth may have its roots in space , new research suggests .\nkaren carleton , an assistant professor in the university of maryland ' s department of biology , told discovery news that\nwhat dr . owens and his colleagues are seeing is quite reasonable .\nshe said\nit seems probable that anableps has\nfine tuned\nits eyes\nfor its two visual tasks .\nshelby temple of the university of bristol ' s visual ecology group also supports the new findings , saying that they have\nadded yet another example of a vertebrate that has the potential to have different spectral sensitivity in different parts of its field of view .\ntemple concluded ,\nnow we just need to try and understand why so many animals may be sensitive to different wavelengths of light in different directions .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nanableps seems to be designed for asymmetrical mating . in females , a single large scale covers the cloaca and opens either to the left or to the right . in males , the anal fin is adapted as a funnel for sperm transfer , and similarly extends either to the right or the left of the body .\nfertilization is internal , and males and females have to be appropriately matched . right - handed males outnumber left - handed males about 60 : 40 with about the same proportion of the appropriately structured females .\nanableps is primarily a surface feeder and its view of surface activity makes it difficult to catch , except with long - handled nets .\nthank you for visiting nature . com . you are using a browser version with limited support for css . to obtain the best experience , we recommend you use a more up to date browser ( or turn off compatibility mode in internet explorer ) . in the meantime , to ensure continued support , we are displaying the site without styles and javascript .\nall prices are net prices . vat will be added later in the checkout .\n( ed . ali , m . a . ) 609\u2013617 ( plenum , new york , 1975 ) .\nby submitting a comment you agree to abide by our terms and community guidelines . if you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate .\nnature is part of springer nature . \u00a9 2018 springer nature limited . all rights reserved .\ncomparison of anablepid eye morphology . ( a ) a . anableps eye at the water surface . the dorsal cornea receives light from the aerial environment , while the ventral cornea receives light from the aquatic environment . dc , dorsal cornea ; vc , ventral cornea . photo by andreas werth . ( b ) jenynsia onca female . the eye is morphologically normal in this species . photo by leo van der meer . ( c ) a schematic of a sagittal section of an a . anableps eye . light paths are indicated . green and yellow dots indicate rh2 - 1 and lws gene expression , respectively . ael , aerial line - of - sight ; aql , aquatic line - of - sight ; l , lens ; on , optic nerve ; dt , dorsal tip of the retina ; d , dorsal retina ; m , medial retina ; v , ventral retina . ( d ) in situ hybridization images of adult a . anableps labelled with the rh2 - 1 or lws riboprobe . cone cells expressing the gene of interest are purple . the brown area is retinal pigment epithelium .\nsummary of expression domains for each gene tested in a . anableps and j . onca . ( a ) the visual spectrum as seen by humans with putative spectral sensitivity for each opsin tested . numbers are in nanometres . ( b ) schematic of eyes with dorsal on top , ventral on bottom . coloured areas indicated expression , while dotted bars indicated areas of polymorphic expression . cropped microscope images are retinal sections probed using each riboprobe . cone cells expressing the gene of interest are purple .\nanableps anableps ' remarkable eyes simultaneously sample photons from terrestrial and aquatic habitats . in situ hybridization with six riboprobes demonstrated that a . anableps and the closely related j . onca express at least five cone opsins ( sws1 , sws2b , rh2 - 1 , rh2 - 2 and lws ) , possibly more given the redundancy of our lws probe .\nthe wavelength of maximal sensitivity for a visual pigment ( and consequently the photoreceptor expressing it ) can be determined by microspectrophotometry ( msp ) or in vitro protein reconstitution [ 13 , 14 ] . by comparing maximal sensitivity data from a . anableps and its relatives obtained using these techniques , we have endeavoured to assign specific opsin genes to cone cell spectral sensitivities : sws1 ( 356\u2013365 nm , uv ) , sws2b ( 405\u2013425 nm , violet ) , rh2 - 2 ( 452\u2013472 nm , blue ) , rh2 - 1 ( 492\u2013539 nm , green ) and lws ( 543\u2013576 nm , yellow ) ( figure 2 a and discussed in supplementary materials ) . while these represent the value for individual opsin proteins , multiple proteins may be found co - expressed in a single cone , causing intermediate sensitivity values for the photoreceptor .\nearly msp work showed no difference in the prevalence of different cone cells between retinal halves [ 15 ] . however , our in situ hybridization experiments , which are better suited to assess photoreceptor distributions because they sampled more photoreceptors by several orders of magnitude , did detect differences : the dorsal retina , used for aquatic vision , has cone photoreceptors that express sws1 , sws2b , rh2 - 2 and lws , while the ventral retina , used for aerial vision , expresses sws1 , sws2b , rh2 - 2 and rh2 - 1 ( figure 2 ) . from these observations , we predict that wavelength sensitivity differs in the dorsal and ventral regions of the retina .\nthe reduction of rh2 - 1 expression and retention of lws expression in the dorsal retina suggest that a . anableps has enhanced sensitivity to long wavelength light ( 543\u2013576 nm ) in the aquatic field of view . this enhanced sensitivity could be advantageous in the brackish waters of the mangrove forests and river deltas that a . anableps inhabits , as these often contain dissolved organic matter that shifts light abundance to longer wavelengths [ 17 ] . light measurements taken in similar mangrove habitat showed that downwelling light is most prevalent at approximately 500 nm , while upwelling light peaks at approximately 580 nm [ 4 ] . we propose that , by the differential expression of rh2 - 1 and lws , a . anableps is better able to match its double cones to the background light in each field of view .\nwe thank three anonymous reviewers for helpful suggestions . we were supported by nserc discovery grants ( j . s . t . ) and graduate scholarship ( g . l . o . ) , as well as university of victoria graduate fellowships ( g . l . o . and d . j . r ) . we thank the university of victoria advanced imaging centre for their assistance .\nswitch in rod opsin gene expression in the european eel , anguilla anguilla ( l . )\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see the biology letters web site .\neditor\u2019s note : as creation magazine has been continuously published since 1978 , we are publishing some of the articles from the archives for historical interest , such as this . for teaching and sharing purposes , readers are advised to supplement these historic articles with more up - to - date ones suggested in the related articles below .\nthis configuration of the eyes enables anableps to search for food in one habitat ( air ) and at the same time watch out for predators in another habitat ( water ) . when it sees a predator approaching through the water , it escapes by leaping out of it , which is a reason why this species is not very suitable for keeping in a small home aquarium . another unusual habit is that when swimming it continually ducks its head under the water . this is because , unlike most land animals , it does not have a tear duct to keep the eye moist and so must duck to prevent its eyes from drying out .\n) . this accounts for the formation of all the parts of the eyes and the needed complementary parts of the brain , with everything functional from the beginning .\n\u2018the cornea is divided by a horizontal band of pigment , separating an upper , strongly convex part from a lower , flatter division . the iris has a pair of projections , partially dividing the pupil into two . \u2019 encyclopaedia britannica , 19 : 252 , 1992 . see also ibid 1 : 668 . return to text .\nusing a camera as a rough analogy , we can think of the cornea as the \u2018window\u2019 in front of the lens , and the retina as the surface on which the image is focused , somewhat like the film in a camera . from there , electrical signals send this visual information to the brain , where the signals are processed into mental images . return to text .\nedward migdalski and george fichter , the fresh and salt water fishes of the world , bay books , sydney , australia , 1976 , p . 186 . return to text .\nmyrtle beach , sc . an all - inclusive conference and summer vacation rolled into one !\nwe have supplied this link to an article on an external website in good faith . but we cannot assume responsibility for , nor be taken as endorsing in any way , any other content or links on any such site . even the article we are directing you to could , in principle , change without notice on sites we do not control .\nthe bible declares : in the beginning god created the heavens and the earth . genesis 1 : 1\ncreation ministries international ( cmi ) exists to support the effective proclamation of the gospel by providing credible answers that affirm the reliability of the bible , in particular its genesis history .\ncmi has offices in australia , canada , singapore , new zealand , united kingdom , south africa and united states of america .\natheriniform , any member of the order atheriniformes , containing 15 families of marine and freshwater spiny - finned fishes , including the flying fishes ( see photograph ) , needlefishes , silversides , and cyprinodonts . the last group , the cyprinodontidae , is an abundant tropical and subtropical family\u2026\nwe welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles . you can make it easier for us to review and , hopefully , publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind .\nencyclop\u00e6dia britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience .\nyou may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered .\nat the bottom of the article , feel free to list any sources that support your changes , so that we can fully understand their context . ( internet urls are the best . )\nyour contribution may be further edited by our staff , and its publication is subject to our final approval . unfortunately , our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions .\nour editors will review what you ' ve submitted , and if it meets our criteria , we ' ll add it to the article .\nplease note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors , and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed .\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\ncorrections ? updates ? omissions ? let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article ( requires login ) .\nif you prefer to suggest your own revision of the article , you can go to edit mode ( requires login ) .\nour editors will review what you\u2019ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nperez ln 1 , lorena j 1 , costa cm 1 , araujo ms 1 , frota - lima gn 1 , matos - rodrigues ge 2 , martins ra 2 , mattox gm 3 , schneider pn 4 .\ninstituto de ci\u00eancias biol\u00f3gicas , universidade federal do par\u00e1 , bel\u00e9m , par\u00e1 , brazil .\ninstituto de ci\u00eancias biom\u00e9dicas , universidade federal do rio de janeiro , rio de janeiro , brazil .\ndepartamento de biologia , universidade federal de s\u00e3o carlos , campus sorocaba , s\u00e3o paulo , brazil .\ninstituto de ci\u00eancias biol\u00f3gicas , universidade federal do par\u00e1 , bel\u00e9m , par\u00e1 , brazil schneider @ ufpa . br .\npmid : 28381624 pmcid : pmc5394668 doi : 10 . 1098 / rspb . 2017 . 0157\nthe anableps eye . ( a ) anableps anableps adult female specimen . ( b ) close - up view of the a . anableps eye ; dorsal and ventral corneas and pupils are visible . ( c ) schematic of the visual aerial and aquatic inputs ( sagittal view of the eye ) . rpe , retinal pigmented epithelium ; onl , outer nuclear layer ; inl , inner nuclear layer ; gcl , ganglion cell layer ; on , optic nerve ; dr , dorsal retina ; dp , dorsal pupil ; vr , ventral retina ; vp , ventral pupil ; ch , choroid ; l , lens ; ir , iris ; ps , pigmented strip ; dc , dorsal cornea ; vc , ventral cornea ; do , dorsal ; ve , ventral ; di , distal ; pr , proximal . scale bars : 1 cm ( a ) , 0 . 5 cm ( b ) .\neye development during larval stages . anableps anableps larvae at stage 1 ( a , b ) , stage 2 ( c , d ) , stage 3 ( e , f ) , stage 4 ( g , h ) , stage 5 ( i , j ) and stage 6 ( k , l ) . figures to the right are higher magnification images of ocular region . scale bars : 5 mm ( a , c , e , g , i , k ) , 500 \u00b5m ( b , d , f , h , j , l ) .\nneurocranium ontogeny . anableps anableps neurocranium at stage 3 ( a , b ) , stage 4 ( c , d ) , stage 5 ( e , f ) stage 6 ( g , h ) and in the adult ( i , j ) . panels show dorsal ( left ) and lateral ( right ) views . boc , basioccipital ; epbar , epiphyseal bar ; epo , epiotic ; epopr , epiotic process ; ethpla , ethmoid plate ; exoc , exoccipital ; fro , frontal ; intsp , interorbital septum ; lamorb , lamina orbitonasalis ; let , lateral ethmoid ; mfl , membranous flap ; otcap , otic capsule ; par , parietal ; pro , prootic ; pto , pterotic ; psph , parasphenoid ; soc , supraoccipital ; sph , sphenotic ; tm , taenia marginalis ; trcom , trabecula communis ; the frontal and the interorbital septum are denoted in bold . scale bars : 1 mm .\n= 5 , mean and standard deviation were calculated for a total of 27 eye sections ) . (\n= 2 ; biological replicates for each larval stage of development ) . dr , dorsal retina ; vr , ventral retina ; l , lens ; ir , iris ; ps , pigmented strip ; dc , dorsal cornea ; vc , ventral cornea ; rpe , retinal pigmented epithelium ; is , inner segments ; os , outer segments ; onl , outer nuclear layer ; opl , outer plexiform layer ; inl , inner nuclear layer ; ipl , inner plexiform layer ; gcl , ganglion cell layer . scale bar : 200 \u00b5m .\nasymmetric opsin gene expression in the larval retina . ( a ) analysis of the pattern of expression of five visual opsins in ventral retina , relative to the dorsal retina , as determined by qpcr . the relative expression values were determined using the 2 \u2212\u03b4\u03b4ct method . bars represent mean in log 2 scale \u00b1standard deviation of biological and technical replicates ( n = 9 ; three biological and three technical replicates ) . student ' s t - test was used to assess statistical significance between samples ( * * p < 0 . 01 and * * * p < 0 . 001 ) . ( b \u2013 k ) in situ hybridizations of visual opsins in eye sections of larvae of a . anableps : rh1 ( b , c ) , rh2 - 1 ( d , e ) , rh2 - 2 ( f , g ) , sws2b ( h , i ) and lws ( j , k ) . left column shows expression pattern in portions of the dorsal retina , as well right column in the ventral retina . scale bars : 0 . 05 mm . ( l \u2013 o ) immunofluorescence assay showing opsin expression on the dorsal and ventral retina in a . anableps at stage 6 . ( l , m ) immunostaining showed that rhodopsin is expressed equally in the dorsal and ventral retina . ( n ) opsin l / m monoclonal is only expressed in the dorsal retina . ( o ) opsin l / m monoclonal expression is not detected on the ventral retina . onl , outer nuclear layer ; inl , inner nuclear layer ; gcl , ganglion cell layer . cryosections are 20 \u00b5m thick . scale bars : 50 \u00b5m ( b \u2013 k ) and 200 \u00b5m ( l \u2013 o ) .\nfemale of a . anableps . the pale stripe running down the dorsal surface is an identifying feature for this species .\nthe furo do meio is a tidal tributary of caet\u00e9 bay , brazil and a typical habitat of this species .\n. . . whereas during low tide they typically congregate in large groups . this and the previous image were taken off the coast of suriname .\na . anableps during low tide in the main channel of the furo do meio .\noccurs along much of the north - east south american coastline from the gulf of paria ( the shallow , brackish inland sea which separates trinidad and tobago from venezuela ) through guyana , suriname and french guiana and past the amazon delta in brazil as far as the parna\u00edba river estuary at the border between the states of maranh\u00e3o and piau\u00ed .\nsympatric species in the furo do meio included colomesus psittacus , sciades herzbergii , pseudauchenipterus nodosus and hyporhamphus roberti .\nsurface area is far more important than height but this species is unsuitable for all but the largest aquaria ; a tank with base dimensions of 150 cm x 45 cm should be the minimum considered , and even this could only house half a dozen adults at most . given that it\u2019s known to congregate in large groups at low tide , often comprising several hundred individuals , it\u2019s clearly more suited to public than private aquaria .\ntemperature : strictly a tropical species ; the temperature should be maintained between 25 \u2013 31 \u00b0c .\nin captivity most dried foods are accepted but should not form the principal component of the diet , and it\u2019s best to use a product with added spirulina or similar . gut - loaded drosophila fruit flies , bloodworm , artemia and chopped earthworms are excellent treats and good results have been reported using a home - made , gel - based recipe containing a mixture of seafood and fresh vegetables . feed twice daily to mimic its natural feeding cycle and note that a poor diet may be associated with reproductive problems ( see \u2018breeding\u2019 ) .\nbest kept in a species - only display and may predate on much smaller fishes but in very large tanks can be combined with peaceful estuarine fishes . some poecilia spp . are suitable and if geography is ignored monodactylus and bottom - dwelling gobies such as stigmatogobius sadanundio are possibilities . avoid vigorous surface - dwellers such as toxotes spp . or voracious feeders like scatophagus as this species has no natural competitors .\nit should be maintained in a group of at least six , preferably a dozen or more as it can behave nervously in the absence of conspecifics . aggression is rare except in gravid females ( see \u2018breeding\u2019 ) .\nfemales grow considerably larger than males and the latter possess a prominent gonopodium . this has a different structure to that seen in poeciliid livebearers having a scaled , tubular structure .\nanableps species are viviparous and mating usually presents few problems provided you have a mixed - sex group . the genital opening of the female is covered by a hinged flap of skin known as the foricula , and most aquarium literature suggests that both this and the gonopodium of the male are naturally - orientated to the left or right depending on the individual .\ngestation takes around 12 weeks and the female\u2019s appetite increases significantly during this period . just before giving birth she becomes hostile towards any other tankmates and will attempt to find a quiet spot to release the young . these are fully - formed , measure around 40 - 50mm and are able to accept quite large morsels of food immediately .\nmany breeders have experienced problems with young being born prematurely , often with sections of the gut protruding through an opening in the abdomen . this leaves them susceptible to infection but in some cases they can be saved via removal them to a separate tank containing sterile water . it\u2019s unknown whether such issues relate to water quality , diet , sexual maturity or stress but we\u2019d suggest isolating gravid specimens and offering a varied diet containing both high protein items and algae .\nthe eye of anableps species is split horizontally by a band of epithelial tissue . it has two corneas , two pupils , a single , egg - shaped lens and one retina that\u2019s also split into two sections . the lens is oval and asymmetric with the upper part flattened as in the human eye and the lower section curved as in most other fishes . the upper cornea is thicker and enriched with glycogen which possibly helps to protect it from drying and uv irradiation .\nthe family anablepidae also includes the genera oxyzygonectes ( monotypic ) and jenynsia ( 13 species ) . they\u2019re members of the order cyprinodontiformes so are related to killifish , goodeids and poeciliid livebearers . anableps is the only genus to have developed specialised eye morphology and but jenynsia species are also viviparous .\nghedotti , m . j . and e . o . wiley . 2003 - in : carpenter ( 2003 ) . the living marine resources of the western central atlantic . v . 2 . anablepidae ."]}
{"id": 1664, "summary": [{"text": "aplysina archeri ( also known as stove-pipe sponge because of its shape ) is a species of tube sponge that has long tube-like structures of cylindrical shape .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "although they can grow in a single tube , they often grow in large groups of up to 22 tubes .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "a single tube can grow up to 5 feet ( 1.5 m ) high and 3 inches ( 7.6 cm ) thick .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "these sponges mostly live in the western atlantic ocean : the caribbean , the bahamas , florida , and bonaire .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "like most sponges , they are filter feeders ; they eat food such as plankton or suspended detritus as it passes them .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "very little is known about their behavioral patterns except for their feeding ecology and reproductive biology .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "tubes occur in varying colors including lavender , gray , and brown .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they reproduce both by asexual and sexual reproduction .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "these sponges take hundreds of years to grow and never stop growing until they die .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "snails are among their natural predators .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the population density of these sponges is going down because of oil spills and other pollution . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "aplysina archeri", "paragraphs": ["yan wong changed the thumbnail image of\nfile : aplysina archeri ( stove - pipe sponge - pink variation ) . jpg\n.\nthe stovepipe sponge ( aplysina archeri ) is a species of tube sponge found mainly in the atlantic ocean , including the waters around the caribbean , bahamas , florida , and bonaire .\n( of verongia archeri ( higgin , 1875 ) ) alcolado , p . m . 1980 . esponjas de cuba . nuevos registros . poeyana 197 : 1 - 10 . page ( s ) : 2 [ details ]\n( of luffaria archeri higgin , 1875 ) higgin , t . ( 1875 ) . on a new sponge of the genus luffaria , from yucatan , in the liverpool free museum . annals and magazine of natural history . ( 4 ) 16 : 223 - 227 . page ( s ) : 224 - 227 ; pl vi [ details ]\naplysina archeri ( higgin , 1875 ) : p\u00e9rez et al . ( 2017 ) : 9 . [ statut pour la martinique ] p\u00e9rez , t . , diaz , m - c . , ruiz , c . , condor - lujan , b . , klautau , m . , hajdu , e . , lobo - hadju , g . , zea , s . , pomponi , s . a . , thacker , r . w . , carteron , s . , tollu , g . , pouget - cuvelier , a . , th\u00e9lamon , p . , marechal , j . - p . , thomas , o . p . , ereskovsky , a . v . , vacelet , j . & boury - esnault , n . 2017 . how acollaborative integrated taxonomic effort has trained new spongiologists and improved knowledge of martinique island ( french antilles , eastern caribbean sea ) marine biodiversity . plos one 12 ( 3 ) : e0173859\naplysina archeri this is a type of sea sponge usually called stove pipe sponge . it can get to 5 feet tall and 3 inches thick . - this sponge mates like many other sponge species . - it can either be sexual or asexual . - it asexual , the sponge forms little pods called gammeles that are located on the external part of the sponge . currents in the water detach them and carry these pods to wherever . - where they land , is where they will hatch and start a new sponge . - sexual reproduction between two stove pipe sponges is random . - they are all the same gender , hermaphrodites , and do not have sexual organs . - to sexually reproduce , this sponge sprays sperms out all around it , into the water . - the sperm is carried by the current and if it hits another stove - pipe sponge , it becomes pregnant . - pregnant sponges keep the eggs in them until they are mature , then they let them out and they create new sponges .\n( of verongia archeri ( higgin , 1875 ) ) laubenfels , m . w . de . ( 1936 ) . a discussion of the sponge fauna of the dry tortugas in particular and the west indies in general , with material for a revision of the families and orders of the porifera . carnegie institute of washington publication . 467 ( tortugas laboratory paper 30 ) 1 - 225 , pls 1 - 22 . page ( s ) : 24 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of luffaria archeri higgin , 1875 ) van soest , r . w . m . ( 1978 ) . marine sponges from cura\u00e7ao and other caribbean localities . part i . keratosa . in : hummelinck , p . w . & van der steen , l . j . ( eds ) , uitgaven van de natuurwetenschappelijke studiekring voor suriname en de nederlandse antillen . no . 94 . studies on the fauna of cura\u00e7ao and other caribbean islands . 56 ( 179 ) : 1\u201394 . [ details ]\nm . de kluijver , g . gijswijt , r . de leon & i . da cunda\n) . sometimes they grow single , but more often in large groups of up to 22 tubes , which normally are in contact with each other only at their base . the surface is though and shows much relief (\n) and sometimes an obscured pattern of rounded disc - shaped elevations of 3 - 9 mm . the shallow depressions between the elevations contain rows of pores . the surface is generally finely conulose and does not show the deep and meandering grooves of\nconspicuous pink or purplish gray . the tubes ' interiors often cream colored , but always lighter than the exterior color .\nhumann , p . , 1992 . reef creature identification - florida caribbean bahamas , ( ed . n . deloach ) . new world publications , inc . , paramount miller graphics , inc . , jacksonville , florida .\nsoest , r . w . m . van , 1978 . marine sponges from cura\u00e7ao and other caribbean islands . part i . keratosa . studies on the fauna of cura\u00e7ao and other caribbean islands , 179 .\nvan soest , r . w . m ; boury - esnault , n . ; hooper , j . n . a . ; r\u00fctzler , k . ; de voogd , n . j . ; alvarez , b . ; hajdu , e . ; pisera , a . b . ; manconi , r . ; sch\u00f6nberg , c . ; klautau , m . ; picton , b . ; kelly , m . ; vacelet , j . ; dohrmann , m . ; d\u00edaz , m . - c . ; c\u00e1rdenas , p . ; carballo , j . l . ; r\u00edos , p . ; downey , r . ( 2018 ) . world porifera database .\nvan soest , r . w . m . ( 1978 ) . marine sponges from cura\u00e7ao and other caribbean localities . part i . keratosa . in : hummelinck , p . w . & van der steen , l . j . ( eds ) , uitgaven van de natuurwetenschappelijke studiekring voor suriname en de nederlandse antillen . no . 94 . studies on the fauna of cura\u00e7ao and other caribbean islands . 56 ( 179 ) : 1\u201394 . page ( s ) : 58 - 59 ; fig 19 , pl xi 3 - 4 [ details ]\nzea , s . ( 1987 ) . esponjas del caribe colombiano . ( cat\u00e1logo cientifico : bogot\u00e1 , colombia ) : 1 - 286 . page ( s ) : 55 - 57 [ details ]\nr\u00fctzler , k . ; d\u00edaz , m . c . ; van soest , r . w . m . ; zea , s . ; smith , k . p . ; alvarez , b . ; wulff , j . ( 2000 ) . diversity of sponge fauna in mangrove ponds , pelican cays , belize . atoll research bulletin . 476 : 230 - 248 . page ( s ) : 239 [ details ]\nvan soest , r . w . m . ( 1981 ) . a checklist of the cura\u00e7ao sponges ( porifera demospongiae ) including a pictorial key to the more common reef - forms . verslagen en technische gegevens instituut voor taxonomische zo\u00f6logie ( zo\u00f6logisch museum ) universiteit van amsterdam . 31 : 1 - 39 . page ( s ) : 25 [ details ]\nr\u00fctzler , k . ; van soest , r . w . m . ; piantoni , c . ( 2009 ) . sponges ( porifera ) of the gulf of mexico . in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m press , college station , texas . 285\u2013313 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nalcolado , p . m . ; busutil , l . ( 2012 ) . inventaire des spongiaires n\u00e9ritiques du parc national de la guadeloupe ( inventario de las esponjas ner\u00edticas del parque nacional de guadalupe ) . serie oceanol\u00f3gica . 10 , 62 - 76 . page ( s ) : 71 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nvacelet , j . ( 1990 ) . les spongiaires . in le monde marin . ( ed . claude bouchon ) pp 16 - 33 . la grande encyclop\u00e9die de la cara\u00efbe . editions cara\u00efbes , pointe \u00e0 pitre . page ( s ) : 31 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\np\u00e9rez , t . ; d\u00edaz , m . c . ; ruiz , c . ; c\u00f3ndor - luj\u00e1n , b . ; klautau , m . ; hajdu , e . ; l\u00f4bo - hajdu , g . ; zea , s . ; pomponi , s . a . ; thacker , r . w . ; carteron , s . ; tollu , g . ; pouget - cuvelier , a . ; th\u00e9lamon , p . ; marechal , j . - p . ; thomas , o . p . ; ereskovsky , a . e . ; vacelet , j . ; boury - esnault , n . ( 2017 ) . how a collaborative integrated taxonomic effort has trained new spongiologists and improved knowledge of martinique island ( french antilles , eastern caribbean sea ) marine biodiversity . plos one . 12 ( 3 ) : e0173859 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 9 [ details ]\nlehnert , h . ; van soest , r . w . m . ( 1998 ) . shallow water sponges of jamaica . beaufortia . 48 ( 5 ) : 71 - 103 . page ( s ) : 98 [ details ]\nlendenfeld , r . von . ( 1889 ) . a monograph of the horny sponges . ( tr\u00fcbner and co . : london ) : iii - iv , 1 - 936 , pls 1 - 50 . , available online at urltoken ; view = 1up ; seq = 1 page ( s ) : 413 - 415 [ details ]\npulitzer - finali , g . ( 1986 ) . a collection of west indian demospongiae ( porifera ) . in appendix , a list of the demospongiae hitherto recorded from the west indies . annali del museo civico di storia naturale giacomo doria . 86 : 65 - 216 . page ( s ) : 183 - 184 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nnotes : long tubes , single or in groups , usually having an iridiscent lavender color , but co - occurring specimens may be brownish or greenish tan .\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\ntricart & foubert ( 2000 ) [ statut pour la martinique ] tricart , s . & foubert , a . 2000 . base de r\u00e9f\u00e9rence de l ' inventaire znieff - mer : validation des donn\u00e9es sur les esp\u00e8ces marines des cara\u00efbes ( guadeloupe , martinique et guyane ) . in : guillaume , m . ( coord . ) 2000 . l ' inventaire znieff - mer dans les dom : bilan m\u00e9thodologique et mise en place . patrimoines naturels , 42 : 105 - 128 .\nalcolado & busutil ( 2012 ) [ statut pour la guadeloupe ] alcolado , p . m . & busutil , l . 2012 . inventaire des spongiaires n\u00e9ritiques du parc national de la guadeloupe . serie oceanol\u00f3gica , 10 : 62 - 76 .\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nthis species has long tube - like structures cylindrical in nature and many tubes are attached to one particular part of the organism . the tubes occur in varying colors including lavender , gray and brown .\nthe stovepipe sponge is a filter feeder and eats food such as plankton or suspended detritus as it passes by them . very little is known about its behavioral patterns except for its feeding ecology and reproductive biology .\nit reproduces both asexually and sexually . sperm is released into the water column where it floats and then settle down on substrate and begins to reproduce cells and grow . it takes hundreds of years for a single sponge to mature and it actually never stops growing until it dies .\nimage caption : stove - pipe sponge - pink variation . credit : nick hobgood / wikipedia ( cc by - sa 3 . 0 )\nthe tropical marine communities are considered among the most diverse on earth . the variety of colors , shapes , and sizes shown by the fauna of these communities are immense . the coral and sponge communities are among the most conspicuous . in spite of this , little is known about the ecology of marine sponges , as research has been hindered by taxonomic problems and difficulties that arise in their quantitative evaluation .\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\nalvarez mb , diaz mc ( 1985 ) las esponjas de un arrecife coralino en el parque nacional archipi\u00e9lago de los roques : i , taxonomia . ii , estructura ecologica : 1\u2013216 ( tesis de licenciatura , universidad central de venezuela , facultad de ciencias , escuela de biologia , caracas )\nbloom sa ( 1975 ) the motile scape response of a sessile prey : a sponge - scallop mutualism . j exp mar biol ecol 17 ( 3 ) : 311\u2013321\nchace fa ( 1972 ) the shrimps of the smithsonian - bredin caribbean expedition with a summary of the west indian shallow - water species ( crustacea : deeapoda : natantia ) . smithson contrib zool 98 ( i - x ) : 1\u2013179\nconnor ef , mccoy ed ( 1979 ) the statistics and biology of the species - area relationship . am nat 113 ( 6 ) : 791\u2013817\nda\u00fcer dm ( 1973 ) polychaete fauna associated with gulf of m\u00e9xico sponges . fi sci 36 ( 2\u20134 ) : 192\u2013196\ndendy ( porifera ) as an ecological niche in the littoral zone of the dahlak archipelago ( eritrea ) . bull sea fish res stn israel 41 : 17\u201325\n( l . ) : a commensal - protective mutualism . j exp mar biol ecol 36 : 1\u201310\nfrith dw ( 1976 ) animals associated with sponges at north hayling , hampshire . j linn soc ( zool ) 58 : 353\u2013362\nin the roques archipelago , venezuela . bijdr dierkd 54 ( 2 ) : 220\u2013230\nkilburn pd ( 1966 ) analysis of the species - area relation . ecology 47 : 831\u2013843\nlong er ( 1968 ) the associates of four species of marine sponges of oregon and washington . pac sci 22 ( 3 ) : 347\u2013351\nmacarthur rh , wilson eo ( 1967 ) the theory of island biogeography . princeton universtiy press , princeton nj\nosman rw ( 1977 ) the establishment and development of a marine epifaunal community . ecol monogr 41 : 37\u201363\npearse as ( 1932 ) inhabitants of certain sponges at dry tortugas . pap tortugas lab 28 ( 7 ) : 117\u2013124\npearse as ( 1950 ) notes on the inhabitants of certain sponges at bimini . ecology 31 : 149\u2013151\npearson k ( 1900 ) on the criterion that a given system of deviations from the probable in the case of a correlated system of variables is such that it can be reasonably supposed to have arisen from random sampling . phil mag ser 5 , 50 : 157\u2013175\npeattie me , hoare r ( 1981 ) the sublittoral ecology of the menai strait ii . the sponge\nand its associated fauna . est coast shelf sci 13 ( 6 ) : 621\u2013635\npielou ec ( 1966 ) shannon\u2019s formula as a measure of specific diversity : its use an disuse . am nat 100 : 463\u2013465\npreston fw ( 1962 ) the canonical distribution of commonness and rarity . ecology 43 : 185\u2013215 , 410\u2013432\nrandall ie , hartman wd ( 1968 ) sponge - feeding fishes of the west indies . mar biol l ( 3 ) : 216\u2013225\nrodriguez g ( 1980 ) crust\u00e1ceos dec\u00e1podos de venezuela . instituto venezolano de investigaciones cient\u00edficas ( ivic )\nr\u00fctzler k ( 1976 ) ecology of tunisian commercial sponges . tethys 7 ( 2\u20133 ) : 249\u2013264\nr\u00fctzler k ( 1978 ) sponges in coral reefs . in : stoddart dr , johannes re ( eds ) coral reefs : research methods . monographs on oceanographic methodology 5 . unesco , pp 299\u2013313\nschoener a ( 1974 ) experimental zoogeography : colonization of marine mini - islands . am nat 108 ( 964 ) : 715\u2013738\nshannon ce , weaver w ( 1963 ) the mathematical theory of communication . university of illinois press , urbana\nsneath ph , sokal rr ( 1973 ) numerical taxonomy . wh freeman , san francisco\nsorensen t ( 1948 ) a method of establishing groups of equal amplitude in plant society based on similarity of species content . k dan vidensk selsk 5 : 1\u201334\ntello j ( 1975 ) cat\u00e1logo de la fauna venezolana , viii mollusca . publicaciones de la comision organizadora de la iii conferencia de las naciones unidas sobre el derecho del mar . caracas\ntyler jc , b\u00f3hlke je ( 1972 ) records of sponge - dwelling fishes , primarily of the caribbean . bull mar sci 22 ( 3 ) : 601\u2013643\n. in : taylor d ( ed ) proc : 3rd int coral reef symp 1 . biology , may 1977 miami , florida\nuebelacker jm ( 1978 ) a new parasitic polychaetous annelid ( arabellidae ) from the bahamas . j parasitol 64 ( 1 ) : 151\u2013154\na lo largo de un gradiente de profundidad en el parque nacional archipi\u00e9lago de los roques , venezuela . tesis de grado universidad central de venezuela\nwilliams cb ( 1964 ) patterns in the balance of nature . academic press , london\nzoppi e ( 1967 ) contribuci\u00f3n al estudio de los equinodermos de venezuela . acta biol venez 5 ( 17 ) : 267\u2013324\nin a coral reef of the archipi\u00e9lago de los roques , national park , venezuela . in : reitner j . , keupp h . ( eds ) fossil and recent sponges . springer , berlin , heidelberg"]}
{"id": 1668, "summary": [{"text": "eurypygimorphae is a clade of birds that contains the orders phaethontiformes ( tropicbirds ) and eurypygiformes ( kagu and sunbittern ) recovered by genome analysis the relationship was first identified in 2013 based on their nuclear genes .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "historically these birds were placed at different parts of the tree , with tropicbirds in pelecaniformes and the kagu and sunbittern in gruiformes , though in the last decade various genetic analysis had found in the almost obsolete clade metaves of uncertain placement within that group .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "their sister taxon is possibly aequornithes . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "eurypygimorphae", "paragraphs": ["this is the place for eurypygimorphae definition . you find here eurypygimorphae meaning , synonyms of eurypygimorphae and images for eurypygimorphae copyright 2017 \u00a9 urltoken\nhere you will find one or more explanations in english for the word eurypygimorphae . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word eurypygimorphae and , of course , eurypygimorphae synonyms and on the right images related to the word eurypygimorphae .\nhow can i put and write and define eurypygimorphae in a sentence and how is the word eurypygimorphae used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528eurypygimorphae\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528eurypygimorphae\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528eurypygimorphae\u9020\u53e5 , eurypygimorphae meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\nardeae is a clade that of birds that contains eurypygimorphae and aequornithes , named in 2014 by genome analysis . initially members of eurypygimorphae were originally classified in the obsolete group metaves , and aequornithes were classified as the sister taxon to musophagiformes or gruiformes .\n' ardeae\n' is a clade that of birds that contains eurypygimorphae and aequornithes , named in 2014 by genome analysis .\nit contains the clades charadriiformes ( waders and shorebirds ) , mirandornithes ( flamingos and grebes ) and ardeae ( eurypygimorphae and aequornithes ) .\ninitially members of eurypygimorphae were originally classified in the obsolete group metaves , and aequornithes were classified as the sister taxon to musophagiformes or gruiformes .\n' eurypygimorphae\n' is a clade of birds that contains the orders phaethontiformes ( tropicbirds ) and eurypygiformes ( kagu and sunbittern ) recovered by genome analysis the relationship was first identified in 2013 based on their nuclear genes .\nbased on a whole - genome analysis of the bird orders , the kagu and sunbittern ( eurypygiformes ) and the three species of tropicbirds ( phaethontiformes ) together styled as the eurypygimorphae are the closest sister group of the aequornithes in the clade ardeae .\nplease select whether you prefer to view the mdpi pages with a view tailored for mobile displays or to view the mdpi pages in the normal scrollable desktop version . this selection will be stored into your cookies and used automatically in next visits . you can also change the view style at any point from the main header when using the pages with your mobile device .\nyou seem to have javascript disabled . please note that many of the page functionalities won ' t work as expected without javascript enabled .\nthis is an open access article distributed under the creative commons attribution license ( cc by 3 . 0 ) .\nyuri , t . ; kimball , r . t . ; harshman , j . ; bowie , r . c . k . ; braun , m . j . ; chojnowski , j . l . ; han , k . - l . ; hackett , s . j . ; huddleston , c . j . ; moore , w . s . ; reddy , s . ; sheldon , f . h . ; steadman , d . w . ; witt , c . c . ; braun , e . l . parsimony and model - based analyses of indels in avian nuclear genes reveal congruent and incongruent phylogenetic signals . biology 2013 , 2 , 419 - 444 .\nyuri t , kimball rt , harshman j , bowie rck , braun mj , chojnowski jl , han k - l , hackett sj , huddleston cj , moore ws , reddy s , sheldon fh , steadman dw , witt cc , braun el . parsimony and model - based analyses of indels in avian nuclear genes reveal congruent and incongruent phylogenetic signals . biology . 2013 ; 2 ( 1 ) : 419 - 444 .\nyuri , tamaki ; kimball , rebecca t . ; harshman , john ; bowie , rauri c . k . ; braun , michael j . ; chojnowski , jena l . ; han , kin - lan ; hackett , shannon j . ; huddleston , christopher j . ; moore , william s . ; reddy , sushma ; sheldon , frederick h . ; steadman , david w . ; witt , christopher c . ; braun , edward l . 2013 .\nparsimony and model - based analyses of indels in avian nuclear genes reveal congruent and incongruent phylogenetic signals .\nbiology 2 , no . 1 : 419 - 444 .\n1 department of neurobiology , howard hughes medical institute ( hhmi ) , and duke university medical center , durham , nc 27710 , usa .\n2 department of computer science , the university of texas at austin , austin , tx 78712 , usa .\n3 scientific computing group , heidelberg institute for theoretical studies , heidelberg , germany .\n5 college of medicine and forensics , xi\u2019an jiaotong university xi\u2019an 710061 , china .\n6 centre for geogenetics , natural history museum of denmark , university of copenhagen , \u00f8ster voldgade 5 - 7 , 1350 copenhagen , denmark .\n7 department of biology , new mexico state university , las cruces , nm 88003 , usa .\n8 school of biological sciences , university of sydney , sydney , new south wales 2006 , australia .\n9 department of ecology and evolutionary biology , university of california , los angeles , ca 90095 , usa .\n10 department of biological sciences , louisiana state university , baton rouge , la 70803 , usa .\n11 cnrs umr 5554 , institut des sciences de l\u2019evolution de montpellier , universit\u00e9 montpellier ii montpellier , france .\n12 department of evolutionary biology , evolutionary biology centre , uppsala university , se - 752 36 uppsala sweden .\n13 biodiversity and biocomplexity unit , okinawa institute of science and technology onna - son , okinawa 904 - 0495 , japan .\n14 department of statistics and institute of bioinformatics , university of georgia , athens , ga 30602 , usa .\n15 laboratoire de biom\u00e9trie et biologie evolutive , centre national de la recherche scientifique , universit\u00e9 de lyon , f - 69622 villeurbanne , france .\n16 environmental futures research institute , griffith university , nathan , queensland 4111 , australia .\n17 bioinformatics and genomics programme , centre for genomic regulation , dr . aiguader 88 , 08003 barcelona , spain .\n20 joint institute for computational sciences , the university of tennessee , oak ridge national laboratory , oak ridge , tn 37831 , usa .\n21 bioinformatics research centre , aarhus university , dk - 8000 aarhus c , denmark .\n22 the genome institute , washington university school of medicine , st louis , mi 63108 , usa .\n23 department of biochemistry , molecular biology , entomology and plant pathology , mississippi state university , mississippi state , ms 39762 , usa .\n24 institute for genomics , biocomputing and biotechnology , mississippi state university , mississippi state , ms 39762 , usa .\n25 department of biological sciences , texas tech university , lubbock , tx 79409 , usa .\n26 department of ecology and evolutionary biology , university of california santa cruz ( ucsc ) , santa cruz , ca 95064 , usa .\n27 organisms and environment division , cardiff school of biosciences , cardiff university cardiff cf10 3ax , wales , uk .\n28 key laboratory of animal ecology and conservation biology , institute of zoology , chinese academy of sciences , beijing 100101 , china .\n30 college of medicine and forensics , xi\u2019an jiaotong university xi\u2019an , 710061 , china .\n31 state key laboratory for agrobiotechnology , china agricultural university , beijing 100094 , china .\n32 department of ecology and evolutionary biology , tulane university , new orleans , la 70118 , usa .\n33 museum of natural science and department of biological sciences , louisiana state university , baton rouge , la 70803 , usa .\n34 center for zoo and wild animal health , copenhagen zoo roskildevej 38 , dk - 2000 frederiksberg , denmark .\n35 department of behavioral neuroscience , oregon health and science university , portland , or 97239 , usa .\n36 brazilian avian genome consortium ( cnpq / fapespa - sisbio aves ) , federal university of para , belem , para , brazil .\n37 institute of biological sciences , federal university of para , belem , para , brazil .\n38 institute of medical biochemistry leopoldo de meis , federal university of rio de janeiro , rio de janeiro rj 21941 - 902 , brazil .\n39 centre for biological sequence analysis , department of systems biology , technical university of denmark kemitorvet 208 , 2800 kgs lyngby , denmark .\n43 trace and environmental dna laboratory department of environment and agriculture , curtin university , perth , western australia 6102 , australia .\n44 department of integrative biology , university of california , berkeley , ca 94720 , usa .\n45 laboratory of genomic diversity , national cancer institute frederick , md 21702 , usa .\n46 institute of molecular and cellular biology , sb ras and novosibirsk state university , novosibirsk , russia .\n47 smithsonian institution national museum of natural history , washington , dc 20013 , usa .\n49 department of biological sciences , national university of singapore , republic of singapore .\n50 department of vertebrate zoology , national museum of natural history , smithsonian suitland , md 20746 , usa .\n51 center for macroecology , evolution and climate , natural history museum of denmark , university of copenhagen , universitetsparken 15 , dk - 2100 copenhagen \u00f8 , denmark .\n52 bell museum of natural history , university of minnesota , saint paul , mn 55108 , usa .\n53 department of life sciences , natural history museum , cromwell road , london sw7 5bd , uk .\n54 department of life sciences , imperial college london , silwood park campus , ascot sl5 7py , uk .\n55 smithsonian conservation biology institute , national zoological park , front royal , va 22630 , usa .\n56 smithsonian conservation biology institute , national zoological park , washington , dc 20008 , usa .\n57 theodosius dobzhansky center for genome bioinformatics , st . petersburg state university , st . petersburg , russia 199004 .\n58 oceanographic center , nova southeastern university , ft lauderdale , fl 33004 , usa .\n59 center for biomolecular science and engineering , ucsc , santa cruz , ca 95064 , usa .\n60 san diego zoo institute for conservation research , escondido , ca 92027 , usa .\n61 department of vertebrate zoology , mrc - 116 , national museum of natural history , smithsonian institution , washington , dc 20013 , usa .\n62 department of environmental health science , university of georgia , athens , ga 30602 , usa .\n63 moore laboratory of zoology and department of biology , occidental college , los angeles , ca 90041 , usa .\n64 department of genomics and genetics , the roslin institute and royal ( dick ) school of veterinary studies , university of edinburgh , easter bush campus , midlothian eh25 9rg , uk .\n65 swedish species information centre , swedish university of agricultural sciences box 7007 , se - 750 07 uppsala , sweden .\n66 key laboratory of zoological systematics and evolution , institute of zoology , chinese academy of sciences , beijing 100101 , china .\n67 department of organismic and evolutionary biology and museum of comparative zoology , harvard university , cambridge , ma 02138 , usa .\n68 institute of theoretical informatics , department of informatics , karlsruhe institute of technology , d - 76131 karlsruhe , germany .\n69 department of biochemistry and biophysics , university of california , san francisco , ca 94158 , usa .\n70 department of ornithology , american museum of natural history , new york , ny 10024 , usa .\n71 department of biology and genetics institute , university of florida , gainesville , fl 32611 , usa .\n72 departments of bioengineering and computer science , university of illinois at urbana - champaign , urbana , il 61801 , usa .\n73 department of biology , university of copenhagen , ole maal\u00f8es vej 5 , 2200 copenhagen , denmark .\n74 princess al jawhara center of excellence in the research of hereditary disorders , king abdulaziz university , jeddah 21589 , saudi arabia .\n75 macau university of science and technology , avenida wai long , taipa , macau 999078 , china .\n77 centre for social evolution , department of biology , universitetsparken 15 , university of copenhagen , dk - 2100 copenhagen , denmark .\nscience 12 dec 2014 : vol . 346 , issue 6215 , pp . 1320 - 1331 doi : 10 . 1126 / science . 1253451\ndepartment of neurobiology , howard hughes medical institute ( hhmi ) , and duke university medical center , durham , nc 27710 , usa .\nfor correspondence : jarvis @ neuro . duke . edutandywarnow @ gmail . commtpgilbert @ gmail . comwangj @ urltoken zhanggj @ urltoken\ndepartment of computer science , the university of texas at austin , austin , tx 78712 , usa .\ncentre for geogenetics , natural history museum of denmark , university of copenhagen , \u00f8ster voldgade 5 - 7 , 1350 copenhagen , denmark .\ndepartment of biology , new mexico state university , las cruces , nm 88003 , usa .\nschool of biological sciences , university of sydney , sydney , new south wales 2006 , australia .\ndepartment of ecology and evolutionary biology , university of california , los angeles , ca 90095 , usa .\ndepartment of biological sciences , louisiana state university , baton rouge , la 70803 , usa .\ncnrs umr 5554 , institut des sciences de l\u2019evolution de montpellier , universit\u00e9 montpellier ii montpellier , france .\ndepartment of evolutionary biology , evolutionary biology centre , uppsala university , se - 752 36 uppsala sweden .\nbiodiversity and biocomplexity unit , okinawa institute of science and technology onna - son , okinawa 904 - 0495 , japan .\ndepartment of statistics and institute of bioinformatics , university of georgia , athens , ga 30602 , usa .\nlaboratoire de biom\u00e9trie et biologie evolutive , centre national de la recherche scientifique , universit\u00e9 de lyon , f - 69622 villeurbanne , france .\nenvironmental futures research institute , griffith university , nathan , queensland 4111 , australia .\nbioinformatics and genomics programme , centre for genomic regulation , dr . aiguader 88 , 08003 barcelona , spain .\njoint institute for computational sciences , the university of tennessee , oak ridge national laboratory , oak ridge , tn 37831 , usa .\nbioinformatics research centre , aarhus university , dk - 8000 aarhus c , denmark .\nthe genome institute , washington university school of medicine , st louis , mi 63108 , usa .\ndepartment of biochemistry , molecular biology , entomology and plant pathology , mississippi state university , mississippi state , ms 39762 , usa .\ninstitute for genomics , biocomputing and biotechnology , mississippi state university , mississippi state , ms 39762 , usa .\ndepartment of biological sciences , texas tech university , lubbock , tx 79409 , usa .\ndepartment of ecology and evolutionary biology , university of california santa cruz ( ucsc ) , santa cruz , ca 95064 , usa .\norganisms and environment division , cardiff school of biosciences , cardiff university cardiff cf10 3ax , wales , uk .\nkey laboratory of animal ecology and conservation biology , institute of zoology , chinese academy of sciences , beijing 100101 , china .\ncollege of medicine and forensics , xi\u2019an jiaotong university xi\u2019an , 710061 , china .\nstate key laboratory for agrobiotechnology , china agricultural university , beijing 100094 , china .\ndepartment of ecology and evolutionary biology , tulane university , new orleans , la 70118 , usa .\nmuseum of natural science and department of biological sciences , louisiana state university , baton rouge , la 70803 , usa .\ncenter for zoo and wild animal health , copenhagen zoo roskildevej 38 , dk - 2000 frederiksberg , denmark .\ndepartment of behavioral neuroscience , oregon health and science university , portland , or 97239 , usa .\nbrazilian avian genome consortium ( cnpq / fapespa - sisbio aves ) , federal university of para , belem , para , brazil .\ninstitute of biological sciences , federal university of para , belem , para , brazil .\ninstitute of medical biochemistry leopoldo de meis , federal university of rio de janeiro , rio de janeiro rj 21941 - 902 , brazil .\ncentre for biological sequence analysis , department of systems biology , technical university of denmark kemitorvet 208 , 2800 kgs lyngby , denmark .\ntrace and environmental dna laboratory department of environment and agriculture , curtin university , perth , western australia 6102 , australia .\ndepartment of integrative biology , university of california , berkeley , ca 94720 , usa .\nlaboratory of genomic diversity , national cancer institute frederick , md 21702 , usa .\ninstitute of molecular and cellular biology , sb ras and novosibirsk state university , novosibirsk , russia .\nsmithsonian institution national museum of natural history , washington , dc 20013 , usa .\ndepartment of vertebrate zoology , national museum of natural history , smithsonian suitland , md 20746 , usa .\ncenter for macroecology , evolution and climate , natural history museum of denmark , university of copenhagen , universitetsparken 15 , dk - 2100 copenhagen \u00f8 , denmark .\nbell museum of natural history , university of minnesota , saint paul , mn 55108 , usa .\ndepartment of life sciences , natural history museum , cromwell road , london sw7 5bd , uk .\ndepartment of life sciences , imperial college london , silwood park campus , ascot sl5 7py , uk .\nsmithsonian conservation biology institute , national zoological park , front royal , va 22630 , usa .\nsmithsonian conservation biology institute , national zoological park , washington , dc 20008 , usa .\ntheodosius dobzhansky center for genome bioinformatics , st . petersburg state university , st . petersburg , russia 199004 .\noceanographic center , nova southeastern university , ft lauderdale , fl 33004 , usa .\ncenter for biomolecular science and engineering , ucsc , santa cruz , ca 95064 , usa .\nsan diego zoo institute for conservation research , escondido , ca 92027 , usa .\ndepartment of vertebrate zoology , mrc - 116 , national museum of natural history , smithsonian institution , washington , dc 20013 , usa .\ndepartment of environmental health science , university of georgia , athens , ga 30602 , usa .\nmoore laboratory of zoology and department of biology , occidental college , los angeles , ca 90041 , usa .\ndepartment of genomics and genetics , the roslin institute and royal ( dick ) school of veterinary studies , university of edinburgh , easter bush campus , midlothian eh25 9rg , uk .\nswedish species information centre , swedish university of agricultural sciences box 7007 , se - 750 07 uppsala , sweden .\nkey laboratory of zoological systematics and evolution , institute of zoology , chinese academy of sciences , beijing 100101 , china .\ndepartment of organismic and evolutionary biology and museum of comparative zoology , harvard university , cambridge , ma 02138 , usa .\ninstitute of theoretical informatics , department of informatics , karlsruhe institute of technology , d - 76131 karlsruhe , germany .\ndepartment of biochemistry and biophysics , university of california , san francisco , ca 94158 , usa .\ndepartment of ornithology , american museum of natural history , new york , ny 10024 , usa .\ndepartment of biology and genetics institute , university of florida , gainesville , fl 32611 , usa .\ndepartments of bioengineering and computer science , university of illinois at urbana - champaign , urbana , il 61801 , usa .\ndepartment of biology , university of copenhagen , ole maal\u00f8es vej 5 , 2200 copenhagen , denmark .\nprincess al jawhara center of excellence in the research of hereditary disorders , king abdulaziz university , jeddah 21589 , saudi arabia .\nmacau university of science and technology , avenida wai long , taipa , macau 999078 , china .\ncentre for social evolution , department of biology , universitetsparken 15 , university of copenhagen , dk - 2100 copenhagen , denmark .\nto better determine the history of modern birds , we performed a genome - scale phylogenetic analysis of 48 species representing all orders of neoaves using phylogenomic methods created to handle genome - scale data . we recovered a highly resolved tree that confirms previously controversial sister or close relationships . we identified the first divergence in neoaves , two groups we named passerea and columbea , representing independent lineages of diverse and convergently evolved land and water bird species . among passerea , we infer the common ancestor of core landbirds to have been an apex predator and confirm independent gains of vocal learning . among columbea , we identify pigeons and flamingoes as belonging to sister clades . even with whole genomes , some of the earliest branches in neoaves proved challenging to resolve , which was best explained by massive protein - coding sequence convergence and high levels of incomplete lineage sorting that occurred during a rapid radiation after the cretaceous - paleogene mass extinction event about 66 million years ago .\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see this page from the science web site .\n\u00a9 2018 american association for the advancement of science . all rights reserved . aaas is a partner of hinari , agora , oare , chorus , clockss , crossref and counter . science issn 1095 - 9203 .\njust enter the word in the field and the system will display a block of anagrams and unscrambled words as many as possible for this word .\nthe section is also useful for those who like compiling words from other words . you will get a list that begins with 3 letters and ends with 8 or more letters .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsome images used in this set are licensed under the creative commons through urltoken . click to see the original works with their full license ."]}
{"id": 1672, "summary": [{"text": "culex ( culex ) tritaeniorhynchus is a species of mosquito and is the main vector of the disease japanese encephalitis .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "this mosquito is a native of northern asia , and parts of africa ( northeast and sub-saharan ) .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "females target large animals for blood extraction , including cattle and swine , and are strongly anthropophilic . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "culex tritaeniorhynchus", "paragraphs": ["36 . culex : health important\uf0a2 culex quinquefasciatus ( vector of brancroftian filariasis\uf0a2 culex tritaeniorhynchus ( vector of japanese encephalitis - b ) \uf0a2 some important culex sp . as a vector for malaria culex tritaeniorhynchus culex fuscocephala culex gelidus culex vishui culex pseudovish 36\nyunnan orbivirus , a new orbivirus species isolated from culex tritaeniorhynchus mosquitoes in china .\nculex gelidus , cuddalore district , cx . tritaeniorhynchus , elisa , jev , mir\noutdoor resting preference of culex tritaeniorhynchus , the vector of japanese encephalitis in warangal and karim nagar districts , andhra pradesh .\nseasonal abundance & role of predominant japanese encephalitis vectors culex tritaeniorhynchus & cx . gelidus theobald in cuddalore district , tamil nadu\noutdoor resting preference of culex tritaeniorhynchus , the vector of japanese encephalitis in warangal and karim nagar districts , andhra pradesh . - pubmed - ncbi\nculex tritaeniorhynchus and aedes albopictus ( diptera : culicidae ) as natural vectors of dirofilaria immitis ( spirurida : filariidae ) in miki city , japan .\nhara 1957 : 56 ( f * ) [ both refs . as tritaeniorhynchus ]\nchanging scenario in the relative abundance of cx . tritaeniorhynchus and cx . gelidus .\n. outdoor and indoor biting activities of cx . tritaeniorhynchus in the study areas .\nvector abundance and linear decrease in abundance of cx . tritaeniorhynchus and cx . gelidus .\ntakahashi m ( 1976 ) the effects of environmental and physiological conditions of culex tritaeniorhynchus on the pattern of transmission of japanese encephalitis virus . j med entomol 13 : 275\u2013284 .\nculex tritaeniorhynchus and aedes albopictus ( diptera : culicidae ) as natural vectors of dirofilaria immitis ( spirurida : filariidae ) in miki city , j . . . - pubmed - ncbi\ninsecticidal and genotoxic activity of psoralea corylifolia linn . ( fabaceae ) against culex quinquefasciatus say , 1823\nbarcoding turkish culex mosquitoes to facilitate arbovirus vector incrimination studies reveals hidden diversity and new potential vectors .\noutdoor collections revealed presence of culex tritaeniorhynchus , cx . bitaeniorhynchus and cx . gelidus and in indoor collections - - cx . quinquefasciatus , cx . tritaeniorhynchus , an . vagus and an . subpictus . in the outdoor collections cx . tritaeniorhynchus was predominant ( 96 . 3 % of total collection ) . three samples out of 55 serum samples from human cases and five from contacts showed the presence of antibodies against je virus .\nthe mosquito species culex tritaeniorhynchus giles is part of the culex vishnui subgroup , which also includes culex pseudovishnui colless and cx . vishnui theobald . it is a relatively small , reddish brown species . the proboscis is predominantly dark scaled , with a narrow median pale ring . tarsi predominantly dark scaled with narrow basal and apical pale rings on tarsomeres i\u2013iv , more distinct on fore legs . wing veins are entirely dark scaled .\nanother culex species which we were able to examine in terms of its biting activity was cx . tritaeniorhyncus .\nreisen wk , aslamkhan m , basio rg . the effects of climatic patterns and agricultural practices on the population dynamics of culex tritaeniorhynchus in asia . southeast asian j trop med public health . 1976 ; 1 : 61\u201371 .\nmasuoka p , klein ta , kim hc , claborn dm , achee n , et al . ( 2010 ) modeling the distribution of culex tritaeniorhynchus to predict japanese encephalitis distribution in the republic of korea . geospat health 5 : 45\u201357 .\nbarcoding turkish culex mosquitoes to facilitate arbovirus vector incrimination studies reveals hidden diversity and new potential vectors . - pubmed - ncbi\ncontribution to the mosquito fauna to south - east asia , ii . the genus culex in thailand ( diptera ; culicidae )\njapanese encephalitis is considered as a secondary legal infectious disease in korea and is transmitted by mosquitoes in the summer season . the purpose of this study was to predict the ratio of culex tritaeniorhynchus to all the species of mosquitoes present in the study regions .\ntemporal distribution of culex tritaeniorhynchus occurrence data . histogram showing the number of spatially unique cx . tritaeniorhynchus occurrence records per year in our dataset ( 1928\u20132014 ) . 73 . 43 % of occurrence records were obtained during the years for which we have annual land cover class layers ( 2001\u20132012 ) , as indicated by orange x - axis breaks . ( . docx ) ( docx 85 kb )\n34 . \uf0a2 examples of such breeding sites are soakaway pits , septic tanks , pit latrines , blocked drains , canals and abandoned wells . \uf0a2 in many developing countries culex quinquefasciatus is common in rapidly expanding urban areas where drainage and sanitation are inadequate . \uf0a2 culex tritaeniorhynchus , the vector of japanese encephalitis in asia , prefers cleaner water . \uf0a2 it is most commonly found in irrigated rice fields and in ditches . 34\nstudies on the mosquitoes of north arcot district , madras state , india . 5 . breeding places of the culex vishnui group of species .\nour map contributes towards efforts determining the spatial heterogeneity in cx . tritaeniorhynchus distribution within the limits of je transmission . specifically , this map can be used to inform vector control programs and can be used to identify key areas where the prevention of cx . tritaeniorhynchus establishment should be a priority .\narcgis analysis determined the approximate percentage of each country with > 25 % probability of cx . tritaeniorhynchus presence based on the maxent model ( table 1 ) . of the 25 endemic countries , seven possessed > 50 % of their land area with a higher probability of cx . tritaeniorhynchus presence . three countries ( bhutan , pakistan , and russia ) possessed < 1 % of their total country area with a 25 % probability of cx . tritaeniorhynchus presence .\nstudies on the mosquitoes of north arcot district , madras state , india . 5 . breeding places of the culex vishnui group of species . - pubmed - ncbi\n33 . culex : life - cycle\uf0a2 rafts of 100 or more eggs are laid on the water surface . \uf0a2 the rafts remain afloat until hatching occurs 2\u20133 days later . \uf0a2 culex species breed in a large variety of still waters , ranging from artificial containers and catchment basins of drainage systems to large bodies of permanent water . 33\nbanerjee k , deshmukh pk , ilkal ma , dhanda v ( 1978 ) transmission of japanese encephalitis virus by culex bitaeniorhynchus giles . indian j med res 67 : 889\u2013893 .\nin the temperate zone cx . tritaeniorhynchus can hibernate as adult whether in northern places the densities of adults increase because of the immigration of the population of this species from the south .\nthe values of each environmental variable at each recorded location of occurrence were extracted using arcgis ( table 1 ) . for example , the known locations for cx . tritaeniorhynchus used in the model fell within 0 and 838 meters of elevation . this is consistent with the published reports that cx . tritaeniorhynchus is rarely collected above 1 , 000 meters [ 27 ] , [ 28 ] .\ncompared with the out - of - sample method , the sample - weighted regression method ' s case was relatively superior for prediction , and this method predicted a decrease in the frequency of cx . tritaeniorhynchus for 2013 . however , the actual frequency of this species showed an increase in frequency . by contrast , the frequency rate of all the mosquitoes including cx . tritaeniorhynchus gradually decreased .\ncx . tritaeniorhynchus belongs to the subgenus culex and genus culex , which is the primary vector of je and a member of cx . vishnui subgroups . cx . gelidus breed in a variety of freshwater habitats including polluted waters sometimes with considerable organic matter 12 . there were eight jev isolations made from cx . gelidus in india 13 . of these , five were from cuddalore district in tamil nadu and three from mandya district in karnataka state . the presence of the mosquito vectors of jev , and the existence of amplifying hosts in close proximity to humans , favours virus transmission .\nan ecological niche model was constructed using the maxent program to map the areas with suitable environmental conditions for the cx . tritaeniorhynchus vector . program input consisted of environmental data ( temperature , elevation , rainfall ) and known locations of vector presence resulting from an extensive literature search and records from mosquitomap . the statistically significant maxent model of the estimated probability of cx . tritaeniorhynchus presence showed that the mean temperatures of the wettest quarter had the greatest impact on the model . further , the majority of human japanese encephalitis ( je ) cases were located in regions with higher estimated probability of cx . tritaeniorhynchus presence .\nreuben r ( 1971 ) studies on the mosquitoes of north arcot district , madras state , india . 5 . breeding places of the culex vishnui group of species . j med entomol 8 : 363\u2013366 .\ncca did identify more general relationships that may be useful in predicting larval abundance patterns . turbidity , cod , and lower do were predictive for culex population except cx . gelidus . anopheles species can be affected by emergent plant coverage and distance from nearest house as well as mansonia species . cca ordination diagram plotted aedes , culex , anopheles , and mansonia species in different axis that may explain different requirement for different mosquito species . the fact that aedes and culex presence in tires are influenced by different suites of environmental variables which may be useful when designing vector control strategies , especially as these two groups vary in their capability to transmit disease .\ncx . tritaeniorhynchus can disperse long distance under natural conditions . the species has the ability to fly 5 km from the breeding site in only one day and the maximum dispersal distance during seven days is 8 . 4 km .\nritchie sa , phillips d , broom a , mackenzie j , poidinger m , et al . ( 1997 ) isolation of japanese encephalitis virus from culex annulirostris in australia . am j trop med hyg 56 : 80\u201384 .\njapanese encephalitis ( je ) is the leading cause of viral encephalitis in asia . the first major je outbreak occurred in 1978 and since 1981 several outbreaks had been reported in the cuddalore district ( erstwhile south arcot ) , tamil nadu , india . entomological monitoring was carried out during january 2010 - march 2013 , to determine the seasonal abundance and transmission dynamics of the vectors of je virus , with emphasis on the role of culex tritaeniorhynchus and cx . gelidus .\na total of 46 , 343 mosquitoes comprising of 25 species and six genera were collected . species composition included viz , cx . tritaeniorhynchus ( 46 . 26 % ) , cx . gelidus ( 43 . 12 % ) and other species ( 10 . 62 % ) . a total of 17 , 678 specimens ( 403 pools ) of cx . gelidus and 14 , 358 specimens ( 309 pools ) of cx . tritaeniorhynchus were tested , of which 12 pools of cx . gelidus and 14 pools of cx . tritaeniorhynchus were positive for je virus antigen . the climatic factors were negatively correlated with minimum infection rate ( mir ) for both the species , except mean temperature ( p < 0 . 05 ) for cx . gelidus .\nc . quinquefasciatus , the southern house mosquito , has been relatively well studied in recent years probably because of its role in the transmission of important human diseases such as urban lymphatic filariasis , saint louis encephalitis virus ( slev ) , and western equine encephalitis virus [ 2 , 3 ] . in the west africa subregion , culex mosquitoes are not filariasis vectors yet . they are potential vectors as there is minimal evidence that culex mosquitoes contribute to the transmission of the disease [ 4 ] .\ng . molaei , t . g . andreadis , p . m . armstrong , j . f . anderson , and c . r . vossbrinck , \u201chost feeding patterns of culex mosquitoes and west nile virus transmission , northeastern united states , \u201d\ncx . tritaeniorhynchus , a known vector of je is predominant in outdoors and playing a main role in je transmission in this area . vector control aimed at the outdoor resting population might limit virus circulation in the mosquito vertebrate host cycle and prevent human infection .\nillustration credit : harbach , r . e . 1988 . mosquitoes of the subgenus culex in southwestern asia and egypt ( diptera : culicidae ) . contr . am . ent . inst . 24 ( 1 ) : 1 - 240 . wr256 . pdf\nhigh abundance of cx . tritaeniorhynchus and cx . gelidus was observed compared to other mosquito species in the study area . detection of jev antigen in the two species confirmed the maintenance of virus . appropriate vector control measures need to be taken to reduce the vector abundance .\nillustration credit : sirivanakarn , s . 1975 . the systematics of culex vishnui complex in southeast asia with the diagnosis of three common species ( diptera : culicidae ) . mosq sys 7 ( 1 ) : 69 - 85 , illus . 122100 - 9 . pdf\nbhattacharya s , chakraborty sk , chakraborty s , ghosh kk , palit a , et al . ( 1986 ) density of culex vishnui and appearance of je antibody in sentinel chicks and wild birds in relation to japanese encephalitis cases . trop geogr med 38 : 46\u201350 .\nillustration credit : sirivanakarn , s . 1976 . medical entomology studies - iii . a revision of the subgenus culex in the oriental region ( diptera : culicidae ) . contr . am . ent . inst . 12 ( 2 ) : 1 - 272 . wr121 . pdf\nour ecological niche model of the estimated probability of cx . tritaeniorhynchus presence provides a framework for better allocation of vector control resources , particularly in locations where jev vaccinations are unavailable . furthermore , this model provides estimates of vector probability that could improve vector surveillance programs and je control efforts .\n19 . mosquito - borne diseases and their vectors ( protozoa and nematode disease ) disease pathogen vector species malaria plasmodium vivax anopheles sp . p . falciparum p . malariae p . ovale filariasis wuchereria bancrofti culex quinquefasciatus anopheles sp . brugia malayi mansonia sp . aedes togoi anopheles sinensis 19\nlarvae of cx . tritaeniorhynchus can be found in various temporary and permanent ground water habitats that are sunlit and contain vegetation . the water may be fresh or slightly brackish . that kind of habitats are ground pools , streams , swamps , shallow marshes , irrigation ditches , rice fields and animal hoof prints\nas a precursor to planned arboviral vector incrimination studies , an integrated systematics approach was adopted using morphology and dna barcoding to examine the culex fauna present in turkey . the mitochondrial coi gene ( 658 bp ) were sequenced from 185 specimens collected across 11 turkish provinces , as well as from colony material .\nvan den hurk af , smith cs , field he , smith il , northill ja , et al . ( 2009 ) transmission of japanese encephalitis virus from the black flying fox , pteropus alecto , to culex annulirostris mosquitoes , despite the absence of detectable viremia . am j trop med hyg 81 : 457\u2013462 .\ncx . tritaeniorhynchus and cx . gelidus were the two main mosquito species collected abundantly during the three years of the study , demonstrating their significant role in jev transmission . during the je season ( october - december ) , pmd and mir for cx . tritaeniorhynchus were observed to be higher than cx . gelidus . the pattern was almost similar in the subsequent season ( jan - mar ) . however , in the two hot seasons ( apr - jun and jul - sep ) , higher pmd as well as virus infectivity were observed in cx . gelidus . thus , the je virus was observed to be maintained during all the seasons by these two species in this area .\nour map defines geographic variation in suitability for cx . tritaeniorhynchus within the limits of je transmission , and thus contributes towards efforts to understand the spatial epidemiology of je . it can be used to aid predictions of current and future changes in disease distribution . specifically , this map can be used to inform vector control programs , highlighting areas which would most benefit from the use of insecticides and areas which would be ideal locations for sentinel sites to monitor vector abundance and disease presence . this map , coupled with fine spatial resolution maps of je distribution if available , can also be used in education campaigns to inform individuals of control methods to prevent vector establishment and disease spread in areas of high environmental suitability for cx . tritaeniorhynchus .\n) . in this study , we detected the presence of four major species which included ma . bonneae being the largest found in the area ( 23 . 8 % ) , followed closely by two culex species , cx . vishnui at 22 . 3 % and cx . pseudovishnui at 19 , 6 % , and lastly at 13 . 7 % was cx . tritaeniorhyncus .\nthe females feed primarily on domestic animals such as cattle and pigs , but will bite man in their absence . they mainly bite outdoors between sunset and midnight , but may enter cattle sheds and dwellings and bite man during any time of the night . biting activity of the female cx . tritaeniorhynchus have been reported to have two peaks , the first at 9 p . m . and the second at 2 a . m .\nalkalinity may affect the density of mosquito larvae . cx . gelidus , an . vagus , an . barbirostris , an . peditaeniatus , mn . annulifera , and mn . uniformis require higher alkalinity for their larval development , while ae . aegypti and ae . albopictus require low alkalinity . similar observation was depicted by rao et al . 76 they found that ae . albopictus preferred moderate alkalinity while culex and anopheles mosquitoes preferred high alkalinity .\nthe average annual mean temperature showed an escalating trend of 48 . 81 - 69 . 22 . at the same time the pmd decreased at the rate of 2 pmd per year . monthly analysis showed that pmd of cx . gelidus was at its minimum during the summer months of may to july . the mean temperature was negatively correlated with mir for cx . tritaeniorhynchus and positively correlated with mir for cx . gelidus ( p < 0 . 05 ) .\nalthough by morphology only 9 species were recognised , dna barcoding recovered 13 distinct species including : cx . ( barraudius ) modestus , cx . ( culex ) laticinctus , cx . ( cux . ) mimeticus , cx . ( cux . ) perexiguus , cx . ( cux . ) pipiens , cx . ( cux . ) pipiens form molestus , cx . ( cux . ) quinquefasciatus , cx . ( cux . ) theileri , cx . ( cux . ) torrentium , cx . ( cux . ) tritaeniorhynchus and cx . ( maillotia ) hortensis . the taxon formerly identified as cx . ( neoculex ) territans was shown to comprise two distinct species , neither of which correspond to cx . territans s . s . these include cx . ( neo . ) impudicus and another uncertain species , which may be cx . ( neo . ) europaeus or cx . ( neo . ) martinii ( herein = cx . ( neo . ) sp . 1 ) . detailed examination of the pipiens group revealed cx . pipiens , cx . pipiens f . molestus and the widespread presence of the highly efficient west nile virus vector cx . quinquefasciatus for the first time . four new country records are reported , increasing the culex of turkey to 15 recognised species and cx . pipiens f . molestus . a new taxonomic checklist is provided , annotated with respective vector competencies for transmission of arboviruses .\nin the current study , the maxent ecological niche modeling program was utilized to model the distribution of the primary vector of jev , cx . tritaeniorhynchus [ 22 ] . the resulting vector habitat suitability map was compared to the reported locations of je human cases and the current status of established je vaccination programs by country . our ecological niche model can be used by public health officials and government agencies in endemic regions to guide implementation of comprehensive vaccination programs , vector control strategies , and public health awareness campaigns .\nin order to evaluate the contribution of each environmental variable to the model , maxent utilizes a jackknife test , which indicated that the annual precipitation ( bio12 ) environmental layer is the environmental variable with the highest gain when used in the model by itself . the maxent program also calculates a percent contribution for each variable in the model . the annual precipitation variable contributed 16 . 2 % of the information used by the model , another indication that it is an important environmental factor for estimating the distribution of cx . tritaeniorhynchus ( table 2 ) . the mean temperature of the wettest quarter variable ( bio08 ) contributed the highest percentage ( 21 . 7 % ) of the information to the model . elevation was also an important variable , contributing 9 . 6 % to the model . from the jackknife test , if elevation data were removed from the model , the overall training gain would decrease the most , indicating the elevation variable contained the most unique information of the variables in the cx . tritaeniorhynchus distribution model .\na clear association was observed in the study areas between the distance to potential breeding sites and larval density . cx . quinquefasciatus , cx . tritaeniorhynchus , mn . uniformis , and tx . splendens preferred to oviposit in habitats near house , while an . vagus , an . barbirostris , an . peditaeniatus , and mn . uniformis preferred laying eggs in habitats with long distance from the houses . barker et al . found that distance to nearest major larval habitat was not strongly related to culex abundance within the < 400 - m range from larval habitats . 68 in the present study , the longest distance of habitat from nearest house was 2 m . minakawa et al . reported that 90 % an . gambiae were found to breed within 300 m of human habitation . 69 similar findings were reported by sattler et al . for anopheles mosquito larvae in dar es salaam , tanzania . 70 hoek et al . suggested the use of a distance of 750 m as a cut - off point for developing a risk map of malaria in sri lanka . 71\nit seems from the present investigation that the changes in agricultural practice and changes in the environmental conditions facilitated the proliferation of the breeding of cx . gelidus in cuddalore district of tamil nadu . since the density of cx . gelidus and virus infection were highest recorded during the hot dry seasons , during the july - january , paddy cultivation was done more in this region when the cx . tritaeniorhynchus was found more abundant and je virus infection was enhanced , it is suggested that effective vector control measures during this period would be an ideal strategy to curtail the transmission of je virus .\ncanopy coverage was also responsible for the selection of the breeding habitats of mosquitoes as it affects the sunlit condition of the habitat along with the water temperature . ae . albopictus preferred higher canopy coverage while cx . gelidus , an . vagus , an . barbirostris , an . peditaeniatus , mn . annulifera , and mn . uniformis preferred lower canopy coverage for ovipositing . okogun et al . suggested that mosquito larval density was highest in shady area . 62 yee et al . also found culex larvae in the habitats associated with human population density and canopy coverage . 63\nwe examined the species for every genus present and identified four mansonia species with ma . bonneae being the dominating species ( 92 % ) compared to the other species which contributed only a very small percentage : ma . dives at 3 . 7 % , followed by ma . uniformis at 3 . 5 % and finally ma . annulata at 0 . 4 % . we also captured nine species of culex mosquitoes during the study . there were two dominating species , cx . vishnui ( 30 % ) and cx . pseudovishnui ( 28 % ) . other culex species detected in the area were cx . tritaenorhynchus ( 19 % ) , cx . quinquefasciatus ( 13 % ) plus another five species which appeared in a very small percentage ( between 1 . 8 % - 0 . 02 % ) as follows : cx . whitmorei , cx . fuscocephala , cx . bitaeniorhynchus , cx . gelidus , and cx . hutchinsori . aedes mosquitoes were also present in balai ringin . the species included ae . albopictus , ae . ceacus , and ae . seatoi with ae . albopictus being the dominant species detected at 83 % followed by ae . ceacus at 11 % and ae . seatoi at 6 % .\nwater depth played a significant role in preferring the breeding habitat of mosquito . in the present study , cx . quinquefasciatus and cx . tritaeniorhynchus were found in high density where water depth was high , while ae . aegypti , ae . albopictus , preferred shallow water depth for oviposition . as aedes mosquitoes are container breeders , they have the ability to adapt with small water content . 52 , 56 rohani et al . found that an . maculates preferred to breed in habitats like shallow pools ( 5 . 0\u201315 . 0 cm deep ) with clear water , mud substrate and plants . 58 in this study , anopheles species were found in habitats with relatively higher water depth .\na total of 139 unique sites of documented cx . tritaeniorhynchus geographical locations were utilized to construct the ecological niche model ( figure 3 ) . of the 139 total points , 105 ( 76 % ) were randomly designated as training points in order to build the model and 34 ( 24 % ) points were used to test the model . the model was run four times using different combinations of environmental layers ( table 3 ) . statistical results indicate that the most accurate model included bioclimatic layers and elevation ( table 3 ) , and therefore this model was used in all subsequent analyses . statistical evaluation showed the model to have a high accuracy , with the auc > 0 . 9 and low p - values . the model is available to view or download from urltoken .\n48 . mosquitoes behavior and itsimplication on control strategies\uf0a2 adult stage - resting place after taking blood meals ( outdoor or indoor ) \uf0e0 indoor e . g anopheles - insecticide spraying of walls - mosquitoes resting on sprayed walls come into contact with insecticide through their feet and are killed . - some insecticides irritate mosquitoes and cause them to leave houses - hungry mosquitoes entering a house may bite first and then be killed when resting on a treated wall \uf0e0 outdoor e . g mansonia , culex - resting after a blood - meal normally takes place out of doors . - space - spraying - it has an immediate effect on adult populations of insects and is therefore suitable for the control of disease outbreaks - it kills mosquitoes that do not rest in houses 48\ndo and chlorophyll a were the leading predictors for the richness of all collected mosquito larvae except ae . aegypti . water temperature was clearly associated with the breeding of an . vagus , an . barbirostris , and an . peditaeniatus . water depth , distance from nearest house , emergent plant coverage , and alkalinity were found as the basis of larval richness . culex mosquitoes and tx . splendens were found positively associated with cod , while mn . annulifera showed negative association . the results suggest that the abundance of mosquito larvae may be determined by many variables , each contributing a small effect . the specific cues that trigger oviposition behavior in mosquitoes are largely unknown . a large number of variables may be correlated with other characteristics that act as cues for ovipositing females .\nshowed an interesting finding where the highest number of biting was 140 bites which were three times higher than the other culex species . it also has biting patterns which were almost similar between indoor and outdoor activity with indoor activity ( 22 . 667 \u00b1 13 . 262 ) being lower than the outdoor activity ( 59 . 75 \u00b1 32 . 949 ) . outdoor biting activity presented three peaks , one peak during the early part of the night ( 8 pm ) and others during early morning ( 12 am and 2 am ) while indoor activity , although three peaks were also presented , two of three peaks were presented during the early part of the activity ( 8 pm and 10 pm ) and the other was at 3 am . in general , biting activity could be considered active throughout the 12 hour period .\nthe maxent 3 . 2 . 1 modeling program ( urltoken ) was utilized to model the distribution of cx . tritaeniorhynchus based on previously obtained geographical locations . maxent utilizes a maximum entropy algorithm to analyze values of environmental layers , such as temperature , precipitation , and elevation , at known locations of species occurrence ( collection records ) to estimate the probable range of the species over a geographic region [ 22 ] , [ 24 ] . this model is based on presence - only data instead of presence / absence data due to the lack of available absence data . although absence data can be informative for modeling , ecological niche models based on presence - only data are useful in regions with limited collection data [ 22 ] . without absence data , the true probability of presence cannot be modeled . in maxent , which uses presence only data , the species distribution is output as an estimated probability map [ 25 ] .\n20 . \uf0a2 anopheline eggs are laid singly on the water surface , possess floats \uf0a2 all aedes lay their eggs singly , on the ground , at or above the waterline , never possess floats \uf0a2 culex eggs are deposited in rafts of 100 or more \uf0a2 anopheline \u2013 larvae never have a siphon . lie parallel to water surface \uf0a2 culicinae \u2013 all larvae have a short or long siphon . subtend an angle from the water surface \uf0a2 anophelines rest in a position where their head , thorax , and abdomen are in a straight line , usually at an angle of 40 to 90\u00b0 , whereas the culicines rest in a position almost parallel to the surface . 20characteristics of anophelines and culicines . ( from pictorial keys to some arthropods and mammals ofpublic health importance , u . s . department of health , education , and welfare , public health services , washington , d . c . , 1964 . )\noviposition behavior of gravid female mosquitoes is an important factor that influenced mosquito species composition . generally anopheles larvae prefer open sunlit waters . 32 in the present study , it was found that anopheles larvae preferred both partially shady and exposed to sunlit area . this may vary due to the position of the sun during the sampling time . ae . albopictus , ae . aegypti , and tx . splendens prefer shady area for oviposition . culex larvae were found abundant where the habitat was partially exposed to sunlit except cx . gelidus , which preferred sunlit exposed habitats . mansonia larvae were found in open sunlit conditions or exposed to sunlight . water temperature of open sunlit condition has often reached higher . de meillon and mccrae reported that anopheles species are tolerant to high water temperatures . 59 , 60 the warm water in sunlit habitats may be an important factor for larval development because warm water accelerates their development . 60 in addition , warm temperatures may allow more microbes to develop , which provide food sources for the mosquito larvae . 61\nthis study was aimed at determining the abundance and biting patterns of culex quinquefasciatus in the coastal region of nigeria . collections were done by human landing catch and by cdc miniature light traps from september 2005 to august 2006 . a total of 3798 c . quinquefasciatus females were collected . the highest number of females was caught in the month of august and it represented nearly a quarter ( 24 . 0 % ) of the total females collected . in all , 38 . 8 % of females dissected were parous . the abundance of c . quinquefasciatus followed the pattern of rainfall with the population starting to expand at the onset of the rains . the highest increase was found after the temperature had peaked . the mean of biting was 3 . 2 times more in the rainy season than in the dry season , whereas the transmission potential was higher in the dry season . c . quinquefasciatus is presently regarded as a biting nuisance having no significant epidemiological importance yet . efforts at its control should be intensified before it is too late .\nthe preponderance of ae . aegypti can be predicted by lower chlorophyll a , alkalinity , water depth , water temperature , and distance from nearest house , while dominance of ae . albopictus can be predicted with higher canopy coverage and do , lower water depth , and water temperature . higher chlorophyll a , turbidity , water depth , lower alkalinity , and low do were the best predictors for cx . quinquefasciatus larval abundance . cx . hutchinsoni require lower nh4 , do , and higher cod for its larval growth and survival . lower alkalinity , do , emergent plant coverage , higher total hardness , and water depth in the breeding sites led to an increase in population density of cx . tritaeniorhynchus . higher do and chlorophyll a were the best predictors for larval abundance of cx . gelidus , an . barbirostris , and an . peditaeniatus , while an . vagus was found abundant with higher chlorophyll a , alkalinity , do , and water temperature . higher chlorophyll a and do are needed to develop mn . annulifera and mn . uniformis larvae . tx . splendens was noted to prefer lower alkalinity and do .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhow to cite this article : korgaonkar ns , kumar a , yadav rs , kabadi d , dash ap . mosquito biting activity on humans & detection of plasmodium falciparum infection in anopheles stephensi in goa , india . indian j med res 2012 ; 135 : 120 - 6\nhow to cite this url : korgaonkar ns , kumar a , yadav rs , kabadi d , dash ap . mosquito biting activity on humans & detection of plasmodium falciparum infection in anopheles stephensi in goa , india . indian j med res [ serial online ] 2012 [ cited 2018 jul 9 ] ; 135 : 120 - 6 . available from : urltoken\nknowledge of bionomics of mosquitoes , especially of the disease vectors , is necessary to plan appropriate vector avoidance and control strategies . for example , information on biting activity of vectors during the night hours in different seasons could help in choosing personal protection measures that would prevent human - mosquito contact . earlier a study on the biting activity of disease vectors using human baits was conducted in the coastal urban areas of goa , india\n. these studies point to the seasonal and temporal variations in mosquito biting rhythms . we undertook this study from october 2005 to september 2006 with two main objectives : (\n: goa is situated on the western coast of india with a population of 1 . 34 million\nresiding in two districts and 11 sub districts comprising of 15 towns and 398 villages . the study was conducted in these ecotypes covering both urban and rural areas of goa within the jurisdiction of the urban health centres of panaji , margao and vasco and primary health centres candolim , bicholim , cansarvarnem , ponda , betki , cortalim , quepem , canacona , valpoi and sanguem .\n. , maximum and minimum temperatures , rainfall and relative humidity were worked out for the pre - monsoon ( january - may ) , the monsoon ( june - september ) , and the post - monsoon periods ( october to december ) .\n: a preliminary survey was conducted to select suitable human dwellings for all - night bait collections in the study areas . the inhabitants of the dwellings were pre - informed about the purpose of mosquito collections and their informed consent was taken after study protocol was approved by institutional ehics committee of national institute of malaria research , new delhi . collections of female mosquitoes landing on human volunteers were carried out indoors from 1800 to 0600 h during 85 nights . mosquitoes were etherized and identified in the laboratory to species level following the keys\n247 . end point results were read visually and confirmed at 450 nm using a vmax kinetic microplate reader ( molecular devices corporation , sunnyvale , ca , usa ) . the mean absorbance values of the five known negative controls was 0 . 207 ( range : 0 . 119 - 0 . 305 ) for\nspecies . eir was calculated for panaji and goa using formula eir = number of landing mosquitoes / person / night x sporozoite rate .\n: hourly data of landing mosquitoes of all the nights in each month were pooled by species and averages were worked out . the hourly data of number of mosquitoes collected from 1800 to 0600 h were pooled to study landing trends in different phases of night . also to study seasonal biting trends , species - wise landing collections of various months were pooled for pre - monsoon , monsoons and post - monsoon period . z - test of proportions was applied to study differences of vectors landing in different seasons . to study biting trends during the night in the entire study period covering all the collection hours and in different seasons species - wise , william ' s mean ( m\nthe human volunteers and mosquito collectors were explained about the purpose , procedure and risk of infection during the collection and informed consent was obtained in writing from them . volunteers and mosquito collectors were administered a weekly prophylactic dose of 600 mg chloroquine in a single dose . the study protocol was approved by the e0 thics committee of national institute of malaria research , new delhi .\na total of 4 , 191 mosquitoes were collected during 85 nights from 14 different localities with an overall mean mosquito landing rate of 49 . 3 mosquitoes per person / night . these mosquitoes belonged to 5 genera and 23 species , including the malaria vectors\n( skuse ) ( 63 , 1 . 5 % ) . of the total 4 , 191 female mosquitoes , 3 , 273 ( 78 . 1 % ) were known vectors of different mosquito borne diseases and the remaining ( 918 , 21 . 9 % ) were of non vector species\n. the mean number of female mosquitoes landing per person per night for malaria vectors was 1 . 89 , filariasis vectors 20 . 9 , je vectors 14 . 83 , and dengue / chikungunya vectors 0 . 73 . the number of landing mosquitoes collected on human bait was maximum between 0300 - 0600 h ( 1622 ; 38 . 7 % ) followed by 1800 and 2100 h ( 1059 ; 25 . 3 % ) , 2100 - 2400 h ( 830 ; 19 . 8 % ) , and least ( 680 ; 16 . 2 % ) during 2400 to 0300 h\nfemales were caught from 0300 - 0600 h ( 23 ; 41 . 8 % ) and the least during 2400 - 0300 h ( 6 ; 10 . 9 % )\nwas in the early hours of the morning . however , the temporal difference in biting behaviour was apparent during different seasons . a distinct peak in biting activity in the early hours of the morning was seen in the pre - monsoon months while in the monsoons there was accelerated biting between 2000 to 2400 h and in the early morning hours from 0300 to 0600 h . in the post - monsoons , a small peak in the evening was followed by another at midnight . of the total 55\ncollected , 15 ( 27 . 3 % ) , 17 ( 38 . 9 % ) and 23 ( 41 . 8 % ) were collected during pre - monsoons , monsoons and post - monsoon seasons , respectively . however , the seasonal differences were found to be non significant\nsporozoites . among anophelines tested , the plasmodial infection rate was 0 . 2 per cent , while amongst\nalone , it was 3 . 6 per cent . the two infected females were among 18\nwas calculated as 18 . 11 for panaji and 2 . 35 for entire goa .\nwere caught during early hours of the morning from 0300 to 0600 ( 30 ; 40 % ) and least during 2400 to 0300 h ( 10 ; 13 . 3 % ) .\nshowed bimodal peaks one from 2100 - 2300 h and a higher peak from 0300 to 0600 h during the monsoons while maximum biting was noticed from 2100 to 2200 h during post - monsoon period and biting during monsoons was very less . of the total 75\ncollected , most ( 54 , 72 % ) were collected during pre - monsoon which were significantly more than 5 ( 6 . 7 % ) collected during monsoons and 16 ( 21 . 3 % ) collected during post - monsoons\n. there was no definite biting trend shown by the species although during the post - monsoons , maximum biting occurred before 0200 h . maximum number of landing\n- this species was captured throughout the year though maximum landing females were collected from 0300 - 0600 h ( 698 ; 40 . 8 % ) and the least ( 280 ; 16 . 4 % ) during 2400 - 0300 h\nincreased gradually from 0200 h and peaked between 0500 and 0600 h both during pre - and post - monsoon seasons although peak in the post - monsoon season was comparatively much higher . of the 1710\nmosquitoes , 636 ( 37 . 2 % ) were collected during the pre - monsoon , 200 ( 11 . 7 % ) during the monsoon and 874 ( 51 . 1 % ) during the post - monsoon and the difference between the different seasons was significant\nin general although during the post - monsoon biting pattern showed variability temporally and biting increased past mid night during this season .\n54 ( 71 . 1 % ) , followed by 20 ( 26 . 3 % ) during pre - monsoon and only 2 ( 2 . 6 % ) were encountered during the monsoon period and the difference between the seasons was significant\nwas found feeding in negligible numbers with biting activity between 1800 and 2100 h ( 3 ; 75 % ) and from 2100 - 2400 h ( 1 ; 25 % ) . of the four je vectors ,\nshowed distinct peak in biting activity after 0300 h during the post - monsoon while during pre - and post - monsoons there was no such distinct peak . in the case of\nthere was much more biting activity up to midnight compared with later hours during the pre - monsoon months while during the monsoon there was very less landing populations and no definite choice of biting hours . during the post - monsoon however , there were two clear peaks one from 2100 to 2200 h and other from 0500 to 0600 h . the third je vector\nshowed trimodal biting pattern during the pre - monsoon , the first peak from 2000 to 2100 h , the second from 2300 to 2400 h and the third much higher at 0500 - 0600 h . this species showed higher biting rate before 2100 h and decline thereafter . during the post - monsoon months there were three peaks like the pre - monsoon months , the first up to 2100 h , the second from 0100 to 0200 h and much higher peak from 0400 to 0500 h . overall , significantly more number of je vectors\nwere collected during the post - monsoon season being 408 ( 55 . 9 % ) , 206 ( 63 . 6 % ) and 124 ( 60 . 5 % ) , respectively than the pre - monsoon\nare primarily diurnal species , they were also found active biting human host especially during the early phase of night and early morning hours as compared to the second and third phases of the night . although\nwas only found during post - monsoon season and of the 37 landing mosquitoes collected , the species showed crepuscular feeding up to 2100 h and then during early hours from 0300 to 0600 h .\n. during the pre - monsoon months , the biting started during the first phase of night but declined after 2300 h and picked up after 0200 and peaked from 0500 to 0600 h . during the monsoon , the populations of these anophelines declined drastically , whereas during the post - monsoon , the pattern of biting appeared quite similar to pre - monsoon months .\n96 ( 38 . 6 % ) in the pre - monsoon and 19 ( 7 . 6 % ) in the monsoon . the seasonal biting pattern revealed that during the pre - monsoon months there were two peaks , one in the early phase of night and second lower peak during early morning . during the monsoon , the populations declined significantly although maximum biting was noticed during early morning hours . during the post - monsoon months , there were two prominent peaks one crepuscular and the second in the early morning .\n. 2156 ( 51 . 4 % ) followed by pre - monsoon 1586 ( 37 . 8 % ) and the least\nthe study revealed that the vectors of malaria , filariasis and japanese encephalitis were actively feeding on humans throughout the year between 1800 h to 0600 h . differences were observed in the biting rhythms of different vector species during different phases of the night and seasons . the data also revealed that vector biting was the least in the monsoon months compared with other seasons which could be due to the flushing effect of heavy rainfall on immature populations although the temperature and humidity conditions were ambient during this season .\n. , panaji , candolim , margao and cortalim . it was found actively pursuing the host throughout the night with distinct peak activity in the early hours of the morning and in all the three seasons . however , a similar study\nalso suggest that the biting activity of the same species in a particular location can be influenced by sleeping behaviour of the host , microclimatic conditions and the lunar cycle .\n. in the present study , this species was collected in the entire scotophase and in all seasons from both hills and foothills of sanguem and valpoi in the east , quepem in the south central and canacona in the south western parts of goa .\n. in the present study also , this species was captured biting from the three sub coastal areas of bicholim , cansarvarnem and quepem and did not appear to play any significant role in malaria transmission . the species also did not show much seasonal and temporal variability . earlier studies had however , shown that the feeding patterns of\nthe je vectors pose a serious challenge to the public health in goa as sporadic outbreaks of je have been frequently reported especially in the sub coastal belt of goa . of all the je vectors ,\nwas found to be the predominant vector species in goa . this and other two species ,\nwere also similarly active throughout the night irrespective of seasons . however , the fourth japanese encephalitis vector ,\nare well - known vectors of dengue and chikungunya respectively in urban and rural areas in india . small numbers of both these vectors were active after dusk and around dawn . although these two vectors are known to be primarily diurnal species and goa being endemic to both dengue and chikungunya , the present study suggests that preventive measures undertaken against other vector species would also be partly effective against these vectors especially during the early hours of the evening and morning when their biting was noticed .\npostulated the possibility of genetic factors influencing the biting behaviour of mosquitoes and variations in the degree of anthropophily and endophagy among different populations of anophelines and aedine species of mosquitoes . other studies have indicated that feeding pattern of disease vectors varies widely and is dependent on climatic factors\n. hence , the circadian rhythm of biting cycles is of great epidemiological significance .\nthe vector - host contact can be prevented by using available personal protection methods such as repellents , proper clothing and long lasting insecticide nets ( llins ) . the latter act as mechanical and insecticidal barrier which can repel or knockdown mosquitoes upon contact thus providing effective protection against vector borne diseases during most part of the night\n. in the present study , about a quarter of all mosquitoes were found biting in the evening and early hours of the night . during this period , application of suitable repellents and proper clothing can provide protection against vectors .\nthe authors acknowledge the assistance rendered by the field and laboratory staff of national vector - borne disease control programme , and national institute of malaria research ( icmr ) , field station ( fs ) , goa , india . authors thank dr hemanth kumar , sr . research scientist of nimr , fs goa and also acknowledge the help of goa meteorological observatory for providing weather data and also the indian council of medical research for the facilities .\nkumar a , thavaselvam d , sharma vp . biting behaviour of disease vectors in goa . j parasitic dis 1995 ; 19 : 73 - 6 .\nreisen wk , khan a . biting rhythm of some pakistan mosquitoes ( diptera culicidae ) . bull entomol res 1978 ; 68 : 313 - 30 .\nghosh kk , chakraborty s , bhattacharya , palit a , tandon n , hati ak . anopheles annularis as a vector of malaria in rural west bengal . indian j malariol 1985 ; 26 : 65 - 9 .\ngillies hm , warrell da . bruce chwatt ' s essential malariology , 3 rd ed . london : edward arnold ; 1993 .\nshriram an , ramaiah kd , krishnamoorthy k , sehgal sc . diurnal pattern of human biting activity and transmission of sub periodic wuchereria bancroftian ( filariidia : dipetalonematidae ) by ochlerotatus niveus ( diptera : culicidae ) on the andaman and nicobar islands of india . am j trop med hyg 2005 ; 72 : 273 - 7 .\nsingh rp , sikri dk . administrative atlas . delhi : controller of publications ; 2005 .\nbarraud pj . the fauna of british india - including ceylon and burma , diptera , vol . 5 - family culicidae , tribe megarhini and culicini , london . taylor and francis ; 1934 ."]}
{"id": 1680, "summary": [{"text": "handfish are any anglerfish within the family brachionichthyidae , a group which comprises five genera and 14 extant species .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "these benthic marine fish are unusual in the way they propel themselves by walking on the sea floor rather than swimming . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "handfish", "paragraphs": ["encourage the participation of community groups in the monitoring of spotted handfish populations and other handfish species .\n3 . community groups actively involved in the monitoring of spotted handfish populations and those of other handfish species .\nspotted handfish recovery team ( 2002 ) . draft spotted handfish recovery plan . department of primary industries , water and environment , hobart .\nrecovery plan for the following species of handfish : spotted handfish ( brachionichthys hirsutus ) , red handfish ( brachionichthys politus ) , ziebell ' s handfish ( sympterichthys sp . [ csiro # t6 . 01 ] ) , waterfall bay handfish ( sympterichthys sp . [ csiro # t1996 . 01 ] ) ( commonwealth of australia , 2005u ) [ legislative instrument ]\nany form of fishing that degrades the benthic habitat can be considered to pose a threat to handfish species ( spotted handfish recovery team 2002 ) .\nthe waterfall bay handfish ( sympterichthys sp . [ csiro # t1996 . 01 ] ) is now considered synonymous with ziebell ' s handfish . the waterfall bay handfish was previously listed separately under the epbc act ( tssc 2012by ) .\nthese unique spotted handfish are the ambassadors for csiro ' s captive breeding program .\nspotted handfish use their fins like hands and feet , walking rather than swimming .\nthe species has also been called the prickly - skinned handfish and tortoiseshell fish .\nthe spotted handfish uses its hand - like fins to \u2018walk\u2019 along the seafloor .\nthe pattern of spots on the spotted handfish\u2019s body is unique to each individual .\n1 . spotted handfish populations re - established throughout areas of their previous range .\nrecovery plan for the following species of handfish : spotted handfish ( brachionichthys hirsutus ) , red handfish ( brachionichthys politus ) , ziebell ' s handfish ( sympterichthys sp . [ csiro # t6 . 01 ] ) , waterfall bay handfish ( sympterichthys sp . [ csiro # t1996 . 01 ] ) ( commonwealth of australia , 2005u ) [ legislative instrument ] as sympterichthys sp . [ csiro # t6 . 01 ]\nrecovery plan for the following species of handfish : spotted handfish ( brachionichthys hirsutus ) , red handfish ( brachionichthys politus ) , ziebell ' s handfish ( sympterichthys sp . [ csiro # t6 . 01 ] ) , waterfall bay handfish ( sympterichthys sp . [ csiro # t1996 . 01 ] ) ( commonwealth of australia , 2005u ) [ legislative instrument ] as sympterichthys sp . [ csiro # t1996 . 01 ]\nesp funds are required to contribute to the costs of monitoring re - introduced handfish .\ndr tim lynch wants to stop the spotted handfish going the same way as the thylacine .\nthe aquarium mr fountain built for the handfish looks gloomy compared to a pet fish aquarium .\nappendix a - haskard ( 1997 ) . power of tests for changes in density of handfish\nwe have received a number of very useful reports of handfish sightings ( both spotted handfish and other species ) from the general public during our work to date . these have , for example , identified spawning sites for red handfish and ziebell ' s handfish . very little is known of the population parameters for any endemic handfish species in tasmania . it is generally accepted that they are all very uncommon and have highly restricted distributions . we now know that , similar to spotted handfish , these species have a very limited capacity for reproduction and dispersal .\nall species of handfish are currently protected under the tasmanian state fisheries legislation . this legislation prohibits the collection and retention of handfish from state waters without a permit . spotted handfish were protected under the commonwealth endangered species protection act in 1996 . spotted handfish have not yet been listed under the tasmanian state endangered species protection act , although a nomination is recommended under this recovery plan .\nthe spotted handfish is currently listed as critically endangered under the commonwealth and as endangered in tasmania .\nthe australian spotted handfish is conventionally accepted as brachionichthys australis ( last et al . 2007 ) .\nscallop dredging is no longer permitted in the range of the spotted handfish ( spotted handfish recovery team 2002 ) . danish seine fishing is prohibited in the derwent estuary and within one nautical mile of the shore ( spotted handfish recovery team 2002 ) . in the mid - 2000s , there was only one danish seine fishing licence holder operating out of hobart ( pullen 2005 , pers comm . ) . whilst these restrictions on danish seine fishing provide some protection to known spotted handfish populations , danish seine fishing still occurs within the historic range of spotted handfish ( spotted handfish recovery team 2002 ) .\nthe australian spotted handfish has a much wider geographic distribution and depth range than the spotted handfish , occurring mainly on the continental shelf of southern australia , from new south wales to western australia and including tasmania ( last et el . 2007 ) . the spotted handfish is endemic to southeast tasmania .\nreductions in prey abundance , possibly related to decreases in benthic cover of seagrasses and alga that provide habitat for invertebrates , may impact upon handfish survival and reproduction ( spotted handfish recovery team 2002 ) .\ndepartment of the environment ( 2014pb ) . draft recovery plan for three handfish species . canberra . urltoken\nthe spotted handfish , brachionichthys hirsutus ( lacepede , 1804 ) , is a small handfish ( maximum size 120 mm sl ) that is endemic to a restricted area of southern tasmania ( figure 1 ) .\nmeanwhile dr lynch and mr fountain will look for more spotted handfish to breed in their artificial river derwent .\nthe cause of the decline of the spotted handfish is yet to be accurately determined . suggested threats include :\nthe spotted handfish has a small lure just above its mouth , which might be used to attract prey .\nthe spotted handfish is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\na more streamlined approach is required to deal with the increasing number of public enquires requesting information on handfish .\navailability of suitable spawning substrate appears to be critical to the reproduction capacity of spotted handfish . due to their limited distribution and observed decline , all of the areas within which spotted handfish are found are considered important habitat .\nit takes a village to raise a child , and it takes a number of organisations to raise a handfish .\nenvironment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 - section 269a - instrument revoking and jointly making a recovery plan ( spotted handfish ( brachionichthys hirsutus ) , red handfish ( brachionichthys politus ) , ziebell ' s handfish ( sympterichthys sp . [ csiro # t6 . 01 ] ) , waterfall bay handfish ( sympterichthys sp . [ csiro # t1996 . 01 ] ) and jointly makes , with the tasmanian minister for the environment , the ' recovery plan for three handfish species ' ( 01 / 03 / 2016 ) ( commonwealth of australia , 2016b ) [ legislative instrument ]\nthe ziebell ' s handfish population has not been systematically surveyed ( deh 2005u ) . however , ad hoc surveys done by tasmanian dive groups suggest that the population of ziebell ' s handfish is small ( deh 2001 ) .\nin aquaria , adult spotted handfish readily consume mysid shrimp and amphipods but will also accept small live fish . captive , newly hatched handfish do well on a diet of small amphipods ( bruce et al . , 1997 ) .\nhandfish commonly known and recognised by the general public and regularly cited as an example of a marine conservation issue .\nin 1989 , an honours student from the university of tasmania attempted to gather information on the basic biology and ecology of the spotted handfish . surveys conducted at that time failed to locate handfish in areas previously renown for sightings . subsequently , only two spotted handfish were reliably reported between 1990 and 1994 . these results were the first indication that spotted handfish had suffered a substantial decline in abundance during the 1980\u00eds . the decline prompted the threatened fishes sub - committee of the australian society for fish biology to list the spotted handfish as endangered in 1994 . subsequently , all species of handfish were protected under the tasmanian state fisheries legislation in 1995 . the spotted handfish was listed by the iucn as critically endangered in 1996 and it was listed under the commonwealth endangered species protection act , as endangered , also in 1996 .\nenvironment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 - section 269a - instrument revoking and jointly making a recovery plan ( spotted handfish ( brachionichthys hirsutus ) , red handfish ( brachionichthys politus ) , ziebell ' s handfish ( sympterichthys sp . [ csiro # t6 . 01 ] ) , waterfall bay handfish ( sympterichthys sp . [ csiro # t1996 . 01 ] ) and jointly makes , with the tasmanian minister for the environment , the ' recovery plan for three handfish species ' ( 01 / 03 / 2016 ) ( commonwealth of australia , 2016b ) [ legislative instrument ] as brachiopsilus ziebelli\nrose , the mother spotted handfish , will protect her pole of eggs until they hatch in six to eight weeks .\nthe spotted handfish is one of the world\u2019s most endangered marine fish , having undergone a massive decline in recent decades .\nshowed my boyfriend a photo of a handfish without saying anything and he labled it as the fish we saw in the shop . will definitely have to go back . it couldn ' t be a handfish and it will bother me !\nziebell ' s handfish are currently protected under the recovery plan for four species of handfish ( deh 2005v ) . the 2005 recovery plan was reviewed in 2013 by an expert panel that included representatives from department of the environment ( cwth ) , department of primary industries , parks . water and environment ( tas ) , commonwealth scientific and industrial research organisation , university of tasmania and derwent estuary program . this review noted that limited progress had been made on implementation of the recovery plan actions for ziebell\u2019s handfish . the review concluded that threats to handfish species remained largely unchanged and known handfish populations had not demonstrably increased in size . the review recommended that a new recovery plan be developed for the three handfish species . the outcome of this review led to the development of the draft recovery plan for three handfish species ( department of the environment 2014pb ) .\nthe draft recovery plan for three handfish species ( 2014pb ) outlines a range of recovery strategies for the conservation of spotted handfish . the following recovery strategies have been designed to achieve the overarching objective of the recovery plan ; to \u2018ensure an ecologically functional wild population of spotted handfish that , with limited site - specific management , has a high likelihood of persistence in nature :\nbruce , b . ( 1998 ) . progress on spotted handfish recovery . on the brink ! . 11 : 9 .\ntasmanian government ( 2003 ) . the spotted handfish - tasmania ' s next extinct species ? . available from : urltoken .\na secondary hypothesis for the decline in spotted handfish is the effect of accumulated contaminants in estuarine sediments . standard toxicity trials ( using a microbial standard ) will be used to compare differences between areas where handfish have been lost and between known colonies .\nspotted handfish are currently protected under the recovery plan for four species of handfish ( deh 2005v ) . the 2005 recovery plan was reviewed in 2013 by an expert panel that included representatives from department of the environment ( cwth ) , department of primary industries , parks . water and environment , commonwealth scientific and industrial research organisation , university of tasmania and derwent estuary program . this review noted that there had been a sustained effort to implement recovery actions for the spotted handfish in the derwent estuary and recovery plan objectives had been partially met for this species . however , the review concluded that threats to handfish species remained largely unchanged and known handfish populations had not demonstrably increased in size . the review identified a number of relatively simple actions that could be implemented to boost the survival of the spotted handfish , and recommended that a new recovery plan be developed for the three handfish species . the outcome of this review led to the development of the draft recovery plan for three handfish species ( department of the environment 2014pb ) .\n3 . 5 . 2 trialing the re - introduction of spotted handfish to areas where they previously occurred and monitor its success .\nhandfish superficially resemble the more commonly encountered anglerfishes ( antenariidae ) and this often leads to incorrect identification ( and subsequent misreporting ) by the general public . apart from aspects of their internal anatomy ( see pietsch 1981 ) , handfish can be separated from anglerfishes by the form of the first dorsal fin ( second and third spines connected by membrane in handfish ; separate in anglerfish ) and the location of the gill pore ( above and behind pectoral fins in handfish ; on ' elbow ' of pectoral fin in anglerfish ) .\nthe draft recovery plan for three handfish species ( department of the environment 2014pb ) outlines a range of recovery strategies for the conservation of ziebell\u2019s handfish . the following recovery strategies have been designed to achieve the overarching objective of the recovery plan ; to \u2018increase the understanding of the biology and ecology of ziebell\u2019s handfish in order to conserve , and contribute to the future recovery , of the species\u2019 :\nspotted handfish ( brachionichthys hirsutus ) are a type of anglerfish that prefer to walk on their fins along the seabed rather than swim .\ngreen , m . ( 2007 ) . implementing handfish recovery plan 2006 / 7 . report to biodiversity conservation branch dpiwe , tasmania .\nthe possible role of the northern pacific seastar in the decline of spotted handfish has not yet been established , although the timing of its discovery and subsequent increase in abundance matches the 1980\u00eds period of spotted handfish decline . the seastar is now abundant in many areas wherespotted handfish were previously common . predation by northern pacific seastars on spotted handfish egg masses has not been observed in the wild , although this does not preclude it as a factor in the decline . northern pacific seastars have been observed feeding on the stalked ascidian commonly used as a spawning substrate within the derwent . it is thus possible that predatory loss of the ascidian may impact spotted handfish by reducing the available spawning substrate . this hypothesis is supported by recent observations at one handfish colony where a dramatic increase in seastar abundance coincided with very low numbers of ascidians and very little spawning activity by handfish ( bruce et al . , 1997 , bruce et al . , 1998 submitted ) .\ndietary data for spotted handfish are sparse . last et al . ( 1983 ) reported that they preyed on small shellfish , shrimps and polychaete worms . the stomachs of two small , wild caught , juvenile spotted handfish contained amphipods ( bruce et al . , 1997 ) .\nwithin the derwent estuary the estimated extent of occurrence for spotted handfish is approximately 70 km\u00b2 , however the species area of occupancy is likely to be considerably less ( tss 2014sl ) . in frederick henry bay in 1999 , the area of occupancy was estimated at 0 . 3 km\u00b2 ( spotted handfish recovery team 2002 ) , however no handfish were located in this area during surveys in 2005 ( green 2005 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - spotted handfish in courtship\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - spotted handfish in courtship\ntitle =\narkive video - spotted handfish in courtship\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthere are only sporadic records of the spotted handfish during the 19th and early 20th centuries but , with the advent of scuba equipment , numerous specimens were recorded in the derwent in the 1960\u00eds and 1970\u00eds . the spotted handfish was considered to be common throughout its range ( last & bruce , 1996 , last et al . , 1983 ) and , ironically , it was sometimes referred to as the common handfish .\nthere are three species of handfish endemic to tasmania , one of which has not been seen by divers in the wild for several years .\n[ the spotted handfish ] have the dubious distinction of being the first marine fish to be listed as critically endangered back in 1996 .\ndue to their distribution in shallow coastal habitats in close proximity to urban and industrial areas handfish , particularly spotted handfish , are exposed to numerous impacts from anthropogenic activities ( dep 2013 ) . impacts to handfish populations from coastal developments can arise as a result of increased top soil runoff and sedimentation in surrounding waterways , while impacts from marine developments can occur due to the loss or modification of habitat ( dep 2013 ) .\nhandfish were once abundant around the globe but are now only found in waters off south - east australia , with most species endemic to tasmania .\nalmost totally hidden in the background , behind a pole , is a juvenile spotted handfish , collected at the same time as the two adults .\ngreen , m . ( 2009 ) . handfish 08 - 09 . nrm south final report . report to biodiversity conservation branch dpiwe , tasmania .\nthe spotted handfish is a critically endangered species that lives in tasmania . it has an extremely restricted distribution due partially to its unusual life cycle .\nspotted handfish feed by sucking in prey items ( 5 ) , including shrimps , small fish and small crustaceans such as amphipods ( 3 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - spotted handfish ( brachionichthys hirsutus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - spotted handfish ( brachionichthys hirsutus )\ntitle =\narkive species - spotted handfish ( brachionichthys hirsutus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe spotted handfish used to be found in waters around the state but is now restricted to the lower reaches of the river derwent and surrounding bays .\nthree spotted handfish were collected from the river derwent off the shore of battery point and taken to a tank at the csiro a few metres away .\nscientists have begun a captive breeding program for the spotted handfish , 11 years after it became the first australian marine animal to be listed as critically endangered .\nhale said the handfish\u2019s ungainly appearance could go some way to explaining why it remains relatively unknown , despite being one of the most endangered animals in australia .\nhandfish of all types abounded around the world 50 million years ago but are now only found in waters south - east of australia , mainly around tasmania .\nspotted handfish are endemic to south - east tasmania . currently , the only known populations of spotted handfish are located within the lower derwent estuary , with the only other recent sightings of spotted handfish consisting of the identification of two individuals in the d\u2019entrecasteaux channel in 2013 ( green 2014 , pers . comm . ) . populations have previously been recorded in fredrick henry bay , the d\u2019entrecasteaux channel and the northern regions of storm bay ( bruce et al . 1998 ) .\nissues paper : population status of an threats to four handfish species listed as threatened under the environmental protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 ( deh 2005u ) .\ncollection of any handfish is an offence in tasmania unless a permit has been issued under the living marine resources management act 1995 ( tasmanian government 1995 ) .\nidentify the threatening processes that affect spotted handfish . strategies can be devised to overcome the effect of these agents based on a sound knowledge of their operation .\nthe pattern of spots on each spotted handfish appear to be unique , meaning we can identify individuals . they are members of the group of fish including deep sea anglerfish . there are a number of handfish species found in australian waters , with the majority of these being rare and restricted to the south - east .\nthe bottom - dwelling spotted handfish is found on coarse to fine sand and silt , in coastal waters from depths of 2 to 30 metres ( 3 ) .\nspotted handfish are currently protected under the tasmanian state fisheries legislation and the commonwealth endangered species protection act ( 1992 ) . the recovery team will recommend that the spotted handfish also be listed under the tasmanian threatened species protection act and provide appropriate documentation in support of the listing . options for protecting specific areas or habitat of critical importance will be assessed in consultation between the recovery team and regulatory authorities . the recovery team will provide advice to relevant regulatory authorities on matters pertaining to handfish where required .\nbruce and colleagues ( 1999 ) stated that the egg mass structure of ziebell ' s handfish is very similar to those of the spotted handfish ( brachionichthys hirsutus ) and red handfish ( thymichthys politus ) . egg masses have been found around sponges in depths of 20 m ( pogonoski et al . 2002 ) . on emergence , hatchlings have been observed settling in the immediate area surrounding the location of the egg mass ( deh 2001 ) . key biological attributes for this species include ( deh 2005u ) :\nlast , p . r . , d . c . gledhill & b . h . holmes ( 2007 ) . a new handfish , brachionichthys australis sp . nov . ( lophiiformes : brachionichthyidae ) , with a redescription of the critically endangered spotted handfish , b . hirsutus ( lacep\u00e8de ) . zootaxa . 1666 : 53 - 68 .\na re - introduction trial will also test the survival of handfish in areas where previous impact has resulted in a population decline . such trials will utilise captive bred fish and identify if the threatening process is still operating , assist in its identification and pave the way for a more substantial re - establishment of spotted handfish across their range .\nestablishing the conservation status of tasmanian endemic handfish that are highly restricted in distribution requires a firm knowledge of the number of species involved . some handfish species are yet to be formally described ( eg ziebell ' s handfish ) and there are distinct colour morphs in different areas that may represent either a local colour pattern or different species entirely . if these colour morphs are different species , then these populations may be more restricted then originally thought . clarification of the number of species within the handfish family will require a combination of ( non - destructive ) genetic analyses and classical taxonomy . discussions have commenced with the university of tasmania to encourage a suitable student to carry out the work .\naustralia ' s csiro has produced a quicktime clip that outlines the conservation status of the spotted handfish ( brachionichthys hirsutus ) and demonstrates the tetrapod - like locomotion of brachionichthyids .\nanecdotal evidence from the early\u2013mid 2000s suggests that some handfish species are more active at night , but the species are still likely to be seen and / or collected during the day ( green 2003 , pers comm . , cited in ambs 2004 ) . spotted handfish breed in spring ( september to november ) . there were some indications in the early 2000s that during breeding time spotted handfish are more abundant in areas where there is spawning substrate ( green 2003 , pers comm . , cited in ambs 2004 ) .\ndue to the restricted distribution of known populations of ziebell\u2019s handfish and their low dispersal , all areas in which they are found are considered important habitat ( deh 2005u ) .\nthere is very little published information on ziebell ' s handfish . information gaps for this species include precise information on habitat requirements , current distribution , current abundance and threats .\ndepartment of the environment and heritage ( deh ) ( 2001 ) . draft listing advice - sympterichthys sp . ( ziebell ' s handfish ) . environment australia , canberra .\nlast , p . r . , gledhill , d . c . & holmes , b . h . 2007 . a new handfish , brachionichthys australis sp . nov . ( lophiiformes : brachionichthyidae ) , with a redescription of the critically endangered spotted handfish , b . hirsutus ( lacep\u00e8de ) . zootaxa 1666 : 55 , figs 1 - 2\nma green , and bd bruce , spotted handfish : distribution , abundance and habitat : csiro , hobart , tas . ( australia ) , dec 1998 , 29 pp .\nlast , p . r . and bruce , b . d . ( 1997 ) . spotted handfish . nature australia . 25 ( 7 ) : 20 - 21 .\nwhile threats to ziebell ' s handfish have not been identified , personal collection and the aquarium trade have the potential to threaten populations by removing individuals from the wild . under the marine resources managment act 1995 ( tasmania ) , a person , in state waters , must not take or have possession of handfish without a permit ( deh 2005u ) .\ndr lynch said spotted handfish were at high risk as they were only found in a handful of spots in the river derwent and one spot in the d ' entrecasteaux channel .\nmigration rates of spotted handfish between the ralphs bay population and other populations in the derwent estuary are likely to be low ( green 2005 ) . there is some thought that the ralphs bay population of spotted handfish is genetically unique , given the apparent isolation of this population and the large size of specimens observed there ( aquenal pty ltd , 2008 ) .\ncollection of spotted handfish is an offence in tasmania unless a permit has been issued under the living marine resources management act 1995 ( tasmania ) . however , the tasmanian department of primary industries , water and environment have never issued a permit for the take of handfish other than for the purpose of scientific research ( pullen 2005 , pers comm . ) .\nhandfish have among the narrowest ranges of any of the 4300 , or so , marine fish known from the australian region ( last et al . , 1983 , yearsley et al . , 1997 ) . five of the eight currently identified species are endemic to tasmania and bass strait ( last et al . , 1983 ) . the red handfish ( sympterichthys politus ) and an undescribed species ( ziebell ' s handfish , sympterichthys sp . ) appear to be confined to a few restricted , shallow reef habitats in south - eastern tasmania .\nimplement immediate management strategies based on our observations to date including trial enhancement of spawning areas by deployment of artificial spawning substrate , further development of captive breeding capabilities and trials to assess the suitability of areas where handfish were previously found for re - introduction . it is anticipated that re - introduction may become a key strategy for spotted handfish in the derwent estuary .\nspotted handfish have a low breeding capacity . surveys conducted in the late 1990s concluded that the female lays 80 - 200 eggs that are held together in a vertical structure by threads ( last & bruce 1996\u201397 ) . in 2002 the species ' was found to attach their eggs to small , vertical , semi - rigid structures on the sea floor ( spotted handfish recovery team 2002 ) . this included stalked ascidians ( sycozoa sp . ) , seagrasses , sponges , small macrophytic algae and polychaete worm tubes ( spotted handfish recovery team 2002 ) .\ngreen , m . a . p . and b . d . bruce ( 2002 ) . spotted handfish recovery plan 1999 - 2001 : year 3 . environment australia , canberra .\nthis species occurs in benthic ( seafloor ) environments in association with coarse to fine sand and shell grit or silt ( spotted handfish recovery team 2002 ) . the species was recorded from depths between 2 - 30 m in 2002 , but observations around this time suggested that they are most common in depths of 5 - 10 m ( spotted handfish recovery team 2002 ) .\nthe spotted handfish ( brachionichthys hirsutus ) is a small fish that lives on the sea bed in the cool , sheltered waters of south - east tasmania . it has modified pelvic fins that look like \u201chands\u201d , hence the name . while the handfish can swim when required , it usually uses the \u201chands\u201d to \u201cwalk\u201d across the seabed in search of food such as mysid shrimps .\nnever mind the tassie tiger \u2014 hobart ' s spotted handfish are super rare , found nowhere else on the planet and are really rather cute , in a weird - looking fishy way .\ngreen , m . a . & b . d . bruce ( 2000 ) . spotted handfish recovery plan : final report : year 1 ( 1999 ) . environment australia , canberra .\nthe spotted handfish is endemic to south - eastern australia , occurring in the lower derwent river estuary , frederick henry bay , d ' entrecasteaux channel and the northern regions of storm bay .\nthe diet of ziebell ' s handfish is unknown but probably consists of small invertebrates ( pogonoski et al . 2002 ) such as crustaceans and worms ( edgar et al . 1982 ) .\ngledhill & green ( unpub . ) . issues paper : population status of , and threats to , three handfish species listed as threatened under the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 .\na poster will be produced and distributed to dive clubs , aquarium shops and professional fishing organisations ( eg abalone and urchin divers ) to encourage these groups to report sightings and promote the protected status of handfish . liaison with these groups will promote an effective exchange of information and provide the basis for developing a collective functional plan for endemic tasmanian handfish ( action 3 . 6 ) .\na suitable site for re - introduction trials will be located . the site must be within the historic range of spotted handfish ( preferably an historic ' hot spot ' ) and have suitable habitat .\nsupplying information ( on request ) for school and university student projects , authors of children ' s books , and the national mint ( enquiry for possible production of a coin depicting a handfish ) .\nthere are a number of reasons the handfish is listed as endangered . a small population , restricted distribution and vulnerable life cycle are key . habitat degradation and pest species have contributed to the species\u2019 decline .\nbrachionichthys hirsutus ( spotted handfish , spotted - hand fish ) : species management profile for tasmania ' s threatened species link ( threatened species section ( tss ) , 2014sl ) [ state action plan ] .\nthere are survey guidelines for australia ' s threatened fish that include survey protocol fordetecting fish listed under the epbc act . this document contains information relevant to the surveying of spotted handfish ( dsewpac 2011i ) .\nto secure existing populations of spotted handfish , reduce the chances of future decline , enhance populations in areas where numbers have been seriously depleted or lost and subsequently achieve down listing from the current endangered status .\nthe asfb threatened fishes sub - committee have listed ziebell ' s , the waterfall bay and the red handfish on their threatened species list , yet there are few data to confirm their current placements . by developing a community sighting network , we can cost effectively develop the database necessary to establish the status of these species , identify potential threats , maintain the diving public ' s interest in assisting with the recovery effort and continue to promote marine conservation and education issues . these species are more likely to be encountered by the diving public than spotted handfish ( because they occur in reef areas ) , however we have already had reports of spotted handfish from people diving across soft substrate areas ( eg for old bottles ) or near reef edges . thus the spotted handfish recovery effort will also directly benefit from a community reporting system .\nthe greatest threats to the handfish appear to be siltation and invasive species . the derwent estuary where the fish lives is highly urbanised and industrialised , and a range of marine pests have been introduced through shipping .\nensure the continuance of spotted handfish across their current distribution by developing and implement strategies to facilitate their recovery . the recovery team will continue to assess and revise , where appropriate , the direction of recovery actions .\nendemic to tasmania , the spotted handfish or brachionichthys hirsutus looks like a tadpole in the late stages of development , with a fin atop its head to lure unsuspecting prey and the sour expression of a british bulldog .\nartificial sticks for attaching eggs have been developed by csiro and planted throughout the estuary . there is some evidence that the handfish are already using the sticks , although it is unknown whether the eggs survive to hatching .\nspotted handfish were bred successfully in captivity in the late 1990s ( bruce et al . 1997 ) . spotted handfish were initially bred in captivity in 1996 , however all of the juveniles in that trial died within 29 days of hatching ( bruce et al . 1997 ) . the cause of hatchling mortality was not fully understood but coincided with critical stages in the life history of the species ( bruce et al . 1997 ) .\nbarrett , n . , b . d . bruce , & p . r . last ( 1996 ) . spotted handfish survey . report to endangered species unit , anca . csiro div . fisheries , hobart .\ngreen , m . a . & b . d . bruce ( 2001 ) . spotted handfish recovery plan 1999 - 2001 : progress report , end of year 2 ( 2000 ) . environment australia , canberra .\nprior to the commencement of the interim research projects , the biology of handfishes was poorly documented . published accounts included brief aspects of their morphology , osteology and distribution ( see gomon et al . , 1994 , last et al . , 1983 , edgar et al . , 1982 , pietsch , 1981 ) . whitley ( 1949 ) described an adult female spotted handfish with eggs extruding from the body and a 14 mm juvenile verrucose handfish . last et al . ( 1983 ) reported thatspotted handfish attached its eggs to ' solid objects on the bottom via thin threads ' and that its diet consisted of small shellfish , shrimps and polychaete worms .\nbarrett , n . , bruce , b . d . and last , p . r . ( 1996 ) . spotted handfish survey . report to endangered species unit . anca . csiro div . fisheries hobart .\ngreen , m . a . and bruce , b . d . ( 1998 ) . spotted handfish : distribution , abundance and habitat . final report to fishcare . csiro div . mar . res . hobart .\nthe longevity of spotted handfish is still yet to be determined ( bruce et al . 1999 ) , however there was some information made available on growth rate in the early 2000s . spotted handfish in the derwent estuary at two years old are approximately 70 mm in length ( green & bruce 2001 ) . in their third year of growth , specimens attain a further 5 - 10 mm in length , and approximately 2 mm every year thereafter ( green & bruce 2001 ) . this suggests that when spotted handfish in the derwent estuary are 100 mm long , they are 12 - 16 years of age ( green & bruce 2001 ) . however , most of the spotted handfish found at sites surveyed in the derwent estuary in the late 1990s to early 2000s were 81 - 90 mm in length , making them between 4 - 10 years of age ( green & bruce 2001 ) .\nbruce , b . d . and green , m . a . ( 1998 ) the spotted handfish 1999 - 2001 recovery plan . department of the environment , water , heritage , and the arts , canberra , australia .\nestablish the essential biological characteristics ( including critical habitat requirements ) that underpin the dynamics of handfish colonies . population fluctuations and threats can then be interpreted , and the progress of management strategies against biologically realistic recovery objectives can be monitored .\nhobart has already began to adopt the species as its own : a giant papier - mache handfish , dubbed jessica by its creator , the balinese artist ida bagus oka , was burned in effigy at the dark mofo festival in june .\ncommon throughout the lower derwent estuary and adjoining bays prior to the mid 1980s , the spotted handfish has suffered a serious decline in distribution and abundance . only a handful of populations are now found around the mouth of the derwent estuary .\nendemic to the lower derwent river estuary in tasmania , the spotted handfish was a relatively common species until the 1980s . the species has declined massively , however ; only three breeding colonies were known to exist in 1998 ( 3 ) .\nthe spotted handfish is considered to be vulnerable to extinction due to its highly restricted and patchy distribution , low population density , limited dispersal capabilities and a reproductive strategy of producing low numbers of demersal eggs that are highly susceptibility to disturbance .\nthe spotted handfish , which is the subject of a captive breeding program , used to be found in waters around tasmania but is restricted to the lower reaches of the river derwent and surrounding bays . photograph : auscape / uig via getty images\nwe thought with the decline of the handfish , at this moment while there ' s still some , it would be prudent to get some captive populations going for insurance purposes ,\ndr lynch told ryk goddard on abc radio hobart .\ndepartment of the environment and heritage ( deh ) ( 2005u ) . issues paper : population status of an threats to four handfish species listed as threatened under the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 . canberra . available from : urltoken .\nhandfish lack a larval stage and hatch as fully formed juveniles ( 6\u20137mm in length ) which move straight to the sea floor and appear to remain in the vicinity of spawning throughout their lives . this has two important consequences . first , colonies may be relatively isolated ( ie mixing between them is restricted ) and a reduction in spawning success may seriously impact on a colony . second , the ability for handfish to recolonise areas from which they have been displaced is likely to be low .\nziebell\u2019s handfish are restricted to eastern and southern tasmania in widely disjunct populations ( last & gledhill 2009 ) . the species has been recorded at bicheno , forestier peninsula , tasman peninsula , actaeon islands and cox bight in depths of 10\u201320 m ( last & gledhill 2009 ) . the tasmanian underwater photography society only discovered the species during surveys in 1977\u201381 ( deh 2001 ) . ziebell\u2019s handfish have not been observed , or systematically surveyed , for several years and the species\u2019 current distribution is unknown .\njust two spotted handfish were reported between 1990 and 1994 ; this dire state of the population led to the formation of the spotted handfish recovery team in 1996 ( 3 ) . the recovery team consists of a number of government agencies concerned with saving this rare , and bizarre , fish . research into existing wild populations and the development of captive breeding techniques are some of the priorities of the recovery plan ( 3 ) . initial work has been encouraging , with successful breeding attempts from two adult pairs of spotted handfish at the tasmanian department of primary industry and fisheries aquaculture ( 2 ) . a captive population may be used in a future re - introduction programme to restore these fish to some of their previous range ( 6 ) .\none of the first strategies to conserve the handfish was to give them full protection under fisheries legislation , preventing collection for aquariums . the species\u2019 restricted distribution has worked in its favour , encouraging interest from the local community to clean up the estuary .\nthe relative age and growth of spotted handfish surveyed at frederick henry bay in the early 2000s has made it difficult to draw conclusions about the lifespan of the species generally . at this site , the spotted handfish appeared to grow larger and faster than at derwent estuary sites ( green & bruce 2001 ) . one specimen observed three times in 12 months had grown from 60 to 93 mm , which far exceeded growth rates observed at sites in the derwent estuary ( green & bruce 2001 ) .\nbruce , b . d . , m . a . p . green & p . r . last ( 1997 ) . developing husbandry techniques for spotted handfish ( brachionichthys hirsutus ) and monitoring the 1996 spawning season . environment australia , canberra .\nbruce , b . d . and green , m . a . ( 1998 ) the spotted handfish 1999 - 2001 recovery plan . department of the environment , water , heritage , and the arts , canberra , australia . available at : urltoken\nbruce , b . d . and green , m . a . ( 1998 ) the spotted handfish 1999 - 2001 recovery plan . department of the environment , water , heritage , and the arts , canberra , australia . available at : urltoken\nthe overall objectives of the recovery process are to secure existing populations of spotted handfish , reduce the chances of future decline , enhance populations in areas where numbers have been seriously depleted or lost and subsequently achieve down listing from the current endangered status .\nto achieve this , an information pack will be produced and distributed to school groups via the woodbridge marine discovery centre where an information display on handfish has already been established . the information pack will also be available to the general public on request .\nbruce , b . d . , green , m . a . and last , p . r . ( 1998 ) . threatened fishes of the world : spotted handfish , brachionichthys hirsutus ( lacepede ) . environmental biology of fishes in press .\nin 1998 / 1999 , 158 ( 37 % ) of 423 hatchlings survived in captivity to an age of 6 months ( green & bruce 2000 ) . all of these handfish were tagged and the surviving 155 ( three died after tagging ) were released at the site from which their parents had been captured ( green & bruce 2000 ) . however , in surveys post october 1999 no sightings of these tagged handfish were made , which suggests high mortality post release ( green & bruce 2001 ) .\nthere are nine known areas in the lower derwent estuary ( seaward of the tasman bridge ) where spotted handfish have been found and surveyed ( green 2005a , 2007a , 2009a ) . analysis of survey data in 2009 suggested a total abundance of 1500\u20132700 adult spotted handfish ( green 2009b ) , however there may have been decreases in total abundance within key populations since this time ( green 2014 , pers comm . ) . the calculated density of fish at a location in frederick henry bay during spring 1999 was about 45 per hectare ( green & bruce 2000 ; green 2005a ) , which would have represented an estimated abundance of 180\u2013250 adult handfish ( green 2007b ) ; however surveys at this location failed to detect any spotted handfish in 2005 ( green 2005a ) . a reliable report was made with a photograph of a single specimen at a location in north west bay , at the northern end of the d\u2019entrecasteaux channel ( deh 2005u ) , but the presence of a viable population has not been verified .\nthe csiro has been conducting an annual survey of handfish numbers for two years and this month collected its first specimens \u2013 an adult male named harley , an adult female named rose and an as yet unnamed juvenile \u2013 to begin a captive breeding program .\none key pest is the northern pacific seastar ( asterias amurensis ) , a particularly large and voracious predator that is now abundant in the estuary . studies by csiro show that the seastars eat the stalked ascidians that the handfish use to attach their eggs .\nbruce , b . d . & m . a . green ( 1998 ) . non - current spotted handfish recovery plan 1999 - 2001 . ea . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 16 - jul - 2000 .\nspotted handfish are protected under tasmanian law and the commonwealth ' s environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 . over the last five years , the commonwealth government , through the natural heritage trust , has contributed over $ 390 000 to help ensure the survival of the handfish . these projects , which have included researching and monitoring existing populations ; public education and awareness raising ; and identifying threats , have been undertaken in conjunction with the tasmanian department of primary industries , water and the environment and the csiro .\nsurveys will count the number of handfish along 30 randomly positioned transects ( 100 metres long and 3 metres wide ) at each colony in autumn and spring . the surveys require a team of 6 divers for a period of three days at each colony .\nthe spotted handfish was common in the lower derwent river estuary until the mid 1980s , when the species underwent a catastrophic decline ( 2 ) . although unproven , it is thought that the introduction of the northern pacific seastar ( asterias amurensis ) to tasmania at this time may be the key to the decimation of the handfish population ( 3 ) . these seastars are voracious predators of shellfish and it is thought that they may also eat the eggs of handfish or the sea squirts upon which the eggs are attached ( 2 ) . the deterioration of coastal habitats due to development may also be involved in the decline ( 3 ) . this species is under added threat from its vastly reduced population , limited dispersal , restricted distribution and low reproductive rate ( 3 ) .\nthe spotted handfish has a very restricted and patchy distribution , low population density , limited dispersal capabilities and a reproductive strategy of producing low numbers of demersal eggs that are susceptible to disturbance ( bruce & green 1998 ; green 2014 , pers comm . ) .\nthe spotted handfish is pinkish above and white below , with darker orange , brown or blackish spots . it has a high first dorsal fin originating on the snout and a long based soft rayed dorsal fin . there is a long illicium on the snout .\nthe spotted handfish is endemic to the lower derwent river estuary and adjoining bays and channels ( figure 2 ) . spotted handfish appear to be distributed within colonies in restricted areas of their range , although the level of mixing between colonies is unknown . three reproductively active colonies are currently known , although isolated individuals are occasionally reported from other sites . due to the restricted area of colonies , their accessibility and concerns regarding either inadvertent or direct disturbance , neither the location of colonies , nor the location of recent sightings are reported here .\nillegal collection for the aquaria trade may also pose a threat to handfish . while experts consider the likelihood of poaching to be low , the consequence of removing even a few individuals from the wild is considered to be severe given the small population size of each species .\nthe program will utilise dpif facilities at taroona where a culture room has been dedicated to the project . an improved filtration system is necessary to ensure a continuous supply of contaminant free seawater . another bank of larger aquaria is also required for on - growing juvenile handfish .\nthreatened species section ( tss ) ( 2014sl ) . brachionichthys hirsutus ( spotted handfish , spotted - hand fish ) : species management profile for tasmania ' s threatened species link . department of primary industries , parks , water and environment , tasmania . available from : urltoken .\nziebell ' s handfish is conventionally accepted as brachiopsilus ziebelli ( last & gledhill 2009 ) . the species was previously known as brachionichthys sp . 1 and sympterichthys sp . [ csiro # t6 . 01 ] ( edgar et al . 1982 ; last et al . 1983 ) .\nhandfish lack the dispersive larval stage common in marine fishes . they hatch as fully formed juveniles ( 6 - 7 mm in length ) , move straight to the bottom and appear to remain in the vicinity of spawning ( bruce et al . , 1998 submitted ) . this has two important consequences . first , colonies may be relatively isolated ( ie mixing between them is restricted ) thus a reduction in spawning success may seriously impact a colony . second , the ability for handfish to recolonise areas from which they have been displaced is likely to be low .\nit is unlikely that the recovery process will result in a down listing of spotted handfish within the three year time frame of this recovery plan . annual recovery team meetings will be a forum for the review of the actions proposed in this document and the status of the species .\nthe age structures of three known spotted handfish colonies were assessed during surveys undertaken from 1998 to 2001 ( green & bruce , 2002 ) . at one of the two sites in the lower derwent estuary , the number of adult spotted handfish ( those greater than 71 mm in length ) had declined over this period ( green & bruce , 2002 ) . at another site in the lower derwent estuary , a three - fold increase in mature fish was observed in spring 1999 ( green & bruce , 2002 ) . the reason for this increase is unknown but it is considered likely that fish may have moved into the area to breed ( green & bruce , 2002 ) . the ratio of juvenile to adult handfish in the two regularly surveyed sites in the lower derwent estuary varied annually from 2011 to 2014 ( green , pers comm . , 2014 ) .\nit is difficult to monitor the handfish\u2019s population because diving is involved , but in recent years some populations have been monitored as part of volunteer programs such as reef life survey . current results suggest the populations in the centre of the estuary are stable , but more surveys are always needed ."]}
{"id": 1684, "summary": [{"text": "argema mimosae ( african moon moth ) is a giant silk moth of the family saturniidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "similar in appearance to the giant madagascan moon moth ( argema mittrei ) , but smaller , this moth can be found widely in eastern africa and more locally in southern africa , including near the east coast of south africa .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "an adult can measure 10 to 12 centimetres ( 3.9 to 4.7 in ) across its wingspan and 12 to 14 centimetres ( 4.7 to 5.5 in ) from head to the tip of its elongated ' tail-like ' second pair of wings .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "its forward wings have a distinctive grey-coloured ' furry ' leading edge , giving a very rough surface , presumably for aerodynamic reasons .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "apart from the eye-like markings on its wings , the colouring and shape of the wings give the appearance of a piece of foliage , especially the ' tail-like ' structures of the rearmost wings which resemble a dried out leaf stem - presumably for camouflage in its natural environment . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "argema mimosae", "paragraphs": ["we received african moon moth ( argema mimosae ) eggs but unfortunately only have a single live larva .\ncocoons belonging to argema mimosae , or african moon moths . couple epiphora thrown in as well . # insectlicious # insect # macro # entomology # giantsilkmoth # silkmoth # moth # argemamimosae # argema # mimosae # africanmoonmoth # cocoon # epiphora\nafrican moth cocoons finally came ! argema mimosae and epiphora bauhiniae , all set up in their eclosure enclosures . # moth # silkmoth # saturniidae # insectlicious # insect # argema # mimosae # argemamimosae # cocoon # epiphora # epiphorabauhiniae # lepidoptera\nargema mimosae , kometenfalter - l5 raupe wow , was f\u00fcr eine tolle zucht , bis hierhin . nur ein ausfall . die raupen werden sich wohl bald einspinnen . a fantastic breeding ! this species makes me happy every day . they are now in l5 and going to spin the cocoon soon . # argema # happy # mimosae # saturniidae\nbe the first to write a review for african moon silkmoth ( a . mimosae ) cocoons\nhi , i noticed the south african luna moth on your website and thought you would like to know it is argema mimosae \u2013 commonly called either luna moth or moon moth . kind regards aaron in london\nbeing shy is sometimes being perfect . . . . just like this # touchmenot # mimosae # natural\nanother big male shown here , and another female popped sometime last night . 4 out of 19 so far . # argemamimosae # argema # mimosae # africanmoonmoth # moth # silkmoth # insect # lepidoptera # saturniidae # insectsofinstagram\n# argema # mimosae # african # moon # moth # from # kenya # to # konya # butterfly # garden # turkey # igclub _ butterfly # butterfly . ir # king _ insects # total _ butterflies # kelebek\nhi michelle , we believe the moth in question looks more like argema mimosae , and since argema mittrei is found in madagascar , and the moth in question was in south africa , we believe the identification that aaron in london provided long ago is the correct one . thanks for bringing this to our attention and we have now provided links from our entry .\n@ urltoken - # argema # mimosae # african # moon # moth # from # kenya # to # konya # butterfly # garden # turkey # igclub _ butterfly # butterfly . ir # king _ insects # total _ butterflies # kelebek\ni feel like i ' ve been waiting on these guys * forever * . 18 more to go ! # argemamimosae # africanmoonmoth # argema # mimosae # moonmoth # moths # moth # silkmoth # saturniidae # lepidoptera # insect # photography # macro\nit looks like he ' s got pupils in his eyes , ha . african moon moth male ! # argemamimosae # argema # mimosae # africanmoonmoth # africa # insect # lepidoptera # saturniidae # silkmoth # moth # macro # photography # instagood # insectsofinstagram\ninsects pollinate the flowers . elephants , antelope , giraffe , zebra and many others browse the leaves . the tree bears a wealth of fruit for other living organisms , including humans . the larval stage of the beautiful green african moth argema mimosae feeds on marula leaves .\nargema mimosae - kometenfalter , l4 die raupen wachsen pr\u00e4chtig . bisher gab es nur 2 ausf\u00e4lle . amberbaum ist ein tolles futter f\u00fcr sie und die raupen sind einfach traumhaft sch\u00f6n . ich halte sie bei hohen temperaturen ( 25 - 30\u00b0c ) und 40 - 70 % luftfeuchte an gew\u00e4ssertem futter . the caterpillars are growing very well on liquidambar . i ' ve lost just 2 larvae yet . i think liquidambar is the best footplant for this specie . they love it ! this species is just wonderful ! # wonderful # argema # mimosae # l4 # loveit \u2764\ufe0f\nnew arrivals : african moon moths ! see these special beauties while you can at # bloomsandbutterflies , open daily through sept . 17 , with butterfly releases at 1 and 3pm . # africanmoonmoth # argema # mimosae # saturniidae # moths # mothsofinstagram # franklinparkconservatory # asseenincolumbus # expcols # lifeincbus\nthere are 12 species in the genus argema , of which 7 are found in the oriental region , 4 in africa , and one on madagascar .\nthe african moon moth ( argema mimosae ) is a giant silk moth of the family saturniidae . similar in appearance to the giant madagascan moon moth ( argema mittrei ) , but smaller , this moth can be found near the east coast of south africa . an adult can measure 10 - 12 centimetres across its wingspan , and 12 - 14 centimetres from head to the tip of its elongated ' tail - like ' second pair of wings .\nargema mimosae - kometenfalter , kokon ( bau ) die letzten raupen bauen sich ihr kokon . nach , zun\u00e4chst eher kleinen kokons , sind diese echt gro\u00df und massig . charakteristisch f\u00fcr die kokons der art sind die l\u00f6cher im kokon . wenn das kokon fertig ist sieht man dies am besten . the last caterpillars are spinning they ' re cocoon . after some smale ones there are now very big and havy ones . # mimosae # butterflybreeding # amazing\nlookit that belly full of eggs . * hopes for a male soon * # argemamimosae # argema # mimosae # africanmoonmoth # moonmoth # moths # moth # silkmoth # saturniidae # lepidoptera # insectsofinstagram # insects # photography # macro # instagood # nailpolish # chippednailpolish # femmeftm # transgender # trans # transdude\n( argema mimosae - boisduval ) wingspan 100mm with trailing tails up to 50mm long in the male . widely distributed from south and central africa . one of the most magnificent of moths . not an easy species but rarely offered and well worth a try . warmth and humidity required . lfp . liquidamber and eucalyptus , sumach , walnut .\nargema mimosae - species dictionary - southern africa - interactions - page 1 : ispot nature - your place to share nature . ispot is a website aimed at helping anyone identify anything in nature . once you ' ve registered , you can add an observation to the website and suggest an identification yourself or see if anyone else can identify it for you .\nhe is still pumping his wings up ! what a beautiful big moth . i ' m in love , i really do \ud83d\udc96 # argemamimosae # argema # mimosae # africanmoonmoth # moonmoth # moonmoths # moths # mothsofinstagram # mothstagram # insectsofinstagram # insectagram # insecta # insect # butterfly # butterflies # vlinder # vlinders # mot # motten # saturniidae # lepidoptera # entomology # biology # silkmoth # silkmoths\nthis is a photo of the same pupa i posted two weeks ago . if you look closely , you can see the wing pattern coming through . last night he finally emerged , but unfortunatly he wasn ' t able to fully pump up his wings so he looks very crumpled \ud83d\ude14 # argema # mimosae # lepidoptera # breeding # entomology # insects # pupa # moths # butterfly # butterflies # saturniidae # african # moon # moth\nreordering my butterfly and moth box . so many beautiful colors and some nice species \ud83d\udc96 mostly bred by myself and they died on a natural death\ud83c\udf3f\ud83c\udf3a # graellsiaisabellae # graellsiaisabelae # graellsia # isabellae # spanishmoonmoth # danausplexippus # danaus # plexippus # hamadryas # graphiumweiskei # saturniapavonia # argemamimosae # argema # mimosae # africanmoonmoth # mothsofinstagram # mothstagram # mothsofinstagram # insectsofinstagram # insectagram # insecta # insect # saturniidae # lepidoptera # entomology # biology # silkmoth # silkmoths # lepidopterist # entomologist # biologist\ncan ' t stop snapping photos lol ! such pretty coloring . female african moon moth . she ' s already laying her eggs , so she ' s in the fridge now to increase her lifespan a bit , in the hopes a male will hatch out soon . her eye spots remind me of today ' s solar eclipse . # argemamimosae # argema # mimosae # africanmoonmoth # moonmoth # moth # silkmoth # insect # lepidoptera # saturniidae # ihaveweirdhobbies # instagood # macro # photography # solareclipse\njuancho ( mimosa sensitiva ) . . . . . . . . . . . # photo # photograph # photography # photographer # photographerlife # photographylover # photographylife # photographylovers # naturephotography # mimosae # mimosasensitiva # mimosapudica # plantas # plantae # naturaleza # macetas # naturelovers # bestnatureshot # green # canon # canon80d # 50mm # naturally # sense # sensitive # life\nas the first step in this investigation of structure\u2013property\u2013function relations in silkworm cocoons , we simply analysed the composition and morphology of 25 different cocoon types reported elsewhere [ 15 ] . scanning electron microscopy ( sem ) analysis of the outer surfaces of the silkworm cocoons illustrates the wide range of structures evolved by a moth in lepidoptera of important silk producing order ( figure 2 ) . at the most general level , all of the cocoons have a connected and porous fibre structure . while cocoons like b . mori have a highly porous non - woven structure , other cocoons like saturnia pyri and actias luna have very low porosity with the fibres densely packed and bonded by an almost continuous film of sericin . some of the cocoons have a lattice structure with large fabricated holes with sizes up to 5 mm , e . g . caligula simla and caligula cachara . there are also cocoons combining both non - woven fibre structure and a fibre mesh structure with large holes , e . g . cricula trifenestrata and argema mimosae .\n# my _ clicks \ud83d\udcf1 # today ' s _ click common name : # chhui _ mui # lajadu # lajwanti # touch _ me _ not botanical name : # mimosa _ pudica scientific classification : - # kingdom : # plantae # division : # spermatophyta # subdivision : # angiosperm # class : # dicotyledonae # subclass : # polypetalae # series : # calyciflorae # order : # rosales # family : # leguminosae # subfamily : # mimosae # genus : # mimosa # species : # m . pudica\nupdate : ( 03 / 15 / 2008 ) moth identification what\u2019s that bug : giant silk moths the top picture on this page , \u201csouth african luna ( like ) moth , \u201d dated 04 / 08 / 06 , is of argema mittrei , also known as the comet moth or madagascan moon moth . i came across a picture of it while searching for identification of another moth just prior to accessing your site . what a coincidence . i generally would not write this long after an entry was posted , but i found no other reference to this beautiful creature on urltoken . michelle gill\nnon sono una donna addomesticabile .\n( a . merini ) - ever - { free reminder of the day } ~ ~ # quote # quotes # citazioni # frasi # aldamerini # mimosa # mimose # floral # flowermagic # flowerporn # flowers # flowerslovers # flowersofinstagram # flowerstagram # flowerstyles _ gf # yellow # macro # macrophotography # macrophoto # mimosae # upclose # mimosa # macro _ captures # macro _ freaks # macro _ spotlight # ig _ macro # ig _ captures # macroshots # macro _ brilliance # macro _ vision # macroshotz\na look back at the conceptual beauty editorial\nmimosae\nfor @ thestormmagazine * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ph : @ kqphotography ( using @ profotousa + @ nikonusa gear ) mu : @ nikkilopezmua hair : @ hair . by . hare model : @ amandadilks loc : los angeles ca * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * @ createbeautymag # kareemquowphotography # clean # cinematic # conceptual # conceptarchitect # mimosae # moth # beauty # internationalphotographer # laphotographer # ukphotographer # createbeautymag # makeupjunkie # picoftheday # makeupaddict # conquer _ la # conceptualphotography # profotousa # celebratelight # lightshaping # nikon # losangeles # californialove # love # art # professionalprofessionals # ysfwm # ss # photorep # adagency * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *\nhere is my # 2017bestnine i\u2019d like to thank you all for being so welcoming into this community and all the support given , i really do appreciate it . sorry the posts have been slowing down lately , being winter there\u2019s not much to post insect wise generally lol . i will continue of course when i find interesting things to show you ! next year shall be great , many beautiful species that i can\u2019t wait to see and show you all . once again thank you for everything ! # bestnine # 2017 # moth # lepidoptera # photo # photography # nature # wildlife # winter # entomology # science # biology # crazymothboy # atlasmoth # mimosae # silkmoth # saturniidae # sphingidae # hawkmoth # thankyou\none of the most beautiful lepidopterans of the earth , but first of all one of the largest , lives in madagascar\u2019s rainforests : the madagascan moon moth or comet moth ( argema mittrei ) . with a wingspan up to 20 cm , it exceeds nearly all lepidopterans worldwide , only the atlas moth ( attacus atlas ) from asia , belonging to the same family of emperor moths ( saturniidae ) , becomes even bigger . actually , the insect with its bright yellow color and the long tail is not a butterfly as many people think , but a moth . accordingly it is nocturnal and not flying at daytime . males and females can be easily distinguished : females have broader and rounder wings , and a much shorter tail . the antennae give another hint : males wear long , plumose ones , females not .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ntanzania , pwani region , ruvu forest reserve , 230 m , 08 . iii . 2014 , leg . ph . darge .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide sat 890\u2642 , coll . darge ; allotype \u2640 , coll . darge ; paratypes 17\u2642 , coll . darge .\ndarge ph . 2014g . nouvelles esp\u00e8ces de micragone provenant des for\u00eats c\u00f4ti\u00e8res de tanzanie et des motagnes de l ' uganda ( lepidoptera , saturniidae , saturniinae , micragonini ) . - saturnafrica 20 : 3\u201313 , pls . a\u2013d .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nsouth african luna moth hi : we just came back from a trip to south africa where we found this large luna moth on the wall of our lodge . it looks slightly different from its american cousins , but there is a family resemblence . diane & mark\nhi diane and mark , your moth is surely luna - like . this tailed saturnid moth is probably in a different genus than the luna , but it is definitely in the same family . we might eventually have a species name .\nhi urltoken acrually been doing some private research myself of theses moths and i have been a little obsessed with the luna moth for years now . i\u2019m pretty sure that this picture is not a luna moth but is actually a madagacar comet moth , ( argemi mittrei ) . it is the only moth that is very similar to the luna but has extra long tails that are red with the yellow at the end . the luna is generally a consistant pale to lime green throughout the entire wings , except the false eyes . while the comet moth has wings that vary between yellow and green , with false eyes and spots .\nthanks for your input . we may write to bill oehlke to get his opinion .\nsave my name , email , and website in this browser for the next time i comment .\nnotify me of followup comments via e - mail . you can also subscribe without commenting .\nmake my day tomato bugs mysteries wtb ? down under 10 most beautiful spiders snow bugs food chain bug bug humanitarian award invasive exotics the big 5 unnecessary carnage bug love buggy life cycles buggy accessories gems from our archives virginia beach aquatic bugs countdown 10 000 edible insects : tasty morsels buggy vocabulary words northern california wtb ? mt . washington nasty reader award bug of the month unidentified calendar 2011 milkweed meadow household pests top 10 fanmail virginia what ' s on my woody plant ? gift shop goldenrod meadow worst bug stories ever ! ! ! gardening blog\nplease enter your username or e - mail address . you will receive a new password via e - mail .\n< p > the annotation score provides a heuristic measure of the annotation content of a uniprotkb entry or proteome . this score < strong > cannot < / strong > be used as a measure of the accuracy of the annotation as we cannot define the \u2018correct annotation\u2019 for any given protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / annotation _ score ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this indicates the type of evidence that supports the existence of the protein . note that the \u2018protein existence\u2019 evidence does not give information on the accuracy or correctness of the sequence ( s ) displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ existence ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides any useful information about the protein , mostly biological knowledge . < p > < a href = ' / help / function _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018function\u2019 section provides information relevant to cofactors . a cofactor is any non - protein substance required for a protein to be catalytically active . some cofactors are inorganic , such as the metal atoms zinc , iron , and copper in various oxidation states . others , such as most vitamins , are organic . < p > < a href = ' / help / cofactor ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000256\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the < a href =\nurltoken\n> gene ontology ( go ) < / a > project provides a set of hierarchical controlled vocabulary split into 3 categories : < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ ontology ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > uniprotkb keywords constitute a < a href =\nurltoken\n> controlled vocabulary < / a > with a hierarchical structure . keywords summarise the content of a uniprotkb entry and facilitate the search for proteins of interest . < p > < a href = ' / help / keywords ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information about the protein and gene name ( s ) and synonym ( s ) and about the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / names _ and _ taxonomy _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides an exhaustive list of all names of the protein , from commonly used to obsolete , to allow unambiguous identification of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ names ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been imported from another database using automatic procedures . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000313\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides information on the name ( s ) of the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / organism - name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section shows the unique identifier assigned by the ncbi to the source organism of the protein . this is known as the \u2018taxonomic identifier\u2019 or \u2018taxid\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ identifier ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section contains the taxonomic hierarchical classification lineage of the source organism . it lists the nodes as they appear top - down in the taxonomic tree , with the more general grouping listed first . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ lineage ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section describes post - translational modifications ( ptms ) and / or processing events . < p > < a href = ' / help / ptm _ processing _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018ptm / processing\u2019 section specifies the position and type of each modified residue excluding < a href =\nurltoken\n> lipids < / a > , < a href =\nurltoken\n> glycans < / a > and < a href =\nurltoken\n> protein cross - links < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / mod _ res ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on sequence similarities with other proteins and the domain ( s ) present in a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / family _ and _ domains _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018family and domains\u2019 section provides information about the sequence similarity with other proteins . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ similarities ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section displays by default the canonical protein sequence and upon request all isoforms described in the entry . it also includes information pertinent to the sequence ( s ) , including < a href =\nurltoken\n> length < / a > and < a href =\nurltoken\n> molecular weight < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequences _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is complete or not . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the checksum is a form of redundancy check that is calculated from the sequence . it is useful for tracking sequence updates . < / p > < p > it should be noted that while , in theory , two different sequences could have the same checksum value , the likelihood that this would happen is extremely low . < / p > < p > however uniprotkb may contain entries with identical sequences in case of multiple genes ( paralogs ) . < / p > < p > the checksum is computed as the sequence 64 - bit cyclic redundancy check value ( crc64 ) using the generator polynomial : x < sup > 64 < / sup > + x < sup > 4 < / sup > + x < sup > 3 < / sup > + x + 1 . the algorithm is described in the iso 3309 standard . < / p > < p class =\npublication\n> press w . h . , flannery b . p . , teukolsky s . a . and vetterling w . t . < br / > < strong > cyclic redundancy and other checksums < / strong > < br / > < a href =\nurltoken\n> numerical recipes in c 2nd ed . , pp896 - 902 , cambridge university press ( 1993 ) < / a > ) < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018sequence\u2019 section is used for sequence fragments to indicate that the residue at the extremity of the sequence is not the actual terminal residue in the complete protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / non _ ter ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides links to proteins that are similar to the protein sequence ( s ) described in this entry at different levels of sequence identity thresholds ( 100 % , 90 % and 50 % ) based on their membership in uniprot reference clusters ( < a href =\nurltoken\n> uniref < / a > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / similar _ proteins _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section is used to point to information related to entries and found in data collections other than uniprotkb . < p > < a href = ' / help / cross _ references _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides general information on the entry . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ information _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides a mnemonic identifier for a uniprotkb entry , but it is not a stable identifier . each reviewed entry is assigned a unique entry name upon integration into uniprotkb / swiss - prot . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides one or more accession number ( s ) . these are stable identifiers and should be used to cite uniprotkb entries . upon integration into uniprotkb , each entry is assigned a unique accession number , which is called \u2018primary ( citable ) accession number\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / accession _ numbers ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section shows the date of integration of the entry into uniprotkb , the date of the last sequence update and the date of the last annotation modification ( \u2018last modified\u2019 ) . the version number for both the entry and the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > are also displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ history ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section indicates whether the entry has been manually annotated and reviewed by uniprotkb curators or not , in other words , if the entry belongs to the swiss - prot section of uniprotkb ( < strong > reviewed < / strong > ) or to the computer - annotated trembl section ( < strong > unreviewed < / strong > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nevery purchase includes a 30 - day money - back guarantee . we sell thousands of products each week to buyers from all over the world . take a look at these unfiltered reviews !\nwe have the largest print - on - demand fulfillment network in the world with 15 manufacturing centers in five different countries .\nplace your order today , and it will be on its way to you within 2 - 3 business days .\nyou ' ve got questions . we ' ve got answers . visit our frequently asked questions page to view them all .\nif you can ' t find the answers to your question on our faq page , please submit a support ticket , and our staff will respond to your question ( s ) right away .\nwe ' ve shipped over 1 million items worldwide for our 500 , 000 + artists . each purchase comes with a 30 - day money - back guarantee .\nsilkworm cocoons have evolved a wide range of different structures and combinations of physical and chemical properties in order to cope with different threats and environmental conditions . we present our observations and measurements on 25 diverse types of cocoons in a first attempt to correlate physical properties with the structure and morphology of the cocoons . these two architectural parameters appear to be far more important than the material properties of the silk fibres themselves . we consider tensile and compressive mechanical properties and gas permeation of the cocoon walls , and in each case identify mechanisms or models that relate these properties to cocoon structure , usually based upon non - woven fibre composites . these properties are of relevance also for synthetic non - woven composite materials and our studies will help formulate bio - inspired design principles for new materials .\nsilk materials have received much attention in recent years because of their attractive combinations of mechanical strength and toughness as well as the environmentally benign conditions under which the materials are processed from concentrated protein solutions to solid fibres [ 1 ] . however , silkworm cocoons , which are best known as the main commercial source of silk material ( primarily for textiles ) , are themselves remarkable natural composite materials . while the commercial silkworm bombyx mori has been cultivated by man for about five thousand years , a wide range of wild silkworms have evolved independently over the world over hundreds of thousands of years , and each has a slightly different combination of morphology and properties that have adapted to cope with diverse local environments .\na cocoon is a natural silk composite with a non - woven structure made of continuous silk fibres conglutinated by sericin bonding matrix . as a biological structural material , it has a hierarchical structure that we assume has been optimized through evolutionary pressures over millions of years to provide the optimum protection for the silkworm pupae as they transform into moths , and are exposed to a wide range of threats such as physical attack from animals , birds or insects , or more subtle threats such as bacteria or simply harsh environmental conditions . the key point here is that they are all , in themselves , optimized for function and that we should be able to learn from this wide range of optimized structure\u2013property\u2013function relations in cocoons . figure 1 shows a hierarchical set of pictures of the b . mori cocoon structure , from the full cocoon to the individual fibre\u2013sericin combination . these cocoons have been cultivated for yield and ease of reeling of the silk fibres and for their whiteness in textiles , so their morphology is an open non - woven form that can be unwound relatively easily after soaking in mild degumming agents .\nthe hierarchy of the morphology of a bombyx mori cocoon . ( online version in colour . )\necologists have suggested that wild silkworm cocoons have evolved ( i ) for protection against diverse threats and also ( ii ) to regulate the environment such as to help conserving / blocking water or regulating the flow of gasses such as oxygen and carbon dioxide for the pupae as they develop [ 2 , 3 ] . in order to test these hypotheses , a limited amount of research has been conducted recently to investigate the mechanical properties and gas diffusability of silk cocoons from b . mori and hyalophora cecropia . for example , zhao et al . tested the tensile properties of b . mori cocoons and found them anisotropic with graded - layer properties [ 4 , 5 ] . the h . cecropia cocoons and fibres have also been measured by reddy et al . [ 6 ] . blossman - myer et al . [ 7 ] have found that b . mori cocoon did not obstruct the exchange of respiratory gases between the pupa and the environment .\nin a focused study of three specific cocoon types with a non - woven fibre composite structure , we have previously shown that a quantitative understanding of the mechanism for their tensile mechanical properties offers a novel design route for a remarkably wide range of fibre and particulate composite materials , from paper and nanofibre mats to concrete and polymer - bonded explosives [ 8 ] . here , we extend our study of silkworm cocoons to the much wider range of highly diverse cocoon types from 25 different silkworm species comprising a broad range of morphologies and physical properties . we also discuss how the different structures might control natural tensile , compressive and gas diffusion properties . we believe this study will be the basis for further biomimetic studies into the design and manufacture of artificial fibre composites with novel morphologies and associated material properties . after all , these are the same key properties that are important in both standard non - woven fibre composites and other materials for engineering applications [ 9 \u2013 14 ] . cocoon materials have evolved and been optimized in their property combinations and have a wide range of different morphologies with similar silk .\nmorphology of silkworm cocoons . inset : photos of silkworm cocoons . scale bars : 200 \u00b5m .\ncocoons could have either a multiple - layer or a single - layer structure . here , we would like to define a layer in a cocoon as a two - dimensional fibre arrangement with few fibre connections or interweaving to other adjacent two - dimensional fibre arrangements . most of the cocoons examined by us have multiple layers parallel to the surface direction with sericin bonds between them . the interlayer bonding could be either strong with only little space between layers ( e . g . s . pyri , opodiphtheara eucalypti ) , or relatively weak to form a three - dimensional non - woven structure in the cocoon ( e . g . b . mori , antheraea pernyi ) . the cocoon of antheraea roylei has a double cocoon structure with a large and irregular outer \u2018bag\u2019 enclosing an inner cocoon shell without any connections . at the other extreme , some of the cocoons have only a single layer , e . g . actias and cricula cocoons .\ncalcium oxalate crystals can be found on some of the cocoon surfaces [ 16 ] , and this feature may have a functional role . the side lengths of a crystal vary from 1 to 30 \u00b5m with the crystals being attached to the fibres and filling the gaps between then , thereby decreasing cocoon porosity . in the a . roylei cocoon , only the inner cocoon shell has crystals on its surface . the wider function of calcium oxalate has not yet been investigated in detail and this trait of many cocoons is hence still little understood .\nevery one of the cocoons discussed here has a different combination of morphological features and hence also different combinations of mechanical and diffusion properties . it is this diversity of optimized forms that we investigate here for guides to mechanisms that control properties , which can then be exploited by biomimetic synthetic analogues .\nsilk fibres that are spun into cocoons are in the form of a bave , i . e . a pair of fibroin brins with a sericin covering . this wet or moist covering binds the fibres together and acts as the non - woven composite matrix phase for the cocoon . we tested for reference non - degummed fibres with intact sericin coatings unravelled from cocoons in order to examine whether inherent fibre brin properties may play a statistically significant role in cocoon properties . figure 3 b shows that the fibre strength has little correlation ( r 2 = 0 . 2 ) with cocoon strength , which is typical of the poor correlation between fibre and cocoon properties . otherwise , figure 3 a shows a few characteristic average stress\u2013strain curves for a number of silk types . all the fibres share a similar initial modulus and a yield at 2\u20134 % strain . importantly , most fibres have a strain at break around 16 per cent . initial inspection of the data may give the impression of high variability between silk types , but a comparable plot for a single silk type , a s . pyri fibre , demonstrates comparable sample variability ( figure 3 c ) . we find that samples taken from different layers in cocoons differ significantly , and even spatially close samples can be very different due to factors such as bending of the fibres in the motion the worm makes while spinning the cocoon . other observations on b . mori report different tensile properties in different parts of the cocoon [ 17 , 18 ] .\ntensile behaviour of silk fibres . ( a ) average stress versus strain curves of different silk fibres . ( b ) no correlation between cocoon and fibre strength , r 2 = 0 . 2 . ( c ) variation in fibre properties , ( saturnia pyri fibre ) .\nwe will see later that the main fibre parameters that enter models for cocoon properties are low strain elastic modulus and activation strain to break . here , we suggest that all the different fibres tested have essentially the same effective properties for cocoon fabrication .\nit has amply been demonstrated already that the degumming process can have considerable effects on silk fibre properties [ 19 , 20 ] relieving us from demonstrating the mechanical behaviour of fibres degummed with different agents . the harsh degumming procedures required for highly bonded cocoons can severely degrade the structure and properties of the fibres themselves [ 19 ] . at the simplest level , non - degummed fibres in figure 3 would have larger cross - sectional areas than degummed owing to the weaker sericin layer , leading to a lower strength and modulus values compared with the literature .\nall of our cocoons have a similar general form to their tensile stress\u2013strain deformation profile in the plane of the cocoon wall . the stress rises with strain to a maximum value and the gradient of this curve can change once or twice through apparent yield points until stress falls relatively rapidly after the maximum . looking at all the stress\u2013strain profiles in figure 3 , we see that these yield points are quite consistent in strain 12\u201318 % across almost all the cocoons , but their combinations and permutations in stress create an interesting diversity .\nwe categorized the cocoons into four types based on their tensile behaviour and their microstructure ( figure 4 ) . \u2018lattice\u2019 cocoons ( figure 4 a ) have only a loose scaffold structure made up of a few fused fibre bundles supporting the cocoon frame with large pores . the fibres sustain the load when the cocoon is stretched and the stress drops rapidly when the fibre bundles break . \u2018weak\u2019 cocoons ( figure 4 b ) have high porosity and weak interlayer bonding . the inter - fibre bonding breaks gradually with increasing strain , and the stress peaks at 15\u201320 % strain and drops gradually when the unbonded fibres unravel from the non - woven structure . \u2018brittle\u2019 cocoons ( figure 4 c ) usually have a low porosity and strong interlayer bonding or a single layer structure . a crack starts from the sericin - binding matrix and grows perpendicular to the tensile load , leading to fibre breakage and a dramatic stress drop at 15\u201325 % strain . \u2018tough\u2019 cocoons ( figure 4 d ) can be grouped into a fourth type , in which the cocoons have medium porosity and interlayer bonding . these cocoons have the most complex stress\u2013strain profiles , with multiple yield points below 20 per cent strain and then a rapid failure in the range 40\u201360 % strain , where the sericin binder matrix fragments and the fibres pull apart as a global unravelling .\ntensile behaviour of silkworm cocoons . ( a ) \u2018lattice\u2019 cocoons . sem pictures of c . simla . left : surface structure , scale bar : 200 \u00b5m . right : breaking mechanism , scale bar : 1 mm . ( b ) \u2018weak\u2019 cocoons . sem pictures of b . mori . left : surface structure , scale bar : 200 \u00b5m . right : breaking mechanism , scale bar : 20 \u00b5m . ( c ) \u2018brittle\u2019 cocoons . sem pictures of s . pavonia . left : surface structure , scale bar : 200 \u00b5m . right : breaking mechanism , scale bar : 1 mm . ( d ) \u2018tough\u2019 cocoons . sem pictures of s . cynthia . left : surface structure , scale bar : 200 \u00b5m . right : breaking mechanism , scale bar : 1 mm .\nin previous work [ 8 , 21 ] , we observed that some of the more obviously non - woven structured cocoons follow the open cell foam model developed by zhu et al . [ 22 ] whereby the elastic modulus of the cocoon is controlled by density ( governed by the porosity of the cocoon and packing density of the fibres ) and the elastic modulus of the fibres through a process of bending of the fibres between bonding junctions . as the fibres have very similar modulus values and density from our experimental results , the cocoons simply follow a gibson\u2013ashby type [ 23 ] of relation very approximately in density squared , which is plotted in figure 5 to illustrate the general overall trend in our dataset . however , we emphasize that this is only a trend , and that the many variables in cocoon morphology would not be expected to give a simple relation across the whole dataset .\ntensile behaviour of silkworm cocoons : modulus versus density squared r 2 = 0 . 41862 . ( online version in colour . )\nwe have developed a quantitative model to describe the damage mechanism for a very limited group of representative cocoons from three species : b . mori , a . pernyi and o . eucalypti [ 8 , 21 ] . these cocoons were selected because they display three distinct levels of porosity from the sericin distribution between the fibres in sem micrographs . this selection of cocoons gave clear indications of a general mechanism for cocoon tensile properties , where the contributions of sericin binder , fibre and the connectivity level of binding between fibres could be quantified by a self - consistent set of activation parameters in strain to describe the gradual loss of structural interfibre bonding connectivity in the composite , which manifests itself as a gradually decreasing modulus up to a percolation threshold of connectivity for rapid failure , where half of the bonding connectivity is lost under strain . the model is illustrated in figure 6 , which shows the stress\u2013strain profile of cocoons with different extents of inter - fibre bonding , which is quantified by the numerical labels on the curves , representing the single variable parameter of inter - fibre bonding contribution to the cocoon modulus in the model .\nmodel for nonwoven cocoons with different amounts of interfibre bonding , where the cocoon strength is bounded by dashed lines for percolation strain and the strength of the sericin binder . ( online version in colour . )\nthe data displayed in figure 6 demonstrate the limits of cocoon strength , as the dashed line envelope bounded by the percolation strain for loss of bonding connectivity and the upper stress bound of the individual strength of the sericin binder . here , we define percolation strain as the strain at which the silk network in cocoons loses connections and behaves like an unconnected fibre arrangement . while the model is very simple and does not consider detailed features of cocoon morphology , comparison with experimental observations in figure 3 shows that it captures the key features of most of the cocoon stress\u2013strain profiles . all the samples have a gradual reduction of the modulus as connectivity is lost and a percolation threshold follows . two critical strains , 6 and 16 per cent , are observed in all of the curves , which represent sericin and fibre failure individually according to the model .\nthe \u2018tough\u2019 cocoons ( figure 4 d ) would have a third higher activation strain at around 60 per cent associated with the interfibre bonding connectivity , depending on their individual morphologies . however , this activation strain is not usually observed directly as a yield point because global failure usually precedes it . the \u2018brittle\u2019 cocoons ( figure 4 c ) with low porosity and a high bonding area , in contrast , usually fail by crack propagation through the compact combination of fibres and matrix , and their strength often has an upper limit of about 130 mpa , which is the strength of the sericin matrix . we also note that fibres break during the catastrophic failure of the material at their model characteristic failure strain of about 16 per cent . on the other hand , the \u2018weak\u2019 cocoons ( figure 4 b ) have a high porosity and the structure fails when about half of the bonding between fibres breaks , and the unbonded fibres are pulled out with hardly any fibre breaks , which is represented as a long tail in the stress\u2013strain curves .\nfuture work will add further refinements to the model and attempt to emulate the properties of all types of cocoon .\nall cocoons under compressive stress perpendicular to the plane of the walls have consistent stress - density behaviour . due to their initial loose structure at the beginning of compression up to about 0 . 5 mpa , the stress increases slowly with a relatively large increase in density .\nthe compressive behaviour of cocoons is classified into three categories ( figure 7 ) . of main interest here are cocoons with a porous three - dimensional non - woven structure , shown as the central block of stress - density curves in figure 7 b with structures of a form shown in the micrograph . either side of this central block , the low - density \u2018lattice\u2019 cocoons ( figure 7 a ) and the high - density \u2018brittle\u2019 cocoons ( figure 7 c ) are difficult to compress above the 0 . 5 mpa level , since compression is against a solid fibre or composite material , with no effective pores to compact in the compression axis .\ncompressive behaviour of silkworm cocoons . ( a ) cocoons with lattice structure , c . trifenestrata ( light grey lines ) ; ( b ) cocoons with weak interlayer bonding , b . mori ( solid lines ) ; ( c ) cocoons with strong interlayer bonding or single layer , o . eucalypti ( dark grey dashed lines ) . scale bar ( a \u2013 c ) : 200 \u00b5m .\n] for wood composites . this model treats a composite mat structure as a system of bending beams , in a similar fashion to the open cell foam model used for tensile deformation , but with a different geometry of forces applied to beam segments between the bonded contact points . the number of contact points and the length of the bending segments of fibre decrease with increasing density , thereby increasing the compressive stress in a highly nonlinear manner . the model predicts that compressive pressure ,\nin the case of our non - woven cocoons , the power of 5 for pressure on density is found to be a characteristic of the consolidation of the non - woven structure , as shown in figure 8 , where cocoons from the central block of figure 7 b are plotted in a log\u2013log pressure\u2013density graph against a reference curve ( red ) with a power 5 in density . thus , the model developed for wood - based composites appears to work well for non - woven cocoon structures , and suggests that the dominant mechanism for compaction resistance is fibre bending .\ncompressive behaviour of silkworm cocoons : log\u2013log stress versus density . the dashed line is a straight line of 10 to the power of 5 to illustrate the model relation of equation ( 2 . 1 ) .\nwe can suppose that gas and water vapour diffusion must play an important role in the development of pupae in cocoons and perhaps control the barrier characteristic of the cocoon to threats such as bacteria [ 7 ] . however , at the moment we have no quantitative information about the biological role of diffusion . here , we report our observations on gas diffusion through cocoons as a physical process and make an initial attempt to demonstrate how the structural and morphological features of different cocoons affect diffusion properties .\nas detailed in the experimental section , we quantified the rate of gas ( diethyl ether ) through a cocoon by measuring the weight loss of liquid by evaporation and diffusion through a section of cocoon mounted on the end of an otherwise impermeable tube . we found that the mass loss was almost linear with time , so to compare the different cocoons in each test , we classified the absolute diffusion rate results in terms of cocoon morphology into four groups as shown in the micrographs at the bottom of figure 9 and grouped in the associated bar chart by colour as a guide to the main contributory features that controlled diffusion . clearly , all the cocoons reduce the speed of gas diffusion with cocoon thickness , porosity and calcium oxalate crystals affecting rate of diffusion . actias selene , a . luna and o . eucalypti cocoons all have low porosity which allow them to conserve the gas , and hence the cocoons have lowest gas diffusion rate among the specimens tested . cocoons with calcium oxalate crystals on the surface also have lower gas diffusion rate , e . g . those produced by hyalophora gloveri , antheraea frithi , s . pyri , samia canningi and gonometa postica , etc . this may be due to the dense crystals filling the pores . actias atlas , b . mori and c . cachara cocoons have a high - porosity structure , leading to high gas diffusion rate .\ngas diffusability ( diethyl ether ) of silkworm cocoons . top : comparison of diffusability speed of different cocoons . from left to right : a . luna , o . eucalypti , s . pyri , a . selene , h . gloveri , a . frithi , s . canningi , a . mylitta , a . pernyi , l . katinka , a . polyphemus , a . yamamai , g . postica , a . atlas , b . mori , c . cachara , a . roylei , no cocoon . bottom : morphologies of example cocoons . ( a ) cocoons with low porosity and no calcium oxalate : o . eucalypti . ( b ) cocoons with medium porosity and calcium oxalate : a . frithi . ( c ) cocoons with medium porosity and no calcium oxalate : l . katinka . ( d ) cocoons with high porosity and no calcium oxalate : c . cachara . scale bar ( a \u2013 d ) : 200 \u00b5m . ( online version in colour . )\nwithout making a detailed analysis of the diffusion results at this stage in our work , figure 10 shows that density of the cocoons has a sensible correlation with gas diffusion rate , i . e . a higher density slows down the permeation rate of gas ( diethyl ether ) through the cocoon .\ngas diffusion ( diethyl ether ) rate of silkworm cocoons plotted as the rate of normalized mass loss against the density . r 2 = 0 . 51802 . ( online version in colour . )\nwe present our observations and measurements on 25 diverse types of cocoon in a first attempt to correlate physical properties with the structure and morphology of the cocoons , which appears to be more important than the differences in the properties of the silk fibres themselves . we find that the inter - fiber variability of properties is similar to that of an individual fibre type , and that the important fibre properties of low strain modulus and strain to failure for cocoon properties are similar for all the fibre types tested .\nwe tested tensile and compressive mechanical properties and gas permeation of the cocoon walls , and in each case identify mechanisms or models that relate these properties to cocoon structure . for tensile properties in the plane of the cocoon walls , we identify four different types of cocoon behaviour . however , the same generic mechanisms are seen in all types of cocoon . the connectivity of inter - fiber bonding plays a dominant role in stress\u2013strain properties , and failure conditions are determined either by the percolation strain for loss of bonding connectivity or sericin binder strength , whichever is the lower ."]}
{"id": 1689, "summary": [{"text": "salenski 's shrew ( chodsigoa salenskii ) is a red-toothed shrew found only in northern sichuan , china .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is listed as a critically endangered species due to habitat loss and a restricted range . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "salenski ' s shrew", "paragraphs": ["one salenski ' s shrew weighed 5 - 6 g ( approximately 0 . 2 oz ) .\nhave a fact about salenski ' s shrew ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for salenski ' s shrew ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nsalenski ' s shrew is only known from a single specimen , which was found in northern sichuan province , china .\nsalenski ' s shrew is one of the species that live in the mountains of southwest china biodiversity hotspot ( cons . intl . ) .\nsalenski ' s shrew is only known from a single specimen , which was found in northern sichuan province , china . it occurs in a small area of declining habitat .\nsalenski ' s shrew weighs approximately 5 g ( 0 . 2 oz ) . shrews of the genus soriculus are found mainly in damp areas in forest but may also be found in thickets .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthe taxonomic status of this species is in question , as hoffmann ( 1985 ) contends that it is conspecific with chodsigoa smithii .\njustification : listed as data deficient in view of continuing doubts as to its taxonomic validity and distribution , as well as the absence of information on its population status and ecological requirements .\naccording to hutterer ( 2005 ) this species is known only by the holotype from northern sichuan , china ( hutterer 2005 ) . smith and xie ( 2008 ) give a distribution in central sichuan and guizhou . due to this confusion , we map it only as occurring at the type locality pending taxonomic resolution .\nthere are no data on the habitat and ecology of this species ( smith and xie 2008 ) .\nthis species occurs in wolong nature reserve , but it is not known if it is present in any additional protected areas . further studies are needed into the taxonomy , distribution , abundance , natural history and threats to this species . in china , it has been regionally red listed as endangered a2c ; d2 ( wang and xie 2004 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\naccording to hutterer ( 2005 ) this species is known only by the holotype from northern sichuan , china ( hutterer 2005 ) . smith and xie ( 2008 ) give a distribution in central sichuan and guizhou . due to this confusion , we here map it only as occuring at the type locality pending taxonomic resolution .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nsichuaninvuorip\u00e4\u00e4st\u00e4inen\nto\nchodsigoa salenskii ( kastschenko , 1907 )\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\n1 . profile 2 . tidbits 3 . status and trends ( iucn status , countries where currently found , history of distribution , threats and reasons for decline ) 4 . data on biology and ecology ( weight , habitat ) 5 . references\n* * * shrews of the genus soriculus are also known as\nasiatic shrews .\nshrews of the genus soriculus are found mainly in damp areas in forest but may also be found in thickets .\n\u00a9 1999 - 2014 animal info . endangered animals of the world . sj contact us .\ndouble - check spelling , grammar , punctuation . translators work best when there are no errors or typos .\nif words are different , search our dictionary to understand why and pick the right word .\nif phrases are different , try searching our examples to help pick the right phrase .\nwe ' ve combined the most accurate english to spanish translations , dictionary , verb conjugations , and spanish to english translators into one very powerful search box .\nspanishdict is devoted to improving our site based on user feedback and introducing new and innovative features that will continue to help people learn and love the spanish language . have a suggestion , idea , or comment ? send us your feedback .\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vols . 1 & 2\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation ."]}
{"id": 1693, "summary": [{"text": "aphonopelma paloma , or the paloma dwarf , is a species of spider belonging to the family theraphosidae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "with a leg span that hovers around 5 cm , it is by far the smallest known theraphosid . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "aphonopelma paloma", "paragraphs": ["tanya higgins added the english common name\npaloma dwarf tarantula\nto\naphonopelma paloma prentice , 1993\n.\nno one has contributed data records for aphonopelma paloma yet . learn how to contribute .\na new species of north american tarantula , aphonopelma paloma ( araneae , mygalomorphae , theraphosidae ) .\nbased only on photos i see no resemblens on the\npaloma\nsp . i ' ve never own aphonopelma paloma but i do know of someone here in my hometown that is selling\npaloma\ni ' ll see what i can dig up .\n[ note caption by redellimom , who said : supposedly aphonopelma paloma but i think she ' s too big . caught in the\npaloma plain of arizona\nper my dealer . ]\nrepresentation of aphonopelma burrows in different habitats across the united states . a\u2013c a typical \u201cscrape\u201d ( burrow under rock ) of aphonopelma hentzi in rocky habitat across their distribution d\u2013e a turreted mound around the burrow of aphonopelma icenoglei ( also aphonopelma atomicum , aphonopelma mojave , and aphonopelma prenticei ) f the distinct crescent mound burrow of aphonopelma paloma g\u2013i typical free - standing burrows of aphonopelma chalcodes , aphonopelma eutylenum , aphonopelma iodius , or aphonopelma johnnycashi in desert , grassland , or rocky habitats .\naphonopelma paloma prentice , 1993 , cleared spermathecae . a aph _ 3189 b aph _ 3190 c aph _ 3194 .\napachepelma smith , 1994 : 45 ( type species by original designation aphonopelma paloma prentice , 1992 ) . first synonymized with aphonopelma by prentice ( 1997 : 147 ) .\na generalized comparison of the largest species in the united states , an adult female aphonopelma anax , and the smallest species in the united states , an adult female aphonopelma paloma .\naphonopelma paloma prentice , 1993 : 189 , f . 1 - 11 ( d m f ) . apachepelma paloma smith , 1995 : 45 , f . 66 - 73 ( t m f from aphonopelma ) . apachepelma paloma schmidt , 1997g : 19 , f . 169 - 171 ( m f ) . apachepelma paloma peters , 2000b : 142 , f . 423 , 425 - 426 ( m f ) . aphonopelma paloma peters , 2003 : 65 , f . 246 , 249 - 250 ( m f ) . apachepelma paloma schmidt , 2003l : 136 , f . 189 - 191 ( m f ) . aphonopelma paloma hamilton , hendrixson & bond , 2016 : 244 , f . 105 - 106 , 107a - i , 108a - e , 109a - i , 110a - c ( m f ) .\naphonopelma paloma prentice , 1993 . a\u2013i cleared spermathecae a paloma allotype b aph _ 0422 c aph _ 1102 d aph _ 1114 e aph _ 1115 f aph _ 1255 g aph _ 3170 h aph _ 3171 i aph _ 3172 .\naphonopelma paloma prentice , 1993 specimens , live photographs . male ( l ) - aph _ 1254 ; female ( r ) - aph _ 3166 .\ni believe they narrowed it down to a metriopelma sp that was sold to many individuals as a . paloma . a personal friend and huge paloma fan bought two females from that import , one of which i got from him in a trade . they are beautiful t ' s but definitely not a . paloma .\na . paloma was in the latest aphonopelma revision by hamilton et al . it\u2019s a dwarf species from the western deserts of arizona . like a lot of similar , dwarf aphonopelma it appears to be from arizona sky islands ?\nwe examined the holotypes and freshly collected topotypic material of aphonopelma jungi and aphonopelma punzoi . our morphological and molecular analyses fail to recognize these two species as separate , independently evolving lineages . as a consequence , we consider aphonopelma jungi and aphonopelma punzoi junior synonyms of aphonopelma vorhiesi .\nwell , it sure isn ' t a . paloma . . . that species barely hits 2 inches in leg spam .\ntemperament : the paloma dwarf is a docile tarantula . it has never kicked hair at me nor given a threat pose .\naphonopelma paloma is abundant throughout its distribution but can be difficult to find due to the cryptic nature of their burrows and narrow window of activity during the year . this species is secure .\n4 ) then generally , how the heck has the name\na . paloma\ngot attached to these , and . . .\nprentice , t . r . ( 1993 ) . a new species of north american tarantula , aphonopelma paloma ( araneae , mygalomorphae , theraphosidae ) . journal of arachnology 20 : 189 - 199 . - - show included taxa\ni really don ' t think the ones photograhed at top by redellimom are\naphonopelma paloma\nor anything close . i ' ve seen just a few of the arizona dwarfs alive , but will gladly take advice from those with more local knowledge . i also think\ncaught in the paloma plain of arizona\nis another fantasy / fiction on top of the previous one .\ni have a juvenile female a . paloma , looks nothing like that . that picture also doesn ' t look like anything describing that species in the literature .\nother important ratios that distinguish males : aphonopelma xwalxwal possess a larger t3 / a3 ( \u22651 . 41 ; 1 . 41\u20131 . 64 ) than aphonopelma eutylenum ( \u22641 . 35 ; 1 . 30\u20131 . 35 ) , aphonopelma icenoglei ( \u22641 . 37 ; 1 . 24\u20131 . 37 ) , aphonopelma joshua ( \u22641 . 37 ; 1 . 19\u20131 . 37 ) , and aphonopelma paloma ( \u22641 . 31 ; 1 . 21\u20131 . 31 ) ; by possessing a larger l4 scopulation extent ( 34 % \u201348 % ) than aphonopelma paloma ( 5 % \u201324 % ) and smaller than aphonopelma eutylenum ( 62 % \u201377 % ) . certain morphometrics have potential to be useful , though due to the amounts of variation , small number of specimens , and the small differences between species , no other are claimed to be significant at this time ( see suppl . material 2 ) . during evaluation of pca morphospace , males of aphonopelma xwalxwal separate from aphonopelma eutylenum and all other miniature species along pc1 ~ 2 , except for aphonopelma joshua . interestingly , aphonopelma xwalxwal males also separate from aphonopelma eutylenum and all other miniature species , except for aphonopelma joshua , in three - dimensional pca morphospace ( pc1 ~ pc2 ~ pc3 ) . pc1 , pc2 , and pc3 explain \u226597 % of the variation in all analyses .\naphonopelma paloma prentice , 1993 . a distribution of known specimens b predicted distribution ; warmer colors ( red , orange , yellow ) represent areas of high probability of occurrence , cooler colors ( blue shades ) represent areas of low probability of occurrence .\nthis being an aphonopelma species , you can expect it to be long lived .\ncompressed file ( . zip ) containing two separate locality datasets of aphonopelma specimens .\nand here ' s the origins of the name paloma , from the description paper :\netymology . \u2014the specific epithet is from the spanish word paloma ( dove ) which was used in the plural to describe a vast plain in the south - western desert of arizona - palomas plain - where there is an abundance of these tiny tarantulas .\nthere were originally 8 of these . the ' caught in the paloma plain of arizona ' made me a bit more suspicious as i am pretty sure there is no such place .\naphonopelma xwalxwal sp . n . live photograph . male paratype - aph _ 3133 .\nexplanation note : all boxplots and pca morphospace files used in aphonopelma species boundary determination .\ncompressed file ( . zip ) containing simple r scripts for analyzing aphonopelma morphological space .\naphonopelma angusi smith , 1995 : 72 . previously synonymized by prentice , 1997 : 162 .\naphonopelma melanium smith , 1995 : 120 . previously synonymized by prentice , 1997 : 162 .\naphonopelma nevadanum smith , 1995 : 125 . previously synonymized by prentice , 1997 : 162 .\naphonopelma simulatum smith , 1995 : 144 . previously synonymized by prentice , 1997 : 147 .\naphonopelma superstitionense hamilton , hendrixson & bond , 2016 , sp . n . - plazi treatmentbank\nsignificant measurements that distinguish male aphonopelma johnnycashi from its closely related phylogenetic and syntopic species are t3 and the extent of scopulation on metatarsus iv . male aphonopelma johnnycashi can be distinguished by possessing a larger t1 / t3 ( \u22651 . 25 ; 1 . 25\u20131 . 31 ) than aphonopelma eutylenum ( \u22641 . 23 ; 1 . 16\u20131 . 23 ) ; by possessing a larger a1 / t3 ( \u22650 . 81 ; 0 . 81\u20130 . 91 ) than aphonopelma chalcodes ( \u22640 . 79 ; 0 . 67\u20130 . 79 ) ; and by possessing a larger l4 scopulation extent ( 70 % - 76 % ) than aphonopelma steindachneri ( 21 % - 31 % ) . there are no significant measurements that separate male aphonopelma johnnycashi from aphonopelma iodius . the most significant measurement that distinguishes female aphonopelma johnnycashi from aphonopelma steindachneri is extent of scopulation on metatarsus iv . there are no significant measurements that separate female aphonopelma johnnycashi from the other members of the iodius species group . female aphonopelma johnnycashi can be distinguished by possessing a larger l4 scopulation extent ( 67 % - 82 % ) than aphonopelma steindachneri ( 24 % - 34 % ) .\nso ' palomas plain ' seems to exist , but having a trader saying ' caught in the paloma plain of arizona ' doesnt mean it was , it just means they or someone before them are aware that real a . paloma doe come from plains of arizona . . . . which i think makes what seems to be a lie at the outset even worse if you ask me . . .\n[ note , i ' m not opposed to some real a . paloma ( or other similar arizona dwarfs thereabouts ) having gotten into the hobby before 2015 , e . g . there ' s a youtube video from feb2014 by ' marktwaintarantula ' of one that looks possible , labeled as a . paloma\nreddwarf munchkin ' . there ' s also a few seemingly plausible ones in photos from older collections ]\naphonopelma catalina sp . n . cleared spermathecae . a aph _ 1602 b aums _ 2615 .\naphonopelma chalcodes is the most widespread and abundant tarantula species in arizona . the species is secure .\ni ' m the first person on a youtube to introduce you to the aphonopelma paloma sp . this dwarf munchkin ( chloe ) is a great add to my collection as well as my euathlus sp . yellow ( lucy and rickie ) and a quick up date on egypt my theraphosa apophysis / pink foot bird eater enjoy\naphonopelma paloma prentice , 1993 . a\u2013e female specimen , aph _ 1255 a dorsal view of carapace , scale bar = 2mm b prolateral view of coxa i c ventral view of metatarsus iii , scale bar = 1mm d ventral view of metatarsus iv , scale bar = 1mm e prolateral view of l pedipalp and palpal tibia .\nso whatever became of this little misnomered spider ? how big did it grow ? were any of the others floating around out there ever located ? and did anyone else grow suspicious of their\na . paloma\nspecimins ?\nhere ' s an example of an image i ' d count of an individual i ' d hope is reliable for a real a . paloma , and so useful to compare against . the one in the link below photographed by chris hamilton , who was working as part of the major us revision of various north american aphonopelma .\naphonopelma armada is very common throughout its distribution in south and west texas . the species is likely secure .\n3 ) anyone who has one of these , i really want to see the spermatheca shape please ! [ i think it ' s fused , and totally unlike in the real a . paloma , nor actually any from usa ]\n5 aphonopelma joshua and aphonopelma icenoglei are syntopic at various locations in and around joshua tree national park . females of aphonopelma joshua generally can be diagnosed by possessing tarsi iv divided by setae ( prentice 1997 ) but this characteristic can be difficult to assess . molecular data should be used to confirm the identity of specimens from this area .\naphonopelma iodius is one of the most widespread and abundant species in the united states . the species is secure .\naphonopelma vorhiesi is very common throughout its distribution in southeastern arizona and southern new mexico . the species is secure .\ncomments on the proposed precedence of aphonopelma pocock , 1901 ( arachnida , araneae ) over rhechostica simon , 1892 .\nstuart , there were two specimens that a pet store was selling . unfortunately both got sold however this specimens under the name\npaloma\nwere purchase from florida as wild caught . that ' s all the information i was able to get .\nspecies delimitation and phylogeography of aphonopelma hentzi ( araneae , mygalomorphae , theraphosidae ) : cryptic diversity in north american tarantulas .\naphonopelma paloma prentice , 1993 : 189 ; male holotype and female allotype from 3 miles ne exit 151 off i - 8 ( jct with hwy 84 ) , pinal co . , arizona , 32 . 856167 - 112 . 086609 2 , elev . 4310ft . , 17 - 18 . xi . 1989 , coll . tom prentice ; deposited in amnh . [ examined ]\nno , there is no paloma plain of arizona in modern usage , or even in territorial usage . that is a spanish - language only reference for all practical purposes . and i agree , it does sound like a fraudulent situation from the get - go .\naphonopelma atomicum sp . n . a\u2013c cleared spermathecae a aph _ 2727 b aph _ 3267 c aph _ 3267 - 2 .\naphonopelma icenoglei is not morphologically distinct from aphonopelma mojave but is genetically unique and should be considered important . the species is moderately common but may experience threats to some populations due to human encroachment and development in portions of the mojave desert closest to los angeles .\nan exploration of species boundaries in turret - building tarantulas of the mojave desert ( araneae , mygalomorphae , theraphosidae , aphonopelma ) .\naphonopelma atomicum has a highly restricted distribution limited to the mountains and foothills surrounding the amargosa desert and death valley . while this species is not dramatically different from aphonopelma prenticei , it is genetically unique and should be considered important . the species is most likely secure .\naphonopelma iodius ( chamberlin & ivie , 1939 ) . a\u2013c cleared spermathecae a aums _ 2386 b aums _ 3310 c angusi allotype .\nmiocene extensional tectonics explain ancient patterns of diversification among turret - building tarantulas ( aphonopelma mojave group ) in the mojave and sonoran deserts .\nara\u00f1as teraf\u00f3sidas de costa rica ( araneae : theraphosidae ) . iii . sphaerobothria , aphonopelma , pterinopelma , citharacanthus , crypsidromus y stichoplastus .\nthe species aphonopelma cratium chamberlin , 1940 is based on a male holotype and female allotype ( both amnh \u2013 examined ) from an uncertain location in california ( \u201ccalifornia ? \u201d in the locality information on the label ) . these specimens are morphologically similar to other valid species in the state ( e . g . , aphonopelma iodius ( chamberlin & ivie , 1939 ) and aphonopelma eutylenum chamberlin , 1940 ) , but because molecular data and / or accurate locality information are needed to distinguish these species , we consider aphonopelma cratium a nomen dubium .\naphonopelma atomicum sp . n . live photograph . female - aph _ 1478 . do not have a photograph of a live male specimen .\naphonopelma chalcodes chamberlin , 1940 . a\u2013d cleared spermathecae a aph _ 0168 b aph _ 0500 c aums _ 2339 d aums _ 2692 .\naphonopelma icenoglei sp . n . live photograph . female - aph _ 3146 . do not have a photograph of a live male specimen .\naphonopelma chiricahua sp . n . live photograph . male holotype - aph _ 3191 . do not have a photograph of a live female specimen .\naphonopelma johnnycashi sp . n . live photographs . female ( l ) - aph _ 3073 ; male ( r ) - aph _ 3063 .\naphonopelma parvum sp . n . live photographs . male ( l ) - aph _ 3181 ; female ( r ) - aph _ 3185 .\naphonopelma peloncillo sp . n . live photographs . male ( l ) - aph _ 1300 ; female ( r ) - aph _ 1296 .\naphonopelma prenticei sp . n . live photographs . female ( l ) - aph _ 3202 ; male ( r ) - aph _ 1569 .\nfor those unfamiliar with aphonopelma paloma , it ' s a usa species . it ' s a dwarf species , with a recent clear and comprehensive description ( prentice 1992 ) written in english , and in an american based scientific journal that ' s easily accessible . the description clearly lists several collection locations in southern arizona , specifically around phoenix and tucson . this should be easy for both collectors and traders to read that comprehensive description and match their stock to it .\nwhat i ' m saying is that during 2015 , there has been a fresh supply of nicaraguan tarantulas coming into both us and europe ( many of you will have seen a . seemanni and b . albopilosum nicaragua on various price lists ) , but i ' m suspecting these\na . paloma\nare really coming from nicaraguan exports too , perhaps initially mixed in a juvenile a . seemanni , and exported under that name on their stock list . if that ' s the case , who the heck has slapped on the name ' a . paloma ' to these , and if so , it ' s a downright barefaced lie .\naphonopelma chalcodes chamberlin , 1940 specimens , live photographs . female ( l ) - aph _ 0697 ; male ( r ) - aph _ 0600 .\naphonopelma eutylenum chamberlin , 1940 specimens , live photographs . male ( l ) - aph _ 3207 ; female ( r ) - aph _ 3108 .\nmitochondrial dna ( co1 ) is problematic in the iodius species group . while this locus identifies aphonopelma eutylenum as a monophyletic group , sister relationships are unclear . nuclear dna reveals the true evolutionary history of the aphonopelma eutylenum lineage and highlights the ineffectiveness of co1 for accurately delimiting species boundaries within this group .\naphonopelma gabeli smith , 1995 specimens , live photographs . female ( l ) - aph _ 1481 ; male ( r ) - aph _ 0628 .\naphonopelma joshua prentice , 1997 specimens , live photographs . female ( l ) - aph _ 1475 ; male ( r ) - aph _ 1476 .\naphonopelma madera sp . n . live photographs . female paratype ( l ) - aph _ 1393 ; male ( r ) - aph _ 1434 .\naphonopelma mareki sp . n . live photographs . female ( l ) - aph _ 1617 ; male holotype ( r ) - aph _ 1615 .\naphonopelma mojave prentice , 1997 specimens , live photographs . female ( l ) - aph _ 3101 ; male ( r ) - aph _ 3102 .\naphonopelma superstitionense sp . n . live photographs . female paratype ( l ) - aph _ 0504 ; male ( r ) - aph _ 1607 .\naphonopelma saguaro sp . n . live photographs . female paratype ( l ) - aph _ 3176 ; male holotype ( r ) - aph _ 3220 .\naphonopelma anax ( chamberlin , 1940 ) specimens , live photographs . female ( l ) - aph _ 0524 ; male ( r ) - aph _ 3122 .\naphonopelma armada ( chamberlin , 1940 ) specimens , live photographs . male ( l ) - aph _ 1064 ; female ( r ) - aph _ 3214 .\naphonopelma catalina sp . n . specimens , live photographs . female paratype ( l ) - aph _ 1602 ; male ( r ) - aph _ 1438 .\naphonopelma hentzi ( girard , 1854 ) specimens , live photographs . female ( l ) - aph _ 0576 ; male ( r ) - aph _ 3216 .\naphonopelma icenoglei sp . n . a\u2013e cleared spermathecae a aph _ 0761 b aph _ 0885 c aph _ 1562 d aph _ 2393 e aph _ 3118 .\naphonopelma madera sp . n . a\u2013e cleared spermathecae a aph _ 1393 b aph _ 0136 c aph _ 0881 d aph _ 1571 e aph _ 1624 .\naphonopelma mareki sp . n . a\u2013e cleared spermathecae a aph _ 1590 b aph _ 0297 c aph _ 0941 d aph _ 1589 e aph _ 1617 .\naphonopelma marxi ( simon , 1891 ) specimens , live photographs . male ( l ) - aph _ 0769 ; female ( r ) - aph _ 1418 .\naphonopelma parvum sp . n . a\u2013e cleared spermathecae a aph _ 1104 b aph _ 1109 c aph _ 1599 d aph _ 1600 e aph _ 1622 .\naphonopelma peloncillo sp . n . a\u2013e cleared spermathecae a aph _ 1296 b aph _ 0681 c aph _ 0683 d aph _ 1181 e aph _ 1297 .\naphonopelma prenticei sp . n . a\u2013e cleared spermathecae a aph _ 0319 b aph _ 0786 b aums _ 2554 d aums _ 3270 e aums _ 3279 .\naphonopelma steindachneri ( ausserer , 1875 ) , live photographs . female ( l ) - aph _ 3105 ; male neotype ( r ) - aph _ 1023 .\nas i explain on a different thread aphonopelma sp .\nnew river\nis also being sold as aphonopelma chalcodes so this does not surprise me one bit and it will only hurt the hobby even further by dealers or any one selling the wrong species . this has been going on for at least the last 3 years .\nrhechostica simon , 1892 : 162 ( type species by original designation homoeomma texense simon , 1891 ) . suppressed as a senior synonym of aphonopelma by iczn opinion 1637 .\naphonopelma phasmus chamberlin , 1940 distribution of known specimens . there is no predicted distribution map due to the limited number of sampling localities and restricted distribution this species possesses .\naphonopelma vorhiesi ( chamberlin & ivie , 1939 ) , live photographs . female ( l ) - aph _ 3188 ; male ( r ) - aph _ 1520 .\nand as now seems quite a few of the same came into europe also sold as a . paloma ( i ' ve seen some in mainland and some in uk in last months ) , the problem seems to lie with the exporter or first importer - depending on whether european stuff infact came from us ( which seems to be the case ) . .\naphonopelma anax ( chamberlin , 1940 ) . a\u2013e cleared spermathecae a aph _ 0871 b aph _ 0899 c aph _ 0902 d aph _ 1278 e aph _ 1280 .\naphonopelma atomicum sp . n . distribution of known specimens . there is no predicted distribution map due to the limited number of sampling localities and restricted distribution this species possesses .\naphonopelma catalina sp . n . distribution of known specimens . there is no predicted distribution map due to the limited number of sampling localities and restricted distribution this species possesses .\naphonopelma chiricahua sp . n . distribution of known specimens . there is no predicted distribution map due to the limited number of sampling localities and restricted distribution this species possesses .\naphonopelma iodius ( chamberlin & ivie , 1939 ) specimens , live photographs . female ( l ) - aph _ 3201 ; male ( r ) - aph _ 3202 .\naphonopelma madera sp . n . distribution of known specimens . there is no predicted distribution map due to the limited number of sampling localities and restricted distribution this species possesses .\naphonopelma marxi ( simon , 1891 ) . a\u2013e cleared spermathecae a aph _ 0452 b aph _ 1540 c aph _ 1541 d aph _ 2249 e aph _ 2266 .\naphonopelma moderatum ( chamberlin & ivie , 1939 ) specimens , live photographs . female ( l ) - aph _ 0532 ; male ( r ) - aph _ 0890 .\naphonopelma moellendorfi sp . n . distribution of known specimens . there is no predicted distribution map due to the limited number of sampling localities and restricted distribution this species possesses .\naphonopelma saguaro sp . n . distribution of known specimens . there is no predicted distribution map due to the limited number of sampling localities and restricted distribution this species possesses .\naphonopelma superstitionense sp . n . distribution of known specimens . there is no predicted distribution map due to the limited number of sampling localities and restricted distribution this species possesses .\naphonopelma xwalxwal sp . n . distribution of known specimens . there is no predicted distribution map due to the limited number of sampling localities and restricted distribution this species possesses .\naphonopelma pocock , 1901 : 553 ( type species by original designation eurypelma seemanni pickard - cambridge , 1897 ) . first synonymized with rhechostica by raven ( 1985 : 149 ) .\naphonopelma joshua prentice , 1997 . a\u2013f cleared spermathecae a joshua allotype b aph _ 2307 c aph _ 1007 d aph _ 2306 e aph _ 2285 f aph _ 2289 .\naphonopelma mojave prentice , 1997 . a\u2013f cleared spermathecae a mojave allotype b aph _ 1355 c aph _ 1558 d aph _ 3101 e aums _ 2364 f aums _ 2512 .\ni also know that there are imports coming in the us from nicaragua , i have been offer to purchase some stock from nicaragua that includes the brachypelma albopilosum and the aphonopelma seemani .\naphonopelma chalcodes chamberlin , 1940 . a\u2013f cleared spermathecae . a chalcodes allotype b aph _ 0608 c aph _ 0887 d aph _ 1485 e aums _ 2605 f aums _ 3282 .\naphonopelma johnnycashi sp . n . a\u2013f cleared spermathecae a aph _ 2006 b aph _ 3064 c aph _ 3073 d aph _ 3080 e aph _ 3090 f aph _ 3094 .\naphonopelma paloma prentice , 1993 . a\u2013i male specimen , aph _ 1603 a dorsal view of carapace , scale bar = 2mm b prolateral view of coxa i c dorsal view of femur iii d ventral view of metatarsus iii , scale bar = 1 . 5mm e ventral view of metatarsus iv , scale bar = 2mm f prolateral view of l pedipalp and palpal tibia , scale bar = 2mm g dorsal view of palpal bulb h retrolateral view of palpal bulb , scale bar = 0 . 5mm i prolateral view of tibia i ( mating clasper ) , scale bar = 1 . 5mm .\naphonopelma hentzi ( girard , 1854 ) . a\u2013f cleared spermathecae a aph _ 0868 b aph _ 0927 c aph _ 0934 d aph _ 1063 e aph _ 1353 f harlingenum holotype .\ndespite its narrow distribution , aphonopelma joshua is largely protected by joshua tree national park . recreational activities may pose some concern but this species is common throughout the park and is likely secure .\ni don ' t think the guy i got mousse from was intentionally selling them under a false name . he has a lot of t ' s but i wouldn ' t be surprised if a mislabeled one ( or eight . . ) got past him . i don ' t think he ' s the one slapping on\na . paloma ,\nbut whoever he got them from perhaps did . .\naphonopelma gabeli smith , 1995 . a\u2013f cleared spermathecae a aph _ 0044 b aph _ 0642 c aph _ 0680 d aph _ 0946 e aph _ 1338 f jung\u2019s \u201c portal \u201d paratype .\naphonopelma mareki is very common throughout its distribution but can be difficult to find due to the cryptic nature of its burrows and small window of activity during the year . the species is secure .\nthe specific epithet is a patronym in recognition of arachnologist thomas r . prentice for his work on the genus aphonopelma . prentice\u2019s ( 1993 , 1997 ) studies inspired our interest in the genus and greatly influenced the way we approached this revision . this project benefited tremendously from his help collecting specimens , donating his personal collection to the aumnh , and sharing his encyclopedic knowledge of north american aphonopelma .\naphonopelma parvum is very common throughout their distribution but can be difficult to find due to the cryptic nature of their burrows and narrow window of activity during the year . this species is likely secure .\nan evaluation of sampling effects on multiple dna barcoding methods leads to an integrative approach for delimiting species : a case study of the north american tarantula genus aphonopelma ( araneae , mygalomorphae , theraphosidae ) .\nexplanation note : locality data for all aphonopelma specimens examined over the course of this study and listed in the material examined section that accompanies each species , as well as locality data with darwin core headers .\nexplanation note : figures ( like those provided in the species descriptions ) of additional specimens ( for species where additional photographs were available ) , to provide visual reference of the variation possible within aphonopelma species .\naphonopelma armada ( chamberlin , 1940 ) . a\u2013g cleared spermathecae a armada holotype b aph _ 0547 c aph _ 0548 d aph _ 0807 e aph _ 0848 f aph _ 1049 g aph _ 1068 .\naphonopelma steindachneri ( ausserer , 1875 ) . a\u2013g cleared spermathecae a reversum allotype b aph _ 1022 c aph _ 1030 d aph _ 1034 e aph _ 3104 f aph _ 3105 g aph _ 3098 .\naphonopelma eutylenum chamberlin , 1940 . a\u2013h cleared spermathecae . a eutylenum allotype b eutylenum paratype c aph _ 1018 d aph _ 1031 e aph _ 1045 f aph _ 2035 g aums _ 3303 h cryptethum allotype .\naphonopelma anax ( chamberlin , 1940 ) . a\u2013h cleared spermathecae a anax allotype b breenei holotype c harlingenum paratype d aph _ 0056 e aph _ 0529 f aph _ 0857 g aph _ 0858 h aph _ 0859 .\naphonopelma prenticei is the most abundant and widespread turret - building tarantula species in the united states and has recently expanded its range into the more northern portions of its distribution ( graham et al . 2015 ) . the species does exhibit high levels of phylogeographic structuring ( hendrixson et al . 2013 , graham et al . 2015 ) and should be evaluated for the presence of evolutionary significant units , but the conservation status of aphonopelma prenticei is doubtlessly secure .\naphonopelma chalcodes chamberlin , 1940 . a distribution of known specimens b predicted distribution ; warmer colors ( red , orange , yellow ) represent areas of high probability of occurrence , cooler colors ( blue shades ) represent areas of low probability of occurrence .\naphonopelma eutylenum chamberlin , 1940 . a distribution of known specimens b predicted distribution ; warmer colors ( red , orange , yellow ) represent areas of high probability of occurrence , cooler colors ( blue shades ) represent areas of low probability of occurrence .\naphonopelma eutylenum is widely distributed across southern california and is very common . the species is likely secure although some localized populations in urbanized areas ( e . g . , los angeles and san diego ) are likely threatened by human encroachment and development .\naphonopelma gabeli smith , 1995 . a distribution of known specimens b predicted distribution ; warmer colors ( red , orange , yellow ) represent areas of high probability of occurrence , cooler colors ( blue shades ) represent areas of low probability of occurrence .\naphonopelma icenoglei sp . n . a distribution of known specimens b predicted distribution ; warmer colors ( red , orange , yellow ) represent areas of high probability of occurrence , cooler colors ( blue shades ) represent areas of low probability of occurrence .\naphonopelma iodius ( chamberlin & ivie , 1939 ) . a\u2013h cleared spermathecae a aph _ 0313 b aph _ 0985 c aph _ 0996 d aph _ 0997 e aph _ 1004 f aph _ 1006 g aph _ 1082 h aph _ 1083 .\naphonopelma iodius ( chamberlin & ivie , 1939 ) . a\u2013h cleared spermathecae a aph _ 1091 b aph _ 1094 c aph _ 1220 d aph _ 2010 e aph _ 2016 f aph _ 2018 g aph _ 2030 h aph _ 3201 .\naphonopelma johnnycashi sp . n . a distribution of known specimens b predicted distribution ; warmer colors ( red , orange , yellow ) represent areas of high probability of occurrence , cooler colors ( blue shades ) represent areas of low probability of occurrence .\naphonopelma joshua prentice , 1997 . a distribution of known specimens b predicted distribution ; warmer colors ( red , orange , yellow ) represent areas of high probability of occurrence , cooler colors ( blue shades ) represent areas of low probability of occurrence .\naphonopelma mareki sp . n . a distribution of known specimens b predicted distribution ; warmer colors ( red , orange , yellow ) represent areas of high probability of occurrence , cooler colors ( blue shades ) represent areas of low probability of occurrence .\naphonopelma mojave prentice , 1997 . a distribution of known specimens b predicted distribution ; warmer colors ( red , orange , yellow ) represent areas of high probability of occurrence , cooler colors ( blue shades ) represent areas of low probability of occurrence .\naphonopelma parvum sp . n . a distribution of known specimens b predicted distribution ; warmer colors ( red , orange , yellow ) represent areas of high probability of occurrence , cooler colors ( blue shades ) represent areas of low probability of occurrence .\naphonopelma peloncillo sp . n . a distribution of known specimens b predicted distribution ; warmer colors ( red , orange , yellow ) represent areas of high probability of occurrence , cooler colors ( blue shades ) represent areas of low probability of occurrence .\naphonopelma prenticei sp . n . a distribution of known specimens b predicted distribution ; warmer colors ( red , orange , yellow ) represent areas of high probability of occurrence , cooler colors ( blue shades ) represent areas of low probability of occurrence .\naphonopelma steindachneri is widely distributed across southern california and is very common . the species is likely secure although some localized populations in urbanized areas ( e . g . , los angeles and san diego ) are likely threatened by human encroachment and development .\ngosipelma chamberlin , 1940 : 4 ( type species by original designation gosipelma angusi chamberlin , 1940 ) . originally described as a subgenus of aphonopelma , but never elevated to full generic status . first synonymized with rhechostica by raven ( 1985 : 153 ) .\n3 mature females of these two species can be morphologically indistinguishable when they co - occur in southeastern cochise county . aphonopelma vorhiesi is likely the correct determination if the specimen originates from graham , pima , pinal , santa cruz , or western cochise counties .\naphonopelma anax ( chamberlin , 1940 ) . a distribution of known specimens b predicted distribution ; warmer colors ( red , orange , yellow ) represent areas of high probability of occurrence , cooler colors ( blue shades ) represent areas of low probability of occurrence .\naphonopelma armada ( chamberlin , 1940 ) . a distribution of known specimens b predicted distribution ; warmer colors ( red , orange , yellow ) represent areas of high probability of occurrence , cooler colors ( blue shades ) represent areas of low probability of occurrence .\naphonopelma hentzi ( girard , 1854 ) . a\u2013i cleared spermathecae a aph _ 0052 b aph _ 0571 c aph _ 0743 d aph _ 0812 e aph _ 0813 f aph _ 0833 g aph _ 0838 h aph _ 0862 i aph _ 0867 .\naphonopelma marxi ( simon , 1891 ) . a distribution of known specimens b predicted distribution ; warmer colors ( red , orange , yellow ) represent areas of high probability of occurrence , cooler colors ( blue shades ) represent areas of low probability of occurrence .\naphonopelma steindachneri ( ausserer , 1875 ) . a distribution of known specimens b predicted distribution ; warmer colors ( red , orange , yellow ) represent areas of high probability of occurrence , cooler colors ( blue shades ) represent areas of low probability of occurrence .\naphonopelma phanus chamberlin , 1940 : 24 ; male holotype from laguna beach , orange co . , california , 33 . 542248 - 117 . 783110 5 ; elev . 18ft . , vii . 1931 , coll . unknown ; deposited in amnh . [ examined ]\nhamilton ca , hendrixson be , bond je ( 2016 ) taxonomic revision of the tarantula genus aphonopelma pocock , 1901 ( araneae , mygalomorphae , theraphosidae ) within the united states . zookeys 560 : 1\u2013340 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 560 . 6264\naphonopelma iodius ( chamberlin & ivie , 1939 ) . a distribution of known specimens b predicted distribution ; warmer colors ( red , orange , yellow ) represent areas of high probability of occurrence , cooler colors ( blue shades ) represent areas of low probability of occurrence .\naphonopelma moderatum ( chamberlin & ivie , 1939 ) . a\u2013i cleared spermathecae a aph _ 0057 b aph _ 0532 c aph _ 0877 d aph _ 0891 e aph _ 0892 f aph _ 0894 g aph _ 1123 h aph _ 1136 i aph _ 1283 .\naphonopelma moderatum ( chamberlin & ivie , 1939 ) . a distribution of known specimens b predicted distribution ; warmer colors ( red , orange , yellow ) represent areas of high probability of occurrence , cooler colors ( blue shades ) represent areas of low probability of occurrence .\naphonopelma vorhiesi ( chamberlin & ivie , 1939 ) . a distribution of known specimens b predicted distribution ; warmer colors ( red , orange , yellow ) represent areas of high probability of occurrence , cooler colors ( blue shades ) represent areas of low probability of occurrence .\naphonopelma breenei smith , 1995 : 78 ; female holotype from harlingen , cameron co . , texas , 26 . 190631 - 97 . 696103 5 , elev . 40ft . , 1939 , coll . bryce brown ; deposited in amnh . [ examined ] syn . n .\naphonopelma gabeli smith , 1995 : 100 ; male holotype from e of tucson , pima co . , arizona , 31 . 956396 - 110 . 339817 7 , elev . 4055ft . , no collecting date , coll . russ gurley ; deposited in bmnh . [ examined ]\ntaxonomic and nomenclatural problems concerning the historical north and central american theraphosid genera aphonopelma pocock 1901 , dugesiella pocock 1901 , rhechostica simon 1892 , delopelma petrunkevitch 1939 , chaunopelma chamberlin 1940 , clavopelma chamberlin 1940 , gosipelma chamberlin 1940 and their likely placement in future north american systematic studies .\naphonopelma nevadanum chamberlin , 1940 : 12 ; male holotype from searchlight , clark co . , nevada , 35 . 465269 - 114 . 919701 5 , elev . 3590ft . , 2 . xii . 1930 , coll . geo . carter ; deposited in amnh . [ examined ]\naphonopelma superstitionense appears to have a limited distribution restricted to the foothills and area in or around the superstition mountains . these diminutive tarantulas are probably common but can be incredibly difficult to find due to the cryptic nature of their burrows and narrow window of activity during the year . the phoenix metropolitan area is experiencing rapid growth and recreational activities in the superstition mountains threaten suitable habitat for this species . the status of aphonopelma superstitionense seems secure ( e . g . , it is probably common in remote sections of the superstition wilderness area ) but should be monitored .\naphonopelma clarki smith , 1995 : 87 ; female holotype from dallas , dallas co . , texas , 32 . 780141 - 96 . 800451 7 , elev . 421ft . , 1968 , coll . h . j . berman ; deposited in bmnh . [ examined ] syn . n .\nhamilton , chris a . , hendrixson , brent e . & bond , jason e . , 2016 , taxonomic revision of the tarantula genus aphonopelma pocock , 1901 ( araneae , mygalomorphae , theraphosidae ) within the united states , zookeys 560 , pp . 1 - 340 : 242 - 244\naphonopelma clarum chamberlin , 1940 : 10 ; male holotype from mountains near claremont , los angeles co . , california , 34 . 137812 - 117 . 718194 4 , elev . 1571ft . , no collecting date , coll . r . v . chamberlin ; deposited in amnh . [ examined ]\naphonopelma reversum chamberlin , 1940 : 8 ; male holotype , male paratype , three female paratypes from san diego , san diego co . , california , 32 . 715738 - 117 . 161085 6 , elev . 54ft . , 1935 , coll . unknown ; deposited in amnh . [ examined ]\naphonopelma hentzi smith , 1995 : 107 ; neotype male and female exemplar from garfield co . , oklahoma , 36 . 436139 - 97 . 872160 7 , elev . 1264ft . , summer 1975 , coll . r . l . lardie ; deposited in oklahoma state university collection . [ not examined ]\naphonopelma lithodomum chamberlin , 1940 : 14 ; male holotype from house rock , coconino co . , arizona , 36 . 703978 - 111 . 947171 5 , elev . 5168ft . , 9 . ix . 1939 , coll . d . and s . mulaik ; deposited in amnh . [ examined ]\naphonopelma vorhiesi ( chamberlin & ivie , 1939 ) . a\u2013h cleared spermathecae a aph _ 0639 b aph _ 0640 c aph _ 0674 d aph _ 0886 e aph _ 1488 f aph _ 1506 g jung\u2019s \u201c cochise \u201d female paratype h aph _ 2137 , a jung \u201c cochise \u201d specimen .\naphonopelma sullivani smith , 1995 : 149 ; male holotype from coachella valley , palm springs , riverside co . , california , 33 . 767209 - 116 . 359868 6 , elev . 277ft . , ix . 1991 , coll . michael sullivan ; deposited in bmnh . [ examined ] syn . n .\naphonopelma iviei smith , 1995 : 115 ; male holotype from death valley , inyo co . , california , 36 . 735992 - 116 . 970188 6 , elev . 2761ft . , 30 . ix . 1883 , coll . chalmers - hunt ; deposited in bmnh . [ examined ] syn . n .\naphonopelma chamberlini smith , 1995 : 86 ; female holotype from camp roberts , outside of paso robles , co . , california , 35 . 790969 - 120 . 743364 5 , elev . 642ft . , no collecting date , coll . rupert hazen ; deposited in bmnh . [ examined ] syn . n .\naphonopelma heterops chamberlin , 1940 : 29 ; female syntypes from edinburg , hidalgo , co . , texas , 26 . 30173 - 98 . 16335 5 , elev . 96ft . , ix - xii . 1933 , coll . s . mulaik ; deposited in the amnh . [ examined ] syn . n .\nthe specific epithet is a patronym in recognition of dave moellendorf , a friend and mentor to cah . moellendorf introduced cah to the tarantula fauna of texas and encouraged and fostered cah\u2019s early research on the genus aphonopelma . moellendorf has also spent countless hours educating the public on the importance of spiders on our planet .\naphonopelma ( delopelma ) phasmus chamberlin , 1940 : 28 ; male holotype from phantom ranch , grand canyon , coconino co . , arizona , 36 . 105315 - 112 . 095201 , elev . 2536ft . , 26 . vii . 1934 , coll . dr . lutz ; deposited in amnh . [ examined ]\naphonopelma vogeli smith , 1995 : 154 ; male holotype from aztec , san juan co . , new mexico , 36 . 822226 - 107 . 992846 6 , elev . 5657ft . , 20 . x . 1982 , coll . w . a . drew ; deposited in oklahoma state university collection [ presumed lost ]\naphonopelma stahnkei smith 1995 : 146 ; male holotype and male paratype from tempe , maricopa co . , arizona , 33 . 425510 - 111 . 940005 6 , elev . 1176ft . , no collecting date , coll . dr . h . l . stahnke ; deposited in bmnh . [ examined ] syn . n .\naphonopelma gurleyi smith , 1995 : 104 ; male holotype from interstate 35 , near moss lake , sherman , grayson co . , texas , 33 . 781417 - 97 . 221633 5 , elev . 796ft . , no collection date , coll . russ gurley ; deposited in bmnh . [ examined ] syn . n .\n2 mature males of these two species are morphologically indistinguishable and cannot be identified using morphological criteria when they co - occur in southeastern cochise county , but can be differentiated using molecular data . aphonopelma vorhiesi is likely the correct determination if the specimen originates from graham , pima , pinal , santa cruz , or western cochise counties .\naphonopelma catalina sp . n . a\u2013e female paratype , aph _ 1602 a dorsal view of carapace , scale bar = 6mm b prolateral view of coxa i c ventral view of metatarsus iii , scale bar = 3mm d ventral view of metatarsus iv , scale bar = 3mm e prolateral view of l pedipalp and palpal tibia .\naphonopelma chambersi smith , 1995 : 86 ; male holotype from garner valley , s of idyllwild - pine cove , riverside co . , california , 33 . 635459 - 116 . 643974 5 , elev . 4475ft . , no collecting date , coll . aaron chambers ; deposited in bmnh . [ examined ] syn . n .\naphonopelma sandersoni smith , 1995 : 138 ; male holotype and female allotype from san bernardino mountains . , san bernardino co . , california , 34 . 180742 - 117 . 164638 7 , elev . 3137ft . , x . 1995 , coll . r . douglas ; deposited in bmnh . [ examined ] syn . n .\naphonopelma gabeli smith , 1995 . a\u2013e female specimen , aph _ 0680 a dorsal view of carapace , scale bar = 7mm b prolateral view of coxa i c ventral view of metatarsus iii , scale bar = 4mm d ventral view of metatarsus iv , scale bar = 4mm e prolateral view of l pedipalp and palpal tibia .\naphonopelma zionis chamberlin , 1940 : 24 ; male holotype from zion national park , near entrance , washington co . , utah , 37 . 205521 - 112 . 983664 4 , elev . 3973ft . , 16 . viii . 1925 , coll . dr . a . m . woodbury ; deposited in amnh . [ examined ]\naphonopelma joshua prentice , 1997 . a\u2013e female specimen , aph _ 2306 a dorsal view of carapace , scale bar = 3mm b prolateral view of coxa i c ventral view of metatarsus iii , scale bar = 2mm d ventral view of metatarsus iv , scale bar = 2mm e prolateral view of l pedipalp and palpal tibia .\naphonopelma behlei chamberlin , 1940 : 26 ; male holotype and male paratype from grand canyon village , coconino co . , arizona , 36 . 054444 - 112 . 140111 4 , elev . 6882ft . , 15 . ix . 1939 , coll . dr . w . h . behle ; deposited in amnh . [ examined ]\naphonopelma prenticei sp . n . a\u2013e female paratype , aph _ 0319 a dorsal view of carapace , scale bar = 2mm b prolateral view of coxa i c ventral view of metatarsus iii , scale bar = 2mm d ventral view of metatarsus iv , scale bar = 2mm e prolateral view of l pedipalp and palpal tibia .\naphonopelma jungi smith , 1995 : 116 ; male holotype from portal rd . , portal , cochise co . , arizona , 31 . 914142 - 109 . 141676 5 , elev . 4761ft . , viii . 1992 , coll . a . smith and michael sullivan ; deposited in bmnh . [ examined ] syn . n .\naphonopelma armada ( chamberlin , 1940 ) . a\u2013e female specimen , aph _ 0848 a dorsal view of carapace , scale bar = 6mm b prolateral view of coxa i c ventral view of metatarsus iii , scale bar = 3mm d ventral view of metatarsus iv , scale bar = 3mm e prolateral view of l pedipalp and palpal tibia .\naphonopelma arnoldi smith , 1995 : 74 ; male holotype from hwy 82 near crosbyton , crosby co . , texas , 33 . 660017 - 101 . 294644 5 , elev . 3063ft . , 17 . vi . 1963 , coll . p . keathley ; deposited in oklahoma state university collection . [ not examined ] syn . n .\naphonopelma chalcodes chamberlin , 1940 . a\u2013e female specimen , aph _ 0887 a dorsal view of carapace , scale bar = 8mm b prolateral view of coxa i c ventral view of metatarsus iii , scale bar = 4 . 5mm d ventral view of metatarsus iv , scale bar = 5mm e prolateral view of l pedipalp and palpal tibia .\naphonopelma icenoglei sp . n . a\u2013e female paratype , aph _ 1562 a dorsal view of carapace , scale bar = 3mm b prolateral view of coxa i c ventral view of metatarsus iii , scale bar = 2mm d ventral view of metatarsus iv , scale bar = 2 . 5mm e prolateral view of l pedipalp and palpal tibia .\naphonopelma johnnycashi sp . n . a\u2013e female paratype , aph _ 3080 a dorsal view of carapace , scale bar = 7mm b prolateral view of coxa i c ventral view of metatarsus iii , scale bar = 3 . 5mm d ventral view of metatarsus iv , scale bar = 4mm e prolateral view of l pedipalp and palpal tibia .\naphonopelma mareki sp . n . a\u2013e female paratype , aph _ 1590 a dorsal view of carapace , scale bar = 3mm b prolateral view of coxa i c ventral view of metatarsus iii , scale bar = 1 . 5mm d ventral view of metatarsus iv , scale bar = 2mm e prolateral view of l pedipalp and palpal tibia .\naphonopelma marxi ( simon , 1891 ) . a\u2013e female specimen , aph _ 0452 a dorsal view of carapace , scale bar = 7mm b prolateral view of coxa i c ventral view of metatarsus iii , scale bar = 3mm d ventral view of metatarsus iv , scale bar = 3mm e prolateral view of l pedipalp and palpal tibia .\naphonopelma chalcodes chamberlin , 1940 : 7 ; male holotype , male paratype , and two female paratypes from tucson , pima co . , arizona , 32 . 221743 - 110 . 926479 6 , elev . 2473ft . , 27 . vii . 1936 , coll . prof . c . t . vorhies ; deposited in amnh . [ examined ]\naphonopelma eutylenum chamberlin , 1940 . a\u2013e female specimen , aph _ 1031 . a dorsal view of carapace , scale bar = 8mm b prolateral view of coxa i c ventral view of metatarsus iii , scale bar = 4 . 5mm d ventral view of metatarsus iv , scale bar = 5mm e prolateral view of l pedipalp and palpal tibia .\naphonopelma hentzi ( girard , 1854 ) . a distribution of known specimens b predicted distribution ; warmer colors ( red , orange , yellow ) represent areas of high probability of occurrence , cooler colors ( blue shades ) represent areas of low probability of occurrence . of note , the lone south texas outlier specimen in a is the harlingenum holotype .\naphonopelma anax ( chamberlin , 1940 ) . a\u2013e female specimen , aph _ 0857 a dorsal view of carapace , scale bar = 8mm b prolateral view of coxa i c ventral view of metatarsus iii , scale bar = 4mm d ventral view of metatarsus iv , scale bar = 5 . 5mm e prolateral view of l pedipalp and palpal tibia .\naphonopelma odelli smith , 1995 : 126 ; female holotype from beavers bend state resort park mccurtain co . , oklahoma , 34 . 13104 - 94 . 69004 5 , elev . 670ft . , 13 . vi . 1979 , coll . d . c . arnold ; deposited in oklahoma state university collection . [ not examined ] syn . n .\naphonopelma madera sp . n . a\u2013e female paratype , aph _ 1393 a dorsal view of carapace , scale bar = 5 . 5mm b prolateral view of coxa i c ventral view of metatarsus iii , scale bar = 2 . 5mm d ventral view of metatarsus iv , scale bar = 3mm e prolateral view of l pedipalp and palpal tibia .\naphonopelma mojave prentice , 1997 . a\u2013e female specimen , aph _ 1558 a dorsal view of carapace , scale bar = 3mm b prolateral view of coxa i c ventral view of metatarsus iii , scale bar = 2 . 5mm d ventral view of metatarsus iv , scale bar = 2 . 5mm e prolateral view of l pedipalp and palpal tibia .\naphonopelma parvum sp . n . a\u2013e female paratype , aph _ 1622 a dorsal view of carapace , scale bar = 2 . 5mm b prolateral view of coxa i c ventral view of metatarsus iii , scale bar = 1 . 5mm d ventral view of metatarsus iv , scale bar = 2mm e prolateral view of l pedipalp and palpal tibia .\naphonopelma peloncillo sp . n . a\u2013e female paratype , aph _ 1296 a dorsal view of carapace , scale bar = 5 . 5mm b prolateral view of coxa i c ventral view of metatarsus iii , scale bar = 3 . 5mm d ventral view of metatarsus iv , scale bar = 4mm e prolateral view of l pedipalp and palpal tibia .\naphonopelma chiricahua sp . n . a\u2013f female paratype , aph _ 2097 a dorsal view of carapace , scale bar = 3 . 5mm b prolateral view of coxa i c ventral view of metatarsus iii , scale bar = 2mm d ventral view of metatarsus iv , scale bar = 2mm e prolateral view of l pedipalp and palpal tibia f cleared spermathecae .\naphonopelma brunnius chamberlin , 1940 : 11 ; male holotype from jasper ridge biological preserve , w of stanford university , palo alto , santa clara co . , california , 37 . 405240 - 122 . 242100 4 , elev . 378ft . , 13 . xi . 1921 , coll . c . d . duncan ; deposited in amnh . [ examined ]\naphonopelma atomicum sp . n . a\u2013e female paratype , aph _ 3267 - 2 a dorsal view of carapace , scale bar = 2mm b prolateral view of coxa i c ventral view of metatarsus iii , scale bar = 1 . 5mm d ventral view of metatarsus iv , scale bar = 1 . 5mm e prolateral view of l pedipalp and palpal tibia .\naphonopelma hentzi ( girard , 1854 ) . a\u2013e female specimen , aph _ 0812 a dorsal view of carapace , scale bar = 6mm b prolateral view of coxa i c ventral view of metatarsus iii , scale bar = 4 . 5mm d ventral view of metatarsus iv , scale bar = 4 . 5mm e prolateral view of l pedipalp and palpal tibia .\naphonopelma iodius ( chamberlin & ivie , 1939 ) . a\u2013e female specimen , aph _ 2016 a dorsal view of carapace , scale bar = 5 . 5mm b prolateral view of coxa i c ventral view of metatarsus iii , scale bar = 4mm d ventral view of metatarsus iv , scale bar = 5mm e prolateral view of l pedipalp and palpal tibia .\naphonopelma phasmus probably has a very restricted distribution along the colorado river in grand canyon national park . although the species is protected by the boundaries of the park , the phantom ranch area is prone to habitat degradation due to foot traffic and other recreational activities . new collecting efforts to find this species need to be taken before its conservation status can be assessed .\naphonopelma steindachneri - male neotype designated ( aph _ 1023 ) from wruck canyon , san ysidro , off cactus rd . , san diego co . , california , 32 . 55002 - 116 . 99192 1 , elev . 398ft . , 16 . v . 2010 , coll . chris a . hamilton , xavier atkinson , jordan satler ; deposited in aumnh .\naphonopelma vorhiesi ( chamberlin & ivie , 1939 ) . a\u2013e female specimen , aph _ 1488 a dorsal view of carapace , scale bar = 5mm b prolateral view of coxa i c ventral view of metatarsus iii , scale bar = 4mm d ventral view of metatarsus iv , scale bar = 3 . 5mm e prolateral view of l pedipalp and palpal tibia ."]}
{"id": 1694, "summary": [{"text": "the order of excellence is one of the six national orders of the jamaican honours system , and it is only awarded to present and former foreign heads of state or government .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the order of excellence is the most recent honour to be created , having been brought into being in 2003 .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the order of excellence took over the function of the order of merit , which is now awarded to those \" persons of notable achievement in particular fields of study \" . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "order of excellence ( jamaica )", "paragraphs": ["the order of excellence , which was created in 2003 , is reserved for foreign heads of state or heads of government .\nthe honour of the order of distinction is conferred upon members - citizens of jamaica who rendered outstanding and important service to jamaica ; honorary members - distinguished citizens of a country other than jamaica .\nthe honour of the order of excellence ( oe ) is ranked equally , in the order of precedence , with the honour of order of the nation and may be conferred upon any foreign head of state or foreign former head of government . a member of the order is styled ' the most honourable ' and the motor of the order is ' excellence through service ' .\nthe honour of the order of jamaica may be bestowed on any jamaican national or any distinguished citizen of a foreign country other than jamaica , who has demonstrated outstanding distinction in service to jamaica .\nthe order of excellence , which was created in 2003 , is reserved for foreign heads of state or heads of government who has played an integral part in jamaica ' s development .\nthe honour of the order of the nation is often conferred on the governor - general of jamaica and upon any person who has been appointed as prime minister of jamaica unless they are already recipients of the order of national hero .\nthe order of national hero is the most senior order . the honour of the order of national hero may be conferred upon any person who was born in jamaica or is , or at the time of his or death , a citizen of jamaica and rendered to jamaica service of a most distinguished nature . a member of the order is entitled to be styled : ' rt excellent ' .\nthis order is ranked with the same precedence as the honour of the order of the nation .\nthe insignia of the order of excellence is a 12 - point breast star in yellow gold , interspersed with representations of pineapples in white gold . in the centre are the arms of jamaica in yellow gold , superimposed on a red enamelled background and surrounded by the motto of the order , ' excellence through service ' in gold with yellow shoulder sash edged with a narrow band of green and black in equal proportions .\na distinguished citizen of a country other than jamaica may be conferred as an honorary member of this order . < continue reading >\nthe insignia of the order of excellence is a twelve - point breast star in yellow gold , interspersed with representations of pineapples in white gold . in the center is the heraldic coat of arms of jamaica in yellow gold , superimposed on a red enamelled background and surrounded by the motto of the order , which is . . .\nthis order is ranked with the same precedence as the honour of the order of the nation . that means that recipients of this order are also styled \u2018the most honourable\u2019 .\nso this is a very rare order and as such you notice that it has not been awarded to many or any and any heads of state or heads of government . some kind of ' excellent ' service must be done by these state heads in order to be conferred with this order of excellence .\norder of distinction the order of distinction may be conferred upon any citizen who has rendered outstanding and important service to jamaica in any field of endeavour . the order has two ranks ; the higher class - commander - being the higher of the two . distinguished citizens of a country other than jamaica may be conferred with this honour as honorary members . the motto of this order is \u2018distinction through service\u2019 . < continue reading >\nand that the chief justice is the chancellor of the order of the nation .\nthe order of merit is the third highest honour and may be conferred upon any citizen of jamaica who has achieved eminent international distinction in his or her field of endeavour .\nthe order of the nation is the second highest order and is conferred on the governor - general and prime minister , upon whom the order of national hero was not previously conferred .\nthe insignia of the order of jamaica is made in solid gold and consists of a white enamel collar badge , the ends of which represent the ackee fruit and leaves , suspended from a deep green silk band . the centre shows the heraldic arms of jamaica against a gold background and this is surrounded by the gold lettered motto of the order on green enamel .\nmembers of the order are entitled to be formally styled \u2018the honourable\u2019 , wear the insignia of the order and use the post nominal letters \u2018oj\u2019 .\nthe order of distinction has two ranks : higher class - commander and lower class - officer . commanders take place and precedence immediately after members and honorary members of the order of jamaica . the motto of the order is , ' ' distinction through service ' . a member or honorary member may be promoted from the rank of officer to that of commander .\nthe order of national hero , established in 1969 , is the highest of the orders and may be conferred on any jamaican or naturalised citizen who has rendered the most distinguished service to jamaica .\nand by the award of the badge of honour of the medal of honour .\nthe insignia of the order of the nation consists of a magnificent breast star bearing the heraldic arms of jamaica on a red enamelled background in the centre and surrounded by the motto of the order in gold lettering on green enamel . between the points of the star are gold representations of pineapples . the broad watered silk sash is in brilliant red with narrow green edging .\nthe insignia of the order of distinction ( officer ) is suspended from a breast riband of similar colours without the finial . the triangular silver badge has in the centre a yellow enamelled square on which is placed the arms of jamaica in silver .\nthe order of jamaica can be conferred upon any jamaican citizen of outstanding distinction or any distinguishing citizen of a country other than jamaica . the motto is ' for a covenant of the people ' . members and honorary members are entitled to wear the insignia of the order as a decoration ; to be styled ' honourable ' ; to use the post nominal letters ' oj ' in the case of members and ' oj ( hon ) ' in the case of honorary members .\nthe insignia of the order of merit is a collar badge suspended from a deep maroon silk riband . the six - armed white enamelled star with 12 points has superimposed on , it a lesser shaped star in silver . between each of the outer six points of the star is the blue lignum vitae flower of jamaica . in the centre , the arms of jamaica in gold on a contrasting silver background , surrounded by the motto of the order in gold lettering on red enamel .\nmembers of the order and their spouses are styled ' the most honourable ' and members wear the insignia of the order as a decoration while appending the postnominal on to their name .\ncopyright \u00a9 2013 jamaica observer . all rights reserved . terms under which this service is provided to you .\nofficers of the order of distinction are entitled to use the post nominal letters : ' od ' in the case of members ; ' od ( hon . ) ' in the case of honorary members . the term ' order of distinction ' should never be abbreviated by the letters ' od ' as the post nominal letters ' od ' denote ' officer of the order of distinction ' .\nthe recipient is styled ' the right excellent ' and wears the insignia of the order . < continue reading >\nthe insignia of the order of national hero is a 12 - pointed gold and white star , centred on a black enamelled medallion . the medallion features the jamaican coat of arms in gold relief , and it is encircled by the motto of the order ,\nhe built a city which hath foundations .\nit is typically displayed on a neck ribbon in the national colours of jamaica ( black , yellow , and green ) , along with a laurel wreath of gold and green enamel .\nthe order of merit is conferred upon jamaicans or on distinguished citizens of another country who has achieved eminent international distinction in the field of science , arts , literature or any other endeavour . members and honorary members of the order are entitled to wear the insignia of the order as a decoration and to be styled as the honourable . in addition , they can append the postnominal letters om to their names , or om ( hon ) in the case of honorary members . the order ' s motto is ' he that does the truth comes into the light ' .\nonce a month , reality roasters will roast prestigious coffees from all over the world . these coffees are considered by many to be the best coffees available ! these will include aces and cup of excellence coffees from colombia , costa rica , el salvador , and fine auction lot coffees from africa , jamaica , or kona . as a member , you will receive one pound of that months coffee selection . these coffees will not be offered to our other retail clients .\nthe former president of south africa , his excellency thabo mbeki was conferred with the award on july 1 , 2003 ; the king of spain , his majesty juan carlos was conferred with the order in february of 2009 ' and president of tanzania , his excellency jakaya mrisho kikwete , was conferred with the order in november 2009 .\nrecipients of this honour are entitled to be styled formally as ' the most honourable ' , wear the insignia of the order , and use the post nominal letters \u2018on\u2019 .\nthen don ' t worry \u2014 your e - mail address is totally secure . i promise to use it only to send you jamaica land we love newsletter .\nnational honours and awards are administered by the chancery of the orders of the societies of honour in the office of the prime minister .\nthe coffees typically come from very small farms , are hand picked , milled , and processed by the farmer on site , and then carefully packed and shipped to the states . all of these coffees have won awards or scored very highly for their flavor and quality cupping results . see below for further details on the cup of excellence process .\nin addition to focusing on creating facilities that allow seniors to maintain their independence as long as possible and to live with the dignity and compassion they deserve , barrie has also committed significant foundation resources to researching seniors\u2019 issues and encouraging the development of medical expertise in alberta . this includes brenda strafford chairs at the university of calgary in geriatric medicine and alzheimer research , as well as the u of c brenda strafford centre of excellence in gerontological nursing . barrie\u2019s commitment to helping abused women also resulted in the university\u2019s brenda strafford chair in the prevention of domestic violence .\ncoffee club annual membership - due to cart limitations , you may see shipping charges ; please be assured that these will be removed at final order processing .\nthe award can be held by no more than 15 living persons . bob marley was awarded the order of merit in 1981 , shortly before his death . the poet , singer , actress and broadcaster louise bennett - coverley was also a member .\n' cd ' in the case of members ; ' cd ( hon . ) ' in the case of honorary members .\nthis price includes twelve pounds of coffees and shipping . coffee is shipped automatically once a month . you always have the opportunity to purchase additional coffee when available ! this really is an exceptional value and is only available for a small percentage of our customers . order today to ensure you too will receive the world ' s most exclusive coffees .\nbarrie strafford\u2019s commitment to service has resulted in numerous honours over the years , including the alberta centennial medal , the queen\u2019s golden jubilee medal , honourary fellowship in the royal college of physicians and surgeons of canada , an honourary doctor of laws degree from the university of calgary and special recognition from the canadian geriatric society and the people of dominica . barrie also received the highest papal honour available when he was made a knight of st . silvester by pope benedict xvi .\nplease help support the cost of hosting photographs by clicking on the advert . thanks .\nspouses of the recipients are also styled ' the most honourable ' . < continue reading >\nhe began his work overseas , building health clinics in the small , impoverished caribbean island of dominica . his friend arthur jenkins , the then president of the charitable organization operation eyesight universal , suggested that barrie find a way to serve the people of haiti . that suggestion evolved into the institut brenda strafford in haiti which represented a significant operation for the foundation and provides invaluable health care services to countless people who would otherwise go without . in addition to the institut , the foundation\u2019s caribbean projects have grown to include brenda strafford health clinics in four communities in dominica , eye care beds for the princess margaret hospital in dominica and various health related teaching and testing projects . the foundation also established the village of hope in montego bay , jamaica , which serves as a medical centre , an aids hospice and a teaching orphanage .\nbarrie strafford has offered distinguished service as a nursing home and assisted care facility leader , as a caring humanitarian serving people in need in underprivileged countries and as a tireless supporter of a wide range of alberta causes from medical research that benefits seniors to programs for victims of domestic abuse .\n\u201cto cater to humanity ; to bring a measure of hope to people whose outlook seems hopeless . \u201d\nas a teenager , barrie harboured a desire to become a test pilot and volunteered to join the military in the final year of the second world war . he successfully made his way through the battery of tests required of all potential pilots , only to discover in the final stages that he was colour blind and would be unable to fly . still anxious to serve in whatever capacity he could , barrie became a radio operator with the royal navy . he began his duties at the age of 18 and served for two years , after the end of the war .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 the gleaner company ( media ) limited . a member of the rjrgleaner communications group . all rights reserved .\n3 . we ask that comments are civil and free of libellous or hateful material . also please stick to the topic under discussion .\nas the riverview became established , barrie extended his commitment to the community with duties as director and chairman of the alberta motor association in medicine hat and a director of the alberta hospital association where he represented all nursing homes in alberta . he also took over operations of the bow view nursing home in calgary . in time , barrie and brenda began discussing possible plans to put a greater focus on charitable work .\nbarrie ingram strafford was born in manchester , england on september 26 , 1928 . the only child of dudley and gladys strafford , barrie enjoyed the care and attention of parents who worked hard to give their son every possible advantage in life . that included the opportunity to attend clarke\u2019s college in bristol from the age of 13 . barrie made the best of an opportunity that had been created for him at considerable financial sacrifice by his parents and obtained honours in english , history , literature and art . throughout school he was also active in sports and served as an air cadet .\nin 1962 , barrie increased his education by enrolling in extension courses in management development at the u of a in calgary where he gained honours in accounting and economics . in the 1960\u2032s , barrie also fulfilled his dream of flying when a regulation change allowed him to earn his wings and purchase an airplane .\njamaican dancehall music was developed in the 1980 ' s and is the pinnacle of the music industry we are now experiencing with constant changes in sound derived from earlier genres .\nbarrie and brenda set about building a life together in england and welcomed a son , miles , in 1951 . barrie soon realized that he would enjoy a better chance of realizing his dream of opening his own business if the family moved overseas . after considering various options , he and brenda chose canada as their new home . in 1952 , barrie went ahead to begin looking for work and arrived in halifax where he was greeted by one of brenda\u2019s relatives and was told to continue west to calgary because it was viewed as \u201cthe place of the future of canada . \u201d once there , barrie wasted no time in settling down to work as a painter and then as a cost accountant for a construction business . his family joined him the next year and barrie and brenda set about raising a family that grew to include miles and three daughters : roxanne , sheree and lisa .\n. . . in gold letters on royal blue enamel . the insignia is worn with a yellow shoulder sash edged with a narrow band of green and black in equal proportions .\n1 . we welcome reader comments on the top stories of the day . some comments may be republished on the website or in the newspaper \u00ef\u00bf\u00bd email addresses will not be published .\norders are used to recognise merit in terms of achievement and service . decorations and awards are used to recognise bravery , meritorious , long and / or valuable service and / or good conduct .\nwe are opening another club opportunity . reality roasters coffee company , in its quest to deliver the best coffees of the world , is proud to announce team reality for another twenty lucky customers !\n2 . please understand that comments are moderated and it is not always possible to publish all that have been submitted . we will , however , try to publish comments that are representative of all received .\nthese coffees are a tad bit more expensive . some say , you get what you pay for ! know this ; we will price the coffee as reasonable as possible . every lot of coffee will be priced accordingly . one might expect costs to run from $ 18 to $ 30 per pound . yes , that is expensive coffee , but it will be some of the best coffee in the world !\nthe national honours and awards act , promulgated on the 18th of july 1969 , made it possible for the nation to recognize those who by their service and contribution have had a meaningful and significant impact on national life .\nby 1964 , barrie knew that it was time to make a change from his duties as an accountant and manager and return to his original dream of opening his own business . at first , he was attracted to nursing homes as a promising business opportunity because they were an area of growth for the province at that time . he became involved in the newly created alberta nursing home plan and chose medicine hat as a location in need of a modern facility . barrie and his family were welcomed into the community with open arms and he set about building the riverview nursing home . on the grand opening day , that new facility became far more than a business venture to barrie . as he watched the first 13 residents being admitted , barrie was profoundly struck by how much they needed care and compassion and , in that moment , he made a personal commitment to dedicate himself to serving seniors .\nyou don ' t have to be a journalist , just write what you have to say from the heart . all we ask is that you keep it clean . to post your thoughts or pictures , just fill out our simple registration form . best of all it ' s free ! let us hear from you . . .\ntragically , brenda would never see those plans come to fruition . barrie lost his wife in a car accident on june 23 , 1974 . that terrible event prompted barrie to dedicate himself to serve others in her honour . he created the brenda strafford foundation and began looking for community investments , primarily in the areas of health care and services for seniors .\nwhile barrie was hard at work developing the foundation\u2019s charitable programs to benefit people in need in the caribbean , he devoted equal energies to helping his fellow albertans . the foundation\u2019s investments in the province include continuing care facilities such as bow view manor and wentworth manor in calgary , the brenda strafford centre for the prevention of domestic violence which provides safe , affordable housing and counseling for women and their children fleeing domestic violence , gateway place for women without children fleeing domestic violence and a transitional housing facility for calgary homeless families called brenda\u2019s house .\ncopyright \u00a9 2012 gleaner company ltd . all rights reserved . powered by unique media design\nthe national jamaican awards and honours recognize those jamaicans or foreign nationals who , by their service , have made a meaningful and significant contribution to national development .\nforeign nationals receiving the award are honorary members and use the post nominal letters \u2018oj ( hon ) \u2019 . < continue reading >\nhave your say about what you just read ! leave me a comment in the box below .\nthis jamaican mango smoothie recipe can be used to make a refreshing jamaican beverage that will tantalize your taste buds and keep you cool all at the same time .\njamaican music has evolved in such a dynamic way that we have to endorse what the legend bob marley said . . . when it hits you , you feel no pain . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nthe national honours and awards act , promulgated on july 1969 , made it possible for the nation to recognise those who by their service and contribution have had a meaningful and significant impact on national life .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n4 . please do not write in block capitals since this makes your comment hard to read .\n5 . please don ' t use the comments to advertise . however , our advertising department can be more than accommodating if emailed : advertising @ urltoken .\n6 . if readers wish to report offensive comments , suggest a correction or share a story then please email : community @ urltoken .\nchristine laing on dr . louise bennett coverly -\nmiss lou\nas a national hero\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nexample : colombia lot # : 3 diogenes muchicon perdomo - san antonio jury descriptions : sweet ( 24 ) , bright lively acidity ( 24 ) , citric and complex ( 21 ) , creamy ( 19 ) , smooth finish ( 18 ) , cherry floral notes ( 16 ) , chocolate caramel ( 11 ) , red wine notes ( 10 ) , round ( 6 ) , lemon ( 6 ) , buttery ( 5 ) , blackberry ( 3 ) , vanilla ( 2 ) , sparkling finish .\ncall and reserve your spot today . it is that simple ! don ' t wait , join the team today !\nour website is made possible by displaying online advertisements to our visitors . please consider supporting us by disabling your ad blocker .\nbarrie freely admits that he regrets not returning to school after his military service . however , the years following his royal navy service did net one very important result . on july 29 , 1950 , barrie married brenda mary mabbs , whom he had met at a dance in keynsham , england . brenda would prove to be not only his life partner but the main inspiration for the exceptional public service he would one day offer ."]}
{"id": 1700, "summary": [{"text": "scopula actuaria is a moth of the family geometridae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by walker in 1861 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found throughout the oriental tropics of india , sri lanka , from afghanistan and taiwan to the southern moluccas and timor .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is also found on the chagos archipelago . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "scopula actuaria", "paragraphs": ["select a genus & species ignobilia prout - ignobilia urnaria guen\u017ee zythos fletcher - zythos turbata walker - zythos avellanea prout - zythos strigata warren - zythos obliterata warren antitrygodes warren - antitrygodes divisaria walker - antitrygodes pseudagrata sp . n problepsis lederer - problepsis plenorbis prout - problepsis apollinaria guen\u017ee - problepsis borneamagna sp . n - problepsis delphiaria guen\u017ee - problepsis achlyobathra prout scopula schrank - scopula inficita walker - scopula actuaria walker - scopula usticinctaria walker - scopula mecysma swinhoe - scopula opicata fabricius - scopula adeptaria walker - scopula insolata aequibrachiata ssp . n - scopula flavinsolata sp . n - scopula annularia swinhoe - scopula planidisca bastelberger - scopula pulchellata fabricius - scopula parodites prout - scopula pithogona prout - scopula brookesae holloway - scopula sp . ? albiflava warren - scopula coangulata prout - scopula voluptaria prout - scopula ? pallidiceps warren - scopula pauperata prout - scopula leucopis prout - scopula quadratisparsa holloway - scopula vacuata guen\u017ee - scopula subdecorata warren - scopula hyphenophora warren - scopula succrassula prout - scopula sp ? sybillaria swinhoe - scopula melinau sp . n - scopula nesciaroides sp . n - scopula asymmetrica sp . n - scopula phallarcuata sp . n - scopula deflavarioides sp . n - scopula 18361 - scopula 9015 - scopula 9012 , 18422\nhave a fact about scopula actuaria ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for scopula actuaria ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nngu ? n : wikipedia . c c trang : 34 . ch ng : scopulini , sterrhini , daea , idaea , scopula , anisodes , scopula rubiginata , scopula ternata , idaea subsaturata , scopula limboundata , idaea rusticata , idaea emarginata , scopula actuaria , idaea pallidata , idaea muricata , idaea fuscovenosa , idaea inquinata , scopula junctaria , idaea mustelata , idaea humiliata , scopula ornata , scopula immutata , chrysocraspeda , idaea serpentata , scopula marginepunctata , scopula immorata , euacidalia , scopula decorata , acratodes , idaea ochrata , idaea degeneraria , scopula nigropunctata , dithalama , epicosymbia , idaea subsericeata , idaea trigeminata , idaea mediaria , idaea deversaria , scopula cacuminaria , idaea dimidiata , idaea sylvestraria , idaea straminata , craspediopsis , brachyglossina , anisodes obstataria , dasybela , idaea contiguaria , idaea laevigata , problepsis , dizuga , scopula imitaria , eumacrodes , idaea dilutaria , cleta , chorizomena , problepsis achlyobathra , lophophleps phoenicoptera , cinglis , epicleta , idaea infirmaria , hyriogona , scopula rubraria , idaea inversata , dithalama cosmospila , zythos , idaea filicata , bytharia , rhodometra , schematorhages , polygraphodes , thysanotricha , somatina , strophoptila , myrice , mnesterodes , pareupithex , xenocentris , zeuctoneura , hemipogo , problepsiodes , silvaspica , euphenolia , hirthestes , odontoptila , ptychopoda , brachyprota , cysteophora , hemipogon , neochrysa , pogonogya , prospasta , ptenopoda , pythodora , carphoxera , deinopygia , lophosis , psilephyra , synomila , cacorista , janarda , limeria , omopera , sterrha , lobura , pyctis , paota , streblopoda , palaeaspilates , heteroctenis , longipalpa , leptacme , hemigymnodes , eremocentra , phrissosceles , streptopteron , stibarostoma , trirachopoda , pachythalia , prostenodes , conchocometa , crypsiplocia , mesotrophe , platisodes , xenoprora , emmesura , perixera , pisoraca , plocucha , antitrygodes , scopula optivata , chlorocraspedia , pleionocentra , glossotrophia , eueupithecia , protoproutia , ptychamalia , isoplenodia , trichoclada , ustocidalia , lipocen . . .\nherbulot c . 1992g . nouveaux scopula de la r\u00e9gion \u00e9thiopienne . - lambillionea 92 ( 1 ) : 78\u201388 .\nherbulot c . 1985b . trois nouveaux scopula du natal ( l\u00e9pid . geometridae ) . - bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de mulhouse 15 ( 2 ) : 17\u201319 .\nherbulot c . 1972a . les scopula malgaches du groupe de rubrosignaria ( mabille ) ( lepidoptera , geometridae ) . - bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de mulhouse 2 ( 1 ) : 13\u201316 .\nscopula - species dictionary - global : ispot nature - your place to share nature . ispot is a website aimed at helping anyone identify anything in nature . once you ' ve registered , you can add an observation to the website and suggest an identification yourself or see if anyone else can identify it for you .\nwalker , 1861 , list specimens lepid . insects colln br . mus . , 22 : 752 .\ncerata lengths show wide variation ( see fig 193 ) . s . heba prout ( new guinea to solomons ) is closely related .\noriental tropics to taiwan , afghanistan ( ssp . sheljuzhkoi ) and timor ( ssp . nigranalis ) , s . moluccas . also from the chagos archipelago in the indian ocean .\nbornean material seen is from tenom in the lowlands of sabah , and several specimens were taken in cocoa plantations at tuaran in 1997 .\nyunus & ho ( 1980 ) recorded this species as feeding on theobroma ( cocoa , sterculiaceae ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nthere is some variability in the ornamentation of the male eighth sternite throughout its range , even within a single locality .\nthis article was sourced from creative commons attribution - 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2018 abebooks inc . all rights reserved . abebooks , the abebooks logo , abebooks . com ,\npassion for books .\nand\npassion for books . books for your passion .\nare registered trademarks with the registered us patent & trademark office .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nregions of the russian federation : the volga - don , east caucasus , western caucasus , lower volga , southern urals .\nbulgaria , greece ( mainland ) , macedonia , russia , turkey ( european part ) , ukraine .\n[ 10 ] de jong , y . s . d . m . ( ed . ) ( 2011 ) fauna europaea version 2 . 4 ( faunaeur . org )\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nschrank f . von paula 1802 . fauna boica . durchgedachte geschichte der in baiern einheimischen und zahmen tiere . zweyter band zweyte abtheilung . - \u2014 2 ( 2 ) : 1\u2013412 .\ntype species : phalaena paludata linnaeus , 1767 . systema naturae ( edn 12 ) 1 ( 2 ) : 873 . by subsequent designation by prout , 1906 . the entomologist 39 : 266 .\nherbulot c . 1955a . nouveaux sterrhinae malgaches ( lepid . geometridae ) . - le naturaliste malgache 7 ( 2 ) : 181\u2013189 , pl . 6 .\nguen\u00e9e a . m . 1858a . in : boisduval , j . a . b . & guen\u00e9e , a . histoire naturelle des insectes . sp\u00e9cies g\u00e9n\u00e9ral des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res . ix . uranides et phal\u00e9nites . tome i . - \u2014 9 : 1\u2013xxxvii , 1\u2013514 .\nwalker f . 1861a . list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . part xxii . \u2013 geometrites ( continued ) . - \u2014 22 : i\u2013iv , 499\u2013755 .\nwarren w . 1911 . description of some new geometridae and pyralidae from south africa . - annals of the south african museum 10 ( 1 ) : 19\u201330 .\nwarren w . 1897a . new genera and species of moths from the old - world regions in the tring museum . - novitates zoologicae 4 : 12\u2013130 .\nholland w . j . 1894b . new and undescribed genera and species of west african noctuidae . - psyche 7 : 7\u201310 , 27\u201334 , 36 , 47\u201350 , 67\u201370 , 83\u201390 , 109\u2013128 , 141\u2013144 , pls . 1\u20135 .\nswinhoe c . 1909 . new species of indo - malayan and african lepidoptera . - annals and magazine of natural history ( 8 ) 3 ( 14 ) : 89\u201398 .\nprout l . b . 1932a . voyage de ch . alluaud et r . jeannel en afrique orientale ( 1911\u20131912 ) . insectes l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res . iii . geometridae . - m\u00e9moires de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 zoologique de france 29 ( 5 ) : 375\u2013512 .\np\u00fcngeler r . 1894 . acidalia adelpharia n . sp . - stettiner entomologische zeitung 55 : 76\u201377 .\nwiltshire e . p . 1986 . lepidoptera of saudi arabia : fam . cossidae , sesiidae , metarbelidae , lasiocampidae , sphingidae , geometridae , lymantriidae , arctiidae , nolidae , noctuidae ( heterocera ) ; fam . satyridae ( rhopalocera ) ( part 5 ) . - fauna of saudi arabia 8 : 262\u2013323 .\nberio e . 1937a . nuove specie di eteroceri noctuidae \u2013 lymantriidae \u2013 limacodidae \u2013 geometridae . - annali del museo civico di storia naturale di genova 58 : 174\u2013181 .\nwarren w . 1902b . new african drepanulidae , thyrididae , epiplemidae , and geometridae in the tring museum . - novitates zoologicae 9 : 487\u2013536 .\nhausmann a . 2009b . new and interesting geometrid moths from sokotra islands ( lepidoptera , geometridae ) . - mitteilungen der m\u00fcnchner entomologischen gesellschaft 99 : 95\u2013104 .\nprout l . b . 1932c . new genera and species of sterrhinae ( fam . geometridae ) . - novitates zoologicae 37 : 229\u2013251 .\nwarren w . 1899b . new drepanulidae , thyrididae , and geometridae from the aethiopian region . - novitates zoologicae 6 ( 3 ) : 288\u2013312 .\nwiltshire e . p . 1949b . the lepidoptera of the kingdom of egypt , part 2 . - bulletin of the society fouad i entomology 33 : 381\u2013460 , pls . 1\u20132 .\nhausmann a . 2009c . new and interesting geometrid moths from dhofar , southern oman ( lepidoptera , geometridae ) . - mitteilungen der m\u00fcnchner entomologischen gesellschaft 99 : 111\u2013128 .\nprout l . b . 1915a . new genera and species of african geometridae . - novitates zoologicae 22 : 311\u2013385 .\nwallengren h . d . j . 1863 . lepidopterologische mittheilungen . iii . - wiener entomologische monatschrift 7 ( 5 ) : 137\u2013151 .\nhampson g . f . 1910c . zoological collections from northern rhodesia and adjacent territories : lepidoptera phalaenae . - proceedings of the zoological society of london 1910 ( 2 ) : 388\u2013510 , pls . 36\u201341 .\nwalker f . 1861b . list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . part xxiii . \u2013 geometrites ( continued ) . - \u2014 23 : i\u2013iv , 757\u20131020 .\nwalker f . 1875 . lepidoptera . \u2013 in : melliss , j . c . ( ed . ) , st . helena : a physical , historical , and topographical description of the island , including its geology , fauna , flora , and meteorology . - \u2014 : i\u2013xii , 1\u2013410 .\nbastelberger m . j . 1909b . ein neues genus und neun neue afrikanische geometriden eus meiner sammlung . - internationale entomologische zeitschrift , guben 3 ( 18 ) : 100\u2014101 .\nprout l . b . 1934a . new species and subspecies of geometridae . - novitates zoologicae 39 ( 2 ) : 99\u2013136 .\nlederer j . 1853a . versuch , die europ\u00e4ischen lepidopteren in m\u00f6glichst nat\u00fcrliche reihenfolge zu stellen . die spanner . - verhandlungen der zoologisch - botanischen gesellschaft wien 3 : 165\u2013270 .\nwarren w . 1905e . new african thyrididae , uraniidae , and geometridae . - novitates zoologicae 12 : 380\u2013409 .\npagenstecher a . 1907 . in : voeltzkow , a . reise in ostafrika in den jahren 1903\u201305 . wissenschaftliche ergebnisse 2 . systematische arbeiten , bd 2 , hft 2 ( lepidoptera heterocera von madagaskar , den comoren und ostafrika : uraniidae , geometridae , noctuidae , pyralidae , thyrididae , . . . - \u2014 2 ( 2 ) : 93\u2013146 , pl . 6 .\nwiltshire e . p . 1949a . middle east lepidoptera , ix [ sic , recte x ] . new species and forms from arabia and persia , with a description of the genus tamsola from iraq . - bulletin of the society fouad i entomology 33 : 353\u2013372 .\nswinhoe c . 1904c . on the geometridae of tropical africa in the national collection . - transactions of the entomological society of london 1904 ( 3 ) : 497\u2013590 .\nlederer j . 1855b . beitrag zur eine schmetterlings - fauna von cypern , beirut und einem theile kleinasiens . - verhandlungen der zoologisch - botanischen gesellschaft wien 5 : 177\u2013254 , pls . 1\u20133 .\nherbulot c . 1965a . l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res geometridae du haut sambirano ( madagascar ) . - bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de france 69 ( 1964 ) : 253\u2013258 .\njanse a . j . t . 1933\u20131935 . the moths of south africa . volume ii . geometridae ( concluded ) . - \u2014 2 ( 1 ) : 1\u2013448 , pls . 1\u201315 .\nprout l . b . 1925d . new species of geometridae ( lepidoptera ) in the collections of the south african museum . - annals of the south african museum 19 ( 4 ) : 579\u2013600 , pls . 16\u201317 .\nbrandt w . 1938 . beitrag zur lepidopterenfauna von iran . neue gattungen , arten , und formen . - entomologische rundschau 55 : 497\u2013505 , 517\u2013523 , 548\u2013554 , 558\u2013561 , 567\u2013569 .\nfletcher d . s . 1955 . geometridae . exploration du parc naturel d ' upemba . mission g . f . de witte 1946\u20131949 . - \u2014 32 ( 5 ) : 79\u201392 .\nwarren w . 1898a . new species and genera of the families thyrididae , uraniidae , epiplemidae , and geometridae . - novitates zoologicae 5 : 5\u201341 .\nprout l . b . 1933\u20131938 . geometridae ( fauna africana , part 16 ) . \u2013 in : seitz . a . ( ed . ) , die gross - schmetterlinge der erde . - \u2014 16 .\nherbulot c . 1994b . geometridae ( lepidoptera ) r\u00e9colt\u00e9s \u00e0 sokotra par le dr . j . - g . canu . - lambillionea 94 ( 3 ) : 389\u2013393 .\nprout l . b . 1927a . a list of the geometridae ( lep . het ) known to occur in the island of s\u00e3o thom\u00e9 , with descriptions of some new species collected by mr . t . a . barns . - transactions of the entomological society of london 75 ( 1 ) : 187\u2013200 , pl . 20 .\nwalker f . 1863a . list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . part xxvi . \u2013 geometrites ( continued ) . - \u2014 26 ( 1962 ) : i\u2013iv , 1479\u20131796 .\nkarisch t . 2001a . zur geometridenfauna von bioko ( lepidoptera ; geometridae ) . - lambillionea 101 ( 1 ) : 161\u2013184 .\nwarren w . 1901d . drepanulidae , thyrididae , epiplemidae , and geometridae from the aethiopian region . - novitates zoologicae 8 : 202\u2013217 .\nwarren w . 1900a . new genera and species of thyrididae and geometridae from africa . - novitates zoologicae 7 : 90\u201398 .\nmabille p . 1900 . lepidoptera nova malgassica et africana . - annales de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de france 68 ( 1899 ) ( 4 ) : 723\u2013753 .\nwarren w . 1914 . descriptions of new species of lepidoptera heterocera in the south african museum . - annals of the south african museum 10 ( 12 ) : 467\u2013510 , pls . 40\u201341 .\nhampson g . f . 1903f . lepidoptera ii : moths i . \u2013 in : forbes h . o . ( ed . ) , the natural history of socotra and abd el k\u00fbri . a monograph of the islands . - \u2014 : 319\u2013340 , pl . 20 .\nkheil n . m . 1909 . lepid\u00f3pteros de la guinea espa\u00f1ola . - memorias de la real sociedad espa\u00f1ola de historia natural 1 ( 28 ) : 483\u2013506 .\nwarren w . 1899a . new species and genera of the families drepanulidae , thyrididae , uraniidae , epiplemidae , and geometridae from the old - world regions . - novitates zoologicae 6 ( 1 ) : 1\u201366 .\ndistant w . l . 1892a . contribution to a knowledge of the entomology of the transvaal . - annals and magazine of natural history ( 6 ) 10 : 407\u2013408 .\nprout l . b . 1913b . new south african geometridae . - annals of the transvaal museum 3 ( 4 ) : 194\u2013225 .\nherbulot c . 1978e . nouveaux sterrhinae africains et malgaches ( lep . geometridae ) . - nouvelle revue d ' entomologie ( n . s . ) 8 ( 3 ) : 345\u2013349 .\nprout l . b . 1934b . new congo geometridae . - revue de zoologie et botanique africaines 26 ( 1 ) : 82\u201397 .\nwalker f . 1860b . list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . part xxi . \u2013 geometrites ( continued ) . - \u2014 21 : i\u2013iv , 277\u2013498 .\nstaudinger o . 1892b . neue arten und variet\u00e4ten von pal\u00e4arktischen geometridae aus meiner sammlung . - deutsche entomologische zeitschrift , iris 5 ( 1 ) : 141\u2013260 .\nmabille p . 1880c . comptes rendus . diagnoses lepidopterorum malgassicorum . - bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de belgique 23 : xvi\u2013xxvii .\nwarren w . 1898b . new species and genera of the families drepanulidae , thyrididae , uraniidae , epiplemidae , and geometridae from the old - world regions . - novitates zoologicae 5 : 221\u2013258 .\nprout l . b . 1917a . new geometridae ( lepidoptera ) in the south african museum . - annals of the south african museum 17 ( 1 ) : 47\u201377 .\nwarren w . 1903c . new african thyrididae and geometridae in the tring museum . - novitates zoologicae 10 : 271\u2013278 .\nhampson g . f . 1899c . the expedition to sokotra . vi . descriptions of one new genus and fourteen new species of moths . - bulletin of the liverpool museums 2 ( 2 ) : 35\u201339 , pl . 1 .\nprout l . b . 1911c . new african geometridae . - the entomologist 44 : 292\u2013295 .\nfletcher d . s . 1978a . geometridae ( lepidoptera ) collected by dr . j . szunyoghy in tanzania . - acta zoologica hungarica 24 ( 1\u20132 ) : 41\u2013105 , pl . 1 .\nhausmann a . 1999 . geometrid moth species from yemen ( lepidoptera : geometridae ) . - esperiana 7 : 283\u2013305 , pls . 1\u20135 .\nwiltshire e . p . 1990 . an illustrated , annotated catalogue of the macro - heterocera of saudi arabia . \u2013 in : b\u00fcttiker , w . & krupp , f . ( eds . ) . fauna of saudi arabia . - fauna of saudi arabia 11 : 91\u2013250 .\nhausmann a . & hebert p . 2009 . order lepidoptera , family geometridae ( part 2 ) the geometridae of the uae revised in the light of mtdna data . \u2013 in : van harten , a . ( ed . ) arthropod fauna of the uae . - \u2014 2 : 468\u2013479 .\ndebauche h . r . 1938a . geometridae ( lep . het . ) . explorations du parc national albert . mission g . f . de witte ( 1933\u20131935 ) . - \u2014 20 : 1\u201356 , pls . 1\u20136 .\nprout l . b . 1916b . geometridae . \u2013 in poulton , e . b . on a collection of moths made in somaliland by mr . w . feather . - proceedings of the zoological society of london 1916 ( 1 ) : 91\u2013182 , pls . 1\u20132 .\nprout l . b . 1922c . geometridae . \u2013 in : prout , l . b . & prout , a . e . , new south african heterocera . - annals of the transvaal museum 8 ( 3 ) : 149\u2013186 , pl . 1 .\nherbulot c . 1970 . lepidoptera geometridae du tsaratanana ( madagascar nord ) . - m\u00e9moires o . r . s . t . o . m . 37 : 157\u2013166 , pls . 13 , 13bis .\nguen\u00e9e a . m . 1858b . in : boisduval , j . a . b . & guen\u00e9e , a . histoire naturelle des insectes . sp\u00e9cies g\u00e9n\u00e9ral des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res . x . uranides et phal\u00e9nites . tome ii . - \u2014 10 : 1\u2013584 .\nherbulot c . 1999a . nouveaux geometridae de l ' \u00eele de bioko , guin\u00e9e equatoriale ( lepidoptera , geometridae ) . - nouvelle revue d ' entomologie ( n . s . ) 16 ( 2 ) : 147\u2013153 .\nherbulot c . & viette p . 1952 . mission de l ' office national antiacridien au tibesti - tchad ( 1949 ) . l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res h\u00e9t\u00e9roc\u00e8res . - annales de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de france 121 : 77\u201392 .\nwiltshire e . p . 1982a . insects of saudi arabia . lepidoptera : fam . cossidae , zygaenidae , sesiidae , lasiocampidae , bombycidae , sphingidae , thaumetopoeidae , thyretidae , notodontidae , geometridae , lymantriidae , noctuidae , ctenuchidae ( part 2 ) . - fauna of saudi arabia 4 : 271\u2013331 .\nprout l . b . 1922a . new and little - known geometridae . - novitates zoologicae 29 : 327\u2013363 .\nwalker f . 1869b . in : chapman t . , on some lepidopterous insects from congo . - proceedings of the natural history society of glasgow 1 : 325\u2013378 , pls 5\u20137 .\nherbulot c . 1962b . nouveaux geometridae des seychelles . - lambillionea 62 ( 3\u20136 ) : 31\u201333 .\nfletcher d . s . 1963a . exploration du parc national albert ( deuxi\u00e8me s\u00e9rie ) . 1 . geometridae ; 2 . noctuidae . - \u2014 15 ( 1 ) : 1\u201370 , 14 pls . ; 2 : 71\u2013155 , 14 pls .\nwarren w . 1905b . new species of geometridae from the aethiopian region . - novitates zoologicae 12 : 34\u201340 .\nzeller p . c . 1847a . verzeichnis der vom prof . dr . loew in der t\u00fcrkeij und asien gesammelten lepidoptera . - isis von oken 40 ( 1 ) : 3\u201339 .\nwarren w . 1904b . new drepanulidae , thyrididae , uraniidae , and geometridae from the aethiopian region . - novitates zoologicae 11 : 461\u2013482 .\nbastelberger m . j . 1909c . beschreibung 7 neuer exotischer geometriden ( lep . ) . - deutsche entomologische zeitschrift 1909 ( 2 ) : 316\u2013319 .\nguen\u00e9e a . m . 1862 . l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res . \u2013 in : maillard , l . , notes sur l ' \u00eele de la r\u00e9union ( bourbon ) ( annexe g ) . - \u2014 : 1\u201372 ; pls . 12\u201313 .\nlegrand h . 1958 . nouveaux l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res des \u00eeles s\u00e9chelles et cosmoledo . - bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de france 63 : 142\u2013146 .\nherbulot c . 1954b . l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res g\u00e9om\u00e9trides de la reserve naturelle int\u00e9grale du mont nimba . l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res g\u00e9om\u00e9trides . - m\u00e9moires de l ' institut fran\u00e7ais d ' afrique noire 40 ( 2 ) : 301\u2013333 , pl . 1 .\npaulian r . & viette p . 1956 . essai d ' un catalogue biologique des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res h\u00e9t\u00e9roc\u00e8res des environs de tananarive . - m\u00e9moires de l ' institut scientifique de madagascar ( e ) 6 : 141\u2013281 , pls . 1\u201312 .\nprout l . b . 1923b . new geometridae in the tring museum . - novitates zoologicae 30 ( 2 ) : 191\u2013215 .\nboisduval j . b . a . 1833a . faune entomologique de madagascar , bourbon et maurice . l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res . avec des notes sur les moeurs , par m . sganzin . - \u2014 : 1\u2013122 , pls . 1\u201316 .\nwarren w . 1900c . new genera and species of american drepanulidae , thyrididae , epiplemidae and geometridae . - novitates zoologicae 7 ( 2 ) : 117\u2013225 .\nherbulot c . 1966b . nouveaux geometridae du sud - ouest de madagascar . - bulletin mensuel de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 linn\u00e9enne de lyon 35 ( 5 ) : 216\u2013221 .\nwiltshire e . p . 1980a . lepidoptera : fam . cossidae , limacodidae , sesiidae , lasiocampidae , sphingidae , notodontidae , geometridae , lymantriidae , nolidae , arctiidae , agaristidae , noctuidae , ctenuchidae . \u2013 in : wittmer & b\u00fcttiker ( eds . ) , fauna of saudi arabia 2 . - fauna of saudi arabia 2 : 179\u2013240 .\nherbulot c . 1965c . l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res geometridae du tibesti . - lambillionea 63 ( 5\u20138 ) : 25\u201340 .\nbutler a . g . 1875b . on a collection of lepidoptera from southern africa , with descriptions of new genera and species . - annals and magazine of natural history ( 4 ) 16 ( 96 ) : 394\u2013420 .\nprout l . b . 1931a . a list of the geometridae collected by mr c . l . collenette in british somaliland with descriptions of new species . - annals and magazine of natural history ( 10 ) 7 ( 39 ) : 262\u2013272 .\nfawcett j . m . 1916 . notes on a collection of heterocera made by mr . w . feather in british east africa , 1911\u201313 . - proceedings of the zoological society of london 1916 ( 4 ) : 707\u2013737 , pl . 1 .\nhausmann a . 1998a . new and interesting geometrid moths from the oman ( lepidoptera , geometridae ) . - mitteilungen der m\u00fcnchner entomologischen gesellschaft 88 : 85\u201398 .\nwiltshire e . p . 1977b . the scientific results of the oman flora and fauna survey 1975 . lepidoptera : part i families cossidae , pyralidae , geometridae , sphingidae , arctiidae , lymantriidae and noctuidae . part ii a list of further lepidoptera - heterocera from oman . part iii pyral . . . - journal of oman studies special rep . 1 : 155\u2013178 .\nwarren w . 1901a . new thyrididae , epiplemidae and geometridae from the ethiopian region . - novitates zoologicae 8 : 6\u201320 .\nhausmann a . 2006 . the geometrid moth species from yemen \u2013 with 50 new records for the country and description of 20 new taxa ( lepidoptera : geometridae ) . - esperiana 12 : 9\u201362 , pls . 12\u201321 .\nherrich - sch\u00e4ffer g . a . w . 1843\u20131855 . systematische bearbeitung der schmetterlinge von europa , zugleich als text , revision und supplement zu jakob h\u00fcbner ' s sammlung europ\u00e4ischer schmetterlinge . die sch\u00e4rmer , spinner und eulen . - \u2014 2 : 1\u2013450 , pls . 1\u2013124 .\nfabricius j . c . 1798 . supplementum entomologia systematicae . - \u2014 : 1\u2013572 .\nbrandt w . 1941a . beitrag zur lepidopterenfauna von iran ( 3 ) . \u2013 neue agrotiden nebst faunenverzeichnissen . - mitteilungen der m\u00fcnchner entomologischen gesellschaft 31 ( 3 ) : 835\u2013863 .\nwarren w . 1897b . new genera and species of drepanulidae , thyrididae , epiplemidae , uraniidae and geometridae in the tring museum . - novitates zoologicae 4 : 195\u2013262 ; pl . 5 .\nherbulot c . 1957a . r\u00e9sultats de l ' exp\u00e9dition zoologique du professeur dr . hakan lindberg aux \u00eeles du cap vert durant l ' hiver 1953\u201354 . no 12 lepidopt\u00e8res geometridae . - commentationes biologicae , societatis scientiarum fennica 16 ( 10 ) : 1\u20138 , pl . 1 .\nthierry - mieg p . 1905 . description de l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res nouveaux . - le naturaliste 27 : 191\u2013193 .\nprout l . b . 1916a . new south african geometridae . - annals of the transvaal museum 5 ( 3 ) : 151\u2013179 , pl . 25 .\nsterneck 1933 . [ title ] . - zeitschrift des \u00f6sterreichischen entomologischen vereins 18 : 9 .\nprout l . b . 1928b . nouvelles geometridae africaines de la collection audeoud . - bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e9ristes de gen\u00e8ve 6 ( 1 ) : 19\u201332 , pl . 1 .\nwarren w . 1909b . new species of uraniidae and geometridae from the aethiopian region . - novitates zoologicae 16 : 110\u2013122 .\nprout l . b . 1935 . scientific results of the vernay - lang kalahari expedition , march to september 1930 . the geometridae . - annals of the transvaal museum 17 ( 1 ) : 1\u201313 .\nfabricius j . c . 1794 . entomologia systematica emendata et aucta . secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , adjectis synonymis , locis , descriptionibus , observationibus . - \u2014 3 ( 2 ) : 1\u2013349 .\nwalker f . 1863c . list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . part xxviii . \u2013 tortricites & tineites . - \u2014 28 : i\u2013iv , 287\u2013561 .\nherbulot c . 1985a . sur quelques geometridae des comores ( lepidoptera ) . - nouvelle revue d ' entomologie ( n . s . ) 2 ( 1 ) : 45\u201349 .\nsnellen p . c . t . 1872 . bijdrage tot de vlinder - fauna van neder - guinea , zuidwestelijk gedeelte van afrika . - tijdschrift voor entomologie 15 : 1\u2013110 , pls . 1\u20138 .\nwalker f . 1866b . list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . part xxxv . \u2013 supplement part 5 . - \u2014 35 : i\u2013iv , 1535\u20132040 .\nrebel h . 1907a . lepidopteren aus s\u00fcdarabien und von der insel sokotra . - denkschriften der \u00f6sterreichischen akademie der wissenschaften , wien 71 ( 2 ) : 31\u2013130 , pl . 1 .\nprout l . b . 1916c . new african geometridae . - novitates zoologicae 23 : 272\u2013286 .\ndebauche h . r . 1937 . entomological expedition to abyssinia , 1926\u201327 : lepidoptera , geometridae . - annals and magazine of natural history ( 10 ) 20 : 320\u2013344 , pls . 7\u20138 .\nherbulot c . 1972c . l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res geometridae de l ' andringitra ( madagascar centre ) . - bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de france 77 ( 5\u20136 ) : 140\u2013154 , pls . 1\u20132 .\nle cerf f . 1924 . contribution \u00e0 la faune des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res de l ' erythr\u00e9e . - annales de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de france 93 : 193\u2013210 .\nrebel h . 1948 . neue heteroceren aus aegypten . - zeitschrift der wiener entomologischen gesellschaft 32 ( 1947 ) ( 5\u20137 ) : 49\u201360 .\nfelder c . , felder r . & rogenhofer a . f . 1865\u20131875 . reise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den befehlen des commodore b . von w\u00fcllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . zweiter band . abtheilung 2 , heft 4 , lepidoptera . atlas der heterocera . - \u2014 2 ( 4 ) : 1\u201320 , pls . 1\u2013140 .\nbastelberger m . j . 1908b . neue exotische acidaliden aus meiner sammlung . - internationale entomologische zeitschrift , guben 2 ( 5 ) : 33\u201334 .\nprout l . b . 1919b . new species and forms in the joicey collection . - annals and magazine of natural history ( 9 ) 4 ( 22 ) : 277\u2013282 .\nstaudinger o . 1871b . beitrag zur lepidopterenfauna griechenlands . - horae societatis entomologicae rossicae 7 ( 1870 ) ( 1 ) : 3\u201366 ; ( 2\u20133 ) : 67\u2013282 ; ( 3 ) : 283\u2013304 , pls . 1\u20133 .\nwiltshire e . p . 1952a . lepidoptera recently taken in arabia . - bulletin of the society fouad i entomology 36 : 135\u2013174 , pl . 1 .\nwiltshire e . p . 1980b . the larger moths of dhofar and their zoogeographic composition . - journal of oman studies special rep . 2 : 187\u2013216 .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\nbulgaria , greece , italy , romania , the soviet union - the european part of yugoslavia .\nregions of the russian federation : the volga - don , east caucasus , gorno - altaisk , trans - baikal , lower volga , prealtay , of baikal , pribaikalskiy , tuva , south west siberian , south ural .\nbulgaria , greece ( mainland ) , italy ( mainland ) , macedonia , romania , russia , ukraine , croatia ."]}
{"id": 1709, "summary": [{"text": "leucobrephos brephoides , the scarce infant moth , is a moth of the family geometridae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found from yukon to labrador and south to new york and southern alberta and british columbia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of open mixed wood forests of the boreal and mountain region .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 29 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing from march to may with a peak in mid to late april in alberta .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "generally , the flight period begins when snow patches are still on the ground .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on populus tremuloides , betula papyrifera and alnus , but have also been recorded on salix and populus balsamifera .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "all these species produce catkins early in spring , which may be important food sources prior to leave flush . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "leucobrephos brephoides", "paragraphs": ["found flying / sunning along dirt road in deciduous forest . among 9 infants counted in approx . 1 km stretch of road , 8 were archiearis infans and just the single leucobrephos brephoides .\non apple osx , or right click on the text above to copy the link .\nadults in alberta from march into may , peaking in mid to late april .\nwas originally described in this genus ! ) . no similar species are on the wing as early as\n. the forewing is black and dusted with grey and a white - bordered black pm line , the am black line lacks a white border . hindwing white with and even black margin and basal black scaling . sexes are similar but can be separated by the pectinate ( feathery ) antennae of the males ; females have filiform ( thread - like ) antennae .\nthe early stages are described in mcguffin ( 1988 ) . habits of the adults are similar to those of archiearis infans , and the flight period often begins when snow patches are still on the ground . although the larval hosts are common and widespread , this species is usually rare , and not often encountered because of its early spring flight .\n) . these species all produce catkins early in the spring , which may be important food sources prior to leave flush .\nyukon to labrador south to new york and southern alberta / bc ( prentice 1963 ) .\ncomments are published according to our submission guidelines . the eh strickland entomological museum does not necessarily endorse the views expressed .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\npowell , j . a . & p . a . opler , moths of western north america , pl . 27 . 16m , 27 . 17f ; p . 204 . book review and ordering\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nopen mixedwood forests of the boreal and mountain region .\n- - u . alberta entomology page\ncontributed by john f . carr on 28 march , 2009 - 8 : 07pm additional contributions by marcie oconnor last updated 3 april , 2017 - 8 : 21am\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nthanks , john , i still have no idea how to move pages around on bugguide ( if i even can ) . i believe it is a male , yes ; this u of alberta entomology collection page indicates males have pectinate antennae , and females have filiform . that page has useful info on the species .\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\nthe information below is based on images submitted and identified by contributors . range and date information may be incomplete , overinclusive , or just plain wrong .\nhover over black occurrence boxes to see number of images submitted . log in to make states , months and boxes clickable .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nonline list of [ . . . ] the geometridae of the world ( dec 2007 ) , website ( version 01 / 12 / 2007 )\nmaintained by malcolm j . scoble and axel hausmann . online list of valid and available names of the geometridae of the world , urltoken last update december 2007\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\na location where the species occurs or has occurred and where there is potential for persistence or regular recurrence . for most species minimally verification of an adult or larva in association with suitable habitat including larval foodplant . minimum verification standards vary by species from genitalia dissection to decent photographs , but specimens are strongly recommended . it is usually advisable to rear larvae to the adult stage for positive identification .\nmost of these species are more or less landscape level moths that occupy a variety of wooded habitats and often adjacent shrublands and thickets . in the context of habitat separation , suitable habitat includes marginal habitat and unsuitable means sparsely wooded to treeless places without suitable larval foodplant . for the relatively few included species that are specialized feeders forest or woodland where the foodplant is absent or nearly so can be treated as unsuitable habitats . in particular for the obligate conifer feeders , forest tracts in which suitable ( for that species ) pines , spruces , firs , etc . comprise fewer than 4 canopy trees per hectare may be regarded as unsuitable . see habitat and food comments fields for species - specific information on what constitutes habitat when mapping occurrences .\nthis figure is arbitrary but a circle of two kilometers radius would define a habitat clearly smaller than most , but well above the smallest ones . it is probably unrealistically low in extensively forested areas . this figure should not be used however if forests are reduced to small woodlots and the landscape is more than 50 % agricultural or otherwise essentially devoid of native tree cover . in such cases the inferred extent is simply the woodlot in which the collection was made . in general with habitats under 1000 hectares assume full occupancy .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nscoble , m . j . ( ed . ) , m . s . parsons , m . r . honey , l . m . pitkin , and b . r . pitkin . 1999 . geometrid moths of the world : a catalogue . volumes 1 and 2 : 1016 pp . + index 129 pp . csiro publishing , collingwood , victoria , australia .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users ."]}
{"id": 1712, "summary": [{"text": "hydrocynus vittatus , the african tigerfish , tiervis or ngwesh is a predatory freshwater fish distributed throughout much of africa .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "this fish is generally a piscivore but it has been observed leaping out of the water and catching barn swallows in flight . ", "topic": 16}], "title": "hydrocynus vittatus", "paragraphs": ["metal concentrations in hydrocynus vittatus ( castelnau 1861 ) populations from a premier conservation . . .\nseasonal bioaccumulation of organohalogens in tigerfish , hydrocynus vittatus castelnau , from lake pongolapoort , south africa .\na histology - based fish health assessment of the tigerfish , hydrocynus vittatus from a ddt - affected area .\nother species of the tigerfish thriving in the african continent include the hydrocynus brevis ( sudan ) , the hydrocynus forskahlii ( northern africa ) and the hydrocynus tanzaniae ( tanzania ) .\nmetal concentrations in hydrocynus vittatus ( castelnau 1861 ) populations from a premier conservation area : relationships with environmental concentrations .\nhydrocynus ; h . vittatus ; h . brevis and h . forskalii ; length - weight relationship ; morphology ; taxonomy\nhydrocynus vittatus ( hydrocynus vittatus ( characid fish ) ) preys on : insecta diptera sarortherdon macrochir haplochromis darlingi tilapia rendalli based on studies in : africa , lake mcilwaine ( lake or pond ) this list may not be complete but is based on published studies .\nthe hydrocynus vittatus tiger fish is the second most famous species . it can grow to up to 33 pounds , and is common in the southernmost areas of the african continent . biologically referred to as the hydrocynus vittatus , its naming is a literal combination of the english phrases \u2018water dog\u2019 and \u2018striped\u2019 . the hydrocynus vittatus is common in areas around the okavango delta and the zambezi river system .\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2013 ) .\nhydrocynus vittatus\nin fishbase . december 2013 version .\n\u2019\u2019hydrocynus vittatus\u2019\u2019\n. iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . international union for conservation of nature . 2010 .\ntaxonomy , distribution and prevalence of parasites of tigerfish , hydrocynus vittatus ( castelnau , 1861 ) in the sanyati basin , lake kariba , zimbabwe .\ncochrane , k . l . , 1976 catches of hydrocynus vittatus castelnau during sardine fishing operations in kariba . kariba stud . , 7 : 98\u2013108\nhereafter , groups b , c , d and h . vittatus sensu stricto ( s . s . ) are designated the vittatus complex .\ncomparative behavioural assessment of an established and a new tigerfish hydrocynus vittatus population in two man - made lakes in the limpopo river catchment , southern africa .\nthe fish , hydrocynus vittatus , is known as a voracious predator and according to prof smit , its characteristic jump makes it a favourite species for freshwater anglers .\ntaxonomy , distribution and prevalence of parasites of tigerfish , hydrocynus vittatus ( castelnau , 1861 ) in the sanyati basin , lake kariba , zimbabwe . - pubmed - ncbi\nmatthes , h . , 1968 the food and feeding habits of the tiger - fish hydrocynus vittatus ( cast . 1861 ) in lake kariba . beaufortia 15 : 143\u201353\npatterns of movement and habitat use by tigerfish ( hydrocynus vit . . . : ingenta connect\nkenmuir , d . h . s . , 1975 the diet of fingerling tiger - fish , hydrocynus vittatus cast . in lake kariba , rhodesia . arnoldia rhod . , 7 : 1\u20138\ntaxonomic revision of the tiger fish hydrocynus vittatus ( castelnau , 1861 ) , h . brevis ( cuvier & valencience , 1849 ) and h . forskalii ( cuvier , 1819 ) from the nile in sudan\ntable 2 . frequency occurrence ( percentage ) of food items in various sizes of h . vittatus\nthe smaller h . vittatus is claimed to be one of the finest game fishes in the world .\ntable 3 the range of meristics counts for h . brevis , h . forskalii and h . vittatus\nkenmuir , d . h . s . , 1971 some aspects of hydrocynus vittatus castelnau ( tiger - fish ) research at lake kariba . news lett . limnol . soc . south . afr . , 17 : 33\u20138\nkenmuir , d . h . s . , 1972 report on a study of the ecology of the tiger - fish , hydrocynus vittatus castelnau in lake kariba . l . k . f . r . i . rep\nbayesian tree of the cytochrome b sequence data of hydrocynus produced in beast , using the gtr parameters specified by modeltest .\nbayesian tree of the cytochrome b sequence data of hydrocynus produced in mrbayes , using the gtr parameters specified by modeltest .\nmaximum parsimony of the cytochrome b sequence data of hydrocynus produced in paup , using the gtr parameters specified by modeltest .\ngeographically structured analysis of molecular variance ( amova ) using cyt b sequences for 26 h . vittatus individuals .\nthe second largest variety of tigerfish , the hydrocynus vittatus is a fierce predator characterized by a long slender shape and a forked caudal fin . although its scales can be appropriately described as large , iridescent and silvery ; sometimes they appear to have a golden cast .\ntaxonomic revision of the tiger fish hydrocynus vittatus ( castelnau , 1861 ) , h . brevis ( cuvier & valencience , 1849 ) and h . forskalii ( cuvier , 1819 ) from the nile in sudan | h . a . mohamed | international journal of aquaculture\nand the vittatus complex . its timing concurs with constraints on activity in the western branch of the active east african rift system (\ngoodier sam . evolution of the african tigerfish ( genus hydrocynus ) : insights into drainage evolution . 2010 . msc thesis : university of cape town .\ngroup b consists of two samples from the lufubu river ( a tributary of lake tanganyika ) collected alongside a series of h . vittatus ;\nactually the current world record vittatus is 39 inches and 35 pounds . its was an old fat female . normal specimens are under two feet .\n\u2026ostariophysan is the tigerfish ( hydrocynus vittatus ) , which attains a weight exceeding 45 kg ( approximately 100 pounds ) ; its huge , sharp teeth and large , tunalike tail endow it with ferocity and speed . parasitic habits are rarely found among bony fishes , but certain species of trichomycterid catfishes attach themselves to the gills\u2026\ngroup d is composed of samples from the luapula river , lake mweru , lake bangweulu and the chambeshi river . this lineage is sister to h . vittatus ;\nfigure 1 a diagram based on morphometric measurements of h . vittatus , h . brevis and h . forskalii specimens , showing the load of each character on their separation\nfigure 2 a diagram based on meristic counts of h . vittatus , h . brevis and h . forskalii specimens , showing the load of each character on their separation\nsummary of 88 genotyped individuals of hydrocynus characterized in this study , together with 2 genbank sequences , ordered by taxa with corresponding haplotype designations ( total = 42 ) and their collection sites .\nsmit , n . j . ; wepener , v . ; vlok , w . ; wagenaar , g . m . ( jan 2013 ) .\nconservation of tigerfish , hydrocynus vittatus , in the kruger national park with the emphasis on establishing the suitability of the water quantity and quality requirements for the olifants and luvuvhu rivers\n. water research commission .\ntable 1 . frequency occurrence of food items in the stomachs of h . vittatus at charlets and nchete / samaria island stations ( june , 1983 \u2013 may , 1985 )\nfig . 3 length frequency distribution of prey in h . vittatus . shaded histogram shows length frequency of commercial catch at siavonga area , data from subramaniam ( 1984 ) .\ntable 2 morphomertic measurements h . vittatus ( a ) , h . brevis ( b ) and h . forskalii ( c ) expressed as percentage of head length ( % hl )\nfig . 1 percentage frequency of food items by number from h . vittatus samples of ( a ) charlets ( b ) nchete / samaria island stations ( 1984 \u2013 1985 ) .\ntable 1 morphomertic measurements of h . vittatus ( a ) , h . brevis ( b ) and h . forskalii ( c ) and expressed as percentage of standard length ( % sl )\nfin clips or muscle tissue were collected from 88 hydrocynus individuals sampled from 12 drainage systems in the study area , preserved in 96 % ethanol and stored at room temperature or 4\u00b0c until dna extraction ( table s1 ) .\nmohamed and al - awadi , 2015 , taxonomic revision of the tiger fish hydrocynus vittatus ( castelnau , 1861 ) , h . brevis ( cuvier & valencience , 1849 ) and h . forskalii ( cuvier , 1819 ) from the nile in sudan , international journal of aquaculture , vol . 5 , no . 5 : 1 - 9 ( doi : 10 . 5376 / ija . 2015 . 05 . 0005 )\nand the vittatus complex in the pliocene at 3 . 1 ( ci : 5 . 3\u20131 . 3 ) ma also slightly postdates the initiation of tectonic tilting in the region north of lake malawi (\nthe \u2018 tiger fish \u2019 is the name generally used to refer to a variety of fish species of the genus hydrocynus . native to africa , the tiger fish is located in scores of rivers and lakes throughout the continent .\n. all subsequent divergence events within the vittatus complex ( 2 . 0\u20130 . 5 ma , plio - pleistocene ) , correspond to a time period of several drainage rearrangements in the zambian congo and the upper zambezi drainage systems\nwith the aim of resolving the cryptic diversity in hydrocynus , current research is examining representative museum specimens of all these taxa in a multi - faceted generic revision . this revision will include formal taxonomic evaluation of all cryptic lineages revealed by mtdna genotyping .\nis an unusual characin . this fish is best described by its scientific name .\nhydrocynus\nmeans\nwater dog\nand\nvittatus\nmeans\nstriped ,\nand , indeed , the african tiger fish looks like a\nstriped waterdog .\nthis big , ferocious fish is covered with large , iridescent , silvery scales , sometimes with a golden cast . other common names for this fish are tiger fish , tiger characin , ndweshi , african tigerfish , and tiervis .\n. . . tigerfish hydrocynus vittatus ( castelnau 1861 ) are arguably the most sought - after recreational angling fish in southern africa ( \u00f8kland et al . 2005 , smit et al . 2009 ) . they have a high social , economic and ecological importance as they are used as a food source and as indicators of ecological health throughout southern africa ( naesje et al . 2001 , gerber et al . 2009 , tweddle 2010 , mchugh et al . 2011 ) . . . .\n. . . it was merely , but regrettably , an accidental transposition of data in a table , with no implications thereof to our findings and conclusions . in addition a recent report ( smit et al . , 2013 ) found very high levels of ddt in tigerfish ( hydrocynus vittatus ) from knp rivers . predatory tigerfish from the luvuvhu river ( the same river we based our study on ) had the highest levels ever reported for any freshwater fish from south africa . . . .\nthis study provides the first complete molecular phylogeny of hydrocynus , which incorporates all described species , with representative geographical coverage . moreover , spatio - temporal resolution of diversification in hydrocynus , revealed by molecular dating of cladogenic events and structuring of genetic variation , points to pervasive control of landscape evolution , within and across extant drainage basins . these implications , pertinently as tests of tectonic control , are discussed in detail below . however , first we set in place the platform of taxonomic and phylogeographical knowledge informed by this phylogeny and associated phylogeographic statistics .\ncitation : goodier sam , cotterill fpd , o ' ryan c , skelton ph , de wit mj ( 2011 ) cryptic diversity of african tigerfish ( genus hydrocynus ) reveals palaeogeographic signatures of linked neogene geotectonic events . plos one 6 ( 12 ) : e28775 . urltoken\nsince h . vittatus alone had a significant value for fu ' s fs , only its mismatch distribution was calculated ( figure 5 ) . the \u2018raggedness\u2019 index was high ( r = 0 . 25 ) and significant ( p < 0 . 01 ) , indicating a poor fit of the observed and expected mismatch distributions [ 54 ] . the observed multimodal distribution , which is characteristic of a historically stable population , is supported by the high nucleotide and haplotype diversity in h . vittatus , which indicates a stable population with a large , persistent , effective population size . however , this can also indicate admixture of historically isolated populations but the low level of genetic distance within h . vittatus does not support a historically stable population .\ntable 4 principal component analysis ( pcas ) applied to correlation matrix showing the \u201ceigenvalue\u201d explained by each factor and the percentage of total variance ( % variance ) attributed to each factor of 28 morphometric measurements for h . vittatus , h . brevis and h . forskalii\ntable 5 principal component analysis ( pcas ) applied to correlation matrix showing the \u201ceigenvalues\u201d explained by each factor and the percentage of total variance ( % variance ) attributed to each factor of 10 meristic counts for h . vittatus , h . brevis and h . forskalii\nfigure 4 a division hierarchical cluster of meristic counts of h . vittatus ( a ) , h . brevis ( b ) and h . forskalii ( c ) , based on the matrix of distance of neighbour - joining clustering ( nearest neighbor ) , using euclidean\none of the causes of the decline in tilapia stocks in lake kariba was attributed to predation by h . vittatus ( matthes , 1968 ; kenmuir , 1971 and coulter et al . , 1965 ) . coke ( 1966 ) also observed 50 % occurrence of tilapia in tiger - fish stomachs . however , donnelly ( 1971 ) found that alestes lateralis formed 54 . 1 % and tilapias only 2 . 1 % of the tiger - fish diet , which lead him to conclude that since the establishment of aquatic plants which provide cover for tilapia juveniles , the influence of h . vittatus on tilapias was minimal . the present study suggests that tilapias still constitute an important item of food for h . vittatus in lake kariba despite the weed cover , although l , miodon remains the major prey .\nmicralestes acutiden s ( genbank accession number : ay791418 . 1 ) and ladigesia roloffi ( ay791417 . 1 ) were selected as outgroups due to their close genetic relationship to hydrocynus identified by calcagnotto et al . [ 18 ] . taxa were accepted as representing a certain species based on their affinities to known sequences from respective species from known localities , where available , and to sequences from topotypical material ( obtained from the type locality ) , and identified voucher specimens . for example , h . vittatus from the okavango delta is considered topotypical [ 55 ] , [ 56 ] .\nfigure 3 a division hierarchical cluster of log10 transformed of morphometric measurements of of h . vittatus ( a ) , h . brevis ( b ) and h . forskalii ( c ) , based on a matrix of distance of neighbour - joining clustering ( nearest neighbor ) , using euclidean similarity measure\nfigure 5a regression graph of length - weight relationship for h . vittatus showing the regression equation ( log 10 w = 0 . 48967729 + ( - 2 . 0794 ) log 10 sl ) equal to w = 3 . 088 l - 2 . 079 ; r 2 = 0 . 923\nthere are two major species of the african tigerfish , mostly common in the south african sub - region . the hydrocynus goliath , commonly referred to as the goliath tiger fish , is the largest in the family . the goliath tiger can grow to more than 110 pounds , and is rampant in lake tanganyika and the congo river .\nour phylogeographic results reveal key spatio - temporal details of how divergence events and demographic responses of tigerfishes have played out across african drainage systems over the late cenozoic . these cladogenic and dispersal events testify to the marked sensitivity of hydrocynus to the geomorphic evolution that fragmented and reconfigured drainage basins . this biogeographical resolution corroborates that obtained for galaxiid fishes and drainage evolution in the southern alps , new zealand [ 13 ] , [ 14 ] . collectively , they demonstrate how combined geological and genetic data provide the keys to unravel the histories of drainage basins and their biodiversity . these insights position us to evaluate how biotic events in hydrocynus interfaced with the geological evolution of neogene africa .\ncoloration : ground color similar to that of h . forskalii , but in h . vittatus tips of dorsal and adipose fin black and fork of caudal fin black - edged ; dark coloration may also extend unto median caudal rays , forming crescent - shaped blotch ( ref . 80290 , 81279 ) .\n. . . similar occasional long - distance movements have been observed in other large - bodied river fish . for example , paddlefish ( polyodon spathula ) in the upper mississippi moved up to 420 km ( zigler et al . 2003 ) , muskellunge ( esox masquinongy ) in the st . john river moved up to 100 km ( curry et al . 2007 ) , and tigerfish ( hydrocynus vittatus ) in the upper zambezi up to 71 km ( \u00f8kland et al . 2005 ) . taimen home range appears to fit the log - linear home range versus body size relationship across species described by minns ( 1995 , data not shown ) . . . .\nsouth africa\u2019s premier wilderness area , the kruger national park ( knp ) , is worldwide renowned for its conservation of africa\u2019s big five . however , equally important , but less known to the national and international visitors , it also plays a very important role in the conservation of tigers , but not the fury kind , rather the scaly type ! tigerfish , hydrocynus vittatus , one africa\u2019s premier freshwater fishes , are present in most of the main rivers of the knp , but unfortunately , their numbers are declining , not due to lack of protection in the knp , but rather a result of the deterioration of the water quality and quantity of the rivers before they enter the park .\na combination of primers designed in this study and modified universal pcr primers were used to amplify the cyt b region ( table s5 ) . alignment of available hydrocynus sequences , sequences of closely related characiforms from genbank [ 90 ] and partial cyt b sequences [ 18 ] were used to design primers . the final cyt b fragment was amplified as two parts . two primer combinations ( l14724hycf2 or l14990fishf and h15494hycr2 , and l15408hyc with one of three reverse primers ( hycgr2 , hycr3 or h15919hycr ) were used to amplify the respective , partially overlapping amplicons . the large number of reverse primers used was a result of the variability among hydrocynus species at the region initially selected for primer binding , based on the partial genbank sequences and related characiformes .\nfrom bottom ( clockwise ) : a ) h . brevis , b ) h . vittatus , c ) h . goliath , d ) h . forskahlii and e ) h . tanzaniae . photo credits : a ) stan nabozny , b ) ryan clark , c ) mike de wit , d ) dirk neumann , e ) keith clover .\nhydrocynus vittatus ( castelnau , 1861 ) synonyms : hydrocinus vittatus castelnau , 1861 hydrocyon lineatus bleeker , 1862 hydrocyon lineatus schlegel , 1863 hydrocyon lineatus gunther , 1864 hydrocyon vittatus boulenger , 1898 description : a brilliant silvery - coloured fish , with compressed elongated body , 205 to 375 mm standard length , covered by ctenoid scales and each scale marked by a dark spot forming parallel bands visible above the lateral line , and a very small adipose fin behind the dorsal fin . edges of dorsal and adipose fins black , forked edge of caudal fin distinctly black . position of the dorsal fin distinctly before the insertion of ventral fin . eye diameter 80 % of inter - orbital width . measurements are in % sl : body depth 20 . 4 to 28 . 9 ; head length 23 . 1 to 27 . 5 ; head width 11 . 2 to 13 . 1 ; upper snout length 9 to 11 . 2 ; lower snout length 10 to 13 . 7 ; eye diameter 6 . 6 to 9 . 2 ; inter - orbital width 9 . 7 to 11 . 6 ; post - orbital length 10 . 8 to 14 . 6 ; dorsal - to - adipose fin 27 . 7 to 37 . 5 ; pre - dorsal length 46 . 4 to 61 . 6 ; pre - ventral length 50 . 8 to 65 . 3 ; caudal peduncle length 10 . 9 to 12 . 6 ; caudal peduncle depth 9 to 11 . 8 .\nonly posterior probabilities over 0 . 90 are shown . error bars indicate the 95 % confidence intervals on the node dates ; numbers inside the bars are the dates estimated by beast ; those inside ovals are discussed in the text . the horizontal axis depicts time before present in millions of years ( ma ) . the colour coding of hydrocynus lineages corresponds to the drainage system ( s ) represented in each haplotype .\nthe contents of tiger - fish stomachs consisted mainly of fish , though insects , molluscs and crustaceans were also recorded . fish were found in about 97 % of the full stomachs examined and comprised mainly l . miodon and cichlids followed by unidentified and digested fish . the occurrence of synodontis zambezensis , alestes spp . and juvenile h . vittatus was insignificant ( < 1 % each ) .\na comparison of the stomach contents of h . vittatus from the two stations indicated that there was spatial variation in its feeding habits . while l . miodon occurred in 41 . 5 % of the stomachs of tiger - fish from nchete / samaria island station , it was recorded from only 29 . 5 % of those examined from charlets station . conversely , cichlids were more abundant in the stomachs of fish from charlets station ( 33 . 2 % ) than those from the island station ( 28 . 2 % ) . this may be explained by the greater abundance of juvenile cichlids at charlets station due to the weedy habitat there . the cichlids preyed upon were mainly tilapia rendalli , oreochromis mortimeri and pseudocrenilabrus philander . the incidence of s . zambezensis and h . vittatus in the stomachs was negligible .\nthis species is close to h . forskalii , but has black markings ( at tip of adipose dorsal fin and fork of caudal fin ) that are lacking in that species . furthermore , the rayed dorsal fin is not positioned as far forwards as in h . forskalii . the synonymy of h . vittatus with h . forskalii proposed by brewster ( 1986 ) does not appear well founded ( paugy and gu\u00e9gan 1989 ) .\nthree of these key events are represented in the divergence between the two sister groups ( groups c and b from h . vittatus and group d ) estimated at 2 . 0 ( ci : 3 . 5\u20130 . 8 ) ma . groups b and c diverged in the pleistocene at 1 . 5 ( ci : 2 . 6\u20130 . 5 ) ma while h . vittatus and group d split approximately 1 . 4 ( ci : 2 . 4\u20130 . 5 ) ma . all these events can be attributed to rearrangements of upper zambezi and paleo - chambeshi headwaters across northeast zambia , driven by plio - pleistocene tectonism , which ramified from the southern arm of the albertine rift across the bangweulu and mweru depressions , to extend southwest into the bulozi ( upper zambezi ) and okavango graben [ 12 ] , [ 84 , goodier et al . unpublished ] .\nthis map depicts the geographical relationships of the main rivers and lakes relevant to the biogeography and evolution of hydrocynus , and localities mentioned in the text . this map was constructed using arcmap 9 . 3 from the hydrosheds digital river database [ 103 ] and the aeon africa rivers database [ 65 ] , [ 104 ] . main rivers and lakes depicted in the legend are labeled with letters ( rivers ) and numbers ( lakes ) respectively . country boundaries and labels are included for geographical context .\ncichlids in general form a significant part of the artisanal fish catches of lake kariba . the present study suggests that tiger - fish take a substantial toll of juvenile cichlids , particularly in the marginal waters . there is no evidence to support the belief that the predation pressure on tilapias was reduced as a result of the semi - pelagic habit assumed by h . vittatus consequent to the establishment of a large limnothrissa population in the open waters of the lake .\ntajima ' s d [ 50 ] and fu ' s fs [ 51 ] tests of selective neutrality examine the frequencies of mutations in order to detect deviations from the neutral model [ 52 ] . due to the small sample sizes ( 2\u201310 individuals ) for all the lineages , excluding h . vittatus , it is not surprising that neither of these tests of selective neutrality were significant since the ability to detect deviations from the neutral model increases with sample size ( table s4 ] . only h . vittatus had a significantly negative value ( \u22126 . 2153 ; p < 0 . 005 ) for fu ' s fs , which is more sensitive to recent population expansions [ 53 ] . this result indicates an excess of low - frequency mutations , caused by demographic expansion or selection . however , as cyt b is a protein coding gene , it could be under selection to retain its functionality , resulting in the significantly negative fu ' s fs .\nthe estimated divergence dates on the dated cyt b tree exhibit fairly large confidence intervals ( e . g . 11 . 1 ( ci : 15 . 5\u20137 . 1 ) ma on the divergence between h . goliath and all other taxa . this most likely reflects the use of only one calibration point and a universal estimate of substitution rate in teleost cyt b . however , despite this large uncertainty , the estimated dates provide reliable evidence to discuss the evolutionary history of hydrocynus since even approximate estimates can be used to explain biogeographical history [ 37 ] , [ 38 ] , [ 62 ] , [ 63 ] .\na large proportion of individuals from the okavango and upper zambezi rivers share a haplotype confirming an intermittent connection between the okavango and upper zambezi systems [ 6 ] , [ 57 ] , [ 61 ] . a haplotype dominating h . vittatus individuals from coastal populations , south of the lower zambezi , is shared with an individual from the middle zambezi . the presence of the same haplotype in this large area , alongside its high abundance in the coastal rivers ( busi , pongola and save ) is consistent with their recent colonisation from a middle and lower zambezi source population .\nwithin h . vittatus , three well supported groups were recovered in the bayesian tree . these groups consisted of samples from a ) the congo and lufubu rivers , b ) the upper zambezi and okavango delta , and c ) the middle - lower zambezi and shire rivers and the coastal populations . these groups reveal strong phylogeographic structuring across drainage systems , and their detailed explanation will be explored in greater detail in a separate paper [ goodier et al . unpublished data ] . several haplotypes shared between different drainage systems and different rivers within the same system , as seen above , are explored further in the discussion .\nphylogenies of hydrocynus using the cyt b data set were constructed in beast 1 . 4 . 8 package [ 41 ] , mrbayes 3 . 1 . 1 [ 42 ] and paup 4 . 0b10 [ 43 ] , using the gtr model parameters for each data set . however , only the beast data are presented and discussed . beast uses bayesian inference and a mcmc sampling procedure to reconstruct a phylogeny by estimating the probability distribution given sequence data [ 41 ] , [ 42 ] . this algorithm weights trees in proportion to their posterior probability , such that a branch with a posterior probability close to 1 is considered well supported , whereas a value close to 0 is considered very weakly supported .\nin this respect , the high hd of h . goliath , h . brevis and group c points to a recent expansion in the sizes and ranges of these three populations . correspondingly , the high haplotype diversities and high nucleotide diversities of h . vittatus , h . forskahlii , h . tanzaniae and group a possibly represent recent admixture of historically isolated populations , in respective species , since sampling of each lineage encompassed a large geographical area and represents discrete rivers . the large internal genetic distance within h . forskahlii represents marked genetic structuring within this species complex , most notable in the deep phylogenetic divergence between group e and topotypical h . forskahlii .\nin this respect , the boundaries of the congo basin are of focal interest , because these watersheds were forged by diastrophism and / or epeirogeny . the northern , eastern and southern boundaries of this basin are the cameroon rift and central african thrust zone [ 31 ] , [ 32 ] , the east african rift system ( ears ) and southern equatorial divide [ 33 ] . moreover , geochronological evidence for the central african thrust zone and albertine rift ( western arm of the ears ) reliably constrains when volcanism and tectonism formed these hydrological boundaries around the congo basin . so it delimits when first and second order rivers of this basin were redirected and / or impounded by faulting and uplift events ( figure 2 ) . therefore we can employ phylogeographic statistics to test whether or not evolutionary events in hydrocynus were coupled with this drainage disruption , linked with propagation of rifting across the african plate ( exemplified by the formation of lake tanganyika ) [ 12 ] , [ 34 ] , [ 35 ] , [ 36 ] .\ndiagnosis : 2 scale rows between lateral line and scaly process at pelvic - fin bases ; eye < 70 % of interorbital space ( ref . 2880 , 81279 ) . dorsal - fin origin at about same level as pelvic - fin insertions ; tips of adipose and dorsal fins black ; forked edge of caudal fin black ( ref . 2880 , 80290 , 81279 ) . description : gill rakers few ( 5 - 9 / 9 - 12 ) , but rather long ; rakers of first gill arch normally developed ; body profile less elongate than h . forskalii ( ref . 2880 , 80290 , 81279 ) . dorsal fin with 2 unbranched and 8 branched rays ; anal fin with 3 unbranched and 12 branched rays ; 14 scales around caudal peduncle ( ref . 11970 ) . coloration : ground color similar to that of h . forskalii , but in h . vittatus tips of dorsal and adipose fin black and fork of caudal fin black - edged ; dark coloration may also extend unto median caudal rays , forming crescent - shaped blotch ( ref . 80290 , 81279 ) .\nto test whether extant drainage patterns have influenced extant population structure , an analysis of molecular variance ( amova ) was calculated in arlequin 3 . 11 [ 48 ] . this analysis calculates the fixation index ( \u03c6st ) [ 49 ] which uses haplotype diversities to estimate levels of genetic diversity and differentiation between contrasted populations . \u03c6st analysis partitions the total genetic variance into among - and within - population components , with population specific \u03c6st ' s calculated . to test if genetic variation has been structured within drainage basins , versus across watersheds , and principal knickpoints , a hierarchical analysis of molecular variance ( amova ) was also performed using arlequin 3 . 1 [ 48 ] to determine how extant genetic variation is partitioned with h . vittatus . this analysis was only performed on this species due to constraints of sample number . population groupings were based on the overall drainage system ( congo vs . zambezi and coastal - a ) , the drainage system subdivided by separation ( congo vs . zambezi vs . coastal - b ) , and the drainage subdivided by any drainage barriers ( congo vs . upper zambezi and okavango vs . middle and lower zambezi vs . coastal - c ) .\nprincipal component analysis of data from the 27 morphometric measurement revealed that approximately 70 . 3 % of the total variation was explained along one component , ( table 4 ) . the second component of variation accounted for 11 . 5 % of the total variability , the third component of variation accounted for 4 % of the total variability and the fourth component of variation accounted for 3 % of the total variability . the eigenvalues for all components were positive indicating that all used variables has some effect on the morphological variation of the hydrocynus species the loadings of the morphometric variables to determine their importance on variability explained is presented in ( figure 1 ) . principal component analysis of data from ten meristic counts revealed that approximately 73 . 9 % of the total variation was explained along one component ( table 5 ) . the second component of variation accounted for 11 . 6 % of the total variability , the third component of variation accounted for 4 . 5 % , the forth component of variation accounted for 3 . 3 % and the fifth component of variation accounted for 3 . 1 % of the total variability . the loadings of the meristic variables to determine their importance on variability explained is presented in ( figure 2 ) . the data of log10\u2013transformation of morphometric measurements and cluster analysis of meristic counts produced hierarchical clusters of specimens of the three species in a distance dendrogram . most individuals of each species clustered together at the end of the spectrum ( figure 3 & 4 ) .\nbetta fish care infographic , a handy cheat sheet that will benefit any keepers of siamese fighting fish .\nfish tank care . guide to fish care with a simple look at aquarium filtration , how to clean a fish tank , and a fish tank maintenance schedule .\npiranhas , one of the most efficient predators with razor sharp teeth and a ferocious nature . piranha fish species , description , information , habitat , and more !\nsetting up a saltwater aquarium . guide to marine supplies , putting the aquarium together , cycling the aquarium water and adding fish !\nenter your freshwater aquarium enter parameters for your freshwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nenter your saltwater aquarium enter parameters for your saltwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nfish finder search our database for compatible pets ! enter characteristics of what you are looking for and find them instantly .\ndr . jungle ' s pets and animal speak - newsletter featured pet of the week and more . . .\nwe have two large iridescent sharks we are looking to find another home for . our tank is too small and they are very large . do you have a big tank ? do you know they can grow 3 - 4 feet ? where are you located ?\nlooking for medaka rice fish . what ever species you may have for sale .\ni ' m looking to but a balloon kissing gourami . any idea where i can get one ?\nhi every one i ' m looking for all and any information on breeding tigerfish in captivity , i am putting together a breeding program for restocking local zimbabwean . . . ( more ) sara thompson\nthis tiger characin is definitely a specialty fish . it can reach an impressive size , up to about 3 - 1 / 2 feet ( 105 cm ) in length and over 60 pounds , but it usually won ' t get much longer than about 30 inches ( 75 cm ) in the aquarium . one look at those teeth tells you that the african tiger fish is a voracious predator . the african tiger fish is related to the piranha but actually gets much larger . they can use those huge teeth to chop even large fish into bite sized pieces .\nthe african tigerfish is not actually hard to care for in terms of water quality or food variety , but they get really big and eat a lot . the large size alone limits the type of aquarist who will able to keep one . when first purchased as small juveniles , they may initially be kept in a large home aquarium . but eventually , full - sized adults will need a very large tank . an aquarium of 650 gallons , even upwards of a 1000 gallons or more , will be needed to keep them happy and healthy . in its adult size , this giant fish is really best suited for public aquariums or for highly experienced aquarists with the space and financial ability to properly care for them .\nafrican tiger fish are usually kept in species aquariums . they will school with their own species and more than one can be kept if the aquarium is large enough . they will also school with fish of similar temperament , however , any tankmates need to be appreciably larger . as they age and grow even larger , however , these african characins tend to become less tolerant of their tankmates and need to be housed singly .\nwas described by castelnau in 1861 . they are found throughout africa , from egypt to south africa . they are most common in the senegal , nile , omo , and congo rivers and in lake tanganyika . the species is listed on the iucn red list as least concern ( lc ) . it has a wide distribution and is generally abundant and common . other common names it are known by are tiger fish , tiger characin , ndweshi , african tigerfish , and tiervis .\nthese tiger fish inhabit mainly larger rivers and lakes . all but the largest specimens will swim in schools with other similarly sized fish , roving about and preying on food . they are fierce and voracious predators , feeding on whatever is available . while they mostly eat other fish , they will also consume some detritus and plant matter . the african tiger fish also serves as a food fish for many natives .\nvaries - they swim in schools with other similarly sized fish , though very large specimens are loners .\nlc - least concern - this species has a wide distribution . although it has been locally depleted by heavy fishing , it is generally common and abundant and therefore listed as least concern . it has been assessed regionally as least concern for central , eastern , north eastern , southern , and western africa .\nthe african tiger fish can get up to 41 . 3 inches ( 105 cm ) in length and weigh up to 62 pounds ( 28 kg ) in the wild . in captivity , they are unlikely to achieve a size of much more than about 30 inches ( 75 cm ) and have a lifespan of between 10 and 15 years .\nthis fish has an elongated body that tapers on both ends and a forked caudal fin . its large head features prominently visible teeth , 8 per jaw . the teeth are conical in shape and very sharp . the african tiger fish uses its teeth for grasping and chopping rather than tearing . these teeth are occasionally replaced throughout its life .\nthis fish has a silvery blue body overall with rows of large , iridescent , silvery scales , sometimes with a golden cast . some individuals will have red and yellow on the fins . males and females are similar in form and color , but females are generally smaller and more full - bodied .\n41 . 3 inches ( 105 . 00 cm ) - these fish get up to 3 1 / 2 feet ( 105 cm ) and weigh up to 62 pounds ( 28 kg ) in the wild , but they are unlikely to reach much more than about 30 inches ( 75cm ) in the aquarium .\n15 years - they have a lifespan of between 10 and 15 years in captivity .\nafrican tiger fish are large predacious fish . they are undemanding of water quality and eat readily , but their size alone limits who will able to keep them . when small , these fish will seem like an interesting and exotic addition to your tank . but they grow to an alarming size and have amazing bursts of speed , both of which make providing a suitable environment over the course of their lifespan very challenging .\nsmall juveniles may initially be kept in a large home aquarium , but eventually they will need a very large tank . in their adult size , they are really best suited for public aquariums , or kept by experienced fish keepers with the space and financial ability to care for these giants .\nadvanced - this fish grows up to 3 . 5 feet in length and requires a very large tank of 650 gallons or more . these restrictions make it unsuitable for the average hobbyist .\nthese fish are primarily considered to be carnivores . in the wild , they are a major predator . though the bulk of their diet is fish , they will also consume some detritus and plant matter , so are actually omnivorous . in the aquarium , they can be fed meaty foods like whole fishes and shrimps .\nwhen initially introduced into the aquarium , they will readily eat live foods , but once they have acclimated , they can be offered frozen foods as well a pellet diet . small juveniles will take flake but will soon need to be moved to pellets . trout pellets work well . some aquarists report that they will ignore prepared foods when live food is available .\nyes - these fish may not accept processed foods at first but will usually adapt to them with time .\ntiger fish are big , messy fish that require ample filtration . water changes of about 30 - 50 % are needed every other week , depending on the bioload , to keep this fish happy and healthy .\nbi - weekly - do a 30 - 50 % water change every other week .\nafrican tiger fish is an extremely large , predatory fish . because of its large adult size and propensity for schooling with other similarly sized fish , it needs a very large aquarium . when first obtained as a small juvenile , it can be kept in a large home aquarium , but as it grows it will need a much larger tank . as it attains its adult size , at least 650 gallons will be needed to keep it happy and healthy , with upwards of 1000 + gallons or more being even better .\nthese fish will occupy all parts of the aquarium , so they need a spacious open area for swimming as well as a decor of plants , roots , and driftwood to provide them with some hiding places . they need good , clean water and a moderate water flow , so adequate filtration is important .\n650 gal ( 2 , 460 l ) - juveniles can be kept in a large home aquarium , but full - sized adults will need at least 650 gallons or more .\nthough the african tiger fish is not necessarily aggressive , it has a big appetite . not many species can survive in a tank with them . this fish will do best kept in a species tank .\nthis fish can be kept with other similarly sized or larger , non - territorial species . however , the african tiger fish is less tolerant of tankmates outside its own species , so be cautious in selecting companions . in particular , very large individuals are likely to grow less tolerant of co - inhabitants .\nlarge aggressive - predatory - this fish is more predatory than aggressive ; however , tankmates need to be significantly larger .\nyes - these fish will swim in schools , though very large specimens may become loners .\nthreat - tankmates should be similarly sized or larger to avoid becoming a meal .\nthe african tiger fish has not been bred in the aquarium , though it has been successfully bred in captivity as a fishery specimen . presumably , breeding them in an aquarium would be difficult , or even impossible , and would require a very large tank . for a general description of breeding characin fish , see breeding freshwater fish : characins .\nin nature , these fish spawn for just a few days each year during the rainy season , usually in december and january . they migrate up river and into small streams . the female lays a large number of eggs in very shallow water among submerged vegetation . after the eggs hatch , the young live in the shallows until flood waters force them out into larger waterways .\nlike most giant fish , the biggest concern with the african tiger fish is lack of space and food . if you can meet these needs , not much goes wrong with these giants . these fish are hardy and disease is not usually a problem in a well - maintained aquarium . however , aquarists still need to take precautions against health problems and disease . anything you add to your tank can introduce disease . not only other fish but plants , substrate , and decorations can harbor bacteria . take great care and make sure to properly clean or quarantine anything you add to an established tank so as not to upset the balance . because these fish eat live food , disease can be passed to them from their foods . make sure to quarantine live food before feeding .\na good thing about the african tiger fish is their resilience . an outbreak of disease can often be limited to just one or a few fishes if dealt with it at an early stage . when keeping more sensitive types of fish , it is common for all fishes to be infected even before the first warning signs can be noticed . the best way to proactively prevent disease is to give your fish the proper environment and a well balanced diet . the more closely their environment resembles their natural habitat , the less stress the fish will have and the healthier and happier they will be . a stressed fish is more likely to acquire disease .\nas with most fish , the african tiger fish is prone to skin flukes , parasitic infestations ( protozoa , worms , etc . ) , ichthyobodo infection , parasitic infestations ( protozoa , worms , etc . ) , bacterial infections ( general ) , and bacterial disease . aquarists should read up on the common tank diseases . knowing the signs and catching and treating them early makes a huge difference . for information about freshwater fish diseases and illnesses , see aquarium fish diseases and treatments .\nthe african tiger fish or tiger characin are occasionally available but usually come with a very high price tag . even though they aren\u2019t considered rare , like many large fish , they are expensive when small because they are small for such a short period of time .\nthe african tiger fish is primarily a game fish and food fish . they can ' t be shipped into florida , as the florida fish and wildlife conservation commission has restrictions placed upon the transport and handling of certain species , including this one .\nglen s . axelrod , brian m . scott , neal pronek , encyclopedia of exotic tropical fishes for freshwater aquariums , tfh publications , 2005\ndr . r\u00fcdiger riehl and hans a . baensch , aquarium atlas vol . 4 , mergus verlag , 2004\nhi every one i ' m looking for all and any information on breeding tigerfish in captivity , i am putting together a breeding program for restocking local zimbabwean waters . please if you have any information i would hugely appreciate it , and you may have helped save the species .\ni will be doing a presentation based on this fish and this means that i have to know it like the back of my hand , and so far its cool , i ' m loving it , it ' s so adorable and beautiful .\nhi guys i ' m looking for all and any information on breeding tigerfish i am a zimbabwean , i have been asked to research breeding these guys for restocking our local waters in zimbabwe as the decline is so drastic that they could become extinct in the next decade . please anyone with any information of breeding tigerfish please contact me asap extremeaquariums167 @ urltoken\nhow old will a tiger fish weighing around 6 kg be ? the kariba zimbabwe species .\nhow long have you had it ? did you get it from a pet store or from a previous owner ? i don ' t think there ' s any sure way to tell how old it is . in the wild they can get to be around 28 kg , but in captivity they don ' t usually get that big because of environment constraints .\nthis page states that they need a 1 , 000 gallon aquarium . what are the dimensions of this aquarium ?\nthey can be different dimensions but run about 120 inches wide , 50 inches deep and 40 inches accross - - - there are various sizes though .\ncopyright \u00a9 [ animal - world ] 1998 - 2015 . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . , fricke , r . and van der laan , r . ( eds ) . 2016 . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . updated 2 august 2016 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 2 august 2016 ) .\nsnoeks , j . , tweddle , d . , getahun , a . , lal\u00e8y\u00e8 , p . , paugy , d . , zaiss , r . , fishar , m . r . a & brooks , e .\njustification : this species has a wide distribution . although it is locally depleted by heavy fishing pressure , it is generally common and abundant , and is therefore listed as least concern . it has also been assessed regionally as least concern for central , eastern , north eastern , southern and western africa .\nthis species is generally common and widespread . in lake kariba on the middle zambezi river , its population fluctuated considerably , mostly in relation to the abundance of the introduced clupeid\nwhich now forms a major part of its diet ( kenmuir 1973 , marshall 1985 ) . it is commercially exploited in lake rukwa , forming about 3 . 9 % of the yield . in mtera dam , species composition in the catches show a decline from 26 . 1 % in 1987 to 14 . 3 % in 1991 , and 7 % in 1996 ."]}
{"id": 1714, "summary": [{"text": "the st kilda house mouse ( mus musculus muralis ) is an extinct subspecies of the house mouse found only on the islands of the st kilda archipelago of northwest scotland .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is uncertain when they first arrived on the islands , but it is possible that they unwittingly were transported there during the norse period .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "isolated on the islands , the st kilda house mouse diverged from relatives .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it became larger than the mainland varieties , although it had a number of traits in common with a subspecies found on mykines in the faroe islands , mus musculus mykinessiensis .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "when the last st kildans were evacuated in 1930 , the endemic house mouse became extinct very quickly , as it was associated strictly with human settlement .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "some specimens exist in museums .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the st kilda field mouse ( apodemus sylvaticus hirtensis ) is still present . ", "topic": 29}], "title": "st kilda house mouse", "paragraphs": ["mouse in the house . . - review of summer house backpackers , st kilda , australia - tripadvisor\nthe last mammal to go extinct in britain was the st kilda house mouse .\nbut the st . kilda house mouse needed the warm houses , farms , and dropped food crumbs of its human neighbors to survive . within three years of the humans evacuating , all the st . kilda house mice had died off . in contrast , the field mice survived and are still living on st . kilda today .\ntwo kinds of mice used to be found on st kilda . both were varieties ( subspecies ) of the mainland house mouse and wood mouse respectively . they were probably brought to st kilda by norsemen . like many animals which have become isolated , they evolved to be different from their ancestors , in this case larger .\nthe reasons for this are not precisely known but may be the result of field mice having invaded house mouse habitat and , through some form of competition , preventing the house mouse from breeding .\nscientists believe that as early as 500 bc , norse settlers arrived in st . kilda and brought along a few unwanted stowaways\u2013european house mice . isolated from their mainland relatives , these house mice evolved over time into a distinct species , larger and shaped differently from their ancestors . st . kilda is also home to a unique subspecies of field mouse , that probably also arrived as stowaways and evolved into a new species .\nfollowing the evacuation of the human population from st kilda , field mice migrated from the hills to the abandoned homes and buildings .\nthe house mouse of mykines is considered to be a race of its own with special and significant characteristics . of these one must mention that the tale is very long and the hind legs are especial long and powerful probably giving the mouse extra power for jumping . the color is also different from its ancestor , the common house mouse , as it is more brownish and have a lighter tinted bellow . likewise it is interesting , that their inner nose openings are more conical than on other house mice , a trait it has in common with the mice of st . kilda , the most western , isolated island in the hebrides ! it is assumed , that the mykines and st . kilda house mice are the representatives of the eldest of europe ' s house mice .\nit was probably the vikings that got the house mouse to st kilda . the mice lived exclusively in the human settlements , feeding exclusively off of the detritus that humans tend to leave about them . for a thousand years , no one really bothered about them .\nwe often hear about how human activity and expansion can endanger wildlife habitats . but can you think of any animals that might be threatened by the disappearance of humans ? after careful consideration , the story of the extinct st . kilda house mouse came to my mind .\nthe islands of st kilda , which lie 41 miles ( 66km ) west of benbecula in the outer hebrides , were abandoned by humans in 1930 .\nthe st kilda house mouse was dependent on the presence of people , as it fed on grain and other human commodities . with the evacuation of the people in 1930 , its source of food was lost and it died out . it is now extinct and only exists as specimens in museum collections .\na shame it\u2019s gone then . but the good news is that another \u2018man - made\u2019 rodent subspecies , the st kilda field mouse , is currently thriving . by all accounts it has developed a taste for mars bars .\ntoo . the relationship between the two species where they occur together has been the subject of much research . house mice used to occur on st kilda before the human population of that island was evacuated in 1930 after which they rapidly declined to extinction .\nthe st kilda field mouse is still common on hirta and is also present on dun . it was never so dependent on people , so it did not die out like the house mouse . it feeds on snails , insects , moss and seeds , but will also feed on the carcasses of dead sheep , birds and any apples , mars bars or other delicacies foolishly left around by work party members !\naltogether there are only a few hundred pairs , making it a great rarity . specimens of the adult birds and their eggs were highly prized . the st kildans used to collect eggs for selling to collectors . today it is fully protected on st kilda .\nthe house mouse can be divided in two different races , western mouse and eastern mouse . the eastern mouse comes from norway while the western mouse comes from germany and england and now a days can be found in mykines , on nolsoy , hestur and fugloy , while the rest og the faroese mouse are mixtures of western mouse and eastern mouse . if it is true , what landt writes , it is interesting , that the mykines mouse in just 200 years have developed to a race of its own with it own name , mus musculus mykinessiensis . but more probably , it is a development , which have taken closer to 1000 years . the mykines house mouse is nowadays seen all around the island in an unknown number . it can be seen in the houses , in the houses for drying the sheep meat and in the open nature , the puffins lands and at least in a considerable number in borgardalur .\nst . kilda is a small group of islands about one - hundred miles off the west coast of scotland . the isolated archipelago was inhabited by humans for more than two thousand years , from the bronze age until 1930 . in 1930 the few remaining residents of st . kilda were permanently evacuated because of sickness , crop failure , and casualties of world war i .\nthe st kilda wren is a sub - species of the mainland wren and has only been found on hirta , dun , soay and boreray . it is larger than those from the mainland .\nif nothing else , the st kilda house mouse shows us the limitations of the words and ideas that we use to frame the great ecological debates of our age . it blurs the distinctions between wild and domestic , natural and man - made , history and natural history , anthropology and ecology , even between vermin and endangered animal . as such , it can help us to frame fundamental questions about conservation , what we are trying to achieve and why we are trying to achieve it . the st kilda house mouse should be a rallying call for the curiosity of conservationists ; we need to question perceived wisdom , distinctions and definitions and to measure worth and value and meaning . to care for the planet , or even to care about it at all , we need to be curious .\nsuggested routes of colonisation of the field mouse ( from a poster in the observatory ) .\nthere are only 2 wild species of terrestrial mammals on mykines . it is the house mouse and the hare . apart from that , there are the domestic mammals , sheep , cow , horse , dog and cat .\nit is not known for how long there have been house mouses on mykines . the vicar landt in his\nfors\u00f8g til en beskrivelse over f\u00e6r\u00f8erne\n( a trial to a description of the faroes ) from 1800 states , that there were no house mice on mykines at that time . whether this is true , is not possibly to say anything about now , but it dosn\u00b4t seem probably . modern dna technologies , have shown interesting result . the distribution of house mouse can be taken as a proof of the way the faroes have been colonised , as the house mouse have followed man . genetical investigation of faroese people have shown , that the men came from norway while the faroese women came from ireland .\nberry , r . j . & tricker , b . j . k . 1969 . competition and extinction : the mice of foula with notes on those on fair isle and st . kilda . journal of zoology 158 : 247 - 265 .\nisolated from their mainland relatives , these house mice evolved over time into a distinct species , larger and shaped differently from their ancestors .\n' fair isle field mouse ' , observatory , 2014 . \u00a9 ian andrews . although previously recognised as a subspecies of the field mouse or even a separate species in its own right , current thoughts are that is should be treated as an island form .\ndespite the field mice thriving , the change and lack of food resulted in extinction for the island ' s house mice , who took only two years to die out .\nit is a curious story , and a curious creature , and one that i personally feel entirely ambiguous about . should it have been saved ? is its extinction a great loss for biodiversity ? was there a moral obligation to save the subspecies ? would there have been a moral obligation to save them had they not been classed as a subspecies ? is it a subspecies or a cultural relic or even just a cruel mistake ? a wild animal , or a pet , or vermin ? people worry about the loss of subspecies of tigers \u2013 should they have worried about the loss of the st kilda house mouse ? does this story belong in the annals of ecology , or history ?\n' fair isle field mouse ' , observatory , 2013 . \u00a9 david parnaby . field mice are dark brown above and white below ; when compared to house mice , they have larger , more protruding eyes , larger ears and a longer tail . on fair isle , they are larger and darker ( less sandy brown ) than their mainland counterparts .\nin recent years the islands ' summer warden has been plotting the distribution of st kilda wrens . the most recent census was done on hirta in 1993 . a total of 113 - 117 pairs were recorded . a map showing apparent occupied territories was produced . territories were based on areas where males were recorded singing at least three times , a nest or young were found , or where a bird was giving an alarm call .\nst kilda is not the most hospitable of places . in fact , it is probably most famous for being decidedly inhospitable . by 1930 things had gotten so bad for the islanders that the whole community asked to be relocated to the mainland , and so the island was deserted . as is often the case with decidedly inhospitable places , the only people who currently bother to go there regularly are the military and a small group of conservationists .\n' fair isle field mouse ' , observatory , 2014 . \u00a9 ian andrews . these mice are most readily seen at dusk under the bird feeders from the observatory ' s lounge window .\nst kilda is an archipelago on the wrong side , as it were , of the outer hebrides , making it the most remote place in the british isles . this did not stop it from being inhabited by humans from the bronze age right up until the twentieth century . in that time , the islanders developed their own remarkable culture , which i wholeheartedly advise you to research . it is a place where culture and nature bleed into each other . indeed , it is the uk\u2019s only unesco world heritage site for both nature and culture , and hosts britain\u2019s largest seabird colony .\nwilson , k . , eady , p . & del nevo , a . j . 1998 . origin of an insular population of the wood mouse based on parasitological evidence . journal of wildlife diseases 34 ( 1 ) : 150 - 154 .\nin any case by 1932 , within two years of humans leaving , the mouse was extinct . they were not hardy enough to leave the abandoned buildings , and without human food available to pilfer there was nothing for the fat little rodents to eat .\ndelany , m . j . & davis , p . e . 1961 . observations on the ecology and life history of the fair isle field - mouse apodemus sylvaticus fridariensis . proceedings of the zoological society of london 136 ( 3 ) : 439 - 452 .\nflowerdew , j . r . & tattersall , f . h . 2008 . wood mouse . in : harris , s . & yalden , d . w . ( eds ) mammals of the british isles : handbook , 4th edition . the mammal society , southampton .\nnormally one don ' t see much to them , but they can be seen in cellars and drying houses for sheep meat , where an ongoing fight against both the mouse and the starlings takes place . the mice can pass through the smallest openings , a hole of only 16 millimeters diameter it said to be enough .\nthe hares live at quite high altitudes in the outfield , in 400 to 500 meters hight and are most often seen around knukur in the great slope of rocks and stones , where the radio and antenna house is situated . but they can also be seen in the lower parts of the outfield . normally only one is seen at a time , running quickly from its hiding place behind or under a stone , trying to come to a more secure distance from one .\nevolutionarily speaking , a thousand years isn\u2019t a lot , if you are a human . if you are a mouse , however , it is enough time to create the pitter - patter of 5 , 000 generations of little feet . as is often the case with animals on islands with little competition , it got bigger , because bigger animals are generally more efficient at conserving heat and energy . not massively so , but big enough to eventually become a subspecies . a human - made subspecies , completely dependant on human food to survive . little more than a parasite .\nit was once thought that the various races of field mice on scottish islands may have been glacial relicts , in other words they had survived the ice age in these localities . however , it is now thought that all the island field mice have been introduced by humans . work by prof . r . j . ( sam ) berry , based on skeletal characteristics , has indicated that the mice were inadvertently introduced by the vikings from norway , the route by which these introductions occurred being shown on the map ( right ) . there is not a total agreement about this , however , and one more recent piece of work , based on the parasites carried by the mice , suggests that the ' fair isle field mouse ' , in contrast to most other island populations , may have come from the british mainland .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nall most daily one see the 2 species of seals , which are seen around the faroes , spotted seal and grey seal .\none can also be so fortunate to see whales . killer whales , pilot pilot whales , porpoises and , more seldom , fin whales , sperm whales and humpback whales .\nthe hares on mykines are found in a little but apparently stable number . they probably live on the margins as the number is not increasing and they have never been hunted .\nthe hares on mykines stem from the same hares that one sees an the other faroese islands and which were brought to the faroes from the norwegian island krager\u00f8 in the 1850 ' ies . it was snow hares , who in the beginning also became white in the winter , but they now only are grey in the winter , because of many years of natural selection .\nif one goes to the holm , then on the narrow land before the stair down to lamba , one often hear and see the seals on the small skerries north of the holm . and that at all seasons . just outside the landingplace , just outside the holmgjogv with the little skerry one often can see them quite close and one get the impression , especially if one is in a bout , that they are quite curious . one see their head with the big black eyes looking directly at one and if one whistle , they seem to be even more curious .\nin former time they were systematically hunted and the hunters were paid for the number of jaws they presented , as the seal were thought to be a danger for the fishery . the hunt was performed by killing the cubs in the caves in which they were brought up in the first time of their life . now they are occasionally hunted by rifle and their meat tastes quite good .\nif one is lucky , it is possible to see around 300 seals at one time on the skerries north and west of mykines holm , where they are lying to dry , rest and sleep . all though they can be quite noisy . it can be a beautifully sight in calm and sunny weather to see them swim in the clear water west of the holm , north of uti a b\u00f8li\u00f0 in the little bay below the lighthouse .\nalmost every year there is reported sights of whales in the sea around mykines .\nfor some years ago 16 pilot whales were killed in lendingergjogv . in the late 90 ' ies , sulan departing from mykines met a group of pilot whales just outside lendingergjogv , from where they were driven to b\u00f8ur in s\u00f8rvags fjor\u00f0ur , where they were killed .\nseveral times in the late years , there have been seen killer whales very close to the shoreline of mykines . once some men gathering sheep saw five killer whales swimming along the coast and in between the skerries on the south cost just east of the village .\nin the late 90 ' ies some fin whales and a sperm whale were seen in the waters just south of mykines . there was at least 2 fins swimming westward while the sperm whale was more far out , but not longer than it could be seen , how the the blast was directed sideways as the sperm whales blast is .\nit is sobering to think that humans can have such a dramatic effect on the genetics of a population of animals as to create a new subspecies . that is , until you look at a dog . or a cow .\nwhewell\u2019s gazette : year 2 , vol . # 41 | whewell ' s ghost\nresearchers have begun a study into a remote island archipelagos super - sized field mice , which can grow up to twice the size of their mainland cousins .\na team from the university of edinburgh university wants to know why the mice came to be so big .\nthe mice weigh up to 50g and have pale - coloured hair on their underbellies .\nhe said :\nthey are cute and a little bit different from mainland mice .\nmr black added :\nthe theory is that because they ' re here with very little competition or predation , that allows them to get bigger and being bigger allows them to cope better with the extreme conditions out here , the cold and the weather .\nthe foreign secretary quits , telling theresa may\nneedless self - doubt\nis leading to\nsemi - brexit\n.\nwhat is rss ? rss makes it possible to subscribe to a website ' s updates instead of visiting it by delivering new posts to your rss reader automatically . choose to receive some or all of the updates from a moment of science :\na moment of science is a daily audio podcast , public radio program and video series providing the scientific story behind some of life ' s most perplexing mysteries . learn more \u00bb\nindiana public media is the home of wfiu public radio & wtiu public television , including your favorite programming from npr and pbs . learn more \u00bb\n) . like most of the island forms , both are distinctly larger than mainland field mice .\ntext based largely on research by simon and richard aspinall and prof . r . j . berry\nberry , r . j . 1985 . the natural history of orkney . collins , london .\n\u00a9 fibo 2018 . fair isle bird observatory is run by an independent charity , fair isle bird observatory trust ( a registered scottish charity sco 11160 ) .\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\nprices above are provided by partners for one room , with variable occupancy rules as provided by the property , and do not include all taxes and fees . please see our partners for full details .\ni stayed here for 2 weeks . . apart from it been very noisy . . there is a family of mice running about in the rooms . . avoid\nsorry you didnt enjoy your stay with us . during the period you stayed with us we did experience some extremely bad weather and had pest control out immediately to rectify the problem , this was quickly resolved and we have had no further issues since then .\nthe price you found is 29 % lower than this hotel ' s average rate of us $ 70 / night .\nwe analyze rates over a 60 day period , and compare your selection to the average rate of comparable stays to ensure you ' re getting the best possible deal .\nbooked into the beachhouse for a week ending up staying longer , had loads of fun free breakfast , ensuited bathrooms , kitchen is a little small but you work with it . $ 4 . 00 pizzas cheap drinks and the best backpacker night on fridays pashing pop on the rooftop bar . staff are so friendly in reception help you with everything and so close to the beach . would recommend it to fellow travellers .\ni stayed here for a few days as i was backpacking through australia . there a few good things about this hostel . i met a lot of really nice people , most people are working or looking for work in australia . the staff are on the whole pretty friendly and helpful . the en suite bathrooms are really clean and modern . free breakfast was great . there are a few things that would make this hostel a lot better in my opinion . for starters they should put enough lockers in the room for every bedspace because if you are just staying a few days all the lockers are taken up by the long term residents . also if someone is using the en suite bathroom there are no alternative toilet facilities in the whole hostel unless you go down to the bar . i also don ' t like the fact you can ' t drink alcohol in your room , it wouldn ' t be a problem but the bar downstairs is too overpriced to be aimed at backpackers . also at one point a guy working for the hostel claiming to be\nsecurity\nwalked straight into a girl only dorm to make sure we weren ' t drinking alcohol , just as well no - one had just got out of the shower ! ! there is also a lot of noise from the upstairs bar at weekends which sucks cos most of the time the events there aren ' t even really marketed at the guests in the hostel . finally by far the worst thing in this hostel was the kitchen , it was soooo dirty . i know this is mostly the fault of people staying in the hostel but it was very small meaning that it didn ' t much for it to get dirty . also its really badly equipped , when i stayed the only had two forks ! ! my review makes it sound pretty terrible but its not the worst place in the world to stay for a few days especially if you are on a tight budget and can put up with a horrible kitchen . it could just be a whole lot better thats all !\none of the night in this hostel , the bed bugs bite me so bad ! i went to the reception and told them about this . the rude girl told me that they gonna spray my bed and change my sheet . when i came back that night , they didn ' t spray the bed at all ! and during that night , the bed bugs start again to attack me ! ! now , my body is full of bites and they told me to change the bed because the bed bugs was only on this area . . . . ! good answer ! and if i wanted to change the room i have to wash my clothes . i left and they didn ' t give me the money back ! ! so , sleep in this hostel is an adventure and i don ' t recommended this hostel . . . the personnel is rude and now my body is cover of bed bugs bites\ni have no idea how places like this stay in business . not only did they capitalize on the f1 grand prix weekend by suddenly doubling their prices , we were generously allowed to make up our own beds and were not allowed our key deposit back the next day until we returned to our room to remove the sheets and take them to the laundry basket area . the bad : clouds of wine flies that breed in the bar carpet broken hand driers in all 3 toilets loud music until 3am from private rooftop function wine banned from our own room no dount to force us to buy their overpriced crap selection of spirits from $ 10 ( with discount ! ! ) ' continental ' breakfast turned out to be stale home brand bread , coffee and something that may have been jam . disgusting toilets in the bar being ignored every time i tried to ask for directions / borrow a pen / get more toilet paper / order a drink the good : do not stay here , there are many many alternatives even during busy season .\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content ."]}
{"id": 1718, "summary": [{"text": "the lipstick darter ( etheostoma chuckwachatte ) is a species of darter endemic to the eastern united states , where it occurs in the tallapoosa river drainage above the fall line in alabama and georgia .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it inhabits rocky riffles of creeks and small to medium rivers . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "lipstick darter", "paragraphs": ["this darter occurs throughout the tallapoosa river system above the fall line in alabama and georgia ( wood and mayden 1993 , storey et al . 2003 , boschung and mayden 2004 , page and burr 2011 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : extent of occurrence is less than 20 , 000 sq km , but listed as least concern because the species occurs in more than 10 locations , does not have a severely fragmented distribution , and appears to have a relatively stable trend .\nhabitat includes rocky riffles of creeks and small to medium rivers ( page and burr 2011 ) . adults typically occur in riffles and shallow runs of medium - sized to large streams with moderate to strong current and substrates of sand , gravel , cobble , and boulders , often where river - weed and water - willow are present ( wood and mayden 1993 , boschung and mayden 2004 ) . in georgia , storey et al . ( 2003 ) found this species in third to fifth order streams .\nthis species would benefit from habitat restoration , improved habitat protection and management , species management , and better information on trend .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nitis reports - - itis ( the integrated taxonomic information system ) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nyou can copy this taxon into another guide . if you are one of the editors of this guide it should copy everything , but if you ' re not , it will only copy the licensed content ."]}
{"id": 1721, "summary": [{"text": "the bluehead wrasse or blue-headed wrasse ( thalassoma bifasciatum ) is a species of saltwater fish in the wrasse family ( labridae ) of order perciformes native to the coral reefs of the tropical waters of the western atlantic ocean .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "individuals are small ( less than 110 mm standard length ) and rarely live longer than two years .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "they form large schools over the reef and are important cleaner fish in the reefs they inhabit . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "bluehead wrasse", "paragraphs": ["information on the bluehead wrasse is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nthe spawning , growth , and general behavior of the bluehead wrasse . . . : ingenta connect\nestrogenic control of behavioral sex change in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum . - pubmed - ncbi\nmanipulations of the avt system shift social status and related courtship and aggressive behavior in the bluehead wrasse .\nthe bluehead wrasse is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nhunt von herbing , i . & w . hunte . 1991 . spawning and recruitment of the bluehead wrasse\nmanipulations of the avt system shift social status and related courtship and aggressive behavior in the bluehead wrasse . - pubmed - ncbi\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - juvenile bluehead wrasse\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - juvenile bluehead wrasse\ntitle =\narkive photo - juvenile bluehead wrasse\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ncleaner wrasse ( species of wrasse ) collects and eats dead tissue and parasites accumulated in the mouth of large marine fish .\nsemsar k , godwin j ( 2004 ) multiple mechanisms of phenotype development in the bluehead wrasse . hormones and behavior 45 : 345\u201353 .\nthe bluehead wrasse is a small - bodied wrasse that lives on coral reefs of the caribbean sea and its adjacent waters ( florida , bermuda , and the gulf of mexico ) . as a result of its interesting mating system ( discussed below ) , the bluehead wrasse is one of the best - studied reef fishes on caribbean reefs .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - bluehead wrasse - overview\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - bluehead wrasse - overview\ntitle =\narkive video - bluehead wrasse - overview\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nfigure 4 and 5 . models of suppression and subsequent process of sex change following the loss of the tp male in the bluehead wrasse .\nsemsar k . and l . godwin . 2004 . multiple mechanisms of phenotype development in the bluehead wrasse . horm behav . 45 : 345\u2013353 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - bluehead wrasse ( thalassoma bifasciatum )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - bluehead wrasse ( thalassoma bifasciatum )\ntitle =\narkive species - bluehead wrasse ( thalassoma bifasciatum )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nsemsar , k . and j . godwin ( 2004 ) multiple mechanisms of phenotype development in the bluehead wrasse . hormones and behavior 45 : 345 - 353 .\nwarner rr , swearer se ( 1991 ) social control of sex change in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum ( pisces : labridae ) . biological bulletin 181 : 199\u2013204 .\nwrasse can reach 4 to 98 inches in length , depending on the species .\nthe blue head wrasse is rated by the iucn as an animal of least concern .\nwrasse can be part of large school ( group of fish ) or live solitary life .\nin the absence of dominant males , the larger females of the group can display sex reversal or change and replace the absent dominant males . this behavior is referred to as protogyny . bluehead wrasse harem\nsemsar k , kandel flm , godwin j ( 2001 ) manipulations of the avt system shift social status and related courtship and aggressive behavior in the bluehead wrasse . hormones and behavior 40 : 21\u201331 .\nexpression across female ( a ) , initial phase male ( b ) , and terminal phase male bluehead wrasse ( c ) . darkfield images of silver grain localization and density were taken at 100\u00d7 total magnification .\nwarner , r . r . and s . e . swearer . 1991 . social control of sex change in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum ( pisces : labridae ) . biol . bull . 181 : 199\u2013204 .\nthe bluethroat wrasse can be recognised by its colouration . it occurs on rocky reefs of southern australia .\nmarsh ke , creutz lm , hawkins mb , godwin jj ( 2006 ) aromatase immunoreactivity in the bluehead wrasse brain , thalassoma bifasciatum : immunolocalization and co - regionalization with arginine vasotocin and tyrosine hydroxylase . brain research 1126 : 91\u2013101 .\nthe bluehead wrasse is too small to be eaten but is captured for display in public and private aquaria . currently , scientists do not believe that the species is at any risk of extinction , and population sizes are apparently stable . however , it is important to continue to monitor bluehead wrasse populations in order to ensure that any changes resulting from capture of adults or from expected negative trends in coral reef health throughout its range will be identified at an early stage .\nwrasse belong to the labridae family . with 60 genera and over 500 species , wrasse are one of the largest families of coral reef fish . the size of wrasse in an aquarium varies considerably within each genus , but most reach an average size of six inches in length . in the wild , the largest member of this family grows to an adult size of over six feet . wrasse are closely related to parrotfish , and can be recognized by their bright colors and elongated body with a pointed snout . wrasse are found throughout the world in all marine habitats . most wrasse are schooling fish , but others may be found in a harem or as individuals when young . most wrasse bury themselves in the sand at night , and also when threatened .\nsome species of wrasse go through drastic color changes from juvenile to adult form . most species of wrasse have no characteristics that differentiate males from females , and the breeding of these fish in an aquarium is extremely difficult .\nwrasse is marine fish that belongs to the labridae family . there are more than 500 species of wrasse that can be found in tropical and subtropical waters of indian , pacific and atlantic ocean . wrasse inhabits coastal areas , rocky shores , coral reefs , tidal pools and sandy sea floor . few species of wrasse are part of human diet . wrasses are very popular among aquarists because of their colorful bodies . some species , such as humphead wrasse , are listed as endangered due to over - fishing and destruction of coral reefs ( their habitat ) .\nwrasse can survive 3 to 30 years in the wild ( most species live from 3 to 5 years ) .\nwrasse is a carnivore ( meat - eater ) . its diet is based on small invertebrates ( crabs , shrimps , mollusks , snails and sea urchins ) and fish . wrasse occasionally follows large marine predators and collects leftover of their meals .\nsemsar , k . , f . l . m . kandel , and j . godwin ( 2001 ) manipulations of the avt system shifts social status and related courtship and aggressive behavior in the bluehead wrasse . horm . behav . 40 : 21 - 31 .\nwarner , r . r . and e . t . schultz . 1992 . sexual selection and male characteristics in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum : mating site acquisition , mating site defense , and female choice . evolution . 46 ( 5 ) : 1421\u20131442 .\nwarner , r . r . and swearer , s . e . ( 1991 ) , social control of sex change in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum ( pisces : labridae ) . biol . bull . 181 : 199 - 204 . ( october , 1991 )\nred night shrimp ( rhynchocinetes rigens ; left ) are the most popular prey item for lionfish in bermudian waters . the invasive predators also feast on bluehead wrasse , which remove parasites from other fish species . photos by franco banfi ( left ) and paul starosta / via getty images\nsome wrasse adapt well to life in an aquarium , but others may require special attention and should only be kept by very experienced aquarists . wrasse must have an aquarium with a well - sealed lid , along with fine substrate , and good water conditions .\nmarsh - hunkin , k . e . , h . m . heinz , m . b hawkins , and j . godwin ( 2013 ) estrogenic control of behavioral sex change in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum . integrative and comparative biology 53 ( 6 ) : 951 - 9 .\nlema , sean c . , melissa a . slane , kelley e . salvesen , john godwin ( 2012 ) variation in gene transcript profiles of two v1a - type arginine vasotocin receptors among sexual phases of bluehead wrasse ( thalassoma bifasciatum ) . general and comparative endocrinology 179 : 451 - 464 .\nk semsar , fl kandel , and j godwin , manipulations of the avt system shift social status and related courtship and aggressive behavior in the bluehead wrasse : hormones and behavior [ horm . behav . ] . vol . 40 , no . 1 , pp . 21 - 31 . aug 2001 .\nsome wrasse are referred to as cleaner fish , and will set up a station on the reef to pick parasites and dead tissue from larger fish , including predators . most cleaner wrasse are recognized by other reef fish , and are not eaten by larger fish on the reef .\nbester , c .\nbluehead .\nflorida museum of natural history : ichthyology . 2012 . florida museum of natural history . 27 may 2012 < urltoken > .\nmarsh , k . e . , l . m . creutz , m . b . hawkins , and j . godwin ( 2006 ) . aromatase immunoreactivity in the bluehead wrasse brain , thalassoma bifasciatum : immunolocalization and co - regionalization with arginine vasotocin and tyrosine hydroxylase . brain research 1126 : 91 - 101 .\nexpression data from bluehead wrasse brain cdna microarrays generated in our lab indicated that zic2 was upregulated in terminal phase males relative to both females and ip males ( passador - gurgel and godwin , unpublished data ) . this study focuses on the preoptic area of the hypothalamus and the possibility that zic2 mrna abundance is elevated specifically in tp males relative to females and ip males in this key integrative area for male - typical courtship and sexual behavior [ 24 ] , [ 25 ] , [ 26 ] . a second goal was to characterize the distribution of zic2 mrna expression in the brain of the bluehead wrasse using in situ hybridization .\nnucleotide sequence alignment of the confirmed z ic2a partial nucleotide sequence isolated from thalassoma bifasciatum ( bluehead wrasse ; hq423137 . 1 ) aligned with gasterosteus aculeatus zic2a ( three - spined stickleback ; bt027912 . 1 ) . nucleotides indicated with \u201c * \u201d represent identical nucleotides when our clone was aligned with stickleback zic2a sequences from the ncbi database .\nlarson et , norris do , summers ch ( 2003b ) monoaminergic changes associated with socially induced sex reversal in the saddleback wrasse . neuroscience 119 : 251\u2013263 .\nkoulish , s . and kramer , c . r . ( 1989 ) , human chorionic gonadotrophin ( hcg ) induces gonad reversal in a protogynous fish , the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum ( teleostei , labridae ) . j . exp . zool . , 252 : 156 - 168 . doi : 10 . 1002 / jez . 1402520207\nwrasse has pointed snout , thick lips and prominent ( outward oriented ) canine teeth . it has elongated body covered with smooth scales and long dorsal and anal fins .\nbluehead wrasses are generalist foragers and eat a variety of prey . they are known to forage for small invertebrates and crustaceans on the reef surface , target individual zooplankton in the water above the reef surface , and clean the parasites off of larger species . as they are one of the most common small - bodied fishes on reefs , bluehead wrasses are eaten by many different species of predatory fishes .\nin summary , zic2 is widely expressed in the adult bluehead wrasse brain , including regions that regulate sexual behavior and function . the function of zic2 remains relatively unstudied in adult animals generally and this work is therefore novel in adult teleosts . we have also provided evidence of sexual phenotype differences in zic2 expression in the preoptic area . together with evidence of roles in neural differentiation and dopaminergic signaling in other species , these sexual phenotype differences in bluehead wrasses suggest a potential role in their remarkable sexual plasticity . further research involving mechanistic approaches will be necessary to explore this possibility .\nlarson et , norris do , gordon grau e , summers ch ( 2003a ) monoamines stimulate sex reversal in the saddleback wrasse . general and comparative endocrinology 130 : 289\u2013298 .\nit gets its common name from the adult coloration , which includes an obviously blue head on an otherwise green body . juveniles are solid yellow , or nearly so , with a black spot on the dorsal fin . the numerical success of the bluehead wrasse is apparent to anyone who has visited a caribbean reef ; it is one of the most common species in that region .\npredatory threats to the blue head wrasse include the trumpetfish , red hind , greater soapfish , and yellowfin grouper ( bester ) . they are not predated by humans , but may be used as baitfish .\nty - jour ti - social control of sex change in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum ( pisces : labridae ) t2 - the biological bulletin . vl - 181 ur - urltoken pb - marine biological laboratory , cy - woods hole , mass . : py - 1991 - 10 - 01 sp - 199 ep - 204 do - 10 . 2307 / 1542090 sn - 0006 - 3185 au - warner , r r au - swearer , s e er -\nsemsar , k . , f . l . m . kandel , and j . godwin . 2001 . manipulations of the avt system shift social status and related courtship and aggressive behavior in the bluehead wrasse . hormones and behavior . 40 : 21 - 31 . semsar k . and l . godwin . 2003 . social influences on the arginine vasotocin system are independent of gonads in a sex - changing fish . j neurosci . 23 ( 10 ) : 4386\u20134393 .\nwrasse can bury itself in the sand or quickly swim away ( thanks to well developed pectoral and caudal fins ) , to escape from predators . some species hide among the large tentacles of mushroom coral and sea anemones .\nbut , is that fair to the lionfish ? sure , humans created this problem , which endangers red night shrimp , bluehead wrasses and countless other animals . a lionfish , however , is a living creature too \u2014 one that didn\u2019t purposefully migrate into our waters .\ncolor of the body depends on the species , habitat , age and gender . wrasse can be white , yellow , orange , red , purple , blue , green , grey , brown or black and covered with numerous bars , stripes and markings .\n@ article { bhlpart30476 , title = { social control of sex change in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum ( pisces : labridae ) } , journal = { the biological bulletin . } , volume = { 181 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . } , url = urltoken publisher = { woods hole , mass . : marine biological laboratory , } , author = { warner , r r and swearer , s e } , year = { 1991 - 10 - 01 } , pages = { 199 - - 204 } , }\ncaution is required with : dwarf angelfish , anglers & frogfish , anthias , basslets , blennies , butterflyfish , cardinalfish , clownfish , eels , filefish , goatfish , gobies , groupers , grunts & sweetlips , hawkfish , hogfish , lionfish & scorpionfish , parrotfish , puffers , squirrelfish , triggerfish and wrasse .\nshapiro , d . y . 1979 . social behavior , group structure , and the control of sex reversal in hermaphroditic fish . adv . studies behav . 10 : 43 - 102 . warner , r . r . 1982 . mating systems , sex change , and sexual demography in the rainbow wrasse , thalassoma lucasanum . copeia . 653 - 661 .\nbluehead wrasses are carnivorous and usually feed on zooplankton , the eggs of other fish , and small bottom - dwelling organisms . juveniles and initial phase individuals in particular may participate in cleaning stations , consuming dead material and parasites off of the bodies and out of the gills of larger fish as they pass through the station . which food source they capitalize on depends largely on ocean current and reef condition ( oceana ) .\nfemales produce and release thousands of eggs during the spawning season . some wrasses show parental care . males guard eggs laid in the algae or various cavities until they hatch . other species of wrasse produce planktonic eggs which freely float , carried by ocean currents . incubation period lasts 24 hours on a temperature of 27 degrees of celsius ( lower temperature prolongs incubation period ) .\n. again , much like avt , 11 - kt is affected by the fluctuation of cortisol ; elevated cortisol levels results in the inhibition of 11 - kt synthesis , thereby keeping gonads intact in suppressed ip females as well as allowing ip males to retain their reproductive function without the tp coloration since the lack of 11 - kt production does not affect testosterone levels . in fact , ip fish , both male and female , have undetectable levels of 11 - kt . as closely related they are to each other in terms aiding sex change in the bluehead wrasse , 11 - kt and avt systems can act independently of each other . 11 - kt does not increase avt mrna expression nor is it necessary for the display of such expression . however , 11 - kt could still play a role in the responsiveness to exogenous avt\nthe bluethroat wrasse can be recognised by its colouration . juveniles and females are greenish to reddish with a dusky bar behind the pectoral fin . the body scales have pale centres . males are brown to bluish - grey , with a white band across the body below the soft portion of the dorsal fin . the head is grey , the chin and throat are blue and the lips are yellow .\nmunday , p . l . , j . w . white , and r . r . warner . 2006b . a social basis for the development of primary males in a sex - changing fish . proc . r . soc . lond . , b , biol . sci . 273 : 2845\u20132851 . peacock , richard .\nsex change in nature - coral reef fish .\nevolution faq . web . 14 nov . 2010 . < urltoken > . petersen , c . w . , r . r . warner , d . y . shapiro , and a . marconato . 2001 . components of fertilization success in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum . behavioral ecology . 12 : 237 - 245 . perry a . n . and m . s . grober . 2003 . a model for social control of sex change : interactions of behavior , neuropeptides , glucocorticoids , and sex steroids . horm behav . 43 ( 1 ) : 31e\u20138 .\nlionfish also disrupt reef ecosystems by targeting baby bluehead wrasses and other cleaner fish . \u201ccleaning stations are areas on the reef where our [ native ] predators don\u2019t eat the other fish , \u201d flook said . akin to how we go to doctors to get checkups , the reef fish have these areas , which are like no - feed zones . except lionfish don\u2019t abide . flook said lionfish target these cleaning stations in bermudian waters , not only eating the cleaners but all the fish in need of a tune - up .\nas previously mentioned , when the dominant tp male disappears from his harem , the largest ip female is prompted to take over . once the largest fish of the harem detects the absence of the territorial dominant male , it immediately undergoes transitional changes in order to replace the missing leader . this process is a response to a social cue that is regulated by the change in hormones . during sex change , there are rapid changes in behavior , such as increased aggression and the beginnings of typical t - tp male courtship conduct , as well as permanent color change . additionally , the gonads in the ip female change dramatically . that is , the ovaries of the ip female that contain no detectable testicular tissue are transformed into perfect testes . within a week of changing from a large , yellow wrasse to a large , blue and green wrasse , the former female is already producing sperm and fertilizing the eggs laid by the females in the territory .\nmost research involving the blue head wrasse revolves around its ability to change sex . in a study by robert warner and stephen swearer , social control of sex change was studied . they found that \u201coverall , there was a very strong response to the removal of tp and [ early terminal phase ] males on the experimental reefs\u201d ( warner ) . following the removal of the tp males , it was always the largest individuals in the group that took their place as dominant males .\nwhat is the neurochemical basis of such changes ? to recap , aggression and courtship behavior demonstrated by t - tp males is a means of suppressing sex change in ip females as well as nt - tp males . only when the suppression condition is lifted can sex change take place or be completed ( ross , 1989 ) . the dominated fish are placed under chronic social stress , thereby increasing their levels of cortisol ( perry and grober , 2003 ) . the changes in the levels of cortisol in turn affect the expression of arginine vasotocin ( avt ) . cortisol and avt have an inverse relationship . for the bluehead wrasse , behavioral sex change is associated with an increase of avt . thus , t - tp males have low levels of cortisol and high levels of avt while the reverse is true for ip females and males . for the suppressed fish , the high amounts of cortisol promote the pathway for estrogen production in the gonads , which accounts for their lower levels of avt and their lack of typical t - tp male behavior .\nzic has been studied primarily in relation to development , but we found widespread expression of zic2 mrna in the brain of adult bluehead wrasses . expression was high in the granule cells of the cerebellum , as in other species examined to date , but is also present in a variety of other brain areas . these areas include the thalamus , hypothalamus , habenula , torus semicircularis , torus longitudinalis , medial longitudinal fascicle , and various telencephalic regions . we also found that zic2 mrna was more abundant in the preoptic area of terminal phase ( tp ) males than in either females or the female - mimic initial phase ( ip ) males , but found no significant differences in zic2 mrna in the habenula or cerebellum across sexual phenotypes .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is widespread in the northwestern atlantic and is common in many parts of its range . although it is collected for the aquarium trade , and is closely associated with reef habitat , these are not currently considered to be a threat to this species global population . it listed as least concern .\nthis species is common in the tropical waters of the western central atlantic ocean , and is found in bermuda , florida , the gulf of mexico , and the caribbean sea to venezuela and trinidad and tobago .\nanguilla ; antigua and barbuda ; bahamas ; barbados ; belize ; bermuda ; bonaire , sint eustatius and saba ( saba , sint eustatius ) ; cayman islands ; colombia ; costa rica ; cuba ; cura\u00e7ao ; dominica ; dominican republic ; grenada ; guadeloupe ; guatemala ; haiti ; honduras ; jamaica ; martinique ; mexico ; montserrat ; nicaragua ; panama ; puerto rico ; saint kitts and nevis ; saint lucia ; saint martin ( french part ) ; saint vincent and the grenadines ; sint maarten ( dutch part ) ; trinidad and tobago ; turks and caicos islands ; united states ; venezuela , bolivarian republic of ; virgin islands , british ; virgin islands , u . s .\nthis species has been noted as one of the \u2018top ten\u2019 species of fish on the export list in florida ( wood 2001 ) and puerto rico ( sadovy 1992 ) . an ornamental fishery evaluation study found that 844 individuals were harvested per annum across the la parguera and rinc\u00f3n regions , puerto rico ( richard et al . 2006 ) .\nthere are no major threats known for this species , although it is closely associated with coral reefs and shows high site fidelity . adults remain on their home reefs , with no emigration or immigration after settlement ( warner and hoffman 1980 ) . habitat destruction may pose a local threat to this species .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nwe are restoring the world\u2019s wild fish populations to serve as a sustainable source of protein for people .\nsign our petition to tell grubhub to take shark fin off the menu now \u2013 before the ocean\u2019s most iconic predators disappear .\nwe have already protected over 3 . 5 million square miles of ocean and inumerable sea life - 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( t . f . h . publications inc , new jersey , 2001 ) . rudie h kuiter , fairy & rainbow wrasses and their relatives , 1st ed . ( tmc publishing , chorleywood , uk , 2002 ) in house resources : adam mangino , eli fleishauer urltoken name\nyou may not duplicate , copy , or reuse any portion of the photos / html / css or visual design elements without our express written permission . any redistribution or reproduction of part or all of the contents in any form is prohibited .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nimage quest marine the moos poffley end witney oxfordshire ox29 9uw united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 1993 704050 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 1993 779203 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken / stock\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nmaster tracks 33 west park clifton bristol avon bs8 2lx united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 973 6833 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 923 7090 neil @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nby clicking the links above , you agree to continue to use this material in accordance with the below terms of use .\narkive videos are protected by copyright and usage is restricted . details of the copyright owners are given at the end of each video . please carefully read the following before downloading this video .\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\n\u2026such as young blueheads ( thalassoma bifasciatum ) and labroides species , act as cleaners for larger fishes . they pick off and eat the external parasites of groupers , eels , snappers , and other fishes that visit them periodically . this cleaning service is also performed by various other small fishes and by certain shrimps .\ndog , ( canis lupus familiaris ) , domestic mammal of the family canidae ( order carnivora ) . it is a subspecies\u2026\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nfigure 3 . the differentation of gonads and the changes the ovaries undertake into to become a tesis . all juveniles first develop a rudimentary female gonad that can differeniate into either primary testis or ovary . ( munday et al . , 2006 )\nin addition to avt , serum 11 - ketotestostrone ( 11 - kt ) is involved with the transition from an ip female to a tp male . whereas avt is responsible for the behavioral aspect of the sex change , 11 - kt is responsible for the physical aspect . as the primary androgen in fish , increased 11 - kt , accompanied by a sharp drop of serum estradiol ( e2 ) , is the key component of the conversion of the ovary into a testis . additionally , increases in 11 - kt is correlated with the development of color change typical to that of the tp male\ninterestingly enough , neither the development nor the maintenance of male - typical behavior depends on the presence of gonads ( semsar and godwin , 2004 ) . in fact , ovariectomy does not prevent the development of male behavior in socially dominant females ( godwin et al . , 1996 ) . thus , increases of avt occur regardless of whether sex - changing females have gonads or not . this lends itself to the theory that male behavior assumption is purely dependent on attaining social dominance .\nmechanism the physical characteristics and procedures in which a trait is able to express itself .\narginine vasotocin ( avt ) a hormone that is responsible for the expression of sociosexual behavior in vertebrates .\nserum 11 - ketotestostrone ( 11 - kt ) and serum estradiol ( e2 ) types of steroid hormones .\nyou came across this error because the pageyou were trying to visit does not exist .\nwe ' ve recently redesigned the site so old links may not work . have a look at some of these changes .\nyou may want to update your bookmarks or try to find the updated information using the links below . if you are still unable to find the information you are looking for , please contact the webmaster using the information below .\nfaculties / academics - find links to all faculties , departments and other academic resources e . g . handbooks , prospectus\nmedia centre - find media relations information here eg . news releases , events and announcements information\nprogrammes - view the faculty booklets containing the programmes available at the st . augustine campus\nresearch & innovation - view the cutting - edge research being done at the st . augustine campus\ncopyright 2015 the university of the west indies st . augustine , trinidad and tobago\nour 7 faculties , professional schools offer more than 200 programs to some 15 , 000 graduate , undergraduate and continuing studies students .\nthe uwi , st . augustine ranks first in trinidad and tobago among accredited tertiary - level programmes .\nt . bifasciatum is a reef - dwelling fish found primarily throughout the caribbean and gulf of mexico . they are found as far north as the carolinas and as far south as brazil . they frequent shallow reef areas , mangroves , and sea grass beds . they may occur in schools , especially when feeding . juveniles are known to recede into sea anemones for protection from predation , but they must avoid the stinging tentacles and ingestion by the anemone ( bester ) .\nt . bifasciatum is a brightly colored fish with multiple possible color variations depending on stage of development . the juvenile phase is generally an overall yellow coloration , while the initial phase ( ip ) is characterized by a \u201cdusky blue color with irregular white stripes\u201d ( beletsky , 2010 ) . variations include dark spots or stripes and may depend on location . the most notable color phase is that of the supermale , or terminal phase ( tp ) male . these individuals have a bright blue head adjacent to a dark bar , white bar , another dark bar , and a blue - green or yellow - green body ( bester ) . fins may have dark bars or spots as well .\nreproduction normally occurs toward the middle of the day when the ip fishes form large groups and release gametes into the water . the supermales form harems of courted females and reproduce with each female separately .\na study conducted by koulish and kramer explored the effect of human chorionic gonadotrophin ( hcg ) on protogynous fish . in 1 - 6 weeks , after treatment with hcg , 80 % of the fish displayed signs of sex reversal ( compared to 11 % control ) ( koulish ) .\nbeletsky , l . ( 2010 ) . belize and northern guatemala . northampton : interlink books .\ncomputer generated map for thalassoma bifasciatum ( un - reviewed ) . www . aquamaps . org , version of aug . 2010 . web . accessed 29 may . 2012 .\nit occurs from the central coast of new south wales south to tasmania and west to eastern south australia .\nthe map below shows the australian distribution of the species based on public sightings and specimens in australian museums . click on the map for detailed information . source : atlas of living australia .\nthe species occurs on rocky reefs . juveniles are found in shallow weed habitats in bays and estuaries . adults are usually seen on deeper rocky reefs to depths of about 40 m but have been trawled from water down to 160 m .\nedgar , g . j . 1997 . australian marine life : the plants and animals of temperate waters . reed books . pp . 544 .\ngomon , m . f . & b . c . russell in gomon , m . f . , glover , c . j . m . & r . h . kuiter ( eds ) . 1994 . the fishes of australia ' s south coast . state print , adelaide . pp . 992 .\nhutchins , b . & r . swainston . 1986 . sea fishes of southern australia . complete field guide for anglers and divers . swainston publishing . pp . 180 .\nkuiter , r . h . 1996 . guide to sea fishes of australia . new holland . pp . 433 .\nkuiter , r . h . 2000 . coastal fishes of south - eastern australia . gary allen . pp . 437 .\noops . a firewall is blocking access to prezi content . check out this article to learn more or contact your system administrator .\nstand out and be remembered with prezi , the secret weapon of great presenters .\nneither you , nor the coeditors you shared it with will be able to recover it again .\nreset share links resets both viewing and editing links ( coeditors shown below are not affected ) .\ngreek , thalassa = the sea + greek , soma = body ; the colour of the sea ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 0 - 40 m ( ref . 9710 ) , usually 3 - 30 m ( ref . 27115 ) . tropical ; 23\u00b0c - 26\u00b0c ( ref . 27115 ) ; 33\u00b0n - 8\u00b0n , 98\u00b0w - 59\u00b0w\nwestern atlantic : bermuda , florida ( usa ) , southeastern gulf of mexico and throughout the caribbean sea to northern south america .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 25 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 26340 ) ; max . reported age : 3 years ( ref . 3420 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 8 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 12 - 13 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 10 - 11 . body elongate ; 3 primary color phases , the smallest with a black mid - lateral stripe which continues as pale red blotches on head ; back above stripe yellow on reef fish and whitish on fish from inshore non - reef areas , and body below white . the largest phase , has a bright blue head and a green body with two broad vertical black bars anteriorly which are separated by a light blue interspace ; this phase is always male . the small yellow phase with the black stripe may be either male or female ( ref . 13442 ) .\ninhabits reef areas , inshore bays and seagrass beds . feeds mainly on zooplankton and small benthic animals , but may also feed on ectoparasites of other fishes ( ref . 9626 ) . spawn at midday throughout the year ( ref . 26938 ) . a protogynous hermaphrodite ( ref . 55367 ) . generally of no interest to fisheries because of its small average size ( ref . 5217 ) .\na diandric species ( ref . 55367 ) . sex reversal is completed in more than 3 - 4 weeks ( ref . 34185 , 34257 ) . length at sex change = 8 . 3 cm tl , forms leks during breeding ( ref . 55367 ) .\nrobins , c . r . and g . c . ray , 1986 . a field guide to atlantic coast fishes of north america . houghton mifflin company , boston , u . s . a . 354 p . ( ref . 7251 )\n) : 25 - 28 . 1 , mean 26 . 8 ( based on 222 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00912 ( 0 . 00524 - 0 . 01589 ) , b = 3 . 01 ( 2 . 86 - 3 . 16 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 \u00b10 . 1 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( k = 0 . 7 ; tmax = 3 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 20 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nif order under $ 350 shipping charge will be calculated base on the actual shipping weight . all livestock orders are shipped via next day air . if other shipping method is chosen we will modify the shipping method . live rock and sand are ship using 2nd day service . drygoods , aquarium supplies , and reptile supplies are ship using ground service unless specified . all livestock orders must be shipped overnight via ups or fedex priority overnight to reduce transit time . orders generally ship within 1 - 2 business shipping days . all livestock are shipped wednesday and will be deliver thursday morning . you will receive a confirmation email with your tracking number when your order has shipped .\nsaturday delivery must be made by special request by email or phone . saturday delivery is an extra $ 26 charge .\nin the interest of meeting your schedule , if 70 % of your order is in stock , it will be shipped . any missing items or substitutions will be marked on your order and your total will be adjusted accordingly . if you would prefer to be contacted if we are missing items , please let us know when placing your order in the comment field . however , this may delay your order . due to the nature of our products , we cannot backorder live animals .\nif your shipping address is different from your credit card billing address , please make sure your card issuer has listed this shipping address as an\nauthorized\naddress . we verify all addresses with visa , mastercard , discover and american express .\nups generally requires a signature for delivery . you or someone authorized by you , must be present to sign for a shipment if you choose to have it delivered to your home or office .\norders not held for pick up at the fedex / ups facility when temperatures are greater than 90 degrees or lower than 40 degrees .\norders placed during extreme weather will not be cover under our alive arrive guarenteed .\nif the weather delay a flight , or closes an airport , you live stock will be delayed . fedex has no control over the weather , nor does freshmarine . com .\nif your live stock is delay , damaged , or never delivered due to severe weather condition , fedex will not honor guarantees , and therefore neither can freshmarine . com .\nurltoken only ships within the continental u . s . excludes hawaii , alaska , and puerto rico\nthey are generally compatible with : large angelfish , boxfish , damselfish and tangs & surgeons .\nthey are not compatible with : batfish , pseudochromis , seahorses & pipefish and sharks & rays .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 discovery communications , llc . the world ' s # 1 nonfiction media company .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspawning season of wrasses takes place all year round in tropical waters or during the warm period of year in subtropical and temperate areas .\nsome wrasses are born as females , but they change sex and transform into males later in life . these individuals are scientifically known as protogynous hermaphrodites .\nlarvae are part of plankton during the first month of their life . after that period , they become large enough to join the community on the coral reefs .\n\u201cthe problem with the lionfish is it\u2019s like darwin\u2019s nightmare , \u201d oliver steeds said , standing on the deck of the baseline explorer .\na late afternoon sun dwindled over the 146 - foot research vessel , as it sat anchored in st . george\u2019s harbour on bermuda\u2019s northeast corner . licks of ocean water dried off a gold - plated submersible parked next to steeds , the director of a deep ocean exploration project called the nekton mission , as he recounted the basics of the invasive species .\n\u201clionfish are chowing their way through the food chain , because they don\u2019t have any predators , \u201d steeds said .\nthe first lionfish sightings occurred off the florida coast in the mid - 1980s . lionfish hail from the indo - pacific , but due to their ruby stripes and daggerlike spines , they are a favorite among exotic pet owners . scientists now believe that it was u . s . owners dumping adult lionfish into public waters that allowed a local population to establish itself . ( in 1992 , hurricane andrew famously washed out a tank of six lionfish into biscayne bay , florida , which people often inaccurately cite as the start of the invasion . )\nsince then , lionfish have terrorized atlantic waters , their ferocious appetites upsetting the balance of reef ecosystems . such was the case near the bahamas between 2003 and 2009 , where lionfish overconsumed juvenile parrotfish and other young plant eaters . the result : algae bloomed with abandon , choking the reef ecosystems at a 150 - to 200 - foot depth . coral coverage shrank by as much as 88 percent in places ; sponge coverage by 96 percent .\nmap of the lionfish spread based on sightings from 1985 to 2015 . data by u . s . geological survey . image by adam sarraf\n\u201cin u . s . waters , we know the lionfish are consuming a number of economically important species too , like snapper , grouper and even spiny lobster , \u201d said ocean ecologist james morris of noaa\u2019s national ocean service . what\u2019s more , lionfish multiply swiftly . a single female spawns every two to three days and can lay 2 million eggs in a year .\ntwo species of lionfish \u2014 pterois volitans and pterois miles \u2014 now threaten reef ecosystems across the western atlantic and the caribbean .\nbut a solution may be on the way , in the form of a robot .\nin a way , the lionfish terminator \u2014 not the robot\u2019s official name \u2014 is cousin to a vacuum cleaner .\nthe idea surfaced in the fall of 2015 , when colin angle , the ceo for irobot and the maker of the roomba robotic vacuum , paid a visit to friends on bermuda . during the visit , angle and his wife , biochemist erika ebbel joined a group of locals and sailed offshore for a dive . with them was chris flook , who had a long relationship with lionfish .\nas a collector of marine specimens for the bermuda aquarium , museum and zoo , flook had been one of the first people to notice lionfish in bermudian waters in the early 2000s . for unknown reasons , sightings began to surge up and down the atlantic around the turn of the millennia .\n\u201cthe first one i saw , i thought \u201coh , that\u2019s pretty cool . lionfish aren\u2019t supposed to be here , so maybe somebody\u2019s released it , \u201d flook said . \u201cthen very quickly i started to notice over time , we were losing small fish from these areas . \u201d\nlionfish began outcompeting bermudian predators , like groupers , for food . groupers feed in spurts , flook said . they eat and then chill out for a few days . by comparison , lionfish feed constantly , which flook and other experts blame on a hunting technique developed in their native range . in the indo - pacific , small species see the spiked barbs and know to retreat , so the lionfish must work hard for its meals . fish in the atlantic , however , are naive to the danger and don\u2019t flee .\nleft : marine ecologist chris flook filets a lionfish . flook was one of the first to notice bermuda\u2019s lionfish invasion in the early 2000s . right : alex chequer of the ocean support foundation holds up an adult lionfish prior to a research dissection . photo by megan crigger\nflook did early experiments when he noticed the invaders , where he put lionfish and bermuda\u2019s dominant reef predator in separate tanks . he then collected juvenile bream fish from an enclosed bay , which he suspected had never come in contact with a grouper or lionfish .\n\u201c [ the bream ] did exactly what we thought . they would stay away from the grouper because they knew at some point that grouper was going to try to eat them , \u201d flook said . \u201cin the lionfish tank , it was actually surprising how quickly the breams swam up to the lionfish to try and hide next to it . the lionfish ate every single one . \u201d\nas the invasion grew , flook and a collection of local divers founded the bermuda lionfish task force , which holds daily dives and fishing tournaments to rid their waters of the invasive species .\non that fall day , while the group ate their catch on the boat , flook and the other bermudians recounted these stories of the lionfish , and angle had a thought .\n\u201che envisioned building a robot to kill lionfish , \u201d recalled geoffrey gardner , a native bermudian , a friend of angle\u2019s and fellow mit alumnus . \u201cand that was the beginning of rise . \u201d\nafter the trip concluded , the angles laid the foundation for robots in service of the environment ( rise ) .\nthe independent , nonprofit company has recruited a league of engineers and scientists \u2014 all volunteers \u2014 to establish a skynet for lionfish . gardner , for instance , is coordinating the robot testing . meanwhile , ed williams , an rov ( remotely operated underwater vehicle ) designer at robo nautica in california , is pitching in weekends to engineer prototypes .\njohn rizzi , a retired entrepreneur and navy veteran , was appointed as the group\u2019s executive director . \u201cin order to attack the problem of lionfish in the western atlantic , you need maybe thousands of machines , \u201d rizzi said . \u201cto do that , you have to be able to build them reliably , inexpensively . \u201d\ntwo rov designs are leading the way . one model carries a spear gun , matching how human divers typically harvest lionfish . the second model will electrocute the lionfish by using a robot arm equipped with two metal electrodes .\n\u201cwhen the probes get to either side of the fish , you basically zap it , \u201d rizzi said . to start , each model will sport video cameras , so a pilot can guide the rovs from onshore or inside a boat . but the team\u2019s long - term plan is autonomous underwater robots that hunt lionfish on their own .\nrise\u2019s other leading prototype would use a pressure - powered speargun to cull lionfish . spearing is considered a humane method for collecting lionfish . this model will begin field tests in september . photo by ed williams , robo nautica\none of the first steps in development , especially for the zapper model , is observing how lionfish might react to an approaching robot . but here\u2019s one advantage for the rise team . due to their venomous barbs , lionfish have few predators . as a result , they don\u2019t automatically flee when approached .\nto keep other nearby fish from being zapped , rizzi and the other designers are relying on ocean chemistry . saltwater is highly conductive , so they expect it should act almost like a straight wire between the two electrode plates . the team is testing the shocking mechanism on lionfish in aquariums before rolling out the design into oceans . rise hopes these robots will appeal to fishermen , who are looking for ways to supply lionfish to restaurants \u2014 a growing sustainable market ."]}
{"id": 1722, "summary": [{"text": "bucculatrix needhami is a moth in the bucculatricidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from florida , kentucky , illinois , maine , new york , ohio , south carolina and texas .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 13 \u2013 15 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are white marked with irrorated fuscous streaks .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are pale grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from march to july .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on helianthus species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they create a gall , which has the form of a thickening of the walls of the stem .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "it varies in form from oblong to almost round .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "galls mostly occur singly on the stems and are generally located somewhat below mid-height of the plant . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "bucculatrix needhami", "paragraphs": ["bucculatrix needhami is a moth in the bucculatricidae family . it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from florida , kentucky , illinois , maine , new york , ohio , south carolina and texas .\nbucculatrix needhami is a moth in the bucculatricidae family . it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from florida , kentucky , illinois , maine , new york , ohio , south carolina and texas . the wingspan is 13\u201315 mm . the forewings are white marked with irrorated fuscous streaks . the hindwings are pale grey . adults are on wing from mar . . .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ncollected at the wedge plantation , charleston county south carolina by richard b . dominick 3 april 1970\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nas part our commitment to scholarly and academic excellence , all articles receive editorial review .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from world ebook library are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department ."]}
{"id": 1724, "summary": [{"text": "swainson 's thrush ( catharus ustulatus ) , also called olive-backed thrush , is a medium-sized thrush .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is a member of catharus genus and is typical of it in terms of its subdued coloration and beautiful voice .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "swainson 's thrush was named after william swainson , an english ornithologist .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the genus name catharus comes from the ancient greek katharos , \" pure or clean \" and refers to the plumage of the orange-billed nightingale-thrush c. aurantiirostris .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the specific ustuatus is latin for \" burnt \" , from urere , \" to burn \" .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the breeding habitat of swainson 's thrush is coniferous woods with dense undergrowth across canada , alaska , and the northern united states ; also , deciduous wooded areas on the pacific coast of north america .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "these birds migrate to southern mexico and as far south as argentina .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the coastal subspecies migrate down the pacific coast of north america and winter from mexico to costa rica , whereas the continental birds migrate eastwards within north america ( a substantial detour ) and then travel southwards via florida to winter from panama to bolivia .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "swainson 's thrush is a very rare vagrant to western europe .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it has also occurred as a vagrant in northeast asia .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this species may be displaced by the hermit thrush where their ranges overlap .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "possibly , the latter species adapts more readily to human encroachment upon its habitat .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "at least in the winter quarters , swainson 's thrush tends to keep away from areas of human construction and other activity . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "swainson ' s thrush", "paragraphs": ["the swainson ' s thrush is the only woodland thrush whose song goes up in pitch .\nthe swainson ' s thrush is a summer visitor along the coast of california .\nfigure 1 . distribution of swainson ' s thrush in north and middle america .\na swainson ' s thrush photographed at st . francis wildlife association in quincy , florida\nthanks for that shyloh\u2026so nice to hear the swainson\u2019s thrush song on a cold october morning .\nswainson\u2019s thrush has been observed to be steadily declining , but is currently labeled as \u2018least concern\u2019 .\nunlike most other forest dwelling thrushes , the swainson ' s thrush ' s song rises in pitch toward the end of the melody .\noften heard but difficult to spot . this video of a singing swainson ' s thrush is a cherished prize !\ninformation on the swainson ' s thrush ( catharus ustulatus ) is being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nthe swainson ' s thrush is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\ni often wonder what ' s behind the name when i come across a bird that has an unusual name like the swainson ' s thrush instead of a self explanatory name like the black - capped chickadee . the swainson ' s thrush was named after william john swainson , an english ornithologist ( among other things ) , who lived from 1789 to 1855 . numerous species of birds were named after william john swainson , including the swainson ' s hawk and swainson ' s warbler . the swainson ' s thrush was named after mr . swainson by thomas nuttall , another zoologist who was also a botanist . mr . nuttall also has plants as well as birds named after him , like the nuttall ' s woodpecker .\nflight : in flight , swainson\u2019s thrush appears entirely olive brown on the upperparts . it hovers while gleaning insects from foliage .\nregional differences in color and song occur within the swainson ' s thrush species . swainson ' s whose spring and summer range is the pacific northwest are more reddish brown in color than the olive color of the swainson ' s living within the rest of the species ' range . the swainson ' s of the pacific northwest also have a somewhat different song .\nswainson\u2019s thrushes are very common during migration across much of the u . s . , and they migrate at night\nswainson\u2019s thrush is shy and skulking , spending most of time on ground , under cover of undergrowth . it hops and will run in short bursts . swainson\u2019s thrush is highly migratory . migration is mostly at night , often found in mixed flocks with other thrushes .\nstefani ( 1996 ) reports that swainson\u2019s thrush has been proposed as a species of special concern by laymon ( pending fish and game approval ) and that the usda forest service identified the swainson\u2019s thrush as one of two priority landbird species for monitoring in the sierra nevada .\nstefani reports 1 . 8 swainson\u2019s thrushes / ha in plumas national forest , 1996 .\nthere are around 600 different species of birds in the thrush family . some of these like the wood thrush , varied thrush , hermit thrush , swainson ' s thrush and gray - cheeked thrush have their family name included in their individual names . others like the veery , american robin and western , mountain and eastern bluebirds are also thrushes but their family name is not a part of their common title .\nprotection / threats / status : swainson\u2019s thrush populations appear to be declining , but is a widespread breeding bird occupying much of forested north america . they are however still vulnerable to loss of habitat on breeding and wintering grounds . occasionally , swainson\u2019s thrush is a host of brown - headed cowbird .\ndensity of swainson ' s thrush by detailed ecological unit in yukon - charley rivers national preserve , alaska , avian inventory , june 1999 and 2000 .\nit was named after william swainson , an english ornithologist , and is also called the olive - backed thrush .\nthe distinct habitat requirements of the subspecies should be a major theme in conservation planning for the swainson\u2019s thrush . however , data on breeding requirements of the western russet - backed swainson\u2019s thrush , published or unpublished , is extremely sparse . although the majority of the swainson\u2019s thrush range in ca is occupied by the russet - backed subspecies , no distinctions are made in published ca wildlife habitat manuals between habitat requirements this and the more northern and eastern olive - backed subspecies .\ni could not find any legends about the swainson\u2019s thrush , though if i were writing about the hermit thrush i would have at least one myth for this part . this is a scottish poem by walter wingate .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - swainson ' s thrush ( catharus ustulatus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - swainson ' s thrush ( catharus ustulatus )\ntitle =\narkive species - swainson ' s thrush ( catharus ustulatus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ndiet : swainson\u2019s thrush feeds on fruit , berries and insects . it also eats spiders and other invertebrates . young are fed insects , and possibly some fruits .\nthe swainson ' s thrush uses dense brushy areas along the coast of california . in the inland valleys it frequents oak woodlands as well as riparian pant communities .\nthe swainson ' s thrush occupies forested habitat at low to mid - elevations , overlapping with the veery below and the hermit thrush above . although it is found mostly in dense hardwood and mixed forests , young conifer forests , and forest openings , the swainson ' s thrush does not require as dense an understory as does the veery . they are attracted to salmonberry stands as nesting sites .\nthe longest - lived swainson\u2019s thrush on record was at least 12 years , 1 month old when it was recaught and rereleased during banding operations in montana in 2006 .\nthe diet of the swainson ' s thrush changes seasonally from insects to berries . berries are important year round , making up over one third of the summer diet .\nthe swainson ' s thrush ' s breeding range is from alaska and across much of canada , south to the western united states and the northern parts of new england . they winter in central and south america .\nnew research shows that swainson ' s thrushes use a\ngenetic map\nto pick their migration routes .\nmy favorite thrush songs besides the robin of course , are the swainson ' s and varied thrush ' s ~ we ' ve had the privilege of listening to both of them often . in addition to their superb singing abilities , there are many interesting things about this family of birds . in this months in scope , we ' ll be focusing our attention on the swainson ' s thrush ~ a wonderful spring and summer singer that frequents our neighborhood .\nthe song of the swainson ' s thrush is of a beautiful flute like quality with notes softly spiraling upward toward the end of the song . they also sing a simple whistled call note . a group of swainson ' s thrush males will often sing together in chorus in the early morning or evening , each singing from within his own territory .\nthe preferred habitat of the swainson ' s thrush is coniferous woodlands and forests and shrubby thickets . they enjoy berry bushes and will forage where they are well hidden . secretive by nature , swainson ' s thrushes are not always seen but their woodwind like songs echo for long distances .\nother thrushes like the varied thrush may enjoy a birdseed mix , although it is not usually a food swainson ' s like to eat . ground level feeders like a low tray feeder suits any thrush ' s foraging style best ~ so when trying to attract them to your feeding station , be sure to offer thrush foods on or near the ground .\nunlike the east where there are numerous species of thrushes , we have only the hermit and swainson ' s thrushes . separation of these two through binoculars in southern california is complicated because the local subspecies of swainson ' s thrush has a rufous rump . pyle has some very clear cut characteristics to separate the two species , fig . 228 for hermit thrush and fig . 227 for swainson ' s thrush . basically , p9 < p6 and p6 is emarginated in heth , while p9 > p6 and p6 is not emarginated in swth .\nif you live within the swainson\u2019s thrush\u2019s range , you can make your yard more enticing to this bird by providing tree and shrub cover and ground - level bird baths , avoiding chemical pesticides , and letting leaf litter accumulate undisturbed .\nthe swainson\u2019s thrush has olive to reddish - brown upperparts , head , and wings , buffy spectacles around the eyes , a buffy breast spotted with black , and a whitish belly .\nhabitat : swainson\u2019s thrush favours coniferous or mixed forest , with rather open undergrowths , and also woodland thickets especially near streams . it winters in mature tropical forest , and secondary forest .\nthrushes are excellent fliers and make use of this trait for short and long - distance migrations with species such as the veery and swainson ' s thrush wintering well south of the equator .\nthe swainson ' s thrush is a nocturnal migrant . at night this bird migrates up from mexico and central america in the summer . they just come to visit us in the summer .\nthe swainson\u2019s thrush\u2019s nest is a cup of twigs , leaves and grass , sometimes held together with mud , and lined with finer materials . it is often placed on a horizontal branch of a tree or shrub , either coniferous or deciduous .\nthey swainson ' s thrush enjoys toyon berries as well as the cover it provides . toyon is a large evergreen shrub with clusters of red berries . the swainson ' s thrush likes large and small shrubs for nesting and foraging as well as leaf litter for foraging . so don ' t rake up your leaf litter . it is a treasure trove of nutrition and organic matter .\nthe swainson\u2019s thrush\u2019s whirling song has a ventriloqual quality that can make it difficult to track . this may happen as the singer moves quickly from one perch to another between songs . it may also have to do with the sounds\u2019 reverberation in dense foliage . swainson\u2019s thrushes also sometimes sing quiet songs that create the illusion that its song emanates from a more distant location .\njohnson , m . d . and g . r . geupel . 1998 . the importance of productivity to the dynamics of a swainson\u2019s thrush population . the condor 98 : 134 - 142 .\nthere are three species of spot - breasted thrushes found in washington . all three - the swainson ' s thrush , the veery , and the hermit thrush - have solid brownish upperparts ( back , wings , and tail ) , light - colored bellies , whitish eye - rings , and varying degrees of spotting on their breasts . all are similar in shape to a robin , but smaller . males and females appear similar in most species . the spots on the swainson ' s thrush appear more faded than those of the hermit thrush , but more distinct than those of the veery . swainson ' s thrushes also have distinct buff - colored eye - rings .\nswainson\u2019s thrushes have been called \u201cmosquito thrushes\u201d for their flycatching habit of going after flying insects while feeding on their breeding grounds .\nthe swainson\u2019s thrush is a medium bird which may also be called the olive - backed thrush . it prefers to breed in coniferous woodlands with dense undergrowth throughout canada , alaska and the northern united states . it is also found in deciduous forests of the north american pacific coast . during winter months , this species will migrate to southern mexico and argentina , costa rica , panama , bolivia and occasionally western europe . the swainson\u2019s thrush forages for its food on the forest floor and gleans the surrounding vegetation . diets usually consist of insects and berries . nests are cup - shaped and placed on horizontal tree branches . the conservation rating for the swainson\u2019s thrush is least concern .\nalthough swainson ' s thrush is still considered one of the most common birds of northern spruce - fir forests , populations are declining even where abundant , particularly in alaska and the northeast . in california , the breeding range of this species has contracted during the last century , and\nthe disappearance of the swainson ' s thrush from yosemite valley is one of the unsolved mysteries of sierran ornithology\n(\nrange : swainson\u2019s thrush breeds from interior alaska throughout most of canada , southward to northern states in east , and through mountains in west and along pacific coasts . it winters in mexico and south america .\nthis month i have created for you a new coloring page featuring the swainson ' s thrush as well as a word search puzzle all about thrushes ! both activities are in a free downloadable pdf . just\nswainson\u2019s thrushes breed from alaska south to much of the western u . s . , as well as across southern canada to the northeastern u . s . they winter in mexico and central america . the population has declined in recent decades .\none other observation is timing . swainson ' s thrushes seem to pass south through southern california in late summer / early fall ( sep - oct ) and then north in late winter / early spring ( may ) . in between these two times , hermit thrushes are common ; we have never encountered a swainson ' s thrush in winter .\nin north america , aside from the american robin and bluebirds , most thrushes are birds of woodland and forest . the wood thrush shares the eastern deciduous forests with the veery while out west , the ethereal tones of the varied thrush vie with the songs of hermit and swainson ' s thrushes in the tall coastal rainforests . the gray - cheeked thrush breeds further north in the boreal zone and the townsend ' s solitaire sings from the mountain conifers .\nthe swainson ' s thrush utilizes the organism rich leaf litter . this leaf litter is filled with all kinds of organisms that break down plant material . this includes spiders , worms , fungi , insects and many other creatures .\n) . eight forms of swainson ' s thrush have been described based on geographical differences in coloration , with six currently recognized as subspecies . the confused historical taxonomy of this species and currently recognized differences may yet prompt further reclassification .\nthe scientific name of the swainson ' s thrush is catharus ustulatus . this thrush is smaller than the american robin at 6 1 / 2 to 7 3 / 4 inches long . the male and female of this species look alike . depending on where they live , both male and female are an olive or russet color on their upperparts and have a white and lightly buff underside heavily spotted with brown . they also have a creamy white eye ring around each eye . the swainson ' s thrush has the same basic body shape as the american robin .\nswainson ' s thrushes are not particularly common birds in the santa monica mountains at the zuma canyon bird banding station ( only 22 encounters in seven years ) . but since this bird can easily be mistaken for a hermit thrush , i thought the inclusion of its species account would be useful . swainson ' s and hermit thrushes have an almost sympatric breeding range , but swainson ' s thrushes do not winter in the u . s . but rather in southern mexico and into central america . there are six subspecies in two groups . the key problem along the west coast is that the local subspecies ,\nswainson\u2019s thrush flit their way into the yukon mainly from mid - may to the end of may , being one of the last songbirds to make it to the yukon in spring . these birds overwinter in southern - most mexico , and down through western ( and part of central ) south america . they leave the yukon for the winter usually from the second - half of august to early september . these thrush nest in a wide variety of habitats , from cottonwood stands to old - growth spruce forest . around our yard it is a mix of black spruce and lodgepole pine , and the swainson\u2019s thrush love it . swainson\u2019s thrush prefer coniferous forests , particularly spruce . they forage for a mixed diet of bugs ( basically any ) and berries . at teslin lake bird observatory , there is a thicket of high - bush cranberries and you often see the swainson\u2019s thrush in there stuffing themselves . they mostly forage on the ground , but also by hopping from low branch to low branch . they glean insects from plant foliage and will occasionally \u2018flycatch\u2019 in flight .\na characteristic also shown by the adults of the wood thrush and a few other species .\nswainson\u2019s thrush ( catharus ustulatus ) are smaller than a robin , averaging at about 7 inches in length . they are greyish brown , with a white throat , belly , and undertail . the breast is covered with large brown spots that extend and fade down to the belly . it has a white eyering with a pale , creamy lore stripe extending from the front of the eye to the base of the bill . if you get a good look , you can see that it looks as though the thrush is wearing eye glasses . that is one of the main characteristics that you use to identify a swainson\u2019s thrush . grey - cheeked thrush have no eyeglasses , though they do have a thin eyering . hermit thrush have a thick white eyering , but no eyeglasses . hermit thrush also have a rich , rufous tail and bigger / bolder breast spots .\nthe swainson ' s thrush ' s nest is made up of moss , lichens , sticks , leaves and grasses . it is usually constructed and well hidden in a shrub or tree in a woodland or forest setting . the female lays three or four very light bluish - green eggs with light brown speckles .\nthe swainson ' s thrush forages in the leaf litter for insects and spiders . they also glean them from shrubs . so make sure you have lots of mulch in your garden . it also helps retain moisture , and nutrients for your plants .\n2 . 9 hectares , on riparian woodland plot in san diego co . ( weaver 1989 ) . swainson\u2019s thrush density decreased yearly on this plot after 1989 , disappearing by 1992 and absent at least through 1994 . weaver reports drought in 1990 and spring floodwaters which scoured the plot in the years 1991 - 1993 . but by 1997 , swainson\u2019s thrushes had returned to the plot , with 3 males detected countersinging .\nalthough the swainson ' s thrush does much of its feeding on the ground , it spends more time foraging in trees than do the other spot - breasted thrushes in washington . they hover while gleaning insects from foliage , and also catch flying insects . in spring and summer , when they feed predominantly on insects and other invertebrates , they forage mostly on the ground . as the season progresses and they eat more berries , they forage farther off the ground . the song and call of the swainson ' s thrush are quite distinctive , and may help a birder to locate this thrush that usually stays under cover .\nreproduction : male establishes a territory and attracts a female by singing . swainson\u2019s thrush\u2019s nest is usually in a low conifer , sometimes in deciduous tree , at 2 to 10 feet above the ground . it\u2019s a bulky open cup on a horizontal tree branch , built by female in about 4 days . it\u2019s made of grasses , plants stems , moss , small twigs and mud . it is lined with skeletonised leaves , rootlets , lichens or moss , and animal hair .\nevery spring i look forward to the evenings and early hours of morning . i step outside into the cool , fresh air , and listen to one of the prettiest songs i have ever heard . one swainson\u2019s thrush sings its heavenward spiralling song close by ; more answer it throughout the forest . at times up to seven or more males are scattered in the thickest parts of the forest by our house , defending their territories and competing with each other to attract a females attention . to hear the swainson\u2019s thrush song and call , click here .\nwhen attempting to attract swainson ' s thrushes to your yard , you will have to rely much more on your plant choices and creating a habitat for them than filling the feeder with delicious goodies . since swainson ' s thrushes rarely visit feeders , you will need to offer them food and shelter in the form of good garden plantings instead .\nmack , diane evans and wang yong . 2000 . swainson ' s thrush ( catharus ustulatus ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto swainson\u2019s thrush is often silent . the most typical call is an emphatic , low , liquid \u201cwhit\u201d . we can hear also a soft \u201cwhup\u201d . song is an ascending spiral of varied whistles . at night , a peeping \u201cqueep\u201d is heard .\nwhen controlling for plot effect , two of the above variables were found to account for within - plot differences in nest success - - willow shrub cover , which negatively correlated with nest success , and western swordfern cover , which positively correlated with nest success . it is interesting to note the negative correlation of nest success with willow shrub cover ( defined as < 5m high and stem of < 8cm dbh ) , considering that bent describes russet - backed swainson\u2019s thrush as being attracted to willow - alder thickets . perhaps at the early stage of willow regeneration , some nest site requirement is not met for the swainson\u2019s thrush . therefore , the simultaneous presence of willows and breeding swainson\u2019s thrushes should not necessarily be taken to represent a healthy population .\nswainson\u2019s thrush is seasonally monogamous , but pairs often re - form in multiples seasons after repeating the pair - bonding process . this may facilitate rapid pairing . males arrive first ; initially tries to drive arriving females on its territory . after several days of female persistence , which may de strengthened by the male\u2019s defensive behaviour , male accepts female and mating occurs .\nswainson\u2019s thrush sings from a high perch . it may flick its wings and raise its crest when agitated . when is performing an agonistic display ( a behaviour used to threaten another bird ) the bird draws its head back , raises its bill while moving it slightly to the side .\nmarzluff and lyon ( 1983 ) found swainson\u2019s thrush abundance correlated with snag density , and 25 - 50 cm dbh live stems . they state that density of snags > 30 cm dbh reflect shrub cover and the occurrence of large stems . according to timossi ( 1990 ) the swainson\u2019s thrush is found in moist ecotones , such as tree / shrub , tree / grass , or shrub / grass , with water and dense understory being necessary elements . she suggests that a dense understory and canopy closure of 40 - 100 % provides both protection from predators and an ample food supply .\na very short breeding season , documented by bent ( 1949 ) , prbo nest and banding data ( 1996 - 97 ) , and rogers ( 1994 ) , means a very narrow window of opportunity for reproduction , and possibly a high sensitivity to disturbance of breeding grounds . therefore , swainson\u2019s thrushes are limited by production of young on the breeding grounds ( johnson and guepel 1995 ) . prolonged negative impacts on nest survivorship could be catastrophic to the swainson\u2019s thrush . unfortunately , we have a profound lack of knowledge of nest survivorship and nesting requirements of the swainson\u2019s thrushes breeding in california . this gap in knowledge could be distastrous for the conservation of the species , which appears to be extirpated from a large portion of its historic range .\nthe swainson\u2019s thrush is best known for its distinctive , fluting song , the upward - spiraling melody that breeding males use to defend nests and territory and also probably to attract mates . while this song varies somewhat from one individual bird to the next , its whistling , constantly ascending quality is always recognizable once you\u2019ve heard it .\ntwo subspecies of swainson ' s thrush occur in washington , the russet - backed form in western washington and the southeast cascades , and the olive - backed form found in eastern washington and the northeast cascades . swainson ' s thrushes appear to benefit from the extensive logging of low - elevation west - side forests because logging leaves brushy , early - successional habitat . they are currently the most abundant and widely distributed spot - breasted thrush in washington . they are , however , still vulnerable to loss of habitat on breeding and wintering grounds . the breeding bird survey shows a small , not statistically significant decline in the washington population between 1980 and 2002 .\noriginally classified in the genus turdus from specimens on the columbia river in washington and the saskatchewan river in canada , swainson ' s thrush is now included in the genus catharus with the veery ( c . fuscescens ) and hermit ( c . guttatus ) , gray - cheeked ( c . minimus ) , and bicknell ' s ( c . bicknelli ) thrushes . among these and other closely related , spotted north american thrushes , it forages higher off the ground than its relatives and uses more aerial , fly - catching techniques to obtain insect prey , a characteristic that earned it the name\nmosquito thrush\nin maine ( bent 1949 ) . eight forms of swainson ' s thrush have been described based on geographical differences in coloration , with six currently recognized as subspecies . the confused historical taxonomy of this species and currently recognized differences may yet prompt further reclassification .\nin new england spruce - fir forests , the nests of swainson\u2019s thrushes are often lined with root - like cords of horsehair fungus . the fungal filaments can have antibiotic effects and may help deter nest pathogens .\nswainson\u2019s thrush is a common species , but has been gradually declining across its range ; experiencing a loss of about 38 % between 1966 and 2014 , according to the north american breeding bird survey . partners in flight estimates a global breeding population of 100 million , with 28 % spending some part of the year in the u . s . , 72 % in canada , and 7 % in mexico . the species rates a 10 out of 20 on the continental concern score . swainson ' s thrush is not on the 2014 state of the birds watch list . this species ' short breeding season may render it sensitive to disturbance on nesting grounds . problems on breeding grounds include grazing , development , human activity , and invasions of nonnative plants . during spring and fall migration , significant numbers of swainson\u2019s thrushes die from collisions with windows , radio and cell - phone towers , and tall buildings . ( for more on the dangers of lights to migrating birds , visit the fatal light awareness program . ) studies of bird deaths at communications towers in minnesota , illinois , and west virginia revealed that swainson\u2019s thrushes were killed in greater numbers than any other bird species . back to top\nswainson ' s thrush : breeds from alaska east across canada to newfoundland , south to british columbia and along the west coast and rocky mountains , and also in northern new england . during migration , it may occur throughout north american and the caribbean . spends winters in tropics , from central mexico south . prefers coniferous forests and willow thickets .\nswainson\u2019s thrushes feed at higher levels than their relatives . they move in short hops along branches looking for food , gleaning from leaves of broad - leaved and coniferous trees . going after insects , they also lunge , hover , and flycatch . swainson\u2019s thrushes often perch on low twigs or branches to survey the litter below , then dive for prey . on the forest floor , they take long , springy hops from one hunting stop to the next . in addition to the male\u2019s haunting song , a peeping flight call , and other vocalizations , swainson\u2019s thrushes communicate aggression and other attitudes with a variety of silent body poses and displays , such as wing - flitting , leaf - tossing , and foot - quivering . on migration stopovers , swainson\u2019s thrushes may join multispecies foraging flocks . on breeding grounds , mating begins with the male chasing a fleeing female . as the courtship warms up , the pair progresses to slow flights and perching together . back to top\ndistribution : the swainson ' s thrush winters in from central mexico to guyana , western brazil , peru , bolivia , northwestern argentina and paraguay . their summer range stretches from interior alaska , across canada to the northeastern states and southward through the central pacific northwest and midwestern states . these birds were found in nearly all ecological units of yukon - charley rivers national preserve during the yukon - charley rivers national preserve bird inventory , june 1999 and 2000 . they occurred at highest density in the lower elevations of the yukon river valley ( yv ) ecological unit . swainson ' s thrush was the fourth most frequently detected bird on the bird inventory as their distinctive song is heard over long distances .\nhermit thrush is the only catharus thrush to winter widely in the lower 48 . they are told by their bold black spotted underparts , and chestnut tail that contrasts with browner upperparts . this bird is safely aged as a first - winter based on its retained juvenile upperwing coverts , which are tipped buff . view this photographer ' s galleries here : urltoken\nduring summer , look\u2014and especially listen\u2014for the swainson\u2019s thrush and its distinctive , spiraling song in closed forests of northern north america and the west . swainson\u2019s thrushes become numerous across most of forested north america during migration in spring and fall . though these birds can be hard to spot on the ground in a dim forest understory , they sing frequently in summer and call frequently during migration . in the breeding season , listen for the species\u2019 beautiful , flutelike song coming from rich forest . ( just remember that hermit thrushes have a similar song , though it usually includes a clear , level introductory note . ) swainson\u2019s thrush also gives its distinctive water - drip call quite frequently . once you get eyes on a candidate , check the face for that distinctive buffy - spectacled look . on winter grounds in central and northern south america , the species inhabits closed - canopy forest and can often be found attending army - ant swarms .\nthe family turdidae is a diverse group of birds including thrushes , townsend ' s solitaires , northern wheatears , bluebirds , and robins . members of this family are eloquent songsters and may be found in various habitats from woodlands to open areas . all have narrow , notched bills used to feed on insects and fruits and the young have spotted breast plumage . birds of the genus catharus include the swainson ' s , gray - cheeked , and hermit thrushes . the word thrush may be derived from the greek verb\nto twitter ,\nreflecting the active nature of these small birds . these\nspotted breasted\nthrushes closely resemble one another and prefer the forest understory . although swainson ' s thrush may be seen occasionally standing or running on the forest floor , these birds spend less time on the ground than other thrushes .\naccording to bbs data for 1966 - 1996 , declining , but not quite significantly ( p < 0 . 20 ) . prbo banding data for 1980 - 1992 at palomarin field station , marin co . also shows insignificant decline . manly and davidson ( 1993 ) report swainson\u2019s thrush declining in california but not in north america , from 26 years of bbs data .\nthe veery is redder above , and the gray - cheeked thrush lacks buffy tones in the face . hermit thrushes have a reddish tail .\nwinker , k . , d . w . warner , and a . r . weisbrod . 1989 . the northern waterthrush and swainson\u2019s thrush as transients at a temperate inland stopover site . in hagan , j . m . and d . w . johnston [ eds . ] , ecology and conservation of neotropical migrant landbirds . manomet bird observatory , woods hole , ma .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\non one site in the sierra region , disturbance to riparian habitat during breeding season may have caused disruption or displacement of swainson\u2019s thrushes in 1995 and 1996 . stefani ( 1996 ) discovered that swainson\u2019s thrush productivity declined between the period 1989 - 91 and 1996 at a site where a waterfowl habitat creation project had commenced in fall 1995 . restoration activities continued through the breeding season of 1996 , possibly contributing to the population decline on the site . she recommends avoiding such activities during future breeding seasons . also , two active swainson\u2019s thrrush nests were destroyed in marin co . in 1997 , as a direct result of summer fish habitat restoration activities ; the nest was inadvertantly knocked from its supporting shrub during fence - building ( prbo data 1997 ) . these examples serve merely to illustrate that timing of riparian restoration activites is critical , particularly when considering productivity of a species with a very short breeding season . predators\ndescription : swainson\u2019s thrush is rather warm olive brown above , and whitish below , with a distinct warm buff wash to the face , throat and breast , and a distinct buffish eye ring . underparts show more restricted spotting than in song thrush , being only weakly marked on lower breast and flanks . both sexes are alike . eyes are dusk . legs and feet are flesh coloured . bill is yellow with black tip . immature is similar to adults . birds in the east are more olive brown above ; western birds are more reddish - brown .\ndescriptions : swainson ' s thrush inhabits boreal coniferous woodlands and forest margins . favoring damp habitats , they may be found in the moist forest understory or near riparian thickets . their most distinctive traits are their buffy\nspectacles\n( eye rings joined by a band across the bill ) . these 18cm birds are brown above contrasted by a bright buffy breast with dark spots . sides and flanks are grayish brown .\nbehaviour : swainson\u2019s thrush forages near ground , but higher than other thrushes . it may occasionally fly - catch insects . in winter , it follows army - ants swarms . it gleans insects from vegetation , and also forages for other invertebrates on the ground . in late summer , they feed on berries . it hovers while gleaning insects from foliage , and also catches flying insects , sometimes even in the canopy .\nswainson\u2019s thrushes eat largely insects and arthropods during the breeding season ; they also eat fruits , particularly in fall and winter . they tend to reject yellow fruits and favor red ones , going after elderberries , blackberries , raspberries , twinberries , huckleberries , and other wild fruits including those of brier , false solomon\u2019s seal , and sumac . insect prey items include beetles , caterpillars , flies , grasshoppers , and bugs . swainson\u2019s thrushes also feed on ants\u2014a dietary item more commonly associated with some woodpeckers and unusual among temperate songbirds . nestlings are fed mostly insects , including especially caterpillars , beetles , moths , and flies . back to top\nthis species may be displaced by the hermit thrush where their ranges overlap . possibly , the latter species adapts more readily to human encroachment upon its habitat .\nof the american robin , orange and gray of the varied thrush , and the earthy tones of other forest species . all juvenile thrushes are spotted on the\nalthough swainson ' s thrush is still considered one of the most common birds of northern spruce - fir forests , populations are declining even where abundant , particularly in alaska and the northeast . in california , the breeding range of this species has contracted during the last century , and\nthe disappearance of the swainson ' s thrush from yosemite valley is one of the unsolved mysteries of sierran ornithology\n( marshall 1988 : 367 , citing beedy and granholm 1985 ) . the trend is clear , but the reasons are not . nests are not besieged by cowbirds , but predation rates are high , resulting in low nest - success rates overall , critically low in some locales . loss of breeding habitat may be a contributing factor , including loss of mature conifer forest and forest fragmentation , but swainson ' s thrushes are relatively abundant in some early - successional habitats , such as conifer plantations ; this fact clouds the forest - management issue . on the pacific coast , loss of riparian habitat to development and grazing have likely contributed to declines . the impact of habitat changes on wintering grounds is unclear .\nduring the peak of migration , swainson ' s thrushes are often very common in woodlots and parks , lurking in the thickets , slipping into fruiting trees to pluck berries . although they tend to stay out of sight , the patient birder eventually can see them well enough to discern the bold buffy eye - rings that give these birds their alert or startled look . like the other brown thrushes , swainson ' s migrate mostly at night , and their distinctive callnotes can be heard from overhead on clear nights during spring and fall .\n, seattle audubon ' s on - line breeding bird atlas of island , king , kitsap , and kittitas counties .\nthis species account is dedicated in honor of carol sisler , member of the cornell lab of ornithology ' s administrative board .\nthe more i learn about god and his creation , the more in awe and humbled i am at his greatness , his beauty and his love . the fact that god allows man to discover new things about his creation and learn more about the world he made is a humbling thought , especially when we , as humans don ' t always give him the praise or credit he is due . god ' s wisdom is shown in his varied and wondrous works . the swainson ' s thrush ' s song is one of the many voices in creation that praises their creator . we should do the same and humble ourselves before him because , after all , who are we in comparison to god himself ?\nno published nest data exists for swainson\u2019s thrush in california , and little exists for the russet - backed subspecies overall . data has been reported for seven nests located near juneau , ak ( rogers 1994 ) . according to diane evans , compiler of swth bna species account , very little nest data , published or unpublished , exists for the pacific coast region besides prbo and krrc nest data collected between 1995 and 1997 in marin county ( pers . comm . ) .\nthrushes are well represented in north america with sixty species in thirteen genera ( including the extinct grand cayman thrush and amahui of hawaii ) . this family includes well known birds such as the american robin and bluebirds , and lesser known birds such as the townsend ' s solitaire of western mountain forests .\ndilger , w . c . 1956a . adaptive modifications and ecological isolating mechanisms in the thrush genera catharus and hylocichla . wilson bull . no . 68 : 171 - 199 . close\nthey nest from early june to late july , building cups out of grasses , stems , small twigs , and moss in trees and shrubs . their nests can be found up to 6 metres high , but the average height is usually around 2 . 5 metres high . i found one , possibly two swainson\u2019s thrush nests during our years here in tagish . the first was about two meters high in a small spruce tree with three brown - speckled blue eggs in it . the female seemed to only incubate at night , as i saw her once at 5 : 30 am , and not once during the day . unfortunately , the nest was found by a squirrel , and all of the eggs were destroyed . the second nest was just this past summer . i don\u2019t know for sure if it was a swainson\u2019s thrush , but it was being built on a ledge just under the eves of our outdoor shower . it was a cup nest of grass . we did have a swainson\u2019s thrush nesting in there the year we moved here , but a weasel ate the eggs . this nest remained incomplete ; i guess the couple didn\u2019t like their view . usually one to five eggs are laid , and are incubated by the female for about twelve to thirteen days . the female will only begin incubation after she has laid the third egg . when the eggs hatch , the hatchlings are fed by both parents and usually fledge after ten to twelve days .\nnone of the thrushes of mainland north america are considered threatened although populations of the wood thrush have declined in many areas possibly due to deforestation on its breeding and central american wintering grounds . most hawaiian solitaries , though , have become critically endangered or have gone extinct because of changes to their fragile habitat and susceptibility to avian malaria . ornithologists are also concerned about the future of some species , such as the bicknell ' s thrush , due to destruction and development of their small wintering habitat areas .\nstanwood , c . j . 1913 . the olive - backed thrush ( hylocichla ustulata swainsoni ) at his summer home . wilson bull . no . 25 : 118 - 137 . close\ndunne , p . ( 2006 ) . pete dunne ' s essential field guide companion . houghton mifflin harcourt , new york , usa .\nswainson\u2019s thrushes nest in shady sites in the forest understory\u2014especially in thickets of deciduous shrubs or conifer saplings , mostly 3\u201310 feet off the ground . they build their nests on plants such as willow , fir , spruce , blackberry , alder , aspen , birch , maple , oak , briers , gooseberry , rose , and sumac .\nyou can also add more appeal to your yard for swainson ' s thrushes by adding coniferous evergreens for cover . since insects also make up a large part of a thrush ' s diet , ceasing the use of pesticides will make your yard even more bird pleasing and therefore , they will spend more time in your yard where you can enjoy them . of course , since thrushes dwell primarily on forest floors , having a forest or woodland nearby your home is key to enjoying these fabulous singing birds . if you don ' t have a woodland , forest or densely treed area nearby your home , chances are that you will have to go elsewhere to enjoy thrushes .\nwith spotted breast and reddish tail , the hermit thrush lives up to its name . although celebrated for its ethereal song , it is mostly a quiet and unobtrusive bird that spends much of its time in the lower branches of the undergrowth or on the forest floor , often seen flicking its wings while perched and quickly raising and slowly lowering its tail . a highly variable species in color and size , the hermit thrush ' s morphological characteristics and plumage have been well studied , with 12 - 13 subspecies now recognized ( see systematics ) .\nswainson ' s thrushes are highly migratory , and none winter in washington . they arrive late in spring , and migration is spread out , with spring migrants appearing in late may in eastern washington . fall migration takes place during august and september . migration is mostly at night . the birds migrate to tropical forests for the winter .\njohnson and geupel ( 1996 ) suggest that habitat specificity on their breeding grounds may be the basis for swainson\u2019s thrushes being limited in the summer . they outline degree of habitat specificity by season : in breeding season swainson\u2019s thrushes are riparian woodland specialists ( grinnell and miller 1944 , bent 1949 , verner and boss 1980 ) , on migration they use a range of habitats ( winker et al 1992 ) , and in winter they are possibly nomadic ( ramos and warner 1980 , rappole and warner 1980 ) , although there are arguments against this\nwinter nomad\ninterpretation ( marshall 1988 ) . they report a high hy return rate of 18 . 3 % at the palomarin field station in marin county , ca and hypothesize that\nscarcity of habitat may limit dispersal possibilities .\nbent ( 1949 ) describes a contrast in habitat preference between the two subspecies , stating that the western russet - backed subspecies most typically nests in willow - alder thickets , while the eastern olive - backed subspecies prefers young conifers . verner and boss ( 1980 ) state that in the western sierra , swainson\u2019s thrushes prefer dense thickets near streams or wet meadows . swainson\u2019s thrushes were found to be more abundant in riparian habitats than upland habitats on mixed - conifer study sites in the cascade mountains , lane county , oregon ( anthony et al 1996 ) .\nthrushes are most well known for their beautiful flute - like songs ; an attribute shared by many north american thrush species . the caroling song of the american robin is often viewed as a harbinger of spring .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nin a study of avian abundance in riparian habitat of the cascade mountains , lane county , oregon , breeding densities differed by seral stage . plots were characterized as old - growth ( 400 - 450 yrs ) , mature ( 130 - 200 yrs ) , and young ( 25 - 35 yrs ) . young plots had been clearcut ; mature , even - aged plots had burned in a fire in the 1850s ; and old - growth were natural , unlogged forests . swainson\u2019s thrush was least abundant in old - growth ( 6 . 50 / 40 ha ,\none of the most beautiful sounds on a spring or summer evening is the soft fluting calls of thrushes , making music in their woodland home . when i think of that family of birds it makes me think of their beautiful reedy like songs , softly lulling the day to sleep at sunset . its such a wonderful experience to witness these nightly concerts and its one of my favorite things about spring and summer . well known for their delightful songs , thrushes are truly virtuosos when it comes to their singing abilities . no matter where you live in the united states , with the proper habitat , you are sure to have one or more species from this family of birds to serenade you with a morning and evening song . here in the pacific northwest we have a few different types of thrushes , the varied thrush and american robin are year round residents here . we also have the hermit thrush in the winter and the western bluebird and swainson ' s thrush in the spring and summer . yes , the robin and bluebird are thrushes ! their young ' s spotted plumage ( especially on their chests ) is a clue to their family heritage .\npeople have developed different instruments over the years to play various types of music . some musical instruments like the flute , clarinet and saxophone are called woodwinds . they play beautiful music and are often used in orchestras and bands . but did you know that god created some thrushes with a woodwind - like song ? that ' s right , god thought of it first ! thrushes like the swainson ' s produce reedy flute - like calls which they sing in chorus in spring and summer at dawn and dusk .\nswainson\u2019s thrushes breed mainly in coniferous forests , except in coastal california where they are found primarily in deciduous streamside woodlands , alder or willow thickets , and occasionally in coastal scrub . these birds range from sea level up to about 8 , 500 feet in elevation . in coastal california , where their habitat may depend on the presence of fog , they tend to stay below about 500 feet . during migration , swainson\u2019s thrushes occupy a wide variety of habitats , seeking mainly areas with dense undergrowth . look for migrants especially in forests , canyon bottoms , young woodland , swamp forests , lake edges , and parks . winter habitat includes primary and old second - growth tropical forest and forest - pasture edges . back to top\nverner , j . and a . s . boss . 1980 . california wildlife and their habitats : western sierra nevada . gen . tech . rep . psw - 37 . pacific southwest forest and range exp . stn . , usfs , u . s . dept . agric . , berkeley , ca .\nswainson\u2019s thrushes declined and eventually disappeared over a 5 year period ( 1989 - 1994 ) from a 11 . 7 ha bbc plot in san diego county , after heavy spring flooding scoured the understory in the years 1991 - 93 ( weaver 1989 - 1994 ) . they have since returned , with three males detected countersinging in 1997 ( weaver , pers . comm ) ."]}
{"id": 1730, "summary": [{"text": "tellina tenuis , the thin tellin , is a species of marine bivalve mollusc in the family tellinidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found off the coasts of north west europe and in the mediterranean sea where it lives buried in sandy sediments .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "bivalves are molluscs with a body compressed between two usually similar shell valves joined by an elastic ligament .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "there are teeth at the edge of the shell and the animal has a muscular foot , gills , siphons , mouth and gut and is surrounded by a mantle inside the shell . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "tellina tenuis", "paragraphs": ["scientific synonyms and common names tellina tenuis da costa , 1778 tellina exigua poli , 1791 tellina polita pulteney , 1799 non tellina polita poli , 1795 non tellina polita spengler , 1798 tellina exigua var . alba costa o . g . , 1830 tellina exigua var . flavescens costa o . g . , 1830 tellina hyalina deshayes , 1835 non tellina hyalina gmelin , 1791 tellina exigua deshayes , 1835 non tellina exigua gmelin , 1791 tellina tenuis var . angusta philippi , 1836 non tellina angusta gmelin , 1791 macoma commutata monterosato , 1884 tellina exigua var . flavida monterosato , 1884 tellina exigua var . pudibunda monterosato , 1884 tellina exigua var . albida monterosato , 1884 tellina exigua var . major monterosato , 1884 tellina exigua var . minor monterosato , 1884 tellina exigua var . aurantia monterosato , 1884 tellina tenuis var . aita de gregorio , 1885 tellina tenuis var . browni de gregorio , 1885 tellina tenuis var . jeffreysi de gregorio , 1885 tellina tenuis var . brevior b . d . d . , 1886 tellina bourguignati locard , 1886 tellina tenuis var . maxima b . d . d . , 1886 tellina tenuis var . minuta b . d . d . , 1886 tellina carnaria sensu von born , 1780 non linn\u00e9 , 1758 tellina incarnata sensu chemnitz , 1782 non linn\u00e9 , 1758 tellina planata sensu pennant , 1777 non linn\u00e9 , 1758 tellina tenuis sensu auct . non da costa , 1778 tellina exilis sensu brusina , 1866 non lamarck , 1818 angulus tenuis\nworms - world register of marine species - tellina tenuis var . angusta philippi , 1836\ndana campbell marked\nn136 _ w1150\nas trusted on the\ntellina tenuis\npage .\nin kames bay the density of tellina tenuis falls in a progressive manner from l . w . m . to h . w . m .\ndistribution tellina tenuis was found in both periods in the western near - coastal zone . in addition , the species was also observed in . . .\nthe size - frequency curves and density of tellina tenuis in the other bays at l . w . m . correspond with those of half - tide in kames bay .\nthe present paper deals with the results of investigations into certain phases in the life - history of the bivalve mollusc tellina tenuis carried out during the autumn of 1926 and 1927 .\nthe tellina tenuis population in kames bay seems to be composed of four year - groups , one of which is almost unrepresented . collections from neighbouring bays indicate that older groups may be present .\ndana campbell marked\nn136 _ w1150\nas trusted on the\ntellina crassa\npage .\ndana campbell marked\nn136 _ w1150\nas trusted on the\ntellina pulchella\npage .\ndana campbell marked\nn136 _ w1150\nas trusted on the\ntellina squalida\npage .\ndekker , r and beukema , j . j 1999 . relations of summer and winter temperatures with dynamics and growth of two bivalves , tellina tenuis and abra tenuis , on the northern edge of their intertidal distribution . journal of sea research , vol . 42 , issue . 3 , p . 207 .\nholme , n . a . 1950 . population - dispersion in tellina tenuis da costa . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , vol . 29 , issue . 02 , p . 267 .\nbarnett , peter r . o . 1985 . the effect of temperature on the growth of planktonic larvae of tellina tenuis da costa . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology , vol . 89 , issue . 1 , p . 1 .\nansell , alan d . and trevallion , ann 1967 . studies on tellina tenuis da costa i . seasonal growth and biochemical cycle . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology , vol . 1 , issue . 2 , p . 220 .\nmcintyre , a . d . 1970 . the range of biomass in intertidal sand , with special reference to the bivalve tellina tenuis . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , vol . 50 , issue . 03 , p . 561 .\nthe two closely related species , t . tenuis and t . fabula , are both plentiful in kames bay , but their range is not coincident .\nbuchanan , j . s . 1978 . cytological studies on a new species of rickettsia found in association with a phage in the digestive gland of the marine bivalve mollusc , tellina tenuis ( da costa ) . journal of fish diseases , vol . 1 , issue . 1 , p . 27 .\nyoung tellina tenuis , passing the 2 - mm . sieve but retained by the 1 - mm . sieve , were found in kames bay in august , chiefly below l . w . m . , but in october plentifully distributed up to half - tide and in lesser numbers higher up the shore .\nin kames bay tellina tenuis ranges from a little below h . w . m . to depths of about 4 fm . the maximum concentration of about 1000 per sq . m . is found at l . w . m . springs and the numbers decrease to zero at h . w . m . and 4 fm .\ndistribution tellina tenuis was found in both periods in the western near - coastal zone . in addition , the species was also observed in the area of the hinder banks , but only in the 1994 - 2001 period . the frequency of occurrence in both periods was relatively low and the species never reached high density levels ( maximum 30 ind . / m2 ) . [ details ]\nhabitat tellina tenuis occurs in a wide range of sediments : median grain size of 150 to 500 \u03bcm . the main restrictive factor appears to be the mud content : the species only occurs in sediments with a mud content < 20 % . the relative occurrence of 10 % in sediments with a mud content of 40 - 50 % is considered an outlier and hence seen as unreliable . [ details ]\nthe dispersion of tellina tenuis da costa in the laboratory was analysed by the clark and evans nearest - neighbour test and by the kolmogorov - smirnov one - sample test . the dispersion was random , with a slight tendency toward aggregation that was independent of density . in the field , the dispersion was analysed by the clark and evans nearest - neighbour test and by the x 2 approximation to fisher ' s coefficient of dispersion . the dispersion was again random , this time with a slight tendency toward spacing out that was independent of density . the tendency toward aggregation displayed in the laboratory was independent of the dispersion pattern shown at the start of the experiment , and also unaffected by the edge of the container . the apparent randomness suggests that t . tenuis is primarily a suspension feeder , but may be a deposit feeder under certain environmental conditions .\nprediction of safe levels of effluent discharge have in the past been largely based on the results of short term acute toxicity tests ( lc 5 0 s ) . such tests are usually carried out in unnatural experimental conditions , and in consequence the results are of only limited value . there is a need to enlarge the concept of the routine bioassay test to include quantitative measurement of the effects of pollutants on behaviour , physiology and metabolism . this paper describes a simple rapid bioassay test in which the effect of pollutants on the burrowing of the bivalve tellina tenuis has been used as a quantitative measure of pollutant effect .\ndescription a thin , strongly flattened shell with an irregular oval shape . front edge broadly rounded , back edge tapering in a clear angle . the back is somewhat less acuminate than in the tellina fabula . the shell surface is practically smooth with only fine growth lines . measures up to 30 mm long . the colour varies from white with dark colour bands to pinkish red . [ details ]\nthe thin tellin is a species which regularly washes ashore . you usually find both valves still attached to one another . the connecting ligament between the two shell halves is namely very strong . the thin tellin is reasonably easy to find on the sand thanks to its pink to orange color . this colorful shellfish usually lives hidden in the sea bottom , where it ' s difficult to find despite its color . for food and oxygen , it extends its siphons out of the sand and filters the water . the thin tellin closely resembles the baltic tellin but is more delicate , flatter and lighter .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\novate , posterior shortened , wedge - shaped and curves to the right when viewed from dorsal side . anterior gently sloping and broadly curved at anterior margin .\nprominent mid - brown band extending less than a third the way to the posterior margin .\n2 cardinals in each valve . in lv anterior bifid , posterior very weak . in rv posterior bifid . 2 laterals in rv , anterior short but prominent , posterior small , below nymph plate . 1 short posterior lateral in lv .\npallial sinus very deep , extends upwards and almost to anterior adductor and is confluent with the pallial line . cruciform muscle scars visible .\nwhite / pink / orange / yellow external colouration more intense and covering more of the shell .\na burrower in sand and silty sand . lives from the mid intertidal to approximately 10m . widely distributed around all coasts .\nbut lacks the scissulate sculpture , is not so narrow and less acute posteriorly .\nthe marine life information network for britain and ireland ( marlin ) provides information for marine environmental management , protection and education . it is a centre of excellence in spatially based and time - series marine biological information and supports good stewardship in the marine environment .\nnational biodiversity network ' s gateway . use it to explore uk biodiversity data , as contributed by participating data providers .\nmarbef marbef , a network of excellence funded by the european union and consisting of 94 european marine institutes , is a platform to integrate and disseminate knowledge and expertise on marine biodiversity , with links to researchers , industry , stakeholders and the general public .\nm . j . de kluijver , s . s . ingalsuo & r . h . de bruyne\njust behind the midline directed inwards and backwards , almost touching . approximately oval in outline with the\nwhite , pink , rose , orange or yellow in colour and various shades of each , normally in irregular bands , exceptionally each valve may be differently coloured .\nis transparent , glossy . inside of shell coloured like the outside but normally fainter .\na deep burrower in sand or mud . this habit has had effect in developing a powerful\ninhabits fine sand generally from about the middle of the intertidal zone to a depth of a few metres . it sometimes occurs in very large populations , particularly near low water - mark , where it may be the most abundant macro - invertebrate , its numbers steadily decreasing up the beach , where the sands dry out appreciably at low tide , or as coarse sand is met . the depth to which the animal burrows depends on the state of the tide and may be 10 . 16 - 12 . 7 cm , when the tide is out but less at high tide .\nhaas , f . , 1926 . lamellibranchia . in grimpe , g . & wagner , e . : die tierwelt der nord - und ostsee .\nhayward , p . j . , wigham , g . d . & n . yonow , 1990 . mollusca i : polyplacophora , scaphopoda , and gastropoda . in : the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe . ( ed . p . j . hayward & j . s . ryland ) . clarendon press , oxford : 628 - 730 .\npoppe , g . t . & y . goto , 1993 . european seashells . vol . ii . 221 pp . wiesbaden / verlag christa hemmen .\nseaward , d . r . , 1990 . distribution of the marine molluscs of north west europe . nature conservancy council .\nstep , e . , 1927 . shell life . 421 pp . frederick warne & co . , ltd , london .\ntebble , n . , 1966 . british bivalve seashells . 212 pp . trustees of the british museum ( natural history ) . london .\nphilippi r . a . ( 1836 ) . enumeratio molluscorum siciliae cum viventium tum in tellure tertiaria fossilium , quae in itinere suo observavit . vol . 1 . schropp , berlin [ berolini ] : xiv + 267 p . , pl . 1 - 12 , available online at urltoken ; = article & id ; = 355 & itemid ; = 167 page ( s ) : 27 [ details ]\ncheck list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nda costa e . m . ( 1778 ) . historia naturalis testaceorum britanniae , or , the british conchology . london : millan , white , elmsley & robson . xii + 254 + viii pp . 17 pls . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 210 - 211 [ details ]\ndescription a thin , strongly flattened shell with an irregular oval shape . front edge broadly rounded , back edge tapering in a clear . . .\nlong term trends in the macrobenthos of the belgian continental shelf ( macrobel ) .\ngofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nardovini , r . ; cossignani , t . ( 2004 ) . west african seashells ( including azores , madeira and canary is . ) = conchiglie dell ' africa occidentale ( incluse azzorre , madeira e canarie ) . english - italian edition . l ' informatore piceno : ancona , italy . isbn 88 - 86070 - 11 - x . 319 pp . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 52 [ details ]\nzamouri - langar , n . ; chouba , l . ; ajjabi chebil , l . ; mrabet , r . ; el abed , a . ( 2011 ) . les coquillages bivalves des c\u00f4tes tunisiennes . institut national des sciences et technologies de la mer : salammb\u00f4 . isbn 978 - 9938 - 9512 - 0 - 2 . 128 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nbackeljau , t . ( 1986 ) . lijst van de recente mariene mollusken van belgi\u00eb [ list of the recent marine molluscs of belgium ] . koninklijk belgisch instituut voor natuurwetenschappen : brussels , belgium . 106 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nvan zweeden , c . ; van asch , m . ; van den ende , d . ; troost , k . ( 2013 ) . het kokkelbestand in de nederlandse kustwateren in 2013 . imares wageningen report , c115 / 13 . imares wageningen ur : ijmuiden . 46 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nwe use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites . close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings .\nthis article has been cited by the following publications . this list is generated based on data provided by crossref .\nfilippova , nadezhda a . gerasimova , alexandra v . and maximovich , nikolay v . 2015 . methodical recommendations for the description of soft bottom communities in the littoral zone . marine biology research , vol . 11 , issue . 10 , p . 1076 .\njenkins , stuart r . moore , pippa burrows , michael t . garbary , david j . hawkins , stephen j . ing\u00f3lfsson , agnar sebens , kenneth p . snelgrove , paul v . r . wethey , david s . and woodin , sarah a . 2008 . comparative ecology of north atlantic shores : do differences in players matter for process ? . ecology , vol . 89 , issue . sp11 , p . s3 .\nhill , s . burrows , m . t . and hughes , r . n . 2000 . increased turning per unit distance as an area - restricted search mechanism in a pause - travel predator , juvenile plaice , foraging for buried bivalves . journal of fish biology , vol . 56 , issue . 6 , p . 1497 .\nwoodin , sarah ann 1999 . shallow water benthic ecology : a north american perspective of sedimentary habitats . austral ecology , vol . 24 , issue . 4 , p . 291 .\nbridges , todd s . farrar , j . daniel gamble , elayne v . and dillon , tom m . 1996 . intraspecific density effects in nereis ( neanthes ) arenaceodentata moore ( polychaeta : nereidae ) . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology , vol . 195 , issue . 2 , p . 221 .\niribarne , oscar fernandez , miriam and armstrong , david 1994 . does space competition regulate density of juvenile dungeness crab cancer magister dana in sheltered habitats ? . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology , vol . 183 , issue . 2 , p . 259 .\nbrey , thomas 1991 . interactions in soft bottom benthic communities : quantitative aspects of behaviour in the surface deposit feederspygospio elegans ( polychaeta ) andmacoma balthica ( bivalvia ) . helgol\u00e4nder meeresuntersuchungen , vol . 45 , issue . 3 , p . 301 .\nburd , brenda j . nemec , amanda and brinkhurst , ralph o . 1990 . advances in marine biology volume 26 . vol . 26 , issue . , p . 169 .\nfeder , howard m . and bryson - schwafel , bridget 1988 . environmental studies in port valdez , alaska : a basis for management . vol . 24 , issue . , p . 117 .\ngamito , sofia l . berge , john a . and gray , john s . 1988 . the spatial distribution patterns of the foraminiferanpelosinacf . arborescenspearcey in a mesocosm . sarsia , vol . 73 , issue . 1 , p . 33 .\nholte , b\u00f8rge and gulliksen , bj\u00f8rn 1987 . benthic communities and their physical environment in relation to urban pollution from the city of troms\u00f6 , norway . sarsia , vol . 72 , issue . 2 , p . 133 .\nwilson , james g . and shelley , colin 1986 . the distribution of nucula turgida ( bivalvia : protobranchia ) from dublin bay , ireland , and the effect of sediment organic content . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , vol . 66 , issue . 01 , p . 119 .\nambrose , william g . 1986 . experimental analysis of density dependent emigration of the amphipodrhepoxynius abronius . marine behaviour and physiology , vol . 12 , issue . 3 , p . 209 .\ntamaki , akio 1985 . detection of non - interference within a mobile polychaete species . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology , vol . 90 , issue . 3 , p . 277 .\nwilson , w . herbert 1984 . non - overlapping distributions of spionid polychaetes : the relative importance of habitat and competition . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology , vol . 75 , issue . 2 , p . 119 .\nnicolaidou , a . moraitou - apostolopoulou , m . and ignatiades , l . 1983 . a survey of estuarine benthic , zoo - planktonic and phytoplanktonic communities of amvrakikos gulf , ionian sea . marine ecology , vol . 4 , issue . 3 , p . 197 .\nanderson , d . john and kendziorek , marshal 1982 . spacing patterns in terebellid polychaetes . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology , vol . 58 , issue . 2 - 3 , p . 193 .\nreise , k . 1979 . spatial configurations generated by motile benthic polychaetes . helgol\u00e4nder wissenschaftliche meeresuntersuchungen , vol . 32 , issue . 1 - 2 , p . 55 .\nin the exe estuary is shown to be uniformly distributed , indicating a significant degree of \u2018over - dispersion\u2019 .\narea it is shown that fewer individuals than would be expected occur less than 1 in . from their nearest neighbour , and none occurs closer than 0\u00b76 in .\nwhen the population density was artificially increased on the shore the same characteristic spacing was found at a moderate density , but not at a rather higher density .\nit is suggested that spacing is correlated with the foraging activities of the inhalent siphon on the soil surface .\nvery dense populations have been found by stephen in other areas , indicating that the size of the \u2018territory\u2019 does not limit density . his results show no evidence of the same phenomena as observed in the exe .\nstudies on the scottish marine fauna . additional observations on the fauna of the sandy and muddy areas of the tidal zone\nemail your librarian or administrator to recommend adding this journal to your organisation ' s collection .\nfull text views reflects the number of pdf downloads , pdfs sent to google drive , dropbox and kindle and html full text views .\n* views captured on cambridge core between september 2016 - 9th july 2018 . this data will be updated every 24 hours .\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\natkins , d . : on the ciliary mechanisms and interrelationships of lamellibranchs . part iii . q . jl microsc . sci .\nbailey , n . t . j . : statistical methods in biology , 200 pp . london : english universities press 1959\nblackman , g . e . : statistical and ecological studies on the distribution of species in plant communities . ann . bot . ( n . s . )\nblegvad , h . : food and conditions of nourishment among the communities of invertebrate animals found on or in the sea bottom in danish waters . rep . dan . biol . stn\nclark , p . j . and p . c . evans : distance to nearest neighbour as a measure of spatial relationships in populations . ecology\nclark , r . b . and a . milne : the sublittoral fauna of two sandy bays on the isle of cumbrae , firth of clyde . j . mar . biol . ass . u . k .\n\u2014 territorial behaviour and dispersion in some marine invertebrates . res . pop . ecol .\ncrisp , d . j . : territorial behaviour in barnacle settlement . j . exp . biol .\neisma , d . : the distribution of benthic marine molluscs off the main dutch coast . neth . j . sea res .\nheip , c . : on the significance of aggregation in some benthic marine invertebrates . proc . eur . mar . biol . symp .\njackson , j . b . : bivalves : spatial and size frequency distributions of two intertidal species . science , n . y .\nsay ( protobranchia ) : an experimental approach . biol . bull . mar . biol . lab . , woods hole\nmeadows , p . s . and j . i . campbell : habitat selection and animal distribution in the sea : the evolution of a concept . proc . r . soc . edinb .\n\u2014 and k . a . mitchell : an analysis of inter - and intraspecific aggregations in two sympatric species of hermit crab ( decapoda , anomura , paguridae ) . mar . behav . physiol .\nmitchell , k . a . : habitat selection by hermit crabs , ph . d . thesis , university of glasgow 1975\npielou , e . c . : an introduction to mathematical ecology , 286 pp . new york : john wiley 1969\npohlo , r . h . : confusion concerning deposit feeding in the tellinacea . proc . malac . soc . lond .\nprobert , p . k . : the bottom fauna of china clay waste deposits in mevagissey bay , ph . d . thesis , university of london 1973\nrosenberg , r . : spatial distribution of an estuarine benthic faunal community . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol .\nsiegel , s . : non - parametric statistics for the behavioural sciences , 312 pp . tokyo : mcgraw hill , kogakusha 1956\n\u2014 studies on the scottish marine fauna : the fauna of the sandy and muddy areas of the tidal zone . trans . r . soc . edinh .\n\u2014 studies on the scottish marine fauna : additional observations on the fauna of the sandy and muddy areas of the tidal zone . trans . r . soc . edinb .\nda costa iii . aspects of general biology and energy flow . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol .\nwatkin , e . e . : the macrofauna of the intertidal sand of kames bay , millport , buteshire . trans . r . soc . edinb .\nyonge , c . m . : on the structure and adaptations of the tellinacea , deposit feeding eulamellibranchia . phill . trans . r . soc . ( ser . b )\ncardoso , ricardo s . galhardo , ludmila b . and cabrini , tatiana m . b . 2015 . population ecology and secondary production of congeneric bivalves on a sheltered beach in southeastern brazil . journal of shellfish research , vol . 34 , issue . 3 , p . 931 .\naabel , jens petter 1983 . morphology and function in postmetamorphalabra alba ( bivalvia : tellinacea ) . sarsia , vol . 68 , issue . 3 , p . 213 .\nwikander , per bie 1980 . biometry and behaviour inabra nitida ( m\u00fcller ) anda . longicallus ( scacchi ) ( bivalvia , tellinacea ) . sarsia , vol . 65 , issue . 3 - 4 , p . 255 .\nreading , c . j . 1979 . changes in the downshore distribution of macoma balthica ( l . ) in relation to shell length . estuarine and coastal marine science , vol . 8 , issue . 1 , p . 1 .\nrasmussen , erik 1973 . systematics and ecology of the isefjord marine fauna ( denmark ) . ophelia , vol . 11 , issue . 1 , p . 1 .\nmuus , kirsten 1973 . settling , growth and mortality of young bivalves in the \u00f8resund . ophelia , vol . 12 , issue . 1 - 2 , p . 79 .\nmoore , hilary b . 1972 . advances in marine biology volume 10 . vol . 10 , issue . , p . 217 .\nhughes , roger n . 1969 . a study of feeding in scrobicularia plana . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , vol . 49 , issue . 03 , p . 805 .\nholme , n . a . 1953 . the biomass of the bottom fauna in the english channel off plymouth . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , vol . 32 , issue . 01 , p . 1 .\nquayle , d . b . 1952 . xx . \u2014the rate of growth of venerupis pullastra ( montagu ) at millport , scotland . proceedings of the royal society of edinburgh . section b . biology , vol . 64 , issue . 04 , p . 384 .\nholme , n . a . 1949 . the fauna of sand and mud banks near the mouth of the exe estuary . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , vol . 28 , issue . 01 , p . 189 .\nstephen , a . c . 1931 . notes on the biology of certain lamellibranchs on the scottish coast . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , vol . 17 , issue . 02 , p . 277 .\ncollections in the intertidal zone and below l . w . m . , were made in a number of bays in the cumbrae and neighbourhood , kames bay , millport , being selected for intensive study .\nthe size - frequency distribution shows a regular gradation from the lower to the higher levels . at l . w . m . and below individuals of small size predominate , while at h . w . m . they are proportionately few .\nthe rate of growth may therefore be influenced by the density of population as well as by the habitat .\nthe amount of young brood on the bottom seems to vary considerably from year to year , being large and small in alternate years .\neipe sperms were found from may onwards and ova were rounding off in june .\nthe food usually consists of vegetable detritus , but during the spring increase diatoms appear almost exclusively in the gut .\n. min . agri . fish . invest . , series ii , vol . vi , no . 2 ,\nthis translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations .\nandronikov , v . b . : heat resistance of gametes of marine invertebrates in relation to temperature conditions under which the species exist . mar . biol .\nda costa . i . seasonal growth and biochemical cycle . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol .\nbailey , n . t . j . : statistical methods in biology , 200 pp . london : english universities press 1959\nbarnes , h . : climatological and salinity data for millport , scotland . glasq . nat .\nbayne , b . l . , p . a . gabbott and j . widdows : some effects of stress in the adult on the egg and larvae of\nbliss , c . i . : the calculation of the dosage mortality curve . ann . appl . biol .\nbrett , j . r . : some lethal temperature relations of algonquin park fishes . univ . toronto stud . biol . ser .\nclark , r . b . and a . milne : the sublittoral fauna of two sandy bays on the isle of cumbrae , firth of clyde . j . mar . biol . ass . u . k .\n) ii . the effects of temperature increasing at a known constant rate . j . exp . biol .\nde wilde , p . a . w . j . : influence of temperature on behaviour , energy metabolism and growth of\n: proceedings of the ninth european marine biology symposium , pp 239\u2013257 . ed . by h . barnes . aberdeen : university press 1975\nevans , r . g . : the lethal temperatures of some common british littoral molluscs . j . anim . ecol .\nhenderson , j . t . : lethal temperatures of lamellibranchiata . contr . can . biol . fish . ( n . s . )\nhutchison , v . h . : critical thermal maxima in salamanders . physiol . zo\u00f6l .\njansson , b . - o . : diurnal and annual variation of temperature and salinity of interstitial water in sandy beaches . ophelia\njohnson , r . g . : temperature variation in the infaunal environment of a sand flat . limnol . oceanogr .\nkennedy , v . s . and j . a . mihursky : upper temperature tolerances of some estuarine bivalves . chesapeake sci .\n\u2014 , w . j . roosenburg , h . h . zion and m . castagna : temperature - time relationships for survival of embryos and larvae of\n: marine ecology . vol . 1 . environmental factors , pt 1 . pp 407\u2013514 . ed . by o . kinne . london : wiley interscience 1970\nloosanoff , v . l . , w . s . miller and p . b . smith : growth and setting of larvae of\nmcerlean , a . j . , j . a . mihursky and h . j . brinkley : determination of upper temperature triangles for aquatic organisms . chesapeake sci .\nnewell , r . c . and b . l . bayne : a review on temperature and metabolic acclimation in intertidal marine invertebrates . neth . j . sea res .\nsimpson , r . : physical and biotic factors limiting the distribution and abundance of littoral molluscs on macquarie island ( sub antarctica ) . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol .\nsouthward , a . j . : note on the temperature tolerance of some intertidal animals in relation to environmental temperatures and geographical distribution . j . mar . biol . ass . u . k .\nspeakman , j . n . and p . a . krenkel : quantification of the effects of rate of change on aquatic biota . wat . res .\ntebble , n . : british bivalve seashells , 212 pp . london : trustees of the british museum ( n . h . ) 1966\nk . v . singarajah , john moyse , e . w . knight - jones\nrichard w . eppley , robert w . holmes , john d . h . strickland"]}
{"id": 1731, "summary": [{"text": "onthophagus is a genus of dung beetles in the onthophagini tribe of the wider scarab beetle family , scarabaeidae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is the most species-rich and widespread genus in the subfamily scarabaeinae ( the ' true ' dung beetles ) , with a global distribution . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "onthophagus", "paragraphs": ["habitus ( oblique and lateral views ) of onthophagus males ( holotypes , except 3\u20134 ) . 1\u20132 onthophagus abmisibilus 3\u20134 onthophagus catenatus , vicinity of mt hagen 5\u20136 onthophagus kokodanus kokodanus 7\u20138 onthophagus kokodanus hagenaltus .\nthis scarab could be confused with onthophagus of similar color and medium size ( more than 10 mm ) : onthophagus nigriventris and digitonthophagus gazella .\nonthophagus males ( holotypes , except 13 , 15 , 18 ) . 9\u201311 , 21 onthophagus kokosquamatus ; 12 , 17 onthophagus abmisibilus ; 13 , 18 onthophagus catenatus , vicinity of mt hagen 14 , 15 , 19 onthophagus kokodanus kokodanus , 15 minor male e pt moresby 16 , 20 onthophagus k hagenaltus . 9\u201310 habitus ( oblique and lateral views ) 11\u201316 head and pronotum in dorsofrontal view 17\u201321 parameres in lateral view ( scales 1 mm ) .\nonthophagus nigriventris male genitalia , caudal view ; photo by e . l . engasser\nonthophagus nigriventris male genitalia , lateral view ; photo by e . l . engasser\nonthophagus kokodanus hagenaltus subsp . n . \u2013 papua new guinea ( western highlands )\nr\u00e9vision des onthophagus de l\u2019archipel indo - n\u00e9erlandais , avec description des esp\u00e8ces nouvelles .\n.\nles onthophagus ( coleoptera , scarabaeidae ) des \u00eeles philippines\n. \u2013\nall four species included in the onthophagus catenatus group are formally placed in the nominotypical subgenus .\nonthophagus kokodanus kokodanus subsp . n . \u2013 papua new guinea ( e of port moresby )\n.\nneue onthophagus - arten von neu - guinea and den benachbarten inseln\n. \u2013\nhunt j , simmons lw . status - dependent selection in the dimorphic beetle onthophagus taurus .\nfour new taxa from new guinea are proposed in the dung beetle genus onthophagus latreille , 1802 , all in the operational group of onthophagus catenatus lansberge , 1883 . the group is discussed , defined , and the five taxa included are listed , keyed , and diagnosed . three new species are described : onthophagus abmisibilus ( from west new guinea , indonesia ) , onthophagus kokodanus , onthophagus kokosquamatus ( both from papua new guinea ) . one new species comprises a lowland and an upland subspecies : onthophagus kokodanus kokodanus and kokodanus hagenaltus ( both in papua new guinea ) .\nphylogenetics and biogeography of the dung beetle genus onthophagus inferred from mitochondrial genomes . - pubmed - ncbi\ntaxonomy of papuasian onthophagus : twenty new species and their relatives ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : scarabaeinae ) .\nnew guinea onthophagus : taxonomy of ten new small , unicolour species ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : scarabaeinae ) .\nnew guinea onthophagus : taxonomy of ten small , unicolored new species ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : scarabaeinae ) .\ngenital morphology and fertilization success in the dung beetle onthophagus taurus : an example of sexually selected male genitalia .\nhunt j , simmons lw . maternal and paternal effects on offspring phenotype in the dung beetle onthophagus taurus .\ndiversity in the weapons of sexual selection : horn evolution in the beetle genus onthophagus ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) .\nthe mega - diverse subcosmopolitan genus onthophagus is currently represented by approximately 2 , 000 species worldwide ( scarabnet 2009 ) .\ndetails of morphology of onthophagus . 22\u201326 onthophagus abmisibilus , holotype 27\u201332 onthophagus catenatus , male , vicinity of mt hagen 32 female , n pt moresby 22 , 27 , 32 head in dorsal view 23 , 28 pronotum in dorsal view 24 , 29 elytron in dorsal view 25 , 30 protibia , upper side 26 , 31 metatibia , underside . scales 1 mm .\n.\na new record of onthophagus ( sunenaga ) wallacei ( coleoptera , scarabaeidae ) from halmahera , maluku\n. \u2013\nnew guinea onthophagus : taxonomy of ten small , unicolored new species ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : scarabaeinae ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nthis species could be confused with the similarly colored and medum - sized ( more than 10 mm ) digitonthophagus gazella and onthophagus sagittarius .\n.\nsix new taxon [ sic ] of the subgenus indachoriusof the genus onthophagus ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) from borneo\n. \u2013\ndiversity in the weapons of sexual selection : horn evolution in the beetle genus onthophagus ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nmoczek ap , emlen dj . male horn dimorphism in the scarab beetle , onthophagus taurus : do alternative reproductive tactics favour alternative phenotypes ?\nhuijbregts j ( 2012 ) . new guinea onthophagus : taxonomy of ten small , unicolored new species ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : scarabaeinae ) .\nwhat made you want to look up onthophagus ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nreiche , l . ( 1840 ) note sur deux esp\u00e8ces d ' onthophagus . revue et magasin de zoologie , pure et appliqu\u00e9e , 3 , 243\u2013244 .\nno reason is provided by smith ( 2009 : 43 ) for treating the senior name onthophagus curvicornis latreille 1812 as synonym of the junior name onthophagus incensus say 1835 . it may be that there is a homonymy , or that the senior name is for some reason unavailable , but further research would be required to determine this\nsimonnet f , moczek ap ( 2011 ) conservation and diversification of gene function during mouthpart development in onthophagus beetles . evol dev 13 : 280 - 289 . doi :\nto cite this page : roof , j . 1999 .\nonthophagus australis\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ngoogle scholar ( 2016 ) [ digital resource with search terms :\ndigitonthophagus gazella\nor\nonthophagus gazella\n] . available from urltoken [ accessed 25 august 2016 ] .\nonthophagus species are boxed up in red . this picture is taken in the raffles museum of biodiversity research , national university of singapore , singapore . picture by m . y neo .\nas o . semifex is not individually studied till date , many of its ecology habits are not well documented . however , their characteristics can be possibly inferred from the other onthophagus relatives .\nthe red arrows indicate the cupreous appearance on the onthophagus species . this picture is taken in the raffles musuem of biodiveristy research , national university of singapore , singapore . picture is by m . y . neo\ndetails of morphology of onthophagus kokosquamatus ( male holotype ) 45 head in dorsal view 46 pronotum and head armature in dorsal view 47 elytron in dorsal view 48 protibia , upper side 49 metatibia , underside . scales 1 mm .\ndetails of morphology of onthophagus ( holotypes , except 38 , 44 ) . 33\u201338 o . k . kokodanus , 38 female paratype , e pt moresby 39\u201344 onthophagus kokodanus hagenaltus 44 minor male paratype , mt hagen 33 , 38 , 39 , 44 head in dorsal view 34 , 40 pronotum and head armature in dorsal view 35 , 41 elytron in dorsal view 36 , 42 protibia , upper side 37 , 43 metatibia , underside . scales 1 mm .\nscarab beetles of the genus onthophagus latreille north of mexico ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) howden h . f . , cartwright o . l . 1963 . proc . u . s . nat . mus . 114 : 1 - 135 .\nkrikken , j . & huijbregts , j . ( 2008 ) . distinguishing the sundaland species in the onthophagus ( parascatonomus ) aurifex group ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : scarabaeinae ) . tijdschrift voor entomologie . pp . 151 : 173 - 185 .\nemlen , d . j . & nijhout , f . h . ( 1999 ) . hormal control of male horn length dimorphism in the dung beetle onthophagus taurus ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) . journal of insect physiology . pp . 45 : 45 - 53 .\nonthophagus fracticornis ( preyssler , 1790 ) : tronquet ( 2014 ) : 387 . [ statut pour la france m\u00e9tropolitaine ] tronquet , m . [ coord . ] 2014 . catalogue des col\u00e9opt\u00e8res de france . revue de l\u2019association roussillonnaise d\u2019entomologie , 23 ( suppl\u00e9ment ) : 1 - 1052 .\nyour discussions , opinions and reviews for this site will be greatly appreciated . if you have any new information on onthophagus semifex that you wish to be added in , do leave your reference material and your contact in the discussion box below . your request will be attended as soon as possible .\nonthophagus is the most diverse tunneling dung beetle genus , with over 2 , 000 species described [ 32 ] . in the united states alone , there are at least 35 native onthophagus spp . [ 32 ] and at least 5 more introduced , naturalized , non - native species [ 33 \u2013 35 ] . all of these species are known to be dung specialists . onthophagus taurus , the bull - headed dung beetle , is one of the most abundant dung beetles specialized on cattle dung . it is a native of the mediterranean , was first found in florida in 1974 [ 36 ] , and has increased its distribution throughout the u . s . ever since [ 37 ] . although native dung beetles such as o . hecate and o . pennsylvanicus are also found in agricultural habitats , o . taurus is the most abundant beetle in these settings . however , o . taurus is uncommon in non - agricultural ecosystems [ 37 ] .\ncitation : estes am , hearn dj , snell - rood ec , feindler m , feeser k , abebe t , et al . ( 2013 ) brood ball - mediated transmission of microbiome members in the dung beetle , onthophagus taurus ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) . plos one 8 ( 11 ) : e79061 . urltoken\nthis dataset contains the digitized treatments in plazi based on the original journal article krikken , j . , huijbregts , j . ( 2013 ) : new guinea onthophagus : taxonomy of ten small , unicolored new species ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : scarabaeinae ) . zootaxa 3619 ( 5 ) : 501 - 525 , doi :\nbianchin , i . , alves , r . g . o . & koller , w . w . ( 1998 ) efeito de carrapaticidas / inseticidas \u201cpour - on\u201d sobre adultos do besouro copr\u00f3fago africano onthophagus gazella fabr . ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) . anais da sociedade entomol\u00f3gica do brasil , 27 , 275\u2013279 . urltoken\nthe presence of an isolated conical protrusion right in front of the horns is shared with other new guinea species , like onthophagus heurni gillet , 1930 and joliveti paulian , 1973 , which may be confusing . the males of both these species , however , have on their horns , which are more or less erect , a distinct basal - internal lobe or denticle , and their eyes are narrow .\nthere are currently six onthophagus species that can still be found in the uk ( extant species ) and two that are now thought to be extinct . in many species , males have a noticeably pointed horn on the posterior margin of the head . the beetles can also be sexed by looking at the abdomen \u2013 in females the pygidium is uniform in width and , in males it is narrower in the middle ( see image below ) .\nbased on the nutritionally incomplete diet dung provides , the nesting behavior of the female , and the larval feeding behavior , we hypothesize that a vertically transmitted microbiome is present that is transmitted through the brood ball in the dung beetle , onthophagus taurus . here we use a sterile rearing technique along with culture based and molecular methods to assess the potential for microbiome transmission and inheritance of the bull headed dung beetle , o . taurus , through the brood ball .\nestablished . there is conflicting information regarding the arrival of this species to hawaii . markin and yoshioka ( 1998 ) reported that onthophagus sagittarius was purposely released on oahu in 1957 and 1958 . however , harris et al . ( 1982 ) stated that the species was accidentally introduced . regardless , this scarab is now established on both molokai and oahu , where it is one of the most commonly encountered dung beetles ( nishida , 2002 ; harris et al . , 1982 ) .\nmany of the species on earth have yet to be described or documented , thus they are still unknown and not recognized for their ecological influences on nature and man . luckily for onthophagus semifex , several aspects of its biology are described in the year 2008 , though it is still relatively incomplete and insufficient as compared to many other renowned animals . but to be able to gain an official name , this little dung beetle is fortunate enough to enter the encyclopedia of life before its extinction .\no . semifex , similar to other onthophagus tropical dung beetles , may locate their food resource by smell . they fly in a zig - zag manner , usually one meter or less above ground and land close to the source of the odour . they are also known to be tunnellers , which they bury the dung in preformed burrows . they transport their food fast owing to resource competition by other dung beetles , necrophagous beetles and flies ( hanski , 1989 ; philips et al . , 2004 ) .\nlike related onthophagus species , this nocturnal scarab is a dung tunneler , with the female creating a burrow under or near a fresh dung source ( simmons and emlen , 2008 ) . the burrow is then provisioned with dung in the form of brood balls . each ball is impregnated with an egg ; larval development occurs within the brood ball . this species is confined to tropical areas that experience warm , wet summers , and annual rainfall over 800 mm ( 31 . 5 in ) ( edwards , 2007 ) .\ntill date , there are currently eight dung beetle representatives belonging to the o . aurifex species group , under the genus onthophagus of latreille , 1802 . o . aurifex was made the \u2018type\u2019 of this group . furthermore the group has been divided into two complexes - the o . aurifex complex and the o . sarawacus complex in a recent article published by tarasov et al . ( 2010 ) . in this , the authors classified four representatives in the o . aurifex complex , which are characterized by their shiny metallic upper - side body .\nfigures 1 \u2013 8 . habitus ( oblique view ) of onthophagus species , with indication of body length . 1 , o . acerus , holotype , , 6 mm ; 2 , o . aceroides , holotype , 5 mm ; 3 , o . baiyericus , holotype , 5 mm ; 4 , o . mimikanus , female holotype , 6 mm ; 5 , o . kokopygus , holotype , 3 mm ; 6 , o . daymanus , holotype , 4 . 5 mm ; 7 , o . kokocellosus , holotype , 4 . 5 mm ; 8 , o . bituberoculus , female paratype , timika , 7 mm .\ntotal body length 10 . 0\u201313 . 0 mm ( 0 . 39\u20130 . 52 in ) . body shape oval ; may be caked in dung . color dark brown ; elytra pale brown . medium - sized onthophagus , more than 10 mm . clypeal apex rounded to sinuate ; not strongly produced or reflexed in either sex . head of male with paired tusk - like horns on the clypeus ; female with single horn on the frons . ocular canthus not completely dividing eye . pronotum with anterior angle rounded . pronotum of male with broad , hump - like process ; female with spine - like process . front tibia of male and female similar . scutellum absent .\ndiagnosis . clypeal apex bidentate ; major males have their denticles set on a reflexed lobe ( emargination between denticles not going down to base of lobe ) , this lobe on either side delimited by a sinuate border ( contrary to o . dissidentatus ) . clypeus and frons in both sexes without any further protrusions ( contrary to o . dissidentatus ) . onthophagus kokodentatus usually shiny black ( occasionally with metallic lustre ) ; most of dorsum distinctly , finely punctate , punctation varying in strength . eye foramina narrow . pronotum entirely evenly convex , lateral and basal borders evenly , widely rounded . proximal serrate section of protibia long ( 8 \u2013 10 very small denticles ) . pygidium simply punctate . body length usually 3 . 5 \u2013 4 . 5 mm .\nadults fly into the dung pat to feed and mate . beneath the dung pat , the juvenile life stages of onthophagus taurus are isolated in the brood chamber of the brood balls constructed by the female beetles in tunnels . females lay several brood balls in each tunnel that would all be at the same developmental stage . however , for illustrative purposes all life stages are represented in one tunnel . these stages include the : ( a ) egg , ( b ) 1 st larval instar , ( c ) 2 nd larval instar , ( d ) 3 rd larval instar , ( e ) pupa , and ( f ) an eclosing adult beetle that is tunneling toward the surface . the brood ball chamber is larger with each successive life stage as the larva feeds on the chamber walls within the brood ball . the top inset shows ( g ) the fecal pedestal the egg is positioned upon in brood ball . the bottom inset shows ( h ) the larval instar feeding on the walls of the brood ball chamber .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\n37 in our area , 130 in the new world , > 1500 spp . total\nthe scarabaeoid beetles of nebraska brett c . ratcliffe & m . j . paulsen . 2008 . university of nebraska state museum , vol 22 , 570 pp .\npeterson field guides : beetles richard e . white . 1983 . houghton mifflin company .\nscarab beetles ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) of south carolina phillip j . harpootlian . 2001 . clemson university public service .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\na team dump downloadable identification guide is available , please click here . this guide was produced with funding from a british ecological society outreach grant awarded to dump team member ceri watkins in 2016 .\nthis species tends to be found in locations with a slightly heavier soil type i . e . some clay content . the brood burrows are vertically constructed with no side chambers and the brood balls are stacked one on top of the other .\ndistribution : south to central england and wales , absent from north england and scotland .\nthis beetle was formerly found in good numbers in hampshire but has declined massively in this area . it is now most frequently found in the mendip hills in somerset but , even here it remains rare .\ndistribution : south england , less common central england and wales . absent from scotland .\nthis species prefers alluvial soils and it is therefore most often found on riverside pastures and flood plains .\nthis species was widespread but is now rare . it is a sandy soils specialist \u2013 most often found on sand dunes .\na large and very distinctive looking beetle . the males have two long curved horns which are lacking in the female .\ndistribution : the last mainland record for this species was in the 1800\u2019s . it is still present in the channel islands .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\n1913 ) , which shows a distribution restricted to tropical east african highlands and cool temperate highlands of south africa .\ntunnelling species are predominantly from cattle dung with a few records from buffalo , giant forest hog , zebra , and elephant dung ( australian csiro 1970 - 1986 , unpublished records ) . it has been recorded entirely from finer - grained soils , especially lateritic sandy clay loam , but occasionally also on black cotton clay or sandy loam . all records are from open vegetation , particularly extensive highland pastures and grassland , but it has occasionally been found in pastures within forest or woodland clearings .\nsome environmental characteristics for 48 locality records are as follows : altitude : mean : 1 , 929 \u00b1 357 ( s . d . ) , range : 812 - 2 , 509 m ; annual rainfall : mean : 1 , 004 \u00b1 254 ( s . d . ) , range : 538 - 1 , 623 mm ; annual temperature : mean : 17 . 0 \u00b1 2 . 3 ( s . d . ) , range : 13 . 9 - 23 . 4 o c ( max . + min . / 2 ) .\nalthough this species is clustered around forested highlands , primarily in east africa , it has been frequently collected on cattle dung in open vegetation , which suggests that it is not affected by any major threats to forest habitats .\nthere are no species - specific conservation actions in place for this species , and it is unlikely that any actions are required at present , as it is frequently recorded in the open vegetation of farming areas .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\neast africa . this species is native to moist highlands in eastern africa . it also was introduced to australia ( tyndale - biscoe , 1990 ) .\nnone . this species feeds on dung as both an adult and larva . there are no records of this beetle feeding on live plant tissues .\n( tyndale - biscoe , 1990 ) : adults of this diurnal species live 2\u20134 months . during that time , adults actively fly in search of fresh dung . females create oval - shaped brood balls in burrows constructed under or near dung . development from egg to adult requires 4\u20137 weeks . there are multiple generations per year .\nnone . this species recycles dung and is beneficial for ranching and farming in hawaii . primarily being a dung feeder , this species has never been recorded damaging crop or ornamental plants . additionally , this species is not a threat to native dung beetles because none occur in hawaii or guam .\nestablished . in hawaii , this species was imported in 1975 to big island and maui to combat the horn fly ( haematobia irritans ) , a biting pest of livestock ( markin and yoshioka , 1998 ) . it is established in the highlands of both islands , being rare on maui ( krushelnycky et al . , 2007 ) but more common on big island ( markin and yoshioka , 1998 ) .\nnot established or recorded . there are no records of this species from guam .\nmajor males are readily separated by examining the head armature ( o . nigriventris lacking horns on head versus d . gazella with 2 short , upward curving horns and o . sagittarius with 2 tusk - like horns ) .\nminor males and females can be separated by examining base of the head ( o . nigriventris with a sinuate ridge versus d . gazella with straight , transverse ridge versus o . sagittarius with single horn ) .\nsoutheastern asia . this species is native to southeastern asia , where it has been recorded from malaysia , indochina ( hawaiian entomological society , 1964 ) , india ( chandra , 2000 ) , and sri lanka ( edwards , 2007 ) . this species was introduced to australia ( edwards , 2007 ) .\nnone . this species recycles dung and is beneficial for ranching and farming in hawaii . primarily being a dung feeder , this species has never been recorded damaging crop or ornamental plants . additionally , this scarab is not a threat to native dung beetles because none occur in hawaii or guam .\nmajor males of these species can quickly be distinguished by examination of the head armature ( o . sagittarius with two tusk - like horns on the clypeus versus o . nigriventris without horns or ridges , d . gazella with two short , upward curving horns at the base of the head ) .\nfemales and can be separated by examining the base of the head ( o . sagittarius with a single horn o . nigriventris with a sinuate ridge , d . gazella with a straight , transverse ridge ) .\nthe range of the native dung beetle is over most of southeastern australia . it can be found from southern queensland to tasmania and south australia .\nthe most distinctive feature is the segmented antennae . this antennae forms a club containing three to seven leaves . these leaves can be expanded or folded together to form one compact club . the beetle is brightly colored . the surface of the dung beetle ' s head varies , but it is short , broad , and partially deflexed . the eyes are oval and prominent . the wings are large and well - developed .\nnative dung beetles emerge mainly during late summer into fall . for the first several weeks they are in a\nmaturation feeding stage\n. a majority of beetles are in the adult stage during the winter . ocassionally eggs are laid in the fall , which then emerge in spring .\nit is unclear what the exact function of food balls is in the life cycle of the native dung beetle . while most beetles store dung in food chambers before reproduction , the native dung beetle forms food balls during reproduction . this leads to\nbeing the only beetle found in dung when the first population of bush flies begin oviposition in the spring .\nliving in australia , new zealand , tasmania , new guinea and associated islands .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\na terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .\na grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .\na terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5\u00b0 n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .\nthe beetles of the united states . ross arnett . the american entomological institute . loudonville , new york . 1968 .\nphenology of o . australis . marina tyndale - biscoe and josephine walker . australian journal of zoology . volume 40 ( 3 ) .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nbreeschoten t 1 , doorenweerd c 2 , tarasov s 3 , vogler ap 4 .\ndepartment of life sciences , natural history museum , cromwell road , london sw7 5bd , united kingdom ; naturalis biodiversity center , darwinweg 2 , 2333 cr leiden , the netherlands ; institute biology leiden , leiden university , sylviusweg 72 , 2333 be leiden , the netherlands . electronic address : thijmen . breeschoten @ gmail . com .\nnaturalis biodiversity center , darwinweg 2 , 2333 cr leiden , the netherlands ; institute for biodiversity and ecosystem dynamics , university of amsterdam , science park 904 , 1098 xh amsterdam , the netherlands .\nnational institute for mathematical and biological synthesis , university of tennessee , 1122 volunteer blvd , ste . 106 , knoxville , tn 37996 , usa .\ndepartment of life sciences , natural history museum , cromwell road , london sw7 5bd , united kingdom ; department of life sciences , silwood park campus , imperial college london , buckhurst road , ascot sl5 7py , united kingdom .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ntowson university , department of biological sciences , baltimore , maryland , united states of america , j . craig venter institute , inc . , plant genomics , rockville , maryland , united states of america ,\ncurrent address : department of ecology , evolution , and behavior , university of minnesota , st . paul , minnesota , united states of america\ncontributed equally to this work with : julie c . dunning hotopp , armin p . moczek\ncopyright : \u00a9 2013 estes et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : this research was supported in part through funds from : the towson university fisher college undergraduate research awards ( kf , ta ) , a towson university undergraduate research award ( kf ) , orchid society of arizona funding ( ame ) , nsf reu dbi0552654 ( mf ) , nsf ios 0445661 ( am ) , nsf ios 0718522 ( am ) , and state of maryland internal funds ( jdh ) . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nalthough it may seem surprising that such diverse insects have radiated onto a nutritionally - poor resource , mutualistic symbioses between bacteria and their eukaryotic hosts allow animals to feed on a diversity of diets that would otherwise be inaccessible to the host . such beneficial endosymbionts can provide essential amino acids and vitamins lacking in the host diet , or they can synthesize novel enzymes , such as cellulases and hydrolases , to degrade otherwise indigestible materials like cellulose , lignin , and chitin [ 9 , 10 ] . these mutualisms are seen in animals ranging from cellulose feeding vertebrates to wood - , sap - , and blood - feeding insects [ 9 ] . in insects , mutualistic endosymbionts frequently supplement the host with essential amino acids and vitamins missing from their food source [ 10 , 11 ] . this supplementation may be provided primarily by one symbiont species , as in the aphid - buchnera system [ 12 , 13 ] , or by a community of symbionts , such as in termites [ 14 , 15 ] .\nno matter the number of beneficial endosymbionts , the faithful transmission of these specific mutualists from parent to offspring is essential for offspring survival . there are two broad categories of transmission : vertical transmission , where symbionts are acquired from the parent , and horizontal transmission , where they are not [ 9 , 16 ] . in the dung beetle system , horizontal transmission could be from many sources including adult siblings , other insect taxa including other species of dung beetles , and host dung . vertical transmission is the dominant transmission type in evolutionarily stable , obligate insect - bacterial nutritional mutualisms . vertically transmitted endosymbionts are frequently transmitted transovarially , though alternate methods of transmission from parents to offspring are known [ 9 , 16 ] . these include endosymbiont transmission through proctodeal trophallaxis [ 17 ] , milk glands [ 18 , 19 ] , coprophagy [ 20 ] , egg smearing [ 21 , 22 ] , capsules [ 23 ] , and brood chambers [ 24 ] .\nthe clovr pipeline with chimera check [ 51 ] was run on 275 sequences for a 1425 bp amplicon of the 16s rrna gene . clovr uses scripts from qiime [ 52 ] to cluster reads into operational taxonomic units ( otus ) , select representative sequences from each otu , and use the ribosomal database na\u00efve bayesian classifier ( 0 . 5 confidence interval ) to assign each otu to a known taxon [ 53 ] . the nucleotide sequence identity within an otu is 95 % . otu\u2019s ( n = 22 ) that had less than an 80 % confidence with rdp were not classified [ 54 , 55 ] . clovr uses scripts from mothur [ 56 ] to plot rarefaction curves of richness and diversity , which were calculated every five sequences [ 53 , 57 ] .\nto assess the relatedness of 16s rrna sequences , sequences were aligned with muscle v3 . 7 [\n] , visualized and trimmed with bioedit v7 . 1 . 3 . 0 [\nsubstitution model , random seeds of 12345 , and 100 bootstraps . the best tree as ascertained by raxml is shown and is decorated with symbols denoting the key characteristics of the sample . percent similarity was determined between all sequences (\nto compare the microbiome community composition of the cultured isolates to the microbiome community found using molecular methods , all cultured isolates were screened using previously described degenerate primer sets designed for 10 single copy loci . the\n] amplified the majority of the cultured isolates . cultured isolates that amplified with the\namplicons sequenced from cultured bacteria isolated from the dung beetle larval digestive system . for the constrained analysis , the concatenated\nfrom cultured isolates : kf193370 - kf193385 ) . phylogenetic trees and amino acid alignments used for phylogenetic inference have been deposited in dryad\nin order to assess the transmission pattern of the microbiome , dung beetles needed to be both surface sterilized and reared aseptically . beetle offspring were surface sterilized by washing with dilute bleach and detergent followed by two water rinses . no 16s rrna pcr amplicons were observed for dna extracted from the rinse water from surface sterilized beetles ( figure s1 , lane rw ) . under the same conditions , dna extracted from bactrocera oleae , the olive fruit fly , which is known to have bacterial symbionts that amplify with the primer pair 10f - 1507r [ 21 , 62 ] yielded the ~ 1500 bp amplicon and served as a positive control ( figure s1 , lane + ) . the negative control with sterile water as the template did not produce an amplicon ( figure s1 , lane - ) . this experiment was repeated two additional times with the same results .\nto ensure that bacteria were not living or that exogenous dna could not be amplified from the dung , dna was extracted from both frozen and autoclaved dung . the ~ 1500 - bp 16s rrna amplicon could not be obtained from either the frozen or autoclaved dung ( figure s1 , lane fd and ad ) . when the bactrocera oleae positive control was added to these same negative control samples , a 1490 bp product was formed demonstrating that the lack of amplification was not due to the differential presence of inhibitors of the pcr reaction ( figure s1 , lane ad + and ad + + ) . no amplicons were formed from the dna of the autoclaved water or autoclaved soil ( figure s1 , lanes aw and as ) . amplicons were produced in fresh , unautoclaved , unfrozen dung ( figure s1 , lane ug ) and the dna extracted from the homogenized digestive system of the 3 rd larval instar ( figure s1 , lane gut ) . this experiment was repeated two additional times with the same results .\notus were assigned using the clovr pipeline with a 95 % threshold as described in the methods for the 275 16s rrna sequences obtained . predicted chimeric sequences ( n = 4 ) as well as sequences shorter than 470 bp ( n = 6 ) were discarded . from the 265 remaining sequences , 71 otus were identified across 19 individuals . of those 71 otus , 49 otus were classified to the family level , 4 to the phylum level , and 4 could not be classified further than \u201croot\u201d ( figures 3 , 4 , and 5 ) . the most abundant genus found across all samples was enterobacter ( figures 3 , 4 , and 5 ) .\nthe relative abundance of each taxon is shown for each sample . enterobacteriaceae ( bright blue ) were found in 95 % of the samples , in all populations , and all life stages . other major components include bacteria in the comamonadaceae ( green ) and pseudomonadaceae ( bluish purple ) . sample names are abbreviated as follows : 1l ( 1 st instar larva ) , 2l ( 2 nd instar larva ) , 3l ( 3 rd instar larva ) , pu ( pupa ) , ci ( cultured isolates ) , fp ( female parent ) , in ( indiana population ) , and nc ( north carolina population ) . the number after the life stage indicates different individuals sampled .\nbacterial otus identified in qiime are arranged in a bulls - eye configuration with the most commonly occurring group in the yellow center , those occurring in two or more individuals in the blue circle , and those genera occurring only one time in the outermost rim . the lowest common ancestor qiime classification is given and may be at the genus , family , or class level and as such may overlap . enterobacter was found in offspring of all parental females and in 68 % of the individuals . samples denoted with a star are those otus that were found using both culture - dependent and - independent techniques .\nan unrooted phylogenomic tree based on 287 loci from 1095 sequenced bacterial genomes was made as a skeletal tree on which was placed the lepa and gyrb sequences from 16 bacterial cultures isolated from the digestive system of four different 3 rd instar larvae from female parent 2 from the north carolina population . this analysis placed the isolates sister to ( a ) providencia stuartii , ( b ) enterobacter cloacae , ( c ) pusillimonas , ( d ) pedobacter heparinus , and ( e ) lysinibacillus sphaericus .\nseveral offspring and their female parents have bacteria with 100 % identical 16s rrna sequencing , suggesting vertical transmission through the brood ball and its contents ( figure s3 and table s3 ) . for example in the north carolina samples , one sequence was recovered five times from the female parent , four times from the 2 nd instar larva , and five times from the 3 rd instar larvae ( table s3 ) . additionally , otu\u2019s classified as alcaligenes and pasteurella are similar between one of the female parents and the cultured isolates from a different female parent . deeper sequencing of individuals may reveal more shared bacterial otus .\nrarefaction curves of the microbial community in several larvae and the in parental female beetle suggests that additional sampling was needed to identify additional taxa in the microbiome ( figure s4 ) . the rarefaction curves of the nc parental female beetle ( 35 sequenced clones ) and of a second larval instar ( 20 sequenced clones ) suggests that microbiome taxonomic sampling to be close to saturation ( figure s4 ) . the highest bacterial taxonomic richness was isolated from the larval samples and the in parental female , and lower richness was sampled in pupae and in the nc parental female . however , different primer sets and deeper sampling may amplify a wider diversity of bacterial taxa .\nthese initial results suggest that deeper sequencing of individuals may reveal more shared bacterial otus . the primers used are biased for amplifying \u03b3 - proteobacteria , thus additional taxa may be identified using different primers . lastly , some bacteria from the dung also may have a role in the microbiome of beetles in the wild . while , it is not a subject of this study such studies may be fruitful .\ncollectively , the sterile rearing conditions , overlap of the microbiome between female parent and offspring , specialized dung processing behavior , and bacterial colonies found in the matrix on the brood ball chamber walls , but absent from other locations in the brood ball , suggest that the o . taurus microbiome is maternally transmitted via the brood ball .\nthe transmission from mother through the brood ball to offspring may be essential for provisioning specific beetle endosymbionts to the offspring since dung beetles develop in an environment rich with other microbes that were excreted from the digestive tract of the mammalian host , as well as bacteria from the soil . thus , the brood ball provides offspring not only with a safe refuge and food , but it is likely that the female parent additionally provisions a microbiome alongside the egg . however , future experimental validation is needed to further test this hypothesis .\nvertical transmission via the brood ball may favor organisms that are culturable on standard microbiological media , as the bacteria must persist in an external environment prior to ingestion by the larvae . our analyses based on separate loci for the cloning versus culture - based assays reveals shared bacterial taxa , suggesting a portion of the microbiome is culturable . this is in contrast to relative unculturability of the majority of vertically transmitted endosymbionts that have been studied thus far in insects .\nour data suggest that the dung beetle , o . taurus , has endosymbionts that are vertically transmitted in a unique method \u2013 via a brood ball . several of the endosymbionts are culturable . due to the manipulability of the system , the dung beetle symbiosis may be an ideal system to understand how host and microbes co - operate , and perhaps co - evolve , to thrive on nutritionally unbalanced diets . additionally , these data suggest that the essential ecosystem function of dung beetles , the degradation of cellulose - rich dung , may be due to communities of bacterial endosymbionts . whether other dung feeding insects have a specific a vertically transmitted microbiome warrants future studies .\na more detailed version of figure 6 that includes the species or strain names of the taxa used to build the tree .\ndendrogram illustrating sequence identity between 16s rrna sequences relative to the samples . abbreviations are the same as in figure 4 .\nrarefaction curves for selected individuals where the frequency with which diversity is calculated every five sequences .\naccession numbers and ncbi taxonomy of the bacterial genomes used for the phylotyping analysis .\nsequence identity matrix for 16s rrna samples . cells labeled id are where the sequence is compared to itself . cells labeled na were those where the sequence was not long enough for comparison .\nconceived and designed the experiments : ame ecsr djh apm . performed the experiments : ame ecsr mf kf ta djh . analyzed the data : ame djh jcdh . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : ame jcdh apm . wrote the manuscript : ame djh jcdh . developed pipeline for phylotyping analysess : djh . collected females from the field : apm ecsr . provided beetle sterile rearing facilities and personnel : apm .\nchin k , gill bd ( 1996 ) dinosaurs , dung beetles , and conifers : participants in a cretaceous food web . palaios 11 : 280 - 285 . doi :\nkrell f - t ( 2006 ) fossil record and evolution of scarabaeoidea ( coleoptera : polyphaga ) . coleopt bull 60 : 120 - 143 .\nholter p , scholtz ch ( 2013 ) elongated hindguts in desert - living dung beetles ( scarabaeidae : scarabaeinae ) feeding on dry dung pellets or plant litter . j morphol 274 : 657 - 662 . doi :\n) subsisting on plant litter in arid south african sand dunes . j arid environ 73 : 1090 - 1094 . doi :\ndavis alv , scholtz ch , philips tk ( 2002 ) historical biogeography of scarabaeine dung beetles . j biogeogr 29 : 1217 - 1256 . doi :\nnichols e , spector s , louzada j , larsen t , amezquita s et al . ( 2008 ) ecological functions and ecosystem services provided by scarabaeinae dung beetles . biol conserv 141 : 1461 - 1474 . doi :\nphilips tk ( 2011 ) the evolutionary history and diversification of dung beetles . ecology and evolution of dung beetles . john wiley & sons , ltd . . pp . 21 - 46 .\nmuller zo ( 1980 ) feed from animal wastes : state of knowledge . fao animal product health 18 : 190 .\nbuchner p ( 1965 ) endosymbiosis of animals with plant microorganisms . new york : interscience publishers .\nzientz e , silva fj , gross r ( 2001 ) genome interdependence in insect - bacterium symbioses . genome biol 2 : 1 - 6 . pubmed :\n, the secondary endosymbiont of tsetse flies . bmc genomics 11 : 1 - 17 . doi :\nmacdonald sj , thomas gh , douglas ae ( 2011 ) genetic and metabolic determinants of nutritional phenotype in an insect\u2013bacterial symbiosis . mol ecol 20 : 2073 - 2084 . doi :\n) of aphids . j mol evol 48 : 77 - 85 . doi :\nhusseneder c , ho hy , blackwell m ( 2010 ) comparison of the bacterial symbiont composition of the formosan subterranean termite from its native and introduced range . open microbiol j 4 : 53 - 66 . doi :\nbright m , bulgheresi s ( 2010 ) a complex journey : transmission of microbial symbionts . nat rev microbiol 8 : 218 - 230 . doi :\nnoda s , kitade o , inoue t , kawai m , kanuka m et al . ( 2007 ) cospeciation in the triplex symbiosis of termite gut protists (\nspp . ) , their hosts , and their bacterial endosymbionts . mol ecol 16 : 1257 - 1266 . doi :\nattardo gm , lohs c , heddi a , alam uh , yildirim s et al . ( 2008 ) analysis of milk gland structure and function in\n: milk protein production , symbiont populations and fecundity . j insect physiol 54 : 1236 - 1242 . doi :\nbalmand s , lohs c , aksoy s , heddi a ( 2013 ) tissue distribution and transmission routes for the tsetse fly endosymbionts . j invert pathol , 112 suppl : s116 - s122 . pubmed :\nbeard cb , cordon - rosales c , durvasula rv ( 2002 ) bacterial symbionts of the triatominae and their potential use in control of chagas disease transmission . annu rev entomol 47 : 123 - 141 . doi :\nerwinia dacicola ,\nswitches from an intracellular existence to an extracellular existence during host insect development . appl environ microbiol 75 : 7097 - 7106 . doi :\nkaltenpoth m , g\u00f6ttler w , herzner g , strohm e ( 2005 ) symbiotic bacteria protect wasp larvae from fungal infestation . curr biol 15 : 475 - 479 . doi :\npeccoud j , simon j - c , mclaughlin hj , moran na ( 2009 ) post - pleistocene radiation of the pea aphid complex revealed by rapidly evolving endosymbionts . proc natl acad sci usa 106 : 16315 - 16320 . doi :\n( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) . j appl microbiol 105 : 1277 - 1285 . doi :\nspp . ) . fems microbiol ecol 74 : 439 - 449 . doi :\n( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) . appl environ microbiol 69 : 6659 - 6668 . doi :\negert m , stingl u , bruun ld , pommerenke b , brune a et al . ( 2005 ) structure and topology of microbial communities in the major gut compartments of\nlarvae ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) . appl environ microbiol 71 : 4556 - 4566 . doi :\nschreber ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) . ann fac . sci agr univ turino 2 : 213 - 378 .\n, latreille north of mexico ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) . proc united states natl museum 114 : 1 - 135 . doi :\n( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) in north america : geographic ranges , diagnoses , and new distributional records entomology . news 108 : 345 - 361 .\n( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) . j entomol sci 20 : 24 - 25 .\nhowden hf , scholtz ch ( 1986 ) changes in texas dung beetle community between 1975 and 1985 ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : scarabaeinae ) . coleopt bull 40 : 313 - 316 .\nschreber , new to the us ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) . coleopt bull 29 : 349 - 350 .\nprice dl , brenneman lm , johnston re ( 2012 ) dung beetles ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae and geotrupidae ) communities of eastern maryland 114 . entomological society of washington . pp . 142 - 151 .\nhalffter g , edmonds wd ( 1982 ) the nesting behavior of dung beetles ( scarabaeinae ) : an ecological and evolutive approach . publicaciones instituto de ecologia mexico . pp . 1 - 176 .\nmoczek ap , nagy lm ( 2005 ) diverse developmental mechanisms contribute to different levels of diversity in horned beetles . evol dev 7 : 175 - 185 . doi :\nlane dj ( 1991 ) 16s and 23s rrna sequencing in : e . stackenbrandtm . goodfellow . nucleic acid techniques in bacterial systematics . new york , ny : john wiley and sons . pp . 115\u2013148 .\nmateos m , castrezana sj , nankivell bj , estes am , markow ta et al . ( 2006 ) heritable endosymbionts of\nmoran na , dale c , dunbar h , smith wa , ochman h ( 2003 ) intracellular symbionts of sharpshooters ( insecta : hemiptera : cicadellinae ) form a distinct clade with a small genome . environ microbiol 5 : 116 - 126 . doi :\nbeninati t , riegler m , vilcins i - me , sacchi l , mcfadyen r et al . ( 2009 ) absence of the symbiont\nbressan a , arneodo j , simonato m , haines wp , boudon - padieu e ( 2009 ) characterization and evolution of two bacteriome - inhabiting symbionts in cixiid planthoppers ( hemiptera : fulgoromorpha : pentastirini ) . environ microbiol 11 : 3265 - 3279 . doi :"]}
{"id": 1739, "summary": [{"text": "sphex pensylvanicus is a species of digger wasp , commonly known as the great black wasp .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it lives across most of north america and grows to a size of 20 \u2013 35 mm ( 0.8 \u2013 1.4 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the larvae feed on living insects that the females paralyze and carry to the underground nest . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "sphex pensylvanicus", "paragraphs": ["and then there is this specimen of the katydid hunter sphex pensylvanicus l . :\nsphex ichneumoneus ( linn . ) sphex pensylvanicus linn . isodontia auripes ( fernald ) isodontia mexicana ( saussure ) palmodes dimidiatus ( degeer ) prionyx atratus ( lepeletier )\ndistribution . \u2014sphex pensylvanicus occurs throughout most of the united states north to the forty - third parallel ( fig . 15 ) .\nsphex pensylvanicus linnaeus ( figs . 15 , 85 , 87 ) sphex pensylvanica linnaeus , 1763 , centuria insect rar . , p . 30 . holotype \u2640 , pennsylvania ( bmnh ) .\nsphex transversus fernald , 1934 . no . amer . and w . indies sphex , p . 141 . \u2642 .\nsphex acutus fernald , 1934 . no . amer . and w . indies sphex , p . 150 . \u2642 .\nsphex craspedotus fernald , 1934 . no . amer . and w . indies sphex , p . 96 . \u2640 .\nsphex peckhami fernald , 1934 . no . amer . and w . indies sphex , p . 93 . \u2642 .\nsphex dubius fernald , 1934 . no . amer . and w . indies sphex , p . 139 . preocc .\nappears to be less frequently encountered across its range than sphex ichneumoneus ( based on u . of michigan museum of zoology , division of insects page on s . pensylvanicus with map of michigan records .\nsphex pilosiis fernald , 1934 . no . amer . and w . indies sphex , p . 120 . \u2640 , \u2642 .\nsphex aculeatus fernald , 1934 . no . amer . and w . indies sphex , p . 145 . \u2640 , \u2642 .\nsphex novitus fernald , 1934 . no . amer . and w . indies sphex , p . 147 . \u2640 , \u2642 .\nsphex parapolitus fernald , 1934 . no . amer . and w . indies sphex , p . 51 . \u2640 , \u2642 .\nsphex floridensis fernald , 1934 . no . amer . and w . indies sphex , p . 126 . \u2640 , \u2642 .\nsphex uniariiis leopardus fernald , 1934 . no . amer . and w . indies sphex , p . 125 . \u2640 , \u2642 .\nsphex willistoni fernald , 1934 . no . amer . and w . indies sphex , p . 91 , fig . 37 . \u2640 .\nsphecid wasp videos - from brown bag productions - dick walton has some video clips of several species of sand wasps , including eremnophila aureonotata and sphex pensylvanicus . excellent video of nesting behavior ! ( 08 / 31 / 2006 )\ntype - species : sphex cyanea fabricius . desig . by patton , 1880 .\ntype - species : sphex spirifex linnaeus . desig . by bingham , 1897 .\ntype - species : sphex spiiifex linnaeus . desig . by latreille , 1810 .\ntype - species : sphex niveatus dufour . desig . by pate , 1937 .\nsphex pensylvanica linnaeus , 1763 . centuria ins . rar . , p . 30 .\nsphex thomae fabricius , 1775 . systema ent . , p . 346 . \u2642 .\nsphex flavipunctata christ , 1791 . naturgesch . class . nomencl . , p . 301 .\ntype - species : sphex flavipennis fabricius . desig . by internatl . comn . zool .\ntype - species : sphex occitanica lepeletier and serville , desig . by fernald , 1906 .\ntype - species : sphex albisectus lepeletier and serville . desig . by kohl , 1885 .\nsphex , 167 pp . these are not reliable for identification of many north american species .\nsphex caerulea linnaeus , 1763 . centuria ins . rar . , p . 30 . preocc .\nsphex chlomrgyrica costa , 1862 . mus . zool . napoli , ann . 1 : 66 .\nsphex ( isodontia ) macrocephaius fox , 1890 . ent . news 1 : 137 . \u2640 .\nsphex cressoni smith , 1908 . nebr . univ . , studies 8 : 329 . \u2642 .\nsphex arvensis floridensis fernald , 1933 . ent . news 44 : 236 . nom . nud .\nsources : benntinen , justin and evan preisser . 2009 . \u201cavian kleptoparasitism of the digger wasp sphex pensylvanicus , \u201d can . ent . 141 ( 6 ) : 604 - 608 . evans , howard e . 1963 . wasp farm . ithaca , ny : comstock publishing associates ( cornell university press ) . 178 pp .\nsphex caementaria drury , 1773 . illus . nat . hist . , v . 2 , index .\nsphex affinis fabricius , 1793 . ent . system . , v . 2 , p . 203 .\ntype - species : sphex sabulosa linnaeus . desig . by intematl . comn . zool . nomencl .\nsphex cyanea fabricius , 1775 . systema ent . , no . 5 , p . 346 . preocc .\nsphex dubitaia cresson , 1872 . amer . ent . soc , trans . 4 : 213 . \u2640 .\nsphex lauta cresson , 1872 . amer . ent . soc , trans . 4 : 212 . \u2640 .\nsphex aurocapillus templeton , 1841 . ent . soc . london , trans . 3 : 51 . a questionable\nsphex fuliginosa dahlbom , 1843 . hym . europaea , v . 1 , p . 425 . preocc .\nsphex servillei lepeletier , 1845 . hist . nat . ins . hym . 3 : 336 . \u2642 .\nsphex helfragei cresson , 1872 . amer . ent . soc , trans . 4 : 212 . \u2640 .\nsphex rufiventris cresson , 1872 . amer . ent . soc , trans . 4 : 211 . \u2640 .\nsphex ( priononyx ) femigineus fox , 1892 . ent . news 3 : 170 . \u2640 . preocc .\nfew north american wasps are as conspicuous as the great black wasp , sphex pensylvanicus . this all - black insect with violet reflections on its wings is so large as to sometimes be mistaken for a tarantula hawk wasp . males average 22 millimeters in body length , while females are about 28 millimeters ( up to 35 mm ) and more robust .\nsphex flavomaculata degeer , 1773 . mem . hist . ins . , v . 3 , p . 588 .\nsphex micans taschenberg , 1869 . ztschr . gesam . naturw . halle 34 : 419 . \u2640 . preocc .\nsphex jamaica christ , 1791 . naturgesch . class . nomencl . ins . , p . 292 . emend .\nsphex mexicana taschenberg , 1869 . ztschr . gesam . naturw . halle 34 : 416 . \u2642 . preocc .\nsphex texana cresson , 1872 . amer . ent . soc . trans . 4 : 212 . \u2640 , \u2642 .\nsphex abdominalis cresson , 1872 . amer . ent . soc , trans . 4 : 211 . \u2642 . preocc .\nsphex spiniger kohl , 1890 . k . k . naturhist . hofmus . , ann . 5 : 428 . \u2642 .\nsphex princeps kohl , 1890 . k . k . naturhist . hofmus . , ann . 5 : 398 . \u2640 .\nsphex chrysophorus kohl , 1890 . k . k . naturhist . hofmus . , ann . 5 : 300 . \u2640 .\nsphex lanciger kohl , 1895 . k . k . naturhist . hofmus . , ann . 10 : 55 . \u2642 .\nsphex auriflua perty , 1834 . delect . anim . articul . brasil . , p . 142 . a questionable synonym .\nsphex lanierii guerin , 1844 . iconogr . regne anim . , ins . , v . 3 : 433 . \u2642 .\nsphex congener kohl , 1890 . k . k . naturhist . hofmus . , ann . 5 : 418 . \u2640 .\nsphex violaceipenyiis lepeletier , 1845 . hist . nat . ins . hym . , v . 3 , p . 349 .\nsphex laeviventris cresson , 1865 . ent . soc . phila . , proc . 4 : 463 . \u2640 , \u2642 .\nsphex excisus kohl , 1890 . k . k . naturhist . hofmus . , ann . 5 : 362 . \u2642 .\nsphex harti fernald , 1931 . ent . soc . amer . , ann . 24 : 450 . n . name .\nsphex kennedyi murray , 1938 . ent . soc . amer . , ann . 31 : 36 . n . name .\nsphex suynptuosa costa , 1862 . mus . zool . napoli , ann . 1 : 66 . s . k questionable synonym .\nsphex pensylvanicus aka the great black wasp . this black wasp with yellow antennas ( anthers ) is a species of digger wasp . they hunt for insects and pluralize them so that larvae can feed on living insect . the black wasp is approximately 1 to 1 . 4 inch long with slander body . the sting from this wasp is painful but it does not cause swelling . this wasp is also an important pollinator .\nsphex singularis smith , 1856 . cat . hym . brit . mus . , v . 4 , p . 261 . \u2642 .\nsphex flavovestita smith , 1856 . cat . hym . brit . mus . , v . 4 , p . 253 . \u2642 .\nsphex habena say , 1832 . new sp . n . amer . ins . chiefly of louisiana , p . 14 . \u2640 .\nsphex croesus lepeletier , 1845 . hist . nat . ins . hym . , v . 3 , p . 351 . \u2640 .\nsphex ichneumoneus \\ ar . fuiviventris kohl , 1890 . k . k . naturhist . hofmus . , ann . 5 : 431 .\nsphex apicalis smith , 1856 . cat . hym . brit . mus . , v . 4 , p . 262 . \u2640 .\nsphex elegans smith , 1856 . cat . hym . brit . mus . , v . 4 , p . 262 . \u2642 .\nsphex morio kohl , 1890 . k . k . naturhist . hofmus . , ann . 5 : 321 . \u2642 . preocc .\nsphex doumerci lepeletier , 1845 . hist . nat . ins . hym . , v . 3 , p . 357 . \u2640 .\nsphex { priononyx ) laerma cameron , 1897 . ann . and mag . nat . hist . ( 6 ) 19 : 370 .\nsphex ( harpactopus ) edwardsi cameron , 1903 . amer . ent . soc , trans . 29 : 230 . \u2640 , \u2642 .\nsphex dorsalis lepeletier , 1845 . hist . nat . ins . , hym . , v . 3 , p . 347 . \u2642 .\nsphex aurulenta guerin , 1835 . iconogr . regne anim . , planches anim . invert . , pi . 70 , fig . 2 .\nsphex joergenseni brethes , 1913 . buenos aires mus . nac . de hist . nat . , an . 24 : 120 . \u2642 .\nsphex philadelphica lepeletier , 1845 . hist . nat . ins . , hym . , v . 3 , p . 340 . \u2640 .\nsphex apicalis harris , 1835 . in hitchcock , rpt . geol . mineral . bot . zool . mass . , p . 588 .\nsphex ( palmodes ) praestans kohl , 1890 . k . k . naturhist . hofmus . , ann . 5 : 323 . \u2640 .\nsphex labrosa harris , 1835 . in hitchcock , rpt . geol . mineral . bot . zool . mass . , p . 588 .\nsphex atrata lepeletier , 1845 . hist . nat . ins . , hym . , v . 3 , p . 355 . \u2640 .\nsphex fervens linnaeus , 1758 . syst . nat . , ed . 10 , p . 569 . 9 . type from west indies or\nsphex pilosus nudus murray , 1938 . ent . soc . amer . , ann . 31 : 28 . \u2642 , \u2640 . preocc .\nsphex flavipes smith , 1856 . cat . hym . brit . mus . , v . 4 , p . 263 . \u2640 . preocc .\nsphex dimidiatus lepeletier , 1845 . hist . nat . ins . hym . , v . 3 , p . 352 . \u2642 . preocc .\nsphex chichimecus saussure , 1867 . reise d . novara , zool . , v . 2 , hym . , p . 40 . \u2642 .\nsphex tepanecus saussure , 1867 . reise d . novara , zool . , v . 2 , hym . , p . 41 . \u2642 .\nsphex lucae saussure , 1867 . reise d . novara , zool . , v . 2 , hym . , p . 41 . \u2640 .\nsphex apicalis saussure , 1867 . reise d . novara , zool . , v . 2 , hym . , p . 38 . preocc .\nsphex platensis brethes , 1908 . buenos aires mus . nac de hist . nat . , an . 17 : 146 . \u2642 , \u2640 .\nsphex yiigropilosus rohwer , 1912 . u . s . natl . mus . , proc . 41 : 465 . 9 . this is a questionable\npat , this looks to me like sphex pennsylvanica , a hunter of katydids . your description sounds small , though . i have seen plenty of s . pennsylvanica females that greatly exceed the great golden digger wasps ( sphex ichneumoneus ) in size . in flight they look gigantic , of course !\nsphex ( chlorion ) nearcticus kohl , 1890 . k . k . naturhist . hofmus . , ann . 5 : 186 . \u2640 , \u2642 .\nsphex ( chlorion ) occultus kohl , 1890 . k . k . naturhist . hofmus . , ann . 5 : 187 . \u2640 , \u2642 .\nsphex ornata lepeletier , 1845 . hist . nat . ins . , hym . , v . 3 , p . 344 . 9 , tj .\nsphex tibialis lepeletier , 1845 . hist . nat . ins . , hym . , v . 3 , p . 339 . \u2640 . preocc .\nsphex ( palmodes ) daggyi murray , 1951 . u . s . dept . agr . , monog . 2 : 974 . n . name .\nsphex dimidiatus degeer , 1773 . mem . pour servir a i ' hist . des ins . 3 : 577 , pi . 30 , fig . 5 . \u2642 .\nsphex instabilis smith , 1856 . cat . hym . brit . mus . , v . 4 , p . 263 . 9 . n . amer . possibly a senior\nmy work on tr programs was partially inspired by the \u201ctote units\u201a\u201d of miller , galanter , and pribram who proposed them as a model of behavior . i was also aware of the work on animal behavior by ethologists , such as nicholas tinbergen and konrad lorenz . could tr programs serve as a model of some aspects of animal behavior ? in my 1998 ai textbook , artificial intelligence : a new synthesis , i repeated ( on p . 82 ) the following description ( from a book by dean wooldridge ) of the behavior of the solitary wasp , sphex pensylvanicus :\ninsects of cedar creek - - they label as\nsphex species\n, but mention\ns . pennsylvanicus\non the sphecidae family page . phenology lists occurence in july and august .\n( special thanks to pat shorter , an undergraduate member of the marek lab , for taking the photo of our infected sphex wasp ! she also took the photos of the cissites auriculata beetle in our previous post . )\nsphex pensylvanicus aka the great black wasp insects . it ' s is very angry . this bee sometime nursery bee . this black wasp with yellow antennas ( anthers ) is a species of digger wasp . they hunt for insects and pluralize them so that larvae can feed on living insect . the black wasp is approximately 1 to 1 . 4 inch long with slander body . the sting from this wasp is painful but it does not cause swelling . this wasp is also an important pollinator . our social pages : facebook : urltoken pintertest : https : urltoken instragram : urltoken twitter : urltoken # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # copyright disclaimer : video information source : urltoken music source : urltoken\nwell , maybe it ' s 25 mm or more . they move so fast , it is rather hard to get a feeling for the size . i ' m sure you are correct . it is about the size of sphex ichneumoneus , a species i do know . patrick coin durham , north carolina\nthis wasp , in the genus sphex , is a member of the family sphecidae ( sfee - ci - dee ) , the thread - waisted wasps , or digger wasps , which are all solitary . relatives include mud daubers and the very closely related great golden digger wasp ( s . ichneumoneus ) . many famous naturalists have written entertaining , fascinating accounts of this and other digger wasps ; those of howard ensign evans ( \u201cwasp farm\u201d ) and j . henri fabre are highly recommended .\nit seems javascript is either disabled or not supported by your browser . to view this site , enable javascript by changing your browser options and try again .\nexplore an aquarium , planetarium , and natural history museum\u2014all under one living roof .\nthe academy\u2019s institute for biodiversity science and sustainability is at the forefront of efforts to understand two of the most important topics of our time : the nature and future of life on earth .\nbased in san francisco , the institute for biodiversity science and sustainability is home to more than 100 research scientists and nearly 46 million scientific specimens from around the world\u201438 , 000 of which are alive and on display in the academy\u2019s steinhart aquarium . the institute also leverages the expertise and efforts of the academy ' s aquarium biologists and more than 100 international research and field associates and 450 distinguished fellows .\nthrough expeditions around the globe , captive breeding programs , and investigations in the lab , the institute\u2019s scientists strive to understand the evolution and interconnectedness of life . through these same efforts , as well as through partnerships , community outreach , and public engagement initiatives , the institute aims to guide critical conservation decisions and address the challenge of sustainability .\nwith nearly 46 million scientific specimens from around the world , the academy\u2019s research collections provide one of the best records of life on earth , both now and in the past . this vast library of life\u2014available to scientists around the world , both in person and online\u2014helps us track the spread of disease , predict the impact of climate change , and much more .\ndespite intensive efforts to document life on earth , scientists estimate that more than 90 percent of the species on our planet have yet to be discovered . academy scientists are racing to discover new species and determine their place on the tree of life\u2014with the ultimate goal of protecting them before they disappear .\nto provide the best conservation recommendations , we must understand not only what lives where , but also how species reproduce , interact with one another and respond to threats . to address this need , academy scientists map species distributions , analyze reproductive strategies , study food web and other ecosystem interactions , and more .\ndetailed knowledge about the evolution , distribution , and interconnectedness of life on earth allows academy scientists to make thoughtful conservation recommendations and participate in critical discussions about sustainability challenges . through partnerships with governments and conservation organizations , community outreach , captive breeding programs , and public engagement initiatives , academy scientists are helping to shape a sustainable future for our planet .\naccess our online collections or set up an in - person visit . anthropology botany entomology herpetology ichthyology invertebrate zoology & geology ornithology & mammalogy\na governing group of approximately 450 distinguished scientists , academy fellows have made notable contributions to one or more of the natural sciences and help further the reach of our research and education initiatives through individual and collaborative efforts with academy researchers . nominated by their colleagues and selected by the board of trustees , academy fellows remain members of the fellowship for life .\nfor more than 160 years , academy scientists have been working to discover and document biodiversity around the world\u2014from the tops of the highest mountains to the depths of the oceans .\nscientists use advanced rebreather technology for deep dives into unexplored areas of the ocean .\nacademy scientists study an unusual adaptation in a number of new guinea bird species : toxic skin and feathers .\nour scientists study the rich diversity of marine invertebrates , including corals , mollusks , urchins , and more .\nwe believe discovery is just the first step in our work\u2014sharing our findings with community leaders , governments , and science enthusiasts of all ages is a critical part of our mission .\nresearchers , using the academy ' s collections , have discovered when avian pox arrived on the galapagos islands .\ntake a virtual expedition with us to investigate the amazing diversity of life on this planet .\npeter roopnarine discusses his work with fossils and his adventure with a six - foot squid .\nby working with partners and the general public , developing captive breeding programs , and training the next generation of scientists , we are tackling some of today\u2019s biggest sustainability challenges .\nacademy researchers are among the first to study\u2014and breed in captivity\u2014tiny , fascinating pygmy seahorses .\nlearn more about the academy ' s citizen science program , and join an upcoming bioblitz or biodiversity survey .\nsnapshot cal coast is a citizen science effort across california to document our coastal biodiversity .\nscience - based solutions for a better future\u2014now on exhibit at the academy and at planetvision . com .\nthe california academy of sciences is a renowned scientific and educational institution dedicated to exploring , explaining , and sustaining life on earth . based in san francisco\u2019s golden gate park , it is home to a world - class aquarium , planetarium , and natural history museum\u2014all under one living roof .\nstay curious\u2014every thursday at nightlife . sign up for event updates and exciting announcements .\nsign up for the academy\u2019s monthly newsletter and get a promo code for 10 % off at our online retail store .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nnearctica lists it as pensylvanica , which is wrong because the gender of the genus is male .\nprovision nests ( in burrow in soft earth ) with katydids or grasshoppers . ( univ . florida lists : tettigoniidae in genera microcentrum and scudderia . ) usually about three are placed in a nest .\nevans , pp . 49 - 51 , 55 - 56 describes life history .\nbohart , r . m . and a . s . menke . 1963 . a reclassification of the sphecinae with a revision of the nearctic species of the tribes sce1iphronini and sphecini ( hymenoptera , sphecidae ) . univ . calif . publ . ent . 30 : 91 - 182 .\nkaufman field guide to insects of north america eric eaton , kenn kaufman . 2006 . houghton mifflin .\ninsects of north carolina c . s . brimley . 1938 . north carolina department of agriculture .\namerican insects : a handbook of the insects of america north of mexico ross h . arnett . 2000 . crc press .\ninsects in kansas glenn a . salsbury and stephan c . white . 2000 . kansas dept . of agriculture .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nthe information below is based on images submitted and identified by contributors . range and date information may be incomplete , overinclusive , or just plain wrong .\nhover over black occurrence boxes to see number of images submitted . log in to make states , months and boxes clickable .\nall about insects , spiders , and other arthropods , focusing on north america north of mexico .\nthis is also a common and widespread species , ranging from southeast canada to northern mexico , and as far west as southern california . it is absent from the pacific northwest , and while i lived in arizona for a decade , i did not encounter this species there , either . it is perhaps most abundant along forest edges in deciduous woodlands , sumac thickets , gardens , and fields with scattered trees .\nhabitat preference is governed by the need for the adult wasps to find flower nectar to fuel their flight ; and for females to find katydid prey . milkweed ( asclepias spp . ) , thoroughworts ( eupatorium spp . ) , mountain mint ( pycnanthemum spp . ) , buttonbush ( cephalanthus occidentalis ) , camphorweed ( pluchea spp . ) , rattlesnake master ( eryngium yuccifolium ) , white sweet clover ( melilotus alba ) , and goldenrod ( solidago spp . ) are among this wasp\u2019s favorite rest stops . females dig burrows in soft soil , usually in sheltered spots such as the dirt floors of abandoned barns or other outbuildings .\nthough they are solitary , several females may nest in close proximity to one other . each burrow is an angled tunnel about an inch in diameter and over one foot long . at the end of the burrow is a chamber from which other cells are added over time . the female leaves the nest entrance open while she goes about finding katydids . her prey can be enormous . adult greater angle - wing katydids ( microcentrum rhombifolium ) can be 52 - 63 millimeters long and are quite heavy . the lesser angle - wing katydid ( m . retinerve ) is another prey species , as is scudderia furcata , the fork - tailed bush katydid . an average of three paralyzed katydids goes into each cell in the nest , a single egg being laid on the first of those victims .\nthe wasp larva that hatches from the egg feeds and grows for about ten days , eventually reaching a length of 30 - 35 millimeters , and a diameter of 7 - 10 millimeters . larval insects are almost always larger than the adult stage because so much energy is spent in the pupal stage . the larva probably passes the winter in a pre - pupal state , pupating the following spring and then emerging in summer .\nfemale great black wasps are incredibly successful at finding katydids . one field researcher , reverend john a . frisch of woodstock college in maryland plugged the nest entrances in one aggregation . the result was 252 katydids piled up in only five days . that worked out to an average of nearly 17 katydids per wasp per day ( evans , 1963 ) . the wasps fly with that heavy load , too .\nhauling a large , heavy katydid back to the nest can attract unwanted attention , and one entomologist in rhode island observed house sparrows ( passer domesticus ) and , to a lesser degree , gray catbirds ( dumetella carolinensis ) intercepting female wasps and relieving them of their paralyzed prey . as many as one - third of return trips by all the female wasps observed ended this way : empty - handed ( benntinen & preisser , 2009 ) .\nthe adult wasps themselves can be parasitized by paraxenos westwoodi , one of the insects called stylopids or \u201ctwisted - wing parasites . \u201d wasps that have deformities of the abdominal segments , often with a bullet - like capsule or two protruding between segments , are victims of stylopids .\nan interesting piece of historical trivia is that this species was the first insect subject of a paper by a naturalist native to north america . observations of the great black wasp by john bartram ( philadelphia ) were presented to the royal society ( royal society of london for improving natural knowledge ) by peter collinson in 1749 . the species was not officially described until 1763 by carl linnaeus .\nnice post eric ! i ' ve grown fond of these wasps since the summer , when i was finding many of them . they seem to like hanging around japanese knotweed ( fallopia japonica ) flowers as well .\nhi , diane ! the females are certainly capable of stinging , but you have to literally molest one to get it feeling threatened enough to deploy its stinger . plus , males ( which are anatomically incapable of stinging ) are far more common at flowers in my experience . females are busy digging nests and hunting katydids .\ni had to post a comment because i just discovered these wasps in my garden today ; i ' d never seen them before . i live in the pacific northwest ( medford , or ) - was surprised to read that they are supposed to be absent here . one of these beauties was enormous - about the length of my little finger - and i saw 2 others that were a bit smaller . i had to find out what kind of wasp they are and my search led me here . great informative post ! i am a first year beekeeper and am frequently out observing them , and the bumble bees , in the yard , that ' s how i discovered the great black wasps . how exciting that they are here !\nstephanie : you may have a different wasp altogether . i ' d love to see an image of what you are talking about , and learn what kind of prey it is bringing in . i ' m thinking it is a species of palmodes , or even prionyx , rather than the subject of this blog post . i lived in oregon the first 27 years of my life and never saw a great black wasp there , either .\nthe description fits closely to a smaller black wasp we have here in oregon . grants pass . about 30 mi from medford . same description down to the oil sheen on black wings . just seems smaller . so perhaps a subspecies of some kind ?\nhi , jed . i grew up in oregon , and i think you are most likely describing one of the podalonia species of cutworm wasps . i have done a couple of posts here on podalonia . they are very common in the western u . s .\neric i have these wasps under the deck of my front door , they have never bitten anyone and my family has learned to just walk by them or ignore them but when people come to the front door it is pretty scary to be swarmed by these big black wasps . every year we seem to get more and more and they love the minnesota sun in july . any ideas on how to get them to move on or move out ? nancyb\ni ' m sorry , nancy , but my business is not to suggest\npest control\nfor what are essentially harmless insects . unless you physically grab a female wasp , you are not going to get stung . period . the wasps use landmarks to locate their nests , and are circling the guests at your door because they interpret the people as new landmarks ( or the wasps are simply disoriented by the sudden appearance of a person ) .\nhello eric , as with nancy i have seen a wasp that looks a lot like this one , as far as if it is or is not i will give you what i can . i may be able to find the body of the wasp . we can ' t take risks , allergies . but i noticed it when it flew into a small hole in the inside of my hose reel for storring the garden hose . it was carrying a long piece of dryed grass . this wasp was much larger than the normal wasps i get . i would guess about 2 / 3ds larger .\nfred , what you are describing is a\ngrass - carrier\nwasp , same family as the great black wasp , but different genus and different nesting behavior . here ' s one of my blog posts about them : urltoken\nwe are trying to identify a huge black flying bug and it looks a lot like the great wasp , and it lives in a crevice in our garage . we noticed one , now it seems we have 3 . it ' s living in a small hole in the corner of the garage where the garage door meets the ground . do you think this is a great wasp or some other type based on what i ' ve noted . i have not seen it bring back food of any type so far .\ntook me awhile to find your comment since it was in a\nreply\nto someone else ' s comment . . . . i honestly don ' t know .\nhuge\nis relative , so it could be a blue mud dauber i suppose , or maybe a * male * great black wasp that is simply roosting there . i ' d have to see it myself to be able to say for certain .\nif these wasps are not in the pacific northwesr why do you suppose i found one in my garden , in the bamboo with an ant on it ' s stinger ? i live on the pennisula in nw washington state .\nhi , debra : i imagine you probably found a different kind of wasp altogether . in my response to stephanie gentry above , i suggested she might have seen a palmodes wasp instead . . . . ants will antagonize wasps that visit aphid colonies they are guarding . the ants will also scavenge dead insects , even very large ones .\nhi eric - i live in bellevue ( suburb of omaha , i see you ' re coming to visit the zoo - it is awesome , so enjoy yourself ) , and this afternoon one of these wasps must have gotten trapped in my garage and buzzed in past me into the basement . not knowing if it was going to sting me , i ' ve pretty much left it alone . the lights are out down there now so no idea where it is . i will be using the treadmill down there in the morning ( it is too hot and humid to run outside ) and i ' m wondering if this wasp will be trying to find it ' s way outside . i ' d love to help it , but it ' s a bug . . . . and it could hurt me or the dogs . . . . suggestions that will save us all a little hurt ? : - ) thanks !\nhi , kelley ! most insects trapped indoors fly to light , so if you have a window or windows in your basement , it will fly to those . then just put a glass or other transparent container over the insect and slip a card between bug and the window , trapping the insect inside the container . then you can release it outdoors . that said , this species is in no danger of going extinct , so if you must kill it , then don ' t feel * too * guilty .\ngreetings ! i found one of these lovely , iridescent blue - black babies hanging around on the white goosefoot ( chenopodium album ) outside my back door ( milan , mi ) . it was terrifying my children ( ages 5 and 3 ) so they wouldn ' t use the door . i looked it up and happened upon your page ! thanks for the great information ! we ' re all pleased to learn it won ' t sting us , but big , black flying things are scary nonetheless ! i ' m going to try removing the plant it seems to favor ( there ' s a bunch elsewhere in the yard ) to see if the wasp hangs out around the door less . i ' m sure her nest is somewhere in the crumbling cinderblock wall of our small porch right there , so she probably won ' t go too far , but if we can get in and out of the door without a two - inch wasp in our faces , that ' d be lovely . : )\njust discovered these burrowing under my house in upstate south carolina . any reason to be concerned ?\nhi , june . no reason for concern . just don ' t disturb them for the week , more or less , that they need to nest . you wouldn ' t likely get stung anyway , but locations suitable for nesting are sometimes hard to come by for solitary wasps and bees .\nyou do not indicate a geographic location , but i would bet you are describing the blue mud dauber , which sometimes nests in attics and can find its way downstairs from there . please find someone who can vacuum them up , or usher them into containers to be released outdoors . since they are solitary , you won ' t get stung unless you actually grab one ( and it is likely to fly away before you could do that anyway ) . please refrain from chemical sprays in the interest of your own health , and that of your family and pets . i ' d happily help personally were it possible to be all places at once .\nthank you for this wonderful description . i just saw one of these huge great black wasps tenderly sipping nectar from butterfly weed ( a type of milkweed ) in my garden . i live in rhode island . we have nesting house sparrows and mockingbirds in the yard . i can ' t wait to see the birds steal a katydid from the wasp , i ' ll be on lookout . i just hope i ' m not too close to become entangled . thanks again . i ' ve never seen one of these wasps before , and now i know all about it .\nwould you consider it safe to leave them alone if these black hornets have built a nest up inside of the wall / ceiling at the entryway to our back porch ? we can ' t see the nest without taking the ceiling apart . i don ' t want to spray or kill them , but i don ' t want the nest to grow and multiply over the summer and winter until we have a serious problem on our hands .\nyou are describing some other kind of wasp . the great black wasp is solitary and nests in the ground , not between walls or in attics .\nhello eric ! great black wasps were the subject of my august ' nature of merrickville ' column in the local monthly . your blog and scilog were among my sources . i saw my first great blacks in the last week - - near bishop ' s mills ontario and at montebello in western quebec . talk about huge ! ! my article assured folks that they were not aggressive and also described ichneumonidae , as another example of fascinating parasatoid wasps . i was a bug - fearing kid ( and adult ) and terrified of spiders . if anyone had told me that i would grow up to be the bug lady , i ' d have laughed in their faces . but it was the specialization of wasps that got me interested , the truth about when spiders bite that calmed my phobia and the fine teachings of many mentors ( the likes of thee ) , when i began teaching at a nature museum , that propelled me in this direction . my thanks to you and your kin for my new - found love of insects .\nwow , i am not sure i ' ve ever been paid a higher compliment . thank you so much !\njust found a set of nests right by my backyard gate in nj . there are nearly a dozen holes , but i ' m finding more around the property everyday now that i know what to look for . we realized that they are docile and can walk right over them , but any idea how to encourage future generations to move on ? i don ' t mind their presence , just not directly underfoot which scaressentially the kids and excited the dog .\nthere is no guarantee they will nest again there next year . did you see them last year ? also , pretty sure soil composition and texture dictates where they can nest . unless you want to replace * that * , not sure you can easily dissuade them from nesting where they will . that said , i empathize with your dilemma .\nwe didn ' t see them at all last year , though my neighbor just told me that he ' s had them for years in a rocky section of his yard . and while we have a lot of clay in our soil , there ' s no way we ' ll try to replace it . our neighborhood is mostly wooded and\npests\nare just part of the fun .\nthank you so much for the information . we are from michigan . we have been fascinated by two of these for over a week . we never knew we had this many katydids on our 10 acres ! they keep bringing them back like little troopers . today we noticed that the one entrance ( under a good sized rock ) wasn ' t having the normal activity . we looked in and found a fat toad sitting there ! . would he have eaten the wasp ? thanks again .\ni wouldn ' t put it past a toad to eat * any * thing . lol ! that said , the wasp could also have finished her nest and the toad came afterwards . thank you so much for sharing your story ! i live for this kind of feedback , especially from folks who are observant and express their awe as you have here . made my day . : - )\ni was stung by one of these last year . about 3 times by the same little wasp , and damn it hurts . was out riding my scooter when i felt like i was shot in the stomach twice . figured i could just ride it off till i got home ( about 1 / 4 mile ) , but after the third sting . . . . . absolutely not . had to pull over and when i lifted my shirt he went flying off . the sting didn ' t swell a whole lot , but hurt a million times more than a paper wasp or a honey bee sting . i have been stung a couple more times sense then ( all while out riding ) . they don ' t seem to be aggressive , but if they get under your shirt while out riding they will sting you and damn it hurts .\ni am sorry you had this experience ! the great black wasp is a very large insect , so i wonder if it was not another kind of wasp that got you .\nmy daughter got stung on 3 days ago by what i believe to be a great black wasp . it was on her school bus and must have attached itself to her bookbag or jacket . when she got home and took off her bookbag and jacket it stung her in the forearm . it was just after she was stung i saw the wasp crawling on the couch behind her . it was over an inch in length and all black . she had very little reaction to the sting . in fact , there was no swelling or redness that evening . however the following day she had redness and swelling in an area the size of a lemon . the second day , the swelling and redness increased from her elbow to wrist . today it is extended to her finger tips and past her elbow . i took her to the doctor and she has serum sickness . i am just wondering if it could be something other than a great black wasp . are there any other insects that look just like a great black wasp ?\noh , dear . well , first , my sincerest wishes for your daughter ' s full and speedy recovery . there are certainly many species of wasps similar to the great black wasp , so without seeing the specimen , or at least an image , i can ' t say one way or the other . you don ' t give a geographic location , either , so for all i know this happened in peru . . . . one thing for sure : reaction to stings often has more to do with a given individual ' s immune system reaction than the venom composition of the insect . i would ask the doctor for advice on first aid for future stings to mitigate potentially dangerous reactions .\nsorry i forgot to tell you my location . i live in pennsylvania . i wish i had a picture to show you . i could only describe it as about 1 . 5 inches in length , completely black , and very long legs .\ncould easily be this wasp . . . . but as i said previously , i can ' t be certain without seeing the specimen .\nwe live in the middle of a hundred acre farm in nw ohio . that ' s a lot of loose dirt ! on our farm we have a half acre vegetable garden and tons of perennial and annual flowers so i could see where these wasps could really be helpful . but recently we attached an outdoor shower to our home and i ' m not sure if that stirred them up or what because we have about 30 - 40 swarming around our front porch . they may not be the exact same ones because we ' ve seen them going in and out of paper nests under the soffit of our porch and dormers . we have knocked those down . but they seem too small to house so many wasps ! we can ' t really determine where they all are coming from and what to do with them . we have to do something because we have grandchildren that are coming soon and we literally can not use our front porch because there are so many of them swarming around ! my question is , is there an extremely large shiny black wasp that builds paper nests in nw ohio ? it ' s not a mud dobber i ' ve had those before . and how can i move them without killing them ? how can i find their nest ?\ndebbie , thanks for reaching me through allexperts as well , and for including the images that prove conclusively that what you have are blue mud dauber wasps , chalybion californicum . the males congregate to\nsleep\ntogether overnight in some nook or other sheltered spot . male wasps don ' t sting , so no worries .\nthat sounds more like a grass - carrier wasp ( isodontia sp . ) or a blue mud dauber ( chalybion californicum ) . great black wasp nests in the ground , and would not be crawling under siding even to hunt katydids .\nhello eric , i must say i have never been a big bug fan . i ' ve always had an innate fear of all flying bugs , and as i ' ve never been stung , a built in radar for bees and wasps . tonight i met the great black wasp . it landed on my leg . i did my usual hysterical dance , it fell off my leg , and before i knew it i had stepped on it . i had never seen anything so large , so close to me . then i noticed it was carrying a giant katydid which was at least 63 mm . it was all new to me . the only big bug i ' ve seen close up was a giant black grasshopper back home in alabama . here in south bend , indiana , it ' s usually beesness as usual . i then did some research on this glorious wasp . i truly regret that i got in the way of her task of getting that katydid to her nest . thank you for such a wonderful introduction to a wasp i think i can actually bee friends with . regards dee b\ndee : thank you so much for sharing your story . i am always delighted to hear this kind of thing . i often think i am making little difference , so thanks for letting me know i have an impact . : - )\nthey have been terrifying me for almost a week before i stumbled across your blog today . i was pretty sure this was the species but after finding two alive ( sedated ) katydids at the entrance to our barn , my suspicions are confirmed . so happy to know these are a bunch of essentially single moms looking to rear some young in my horse barn , and that they are not aggressive . boy they look intimidating ! ! i have a bunch of holes in the barn floor ( millings ) , a substrate which they obviously find irresistable because my efforts have not been successful to have them vacate the barn completely , but merely to relocate !\nchristie , thank you so much for sharing your story .\nsingle moms\nthey truly are ! what a great way to put it . thank you also for your tolerance , and efforts to identify your\nguests .\nyou help restore my faith in humanity . : - )\nin chicago , facing lake michigan , and six stories up , we have what look to me like great black wasps . but , rather than katydid , these wasps seem to be harvesting spiders . since we have plenty of spiders , it ' s quite helpful . do you think these are actually great black wasps , or merely close relatives ?\ndefinitely * not * great black wasps if they are going after spiders , and nesting on a building . mud daubers , sceliphron caementarium , chalybion californicum , and trypoxylon politum should all be in your area , so it could be any one of those .\nhi eric i do a lot of container gardening every summer so i ' m outside a lot . the past few days i ' ve seen this large flying black creature entering and exiting a half inch crack in my concrete patio . came in this evening and typed in horse fly . that wasn ' t it so i tried big black wasp . bingo ! i planted a lot of different plants to attract pollinators . white clover and milkweed . this wasp also likes the hibiscus - like flowers on okra . i ' m glad to know this wasp is harmless as i have an epi - pen with me every time i go outside . i know enough not to mess with wasps . in fact there are a lot of them in my garden . i ' ve even had them land on me and i freeze and they leave cause i don ' t have any pollen . i ' ll enjoy watching this making it ' s nest . how long do you think it will be around ? i live in se tn . so glad i found your post .\nhi , anne ! well , since you have made your property so hospitable to other creatures , i suspect your big black wasp will be around for at least the next few days to finish * this * nest , then maybe start another one elsewhere in your yard . thank you for the kind compliments !\nevery morning , and throughout the day , i have multiple wasps , that i believe to be great blacks , in my garage . they congregate on the window of an access door , which i open and then ' scoot ' them out . there seems to be a never ending supply as this has been going on for some time . i live in buffalo , mn . any idea why this is . thanks , roy\ni think what you have is a harmless , nightly congregation of male blue mud dauber wasps , chalybion californicum . they are known for this behavior . nice of you to escort them out . the female wasps hunt spiders as food for their offspring , but they usually don ' t join the males at night , sleeping by themselves in most cases ."]}
{"id": 1741, "summary": [{"text": "the black-headed gull ( chroicocephalus ridibundus ) is a small gull that breeds in much of europe and asia , and also in coastal eastern canada .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "most of the population is migratory and winters further south , but some birds reside in the milder westernmost areas of europe .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "some black-headed gulls also spend the winter in northeastern north america , where it was formerly known as the common black-headed gull .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "as is the case with many gulls , it was previously placed in the genus larus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the genus name chroicocephalus is from ancient greek khroizo , \" to colour \" , and kephale , \" head \" .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the specific ridibundus is latin for \" laughing \" , from ridere \" to laugh \" . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "black - headed gull", "paragraphs": ["the black - headed gull is a medium - sized gull and our commonest inland gull .\nthe black - headed gull is a common gull in europe and is found well inland .\nthe black - headed gull has a multipurpose body plan . agile in the air , it\u2019s also nimble on the ground and yet quite at home paddling on the water . black - headed gull & great black - headed gull\ndescription : black - headed gull is a widespread species , very noisy and opportunist feeder .\npredators and anti - predators of the black - headed gull ( larus ridibundus l . )\na common gull of the old world , black - headed gull is a rare , but regular visitor to eastern north america .\nbuild up your gull id skills by learning to recognise two ideal reference species : common gull and herring gull .\ncommon black - headed gull , chroicocephalus ridibundus ( protonym , larus ridibundus ) , linnaeus , 1766 , also known as the ( northern ) black - headed gull , photographed at cheshire , northwest england , uk .\nsome aspects of reproductive behavior in the black - headed gull ( larus ridibundus l . ) and related species\nseen from a distance or in poor light , the black - headed gull\u2019s chocolate - brown head appears blackish , but the great black - headed gull ( larus ichthyaetus ) has a truly pure - jjr black head . both have white \u2018eyelids , \u2019 but these are more striking in the larger great black - headed gull . its bill is yellow and red , with a narrow black band separating the two colors . its legs and feet are also bright yellow . the great black - headed gull is less common than the black - headed gull , breeding in scattered colonies on coastal marshes and lakes on steppes across central and southern asia . unlike the black - headed gull , most migrate to winter on the caspian sea and indian ocean .\nthe silver gulls seldom came within 1 metre of the black - headed gull when it was swimming . on the thursday as we initially approached , a silver gull came within half a metre ( or vice versa ) near a corner of the pond . both gulls called and the black - headed gull appeared to peck in the direction of the silver gull . after about 10 or 15 seconds the silver gull moved away . the black - headed gull appeared to be dominant .\ncommon black - headed gull in breeding plumage , paarl bird sanctuary , south africa . [ photo trevor hardaker \u00a9 ]\nkrigged density surfaces for black - headed gull , in the breeding season . covers uk waters and uses esas data .\nthe black - headed gull is one of the few hooded gulls that does not actually have a black head during breeding . its hood is dark chocolate brown .\nkrigged density surfaces for black - headed gull , in the non - breeding season . covers uk waters and uses esas data .\nfind out more about black - headed gulls on birdfacts and the wider countryside report .\nblack headed gulls : licence for retailers and restaurateurs to sell eggs - gov . uk\nthe black - headed gull is found on lakes , rivers , marshes , estuaries , bogs , moors , seacoasts , and bays .\nflight : black - headed gull performs quick and active flight . it also may soar and glide , and it catches flying insects while flying .\nget a general licence to sell black - headed gull eggs for human consumption if you ' re a retailer or restaurateur ( licence gl23 ) .\na hooded gull in summer is likely to be the ubiquitous black - headed gull , but there are a couple of other species that sport the same summer finery . would you be able to pick out a little or mediterranean gull from the crowd ?\nall year round the adult black - headed gull has silver grey upperparts and white underparts , and dark red bill and legs . the wings have black wing - tips and a white edge along the forewing ( which separates it from the common gull ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - black - headed gull ( larus ridibundus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - black - headed gull ( larus ridibundus )\ntitle =\narkive species - black - headed gull ( larus ridibundus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\n[ 0856 ] van dijk et al . ( 2012 ) , new longevity records of black - headed gull , with comments on wear and loss of aluminium rings\nblack - headed gulls are the commonest inland gull , particularly in n england , scotland and wales . large colonies along the south and east coasts of england .\nbehaviour : black - headed gull feeds on varied food items such as aquatic and terrestrial insects , earthworms , marine invertebrates , some fish , grains and berries .\nblack - headed gull sometimes engages in piracy from other seabirds , and may take eggs at terns\u2019 colonies . this species may feed alone or in noisy flocks .\non saturday 19th october 1991 , a local birder brian kane rang the broome bird observatory to report a dark headed gull at the broome sewage ponds , maybe a laughing gull in full breeding plumage . the following are the notes of the observations that i made leading up to the confirmation by the observatory wardens that the gull was in fact a black - headed gull , and the first known sighting in australia .\nconservationists , including the rspb , have also expressed concerns over the impact the practice could be having on the black - headed gull population , which is in long - term decline .\nthe black - headed gull thrives close to humans , as it has learned to exploit the rich feeding provided by agricultural land , dumps and hand - outs in city - center parks .\nthis licence lets you sell the eggs of black - headed gulls ( chroicocephalus ridibundus ) if you\u2019re a retailer or restaurateur .\nthe black - headed gull fitted almost all the details that we had for it except for some slight inconsistencies . these included a pale yellow eye ring rather than the whitish colour described . the legs as illustrated were much redder and brighter than the darker legs that we observed . the fact that the black - headed gull is a migrant at this time of year was a factor in its favour .\nthe black - headed gull ranges throughout most of europe and asia and is the most common gull in the uk , although they have been spotted in eastern canada and the northeastern united states . some populations are migratory . they tend to be found near water , sometimes plunge - diving for small fish in the wake of boats . some sources claim black - headed gulls rarely venture out to sea , which is typical for most gull species , whilst others say they winter at sea .\ncantos , f . , a . alonso - gomez , m . delgado . 1994 . seasonal changes in fat and protein reserves of the black - headed gull , larus ridibundus , in relation to migration .\n' black headed gull ' hand pulled 8 colour screen print by fiona hamilton . printed on fabriano printmaking paper . paper measures 25cm x 35cm . signed , titled and numbered by the artist . edition of 20 .\nvoice : black - headed gull is a noisy bird . the usual call is a screaming \u201ckarr\u201d or \u201ckreeay\u201d , both high - pitched . we can also hear a sharp \u201ckek - kek\u201d when the bird is feeding .\nbefore the fax arrived to confirm the identification , we had ruled out several species with dark hoods that we knew of because of details such as size ( little gull ) , colour ( franklin ' s gull ) , tail ( sabine ' s gull ) , windows in the primaries ( saunder ' s gull ) , and wing patterns ( laughing gull ) or a combination of many inconsistencies .\nblack - headed gulls ' eggs , which can sell for up to \u00a35 each , were once the exclusive preserve of aristocrats with coastal estates .\nthe bird was seen by local birders on the sunday . meanwhile , bruce located a british book by vere benson which opened the possibility of the bird being a black - headed gull , but the information was extremely limited .\nstienen , e . , a . brenninkmeijer . 1999 . keep the chicks moving : how sandwich terns can minimize kleptoparasitism by black - headed gulls .\nthis gull is widespread in britain , in inland areas as well as by the coast ( 5 ) . the black - headed gull is particularly common at inland sites in north england , scotland and wales ( 3 ) . in winter the british population is augmented by birds from continental europe ( 5 ) . this gull has a wide global breeding range that extends through the palaearctic ( 4 ) .\non the bank there appeared to be no interaction between the gulls , even though on the saturday two silver gulls were standing within half a metre of the black - headed gull allowing us a very good comparison of size and colour .\nthe scarcer mediterranean gull is very similar in appearance , but is a paler grey , lacks the black wing tips , has blood - red bill and legs and a truly black head that extends from the nape into the neck .\ndiet : black - headed gull feeds on both aquatic and terrestrial insects and invertebrates , some fish , variety of grains and berries . it takes offal from fishing boats and refuse inland . it may steal food from other gulls by harassment .\nthe black - headed gull is a rare visitor to north america , turning up in small numbers along the northern atlantic coast . records began to increase in the mid - 1900s , and the first nesting attempt was discovered in newfoundland in 1977 .\nblack - headed gulls are omnivorous birds , consuming insects , small fish and berries . they also eat earthworms and other invertebrates stirred up by plows tilling fields .\nwe often see black - headed gulls flying overhead , circling on thermals , or flying in search of them , but none have ever landed in the garden .\nblack - headed gull is territorial as numerous gulls\u2019 species . the size of the territory depends on the size of the species and the number of pairs . during disputes , the dark hood is aggressive feature , whereas the white nape means the submission .\nrange : black - headed gull breeds in most parts of europe and asia , but also in coastal eastern canada . the most part of populations are migratory and move southwards in winter . but other populations of the westernmost of europe are resident or dispersive .\nwith a world population of more than three million , the black - headed gull is abundant . it faces no severe threats \u2014 the only dangers to nesting birds are flooding , predation of eggs and young by mammals , and egg - harvesting by humans .\nnuyets , e . , a . buit , e . van der zee . 1996 . the influence of age on the acquirement of a perch in the black - headed gull ( larus ridibundus l . ) : new data and a review of the literature .\nhowever , conservationists disagree . black - headed gulls have been given an\namber\nstatus by the rspb , meaning it is a species of\nconservation concern\n.\nthe black - headed gull is a small gull . it is 13 - 15 inches in length with a wingspan of 39 - 42 inches . it has a red bill , a white belly and breast , a soft - gray back , red legs and feet , and gray wings tipped in black . in breeding season , it has a dark brown face and head . in winter , its head and face are white , and it has a black spot on each side of its head . males and females look alike .\nthe black - headed gull breeds throughout much of europe and asia , typically in april and may . they construct a shallow scrape on the ground , and line it with a few feathers and vegetation . the female lays 2 - 3 eggs and both parents tend the chicks .\nblack - headed gulls only have dark heads during the breeding season . during the winter , they have white heads with dark brown smudges on the sides . \u00a9 moss taylor / bto\nreproduction : breeding season starts in late march , and egg - laying occurs in late april and may . black - headed gull nests in colonies of several tens of pairs ( sometimes more ) . nests are built about one metre apart from each other , and they can often touch .\nthe black - headed gull is found in extreme northeastern canada and in greenland , iceland , and northern europe and asia . it winters in the southern regions of its breeding grounds south to africa and asia . in the united states , it is sometimes found along the atlantic coast in winter .\nprotection / threats / status : populations of black - headed gulls are important . some declines and increases are observed according to the range , but this species is not threatened at this moment .\nthe black - headed gull is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) . included in the birds of conservation concern green list ( low conservation concern ) ( 3 ) . receives general protection in great britain under the wildlife and countryside act ( 4 ) .\nin europe the black - headed gull is found scavenging in flocks in parks , but it is rarely found in this situation in north america . perhaps this difference is because it usually is found associating with large flocks of bonaparte ' s gulls , which do not eat refuse or scavenge food from people .\ngroothuis , t . , l . van mulekom . 1991 . the influence of social experience on the ontogenetic change in the relation between aggression , fear and display behaviour in black - headed gulls .\nthe black - headed gull nests in colonies . the nest is usually a scrape lined with vegetation and shells . the female lays 1 - 3 eggs and incubates them for 22 - 26 days . both parents care for and feed the chicks . the chicks fledge when they are 35 - 42 days old .\nprevot - julliard , a . , r . pradel , j . lebreton , f . cezilly . 1998 . evidence for birth - site tenacity in breeding common black - headed gulls , larus ridibundus .\nblack - headed gulls mainly feed on animal material such as insects and earthworms but they will also take plant material and household waste . rubbish tips can become favoured foraging sites , as can newly ploughed fields .\nthe black - headed gull is an extremely successful species , adapting to man - made change to its environment very well . the species has to be controlled in some areas as they harass and predate higher risk species . nonetheless , there numbers have declined sharply in recent years and so they are now amber list species of conservation concern .\nnot really a black - headed bird , more chocolate - brown - in fact , for much of the year , it has a white head . it is most definitely not a ' seagull ' and is found commonly almost anywhere inland . black - headed gulls are sociable , quarrelsome , noisy birds , usually seen in small groups or flocks , often gathering into larger parties where there is plenty of food , or when they are roosting .\nblack - headed gulls are generally regarded as being one of the easiest gulls to identify . during the breeding season they sport a dark brown head , although during the winter this is reduced to a smudge behind the eye .\non monday , the black - headed gull spent most of its time swimming and feeding . we disturbed it several times by approaching too close . most times it landed on the bank with the silver gulls , or back on the pond . once it flew less than 100m to a shallower pond , and then back again when it was disturbed there .\nblack - headed gulls were rare inland over 100 years ago . however , they now use inland sites for breeding , roosting and foraging and are the gull species most commonly seen in urban and suburban gardens . inland breeding colonies can range from fewer than 10 pairs to over 20 , 000 and are found throughout the country , including in central london .\njuveniles of this small two - year gull species are identified by the reddish plumage on their upperparts and their pale yellow bill with a black tip ( yeah , i know you can ' t see the bill in this picture ) .\nmale ring ouzels are particularly distinctive with their black plumage with a pale wing panel and striking white breast band .\nthere are 47 gull species in the family laridae . most gulls have pale plumages ( gray above and white below ) , but the ivory gull ( pagophila eburnea ) is all - white and ross\u2019s gull ( rhodostethia rosea ) has pink underparts . gulls live at sea or in wetland habitats and nest in colonies . relatives include terns in the family sternidae and skuas in the family stercorariidae .\nthe gull swam with its head held high , frequently dipping its bill presumably to catch small prey near or just below the surface of the water . there were no noticeable mannerisms that indicated if the gull was successful or not . the gull swam laps near one side of the pond of no particular preferred length ( about 1m to 20m were observed ) and reversed direction at no particular place or for any discernible reason . the laps were shorter when we were closer . the gull made none or several dips on each lap .\nversatile in feeding . searches for food while walking or swimming , or swoops down to take items from surface while flying ; sometimes catches insects in high flight . black - headed gulls also steal food from each other and from other birds .\nin winter , the black - headed gull is found in a wide range of habitats including coastal marshes , farmland , rubbish tips , urban parks , gardens and playing fields ( 5 ) . usual breeding habitats include marshes , ponds , lakes , bogs , gravel pits and dry sites next to water bodies , such as sand - dunes and moorland ( 4 ) ( 3 ) .\nblack - headed gull are abundant , and expanding their range in europe . the north american waterbird conservation plan estimates a population of 40 breeders , and 400 non - breeders in north america , and lists them as a species of moderate concern . they rate a 15 out of 20 on the continental concern score and are not on the 2014 state of the birds watch list . back to top\ndespite their name , black - headed gulls don\u2019t have black heads . during the breeding season their heads are dark chocolate brown , and in the winter they are white with dark brown smudges on the side . they have a dark red bill and legs . juveniles have brown shoulders and wing feathers , gradually gaining the adults\u2019 grey / silver coloured wings over a couple of years .\nthe detailed descriptions in grant ' s paper identify the gull as being in its adult or second ( northern hemisphere ) summer plumage which it has from march to october . this makes it highly likely that the gull will moult into its non breeding winter plumage within the next few weeks .\nbruce and i returned at 10 : 30am on the monday . the bird was still there and we stayed for two hours observing from within 15m at times , although i was distracted for about 30 minutes looking at yellow wagtails , etc . bruce took more photos . i spent most of the time updating the notes i made on saturday , and looking for the features mentioned by vere benson such as no windows in the primaries . we now knew that it wasn ' t a laughing gull , and the chances of it being a black - headed gull were improving .\nthe fax of the paper by grant made the identification very simple . it is described as easily separable from all gulls except the others in this group ( slender - billed , bonaparte ' s , grey - headed and black - headed gulls ) , the best point being the white along the leading edge of the outer wing in flight . the brown hood of summer adults is diagnostic among the west palaearctic gulls .\non thursday , stuart visited the sewage ponds at about 7 : 30am and then picked up the fax . the bird had returned , and he confirmed the details and took some photos . kira , bruce and i had been on a tour , but we visited the sewage ponds at 11 : 15am and observed the gull for 40 minutes . bruce took more photos . we confirmed the white wedge and leading edge on the top of the wing , and the dark patch under the primaries . the fax confirmed what we now knew - that the bird was a black - headed gull .\na small , dark goose - the same size as a mallard . it has a black head and neck and grey - brown back .\non thursday , the gull spent all of its time swimming and feeding . even if it flew when we approached too close , it landed back on the pond .\nif the gull stays until march , it will be interesting to see if it returns to the northern hemisphere or stays on longer like the laughing gulls in cairns .\nthe bbo wardens kira and stuart jackson found the japanese field guide donated by a member of the japanese delegation of the jamba conference held in broome a week earlier . the black - headed gull was shown as a non - breeding migrant to japan ( and further south ) from central asia . the details that we knew matched , but there were also important details that we had not noted , and we did not know if there were any other gulls that might be possible .\nthe japanese field guide describes the habitat of the black - headed gull as inland waters or coastal . this gull seems to have a definite preference for the sewage ponds , this pond in particular , and even the same side of this pond . there are about 10 ponds at the sewage works , five others which appear to be identical . however , the silver gulls seem to prefer this pond and one other , although most spend their time loafing on the bank . there are many other places around broome where silver gulls congregate in numbers such as the main town oval , cable beach , the pearl coast zoo and near the crab creek mangroves .\nresponse : this is a common black - headed gull , chroicocephalus ridibundus , in winter plumage . gulls are all placed into the taxonomic family , laridae . the smallest species take two years to reach adulthood ( known as\ntwo - year gulls\n) , whilst medium - sized species are three - year gulls and the largest species are four - year gulls . juveniles have distinct plumages that correspond to each year , so a skilled birder can determine the age of a young bird .\nhabitat : black - headed gull frequents marshes , fresh and brackish ponds and lakes for breeding , but some populations may nest is relatively dry sites such as sand dunes and beaches . all year round , this species frequents a wide variety of habitats such as shallow water ( coastal or inland ) , rivers and estuaries . it may be found inland , at fairly low elevation , and within towns and cities if water is available . this species lives from temperate areas to the boreal forest edges of palaearctic .\nwinter plumage adults , like the individual in this photograph , have a white head with a large dark smudge behind their eyes , red bill and legs and , in flight , their long slender wings show a large white triangle on the upper leading edge . adults in breeding plumage are distinct from all other black - headed ( chroicocephalus ; from the greek chroa for colour and cephalus for head ) gulls because their heads are not black at all ; their head is a rich chocolate brown .\nboth sexes are similar . juvenile has buff to darker brown markings on the upperparts and upperwing coverts . tail shows black terminal band . bare parts are duller .\nthis is the gull most frequently seen in urban and suburban gardens and is seldom given a second thought when seen in city centres during winter . in fact this is a fascinating and quite recent development \u2013 the first black - headed gulls wintered in central london only 100 years ago . inland breeding colonies range from fewer than 10 pairs up to a staggering 20 , 000 pairs and tend to be associated with old gravel pits and sewage works . we are now in a situation where inland breeding colonies actually outnumber coastal ones .\n37\u201343 cm ; 195\u2013325 g ; wingspan 94\u2013110 cm . two - year gull . the breeding adult has the frontal hood dark chocolate brown to dusky blackish , with blackish border . . .\nthe identification was hampered by a lack of information for what turned out to be a very easy bird to identify . the observatory would very much appreciate the ( tax deductible ) donation of reference books for the identification of international gulls , seabirds , waders , ducks , etc such as the black - headed gull , garganey , ruff ( reeve ) , little ringed plover and pacific swallow . field guides are a help , but they don ' t describe the many age variations that are possible , or details such as migration .\ngardens seem to become more important for black - headed gulls during the coldest winter months of january and february because food is harder to find . however , bto garden birdwatch results show that they are increasingly visiting throughout the year . outside of winter , individuals visiting gardens are often likely to be immature , non - breeding birds from local colonies .\nthese gregarious birds are usually seen in flocks or small groups ( 3 ) . they feed on worms , other soil invertebrates , scraps , rubbish , carrion and fish ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . during winter , black - headed gulls roost on open water , typically fresh water , although they may occasionally make use of sheltered estuaries ( 5 ) .\nburger , j . , gochfeld , m . , kirwan , g . m . , christie , d . a . & garcia , e . f . j . ( 2018 ) . black - headed gull ( larus ridibundus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nadult in non - breeding plumage has white head with blackish spots on the ear - coverts and two dusky blurred bands on the crown . reddish bill is black - tipped .\nduring the early 19th century , black - headed gulls were quite rare . however , a dramatic population increase throughout the 20th century saw their breeding population rise to over 100 , 000 pairs . while their breeding population is still growing , their winter numbers have fallen by over 30 per cent in the last 25 years and they are an amber listed bird of conservation concern .\nwhile most of our breeding population are resident birds , it is estimated that more than two - thirds of black - headed gulls wintering in the uk have come from mainland europe . this migration happens from late summer with earlier arrivals thought to be young birds from western europe . birds often seem to be site - faithful , returning to the same place year after year .\nby taking a single egg , the collectors often delay the time it takes for the gull to lay a full clutch until after the spring tides , which would otherwise swamp their nests and destroy the eggs .\nis distinguished by its dark brown or grayish - black frontal hood . its eye crescents ( primarily behind the eye ) , neck , and underparts are all white as is the tail . the upper wing coverts , secondaries , inner primaries , and back are gray . the secondaries are tipped with white ; the white outer primaries have black tips and edges . other identifying characteristics of\nwith caution , the bird could be approached comparatively closely ( between 10m and 15m ) , especially when it was on the water . it did not appear to be disturbed when several pacific black ducks and grey teal took off close by during our initial approach . it also ignored a flock of 40 black kites , even when some kites passed overhead fairly closely ( within 10m ) .\nbrian had first seen the bird at about 8am . he made a note of many of the details , and then called someone in melbourne who suggested that it could be a laughing gull . brian then rang the observatory .\nsome recent authors place this species and other \u201cblack - headed gulls\u201d in genus ichthyaetus ( see l . ichthyaetus ) . present species originally described as a race of l . melanocephalus , and then known only from one specimen ; subsequently suspected of being an aberrant l . brunnicephalus or a hybrid l . brunnicephalus \u00d7 l . ichthyaetus . since breeding colonies discovered in 1970 , almost universally considered a distinct species . monotypic .\nadaptability is key to the success ^ easily pleased of the black - headed gull , and the colonies prefer fljrt only major habitats that it can\u2019t land near water . exploit at some stage in the year are forests and mountainous areas . breeding colonies are located on flat lowland areas or upland plateaus near calm and shallow freshwater , such as lakes , reservoirs , gravel pits or slow - moving rivers . it also breeds on both fresh - and saltwater marshes and in reedbeds , as well as on drier sites , from sand dunes to moorland . outside the breeding season , the gull flies long distances in search of food . in the north , it moves south in winter . other populations don\u2019t disperse so far ; traveling to sheltered coastal estuaries and man - made habitats , including refuse dumps , sewage plants , gravel pits , farmland , golf courses , parks and even gardens .\nin the summer , the adult has a dark chocolate brown head ( but not nape and neck ) , but in the winter it has only a small black smudge to the rear of each eye .\nthese gulls nest in colonies , within which pairs defend small territories . they will defend these territories from other birds using ritualised displays ( 7 ) . two to three eggs are produced which are incubated for up to 26 days . after a further 35 days the chicks will have fledged ( 3 ) . black - headed gulls are fairly long lived , with a maximum recorded life - span of 32 years ( 3 ) .\nin the winter , they often form large flocks , sometimes with other gull species : roosting on lakes and reservoirs at night , feeding on farmland , fields and landfill sites in the daytime , and flying in large formations between the two .\nwings in flight . there was a thin black band on the trailing edge of the outer primaries with nothing between . there was a bright white wedge on the leading edge of the primaries joining ( but not as wide as ) the black band . the white continued along the leading edge of the full wing . the remainder of the top of the wing was silver grey . there was a dark patch and smudges underneath the primaries . the remainder of the underneath was whitish .\nthe common name of this species is inaccurate , as adult black - headed gulls ( larus ridibundus ) have a chocolate - brown head in summer ( 5 ) . in winter , this brown hood retreats and the birds have a largely white head with a dark spot behind the eye ( 5 ) . other distinguishing features include the prominent white leading edge of the upper wing , which is visible from a fair distance , the tern - like slender wings and the reddish coloured bill and legs ( 2 ) . juveniles are different in appearance to adults ; they have ginger - brown coloured upperparts and a yellowish bill with a black tip ( 2 ) . this is a noisy species during the breeding season , producing a loud kwarr call and a short kwup ( 6 ) .\ncall . the call was very similar to a silver gull , although it could be distinguished when both called together . it probably had a slightly higher tone . it called once while it was preening , a couple of times as it took off , and a few times when the silver gulls were too close when it was swimming .\nin the non breeding season its normal range is shown extending southwards to include parts of africa , india , the malay peninsula , sumatra ( but not java , borneo or the philippines ) and japan . it is described as the commonest gull throughout most of its range , so it is somewhat surprising that it has not been sighted in australia before .\nit was difficult to approach the gull within 20m when it was on the bank , but i suspect that this was largely because the silver gulls would take off en masse . if you approached very cautiously the silver gulls took off in ones and twos . there were 40 to 100 silver gulls on the bank compared to about 10 at most on the water .\ninclude its red legs and bill , and dark brown eyes . non - breeding adults have a white head , with only some blackish coloring on their nape . juvenile birds are recognized by the beige to darker brown markings on their back and upper wing coverts . also , they have a black terminal tail band . the species is sexually monomorphic .\nif you looked for them , there were many small circular ripples on the surface of the water indicating the presence of small insects or other prey . there might possibly have been more near the bank of the pond that the gull prefers , but i made no rigorous comparison . i did not check the other ponds either . the wind did not appear to be a factor as it blew from different directions on the saturday and monday .\non wednesday , mavis russell ( a volunteer at the bbo ) and i returned to the sewage ponds at 4 : 15pm . the gull was not there and had not returned when we left at 5 : 30pm . however , it was low tide and very little else was there either . we met a local who had seen the bird at about 7am that morning . after some problems , the fax of a paper by grant in british birds arrived in the late afternoon but could not be collected .\nburger , j . , gochfeld , m . , sharpe , c . j . & garcia , e . f . j . ( 2018 ) . relict gull ( larus relictus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nbruce ferry ( the assistant warden ) arranged to meet brian at 3pm , and i was invited along . the bird was there and we observed it from distances ranging from 50m to 20m for a period of 40 minutes before it was disturbed and left the area . the conclusion was that it may be a laughing gull ( based on the limited information in simpson & day ) , but that there were a number of details that did not seem to fit , such as the head colour and wing markings . bruce took a number of photos .\nwings when not in flight . the wings were slightly but noticeably greyer than the silver gulls . there was no hint anywhere of any brown . the primaries had black tips without any windows , unlike the silver gulls . the wings crossed in a deep v when the bird was swimming . i can ' t remember if the left or the right wing was usually above the other . the bottom of the wing was sometimes partly tucked into the body feathers when the bird was on the bank .\nadult in breeding plumage has dark chocolate - brown frontal hood including head , chin and throat . according to the attitude , this hood seems to vary in size . the neck is white . the upperparts , including back , upperwing coverts , secondary and inner primary feathers are grey . the secondaries are tipped white . the outer primaries are white with black tips and edges . tail is white . the underparts are white ( or with pink wash in norway populations ) . eyes are dark brown , with two white crescents . bill , legs and feet are deep red .\na curated database of candidate human ageing - related genes and genes associated with longevity and / or ageing in model organisms .\na curated database of genes associated with dietary restriction in model organisms either from genetic manipulation experiments or gene expression profiling .\nprojects focused on gene expression profiling of ageing and of dietary manipulations of ageing , such as caloric restriction .\nsoftware for ageing research , including the ageing research computational tools ( arct ) perl toolkit .\na curated database of ageing and life history information in animals , including extensive longevity records .\nthe benchmark genome assembly and annotation of the long - lived , cancer - resistant naked mole - rat ( heterocephalus glaber ) .\na high - coverage genome of the bowhead whale ( balaena mysticetus ) , the longest - lived mammal .\nanalyses using the anage database to study the evolution of longevity and ageing in vertebrate lineages .\na portal of ageing changes covering different biological levels , integrating molecular , physiological and pathological age - related data .\nthe whosage database contains people and biotech companies that are contributing to increase our understanding of ageing and life - extension .\none ringed individual was at least 32 . 9 years of age the last time it was re - identified [ 0856 ] . there is also an anecdotal report of a specimen living 63 years in the faroe islands [ 0444 ] , but its authenticity is dubious .\n[ 1143 ] nussey et al . ( 2013 ) , senescence in natural populations of animals : widespread evidence and its implications for bio - gerontology ( pubmed )\ncomments , suggestions , ideas , and bug reports are welcome . please contact us .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncramp , s . and simmons , k . e . l . ( eds ) . 1977 - 1994 . handbook of the birds of europe , the middle east and africa . the birds of the western palearctic . oxford university press , oxford .\nashpole , j , butchart , s . , calvert , r . , ekstrom , j . , malpas , l .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the overall population trend is not known but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthis species breeds in north - east north america and across much of europe and asia , excluding the north of each continent ( northern scandinavia and north russia ) , and south asia . some populations in north america and the milder areas of europe are resident , with the remaining populations wintering to the south over a large range , encompassing much of the southern coast of asia and europe , and the central and northern coast of africa ( del hoyo\nits diet consists predominantly of aquatic and terrestrial insects , earthworms and marine invertebrates ( e . g . molluscs , crustaceans and marine worms ) ( del hoyo\nconservation actions underway the following information refers to the species ' s european range only : the species is listed under the african eurasian waterbird agreement . within the eu it is listed on annex ii of the birds directive . within europe it is listed in 43 marine important bird areas . in the eu it is listed in 928 special protection areas . conservation actions proposed the following information refers to the species ' s european range only : management plans established for protected sites , including monitoring and enforcement from disturbance and removal of eggs .\n( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22694420a111823721 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\non tuesday , stuart phoned raou headquarters in melbourne and asked for details of any relevant gulls to be faxed .\nthe most noticeable aspect was that the bird never stayed still . on the water , it continually swam back and forth feeding . on the bank , it preened .\non the saturday , the bird was initially swimming with a few silver gulls , but it spent most of its time preening itself amongst a loose flock of silver gulls on the bank between two ponds . it flew back to the pond when we approached closer than 20m , and it eventually left the area altogether .\nthe preening of its wings and body was mostly with its bill , although on one occasion it scratched its head with its right foot . we mostly saw it preening on the saturday when we were more concerned about the details of identification rather than its behaviour .\nsize . when the bird was on the bank , it was approximately the same size as the silver gulls that were very close to it , or very slightly smaller if there was any difference . however , when it was swimming it appeared slightly but noticeably larger than the silver gulls , but this may have been because of its more upright posture .\nhead . the head was a dark chocolate brown colour mostly , although the forehead and down to the bill was lighter . the line of the edge of the hood was distinct . from the rear it was level with the eyes . from the side , the line was slightly more vertical than diagonal . from the front , the line could be clearly seen below the throat . also from behind when it was swimming , the neck appeared much thinner than the head , probably because of its upright posture .\neye ring . the bird had a pale yellow or cream coloured eye ring , although the front half ( or part of it ) was often not apparent . the eye was dark .\nbill . the bill was a very deep red colour , and was similar in shape and size to the silver gulls . there was no significant difference in the colour of the tip of the bill .\nlegs . the legs were also a very deep red colour , very similar to the darkest leg colour of the silver gulls . they were a similar length to the silver gulls . the legs did not quite extend to the end of the tail in flight .\nbody . the back of the head , the front and the belly were a clean white . from memory the colour of the back in flight was silver grey , but it might have been white .\ntail . the tail was a clean white above and below in flight . it was very slightly rounded and was occasionally fanned wider . the underneath of the tail appeared discoloured when the bird was swimming , but this was due to the reflection of the colour of the water .\ngape . the inside of the mouth was a bright red when it opened its bill to call .\nits breeding distribution is shown extending from central and southern europe ( including the uk ) through to central continental asia but not including japan .\nbroome is one of the most important sites in the world for migratory birds . in particular , october is near the end of the arrival of hundreds of thousands of migratory waders from the northern hemisphere representing over 30 species including asian dowitchers , redshanks and broad - billed sandpipers . october is also the beginning of the arrival of other species such as dollarbirds , yellow wagtails and barn swallows .\nthe sewage ponds in particular have been the site of uncommon sightings in the past at this time of year such as wood sandpipers , long - toed stints , gallinago spp snipe , little ringed plovers , garganey and a ruff ( or reeve ) .\nit is therefore not surprising that a vagrant from asia or europe should be found in broome , especially at this time of the year .\nplease note that the gate to the sewage ponds is kept chained and locked by the local water authority . you should get permission from them before visiting . however , the wardens of the broome bird observatory have been given a key and have permission to take groups to the sewage ponds . they also have permission to visit many places on the roebuck plains cattle station which is otherwise off limits .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nseagull eggs , a delicacy highly sought after by the nation ' s top restaurants , could soon be off the menu because of a shortage of collectors .\nthey are now a staple of top restaurants such as wiltons , le gavroche , the ivy and le caprice , gentlemen ' s clubs such as white ' s , brooks ' s and boodle ' s , and are also sold at harrods and fortnum and mason .\nthe eggs are growing in popularity and around 40 , 000 eggs a year are sold in the uk . but suppliers say the industry could soon disappear .\nthere are about 25 people who have a licence to collect the eggs but sources in the industry say that only around a third of these , all over retirement age , are still actively involved .\nnatural england will only grant licences to people with a\ntraditional claim\n, meaning that there is little chance of new collectors entering the market .\nsteven downey , who supplies about three - quarters of the seagulls ' eggs sold in the uk each year through his company , chefdirect , said :\ngiven that there seems to be a reluctance to issue new licences to people , it is something that will die out .\ni know the pickers are finding it harder and harder to get licences . it feels a bit like the arguments over foxhunting . and if attitudes don ' t change , we will lose them .\nthe eggs are traditionally eaten hard - boiled , with celery salt , but as they have become increasingly fashionable , so chefs have experimented more with them .\nat le gavroche , in central london , this year , they will be served poached , either with artichokes , smoked salmon and caviar , or with chicken , truffles and foie gras .\nemmanuel landr\u00e9 , manager at the restaurant , said :\nat the beginning , many people are alarmed to be eating seagulls ' eggs . it is not something you expect to eat . but they are always very happy with them at the end .\nit is a very , very popular food . it makes a huge impact . i had never heard about it when i was in france . there are very strict regulations governing it . we have been serving seagulls ' eggs for 40 years and i don ' t see why we should change ."]}
{"id": 1765, "summary": [{"text": "saumarez ( foaled 28 march 1987 in great britain ) is a thoroughbred racehorse who won france 's most prestigious race , the prix de l'arc de triomphe in 1990 . ", "topic": 22}], "title": "saumarez ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["for everything you need to know about horse racing . free horse racing tips from professional punters and betting secrets to increase your horse racing profits .\nthe - racehorse is an online horse racing and breeding magazine with information on horse racing and breeding statistics .\ncrillon was sired by saumarez out of the dam shangrila crillon was foaled on 01 of august in 1996 .\nwelcome to horseracing . com . au , australia ' s premier site for horse racing news .\n\u201che was the perfect racehorse , a beautiful horse with a terrific action . speed , class and a super - intelligent horse to go with it \u2013 he had it all . \u201d aidan o\u2019brien\n1st dam : funsie by saumarez . unraced . dam of 10 foals , 6 to race , 3 winners :\nonly the third horse since nijinsky to land the guineas / derby double following nashwan and sea the stars .\nbyword\u2019s female line descendants , notably peacetime ; horse chestnut & bodrum ( and sisters ) ; cherry pepper & daughters .\ncrillon is a 20 year old bay horse . crillon is trained by e c cowan , at mackay and owned by .\nthe strapline on this article describes charles saumarez smith as the\nnew\ndirector of the national gallery . he was appointed in 2002 .\nrainbow quest ( spectrum , saumarez ) and his sire blushing groom ( jallad , kabool , our casey\u2019s boy , waldoboro , lundy\u2019s liability , comic blush , etc . ) .\nover the last few years , the military collection has been acquiring water - colors and drawings by gerald le marchant saumarez . this talented artist was born in cheltenham , gloucestershire , england , in june 1859 , the son of colonel john st . vincent saumarez , 3rd baron de saumarez and margaret antoinette northey . he came from a long line of guernsey military heroes the most notable being james saumarez , 1st baron de saumarez ( 1757\u20131836 ) who was second in command to nelson at the battle of the nile . gerald himself enlisted in the 3rd battalion of the east kent regiment as a lieutenant at the age of 22 in march 1882 . although he had a very short army career of less than 2 years , he was with the buffs in egypt in the year he enlisted . he resigned his commission in december 1883 . during the first world war , he saw service in france as a lieutenant although by now he was fairly advanced in years . he died a bachelor in london on 16 june , 1941 aged 81 and was buried in brompton cemetery .\neh gombrich ' s simple yet rigorous guide the story of art inspired charles saumarez smith as a student . years later , and the new director of the national gallery , he finds the work as essential as ever\nmossborough ( dupont , casey tibbs , centenary , kabool , saumarez , spectrum , tobe or nottobe ) and other strong backgrounds of the mare selene ( fort wood , kabool , forli , mares from the e - family , etc . ) .\ni was asked to give a talk this morning to an all - staff meeting held in the ra schools . i found myself admiring the cast of a horse which half dominates the space in an unobtrusive manner and wondering about its history . the students in the schools were required to draw from the antique . hence the presence of large numbers of casts of statues from the antique . then they graduated to drawing from the living model . i don\u2019t know if they were also expected , like stubbs , to know and understand the anatomy of a horse . and i haven\u2019t been able to find out much about the history of the horse , apart from the fact that it is sometimes thought \u2013 presumably wrongly \u2013 to be a cast of copenhagen , wellington\u2019s horse at waterloo ; and that it was given to the schools in 1919 by f . w . calderon , who ran a school of animal painting : -\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for french connection ( nzl ) . french connection ( nzl ) is a gelding born in 2008 september 8 by volksraad out of plaza doree\nsaumarez ( gb ) dkb / br . h , 1987 { 16 - a } dp = 16 - 0 - 18 - 10 - 4 ( 48 ) di = 1 . 09 cd = 0 . 29 - 9 starts , 5 wins , 1 places , 0 shows career earnings : $ 1 , 398 , 326\nlaura is a keen horsewoman , and has owned her own horses for fifteen years . her two pro bono activities are equine related \u2013 the british equestrian federation and ebony horse club in brixton \u2013 giving her experience of a wide range of equine issues and understanding of related governance in charitable and governing body sectors .\n- saumarez - storoen ( mtoto ) , 4 wins , 211 500 ff . - balliol boy ( nashwan ) , 1 win , 3rd thresher classic trial ( gr . 3 ) , 4th tripleprint derby trial st . ( gr . 3 ) , 4th derby italiano ( gr . 1 ) - caxton star ( soviet star ) , 6 wins , 3rd grand handicap de deauville and 830 982 ff .\ndalmary ( simon\u2019s hoes ) female line descendants , notably sadler\u2019s wells ( fort wood , horse chestnut , casey tibbs , cherry pepper , etc . ) , nureyev ( caesour , wolfhound , tobe or nottobe , var , parade leader , etc . ) , fairy king ( tara\u2019s halls , second empire ) , golden thatch ( goldmark ) , waterville lake , thatching , etc .\nhe ran his last race in paris at the prix des arc de triomphe . dylan thomas won this event at odds of 11 / 2 . authorized heavily backed and sent off at evens was never in contention to win the race , taking the wide outside route . frankie dettori ' s words as he dismounted were\nthis was not the same horse i ' m used to riding\n.\nauthorized was foaled on 14 february 2004 and was sired by montjeu , winner of the irish derby , prix du jockey club and prix de l ' arc de triomphe in 1999 and the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes in 2000 . authorized\u2019s dam , the unraced funsie , was sired by saumarez , winner of the prix de l ' arc de triomphe in 1990 . funsie is owned by the irish jockey mick kinane , who is one - third of the partnership which bred authorized . kinane would go on to ride against authorized in the 2007 epsom derby , finishing last on archipenko .\nauthorized retired as a racehorse on wednesday 10 october just a few days after his disappointing race in paris . trainer of authorized chapple - hyam hailed the son of montjeu as\nthe king\n. chapple - hyam :\nauthorized is the king . he is the best horse i ' ve ever trained and i ' ll never forget him .\nhe continued :\nhe goes with the best wishes of everyone connected to the yard and i ' m sure he ' ll be a big success as a stallion . i look forward to one day hopefully training his progeny ,\nhe told peterchapplehyam . com .\ni was given my copy of ernst gombrich ' s the story of art , first published in 1950 , when i was 15 . i was studying for history of art a level and the person with whom i was sharing a study at school rightly thought that it might be useful . it has travelled with me ever since , alongside art and illusion and norm and form and gombrich ' s other collected writings , beginning with meditations on a hobby horse and including his brilliant short essay , in search of cultural history . they all still sit in my office on the top shelf , the cornerstone of my art historical library .\n9 races , 5 wins and placed 3 times . won 7 467 024 ff .\nat 3 : prix de l ' arc de triomphe ( gr . 1 - 12 f ) grand prix de paris ( gr . 1 - 10 f ) , prix du prince d ' orange ( gr . 3 - 10 f ) , aldborough st . ( ripon - 8 f ) , harvester graduation st . ( sandown - 8 f ) , 2nd dee st . ( l . ) , 5th breeders ' cup turf ( gr . 1 - belmont - 12 f )\nstretarez - prix vicomtesse vigier ( gr . 2 ) , de barbeville ( gr . 3 ) , ormonde stakes ( gr . 3 ) , prix right royal ( l . ) steward - grand prix de chantilly ( gr . 2 ) , grosser preis der wirtschaft ( gr . 2 ) , grand prix de vichy ( gr . 3 ) , prix d ' h\u00e9douville ( gr . 3 ) loxias - prix jean de chaudenay ( gr . 2 ) , coupe des 3 ans ( l . - lyon , derby de l ' ouest ( l . ) , le lion d ' angers , 2nd prix d ' h\u00e9douville ( gr . 3 ) , 3rd grand prix de saint - cloud ( gr . 1 ) belcore - grosser m\u00fcller brot preis ( gr . 2 ) silver fun - prix de malleret ( gr . 3 ) katun - prix de barbeville ( gr . 3 ) , 2nd prix de barbeville ( gr . 3 ) maroussie - prix fille de l ' air ( gr . 3 ) luna mareza - prix corrida ( gr . 3 ) sacred fire - prix du fonds europ\u00e9en de l ' elevage ( l . ) supreme commander - prix isonomy ( l . ) fuenji - prix ronde de nuit ( l . ) toto le heros - premio botticelli ( l . ) mayaro - grand prix de marseille ( l . ) , prix vulcain ( l . ) , prix lord seymour ( l . ) crillon - prix denisy ( l . ) , 2nd prix jean de chaudenay ( gr . 2 ) , foy ( gr . 2 ) , d ' h\u00e9douville ( gr . 3 ) , 3rd prix vicomtesse vigier ( gr . 2 ) rainer - premio principe amadeo ( l . )\nrippling ring , 3rd south african derby ( gr . 1 ) soreze , 3rd prix gladiateur ( gr . 3 ) gloirez , 2nd prix du carrousel ( l . ) , 3rd prix de barbeville ( gr . 3 ) coventgarden , 3rd prix lord seymour ( l . )\nin jumping races philastre - prix maurice gillois ( st . - gr . 1 ) , prix finot ( hurdles ) , jean granel ( h . ) , g\u00e9n\u00e9ral donnio ( st . ) , 3rd prix hypoth\u00e8se ( h . - gr . 3 ) baleare - prix prince d ' ecouen ( h . - l . ) , christian de tredern ( h . ) , 2nd prix de besan\u00e7on ( h . - l . ) , 3rd prix dawn run ( h . - l . ) , jean bart ( h . - l . ) le prestigieux - prix rose or no ( l . ) , 5th grande course de haies de printemps ( gr . 3 )\nirish dude - 4th gran premio di merano ( gr . 1 ) goldrez - prix hardatit ( h . ) passy - secret d ' etat\n6 wins . prix de l ' arc de triomphe ( gr . 1 ) , coronation cup ( gr . 1 ) , 2nd irish derby ( gr . 1 ) , dewhurst st . ( gr . 1 ) , eclipse st . ( gr . 1 ) , craven st . ( gr . 3 ) , 3rd prix du jockey - club ( gr . 1 ) , 2000 guineas ( gr . 1 ) king george vi and queen elizabeth st . ( gr . 1 ) .\n1st dam fiesta fun , 4 wins , 3rd yorkshire oaks ( gr . 1 ) , hoover mile ( gr . 3 ) . dam of 6 winners :\n- isabelle sharp , 2 wins , 3rd molecomb st . ( gr . 3 ) . broodmare . - chirac , swedish derby ( l . ) , 2nd jockey - klibbens jubileumslopning ( l . )\n- carniola , 4 wins , prix rose de mai ( l . ) and 335 000 ff . broodmare .\n2nd dam antigua 1 win , galtres st . ( l . ) . dam of 8 winners :\n- cedar grove ( relko ) 2 wins . sire . - anegada ( welsh pageant ) , unplaced . dam of :\n- john french , 5 wins , gordon st . ( gr . 3 ) , 3rd benson and hedges gold cup ( gr . 1 ) , princess of wales st . ( gr . 2 ) and won 58 034 pounds . sire in australia . - anacreonte , 6 wins , 3rd premio firenze ( l . ) - flamingo pond , 3 wins , 2nd radley st . ( l . ) , 3rd virginia st . ( l . ) . broodmare . - ruffling point , injured . dam of :\n- brother in law 2 wins , 2nd prix de suresnes ( l . )\n- derrylin ( derring do ) , 6 wins , horris hill st . ( gr . 3 ) , ascot 2000 guineas trial ( gr . 3 ) , greenham st . ( gr . 3 ) , clarence house st . ( l . ) , washington singer st . ( l . ) . sire . - fiesta fun ( welsh pageant ) , see above . - treasure hunter ( full of hope ) 10 wins , 45 683 pounds in flat and jumping races .\n3rd dam nassau 5 wins , lonsdale produce st . ( l . ) , doncaster produce st . ( l . ) , princess st . ( l . ) , 2nd cherry hinton st . ( gr . 3 ) , 3rd king george st . ( gr . 3 ) , 4th queen mary st . ( gr . 3 ) . dam of 6 winners :\n- andros ( borealis ) , 8 wins in gb and denmark ( doncaster produce st . ) . sire . - cuba ( hyperion ) , 3 wins . dam of :\n- fidel 4 wins , newbury autumn cup hdp . ( l . ) . sire . - julieta 2 wins , orleans nursery hdp . ( l . ) . dam of winners . - maracas , placed . dam of :\n- morgan 21 wins , premio giacomo ( l . ) - havana , unplaced , 2nd dam of edelito 4 wins , gran premio nacional derby ( gr . 1 ) , gran premio criadores national ( gr . 1 ) in uruguay ; legador , premio ensayo ( gr . 2 ) in uruguay .\n- murrayfield 9 wins , coventry st . , 3rd dewhurst st . , sussex st . sire .\n2nd dam of : select prince 4 wins , champagne st . ( gr . 1 ) in australia . sire .\n- st lucia ( alycidon ) , 2 wins , coronation st . ( gr . 2 ) , lancashire oaks ( gr . 3 ) , 2nd cheshire oaks ( gr . 3 ) , princess royal st . ( gr . 3 ) , 4th yorkshire oaks ( gr . 1 ) . dam of :\n- executor 10 wins , tattersalls nursery hdp . ( l . ) , 2nd prince of wales ' s st . ( gr . 2 ) , 3rd duke of york st . ( gr . 3 ) - relcia 1 win , 3rd ribblesdale st . ( gr . 2 ) , 4th princess elizabeth st . ( l . ) . dam of :\n- reltop , 1 win . dam of fugitiva , 3 wins in spain , 2nd premio banesto ( oaks - gr . 1 ) , premio ricardo ruiz - benitez de lugo ( l . ) ; brother patrick , 2 wins , 3rd horris hill st . ( gr . 3 ) , 4th solario st . ( gr . 3 ) , italian derby ( gr . 1 ) ; macho boy , 2 wins , 4th solario st . ( gr . 3 ) ; summit , 2 wins , 3rd queen ' s vase ( gr . 3 )\n- ho han wai , 3 wins , prix corrida ( gr . 3 ) . dam of winners .\n- tobago ( borealis ) , 8 wins , 2nd oxfordshire st . ( gr . 2 ) , 3rd white rose st . ( gr . 3 ) . sire . - antigua ( hyperion ) , see above .\nbreeder : mrs e longton ( gb ) winnings : 9 starts : 5 - 1 - 0 , $ 1 , 398 , 326 at 3 : 1\u00ba prix de l\u00b4arc de triomphe ( fr - g1 , 12f , t ) , grand prix de paris ( fr - g1 , 12f , t ) , prix du prince d ' orange ( fr - g3 , 10f , t ) ; 2\u00ba dee stakes ( gb - l , 10f , t ) raced in england , france , ireland and usa champion 3 - year - old colt in france . at stud in 1991 ; stands at haras du quesnay . in 2001 at stud at odessa stud in ceres , western cape , south africa . died 2012 . ( close )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\ncolor : dkb / br height : 1 . 62m ( gb ) . died 2012 ( close )\nearly favourite to take out saturday\u2019s group 1 $ 1 , 000 , 000 robert sangster stakes ( 1200m ) in adelaide , local hope viddora has come up trumps with barrier one in the morphettville feature .\nthe world\u2019s best racehorse , winx , has been celebrated by the australian turf club ( atc ) getting the warwick stakes renamed in her honour .\nthe championships day 2 results will be known shortly and you can stay up to date with all the news at horseracing . com . au .\nopen an account with betfair and bet at least \u20ac5 at min odds of 1 / 5 on the sportsbook . win or lose betfair match your first bet up to \u20ac50 . free bet stakes not returned\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsky sports news takes you through all of the day ' s racing news , plus alex hammond ' s tip of the day .\nfollow the latest from the written press with the best gossip and speculation from the papers .\nsky has launched a pub finder for eager fans wanting to find a venue to watch sky sports .\nget a sports star to visit your old secondary school as part of our free schools initiative .\nhow right you are ! the cast has been a hugely neglected element of art education for too long .\nof course the v & a has wonderful casts , though not many of humans and animals , and the ashmolean has a very fine collection but , like taxidermy , the cast hafallen from grace somewhat . let\u2019s hope the new ra schools will re - establish it .\nthe best derby winner standing in france who is now a proven g1 sire . a g1 winner from 8 - 12f , he\u2019s sired g1 horses from 8 - 15f including g1 winners ambivalent and seal of approval plus hartnell in australia .\nby montjeu ( 1996 ) prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe ( g1 ) , etc . sire of 1 , 499 foals aged three and up , including authorized , bracelet , camelot , chicquita , fame and glory , frozen fire , gallante , green moon , hurricane run , jan vermeer , joshua tree , jukebox jury , leading light , masked marvel , montare , montmartre , motivator , offer , pour moi , recital , scorpion , speed gifted , st nicholas abbey , tavistock , etc .\nempowered ( c fasliyev ) 3 wins ( 10f - 12f ) at 3 and 4 .\n2nd dam : vallee dansante by lyphard . winner ( 8f ) . dam of 9 winners :\nbrooklyn\u2019s dance ( f shirley heights ) 3 wins at 2 and 3 , prix cleopatre ( g3 ) . dam of :\nsolemia ( f poliglote ) prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe ( g1 ) , prix corrida ( g2 ) , 2nd prix du conseil de paris ( g2 ) , 3rd prix vermeille ( g1 ) .\nprospect park ( c sadler\u2019s wells ) la coupe de maisons - laffitte ( g3 ) , 2nd prix du jockey club ( g1 ) .\nnever green ( f halling ) prix occitanie . grandam of : soustraction ( f lope de vega ) prix d ' aumale ( g3 ) , 2nd prix vanteaux ( g3 ) , 3rd prix saint - alary ( g1 ) .\nbrooklyn\u2019s storm ( f storm cat ) winner . dam of : pollara ( f camelot ) prix de royaumont ( g3 ) . grandam of : silasol ( f monsun ) champion two - year - old filly in france , prix saint - alary ( g1 ) , prix marcel boussac ( g1 ) .\nprincesse dansante ( f king\u2019s best ) winner at 3 , prix joubert . dam of :\nkrissante ( f kris ) winner at 2 , 2nd prix saraca , prix la sorellina . dam of :\nquest of fire ( f rainbow quest ) winner at 3 . dam of :\nquila ( f unfuwain ) winner at 2 . dam of : quijano ( g acatenango ) grosser preis von baden ( g1 ) , gran premio di milano ( g1 ) , twice .\n3rd dam : green valley by val de loir . unraced . dam of 13 winners :\ngreen dancer ( c nijinsky ) poule d\u2019essai des poulains ( g1 ) , observer gold cup ( g1 ) , prix lupin ( g1 ) . champion sire .\nval danseur ( c nijinsky ) golden gate h ( g2 ) , 3rd sunset h ( g1 ) . sire .\nercolano ( c sir ivor ) prix du lys ( g3 ) , prix d ' iena . sire .\nsoviet lad ( c nureyev ) prix de pontarme , 2nd bernard baruch h ( g1 ) . sire .\nalhaarth ( c unfuwain ) champion two - year - old colt in europe , dewhurst s ( g1 ) . sire .\ndhelaal ( f green desert ) unraced . dam of : makfi ( c dubawi ) champion three - year - old colt in europe , 2 , 000 guineas ( g1 ) , prix jacques le marois ( g1 ) . sire .\n, 8f , newbury , beating charlie farnsbarns , medicine path , eagle mountain , thousand words , sunshine kid , regime , petara bay , drumfire .\n, 12f , epsom , by 5l , beating eagle mountain , aqaleem , lucarno , soldier of fortune , salford mill , kid mambo , yellowstone , acapulco , admiralofthefleet , mahler , anton chekhov , regime , petara bay , strategic prince , archipenko .\n, 10\u00bdf , york , beating dylan thomas , notnowcato , duke of marmalade , asiatic boy , hattan , song of hiawatha .\n, 10\u00bdf , york , by 4l , beating raincoat , al shemali , adagio .\n, 10f , sandown , to notnowcato , beating george washington , yellowstone , admiralofthefleet , kandidate , archipenko , champerey .\nall nine of darley ' s stallions in france will be on show at haras du logis on sunday 21 january from 10 . 30am - 4pm .\nall nine of the darley stallions in france will be on show on sunday , 21 january as haras du logis throws open its doors to visitors from 10 . 30am - 4pm as part of normandy\u2019s route des etalons .\npounamu has established himself as one of the form horses of western australian racing , adding the g2 van heemst stakes to a pair of major victories earlier this summer .\npounamu produced one of his typical storming finishes to account for a high - class field in the g1 kingston town classic at ascot , western australia , on 9 december .\nauthorized enjoyed a superb day on saturday , 4 november when he recorded an outstanding three black type winners .\nthe darley stallions have enjoyed another outstanding year on the racecourse , siring 24 g1 winners around the world in 2017 . iffraaj ' s champion miler ribchester heads the line up of new stallions for 2018 .\neuropean champion miler ribchester will stand at kildangan stud for \u20ac30 , 000 in 2018 .\nmultiple g1 winner hartnell returned to racing with a bang on 19 august , producing a brilliant performance at caulfield to win the g2 p b lawrence stakes over seven furlongs .\ndating back to the 1700s , ascot\u2019s royal meeting is one of the centrepieces of the summer social calendar and the highlight of the year for the berkshire racecourse .\ncopyright \u00a9 2000 - 2017 the hong kong jockey club . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njust as the sibaya yearling sale appears to show a rise in quality offered , so are the entries for the sibaya broodmare sale of higher calibre than we remember from previous years . with the breeding industry facing an apparent shortage of quality mares , there will no doubt be fierce competition for the more promising mares amongst the 58 lots on offer . karel miedema takes a look at their pedigrees , in sire order .\nal mufti ( 32 ) sonora blair is a half sister to 9 winners including highclass travis mcgee and countess michelle . for the pedigree minded , their grandam dance away is inbred 3x3 to davy gordon , himself an inbred stallion , 4x3 to ayrshire\u2019s son symington . davy gordon\u2019s sire mr jinks appears three times in dance away . the common factors between the sires of travis mcgee and countess michelle are nashua , count fleet and raise a native \u2013 which are elements close - up in a major sire : mr prospector . take that one back to sonora blair together with al mufti\u2019s affinity - mate buckpasser and you might be cooking . a sire like seeking the gold ( in lecture ) has them both . lecture has 22 lines of ayrshire in his background as well , nine from seeking the gold . pedigrees can be fun !\nresult of enquiries ( j . o\u2019shea , j . osborne and l . cumani ) heard by the disciplinary panel on thursday 2 february\nin absence \u2013 john o\u2019shea 1 . the disciplinary panel of the british horseracing authority on 2 february 2017 held an enquiry to establish whether or not john o\u2019shea , a licensed trainer , \u2026\nthe main role of the bha\u2019s board is to provide strategic leadership and direction , and assist the executive in delivering the bha\u2019s nine strategic objectives . the board is comprised of twelve directors and meets eight times per year .\nnick rust has over 27 years of experience in the betting and gaming industry , and joined the bha from ladbrokes plc , where he was managing director , retail , in january 2015 . in his previous role he had oversight of around 2 , 500 betting shops and 13 , 000 staff . he re - joined ladbrokes in 2011 , having started at the firm as a cashier in 1987 , and held roles at bskyb between 2002 and 2007 , including as managing director of skybet , and at gala coral from 2007 to 2010 , including as managing director , remote gambling and coral retail . he has extensive experience in industry and corporate affairs , having managed key relationships with government and regulators . nick oversaw the establishment of british racing\u2019s tripartite structure through the members\u2019 agreement , an industry - wide strategy for growth and replacement of the horserace betting levy , and has excellent relationships across british racing . nick is also a non - executive director of york theatre royal .\nandrew merriam is a qualified chartered accountant with more than 30 years\u2019 experience in financial services and banking and 10 years\u2019 experience running the bradfords group , the leading privately - owned supplier of building materials in the uk . andrew is a chairman and a director with a number of other companies , including a director of fakenham racecourse , as well as a trustee of racing to school , retraining of racehorses and the british racing school . andrew is also an independent director and chairman of the point - to - point authority board , as well as chairman of the bha\u2019s rules committee , the stewarding and disciplinary policy committee and the audit committee . he was previously a chairman of the disciplinary panel and a member of the regulatory committee .\nandrew has acted as a racecourse steward at newmarket , cheltenham , fakenham , southwell and yarmouth . andrew merriam was elected to the jockey club in 1997 . he is chairman of jockey club estates and was appointed a steward , for the second time , in 2008 .\nandrew owns and breeds national hunt horses to race under rules and in point - to - points .\nan experienced non - executive director in sports organisations , atholl spent nearly 25 years with the bbc , initially as a journalist and tv news and sports producer , before rising to be head of news and current affairs for the bbc in scotland . he spent four years as director of corporate affairs with scottish water and since 2011 has been executive director of icas , the professional body of chartered accountants . atholl sits on numerous advisory boards , has worked with the government on various business issues and has good knowledge of sports administration and governance . he was a non - executive director of sportscotland for nine years , sat on the scottish sports council trust and currently sits on the board of the hibernian football club community foundation . atholl has been a regular race goer for more than 35 years and is a member of the caledonian racing society .\njulie harrington has considerable knowledge and experience in british horseracing as a result of her eight year career with northern racing . her final appointment was as operations director and prior to that she was managing director of uttoxeter racecourse .\njulie\u2019s early career was with whitbread inns as regional marketing director and then with british airways as retail sector director . previously st george\u2019s park managing director , operations director across the fa\u2019s sites in burton - upon - trent and at wembley stadium , and is now the chief executive officer of british cycling .\nn\u00f6el harwerth and her husband are former breeders who now buy yearlings in britain and ireland and race in britain . n\u00f6el is active in both british and us racing and is involved with the national museum of racing and hall of fame .\nshe was previously a government appointee on the board of the tote and is currently nonexecutive director on a number of high profile financial services organisations , including standard life plc , ge capital bank limited and london metal exchange . from 1998 to 2003 n\u00f6el was the chief operating officer of citibank international and prior to that served as the chief tax officer of citigroup , dun & bradstreet corporation and kennecott copper corporation . she is also a qualified solicitor .\nas the ceo of sports gaming limited , a london - based management consultancy to the gaming industry , joe has for the past 15 years advised and worked closely with lotteries , governments , investment banks and operating companies on strategy , operational restructuring , finance and merger and acquisition . he continues to work with the ontario lottery as a internet gaming expert , helping them move their land - based operations online . in 2012 joe co - founded bede gaming ltd , a provider of technology to the online casino and bingo industries , and one of the fastest growing companies in the north - east . bede gaming is licensed by the uk gambling commission and other international regulatory bodies . joe has an mba from the wharton school of finance , university of pennsylvania , where he was a thouron scholar . joe has a deep rooted passion and understanding of horseracing , having been an avid follower of the industry since the age of eight . he was on the jockey club graduate programme and worked at the racing post . over the past 20 years he has been a regular race goer and has been to more than 200 tracks around the world . he has written extensively about horseracing and gambling for a variety of publications , including the financial times , the times , the telegraph , and bloomberg .\nrupert arnold has been the chief executive of the national trainers federation , the representative body for licensed racehorse trainers in great britain , since 2000 . during this time he has also been a director of the british horseracing board , the horsemen\u2019s group and the british horseracing education and standards trust .\nearlier in his career , after employment as assistant trainer to jeremy hindley , john winter and paul cole , rupert held a trainer\u2019s licence for six years , training in upper lambourn , berkshire .\nvivien currie is chief executive of hamilton park racecourse , where she took up appointment in june 2008 . she is also a member of the development board of the marie curie hospice in glasgow and vice chairman of the rca . prior to this she was part owner of and chief executive of livingston football club having bought the club and taken it out of administration . she also sat on the scottish football league management committee where she was the first female to hold such an appointment in its over 100 year existence . qualifying as a chartered accountant with ernst & young , vivien worked in london , australia and glasgow , including a period advising technology start - ups , before joining telecoms business damovo . starting as director of strategy she was responsible for the integration of the group\u2019s 18 countries\u2019 sales forces before becoming head of global sales and solutions . vivien does a variety of public speaking sharing her life and work experiences of adapting her business skills to different industries .\nsir paul had a highly distinguished career as a police officer over more than 35 years , holding senior command positions in merseyside , lancashire and london . in his roles with the metropolitan police service \u2013 where as commissioner he was the most senior officer in the uk \u2013 he advised governments on issues ranging from counter terrorism to serious organised crime and national police improvements , with a focus on modern , transparent and collaborative policing . he has served as trustee for a number of charities , and is currently a trustee of crimestoppers uk . he leads the bha board\u2019s efforts in its priority areas , ensuring that british racing is regulated to high standards , and seen by all to be fair and clean .\nruth quinn was appointed the british horseracing authority\u2019s director of international racing and racing development in july 2015 , having previously held the post of racing director .\nshe represents bha / british racing with overseas racing authorities on matters relating to the international race programme , international racing development , international handicapping , and the overall management of bha\u2019s complex relationships with its international partners and counterparts . ruth is a keen rider , particularly enjoying working closely with and bringing on young racehorses .\nwill was appointed as executive director in may 2017 , having previously been director of corporate affairs . he is responsible for strategy and stakeholder liaison , and industry people and betting matters .\nhe joined the then british horseracing board as communications executive in 2003 , performing a range of roles in the following years , including as spokesperson for the governing body . he took part in the sport\u2019s graduate development programme in 2001 , and also gained experience in racing journalism and across different racecourses and racecourse groups .\nrichard joined the bha at the beginning of 2016 as chief operations officer , with responsibility for the racing , handicapping , finance , information technology and programme management teams . he has a lifelong interest in racing and , having taken part in the jockey club graduate development programme , began his career as an odds compiler with william hill . having qualified as a chartered accountant working for pricewaterhousecoopers , he became finance director at the british racing school before joining the british horseracing board as assistant racing director in 2004 . he was appointed chief executive of the racehorse owners association in 2012 and , as part of this role , became secretary of the horsemen\u2019s group and a director of racing enterprises limited and british champions series .\ncatherine was appointed as the bha\u2019s director of legal and governance in september 2016 , having joined the bha as head of legal \u2013 governance in november 2015 . catherine is responsible for all aspects of the bha\u2019s general legal counsel , company secretariat , corporate governance and data protection . prior to joining the bha , catherine was a senior member of the dla piper sports team for 10 years . catherine has extensive experience of advising sports governing bodies and rights owners in relation to contentious issues connected with sport , both regulatory and commercial , in proceedings in the high court and before international and domestic sports disciplinary and arbitral tribunals . she also specialises in intellectual property litigation , particularly in relation to sport and media bodies . catherine is a director of the british association for sport and law .\nbrant was appointed chief regulatory officer in april 2018 , having previously been in the post of director of integrity and regulatory operations since september 2016 , and having joined the bha as head of raceday operations in march 2015 .\nbrant is an experienced administrator and regulator having held various senior roles within racing - related industries in britain and australia over the past 20 years . as chief regulatory officer , his reports include the director of equine health and welfare , the chief medical advisor , head of regulation and the head of stewarding . he also has accountability for integrity , licensing and anti - doping , as well as managing the team of equine welfare and integrity officers and overriding responsibility for the judges , starters , clerks of scales , racecourse and inspectors of courses , and the bha\u2019s role in liaison with the point to point , arab racing and pony racing authorities .\nprior to joining the bha , brant was chief operating officer ( 2010 - 2014 ) with harness racing victoria with overall management responsibility for all integrity and racing regulatory functions . brant also holds a bachelor of legal studies ( victoria university ) and graduate diploma sports law ( university of melbourne ) , where he specialised in international sports law and racing industry law & regulation .\ndavid sykes joined the bha in march 2017 as director of equine health and welfare and is responsible for developing an enhanced welfare strategy which encapsulates a thoroughbred\u2019s full lifespan , from birth until well after the end of its racing career . david joins the bha from the united arab emirates ( uae ) where he has held the position of head veterinary officer for the emirates racing authority ( era ) since 2010 , a role which encompasses the welfare and integrity of all flat racing in the uae . in this role he was responsible for implementing and managing anti\u00addoping and medication control programs , equine welfare and health issues , administration of data collection programs for injury surveillance and risk factors associated with racing in the uae .\nin addition , david has held the role of head of the veterinary department for the uae itself since october 2015 , which includes responsibilities for government liaison , quarantine and import / export controls and testing .\nprior to his time at the era regulatory and uae equine quarantine positions , david held positions in sydney , australia , his country of birth and where he established a successful five - veterinarian practice . as well as his regulatory positions , david brings over 20 years of private practice experience to the role .\nmartin fewell took up the post as bha director of communications and corporate affairs in october 2017 , having previously been the director of media & communications at the metropolitan police since 2012 .\nhis responsibilities include media relations , stakeholder and internal communications , corporate affairs , political liaison and building the bha\u2019s digital presence .\nmartin was a journalist at the bbc and itn before joining the met . he was the deputy editor of channel 4 news for ten years and previously edited news programmes on bbc radio 4 and the bbc news channel .\nlike any new website you might come across things that need fixing , please let us know and we will get these resolved as quickly as possible . in the meantime , we would love to hear your feedback . email us at info @ urltoken to tell us what you think .\nthe british horseracing authority uses cookies on this website to help operate our site and for analytics purposes . for more on how and which cookies are used and where you can alter our cookie usage , see more information . by continuing to use our services , you are giving us your consent to use cookies . more info\nseveral of his pictures of egypt and sudan were painted at least four years after he resigned his commission , and it is possible that he returned to north africa after he left the army to follow the conflicts in that region . his paintings show both important events in the region in the 1880s such as start of suakin berbar railway and the parade of officers mentioned at the battle of gemaizah of 1888 , as well as everyday events such as loading horses onto ships and patrols . other scenes show troops on maneuvers in the english countryside , scenes in london and other military genre .\nthe military collection digital archive recently passed a milestone : 25 , 000 images and counting . the first pictures were scanned back in 2004 and through the efforts of many staff and students , we have created the largest digital collection in brown university library . special credit should go to robin ness , ann caldwell , betsy fishman and henry gould for directing this enterprise and creating the thousands of mods records . there are still many images to scan and work is currently underway on the numerous portfolios and other items as well as scanning prints that were missed or need re - scanning . at the same time , the digital archive has been migrated to the brown digital repository ( bdr ) and images can now be searched at : urltoken this is a much more versatile system and will allow corrections and changes to be made to existing data as well as new information that will enhance and contribute to the background and scholarship of the iconography . for example , it is hoped to add details such as publications and references relevant to a particular image or artist , and links to other collections owning similar material . users are encouraged to forward any additional information that might be suitable or suggest any changes or corrections .\nyou are currently browsing the anne s . k . brown military collection update blog archives for july , 2013 .\nanne s . k . brown military collection update is proudly powered by wordpress entries ( rss ) and comments ( rss ) .\nplus gst payment on 42 - day ppt , free return ( conditions apply ) . standing at mapperley stud , nz\nfour - time group winner who won the g1 spring champion , like savabeel and dundeel . by an epsom derby hero and bred on a similar cross to leading sire tavistock .\nby authorized ( 2004 ) champion three - year - old colt in europe , derby s ( g1 ) , juddmonte international s ( g1 ) , etc . sire of 891 foals aged three and up , including complacent , ambivalent , hartnell , pounamu , seal of approval , maygrove , prize money , lacy , rehn\u2019s nest , etc .\n1st dam : insouciance by quest for fame . winner at 2 and 3 . own - sister to dracula . dam of 10 foals , 9 to race , 9 winners :\nataraxia ( g teofilo ) 2 wins at 3 , 2017 , dulcify quality s .\noffhanded ( g lonhro ) 5 wins , 2 to 5 , 3rd alister clark s ( g2 ) , up and coming s ( g3 ) .\ncareless ( g exceed and excel ) 3 wins at 3 and 5 , 2017 , 2nd fernhill h , 3rd gothic s .\nmalaise ( c helmet ) 3 wins at 3 and 4 , 2017 , 2nd cs hayes s ( g3 ) .\n2nd dam : awards ceremony by kaoru star . unraced . dam of 7 winners :\ndracula ( c quest for fame ) champion two - year - old in australia , 7 wins at 2 and 3 , george main s ( g1 ) , sires\u2019 produce s ( g1 ) , champagne s ( g1 ) , fernhill h ( g3 ) . sire .\nthe oscars ( g procol harum ) 3 wins , 2 to 4 , canonbury s .\nsash ( f dr grace ) 5 wins at 3 and 4 , toy show quality h .\nvampire ( g flying spur ) 6 wins , 3 to 6 , 2nd fernhill h ( g3 ) .\nmasked party ( g marscay ) galaxy h ( g1 ) , premiere s ( g2 ) , the angas brut ( g2 ) .\nfestal ( c vain ) elders s ( g1 ) , sovereign print s , 2nd the concorde ( g2 ) . sire .\nla bamba ( f last tycoon ) 2 wins at 4 . dam of :\ninspiration ( g flying spur ) hong kong sprint ( g1 ) , centenary sprint cup .\nwandjina ( c snitzel ) australian guineas ( g1 ) , c s hayes debonair s ( g3 ) , 2nd all aged s ( g1 ) , 3rd caulfield guineas ( g1 ) .\nlucky unicorn ( c redoute\u2019s choice ) chester manifold s , 3rd carlyon cup ( g3 ) . sire .\nprovence ( f redoute\u2019s choice ) great western desirable s , 3rd waltzing lily h . dam of : banaadeer ( c more than ready ) storm bird s , 2nd south african nursery ( g1 ) ; admiration ( c encosta de lago ) the chairman ' s trophy , 3rd jockey club sprint ( g2 ) , twice , hong kong classic mile , the premier cup .\nzoometric ( g unbridled\u2019s song ) tattersall\u2019s cup , fairetha s , perth s , supremacy s , 2nd karrakatta plate ( g2 ) , sires\u2019 produce s ( g3 ) , 3rd lee steere classic ( g3 ) .\nlady danzero ( f danzero ) placed at 3 . dam of : discreet ( f show a heart ) brc calaway gal plate .\njoy ride ( f redoute\u2019s choice ) unraced . dam of : hijack hussy ( f hussonet ) desirable s , 2nd vo rogue plate ( g3 ) , 3rd shelley dale ohs mode s .\nspring champion s ( g1 ) , 2000m , randwick , beating criterion , savvy nature , hooked , liberty\u2019s choice , equator , drago , rock hero , thunder fantasy , fuerza , fast dragon .\ngloaming s ( g3 ) , 1800m , rosehill , beating savvy nature , drago , hooked , fuerza , order of the sun , fast dragon .\nvictoria derby ( g1 ) , 2500m , flemington , to polanski , beating thunder fantasy , criterion , tupac amaru , drago , bring something , epic saga , san diego , pinstripe lane , savvy nature .\nchelmsford s ( g2 ) , 1600m , randwick , beating kermadec , royal descent , hartnell , junoob , pornichet , who shot thebarman , beaten up , imposing , precedence , hawkspur , preferment , magog , moriarty , opinion , tremec .\ncraven plate ( g3 ) , 2000m , randwick , beating hauraki , imposing , moriarty , magog , gallante , foreteller , ruling dynasty , sense of occasion , celtic prince .\nhill s ( g2 ) , 2000m , randwick , to preferment , magic hurricane , beating beaten up , who shot thebarman , bonfire , chance to dance , bohemian lily , gallante , opinion , junoob , precedence , tremec .\nright at the beginning of the story of art , gombrich establishes that he is writing about important issues : how people perceive and appreciate works of art and how works of art depict and represent the world in language that is deliberately and brilliantly straightforward . in the preface , he announces that in planning and writing the book he\nthought first and foremost of readers in their teens who had just rediscovered the world for themselves\n. but i suspect his idea of the average teenager was based on a combination of his own upbringing in a highly educated viennese family ( his parents were friends of schoenberg , freud and mahler ) and that of his son , richard , who was later to become professor of sanskrit at oxford . in other words , the teenager is expected to be precocious and intelligent , interested in the history of ideas as well as art , and certainly male .\nin his introduction , gombrich explores two very characteristic themes essential to an understanding of his subsequent work , and which it is slightly surprising and pleasing to find announced so unequivocally close to the beginning of his scholarly career . the first is the need for the artist to experience freedom from political or religious constraints . he describes this by comparing the two versions of saint matthew that caravaggio undertook as a commission for the church of san luigi dei francesi in rome . the first version was a great work of realism in which the angel is leaning a long , spindly arm towards the relatively rustic hand of saint matthew . the work was rejected as being too naturalistic and was later destroyed by bombs during the second world war . caravaggio then painted a slightly more idealised and conventional version , still in san luigi in rome . gombrich describes how\nthe outcome is still quite a good picture , for caravaggio had tried hard to make it look lively and interesting , but we feel that it is less honest and sincere than the first had been .\ngiven that gombrich was commissioned to write the book while working as a translator for the bbc ' s monitoring service , it is impossible not to recognise his profound belief in the moral freedom of the artist from any form of coercion .\ngombrich ' s second introductory description is of the intense compositional struggle that lay behind raphael ' s painting madonna of the meadow in the kunsthistorisches museum in vienna . art was viewed not as a product of aesthetics , but more as a result of visual observation , which is then ordered and structured by graphic experiment , closely akin in terms of visual procedure to the work of caricature . this announces some of the themes and intellectual interests that later led to his greatest work in art and illusion , and was a consequence of his close friendship with the art historian and psychoanalyst ernst kris ."]}
{"id": 1770, "summary": [{"text": "nymphonidae is a family of sea spiders which has representatives in all the oceans .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this family contains some 250 species , most of which are found in the genus nymphon .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "nymphonid bodies are between 1 and 15 mm long , the extent between the points of the legs reaching 150 mm .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "most species are predators of hydroids . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "nymphonidae", "paragraphs": ["which taxonomic groups does the family nymphonidae belong to and what are the different nymphonidae genus ? below , you will find the taxonomic groups the family nymphonidae belongs to and the taxonomic tree with all the different genus .\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30e6\u30e1\u30e0\u30b7\u79d1\nto\nnymphonidae\n.\nwhich are the most common photographed nymphonidae genus ? below , you will find the list of genus commonly photographed by underwater photographers .\nchild ac ( 1995 ) antarcic and subantarctic pycnogonida iii . the family nymphonidae . in : cairns s ( ed ) antarctic and subantarctic pycnogonida : nymphonidae , colossendeidae , rhynchothoracidae , pycnogonidae , endeididae , and callipallenidae . american geophysical union , washington dc , pp 69\u2013111\n( ab292208 ) were obtained from ddbj / embl / genbank . these species belonging to callipallenidae and nymphonidae were used as out - group referring to the previous molecular phylogenetic studies (\nchild c . a . ( 1995 ) . antarctic and subantarctic pycnogonida . 3 . the family nymphonidae . biology of the antarctic seas xxiii . , 1 - 68 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nbamber , r . n . ; el nagar , a . & arango , c . p . ( eds ) ( 2018 ) . pycnobase : world pycnogonida database . nymphonidae wilson , 1878 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 1566 on 2018 - 07 - 09\nmonophyly of nymphonidae is better supported than that of the ammotheidae as shown in cladistic and molecular phylogenetic analyses ( arango , 2002 , 2003 ; arango and wheeler , 2007 ; nakamura et al . , 2007 ) . ascorhynchidae , which was originally established by hoek ( 1881 ) , is revived for the group including ascorhynchus and eurycyde isolated from the traditional ammotheidae ( nakamura et al . , 2007 ; bamber et al . , 2015 ) . chow et al . ( 2012 ) made the first molecular phylogenetic study including nymphonella ( n . tapetis from japan ) . their 18s rdna data strongly suggested a close affinity between nymphonella and ascorhynchus ; the position of nymphonella within ascorhynchidae however , was , not determined .\nvery large , as long as the three following segments together , neck short , frontal part greatly expanded . abdomen comparatively small and cylindrical .\nwell developed ; scape somewhat swollen at the tip ; hand very large , longer than the scape , almost bare , arcuate ; fingers elongated , as long as the palm , both incurved and with sharply pointed tips ; teeth on the inner margin of the immobile finger larger and less numerous than on the mobile finger .\nslender , twice as long as the proboscis ; 2nd segment longer than the 3rd one , the two outer segments very slim and elongated , last segment the shortest .\nwith ten segments present in both sexes ; longer than the body length ; 4th and 5th segments equal in length , terminal part longer than the 5th segment , marginal spines stout , triangular acuminated , with more or less serrated edges .\ncolour reddish - yellow . length of the body up to 15 mm ; the extent between the points of the ambulatory legs reaching 150 mm .\nscientific synonyms and common names nymphon str\u00f8mii kr\u00f8yer nymphon str\u00f6mii kr\u00f8yer phalangium marinum str\u00f8m nymphon grossipes abildgaard ( non fabr . ) nymphon giganteum goodsir\nsars , g . o . , 1891 . pycnogonidea . the norwegian north - atlantic expedition , 1876 - 1878 , xx : 1 - 163 .\nsorry , there are no other images or audio / video clips available for this species .\nthe sea spiders characteristic body form involves a cephalon and trunk comprising four body segments , each of which bears a pair of walking legs . in addition , the cephalon bears an anterior triradiate proboscis , and primitively a pair of chelifores , a pair of palps , and a pair of ovigerous legs ( ovigers ) , these last being a feature exclusive to the pycnogonida . dorsally , the cephalon primitively bears an ocular tubercle with four eyes . variations on this theme include atrophy or loss of chelifores , o palps and / or ovigers , and , particularly in deeper water forms , loss of eyes and even of the ocular tubercle . further , there are six polymerous species known , four having five pairs of legs and two having six pairs .\nthese relatively simple creatures with relatively small bodies and long legs , have gut diverticula extending into chelifores and along the legs , and the last trunk segment bears a small abdomen with a distal anus . sea spiders lack respiratory organs or structures , and gas exchange occurs through the cuticle ; recently woods et al ( 2017 ) demonstrated how sea spiders use gut movements for internal transport of oxygen .\nwhere reproduction is known , the male carries the eggs attached to the ovigers , whence they hatch either as a protonymphon larva or as an advanced postlarva . a review of the different pathways of postembryonic development in pycnogonida is found in brenneis et al . ( 2017 ) . pycnogonids have no active dispersal ability , but some taxa , for example species of anoplodactylus and bathypallenopsis , are passively dispersed by medusa , achieving wide geographical distributions . the antarctic species nymphon australe is known as circumpolar , however , it is yet not clear what dispersal mechanisms are involved .\nfeeding is generally understudied , but appears to be restricted to sessile animals and , occasionally , algae : certain species from epizoic communities on rocks or algae are known to feed on bryozoans , cnidarians and filamentous algae . the diet of the many species collected from soft sediments is unknown . the biology of sea - spiders is markedly understudied . the most recent comprehensive review of their biology is by arnaud & bamber ( 1987 ) . extensive bibliographies are to be found in fry & stock ( 1978 ) and nakamura & child ( 1991 ) .\nthe fossil record is still sparse ( only four pycnogonid fossil records where known by early 2000s ) but new forms have described in recent years . so far , there is one known species from the upper ordovician ( ca . 450 ma ) , one from the lower silurian ( ca . 425 ma ) , five from the lower devonian hunsr\u00fcck slate ( germany ) ( ca . 400 ma ) , and three from the jurassic ( 150 ma ) .\npycnobase is based on bamber\u2019s ( 2007 ) attempt of a holistic interpretation of the pycnogonida classification , with subsequent amendments : notably , nymphonella moved to the ascorhynchidae , pycnofragilia added to the ascorhynchidae , and pycnosomia added to the phoxichilidiidae . however , these and other groupings are yet to be tested under a robust and comprehensive phylogenetic approach , in a follow up to the phylogeny in arango & wheeler ( 2007 ) .\nit is evident from recent surveys , both from shallow waters and particularly in the deep sea , that numerous species of pycnogonid await discovery . at the same time , molecular analyses are indicating the existence of cryptic species in what had been thought to be widespread taxa . this database must therefore be a working document and it will certainly continue expanding , hopefully contributing to a better understanding of the world\u2019s pycnogonids .\nbamber , r . n . ; el nagar , a . & arango , c . p . ( eds ) ( 2018 ) . pycnobase : world pycnogonida database . accessed at urltoken on 2018 - 07 - 09\nif any data constitutes a substantial proportion of the records used in secondary analysis , the editor ( c . arango ) or managers of the database should be contacted . in any case , there are additional data which may prove valuable to such analyses .\nthe site welcomes input from colleagues and visitors who detect errors or omissions . note that sadly , roger bamber passed away in february 2015 and aliya el nagar who played a key role developing the database is no longer associated to the maintenance of pycnobase . the current editor strives to maintain the website as both a comprehensive and an up - to - date resource through regular updates .\nwe are very grateful to david staples , franz krapp and yoshie takahashi for discussions and input ( and thereby improvements ) .\narango cp , wheeler wc . 2007 . phylogeny of the sea spiders ( arthropoda , pycnogonida ) based on direct optimization of six loci and morphology . cladistics , 23 : 1\u201339 .\narnaud f & bamber rn . 1987 . the biology of pycnogonida . advances in marine biology , 24 : 1 - 96 .\nbamber , rn . 2007 . a holistic re - interpretation of the phylogeny of the pycnogonida latreille , 1810 ( arthropoda ) . in : zhang , z . - q & shear , w . a . ( eds ) : linnean tercentenary . progress in invertebrate taxonomy . zootaxa , 1668 : 295 - 312 .\nbrenneis , g , bogomolova , e , arango , cp , krapp , f . 2017 . from egg to \u201cno - body\u201d : an overview and revision of developmental pathways in the ancient arthropod lineage pycnogonida . frontiers of zoology , 14 : 6 . doi 10 . 1186 / s12983 - 017 - 0192 - 2\ndunlop ja , arango cp . 2005 . pycnogonid affinities : a review . journal of zoological systematics and evolutionary research , 43 : 8\u201321 .\nfry wg & stock jh . 1978 . a pycnogonid bibliography . in , sea spiders ( pycnogonida ) . zoological journal of the linnean society of london , 63 ( 1 + 2 ) : 197 - 238 .\ngiribet g , edgecombe gd . the arthropoda : a phylogenetic framework . in : minelli\na , boxshall g , fusco g , editors . arthropod biology and evolution molecules , development , morphology . heidelberg : springer verlag ; 2013 . p . 17\u201340 .\nnakamura k . & child c . a . 1991 . pycnogonida from waters adjacent to japan . smithsonian contributions to zoology , 512 : 74pp .\nhansson , h . ( 2004 ) . north east atlantic taxa ( neat ) : nematoda . internet pdf ed . aug 1998 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nhedgepeth , j . w . 1949 report on the pycnogonida collected by the albatross in japanese waters in 1900 and 1906 . the proceedings of the united states national museum ( 98 ) : [ details ]\nstock , j . h . , 1955 . pycnogonida from the west indies , central america and the pacific coast of north america . papers from dr th . mortensen ' s pacific expedition 1914 - 1916 . videnskabelige meddelelser fra dansk naturhistorisk forening i kj\u00f8benhavn , 117 : [ details ]\nbamber r . n . 2010 . sea - spiders ( pycnogonida ) of the northeast atlantic . keys and notes to the identification of species . the linnean society of london & the field studies council ; the dorset press . 250pp . [ details ]\nhedgpeth , j . w . , 1948 . the pycnogonida of the western north atlantic and the caribbean . proceedings of the united states national museum , 97 ( 3216 ) : 157 - 342 ; 4 - 53 , 3 charts . [ details ]\njennifer hammock split the classifications by smithsonian type specimen data from nymphon to their own page .\nc . michael hogan selected\ndescription\nto show in overview on\nnymphon gracile leach , w . e . , 1814\n.\nc . michael hogan marked the classification from\nspecies 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013\nas preferred for\nnymphon gracile leach , w . e . , 1814\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nsorry , there are no images or audio / video clips available for this taxon .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\nclick on an image to view all the information : family , species , author , date , and full locality .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 747 seconds . )\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\nthe edison - chouest offshore crew , raytheon personnel , and scientific participants of the asrv laurence m . gould in the 2004 and 2006 antarctic cruises ( lmg 04 - 14 and lmg 06 - 05 , respectively ) are gratefully acknowledged for their help and logistical support . this work was supported by a national science foundation grant to kmh ( opp - 0338218 ) and an australian biological resources study ( abrs ) grant to cpa ( 204 - 61 ) . this work is au marine biology program contribution # 41 .\nsupplementary figure 1 . bayesian analysis of combined coi + 16s collapsed haplotype dataset using the gtr + i + g model of substitution , displaying only the clade containing nymphon australe and the outgroup nymphon paucituberculatum . inset displays the entire tree topology . haplotype designations ( roman numerals ) correlate to data presented in figure 3 and supplementary table 3 ( eps 878 kb )\n: growth rates of newly hatched larvae and juveniles . in : stanyck e ( ed ) reproductive ecology of marine invertebrates . university of south carolina press , columbia , pp 61\u201376\narango cp ( 2002 ) morphological phylogenetics of the sea spiders ( arthropoda : pycnogonida ) . org divers evol 2 : 107\u2013125 . doi :\narango cp ( 2003 ) molecular approach to the phylogenetics of sea spiders ( pycnogonida , arthropoda ) using nuclear ribosomal dna and morphology . mol phylogenet evol 28 : 588\u2013600 . doi :\narango cp , wheeler wc ( 2007 ) phylogeny of the sea spiders ( arthropoda , pycnogonida ) based on direct optimization of six loci and morphology . cladistics 23 : 1\u201339 . doi :\naris - brosou s , excoffier l ( 1996 ) the impact of population expansion and mutation rate heterogeneity on dna sequence polymorphism . mol biol evol 13 : 494\u2013504\narnaud f , bamber rn ( 1987 ) the biology of pycnogonida . adv mar biol 24 : 1\u201395\narndt a , smith j ( 1998 ) genetic diversity and population structure in two species of sea cucumber : differing patterns according to mode of development . mol ecol 7 : 1053\u20131064 . doi :\navise jc ( 2000 ) phylogeography : the history and formation of species . harvard university press , cambridge\navise jc , arnold j , ball rm jr , bermingham e , lamb t , neigel je et al ( 1987 ) intraspecific phylogeography : the mitochondrial dna bridge between population genetics and systematics . annu rev ecol syst 18 : 489\u2013522\nayre dj , hughes tp ( 2000 ) genotypic diversity and gene flow in brooding and spawning corals along the great barrier reef , australia . evol int j org evol 54 : 1590\u20131605\nbamber rn , el nagar a ( 2008 ) pycnobase : pycnogonida world database .\nbargelloni l , lorenzo z , derome n , lecointre g , patarnello t ( 2000 ) molecular zoography of antarctic euphasiids and notothenioids : from species phylogenies to intraspecific patterns of genetic variation . ant sci 12 ( 3 ) : 259\u2013268 . doi :\nbogomolova ev , malakhov vv ( 2003 ) larvae of sea spiders ( arthropoda , pycnogonida ) from the white sea . entomol rev ( engl transl ) 83 ( 2 ) : 222\u2013236\nclarke a , johnson nm ( 2003 ) antarctic marine benthic diversity . oceanogr mar biol ann rev 41 : 47\u2013114\nclarke a , barnes dka , hodgson da ( 2005 ) how isolated is antarctica ? trends ecol evol 20 : 1\u20133 . doi :\nclement m , posada d , crandall ka ( 2000 ) tcs : a computer program to estimate gene genealogies . mol ecol 9 : 1657\u20131659 . doi :\ncrandall ka , templeton ar , sing cf ( 1994 ) intraspecific phylogenetics : problems and solutions . in : scotland rw , siebert dj , williams dm ( eds ) models in phylogeny reconstruction . systematics association special , vol 52 . clarendon press , oxford , pp 273\u2013297\ndayton pk , robilliard ga , paine rt ( 1970 ) benthic faunal zonation as a result of anchor ice at mcmurdo sound , antarctica . academic press , london\ndell rk ( 1972 ) antarctic benthos . adv mar biol 10 : 1\u2013216 . doi :\nduffy je ( 1993 ) genetic population structure in two tropical sponge - dwelling shrimps that differ in dispersal potential . mar biol ( berl ) 116 : 459\u2013470 . doi :\ndunlop ja , arango cp ( 2005 ) pycnogonid affinities : a review . j zool syst evol res 43 : 8\u201321 . doi :\nfarris js , kallersjo m , kluge ag , bult c ( 1995 ) constructing a significance test for incongruence . syst biol 44 ( 4 ) : 570\u2013572 . doi :\noxidase subunit i from diverse metazoan invertebrates . mol mar biol biotechnol 3 : 294\u2013299\nfry wg , hedgpeth jw ( 1969 ) pycnogonida . colossendeidae , pycnogonidae , endeidae , ammotheidae . nz dep sci ind res bull part 7 : 1\u2013139\nfu x ( 1996 ) new statistical test of neutrality for dna samples from a population . genetics 143 : 557\u2013570\ngordon i ( 1944 ) pycnogonida . reports of the british . aust nz antarct res expedition b5 : 1\u201372\n, a southern african marine gastropod with lecithotrophic development . mar biol ( berl ) 129 : 123\u2013137 . doi :\nhall ta ( 1999 ) bioedit : a user - friendly biological sequence alignment editor and analysis program for windows 95 / 98 / nt . nucleic acids symp ser 41 : 95\u201398\nhedgpeth jw ( 1947 ) on the evolutionary significance of the pycnogonida . smithsonian miscellaneous collection , 106 : 1\u201353 , 1 pl\n. in : moore rc ( ed ) treatise on invertebrate paleontology , vol . part p , arthropoda 2 . geological society of america and university of kansas press , lawrence , kansas , pp p171\u2013p173\nhedgpeth jw ( 1962 ) introduction to seashore life of the san francisco bay region and the coast of northern california . university of california press , berkeley\n( crustacea , isopoda ) . in : huiskes ahl , giekes wwc , rozema j , schorno rml , van der vies sm , wolff wj ( eds ) antarctic biology in a global context . backhuys publishers , leiden , pp 135\u2013139\nhellberg me ( 1996 ) dependence of gene flow on geographic distance in two solitary corals with different larval dispersal capabilities . evol int j org evol 28 : 1167\u20131175 . doi :\nhempel g ( 1985 ) on the biology of polar seas , particularly the southern ocean . wiley , new york\nhewitt gm ( 1999 ) post - glacial re - colonization of european biota . biol j linn soc 68 : 87\u2013112\nhewitt gm ( 2001 ) speciation , hybrid zones and phylogeography\u2014or seeing genes in space and time . mol ecol 10 ( 3 ) : 537\u2013549 . doi :\nhoskin mg ( 1997 ) effects of contrasting modes of larval development on the genetic structure of three species of prosobranch gastropods . mar biol ( berl ) 127 : 647\u2013656 . doi :\nhuelsenbeck jp , ronquist f ( 2001 ) mrbayes : bayesian inference of phylogenetic trees . bioinformatics 1 : 754\u2013755 . doi :\nacross the drake passage in the southern ocean . j hered 99 ( 2 ) : 137\u2013148 . doi :\n( olivi ) ( prosobranchia , mollusca ) . hydrobiologia 193 : 99\u2013108 . doi :\nkumar s , tamura k , nei m ( 2004 ) mega3 : integrated software for molecular evolutionary genetics analysis and sequence alignment . brief bioinform 5 : 150\u2013163 . doi :\nspp . ) with and without pelagic larval dispersal . mar biol ( berl ) 137 : 835\u2013845 . doi :\nmarko p ( 2004 ) \u201cwhat\u2019s larvae got to do with it ? \u201d disparate patterns of post - glacial population structure in two benthic marine gastropods with identical dispersal potential . mol ecol 13 : 597\u2013611 . doi :\nmauchline j ( 1984 ) pycnogonids caught in bathypelagic samples from the rockall trough , northeastern atlantic - ocean . j nat hist 18 ( 2 ) : 315\u2013322 . doi :\nmayr e ( 1970 ) populations , species and evolution : an abridgement of animal species and evolution . harvard university press , cambridge\nmunilla t ( 2001 ) synopsis of the pycnogonids from antarctic and subantarctic waters . polar biology 24 : 941\u2013945\nnakamura k , kano y , suzuki n , namatame t , kosaku a ( 2007 ) 18s rrna phylogeny of sea spiders with emphasis on the position of rhynchothoracidae . mar biol ( berl ) 153 : 213\u2013223 . doi :\nnylander jaa ( 2004 ) mrmodeltest v2 . program distributed by the author . evolutionary biology centre , uppsala university\npalumbi sr , martin ap , romano s , mcmillan wo , stice l , grabowski g ( 1991 ) the simple fool\u2019s guide to pcr . university of hawaii , honolulu\npearse js , bosch i ( 1994 ) brooding in the antarctic : \u00f6stergren had it nearly right . in : david b , guille a , feral j - p , roux m ( eds ) echinoderms through time . b . balkema , rotterdam , pp 111\u2013120\npechenik ja ( 1999 ) on the advantages and disadvantages of larval stages in benthic marine invertebrate life cycles . mar ecol prog ser 177 : 269\u2013297 . doi :\npicken gb ( 1980 ) reproductive adaptations of antarctic benthic invertebrates . biol j linn soc 14 : 67\u201375 . doi :\npoulin e , feral j - p ( 1996 ) why are there so many species of brooding antarctic echinoids ? evol int j org evol 50 : 820\u2013830 . doi :\nrozas j , s\u00e1nchez - delbarrio jc , messeguer x , rozas r ( 2003 ) dnasp , dna polymorphism analyses by the coalescent and other methods . bioinformatics 19 : 2496\u20132497 . doi :\nschneider s , roessli d , excoyer l ( 2000 ) arlequin : a software for population genetics data analysis . university of geneva , geneva\nsimon c , frati f , beckenbach a , crespi b , liu h , flook p ( 1994 ) evolution , weighting and phylogenetic utility of mitochondrial gene sequence and a compilation of conserved polymerase chain reaction primers . ann entomol soc am 87 : 651\u2013701\nsimpson rd ( 1977 ) the reproduction of some littoral molluscs from macquarie island ( sub - antarctic ) . mar biol ( berl ) 44 : 135\u2013142 . doi :\nslatkin m ( 1985 ) gene flow in natural populations . annu rev ecol syst 16 : 393\u2013430 . doi :\nsotka ee , palumbi sr ( 2006 ) the use of genetic clines to estimate dispersal distances of marine larvae . ecology 87 ( 5 ) : 1094\u20131103 . doi :\nstewart jr , lister am ( 2001 ) cryptic northern refugia and the origins of the modern biota . trends ecol evol 16 ( 11 ) : 608\u2013613 . doi :\ntajima f ( 1989 ) statistical methods to test for nucleotide mutation hypothesis by dna polymorphism . genetics 123 : 585\u2013595\ntempleton ar ( 1998 ) nested clade analysis of phylogeographic data : testing hypotheses about gene flow and population history . mol ecol 7 : 381\u2013397 . doi :\nthajte s , hillenbrand c - d , larter r ( 2005 ) on the origin of antarctic marine benthic community structure . trends ecol evol 20 : 534\u2013540 . doi :\nthiel m , gutow l ( 2005 ) the ecology of rafting in the marine environment . ii . the rafting organisms and community . oceanogr mar biol ann rev 43 : 279\u2013418\nvermeij gj ( 1978 ) biogeography and adaptation : patterns of marine life . harvard university press , cambridge\nvermeij gj , palmer ar , lindberg dr ( 1990 ) range limits and dispersal of mollusks in the aleutian islands , alaska . veliger 33 : 346\u2013354\nwares jp , cunningham cw ( 2001 ) phylogeography and historical ecology of the north atlantic intertidal . evol int j org evol 55 ( 12 ) : 2455\u20132469\nfrom the atlantic sector of antarctica . mar biol ( berl ) 152 ( 4 ) : 895\u2013904 . doi :\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\nnymphon gracile leach , 1814 : godet et al . ( 2010 ) [ statut pour la france m\u00e9tropolitaine ] godet , l . , le mao , p . , grant , c . & olivier , f . 2010 . marine invertebrate fauna of the chausey archipelago : an annotated checklist of historical data from 1828 to 2008 . cahiers de biologie marine , 51 : 147 - 165 .\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nnymphon gracilipes miers , 1875 : miers ( 1875 ) : 76 . [ description originale ] miers , e . j . 1875 . descriptions of new species of crustacea collected at kerguelen ' s island by the rev . a . e . eaton . annals and magazine of natural history , 16 ( 91 ) : 73 - 76 . [ urltoken ]\nmiers ( 1875 ) : 76 . [ statut pour les \u00eeles subantarctiques ] miers , e . j . 1875 . descriptions of new species of crustacea collected at kerguelen ' s island by the rev . a . e . eaton . annals and magazine of natural history , 16 ( 91 ) : 73 - 76 . [ urltoken ]\nmunilla et al . ( 2009 ) : 104 . [ statut pour les \u00eeles subantarctiques ] munilla , t . , & soler membrives , a . 2009 . check - list of the pycnogonids from antarctic and sub - antarctic waters : zoogeographic implications . antarctic science , 21 ( 02 ) : 99 - 111 .\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is turned off in your web browser . please turn it on to take full advantage of arctos , or try our html specimensearch option .\ntaxon name is the\nnamestring\nor\nscientific name ,\nthe\ndata\nthat is used to form identifications and the core of every taxonomy record .\ntaxon term is the data value of either a classification term (\nanimalia\n) or classification metadata ( such as name authors ) .\nterm type is the rank (\nkingdom\n) for classification terms , in which role it may be null , and the label for classification metadata (\nauthor text\n) .\nsource indicates the source of a classification ( not a taxon name ) . some classifications are local ; most come from globalnames .\ncommon names are vernacular term associated with taxon names , and are not necessarily english , correct , or common .\nauthor _ text : pushkin , a . f . , 1993 display _ name : nymphon pseudogracilis pushkin , a . f . , 1993 nomenclatural _ code : iczn scientific _ name : nymphon pseudogracilis source _ authority : col 2011 checklist valid _ catalog _ term _ fg : 1\ncanonical name : nymphon pseudogracilis name string : nymphon pseudogracilis pushkin , a . f . , 1993\ncanonical name : nymphon pseudogracilis name string : nymphon pseudogracilis a . f . pushkin , 1993\nbarnes , 1968 elliot et al . , 1990 hayward and ryland , 1990 helfer , 1936 king and crapp , 1971 king , 1974 meisenheimer , 1928 sars , 1891\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe fauna wetland indicator species list ( wisl ) has been compiled to support the determination of whether a site is a wetland . wetland indicator species ( wis ) have adapted to living in wetlands and are dependent on them for all or part of their lives . some spend a major part of their life there , whereas others only use them for critical stages of their life cycle , such as breeding and larval development .\nthe presence of a wis at a site does not , in itself , confirm the site to be a wetland , but is one line of evidence towards determining the wetland status of a site .\nspecies are dependent on water and need to be immersed in water , or floating upon water , for their total life cycle .\nrequire water for most of their life cycle stages or for a critical stage in their development .\nthe wisl includes mainly the more common fauna species . most rare species and all vagrant fauna species have not been included . species , other than those listed , may also be wetland indicator species for a certain locality given expert recommendation and reliable site specific data .\nmost marine species are also not included in the wisl as the wetland definition excludes marine water more than 6m below low tide .\nknowledge of the species geographic distribution and behaviour will aid interpretation of some recorded observations . expert advice may be required when wis are recorded in an area without other identifiable wetland characteristics as the species may be :\ntravelling between wetlands ( e . g . crayfish , eels , crocodiles and birds )\nusing adjacent non - wetland habitat for a period of their life cycle or lifestyle ( e . g . chelidae freshwater turtles laying eggs on dry ground )\nforced into less preferred non - wetland habitat due to overpopulation pressures ( e . g . swamp rat ) .\nthe species groupings below are divided into subgroupings which contain species with similar habitat needs and behaviours . the wis lists have been grouped in 7 tables and are all at a species level except for insects and spiders .\nthere is little knowledge about queensland\u2019s freshwater crustaceans . expertise should be sought when using class crustacea as a wetland indicator species as some species are considered amphibious during their life cycle and may appear outside the wetland environment .\nthis section includes only the macro freshwater crustacean species within class crustacea , order decapoda and family either palaemondae ( freshwater crabs ) or parastacidae ( freshwater crayfish ) .\nall wild fish\u2014chondrichthyes ( cartilaginous fish ) and osteichthyes ( bony fish ) \u2014recognised as recorded within queensland are considered to be wis , depending on their typical habitat\u2019s physical characteristics as compared to those described in the queensland wetland program wetland definition .\nthe fish species in this list largely belong to the freshwater fish that are bed spawners ( demersal ) with the non - floating eggs sinking to the water column bed or adhering to submerged rocks or vegetation .\nother fish ( diadromus ) are dependent on estuarine and lower freshwater habitat early in their life cycles . the free floating young then move from the estuarine to the marine environment for their mature lives either breeding at sea or returning to estuarine or freshwater environments to breed .\nsome species move downstream to breed in the brackish water or even seawater and then migrate upstream ( catadromous ) . examples of these are australian perch and barramundi .\nmore extensive queensland fish species lists are available from the department of agriculture and fisheries ) . queensland\u2019s watercourses and estuaries are populated by freshwater and estuarine elasmobranchs ( rays , bull sharks , sawfish ) . the taxonomy , distribution and status of these creatures are poorly known and because of this expert guidance is essential if considering these as wetland indicator species .\nnote that species that may spend a part of their life in a marine environment are outside the scope of this guideline .\nthese creatures live most of their lives in aquatic ecosystems and are therefore considered wetland indicators .\nfrogs are amphibians , usually going through 3 distinct life cycle stages from eggs to aquatic larvae ( tadpole ) and air breathing adults . expert opinion should be sought as these animals may live at least one stage of their life cycle outside wetland habitats . the frog species selected for these lists are the most hydrophilic frog species whose life cycle fits within the queensland wetlands program wetland definition ( animals that are adapted to and dependent on living in wet conditions for at least part of their life cycle ) .\nthese frog species are considered to live an entirely aquatic life . one species is noted as being in seepage areas . as most members of the family microhylidae lay eggs on the land and are arboreal or terrestrial\nthese species do not spend all life stages ( egg , tadpole or maturity ) within the aquatic environment . these species can be indicators of wetland conditions , but require expert interpretation of their associations with wetlands .\nfor these species , the aquatic environment is essential for the early life stages ( egg and tadpole ) , and the mature stage is not aquatic but burrowed except for breeding events . therefore , these species are only an indicator for possible wetland conditions in the egg and tadpole stages , and during breeding events .\nthe birds listed in the following tables are selected for their close relationship with wetlands . to assist with identification , the lists have been divided into categories of species that share similar behaviour and habitats .\nthese lists include species that are easy to identify but are not complete lists of wetland species . uncommon and vagrant species are not included . it is important to note that some species in these lists may be recorded out of wetland habitats because they migrate or move during dry periods . this does not interfere with their status of wetland indicators but means that data used as wetland indication may require expert interpretation .\nit is also important to recognise that while most wader birds breed in wetlands of the northern hemisphere , they remain faithful to wetland sites when in australia .\nthese species are wetland specialists but do not spend their entire life in the water environment .\ndownload a list of all fauna wetland indicator species ( except insect and spider ) in . csv format\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\nwe obtained the nucleotide sequence of 18s rdna of nymphonella tapetis , a pycnogonid endoparasitic on some bivalves , together with that of other species belonging to ascorhynchidae hoek , 1881 . the phylogenetic tree based on these sequences as well as those of selected species from a database strongly supports the monophyly of ascorhynchidae and the inclusion of nymphonella in the family . nymphonella seems to be an aberrant form in the ascorhynchidae , but multi - gene analysis with more species is required for the exact determination of the taxonomic position of the genus .\nin this study we used the nucleotide sequences of 18s rrna with a selected taxon - sampling for analysis to discuss the taxonomic position of nymphonella in ascorhynchidae .\n( adult male , off kii - nagashima , mie , no further data ) .\ngenomic dna was isolated from absolute ethanol - preserved specimens using ez1 dna tissue kit ( qiagen , valencia , ca , usa ) . depending of the size of specimens , a whole leg or a part of leg was cut off from body , and macerated with a plastic pestle in a\ntube containing the lysis buffer ( buffer g2 ) and proteinase k . the tubes were then kept at\nuntil the tissues were completely lysed . isolation of genomic dna was performed using ez1 advanced instrument ( qiagen ) according to the manufacturer\u2019s instructions .\nfor pcr amplification , 10 ng of genomic dna was used for each reaction . amplification was made in a\nfor kod fx neo and 0 . 5 unit of dna polymerase ( kod fx neo ; toyobo , tokyo , japan ) . amplification of the 18s rrna region was carried out using primers 18su and 18sl (\n. the dna fragments were separated with electrophoresed in a 0 . 7 % agarose gel , and were purified using qiaquick gel extraction kit ( qiagen ) . nucleotide sequences were determined with an abi 3730 dna analyzer ( applied biosystems , foster city , ca , usa ) using a bigdye terminator v3 . 1 cycle sequencing kit ( applied biosystems ) . sequences produced in this study are deposited in ddbj / embl / genbank as follows ;\n) . there were a total of 1435 positions containing with gaps in the final dataset and missing data were eliminated . the evolutionary history was inferred by using the maximum likelihood ( ml ) method based on the\nwith mega6 . initial tree for the heuristic search was obtained automatically by applying neighbor - joining ( nj ) and bionj algorithms to a matrix of pairwise distances estimated using the maximum composite likelihood approach , and then selecting the topology with superior log likelihood value . the tree is drawn to scale , with branch lengths measured in the number of substitutions per site . ml bootstrap values were determined using 1000 replicates . we also performed the nj method (\n) using same data set and calculated bootstrap values ( 1000 replicates ) . nucleotide sequences of 18s rrna from\nthe phylogenetic tree by the nucleotide sequences of 18s rrna using the ml method is shown in fig . 1 . the identical tree - topology was obtained with the nj method .\nphylogenetic relationships of sea spiders deduced from the ml method using nuclear encoding 18s rdna gene partial sequences . the tree with the highest log likelihood\nis shown . the sequences determined in the present study are indicated by closed circle . numbers above branches indicate bootstrap values of ml ( left ) and nj ( right ) analysis .\nthe traditional taxonomic system of pycnogonids was based on gross morphology , particularly the presence / absence of head appendages ( stock , 1994 ; bamber , 2007 ) . recent analyses using modern techniques , however , reveal that some of the families are apparently polyphyletic ( arango , 2002 , 2003 ; arango and wheeler , 2007 ; nakamura et al . , 2007 ) . isolation of ascorhynchus and eurycyde from their traditional placement in ammotheidae was well supported by morphology , molecules , and their combined analyses ( arango , 2002 ; arango and wheeler , 2007 ; nakamura et al . , 2007 ) .\nnakamura et al . ( 2007 ) revived ascorhynchidae for the two genera although their tree showed a paraphyletic ascorhynchus . arabi et al . ( 2010 ) pointed out , however , that the paraphyletic pattern was due to the mis - rooting probably due to an inappropriate selection of out - group . in this study , the phylogenetic tree by the nucleotide sequences of 18s rrna shows a very high support for the ascorhynchus - eurycyd - clade both in the ml and the nj methods ( fig . 1 ) . the monophyly of the family was not strongly supported by 18s - based analyses of chow et al . ( 2012 ) . it was presumed that a high similarity of sequences of out - group species suppressed the probabilities and bootstrap values in their tree ( nei and kumar , 2000 ) .\nin pycnogonids , the taxon sampling and the sequences are still not sufficient for a detailed phylogenetic reconstruction . in addition , more biological information is required for an appropriate evaluation on the evolution of their traits , e . g . , endoparasitism in n . tapetis .\nthe authors would like to thank dr . masato kiyomoto and dr . mamiko hirose , tateyama marine laboratory , marine and coastal research center , ochanomizu university for their kind assistance in providing some materials . this study was supported by jsps kakenhi grant - in - aid for scientific research ( b ) , no . 26292105 . this paper is dedicated to the memory of the late dr . roger n . bamber , a great inquirer of the various aspects in pycnogonid biology .\nthe last of the arctic voyages , being a narrative of the expedition of hms assitance . under the command of captain sir edward belcher\nnouvelle signalisation du genre nymphonella ohshima \u00e0 banyuls - sur - mer : nymphonella lecalvezi n . sp .\nspecial section i : on marine cheliceriforms \u2013 in memory of roger bamber , from a symposium at the 8th international crustacean congress , 18 - 23 august 2014 , frankfurt am main , germany , guest - edited by claudia j . arango\noxford university press is a department of the university of oxford . it furthers the university ' s objective of excellence in research , scholarship , and education by publishing worldwide\nfor full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription ."]}
{"id": 1774, "summary": [{"text": "the greater horseshoe bat ( rhinolophus ferrumequinum ) is a european bat of the rhinolophus genus .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "its distribution covers europe , africa , south asia and australia .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "it is the largest of the european horseshoe bats and is thus easily distinguished from other species .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the species is sedentary , typically travelling up to 30 km between the winter and summer roosts , with the longest recorded movement being 180 km .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the species is notable as having the oldest recorded age for any european bat , with a bat living for over 30 years .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the frequencies used by this bat species for echolocation lie between 69 \u2013 83 khz , have most energy at 81 khz and have an average duration of 37.4 ms.", "topic": 25}], "title": "greater horseshoe bat", "paragraphs": ["can be distinguished from the lesser horseshoe bat by size . the forearm of the greater horseshoe bat is longer than 45mm .\nthe photograph on the left shows an adult greater horseshoe bat with an offspring .\nparentage , reproductive success and breeding behaviour in the greater horseshoe bat ( rhinolophus ferrumequinum ) .\nthe greater horseshoe bat prefers traditionally managed farmland , with grazing pasture and broad - leaved woodland .\nlynn , jennifer .\ninteresting facts about the greater horseshoe bat\naccessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken\nlynn , jennifer .\ninteresting facts about the greater horseshoe bat .\nanimals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / interesting - greater - horseshoe - bat - 5547 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .\nlongley m ( 2003 ) greater horseshoe bat project 1998\u20132003 . english nature report no . 532 . natural england , uk\nlynn , jennifer . ( n . d . ) . interesting facts about the greater horseshoe bat . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / interesting - greater - horseshoe - bat - 5547 . html\nbat conservation trust . ( 2000 ) . greater horseshoe bat : rhinolophus ferrumequinum . [ internet ] , london , bat conservation trust . available from : urltoken . [ accessed 20 january 2001 ] .\n\u0095 the photograph on the left shows a typical habitat of greater horseshoe bats .\ngb - level population trends for greater horseshoe bat from the hibernation survey and the roost count are shown on this page .\nthe diet of greater horseshoe bats mainly consists of lepidoptera and coleoptera ( vaughan , 1997 ) . greater horseshoe bats forage using perch - hunting , hawking and gleaning strategies .\nrossiter sj , burland tm , jones g , barratt em . characterization of microsatellite loci in the greater horseshoe bat rhinolophus ferrumequinum .\naverage values for a greater horseshoe bat echolocation call , as given by vaughan et al . ( 1997 ) , are listed below :\nthe photograph on the left shows cockchafer remains found beneath a feeding perch of greater horseshoe bats .\ncharacteristics of 38 microsatellite loci , used in parentage analysis , when amplified in greater horseshoe bats .\npopulation trends are also calculated for greater horseshoe bat at a country - level for england and wales . this species is not found in scotland .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - greater horseshoe bat hunting and feeding\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - greater horseshoe bat hunting and feeding\ntitle =\narkive video - greater horseshoe bat hunting and feeding\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - greater horseshoe bat ( rhinolophus ferrumequinum )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - greater horseshoe bat ( rhinolophus ferrumequinum )\ntitle =\narkive species - greater horseshoe bat ( rhinolophus ferrumequinum )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthere are approximately 100 species of horseshoe bats which belong to the rhinolophus genus . the single species of greater horseshoe bats , or rhinolophus ferrumequinum , is the largest species of horseshoe bats , who get their names from the facial flesh that resembles the horseshoe .\nmaximum age recorded in europe is 30 years ( schober & grimmberger , 1989 ) . greater horseshoe bats have the longest recorded age of any european bat .\nthe greater horseshoe bat is one of britain ' s largest , found in southwest england and south wales . it is also found in north africa and asia . the species is known for its unique mouth structure and monogamous mating habits . the greater horseshoe bat population is declining , making conservation efforts a priority .\n\u0095 the greater horseshoe bat is listed in the uk biodiversity action plan and is one of the rarest mammal species in the united kingdom . the main threats facing greater horseshoe bats are the loss of roost sites and foraging areas ( duverg\u00e9 & jones , 2003 )\nthis complex of abandoned stone mines provides suitable hibernation conditions for a range of bat species and has a long history of usage by greater horseshoe bats rhinolophus ferrumequinum .\ndepartment of the environment and energy ( doee ) 2017 . rhinolophus philippinensis greater large - eared horseshoe bat in species profile and threats database . doee , canberra .\n( least horseshoe bat ) with cross - amplification in five related species . cons gen 10 : 597\u2013600 .\nas part of the devon greater horseshoe bat project , a camera has been installed in one of our large greater horseshoe roosts . you can see some fantastic live footage on the website of the bats in the roost . the best time to watch it is just before sunset when the bats are flying around inside the roost in preparation to emerge for the night . visit the devon greater horseshoe bat project website to view the live footage .\nthe british population of greater horseshoe bats has declined and is now very fragmented . analysis by rossiter et al . ( 2000b ) showed that welsh populations of greater horseshoe bats are genetically isolated and have relatively low genetic variation .\nthe echolocation call of greater horseshoe bats is constant frequency with a frequency modulated component at the start and end .\n\u0095 greater horseshoe bats are on the verge of becoming a threatened species worldwide ( iucn status , 2001 ) .\nthe greater horseshoe bat is found in central and southern europe but has declined significantly in northern europe . in the uk it is restricted to southern england and south wales .\n) . our first objective was to investigate the effects of climate and land - use changes on greater horseshoe bat populations . we tested the hypothesis that targeted aess would benefit\nransome rd ( 1991 ) greater horseshoe bat . in : corbet gb hs , editor . the handbook of british mammals . oxford : blackwell scientific . pp . 88\u201394 .\nrossiter , s . , j . jones , r . ransome , e . barratt . 2000 . genetic variation and population structure in the endangered greater horseshoe bat rhinolophus ferrmequinum .\nthe greater horseshoe bat earned the title of greater because it is larger than other species of horseshoe bats , which are sometimes called lesser horseshoe bats . the greater horseshoe bat weighs up to 34 grams or about 1 . 2 ounces , and has a body length of 58 to 70 millimeters or 2 . 3 to 2 . 7 inches . this is considerably larger than the lesser horseshoe bats , who may weigh only 5 to 9 grams , or about one - third of an ounce with a body length of 35 to 45 millimeters or approximately 1 1 / 2 to 2 inches .\nthis site in south - west wales contains the main hibernation site for the population associated with pembrokeshire bat sites csac . it may thus be used by up to 5 . 5 % of the uk population of greater horseshoe bat rhinolophus ferrumequinum .\nduverg\u00e9 p , jones g ( 1994 ) greater horseshoe bats\u2014activity , foraging behaviour and habitat use . br wildl 6 : 69\nfew species of bats practice fidelity when it comes to mating , but some female greater horseshoe bats return to the same male season after season within polygamous colonies . observed colonies with tagged female greater horseshoe bats have proven that many females mate with the same male during several mating seasons . after a 75 day gestation period , the female horseshoe bat gives birth to one baby bat while hanging upside down and catches her offspring in her wings .\nmarked in blue on the diagram above is a typical foraging path of greater horseshoe bats ( based on russ , 1999 ) .\nransome rd ( 1995 ) earlier breeding shortens life in female greater horseshoe bats . phil trans r soc b 350 : 153\u2013161 .\ncollins j ( 2016 ) bat surveys for professional ecologists : good practice guidelines , 3rd edn . the bat conservation trust , london\nthe greater horseshoe bat ' s name precisely describes the animal ' s most distinct characteristic . the species '\nhorseshoe\nis the u - shaped structure surrounding the bat ' s nose . also called a noseleaf , this fleshy facial feature enhances echolocation , a process that the bat uses to navigate distance and locate prey . the bat makes noises that vibrate and amplify through the nostrils and off the noseleaf , then travels and bounce off surrounding objects , giving the bat direction and leading it to insects to eat .\nthis site in southern england includes the hibernation sites associated with 15 % of the uk greater horseshoe bat rhinolophus ferrumequinum population and is selected on the basis of the importance of this exceptionally large overwintering population .\nransome rd ( 2008 ) greater horseshoe bat . in : harris s , yalden dw ( eds ) mammals of the british isles : handbook , 4th edn . the mammal society , southampton , pp 298\u2013306\nthe greater horseshoe bat is rare in the uk with a distribution restricted to south - west england and south wales . it is absent from scotland and northern ireland . it is also recorded in the channel islands .\nknown threats to this bat are roost destruction and disturbance . two mines used by the greater large - eared horseshoe bat as roosts have been disturbed or destroyed . it is also suspected that human roost disturbance of roosts and over - collection from well - known colony sites is affecting the species .\ntrends from both the hibernation survey and roost count show a statistically significant increase in the smoothed population index since the baseline year . overall the population of greater horseshoe bat in great britain is considered to have increased since 1999 .\nnocturnally active , the greater large - eared horseshoe bat captures insects ( beetles and moths ) from the air or surfaces during flight . their flight is slow and fluttery . it lands to rest and to consume its prey .\na recovery plan for cave - dwelling bats , rhinolophus philippinensis , hipposideros semoni and taphozous troughtoni 2001 - 2005 has been developed . the recovery plan outlines management actions for the conservation of the greater large - eared horseshoe bat .\ncitation : ward hl , ransome rd , jones g , rossiter sj ( 2014 ) determinants and patterns of reproductive success in the greater horseshoe bat during a population recovery . plos one 9 ( 2 ) : e87199 . urltoken\nbritain\u2019s population of some 10 , 000 greater horseshoe bats ( rhinolophus ferrumequinum ) was until recently restricted to south and west wales and south - west england .\nransome rd ( 1989 ) population - changes of greater horseshoe bats studied near bristol over the past 26 years . biol j linn soc 38 : 71\u201382 .\nfrom all years for which data are available ( 1990 - 2016 ) , counts from 201 sites contribute to the overall trend analysis ( sites surveyed in two or more years with greater horseshoe bat recorded in at least one year ) .\nthe distribution of paternities and maternities awarded at > 80 % confidence to a ) 135 breeding males , and b ) 216 breeding females respectively , in the woodchester mansion greater horseshoe bat population over a period of 19 years ( 1993\u20132011 ) .\ninventoried in the uk under the national bat monitoring programme ( walsh et al .\nis easily identified by a horseshoe - shaped flap of skin surrounding the nostrils .\nforaging habitat management - suitable habitat for foraging should be maintained and where possible expanded within 2 km of roost sites . in the case of the greater horseshoe bat , good habitat includes broadleaved woodland and unimproved grassland , rather than coniferous woodland or improved grazing .\nthis horseshoe bat has very large ears and a yellow or grey noseleaf . its large ear length distinguishes it from the eastern horseshoe - bat , rhinolophus megaphyllus , which has smaller ears . its fur is grey to brown on the back and slightly lighter on the belly . it can weigh between 8 . 3 \u2013 16 . 2 g .\nduring the day the bat roosts in caves and mines with high humidity . they often can be found roosting alongside eastern horseshoe - bats . a single young is born in november .\nis the largest horseshoe bat in europe ( schober and grimmberger , 1997 ) . its most distinctive feature is the upper saddle process or noseleaf , the upper part of which is pointed while the lower part is horseshoe shaped ( nowak , 1994 ) . tooth and bone structures distinguish\n) , these recommendations will also be highly beneficial for other bat species ( boughey et al .\nmccracken gf , bradbury jw . paternity and genetic heterogeneity in the polygynous bat , phyllostomus hastatus .\nas its population has started to recover , individuals and small colonies have been recorded as far away as north wales and sussex . unlike the lesser horseshoe bat , it is absent from ireland .\n) emphasized the weak influence of climate for explaining local , long - term bat population trends . similarly , when assessing bat species richness and community composition at a regional scale mehr et al . (\nthe greater large - eared horseshoe bat can be found in north queensland , from townsville to cape york . the smaller form ( sometimes referred to as r . philippinensis achilles ) is restricted to the more northerly parts of the species ' distribution , on iron range and mcilwraith range on cape york .\nthe greater horseshoe bat population of northern europe has declined significantly over the last 100 years ( an estimated decline of 90 % ) , such that the uk population is now restricted to south west england and wales ( although occasional specimens are recorded elsewhere ) . there are currently 35 recognised maternity ( and all year ) roosts and 369 hibernation roosts in the country , with the population estimated to be between 4 , 000 and 6 , 600 individuals . internationally , the greater horseshoe bat occurs throughout the area between the atlantic coast of europe and japan , but the population appears to be declining almost everywhere .\ngreater horseshoe bats ' median emergence is 25 minutes after sunset ( jones & rydell , 1994 ) and they return to the roost 5 - 30 minutes before sunrise ( duverg\u00e9 and jones , 1994 ) .\ndietz m , pir jb , hillen j ( 2013 ) does the survival of greater horseshoe bats and geoffroy\u2019s bats in western europe depend on traditional cultural landscapes ? biodivers conserv 22 : 3007\u20133025 . doi :\nchanges in male reproductive skew ( filled circles ) and cohort size ( open circles ) through time in the woodchester mansion greater horseshoe bat population . because adult females maximally produce one offspring per year , the number of pups born is a proxy for the colony size , which in turn reflects the population size .\nwalsh al , catto cmc , hutson am , racey pa , richardson pw , langton sd ( 2001 ) the uk\u2019s national bat monitoring programme : final report 2001 . the bat conservation trust , london , uk\nmells valley in southern england is selected on the basis of the size of its exceptional breeding population . it contains the maternity site associated with a population comprising about 12 % of the uk greater horseshoe bat rhinolophus ferrumequinum population . a proportion of the population also hibernates at the site , though other hibernation sites remain unknown .\nthis site in south - west wales supports approximately 9 . 5 % of the uk greater horseshoe bat rhinolophus ferrumequinum population . it represents the species at the north - western extremity of its range . the site contains a mixture of maternity , transitory and hibernation sites and so demonstrates good conservation of features required for survival .\nbat species in the european alps reveals contrasting implications for conservation . biodivers conserv 22 : 2751\u20132766 . doi :\nthis complex of sites on the border between england and wales represents greater horseshoe bat rhinolophus ferrumequinum in the northern part of its range , with about 6 % of the uk population . the site contains the main maternity roost for bats in this area , which are believed to hibernate in the many disused mines in the forest .\n\u0095 a study by duverg\u00e9 and jones ( 1994 ) found that greater horseshoe bats preferred the following habitats ( in descending order ) : pastures with cattle ( either single / mixed stock ) , ancient semi - woodland and pastures with non - cattle stock . woodlands and pasture close to woodland were used to a greater extent in spring and early summer while pasture was predominantly used in summer . rides , footpaths , hedges and treelines were used by greater horseshoe bats when flying in these feeding areas . the bats were generally less than 2m away from these structures .\nthe greater horseshoe bat ( rhinolophus ferrumequinum ) is the larger of the two horseshoe bats found in britain . they are so - named from the horseshoe shaped nose ' leaf ' , used as part of the bat ' s echolocation system . the ears are leaf - shaped and have a sharply pointed tip . the fur is thick , and coloured ash - grey above , and buff underneath . bats are not blind as was once popularly thought . they have good eyesight but rely on their echolocation to navigate and to detect their insect prey . they emit a succession of high - pitched squeaks and judge their position and the location of their prey from the reflected echoes .\ninstall bat gates , fences or develop other appropriate protective systems to prevent human disturbance of roost and maternity sites .\nduverg\u00e9 p , jones g ( 2003 ) habitat use by greater horseshoe bats . in : tattersall f , manley w ( eds ) conservation and conflict : mammals and farming in britain . westbury publishing , west yorkshire , pp 64\u201381\nthe greater horseshoe bat is a relatively large species by british standards ( forearm : 51 - 59 mm ; head and body : 56 - 68 mm ; wingspan : 360 mm ; weight : 13 - 34 g ) , with medium to light brown fur ( often greyer and paler on the animals underside ) , a horseshoe nose - leaf and long legs ( with which it hangs from its roost , often with its wing wrapped around its body ) .\nracey , p . 1982 . ecology of bat reproduction . pp . 57 - 93 in t kruz , ed .\n\u0095 in order to protect greater horseshoe bat colonies , duverg\u00e9 & jones ( 2003 ) suggest that permanently grazed pastures should not be ploughed and used from arable crops and that woodland and hedgerows should be retained . hedegrows should be approximately 4m high and 2 - 3m wide and should not be intensively trimmed . important habitats within 4km of roost sites should be preserved .\neffect size and significance of each fixed variable added to a general linear mixed model built to describe male and female reproductive success respectively in the woodchester mansion greater horseshoe population . mx denotes model number , n denotes sample size , na \u2018not applicable\u2019 ,\nthe 919 maternities assigned during the period between 1993 and 2011 were shared among 216 individual females . female greater horseshoe bats showed considerable variation in total reproductive success among breeding females across the 19 year period , which ranged from one to eighteen pups (\nthe greater horseshoe bat has declined by over 90 percent in numbers during the last 100 years . this is due largely to habitat loss , caused by modern intensive farming methods . the destruction of woods , roosting sites , old pastureland , and the use of chemical insecticides , which have seriously reduced the abundance of their insect prey , have all contributed to this decline .\n( rhinolophidae , chiroptera ) and their cross - utility in 17 other bat species . mol ecol notes 4 : 96\u2013100 .\n) . this case study based on a light - intolerant bat species also highlights another major challenge for bat conservationists : the impact of light pollution on photophobic species at a landscape scale . previous studies have shown that one of the most common mitigation measures for reducing alan , switching street lights off after midnight , fails to mitigate its negative effect on light - intolerant bat species including\ngreater horseshoe bats are declining in numbers in all regions where they dwell . the population has decreased up to 90 percent in a century . increasing human populations , urbanized forests and pastures , and a decreased food supply as the result of insecticides are possible causes of the species ' declining numbers . throughout much of europe , the species is protected by law and its habitats monitored and conserved . in recent years , greater horseshoe bats have become prevalent on organic farms because of the natural , pesticide - free environment afforded .\nerket , h . 1982 . ecological aspects of bat activity rhythms . pp . 201 - 236 in t kruz , ed .\nhave been monitored in the uk by volunteers since 1997 under the national bat monitoring programme ( nbmp ) ( walsh et al .\n) . finally , as lighting near colony roosts is known to have detrimental effects on photophobic bat species ( boldogh et al .\nwe are very grateful to the bat conservation trust for providing data from the national bat monitoring programme ( nbmp ) . the nbmp is run by the bat conservation trust , in partnership with the joint nature conservation committee , and supported and steered by natural england , natural resources wales , northern ireland environment agency , and scottish natural heritage . the nbmp is indebted to all volunteers who contribute data to the programme . the greater horseshoe bat roost count is funded by natural england . we thank jennifer j . freer for proof reading the manuscript , and s . parsons and two anonymous reviewers who made valuable comments and suggestions that helped to improve an earlier version of the manuscript . this study was funded by the biotechnology and biological sciences research council through the south west biosciences doctoral training partnership .\nschmidt , s . , evidence for a spectral basis of texture perception in bat sonar , nature , 1988 , 331 : 617\u2013619 .\nduverg\u00e9 and jones ( 1994 ) found that the diet of greater horseshoe bats mainly consisted of lepidoptera and coleoptera ( 30 - 45 % ) , followed by diptera ( 10 - 20 % ) and hymenoptera ( 5 - 10 % ) , although these proportions change seasonally .\nbarlow ke , briggs pa , haysom ka , hutson am , lechiara nl , racey pa , walsh al , langton sd ( 2015 ) citizen science reveals trends in bat populations : the national bat monitoring programme in great britain . biol conserv 182 : 14\u201326 . doi :\nprotection of roosts - greater horseshoe bats are sensitive to disturbance , especially of their nursery and winter roosts ; consequently these sites need to be protected and entrances left unobstructed ( in some cases , grids that allow access for bats , but prevent human access may be used ) .\nburland tm , barratt em , beaumont ma , racey pa . population genetic structure and gene flow in a gleaning bat , plecotus auritus .\njones g , duverg\u00e9 pl , ransome rd ( 1995 ) conservation biology of an endangered species : field studies of greater horseshoe bats . in : racey pa , swift sm ( eds ) ecology , evolution and behaviour of bats , symposia of the zoological society of london , pp 309\u2013324\n) . therefore we recommend that remaining dark flyways within the bat\u2019s core sustenance zone should be protected and new ones created ( gaston et al .\nthe greater horseshoe bat is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) . it is classified as endangered in the uk , listed under appendix ii of the bonn convention , appendix ii of the berne convention , annexes ii and iv of the ec habitats directive , schedule 2 of the conservation regulations 1994 and protected in the uk under schedule 5 of the wildlife and countryside act ( as amended ) .\nsouth hams in south - west england is thought to hold the largest population of greater horseshoe bat rhinolophus ferrumequinum in the uk , and is the only one containing more than 1 , 000 adult bats ( 31 % of the uk species population ) . it contains the largest known maternity roost in the uk and possibly in europe . as the site contains both maternity and hibernation sites it demonstrates good conservation of the features required for survival .\npark et al . ( 2002 ) studied torpor , arousal and activity in free - living greater horseshoe bats and found that arousal tends to be closely synchronized with dusk . as the temperature increased , the bats ' torpor bout duration decreased , probably because of the increased rate of water loss .\nthe shading illustrates the diversity of this group - the darker the colour the greater the number of species . data provided by wwf ' s wildfinder .\nhorseshoe bats are named after the shape of their noseleaves , a complex horseshoe - shaped fold of skin used to emit echolocational calls and help focus the sound . broad , round wings provide these bats with excellent manoeuvrability and agility in tight spaces , with many species actually able to hover and pick insects off surfaces and spiders ' webs . horseshoe bats also have a unique roosting posture , wrapping their wings around their body and enshrouding themselves . however , the 100 or so horseshoe species have an array of roosting habits , from large cave colonies to hanging in the open among tree branches .\nthis site in south - west england is selected on the basis of the size of population represented ( 3 % of the uk greater horseshoe bat rhinolophus ferrumequinum population ) and its good conservation of structure and function , having both maternity and hibernation sites . this site contains an exceptionally good range of the sites used by the population , comprising two maternity sites in lowland north somerset and a variety of cave and mine hibernation sites in the mendip hills .\n) found a much greater effect of land - use compared to climate . however , the assessment of bat activity and species distributions across broader scales , such as across the british range of species has revealed the great importance of meteorological variables in addition to land - use and landscape characteristics ( walsh and harris\ncsorba , g . , ujhelyi , p . , thomas , n . , horseshoe bats of the world , shropshire : alana books , 2003 .\ngreater horseshoe bats appear in appendix ii of the berne convention ( convention on the conservation of european wildlife and natural habitats ) . this requires that they be strictly protected against deliberate killing , capture , damage / destruction of breeding and nesting sites , disturbance , trading ( including parts and derivatives ) , etc .\ncalculates the log - likelihood of each candidate parent being the true parent relative to an arbitrary individual and then calculates the difference between the two most likely parents ( delta , \u03b4 ) . critical values of \u03b4 are determined by computer simulation , which incorporates a realistic rate of sampling error and also removes a specified proportion of candidate parents to reflect the real world in which not all animals are sampled . since greater horseshoe bat mothers appear to only suckle their own offspring\n) , bat populations of many species seem to be recovering in the great britain as well as in other european countries ( van der meij et al .\ngriffin , d . r . , simmons , j . a . , echolocation of insects by horseshoe bats , nature , 1974 , 250 : 731\u2013732 .\n\u0095 duverg\u00e9 and jones ( 1994 ) found that a range of high - quality foraging areas is essential for the survival of greater horseshoe bats . they therefore suggest the conservation of ancient semi - natural , deciduous and mixed woodlands . pasture with cattle grazing is also very important ( duverg\u00e9 & jones , 1994 ) . thick hedgerows , treelines or fences along the field boundaries should be maintained as prey tends to accumulate on the leeward side of these structures and because they provide perch sites and travel routes for the bats . duverg\u00e9 and jones ( 1994 ) suggest that key habitats within 4km of a greater horseshoe roost site are maintained or improved .\ngreater horseshoe bats often roost in buildings during the summer , and their presence can be detected by piles of excrement on the ground . they leave their roosts just after sunset , and during the summer , spend about an hour feeding before returning . they often feed again just before dawn . at the end of august they stay on the wing all night . greater horseshoe bats mate in autumn , sometimes in late winter or early spring . they form maternity roosts in may and the young are born in mid - july . this species reaches maturity at around three years old and they may live for 30 years . their preferred food is large beetles , such as cockchafers and dung beetles , large moths and caddis flies . they have been observed watching from a regular roost and then flying out to take passing insects . greater horseshoe bats hibernate in caves , cellars or disused mines , from late september to mid - may . they may emerge to feed during mild spells .\nparsons s , jones g ( 2000 ) acoustic identification of twelve species of echolocating bat by discriminant function analysis and artificial neural networks . j exp biol 203 : 2641\u20132656\nbrack , v . , laval , r . k . , food habits of the indiana bat in missouri , j . mammal , 1985 , 66 : 308\u2013325 .\n\u0095 foraging habitats may be lost through changes in land - use or farming practices or the removal of linear features such as hedgerows . greater horseshoe bats may also be at risk from chemicals used on nearby vegetation , if they either come into contact with that vegetation or consume insects that have been sprayed or eaten sprayed food . there is some indication that the use of avermectin worming compounds may impact on bat activity via its effects on insects in the cowpat community ( duverg\u00e9 & jones , 2003 ) .\nthe following habitats are found across the horseshoe bats distribution range . find out more about these environments , what it takes to live there and what else inhabits them .\nwe studied the determinants of male and female reproductive success in wild greater horseshoe bats ( rhinolophus ferrumequinum ) by examining patterns of parentage over a 19 year period between 1993 and 2011 . based on a likelihood method , mothers were assigned to 99 . 5 % and fathers to 76 . 8 % of 924 pups born into the woodchester population .\nthis study demonstrates the value of long term , standardised monitoring of bat maternity roosts when assessing the impact of conservation management . in accordance to other studies ( duverg\u00e9 and jones\npetri b , p\u00e4bo s , von haeseler a , tautz d . paternity assessment and population subdivision in a natural population of the larger mouse - eared bat myotis myotis .\n\u0095 roost sites may be lost as buildings ( especially those associated with farms ) are converted or become derelict . a range of buildings are needed for activities such as mating , breeding and night roosting . greater horseshoe bats may also be at risk from chemicals used within roost sites , for example , remedial timber treatment ( duverg\u00e9 & jones , 2003 ) .\n) . furthermore , the potential benefits of aess on bats have so far been assessed using acoustic indexes ( i . e . bat activity ) ( fuentes - montemayor et al .\nbellamy c , altringham j ( 2015 ) predicting species distributions using record centre data : multi - scale modelling of habitat suitability for bat roosts . plos one 10 : e0128440 . doi :\nday j , baker j , schofield h , mathews f , gaston k ( 2015 ) part - night lighting : implications for bat conservation . anim conserv 18 : 512\u2013516 . doi :\nwillis ckr , brigham rm ( 2007 ) social thermoregulation exerts more influence than microclimate on forest roost preferences by a cavity - dwelling bat . behav ecol sociobiol 62 : 97\u2013108 . doi :\nmccracken gf , wilkinson gs ( 2000 ) bat mating systems . in : crichton eg , krutzsch ph , editors . reproductive biology of bats . cambridge : academic press . 321\u2013357 p .\nthe horseshoe bats can be found in a number of locations including : africa , asia , australia , europe , united kingdom . find out more about these places and what else lives there .\ngreater horseshoe bats are a protected species in the u . k . and bats were caught and sampled under licences from english nature and the home office ( ppl 30 / 2513 ) . permission for access to catch bats at the maternity roost was granted by the woodchester mansion trust , and for access to catch bats in caves and mines on land that is privately owned , from the land owners .\nalthough thomas ( 1997 , unpublished thesis ) found very high divergence in mitochondrial dna sequences , csorba et al . 2003 refrained from splitting japanese greater horseshoe bats ( rhinolophus nippon ) from r . ferrumequinum . several subspecies are identified over the range , of which two occur in the western palaearctic : r . f . creticus ( crete ) and r . f . ferrumequinum ( rest of western palaearctic range ) .\nsurlykke , a . , miller , l . a . , the influence of arctiid moth clicks on bat echolocation : jamming or waring ? j . comp . physiol . , 1985 , 156a : 831\u2013843 .\nbontadina f , schmied sf , beck a , arlettaz r ( 2008 ) changes in prey abundance unlikely to explain the demography of a critically endangered central european bat . j appl ecol 45 : 641\u2013648 . doi :\nheim o , treitler jt , tschapka m , kn\u00f6rnschild m , jung k ( 2015 ) the importance of landscape elements for bat activity and species richness in agricultural areas . plos one 10 : e0134443 . doi :\nm\u03c6hl , b . , miller , l . a . , ultrasonic clicks produced by the peacock butterfly : a possible bat - repellent mechanism , j . exp . biol . , 1976 , 64 : 639\u2013644 .\ndoes not hunt in the winter unless the air temperature is warm enough for insect flight , and as a result they hunt less during colder and inclement weather ( racey , 1982 ) . like other microchiropteran bat species ,\nfrey - ehrenbold a , bontadina f , arlettaz r , obrist mk ( 2013 ) landscape connectivity , habitat structure and activity of bat guilds in farmland - dominated matrices . j appl ecol 50 : 252\u2013261 . doi :\nunder domestic legislation , greater horseshoe bats are covered by the wildlife and countryside act 1981 ( as amended ) . under schedule 5 the deliberate killing , injuring , taking , possessing , disturbing and selling ( including parts and derivatives ) as well as damaging , destroying or obstructing any structure or place of refuge etc are prohibited . under schedule 6 , certain methods of killing or taking animals are specifically prohibited , and even humane trapping for research requires a licence .\nboughey kl , lake ir , haysom ka , dolman pm ( 2011a ) effects of landscape - scale broadleaved woodland configuration and extent on roost location for six bat species across the uk . biol conserv 144 : 2300\u20132310 . doi :\nrydell , j . , skals , n . , surlykke , a . et al . , hearing and bat defence in geometrid winter moths , proc . r . soc . lond . b , 1997 , 264 : 83\u201388 .\na female produces one baby which is typically born during june or july ( schober and grimmberger , 1997 ) . young open their eyes at 7 day and can fly during the third to fourth week . after seven to eight weeks , young are ready to leave the roost . females form maternity roosts in warmer places such as attics to care for the young ( schober and grimmberger , 1997 ) . greater horseshoe bats lose their milk teeth before birth ( nowak , 1994 ) .\nrazgour o , hanmer j , jones g ( 2011 ) using multi - scale modelling to predict habitat suitability for species of conservation concern : the grey long - eared bat as a case study . biol conserv 144 : 2922\u20132930 . doi :\nsummer roosts : nursery roosts are found in attics in old buildings which can be accessed by uninterrupted flight and contain up to 200 females ( greenaway & hutson , 1990 ) . greater horseshoe bats wrap their wings around their body and hang freely by the feet . hang with their offspring either singly or in small groups . adult males may be found in nursery roosts but leave when the young are born in mid summer . males hold the same territory each year , and females return here annually .\nthe timing of the births of greater horseshoe bats was studied by ransome and mcowat ( 1994 ) for three colonies in south - west wales and south - west england . birth timing was significantly correlated with spring temperature , with young being born earlier after warmer springs . cold springs and late births led to population declines and male - biased sex ratios at all three sites in 1986 , although all the colonies recovered following subsequent warm springs . births were approximately 18 days earlier when temperatures rose by 2\u00b0c .\nthe relationship between forearm length and paternity success among breeding males between 1993 and 2011 ; larger males had greater annual reproductive success . in addition , male forearm length significantly and positively influenced total male reproductive success over the 19 year period between 1993 and 2011 .\ngreater horseshoe bats have polygynous mating systems although rossiter et al . ( 2000a ) found that some females had offspring from the same male in separate years . fidelity for either individuals or mating sites is likely to explain this behaviour , although it could also be due to sperm competition . females mated with males from their natal colony as well as with males from outside the colony . rossiter et al . ( 2000a ) suggest that gene flow between colonies occurs through male and female dispersal during the mating period .\nin contrast to males , analyses of a long - term dataset provided no evidence that maternity success was significantly skewed among breeding females . female reproductive skew is most commonly reported within cooperatively breeding species [ 21 ] , but has also been documented in populations of mammal species that , like the greater horseshoe bat , exhibit reversed sexual size dimorphism , such as the spotted hyena in which there is aggressive competition for males and female reproductive success is strongly correlated with social rank [ 15 ] . however , a lack of evidence of social hierarchy among female greater horseshoe bats , as well as the lack of skew documented among breeders and the observation that female reproductive success does not relate to body size . all suggest that there is little or no intra - sexual competition among females for males in this population . indeed , almost all females that reach breeding age ( \u22652 years ) do successfully breed . our results are more consistent with male - dominated polygynous breeding systems , where female success is less dependent on body size [ 71 ] . the fact that almost all females , but only a third of males , breed within the woodchester population , despite a relatively even sex ratio , supports the commonly held theory that females are more selective when it comes to choosing mates than males [ 64 ] .\nmehr m , brandl r , hothorn t , dziock f , foerster b , mueller j ( 2011 ) land use is more important than climate for species richness and composition of bat assemblages on a regional scale . mamm biol 76 : 451\u2013460 . doi :\nschnitzler , h . u . , hackbarth , h . , heilmann , u . et al . , echolocation behavior of rufous horseshoe bats hunting for insects in the flycatcher - style , j . comp . physiol . , 1985 , 157a : 39\u201346 .\nthis species is listed in the uk biodiversity action plans ( ukbaps ) , and has been included in english nature ' s species recovery programme . it belongs to a family of animals that have been much maligned over the centuries . however , more people are realising just how fascinating bats are , and they receive a high level of legal protection . the main effort in their conservation is to encourage landowners and farmers to manage their land in ways that benefit the bats . they are also being asked to limit the use of ivermectin insecticides , commonly used for treating cattle . the chemical in the insecticide also poisons the cattle ' s dung , and kills the larvae of dung beetles , one of the greater horseshoe bat ' s principal foods . as more people learn about bats , it is hoped that the efforts to conserve them as a breeding species will gain more support . they are an intriguing group of mammals , and undeserving of their sinister reputation . the bat conservation trust carries out work on surveys and monitoring , and employs many volunteers .\nazam c , le viol i , julien j - f , bas y , kerbiriou c ( 2016 ) disentangling the relative effect of light pollution , impervious surfaces and intensive agriculture on bat activity with a national - scale monitoring program . landsc ecol . doi :\nbesides the extrinsic factors outlined above , intrinsic factors may also have led to the population increase . while it has received little attention in studies on bat populations , the demographic allee effect\u2014defined as a positive relationship between fitness and population size or density ( courchamp et al .\nma , j . , walter m . , liang , b . et al . , differences in diet and echolocation in four sympatric bat species and their respective ecological niches , acta zoologica sinica ( in chinese ) , 2004 , 50 ( 2 ) : 145\u2013150 .\n) , the density of these linear features was evaluated for each landscape . hedgerows and tree lines were digitized using google earth aerial photographs taken between 2010 and 2014 . finally , to consider the potential negative effect of light pollution on horseshoe bats ( stone et al .\nthe relationship between heterozygosity and maternity success among breeding females between 1993 and 2011 ; more heterozygous females had greater annual reproductive success . heterozygosity was also a significant predictor of , and positively correlated with , the total number of pups a breeding female gave birth to between 1993 and 2011 .\nfrom other rhinolophids . the first premolar on the upper jaw protrudes from the row of teeth . often this premolar is very small or non - existent . the third and fourth metacarpal bones in the wings are shorter than those of its relatives ( koopman , 1994 ) . the tragus is absent ( simmons and conway , 1997 ) . the length of the head and body ranges from 57 to 71mm , the tail length ranges from 35 to 43 mm and the forearm from 54 to 61 mm . the wing span ranges from 350 to 400 mm , and the weight from 17 to 34 grams . the greater horseshoe bat can also be identified by its color . the back is brownish gray with a slight tint of red , while the underside is a lighter gray color . the membrane that connects the forearm and tail is brownish gray . young\n) . these studies demonstrated that regardless of the species , the level of bat activity is not significantly different between matched conventional and aes fields . rather , the amount of particular habitat types within the surrounding landscape seems to be more important for bats ( fuentes - montemayor et al .\nthe advantage of large body size in greater horseshoe bats , which are not known to court aerially , suggests that males compete for access to females , and that larger males win these contests more often . however , intra - sexual contests between male greater horseshoe bats over females have not been observed ; instead it is thought females actively seek out and choose males in their underground mating territories . consequently females may choose mates either on the basis of their individual traits or on the basis of the quality of their territories , which might differ in their proximity to the maternity roost , suitability as a hibernaculum or the quality of the surrounding habitat for foraging [ 40 ] . taking these observations into account , the mating system of this species probably contains elements of both female choice and male - male competition , whereby any advantage of larger size to males comes from indirect competition for females via direct competition for mating sites . certainly individual sites are normally only occupied by a single male , who is replaced quickly on disappearance , implying strong competition for sites , and we have identified several important sites where the resident male has consistently high paternity success [ 38 ] .\ngreater horseshoe bats are also protected under annexes ii and iv of the european communities council directive on the conservation of natural habitats and wild fauna and flora . these cover species of community interest the conservation of which requires the designation of special areas of conservation ( sacs ) ; and species that are in need of strict protection respectively . damage or destruction of breeding sites or resting places is prohibited , and all life stages are protected against deliberate capture , killing or disturbance in the wild ; and keeping , transport , sale / exchange and offering for sale / exchange of specimens .\n) , yet we found no relationship between amount of land under aes and colony size at the spatial scales and time period studied here . the ineffectiveness of aess for enhancing bat populations in farmland - dominated landscapes has also been reported elsewhere in the uk ( fuentes - montemayor et al .\n) . as observed in other bat species , intraspecific competition for food may ( i ) increase flight distances to reach available foraging areas and ( ii ) reduce prey capture rates , both of which may reduce individual fitness . we further found light pollution to be negatively related to colony size .\nin addition to catches at woodchester mansion , surveys of all known caves and mines \u2013 used as mating sites and hibernacula \u2013 within a 25 km radius of the maternity roost are performed during autumn , winter and spring as part of an on - going study of this population [ 35 ] , [ 36 ] , [ 41 ] . during these surveys , greater horseshoe bats present are recorded and , where necessary , ringed and tissue sampled . immigrant adults , especially males , in the population are usually found during these surveys . based on current recapture rates , we estimate that over 90 % of bats in this population have been ringed , including all breeding females [ 38 ] .\nthis study focused on a maternity colony that assembles each summer in the attic of woodchester mansion , gloucestershire , u . k . ( 51\u00b043\u2032n , 2\u00b018\u2032w ) . greater horseshoe bats have been caught and ringed at woodchester mansion for 54 years , and tissue samples have been collected annually from all offspring born into the colony since 1993 as well as their mothers . primary catches , during which new - born pups are ringed and sampled , take place in early to mid - july , at which time most pups are less than 20 days old and still attached to their mothers . july catches also afford an opportunity to sample any adult females in the breeding colony that have not been previously sampled or ringed .\nschnitzler , h . u . , ostwald , j . , adaptations for the detection of fluttering insects by echolocation in horseshoe bats , in advances in vertebrate neuroethology ( eds . ewart , j . p . , capranica , r . r . , ingle , d . j . ) , new york : plenum press , 1983 , 801\u2013827 .\nthe diet of the bat rhinolophus ferrumequinum was studied at the zhi\u2019an village of ji\u2019an city in china , from june to august 2004 . the bats were trained in a laboratory ( volume : 9x4x4 m 3 ) . foraging strategies of the bat were observed at night and prey remains were collected and identified . the results showed that the diet consisted mainly of lepidoptera in summer , including 11 families , more than 30 species of moths , such as noctuidae ( 36 . 6 % by number ) , sphingidae ( 24 . 1 % ) , geometridae ( 13 . 4 % ) and limacodidae ( 9 . 5 % ) . the length of culled wings ranged from 10\u201340 mm ( 97 . 7 % ) . pearson correlation analysis showed that the bat r . ferrumequinum foraged their prey selectively , but not opportunistically . from field studies , two ways were observed in which the bats retrieved their prey including aerial hawking during peak active period of the insects and flycatching during the insects\u2019 non - peak activity period . the bats never gleaned prey from the ground , though they appeared to be well able to detect fluttering moths on the ground .\nthe 919 maternities assigned during the period between 1993 and 2011 were shared among 216 individual females . female greater horseshoe bats showed considerable variation in total reproductive success among breeding females across the 19 year period , which ranged from one to eighteen pups ( figure 1b ) . this apparent skew was not significant when maternity data for all 19 cohorts were pooled and reproductive success was corrected for the number of years each female was breeding during the 19 year period ( b index = \u22120 . 0009 , p = 1 , n = 216 ) . because females can only produce a maximum of one pup each year so there was no variance in reproductive success ( and therefore no reproductive skew ) among breeding individuals within years or among breeders of the same age ( figure 3b ) ."]}
{"id": 1801, "summary": [{"text": "the amber mountain rock thrush ( monticola sharpei erythronotus ) is a songbird in the family muscicapidae , formerly placed in the turdidae together with the other chats .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is now usually considered a subspecies of the forest rock thrush . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "amber mountain rock thrush", "paragraphs": ["nobody uploaded videos for amber mountain rock - thrush ( monticola erythronotus ) yet .\nnobody uploaded sound recordings for amber mountain rock - thrush ( monticola erythronotus ) yet .\ninformation on the amber mountain rock - thrush is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nioc 8 . 2 : tax : recent papers do not support previous splits of amber mountain rock thrush or benson ' ' s rock thrush , now included in forest rock thrush ( outlaw et al . 2007 , zuccon and ericson 2010 )\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - amber mountain rock - thrush\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - amber mountain rock - thrush\ntitle =\narkive photo - amber mountain rock - thrush\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nforest or benson ' s rock - thrush [ incl . ssp . erythronotus ]\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - side profile of amber mountain rock - thrush\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - side profile of amber mountain rock - thrush\ntitle =\narkive photo - side profile of amber mountain rock - thrush\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - amber mountain rock - thrush ( monticola erythronotus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - amber mountain rock - thrush ( monticola erythronotus )\ntitle =\narkive species - amber mountain rock - thrush ( monticola erythronotus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\namber mountain is made up of montane rainforest , mid - altitude rainforest , and dry deciduous forest .\n. once a baseline population estimate has been obtained , continue to monitor its numbers . protect the species ' s habitat on amber mountain .\nidentify the species ' s ecological requirements . conduct a survey and extrapolate data for all rainforest on amber mountain to assess the species ' s population size ( m . rabenandrasana\ncollar , n . ( 2018 ) . amber mountain rock - thrush ( monticola erythronotus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nfluid , viable relationships bring into focus the connection of one life to another , and the ways in which we impact our planet and are impacted by it . i create images that reveal the inherent bond between species and ecosystems , people and the natural world . the amber mountain rock - thrush has been found only in madagascar ' s amber mountain massif . the bird ' s population is estimated to be less than 5 , 000 due to habitat loss and deforestation . as you view this image , feel the optimism as the brilliantly colored male sings to his mate with hope for a bright future . we can restore balance in our natural world ! yes we can !\nmales told from other rock - thrushes by diagnostic dark rufous back , females have bright orange tails and lack white streaking on the breast .\npresently , there are few threats to the species . habitat destruction through commercial logging and clearance for subsistence agriculture are widespread threats in madagascar and may ultimately threaten this species . the clearance of forest on amber mountain has so far been limited ( f . hawkins\ni believe amber mountain is overrated . inside the park there is a very limited wildlife and nothing really worth spending time on . yes you can see the smallest chameleon in the world ( brookesia ) but not in the park but nearby the park . at least this . . .\nvelvet asity , schlegel ' s asity , yellow - bellied sunbird - asity , appert ' s greenbul , grey - crowned greenbul , dusky greenbul , long - billed greenbul , spectacled greenbul , yellow - browed oxylabes , white - throated oxylabes , crossley ' s babbler , madagascar magpie - robin , amber mountain rock - thrush , forest rock - thrush , littoral rock - thrush , madagascar wagtail , ward ' s flycatcher , common newtonia , dark newtonia , archbold ' s newtonia , red - tailed newtonia , madagascar lark , madagascar swamp - warbler , thamnornis warbler , lantz ' s brush - warbler , grey emu - tail , brown emu - tail , common jery , stripe - throated jery , green jery , wedge - tailed jery , rand ' s warbler , cryptic warbler , nuthatch vanga , white - headed vanga , chabert ' s vanga , blue vanga , helmet vanga , sickle - billed vanga , rufous vanga , red - shouldered vanga , red - tailed vanga , lafresnaye ' s vanga , hook - billed vanga , pollen ' s vanga , , tylas vanga , ashy cuckoo - shrike , madagascar starling , forest fody , madagascar fody , sakalava weaver , nelicourvi weaver , madagascar munia also indri and several lemur .\nnext to joffreville , in the north of madagascar , there is a national park called\nmontagne d ' ambre\nwhich is often translated as\namber mountain national park\n. the access is easy from antsiranana . you can go there even by sedan . the main attraction are : wildlife , waterfall , . . .\n: ambre mountain is an isolated patch of montane forest that rises from the surrounding dry region . the park is famous for its waterfalls and crater lakes .\ncollar , n . ( 2018 ) . blue rock - thrush ( monticola solitarius ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ncollar , n . ( 2018 ) . chestnut - bellied rock - thrush ( monticola rufiventris ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ncollar , n . ( 2018 ) . blue - capped rock - thrush ( monticola cinclorhyncha ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nmontagne d ' ambre ( ambre mountain ) is an isolated patch of montane forest that rises from the surrounding dry region . the park is famous for its waterfalls , crater lakes , and wildlife .\nmountain forests of albertine rift in sw uganda ( bwindi impenetrable forest ) , w rwanda , burundi and e drcongo ( w of l edward to ruzizi area , and itombwe highlands to n end of l tanganyika ) .\n16 cm . small forest - dwelling thrush . males have blue hoods , chestnut upperparts , bright orange tail with brown central feathers and orange underparts . females are much duller , mostly brown ( although have an orange wash on the underparts ) and lack the blue hood .\n. the total population is estimated to number less than 5 , 000 individuals , which occur in a single block of forest on the upper slopes of one mountain , and may be declining , although so far there has been relatively low levels of habitat loss ( f . hawkins\namber schiltz , nebraska wildlife education coordinator growing up in southeast nebraska , amber spent much of her childhood camping , exploring and enjoying nature and the outdoors with her family . eventually she received her bachelor\u2019s degree in fisheries and wildlife from the university of nebraska - lincoln . during college , she discovered her love of sharing a passion for nature with others through volunteering in environmental education . these experiences led to working for different agencies throughout nebraska . she joined bird conservancy as the nebraska wildlife education coordinator in 2016 , and reaches the entire nebraska panhandle with education programs , field trips and events throughout the year . ( 308 ) 633 - 1013\nmatthew mclaren , imbcr coordinator / biologist matthew joined the bird conservancy in 2010 and works on the bird monitoring program . after graduating from the university of colorado with a bachelor\u2019s degree in biology and environmental science , matthew spent five years conducting field work throughout alaska . since then he has worked on several projects in colorado and wyoming , including studying mountain plover nest success and habitat use in wyoming . he is based in the fort collins office . ( 970 ) 482 - 1707 x22\nty woodward , private lands wildlife biologist ( woodland park , co ) born and raised in southeast colorado , tyrel earned his bachelor\u2019s degree in biology from colorado college in 2008 . he studied lesser prairie chicken habitat on conservation reserve program enrolled land in southeast colorado and southwest kansas , and graduated with his master\u2019s degree from colorado state university - pueblo in 2012 . he has worked for the colorado parks and wildlife as a wildlife conservation technician , aquatic conservation technician , and forest habitat technician . he has worked with wildlife species ranging from arkansas darters and new mexico jumping mouse to rocky mountain bighorn sheep , from the plains to the highest peaks . ty believes strongly in habitat conservation ; his forest restoration work has taken place across the state of colorado . when not working he enjoys hiking , camping , hunting , and fishing . ( 719 ) 686 - 9405 x103\nthis species is listed as endangered because it has a very small extent of occurrence and its forest habitat is declining in both area and quality . the population is small and suspected to be declining , albeit slowly . the validity of this taxon is doubtful and it may not be recognised as a species in the future .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : monticola erythronotus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngoodman , s . m . ; weigt , l . a . 2002 . the generic and species relationships of the reputed endemic malagasy genus pseudocossyphus ( family turdidae ) . ostrich 73 ( 1 & 2 ) : 26 - 35 .\nthe total population is estimated to number fewer than 5 , 000 individuals ( f . hawkins in litt . 2003 ) , roughly equivalent to 3 , 300 mature individuals . trend justification : the population is suspected to be declining at an unquantified rate , owing to limited habitat loss ( f . hawkins in litt . 2003 ) .\nthe species ' s ecology is poorly known . it inhabits mid - altitude and montane humid , evergreen forest from 800 - 1 , 300 m , and forages inconspicuously in the understorey and on the ground . the species nests in tree hollows or in crevices under overhangs ( morris and hawkins 1998 )\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nclassified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nnhpa / photoshot holdings ltd 29 - 31 saffron hill london ec1n 8sw united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 7421 6003 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 7421 6006 sales @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\n, but with slightly larger bill , bluer on head and extending only to throat and nape ; mantle to wing - coverts dull chestnut , . . .\nsong poorly known , described as high - pitched and harmonious , or rich and short , often given at dusk . . .\nmontane evergreen humid forest and mistforest in areas with discontinuous canopy , thus creating . . .\nforages on ground and in understorey . usually catches terrestrial prey in pounce from perch ; sometimes takes aerial prey in agile sally .\noct\u2013nov . largest territory 2\u00b75 ha , normally c . 1 ha . nest similar to that of\nendangered . restricted - range species : present in east malagasy wet forests eba . common within localized range .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nincorporates pseudocossyphus and one species ( m . semirufus ) previously included in thamnolaea , based on genetic findings # r # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n] below is a collection of photos taken from around the world . except where noted , pictures were taken by\n1999 - 2015 . while these images are the property of mongabay . com , it may be permissible to use them for non - commercial purposes ( like powerpoint presentations and school projects ) , provided that the images are not altered in any form . please\nurltoken is a free resource . unless otherwise specified , all pics , photographs , and graphics found on urltoken are the property of urltoken . if you are interested in using an image or chart from the site for publication , please contact urltoken . also if you find errors or dead links on the site , please let me know .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfor online use , you may use images from this website provided you clearly credit burrard - lucas photography next to the image and link back burrard - lucas . com .\nwill burrard - lucas is a professional wildlife photographer and founder of camtraptions and wildlife photo .\nartists for conservation international foundation is a canadian registered charity ( # 860891761 rr 0001 ) .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nphil gregory , jacqueserard , dr _ m _ zieger , dubi shapiro , gerardcaffreys images , billonneau jean claude .\nthis ecoregion contains a large number of endemic species , found in the remaining forest patches and also in some wetland areas , but the remaining habitats are highly fragmented and surrounded by a sea of anthropogenic grasslands and agricultural areas that have almost no biological value . this ecoregion is the site of some of the major extinctions of recent times , including that of the world\u2019s largest flightless bird ( aepyornis maximus ) , and a number of large lemurs . with only small fragmented areas of habitat left within most areas of this ecoregion , there is a high risk of further species extinction in the near future .\nthe subhumid forest ecoregion has been previously mapped as part of the eastern madagascar regional center of endemism ( white 1983 ) . to the east , these subhumid forests meet moist forests , in the lowland forest ecoregion around 800 m elevation , and to the west they merge into the dry deciduous forest ecoregion around 600 m elevation . at higher elevations ( generally above 1 , 800 to 2 , 000 m ) these habitats are replaced by ericoid thickets .\nthe rainfall is approximately 1 , 500 mm per year , although it may total as much as 2 , 000 mm in the sambirano area in the northwest and as little as 600 mm in the southwest . the temperatures at higher elevations are mainly moderate , between 15\u00b0 and 25\u00b0c . there is a cool , dry season between july and september and a warmer wet season during the rest of the year .\nthe underlying geology of the ecoregion is mainly ancient precambrian basement rocks that have been deformed and uplifted over millions of years . there are a few areas of more recent lava flows , and some alluvial deposits associated with wetlands ( du puy and moat 1996 ) .\nvast grasslands now cover the central highlands at elevations ranging from 1 , 000 to 1 , 500 m ( jolly et al . 1984 , du puy and moat 1996 ) . there is some debate regarding the degree to which this upland area was formerly forested and the degrees to which humans have affected the fauna and flora ( burney 1997 , lowry et al . 1997 ) . however , it is clear there have been very significant anthropogenic changes in the ecoregion . the central highlands was once home to a remarkable array of endemic species . these included several species of elephant birds ( aepyornithidae ) , including the world\u2019s largest bird species ( aepyornis maximus ) , a giant tortoise , and several species of lemurs most of which were large bodied species , some larger than female gorillas today . all of these species have become extinct since the arrival of humans on the island around 2 , 000 years ago .\nthere are few remaining patches of subhumid forest on the central highlands . small patches are found on ankaratra massif , and some larger forest blocks are on the slopes of andringitra and tsaratanana massifs . at the higher elevations , the subhumid forest , also referred to as sclerophyllous montane forest , holds canopy trees that are 10 to 12 m in height , including species from the families rubiaceae , lauraceae , verbenaceae and ericaceae . at lower elevations , from 1 , 400 to 1 , 600 m , the forest has a 15 m canopy and includes species in the families cunoniaceae , araliaceae , cornaceae , celestraceae , anacardiaceae , burseraceae , euphorbiaceae , lauraceae and ebenaceae .\nthe remaining\ntapia\nwoodlands , in the southwest of the ecoregion are restricted in distribution . the largest intact areas of this habitat are found in the isalo and itremo massifs on sandstone and quartzite . they are characterized by a relatively open canopy dominated by members of the family sarcolaenaceae and euphorbiaceae , including the fire - resistant uapaca bojeri and the genus sarcolaena . the shrub layer consists of asteraceae , rubiaceae , and leguminosae . there are also some endemic kalanchoe and aloe species .\nbiodiversity features this ecoregion is similar to others in madagascar in that most natural vegetation cover has been destroyed . the remaining small and isolated patches or distinctly larger blocks are biodiversity\njewels\nessential for a variety endemic species .\ncurrent status the remaining natural habitats of the central highlands are extremely fragmented except for the zone spanning its eastern edge and the upper portion of the eastern escarpment . on the central highlands proper , the few patches of natural vegetation continue to be fragmented by grassland fires . habitats of the ecoregion are partially protected with the remaining central highland forests of ambohijanahary and ambohitantely being protected areas and the eastern slopes of andringitra and the upper slopes of ranomafana being national parks . however , the degree to which the protected areas can maintain and manage the integrity of these habitats varies . lack of resources , inadequate training and limited personnel , in addition to the absence of clear management plans , all contribute to the difficulty of preventing habitat destruction within the reserves .\ntypes and severity of threats remaining patches of forest and woodlands of the central highlands face continuous and intensive pressure from encroaching agriculture , increasing exploitation by growing human populations , and fire . introduced plants and animals are affecting the integrity of habitats . nearly all of the ecoregion has been modified either directly or indirectly by humans ( see lowry et al . 1997 ) .\njustification of ecoregion delineation the madagascar subhumid forest , located in central madagascar , is based on cornet\u2019s subhumid bioclimatic division ( cornet 1974 ) , with the eastern boundary delineated at 800 m elevation and the western boundary delineated at 600 m elevation . although the western boundary differs from humbert\u2019s vegetation map ( humbert 1959 ) , the 600 m contour better reflects climatic patterns which distinguish moist evergreen forest from dry deciduous forest ( schatz per . comm . ) . the ecoregion also includes disjunct subhumid areas such as mt . d\u2019ambre in the north and the analavelona and isalo massifs in the southwest .\nreferences burney , d . a . 1997 . theories and facts regarding holocene environmental change before and after human colonization . in natural change and human impact in madagascar , eds . s . m . goodman and b . d . patterson , pp . 75 - 89 . washington , d . c . : smithsonian institution press .\ncarleton , m . d . , and s . m . goodman . 1998 . new taxa of nesomyine rodents ( muroidea : muridae ) from madagascar ' s northern highlands , with taxonomic comments on previously described forms . in a floral and faunal inventory of the r\u00e9serve sp\u00e9ciale d ' anjanaharibe - sud , madagascar : with reference to elevational variation , ed . s . m . goodman . fieldiana : zoology , new series , 90 : 163 - 200 .\ncornet , a . 1974 . essai cartographique bioclimatique \u00e0 madagascar , carte \u00e0 1 / 2 ' 000 ' 000 et notice explicative n\u00b0 55 . paris : orstom .\ndu puy , d . j . and moat , j . 1996 . a refined classification of the primary vegetation of madagascar based on the underlying geology : using gis to map its distribution and to assess its conservation status . in w . r . louren\u00e7o ( editor ) . biog\u00e9ographie de madagascar , pp . 205 - - 218 , + 3 maps . editions de l\u2019orstom , paris .\ngautier , l . and goodman , s . m . in press . inventaire floristique et faunistique de la r\u00e9serve sp\u00e9ciale de manongarivo , madagascar . boissiera x : xx - xx .\nharcourt , c . ( ed . ) 1990 . lemurs of madagascar and the comores . iucn red data book , iucn gland .\nhilton - taylor , c . 2000 . 2000 iucn red list of threatened species . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , united kingdom .\nhumbert , h . 1955 . les territoires phytog\u00e9ographiques de madagascar . in . colloques internationaux du c . n . r . s . , 59 : les divisions \u00e9cologique du monde . moyen d\u2019expression , nomenclature , cartographie . paris , juin - juillet 1954 . ann\u00e9e biologique , 3e s\u00e9r . 31 : 439 - 448 .\nhumbert , h . 1959 . origines pr\u00e9sum\u00e9es et affinit\u00e9s de la flore de madagascar . m\u00e9m . inst . sci . mad . s\u00e9r . b ( bio . v\u00e9g . ) , 9 : 149 - 187 .\njolly , a . , oberl\u00e9 , p . and albignac , r . 1984 . key environments : madagascar . pergamon press , oxford .\nlangrand , o . 1990 . guide to the birds of madagascar . yale university press , new haven .\nlowry , p . p . ii , schatz , g . e . and phillipson , p . b . 1997 . the classification of natural and anthropogenic vegetation in madagascar . pp . 93 - 123 in : s . m . goodman and b . d . patterson ( eds ) . natural change and human impact in madagascar . smithsonian institution press , washington , d . c .\nmittermeier , r . a . , tattersall , i . , konstant , w . r . , meyers , d . m . & , mast , r . b . 1994 . lemurs of madagascar . conservation international , washington , d . c .\nnicoll , m . e . and langrand , o . 1989 . madagascar : revue de la conservation et des aires prot\u00e9g\u00e9es . world wide fund for nature , gland , switzerland .\nperrier de la b\u00e2thie , h . 1936 . biog\u00e9ographie des plantes de madagascar . paris : soci\u00e9t\u00e9 d ' \u00e9ditions g\u00e9ographiques , maritimes et coloniales .\nwhite , f . 1983 . the vegetation of africa , a descriptive memoir to accompany unesco / aetfat / unso vegetation map of africa . unesco , paris .\nworld wildlife fund 1250 24th street , n . w . washington , dc 20037\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\n, based on the best information available at this time . it is based on a wide variety of sources that i collated over many years . i am pleased to offer these checklists as a service to birdwatchers . if you find any error , please do not hesitate to\n. if you prefer to view the list based on a different authority , click on one of the list available below . globally threatened species ( status in red ) were identified by birdlife international in\nbird checklists of the world is part of avibase and bird links to the world , which are designed and maintained by denis lepage , and hosted by bird studies canada , which is a co - partner of birdlife international .\nselect another taxonomy : avibase taxonomic concepts ( current ) hbw and birdlife taxonomic checklist v2 ( dec 2017 ) clements , version 2017 clements 5th edition ( incl . 2005 revisions ) ebird version 2017 handbook of the birds of the world alive ( 03 / 07 / 2017 ) howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) ioc world bird names , version 8 . 1 sibley and monroe 2nd edition ( 1996 )\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\nrecordings not starting automatically ? try enabling autoplay in your browser , or click the play button below .\nstriated heron [ incl . bahamensis , anthonyi , frazari , excl . sundevalli ]\nbutorides striata [ incl . bahamensis , anthonyi , frazari , excl . sundevalli ]\nbarn , eastern barn , cape verde barn or andaman masked owl [ excl . insularis ]\navibase has been visited 263 , 296 , 930 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\nthe park is about 27 km southwest of diego suarez . good place for bird watching and wildlife . . .\nnext to joffreville , in the north of madagascar , there is a national park called\nmontagne d ' ambre . . .\na vast , beautiful reserve , the parc national de montagne d ' ambre draws more visitors than any other place in northern madagascar .\nthis park was my first experience in madagascar . the hike was nice and we saw crowned lemur and several leaf geckos as well as lots of birds , chameleons , etc . it was worth seeing\nthe park is about 27 km southwest of diego suarez . good place for bird watching and wildlife sporting . you can always find mongooses close to the camping places .\nwhat a beautiful rain forest so easy to reach to and so magnificient not to miss . its flora and fauna was so surprising to witness . . many lemurs . lots of chameleons , a very interesting experience to live . . must be seen . .\nvisited for two days . refreshing environment . lush , green forest , plenty of wildlife . there are a number of circuits you can trek . overnighted on the park grounds in the base camp in a building that looked like it ' s haunted . bring your sleeping bag if you plan . . .\nour trip was organised by cactus tours madagascar , charlie was amazing . our guide edi was very knowledgeable and friendly . we had a fantastic day . we were lucky enough to spot lemurs near the end of our stay . we also saw chameleons and geckos . the park . . .\nwe had a day off whilst working the area and decided to go here due to it being reasonably close to antsiranana . the park is very nice and we had an excellent guide but didn ' t find any lemurs . what he did find was numerous species . . .\nwe visited the park on a recent trip to madagascar hoping to catch our first glimpse of lemur . we weren ' t disappointed seeing sanford brown lemur group . they weren ' t easy to photograph in the trees . we saw loads of chameleon , a boa constrictor , spiders , gecko and . . .\nthe chameleons in this park are amazing . try and get your guide to take you off the beaten path , and don ' t bother going all the way to the big waterfall - just go the first km or so ( before the eucalypt and pine appears ) .\nnote : your question will be posted publicly on the questions & answers page .\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content .\nthis park was my first experience in madagascar . the hike was nice and we saw crowned lemur and . . .\nseparation of races generally difficult ; characters tend to intergrade , suggesting that most , if not all , variation is clinal , perhaps including from longirostris through pandoo to philippensis . race philippensis highly distinctive in plumage and to some extent apparently also in ecology , but intergradation extensive , vocalizations very similar # r and molecular evidence # r contradicts a break between this form and the other taxa , identifying instead one clade for nominate and longirostris and another for pandoo and philippensis ( presumably with madoci ) . five subspecies recognized .\n\u2013 nw africa , s europe ( e to italy and n balkans ) , n turkey , caucasus and transcaucasia ; non - breeding also n africa and arabia .\n( blyth , 1847 ) \u2013 greece , w & s turkey and levant e to tien shan , afghanistan and nw himalayas ( n pakistan and kashmir ) ; non - breeding also arabia , ne africa e to nw india .\n( sykes , 1832 ) \u2013 c himalayas , s , c & e china ( including hainan ) and n vietnam ; non - breeding s & se asia s to greater sundas .\n\u2013 e mongolia , ne china , korea , sakhalin , s kuril is , japan , ryukyu is , coastal taiwan and n philippines ( batanes is ) ; non - breeding se china ( including hainan and taiwan ) , se asia and philippines s to sundas , moluccas and palau .\n20\u201323 cm ; 37\u201370 g . male nominate race is deep blue , darker and browner on wings and tail . female variable , usually much duller above , generally blue - grey , often . . .\nsong ( by both sexes , chiefly by male ) melodious and rich , a short series of individually varied . . .\nbreeds on precipitous cliffs , in steep rocky valleys and defiles , ravines and gorges , on crags , . . .\ninvertebrates , small vertebrates , and fruit . mainly insects , including grasshoppers , locusts , crickets , mole - crickets , adult and larval . . .\nmar\u2013jul in nw africa , end apr to mid - jul in iberia and end feb to mid - jun in israel ; jun\u2013jul in afghanistan , apr\u2013jul in . . .\nsedentary , partial migrant , altitudinal migrant and intercontinental migrant ; nocturnal migrant , . . .\nnot globally threatened . total population in europe in mid - 1990s estimated at 40 , 675\u201361 , 602 pairs , with additional 5000\u201350 , 000 pairs in turkey . by 2000 total . . .\nmost of the bird conservancy\u2019s regular staff members are based in colorado and western nebraska , although they can be found across the rocky mountains and great plains working to conserve birds and their habitats . staff members are associated with our science , education , stewardship , international or administration teams , as indicated following their position titles .\ntammy vercauteren , executive director a michigan native , tammy earned a bachelor\u2019s degree in wildlife management in 1995 from michigan state university and a master\u2019s degree in 1998 from the university of nebraska - lincoln where she studied sandhill cranes . she began working for bird conservancy ( then colorado bird observatory ) in 1999 as a specialist in gis and landowner outreach for the prairie partners program . she has been bird conservancy\u2019s prairie partners coordinator and outreach director and has served as executive director since 2008 . she enjoys working with partners and encouraging proactive voluntary efforts for species conservation , and she believes it is relationships with people that will make a positive difference for conservation now and in the future . ( 970 ) 482 - 1707 x16\nnannette archuleta , staff accountant raised in the north metro denver area , nannette earned a bachelor\u2019s degree in business administration with an emphasis in management from the university of colorado denver in 2013 . a very competitive person , nannette loves meeting new people and trying new things . she enjoys the outdoors and spending time with her family and her two american bull dogs . nannette joined the finance team in the spring of 2015 and works out of the old stone house in brighton . ( 303 ) 659 - 4348 x13\nhas over 18 years of experience designing and implementing community conservation and rural development projects in africa and the western united states . prior to joining bird conservancy , adam\na human ecologist for usda - ars at the jornada ( new mexico state university ) where he coordinated the development of mobile and web - based data integration platforms to support grassland stewardship efforts around the world .\nemploys participatory action research in his work and is always searching for new and innovative ways to integrate local , traditional , and scientific knowledge in land use decision making . he earned both his master\u2019s ( 2006 ) and phd ( 2010 ) in human dimensions of natural resources from colorado state university .\njennifer blakesley , biometrician jennifer received her bachelor\u2019s degree in biology from utah state university , her master\u2019s degree in wildlife resources from the university of idaho and her doctorate in wildlife biology from colorado state university . she studied the demography , habitat relationships and breeding dispersal of northern and california spotted owls for 18 years . prior to owl research , she studied habitat relationships of songbirds in utah , idaho and wyoming . jennifer joined the bird conservancy in july 2006 . ( 970 ) 482 - 1707 x18\ntyler cash , environmental educator tyler grew up in sunny southern california where he spent most of his time outside and in the ocean . he graduated from the university of california santa cruz with a bachelors degree in environmental studies , where he gained extensive knowledge in natural history . tyler is extremely excited to share his knowledge and love of birds and the outdoors . ( 303 ) 659 - 4348 x19\nmo was born and raised in conway , massachusetts . she earned her bachelor\u2019s degree in biology at the college of\nerin divine , coordinating wildlife biologist erin grew up in southeastern nebraska roaming around the farm land of her parents\u2019 home and the adjacent state wildlife management area and state recreation area . she attended nebraska wesleyan university and earned a bachelor\u2019s degree in biology in 2005 . in 2013 , she completed a graduate certificate of advanced study in geographic information systems from university of denver , university college . after earning her bachelor\u2019s degree , she worked for the forest service in arizona , oregon state university and boise state university\u2019s raptor research center conducting surveys for mexican and northern spotted owl , northern goshawk , golden eagle and other raptors . she also has some experience with habitat improvement projects . erin is stationed in chadron , nebraska . ( 308 ) 432 - 6122\ngrowing up as a free - range child in the wilds of rural iowa , sarah\u2019s connection with nature was fostered from an early age . this connection prompted her to earn a bachelor\u2019s degree in animal ecology from iowa state university ( 2011 ) and then a master\u2019s degree in conservation biology from miami university ( 2017 ) . realizing that most children no longer have the opportunity to connect with nature in safe , meaningful ways , and that these early experiences help to shape conservation - minded adults , she has made it her mission to innovate ways to bring children and nature back together . when not teaching , sarah can be found hiking , reading , or cooking with her husband . ( 303 ) 659 - 4348 x23\nnancy drilling , dakotas projects coordinator a native iowan , nancy received her master\u2019s degree at illinois state university and is finishing her doctorate in conservation biology at the university of minnesota . she has worked on many avian projects in all corners of the u . s . , including research on forest passerines , shorebirds , waterfowl and colonial water birds . she also has experience in southeast asia , including three years as a peace corps volunteer in thailand and several years working and conducting avian research in indonesia and malaysia . nancy coordinates bird conservancy projects in south dakota , including the second south dakota breeding bird atlas . ( 605 ) 791 - 0459\nangela dwyer ( mangiameli ) , grassland wildlife coordinator , nebraska prairie partners originally from texas , angela moved to colorado in 2010 and worked part - time for audubon rockies on habitat restoration and at colorado state university on several gis vegetation mapping projects . she studied wading bird ecology and received a master\u2019s degree in wildlife management at stephen f . austin state university in 2006 and has been working with birds ever since . angela was the conservation biologist for audubon north carolina from 2007 to 2010 , chasing shorebirds on the beach . she loves exploring colorado through birding , hiking and skiing . she is based in fort collins . ( 970 ) 482 - 1707 x17\nmarcella fremgen , range ecologist ( montrose , co ) marcella grew up in golden , colorado and did her undergraduate at western state college in gunnison in 2011 . she worked for colorado parks and wildlife and the u . s . forest service in gunnison , as well as oregon state university on a variety of projects . marcella then studied sage - grouse diet and habitat use at boise state university for her master\u2019s degree . she enjoys skiing , backpacking , fishing and living in the west ! marcella is based out of the montrose , colorado nrcs office . ( 970 ) 249 - 8407 x129\nveronica grigaltchik , private lands wildlife biologist ( jordan , mt ) veronica received her bachelor\u2019s degree in zoology from the university of florida , where she first developed a passion for birds . she then worked with u . s . fish and wildlife at a wildlife refuge in south texas , conducting bird surveys . following this , she traveled to australia to complete a doctorate in biology at the university of sydney , where she explored how temperature affects interactions between species . she is currently based in the jordan nrcs field office and is working to deliver wildlife habitat conservation programs , emphasizing grassland birds , to landowners in montana . ( 406 ) 557 - 2740 x114\nkelli hirsch , development manager a central nebraska native , kelli earned a bachelor\u2019s degree from hastings college . kelli has spent her career in fundraising for various nonprofit organizations and truly enjoys connecting people\u2019s passions and interests to an organization\u2019s mission . kelli developed a deep appreciation for migrating sandhill and whooping cranes as a young child . although a bird novice compared to her colleagues , kelli\u2019s appreciation for birds stems from personal connections to birding friends and loved ones . kelli loves natural landscapes , endless horizons and open spaces and looks forward to helping bird conservancy conserve these precious resources for future generations . in her spare time , kelli plays french horn with the denver philharmonic orchestra and gossamer winds and enjoys spending time with her family , hiking and exploring national parks . ( 303 ) 659 - 4348 x12\nkelsea holloway , private lands wildlife biologist ( wetland specialist ) kelsea , a native to idaho , received her bachelor\u2019s degree in wildlife resources from the university of idaho in 2013 . during her years as an undergrad she assisted with prairie song bird studies and pygmy rabbit habitat studies . in 2014 she moved to minnesota to assist the natural resources conservation service with the wetland reserve program ( wrp ) . after almost 2 years in minnesota , kelsea joined the bird conservancy team in colorado . she now assists multiple counties in northeast colorado with wrp management . ( 970 ) 356 - 8097 x109\nwendy lanier , spotted owl project leader wendy received her bachelor\u2019s degree in ecology , evolution and organismal biology from vanderbilt university . she became passionate about research with conservation applications while conducting avian field work in california and colorado . this passion led her to colorado state university , where she received her master\u2019s degree in wildlife biology in 2015 . briefly leaving the avian world , her thesis focused on the effects of introduced greenback cutthroat trout on boreal toad recruitment . wendy is currently applying her knowledge of population biology , ecological modeling and conservation biology to monitor the threatened mexican spotted owl in arizona and new mexico . ( 970 ) 482 - 1707 x18\nkelsey mazur , programs coordinator kelsey has served as an educator and a coordinator for a variety of nature - based experiential education programs . she\u2019s gained professional experience building both citizen science and residential learning programs as well as inquiry - based family programs and summer camps . kelsey loves working with students , volunteers , and the public to share her love for birds , nature , and all things wild . kelsey is originally from ohio where she attended wittenberg university and earned a degree in history through studying pre - modern interpretations of the natural world . ( 303 ) 659 - 4348 x10\nmeredith mcburney , biologist / bander meredith made her decision to make conserving birds and their habitats her second career in 1997 when she held a warbler in the hand for the first time while volunteering for earthwatch in monteverde , costa rica . returning to colorado , she took hugh and urling kingery\u2019s beginning birder class , obtained a bachelor\u2019s degree in zoology from colorado state university , and learned her banding skills from the many excellent banders who preceded her as the bander at the barr lake station . she has worked for the bird conservancy since 2004 , and bands in the spring at chatfield and the fall at barr lake . she loves the hands - on experience of banding , and she loves sharing that experience with the hundreds of kids and adults who visit the banding stations every year . ( 303 ) 329 - 8091\nstacey monahan , camp and family programs coordinator stacey grew up in the beautiful state of new hampshire , where she fostered a love of everything outdoors . she graduated from the university of vermont with a bachelors in wildlife biology . stacey has worked at many different environmental education centers and summer camps on the east and west coasts . she is very excited to bring her knowledge and experiences to bird camp ! ( 303 ) 659 - 4348 x18\nmaryanne murphy , chief administrative officer maryanne is a certified public accountant with nearly 30 years of experience , including six as controller at the denver museum of nature & science . during her career , maryanne has earned a reputation for her incredible attention to detail and ability to streamline organizations and processes . she earned her bachelor of science in accounting from drexel university in philadelphia . in her leisure time , maryanne enjoys walking tours of foreign lands and has explored zambia , morocco and turkey on foot ; the theater and recreational softball . ( 303 ) 659 - 4348 x16\ndavid pavlacky , biometrician a colorado native , david received a bachelor\u2019s degree in wildlife biology from colorado state university ( 1995 ) and a master\u2019s degree in zoology and physiology from the university of wyoming ( 2000 ) . he earned a doctorate in zoology from the university of queensland , australia ( 2008 ) , where he studied landscape genetics and ecology of rainforest birds . david first worked for the bird conservancy as a field technician in 1995 , and he rejoined the bird conservancy in april 2008 to work on the spatial ecology of playa wetlands in eastern colorado and western nebraska . his research interests include quantitative methods for the distribution and abundance of wildlife and landscape ecology of forest birds . ( 970 ) 482 - 1707 x11\nlaura quattrini , stewardship program manager laura obtained a bachelor\u2019s in wildlife biology from ohio university with an environmental studies certificate . she has assisted with numerous avian research projects with organizations including whitefish point bird observatory , carnegie museum of natural history / powdermill biological reserve , hawkwatch international , southern sierra research station and humboldt state university . she has higher education teaching experience and was an americorps vista organizing outreach efforts with landowners in southeast ohio . ( 970 ) 482 - 1707 x21\nallison shaw , gis and data manager allison is originally from ann arbor , michigan . she obtained a bachelor\u2019s degree in biology from grinnell college and a master\u2019s degree in ecology and evolutionary biology from iowa state university . she has worked on forest and wetland conservation projects across the united states and central america for the nature conservancy , national park service , colorado natural heritage program , peace corps guatemala and others . she joined the bird conservancy in the fall of 2014 to assist the international team with data and project management . ( 970 ) 482 - 1707 x23\nrita sims , accounting manager rita received her bachelor of science degree in accounting from metropolitan state university in denver , co . since graduating in 2012 she has gained experience in multiple types of industries focusing in on nonprofits in 2015 because she enjoys working for companies that have a larger picture in mind for the greater purpose . in her spare time , she enjoys spending time with her family and 4 dogs , trying to master the art of fishing and seeing more of the country side . ( 303 ) 659 - 4348 x14\nerin strasser , biologist erin received her bachelor\u2019s degree in zoology from northern arizona university where she studied pinyon jay behavioral ecology . in 2010 , she earned her master\u2019s in raptor biology from boise state university , investigating the impacts of human disturbance on american kestrel stress physiology and reproductive abandonment . her passion for research and avian conservation has led her to study birds in several western states , as well as belize and honduras . she is interested in how anthropogenic change impacts breeding bird behavior and physiology , and the overwintering ecology of migrants . erin is involved with the bird conservancy\u2019s chihuahuan desert grasslands project aimed at understanding overwintering survival and habitat use of baird\u2019s and grasshopper sparrows . ( 970 ) 482 - 1707 x27\nalex van boer , gis biologist growing up far from colorado on the east end of long island , alex began birding when he was only six years old . he graduated from bowdoin college in maine with a bachelor\u2019s degree in biology and has spent the last several years working field jobs in conservation and ecological research , including a summer surveying saltmarsh birds for the university of connecticut . he started at the bird conservancy as a data proofing technician and gis volunteer , and joined as a full - time staff member in 2016 . alex enjoys the outdoors during all seasons and writes and performs music in his free time . ( 970 ) 482 - 1707 x19\nchris white , director of science operations chris white is director of science operations with bird conservancy of the rockies . after graduating from arizona state university in 2002 with a bachelor\u2019s degree in biology , chris volunteered at an avian rehabilitation facility in scottsdale , arizona and was smitten with birds . he conducted field work for the next few years , moving to fort collins , colorado along the way . chris was initially hired to work for the bird conservancy as a data entry technician in the fall of 2006 . since then , chris has worked is way up through the ranks , serving as a biologist , then imbcr coordinator , and finally to his current position working directly under the science director . ( 970 ) 482 - 1707 x24"]}
{"id": 1802, "summary": [{"text": "the white-bearded manakin ( manacus manacus ) is a small passerine bird which breeds in tropical south america .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is found from colombia , venezuela and trinidad south to bolivia and northern argentina .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "this manakin is found in forests , secondary growth and plantations .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is a small , plump bird about 10.7 centimetres ( 4.2 in ) long .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "males have a black crown , upper back , wings and tail and are otherwise white .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "females are olive-green and resemble female golden-headed manakins .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "at breeding time , males are involved in lekking behaviour on the forest floor during which they puff out their neck feathers .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this is a fairly common species with a wide range , and the international union for conservation of nature has rated its conservation status as being of \" least concern \" . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "white - bearded manakin", "paragraphs": ["characterisation of microsatellite dna markers in the white - bearded manakin ( manacus manacus ) .\nbirdlife international . 2012 . species factsheet : white - bearded manakin manacus manacus . downloaded from birdlife international on 16 april 2012 .\nthe white - bearded manakin is generally uncommon in northern amazonia and southeastern peru where it ranges up to 1000 m along the foothill of the andes . it also occurs in the humid and semi - deciduous forest in tumbez . the white - bearded manakin also occurs in\nmale white - bearded manakin is distinctive across most of its range , and unlikely to be confused with any other species . it is most similar to white - collared manakin ( manacus candei ) , but the geographic distributions of these two species do not overlap ; also , male white - collared manakin has a bright yellow belly . there is contact ( and limited hybridization ) between white - bearded manakin and golden - collared manakin ( manacus vitellinus ) in western colombia . as the name suggests , the white of the collar , throat and breast of white - bearded manakin is replaced in male golden - collared manakin by bright deep yellow , with a green belly . females of the two species are quite similar , but female golden - collared manakin has a yellow tinge to the belly , which is more olive in female white - bearded .\n: manacus from the dutch , manakin , the name a manakin bears in surinam .\nwhite - bearded manakin occupies the understory of the edge of tropical lowland forest and adjacent second growth , where there is a dense understory .\nprotection / threats / status : white - bearded manakin is common in most parts of its range . the species is not threatened at this moment .\ntable s1 . museum data for the white - bearded manakin specimens in green plumage collected along the magdalena river valley and the eastern llanos in colombia .\ndescription : white - bearded manakin , as other manakins\u2019 species , is a small compact bird . its courtship displays are spectacular and occur at communal leks .\nflight : white - bearded manakin performs rapid and complex flight displays . when in flight , this bird produces a kind of whirring noise , as a grasshopper .\ndiet : white - bearded manakin feeds mainly on small fruits . it also consumes insects such as beetles , flies and flying termites . it also takes spiders .\nlill , a . 1974 . social organization and space utilization in the lek - forming white - bearded manakin , m . manacus trinitatis . zeitschrift f\u00fcr tierpsychologie 36 : 513 - 530 .\nhabitat : white - bearded manakin is locally common in gallery woodland and forest edges with dense undergrowth . it also frequents second growths . it is mainly seen below 800 to 1000 metres of elevation .\nthe white - bearded manakin , manacus manacus , is a small passerine bird which breeds in tropical south america . it is found from colombia , venezuela and trinidad south to bolivia and northern argentina .\ncestari , c . 2010 . anting behavior by the white - bearded manakin ( manacus manacus , pipridae ) : an example of functional interaction in a frugivorous lekking bird . biota neotropica 10 : 339\u2013342 .\nfemale white - bearded manakin also is similar to female chiroxiphia and antilophia manakins , but is smaller , with tarsi that are more orange ; also , antilophia have longer tails , and the females of some species of chiroxiphia ( lance - tailed manakin c . lanceolata and swallow - tailed manakin c . caudata ) have elongated central rectrices .\nas other manakins\u2019 species , the white - bearded manakin performs elaborated and complex figures at leks , involving several males . the lek is the same year after year , and the male spends most of its time in its territory . displays are more active after dawn and in the early afternoon . white - bearded manakin performs three distinct phases during the courtship displays , always with several males , sometimes up to 50 or more .\nolson , d . h . and m . k . mcdowell . 1983 . a comparison of white - bearded manakin ( manacus manacus ) populations and lek systems in suriname and trinidad . auk 100 : 739 - 742 .\nwhite - bearded manakins are widespread in the lowlands of northern and central south america . there is an isolated population west of the andes from southwestern colombia south to extreme northwestern peru . the range also extends more continuously from northern and eastern colombia east across southern venezuela to the guianas and northeastern brazil , and south through eastern ecuador and peru to northeastern bolivia and central and east central brazil . white - bearded manakin is scarce or absent , however , from parts of southwestern amazonia . white - bearded manakin also occurs on trinidad , and from northeastern brazil south to southeastern brazil , eastern paraguay , and northeastern argentina .\ntable s1 . museum data for the white - bearded manakin specimens in green plumage collected along the magdalena river valley and the eastern llanos in colombia . data from : males in seemingly female - like plumage do not mimic females : uv reflectance reveals temporal cryptic dimorphism in a manakin species exhibiting delayed plumage maturation .\ntable s1 . museum data for the white - bearded manakin specimens in green plumage collected along the magdalena river valley and the eastern llanos in colombia . data from : males in seemingly female - like plumage do not mimic females : uv reflectance reveals temporal cryptic dimorphism in a manakin species exhibiting delayed plumage maturation . - dryad\nthe white - bearded manakin is a widespread species in northern south america from colombia to northern argentina . males of the species gather at communal leks to display for females . the lek display includes the males hopping from vegetation to the ground and is accompanied by loud wing snaps , whirring , and calls . males are black above with white underparts and a white neck collar , while females and immatures are dark olive .\nsnow , d . w . 1962 . a field study of the black and white manakin , manacus manacu s , in trinidad . zoologica 47 : 65 - 104 .\ncestari , c\u00e9sar and pizo , marco aur\u00e9lio 2013 . frugivory by the white - bearded manakin ( manacus manacus , pipridae ) in restinga forest , an ecosystem associated to the atlantic forest . biota neotropica , vol . 13 , issue . 2 , p . 345 .\n. the male white - bearded manakin has a black cap and white neck and underparts . birds on the south side of the amazon have white mantle and have paler underparts . birds on the north side of hte amazon have black mantle and darker underparts . the female is olive - green with paler throat and center of the belly . both sexes have orange legs . it forages in the understory of interior forest . the female is similar to a\nbehaviour : white - bearded manakin feeds mainly on small fruits and insects ( mainly eaten by the young ) . fruits are plucked while flying , or sometimes from a perch if the fruit is close enough . insects are caught in flight in low branches . it usually forages alone .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto white - bearded manakin usual call is a slightly trilled \u201cpeerr\u201d uttered at lek . during the displays , the male utters an excited \u201cpee - you\u201d and a high - pitched \u201cchwee\u201d . as other manakins\u2019 species , it produces snaps and other noises with the wings .\nadult male : crown deep black . sides of head ( including the auriculars ) and of neck , and broad collar across nape , white ( constrasting sharply with the black of the crown ) . back , wings and tail deep black . rump and uppertail coverts dark gray . throat and breast white ( and connected to the white nape collar ) ; belly and flanks white , with a gray cast .\nthe bird leaps across to an opposite vertical perch . as it alights , it turns in the air in order to look at the place from which it came . this short flight produces the characteristic snap when the bird takes off . white - bearded manakin male repeats rapidly these movements to and fro between two perches . when several males perform these movements together , we only see jumping black and white silhouettes .\nthe movement patterns of males , females and juveniles of lekking species often differ due to differences in the commitment to lek activities , which may lead to differences in the spatial distribution and dispersal distances of seeds they eat . by sampling seeds in three lek and non - lek areas of the white - bearded manakin (\nrange : white - bearded manakin is resident in tropical regions of south america . it is found in colombia , venezuela and trinidad , and southwards in bolivia and northern argentina . there are two populations in separated ranges , one in the pacific coast of ecuador , and the other in eastern and south - eastern coasts of brazil .\nthe white - bearded manakin lives in trinidad and throughout much of south america . the males court females by snapping their wings with firecracker - like pops . a flurry of males flits rapidly back and forth from one slender , bare sapling to another , a foot above the ground . when the male spots the . . . read more \u00bb\nthe elevational range of white - bearded manakin extends from the lowlands up to 1900 m in colombia , although it usually occurs below 1000 ( hilty and brown 1986 ) , to 1300 m ( but usually below 800 m ) in ecuador ( ridgely and greenfield 2001a ) , to 1000 m in venezuela ( hilty 2003 ) , and to 1000 m in peru ( schulenberg et al . 2010 ) .\nsnow , d . ( 2018 ) . white - bearded manakin ( manacus manacus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nmarini , m . \u00e2 . 1992 . foraging behavior and diet of the helmeted manakin . condor 94 : 151 - 158 .\ndescription museum data for the white - bearded manakin specimens in green plumage collected along the magdalena river valley and the eastern llanos in colombia . hyphen indicates absence of geographic coordinates in the specimen label . the data correspond to specimens of the ornithological collections held in instituto de ciencias naturales de la universidad nacional de colombia ( icn ) and museo de historia natural de la universidad de los andes , colombia ( andes ) .\noccurs at the court level , and the spatial distribution of deposited seeds varies with manakin lekking status and the daily period of foraging .\nmanacus are small , short tailed manakins . both sexes have orange tarsi and toes , and males have elongated feathers on the throat . females of all species of manacus are dull olive ; males of all species have a black crown and wings and a broad pale collar across the nape and upper back , but the color of the body plumage is variable across species , in various combinations of white , yellow or orange , and pale olive . the male white - bearded manakin is the whitest member of the genus : the upperparts are mostly black , except for the broad nape collar and a gray rump , and the underparts are almost entirely white , with a gray wash , variable in intensity , on the belly and flanks .\nthe amazing moonwalking manakin bird ! with naturalist , kim bostwick . from the pbs nature documentary deep jungle - new frontiers . read more \u00bb\neight microsatellite dna markers were isolated and characterized from white bearded manakin ( manacus manacus ) using an enrichment cloning procedure . a large number of alleles ( range 9 - 25 ) , and high levels of observed heterozygosity ( mean 0 . 67 ) were resolved in 236 individuals . no evidence for linkage disequilibrium or the presence of null alleles was found , indicating that these markers will be useful for examining genetic relatedness , parentage and population structure in manakins .\nn2 - eight microsatellite dna markers were isolated and characterized from white bearded manakin ( manacus manacus ) using an enrichment cloning procedure . a large number of alleles ( range 9 - 25 ) , and high levels of observed heterozygosity ( mean 0 . 67 ) were resolved in 236 individuals . no evidence for linkage disequilibrium or the presence of null alleles was found , indicating that these markers will be useful for examining genetic relatedness , parentage and population structure in manakins .\nab - eight microsatellite dna markers were isolated and characterized from white bearded manakin ( manacus manacus ) using an enrichment cloning procedure . a large number of alleles ( range 9 - 25 ) , and high levels of observed heterozygosity ( mean 0 . 67 ) were resolved in 236 individuals . no evidence for linkage disequilibrium or the presence of null alleles was found , indicating that these markers will be useful for examining genetic relatedness , parentage and population structure in manakins .\nabstract =\neight microsatellite dna markers were isolated and characterized from white bearded manakin ( manacus manacus ) using an enrichment cloning procedure . a large number of alleles ( range 9 - 25 ) , and high levels of observed heterozygosity ( mean 0 . 67 ) were resolved in 236 individuals . no evidence for linkage disequilibrium or the presence of null alleles was found , indicating that these markers will be useful for examining genetic relatedness , parentage and population structure in manakins .\n,\nhartert , e . 1912 . [ description of a new subspecies of manakin ] bulletin of the british ornithologists ' club 29 : 63 - 64 .\ndata from : males in seemingly female - like plumage do not mimic females : uv reflectance reveals temporal cryptic dimorphism in a manakin species exhibiting delayed plumage maturation .\nmorphological , territorial , and behavioural characteristics were measured on white - bearded manakin ( manacus manacus ) males from two leks in two consecutive years . these data were combined with data on marker - inferred relatedness to study possible co - variation with mating success . in one year , male size and male condition were correlated with mating success . in both years , males holding courts nearer the lek centre gained more matings . no observed male display behaviour appeared to be an independently important factor in explaining variance in male mating success . successful males made more aggressive displays than non - successful males and more displays were between close relatives . number of aggressive displays increased as the distance between male courts decreased . mating success in the white - bearded manakin is most likely mediated by a combination of morphological and behavioural characteristics , influencing both male\u2013male competition and female choice . females could potentially use centrality on the lek as an indicator of male characteristics . however , levels of relatedness may influence spatial arrangement of males on a lek thereby affecting male\u2013male interactions and ultimately influencing patterns of mating success .\nfriedmann , h . 1944 . a new manakin from cerro yapacana , upper orinoco valley , southern venezuela . proceedings of the biological society of washington 57 : 99 - 100 .\nadult male has black and white plumage . crown , back , wings and tail are black . rump and uppertail coverts are rather grey . on the underparts , chin , throat and breast are white . belly , flanks , vent and undertail coverts are pale grey . undertail feathers are black . the throat shows elongated feathers which play an important role in courtship displays . on the head , lores , forehead and crown are black . cheeks and neck collar are white . bill is blackish , with paler lower mandible . eyes are dark brown . legs and feet are orange - red .\nbrumfield , r . t . , and m . j . braun . 2001 . pylogenetic relationships in bearded manakins ( pipridae : manacus ) indicate that male plumage color is a misleading taxonomic marker . condor 103 : 248 - 258 .\nbostwick , k . s . , and r . o . prum . 2003 . high - speed video analysis of wing - snapping in two manakin clades . journal of experimental biology 206 : 3693 - 3706\nmorales - betancourt ja , casta\u00f1o - villa gj ( 2017 ) data from : males in seemingly female - like plumage do not mimic females : uv reflectance reveals temporal cryptic dimorphism in a manakin species exhibiting delayed plumage maturation .\nreproduction : breeding season varies according to the region . the white - bearded manakin male does not take part in nesting duties . the nest is a small shallow cup built between horizontal twigs , and secured with spider webs . it is usually placed low in vegetation , from 50 cm to 1 , 50 metre above the ground . it is a woven cup , made with rootlets and dead leaves , and the interior is lined with fine and soft materials . the nest - site is often near water . female usually lays two eggs . she incubates during 18 to 19 days , spending long moments on the nest , with brief foraging flights . chicks are fed mainly with insects , and they fledge about two weeks after hatching .\nphiphatsuwannachai , suchada westcott , david a . mckeown , adam and savini , tommaso 2018 . inter - group variability in seed dispersal by white - handed gibbons in mosaic forest . biotropica , vol . 50 , issue . 1 , p . 106 .\nmorales - betancourt ja , casta\u00f1o - villa gj ( 2017 ) males in seemingly female - like plumage do not mimic females : uv reflectance reveals temporal cryptic dimorphism in a manakin species exhibiting delayed plumage maturation . journal of avian biology 49 ( 1 ) : jav - 01467 . urltoken\nwe find several subspecies which vary in size and sometimes in colour extension . m . m . abditivus , with stiff and longer throat feathers . m . m . flaveolus with yellowish tinge in throat and collar . m . m . bangsi is smaller with grey belly and narrower collar . m . m . leucochlamys with more white in mantle and white belly . m . m . maximus is similar in plumage but larger , with longer throat and mantle feathers . m . m . interior with paler grey rump and lower belly and vent . m . m . trinitatis is larger , with broader white collar . m . m . umbrosus with darker grey areas . m . m . manacus is very similar . m . m . expectatus is much smaller . m . m . subpurus with darker grey rump and variation of grey on underparts . m . m . purus with less black on upperparts . m . m . longibarbatus with longer throat feathers and some variations in colour extensions . m . m . purissimus with shorter throat feathers and longer wings . m . m . gutturosus is darker grey below .\nmargareta wieser , luis r figueroa , agustin carrasco , jack piper , lmarce , nimali digo and thilanka edirisinghe , lindolfo souto , paul van giersbergen , mauricio rueda , stephen john jones , andretti . tche , lars petersson , jens thalund , josef widmer , rodrigo paez , wim ten have , samantha klein , alfredo rosas , oswaldocortes , tadeusz stawarczyk , daniel avenda\u00f1o , ken havard , philgunson , emilio white , nigel lallsingh , michael fritzen , hal and kirsten snyder , dilia e . garcia , nick athanas , stanis\u0142aw czyz , ileyne lopes , andre zambolli , stephen romany , steve garvie , barb winterfield , guy poisson , rodrigo y castro , anselmo d affonseca , antonio silveira , dusan m . brinkhuizen , sam , christophe gouraud , jim watt , phil kindermann .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' fairly common ' ( stotz et al . ( 1996 ) . trend justification : this species is suspected to lose 19 . 1 - 23 . 8 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 19 years ) based on a model of amazonian deforestation ( soares - filho et al . 2006 , bird et al . 2011 ) . it is therefore suspected to decline by < 25 % over three generations .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ntu , l . , c . mccabe , and w . tori ( 2013 ) .\n) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\ndavid ascanio , yanayacu biological station , josep del hoyo , keith blomerley , greg baker , carlos gussoni , adrian long , rodrigo y castro , scott olmstead , peter nash , yo\u00ebl jimenez , dani\u00eal jimenez , keith and lynn youngs , sanjiv parasram , antonio silveira , mauricio rueda , richard garrigues .\njoe klaiber , keith and lynn youngs , sclateria , peter boesman , antonio silveira , mauricio rueda .\nwebcams and videos are hosted by third parties . in exchange , you may periodically see 30 - second advertisements . birdnote does not endorse any of the products , services , or causes on third - party pages . all webcams have seasonal changes and may be down for hours , weeks , or months at a time . if this one is not active , please check our video or webcam gallery for more .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na guide to the birds of colombia by steven l . hilty and william l . brown princeton university press \u2013 isbn 069108372x\nfemale is very different with olive - green plumage on upperparts . underparts are duller , rather greyish - olive on throat and belly . breast is more olive - green . juvenile is similar to female . immature male has full adult plumage at one year .\nthe first phase is the commonest . the males jump between vertical twigs situated around the lek . the bird is perched sideways on a vertical stem . at this moment , the long throat feathers are erected as a \u201cbeard\u201d longer than the bill .\nthe second phase is performed occasionally and less common . after the series of jumps from perch to perch , one male remains on the mating perch , quivering , and with the head and the body pointed downwards . then , it hops to the ground , turning in the air , lands with a strange grunting sound , and returns to higher place on the mating perch . then , with rapid small steps , it comes down to the perch with flapping wings . this phase is pre - copulatory .\nthe third phase is often directed to a female approaching the lek . the male crouches while its head is retracted . it sways side to side and flaps the wings , producing the whirring sounds . the long throat feathers are fluffed forwards and upwards as the wings are raised and fanned .\nthe female which visits a lek for mating , usually joins the male in a dance of jumps between a stem and the mating perch , both birds crossing each other in the air . then , the female remains on the mating perch . at this moment , the male performs the pre - copulatory display , ending in the \u201cslide down\u201d the perch onto female\u2019s back .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : manacus manacus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nmanacus manacus longibarbatus : lower amazonian brazil ( r . xing\u00fa to r . tocantins )\nmanacus manacus purissimus : e brazil ( r . tocantins to se par\u00e1 and n maranh\u00e3o )\nmanacus manacus purus : n brazil ( r . madeira to r . tapaj\u00f3s and sw par\u00e1 )\nmanacus manacus subpurus : s - cent . brazil ( se amazona , e rond\u00f4nia and nw mato grosso )\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 171 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nthe feathers of the throat are somewhat elongated ( and can be projected forward during displays ) . most remiges are stiffened , with thickened , bowed shafts and stiff outer webs . additionally , the distals portions of four outer five primaries are very narrow and stiff .\nadult female : upperparts olive green . underparts paler and grayer , especially on the throat and belly .\njuvenile : very similar to adult female ; body plumage fluffier .\nyoung males\n( age ? ) may have dark shaft streaks on the crown .\nbare parts color data are from junge and meise ( 1958 ) , haverschmidt ( 1968 ) , wiedenfeld et al . ( 1985 ) , and novaes and lima ( 1998 ) .\ntotal length : 10 . 2 cm ( hilty and brown 1986 ) , 10 . 7 cm ( hilty 2003 ) , 10\u201311 cm ( schulenberg et al . 2010 ) , 11 cm ( ridgely and greenfield 2001b )\ntail length ( n = 7 ) , 28 . 5 - 33 . 0 mm\nbill length ( n = 2 ) , 11 . 95 - 12 . 41 mm\ntarsus length ( n = 7 ) , 16 . 82 - 22 . 32\nwing length ( n = 13 ) , 51 . 0 - 57 . 5 mm\nbill length ( n = 13 ) , 10 . 94 - 12 . 67 mm\ntarsus length ( n = 4 ) , 19 . 14 - 20 . 97\nwing length ( n = 4 ) , 53 . 5 - 55 . 0 mm\nbill length ( n = 4 ) , 12 . 44 - 13 . 38 mm\ntarsus length ( n = 3 ) , 16 . 85 - 18 . 76 mm\nwing length ( n = 13 ) , 50 . 5 - 55 . 0 mm\nbill length ( n = 13 ) , 10 . 81 - 14 . 06 mm\nbill length ( n = 3 ) , 11 . 75 - 11 . 96 mm\nwing length ( n = 10 ) , 52 . 0 - 58 . 5 mm\nbill length ( n = 10 ) , 10 . 66 - 12 . 58 mm\ntarsus length ( n = 7 ) , 19 . 54 - 20 . 42\nbill length ( n = 6 ) , 11 . 33 - 12 . 41 mm\ntarsus length ( n = 5 ) , 17 . 31 - 20 . 35\nmass : manacus , male , mean 17 \u00b1 2 g ( range 14 - 20 g , n = 5 ; dick et al . 1984 ) ; female , mean 15 . 5 g \u00b1 3 g ( range 12 - 20 g , n = 4 ; dick et al . 1984 ) . additional data on mass is provided by kirwan and green ( 2011 ) .\nthe century dictionary and cyclopedia ( new york , ny : the century co . , 1889 )\ncopyright \u00a9 2004\u20132018 florida center for instructional technology . clipart etc is a part of the educational technology clearinghouse and is produced by the florida center for instructional technology , college of education , university of south florida .\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\ncontent in the dryad digital repository is offered\nas is .\nby downloading files , you agree to the dryad terms of service . to the extent possible under law , the authors have waived all copyright and related or neighboring rights to this data .\ndryad is a nonprofit repository for data underlying the international scientific and medical literature .\nlatest build fri , 29 jun 2018 05 : 39 : 03 utc . served by aws - prod\n> gender male female > action bathing displaying flying mating foraging calling singing > specials action eggs funny nest pairs portraits silhouettes winter feeding gps > month january february march april may june july august september october november december > country egypt antarctica antigua argentina ascension island ethiopia australia bahamas barbados belize bhutan bolivia botswana brazil bulgaria chile china costa rica denmark germany dominica dominican republic ecuador faroe islands falkland islands finland france french guiana gambia georgia ghana greece united kingdom guatemala guyana honduras hongkong india indonesia ireland iceland israel italy jamaica japan cambodia canada cape verde kazakhstan kenya kyrgyzstan colombia croatia cuba lesotho liechtenstein luxembourg madagascar malaysia morocco martinique mauritania mauritius mexico mongolia namibia new zealand netherlands northern mariana islands norway oman austria panama pakistan peru philippines poland portugal reunion romania russia zambia sweden switzerland senegal serbia seychelles zimbabwe singapore slovakia spain sri lanka st . helena sudan south africa south georgia south korea suriname syria taiwan tanzania thailand trinidad and tobago czech republic turkey uganda hungary united states venezuela united arab emirates vietnam cyprus\nwelcome to bia birdimagency . we use cookies . by continuing to use our website , you consent to the use . for further information on cookies , please read our\nshorey , l . behav ecol sociobiol ( 2002 ) 52 : 451 . urltoken\nauthor =\npiertney , { stuart brannon } and l . shorey and j . hoglund\n,\npowered by pure , scopus & elsevier fingerprint engine\u2122 \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v .\ncookies are used by this site . to decline or learn more , visit our cookies page\nbangs , o . 1900 . on the subspecies of manacus manacus ( linn . ) . proceedings of the new england zo\u00f6logical club 1 : 33 - 37 .\nbrumfield , r . t . , r . w . jernigan , d . b . mcdonald , and m . j . braun . 2001 . evolutionary implications of divergent clines in an avian ( manacus : aves ) hybrid zone . evolution 55 : 2070 - 2087 .\ncassin , j . 1851 . descriptions of birds of the genera laniarius , dicrurus , graucalus , manacus and picus , specimens of which are in the collection of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 5 : 347 - 349 .\ncestari , c . , b . a . loiselle , and m . a . pizo . 2016 . trade - offs in male display activity with lek size . plos one 11 : e0162943 .\nchapman , f . m . 1914 . diagnoses of apparently new colombian birds . iii . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 33 : 603 - 637 .\nchapman , f . m . 1924 . descriptions of new birds from ecuador , colombia , peru , and bolivia . american museum novitates number 138 : 1 - 16 .\ncherrie , g . k . , and e . m . b . reichenberger . 1923 . descriptions of proposed new birds from brazil and paraguay . american museum novitates number 58 .\nconcannon , m . r . , a . c . stein , and j . a . c . uy . 2012 . kin selection may contribute to lek evolution and trait introgression across an avian hybrid zone . molecular ecology in press .\ndesmarest , a . - g . 1806 . histoire naturelle des tangaras , des manakins et des todiers . garnery , paris .\ndick , j . a . , w . b . mcgillivray , and d . j . brooks . 1984 . a list of birds and their weights from sa\u00fcl , french guiana . wilson bulletin 96 : 347 - 365 .\ngaletti , m . , and m . a . pizo . 1996 . fruit eating by birds in a forest fragment in southeastern brazil . ararajuba 4 : 71 - 79 .\ngyldenstolpe , n . 1941 . preliminary descriptions of some new birds from the brazilean amazonas . arkiv f\u00f6r zoologi 33b ( 12 ) : 1 - 10 .\ngyldenstolpe , n . 1945 . the bird fauna of r\u00edo juru\u00e1 in western brazil . kungliga svenska vetenskapsakademiens handlingar , third series 22 ( 3 ) : 1 - 388 .\ngyldenstolpe , n . 1951 . the ornithology of the rio pur\u00fas region in western brazil . arkiv f\u00f6r zoologi second series volume 2 ( 1 ) : 1 - 320 .\nhaffer , j . 1967 . speciation in colombian forest birds west of the andes . american museum novitates number 2294 .\nhaverschmidt , f . 1968 . birds of surinam . oliver and boyd , london .\nhellmayr , c . e . 1929 . catalogue of birds of the americas . part vi . field museum of natural history zoological series volume 13 , part 6 . field museum of natural history , chicago , illinois .\nhilty , s . l . 2003 . birds of venezuela . second edition . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey .\nhilty , s . l . , and w . l . brown . 1986 . a guide to the birds of colombia . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey .\njunge , g . c . a . , and g . f . mees . 1958 . the avifauna of trinidad and tobago . zoologische verhandleingen number 37 .\nkirwan , g . m . , and g . green . 2011 . cotingas and manakins . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey .\nlima , c . a . , p . r . sequeira , r . m . m . gon\u00e7alves , m . f . vasconcelos , and l . leite . 2010 . dieta de aves de mata atl\u00e1ntica : uma abordagem baseada em conte\u00fados estomacais . ornitolog\u00eda neotropical 21 : 425 - 438 .\nlopes , l . e . , a . m . fernandes , and m . \u00e2 . marini . 2005 . diet of some atlantic forest birds . ararajuba 13 : 95 - 103 .\nmckay , b . d . , f . k . barker , h . l . mays , jr . , s . m . doucet , and g . e . hill . 2010 . a molecular phylogenetic hypothesis for the manakins ( aves : pipridae ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 55 : 733 - 737 .\nnovaes , f . c . , and m . de f\u00e1tima cunha lima . 1998 . aves da grande bel\u00e9m . museu paraense em\u00edlio goeldi , bel\u00e9m .\nolivares , o . m . 1958 . aves de la costa del pacifico , municipio de guapi , cauca , colombia . iii . caldasia 8 : 217 - 251 .\noniki , y . , and e . o . willis . 1999 . body mass , cloacal temperature , morphometrics , breeding and molt of birds of the serra das araras region , mato grosso , brazil . ararajuba 7 : 17 - 21 .\nparkes , k . c . 1961 . intergeneric hybrids in the family pipridae . condor 63 : 145 - 150 .\nrego , p . s . , j . araripe , m . l . v . marceliano , i . sampaio , and h . schneider . 2007 . phylogenetic analyses of the genera pipra , lepidothrix and dixiphia ( pipridae , passeriformes ) using partial cytochrome b and 16s mtdna genes . zoologica scripta 2007 : 1 - 11 .\nridgely , r . s . , and p . j . greenfield . 2001a . the birds of ecuador : status , distribution , and taxonomy . cornell university press , ithaca , new york .\nridgely , r . s . , and p . j . greenfield . 2001b . the birds of ecuador : field guide . cornell university press , ithaca , new york .\nridgely , r . s . , and g . tudor . 1994 . the birds of south america . volume ii . the suboscine passerines . university of texas press , austin , texas .\nryder , t . b . , and j . d . wolfe . 2009 . the current state of knowledge on molt and plumage sequences in selected neotropical bird families . ornitologia neotropical 20 : 1 - 18 .\nschulenberg , t . s . , d . f . stotz , d . f . lane , j . p . o\u2019neill , and t . a . parker iii . 2010 . birds of peru . revised and updated edition . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey .\nshorey , l . , s . piertney , j . stone , and j . hoglund . 2000 . fine - scale genetic structuring on manacus manacus leks . nature 408 : 352 - 353 .\nsibley , c . g . 1957 . the evolutionary and taxonomic significance of sexual dimorphism and hybridization in birds . condor 59 : 166 - 191 .\nsnow , d . w . 1979 . family pipridae , manakins . pages 245 - 28o in m . a . traylor , jr . ( editor ) , check - list of birds of the world . volume vii i . museum of comparative zoology , cambridge , massachusetts .\nsnow , d . w . 2004 . family pipridae ( manakins ) . pages 110 - 169 in del hoyo , j . , a , elliott , & d . christie , editors . handbook of the birds of the world . volume 9 . cotingas to pitpits and wagtails . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nsnow , d . w . , and a . lill . 1974 . longevity records for some neotropical land birds . condor 76 : 262 - 267 .\ntello , j . g . , r . g . moyle , d . j . marchese , and j . cracraft . 2009 . phylogeny and phylogenetic classification of the tyrant flycatchers , cotingas , manakins , and their allies ( aves : tyrannides ) . cladistics 25 : 429 - 467 .\nth\u00e9ry , m . 1992 . the evolution of leks through female choice : differential clustering and space utilization in six sympatric manakins . behavioral ecology and sociobiology 30 : 227 - 237 .\ntodd , w . e . c . 1928 . five new manakins from south america . proceedings of the biological society of washington 41 : 111 - 113 .\nwiedenfeld , d . a . , t . s . schulenberg , and m . b . robbins . 1985 . birds of a tropical deciduous forest in extreme northwestern peru . pages 305 - 315 in p . a . buckley , m . s . foster , e . s . morton , r . s . ridgely , and f . g . buckley ( editors ) , neotropical ornithology . ornithological monographs number 36 .\nwillis , e . o . 1984 . manakins ( aves , pipridae ) as army ant followers . ci\u00eancia e cultura 36 : 817 - 823 .\nzimmer , j . t . 1936 . studies of peruvian birds . xxii . notes on the pipridae . american museum novitates number 889 .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\noften considered conspecific with all congeners . see also m . vitellinus . almost all geographical variation probably clinal , and some of listed races may be untenable ; full revision of taxonomy needed . form named as \u201c m . coronatus \u201d , known only from type specimen ( \u201cupper amazon\u201d ) , appears to be hybrid between present species and ceratopipra erythrocephala . fifteen subspecies recognized .\nbangs , 1899 \u2013 n colombia ( santa marta region , lower cauca valley , lower and middle magdalena valley ) .\nchapman , 1914 \u2013 sw colombia ( s from sw cauca ) and extreme nw ecuador ( n esmeraldas , imbabura ) .\nchapman , 1914 \u2013 nw & w ecuador ( w esmeraldas and pichincha s to n guayas ) .\nchapman , 1924 \u2013 sw ecuador ( e guayas and extreme w chimborazo s to w loja ) and extreme nw peru ( tumbes ) .\nchapman , 1914 \u2013 nw & sc venezuela , colombia e of andes , e ecuador , ne peru ( n of r mara\u00f1\u00f3n ) , and nw brazil ( on upper r negro ) .\n( linnaeus , 1766 ) \u2013 s venezuela ( r casiquiare region , in s amazonas ) , the guianas , and ne brazil n of lower amazon , w to r negro .\ngyldenstolpe , 1941 \u2013 w brazil ( r juru\u00e1 ) , ne peru ( e loreto , madre de dios ) and nw bolivia ( e to r beni ) .\ncherrie & reichenberger , 1923 \u2013 sc brazil ( upper r madeira to w mato grosso ) and n bolivia ( beni , n santa cruz ) .\nbangs , 1899 \u2013 s bank of lower amazon in brazil ( r madeira probably to left bank of r xingu ) .\nj . t . zimmer , 1936 \u2013 s bank of lower amazon in brazil ( right bank of r xingu e to right bank of r tocantins ) .\ntodd , 1928 \u2013 e brazil from right bank of r tocantins e to n maranh\u00e3o .\n( desmarest , 1806 ) \u2013 e & se brazil ( alagoas , bahia and minas gerais s to extreme se mato grosso do sul , e santa catarina and extreme ne rio grande do sul ) , se paraguay and extreme ne argentina ( misiones ) .\nmale calls at lek a rather plaintive , slightly trilled \u201cpeerr\u201d , changing in excitement . . .\nforest edges , especially where woody undergrowth is thick , also low shrubby forest and secondary . . .\nmainly small fruits , also insects . in trinidad study area , fruits of 105 plant species , from 27 families , recorded as eaten ; . . .\nin trinidad , egg - laying in jan\u2013sept ( exceptionally , dec ) , peak may\u2013jun , month of starting varying annually , and up to five . . .\nresident . in radio - tracking study in french guiana , adults largely sedentary when breeding , moving . . .\nnot globally threatened . common in many parts of its wide range , but more local in areas of extensive unbroken forest . common in trinidad ; common in n & c parts of . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\ndistribution maps should be very cautiously looked at . they do not provide with precise location but only give an idea of species global distribution . distribution areas are geopolitical ; as a consequence the whole of a country is selected if a species is only located in one single place . for more precise distribution areas please go to iucn site ( see link above ) .\n) , chapman , 1924 . sw ecuador ( e guayas and extreme w chimborazo s to w loja ) and extreme nw peru ( tumbes ) .\n) , chapman , 1914 . nw & sc venezuela , colombia e of andes , e ecuador , ne peru , and nw brazil ( on upper r negro ) .\n) , gyldenstolpe , 1941 . w brazil ( r juru\u00e1 ) , possibly also adjacent ne peru ( e loreto ) .\nschulenberg , t . s . , d . f . stotz , and l . rico . 2006 . distribution maps of the birds of peru , version 1 . 0 . environment , culture & conservation ( ecco ) . the field museum .\nmaterial published in urltoken belongs to the author ( s ) and is protected by copyright laws . contributor ( s )\ncontribute to the knowledge and undertanding of bird distribution in peru . report your rare and unusual sightings :\ncorbidi is a peruvian non - profit organization , whose goal is to develop foundations that support biodiversity conservation .\nwe use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites . close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings .\nthis article has been cited by the following publications . this list is generated based on data provided by crossref .\n. context - dependence in seed removal by lekking and non - lekking frugivorous birds in brazilian of atlantic forest .\nthe ecology of a tropical forest : seasonal rhythms and long - term changes .\nemail your librarian or administrator to recommend adding this journal to your organisation ' s collection .\nfull text views reflects the number of pdf downloads , pdfs sent to google drive , dropbox and kindle and html full text views .\n* views captured on cambridge core between september 2016 - 9th july 2018 . this data will be updated every 24 hours .\ntaxonomic source ( s ) del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk . sacc . 2006 . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken . sacc . 2006 . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\npopulation justification : the global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' fairly common ' ( stotz et al . ( 1996 ) .\ntrend justification : this species is suspected to lose 19 . 1 - 23 . 8 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 19 years ) based on a model of amazonian deforestation ( soares - filho et al . 2006 , bird et al . 2011 ) . it is therefore suspected to decline by < 25 % over three generations .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nspecial thanks to tropical birding for outstanding photo contributions to the bird data family of apps .\ncopyright and usage info : my photos are free to use for non - commercial internet use only , up to five for any one purpose , provided that you retain the urltoken imprint or visibly display \u00a9 urltoken with the image . for internet usage , a link from the image to urltoken is required . i would also like to know where the image is being used ."]}
{"id": 1803, "summary": [{"text": "astichopus is a monotypic genus of sea cucumbers , the only species in the genus being astichopus multifidus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is commonly known as the furry sea cucumber or the fissured sea cucumber and is native to the caribbean sea . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "astichopus", "paragraphs": ["glynn , pw . , 1965 . active movements and other aspects of the biology astichopus and leptosynapta ( holothuroidea ) . biological bulletin . 129 : 106 - 127 .\nfood and agriculture organization of the united nations . fao geonetwork . fao aquatic species distribution map of astichopus multifidus ( geolayer ) . ( latest update : 04 jun 2015 ) accessed ( 9 jul 2018 ) . uri : urltoken\nfrom the abstract : astichopus does this in response to sudden changes in changes in salinity concentration , oxygen deficiency and other\nbodily disturbances .\nthe movement below may be a prelude to evisceration . . which i ' ve discussed here .\nfao aquatic species distribution map of astichopus multifidus . the main sources of information for the species distribution are the habitat description and geographic range contained in the published fao catalogues of species ( more details at urltoken ) . terms used in th . . .\njohn starmer marked\nfrom : sea stars , sea urchins , and allies : echinoderms of florida and the caribbean , by hendler , miller , pawson , & porter . 1995\nas trusted on the\nastichopus multifidus ( sluter , 1910 )\npage .\nupdate ! thanks to dave pawson for the citation ! go to this open access paper by peter glynn from 1965 on\nactive movements and other aspects of biology of astichopus and leptosynapta . biol . bull . 129 : 106 - 127 .\nto read the full account !\n( of stichopus multifidus sluiter , 1910 ) sluiter , c . p . ( 1910 ) . westindische holothurien . zool . jahrb . jena suppl . 11 : ( 331 - 342 ) . [ details ]\npawson , d . l . , d . j . vance , c . g . messing , f . a . solis - marin & c . l . mah . ( 2009 ) . echinodermata of the gulf of mexico . pp . 1177\u20131204 in felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college s . [ details ]\nm . de kluijver , g . gijswijt , r . de leon & i . da cunda\nhumann , p . , 1992 . reef creature identification - florida caribbean bahamas , ( ed . n . deloach ) . new world publications , inc . , paramount miller graphics , inc . , jacksonville , florida .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ntoral - granda , m . v , alvarado , j . j . , benavides , m . , paola ortiz , e . , hamel , j . - f . & mercier , a .\nhas a wide distribution and has been important in fisheries in panama , venezuela , and nicaragua . in panama , costa rica , and venezuela , all sea cucumber fishing activities are banned . however , illegal fishing may occur in panama . there is no fishing information from other parts of its range and no evidence that it is fished . it is therefore listed as least concern .\nthis caribbean species occurs from the southeastern u . s . and the gulf of mexico , south to colombia and venezuela , and east to jamaica , dominican republic , puerto rico , cuba , panama and bahamas . it is found at depths between 1 - 37m ( miller and pawson 1984 ) .\nthe average density reported for this species in bocas del toro , panama ( 4 . 9 individuals per ha ) may indicate current critical overfishing levels . the estimated size of the total population in that area was 231 , 000 individuals ( guzman and guevara 2002 ) . this species was absent in 95 % of protected areas around cayos zapatillas in panama ( guzman and guevara 2002 ) .\nalong the eastern and central yucatan coast ( mexico ) a density of 5 . 92 individuals per ha was found in the east and 32 . 18 individuals per ha in the central coast . the total biomass was estimated at approximately 16 , 000 tonnes for an area of approximately 1 . 2 million hectares ( moguel\nseagrass beds ( miller and pawson 1984 , toral - granda 2008 ) . it is also found in areas of calcareous algae ( miller and pawson 1984 ) , and prefers deeper , calmer reef environments ( hendler\nthis species is one of the most important commercial species in the caribbean , with fishing activties in panama ( toral - granda 2008 ) , and jamaica . it is of potential commercial interest in florida , puerto rico and the u . s . virgin islands ( bruckner 2006 ) .\nalthough not one of the most valuable species for fishery purposes , it can be expected that this species may become more popular after the depletion or reduction of other species of higher commercial importance and value . it can be considered an emerging commercial species , because higher value indo - pacific species are becoming scarce .\nguzman and guevara ( 2002 ) suggests that if the fishing pressure from 1997 is maintained , the population of this species in boca del toro , panama would collapse in nine days .\nin panama , costa rica , and venezuela , all sea cucumber fishing activities are banned ( toral - granda 2008 ) . illegal fishing may occur in panama ( j . alvarado pers . comm . 2010 ) . the fishery for this species in nicaragua is unregulated . the distribution of this species overlaps with some protected areas .\ntoral - granda , m . v , alvarado , j . j . , benavides , m . , paola ortiz , e . , hamel , j . - f . & mercier , a . 2013 .\n( errata version published in 2016 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2013 : e . t180493a102417783 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nyan wong changed the thumbnail image of\nfrom : sea stars , sea urchins , and allies : echinoderms of florida and the caribbean , by hendler , miller , pawson , & porter . 1995\n.\njennifer hammock added an association between\nfrom : sea stars , sea urchins , and allies : echinoderms of florida and the caribbean , by hendler , miller , pawson , & porter . 1995\nand\nthalassia testudinum banks & sol . ex k . d . koenig\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nclark , h . l . ( 1922 ) . the holothurians of the genus stichopus . bul . mus . comp . zool . cambridge mass . 65 ( no . 3 ) : pp . 39 - 74 . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all . . .\nbarcode of life data systems ( bolds ) stats public records : 1 specimens . . .\nis a variable , grey to green / black sea cucumber from . . .\nthis caribbean species occurs from the southeastern u . s . and the gulf . . .\nthe urltoken website brings together statistics , maps , pictures , and documents on food and agriculture from throughout the fao organization in one convenient location . this means that instead of searching multiple sites and sources , you will be able to go to one central place in order to collect or view the data that interests you . to assist in data retrieval , the site provides an efficient search engine as well as easy - to - use navigation menus .\nheads up ! we will have a convenient download format available for this resource soon .\nthe designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product are not warranted to be error free and do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of fao concerning the legal status of any country , territory , city or area or of its authorities , or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries . fao makes every effort to ensure , but does not guarantee , the accuracy , completeness or authenticity of the information in this information product .\nfood and agriculture organization of the united nations . ( 2012 ) . fao geonetwork . rome , italy : fao .\nfood and agriculture organization of the united nations . 2012 . fao geonetwork . rome , italy : fao .\nfood and agriculture organization of the united nations . ( 2012 ) . fao geonetwork . rome , italy , fao .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nin order to access this website , please configure your browser to support cookies .\n877 . 705 . 1878 ( toll - free , u . s . & canada ) 773 . 753 . 3347 ( international )\nbiostor is built by @ rdmpage , code on github . page images from the biodiversity heritage library .\ndepth range based on 10 specimens in 2 taxa . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 7 samples . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 11 - 179 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 22 . 312 - 26 . 768 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 615 - 6 . 773 salinity ( pps ) : 36 . 143 - 36 . 740 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 3 . 478 - 4 . 895 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 054 - 0 . 661 silicate ( umol / l ) : 1 . 232 - 2 . 986 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : 11 - 179 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 22 . 312 - 26 . 768 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 615 - 6 . 773 salinity ( pps ) : 36 . 143 - 36 . 740 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 3 . 478 - 4 . 895 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 054 - 0 . 661 silicate ( umol / l ) : 1 . 232 - 2 . 986 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\ngabaev , dd . , 1998 . some aspects of the ecology of young echinoderms settling on artificial substrata . pp 31 - 33 . in : echinoderms : san francisco . proceedings of the ninth international echinoderm conference , san francisco , california , usa , 5 - 9 august 1996 . ( mooi , r . , & telford , m . , eds . ) balkema press , rotterdam . 923 pps .\ngagaev , sy . , bestuzheva , il . , & andronov , py . , 1997 . on the season dynamics in bottom ecosystems of amerasiatian province in the arctic by the example of the chaun bay of the east siberian sea . okeanologiya . 37 ( 5 ) : 761 - 769 .\ngaill , f . , & van praet , m . , 1985 . aspects of macrobenthos nutrition . pp . 209 - 231 . in : deep sea populations from the gulf of gascogne : biogas expeditions . ( laubier , l . , & monniot , c . , eds . ) . brest , france : service documentation - publications , institut fran\u00e7ais recherche exploitation mer . 630 pp .\ngamber , jh . , & clark , dl . , 1978 . distribution of microscopic molluscs , echinoderms and sponges in the central arctic ocean . micropaleontology . 24 ( 4 ) : 422 - 431 .\ngamboa , r . , gomez , al . , & nievales , mf . , 2004 . , the status of sea cucumber fishery and mariculture in the philippines . pp . 69 - 78 . in : advances in sea cucumber aquaculture and management . ( lovatelli , a . , conand , c . , purcell , s . , uthicke , s . , hamel , jf . , mercier , a . , eds . ) . fao fisheries technical paper . no . 463 . 425pps .\nganapati , pn . , & radhakrishna , y . , 1962 . inquilinism between a new hesionid polychaete and a holothurian molpadia sp . current science . 31 : 382 - 383 .\ngao , ym . , & sun , jb . , 2004 . the biochemical genetics of stichopus japonicus selenka population . dalian shuichan xueyuan xuebao . 19 ( 1 ) : 30 - 34 .\ngarc\u00eda - arrar\u00e1s , je . , diaz - miranda , l . , torres , ii . , file , s . , jimenez , lb . , rivera - bermudez , k . , arroyo , ej . , & cruz , w . 1999 . regeneration of the enteric nervous system in the sea cucumber holothuria glaberrima . journal comparative neurology . 406 ( 4 ) : 461 - 475 .\ngarc\u00eda - arrar\u00e1s , je . , enamorado - ayala , i . , torres - avillan , i . , & rivera , v . , 1991 . fmrfamide - like immunoreactivity in cells and fibers of the holothurian nervous system . neuroscience letters . 132 ( 2 ) : 199 - 202 .\ngarc\u00eda - arrar\u00e1s , je . , estrada - rodgers , l . , santiago , r . , torres , ii . , diaz - miranda , l . , & torres - avillan , i . , 1998 . cellular mechanisms of intestine regeneration in the sea cucumber , holothuria glaberrima selenka ( holothuroidea : echinodermata ) . journal experimental zoology . 281 ( 4 ) : 288 - 304 .\ngarc\u00eda - arrar\u00e1s , je . , & greenberg , mj . , 2001 . visceral regeneration in holothurians . microscopy researchtechnique . 55 : 438 - 451 .\ngarc\u00eda - arrar\u00e1s , je . , lugo - chinchilla , am . , & ch\u00e9vere - col\u00f3n , i . , 1992 . the expression of neuropeptide y immunoreactivity in the avian sympathoadrenal system conformswith two models of co - expression development for neurons and chromaffin cells . development . 115 : 617 - 627 .\ngarc\u00eda - arrar\u00e1s , je . , rojas - soto , m . , jim\u00e9nez , lb . , & d\u00edaz - miranda , l . , 2001 . the enteric nervous system of echinoderms : unexpected complexity revealed by neurochemical analysis . journal experimental biology . 204 : 865 - 873 , 2001 .\ngarc\u00eda - arrar\u00e1s , je . , schenk , c . , rodriguez - ramirez , r . , torres , ii . , valent\u00edn , g . , & candelaria , ag . , 2006 . spherule cells in the echinoderm holothuria glaberrima and their involvement in intestinal regeneration . developmental dynamics . 235 : 3259 - 3267 .\ngarc\u00eda - arrar\u00e1s , je . , torres - avillan , i . , & estrada , l . , 1998 . cellular events during intestinal regeneration in holothuria glaberrima : analysis using monoclonal antibodies . pp . 455 . in : echinoderms : san francisco . proceedings of the ninth international echinoderm conference , san francisco , california , usa , 5 - 9 august 1996 . ( mooi , r . , & telford , m . , eds . ) balkema press , rotterdam . 923 pps .\ngarc\u00eda - arrar\u00e1s , je . , torres - avillan , i . , & ortiz - miranda , s . , 1991 . cells in the intestinal system of holothurians ( echinodermata ) express cholecystokinin - like immunoreactivity . general comparative endocrinology . 83 ( 2 ) : 233 - 242 .\ngarc\u00eda - arrar\u00e1s , je . & viruet , e . , 1993 . enteric nerve fibers of holothurians are recognized by an antibody to acetylated ? - tubulin . neuroscience letters . 157 : 153 - 157 .\ngardnier , sl . , & reiger , rm . , 1980 . rudimentary cilia in muscle cells of annelids and echinoderms . cell & tissue research . 213 : 247 - 252 .\ngathercole , lj . , bailey , aj . , dlugosz , j . , & keller , a . , 1980 . the cuverian tubules of holothuria : design for successful failure in a collagenous system . pp . 475 - 476 . in : the mechanical properties of biological materials . ( vincent , ffv . , & curry , jd . , eds . ) . symposia of the society for experimental biology 34 . cambridge university press .\ngaudron , s . , 2006 . observation of natural spawning of bohadschia vitiensis . spc b\u00eache - de - mer information bulletin . 24 : 54 .\ngavrilova , gs . , 1983 . trophic requirements of trepang ( stichopus japonicus , selenka ) fry . pp . 52 - 54 . in : iv all - union conference on scientific - technological problems of mariculture . abstracts of papers . 23 - 28 october 1983 , vladivostok . ( markovtsev , vg . , shuntov , vp . , rodin , ve . , mikulich , lv . , osipov , vg . , pavlychev , vp . , & kucheryavenko , eb . , eds . ) . laboratory of applied biocenology , pacific scientific research fisheries centre ( tinro - centre ) .\ngavrilova , gs . , 1989 . an evaluation of the food requirements of the far eastern trepang . rybnoe khozyaistvo . 1989 ( 2 ) : 36 - 38 .\ngavrilova , gs . , 1994 . assimilation of food by the far eastern sea cucumber . rybnoe khozyaistvo . 1 : 39 - 40 .\ngavrilova , gs . , 1995 . temperature range in the life cycle of far eastern trepang stichopus japonicus in the peter the great bay ( sea of japan ) . okeanologiya 35 ( 3 ) : 423 - 425 .\ngavrilova , gs . , 1998 . regularities of distribution and present state of commercial echinoderm stocks in peter the great bay ( japan sea ) . pp . 35 . in : echinoderms : san francisco . proceedings of the ninth international echinoderm conference , san francisco , california , usa , 5 - 9 august 1996 . ( mooi , r . , & telford , m . , eds . ) balkema press , rotterdam . 923 pps .\ngavrilova , gs . , 1998 . some population characteristics of commercial species of echinoderms in peter the great bay ( japan sea ) . pp . 36 . in : echinoderms : san francisco . proceedings of the ninth international echinoderm conference , san francisco , california , usa , 5 - 9 august 1996 . ( mooi , r . , & telford , m . , eds . ) balkema press , rotterdam . 923 pps .\ngay , ws . , & simon , se . , 1964 . metabolic control in holothuroidean muscle . comparative biochemistry physiology . 11 : 183 - 192 .\ngebruk , av . , 1994 . two main stages in the evolution of the deep - sea fauna of elasipodid holothurians . pp . 507 - 514 . in : echinoderms through time : proceedings of the eighth international echinoderm conference , dijon , france , 6 - 10 september 1993 . ( david , b . , guille , a . , f\u00e9ral , jp . , & roux , m . , eds . ) . balkema press , rotterdam . 590 pps .\ngebruk , a . , 1995 . locomotory organs in the elasipodid holothurians : functional - morphological and evolutionary approaches . pp . 95 - 102 . in echinoderm research 1995 : proceedings of the fourth european echinoderms colloquium , london , united kingdom , 10 - 13 april 1995 . ( emson , r . , smith , a . , & campbell , a . , eds . ) . balkema press , rotterdam . 341 pps .\ngebruk , av . , 1998 . spicule changes during somatic growth in holothurians . echinoderms : san francisco . pp . 456 . in : echinoderms : san francisco . proceedings of the ninth international echinoderm conference , san francisco , california , usa , 5 - 9 august 1996 . ( mooi , r . , & telford , m . , eds . ) balkema press , rotterdam . 923 pps .\ngebruk , av . , tyler , pa . , billett , dsm . , 1997 . pelagic juveniles of the deep - sea elasipodid holothurians : new records and review . ophelia . 46 ( 2 ) : 153 - 164 .\ngeise , ac . , & kanatani , h . , 1987 . maturation and spawning . chapter 4 . pp . 251 - 329 . in : general aspects : seeking unity in diversity . volume ix , - reproduction of marine invertebrates . ( geise , ac . , pearse , js & pearse , vb . , eds . ) . boxwood press , pacific grove california .\ngellhorn , e . , 1927 . beitrage zur vergleichenden physiologie der spermatozoen . iv . mitteilung . ionenstudien an den spermatozoon von meerestieren . archiv gesellschaft physiologie . 216 : 181 - 197 .\ngellhorn , e . , 1927 . studien zur vergleichenden physiologie der permeabilitat . i . mitleilung . \u00fcber den einfluss von ionen and nichtleitern anf die permeabilitat von spermatozoen und eiern . archiv gesellschaft physiologie . 216 : 220 - 233 .\ngellhorn e . 1927 . studien zur vergleichenden physiologie der permeabilitat . ii . mitteilung . vitalfarbung und permeabilitat , nach versuchen an den eiern von meerestieren . archiv gesellschaft physiologie . 216 : 234 - 248 .\ngentleman , sb . , 1971 . respiratory studies of a sea cucumber . diss abstr int 31b : 6998 .\ngeorge , sb . 1996 . echinoderm egg and larval quality as a function of adult nutritional state . oceanologica acta . 19 : 297 - 308 .\ngerould , jh . , 1897 . the anatomy and histology of caudina arenata gould . bulletin museum comparative zoology , harvard . 29 ( 3 ) : 123 - 190 .\ngerould , jh . , 1898 . a viviparous holothurian . american naturalist . 32 : 273 - 278 .\ngessert , l . , 1991 . seewalzen und die notwendigkeit der gabe von kalkwasser zum aquarienwasser . aquarium . 27 - 28 : 41 .\nghyoot , m . , jangoux , m . , & van impe , e . , 1990 . composition biochimique et contenu \u00e9nerg\u00e9tique du t\u00e9gument de l ' holothurie neopentadactyla mixta ( echinodermata ) . pp . 171 - 175 . in : echinoderm research : proceedings of the second european conference on echinoderms , brussels , 18 - 21 september 1989 . ( de ridder , c . , dubois , p . , lahaye , mc . , & jangoux , m . , eds . ) . balkema press , rotterdam . 343 pps .\ngibson , aw . , & burke , rd . , 1983 . gut regeneration by morphallaxis in the sea cucumber leptosynapta clarki ( heding , 1928 ) . canadian journal zoology . 61 ( 12 ) : 2721 - 2732 .\ngiddeon , pw . , menon , pkb . , rao , srv . , & jose , kv . , 1957 . on the marine fauna of gulf of kutch : a preliminary account . journal bombay natural history society . 54 : 690 - 786 .\ngiese , ac . , physiology of the echinoderm body wall . thalassia jugoslavica . 12 : 153 - 163 .\ngilchrist , jdf . , 1920 . planktothuria diaphana gen . et sp . nov . quarterly journal microscopical science . 64 : 373 - 382 .\nginanova , tt . , 1998 . dna synthesis during muscle regeneration in sea cucumber . izvestiya rossiiskoi akademii nauk seriya biologicheskaya . 1 : 14 - 19 .\nginanova , tt . , 1999 . cell migration in regenerating muscles of the holothurian eupentacta fraudatrix . biologiya morya . 25 ( 2 ) : 99 - 100 .\nginger , ml . , billett , dsm . , mackenzie , kl . , kiriakoulakis , k . , neto , rr . , boardman , dk . , santos , vlcs . , horsfall , im . , & wolff , ga . , 2001 . organic matter assimilation and selective feeding by holothurians in the deep sea : some observations and comments . progress oceanography . 50 ( 1 - 4 ) : 407 - 421 .\nginger , ml . , santos , vlcs . , & wolff , ga . , 2000 . a preliminary investigation of the lipids of abyssal holothurians from the north - east atlantic ocean . journal marine biological association uk . 80 ( 1 ) : 139 - 146 .\ngiraspy , dab . , & ivy , g . , 2005 . australia ' s first commercial sea cucumber culture and sea ranching project in hervey bay , queensland , australia . spc b\u00eache - de - mer information bulletin . 21 : 29 - 31 .\ngislen , t . , 1924 . echinoderm studies . academical dissertation . zoologiska bidrag uppsala . 9 : 316 pps .\ngoad , lj . , garneau , fx . , simard , jl . , apsimon , jw . , & girard , m . , 1985 . isolation of ? 9 ( 11 ) sterols from the sea cucumber psolus fabricii . implications for holothurin biosynthesis . tetrahedron letters . 26 ( 29 ) : 3513 - 3516 .\ngoad , lj . , garneau , fx . , simard , jl . , apsimon , jw . , & girard , m . , 1986 . composition of the free , esterified and sulphated sterols of the sea cucumber psolus fabricii . comparative biochemistry physiology b . 84 ( 2 ) : 189 - 196 .\ngoad , lj . , rubinstein , i . , & smith , ag . , 1972 . the sterols of echinoderms . proceedings royal society b . 180 ( 1059 ) : 223 - 246 .\ngoldbeck , ej . , houben , c . , & langer , mr , 2005 . survival of foraminifera in the gut of holothuroids from elba island ( mediterranean sea ) . revue micropaleontologie . 48 ( 3 ) : 169 - 174 .\ngomes da silva , s . , de ridder , c . , eeckhaut , i . , & fiers , f . , 2004 . reproductive biology of synaptiphilus luteus and allantogynus delmarei , two symbiotic copepods of holothuroids . pp . 193 - 199 in : echinoderms : muenchen proceedings of the 11th international echinoderm conference , munich , germany , 6 - 10 october 2003 . ( heinzeller t , & nebelsick jh , eds . ) taylor & francis , london . 633 pps .\ngonsalves , col . , 1997 . effect of holothurian and zoanthid extracts on growth of some bacterial and diatom species . indian journal marine sciences . 26 ( 4 ) : 377 - 379 .\ngoodrich , hp . , 1925 . observations on the gregarines of chiridota . quarterly journal microscopical science . 69 : 619 - 628 .\ngoodrich , hp . , 1930 . observations on the gregarines of chiridota . quarterly journal microscopical science . 73 : 275 - 287 .\ngopakumar , k . , 1978 . diversified fish products . summer institute fish processing technology . cift , cochin . 13 pps .\ngorshkov , ba . , gorshkova , ia . , stonik , va . , & elyakov , gb . , 1982 . effect of marine glycosides on adenosinetriphosphatase activity . toxicon . 20 ( 3 ) : 655 - 658 .\ngoshima , s . , fujiyoshi , y . , ide , n . , gamboa , ru . , & nakao , s . , 1994 . distribution of japanese common sea cucumber , stichopus japonicus in lagoon saroma . suisan zoshoku . 42 ( 2 ) : 261 - 266 .\ngosner , kl . , & peterson , rt . , 1999 . a field guide to the atlantic seashore : from the bay of fundy to cape hatteras . houghton miffin company , boston , mass . 352 pps .\ngoswamy , bcb . , 1992 . marine fauna of digha coast of west bengal , india . journal marine biological association india . 34 ( 1 & 2 ) : 115 - 137 .\ngotto , rv . , 1984 . observations on synaptiphilus tridens ( t . & a . scott ) , an ecto - associate of holothurians . crustaceana . supplement . 7 : 214 - 216 .\ngraham , jch . , & battaglene , sc . , 2004 . periodic movement and sheltering behaviour of actinopyga mauritiana ( holothuroidea : aspidochirotidae ) in solomon islands . spc b\u00eache - de - mer information bulletin . 19 : 23 - 31 .\ngrave , c . , 1902 . feeding habits of a spatangoid , moera atropos ; a brittle - star fish , ophiophragma wurdmannii and a holothurian , thyone briareus . prelim abstr : ( in report of the meeting of american morphological society ) . science . 15 : 579 .\ngrave , c . , 1905 . the tentacle reflex in a holothurian cucumaria pulcherrima . johns hopkins university circulars . no . 178 : 24 - 27 .\ngravely , fh . , 1927 . the littoral fauna of krusadai island in the gulf of mannar . bulletin madras government . museum natural history . 1 ( 1 ) : 163 - 173 .\ngravely , fh . , 1941 . shells and other animal remains found on the madras beach . bulletin madras government , museum natural history . 5 : 86 - 90 .\ngray , gm . , 1903 . thyone briareus , in\nbiological notes .\nbulletin us fisheries commission . 19 : 308 .\ngreen , cr . , 1981 . fixation - induced intramembrane particle movement demonstrated in freeze - fracture replicas of a new type of septate junction in echinoderm epithelia . journal ultrastructure research . 75 ( 1 ) : 11 - 22 .\ngreen , cr . , bergquist , pr . , & bullivant , s . , 1979 . an anastomosing septate junction in endothelial cells of the phylum echinodermata . journal ultrastructure research . 68 ( 1 ) : 72 - 80 .\ngreen , jd . , 1978 . the annual reproductive cycle of an apodous holothurian , leptosynapta tenuis : a bimodal breeding season . biological bulletin . 154 ( 1 ) : 68 - 78 .\ngreenberg , ar . , & eylers , jp . , 1984 . influence of ionic environment on the stress relaxation behaviour of an invertebrate connective tissue . journal biomechanics . 17 ( 3 ) : 161 - 166 .\ngregson , rp . , marwood , jf . , & quinn , rj . , 1981 . the occurrence of 5 - hydroxytryptamine in the holothurian , pentacter crassa . experientia . 37 ( 9 ) : 930 - 931 .\ngrigorai , gv . , 1982 . comparative study of toxicity of zinc for various ontogenetic stages of sea urchin and trepang . pp . 163 - 171 . in : ecology and conditions of reproduction of fish and invertebrates in waters of the soviet far east and the north - western part of the pacific ocean . ( konovalov , sm . , shuntov , vp . , markovtsev , vg . , gavrilov , gm . , osipov , vg . , pavlychev , vp . , mikulich , lv . , fadeev , ns . , & kucheryavenko , eb . , eds . ) .\ngrosenbaugh , da . , 1981 . qualitative assessment of the asteroids , echinoids and holothurians in yap lagoon . atoll research bulletin . 255 : 49 - 54 .\ngruzov , en . , & pushkin , af . , 1970 . bottom communities of the upper sublittoral of enderby land and the south shetland islands . pp . 235 - 238 . in : antarctic ecology volume 1 . ( holdgate , mw . , ed . ) . academic press . london\ngudimova , en . , gudimov , a . , & collin , p . , 2004 . a study of the biology for fishery in two populations of cucumaria frondosa : in the barents sea ( russia ) and in the gulf of maine ( usa ) . pp . 269 - 275 . in : echinoderms : muenchen . proceedings of the 11th international echinoderm conference , munich , germany , 6 - 10 october 2003 . ( heinzeller , t . , & nebelsick , jh . , eds . ) . taylor & francis , london . 633 pps .\ngudimova , en . , & opalev , ml . , 1989 . gravimetry of the holothuroid cucumaria frondosa gunnerus in the water environment . pp . 107 - 112 . in : trophic interrelationships of benthic organisms and benthic fish of the barents sea . ( chinarina , ad . , ed . ) .\nguenther , k . , 1903 . \u00fcber den nucleolus im reifenden echinodermen ei und seine bedeutung . zoologische jahrb\u00fccher . 19 : 28 pps .\nguo , c . , ni , z . , & xu , z . , 1998 . advances in the extraction and active research of glycosaminoglycan from echinodermata . marine science bulletin . 17 ( 5 ) : 84 - 87 .\nguo , sy . , guo , z , chen , by . , guo , q . , ni , sw . , & wang , xc . , 2003 . urea induced inactivation and unfolding of arginine kinase from the sea cucumber . biokhimiya . 68 ( 11 ) : 1575 - 1580 .\ngurumani , on . , & krishnamurthy , s . , 1994 . some aspects of processing and quality control of b\u00eache - de - mer for export . in : proceedings of the national workshop on b\u00eache - de - mer . ( rengarajan , k . , & james , db . , eds . ) central marine fisheries research institute bulletin . no . 46 : 81 - 84 .\ngustato , g . , & villari ; , a . , 1980 . on the ecology and species frequency of the genus holothuria in the gulf of naples . pp . 187 . in : echinoderms - present and past proceedings of the european colloquium on echinoderms , brussels september 1979 . ( jangoux , m . , ed . ) balkema press , rotterdam . 428 pps .\ngustato , g . , villari , a . , del gaudio , s . , & pedata , p . 1982 . ulteriori dati sulla distribuzione di holothuria tubulosa , holothuria polii e holothuria stellati nel golfo di napoli . bollettino societ\u00e0 naturalisti napoli . 91 : 14 pps .\ngutt , j . , 1991 . investigations on brood protection in psolus dubiosus ( echinodermata : holothuroidea ) from antarctica in spring and autumn . marine biology . 111 ( 2 ) : 281 - 286 .\ngutt , j . , 1991 . on the distribution and ecology of holothurians in the weddell sea , antarctica . polar biology . 11 ( 3 ) : 145 - 155 .\ngutt , j . , 2000 . some \u201cdriving forces\u201d structuring communities of the sublittoral antarctic macrobenthos . antarctic science : 12 , 297 - 313 .\ngutt , j . , 2001 . on the direct impact of ice on marine benthic communities , a review . polar biology . 24 : 553 - 564 .\ngutt , j . , gerdes , d . , & klages , m . , 1992 . seasonality and spatial variability in the reproduction of two antarctic holothurians ( echinodermata ) . polar biology . 11 ( 8 ) : 533 - 544 .\ngutt , j . , & piepenburg , d . , 1991 . dense agggregations of three deep - sea holothurians in the southern weddell sea , antarctica . marine ecology progress series . 68 ( 3 ) : 277 - 285 .\ngutt , j . , & starmans , a . , 2001 . quantification of iceberg impact and benthic recolonisation patterns in the weddell sea , antarctica . polar biology . 24 : 615 - 619 .\nguzman , hm . , & guevara , ca . , 2002 . population structure , distribution and abundance of three commercial species of sea cucumber ( echinodermata ) in panama . caribbean journal of science 38 ( 3 - 4 ) : 230 - 238 .\nguzman , hm . , guevara , ca . , & hernandez , ic . , 2003 . reproductive cycle of two commercial species of sea cucumber ( echinodermata : holothuroidea ) from caribbean panama . marine biology . 142 ( 2 ) : 271 - 279 .\nechinodermata ! starfish ! sea urchins ! sea cucumbers ! stone lillies ! feather stars ! blastozoans ! sea daisies ! marine invertebrates found throughout the world ' s oceans with a rich and ancient fossil legacy . their biology and evolution includes a wide range of crazy and wonderful things . let me share those things with you !\nstrange behavior i ' ve never heard of in this tropical sea cucumber . . .\nseriously though , i ' ve never heard nor seen of a sea cucumber doing that rolling in the sand action . i this another thing that naturalists see that may not have been recorded before ? ?\non page 391 of their second edition of\nreef creature identification\npaul humann and ned deloach state\nthis creature can be quite active , and may be observed crawling or even rolling over and over .\nunfortunately , no internet link availabble .\ni pursue starfish related adventure around the world with a critical eye and an appreciation for weirdness . support has been courtesy of the national science foundation but the views and opinions presented herein are mine and do not reflect the opinions of them or any affiliated institutions . need to hire an invertebrate zoologist / marine biologist ? please contact me !\n( photo by km6xo ) so , last week , i was contacted by an intrepid member of the public who was quite interested in finding out more about s . . .\nif you ' ve ever enjoyed the fine diversity of japanese cuisine , and are a serious sushi connaisseur ( as i am ) you have probably experienc . . .\nlast week the foks over at newswatch national geographic proclaimed that they had the\n5 weirdest antarctic species\n. hyperbo . . .\n( from clipart etc - florida educational claringhouse ) i was casually checking the numbers for the echinoblog over a july 4th weekend in . . .\n( photo by emily miller kauai ) so , recently i ' ve gotten a bunch of questions about these peculiar sea urchins via email - and so i thou . . .\nthe other day , i was thinking of big stuff . and then , a bit later , i was thinking of starfish stuff . and then i thought of cake . ( mmm . . . .\nimages here from the encyclopedia of life this week , something about the many different kinds of asteroids ( aka sea star or starfish ! ) t . . .\ntoday ' s topic : starfish defense ! ! its curious how often this question comes up . people see starfish and other echinoderms that are just . . .\nfrom wikipedia ! sea urchins ! who doesn ' t love em ? the spiny balls of the sea ! we eat em ! they ' re important to marine ecosystems . . .\ntoxopneustes ! aka the\nflower urchin\nis one of four species of toxopneustes ( all of which occur throughout the tropical pacifi . . .\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nthe office of national marine sanctuaries serves as the trustee for a network of underwater parks encompassing more than 600 , 000 square miles of marine and great lakes waters from washington state to the florida keys , and from lake huron to american samoa . the network includes a system of 13 national marine sanctuaries and papah\u0101naumoku\u0101kea and rose atoll marine national monuments .\nmallows bay on the tidal potomac river in maryland is home to nearly 200 known shipwrecks spanning from the revolutionary war through the present , and including the remains of the largest \u201cghost fleet\u201d of world war i wooden steamships built for the u . s . emergency fleet , which are listed on the national register of historic places . mallows bay is a largely undeveloped landscape and waterscape identified as one of the most ecologically valuable in maryland , as the ship remains provide important habitat for fish and wildlife , including rare , threatened and endangered species .\nwisconsin \u2013 lake michigan is an 875 square mile area of lake michigan with waters extending from port washington to two rivers . the state of wisconsin nominated this area as a national marine sanctuary through the sanctuary nomination process with broad community support . the area encompasses historic shipwrecks of national significance that merit the additional management authority of the national marine sanctuaries act . the nominated area contains an extraordinary collection of 39 known shipwrecks , 15 of which are listed on the national register of historic places .\npapah\u0101naumoku\u0101kea marine national monument ( pmnm ) is the largest conservation area in the world , protecting over 580 , 000 square miles of pacific ocean . the extensive coral reefs found in papah\u0101naumoku\u0101kea \u2013 truly the rainforests of the sea \u2013 are home to over 7 , 000 marine species , one - quarter of which is found only in the hawaiian archipelago . many of the islands and shallow - water environments are important habitats for rare species such as the threatened green turtle and the endangered hawaiian monk seal . on less than six square miles of land , over 14 million seabirds representing 22 species breed and nest . land areas also provide a home for four species of bird found nowhere else in the world , including the world ' s most endangered duck , the laysan duck .\nthe national marine sanctuary of american samoa supports one of the most diverse ecosystems in the national marine sanctuary system . some of the marine life that finds a home in the sanctuary includes invertebrates , fishes , turtles , marine mammals and marine plants . the sanctuary protects extensive coral reefs , including some of the oldest and largest porites coral heads in the world , along with deep water reefs , hydrothermal vent communities and rare marine archaeological resources . located in the remote islands of polynesia , it is also the only true tropical reef within the national marine sanctuary system . it encompasses 13 , 581 square miles around the culture - rich islands of american samoa . visitors to the sanctuary can enjoy recreational activities such as diving , snorkeling and fishing as well as experience the cultural heritage of the islands .\ngreater farallones national marine sanctuary ( gfnms ) is a globally significant and extraordinarily diverse marine ecosystem that supports abundant wildlife and valuable fisheries . in 2015 , gfnms expanded north and west of their original boundaries to encompass 3 , 295 square miles . the farallon islands , located in the south - central part of the sanctuary , are a national wildlife refuge , offering resting and breeding sites for marine mammals and seabirds . the sanctuary has thousands of seals and sea lions , and is home to the largest concentration of breeding seabirds in the continental united states . visitors to gfnms can enjoy activities such as camping , tidepooling and surfing .\nstellwagen bank national marine sanctuary ( sbnms ) is located at the mouth of massachusetts bay . the sand and gravel plateau that gives the sanctuary its name was formed by the slow retreat of massive ice age glaciers , which sculpted the dynamic seafloor . the nutrient - rich waters above and around the bank support a diverse ecosystem that has been a famous fishing ground for more than 400 years and claims status as the birthplace of east coast whale watching . historic new england shipping routes cross the sanctuary , and over the course of centuries , the seafloor has become a repository for shipwrecks \u2013 time capsules of our maritime heritage . the entire sanctuary encompasses 842 square miles of open ocean 25 miles east of boston . visitors to sbnms can enjoy whale watching , bird watching , diving and fishing in this history - rich and biologically - diverse habitat .\n. our planet is an ocean planet , and whether you live near the coast or a thousand miles from it , the ocean is part of your life . from providing the food we eat to determining our weather , the ocean matters to each of us - - and the national marine sanctuary system protects this vital resource .\nwith that in mind , the photos and videos of earth is blue bring these ocean treasures directly to smartphones and computers all over the world , where they can serve as a tangible reminder that no matter where you are , the ocean and great lakes are in your hands . we hope these images inspire you to help care for our ocean and to spread the word that earth isn ' t green - - it ' s\na bat ray near anacapa island in channel islands national marine sanctuary . these graceful creatures use their fins to expose buried prey like clams and other mollusks . ( photo : robert schwemmer / noaa )\nthese are not the droids you ' re looking for \u2013 they ' re hydroids ! learn about these odd invertebrates in our video .\nstories from the blue celebrate the people at the center of national marine sanctuaries and marine national monuments .\nfor the first time in two decades , noaa invites communities across the nation to nominate their most treasured places in our marine and great lakes waters for consideration as national marine sanctuaries .\nin response to ongoing widespread interest from the public , noaa has launched a new , locally driven sanctuary nomination process developed with input from more than 18 , 000 public comments . throughout the nomination process , noaa will be available to answer questions and provide guidance to nominating communities and other interested parties . noaa will also update nominators on the progress of the agency ' s review of their nomination .\nactor and activist edward james olmos lends his voice to the new sanctuary nomination process and offers a challenge to the american people . watch in hd\nacross all national marine sanctuaries , about $ 8 billion annually is generated in local coastal and ocean dependent economies .\nwe are pleased to share with you the final version of our vision for america ' s treasured ocean places , our five - year plan for advancing the protection of the amazing ocean and great lakes places managed by noaa ' s office of national marine sanctuaries . this document incorporates feedback from staff , members of the public , and a number of partner institutions and entities received throughout the process , including during a comment period posted in march 2017 .\nnational marine sanctuaries are ideal destinations for travelers who enjoy a diversity of recreational activities .\nvolunteers help to ensure marine sanctuaries remain america ' s underwater treasures for future generations ."]}
{"id": 1805, "summary": [{"text": "leucinodes is a genus of moths of the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "leucinodes species have been documented as eggplant fruit borer , posing medium threats to incoming crops from african nations . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "leucinodes", "paragraphs": ["chaetotaxy map of investigated leucinodes larvae ; blue elements illustrate variation found in leucinodes orbonalis and leucinodes africensis ; red elements illustrate the differences found in leucinodes laisalis compared to leucinodes orbonalis and leucinodes africensis .\na polytomous cluster comprising leucinodes rimavallis , leucinodes kenyensis and two undescribed \u2018barcode species\u2019 ( leucinodes spp . ) are sister to ( leucinodes africensis + leucinodes pseudorbonalis ) .\nlarvae of leucinodes . 36\u201337 leucinodes orbonalis 36 mid instar 37 late instar 38\u201339 leucinodes africensis 38 mid instar 39 late instar 40\u201341 leucinodes laisalis 40 early instar 41 late instar .\nadult specimens of leucinodes . 1 leucinodes orbonalis , syntype \u2642 ( bangladesh ) 2 leucinodes africensis \u2640 ( angola ) 3 leucinodes rimavallis \u2640 ( dr congo : kivu ) 4 leucinodes pseudorbonalis \u2642 ( uganda ) 5 leucinodes kenyensis , holotype \u2642 ( kenya ) 6 leucinodes malawiensis , holotype \u2642 ( malawi ) 7 leucinodes laisalis \u2640 , greyish form ( tanzania ) 8 leucinodes laisalis \u2640 , brownish form ( tanzania ) 9 leucinodes ethiopica , holotype \u2642 ( ethiopia ) 10 leucinodes ugandensis , holotype \u2642 ( uganda ) . scale bar represents 5 mm .\nfor austral - asia , there remain twelve nominal leucinodes species ( nuss et al . 2003\u20132014 ) . other than leucinodes orbonalis , at least some of these species are certainly misplaced in leucinodes , e . g . leucinodes labefactalis swinhoe , 1904 from borneo and leucinodes perlucidalis caradja , 1933 from china . therefore , the asian leucinodes are in need of taxonomic revision . this also points to the question whether all leucinodes samples intercepted from asian exports refer to leucinodes orbonalis , or whether there are several leucinodes species of economic importance in asia as well ( hayden et al . 2013 , chang et al . 2014 , gilligan and passoa 2014 ) .\nfood plant records of african leucinodes species . cultivated plants are given in bold .\nfact sheet leucinodes orbonalis guen\u00e9e . lepintercept - an identification resource for intercepted lepidoptera larvae\nmale genitalia . 13 leucinodes orbonalis , vietnam ( prep . rm503 ) 14 leucinodes africensis , two - branched sacculus process , c\u00f4te d\u2019ivoire ( prep . rm330 , phallus omitted ) 15 leucinodes africensis , single - branched sacculus process , ghana ( import ) ( prep . rm501 ) 16 leucinodes rimavallis , kenya ( prep . rm667 ) 17 leucinodes pseudorbonalis , uganda ( prep . rm705 ) 18 leucinodes kenyensis , zimbabwe ( prep . rm694 ) 19 leucinodes malawiensis , malawi ( prep . rm683 ) 20 leucinodes laisalis , south africa ( prep . rm504 ) 21 leucinodes ethiopica , ethiopia ( bmnh pyralidae slide 23138 ) 22 leucinodes ugandensis , somalia ( bmnh pyralidae slide 23140 ) ; phallus mirrored . abbreviations : fi fibula , ga granulated area , sa sacculus , sb side branch of sacculus process , sp sacculus process . scale bar represents 500 \u00b5m .\nanalysis of the coi gene of the leucinodes species demonstrated that interspecific differences allow the use of the marker as a dna barcode for species identification . however , for leucinodes kenyensis and \u201c leucinodes spp . \u201d , we found little morphological differences but two distinct barcode species within leucinodes spp . moreover , we observed high intraspecific divergence in leucinodes laisalis with one specimen from south africa exhibiting a coi distance of 2 . 8 % .\nfemale genitalia . 23 leucinodes orbonalis , thailand ( import ) ( prep . rm642 ) , ventral view 24 leucinodes africensis , ghana ( prep . rm640 ) , ventral view 25 leucinodes rimavallis , kenya ( prep . rm666 , smtd lep1592 ) , lateral view 26 leucinodes pseudorbonalis , uganda ( prep . rm706 ) , lateral view 27 leucinodes kenyensis , kenya ( prep . mn1134 ) , lateral view . scale bar represents 500 \u00b5m .\nhead profiles of adult leucinodes orbonalis . 11 male 12 female . figures at same scale .\nleucinodes orbonalis is regularly intercepted in the eppo region : addition to the eppo alert list .\nleucinodes , brinjal borer , fruit and shoot borer | zoology and entomology articles . ias zoology .\ndistinguished from the other leucinodes species by the dark , straight - framed forewing base and the absence of the subapical mark of the forewing termen . the male genitalia are similar to those of leucinodes ethiopica and leucinodes ugandensis , but are distinct in the long spinoid process of the posterior phallus apodeme .\nthis species\u2019 forewing colour has more ochreous than the whitish species of leucinodes but less orange - brown to greyish than in leucinodes laisalis and leucinodes ugandensis . from leucinodes ugandensis and leucinodes laisalis it can be distinguished by the genitalia : in the male genitalia the transtilla arms each bear a dorsad spine ; in the female genitalia the ductus bursae lacks the fine granular sclerotization , the antrum is strongly sclerotized , tubular and widest at its anterior end , and the oval ostial sclerites in the lateral antrum pockets are larger .\nfemale pheromone of brinjal fruit and shoot borer , leucinodes orbonalis : trap optimization and preliminary mass trapping trials .\nthe record of leucinodes laisalis from belgium by nyst ( 2004 ) is most probably a misidentification , since the illustrated imago resembles much more the whitish leucinodes species . apart from that , there is a european record of leucinodes laisalis from spain . additionally , it is frequently intercepted with the import of solanaceous fruits in great britain .\npupae of leucinodes . 42\u201343 leucinodes africensis 42 dorsal view 43 close - up of cremaster 44\u201346 leucinodes laisalis 44 dorsal view 45 lateral view 46 close - up of cremaster . abbreviations : hs hood - like structures dorsal to spiracles on abdominal segments 2 and 3 . scale bar refers to 42 , 44 and 45 and represents 5 mm .\nleucinodes kenyensis is a species of moth in the crambidae family . it is found in kenya and possibly zimbabwe .\nfemale genitalia . 28 leucinodes laisalis , kenya ( prep . rm308 ) , lateral view 29 leucinodes ethiopica , ethiopia ( bmnh pyralidae slide 23139 ) , ventral view 30 leucinodes ugandensis , somalia ( bmnh pyralidae slide no . 23137 ) , lateral view 31 leucinodes orbonalis , thailand ( import ) ( prep . rm642 ) , ventral close - up of antrum region 32 leucinodes africensis , c\u00f4te d\u2019ivoire ( prep . rm743 ) , dorsolateral close - up of antrum region ( phase contrast filter ) 33 leucinodes pseudorbonalis , uganda ( prep . rm706 ) , lateral close - up of antrum region 34 leucinodes kenyensis , kenya ( prep . mn1134 ) , lateral close - up of antrum region . abbreviations : as antrum sclerotizations ; scale bar in 28\u201330 represents 500 \u00b5m and in 31\u201334 represents 200 \u00b5m .\nstatus of the pyraustid moths of the genus leucinodes in the new world , with descriptions of new genera and species .\nleucinodes orbonalis guen\u00e9e , 1854 ; hist . nat . ins . , spec . g\u00e9n . l\u00e9pid . 8 : 223\nwings . forewing length \u2642 9 . 0 mm , \u2640 9 . 0 mm ; wing pattern as in leucinodes orbonalis .\nleucinodes orbonalis guen\u00e9e , 1854 ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) , a species not previously recorded in the wild in great britain .\ndistinguished from most other members of leucinodes by the orange - brown to greyish forewing colour . distinguished from leucinodes ethiopica by the generally darker forewing colour with less amount of white . differs from both leucinodes ethiopica and leucinodes ugandensis in : male genitalia with large , oval sacculus ; broad , strongly sclerotized ventrad fibula ; saccus well elongated ; phallus coecum keeled , posteriodorsal apodeme with slim , fingerlike , well sclerotized process ; female genitalia with antrum broad , its anterior end coiled , with exocuticle diffusely sclerotized .\ndistinguished from the whitish species of leucinodes and leucinodes ethiopica by the predominantly brown forewing ground colour with minor white patches . distinguished from leucinodes laisalis in the male genitalia : less strongly sclerotized , valvae triangular , fibula small , tooth - like , a similarly shaped distal sacculus process present , saccus process shorter , phallus much shorter , dorsoposterior apodeme without slim , finger - like process .\nsimilar revisionary work remains to be done for austral - asian leucinodes . a phylogenetic study including leucinodes and the new world euleucinodes , neoleucinodes and proleucinodes is needed in order to test the monophyly of these genera ( hayden and mally , in prep . ) .\nfield evaluation of eggplant cultivars to infestation by the shoot and fruit borer , leucinodes orbonalis ( lepidoptera , pyralidae ) in ghana .\nleucinodes labefactalis swinhoe , 1904 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1904 ( 1 ) : 158 ; tl : kuching\nfemale pheromone of brinjal fruit and shoot borer , leucinodes orbonalis : trap optimization and preliminary mass trapping trials . - gov . uk\nthis species is very similar to leucinodes rimavallis , but both coi barcoding data and constant morphological differences in genitalia separate the two species .\nwings . forewing length \u2642 7 . 0\u20138 . 5 mm , \u26409 . 0\u201311 . 0 mm ; wing pattern as in leucinodes orbonalis .\nanalyta apicalis ( hampson , 1896 ) , comb . n . ( leucinodes ) . type locality : india , dharamsala . sri lanka .\nuncorrected p - distances for the dna - barcoded species of leucinodes . values in bold denote intraspecific distances , plain values represent interspecific distances .\nphylogeographical structure in mitochondrial dna of eggplant fruit and shoot borer , leucinodes orbonalis guen\u00e9e ( lepidoptera : crambidae ) in south and southeast asia .\nrecently , several interceptions of larvae in solanaceous fruits imported from uganda have been recorded in england ( own observation ) and the netherlands ( marja van der straten , pers . comm . ) . leucinodes pseudorbonalis is one of the three african leucinodes species intercepted at european ports of entry .\nwings . forewing length \u2642 7 . 5\u201310 . 5 m , \u2640 7 . 0\u201311 . 5 m ; wing pattern as in leucinodes orbonalis .\nwings . forewing length \u2642 8 . 5\u201312 . 0 mm , \u2640 7 . 0\u201314 . 0 mm ; wing pattern as in leucinodes orbonalis .\nleucinodes laisalis clusters in two barcode groups : one group containing all specimens imported with fruits from kenya , ghana and nigeria , and a second group comprising a single south african specimen . this single specimen shows high uncorr - p distances of 2 . 4\u20132 . 8 % to the other leucinodes laisalis specimens .\nty - jour ti - discovery of an unknown diversity of leucinodes species damaging solanaceae fruits in sub - saharan africa and moving in trade ( insecta , lepidoptera , pyraloidea ) t2 - zookeys ur - urltoken pb - pensoft publishers py - 2015 au - mally , richard au - korycinska , anastasia au - agassiz , david j . l . au - hall , jayne au - hodgetts , jennifer au - nuss , matthias kw - leucinodes leucinodes orb er -\nhere we taxonomically revise leucinodes and sceliodes and their species from continental sub - saharan africa , in order to delimit species and to allow their proper identification .\nknown from west africa ( c\u00f4te d\u2019ivoire , ghana , liberia , nigeria ) , angola , dr congo , gabon , and tanzania ; intercepted with plant imports from ghana and zimbabwe to great britain and the netherlands . at least in the southern dr congo ( lubumbashi ) leucinodes rimavallis occurs sympatrically with leucinodes africensis .\ncomposition of greek pseud ( o ) \u2018false\u2019 and orbonalis , meaning \u2018false orbonalis \u2019 , referring to the similarities in external and male genital characters with leucinodes orbonalis .\nleucinodes cordalis is known to occur in new zealand , australia , and indonesia : sulawesi ( snellen 1880 , dugdale 1988 , shaffer et al . 1996 ) .\ndespite repeated search in the collection of the zmhb , original material of leucinodes translucidalis gaede , 1917 from tanzania , tendaguru , could not be traced . according to the original description , this taxon can be regarded as conspecific with leucinodes laisalis due to all details given in the original description . especially the white triangle at the anterior line , another white triangle , though often somewhat inconspicuous , at the middle of costa , and the dark brown area below apex support the conspecifity with leucinodes laisalis .\nthea lautenschl\u00e4ger ( technische universit\u00e4t dresden , germany ) and gerard van der weerden ( radboud university nijmegen , the netherlands ) identified the angolan host plants of leucinodes africensis .\nthe african populations comprise at least three cryptic sibling species . their economical importance remains unclear at the moment . specimens originating from from africa should be determined as \u201cleucinodes sp . \u201d\n@ article { bhlpart216626 , title = { discovery of an unknown diversity of leucinodes species damaging solanaceae fruits in sub - saharan africa and moving in trade ( insecta , lepidoptera , pyraloidea ) } , journal = { zookeys } , url = urltoken publisher = { pensoft publishers 2015 } , author = { mally , richard and korycinska , anastasia and agassiz , david j . l . and hall , jayne and hodgetts , jennifer and nuss , matthias } , year = { 2015 } , keywords = { leucinodes leucinodes orb | } , }\nthe nature of damage to egg plant ( solanum melongena l . ) in ghana by two important pests , leucinodes orbonalis gn . and euzophera villora ( fldr . ) ( lepidoptera pyralidae ) .\nthere are further male specimens with indistinctive wing pattern and very similar genitalia , but dna barcode data suggest that among them are at least two further species . for more information , see under leucinodes spp .\nmale genitalia . as in leucinodes africensis , but with the fibula short , more triangular and robust , straight or slightly curved ; distal sacculus process short and always bent apically ; valva apex rounded or stout .\nnote : leucinodes orbonalis has now been added to the eppo a1 list . a full datasheet is being prepared , in the meantime you can view here the data which was previously available from the eppo alert list .\nleucinodes currently includes twelve old world species distributed in tropical to mediterranean regions . the species share a white or light wing color and a calico pattern ranging from simple brown or dark fields to complex line patterns of light - to dark - brown color . a typical feature is the half moon - shaped spot on the forewing outer margin . several of these species are misplaced in leucinodes due to the superficial resemblance of wing color and pattern .\nbishop s , matthews l , macleod a ( 2006 ) csl pest risk analysis . york , uk . urltoken cabi ( 2007 ) crop protection compendium . datasheet on leucinodes orbonalis . urltoken van der gaag dj , stigter h ( 2005 ) pest risk analysis leucinodes orbonalis ( gu\u00e9n\u00e9e ) . plant protection service , the netherlands . urltoken zhang b - c ( 1994 ) index of the economically important lepidoptera . cabi wallingford , uk , 468 pp .\n- most leucinodes specimens found in solanaceous fruits imported from africa into europe during the last 50 years belong to l . africensis , and to a lesser extent to l . laisalis , l . pseudorbonalis and l . rimavallis .\nleucinodes orbonalis clusters in two groups , separated by 1 . 1\u20131 . 8 % uncorr - p distance . within - subcluster distances are 0\u20130 . 5 % for the smaller and 0\u20130 . 9 % for the larger of the two subclusters .\nlygropia is a polyphyletic genus containing 62 species ( nuss et al . 2003\u20132014 ) . we provisionally transfer lygropia aureomarginalis ( gaede , 1916 ) , comb . n . ( leucinodes ) from cameroon to this genus , as this species , according to wing pattern elements , is congeneric , if not conspecific , to lygropia vinanyalis viette , 1958 from madagascar . lygropia aureomarginalis can be distinguished externally from species of leucinodes by the shiny golden wing maculation and the presence of two frenulum bristles in the female .\nleucinodes malawiensis resembles species of the neotropical genus neoleucinodes capps , 1948 : it shares the prominent diagonal line in the forewing base with neoleucinodes dissolvens ( dyar , 1914 ) , but lacks the long , sabre - like cornutus in the phallus . the absence of the half moon - shaped pattern at the anterior half of the forewing\u2019s outer margin is also found in proleucinodes capps , 1948 . in the coi barcode neighbor joining tree leucinodes malawiensis clusters with neoleucinodes , but is weakly supported with 50 % bootstrap support .\nwhy : since 2004 , more than 120 interceptions of solanum fruits infested by leucinodes orbonalis and imported from asia and africa have been made by several eppo member countries . the panel on phytosanitary measures recommended that this pest should be included into the eppo alert list .\ndue to the synonymisation of sceliodes , this species is provisionally transferred to leucinodes , as no proper generic placement has been found . compared to leucinodes , several differences can be found in wing pattern of grisealis kenrick , 1912 : in the fore wing , the postmedian line is originating in the apex , and its median protrusion is closely approaching the termen ; the half moon - shaped patch below apex is protruding beyond m 3 ; in the hind wing , the postmedian line is originating closer to the apex and is running closer to the termen .\nholotype \u2642 [ small blue label ] \u201cgr . kamerunberg | buea 1 . \u201310 . xi . 10 | 1000\u20131200 m | e . hintz s . g . \u201d , [ large blue handwritten label with black border ] \u201c leucinodes | aureomarginalis | 83 : 8a type gaede\u201d ( zmhb ) .\nmally r , korycinska a , agassiz djl , hall j , hodgetts j , nuss m ( 2015 ) discovery of an unknown diversity of leucinodes species damaging solanaceae fruits in sub - saharan africa and moving in trade ( insecta , lepidoptera , pyraloidea ) . zookeys 472 , 117 - 162 .\nour work shows that typological concepts of taxonomy based on superficial similarity were still the state of the art in the genus leucinodes . the discovery of a complex of highly similar species demonstrates that traditional morphological methods and dna barcoding are helpful tools to detect species diversity and to improve their classification based on sound arguments .\n- african leucinodes correspond to several species , most of which are new to science : l . africensis , l . ethiopica , l . kenyensis , l . laisalis ( = sceliodes laisalis , l . translucidalis ) , l . malawiensis , l . pseudorbonalis , l . rimavallis , and l . ugandensis .\nmally r , korycinska a , agassiz djl , hall j , hodgetts j , nuss m ( 2015 ) discovery of an unknown diversity of leucinodes species damaging solanaceae fruits in sub - saharan africa and moving in trade ( insecta , lepidoptera , pyraloidea ) . zookeys 472 : 117\u2013162 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 472 . 8781\nrecorded on several 250 hosts worldwide . some of the major pests of the indian region parasitised by this species are chilo partellus , c . infuscatellus , c . sacchariphagus indicus , c . suppressalis , c . auricilius , cnaphalocrocis medinalis , scirpophaga incertulas , s . excerptalis , raphimetopus ablutellus , leucinodes orbonalis , helicoverpa armigera , and plutella xylostella .\nwe apply the morphospecies concept to our study . the dna barcode is used as additional source of information and as an identification tool for all developmental stages of african leucinodes species . the solanaceae species names mentioned in this study refer to their former context and do not necessarily correspond to the revised solanum taxonomy by knapp et al . ( 2013 ) .\nwings . forewing white translucent , light brown or orange - to grey - brown , basal area light to dark brown , delimited by white and dark brown double line or in species with brown forewing ground colour by dark brown antemedian line ; median area with pale to dark brown , sometimes very faint proximal discoidal stigma ( absent in leucinodes malawiensis ) ; distal discoidal stigma pale to dark brown , reaching from costa to forewing centre ; central dorsum with prominent orange to dark brown , broadly l - shaped or triangular spot connected or disconnected with distal discoidal stigma ; postmedian line sinuate , faint and grey to grey - brown , white edged , with prominent subcostal bulge ; apex brown to grey - brown coloured ( absent in leucinodes malawiensis ) , with slim strip of white at outer margin ; margin dotted at veins , with large dots at apex and m 3 ; fringe white to pale brown with dark interruption at apex and at m 3 ( absent in leucinodes malawiensis ) . hindwing in both sexes with one frenular bristle , ground colour whitish , middle of wing with one or two spots , often faint ; postmedian line inconspicuous , bent towards spot at middle of wing ; area below apex suffused by pale brown to grey ; margin dotted at end of veins , with large dot at end of m 3 .\n< mods xmlns : xlink =\nurltoken\nversion =\n3 . 0\nxmlns : xsi =\nurltoken\nxmlns =\nurltoken\nxsi : schemalocation =\nurltoken urltoken\n> < titleinfo > < title > discovery of an unknown diversity of leucinodes species damaging solanaceae fruits in sub - saharan africa and moving in trade ( insecta , lepidoptera , pyraloidea ) < / title > < / titleinfo > < name > < namepart > mally , richard < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > korycinska , anastasia < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > agassiz , david j . l . < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > hall , jayne < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > hodgetts , jennifer < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > nuss , matthias < / namepart > < / name > < typeofresource > text < / typeofresource > < genre authority =\nmarcgt\n> < / genre > < subject > < topic > leucinodes leucinodes orb < / topic > < / subject > < relateditem type =\nhost\n> < titleinfo > < title > zookeys < / title > < / titleinfo > < origininfo > < publisher > pensoft publishers < / publisher > < / origininfo > < part > < date > 2015 < / date > < / part > < / relateditem > < identifier type =\nuri\n> urltoken < / identifier > < / mods >\nthe wing pattern of iriocapna meyrick , 1938 exhibits none of the features found in leucinodes . instead , the fore wings are pale yellow , with a yellowish costa , a dark spot in both outer edges of the cell , and a reddish undulating margin along the termen . the hind wings are of the same pale yellow ground colour , and the anterior half of the termen exhibits a similar margin as found in the fore wings . this wing pattern is common to the genus deanolis snellen , 1899 , where this species is correctly placed ( pers . comm . james e . hayden ) .\ntypes : holotype albicillalis [ circular white label with red border ] \u201ctype\u201d , [ beige label with brown border and triangular edges ] \u201camboina | doll . \u201d , [ rectangular white label ] \u201cfelder | collection . \u201d , [ rectangular white label ] \u201crothschild | bequest | b . m . 1939 - 1 . \u201d , [ rectangular beige handwritten label ] \u201camboina | dol . \u201d , [ rectangular beige handwritten label ] \u201c analyta | albicillalis m\u201d , [ rectangular brown label with central white area , roundly bordered by dark brown and yellow ] \u201c albicillalis led . \u201d ( bmnh ) ; holotype apicalis \u2642 [ circular label with red border ] \u201ctype\u201d , [ rectangular white label ] \u201c4 - 94\u201d , [ rectangular white label ] \u201cceylon | 95 - 119\u201d , [ rectangular white handwritten label ] \u201c leucinodes | apicalis | type \u2642 hmpsn . \u201d , transparent capsule with abdomen ( bmnh ) ; holotype pseudoapicalis \u2642 [ red rectangular label ] \u201cholotypus\u201d , [ white rectangular label ] \u201canping | formosa | h . sauter vi . 1911 . \u201d , [ rectangular white label ] \u201c analyta | pseudoapi | calis m . | strand det . \u2642\u201d ( sdei ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhost : this is a pest of brinjal ( solanum melongena ) but also attacks other solanaceous plants .\ndamage : younger larvae bore into the midrib and petiole of the leaf , resulting in drooping of the leaves . larvae also feed on the tender leaves and flower buds causing dead heart . fruits are attacked by making a hole near the basal part and tunnelling inside . fruit pulp is eaten up . a single larva can destroy several fruits .\nlife cycle : adult moth is whitish in colour with irregular reddish - brown markings on both wings and having a wing span of 1 . 5 - 2 . 0 cm . longevity of the adults is about a week and fecundity varies between 150 to 250 eggs per female . eggs , which are whitish and flat , are laid singly on the tender shoots or on fruits and hatch in 3 - 5 days . young caterpillars are creamish in colour but full - grown larva is pinkish with brownish head and scattered hairs and warts on its 1 . 5 cm long body . there are 5 larval instars and the larval period varies between 15 and 25 days . pupation takes place in a tough grayish to dull brownish elongated cocoon , usually in hidden portions of the plant . pupal period is 6 - 8 days .\ndistribution : countrywide distribution in india , burma , sri lanka congo , malaysia , south africa .\ncontrol : damaged shoots and fruits should be removed and burnt . spray of 0 . 1 % of carbaryl , sevimol , endrin , diazinon , malathion or endosulfan or cypermethrin 0 . 025 % should be timed with egg laying and larval emergence .\nconservation of the following larval parasitoids brings down population : cremastus , pristomerus , bracon , shirakia , iphiaulax sp .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nrichard mally , 1 anastasia korycinska , 2 david j . l . agassiz , 3 jayne hall , 2 jennifer hodgetts , 2 and matthias nuss 4\n4 senckenberg natural history collections dresden , k\u00f6nigsbr\u00fccker landstr . 159 , 01109 dresden , germany\ncorresponding author : richard mally ( on . biu . mu @ yllam . drahcir )\ncopyright richard mally , anastasia korycinska , david j . l . agassiz , jayne hall , jennifer hodgetts , matthias nuss\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license ( cc by 4 . 0 ) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\npcr of the 5\u2019 half of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit i ( coi ) gene , the so - called dna barcode ( for metazoa ) , was performed using primers hyblco ( folmer et al . 1994 , wahlberg and wheat 2008 ) and hybnancy ( wahlberg and wheat 2008 ) . for degraded material primer pairs hyblco / k699 and ron / hybnancy ( wahlberg and wheat 2008 ) were used to amplify the coi barcode in two fragments . pcr was performed in 25 \u00b5l reactions comprising 0 . 4u bio - x - act short dna polymerase ( bioline ) , 2 . 5 \u00b5l 10\u00d7optibuffer , 1 . 5 mm mgcl 2 , 200 nm each primer , 200 nm dntp mix and 1\u20132 \u00b5l dna ( concentration as extracted ) . cycling conditions were as follows : initial denaturation for 5min at 95 \u00b0c , 40 cycles with 1 ) 30 sec at 95 \u00b0c , 2 ) 30 sec at 48 \u00b0c , 3 ) 90 sec ( hyblco / hybnancy ) or 60 sec ( primers for degraded material ) at 70 \u00b0c , final extension of 10 min at 70 \u00b0c . alternatively primers lepf and lepr ( hajibabaei et al . 2006 ) were used in 25 \u00b5l pcr reactions using bio - x - act short 2\u00d7 mix ( bioline ) , 400 nm each primer and 1\u20132 \u00b5l dna ( concentration as extracted ) . cycling conditions were as follows : initial denaturation for 5 min at 94 \u00b0c , 35 cycles with 1 ) 30 sec at 94 \u00b0c , 2 ) 45 sec at 50 \u00b0c , 3 ) 1min at 72 \u00b0c , final extension of 10 min at 72 \u00b0c .\npcr products were visualised by separation in 1\u20131 . 5 % agarose gels in 1 \u00d7 tbe buffer ( 89 mm tris - borate 2 mm edta ) containing gelred or ethidium bromide and visualised under uv light . pcr amplicons were cleaned up using exosap - it ( affymetrix ) or qiaquick pcr purification kit ( qiagen ) . sequencing of both strands was performed by eurofins mwg operon ( germany ) or in - house as follows . sequencing pcrs were performed with bigdye terminator v3 . 1 cycle sequencing kit ( applied biosystems ) using 5pm of the sequencing primer tails t7 / t3 ( wahlberg and wheat 2008 ) and 0 . 5\u20134 \u00b5l pcr product . final clean - up was done via sodium acetate - ethanol precipitation . sequencing was performed on a 3130 genetic analyzer ( applied biosystems ) . pcrs , pcr clean - up and sequencing pcrs were performed on a mastercycler ep gradient s ( eppendorf ) or geneamp9700 ( applied biosystems ) .\nobtained dna sequences were proofread by eye and aligned using phyde 0 . 9971 ( m\u00fcller et al . 2008 ) or mega version 4 . 1 ( tamura et al . 2007 ) . ambiguous barcode nucleotides were coded according to the iupac ambiguity code ( cornish - bowden 1985 ) . sequences were then checked for plausibility using blast with the blastn algorithm ( altschul et al . 1990 ; url : urltoken ) as well as the bold identification system ( ids , url : urltoken ) . a 615 basepair fragment was analyzed with mega version 6 ( tamura et al . 2013 ) , using the distance criterion and the neighbor joining ( nj ) algorithm ( saitou and nei 1987 ) with uncorrected p - distances ( srivathsan and meier 2011 ) . statistical support was evaluated through 1 , 000 bootstrap replicates . udea ferrugalis ( h\u00fcbner , 1796 ) was used to root the nj tree .\nlabel data of studied specimens were compiled in order to generate a distribution map . geographical coordinates , if not given on the label , were obtained via google earth , version 5 . 2 . 1 . 1588 and subsequently plotted on a map using diva - gis , version 7 . 2 . 3 ( hijmans et al . 2004 ) .\nthe data underpinning the analyses reported in this paper are deposited in the dryad data repository at doi : 10 . 5061 / dryad . kk0n9 .\ndaraba walker , 1859 ( synonymised by hampson 1899 ) . type species : daraba idmonealis walker , 1859\neretria snellen , 1880 ( synonymised by hampson 1899 ; shaffer et al . 1996 : junior homonym of eretria robineau - desvoidy , 1863 ) . type species : eretria obsistalis snellen , 1880\n) , in females shorter than antennal radius ; vertex with whitish to brown scales at the collar and brown scales directed forward ; chaetosemata absent .\nthorax . dorsal side whitish to brown with whitish and dark brown scales mixed in ; ventral side whitish ; legs predominantly whitish , foreleg femur , tibia and epiphysis light to dark brown ; tibial spurs 0 , 2 , 4 ( fore - , mid - , hindleg ) with outer spur 1 / 2 to 2 / 3 the length of inner spur .\nabdomen . first segment whitish , remainder light - , orange - or dark brown to grey .\n) ; phallus simple , with variously shaped sclerites at posterior apodeme , vesica with or without cornuti .\nfemale genitalia . corpus bursae ovoid , membranous , without signa ; ductus bursae membranous with delicate granulation , partly reaching into posterior corpus bursae ; antrum short to long , slim to broader than ductus bursae , anterior part sometimes coiled , mesocuticula thickened ( strongly stained with chlorazol black ) and exocuticula ( inner layer ) partly sclerotized ; ostium bursae with lateral membranous pockets , with or without oval sclerites ; both apophyses pairs simple , apophyses anteriores normally stronger developed than posterior apophyses , with or without broadened central portion .\nlast instar larvae with pink dorsal integument , intersegmental areas cream or light pink , the ventral integument cream ; strength of the colouration very variable , pink colour on majority of abdominal segments often interrupted laterally by a transverse cream line ; head , prothoracic and anal shields mid brown with variable black markings ; early instar larvae white or cream with brown pinacula and black head , prothoracic and anal shields . in older larvae the dorsal integument turns beige , then increasingly deeper pink as the moults progress , head and prothoracic shield brown ; pinacula pale brown and prominent against the integument in all instars . the chaetotaxy of the thorax and first nine abdominal segments of the last instar is illustrated in fig .\n) ; four pairs of long hooked setae ventral to cremaster ; cocoon stout leathery , made of silk , firmly attached to the substrate .\nwings . forewing length \u2642 8 . 5\u201310 . 5 m , \u2640 9 . 5\u201312 . 0 m ; forewing ground colour white , basal area light - to dark brown , delimited by dark brown to grey antemedial line ; median area with pale brown , faint proximal discoidal stigma ; distal discoidal stigma pale brown , reaching from costa to forewing centre ; central dorsum with prominent orange to dark brown l - shaped or triangular spot leading to forewing centre and often meeting with distal discoidal stigma ; antemedial line sinuate , more or less distinct , but with prominent subcostal bulge ; subapical half of termen with half moon - shaped brown to grey - grown spot ; marginal line dotted ; fringe and marginal line darkened at the tips of the half moon - shaped spot ; hindwing ground colour white , internal area white , with discoidal spot , basicostally often with auxiliary spot ; medial line sinuate , distal half approaching the discoidal spot , then turning towards dorsum ; external area pale brown to gray ; marginal line dotted .\n) , valva apex rounded , strongly granulated ; distal 2 / 3 of ventral valva margin loosely covered with long thin setae ; phallus simple , tapering posteriad , posterior apodeme dorsally elongate , ventrally with subapical , weakly serrated sclerite ; ventral and dorsal portion of posterior apodeme separated by a slim , less strongly sclerotized region .\n) , with a sclerite process leading in each of the lateral pockets ; both apophysis pairs simple , slightly curved .\nmsd1 and msd2 of meso - and metathorax usually on a shared pinaculum , earlier instars frequently have the msd setae on separate pinacula on one or both segments ; dorsal abdominal pinacula show apparent differentiation between west - and east - asian populations : in live western specimens ( e . g . , from pakistan ) , the abdominal d1 pinacula usually have an unpigmented cream coloured area near to their anteriomedian margin . this unpigmented area may be contiguous with the unmelanized cuticle surrounding the pinaculum or be surrounded by the melanized cuticle of the pinaculum ( illustrated on a3\u20136 in fig .\n) ; this cream white , unpigmented area may darken in preserved specimens , and in pre - pupae may be ringed in black . eastern specimens ( e . g . , from thailand ) often have dark spots on at least some of the d1 pinacula ( illustrated on a2 in fig .\n) ; geographically intermediate populations ( e . g . , sri lanka ) often show an intermediate form with black spots on occasional pinacula , and any unpigmented area is usually ringed with black pigmentation ( illustrated on a7 in fig .\n) . east - asian populations usually have mesally triordinal crochets , whereas the crochets of west - asian populations are mesally biordinal .\ncremaster forms a variable shelf - like , sub - rectangular structure , much wider than long , usually with distinct distal corners and median notch ; dorsal surface spinulose , with additional small but distinct spines which are variable in extent , form and number ; cocoon of dark brown silk , may be white or beige when newly spun .\nindia , indonesia : java ( guen\u00e9e 1854 ) , sri lanka ( walker 1859 , moore 1885 ) , myanmar ( burma ) , andaman islands ( pagenstecher 1900 ) , bangladesh , brunei , cambodia , china , japan , laos , malaysia , nepal , pakistan , philippines , singapore , taiwan , thailand , vietnam ( cabi 2012a ) , australia ( shaffer et al . 1996 ) ; imported to great britain , the netherlands ( pers . comm . m . van der straten ) , denmark ( pers . comm . o . karsholt ) and the u . s . a . ( boateng et al . 2005 , solis 2006 ) .\nsolanaceae : solanum melongena l . , solanum aculeatissimum jacq . , solanum aethiopicum l . , solanum erianthum d . don . , solanum anguivi lam . ( as solanum indicum l . ) , solanum integrifolium poir . , solanum lycopersicum l . , solanum macrocarpon l . , solanum mammosum l . , solanum nigrum l . , solanum torvum sw . , solanum tuberosum l . , solanum viarum dunal , solanum xanthocarpum schrad . , physalis minima l . , physalis peruviana l . , capsicum annuum l . ( van der straten 2005 ; hayden et al . 2013 ) .\nwest africa , 11 june 1848 , h . s . le marquand leg .\nhead . as for the genus , with frons moderately bulged , base of each meron of labial palps with white scales .\n) ; ventrad fibula thin , spine - like , curved , crossing distal sacculus anterior to the sacculus process ; valva apex pointed ; posteriodorsal phallus apodeme with prominent oval saw blade - like sclerite , posterioventral apodeme with posteriodorsad oriented tapering process .\nas for the genus , apart from : colliculum - antrum complex in sagittal plane of sigmoid shape ; dorsal surface of antrum exocuticle with longitudinal sclerotized strip running from sternite 8 , bearing transverse ridges ( fig .\n) ; sternite 8 with anteriomedian recess , anteriolateral edges slightly dentate ; apophyses anteriores with broadened central portion .\n, the majority of the abdominal d1 pinacula have a dark pigmented spot on the anteriomedian margin ( illustrated on a2 in fig .\nlatinized africensis , derived from the continent of africa from where the type material originates and referring to the widespread distribution of this species on the african continent .\nsolanaceae : solanum aethiopicum l . ( angola , leg . nuss 2013 ) , solanum lycopersicon l . , solanum melongena l .\nkenya , mt elgon , 01\u00b007 ' 06\nn , 34\u00b041 ' 30\ne , february 1952 , t . h . e . jackson leg .\nthorax . as for the genus , with dorsal side brown , tegula scales whitish - brown .\nfemale genitalia . as for the genus , apart from : anterior antrum with short sclerotized section , central posterior antrum with diffuse weak sclerotization ; sternite 8 on each side with anteriad triangular process extending into the lateral antrum pockets .\nfrom latin rima for \u2018rift\u2019 and vallis for \u2018valley\u2019 , referring to the african rift valley , the main distributional area of this species ( as far as known ) .\nburundi , eastern and southern democratic republic of the congo , kenya , rwanda , south africa , uganda ( import ) .\nsolanaceae : solanum melongena l . , withania somnifera ( l . ) dunal .\nangola , huambo province , luimbale , mt moco , 1800 - 1900 m , 12\u00b028 ' s , 15\u00b010 ' s , 18 march 1934 , k . jordan leg .\ntype - specimen . holotype \u2642 [ red - circled label ] \u201cholo - | type\u201d , \u201cmt . moco , | luimbale , | 1800 - 1900m . , | 18 march 1934 . \u201d , \u201cangola | ( dr k . jordan ) \u201d , \u201crothschild | bequest | 1939 - 1 . \u201d , bm pyralidae slide 23135 ( bmnh ) . \u2013 additional material . senegal . 1\u2642 dakar , 01 . viii . 1952 , leg . a . villiers ( bmnh ) ; uganda . 1\u2642 masindi , 29 . xii . 1897 , leg . ansorge , bmnh pyralidae slide no . 23125 ( bmnh ) ; 1\u2642 labonga , unyoro , 13 . xii . 1897 , leg . ansorge , bmbh pyralidae slide no . 23126 ( bmnh ) ; 1\u2642 nabagulo forest , 15 m from kampala , 25 . x . \u201306 . xi . 1921 , leg . w . feather , bmnh pyralidae slide no . 23145 ( bmnh ) ; 1\u2642 , ruwenzori range , ibanda , 4 , 700ft , 4 . \u201312 . ix . 1952 , leg . d . s . fletcher , bmnh pyralidae slide no . 23146 ( bmnh ) ; 1\u2642 masindi , 30 . x . 1897 , leg . ansorge , prep . rm707 ( bmnh ) ; 2\u2642 kampala , 1897 , leg . dr . ansorge , bmnh pyralidae slide no . 23149 , prep . rm705 ( bmnh ) ; 1\u2640 same data , prep . rm706 ( bmnh ) ; the netherlands ( import ) : 1\u2640 barendrecht , import uganda , 26 . ii . 2014 , leg . sluijs , on solanum melongena , prep . rm758 ( nppo ) ; great britain ( import ) . see suppl . material 2 .\nmale genitalia . as for the genus , apart from : juxta oval to rectangular ; valvae roughly rhombic ; sacculus process claw - shaped , extending dorsad , parallel to or crossing with fibula ; fibula slightly curved , spine - like , extending dorsad ; posteriodorsal phallus apodeme with a small oval or semicircular sclerite , posterioventral apodeme with simple rodlike process .\nas for the genus , apart from : anterior antrum shortly coiled in coronal plane , with the exoculticle exhibiting a longitudinal sclerotized strip bearing transverse ridges ( fig .\n) ; sternite 8 intruding into the posteriorly somewhat constricted antrum , giving it a globular appearence .\nlarva . only one specimen available , examined live . black spots present on dorsal pinacula ; in the final instar , msd1 and msd2 on a shared pinaculum on both meso - and metathorax ; crochets mesally triordinal .\nwe found this species among material from senegal , uganda and angola , leaving a considerable distribution gap in central africa .\nkenya , eastern province , marsabit district , marsabit national park forest , 1158 m , 2\u00b013 . 996 ' n , 37\u00b055 . 676 ' e , 29 december 2003 , r . s . copeland leg .\ntype - specimens . holotype 1\u2642 \u201ckenya : marsabit national | park forest . 1158 m . | 2\u00b013 . 996 ' n 37\u00b055 . 676 ' e . | 29 dec 2003 , a & m coll . # 2636 | r . s . copeland ; icipe / usda\u201d , \u201creared from fruit : | withania somnifera\u201d , dna barcode \u201cusnm ent 007 / 19337\u201d , \u201c1133 | nuss prep . no . \u201d , coll . nmk . paratypes 1\u2642 , 1\u2640 , same data , dna barcodes usnm ent 719338 , 719339 , nuss prep . no . 1135 ( 1\u2640 nmk , 1\u2642 smtd ) ; 1\u2640 kenya , laikipia plateau , mpala research centre , 0 . 293\u00b0n 36 . 899\u00b0e , 1650 m , 21 . \u201324 . vi . 2005 , leg . s . e . miller , dna barcode usnm ent 719976 , nuss prep . no . 1134 ( usnm ) . \u2013 additional material . zimbabwe . 1\u2642 mashonaland , leg . h . b . dobbie , prep . rm694 ( bmnh ) .\nfemale genitalia . as for the genus , apart from : anterior antrum with tubular sclerotized exocuticle ; sclerotized wall at antero - ventral edge of the ostium bursae which at rest closes the ostium bursae against abdominal segment 8 . this wall is not melanized and can be stained with chlorazol black . it is delimited dorso - laterally by sclerotized and melanized lobes arising from the anterior edge of segment 8 just ventral of the apophyses anteriores . anterior to the sclerotized wall there is a small , melanized colliculum .\nthe species is named after kenya , the only country from where it is confidently recorded so far .\nso far only known from kenya . the record from zimbabwe needs confirmation by investigation of female specimens and molecular analysis .\nmalawi , central region , lilongwe district , ntchisi forest reserve , 1560 m , 13\u00b018 . 99972 ' s , 34\u00b002 . 99934 ' e , 18 february 2004 , l . aarvik leg .\ntype - specimen . holotype \u2642 \u201cmalawi central | region , lilongwe district : | ntchisi forest reserve | 1560 m 18 . ii . 2004 | leg . l . aarvik\u201d , dna voucher smtd lep1617 , prep . rm683 ( nhmo ) .\nwings . forewing length \u2642 8 . 5 mm ; forewing base dark brown , its outer margin a straight diagonal line from the costa to the maculation of the central hind margin , a triangular patch leading lateroposteriad from the costa with the costal half reddish - brown and the central tip white ; outer median area with a faint brownish transverse streak ; subterminal line indistinct except subapical thickening ; apex white ; hindwing antemedial line indistinct ; dark discal spot ; postmedial line clear at costal margin , fading out posteriad ; anterior distal area with a faint brownish transverse streak ; terminal wing veins dark - spotted .\nmale genitalia . as for the genus , apart from : saccus elongated , u - shaped ; juxta short , oval , twice as broad as long ; valvae slender , tapering towards the dorsad bent apex ; fibula small , triangular , oriented ventrad ; sacculus process absent ; phallus with a spinoid posteriad sclerotization emerging from the ventroposterior apodeme .\nmegaphysa laisalis walker 1859 : 382\u2013383 . ( hampson 1899 : 275 to sceliodes )\nhead . frons slightly bulged ; labial palps upturned , greyish to brown , first meron on ventral side with forward - directed tuft , third meron in males half as long as second meron , considerably longer in females ; maxillary palps minute ; haustellum well developed ; eyes large , hemispherical ; ocelli present ; antennae ciliate , cilia considerably longer in males ; vertex with creamy white scales ; chaetosemata absent .\nthorax . dorsal side brown with greyish and dark brown scales mixed in ; ventral side grey to whitish ; legs predominantly whitish or grey , epiphysis present ; tibial spurs 0 , 2 , 4 with outer spur 2 / 3 the length of inner spur .\nwings . forewing length 7 . 0\u201311 . 5 mm , the females being somewhat larger ; both sexes with one frenular bristle ; forewing ground colour orange - to grey - brown , with the general sceliodes wing pattern .\nabdomen . first segment whitish , remainder light - brown ; older specimens often with darkened abdomen due to degeneration of abdominal fat body .\nmale genitalia . as for the genus , apart from : vinculum saccus conspicuously elongated anteriad ; juxta usually with small notch at median base ; valvae emerging in narrow angle from vinculum ; phallus with keeled coecum , posteriodorsal apodeme with slim , fingerlike , slightly curved and well sclerotized process , vesica with a short line of tiny cornuti .\nfemale genitalia . as for the genus , apart from : antrum long , tubular , anterior end coiled ; apophysis pairs straight , apophyses anteriores with somewhat broader muscle attachment area at posterior quarter .\nsolanaceae : solanum incanum l . ( kenya , leg . muli & okuku 2005 ) , solanum anguivi lam . ( \u201c solanum sodomaeum l . , \u201d ) , solanum macrocarpon l . , solanum melongena l . , solanum linnaeanum hepper & p . - m . jaeger , solanum lycopersicon l . and capsicum annuum l . ( hayden et al . 2013 ) .\nwe found a significant dna barcode difference of 2 . 4\u20132 . 8 % uncorrected - p distance between the single south african specimen and the kenyan and ghanan / nigerian barcode clusters ( fig .\n; see also section \u2018dna barcoding\u2019 below ) . these differences in the dna barcode are not reflected in a divergent morphology of the clusters .\nneighbor joining tree of coi barcodes based on uncorr - p distances and rooted with udea ferrugalis . bootstrap support values derived from 1 , 000 bootstrap replicates ; scale bar represents 1 % uncorr - p barcode divergence .\nethiopia , dire dawa region , dire dawa district , dire dawa , december 1934 , h . ulenhuth leg .\ntype - specimens . holotype \u2642 [ red - circled label ] \u201cholo - | type\u201d , \u201cdire daoua , | abyssinia , | december 1934 . | ( h . uhlenhuth ) . \u201d ; 19 paratypes : 11\u2642 8\u2640 same data as holotype , including one with bm pyralidae | slide 23138\u2642 ( bmnh ) . \u2013 additional material . eritrea . asmara , 20 . x . 1905 . leg . n . beccari ( without abdomen ) , 1\u2640 same data except 28 . i . 1905 ( bmnh ) ; ethiopia . 34 ex . same data as holotype except ii . 1935 , 4 ex . ditto except iv . 1935 , 7 ex . ditto except v . 1935 including bm pyralidae | slide 23139\u2640 , 1 ditto except ix . 1935 , 2 ex . labelled durleti [ = daleti ] ( bmnh ) ; saudi arabia . 2\u2640 taif ( bmnh ) .\nwings . forewing length 6 . 0\u20138 . 0 mm . forewing mixed ochreous and white , an oblique dark ochreous fascia from above dorsum reaching halfway across wing , a blackish crescent before ochreous subterminal line , black dots along termen . hindwing white , a small black discal spot , a faint irregular dark subterminal line , ochreous suffusion in outer part of wing in middle and towards apex .\nmale genitalia . as for the genus , apart from : transtilla with short central notch , each transtilla arm with a dorsad spine ; vinculum saccus with rounded tip ; juxta oval to rectangular , apex with a short central notch ; apex of valvae dorsally curved ; small , spine - like dorsad fibula emerging from the central inner side of valva ; sacculus with a fibula - like spiny dorsad process emerging ventrodistally of the fibula ; posteriodorsal phallus apodeme with semicircular dentate sclerite .\nfemale genitalia . as for the genus , apart from : ductus bursae with fine longitudinal ripples ; antrum tubular , with broader anterior end ; apophyses anteriores at posterior half laterally broadened for muscle attachment .\nuganda , eastern uganda region , serere district , okulongo , 8 december 1958 , w . r . ingram leg .\ntype - specimens . holotype \u2642 [ red - circled label ] \u201cholo - | type\u201d , \u201c [ transversally written ] 1608 | \u201cserere | okulongo | 8 dec . 1958 | w . r . ingram | ex solanum sp . \u201d , \u201cpres . by | com inst ent | bm1959 \u2013 499\u201d , \u201cc . i . e . no . 16499\u201d , with cocoon under specimen . 2 paratypes : 1\u2642 same data as holotype and \u201c pyralidae | brit mus | slide no . | 14696\u201d . 1\u2640 same data as holotype except 9 dec . 1958 ( bmnh ) . \u2013 additional material . ethiopia . 2\u2642 diredaua , n . w . of harar , 1914 , leg . g . kristensen , 1\u2640 dire dawa , abyssinia , i . 1935 , leg . h . uhlenkuth ( bmnh ) ; south sudan . 1\u2640 tambura , southern bahr - al - ghasal ( bmnh ) ; somalia . 4\u2642 1\u2640 mogadishu , 17 . \u201326 . xi . 1985 , 7 . vii . 1986 , 19\u201320 . viii . 1986 and 23 . vii . 1986 , leg . a . g . parker , bmnh pyralidae slides no . 23140 & 23137 ( bmnh ) ; 1\u2642 hargeison , 4300ft , v . 1939 , leg . m . portal hyatt ( bmnh ) ; kenya . 1\u2640 somaliland , mandera , 47km sw of hubera , 3000ft , 13 . xi . 1908 , leg . w . feather ( bmnh ) .\nwings . forewing length 6 . 5\u201311 . 5 mm . forewing pale fuscous , an oblique brown partial fascia at halfway with white markings on either side , an orange triangle on dorsum beyond halfway , apex deep brown , separated by a whitish line . hindwing whitish , fuscous suffused near margin in middle and towards apex , a faint subterminal line in costal part of wing .\nmale genitalia . as for the genus , apart from : small , hooked dorsad fibula emerging from the ventrocentral inner side of valva ; distal sacculus with dorsad ridge forming a bulge , followed by a spiny , curved terminal process overlapping with the fibula ; phallus vesica with several small spiny cornuti .\nfemale genitalia . as for the genus , apart from : diffusely sclerotized exocuticula reaching into posterior ductus bursae ; lateral antrum pockets rather small .\n) . for the remaining specimens listed below , we did not obtain dna barcodes . in spite of the absence of further specimens for comparison , especially females , and the lack of convincing morphological differences , we are not going to describe these possibly distinct species here . this complex needs further study .\nkenya . 1\u2642 rift valley , naivasha , 1900m , 0\u00b046 ' 56\ns 36\u00b025 ' 23\ne , 5 . xii . 2011 , leg . d . j . l . agassiz , prep . djla 1318 ( coll . djla ) ; zambia . 1\u2642 chiwefwe , ii . 1950 , leg . n . mitton , bmnh pyralidae slide no . 23133 ( bmnh ) ; namibia . 1\u2642 namibia , waterberg , 20\u00b030 ' s 17\u00b014 ' e , 13 . iii . 2010 , leg . f . koch , dna voucher mtd lep1872 , prep . rm708 ( zmhb ) ; south africa . 1\u2642 cape province , knysna , wilderness , iv . 1950 , leg . h . b . d . kettlewell , bm pyralidae slide 23128 ( bmnh ) ; 1\u2642 johannesburg , 21 . iv . 1906 , leg . a . t . cooke , bmnh pyralidae slide no . 23144 ( bmnh ) ; 1\u2642 e . cape prov . , katberg , 4 , 000ft , 1 . \u201315 . i . 1933 , bmnh pyralidae slide no . 23150 ( bmnh ) ; 1\u2642 kwazulu - natal , estcourt , leg . j . m . hutchinson , prep . rm779 ( bmnh ) ; 1\u2642 eastern cape [ pondoland ] , port st . john , ix . 1923 , leg . r . e . turner , prep . rm780 ( bmnh ) ; swaziland . 1\u2642 lebombo - mountains , ndzevane area near nsoko , acacia - rich bushland at the foot of the lebombo mountains , 23 . \u201324 . i . 2007 , leg . t . karisch , dna barcode bc mtd 01818 , prep . rm502 ( coll . mtd ) .\ndaraba extensalis walker , 1866 ( synonymised by hampson 1899 ) . type locality : new zealand , auckland .\neretria obsistalis snellen , 1880 ( synonymised by hampson 1899 ) . type locality : indonesia , sulawesi [ celebes ] , boelekomba ; bonthain .\nsceliodes mucidalis guen\u00e9e , 1854 ( synonymised by hampson 1899 ) . type locality : australia ."]}
{"id": 1806, "summary": [{"text": "hippelates is a genus of flies in the family chloropidae and are often referred to as eye gnats or eye flies ( the name is also used for members of the old world genus siphunculina ) .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they are very small ( 1.5 \u2013 2.5 millimetres or 0.06 \u2013 0.10 inches long ) flies that frequently congregate around the eyes to lap at the fluids .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they are primarily a nuisance pest , and do not bite .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they have been linked with the spread of bovine mastitis in north america , and in certain tropical regions , they are capable of vectoring disease-causing bacteria ( e.g. , yaws ) .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "hippelates pusio is considered to be the vector for anaplasmosis , bovine mastitis , and haemophilus spp. which cause bacterial conjunctivitis or ' pinkeye ' . ", "topic": 19}], "title": "hippelates", "paragraphs": ["lioppelates pusio was first named hippelates pusio by loew in 1872 , and liohippelates bishoppi was described by sabrosky as hippelates bishoppi in 1941 . in 1929 , duda described the genus liohippelates , which now contains the most important common species of eye gnats in the southeastern united states including what was hippelates pusio and hippelates bishoppi .\ntaplin d , zaias n , rebell g . 1967 . infection by hippelates flies . lancet 2 : 472 .\nsabrosky cw . 1941 . the hippelates flies or eye gnats : preliminary notes . canadian entomologist 73 : 23 - 27 .\nmulla ms . 1962 . the breeding niches of hippelates gnats . annals of the entomological society of america 55 : 389 - 393 .\nbigham jt . 1941 . hippelates ( eye gnats ) investigations in the southeastern states . journal of economic entomology 34 : 439 - 444 .\nwhat made you want to look up hippelates ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nliohippelates bishoppi is found from february through september and liohippelates pusio year round . liohippelates pusio can be found from washington to north dakota , south to pennsylvania , as well as california south to mexico and east to the southeastern united states and bermuda ( gni 2010 ) . liohippelates bishoppi is found from saskatchewan to quebec , south to colorado , texas and florida . other liohippelates species found in the southeastern and eastern u . s . are liohippelates bicolor ( coquillett ) and liohippelates pallipes ( loew ) , whereas hippelates species found in the same area include hippelates nobilis loew , hippelates plebejus loew , and hippelates dorsalis loew ( sabrosky 1941 ) .\nsanders da . 1940 . hippelates flies as vectors of bovine mastitis ( preliminary report ) . journal of the american veterinary medical association 97 : 306 - 308 .\nkumm hw . 1935 . the natural infection of hippelates pallipes loew with the spirochete of yaws . royal society of tropical medicine and hygiene 29 : 265 - 272 .\nobservations on predation of hippelates collusor and distribution in southern california of associated fauna < legner , e . f . , l . moore and r . a . medved\nkumm hw , turner tb . 1936 . the transmission of yaws from man to rabbits by an insect vector , hippelates pallipes loew . american journal of tropical medicine 16 : 1 - 16\nherms wb , burgess , rw . 1930 . a description of the immature stages of hippelates pusio loew and a brief account of its life history . journal of economic entomology 23 : 600 - 603 .\nduring 1961\u201362 four hymenopterous parasites of the eye gnat , hippelates collusor ( townsend ) , were discovered in the semiarid agricultural regions of southern california . these parasites were found by field - exposing host hippelates pupae for several days between discs of nylon bolting cloth for predator protection . three of the parasites , phaenopria occidentalis fouts , spalangia drosophilae ashmead , and eupteromalus nidulans thomson , were successfully cultured in the laboratory and also studied in field releases . the fourth , trichopria n . sp . , died before propagation could be attempted . in field releases of parasites s . drosophilae was the most efficient species in seeking hippelates pupae in the environments studied .\nhall jr . dg . 1932 . some studies on the breeding media , development , and stages of the eye gnat hippelates pusio loew ( diptera : chloropidae ) . american journal of epidemiology 16 : 854 - 864 .\ndow rp , bigham jt , sabrosky cw . 1951 . sequel to\nhippelates ( eye gnat ) investigations in the southeastern states\nby john t . bigham . proceedings of the entomological society of washington 53 : 263 - 271 .\nhippelates probably contribute to the rapid spread of streptococci throughout the island , and to the frequency of infection with more than one serotype ; they may also contribute to the high incidence of streptococcal skin infection , but this requires further evidence .\nwill fly predators work for hippelates species , i . e . eye gnats ? these are flies , and they breed in rotting organic matter . but elsewhere in your q & r section it is said that fly predators do not work for any kind of gnat .\ntondella mlc , paganelli ch , bortoloho im , tankano oa , trino k and brandileone mcc . 1994 . isolamento de harmophilus aegyptius associado a febre purpurica brasileira de cloropideos ( diptera ) dos generous hippelates e liohippelates . revista do instituto de medicina tropical de s\u00e3o paulo 36 : 105 - 109 .\nan epidemic of acute glomerulonephritis in trinidad led to an investigation into streptococcal skin infection , as most nephritis cases were associated with this . hippelates in this region commonly feed on skin lesions , infected or otherwise . some of these flies captured in the vicinity of infected children were found to be contaminated with streptococcus pyogenes ; 3 species were involved , h . peruanus , h . flavipes and h . currani . the naturally - acquired infection lasted for 28 hours or more , and the flies would return to human bait while still infectious . the hippelates population and the streptococcal skin infection rate at one school showed similar changes .\nthe eye gnats , a genus of flies in the family chloropidae ( fruit flies ) that are attracted to the bodily secretions and fluids of animals and humans , particularly those in the eyes . hippelates is suspected of transmitting certain types of conjunctivitis ( such as pinkeye ) , bovine mastitis , and yaws ( frambesia tropica ) .\nunfortunately the fly predators do not work on hippelates . primarily the fly predators are for flies in the muscidae family , though they will occasionally parasitize those in the calliphoridae and sarcophagidae families . their very limited host range makes them ideal for biological control as they do not pose a risk to non - pest species ; unfortunately , it also means they are unable to control every pest species of fly .\npredatory and scavenger arthropods were surveyed in hippelates collusor ( townsend ) breeding habitats in southern california by using 3 collection methods . a total of 117 different species was collected . the importance of potential predatory species is discussed , and various intensities of natural predation are recorded . there was considerable heterogeneity in predatory activity as influenced by locality , habitat , and seasonal and hourly differences . eggs and 1st - stage larvae sustained the highest predation , with a substantial amount being associated with teneral adults after pupal eclosion .\nboth liohippelates spp . and closely related hippelates spp . occur throughout much of north america ( sabrosky 1941 ) and 270 species have been described ( sabrosky 1987 ) . bingham ( 1941 ) determined during his investigations of liohippelates in the southeastern u . s . that liohippelates pusio was the most common pest of this genus . later that year , sabrosky ( 1941 ) found and described a new species , liohippelates bishoppi , misidentified by bingham as liohippelates pusio , which made up a moderate portion of the southeastern liohippelates .\nphysical barriers , such as screened porches and windows on houses and fly masks or fly sheets ( which resemble a fine cloth mesh , largely impenetrable by even the smallest pests ) on livestock , can provide some relief from annoyance and protection from possible pathogen transmission . sanitation methods to eliminate potential breeding sites , such as reducing manure and organic matter in soil and reducing loose soil matter , may reduce breeding at the location . however , often reducing liohippelates and hippelates breeding sites is nearly impossible in livestock facilities as manure , moisture and soil disturbance are inseparable from animals .\nmembers of the genus liohippelates , formerly hippelates , are very small true flies and a common occurrence in much of north and south america ( sabrosky 1980 , kumm 1935 ) . these non - biting pests are attracted to fluids secreted by the eyes , nose and ears on both humans and animals . some species are attracted to discharge from open wounds and excrement ( goddard 2007 ) . because of their propensity for hovering around the eyes , this genus has been referred to commonly as eye gnats , but are also known as grass flies , eye flies , and fruit flies .\nin 2006 114 people were examined in santa catalina and san joaquin ; 21 patients were clinically diagnosed with trachoma ( 18 . 4 % ) , 15 ( 13 . 2 % ) of them children under 15 years old . all trachoma phases were observed . three women had corneal opacity with poor vision . in the remaining three communities , three women with advanced trachoma with corneal opacity and blindness were detected . the poor quality of living conditions without fresh water and adequate sanitary disposal systems , and the abundance of flies identified as hippelates sp . , are risk factors for the transmission of the disease .\nadvisories are not working correctly for plymouth . the next closest stations are rocky mount , williamston and buckland . begin sprays \u2026\nfrom cotton \u2013 july 2 , 2018 , 03 : 12 pm please consider attending a scouting school this summer . we will post as they become \u2026\nearworm populations ( known as bollworm in cotton ) were relatively low in our system from 2011 to 2016 . arguably , at \u2026\nthis week i have noticed damage on many pin oaks ( quercus falcata ) by oak spider mites ( oligonychus bicolor ) . oak \u2026\nrecent news stories about giant hogweed have raised awareness of this nasty invader . yes , we have giant hogweed in \u2026\nwhen cotton blooms , it\u2019s time to switch sampling and thresholds for plant bugs . this previous article covered management of \u2026\nwe received a confirmed report of basil downy mildew in north carolina . growers are advised to actively scout for \u2026\ncorn is susceptible to damage at three stages ( roughly ) : v1 to v6 , v14 to vt and r1 to r4 . \u2026\nnc state extension is the largest outreach program at nc state university . based in the college of agriculture and life sciences , we reach millions of north carolina citizens each year through local centers in the state ' s 100 counties and with the eastern band of cherokee indians .\nwe have several topic based e - mail newsletters that are sent out periodically when we have new information to share . want to see which lists are available ?\nintegrated pest management ( ipm ) is a sustainable approach to managing pests that combines multiple approaches including prevention , avoidance , pest monitoring and suppression in a manner that minimizes public health , economic , and environmental risk . ipm serves as a framework to provide an effective , comprehensive , low - risk approach to protect people and resources from pests .\nultimately , the goal with an ipm program is to help stakeholders deal with pests\u2014insects , plant diseases , weeds , and more\u2014with methods that reduce risks to public health and the environmental while saving money .\nthe north carolina extension ipm program serves as a focal point for team building , communication and stakeholder participation in integrated pest management ( ipm ) within the state . program goals include promoting effective and economical management of pests , reducing risks to human health from pests and pest management practices , and minimizing environmental effects through the adoption of ipm on a variety of crops and settings in north carolina . these goals are achieved by the timely delivery of ipm technology and research information to stakeholders in all regions of the state .\nleadership of the extension ipm program in north carolina is provided by an ipm coordinator ( designated by the director of the north carolina cooperative extension service ) , an established advisory board , and working groups . dr . danesha seth carley , the current ipm coordinator , accepted the nc ipm coordinator position in 2013 .\nthe extension ipm coordinator involves faculty and staff from north carolina state university and north carolina a & t state university in ipm activities across the state , communicates program successes , and maintains stakeholder input via the advisory board and the ipm portal , as well as multiple training sessions and meetings .\nthe advisory board provides advice to the extension ipm coordinator regarding the direction of the ipm program in the state . it is composed of a wide variety of ipm stakeholders , including north carolina state university and north carolina a & t state university faculty , non - governmental agencies , environmentalists , north carolina department of agriculture & consumer services personnel , farmers and agricultural consultants .\nthe north carolina extension ipm program focuses on delivering ipm content to our stakeholders and community members through a variety of activities . the primary activities include information delivery , pest monitoring and data managment , evaluation and needs assessment tools development , and programs to magnify statewide ipm impacts .\nthe extension ipm program is a cooperative effort of the usda nifa , north carolina cooperative extension service , north carolina state university , and north carolina a & t state university . it also works in partnership with the southern ipm center , located at north carolina state university in raleigh , and acts to promote ipm in north carolina and the southern united states .\nfunding for the north carolina extension ipm program is provided by competitive grants from the u . s . department of agriculture\u2019s national institute of food and agriculture ( nifa ) .\nnc state university and n . c . a & t state university work in tandem , along with federal , state and local governments , to form a strategic partnership called n . c . cooperative extension , which staffs local offices in all 100 counties and with the eastern band of cherokee indians .\nnc state university and n . c . a & t state university are collectively committed to positive action to secure equal opportunity and prohibit discrimination and harassment regardless of race , color , national origin , religion , political beliefs , family and marital status , sex , age , veteran status , sexual identity , sexual orientation , genetic information , or disability .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nmoved from frit flies . id ' d from specimen , now a photo - voucher . thanks john .\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\npusio has been evaluated , showing that it is able to transmit the rickettsia up to three days after ingestion of infected erythrocytes [ 23 ] .\n( diptera : chloropidae ) and tabanidae on cattle : its possible role in transmission of anaplasmosis .\nen publicaciones anteriores ) ( mulla 1962 , legner y bay 1965 , legner et al .\nall content on this website , including dictionary , thesaurus , literature , geography , and other reference data is for informational purposes only . this information should not be considered complete , up to date , and is not intended to be used in place of a visit , consultation , or advice of a legal , medical , or any other professional .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ncommon name : eye gnats , grass flies , eye flies , fruit flies scientific name : liohippelates spp . ( insecta : diptera : chloropidae )\nfigure 1 . lateral view of an adult liohippelates sp . , from a horse farm in north central florida . photograph by lyle j . buss , university of florida .\nextremely large aggregations of eye gnats are common in areas that have loose sandy soils , especially in the southern united states . these high concentrations of flies are a great nuisance to humans and animals in rural towns as well as agricultural , recreational and tourist areas . while they do not bite , liohippelates spp . have been implicated in the transmission of several diseases to humans and livestock including human acute conjunctivitis ( pink eye ) . due to the increase of transmission of pink eye and the reduction in labor efficiency caused by extreme numbers of eye gnats in the coachella valley , california , a control project was initiated by the bureau of entomology in the 1920s to focus on the life history and possible control measures for this pest . hall ( 1932 ) subsequently implicated liohippelates pusio ( loew ) as one of the limiting factors in the development of the coachella valley .\nthe majority of the flies encountered in the southeastern region of the united states are liohippelates pusio and liohippelates bishoppi ( sabrosky ) , and as a result the biological information below will focus broadly on these two species .\nadults : adult liohippelates are true flies ( bearing only two wings ) and are very small , approximately 1 . 5 to 2 mm long , and shiny black or grayish in color with clear wings . some species have reddish or yellowish heads . legs tend to be reddish - yellow to brown with brown bands ( hall 1932 ) .\nfigure 2 . lateral view of an adult liohippelates , unknown species . photograph by erika t . machtinger , university of florida .\neggs : the eggs of liohippelates flies are a pearlescent white and approximately 0 . 5 mm long . they are half as wide ( 0 . 25 mm ) as long , resembling a banana with one side curved and one nearly straight ( hall 1932 ) . eggs are deposited below the surface of loose soils .\nlarvae : the larvae hatch in seven to 11 days and feed on organic matter ( kahn 2008 ) . the larvae average 3 mm in length and are a whitish color ( hermes and burgess 1930 ) . larvae are pointed towards the anterior end and rounded towards the posterior . the mouth hook is darker than the rest of the body and curved gently downward .\npupae : the pupae are approximately 2 . 25 mm in length , depending on the media in which larvae developed and grew ( hall 1932 ) , and a reddish - brown color , turning darker as they age . liohippelates pupate in or around sand mixed with organic matter , such as manure , hay and remaining harvested crop debris .\nfigure 3 . primary liohippelates breeding sites in florida include loose soils with organic matter and moisture , as is found on many livestock facilities throughout the state . photograph by erika t . machtinger , university of florida .\nliohippelates spp . are holometabolous , meaning they have four distinct life stages ; egg , larvae , pupa and adult . the life cycle of liohippelates can range from 11 days to three months depending on development conditions such as temperature and moisture ( hall 1932 ) . development from egg emergence to the adult is completed in approximately three weeks during the summer in florida ( bigham 1941 ) and multiple generations can occur each year . breeding sites are primarily those with freshly disturbed soil mixed with organic matter , such as cut grass and hay , and moisture . disturbances can be caused by digging , plowing , harrowing , or even by livestock activities ( bigham 1941 , mulla 1962 ) .\nliohippelates are not host specific and will feed on the fluid from wounds , eyes , nose , and other areas on humans as well as livestock and domestic pets in a variety of situations . while they do not bite , due to their persistent feeding behavior this group of insects is responsible for extreme annoyance to people and animals when they occur in large numbers . in livestock , it has been suggested that high numbers of liohippelates can cause losses in condition , such as weight , due to continuous and unrelieved attack ( hinkle et al . 2001 ) .\nfigure 5 . congregation of adult liohippelates spp . around the eye of a horse . photograph by erika t . machtinger , university of florida .\nmany species of liohippelates have been implicated in the mechanical transmission of several diseases and conditions in humans and livestock . mechanical transmission of pathogens causing disease from liohippelates to humans or livestock occurs when a fly comes in contact with a pathogen , such as a bacterium or virus , and subsequently feeds or rests on a human or animal , transmitting the pathogen from one location to another by contact . as feeding occurs on the blood , mucus , and other fluids around natural orifices of mammals , pathogens can be carried easily into the body .\nhuman acute conjunctivitis , also known as\npink eye\nor\nsore eyes ,\nis caused by one or more bacteria that can be mechanically transmitted by liohippelates . pink eye causes pain , swelling , changes in vision and extreme sensitivity to light ( mideha 2010 ) . incidents of conjunctivitis have been shown to increase during liohippelates outbreaks ( dow and hines 1957 , greenberg 1973 ) . in california , hall ( 1926 ) correlated pink eye to high populations of lioppelates flavipes ( loew ) .\nliohippelates flavipes and liohippelates pallipes have been shown to mechanically transmit the spirochete treponema pertenue , the causative agent of yaws , in jamaica and parts of south america ( kumm 1935 , kumm and turner 1936 , saunders et al . 1936 ) . yaws is a skin infection that causes ulceration and , in severe cases , can affect bone and cartilage . yaws occurs mainly in warm and humid regions of the world , including much of south america , and primarily affects children under the age of 15 . yaws is especially common in poor communities and those in crowded conditions ( dnz 2010 ) .\nfigure 6 . this person has yaws with 8 month - old juxta - articular nodules on the left elbow . photograph by peter perine , cdc .\nliohippelates has been implicated in mechanical transmission of pathogens between animals as well . in cattle , liohippelates can transmit the causative agents of acute bovine mastitis ( sanders 1940 ) and vesicular stomatitis ( taplin et al . 1967 ) . acute bovine mastitis is inflammation of the mammary glands , primarily caused by bacterial infection , which can be extremely painful and compromise milk quality . mastitis may also cause death in extreme cases ( bradley 2002 ) . treatment for mastitis includes the use of antibiotics , which has possible implications in public health as resistant bacterial strains may not respond to treatment ( bradley 2002 ) and milk from treated cattle cannot be sold for human consumption until the required withholding time has elapsed .\nvesicular stomatitis is a reemerging viral disease that presents as lesions on the tongue , coronary bands and other body regions of cattle as well as horses , sheep , goats and pigs ( usda 2007 ) . this disease is remarkably similar in presentation to the deadly foot - and - mouth disease , which was eradicated from the united states in 1929 ( usda 2007 ) and infection can transfer to people who handle infected animals .\nfigure 7 . congregation of adult liohippelates around the puncture wound of a horse . photograph by erika t . machtinger , university of florida .\ncurrently , there is no effective area - wide control . various insecticides , fogs , and soil treatments have been tested , but due to the incredible numbers of flies produced in the soil , area - wide treatment is nearly impossible . insecticides applied on a community level for mosquito control may reduce attack , but development sites quickly repopulate as the insecticide dissipates ( kahn 2008 ) .\nrepellents containing diethyl toluamide ( deet ) provide temporary protection from eye gnats ( hall and gerhardt 2009 ) , and many commercial livestock insecticides that contain pyrethrins , piperonyl butoxide or other common ingredients may provide some relief to animals .\n( bpfsg ) the brazilian purpuric fever study group . 1992 . brazilian purpuric fever identified in a new region of brazil . journal of infectious disease 163 : 516 - 519 .\nbradley a . 2002 . bovine mastitis : an evolving disease . the veterinary journal 164 : 116 - 128 .\n( dnz ) dermnet nz . ( january 2010 ) . yaws . dermnet nz : the dermatology resource . urltoken ( 28 february 2011 ) .\ndow rp , hines jd . 1957 . conjunctivitis in southwest georgia . public heath reports 72 : 441 - 448 .\nfrancy db , moore lg , smith gc , jakob wl , taylor sa , calisher ch . 1988 . epizootic vesicular stomatitis in colorado , 1982 : isolation of virus from insects collected along the northern colorado rocky mountain front range . journal of medical entomology 25 : 343 - 347 .\n( gni ) global names index . ( 2010 ) . global names index - index of scientific names . urltoken ( 28 february 2011 ) .\ngoddard j . 2007 . non - biting flies . pp . 191 - 200 . in physicians guide to arthropods of medical importance , 5th edition . crc press , boca raton , fl . 480 pp .\ngreenberg b . 1973 . flies and disease . vol . 2 . biology and disease transmission . princeton university press , princeton , nj . 856 pp .\nhall rd , gerhardt rr . 2009 . flies ( diptera ) . in mullen gr , durden la ( editors ) , medical and veterinary entomology , second edition . elsevier , burlington , ma . 637 pp .\nharrison ih , da silva ga , pitman m , fleming dw , vranjac a , broome cv . 1989 . epidemiology and clinical spectrum of brazilian purpuric fever . journal of clinical microbiology 27 : 599 - 604 .\nhinkle nc , scholl pj , mock de and warner wb . 2001 . research and extension needs for integrated pest management for arthropods of veterinary importance . pp . 261 - 262 . in geden cj , hogsette ja ( editors ) , proceedings of a workshop in lincoln , nebraska . second edition . 328 pp .\n( itis ) ( 2010 ) . liohippelates . integrated taxanomic information system . urltoken ( 28 february 2011 ) .\nkahn c ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . eye gnats . the merck veterinary manual . urltoken ( 28 february 2011 ) .\nlooper m , stokes sr , waldner dn , and jordan er . ( 2001 ) . feeding waste milk to dairy calves . new mexico state university college of agricultural , consumer and environmental sciences . urltoken ( 28 february 2011 ) .\n( mideha ) infectious disease and environmental health administration . ( 2010 ) . conjunctivitis (\npink eye\n) . maryland department of health & mental hygiene . urltoken ( 05 may 2011 ) .\nsabrosky cw . 1987 . chloropidae . pp . 1049 - 1067 . in mcalpine jf , et al . ( editors ) , manual of nearctic . diptera . volume 2 . research branch agriculture . canada monograph 28 : 675 - 1332 .\nsaunders gm , kumm hw , rerrie ji . 1936 . the relationship of certain environmental factors to the distribution of yaws in jamaica . american journal of hygiene 23 : 558 - 579 .\n( usda ) united states department of agriculture . ( march 2007 ) . information about vesicular stomatitis for the beef producer . urltoken ( 06 may 2011 ) .\npublication date : april 2011 . latest revision : may 2011 . reviewed : october 2015 .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nthe story of an imaginary word that managed to sneak past our editors and enter the dictionary .\ntake this quiz and discover 12 words for things you didn ' t know had words .\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\ni agree to the terms and conditions . you must accept the terms and conditions .\nthank you for submitting a comment on this article . your comment will be reviewed and published at the journal ' s discretion . please check for further notifications by email .\nyou could not be signed in . please check your email address / username and password and try again .\nmost users should sign in with their email address . if you originally registered with a username please use that to sign in .\nto purchase short term access , please sign in to your oxford academic account above .\nnatural infection of nyssomyia neivai ( pinto , 1926 ) ( diptera : psychodidae , phlebotominae ) by leishmania ( viannia ) spp . in brazil\nanalysis of covalent modifications of amyloidogenic proteins using two - dimensional electrophoresis : prion protein and its sialylation .\nopen repair of mycotic abdominal aortic aneurysms with biological grafts : an international multicenter study .\noxford university press is a department of the university of oxford . it furthers the university ' s objective of excellence in research , scholarship , and education by publishing worldwide\nfor full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription .\nfemale eye gnats maintained on honey in the laboratory retained more than half their original radioactivity 5 days after being tagged with p 32 . when tagged gnats were released at the center of three concentric circles of traps on a windy day , some moved 25 feet directly upwind but an equally large number was caught 75 feet downwind in traps on the outermost circle , on both sides of the mean downwind direction . releases of tagged gnats \u00bd and 1 mile from a rural population center in southwestern georgia resulted in almost complete penetration of the small town on the day of release . in one test , traps more than a mile from the release box caught 15 gnats in less than 3\u00bd hours after it was opened . chi - square analysis was used to test the hypothesis that tagged gnats are distributed like the wild ones . local departures from an overall equilibrium between tagged and untagged gnats could be recognized , and progress of the dispersal could be followed by comparing successive collections .\nwe use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites . close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings .\nthis article has been cited by the following publications . this list is generated based on data provided by crossref .\nvet , louise e . m . and lenteren , j . c . 2009 . the parasite - host relationship between encarsia formosa gah . ( hymenoptera : aphelinidae ) and trialeurodes vaporariorum ( westw . ) ( homoptera : aleyrodidae ) . zeitschrift f\u00fcr angewandte entomologie , vol . 91 , issue . 1 - 5 , p . 327 .\ngordh , g . legner , e . f . and caltagirone , l . e . 1999 . handbook of biological control . p . 355 .\nmann , j . a . stinner , r . e . and axtell , r . c . 1990 . parasitism of house fly ( musca domestica ) pupae by four species of pteromalidae ( hymenoptera ) : effects of host\u2013parasitoid densities and host distribution . medical and veterinary entomology , vol . 4 , issue . 3 , p . 235 .\nhammond , w . n . o . and neuenschwander , p . 1990 . sustained biological control of the cassava mealybugphenacoccus manihoti [ hom . : pseudococcidae ] byepidinocarsis lopezi [ hym . : encyrtidae ] in nigeria . entomophaga , vol . 35 , issue . 4 , p . 515 .\nhammond , w . n . o . neuenschwander , p . and herren , h . r . 1987 . impact of the exotic parasitoid epidinocarsis lopezi on cassava mealybug ( phenacoccus manihoti ) populations . international journal of tropical insect science , vol . 8 , issue . 4 - 5 - 6 , p . 887 .\ndebach , paul huffaker , c . b . and macphee , a . w . 1976 . theory and practice of biological control . p . 255 .\nlegner , e . f . sjogren , r . d . hall , i . m . and washino , r . k . 1974 . the biological control of medically important arthropods . c r c critical reviews in environmental control , vol . 4 , issue . 1 - 4 , p . 85 .\nhorn , david j . 1971 . the relationship between a parasite , tetrastichus incertus ( hymenoptera : eulophidae ) , and its host , the alfalfa weevil , hypera postica ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) , in new york . the canadian entomologist , vol . 103 , issue . 01 , p . 83 .\n( townsend ) , arranged in clumped or linear distributions , oviposited randomly producing equal numbers of progeny from cither host arrangement . mixed groups of linear and clumped puparia caused changes in behavioral patterns that resulted in reduced progeny production , thus showing parasitization to be nonrandom . host destruction was , nevertheless , greater in an all - clumped distribution , tile greater acceptance of clumped groups resulting in a greater number of progeny . mixed groups involving a choice between linear or clumped distributions demonstrated the greater acceptance of clumped groups . direct observation showed that the all - dumped distribution elicited the greatest overall initial attraction for hosts and subsequent movement to other areas . it was concluded that maximum host destruction resulted when completely random behavior was involved . a recognition of this , however , required a knowledge of behavior , host condition , and progeny production . the question of evaluating an exotic parasite\u2019s effectiveness before introduction is discussed .\nbehavior changes the reproduction of spalangia cameroni , s . endius , muscidifurax raptor , and nasonia vitripennis ( hymenoptera : pteromalidae ) at increasing fly host densities\nsome mechanisms that affect the sex ratio of nasonia vitripennis ( walk . ) ( hymenoptera : pteromalidae ) reared from superparasitized house - fly pupae\nemail your librarian or administrator to recommend adding this journal to your organisation ' s collection .\n[ clinical evidence of trachoma in colombian amerindians of the vaup\u00e9s province ] . - pubmed - ncbi\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nprograma de enfermedades transmitidas por vectores , secretar\u00eda departamental de salud , mit\u00fa , vaup\u00e9s , colombia .\ntrachoma is the leading cause of infectious blindness in the world . in 2008 there were 1 , 300 , 000 persons with blindness caused by trachoma and 8 million with trichiasis , which might eventually lead to blindness . in latin america it has been documented in brazil , guatemala and m\u00e9xico .\nto inform the presence of trachoma for the first time in colombia , amongst amerindians of the department of vaup\u00e9s .\nin 2003 and 2006 the amerindian mak\u00fa communities of san joaqu\u00edn and santa catalina , located 5 km from the border with brazil , were visited . from 2007 to 2009 , san gerardo , san gabriel and nuevo pueblo , at a 35 km distance from san joaqu\u00edn were visited .\ntrachoma exists in colombia , and it is frequent among the studied communities . its focalized distribution makes it amenable to elimination . it is advisable to search for trachoma in other indigenous communities in vaup\u00e9s with similar living conditions .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nask us a question and a member of our support staff will respond as soon as possible .\nthe checklists are descriptive documents of the species that are part of a concrete taxonomic group or a group of species that are part of an specific analysis .\nthese documents have a structure that includes a list of the authors , a description of the taxonomic group or subject , and a list of the species that are part of the list .\nthe checklists aren ' t updated regularly , since they require revisions from groups of authors before their publication .\na complete set of a checklist include a pdf document and a table in csv format .\ngustavo jim\u00e9nez - uzc\u00e1tegui , david a . wiedenfeld , f . hern\u00e1n vargas , howard l . snell .\nnathalia tirado - sanchez , john mccosker , diego ruiz , angel chiriboga , stuart banks .\nyves finet , nathalia tirado - sanchez , angel chiriboga , diego ruiz , stuart banks .\nfrank bungartz , frauke ziemmeck , alba y\u00e1nez ayabaca , fredy nugra , andr\u00e9 aptroot .\nanne gu\u00e9zou , susana chamorro , paola pozo , ana mireya guerrero , rachel atkinson , chris buddenhagen , patricia jaramillo d\u00edaz , mark gardener .\ngustavo jim\u00e9nez - uzc\u00e1tegui , javier zabala , brian milstead , howard l . snell .\nto get up - to - date information about our work , please subscribe to our e - newsletter or follow us on our social media platforms .\nevery single donation we receive , no matter how small , counts as we are completely dependent on the generosity of others to carry out our scientific projects . we need your passion , loyalty and continual support .\nthe \u201ccharles darwin foundation for the galapagos islands\u201d , in french \u201cfondation charles darwin pour les \u00eeles galapagos\u201d , association international sans but lucratif ( \u201caisbl\u201d ) , has its registered office located at dr\u00e8ve du pieur\u00e9 19 , 1160 brussels , and is registered under the trade registry of brussels under the number 0409 . 359 . 103 ."]}
{"id": 1807, "summary": [{"text": "helicinidae is a family of small tropical land snails which have an operculum .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "they are terrestrial operculate gastropod mollusks in the superfamily helicinoidea .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "these snails are not at all closely related to the air-breathing land snails , despite a superficial similarity of the shells . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "helicinidae", "paragraphs": ["helicinidae are herbivorous / detritivous grazers , feeding on detritus , algal spores , moss and lichens by scraping their radula ( teeth ) along the substrate .\nthe mating behaviour of helicinidae is poorly known but sexes are separate and fertilisation is internal . females lay eggs in small clusters and development is direct with young hatching as juvenile snails .\nfor new caledonia more than 30 species of helicinidae were described up to now . the real diversity seem to amount a little more than half of this number of species , but a few taxa had not yet been described . one striking ( and frustrating ) feature of the new caledonian helicinidae is that most of them look roughly the same or very similar , at least at a first glance . this might explain to some extend the number of synonyms created in the past and the difficulties to approach this fauna .\nthe last comprehensive revision of the group dates back to a . j . wagner ( 1907 - 1911 ) only being followed by scattered papers on restricted areas and the systematic approaches by h . b . baker . major topics of my interest and research on the helicinidae include :\nty - jour ti - monograph of the cuban genus viana ( mollusca : archaeogastropoda : helicinidae ) t2 - breviora . vl - 298 ur - urltoken pb - museum of comparative zoology , harvard university , cy - cambridge , mass . : py - 1968 sp - 1 ep - 25 sn - 0006 - 9698 au - clench , w j au - jacobson , m k er -\nhelicinidae are a tropical and subtropical family of over 500 described species . they are restricted to the caribbean and some indo - pacific and pacific islands , as well as the margins of the asian and australian continents . the family is absent from europe , africa , most of asia , new zealand , norfolk and lord howe islands and most of australia where only 7 species from a single genus (\nty - jour ti - classification of the helicinidae : review of morphological characteristics based on a revision of the costa rican species and application to the arrangement of the central american mainland taxa ( mollusca : gastropoda : neritopsina ) t2 - malacologia . vl - 45 ur - urltoken pb - institute of malacology ] cy - [ ann arbor , py - 2004 sp - 195 ep - 440 sn - 0076 - 2997 er -\nhelicinidae are found mainly in tropical rainforest on moist forest floors and the trunks of trees with some species strongly associated with limestone geologies although some species also occur in drier habitats . australian species are found mainly in tropical rainforest habitats of north - eastern australia , where some are arboreal in vine thickets and others are associated with leaf litter or limestone outcrops . helicinids often contribute a significant percentage of the diversity and abundance of the molluscan fauna in tropical forest environments .\n@ article { bhlpart31519 , title = { monograph of the cuban genus viana ( mollusca : archaeogastropoda : helicinidae ) } , journal = { breviora . } , volume = { 298 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . } , url = urltoken publisher = { cambridge , mass . : museum of comparative zoology , harvard university , [ 1952 - } , author = { clench , w j and jacobson , m k } , year = { 1968 } , pages = { 1 - - 25 } , }\n@ article { bhlpart62995 , title = { classification of the helicinidae : review of morphological characteristics based on a revision of the costa rican species and application to the arrangement of the central american mainland taxa ( mollusca : gastropoda : neritopsina ) } , journal = { malacologia . } , volume = { 45 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . } , url = urltoken publisher = { [ ann arbor , institute of malacology ] 1962 - } , author = { } , year = { 2004 } , pages = { 195 - - 440 } , }\n< mods xmlns : xlink =\nurltoken\nversion =\n3 . 0\nxmlns : xsi =\nurltoken\nxmlns =\nurltoken\nxsi : schemalocation =\nurltoken urltoken\n> < titleinfo > < title > classification of the helicinidae : review of morphological characteristics based on a revision of the costa rican species and application to the arrangement of the central american mainland taxa ( mollusca : gastropoda : neritopsina ) < / title > < / titleinfo > < typeofresource > text < / typeofresource > < genre authority =\nmarcgt\n> < / genre > < note type =\ncontent\n> 45 < / note > < relateditem type =\nhost\n> < titleinfo > < title > malacologia . < / title > < / titleinfo > < origininfo > < place > < placeterm type =\ntext\n> [ ann arbor , < / placeterm > < / place > < publisher > institute of malacology ] < / publisher > < / origininfo > < part > < detail type =\nvolume\n> < number > 45 < / number > < / detail > < extent unit =\npages\n> < start > 195 < / start > < end > 440 < / end > < / extent > < date > 2004 < / date > < / part > < / relateditem > < identifier type =\nuri\n> urltoken < / identifier > < accesscondition type =\nuseandreproduction\n> in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . < / accesscondition > < / mods >\n< mods xmlns : xlink =\nurltoken\nversion =\n3 . 0\nxmlns : xsi =\nurltoken\nxmlns =\nurltoken\nxsi : schemalocation =\nurltoken urltoken\n> < titleinfo > < title > monograph of the cuban genus viana ( mollusca : archaeogastropoda : helicinidae ) < / title > < / titleinfo > < name > < namepart > clench , w j < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > jacobson , m k < / namepart > < / name > < typeofresource > text < / typeofresource > < genre authority =\nmarcgt\n> < / genre > < note type =\ncontent\n> 298 < / note > < relateditem type =\nhost\n> < titleinfo > < title > breviora . < / title > < / titleinfo > < origininfo > < place > < placeterm type =\ntext\n> cambridge , mass . : < / placeterm > < / place > < publisher > museum of comparative zoology , harvard university , < / publisher > < / origininfo > < part > < detail type =\nvolume\n> < number > 298 < / number > < / detail > < extent unit =\npages\n> < start > 1 < / start > < end > 25 < / end > < / extent > < date > 1968 < / date > < / part > < / relateditem > < identifier type =\nuri\n> urltoken < / identifier > < accesscondition type =\nuseandreproduction\n> in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . < / accesscondition > < / mods >\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\n\u00bb genus caloplisma crosse & p . fischer , 1893 accepted as helicina ( tristramia ) crosse , 1863 represented as helicina lamarck , 1799\n\u00bb genus cinctella a . j . wagner , 1910 accepted as helicina ( oxyrhombus ) crosse & p . fischer , 1893 represented as helicina lamarck , 1799\n\u00bb genus concentrica a . j . wagner , 1905 accepted as helicina ( oxyrhombus ) crosse & p . fischer , 1893 represented as helicina lamarck , 1799\n\u00bb genus discoidea a . j . wagner , 1905 accepted as nesiocina richling & bouchet , 2013 ( invalid : junior homonym of discoidea agassiz , 1834 [ echinodermata ] ; nesiocina is a replacement name )\n\u00bb genus eualcadia a . j . wagner , 1907 accepted as alcadia gray , 1840\n\u00bb genus hispida a . j . wagner , 1907 accepted as alcadia ( penisoltia ) h . b . baker , 1954 represented as alcadia gray , 1840\n\u00bb genus leialcadia a . j . wagner , 1907 accepted as alcadia ( idesa ) h . adams & a . adams , 1856 represented as alcadia gray , 1840\n\u00bb genus orbiculata a . j . wagner , 1905 accepted as helicina ( oligyra ) say , 1818 represented as helicina lamarck , 1799\n\u00bb genus punctisalcata a . j . wagner , 1905 accepted as helicina ( oxyrhombus ) crosse & p . fischer , 1893 represented as helicina lamarck , 1799\n\u00bb genus retorquata a . j . wagner , 1905 accepted as helicina ( tristramia ) crosse , 1863 represented as helicina lamarck , 1799\n\u00bb genus rostrata a . j . wagner , 1905 accepted as helicina ( tristramia ) crosse , 1863 represented as helicina lamarck , 1799\n\u00bb genus schrammia guppy , 1895 accepted as alcadia ( idesa ) h . adams & a . adams , 1856 represented as alcadia gray , 1840\n\u00bb genus sturanyella pilsbry & cooke , 1934 accepted as sturanya a . j . wagner , 1905 ( objective junior synonym ( same type species ) )\n\u00bb genus turbinata a . j . wagner , 1905 accepted as helicina ( tristramia ) crosse , 1863 represented as helicina lamarck , 1799\n\u00bb genus perenna guppy , 1867 accepted as lucidella ( poenia ) h . adams & a . adams , 1856 represented as lucidella swainson , 1840\n\u00bb genus bakerviana aguayo & jaume , 1957 accepted as calidviana h . b . baker , 1954\n\u00bb genus callida a . j . wagner , 1908 accepted as calidviana h . b . baker , 1954\n\u00bb genus fitzia guppy , 1895 accepted as viana h . adams & a . adams , 1856\n\u00bb genus hapata gray , 1856 accepted as viana h . adams & a . adams , 1856\n\u00bb genus rhynchocheila shuttleworth , 1877 accepted as viana h . adams & a . adams , 1856\n\u00bb genus torreviana aguayo , 1943 accepted as troschelviana ( microviana ) h . b . baker , 1928 represented as troschelviana h . b . baker , 1922\nbouchet p . , rocroi j . p . , hausdorf b . , kaim a . , kano y . , n\u00fctzel a . , parkhaev p . , schr\u00f6dl m . & strong e . e . ( 2017 ) . revised classification , nomenclator and typification of gastropod and monoplacophoran families . malacologia . 61 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 526 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 3 . 0 australia license .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\n* biogeographical questions ( e . g . in the caribbean and on pacific islands )\nbiogeographical questions ( e . g . in the caribbean and on pacific islands )\na revision of the new caledonian species is finally published ( richling 2009 ) . it is based on very comprehensive collections made by the staff of the malacology of the mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle de paris ( mainly philippe bouchet and simon tillier ) in the 70s and 80s . the project was carried out in a close cooperation with the mnhn , paris .\nthe lesser antilles harbour a diversity of very pretty , shiny coloured helicinids . by this colouration the species are perfectly camoulaged for an arboreal life style on and under leaves of shrubs , palms and trees . one of the most beautiful helicinids of the area is helicina rhodostoma already described by gray in 1824 . it is easy distinguished by the unusual basal spine .\nbesides a still wanting alpha - taxonomical revision of the lesser antillean species questions about the real generic affinities arise from the former confusion of the genera helicina and alcadia ( see also richling 2004a ) . this leads directly to the difficult biogeographical discussions in that area that still suffer from a lack of data from really thoroughly studied groups of organisms , especially among the invertebrates .\nbiodivlibrary july is # nationalblueberrymonth ! the w . a . cox nursery co . of mississippi ' s 1920s catalog proclaimed # blueberries to\u2026 urltoken\nbiodivlibrary @ jzed _ trees @ kew _ laa awesome ! we ' re so honored to have this treasure in # bhlib . thanks @ kew _ laa ! now we can enjoy p\u2026 urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nturgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , et al .\ncommon and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks , 2nd ed .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nc . michael hogan set\nimage of oligyra orbiculata\nas an exemplar on\noligyra orbiculata ( say , 1818 )\n.\njennifer hammock split the classifications by smithsonian type specimen data from plicatula to their own page .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthis work is licensed under the creative commons attribution license ( cc by 4 . 0 )\nnew records of diplomys labilis ( bangs , 1901 ) ( mammalia , rodentia , . . .\nfirst record of boana maculateralis ( caminer & ron , 2014 ) . . .\nfirst record of the bignose unicornfish , naso vlamingii ( perciformes , . . .\nambidexter symmetricus manning & chace , 1971 ( decapoda , processidae ) : . . .\ncheck list is a peer - reviewed , open access , on - line journal devoted to publishing annotated list of species , notes on geographic distribution of one or a few species , and distribution summary of a taxonomic group . these data are essential for studies on biogeography and provide a baseline for the conservation of biodiversity as a whole . the first step to undertaking effective conservation action is to understand species\u2019 geographic distribution . check list was established to cater to this need by publishing papers on the geographic distribution of species and higher taxonomic groups .\ndoaj , scopus , zoological abstracts , ebsco host , and index copernicus . member journal of the brazilian association of science editors ( abec ) and of the committee on publication ethics ( cope ) .\nthis browser does not support pdfs . please download the pdf to view it : download pdf\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license ( cc by 4 . 0 ) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\neutrochatella _ pulchella _ pulchella _ gray _ 1824 _ 11mm _ jamaica . jpg\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\ntaxonomy of the gastropoda is still under revision , and more and more of the old taxonomy is being abandoned , as the results of molecular studies slowly become clearer .\nthese snails have an open pallial cavity which absorbs oxygen . most notably , they have only one pair of tentacles . about 130 species can be found in australia . three main groups are :\nthese snails , semi - slugs and slugs have two pairs of tentacles . they breathe using lungs . in australia , we have about 3000 species .\nthis is a group of semi - slugs and one of the most speciose families .\nsemi - slugs are snails that cannot retract into their shell as it is much reduced in size .\ncharopids or pinwheel snails are micro - snails ( from 1 . 2 - 7 . 0mm ) with an estimated 750 australian species . charopidae have their greatest diversity in eastern australia .\ncamaenids are generally larger than snails in most other families . in eastern australia , the stable moisture regime and acidic soils have resulted in the evolution of a number of arboreal species\ncaryodids are endemic to eastern australia and are generally large . they include our largest land snail , the giant panda snail .\nthe carnivorous snails eat meat and their diet includes a range of invertebrates including other snails . the long neck is a feature of these snails .\nthe snail whisperer has just finished filming a scope segment in the malacology lab at the queensland museum . the highlight of the segment is fat albert who is a giant panda snail ( hedleyella falconeri ) from mt tambourine . fat albert proved to be an upcoming movie star for the duration of the filming .\nstudents and teachers are permitted to use this information for school projects and homework .\n\u00a9 dr john stanisic and facts about snails , 2013\u20132014 . photos and text on this site are strictly copyright of the respective authors . unauthorized use and / or duplication of this material without express and written permission from this blog\u2019s author and / or owner is strictly prohibited . excerpts and links may be used , provided that full and clear credit is given to dr john stanisic and facts about snails with appropriate and specific direction to the original content .\nregister to be advised when volume 2 is released ( due july 2017 ) .\nsorry , preview is currently unavailable . you can download the paper by clicking the button above .\nenter the email address you signed up with and we ' ll email you a reset link .\nthere are no reviews yet . be the first one to write a review .\nbiostor is built by @ rdmpage , code on github . page images from the biodiversity heritage library .\nthis is one of the six major gastropod lineages and contains a large number of terrestrial species and a few freshwater and brackish water species . all have an operculum . all extant members of this clade are in the subclade cycloneritimorpha .\nterrestrial species are found in four families . they are indicated in green in the list below .\nfreshwater species are found in one family , the neritidae in the superfamily neritoidea . they are indicated in blue in the list below . exclusively marine families are in black .\noperculate , terrestrial snails , distributed widely in the tropics and sub - tropics . distributions were taken from \u201ccompendium of landshells\u201d by r . tucker abbott , the website urltoken and the discover life web site . an excellent resource for helicinids is dr . ira richling\u2019s web site :\noperculate , terrestrial snails , distributed widely in the tropics and sub - tropics . distributions were taken from \u201ccompendium of landshells\u201d by r . tucker abbott and the discover life web site .\noperculate , terrestrial snails . they are minute and several species are restricted to caves\n\u00a9 2018 university of illinois board of trustees . all rights reserved . for permissions information , contact the illinois natural history survey .\nwe don ' t know when or if this item will be back in stock .\ninstantly receive a \u00a310 urltoken gift card if you\u2019re approved for the amazon platinum mastercard with instant spend . representative 21 . 9 % apr ( variable ) .\ncredit offered by newday ltd , over 18s only , subject to status . terms apply .\nenter your mobile number or email address below and we ' ll send you a link to download the free kindle app . then you can start reading kindle books on your smartphone , tablet , or computer - no kindle device required .\nprime members enjoy fast & free shipping , unlimited streaming of movies and tv shows with prime video and many more exclusive benefits .\nafter viewing product detail pages , look here to find an easy way to navigate back to pages you are interested in ."]}
{"id": 1813, "summary": [{"text": "japalura is a genus of lizards in the family agamidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "species of japalura are native to pakistan , india , myanmar , china , vietnam , taiwan , and japan .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "china has the most species , including many endemics . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "japalura", "paragraphs": ["japalura swinhonis chapaensis bourret 1937 : 62 japalura swinhonis chapaensis \u2014 wermuth 1967 : 68 japalura chapaensis \u2014 ota 1989 japalura chapaensis \u2014 barts & wilms 2003 japalura chapaensis \u2014 wang et al . 2017\nhave armattan done it again ? meet the japalura . 3\narmattan japalura review\nhave armattan done it again ? meet the japalura . 3\narmattan japalura review - youtube\nmahony , stephen 2009 . a new species of japalura ( reptilia : agamidae ) from northeast india with a discussion of the similar species japalura sagittifera smith , 1940 and japalura planidorsata jerdon , 1870 . zootaxa 2212 : 41\u201361 - get paper here\nwei sy , lin jy . behavioral study of japalura swinhonis formosensis ( sauria : agamidae )\nthe armattan japalura is a 130mm quadcopter frame designed for 3\npropellers and 1407 sized motors .\nota h . a new species of japalura ( agamidae : lacertilia : reptilia ) from taiwan .\nagamidae ; < i > japalura < / i > ; taxonomy ; yunnan ; china ; < i > japalura < / i > < i > brevicauda < / i > spec . nov . ; < i > japalura < / i > < i > yulongensis < / i > spec . nov . ; < i > japalura < / i > < i > flaviceps < / i > ; < i > japalura < / i > < i > batangensis < / i > ; < i > japalura < / i > < i > zhaoermii < / i >\ngao zf , hou m . description of a new japalura species from western sichuan province , china .\nfor information on the following species , see the agamidae : japalura page at the tigr reptile database .\nwow . beautiful build ! im building a japalura with the same kiss aio . i can ' t wait ! !\nmorphological comparisons of japalura laeviventtris sp . nov . , j . iadina sp . nov . , and phenotypically similar congeners\nreptile theme was chris ' s idea . we wanted to name the japalura the gecko , but it was already taken .\nli c , deng qx , wu y , wang y . a new species of japalura from sichuan ( agamidae gray .\nota h , chen sl , shang g . japalura luei : a new agamid lizard from taiwan ( reptilia : squamata )\nseveral specimens from historical collections made in yunnan ( pr china ) were found to be inconsistent with hithertoknown species of japalura . two species are described as new : japalura brevicauda spec . nov . and japalura yulongensis spec . nov . diagnostic features for the new species are compiled and a key to closely related species is produced . the geographical distribution of these species is outlined and discussed .\nsoon after the description of the sail mountain dragon ( japalura vela ) from eastern tibet , china , two more new species of japalura , namely j . laeviventris and j . iadina , were described from the approximate same region in the hengduan mountain range of china .\nli c , deng qx , wu y , wang y . 2001 . a new species of japalura from sichuan ( agamidae gray . japalura ) . journal of sichuan teachers college ( natural sciences ) , 22 ( 4 ) : 329 - 331 . ( in chinese )\ntanaka , satoshi ; nishihira , moritaka 1981 . notes on an agamid lizard , japalura polygonata . biological magazine okinawa 19 : 33 - 39\nthere are some twenty species of lizards in the genus japalura . one of the general common names for this agamid genus is mountain lizard .\nhabitat of japalura iadina sp . nov . in the dry - hot valley of lancang river , deqin , northwest yunnan , china ( photo by kai wang )\nk\u00e4stle w , schleich hh . 1998 studies on the systematics and biology of the genus japalura ( sauria : agamidae ) . notes on comparative ethology and taxonomy of the genus japalura . in : k\u00e4stle w , schleich hh ( ed . ) . the contributions to the herpetology of south asia ( nepal , india ) ,\nota h . 1989 . a new species of japalura ( agamidae : lacertilia : reptilia ) from taiwan . copeia , 1989 ( 3 ) : 569 - 576 .\nwei sy , lin jy . 1981 . behavioral study of japalura swinhonis formosensis ( sauria : agamidae ) . tunghai journal of biology , 22 : 33 - 48 .\npreferred microhabitat of japalura laeviventris sp . nov . near the nujiang bridge , baxoi county , qamdo prefecture , eastern tibet , china ( photo by ya - qiang sun )\nnakama ( 2008 ) the distribution of japalura polygonata in ibusuki city , kagoshima prefecture . bulletin of the kagoshima prefectural museum . 27 , 65 - 66 ( in jpn )\narmattan japalura review . this special little drone is the little bro of the armattan chameleon review . there must be something special in the water over at armattan hq because i love the chameleon and i think the japalura is going to be pretty special as well . something about how the frame comes together and this mini fpv drone looks . link - urltoken\njustification : japalura tricarinata has been assessed as least concern owing to its large distribution . no specific threats have been reported and this species is not undergoing significant population declines . further research into the taxonomy of the genus japalura , including j . tricarinata is needed . monitoring is required to ensure that the localized threat of deforestation does not become more widespread .\nota , h . 1989 . a new species of japalura ( agamidae : lacertilia : reptilia ) from taiwan . copeia 1989 ( 3 ) : 569 - 576 - get paper here\nk\u00e4stle w , schleich hh . 1998 studies on the systematics and biology of the genus japalura ( sauria : agamidae ) . notes on comparative ethology and taxonomy of the genus japalura . in : k\u00e4stle w , schleich hh ( ed . ) . the contributions to the herpetology of south asia ( nepal , india ) , fuhlrott museum , brand 4 ( 1998 ) : 233 - 246 .\nota , h . 1989 . the status of an agamid lizard , japalura swinhonis chapaensis bourret 1937 , from vietnam . journal of herpetology 23 ( 4 ) : 447 - 450 - get paper here\nwang k , jiang k , pan g , hou m , siler cd , che j . a new species of japalura ( squamata : sauria : agamidae ) from eastern tibet , pr china .\nota h , chen sl , shang g . 1998 . japalura luei : a new agamid lizard from taiwan ( reptilia : squamata ) . copeia , 1998 ( 3 ) : 649 - 656 .\nota h , weidenh\u00f6fer t . the first male specimen of the poorly known agamid lizard japalura chapaensis bourret , 1937 ( reptilia : sauria ) , from northern vietnam , with notes on its taxonomic status .\njono et al . ( 2013 ) invasion of yakushima island , japan , by the subtropical lizard japalura polygonata polygonata ( squamata : agamidae ) . current herpetology . 32 ( 2 ) , 142 - 149\nthe japalura really looks like it was meant to be 4\n. the chameleon has 5\ncovered and the jap is a little heavy for 3\n, so 4\nreally hits that sweet spot .\ngao zf , hou m . 2002 . description of a new japalura species from western sichuan province , china . sichuan journal of zoology , 21 ( 1 ) : 3 - 5 . ( in chinese )\nota et al . ( 2006 ) colonization by the subtropical lizard , japalura polygonata polygonata ( squamata : agamidae ) , in southeastern kyushu , japan . current herpetology . 25 ( 1 ) : 29 - 34 .\nmanthey u , wolfgang d , hou m , wang xh . discovered in historical collections : two new japalura species ( squamata : sauria : agamidae ) from yulong snow mountains , lijiang prefecture , yunnan , pr china .\nthe japalura is a the latest addition to the armattan micro - quadcopter line - up . this is a 130mm quadcopter frame designed for 3\npropellers and 1407 sized motors . the japalura is a very versatile frame , with a full - sized camera mount that can take hs1177 cameras and a nice light auw ( less than 200g without battery ! ) . this is a tough and light frame that can take 20\u00d720 or 30\u00d730 flight controllers .\nota , h . 1991 . taxonomic redefiniton of japalura swinhonis g\u00fcnther ( agamidae : squamata ) , with a description of a a new subspecies of j . polygonata from taiwan . herpetologica 47 : 280 - 294 - get paper here\ndorsolateral ( a ) , ventral ( b ) , and ventral head close - up views ( c ) of the adult male holotype ( kiz 019321 ) of japalura iadina sp . nov . in life ( photos by kai wang )\ndorsolateral ( a ) , ventral ( b ) , and ventral head close - up views ( c ) of the adult female allotype of japalura iadina sp . nov . ( kiz 09398 ) in life ( photos by kai wang )\ndorsolateral views and ventral close - ups views of adult male holotype kiz 014038 ( a and b ) and adult female paratopotype kiz 014043 ( c and d ) of japalura laeviventris sp . nov . in preservative ( photos by kai wang )\nota , hidetoshi 2003 . a new subspecies of the agamid lizard , japalura polygonata ( hallowell , 1861 ) ( reptilia : squamata ) , from yonagunijima island of the yaeyama group , ryukyu archipelago . current herpetology 22 ( 2 ) : 61 - 71\nmanthey , ulrich ; wolfgang denzer , hou mian & wang xiaohe 2012 . discovered in historical collections : two new japalura species ( squamata : sauria : agamidae ) from yulong snow mountains , lijiang prefecture , yunnan , pr china . zootaxa 3200 : 27\u201348\nkunte , k . & u . manthey 2009 . wiederentdeckung von japalura sagittifera ( sauria : agamidae ) in arunachal pradesh , ost - himalaya : ein erstnachweis f\u00fcr die indische herpetofauna . sauria 31 ( 2 ) : 49 - 55 - get paper here\njapalura flaviceps pope , 1935 : 467 ; zhao & jiang , 1977 : 293 - 298 ; hu et al . , 1987 : 112 ; zhao et al . , 1999 : 111 - 115 ; li et al . , 2010 : 115 .\nota et al . ( 2012 ) current status of an exotic population of the agamid lizard japalura polygonata polygonata ( hallowell , 1861 ) in kagoshima prefecture of southern kyushu , japan . nature of kagoshima . 38 , 1 - 8 ( in jpn )\njono , teppei ; takashi kawamura , and ryosuke koda 2013 . invasion of yakushima island , japan , by the subtropical lizard japalura polygonata polygonata ( squamata : agamidae ) . current herpetology aug 2013 , vol . 32 , no . 2 : 142 - 149 .\nkai wang , ke jiang , da - hu zou , et al . two new species of japalura ( squamata : agamidae ) from the hengduan mountain range , china [ j ] . zoological research , 2016 , 37 ( 1 ) : 41 - 56 .\nas the\nyounger sibling\nto the chameleon , the armattan japalura is the fanciest micro frame around , and the second design in armattan ' s selection that features aluminum protection . inspired by many of the same principals as the chameleon , the japalura is a lighter , more compact package that still supports many of today ' s fpv standards . this\n3 inch\nframe can handle full - sized miniquad guts , houses your standard hs1177 camera , and shields everything but the battery with two 4mm thick 6061 aluminum ribs .\nthe specific epithet is a noun in genitive case formed from the personal name hidetoshi ota of the tropical biosphere research center , university of the ryukyus , japan . his comprehensive work and taxonomic revisions of japalura species have immensely contributed to our current knowledge of this genus .\nwang k , jiang k , pan g , hou m , siler cd , che j . 2015 . a new species of japalura ( squamata : sauria : agamidae ) from eastern tibet , pr china . asian hepetological research , 6 ( 3 ) : 159 - 168 .\nota & weidenh\u00f6fer 1992 . the first male species of the poorly known agamid lizard japalura chapensis bourret , 1937 ( reptilia : sauria ) from northern vietnam , with notes on its taxonomic status . raffles bull . zool . 40 ( 2 ) : 193 - 199 - get paper here\nmanthey u , wolfgang d , hou m , wang xh . 2012 . discovered in historical collections : two new japalura species ( squamata : sauria : agamidae ) from yulong snow mountains , lijiang prefecture , yunnan , pr china . zootaxa , 30 ( 1664 ) : 27 - 48 .\nota h , weidenh\u00f6fer t . 1992 . the first male specimen of the poorly known agamid lizard japalura chapaensis bourret , 1937 ( reptilia : sauria ) , from northern vietnam , with notes on its taxonomic status . raffles bulletin of zoology , 40 ( 2 ) : 193 - 199 .\naccording to teldap . tw , taiwan ' s japalura breuipes is an arboreal ( lives in trees ) lizard that can grow to be a foot long . interestingly , new research into the island ' s jungles has provided a glimpse of a new relative of our lovely local lizard . this recently discovered creature measures 138 mm diagonally , and incorporates metal with its largely carbon - based body . fortunately for many of the collectors who have expressed interest in the organism , this little one prefers to keep its feet firmly planted on terra firma . we call this new lizard the japalura .\nthe japalura has been constructed to armattan standards , and we believe the frame is tough enough to warrant a top - to - bottom warranty . ( hah , see what we did there ? ) this baby is covered from the aluminum roll bars down to the smallest of top - plates .\nsueyoshi et al . ( 2007 ) discovery of an established feral population of the okinawa tree lizard , japalura polygonata polygonata ( squamata : agamidae ) in nichinan city , miyazaki prefecture . bulletin of the miyazaki prefectural museum of nature and history . 28 , 1 - 5 ( in jpn with english abst )\nmahony s . 2010 . systematic and taxonomic revaluation of four little known asian agamid species , calotes kingdonwardi smith , 1935 , japalura kaulbacki smith , 1937 , salea kakhienensis anderson , 1879 and the monotypic genus mictopholis smith , 1935 ( reptilia : agamidae ) . zootaxa , 7 ( 2514 ) : 1 - 23 .\nwang , kai ; ke jiang , yu - fan wang , nikolay a . poyarkov jr . , jing che , cameron d . siler 2017 . discovery of japalura chapaensis bourret , 1937 ( reptilia : squamata : agamidae ) from southeast yunnan province , china zoological research 38 ( 5 ) : 1 - 11 - get paper here\nsource : wang , k . , k . jiang , d - h . zou , f . yan , c . d . siler , and j . che . 2016 . two new species of japalura ( squamata : agamidae ) from the hengduan mountain range , china . zoological research 37 ( 1 ) : 41 - 56 . pdf\nlateral and ventral views of adult male holotype kiz 014038 ( a and b ) and adult female paratopotype kiz 014043 ( c and d ) of japalura laeviventris sp . nov . in life ( photos by kai wang ) . note the dark reddish orange color posterior to the shoulder fold in the lateral view is the color of ectoparasites and not a coloration pattern of the new species .\ndistribution map of japalura in the hengduan mountain range , southwest china ( map created by nicholas a . huron and cameron d . siler ) . color - coded shapes show the distribution of type localities for the new species ( stars ) , true j . flaviceps sensu wang et al . ( 2015 ) ( square ) , and other referenced members of the j . flaviceps species complex ( circles ) .\nthe japalura is the newest quadcopter to the armattan micro quad lineup . it ' s a 130mm mini racer constructed using top of the line hardware . the quality that went into this thing is as high as it gets . super smooth carbon plates , that were cut to perfection , even the edges are smooth . the frame is a work of art and comes in 2 colors : purple and silver . the fully built prototype that i received , contained the following hardware :\nthe armattan japalura is the little brother to the popular armattan chameleon . the components used here will work on either the 3\nor the 4\nbaseplate . traditionally 1407 motors have been used exclusively on 3\nbuilds , but a new trend has emerged putting 4\nprops on a 3\npowertrain . the advantage is a light - weight build with the flexibility to choose either 3\nor 4\nprops and carry an hd camera . this particular configuration can easily handle a mobius mini .\ndiagnosis : following inger\u2019s ( 1960 ) definition of the genus , the new species is assigned to japalura based on a number of diagnostic characters , including : ( 1 ) dorsal scales unequal in size ; ( 2 ) enlarged crest scales present ; ( 3 ) gular pouch present ; ( 4 ) lateral fold of skin in axilla - groin region present ; ( 5 ) supraciliary scales greatly imbricate ; ( 6 ) head relatively long , flat ; ( 7 ) tail long , slender ; ( 8 ) tail cylindrical in shape ; and ( 9 ) precloacal and femoral pores absent .\ndiagnosis : following inger\u2019s definition of the genus ( inger , 1960 ) , the new species is assigned to the genus japalura based on a number of diagnostic characters , including : ( 1 ) dorsal scales unequal in size ; ( 2 ) enlarged crest scales present ; ( 3 ) gular pouch present ; ( 4 ) lateral fold of skin in axilla - groin region present ; ( 5 ) supraciliary scales greatly imbricate ; ( 6 ) head relatively long , flat ; ( 7 ) tail long , slender ; ( 8 ) tail cylindrical in shape ; and ( 9 ) precloacal and femoral pores absent .\nas with any armattan release , some of the best features of this frame are the lack of restrictions you have when building . for example : like usual , the japalura supports a 30 . 5mm center stack up to 28mm high . in addition , the adjustable angle on the aluminum vtx mount supports a variety of transmitter options . another feature is the option to mount the battery on the top or the bottom of this machine , just in case you have a strong preference . lastly , if built with an eye on the weight of all the components , you ought to be able to skate by underneath the united state ' s faa registration restriction of 250g .\nthe japalura is equipped with a foxeer hs1177 camera upgraded with a gopro lens . the vtx is a foxeer tm200 - 200mwvtx \u0096connected to this is a lumineer axii 5 . 8ghz antenna . this was the first time i ' ve even seen a mini antenna like this , i am happy to say that it performed great - it ' s small makeup makes it light , but it also performs just as good as any other antenna i ' ve used . as far as the rest of the fpv gear goes , everything worked as it should , excellent range , excellent picture quality , can ' t think of a single negative , so i will leave it at that .\ni was amazed at how smooth and easy it was to fly this thing . i ' ve flown other smaller sized quads and none come close to how good this thing feels . i ' m not the best at tuning quads , actually i use basically the same tune on all of my quads , with slight variations . so with the japalura , even with a moderate tune , it feels locked in . i think a lot of it has to do with the fc and esc ' s - it ' s able to process noise and errors out resulting in a super smooth flight . and because of this : i feel so much more confident when i am out flying .\njapalura iadina sp . nov . differs from j . laeviventris by having a smaller adult body size ( svl 54 - 65 mm v . s . 64 - 72 mm ) , distinctively keeled ventral scales of head and body ( v . s . smooth or weakly keeled ) , fewer md ( 35 - 46 v . s . 57 - 59 ) , distinct ground coloration of the dorsal surfaces of head and body in males ( emerald green v . s . off - white ) , distinct coloration of gular spots ( blue in males , greenish yellow in females v . s . orange in both sexes ) , and distinct patterns of pigmentations on the dorsal surfaces of the body along the dorsal midline ( black vertebral stripes speckled with green v . s . m - shaped patterns of dark brown pigmentation ) .\nthe frame is not just attractive , it\u0092s also tough as nails ( i ' ve been in some pretty gnarly crashes ) - aside from a few scratches , the frame remains in excellent condition . it\u0092s thick in all the right places , and yes , there are a crap load of screws , but this just adds to the frame\u0092s strength . the final version of the japalura have slight changes to the bottom and side plates . from the pictures it looks like the arms were rounded out at the end , and the side plates were made taller and wider . the frame has holes to support mini flight controllers w / 20x20mm mounting holes , and also holes to fit regular sized fc ( 30x30mm mount holes ) . the front portion of the frame angles upwards and allows fitment of full sized cameras similar to an hs1177 . holes in the frame allow the camera to be mounted directly to the frame , and allows uptilt angles of nearly 90 degrees .\njapalura laeviventris sp . nov . can be distinguished from all congeners by the combination of the following suite of morphological characteristics : ( 1 ) small adult body size ( svl 67 - 72 mm in males , 64 - 70 mm in females ) ; ( 2 ) moderate tal ( tal / svl 168 % - 200 % ) ; ( 3 ) moderate hll ( hll / svl 64 . 3 % - 78 . 4 % ) ; ( 4 ) nsl 1 ; ( 5 ) t4s 22 - 26 ; ( 6 ) sor 3 ; ( 7 ) strongly - protuberant , conical , post - tympanic scale absent ; ( 8 ) strongly - protuberant , conical , post - rictal scale absent ; ( 9 ) tympanum concealed ; ( 10 ) nuchal crests relatively raised on weak skin folds ; ( 11 ) dorsal crests weakly developed without distinct skin folds in males ; ( 12 ) transverse gular fold present ; ( 13 ) gular pouch distinct , present ; ( 14 ) scales of ventral surface of body smooth or weakly keeled ; ( 15 ) md 57 - 59 , ( 16 ) ground dorsal coloration off - white in males , brownish - gray in females ; ( 17 ) dorsal , lateral , and ventral surface of head , dorsal forelimbs , and lateral surface of body speckled with black ; ( 18 ) distinct radial streaks around eyes ; ( 19 ) dorsolateral stripes present , smooth - edged , pale - yellow in males ; ( 20 ) dark - brown , \u201cm\u201d - shaped pigmentation patterns along dorsal midline in males ; and ( 21 ) small , triangular , orange gular spots in adults of both sexes .\navailable in either silver or purple , this frame looks smashing when paired with oomph 1407 motors .\njavascript seems to be disabled in your browser . you must have javascript enabled in your browser to utilize the functionality of this website .\nour price is lower than the manufacturer ' s\nminimum advertised price .\nas a result , we cannot show you the price in catalog or the product page . you have no obligation to purchase the product once you know the price . you can simply remove the item from your cart .\nreal technology that will change our hobby forever . runcam split review + footage .\ntoo cheap to be real ? how is this possible ? furibee x215 review .\nhere we ' re using the new kiss all - in - one flight controller . joined with the x4r receiver and tbs unify vtx we can tune pids and change radio frequencies through a taranis . while support for the tbs unify isn ' t cooked into the kiss firmware at the moment , it will be released any day now .\nit ' s best to start by fitting the stack . sometimes this can be the most time consuming part of the build depending on your stack space and standoff selection . it ' s definitely good to have a wide variety of standoffs on hand because the included standoffs rarely ever work . here i used 7mm anti - vibration standoffs . while most flight controllers work just fine , soft mounted or not , these are less prone to break and could potentially improve flight performance . that being said , they can be troublesome to fit as the female end is more shallow than a typical standoff . i ended up sending a 5mm screw with a 1mm spacer through the bottom plate into the anti - vibration standoffs . without the spacer the threading is too long .\nnext you ' ll want to mount the motors . normally i attach them using two screws at first in the event that i need to remove them for whatever reason . just don ' t forget to finish them up with loctite before the maiden . once the motors are in place and the flight controller is mounted you ' ll want to cut the wires to length . i used 2\nlengths paracord 550 to protect the wires , but that ' s entirely optional .\nyou ' ll want to cut each motor wire to length individually to reach their respective esc pads . while kiss doesn ' t support motor rotation changes via software , you can solder jumper pads to change the rotation as necessary . to cut each wire you need to lay it down flat against the arm , run it up to the standoff , follow the edge of the board and divert straight up into the groove of the esc pad . it ' s important that the wires remain under the flight control board otherwise they ' ll get in the way of the canopy mounts .\nyou ' ll also want to solder the xt30 connector to the lipo input pads of the flight controller . i like a short lead here , so 2 - 3cm should be sufficient .\nsince kiss doesn ' t allow you to test your motor rotation without a bound transmitter , you ' ll want to wire up your receiver first . this is fairly straightforward , so just refer to the photos to learn the wire positions . to prepare the fc pads , add a little flux and create a nice shiny pillow of solder . the key is to leave none of the copper pad showing . this is where a quality iron is important . if the solder makes a pointy bit as you pull away you either aren ' t operating at a high enough temperature ( 750 to 800 degrees ) or your iron tip lacks sufficient flux .\nnow you need to bind your rx and test the motor rotation . first download the latest kiss\ncc\nfc firmware and install kissfc to google chrome . to update the firmware open kissfc , plug the usb cable into your flight controller , hold the boot button and plug the other end into your computer . while continuing to hold the button choose the firmware you downloaded and flash it . if you let go too early the process will fail .\nafter the firmware has been updated , attach a lipo , connect to the board and click\ndata output\nto test the motor rotation . i normally rub each motor to feel the rotation direction . for any motor that spins the incorrect direction solder the corresponding jp1 jumper for that motor . refer to the kiss compactctrl\ncc\nmanual for details .\nonce you ' ve completed these steps you can mount your rx and antennas . what i did was use a couple layers of double sided tape to prevent any potential shorts against the flight controller . using wide shrink tube would be a better solution , but i had none wide enough for this rx . the antennas are incredibly long , so i rotated the u . fl connectors 180 degrees to send the antennas forward . i wrapped them around the standoffs across to the other side , and out behind the front arms . if you do it just right you ' ll manage 2in of zip tie for the tips of both antennas .\nnow you can assemble the canopy and wire the camera and vtx . be sure to mount the antenna holder flat side out so the wings of the pigtail catch the lip . this prevents the pigtail from rotating as you attach your antenna . since we ' ll eventually be using tbs smartaudio , you can solder the audio wire of the vtx to the tx pad of the fc . now depending on which version of the tbs unify you ' re using ( hv or 5v ) you ' ll either want to solder the power leads to the lipo input pads or the rx 5v / gnd pads . once you ' ve done this you can solder the runcam wires to the vtx wires to complete the wiring . just be sure to leave enough slack to remove the canopy .\nnow you can attach the canopy being careful not to pinch any motor wires . i found that the pigtail can assert just enough pressure to hold the vtx to the top of the rx , so i didn ' t use any tape to hold it down . it seems to fit just right behind the camera , so i don ' t believe it ' ll be moving around in there . be sure to loctite your motors and you should be ready to maiden !\ni ' ve been itching to fly this one . i ' ll see if i can take a screenshot when i get in there .\ni can get about 3 minutes on an 850mah 4s pack . i haven ' t tried anything larger .\nbattery on the bottom and i ' ve got a mobius mini mount that fits directly on top placing the camera at an angle over the fpv cam cage . it ' s a great fit !\nfirst of all , impeccable build . . . as a retired rf engineer , i really appreciate excellent workmanship and you ' ve done it here . do you have any photos of the mobius mini mounted to this frame ? i would love to see the mounting system . congrats . . . a beautiful piece of work .\nthank you ! i haven ' t mounted the mobius mini on this one , but i do fly it with a foxeer legend 3 . here ' s a photo :\nlooks pretty good , looks like a good option for sub 5\nbuilds . thanks for the reply . . . cheers , dave\nit ' s a great little cam . i ' d say the image quality is more or less on par with the session 5 .\nthat ' s impressive . . . thanks again for your input , it really helps a lot . happy landings . . .\nhi ! i can ' t stop watching this beauty , thanks for posting it ! i love it and i ' ll build it with the exact same setup but 3\n. i was wondering how much does it weigh ? ( i really want to be sub - 250g ) thanks in advance for your answer , and congrats . . . nicely done !\nthank you ! i think you ' ll have a hard time keeping it under 250g with most 4s packs . maybe a light 3s pack would do it . this one is 182g without a battery .\nsure thing ! why not build the 4\nversion ? you ' d have the option to use both 3\nand 4\nprops at only the cost of a few extra g of frame weight .\nglad you liked the jap 4 . i had a lot of fun designing that one . i thought the 5\nwould be my favorite , but the 4\ndefinitely takes the win for me . i built 2 and i don ' t really fly anything else now .\ngreat work ! when i first saw that there was a 4\nversion i just had to build it . i liked the 3\n, but that size wasn ' t compelling enough to me . did you also design the chameleon ?\nsame here . i built the 3 , but i ' ve only logged like 5 min on it . not for me . i did design the chameleon as well . that was more of a group effort tho . chris ' s concept , my interpretation , and a lot of really great input . this was kind of my baby . i designed it as an aluminum hybrid version of my old kaeru frame . it was intended to be 5\nas well , but then i saw what catalyst was doing with the 3 . 5\nprop on 1407 motors and wanted to give 4\na try . they ended up beating me to the punch with their superlite . kinda nice that they did all the research tho . then chris said he wanted a 3\nas well , so i scaled it back . surprisingly , i ' m the only one on the team to ever build the 4\n.\nwell congrats on the successful designs ! the chameleon really has taken the scene by storm . i don ' t think a day or two goes by without a new chameleon post here . whose idea was it to go with the reptile theme ?\ni like it . it taught me the name of a new reptile . always good to keep learning !\nthose are dal bi - blade 4045s . i thought i ' d go easy on this board , but apparently it can handle a bit more . i plan to try some tri - blades at some point .\nthank you ! i ' m still trying to improve them , so hopefully they ' ll get better with time .\nwork of art ! o - rings work great to cover that extra distance the anti - vibration standoffs leave as well as a 1mm spacer .\nthank you ! i wish i had done a nicer job on the esc solders , but it works .\nthat ' s shrink tubing . it ' s a must when you get into building quads .\nbefore giving this a thorough review i thought i ' d do a teardown to see what makes the taranis x - lite tick . without getting into too much detail the x - lite is a new fpv transmitter designed to be compact and ergonomic . it ' s shaped like a video game controller but has all of the functionality of a traditional transmitter like the taranis q x7 or the taranis x9d . it features opentx and supports most . .\nthe bannilite was a collaborative effort between luke bannister , aka banniuk and falcon multirotors . the bannilite features ample camera protection , easy arm replacements and weighs in at only 72g . it even includes a spare arm and camera mount . it ' s an excellent choice for fpv racing and doesn ' t break the bank . the goal of this build was to feature a number of modern fpv luxuries including easy . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nto their 3\u0094 line : a 130mm prototype that was nearing it ' s final stages of production . talk about excited , i was on cloud 9 ! all\nthe final version has a couple slight changes to the main plate and side plates .\nchris hooked it up with some rotorx props and stickers . these props are amazing ! excellent top end power .\nthe frame is made up of a number of carbon plates ( 5 ) and aluminum pieces ( 5 ) that are held together by lots of hex head screws . the bottom plate = 3mm and side plates = 1 . 5mm\nvtx mount is adjustable , simply loosen the two 1 . 5mm hex head screws on both sides : lets you keep your antenna straight . i don ' t like bending my antennae\nsuper smooth armattan 20amp blheli - s esc ' s upgrade - able through blheli suite .\nlumineer axii 5 . 8ghz rhcp antenna - excellent , lightweight antenna , just a good as any other antenna i have used , but in a smaller form factor . weighing in @ 7 . 7 grams , and 2 . 8 inches long , with the thickest part being just 0 . 7 inches .\nperfect fitment for the hs1177 and other comparably sized cameras ' . easily adjust though 2 screws placed on either side of the frame . i also like the fact that i can adjust the camera to have as much up - tilt as i need .\nlastly the prototype i received uses a piko blx micro f3 flight controller . i believe the version that will be released will give you the option of other fc ' s .\nwith this board and the esc ' s , i was able to use 8k / 4k gyro & pid loop frequencies with cpu load @ 21 % . 8k / 8k brings cpu load to 41 %\nbrother hobbyt1 tornado 1407 \u0096 3600kv \u0096 pure awesomeness ! the motors are the heart of this quad , and they impressed the crap out of me . these 1407 t1\u0092s are tiny but very powerful . they use high quality japanese nmb bearings , along with n52h arc magnets . i took a look inside the motor , and noticed a strange magnet arrangement . it would be two magnets placed close to each other periodically around the bell . i think this may be the reason for why the motor felt \u0093notchy\u0094 . these motors have a ton of power , i ' ve been running them with 4s ( 450mah , 850mah , and 1000mah ) 3\nprops ( mostly 40 ' s and 45 ' s ) - i don ' t remember them ever getting hot , they seem to dissipate heat very well .\nthe included esc\u0092s are armattan\u0092s own 20amp blhelli - s , and the fc is a piko blx micro f3 from furious fpv . i\u0092m not sure what is different with this flight controller compared to my other f3\u0092s , but it is able to achieve an 8k / 8k gyro update / pid loop frequency , and still stay under 45 % cpu load . i have mine set to 8k / 4k to be safe ( cpu load = ~ 21 % ) but i have flown it at 8k / 8k and didn\u0092t run into any issues . it\u0092s pretty amazing how everything is not only getting better , but smaller too . the piko blx is a 27x27mm fc and uses 20mmx20mm mount holes . the armattan esc ' s are smooth as butter , not a single issue , i ' ve actually tried to make them desync , but nothing : it works flawless .\ni didn ' t even think to mount batteries on top , thanks wickedwingman .\nthat ' s looking really nice . that was the\nnew thing\nthat chris promised to send you , right ?\nvery nice frame indeed . what other fc options ? also what aios could be used ? ( height )\nsweet as ! ! ! m8 , ive just built a couple of 130 ' s and 150 ; s for us to throw around , maybe next time i will grab one of these frames .\nit can fit the small 20mm or 30 . 5mm standard fc and pdbs . stack height from man plate to alumi roo bars is 28mm , and to the cf top plate is 30mm . to the cf cutout on the side cf plates is 21mm . see picture below . this is final rev using armattan mini 1407 oomph motors . this has a full size armattan mini pdb v3 with 5v and 12v regs on board , a full size xracer f3 controller , a dys 25 / 200mw vtx with a pigtail attached , and a full size x4r frsky rx with telemetry hooked up . we also have a full size hs1177 cam with a 2 . 5mm lens installed . it all fits very nicely . osd is optional , we can install them and they fit well . we use the piggy back osd that is designed to attach to the rear of the camera .\nbare frame weights 51 grams fully assembled . so basically , this will fly super well on 1306 motors with very good flight times , then it will feel closer to what a 5 inch setup feels like with more modern 1407 motors on 4s . it ' s insane fast . some footage to come soon .\ndan , thanks for review in so much details . much appreciate your professionalism throughout . best , chris\nfantastic review ! glad you like it ! final revisions affect the main plate arm widths and side plates . production side plates leave room for straps for top mounted batteries or accessories and also have more clearance for fill size stack components . 2 board stacks are easily possible .\nthat quad is flat out far out . i like the looks of it better than my gt2 150 . no doubt from what i ' ve read about armattan on here she ' ll fly amazingly . hurry up and take my money , damn this hobby chooses to be expensive . thank you danq for the in depth review and youtube videos , subbed !\nmiyakensis : japan ( loo choo islands ) ; type locality : miyako , loo choo islands , japan .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nthe nominate form of this species is classified as \u201cvulnerable\u201d in japan ( ota 2000 ) .\nananjeva , natalia b . ; xianguang guo and yuezhao wang 2011 . taxonomic diversity of agamid lizards ( reptilia , sauria , acrodonta , agamidae ) from china : a comparative analysis . asian herpetological research 2 ( 3 ) : 117 - 128 - get paper here\nbarbour , thomas 1909 . notes on amphibia and reptilia from eastern asia . proc . new england zool . club 4 : 53 - 78 , 2 plates - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1885 . catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( nat . hist . ) i . geckonidae , eublepharidae , uroplatidae , pygopodidae , agamidae . london : 450 pp . - get paper here\ngoris , r . c . & maeda , n . 2004 . guide to the amphibians and reptiles of japan . krieger , malabar , 285 pp .\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1864 . the reptiles of british india . london ( taylor & francis ) , xxvii + 452 pp . - get paper here\nhallowell , e . 1861 . report upon the reptilia of the north pacific exploring expedition , under command of capt . john rogers , u . s . n . proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 12 [ 1860 ] : 480 - 510 - get paper here\nmanthey u 2010 . agamid lizards of southern asia . draconinae 2 - leiolepidinae . terralog 7b , edition chimaira , frankfurt , 168 pp .\nmanthey , u . & schuster , n . 1999 . agamen , 2 . aufl . natur und tier verlag ( m\u00fcnster ) , 120 pp . - get paper here\nnorval , gerrut ; stephen r . goldberg , charles r . bursey , jean - jay mao , and kerry slater 2014 . internal parasites of lizards from taiwan . herp . cons . biol . 9 ( 3 ) : 484\u2212494 - get paper here\nslevin , joseph r . ; leviton , alan e . 1956 . holotype specimens of reptiles and amphibians in the collection of the california academy of sciences . proc . cal . acad . sci . 28 ( 14 ) : 529 - 560 - get paper here\nstejneger , leonhard h . 1907 . herpetology of japan and adjacent territory . bull . us natl . mus . 58 : xx , 1 - 577 - get paper here\nvan denburgh , j . , 1912 . concerning certain species of reptiles and amphibians from china , japan , the loo choo islands , and formosa . proc . cal . ac . sci . ( series 4 ) 3 ( 10 ) : 187 - 258 . - get paper here\nyang s - f , komaki s , brown rm , lin s - m . 2017 . riding the kuroshio current : stepping stone dispersal of the okinawa tree lizard across the east asian island arc j biogeogr . 2017 ; 00 : 1\u201314 - get paper here\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nbarts , m . & wilms , t . 2003 . die agamen der welt . draco 4 ( 14 ) : 4 - 23 - get paper here\nbobrov v . v . , semenov d . v . 2008 . lizards of vietnam [ in russian ] . moscow , 236 pp .\nbourret , r . 1937 . notes herp\u00e9tologiques sur l\u2019indochine fran\u00e7aise . xv . l\u00e9zards et serpents re\u00e7u au laboratoire des sciences naturelles de l\u2019universit\u00e9 au cours de l\u2019ann\u00e9e 1937 . descriptions de deux esp\u00e8ces et de deux vari\u00e9t\u00e9s nouvelles . bulletin g\u00e9n\u00e9rale de l\u2019instruction publique 5 . gouvernement g\u00e9n\u00e9neral de l\u2019indochine , pp . 57 - 82\nsang , nguyen van ; ho thu cuc , nguyen , quang truong 2009 . herpetofauna of vietnam . chimaira , frankfurt , 768 pp .\ntype locality : \u201csairep , lunglet district , mizoram\u201d ( = sairep ( 22\u00b049 ' 0 n , 92\u00b049 ' 0 e ) , lunglei district , central mizoram , northeast india ) .\nholotype : zsi 25217 ( male ) , collector s . s . saha , 19 april , 1995 .\nabundance : only known from its original description ( meiri et al . 2017 ) .\naengals , r . ; v . m . sathish kumar & muhamed jafer palot 2013 . updated checklist of indian reptiles .\nbeolens , bo ; michael watkins , and michael grayson 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , usa - get paper here\nmeiri , shai ; aaron m . bauer , allen allison , fernando castro - herrera , laurent chirio , guarino colli , indraneil das , tiffany m . doan , frank glaw , lee l . grismer , marinus hoogmoed , fred kraus , matthew lebreton , danny meirte , zolta\u0301n t . nagy , cristiano d 2017 . extinct , obscure or imaginary : the lizard species with the smallest ranges . diversity and distributions - get paper here\nvenugopal , p . d . 2010 . an updated and annotated list of indian lizards ( reptilia : sauria ) based on a review of distribution records and checklists of indian reptiles . journal of threatened taxa 2 ( 3 ) : 725 - 738 . - get paper here\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nde silva , r . , milligan , h . t . , wearn , o . r . , wren , s . , zamin , t . , sears , j . , wilson , p . , lewis , s . , lintott , p . & powney , g .\nthis species is found in northern india and eastern nepal . it occurs in the annapurna region of nepal , and eastwards into sikkim and west bengal ( schleich and k\u00e4stle 2002 ) . macey et al . ( 2000 ) also recorded this species in xizang , tibet . schleich and k\u00e4stle ( 2002 ) note that specimens collected in southern tibet have previously been misidentified as calotes jerdoni . this species is found between 900 and 2 , 900 m above sea level .\nthis species is locally abundant in zhangmu ( j . macey pers . comm . ) . schleich and k\u00e4stle ( 2002 ) report that in ghorepani relatively high densities of this species were found .\nthis species is a terrestrial , rock - dwelling agamid ( sharma 2002 ) . in nepal , it is known from wet monsoon and rhododendron forests , and is most frequently encountered along forest edges ( schleich and k\u00e4stle 2002 ) .\nit is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species , however , this species may be locally threatened as a result of deforestation . schleich and k\u00e4stle ( 2002 ) note that the sporadic distribution of this species may be caused by the lack of remaining moist broadleaf forests .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nlectotype : bmnh 1946 . 8 . 13 . 97 ( designated by mahony 2009 ) , formerly bmnh 1940 . 6 . 1 . 44 ( male ) , type locality : \u201cpangnamdim , triangle , upper burma\u201d , presented and collected by ronald kaulback , between 1937 and 1939 .\nsmith , m . a . 1940 . the amphibians and reptiles obtained by mr . ronald kaulback in upper burma . records of the indian museum 42 : 465 - 486\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nkai wang , 1 , 2 , * ke jiang , 1 da - hu zou , 3 , 1 fang yan , 1 da - hu zou , 3 , 1 d . siler cameron , 2 and jing che 1 , *\n2 sam noble oklahoma museum of natural history and department of biology , university of oklahoma , norman ok 73072 - 7029 , u . s . a . ;\n* corresponding author , e - mail : ude . uo @ 2 - gnaw . iak\n* corresponding author , e - mail : nc . ca . zik . liam @ jehc\nthis is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\neight specimens of one new species were collected from the upper nujiang valley near the nujiang bridge at baxoi , qamdo prefecture of eastern tibet , china , including two adult males , four adult females , and two juveniles . twelve specimens of a second new species were collected from the upper lancang valley at ninong , deqin , northwestern yunnan , china , including 11 adult males and one adult female .\nfollowing euthanasia , tissue samples were taken from livers and preserved in 95 % ethanol , and voucher specimens were fixed in 10 % buffered formalin and later transferred to 70 % ethanol for long - term preservation . with the exception of a single female specimen collected from tibet that possesses an incomplete tail ( kiz 014040 ) , all adult specimens were chosen as the type series . all specimens ( including kiz 014040 ) are deposited in the museum of kunming institute of zoology , chinese academy of sciences ( kiz ) .\nmeasurements were made with digital calipers to the nearest 0 . 1 mm , except for snout - vent length ( svl ) and tail length ( tal ) , which was made with a ruler to the nearest 1 mm . with the exception of several new traits measured in this study , focal characters and character definitions follow wang et al . ( 2015 ) : snout - vent length ( svl ) , tail length ( tal ) , head width ( hw ) , snout - eye length ( sel ) , fore - limb length ( fll ) , hind limb length ( hll ) , supralabial count ( sl ) , infralabial count ( il ) , middorsal scale ( md ) , toe iv subdigital lamellae ( t4s ) , toe iv length ( t4l ) , trunk length ( trl ) , interorbital distance ( iod ) , number of scales between nasal and first supralabials ( nsl ) , supraciliary count ( scl ) , and number of scale rows between sixth supralabial and orbit circle ( sor ) . additionally , in this study we examined the following morphometric characters ( definitions provided after colon ) : enlarged , conical , post - tympanic scale count ( pty ) : large conical scales posterior to tympanum ; and enlarged , conical , post - rictal scale count ( prs ) : large conical scales posterior to the rictus . values for paired characters ( sl , il , nsl , sor ) were recorded from both sides of the body , with counts provided in left / right order .\ncomparisons of coloration in life are based on type descriptions and available color photographs ( manthey , 2010 ; yang & rao , 2008 ; zhao et al . , 1999 ) . museum abbreviations for specimens examined follow sabaj perez ( 2015 ) , and include : chengdu institute of biology , chinese academy of sciences ( cib ) ; kunming institute of zoology , chinese academy of sciences ( kiz ) ; museum of comparative zoology at harvard university ( mcz ) , boston , ma , usa ; and national museum of natural history ( usnm ) , washington d . c . , usa .\nwas created by n . a . huron in arcmap v . 10 . 3 . 1 using the digital elevation model ( dem ) layers based on nasa\u2019s shuttle radar topographic mission ( srtm ) . the srtm data are available for free at approximately 90 meters resolution ( 3 arc - second projections ;\nholotype : kiz 014038 , adult male , collected near the nujiang bridge in the upper nujiang valley at baxoi ( = basu ) , qamdo ( = changdu ) , eastern tibet ( = xizang ) , pr china ( n30 . 10034\u00b0 , e97 . 22787\u00b0 , 2 739 m elevation ) ; collected by ke jiang on 3 july 2013 .\nparatopotypes : one adult male ( kiz 014037 ) and three adult females ( kiz 014041 - 43 ) ; collected by ke jiang , kai wang , and ya - qiang sun .\n. the male paratopotype ( kiz 014037 ) is slightly darker in dorsal coloration than the holotype in preservative . females are sexually dimorphic from males by having shorter snouts ( sel / hl ) , less speckled ventral surfaces of the heads ("]}
{"id": 1814, "summary": [{"text": "hector 's dolphin ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) is the best-known of the four dolphins in the genus cephalorhynchus and is the only endemic cetacean to new zealand .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "at approximately 1.4 m in length , it is one of the smallest cetaceans .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "two subspecies occur : c. h. hectori , the more numerous subspecies , is found around the south island , and the critically endangered maui 's dolphin ( c. h. maui ) is found off the northwest coast of the north island .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "maui 's dolphin is one of the eight most endangered groups of cetaceans .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the hector 's dolphin is also the world 's smallest and rarest dolphin .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "a 2010/2011 survey of maui 's dolphin by the new zealand department of conservation estimated only 55 adults remain .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "hector \u2019s dolphin was named after sir james hector ( 1834 \u2013 1907 ) , who was the curator of the colonial museum in wellington ( now the museum of new zealand te papa tongarewa ) .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "he examined the first specimen found of the dolphin .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the species was scientifically described by belgian zoologist pierre-joseph van beneden in 1881 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "m\u0101ori names for hector 's and maui 's dolphin include tutumairekurai , tupoupou and popoto . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "hector ' s dolphin", "paragraphs": ["dawson , s . 1991 . incidental catch of hector\u2019s dolphin in inshore gillnets .\nbrager , s . 1999 . association patterns in three populations of hector\u2019s dolphin , cephalorhynchus hectori .\nwwf ' s objectives for hector ' s dolphin and its subspecies m\u0101ui dolphin are that threats have been reduced to a level that allows the species to begin increasing in abundance , extending the range of m\u0101ui s dolphin and reducing isolation of hector ' s dolphin populations .\nking , r . , s . brooks . 2004 . bayesian analysis of the hector\u2019s dolphin data .\nhector ' s dolphin is new zealand ' s smallest dolphin . these native dolphins are endangered in new zealand . find out how to behave when sharing the water with hector ' s .\nlocation : hector\u2019s dolphin is found only in the shallow waters around new zealand\u2019s south island . a subspecies of hector\u2019s dolphin , maui\u2019s dolphin , is even more endangered with only about 110 individuals left . this member of the family lives around north island .\nthe north island subpopulation of hector\u2019s dolphin was recognized recently as a subspecies , cephalorhynchus hectori maui ( baker et al . 2002 ) , and it has been assessed separately . this subspecies is sometimes referred to as maui\u2019s dolphin ( not maui\u2019s hector\u2019s dolphin ) .\nslooten , e . 1994 . behavior of hector\u2019s dolphin : classifying behavior by sequence analysis .\nview information about south island hector ' s dolphin surveys that doc has been involved with .\nhector\u2019s dolphin / author : dr . mridula srinivasan , noaa / nmfs / ost / amd .\ndawson , s . m . and slooten , e . 1996 . the downunder dolphin : the story of hector\u2019s dolphin . canterbury university press , christchurch . 60pp .\nslooten , e . , f . lad . 1991 . population biology and conservation of hector\u2019s dolphin .\nthe hector\u2019s dolphin , of which maui\u2019s is the north island sub - species , is also covered by the threat management plan .\nhector ' s and maui ' s dolphins are a protected species under the marine mammal protection act 1978 . the department of conservation ( doc ) threat classification system ranks maui dolphin as \u2018nationally critical\u2019 , and hector\u2019s dolphin as \u2018nationally endangered\u2019 .\nhector\u2019s dolphin is one of the smallest toothed cetaceans in the world and is endemic to new zealand . this dolphin got its name in honor of sir james hector , a scottish scientist who described this dolphin for the first time in the decade of 1870\u2019s .\nthe government has today announced its final threat management plan for dolphins which confirms additional protections for the maui\u2019s dolphin in taranaki and releases new promising population estimates for the hector\u2019s dolphin .\nthorpe , c . , r . bates , s . dawson . 1991 . intrinsic echolocation capability of hector\u2019s dolphin , cephalorhynchus hectori .\ntwo sub - species of hector\u2019s dolphins exist : the south island hector\u2019s dolphin which is found around the south island of new zealand , and the m\u0101ui dolphin which is found off the west coast of the north island .\nhector ' s dolphin leaps from ocean , akaroa harbour , new zealand . the most distinctive feature of hector ' s dolphins is the rounded dorsal fin , as seen here with the dolphin jumping out of the water .\nhector\u2019s and maui\u2019s dolphins only live in new zealand\u2019s shallow coastal waters . they are both at risk of becoming extinct .\nvisit the wwf - new zealand website for actions you can take to help save the hector ' s dolphin .\n\ufefflisten to the revealing and informative interview , ' unpicking the hector ' s dolphin report ' . leading expert on maui and hector ' s dolphins dr liz slooten discusses mpi ' s hector ' s dolphin report with and raglan community radio , new zealand . listen to the key information highlighted here . - august 23 , 2016\nbrager , s . , s . dawson , e . slooten , s . smith , g . stone , a . yoshinaga . 2002 . site fidelity and along - shore range in hector\u2019s dolphin , an endangered marine dolphin from new zealand .\ncawthron institute scientist deanna clement led the three - year survey to update the hector ' s dolphin population and distribution .\nblogs ahoy ! hear from hector ' s and maui dolphin expert \u200b dr liz slooten and world free - dive champion , maui dolphin ambassador , \u200b william trubridge .\nbrager , s . 1998 . feeding associations between white - fronted terns and hector\u2019s dolphins in new zealand .\nbejder , l . , s . dawson , j . harraway . 1999 . responses by hector\u2019s dolphin to boats and swimmers in porpoise bay , new zealand .\nburkhart , s . , e . slooten . 2003 . population viability analysis for hector\u2019s dolphin ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) : a stochastic population model for local populations .\nshow your love for dolphins ! add our beautiful hector ' s & maui ' s dolphin sos badge to your social media profiles on facebook and twitter today .\nbr\u00e4ger s , dawson sm , slooten e , smith s , stone gs , yoshinaga a ( 2002 ) site fidelity and along - shore range in hector ' s dolphin , an endangered marine dolphin from new zealand . biol conserv 108 : 281\u2013287\nmartien , k . , b . taylor , e . slooten , s . dawson . 1999 . a sensitivity analysis to guide research and management for hector\u2019s dolphin .\npichler , f . , s . dawson , e . slooten , c . baker . 1998 . geographic isolation of hector\u2019s dolphin populations described by mitochondrial dna sequences .\nyou can help by joining us - hector ' s & maui ' s dolphin sos . be part of the effort stopping the dolphins from being killed by human activity\ndawson , s . m . 1991 . clicks and communication : the behavioural and social contexts of hector\u2019s dolphin vocalisations . ethology 88 ( 4 ) : 265 - 276 .\nslooten , e . and dawson s . m . sustainable levels of human impact for hector\u2019s dolphin . the open conservation biology journal 2 , 37 - 43 . 2008 .\nslooten , e . 1994 . behavior of hector\u2019s dolphin : classifying behavior by sequence analysis . journal of mammalogy 75 : 956 - 964 .\nscientists agree that all of the necessary research has been done . maui and hector ' s dolphin numbers continue to decline at alarming rates .\nslooten , e . , s . dawson , h . whitehead . 1993 . associations among photographically identified hector\u2019s dolphins .\nbrager , s . , dawson , s . m . , slooten , e . , smith , s . , stone , g . s . and yoshinaga , a . 2002 . site fidelity and along - shore range in hector\u2019s dolphin , an endangered marine dolphin from new zealand . biological conservation 108 : 281 - 287 .\ndawson , s . m . & thorpe , c . w . 1990 . a quantitative analysis of the acoustic repertoire of hector\u2019s dolphin . ethology 86 : 131 - 145 .\ndawson , s . , e . slooten , f . pichler , k . russell , c . baker . 2001 . the north island hector\u2019s dolphin is vulnerable to extinction .\nmartien kk , taylor bl , slooten e , dawson s ( 1999 ) a sensitivity analysis to guide research and management for hector ' s dolphin . biol conserv 90 : 183\u2013191\nhector\u2019s dolphins are found around the coast of the south island but distribution is patchy .\nslooten , e . 1991 . age , growth , and reproduction in hector\u2019s dolphins .\nhector ' s dolphin ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) small pod in turbid coastal waters near river mouth , kaikoura penninsula , south island , new zealand .\nthis dolphin varies in size depending on its geographic location . its subspecies , the maui dolphin , is slightly larger .\nking , r . , s . brooks . 2004 . a classical study of catch - effort models for hector\u2019s dolphins .\nbecause hector ' s dolphin exists in several discrete populations , this increases the risk of local extinctions from bycatch or a single pollution or disease episode .\nthe new zealand whale and dolphin trust is dedicated to preserving nz ' s unique marine mammals .\nhector\u2019s dolphins are among the world\u2019s smallest marine dolphins . they are found only in the inshore waters of aotearoa / new zealand .\nslooten , e . and lad , f . 1991 . population biology and conservation of hector\u2019s dolphin . canadian journal of zoology 69 : 1701 - 1707 .\nbaker , a . , a . smith , f . pichler . 2002 . geographical variation in hector\u2019s dolphin : recognition of new subspecies of cephalorhynchus hectori .\n\u201cour greatest concern is for the critically - endangered maui\u2019s dolphin . it is the world\u2019s smallest and rarest dolphin with an estimated population of just 55 adults , \u201d conservation minister dr nick smith says .\nhector ' s dolphins are frequently caught in gill nets but rarely cause enough damage to prevent re - use . there are no known adverse affects of hector ' s dolphins on humans .\ndufresne , s . , dawson , s . m . & slooten . e . 2001 . hector\u2019s dolphin abundance : southern line - transect surveys and effect of attraction to survey vessel . doc science internal series 1 , 19pp .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - hector ' s dolphin ( cephalorhynchus hectori )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - hector ' s dolphin ( cephalorhynchus hectori )\ntitle =\narkive species - hector ' s dolphin ( cephalorhynchus hectori )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\n\u201cthe plan also includes the establishment of a maui\u2019s dolphin research advisory group to undertake research and work with stakeholders to maintain ongoing cooperation to ensure the survival of the maui\u2019s dolphin , \u201d mr guy says .\ndawson , s . m . & slooten , e . 1988 . hector\u2019s dolphin cephalorhynchus hectori : distribution and abundance . rep . int . whal . commn special issue 9 : 315 - 324 .\nmake a symbolic dolphin adoption to help save some of the world ' s most endangered animals from extinction and support wwf ' s conservation efforts .\nhector\u2019s and m\u0101ui dolphin are known to m\u0101ori by other names , including tutumairekurai , aihe , papakanua , upokohue , tukuperu , t\u016bpoupou , pahu , p\u014dpoto and hopuhopu .\nhector\u2019s dolphins are the smallest and rarest marine dolphins in the world . they have distinct black facial markings , short stocky bodies and a dorsal fin shaped like a mickey mouse ear . there is a subspecies of hector\u2019s dolphin known as maui\u2019s dolphin that is critically endangered and estimated to have a population of only 55 . they are found only in the shallow coastal waters along western shores of new zealand\u2019s north island .\nrayment , w . , dawson , s . , slooten , l . and childerhouse , s . ( 2006 ) offshore distribution of hector ' s dolphin at banks peninsula . doc research and development series 232 . department of conservation , wellington .\nrayment , w . , dawson , s . m . , slooten , e . and childerhouse , s . j . 2006 . offshore distribution of hector\u2019s dolphin at banks peninsula . department of conservation research and development series , 232 , 23p .\nslooten , e . and dawson , s . m . 1988 . studies on hector\u2019s dolphin cephalorhynchus hectori : a progress report . rep . int . whal . commn special issue 9 : 325 - 338 .\na rare and small cetacean , this dolphin is identified by a solidly built body with a gently sloping snout and a unique rounded ( mickey mouse ear shaped ) dorsal fin . hector ' s dolphin takes its name from new zealand zoologist sir james hector , who first collected the species in 1869 .\nscientists have discovered there are more hector ' s dolphins in new zealand than the previous population estimate .\nonly found in new zealand\u2019s waters , this distinctive grey dolphin with black and white markings and a round dorsal fin is the most easily recognised species of dolphin in new zealand .\nslooten , e . 2007 . conservation in the face of uncertainty : effectiveness of four options for managing hector\u2019s dolphin bycatch . endangered species research 3 : 169 - 179 .\nbuckland , s . j . , hannah , d . j . , taucher , j . a . , slooten , e . and dawson , s . m . 1990 . polychlorinated dibenzo - p - dioxins and dibenzofurans in new zealand\u2019s hector\u2019s dolphin . chemosphere 20 : 1035 - 1042 .\n7 , 500 hector ' s dolphins remain of 29 , 000 in the 1970 ' s and only 45 maui dolphins of 1 , 800 .\ngormley a . , dawson , s . m . , slooten , e . brager , s . 2005 mark - recapture estimates of hector\u2019s dolphin abundance at banks peninsula , new zealand . marine mammal science . 21 ( 2 ) : 204 - 216 .\npichler fb , dawson sm , slooten e , baker cs ( 1998 ) geographic isolation of hector ' s dolphin populations described by mitochondrial dna sequences . conserv biol 12 : 676\u2013682\ndo you know of or are you a part of an organisation that work to conserve the hector\u2019s dolphin , then please contact us to have it featured on our endangered world .\npichler , f . , baker , c . s . , dawson , s . m . & slooten , e . 1998 . mitochondrial differences between east and west coast populations of hector\u2019s dolphin . conservation biology . 12 ( 3 ) : 1 - 8 .\n) feed with hector\u2019s dolphins , likely as facultative commensalists , by capturing small fish being chased by dolphins .\nnabu international foundation for nature is committed to fighting for the survival of maui and hector ' s dolphins .\nthe majority of wwf ' s work on the protection of hector ' s and m\u0101ui dolphins is carried out by wwf - new zealand . visit the\nrayment , w . , s . dawson , e . slooten , s . brager , s . dufresne , t . webster . 2009 . kernel density estimates of alongshore home range of hector\u2019s dolphins at banks peninsula , new zealand .\nthe hector ' s and maui dolphin threat management plan has been in place since 2008 , it identifies human - induced threats to the populations and outlines strategies to mitigate those threats .\nwe need beachgoers and boaties to report sightings so we can better understand where these dolphins live . this will provide evidence to make the best decisions for m\u0101ui and hector\u2019s dolphin conservation .\nthorpe , c . w . & dawson , s . m . 1991 . automatic measurement of descriptive features of hector\u2019s dolphin vocalizations . j . acoust . soc . am . 89 ( 1 ) : 435 - 443 .\nclement , d . , slooten , e . , dawson , s . m . & dufresne , s . 2002 . line - transect survey of hector\u2019s dolphin abundance between farewell spit and motunau . doc science internal series 22 . 15pp . department of conservation , wellington .\na team from nelson ' s cawthron institute have discovered there are potentially twice the number of hector ' s dolphins in new zealand waters than previously realised .\ndawson , s . m . 1991 . incidental catch of hector\u2019s dolphins in inshore gillnets . marine mammal science 7 ( 3 ) : 283 - 295 .\nslooten , e . and dawson , s . m . assessing the effectiveness of conservation management decisions : likely effects of new protection measures for hector\u2019s dolphin . aquatic conservation : marine and freshwater ecosystems 20 : 334 - 347 . 2010\nslooten , e . , s . dawson , w . rayment , s . childerhouse . 2006 . a new abundance estimate for maui\u2019s dolphin : what does it mean for managing this critically endangered species ? .\na small isolated group of hector ' s dolphins remains on the west coast of new zealand ' s north island . they are a sub - species called m\u0101ui dolphin ( cephalorhynchus hectori maui ) , and in total number around 63 individuals . hector ' s and m\u0101ui dolphins are related to similar species in south africa and south america . read more\npichler fb , baker cs ( 2000 ) loss of genetic diversity in the endemic hector ' s dolphin due to fisheries - related mortality . proc r soc lond b biol sci 267 : 97\u2013102\nslooten , e . and dawson , s . m . 1994 . hector\u2019s dolphin . pp . 311 - 333 in \u201chandbook of marine mammals\u201d vol v , ( delphinidae and phocoenidae : s . h ridgway and r . harrison , eds . ) . academic press . new york .\nburkhart , s . m . and slooten , e . 2003 . population viability analysis for hector\u2019s dolphin ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) : a stochastic population model for local populations . new zealand journal of marine and freshwater research 37 : 553 - 566\n) are major predators of hector ' s dolphins . living in shallow inshore waters may help them avoid potential predators .\nsome dolphin species , including the hector\u2019s dolphin , are very rare . they are considered to be the smallest of all marine dolphins . the first person to notice them and research them was sir james hector , whom they are named after . he was a scientist from new zealand but even today we still don\u2019t have too much information about them .\nslooten , e . ( 2007 ) conservation management in the face of uncertainty : effectiveness of four options for managing hector ' s dolphin bycatch . endangered species research , 3 : 169 - 179 .\nnz dolphin is only found in new zealand and trust researchers have surveyed the entire population . there are about 60 maui dolphins , and about 10 , 000 hector\u2019s dolphins left in the world . the original population was about 50 , 000 hector\u2019s and 2 , 000 maui dolphins . these days , the population is fragmented into small local populations . maui dolphin is teetering on the brink of extinction .\nmartien , k . k . , taylor , b . l . , slooten , e . dawson , s . m . 1999 . a sensitivity analysis to guide research and management for hector\u2019s dolphin . biological conservation 90 : 183 - 191 .\ndawson , s . m . 1985 . the new zealand whale and dolphin digest . brick row publishing . auckland . 130pp .\nslooten , e . and dawson , s . m . ( 1994 ) hector ' s dolphin cephalorhynchus hectori . in : ridgway , s . h . and harrison , r . ( eds ) handbook of marine mammals . volume v ( delphinidae and phocoenidae ) . academic press , new york .\nrecreational boat users interact with hector ' s dolphins throughout their range . dolphin - watching tours are located at the center of the banks peninsula marine mammal sanctuary , and new operations are beginning in the lyttleton and timaru areas of canterbury . possible impacts of recreational boating and tourism on hector ' s dolphins are currently under study .\none of the smallest marine dolphins in the world , hector\u2019s dolphins grow no more than 1 . 5 m in length .\nthe hector\u2019s dolphins north and south of the kaikoura canyon form two local populations with low levels of individual exchange and interbreeding .\nwwf works to end gill net use and trawling in hector\u2019s and maui\u2019s dolphin habitat . after the 2012 international whaling commission meeting , new zealand agreed to ban gillnets in a portion of maui\u2019s dolphin habitat . this is a positive step , but a ban throughout the dolphin\u2019s entire range is needed to ensure their survival . wwf is urging new zealand prime minister john key to protect the last remaining maui\u2019s dolphins by prohibiting dangerous fishing gear from their habitat , safeguarding the region from sand mining and the threat of oil and gas exploration , and establishing a protected ocean corridor .\nthe results of the survey will be one consideration in the ongoing risk assessment for the species , and will factor into the hector ' s and maui ' s dolphin threat management plan which is due for full review in 2018 ,\nguy said .\nin 2016 , a hector\u2019s dolphin that washed up on a beach near kaikoura was found to have died from tuberculosis , a disease never before found in cetaceans . how the dolphin contracted tuberculosis is still unknown , but there are fears it could be related to domestic pets , or animal husbandry .\ndawson , s . , e . slooten , s . dufresne , p . wade , d . clement . 2004 . small - boat surveys for coastal dolphins : line transect surveys for hector\u2019s dolphins ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) .\nvery , very rarely you get sightings of hector ' s dolphins in hawke ' s bay . they have been seen off clifton , pourerere and bare island at waimarama .\ndawson , s . , e . slooten . 1993 . conservation of hector\u2019s dolphins : the case and process which led to the establishment of the banks peninsula marine mammal sanctuary .\nnew zealand\u2019s critically endangered maui ' s dolphin formed part of discussions held by 200 of the world\u2019s leading cetacean scientists who gathered for the annual meeting of the scientific committee of the international whaling commission . \u200bnabu international and the leading hector ' s and maui dolphin expert , professor liz slooten of the university of otago , presented the latest population figures . unless the level of fisheries protection is increased significantly , maui\u2019s dolphins could become extinct in 15 years or less . the iwc reports that not enough is\naround new zealand dolphins continue to die as a result of set - netting . in february 2018 a pod of five hector\u2019s dolphins died after being caught in a set net 6 nautical miles off banks peninsula . to ensure the survival of both hector\u2019s and maui\u2019s dolphins , deaths from fishing must be zero .\nhector\u2019s dolphin inhabits shallow coastal waters less than 100 m deep and is typically found within 7 km of the coast . however , it has been sighted up to 35 km offshore in certain areas ( 12 ) .\nhuman - made chemicals such as pcbs , ddts and dioxins accumulate in hector ' s dolphins which could potentially affect reproductive rates .\nthis map shows the area where hector\u2019s dolphins live ( red ) and the area where they are now protected ( green ) .\nthorpe , c . w . , bates , r . h . t . & dawson , s . m . 1991 . intrinsic echolocation capability of hector\u2019s dolphin cephalorhynchus hectori . j . acoust . soc . am . 90 ( 6 ) : 2931 - 2934 .\nhector ' s dolphins were previously thought to be a mainly inshore species , however clement ' s team found up to half the population in unprotected waters beyond four nautical miles offshore .\nfishing - related threats include entanglement in set nets , trawl nets , drift nets and crayfish pot lines . 188 hector\u2019s and maui\u2019s dolphins have been killed in set nets since 1973 .\ndawson , s . m . , du fresne , s . , slooten , e . & wade , p . r . 2000 . line - transect survey of hector\u2019s dolphin abundance between motunau and timaru . published client report on contract 3072 , funded by conservation services levy . department of conservation , wellington . 18pp .\nan alternative method of mark - recapture is using genetic tissue samples . this is the method used for m\u0101ui dolphin abundance estimates . read more about m\u0101ui dolphin genetic mark recapture .\n) are marine cetaceans endemic to the coastal waters of new zealand . there are 4 main regional populations of hector\u2019s dolphins , which are geographically and reproductively isolated from each other . of the 4 distinct populations of hector ' s dolphins , one is found along the west coast of north island , between dargaville and new plymouth . this particular population , referred to as maui ' s dolphin , is very small , containing approximately 111 individuals . their range has greatly declined over the last few decades . on the south island , there are three populations of hector ' s dolphin that are genetically distinct from one another . these populations reside along the west , east and south coasts , excluding fiordland . the total population of hector\u2019s dolphins around the south island was estimated at 7240 individuals in 2004 , with 5388 found on the west coast , mostly concentrated between 41\u00ba30\u2019s and 44\u00ba30\u2019s . hector\u2019s dolphins are most abundant between karamea and makawhio point on the west coast and around banks peninsula on the east coast .\nslooten , e . 1991 . age , growth and reproduction in hector\u2019s dolphins . canadian journal of zoology 69 : 1689 - 1700 .\nimportant note : due to the considerable difference in the methods between line - transect and mark - recapture surveys , the results do not indicate any trend such as an increase in the hector\u2019s dolphin population of te waewae bay .\nslooten , e . , dawson , s . m . and whitehead , h . 1993 . associations among photographically identified hector\u2019s dolphins . canadian journal of zoology 71 : 2311 - 2318 .\nslooten , e . , s . dawson , w . rayment . 2004 . aerial surveys for coastal dolphins : abundance of hector\u2019s dolphins off the south island west coast , new zealand .\nslooten , e . and dawson , s . m . 1989 . hector\u2019s dolphin : a case study for integrating conservation and fishing . in \u201cmanagement of new zealand\u2019s natural estate\u201d ( d . a . norton , ed . ) . occasional publication no . 1 , new zealand ecological society , christchurch . pp . 112 - 114 .\nin moreton bay , australia . in : leatherwood s , reeves rr ( eds ) the bottlenose dolphin . academic , san diego , pp 285\u2013293\nwwf - new zealand advocates increased protection of the dolphin through government fisheries and conservation decisions , and supports a community and schools awareness programmes . wwf also carries out research to inform management , including a public sightings network for m\u0101ui dolphin via a dedicated website and toll - free number ; aerial surveys for distribution and abundance ; genetic research ; and brings together organisations which are working to protect hector ' s dolphin .\nrayment , w . j . , dawson , s . m . and slooten , e . 2010 . seasonal changes in distribution of hector\u2019s dolphin at banks peninsula , new zealand : implications for protected area design . aquatic conservation : marine and freshwater ecosystems 20 : 106 - 116 .\nthere are four genetically distinct populations of hector ' s dolphin : off the west coast of north island , and the west , east and south coasts of south island . a current estimate puts the population at around 7000 individuals .\nif you are in the north island and think you\u2019ve seen a m\u0101ui or hector\u2019s dolphin , report it straight away to our emergency hotline 0800 doc hot ( 0800 362 468 ) . we are interested in all sightings of m\u0101ui or hector ' s dolphins around the north island , but especially south of raglan and around the south and east coasts of the north island .\nthe banks peninsula marine mammal sanctuary in canterbury was established in 1988 primarily to reduce set - net deaths of hector\u2019s dolphins in the area .\nthe majority of wwf ' s work on the protection of hector ' s and maui ' s dolphins is carried out by wwf - new zealand . visit the wwf - new zealand website for more extensive information on the species and wwf ' s efforts to bring them back from the brink of extinction .\nslooten , e . , fletcher , d . & taylor , b . l . 2000 . accounting for uncertainty in risk assessment : case study of hector\u2019s dolphin mortality due to gillnet entanglement . conservation biology 14 : 1264 - 1270 .\nthe north island hector\u2019s dolphin has been renamed \u2018maui\u2019s dolphin\u2019 after the maori god maui who legend has it fished up the north island from the sea ( the south island was his waka or canoe ) . a set net ban has also been put in place in the area where the dolphins live . maui\u2019s dolphins have an estimated population of 150 , where hector\u2019s dolphins are thought to number 7 , 000 around the south island . life may seem idyllic for hector\u2019s dolphins , but they do have natural predators . these are mainly sevengill sharks , blue sharks and orca . the biggest threat to the dolphins comes from the net fishing activity of humans . these unintentionally trap dolphins underwater so they cannot come up for air and drown\ndawson , s . m . 1988 . the high - frequency sounds of free - ranging hector\u2019s dolphins cephalorhynchus hectori . rep . int . whal . commn special issue 9 : 339 - 344 .\naccording to the iucn red list of threatened species , north island hector ' s dolphins are\ncritically endangered\nand south island hector ' s dolphins are\nendangered\n. hector\u2019s dolphins are regularly caught in gillnets , which is by far the greatest threat to their survival . small population size , segregated genetic groups , and low population growth rates ( maximum plausible annual growth rate = 1 . 8 % ) pose a significant threat to their persistence . trawl nets , pollution , tourism , boat strikes and possibly mining are also thought to affect hector ' s dolphins .\nnicola wheen is a senior lecturer at new zealand\u2019s university of otago\u2019s faculty of law . her latest paper , entitled\nridgway , sam . 1987 . the dolphin doctor . fawcett crest : new york , ny .\nset net fishing poses a major threat to hector\u2019s and m\u0101ui dolphin . like all marine mammals they need to come to the surface regularly to breathe . if they become tangled in set nets , they will hold their breath until they suffocate .\nhector ' s dolphins of all ages spend a lot of time playing . they surf a lot at beaches when seas are quite rough . in calmer weather a favourite game is playing with bits of seaweed . the dolphin will carry it until it falls off or until some other dolphin\nsteals it\n. they have even been seen playing with bits of floating sticks and leaves . hector ' s are very curious and people friendly which is why they like to visit boats .\nhector\u2019s dolphin is one of the smallest cetaceans , and new zealand\u2019s only endemic cetacean . this charming little dolphin is only 1 . 4 meters long at the most , with the males being slightly smaller than the females . at its heaviest , this dolphin does not weigh more than 50 kilograms . hector\u2019s dolphins do not have the beak usually associated with dolphins in general , but have instead a shorter face which makes them look more \u2018whale - like\u2019 . the back of this dolphin is light grey or white , with white extending down the front of the face . the throat and undersides are white , while black patches surround the eye region and extend to the rounded flippers . the round dorsal fin and the tail are also black .\nclement said policy makers had been provided with with robust scientific evidence so they could make effective decisions around protecting and managing hector ' s dolphins .\nnew information from new zealand\u2019s department of conservation reveals that a record six hector\u2019s dolphins were found dead last december . five of the deaths occurred along the east coast of the country\u2019s south island . the sustainable limit for this area is just one dolphin per year . another individual was washed up along the west coast . in 1988 new zealand\u2019s established its first marine mammals sanctuary to protect the hector\u2019s dolphins against harmful fishing practices , the primary cause of their decline . but sanctuary is failing in its task because it is simply too small . read more . . .\nslooten , e . , w . rayment , s . dawson . 2006 . offshore distribution of hector\u2019s dolphins at banks peninsula , new zealand : is the banks peninsula marine mammal sanctuary large enough ? .\nreynolds iii , j . e . , r . s . wells , and s . d . eide . 2000 . the bottlenose dolphin : biology and conservation . university press of florida : gainesville , fl .\nhector ' s dolphin is endemic to the coastal waters of new zealand , where it is threatened by fisheries bycatch , pollutants and boat disturbance . recent surveys estimate the total abundance at about 7000 animals , fragmented into three populations around the south island , and a sub - species ( m\u0101ui dolphin ) on the west coast of the north island .\nthe average lifespan of hector ' s dolphins has not been documented . however , the oldest recorded individual was 20 years old at time of capture .\nbanning the use of set netting . south australia , and several states in the us have already done so , and this is the only way to ensure no more hector\u2019s or maui\u2019s die in this way .\nthis species was once hunted for bait , but this has now stopped . due to the coastal habitat of hector ' s dolphin , the species is vulnerable to a large number of different threats such as chemical pollution , vessel traffic and habitat modification .\npryor , karen , and kenneth s . norris , eds . 1991 . dolphin societies : discoveries and puzzles . university of california press : berkeley , ca .\nnabu international foundation for nature seeks to influence fisheries legislation and the seafood industry for the long - term benefit of new zealand ' s native endangered maui dolphins and endangered hector ' s dolphins . as well as taking action to educate and inspire support , nabu collaborates with marine biologists and conservationists committed to fighting for the survival of maui and hector ' s dolphins .\nslooten , e . , dawson , s . , rayment , w . and childerhouse , s . ( 2010 ) a new abundance estimate for maui ' s dolphin : what does it mean for managing this critically endangered species ? . biological conservation , 128 : 576 - 581 .\nhector ' s dolphins are one of the world ' s rarest dolphins and at only 1 . 4 metres long and 50 kilograms they ' re also one of the smallest . the species is listed as endangered .\naction has been taken to protect the dolphin from fishing by closing part of the dolphin ' s range on the west coast north island to gillnetting , and by setting an allowable level of fishing - related mortality for part of the east coast of the south island .\ndawson , s . m . , slooten , e . pichler . f . , russell , k . & qmp ; baker , c . s . 2001 . north island hector\u2019s dolphins are threatened with extinction . marine mammal science 17 ( 2 ) : 366 - 371 .\nslooten , e . , dawson , s . m . , rayment , w . j . and childerhouse , s . j . 2006 . a new abundance estimate for maui\u2019s dolphin : what does it mean for managing this critically endangered species ? biological conservation 128 : 576 - 581 .\nvessel - based surveys were conducted in te waewae bay , southland during 2004 and 2005 ( green et al . 2007 ) . the aims of the study were to provide an abundance estimate and document the distribution of the hector\u2019s dolphin population that used the bay .\nrayment , w . , dawson , s . m . , slooten , e . , brager , s . , dufresne , s . and webster , t . 2009 . kernel density estimates of alongshore home range of hector\u2019s dolphins ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) at banks peninsula . marine mammal science . 25 ( 3 ) : 537 - 556 .\nthis dolphin tends to occur in groups of up to five individuals , which may aggregate temporarily . young are reported to play with seaweed , blow bubbles and are involved with other ' games ' which are considered to be important social behaviours . hector ' s dolphin emits sounds that are thought to be used for communication , notably the complex clicks produced in large groups .\nslooten , e . , dawson , s . m . , rayment , w . j . and childerhouse , s . j . 2005 . distribution of maui\u2019s dolphin , cephalorhynchus hectori maui . new zealand fisheries assessment report 2005 / 28 , 21p . published by ministry of fisheries , wellington .\nslooten , e . , dawson , s . m . and lad , f . 1992 . survival rates of photographically identified hector\u2019s dolphins from 1984 to 1988 . marine mammal science 8 ( 4 ) : 327 - 343 .\nthe society for marine mammalogy ( smm ) is urging the new zealand government to halt seismic testing in maui\u2019s dolphin habitat immediately . in a letter to new zealand\u2019s prime minister the smm expressed concerns about seismic surveys in the home of the little known maui\u2019s dolphin , the rarest dolphin species on earth . the president of the society prof . helen marsh said that allowing seismic testing in the dolphins\u2019 habitat may harm their hearing and push them into unprotected areas , where they are more exposed to fishing nets . the impact on the remaining maui\u2019s dolphins could be devastating . read more . . .\nhector ' s dolphins are members of the family ' delphinidae ' - there are about 32 species of dolphins found throughout the world . the hector ' s is the smallest oceanic dolphin with female adults only reaching about 1 . 2 to 1 . 4 metres long and weighing approx . 47 kilograms , while the males are slightly smaller and weigh about 10 kilograms less . by comparison the largest of all dolphins , the huge orca or killer whale is many times larger , and the bottle nose dolphin grow to the length of a small family car .\nbejder , l . and dawson , s . m . 2001 . abundance , residency and habitat utilisation of hector\u2019s dolphins in porpoise bay , new zealand . new zealand journal of marine and freshwater research 35 : 277 - 287 .\nwebster , t . , dawson , s . m . , and slooten , e . evidence for sex segregation in hector\u2019s dolphins ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) . aquatic mammals . 35 ( 2 ) : 212 - 219 . 2009 .\ndawson , s . m . , and slooten , e . 1993 . conservation of hector\u2019s dolphins : the case and process which led to establishment of the banks peninsula marine mammal sanctuary . aquatic conservation 3 : 207 - 221 .\nadult south island hector\u2019s dolphins don\u2019t often exceed 1 . 5 m in length and weigh between 40 and 60 kg . males are slightly smaller and lighter than females .\nthe total population of hector ' s dolphins is somewhere between 5 , 000 and 7 , 000 . around 900 dolphins make their home around banks peninsula and they often come into akaroa and lyttelton harbours . these two places are , without doubt , the best places to view these beautiful dolphins , however hector\u2019s dolphins range right around the south island with many being found off the south island\u2019s west coast .\nif you see a maui\u2019s dolphin , report it to to doc on 0800 doc hot - 0800 362 468 or wwf on 0800 4 mauis - 0800 462 847 . with a population estimate of less than 55 maui ' s every sighting is important\nslooten , e . , dawson , s . m . and rayment , w . 2002 . quantifying abundance of hector\u2019s dolphins between farewell spit and milford sound . doc science internal series 35 . 18pp . department of conservation , wellington .\ndawson , s . m . 2001 . fine - scale abundance estimates from the 2000 / 2001 aerial survey of hector\u2019s dolphins on the south island west coast . doc science internal series 21 . 9pp . department of conservation , wellington .\nrayment , w . , clement , d . , dawson , s . , slooten , e . , and secchi , e . 2011 . distribution of hector\u2019s dolphin ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) off the west coast , south island , new zealand , with implications for the management of bycatch . marine mammal science 27 ( 2 ) : 398 - 420 .\nrare sightings of hector ' s dolphins have been reported off the coast of chb at this time of year , and a pod of orcas are also often seen there .\nbejder , l . , dawson , s . m . & harraway , j . 1999 . responses of hector\u2019s dolphins to boats and swimmers in porpoise bay , new zealand . marine mammal science 15 ( 3 ) : 738 - 750 .\nthe last 40 years has seen a rapid decline in their numbers . in the 1970s their population sat at around 29 , 000 . today , this has shrunk to around 15 , 000 . the even rarer sub - species of hector\u2019s dolphin , the maui dolphin , is under even greater threat . their population is now estimated to be less than 80 individuals , with an adult population of just 55 .\nif you have spotted a m\u0101ui or hector\u2019s dolphin in taranaki , wellington , wairarapa , hawke ' s bay , bay of plenty , east coast auckland , or northland , our staff might contact you via phone or radio , and may attempt to collect a genetic sample on arrival . if you are unable to call , you can report the sighting online .\nhector\u2019s dolphins are near the top of the food chain and likely play an important role in regulating local fish populations . during the spring and summer , white - fronted terns (\nin 1988 new zealand established its first marine mammal sanctuary on the east coast of the country ' s south island to protect the resident hector ' s dolphin population against harmful fishing nets . but the so - called ' sanctuary ' is failing in its task because it is simply too small . what ' s more , the new zealand government has been aware of this fact since at least 2009 but is refusing to act . read more\ndawson , s . , slooten , e . , dufresne , s . d . , wade , p . and clement , d . ( 2004 ) small - boat surveys for coastal dolphins : line - transect surveys for hector ' s dolphins ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) . fisheries bulletin , 201 : 441 - 451 .\nboth subspecies are classified on the international union for the conservation of nature ( iucn ) red list . hector\u2019s are listed as \u2018endangered\u2019 , and maui\u2019s as \u2018critically endangered\u2019 . this means that both species face extinction in the wild . human induced threats are the main problem for both species . boat strike , mining , construction , coastal development , pollution , marine tourism , marine farming and climate change are all hugely dangerous for hector\u2019s and maui\u2019s . the biggest single known threat , however , is from fishing .\nif the dolphin is dead , either release the carcass at sea or preferably bring it to shore for us to recover .\nshane , susan h . 1988 . the bottlenose dolphin in the wild . hatcher trade press : san carlos , ca .\ndr _ liz _ slooten _ - _ unpicking _ the _ mpi _ hectors _ dolphin _ report _ 160823 . mp3\nrayment , w . dawson , s . , and slooten e . 2009 . acoustic monitoring of cephalorhynchus dolphins with the t - pod : a case study with hector\u2019s dolphins in a marine protected area . endangered species research . 10 : 333 - 339 .\nwebster , t . , dawson , s . m . , and slooten , e . a simple laser photogrammetry technique for measuring hector\u2019s dolphins ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) in the field . marine mammal science 26 ( 2 ) : 296 - 308 . 2010 .\nthe new zealand government has exposed its anti - conservation stance in the most spectacular way . at the recent iucn world conservation congress , new zealand was the only nation to cast a vote against a motion in favour of better protection of the last 55 or so maui ' s dolphins and their endangered cousins , the hector ' s dolphin . with about 6000 daily participants , the meeting is the world\u2019s largest conservation event and brings together professionals and governments to discuss the environment . the iucn ' s demands perfectly match those of our\ndawson , s . m . and lusseau , d . 2005 . pseudoreplication problems in studies of dolphin and porpoise reactions to pingers . marine mammal science 21 ( 1 ) . 175 - 176 .\ndawson , s . m . , and slooten , e . 1992 . conservation of hector\u2019s dolphins : a review of studies which led to the establishment of the banks peninsula marine mammal sanctuary . canterbury conservancy technical report series 4 . department of conservation , canterbury .\nconsumer power represents significant hope for the maui dolphin . mcdonald ' s buys new zealand fish which goes into their filet - o - fish and so supports the very industry driving maui to extinction . please\ncalista w . has opened her heart to the plight of new zealand maui\u2019s dolphins in a big way . just eight years old and about the size of a maui ' s dolphin , she is on a mission to tell the dolphins ' sad story and to touch your heart .\nthe reproduction rate of hector\u2019s dolphin is extremely low : barely 2 percent per year . they breed 2 - 4 times a year , and females can only have up to 7 offspring throughout its life . males reach sexual maturity at 5 - 9 years and females at 7 - 9 years of age . both are polygamous .\nslooten , e . dawson , s . m . and rayment , w . j . 2004 . aerial surveys for coastal dolphins : abundance of hector\u2019s dolphins off the south island west coast , new zealand . marine mammal science 20 ( 3 ) : 477 - 490 .\ndawson , s . m . , slooten , e . dufresne , s . d . , wade , p . r . and clement , d . m . 2004 . small - boat surveys for coastal dolphins : line - transect surveys of hector\u2019s dolphins ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) . fishery bulletin 102 ( 3 ) : 441 - 451 . m .\nheithaus mr , dill lm ( 2002 ) food availability and tiger shark predation risk influence bottlenose dolphin habitat use . ecology 83 : 480\u2013491\nthis dolphin tends to occur in small groups of two to ten individuals . these groups sometimes join together forming larger temporary aggregations . hector\u2019s dolphins undertake short dives for about 90 seconds and feed on a variety of small fish and squid . hector\u2019s dolphins reproduce slowly and without human impacts have a maximum population growth rate of about 2 percent per year . females reach maturity at around 7 to 9 years of age , and males between 5 and 9 years . courtship behaviour involves close contact , leaping , chasing and belly displays . each female has one calf every 2 - 4 years which tends to be born between late spring and summer ( 6 ) . a maximum age of about 20 - 25 years has been observed . hector\u2019s dolphins are unusual in that they only produce short , high frequency clicks , not whistles like many other species of dolphin ( 7 ) .\nthe findings of a three - year marine aerial survey to update the dolphin ' s population and distribution show there are between 12 , 000 and 18 , 500 dolphins , almost double the last estimation of 7000 .\n- through education , research and rescue , dolphin research center promotes peaceful coexistence , cooperation and communication between marine mammals , humans and the environment we share with the well being of drc ' s animals taking precedence .\nin 2008 , jim anderton ( then minister of fisheries ) put in place a comprehensive package of protection measures for maui\u2019s and hector\u2019s dolphins . again , the trust was at the forefront of this development , providing most of the research data and public education essential to reaching this goal .\nrayment , w . dawson , s . m . and slooten , e . 2009 . trialling an automated passive acoustic detector ( t - pod ) with hector\u2019s dolphins ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) . journal of the marine biological association . published online doi : 10 . 1017 / s0025315409003129 .\nhutton , j . , blair , d . , slooten , e . , and dawson , s . m . 1987 . case studies of fluke induced lesions in the mesenteric lymph node of hector\u2019s dolphins ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) . diseases of aquatic organisms 2 : 83 - 86 .\naggression in hector\u2019s dolphins is expressed via tail - splashing , chasing , biting , and bubble - blowing . breaching , which is often done when feeding , appears to be associated with a state of excitement . in addition , lobtailing is associated with excitement and sometimes aggression . dolphins often flex their body at the water surface and swim on their sides during feeding . hector\u2019s dolphins are slow swimmers relative to other delphinids and use an undulating motion to move through the water . dives usually last less than 3 minutes . hector\u2019s dolphins tend to swim closer together when in close proximity to boats , which may be an indication of stress .\ncameron , c . , barker , r . , fletcher , d . , slooten , e . and dawson , s . 1999 . modelling survival of hector\u2019s dolphins around banks peninsula , new zealand . journal of agricultural , biological and environmental statistics 4 ( 2 ) : 126 - 135 .\nstockin , k . , r . law , w . roe , l . meynier , e . martinez , p . duignan , p . bridgen , b . jones . 2010 . pcbs and organochlorine pesticides in hector\u2019s ( cephalorhynchus hectori hectori ) and maui\u2019s ( cephalorhynchus hectori maui ) dolphins .\n\u201cthe most contentious issue in this plan is how far to extend the set net ban . we are taking a cautious approach by banning set netting where there is clear evidence the maui\u2019s dolphin go while not unnecessarily banning fishing where they are not . there have been five reported maui\u2019s sightings in recent years in the area of the extension . there have been no sightings of maui\u2019s dolphin south of the set net ban area despite 91 days of fishing trips monitored by independent observers on vessels over the past year , \u201d dr smith says .\ncommercial fishing nets used to be a problem but that too is improving . the department of conservation created the banks peninsula marine mammal sanctuary in 1988 to help offer refuge to those hector\u2019s dolphins that had gotten injured .\nthe hector\u2019s dolphin only inhabits around the south island of new zealand and a small region of the north island . its distribution is the most limited of all extant cetaceans . for habitat , it prefers shallow coastal waters with depths less than 100 meters . it lives about 7 kilometers off the coasts and can reach estuaries , river mouths , and shallow bays .\nslooten , e . , dawson , s . m . and rayment , w . j . ( 2004 ) aerial surveys for coastal dolphins : abundance of hector ' s dolphins off the south island west coast , new zealand . marine mammal science , 20 ( 3 ) : 477 - 490 .\nslooten , e . , dawson , s . m . , and rayment , w . j . 2006 . offshore distribution of hector\u2019s dolphins at banks peninsula : is the banks peninsula marine mammal sanctuary large enough ? nz journal of marine and freshwater research 40 ( 2 ) : 333 - 343 .\nfirstly come for an akaroa harbour cruise with us to really appreciate how special the dolphins are . we ' ll tell you all about them too , but there is nothing like seeing them for yourself to get a full appreciation . part of your ticket price goes towards dolphin research and education . other things you can do to help the dolphins is support the department of conservation as they find new ways to protect the species , including more marine mammal sanctuaries , which will stop dolphins being killed in set nets . doc also opposes marine mussel farms which may impact the dolphin\u2019s habitat . if you own your own boat , and see the hector ' s dolphin , ask the driver to slow down to avoid turning suddenly . do not chase the dolphins . often , if you simply stop the boat , they will come and see you . avoid using set nets ( also called gillnets ) close to shore , where the dolphins are most common . if you ever see a hector ' s dolphin stranded on the beach , call the department of conservation , they would like to hear about it .\nmale hector\u2019s dolphins reach sexual maturity between ages 6 and 9 , and females reach sexual maturity between ages 7 and 9 . they mate in the summer , have a gestation period between 10 and 12 months , and parturition occurs from early november to mid february . hector\u2019s dolphins reproduce every 2 to 4 years and usually one calf is born at a time . females can give birth to a maximum of 7 calves during their lifetime .\nfeel free to remove post if of topic . my name is jurgen schwanecke . i ' m a year 12 student at rathkeale college in the wairarapa . me and a group of friends are part of a business group known as maui dolphin t - shirts . we are selling t - shirts that have critically endangered maui dolphin on them . we plan to donate 50 % of our profits to the nzwhale & dolphin trust . we would immensely appreciate the support for our cause to help protect the maui dolphin . you can learn more at maui tee project face book page thank you"]}
{"id": 1817, "summary": [{"text": "chrysallida nioba is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family pyramidellidae , the pyrams and their allies .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the species is one of multiple known species to exist within the chrysallida genus of gastropods . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "chrysallida nioba", "paragraphs": ["chrysallida nioba : de jong & commans , 1988 : 122 , pl . 6 , fig . 543 ; redfern , 2001 : 143 , pl . 64 , fig . 592a , b ; lee , 2009 : 138 , fig . 671 .\nodostoma ( chrysallida ) dianthophila wells & wells , 1961 : p . 152 , figs 1 - 3 .\nlee ( 2009 ) presented a photograph of a shell very similar shape that to that of c . nioba noted a possible synonymy between c . nioba , boonea seminuda ( c . b . adams , 1839 ) and odostomia toyatani henderson & bartsch , 1914 . actually , b . seminuda and odostomia ( chrysallida ) toyatani were synonymized by robertson ( 1978 ) , but c . nioba must be considered a distinct species since it has a distinct protoconch , with immersed nucleus ( figs 9 - 11 ) , while in the protoconch of b . seminuda the nucleus is visible ; also , the shell shape and sculpture are different , more elongated and without smooth spiral cords above the suture as occurs in b . seminuda .\nredfern ( 2001 ) illustrated a very similar shell from abaco , bahamas , named chrysallida sp . it has the same conical shell shape , teleoconch sculpture and pronounced umbilicus .\nchrysallida is a speciose genus of minute sea snails , pyramidellid gastropod mollusks or micromollusks in the family pyramidellidae within the tribe chrysallidini . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]\nremarks . chrysallida nioba ( figs 7 - 12 ) was not illustrated with the original description . the type series contains six syntypes , one of which is illustrated in figure 12 . the subsequent records of this species from different localities in the caribbean and the united states east coast are somewhat unclear . although the drawing provided by de jong & coomans ( 1988 ) of shells from the west indies does not allow recognition of the characteristics of the shell , examination of the zma collection confirms its occurrence at aruba .\nspecies within the genus chrysallida are commonly distributed in all oceans from the tropics to the polar regions , the arctic and the antarctic . it is mainly known from coastal areas , and is uncommon in deep elevations such as trenches in the sea .\nremarks . parthenina was used by aartsen et al . ( 2000 ) as a subgenus of chrysallida to include species with small shells ornamented with sinuous axial ribs crossed by weaker spiral cords , restricted to the lower ( abapical ) region of the teleoconch whorl . many species with this same sculpture pattern were considered by linden & eikenboom ( 1992 ) and by pe\u00f1as & rol\u00e1n ( 1998 ) as chrysallida lato sensu . schander et al . ( 2003 ) considered parthenina at the full genus rank , after including three species from the eastern atlantic in a molecular phylogenetic analysis .\nlinden , j . van der & j . c . a . eikenboom . 1992 . on the taxonomy of the recent species of the genus chrysallida carpenter from europe , the canary islands and the azores ( gastropoda , pyramidellidae ) . basteria 56 : 3 - 63 . [ links ]\npimenta , a . d . ; r . s . absal\u00e3o & c . miyaji . 2009 . a taxonomic review of the genera boonea , chrysallida , parthenina , ivara , fargoa , mumiola , odostomella and trabecula ( gastropoda , pyramidellidae , odostomiinae ) from brazil . zootaxa 2049 : 39 - 66 . [ links ]\nremarks . chrysallida conifera ( figs 13 - 17 ) somewhat resembles young specimens of chrysallida gemmulosa , with a similar protoconch and general sculpture pattern , i . e . , three nodulose spiral cords per whorl . however , the nodules of c . gemmulosa are axially arranged in a nearly orthocline direction , while in c . conifera they are prosocline ( figs 13 - 14 and 18 ) ; the whorl outline is slightly convex in c . gemmulosa and rectilinear in c . conifera ( figs 13 - 14 ) . the main difference is at the base , which is elongate and ornamented with six or seven smooth spiral cords in c . g emmulosa , while in c . conifera there are three somewhat nodulose spiral cords ( fig . 18 ) .\nfour new species of the pyramidellid odostomiinae from brazil are described : chrysallida conifera sp . nov . , characterized by a small and regularly conical shell with prominent nodules ; parthenina biumbilicata sp . nov . , characterized by a deep and wide umbilicus and a regularly increasing aperture diameter at the protoconch , which bears a small circular umbilicus ; eulimastoma franklini sp . . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe species of odostominae , in particular , were revised in a series of papers ( pimenta & absal\u00e3o 2004b , pimenta et al . 2008 , 2009 ) , on eulimastoma bartsch , 1916 , egila dall & bartsch , 1904 , ividia dall & bartsch , 1904 , folinella dall & bartsch , 1904 , oscilla a . adams , 1861 , pseudoscilla boettger , 1901 , boonea robertson , 1978 , chrysallida carpenter , 1856 , parthenina bucquos , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1883 , ivara dall & bartsch , 1903 , fargoa bartsch , 1955 , mumiola a . adams , 1863 , odostomella bucquos , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1883 , and trabecula monterosato , 1884 .\ncompared to the european parthenina species described by aartsen et al . ( 2000 ) and those included in chrysallida sensu lato by linden & eikemboom ( 1992 ) and pe\u00f1as & rol\u00e1n ( 1998 ) , p . biumbilicata has some similarity with c . juliae ( de folin , 1872 ) , mainly due to the axial ribs close together , but p . biumbilicata is wider and more conical and the axial ribs do not continue over the base ( fig . 36 ) as in the redescription of c . juliae by linden & eikenbomm ( 1992 ) . in addition , the umbilicus of p . biumbilicata is wider and deeper ( fig . 36 ) .\nrosenberg , g . ; moretzsohn , f . ; garc\u00eda , e . f . ( 2009 ) . gastropoda ( mollusca ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 579\u2013699 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\npimenta a . d . ( 2012 ) four new species and two new records of odostomiinae ( gastropoda : pyramidellidae ) from brazil . zoologia ( curitiba ) 29 ( 5 ) : 439\u2013450 . [ october 2012 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nbilly ' s bay , st . elizabeth parish , jamaica ( about 1 . 8 mm . ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndepartamento de invertebrados , museu nacional , universidade federal do rio de janeiro . quinta da boa vista , s\u00e3o crist\u00f3v\u00e3o , 20940 - 040 rio de janeiro , rj , brazil . e - mail : alexpim @ urltoken\npyramidellidae gray , 1840 ( superorder heterobranchia ) comprises a large group of marine microgastropod , ectoparasitic on other invertebrates . the family is distributed worldwide , from coastlines to the deep sea , and is one of the largest mollusk families , with over 6 , 000 named species ( pe\u00f1as & rol\u00e1n 1998 ) and more than 300 generic and subgeneric taxa ( schander et al . 1999 , 2003 ) .\ndespite these numbers , until the 1990s only 35 species were recorded from brazil ( rios 1994 ) and taxonomic revisions in the past ten years ( pimenta et al . 2000 , 2008 , 2009 , 2011 pimenta & absal\u00e3o , 2001a , b , 2002 , 2004a , b ; absal\u00e3o et al . 2003 ) have revealed around 30 new species , in addition to several new records of species originally described from northern localities in the western atlantic , mainly the caribbean region , totaling about 95 species of pyramidellidae in more than 20 genera . some of these species were listed and poorly characterized and illustrated by rios ( 2009 ) .\nrecent collection - based studies , as well as recent collections , led to the discovery of other species occurring in brazil , belonging to some of the above - mentioned genera , including four new taxa , which are the scope of this paper .\nthe taxonomic identifications were based on conchological comparisons with type material and / or original descriptions and illustrations . each species was illustrated using scanning electron microscope ( sem ) images . the abbreviation\nm\nrefers to the depth ( in meters ) of the collecting locality .\nthe terminology used for protoconchs follows aartsen ( 1981 , 1987 ) , modified by linden & eikenboom ( 1992 ) and schander ( 1994 ) .\nother abbreviations used through the text : ibufrj - instituto de biologia , universidade federal do rio de janeiro , rio de janeiro ; mnhn - mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle , paris ; mnrj - museu nacional / universidade federal do rio de janeiro , rio de janeiro ; morg - museu oceanogr\u00e1fico\neli\u00e9zer de carvalho rios\n, funda\u00e7\u00e3o oceanogr\u00e1fica do rio grande , rio grande ; mzsp - museu de zoologia da universidade de s\u00e3o paulo , s\u00e3o paulo ; uerj - universidade do estado do rio de janeiro ; usnm - national museum of natural history , washington , dc ; zma - zo\u00f6logisch museum amsterdam , amsterdam .\nfargoa dianthophila : lyons , 1989 : 29 , pl . xii , fig . 8 ; od\u00e9 & speers , 1972 : 10 ; robertson , 1978 : 373 , fig . 6 ; 1996 : 17 , figs 16 - 18 ; od\u00e9 , 1993 : 29 ; lee , 2009 : 141 , fig . 682 ; tunnell jr et al . , 2010 : 265 .\nmaterial examined . brazil , rio de janeiro : ponta grande , ba\u00eda da ilha grande ( rap ilha grande sta 17 , 23\u00ba0 . 544\ns , 44\u00ba28 . 464\nw , 8 . 5 m ) , 10 shells , 30 / x / 2003 , uerj 6224 ; ponta grande , ba\u00eda da ilha grande ( rap ilha grande sta 17 , 23\u00ba0 . 544\ns , 44\u00ba28 . 464\nw , 8 . 5 m ) , 2 shells , 30 / x / 2003 , mnrj 17257 .\ngeographic distribution . usa : massachusetts , north carolina , florida , texas ( rosenberg 2009 ) ; brazil : shallow waters off rio de janeiro state , southeast of brazil ( this study ) .\nmaterial examined . west indies : aruba , 15 shells , f . veberne leg . , zma ; cura\u00e7ao , 4 shells , de jong leg . , zma ; brazil : rio de janeiro : ( hab 16 sta f5 , 22\u00ba17 ' 20 . 854\ns , 40\u00ba6 ' 42 . 755\nw , 140 m ) , 1 shell , 05 / vii / 2009 , mnrj 16289 ; ( revizee central sta c1 - d3 , 22\u00ba52 ' s , 41\u00ba09 ' w , 80 m ) , 22 shells , 23 / ii / 1996 , ibufrj 11333 ; ( revizee central sta c1 - d3 , 22\u00ba52 ' s , 41\u00ba09 ' w , 80 m ) , 4 shells , 23 / ii / 1996 , mnrj 17164 .\ngeographic distribution . usa : florida , louisiana ; abc islands ; bermuda ( rosenberg 2009 ) ; brazil : 80 to 140 m deep off rio de janeiro southeast of brazil ( this study ) .\ntype material . holotype mnrj 16300 . paratypes ( one shell in each lot ) . mnrj 16301 continental shelf of bacia de campos , rio de janeiro state ( hab 16 sta g3 , 22\u00ba3 ' 41 . 0\ns , 40\u00ba10 ' 5 . 38\nw , 75 m ) , 06 / vii / 2009 ; ibufrj 19203 , continental shelf of bacia de campos , rio de janeiro state ( hab 16 sta g3 , 22\u00ba3 ' 41 . 0\ns , 40\u00ba10 ' 5 . 38\nw , 75 m ) , 06 / vii / 2009 ; mnrj 16302 type locality ; mnrj 16303 , continental shelf of bacia de campos , rio de janeiro state ( hab 16 sta b3 , 22\u00ba59 ' 43\ns , 41\u00ba21 ' 13\nw , 77 m ) , 02 / vii / 2009 ; mzsp 99920 ( revizee sul sta 6653 , 25\u00ba43 . 5 ' s , 46\u00ba2 . 5 ' w , 155 m ) ; mzsp 99921 ( revizee sul sta 6662 , 24\u00ba00 . 95 ' s , 43\u00ba55 . 54 ' w , 135 m ) ; mzsp 99923 ( revizee sul sta 6666 , 24\u00ba17 . 13 ' s , 44\u00ba12 . 15 ' w , 163 m ) ; mzsp 99924 ( revizee sul sta 6666 , 24\u00ba17 . 13 ' s , 44\u00ba12 . 15 ' w , 163 m ) .\ntype locality . continental shelf of campos basin , rio de janeiro state , southeast of brazil ( hab 16 sta c3 , 22\u00ba46 ' 49\ns , 41\u00ba3 ' 16\nw , 78 m ) .\ndimensions . holotype with four teleoconch whorls ; height 1 . 35 mm ; width 0 . 8 mm ; protoconch width : 260 \u00b5m .\netymology . conifer , l . = cone bearing . this species is named after its strictly conical shell shape .\ngeographic distribution . continental shelves of rio de janeiro and s\u00e3o paulo states , southeast of brazil ; 75 m to 163 m deep .\neulimastoma cf . weberi : pimenta & absal\u00e3o , 2004b : 168 , fig . 5c - g .\ntype material . holotype : mnrj 16308 ; paratypes : mnrj 16309 , type locality [ 2 shells ] ; mnhn im - 2012 - 6 , md55 sta cb96 , east of cabo de s\u00e3o tom\u00e9 , north coast of rio de janeiro state ( 21\u00ba31 ' s , 40\u00ba08 ' w , 300 m ) , 31 / v / 1987 [ 7 shells ] ; mzsp 105121 , md55 sta cb96 , east of cabo de s\u00e3o tom\u00e9 , north coast of rio de janeiro state ( 21\u00ba31 ' s , 40\u00ba08 ' w , 300 m ) , 31 / v / 1987 [ 4 shells ] ; ibufrj 12678 , revizee central sta c5 - 52c ( 21 . 767\u00bas , 40 , 083\u00baw , 450 m ) , 21 / vii / 2001 [ 9 shells ] .\ntype locality . continental shelf of campos basin , rio de janeiro state , southeast of brazil ; hab 17 sta i3 ( 21\u00ba23 ' 33 . 709\ns , 40\u00ba15 ' 43 . 349\nw , 88 m ) .\ndiagnosis . small shell , without sculpture , with a spiral channel above suture and a marked spiral keel at periphery of base .\ndimensions . holotype with 3 . 75 teleoconch whorls ; height 1 . 3 mm ; width 0 . 6 mm ; protoconch width : 432 mm .\ngeographic distribution . continental shelf and slope of north coast of rio de janeiro state , southeast of brazil ; 88 m to 450 m deep .\netymology . exiguus , l . = poor , scanty . this species is named after its lack of shell sculpture .\nremarks . shells of eulimastoma exiguum were illustrated by pimenta & absal\u00e3o ( 2004b ) but named eulimastoma aff . weberi ( morrison , 1965 ) . in that paper , the authors were not confident in recognizing a different taxon , because of the little material available . examination of material collected from the md55 and habitats expeditions allowed the conclusion that this is a new species , distinct from e . weberi .\nboth species have small shells with a scaled telecoconch whorl and somewhat similar channeled suture , but e . weberi has distinct spiral cords above and below the suture , while in e . exiguum , this sculpture is absent ( figs 19 - 20 and 24 ) .\ntype material . holotype : mnrj 17168 ; paratypes : uerj 3330 , type locality [ 3 shells ] ; mnrj 17167 , type locality [ 2 shells ] ; mnhn im - 2012 - 7 , type locality [ 1 shell ] ; uerj 3339 , rap ilha grande sta 15 ( 23\u00ba3 . 762 ' s , 44\u00ba36 . 038 ' w , 7 m ) , ponta grande , timu\u00edba , paraty , 19 / xi / 2003 , [ 5 shells ] ; mnrj 17169 , enseada de dois rios , ilha grande , 19 - 20 / xi / 1996 [ 4 shells ] .\ntype locality . ponta grande , ilha grande bay , south coast of rio de janeiro state , southeast of brazil ; ilha grande rap ilha grande sta 25 ( 23\u00ba5 . 098 ' s , 44\u00ba18 . 603 ' w , 17 m ) .\ndiagnosis . protoconch helicoidal with ~ 2 . 25 whorls ; base with two spiral ridges at adapical periphery .\ndescription . shell small , conical , color white . teleoconch with up to four whorls rectilinear in profile . suture deep , straight . protoconch heterostrophic helicoidal , with ~ 2 . 25 smooth whorls oriented ~ 80\u00ba to teleococnh axis . sculpture absent , except for one spiral ridge at abapical region of each whorl , above suture . base straight , market at adapical periphery by three spiral ridges . aperture rhomboid tending to pyriform . columella obliquely arcuate , with a distinct fold . outer lip thin . umbilicus as a very narrow fissure .\ndimensions . holotype with four teleoconch whorls ; height 1 . 4 mm ; width 0 . 8 mm ; protoconch width : 210 mm .\ngeographic distribution . known only for shallow waters ( 7 m to 17 m deep ) at ilha grande bay , south coast of rio de janeiro state , southeast of brazil .\netymology . this species is named after in honor of dr . franklin noel dos santos , brazilian malacologist , who took part at rap ilha grande project , in the malacological team .\nremarks . shells of eulimastoma franklini were illustrated by pimenta & absal\u00e3o ( 2004b ) but termed eulimastoma aff . didymum . the authors recognized a single difference from e . didymum in the protoconch shape , but because of the little material available , decided not to describe it .\nexamination of new material , also collected at ilha grande , allowed the recognition of a new species . eulimastoma franklini ( figs 25 - 30 ) is indeed very similar to e . didymum in shell shape and teleoconch sculpture . both species have regular conical shells , with a straight whorl outline and a wide spiral cord above the suture .\nthe main difference that clearly distinguishes the two species is the type of protoconch , concerning its orientation to the teleoconch axis . although it is not visible in the eroded holotype , e . didymum has an upturned protoconch according to its original description ( verrill & bush , 1900 ) and as also illustrated by wise ( 1996 ) in specimens from texas and by pimenta & absal\u00e3o ( 2004b ) in specimens from southeast brazil . in e . franklini , the protoconch is oriented about 80\u00ba to the teleoconch axis ( figs 27 - 29 ) .\npimenta & absal\u00e3o ( 2004b ) described intraspecific variation in e . dydima regarding the expression of the subsutural spiral cord , and the presence of spiral striae at the base , from smooth bases to those covered by several grooves . in e . franklini , on the other hand , all shells studied have smooth bases ( fig . 30 ) and lack the subsutural spiral cord on the teleoconch whorls ( figs 25 - 26 and 30 ) .\nin brazil , e . franklini and e . didymum occur at the same localities , on the southeast coast . both species were collected in ilha grande bay , but while e . franklini is only known from ilha grande bay , e . didymum was found in localities on the northeast and north coast of brazil , up to ~ 3\u00ban ( pimenta & absal\u00e3o 2004b ) .\ntype material . holotype : morg 50990 , revizee central sta d3 ; paratypes : mnrj 16306 , hab 16 sta h4 ( 21\u00ba42 ' 49\ns , 40\u00ba10 ' 21\nw , 97 m ) , [ 1 shell ] ; mnrj 16307 , hab 16 sta f3 ( 22\u00ba7 ' 39\ns , 40\u00ba18 ' 53\nw , 72 m ) , [ 1 shell ] ; morg 50991 , revizee central sta c1 - d1 ( 22\u00ba48 ' s , 41\u00ba091 ' w , 69 m ) , 23 / 02 / 96 [ 1 shell ] ; uerj 3334 , rap ilha grande sta 3 , [ 1 shell ] ; uerj 3348 , rap ilha grande sta 15 , [ 2 shells ] ; uerj 3332 , rap ilha grande sta 25 ( 23\u00ba5 . 098 ' s , 44\u00ba18 . 603 ' w , 17 m ) , ilha queimada grande , 31 / x / 2003 , [ 1 shell ] ; uerj 6192 , rap ilha grande sta 9 ( 23\u00ba9 . 101 ' s , 44\u00ba32 . 238 ' w , 19 m ) , parcel dos meros , 18 / xi / 2003 , [ 1 shell ] .\ntype locality . continental shelf of north of rio de janeiro state , southeast of brazil revizee central sta c1 - d3 ( 22\u00ba52 ' s , 41\u00ba09 ' w , 80 m ) .\ndiagnosis . shell with deep , wide umbilicus ; teleoconch sculpture of very thin and close together sinoidal axial ribs ; protoconch with regularly increasing aperture diameter and with small circular umbilicus .\ndimensions . holotype with 3 . 5 teleoconch whorls ; height 2 . 35 mm ; width 1 . 2 mm ; protoconch width : 370 mm .\ngeographic distribution . continental shelf of rio de janeiro state , southeast of brazil ; 17 m to 97 m deep .\netymology . this species is named after its conspicuous umbilicus at both last teleoconch whorl and at protoconch .\npimenta et al . ( 2009 ) followed schander et al . ( 2003 ) in considering parthenina at the genus rank , and listed two taxa from brazil : parthenina varia ( od\u00e9 , 1993 ) and parthenina cf . interspatiosa ( linden & eikenboom , 1992 ) . this latter taxon was considered by pimenta et al . ( 2009 ) to have a somewhat dubious taxonomic status , due to its identical shell morphology to specimens from the eastern atlantic and the lack of biological data to consider them co - specific .\nparthenina biumbilicata has a teleoconch sculpture of sinuous axial ribs and weak spiral cords ( figs 31 - 36 ) , but the spiral cords are also present on the adapical ~ 2 / 3 of the teleoconch whorl , though as very tiny cords . the most similar taxon from the western atlantic is that recorded by pimenta et al . ( 2009 ) as p . cf . interspatiosa , but p . biumbilicata has more numerous axial ribs which are closer together . the number of spiral cords is also higher in p . biumbilicata , four to five , while in p . cf . interspatiosa there are only one or two .\nwe are grateful to p . bouchet and p . maestrati ( mnhn ) , l . simone ( mzsp ) , robert moolenbeeck ( zma ) , e . rios and p . s . oliveira ( morg ) , r . absal\u00e3o ( ibufrj ) , s . b . santos ( uerj ) , c . miyaji , for loan of material . e . rol\u00e1n , c . redfern , and f . n . santos , for exchanging information about pyramidellidae taxonomy . the two referees , for their critics and suggestions . a . veiga , for sem operation at the departamento de invertebrados ( mnrj ) . j . reid , for revising the english text . petrobras , for making the collection and study of material from the habitats project possible . cenpes / petrobras , for the establishment of the center for scanning electron microscopy of museu nacio - nal / ufrj through project ' moderniza\u00e7\u00e3o , informatiza\u00e7\u00e3o e infra - estrutura das cole\u00e7\u00f5es marinhas do museu nacional / ufrj e desenvolvimento do centro de microscopia eletr\u00f4nica de varredura ' ( sape 460022548 - 3 ) .\naartsen , j . j . van . 1981 . european pyramidellidae : ii . turbonilla . bollettino malacologico 17 ( 5 - 6 ) : 61 - 68 . [ links ]\naartsen , j . j . van . 1987 . european pyramidellidae : iii . odostomia and ondina . bollettino malacologico 23 ( 1 - 4 ) : 1 - 34 . [ links ]\naartsen , j . j . van ; e . gittenberger & j . goud . 2000 . pyramidellidae ( mollusca , gastropoda , heterobranchia ) collected during the dutch cancap and mauritania expeditions in the southeastern part of the north atlantic ocean ( part 2 ) . zoologische mededelingen 74 : 1 - 50 . [ links ]\nabbott , r . t . 1974 . american seashells . new york , van nostrand reinhold co . , 2 nd ed . , 663p . [ links ]\nabsal\u00e3o , r . s . ; f . n . santos & d . de o . ten\u00f3rio . 2003 . five new species of turbonilla risso , 1826 ( gastropoda , heterobranchia , pyramidellidae ) found off the northeast coast of brazil ( 02\u00ba - 13\u00ba s ) . zootaxa 235 : 1 - 11 . [ links ]\nadams , a . 1861 . on a new genus and some new species of pyramidellidae from the north of china . annals and magazine of natural history ( 3 ) 7 : 295 - 299 . [ links ]\nadams , a . 1863 . on the species of pyramidellidae found in japan . journal of the proceedings of the linnean society of london 7 : 1 - 6 . [ links ]\nadams , c . b . 1839 . observations on some species of the marine shells of massachusetts , with descriptions of five new species . boston journal of natural history 2 : 262 - 288 . [ links ]\nadams , c . b . 1852 . catalogue of shells collected at panama with notes on synonymy , station and habitat . annals lyceum natural history 5 : 222 - 549 . [ links ]\nbartsch , p . 1909 . pyramidellidae of new england and the adjacent region . proceedings of the boston society of natural history 34 ( 4 ) : 67 - 113 . [ links ]\nbartsch , p . 1916 . eulimastoma , a new subgenus of pyramidellids , and remarks on the genus scalenostoma . the nautilus 30 ( 7 ) : 73 - 74 . [ links ]\nbartsch , p . 1955 . the pyramidellid mollusks of the pliocene deposits of north st . petersburg , florida . smithsonisn miscellaneous collections 125 ( 2 ) : 1 - 102 . [ links ]\nboettger , o . 1901 . zur kenntnis der fauna der mittelmioz\u00e4nen schichten von kostej im krass\u00f3 - sz\u00f6r\u00e9nyer komitat . verhandlugen und mitteilungen des siebenb\u00fcrgischen vereins f\u00fcr naturwisschenschaften hermannstadt 51 : 1 - 200 . [ links ]\nbucquoy , e . p . ; p . dautzenberg & g . dollfus . 1883 . les mollusques marins du roussillon . paris , vol . 1 , 195p . [ links ]\ncarpenter , p . p . 1856 . description of new species and varieties of calyptraeidae , trochidae , and pyramidellidae , principally in the collections of hugh cuming , esq . proceedings of the zoological society of london 24 : 166 - 171 . [ links ]\ndall , w . h . & p . bartsch . 1903 . contributions to the tertiary fauna of florida with special reference to the miocene silexbeds of tampa and the pliocene beds of the caloosahatchie river . part 6 . concluding the work . transactions of the wagner free institute of science 3 ( 6 ) : 1219 - 1654 . [ links ]\ndall , w . h . & p . bartsch . 1904 . synopsis of the genera , subgenera and sections of the family pyramidellidae . proceedings of the biological society of washington 17 : 1 - 16 . [ links ]\ndall , w . h . & p . bartsch , p . 1909 . a monograph of west american pyramidellid mollusks . bulletin of the united states national museum 68 , xii + 258 pp . [ links ]\ndall , w . h . & p . bartsch , 1911 . new species of shells from bermuda . proceedings of the united states national museum 40 ( 1820 ) : 277 - 288 . [ links ]\nfolin , l . de . 1872 - 1876 . les fonds de la mer . paris , f . savy , vol . 1 , 365p . [ links ]\ngray , j . e . 1840 . synopsis of the contents of the british museum . london , 42 th ed . , 370p . [ links ]\nhenderson , j . b . & p . bartsch . 1914 . littoral marine mollusks of chincoteague island , virginia . proceedings of the united states national museum 47 ( 2055 ) : 411 - 421 . [ links ]\njong , k . m . de & h . e . coomans . 1988 . m arine gastropods from curacao , aruba and bonaire . leiden , e . j . brill , 261p . [ links ]\nlee , h . g . 2009 . marine shells of northeast florida . florida , jacksonville shell club , 204p . [ links ]\nlygre , f . ; j . a . kongsrud & c . schander . 2011 . four new species of turbonilla ( gastropoda , pyramidellimorpha , turbonillidae ) from the gulf of guinea , west africa . african invertebrates 52 ( 2 ) : 243 - 254 . [ links ]\nlyons , w . c . 1989 . nearshore marine ecology at hutchinson islands , florida : 1971 - 1974 . xi . mollusks . florida marine research publications 47 : 1 - 131 . [ links ]\nmonterosato , t . a . di . 1884 . nomenclatura generic e specifica di alcune conchiglie mediterranee . palermo , 152p . [ links ]\nmorrison , j . p . e . 1965 . new brackish water mollusks from lousiana . proceedings of the biological society of washington 78 : 217 - 224 . [ links ]\nod\u00e9 , h . 1993 . distribution and records of the marine mollusca in the northwest gulf of mexico ( a continuing monograph ) . texas conchologist 30 ( 1 ) : 23 - 32 . [ links ]\nod\u00e9 , h . & a . b . speers . 1972 . notes concerning texas beach shells . texas conchologist 9 ( 1 ) : 1 - 17 . [ links ]\nd ' orbigny , a . 1835 - 1846 . voyage dans l ' amerique m\u00e9ridionale . mollusques . paris , 1 - 48 ( 1835 ) ; 49 - 184 ( 1836 ) ; 185 - 376 ( 1837 ) ; 377 - 408 ( 1840 ) ; 409 - 488 ( 1841 ) ; 489 - 758 ( 1846 ) . [ links ]\npelseneer , p . 1928 . les parasites des mollusques el les mollusques parasites . bulletin de la societ\u00e9 zoologique de france 53 : 158 - 189 . [ links ]\npe\u00f1as , a . & e . rol\u00e1n . 1998 . pyramidellidae ( gastropoda , heterostropha ) de la missi\u00f3n oceanogr\u00e1fica\nseamount 2\n. iberus , suplemento 5 : 151 - 199 . [ links ]\npimenta , a . d . & r . s . absal\u00e3o . 2001a . taxonomic revision of the species of turbonilla risso , 1826 ( gastropoda , heterobranchia , pyramidellidae ) with type localities in brazil , and description of a new species . basteria 65 : 69 - 88 . [ links ]\npimenta , a . d . & r . s . absal\u00e3o . 2001b . the genera bacteridium thiele , 1929 and careliopsis m\u00f6rch , 1875 ( gastropoda : pyramidellidae ) from the east coast of south america . bollettino malacologico 37 : 41 - 48 . [ links ]\npimenta , a . d . & r . s . absal\u00e3o . 2002 . on the taxonomy of turbonilla puncta ( c . b . adams , 1850 ) ( gastropoda , pyramidellidae ) , with the description of a new species from brazil and remarks on other western atlantic species . zootaxa 78 : 1 - 16 . [ links ]\npimenta , a . d . & r . s . absal\u00e3o . 2004a . fifteen new species and ten new records of turbonilla risso , 1826 ( gastropoda , heterobranchia , pyramidellidae ) from brazil . bollettino malacologico 39 : 113 - 140 . [ links ]\npimenta , a . d . & r . s . absal\u00e3o . 2004b . review of the genera eulimastoma bartsch , 1916 and egila dall and bartsch , 1904 ( mollusca , gastropoda , pyramidellidae ) from brazil . zoosystema 26 : 157 - 173 . [ links ]\npimenta , a . d . ; r . s . absal\u00e3o . & a . s . alencar . 2000 . odostomella carceralis spec . nov . from ilha grande , se brazil ( gastropoda : heterobranchia , pyramidellidae ) . basteria 64 : 65 - 70 . [ links ]\npimenta , a . d . ; f . n . santos & r . s . absal\u00e3o . 2008 . review of the genera ividia , folinella , menestho , pseudoscilla , tryptichus and peristichia ( gastropoda , pyramidellidae ) from brazil , with descriptions of four new species . the veliger 50 : 171 - 184 . [ links ]\npimenta , a . d . ; f . n . santos & r . s . absal\u00e3o . 2011 taxonomic revision of the genus eulimella ( gastropoda , pyramidellidae ) from brazil , with description of three new species . zootaxa 3063 : 22 - 38 . [ links ]\nredfern , c . 2001 . bahamian seashell . boca raton , bahamina - seashells . com , inc . 280p . [ links ]\nrios , e . c . 1994 . seashells of brazil . rio grande , museu oceanogr\u00e1fico prof . e . c . rios , funda\u00e7\u00e3o universidade de rio grande , 2 nd ed , 368p . [ links ]\nrios , e . c . 2009 . compendium of brazilian seashells . rio grande , editora evangraf , 668p . [ links ]\nrobertson , r . 1978 . spermatophores of six eastern north american pyramidellid gastropods and their systematic significance ( with the new genus boonea ) . biological bulletin of the marine biological laboratory 155 : 360 - 382 . [ links ]\nrobertson , r . 1996 . fargoa bartschi ( winkley , 1909 ) : a littleknown atlantic and gulf coast american odostomian ( pyramidellidae ) and its generic relationships . american malacological bulletin 13 : 11 - 21 . [ links ]\nrosenberg , g . 2009 . malacolog v . 4 . 1 . 1 : a database of western atlantic marine mollusca . available online at : urltoken [ accessed : 2012 ] [ links ] .\nschander , c . 1994 . twenty - eight new species of pyramidellidae ( gastropoda , heterobranchia ) from west africa . notiziario centro italiano studi malacologici 15 : 11 - 78 . [ links ]\nschander , c . ; j . j . van aartsen & j . corgan . 1999 . families and genera of the pyramidelloidea ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bollettino malacologico 34 ( 9 - 12 ) : 145 - 166 . [ links ]\nschander , c . ; k . m . halanych ; t . dahlgren & p . sunberg . 2003 . test of the monophyly of odostomiinae and turbonilliinae ( gastropoda , heterobranchia , pyramidellidae ) based on 16s mtdna sequences . zoologica scripta 32 ( 3 ) : 243 - 254 . [ links ]\ntavares , m . 1999 . the cruise of the marion dufresne off the brazilian coast : account of the scientific results and list of stations . zoosystema 21 ( 4 ) : 597 - 605 . [ links ]\ntunnell jr , j . w . ; j . andrews ; n . c . barrera & f . moretzsohn . 2010 . encyclopedia of texas seashells - identification , ecology , distribution & history . city of corpus christi . harte research institute for gulf of mexico studies series , xi + 512p . [ links ]\nverrill , a . e . & k . j . bush . 1900 . additions to the marine mollusca of the bermuda . transactions of the connecticut academy of sciences 10 : 513 - 544 . [ links ]\nwells , h . & m . j . wells . 1961 . three species of odostomia from north carolina , with description of a new species . the nautilus 74 : 149 - 157 . [ links ]\nwise , j . b . 1996 . morphology and phylogenetic relationships of certain pyramidellid taxa ( heterobranchia ) . malacologia 37 : 443 - 551 . [ links ]\nsubmitted : 06 . iii . 2012 ; accepted : 20 . vi . 2012 . editorial responsibility : marcos d . s . tavares\ncaixa postal 19020 81531 - 980 curitiba pr brasil tel . / fax : ( 55 41 ) 3266 - 6823 sbz @ urltoken\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\ngastropoda ( mollusca ) associated to sargassum sp . beds in sao sebastiao channel sao paulo , brazil\nto review the taxonomy of eulimidae from the southwestern atlantic , with focus on the brazilian coast .\nreview of the genera eulimastoma bartsch , 1916 and egila dall & bartsch , 1904 ( mollusca , gastropoda , . . .\nthe taxonomy of the species belonging to the genera eulimastoma bartsch , 1916 and egila dall & bartsch , 1904 from brazil is reviewed : eulimastoma canaliculatum ( c . b . adams , 1850 ) , eulimastoma engonium ( bush , 1885 ) , eulimastoma surinamense altena , 1975 , eulimastoma didyma ( verrill & bush , 1900 ) , eulimastoma aff . didymal eulimastoma aff . weberi ( morrison , 1965 ) ,\negila\nvirginiae altena , 1975 . . . [ show full abstract ]\ntaxonomic revision of the genus eulimella ( gastropoda , pyramidellidae ) from brazil , with description . . .\na taxonomic revision of the pyramidellid genus eulimella from brazil was performed based on shell morphology . the holotype of eulimella rudis watson , 1886 is illustrated and compared to shells from the southeast brazilian coast , this being the first confirmed record of this species after its original description . eulimella smithii ( verrill , 1880 ) , previously known from northern localities in . . . [ show full abstract ]\non the taxonomy of turbonilla puncta ( c . b . adams , 1850 ) ( gastropoda , pyramidellidae ) , with the desc . . .\npimenta , alexandre d . , absal\u00e3o , ricardo s . ( 2002 ) : on the taxonomy of turbonilla puncta ( c . b . adams , 1850 ) ( gastropoda , pyramidellidae ) , with the description of a new species from brazil and remarks on other western atlantic species . zootaxa 78 : 1 - 16 , doi : 10 . 5281 / zenodo . 155937\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\njo o ' keefe copyright 2010 . photos may be used for educational purposes only . contact me with inquiries .\ndr . harry lee , a nationally known malacologist , deserves much credit for this work . thanks to him , we know the identity of many of the shells of sunset beach , nc . information on how to find these shells in seaweed and sea drift from the eastern point of sunset beach is at : urltoken\nblack lines on ruler visible in some images depict milimeters . not all species have been photographed .\n165 . olivella cf . prefloralia olsson and harbison , 1953 cf . rice olive ( 2 )\n181 . eulimastoma canaliculatum ( c . b . adams , 1850 ) channeled odostome\n191 . rictaxis punctostriatus ( c . b . adams , 1840 ) pitted baby - bubble\nbill rudman , operator of the sea slug forum - - urltoken - - wrote this about the above photo :\nin your photo , the light brown [ center left ] object is part of the shell , while the other objects - or at least most of them - are the large bulky gizzard plates which form a band of crushing plates to pulverise the sea weed before it enters the sea hare ' s stomach .\n197 . melampus bidentatus say , 1822 eastern melampus - - this highly evolved species is a pulmonate , i . e . , it has pulmonary function\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ntop : bear island , north carolina ( juvenile ) | bottom : northeast florida ( 4 . 7 mm . )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by kbanasihan , 06 / 28 / 2010\nnew species of shells from bermuda proceedings of the united states national museum 40 ( 1820 ) 277 - 288 , pl . 35 . [ stated date : 08 may 1911 . ]\nthe genus folinella had two preoccupied names - amoura de folin , 1873 not j . e . gray 1847 , and funicularia monterosato , 1884 not forbes , 1845 .\nlittle is known about the ecology of the members of this genus . as is true of most members of the pyramidellidae sensu lato , they are most likely ectoparasites .\nbouchet , philippe ; rocroi , jean - pierre ; fr\u00fdda , jiri ; hausdorf , bernard ; ponder , winston ; vald\u00e9s , \u00e1ngel & war\u00e9n , anders ( 2005 ) .\nclassification and nomenclator of gastropod families\n. malacologia . hackenheim , germany : conchbooks . 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1\u2013397 . isbn 3 - 925919 - 72 - 4 . issn 0076 - 2997 .\ngofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 180 - 213\nspencer , h . ; marshall . b . ( 2009 ) . all mollusca except opisthobranchia . in : gordon , d . ( ed . ) ( 2009 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity . volume one : kingdom animalia . 584 pp\ncarpenter p . p . ( 1856 ) description of new species and varieties of calyptraeidae , trochidae , and pyramidellidae , principally in the collection of hugh cuming , esq . proceedings of the zoological society of london , 24 : 166 - 171\nadams a . ( 1863 ) . on the species of pyramidellinae found in japan . journal of the proceedings of the linnean society of london , 7 : 1 - 6\nschaufuss l . w . ( ed ) . 1869 . molluscorum systema et catalogus . system una aufz\u00e4hlung s\u00e4mmtlicher conchylien der sammlung von fr . paetel . 4 pp unpaginated , pp . i - xiv and 1 - 119 . dresden\nde folin l . 1870 . d ' une m\u00e9thode de classification pour les coquilles de la famille des chemnitzidae . annales de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 linn\u00e9enne du d\u00e9partement du maine et loire 12 : 191 - 202\nmonterosato t . a . ( di ) ( 1884 ) . nomenclatura generica e specifica di alcune conchiglie mediterranee . palermo , virzi pp . 152 [ month of publication unknown , but later than february ( the paper in naturalista siciliano , cited p . 57 )\ndall w . h . & bartsch p . 1909 . a monograph of west american pyramidellid mollusks . bulletin , united states national museum , 68 : i - xii , 1 - 258 , 30 pl .\niredale t . ( 1915 ) . notes on the names of some british marine mollusca . proceedings of the malacological society of london , 11 ( 6 ) : 329 - 342\niredale t . 1917 . molluscan name - changes , generic and specific . proceedings of the malacological society of london , 12 : 322 - 330\ncorgan j . x . 1973 . the names partulida schaufuss , 1869 and spiralinella chaster , 1901 ( gastropoda , pyramidellacea ) . journal of conchology , 28 : 9 - 10 .\ngofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 180\u2013213\nspencer , h . ; marshall . b . ( 2009 ) . all mollusca except opisthobranchia . in : gordon , d . ( ed . ) ( 2009 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity . volume one : kingdom animalia . 584 pp\ncarpenter , p . p . ( 1856 ) .\ndescription of new species and varieties of calyptraeidae , trochidae , and pyramidellidae , principally in the collection of hugh cumming , esq\n. proceedings of the zoological society of london . 24 : 166\u2013171 .\ndall , w . h . ; bartsch , p ( 1904 ) .\nsynopsis of genera , subgenera , and sections of the family pyramidellidae\n. proceedings of the biological society of washington . 17 : 1\u201316 .\nde folin , l . ; p\u00e9rier , l . ( 1867\u20131887 ) .\netudes internationale sur les perticularities nouvelles des regions sous - marines\n. les fonds de la mer . 1\u20134 .\nthis page is based on a wikipedia article written by authors ( here ) . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 license ; additional terms may apply . images , videos and audio are available under their respective licenses .\n> stream \u0000\u0000\u0000 jp \u0087 \u0000\u0000\u0000\u0018ftypjpx \u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000jpx jp2 \u0000\u0000\u0000\u0012rreq\u0001\u0080\u0080\u0000\u0001\u0000 - \u0080\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000 - jp2h\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0016ihdr\u0000\u0000 \u0080\u0000\u0000\u0007\u00ef\u0000\u0003\u0007\u0007\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u000fcolr\u0001\u0000\u0001\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0010\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000jp2c\u00ffo\u00ffq\u0000 / \u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0007\u00ef\u0000\u0000 \u0080\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0007\u00ef\u0000\u0000 \u0080\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0003\u0007\u0001\u0001\u0007\u0001\u0001\u0007\u0001\u0001\u00ff \\ \u0000 # bp\u00b7 : \u00a3 : \u00a3 : \u00832\u00b32\u00b32\u009e * \u00ea * \u00ea * \u00fb # o # o # \u00ed\u001bi\u001bi\u001a\u00f9\u00ff ] \u0000 $ \u0001bp \\ : 5 : 5 : \u00162d2d20 * y * y * \u0089\n\u00f8\n\u00f8 # s\u001a\u00f5\u001a\u00f5\u001a\u0087\u00ff ] \u0000 $ \u0002bq\u0098 ; \u00b6 ; \u00b6 ; \u00933\u00e73\u00e73\u00b0 , \u0004 , \u0004 , \u0016 $ \u0096 $ \u0096 $ \u00fe m m \u0014\u00ffr\u0000 \u0000\u0001\u0000\u0001\u0001\u0005\u0004\u0004\u0000\u0000\u00ffd\u0000\u000f\u0000\u0001lwf _ jp2 _ 204\u00ff\u0090\u0000 \u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000n\u008b\u0000\u0001\u00ff\u0093\u00e7\u00ff\u0000\u00fau\u007f\u00fc\u0007\u00bbl\u00fe\u00f9\u00bf\u00ea\u00e4\u009d _ { \u00b8\u0000\u00a4\u00fagv0\u0094z\u00b3\u0018\u008c g\u009c5\u00e9 3\u0011\u00b4i6 ' \u00ed\u00eem\u00a4\u00e5\u00f10\u0007\u00fbr\u0082mw ] \u00ae\u00e1\u00e4\u00e5 _ \u0080\u00af\u0087\u0097 ~ < \u00e4 \u00f4g\u0082\u00efy\u00a4\u00f5xe\u00bd + \u0083\u00ec\u00b6\u00f6\u0006\u0007\u0000\u00eep\u00b7 ) \u00a1\u00ac\u00b2 c5y\u00f6\u00e7\u000f\u00e5\u00f9\u0084\u00aa\u00feh\u0082s\u00f9\u00bd\u00e8\u00e4\u00e9\u0012k * \u0004\u00bc\u0003v\u00afd2l\u0090 . s\u00eb\u00e4\u001a\u009b\u0088\u00b8 @ \u00ed\u00f5\u00f7\u0017\u00e1\u00e80\u00f5\u00b3\u00fds\u0013\u00e5 ( \u00e0t\u00a7\u0097d\u0084\u00e0s\u00f8lj + \u001b\u0098\u009f\u00e5n\u00fd\u008c\u009e\u009b\u00fb { u\u008f\u008d\u0010n\u00fev\u00ab\u0090u\u0002\u00ae ; \u0098q\b\u00a2\u00ea ? 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' g\u00b1 \u00be\u008f @ \u0081\u0087 } \u00e1bj6\u0005\u00eb\u00e8\u00e9d\u0089rs\u008e\u008e\u008f = q ` \u00e5\u00b8a\u00edcw\u00a8h\u009b\u00e3er\u00ed\u00e9\u000e\u008b\u00ba\u00bekl\u00e0\u0007\u0088x\u00b2\u008av\u0000j\u001a\u00b0 ; h\u0088\u00e8c # \u00f9 \u00bae\u00f4\n\u00e5\u0007\u0015\u00ae\u00f3\u00ea\u00a9r\u00e2\u00bf ] [ \u00f1\n& \u0004h\u00ed\u00f9\u00e3\u0003 2ef ) \u00e1\u00ba\u00f8 @ \u0086\u00a6 \u00f1wy3\u00e4\u0087uh\u00f7a8 - \u00b0\u00e4 @ 0\u0000\u00e6\u00e1\u007f\u00f1\u00fbel - \u0012 ? \u00a8\u0092ry [ $ \u00e9\u0004y\u00b4 % a\u00a6\u00f4\u0096\u00f4b\u0005\u0014l\u00e1 & \u009a\u0097nl\u00a5 ? \u0098a ] \u00eel\u00a3\u008cf > \\ \u0083\u00fa\u00e5fc\u00a1\u0088\u00e4\u00ad\u009e\u00bb\u00f2q\u00f8 . & \u00ee ^ v\u00fa\u00ac\u00a2\u00ed\u0099\u000f\u0014 [ \u00ed\u0006\u00eam\u00e4\u00e0 \u008d\u00e9\u00e2\u0017\u00df\u0081\u008e \u00fcc\u00e4\u00aa6\u00fc ? \u007ft\u00fa\u00f6\u00e2 _ \u00fe \u0083 \u008a\u00ab ! \u0006\u00bb\u009e > \u00faq * d\u00a3n\u009en\u0081\u00ae\u00e5q > ( d : \u00fc\u00e2\u00e7\nd\u00e9 - - n0\u0093\u00fd ] \u000e \u0001f @ | \u008fi\u0086\u009f\u009b\u00a2\u00d7\u00b6\u0082\u0005v\u00b3g\u00e7 < \u00b6u\u00e2x & c ; \u00b8 $ \u0084 ] \u00d7r\u0018q\u00ecq\u0083og\u0080\u00ec\u00e8\u0083\u0099\u00ea3 ~ \u0087\u00ea\u0099\u0007\u00aa\u00ea \u0007\u00fc ^ \u0003 _ \u008d { hbh\u00a2\u0086\u0095r ~ \u00ef \\ \u00fc\u0090\u00e6\u00e02ey\u00ee\u0087 ! \u00ba\u00e0\u00f3\u00a9\u00f6\u00f4u\u0017\u00f9\u001b\u00b6\u00e0t & @ { \u00few\u00f54g\u00eb ! \u0019l % \u00bc\u00e5\u001b\u0080\u0018\u0088\u009c e\u00e8 = \u00ed = : d\u0000p\u00f7\u009b\u009dap ` \u00f1\u00ee\u009c\u00e9\u00b8\u00f4 \u00b0\u00e2\u00f0\u0011\u008f u\u009f } \u000e\u008f\u009b\u00ae ; ^ 8\u00e0xn\u0019r\u00050l\u008c \u00a8 ` 8 [ \u00een | ; \u0087\u00f2 @ # w\u008c\u00f5\u00e8 ! \u00ff\u0000\u00f70\u0084\u0088 ; 4\u0014\u00feu\u00f4\u00e2 @ % o\u00a7\u009dmo . rf } k ? 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\u009ck\u00f9\nh\u0082\u0080\u00f0\u0002\u00ec\u00fb\u0003\u0088\nwp0\u00e0\u0003gt6yx\u00e5\u0091\u0094\u00f6\u009ee\u00e73\u0005\u00e1\u00fd\u00f5\u008br \u001b\u00e3\u00a6\u0015\u0093 { \u0004\u0015n\u00e3\u00eb @ b\u00ea ~ \u00e1 ) ^ j\u00f74\u008d\u00bdb\u00b4 \u008c ^ \u00e3\u00b24 ! \u00a8\u00ee\u0007\u00f7g\u00e0\u00f5\u00fcgirfz\u00e9\u008e\u0016 ^ \u00fc\u0013n\u00d7f0\u00f8\u00ea\u0096\u00ed\u00f3\u00e1d\u0004\u0096\u0091 ] \u00e2g\u00e1 _ \u00fe\u0086\u00f6\u0013\u0019\u0001 uk\u00e3 $ \u0011\u00b61 [ ? \u0081\u00bbg\u00b9\u00e3\u00aagm\u008f + \u0091\u0002\u00adc\u00f51 . k\u0000p\u00e6\u00e9\u0096\u00b8t\u0092 ! \u008d\u0097\n* r $ \u0007\u00e3\u00ea\u00e0d , b % m\u008d\u0083 \u0093\u00ac\u00bf\u0013\u00f9 iy\u00fe\b\u00d7\u00ba\u0010\u00f2m\u00ee\u0090r\u0098\u001a2\u00f6\u0012\u00f2\u00bd\u008a \u0087\u0086z\u00bb\u0002z\u0096m6\u0087\u009b ? \u00ed\u00b8y\u00af ~ \u0087q\u00a1yy\b\u00a45\u00062 ~\na\u00b2\u00a3\u00b7 / \u00bb ` b ? \u00a4\u00b73\u00a3w\u0089n\u0087\u00ec\u0080 # \u0017 - \u0096\u00e6\u00fa8\u00ae65 , \u00fdq _ * gx\u00b4\u00e0\u00a8\u00bc % ] \u00f5\u00e75 ] c \u0098\u0014\u00f4j [ \u00e6m\u00eb7\u0096 z } hbo\u000f = \u00a9\u00ac > 3jc\u0001\u009e\u00e9\u00a4\u0011\u00efn\u00f7\u00f0e ' n # h7\u00f3\u0001mx\u00f8z\u00e5 _ \u008b\u00f0\u0092d\u00ee\u00e9\u00e4\u00e0\u00f0t ~ & \u009f\u00bf\u0007 - ddl\u00e1\u00ec , z\u00fd\u0080 \u00f5\u00af | \u00f3 ] [ \u0017 @ \u00f5\u00e6 \u0019j\u0012\u000e\u00a6\u00eb - \u00e8o > \u008b \u00ef\u00eec\u00bbt\u00b4\u008ca\u00f5\u00fe\u00afd \u00ea\u0012d\u008a\u00e8\u00e6\u00b7o\u00f8 e\u00e4\u0002\u0090 ? \u00e5\u009f\u0017\u009b\u00f8\u00bf\u00ba } b\u00fe\u00fe = \u00f1p \u00f0\u00b3 ) \u0094\u0006r ' k\u0093\u00ba\u00f6\u0081\u00e6h\u009b $ \u00fb\u0004 $ \u00e7\u0010 % \u00fd ] g0\u00bbd\u0080\u00b8\u00a5\u0016\u00a58\u00e2\u00004\u000e \u00a3 { ! \u009e\u00d7\u00a2\u0017\u00fe _ \u0005\u00e57r\u00e7g\u00fe\u00edw\u0013\u00b3\u00e4\u00f9\u00edz [ \u0088\u00e7\u00e5\u00f6\u007f\u00f2u\u00fc\u00df\u0013 % 9 ~ \u00b6\u00aag\u0010\u0007 = \u0092aya\u0089\n> stream \u0000\u0000\u0000 jp \u0087 \u0000\u0000\u0000\u0018ftypjpx \u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000jpx jp2 \u0000\u0000\u0000\u0012rreq\u0001\u0080\u0080\u0000\u0001\u0000 - \u0080\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000 - jp2h\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0016ihdr\u0000\u0000\u0004\u0080\u0000\u0000\u0002\u009b\u0000\u0003\u0007\u0007\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u000fcolr\u0001\u0000\u0001\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0010\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000jp2c\u00ffo\u00ffq\u0000 / \u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0002\u009b\u0000\u0000\u0004\u0080\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0002\u009b\u0000\u0000\u0004\u0080\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000\u0003\u0007\u0001\u0001\u0007\u0001\u0001\u0007\u0001\u0001\u00ff \\ \u0000 # bp\u00b7 @ w @ w @ ] 8\u00848\u00848s0\u00af0\u00af0\u00bd ) \u0019 ) \u0019 ) d \u00fb \u00fb \u00bb\u00ff ] \u0000 $ \u0001bp \\ @ @ @ \u00078 , 8 , 8\u001b0u0u0b ( \u00bb ( \u00bb ) \u0003 \u009e \u009e ` \u00ff ] \u0000 $ \u0002bq\u0098arara59 _ 9 _ 9m1\u008f1\u008f1\u009e * \u0004 * \u0004 * v ! \u00e3 ! \u00e3 ! \u009c\u00ffr\u0000 \u0000\u0001\u0000\u0001\u0001\u0005\u0004\u0004\u0000\u0000\u00ffd\u0000\u000f\u0000\u0001lwf _ jp2 _ 204\u00ff\u0090\u0000 \u0000\u0000\u0000\u0000 ) \u00a1\u0000\u0001\u00ff\u0093\u00ef\u00fc\u0007ip\u0014\u0000 \\ \u00acn [ \u0088\u00e70\u00ec\u0082d\u0000q\u0093t\u00bf\u00ffj\u00e5v\u00f0 ! \u00ed ' \u00fc & \u00e4 [ \u0003mu\u00ec\u00b2\u0000 . \u00bb ~ \u0088\u00f9\u000ec\u0099h\u000e ` u\u0097\u008e\u00ec\u00e3k\u00e46 & ' > \u008a\u00ed\u0007s\u00e5 [ \u00f0 / \u00b9\u00a3w\u00b6\u0084\u00e6h\u0096"]}
{"id": 1820, "summary": [{"text": "paraleptamphopus is a genus of amphipods in the family paraleptamphopidae endemic to new zealand .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the first species to be described was calliope subterraneus ( now paraleptamphopus subterraneus ) which was named by charles chilton in 1882 .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "george m. thomson described a second species in 1885 , as pherusa coerulea ( now paraleptamphopus caeruleus ) .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "although no other species have yet been formally described , it is thought that many more undescribed species exist . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "paraleptamphopus", "paragraphs": ["paraleptamphopus subterraneus stebbing , 1906 , p . 294 ; chilton , 1909b , p . 54 ( with synonyms ) .\npherusa coerulea , g . m . thomson in n . z . journ . sci . , vol . ii , p . 576 ( 1885 ) . paraleptamphopus coeruleus , hutton in index faunae n . z . , p . 259 ( 1904 ) . paraleptamphopus coeruleus , stebbing in \u201cdas tierreich amphipoda , \u201d p . 295 ( 1906 ) .\nit was from the same artesian that the specimens of paraleptamphopus subterraneus already referred to were obtained , so that the two species are associated in the underground waters at st . albans , as they are in other parts of the canterbury plains .\ncalliope subterranea , chilton . in n . z . journ . sci . , vol . i , p . 44 , and trans . n . z . inst . , vol . xiv , p . 177 , pl . ix , figs . 1\u201310 ( 1882 ) . calliopius subterraneus , chilton in trans . linn . soc . london , ser . 2 , vol . vi , p . 234 , pl . xxiii , figs . 10\u201318 ( 1894 ) . paraleptamphopus subterraneus , hutton in index faunae n . z . , p . 259 ( 1904 ) . paraleptamphopus subterraneus , chilton in p . z . s . london , 1906 , p . 704 ( 1906 ) . paraleptamphopus subterraneus , stebbing ' in \u201cdas tierreich amphipoda , \u201d p . 294 ( 1906 ) .\nseveral invertebrates can be found in seepages , trichoptera and diptera dominate the habitat . there also have been found some undescribed species of the amphipod paraleptamphopus , the stratiomyid odontomyia , the chironomid ? apsectrotanypus , the caddis orthopsyche thomasi and alloecentrella magnicornis , and several species of scirtid , elmid and hydrophilid beetles . in addition , some species new to science were discovered , including species of cased chironomid belonging to the genus stempellina ( tanytarsini ) , the first record of this genus in new zealand , and two new species of hydrobiid snails ( collier & smith 2006 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, m . a . , d . sc . , f . l . s . , professor of biology , canterbury college , n . z .\n[ read before the philosophical institute of canterbury , 4th november , 1908 . ]\n, a species described in 1907 from a single specimen collected by mr . crosby smith on mount anglem , stewart island . this species was of special interest as the first species of\n, a species inhabiting the underground waters of the canterbury plains . during the last few years , too , several facts referring to the other freshwater\nhave been collected , and it seems , desirable to gather them together here . this group of the\nof australia and elsewhere . since then many of the gaps have been filled up , and , though our knowledge is still far from complete , some comparison of the fresh - water\ni have arranged the species according to the classification in stebbing ' s \u201cdas tierreich amphipoda , \u201d and have given only such references as appeared necessary ; others will be found in that elaborate and exhaustive work .\nthe same time mr . laing also found the species in surface streams at otautau , in southland , in company with the next species , p . coeruleus . the two species were found together in two different streams in that locality , and though very different in appearance , one being colourless\u2014almost white\u2014and the other dark blue , they appeared to be living together under precisely the same conditions . mr . laing thinks that probably the p . subterraneus may have got into the surface streams from springs feeding the streams , much in the same way as appears to have occurred at castle hill .\nmr . o . a . sayce * has called attention to the occurrence of three blind fresh - water crustacea in the surface waters of victoria , and has given many interesting facts with regard to them and their surface allies . other examples of the same thing have been recorded from north america also . in the present case we have p . subterraneus living side by side at otautau with p . coeruleus , to which it is so closely allied that we may consider it as a subterranean modification of that species .\nas already stated , this species may be looked upon as the surface form from which p . subterraneus has arisen .\ncalliope fluviatilis , g . m . thomson in trans . n . z . , inst . , vol . xi , p . 240 , pl . x c , figs . 4 a - c ( 1879 ) . paracalliope fluviatilis , hutton in index faunae n . z . , p . 259 ( 1904 ) . paracalliope fluviatilis , chilton in p . z . s . london , 1906 , p . 704 ( 1906 ) . paracalliope fluviatilis , stebbing in \u201cdas tierreich amphipoda , \u201d p . 297 .\nthis species is extremely abundant in all the fresh - water streams of new zealand , and also in many of the ponds formed by them . i have seldom failed to find it in such positions in the south island , and , though i have fewer specimens from the north island , it doubtless occurs there\n[ footnote ] * \u201con three blind victorian fresh - water crustacea found in surface water , \u201d ann : nat . hist . , ser . 7 , vol . viii , pp . 558\u201364 .\nalmost as abundantly\u2014i have it from rona bay , wellington harbour , and also from island bay ; and messrs . lucas and hodgkin obtained specimens from lake waikare . besides being found in fresh water , however , this species is also able to live in salt water . i have on different occasions taken it in great abundance in otago harbour in the ordinary sea - water , associated with the usual marine forms . i have also taken it at island bay , wellington , in a pool near high - water mark , which would doubtless be filled with sea - water at particularly high tides , though the water was only slightly brackish at the time i collected the specimens .\nmr . stebbing considers pherusa australis , haswell , to be a synonym of this species , and thinks that cedicerus novi - zealandice , dana , may perhaps also belong to it . i have , however , specimens that i think undoubtedly are to be referred to the latter species , and they belong to the cedicerotidce , and are apparently the same as carolobatea schneideri ( stebbing ) . i am dealing with them in my report on the crustacea collected by the recent expedition to the subantarctic islands of new zealand .\ncrangonyx compactus , chilton in n . z . journ . sci . , vol . i , p . 44 , and trans . n . z . inst . , vol . xiv , p . 177 , pl . x , figs . 13 - 19 ( 1882 ) . crangonyx compactus , chilton in trans . linn . soc . london , ser . 2 , vol . vi , p . 220 , pl . xx ( 1894 ) . paracrangonyx compactus , stebbing in \u201cdas tierreich amphipoda , \u201d p . 369 ( 1906 ) .\nthis is a subterranean species found in the underground waters of canterbury ' plains , and has been fully described in my paper in the trans . linn . soc . london referred to above . in that paper i stated that the subterranean crustaceans , though common in the shallow wells on the plains , had not hitherto been found in the artesian wells of christchurch . since then , however , mr . j . b . mayne has brought me one or two specimens of this species from an artesian at st . albans , christchurch . this artesian is sunk only to the first water - bearing stratum , and probably is not more than 70 ft . deep .\ngammarus fragilis , chilton in n . z . journ . sci . , vol . i , p . 44 ( 1882 ) , and trans . n . z . inst . , vol . xiv , p . 179 , pl . ix , figs . 11 - 18 . gammarus fragilis , chilton in trans . linn . soc . london , ser . 2 , vol . vi , p . 227 , pl . xxi , figs . 1 - 25 ( 1894 ) . phreatogammarus fragilis , stebbing in \u201cdas tierreich amphipoda , \u201d p . 454 ( 1906 ) .\nthis species is found in the underground waters of canterbury plains , and has been already fully described in my paper in the trans . linn . soc . london quoted above . its special characteristic is the possession of very long antennae , peraeopods , & c . , and in this respect it resembles several other subterranean species from other parts of the world .\nit is closely related to the next species , p . propinquus , but differs in the gnathopods , having the 2 pairs similar in size and shape and with the propod oval and the palm very oblique , while the carpus in each is very short and triangular .\nphreatogammarus propinquus , chilton in ann . nat . hist . , ser . 7 , vol . xix , pp . 388\u201390 , pl . xi ( 1907 ) .\nthis species was described in 1907 from a single imperfect specimen collected by mr . crosby smith in a small pool near the top of mount anglem , in stewart island , at a height of about 2 , 800 ft . above sea - level . in february , 1908 , i obtained a few specimens from a small stream at rona bay , in wellington harbour . the place at which they were obtained is only a short distance above high - water mark , but the water was quite fresh , and the species was found in association with parorchestia tenuis ( dana ) and other fresh - water animals . i also have had for many years a mounted specimen sent me from greymouth by mr . r . helms , which i had not previously been able to recognise with certainty , but which i can now tell from comparison with rona bay specimens is undoubtedly a female specimen of this species .\nthe species is of special interest owing to its relationship to the subterranean species phreatogammarus fragilis ( chilton ) from the underground waters of the canterbury plains . in describing p . propinquus i pointed out that the generic characters given by mr . stebbing required slight modification in order to admit the species . in the specimen then described it was impossible to say whether eyes were present or not , owing to its imperfect condition ; in the rona bay and greymouth specimens , however , the eyes are present and well marked , so that the character \u201cwithout eyes\u201d included in mr . stebbing ' s generic diagnosis will also have to be struck out , and the genus phreatogammarus is thus shown to be still nearer to gammarus .\nrespects the 1st gnathopod is closely similar to the 2nd gnathopod . some or all of the setae in the transverse rows on the posterior margin of the carpus in both gnathopods are finely serrate .\nthe differences in the 2nd gnathopod between the rona bay specimens and the mount anglem one are perhaps sexual . the rona bay specimen described is a female , bearing eggs in the brood - pouches , while the mount anglem specimen , with the larger and more oval propod in the 2nd gnathopod , is probably a male ; but , as the few rona bay specimens that i have , appear to be all females , this point cannot at present be definitely settled .\nhyalella mihiwaka , chilton in ann . nat . hist . , ser . 7 , vol . i , p . 423 , pl . xviii ( 1899 ) . chiltonia mihiwaka , stebbing in \u201cdas tierreich amphipoda , \u201d p . 555 ( 1906 ) .\nthis species was described from specimens found in mountain - streams near dunedin . during the recent subantarctic expedition specimens were collected both at the auckland islands and at campbell island . mr . o . a . sayce has described 2 species from the fresh waters of victoria\u2014one , c . australis , has the 3rd uropod less reduced , and consequently approaches more nearly to the genus hyalella ; the other species , c . subtenuis , is more typical of the genus as regards the 3rd uropod , and is apparently closely related to c . mihiwaka , but differs in having shorter antennae and a more slender body .\nthe genus hyalella , to which chiltonia is closely related , is well represented in the fresh waters of america , particularly in south america . many species have been described from lake titicaca by faxon , * and more recently by monsieur edouard chevreux . \u2020 the various species , although all closely related , show a great variety in the form of the body , the projection of the different segments into spinal processes , and so on .\norchestia tenuis , dana in p . amer . ac . , vol . ii , p . 202 ( 1852 ) . orchestia tenuis , dana in u . s . expl . exp . , vol . xiii , ii , p . 872 , pl . lix , fig . 1 ( 1853 and 1855 ) . parorchestia tenuis , stebbing in \u201cdas tierreich amphipoda , \u201d p . 557 ( 1906 ) .\nthis species has been frequently mentioned by previous authors , but , as with many species of the orchestidce , it is very difficult to identify with certainty , and considerable confusion has arisen with regard to it . it has been recently redescribed by mr . stebbing , and i refer to the species ( as defined by him . ) specimens obtained in a fresh - water stream at rona bay , wellington harbour , and others obtained in similar situations at akaroa and elsewhere . i also found it on the seashore at campbell island , at the mouth of a small stream , and it seems probable that it is a species which can live either in brackish or in fresh water , and perhaps , like many other orchestidce , it may be also more or less terrestrial in habit .\n[ footnote ] * bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard college , vol . iii , no . 16 ( cambridge , mass . , 1876 ) .\n[ footnote ] \u2020 \u201cles amphipodes des lacs des hants plateaux de l ' amerique du sud\u201d ( extract from mission scientifique , g . de cr\u00e9qui montfort et e . s\u00e9nechal de la grange ) .\ncorophium excavatum , g . m . thomson in trans . n . z . inst . , vol . xvi , p . 236 , pl . xii , figs . 1 - 8 ( 1884 ) . paracorophium excavatum , hutton in index faunae n . z . , p . 261 ( 1904 ) . paracorophium excavatum , chilton in p . z . s . london , 1906 , p . 704 ( 1906 ) . paracorophium excavatum , stebbing in \u201cdas tierreich amphipoda , \u201d p . 664 ( 1906 ) .\nthis species was originally described by mr . thomson from the brighton creek ( salt water ) , near dunedin . subsequently i took it from the same creek at a time when the water was almost fresh , and specimens lived in some of the some water for several months . i have also specimens taken from brackish water at napier . messrs . lucas and hodgkin afterwards took it near lake rotoiti ( 5 fathoms ) , and in lake waikare , where , of course , the water is perfectly fresh . it therefore appears to be one of several species of our new zealand amphipoda that are able to live either in salt or in fresh water .\nso far as i am aware , it is the only known fresh - water species of the family corophiid\u00e6 .\n( of calliope subterranea chilton , 1882 ) chilton c . ( 1882 ) . on some subterranean crustacea . transactions and proceedings of the new zealand institute , 14 , pp . 174 - 180 ; pls . 9 - 10 . [ details ]\nhorton , t . ; lowry , j . ; de broyer , c . ; bellan - santini , d . ; coleman , c . o . ; corbari , l . ; daneliya , m . ; dauvin , j - c . ; fi\u0161er , c . ; gasca , r . ; grabowski , m . ; guerra - garc\u00eda , j . m . ; hendrycks , e . ; hughes , l . ; jaume , d . ; jazdzewski , k . ; kim , y . - h . ; king , r . ; krapp - schickel , t . ; lecroy , s . ; l\u00f6rz , a . - n . ; mamos , t . ; senna , a . r . ; serejo , c . ; sket , b . ; souza - filho , j . f . ; tandberg , a . h . ; thomas , j . ; thurston , m . ; vader , w . ; v\u00e4in\u00f6l\u00e4 , r . ; vonk , r . ; white , k . ; zeidler , w . ( 2018 ) . world amphipoda database .\nfenwick g . d . ( 2001 ) . the freshwater amphipoda ( crustacea ) of new zealand : a review . journal of the royal society of new zealand , 31 , 2 , pp . 341 - 363 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nhabitat freshwater , epigean , slow moving streams and pools , lowlands to 900 m above sea level . [ details ]\n( of pherusa caerulea thomson , 1885 ) thomson g . m . ( 1885 ) . new crustacea . new zealand journal of science , 2 , pp . 576 - 577 . [ details ]\nstebbing , t . r . r . ( 1899 ) . revision of amphipoda ( continued ) . annals and magazine of natural history . ( ser . 7 ) 4 : 205 - 211 . [ details ]\n, m . a . , d . sc . , ll . d . , & c . , professor of biology , canterbury college , n . z .\n[ read before the philosophical institute of canterbury , 6th december , 1922 ; received by editor , 31st december , 1922 ; issued separately , 18th june , 1924 . ]\nseba typica chilton , 1906 , p . 572 ; 1921 , p . 56 . s . saundersii stebbing , 1906 , p . 163 ( part ) .\nspecimens which i have referred to this species were taken by the f . i . s . \u201cendeavour\u201d off the east coast of flinders island , bass strait . the largest of these were about 4 . 5 mm . long , and were apparently fully developed males . in them the palm of the second gnathopod was distinctly oblique , and the basal and meral joints of the fifth peraeopod widely expanded posteriorly . smaller specimens have the palm transverse and the meral joint only slightly expanded . although there was no female bearing eggs in the collection , there were specimens in which the first gnathopod was distinctly chelate , the palm being on a projecting portion of the propod against which the finger impinges ; these i considered to be females , or very young males not yet differing in structure from females . other specimens showed transitional forms between the chelate limb and the subchelate gnathopod with oblique palm ; some of them had the palm quite transverse .\nin february , 1922 , i collected from seaweed exposed at low tide at kaikoura three small specimens about 3 mm . long . one of these proved to be a female bearing two large eggs in the brood - pouch ; it had the first gnathopod chelate , as described in my original account , and the joints of the fifth peraeopod not expanded . the other two bore no eggs , but were otherwise similar , though slightly smaller .\nit is very probable that all the forms of seba described under different names really belong to one species . walker , however , describes the males of s . antarctica as dimorphic , one form being like the females , the other differing in having the joints of the fifth peraeopod greatly expanded but having the first gnathopod chelate as in the females . walker ' s first form of male is , i think , only an immature stage of the second form ; while the latter , if fully mature , differs from the australian specimens in still having the first gnathopod chelate . it is possible , however , that it is not fully developed , and has not yet attained the oblique palm of the male , though it has the joints of the peraeopod expanded . the largest male\u2014 i . e . , the one of which walker gives a full figure\u2014was 7 mm . long , and therefore larger than specimens from bass strait having oblique palms ; but the antarctic specimens probably grow to a much larger size than those found farther north , and the specimen may not be mature though 7 mm . long . this supposition appears to be confirmed by the fact that the second male examined by walker is 5 mm . long , but has the peraeopod joints less expanded than in australian specimens , which are slightly smaller .\n[ footnote ] * previous numbers of this series have appeared in trans . n . z . inst . as follow : no . 1 , vol . 52 , p . 1 ; no . 2 , vol . 53 , p . 220 ; no . 3 , vol . 54 , p . 240 .\nstenothoe validus dana , 1853\u201355 , p . 924 , pl . 63 , fig . 1 , a - o . s . valida stebbing , 1906 , p . 194 ; walker , 1910 , p . 621 ; kunkel , 1910 , p . 16 ; . chevreux , 1913 , p . 3 . s . valida ( part ) della valle , 1893 , p . 566 , pl . 58 , figs . 74\u201378 ; chilton , 1923 , p . 95 . s . adhaerens chilton , 1892 , p . 259 ( ? not stebbing , 1888 , p . 1999 ) . s . assimilis chevreux , 1908 , p . 4 ; walker , 1910 , p . 621 . montagua miersii and m . longicornis haswell , 1880 , p . 323 , pl . 24 , figs . 4 , 5 . montaguana miersii chilton , 1883 , p . 79 . probolium miersii chilton , 1885 , p . 1043 . stenothoe miersii stebbing , 1906 , p . 200 . ? stenothoe dollfusi chevreux , 1887 , p . 327 ; 1891 , p . 260 stebbing , 1906 , p . 196 .\nin the older males the mouth - parts appear to become degenerate . i have , however , discussed this question more fully , and also the reasons for referring the species to the one originally described by dana , in the records of the australian museum , vol . 14 , p . 95 .\ni have recently received specimens from the hawaiian islands which appear to belong to this species .\nbovallia monoculoides chilton , 1909 , p . 622 ; 1912 , p . 494 ; 1921 , p . 66 . eusiroides monoculoides chevreux , 1908 , p . 478 ; stebbing , 1910 , p 595 ; barnard , 1916 , p . 174 . eusiroides caesaris walker , 1904 , p . 264 .\nin 1909 i referred to this species specimens from the auckland islands ; but it has not hitherto been recorded from the coasts of the main islands of new zealand . i have now , however , in my collection numerous specimens from different localities extending from the three kings to otago harbour .\nthese are all much smaller than the specimens from the auckland islands , none of them measuring more than about 8 mm . in length , but they\nagree closely with specimens of similar size from port jackson , new south wales , the type - locality . in none of them are any of the segments produced into definite dorsal teeth , but all have the posterior margin of the third pleon segments serrate , as described by stebbing for eusiroides caesari , though in one or two instances the teeth are rather indistinct , thus approaching the condition found in e . crassi .\nthe species has been recorded from south africa by barnard , from ceylon by walker , and from the gambier archipelago by chevreux . of the two specimens from the latter locality , one was a female bearing young , though only 4 mm . in length . of them chevreux says , \u201cchez ces exemplaires , le bord post\u00e9rieur des plaques \u00e9pim\u00e9rales du dernier segment du m\u00e9tasome , moins convexe que chez le type , ne pr\u00e9sente que des cr\u00e9nelures peu distincts . \u201d\nif bovallia gigantea pfeffer is considered as belonging to the same species , corresponding to the form described by stebbing under the name eusiroides crassi , then the range of the species is extended to the subantarctic and antarctic seas to the south of south america .\ni have been able to compare my new zealand specimens with examples of eusiroides della - vallei chevreux from banyuls - sur - mer , on the south coast of france , and can find little difference between the two .\nlocalities . \u2014off three kings , 60\u201365 fathoms ( chilton ) ; cook strait cable , off oterangi bay ( h . b . kirk ) ; cook strait cable ( captain j . w . grey ) ; north - west of cape maria van diemen , 50 fathoms ( chilton ) ; moeraki , east coast otago ( chilton ) ; otago harbour , surface ( g . m . thomson ) ; lyttelton reef ( r . m . laing ) ; lyall bay ( r . m . laing ) .\nchiltonia mihiwaka stebbing , 1906 , p . 555 : chilton , 1909a , p . 644 ; 1909b , p . 57 .\nthis species was described from specimens obtained in streams on mount mihiwaka , near port chalmers , at heights up to about 1 , 000 ft . above sea - level . later on mr . g . m . thomson collected it in similar localities on mount maungatua and other hills in the neighbourhood of dunedin . during the expedition of the philosophical institute of canterbury to the subantarctic islands of new zealand in 1907 , specimens were taken in fresh - water pools and streams on enderby island , auckland island , and campbell island , at places not far above sea - level . these specimens differed from the type in having the palm of the second gnathopod in the male oblique instead of transverse , and prove to be the same as c . subtenuis sayce , a species found in new south wales , victoria , and western australia .\nin december , 1922 , i found two specimens , male and female , in coitu , in a small fresh - water stream at riverton , southland , just about high - water mark . it was low tide at the time , and the water in which the animals were living was quite fresh , but the sea - water would reach the place at high tide . both specimens were deeply pigmented of a dark - grey colour , while the port chalmers specimens are usually much lighter , some being almost white . the riverton specimens resemble those from mount mihiwaka so much that they must be considered as belonging to the same species , but there are some slight differences . the second gnathopod of the male ( fig . 1 ) * has the palm quite transverse , and the dactyl has a rounded\n[ footnote ] * the illustrations for this paper were drawn for me by miss beryl parlane , one of my students .\nlobe on the concave margin towards its base which is not found in the type . in the male specimen the first or upper antennae are distinctly shorter than the second , while in the type they were of equal length . in the enderby and auckland islands specimens the first antennae are considerably longer than the second . the relative lengths of the antennae in a few of the specimens in my collection are shown in the diagram given below , the first being represented by unbroken lines , the second by dotted\n[ the section below cannot be correctly rendered as it contains complex formatting . see the image of the page for a more accurate rendering . ]\nlines . it will be seen that the antennae vary in length on the two sides , and in specimens from different localities . the generic diagnosis given by stebbing ( 1906 , p . 555 ) , which says \u201cantennae 1 and 2 equal in length , \u201d must be altered to \u201cantennae 1 and 2 nearly equal in length . \u201d\nthe genus was established by stebbing for the species now under consideration , which had been described under hyalella . two fresh - water species from australia described by sayce belong to chiltonia , and other\nspecies have been described by geoffrey smith . several fresh - water species of hyalella are known from south america , and one that i have examples of ( h . warmingii stebbing ) presents many resemblances to chiltonia , but has a small palp on the first maxilla and a fringed lobe on the carpus of the second gnathopod in the male . in chiltonia mihiwaka the third uropod is represented by a single small joint , and this character has been incorporated in stebbing ' s generic diagnosis . in the australia species , c . australis , the uropod is two - jointed , as in hyalella , so that the characters of the genus require further modification .\nfrom brackish water at cape town , south africa , barnard has described chiltonia capensis , which has no palp on the first maxilla and has the third uropod single - jointed , but differs in having the two gnathopods alike in both sexes\u2014thus requiring another modification of the characters of the genus .\nthe presence of very similar species in fresh and brackish waters in new zealand , australia , south america , and south africa is important from a zoogeographical standpoint , and it is desirable that a careful comparison of the species in question should be made .\nthis species is now known to be widely spread over the southern portions of otago and southland , it has been recorded from swampy hill ( near dunedin ) , from the old man range , from the neighbourhood of invercargill , from ruapuke island , and i have recently collected it in abundance from several localities at drummond and otautau in southland . in these places it lives in ditches and small streams on the various weeds that grow in the water , in much the same way as the ordinary fresh - water paracalliope fluviatilis does , though this species was not found by me in the same ditches . with p . caeruleus there was , however , the other species , p . subterraneus , but it was usually found a little deeper down , either on the surface of the mud or actually in the mud . p . caeruleus is slightly smaller than p . subterraneus , and can readily be distinguished by its dark - blue colour . most of the specimens are so darkly coloured that they appear black , but some are paler , especially on the appendages .\nthe differences in structure from some of the forms of p . subterraneus are few and unimportant . the one that seems most constant is in the telson ,\nwhich is evenly rounded posteriorly and free from setules ; its upper surface is slightly convex ; the third uropods have the branches not much longer than the peduncle ( fig . 2 , urp 3 ) and , when seen in side view , slightly\ncurved upwards ; the gnathopoda are rather more slender than in p . subterraneus , with the armature of the palm somewhat different , the propod bearing crenulate markings at the point where the finger impinges , and the finger having numerous setules towards the extremity ( see figs . 2 , gn 1 * , gn 2 * ) .\nthe structure of p . subterraneus was somewhat fully dealt with by me in 1894 so far as the underground forms were concerned . it will only be necessary to mention now a few of the points in which differences occur in specimens from other localities . in all specimens the gnathopoda are of similar shape , the first stouter than the second ; in the eyreton specimens the palm of the first is minutely crenulate , but it is even in these from surface waters in southland . the appearance of the third uropod varies when seen from the side or from above . fig . 4 shows those of a specimen from eketahuna , fig . urp 3 being one of the pair seen from above , fig . urp 3 * the other from the side ; the branches are not much longer than the base , on the latter there is usually a small tuft of setules at the upper distal angle , and two or three separately placed on each upper margin . in specimens from southland streams the tuft at the distal\nangle may be larger , and there is sometimes a smaller but distinct tuft about the middle of the upper outer margin ( see fig . 6 ) . the telson is a flat oblong plate with lateral margins nearly straight , posterior corners narrowly rounded , and each usually bearing a single small setule , the posterior margin slightly concave . all these characters , and especially the last , are subject to modification even in individuals from the same locality ; thus one from wells at ashburton has the posterior margin much more deeply concave , and one corner without a setule ( fig . 7 ) .\nin the \u201cclippings\u201d and mount dick specimens the telson differs markedly from the more typical forms . the lateral margins are distinctly convex , the telson itself shorter and broader , the posterior margin deeply concave , and there are three or four setules at each corner and two or three more anteriorly placed on the lateral margin ( see figs . 8 and 9 ) .\ndifferently formed . the ordinary form is undoubtedly a female , being often found with eggs or young in the brood - pouch , and i looked upon the form with the large peculiar gnathopoda as the male . it differs so much , however , that it is not surprising that stebbing says ( 1906 , p . 295 ) ,\n\u201cthe supposed male is uncertain in respect to sex and to identity with the species . \u201d unfortunately i have seen very few specimens of the supposed male , and have now records of four only . one was dissected for use in drawing up the description i gave in 1894 and i have now\ngnathopods between those of the female and the fully developed male . unfortunately this was not the case , for its gnathopoda , though smaller and less bountifully supplied with spinules ( fig . 3 , gn 1 and gn 2 ) , are essentially the same as those figured in 1894 .\ni still feel convinced that the specimens in question are really males of p . subterraneus , for they are closely similar in all the characters except\nthose that may be looked upon as secondary male characters ; none of them bears eggs , and it seems unlikely that there should be two species living in the underground waters drawn upon by the one well , that many dozens of specimens of one species , all females , have been obtained , but of the other only less than half a dozen and these all males . it must be mentioned , however , that among the numerous specimens of p . subterraneus examined from other localities i have seen no similar males ; it is , of course , possible that some may have been overlooked , for the gnathopoda are more or less concealed by the deep side - plates .\ni give figures of the telson and uropoda of p . subterraneus from different localities . it will be seen that there is considerable variation , just as there is in the subterranean forms of niphargus in europe , and that in consequence there is room for much difference of opinion as to the number of \u201cspecies\u201d into which they should be divided . in new zealand the subterranean species is also found in surface waters , most of these specimens being still colourless and apparently blind ; though some\u2014viz . , those from \u201cclippings\u201d and mount dick\u2014are found at great heights above sea - level , and in colour and other characters show distinct transitions leading to the true surface form , p . caeruleus , from which the subterranean forms may be presumed to have been descended .\n\u2014\u2014 1923 . records australian museum , vol . 14 , pp . 79\u2013100 .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nkeyword search - try again , but check your spelling , and / or use fewer search terms .\nif we don ' t have it today , create a ' want ' and receive an automated email when the item is listed for sale .\nfind books from over 100 , 000 booksellers worldwide , for easy searches and price comparison .\nby using the web site , you confirm that you have read , understood , and agreed to be bound by the terms and conditions . \u00a9 1996 - 2018 abebooks inc . all rights reserved . abebooks , the abebooks logo , abebooks . com ,\npassion for books .\nand\npassion for books . books for your passion .\nare registered trademarks with the registered us patent & trademark office .\nwe don ' t know when or if this item will be back in stock .\nlist & earn rs . 250 * extra . available in bangalore , mumbai , chennai , hyderabad .\nenter your mobile number or email address below and we ' ll send you a link to download the free kindle app . then you can start reading kindle books on your smartphone , tablet , or computer - no kindle device required .\nprime members enjoy unlimited free , fast delivery on eligible items , video streaming , ad - free music , exclusive access to deals & more .\nafter viewing product detail pages , look here to find an easy way to navigate back to pages you are interested in .\nseepages and flushes form where groundwater emerges on hillsides to form soils that are mostly permanently saturated with relatively nutrient and oxygen rich water . seepages tend to be wetter for longer periods than flushes , which are often formed by a periodic pulse of water following rain ( johnson & gerbeaux 2004 ) . the high water table excludes most woody plants from these habitats and herbaceous species dominate . they are particularly rich in species where they form on limestone rock . they may be extensive in some circumstances , but they are often relatively small , covering no more than a few dozen square metres .\nseepages and flushes occur throughout new zealand from sea level to the upper alpine zone and are most common in the montane zone of wetter districts .\nthreatened and rare indeterminate flora include nationally critical limosella ( b ) ( chr 515038 ; manutahi ) , ranunculus ( b ) ( chr 324466 ; burgoo stream ) , and ranunculus ( a ) ( aku 19876 ; hope ) ; the naturally uncommon myosotis aff . pygmaea ( chr 244566 ; volcanic plateau ) and myosotis aff . tenericaulis ( ak 7570 ; garvie mountains ) .\nincreased nutrients and aeration associated with seepages / flushes may favour establishment of weeds , e . g . pasture grasses and herbs . because they may be small , they are often not recognised and suffer insidious deterioration in and near agricultural settings . unfenced seepage / flush wetlands in agricultural and natural settings are susceptible to grazing , trampling , and nutrient enrichment by domestic and feral animals . seepages / flushes are usually easily drained and converted to agriculture .\nbrownsey pj 1985 . ophioglossum petiolatum at hokio beach . wellington botanical society journal 42 : 33 - 34 .\nclarkson bd , clarkson br 2015 . a new record of brachyglottis turneri from north taranaki . new zealand botanical society newsletter 121 : 8 - 10 .\ncollier kj , smith bj 2006 . distinctive invertebrate assemblages in rockface seepages enhance lotic biodiversity in northern new zealand . biodiversity and conservation 15 : 3591 - 3616 .\njohnson p , gerbeaux p 2004 . wetland types in new zealand . wellington , department of conservation .\nwardle p 1991 . vegetation of new zealand . cambridge university press . 672 p .\napproximately 10 % of the crustacean specimens tested contained coliform bacteria and had apparently been feeding on sewage - derived material . the organisms tended to be more abundant in the more polluted wells but incidents of heavy contamination caused high mortality rates . some calculations using energetics data from surface water studies suggested that the standing crop of aquifer macro invertebrates could play a significant role in the consumption of sewage - derived organic matter reaching the phreatic zone beneath the templeton site .\napha , awwa & wpcf . , 1976 . standard methods for the examination of waters and wastewater , 14th edn . m . c . rand , a . e . greenberg & m . j . taras ( eds . ) . am . publ . hlth ass . , 1193 pp .\nbertrand , j - y . , 1975 . recherches sur les eaux souterraines - 27 - \u00e9tude d ' un aquif\u00e8re \u00e9pikarstique des corbi\u00e8res ( opoul , pyr\u00e9n\u00e9es - orientales ) . ann . sp\u00e9l\u00e9ol . 30 : 513\u2013537 .\nbutcher , r . w . , j . longwell & f . t . k . pentelow , 1937 . survey of the river tees , 3 . the non - tidal reaches . chemical and biological . techn . pap . wat . pollution res . lond . 6 : 187 pp .\nchilton , c . , 1881 . on some subterranean crustacea . trans . new zealand inst . 24 : 258\u2013269 .\nchilton , c . , 1882 . notes on , and a new species of , subterranean crustacea . trans . new zealand inst . 25 : 87\u201392 .\nchilton , c . , 1894 . the subterranean crustacea of new zealand : with some general remarks on the fauna of caves and wells . trans . linn . soc . lond . , second ser . - zool . 6 : 163\u2013284 .\nclimo , f . m . , 1974 . description and affinities of the subterranean molluscan fauna of new zealand . new zealand j . zool . 1 : 247\u2013284 .\nclimo , f . m . , 1977 . notes on the new zealand hydrobiid fauna ( mollusca : gastropoda : hydrobiidae ) . j . r . soc . new zealand 7 : 67\u201377 .\nfenchel , t . m . & b . b . jorgensen , 1977 . detritus food chains of aquatic ecosystems ; the role of bacteria . in m . alexander ( ed . ) , advances in microbial ecology . m . plenum press , n . y . , 199\u2013206 .\ngeldreich , e . e . , 1966 . sanitary significance of faecal coliforms in the environment . u . s . dep . interior , fedl wat . pollution control adm . publ . wp - 20 - 3 , 122 pp .\nholsinger , j . r . , 1966 . a preliminary study on the effects of organic pollution of banners corner cave , virginia . int . j . speleol . 2 : 75\u201389 .\nhusmann , s . , 1958 . untersuchungen \u00fcber die sandl\u00fcckenfauna der bremischen langsamfilter . abh . braunschweigischen wiss . ges . 10 : 93\u2013116 .\nhusmann , s . , 1966 . die organismengemeinschaften der sandluckensysteme in naturlichen biotopen and langsamsandfiltern . ver\u00f6ff . hydrol . forsch . abt . dortmunder stadtwerke ag 9 : 93\u2013113 .\nhusmann , s . , 1975 . versuche zur erfassung der vertikalen verteilung von organismen und chemischen substanzen im grundwasser von talauen und terrassen ; methoden und erste befund . int . j . speleol . 6 : 271\u2013302 .\nhusmann , s . , 1978 . die bedeutung der grundwasserfauna f\u00fcr biologische reinigungsvorg\u00e4nge im interstitial von lockergesteinen . gwf wass . abwass . 119 : 293\u2013302 .\nmartin , g . n . & m . j . noonan , 1977 . effects of wastewater disposal by land irrigation on groundwater quality of the central canterbury plains . wat . & soil techn . publ . 7 . mwd , wellington , new zealand , 25 pp .\nin marion lake , british colombia . j . fish . res . b . can . 28 : 711\u2013726 .\nordish , r . g . , 1976 . two new genera and species of subterranean water beetle from new zealand ( coleoptera : dytiscidae ) . new zealand j . zool . 3 : 1\u201310 .\nrouch , r . , 1980 . le syst\u00e8me karstique du baget , 10 . la communaut\u00e9 des harpacticides . richesse sp\u00e9cifique , diversit\u00e9 et structures d ' abondances de la nomoc\u00e9nose hypog\u00e9e . ann . limnol . 16 : 1\u201320 .\nrouch , r . & l . bonnet , 1976 . recherches sur les eaux souterraines . - 28 - le syst\u00e8me karstique du baget , 4 . premi\u00e8res donn\u00e9es sur la structure et l ' organisation de la communaut\u00e9 des harpacticides . ann . sp\u00e9l\u00e9ol . 31 : 27\u201341 .\nschminke , h . k . , 1973 . evolution , system und verbreitungsgeschichte der familie parabathynellidae ( bathynellacea , malacostraca ) . akad . wiss . lit . mainz , math . nat . kl . , mikrofauna meersboden 24 : 1\u2013192 .\nsinton , l . w . & m . e . close , 1983 . groundwater tracing experiments . publ . 2 hydrol . cent . , christchurch . mwd , christchurch , new zealand , 36 pp .\nthorpe , h . r . , r . j . burden & d . m . scott , 1982 . potential for contamination of the heretaunga plains aquifers . wat . & soil techn . publ . 24 . mwd , wellington , new zealand . 149 pp .\nwelch , e . b . , 1980 . ecological effects of wastewater . cambridge university press , 337 pp .\nwilliams , d . d . & h . b . n . hynes , 1974 . the occurrence of benthos deep in the substratum of a stream . freshwat . biol . 4 : 233\u2013256 ."]}
{"id": 1829, "summary": [{"text": "the harlequin tree frog , rhacophorus pardalis , is a species of frog in the rhacophoridae family found in brunei , indonesia , malaysia , thailand , and the philippines .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , freshwater marshes , and intermittent freshwater marshes .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "harlequin tree frog", "paragraphs": ["peek - a - boo ! a nervous harlequin tree frog protects its eyes and displays its colors in brunei .\npeek - a - boo ! a nervous harlequin tree frog protects its eyes and displays its colors in brunei . \u2013 society for the study of amphibians and reptiles\ncitation : ma\u010d\u00e1t , z . , h . ahmad sah , and t . ulmar grafe . 2015 . rhacophorus pardalis ( harlequin tree frog ) . defensive behavior . herpetological review 46 ( 3 ) : 418 .\nthis is another gliding frog , with flaps between the fingers . they are commonly found at the frog pond of kubah national park .\nmedium sized tree frog , with red / orange webbings on leg . pic # 1 was taken with uv light and they seems to have an interesting glow in the eyes .\nzden\u011bk ma\u010d\u00e1t and colleagues were herping in temburong national park in brunei when they spotted a harlequin tree frog and upon attempting to capture the frog saw that it began to behave to protect itself . the frog covered its eyes by rotating its forelimbs to the side of its head and its webbed toes covered both eyes entirely . the frog remained immobile for more than two minutes . during those minutes , the group realized that by rotating its forelimbs , the frog achieved two things : first , protecting its eyes but , second , flashing its red and yellow sides in warning to a potential challenger .\nthe tiger frog was discovered in 2007 in southwestern colombian . little is known about the frog except that it is not believed to be toxic . rather with its bright coloring , the frog seems to be mimicking other poisonous animals to deter predators . this gorgeous frog is threatened by destruction of the forests where it lives .\nthanks , @ drnamgyal . being tree frogs , they also use the webbings in their legs to help them glide from higher up of trees .\nthis frog might be called the planet\u2019s most beautiful frog . it has been a pin - up on dozens of wildlife calendars and cards . but its beauty has a purpose\u2014to help it to survive . when at rest , the frog\u2019s eyes are closed . but if disturbed , the sudden appearance of its bright red eyes may startle a predator for a second or two\u2014enough time for the frog to leap away . with its large toe pads and long thin limbs , it can climb trees easily . the red - eyed tree frog lives in tropical forests from southern mexico through much of central america . we used this frog on a poster we created to help spread awareness of the global amphibian crisis ( you can download the poster for free ) :\na small population of harlequin frogs was discovered about 6 years ago in the rainmaker preserve in costa rica , one of the last remnants of primary rainforest in the central pacific .\nin the monteverde cloud forest preserve of costa rica , there were once so many harlequin frog species ( atelopus ) that it was hard not to step on them when walking alongside streams . but during the 1980s and 1990s , most of these frogs vanished due to deadly infectious diseases brought on by changing water and air temperatures .\nharlequin frogs are usually black or brown with spots or streaks that can be a combination of yellow , orange , red , blue , or green . they live in the moist , tropical forests in central and southwestern south america .\nresearch done in costa rica shows that global warming makes clouds form higher above the forests where they cannot bring as much moisture to the ecosystems below . dry spells are getting longer and in turn , many species are disappearing . rising temperatures also shrink the cloud forests , which forces species to live closer together , spreading fungal diseases . the harlequin frog is on its way to extinction .\nthis lovely frog , native to the subtropical or tropical most lowland forests and rivers of venezuela has translucent skin , to help hide it among the leaves .\nthese handsome frogs seem to have a perpetual smile on their faces . white\u2019s tree frogs are often kept as pets , but they are happiest when left alone in their native home : the woodland and scrub close to water in northeast australia and new guinea .\ni am passing along a care2 petition to urge costa rica\u2019s ambassador escalante to do everything in his power to save this colorful little frog , along with many other endangered species affected by climate change .\nthis frog is among up to 30 different species of frogs that can be found in a small area inside kubah national park , fondly called , the frog pond . the pond is not man - made but rather trampling from wild pigs over hundreds of years . a visit to kubah national park is not complete without a night walk to the frog pond at dusk / night where you will hear amazing sounds , and a recording of this sounds was entered into a competition , which won the most beautiful sound in the world earlier this year ! follow this link to hear to the sound : urltoken\nthe wood frog\u2019s beauty is more subtle that that of its tropical cousins , yet its colors seems to mimic the color of rocks , bark , and fallen leaves in the forests in which it lives . this frog is america\u2019s most northernmost species , ranging from northeast usa to the arctic circle in alaska and canada . wood frogs have already begun hibernating . first they find a place under the leaf litter or in a crack in a log or rock to settle for their winter nap . they\u2019ll slowly begin to freeze as soon as temperatures reach the freezing point . then the frog\u2019s blood will stop flowing , its lungs , heart and muscles will stop functioning , and ice will fill the body cavity : they will go from frog to frogsicle , until they begin to thaw in the warm temperatures of spring .\nthis frog has a bright red head and body speckled with black spots . because of its blue legs , it is also called the blue jeans frog . like many brilliantly - colored animals , the frogs\u2019 bright color serves as a warning\u2014 don\u2019t eat me or you\u2019ll be sorry ! it forages on the forest floor eating small ants and termites , from which it derives the chemicals needed to synthesize the poison . it lives in tropical rainforests of nicaragua , costa rica , and panama .\nthis frog uses its heavily webbed hands and feet to glide . it presumably forages in canopy . it gathers in breeding aggregations in swampy forest , at marshes , ponds and quiet pools , and is common along logging roads where streams are blocked and form pools . the call is a brief raspy chuckle . eggs are laid and tadpoles develop in standing water .\none of the most beautiful of the madagascan frogs , the malagasy rainbow frog is adapted for a burrowing lifestyle . it is able to live under the ground for up to 10 months . but it also has claws on its forefeet to help it cling to vertical canyon walls to escape floods or predators . unfortunately thousands of these frogs are captured every year for the pet trade .\na recent report from the world wildlife fund highlighted the amazing discoveries of the past decade in the amazonian biome . according to the report , between 1999 and 2009 more than 1 , 200 new species of plants and vertebrates were discovered in the amazon \u2013 a rate of one new species every three days \u2013 confirming the amazon as one of the most diverse places on earth . ranitomeya amazonica , another beautiful poision dart frog , is one of the most extraordinary of these newly discovered species . its main habitat is lowland moist forest near the iquitos area in peru .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfrost , d . r . 2016 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 ( 31 october 2016 ) . new york , usa available at : urltoken .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , tolerance of a degree of habitat modification , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis species is known from several localities in peninsular malaysia ( and pulau tiga island ) and is widespread in sumatra ( including siberut and sipora ) , borneo ( brunei , indonesia and malaysia ) , and the philippines ( mindanao , negros , bohol and luzon ) . it probably occurs more widely than current records suggest , especially in areas between known sites . it has been recorded up to 1 , 015m asl .\nit is locally common in intact forest and forest edge but patchily distributed and activity patterns are temporally variable . it can form moderate - sized breeding aggregations .\nit is an inhabitant of primary and secondary rainforest . it breeds at swampy forest pools . it is widely distributed through the forest , probably in higher strata , and descends to the shrub layer and forms breeding aggregations around rain pools , even at the edge of forest .\nits range includes several protected areas . prevention of further deforestation is the most important conservation measure .\narvin diesmos , angel alcala , rafe brown , leticia afuang , genevieve gee , jeet sukumaran , norsham yaakob , leong tzi ming , yodchaiy chuaynkern , kumthorn thirakhupt , indraneil das , djoko iskandar , mumpuni , robert inger , robert stuebing , paul yambun , maklarin lakim . 2004 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nsmall to medium in size , with males reaching 39 - 55 mm and females 55 - 71 mm . snout is rounded . fingers iii , iv , v are fully webbed and bear expanded discs . the outer edge of the hand and forearm have a wide flap of skin . toes are fully webbed . the heel has a rounded flap of skin . dorsum is smooth , venter is coarsely granular ( inger and stuebing 2005 ) . males have nuptial pads ( harvey et al . 2002 ) .\ndorsum is tan to reddish brown , often with an x - shaped darker marking on the back . several white spots are often present , with some individuals having yellow or blue spots on the dorsal surfaces . flanks are yellowish with black spots . venter is yellowish with orange reticulation . webbing is orange - red ( inger and stuebing 2005 ) .\nthe tadpole has an oval , deep body , with total length reaching up to 45 mm . the tail has a narrow tip . body is pale light brown . black spots may be present on the body , or just a single spot on the side of the head . spotting pattern can resemble that of\ntadpoles lack white glandular patches on the venter ( inger and stuebing 2005 ) .\npeninsular malaysia ; pulau tiga island ( malaysia ) , sumatra ( indonesia ) , kalimantan ( borneo : indonesia ) , sabah and sarawak ( borneo : malaysia ) , and the southern philippines ( mindanao , negros , bohol and luzon islands ) . occurs from sea level to 1 , 015 m asl . found in both primary and secondary rainforest ( diesmos et al . 2004 ; inger and stuebing 2005 ) .\nthe primary threat is loss of habitat through deforestation ( due to logging ) ( diesmos et al . 2004 ) .\ndiesmos , a . , alcala , a . , brown , r . , afuang , l . , gee , g . , sukumaran , j . , yaakob , n . , tzi ming , l . , chuaynkern , y . , thirakhupt , k . , das , i . , iskandar , d . , mumpuni , inger , r . , stuebing , r . , yambun , p . , and makl 2004 .\n. in : iucn 2008 . 2008 iucn red list of threatened species . www . iucnredlist . org . downloaded on 27 april 2009 .\nharvey , m . b . , pemberton , a . j . , and smith , e . n . ( 2002 ) . ' ' new and poorly known parachuting frogs ( rhacophoridae :\ninger , r . f . and stuebing , r . b . ( 2005 ) .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\nin this sixth installment of the human stories behind herpetological research , we hear again from \u2026 [ read more . . . ]\nhr june 2018 , volume 49 , number 2 . our cover features an adult pair of rainforest hog - nosed \u2026 [ read more . . . ]\nare you going to jmih ? are you looking for a way to give back to ssar ? we ' re looking for a small \u2026 [ read more . . . ]\nlog in | ssar \u00a9 2018 | all rights reserved . | website by trish roque designs\nthis article uses material from the wikipedia released under the creative commons attribution - share - alike licence 3 . 0 . please see license details for photos in photo by - lines .\nplease note that this non - official list is not complete nor necessarily accurate . this list is a summary of checklists from other websites , blogs , publications , photo / videos published on various websites or our own findings . we appreciate your contributions with photo proof .\nimportant note ; our range maps are generated automatically based on very limited data we have about the protected sites , the data is not necessarily accurate . please help us to improve our range maps by sharing your findings / knowledge .\n\u00a9 thai national parks , 2018 | t . a . t . license : 12 / 02497 , license issued for gibbonwoot ( managing company )\nwhile researching our post the 10 weirdest and most unusual frogs on earth , we found so many beautiful frogs we decided to give them their own post . below are 10 of the handsomest princes of the amphibian world .\nthe golden toad became extinct 30 years after its discovery in 1976 . they were found only in the monteverde cloud forest reserve of costa rica , where hundreds would breed in shallow forest pools . the golden toad has become a symbol of the plight of frogs and toads worldwide\u2014we don\u2019t want other amphibians to suffer the same fate as this beautiful creature .\ngolden toad , photo by charles h . smith , u . s . fish and wildlife service\nabout two - thirds of over 110 species of these brightly - colored frogs have vanished since the 1980s . their decline is attributed to the destruction of their native forests , collection by the pet trade , and fungal infection ( chytrid fungus ) .\nsome of the information from this post came from frogs and toads ( a golden guide ) by dave showler , illustrated by barry croucher / wildlife art ltd .\ndisease is the bullet killing frogs , but climate change is pulling the trigger . global warming is wreaking havoc on amphibians and will cause staggering losses of biodiversity if we don\u2019t do something fast .\nhere is more information about the cloud forest of costa rica from the monteverde conservation league .\nto support frogs are green , please click the paypal button below . every donation helps us in our mission to educate !\nvery excited to share the book cover i created for young writer rowan hadley titled : sword of midnight . urltoken\nfrogs are green is raising funds to publish more educational books . won ' t you help with $ 5 a month ?\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nproject noah is a tool to explore and document wildlife and a platform to harness the power of citizen scientists everywhere .\nsmall to medium in size , with males reaching 39 - 55 mm and females 55 - 71 mm . snout is rounded . fingers iii , iv , v are fully webbed and bear expanded discs . the outer edge of the hand and forearm have a wide flap of skin . toes are fully webbed . the heel has a rounded flap of skin . dorsum is smooth , venter is coarsely granular ( inger and stuebing 2005 ) . males have nuptial pads ( harvey et al . 2002 ) . dorsum is tan to reddish brown , often with an x - shaped darker marking on the back . several white spots are often present , with some individuals having yellow or blue spots on the dorsal surfaces . flanks are yellowish with black spots . venter is yellowish with orange reticulation . webbing is orange - red ( inger and stuebing 2005 ) . the tadpole has an oval , deep body , with total length reaching up to 45 mm . the tail has a narrow tip . body is pale light brown . black spots may be present on the body , or just a single spot on the side of the head . spotting pattern can resemble that of rana chalconota , but r . pardalis tadpoles lack white glandular patches on the venter ( inger and stuebing 2005 ) .\nyour spotting has been nominated for the spotting of the week . the winner will be chosen by the project noah rangers based on a combination of factors including : uniqueness of the shot , status of the organism ( for example , rare or endangered ) , quality of the information provided in the habitat and description sections . there is a subjective element , of course ; the spotting with the highest number of ranger votes is chosen . congratulations on being nominated !"]}
{"id": 1839, "summary": [{"text": "gibberrhynchium is a small afrotropical genus of potter wasps .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it was considered to be monotypic with the only species being gibberhynchium masariforme ( giordani soika 1934 ) , which is widely distributed though central africa ( democratic republic of congo , malawi , tanzania , zambia and zimbabwe ) .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "a second species , gibberrhynchium gibber , was described by josef gusenleitner in 2002 from the democratic republic of congo . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "gibberrhynchium", "paragraphs": ["afrodynerus monstruosus ( giordani soika , 1934 ) ( eritrea . also palaearctic region )\ncameroon , djibouti , eritrea , ethiopia , ghana , mali , niger , nigeria , sudan . also in the palaearctic region )\neritrea , mauritania , nigeria , sudan , yemen . also in the palaearctic region )\nangola , benin , burkina faso , cameroon , democratic republic of congo , equatorial guinea , eritrea , ethiopia , gabon , gambia , ghana , guinea bissau , ivory coast , kenya , mali , mozambique , nigeria , republic of congo , republic of guinea , senegal , sierra leone , south africa , sudan , tanzania , uganda , zimbabwe . also in the palaearctic region )\n[ probably a synonym of antodynerus oogaster ( gribodo , 1895 ) . the type material ( museum dresden ) was destroyed during world war ii ] ( tanzania )\nburkina faso , democratic republic of congo , gambia , kenya , malawi , mali , mozambique , nigeria , senegal , south africa , tanzania , zimbabwe . also in the palaearctic region )\nburkina faso , chad , djibouti , mali . also in the palaearctic region )\nchad , eritrea , ethiopia , niger , somalia . also in the palaearctic region )\nsomalia , south africa , sudan , uganda . also in the palaearctic and oriental regions )\nverde , central african republic , chad ,\ncongo\n, democratic republic of congo , equatorial guinea , eritrea , ethiopia , gabon , gambia , ivory coast , kenya , liberia , malawi , mali , mauritania , mozambique , namibia , niger , nigeria , rwanda , senegal , sierra leone , somalia , south africa , sudan , tanzania , togo , uganda , yemen , zambia , zimbabwe . also in the palaearctic region . in the malagasy subregion recorded from seychelles ( aldabra , assumption , astove , cosmoledo ) , comoros ( grande comore , anjouan ) , mayotte and madagascar ) .\n. also in the palaearctic region ) . in the malagasy subregion recorded from seychelles ( aldabra )\ncongo\n, democratic republic of congo , eritrea , ethiopia , gambia , ivory coast , kenya , mali , mozambique , namibia , niger , nigeria , senegal , south africa , tanzania ( tanzania , zanzibar ) , togo , uganda , yemen . also in the palaearctic region )\nangola , democratic republic of congo , eritrea , ethiopia , somalia , tanzania , yemen , zimbabwe . also in the palaearctic region )\n( de saussure , 1852 ) ( angola , botswana , burkina faso , democratic republic of congo , eritrea , ethiopia , kenya , mali , mozambique , namibia , niger , nigeria , senegal , socotra , somalia , south africa , sudan , tanzania ( tanzania , zanzibar ) , yemen . also in the palaearctic region )\n( eustenancistrocerus ) inconstans ( de saussure , 1863 ) ( chad , eritrea , mali , sudan .\nburkina faso , eritrea , ethiopia , mali , niger , senegal , sudan . also in the palaearctic region )\nangola , burkina faso , democratic republic of congo , ghana , ivory coast , kenya , republic of congo , senegal , tanzania , togo . also in the palaearctic region )\ndjibouti , eritrea , ethiopia , niger , nigeria , sudan . also in the palaearctic region )\ncameroon , democratic republic of congo , ethiopia , mali , niger , senegal ( ? ) , south africa . also in the palaearctic region )\ncameroon , mali , niger , senegal , sudan . also in the palaearctic region )\n( paragris ) spinosuscula de saussure , 1852 ( eritrea , ethiopia , kenya .\n( gribodo , 1884 ) ( eritrea , ethiopia , kenya , somalia , sudan , yemen .\nburkina faso , cameroon , central african republic , democratic republic of congo , equatorial guinea , eritrea , ethiopia , gabon , gambia , ghana , mali , niger , nigeria , republic of congo , republic of guinea , senegal , somalia , sudan , togo , uganda . also in the palaearctic region )\nburundi , djibouti , kenya , south africa , sudan , tanzania , zimbabwe . also in the palaearctic region )\n. a revision of the vespidae of the belgian congo based on the collection of the american museum congo expedition , with a list of ethiopian diplopterous wasps .\nlatreille , in south africa , with a revision of the ethiopian species ( hymenoptera . )\na catalogue of the vespidae of the malagasy subregion ( insecta , hymenoptera ) .\na catalogue of the eumeninae ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) of the ethiopian region excluding malagasy subregion . part i : introduction , key to genera , genera\na catalogue of the eumeninae ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) of the ethiopian region excluding malagasy subregion . part ii : genera\ncarpenter , j . m . , j . gusenleitner , & m . madl . 2010b . a catalogue of the eumeninae ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) of the ethiopian region excluding malagasy subregion . part iii : classification , additions , corrections and index . linzer biologische beitr\u00e4ge 42 ( 1 ) : 919 - 1004 .\ncitation : van noort , s . 2018 . waspweb : hymenoptera of the afrotropical region . url : urltoken ( accessed on < day / month / year > ) .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\ncarpenter , j . m . , j . gusenleitner & m . madl . 2010a . a catalogue of the eumeninae ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) of the ethiopian region excluding malagasy subregion . part ii : genera delta de saussure 1885 to zethus fabricius 1804 and species incertae sedis . linzer biologischer beitrage 42 ( 1 ) : 95 - 315 .\nthis page was last edited on 10 april 2018 , at 03 : 01 .\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\nthis webpage was generated by the domain owner using sedo domain parking . disclaimer : sedo maintains no relationship with third party advertisers . reference to any specific service or trade mark is not controlled by sedo nor does it constitute or imply its association , endorsement or recommendation .\nplagiolabra is a neotropical genus of potter wasps currently containing 2 species found in the gran chaco biogeographical province of central south america .\npostepipona is a genus of potter wasps known from madagascar and the island of socotra in yemen .\nischnogasteroides is an afrotropical and palearctic genus of potter wasps with a single species , ischnogasteroides flavus .\nhypancistrocerus is a rather small neotropical genus of potter wasps which is very close to the genus stenodynerus .\npolybia rejecta is a species of social wasp found in the neotropics region of the world .\npseudonortonia is a fairly large genus of potter wasps with a rich afrotropical fauna , as well as with several species trhoughtout the palearctic and indomalayan regions .\ndelta conoideum , the mason wasp , is a species of potter wasp in the subfamily eumeninae of the family vespidae .\neumenes maxillosus is a species of potter wasp in the subfamily eumeninae of the family vespidae .\npseudodontodynerus is a genus of potter wasps distributed throughout the palearctic , indomalayan and afrotropical regions .\nxanthodynerus is a genus of potter wasps known from the afrotropical and palearctic regions .\ntricarinodynerus is a genus of potter wasps known from the afrotropical and palearctic regions .\ntachymenes is a small ( 3 species currently recognized ) afrotropical genus of potter wasps restricted to southern africa .\nstellepipona is a small ( 7 species currently recognized ) afrotropical genus of potter wasps .\nzetheumenidion is a small afrotropical genus of potter wasps currently containing 5 species , one of them with two recognized subspecies .\npachodynerus carpenteri is a potter wasp classified in the family vespidae , subfamily eumeninae , native to mexico , colombia and venezuela .\npteromenes is a monotypical afrotropical genus of potter wasps known from eastern africa ( kenya and somalia ) .\nextreuodynerus is an afrotropical genus of potter wasps with a single described species extreuodynerus mirificus .\ngastrodynerus is a small south - western nearctic genus of potter wasps with four currently recognized species , all of them found in mexico .\nleucodynerus is a nearctic genus of small sized potter wasps distributed in south western united states and northern mexico .\nanterhynchium is an afrotropical , indomalayan , australian and palearctic genus of potter wasps .\nmontezumia is a primarily neotropical genus of medium to large sized potter wasps geographically ranging from the united states to argentina .\nkatamenes arbustorum is a species of potter wasp in the subfamily eumeninae of the family vespidae .\nemeryrhynchium is a monotypical afrotropical genus of potter wasps known from ecuatorial africa ( democratic republic of congo , equatorial guinea and sierra leone ) .\ncephalastor is a small neotropical genus of potter wasps ( hymenoptera : vespidae : eumeninae ) currently containing 14 species .\nmaricopodynerus is a nearctic genus of potter wasps distributed west of the 100\u00b0 western meridian in the united states and mexico .\naruodynerus is an australasian genus of potter wasps known from aru and new guinea .\nhypalastoroides is a neotropical genus of potter wasps with a few nearctic and andean species .\ninterzumia is an afrotropical genus of potter wasps with a single species , interzumia rufonigra ."]}
{"id": 1851, "summary": [{"text": "the curl-crested aracari ( us / \u02cc\u0251\u02d0r\u0259\u02c8s\u0251\u02d0ri / ahr-\u0259-sahr-ee , uk / \u02cc\u0251\u02d0r\u0259\u02c8s\u0251\u02d0ri / arr-\u0259-sahr-ee or / \u02cc\u0251\u02d0r\u0259\u02c8k\u0251\u02d0ri / arr-\u0259-kahr-ee ) , or curl-crested ara\u00e7ari ( pteroglossus beauharnaesii ) , also known as the curly-crested aracari , is a species of bird in the ramphastidae family , the toucans . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "curl - crested aracari", "paragraphs": ["handfed , tame baby aracaris . green aracari - 2150 curl crested aracari - 3950\nyou can see our curl - crested aracari up close during special feedings held twice a day .\ncurl - crested aracari ( pteroglossus beauharnaesii ) is a species of bird in the ramphastidae family .\nthe curl - crested aracari is deserving of notice on account of its beautiful , variegated plumage .\nthe curl - crested aracari ( pteroglossus beauharnaesii ) is a south american toucan that is named after its distinctive curly head feathers .\nthe curl - crested aracari , also known as the curly - crested aracari , is a species of bird in the ramphastidae family , and is closely related to the toucans . it was named for it ' s unique curly crest of feathers . the curl - crested aracari can be found in amazonian peru , brazil and bolivia south of the amazon river . its natural habitat is tropical moist lowland forests . more\nthe curl - crested aracari , also known as the curly - crested aracari , is a species of bird in the ramphastidae family , the toucans . on account of its relatively long tail and curly crest , it was formerly placed in the monotypic genus beauharnaisius .\nbehavior : the curl - crested aracari is a social bird . it will sleep with up to five adults and their fledged offspring in the same nesting hole .\ncurl - crested aracari are the largest in the smaller classification of aracaris , weighing just under 10 ounces . in the wild , they inhabit rainforests throughout south america .\nthe curl - crested aracari is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\nhabitat / range : the curl - crested aracari inhabits tropical moist lowland forests of western amazonia in southern peru ( south of the amazon ) , western brazil and northern bolivia .\nthe curl - crested aracari is a beautifully colored , glossy - feathered bird with curled feathers on its crown . it is one of only three toucan species with red feathers on the nape and shoulders , and it is the most colorful of small toucan species . once only kept in captivity in zoos / aquariums , the curl - crested aracari has been successfully bred and is available as a pet .\nthe curl crested aracaris weigh about 210 grams or 7 . 4 oz and are tied with black neck aracaris for the number two position in size after the chestnut eared aracari . ( ref : jerry jennings )\ncurl - crested aracari ( pteroglossus beauharnaesii ) , a member of the toucan family and native to the amazon rainforest of south america . living in parker aviary , san diego zoo . conservation status : least concern\n\u201ccurl - crested aracaris are exquisitely beautiful and peaceful additions to the mixed species aviary , and their friendly disposition makes them fantastic pets . curl - crested aracaris are the most intelligent and cuddly of the toucanets and aracaris , and by far the most colorful of all toucan species . \u201d\ncurl - crested aracari are threatened by the outlaws who cage and trade them as pets , or poach them for meat and medicine . however , the biggest threat to this species is the same of most birds today ; habitat loss . one of the largest contributions to the habitat destruction of the aracari is the mining of bauxite , a mineral that is used for the production of aluminum products . one way to fight off this threat and aid our friendly curl - crested aracaris is to lessen the demand of aluminum products . for years , the curl - crested aracari has managed to maintain its populations enough to be listed as \u201cleast concern\u201d .\ncurl - crested aracaris are beautiful and peaceful birds . unlike some toucan species that cannot be kept with smaller size birds , the curl - crested aracari can be kept in a mixed species aviary . when hand - fed , they bond closely to their human companions and they enjoy being a part of the family . they can even be potty trained and can learn to perform tricks .\nthe curl - crested aracari is uncommon in the forest canopy of amazonia , on the south side of the amazon and lower mara\u00f1on rivers . it is known to range up to 900 m along the foothill of the andes . it also occurs in\npicture of the curl - crested aracari has been licensed under a creative commons attribution . original source : lonnie huffmanpermission ( reusing this file ) use with credit to lonnie huffman . author : lonnie huffmanpermission ( reusing this file ) use with credit to lonnie huffman .\nhello everyone ! i am new to bird - dom . i hope to someday have flighty friendly flocks of friends ! i am particularly interested in ramphastids . dream bird ? toco toucan . secondary dream bird ? keel billed . tertiary dream bird ? curl crested aracari .\ntaken june 29 , 2013 at the bird store about the curl crested aracari toucan : curl - crested aracaris are among the largest in the aracari family , with an average weight of just under 10 ounces . they are found in a broad range of rainforest habitats throughout south america and are currently not endangered . their colorful body , speckled chest , and curly hair - do make for one intriguing bird which many believe sets them apart as one of the most captivating of all the toucan species . i must say i have to agree .\ncommon murre , common puffin , razorbill , crested auklet , etc . vintage 1984 bird book plate\nsize : this aracari reaches lengths of 16 - 18 inches ( 41 \u2013 46 cm ) .\nthe curl - crested aracari ( or \u201ccurls\u201d , as referred to by the toucan world of enthusiasts ) are a vibrant colored , glossy - coated bird with curled feathers on it ' s crown , hence its name . it is one of three toucan species with red feathers on its nape and shoulders and is most colorful of the small toucan species . it ' s also the most cuddly and smart of the family . the curl - crested aracari are peaceful birds , which has made them easy to keep and breed in captivity when once , they were only kept in zoos and aquariums .\nbecause of its peaceful nature , the curl - crested aracari can be kept with other small birds in an aviary . when they are raised being hand - fed they even form close bonds to their captors and become one of the family . they are not only peaceful and cooperative , but very smart . curl - crested aracari are capable of being potty trained and performing tricks ! to some keeper ' s disappointment , the bird cannot mimic or talk the way other parrot species can . they are fairly quiet and only make loud calls when agitated or excited . some may find this is a blessing .\n3 year old curl crested aracaris ! $ 4 , 000 located in new jersey shipping available . please call 973 - 944 - 0722 for details on how to add these amazing birds to your family !\ncurl - crested aracari videos on the internet bird collection\ncurly - crested aracari\nphoto gallery vireo photo - high res photo - high res ; article tropicalbirding photo - medium res - ( dorsal view ) ; article nashvillezoo . org\u00e2\u20ac\u201d\nramphastidae\ndidn ' t find what you were looking for . need more information for your travel research or homework ? ask your questions at the forum about birds of bolivia or help others to find answers . this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . more\nthe curl - crested aracari is found in the southwestern section of the amazon basin , with the amazon river being its northern range limit . near the amazon river , its range extends east to about the madeira river , while it in the southern half of its range extends east to around the xingu river . more\nthe curl - crested aracari range includes central and southern brazil , ranging as far east as the mouth of the madeira river and westward to the lowland forests of eastern peru and south into northern bolivia . near the amazon river , its range stretches east to about the madeira river . its southern half of its range extends east to the xingu river .\nthe curl - crested ara\u00e7ari is part of the toucan family . toucans are easily recognized birds with an over - sized and colorful bill that allows them to pluck fruit from vegetation as well as drink water from the crevices of trees .\nyou may remember jeff from one of my past posts in the species special feature series on curl - crested aracaris . without further ado , i\u2019ll give the floor to jeff , this time to discuss in more depth toucans as pets .\n2017 hatch captive bred baby curl crested aracari special this week $ 4500 . 00 each including shipping . freshly weaned babies , ugly baby plumage . ! st picture is showing an adult . 2nd 2 pictures are showing babies for sale . 4th picture : some ugy old guy . . . . lol trades will always be considered . . . we sh . . .\ntoco toucan $ 23k a pair 3 years old ; curl crested aracaries $ 7500 a pair 4 and 5 years old ; collared aracaries 2 years old $ 2200 pair ; african pied hornbills $ 2000 pair ; redbilled hornbilled $ 550 a pair .\ncurl - crested ara\u00e7aris are found in western brazil into southeastern peru and northeastern bolivia , in tropical moist lowland forests . they are arboreal and diurnal . ara\u00e7aris are considered mainly frugivorous , but are actually omnivores , occasionally consuming eggs or young birds .\nthe curl - crested aracari is one of the more spectacularly plumaged aracari , and one of the more stranger looking birds . unlike any other aracari , or any other bird , it has modified head feathers that resemble shiny black pieces of plastic . it is from these modified feathers that this species gets its name . it is restricted to lowland terra firme forest of western amazonia in southern peru ( south of the amazon ) , western brazil , and northern bolivia . apart from the bizarre head ornamentation , the curl - crested aracari is a quite pretty toucan , with a red back , yellow underparts with a single red breast ban , and a quite ornately patterned , multicolored bill . it overlaps in terra firme forest with both lettered aracari ( pteroglossus inscriptus ) and ivory - billed aracari ( pteroglossus azara ) , both of which have different underpart and bill patterns , the two features important in identifying aracaris . it is more similar to chestnut - eared aracari ( pteroglossus castanotis ) , which also has yellow underparts with a single red breast band . chestnut - eared differs by having a dark brown , as oppose to yellow throat , a mostly dark bill , and is found more in riverine habitats , as opposed to terra firme forest . calls very different from other aracaris , a loud rising \u201c eeee - yak . \u201d moves in small groups through the canopy , foraging in fruiting trees .\ndescription :\nthe curl - crested aracari is deserving of notice on account of its beautiful , variegated plumage .\nsource : cuppy ph . d . , hazlitt alva beauties and wonders of land and sea ( springfield : mast , crowell & kirkpatrick , 1895 ) 289 keywords : pretty birds , talking birds copyright : 2009 , florida center for instructional technology . see license . more\ncurl - crested aracari enthusiasts , jeff and ken , house 5 curl - crested toucans and consider them part of the family . they and their 5 toucans live in northern california . rocky lives in jeff ' s home office and flies freely around their home . he is treated most like a pet . oskar and shirley are tame because of being hand - raised , but live outside in an aviary connected to the house and have access to jeff ' s home office through the window . the others are breeding pairs and are not tame . they live in a large aviary off - site that more resembles their home in the wild .\nonce jerry had \u201ccracked the code\u201d and was producing a large number of curl - crested babies , he offered to sell me one . we named the new kid on the block rocky , after the flying squirrel . he was very sweet and settled into our home easily .\ncurl - crested aracari need space to fly freely and play with their toys . they are highly active birds and eat a diet consistent of fruit they ' d naturally find in the wild . like many bird species , you may avoid citric acid because of its ability to aid the absorption of iron which can be bad for birds kept as pets . a low - iron protein source should be provided to them .\ncurl - crested aracaris make their nests in abandoned hollows of trees ( usually left from woodpeckers ) . once its found a suitable place to lay its eggs , it lays three or four and incubates them for just over two weeks time . chicks are born blind and hairless , but after a month and a half or so , the chicks will gain some plumage and learn to fly with the guidance of their parent birds . if the bird is not nesting with its partner , curl - crested aracaris will roost in groups of five or more birds .\ncurl - crested aracaris are highly active and need plenty of space to both fly and play ; their cages should also have enough toys for entertainment . their diet consists primarily of fruit in the wild , and the same should be replicated in our homes . because citric acid facilitates the absorption of iron , it is recommended not to give this species any citric fruits . in addition to a wide variety of fruits , their diet should be supplemented with a low - iron protein source . curl - crested aracaris are very peaceful and can even be kept with other birds .\nhand fed curl crested aracaris . one of the most affectionate and cuddly of all the aracaris ! extremely small number expected to be available this year . located in middle tennessee , nationwide shipping available . when it comes to choosing a breeder , bigger is not always better . references happily . . .\ncurl - crested aracaris are among the largest in the aracari family , with an average weight of just under 10 ounces . they are found in a broad range of rainforest habitats throughout south america and are currently not endangered . their colorful body , speckled chest , and curly hair - do make for one intriguing bird which many believe sets them apart as one of the most captivating of all the toucan species . i must say i have to agree .\ncurl - crested ara\u00e7aris are a beautifully colored , glossy - feathered birds with curled feathers on their crown . these modified head feathers are unlike any other ara\u00e7ari and resemble shiny black pieces of plastic . they have a long tail and zygodactyl feet . they have relatively small wings , suitable only for short distance flights .\nthat\u2019s definitely interesting , anita , that he did that as an aracari too . touk was an amazing bird \u2013 thank you for sharing him with us . \ud83d\ude42\n. the curl - crested aracari has a black cap and nape made out of curly tape - like feathers . the throat is yellow with dusky spots . the mantle and rump are red with the rest of upperparts and tail dusky greenish . the underparts are yellow with a distinctive red band across mid belly . most of the lower mandible is creamy yellow . the tip of the bill and upper mandible are reddish and chestnut with a greenish stripe along the upper mandible . it is similar to\nto further describe its beauty , the curl - crested aracari has bare skin that is blue around its eyes . the feathers on his face have hardened black tips . its belly plumage are yellowish with a single red band on its breast and elaborate pattern on its beak . its tail is long and varies in colors of dark green , red , yellow to brown , and black . one could describe its features on and on . the female birds have smaller beaks and bodies than its male counterpart .\ni am very excited to continue this series of toucan species interviews today featuring a true toucan man named jeff and his eclectic flock which just so happens to include some of the most fascinating - looking toucans of all the 38 + species \u2013 curl - crested aracaris . but before we begin , just in case you missed them , be sure to check out these fun posts with our other toucan friends , touk the green aracari , pixie the swainson\u2019s , pogo the keel - billed , and yoshi the emerald toucanet .\ntoucans and aracari are different in cage need / space , diet and even how they move . being\nsmacked\nby a toco can hurt . because they are such big birds a bite will pinch ( no where near the pressure of a parrot ) . but to kill things they grab and smack the item . if mad at you they can smack and that hurts . i am not into feeding live food such as pinkies that the large toucans eat . they hop to get where they are going . very nice birds though . curl cresteds are great aracari and make wonderful pets / easy to travel with . the toucans and aracari do learn some tricks if you take the time .\nunder the international code of zoological nomenclature , the valid form and source of the name for the well - known curl - crested aracari should remain pteroglossus beauharnaesii wagler , 1832 . although it is an incorrect subsequent spelling , its challenger , pteroglossus beauharnaisii , is a nomen oblitum . pteroglossus beauharnaesii wagler , 1832 has been in universal use since 1900 , and it is protected either by article 23 . 9 or 33 . 3 . 1 of the code , depending on the interpretation of the way the younger name was introduced .\nthe curl - crested ' s long bill allows it to reach and feed on many kinds of fruits native to the amazon ( such as figs ) . the serrated bill is the perfect tool for the job . few other species of bird in their habitat can yield the amount of fruit a toucan can in one season . this is what makes the aracari an important species for dispersing seeds and keeping the ecological balance of the rainforest . ficus and other fuiting trees are dependent on the toucan ' s efficiency to spread their seeds and produce .\nan aracari , on the other hand , can be incorporated into a human household fairly easily . rocky , my curl - crested aracari , follows me around our ( admittedly , quite small ) house , turning corners from room to room in flight in a way daisy the toco or jimmy the swainson\u2019s could never do in that restricted area . when rocky wants some alone time , he goes back to his cage or perches on the edge of a shallow bowl sitting on top our microwave which he has made his poop station in the kitchen / family room . he joins us on the couch without having to drive the dogs out of the room first , and jumps down your shirt to be snuggled or squeezes into a space between you and a pillow or you and a dog or person for a group nap . and he craves physical contact in general . this was also true of the green aracari i had ( my first ramphastid , frank , now \u201cstolen\u201d by a dear friend who lives nearby and fell in love with him ) and is true for a friend\u2019s collared aracari , rafi , who i care for sometimes .\nhonestly , the price tag of a toco ( $ 10000 ) / keel - billed ( $ 9000 ) / swainson ' s ( $ 5000 ) toucan , or even a curl - crested aracari ( $ 4500 ) ( a very large , and the most\ntoucan - like\naracari ) was not and probably will not ever be doable for me ( in the same way i could never afford a hyacinth macaw ) . if you are really put off by the prices of these larger birds , i would really encourage you to look into the smaller species of aracaris . ivory - billed aracaris are actually supposed to be the second smallest aracari ( behind the green aracari ) , and kevin is ~ 130g ( the size of a sun conure if you know how big those are ) . i don ' t know how to accurately judge him in banana - lengths lol but here ' s a pic of him holding a normal mechanical pencil and one of him cuddling with the bf . i ' d have to say that i enjoy all of the personality of a rhamphastid without the huge cage requirement and added mess .\nfor what this species is called in other , non - english languages , see avibase , here . as you can see we swedes now have adopted the portuguese spelling ( with cedilla ) and call it krushuvad ara\u00e7ari ( curl - crested ara\u00e7ari ) . from 2015 we use the common name ara\u00e7arier ( ara\u00e7ari ' s ) for all the species in pteroglossus , but before that they were called both arassarier or aracarier . how the portuguese spelling came in favour here is a bit hard to understand , and quite a few have a hard time accepting it , but it does help with how it\u00b4s pronunciated ( in swedish ) ; arra - s\u00e1ri . however , compare with the\noriginal\none ; today ' s black - necked aracari pteroglossus aracari linnaeus 1758 ( here ) as\nramphastos aracari\n, and its explanation , in jobling ' s hbw alive key , here . which spelling is the most appropriate one , in english , i do not know . . .\nshort , l . l . & bonan , a . ( 2018 ) . curl - crested ara\u00e7ari ( pteroglossus beauharnaisii ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ndescription : the most interesting characteristic of the curl - crested aracari is the shiny , black curled feathers on its head that look like pieces of plastic or curled ribbon . the bare skin around the eyes is blue ; the whitish - yellow facial feathers have hardened black tips ; the patterned , multicolored bill has an orange tip ; the back is red ; the breast is yellow with red blotches and a single red band . the tail is long , varying in color but has a greenish - bronze dominant color . this species is often considered to be the most attractive and colorful of the smaller toucans . the bill of the female is shorter than the male\u2019s .\nmy first toucan was a green aracari , hand - raised by a breeder in southern california . his name ( the bird , not the breeder ) was frank and he was a great ramphastid ambassador . when tonia ( current owner of pogo the keel - billed toucan ) was first thinking of getting a toucan , she heard about frank from the yahoo toucans ramphastid group and came to visit with her husband , armando , and her sister , emily . frank won them all over . my sister , who lives in milwaukee , met frank and later went on to get a green aracari and a swainson\u2019s toucan . another friend in the bay area also visited extensively with frank before acquiring his own green aracari .\nin addition to his curls , jeff also provides a home to an 8 year old female eclectus , ichigo ; numerous songbirds ; and breeding pairs of blue - crowned hanging parrots and stella\u2019s lorikeets . brazilian cardinals and a white - crested laughing thrush share the aviary with the curl couple , oskar and shirley . i met jeff through the toucan network of friends that i have been lucky to build over the past year . he is an amazing resource on all things toucan and i know you\u2019ll enjoy hearing about his passion for curls .\nas for comparing them with other ramphastid species , i would say that as one of the larger aracaris , they approach the toucans in intelligence without all of the attendant issues that make keeping the large toucans as pets a bad idea for most people . it may just be my impression , but the curl - cresteds seem to have a bit more \u201cpresence\u201d than some of their smaller relatives . because of their physical uniqueness \u2013 larger size , relatively heavy bodies , bills shaped more like the toucans than the aracaris , and of course their unique , curly - feathered hair - dos \u2013 they were classified in a separate genus ( beauharnaisius ) for many years , and though now they have been brought into the pteroglossus ( aracari ) genus , in many ways they still seem rather transitional between pteroglossus and ramphastos , giving them an aracari personality in a toucan body .\ni purchased my curl - cresteds from jerry jennings . initially , i had purchased a non - tame pair to breed and set them up in the outdoor aviary adjacent to the house . at the time , jerry had not yet succeeded in breeding curls and no babies were available .\nthe second , cultural reason ( and i think one actually can speak of animal cultures ) is that the large toucans are more aggressive and singular than aracaris . aracaris sleep in their tree holes every night , sometimes in fairly large family groups , even when they\u2019re not breeding . aracari families sometimes communally raise the breeding pair\u2019s chicks . the large toucans generally only use their nest holes during the breeding season . this cultural tendency to feel comfortable with and even crave close physical contact shapes the aracari personality in a way that makes them more suitable as companions for us flightless , biped apes .\njeff and his partner , ken , are the proud owners of not just one , but five curl - crested aracaris ( or \u201ccurls\u201d as they are commonly referred to in the toucan world ) . they live in northern california and their curly flock includes : rocky , the \u201cpet\u201d , who is 4 years old and lives in a large cage in jeff\u2019s home office and spends most of his days out free - flying the house ; oskar and shirley , 3 years old , who are a tame , hand - raised pair that live in an aviary attached to the house with access to jeff\u2019s home office through a window ; and another non - tame breeder pair which are kept in a large aviary off - site .\nlast thing to say about large toucans vs . aracaris : noise . though none of them compare with a parrot\u2019s screech , the beautiful , haunting call of a swainson\u2019s carries for miles , which is why i had to eventually part with my jimmy . the call of the toco carries for blocks . and the call of a friend\u2019s keel - billed can be heard by neighbors . not so with an aracari \u2013 another thing that makes them an easier fit for life with humans .\nhi , jeff . thank you so much for taking the time to share your toucan wisdom with us . you are definitely one of my favorite people to talk toucans with ! you are always so generous with your time and often offer people on the toucan forum a lot of useful advice when it comes to caring for and adopting toucans . you are quite a big aracari fan and often seem to try and steer people away from the larger toucans as pets . is that intentional ?\nbut i do have an agenda in trying to direct new bird keepers away from the large toucans as house pets . i\u2019ve kept four and still currently have two tocos . i previously had a swainson\u2019s and my first toucan was a plate - billed mountain toucan . all were hand - raised and tame , but large toucan tame and aracari tame are two different things . the main differences as far as one considering taking a ramphastid on as a companion animal are two \u2013 logistical and cultural .\none big aracari fan in particular is jeff hunter , who i was fortunate to meet through the yahoo toucan forum and has proceeded to make me fall in love with aracaris with each subsequent conversation we have . he always contributes really interesting information to the forum and has experience with several different species of toucan , both large and small . jeff\u2019s views on toucans as pets are in alignment with my own and i knew he would do a much better job than i to help weigh the differences between the large vs . small toucans as pets .\ni have tuki , a 4 year old curl from jerry jennings\u2019s farm . she is adorable . she sleeps in her own little cat bed that looks like the hollow of a tree every night . wants to taste all of our food . and cuddles with us in the evening before getting into her own bed . we love her to bits , and she greets us every time we come in the door . she has a different greeting for each one of us , and she recognizes each of our steps before we are in the house .\ni eventually had the opportunity to purchase an unrelated pair of hand - raised curl babies , oskar and shirley . i then transferred the wild pair to a friend\u2019s breeding facility where they would have more privacy . i put the new pair of babies in my aviary adjacent to my office . they remain tame after several years and i occasionally open the window and let them into the office to play with me or visitors . i\u2019m hoping that because they are used to people , they will feel more at ease breeding in an aviary in such close proximity to the house .\nprobably the most challenging thing about owning an aracari is providing it with a suitable home and keeping that home ( and your home ) clean . a large cage is absolutely necessary , and plenty of time out of the cage is a requisite . you also need to devise a way to keep fruit splatter under control . i use flexible plastic sheeting that comes in rolls around three sides of the cage to keep our walls clean and a sheet of plexiglas sits on top of the cage . you still need to clean the walls and floors occasionally , as well as hose down the cage .\njerry jennings , president / director of emerald forest bird gardens fallbrook , ca also imported this species in 2004 , and sold some curly - crested aracaris to the dallas world aquarium and the riverbanks zoo in columbia , south carolina . at this point in time , over 40 pairs are scattered around the united states that were sold by jerry jennings , who himself has 14 breeding pairs . at this point in time sufficient breeding pairs are set up in the united states for this species to be available to private aviculturists . adrienne reeves , who bought one of his curly - rested aracaris contributed her pet marley ' s photos for publication on the avianweb .\ngreen aracari singing american goldfinch winter song facts call habitat images diet bird state bird female adaptations all about birds audio as pet audubon alberta pine siskin animal totem attract appearance american goldfinch birdhouse beak . behavior bird call birdhouse plans baby bird song birds for sale bird feeder class colors color change chirp cornell classification coloring page cornell lab ornithology call mp3 drawing diseases description detroit distribution distribution map detroit restaurant . song download what do they eat eggs eye disease endangered eating habits eat enemies egg size edmonton ecosystem nest and eggs american goldfinch food flying feather fun facts . american goldfinch warbling wiki winter plumage winter colors winter female x canary youtube young yellow song singing youtube .\nbesides just the price though . . . . you say you want a toucan because they are more\nmild\nthan a macaw . that is not necessarily the truth . my aracari is usually chill ( the breeder admitted that he was an extremely cuddly baby and rather calm ) , but even then he is more often than not bouncing around the room . i can deal with that because he is relatively small ( about the size of a large conure ) , and has a nice big cage to play in , but if you get a larger aracari or toucan you will have a bird that is the equivalent of a kid on a sugar high that can cross half the room with one good hop . big cage , lots of energy . . . yes they are quieter than a macaw but they definitely will not sit on a perch for more than a few minutes like one . finally , have you done some research into their diet ? all rhamphastids have a very specialized diet , low in iron , because they are susceptible to hemochromatosis ( iron - storage disease ) . you must only feed low - iron softball pellets , and low iron fruits / veggies ( blueberries , melon , papaya , apple , pears , carrots , cherries , sweet potato , etc ) as well as no citrus .\neach day starts with chopping fruit \u2013 if you\u2019re not a morning person , don\u2019t get an aracari . i usually have the birds fed by about 8 : 30 am . i let rocky out in the morning while i\u2019m preparing food to cruise the living room and spend time with ken before he goes to work ( i work from home ) . when i go into my office , rocky joins me there , going in and out of his cage freely , landing on my head , playing in the bookshelves , and banging his toys around . if it\u2019s a sunny day , i give him a few hours in a ( metal ) sunning cage on our deck . while he\u2019s on the deck , i can let oskar and shirley inside .\nthey also have a soft , whining sound that is used when being stroked or petted \u2013 i believe this is probably the sound that chicks make to solicit food . and finally , they have a loud , car - alarm call probably most owners will never hear . it\u2019s a high , descending whoop and i think it is used to call to flock members that are far out of sight . when i first put my wild breeding pair in the aviary , they did it for a few days in the morning . i think they were trying to see if any other curl - cresteds were in hearing range . occasionally , my tame pair will make this cry in the morning , just once or twice . even rocky may do it in the morning if i have overslept and am not down to greet him at the usual time .\noh yes i have looked into the toucans quite a lot i know about their diets and what - not which can be costly but then again pets are costly . as for mild , mild is relative what i meant by that is the from what i have read and people on here have said toucans tend to be less emotional then macaws and the like , and quiet too , i dont mind the flying all around getting into trouble bit that is half the fun of a bird . i am just having trouble justifying to my self the absurdly high cost of toucans to myself without having had hands on time with one , tocans live 25 years or less and many cost as much as a macaw or twice as much . if i remember right the ivory billed is the smallest of the aracari just how large is he in regards to say a banana for scale\ntocos are unique among ramphastids in a number of ways . according to the literature , they are the only non - forest species , preferring generally open country dotted with trees . and , probably as part and parcel of that ( fewer trees = lower concentration of food per acre ) , they don\u2019t usually travel in the large , often mixed flocks that other toucans do . swainson\u2019s and keel - billeds , for example , will travel through the rainforest in very loose flocks of 5 to 7 or more individuals , often mixed with aracaris . so do the mountain toucans and the large uber - family that makes up the ramphastos vitellinis group ( 6 to 8 subspecies , depending on who\u2019s counting ) . tocos usually travel singly or , at most , in pairs . all the aracaris travel in large family and \u201ctribe\u201d groups ( related families ) , often mixing with other aracari species as well .\ni own an aracari ( same family as toucans ) and can say after doing my research not too long ago , that yes , the bigger rhamphastids are going to be pricey . because these birds aren ' t being bred or sold by many people , prices can fluctuate depending the seller and availability . for example , my ivory - billed was originally $ 1800 , already below the average price of $ 2000 asked by other reputable breeders . in the end i got him for $ 1200\non sale\nbecause he was the absolute last bird the breeder had from the last season . $ 5000 for a swainson ' s is not unusual at all , though you may find some around $ 3000 who are older , maybe not - hand tamed , etc . most people want babies so that they can socialize and bond with them ( though in my experience , having bought an older bird this is not 100 % necessary ) .\nurltoken unabridged based on the random house unabridged dictionary , \u00a9 random house , inc . 2018\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\none of the several species of aracaris that could be seen at eye level during our tour to the cristalino reserve .\nhi jeff ! you have quite the enviable flock . how did you first become interested in toucans ?\ni can\u2019t even remember how i first became interested in toucans . i\u2019ve kept birds since i was a child \u2013 parakeets , finches , and so forth . i probably got it from my dad , who had a pet parakeet when i was a baby and was always fascinated by animals . when i lived in japan in the 70s and 80s , i had a few large parrots , cockatoos , and lories . i think i ventured across jerry jenning\u2019s website ( emerald forest bird gardens ) in perhaps 2006 ? i was intrigued by his description of the difference between toucans and parrots .\nafter several years here , frank made the final sacrifice and got adopted by a close friend in the area . i still see frank regularly and he\u2019s very happy in his new home .\ni\u2019ve had three other toucans . my first larger toucan , dino , was a very rare species \u2013 a plate - billed mountain toucan . he was also bred in southern california , though since then , all representatives of the species have been sent to the dallas world aquarium and no more remain in the pet trade . i have also owned a swainson\u2019s toucan named jimmy and a toco toucan named daisy , who now has a toco mate named mario .\nwhenever i let oskar and shirley inside , they gather on the playpen on top of rocky\u2019s cage . shirley , who is rocky\u2019s sister from another clutch , seems intent on murdering rocky , so he has to be in his cage when the pair are in my office . oskar and shirley are presently courting and perhaps this year they will breed .\nbreeding is not my main goal , but i would like to keep this species going in captivity since they make such good pets . there are only a handful of breeders at this point and i\u2019d like to do my part .\nbirds generally rest during the mid - day period , being most active in the mornings and toward dusk . rocky usually spends most of the afternoon in his cage , spacing out , by his own choice . oskar and shirley often retreat to their nest log in the afternoon for a nap . for some reason , rocky seems to bathe late in the afternoon , almost every day . oskar and shirley usually bathe in the morning . no clue as to why it\u2019s different .\nrocky often joins us in the living room while we\u2019re watching tv in the evening . he enjoys spending that time tucked into a little blanket someone made just for him . he seems to like being wrapped up . occasionally , he pops out , takes a poop break on one of his special stands with trays underneath , then comes back .\nthey have a repertoire of about five calls that i\u2019ve been able to identify . there is a sharp , loud , staccato warning call that can be irritating . they use it when fearful \u2013 a cat , a hawk , a new person , or a plane in the sky . they have a low , chortling sound that is their most frequent call , used as a greeting , it seems to me . they have a loud trill / purr / chatter that is used when happy \u2013 at having received some food or being reunited with a long - lost loved one ( like after not seeing you for 30 minutes ) .\nhe likes to sit on the back of the couch behind your head and preen your hair or have you reach back and stroke him in that position , to which he responds with baby begging sounds . he also likes his beak stroked or rubbed gently .\nif i take a short afternoon break from work , rocky will join me on the couch , diving into a crack between me and the couch or me and the dog i\u2019m sitting next to to sleep and be pet .\nit has taken him two years to get used to our newer dog . at first , he was afraid and a little aggressive , but now he simply walk up to him and stares or gives him a tentative poke in the thigh . the dog just looks at him like , \u201cwhat , me , worry ? \u201d but we always supervise their interactions .\nrocky also enjoys being hand fed tidbits of food . we keep a small cup of his pellets in the living room to hand feed him from time to time . he demands whatever you\u2019re eating , so we usually cage him during our mealtimes \u2013 although he often manages to get a tiny piece of toast in the morning .\nunlike the larger toucans , in my experience , aracaris don\u2019t use passing of food back and forth to strengthen the pair bond . the males do , however , offer food to the female , but i have never seen a female reciprocate . once you give rocky a treat , he isn\u2019t going to give it back . what he does do is fly around the room , showing it off to everyone , \u201csee what i\u2019ve got ! you don\u2019t have this ! it\u2019s my special treat ! \u201d\ni haven\u2019t trained rocky to do anything . after the first year , he trained himself to poop on the two stands with trays that we have in our living area . he never poops on people or furniture . i haven\u2019t trained him to \u201cstep - up\u201d either \u2013 sometimes he will and sometimes i just gently reach for him and enclose him in my hand . when i need to put him in his cage , i make him fly to the couch and he waits there for me to pick him up . i suppose i could train him but\u2026i\u2019m too lazy and i don\u2019t see the need .\nlots of things , actually . i find them stunningly beautiful and to be honest , that\u2019s an important factor for me . they are also so affectionate and playful , without any of the common parrot problems such as biting , destroying furniture , feather plucking , or screaming . they are easy to care for and feed , and are happy to just sit playing in their cage most of the day in the presence of their human flock . they enjoy cuddling , but aren\u2019t desolate if you can\u2019t spend hours exclusively devoted to them , like some cockatoos would be .\nthey are just so happy , cheerful , and easy to have around . they are also a species for which i think we humans can successfully meet their physical , emotional , and social needs , which is important .\nthey don\u2019t eat much , so the expense of the food is minimal , but feeding aracaris is more trouble than just buying a bag of seeds or pellets , obviously . i\u2019m feeding other even more labor - intensive birds , so to me , they\u2019re easy . additionally , i live in california where tropical fruits are readily and inexpensively available year - round .\ni would certainly recommend a hand - fed baby as a pet \u2013 if and only if you have the necessary time and space to fulfill its needs . on the other hand , if you\u2019re simply going to park it in a cage all day while you\u2019re off at work , i think a canary , parakeet , or cockateil is a more ethical choice for a pet . aracaris are , by nature , much more social and deserve extended opportunities for interaction , ranging from focal to ambient attention ( ie . just being in the same room as you ) .\nperfect description \u2013 if only cassette tape also had body . it feels just like it looks \u2013 like little\ncurls . their feathers are smooth and solid , without any barbs . they are shiny too , like little strips of black patent leather that you curled with scissors , as if making a bow for a christmas present .\ni\u2019d like to express my appreciation to jeff for sharing not only a piece of his life with us in this interview , but also for always readily sharing his toucan expertise with me when i\u2019m either in need or just simply feeling curious . his enthusiasm and wealth of knowledge have been so beneficial to me and i am so glad i was able to connect with him . all of the photos and video in this post were provided by jeff . best wishes to jeff , ken , and their spectacular flock !\ni loved reading this interview . so fun and educational . i would like to point out that touk used to share anything that he loved eating ie cherries , blueberries and grapes . . he would try to feed them to marlean\u2019s and my hand . he was the best bird ever .\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 374 side a track 38 seq . a )\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 374 side a track 35 seq . c )\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 374 side a track 35 seq . b )\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 374 side a track 35 seq . a )\nnatural vocalizations from a group of 5 about 30m up in canopy of tall cecropia in low terra firme forest .\na few assorted barks . wind noise below 100hz filtered . bird singing from atop canopy next to the 50m tower , in terra firme forest .\npreviously published on avocet as av10117 . certainty : 100 % . id determined by : not specifically indicated ; recordist normally sees birds recorded and indicates if any question ; matches xc cuts . gps : google earth .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict ."]}
{"id": 1854, "summary": [{"text": "the grey-headed parakeet ( psittacula finschii ) is closely related to the slaty-headed parakeet which together form a super-species .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it occurs from the north-eastern states of india , into burma , thailand , cambodia , laos and vietnam .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the binomial of this bird commemorates the german naturalist and explorer otto finsch . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "grey - headed parakeet", "paragraphs": ["select an image : 1 . grey - headed parakeet 2 . grey - headed parakeet 3 . grey - headed parakeet > > male 4 . grey - headed parakeet > > immature 5 . grey - headed parakeet > > adult male 6 . grey - headed parakeet > > immature 7 . grey - headed parakeet > > male 8 . grey - headed parakeet > > juvenile 9 . grey - headed parakeet > > juvenile 10 . grey - headed parakeet > > male 11 . grey - headed parakeet > > female 12 . grey - headed parakeet > > male 13 . grey - headed parakeet 14 . grey - headed parakeet > > adult male 15 . grey - headed parakeet > > adult 16 . grey - headed parakeet > > adult male 17 . grey - headed parakeet > > adult male 18 . grey - headed parakeet > > adult male 19 . grey - headed parakeet > > adult male 20 . grey - headed parakeet > > adult female 21 . grey - headed parakeet > > female\nthis entry was posted in archive , asia , parrots and tagged alexandrine parakeet , blossom - headed parakeet , grey - headed parakeet . bookmark the permalink .\narchived 2012 - 2013 topics : blossom - headed parakeet ( psittacula roseata ) , alexandrine parakeet ( psittacula eupatria ) and grey - headed parakeet ( psittacula finschii ) : request for information .\n24 responses to archived 2012 - 2013 topics : blossom - headed parakeet ( psittacula roseata ) , alexandrine parakeet ( psittacula eupatria ) and grey - headed parakeet ( psittacula finschii ) : request for information .\narchived 2012 - 2013 topics : blossom - headed parakeet ( psittacula roseata ) , alexandrine parakeet ( psittacula eupatria ) and grey - headed parakeet ( psittacula finschii ) : request for information . | birdlife ' s globally threatened bird forums\ngrey - headed lovebirds prefer finch and canary seed over the sunflower / safflower mixes that most other lovebirds eat .\nthe grey - headed parakeet inhabits montane forest , open mixed deciduous forest , evergreen and semi - evergreen forests and farmlands and cultivated areas with several trees .\nnote : the psittacula finschi , formerly listed as a sub - species of the slaty headed parrot , is now listed as a separate species . the common name is the\ngrey headed parrot / parakeet\n.\nthe diet of the grey - headed parakeet consists mainly of nuts , seeds , grains , grass , shoots , buds , flowers , berries , fruits and legumes .\ngrey - headed parakeet ( psittacula finschii ) is a very rare resident and was believed to be extirpated from bangladesh . the only recent sighting is from chittagong hill tracts .\nthe breeding season of these grey - headed parakeet species is from january to march in myanmar . they nest in tree hollows . the clutch usually contains 4 - 5 eggs .\nfledgling slaty headed and fledgling plum headed parrots are almost identical so only purchase young birds from a reputable breeder or reputable bird dealer .\ndescription of adults : bit bigger than the plum headed parrot . compare above close up photo of\nslaty\nwith close up photo of plum headed parrot on\nplum headed parrot\nweb page .\nsub species in country / area of origin : 1 ( the psittacula finschi , formerly listed as a sub - species of the slaty headed parrot , is now listed as a separate species . the common name is the\ngrey headed parrot / parakeet\n. )\nthese parakeet species are altitudinal migrant birds . post breeding dispersal of juveniles takes place . they may make local movements for feeding and breeding . these grey - headed parakeet species have been found to descent to lower altitudes from the upland forests during winter .\nthe global population size of the grey - headed parakeet ( psittacula finschii ) has not been quantified . the overall population size is considered to be on a sharp decline . their generation length is 7 . 5 years . these species have large range and population . the grey - headed parakeet is being widely captured for pet trade . in china and cambodia , the trapping pressure is contributing to the decline in the population .\n\u201calexandrine parakeet psittacula eupatria ( birdlife species factsheet ) and grey - headed parakeet psittacula finschii ( birdlife species factsheet ) occupy a similar range to this species and are also suspected to be in decline at an unknown rate owing to habitat destruction and unsustainable levels of exploitation . \u201d\nthe grey - headed parakeet species are distributed in eastern india , bhutan , south - western china , thailand , cambodia , laos , vietnam , myanmar and bangladesh . they are very rare in bangladesh . in india , the grey - headed parakeets occur in the states of assam , meghalaya , manipur , tripura , mizoram and arunachal pradesh . in china , they occur in yunnan province .\nspecies : scientific : psittacula finschii aka psittacula himalayana finschii . . . english : grey - headed parakeet , finsch ' s parakeet . . . dutch : finsch ' parkiet . . . german : finsch edelsittich , burma schwarzkopfedelsittich . . . french : perruche \u00e0 t\u00eate gris de finsch\nspecies : scientific : psittacula himalayana aka psittacula himalayana himalayana . . . english : slaty - headed parakeet , black - headed parakeet . . . dutch : grijskopparkiet . . . german : schwarzkopfedelsittich , himalayasittich . . . french : perruche \u00e0 t\u00eate gris | cites ii - endangered species\nthe grey - headed parrot is relatively common in one nature reserve in xishuangbanna , southwest of china . i once sighted more than 10 individuals in one trip . but the poaching and illegal trade is also going on , within one village , every family has one grey - headed parrot as pet , and some claim a price of $ 80 for one individual .\nand only the adult male has grey on its upper body . they are native on the island of\nblossom - headed parakeet is widely distributed in gujarat and occurs in good numbers all around the state . the species also is observed utilizing wide variety of habitats and seems much adaptive to local changes in habitat as compared to alexandrine parakeet .\nbutler , christopher j . 2003 . population biology of the introduced rose - ringed parakeet psittacula krameri in the uk . university of oxford . department of zoology . edward grey institue of field ornithology . urltoken\nslaty - headed parakeets make excellent pets for owners who understand and meet their needs . some may learn to talk .\nthe important bird and biodiversity areas ( iba ) of grey - headed parakeet in cambodia are keo sema and mondulkiri - kratie lowlands . the ibas in laos are nakai - nam theun , nakai plateau , eastern bolikhamxay mountains , upper xe bangfai , xe khampho / xe pian , phou xiang thong , attapu plain and hin namno .\ntemperament : usually good parents . best housed one pair per aviary . not to be housed with the plum headed parrot or blossom headed parrot as they may hybridize . apart from during the moult , they maintain good feather condition and present well .\ngreen - grey parrot , with body about 30cm long , weight around 100g for males and often 10 - 20 % smaller for females .\nthe monk parakeet is not a prohibited or restricted invasive animal under the biosecurity act 2014 .\nthe following detail my observation of alexandrine parakeet from bhutan , assam , burma and cambodia .\ncollar , n . 2017 . grey - headed parakeet ( psittacula finschii ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( ed . ) , handbook of the birds of the world alive , lynx edicions , barcelona . retrieved from urltoken on 15 february 2017 .\nagree that there is concern about the status of these species . grey - headed parakeet has a patchy distribution absent from apparently similar habitats between areas of the northern plains of cambodia . habitat loss is ongoing and will have a devastating effect on these and other species reliant on deciduous dipterocarp forest in the next decade , although the effects may be not be apparent for a few years .\nthe red - crowned parakeet ( macquarie island ) is an accepted subspecies of the red - crowned parakeet ( cyanoramphus novaezelandiae ) ( del hoyo et al . 1997 ; higgins 1999 ) .\nthe habitat loss due to deforestation and logging is threatening the survival of these species . the iucn ( international union for conservation of nature ) has categorized and evaluated the grey - headed parakeet ( psittacula finschii ) and has listed it as\nnear threatened\n. the cites ( the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ) has listed these parakeets in appendix ii .\nthe grey - headed lovebird ( agapornis canus ) is native to madagascar , but has been introduced to the comoro islands , r\u00e9union , rodrigues , and the seychelles . these birds are generally encountered in flocks of 5 to 30 or more individuals , in flight or feeding ( mainly on grass seeds ) on the ground . they are generally common in madagascar ( at least in more open country in coastal regions ) and in the comoros , but are present in only small numbers in r\u00e9union and rodrigues and have a limited distribution in the seychelles . there are many grey - headed lovebirds in captivity as well .\nterauds , a . , r . gales , g . b . baker & r . alderman ( 2006 ) . foraging areas of black - browed and grey - headed albatrosses breeding on macquarie island in relation to marine protected areas . aquatic conservation : marine and freshwater ecosystems . 16 : 133 - 146 .\ndisturbance by humans and feral pigs and deer , and competition with more plentiful bird species including the introduced rose - ringed parakeet ; the mauritius parakeet seemed doomed to extinction . but with the team of\ngrey - headed lovebirds are strong fliers , and when open , their wings seem larger in relation to their bodies than those of the peach - faced lovebird . they can develop good speed quite quickly and effortlessly , and turn smoothly , though they are not as nimble in the air as the peach - faced lovebirds .\nthe natural range of the slaty - headed parakeet ( psittacula himalayana ) extends from the foothills of western himalayas to arunachal pradesh ( eastern afghanistan to vietnam ) . they migrate down to the valleys for the winters , usually during the last week of october .\nconversely alexandrine parakeet is the rarest parrot in the mondulkiri landscape and appears very scarce and sparsely distributed within the lowland ddf . blosom - headed is also local ( perhaps more associated with denser evergreen forest types ) and not a species i encounter particularly frequently .\nthe original ( natural ) slaty - headed parakeet has a mostly green plumage . the head , however , is dark grey with a slight bluish hue , there are black stripes to the cheeks and a narrow band to nape , with an adjoining bluish - green band . there is a dark red patch to the wing - coverts . the under wing - coverts are greenish - blue . the middle tail - feathers are blue with a green base and yellow tips . the upper beak is red with a yellow tip . the lower beak is yellowish . the irises are whitish and the feet grey .\ncollar , n . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . grey - headed parakeet ( psittacula finschii ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\na person must not release into the wild a monk parakeet that has been bred or kept in captivity .\nwe regularly observe alexandrine parakeet ( psittacula eupatria ) in hazaribag district and also in other part of jharkhand .\nbirdlife international ( 2007b ) : mauritius parakeet - birdlife species factsheet . retrieved 2007 - aug - 28 .\nblossom - headed parakeet ( psittacula roseata ) is a rare resident , scarcely occurs in the hills forests of ne and se bangladesh . c . 20 individuals were recorded in the northern fringe of the sundarbans , bangladesh in october 2009 , which is the only record from that area .\n) , and the similarity of their diet to the monk parakeet also make them a potential agricultural threat . (\nred - crowned parakeet , pyrrhura ( picta ) roseifrons . ( not to be confused with cyanoramphus novaezelandiae ) .\n) , also known as finsch\u2019s parakeet , belongs to the family , psittaculidae . these parakeet species are distributed in eastern india , bhutan , south - western china , thailand , cambodia , laos , vietnam , myanmar and bangladesh .\nduring our regular visit and survey to hazaribag wildlife sanctuary , hazaribag , jharkhand , india between 2009 - 2013 , we have observed blossom - headed parakeet ( psittacula roseata ) only five to six times in maximum 5 in number and on few occasion in palamu tiger reserve , jharkhand , india .\nthe monk parakeet is recognised as a\ndomestic bird\nunder the nature conservation ( wildlife management ) regulation 2006 .\ncyanoramphus novaezelandiae erythrotis ( red - crowned parakeet ( macquarie island ) , macquarie island parakeet ) : species management profile for tasmania ' s threatened species link ( threatened species section ( tss ) , 2014um ) [ state action plan ] .\nthere are six accepted subspecies of the red - crowned parakeet , two of which are extinct . the only subspecies that occurred in australia are the extinct red - crowned parakeet ( lord howe island ) ( cyanoramphus novazelandiae subflavescens ) and the extinct red - crowned parakeet ( macquarie island ) ( garnett & crowley 2000 ; hindwood 1940 ; taylor 1985 ) .\n5 feb . 2006 , cambodia : \u201cseen in much lower numbers than the above ( alexandrine parakeet ) around tmatboey . \u201d\ngrey - headed lovebirds were first imported for european aviculture in the second half of the nineteenth century . when imports were permitted and they were available to aviculture in large numbers , little effort was put into breeding . they prefer to breed in the autumn , and because they have poor tolerance for cold weather breeding in aviculture is generally unsuccessful . they tend to be nervous and easily frightened in an aviary .\nis mainly green but has a distinctive yellow wing patch that is especially visble during flight . it is smaller than the monk parakeet\nwhich are morphologically dissimilar and apparently very closely related among each other , though not to the mauritius parakeet or its immediate relatives .\nthe hen is usually the dominant bird . generally start breeding at about 3 years of age . new pairs should be introduced to each other several months prior to the start of the breeding season so the birds have plenty of time to establish a strong bond between each other . a good pair bond will usually result in better breeding results . the slaty headed parrot will hybridize with the plum headed parrot .\nred - crowned parakeet subspecies from norfolk island and new caledonia are now described as a separate species ( i . e . the norfolk island green parrot ( c . cooki ) and the new caledonian parakeet ( cayanoramphus saisetti ) ) ( boon et al . 2001 ) .\ncampbell , t . s . 2000 . the monk parakeet , myiopsitta monachus . institute for biological invasions . invader of the month . urltoken\nthe slaty - headed parakeet averages 15 . 5 - 16 inches ( ~ 40 cm ) in length , with the tail being ~ 6 to 7 inches ( ~ 158 to 178 mm ) long . slatyheads are bigger than plumheads . the hens are slightly smaller than the cock , the body approximately the same size as that of an eastern rosella .\nmyiopsitta monachus ( monk parakeet ) ; adult , feeding in black olive tree ( bucida buceras ) . palm beach county , florida , usa .\n23 feb . 2012 , cambodia : \u201cmany of this gorgeous parakeet were seen around tmatboey with as many as circa 40 on one day . \u201d\nmancini , j . r . parakeet . hoboken , n . j . : howell book house / wiley pub . , 2006 . isbn 0764599194\nthe red - crowned parakeet ( macquarie island ) inhabited coastal tussock grasslands on subantarctic macquarie island ( forshaw & cooper 1981 ; taylor 1979 ) .\nalso gro katover to distinguish it from the rose - ringed parakeet . the name is mauritian creole , from french ( gros ) cateau vert .\nearly detection is essential for preventing pest establishment . if you have seen a monk parakeet in the wild please contact biosecurity queensland on 13 25 23 .\nalexandrine parakeet is very common in kangra valley of himachal pradesh , india and there are several nests of this bird near my working place and home .\nalexandrine parakeet occupies a much larger range which covers most of the indian subcontinent where p . roseata is absent ( replaced by p . cyanocephala ) .\n: the adult female is entirely green , with a dark green back and wings , a bright green rump , and a paler green chest ; the adult male are similarly colored , except that their entire head and upper chest are a pale grey .\nhas a yellow face and throat and is a significantly smaller bird , approximately half as long as the monk parakeet . budgerigars are native to central australia . (\nthe red - crowned parakeet ( macquarie island ) would have been quite distinctive as it was the only parrot which occurred on macquarie island ( taylor 1979 ) .\ntaylor , r . h . ( 1979 ) . how the macquarie island parakeet became extinct . new zealand journal of ecology . 2 : 42 - 45 .\nthere are no records of the red - crowned parakeet ( macquarie island ) cross - breeding with other species in the wild . populations of other subspecies on the chatham and auckland islands occasionally hybridise with the closely - related yellow - crowned parakeet ( cyanoramphus auriceps ) ( flack 1976 ; nixon 1994 ; taylor 1975 , 1985 ) .\nas a point of clarification i would not associate any of the three species with \u2018evergreen forest\u2019 , \u2018semi - evergreen forest\u2019 or other dense \u2018non - deciduous\u2019 forest types , and have not recorded any of the species from within the interior of large blocks of such habitat . the highest densities that i\u2019ve found have all been in areas dominated by deciduous forest , principally deciduous dipterocarp and [ contentiously named ] mixed deciduous forest . outside of the lowlands grey - headed also extensively uses anthropogenically derived \u2018open - country\u2019 habitats ( often including pines and ddf like vegetation ) .\n( monk parakeet ) eggs hatched asynchronously after 24 days . the hatch rate was just over 50 % . the hatchlings are covered with yellow down and are fed by the parents\ni have noticed alexandrine parakeet in abundance on the outskirts of dharamshala in kangra valley , himachal pradesh , india during winters where it is known to be resident throughout the year .\nthe red - crowned parakeet ( macquarie island ) was endemic to macquarie island , in the southern ocean ( higgins 1999 ) . it was last recorded in 1890 ( taylor 1979 ) . there are no current captive populations of this subspecies and none have been reintroduced into the wild . other red - crowned parakeet subspecies are kept in captivity ( higgins 1999 ) .\nlittle is known of the red - crowned parakeet ( macquarie island ) diet , but they are said to have fed on crustaceans and other small invertebrates ( oliver 1955 ; taylor 1979 ) .\nthere is nothing known of the home ranges or territories of the red - crowned parakeet ( macquarie island ) . in some subspecies of the red - crowned parakeet , pairs establish breeding territories which are centred around the roosting sites and nest sites , and are defended before and during the breeding season , though territorial behaviour has not been recorded in all subspecies ( greene 1990 ; taylor 1985 ) .\nin some areas , the clearance of the vegetation may not be complete , and may only refer to the removal of the shrubs of the understorey , or even fallen timber . such habitats are uninhabitable for many woodland species , such as the grey - crowned babbler and hooded robin , both of which are threatened by these processes in southern australia .\nto put the decline in parakeets into perspective , deignan ( 1945 ) reported that he saw a single flock of our most widespread parakeet , red - breasted parakeet , p . alexandri , that numbered at least 10 , 000 birds in fang district of chiang mai in 1936 . it would be unusual for me to see more than 50 together , even in the best and least disturbed forest sites in the present era\nmunoz , antonio - roman ; real , raimundo . , 2006 . assessing the potential range expansion of the exotic monk parakeet in spain diversity & distributions . 12 ( 6 ) . nov 2006 . 656 - 665 .\nkibbe , d . p . , and n . j . cutright . 1973 . the monk parakeet in new york . wildlife damage management , internet center for bird control seminars proceedings . university of nebraska , lincoln . urltoken\nassam , india during feb . \u2013 mar . 2001 : i failed to find alexandrine parakeet anywhere east of kaziranga national park . the following is a detailed diary of the areas i explored in far eastern assam and arunachal pradesh\nthe carolina parakeet was the only parrot species native to the eastern united states . the last wild specimen was killed in okeechobee county in florida in 1904 , and the last captive bird died at the cincinnati zoo in 1918 . this was the male specimen\nincas ,\nwho died within a year of his mate\nlady jane .\nit was not until 1939 , however , that it was determined that the carolina parakeet had ceased to be .\n. the females lack the neck collar , and notably possess an all - black beak , unlike the males which have a red upper beak . the latter feature is notably absent in the rose - ringed parakeet as well as the\navery , michael l ; yoder , christi a . ; tillman , eric a . , 2008 . diazacon inhibits reproduction in invasive monk parakeet populations journal of wildlife management . 72 ( 6 ) . aug 2008 . 1449 - 1452 .\n17 march 2011 , vietnam : \u201cgood views of a male with large numbers of red - breasted parakeet at dusk along the cat tien np side of the dong nai river . this species is rarely recorded on tour in vietnam . \u201d\nthe red - crowned parakeet ( macquarie island ) was terrestrial ( forshaw & cooper 1981 ) and is said to have foraged on the seashore , taking invertebrates from piles of beach - cast seaweed ( oliver 1955 ; taylor 1979 ) .\nduring a trip to kaziranga np , assam ( 19 \u2013 25 march 1999 ) i recorded six in the tea estate adjoining the np and then unknown numbers on two subsequent days . during trips to kaziranga np , assam ( 17 - 21 march 1995 and 15 - 19 march 1994 and 21 - 26 february 1989 ) zero blossom - headed parakeets were recorded .\nthe main threat to the red - crowned parakeet ( macquarie island ) was predation by feral cats ( felis catus ) , whose numbers increased dramatically following the introduction and population explosion of rabbits ( oryctolagus cuniculus ) ( taylor 1979 ) . large numbers of red - crowned parakeet ( macquarie island ) were also killed for food by sealers in the 19th century . predation by rats ( rattus rattus ) was also a problem ( forshaw & cooper 1981 ; oliver 1955 ; taylor 1975 ) .\nhyman j , & s . pruett - jones . 1995 . natural history of the monk parakeet in hyde park , chicago . wilson bulletin [ willson bull . ] vol . 107 , no . 3 , pp . 510 - 517 . urltoken\nboon , w . m . , c . h . daugherty & g . k . chambers ( 2001 ) . the norfolk island green parrot and new caledonian red - crowned parakeet are distinct species . emu . 101 : 113 - 121 .\noritz - catedral , l . & d . h . brunton ( 2008 ) . clutch parameters and reproductive success of a translocated population of red - crowned parakeet ( cyanoramphus novaezelandiae ) . australian journal of zoology . 56 : 389 - 393 .\nthe young are often left with the parent birds for a month or more and this will generally not cause any problems as the slaty headed parrot usually only has a single clutch per year . the young birds will probably keep learning from the parent birds and benefit from the knowledge they learn . if aggression is observed the effected bird or birds should be immediately removed to another aviary .\n20 \u2013 24 feb . 2012 : notably common with as many as 60 around angkor including many that provide superb views of this impressive parakeet . a further ten were observed at tmatboey . note : according to fred goes my angkor observation is exceptional .\ni\u2019ve regularly observed nesting alexandrine parakeets in south mumbai , india in my childhood . they were not as common as rose - ringed parakeets , but were common nonetheless . in 2008 , the situation was not noticeably different . i still heard and saw them regularly even in urban areas . i don\u2019t know if the population was introduced originally , but they\u2019ve been there for over 20 years . if the number of photos online is any indication , they\u2019re still doing ok . i also heard several on the andamans in 2012 , where they were the scarcest parakeet ( after p . alexandri and p . longicauda ) . my only sightings of p . roseata were in kaziranga , where it is far less common than the abundant p . alexandri . i think many of the comments above from gujarat , jharkhand etc . refer to p . cyanocephala , which is still often called the blossom - headed parakeet .\nboth adults yellow / green in general ; dark grey head ; black chin and wide stripe across lower cheeks , continuing as thin line around hindneck ; inner median wing coverts has small purple / red patch , nearly always missing in female ; central tail feathers long ( shorter in female ) ; upper tail purple / blue and widely tipped with yellow / white . red upper mandible , pale yellow lower . eye pale yellow .\nthe parakeet species inhabit evergreen and semi - evergreen forests , oak , teak , cedar and pine forests , wooded hillsides , deciduous hill forests , partly cultivated farmlands and plantations . it occurs in elevations of up to 2 , 700 meters in montane forests .\nperis , s . t . & r . m . aramburu . 1995 . reproductive phenology and breeding success of monk parakeet myiopsitta monachus in argentina . studies on neotropical fauna and environment vol . 30 , no . 2 , pp . 115 - 119 .\nmonk parakeet is not a prohibited or restricted invasive animal under the biosecurity act 2014 . however , by law , everyone has a general biosecurity obligation ( gbo ) to take reasonable and practical steps to minimise the risks associated with invasive plants and animals under their control .\nbuhrman - deever , susannah c ; rappaport , amy r . ; bradbury , jack w . , 2007 . geographic variation in contact calls of feral north american populations of the monk parakeet . condor . 109 ( 2 ) . may 2007 . 389 - 398 .\nrussello , michael a . ; avery , michael l . ; wright , timothy f . , 2008 . genetic evidence links invasive monk parakeet populations in the united states to the international pet trade bmc evolutionary biology . 8 jul 24 2008 . article no . : 217\nsnyder , n . f . r . and k . russell . carolina parakeet ( conuropsis carolinensis ) . in a . poole and f . gill , eds . , the birds of north america . philadelphia , pa : the birds of north america , 2002 .\nmyiopsitta monachus ( monk parakeet ) is a cites - listed species . please follow this link cites - myiopsitta monachus for more details . roughly 5 , 000 species of animals and 28 , 000 species of plants are protected by cites against over - exploitation through international trade .\nthere have not been any comprehensive surveys for the red - crowned parakeet ( macquarie island ) . there have , however , been a number of ornithological surveys on macquarie island since the subspecies became extinct ( e . g . mackenzie 1968 ; terauds et al . 2006 ) .\nalexandrine parakeet ( psittacula eupatria ) is threatened in pakistan because of illegal cage bird trade and destruction of nesting site , i consider this parakeet as nationally critically endangered in pakistan but more research and survey are needed to confirm what\u2019s the status of this bird in the country , as far the global status is considered definitely the bird must be evaluated based on trends from south and south east asia . i presume it has declined in thailand and other south east asia and that\u2019s why this bird must be listed as vulnerable or near - threatened under the iucn criteria .\nmost populations of the red - crowned parakeet have declined since the 19th century ( forshaw & cooper 1981 ; higgins 1999 ; oliver 1955 ) , although most are currently stable and the species , as a whole , is not considered threatened ( del hoyo et al . 1997 ) .\nnative to south america , the monk parakeet is a popular cage bird around the world . it has escaped captivity and established feral populations in numerous countries . it is a significant pest in florida , usa , where its large , communal nests cause millions of dollars of damage to electricity infrastructure .\nspreyer , m . f . , and e . h . bucher . 1998 . monk parakeet myiopsitta monachus . the birds of north america , no . 322 ( a . poole and f . gill , eds . ) . the birds of north america , inc . , philadelphia , pa . urltoken\ntwo small breeding populations of the alexandrine parakeet ( psittacula eupatria ) were known to occur in north bengal , however recent searches have failed to find them . recent records in bangladesh are all from dhaka city , presumably escapes . sightings of some juveniles indicate that these escapes are possibly also breeding in dhaka city .\nalexandrine parakeet ( psittacula eupatria ) was a abundant species in dry - deciduous forests of gujarat , especially eastern gujarat and gir forests ( india ) . however , the sightings of these species are have lowered due to extensive poaching by local tribes and the species surely is suffering population decline in gujarat ( india ) .\na translocation program may be suitable for the reintroduction of the red - crowned parakeet ( or norfolk island green parrot ) to macquarie island . although unsuccessful translocation programs have been trialed for the norfolk island green parrot ( garnett & crowley 2000 ; hermes et al . 1986 ) , similar programs have been successful for the red - crowned parakeet in new zealand . these programs have been successful with as few as 15 birds , but programs with less than 150 birds cause genetic bottlenecks . low hatchling success in the new zealand program may be the result of inbreeding depression or poor nest box design ( oritz - catedral & brunton 2008 ) .\nrussello , m . a ; saranathan , v . ; buhrman - deever , s . ; eberhard , j . ; caccone , a . , 2007 . characterization of polymorphic microsatellite loci for the invasive monk parakeet ( myiopsitta monachus ) molecular ecology notes . 7 ( 6 ) . nov 2007 . 990 - 992 .\nthough the red - crowned parakeet ( macquarie island ) population is said to have been common ( forshaw & cooper 2002 ; oliver 1955 ; taylor 1979 ) , no extreme fluctuations in population numbers were reported . in other subspecies however , fluctuations in population numbers have been reported ( del hoyo et al . 1997 ) .\nits scientific name change from psittacula echo had recently found widespread approval . a wealth of circumstantial evidence nowadays suggests that the hypothesized r\u00e9union parakeet ( described earlier as psittacula eques , based on a painting and hearsay reports ) did indeed exist . the r\u00e9union birds were the closest relatives , and presumably conspecific , with the mauritius ones .\nthe red - crowned parakeet ( macquarie island ) was formerly considered common ( forshaw & cooper 2002 ; oliver 1955 ; taylor 1979 ) . it occurred as a single population on macquarie island , but has not been seen since 1890 ( taylor 1979 ) . it is unknown if the subspecies occurred as solitary birds or in flocks .\nfrom a species perspective , the red - crowned parakeet occurs as several small populations on islands in the south - west pacific ocean and the southern ocean , mainly centred on new zealand and the outlying islands of the kermadec , chatham , auckland and antipodes ( forshaw & cooper 1981 ; higgins 1999 ; oliver 1955 ; taylor 1975 , 1985 ; triggs & daugherty 1996 ) .\nthere is no information regarding the detectability of the red - crowned parakeet ( macquarie island ) . other subspecies are quiet and unobtrusive and extremely difficult to detect , as their green plumage is well camouflaged among the foliage . they are usually located by the noise of their foraging activities and occasional calls . once detected they are tame and easily approached ( forshaw & cooper 1981 ; higgins 1999 ) .\nparakeets add to the human wonder of nature , with their various colors , behaviors , sounds , and , for some species , ability to mimic human speech . yet , human activities have not always been so beneficial for parakeets . the carolina parakeet was the only parrot species native to the eastern united states , but became extinct in the early twentieth century due to a loss of habitat and overhunting .\n,\nthe ring - necked parakeet , a native of india , is 16 inches long , thus larger than the monk . it is bright green , with a very long blue - green tail , and a large bright red bill . the male has a black throat and a conspicous black ring around its neck . the underwing coverts are yellow .\nthey mainly feed on fruits and grains in their native habitat (\nparakeet is the common term for the members of more than 100 species of small , slender parrots scattered over more than a dozen genera in the subfamily psittacinae of the family psittacidae . parakeets ( or parrakeets ) typically are characterized by a long , tapering tail , are seed - eating , and form flocks . many species , such as the budgerigar ( melopsittacus undulatus ) , are popular as pets and kept in cages .\nnothing is known of the sexual maturity , life expectancy and natural mortality of the red - crowned parakeet ( macquarie island ) . age of sexual maturity in populations of other subspecies is also unknown ( higgins 1999 ) , though one juvenile female was seen behaving as mated pair with a male just one week after reaching independence ( greene 1990 ) , and captive birds are said to breed when they are less than one year old ( higgins 1999 ) .\nparakeet is a term that encompasses diverse species , widely scattered taxonomically , within the subfamily psittacinae of the family psittacidae . the term mainly is used for small , long - tailed members of the arini tribe in the americas , and in australia colloquially for many species . the term is descriptive and used for small , long - tailed parrots but does not imply an actual relationship between the different parakeets . not all parakeets have long tails . an older orthography still sometimes encountered is paroquet .\ncollar , n . , boesman , p . , sharpe , c . j . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . jandaya parakeet ( aratinga jandaya ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\non the other hand , a recent review argued to maintain species status for the time being . a study skin had been discovered at the royal museum of scotland , explicitly referencing a book description of the r\u00e9union birds . this may be the only material proof of these birds ' existence , or be from mauritius . even in that case , ancient dna analysis of this specimen will give new insight into these questions , because very little data exists on the genetic diversity of the mauritius parakeet in former times .\nalexandrine parakeet ( psittacula eupatria ) is increasing or changing its range in gujarat state india . as till 1980s it was restricted to south gujarat forest areas particularly rajpipla forest division . but since 1998 this species is occurring in many parts of saurashtra ! ! ! i am observing this species in bhavnagar city since 1998 and the population is increasing ! ! i have observed this species readily nesting in an artificial wooden nest box ( approx . 1cuft size ) placed at about 6m height on a tree in a private garden . the increase of population of this species in bhavnagar may be an example of local abundance .\nthe red - crowned parakeet ( macquarie island ) was a medium - sized green parrot ( length about 27 cm ) . the head was bright green with a crimson cap and eye - stripe . the upperparts were bright to dark yellowish - green with a scarlet patch on either side of the rump ( usually concealed by the wings when resting ) , and a greenish - blue leading edge to the wings . the eyes were yellow or red , and the bill was black with a pearly base . sexes appeared similar , but the female was smaller ( forshaw & cooper 1981 ; higgins 1999 ; oliver 1955 ) .\ni have not included my few records of this species for thailand as i\u2019m sure phil round and his thai colleagues will have this well covered . i\u2019m sure i have earlier notes for burma but cannot find them at the moment . i have no records of this species for laos and vietnam . i have not included my records for india outside the north - east as i\u2019m sure others have much more detailed observations from this part of this species\u2019 range . nevertheless , my general sense is that alexandrine parakeet is widespread throughout india but nowhere common and always less common than species such as ring - necked and red - breasted .\nthe carolina parakeet died out because of a number of different threats , and in particular , a loss of habitat and overhunting . to make space for more agricultural land , large areas of forest were cut down , taking away its living space . the colorful feathers ( green body , yellow head , and red around the bill ) were in demand as decorations in ladies ' hats , and the birds were kept as pets . even though the birds bred easily in captivity , little was done by owners to increase the population of tamed birds . finally , they were killed in large numbers because farmers considered them a pest , although many farmers valued them for controlling invasive cockleburs .\ngiven its endemism , the red - crowned parakeet ( macquarie island ) was probably sedentary . however , parakeets were twice seen flying over the sea , away from macquarie island ( falla 1937 ) . it has been suggested that they may have been flying to nearby offshore islets , or been blown out to sea by squalls ( forshaw & cooper 2002 ) . other subspecies are sedentary or resident ( higgins 1999 ) , though birds occurring on archipelagoes may fly between neighbouring islands , sometimes covering up to 40 km over water ( taylor 1985 ) . however , most movements are shorter , usually covering several hundred metres or a few kilometres ( fleming 1939 ; forshaw & cooper 1981 ; higgins 1999 ; taylor 1985 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has been uplisted from least concern on the basis of new information about its population trend . it is listed as near threatened because it is suspected to be undergoing a moderately rapid population decline owing to on - going habitat loss and trapping pressure .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be uncommon in china , with variable status elsewhere ( del hoyo et al . 1997 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be in moderately rapid decline owing to ongoing habitat destruction and trapping pressure . anecdotal observations of local trends in some parts of the species ' s range lend support to this suspicion , for example in cambodia since at least the 1990s ( f . goes in litt . 2013 , t . gray in litt . 2013 , r . j . timmins in litt . 2013 ) .\nconservation actions underway the species occurs in multiple protected areas across its range , including kaziranga tiger reserve ( india ) ; nat ma tung national park ( myanmar ) ; doi inthanon and mae ping national parks ( thailand ) ; and kulen promtep national park and mondulkiri protected forest ( cambodia ) . conservation actions proposed conduct regular range - wide surveys to monitor the species ' s population trend . monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within the species ' s range . list the species under cites . quantify the impacts of capture for trade . conduct awareness - raising activities to reduce trapping pressure and trade . increase the area of suitable habitat within protected areas .\nupdated geographic range , habitat and ecology and conservation actions text fields , and added relevant references .\n( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22685473a111377718 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nkollidoo , 3500\u20135000 feet [ c . 1000\u20131500 m ] , upper salween river , myanmar\nlong considered conspecific with p . himalayana , but the two recorded within 25 km of each other in n bengal and se bhutan ; other evidence , however , suggests that individuals are convergent in this region ; separation as two species therefore remains provisional , but supported by differences in plumage , size ( finschii smaller ) and \u201cmarkedly distinct\u201d vocalizations # r . monotypic .\nindia from n west bengal e through , assam , s china , myanmar and thailand to indochina ; very rare in bangladesh .\nbut smaller with longer tail feathers , slightly paler head , yellower upperparts and darker blue - green underwing - coverts . . .\ncommonest vocalization a strident upslurred pleasant - sounding whistle , \u201cpweeeh ! \u201d . when perched , . . .\nopen mixed deciduous forest , teak forest , secondary growth , cultivation and tea plantations in . . .\njan\u2013mar in c & s myanmar . nest with 4 eggs recorded c . 12 m up in xylia dolabriformis tree .\nin some areas of w myanmar , with up to 100 seen daily , 1995 . locally . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nrecent reappraisal of higher taxonomy of parrots # r proposed arrangement into three superfamilies , here treated as families ( strigopidae , cacatuidae , psittacidae ) ; same study split psittacidae , as here defined , into three families , with additional recognition of psittrichasidae ( psittrichas to coracopsis , below ) and psittaculidae ( psephotus to micropsitta , below ) ; in present work , separation of these families considered to require further study and perhaps additional support . in the past , present family was often split into two , with recognition of family loriidae ; at the other extreme , it was sometimes considered to include all psittaciformes .\nrecent study suggested that , as currently constituted , this genus may be polyphyletic and that tanygnathus may be embedded within it # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nbird perched on a home made perch . part of the tail appears to be missing .\nthis species has been uplisted from least concern on the basis of new information about its population trend . it is listed as near threatened because it is suspected to be undergoing a moderately rapid population decline owing to on - going habitat loss and trapping pressure .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : psittacula finschii . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\n) is a medium - sized bird measuring 35 to 40 cm in length . it is very similar to p . himalayana . however it is smaller in size , the tail feathers are longer , the head is paler and the upperparts are more yellow . the nape is pale blue - green .\nimage author : dr . raju kasambe | license : cc by - sa 4 . 0\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 699 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nringneck / long - tailed parakeets . . . ringneck photo gallery . . . ringneck parrots as pets ( behavior and training )\na variety of mutations have been produced , including blue , olive , lutino and albino .\nare either without or with a greatly reduced dark red patch to the wing - coverts .\nhave greenish head and brownish - green cheeks . there is a narrow green band to the nape . the upper and lower beaks are horn - colored with a brownish base to the lower beak . they attain their adult plumage when they are about 30 months old .\nringneck parrots are less demanding than other parrot species , which makes them an excellent choice for someone who wants to\nstep up\nfrom an easy - going and easy - care cockatiel or budgie .\nthey are rather active , and enjoy climbing and playing . to accommodate their need for exercise , they should be provided a roomy cage that allows them to move around freely and toys to entertain themselves with - preferably the size of an amazon or even macaw cage . info on housing your bird\na good quality small parrot mix , in addition to fruits , vegetables , soaked seed consisting of mung beans , milo , wheat and sunflower - and green food , such as dandelions , chicory and endives should be provided .\nsprouted or germinated seeds are usually more easily accepted by\nseed addicts\nthan fresh fruits and vegetables .\nsprouted seeds are healthier as the sprouting changes and enhances the nutritional quality and value of seeds and grains . sprouted seeds are lower in fat , as the process of sprouting utilizes the fat in the seed to start the growing process - thus reducing the fat stored in the seeds .\nsprouted seeds will help balance your bird\u2019s diet by adding a nutritious supply of high in vegetable proteins , vitamins , minerals , enzymes , and chlorophyll .\nsoaked and germinated\noil\nseeds , like niger and rape seeds , are rich in protein and carbohydrates ; while\nstarch\nseeds , such as canary and millets , are rich in carbohydrates , but lower in protein .\nit is an invaluable food at all times ; however , it is especially important for breeding or molting birds . sprouted seeds also serve as a great rearing and weaning food as the softened shell is easier to break by chicks and gets them used to the texture of seeds .\nconsistent training and behavioral guidance from a young age is recommended to ensure potential owners enjoy a bird free of destructive and annoying habits .\nbreeding activities may begin at the end of july , august or early september . average clutch size is 4 to 6 eggs and incubation lasts 24 to 25 days . only the hen incubates , and the male feeds her in the nest . the young fledge at about 6 weeks . it is recommended to check on the chicks to make sure that they are properly fed and attended to . if the parents lack the necessary parenting skills , fostering may become necessary . however , in the rule , they make excellent parents ."]}
{"id": 1855, "summary": [{"text": "ballymoss ( 1954 \u2013 1979 ) was an irish thoroughbred racehorse .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in a racing career that lasted from 1956 until november 1958 , he ran seventeen times and won eight races .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in 1957 , he became the first horse trained in ireland to win the st leger .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the following season , he was europe 's leading middle-distance horse , winning the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes and the prix de l'arc de triomphe . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "ballymoss", "paragraphs": ["satisfy due diligence requirments on ballymoss retail limited in one single ' time - saving ' search . run full background checks for fitness and probity on the directors of ballymoss retail limited and anti - money laundering checks ( aml checks ) on ballymoss retail limited\nsatisfy due diligence requirments on ballymoss consultancy limited in one single ' time - saving ' search . run full background checks for fitness and probity on the directors of ballymoss consultancy limited and anti - money laundering checks ( aml checks ) on ballymoss consultancy limited\nthere were a few more 50s and 40s . and what a race ballymoss ran .\nblame - always mighty . . . royal palace by : ballymoss from . . . | facebook\nsatisfy due diligence requirments on spectre ( ballymoss house ) limited in one single ' time - saving ' search . run full background checks for fitness and probity on the directors of spectre ( ballymoss house ) limited and anti - money laundering checks ( aml checks ) on spectre ( ballymoss house ) limited\ncheck out , share and like the ballymoss stud facebook page to keep up to date with developments .\nthe ballymoss stakes , named in his honour , was run at the curragh between 1962 and 1984 .\nballymoss was given a rating of 136 by timeform , making him the highest rated horse of 1958 .\njohn fitzpatrick is a company director of ballymoss retail limited since 2005 and a listed director of 26 other companies .\ncharity craig is a company director of ballymoss consultancy limited since 2013 and a listed director of 1 other companies .\ndo not take risks with what are very important buying decisions . at ballymoss stud , intergrity , honesty , customer satisfaction and support come as standard . horsebox sales also through gps leisure vehicles , part of the ballymoss stud group .\nnew ballymoss duo available for viewing in ireland . contact + 44 ( 0 ) 7825 796869 to arrange * * * * *\nthe latest documents filed with the companies registration office for ballymoss retail limited ( which can include the account details ) are listed below .\nlog - in now to run due diligence checks and compliance checks on ballymoss retail limited or click join - up to get started .\nthe latest documents filed with the companies registration office for ballymoss consultancy limited ( which can include the account details ) are listed below .\nlog - in now to run due diligence checks and compliance checks on ballymoss consultancy limited or click join - up to get started .\nlelia o ' hea is a company director of spectre ( ballymoss house ) limited since 2016 and a listed director of 78 other companies .\nin addition to providing equestrian services , ballymoss stud are pleased to supply quality 3 . 5 tonnes ( 3500 kgs ) duo horseboxes for sale .\nfor build quality , customer service and value for money , ballymoss stud is ireland ' s premier supplier of 3 . 5 tonne duo horseboxes .\nhaving written my ' copy ' , napping ballymoss , i had no sooner telephoned it from the earl of doncaster arms than the heavens opened .\nballymoss duo continue to sell 3 . 5 tonnes duo horseboxes built by the renowned coach builders , regent horseboxes contact + 44 ( 0 ) 7825 796869\nto view the latest credit rating or credit limit on ballymoss retail limited simply click ' log - in ' or ' join - up ' below .\nthe latest documents filed with the companies registration office for spectre ( ballymoss house ) limited ( which can include the account details ) are listed below .\nlog - in now to run due diligence checks and compliance checks on spectre ( ballymoss house ) limited or click join - up to get started .\nwhen ballymoss was retired at the end of the 1958 racing season his earnings of \u00a3114 , 150 were a record for a horse trained in britain or ireland , surpassing the mark of \u00a376 , 577 set by tulyar in 1952 . ballymoss ' s record stood until it was broken by ragusa in 1963 .\nsimilarly , crepello would surely have joined the elite group if he had remained sound enough to contest the st leger \u2013 won by his immediate derby victim ballymoss \u2013 in 1957 .\nwe hope you can find everything you need . ballymoss stud is focused on providing high - quality service and customer satisfaction - we will do everything we can to meet your expectations .\nhis bloodline is now dispersed throughout the world a remarkable achievement but simply confirms his superior type and genetic background and the foresight of his breeder frank cantwell of ballymoss kennels new zealand .\nprior to receiving yellow warning panels d9018\nballymoss\napproaches grantham with the 1n24 17 : 25 king ' s cross - harrogate\nthe yorkshire pullman\nservice on thursday 21st june 1962 .\nat ballymoss stud we guarantee honesty , integrity , openness and transparency . the welfare of horses under our care is paramount but we encourage owners to insure their equines against unexpected incidents and veterinary bills .\nin 1957 i knew vincent had a good opinion of the colt ballymoss , despite a relatively unspectacular career as a two - year - old . so it was no big surprise when my friend and colleaguye michael o ' hehir rang in may to say he thought we should have a little ' interest ' in ballymoss for the derby . coincidentally , within a few minutes , i received similar counsel from another source .\n55018 ' ballymoss ' lays down the power as it comes onto heath common with the diverted 10 : 35 leeds - kings cross at 11 : 02 on 1st june 1975 , note the city of wakefield in the background .\nballymoss retail limited was set up on friday the 22nd of april 2005 . their current address is joyce house , 22 / 23 holles street , dublin 2 , and the company status is normal . the company ' s current directors john fitzpatrick , martin kinirins and stephen fitzpatrick have been the director of 62 other irish companies between them ; 7 of which are now closed . ballymoss retail limited has 1 shareholder . this irish company shares its eircode with at least 286 other companies .\nfollowing the lner tradition of naming locomotives after winning racehorses , british railways\ndeltic\ndiesel locomotive no . d9018 ( later no . 55 018 ) was named ballymoss after this horse on 24 november 1961 , and remained in service until 12 october 1981 .\nballymoss ( gb ) ch . h , 1954 { 2 - u } dp = 6 - 8 - 28 - 4 - 2 ( 48 ) di = 1 . 40 cd = 0 . 25 - 17 starts , 8 wins , 5 places , 1 shows career earnings : l107 , 166\nthe next race for ballymoss was the irish derby in which he trotted up ( at 4 - 9 ) . there followed defeat on york ' s ' dead ' ground which can be death to any horse . then the first of our betting dramas featuring the oldest british classic , the st leger .\nat the time of his retirement from racing , tulyar had earned \u00a376 , 577 , breaking the record for prize money won by a british horse which had been set fifty - seven years earlier by isinglass . tulyar ' s record stood for six years until it was beaten by ballymoss . [ 14 ]\nif ballymoss hadn ' t been bogged down on knavesmire , where he was beaten by one of tomorrow ' s rivals , briochge , who clearly handled the ground , he ' d have been a good favourite . as it was , 5 - 1 was the general offer , 11 - 2 in places .\nand yet , somehow , the whiff of ebbing confidence leaked into the ring so that , by the ' off ' , ballymoss had eased to 8 - 1 . he may not have been aware of that , but he was clearly conscious of the difference between ' dead ' on knavesmire and ' soft side ' at doncaster .\nit was reasonably assumed that heavy , or even soft , going was anathema to ballymoss . so , meticulous as ever , before giving me the green light to bet \u00a31 , 100 each way during the afternoon previous to the final classic , to be run on wednesday 11 september 1957 , vincent walked every yard of the extended 1 mile 6 furlongs circuit .\n26 . 12 . 15 - very excited with new purchase in the young aes approved stallion ' igor ' by joop ii , who will arrive at ballymoss stud early in january 2016 . igor was born in may 2013 so it will be a little while before he will be seen on the circuit . superb bloodlines , paces , natural balance and jumping technique .\nregent horseboxes uk specialise in the construction of bespoke 3 . 5 tonnes horseboxes . regent are probably the biggest manufacturer of these horseboxes in the uk and have agents in ireland , sweden , belgium , holland and the usa amongst others . ballymoss stud have been working with regent horseboxes for the last 20 years which is testament to the quality and reliability of their products .\nspectre ( ballymoss house ) limited was set up on wednesday the 26th of october 2016 . their current address is dublin 2 , and the company status is normal . the company ' s current directors stefan jaeger , lelia o ' hea , eoin condren and anna alves have been the director of 156 other irish companies between them ; 33 of which are now closed .\nfor the second year , ballymoss stud are delighted to have co sponsored the marie curie charity golf tournament at shandon golf club on friday 19 may 2017 . a very commendable sum of \u00a35000 raised for a very worthwhile cause . in 2016 , in excess of \u00a34000 was raised . onwards and upwards . well done to those involved at shandon park golf club particularly lady captain , dianne conway whose passion makes this happen .\nthe locomotive was initially preserved by the deltic 9000 fund and its successor deltic 9000 locomotives limited , before being sold to beaver sports ( yorks ) ltd , its current owner in 2004 . in 2015 , the locomotive was repainted with the white cab window surrounds typical of the finsbury park depot and has been seen in the guise of a number of locomotives based there ; 55003 meld , 55007 pinza and , currently , 55018 ballymoss .\nballymoss consultancy limited was set up on wednesday the 29th of may 2013 . their current address is the arch , block 3 ground floor , blackrock business park , the arch , dublin , and the company status is dissolved with the company closing on wednesday the 29th of march 2017 . the company ' s current directors charity craig and damian o ' hare have been the director of 1 other irish company between them ; 1 of which is now closed .\nback to horama . mated to drum beat ' s halfbrother and 2000 guineas winner nearula ( by nasrullah ) , she produced the speedy juvenile close up ( tfr 117 ) , who only showed form at 2 . that close up was not a sprinter but a miler , can be concluded from her matings to staying sires shantung , ballymoss and relko , which produced respectively the milers promontory and closeness , and derby 3 rd freefoot , who took after relko and stayed at least 2600m .\ni ' d selected lester ' s partner , crepello , but must admit my pocket was wrestling with readers ' interests when , in a rough race , as so many derbys were in the pre - film patrol era , ballymoss went two lengths up in the straight and for a few strides looked to have it won . until lester pressed the button and crepello grabbed him late . at least it was still a quarter the odds a place in those days . enough to pay for a few dinners at le coq d ' or and the caprice .\nballymoss stud is a friendly family run business set in rolling countryside at boardmills , lisburn in county down , northern ireland . having many years experience in the equestrian sector , mavis and patricia stewart strive to meet the expectations and needs of clients should that be by way of training , competition livery , horses for sale and horseboxes for sale . you can be assured that your equine , horse or pony , will be treated professionally and sympathetically during its time with us . we pride ourselves in being the premier supplier of equestrian services in the lisburn , saintfield , ballynahinch and carryduff areas . a provider for whom openness , honesty and integrity mean more than mere words .\nmost welcome ( 84c , habitat , ballymoss ) . 4 wins - 2 at 2 - from 6f to 1\u00bcm , \u00a3272 , 464 , newbury lockinge s . , gr . 2 , goodwood select s . , gr . 3 , 2d the derby , gr . 1 , newmarket champion s . , gr . 1 , sandown gordon richards s . , gr . 3 , 3d breeders ' cup mile s . , gr . 1 , goodwood sussex s . , gr . 1 , belmont turf classic h . , gr . 1 , royal ascot prince of wales ' s s . , gr . 2 , sandown mile s . , gr . 2 , newmarket craven s . , gr . 3 , 4th goodwood sussex s . , gr . 1 .\nthe early part of the eclipse stakes roll of honour is littered with the greats including the sixth triple crown - winner isinglass ( 1894 ) who won as a four - year - old ; persimmon ( 1897 ) the derby winner of the previous year owned by the prince of wales ; ard patrick ( 1903 ) who had triumphed in the derby the year before ; dual gold cup - winner prince palatine ( 1920 ) ; colorado ( 1927 ) the previous season ' s 2000 guineas winner ; windsor lad ( 1935 ) and blue peter ( 1939 ) who had both won the derby the year before ; migoli ( 1947 ) who won the next year ' s arc ; tulyar ( 1952 ) derby and st leger victor the same season ; ballymoss ( 1958 ) arc and irish derby winner ; st paddy ( 1961 ) winner of the derby and st leger the year before ; and royal palace ( 1968 ) the previous season ' s 2000 guineas and derby winner .\nnamed : 24th november 1961 at doncaster works without ceremony ( in honour of racehorse owned by mr . s mcshain , won the irish derby , st . leger , eclipse stakes , french prix de l ' triumphe and beaten into second place by ' crepello ' in the derby ) .\n34g 24 . 11 . 61 . fp 5 / 73 . yk 5 / 81 . withdrawn 12 . 10 . 81 . to sf 10 / 81 ( for stripping ) . to zf 23 . 11 . 81 . cut - up by 30 . 01 . 82 .\nran light from vulcan foundry , newton - le - willows , to doncaster works - accepted into br service and allocated 34g , finsbury park tmd .\n08 . 01 . 62 1e02 07 : 05 bradford - king ' s cross ,\nthe west riding\nto grantham ( struck 2 people at norwell lane crossing , newark ) .\n25 . 02 . 63 1a06 08 : 00 king ' s cross - edinburgh ,\nthe talisman\nto darlington ( failed ) - b1 61338 to newcastle and d9005 forward . 04 . 06 . 63 1a16 10 : 00 king ' s cross - edinburgh ,\nthe flying scotsman\nto grantham ( caught fire ) - a3 pacific 60054\nmanna\nforward .\n17 . 06 . 64 1a23 08 : 00 edinburgh - king ' s cross ,\nthe talisman\nto darlington ( engine failure at durham ) - assisted to darlington by v3 67628 and replaced by a3 pacific 60036\ncolombo\n.\n24 . 07 . 65 released from doncaster works after fitting of cast bogies ( bogies no . 1 1037 replaced by 9000 - 9 & no . 2 1038 replaced by 9000 - 10 ) .\n21 . 03 . 66 1st ee maintenance contract expires - mileage recorded at 705 , 300 . 04 . 06 . 66 replacing of air horns at doncaster works : westinghouse type removed in favour of bonnet fitted trico folberth type . bonnet fitted air - horns originally fitted circa late 1964 / early 1965 - no actual date recorded . 27 . 11 . 66 locomotive undergoing audible testing of experimental bonnet fitted warning air horns ( later fitted as standard ) between arelsley and great ponton with d9007 ( syphonic nose cone fitted ) and d9016 ( standard fitted air horn below buffer beam ) .\n15 . 02 . 67 released from doncaster works , after general repair , with full yellow ends applied .\n07 . 03 . 68 released from doncaster works , after general repair , equipped with dual braking .\n22 . 01 . 69 1e00 01 : 40 leeds - sheffield ( via doncaster ) and 1d20 04 : 30 sheffield - leeds . 10 . 05 . 69 released from doncaster works , after intermediate repair , in blue livery . 09 . 08 . 69 - 20 . 05 . 71 carrying ' d ' prefix on 09 . 08 . 69 and not reported dropped until 20 . 05 . 71 ( most likely date for this would be after light repair dated 07 - 14 . 02 . 70 ) . note : nigel rollings reports the only deltic to carry the ' d ' prefix beyond august 1970 was d9016 - confirmation of when d9018 became 9018 is still required .\n23 . 02 . 71 released from doncaster works , after intermediate repair , with eth equipment fitted . 08 . 10 . 71 4m58 ( 19 : 15 ) newcastle flt - willesden flt from peterborough ( 09 / 10 ) to finsbury park ( freightliner - assisting failed d172 ) .\n09 . 02 . 74 locomotive officially renumbered 55018 w / e 09 . 02 . 74 ( carried by 06 / 02 ) .\n1d02 12 : 20 king\u2019s cross - cleethorpes and 1a34 17 : 37 cleethorpes - king\u2019s cross .\nduring the week commencing 17th october 1977 unofficial industrial action led to the removal of deltics from all ecml workings . action was taken by maintenance staff angry at the proposed closure of finsbury park depot with the introduction of the new hst fleet , which was to be maintained at the new bounds green depot . maintenance staff ' blacked ' the deltic fleet thus all engines remained ' laid - up ' at various installations until the dispute was settled on october 21st . a list of how the dispute affected the class is as follows :\nhaymarket tmd 13 / 10 - 23 / 10 . worked 1e35 20 : 20 edin - kx 23 / 10 .\nfinsbury park tmd 14 / 10 - 23 / 10 . worked 1n29 19 : 00 kx - n ' lce 23 / 10 .\nhaymarket tmd 14 / 10 - 23 / 10 . worked 1e25 12 : 15 aber - kx from edin 23 / 10 .\nfinsbury park tmd 13 / 10 - 23 / 10 . worked 1s21 11 : 00 kx - edin 24 / 10 .\ndoncaster works ' intermediate ' 31 / 03 - 21 / 10 . worked 1e48 21 : 15 aber - kx from doncaster 26 / 10 .\nfinsbury park tmd 11 / 10 - 24 / 10 . worked 1l22 15 : 55 kx - leeds 24 / 10 .\nyork tmd 10 / 10 - 25 / 10 . worked 1a06 08 : 05 yk - kx 25 / 10 .\ngateshead tmd 13 / 10 - 24 / 10 . worked 1a40 20 : 30 n ' cle - kx 24 / 10 .\nyork tmd 17 / 10 - 23 / 10 . worked 0d01 12 : 00 yk - doncaster 23 / 10 .\nhaymarket tmd 13 / 10 - 24 / 10 . worked 1e20 15 : 00 edin - kx 24 / 10 .\ngateshead tmd 14 / 10 - 24 / 10 . worked 1a07 07 : 25 n ' cle - kx 24 / 10 .\nyork tmd 14 / 10 - 24 / 10 . worked 1a06 08 : 05 yk - kx 24 / 10 .\nhaymarket tmd 15 / 10 - 23 / 10 . worked 1e39 22 : 30 edin - kx 23 / 10 .\ngateshead tmd 14 / 10 - 25 / 10 . worked 1a15 09 : 20 n ' cle - kx 25 / 10 .\nfinsbury park tmd 08 / 10 - 25 / 10 . worked 1n00 01 : 00 kx - n ' cle 26 / 10 .\nhaymarket tmd 15 / 10 - 19 / 10 . sent to doncaster works 19 / 10 for ' light repair ' behind 40063 .\ndoncaster works ' intermediate ' 03 / 10 - 19 . 01 . 78 .\nfinsbury park tmd 14 / 10 - 23 / 10 . worked 1d00 08 : 25 kx - cleethorpes 24 / 10 .\nholbeck tmd 10 / 10 - 23 / 10 . worked 1a47 00 : 43 leeds - kx 24 / 10 .\ngateshead tmd 14 - 10 - 24 - 10 . worked 1s28 07 : 00 n ' cle - edin 24 / 10 .\nfinsbury park tmd 14 / 10 - 23 / 10 . worked 1s43 18 : 00 kx - edin 23 / 10 .\nfinsbury park - 6 ; gateshead - 4 ; haymarket - 5 ; doncaster works - 3 ; york - 3 ; holbeck - 1 ; locomotives moving in this period - 1 ( 55016 , haymarket to works ) .\n29 . 01 . 78 1z08 08 : 25 paddington - treherbert ,\nthe deltic dragon\nto cardiff ( via oxford , evesham and gloucester - 20030 & 20142 forward ) . and 1z08 15 : 10 treherbert - paddington return from cardiff ( ex 20030 & 20142 - via newport , severn tunnel and swindon ) . 19 . 02 . 78 1z15 08 : 15 paddington - paignton ,\nthe deltic ranger\nto bristol ( caped - adverse weather ) and 1z15 12 : 25 bristol - paddington return ( 55003 worked re - run 05 / 03 ) . 13 . 10 . 78 1m41 21 : 50 york - aberystwyth , to stockport and 1e24 22 : 50 shrewsbury - york , from stockport .\n21 . 06 . 79 1a23 08 : 50 edinburgh - aberdeen and 1g65 12 : 40 aberdeen - edinburgh . 14 . 08 . 79 white window surrounds applied at finsbury park .\nwhilst on fp from 10 . 07 . 79 , prior to going to stratford for open day on the 14th july . worked 1d04 17 : 05 king ' s cross - hull on 15 . 07 . 79 .\nwhilst stopped on fp from 25th or 26 . 07 . 79 . worked 1l42 12 : 20 king ' s cross - york on 03 . 08 . 79 .\nworked 1l44 16 : 05 king ' s cross - york on 15 . 08 . 79 .\nwhilst on fp for ' c ' exam 16 / 8 - 21 / 8 . first train believed to be 1l42 12 : 20 king ' s cross - york on 21 . 08 . 79 .\nwhilst on fp 11 . 10 . 79 - 15 . 10 . 79 . first train unknown but worked 1m58 08 : 15 newcastle - liverpool on 16 . 10 . 79 .\n22 . 08 . 79 1m62 08 : 49 york - liverpool ( 55018 ' s first visit to liverpool - and first with white cab surrounds ) and 1e99 13 : 05 liverpool - york .\n26 . 03 . 80 r / h / s nameplate removed for straightening at finsbury park after attempted removal by vandals . 18 . 04 . 80 r / h / s nameplate re - fitted at finsbury park . 15 . 06 . 80 1z10 08 : 15 king ' s cross - sheffield ,\nthe white rose\n( charter via doncaster ) and 1z10 17 : 00 sheffield - king ' s cross return ( via nottingham ) . 06 . 09 . 80 1f56 17 : 30 edinburgh - king ' s cross ,\nthe cock o ' the north\ntbls railtour ( 55019 worked king ' s cross to edinburgh ) .\n30 . 03 . 81 2l54 17 : 24 edinburgh - dundee and 2g16 19 : 22 dundee - edinburgh ( vice dmu ) . 12 . 10 . 81 1d08 19 : 40 king ' s cross - hull , to doncaster ( engine failure - low air pressure - 37126 forward ) 55018 ' s final train after which the locomotive was withdrawn . 20 . 10 . 81 to stratford for component recovery ( donated p / u to 55007 ) . 24 . 11 . 81 to doncaster works for disposal - cutting begins 12 / 12 .\ncolor : ch height : 15 . 3 ( gb ) de 306 / 06 / 41529 / 54 bred by richard ball , gb . exported to ireland . owned by john mcshain , ireland . gagnant du prix de l arc de triomphe 1958 . european horse of the year 1958 . died 1979 in england . retired to stud 1959 . damsire of stage door johnny ( belmont winner and us 3 year old champion ) , northern sunset ( 1995 kentucky broodmare of the year ) , levmoss ( 1969 prix de l ` arc de triomphe winner ) , le moss ( only horse to win the stayers triple crown ) , teenoso ( epsom derby winner ) . ( close )\nowner : mr . richard ball breeder : mr . john mcshain winnings : 17 starts : 8 - 5 - 1 , l107 , 166 at 3 won st . leger stakes ( eng ) , irish derby ( ire ) , 2nd derby stakes ( eng ) , great voltigeur stakes ( eng ) at 4 won coronation cup ( eng ) , eclipse stakes ( eng ) , king george 6th & queen elizabeth s , pr de l ' arc de triomphe ( fr ) , 2nd ormonde stakes ( eng ) , 3rd washington , d . c . , international ( 100 , 000 ) 4 , 500gns doncaster yearling . champion of europe 1958 . retired to whitsbury manor stud in 1959 . 2nd general sires list 1967 & 3rd in 1968 . first great winner in flat races from top class trainer vincent o\u00b4brien ( close )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmavis and patricia are both qualified hsi ( horse sport ireland ireland ) coaches with a good rapport with students and an easy teaching style .\nand british show jumping association , bsja ) . she competes both at grand prix and young horse classes and specialises at producing young horses for the domestic and international competition market . she actively competes throughout the irish circuit and obtains excellent results . an experienced and effective , yet compassionate rider who commits to her horses and creates a good relationship and bond . horses competed by patricia included best touch ( ish ) by the irish olympic stallion touchdown ; alide van de boswinning , a belgian warmblood mare by the renowned skippy ii , and the grey stallion garagange ( sold to new zealand ) , by conquest van de helle ( gr sire corrado ) . garagange was bought as a 3 year old from the established belgian van de helle stud and produced to grand prix level by patricia . jones vd bisschop a grey 8 year old gelding has now moved up to the national grand prix level . bought as an unbroken 3 year old , jones was broken in to ride and produced throughout by patricia .\nregularly competing at the ruas showgrounds , balmoral park lisburn , cavan equestrian centre , portmore equestrian centre , barnadown equestrian centre , millstreet and at boswell patricia will give your horses the profile and experience you rightly expect and require .\nwe would also like to thank jim and carol prime of prime photography for allowing us to use their high quality equestrian competition photography on our site .\nwith a variety of offerings to choose from , we ' re sure you ' ll be happy working with us . look around our website and if you have any comments or questions , please feel free to contact us .\ndelighted to see the new owner of our ginelli who was produced and sold by patricia qualify for the rds young rider 110 - 115m . good luck eva boland at the rds in august 2018 .\nchestnut colt foal by emerald nop out of our skippy mare , alida van de boswinning .\ndark brown filly foal ( likely to turn grey ) by hector out of our foundation line mare tumbleweed royale by coronea eagle . sire of grand dam - king of diamonds\npatricia stewart greer on board the amazing jones vd bisschop ( heartbreaker ex voltaire ) win the finlay equi trek national grand prix at the ruas balmoral 2 * show .\nbest wishes to the new owners of lagamajore . sold to california , usa . broken in and produced by patricia stewart greer .\naugust 2016 - ssh heartbeat , owned , produced and competed by patricia stewart greer sold to dubai . best wishes to the new owners and continued success .\ncongratulations to patricia who was presented with the m . michael mellor style award perpetual trophy in memory of mary duff at coilog national grand prix show on 3 may 2014 . the winning rider was selected by 6 judges and judged on the riders attitude and performance both inside and outside the ring during the show .\n' the mmm style and performance award will be presented to the person who exemplifies true sportmanship at all times ' ( m . michael mellor )\njust wanted to say firstly absolutely love the box , it is beautiful . second , feel free to use me as a reference anytime , and thirdly , thank you for making this experience so good . your customer service is fantastic\n. zoe day , essex , england\ni recently bought a regent duo , all though i bought the lorry from a photo , it was everthing i could have hoped for . very good company to deal with . i would highly recommend them . many thanks , debbie\nd abrahams , somerset , england .\nno problem using me as a reference . i have no hesitation in recommending him .\nmichelle , ballyclare , county antrim\ni ' m real pleased with my van the photos didnt do it justice ! and would recommend you no problem , you were so helpful . ordering from internet always a worry . you can get your customers to call the tattoo studio 02380322486 any day\n. karen & simon faith , southampton .\n20 months on , still delighted with the citroen relay duo 2 - horse van i bought . will certainly be in touch if i decide to up - grade my van\n. jenny , trim , co meath .\nwe hope to see you again ! check back later for new updates to our website . there ' s much more to come !\nfor overseas buyers - we will also collect from and return to either belfast international airport or george best belfast city airport . lisburn is the nearest train station for those travelling from within ireland .\nrear groom ' s area with upholstered bench seat , wardrobe , large external tack locker and colour cctv to horses . 4 windows and roof vent . large horse windows in privacy glass , soft night travel lights in horse area . 12mths coachwork warranty , 12 months mot . choice of colours and graphics .\n2011 nissan interstar lwb , 184000 kms , 120 bhp , full nissan service history , doe to mid feb 2019 . superb driver . irish vehicle so no vrt to pay .\n2012 vauxhall movano mwb , 120000 miles , new light weight coach built body . rear grooms area with upholstered seat and enclosed wardrobe . rear external tack locker . fully sealed interior for washing out . all windows in tinted privacy glass , roof vent . colour cctv to horses and reverse camera . two colour metallic paintwork ( estoril and silver ) with complimenting graphics . 12 months mot . 12 months coachwork warranty . superb driving vehicle . just had major service including new timing chain kit .\n2010 citroen relay longstall , 115000 miles , painted in range rover corris grey metallic . totally separate rear groom / tack room with upholstered bench seating . tow bar and electrics . spec otherwise as above .\nlate 2012 renault master longstall 120 bhp , fsh ( renault main dealer ) , warranted 115000 miles light weight polycarbonate composite body . totally separate rear grooms area with saddle and bridle racks and upholstered bench seats . colour cctv to horses and reverse camera . fully sealed horse area for washing out . excellent cab interior with built in sat nav , and bluetooth audio system . painted in range rover wataimo grey metallic with silver oakley style graphics . long mot . comes complete with stallion partition . large enclosed luton storage . 12 months coachwork warranty .\nlate 2013 vauxhall movano lwb . 105000 miles . new coach built lightweight body with external tack locker , 1 / 2 breast wall , rear grooms area with enclosed wardrobe and upholstered bench seat . colour cctv to horses and reverse camera . large enclosed luton storage . fully sealed horse area for washing out . excellent cab interior with built in sat nav , and bluetooth audio system . painted in range rover nara bronze with complimenting cream graphics .\n2012 citroen relay , bespoke style with ultra lite body . one previous company owner . flat screen colour cctv to horses and reverse camera . built to customers specification . superb driving vehicle as would be expected . mot to april 2018 .\n2008 renault master 2 . 5 dci lwb , 132000 kms . one owner , irish registered vehicle . fully serviced with invoices to support and renault main dealer for 2009 , 2010 and 2011 . i have also fully serviced the van . timing belt kit changed in october 2016 @ 108000 kms . coach built with light weight panels in longstall style .\nflat screen colour cctv to horses and reverse camera . one piece sealed rubber floor . sterile rear grooms area with 2 upholstered bench seats and saddle and bridle racks . 12 months coach work warranty .\n2007 renault master lwb , low kms . fully serviced . lightweight body . long stall .\nall new duos are sold with 12 months coach work warranty by regent . 28 days mechanical warranty is standard but i can provide 12 months silver mechanical warranty with warrantywise\n* * * * * we will deliver your new duo to your door at \u00a3250 . prices are ex works . unfortunately north of scotland and sw england are more due to flight costs and flight timings ( \u00a3350 ) . * * * * *\nselection of carefully selected competition horses for sale - 4 to 10 year old , and competing on the registered showjumping circuit . horses suitable for young riders and professionals . ask for more details .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\nthe son of mossborough out of a mare indian call was quoted among the 33 - 1 , 50 - 1 or 100 - 1 others - depending on the bookmaker .\naware that the faintest whiff of support for a potentially ' live ' outsider could swiftly ruffle the market , i phoned vincent to enquire if he wanted to be ' on ' . after a little deliberation , he didn ' t . the horse had come to himself nicely without any pressure , as his infinitely patient handler liked him to do ; but he ' d suffered a stone bruise which had interrupted his preparation . vincent felt that he would ' still give a good account of himself , ' adding that he wouldn ' t put me off backing him , although he felt there would be better opportunities later .\nwhen we met outside the weighing - room , as arranged , he expressed satisfaction with the terrain and , looking happier than he ever did as a big race approached , signalled the go - ahead .\ni figured that the 100 - 16 rate ( sixes with the fractions ) would be the most i could possibly hope for . the vouchers , still among my expendable memorabilia , read :\ni didn ' t see vincent until the next afternoon when i was about to leave for the radio point out in the country , on rosehill , where raymond glendenning would hand over to me from the grandstand . the trainer of my nap , brow furrowed , related anxiously : ' i ' ve just been out there ; he ' s got no chance in this . we ' ll have to get out of our bets . '\ni regretted that i ' d no time to get to the rails and negotiate , and handed him the list of bets , explaining that he was currently a firm 5 - 1 chance and there should be no problem .\nvincent is basically shy and didn ' t want to go into the ring ; and anyway the horse was uppermost in his mind . ' let ' s leave it , ' he shrugged . so we did . there were no mobile phones ; no betting exchanges in that era .\nappropriately , the infinitely dependable tp burns rode vincent ' s first english classic winner .\npeter o ' sullevan ' s horse racing heroes ( highdown \u00a316 . 99stg )\nthomas kelly mendelssohn finished third on his return to action in the grade three dwyer stakes over a mile on the dirt in belmont .\nurltoken sportsdesk multiple classic - winning trainer john dunlop has died at the age of 78 . dunlop saddled two winners of the derby in shirley heights ( 1978 ) and erhaab ( 1994 ) . he also won the st leger three times , the 1000 guineas three times and the oaks twice , with the 2000 guineas the only british classic to elude him .\ngraham clark roaring lion battled on bravely to beat his old rival saxon warrior in the coral - eclipse at sandown . the two classy three - year - olds had the 10 - furlong group one to themselves and no quarter was given in the closing stages .\n' i will derail gravy train in the legal industry ' - shane ross vows to clampdown on . . .\n' everybody dies , but not everybody lives ' - how ' the great ak ' became a . . .\newan mackenna : infantile , spoiled and indulged - everything wrong with brazil is . . .\neric dier jumps to raheem sterling ' s defence as england prepare for croatia semi - . . .\ngalway ' s joe canning could face action over use of ' red bull ' towel in kilkenny . . .\ncroatia sack coach ognjen vukojevic over ' glory to ukraine ' video ahead of . . .\nthe throw - in : the super 8s are here , ladies football preview and why kilkenny are up . . .\non this week ' s episode of the throw - in , will . . .\nan in - depth preview ahead of the france v belgium world cup semi - final in russia on . . .\nwatch :\nfootball ' s coming home !\n- england fans in russia sing ahead of . . .\nwatch fans around the world react to england ' s nail - . . .\nwatch : ' i ' m here to compete . i ' m here to win ' - wayne rooney defends dc united . . .\nbuilt around two hugely powerful napier\ndeltic\nengines , a development of a naval engine fitted to world war 2 torpedo boats , the deltics were built in 1961 and 1962 to replace the famous streamlined a4 pacific class of steam locomotives on the prestigious london - edinburgh route . 22 were built and soon brought the average london - edinburgh time down to under 6 hours , regularly topping 100mph in the process . as the east coast main line was upgraded , so timings dropped still further with the flying scotsman limited - stop service clocking in at 5h30m by the late 1970s .\nin 1978 , the\nhigh speed train\n( hst ) was introduced and the deltic ' s days were numbered - first relegated to hauling the sleeper services ( as briefly immortalised in an early episode of yes , minister ) and fast mail and parcels services , before eventually being withdrawn entirely in 1981 - 82 . the 22 locomotives were named either after racehorses or regiments , both naming themes popular in steam days , and six were preserved in working order as well as two cabs and the pre - production prototype at the national railway museum . the deltics have become a favourite in preservation and even many of the most hardened steam buffs will admit a sneaking admiration for the sheer grunt of the big engines .\nd9000 was numerically the first of english electric\u2019s production deltic locos to emerge from vulcan foundry in newton - le - willows 1960 . in august 1961 , d9000 is recorded as hauling the up flying scotsman from edinburgh to kings cross for the first time . in june 1962 she was named at a ceremony at edinburgh waverley station . d9000 became 55022 during an overhaul at doncaster in 1974 . she spent the majority of her working life stabled at haymarket , with a brief stint at finsbury park in 1967 - 68 .\n55022 continues in service to the bitter end , hauling the deltic scotsman farewell railtour from edinburgh to kings cross , becoming the last deltic to work for br . preservation followed , initially at the nene valley railway and then , in november 1996 , \u201croyal scots grey\u201d became the first preserved deltic to operate on the main line once more . from 1997 - 2002 she was leased by anglia railways and virgin trains to provide a backup for regular passenger services .\nshe is currently on long - term loan at the railway and will be rattling the china in offices and houses along the line throughout the season .\nmany of our frequent questions are listed here to help you arrange your visit and enjoy your day travelling along the line .\ndig out your finest drainpipe jeans and capri pants and steam in to 60s fest on saturday 14th and sunday 15th july .\nsee what ' s going on at grosmont station & the movement of our fleet with our live webcam .\nthe north york moors historical railway trust is a not - for profit charity . every visitor that travels contributes towards preserving our locomotives and rolling stock .\nrelive the amazing spirit and camaraderie of world war ii and enjoy the various re - enactments , entertainment and vehicle displays along the line .\nnew for 2018 : see our heritage engines climb goathland bank with our live webcam .\nin the early hours of sunday 23rd july 2017 , north yorkshire moors railway\u2019s ( nymr\u2019s ) historic teak carriages were deliberately vandalised . the carriages were parked in the siding , at the far side of the main visitor car park at pickering .\nless than one week to go until # 60sfest and the ' big night out ' . if you want to sing and dance into the night bringi\u2026 urltoken\nnorth york moors historical railway trust is a company limited by guarantee registered in england and wales under number 2490244 and registered as a charity number 501388 .\nregistered office , north yorkshire moors railway , 12 park street , pickering , north yorkshire , yo18 7aj .\ngenerate a b2b marketing list with ease and grow your business . identify key decision makers and pre - qualified new prospects for your sales and business development teams .\nview cro company documents and company reports any irish company or business with ease .\nvision - net credit scores save your business the time and cost of chasing slow payers . evaluate risk at client application stage or run continuous credit checks on your full customer base .\nbackground check companies , sole traders or individuals and minimise your spend with more efficient anti - money laundering checks and reports .\nmore people choose vision - net over any other search service . . . ask us why ?\n2017 was a record year for company start - ups in ireland while insolvencies went through a levelling off period .\nwe are in acceleration mode and ireland has taken its place as europe ' s fastest growing economy . many aspects of that recovery are demonstrated in our 2017 annual review .\nhe was one of the most correct examples of classic english type of an era when irish were at their peak .\ngreat observatons elirose . i agree with you about tb chestnut mares ! very smart ladies . just slipping in a belated update from european racing regarding tiggy wiggy in the 5 / 3 / 151000 guineas race results at newmarket . sorry i didn ' t post this earlier . : op 1st : legatissimo ( 13 / 2 ) 2nd : lucida ( 9 / 2 ) 3rd : tiggy wiggy ( 9 / 1 ) tiggy wiggy ( kheleyf ' s silver ) and found ( red evie ) were reviewed on page 48 . found did not run in the 1000 guineas . urltoken\npedigree : graustark - usa ( a 1963 chef de race sire ) x admiring - usa ( 1962 ) by hail to reason - usa ( a 1958 chef de race sire ) .\na bay filly bred by paul mellon . her lineage traces back to family number 1s . race earnings -\n( 24 startsa : 9 wins , 3 places , 2 shows ) . twice won the sheepshead bay handicap ( g2 ) and the diana handicap ( g2 ) . at age 31 , she died of colic at waggoner farm lexington , ky on 8 / 5 / 2004 .\n( g1 ) , travers stakes ( g1 ) and champagne stakes ( g1 ) among other wins . stood at stud at lane ' s end ( 1995 - 1999 ) . sold to the turkish jockey club in 2000 and now stands at karacabey pension stud in bursa , turkey .\nsire of the highest earning offspring ( aeneas - tur ( 2006 ) at turkey as of 2009 - 2010 .\n: a 1980 colt by northern dancer - can ( a 1961 chef de race sire ) . race earnings :\n( 18 starts : 8 wins , 2 places , 3 shows ) . heros honor stood at stud at lane ' s end in 1985 . he died in may 1998 at haras de roiville in france .\nhe is the sire of touch of greatness ( 1986 ) , the dam of elusive quality ( 1993 ) .\n( usa - g1 ) and the queen elizabeth ii stakes ( eng - g1 ) among other wins . retired in 2008 and entered stud at kildangan stud in kildare , ireland in 2009 .\n- aus ( 2008c ) : $ 3 , 990 , 138 a champion 2 & 3 year old in australia . at stud in 2012 at darley ' kelvinside in australia and dalham hall stud , england .\nwinner of the 2004 kentucky derby , the preakness stakes and 2nd in the belmont stakes .\nthe next golden girl posting is not a huge money winner . . . but still a part of the history of this weekend ' s black - eyed susan stakes for the fillies .\nthe dam of a 1997 black - eyed susan winner\u2026salt it let it fly foaled : 1981 pedigree : hatchet man ( 1971 ) x idle hour princess ( 1971 ) by ribot - gb ( a 1952 chef de race sire ) background : race earnings - $ 68 , 737 ( 16 starts : 4 wins , 0 places , 0 shows ) . bred by mrs . julian g . rogers . lineage traces back to family number 4 . let it fly won the countess jane stakes . let it fly had 5 registered foals who were all fillies ! famous offspring : salt it : a 3 / 18 / 1994 filly by salt lake ( 1994 ) . race earnings : $ 265 , 380 ( 20 starts : 4 wins , 1 place , 4 shows ) . in 1997 at age 3 : won the black - eye susan stakes ( g2 ) and the wide country stakes . that year , she came in 3rd in the cotillion handicap ( g2 ) and 4th in the mother goose stake ( g1 ) . in 1999 at age 5 : came in 4th in the affectionately handicap ( g3 ) and the beaugay handicap ( g3 ) . her trainer was deborah s . bodner . let it fly photo by barbara livingston from pedigree query stats from pedigree query\nthat 2004 derby that smarty jones won was tapit ' s derby , too . he didn ' t do so well , but he has been a better sire , i believe . the winner of the belmont , that smarty lost that year - - along with losing the triple crown - - was birdstone , spider ' s sire . yesss ! and he ran a good race and beat smarty fair and square .\nyes . . . we ' ve had several near misses for the triple crown in the last 3 + decades . i hope we see the light at the end of the tunnel soon ! i hope it ' s american pharoah ' s year . for this month of may and june , i have lined up a random collection of golden girls who foaled or were lineage dams to individual triple crown race series champions . . . some who won 2 out of the 3 tc races . one is coming up shortly . : od\nthe dam of a 1949 preakness & belmont winner\u2026capot piquet foaled : 1937 pedigree : st . germans - gb ( 1921 ) x parry ( 1929 ) by peter pan ( a 1904 chef de race sire ) background : race earnings - $ 22 , 150 ( 27 starts : 6 wins , 4 places , 6 shows ) . won the delaware oaks , the diana handicap and the test stakes . came in 2nd in the matron stakes , demoiselle stakes , spinaway stakes and the top flight handicap . came in 3rd in the arlington lassie stakes , the national stallion stakes , the adirondack handicap and the alabama stakes . she was bred by greentree stud . famous offspring : capot - from pedigree query capot : a 1946 colt by menow ( 1935 ) . race earnings : $ 345 , 260 ( 28 starts : 12 wins , 4 places , 7 shows ) . in 1948 at age 2 : won the champagne stakes , the wakefield stakes and the pimlico futurity stakes . in 1949 at age 3 : won the preakness stakes , the belmont stakes , the pimlico special among other wins . capot came in 2nd in the kentucky derby . he was voted the 1949 u . s . champion 3 - year old colt . capot was also the 1949 co - u . s . horse of the year . he sired 15 foals . he was gelded in 1958 and was a greentree pensioner . capot died in december 1974 at the age of 28 . piquet image from sport horse data stats from pedigree query\ni tried finding out the reason before posting piquet ' s review but found no information on why capot was gelded . but at least he was able to sire a few foals before they made the decision .\nassault . . . . . tc winner 1946 . . . . was considered sterile . . . . went home to texas ' s king ranch and pasture bred several foals on quarterhorse mares . . . . no one gelded him . . . . has to have been a medical reason for capote being gelded . . . . . dont you think ?\n. a bay mare from lineage family number tb - 5 . race earnings :\n( 17 starts : 4 wins , 2 places , 3 shows ) . won the saratoga schuylerville stakes and came in 2nd in the delaware polly drummond stakes . bred by wheatley stable .\nbold princess was a well - bred filly from\nreine de course\nand\nchef de race\nbloodlines .\n: a 1 / 24 / 1975 colt by northern dancer ( a 1961 chef de race sire ) . race earnings :\n( 14 starts : 2 wins , 4 places , 1 show ) . in 1979 at age 4 : came in 2nd in the gran prix de vichy ( fr - g3 ) . he was bred by ogden mills phipps and owned by alec head . in 1979 , he was sent to alec head ' s haras du quesnay in france . sovereign dancer stood at stud at the oaks , ocala , florida in 1985 . he died on christmas day - 12 / 25 / 1993 at age 18 .\n: a 3 / 13 / 1993 colt out of on to royalty ( 1985 ) . race earnings :\n( g1 ) . came in 4th in the kentucky derby - dqd to 5th . sire of 27 stakes winners . gate dancer was humanely euthanized on 3 / 6 / 1998 due to a long struggle with laminitis .\n( 29 starts : 8 wins , 10 places , 2 shows ) . he equaled a course record at keeneland in 1991 running nine furlongs on grass in 1 : 48 . 42 ."]}
{"id": 1860, "summary": [{"text": "theba pisana , common names the white garden snail , sand hill snail , white italian snail , mediterranean coastal snail , and simply just the mediterranean snail , is an edible species of medium-sized , air-breathing land snail , a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family helicidae , the typical snails .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this species is native to the mediterranean region , however , it has become an invasive species in many other countries worldwide .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "theba pisana is a well-known agricultural pest in numerous parts of the world .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the shell color varies from white to yellow-brown with light brown spiral markings . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "theba pisana", "paragraphs": ["theba pisana ( white garden snail ) ; two adult shells , showing polymorphism .\nglobal metabolite analysis of the land snail theba pisana hemolymph during active and aestivated states .\ntheba pisana : juvenile . ( photo : \u00a9 dr . roy anderson , molluscireland )\nsubspecies theba pisana almogravensis d . t . holyoak & g . a . holyoak , 2016\neffect of testosterone on the ovotestis of the land snail theba pisana . - pubmed - ncbi\ntheba pisana : juveniles . ( photo : \u00a9 f . geller - grimm , wikipedia )\nglobal metabolite analysis of the land snail theba pisana hemolymph during active and aestivated states . - pubmed - ncbi\ntheba pisana ( white garden snail ) ; an aggregation of snails on vegetation . tenby , wales , uk .\nobservation - high concentration of theba pisana - southern africa . description : an unusual concentration of theba pisana ( various sizes , but mostly above 10mm size range ) within 0 . 25 square metre . about 80 theba pisana , 10 corna aspersusm and 5 small conical snails on clump of clivia miniata clump . there were less than about 20 snail\nbarrett bw , 1972 . theba pisana in guernsey , 1971 . journal of conchology , 27 : 391 - 396 .\nrisso , 1826 ; theba was placed on the \u2018official list of specific names in zoology\u2019 , with theba pisana as the type species , and euparypha was placed on the \u2018official index of rejected and invalid generic names in zoology\u2019 . the correct name is therefore theba pisana . this iczn determination took some time to be recognized by those working with the species , many of whom continued to call it euparypha pisana . however , it is now almost always referred to correctly as theba pisana .\nheller j , 1982 . natural history of theba pisana in israel . journal of zoology , 196 : 475 - 487 .\nearly evidence for a virus - like agent infecting the pest snail theba pisana ( gastropoda : pulmonata ) in southern italy .\ncain aj , 1984 . genetics of some morphs in the land snail theba pisana . malacologia , 25 : 381 - 411 .\ntheba pisana ( white garden snail ) ; close - up of an aggregation of snails on vegetation . tenby , wales , uk .\ntheba pisana ( white garden snail ) ; aggregation aestivating on pine sapling . rethymno ( rethymnon ) , crete . august , 2011 .\ntheba pisana ( white garden snail ) ; large aggregation aestivating in doorway . rethymno ( rethymnon ) , crete . august , 2011 .\ncowie rh , 1987 . rediscovery of theba pisana at manorbier , south wales . journal of conchology , 32 : 384 - 385 .\njohnson ms , 1988 . founder effects and geographic variation in the land snails theba pisana . heredity , 61 : 133 - 142 .\n\u201cmy previous research into the mediterranean snail theba pisana identified 30 key neurohormones that were unique only to molluscs , \u201d dr stewart said .\ntheba pisana ( white garden snail ) ; large aggregation , aestivating on plants . rethymno ( rethymnon ) , crete . august , 2011 .\nbaker gh , 1988 . dispersal of theba pisana ( mollusca : helicidae ) . journal of applied ecology , 25 : 889 - 900 .\nbank r , 2007 . fauna europaea : theba pisana . fauna europaea version 1 . 3 . http / / www . faunaeur . org\ncowie rh , 1984 . density , dispersal and neighbourhood size in the land snail theba pisana . heredity , 52 : 391 - 401 .\nturk sm , 1966 . the rediscovery of theba pisana ( m\u00fcller ) in cornwall . journal of conchology , 26 : 19 - 25 .\ncowie rh , 1980 . precocious breeding of theba pisana ( m\u00fcller ) ( pulmonata : helicidae ) . journal of conchology , 30 : 238 .\nearly evidence for a virus - like agent infecting the pest snail theba pisana ( gastropoda : pulmonata ) in southern italy . - pubmed - ncbi\nhickson tgl , 1972 . a possible case of genetic drift in colonies of the land snail theba pisana . heredity , 29 : 177 - 190 .\njohnson ms ; black r , 1979 . the distribution of theba pisana on rottnest island . the western australian naturalist , 14 : 140 - 143 .\nbarrett bw , 1975 . the sandhill snail theba pisana ( m\u00fcller ) in jersey . bulletin annuel de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 jersiaise , 21 : 409 - 412 .\njohnson ms , 1981 . association of shell banding and habitat in a colony of the land snail theba pisana . heredity , 45 : 7 - 14 .\nmienis hk , 1978 . theba pisana in droppings of the stone curlew in israel . argamon , isreal journal of malacology , 6 : 61 - 63 .\ncowie rh , 1982 . studies on the ecology and ecogenetics of the helicid land snail theba pisana ( m\u00fcller ) . liverpool , uk : university of liverpool .\ncowie rh , 1984 . ecogenetics of theba pisana ( pulmonata : helicidae ) at the northern edge of its range . malacologia , 25 : 361 - 380 .\nfowles ap ; cowie rh , 1989 . westward extension of the distribution of theba pisana in south wales . journal of conchology , 33 : 186 - 187 .\nhumphreys j ; stephens bd ; turk sm , 1982 . a new british site for theba pisana ( m\u00fcller ) . journal of conchology , 31 : 73 .\njohnson ms , 1980 . effects of migration and habitat choice on shell banding frequencies in theba pisana at a habitat boundary . heredity , 47 : 121 - 133 .\nbachuys w , 1972 . notes on theba pisana ustulata ( lowe , 1852 ) the land - snail of the salvage islands . basteria , 36 : 117 - 130 .\ncowie rh , 1986 . reduction in the distribution of the land snail theba pisana in dyfed . nature in wales ( new series ) , 4 : 66 - 70 .\nturk sm , 1972 . a study of the white sand - hill snail theba pisana . journal of the devon trust for nature conservation , 4 : 138 - 142 .\ncowie rh , 1990 . climatic selection on body colour in the land snail theba pisana ( pulmonata : helicidae ) . heredity , 65 ( 1 ) : 123 - 126 .\nhazel wn ; johnson ms , 1990 . microhabitat choice and polymorphism in the land snail theba pisana ( m\u00fcller ) . heredity , 65 ( 3 ) : 449 - 454 .\ncowie rh , 1984 . the life - cycle and productivity of the land snail theba pisana ( mollusca : helicidae ) . journal of animal ecology , 53 : 311 - 325 .\ncowie rh , 1985 . microhabitat choice and high temperature tolerance in the land snail theba pisana ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . journal of zoology ( a ) , 207 : 201 - 211 .\nbaker gh ; vogelzang bk , 1988 . life history , population dynamics and polymorphism of theba pisana ( mollusca : helicidae ) in australia . journal of applied ecology , 25 : 867 - 887 .\ncowie rh , 1983 . variation in mantle collar colour in the land snail theba pisana : evidence of climatic selection ? proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia , 135 : 154 - 162 .\nmcquaid cd ; branch gm ; frost pgh , 1979 . aestivation behaviour and thermal relations of the pulmonate theba pisana in a semi - arid environment . journal of thermal biology , 4 : 47 - 55 .\nspence gc , 1938 . helilx pisana m\u00fcller . journal of conchology , 21 : 72 .\nd\u00fcrr hjr , 1946 . a contribution to the morphology and bionomics of theba pisana ( m\u00fcller ) ( gastropoda : helicidae ) . science bulletin , union of south africa department of agriculture , 257 : 1 - 34 .\nbaker gh ; hawke bg , 1990 . life history and population dynamics of theba pisana ( mollusca : helicidae ) in a cereal - pasture rotation . journal of applied ecology , 27 ( 1 ) : 16 - 29 .\nchace ep , 1915 . helix pisana muller in california . the nautilus , 29 : 72 .\nin this study , we have focused on investigating correlations between shell colouration and constitutive as well as inducible po activity in different shell colour morphs of cepaea hortensis , theba pisana and cornu aspersum maximum , applying zymosan a as an immunostimulant .\nit is possible that in california , t . pisana is monitored in case it should spread further .\naestivation ; lc - ms ; metabolites ; metabolomics ; non - aestivated ; phospholipid ; t . pisana\nan unusual concentration of theba pisana ( various sizes , but mostly above 10mm size range ) within 0 . 25 square metre . about 80 theba pisana , 10 corna aspersusm and 5 small conical snails on clump of clivia miniata clump . there were less than about 20 snails visible at the same time in the surrounding garden within about 10 square metres , including on other clivia and geophytic plants with blade leaves . some of these 20 or so snails were wandering on the ground , some on plants .\ndeblock r ; hoestlandt h , 1967 . [ english title not available ] . ( donn\u00e9es biologiques sur le gastropode littoral theba pisana m\u00fcller aux limites septentrionales de son extension . ) comptes rendus de l ' acad\u00e9mie des sciences , 265 : 893 - 896 .\nbaker gh , 1991 . production of eggs and young snails by adult theba pisana ( m\u00fcller ) and cernuella virgata ( da costa ) ( mollusca : helicidae ) in laboratory cultures and field populations . australian journal of zoology , 39 ( 6 ) : 673 - 679 .\nt . pisana is readily identified and distinguished from similar - looking species by simple visual inspection of the shell characteristics .\nranger gutknecht pointed me to videos hosted by bill howell , a trail guide instructor at mtrp . the first is a short introduction to the common garden snail , helix vulgaris , and the second is about white garden snails , theba pisana . both species can be found in the park .\nsimilarly , t . pisana will feed on a wide range of agricultural crops and garden and ornamental plants , as follows .\ngittenberger e ; ripken teh , 1987 . the genus theba ( mollusca : gastropoda : helicidae ) , systematics and distribution . zoologische verhandelingen , 241 : 1 - 59 .\ngittenberger and ripken ( 1987 ) only recorded t . pisana as far south as southern morocco , and not even in western sahara\nthis species shares the same habitats than t . pisana in general : the edges of agricultural fields and roads , riparian and ruderal vegetation .\nbaker gh ; beckett s ; thammavongsa b , 2012 . are the european snails , theba pisana ( m\u00fcller , 1774 ) ( helicidae ) , cernuella virgata ( da costa , 1778 ) and cochlicella acuta ( m\u00fcller , 1774 ) ( hygromiidae ) attracted by potential food odours ? crop protection , 42 : 88 - 93 . urltoken\nbaker gh , 2008 . the population dynamics of the mediterranean snails cernuella virgata , cochlicella acuta ( hygromiidae ) and theba pisana ( helicidae ) in pasture - cereal rotations in south australia : a 20 - year study . australian journal of experimental agriculture , 48 ( 12 ) : 1514 - 1522 . urltoken ; _ id = ea08031 . pdf\nthere is no evidence that t . pisana is dispersed via non - biotic natural means , such as the wind , although it is possible that snails , especially small ones ( perhaps juvenile t . pisana ) can be blown considerable distances by the wind ( kirchner et al . , 1997 ) .\nwhite garden snail theba pisana . this is another high risk snail for introduction into the pacific northwest . it has established populations in san diego , california , just stops away for ships visiting west coast ports . the white garden snail , also a helicid , is thought to be potentially one of the worst foreign snails as an agricultural pest . it is also the most frequently intercepted exotic snail . theba has remarkable abilities to increase in population once established and can be particularly destructive to ornamental plants and various types of trees . one citrus tree in california was covered with more than 3000 theba pisana snails . it can move 55 meters in one month . the white garden snail is native to the mediterranean countries and great britain . it generally is found in coastal habitats . it has been introduced into australia , the atlantic islands , south africa , and the united states . california is thought to be the only state with established populations .\ncertain other species of theba are extremely similar . distinguishing them is based primarily on the general shape of the shell , whether it is keeled or not , its microsculpture , the structure of the umbilical region of the shell and the shape of the aperture . identification is best achieved using the key of gittenberger and ripken ( 1987 ) . however , these other species of theba are rarely intercepted by quarantine officials and seem not to be highly invasive .\nthe most recent comprehensive taxonomic treatment of the genus theba is by gittenberger and ripken ( 1987 ) . four fossil and ten recent species are recognized . because of variation within some of the species there are 17 species and subspecies in total . how many of the subspecies are valid is open to debate . all species and subspecies , with the exception of t . pisana pisana are restricted to small geographical areas in morocco , the western sahara , the southernmost part of the iberian peninsula and the canary and salvage islands ( bachuys , 1972 ; gittenberger and ripken , 1987 ) .\ntheba pisana generally lays its eggs several inches below the soil surface with an average of 70 eggs per clutch . it takes approximately 20 days for the eggs to incubate ; however , it may take longer in dry weather . this snail typically does not seek cool , dark places to aestivate . they preferentially attach to plants , fences , under stones or other vertical , physical structures . longevity : 2 years .\nthe effect of testosterone on the histological pattern of the gonads of the land snail theba pisana was studied . it was found that testosterone accelerated spermatogenesis , as indicated by the large increase in the number of spermatozoa and the decrease in the number of primary spermatocytes . the diameter of the acini in treated snails was greater than in the normal controls . conversely , testosterone led to reduction of the number of mature ova .\nthe generalist predatory snails euglandina rosea ( from florida ) and gonaxis sp . ( from kenya ) have been introduced to south africa for biocontrol of t . pisana but neither of them became established ( barker and efford , 2004 ) . the facultative predatory snail rumina decollata was said to be able to control but not eradicate t . pisana in california ( anonymous , 1987 ) , although the efficacy of r . decollata has been questioned ( cowie , 2001a ) . extensive screening of diptera , notably sarcophagidae and sciomyzidae , and some nematodes as biocontrol agents has taken place with a goal to control t . pisana in australian agriculture ( see section on natural enemies ) . however , no species has been introduced specifically to control t . pisana because those screened were either ineffective or attacked non - target snails , including native australian species , and no biological control agents were being considered for release against t . pisana in australia as of 2008 ( baker , 2008 ) . ducks were recommended by joubert and walters ( 1951 ) for small scale control of t . pisana in south africa .\nfrom time to time it has been placed in various other genera , viz . heliomanes , carocolla , xerophila , cochlea , tropidocochlis and teba , the last being an incorrect subsequent spelling of theba ( cowie , 1982 ; bouchet and rocroi , 2004 ) .\nthe larval development of muellerius cf . capillaris in aestivating trochoidea seetzenii and theba pisana was delayed : in the first snail 82 % of the parasites remained as second - stage larvae ( l2 ) after as much as 90 days , and in the second snail 60 % remained as l2 after 50 days . reactivation of t . seetzenii after 59 days of aestivation caused the larvae to develop to the third stage ( l3 ) . the number of recovered larvae among t . seetzenii was consistently higher in active vs aestivating snails ( p < 0 . 05 ) . such differences were not evident among t . pisana ( p > 0 . 05 ) . in active t . pisana , larval development was faster than in active t . seetzenii , whereas there were no such differences between aestivating snails of these 2 species . aestivating infected t . seetzenii had lower body weights than same - size active non - infected , as well as infected snails . aestivating infected t . pisana were not weighed , but they too exhibited poor body condition .\nthere is no known mechanism currently in place for rapid response to detection of new infestations of t . pisana , although such mechanisms may be in place in the united states . however , despite the problems caused by t . pisana in california in the early twentieth century and the huge effort to eradicate it , when it was rediscovered in 1985 there was some discussion among officials about what to do about the infestations but little action was taken and t . pisana is still present as far as is known ( r cowie , university of hawaii , usa , personal communication , 2009 ) .\nin the united states , t . pisana is on a list of actionable pests if detected by quarantine officials , and is one of the species listed as of major concern should it be introduced more widely in the united states ( cowie et al . , 2009 ) . the author is not aware of other countries\u2019 regulations regarding t . pisana ( r cowie , university of hawaii , usa , personal communication , 2009 ) .\ncompetition between introduced t . pisana and native land snails in israel has been suggested but remains speculative ( heller and tchernov , 1978 ) . in australia , the impact of t . pisana on natural ecosystems is essentially unknown , although it will feed on native australian plants ( baker , 1989 ) and a native snail species ( bothryembrion melo ) has become rare or gone extinct in areas invaded by t . pisana in western australia ( baker , 2002 ) . in south africa it is said to have \u201cexterminated some native species at cape town by eating all the available vegetable matter\u201d ( quick , 1952 ) , although which \u201cnative species\u201d was not specified .\nother . t . pisana is reported as a garden pest and a pest of ornamental flowers and shrubs ( basinger , 1927 ; d\u00fcrr , 1946 ; joubert and walters , 1951 ; baker , 1986 , 1988 ) .\nbasinger aj , 1923 . eradication of the white snail , helix pisana , at la jolla , california . monthly bulletin of the department of agriculture , state of california , 12 ( 1 - 2 ) : 7 - 11 .\nbasinger aj , 1927 . the eradication campaign against the white snail ( helix pisana ) at la jolla , california . monthly bulletin of the department of agriculture , state of california , 16 ( 2 ) : 51 - 77 .\ndifferent morphs of test snails ; pale and dark morph of c . hortensis ( a ) , pale and dark morphs of t . pisana ( b ) , and pale and dark morph of c . aspersum maximum ( c ) .\npublic awareness in general , the public is almost completely unaware of invasive snails , and this is probably largely true regarding t . pisana despite the extreme abundances it may reach . awareness may be greater in australia since it has a significant economic impact , notably on cereal agriculture , and may generate more news stories than other pest snails / slugs . in particular , t . pisana , along with a number of other exotic species in australia , has significant localised pest status .\nvarious fumigants have also been tried in order to kill t . pisana in shipments of goods and in grain silos but high doses and longer periods of treatment than for insect control proved necessary ( godan , 1983 ; baker , 2002 ) .\nthe following comments relate to the distribution further afield to areas in which t . pisana is known definitively to have been introduced as a result of human activities . in almost no case is the reason for introduction ( deliberate or accidental ) known .\nin andalusia there is an important annual consumption of terrestrial snails , specially t . pisana . every year more than 10 . 000 tm of snails (\ncaracoles\n) are consumed during spring and summer months by andalusians , coming both from natural autochthonous resources and imports ( 95 % from morocco ) . t . andalusica is almost identical to the polymorphic t . pisana ( in commercial terms ) so it forms part of this lucrative business ( arr\u00e9bola , porras , c\u00e1rcaba and ruiz 2004 ) .\nt . pisana is a medium - sized snail with a sub - globular , generally white or off - white shell that often bears a complex pattern of darker markings . it is generally a species of coastal habitats with warm to hot an . . .\nthe only use of t . pisana is as human food , in the mediterranean and possibly in emigrant mediterranean communities in other countries ( the reason for its original import to california ) . the potential market is far too small to result in significant control .\ndeblock r , 1962 . recherches biologiques sur un gastropode pulmon\u00e9 m\u00e9diterran\u00e9e euparypha pisana m\u00fcll aux limites nordiques de son extension . diplome d ' etudes superieures ( sciences naturelles ) ( [ english title not available ] ) . lille , france : facult\u00e9 libre ds sciences .\nin legume - based pastures in australia , t . pisana reduced herbage yield by 23 % in a month , with the clover component reduced by 75 % ( baker , 1989 ) , while baker ( 1992 ) reported 83 % loss of pasture herbage over two months .\nthese are the main impacts on particular crops etc . in particular countries that have been reported in the literature . almost certainly they can be generalized to similar crops in other countries where t . pisana is abundant , but have simply not been reported in the widely accessible literature .\nthe sites where t . andalusica hypothetically lives are globally characterized by a high anthropic influence due to agricultural , urbanism , tourism , pollution . . . on the other hand , this species is harvested for food as well as t . pisana ( see use and trade ) .\nhelix pisana muller , 1774 , verm . hist . , 2 : 60 ; taylor , 1911 , monogr . l . & freshw . moll . brit . is . , 3 : 360 , pl . 30 , 31 ; orcutt , 1919 , nautilus , 33 : 63 .\nbonavita a ; bonavita d , 1962 . [ english title not available ] . ( contribution \u00e0 l\u00e9 ' tude \u00e9cologique d ' euparypha pisana m\u00fcller des rivages m\u00e9diterran\u00e9ens de la provence . note pr\u00e9liminaire . ) pubblicazioni della stazione zoologica di napoli , 32 ( supplement ) : 198 - 204 .\nit has been suggested on various bases , including the occurrence of other theba species only in northwest africa , that the original natural range of t . pisana was confined to morocco ( sacchi , 1971 ; welter - schultes , 1998 ) . however , it is possible that most of its current north african , mediterranean and western european range is natural ( d\u00fcrr , 1946 ; baker and vogelzang , 1988 ; roth and sadeghian , 2003 ) , although possibly a result of post - glacial expansion from morocco ( sacchi , 1971 ) . alternatively , at least some , if not most of its circum mediterranean and western european distribution is a result of human activities in historic times and therefore t . pisana should be considered invasive in these areas where it may reach extremely high abundances . for the most part , the issue is unresolved ( gittenberger and ripken , 1987 ) , although there is some evidence and conjecture regarding specific regions ( see history of introduction / spread ) .\ncitrus . t . pisana is a pest in citrus orchards in israel , libya , other mediterranean countries , south africa and in oases in saudi arabia ( harpaz and oseri , 1961 ; godan , 1983 ; baker , 1986 ) . damage to citrus was the major concern in california ( gammon , 1943 ) , and remains so should t . pisana become widely established again . it will feed on foliage , bark of tender twigs , fruit and blossoms ( basinger , 1927 , quoting de stefani ) . specifically , orange , lemon and grapefruit have been mentioned ( basinger , 1927 ) .\nin california , various chemicals were tested experimentally against t . pisana , although during the eradication campaign only calcium arsenate was deployed ( basinger , 1927 ) . calcium arsenate was also considered effective in south africa ( joubert and walters , 1951 ) ; methiocarb and carbaryl have also been recommended for use in south africa . many other chemicals are available in a range of formulations ( godan , 1983 ; bowen and antoine , 1995 ) . in australia , the widely used molluscicide metaldehyde , in bait formulations , has been traditionally broadcast against t . pisana but is expensive and may have non - target impacts .\nthere is no evidence that t . pisana is dispersed via biotic natural means , for instance being carried by other animals , although it is known for other snail species that they can be carried long distances by birds ( ramsden , 1913 ; anonymous , 1936 ; rees , 1965 ; boag , 1986 ) .\nin addition to impacting crops , t . pisana may have other agricultural impacts as it is an intermediate host of nematodes including the lungworm muellerius capillaris , which is an important parasite of sheep and cattle , although the veterinary significance of these nematodes in australia are not known ( baker and vogelzang , 1988 ; baker , 1989 ) .\nas mentioned above , t . pisana is widely used as a food resource in mediterranean countries and has been shipped to other countries for this reason . however , it can become a public nuisance when it invades urban / suburban areas . the snails crawl up the walls and windows of houses , and in rainy weather it can be difficult to avoid treading on them on sidewalks ( basinger , 1927 ) . unspecified \u2018white snails\u2019 ( i . e . t . pisana and / or cernuella virgata ) are intermediate hosts of a fluke ( brachylaima sp . ) , and young children who have ingested infected snails in south australia have suffered severe gut disorders ( baker , 2002 ) .\nthe major crops affected seriously by t . pisana are cereals , citrus and grapevines , as well as pasture . its major agricultural impacts in australia ( where most work has been done on its ecology and behaviour related to its invasive impacts ) became increasingly evident in the 1980s , especially in cereal crops and pasture ( baker , 2002 ) .\nvegetables . vegetables are impacted in south africa , israel , in oases in saudi arabia , and in most countries where t . pisana occurs ( godan , 1983 ; baker , 1986 ) . the list in the host plants table is derived primarily from godan ( 1983 ) and baker ( 1986 ) . seed carrots are affected in australia .\nt . pisana is widely used as a food item in mediterranean countries , where it can be found in great numbers in local markets . huge numbers of the snail were shipped from europe to california in the early 1900s for food , presumably for sale ( mead , 1961 ) . this appears to be its only positive economic / social value .\ntypically this snail is found in coastal , sandy areas . theba pisana has the potential to increase in number rapidly . this species has been deemed a serious pest and and may be a nuisance because of its ability to aggregate in large numbers . it may occur in numbers of up to 3000 in one tree . this snail possesses the ability to defoliate large trees , including citrus and ornamentals . it also consumes garden crops , seedlings and cereal grains ( e . g . , wheat , barley , oil seeds , seed carrot and legumes ) . in grain producing areas this species will cause direct and indirect losses . direct losses include clogging machinery and directly consuming the crop . indirect losses include contaminating the grain and allowing for the infestation of the grain by secondary fungal pathogens , due to the added moisture they provide .\nseed lucerne and other legume crops . t . pisana is a problem in seed lucerne in france , where the snails feed on the flowers , the slime inhibits pollination , crushed snails block harvesters , and fouled seeds are unmarketable ( baker , 1986 ) . it is a problem in ( unspecified ) legume crops in south africa and australia ( baker , 1986 , 1991 ) .\nt . pisana feeds on a number of plants in its natural habitat , many of which might be unexpected to be palatable because of their toughness ( quick , 1952 ; cowie , 1982 , 1986 ) . however , the distinction between feeding on certain plants and simply using the plants as habitat is not easy to make as there have been no adequate studies of the feeding preferences of t . pisana . there has been some work carried out on the odour attraction of food , in order to inform bait attractants , but no food items tested were found to significantly attract t . pisana ( baker et al . , 2012 ) . some entries in the host plants table , derived from quick ( 1952 ) , johnson and black ( 1979 ) , johnson ( 1980 , 1981 ) , cowie ( 1982 , 1986 ) , and baker and hawke ( 1990 ) , should therefore be treated cautiously . those listed as wild hosts are only those identified as being fed upon in the literature or from personal experience , and those listed as habitat are simply all plants mentioned ( which may be fed upon ) , with no assessment of significance , as none could be reliably made .\npastures . in australia , legume - based pastures ( e . g . annual medics , lucerne , clover ) are seriously damaged and occasionally totally destroyed ( baker , 1986 , 1989 , 2002 , 2008 ) . also , stock reject pasture and hay contaminated with slime trails . in south africa , t . pisana is also a pest of pasture ( joubert and walters , 1951 ; baker , 1986 ) .\nthe spread of t . pisana around the mediterranean and northwards up the coast of western europe from its presumed origin in morocco was probably for the most part post - glacial with some more recent introductions the result of human activities , notably in the northernmost parts of the range . however , little is known of the chronology of introduction or spread , or of the geographic sources . much of the following information is highly conjectural .\nin 1984 , a shipment of barley from south australia was rejected by chile because live snails ( cernuella virgata , though it could easily have been t . pisana ) were included with the grain , this one rejected shipment costed the australian barley board aus $ 1 . 3 million ( baker , 1989 ) . downgrading of barley because of snail contamination can reduce the price paid to farmers from aus $ 160 to aus $ 120 per tonne ( baker , 2002 ) .\nin south africa native shrubs are entirely destroyed by the snails , which eat not only the leaves but also the bark of young branches ( d\u00fcrr , 1946 ) . otherwise , no natural habitat impacts have been documented , although perhaps only because the focus has been on the agricultural impacts of t . pisana . as a major , abundant component of mediterranean ecosystems , in which it may or may not be considered native , its importance must be diverse and pervasive , though little studied or documented .\nshell displaying various colour variants , yellow or white with dark colour bands or spots and often a dark bluish grey apex , juveniles sharply keeled , the keel disappears at the last whorl , aperture often with a light reddish lip inside , margin only reflected at columellar side , umbilicus narrow and half covered by the reflected columellar margin . the apex has a characteristic size in the eastern mediterranean when compared with other species , where there are no other theba species . the umbilicus is also rarely seen in other species , juvenile eobania vermiculata have a considerably larger apex . animal very light yellowish with dark colour bands running from the sides to the upper tentacles , tentacles very long .\nit is not known whether t . pisana should be considered native or not around much of the mediterranean and western europe . even if it invaded much of the region post - glacially , it should still be considered native if that spread was not aided by people . however , in some instances introduction may have been by people , either accidentally or deliberately . detailed investigation of the holocene palaeontological record at numerous localities within this range would shed great insight into the history of the spread of this species .\noriginally , we planned to re - sample zymosan a - injected snails 6 h and 24 h after injection . the 24 h time point was chosen as it has been shown in other molluscs that po activity can increase two - fold within 24 h after zymosan a - injection [ 1 ] . the 6 h time point was chosen in order to test for a possibly earlier po activity induction . however , in c . hortensis and t . pisana , amendments to this schedule were necessary as described below .\nphenoloxidase ( po ) activity levels in different morphs of t . pisana ; test run 1 with base levels and levels 24 h after hemolymph ( hl ) withdrawal , and test run 2 with base levels , levels after hemolymph withdrawal and 24 h zymosan a - exposure and levels after 24 h zymosan a - exposure only ( mean + sd ; n = 10 ; 0 . 01 < p \u2264 0 . 05 : * ; 0 . 001 < p \u2264 0 . 01 : * * ; p \u2264 0 . 001 : * * * ) .\nother crop trees and shrubs . stone fruit , almonds and olives have been reported to be affected ( baker , 1986 , 1988 ) , as have figs ( basinger , 1927 ) . apples , apricots , peaches and plums were listed by d\u00fcrr ( 1946 ) but whether these were attacked by t . pisana or by another invasive snail species , helix aspersa ( now known as either cornu aspersum , cantareus aspersus or cryptomphalus aspersus ) , was not made clear . oil seed crops ( unspecified ) , including seedlings , are affected in australia ( baker , 1986 ) .\nbaker ( 1989 ) reported laboratory experiments demonstrating that t . pisana will feed on the following cereal and pasture plants : barley ( hordeum vulgare ) , wheat ( triticum vulgare ) , perennial rye grass ( lolium perenne ) , tall fescue ( festuca arundinacea ) , cocksfoot ( dactylis glomerata ) , rape ( brassica napus ) , vetch ( vicia sativa ) , clover ( trifolium subterraneum , t . fragiferum ) , barrel medic ( medicago truncatula ) and lucerne ( medicago sativa ) . it did not feed on phalaris ( phalaris aquatica ) and faba bean ( vicia faba ) .\nthe capacity of t . pisana for active , unaided dispersal is limited , as it is for most snails . in south africa snails moved on average about 4 m per year ( hickson , 1972 ) but this was based on movements in isolated patches of vegetation in summer and is probably an underestimate . in western australia , during february \u2013 july , when increased rain promotes snail activity , the average distance moved by marked snails was about 7 m , although one snail moved 40 m and several moved 20 m or more ( johnson , 1981 ) . in south wales , over 100 days during the active summer and early autumn season ( july \u2013 october ) no snail moved more than 3 m ( cowie , 1984c ) . in south australia , marked snails moved up to 13 m in one week and up to 75 m in three months ( baker , 1988 ) . in most of these studies differences in dispersal rates among habitats were reported ( cf . cowie , 1980b ) and may explain , at least in part , the differences among the studies . only one study has addressed the rate of spread of a newly introduced population of t . pisana ( johnson and black , 1979 ) , reporting a rate of population expansion of about 20 m per year from 1925 to 1978 .\nwe would like to thank dr . yvan capowiez and dr . christophe mazzia , laboratoire de toxicologie environnementale , umr \u201c\u00e9cologie des invert\u00e9br\u00e9s\u201d inra / uapv , avignon , france , for sampling t . pisana snails . many thanks also to dr . thomas d\u2019souza , dr . volker scheil , stefanie krais , anja henneberg and diana maier , university of t\u00fcbingen , germany , for scientific and technical support , and to otto sepp\u00e4l\u00e4 , ph . d . , department of aquatic ecology , eawag , d\u00fcbendorf and institute of integrative biology , eth - z\u00fcrich , z\u00fcrich , switzerland , for assistance in po activity calculation . we acknowledge support by deutsche forschungsgemeinschaft and open access publishing fund of tuebingen university .\nonly one study has investigated the molecular genetics of t . pisana . johnson ( 1988 ) compared allozyme variation among introduced populations in western australia , victoria and tasmania ( australia ) and southern france , israel and wales . he demonstrated that the allelic compositions of the australian ( introduced ) samples were consistent with them all having a common source , and that they had the closest similarity to those from southern france , consistent with the original introduction ( s ) being from this area . whether there was one or more introductions to australia and whether the introduction ( s ) were directly from the ultimate source or from an intermediate introduced population ( i . e . in south africa ) could not be determined .\ncereals . one of the main problems caused by t . pisana and one that has received considerable attention is in australian cereals ( baker , 1989 , 1992 , 2002 , 2008 ) . primarily , the problem is that the snails aestivate on the stems and heads of the full grown plants at harvest . not only does this contaminate the harvested crop , which can result in downgrading of the grain or rejection of bulk shipments of grain overseas , with the associated major economic loss , but it also clogs the harvesting machinery . however , the snails also feed on the crops , including on seedlings of wheat and barley ( baker , 1986 , 1989 ) . it is also a cereal pest in south africa ( joubert and walters , 1951 ; baker , 1986 ) .\neradication has been reported in california ( armitage , 1949 ) , some 35 years after the initial introductions . the final resort was the use of flame throwers , which were able to penetrate the nooks and crannies that simply setting fire to the vegetation could not . hand picking was considered essential in order to find the last remaining individuals ( basinger , 1927 ) . use of calcium arsenate bait was also used extensively as part of the eradication campaign ( basinger , 1927 ) . whether eradication was completely successful is open to debate , since t . pisana was discovered again in the 1960s ( supposedly eradicated again ) and again in 1985 , when fire was used in attempts to eradicate them ( anonymous , 1987 ) . as for most snails , eradication is extremely difficult , since in general the snails ( as is the case for most invertebrate species ) are well established and locally widespread before people become sufficiently aware of them to complain or report that there is something new in their environment that may be causing a problem . confirming that every last snail has been killed is extremely difficult .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nkoedoe | vol 50 , no 1 | a153 | doi : urltoken | \u00a9 2008 lizelle j . odendaal , tanya m . haupt , charles l . griffiths | this work is licensed under cc attribution 4 . 0 submitted : 15 april 2008 | published : 10 december 2008\nall articles published in this journal are licensed under the creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international ( cc by 4 . 0 ) license , unless otherwise stated . website design & content : \u00a92018 aosis ( pty ) ltd . all rights reserved . no unauthorised duplication allowed . by continuing to use this website , you agree to our privacy policy .\nget specific , domain - collection newsletters detailing the latest cpd courses , scholarly research and call - for - papers in your field .\nm\u00fcller , o . f . 1774 . vermivm terrestrium et fluviatilium , seu animalium infusoriorum , helminthicorum , et testaceorum , non marinorum , succincta historia . volumen alterum . - pp . i - xxxvi [ = 1 - 36 ] , 1 - 214 , [ 1 - 10 ] . havni\u00e6 & lipsi\u00e6 . ( heineck & faber ) .\nmediterranean region and adjacent atlantic coasts from central morocco to belgium , sw england , s wales , e and s ireland and central atlantic islands . in spain occasionally also in the interior .\n9 - 20 x 12 - 25 mm , diameter in greece usually below 15 mm . diameter 1 . 7 - 1 . 9 mm at 1 whorl , 3 . 7 - 3 . 9 mmm ( 2 wh . ) , 6 . 8 - 7 . 5 mm ( 3 ) , 11 - 12 mm ( 4 wh . ) , 15 - 17 mm ( 4 . 5 wh . )\nusually in coastlands , in or near sandy habitats , in hot climates estivating often directly exposed to the sun , attached to grasses , shrubs or succulent plants . in dunes it can live on nearly bare sand poorly fixed by grasses . in the north the snails do not estivate but they climb on plants in dry weather . does not survive serious winter frosts . often associated with cochlicella acuta and cernuella virgata , but can live slightly deeper inside pure sandy habitats and is usually more common than c . acuta . in france 40 - 80 oval eggs ( diameter 1 . 5 mm ) are deposited from june to october under stones , between roots or in the soil , hatchling size 2 mm . in greece maximum shell size is attained after 2 years , maturity is reached at half maximum shell size after 1 year .\ncommon near beaches , one of the most common snails in coastal regions from s portugal to greece . introduced to sw great britain and ireland since at least the 1700s , still spreading along frost - free coastal localities . a subspecies from coastal habitats in spain is on the red list ( the . pi . arietina , endangered , g\u00f3mez moliner et al . 2001 ) .\nreferences : nobre 1913 : 186 , germain 1930 : 181 , nobre 1941 : 91 , hickson 1972 , bar 1978 , kerney & cameron 1979 : 202 , johnson 1981 , lazaridou - dimitriadou & daguzan 1981 , kerney et al . 1983 : 280 , cowie 1984 ( 3 papers ) , heller & gadot 1984 , cowie 1985 , liebegott 1986 ( greece : v\u00f3rii spor\u00e1des ) , gittenberger & ripken 1987 : 32 , baker 1988 , baker & vogelzang 1988 , prieto & altonaga 1988 : 6 ( n spain ) , smallridge & kirby 1988 , cowie 1990 , falkner 1990 : 234 , manganelli et al . 1995 : 33 , dhora & welter - schultes 1996 : 167 , welter - schultes & wiese 1997 ( 2 papers ) , welter - schultes 1998 : 91 , ondina et al . 1997 , kerney 1999 : 202 , sch\u00fctt 2001 : 468 , mart\u00ednez - ort\u00ed et al . 2004 , quintana cardona 2006 ( menorca , introduced ) , welter - schultes 2008 : 80 , welter - schultes 2012 : 627 ( range map ) , vardinoyannis et al . 2012 : 40 ( cyprus ) .\nprovoost , s . ; bonte , d . ( ed . ) ( 2004 ) . animated dunes : a view of biodiversity at the flemish coast [ levende duinen : een overzicht van de biodiversiteit aan de vlaamse kust ] . mededelingen van het instituut voor natuurbehoud , 22 . instituut voor natuurbehoud : brussel , belgium . isbn 90 - 403 - 0205 - 7 . 416 , ill . , appendices pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of janthina alba anton , 1838 ) beu a . g . ( 2017 ) . evolution of janthina and recluzia ( mollusca : gastropoda : epitoniidae ) . records of the australian museum . 69 ( 3 ) : 119 - 222 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 163 [ details ]\nlike most websites we use cookies . this is to ensure that we give you the best experience possible .\ncontinuing to use urltoken means you agree to our use of cookies . if you would like to , you can learn more about the cookies we use .\nwe\u2019d value your feedback on the tool . our survey takes only five minutes to complete .\nis a medium - sized snail with a sub - globular , generally white or off - white shell that often bears a complex pattern of darker markings . it is generally a species of coastal habitats with warm to hot and arid climates , although it extends into cooler and wetter habitats in northwest europe . its range includes almost all the mediterranean coastline , extending up the atlantic coast of europe . the extent to which this range is natural is not certain . morocco has been suggested as its region of origin . beyond this european / mediterranean range , the major regions to which it has been introduced are south africa ( first recorded 1881 ) ,\n, in all three regions rapidly becoming an invasive pest . it is frequently intercepted by quarantine officials both associated with shipments of goods and in personal luggage , indicating that it is both accidentally and deliberately transported over long distances . it is also readily transported relatively short distances , for instance attached to vehicles . once introduced , its high rate of growth and reproduction and ability to reach extremely high population densities make it a potentially serious and difficult to control pest . it is listed as a potential pest of quarantine significance in the united states .\nwas placed within it . hartmann ( 1844 [ in 1840 - 1844 ] ) placed it in his new monotypic subgenus\nis very variable in terms of its shell appearance , primarily in the patterning of bands and other markings on the shell . by the start of the twentieth century , no fewer than 27 \u2018species\u2019 , all in fact referable to\n, as well as by taylor ( 1906 - 1914 ) , who also dealt with the plethora of varietal and sub - varietal names given to shells with subtle differences in shell shape and colour / pattern , few of which have any taxonomic meaning , as taylor recognized , but are purely descriptive of the immense range of variation especially in shell colour / pattern .\nis generally a species of coastal , often sandy ( e . g . dunes ) habitats with warm to hot and arid climates . its range includes almost all the mediterranean coastline , extending up the atlantic coast of europe as far as the southernmost part of the netherlands , southwest england and wales and eastern ireland , and to the madeiran ( records on the salvages are in fact of a different\n) and canary archipelagos , especially in sandy areas close to the sea . it extends inland notably in spain , portugal , southern and western france , italy , algeria and morocco , although it is generally less abundant in such localities than it is near the coasts (\nalthough reported in germany ( godan , 1983 ) , whether it ever became established is doubtful ( r cowie , university of hawaii , usa , personal communication , 2009 ) . it is almost certainly present in monaco due to presence all along this part of the french and italian coasts ( r cowie , university of hawaii , usa , personal communication , 2009 ) .\nthe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .\ntaylor , 1906 - 1914 ; d\u00fcrr , 1946 ; joubert and walters , 1951 ; quick , 1952 ; mcquaid et al . , 1979 ; sanderson and sirgel , 2002 ; eppo , 2014\ntaylor , 1906 - 1914 ; bank , 2007 ; cameron et al . , 2007\ntaylor , 1906 - 1914 ; germain , 1908 ; gittenberger and ripken , 1987 ; cowie , 1990 ; cameron and cook , 2001 ; cameron et al . , 2006 ; bank , 2007 ; cameron et al . , 2007\ncowie , 1984b ; taylor , 1906 - 1914 ; pennant , 1777 ; deblock , 1962 ; cowie , 1982 ; humphreys et al . , 1982 ; cowie , 1983 ; cowie , 1986 ; cowie , 1987 ; fowles and cowie , 1989 ; cowie , 1990 ; eppo , 2014\nas non - native in their studies in the greek islands , but with no explanation . it has been found in deposits in malta dating to as early as the second or third centuries ad but not earlier (\n) so may be a roman introduction . in the channel islands , france , italy ( sicily ) , the balearic islands ( majorca ) , madeira and the canary islands ( fuerteventura ) it has been reported in holocene deposits of unspecified age (\n- 1914 ) but whether truly fossil or the result of mixing of strata involving modern shells is not known , as was hinted at by taylor ( 1906 - 1914 ) regarding madeira .\nits entire northwest european distribution may be fairly recent , although this has been demonstrated or inferred on a sound basis for only a few locations . it was deliberately introduced to the english channel coast of belgium ( ostend ) in 1868 from algeria (\nas the possible source of the northern french and belgian populations . it was not then reported from belgium until 1934 (\n, probably took place between 1962 and 1987 . taylor ( 1906 - 1914 ) and\nhad been found in pleistocene dunes in northern france near the belgian border close to the english channel , but this report and accurate dating of the shells has not been verified . introduction to the channel island of guernsey was from jersey in 1860 , deliberately for \u201cnaturalization\u201d (\n) . if its presence in jersey is as a result of an introduction , then this occurred before 1912 , as it was recorded there by taylor ( 1912 in 1906 - 1914 ) , who also reported it in pre - neolithic deposits . the origins of the uk populations are probably post - glacial ("]}
{"id": 1861, "summary": [{"text": "myrmica rubra , also known as the european fire ant or common red ant , is a species of ant of the genus myrmica , found all over europe and in some parts of north america and asia .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "they are mainly red in colour , with slightly darker pigmentation on the head .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the ants live under stones , fallen trees , and in soil .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "they are aggressive ants , often attacking rather than running away , and are equipped with a sting , though lack the ability to spray formic acid like the genus formica .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "this is one of the most common and widespread myrmica species of the palaearctic .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "occurs in the region stretching from portugal to east siberia ( till transbaikalia ) , and from northern greece to the forest-tundra natural zone in the north .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is also currently invading japan and north america where they are considered a nuisance as it is an invasive species .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "their colonies have a polygyne form , and can have up to one hundred queens per nest .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "they are also polydomous , with many nest sites per individual colony .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "these queens will have gathered together after their nuptial flight and will have formed a nest and laid their eggs in it .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the queens can live up to fifteen years .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "nuptial flights take place normally in late july to mid-august in europe .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "hundreds of young queens and males take to the air to mate together .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "afterwards , the males die and the queens shed their wings to make a new colony .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "no nuptial flights have been witnessed yet from this species where it is living in north america .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "they are very common in europe and live in meadows and gardens .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "they live on a diet of honeydew excreted by aphids , and , being very aggressive like to eat many types of insect and other invertebrates .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they will attack any creature that disturbs their nest , but are not as aggressive as the red imported fire ant .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "they also consume pollen , a phenomenon rarely documented in ants of the temperal zone .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it is very similar to m. ruginodis , and the differences are very hard to tell .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "however , myrmica rubra is the commoner of the two .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae of the butterfly maculinea alcon ( alcon blue ) as well as maculinea teleius use myrmica rubra as their primary host . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "myrmica rubra", "paragraphs": ["myrmica laevinodis , ( nylander ) myrmica laevinodis , var . bruesi ( weber ) myrmica rubra r . champlaini , ( forel ) myrmica longiscapus , ( curtis ) myrmica rubra laevinodis , ( nylander ) myrmica levinodis , ( dalla torre ) myrmica rubra st . laevinodis , ( nylander ) atta rubra , ( linnaeus ) formica ( myrmecia ) rubra , ( linnaeus ) formica ( myrmica ) rubra , ( linnaeus ) formica rubra , ( linnaeus ) manica rubra , ( linnaeus )\nmyrmica rubra is a myrmicine ant , one of 116 species recorded in this genus . there are several species of myrmica in north america . among the most commonly reported are myrmica detritinodis , myrmica incompleta , myrmica emeryana , myrmica brevinodis , myrmica americana , myrmica fracticornus , and myrmica evaneda , which makes the morphological identification of myrmica rubra complicated . some of these species are not very common in the northeastern united states and most are rarely found in disturbed areas , which help us to recognize myrmica rubra in the field .\nthe above specimen data are provided by antweb . please see myrmica rubra for further details\nprincipal source : landcare research . 2006 . myrmica rubra information sheet , research , invasive ants .\nmyrmica rubra are scavengers and predators . they work around the clock from june to september obtaining food .\ninformations on myrmica rubra has been recorded for the following locations . click on the name for additional informations .\nlandcare research . 2006 . myrmica rubra information sheet , research , invasive ants . summary : this information sheet provides comprehensive information about the biology , impacts and control options for myrmica rubra . available from : urltoken [ 28 september 2006 ]\nthe life cycle in the united states is still being studied . myrmica rubra is polygynous ( many queens per colony ) and polydomous ( many nests per individual colony ) . this situation allows myrmica rubra to maintain very high densities of individuals and nests in some areas . myrmica rubra colonies are also extremely mobile and some colonies move their nests regularly throughout the summer .\nmyrmica rubra can be dispersed via the movement of infested potted plants , mulch and fill ( landcare research , 2006 ) .\njapanese ant database group . ( 2003 ) . myrmica rubra . summary : available from urltoken [ accessed 26 june , 2009 ]\nrecommended citation : global invasive species database ( 2018 ) species profile : myrmica rubra . downloaded from urltoken on 09 - 07 - 2018 .\nfigure 5 . symptoms of an individual sting by the european fire ant , myrmica rubra linnaeus . photograph by e . groden , university of maine .\nin addition to its nuisance impact , myrmica rubra is also having significant effects on natural ecosystems . myrmica rubra appears to be responsible for the reduction of the ant diversity , richness , and abundance in infested areas , and has also exacerbated populations of plant feeding hemipteran pests such as aphids and scales .\nordered 26 - 50 myrmica rubra . took only 3 days from germany too holland and received 2 queens and 40 - 50 workers ! thanks antstore !\nmyrmica rubra is native to the palearctic regions of europe and asia from ireland to western siberia ( czechowski et al . 2000 ) . in the old world , myrmica rubra is found from 25\u00b0 latitude north to the arctic circle ( 66\u00b0n ) ( elmes et al . 1999 ) . based on its native distribution , the potential invasive range of myrmica rubra in north america would span the southern - most inland part of florida to the north of hudson bay in canada .\ngroden e . ( 2003 ) . european imported red ant ( myrmica rubra ) in maine . entomology - university of maine . ( no longer available online )\nelmes , g . w . 1973 . miniature queens of the ant myrmica rubra l . ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) . entomologist 106 : 133 - 136 pdf\nthere are around 200 different known species of the red stinging ant \u2018myrmica sp\u2019 .\nfigure 6 . worker ants of the european fire ant , myrmica rubra linnaeus , attending aphids and other homopterans in maine . photograph by f . drummond , university of maine .\nchamplaini . myrmica rubra r . champlaini forel , 1901h : 80 ( w . ) canada . subspecies of laevinodis : weber , 1947 : 454 ; of rubra : creighton , 1950a : 103 . junior synonym of laevinodis : smith , m . r . 1951a : 789 .\nbertelsmeier et al . ( 2015 ) examined elements of interspecific aggression between this species and several other highly invasive ants . in laboratory assays myrmica rubra was adept at avoiding aggressive interactions . when confronted by workers of other invasive ant species m . rubra either acted indifferently or moved away .\neuropaea . myrmica laevinodis var . europaea finzi , 1926 : 84 ( w . ) norway . [ first available use of myrmica rubra subsp . champlaini var . europaea forel , 1911h : 457 ; unavailable name . ] santschi , 1931b : 339 ( m . ) . subspecies of laevinodis : stitz , 1939 : 83 ; of rubra : bolton , 1995b : 279 . junior synonym of rubra : radchenko , czechowski & czechowska , 1997 : 483 ; czechowski , radchenko & czechowska , 2002 : 17 .\nfigure 4 . workers of the european fire ant , myrmica rubra linnaeus , gathering and protecting various larval instars after the nest was disturbed . photograph by h . a . arevalo , university of maine .\nfedoseeva , e . b . 2015 . a technological approach to the description of group foraging in ant myrmica rubra . zoologichesky zhurnal . 94 : 1163 - 1178 . doi : 10 . 1134 / s0013873815080060\nsenior synonym of myrmica laevinodis ( and its junior synonyms myrmica bruesi , myrmica champlaini , myrmica longiscapus ) : yarrow , 1955c pdf : 114 ; arnol ' di , 1970b pdf : 1839 ; boven , 1977 pdf : 115 ; arnol ' di & dlussky , 1978 : 530 ; collingwood , 1979 pdf : 52 ; seifert , 1988b : 5 ; of myrmica europaea : radchenko , czechowski & czechowska , 1997 : 483 ; czechowski , radchenko & czechowska , 2002 pdf : 17 ; of myrmica microrubra : steiner , schlick - steiner , konrad , et al . 2006 : 777 .\nthe first reports of red ants stinging people in maine occurred from the late 1960s to the mid - 1970s , but it was not until 1986 that the species was confirmed as myrmica rubra . complaints received by the university of maine cooperative extension office have increased sharply since 1998 ( groden et al . 2005 ) . today myrmica rubra is considered a nuisance pest in most places where it is established in north america .\nbologna , a . and c . detrain . 2015 . steep decline and cessation in seed dispersal by myrmica rubra ants . plos one . 10 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0139365\ngroden e , drummond fa , garnas j , franceour a . 2005 . distribution of an invasive ant , myrmica rubra ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , in maine . journal of economic entomology 98 : 1774 - 1784 .\nfigure 1 . adult worker of the european fire ant , myrmica rubra linnaeus . notice the sting , the two - segmented waist and the two spines on the propodeum . photograph by e . groden , university of maine .\nradchenko and elmes ( 2010 ) - from the latin word rubra = red , to describe its generally reddish colour .\nbruesi . myrmica laevinodis var . bruesi weber , 1947 : 453 ( w . q . m . ) u . s . a . [ first available use of myrmica rubra subsp . laevinodis var . bruesi wheeler , w . m . 1906a : 38 ; unavailable name . ] junior synonym of laevinodis : creighton , 1950a : 104 .\nplease see antweb : myrmica rubra for more images and assistance with identification . the antweb image comparison tool lets you compare images of ants at the subfamily , genus , species or specimen level . you may also specify which types of images you would like to compare : head , profile , dorsal , or label . there are several native species of myrmica in new england , and distinguishing them from m . rubra can be difficult ( landcare research , 2006 ) .\nweir , j . s . 1957 . effect of anaesthetics on workers of the ant myrmica . journal of experimental biology . 34 : 464 - 468 . summary : provides additional information on the use of anaesthetics with m . rubra .\nonoyama , k . 1989a . confirmation of the occurrence of myrmica rubra ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) in japan with taxonomic and ecological notes . jpn . j . entomol . 57 : 131 - 135 ( page 131 , see also )\nschar , s . & nash , d . r . 2014 . evidence that microgynes of myrmica rubra ants are social parasites that attack old host colonies . journal of evolutionary biology , doi : 10 . 1111 / jeb . 12482 .\nvepsalainen , k . , ebsen , j . r . , savolainen , r . , boomsma , j . j . 2009 . genetic differentiation between the ant myrmica rubra and its microgynous social parasite . insectes sociaux 56 : 425\u2013437 .\ngammans , n . r . , drummond , f . , gorden , e . and stock , p . 2006 . use of pheromones in bait stations to control the invasive european fire ant , myrmica rubra . summary : this article discusses the use of pheromones in attracting m . rubra to bait stations . available from : urltoken [ accessed 28 october 2006 ]\nbutterflies of the highly endangered genus maculinea are parasites of myrmica ants . a recent study by anton et al ( 2008 ) indicates that maculinea nausithous is limited by the density of its host ant , m . rubra . they suggest that habitat management to increase densities of this endangered butterfly should focus on the optimization of habitats that enable high densities of m . rubra .\nbell , d . a . , felse , j . , mescher , m . and holbrook , g . 2002 . potential supercolonialism in north american myrmica rubra . summary : this presentation suggested that there may be an approach towards supercolonialism in populations of m . rubra on mount desert island , maine , usa . available from : urltoken [ accessed 28 september 2006 ]\nnaumann and higgins ( 2015 ) examined the influence of this species on native insects . abstract : pitfall trapping revealed that the european fire ant , myrmica rubra ( linnaeus ) ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , represents an unusual example of a temperate invasive ant species . in british columbia , canada , m . rubra populations are associated with a decreased incidence and abundance of other ant species in three different plant communities when compared with m . rubra - free control areas . m . rubra represented more than 99 . 99 % of the total ant fauna caught in the infested areas , and the numbers of m . rubra captured in the plant communities ranged from over 10 times to over 1300 times the total number of all ants collected in corresponding m . rubra - free areas . total numbers of some taxa of insects and non - insect arthropods , including those likely to be competitors or prey of m . rubra , were reduced where the invasive species was present . biodiversity indexes for the overall suite of captured arthropod species were lower where m . rubra was present in all three plant communities but most of this decrease can be attributed to the difference in the ant fauna .\nfigure 2 . distribution of the european fire ant , myrmica rubra linnaeus , in the unites states and canada . this information is based on the published literature and surveys conducted between 2002 and 2004 . illustration by h . alejandro arevalo , university of maine .\nleppanen , j . , vepsalainen , k . , savolainen , r . 2011 . phylogeography of the ant myrmica rubra and its inquiline social parasite . ecology and evolution 1 ( 1 ) : 46\u201362 ( doi 10 . 1002 / ece3 . 6 ) .\nmyrmica rubra infestations are particularly severe in many areas along the sea coast , lakes and streams . these are areas with high value for tourism . home and business owners are concerned about the impact of these ants on their activities , income , and value of their property\nczechowski , w . , radchenko , a . & czechowska , w . ( 2007 ) . mermithid infestation strikingly alters the morphology of myrmica rubra ( l . ) ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) : possible taxonomical involvements . annales zoologici 51 ( 2 ) : abstract .\nwardlaw , j . c . 1995 . the effect of carbon dioxide on egg production in myrmica rubra . ins . soc . . 42 : 325 - 328 . summary : this paper discusses the use of carbon dioxide as an anaesthetic for examining ants in a laboratory situation .\nfigure 3 . detail of the head of an adult worker of the european fire ant , myrmica rubra linnaeus . notice the bent scape , the frontal lobes with respect to the base of the antenna , and the sculptured head . photograph by e . groden , university of maine .\ngroden , e . , drummond , f . a . , garnas , j . , franceour , a . 2005 . distribution of an invasive ant , myrmica rubra ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , in maine . journal of economic entomology 98 ( 6 ) , 1774 - 1784 .\nworkers of myrmica rubra are of a reddish - brown color , but the coloration greatly varies between individuals and colonies . workers are small ( 4 to 5 mm ) , their waist has two segments , the head and the mesosoma are heavily sculpted , but the abdomen is shiny . the worker ' s body is cover with fine hairs . the antennae are 12 - segmented with a four - segmented club and a bent scape . the propodeum ( the first abdominal segment fused anteriorly to the thorax ) has two spines pointing backwards , which is one of the main differences from other native ants ( not of the genus myrmica ) in the northeastern u . s . there are a few morphological differences that help to differentiate myrmica rubra from the other ants within the same genus . when viewed dorsally , the frontal lobes of myrmica rubra look thin and lamellar , laterally developed and do not cover the antennal base , and the propodeal lobes form a 90\u00b0 angle apically ( francoeur , unpublished data ) .\nle roux , a . m . , le roux , g . & thibout , e . ( 2002 ) . food experience on the predatory behavior of the ant myrmica rubra towards a specialist moth , acrolepiopsis assectella . journal of chemical ecology 28 ( 11 ) : 2307 - 2314 .\nwheeler wm . 1908 . a european ant ( myrmica laevinodis ) introduced into massachusetts . journal of economic entomology 1 : 336 - 339 .\nmyrmica rubra has become a significant pest in areas in the northeastern u . s . primarily because these aggressive , stinging ants interfere with people ' s use and enjoyment of their properties , gardens and parks . myrmica rubra ' s extremely high densities foraging both on herbaceous plants , shrubs and trees in combination with the cryptic nature of their nests , the probability of people and their pets inadvertently disrupting the ant ' s activities is very high . when disrupted , the ants will deliver a painful sting which has in a few cases produced severe allergic reactions to the venom including anaphylactic shock .\ngroden , e . and drummond , f . a . 2003 . management of the european fire ant in eastern maine . us environmental protection agency . summary : this paper provides information about management of myrmica rubra in eastern maine , usa . available from : urltoken [ accessed 28 september 2006 ]\ngroden , e . , drummond , f . a . , garnas , j . & franceour , a . ( 2005 ) . distribution of an invasive ant , myrmica rubra ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , in maine . journal of economic entomology 98 ( 6 ) : 1774 - 1784 .\nbibliography bradley , g . .\nants - myrmica rubra - formicidae - uk safari .\nurltoken n . p . , n . d . web . 5 feb . 2011 . < urltoken > . eleanor , groden , drummond francis a . , garnas jefferey , and franceour andre .\ndistribution of an invasive ant , myrmica rubra ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , in maine .\njournal of economic entomology 98 . 6 ( 2005 ) : n . pag . entomofaune du quebec . web . 23 may 2011 . groden , eleanor . email interview . 26 feb . 2011 groden , eleanor .\nnatural enemies of the invasive ant , myrmica rubra .\npowerpoint . school of biology and ecology , university of maine . may 4 2011 groden , eleanor , and h . alejandro arevalo .\neuropean fire ant - myrmica rubra linnaeus .\nuniversity of florida entomology and nematology department . version eeny - 410 . university of florida and university of maine , n . d . web . 2 feb . 2011 . < urltoken > .\nmyrmica rubra ( linnaeus , 1758 ) .\nurltoken n . p . , 29 sept . 2009 . web . 2 mar . 2011 . < urltoken > .\nmyrmica rubra , the common red ant .\nurltoken n . p . , n . d . web . 29 jan . 2011 . < urltoken > .\nresearchers try to squash fire ant population - wabi tv5 .\nurltoken community broadcasting service , 22 july 2010 . web . 17 mar . 2011 . < urltoken > .\nthe european fire ant ( myrmica rubra ) .\nurltoken university of maine , n . d . web . 6 mar . 2011 . < urltoken > .\nthe university of maine - cooperative extension publications - bulletin # 2550 , european fire ant : a new invasive insect in maine .\nurltoken maine agricultural center university of maine cooperative extension ornamental horticulture program leadership team , n . d . web . 2 may 2011 . < urltoken > . mla formatting by bibme . org .\nlepp\u00e4nen , j . , sepp\u00e4 , p . , veps\u00e4l\u00e4inen , k . , savolainen , r . 2016 . mating isolation between the ant myrmica rubra and its microgynous social parasite . insectes sociaux 63 : 79 - 86 ( doi 10 . 1007 / s00040 - 015 - 0438 - y ) .\nmyrmica rubra , commonly known as the european fire ant , is an aggressive ant species which has been introduced from its native eurasia to eastern north america , where it appears able to reach sizeable densities . it has a painful sting , and also impacts on native ants and other invertebrates , and reptiles .\ngarnas , j . r . , drummond , f . a . & groden , e . ( 2007 ) . intercolony aggression within and among local populations of the invasive ant , myrmica rubra ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , in coastal maine . environmental entomology 36 ( 1 ) : 105 - 113 .\nleclerc , j . - b . , detrain , c . 2017 . loss of attraction for social cues leads to fungal - infected myrmica rubra ants withdrawing from the nest . animal behaviour 129 , 133 - 141 ( doi 10 . 1016 / j . anbehav . 2017 . 05 . 002 ) .\nhowever , in europe and northern asia , where these ants are native , ants in the genus myrmica are considered important for the conservation of rare maculinea butterflies that live in association with the ants . myrmica rubra in particular is considered to be a host for maculinea teleius , maculinea nausithous , and two cryptic species of maculinea alcon ( elmes et al . 1998 ) . these butterflies are an important research topic due to their social - parasitic relationship with myrmica ants and their importance as bioindicators of the health of paleartic , and moist - grassland ecosystems in europe ( mouquet et al . 2005 ) .\nmyrmica rubra linnaeus , often called the european fire or red ant , is an adventive species found mainly in the northeastern united states . it was first discovered in massachusetts in 1908 by wheeler ( 1908 ) . this stinging ant species is considered to be a potential health and ecological risk to the u . s .\nin north america , myrmica rubra has been reported in maine , massachusetts , new york , pennsylvania , new jersey , washington d . c . , rhode island , and new hampshire in the us , and in ontario , qu\u00e9bec , new brunswick , and nova scotia in canada ( groden et al . 2005 ) .\nalthough workers in supercolonies appear to be very tolerant towards their neighbouring colony members , they can be very aggressive towards other organisms , stinging people and other animals freely ( personal observations ) ; however , laboratory studies suggest that m . rubra workers do not have especially different aggressive responses compared to other members of the genus ( de vroey and pasteels 1978 ) . m . rubra have a well equipped sting apparatus ( billen 1986 ) and although some people react allergically to the venom , the sting and venom does not seem markedly different from that of other free - stinging myrmicines ( e . g . blum and herman 1978 ) . most people ( including one of us - ar ) think that m . rubra stings seem particularly painful compared to other myrmica species . however in the opinion of the other author ( gwe ) when individuals of other myrmica are provoked into stinging ( usually in hot conditions ) a single sting can be equally painfully as that of m . rubra , perhaps even more so if the specimen is large : m . rubra having acquired its reputation because colonies are corporately aggressive and individuals sting rapidly and frequently even when fairly cool .\nbrian , m . v . ; brian , a . d . 1949 . observations on the taxonomy of the ants myrmica rubra l . and m . laevinodis nylander . ( hymenoptera : formicidae . ) . trans . r . entomol . soc . lond . 100 : 393 - 409 pdf ( page 393 , see also )\nradchenko , a . g . & elmes , g . w . 2010 . myrmica ants of the old world . fauna mundi 3 : 1 - 789 .\nmicrorubra . myrmica microrubra seifert , 1993 : 10 , figs . 1 , 4 ( q . m . ) germany . junior synonym of rubra : steiner , schlick - steiner , konrad , et al . 2006 : 777 . see also : czechowski , radchenko & czechowska , 2002 : 19 ; radchenko & elmes , 2003a : 236 .\nthis ant is a small black stinging ant which reminds me of a cross between lasius niger and myrmica rubra , though are in the same genus as the latter . they are typically found along the coasts of southern and western england . they can have nests containing up to 30 , 000 ants , but the average is perhaps 10 , 000 .\nmyrmica rubra is a very interesting species . it was surprising to me that it came to the united states in potting soil and that they have a symbiotic relationship with aphids . when researching this topic , i found some sites that had solid information but , at times , it was very hard to find information because most information was on how to get m . rubra out of your yard or it was only repeating what other websites had already claimed . often many sites had little or no information that was usable . this species was so difficult to research that i had to email professor eleanor groden of the university of maine at orono . she was so helpful . it was very surprising to me that it was hard to find information because myrmica rubra came to the united states first in 1908 and , yet , there is not a lot of readily available information on this species .\nspecies of myrmica ruginodis ; one that has queens which are visibly larger than the workers , and the other has queens which are almost the same size as the worker .\ngenerally , the microhabitat favoured by m . rubra colonies living by rivers and wet meadows ranges from open grass ( about 10 - 20 cm tall ) in the north and west of europe to much longer grass and reeds ( 1 - 2 m tall ) in southern and eastern habitats . much less is known about its distribution in west siberia : m . rubra is one of the commonest ants in various habitats of west and east siberia ( reznikova 1983 ; dmitrienko , petrenko 1976 ) and is particularly common in rivers meadows in north - eastern kazakhstan ( m . woyciechowski , pers . comm . ) . the principal competitors of m . rubra are other myrmica species but in meadows it faces strong competition from lasius niger ( czechowski 1985 ) .\nelmes gw , wardlaw jc , nielsen mg , kipyatkov ve , lopatina eb , radchenko ag , barr b . 1999 . site latitude influences on the respiration rate , fat content and the ability of worker ants to rear larvae : a comparison of myrmica rubra ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) populations over their european range . european journal of entomology 96 : 117 - 123 .\nmyrmica rubra is an aggressive ant species which has a painful sting . it has become a significant pest in many parts of its introduced range in maine , usa . nest densities can reach 4 / m2 , and there are impacts on people , pets , native ants , other invertebrates and reptiles ( landcare research , 2006 ; gammans et al . 2006 ) . m . rubra appears to establish in sizeable colonies in its introduced range , in disturbed and natural areas around residences and commercial buildings . it aggressively defends its territory as well as dominating native species . ( usda - aphis , 2003 ) .\nantweb , 2006 . myrmica rubra summary : antweb illustrates ant diversity by providing information and high quality color images of many of the approximately 10 , 000 known species of ants . antweb currently focusses on the species of the nearctic and malagasy biogeographic regions , and the ant genera of the world . over time , the site is expected to grow to describe every species of ant known . antweb provides the following tools : search tools , regional lists , in - depth information , ant image comparision tool pdf field guides maps on antweb and google earth and ant genera of the world slide show . antweb is available from : urltoken [ accessed 26 september 2006 ] the species page is available from : urltoken ; = myrmica & name ; = rubra & project ; = [ accessed 26 september 2006 ]\nstanley , 2004 provides comprehensive information about the range of baits available for ant control and eradication . groden and stack , 2003 provide information on managing m . rubra in maine , as does usepa , 2003 .\nhauschteck , e . 1965 . halbe haploide chromosomenzahl im hoden von myrmica sulcinodis nyl . ( formicidae ) . experientia ( basel ) 21 : 323 - 325 ( page 325 , karyotype described )\nfrom egg hatch to egg production , queens take at least two years to start a colony . in europe , myrmica rubra produces two types of brood characterized by the time necessary to mature . rapid brood develops in the year that it is laid , but a slower brood will overwinter as third instar larvae and mature to adulthood the following year ( elmes et al . 1998 , elmes et al . 1999 ) .\nmyrmica rubra is \\\nnormally polygynous with some 1000 workers , but may develop large polydomous colonies covering up to 2 m2 and consisting of 100s of queens and over 10 000 workers ( saaristo , 1995 ) . unrelated queens have been found cohabiting ( pearson , 1983 ) . densities of m . rubra nests can be as high as 4 per m2 , with more than 5200 workers and 39 queens per nest ( drummond and garnas www57 ) . artificial nesting substrates set out in maine were readily used and were repeatedly vacated and recolonised , suggesting colony movement is high , or that m . rubra\u2019s large polydomous colonies are able to relocate nests in response to shifting optimal conditions for brood production on a short temporal scale ( garnas et al . www57 ) . in poland , mating swarms were present from august until mid - october ( woyciechowski , 1992 ) \\\n( from landcare research , 2006 ) . studies on populations of m . rubra on mount desert island ( maine , usa ) have suggested an approach towards supercolonialism ( bell et al . 2002 ) .\nthere are seven species of the myrmica family found in this country . these ants tend to be a deep red in colour and can deliver a painful sting . the most common of the seven species is\npearson , b . 1981 . the electrophoretic determination of myrmica rubra microgynes as a social parasite : possible significance in the evolution of ant social parasites . pp . 75 - 84 in : howse , p . e . , clement , j . - l . ( eds . ) biosystematics of social insects . systematics association special volume no . 19 . london : academic press , 346 pp . ( page 75 , see also )\nlongiscapus . myrmica longiscapus curtis , 1854 : 213 , pl . 23 , figs . 11 - 14 ( w . q . m . ) great britain . junior synonym of laevinodis : mayr , 1863 : 433 .\ndella santa , e . 2000 . l ' identification des esp\u00e8ces du genre myrmica latreille ( formicidae ) de suisse ; essai de pr\u00e9sentation synoptique . bull . romand entomol . 18 : 169 - 187 ( page 171 , status )\nelmes gw , thomas ja , wardlaw jc , hochberg me , clarke rt , simcox dj . 1998 . the ecology of myrmica ants in relation to the conservation of maculinea butterflies . journal of insect conservation 2 : 67 - 68 .\nnash , d . ( 2006 ) . coevolution of chemical mimicry of maculinea butterflies and their myrmica ant hosts : the importance of spatial scale and gene flow . the iussi 2006 congress symposium 21 : coevolution between social insects and their macroparasites\nmyrmica rubra are generalist scavengers and predators . workers also feed on honeydew of homoptera and exudates of plants , and tend aphids . workers forage around the clock from early june to september on mount desert island , maine . throughout the autumn months ( september to early november ) there was a significant sigmoidal relationship between temperature and foraging . foraging activity increased with temperature from about 6\u00b0c to 13\u201314\u00b0c . above these temperatures , foraging did not appear to increase in response to air temperature ( landcare research , 2006 ) .\nm . rubra is a generalist scavenger and predator hunting various small invertebrates ( e . g . petal 1967 ) , but also utilize honeydew and nectar ( flowers and extrafloral nectaries , e . g . felton 1959 ) , aphids and scale insects . they forage on trees and shrubs more frequently than any other myrmica species ( except perhaps m . ruginodis ) ; though in europe arboreal foraging is quite rare while in the supercolonies of maine , usa very many m . rubra workers can be seen foraging high into the canopy ( personal observations ) . m . rubra workers often forage in groups ( e . g . dlussky et al . 1978 ) and they lay and follow chemical foraging trails ( e . g . cammaerts - tricot and verhaeghe 1974 ; cammaerts - tricot et al . 1977 ) . single foragers ( weighing about 2 mg ) are able to exert pulling - forces of about 100 mg . developing a mean power of about 5 . 8 ergs / s ( sudd 1965 ) , a third to a quarter of the strength and power exerted by formica lugubris zett . workers .\nsee the general biology discussion above for an overview of diet and foraging . novgorodova ( 2015b ) investigated ant - aphid interactions of a dozen honeydew collecting ants in south - central russia . all of the ants studied had workers that showed high fidelity to attending particular aphid colonies , i . e , individual foragers that collect honeydew tend to return to the same location , and group of aphids , every time they leave the nest . myrmica rubra showed no specialization beyond this foraging site fidelity . foragers tended chaitophorus populeti ( panzer ) and aphis pomi de geer .\nhey guys , i took a walk in my back yard and rolled over a small log to find a large colony of myrmica rubra under it warming up under the warm log . i thought it was a good opportunity to start a small colony so i caught a few workers and was able to grab one of their queens . this species of ant has multiple queens so me taking one was not harmful at all . the small colony i have now is doing very well and producing a good amount of eggs . the colony is starting its life in a test tube . one of the best ways to raise young ant colonies .\nyarrow , i . h . h . 1955c . the type species of the ant genus myrmica latreille . proc . r . entomol . soc . lond . ser . b 24 : 113 - 115 ( page 114 , senior synonym of laevinodis ( and its junior synonyms bruesi , champlaini and longiscapus ) )\ncultural control . another tactic is to make the environment less hospitable for this ant . these ants prefer high humidity , moist soil , and reduced exposure to the sun ( lightly shaded habitats ) . reducing irrigation , mowing tall grasses and increasing sun exposure to the ground will decrease favorable nesting and foraging conditions for the ants . these ants build their nests under debris placed on the lawn , including rocks , boards , logs , and anything that maintains a moist environment underneath . reducing nesting sites will reduce the populations and force the ants to nest elsewhere . this method will not eliminate myrmica rubra , but may help to keep population densities low .\nin north america , myrmica rubra nests are cryptic and difficult to spot at first glance , as they do not construct obvious mounds from soil . nests are usually in places that maintain high humidity for the colony including in the soil along roots of trees or shrubs , under rocks , logs or other human or natural debris , and in decaying logs . their nest densities are extremely high in infested areas in the u . s . , averaging between 0 . 5 and 1 . 5 nests per square meter , compared with 0 . 02 to 0 . 3 nests per square meter in their native habitat in england ( groden et al . 2005 ) .\narnol ' di , k . v . 1970b . review of the ant genus myrmica ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) in the european part of the ussr . zool . zh . 4 49 : 1829 - 1844 ( page 1839 , senior synonym of laevinodis ( and its junior synonyms bruesi , champlaini and longiscapus ) )\nmechanical control . one of the best means to reduce the impact of myrmica rubra is to prevent its further spread . the public should be aware of the risk involved in transporting materials from infested areas . potted plants , soil , mulches , and similar materials should be inspected on site and again before transplanting or use . ant activity can be hard to detect if the colony is small and underground , so careful observation is necessary . if ants are found , it is necessary to avoid using the materials until they can be identified by a reliable source ( entomologist , local cooperative extension service office , or a university entomology identification program ) and / or destroyed .\nusda - aphis . 2003 . annual progress report for fy 2003 , usda - aphis cooperative agricultural pest survey for maine . cooperative agreement : 03 - 8223 - 0360 - ca . summary : this report provides up to date information on the status of m . rubra in maine , usa . available from : urltoken [ accessed 28 september 2006 ]\nlatreille , p . a . 1804 . tableau m\u00e9thodique des insectes . pp . 129 - 200 in : soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de naturalistes et d ' agriculteurs . nouveau dictionnaire d ' histoire naturelle . tome 24 . paris : d\u00e9terville , 84 + 85 + 238 + 18 + 34 pp . ( page 179 , combination in myrmica )\nseifert , b . 1988b . a taxonomic revision of the myrmica species of europe , asia minor , and caucasia ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) . abh . ber . naturkundemus . g\u00f6rlitz 62 ( 3 ) : 1 - 75 ( page 5 , senior synonym of laevinodis ( and its junior synonyms bruesi , champlaini and longiscapus ) )\nradchenko , a . g . ; czechowski , w . ; czechowska , w . 1997 . the genus myrmica latr . ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) in poland - a survey of species and a key for their identification . ann . zool . ( warsaw ) 47 : 481 - 500 ( page 483 , senior synonym of europaea )\nmorphologically m . rubra is comparatively stable over its very wide range ( unlike , for example , m . scabrinodis , which is probably undergoing current speciation in europe \u2013 see notes to that species ) , most of its local adaptation appears to have been physiological and perhaps behavioural . consequently , given its abundance , it would be an ideal candidate to attempt phylogeographical history of its invasion of europe using modern molecular analytical techniques . until this occurs we can only hypothesise from whence m . rubra spread . it seems probable to us , that it survived the last ice age in middle asia or maybe the balkans or southeast europe , on so - called \u201ctundra - steppes\u201d , and spread rapidly into europe along the great river margins as the ice melted . coinciding with man ' s deforestation of europe many new habitats were created in the oceanic part of europe , the forests of which would have been generally too cold for colonisation . thus in a sense m . rubra is pre - adapted to invade anthropogenic habitats ( gardens , agrocoenoses ) especially in areas of high rainfall . this might help explain why it has been a very successful invader of the eastern seaboard of usa and canada .\nnuptial flights occur from late july and have been reported as late as october . compared to many other myrmica species , m . rubra mating swarms can be quite large aggregations and they have frequently been reported flying quite long distances to join swarms on church towers , high trees and mountain - tops ( e . g . hubbard and nagell 1976 ; woyciechowski 1990b ; personal observations ) . we have on occasion observed nests having recruited a mixture of their own daughters and other young queens ( all fertilised ) , but we are not sure whether their daughters mated in or near to the nest prior to joining the parent colony or flew to a distant swarm , mated and found their way home again . while the latter seems improbable it is what happens in the case of honey bees .\na member of the rubra group . yellowish brown . sculpture dilute ; frontal triangle and subspinal areas smooth and shining . antennal scapes long and slender . petiole node with short indistinct dorsal area sloping evenly without definite break to its junction with the postpetiole . head index : 79 . 5 ; frons index : 49 . 4 ; frontal laminae index : 92 . 7 . length : 3 . 5 - 5 . 0 mm . ( collingwood 1979 )\nbologna and detrain ( 2015 ) examined foraging behavior in a laboratory experiment with m . rubra obtained from locations in belgium . they found that the ants became satiated and showed a large decline over time in retrieval of elaiosome bearing seeds of viola odorata . seeds were offered once a week for 5 consecutive weeks and again at week 12 . a similar experiment with dead fruit flies showed a consistent foraging response where the ants collected most of the offered fruit flies .\nlaevinodis . myrmica laevinodis nylander , 1846a : 927 , pl . 18 , figs . 5 , 31 ( w . q . m . ) finland . subspecies of rubra : forel , 1874 : 76 ; emery & forel , 1879 : 460 ; wheeler , w . m . 1906d : 315 ; emery , 1914d : 156 ; forel , 1915d : 28 ; menozzi , 1918 : 82 ; karavaiev , 1927c : 259 ; creighton , 1950a : 104 . status as species : saunders , e . 1880 : 215 ; andr\u00e9 , 1883a : 316 ; dalla torre , 1893 : 110 ; ruzsky , 1905b : 662 ; bondroit , 1912 : 351 ; donisthorpe , 1915d : 110 ; bondroit , 1918 : 104 ; m\u00fcller , 1923 : 40 ; finzi , 1926 : 83 ; stitz , 1939 : 78 ; holgersen , 1940 : 184 ; novak & sadil , 1941 : 76 ; weber , 1947 : 441 ; bernard , 1967 : 119 ; baroni urbani , 1971c : 22 ; kutter , 1977c : 65 . senior synonym of longiscapus : mayr , 1863 : 433 ; of champlaini : smith , m . r . 1951a : 789 ; of bruesi : creighton , 1950a : 104 . junior synonym of rubra : yarrow , 1955b : 114 ; arnol ' di , 1970b : 1839 ; arnol ' di & dlussky , 1978 : 530 ; collingwood , 1979 : 52 ; seifert , 1988b : 5 ; radchenko , 2007 : 30 .\nagosti , d . , and n . f . johnson . editors . 2005 . antbase . hymenoptera name server results for the species myrmica rubra ( linnaeus ) : world wide web electronic publication . antbase . org , version ( 05 / 2005 ) . summary : antbase is a collaborative effort between scientists from around the world , aiming at providing the best possible access to the wealth of information on ants , to fulfill the conservation needs of the international union for the study of social insects ( iussi ) , and the species survival commission of the world conservation union ( iucn ) . antbase , together with the hymenoptera on - line database , is the data provider for ants to the integrated taxonomic information system , itis . antbase is being built and maintained at the american museum of natural history ( donat agosti ) and the ohio state university ( norman f . johnson ) . antbase is available from : urltoken this page is available from : urltoken [ accessed 26 september 2006 ]\nm . rubra colonies do not need a long season of high temperatures to complete their life cycles , in most habitats the ants do not become active until the end of april and are entering a pre - hibernation state by late september ( elmes 1982 ) . they have an active basal physiology ( compared to many other myrmica species ) that has adapted to local environments in different parts of its range . habitat selection seems to be determined by a trade - off between sufficient insolation to complete their life cycle and maintaining a high humidity within the soil nest ( assuming other factors such as food availability and nest site suitability being equal ) . thus at sea level in the more oceanic climates of western europe , woodlands are too cold in summer while east - facing meadows get too hot and dry whereas in the much more continental climates of eastern europe , the hot summers enable them to live in woodlands which dessicate less rapidly than open meadows . mountains of course , make their own local climates so that for example , in the carpathians populations favour more open meadow habitats at higher altitudes that are ecologically very similar to the prime habitat in western europe .\ndiez et al . ( 2015 ) , a study examining pathogens and colony hygiene - abstract : ants have developed prophylactic and hygienic behaviours in order to limit risks of pathogenic outbreaks inside their nest , which are often called social immunity . here , we test whether ants can adapt the \u201csocial immune response\u201d to the level of pathogenic risk in the colony . we challenged myrmica rubra colonies with dead nestmates that had either died from being frozen or from infection by the fungus metarhizium anisopliae . ant survival was compromised by the presence of the fungus - bearing corpses : workers died faster with a significantly lower survival from the 4th day compared to workers challenged with freeze - killed corpses . when faced with fungus - bearing corpses , workers responded quickly by increasing hygienic behaviours : they spent more time cleaning the nest , moving the corpses , and self - grooming . ants in fungus - threatened colonies also decreased contact rates with other workers , and moved corpses further in the corners of the nest than in colonies in contact with non - infected corpses . these results show that ant colonies are able to assess the risk level associated with the presence of corpses in the nest , and adjust their investment in terms of hygienic behaviour .\nm . rubra is a eurytopic species distributed widely throughout europe and west siberia where it can dominate some habitats . it thrives in damp habitats , especially soils with high water tables or habitats in areas of high rainfall . however , it is seldom found living in tussocks on true bogs , in the manner of some populations of m . scabrinodis and m . ruginodis . in western europe it is considered to be a species of damp meadows and is rarely found in woods and forests , the largest populations usually occur on west - facing slopes with heavy clayey ( often limestone ) soils , where it builds nests in the soil and under flat stones . these sites often have high rainfall and the moisture is held in the heavy soils . in eastern europe ( russia , ukraine etc . ) it is considered to be more of a forest species inhabiting many different kinds of forests ( except those with light , dry soils ) , where it builds nests in the soil under moss and in or under rotten wood . in central europe m . rubra is often very abundant in grass on forest , woodland and hedgerow edges , and in germany , poland and france etc . it is particularly abundant in the longer vegetation at the edges of water meadows used for haymaking and grazing . throughout its entire range it is associated with meadows bordering rivers and lakes . in recent years it has become important in nature conservation as the primary ant host of the endangered butterfly species phengaris nausithous ( bergstrasser ) ( see papers in settele et a ! . 2005 ) .\nwinged sexuals ( gynes and males ) are produced in june and \u201cmature\u201d inside the nest until july . the ontogeny of larval development and caste determination has been extensively studied by m . v . brian using m . rubra as a model species and has been found to be very complex ; for example , the hormonal state of the queen influences larval hormone production and ontogeny ( brian 1959 , 1974 ) , trophic conditions are involved ( brian and abbott 1977 ) as are the age and numbers of workers ( brian and jones 1980 ) , seasonality has an effect ( pearson and raybould 1997 ) and even gut parasite load might have some impact ( pearson and raybould 1998 ) . a model based on these interactions show that gyne production might be periodic ( brian et al . 1981 ) and this may account for the observation that the mean size of workers and queens in nests is positively correlated with worker number and negatively correlated with queen number ( elmes 1974b ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsince 2001 , entomologists at the university of maine have conducted periodic surveys to determine the movement of and the area colonized by the ant . in maine , the ant is restricted to humid places along the coast . however , colonies have been reported at inland locations and there is a concern that the ant is capable of establishing in these new areas .\nin europe , nuptial flights occur during mid - august to mid - september depending on the latitude . queens overwinter before laying eggs for the first time . some queens overwinter alone , others as groups of newly mated queens , and some join an existing colony . in the following spring , queens search for food to begin reproduction . queens that are part of a group have an advantage in foraging for food , and these queens will usually experience higher survival than solitary queens .\nin the united states , the situation is different . no nuptial flights have been reported , and new infestations appear to be caused by human - aided dispersal , particularly with the movement of infested soil , mulch , and potted plants . colonies that are already established spread to adjacent areas via budding . this occurs when one or more queens and a group of workers , frequently with brood , move from an existing colony to a new nest site to form a satellite colony . maine populations overwinter with slow brood ( third instars ) , but it is not certain whether colonies produce rapid as well as slow brood .\nchemical control . if chemical control is necessary , the label of an insecticide labeled for ants should be followed precisely . currently , the most effective materials to use are the food bait - based insecticides . unfortunately , none of the insecticides screened by the entomology program at the university of maine have successfully eliminated these ant populations . low concentrations ( less than 1 % ) of boric acid mixed with a sugar attractant have been successful in the laboratory ; however , results in the field have been inconsistent . other control tactics are currently under evaluation .\nfor more information about the management of european fire ants , or any other pestiferous ants in gardens , yards , landscapes , or parks , please contact the local cooperative extension service office .\nthis featured creature publication is a cooperative effort between entomologists at the university of maine and the university of florida ( uf ) . the senior author received his ph . d . at uf in fall 2006 . the research he and his colleagues are doing on this species of ant is important as its potential range includes florida .\nthe authors thank dr . frank drummond from the university of maine for his constructive comments to an earlier version of this manuscript , and to the university of maine ' s ant team for their collaboration with the project .\nbolton b , alpert g , ward ps , naskrecki p . 2006 . bolton ' s catalogue of ants of the world : 1758 - 2005 . harvard university press , cambridge , ma .\nczechowski w , radchenko a , czechowska w . 2000 . the ants ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) of poland . warszawa , poland . 200 p .\nmouquet n , belrose v , thomas ja , elmes gw , clarke rt , hochberg me . 2005 . conserving community modules : a case study of the endangered lycaenid butterfly maculinea alcon . ecology 86 : 3160 - 3173\nphotographs : e . groden , f drummond and h . a . arevalo , university of maine\n, the common black garden ant , it certainly is known by our gardeners and household owners due to its tendency to enter houses . it tends to nest under pavements , in soil , along the edges of lawns , in fact almost anywhere . it is a very quick , robust and prolific ant , using formic acid and its jaws as a means of attack / defence . its colonies can grow up to a size of 15 , 000 workers , though about 4000 to 7000 is perhaps the average . they eat insects , nectar , and even the bodies of their own dead , or ants from other colonies . they are also very fond of sugary substances but eats a variety of insects including flies , beetles , the larvae of various flies and beetles , fruit and honeydew .\nthey are perhaps one of the easiest ants to keep in captivity due to the fact that they are harmless and possess no sting . they are a very interesting and active ant .\n, the yellow meadow ant . these ants build small mounds in our lawns and are often mistaken for red ants due to their yellow -\nit is the most skilled nest builder found in the uk and can also be found in fields and meadows where they build much larger mounds ."]}
{"id": 1866, "summary": [{"text": "oriana ( 1807 \u2013 after 1826 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse and broodmare who won the classic oaks stakes at epsom downs racecourse in 1810 .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "the northern-trained filly won the oaks on her first appearance and finished third against colts in the st leger stakes at doncaster in her only other race that year .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "she won one of her three races in 1811 and was later exported to become a broodmare in ireland . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "oriana ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["oriana horse racing form , betting odds , breeding and other horse racing information .\nthoroughbred horse ( nz ) [ 1992 ] . oriana ( nz ) is a mare born in 1992 by blue razor out of tempted , trained by the k j thomson stable .\nshe was beaten by mr . mellish ' s horse eagle ( full brother to\n, eleanor lost a 100 - guinea gold cup race to mr . dawson ' s horse\nsuzannah welby\u2019s reigning horse of the year show champion took the hack title , ridden by jo bates .\ndon\u2019t miss the full royal windsor report in this week\u2019s horse & hound , on sale thursday 18 may .\nat the newmarket - craven meeting , eleanor received 200 guineas from mr . sitwell after his horse fieldfare forfeited a three - mile match race . at the same meeting eleanor ran third to sir hedworth williamson ' s horse\noriana and jimmy were very welcoming and know their stuff . i had a great time riding along the beach and through the rainforest . reasonable price also .\namelia bevan piloted sharon moss\u2019s lovely grey tiger oats to take the ladies show horse ( side - saddle ) title .\nthe horses were beautiful , the people were kind . i would definitely recommend a beach horseback ride with caribe horse riding club .\noriana ( usa ) b . m , 1860 { 25 } dp = 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 ( 0 ) di = inf cd = inf\nthe stud has bred champions in both the dressage arena , bef futurity , studbook grading and the show ring ( royal international horse show and horse of the year show ) as well as quality all - rounders who provide their owners with great fun and pleasure .\nafter standing riding horse champion , annabel jenks\u2019 diamonds are forever went on to stand overall reserve supreme on sunday afternoon with allister hood .\nmary ann : 1791 filly , 2nd to eliza in a king ' s plate . dam to oaks winner oriana ( 1807 , by beningbrough ) , and ashton ( 1799 ) .\nmiss oriana m , 1953 { 14 - e } dp = 2 - 2 - 2 - 0 - 12 ( 18 ) di = 0 . 38 cd = - 1 . 00\nmorris , tony ; randall , john ( 1990 ) . horse racing : records , facts , champions ( third edition ) . guinness publishing . isbn .\noriana ( gb ) br . m , 1911 { 16 - c } dp = 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 16 ( 16 ) di = 0 . 00 cd = - 2 . 00\nlady oriana ( gb ) b . f , 1974 { 1 - g } dp = 25 - 0 - 3 - 0 - 2 ( 30 ) di = 7 . 57 cd = 1 . 53\ni had a great tour with oriana & jimmy . we went through the jungle and along the beach . in the jungle jimmy spotted some animals and could tell a lot about the nature & wildlife . the horses were in a very , very good condition & well trained - which made me very happy and therefore the tour was great ! as not all horses in costa rica are in a healthy and good condition it was very cool to see , that these two care so much for their horses . i talked a lot with oriana & you see directly that she really loves her horses and knows how to handle & care for them ! if you are a horse lover & want to support well care , i definitely recommend caribe horse riding !\nplease keep me up to date with special offers and news from horse & hound and other brands operated by ti media limited via email . you can unsubscribe at any time .\nrandall , john ; tony morris ( 1985 ) . horse racing : the records . guinness superlatives ltd . pp . 43\u201356 . isbn 0 - 85112 - 446 - 1 .\nabelson , edward ; john tyrrel ( 1993 ) . the breedon book of horse racing records . breedon books . pp . 58\u201364 . isbn 1 - 873626 - 15 - 0 .\nour focus at oriana is providing excellent care and a safe , professional environment for our clients and horses . our horses are family . our equestrian facility features two state of the art barns , one with 21 stalls and another with 8 stalls .\nwe had a blast , great with our 11 and 15 year old . . . learned a lot about the history of the area and the fauna . would absolutely do again . . . wonderful for beginners and families . oriana took great pictures .\nthe horsin ' around review that says the show has too many horse puns is nothing but horse puns . also , note the ad on the other page for hank after dark . that ' s the\nuncle hanky\non the girls ' shirt from episode 2 , and the same guy in the billboard for hey , i think you can dance . oh , and the reviewer ' s last name is a horrifying parasite .\n, eleanor finished last in a field of four horses to lord darlington ' s horse muly - moloch . at the first october meeting in newmarket , eleanor regained her three - year - old form and defeated the mare\noriana stables is a full service hunter / jumper show facility offering excellent care , top quality training , knowledgeable staff , and a friendly atmosphere . we offer horse boarding and personalized riding lessons for our boarders in a fun , friendly environment . our goal is for you to reach all of your horseback riding dreams in a fun and educational environment . the farm is convenient to cary , apex , raleigh , durham and research triangle park in central north carolina . you will not find a more premier a , aa show barn in this area . browse our site and\non returning to the uk in the summer of 2012 sacha went to work for the team behind horse of the year show as the equestrian manager and most recently has been appointed the senior administrator for the national pony society . she has been an evaluator for the bef futurity series and occasionally takes small groups of breeders on guided tours to germany . she has previously written breeding articles for horse & hound , e - venting and the british breeder magazine , and publishes the breeding british blog .\nroyal windsor horse show may have come to an end , but we\u2019re still celebrating the beautiful horses and ponies crowned champions in the grounds of her majesty\u2019s castle . here is a selection of some of the winners snapped by h & h ; \u2019s photographer .\n, winning 350 guineas . she also won the king ' s plate from sister to gouty a few days later . at the second october meeting at newmarket , her last engagement of the season , eleanor won \u00a350 in a stakes race by beating the prince of wales ' horse shock .\n' s colt czar peter . at the second october meeting , she was second to bustard in a gold cup race . at the houghton meeting , she was again second in a gold cup race to the horse stretch . in the last three starts of her career , eleanor did not place .\nthe oaks stakes is a group 1 flat horse race in great britain open to three - year - old thoroughbred fillies . it is run at epsom downs over a distance of 1 mile , 4 furlongs and 10 yards ( 2 , 423 metres ) , and it is scheduled to take place each year in early june .\nall horses receive daily turnout alone or in small groups . our paddocks feature horse - safe fencing and quality grass . we like to ensure that our horses receive the best nutritional care . our horses are fed high quality grain according to their vet\u2019s specifications . the best quality timothy or orchard hay is provided at least twice daily .\nan account of a chesnut horse , call ' d smiling ball . this famous horse leaps mares all this season at richmond in yorkshire , for one guinea a mare leaps and tryals , and one shilling the man . he was bred by mr gase of panton in lincolnshire ; he was got by a son of the acklam merlin ; mr gase bought him out of yorkshire ; he made him so good a hunter , that he never would suffer him to be trained ; he was thought one of the best hunters in the kingdom . ball ' s dam was bred by mr curwen of workington ; she was got by mr curwen ' s old bay barb , which was mr pelham ' s afterwards ; she was the dam of lord gower ' s chance gelding , out of a mare that was got by old spot , out of a daughter of old woodcock , ( not mr bethel ' s woodcock ) and full sister to a horse that minchel had , call ' d westbury , which he said , when tryed , was the best young horse he ever had . this is a true pedigree i have under mr pelham ' s hand , by mr curwen ' s book . ball is now coming 15 years old , sound of his wind , and free from any cough , and clear of all material blemishes . the horse was bought by john turner of mr gase , who had him some time , and then sold him to the right hon . the earl of essex ; after he had done running , his lordship gave him to john turner , who was servant to his lordship the time he had him in training , and saw all his performances\u2026 [ newcastle courant . 28 feb 1735 - 6 . numb . 566 . ]\nsir harry : 1795 brown colt , won the derby in 1798 , then imported into america for the highest price ever paid for a horse ever brought there . sired medora ( oaks winner , daughter gulnare also won the oaks ) , and was a leading sire in the united states , producing haxall ' s moses ( 1816 ) and sir alfred ( 1806 ) .\nher sire , sorcerer , was bred by sir charles bunbury and was a half - brother of the 1801 derby winning mare eleanor . sorcerer was an unusually large black horse who won several important races and became a successful breeding stallion . his progeny included the derby winner smolensko , the 2000 guineas winners wizard and trophonius , and the oaks winners morel and sorcery . [ 3 ] sorcerer was the leading sire in great britain and ireland in 1811 , 1812 and 1813 . [ 4 ]\nwas bred by me , and got by my horse called belgrade the 2d , which got my volunteer , bashaw , primate and garnet , to which last he is full brother . \u2026his dam was got by hipp , his grandam by the duke of bolton ' s horse call ' d poker , his great grandam by mr pullen ' s chesnut arabian , out of a mare called garnet , which was got by mr place ' s white turk , out of a natural barb mare , which belong ' d to oliver cromwell . hipp was got by old tifter , out of volunteer ' s grandam . poker was got by the arab , which got grey ramsden . pullen ' s chestnut arab , got morton ' s merlin , & c . place ' s white turk , got commoner , & c . old tifter was a son of the thoulouse barb , out of young cream cheeks . - - - all which account as above set down , i do believe to be true . witness my hand , / marma . wyvill .\npipylina ( 1803 ) , out of rally , and so sister to pipylin , had a modest career on the turf for her owner , lord foley . her daughter , young pipylina ( 1822 , by orville ) , produced july stakes winner forester . a second daughter , by selim ( 1812 ) , continued her tail - female line , which included a branch of winners in poland , and epsom derby winner plenipotentiary and the fallow buck . mary ann ( 1791 , from a young marske mare ) was a winner , and at age five ran second to the great race mare eliza in a king ' s plate over 4 miles at york . in the stud she produced oaks winner oriana ( 1807 , by beningbrough ) , and her brother , the good runner ashton ( 1799 ) . her female line continued ( family 18 - a ) , and included colorado king ( 1959 ) an important racehorse in south africa . a sister to mary ann , monica ( 1792 ) also bred on .\nowner description : have you always dreamed of riding a beautiful horse on a picturesque beach ? what about exploring the jungle in a very eco - friendly way ? make the very most of your time in puerto viejo by joining an exclusive horseback ride along one of the most incredible , and undeveloped coast of costa rica . our tours combine both beach and jungle and range from relaxing rides , perfect for families to private rides for more experienced riders . if you prefer quality over quantity or poorly maintained horses , then our horseback riding adventure is for you . your guide has a life long experience with horses , our horses are all healthy , well fed and taken care of . security is our main concern , and we are the only stable to offer helmets and back protection . we have special gentle horses to accommodate children from 6 years old on . we also offers special package such as swimming with the horses , honeymooners special , wedding events . . . just ask !\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nbay colt , 1791 . by king fergus - mare by herod darley arabian sire line : king fergus branch . king fergus sire line quick chart . family # 7\norville , out of the four - mile race mare evelina , by the great sire , highflyer , was an exceptionally stout runner standing over 16 hands , with a powerful , stocky body . he won the st . leger at doncaster for his owner and breeder , lord fitzwilliam , and later won a number of plates and sweeps at various venues , including newmarket , for the prince of wales . in the stud he got five classic winners and led the sire ' s lists twice ; among his offspring were derby winner and two - time leading sire emilius , and the good runner muley , sire of three classic winners .\nscud got some other good runners , including mariner and sheldrake , out of goosander , but none of his sons were able to carry the sire line forward . scud ' s son , steeltrap ( 1815 , from prophetess ) , bred by thornhill , was sold to australia in 1823 and was a famous stallion there ; his influence is still felt in australia and new zealand through his daughters , seen in the colonial families c2 , c4 , and c16 .\nscud ' s oaks - winning daughter shoveler ( family 6 - c ) , was a\nsmall , lengthy , and blood - like whole - coloured bay mare\nwho bred on , with a successful branch in poland and one that produced some classic winners and stayers in australia . her sister , sea - mew ( 1815 ) also bred on , and sea - mew ' s son , st . nicholas ( 1827 ) won some races and got two - time winner of the goodwood stakes , orelia , and two sons , yorkshire and nicholas , who were sent to the u . s . where they had some influence in bloodstock breeding .\nbeningbrough ' s son harefoot ( 1799 ) was out of a daughter of drone , and was half - brother to st . leger winner staveley , by shuttle . running for his owner j . wardell , and sold several times during the course of his career , he won the oatlands at newmarket craven meeting , and a several matches at newmarket , a sweepstakes at bibury , and was second to bustard in a king ' s plate at canterbury and to orville in the brighton gold cup . he was retired to stud at the end of 1805 , but left no mark as a stallion .\nbeningbrough got some good running daughters , and was a successful broodmare sire whose daughters produced classic winners and other good runners . oaks winner briseis , who bred the dual - classic winner corinne , has already been mentioned . rosette ( 1803 ) produced st . leger winner reveller , later a good sire . miss nancy ( 1803 ) had a st . leger winner in her good running daughter , the duchess ( 1813 , by cardinal york ) . johanna southcote ( 1811 ) produced oaks winner variation .\nrosette ( 1803 ) , bred and owned by henry peirse , whose stud was near bedale in yorkshire , ran for over six years . her dam was rosamond , by tandem , who also produced a unnamed sister to rosette , from whom the irish stallion solon ( 1897 ) , the prix de l ' arc de triomphe winner samos ( 1932 ) and other good winners descended in tail - female . rosette won the doncaster prince ' s stakes , the union cup at preston , city purses at york , the richmond cup , and a number of other races at catterick and other north country venues .\nold woodcock mare ( woodcock ) spot mare ( curwen ' s spot ) sister to westbury ( curwen bay barb ) devonshire turk mare ( devonshire turk ) childers mare [ wyvill ' s ] ( bartlet ' s childers ) sister 1 to volunteer ( young belgrade ) miss windsor ( godolphin arabian ) signora ( snap ) sister to fandango ( mark anthony ) miss furey ( trumpator ) . . . . . 18 - a\nthe most recent common ancestor of this family is a mare by bartlet ' s childers . two of her daughters have living descendants : a mare by the scarborough colt , and a sister to volunteer , by young belgrade ( alias belgrade 2d ) . today ' s largest branch was started by miss windsor , a 1754 mare by the godolphin arabian out of sister to volunteer ; three of her daughters by snap founded lines that persist to the present .\nbartlet ' s childers mare , bred by sir m wyvill , in 172 , her dam , by the devonshire turk , out of sister to westbury , by the curwen bay barb - curwen old spot - old woodcock . 1735 b c volunteer , by y belgrade . . . sir m wyvill 17 f by ditto . . . sir m wyvill 17 f by ditto . . . sir m wyvill * 17 f by godolphin arabian . . . sir m wyvill 17 f by the scarboro ' colt . . . sir m wyvill * this mare produced 1772 , b c king hiram , by eclipse , mr o ' kelly waxy , paynator , thunderbolt ( sorcerer ) , smolensko , colsterdale , ellington , ashton , souvenir , poussin , bertram , etc , are descended in direct line from this mare .\nher son , wyvill ' s volunteer , however , had been a fixture of gsb since the introductory volume in 1791 .\nvolunteer , sir m wyvill , 1735 , young belgrade - bartlet ' s childers - devonshire chesnut arabian - sister to the d . of somerset ' s westbury , by the curwen bay barb .\nsir marmaduke wyvill , the 6th baronet ( 1692 - 1754 ) was appointed postmaster general of ireland in 1736 . it appears that some of his running horses went with him to ireland , since there are numerous advertisements in irish newspapers for horses of his breeding . after sir marmaduke died in 1754 , his stud at constable - burton ( near bedale in yorkshire ) was advertised for sale . there was also notice in an irish newspaper that part of his stud was\nsold on the sod\nat the curragh . it is known that sir marmaduke did keep a stud book ( some pedigrees from\nbrown ' s copy of sr m : wyvills stud book\nwere preserved in ld rockingham ' s papers ) . however , based on omissions in gsb , it appears that the compilers never had access to sir marmaduke ' s original records .\nthe produce list of this mare needs revision . entries in the calendars and advertisements in ireland indicate that there was at least one full brother to volunteer . the number of full sisters is also in question ; evidence suggests possibly two , although one might be sufficient to account for the number of produce claimed for a sister of volunteer . in addition , lord godolphin ' s records ( see c m prior ,\n, 1935 ) do list produce by the godolphin arabian out of three different mares belonging to sir marmaduke wyvill . these mares include volunteer ' s sister , but there is no record of volunteer ' s dam having been bred to the godolphin arabian . this raises the possibility that the pedigree of\nif gsb is correct in its statement that the bartlet ' s childers mare was bred by sir marmaduke wyvill , then he probably owned this mare as well . a memorandum included in lord godolphin ' s records ( see c m prior ,\nvolunteer ' s sister was got by a colt of my own breed called bellgrade , and out of a daughter of bartlett ' s childers , out of a daughter off ye late d : of devonshire ' s chesnut arabian , out of a daughter of ye bay barb , wch was full sister to ye duke off somerset ' s westburry , as mr pelham certifyed to me . / ma : wyvill\nthis hipp was also sire of the dam of the spectacle mare ( dam of three sons of the godolphin arabian : tarquin , alfred , and lord rockingham ' s godolphin hunter ) .\n, by curwen ' s bay barb , dam by curwen ' s old spot .\n. the latter won \u00a32042 in common plates\nin four summers\nracing from 1726 - 1729 according to this advertisement .\n( 1935 ) on pp 178 - 9 . henry purefoy said that\nit was about the year 1711 when i myself saw 8 or 10 of his racehorses breathed on ye common or green , by monk ' s house , on straw litter , for a mile around .\npurefoy further stated that minshull started breeding about the year 1697 . he was a papist , like henry curwen , so it is not surprising that at least some of his horses were of mr curwen ' s breeding .\nwestbury was mentioned in correspondence of the duke of somerset in 1716 . in may he was to be found\nin old stables\nand\ncoughing ;\nin june\nwestbury bled , blanketted ,\nwestbury bled again\nand\nwestbury eating well , coughing and heaving little .\nin july he was ill and described as rattling in the head and throat , by august , he was coughing only at night , but in october was\nheaving worse .\nthe dates at which he raced aren ' t known , but sir marmaduke described him as having the whip at newmarket .\nmare by curwen ' s old spot ( dam of westbury ) . this mare does not have an entry in gsb ; she is at present known only as a cross in pedigrees . likewise there is no known historical information about mr curwen ' s spot , although the fact that some pedigrees refer to him as marshall ' s spot is consistent with his sire being called the marshall or selaby turk\nthe property of mr marshall ' s brother , stud - master to king william , queen anne and king george the first\n( cheny 1743 ) . a best guess puts spot ' s foaling date at about 1690 , with get estimated to have been foaled between 1695 and 1710 . a\ngrey called spott\nwas purchased by king william from mr burnett for \u00a3100 ( j p hore , the history of newmarket and the annals of the turf , iii , 1886 , p371 ) in 1698 , but given that spot was a very common name , this may have been another spot entirely .\nthis mare does not have an entry in gsb , and is another who is presently only known as a cross in pedigrees .\nher sire has not been identified , although there are advertisements with pedigrees referring to a very early woodcock .\na bay stone colt , three years old , got by a son of the ball ' d galloway [ royal ball ] , \u2026 and out of a childer ' s mare , got by mr wm . ovington ' s childer ' s , who was full brother to the duke of devonshire ' s childers ; her dam by snake ; her dam by pullen ' s rockwood ; her dam by the bellarby turk , sire of wyndham and crutches ; her dam by brimmer ; her dam by\n, out of a royal mare of mr darcey ' s of sedburgh . [\nboth the woodcock ' s mentioned by cheny were probably too late for these pedigrees : darcy ' s woodcock ( said to have been son of bustler ) had definitely dated get from 1716 through 1724 , and woodcock ( by old merlin , son of bustler ) had two definitely dated get in 1719 and 1720 .\nit is impossible to tell , at this time , if one of these woodcock ' s went on to be used as a stallion .\nkeren happuch she does not appear in the american stud book . the evidence is supplied by three certificates , including one by william lightfoot , jr , which stated that he purchased from sir ferdinando poole at lewes ,\nhis favourite mare ,\nkeren happuch , at that time in foal to her half - brother waxy . other certificates indicate that\nbland ' s waxy mare\nof the american stud book was the daughter of keren happuch , imported in utero , and known as miss shipton [ e1 : 306 - 310 ] . keren happuch ran in the colours of sir ferdinando in england , where she was a winner [ pick 4 : 353 ] .\ntarquin mare in the pedigree for young marske mare ( dam of rhoderic dhu ) , tarquin mare is said to be by\ntarquin , or brother to tarquin\n[ gsb 1 / 5 : 316 ] . however , it seems likely that this mare ' s dam was got by tarquin . according to information in lord rockingham ' s records [ wwm / r193 / 34a ; sheffield archives ] , the brothers to tarquin were alfred ( raced in ireland and advertised there in 1760 ) and lord rockingham ' s godolphin hunter . the godolphin hunter , as far as is now known , was a private stallion in lord rockingham ' s stud , where he had known foals from about 1757 to 1763 . tarquin was advertised at public stud for at least the years 1751 - 1758 . in addition the only known source to name this mare ' s dam - sire as\ntarquin ' s brother\nwas mr tattersall in two advertisements in 1789 and 1790 . other sources ( advertisements for telemachus and apollo as well as pedigrees in pick ' s calendars ) gave tarquin . the most authoritative source appears to be sir c monck , who bought one of this mare ' s fillies by young marske , and showed the editor of gsb ( 3 / 3 ( 1855 ) : 95 ) a certificate given him at the time of purchase , naming tarquin .\ninformation about manto , one of the great matriarchs of the southern hemisphere , is sometimes contradictory .\n. this was corrected in the following edition . under the buzzard mare ( sister to lynceus ) , bred by mr goodison , in 1802 , her dam rose , by sweetbriar , out of merliton , by snap :\n, by ditto [ soothsayer ] , attributed to mr goodison . * it was erroneously stated in the last edition that this mare was sent to new south wales , and there called manto ; but manto must have been out of one of the other sisters to lynceus [ gsb 2 / 4 : 27 ] .\nshe was foaled in 1817 [ ausb 1 ] , corrected to 1822 [ ausb 2 : 225 ] and her dam said to be a sister to lynceus . a further note indicates that manto was not the dam of john of paris , was not entered in gsb , and was probably from one of the sisters to lynceus foaled in 1800 or 1803 , was bred by dick goodisson , and was imported into nsw by mr icely in 1825 [ ausb 3 : 318 ] .\nher arrival was noted in a newspaper , and further reports illuminate her life in australia .\n. she sailed from london the 7th , and plymouth the 16th of july , and rio de janeiro the 27th august . passengers ;\nof the firm of messrs . icely and hindson ; lieutenant rose , r . n ; mr . j . t . tiacomb ; mr . w . brien ; mr . john evans , and 2 servants [ the sydney gazette and new south wales advertiser , sunday 25 december 1825 , p 2 ] .\nmr . icely was so fortunate the other day as to be favoured with the first thorough - bred colt that ever was dropped in the colony , out of that excellent looking creature which mr . icely imported a few months ago on the columbia . it is a filly foal , colour bay , with black legs . its dam stands 16 hands and an inch high , and is one of the noblest animals , without exception , in the country [ the sydney gazette and new south wales advertiser , saturday 6 may 1826 , p 3 ] .\nthe fair was not well attended , though many respectable colonists from varions parts of the country were present .\n, which he imported last year , and which has since dropped a pure foal , was to be distinguished amongst the show of fine horses that certainly are a credit to the proprietors , and an honour to the country , the australian company ` s entire horses , as well as those of private individuals were to be seen prancing to and fro with all the pride and blood of true britons . if it were for nothing else , the australian agricultural company should receive the unanimous thanks of the colonists , for the fine breed of horses they have introduced , and we really think that mr . icely is as much entitled to the gold medal for importing the first blood mare , so noble a creature too , as mr . jones was for the first importation of saxon sheep [ the sydney gazette and new south wales advertiser , saturday 7 october 1826 , p 3 ] .\nto be sold by auction , by mr . samuel lyons . on friday , the 29th of june instant at 10 for 11 o ` clock , at the royal hotel , george street , sydney . valuable racing stud , the thoroughbred stock consists of the following brood mares and foals of the best english blood , and will afford an eligible investment to breeders for the turf , or the indian market .\n; her dam , rose , by sweetbriar , out of merliton , by snap ; soothsayer , by sorcerer , out of golden locks , by delpini ; her dam , violet by shark , syphon , quick ` s charlotte , & . c . & c . - vide stud book , vol . ii . pp . 46 and 138 . manto is the dam of chancellor , the winner of the governor ` s and brisbane cups of 1832 , and is stinted to bay camerton .\ncornelia , out of manto ( no . i ) ; foaled in may , 1826\n; her sire , grasshopper , by grasshopper , out of a sorcerer mere , dam of red rose ; her dam by anvil , out of lilly of the valley , by eclipse . stinted to bay camerton .\nno . iii . problem , a chesnut filly , rising 3 years , by theorem , out of manto ( no . i ) .\nno . iv . fairy , a bay filly , foaled in november , 1831 , by emigrant , out of manto ( no . i ) .\nno . v . brougham , a black colt rising 2 years , by bay camerton , out of cornelia ( no . ii ) .\nno . vi . brenda , a bay filly foaled in november , 1831 , by emigrant , out of cornelia , ( no . ii . )\ncornelia was the first foal of manto in australia , and according to the newspaper ( above ) she was the first thoroughbed foaled in australia . her date of birth is said to be 1825 , although newspaper reports indicate she was foaled in 1826 ( see above also ) .\nthe races at parramatta , wednesday 1st october 1828 , reported in sydney monitor saturday 4th october 1828 . the second race was for the sweepstakes of 75 guineas . heats once round the course . four horses started . mr bayley ` s b h australian , aged 5ys ;\n; sir j jamison ` s g g abdallah , aged 6ys ; mr lawson ` s c f nell gwynne , aged 3ys . a better race than this is seldom seen . mr icely ` s blood filly though so young , gave the crack horses something to do to beat her . abdallah lost some of his character . australian was much admired . he won the race with comparative ease . nell gwynne made fine play [ sydney monitor , saturday 4th october 1828 ] .\ncossack sources vary on the date of birth of cossack from 1846 to 1848 . however , the australian stud book says 1848 [ ausb 1 : 114 ] which is corrected to 1847 [ ausb 2 : 126 ] .\nio io ' s date of birth also varies . the charles elliot new zealand stud book ( 1862 ) says 1856 [ 1 : 11 ] and the new zealand stud book ( 1899 - 1900 ) says 1855 [ 1 : 61 ] .\nraupo and renga these two fillies were switched in error as the new zealand stud book explains . it has been a matter of common notoriety that on an order for delivery of the filly by diomedes from waimea , another filly by diomedes from phoebe was in error substituted , which mistake was never rectified . public attention has recently been drawn to the confusion in pedigrees which has resulted , both mares having been prolific breeders . proof has been adduced of the substitution , and though it is , unfortunately , too late to make the correction in the present volume , hence - forth the descendants of raupo will be traced through waimea to the no 18 family , and those of renga through phoebe to the colonial taproot woodstock [ nz - sb 4 ( 1909 ) : xxvi ] .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\nopen an account with betfair and bet at least \u20ac5 at min odds of 1 / 5 on the sportsbook . win or lose betfair match your first bet up to \u20ac50 . free bet stakes not returned\nwe have two riding rings . our 150\u2032 by 250\u2032 outdoor arena features premium all - weather rubber footing for safety and performance year - round .\nour covered arena provides year - round protection from the elements , and is professionally lighted for evening riding . it measures 80\u2032 by 130\u2032 and is surrounded by sturdy 4 board fencing . skylights provide filtered light during the day and nighttime riding is a breeze with three banks of high intensity lights .\nboarding rates include blanketing , individual turn - out , and a custom feeding regimen . please inquire for board prices . full - training is available . contact us today !\nthe toby edmonds - trained tyzone is the ramornie handicap favourite ahead of his stablemate havasay .\ninvited for the second year running to ride at the vodacom durban july meeting in greyville , nooresh juglall made the trip to south africa count with one winner \u2013 just like last year .\nbon hoffa\u2019s g1 winning son bon aurum will stand at glen eden stud in victoria this spring .\nexciting sprinter nature strip was a sale ring reject who could be racing for a share of $ 13 million in the everest in october after recording another brilliant win at flemington on saturday .\nclick here for an in - depth description of racing and sports\u2019 racing analytics .\n* state exclusions apply . please check t & cs of each offer with the bookmaker . all offers / promotions on this site exclude nsw residents .\nthis site is maintained by racing and sports ( \u00ae ) pty ltd ( abn 093 360 108 ) (\nr & s ;\n) . copyright in all r & s ; materials is owned by racing and sports pty ltd ( r & s ; ) . racing and sports is a registered trademark . r & s ; takes all care in the preparation of information appearing on the site , but accepts no responsibility nor warrants the accuracy of the information displayed . this information is provided for entertainment purposes only . all information including race fields and tab numbers should be checked with an official source . * t & c ; and state exclusions may apply . ( ras - www02 )\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\nown or manage this property ? claim your listing for free to respond to reviews , update your profile and much more .\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content .\nthe information provided on this thoroughbred racing sa limited website has been compiled for your convenience . trsa makes no warranties about the accuracy or completeness of any information contained on this website .\npaul mortimer\u2019s randalstown rolex stood cob champion , ridden by his producer robert walker .\nthe shades of grey syndicate\u2019s bloomfield excelsior stood open hunter champion , the first time his producer jayne ross has won this title .\nthe senior ridden spoils went to joanne parker\u2019s lovely dartmoor , ridden by tyra - louise parker .\nharriet dennison was in the saddle of the dianne brereton - owned heritage mountain and moorland ( m & m ) ridden champion .\nthis grey sparkled in the sunshine to take the working hunter pony title for owner / rider georgina horsley - gubbins .\nthis stunning piebald took the coloured in - hand championship for debbie gottschalk , presented by mollie sibthorpe - musk .\nbankswood savoir faire got the nod from the judges to take the amateur hack title with hayley patterson .\nlibby grota piloted the show hunter pony champion for owner emma edwards - brady .\nthe coloured ridden championship went the way of emma wallace\u2019s volatis orianna , who is produced by jayne ross and carried miranda wallace in the ring .\nthe queen\u2019s ex - racehorse went through to the supreme after winning his retraining of racehorses class , and her majesty was on hand to watch the bay stand overall supreme with katie jerram .\narabs were back in windsor\u2019s show ring this year , and oas plashaal ( claire doxey ) landed the pure - bred ridden arab accolade , which was presented by chief steward nigel hollings . don\u2019t miss his guest column in this week\u2019s h & h ( on sale 18 may ) .\njill day\u2019s roan topped a strong four - year - old hunter class with robert walker in the saddle .\nthe lynne goodyear - owned barkway precocious ( jake berrett ) took mini show pony spoils .\nthere was more success for producer jayne ross in the novice hunter championship , which was claimed by bella malim\u2019s rising five - year - old bloomfield valhalla .\nthis lisa hall - owned chestnut lifted the part - bred and anglo arab title .\nowner john elliot presented stuffynwood primrose , who was crowned the m & m supreme in - hand champion .\nthis team ahern - produced eight - year - old took the show pony title for owner nicole donaldson , piloted by her daughter mia donaldson .\nthe amateur cob title went to aughnacliffe high peak , ridden by angela hunt .\nby submitting your information , you agree to the terms & conditions and privacy & cookies policy .\nwe ' d also like to send you special offers and news just by email from other carefully selected companies we think you might like . your personal details will not be shared with those companies - we send the emails and you can unsubscribe at any time . please tick here if you are happy to receive these messages .\n\u00a9 copyright ti media limited . all rights reserved . terms & conditions | privacy policy | cookie consent\nthe cleverness starts even before you hit\nplay\non the first episode of season 2 of bojack horseman : the\nepisode\nmenu button is missing the\nd\n( it ' s up by the\nseason\ndrop - down menu ) .\nit ' s a subtle nod to the netflix series ' fans , who ' ll remember bojack ( will arnett ) stealing the d from the famed hollywood sign to impress diane ( alison brie ) in season 1 . from there , the details only get more delightful . there are callbacks , set - ups , puns , minutiae that no one in their right mind would have taken the time to think up , much less animate . but that ' s part of what makes the wonderfully absurd world of bojack such a joy to enter , and we ' d be remiss in not pointing out every last clever little thing we could see , both for the benefit of you , the viewer , and to give props to the brains behind the show . here ' s everything we noticed from episodes 1 - 3 . ( plus : the hidden gems from episodes 4 - 6 , episodes 7 - 9 and episodes 10 - 12 . )\nsebastian st . clair is on the tv in the background of the opening credits sequence now .\nthat ' s actually george takei narrating\nold dumb life , brand new attitude .\nthe sign on the locker to the left of corduroy jackson - jackson would like you to get\nfreaky at the preakness ,\npresented by\nchicken 4 dayz .\n( you ' ll see why we ' re pointing that out in episode 5 . )\na dog in a chicken costume , and a chicken in a dog costume .\ntodd has a sleeping cap under his regular skullcap and is reading the\nraw as hell\nnovel\nsandwich\nby\natonement\nauthor ian mcewan .\nrutabaga ' rabitowitz ' s guitars are signed by : woodchuck berry , eddie van whalen , and b . b . king cobra .\nherb ' s 1988 calendar has january 1 on a friday , which is correct . no one in the world would have noticed or cared if this tiny detail were not correct , but that ' s how these guys roll .\nrutabaga has a goodnight moon painting on his wall that strongly implies he ' s the young rabbit in the story . also , his bonsai tree is a carrot .\nbojack ' s mom ' s contact photo is a lit cigarette , and the call answer / ignore buttons are a little more colloquial .\nthe bartender at this seafood restaurant is a squid . ( also , there is a lobster patron . )\nit ' s 2012 magazine takes us back to when everyone was really into psy and\nlolarious\nautocorrects .\nbojack was on the cover of person magazine with steve urkel ( who inspires todd ' s transformation in episode 3 ) .\nbellican ' s bar is right around the corner from a liquor store called\nbooze .\nthe san fur nando valley ! also , note the multi - species - family decal on the purple sedan , which , according to the vanity license plate , belongs to a female roller derby enthusiast .\nmbn head of programming wanda pierce ' s ideas : the kirk cameron show , hey , i think you can dance , having david copperfield disappear the world trade center .\nsignature attractions at todd ' s disneyland : mr . todd ' s wild death coaster , gabe jr . ' s grease fire of the caribbean , cinderella ' s magical pile of used mattresses . also , todd gave himself an exception for the height rule , and his face is on all the balloons .\nthere are honeycombs all over the park ( y ' know , ' cause of the worker bees ) . and mr . peanutbutter ' s friend erica makes her first non - appearance this season !\nerica ! you can ' t be here\u2014this place is filled with children !\nat the ' 50s diner bojack and wanda go to , marlin brando is serving stellas ( and a corona light ) .\nyet another appearance from\nwoodchuck berry .\n( and other clever animal - musician mashups . )\nthere are already billboards up for hey , i think you can dance with hank hippopopalous .\nhuh , alex sure looks like the americans ' matthew rhys , doesn ' t he ? ( he ' s voiced by joel mchale . ) perhaps because\u2014spoiler alert for 10 minutes from now\u2014he ' s a kgb spy .\nspy shit .\nalso , character actress margo martindale update : still in prison .\nlittle girl is wearing a shirt with a hippopotamus on it that says\nuncle hanky\n\u2014hank hippopopalous .\nthere are 11 gazelle ( or perhaps impala ) jurors . the 12th is a lion , and they are all leaning away from him . bonus : the otter judge is referred to as\nyour otter .\non the disneyland ( or\ndiisneyland\n) articles of incorporation ,\nanaheim\nis also misspelled .\noh no they disn ' nt !\nthe worker bees all have flowers in their drinking glasses .\nin this issue of it ' s 2015 magazine : a red - and - green dress that is either blue or white .\nthe baboon from episode 1 is still jogging by bojack ' s place . in fact , he jogs by in just about every episode .\nnot only did someone tape up a janky cardboard sign for todd ' s disneyland , but the bear on the california state flag is wearing clothes .\na ) goat with a\ngoatful dead\nt - shirt . b )\nas long as the ratings don ' t dip below a dismal 15 million a night ,\nherb is saying , which is how you know it ' s the 1980s . network execs today would claw a production assistant ' s eyes out to get 15 million viewers a week .\nthere are literal vultures circling herb ' s funeral . ( they are in suits , though . )\n- sibling actors jake and maggot gyllenhaal -\nthat pakistani girl who keeps winning nobel prizes ,\na . k . a . malala yousafzai\n( note that herb and bojack ' s deer / dear friend charlotte is in the photo in the lower right - hand corner . )\nherman ' s hermit crabs : a reference to the 1960s british band herman ' s hermits .\ntina the bear - nurse is eating all the salmon hors d ' ouevres .\nlike diisneyland , bojack ' s lemon - lime soda from the ' 90s is\nsquiirt .\nback in the ' 90s , the l . a . lakers signed shaquille o ' seal .\na ) there is an aa chapter right next to a biker bar called\nthe watering hole ,\nwhich is frequented by water buffalo bikers . even better , there ' s a crocodile on the sign . truth in advertising . b ) there is a skin heads anonymous chapter on the same block . c ) a childcare center is in between these things , next to a gun store .\nhow many of bojack horseman ' s hundreds of hidden jokes , puns , sight gags and pop culture references did you spot ? see what you missed in episodes 1 - 3 , episodes 4 - 6 , episodes 7 - 9 and episodes 10 - 12 .\nkeep up with which shows are must - see , all the stories you need to read , sweepstakes and contest opportunities , and much more . . . all delivered directly to your inbox !\nvolatis stud was founded by sacha shaw in 2004 with the purchase of the first two broodmares , foxwood polo and dee dee g . in those early days the aim was to breed super all round athletes that could turn a hoof to any discipline , and ideally coloured .\nin more recent years the emphasis has switched to focusing on the breeding of top class sporthorses . the aim is to cross top quality proven mares from the finest motherlines with the best stallions , to breed exceptional sporthorses with that little bit extra . temperament and athleticism are the most important considerations , but rigorous attention is paid to finding the right match for each mare , in terms of type , conformation and pedigree . the mares are all highly graded in multiple studbooks .\nvolatis stud is the fulfilment of a lifetime\u2019s ambition and dreams . owned and managed by sacha shaw , volatis is a place where dreams are born and allowed to soar . the word volatis is itself derived from the latin word volo , which means to fly or soar , the sentiment of which the following quotation from the shakespeare play henry v captures perfectly - \u2018 when i bestride him i soar , i am a hawk . he trots the air , the earth sings when he touches it . \u2019\nsacha was born into a national hunt racing family , and as a teenager competed in a number of disciplines at home in zambia . she represented zambia as a junior in show jumping and was also eventing at intermediate level from the age of 14 . after graduating with a business law degree she re - schooled a number of ex - racehorses , and after some years working in accountancy , decided to make the move to working full time with horses . as well as running a successful livery yard , she spent some years managing the famous daldorn stud for lady benton - jones and producing her young horses for the show ring .\nat the start of 2010 sacha sold the majority of the breeding stock and moved to germany to work for the world famous paul schockemohle at his stallion station and competition yard in muhlen . this proved to be an immensely educational experience , working with , and riding , top class athletes , some of whom have gone on to international championship careers . sacha had always followed the german breeding scene with interest , visiting stallion approvals and shows , but to be immersed in the centre of it was extremely enlightening ."]}
{"id": 1870, "summary": [{"text": "the emperor dragonfly or blue emperor ( anax imperator ) is a large species of hawker dragonfly of the family aeshnidae , averaging 78 millimetres ( 3.1 in ) in length . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "emperor ( dragonfly )", "paragraphs": ["a male emperor dragonfly hunting small insects above a pond . this photograph was taken in mid june .\nthe australian emperor dragonfly has two pair of wings which are about equal size . they are clean in colour . the construction is typical example of dragonfly ' s and\nthe australian emperor is a large , common , pale brown to yellow dragonfly with dark brown mottling and clear wings .\nthe australian emperor lives in urban areas , fresh water , forests , heath .\nthe common and widespread emperor dragonfly is larger with far more blue on the abdomen . the vagrant emperor is similar in appearance though it should be remembered that it is very unlikely this species will be recorded in shropshire . the lesser emperor has a more extensive patch of blue on the abdomen that extends further down the sides than in the vagrant emperor . the vagrant emperor also has brown not green eyes and has a distinctive pattern of wing cells which is diagnostic . the lesser emperor is also known to oviposit in tandem which is unusual in hawker dragonflies .\nthis dragonfly is a very large dragonfly . they never stop flying over the pond . they are common in brisbane .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - emperor dragonfly ( anax imperator )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - emperor dragonfly ( anax imperator )\ntitle =\narkive species - emperor dragonfly ( anax imperator )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nlarge ponds , lakes , canals and slow moving rivers are the preferred habitat of the emperor dragonfly , particular those with abundant submerged and floating vegetation .\nfollowing emergence , captive emperor dragonflies have been known to survive for up to 80 days .\nthe pictures above show the dragonfly rested on grasses and trees during late afternoon . the dragonfly rested there overnight until next morning .\nthe emperor dragonfly is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) . it is common and widespread in the uk ( 3 ) .\nthe bright blue male emperor dragonfly is extremely sharp sighted and is one of the fastest flying of all insects . the emperor dragonfly has remained unchanged for 230 million years . despite being able to beat its wings only 30 times a second ( ten times slower than a bee ) , it has no difficulty hunting down more highly evolved insect species .\nthe emperor dragonfly is not threatened at present , however many dragonflies are vulnerable to water pollution and loss of habitat by infilling of ponds , and drainage of water bodies ( 4 ) .\nthe larvae of the australian emperor are usually found on water plants and are active predators that stalk prey and grow quickly .\n- deniss reeves , austrolestes - newsletter of australian dragonfly society , # 8 , 2003 .\nhabits : the male emperor dragonfly is almost continuously airborne , in search of a mate or prey that may stray into its territory . the dragonfly\u2019s territory is always over a freshwater pond or lake . the defending dragonfly will attack the trespasser immediately by flying under him to force him up and away from the water . the green and brown female stays away from the water until she is ready to breed , so she is sighted less frequently .\nrelated species : a subspecies of anax imperator occurs in southern africa . distribution : the emperor dragonfly is found in europe , the british isles , north africa , the middle east , and northwestern india . conservation : the dragonfly is extremely susceptible to the effects of water pollution and drainage . its future depends on the survival of clean , unpolluted ponds , lakes , and waterways .\nthe emperor dragonfly breeds in a range of aquatic habitats including large ponds , canals , slow - flowing rivers , lakes , flooded gravel pits , and dykes , but in all cases there must be a plentiful supply of marginal vegetation that emerges from the water ( 1 ) .\nthe bright unique colouring and patterns of the adults & aggressive behaviour of the males make this species very distinctive . only confusion could be with rare migrant lesser emperor .\nduring a sunny summer day , you will see the dragonfly flying over every piece of large flash waters in brisbane . it is usually the largest dragonfly on the water and will chase away any flying object on its path . the dragonfly is pale yellow in colour with grey pattern on the body . the costa , or the front edges of its wings are pale yellow .\nthe first picture above shows the australian emperor pair laying eggs in the plant under the water , still in tandem position . sometimes we saw the female dragonfly laying eggs alone . the female resembles male . the breeding sites are ponds and slow running water with thick vegetations . more information about reproduction please visit\nall photos published on this site are copyright of the original photographer and are reproduced with their permission . all other content of this site is copyright of the british dragonfly society except where explicitly stated otherwise . the british dragonfly society is a registered charity , number 1168300 .\n8 ) the flight of the dragonfly is so special that it has inspired engineers who dream of making robots that fly like dragonflies .\nthe coloration and markings distinguish this from all other shropshire species though two migrant species may cause confusion . the vagrant emperor is extremely rare , but the lesser emperor is being recorded with increasing frequency though not yet in shropshire . both these species are smaller with reduced areas of blue on the abdomen and lacking the striking apple green thorax . see the relevant species pages for more details .\n10 ) nearly all of the dragonfly\u2019s head is eye , so they have incredible vision that encompasses almost every angle except right behind them .\n14 ) a dragonfly called the globe skinner has the longest migration of any insect\u201411 , 000 miles back and forth across the indian ocean .\nthere has been a huge upsurge in records of this distinctive dragonfly in our area since 1990 and it is now distributed widely throughout leicestershire & rutland .\nthis page contains information and pictures about yellow emperor dragonflies that we found in the brisbane area , queensland , australia . they are also known as yellow emperors . in new zealand they are known as baron dragonflies .\nm ale anax imperator photo \u00a9 david kitching 2006 female anax imperator photo \u00a9 david kitching 2004 distribution map for emperor dragonfly large dot = proven breeding , medium dot = probable breeding , small dot = possible breeding open rectangle = pre 1980 records only red dots show tetrads in which species has only been recorded since 1991 or where breeding status has been raised since 1991 .\ncham , s . 2007 field guide to the larvae and exuviae of british dragonflies volume 1 : dragonflies ( anisoptera ) the british dragonfly society : 76 pp .\nfood and feeding : the adult dragonfly is able to catch most of its prey while flying . it plucks insects out of the air with its legs . the dragonfly is rarely still , and its huge , multifaceted eyes enable it to detect prey up to 40 feet away . almost any flying insect is suitable prey . the dragonfly eats small insects even while it is flying but takes larger prey to a resting perch . the emperor dragonfly\u2019s larvae also hunt . they propel themselves through their underwater habitat by expelling water rapidly from their intestines . their extendable jaws , armed with deadly hooks , enable the larvae to catch and kill such food as water lice and nymphs . the shovel like jaw of the larva is used to capture a variety of freshwater animals . the legs form a basket in which insects are caught in flight and then transferred to the jaws to be eaten .\nmainly seen over ponds , canals or slow - flowing streams , this beautiful insect flies for long periods without resting , which makes it a difficult dragonfly to study .\nthe male circumnavigates its territory and chases off any other dragonfly that comes near . each pair of wings moves in a different motion , giving the impression of a helicopter .\n11 ) dragonflies , which eat insects as adults , are a great control on the mosquito population . a single dragonfly can eat 30 to hundreds of mosquitoes per day .\nthe eggs develop in about 3 weeks , depending upon the temperature of the water . the larva , or nymph , that hatches is wingless and lives in the water . it molts ( sheds its skin ) ten to fifteen times during the 2 years it takes to mature . almost all of its growth occurs in summer months . in the last stage of development the larva crawls out of the water and dries its skin in the sun . as the skin splits , the adult dragonfly emerges . once its soft wings have hardened , it can fly . the adult dragonfly lives for only a few brief weeks . the lifecycle of the emperor dragonfly guarantees that its larvae hatch at the same time , allowing a better chance for the adults to breed successfully .\nthe australian emperor dragonfly spend most of the time flying , defending its territory and hunting for prey , seldom rest on a sunny day . in flight it appear yellowish . at the end of its abdomen there is the yellow spot as the ' tail light ' . the males aggressively defend large territories over the water . . its territory can be as large as 50 meters on a section of slow running water . if there is the intruder , it will always be driven away by a series of noisy air battles . the dragonfly usually has its patrol flight one meter about the water in quite a routine path within its territory .\nthe emperor dragonfly has a broad global distribution ; it is found in europe from portugal to germany in the north , and extends eastwards to central asia ( 1 ) . it is also known from north africa and the middle east ( 2 ) . in britain , it is fairly widespread in southern england and south wales , but becomes quite scarce in the north midlands , although there are signs that the species is currently extending northwards ( 1 ) .\nspecial features of the emperor dragonfly : the larva has an extended jaw armed with hooks . it pushes them forward to catch and kill its prey . the male uses calipers at the tip of his abdomen to grip the female\u2019s thorax . the male transfers sperm from the tip of his abdomen to accessory sexual organs . the female then fertilizes the eggs . the copulation wheel : the female arches her body under the male to mate . they may fly in tandem while they are mating .\nunless there have been any recent publications , courtship in dragonfly species only seems to have been described for a few species of libellulid dragonfly ( chasers , skimmers , darters etc ) , and seems to be very brief , consisting of little more than a male approaching a female , indicating his desire to mate , and perhaps showing off potential ovipositing sites within his territory . the female then indicates receptiveness , or leaves !\nbritain\u2019s largest , heaviest and most impressive dragonfly . an early summer species . the brightly coloured turquoise and apple green males coupled with their aggressive territorial behaviour make this one of most well known and easily recognisable dragonflies .\nvisit any decent sized pond in early summer and you will probably encounter a male emperor patrolling it . they are very territorial and will chase other males and investigate other species . will fly away from water however to hunt . females are often visible laying eggs on floating vegetation and will do so alone .\ndid you know : dragonflies always rest with their wings spread open . dragonflies and their larvae are a popular food in some asian countries . there are over 30 , 000 facets in a dragonfly\u2019s eye . very few birds can outfly and hunt down dragonflies . the fast flying , agile hobby is a match . the dragonfly\u2019s front and hind wings beat alternately , not together , as with most insects . this gives them better flight control .\nthis common and familiar dragonfly in europe is nevertheless a comparatively recent colonist from africa , and still rapidly expanding its range northwards ( dijksta & lewington , 2006 ) . in the uk , it is absent from upland areas .\n3 ) there are more than 5 , 000 known species of dragonflies , all of which ( along with damselflies ) belong to the order odonata , which means \u201ctoothed one\u201d in greek and refers to the dragonfly\u2019s serrated teeth .\nmost of the odonate behaviour that you will observe if you sit quietly by a pond or stream in summer is sexual in nature . most male dragonflies establish a territory \u2013 usually near a suitable site for the female to lay her eggs . the male defends the territory against other intruding males while waiting for a female to fly by . some species just perch and wait for this to happen ; others patrol the area for long periods . in hong kong , members of the aeshnidae family , such as the fiery emperor and the pale - spotted emperor , are particularly impressive as they patrol over ponds and streams , rarely coming down to rest .\nwe watched a female emperor ovipositing in a small pond . her mate was patrolling above , and caught a small butterfly . still in flight , the wings dropped off , and he then found the female , who flew up and took the food from him . she landed on a weed in the water , and sat eating .\nthe lesser emperor was first recorded in gloucestershire in 1996 and exuvia were found in cornwall in 1999 proving breeding had been successful ( cham et al . , 2014 ) . since the gloucestershire record this species had been recorded in worcestershire , cheshire and staffordshire and finally just last year in shropshire . definitely a rare migrant but always a possibility !\n12 ) hundreds of dragonflies of different species will gather in swarms , either for feeding or migration . little is known about this behavior , but the dragonfly swarm project is collecting reports on swarms to better understand the behavior . ( report a swarm here . )\nthe profile of dragonflies has been raised in recent years , and many landowners build ponds in order to encourage them ( 4 ) . the british dragonfly society aims ' to promote and encourage the study and conservation of dragonflies and their natural habitats , especially in the united kingdom ' ( 6 ) .\nnaturewatch : the emperor dragonfly is usually recognizable by its large size . the male has a deep blue abdomen , divided by a central back stripe . its head is green . at close range it can be identified by the distinctive rounded inside edges of the hind wings . the female is green and brown and is much less conspicuous than the male . during summer the adult male patrols its territory \u2013 weedy ponds and lakes . it usually flies 6 - 20 feet above the water . when it does rest , it perches briefly on the edge of a reed bed or in a tree . adults can be found near any stretch of unpolluted fresh water in their range . larvae emerge from the water as early as may .\n5 ) at the end of its larval stage , the dragonfly crawls out of the water , then its exoskeleton cracks open and releases the insect\u2019s abdomen , which had been packed in like a telescope . its four wings come out , and they dry and harden over the next several hours to days .\ndragonflies undergo a type of development known as incomplete metamorphosis in which the aquatic larvae ( sometime called nymphs ) undergo a series of moults ; the stages between moults are known as instars or ' stadia ' ( 4 ) . after hatching from eggs , the larvae develop quickly through the summer ; they enter their final instar during the autumn of the following year , and then enter ' diapause ' , a form of hibernation , before emerging as adults early the next summer ( 2 ) . in the first few instars , the larvae swim by undulating the body from side - to - side ; later on they develop a system of jet - propulsion which enables them to easily escape from predators such as water bugs , fish , other dragonfly larvae and beetles . the larvae of the emperor dragonfly are themselves voracious predators , armed with fearsome mouthparts known as a ' mask ' ; the mask is normally tucked under the head , but is rapidly extended in under 25 milliseconds ( 4 ) , piercing prey as large as small fish ( 2 ) .\n13 ) scientists have tracked migratory dragonflies by attaching tiny transmitters to wings with a combination of eyelash adhesive and superglue . they found that green darners from new jersey traveled only every third day and an average of 7 . 5 miles per day ( though one dragonfly traveled 100 miles in a single day ) .\nwith just a handful of records prior to 1980 and similarly few in the succeeding decade , this is another species that can be considered a recent colonist to vc 55 . there has been a huge upsurge in records of this distinctive dragonfly since 1990 and it is now distributed widely through vc 55 in suitable habitat .\nbritain ' s bulkiest dragonfly . its bright colours and active habit make it very obvious when hunting over medium to large water bodies . it rarely settles , even eating its prey in flight . both sexes have a bright , apple - green thorax and green or blue eyes . the costa is bright yellow . they often fly with the rear of the abdomen bent slightly downwards .\nwhile the adults are conspicuous , the larvae are little known to most of us . that is because they are aquatic creatures , living below the surface in freshwater streams and pools . they are generally dull , prehistoric - looking creatures \u2013 a far cry from the flaming adults . the following account focuses on the adults and attempts to briefly explain some of the dragonfly behaviour that an interested observer might be witness to in the summer months in hong kong .\nfreshly emerged dragonflies are ghost - like . their wings are shiny , their bodies lacking in pigments . it can take up to two weeks for a dragonfly to reach sexual maturity , during which time there is a transition to adult coloration . subadult coloration can be different from that of the mature adult , and can lead to difficulties of identification . in general , adult males are easier to identify than females and subadults as many of them are distinctive .\na large , robust , long - bodied dragonfly with a ' waisted ' appearance to the abdomen , which is longer than the hindwing . the eyes range from green to blue , with yellow to green undersides . animals have a plain green thorax and , in males , a light blue abdomen ( except for the first segment , which is usually green ) with a broad black dorsal stripe . the intensity of the blue colouration varies with weather conditions , becoming paler in cooler weather .\nthis is the largest dragonfly found in the uk and indeed shropshire . apart from a green segment 1 , the abdomen is mostly bright blue with a distinctive broad black dorsal line running from segment 2 - 10 . the thorax is apple green and has no antehumeral stripes or any noticeable side stripes . just in front of the wings are 2 triangular blue spots . the wings are clear with a yellow costa and long narrow brown pterostigma . the eyes are blue green and the legs black apart from some reddish brown on the femur .\nthe larvae of most species simply climb up the stems of emergent plants . some , however , crawl away from the water to find a suitable site to metamorphose into an adult \u2013 some even climb high into trees . once a site is found , the dragonfly slowly emerges , which can take 2 - 3 hours in dragonflies , an hour in damselflies . the shed larval skin ( known as an exuvia ) is left in place ; a good place to look for these exuviae is the water - lily pond at the outdoor study centre in tai po kau .\nlifecycle : most of the dragonfly\u2019s life is spent underwater as larva . it emerges as a winged adult for a few weeks a year to mate and lay eggs . usually mating takes place in the high branches of a tree along the pond\u2019s bank , but sometimes it will occur in the air . the male pursues the female until he is able to settle on her back . the mating procedure is known as the \u201ccopulation wheel . \u201d the female fertilizes the eggs , then uses her ovipostor ( a special egg laying organ ) to lay them . to protect her eggs from being eaten by fish , she places them into slits that she has cut into stems of pondweed .\nlarva : a very large , elongate dragonfly larva , with a torpedo - like body and large , round eyes characterised by eye length much greater than width . the rear margin of the head is straight , and the head as a whole has a roughly circular appearance . the labium is three and a half to four times as long as wide . dorsal spines are present on the seventh and eighth abdominal segments , but there is no spine on the sixth segment . early - stage ( first year ) larvae are banded in black and white , colouration that is lost with age . this may be an adaptation that camouflages them against older larvae of the same species by imitating the effects of incident light near the water surface .\nhi all , we were out with our son , daughter in law , and 6 year old grandson today . our grandson loves catching insects , crickets , grasshoppers etc . after studying them in his proper trap , he releases them again . whilst out , we saw various butterflies , and a couple of dragonflies . now , to ask the question . have any of you observed this behaviour ? we watched a female emperor ovipositing in a small pond . her mate was patrolling above , and caught a small butterfly . still in flight , the wings dropped off , and he then found the female , who flew up and took the food from him . she landed on a weed in the water , and sat eating . this all took place over some 20 minutes or so , much to the delight of all watching , especially our grandson , who was the quietest i have known him to be for such a long time . no decent pics of this action , despite many attempts , sorry . pics below of some other sightings . hope you like them .\nafter diapause , final instar larvae leave the water and crawl up vegetation . the adult emerges , leaving the discarded skin of the nymph attached to the plant ( 5 ) . the new adults undergo a period of feeding and maturation before starting to reproduce ( 4 ) . males set up territories , which they defend fiercely against other males ; they fly rapidly at two to six metres over the water , and very rarely come to a rest . during mating , males and females form a typical ' wheel ' mating posture , in which the male grabs the female behind her head using the claspers at the tip of his abdomen . after mating the female lays her eggs in floating vegetation , keeping low to avoid encounters with territorial males ( 2 ) .\nyou can view distribution information for this species at the national biodiversity network atlas .\nthere may be further information about this species available via the national biodiversity network atlas .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nmcgeeny , a . ( 1986 ) a complete guide to british dragonflies . jonathan cape , london .\nsterry , p . ( 1997 ) complete british wildlife photo guide . harper collins publishers , london .\no ' toole , c . ( 2002 ) the new encyclopedia of insects and their allies . oxford university press , oxford\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nschorr , m . and paulson , d . 2013 . world odonata list . tacoma , washington , usa available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 20 november 2013 ) .\njustification : anax imperator is a widespread species with no major threats worldwide and it is therefore assessed as least concern .\nanax imperator is known from the whole africa to most of europe , the arabian peninsula and southwest and central asia . within india it is present in west bengal ( kolkata district ) , uttarakhand , maharashtra and tamil nadu . this species is presently expanding to the north due to the global warming and has been found in the southern part of sweden up to uppsala . in the british isles , its northern limit shifted by 80 km to the north so that now this species is known from scotland .\nanax imperator breeds in any kind of standing and slow running waters bordered with rushes and weeds . it is a familiar species on all open waters , where males patrol and hawk restless over their territory and exclude their congeners . males most generally do not accompany the female during oviposition .\nthere are no threats at the global scale , although local declines may occur due to habitat destruction and water pollution .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nfemale : green abdomen , similarly marked , which may become blue in warm weather .\nmostly associated with large , well vegetated ponds and lakes , but may be found over canals and slow moving rivers . the female lays her eggs , alone , in floating pondweed .\nwidespread in southern england and southern wales ; increasing its range northwards . recently appeared in ireland .\ncould perhaps be confused with other hawkers , but the large size and drooping abdomen ( in flight ) help identification .\nclick here to support naturespot by making a donation - small or large - your gift is very much appreciated . thank you .\nthis is one of europe ' s largest dragonflies . the male is easy to identify with its apple green thorax and bright blue abdomen and blue eyes . the female is mostly green and also has the apple green thorax .\nwidespread but not common in england south of the humber and wales , little recorded elsewhere in britain .\neduard sol\u00e0 added the catalan common name\nespiadimonis\nto\nanax imperator leach 1815\n.\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nkeisarikorento\nto\nanax imperator leach 1815\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthe largest of the hawker dragonflies found in britain , this is a common species in southern england and wales .\nthe male ( below ) has a bright blue body , while the female , seen above laying eggs on emergent vegetation , has a greenish tinge , becoming gradually bluer when old .\nif you found this information helpful , you would probably find the new 2017 edition of our bestselling book matching the hatch by pat o ' reilly very useful . get an author - signed copy here . . .\nin profile view , there is a black marking at the base of each segment . immature males and females typically have a green ( sometimes brown in immatures ) abdomen , with a distinct thin yellow ring at the base of the second abdominal segment only in newly - emerged individuals , becoming green with age . the dorsal midline is often more brownish than black in females and tenerals . in both sexes , the costa ( leading edge of the wing ) is yellow , and the pterostigma brown . the wing itself is otherwise clear , but can become brownish in older females . the frons is marked with a black pentagon at the base , and there is a blue bar in front of this marking . some females have a blue abdomen ; they can be distinguished from males by two triangular blue markings on top of the thorax , just in front of the wings .\nthis is a species of still and occasionally slow - flowing waters , most often encountered around larger , well - vegetated waterbodies . it is known to colonise newly - formed pond , and is able to tolerate brackish conditions . larvae inhabit pondweed .\nmales of this fast - flying species patrol open areas of the waterbody , often higher and further from shore than related species . when they come into land , individuals typically rest vertically , low down in vegetation . in flight , the animal may hold its abdomen so that it curves downwards . animals are strongly territorial and will chase off smaller rivals , including members of other species with a similar appearance .\nemperors will typically eat prey on the wing , but large prey items , such as large butterflies , dragonflies and similarly - sized insects , will often be consumed from a perch .\nlarvae are active predators that respond rapidly to movement and use their well - developed eyes to track prey . they are typically well - camouflaged within vegetation , clasping twigs or stems close to the water surface . unusually , they have been known to hunt in open water , using jet propulsion to pursue prey .\nbreeding behaviour : in contrast to other european emperors ( genus anax ) , females lay eggs alone , ovipositing directly into floating vegetation , including deadwood , away from shore . this exposed situation makes animals highly visible compared with related species .\nemergence : emergence takes place between april and september ; in the uk , the peak emergence period is from may to july . larvae often emerge synchronously following a sequence of warm nights , and will typically select an emergence support a day or more in advance of moulting . during this period , animals may travel some distance from water , usually within 6 m but as far as 30 m has been recorded . larvae may climb up to 5 m into trees in preparation for emergence . emergence itself takes around three hours ; once the wings have fully expanded and are ready for use , animals may then wait for suitable early morning light levels before taking off , whirring their wings to increase their body temperature sufficiently for take - off in cool conditions . if conditions are particularly poor , partially - moulted larvae may actually return to water to reduce predation risk on land during the day , before re - emerging the following evening .\nflight season : highly dependent on location , with north african populations flying from march until december . in northern europe , animals are most abundant from june to august .\nlife cycle : eggs hatch three weeks after being laid . in contrast to most members of the genus anax , at least in the uk , development follows immediately from oviposition with no intervening period of dormancy . larval development takes either one or two years , partially depending on when eggs were laid . following emergence , maturation takes between a week and 12 days in males , 13 - 16 days in females .\ndijkstra , k - d . b . and lewington , r . 2006 field guide to the dragonflies of britain and europe british wildlife publishing : 320 pp\nfemale , blue form , ovipositing . note the yellow costa , thick mid - dorsal line and the green of the thorax and first abdominal segment . unusually , this female exhibits blue triangular marks in front of the forewing , a feature typical of males , but the animal ' s behaviour identifies its sex .\nall north africa and europe north to denmark on the mainland , and through southern britain and ireland populations become scarcer and more scattered in the north of this range and inland from the coast in ireland . in east africa . the species occurs south as far as zimbabwe and madagascar .\nis carried near the wing tip . the main veins and the crossveins form the wing venation pattern . the venation patterns are different in different species . the\ndijkstra , k . d . & suhling , f . ( odonata red list authority ) .\njustification : regional assessment : the species is listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\neastern africa distribution : the species is common and widespread in kenya , tanzania , uganda , malawi , and assumed from burundi . global distribution : the species is widespread in africa and eurasia .\nthe body is dull green with a similar dark dorsal stripe extending along the abdomen . the eyes are green .\nas the name suggests these large hawkers are top in the pecking order and the males will defend territory aggressively . the males are relentless fliers , only perching occasionally , and the male in flight is quite distinctive holding the abdomen bent slightly downward . copulation takes place a short distance from the waters edge whilst perched on a shrub or tree . the female then oviposits alone into submerged vegetation .\nmostly found on well vegetated standing water habitats such as ponds , lakes , canals and large ditches , but also on slow flowing rivers . known to be a pioneer species often seen at new ponds .\nnumerous standing water sites across shropshire such as dudmaston estate , shropshire hills discovery centre at craven arms , attingham park , severn valley country park .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nkey facts : sizes : length : adult , 3 in . ; larvae , 2in . wingspan : 4 in . coloration : adult male ; enable blue body with central black stripe and green head ; adult female : green head and greenish body . wings : 2 pairs , moved independently\nall material copyright \u00a91996 - 2002 ladywildlife\u00a9 . . & mcmxci imp b / imp inc . wildlife fact files tm absolutely no reproduction of any material on this website is authorized . any image duplication is a violation of copyright law and is illegal . so don ' t do it !\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nwe ' re about more than just birds ( though obviously we like them a lot ) .\nyou have posted to a forum that requires a moderator to approve posts before they are publicly available .\ni have never heard of anything like this before , but will check some literature and see if i can find any reference to anything similar .\ni would suspect that this was more likely to be theft of food rather than a deliberate feeding of the female by the male .\nthanks roy . the male deffo was looking for the female before shec nabbed the food , so i assumed she was meant to take it . be interested in what you manage to find on your research . appreciated .\nand i took my future wife out for a\nchinese\non our first date . lol .\nthe male deffo was looking for the female before shec nabbed the food , so i assumed she was meant to take it .\nsimilar brief courtship displays have also been described for a number of damselfly species , including the demoiselles found in the uk .\nin most cases males of both dragonflies and damselflies simply try and grab females , which may indicate that they are not receptive for mating by bending their abdomen either up or down . if a male does manage to ' grab ' a female , he will then try and coax her to mate by bending his abdomen forward - although if the female is not receptive mating will not occur because she also needs to bend her abdomen forward if the mating wheel is to be formed .\nthanks for the info roy , appreciated . when the female was given , ( stole ) the butterfly , she sat eating it on a leaf in the pond . the male continued patrolling , and attempting to catch other butterflies , unsuccessfully . he didn ' t venture far from the pond , so the prey got away . i was surprised at this , cos they , as you know , are very fast . it almost seemed he didn ' t want to let her out of his sight . i would have stayed longer . but our grandson wanted to go to the playground . cheers , steve .\n\u00a9 the royal society for the protection of birds . charity registered in england and wales no 207076 , in scotland no sc037654 . contact us terms & conditions\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nare a bright sky - turquoise blue colour with an irregular dark line down the centre of its abdomen . this bright colour will fade in cool conditions . the thorax is bright apple green , easily viewed from the side . eyes and face are bright blue . tends to droop its abdomen in flight , slightly banana shaped .\nresemble pale females , with pale brown markings on the abdomen , green thorax and yellow - green eyes .\nresemble the males with identical markings , the colour of the abdomen is green , the central line dark brown . however , in warm conditions the abdomen will become blue resembling a male . thorax is apple green . eyes are yellow - green but can also be blue .\nresemble mature females with more muted drab colours . thorax is pale green and eyes pale yellow - brown .\nmostly associated with large , well vegetated ponds and lakes , but may be found over canals and slow moving rivers . common in garden ponds .\nvery common in southern and central england and south wales . slowly spreading northwards and westwards . common and widespread in dorset .\nmain flight period is may to september , peaking between mid june to mid august .\nflying insects are usually annoying . mosquitoes bite you , leaving itchy red welts . bees and wasps sting . flies are just disgusting . but there\u2019s something magical about dragonflies .\n1 ) dragonflies were some of the first winged insects to evolve , some 300 million years ago . modern dragonflies have wingspans of only two to five inches , but fossil dragonflies have been found with wingspans of up to two feet .\n2 ) some scientists theorize that high oxygen levels during the paleozoic era allowed dragonflies to grow to monster size .\n4 ) in their larval stage , which can last up to two years , dragonflies are aquatic and eat just about anything\u2014tadpoles , mosquitoes , fish , other insect larvae and even each other .\n6 ) dragonflies are expert fliers . they can fly straight up and down , hover like a helicopter and even mate mid - air . if they can\u2019t fly , they\u2019ll starve because they only eat prey they catch while flying .\n7 ) dragonflies catch their insect prey by grabbing it with their feet . they\u2019re so efficient in their hunting that , in one harvard university study , the dragonflies caught 90 to 95 percent of the prey released into their enclosure .\n9 ) some adult dragonflies live for only a few weeks while others live up to a year .\nsarah zielinski is an award - winning science writer and editor . she is a contributing writer in science for urltoken and blogs at wild things , which appears on science news .\nthere aren ' t many rumors that american socialite wallis simpson hasn ' t been subjected to . so here ' s how she actually infiltrated the british monarchy .\na diver stumbles across a whale shark trapped in a commercial fishing line . sensing the diver is there to help , the goliath lies still while the rope is cut .\nsand strikers , also known as bobbit worms , are primitive - looking creatures that lack eyes , or even a brain . despite this , they are savage predators who shoot out grapple - like hooks to reel in passing fish .\nthe hagfish is a slime - emitting ocean - dweller that ' s remained unchanged for 300 million years - - and it shows . it has a skull ( but no spine ) , velvet smooth skin , and a terrifying pit of a mouth that ' s lined with rows of razor - sharp teeth .\none highly influential ancient middle eastern civilization established some of the essential systems we still use today . think you know which it is ?\nwhat ' s the difference between england , britain and the u . k . ?\nget the best of urltoken by email . keep up - to - date on :\nas the line from hopkins\u2019s poem attests to , dragonflies can be strikingly colourful and conspicuous creatures . they belong to the order of insects known as odonota .\ndifferent species of odonates worldwide , roughly equally divided between dragonflies and damselflies . 116 species have been recorded in hong kong .\nthe larval stage of odonates can last for several years . the adult stage , in contrast , is often a few brief weeks . during those weeks the adult has to survive and breed . unlike butterflies , dragonflies lack a pupal stage in their development . in the final stage of larval development , when the adult is ready to emerge , the larva has to make the transition from the water to the land .\nwhen a male comes upon a willing female , there is a pre - copulatory phase where the pair flies or perches \u201cin tandem\u201d . in this position , the male grasps the female ( behind the head in dragonflies , on the upper thorax in damselflies ) with the claspers situated at the tip of his abdomen . this deters other males from trying to copulate with the female .\ncopulation usually follows within a few minutes of the tandem position being assumed . for this to occur , the male and female take up what is called the \u201cwheel position\u201d . the reason for this is that the male has two separate sets of sexual organs . the primary sexual organ consists of sperm - producing testes located near the tip of the abdomen ( in the ninth abdominal segment , to be exact ) . the secondary sexual organ ( the penis ) is located under the second and third abdominal segments . before copulation , and usually while the pair are in the tandem position , the male bends his abdomen so that sperm is transferred from the primary sexual organ to the secondary sexual organ . the female then curves her abdomen so her genitalia located at the tip of the abdomen can connect with the male\u2019s penis . the amount of time spent in sexual union varies from species to species , and can be from a few seconds to several hours .\nthe body is brown with a bright blue saddle on segments 2 - 3 . a black line runs from segment 3 down the dorsal surface of the abdomen and a yellow basal ring is visible on segment 2 . the thorax is completely brown and the eyes are green . the wings have a yellow costa and a general yellow suffusion . the pterostigma are yellow - brown .\nvery similar to the male but the abdomen is duller and the black dorsal line extends clearly on to segment 2 . a yellow band is visible at the base of segment 2 as in the male . the colour of the abdomen may vary with some females being more blue .\nunusually for hawker species , the male and female remain in tandem whilst eggs are laid into floating vegetation ( brooks & cham , 2014 ) .\nreceive our free weekly newsletter which includes our popular photo of the week and review of the week features , plus competitions , special offers and much more . hide message .\nview thousands of photos and video of odonates from around the world , or upload your own . to search by species , use the species guide ( change\nioc\nto\ndragonflies & damselflies\nbefore searching by taxon ) .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15"]}
{"id": 1884, "summary": [{"text": "the light-mantled albatross ( phoebetria palpebrata ) also known as the grey-mantled albatross or the light-mantled sooty albatross , is a small albatross in the genus phoebetria , which it shares with the sooty albatross .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "the light-mantled albatross was first described as phoebetria palpebrata by johann reinhold forster , in 1785 , based on a specimen from south of the cape of good hope . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "light - mantled albatross", "paragraphs": ["a light mantled albatross , or light mantled sooty albatross , phoebetria palpebrata , on south georgia , on nesting cliffs at grytviken , calling to its mate .\nlight - mantled sooty albatross , south georgia . [ photo caoimhe g \u00a9 ]\ninformation on the light - mantled albatross is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nlight - mantled albatross young and eggs are prey to rats , feral cats , and giant petrels .\n' light - mantled albatross feeding chick , campbell island , new . . . by wayfair | havenly\nthere are no captive populations of the light - mantled sooty albatross ( international species information system 2008 ) .\nlight - mantled albatrosses can live for longer than 40 years in the wild .\nthere are about 87 , 000 light - mantled albatrosses in the world today .\nlight - mantled albatrosses are not known to have any negative effects on humans .\nspecies assessments : light - mantled albatross phoebetria palpebrata ( agreement on the conservation of albatrosses and petrels , 2010b ) .\nthe light - mantled sooty albatross breeds at three locations within australian jurisdiction : heard island , macdonald islands and macquarie island .\nlight - mantled sooty albatross are the most abundant breeding albatrosses on macquarie island , where approximately 1000 pairs nest every year .\nthe breeding cycle of light - mantled sooty albatross is the same as that of wandering albatross , i . e . once every two years . however , the fledging period of light - mantled sooty albatrosses is only five months , while the fledging period of wandering albatross is almost one year .\nthe light - mantled sooty albatross does not undergo extreme natural fluctuations in population size , extent of occurrence or area of occupancy .\nthe diet of light - mantled sooty albatross is primarily composed of cephalopods and euphausiids , but they also take fish and carrion .\nlight - mantled sooty albatrosses have a dark grey head and a light grey body with a distinctive white crescent surrounding most of the eye .\ncaption : light - mantled sooty albatross at nest site , pair bonding behaviour , ( phoebetria palpebrata ) ; elsehul , south georgia .\nthomas g ( 1982 ) the food and feeding ecology of the light - mantled sooty albatross at south georgia . emu 82 : 92\u2013100\nlight - mantled sooty albatross . adult in flight showing light blue mandible stripe and eye crescent . enderby island , auckland islands , january 2016 . image \u00a9 tony whitehead by tony whitehead urltoken\nrange : the light - mantled albatross has circumpolar range in southern ocean . it breeds from south georgia e to campbell and antipodes islands .\nlight - mantled sooty albatrosses regularly dive in order to feed and can dive to below 12 m .\nagreement on the conservation of albatrosses and petrels ( 2010b ) . species assessments : light - mantled albatross phoebetria palpebrata . available from : urltoken .\nin the 19 th century , light - mantled sooty albatrosses were named ' blue bird ' by sealers because their plumage looked blue in strong antarctic light .\nagreement on the conservation of albatrosses and petrels 2012 . acap species assessment : light - mantled albatross phoebetria palpebrata . downloaded from urltoken 1 october 2012 .\nthomas , g . , j . croxall , p . prince . 1983 . breeding biology of the light - mantled sooty albatross at south georgia .\nweimerskirch , h . , g . robertson . 1994 . satellite tracking of light - mantled sooty albatrosses .\ncroxall , j . 2008 .\noldest light - mantled sooty albatross\n( on - line ) . accessed april 04 , 2008 at email correspondence .\nunlike the other species of albatross breeding at south georgia , breeding light - mantled albatross are dispersed in low numbers around the entire coastline making it very difficult to monitor their population trends . nevertheless , south georgia is known to host the largest population of light - mantled albatross in the world . considered to be the most southerly of all the albatross species , these birds often forage close to the antarctic .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - light - mantled albatross ( phoebetria palpebrata )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - light - mantled albatross ( phoebetria palpebrata )\ntitle =\narkive species - light - mantled albatross ( phoebetria palpebrata )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\n4 . the light - mantled albatross\u2019 method of soaring is so energy - efficient that it actually uses up less energy than when they\u2019re sitting in a nest .\nwaugh , s . m . 2013 . light - mantled sooty albatross . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken\nthe light - mantled sooty albatross is only likely to be confused with the closely - related sooty albatross ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) . adults of the two species can generally be distinguished by the colour of the upperparts ( grey or light - grey in light - mantled sooty albatross and greyish - brown to blackish in sooty albatross ) and the colour of the sulcus ( pale blue or violet in light - mantled sooty albatross and creamy to creamy - yellow or orange in sooty albatross ) . however , adult sooty albatrosses in worn plumage and immature sooty albatrosses can also have pale upperparts , making separation more difficult or , in some instances , impossible ( harrison 1983 ; marchant & higgins 1990 ) .\nthe light - mantled albatross does not need to run for taking - off . it propels itself outwards from the steep slope where it is nesting . its agile flight allows elaborated aerial courtship displays . this albatross is a graceful glider .\n3 . light - mantled albatrosses are masters of gliding , able to travel thousands of kilometres on wind currents without flapping their wings .\nfive species of chewing lice have been identified from light - mantled albatrosses . they are also hosts of a new species of flea (\nphoebetria palpebrata ( light - mantled sooty albatross ) : species management profile for tasmania ' s threatened species link ( threatened species section ( tss ) , 2014vo ) [ state action plan ] .\nmorlan , j . ( 1994 ) . light - mantled sooty albatross ( phoebetria palpebrata ) over cordell banks , marin county , california . australasian seabird group newsletter . 27 : 5 - 8 .\na national recovery plan for albatrosses and giant - petrels has been developed and implemented ( environment australia 2001f ) . this recovery plan identifies the following objectives to aid the conservation of the light - mantled sooty albatross , and other albatross and giant - petrels :\nthe light - mantled sooty is suffering heavily from long line fishing . they are seen to follow ships regularly . they feed mainly on squid .\nthe light - mantled sooty albatross is highly territorial . pairs defend their nest sites against conspecifics ( for example , other pairs of light - mantled sooty albatross ) and sooty albatrosses ( phoebetria fusca ) ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) . the defended area can be quite small with nests in colonies often separated by distances of less than 3 m ( berruti 1979 ; sorensen 1950 ; weimerskirch et al . 1986 ) .\nthis paper is one of the few documented records of light - mantled albatross in brazil , noting that more records should be published in scientific journals to understand more the distribution and dispersion pattern of this species .\nkerry , k . r . and colback , g . c . ( 1972 ) . follow that band ! light - mantled sooty albatross on macquarie island . australian bird bander . 10 : 61 - 62 .\n) . light - mantled albatrosses can deliver meals up to 1 . 5 kg to their young , up to one half of this mass is liquid .\nthe generation length of the light - mantled sooty albatross is estimated to be 40 years . this estimate is based on documented life - history data for related taxa with similar ecological requirements ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) .\nkerry , k . r . & b . r . garland ( 1984 ) . the breeding biology of the light - mantled sooty albatross phoebetria palpebrata on macquarie island . tasmanian naturalist . 79 : 21 - 23 .\nsorensen , j . h . ( 1950 ) . the light - mantled sooty albatross at campbell island . n . z . department of science and industrial research . cape expedition series . , bulletin no . 8 .\narguably the most beautiful albatross , the light\u2013mantled sooty in new zealand waters breeds on the antidopes , auckland and campbell islands . the largest breeding colonies are to be found on south georgia , the kerguelen and auckland islands .\nthe breeding distribution of the light - mantled sooty albatross is naturally fragmented with individuals nesting on widely - separated islands across the southern reaches of the atlantic and indian oceans ( brooke 2004 ; gales 1998 ; tickell 2000 ) .\nnests of light - mantled sooty albatross are made from mud with some plant material , and is usually lined with grasses . it is a low mound , 15 - 30 cm high and 45 - 55 cm at base .\nlight - mantled albatrosses tend to be solitary while at sea , and only form loosely - associated breeding colonies , if at all , during the mating season .\nlight - mantled albatrosses mature sexually starting at 8 years old . they will continue to mate until they are around 30 years old , mating every second year .\nweimerskirch , h . & g . robertson ( 1994 ) . satellite tracking of light - mantled sooty albatrosses . polar biology . 14 : 123 - 129 .\nlight - mantled sooty albatross are solitary nesters , although occasionally they will nest in small colonies of up to 15 nests . little is known of their behaviour during the non - breeding period , which is spent entirely at sea .\nat sea , light - mantled sooty albatrosses sometimes forage in association with wandering albatrosses ( diomedea exulans ) ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) . the wandering albatross is listed as a threatened , marine and migratory species under the epbc act .\nthe light - mantled sooty albatross feeds on fish , cephalopods ( for example squid and octopus ) , crustaceans and carrion ( for example penguins , prions and seals ) ( cherel & klages 1998 ; green et al . 1998 ) .\nlight - mantled sooty albatross diet has been studied at south georgia , crozet and prince edward islands . it feeds mainly on squid ( 33 - 56 % of diet by fresh mass ) , followed by fish ( 10 - 45 % ) and crustaceans ( 4 - 40 % ) , with large variation in the importance of these last two groups by breeding site . analyses of squid species present in the diet show that light - mantled sooty albatrosses feed closer to the antarctic than other albatross species .\nthe light - mantled sooty albatross is one of a pair of sooty albatross species that have extremely pointed wings , wedge - shaped tails , and chocolate - brown colouration . their flight is effortless , and courting birds at breeding grounds are often seen in pairs in a synchronised aerodynamic display . the light - mantled sooty albatross is brown all over , except the greyish - brown mantle and back , which give it its name . a white crescent of feathers around the eye , and a pale blue stripe along the lower mandible contrasts with otherwise black bill and dark - brown head .\nthe light - mantled sooty albatross usually occurs solitarily or in small groups when at sea ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) . it breeds solitarily or in small colonies of up to 15 nests ( tickell 2000 ; weimerskirch et al . 1986 , 1989 ) .\nthe light - mantled sooty albatross is a pelagic marine species that occurs over continental shelf / slope and deeper waters in the sub - tropical , sub - antarctic and antarctic zones . the species breeds on sub - antarctic islands and rocky islets where pairs nest on cliffs and steep slopes ( downes et al . 1959 ; marchant & higgins 1990 ; reid et al . 2002 ; tickell 2000 ) . the light - mantled sooty albatross does not occur in any of the threatened ecological communities listed under the epbc act .\nprotection / threats / status : the light - mantled albatross is always threatened by interactions with long line fishing operations . the bird can be injured or killed by ingestion of baited hooks when following the fish boats . in the same way , they can be killed by drowning when they are dragged underwater by the heavy fishing gear . introduced cats and rats , and natural avian predators kill the chicks at nest . adults are vulnerable to marine pollution and disturbances . the light - mantled albatross is currently classified as near threatened .\nwhile at sea , light - mantled albatrosses have a range of thousands of miles . in their nesting habitat , however , their home territory is a small rocky outcropping on a cliffside .\nthomas , g . , j . p . croxall & p . a . prince ( 1983 ) . breeding biology of the light - mantled sooty albatross ( phoebetria palpebrata ) at south georgia . journal of zoology ( london ) . 199 : 123 - 135 .\n1 . like some other sea birds light - mantled albatrosses have a gland above their nasal passages that produces a saline solution to help expel excess salt taken in from sea water while feeding .\nsky - pointing is one of the stereotyped actions of laysan albatross breeding dances .\nchick metabolic rate and growth in three species of albatross : a comparative study .\nthe light - mantled albatross can start breeding at 6 years old , but usually mostly at 12 years old . this species is long - lived with a lifespan of about 30 - 32 years . mates pair for life . they perform long sequences of stereotyped postures during displays , accompanied by various sounds and calls . these displays are performed while the birds are facing each other . the light - mantled albatross has low breeding productivity throughout the range . it has biennial breeding rate and one pair produces on average one young every 3 - 4 years .\nlight - mantled albatrosses are generally surface - fishers , diving only about 5 metres on average . they will sometimes follow dolphins and whales and use the mammals\u2019 herding of fish to their own benefit .\nthe \u201calbatross with light eyebrows\u201d taken during cook\u2019s first voyage in the south indian ocean , was an example of this species , and formed the basis of forster\u2019s description of diomedea palpebrata published in 1785 .\nthe closely related sooty albatross lacks the pale mantle .\nthere are two key australian management documents for the light - mantled sooty albatross : national recovery plan for albatrosses and giant - petrels ( environment australia 2001f ) and a threat abatement plan for the incidental catch or bycatch of seabirds during longline fishing operations ( australian antarctic division 2006 ) .\nterauds , a . & r . gales ( 2006 ) . provisioning strategies and growth patterns of light - mantled sooty albatrosses phoebetria palpebrata on macquarie island . polar biology . 29 : 917 - 926 .\nthe features of the light - mantled albatross are very different from the adult of the sooty albatross , although it can be confused with the plumage in the first year of this species ( see harrison , 1983 ) . however the immature sooty albatross has a clearer pale head , gray or black sulcus and the tail lacks pale shafts , while the adult of the light - mantled albatross has bluish sulcus and white shafts ( figures 1c and d ) ( harrison , 1983 ; onley and scofield , 2007 ) . the bird found was quite weak , possibly dehydrated , and unable to take flight . it later died , and there was no time to transport it to some environmental agency or research institution ; so , the bird was buried .\nthe agreement on the conservation of albatrosses and petrels ( acap 2007 ) , of which australia is a signatory , has established a working group on the taxonomy of albatrosses and petrels . the light - mantled sooty albatross is considered to be a conventionally accepted species by this taxonomic working group .\ncalls and songs : sounds by xeno - canto the light - mantled albatross , like other albatrosses , produces the typical rattling sound by quick bill - clattering . cries , grunts and moans are heard too during displays . it is silent at sea but it gives eerie calls in flight .\nalbatrosses ( procellariiformes : diomedeidae ) are large birds that mostly occur in the southern hemisphere ( sick , 1997 ) . this family is represented by ten species in brazil , two belonging to the genus phoebetria : the light - mantled albatross p . palpebrata ( foster , 1785 ) and the sooty albatross p . fusca ( hilsenberg , 1822 ) ( cbro , 2014 ) .\nthe light - mantled sooty albatross is a small dark albatross , with a body form honed for rapid flight . it has a dark sooty - brown body and head , with greyish - brown neck and back feathers , which distinguishes it from the similar - looking sooty albatross . the bill is dark with a pale blue stripe along the lower mandible , and there is a crescent of white feathers around the eye , giving the bird a slightly comical aspect .\na northern royal albatross in flight at the colony in taiaroa head , new zealand .\nphylogenetic relationships of the four albatross genera . based on nunn et al . 1996 .\nlight - mantled albatrosses , along with other albatross species ( diomedeidae ) , are long - lived and slow to reproduce . they are increasingly being threatened by long - line fishing and by ingestion of plastic trash in the ocean . they are currently considered near threatened by the iucn and populations are declining .\nphillips , r . a . , j . r . d . silk & j . p . croxall ( 2005 ) . foraging and provisioning strategies of the light - mantled sooty albatross at south georgia : competition and co - existence with sympatric pelagic predators . marine ecology progress series . 285 : 259 - 270 .\nlight - mantled sooty albatrosses follow longline fishing vessels to feed on cast baits and discarded scraps . this behaviour exposes them to incidental mortality through interactions with fishing vessels ( baker et al . 2002 ; gales 1993 , 1998 ) .\nvoice : light - mantled sooty albatrosses are generally silent at sea . at colonies they give the characteristic \u2018sky call\u2019 pee - aahh , and a braying threat call used to challenge other albatrosses and humans . bill snapping is also common .\n) are thought to be predators that are capable of preying on young albatrosses . feral cats are also potential predators on breeding islands . however , the size and isolated nesting habitat of light - mantled albatrosses make them unlikely candidates for predation .\n( a ) individual of light - mantled albatross found at vilatur beach , municipality of saquarema , rio de janeiro ; ( b ) side view ; ( c ) dorsal view showing features of the plumage and the white shafts of the tail ; ( d ) head showing the black bill with bluish sulcus ( photo by gustavo corr\u00eaa ) .\nunlike most procellariiformes , albatrosses , like this black - footed albatross , can walk well on land .\nchick metabolic rate and growth in three species of albatross : a comparative study . - pubmed - ncbi\nby using a combination of wind currents and gravity ( referred to as \u201cdynamic soaring\u201d ) light - mantled albatrosses can fly 110 metres with a drop of only 5 metres as the cost . they can fly at speeds of over 110 km per hour .\niucn . 2004 . red list : albatross species . world conservation union . retrieved september 13 , 2005 .\nlight - mantled sooty albatrosses are found around the southern ocean , with a circumpolar breeding distribution . they are thought to frequent less productive areas of the ocean , and are not commonly found on shelf - breaks or frontal zones . due to their lack of tolerance of handling , few satellite tracking studies have been undertaken . they forage in southern ocean waters from 40\u00b0 s to the antarctic ice edge , and are perhaps the most southerly foraging of all albatross species . light - mantled sooty albatrosses tend to be solitary at sea , and don\u2019t follow vessels or scavenge on fisheries waste to the same extent as most other small albatrosses .\n2 . light - mantled albatrosses are one of the species of birds that produce foul - smelling oil in their stomachs that can be used to feed their young , feed themselves during long flights , or can be sprayed out of their mouths to deter predators .\ngreen , k . , k . r . kerry , t . disney & m . r . clarke ( 1998 ) . dietary studies of light - mantled sooty albatrosses phoebetria palpebrata from macquarie and heard islands . marine ornithology . 26 : 19 - 26 .\nthe key breeding population of the light - mantled sooty albatross within australian jurisdiction , based purely on the number of breeding pairs , is the population on macquarie island . however , as the total breeding population within australia is estimated at only 1600 or more pairs , all three breeding populations are likely to be important for the long - term persistence of the species within australia .\nwhile in flight , light - mantled albatrosses spend about 77 % of the time gliding , 23 % of the time flap gliding , and 0 % of the time flapping . their small flight muscles rely on wind and ocean updrafts to support their long soaring times .\nthe total breeding population of the light - mantled sooty albatross within australian jurisdiction is estimated at 1600 or more pairs . this figure is based on estimates of 500 pairs ( minimum ) at heard island ( woehler 2006 ) and 1110 pairs at macquarie island ( terauds 2000 ) and the presence of a small but non - quantified population at the mcdonald islands ( johnstone 1980 ) .\nthe light - mantled sooty albatross exhibits low breeding productivity throughout its range . pairs that breed successfully do not breed again for another two or three seasons . this behaviour , combined with low fecundity and modest rates of breeding success , means that pairs produce on average one fledging every three to four years ( brooke 2004 ; jouventin & weimerskirch 1988 ; kerry & garland 1984 ) .\nreproduction of this species : the breeding season occurs between september / october and may / june . the light - mantled albatross often breeds solitary , but it can sometimes form very loose colonies . the nest - site is established on cliff ledges and steep slopes , usually backed by rock or earth . both adults build a low truncated cone - shaped nest with mud and plant materials .\nin the new zealand region light - mantled sooty albatross nest on the antipodes ( 250 pairs ) , auckland ( 5000 pairs ) and campbell ( 1600 pairs ) islands and on nearby macquarie island . the new zealand populations account for around 30 % of the global population , with a world total of around 20 , 000 breeding pairs . population trend information is lacking for new zealand sites .\nthe breeding population of the light - mantled sooty albatross within australian jurisdiction appears to be stable based on the few surveys conducted ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) . historically , numbers may have declined during the 19th century when whalers frequented both heard and macquarie islands and probably exploited the species for food , but no anecdotal or quantitative evidence is available to confirm this ( environment australia 2001f ) .\nlight - mantled albatrosses invest heavily in their offspring . males and females incubate the egg for 70 days , sharing incubation in seven to nine shifts that last from 1 to 29 days in length , but average 2 to 3 days . this is the longest average incubation for any\n5 . the soaring however is at the mercy of the winds . if winds drop below speeds of about 18 km per hour the light - mantled albatross will not have enough lift to stay afloat . if winds get too heavy they will be blown off - course . if they have to flap much their big wings meet too much air resistance and they tire out at a rapid pace .\nlight - mantled albatrosses take about seven months to complete a breeding cycle . once the fledgling flies , parents have only three to four months before the next summer . this is not enough time to prepare to breed again , so they stay at sea for an entire summer and winter , this gives them at least 14 to 15 months between breeding seasons . on average , birds do not start breeding until 12 years of age , after that they fledge a chick every five years . light - mantled albatrosses are also capable of breeding until at least age 32 .\nhabitat : the light - mantled albatross is pelagic and marine . it usually occurs in colder waters than p . fusca , over the continental shelf but also in deeper waters in southern ocean . it breeds on remote sub - antarctic islands and rocky islets . the nest - site is established on cliff ledges and steep slopes . however , it may also nest inland , among tussock grass and ferns .\nthe remains of this laysan albatross chick show the plastic ingested prior to death , including a bottle cap and lighter .\nthe light - mantled sooty albatross forages entirely at sea . it obtains most of its food by floating on the surface of the ocean and plucking prey items from the water with its bill ( termed ' surface seizing ' ) . it occasionally forages by diving under water while floating on the surface ( ' surface diving ' ) or by plunging into the water from in flight and partially submerging or submerging to just below the surface ( ' surface plunging ' and ' shallow plunging ' ) ( harper et al . 1985 ) . individuals fitted with depth gauges have recorded dives to 12 m below the surface . the depths of these dives , combined with the streamlined body of the light - mantled sooty albatross , suggests that individuals probably employ some form of active swimming to attain such depths ( prince et al . 1994b ) .\nthey are one of the smaller albatross in the antarctic and subantarctic , with a wingspan of approximately 2 . 2 metres .\nbbc news . 2005 . albatross chicks attacked by mice . jonathan amos , science writer . retrieved march 6 , 2006 .\nthe adult plumage of most of the albatrosses is usually some variation of dark upper - wing and back , white undersides , often compared to that of a gull . of these , the species range from the southern royal albatross which is almost completely white except for the ends and trailing edges of the wings in fully mature males , to the amsterdam albatross which has an almost juvenile - like breeding plumage with a great deal of brown , particularly a strong brown band around the chest . several species of mollymawks and north pacific albatrosses have face markings like eye patches , or have gray or yellow on the head and nape . three albatross species , the black - footed albatross and the two sooty albatrosses , vary completely from the usual patterns and are almost entirely dark brown ( or dark gray in places in the case of the light - mantled sooty albatross ) . albatrosses take several years to get their full adult breeding plumage .\nan adult light - mantled albatross was found in 29 april 2014 at 08 : 45 min , at vilatur beach ( 22\u00b0 56\u2019 s ; 42\u00b0 26\u2019 o ) , municipality of saquarema , rio de janeiro . its plumage was sooty , with light gray back , vinaceous dark brown head , and darker wings and tail ( figures 1a and b ) . the bird was identified through the plates and photos of seabird guides and books , the contrasting light gray back , sharply contrasting the white crescent framing the upper half of the eye and the black bill with narrow pale bluish sulcus ( central line along ramicorn ) clinching the identification ( harrison , 1983 , 1987 ; enticott and tipling , 1997 ; onley and scofield , 2007 ) .\nlight - mantled albatrosses form committed pair bonds . one pair on macquarie island is known to have been together for 21 years . when light - mantled albatrosses are establishing a pair bond , males and females can be seen flying side by side silently in close formation . landing and taking off are also important in courtship because mating must be done on the cliffs . a large proportion of females do the landing while the males stay put at nest sites . displays can consist of sky calls and side - preens , among other movements and vocalizations . displays conclude by the female taking off and the male following .\nthe impact of invasive species on islands suitable for breeding for the light - mantled sooty albatross and other seabirds is also being addressed . introduced cats have been eradicated from macquarie island ( parks & wildlife service 2006 ; carmichael 2007 ) , and a plan to eradicate introduced european rabbits , black rats ( rattus rattus ) and house mice ( mus musculus ) from macquarie island has also been developed and implemented ( tas pws 2007a ) .\nafter the breeding season , the light - mantled albatross disperses widely over the southern ocean . they travel northwards and can reach subtropical waters , depending on the pack ice expansion . they return to the colonies in september / october . throughout the breeding season , the adults perform long - distance foraging trips , between 1500 and 2200 km from the breeding site . short and longer foraging trips are performed alternately when they are feeding the chick .\nlight - mantled sooty albatross pairs sometimes breed in mixed colonies with cape petrels ( daption capense ) , grey - headed albatrosses ( thalassarche chrysostoma ) and sooty albatrosses ( phoebetria fusca ) on islands outside of australian jurisdiction ( berruti 1979 ; mougin 1970 ; weimerskirch et al . 1986 ) , or near black - browed albatrosses ( thalassarche melanophris ) on heard island ( e . j . woehler 2007a , pers . comm . ) . each of these species is listed as a marine species , and the sooty albatross is also listed as a migratory species , under the epbc act .\n( 2009 ) albatross foraging behaviour : no evidence for dual foraging , and limited support for anticipatory regulation of provisioning at south georgia .\n6 . a light - mantled albatross\u2019 take - off is an ungainly affair . they must find a spot where they can face into a fast - enough wind ( usually about at least 20 km per hour ) to take off without excessive flapping . if they have to flap to take off they have to skim across the surface of the water for a long distance ( sometimes more than a kilometre ) before they can attain enough speed to lift off .\ncarboneras , c . , jutglar , f . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . light - mantled albatross ( phoebetria palpebrata ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nsince then , further studies have in some instances supported or disproved the splits . a 2004 paper analysing the mitochondrial dna and microsatellites agreed with the conclusion that the antipodean albatross and the tristan albatross were distinct from the wandering albatross , per robertson and nunn , but found that the suggested gibson ' s albatross , diomedea gibsoni , was not distinct from the antipodean albatross ( burg and croxall 2004 ) . for the most part , an interim taxonomy of 21 species is accepted by the world conservation union ( iucn ) and many other researchers , though by no means all\u2014in 2004 , penhallurick and wink called for the number of species to be reduced to 13 ( including the lumping of the amsterdam albatross with the wandering albatross ) ( penhallurick and wink 2004 ) , although this paper was itself controversial ( double and chambers 2004 , rheindt and austin 2005 ) . on all sides , there is the widespread agreement on the need for further research to clarify the issue .\nbrothers n ( 1991 ) albatross mortality and associated bait loss in the japanese longline fishery in the southern ocean . biol conserv 55 : 255\u2013268\nalbatrosses have been described as\nthe most legendary of all birds\n( carboneras 1992 ) . an albatross is a central emblem in the rime of the ancient mariner by samuel taylor coleridge ; a captive albatross is also a metaphor for the po\u00e8te maudit in a poem of charles baudelaire . it is from the former poem that the usage of albatross as a metaphor is derived ; someone with a burden or obstacle is said to have ' an albatross around their neck ' , the punishment given in the poem to the mariner who killed the albatross . in part due to the poem , there is a widespread myth that sailors believe it disastrous to shoot or harm an albatross ; in truth , however , sailors regularly killed and ate them ( cocker and mabey 2005 ) , but they were often regarded as the souls of lost sailors .\nthe light - mantled albatross has a circumpolar distribution in the southern ocean , mostly south of the subantarctic convergence between 40\u00b0 and 60\u00b0 s ( carboneras , 1992 ; brooke , 2004 ) . it is the most abundant albatross in antarctic waters ( ainley et al . , 1984 ) , with strongly pelagic habits ( carboneras , 1992 ) . in brazil there are very few records of this species , concentrated in the south of the country ( roos and piacentini , 2003 ) ; there is also a record in s\u00e3o paulo , corrected afterward to sooty albatross , and one still unresolved from bahia ( see roos and piacentini , 2003 ) . the cbro ( 2014 ) consider the species as a seasonal south visitor , with presumed status , but not yet confirmed .\ngales , r . ( 1998 ) . albatross populations : status and threats . in : robertson , g . & r . gales , eds . the albatross : biology and conservation . page ( s ) 20 - 45 . chipping norton , nsw : surrey beatty and sons .\nunlike the true albatrosses and mollymawks , the light - mantled sooty does not breed in large colonies but nests singly on the ledges and slopes of sea cliffs , usually with a cliff above and below so as to be quite inaccessible . any site will suit so long as it has steeply falling ground below to give room for take off . the birds take off by propelling themselves outward ; no run is taken , unlike the true albatrosses . the birds return to their breeding localities during the first week of october . the young leave the nest during the 20th week , that is the third week in may .\nlight - mantled sooty albatross pairs conduct courtship flights in sweeping synchronised loops , frequently swapping the lead as they bank to one side , then the other . they also give an eery call in flight .\nlight - mantled albatrosses spend most of their lives in flight . a juvenile may spend many years at sea before returning to breed . they return to a few isolated breeding islands : prince edward islands , iles crozet , iles kerguelen , heard island , macdonald islands , macquarie island , auckland islands , campbell islands , antipodes islands , and south georgia . nesting sites are located on the faces of steep , rocky cliffs on island coasts and some inland cliffs on these islands . nest sites on cliffs can be between 15 to 2000 m from sea level . light - mantled albatrosses are the deepest diving of the albatrosses , often diving to 5 m and once being recorded as deep as 12 m .\nrecent tracking of light - mantled sooty albatrosses breeding at macquarie island with miniaturised satellite transmitters , indicate that birds spent several days foraging before returning to their nests . these flights were at an average distance of 1516 km from macquarie island and located in antarctic waters , mostly along the antarctic continent . the maximum foraging range was in average 1721 km and the total distance covered by two birds for which there were complete tracks was 6463 and 6975 km . this study confirms previous suggestions that light - mantled sooty albatrosses are able to forage in the waters of the high antarctic while breeding in the sub - antarctic . the extreme separation of feeding zones from nesting grounds has implications in terms of conservation and life - history .\nanderson , d . j . , and f . cruz . 1998 .\nbiology and management of the waved albatross at the galapagos islands .\ng . roberston and r . gales , eds . , albatross biology and conservation . chipping norton : surrey beatty and & sons . isbn 0949324825 .\nsafina , c . 2002 . eye of the albatross : visions of hope and survival . new york : henry holt & company . isbn 0805062297 .\nthis article is part of project diomedeidae , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each albatross , including made - up species .\neach stamp features a species of albatross which breeds on south georgia and highlights an important conservation issue . artwork was done by leigh - anne wolfaardt .\nuntil recently , it was thought that albatross were predominantly surface feeders , swimming at the surface and snapping up squid and fish pushed to the surface by currents , predators , or death . the deployment of capillary depth recorders , which record the maximum dive depth undertaken by a bird ( between attaching it to a bird and recovering it when it returns to land ) , has shown that while some species , like the wandering albatross , do not dive deeper than a meter , some species , like the light - mantled sooty albatross , have a mean diving depth of almost 5 m and can dive as deep as 12 . 5 m ( prince et al . 1994 ) . in addition to surface feeding and diving , they have now also been observed plunge diving from the air to snatch prey ( cobley 1996 ) .\nthe light - mantled sooty albatross breeds from october - november to may - june ( downes et al . 1959 ; kerry & garland 1984 ; marchant & higgins 1990 ; tickell 2000 ) . pairs construct a truncated cone - shaped or pedestal - like nest of peat and / or plant material ( downes et al . 1959 ; tickell 2000 ) . nests are situated on ledges or terraces of cliffs or on steep slopes and are usually backed by a wall of rock or earth ( berruti 1979 ; tickell 2000 ) .\n, are widespread near the edge of the antarctic pack ice and circumpolar throughout the high southern latitudes , between around 40\u00b0 and 60\u00b0 latitude . in november , the northernmost latitude at which light - mantled albatrosses are found is 42\u00b0 south , in february it is 46\u00b0 south . young birds tend to stay towards polar , antarctic waters , while adults are distributed throughout the range .\nthe main documented threat for light - mantled sooty albatrosses is mortality in longline fisheries , especially on the high seas , where the main overlap of the species\u2019 range and the fisheries occurs . however , specific information is lacking as there is very little scientific observer deployment in these fisheries . occasional captures in monitored fisheries indicates that the species has very low capture rates in longline fisheries .\nthe light - mantled sooty albatross is a medium - sized albatross ( length 78\u009690 cm ; wingspan 1 . 8\u00962 . 2 m ; weight 2 . 5\u00963 . 7 kg ) . its plumage is sooty - brown except for a white crescent around each eye ; a grey or light - grey mantle , back and rump ; and a pale brownish - grey breast and belly . it has brown irides , a black bill with a pale blue or violet sulcus , and mauve or greyish - flesh legs and feet ( brooke 2004 ; marchant & higgins 1990 ; tickell 2000 ) . juveniles are similar to adults but have a grey ( rather than white ) crescent around each eye ; dark ( rather than whitish ) shafts to the primaries and rectrices ; a grey , brownish or pale yellow sulcus ; and , in older immatures , mottled plumage ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) .\nbehaviour in the wild : the light - mantled albatross feeds mainly on cephalopods such as squid and octopus , caught at night . it also consumes fish , krill , crustaceans and floating carrion . it forages at sea . the preys are caught by surface - seizing , while floating on the water . it plucks the food items with the bill . it may occasionally perform surface - diving by diving underwater while floating , and also surface - plunging by plunging into the water while flying . the bird is partially submerged or just below the surface . it usually forages alone , but it may sometimes feed with the wandering albatross ( d . exulans ) and with cetaceans . it follows the fish boats too .\ncarboneras , c . 1992 . family diomedeidae ( albatross ) . in handbook of birds of the world vol 1 . barcelona : lynx edicions . isbn 8487334105 .\nall breeding populations of the light - mantled sooty albatross within australian jurisdiction are located on protected land . heard island and the mcdonald islands are listed together as a world heritage property , and the islands and selected areas of the surrounding waters form heard island and mcdonald islands marine reserve . macquarie island is also listed as a world heritage property . the island , the nearby bishop and clerk islets and the surrounding inshore waters form macquarie island nature reserve ; and a selected area of the surrounding waters beyond the boundary of the nature reserve forms macquarie island marine park .\nthey will also follow fishing trawlers to steal fish and pick up the ship\u2019s offal and refuse , although they tend to do this less than other forms of albatross .\nthe light - mantled sooty albatross breeds on heard island , mcdonald islands and macquarie island ( downes et al . 1959 ; gales 1998 ; johnstone 1980 ) . the species occurs over waters of the australian economic exclusion and australian fishing zones around heard , mcdonald and macquarie islands and off the coasts of western australia , south australia , victoria , tasmania and nsw ( alexander 1917 ; barrett et al . 2003 ; clarke & schulz 2005 ; reid et al . 2002 ; tickell 1995 ) . two dead individuals were recovered from north stradbroke island , south - eastern queensland , in 1959 ( hines 1962 ) .\nother potential threats to albatrosses and petrels within australian jurisdiction include interactions with trawl and gillnet fisheries , dependence on fishery discards , over - extraction of prey species by fisheries , marine pollution ( chemicals and solids ) , introduced rats and rabbits and avian parasites and disease ( baker et al . 2002 ) . it is not known what impacts , if any , these threats are having on light - mantled sooty albatrosses within australian jurisdiction .\nof the 21 albatross species recognised by the world conservation union ( iucn ) on their iucn red list , 19 are threatened , and the other two are near threatened ( iucn 2004 ) . two species ( as recognized by the iucn ) are considered critically endangered : the amsterdam albatross and the chatham albatross . one of the main threats is commercial long - line fishing ( brothers 1991 ) , as the albatrosses and other seabirds , which will readily feed on offal ( internal organs used as bait ) , are attracted to the set bait , become hooked on the lines , and drown . an estimated 100 , 000 albatross per year are killed in this fashion . unregulated pirate ( illegal ) fisheries exacerbate the problem .\nweimerskirch , h . & j . jouventin ( 1998 ) . changes in population size and demographic parameters of six albatross species in french sub - antarctic islands . in : robertson , g . & r . gales , eds . the albatross : biology and conservation . page ( s ) 84 - 91 . chipping norton , nsw : surrey beatty and sons .\nmany albatross and petrel seabird species are killed in longline fisheries . longlining is one of the main methods used to catch fish and occurs in most oceans and seas in the world .\n\u00e5kesson , s . , and h . weimerskirch . 2005 .\nalbatross long - distance navigation : comparing adults and juveniles .\njournal of navigation 58 : 365 - 373 .\nbrothers , n . p . 1991 .\nalbatross mortality and associated bait loss in the japanese longline fishery in the southern ocean .\nbiological conservation 55 : 255 - 268 .\nlight - mantled sooty albatrosses breed as monogamous pairs in the austral summer , over an extended period . like the great albatrosses , but unlike mollymawks , they breed once every two years . the single large ( 102 x 65 mm ) white egg is laid in october or november ; incubation is shared and takes about 67 days , with most hatching in december . the chick is fed by regurgitation by both parents , and fledges in may - june .\nthe government of south georgia & the south sandwich islands ( gsgssi ) is delighted to announce the launch of its latest stamp issue \u2018albatross conservation\u2019 . the stamps have been developed in conjunction with the royal society for the protection of birds ( rspb ) to raise awareness about the conservation status of south georgia albatross and the joint work being undertaken to better understand and protect these iconic birds .\ncobley , n . d . 1996 . an observation of live prey capture by a black - browed albatross diomedea melanophrys . marine ornithology 24 : 45 - 46 . retrieved november 5 , 2007 .\nauman , h . j . , j . p . ludwig , j . p . giesy , and t . colborn . 1997 .\nplastic ingestion by laysan albatross chicks on sand island , midway atoll , in 1994 and 1995 .\nin g . roberston and r . gales , eds . , albatross biology and conservation . chipping norton : surrey beatty and & sons . isbn 0949324825 .\nweimerskirch , h . , p . jouventin & j . c . stahl ( 1986 ) . comparative ecology of six albatross species breeding on the crozet islands . ibis . 128 : 195 - 213 .\nphillips , r . , j . green , b . phalan , j . croxall , p . butler . 2003 . chick metabolic rate and growth in three species of albatross : a comparative study .\nburg , t . m . , and j . p . croxall . 2004 .\nglobal population structure and taxonomy of the wandering albatross species complex .\nmolecular ecology 13 : 2345 - 2355 .\nthe breeding population of the light - mantled sooty albatross within australian jurisdiction is estimated at 1600 or more pairs or approximately 7 % of the estimated global breeding population . individuals that breed on heard island , mcdonald islands and macquarie island regularly occur outside of australian jurisdiction ( parks & wildlife service 2006 ; weimerskirch & robertson 1994 ; woehler 2006 ) . for example , five satellite - tracked individuals breeding on macquarie island foraged south of the antarctic polar front at an average distance of 1516 km , and up to 2200 km , from their breeding sites ( weimerskirch & robertson 1994 ) . individuals that breed on heard island , mcdonald islands and macquarie island could therefore be affected by threats operating outside of australian jurisdiction .\nrobertson , c . j . r . 1993 .\nsurvival and longevity of the northern royal albatross .\ndiomedea epomophora sanfordi at taiaroa head , 1937 - 93 . emu 93 : 269 - 276 .\nlight mantled sooty albatrosses look very different from mollymawks , as they are brown and grey all over . they are palest on the upper side of the body and nape ( mantle ) , with a contrasting dark head . their eyes have a white crescent at the upper back edge . chicks have grey down and a striking white face mask . unlike the mollymawks that nest in dense colonies , their nests are scattered along cliff sites , usually against a rock wall for protection . breeding adults weigh about 3 kilograms .\nthe light - mantled sooty albatross has a widespread circumpolar distribution . the species is mostly recorded between 40\u00ba s and 60\u00ba s , but individuals have been observed as far north as 20\u00ba s , and as far south as the limit of the antarctic pack - ice to 77\u00ba50\u00b4 s ( brooke 2004 ; harrison 1983 ; tickell 2000 ) , with a single record from the northern hemisphere of a solitary individual at cordell bank off the coast of california in the united states ( morlan 1994 ) . pairs breed on prince edward islands , crozet islands ( iles crozet ) , kerguelen islands ( iles kerguelen ) , heard island , mcdonald islands , macquarie island , auckland islands , campbell island , antipodes islands and south georgia ( gales 1998 ; tickell 2000 ) .\nweimerskirch , h . , clobert , j . and jouventin , p . ( 1987 ) . survival in five southern albatross species and its relationship with their life history . journal of animal ecology . 56 : 1043 - 1055 .\nmougin , j . l . ( 1970 ) . les albatross fuligineux phoebetria palpebrata et p . fusca de l ' \u00eele de la possession ( archipel crozet ) . oiseau revue francais d ' ornithologie . 40 : 37 - 61 .\nmaintain existing population monitoring programs for albatrosses and giant - petrels breeding on macquarie island , albatross island , pedra branca , the mewstone , and within the australian antarctic territory , and develop population monitoring programs for other representative breeding populations under australian jurisdiction .\npickering , s . p . c . , and s . d . berrow . 2001 . courtship behaviour of the wandering albatross diomedea exulans at bird island , south georgia . marine ornithology 29 : 29 - 37 . retrieved november 5 , 2007 .\nweimerskirch h , salamolard m , jouventin p ( 1992 ) satellite telemetry of foraging movements in the wandering albatross . in : friede ig , swift sm ( eds ) wildlife telemetry - remote monitoring and tracking of animals . ellis horwood , chichester , pp 185\u2013198\nproceeds from the sale of the stamps will be used to fund albatross conservation initiatives . the stamps can be purchased online through falklands post service ltd ( urltoken ) or through the rspb via ebay ( use the advanced search function on ebay to search for rspb ) .\nin spite of often being accorded legendary status , albatrosses have not escaped either indirect or direct pressure from humans . early encounters with albatrosses by polynesians and aleut indians resulted in hunting and in some cases extirpation from some islands ( such as easter island ) . as europeans began sailing the world , they too began to hunt albatross ,\nfishing\nfor them from boats to serve at the table or blasting them for sport ( safina 2002 ) . this sport reached its peak on emigration lines bound for australia , and only died down when ships became too fast to fish from , and regulations stopped the discharge of weapons for safety reasons . in the nineteenth century , albatross colonies , particularly those in the north pacific , were harvested for the feather trade , leading to the near extinction of the short - tailed albatross ."]}
{"id": 1890, "summary": [{"text": "ostertagia ostertagi , commonly known as the medium or brown stomach worm , is an important parasitic nematode ( round worm ) of cattle .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "o. ostertagi can also be found to a lesser extent in sheep , goats , wild ruminants and horses .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the species causes ostertagiosis , which is potentially fatal in cattle .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "it is found worldwide and is economically important to cattle industries , particularly those found in temperate climates .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the abomasal nematode o. ostertagi is a clade v nematode of the order strongylida , the family trichostrongylidae and genus ostertagia .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "ransom first described the genus ostertagia in 1907 , which currently contains approximately 15 species .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "all species of the genus ostertagia infect domestic or wild ruminants .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "these species form a large and complex group , the taxonomy of which has not been fully elucidated . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "ostertagia ostertagi", "paragraphs": ["aspects of the biology of ostertagia ostertagi in relation to the genesis of ostertagiasis .\nthe pathology following single infections of ostertagia ostertagi in calves . - pubmed - ncbi\npathophysiological and parasitological studies on ostertagia ostertagi infections in calves . - pubmed - ncbi\ndevelopment of immunity to ostertagia ostertagi ( trichostrongylidae : nematoda ) in pastured young cattle .\ncomparative morphology of ostertagia mossi and ostertagia dikmansi ( trichostrongylidae ) from odocoileus virginianus and comments on other ostertagia spp . from the cervidae\neffect of experimental ostertagia ostertagi infection or chronic pentagastrin treatment on abomasal pathophysiology and morphology of goats .\ncomparative morphology of ostertagia mossi and ostertagia dikmansi ( trichostrongylidae ) from odocoileus virginianus and comments on other ostertagia spp . from the cervidae | springerlink\naspects of the biology of ostertagia ostertagi in relation to the genesis of ostertagiasis . - pubmed - ncbi\nostertagia and teladorsagia spp , parasitic brown stomach worms of cattle , sheep and goats . biology , prevention and control . ostertagiasis . ostertagia lyrata , ostertagia ostertagii , teadorsagia circumcincta , teladorsagia pinnata , ostertagia circumcincta\ndevelopment of immunity to ostertagia ostertagi ( trichostrongylidae : nematoda ) in pastured young cattle . - pubmed - ncbi\nfox mt ( 1993 ) pathophysiology of infection with ostertagia ostertagi in cattle . vet parasitol 46 : 143\u2013158 .\nostertagia species are found throughout temperate and subtropical areas of the world . the cattle species , ostertagia ostertagi is particularly important in temperate areas wherever cattle are raised .\narmour j , bruce rg . inhibited development in ostertagia ostertagi infections - - a diapause phenomenon in a nematode .\nanalysis of the translationally controlled tumour protein in the nematodes ostertagia ostertagi and caenorhabditis elegans suggests a pivotal role in egg production .\nmichel jf , lancaster mb , hong c , berrett s . plasma pepsinogen levels in some experimental infections of ostertagia ostertagi in cattle .\nanalysis of the translationally controlled tumour protein in the nematodes ostertagia ostertagi and caenorhabditis elegans suggests a pivotal role . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nmichel jf , lancaster mb , hong c ( 1973 ) ostertagia ostertagi : protective immunity in calves . the development in calves of a protective immunity to infection with ostertagia ostertagi . exp parasitol 33 : 179\u2013186 . 0014 - 4894 ( 73 ) 90023 - 4 [ pii ] .\nassessing the agreement between ostertagia ostertagi elisa tests performed using the crude adult antigen and the adult and larval stage 4 excretory / secretory antigens .\nostertagia ostertagi in various stages of development . a unembryonated egg . b early embryonated egg . c embryonated egg . d first - stage larvae , l1\nassessing the agreement between ostertagia ostertagi elisa tests performed using the crude adult antigen and the adult and larval stage 4 excretory . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nmichel jf , lancaster mb , hong c : ostertagia ostertagi : protective immunity in calves . the development in calves of a protective immunity to infection with ostertagia ostertagi . exp parasitol . 1973 , 33 ( 1 ) : 179 - 186 . 10 . 1016 / 0014 - 4894 ( 73 ) 90023 - 4 .\nfenbendazole ( white drench ) and levamisole ( clear drench ) against ostertagia ostertagi was less than fully effective on 43 % and 53 % of farms tested , respectively .\npge occurs when parasitic infestations in the abomasum and intestines result in inflammation of the gastrointestinal mucosa . in the uk ostertagia ostertagi is of biggest concern with cooperia contributing to disease .\nritchie jd , anderson n , armour j , jarrett wf , jennings fw , urquhart gm . experimental ostertagia ostertagi infections in calves : parasitology and pathogenesis of a single infection .\ndisease caused by o . ostertagi is divided into two forms , type i and type ii .\nidentification and mean number of each species of abomasal nematode identified are presented in table 4 . ostertagia leptospicularis ( o . l ) 67 % and spiculopteragia asymmetrica ( s . a . ) 26 % were the predominant ostertagia - type species present . present but in lower numbers were spiculopteragia spiculoptera ( s . s ) 5 % and ostertagia ostertagi ( o . o ) 2 %\nross jg , dow c : the course and development of the abomasal lesions in calves experimentally infected with the nematode parasite ostertagia ostertagi . brit vet j . 1965 , 121 : 228 - 233 .\ntrefoil factor 3 immunofluorescent staining ( green ) , combined with dapi staining ( blue ) . formalin fixed , paraffin - embedded abomasum sections of holstein cows after ostertagia ostertagi infection were stained . ( a ) negative control , ( b ) exposed to o . ostertagi for 60 days . original magnification 20\u00d7 .\nthese worms are often called \u2018osties\u2019 or \u2018osters\u2019 , short for ostertagia . however , the worm was reclassified in the early 1990s , with the genus name changing from ostertagia to teladorsagia . while ostertagia is a name still commonly used , they are also now called \u201ctellies\u201d , short for teladorsagia .\nostertagia ostertagii infects mainly cattle , but also sheep , goats and other domestic and wild ruminants .\nmarkovits , judit eva ,\neffect of experimental ostertagia ostertagi infection or chronic pentagastrin treatment on abomasal pathophysiology and morphology of goats .\n( 1986 ) . lsu historical dissertations and theses . 4193 . urltoken\nthe datasets supporting the conclusions of this article are included within the article and its additional files . ostertagia ostertagi its2 sequence : genbank accession number ab245021 . 2 | : 1 , 036\u20131 , 126 bp .\nvercauteren , isabel , peter geldhof , iris peelaers , et al . \u201cdefining the composition of ostertagia ostertagi excretory - secretory products . \u201d molecular and cellular biology of helminth parasites , abstracts . 2002 . print .\nthis report is about the identification of parasite ostertagia ostertagi in cattle with persistent diarrhea . a farmer brought the fecal samples to national veterinary laboratories , islamabad from the village \u201ccharaa\u201d , islamabad . he was having total of four animals including one cattle and three calves . cattle approximately 8 year old and have persistent diarrhea with the interval of 2 months after microscopic fecal examination it was conformed that animal was infested by ostertagia ostertagi .\nefficacy of levamisole , moxidectin oral , moxidectin injectable and monepantel against ostertagia - type nematodes in deer .\nour main objective was to assess whether feeding sainfoin has an effect on pathophysiological and parasitological measurements in calves experimentally infected with the most pathogenic and prevalent gin of cattle in temperate regions : ostertagia ostertagi and cooperia oncophora .\nvercauteren i , geldhof p , peelaers i , claerebout e , berx g , vercruysse j . defining the composition of ostertagia ostertagi excretory - secretory products . molecular and cellular biology of helminth parasites , abstracts . 2002 .\npredilection sites of adult ostertagia and teladorsagia worms are the stomach ( abomasum ) and the upper small intestine .\ndisease is caused by maturation of ostertagia ostertagi larvae ( ostertagiosis ) in the abomasum ( fourth stomach ) . unlike disease caus + ed by lungworm and liver fluke , pge does not usually cause clinical disease in adult cattle .\nthe following table summarizes the relevant information about ostertagia ostertagi , a nematode parasite of cattle found commonly throughout temperate areas of the world , and haemonchus contortus a nematode of sheep found throughout the world in warm temperate and subtropical areas .\n' type ii ostertagiasis : ostertagia ostertagi may become hypobiotic in the autumn and if these infestation are heavy , lots of hypobiotic larvae reactivate in the spring . this causes severe acute gastritis ( fibrinous or haemorrhagic ) , and even sudden death .\nvercauteren , isabel , peter geldhof , iris peelaers , edwin claerebout , g berx , and jozef vercruysse . 2002 . \u201cdefining the composition of ostertagia ostertagi excretory - secretory products . \u201d in molecular and cellular biology of helminth parasites , abstracts .\nlectin staining with ueai ( a - l - fucosyl terminals ) . carnoy ' s fixed , paraffin - embedded abomasum sections of holstein cows after ostertagia ostertagi infection were stained . ( a and c ) negative control , ( b and d ) exposed to o . ostertagi for 21 days . original magnification 20\u00d7 ( left panels ) , 40\u00d7 ( right panels ) .\ncitation : li rw , wu s , li w , huang y , gasbarre lc ( 2011 ) metagenome plasticity of the bovine abomasal microbiota in immune animals in response to ostertagia ostertagi infection . plos one 6 ( 9 ) : e24417 . urltoken\nas already mentioned , ostertagia and teladorsagia are the most damaging worms of cattle in regions with temperate and cool climate .\nas leaders in parasite control bimeda have a range of anthelmintics which can be used to successfully treat ostertagia and cooperia .\ndeer , anthelmintic resistance , anthelmintic efficacy , gastrointestinal parasites , ostertagia , levamisole , moxidectin injection , moxidectin oral , monepantel .\nthe main roundworm of cattle is ostertagia ostertagi , known commonly as the brown stomach worm . control of ostertagia will incidentally control other roundworms of lesser importance such as the small\u00e5 intestinal worm ( cooperia sp ) . occasionally , the stomach hairworm ( trichostrongylus . axei ) can be the predominant parasite but , more importantly , it is the only roundworm species that infects both sheep and cattle .\nbrown stomach worm occurs in most sheep and goat areas of australia and is a major parasite in winter rainfall districts . it is relatively rare in queensland . the brown stomach worm of cattle , ostertagia ostertagi is known to infect angora goats , but not sheep .\nlectin staining , subjectively described from + + ( very strong ) to - ( absent ) during a primary infection with o . ostertagi .\npurewal a , fox mt , shivalkar p , carroll ap , uche ue , vaillant c , watkinson a ( 1997 ) effects of ostertagia ostertagi on gastrin gene expression and gastrin - related responses in the calf . j physiol 498 ( pt 3 ) : 809\u2013816 .\nthere are two types of disease caused by ostertagia . the signs of each type result from the same damage to the abomasum :\nostertagia and teladorsagia spp , parasitic brown stomach worms of cattle , sheep and goats . biology , prevention and control . ostertagiasis .\nacquired immunity against cooperia spp . and ostertagia spp . in calves : effect of level of exposure and timing of the midsummer increase\nalthough there are a number of nematode parasites known to be present in wa cattle only the two species that make up the bulk of typical worm burdens are reported here . these two species are cooperia oncophora ( hair worm ) and ostertagia ostertagi ( brown stomach worm ) .\nthe mcdonnell genome institute and collaborators are sequencing the bovine stomach worm , ostertagia ostertagi . this is the most economically important parasite of cattle throughout temperate regions of the world . globally , these small reddish brown worms are the major cause of parasitic gastritis ( ostertagiosis ) of ruminants .\nclaerebout e , hilderson h , meeus p , de marez t , behnke j , huntley j , vercruysse j : the effect of truncated infections with ostertagia ostertagi on the development of acquired resistance in calves . vet parasitol . 1996 , 66 ( 3\u20134 ) : 225 - 239 .\nin this paper we describe molecular characterization of opa , an ostertagia polyprotein , and its potential to induce protection against homologous infection in cattle .\nthere were four ostertagia - type nematode species identified in the deer on this farm . the two spiculopteragia species of ostertagia - type nematodes ( s . spiculoptera and s . asymmetrica ) present are host specific to deer . ostertagia leptospicularis is a deer species but it has been reported in both sheep and cattle in new zealand ( mckenna 1997 ) . ostertagia ostertagi is an important cattle nematode previously only observed in white - tail deer in new zealand ( mckenna 1997 ) but made up 2 % of the ostertagia - type species present in these deer and 3 % on another te anau deer farm ( lawrence et al 2012 ) . it is worthy of note that the sheep ostertagia - type nematode ( teladorsagia ) was not present on this farm and in fact has never been identified in farmed deer in new zealand to date . on this farm moxidectin pour on was not evaluated and all of the ostertagia - type species were well controlled by moxi . spiculopteragia asymmetrica was the species showing the least efficacy to moxo on this farm . technically resistance to an anthelmintic can only be claimed if the dose rate to provide efficacy has been determined . the dose rate in deer for moxo has not been determined and therefore we cannot claim spiculopteragia asymmetrica is resistant on this farm . interpretation of the efficacies of oxo and levo is not appropriate in light of previous discussion regarding the need to determine / re - evaluate the correct dose of these anthelmintics in deer . previous reports on new zealand deer farms indicated ostertagia - type species exhibiting resistance to macrocyclic lactone anthelmintics . ostertagia leptospicularis was resistant to moxidectin pour on ( lawrence et al 2012 ) , ostertagia leptospicularis and spiculopteragia spiculoptera to moxidectin pour on and moxi ( lawrence 2011 ) , and ostertagia leptospicularis resistant to moxidectin pour on and ostertagia leptospicularis , spiculopteragia spiculoptera and spiculopteragia asymmetrica to ivermectin oral ( hoskin et al 2005 ) .\nthe internal transcribed spacer 2 ( its2 ) is a candidate diagnostic marker of the pathogenic cattle nematode ostertagia ostertagi . the aims of this study were : ( i ) to document and quantify how the development of o . ostertagi eggs affects its2 copies under different storage conditions , and ( ii ) to suggest optimal storage conditions for faecal samples in a diagnostic pipeline that involves detection and semi - quantification by real - time semi - quantitative polymerase chain reaction ( qpcr ) .\nli rw , hou y , li c , gasbarre lc : localized complement activation in the development of protective immunity against ostertagia ostertagi infections in cattle . vet parasitol . 2010 , 174 ( 3 - 4 ) : 247 - 256 . 10 . 1016 / j . vetpar . 2010 . 08 . 037 .\nsome of the drenches in group 1 ( benzimidazoles ) have lesser and a more variable effect on the immature and inhibited stages of ostertagia than previously thought .\ndata ( mean \u00b1 sd ) representing worm burden by sieving , percentage males and female fecundity based on the number of eggs in utero from 16 female worms per animal . the calves were experimentally infected with ostertagia ostertagi and cooperia oncophora and fed a tannin - rich diet ( group sf ) or a control diet ( group co )\nthe common stomach worms of cattle are haemonchus placei ( barber\u2019s pole worm , large stomach worm , wire worm ) , ostertagia ostertagi ( medium or brown stomach worm ) , and trichostrongylus axei ( small stomach worm , see trichostrongylus sp in horses ) . in some tropical countries , mecistocirrus digitatus , a large worm up to 40 mm long , is present . h placei is primarily a parasite in tropical regions , whereas o ostertagi and , to a lesser extent , t axei are found in more temperate climates . adult male haemonchus are up to 18 mm long , females up to 30 mm . ostertagia adults are 6\u20139 mm long , and trichostrongylus , ~ 5 mm .\nthe objectives of this study were first to molecularly characterize the ostertagia polyprotein allergen ( opa ) ( e . g . , to determine the genomic organization , expression pattern , and immunolocalization ) and then to investigate the protective capacities of both purified native opa ( nopa ) and recombinant opa ( ropa ) in cattle challenged with o . ostertagi .\nits2 copies of four developmental stages of ostertagia ostertagi . sample mean of its2 copies ( molecules \u03bcl - 1 ) illustrated on the y - axis plotted against each developmental stage ( x - axis ) . error bars indicate standard error of the mean ( sem ) . asterisks denote statistical significance : * * * = p < 0 . 0001\nvercauteren , isabel , geldhof , p . , peelaers , i . , claerebout , e . , berx , g . , & vercruysse , j . ( 2002 ) . defining the composition of ostertagia ostertagi excretory - secretory products . molecular and cellular biology of helminth parasites , abstracts . presented at the molecular and cellular biology of helminth parasites .\nli rw , hou y , li c , gasbarre lc ( 2010 ) localized complement activation in the development of protective immunity against ostertagia ostertagi infections in cattle . vet parasitol 174 : 247\u2013256 . s0304 - 4017 ( 10 ) 00492 - 9 [ pii ] ; 10 . 1016 / j . vetpar . 2010 . 08 . 037 [ doi ] .\nexternal structural changes of adult ostertagia ostertagi recovered from calves fed sainfoin for 58 days . scanning electron microscopy of representative worms recovered 42 days post - infection from control group ( co ) ( a , b ) or sainfoin group ( sf ) ( c , d ) . left column : tail of the female worm ; right column : close view of the cuticle\nat present , the control of ostertagia ostertagi infections in cattle largely depends on the use of chemical antihelminthic drugs . residues of introduced chemicals in foodstuffs and the environment have become a serious consumer concern . reports of resistance to antiparasitic drugs for a closely related parasite , cooperia species , in cattle ( 5 , 31 ) make the development of alternative control systems even more urgent .\nthe predominant worm type present in all 6 con deer was ostertagia - type and interestingly there were no cooperia present . the large intestinal parasite oesophagostomum was present in 3 of the six deer . table1 ; faecal larval culture ( flc ) worm type control group averagehaemonchus - ostertagia - type 69 % trichostrongylus 11 % cooperia - oesophagostomum / chabertia 20 % nematodirus -\nearly attempts to protect cattle against the abomasal nematode o . ostertagi with irradiated larval vaccines ( 2 ) or with crude somatic ( 12 ) and excretory - secretory ( es ) products ( 13 ) were not successful . moderate levels of protection were obtained in calves immunized with gut membrane glycoproteins of o . ostertagi ( 24 ) . recently , it was shown that vaccination of cattle with es products of adult ostertagia worms enriched for cysteine proteinases by thiol - sepharose chromatography reduced the fecal egg counts by 60 % compared to the counts in the control group ( 11 ) .\ntranscript expression in different developmental stages . this figure represents the number of transcripts expressed in each stage and the percent of those transcripts that are constitutively - expressed in c . oncophora ( a ) and o . ostertagi ( b ) . ( c ) c . oncophora and ( d ) o . ostertagi depict the number of transcripts up - regulated , down - regulated and specific to a given stage .\ntable 2 : group mean total worm counts for adult and immature ostertagia - types . anthelmintic treatment group efficacy against ostertagia - type adults . oster - type adults oster - type larvacontrol 1495 17moxi % efficacy 0100 % 67moxo % efficacy 3297 . 9 % 173oxo 42271 . 8 % 173levo 42371 . 7 % 118moxi + oxlevo 0100 % 14 . 5zolo 20086 . 6 % 14\nconcurrent with the diarrhea of o ostertagi and t axei infections , and with the anemia of heavy haemonchus infection , there is often hypoproteinemia and edema ( rare in o ostertagi infections ) , particularly under the lower jaw ( bottle jaw ) and sometimes along the ventral abdomen . heavy infections can result in death before clinical signs appear . other variable signs include progressive weight loss , weakness , rough coat , and anorexia .\nnote that routine treatment of adult cows after their second calving is not needed . individual cows in this group may be treated if they are scouring or losing condition because of infection with ostertagia .\na lot of research has been carried out on vaccines , but so far no really effective one is available against ostertagia and / or teladorsagia worms . to learn more about vaccines against parasites of livestock and pets\nno fluorescence was detected in sections of ostertagia developed with preimmune rabbit serum ( fig . 2i ) or with the irrelevant rabbit serum ( antiscabies serum ) or in the conjugate controls ( data not shown ) .\ncooperia oncophora and ostertagia ostertagi are among the most important gastrointestinal nematodes of cattle worldwide . the economic losses caused by these parasites are on the order of hundreds of millions of dollars per year . conventional treatment of these parasites is through anthelmintic drugs ; however , as resistance to anthelmintics increases , overall effectiveness has begun decreasing . new methods of control and alternative drug targets are necessary . in - depth analysis of transcriptomic data can help provide these targets .\nmost infections are mixed with other gastrointestinal roundworms ( e . g . cooperia spp , haemonchus spp , nematodirus spp , trichostrongylus spp , etc . ) which worsen the damage caused by ostertagia and / or teladorsagia worms .\n' type i ostertagiasis : ostertagia ostertagi is ingested by calves in their first year at grass . the parasites colonise the gastric glands of the fundus and pylorus and then 17 - 21 days after ingestion , the parasites reach maturity and emerge from the gastric glands . emergence in sufficient numbers causes extensive pathological changes - chronic gastritis . a thickened , hyperplastic , non - functional gastric mucosa is formed , meaning impaired function in the gut resulting in diarrhoea and hypoalbuminaemia .\nin an experiment in which 2 plots of pasture were contaminated , one at the end of september and the other in mid - december , with larvae of ostertagia ostertagi and cooperia oncophora , it was found that the ability of these larvae to interrupt their parasitic development increased and then decreased at much the same rate on either plot . seasonal effects , which might have been expected to accelerate these changes in larvae put on the pasture in december , were minimal .\nschematic overview of the study design . anaerobic samples ( n = 9 \u00d7 2 ) contained 10 g of freshly recovered faeces with ostertagia ostertagi eggs and stored in vacuum bags under anaerobic conditions . samples were subjected to either 4 \u00b0c or 25 \u00b0c for duration of 0 to 336 h . to stop egg development the samples were frozen at - 20 \u00b0c . subsequently , o . ostertagi were isolated and differentiated to developmental stage . finally , 25\u00d7 o . ostertagi eggs or l1 were counted and transferred to a clean petri dish . this was done in triplicates of each sample and its2 copies were quantified by qpcr . aerobic samples ( n = 9 \u00d7 2 ) were produced identically to anaerobic samples but eggs were isolated from faeces before storage and differentiated immediately at each time point . a total of 108 biological replicates were subjected to qpcr semi - quantification . abbreviations : epg , eggs per gram ; its2 , internal transcribed spacer 2 ; qpcr , real - time semi - quantitative polymerase chain reaction\nthat infect cattle , sheep and goats and other wild ruminants . worms of these genera are also called brown stomach worms . in the past most species were considered as belonging to the genus ostertagia . they have very similar features and life cycles .\nostertagia and other roundworms of cattle have a simple direct life cycle , as shown in figure 1 . an important feature of this life cycle is that it consists of two stages ; the free - living stage on pasture and parasitic stage in cattle .\nthe con group slaughtered on the 16th october had an average of 1495 ostertagia - type adults ( range 250 \u2013 2650 ) . based on this result , the trial proceeded . all treated deer were slaughtered on the 31st october . the anthelmintics had the following efficacy against the adult ostertagia - type nematodes : moxi 100 % , moxo 97 . 9 % , oxo 71 . 8 % , levo 71 . 7 % , moxi + oxlevo 100 % and zolo 86 . 6 % ( table 2 ) .\npelleted sainfoin as a sole feed significantly reduced the population of o . ostertagi in young calves . our promising results confirm the potential value of sainfoin and perhaps other tannin - rich forages with a high percentage of prodelphinidins in integrated control of bovine ostertagiosis . although o . ostertagi is the main species responsible for reduced productivity in grazing calves , the apparent lack of effect against c . oncophora is a drawback and may hamper the practical use of sainfoin as a \u201cbroad - spectrum\u201d anthelmintic forage . more research is needed to address the background of the lacking effect against c . oncophora .\nabubucker s , zarlenga ds , martin j , yin y , wang z , mccarter jp , gasbarree l , wilson rk , mitreva m : the transcriptomes of the cattle parasitic nematode ostertagia ostartagi . vet parasitol . 2009 , 162 ( 1\u20132 ) : 89 - 99 .\nclustering of stages based upon the number of transcripts in a stage containing a specific interpro domain . ( a ) c . oncophora ; ( b ) o . ostertagi . a lower - range scale ( 0 to 3 + ) was used to better illustrate the similarities and differences between the stages .\npre - type 2 phase : calves at end of first grazing season ( from october ) accumulate large population ( greater than 100 , 000 ) of ostertagia el4 ( arrested stage ) . disease is caused by l3 ingested in late autumn . there are usually no clinical signs .\nostertagia ostertagi . the nematode grows and develops in the gastric glands of the abomasum which it leaves just before it becomes an adult , approximately 17 - 21 days after infection . during its time in a gastric gland , the nematode grows about 100 fold . therefore we can predict that this growth will result in erosion of the secretory epithelium and also that swelling of the gland will occur . in heavy infections these erosive effects can be widespread resulting in heavy losses of secretory cells and significant reductions in the output of hcl and pepsinogen . these changes are summarized in the table below .\ndistribution of kegg categories associated with up - regulated transcripts . the number of up - regulated transcripts in free - living and parasitic life stages associated with kegg categories is compared in ( a ) c . oncophora and ( b ) o . ostertagi . * indicates significance ( p < 0 . 05 ) .\nadditional file 2 : figure s1 : length distribution of peptides with and without homologues in other species . description : histogram of the length of peptides that have homologues in other species and those that do not have homologues i . e . are unique to either c . oncophora or o . ostertagi . ( tiff 249 kb )\non sections of ostertagia parasites clear red fluorescence was observed in the intestinal cells of l3 animals ( fig . 2b ) , in the cuticle of l4 animals ( fig . 2d ) , and in the cuticle and hypodermis of both male and female adult worms ( fig . 2f and h ) .\nthe aims of this study were : ( i ) to document and quantify how the development of o . ostertagi eggs affects its2 copies under a multitude of storage conditions , and ( ii ) to suggest optimal storage conditions for faecal samples / bovine nematode eggs in a diagnostic pipeline that involves detection and semi - quantification by molecular methodologies .\nsimcock dc , joblin kn , scott i , burgess dm , rogers cw , pomroy we , simpson hv ( 1999 ) hypergastrinaemia , abomasal bacterial population densities and ph in sheep infected with ostertagia circumcincta . int j parasitol 29 : 1053\u20131063 . s0020 - 7519 ( 99 ) 00065 - x [ pii ] .\nivermectin is a cost effective treatment for gastrointestinal roundworms . at the therapeutic dose ivermectin will successfully treat the inhibited stage of ostertagia making it an excellent choice . bimeda provide ivermectin in an injectable and pour - on form and also in combination with clorsulon ( bimectin plus ) which can be used to treat liver fluke .\nhistochemical staining of carnoy ' s fixed , paraffin - embedded abomasum sections of holstein cows after ostertagia ostertagi infection . pas ( a - d ) stained mucins in pink ; ab - pas ph 2 . 5 ( e - h ) stained neutral mucins in magenta and acidic mucins in blue ; hid - ab ( i - n ) stained sialylated mucins in blue and sulphated mucins in brown . ( a , e , i ) negative control , ( b , f , l ) infected for 14 days , ( c , g , m ) infected for 21 days , ( d , h , n ) exposed for 60 days . original magnification 10\u00d7 .\nthe amino acid sequences of all visible bands , as determined by maldi - tof mass spectrometry analysis , showed that all of the protein bands represented nopa or ropa . the nopa band , however , comprised traces of a protein homologous to a 17 - kda l3 es antigen of ostertagia ( embl accession no . aj318472 ) .\ngo term associations with transcripts expressed in each stage . for each phase of the life cycle ( free - living or parasitic ) several prevalent go terms are listed . * indicates a given term is significantly - enriched in that life cycle stage ( p < 0 . 05 ) . ( a ) c . oncophora ; ( b ) o . ostertagi .\nfifteen jersey male calves ( 2\u20134 month - old ) were allocated into two groups and fed isoproteic and isoenergetic diets mainly composed of sainfoin pellets ( group sf ; n = 9 , three pens ) or concentrate and grass - clover hay ( group co ; n = 6 , two pens ) . after 16 days of adaptation , all animals were experimentally infected with 10 , 000 and 66 , 000 third - stage larvae of ostertagia ostertagi and cooperia oncophora , respectively . egg excretion , blood parameters and bodyweights were recorded throughout the study . worms were harvested by sieving for quantification and scanning electron microscopy ( sem ) 42 days post - infection ( dpi ) when the calves were necropsied .\nmoxidectin pour on has been the formulation of moxidectin which has consistently shown resistance by ostertagia - type nematodes on all deer farms evaluated to date ( n = 6 ) . with this knowledge and the desire to evaluate additional treatment groups , budget restraints meant that moxidectin pour on was not included as a treatment option in this trial .\nit is important to stress that an ostertagia vaccine in cattle needs to be an antifecundity vaccine ( 30 ) . as the number of worm eggs shed during the first part of the grazing season determines the number of infective larvae in the pasture in the second half of the grazing season , reduction in egg excretion should be the target . also , because the fecundity of ostertagia is highly regulated by host immunity ( 23 ) and fecal egg output can be strongly reduced without a reduction in the number of worms ( 9 , 4 ) , the number of eggs per gram is the best parameter for evaluation of the protective efficacy of ostertagia antigens ( 30 ) . analogous with observations on the effects of antihelminthic boli on gastrointestinal nematodes in cattle ( 8 ) , it can be stated that vaccination with nopa that results in a 60 % reduction in the number of eggs per gram for at least 2 months is sufficient to protect first - grazing - season calves from ostertagiosis without interfering with the development of natural immunity .\nin order to create anaerobic conditions , faeces containing o . ostertagi eggs were vacuum - packed using an easily available kitchen machine . while purified o . ostertagi eggs will quickly disrupt due to pressure if they are vacuum - packed ( data not shown ) , storage of eggs in faeces was essential to secure the integrity of the parasites and maintain a realistic evaluation of the vacuum packing strategy . thus , faeces were only present during storage of the anaerobic samples but not during storage of aerobic samples , and therefore the outcome may potentially have been influenced by other factors such as e . g . ph and humidity rather than oxygen tension . incorporation of an inhibition control by spiking a non - related target to the samples could confirm any presence of potential inhibitors .\ndistribution of protein homologues in free - living nematodes , strongylida parasites , and non - strongylida parasites . the percent of homologues in each of the three databases as well as the overlap between the databases is shown . ( a ) . c . oncophora ; ( b ) . o . ostertagi . for species included in each of the three databases please see the materials and methods .\nthe numbers of ostertagia - type larvae present in the control group was very low and as a result no conclusions can be drawn as to efficacy of the various anthelmintics against larvae from this trial . trichostrongylus nematodes were present in the con but in low numbers ( average 23 ) . all treatment groups were clear except the levo group ( average 2 ) .\nthe pour - on formulations of levamisole have also given variable results in adult cattle in winter . the concentration of the drug in these formulations has been increased in response to these findings , but the lack of effect of levamisole on the inhibited larvae of ostertagia means that levamisole - based drenches are not ideally suited for use in beef cattle over 12 months old .\nyoung animals are more often affected , but adults not previously exposed to infection frequently show signs and succumb . ostertagia and trichostrongylus infections are characterized by profuse , watery diarrhea that usually is persistent . in haemonchosis and mecistocirrus infection , there may be little or no diarrhea but possibly intermittent periods of constipation . anemia of variable degree is a characteristic sign of both these infections .\nin an attempt to dissect mechanisms underlying protective immune responses to ostertagia ostertagi infections in cattle , which develops very slowly and requires a prolonged exposure before becoming effective , we developed partially immune animals using multiple drug - attenuated infections . while host mechanisms underlying the development of long - term protective immunity have recently been discussed [ 4 ] , the gut microbiota of ruminants has not been systematically characterized until recently [ 8 ] \u2013 [ 10 ] . three - way interactions between the host , its microbiota and parasites are little understood . in this study , we characterized the bovine abomasal microbiota using metagenomic tools . our results provided the first piece of evidence that a minimal disruption in the bovine abomasal microbiota by the parasitic nematode may contribute equally to the restoration of gastric function in immune animals .\nhertzberg h , guscetti f , lischer c , kohler l , neiger r , et al . ( 2000 ) evidence for a parasite - mediated inhibition of abomasal acid secretion in sheep infected with ostertagia leptospicularis . vet j 159 : 238\u2013251 . 10 . 1053 / tvjl . 1999 . 0475 [ doi ] ; s1090 - 0233 ( 99 ) 90475 - 6 [ pii ] .\nthe organization of the coding sequence of opa in genomic dna of ostertagia could indicate that there is only one copy of the opa gene . this is the case for the genes encoding npas of other nematodes , such as dirofilaria immitis ( 6 ) , brugia pahangi ( 27 ) , brugia malayi ( 27 ) , and d . viviparus ( 1 ) . the nopa antigen was located in the intestinal cells of ostertagia l3 and in the cuticle and hypodermis of l4 and adult parasites . similarly , immunostaining of di5 antigen , the opa homologue of d . immitis , was apparent in the hypodermis and the cuticle of the parasite ( 22 ) . in caenorhabditis elegans , npas have been found to bind fatty acids and retinol ( reviewed in reference 15 ) . in parasitic nematodes however , the major function of npas is to alter the host tissue environment to the parasites ' advantage ( 16 ) . the results of the immunolocalization analysis together with the western blot results indeed suggest that opa is secreted . release of opa into the environment could occur directly from the gut with the l3 stage or from the cuticle via the hypodemis with ostertagia l4 and adults .\nthe third - stage larvae ( l3 ) cannot feed , because they retain the cuticle (\nskin\n) from the second stage ( l2 ) as a protective sheath , but can survive for long periods within the dung pat . they can also move some distance away from the dung pat . the parasitic stage of the life cycle of ostertagia begins when a beast ingests l3 larvae .\nthis study characterized transcriptomes from multiple life stages from both c . oncophora and o . ostertagi . these data represent an important resource for studying these parasites . the results of this study show distinct differences in the genes involved in the free - living and parasitic life cycle stages . the data produced will enable better annotation of the upcoming genome sequences and will allow future comparative analyses of the biology , evolution and adaptation to parasitism in nematodes .\nimmunolocalization of opa . sections of l3 ( a and b ) , l4 ( c and d ) , and male ( e and f ) and female ( g and h ) adult o . ostertagi parasites were incubated with monospecific antibodies to opa , and antibody binding was detected by using alexa fluor - conjugated anti - rabbit immunoglobulin . female adult o . ostertagi parasites were also incubated with negative ( preimmune ) rabbit serum ( at a 1 / 2 , 000 dilution in 2 % hs ) ( i ) . panels a , c , e , and g are phase - contrast micrographs , and panels b , d , f , h , and i are fluorescence microscopy micrographs ( signal indicated by red fluorescence except in panel i ) . ic , intestinal cells ; i , intestine ; g , gonads ; h , hypodermis ; c , cuticle . bars = 25 \u03bcm .\ngenerally , es products are considered to be essential for the development and survival of the parasite within the host and are targets for vaccine development ( 17 ) . immunoscreening of cdna libraries of both larvae ( third - stage larvae [ l3 ] and l4 ) and adults of ostertagia with polyclonal rabbit serum raised against es products led to identification of 15 genuinely secreted proteins with potential protective capacities ( 28 ) .\nadult parasites of o . ostertagi were microscopically - selected from abomasal contents from animals killed 28 days post infection . cooperia oncophora eggs , l1 , l2 , l3sh and l3ex were also collected as described above . the l4 were obtained by baermannization of intestinal contents and washings from animals euthanized 10 days post infection ; adult worms were microscopically collected from animals euthanized 21 days post infection and further partitioned into male [ m ] and female [ f ] worms .\nthis occurs when ostertagia ostertagi infective larvae ( l3 ) are ingested by calves in their first or second year at grass . the parasites then take refuge in the gastric glands of the abomasum in order to undergo their period of development . if many worms emerge simultaneously then it can cause severe physical damage to the lining of the abomasum resulting in chronic gastritis . disease is observed in late summer / early autumn and is accountable to the \u2018mid - summer rise\u2019 when temperatures increase and many larvae quickly develop . affected calves will present with a decreased / total loss of appetite accompanied by a sudden onset profuse , green diarrhoea . generally many animals within the group are affected . these calves will suffer a severe loss of body condition ( 20 - 60kg ) which will greatly increase the time taken to finish ( up to three months extra ) . one paper suggests losses of up to \u00a3100 per head .\no . ostertagi infections can prompt protective immunity to ostertagiosis , making the species a good candidate for vaccine development . having a whole genome sequence for the species could also help with the development of novel methods to control these parasites in livestock , including defining the mechanisms underlying drug susceptibility and resistance with the possibility of extending the useful life of existing drugs and improving diagnostics in this area , as well as providing the means to study the host - parasite interaction in whole animals .\nhaemonchus contortus . in this example , unlike ostertagia , the parasite matures on the mucosal surface of the the abomasum . therefore its growth and development has little effect on the mucosa and makes no contribution to its pathogenic potential . despite the fact that adult haemonchus are no more than 1cm long , they are voracious blood feeders and it is this blood loss that is entirely responsible for the pathophysiological changes and clinical signs we see in haemonchosis .\nalthough these findings indicate the presence of resistance in the ml group in cooperia oncophora on more than half of farms tested , it is unlikely that farmers using ml drenches are experiencing a major effect in terms of worm disease or production loss . this is because cooperia is considered to have a relatively less severe effect than most other species . importantly , the injectable mls were fully effective against ostertagia , which is the more important of the species .\nfriesian calves given a low level infection of the abomasal parasite ostertagia ostertagi over a six week period displayed a mild diarrhoea with high faecal egg counts and elevated plasma pepsinogen values . at necropsy on day 23 abomasal lesions characteristic of ostertagiasis were widespread . at 42 and 84 days oedema and congestion were also prominent . total worm burdens on days 23 and 42 were similar but a marked decrease had occurred by day 84 . feed digestibility and nitrogen economy were not markedly affected but radioisotopic measurements demonstrated an increase in albumin disappearance and catabolic rates , and plasma faecal clearance during the course of the infection . prior administration of a morantel sustained release bolus to a group of similarly infected calves reduced the total worm burdens to less than 50 per cent of those recorded in the infected calves on days 23 and 42 and this fell to 3 per cent on day 84 . abomasal damage and the adverse pathophysiological changes associated with infection were prevented in this group .\nthere was a total of 1393 transcripts identified as encoding putatively - secreted peptides of which 538 were enriched in at least one stage . it was determined that free - living stages tended to have more of these transcripts in common with each other than with the parasitic stages . parasitic stages tended to have a common pool of secreted peptides as well . the exception to this was c . oncophora l4 which shared more secreted peptides with the free - living stages than with the other parasitic stages . the 5 % of domains most prevalent in the secreted peptides were very similar between the two species . transthyretin - like , metridin - like shk toxin , saposin b , and cap domains were among the most prevalent for secreted proteins in both species . two insulin domains were among the most prevalent in secreted peptides of c . oncophora but were absent from o . ostertagi . ves allergen was found in 16 secreted peptides of o . ostertagi but was found in only one secreted peptide of c . oncophora .\neggs of ostertagia ostertagi were obtained from fresh faeces and stored at 4 \u00b0c or 25 \u00b0c under aerobic or anaerobic ( vacuum packing ) conditions . development was monitored by microscopy for up to 336 h , and the its2 copies were determined by qpcr from a fixed number of parasites . under aerobic conditions at 25 \u00b0c , embryonation and a significant increase of its2 copies ( p < 0 . 0001 ) were observed after 12 h . at 4 \u00b0c , embryonation occurred after 168 h with a trend towards increased its2 copies . anaerobic conditions inhibited egg development at both temperatures and no significant increase in its2 copies was noticed ( p = 0 . 90 ) . its2 copies were analysed for each parasite stage : first - stage larvae ( l1 ) exhibited significantly higher copy numbers ( 20 , 353 \u00b1 1 , 950 ) than unembryonated eggs ( 568 \u00b1 168 ; p < 0 . 0001 ) with lower coefficient of variation ( 33 vs 266 % ) .\nlog - transformed its2 copies plotted against developmental stages of ostertagia ostertagi throughout the four sub - experiments . a 4 \u00b0c under aerobic conditions . b 25 \u00b0c under aerobic conditions . c 4 \u00b0c under anaerobic conditions . d 25 \u00b0c under anaerobic conditions . the x - axis indicates storage time . distributions ( % ) of developmental stages are plotted on left y - axis ( white bar : unembryonated eggs ; brown bar : early embryonated eggs ; green bar : embryonated eggs ; yellow dotted bar : l1 larvae ; shaded bar : decomposed parasites ) . developmental stage was determined from photographs of 15 randomly selected eggs from each of nine time points . log - transformed its2 copies are plotted on right y - axis and are indicated by a black line . its2 copies were obtained from qpcr analysis of biological triplicate samples containing dna from 25 parasites ( eggs or larvae ) . error bars indicate standard error of the mean ( sem ) of log - transformed its2 copies\ntable 4 : mean worm count and anthelmintic efficiency by ostertagia - type species o . o o . l s . a s . scontrol 30 1002 389 75moxi 0 0 0 0 % efficacy 100 % 100 % 100 % 100 % moxo 0 0 32 0 % efficacy 100 % 100 % 91 . 8 % 100 % oxo 0 333 42 42 % efficacy 100 % 66 . 8 % 44 % 44 % levo 0 186 152 85 % efficacy 100 % 81 . 4 % 60 . 9 % 0 %\ntype 2 occurs when the ostertagia ( l3 ) ingested in late autumn do not emerge immediately and instead remain in the gastric glands in a hypobiotic state . these larvae are stimulated to emerge in the late winter / early spring ( feb - may ) and if the infestation is heavy then they will cause great damage as they do so . this causes an acute gastritis and in severe cases sudden death . routine treatment at housing and or when housed will prevent this which is preferable as response to treatment is generally very poor .\nspecies - level microbial composition in the bovine abomasal microbiota was analyzed using cd - hit - otu ( wu et al . , 2011 , submitted ) . a total of 90 . 3\u00b12 . 9 otu were identified in each abomasal microbial community . seventy two otu were present in the abomasal microbial communities of all 6 immune animals and likely represented the core microbiome of the abomasal microbial community . the community was dominated by 4 otu , which accounted for approximately 50 % of all 16s rdna sequences in control animals . among them , 2 otu ( otu # 1 , 22 . 9 % and otu # 7 , 8 . 1 % ) were annotated to the genus prevotella while the rest 2 otu belonged to bacteroidales and succinivibrio . ostertagi ostertagi infection significantly impacted only 2 otu in immune animals ( unadjusted p value < 0 . 05 ) . the relative abundance of otu # 32 ( lineage : catabacteriaceae ) was increased from 0 . 4 % in control to 1 . 0 % in infected animals while the relative abundance of otu # 25 decreased from 0 . 3 % in control to 0 . 1 % in infected animals ( p < 0 . 05 ) .\nworms can readily be seen and identified in the abomasum , and small petechiae may be visible where the worms have been feeding . the most characteristic lesions of ostertagia infection are small , umbilicated nodules 1\u20132 mm in diameter . these may be discrete , but in heavy infections they tend to coalesce and give rise to a \u201ccobblestone\u201d or \u201cmorocco leather\u201d appearance . nodules are most marked in the fundic region but may cover the entire abomasal mucosa and may be accompanied by a rise in gastric ph to 6\u20137 . as a result , pepsinogen will no longer be converted to pepsin and may leak across the damaged epithelium , leading to high plasma levels . there is also evidence that adult ostertagia can cause direct hypersecretion of pepsinogen . the increased abomasal ph may also stimulate production of gastrin and thus hypergastrinemia , which is closely associated with the inappetence that may accompany infection . this parasite - associated drop in intake has been shown to be largely responsible for impaired weight gain . edema is often marked and , in severe cases , may extend over the abomasum and into the small intestine and omentum .\naerobic storage of o . ostertagi eggs at 25 \u00b0c led to a significant increase in its2 copies after 12 h due to embryonation and subsequent hatching . in contrast , anaerobic storage ( vacuum packing ) at 25 \u00b0c completely inhibited egg development and any undesirable semi - quantification bias for up to 336 h . hence , vacuum packing is an optimal storage strategy prior to molecular diagnostic analyses . alternatively , aerobic storage at 4 \u00b0c for up to 72 h can be used . due to high copy numbers and lower genetic variation , the l1 stage may be considered for diagnostics and further molecular research .\naerobic storage of o . ostertagi eggs at 25 \u00b0c led to a significant increase in its2 copies from 12 h due to embryonation and subsequent hatching . in contrast , anaerobic storage ( vacuum packing ) at 25 \u00b0c completely inhibited egg development and any undesirable semi - quantification bias for up to 336 h . hence , vacuum packing is an optimal storage strategy prior to molecular diagnostic analyses . alternatively , aerobic storage at 4 \u00b0c for up to 72 h can be used . due to high copy numbers and less genetic variation , the l1 stage may be considered for diagnostics and further molecular research .\nthe objective of this study was to determine the agreement between elisa tests conducted using three o . ostertagia antigens : crude adult worm , larval stage 4 ( l4 ) excretory / secretory ( es ) and adult es . this study was carried out on 289 holstein cows from five herds in prince edward island and one herd in nova scotia . composite milk samples of these cows were collected ( between may and september 2002 ) from the respective provincial laboratories and sent to the atlantic veterinary college where each sample was tested for antibodies to o . ostertagi using an indirect microtitre elisa test . results were expressed as optical density ratio ( odr ) values . each milk sample was tested with three elisa tests , with each test using a different o . ostertagi antigen . there was a slight rise in odr values of both adult antigens , between may and august , with higher values obtained using the adult es antigen . l4 es odr values were generally higher than those for both adult antigens during the study period , except for may . there was a more dramatic rise in l4 es odr values between may and august . rises in odr in may and end of july coincided with periods of mass maturation of l4 to adult worms . the results of the study showed that the concordance correlation coefficient ( ccc ) between tests performed using both es and the crude antigens were low ( crude adult versus adult es = 0 . 31 , crude adult versus l4 es = 0 . 30 ) . the highest ccc was observed between tests done using both es antigens ( ccc = 0 . 56 ) . generally , the study results suggest that the antibody response ( detectable by the elisa ) is mainly directed against es antigens ( especially l4 ) than the crude adult worm antigen ."]}
{"id": 1893, "summary": [{"text": "dallasaurus ( \" dallas lizard \" ) is a basal mosasauroid from the upper cretaceous of north america .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "along with russellosaurus , dallasaurus is one of the two oldest mosasauroid taxa currently known from north america .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "this small semi-aquatic lizard measured less than a meter in length , compared to such gigantic derived mosasaurs as tylosaurus and mosasaurus , each exceeding 14 meters . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "dallasaurus", "paragraphs": ["# dallasaurus has a great evolutionary importance as it is considered to be the most basal # mosasaur . dallasaurus is considered to be the most dista\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nfossil study suggests that dallasaurus possessed movable flippers resembling limbs . this indicated that this animal possessed a semi aquatic life style . dallasaurus was thus considered to be among the earliest tetrapods .\na model of dallasaurus turneri sits in front of a mosasaur at the dallas museum of natural history .\ncaudal vertebrae of dallasaurus turneri ( tmm 43209 - 1 ) ; a - c \u2013 anterior . . . | download scientific diagram\nturner took the remains to paleontologists at the dallas museum of natural history , but it took several years before scientists dubbed the find dallasaurus turneri .\ndallasaurus has a great evolutionary importance as it is considered to be the most basal mosasaur . dallasaurus is considered to be the most distant ancestor to the fierce and sleek marine reptiles that were predators of the ocean . they were believed to be preying on the fish and other marine fauna .\nturner took the remains to paleontologists at the dallas museum of natural history , but it took several years before scientists dubbed the find dallasaurus turneri .\ndallasaurus retained complete limbs , hands and feet suitable for walking on land , whereas later mosasaurs evolved their limbs into flippers , the new study reports .\nthe ancient lizard , named dallasaurus turneri , measured three feet ( about a meter ) long and lived 92 million years ago in shallow seas that covered what is now texas .\nuntil the discovery of dallasaurus , however , only five primitive forms with land - capable limbs were known , all of them found in the middle east and the eastern adriatic .\none aspect of polcyn and bell\u2019s research is the revelation that dallasaurus retained complete limbs , hands and feet suitable for walking on land , whereas later mosasaurs evolved their limbs into flippers .\nsouthern methodist university ( smu ) . 2005 . and dallas museum of natural history announce missing fossil link : dallasaurus smu news release november 16 , 2005 . retrieved may 25 , 2008 .\nscientists and museum curators hope to reconstruct the more than 100 identifiable skeletal pieces that make up dallasaurus and put them on display within a few years at the dallas museum , which owns them .\npolcyn and bell painstakingly pieced together an understanding of the anatomy and natural history of dallasaurus from the bones turner discovered and from some matching skeletal remains at the texas memorial museum at the university of texas in austin .\nwith the aid of computer science and smu ' s visualization laboratory , polcyn has been able to simulate what dallasaurus looked like , and how , based on skeletal remains , he would swim and move from land to sea . an artist has taken polcyn ' s visualization work even one step further by creating a life - sized model of dallasaurus , a work that is soon to be on display at the museum along with the computer simulation .\nword of dallasaurus is now reaching the scientific community with a special issue of the netherlands journal of geosciences , featuring an article by southern methodist university paleontologist michael polcyn and gordon bell jr . of guadalupe national park in texas .\ndallasaurus represents a missing link in the evolution of a group of creatures called mosasaurs , prehistoric animals that started out on land , but evolved in the seas and dominated the oceans at the same time dinosaurs ruled the land .\non wednesday , the museum unveiled a model of dallasaurus , not nearly as threatening as its oversized descendant with a slim body and only 3 feet of length . it looks somewhat like a komodo dragon , its closest living relative .\nhowever , we are not concerned with one of the larger species . we are interested in a little three foot long specimen discovered in texas . most mosasaurs have flippers , dallasaurus turneri has limbs similar to other land lizards . from\nthe reptile , now known as dallasaurus turneri , is identified in a special issue of the netherlands journal of geosciences published this month . the article was written by paleontologists michael polcyn of southern methodist university and gordon bell jr . of guadalupe national park .\nthey describe dallasaurus , a three - foot long lizard who lived 92 million years ago in the shallow seas and shores of what was then a stretch of texas mostly under water , and also used the fossil to better understand the mosasaur family tree .\nso mosasaurs were side - to - side swimmers , and one of the genera taken to represent the early stage of their evolution is dallasaurus . this was not a gigantic sea monster . dallasaurus was small \u2013 less than three feet long \u2013 and it did not have the highly - modified tail and flippers of the later , open - ocean mosasaurs . for example , the upper arm elements of dallasaurus were relatively long \u2013 preserving a more archaic anatomical construction \u2013 than the shortened upper arm elements which helped keep the flippers stable for their roles as rudders in later mosasaurs . ( similar modifications of the upper arm can be seen in whales , too . the mechanics of swimming provided the selective pressure for parts of these very difference animals to be adapted in similar ways . )\nmosasaurs lived and became extinct alongside dinosaurs . later mosasaurs grew up to 45 feet in length . until the discovery of dallasaurus , however , only five primitive forms with land - capable limbs were known , all of them found in the middle east and the eastern adriatic .\nfull reference : g . l . bell and m . j . polcyn . 2005 . dallasaurus turneri , a new primitive mosasauroid from the middle turonian of texas and comments on the phylogeny of mosasauridae ( squamata ) . netherlands journal of geosciences 84 ( 3 ) : 177 - 194\nfurther reading - dallasaurus turneri , a new primitive mosasauroid from the middle turonian of texas and comments on the phylogeny of the mosasauridae ( squamata ) . - netherlands journal of geoscience ( geologie en mijnbouw ) 84 ( 3 ) pp . 177 - 194 . - g . l . bell jr . & m . j . polcyn - 2005 .\nthe lizard is an important link in the evolution of mosasaurs , which lived in the age of dinosaurs and evolved fin - like limbs , polcyn said . dallasaurus , the name given the fossil by polcyn and bell , is unusual because it shows an earlier version of the mosasaur with tiny feet and hands . the marine animals later developed paddles .\ndallasaurus was a 3 - foot lizard that lived 92 million years ago in shallow seas and shores of what is now texas . it is a missing link in the evolution of a group of creatures called mosasaurs , prehistoric animals that started out on land , but evolved in the seas and dominated the oceans at the same time dinosaurs ruled the land .\nalthough a small number of primitive mosasaur have been known to retain land - capable limbs , they were thought to be an ancestral group separate from the later fin - bearing forms . dallasaurus represents a clear link to one lineage of the later forms and the first time researchers can clearly show mosasaurs evolved fins from limbs within the different lineages of mosasaurs .\nthe advanced fin - bearing mosasaurs have been grouped into three major lineages . although a small number of primitive mosasaur have been known to retain land - capable limbs , they were thought to be an ancestral group separate from the later fin - bearing forms . dallasaurus represents a clear link to one lineage of the later forms and the first time researchers can clearly show mosasaurs evolved fins from limbs within the different lineages of mosasaurs .\nlizards had nearly 150 million - year - long history on land ; then in the late cretaceous , the final stage of the age of dinosaurs , one group moved into the sea and rose to the very top of the food chain ,\npolcyn said wednesday .\nstarting out as small animals like dallasaurus , they mastered their new marine environment and rose to become the top predator in their ecosystem , the t . rex of the ocean .\nhowever till date scientists are unable to confirm whether dallasaurus was oviparous or viviparous in nature . some schools still believe that both the processes were still missing . fossil studies indicate that the later mosasaurs were too large to return to land to conceive . but again evolution suggests that the reptiles were very quick to adapt to the physiology of live birth . fossil studies of ichthyosaurus have revealed this . the example of keichousaurus can also be mentioned regarding this context . live birth is as a phenomenon that is still observed in some lizards today . sea snakes have been reported to be conceiving by live birth .\nname : dallasaurus \u202d ( \u202cdallas lizard\u202d ) \u202c . phonetic : dal - las - ore - rus . named by : g . \u202d \u202cl . \u202d \u202cbell jr\u202d & \u202cm . \u202d \u202cj . \u202d \u202cpolcyn\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202c2005 . classification : chordata , \u202d \u202creptilia , \u202d \u202csquamata , \u202d \u202cmosasauridae , \u202d \u202cmosasaurinae . species : d . \u202d \u202cturneri\u202d ( \u202ctype\u202d ) \u202c . diet : carnivore . size : up to\u202d \u202c1\u202d \u202cmeter long . known locations : usa , \u202d \u202ctexas , \u202d \u202cdallas county\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202ckamp ranch limestone . time period : turonian of the cretaceous . fossil representation : 2\u202d \u202cpartial specimens , \u202d \u202ctogether represented by a partial skull and disarticulated post cranial remains .\nlindgren and co - authors only looked at four representative mosasaur genera \u2013 dallasaurus , clidastes , mosasaurus , and plotosaurus \u2013 but together these creatures cover almost the entire span of mosasaur history and provide a rough idea of how the lizards changed through the cretaceous . as might be expected , earlier mosasaurs lived nearer to shore in shallow environments , whereas later , more specialized forms \u2013 such as plotosaurus \u2013 were open ocean cruisers which have been found in deposits indicating deeper environments . the rough picture is similar to that seen among fossil whales \u2013 easing into coastal environments and only later spreading far and wide . the same is true of the way the vertebrae of mosasaurs became evolutionarily modified for swimming . in early mosasaurs , the tail vertebrae were more or less the same and unspecialized . by the time of mosasaurus and plotosaurus , however , the tail had become divvied up into several different functional regions which enhanced swimming ability .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na lizard whose fossilized bones were discovered near dallas , texas , 16 years ago is a missing link in the evolution of extinct swimming reptiles known as mosasaurs , a new study says .\nis unusual , because it had tiny feet and hands suitable for walking on land . later mosasaurs developed fin - like limbs and came to dominate the seas at the time when dinosaurs ruled the land .\nthis study paints a much more complex picture of the evolution of [ mosasaurs ] than previously thought ,\nsaid michael polcyn , a paleontologist at southern methodist university in dallas .\nfossils in 1989 while searching through dirt turned up by bulldozers at a construction site near dallas .\nremains of early mosasaurs have been difficult to find . they are only found in areas once covered by water and are quick to deteriorate .\nthis is the first well - preserved early mosasaur found in north america . only five primitive specimens have been found before , all of them in the middle east and along the adriatic sea .\nto have this discovery in our own backyard is a terrific find ,\nsaid anthony fiorillo , curator of the dallas museum of natural history and an smu paleontology professor .\nthe discovery included more than 100 identifiable skeletal pieces , composing about 80 percent of the animal .\nget our news delivered directly to your desktop\u0097free . how to use xml or rss\nlisten to your favorite national geographic news daily , anytime , anywhere from your mobile phone . no wires or syncing . download stitcher free today .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ncontent copyright www . prehistoric - wildlife . com . the information here is completely free for your own study and research purposes , but please dont copy the articles word for word and claim them as your own work . the world of prehistory is constantly changing with the advent of new discoveries , and its best if you use this information as a jumping off point for your own research . privacy & cookies policy\nwhen amateur fossil hunter van turner discovered a small vertebra at a construction site near dallas 16 years ago , he knew the creature was unlike anything in the fossil record .\nscientists now know the significance of turner ' s fossil as the origin of an extinct line of lizards with an evolutionary twist : a land - dwelling species that became fully aquatic .\nthe creature is just now being described publically in a special issue of the netherlands journal of geosciences by southern methodist university paleontologist michael polcyn and gordon bell jr . of guadalupe national park in texas .\nthis is pretty close to the beginning of the mosasaur family tree ,\nsays dallas museum of natural history earth sciences curator anthony fiorillo .\nit is the most complete mosasaur retaining all of its limbs found in north america .\nthe late cretaceous period was a time of very warm temperatures and rising sea levels .\nas the earth warmed and the seas rose , small land - dwelling lizards took to the oceans and developed increasing levels of seagoing capabilities , and over 30 million years , eventually evolving into the top predator of their domain before becoming extinct some 65 million years ago\npolcyn said .\nmeanwhile van turner , the amateur , has his legacy securred in the form of the creature ' s last name , turneri .\nnot all major discoveries are made by highly trained paleontologists ,\nsaid fiorillo .\nthe observant individual , even kids , can still make an important find .\nfor the science geek in everyone , live science offers a fascinating window into the natural and technological world , delivering comprehensive and compelling news and analysis on everything from dinosaur discoveries , archaeological finds and amazing animals to health , innovation and wearable technology . we aim to empower and inspire our readers with the tools needed to understand the world and appreciate its everyday awe .\nelon musk ' s plan to rescue trapped thai boys ? a kiddie submarine that looks like a coffin .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nparent taxon : mosasaurinae according to g . l . bell and m . j . polcyn 2005\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\namateur fossil hunter van turner felt certain he had found something important during his search of earth turned up by bulldozers making way for a new subdivision in dallas county .\nsixteen years later , scientists finally confirmed that turner had discovered the first well preserved early mosasaur found in north america \u2014 a prehistoric lizard that lived 92 million years ago that evolved into what some call the\nt . rex of the ocean .\nscience marches slowly , and my biggest fear all along has been that another specimen of the same animal would be found , and it would be described , and i would lose any first claim to it ,\nsaid turner , an internet technology manager in the central texas town of mason .\nthat never happened , and it kind of reassured the rarity of the animal .\nbefore this discovery , only five primitive forms of the animal with land - capable limbs were known , and all of them were found over the last century in the middle east and the eastern adriatic , polcyn said .\nthis is exciting to us . it tells us the origin of mosasaurs ,\nsaid anthony r . fiorillo , curator of earth sciences at the dallas museum of natural history , which displays a much larger reconstructed mosasaur with sharp teeth and a massive jaw .\ni call him todd ,\nsaid ross mcmillan , the ponytailed sculptor who worked with polcyn for months to painstakingly construct the lifelike piece .\nwhen you look at his face , doesn ' t he look like a todd ?\nfiorillo and polcyn said turner ' s find , made at cedar hill south of dallas , highlights the importance of contributions made by amateur fossil hunters to science .\nthis just goes to show you that what you want is a lot of people looking for stuff ,\nturner said .\nyou want them to be able to recognize important finds or have the people who can do it .\nright now , the skeletal pieces , comprising about 80 percent of the animal , are being kept at smu for study . a similar specimen , also acquired and donated by turner , is at the texas memorial museum at the university of texas at austin .\nmosasaurs lived in the shallow seas and shores of a stretch of texas around dallas and fort worth that was mostly under water back then , polcyn said . the animals evolved into the top predator of their domain before becoming extinct 65 million years ago .\nthe lizard is not related to the 13 - foot oceanic crocodile discovered recently in argentina , polcyn said . the discovery of that creature , given the scientific name dakosaurus andiniensis and nicknamed\ngodzilla ,\nwas reported last week in scienceexpress , the online edition of the journal science .\ncopyright 2005 the associated press . all rights reserved . this material may not be published , broadcast , rewritten or redistributed .\nit was also seen in discovery channel ' s monsters resurrected\nt - rex of the deep\n.\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\ntype specimen : tmm 43209 - 1 , a partial skeleton ( fragmentary disarticulated skull and significant portions of a postcranial skeleton ) . its type locality is cedar hill , tmm 43209 , which is in a turonian marine limestone in the kamp ranch limestone formation of texas .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\njoin researchgate to access over 30 million figures and 118 + million publications \u2013 all in one place .\na mosasaur , cf . plotosaurus , from the upper maastrichtian quiriquina formation in central chile\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe mosasaurs are species of aquatic reptiles that are related to lizards ( to be more precise the varanoid lizards - of which the komodo dragon is a good example ) . during the upper cretaceous they reached their peak . almost 20 genera are recognized for this period with the largest approaching 30 feet . they were ocean going carnivores that ate almost anything that swam in the sea . below are some representitive species .\ni was unable to find any pictures of the fossil , but here is a reconstruction of what it is believed to look like .\nafarensis is a 3 . 5 - 2 . 8 million year old hominin from the kada hadar member of the hadar formation in the middle awash , ethiopia . he is approximately 41 inches tall , weighs approximately 60 pounds and has a cranial capacity of a whopping 410 cc ( approximately ) . afarensis is currently considered to be transitional between apes and humans and displays some traits of both . since he spends a lot of time on the couch watching monster movies , some observers question whether he is an obligate biped ( although no one has observed him climbing a tree ) . he also has a blog called\nloyalty to petrified opinion never broke a chain or freed a human soul . . .\nit isn ' t faith that makes good science . . . it ' s curiosity\nthis man wishes to be accorded the same privilege as a sponge . he wishes to think !\ni want you to grab life by its little bunny ears and get in its face . . .\nthere are bad laws and cruel laws and the people who enforce them are both bad and cruel . . .\nwith the first link , the chain is forged . the first speech censored , the first thought forbidden , the first freedom denied , chains us all irrevocably .\njean - luc picard , star trek : the next generation\nthe whole edifice of the haeckelian program became irrelevant when developmental biologists shifted their efforts to understanding mechanisms of embryonic development . it became explicitly incorrect with the demise of lamarckian heredity in the face of mendalian genetics in the early twentieth century . - rudolf raff , the shape of life : genes , development , and the evolution of animal form\nthese human foibles is obtained when the proponent of a questionable scientific doctrine endeavors to maintain it against all possible odds by misrepresentation , misinformation and suppression of contradictory data , and by insinuating unfairness in opponents of his views .\nunique understanding and potentialities . these he owes to no one but himself , and it is to himself that he is responsible . he is not the creature of uncontrollable and undeterminable forces , but his own master . he can and must decide and manage his own destiny .\nwhoever fights monsters should see to it that in the process he does not become a monster . and when you look into the abyss , the abyss also looks into you .\nbut when a long train of abuses and usurpations , pursuing invariably the same object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism , it is their right , it is their duty , to throw off such government , and to provide new guards for their future security .\nbut i had gradually come , by this time , to see that the old testament from its manifestly false history of the world , with the tower of babel , the rainbow at sign , etc . , etc . , and from its attributing to god the feelings of a revengeful tyrant , was no more to be trusted than the sacred books of the hindoos , or the beliefs of any barbarian .\ncharles darwin : the autobiography\neverhart , m . j . and pearson , g . 2014 . an isolated squamate dorsal vertebra from the late cretaceous greenhorn formation of mitchell county , kansas . kansas academy of science , transactions 117 ( 3 - 4 ) : 261 - 269 . | mike everhart - urltoken\neverhart , m . j . and pearson , g . 2014 . an isolated squamate dorsal vertebra from the late cretaceous greenhorn formation of mitchell county , kansas . kansas academy of science , transactions 117 ( 3 - 4 ) : 261 - 269 .\nsorry , preview is currently unavailable . you can download the paper by clicking the button above .\nenter the email address you signed up with and we ' ll email you a reset link .\nsince the early 1980\u2019s , the story of how whales walked into the sea has become one of the most celebrated of all evolutionary transitions . pakicetus , ambulocetus , rodhocetus , and many , many more \u2013 these fossil whales with legs have beautifully demonstrated how land - dwelling mammals became adapted to life at sea . but , between 50 and 40 million years ago or so , whales were just going through a transition that many other vertebrate groups had gone through before . they were not the first vertebrates to return to the sea , nor were they the last , and a paper recently published in paleobiology by paleontologists johan lindgren , michael polcyn , and bruce young has traced the history of how a very different group of animals got their sea legs .\nmosasaurs were formidable oceanic predators . take a komodo dragon , put flippers on it , and , in some cases , blow it up until it\u2019s over 40 feet long and you\u2019ll have some idea of what these cretaceous marine lizards were like . their fossil record \u2013 stretching over 27 million years \u2013 is also relatively well - known , and so the mosasaurs provided lindgren and colleagues with a good opportunity to see how these peculiar animals evolved .\nthe first thing you need to know about mosasaur evolution is that the way they swam was constrained by their anatomy . whales provide a good counterpoint . the ancestors of whales were wolf - like animals which carried their limbs under their bodies , and when they walked their spines undulated in an vertical plane . that\u2019s why whales swim by beating their tails up and down \u2013 their mode of swimming is the product of an anatomical precondition from when their ancestors dwelt on land . the ancestors of mosasaurs , on the other flipper , moved like lizards \u2013 that is , their spines were more flexible from side to side . it\u2019s no wonder , then , that mosasaurs swam by beating their tails back and forth , just like fish and that other group of famous marine reptiles , the ichthyosaurs .\na handful of recent discoveries have helped paleontologists better understand just how much some of the later mosasaurs became modified to life at sea . mosasaurs have traditionally been reconstructed with long , thin , lizard - like tails . they did not appear to have any specialized tail fins as seen in the shark - like ichthyosaurs . yet evidence that some mosasaurs had such structures has now been found . skeletons of plotosaurus and platecarpus appear to exhibit downward kinks in the posterior part of the tail which could have supported fleshy tail fins . ( significantly , the part of the tail which supports the tail fin kinks upwards in sharks but downwards in marine reptiles \u2013 perhaps as a result of some kind of constraint or contingency . ) these mosasaurs are be another case - with ichthyosaurs and crocodiles - of marine reptiles evolving prominent tail fins independently .\nthere is far more detail in the paper , of course \u2013 the entire thing runs 25 pages \u2013 but what strikes me is how very different vertebrates , even those with different anatomical constrains , eased into the seas in similar ways . early whales were up - and - down swimmers , while mosasaurs were side - to - side swimmers , yet they both started off in the shallows and underwent a sequence of modification in which their tails became specialized into specific modules suited for swimming . this is wonderful stuff \u2013 when contingency , constraint , and convergence meet together in a great transformation .\ntop image : a modern restoration of the mosasaur platecarpus by dmitry bogdanov . image from wikipedia .\nlindgren , j . , polcyn , m . , & young , b . ( 2011 ) . landlubbers to leviathans : evolution of swimming in mosasaurine mosasaurs paleobiology , 37 ( 3 ) , 445 - 469 doi : 10 . 1666 / 09023 . 1\nuse of and / or registration on any portion of this site constitutes acceptance of our user agreement ( updated 5 / 25 / 18 ) and privacy policy and cookie statement ( updated 5 / 25 / 18 ) . your california privacy rights . the material on this site may not be reproduced , distributed , transmitted , cached or otherwise used , except with the prior written permission of cond\u00e9 nast . ad choices .\ndallas , texas , usa : primitive mosasaur fossil found | dear kitty . some blog\nwhen amateur fossil finder van turner discovered a small vertebra at a construction site near dallas 16 years ago , he knew the creature was unlike anything in the fossil record .\nscientists now know the significance of turner\u2019s fossil as the origin of an extinct line of lizards with an evolutionary twist : a land - dwelling species that became fully aquatic .\n\u201cthis is pretty close to the beginning of the mosasaur family tree , \u201d says dallas museum of natural history earth sciences curator and smu adjunct professor of paleontology anthony r . fiorillo , ph . d .\n\u201cit is the most complete mosasaur retaining all of its limbs found in north america . \u201d\nmosasaurs , every bit as prolific , fascinating and nearly as big as some dinosaurs , are becoming more popular for paleontologists to study .\ngarland \u2013 digging for late cretaceous fossils in garland ? that\u2019s exactly what more than two dozen volunteers did sunday while in the hot heat .\nthe dig began after a garland resident discovered a mosasaur near his home along duck creek .\nthe dallas paleontological society members worked 400 hours to excavate the bones of the creature .\nwhile mosasaurs weren\u2019t dinosaurs , they were lepidosaurs , which were reptiles with overlapping scales . the carnivorous sea reptiles swam in an ocean that scientists believe covered texas millions of years ago .\n\u201cwe finally got it to a point to flip the main jacket that contains the skull , \u201d said rocky manning , dallas paleontological society .\n\u201coh , it\u2019s been interesting\u201d said charles amyx , the man who unearthed the mosasaur bones in january from the river bottom behind his home . \u201ci\u2019ve been taking pictures everyday and built me a path through my yard so people can come down here and see it . \u201d\n\u201cit\u2019s really very fulfilling because a lot of this wouldn\u2019t be recovered without us , \u201d said pauline maullinex . \u201cthe museums don\u2019t have the money or the personnel . \u201d\nthe coordinated effort unearthed the animal scientists estimate to be at least 40 feet long .\n\u201cthis was a particularly nice mosasaur , \u201d manning said . \u201cit was almost full grown . a full grown mosasaur has a jaw of almost four feet . \u201d\nthis site uses akismet to reduce spam . learn how your comment data is processed .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\nthe following articles are merged in scholar . their combined citations are counted only for the first article .\nthis\ncited by\ncount includes citations to the following articles in scholar . the ones marked\nmuseu da lourinh\u00e3 ; school of earth sciences , university of bristol ; geobiotec , dept . earth sciences\nj lindgren , p sj\u00f6vall , rm carney , p uvdal , ja gren , g dyke , bp schultz , . . .\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\nmosasaur is any of the various extinct , marine reptiles comprising the family mosasauridae , which were the dominant predators of the earth ' s oceans during the last 25 million years of the cretaceous period . these reptiles were typically characterized by a long , slender , serpentine body , long tails , a conically shaped head , and limbs that served as paddles , with many characterized by very large size ( everhart 2008 ) . two species , one a hainosaurus and one a mosasaurus , reached nearly 17 meters ( 56 feet ) in length . smaller species also occupied other ecological niches ( everhart 2008 ) .\nfossils have been found on every continent , including antarctica , indicating a wide distribution in the oceans .\nalthough dominant for a very long time , mosasaurs disappeared around the time when the dinosaurs disappeared , at the end of the cretaceous . however , they played an important role in the food chains of their time , and helped prepare the environment for life today . their discovery was likewise noteworthy , with the first publicized discovery of a fossil in the netherlands in 1780 preceding dinosaur fossil discoveries , drawing the attention of the world to the existence of fossilized animals , and the need to reconcile such findings with existing scientific and religious paradigms .\nmosasaurs were reptiles that had a body shape similar to that of modern - day monitor lizards ( varanids ) , but were more elongated and streamlined for swimming . their long slender body shape has also been compared to that of a snake ( everhart 2008 ) . the mosasaur limb bones were reduced in length and their paddles were formed by webbing between their elongated digit - bones . the head region was conical in shape and very narrow and long in some species ( everhart 2008 ) . their tails were flattened laterally and supplied the locomotive power for swimming ( everhart 2008 ) .\nall reptiles breathe air using lungs . the noticeably expanded chest region of mosasaurs suggests they may have retained two lungs , unlike snakes ( everhart 2008 ) .\nmosasaurs had a double - hinged jaw and flexible skull ( much like that of a snake ) , which enabled them to gulp down their prey almost whole , a snakelike habit that has helped identify the unmasticated gut contents fossilized within mosasaur skeletons . a skeleton of tylosaurus proriger from south dakota included remains of the diving seabird hesperornis , a marine bony fish , a possible shark and another , smaller mosasaur ( clidastes ) . some showed remains of a turtle and a plesiosaur ( everhart 2005a ) . mosasaur bones have also been found with shark teeth embedded in them .\nmosasaurs were powerful swimmers , although their body shape suggests they were inefficient for high - speed swimming compared to the rapidly swimming ichthyosaurs and plesiosurs , other marine reptiles whose age of dominance preceded that of mosasaurs . the method of locomotion of mosasaurs may have been similar to that used by the conger eel or sea snakes today . the animal may have lurked and pounced rapidly and powerfully on passing prey , rather than hunting for it ( everhart 2005a ) .\nmosasaurs were well - adapted to living in the warm , shallow epicontinental seas prevalent during the late cretaceous period . mosasaurs were so well adapted to this environment that some fossils show evidence that they gave birth to live young , rather than return to the shore to lay eggs , as sea turtles do ( everhart 2005a ) . for example , a fossil of plioplatecarpus had the remains of several unborn in her abdomen ( everhart 2005a ) .\nthe smallest - known mosasaur was carinodens belgicus , which was about 3 . 0 to 3 . 5 meters long and probably lived in shallow waters near shore , cracking mollusks and sea urchins with its bulbous teeth . larger mosasaurs were more typical : mosasaurs ranged in size up to 17 meters . hainosaurus holds the record for longest mosasaur , at 17 . 5 meters .\nthe name mosasaur comes from the latin mosa meaning the\nmeuse river\nin the netherlands , and greek sauros meaning\nlizard .\nthe meuse river was the locality were the first mosasaur was found ( everhart 2005a ) .\nsea levels were high during the cretaceous , which is expected to correlate with marine transgressions in many parts of the world and caused a great inland seaway in what is now north america .\nmosasaur fossils have been found in the netherlands , in sweden , in africa , in australia , in new zealand and on vega island , off the coast of antarctica . in canada and the united states , complete or partial specimens have been found in alabama , mississippi , tennessee , and georgia and in almost all the states covered by the seaway : texas , southwest arkansas , new mexico , kansas ( everhart 2005b ) , colorado , nebraska , the dakotas , montana , and the pierre shale and fox hills formations of north dakota ( getman 1994 ) . mosasaurs are also known from mexico , peru , denmark , and california .\nmany of the\ndinosaur\nremains found on new zealand \u2014a volcanic island arc that has never been part of a continent\u2014are actually mosasaurs and plesiosaurs , another group of mesozoic predatory marine reptiles .\nthe first publicized discovery of a fossil mosasaur preceded any dinosaur fossil discoveries and drew the age of enlightenment ' s attention to the existence of fossilized animals . the specimen was discovered in 1780 by quarry - workers in a subterranean gallery of a limestone quarry in the vicinity of maastricht in the netherlands . maastricht is situated on both sides of the meuse river . the quarry workers quickly alerted doctor c . k . hoffman , a surgeon and fossil - hunter in the dutch city of maastricht , although rights of ownership lay with a canon of maastricht cathedral , as owner of the overlying land .\ndr . hoffman ' s correspondence among men of science made the find famous . when the revolutionary forces occupied maastricht , the carefully - hidden fossil was uncovered , betrayed , it is said , by a case of wine , and transported to paris , where georges cuvier was able to describe it for science , although le grand animal fossile de maastricht was not actually described as a mosasaur (\nmeuse reptile\n) until 1822 and not given its official name , mosasaurus hoffmanni , until 1829 . several sets of mosasaur remains , that had been discovered earlier at maastricht but were not identified as mosasaurs until the nineteenth century , have been on display in the teylers museum , haarlem , since about 1770 .\nthe maastricht limestone beds were rendered so famous by the mosasaur discovery that they have given their name to the final six - million - year epoch of the cretaceous , the maastrichtian .\nbased on features such as the double row of pterygoid (\nflanged\n) teeth on the palate , the double - hinged jaw , modified / reduced limbs and probable methods of locomotion , many researchers believe that snakes and mosasaurs have had a common ancestor . this theory was first suggested in 1869 , by edward drinker cope , who coined the term\npythonomorpha\nto include them . the idea lay dormant for more than a century , before being revived in the 1990s ( everhart 2005a ; palaeos 2006 ) . there is support for the view that these ferocious marine predators are close relatives of snakes based on cladistic analysis of symptomatic similarities in jaw and skull anatomies ( lee 1997 ) .\nduring the last 20 million years of the cretaceous ( turonian - maastrichtian ) , with the extinction of the ichthyosaurs and pliosaurs , mosasaurs became the dominant marine predators . the ichthyosaurs declined greatly in the early cretaceous for unknown reasons and are thought to have been extinct by the time of the earliest mosasaurs ( everhart 2005a ) .\neverhart , m . j . 2005a . mosasaurs : last of the great marine reptiles oceans of kansas . originally published as everhart , m . j . 2000 . mosasaurs : last of the great marine reptiles . prehistoric times . 44 : 29 - 31 . retrieved may 25 , 2008 .\neverhart , m . j . 2005b . enter the mosasaurs . chapter 9 in m . j . everhart , oceans of kansas : a natural history of the western interior sea . bloomington , in : indiana university press . isbn 0253345472 .\neverhart , m . j . 2008 . rapid evolution , diversification , and distribution of mosasaurs ( reptilia ; squamata ) prior to the k - t boundary tate 2005 11th annual symposium in paleontology and geology . casper , wy , p . 16 - 27 . retrieved may 25 , 2008 .\ngetman , m . r . c . 1994 . occurrences of mosasaur and other reptilian fossil remains from the fox hills formation ( maastrichtian : late cretaceous ) of north dakota . st . lawrence university press .\nlee , m . s . y . 1997 . the phylogeny of varanoid lizards and the affinities of snakes philosophical transactions of the royal society london 352 : 53 - 91 . retrieved may 25 , 2008 .\nmike everhart and david lewis ,\nmesozoic marine monsters of the mangahouanga\nnew zealand fossil fauna .\nmike everhart ,\na day in the life of a mosasaur\nlife in the sea of kansas , illus . by carl buell .\nnew world encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the wikipedia article in accordance with new world encyclopedia standards . this article abides by terms of the creative commons cc - by - sa 3 . 0 license ( cc - by - sa ) , which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution . credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the new world encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the wikimedia foundation . to cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats . the history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here :\nnote : some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed .\nthis page was last modified on 24 november 2014 , at 17 : 29 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution / share - alike license ; additional terms may apply . see terms of use for details ."]}
{"id": 1895, "summary": [{"text": "romanogobio uranoscopus , alternatively known as the danubian longbarbel gudgeon , danubian gudgeon , danube gudgeon or the steingressling , is a european species of freshwater cyprinid fish .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it can be found in austria , bulgaria , croatia , czech republic , germany , hungary , italy , romania , serbia and montenegro , slovakia , slovenia and ukraine . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "romanogobio uranoscopus", "paragraphs": ["romanogobio frici ( species ) , gobio frici ( synonym ) , romanogobio frici ( vladykov , 1925 ) ( synonym ) , romanogobio uranoscopus frici ( synonym ) .\nromanogobio uranoscopus sampling stations location ; gis support danci o . | download scientific diagram\nromanogobio uranoscopus ( agassiz , 1828 ) . isis ( oken ) v . 21 1048 pl . 12 ( fig . 1a - d ) . sinonimo senior , nuova combinazione , nomenclatura iczn valida .\ngobio uranoscopus uranoscopus ( agassiz , 1828 ) . isis ( oken ) v . 21 1048 pl . 12 ( fig . 1a - d ) . sinonimo senior , nuova combinazione , nomenclatura iczn non valida .\nthe condition of aquatic habitats typically occupied by romanogobio uranoscopus within the maramure\u015f mountains natural park fluctuates , in the best cases , between reduced to average . good or excellent conservation status is now absent for populations of this species in the researched area . the identified human impact types ( poaching , minor riverbeds morphodynamic changes , solid and liquid natural flow changes , destruction of the riparian vegetation and bush vegetation , habitat fragmentation / isolation of population , organic and mining pollution and displaced fish that are washed away during the periodic flooding in the lotic sectors uniformized by humans ) are contributing to the diminished ecological state of romanogobio uranoscopus habitats and for that reason populations . romanogobio uranoscopus is now considered a rare species in the studied basin but where this species was specified as missing , it has been registered with a restorative potential .\ngobio frici vladykov , 1925 . \u00fcber einige neue fische aus der tschechoslowakei ( karpathorussland . ) . zool . anz . 248 - 252 ; v . 64 , 249 . sinonimo junior , combinazione originale , nomenclatura iczn non valida . opinioni - sinonimo di gobio uranoscopus ( agassiz 1828 ) , ma discutibile come valida sottospecie , secondo lelek 1987 : 197 , banarescu et al . 1999 : 183 , 189 . sinonimo di gobio uranoscopus ( agassiz 1828 ) , per berg 1949 : 651 , kottelat 1997 : 62 . sinonimo di romanogobio uranoscopus ( agassiz 1828 ) . localit\u00e0 tipo : fiume teresovka , affluente del fiume tisza , nei pressi del villaggio di podplesa , ucraina . tipo : nessuno . sintipi : ( 3 ) collocazione attuale ignota .\ngobio uranoscopus ( agassiz , 1828 ) . isis ( oken ) v . 21 1048 pl . 12 ( fig . 1a - d ) . sinonimo senior , nuova combinazione , nomenclatura iczn non valida .\ngobio uranoscopus frici vladykov , 1925 . zool . anz . v . 64 , 249 . nuova nomenclatura per\ngobio frici\nvladykov , 1925 . sinonimo junior , combinazione originale , nomenclatura iczn non valida .\nnaseka , a . m . and j . freyhof , 2004 romanogobio parvus , a new gudgeon from river kuban , southern russia ( cyprinidae , gobioninae ) . ichthyol . explor . freshwat . 15 ( 1 ) : 17 - 23 .\ncyprinus uranoscopus agassiz , 1828 . beschreibung einer neuen species aus dem genus\ncyprinus\nlinn . isis ( oken ) 1046 - 1049 ; v . 21 1048 pl . 12 ( fig . 1a - d ) . sinonimo senior , combinazione originale , nomenclatura iczn non valida . opinioni - nomenclatura valida come gobio uranoscopus ( agassiz 1828 ) , secondo berg 1949 : 651 , lelek 1987 : 197 , naseka 1996 : 159 , kottelat 1997 : 62 , banarescu et al . 1999 : 183 , naseka 2001 : 1380 , vassilev & pehlivanov 2005 : 169 . nomenclatura valida come romanogobio uranoscopus ( agassiz 1828 ) , per naseka & freyhof 2004 : 21 . catalogo : kottelat 1984 : 148 . lectotipo designato da banarescu 1970 : 165 . localit\u00e0 tipo : fiume isar vicino a munich , germania . tipo : mnhn 5825 . paralectotipi : mhnn 0955 ( 5 ) ; zmb 3305 ( 4 ) .\nid 425706 taxonomy ; de romanogobio frici ( species ) . pa 327682 ( parent id ) cc synonym = gobio frici cc synonym = romanogobio frici ( vladykov , 1925 ) cc synonym = romanogobio uranoscopus frici cc - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - cc this entry is a placeholder for the corresponding entry in the ncbi cc taxonomy urltoken cc - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - / /\n1 . b\u0103n\u0103duc d . , 2007 \u2013 gobio uranoscopus , in combroux i . , thieri e . and toia t . ( eds ) caiet de habitate \u015fi specii \u2013 fi\u015fe pilot , edit . balcanic , timi\u015foara , rom\u00e2nia , isbn 978 - 3 - 85742 - 6 - 7 . ( in romanian )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : the species is widespread and still frequent in suitable habitats ( fast flowing rivers ) in the danube drainage . however the species is particularly sensitive to pollution and damming and is locally threatened . it is suspected that the population has been declining and will continue to do so as more dams , particularly on small rivers , are built within the danube basin , but not at a rate that will qualify the species for a threatened or near threatened category .\ndanube drainage ( absent from danube main river except upper course and stretches with fast current ) .\nstill frequent in suitable habitats in the danube drainage . though the population has declined , it is extirpated from the upper danube ( 1830s ) .\nhabitat : riffles of small , fast - flowing rivers and bottom of large rivers with water velocities of 0 . 7 m / s and more , stone bottom , in submontane zone . young individuals prefer slow currents and shallow shoreline habitats with sand bottom . spawns in shallow habitats with very high current ( about 1 m / s ) . biology : in laboratory , spawns several times between late may and mid - september , at temperatures above 11\u00b0c . males wait for females at spawning sites . to spawn , both sexes move to surface or open water . eggs drift with current , sink to bottom and then stick to substrate . adults are nocturnal and solitary , juveniles are active at day . no data on food in the wild .\nthe species is sensitive to pollution and damming and is locally threatened . the population is expected to continue to decline with on - going economic development .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nnomi comuni esteri - portoghese - g\u00f3bio - do - dan\u00fabio . inglese - danube gudgeon , danubian gudgeon , danubian longbarbel gudgeon . tedesco - gr\u00e4\u00dfling , steingressling , steinkresse , steinkre\u00dfling , wapper . danese - donaugrundling . svedese - stenkrypare . finnico - kivit\u00f6r\u00f6 . russo - dunaiskii dinnousyi peskar ' , dunaiskii dlinnousyi peskar , peskar ' - verkhoglyad , pichkur dunaiskyi dovgousyi , pichkur dunaiskyi dovgousyi . polacco - kielb dlugowasy . repubblica ceca - hrouzek dlouhoploutv\u00fd . hrouzek dlouhovous\u00fd . slovacchia - hr\u00faz f\u00fazat\u00fd . ungherese - felpillant\u00f3 k\u00fcll\u00f3 . rumeno - porcusor de vad , chetrar , petroc . estonia - pikapoiseline roomar\u00fcnt . cinese - \u671b\u5929\u9b88 w\u00e0ng ti\u0101n j\u016b .\n- kottelat , m . , 1997 . european freshwater fishes . . biologia 52 , suppl . 5 : 1 - 271 . pagina 62 .\nla specie \u00e8 diffusa nelle aree collinari e montane del bacino danubio , dall ' austria alla moldavia e dalla slovacchia alla bulgaria fino all ' ucraina meridionale .\nanon . , 1999 fish collection database of the natural history museum , london ( formerly british museum of natural history ( bmnh ) ) . natural history museum , london ( formerly british museum of natural history ( bmnh ) ) .\nanon . , 2000 the icthyological collection of the zoological museum hamburg ( zmh ) . division of icthyology and herpetology , zoological museum hamburg ( zmh ) .\nanon . , 2001 fish collection database of the national museum of natural history ( smithsonian institution ) .\nanon . , 2001 fish collection database of the zoological museum , university of copenhagen . zoological museum , university of copenhagen .\nanon . , 2002 fish collection database of the american museum of natural history . american museum of natural history , central park west , ny 10024 - 5192 , usa .\nanon . , 2003 fish collection of the royal ontario museum . royal ontario museum .\narkhipchuk , v . v . , 1999 chromosome database . database of dr . victor arkhipchuk .\nbaillie , j . and b . groombridge ( eds . ) , 1996 1996 iucn red list of threatened animals . iucn , gland , switzerland . 378 p .\nbanarescu , p . , 1964 fauna republicii populare rom\u00eene . volumul xiii . pisces - osteichthyes ( pesti ganoizi si osisi ) . editura academiei republicii populare rom\u00eene , bucuresti . 962 p .\nbaru\u0161 , v . and o . oliva ( eds . ) , 1995 mihulovci a ryby .\nfauna r a sr . ( cyclostomata and fishes . fauna of czech republic and slovakia ) . sv . 28 academia praha .\nberg , l . s . , 1964 freshwater fishes of the u . s . s . r . and adjacent countries . volume 2 , 4th edition . israel program for scientific translations ltd , jerusalem .\ncarausu , s . , 1952 tratat de ihtiologie . edit . acad . r . p . r . , bucurest . 802 p .\neschmeyer , w . n . , 1996 pisces . eschmeyer ' s pisces database , published on the internet in november 1996 , url : urltoken .\neschmeyer , w . n . , editor , 2005 catalog of fishes . updated database version of may 2005 .\nfish . vol . 4 , life of animals . v . e . sokolov ( ed . ) , moscow : prosveschenie . 575p .\ngerstmeier , r . and t . romig , 1998 die s\u00fc\u00dfwasserfische europas : f\u00fcr naturfreunde und angler . franckh - kosmos verlag , stuttgart , germany . 368 p .\ngrabda , e . and t . heese , 1991 polskie nazewnictwo popularne kraglouste i ryby . cyclostomata et pisces . wyzsza szkola inzynierska w koszalinie . koszalin , poland . 171 p .\nhanel , l . and j . nov\u00e1k , 2002 cesk\u00e9 n\u00e1zvy zivocichu v . ryby a ryboviti obratlovci ( pisces ) 3 . , malo\u00fast\u00ed ( gonorhynchiformes ) - m\u00e1loostn\u00ed ( cypriniformes ) . n\u00e1rodn\u00ed muzeum ( zoologick\u00e9 oddelen\u00ed ) , praha .\nhilton - taylor , c . , 2000 2000 iucn red list of threatened species . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk . xviii + 61 p .\nhureau , j . - c . , 1991 la base de donn\u00e9es gicim : gestion informatis\u00e9e des collections ichthyologiques du mus\u00e9um . p . 225 - 227 .\nin atlas preliminaire des poissons d ' eaux douce de france . conseil sup\u00e9rieur de la p\u00eache , minist\u00e8re de l ' environment , cemagref et mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle , paris .\niacob , l . and i . dima , 2006 regnul animalia . eukarya . enciclopedia florei si faunei din romania .\nkeresztessy , k . , 1993 a magyar halfjok v\u00e9detts\u00e9g\u00e9nek \u00faj szab\u00e1lyos\u00e1sa . hal\u00e1szat 86 ( 3 ) : 114 - 116 .\nklinkhardt , m , m . tesche and h . greven , 1995 database of fish chromosomes . westarp wissenschaften .\nkottelat , m . , 1997 european freshwater fishes . biologia 52 , suppl . 5 : 1 - 271 .\nmonnerjahn , u . , 1999 freshwater fishes of germany . a checklist compiled from german fischkataster of the bundesl\u00e4nder and from the german ' rote liste ' .\nmovchan yu . v . and a . i . smirnov , 1981 fauna of ukraine . fishes . cyprinid fishes ( roach , dace , minnow , rudd , grass carp , asp , verchovka , tench , undermouth , gudgeon , barbel ) . ( fauna ukrainy . ryby . koropovi ( plitka , yalets , golijan , krasnopirka , amur , bilyzna , verkhova , lyn , chebachok amurskyi ) . kiev , naukova dumka publishing house , 8 ( 2 ) part 1 .\nmuus , b . j . and p . dahlstr\u00f8m , 1990 europas ferskvandsfisk . gec gads forlag , k\u00f8benhavn . 224p .\nraicu , p . e . taisescu , and a . gristian , 1972 diploid chromosome complement of the carp . cytologia 37 : 355 - 358 .\nraicu , p . e . taisescu , and p . banarescu , 1973 a comparative study of the karyotype in the genus gobio ( pisces , cyprinidae ) . cytologia 38 : 731 - 736 .\nricker , w . e . , 1973 russian - english dictionary for students of fisheries and aquatic biology . fisheries research board of canada , ottawa .\nrobins , c . r . , r . m . bailey , c . e . bond , j . r . brooker , e . a . lachner , r . n . lea and w . b . scott , 1991 world fishes important to north americans . exclusive of species from the continental waters of the united states and canada . am . fish . soc . spec . publ . ( 21 ) : 243 p .\nsanches , j . g . , 1989 nomenclatura portuguesa de organismos aqu\u00e1ticos ( proposta para normaliza\u00e7ao estat\u00edstica ) . publica\u00e7oes avulsas do i . n . i . p . no . 14 . 322 p .\nsmolian , k . , 1920 merkbuch der binnenfischerei . fischereif\u00f6rderung gmbh , berlin , germany , p . 449 , xxv .\nsokolov , l . i . and l . s . berdicheskii , 1989 acipenseridae . p . 150 - 153 . in j . holc\u00edk ( ed . ) the freshwater fishes of europe . vol . 1 , part ii . general introduction to fishes acipenseriformes . aula - verlag wiesbaden . 469 p .\nswedish museum of natural history , 1999 nrm ichthyology collection database . ichthyology section , department of vertebrate zoology , swedish museum of natural history , stockholm , sweden .\nvasil ' ev , v . p . , 1980 chromosome numbers in fish - like vertebrates and fish . j . ichthyol . 20 ( 3 ) : 1 - 38 .\nvilcinskas , a . , 1993 einheimische s\u00fcsswasserfische : alle arten : merkmale , verbreitung , lebensweise . naturbuch verlag , augsburg , germany , 207 p .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nsometimes taxonomists create new names for groups that already have a name . they may do this because they are unaware of the original name , or they may think the organism before them belongs to a different group when in fact it does not . if two or more names are found to apply to the same group , they are considered synonyms . in most cases , the first name takes priority and is considered to be the valid or accepted name . however , there can be exceptions , and it ' s not always easy to determine which of a series of synonyms should be considered valid or accepted . here we list the synonyms provided to eol by our classification partners . we also include other versions of the name that most likely refer to the same group , for example , misspellings in the literature or different variations of the authorship associated with the name .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nurltoken uses cookies to store information that enables us to optimize our website and make browsing more comfortable for you . to learn more about the use of cookies , please read our privacy policy .\n1 \u201clucian blaga\u201d university of sibiu , applied ecology research centre , dr . ion ra\u0163iu street 5 - 7 , sibiu , sibiu county , romania , ro - 550012 , ad . banaduc @ urltoken\n2 \u201clucian blaga\u201d university of sibiu , faculty of sciences , dr . ion ra\u0163iu street 5 - 7 , sibiu , sibiu county , romania , ro - 550012\n2 . b\u0103n\u0103duc d . , prots b . and curtean - b\u0103n\u0103duc a . ( eds ) , 2011 \u2013 the upper tisa river basin ,\n3 . b\u0103n\u0103rescu p . m . , 1964 \u2212 fauna r . p . rom\u00e2ne , pisces - osteichthyes , xiii , edit . academiei rom\u00e2ne , 959 . ( in romanian )\n5 . curtean - b\u0103n\u0103duc a . and b\u0103n\u0103duc d . , 2012 \u2012 aspecte privind impactul devers\u0103rii apelor uzate asupra sistemelor ecologice lotice receptoare , \u00een apa resurs\u0103 fundamental\u0103 a dezvolt\u0103rii durabile . metode \u015fi tehnici neconven\u0163ionale de epurare \u015fi tratare a apei , ii , edit . universit\u0103\u0163ii \u201elucian blaga\u201d din sibiu , isbn 978 - 973 - 739 - 569 , 121 - 157 . ( in romanian )\n8 . romanescu g . , miftode d . , pintilie mihu a . , stoleriu c . c . and sandu i . , 2016 \u2013 water quality analysis in mountain freshwater : poiana uzului reservoir in the eastern carpathians ,\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\njoin researchgate to access over 30 million figures and 118 + million publications \u2013 all in one place .\nbarcode of life data systems ( bolds ) stats public records : 0 specimens . . .\ndanube drainage ( absent from danube main river except upper course and . . .\nhabitat : riffles of small , fast - flowing rivers and bottom . . .\nto receive our reports ( print and / or electronic ) and quarterly e - newsletter .\ncookies are not enabled . you must enable cookies before you can log in .\nthe distribution map is currently disabled . a new map solution will soon become available . in the meantime , please consult other species distribution map providers listed in the other resources panel below .\nconservation status assesses every six years and for each biogeographical region the condition of habitats and species compared to the favourable status as described in the habitats directive . the map shows the 2007 - 2012 assessments as reported by eu member state . assessments are further detailed in the summary document available behind the link below .\n: the species is viable and maintaining itself on a long - term basis , its natural range is not reduced , and it has a sufficient large habitat .\n: the species is not as critical as being unfavourable - bad , but still requires significant conservation and restoration measure to make it viable in the long - term , or to enlarged its current range , or to improve the quality and availability of its habitat .\n: the species is either not maintaining itself on a long - term basis and is not viable , or its natural range as been or is being drastically reduced , or its habitat is largely insufficient ; the species requires major conservation and restoration measures .\n: the information available for the species is scarce and does not allow a proper assessment of its conservation status .\nannex ii : animal and plant species of community interest whose conservation requires the designation of special areas of conservation .\ntemplate updated on 09 may 2018 14 : 41 from version 18 . 4 . 26\nthe european environment agency ( eea ) is an agency of the european union . legal notice\nwe use cookies to record some preference settings and to analyse how visitors use our web site . cookies do not contain any personal information about you . if you wish , see how to delete / disable cookies in your web browser . see also our privacy policy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nyou selected g\u00f3bio - do - dan\u00fabio ( portuguese ) . this is a common name for :\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c1faa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c42d7 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 3257953e - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 32579fd6 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 3617988d - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\neurope : danube drainage ( absent from danube main river except upper course and stretches with fast current ) . in appendix iii of the bern convention ( protected fauna ) .\nfroese r . & pauly d . ( eds ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase ( version feb 2018 ) . in : roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , bailly n . , kirk p . m . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , nieukerken e . van , zarucchi j . , penev l . , eds . ( 2018 ) . species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 30th june 2018 . digital resource at urltoken species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 631f4fcd - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\n. if you continue to use the site we will assume that you agree with this .\nthis is a short preview of the document . your library or institution may give you access to the complete full text for this document in proquest .\ntransylvanian review of systematical and ecological research ; sibiu vol . 19 , iss . 1 , ( 2017 ) : 71 - 84 .\nthe iucn red list of threatened species . version 2018 - 1 . < urltoken > . downloaded on 09 july 2018 .\neschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]"]}
{"id": 1898, "summary": [{"text": "the cuesta sea cow ( hydrodamalis cuestae ) is an extinct herbivorous marine mammal , and the direct ancestor of the steller 's sea cow ( hydrodamalis gigas ) .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "they reached up to 9 metres ( 30 ft ) in length , making them among the biggest sirenians to have ever lived .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they were first described in 1978 by daryl domning when fossils in california were unearthed .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "its appearance and behavior are largely based on that of the well-documented steller 's sea cow , who , unlike the cuesta sea cow , lived into modern times and was well described . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "cuesta sea cow", "paragraphs": ["sea cow bones in a purisima fm . ( e . pliocene ) concretion - probably giant cuesta sea cow , hydrodamalis cuestae urltoken\nthe steller sea cow has been discovered to be the descendant of an extinct california tropical sea cow called the cuesta sea cow . it is thought the cuesta sea cow died out due to the coming of the ice age . its descendants that were able to adapt eventually created the steller sea cow , which could cope with colder water .\nrobert boessenecker on twitter :\nsea cow bones in a purisima fm . ( e . pliocene ) concretion - probably giant cuesta sea cow , hydrodamalis cuestae urltoken\nlooks like you nabbed a thoracic vertebra of the cuesta sea cow , hydrodamalis cuestae , direct ancestor of the recently extinct steller ' s sea cow . i take it this is from that same locality you ' ve been making some neat finds from ?\nthese were considered possibly a surviving sea cow population , but there were no further known reports .\nan extinct tropical sea cow of california . it most likely went extinct due to the onset of the\nwould have increased and reduced availability of kelp , the sea cow ' s primary source of food .\nscheffer , victor b . ( november 1972 ) .\nthe weight of the steller sea cow\n.\nthus , aboriginal hunting of both species may have contributed to the sea cow ' s disappearance from continental shorelines .\npalmer , theodore s . ( 1895 ) .\nthe earliest name for steller ' s sea cow and dugong\n.\nanderson , paul k . ( july 1995 ) .\ncompetition , predation , and the evolution and extinction of steller ' s sea cow ,\nthe sea cow would have been easy prey for aboriginal hunters , who would likely have exterminated accessible populations with or without simultaneous otter hunting . in any event , the sea cow was limited to coastal areas off islands without a human population by the time bering arrived , and was already endangered .\nit has been argued that the steller ' s sea cow ' s decline may have also been an indirect response to the harvest of sea otters by aboriginal people from the inland areas . with the otters reduced , the population of\nhydrodamalis cuestae may have been big and a local celebrity , but it\u2019s biggest claim to fame is that it was the progenitor of steller\u2019s sea cow , hydrodamalis gigas . steller\u2019s sea cow went extinct in the 18 th century not long after being discovered . it\u2019s slow and gentle nature made it an ideal target for sailors .\nand the subsequent cooling of the oceans ; lineages which could not adapt died out , and those that could started the lineage of the steller ' s sea cow .\ndomning , daryl p . ; thomason , james ; corbett , debra g . ( 2007 ) .\nsteller ' s sea cow in the aleutian islands\n.\nhere , with what remained of the crew , steller studied the local flora and fauna , including the sea cow . his notes are the only information gathered about the sea cow while it still existed . it was one of the sirenian mammals and lived in the shallow kelp beds around the commander islands . many of the new animals and birds steller recorded were named after him and not many continue to exist today . the area is a highly productive fishing ground these days ; back then it would have teamed with sea life , including the now - extinct steller sea cow .\nan imperial walrus ( valenictus imperialensis ) quickly dives out of the way of a pair of cuesta sea cows ( hydrodamalis cuestae ) , although they pose no threat . a leopard shark and wrasses swim through the kelp forest .\nestes , j . a . , burdin , a . , and doak , d . f . 2016 . sea otters , kelp forests , and the extinction of steller ' s sea cow . proc . natl . acad . sci . usa 113 ( 4 ) : 880 - 885 .\nin historic times , though , aboriginal hunting had depleted sea otter populations only in localized areas .\nsteller ' s sea cow was the largest sirenian ( manatees and dugongs ) ever , reaching 30ft long . however , its ancestor , the cuesta sea cow was just as large , and swam through the warm waters of california rather than the colder depths of alaska and russia . this piece was inspired by a william stout piece ; he refers to the pictured sea cows as\na species dwarfing steller ' s sea cow\n, which is probably h . cuestae , though it was roughly the same size rather than dwarfing it . ontocetus was actually unusual , as for most of their 16 million year evolutionary history , they didn ' t have tusks and were more similar to other seals and sea lions . triakis , the genus leopard sharks belong to , has been along since the paleocene ( this leopard shark would also be out of its depths , as they prefer shallow water ) . i ' m not really sure when wrasses evolved ; the ones pictured here are based on california sheepheads but its pure speculation .\nmarsh , helene ; o ' shea , thomas j . ; reynolds iii , john e . ( 2011 ) .\nsteller ' s sea cow : discovery , biology and exploitation of a relict giant sirenian\n.\nawesome post ! i had always forgotten about dusisiren dewana having a manus with that morphology until daryl brought it up during the workshop at sdnhm last week . it ' s definitely a pretty bizarre trend within sea cow evolution .\nthe first bones of a steller sea cow were discovered around 1840 , in the area of the commander islands . by 2006 , 27 almost - complete skeletons and 62 skulls existed in various museums and research facilities around the world .\nwhether or not steller ' s sea cows had any predators is unknown . they may have been hunted by\nbecause it did not give off any smoke or odor and could be kept for a long time in warm weather without spoiling . by 1768 , 27 years after it had been discovered by europeans , steller ' s sea cow was extinct .\nde la cruz jp , villalobos ma , carmona ja , mart\u00edn - romero m , smith - agreda jm , de la cuesta fs . antithrombotic potential of olive oil administration in rabbits with elevated cholesterol .\nalasalvar c , taylor kda , zubcov e , shahidi f , alexis m . differentiation of cultured and wild sea bass (\n. it was hunted for its meat , skin , and fat by fur traders , and was also hunted by aboriginals of the north pacific coast . within 27 years of discovery by europeans , the slow - moving and easily captured steller ' s sea cow was hunted to\nthe stellar sea cow was related to other sirenians such as the dugongs and manatees . it was the largest of them all and was thought to reach 8 - 10 tons and 9 - 10 meters in length . due to the cold environment that it flourished in , it had a very thick layer of blubber for insulation . it lived in small family groups and fed only on kelp . as it was a slow moving creature , it was easily hunted into extinction and within thirty years of its discovery , the steller sea cow existed no more .\nits head was small and short compared to the huge body . the upper lip was large and broad , and extended so far beyond the mandible , that the mouth appeared to be located underneath the skull . instead of teeth , steller ' s sea cow had a dense array of white bristles ,\ncorbett , d . g . ; causey , d . ; clemente , m . ; koch , p . l . ; doroff , a . ; lefavre , c . ; west , d . ( 2008 ) .\naleut hunters , sea otters , and sea cows\n.\nkelp . kelp releases a chemical deterrent to prevent grazing , but canopy kelp release a lower concentration , allowing the sea cows to graze without developing resistance .\ntakahashi , d . , d . p . domning & t . saito . 1986 . dusisiren dewana , n . sp . ( mammalia : sirenia ) , a new ancestor of steller\u2019s sea cow from the upper miocene of yamagata prefecture , northeastern japan . transactions and proceedings of the paleontological society of japan , new series 141 : 296 - 321 .\nlike other sirenians , the steller ' s sea cow was an obligate herbivore , and kelp was most likely their main food source . they may have also fed on seagrasses , but this could not have been a main food source for supporting a viable population , because grasses did not occur in sufficient quantity . since this animal floated , it most likely fed on\nto anchor themselves down to prevent being swept away by the strong nearshore waves around their habitat . unlike other sirenians , the steller ' s sea cow was positively buoyant , meaning they could not completely submerge . they had a thick epidermis to prevent injury from abrasions on sharp rocks and ice , and possibly to prevent the skin that was not submerged from drying out .\nhydrodamalis was a big animal . it is quite possibly the biggest sea cow ever . stretching over 25 feet from nose to tail , it may have weighed as much as 11 tons . that\u2019s the equivalent of 22 real cows ! and one specimen from san diego could have been over 30 feet long . here\u2019s a fleshed out / skeletal reconstruction at the san diego natural history museum :\nit\u2019s hard to say how long they would have lasted had they not been hunted to extinction . apparently the sea cows discovered by steller were a relict population . they lived around a small island group in the bering sea , found barely enough food to stay alive , and were often injured and suffocated by ice flows . you\u2019d think an animal who lived in the north pacific would have adapted to it .\nantonopoulou s , semidalas ce , koussissis s , demopoulos ca . platelet - activating factor ( paf ) antagonists in foods : a study of lipids with paf or anti - paf - like activity in cow ' s milk and yogurt .\ncuesta , j . a . , alm\u00f3n , b . , p\u00e9rez - dieste , j . , trigo , j . e . , and ba\u00f1\u00f3n , r . 2016 . role of ships ' hull fouling and tropicalization process on european carcinofauna : new records in galician waters ( nw spain ) . biol . invasions 18 ( 3 ) : 619 - 630 .\nthe tail was forked like a dolphin\u2019s tail , the head of the animal was quite small in comparison to the body , its tongue was rough and textured and it did not have teeth like the other sirenians but had stiff bristles and keratinous plates in its mouth for chewing . it had small eyes and long , wide nostrils ; like sirenians of today it had no eyelids but used sphincters to close its eyes . according to steller , the sea cow made no sound other than heavy breathing and deep sighs .\nkelez , s . , velez - zuazo , x . , and pacheco , a . s . 2016 . first record of hybridization between green chelonia mydas and hawksbill eretmochelys imbricata sea turtles in the southeast pacific . peerj 4 : e1712 .\nhamilton , s . , and baker , g . b . 2016 . current bycatch levels in auckland islands trawl fisheries unlikely to be driving new zealand sea lion ( phocarctos hookeri ) population decline . aquat . conserv . 26 ( 1 ) : 121 - 133 .\nyoung , m . a . l . , foale , s . , and bellwood , d . r . 2016 . the last marine wilderness : spearfishing for trophy fishes in the coral sea . environ . conserv . 43 ( 1 ) : 90 - 95 .\ndue to their not being able to submerge , the sea cows were easily harpooned . russian seal hunters used them as valuable meat on long journeys , but some hunting was just wasteful . it was thought that there had been approximately 2 , 000 of these animals alive in 1741 .\nbellard , c . , leclerc , c . , hoffmann , b . d . , and courchamp , f . 2016 . vulnerability to climate change and sea - level rise of the 35th biodiversity hotspot , the forests of east australia . environ . conserv . 43 ( 1 ) : 79 - 89 .\nd ' anastasi , b . r . , van herwerden , l . , hobbs , j . a . , simpfendorfer , c . a . , and lukoschek , v . 2016 . new range and habitat records for threatened australian sea snakes raise challenges for conservation . biol . conserv . 194 : 66 - 70 .\nok , so now to the meaty part of this post . back in 2008 i wrote about the hand of steller\u2019s sea cow ( hydrodamalis gigas ) or more likely the lack of one . back then i mentioned that g . w . steller was one of the few people who saw h . gigas alive , and in his account he mentions the lack of fingers in this species . however , so far no hand bones have been found associated with hydrodamalis gigas or even h . cuestae ( see reconstruction below ) ( the presumed direct ancestor of the former ) , this lead to skepticism about his observations . so , how was that steller\u2019s account about the hand of h . gigas was corroborated ?\n\u00f6st , m . , ramula , s . , lind\u00e9n , a . , karell , p . , and kilpi , m . 2016 . small - scale spatial and temporal variation in the demographic processes underlying the large - scale decline of eiders in the baltic sea . pop . ecol . 58 ( 1 ) : 121 - 133 .\nnicolau , l . , ferreira , m . , santos , j . , ara\u00fajo , h . , sequeira , m . , vingada , j . , eira , c . , and mar\u00e7alo , a . 2016 . sea turtle strandings along the portuguese mainland coast : spatio - temporal occurrence and main threats . mar . biol . 163 ( 1 ) : 21 .\nhydrodamalis cuestae has been found in california , baja california , and japan . but it was first discovered here on the central coast . back in the seventies , the holotype , which includes a skull and partial skeleton , was excavated at avila beach . it hails from the middle pliocene pismo formation , around 3 . 5 mya . the excavation was carried out by cuesta college ( the school i currently attend ) and at least some prep work was done at cal poly . then somehow it wound up at berkeley . here\u2019s a shot of a cast of the holotype skull , which sits in a cabinet in the geology lab :\ncarman , v . g . , bruno , i . , maxwell , s . , \u00e1lvarez , k . , albareda , d . , acha , e . m . , and campagna , c . 2016 . habitat use , site fidelity and conservation opportunities for juvenile loggerhead sea turtles in the rio de la plata , argentina . mar . biol . 163 ( 1 ) : 20 .\nb\u0103n\u0103duc , d . , rey , s . , trichkova , t . , lenhardt , m . , and curtean - b\u0103n\u0103duc , a . 2016 . the lower danube river - danube delta - north west black sea : a pivotal area of major interest for the past , present and future of its fish fauna - a short review . sci . total environ . 545 : 137 - 151 .\ndescribed by takahashi et al . in 1986 , the remains of dusisiren dewana were found in late miocene deposits in japan and together with other elements of the skeleton there was also a nearly complete forelimb , including the hand . these were crucial in providing an insight into what the hand of later hydrodamalines was like . dusisiren dewana shows reduction of the hand bones , in this respect differing from d . jordani , its predecessor , whose hands showed no reduction of elements ( i . e . long metacarpals and long fingers composed of multiple elements ) ( see picture above ) . as for d . dewana , the carpals ( wrist bones ) are quite similar to those of other sirenians , however , the metacarpals ( the bones between the wrist and fingers ) and the phalanges ( finger bones ) are reduced , actually extremely reduced in the case of the phalanges ( see picture below of hydrodamalis cuestae ) . d . dewana as the sister taxon ( closest relative / ancestor ) of hydrodamalis spp . is best evidence at hand ( unintended pun ) supporting steller\u2019s account on the hand of the sea cow that bears his name and allowing for reconstructions like the one seen here for h . cuestae .\nhuang , d . w . , hoeksema , b . w . , affendi , y . a . , ang , p . o . , chen , c . l . a . , huang , h . , lane , d . j . w . , licuanan , w . y . , vibol , o . , vo , s . t . , yeemin , t . , and chou , l . m . 2016 . conservation of reef corals in the south china sea based on species and evolutionary diversity . biodivers . conserv . 25 ( 2 ) : 331 - 344 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nas you may have figured out by now , this blog is chiefly about paleontology on the central coast . and i thought that the best way to kick it off is with a creature that has it\u2019s roots here . and as the title suggests , that creature is hydrodamalis cuestae .\ncast of the holotype skull of hadrodamalis cuestae as seen in mr . grover ' s geology class\nwho knows why h . cuestae moved north the way it did . could it have been a loss of habitat ? during the pliocene california\u2019s shoreline was a mosaic of bays , inlets , and estuaries . a quick trip up the big sur coast shows that this is no longer the case . california\u2019s shorline today harbors few bays ( which is why it wasn\u2019t as attractive to settlers , but spain claimed it nonetheless ) and is so rocky the rocks have their own national monument . regardless of how it went extinct , hydrodamalis is a neat creature , a blown up version of a familiar animal we see today . for me , the best part is he \u201cgot his start\u201d right here .\ngreat post , doug , great blog ! ! i\u2019m particularly fond to see hydrodamalis cuestae as the start of it all . daryl domning was my advisor and i still try to focus my energies on sirenia and desmostylia . it is a joy to see someone else appreciate these marvelous beasts . i\u2019m looking forward to seeing more posts like this . best wishes , brian\nthanks brian ! pinnipeds , desmostylians , and sirenians are where it\u2019s at . i have loads of ideas , but am being rather conservative with posting them . i\u2019m waiting to see if i get a few more readers / watchers ( cause when you have more , you have to give up the goods more often , it seems ) .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\ni finally got a new camera with a good zoom . . so . . . i found this vert yesterday in the sand pit . the wind has been so bad it blew all the sand away from it and it was just sticking out . nothing else close around but will go back today .\nlooks like a mammoth lumbar vertebra to me . i ' ll send an invite to bobby just in case it is marine mammal .\nbobby , is the v - shaped notch on the dorsal rim of the centrum an apomorphy for just h . cuestae , or does it apply to a higher level ?\nit ' s a sirenian feature in general . the identification as h . cuestae is based in part on the pliocene age of the sediments where this came from ( based on previous posts and correspondence ) , in addition to the gigantic size of the vertebra .\nthank you all ! yes from the same area . . more to follow !\nsign up for a new account in our community . it ' s easy !\nin 1741 , german naturalist georg w . steller traveled with vitus bering on his voyage in the north pacific . on bering\u2019s great northern expedition , the ocean area around the alaskan mainland was discovered and then later named after him . the captain and crew of the exploration vessel became sick with scurvy and refused to accept the advice of steller and his assistant , who were consuming berries and leaves from their visit to the kayak island . eventually , with only a few crewmen to man the ship , it became shipwrecked on what is now called bering island .\nit is thought that due to the cold area it lived in , it was stunted in growth ; if it had lived in warmer waters , it would have been significantly bigger . it was a little different from other sirenians that survive today in that it was unable to submerge itself completely since its body was very buoyant . its skin was very thick and this is thought to be an adaptation to prevent injury on sharp rocks .\nif it had predators other than humans , it is unknown . scientists assume that the kelp beds would have protected them from sharks , but it is possible they may have been hunted by killer whales . like the whale , this animal did have parasites , but as the samples were lost from steller\u2019s collection , no positive identification has been made of them .\nwhen steller hunted and captured a female , he noted that the male attacked the boat and then followed them to shore , even though its mate was now dead . the rest of the group also attacked the boat and he observed them helping injured members of their group . females were in calf for about a year ; autumn was the most common time for the calf to be born . when it wanted to sleep , it swam into deeper water to prevent itself from being beached .\nthe body is oblong . on the left end is the head which is slightly smaller than the body , with a dot for an eye near the top . just behind the head on the underside is an arm that bends back towards the tail .\nthe only unsolved skyjacking case in u . s . history might have a break\nwe ' ve detected that javascript is disabled in your browser . would you like to proceed to legacy twitter ?\nyou can add location information to your tweets , such as your city or precise location , from the web and via third - party applications . you always have the option to delete your tweet location history . learn more\nhere ' s the url for this tweet . copy it to easily share with friends .\nby embedding twitter content in your website or app , you are agreeing to the twitter developer agreement and developer policy .\nnot on twitter ? sign up , tune into the things you care about , and get updates as they happen .\nthis timeline is where you\u2019ll spend most of your time , getting instant updates about what matters to you .\nhover over the profile pic and click the following button to unfollow any account .\nwhen you see a tweet you love , tap the heart \u2014 it lets the person who wrote it know you shared the love .\nthe fastest way to share someone else\u2019s tweet with your followers is with a retweet . tap the icon to send it instantly .\nadd your thoughts about any tweet with a reply . find a topic you\u2019re passionate about , and jump right in .\ntwitter may be over capacity or experiencing a momentary hiccup . try again or visit twitter status for more information .\ndude , this is awesome ! i often have to search far and wide for illustrations of the creatures living off the coast of california in the cenozoic , so this was a nice surprise . that said though , i haven ' t been able to find any records of ontocetus from the west coast of the us ! might i suggest imagotaria , valenictus , or pliopedia ? either way , though , i do want to re - emphasize how cool this is to see .\nthank you ! and now that i look into it , ontocetus isn ' t showing up in california either , so i might have read a source wrong . valenictus it is then haha .\nwhere : san diego county , california ( 33 . 2\u00b0 n , 117 . 4\u00b0 w : paleocoordinates 33 . 0\u00b0 n , 116 . 1\u00b0 w )\nwhen : san mateo formation , zanclean ( 5 . 3 - 3 . 6 ma )\nprimary reference : l . g . barnes , h . howard , j . h . hutchison and b . j . welton . 1981 . the vertebrate fossils of the marine cenozoic san mateo formation at oceanside , california .\npaleodb collection 50068 : authorized by mark uhen , entered by mark uhen on 05 . 05 . 2005 , edited by john alroy\nit\u2019s been quite a while since my last post . a lot has been going on , mostly research - related , which is good . just last week i was in san diego where i participated in the sixth triennial conference of secondary adaptation of tetrapods to life in water held at san diego state university . the meeting was a great opportunity to see colleagues as well as making new acquaintances , hat tip to the host committee : annalisa berta , tom dem\u00e9r\u00e9 and eric ekdale for such a great meeting ! the week before that i spent some days visiting the collection at the natural history museum of los angeles where i got to look at some interesting sirenian and cetaceans , many thanks to larry barnes and sam mcleod for access to specimens .\nhydrodamalis cuestae , in left lateral view ( picture of the reconstruction on exhibit at the san diego natural history museum ) . notice the reduced forelimbs .\nin the late miocene ( 10 - 8 million years ago [ mya ] ) of japan , provided the key elements to support steller\u2019s account .\nare members of a subfamily of dugongids ( which means they are more closely related to dugongs than to manatees ) known as the hydrodamalinae ( domning , 1994 ; domning & furusawa , 1994 ) . hydrodamalines , as they are also known , ranged throughout coastal waters of the northern pacific , from baja california to japan , with one species surviving until historical times ( domning & furusawa , 1994 ) . some distinctive features of this group include , large body size , reduction or loss of dentition , and reduction of the digits , which brings us back to d . dewana .\ndusisiren jordani , anterior view ( specimen at exhibit at the natural history museum of los angeles ) . notice the\nnormal\nhand in this species .\nhydrodamalis cuestae , right lateral view ( picture of specimen on exhibit at the san diego natural history museum ) . notice the reduced hand .\ndomning , d . p . 1994 . a phylogenetic analysis of the sirenia . proceedings of the san diego society of natural history 29 : 177 - 189 .\ndomning , d . p . & h . furusawa . 1994 . summary of taxa and distribution of sirenia in the north pacific ocean . island arc 3 : 506 - 512 .\nwith a bachelors degree in geology from university of puerto rico and a phd in anatomy from howard u . , i am currently assistant curator of marine mammals ( living and extinct ) at the natural history museum of los angeles county . the main subjects of this blog are marine tetrapods of the neotropics and eastern pacific regions . the text in these posts reflect my own opinion and not those of the granting agency or institutions to which i\u2019m affiliated . if you wish to contact me write to : jorgefossilhunter @ urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\n4 more lego movie sets comi . . .\nthe youtube account associated with this video has been terminated due to multiple third - party notifications of copyright infringement .\n4 . 4 and 26 . 8 short tons ( 4 and 24 . 3 metric tons )\n. the true value is estimated to lie between these figures , at around 9 to 11 short tons ( 8 to 10 metric tons ) .\nand sharks , but their buoyancy may have made it difficult for killer whales to drown them , and the rocky kelp forests may have protected them from sharks . according to steller , the young were guarded by the adults from predators .\nwere associated with tropical mangroves , and adapted to the cold climates of the north pacific and to consuming kelp .\n, which many writers at the time adopted . however , the animal had already been classified long before this . zoologist\n, as steller was the first person to describe it . it was not until the 1900s that\nestimated in 1887 that there had been fewer than 1 , 500 individuals remaining at the time of their discovery , and thus had been in immediate danger of extinction .\nthis film has been exhibited in public institutions such as art museums and universities in europe .\nart critic annick bureaud found the film a\ntongue in cheek and joyous but unsettling fable\n.\nwilson , don e . ; reeder , deeann m . ( eds . ) .\n( 2 ed . ) . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . p .\n( 2011 ) [ 1751 ] .\nthe manatee\n. in royster , paul .\nperrin , william f . ; wursig , bernd ; thewissen , j . g . m . ( 2008 ) .\nestes , james a . ; burdin , alexander ; doak , daniel f . ( 2016 ) .\ndomning , daryl p . ( 1978 ) .\nan ecological model for late tertiary sirenian evolution in the north pacific ocean\n.\nmacdonald , stephen o . ; cook , joseph a . ( 2009 ) .\njones , ryan t . ( september 2011 ) .\na ' havock made among them ' : animals , empire , and extinction in the russian north pacific , 1741\u20131810\n.\nsilverberg , r . the dodo , the auk and the oryx penguin 1973 p . 83 isbn 0 - 14 - 030619 - 6\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 12 / 1 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nthe world is flat 3 . 0 : a brief history of the twenty - first century\nthis action might not be possible to undo . are you sure you want to continue ?\nthis awesome code was written by danziged , you can see more from this user in the personal repository . you can find the original code on urltoken copyright danziged \u00a9\n/ * downloaded from urltoken * / . title { border - bottom : 1 . 4px solid teal ; } # content { border : 2px solid silver ; align - content : left ; background : aliceblue ; margin - right : 89 % ; } # main - title { color : teal ; }\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhow fast tropical forests recover after deforestation has major consequences for climate change mitigation . a team including smithsonian scientists discovered that some secondary tropical forests recover biomass quickly : half of the forests in the study attained 90 percent of old - growth forest levels in 66 years or less . the study was published in the journal nature . conservation planners can use their resulting biomass - recovery map for latin america to prioritize conservation efforts .\n\nregenerating secondary forests could play a critical role in carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation\nsaid daisy dent , a research associate at the smithsonian tropical research institute ( stri ) in panama and a lecturer at the university of stirling .\nhowever , previous studies have tended to focus on single sites . this study brings together data from many sites that span the neotropics . we illustrate that secondary forests are highly productive and resilient .\nless than half of the world ' s tropical forests are primary or old - growth forests ; the rest are growing back after logging or other disturbances . the new study focused on secondary forests growing back on land almost completely deforested for agriculture . although such forests are known to accumulate carbon rapidly , how quickly they recover and restore the ecosystem services provided by old - growth forest was uncertain because of inconsistencies in the methods used in previous studies .\nthis study was unprecedented in scope : 45 sites in eight countries , 1 , 478 study plots and more than 168 , 000 trees . sites covered the full latitudinal range of the tropics , from 20 degrees north in mexico to 22 degrees south in brazil , and extended across areas of high - to - low rainfall and low - to - high soil fertility . the extent of forest cover in the surrounding landscape ( indicating the availability of tree seeds for regeneration ) and the intensity of prior land use was also considered .\nafter 20 years of recovery , the average biomass in these regenerating forests was calculated to be equivalent to a carbon uptake rate 11 times that of amazonianold - growth forests , and more than twice that of selectively logged amazonian forests in which reduced - impact logging techniques had been used . however , biomass accumulation rates differed widely across sites . sites with higher rainfall had higher absolute rates of biomass accumulation . soil fertility , local forest cover and prior land - use were not found to have an effect . however , higher soil fertility did improve the relative rate of biomass accumulation compared to old - growth forests in the same area .\nthe authors produced a map of the potential for biomass recovery and carbon sequestration across the new world tropics . areas such as the dry forests of mexico and northeastern brazil had low recovery rates , whereas the moister forests of central america and large parts of amazonia had high recovery rates . in moist forest areas , where potential for biomass accumulation is highest , restoration and reforestation may be the optimal land - use activities . where the capacity of forest recovery is lower , such as seasonally dry forest , a higher emphasis should be placed on protection of existing forest to minimize forest loss .\ncollaborations like the one illustrated here by the 2ndfor network , in which site - based monitoring and manipulations allow us to test mechanistic hypotheses related to forest development , and large - scale analysis across sites allow for robust synthesis , are critically important in the era of global change ,\nsaid jefferson hall , stri staff scientist and director of the agua salud project in the panama canal watershed .\nabbas , s . , nichol , j . e . , and fischer , g . a . 2016 . a 70 - year perspective on tropical forest regeneration . sci . total environ . 544 : 544 - 552 .\nabdullah , m . m . , feagin , r . a . , musawi , l . , whisenant , s . , and popescu , s . 2016 . the use of remote sensing to develop a site history for restoration planning in an arid landscape . restor . ecol . 24 ( 1 ) : 91 - 99 .\nabelson , a . , halpern , b . s . , reed , d . c . , orth , r . j . , kendrick , g . a . , beck , m . w . , belmaker , j . , krause , g . , edgar , g . j . , airoldi , l . , brokovich , e . , france , r . , shashar , n . , de blaeij , a . , stambler , n . , salameh , p . , shechter , m . , and nelson , p . a . 2016 . upgrading marine ecosystem restoration using ecological - social concepts . bioscience 66 ( 2 ) : 156 - 163 .\naffonso , i . d . , azevedo , r . f . , dos santos , n . l . c . , dias , r . m . , agostinho , a . a . , and gomes , l . c . 2015 . pulling the plug : strategies to preclude expansion of dams in brazilian rivers with high - priority for conservation . nat . conservacao 13 ( 2 ) : 199 - 203 .\nagostini , m . g . , and burrowes , p . a . 2015 . infection patterns of the chytrid fungus , batrachochytrium dendrobatidis , on anuran assemblages in agro - ecosystems from buenos aires province , argentina . phyllomedusa 14 ( 2 ) : 113 - 126 .\nakmentins , m . s . , velasco , m . a . , kass , c . a . , and kacoliris , f . p . 2015 . a new threat for the endangered frog atelognathus reverberii ( anura : batrachylidae ) in argentinean patagonia . phyllomedusa 14 ( 1 ) : 63 - 66 .\nalbers , h . j . , busby , g . m . , hamaide , b . , ando , a . w . , and polasky , s . 2016 . spatially - correlated risk in nature reserve site selection . plos one 11 ( 1 ) : e0146023 .\naltamirano , a . , valladares , g . , kuzmanich , n . , and salvo , a . 2016 . galling insects in a fragmented forest : incidence of habitat loss , edge effects and plant availability . j . insect conserv . 20 ( 1 ) : 119 - 127 .\nalvarado , s . t . , buisson , e . , carri\u00e8re , s . m . , rabarison , h . , rajeriarison , c . , andrianjafy , m . , randriatsivery , f . m . , rasoafaranaivo , m . h . , raharimampionona , j . , lowry , p . p . , and birkinshaw , c . 2015 . achieving sustainable conservation in madagascar : the case of the newly established ibity mountain protected area . trop . conserv . sci . 8 ( 2 ) : 367 - 395 .\nalves , c . , vieira , c . , s\u00e9rgio , c . , garcia , c . , stow , s . , and hespanhol , h . 2016 . selecting important areas for bryophyte conservation : is the higher taxa approach an effective method ? j . nature conserv . 29 : 105 - 113 .\namaya - villarreal , a . m . , estrada , a . , and vargas - ram\u00edrez , n . 2015 . use of wild foods during the rainy season by a reintroduced population of scarlet macaws ( ara macao cyanoptera ) in palenque , mexico . trop . conserv . sci . 8 ( 2 ) : 455 - 478 .\namtstaetter , f . , o ' connor , j . , and pickworth , a . 2016 . environmental flow releases trigger spawning migrations by australian grayling prototroctes maraena , a threatened , diadromous fish . aquat . conserv . 26 ( 1 ) : 35 - 43 .\nancillotto , l . , strubbe , d . , menchetti , m . , and mori , e . 2016 . an overlooked invader ? ecological niche , invasion success and range dynamics of the alexandrine parakeet in the invaded range . biol . invasions 18 ( 2 ) : 583 - 595 .\nandrade , b . o . , koch , c . , boldrini , i . i . , v\u00e9lez - martin , e . , hasenack , h . , hermann , j . m . , kollmann , j . , pillar , v . d . , and overbeck , g . e . 2015 . grassland degradation and restoration : a conceptual framework of stages and thresholds illustrated by southern brazilian grasslands . nat . conservacao 13 ( 2 ) : 95 - 104 .\nannorbah , n . n . d . , collar , n . j . , and marsden , s . j . 2016 . trade and habitat change virtually eliminate the grey parrot psittacus erithacus from ghana . ibis 158 ( 1 ) : 82 - 91 .\napplegate , r . d . 2015 . the importance of data management in wildlife conservation . wildlife soc . bull . 39 ( 3 ) : 449 - 450 .\narnold , m . , teagle , h . , brown , m . p . , and smale , d . a . 2016 . the structure of biogenic habitat and epibiotic assemblages associated with the global invasive kelp undaria pinnatifida in comparison to native macroalgae . biol . invasions 18 ( 3 ) : 661 - 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{"id": 1899, "summary": [{"text": "the sparsely-spotted stingaree , white-spotted stingaree , or dixon 's stingaree ( urolophus paucimaculatus ) is a species of stingray in the family urolophidae , common off the southern australian coast .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "preferring sandy flats and seagrass beds , this benthic ray can be found from close to shore to a depth of at least 150 m ( 490 ft ) , and tends to occur deeper in the northern portion of its range .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "reaching a length of 57 cm ( 22 in ) , this species has a broad , diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc that is typically plain gray in color above with a v-shaped marking between the eyes .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "individuals from southerly waters also generally exhibit a smattering of small , dark-edged white spots .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "this ray is further characterized by a distinctively bell-shaped curtain of skin between the nostrils .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "its tail has a skin fold running along either side and a leaf-shaped caudal fin , but no dorsal fin .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "relatively inactive during daytime , the sparsely-spotted stingaree preys mainly on crustaceans , and to a much lesser extent on polychaete worms and other small benthic organisms .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is aplacental viviparous , with the mother provisioning her young with histotroph ( \" uterine milk \" ) .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "life history differs between the eastern and western subpopulations : eastern females bear litters of up to six pups with a twelve-month gestation period , while western females bear litters of only one or two pups with a ten-month gestation period .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "also , western rays mature later and live longer than eastern rays .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "the venomous sting of the sparsely-spotted stingaree is potentially injurious to humans , and it has been reported to react aggressively if disturbed .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has listed it under least concern , as there is little fishing activity over the majority of its range . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "sparsely - spotted stingaree", "paragraphs": ["demographic biology of the sparsely - spotted stingaree urolophus paucimaculatus from south eastern australia . abstract .\nregional differences in the reproductive parameters of the sparsely - spotted stingaree , urolophus paucimaculatus , from south - eastern australia .\nbray , d . and gomon , m . ( 2018 ) urolophus paucimaculatus sparsely - spotted stingaree in museums victoria collections urltoken accessed 10 july 2018\nmurch , a . spotted stingaree . elasmodiver . com . retrieved on september 7 , 2010 .\nduring the day , the spotted stingaree is often encountered buried in sand or hidden amongst seagrass or rocks .\nhead of a sparsely - spotted stingaree , urolophus paucimaculatus , at st leonards in port phillip bay , victoria . source : julian finn / museum victoria . license : cc by attribution\ndisc of the spotted stingaree is oval in shape and slightly longer than wide ; it is more circular in juveniles .\na pale grey stingaree with distinctive whitish spots on the disc . the spots are arranged in a regular pattern , and each has a darker margin . the sparsely - spotted stingaree is widely distributed and abundant on sandy bottoms and in seagrass beds in southern australia .\nmore information :\nregional differences in the reproductive parameters of the sparsely - spotted stingaree , urolophus paucimaculatus , from south - eastern australia .\nmarine and freshwater research 65 ( 11 ) 943 - 958 urltoken\nresearchers have found regional differences in the reproductive strategies of one of australia ' s most abundant stingray species , the sparsely - spotted stingaree ( urolophus paucimaculatus ) , leading them to question whether they might in fact be separate species .\nmy study concludes that stingaree species in wa have developed a different reproductive strategy to the stingaree species in se australia ,\ndr trinnie says .\nsparsely - spotted stingarees are common and abundant on sandy bottoms and in seagrass beds in shallow bays , harbours and inlets , and on the continental shelf to a depth of 150 m .\nreproductive biology of the eastern shovelnose stingaree trygonoptera imitata from south - eastern australia .\nasynchrony and regional differences in the reproductive cycle of the greenback stingaree urolophus viridis from south - eastern australia .\nbiennial reproductive cycle in an extensive matrotrophic viviparous batoid : the sandyback stingaree urolophus bucculentus from south - eastern australia .\nedwards , r . r . c . 1980 . aspects of the population dynamics and ecology of the white spotted stingaree , urolophus paucimaculatus dixon , in port phillip bay , victoria . australian journal of marine and freshwater research 31 : 459 - 467\nthe sparsely - spotted stingaree is widely distributed and abundant on sandy bottoms and in seagrass beds in southern australia , and often rests partly buried in the sandy bottom . stingarees must handled with great care as the serrated spine is venomous and can inflict a very painful wound . when wading in sandy shallows and seagrass areas it is advisable to shuffle along to avoid accidentally stepping on one of these rays .\nwhile this species is most similar to the common stingaree , trygonoptera testacea , it lacks the dark mask around the eyes .\nwa fisheries researcher dr fabian trinnie completed a phd on five stingaree species for the purpose of fisheries stock assessment , ecological risk assessment , and species extinction - risk .\nthe eastern and western forms of this ray differ slightly in coloration ; the western form , called sinclair ' s stingaree , has been considered a distinct separate species by some authors .\nrather reclusive , at least during the day , the spotted stingaree preys largely on crustaceans . it is aplacental viviparous : female bear litters of up to 13 pups and supply them with histotroph (\nuterine milk\n) during gestation . relatively inoffensive towards humans , the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has listed this species under least concern , citing the overall low level of fishing activity across its range . furthermore , it is sheltered from commercial fishing gear by the rough terrain of its favored habitats .\nthe spotted stingaree ( urolophus gigas ) is an uncommon species of stingray in the family urolophidae , endemic to shallow waters along the coast of southern australia . it favors rocky reefs and seagrass beds . this species can be readily identified by its nearly circular , dark - colored pectoral fin disc , adorned with a complex pattern of white or cream spots . its eastern and western forms differ slightly in coloration and have been regarded as separate species . there is a skirt - shaped curtain of skin between its nostrils . its tail is fairly thick and terminates in a short leaf - shaped caudal fin ; a relatively large dorsal fin is present just in front of the stinging spine .\njustification : urolophus paucimaculatus is an abundant endemic species distributed throughout southern australia on sandy and seagrass substrates . this stingaree is a significant component of the bycatch of seine and trawl fisheries in southeastern and southwestern australia , though its distribution far exceeds the extent of these fisheries . the species has no current commercial value but is edible and has the potential to be utilised in the future . eastern and western populations may be distinct but further research is required to verify this . with a wide southern australian distribution and its abundant status ( abundance has increased in some areas , i . e . , port phillip bay , victoria ) the species is assessed as least concern . however , given the low fecundity of the species ( 1 to 2 young per year in wa ; 1 to 6 per year in se australia ) , the high abortion rates among pregnant females landed by trawlers is the only real threat to this species and the catches of this species as bycatch should be monitored into the future .\nstingarees must handled with great care as the serrated spine is venomous and can inflict a very painful wound .\nendemic to southern australia , from from northern new south wales to about lancelin in western australia , including victoria , tasmania and south australia .\ndisc smooth , somewhat rhomboidal in shape with a broadly triangular fleshy snout . tail long , flattened near base , with prominent skin folds along the sides ; caudal fin deepish , spine long and slender ; dorsal fin absent .\npale grey above with a variable number of distinctive pale , regularly - arranged spots , each with a darker border . underside pale .\ncarnivore - prey on crustaceans , polychaete worms and small fishes . juveniles feed on small crustaceans .\nmating occurs in early to mid - summer and females give birth to a maximum of 6 pups in late autumn after a gestation of 10 - 12 months .\ncommonly taken as bycatch in seine and trawl fisheries in southern australia , although seldom marketed .\nurolophus paucimaculatus dixon , 1969 , vic . nat . 86 ( 1 ) : 11 , pls 1 - 3 . type locality : off cape patton , victoria .\ndixon , j . m . 1969 . a new species of ray of the genus urolophus ( elasmobranchii : urolophidae ) from victoria . victorian naturalist 86 ( 1 ) : 11 - 18 pls 1 - 3\ngomon , m . f . , yearsley , g . k . & last , p . r . 2008 . family urolophidae . 125 - 137 pp . in gomon . m . f . , bray , d . j . & kuiter , r . h ( eds ) . fishes of australia ' s southern coast . sydney : reed new holland 928 pp .\nhobday , d . k . , officer , r . a . & parry , g . d . 1999 . changes in demersal fish communities in port phillip bay , australia , over two decades , 1970\u201391 . marine and freshwater research 50 : 397\u2013407 .\nhutchins , j . b . & swainston , r . 1986 . sea fishes of southern australia . complete field guide for anglers and divers . perth : swainston publishing 180 pp .\nlast , p . r . & gomon , m . f . 1994 . family urolophidae . pp . 172 - 181 figs 150 - 159 in gomon , m . f . , glover , c . j . m . & kuiter , r . h ( eds ) . the fishes of australia ' s south coast . adelaide : state printer 992 pp . 810 figs\nlast , p . r . & stevens , j . d . 1994 . sharks and rays of australia . canberra : csiro australia 513 pp . 84 pls\nlast , p . r . & stevens , j . d . 2009 . sharks and rays of australia . collingwood : csiro publishing australia 2 , 550 pp .\nlast , p . r . , yearsley , g . k . & white , w . t . 2016 . family urolophidae pp . 676 - 705 . in : last , p . r . , white , w . t . , de carvalho , m . r . , s\u00e9ret , b . , stehmann , m . f . w . & & naylor , g . j . p . ( eds ) rays of the world . melbourne : csiro publishing , 800 pp .\nplatell , m . e . , potter , i . c . & clarke , k . r . 1998 . resource partitioning by four species of elasmobranchs ( batoidea : urolophidae ) in coastal waters of temperate australia . marine biology 131 ( 4 ) : 719 - 734 .\ntrinnae , f . i . 2013 . reproduction in five sympatric batoid species ( family urolophidae ) from south - eastern australia . phd thesis , deakin university , 198 pp .\ntrinnie , f . i . , white , w . t . & walker , t . i . 2006 . urolophus paucimaculatus . the iucn red list of threatened species 2006 : e . t60102a12300571 . urltoken downloaded on 17 november 2016 .\nwhite , w . t . & potter , i . c . 2005 . reproductive biology , size and age compositions and growth of the batoid urolophus paucimaculatus , including comparisons with other species of urolophidae . marine and freshwater research 56 ( 1 ) : 101 - 110\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthere are potential issues regarding eastern and western subpopulations of the species and molecular work is probably needed .\nurolophus paucimaculatus is known to inhabit most southern australian continental waters where it is distributed widely across a variety of soft substrates , from shallow bays and inlets to the open continental shelf : from northern new south wales ( 31\u00b050 ' s ) to lancelin in western australia ( 31\u00b000 ' s ) including victoria , tasmania and south australia ( last and stevens 1994 ) . the species has undergone a southward range expansion in recent decades .\nthis species is one of the most abundant and widely distributed benthic chondrichthyans found in southern australian waters , but little is not known about whether subpopulations or fragmentation occur . however , the southwestern population and the southeastern populations appear to be separated . in port phillip bay , victoria , local abundances can be correlated with the catch of recreational and commercial benthic fish species and increases in the abundance of u . paucimaculatus were recorded from 1970 to 1991 , probably due to a reduction in the abundance of competitors ( hobday et al . 1999 ) .\nthis species is demersal on the inner continental shelf over sandy and seagrass substrates from the shore to 150 m depth or more , including shallow bays and inlets ( last and stevens 1994 ) . in se australia it is generally found < 80 m depth and occurs deeper in the great australian bight . the species exhibits aplacental viviparity with uterine trophonemata and histotroph but demonstrates extreme atrophy of the left ovary and uterus . ovulation occurs between spring and early summer in se australia . litter size 1 to 2 in sw australia and varies 1 to 6 in se australia , with larger mothers carrying more young than smaller mothers . spontaneous abortion occurs at all sizes of pregnant animals when handled or caught in fishing gear . the sex ratio of embryos in se australia is 1 : 1 . diet consists primarily of crustaceans , in particular mysids , carid decapods and amphipods ( platell et al . 1998 ) . life history parameters for both se australia ( trinnie 2003 ) and sw australia ( white and potter in prep ) are given in the table below . life history parameters age at maturity : se aust : ~ 3 years at 50 % maturity , sw aust : 5 years ( female ) ; se aust : ~ 2 . 5 years at 50 % maturity , sw aust : 3 years ( male ) . size at maturity ( total length / dic width ) : se aust : 50 % mature at 27 cm tl , sw aust : 50 % mature at 22 . 3 cm dw ( female ) ; se aust : 50 % mature at 27 . 8 cm tl , sw aust : 50 % mature at 20 . 7 cm dw ( male ) . longevity : se aust : 9 + years ( females ) ; 8 + years ( males ) ; sw aust : 14 years . maximum size ( total length / disc width ) : se aust : 50 cm tl ( females ) ; 42 cm tl ( males ) ; sw aust : 27 . 2 cm dw . size at birth : se aust : ~ 15 . 0 to 15 . 5 cm tl ; sw aust : 12 . 6 cm dw . average reproductive age ( years ) : unknown . gestation time : se aust : ~ 1 year ; sw aust : 10 months . reproductive periodicity : 1 litter per annum . average annual fecundity or litter size : se aust : 1 - 6 dependant on maternal size ; sw aust : 1 to 2 . annual rate of population increase : unknown . natural mortality : unknown .\nse australia : urolophus paucimaculatus is commonly taken as bycatch in danish and inshore beach seines in the southern and eastern scalefish and shark fishery ( sessf ) . the demersal monofilament gillnets and longlines of the shark fishery in southern australia catch only small numbers and have no effect on the abundance of this species ( walker et al . 2002 ) . rapid risk assessment of the catch susceptibility defined from\navailability\n,\nselectivity\n,\nencounterability\nand\npost - capture mortality\n, rates this species as low to all fishing methods in the sessf ( t . i . walker , unpublished data ) . of animals caught and released , there would be some loss of aborting embryos in pregnant animals from the effects of capture and handling . although encounterability and selectivity are high for demersal trawl , availability is low because most of the population is distributed outside the range of this fishery . sw australia : a trawl survey of demersal fishes on the coastal shelf regions of sw australia in the early 1990s reported that u . paucimaculatus constituted 5 . 2 % of the total biomass of fish caught ( laurenson et al . 1994 , hyndes et al . 1999 ) . only a small number of trawlers operate within the range of this species and no other fisheries catch urolophids in the sw portion of its range . although females often abort embryos after capture , the low level of fishing pressure in sw australia appears to be sustainable with respect to this species . south australia / great australian bight : the species was reported as a negligible component of bycatch in the spencer gulf prawn fishery by carrick ( 1997 ) . this fishery is part of the south australian prawn fisheries and effort outside of spencer gulf and gulf saint vincent is low . indeed , a large portion of the range of u . paucimaculatus receives little fishing , i . e . large parts of inshore areas of the great australian bight . the great australian bight trawl sector of the sessf operates at depths exceeding that of u . paucimaculatus .\ncurrent monitoring of several areas in se australia is being conducted to better understand its population dynamics and to determine its life history characteristics . research is required to determine if eastern and western populations are distinct . the extensive network of ( small ) marine protected areas in southern australia will provide conservation benefits to this and other elasmobranch species . the effective implementation of the australian national plan of action for the conservation and management of sharks ( shark advisory group and lack 2004 ) ( under the fao international plan of action for the conservation and management of sharks : ipoa - sharks ) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in australia .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nabstract : quantifying the feeding ecology of marine predators is essential for understanding their trophic interactions and their potential regulatory effects in marine ecosystems . i quantified the feeding ecology of 2 related predators that overlap only in part in spatial distribution : the coastal broadnose notorynchus cepedianus and the deepwater sharpnose heptranchias perlo sevengill sharks . i found the following : these 2 shark species have different diet specialisation patterns , but show similarities in their prey handling mode . n . cepedianus has a generalised diet , whereas h . perlo shows high specialisation and lower prey diversity . for both shark species , small , medium and large individuals use different strategies for handling different prey groups . h . perlo preys largely on deepwater teleosts , mainly lepidorhynchus denticulatus , with larger individuals ( 901 to 1365 mm total length , tl ) also consuming high proportions of large predatory teleosts of the families gempylidae and trichiuridae . n . cepedianus has a diverse diet . small individuals ( \u2264900 mm tl ) prey largely on teleosts and secondarily on chondrichthyans . medium individuals ( 901 to 1520 mm tl ) prey primarily on chondrichthyans and secondarily on teleosts . chondrichthyans ( mainly mustelus antarcticus ) are also the main prey of large n . cepedianus ( > 1700 mm tl ) , but this group also shows a greater preference ( than small and medium individuals ) for fur seals . despite the overall differences in dietary composition and the minimal overlap in spatial distribution , the 2 shark species consume prey that migrate from deep to coastal waters ( ommastrephid squid and gempylid fish ) .\ncite this article as : braccini jm ( 2008 ) feeding ecology of two high - order predators from south - eastern australia : the coastal broadnose and the deepwater sharpnose sevengill sharks . mar ecol prog ser 371 : 273 - 284 . urltoken\npublished in meps vol . 371 . online publication date : november 19 , 2008 print issn : 0171 - 8630 ; online issn : 1616 - 1599 copyright \u00a9 2008 inter - research .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nyearsley , g . k . , last , p . r . & morris , g . b . 1997 ,\ncodes for australian aquatic biota ( caab ) : an upgraded and expanded species coding system for australian fisheries databases\n, pp . 15 pp . + appendices\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : fb13d131 - d539 - 4789 - aad4 - 2a25acd8fdd3\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 21da9bc4 - 7a3c - 4483 - 9577 - a3b3b6cec338\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 438586\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nplease tell us how you intend to reuse this image . this will help us to understand what\u2019s popular and why so that we can continue to improve access to the collections .\nwhat\u2019s your intended use for this image ? please select an option scholarly or professional research for school , university , etc . personal or community research make a print for home to use in a blog or website publishing in a book make something else interesting could you please tell us more ? submit\nmuseums victoria supports and encourages public access to our collection by offering image downloads for reuse . images marked as public domain have , to the best of museums victoria\u2019s knowledge , no copyright or intellectual property rights that would restrict their free download and reuse . images marked with a creative commons ( cc ) license may be downloaded and reused in accordance with the conditions of the relevant cc license . please acknowledge museums victoria and cite the url for the image so that others can also find it .\ndisc flattened , almost circular , tail slender , tapering , with a prominent serrated spine , a long leaf shaped tail fin ; dorsal fin absent . pale grey above usually with one to four regularly arranged dark edged white spots , a concave bar between the eyes and a whitish underside . usually 30 cm long head to tail tip ( up to 38 cm ) .\ndisc almost circular , tail with a venomous spine and a caudal fin , greyish to pale brown with several dark - edged pale spots .\nhave you ever seen a willie wag - tail bird prancing in your backyard ? or what about a wedge - tailed eagle soaring majestically in the sky ? or even sighted a christmas beetle at your local park ? it\u2019s great to see these snippets of . . .\nthe source code for museums victoria collections is available on github under the mit license .\na curated database of candidate human ageing - related genes and genes associated with longevity and / or ageing in model organisms .\na curated database of genes associated with dietary restriction in model organisms either from genetic manipulation experiments or gene expression profiling .\nprojects focused on gene expression profiling of ageing and of dietary manipulations of ageing , such as caloric restriction .\nsoftware for ageing research , including the ageing research computational tools ( arct ) perl toolkit .\na curated database of ageing and life history information in animals , including extensive longevity records .\nthe benchmark genome assembly and annotation of the long - lived , cancer - resistant naked mole - rat ( heterocephalus glaber ) .\na high - coverage genome of the bowhead whale ( balaena mysticetus ) , the longest - lived mammal .\nanalyses using the anage database to study the evolution of longevity and ageing in vertebrate lineages .\na portal of ageing changes covering different biological levels , integrating molecular , physiological and pathological age - related data .\nthe whosage database contains people and biotech companies that are contributing to increase our understanding of ageing and life - extension .\n[ 0822 ] garcia et al . ( 2008 ) , the importance of habitat and life history to extinction risk in sharks , skates , rays and chimaeras ( pubmed )\ncomments , suggestions , ideas , and bug reports are welcome . please contact us .\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nit does not appear to be common , not does it aggregate any particular location .\nthe snout is fleshy and usually smoothly rounded , without a protruding tip . the eyes are tiny and followed by much larger comma - shaped\n, which have rounded posterior rims . there is a skirt - shaped curtain of skin with a finely fringed posterior margin between the nostrils . the floor of the small mouth bears 9\n12 papillae ( nipple - like structures ) ; a further narrow patch of papillae is found on the lower jaw .\n80 % as long as the disc and is fairly thick , with an oval cross - section and no lateral skin folds . a serrated stinging spine is placed atop the tail and preceded by a prominent\nis lance - like , short , and deep . the skin is completely smooth . the disc is dark brown to black above , becoming lighter towards the margins , and sometimes with irregularly scattered dark dots . there are 2\n3 rows of small whitish spots that border the disc margin and may extend onto the tail , as well as much larger pale spots arranged in groups over the middle of the back . the areas before and behind the eyes , and a pair of patches at the back of the disc , are usually free of spots . the tail has a light stripe along the midline in juveniles , and light spots in some adults ; the dorsal and caudal fins are dark brown to black with whitish edges . the underside is white or nearly so ; most individuals have dusky blotches and wide bands bordering the lateral disc margins . in some rays the color pattern is faint . this species can grow up to\nmilk\n) . females can produce litters of up to 13 pups . males and females reach\n( mpas ) , and it would potentially benefit from the implementation of the 2004 australian national plan of action for the conservation and management of sharks .\nscott , t . d . ( may 28 , 1954 ) .\nfour new fishes from south australia\n.\nlast , p . r . & l . j . v . compagno ( 1999 ) .\nmyliobatiformes : urolophidae\n. in carpenter , k . e . & v . h . niem .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 11 / 4 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\ngreek , oura = tail + greek , lophos = crest ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 5 - 150 m ( ref . 12951 ) . temperate , preferred ? ; 32\u00b0s - 44\u00b0s\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 57 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 12951 )\noccurs on the continental shelf ( ref . 7300 ) . adults feed on worms , crabs , shrimp , and small bony fishes while juveniles take small crustaceans ( ref . 12951 ) .\nlast , p . r . and j . d . stevens , 1994 . sharks and rays of australia . csiro , australia . 513 p . ( ref . 6871 )\n- csiro c 4757 , 384 mm tl , mature male , south - west of cape otway , vic . ( 39\u00b009\u2019s , 143\u00b015\u2019e ) , 50 - 67 m depth , coll . by frv courageous , 20 jun . 1976 ; csiro h 3 - 01 , 430 mm tl , female , frederick henry bay , tas . ( 42\u00b055\u2019s , 147\u00b036\u2019e ) , 20 m depth , coll . by fv allanwood , 16 sep . 1983 ; csiro h 6 - 01 , 342 mm tl , mature male , same data as csiro h 3 - 01 ; csiro h 337 - 01 , off stanley , tas . ( exact coordinates unknown ) , 30 m depth , collector unkown , 19 may 1980 ; csiro h 722 - 05 , south - east of broken bay , n . s . w . ( 33\u00b038\u2019s , 151\u00b027\u2019e ) , 63 - 76 m depth , coll . by frv kapala , 20 nov . 1985 ; csiro h 870 - 10 , east of port stephens , n . s . w . ( 32\u00b042\u2019s , 152\u00b032\u2019e ) , 124 - 133 m depth , coll . by frv kapala , 22 apr . 1986 .\nsarah miller set\nfile : urolophus paucimaculatus corner inlet . jpg\nas an exemplar on\nurolophus paucimaculatus dixon , 1969\n.\na new species of ray of the genus urolophus ( elasmobranchii : urolophidae ) from victoria .\ndixon , 1969 : in : database of modern sharks , rays and chimaeras , www . shark - references . com , world wide web electronic publication , version 07 / 2018\n, 75154 ) . adults feed on worms , crabs , shrimp , and small bony fishes while juveniles take small crustaceans .\nhost - parasite list / parasite - host list ( version : 01 . 04 . 2015 ) 544 pp , 5 , 37 mb new !\n* volume discounts available . call or email us to have promo code created for you . * * large format files available on select images . send us a media request .\nmost easily recognised because of its pattern of white spots on the upper surface ; however , these spots become less distinct or are absent in specimens seen in deeper water and towards the north of its range . the species is more aggressive than other southern stingarees and has been known to attack divers . it is sometimes captured by trawlers in large quantities .\noccurrence describes how often the species is found on surveys within its distribution . it is calculated as the % of reef sites surveyed by rls divers across all the ecoregions in which the species has been observed\nabundance is calculated as the average number of individuals recorded per rls transect , where present .\nedit by : gj edgar . 2008 . australian marine life . new holland , sydney\nplease use this form only for a single type of error . if you see multiple errors on the page for this species , please report these in separate forms by clicking on this button again after submitting this form\nthank you for highlighting this error . we appreciate your assistance in maintaining high quality control standards\nwhile fishing pressure has now been reduced in the east and the species are recovering , dr trinnie warns if the same were to happen in wa , the stingarees would be even more susceptible to over - fishing because recruitment is lower . credit : klaus stiefel\nhe examined their reproductive biology to determine the periodicity of the reproductive cycle , size - at - maturity and maternity , and litter size caught during commercial fishing in south - east australian waters .\ndr trinnie also directly compared the reproductive strategy of u . paucimaculatus which were found in crowdy head in new south wales and in lancelin .\nin wa , pups are born in early or mid - summer and females bear litters of one or two , a strategy of producing few but large pups .\nin the south - east , however , birth occurs in spring or early summer and females bear litters of up to six , a strategy of more but smaller pups .\nwithout genetic testing , it is unknown whether these differences in u . paucimaculatus are due to them having to adapt to their surrounding environments ; because their habitat and environmental conditions are different or\nhowever , there is mounting evidence to suggest that they are separate species .\ndr trinnie says stingarees are highly susceptible to overfishing , as several south - eastern species are listed on the iucn red list as vulnerable to near threatened .\nhe says that over a 20 year period , some have had their populations reduced by up to 80 per cent .\nthey are all by - catch species\u2014caught during gill - netting , seine netting , and trawling and not kept for consumption ,\nhe says .\nwhen thrown back , most individuals would perish and pregnant females would most likely abort their young due to the stress .\nwhile fishing pressure has now been reduced in the east and the species are recovering , dr trinnie warns if the same were to happen in wa , the stingarees would be even more susceptible to over - fishing because recruitment is lower .\nif they were overfished in wa , it would take a lot longer to get back to the natural size population ,\nhe says .\nwestern australian mussel populations ( mytilus galloprovincialis ) could potentially mix with translocated species from the eastern states according to a study by the wa department of fisheries and uwa .\nsigns of serotiny , an ecological adaptation in which seed release occurs in response to an environmental trigger rather than spontaneously at seed maturation , has been discovered in in two species of conospermum .\na wa botanist says detailed fossil records and the development of phylogenetic trees could help experts understand why flora in australia ' s south - west is so diverse in comparison to the south - east .\na western australian study has found that restricting trawling to 20 - 40 per cent of fishing areas in shark bay can mitigate the long - term impacts of commercial trawling in the region .\nusing baited longlines in conjunction with baited remote underwater video systems ( bruvs ) has improved the way in which deep water fish stocks are monitored for conservation purposes .\ntwo new species of marine sponges , found only in the south - west of western australia , have been identified and named in recognition of the aboriginal peoples who are the traditional owners of the region .\na new type of zebrafish that produces fluorescent tags in migratory embryonic nerve precursor cells could help a rice university neurobiologist and cancer researcher find the origins of the third - most common pediatric cancer . . .\nthroughout the living world , parents have many ways of gifting their offspring with information they will need to help them survive . a new study in nature ecology and evolution examining the effects of exposure to predators . . .\nthe nuclei of cells are never static , even when the chromosomes they contain appear to be at rest . theorists at rice university have detailed the combination of forces that drive their constant motion .\nthe co - evolution of plant\u2014pathogen interactions has been revealed in unprecedented detail in a study of one of the world ' s deadliest crop killers . this is the rice blast pathogen , which destroys enough food to feed more . . .\nusing genome editing to inactivate a protein called pcsk9 effectively reduces cholesterol levels in rhesus macaques , a species of monkey , according to researchers from the perelman school of medicine at the university of . . .\nfish that ' farm ' their own patches of seaweed alter their ' cropping ' practices under high co2 conditions , researchers at the university of adelaide in australia have found .\nplease sign in to add a comment . registration is free , and takes less than a minute . read more\nthe following articles are merged in scholar . their combined citations are counted only for the first article .\nthis\ncited by\ncount includes citations to the following articles in scholar . the ones marked\nae punt , f trinnie , ti walker , r mcgarvey , j feenstra , a linnane , . . .\nrapid assessment of sustainability for ecological risk of shark and other chondrichthyan bycatch species taken in the southern and eastern scalefish and shark fish . . .\nti walker , jd stevens , jm braccini , rk daley , c huveneers , sb irvine , . . .\nas steffe , sm taylor , sj blight , kl ryan , cj desfosses , ac tate , . . .\nthreatened fish species that utilize riverine environments are faced with critical habitat degradation caused by various disturbances . brachymystax lenok tsinlingensi . . .\nsustainability of the rock lobster resource in south - eastern australia in a changing environment : implications for assessment and management : final report to fi . . .\na linnane , ti walker , ae punt , bs green , r mcgarvey , je feenstra , . . .\ncopyright\u00a9 2008 ningaloo turtle program . illustrations copyright\u00a9 2008 cape conservation group , inc . ningaloo turtle program po box 201 exmouth wa 6707\nr mau , s bedford , s mckinna - jones , l reinhold , f trinnie , r carter , . . .\nphone : + 61 2 9850 4229 e - mail : joomyun . park [ at ] urltoken\nresilience and sustainability are increased in marine ecosystems with greater diversity and niche complexity of species . changes in tasmanian faunal assemblages have been documented over varying time periods , and have been linked to a number of anthropogenic influences , including fishing , invasive species and climate change . although the physical biogeographic parameters of the area have been well studied , there is still little known of the overall functioning of these ecosystems , particularly in commercially fished inshore waters . an understanding of the functioning of such communities is particularly important in the face of increasing negative perturbations impacting these systems .\nmy research focuses on the impacts of the southeastern trawl fishery on the ecosystem functioning of the marine communities in northern tasmanian inshore waters . specifically , i am documenting the assemblage of species that comprise the community , and assessing how widespread this community is . i will assess the trophic structure and functioning of the community through analyses of gut content and stable isotopes . biometric data will also be used to help understand community dynamics . through analysis of fisheries bottom trawl data over the past 20 years , my colleagues and i will assess community changes over time , and will use proxies , such as the proportion of pelagic to demersal species , to determine the state of community resilience .\nsuch information will facilitate more informed decisions in fisheries management and conservation for the area .\nduring my phd , i studied the feeding and reproductive ecology of fishes collected by the trawl fishery in the southeastern waters of korea . after my phd , my research focused on two areas : ( 1 ) the ecology of larval fishes , and ( 2 ) the life history of mudskippers . research from the larval fishes study correlated impacts of climate change to the ecology of fishes the eastern sea of korea ( east / japan sea ) . several tropical and / or subtropical fish larvae , such as dolphin fish and chromis , occurred in the temperature water of the east japan sea . their presence was hypothesized to be due to the northward expansion of warmer water via the kuroshio current , particularly during summer . moreover , the zooplankton community was dominated by tropical originated copepod species , which are typical of warmer waters .\nmy research on the distribution and life history of mudskippers ( gobiidae ) occurred in tidal flats of southern coastal area in korea . three co - occurring species of mudskippers occurred in the area , with some segregation in habitat ranges . through gut content analyses , i showed that the diets of the three species varied , and such niche diversification may be responsible for the co - occurrence over time . i also found that some individuals consumed their own progeny , with filial cannibalism occurring during egg guarding . this may due to insufficient food resources and limited foraging opportunities for the guarding parents .\n, kwak sn . 2014 . length\u2013weight relationships and reproductive characteristics of the crowned seahorse ( hippocampus coronatus ) in eelgrass beds ( zostera marina ) of dongdae bay , korea . marine biology research , in publication .\nbaeck gw , park jm , huh sh , kim hj , jeong jm . feeding habits of kammal thryssa thryssa kammalensis ( bleeker , 1849 ) in the coastal waters of gadeok - do , korea . animal cells and systems , 18 , 154 - 159 .\nkwak sn , park jm , huh sh . 2014 . seasonal variations in species composition and abundance of fish and decapods in an eelgrass ( zostera marina ) bed of jindong bay . journal of the korean society of marine environment & safety , 20 , 259 - 269 .\n, huh sh , jeong jm , baeck gw . 2014 . diet composition and feeding strategy of yellow goosefish , lophius litulon ( jordan , 1902 ) , on the southeastern coast of korea . journal of applied ichthyology , 30 , 151 - 155 .\nbaeck gw , jeong jm , kim hj , huh sh , park jm . 2014 . length - weight and length - length relationships for four species of righteye flounder ( pleuronectidae ) on the south coast of korea . journal of applied ichthyology , 30 , 204 - 205 .\nshim jh , kwon j , park jm , kwak sn . 2013 . the effect of ocean acidification on early growth of juvenile oliver flounder ( paralichthys olivaceus ) : in situ mesocosm experiment . korean journal of environmental biology , 31 , 353 - 361 .\n, hashimoto h , jeong jm , kim h . j , baeck gw . 2013 . age and growth of the robust tonguefish cynoglossus robustus in the seto inland sea , japan . animal cells and systems , 17 , 290 - 297 .\nbaeck gw , yoon yh , park jm . 2013 . ontogenetic and diel changes in diets of two sympatric mudskippers periophthalmus modestus and periophthalmus magnuspinnatus on the tidal flats of suncheon bay , korea . fisheries science , 79 , 629 - 637 .\nhuh sh , baeck gw , choo hg , park jm . 2013 . feeding habits of spearnose grenadier , coeorinchus multispinulosus in the coastal waters off gori . korean journal of ichthyology , 25 , 157 - 162 .\nhuh sh , choi hc , baeck gw , kim hw , park jm . 2013 . seasonal distribution of larval fishes in the central and southern surface warters of the east sea . korean journal of fisheries and aquatic science , 46 , 216 - 222 .\nbaeck gw , park jm , choi hc , huh sh . 2013 . diet composition in summer of rosefish helicolenus hilgendorfii on the southeastern coast of korea . ichthyological research , 60 , 75 - 79 .\nbaeck gw , huh sh , park jm . 2012 . reproductive ecology of the glowbelly , acropoma japonicum ( perciformes : acropomatidae ) in the coastal waters off gori , korea . bulletin of the korean society of fisheries technology , 48 , 118 - 127 .\nbaeck gw , jeong jm , yeo ym , huh sh , park jm . 2012 . length\u2013weight and length\u2013length relationships for 10 species of scorpionfishes ( scorpaenidae ) on the south coast of korea . journal of applied ichthyology , 28 , 677 - 679 .\nbaeck gw , park jm , hashimoto h . 2011 . feeding ecology of three tonguefishes , genus cynoglossus ( cynoglossidae ) in the seto inland sea , japan . animal cells and systems , 15 , 325 - 336 .\nbaeck gw , park ci , choi hc , huh sh , park jm . 2011 . feeding habits of ocellate spot skate , okamejei kenojei ( muller henle , 1841 ) , in coastal waters of taean , korea . journal of applied ichthyology , 27 , 1079 - 1085 .\nhuh sh , han mi , hwang sj , park jm , baeck gw . 2011 . seasonal variation in species composition and abundance of larval fish assemblages in the south - western jinhae bay , korea . korean journal of ichthyology , 23 , 37 - 45 .\ndiet composition of juvenile goby species , gymnogobius heptacanthus and chaenogobius annularis , in the coastal waters of geoje , korea , 10 th japan - korea joint symposium on acquaculture , 8 - 9 december 2012 , nagasaki , japan .\nstress - related physiological changes and post - release survival of elephant fish ( callorhinchus milii ) after longlining , gillnetting , angling and handling in a controlled setting .\nusing logbook data to determine the immediate mortality of blue sharks ( prionace glauca ) and tiger sharks ( galeocerdo cuvier ) caught in the commercial u . s . pelagic longline fishery .\nprenatal stress from trawl capture affects mothers and neonates : a case study using the southern fiddler ray ( trygonorrhina dumerilii ) .\nphysiological response and immediate mortality of gill - net - caught blacktip reef sharks ( carcharhinus melanopterus ) .\nevaluating time - depth recorders as a tool to measure the behaviour of sharks captured on longlines .\nrespiratory mode and gear type are important determinants of elasmobranch immediate and post - release mortality .\nthe adenylate energy charge as a new and useful indicator of capture stress in chondrichthyans .\nmoving from measuring to predicting bycatch mortality : predicting the capture condition of a longline - caught pelagic shark .\ntemperature insensitivity and behavioural reduction of the physiological stress response to longline capture by the gummy shark , mustelus antarcticus .\ngeographical variability in life - history traits of a midslope dogfish : the brier shark deania calcea .\nfirst record of a bicephalic chondrichthyan found in australian waters ; the southern fiddler ray , trygonorrhina dumerilii ( chondrichthyes : rhinobatidae ) .\na meta - analysis of elasmobranch respiratory mode , gear type , and mortality . abstract .\nfisheries capture stress and its reproductive consequences ; changes to maternal body condition and neonate size in the southern fiddler ray trygonorrhina dumerilii as a result of trawling and air exposure . poster abstract .\nfrequency of multiple paternity in gummy shark , mustelus antarcticus , and rig , mustelus lenticulatus , and the implications of mate encounter rate , postcopulatory influences , and reproductive mode .\nimmediate and delayed effects of gill - net capture on acid - base balance and intramuscular lactate concentration of gummy sharks , mustelus antarcticus .\nlife history traits of the brier shark and greeneye spurdog inhabiting the continental slope of south - eastern australia . abstract\nin : program and abstracts for the 2011 workshop and conference of the oceania chondrichthyan society , 13th\u201315th september 2011 , sea world resort and water park , gold coast , queensland , australia .\ntrawl capture of port jackson sharks , heterodontus portusjacksoni , and gummy sharks , mustelus antarcticus , in a controlled setting : effects of tow duration , air exposure and crowding .\nstress related physiological changes and post - release survival of port jackson sharks ( heterodontus portusjacksoni ) and gummy sharks ( mustelus antarcticus ) following gill - net and longline capture in captivity .\nparathyroid hormone gene family in a cartilaginous fish , the elephant shark ( callorhinchus milii ) .\nusing rapid assessment and demographic methods to evaluate the effects of fishing on heterodontus portusjacksoni off far - eastern victoria , australia .\nevolutionary origin and phylogeny of the modern holocephalans ( chondrichthyes : chimaeriformes ) : a mitogenomic perspective .\nincorporating heterogeneity into growth analyses of wild and captive broadnose sevengill sharks notorynchus cepedianus .\ngestational morphogenesis of the uterine epithelium of the gummy shark ( mustelus antarcticus ) .\nassessing growth band counts from vertebrae and dorsal - fin spines for ageing sharks : comparison of four methods applied to heterodontus portusjacksoni .\nuse of stochastic models to estimate the growth of the port jackson shark , heterodontus portusjacksoni , off eastern victoria , australia .\nmicroscopic organization of the sperm storage tubules in the oviducal gland of the female gummy shark ( mustelus antarcticus ) , with observations on sperm distribution and storae .\nembracing movement and stock structure for assessment of galeorhinus galeus harvested off southern australia .\nin : sharks of the open ocean : biology , fisheries and conservation . [ eds m . d . camhi , e . k . pikitch and e . a . babcock ] . blackwell publishing , oxford , u . k . : 369\u2013392\nreproductive synchrony of three sympatric species of wobbegong shark ( genus orectolobus ) in new southwales , australia : reproductive parameter estimates necessary for population modelling .\ncomparison of deterministic growth models fitted to length - at - age data of the piked spurdog ( squalus megalops ) in south - eastern australia .\nspatial and temporal variation in the reproductive biology of gummy shark mustelus antarcticus ( chondrichthyes : triakidae ) harvested off southern australia .\nembryo development and maternal - embryo nutritional relationships of piked spurdog ( squalus megalops ) .\ndetermining reproductive parameters for population assessments of chondrichthyan species with asynchronous ovulation and parturition : piked spurdog ( squalus megalops ) as a case study .\ntotal and partial length - length , mass - mass and mass - length relationships for the piked spurdog ( squalus megalops ) in south - eastern australia .\nhierarchical approach to the assessment of fishing effects on non - target chondrichthyans : case study of squalus megalops in southeastern australia .\nin : iucn 2012 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2012 . 2 . < www . iucnredlist . org >\nin : fowler , s . l . , cavanagh , r . d . , camhi , m . , burgess , g . h . , cailliet , g . m . , fordham , s . v . , simpfendorfer , c . a . and musick , j . a . ( comp . and ed . ) . sharks , rays and chimaeras : the status of the chondrichthyan fishes . status survey . iucn ssc shark specialist group . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk : 48\u201357\nin : hamlett , w . c . ( ed . ) reproductive biology and phylogeny of chondrichthyes : sharks , rays and chimaeras , vol . 3 . endfield , usa : science publishers : 45\u201379\nin : hamlett , w . c . ( ed . ) reproductive biology and phylogeny of chondrichthyes : sharks , rays and chimaeras , vol . 3 . endfield , usa : science publishers : 395\u2013434\nusing length , age and tagging data in a stock assessment of a length selective fishery for gummy shark ( mustelus antarcticus ) .\ncatch evaluation of target , by - product and by - catch species taken by gillnets and longlines in the shark fishery of south - eastern australia .\nin : hamlett , w . c . ( ed . ) reproductive biology and phylogeny of chondrichthyes : sharks , rays and chimaeras , vol . 3 . endfield , usa : science publishers : 361\u2013393\nmicroscopic organisation of the oviducal gland of the holocephalan elephant fish , callorhynchus milii .\ninformation for ecological risk assessment of piked spurdog ( squalus megalops ) off southeastern australia . abstract\nsouthern shark catch and effort 1970 - 2001 report to australian fisheries management authority .\nmicroanatomy of spermatophore formation and male genital ducts in the holocephalan , callorhynchus milii .\nassessing the management - related benefits of fixed - station fishery - independent surveys in australia ' s southern shark fishery .\nultrastructure of sperm storage and male genital ducts in a male holocephalan , the elephant fish , callorhynchus milii .\nbasslink project review of impacts of high voltage direct current sea cables and electrodes on chondrichthyan fauna and other marine life .\nmarine and freshwater resources institute report no . 20 : 68pp . second draft . reprinted as integrated impact assessment statement supporting study no . 29 sharks marine . ( basslink a national grid project : melbourne . )\neffects of water temperature and salinity on parathyroid hormone - related protein in the circulation and tissues of elasmobranchs .\nstock assessment of school shark galeorhinus galeus based on a spatially - explicit population dynamics model ."]}
{"id": 1904, "summary": [{"text": "trachylepis maculilabris is a species of skink .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "commonly referred to as the speckle-lipped skink , it can be found in nature in west africa . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "trachylepis maculilabris", "paragraphs": ["euprepis maculilabris gray 1845 : 114 euprepes notabilis peters 1879 : 36 euprepes albilabris m\u00fcller 1885 mabuia ( sic ) maculilabris \u2013 boulenger 1887 : 164 mabuya maculilabris \u2013 schmidt 1919 : 525 mabuya maculilabris \u2014 angel 1942 : 110 mabuya maculilabris comorensis \u2014 loveridge 1953 : 200 ( not peters ) mabuya maculilabris maculilabris \u2013 de witte 1953 : 23 mabuya maculilabris major sternfeld 1912 ( fide loveridge 1957 ) mabuya maculilabris var . kwidkwiensis sternfeld 1912 mabuya maculilabris var . wauensis sternfeld 1912 mabuya maculilabris var . schubotzi sternfeld 1912 mabuya maculilabris var . graueri sternfeld 1912 mabuya maculilabris var . rohrbecki sternfeld 1912 mabuya maculilabris var . bergeri sternfeld 1912 mabuya polytropis \u2014 angel , guib\u00e9 & lamotte 1954 mabuya maculilabris maculilabris \u2014 hoogmoed 1974 : 29 mabuya maculilabris \u2014 brygoo 1981 mabuya maculilabris \u2014 lanza 1990 mabuya maculilabris maculilabris \u2014 broadley 1991 : 523 mabuya maculilabris \u2014 greer et al . 2000 mabuya maculilabris maculilabris \u2014 broadley & howell 1991 : 15 euprepis maculilabris \u2014 mausfeld et al . 2002 trachylepis maculilabris \u2014 bauer 2003 mabuya maculilabris var . bergi \u2014 mausfeld et al . 2004 ( in error ) euprepis maculilabris \u2014 lantermann & lantermann 2009 mabuya maculilabris \u2014 largen & spawls 2010 : 394 trachylepis maculilabris \u2014 allen et al . 2017 trachylepis maculilabris \u2014 spawls et al . 2018 : 141\njennifer hammock split the classifications by mcz resource from trachylepis maculilabris gray 1845 to their own page .\nle scinque brun de l ' \u00eele d ' europa ( trachylepis maculilabris infralineata ) ( \u00eeles eparses - terres australes et antarctiques fran\u00e7aises ) ( cr\u00e9dit : m . sanchez , noi )\ncer\u00edaco , luis m . p . ; mariana p . marques , aaron m . bauer 2016 . a review of the genus trachylepis ( sauria : scincidae ) from the gulf of guinea , with descriptions of two new species in the trachylepis maculilabris ( gray , 1845 ) species complex . zootaxa 4109 ( 3 ) : 284\u2013314\nkingdon , r . & spawls , s . 2010 . a new gregarious species of trachylepis ( reptilia : sauria : scincidae ) from lolui island , lake victoria , uganda , with a key to ugandan trachylepis . african journal of herpetology 59 ( 2 ) : 123 - 132 - get paper here\ntrachylepis maculilabris - species dictionary - hong kong : ispot nature - your place to share nature . ispot is a website aimed at helping anyone identify anything in nature . once you ' ve registered , you can add an observation to the website and suggest an identification yourself or see if anyone else can identify it for you .\nallen , kaitlin e . ; walter p . tapondjou n . , luke j . welton , aaron m . bauer 2017 . a new species of trachylepis ( squamata : scincidae ) from central africa and a key to the trachylepis of west and central africa . zootaxa 4268 ( 2 ) : 255\u2013269 - get paper here\nbroadley , d . g . 1974 . a review of the mabuya maculilabris group in south - eastern africa ( sauria : scincidae ) . arnoldia ( rhodesia ) 6 ( 23 ) : 1 - 10\njesus , jos\u00e9 ; d . james harris and ant\u00f3nio brehm 2005 . phylogeography of mabuya maculilabris ( reptilia ) from s\u00e3o tom\u00e9 island ( gulf of guinea ) inferred from mtdna sequences . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 37 ( 2 ) : 503 - 510 - get paper here\nsindaco , r . , metallinou , m . , pupin , f . , fasola , m . & carranza , s . 2012 . forgotten in the ocean : systematics , biogeography and evolution of the trachylepis skinks of the socotra archipelago . zoologica scripta\nchirio , laurent , ivan ineich , andreas schmitz and matthew lebreton . 2008 . a new species of trachylepis fitzinger , 1843 ( squamata : scincidae ) from central african forests . african journal of herpetology 57 ( 1 ) : 13 - 28 - get paper here\nceriaco , luis m . p . 2015 . lost in the middle of the sea , found in the back of the shelf : a new giant species of trachylepis ( squamata : scincidae ) from tinhosa grande islet , gulf of guinea . zootaxa 3973 ( 3 ) : 511\u2013527\nfor a list of records , countries , and specimens , see ceriaco et al . 2016 : 312 .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nsynonymy partly after hoogmoed 1974 . broadley ( 2000 ) elevated m . m . casuarinae to full species status .\nangel , f . 1942 . les l\u00e9zards de madagascar . mem . acad . malagache , tananarive xxxvi : 193 pp .\nangel , f . guib\u00e9 , j . & lamotte , m . 1954 . la r\u00e9serve naturelle int\u00e9grale du mont nimba . 2 . xxxi . l\u00e9zards . mem . i . f . a . n . 40 : 371 - 379\nbauer , a . m . 2003 . on the identity of lacerta punctata linnaeus , 1758 , the type species of the genus euprepis wagler , 1830 , and the generic assignment of afro - malagasy skinks . african journal of herpetology 52 : 1 - 7 . - get paper here\nboettger , o . 1913 . reptilien und amphibien von madagascar , den inseln und dem festland ostafrikas . pp . 269 - 375 . in : voeltzkow , a . reise in ostafrika in den jahren 1903 - 1905 . wissenschaftliche ergebnisse . vol . 3 . systematische arbeiten . schweizerbart\u2019 sche verlagsbuchhandlung , n\u00e4gele und sproesser , stuttgart\nb\u00f6hme , wolfgang , mark - oliver r\u00f6del , christian brede & philipp wagner 2011 . the reptiles ( testudines , squamata , crocodylia ) of the forested southeast of the republic guinea ( guin\u00e9e foresti\u00e8re ) , with a country - wide checklist . bonn zoological bulletin 60 ( 1 ) : 35 - 61 - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1887 . catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( nat . hist . ) iii . lacertidae , gerrhosauridae , scincidae , anelytropsidae , dibamidae , chamaeleontidae . london : 575pp . - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1897 . a list of reptiles and batrachians from the congo free state , with the description of two new snakes . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 6 ) 19 : 276 - 281 - get paper here\nbranch w . r . ; haagner , g . v . 1993 . the skink mabuya ivensii : new records from zambia and zaire , and the status of the subspecies septemlineata laurent 1964 and the genus lubuya horton . amphibia - reptilia 14 ( 2 ) : 105 - 115 - get paper here\nbranch , w . r . ; r\u00f6del , m . - o . & marais , j . 2005 . herpetological survey of the niassa game reserve , northern mozambique - part i : reptiles . salamandra 41 ( 4 ) : 195 - 214 - get paper here\nbroadley , d . g . & howell , k . m . 1991 . a check list of the reptiles of tanzania , with synoptic keys . syntarsus 1 : 1\u201470\nbroadley , d . g . 1991 . the herpetofauna of northern mwinilunga distr . , northw . zambia . arnoldia zimbabwe 9 ( 37 ) : 519 - 538\nbroadley , d . g . 1998 . the reptilian fauna of the democratic republic of the congo ( congo - kinshasa ) . in : schmidt , k . p . and noble , g . k . , contributions to the herpetology of the belgian congo . . . [ reprint of the 1919 and 1923 papers ] . ssar facsimile reprints in herpetology , 780 pp .\nbroadley , d . g . 2000 . a review of the genus mabuya in southeastern africa ( sauria : scincidae ) . african journal of herpetology , 49 ( 2 ) : 87 - 110 - get paper here\nbroadley , donald g . and f . p . d . cotterill . 2004 . the reptiles of southeast katanga , an overlooked ' hot spot ' . [ congo ] . african journal of herpetology 53 ( 1 ) : 35 - 61 . - get paper here\nbrygoo e . r . , 1981 . systematique des lezards scincides de la region malgache viii . les mabuya des iles de l ' oc\u00e9an indien occidental : comores , europa , s\u00e9chelles . bull . mus . natn . hist . nat . 3 : 911\u2013930\ncalabresi , e . 1915 . contributo alla conoscenza dei rettili della somalia . monitore zoologico italiano ( supplemento ) , 28 : 234\u2014247 . - get paper here\ncarlino , p . & pauwels , o . s . g . 2015 . an updated reptile list of ivindo national park , the herpetofaunal hotspot of gabon . bull . chicago herp . soc . 50 ( 3 ) : 25 - 39 - get paper here\ncarretero , m . a . ; harris , j . d . & rocha , s . 2005 . recent observation of reptiles in the comoro islands ( western indian ocean ) . herpetological bulletin ( 91 ) : 19 - 28\ncer\u00edaco , luis m . p . , aaron m . bauer , david c . blackburn and ana c . f . c . lavres . 2014 . the herpetofauna of the capanda dam region , malanje , angola . herpetological review 45 ( 4 ) : 667 - 674\nchirio , l . & i . ineich 2000 . description d ' un nouveau scincid\u00e9 end\u00e9mique des montagnes du cameroun ( lacertilia : mabuya mekuana ) . bull . soc . zool . fr . , 125 ( 3 ) : 185 - 196\nchirio , l . & lebreton , m . 2007 . atlas des reptiles du cameroun . mnhn , ird , paris 688 pp .\ncimatti , e . 2005 . zanzibar - zala zoological park . reptilia ( gb ) ( 39 ) : 62 - 68 - get paper here\nconradie , werner ; gabriela b . bittencourt - silva , hanlie m . engelbrecht , simon p . loader , michele menegon , crist\u00f3v\u00e3o nanvonamuquitxo , michael scott , krystal a . tolley , 2016 . exploration into the hidden world of mozambique\u2019s sky island forests : new discoveries of reptiles and amphibians . zoosyst . evol . 92 ( 2 ) : 163\u2013180 , doi 10 . 3897 / zse . 92 . 9948 - get paper here\ngray , j . e . 1845 . catalogue of the specimens of lizards in the collection of the british museum . trustees of die british museum / edward newman , london : xxvii + 289 pp . - get paper here\ngreer , a . e . , arnold , c . & arnold , e . n . 2000 . the systematic significance of the number of presacral vertebrae in the scincid lizard genus mabuya . amphibia - reptilia 21 ( 1 ) : 121 - 126 - get paper here\nhaagner , g . v . ; branch , w . r . & haagner , a . j . f . 2000 . notes on a collection of reptiles from zambia and adjacent areas of the democratic republic of the congo . annals of the eastern cape museum 1 : 1 \u2013 25\nhaft j . 1993 . ein beitrag zur biologie der echsen der insel sao tome ( golf von guinea ) , mit n\u00e4herer betrachtung zur systematik von leptosiaphos africana ( gray ) ( reptilia : sauria : geckonidae et scincidae ) . faunistische abhandlungen ( dresden ) 19 ( 1 - 16 ) : 59 - 70 .\nhawlitschek , o . ; f . glaw & d . r\u00f6dder 2012 . pemba \u2013 herpetologische fundgrube im indischen ozean . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 17 ( 97 ) : 97 - 109 - get paper here\nhoogmoed , m . s . 1974 . ghanese lizards of the genus mabuya ( scincidae , sauria , reptilia ) . zoologische verhandelingen 138 : 1 - 62 - get paper here\nineich , i . & l . chirio 2004 . l ' archipel afro - montagne et les affinit\u00e9s de son herpetofaune : description d ' une esp\u00e8ce nouvelle indiquant des relations phyl\u00e9tiques entre le camerun et l ' afrique de l ' est ( lacertilia , scincidae , genre trachyleps . bull . soc . zool . fr . , 129 ( 3 ) : 317 - 331\njackson , k . & blackburn , d . c . 2007 . the amphibians and reptiles of nouabale - ndoki national park , republic of congo ( brazzaville ) . salamandra 43 ( 3 ) : 149 - 164 - get paper here\njackson , kate 2008 . mean and lowly things - snakes , science , and survival in the congo . harvard university press , 336 pp .\njackson , kate ; ange - ghislain zassi - boulou , lis - bethy mavoungou , and serge pangou 2007 . amphibians and reptiles of the lact\u00e9l\u00e9 community reserve , likouala region , republic of congo ( brazzaville ) . herp . cons . biol . 2 ( 2 ) : 75 - 86 - get paper here\njacobsen , n . h . g . 2009 . a contribution to the herpetofauna of the passendro area , central african republic . african herp news ( 47 ) : 2 - 20\njesus , jos\u00e9 ; brehm , ant\u00f3nio ; harris , d . james 2005 . relationships of scincid lizards ( mabuya spp . ) from the islands of the gulf of guinea based on mtdna sequence data . amphibia - reptilia 26 ( 4 ) : 467 - 473 - get paper here\njungnickel , j . 2012 . ein echsen - kleinbiotop auf der insel sansibar . terraria - elaphe 2012 ( 4 ) : 14 - 15 - get paper here\nkirschey , tom 2016 . assessment of herpetofauna ( amphibia , reptilia ) in the kafa biosphere reserve nabu , 25 pp . - get paper here\nlantermann , w . & lantermann , y . 2009 . herpetologische reiseeindr\u00fccke aus den ost - usambara - bergen in tanzania . elaphe 17 ( 2 ) : 53 - 61\nlanza b 1978 . mabuya ferrarai , a new scincoid lizard from somalia . monitore zoologico italiano supplemento 11 ( 12 ) 1978 : 271 - 280 - get paper here\nlanza , b . 1990 . amphibians and reptiles of the somali democratic republic : check list and biogeography . biogeographia , 14 : 407 - 465 [ 1988 ]\nlargen , m . j . ; spawls , s . 2006 . lizards of ethiopia ( reptilia sauria ) : an annotated checklist , bibliography , gazetteer and identification . tropical zoology 19 ( 1 ) : 21 - 109 - get paper here\nlargen , m . j . ; spawls , s . 2010 . amphibians and reptiles of ethiopia and eritrea . edition chimaira , frankfurt , 694 pp .\nleach\u00e9 , adam d . ; mark - oliver r\u00f6del , charles w . linkem , raul e . diaz , annika < br / > hillers , and matthew k . fujita 2006 . biodiversity in a forest island : reptiles and amphibians of the togo hills , kyabobo national park , ghana . amphibian & reptile conservation 4 ( 1 ) : 22 - 45 - get paper here\nloveridge , a . 1923 . notes on east african lizards collected 1920 - 1923 with the description of two new races of agama lionotus blgr . proc . zool . soc . london 1923 : 935 - 969 - get paper here\nloveridge , a . 1936 . african reptiles and amphibians in the field museum of natural history . zool . ser . field mus . nat . hist . , chicago , 22 ( 1 ) : 1 - 122 - get paper here\nloveridge , a . 1953 . zoological results of a fifth expedition to east africa . iii . reptiles from nyasaland and tete . bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard 110 ( 3 ) : 142 - 322 . - get paper here\nloveridge , a . 1920 . notes on east african lizards collected 1915 - 1919 , with description of a new genus and species of skink and new subspecies of gecko . proc . zool . soc . london 1920 : 131 - 167 - get paper here\nloveridge , a . 1957 . check list of the reptiles and amphibians of east africa ( uganda , kenya , tanganyika , zanzibar ) . bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard 117 ( 2 ) : 153 - 362 - get paper here\nmalonza , patrick k . ; victor d . wasonga , vincent muchai , damaris rotich , beryl a . bwong ; a . m . bauer 2006 . diversity and biogeography of herpetofauna of the tana river primate national reserve , kenya . journal of east african natural history 95 ( 2 ) : 95\u2013109\nmalonza , vincent ; beryl a . bwong , vincent muchai 2011 . kitobo forest of kenya , a unique hotspot of herpetofaunal divers . acta herpetologica 6 ( 2 ) : 149 - 160 - get paper here\nmausfeld , p . ; vences , m . schmitz , a . & veith , m . 2000 . first data on the molecular phylogeography of scincid lizards of the genus mabuya . mol . phylogenet . evol . 17 ( 1 ) : 11 - 14 - get paper here\nmausfeld - lafdhiya , p . ; schmitz , a . ; ineich , i . ; chirio , l . 2004 . genetic variation in two african euprepis species ( reptilia , scincidae ) , based on maximum - likelihood and bayesian analyses : taxonomic and biogeographic conclusions . bonner zoologische beitrage 52 ( 1 - 2 ) : 159 - 177 - get paper here\npauwels , o . s . g . b . le garff , i . ineich , p . carlino , i . melcore , l . boundenga , c . vigna , t . st\u00e9vart , k . jeffery , c . orbell , j . - b . < br / > squarcini , j . p . vande weghe and l . j . t . white 2016 . miscellanea herpetologica gabonica v & vi bull . chicago herp . soc . 51 : 177 - get paper here\npauwels , o . s . g . & vande weghe , j . p . 2008 . les reptiles du gabon . smithsonian institution , washington : 272 pp . - get paper here\npeters , wilhem carl hartwig 1879 . neue oder weniger bekannte eidechsenarten aus der familie der scinciden ( eumeces g\u00fcntheri , euprepes notabilis , ablepharus rutilus ) . sitzungsber . ges . naturf . freunde berlin 1879 ( 3 ) : 35 - 37 - get paper here\nrobertson , i . a . d . , b . m . chapman and n . f . chapman 1963 . notes on some reptiles collected in the rukwa valley , s . w . tanganyika . ann . mag . nat . hist . ser . 13 , 5 ( 55 ) : 421\u2011432 - get paper here\nrocha , sara ; carretero , miguel a . ; harris , d . james 2010 . genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships of mabuya spp . ( squamata : scincidae ) from western indian ocean islands . amphibia - reptilia 31 : 375 - 385 - get paper here\nschmidt , karl patterson 1919 . contributions to the herpetology of the belgian congo based on the collection of the american congo expedition , 1909 - 1915 . part i : turtles , crocodiles , lizards , and chamaeleons . bull . amer . mus . nat . hist . 39 ( 2 ) : 385 - 624 - get paper here\nsegniagbeto , gabriel hoinsoude ; jean - fran\u00e7ois trape , komlan m . afiademanyo , mark - oliver r\u00f6del , annemarie ohler , alain dubois , patrick david , danny meirte , isabelle adol\u00e9 glitho , fabio petrozzi , and luca luiselli 2015 . checklist of the lizards of togo ( west africa ) , with comments on systematics , distribution , ecology , and conservation . zoosystema 37 ( 2 ) : 381 - 402 - get paper here\nspawls , s . & rotich , d . 1997 . an annotated checklist of the lizards of kenya . j . east african nat . hist . 86 : 61 - 83 - get paper here\nspawls , s . ; howell , k . ; drewes , r . c . & ashe , j . 2002 . a field guide to the reptiles of east africa . academic press , 543 pp . [ reviews in hr 34 : 396 and afr . j . herp . 51 ; 147 ] - get paper here\nspawls , steve ; kim howell , harald hinkel , michele menegon 2018 . field guide to east african reptiles . bloomsbury , 624 pp . - get paper here\nsternfeld , r . 1912 . iv . zoologie ii . lfg . reptilia . in : schubotz . , r . ( ed . ) : wissenschaftliche ergebnisse der deutschen zentral - afrika expedition 1907 - 1908 , unter f\u00fchrung a . friedrichs , herzogs zu mecklenburg . klinkhard und biermann , leipzig : 197 - 279 [ published 1912 , not 1913 , as often cited , see m\u00e4nnel & kucharzewski 2017 ] - get paper here\nsternfeld , r . 1917 . reptilia und amphibia . in : schubotz , h . ( hrsg . ) : wissenschaftliche ergebnisse der zweiten deutschen zentral - afrika - expedition , 1910 - 1911 unter f\u00fchrung adolph friedrichs , herzog zu mecklenburg . leipzig : klinkhardt & biermann , [ band ] 1 , zoologie , lieferung 11 ; s . 407 - 510 . - get paper here\ntaylor , edward h . ; weyer , dora 1958 . report on a collection of amphibians and reptiles from harbel , republic of liberia . univ . kansas sci . bull . 38 ( 14 ) : 1191 - 1229 - get paper here\ntrape , j . f . ; trape , s . & chirio , l . 2012 . l\u00e9zards , crocodiles et tortues d ' afrique occidentale et du sahara . ird orstom , 503 pp . - get paper here\nwerner , f . 1908 . ergebnisse der mit subvention aus der erbschaft treitl unternommenen zoologischen forschungsreise dr . franz werner ' s nach nach dem \u00e4gyptischen sudan und norduganda . xii . die reptilien und amphibien . [ mabuia mongallensis , leptodira attarensis ] . sitzungsber . akad . wiss . wien 116 [ 1907 ] : 1823 - 1926 - get paper here\nwitte , g . f . de 1933 . reptiles r\u00e9colt\u00e9s au conge belge par le dr . h . schouteden et par m . g . - f . witte . ann . mus . conge belge zool . ser . 1 tome iii : 53 - 100 .\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nthe number of species increased from 10 , 711 to 10 , 793 , i . e . an increase of 82 species . 66 new species have been described , 9 species have been revalidated from synonymy and 16 subspecies were elevated to full species . . .\nover the past 4 months , the number of species increased from 10 , 639 to 10 , 711 .\nthe number of species has grown from 10 , 544 in the may release to now 10 , 639 ( + 95 species ) .\noverall , 212 new taxa have been added or changed their status or name .\nthe reptile database is a taxonomic database that provides basic information about all living reptile species , such as turtles , snakes , lizards , and crocodiles , as well as tuataras and amphisbaenians , but does not include dinosaurs .\ncurrently there are more than 10 , 000 species and an additional 2 , 700 subspecies . this is making reptiles the largest vertebrate group after fish ( ~ 25 , 000 species ) and birds ( ~ 10 , 000 species ) , and significantly larger than mammals ( ~ 5 , 000 species ) or amphibians ( ~ 6 , 000 species ) .\nthe reptile database provides taxonomic information for the catalogue of life and the encyclopedia of life . our taxonomic information has also been used by genbank and many other resources and is the only comprehensive reptile database on the web .\nthe reptile database can be used to find all species within a certain geographic area ( e . g . all snakes of egypt ) . its collection of more than 2 , 500 images allow users to identify a species or at least get an idea how the species or genus may look like . more than 30 , 000 references provide a guide to further information .\ncontinent : africa distribution : liberia , ivory coast , ghana , togo , benin , nigeria , cameroon , central african republic , equatorial guinea , gabon , democratic republic of the congo ( zaire ) , angola , zambia , somalia ( lanza 1990 ) , malawi , zimbabwe , mozambique , uganda , pemba island , tanzania , kenya , nosy tanikely , europa island , ethiopia , sudan ( werner 1908 ) , sao tome and princip\u00e9 ( gulf of guinea ) albotaeniata : pemba island and adjacent mesale islands . type locality : pemba island , tanzania . casuarinae : known only from the type locality : casuarinae island , one of the primeiras group , off the north mozambique coast . type locality : west africa\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ni think our ugandan guide was first really sure he had a lunatic on his hands when i made him back up the jeep so i could take a picture of this lizard on a tree trunk near the road . it wasn ' t a particularly large or beautiful or probably even rare lizard , but it was one i hadn ' t seen .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nnosy be - madagascar 2014 - the island of freedom . . . andilana beach , nosy iranja . . . ( dji phantom 2 )"]}
{"id": 1912, "summary": [{"text": "eutorna inornata is a moth in the depressariidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by alfred philpott in 1927 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in new zealand .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 12 \u2013 14 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are ochreous mixed with white and with a blackish \u2013 fuscous spot , usually elongate , at about one-third and a black dot in the disc at two-thirds .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are greyish-fuscous . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "eutorna inornata", "paragraphs": ["eutorna inornata philpott , 1927 ; trans . n . z . inst . 58 : 88 ; tl : seaward moss , invercargill ; bottle lake and waikuku\neutorna leonidi lvovsky , 1979 ; trudy zool . inst . leningr . 81 : 103\neutorna generalis meyrick , 1921 ; zool . meded . leyden 6 : 172 ; tl : java , preangor\neutorna leonidi ; [ nhm card ] ; lvovsky , 2003 , nota lepid . 25 ( 4 ) : 219\neutorna diluvialis meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 316 ; tl : barberton\neutorna insidiosa meyrick , 1910 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 1 ) : 150 ; tl : khasis\neutorna leptographa meyrick , 1906 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 30 : 41 ; tl : launceston ; campbelltown , tasmania\neutorna punctinigrella viette , 1955 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 123 : 101 ; tl : ne . madagascar , maroantsetra , ambodivoangy\neutorna spintherias meyrick , 1906 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 30 : 44 ; tl : healesville and gisborne , victoria ; deloraine , tasmania\neutorna caryochroa meyrick , 1889 ; trans . n . z . inst . 21 : 158 ; tl : castle hill ( 2500ft ) , dunedin , lake wakatipu ; incercargill\neutorna symmorpha meyrick , 1889 ; trans . n . z . inst . 21 : 158 ; tl : whangarei , hamilton , palmerston , napier , christchurch , dunedin , invercargil\neutorna epicnephes meyrick , 1906 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 30 : 46 ; tl : brisbane , queensland ; sydney , new south wales ; warragul , victoria\neutorna diaula meyrick , 1906 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 30 : 45 ; tl : casterton , victoria ; launceston , campbelltown , george ' s bay , tasmania\neutorna plumbeola turner , 1947 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 72 ( 3 - 4 ) : 147 ; tl : w . australia , albany ; denmark\neutorna eurygramma meyrick , 1906 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 30 : 43 ; tl : mt kosciusco ( 6000ft ) , new south wales ; gisborne , victoria ; tasmania\neutorna intonsa meyrick , 1906 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 30 : 42 ; tl : sydney and bulli , new south wales ; melbourne , gisborne , healesville and sale , victoria ; campbelltown , tasmania\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n[ read before the nelson philosophical society , 6th october , 1926 ; received by editor , 7th october , 1926 ; issued separately 4th august , 1927 . ]\nicheneutica marmorata ( huds . ) , ent . mo . mag . , vol . 60 , p . 7 ; i . dives philp . , trans . n . z . inst . , vol . 55 , p . 207 .\nthe above synonymical correction is necessary . this handsome species was found to be not uncommon at arthur ' s pass in february .\n\u2642 . 38 mm . head greyish - brown . palpi greyish - brown , terminal segment and apex of second segment mixed with ochreous . antennae minutely ciliated ; ferruginous , basal third ochreous - grey . thorax with slight anterior crest , greyish - brown . abdomen grey mixed with fuscous , anterior segments prominently crested , each crest with apical blackish bar . legs ochreous , middle and anterior pair mixed with brown , anterior tarsi more or less infuscated . forewings moderate , costa almost straight , apex rectangular , termen rounded , rather oblique , crenulate ; chestnut - brown ; costa narrowly , and termen more widely , greenish - olive ; an indistinct , paired angled fuscous fascia near base ; a pair of blackish dots on costa at \u2153 and three others before and above reniform ; costa between these dots greyish - ochreous ; orbicular ovate , dark fuscous ringed with ochreous - white ; reniform narrow , inner basal angle somewhat produced , blackish , margined with ochreous - white ; claviform obscure , fuscous , margined anteriorly with ochreous - white ; second line indicated by dull serrate paired fasciae , excurved to middle , thence incurved to dorsum ; subterminal line prominent , margining olive terminal band , ochreouswhite ; an indistinct waved blackish terminal line ; fringes brown with pale basal and dark median crenulate lines . hindwings dark fuscous ; fringes ochreous - whitish with broad fuscous basal line .\nthere is a slight resemblance to some forms of m . tartarea butl , but the minute ciliations of the antennae at once distinguish it .\nleslie valley , in november . a single male ( holotype ) in coll . cawthron institute .\n\u2640 . 41 mm . head and palpi ochreous - white . antennae brown , basally ochreous - white . thorax with bifid anterior crest , ochreouswhite mixed with pale olive . abdomen ochreous - white , dorsally fuscous . legs whitish - ochreous , tarsi annulated with reddish - brown , terminal segments of anterior tarsi wholly brown . forewings elongate , costa almost straight , apex rectangular , termen rounded , oblique , crenulate ; ochreous - white ; numerous obscure dentate pale brownish - olive transverse fasciae and a few scattered black scales ; reniform indicated by blackish dots ; subterminal line indicated near\ntornus and above middle by blackish margining ; fringes brownisholive and fine waved median whitish line . hindwing fuscous , pinkish - fuscous round termen ; fringes pinkish - brown , round dorsum wholly whitish .\nmount arthur tableland at about 4 , 000 feet , in november . the single specimen ( holotype ) is in the coll . cawthron institute .\n\u2640 . 44 mm . head , palpi and thorax pinkish - brown mixed with grey . antennae brown , greyish basally . abdomen pinkish - grey . legs greyish - brown , tarsi annulated with whitish . forewings broad , dilated posteriorly , costa almost straight , apex obtuse , termen straight on upper half , rounded beneath ; pinkish - grey ; a short median longitudinal black fascia from base , apically dilated ; first line indistinct , greyish , from \u2153 costa to before \u00bd dorsum , dark - margined posteriorly ; orbicular large , greyish , margined with black ; claviform touching first line , obscure , dark - margined above ; reniform large , normal in shape , black - margined ; an obscure dark shade inwardly oblique from bottom of reniform to dorsum ; second line curved , waved , greyish , anteriorly dark - margined ; subterminal well - defined , greyish , indented beneath costa , anteriorly dark - margined , margining dilated above tornus ; a terminal series of black dots ; fringes pinkish - grey with a faint median pale line . hindwings greyish - fuscous ; a thin black terminal line ; fringes pale pinkish - grey .\napproaching m . olivea watt , but much broader - winged and with a differently formed basal fascia .\narthur ' s pass , in february . taken at light . the only specimen obtained ( holotype ) is in the coll . cawthron institute .\nthree specimens of this tasmanian insect were sent to me by mr . d . d . milligan , of leigh , north auckland , who took the insect in that locality in january . it is the species formerly recorded from thames as c . impropria walk . by mr . meyrick ( trans . n . z . inst . , 49 , 246 ) , but dr . jefferis turner assures me that the new zealand insect is c . lignicolaria , and having had an opportunity of examining examples of c . impropria , i have no hestitation in accepting his identification .\nseveral of this rather rare species were taken at nelson by mr . w . heighway during the past season . among these were three females , and i have selected one for the allotype and placed it in the coll . cawthron institute .\nin august , 1925 , mr . gilbert archey , director of the auckland museum , sent me a lepidopterous larval case , which had been found on some imported australian timber . it contained a living larva and , thinking it to be a species of entometa , i supplied it with eucalyptus leaves . it did not , however , eat anything and soon fastened the case to the surface of a leaf and remained there . some time in the late summer the moth emerged , but owing to my absence on field work , i did not know of this till the middle of april . a full description of c . tenuis is to be found in meyrick and lower ' s \u201crevision of the australian psychidae\u201d ( trans . roy . soc . s . aus . , vol . 31 , p . 197 ) . the expanse of wing is about 22 mm . the head , thorax and abdomen are black , the face and tegulae white , and there are two white stripes on the thorax . the wings are light fuscous minutely irrorated with black . the larval case is an interesting object . it is rather more than an inch long and covered with straight twigs of about the thickness of a knitting needle , regularly laid and securely fastened to the underlying silk . between most of these larger twigs are very much thinner ones , the whole resmbling a fagot in miniature . the specimens have been returned to the auckland museum .\n\u2642 . 20 mm . head and palpi ochreous . antennae brown . thorax brown mixed with white . abdomen whitish - ochreous . legs white , anterior pair fuscous . forewings , costa moderately arched , apex blunt - pointed , termen rounded , oblique ; brassy brown to chocolate brown ; markings white ; a basal patch on costa half enclosing a brown area ; a broad irregular band at \u00bc , not reaching dorsum , outwardly strongly dentate ; on fold before this a large spot of mingled blackish and white scales ; an elongate black mark about middle of wing at \u2153 ; a crescentic white area sprinkled with brown on costal half from about \u2153 to \u2158 , enclosing an elongate spot of blackish - brown on costal margin ; beneath this costal spot a prominent ring of brown enclosing a white area with a central brown dot ; second line pure white , dentate , preceded on costa by a small blackish - brown dot and followed by a much larger one ; a white area beneath the latter reaching apex ; fringes fuscous , irregularly barred with white . hindwings and fringes pale ochreous - grey .\nsomewhat like c . vulgaris butl . but the circular distal spot and the broad first line at once distinguish it .\ngolden downs , in january . the single male ( holotype ) is in the coll . cawthron institute .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 19\u201322 mm . head and palpi brown mixed with white . antennae brown , in male minutely ciliated . thorax purplish - brown . abdomen ochreous - grey . legs ochreous - white , spurs brown . forewings moderate , costa almost straight , apex rectangular , termen hardly rounded , oblique ; dull purplish - brown ; markings usually\nabsent , except reniform which is blackish , and obscurely x - shaped , the lower half being filled with white ; in some specimens the veins are faintly outlined in black and there is an obscure subterminal line ; fringes greyish - brown with a darker basal line . hindwings fuscous - grey ; fringes greyish - white with brownish basal line .\nnelson , in april and november ; tisbury , southland , in november ; and freestone hill , manapouri , in february .\nholotype ( \u2640 ) in coll . cawthron institute , allotype ( \u2642 ) in coll . a . philpott and paratypes in colls . e . meyrick , a . philpott and cawthron institute .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 25\u201327 mm . head white mixed with fuscous . palpi dark brown , white within . antennae brown , in male minutely ciliated . thorax grey , tegulae with broad longitudinal stripe of blackish - brown . abdomen greyish - ochreous , apically somewhat fuscous . legs white irrorat\u00e8d with fuscous , anterior tarsi purplish - fuscous annulated with white . forewings moderate , costa moderately arched , apex rectangular , termen hardly rounded , slightly oblique ; grey mixed with white ; markings dark chocolate brown ; a median streak from base of about \u2153 , more or less interrupted with white apically ; a streak above this , rising at \u00bc and ending at \u2157 , its upper margin irregularly indented ; some ochreous suffusion round apex of this streak ; veins finely lined with chocolate brown ; fringes grey with median and subapical lines . hindwings ochreous - grey , round apex and termen fuscous - tinged : fringes ochreous - grey with fuscous basal line .\nnear s . falsa philp . but that species is without the basal streak and the dark lining of the veins .\nnelson , in april and may . holotype ( \u2642 ) , allotype ( \u2640 ) and one paratype in coll . cawthron institute .\nmr . a . tonnoir has submitted to me the previously unknown male of this species . it was taken at deans ' bush , christchurch , in march . i have made the specimen the allotype and returned it to the coll . canterbury museum .\n\u2642 . 14 mm . head , palpi and thorax ferruginous . antennae ringed alternately with ochreous - grey and black , ciliations in male 1 \u00bd . abdomen dark greyish - fuscous . legs greyish - ochreous , anterior pair fuscous , all tarsi annulated with ochreous . forewings , costa straight , apex almost rectangular , termen slightly rounded , little oblique ; white ; markings ferruginous mixed with ochreous and black ; a small basal patch , including costal fold , margin outwardly oblique ; a prominent fairly broad straight fascia from apex of costal fold to before \u00bd of dorsum , outer margin extended in disc by ochreous patch ; an outwardly oblique broad fascia from middle of costa , greatly constricted ( almost interrupted ) at middle , thence much\ndilated and recurved to apex ; several spots on costa between \u00bd and apex , and some irregular markings between fasciae on dorsum , where the ground - colour is leaden grey ; fringes ferruginous , tipped with yellowish - ochreous . hindwings dark fuscous ; fringes fuscous with darker basal line , round tips ochreous .\narthur ' s pass , in february . the single male ( holotype ) was taken by mr . s . lindsay in whose collection it remains .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 14\u201320 mm . head , palpi and thorax grey . antennae grey annulated with fuscous , ciliations in male 1 . abdomen greyish - white . legs greyish - white , anterior pair fuscous . forewings , costa well arched , apex round - pointed , termen oblique , white , irrorated with lighter and darker bronzy - fuscous ; markings dark bronzy - fuscous ; three or four interrupted curved fasciae between base and \u00bc ; a rather broad outwardly oblique fascia from before \u00bd to middle of wing , dilated in disc ; three or four interrupted fasciae between this and apex ; fringes greyish - white . hindwings fuscous - grey ; fringes fuscous - grey with pale basal line .\nnot closely resembling any other new zealand tortrix . it is easily recognised by its spotted appearance .\naorere river and quartz ranges , in february . fairly common on the \u201cpakihi\u201d lands . holotype ( male ) , allotype ( female ) , and a series of paratypes in coll . cawthron institute .\n\u2642 . 15 mm . head , palpi and thorax purplish - brown . antennae light purplish - brown , longest ciliations in male 4 . abdomen ( missing ) . legs fuscous , tarsi obscurely ringed with whitish . forewings . parallel - sided , costa hardly arched , subsinuate , apex broadly rounded , termen oblique ; purplish - brown with a sprinkling of whitish scales , especially on posterior half ; fringes fuscous . hindwings and and fringes fuscous .\nnot likely to be confused with the other two species of the genus . glentui , in february . a single male ( holotype ) in coll . s . lindsay .\n\u2642 . 11 . 5 mm . head ochreous - white with median brown stripe . palpi white . antennae greyish - fuscous . thorax white , tegulae and median stripe fuscous . abdomen white mixed with fuscous . legs ochreous - white mixed with fuscous . forewings , costa almost straight , apex acute , termen extremely oblique ; white ; base of costa to \u2159 narrowly fuscous ; a whitish - ochreous stripe along costa , broadest on basal \u00bd ; an ochreous stripe along fold to \u2156 ; an ochreous - fuscous stripe above fold , commencing about \u2153 and running to apex , where it becomes slightly dilated and blackish ; a fuscous stripe along dorsum to tornus , thence continuing , but much paler , half way to apex ; fringes pale ochreous - fuscous with black basal line round apex . hindwings dark fuscous ; fringes pale ochreous - fuscous .\nnear e . thallophora meyr . , but with a different arrangement of the stripes .\narthur ' s pass , in february . two males taken by mr . s . lindsay . and the writer . holotype ( male ) in coll . s . lindsay and a paratype in coll . cawthron institute .\n\u2642 . 20\u201322 mm . head and thorax light orange - yellow . palpi light orange - yellow , second segment , except near apex , fuscous outwardly . antennae ringed alternately with ochreous - grey and fuscous , ciliations in male \u00be . abdomen fuscous - grey , anal tuft ochreous . legs whitish - ochreous , anterior pair infuscated . forewings moderate , broad , costa moderately arched , apex bluntly pointed , termen rounded , oblique ; light orange - yellow ; costal margin purplish - fuscous from base to about \u00bc ; a purplish - fuscous spot on fold before middle , sometimes absent or represented only by one or two scales ; a similar spot in disc at \u2154 ; fringes concolorous with wing . hindwings light fuscous - grey ; fringes light fuscous - grey , with obscure darker basal line .\nthe largest of the yellow group . the clear ground - colour and broader wings , apart from the male genitalic characters , distinguishes it from b . apertella walk .\ndun mountain , nelson , from 2 , 000 feet to 3 , 000 feet , in november , december and january . holotype ( male ) and several paratypes in coll . cawthron institute .\nn . sp . ( a ) lateral view of male genitalia . ( b ) inner view of harpe . ( c ) apex of harpe from beneath .\n\u2642 . 19\u201320 mm . head , palpi and thorax bright yellow , second segment of palpi , except near apex , fuscous . antennae ringed alternately with ochreous and fuscous . abdomen greyish - fuscous . legs whitish - ochreous , anterior pair infuscated . forewings , costa well arched , apex bluntly pointed , termen rounded , oblique ; bright yellow ; costal margin fuscous from base to about \u00bc ; fringes bright yellow . hindwings pale greyish - fuscous ; fringes greyish - fuscous with darker basal line .\nhard to distinguish from the unmarked forms of the preceding species , but the small differences in the genitalic characters seem to be quite constant while the costa is more arched and the ground colour rather paler .\ncobb valley and localities in the vicinity of nelson city in november and december . holotype ( male ) and several paratypes in coll . cawthron institute . i cannot at present with certainty assign the females to either of the species just described .\n\u2642 . 15\u201319 mm . head , palpi and thorax black sprinkled with white antennae black with short grey pubescence . abdomen black , segmental divisions yellowish - white . legs black , tibiae and tarsi banded with white . forewings oblong , costa arched at base , thence straight , apex rounded , termen hardly oblique ; black tinged with brown and densely irrorated with bluish - white ( owing to the tips of many scales being so coloured ) ; markings formed by the elimination of the irroration ; an indistinct dentate basal fascia enclosing two tufts of raised scales , one above and the other below fold , both of which contain a few yellow scales ; a fairly straight fascia from \u2153 costa to \u00bd dorsum enclosing similar tufts of raised black and yellow scales ; an irregular fascia , containing a few yellow scales , from \u2154 costa to tornus ; fringes blackish - fuscous , basal \u00bd mixed with bluish - white . hindwings yellow ; termen and dorsum broadly dark fuscous ; fringes dark fuscous .\nmount arthur tableland , at 4 , 500 feet , in november . three males taken by the writer and mr . w . heighway . holotype ( male ) and two paratypes in coll . cawthron institute .\n\u2640 . 20 mm . head black sprinkled with white . thorax black mixed with white , scutellum white , tegulae mixed with ochreous and brown . palpi black , a broad median band and apex of second segment white , also white median band on terminal segment . antennae black sprinkled with white basally . abdomen black , segmental divisions white . legs black , tibiae and tarsi banded with white . forewings oblong , costa slightly arched , apex broadly rounded , termen rounded , little oblique ; leaden grey with some ochreous and brown admixture ; markings black mixed with brown ; an indistinct dentate basal fascia enclosing two tufts of raised scales , one above and one below fold ; a nearly straight fascia from costa at \u2153 to above dorsum at \u00bd , also enclosing raised scale tufts ; an irregular fascia from costa at \u2154 to above tornus , much constricted at , middle and with an indentation beneath filled with leaden grey ; a terminal series of obscure dots ; fringes concolorous with wing . hindwings bronzyfuscous ; fringes fuscous with obscure basal and median pale lines .\nit is possible that this may be the female of the preceding species , but having regard to the considerable differences between the two and to the widely separated localities i do not think it very probable .\narthur ' s pass , in february . the single specimen was taken near the glacier from which the otira river has its source . holotype ( female ) in col . cawthron institute .\n\u2642 . 19\u201322 mm . head white . palpi white , basal and subapical bands of second segment and median and apical bands of terminal segment dark fuscous . antennae brown with grey pubescence . thorax white with some admixture of pale fuscous . abdomen ochreous - whitish . legs fuscous sprinkled with ochreous - whitish , posterior tibiae whitish - ochreous . forewings not posteriorly dilated , costa slightly arched , apex rounded , termen rounded , oblique ; white , sparsely sprinkled with pale ochreous ; markings blackish - fuscous ; a spot on base of costa ; an elongate spot on costa at \u2153 ; a more or less triangular spot beyond \u00bd ; a suffused terminal shade ; two elongate spots in disc and sometimes a third below first on fold ; fringes grey . hindwings and fringes pale fuscous - grey .\nleigh , north auckland , in january . five males sent by mr . d . d . milligan . holotype ( male ) and two paratypes in coll . cawthron institute .\n\u2642 . 23\u201324 mm . head and thorax dull brown mixed with grey . palpi with terminal segment much shorter than second , ochreouswhitish mixed with brown externally . antennae annulated alternately with ochreous - whitish and dark fuscous , ciliations in male 5 . abdomen dull brassy - yellow , segmental divisions whitish and some fuscous on basal segments . legs ochreous - whitish , more or less infuscated . forewings , costa moderately arched , apex rounded , termen oblique ; dull brown ; sometimes a broad stripe of ochreouswhite along dorsum , tapering to tornus and triangularly indented above near base , also a suffused stripe of the same colour beneath costa to about \u00be ; fringes whitish - ochreous with three or four lines of brown points . hindwings and fringes ochreous - whitish sprinkled with brown .\nthe male genitalia show this species to be most nearly related to a . isogama meyr .\ntwo males received from the late mr . j . h . lewis ; locality of capture probably central otago . holotype ( male ) and a paratype in coll . a . philpott .\nn . sp . ( a ) lateral view of male genitalia . ( b ) inner view of harpe . ( c ) obliquely dorsal view of uncus and gnathos .\nbarea exartha ( meyr . ) , proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . , vol . 8 ( 1st ser . ) , p . 357 ; izatha planetella huds . , ent . mo . mag . , vol . 59 , p . 218 .\na specimen of this australian species was reared by mr . a . tonnoir , of the canterbury museum , from a larva found feeding on the decayed portion of an imported hardwood pole . the moth , a female , emerged in november . it appears probable that this species has established itself in the canterbury district , as mr . s . lindsay has sent me a male taken by him at dean ' s bush , christchurch , in february of this year . the type of planetella was thought to be from ohakune , in the centre of the north island , in no way an improbable locality in view of the larval habits .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 12\u201314 mm . head ochreous - whitish . palpi ochreouswhitish , apex of terminal segment brown . antennae fuscous , annulated with ochreous , basally ochreous . thorax pale ochreous . abdomen ochreous - whitish . legs ochreous - whitish , anterior pair infuscated . forewings with the branches of the first cubitus shortstalked , costa moderately arched , apex pointed , termen oblique ; ochreous mixed with white ; a blackish\u2013fuscous spot , usually elongate , at about \u2153 ; a black dot in disc at \u2154 ; fringes ochreous . hindwings greyish - fuscous ; fringes ochreous .\neasily distinguished from e . symmorpha meyr . , apart from the venational difference , by the comparative lack of markings . it has not been considered advisable to base a new genus on the venational detail noted , the other characters being normal .\nseaward moss ( invercargill ) , in january ( philpott ) . bottle lake and waikuku ( canterbury ) , in november and march ( heighway and lindsay ) . holotype ( male ) and allotype ( female ) in coll . a . philpott . two paratypes in coll . cawthron institute .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 11\u201315 mm . head and thorax ochreous - white . palpi with small triangular tuft beneath , ochreous - white , indistinctly barred with pale fuscous . antennae brown . abdomen pale brassy , in male dorsally dark fuscous . legs whitish , anterior pair fuscous and posterior pair annulated with dull fuscous . forewings narrow , costa moderately arched , apex , in male rounded , in female acute , termen strongly oblique ; in male ochreous - white , paler along costa , in female white ; an interrupted blackish - fuscous streak from about \u00bc to apex , frequently represented only by a few dots , in female more constantly present ; a black spot or spots above tornus ; in female three or four interrupted blackish - fuscous transverse fasciae on apical \u00bc ; fringes whitish - ochreous with prominent blackish median line and blackish tips round apex . hindwings shining grey - whitish ; fringes pale ochreous .\ng . necopina belongs to the ataracta group , but differs from its allies , in addition to the markings , by the smaller palpal tuft .\ngolden downs and gordon ' s nob , in january . common among the rough herbage on marshy ground in the valley , and on the dry scanty vegetation of the mountain at 3 , 000 feet .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 14\u201315 . head and thorax dark ochreous - brown , with a purplish - violet sheen , face white . palpi ochreous - brown . antennae ochreous closely annulated with brownish . abdomen ( missing ) . forewings brassy - yellow , densely covered with purplish - violet strigulae which show a tendency to form spots at \u2155 , \u2156 , and \u00bd ; fringes greyish - fuscous , concolorous with wing round apex . hindwings leaden - grey ; fringes brownish - fuscous .\nsomewhat resembling g . linearis butl . but without the triangular pale costal area of that species .\nwest plains , near invercargill , date uncertain . holotype ( male ) and allotype ( female ) in coll . a . philpott .\n\u2640 . 17 mm . head white . papi white , outwardly mixed with fuscous . antennae white , annulated with blackish fuscous . thorax white , tegulae mixed with pale fuscous . abdomen greyish - white . legs , anterior and middle pair fuscous , posterior pair white . forewings , costa moderately arched , apex round - pointed , termen rounded , oblique ; white with scattered strigulations of leaden - fuscous ; markings purplish - fuscous ; some irregular spots round base of tornus ; a large blotch at \u2153 covering middle third of wing , preceded and touched by a round spot on fold ; an oblique inwardly directed mark in disc at middle ; an obscure irregular spot at \u2158 ; fringes white mixed with fuscous , obscurely barred round apex . hindwings and fringes shining white .\narthur ' s pass , in february . a single male ( holotype ) in coll . cawthron institute .\n\u2642 . 5\u20136 mm head white , sometimes ochreous tinged . antennae fuscous , eye - cap whitish . thorax ochreous . abdomen dark fuscous . forewings white with much admixture of ochreous , especially on basal portion and in disc ; a black spot on fold at \u00bc , sometimes absent ; a prominent black spot in disc at \u00bd , . usually elongate ; a black spot , large or small , before apex ; fringes fuscous - grey with several rows of ochreous points round apex and termen . hindwings and fringes fuscous - grey .\nmount arthur tableland , at 4 , 000 feet , in november . three males taken . holotype ( male ) and paratypes in coll . cawthron institute .\n\u2642 . 14\u201315 mm . head and thorax ochreous - brown . antennae ochreous , ciliations in male 3 . abdomen fuscous - brown . legs\nfuscous mixed with ochreous , posterior pair more ochreous , all tarsi annulated with ochreous . forewings elongate - triangular , costa moderately arched , apex round - pointed , termen strongly oblique ; ochreous , covered with brown strigulae and with strong purplishviolet iridescence ; the strigulae tend to form spots on apical half of costa and round termen ; an indistinct brown spot on dorsum at \u00bd ; fringes fuscous mixed with ochreous . hindwings and fringes greyish - fuscous with purplish - violet sheen .\ndun mountain , in december . two males taken at 3 , 500 feet . holotype ( male ) and a paratype in coll . cawthron institute .\n\u2642 . 16 mm . head , thorax and abdomen blackish - fuscous . antennae blackish - fuscous , ciliations in male 2 \u00bd . forewings , costa moderately arched , subsinuate , apex rounded , termen oblique ; dark brownish - fuscous obscurely strigulated with ochreous ; an undefined patch of paler ochreous on dorsum near base ; a large spot of whitish - ochreous on dorsum beyond middle ; fringes dark purplish - fuscous . hindwings and fringes dark fuscous with purplish sheen .\nclose to m . strigulata philp . and m . fenwicki philp . , but without the dark dorsal blotch of the former , and a larger and darker species than the latter .\nlake moana , in december . a single male taken by mr . a . tonnoir . holotype ( male ) in coll . canterbury museum .\n\u2640 . 13 . 5 mm . head covered with dense long hair reaching beyond \u00bd of antennae , light tawny . antennae bright brown , tips black . thorax tawny , densely long - haired . abdomen dark fuscous . legs ochreous , tarsi banded with fuscous . forewings long , costa strongly arched at base , apex round - pointed , termen very oblique ; shining brassy ; fasciae ivory - yellow with pink reflections ; three equidistant complete curved fasciae between base and \u00bd ; at \u00be a fascia interrupted below middle ; between \u00bd and \u00be a fascia indicated by marks on costa and dorsum ; two fasciae near apex , broadly interrupted at middle ; all fasciae are here and there margined with blackish ; an obscure reddish shade commences in disc at third fascia and runs to apex ; fringes pinkish - brown obscurely barred with pale yellow . hindwings metallic violet , paler near base ; fringes fuscous with some yellow at middle of termen .\nstructurally nearest to s . lucilia clarke and s . calliarcha meyr . , r1 of the hindwing being complete .\nleslie valley , mount arthur tableland , in november . two females taken by mr . w . heighway . holotype ( female ) and slides of wings and female genitalia in coll . cawthron institute .\naustralia ( tasmania , new south wales , victoria ) . see [ maps ]\npolismatica meyrick , 1931 \u00b2 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 6 ) : 191\nheterozancla rubida turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 134 ; tl : victoria , lorne\n[ afromoths ] de prins , j . & de prins , w . , 2013\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ \u00b2 ] this may require parentheses or not . i don ' t have the necessary information for this taxon .\ncheck - list of the broad - winged moths ( oecophoridae s . l . ) of russia and adjacent countries\nviette , 1955 nouveaux tineoidae ( s . l . ) de madagascar [ lep . ] ann . soc . ent . fr . 123 : 75 - 113\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nturner , a . j . 1939 ,\na second revision of the lepidoptera of tasmania\n, papers and proceedings of the royal society of tasmania , vol . 1938 , pp . 57 - 115\nturner , a . j . 1919 ,\nthe australian gelechianae ( lepidoptera )\n, proceedings of the royal society of queensland , vol . 31 , pp . 108 - 172\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 6f60e1ed - 18b7 - 462e - be9f - afbb137629e2\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 9ae18e2a - fa5a - 4ed8 - a44c - 6a41a3ad139b\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 245947\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country ."]}
{"id": 1916, "summary": [{"text": "the glossy black cockatoo ( calyptorhynchus lathami ) , is the smallest member of the subfamily calyptorhynchinae found in eastern australia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "adult glossy black cockatoos may reach 50 cm ( 19.5 in ) in length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they are sexually dimorphic .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "males are blackish brown , except for their prominent red tail bands ; the females are dark brownish with some yellow spotting .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "three subspecies are recognised . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "glossy black cockatoo", "paragraphs": ["the glossy black - cockatoo is a brownish black colour with a small crest .\nensure a viable breeding population of the glossy black - cockatoo persists in south australia .\nshift the status of the glossy black - cockatoo from endangered to vulnerable by 2030 .\nresidents in the nsw southern highlands are working to save the threatened glossy black - cockatoo .\nglossy black cockatoo recovery program ( no date ) . unpublished reports to the sa glossy black - cockatoo recovery team 1995 - 2004 . kingscote , south australia department of environment and heritage .\nscientific name : calyptorhynchus lathami halmaturinus common name : glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) other names : at the species level , the glossy black - cockatoo has also been known , in the past , as the casuarina , casuarine , glossy or latham ' s cockatoo , leach ' s black - cockatoo , leach ' s red - tailed cockatoo , and the nutcracker ( higgins 1999 ) . the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) is considered to be a conventionally accepted subspecies of the glossy black - cockatoo ( c . lathami ) ( schodde et al . 1993 ) .\nnow extinct on mainland australia , the endangered glossy black - cockatoo has its last refuge on kangaroo island .\nmooney , p . a . and pedler , l . p . sa glossy black - cockatoo recovery team\nlittle corellas are culled if they stray into the vicinity of glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) nest sites .\ndespite its name , the glossy black cockatoo is not glossy . it is a dull brown - black colour with a red tail panel . females have yellow markings on the head and neck .\nexpand the current distribution of the glossy black - cockatoo to include its former range on mainland australia , on the fleurieu peninsula .\nsimilar to other cockatoo species , glossy black - cockatoos also show playful behaviour , like the male bird in the photo below .\njoseph , l . ( 1982 ) . the glossy black - cockatoo on kangaroo island . emu . 82 : 46 - - 49 .\nthe glossy black - cockatoo may be confused with the red - tailed black - cockatoo , c . banksii , but can be distinguished by having more brownish - black plumage on head , neck and underbody , and dull black body plumage instead of uniformly glossy black plumage . adult females have much more yellow on head , but lack the yellow spotting over the whole body characteristic of female ( and immature ) red - tailed black - cockatoos . both sexes of the glossy black - cockatoo have a much less conspicuous head crest and a shorter , broader , more bulbous bill . smaller size , less strident contact calls and a marked preference for casuarina habitat further distinguishes the glossy from the red - tailed black - cockatoo .\nthe red - tailed black - cockatoo is mostly glossy black and has an erectile crest which forms an obvious helmet when raised and pushed forward . the male is glossy black with bright red panels in its tail . the female has generally duller plumage and has yellow spots on head , neck and wings . her underbody is barred a pale orange - yellow and her tail has orange - yellow panels , barred black . this cockatoo is also called the banksian , black , great - billed or red - tailed cockatoo or banks ' black - cockatoo .\nrabbit grazing prevented regeneration of sheoaks from the seedbank . with no food for survival , the glossy black - cockatoo disappeared from mainland south australia .\nin the past 30 years , new conservation reserves have been established for the specific protection of the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) .\nlateral view of a female glossy black - cockatoo ( photo courtesy of c . hayne ) [ gwydir watercourse wetlands , nsw , april 2014 ]\nfrontal view of a male glossy black - cockatoo feeding on the seeds of a casuarina [ mt . archer np , qld , july 2009 ]\ncompared with red - tailed black - cockatoos , glossy black - cockatoos have a much less pronounced crest and have smaller red tail panels .\nthe friends of the glossies is a volunteer group established in 2012 to support the on - ground works of the glossy black - cockatoo recovery program .\nlateral view of a male glossy black - cockatoo ( photo courtesy of a . ross - taylor ) [ nerang np , qld , october 2013 ]\nthe glossy black - cockatoo , ( calyptorhynchus lathami ) is a threatened species under state government legislation , and is is one of australia\u2019s rarest cockatoos .\nbaird , r . f . ( 1986 ) . historical records of the glossy black - cockatoo calyptorhynchus lathami and the red - tailed black - cockatoo calyptorhynchus magnificus in south - eastern australia . south australian ornithologist . 30 : 38 - - 45 .\nstudies have been conducted on the biology and ecology of the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) and on its primary food source , drooping sheoak .\nsouthgate , r . ( 2002 ) . population viability analysis for the south australian glossy black - cockatoo . department for environment and heritage , south australia .\nthe trees were also handed out with guards and canes , instructions on how to plant and help them along and report back glossy black - cockatoo sightings .\njoseph , l . ( 1989b ) . the glossy black - cockatoo in the south mount lofty ranges . south australian ornithologist . 30 : 202 - 204 .\nfrontal view of a male glossy black - cockatoo ( photo courtesy of m . windeyer ) [ gilgandra flora reserve , near gilgandra , nsw , september 2013 ]\nnear - frontal view of a male glossy black - cockatoo ( photo courtesy of a . ross - taylor ) [ nerang np , qld , october 2013 ]\nlateral view of a female glossy black - cockatoo ( photo courtesy of m . windeyer ) [ gilgandra flora reserve , near gilgandra , nsw , july 2014 ]\nlateral view of a female glossy black - cockatoo ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ lathami conservation park , kangaroo island , sa , march 2016 ]\nand the listing of the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) under the epbc act 1999 ( garnett et al . 2000 ; mooney & pedler 2005 ) .\nsurvey and monitor the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) population by conducting annual surveys of population size and survivorship and investigating all reported sightings of the subspecies .\npepper , j . w . ( 1993 ) . a new food source for the glossy black - cockatoo . south australian ornithologist . 31 : 144 - 145 .\nthreatened species - south australian glossy black - cockatoo - a gradual recovery ( south australian department for environment and heritage ( sa deh ) , 2009d ) [ internet ] .\nthe glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) should also benefit from the recent development of a threat abatement plan for psittacine beak and feather disease ( deh 2005q ) .\nnear - dorsal view of a male glossy black - cockatoo ( photo courtesy of m . windeyer ) [ gilgandra flora reserve , near gilgandra , nsw , september 2013 ]\nnear - frontal view of a male glossy black - cockatoo ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ lathami conservation park , kangaroo island , sa , march 2016 ]\nlateral view of a juvenile or immature glossy black - cockatoo ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ lathami conservation park , kangaroo island , sa , march 2016 ]\ndorsal view of an immature or juvenile glossy black - cockatoo ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ lathami conservation park , kangaroo island , sa , march 2016 ]\nthe potential for land clearance to affect the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) has been greatly reduced in the last 30 years . this has been achieved through the :\nthe glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) has been the subject of at least two recovery plans ( garnett et al . 2000 ) , including the current recovery plan for the south australian subspecies of the glossy black - cockatoo ( calyptorhynchus lathami halmaturinus ) : 2005\u00962010 ( mooney & pedler 2005 ) . in addition , the action plan for australian birds\nclose - up lateral portrait of a male glossy black - cockatoo ( photo courtesy of m . windeyer ) [ gilgandra flora reserve , near gilgandra , nsw , august 2016 ]\nfrontal view of a female glossy black - cockatoo clambering up a casuarina ( photo courtesy of m . windeyer ) [ gilgandra flora reserve , gilgandra , nsw , august 2016 ]\nlateral view of a juvenile glossy black - cockatoo begging for food ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ lathami conservation park , kangaroo island , sa , march 2016 ]\nthe glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) population has been actively and intensively managed for more than a decade . the following recovery actions have been implemented to benefit the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) ( garnett & crowley 2000 ; garnett et al . 2000 ; p . mooney 2007 , pers . comm . ; mooney & pedler 2005 ) :\nburbidge , a . & j . raines ( 2003 ) . south australian glossy black - cockatoo recovery program review 2003 . department for environment and heritage , kingscote , south australia .\ncleland , j . b . & e . b . sims ( 1968 ) . food of the glossy black - cockatoo . south australian ornithologist . 25 : 47 - 52 .\nred - tailed black cockatoo on a tree photographer : a . d . , m . c . trounson \u00a9 australian museum\npepper , j . w . ( 2000 ) . foraging ecology of the south ausralian glossy black - cockatoo ( calyptorhynchus lathami halmaturinus ) . austral ecology . 25 : 16 - 24 .\nclose - up view of a glossy black - cockatoo cracking a casuarina seed cone ( photo courtesy of m . windeyer ) [ gilgandra flora reserve , gilgandra , nsw , august 2016 ]\nwhile a small project , focused on a small creature , the saving of the glossy black - cockatoo is part of the state government ' s $ 100 million saving our species plan .\nthe glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) breeds from late summer to spring , with eggs laid from january to july . it nests in hollows in the trunks and upper limbs of tall\nnear - frontal view of a male glossy black - cockatoo , now seen preening ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ lathami conservation park , kangaroo island , sa , march 2016 ]\nthe animal they are hoping to save is the glossy black - cockatoo , a vulnerable species for new south wales , which has been heavily affected by habitat loss in the past few years .\nbebbington , l . ( 1990 ) . field observations of glossy black cockatoos . south australian ornithologist . 31 : 54 .\na program has been introduced to control honey bee swarms in areas used by the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) for nesting . to date , this program has achieved only limited success .\nfrontal view of a male ( see solid red tail patches ) glossy black - cockatoo ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ lathami conservation park , kangaroo island , sa , march 2016 ]\nwhile preening , this male glossy black - cockatoo clearly displays its solid red tail panels ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ lathami conservation park , kangaroo island , sa , march 2016 ]\nglossy black - cockatoos are found most easily at dams or waterholes around sunset in forests and woodland with significant numbers of casuarinas .\nthe glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) is not specifically listed under any international agreements . however , at the species level , the glossy black - cockatoo ( c . lathami ) is listed along with other species of psittaciformes under appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ( cites ) ( cites 2006 ) . this listing protects the kangaroo island subspecies .\ngarnett , s . t . , l . p . pedler & g . m . crowley ( 1996 ) . census of the glossy black - cockatoo on kangaroo island 19 - 26th september 1996 .\npepper , j . w . ( 1996 ) . the behavioural ecology of the glossy black - cockatoo calyptorhynchus lathami halmaturinus . ph . d . thesis . university of michigan , ann arbor , usa .\npepper , j . w . ( 1997 ) . a survey of the south australian glossy black - cockatoo ( calyptorhynchus lathami halmaturinus ) and its habitat . wildlife research . 24 : 209 - 223 .\nif you see black cockatoos with red tail markings in a group of only a few , it is likely that you are looking at glossy black - cockatoos . if they come in a big flock , they are likely red - tailed black - cockatoos .\ntwo male glossy black - cockatoos ( photo courtesy of a . ross - taylor ) [ nerang np , qld , october 2013 ]\nthe glossy black - cockatoo ( gbc ) recovery program is one of australia\u2019s leading examples of how good governance , strategic planning , community commitment and appropriate resources can effectively reverse the decline of a critically endangered species .\nmain threats to this cockatoo are habitat modification and clearing for agriculture or forestry .\nglossy black - cockatoos , race\nlathami\n, are found in various places around narrabri , nsw , especially in areas with casuarinas .\n46\u201350 cm ; c . 450 g ; female smaller . smallest black cockatoo , which , together with lack of a distinctive crest distinguishes present species from\nc . hayne reports that glossy black - cockatoos , race\nlathami\n, are occasionally seen in the area of moree , nsw . in april 2014 a pair of glossy black - cockatoos was spotted in the gwydir wetlands , about 70 km north - west of moree , nsw .\non - going liaison has been established with local , state and federal government agencies to promote the protection of glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) habitat , to facilitate appropriate planning outcomes and to ensure compliance with existing legislation .\nthere have been a number of major studies on the distribution , morphology , habitat , social organization and behaviour , foraging ecology and breeding biology of the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) . these include studies conducted by :\nrecovery plan for the south australian subspecies of the glossy black - cockatoo ( calyptorhynchus lathami halmaturinus ) : 2005 - 2010 ( mooney , p . a . & l . p . pedler , 2005a ) [ state recovery plan ] .\ncrowley , g . , s . garnett & s . carruthers ( 1998 ) . mapping and spatial analysis of existing and potential glossy black - cockatoo habitat on kangaroo island . department for environment and heritage , kingscote , south australia .\nschodde , r . i . j . mason & j . t . wood ( 1993 ) . geographical differentiation in the glossy black - cockatoo calyptorhynchus lathami ( temminck ) and its history . emu . 93 : 156 - 166 .\nm . windeyer reports that glossy black - cockatoos , race\nlathami\n, are regularly found in the gilgandra flora reserve , near gilgandra , nsw .\ndrooping sheoak trees proved to be a highly valuable resource for early settlers . as a prized source of firewood , and of stock feed during droughts , drooping sheoaks were selectively cleared across the south australian landscape , destroying habitat for the glossy black\u2011cockatoo .\nimmature male glossy black - cockatoo chewing on a casuarina seed ; note the size and strength of the bill , enabling them to crack these hard seeds ( photo courtesy of a . ross - taylor ) [ nerang np , qld , october 2013 ]\na . ross - taylor reports spotting glossy black - cockatoos , race\nlathami\n, at nerang np , gold coast , qld , in october 2013 .\n[ the glossy black - cockatoos ] nest in tree hollows and we need those old growth forests for their nesting sites as well ,\nshe said .\nchapman , t . f . & d . c . paton ( 2006 ) . aspects of drooping sheoaks ( allocasuarina verticillata ) that influence glossy black - cockatoo ( calyptorhynchus lathami halmaturinus ) foraging on kangaroo island . emu . 106 : 163 - 168 .\nplease contact natural resources kangaroo island to discuss sponsorship opportunities and to tailor your offer to suit your needs and budget . all donations receive a tax deductible receipt from our partnering organisation nature foundation sa . download the glossy black - cockatoo prospectus to find out more .\ngarnett , s . t . , l . p . pedler & g . m . crowley ( 1999 ) . the breeding biology of the glossy black - cockatoo calytorhynchus lathami on kangaroo island , south australia . emu . 99 : 262 - - 279 .\nthe glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) is a rare bird that currently does not occur in captivity . it may , therefore , be a desirable acquisition for some aviculturists . there is no evidence that the removal of eggs or nestlings has had an impact on the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) population , but the high public profile of the subspecies and its recovery effort , and the accessibility of the population , indicate that there is some potential for nest - robbing to occur ( mooney & pedler 2005 ) .\nchapman , t . f . & d . c . paton ( 2005 ) . the glossy black - cockatoo ( calyptorhynchus lathami halmaturinus ) spends little time and energy foraging on kangaroo island , south australia . australian journal of zoology . 53 : 177 - 183 .\nlike basically all cockatoos , glossy black - cockatoos are seed - eaters . they have a strong preference for the cones of casuarinas (\nshe - oaks\n) .\nit was such a success that they are propagating a further 700 black sheoaks .\nthe glossy black - cockatoo is highly dependent on the distribution of allocasuarina species and is found in woodland dominated by allocasuarina and in open forests where it forms a substantial middle layer . often confined to remnant allocasuarina patches surrounded by cleared farmlands . requires tree hollows for breeding .\nschodde , r . , mason , i . j . & wood , j . t . 1993 ,\ngeographical differentiation in the glossy black cockatoo calytorhynchus lathami ( temminck ) , and its history\n, the emu , vol . 93 , pp . 156 - 166\nchapman , t . f . ( 2005 ) . cone production by the drooping sheoak allocasuarina verticillata and the feeding ecology of the glossy black - cockatoo calyptorhynchus lathami halmaturinus on kangaroo island . ph . d . m . sc . thesis . thesis , university of adelaide .\ndorsal view of an immature or juvenile glossy black - cockatoo ; while trying to get a solid foothold , it is displaying prominently its barred bright - red tail panels ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ lathami conservation park , kangaroo island , sa , march 2016 ]\nthe mt lofty ranges have been extensively cleared for grazing and dryland agriculture . the ranges are a centre for declining woodland birds , such as the endangered southern emu - wren and the south australian subspecies of the glossy black - cockatoo . their survival depends on native vegetation remnants .\nsimilarly , glossy black cockatoo numbers on kangaroo island in south australia have doubled within 15 years from around 150 birds in 1995 . the population boost was due to conservationists putting collars on nesting trees , which stopped the brush - tailed possum from raiding the nests for eggs and chicks .\na group of 7 glossy black - cockatoos , race\nlathami\n, was spotted by us in the goonoo np , between dubbo and mendooran , nsw , in october 2015 .\nj . greaves reports spotting a small family clan of glossy black - cockatoos , race\nhalmaturinus\n, at lathami conservation park , kangaroo island , sa , in march 2016 .\nseven - hundred more black sheoaks will be handed out in february 2017 in bundanoon .\nthe glossy black - cockatoo is widespread in eastern australia from eungella , queensland south to east gippland , victoria , and inland from southern central queensland through the central west of new south wales to north - eastern victoria . there is also an isolated population on kangaroo island , south australia .\nconserve glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) habitat by ; liaising with local government and private landholders ; identifying and monitoring the status of suitable habitat ; promoting and monitoring the success of revegetation schemes ; and managing existing habitat , with special consideration to limiting the potential impact of wildfire .\nthe glossy black - cockatoo is the smallest of the five black - cockatoos . it has a brown - black head , neck and underparts , with red or orange - red tail panels and an otherwise dull black body . the crest is small and inconspicuous and the bill is broad and bulbous . adult females have extensive yellow patches on the head and neck and the tail panels tend to be more orange - red with black bars , but may become less barred and more red with age . some adult males have a few yellow feathers on the head and the males ' tail panels tend to be bright red . young birds resemble adult males but have yellow spotted or streaked breasts , bellies and flanks , with some yellow spots on cheeks and sides of head . glossy black - cockatoos are strongly associated with casuarina stands in wet forests .\nthe life expectancy of the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) is not known . however , the longevity is likely to exceed 15 years ( mooney & pedler 2005 ) and , based on other species of psittacines in captivity , could possibly extend to 50 years or more ( hill 1954 ) .\nthe glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) can reach sexual maturity at two years of age . however , most females do not begin breeding until they are three or more years of age , and males may not begin breeding until five years of age ( mooney & pedler 2005 ; pedler 2003 ) .\nthe south australian subspecies of the glossy black - cockatoo requires high quality drooping sheoak ( allocasuarina verticillata ) woodland for foraging , and large hollow bearing eucalypts for roosting and nesting habitat . nest failure rate in unprotected nests is high , principally as a result of predation by common brushtail possums ( trichosurus vulpecula ) .\ncrowley , g . m . , s . t . garnett & l . p . pedler ( 1999 ) . assessment of the role of captive breeding and translocation in the recovery of the south australian subspecies of the glossy black - cockatoo calyptorhynchus lathami halmaturinus . birds australia report . 5 : 1 - 35 .\ncrowley , g . m . & s . t . garnett ( 2001 ) . food value and tree selection by glossy black - cockatoos calyptorhynchus lathami . austral ecology . 26 : 116 - 126 .\nmale red - tails have glossy black plumage with stunning , bright red tail panels . females are quite different but equally spectacular \u2013 they are one of the most brightly marked subspecies of red - tail .\na newsletter is published biannually and distributed widely on kangaroo island and to several hundred recipients on mainland australia and elsewhere . articles on the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) have appeared regularly in local kangaroo island media and in australian birding magazines and newsletters . there have also been media interviews with participants in the recovery effort .\nthe south - eastern red - tailed black - cockatoo is listed as \u2018endangered\u2019 under the comm - onwealth environmental protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 ( epbc act ) , and is also listed threatened in south australia and victoria .\nthe recovery program for the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) relies heavily on the support of the local community and volunteers , who participate in fund - raising , population and nest monitoring , and revegetation programs . this involvement must continue if the current scope of the recovery effort is to be maintained ( mooney & pedler 2005 ) .\nthe clutch of the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) consists of a single white egg ( mathews 1916\u00961917 ) . the egg is incubated by the female for a period of about 30\u009631 days . the female may lay up to three clutches in a single season if the initial breeding attempts are unsuccessful ( garnett et al . 1999 ) .\nthe glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) inhabits woodlands that are dominated by drooping sheoak ( allocasuarina verticillata ) and often interspersed with taller stands of sugar gum ( eucalyptus cladocalyx ) . these woodlands occur in small gullies adjacent to cleared land in coastal and sub - coastal areas , generally on shallow acidic soils on the steep and rocky slopes of gorges and valleys , along inland creek and river systems ( garnett & crowley 2000 ; joseph 1982 ; mooney & pedler 2005 ; pepper 1996 , 1997 ) . though most activity is confined to drooping sheoak and sugar gum , the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) occasionally utilises other tree species , including blue gum ( eucalyptus leucoxylon ) , manna gum ( e . viminalis ) for breeding and slaty sheoak ( allocasuarina muelleriana ) for foraging ( joseph 1982 ; p . mooney 2007 , pers . comm . ; pepper 1993 , 1996 ) . the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) does not occur in any of the threatened ecological communities , nor is it associated with any other threatened species , listed under the epbc act .\nthe south australian subspecies of the glossy black - cockatoo ( gbc ) ( calyptorhynchus lathami halmaturinus ) has disappeared from the south australian mainland and is currently restricted to kangaroo island . it is listed as endangered under the australian government ' s environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 . the current population is estimated at 290 - 300 birds , including approximately 200 mature individuals .\nover - grazing pressure , changed fire regimes and habitat fragmentation have the potential to affect these landscapes and threaten the viability of species such as carnaby ' s black - cockatoo , the chuditch ( or western quoll ) and brush - tailed phascogale .\nmaintain and facilitate community awareness about the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) and its plight , and encourage community participation in the recovery effort . this can be achieved through the publication of a biannual newsletter ; presentations to the public ; exposure in the media ; coverage in environmental and ornithological publications ; and the involvement of volunteers in various aspects of the recovery effort .\nnoisy squawks or creaky calls ; wheezy call - notes . quieter and less raucous than other black - cockatoos .\nthe seed gathering for the black sheoaks began in february , and a tree handout was held earlier this month .\nglossy black - cockatoos ( calyptorhynchus lathami halmaturinus ) have a highly specialised diet , the seeds of the drooping sheoak ( allocasuarina verticillata ) . these trees once covered the hills of the fleurieu peninsula , southern mt lofty ranges and eyre peninsula .\npsittacine beak and feather disease is an infectious and potentially fatal disease that is common in australian parrots . it can cause extremely high mortality rates amongst nestlings , and could potentially have a catastrophic effect on the small extant population of the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) . symptoms of the disease have been recorded in the glossy black - cockatoo ( deh 2005q ) , but it is not known if any of the infected birds were from kangaroo island . however , it is possible that the disease may have been introduced , or could be introduced in future , to kangaroo island by galahs and little corellas , both of which are common species that have recently arrived on the island , and that are known to carry the disease ( deh 2005q ) .\nthis volunteer group is ready to mobilise and undertake new citizen science projects to aid recovery and to protect and expand glossy habitat .\nchapman , t . f . & d . c . paton ( 2002 ) . factors influencing the production of seeds by allocasuarina verticillata and the foraging behaviour of glossy - black cockatoos on kangaroo island . unpublished report to wildlife conservation fund , canberra .\nglossy black - cockatoos can be found in various types of forest , often open , sometimes also denser . they have a strong preference for the seeds of casuarina trees and are therefore often found around such trees , especially if they have mature cones .\nconservation works and it doesn ' t cost the earth ,\nshe said .\nit ' s probably likely that we will be able to down - list [ the status of glossy black cockatoos ] at the next assessment in 2020 .\nglossy black - cockatoos , although not much smaller than other species of black - cockatoos , are the smallest black - cockatoos in australia . their plumage is dimorphic , i . e . males and females are slightly different . while the body of both sexes is near - black dark - brown , the head of males is all dark - brown , whereas the head of females is brown with irregular yellow blotches . the head plumage of both sexes can show quite some colour variation . males have two solid - red panels on their undertail , females have two barred red panels , with a colour gradient from orange to red . bill , legs and feet are grey , the irises are dark . juvenile and immature glossy black - cockatoos have plumage similar to adult males , but with small specks , while their tail panels are like those of females .\nred - tailed black - cockatoo generally feed in flocks but sometimes in twos or threes . they mainly eat seeds but also fruit , berries , nectar , flowers and sometimes insects and larvae . seeds especially favoured are those of eucalypts , casuarinas , acacias and banksias .\nin july 2009 glossy black - cockatoos , race\nerebus\n, were seen by us in two locations in qld , namely at mt . archer np , east of rockhampton , qld , and on the eastern outskirts of kroombit tops np , qld .\nthe glossy black - cockatoo recovery program is advised by the gbc recovery team , comprising ecological experts , wildlife specialists , community stakeholders and land managers . the recovery team brings a wealth of strategic , technical and local knowledge and experience to the program . all recovery program activities are guided by the gbc recovery plan , a strategic document that describes the objectives , strategies and performance targets of the recovery program .\nglossy black - cockatoos , race\nlathami\n, were first found by us in jack ' s creek state forest ( 20 km south of narrabri ) in 2003 , other parts of the pilliga scrub and also about 20 - 30 km west of narrabri .\na $ 72 , 500 sponsorship boost from kangaroo island plantation timbers has provided a last - minute lifeline for the gbc recovery program after the timber company committed to support the program for the 2017 - 18 financial year . this funding will allow the program\u2019s recovery team to continue to protect the endangered bird , its breeding places and feeding habitat . read the full media article glossy black - cockatoo recovery program saved by sponsorship .\nthe red - tailed black - cockatoo is found in a range of environments , but it is found mostly in eucalyptus forests or woodlands and often in adjacent areas of woodlands or shrublands , especially if they have experienced fire recently . it can also be found in grasslands and farmlands .\nrowley , i . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . glossy black - cockatoo ( calyptorhynchus lathami ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ngarnett , s . t . , g . m . crowley , l . p . pedler , w . prime , k . l . twyford & a . maguire ( 2000 ) . non - current superseded glossy black - cockatoo recovery plan ( calyptorhynchus lathami halmaturinus ) , south australian subspecies , 1999 - 2003 . npw sa , department for environment and heritage . in effect under the epbc act from 09 - mar - 2001 .\ncontrary to other birds eating cones of conifers , glossy black - cockatoos do not crack casuarina (\nshe - oak\n) cones to extract the seeds , but instead eat the whole lot . below a close look at such a cone , which is about 10 mm long .\nthe glossy black - cockatoo feeds almost exclusively on allocasuarina seeds : in a particular area , birds may feed only on a single species . it may also sometimes eat wood - boring larvae . feeds in threes , less commonly in pairs or small groups or in large flocks of up to 60 birds . tame and easily approached when feeding , they can be detected by the clicking of their bills and the falling debris of casuarina cones and twigs .\nthis is the first cockatoo to be illustrated by sydney parkinson , joseph banks ' draughtsman on the endeavour , while the endeavour was being repaired in the endeavour river .\nthe glossy black - cockatoo mates for life , with pairs maintaining their bond all year round . the female prepares the nest hollow and incubates the eggs , only leaving the nest to feed herself after the newly hatched nestling is a week old . males feed the female and nestling throughout the incubation and brooding period . once fledged , the young bird is fed by both parents for up to four months and remains with them until the next breeding season .\nthe nesting success of the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) has been monitored since 1995 . nesting success ( the proportion of nesting attempts that are successful ) has increased from 18 % in 1995 to a mean of 51 % for the years 1997\u00962004 . this increase in nesting success has been attributed to the introduction of management and recovery measures ( e . g . the application of iron collars around tree trunks ) to protect nests from brushtail possums (\nthe small population size and limited geographic range of the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) increases the potential for inbreeding . inbreeding could lower the genetic diversity , fertility and health of the population , and reduce the ability of the birds to adapt to changes in their environment . research is needed to determine if any inbreeding occurs , and to ensure that the genetic diversity of the population is maintained at a sufficient level ( mooney & pedler 2005 ) .\nmooney , p . a . & l . p . pedler ( 2005 ) . non - current recovery plan for the south australian subspecies of the glossy black - cockatoo ( calyptorhynchus lathami halmaturinus ) : 2005 - 2010 . adelaide , south australian department for environment and heritage . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 21 - oct - 2005 . ceased to be in effect under the epbc act from 01 - apr - 2016 .\nwhen courting a female , the male glossy black - cockatoo intonates a monotonous song reminiscent ( to humans ) of a car alarm . upon the last intonation of the refrain , which increases in volume , the male bows and displays his crest and the red patches on the underside of its tail to the female ( see photo ) . after a few seconds , and possibly after a move to a more advantageous point , the whole routine starts all over .\n( except the species included in appendix i . a zero annual export quota has been established for live specimens from the black sea population of\nglossy black - cockatoos are endemic to the australian continent . there are three races of glossy black - cockatoos . nominate race\nlathami\nis found along the coastal strip from about the nsw / vic border in the south to the south - eastern corner of qld . they also live in the hills of the great dividing range behind these coastal areas , into parts of the murray - darling basin . in a roughly triangular area in qld , with bundaberg , moranbah and roma as its corners , race\nerebus\nis found . race\nhalmaturinus\nis found only on kangaroo island .\nit ' s a beautiful bird ; it ' s a little bit taller or bigger than a sulphur - crested and smaller than a yellow - tail cockatoo ,\nshe said .\nthere is , however , likely to be some inevitable further loss of habitat due to fragmentation in new rural and residential subdivisions and to the continued development of towns and existing rural sub - divisions ( mooney & pedler 2005 ) . the rate and extent of development on kangaroo island has increased in the last five to ten years , especially in coastal and sub - coastal areas where much of the habitat of the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) occurs ( p . mooney 2007 , pers . comm . ) .\nthis hotspot includes populations of the endangered bridled nail - tail wallaby and the only remaining wild population of the endangered northern hairy - nosed wombat , now limited to around 110 individuals . the area contains important habitat for rare and threatened species including the bulloak , the jewel butterfly , brigalow scaly - foot , glossy black - cockatoo , greater long - eared bat , large pied bat , eastern long - eared bat and the threatened community of semi evergreen vine thickets the hotspot provides important habitat for star finches and golden tailed geckos .\nglossy black - cockatoos mostly occur in eastern australia , from south - eastern queensland to eastern victoria , and there is also an outlying population much further west , on kangaroo island in south australia . one of the colloquial names for the species is the casuarina cockatoo , and this arises from the birds\u2019 preferred food : the seeds of the casuarina tree . they strip the seed pods from the tree , then tear them open with their strong bills to extract the seeds \u2014 the ground below is often littered with dozens of discarded cones .\nstudies on banded birds have shown that about 50 % of fledged young survive to one year of age ( southgate 2002 ) , and that the average annual survivorship increases to 77\u009683 % for birds aged between one year and three years old , and to 85 % for birds that are older than three years ( mooney & pedler 2005 ) . data collected in more recent years suggests that annual survivorship of adult birds is likely to exceed 90 % ( glossy black - cockatoo recovery program , unpublished data ; l . pedler 2007 , pers . comm . ) .\nthe townspeople , council and state government have collaborated to go on a citywide planting spree of the bird ' s favourite tree \u2014 the casuarina , aka the black sheoak .\nkangaroo island has proportionally the greatest area of original natural vegetation in south australia ' s agricultural zone . yet eight of the ecosystems in the kangaroo island subregion ( which includes some small satellite islands ) are listed as threatened at the state level . four animals are nationally listed : the glossy black cockatoo , kangaroo island dunnart , southern brown bandicoot and the heath rat . conservation reserves protect much of kangaroo island and it is one of the largest areas in australia free of rabbits and foxes . despite this protection , mammals are still threatened by cats and dogs , changed fire patterns and habitat fragmentation .\ndistinctiveness the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) is a distinctive bird that , within its known range , is unlikely to be mistaken for any other species ( higgins 1999 ) . detectability the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) can be detected by sight , call , foraging signs ( the presence of shredded seed cones and cone fragments on the ground beneath feeding trees ) or feeding sounds ( the clicking of mandibles , the sound of cones being broken open , and the sound of falling debris ) . it is described as a quiet and unobtrusive bird . it usually takes flight if approached too closely , and is especially wary when drinking . however , some , but not all , individuals that are accustomed to human activity may be quietly approached to within 5\u009610 m while they are foraging ( p . mooney 2007 , pers . comm . ; l . pedler 2007 , pers . comm . ) . it forages throughout the day during the breeding season , but it usually rests quietly throughout the middle of the day in the non - breeding period . recommended methods the recommended method for detecting the presence of the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) within a particular location is to perform area searches or transect surveys , on foot , through stands of drooping sheoak , in search of signs of recent foraging . these signs consist of shredded seed cones that are coloured pale green to creamy white ( shredded in the previous 24 hours ) , cream to light orange ( shredded in the previous few days ) , bright orange ( shredded in the previous week ) or orange - brown ( shredded in the previous six weeks or so ) ; shredded cones that are brown or grey in colour may be up to one year old ( p . mooney 2007 , pers . comm . ; l . pedler 2007 , pers . comm . ) .\nthe cockatoo ' s habitat probably began disappearing way back when the railway was introduced to the area in the 1860s and declined further as the town grew , said pat hall , a technical officer of science at nationals parks and wildlife service .\nthe glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) population has been subject to annual monitoring since 1995 . the first annual survey , in 1995 , observed a minimum of 158 birds and , from this count , the population size was estimated to consist of 195 birds . the population size has increased since 1995 ( burbidge & raines 2003 ; mooney & pedler 2005 ; pedler 1999 ; pedler & mooney 2004 , 2005 ) . the most recent survey for which data is available , in 2006 , observed a minimum of 293 birds . from this count , the population size was estimated at 310 to 330 birds ( l . pedler 2007 , pers . comm ) .\ncompetition for tree hollows with other species including brushtail possums , yellow - tailed black - cockatoos , galahs , little corellas , sulphur - crested cockatoos , and introduced honey bees ( apis mellifera ) .\nthe glossy black - cockatoo ' s populations have declined , with local extinctions and range contractions . this is because of land clearing practices that have removed food sources and nesting sites . more frequent and intense fires in south - eastern australia since european settlement have also reduced suitable habitat . both grazing , which suppresses casuarina regeneration , and forestry practices that remove casuarina have also contributed to declines . chicks and eggs have been collected for the aviculture industry and , on kangaroo island , chicks and eggs may be eaten by possums . the subspecies c . l . erebus of eastern australia is considered rare , while the kangaroo island subspecies , c . l . halmaturinus is endangered .\nhabitat loss could also occur as a result of grazing . grazing by native and introduced animals ( including wallabies , kangaroos , possums , goats , deer and , on the fleurieu peninsula , rabbits and hares ) and domestic stock can inhibit the natural regeneration of glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) habitats ( p . mooney 2007 , pers . comm . ; mooney & pedler 2005 ; pepper 1997 ) . the impact of grazing is unknown but , given that about 60 % of foraging habitat and 50 % of nesting habitat occurs on private land , it is possible that large areas of habitat could potentially be subject to some form of grazing ( mooney & pedler 2005 ) .\nsurrounded by 300 - 400 stilts , avocets and several species of ducks a very bright [ male ? ] black - tailed godwit . rufous head , neck and upper chest . strong black bars on flank , not complete to belly . back and wings strongly ' spangled\nblack and chestnut . wide white eye - brow only to top of eye . beak , leg colour and tail etc normal . second bird with it in complete non - breeding plumage pale grey above paler under . beak , tail and eye - brow as with first bird . must be over wintering . about 300 metres upstream of mouth .\nalthough sighted regularly by us in these areas in the years 2003 - 2006 , in general glossy black - cockatoos are quite rare . they live in small groups ; typical sightings are of two or three individuals , sometimes small groups of up to six birds . in the pilliga nr , south of narrabri , flocks of up to tens ( probably consisting of subgroups that will disperse again at some point ) have been spotted at various dams .\nred - tailed black - cockatoos nest in tree hollows , which can be in a trunk , end of a dead branch or in a stump . red - tailed black - cockatoos enter the nest hollow tail first . they usually choose eucalypts but will nest in melaleucas , and they usually nest up high . the nest is lined with wood dust or fragments . the female incubates the eggs while the male feeds her .\nseen quartering low over a grassed paddock to the south over stacey ' s rd at 1313 . several brown falcons , nankeen kestrel and at least 5 black - shouldered kite seen along a 4km stretch of road .\nsingle bird seen whilst observing a very active mixed flock of grey fantail , spotted pardalote , brown thornbill and striated pardalote . white eye ring noted clearly , black marking joining eye and very prominent bill . tiny bird with white underside and grey upper . bird regularly ' hovered ' whilst feeding during which time black and white tail patterning seen . observed for about 15 minutes on the south side of the billabong in two eucalypts just out from the billabong fence . ebird checklist\nsince 1996 , the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) has been recorded in baudin conservation park , lathami conservation park , parndana conservation park , western river wilderness protection area , flinders chase national park , ravine des casoars wilderness protection area and in close proximity to cape torrens wilderness protection area ( atlas of australian birds , unpublished data ; p . mooney 2007 , pers . comm . ) . over the same period of time , breeding has been recorded at all locations except for baudin conservation park and cape torrens wilderness protection area , and hence annual monitoring of nests and ongoing protection of nests and maintenance of artificial hollows is conducted at these locations . artificial hollows have been erected in lathami conservation park , parndana conservation park , western river wilderness protection area and ravine des casoars wilderness protection area . feeding habitat of the glossy black - cockatoo ( kangaroo island ) has been re - vegetated in baudin conservation park and lathami conservation park ( p . mooney 2007 , pers . comm . ) . management activities are also undertaken at sites located outside of the reserve system . in many instances , the individual birds and flocks that use the reserves listed above also forage and breed in habitat near or adjacent to the reserves ( p . mooney 2007 , pers . comm . ; l . pedler 2007 , pers . comm . ) . it is estimated that 45 % of suitable nesting habitat ( much of which is not currently used by the birds ) , and 31 % of drooping sheoak foraging habitat , occurs within gazetted reserves managed by the south australian department for environment and heritage ( mooney & pedler 2005 ) .\nred - tailed black - cockatoos are described as dispersive , meaning that they move away from where they were born to where they breed and that they may breed in separate locations . they also appear to move around in response to seasonal food availability .\nthere are five subspecies of red - tailed black - cockatoo occurring in eight discrete populations . combining these , this species is found from the pilbara and kimberleys in western australia in a broad swath through the top end , much of queensland through to the region of the new south wales border . it is then found from there down along the darling river . the species also occurs in three geographically separate regions in each of : south - west victoria / south - east south australia ; the south - west to west of western australia ; central australia in southern northern territory and northern south australia .\nthrough spring and early summer , the breeding season , red - tailed black - cockatoos are generally seen alone or as family parties of 2 to 3 birds . in autumn and winter , flocks of 100 to 250 birds can be seen in areas with a good food supply .\npreviously reported sipo ( 1n ) present at high tide roost at point . also present were asian gull - billed tern ( 2 ) and single black - tailed godwit ( rare in westernport ) . good numbers of overwintering eastern curlew , bar - tailed godwit and red knot also recorded .\nglossy black - cockatoos , race\nlathami\n, are also infrequently seen by us once in the foothills of the nandewar range , e . g . at eulah creek , where they can sometimes be seen flying over . in the timeframe december 2014 to march 2015 , when it was particularly dry in one of their strongholds , the pilliga scrub , and when bushfires had destroyed part of the native vegetation , increased numbers were seen by us flying over eulah creek towards the hills and large contiguous forests of the great dividing range . in the timeframe december 2017 to january 2018 we have also seen them twice at yarrie lake , on the northern edge of the pilliga scrub .\nthe south - eastern red - tailed black - cockatoo only occurs in the south - east of south australia and south - west victoria . their total range covers an area 18 , 000km 2 from nelson to little desert national park in south west victoria and from keith to mount gambier in the south east of south australia ( see range map below ) . red - tails rely on stringybark , buloke and gum woodland habitats and scattered trees throughout the range for feeding and nesting . they are highly nomadic , moving throughout their range in response to food availability . although red - tails are widespread across the range , some of the more likely areas or hotspots for finding birds are around edenhope , casterton , naracoorte , frances , nelson ( lower glenelg national park ) and lucindale .\nthe orange - bellied parrot national recovery team has asked that we do not publish any reports of orange - bellied parrots . please send any sightings at the western treatment plant , werribee and the spit wildlife reserve to obp . release @ urltoken and for all other areas to chris purnell at chris . purnell @ birdlife . org . au . all regent honeyeater reports should be forwarded as soon as possible to dean ingwersen ( dean . ingwersen @ urltoken or freecall 1800 621 056 ) , including any colour leg band details . it is requested that details of swift parrot sightings are forwarded to chris timewell ( woodlandbirds @ birdlife . org . au ) . also , please note that birdline victoria won\u2019t be publishing individual reports of yellow - tailed black - cockatoo in the greater melbourne area .\nthe single nestling is brooded and fed by the female . for the first three weeks after hatching , the male provides food to the brooding female , who in turn feeds the nestling . at approximately three weeks after hatching , the female departs the nest to forage during the day with the male . the nestling remains in the nest for a period of 84\u009696 days and , after leaving the nest , is fed by both parents ( garnett et al . 1999 ; t . mooney 2007 , pers . comm . ; mooney & pedler 2005 ) . the fledgling continues to be fed for a period , based on observations of captive glossy black - cockatoos , of three or four months ( sindel & lynn 1989 ) , or sometimes longer ( p . mooney 2007 , pers . comm . ; l . pedler 2007 , pers . comm . ) ."]}
{"id": 1921, "summary": [{"text": "the alder flycatcher ( empidonax alnorum ) is a small insect-eating bird of the tyrant flycatcher family .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the genus name empidonax is from ancient greek empis , \" gnat \" , and anax , \" master \" .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the specific alnorum is latin and means \" of the alders \" .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "adults have olive-brown upperparts , browner on the wings and tail , with whitish underparts ; they have a white eye ring , white wing bars , a small bill and a short tail .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the breast is washed with olive-grey .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the upper part of the bill is grey ; the lower part is orangish .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "at one time , this bird was included with the very similar willow flycatcher in a single species , \" traill 's flycatcher \" .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "their breeding habitat is deciduous thickets , often alders or willows , near water across canada , alaska and the northeastern united states .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "they make a cup nest low in a vertical fork in a shrub .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "these birds migrate to south america , usually selecting winter habitat near water .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they wait on a perch near the top of a shrub and fly out to catch insects in flight , also sometimes picking insects from foliage while hovering .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they may eat some berries and seeds .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "this bird 's song is a wheezed ree-bee-a .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the call is a quick preet . ", "topic": 16}], "title": "alder flycatcher", "paragraphs": ["a small , nondescript flycatcher of northern wet thickets , the alder flycatcher is difficult to distinguish from the willow flycatcher by any feature other than voice .\nin an experiment on song learning , alder flycatchers were\ntutored\nwith willow flycatcher song in the first two months of life . the next spring , the alder flycatchers sang normal alder flycatcher song .\nthe alder flycatcher and the willow flycatcher are so similar in their physical appearance , it was thought that they were the same species , which was known as traill\u2019s flycatcher .\nthere are not known to be any conservation measures currently in place for the alder flycatcher .\nthe alder flycatcher has a relatively short breeding season , which lasts a maximum of 90 days .\nin an experiment on song learning , alder flycatchers were\ntutored\nwith willow flycatcher song in the first two months of life . the next spring , they sang normal alder flycatcher song .\nthe alder flycatcher is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe alder flycatcher is so similar to the willow flycatcher that they were once thought to be the same species . song is the only definitive way to tell them apart .\nthe alder flycatcher ' s nest is a coarse , loose cup that nearly always has material hanging off it . the nest of the willow flycatcher tends to be neater , with no hanging material .\nthe longest - lived alder flycatcher was over 9 years old , when it was recaptured and rereleased during a banding operation in british columbia .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - alder flycatcher ( empidonax alnorum )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - alder flycatcher ( empidonax alnorum )\ntitle =\narkive species - alder flycatcher ( empidonax alnorum )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nsome alder flycatchers have white rings surrounding the eyes , whereas others do not .\nno information is available on management activities in montana specific to alder flycatcher , although the suspected breeding location for this species is protected within pine butte preserve .\nalder flycatcher : breeds from alaska east through manitoba to newfoundland and south to british columbia , great lakes region , much of new england , and into the mid - atlantic states . spends winters in tropics . preferred habitats include alder and birch thickets near\nfee - bee - o .\nthis traditional description identifies the song of the alder flycatcher . songs of empidonax flycatchers , a notoriously difficult group to identify in the field , are the best , and sometimes only , means for determining species . this is especially true for separating the alder flycatcher from its sibling species , the willow flycatcher ( e . traillii ) . alder and willow flycatchers cannot be identified reliably by sight alone , and even in - hand identification is not always certain . alder ( fee - bee - o song ) and willow ( fitz - bew ) flycatchers were considered one species called traill ' s flycatcher , a name still used to refer to the species pair . of these two sibling species , the alder flycatcher has the more northern and boreal distribution . alder flycatchers are late migrants in spring and leave early in the fall ; northern populations have a short 70 - 90 day breeding season . this flycatcher is single brooded , although individual pairs may renest after an early loss . molt occurs primarily on wintering grounds . the alder flycatcher is thought to winter chiefly in northern south america ( and thus further south than wintering willow flycatchers in middle america and extreme northwestern south america ) . the only definite winter records for alder flycatcher , on basis of call , are from eastern peru , eastern ecuador , and northern and eastern bolivia .\nin areas where breeding ranges overlap , alder flycatchers show less aggression toward willow flycatchers near nesting sites than any other species ; willow flycatcher are the more dominant of the two species ( gorski 1969b ) .\nother flycatchers found in montana with which the alder may be confused are the least ( e . minimus ) and willow flycatchers . in comparison , the least flycatcher has a shorter , narrower bill , a bold , complete eye - ring , thinner tail , and different song ( lowther 1999 , sibley 2000 ) . the general appearance of the alder flycatcher is so similar to that of the willow flycatcher that separating these two species visually can be extremely difficult ( lowther 1999 ) . the alder flycatcher is best separated from the willow flycatcher by voice . the song of the alder flycatcher ( a 3 - syllable\nfee - bee - o\n) is described as being harsh and burry in nature with a strongly accented second syllable , making it sound like a 2 syllable\nrrree - beep\n( lowther 1999 ) . the song of the willow flycatcher is accented on the first syllable , more of a\nfitz - bew ,\nbut may occasionally sound as though it has a subtle third syllable ,\nfritz - be - yew\n( lowther 1999 ) . the call of the alder is described more as an emphatic\npip\nor\npit\n( reminiscent of an olive - sided flycatcher ) in contrast to the liquid\nwhit\nof the willow ( gorski 1969a , 1971 , lowther 1999 , sibley 2000 ) . lowther ( 1999 ) indicates that , generally , the alder has a darker overall appearance ,\nslightly greener crown , more pointed wings , slightly shorter bill , and slightly longer tail .\nlowther , p . e . ( 1999 ) alder flycatcher ( empidonax alnorum ) in : poole , a . ( ed . ) birds of north america online . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca . available at : urltoken\nthe habitat of the alder flycatcher is seasonally variable , with dense , wet areas of alder ( alnus species ) maple ( acer species ) and birch ( betula species ) forest preferred during the breeding season ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . the breeding habitat is usually located in areas below elevations of 1 , 300 metres ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\nwhile migrating , the alder flycatcher is found in various humid and semi - arid open habitats , such as forest edges , woodlands and fields ( 2 ) up to elevations of 2 , 500 metres ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\nwillow and alder flycatchers do not respond to playback of recordings of each other ' s songs , even where their ranges overlap .\na burry fee - bee - o , rather different from the wheezy fitz - bew of the willow flycatcher .\nthe alder flycatcher is so similar to the willow flycatcher that they were thought to be the same species . song is the only definitive way to tell them apart . however , measurements of crown color with a colorimeter , together with other measures of wing shape , bill and tail , may be able to distinguish birds in the hand that are not calling .\nthe upperparts of the juvenile alder flycatcher are browner than the adult ( 2 ) ( 3 ) , the underparts are tinged yellow ( 3 ) and there are broad , yellow - buff bars on the wings ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nmost tyrant flycatcher species have stable populations in north america . the olive - sided flycatcher , though , has sharply declined throughout its range possibly due to habitat destruction on its wintering grounds and has been listed as near - threatened .\nobservations in may indicate the earliest presence of the species in the state . alder flycatcher records continue generally only through july , with one rarity ; an individual at pine butte that was observed in september of 1991 ( montana bird distribution committee 2012 ) .\nas an american species , the alder flycatch drew a crowd of 200 birdwatchers from around the uk when it appeared in cornwall in 2008 .\nthe moderately long bill is black on the upper surface and pale orange - yellow on the underside ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the eyes of the alder flycatcher are dark brown ( 4 ) and the legs and feet are black ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\nthe alder flycatcher ' s diet is comprised mainly of insects obtained primarily by flycatching ( bent 1942 ) , although gleaning prey from tree and shrub foliage is also a known foraging behavior ( lowther 1999 ) . berries supplement their winter diet ( stiles and skutch 2003 ) .\nin winter , the alder flycatcher inhabits thickets and forest borders ( 2 ) , as well as areas with early successional vegetation ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . while overwintering , this species is found up to elevations of 1 , 100 metres ( 2 ) .\nalthough large in the empidonax genus , the alder flycatcher is a small species within the flycatcher family . thirteen to seventeen centimeters in length , with a wingspan of approximately 21 cm , the alder flycatcher has dull greenish - olive upperparts with a similarly colored , but darker , crown . the eye - ring is narrow , whitish , and sometimes indistinct but rarely lacking , while the throat is clearly white and contrasts with a gray breast band . the bill is black on the upper mandible and dull yellow - orange or pinkish on the lower . the wings are darker than the back , have white - edged tertials ( innermost secondaries ) and wing - bars that are whitish and boldly marked ( lowther 1999 ) . the vocalization of the alder flycatcher is a harsh and burry , three syllable\nrreebeea\nor\nfee - bee - o\n( lowther 1999 , sibley 2000 ) . for a more complete description , see below on distinguishing between the vocalizations of the alder and willow ( e . trailii ) flycatchers . for a comprehensive review of the conservation status , habitat use , and ecology of this and other montana bird species , please see marks et al . 2016 , birds of montana .\na long - distance migrant ( 2 ) ( 4 ) , the alder flycatcher leaves its wintering grounds between march and early may , moving northwards to breed ( 2 ) . this species usually remains at its breeding grounds until late august , when most individuals will have begun their southward migration ( 4 ) .\nlowther , p . e . 1999 . alder flycatcher ( empidonax alnorum ) . species account number 446 . the birds of north america online ( a . poole , ed . ) . ithaca , ny : cornell laboratory of ornithology ; retrieved 3 / 25 / 2008 from the birds of north america online database\nonly the male alder flycatcher produces vocalisations ( 4 ) , which include a short \u2018 pip \u2019 , \u2018 pit \u2019 , \u2018 tip \u2019 , \u2018 bic \u2019 , \u2018 peep \u2019 or \u2018 whit \u2019 ( 2 ) , as well as a distinct , buzzy \u2018 fee - bee - o \u2019 song ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\nmore of a long - distance migrant than willow flycatcher , tending to nest farther north and winter farther south . migrates late in spring and early in fall .\ngorski , l . j . 1969 . traill ' s flycatcher of the\nfitz - bew\nsongform wintering in panama . auk 86 : 745 - 747 .\nthe breeding range of the alder flycatcher extends through canada and into a small area in the north - eastern united states . the migratory pathway of this species passes through the eastern united states and central america , with the overwintering grounds located in various western south american countries , including colombia , argentina , peru , belize , and venezuela ( 3 ) ( 5 ) .\nthe alder and willow flycatchers are so similar in plumage that visual identification is nearly impossible . these two species were actually considered to be one species , the \u201ctraill\u2019s flycatcher , \u201d until small differences in their plumages and distinct differences in their vocalizations showed that they were separate species . this was also the case for the cordilleran and pacific - slope flycatchers , and the eastern and western wood - peewees .\nthe diet of the alder flycatcher includes a variety of arthropods , including bees , wasps , flies , moths , butterflies , grasshoppers and crickets ( 2 ) . an individual may search for prey from a perch and pursue it through the air , or may take it directly from within foliage ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . in winter , this species may also eat small amounts of fruit ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .\nthe alder flycatcher has a large breeding range of 3 , 390 , 000 square kilometers . this includes brushy swamps and wetlands in alaska , canada , the northern mid - western states , and the north - eastern united states south through the appalachians . it winters in edge habitats in western south america . this species has a very large estimated breeding population of 130 , 000 individuals , and a conservation rating of least concern .\ngorski , l . g . 1969 . systematics and ecology of sibling species of traill ' s flycatcher . ph . d . dissertation , university of connecticut , storrs , connecticut . 81 pp .\nharris , j . h . , s . d . sanders , and m . a . flett . 1987 . willow flycatcher surveys in the sierra nevada . western birds 18 : 27 - 36\na small bird that spends the summer catching flying insects in northern thickets . this bird and the willow flycatcher are so similar to each other that they were considered one species until the 1970s . the only differences apparent in the field are in their voices . however , voice is important to these birds : many other kinds of songbirds have to learn their songs , but willow and alder flycatchers are born instinctively knowing the voice of their own species .\nin north america , one hundred forty - seven species of tyrant flycatchers in fifty - eight genera have occurred . these include the brilliant vermillion flycatcher , the sassy kingbirds , and the bridge - loving phoebes .\na few other exceptions to this color scheme are the frosty plumage of the scissor - tailed flycatcher highlighted by salmon pink underwings , the orangish coloration of the say\u2019s phoebe , and the black and white plumages of the eastern kingbird and black phoebe .\nthe plumage of the alder flycatcher ( empidonax alnorum ) is dull olive - green on the upperparts ( 3 ) ( 4 ) , although the head and crown are slightly darker than the back ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the underside and throat are white , and there are two white or pale yellow bars on the black wings ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . individuals of this species may have a narrow white eyering ( 4 ) , although this is absent in some , and the presence of pale - coloured lores is also variable ( 2 ) .\nhabitat use is similar to that of the willow flycatcher and includes willow ( salix ) thickets , red osier dogwood ( cornus sericea ) , or birch ( betula sp . ) along the edges of wetlands , streams , lakes , and forests ( johnsgard 1992 ) .\nmostly insects . differences in diet , if any , between this species and willow flycatcher are not well known . apparently eats mostly insects , including wasps , bees , winged ants , beetles , flies , caterpillars , moths , true bugs , and others . also eats some spiders , a few berries , and possibly some seeds .\nthe relatively short breeding season of the alder flycatcher runs from mid - june to early august ( 2 ) . the nest is constructed solely by the female and is a loose cup of coarse grass which is lined with wiry grass and conifer needles ( 2 ) . the nest is usually completed after around 36 hours ( 4 ) and the female then produces a clutch of 3 or 4 cream - white eggs ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) , which may be unmarked or have an irregular dark pattern on the surface ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the female incubates the nest for between 11 and 15 days , and once the eggs have hatched ( 2 ) ( 4 ) the young are fed by both adults ( 4 ) . the young then fledge the nest after 14 or 15 days ( 2 ) .\nmembers of the tyrannidae occur in most types of forested and non - forest habitats in north america except for the tundra . some species such as the willow flycatcher and black phoebe are associated with wetland habitats , others like the olive - sided and hammond\u2019s flycatchers need coniferous forests , and other species such as the cassin\u2019s kingbird and say\u2019s phoebe , occur in grasslands . related species often replace each other in different habitats or regions such as in the case of the eastern and western wood - peewees .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nmuch of breeding habitat in the north is remote from effects of human disturbance . numbers probably stable .\nwillows , alders , brushy swamps , swales . breeds in thickets of deciduous trees and shrubs , usually near water , as around streams , ponds , or bogs . especially common in thickets of willows or alders . winters in woodland edges or second growth in the tropics , especially near water .\nforages by watching from a perch and then flying out to catch insects . usually forages from perches within tall shrubs or low trees ; catches insects in mid - air , or takes them from foliage while hovering .\n3 - 4 , rarely 2 . white , with brown spots concentrated toward larger end . incubation is by female , 12 - 14 days . young : both parents bring food for nestlings . age of young at first flight about 13 - 14 days .\nboth parents bring food for nestlings . age of young at first flight about 13 - 14 days .\nmale defends nesting territory by singing . courtship behavior is not well known , probably involves male actively chasing female through the trees . nest site is usually low in a deciduous shrub , averaging about 2 ' up , usually lower than 6 ' above the ground . placed in a vertical or diagonal fork in a branch . nest ( probably built by female alone ) is an open cup , usually built rather loosely of grass , weeds , strips of bark , small twigs , rootlets , lined with plant down or other soft materials . nest may have strips of grass or bark dangling from the bottom .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\ntell congress to oppose a harmful rider that threatens sage - grouse and other wildlife .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\narthropods a major grouping of animals that includes crustaceans , insects and arachnids . all arthropods have paired jointed limbs and a hard external skeleton ( exoskeleton ) . early successional vegetation the first plants to colonise an ecosystem after a disturbance . incubate to keep eggs warm so that development is possible . lores the space between a bird\u2019s bill and eyes .\ndel hoyo , j . , farnsworth , a . and lebbin , d . ( 2004 ) handbook of the birds of the world . volume 9 : contingas to pipits and wagtails . lynx edicions , barcelona . available at : urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncopyright by borror laboratory of bioacoustics , department of evolution , ecology , and organismal biology , ohio state university , columbus , oh , all rights reserved .\nusing personal observations and reviewing literature that summarize the breeding , overwintering , or migratory habitat requirements of each species ( dobkin 1992 , hart et al . 1998 , hutto and young 1999 , maxell 2000 , foresman 2012 , adams 2003 , and werner et al . 2004 ) ;\ncalculating the percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of montana covered by each ecological system to get a measure of\nobservations versus availability of habitat\n.\nspecies that breed in montana were only evaluated for breeding habitat use , species that only overwinter in montana were only evaluated for overwintering habitat use , and species that only migrate through montana were only evaluated for migratory habitat use . in general , species were listed as associated with an ecological system if structural characteristics of used habitat documented in the literature were present in the ecological system or large numbers of point observations were associated with the ecological system . however , species were not listed as associated with an ecological system if there was no support in the literature for use of structural characteristics in an ecological system ,\npoint observations were associated with that system . common versus occasional association with an ecological system was assigned based on the degree to which the structural characteristics of an ecological system matched the preferred structural habitat characteristics for each species as represented in scientific literature . the percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of montana covered by each ecological system was also used to guide assignment of common versus occasional association . if you have any questions or comments on species associations with ecological systems , please contact the montana natural heritage program ' s senior zoologist .\nspecies associations with ecological systems should be used to generate potential lists of species that may occupy broader landscapes for the purposes of landscape - level planning . these potential lists of species should not be used in place of documented occurrences of species ( this information can be requested at :\n) or systematic surveys for species and evaluations of habitat at a local site level by trained biologists . users of this information should be aware that the land cover data used to generate species associations is based on imagery from the late 1990s and early 2000s and was only intended to be used at broader landscape scales . land cover mapping accuracy is particularly problematic when the systems occur as small patches or where the land cover types have been altered over the past decade . thus , particular caution should be used when using the associations in assessments of smaller areas ( e . g . , evaluations of public land survey sections ) . finally , although a species may be associated with a particular ecological system within its known geographic range , portions of that ecological system may occur outside of the species ' known geographic range .\nadams , r . a . 2003 . bats of the rocky mountain west ; natural history , ecology , and conservation . boulder , co : university press of colorado . 289 p .\ndobkin , d . s . 1992 . neotropical migrant land birds in the northern rockies and great plains . usda forest service , northern region . publication no . r1 - 93 - 34 . missoula , mt .\nforesman , k . r . 2012 . mammals of montana . second edition . mountain press publishing , missoula , montana . 429 pp .\nhart , m . m . , w . a . williams , p . c . thornton , k . p . mclaughlin , c . m . tobalske , b . a . maxell , d . p . hendricks , c . r . peterson , and r . l . redmond . 1998 . montana atlas of terrestrial vertebrates . montana cooperative wildlife research unit , university of montana , missoula , mt . 1302 p .\nhutto , r . l . and j . s . young . 1999 . habitat relationships of landbirds in the northern region , usda forest service , rocky mountain research station rmrs - gtr - 32 . 72 p .\nmaxell , b . a . 2000 . management of montana ' s amphibians : a review of factors that may present a risk to population viability and accounts on the identification , distribution , taxonomy , habitat use , natural history , and the status and conservation of individual species . report to u . s . forest service region 1 . missoula , mt : wildlife biology program , university of montana . 161 p .\nwerner , j . k . , b . a . maxell , p . hendricks , and d . flath . 2004 . amphibians and reptiles of montana . missoula , mt : mountain press publishing company . 262 p .\nbaicich , p . j . and c . j . o . harrison . 2005 . a guide to the nests , eggs and nestlings of north american birds . second edition . academic press , new york .\nbent , a . c . 1942 . life histories of north american flycatchers , larks , swallows , and their allies . u . s . national museum bulletin 179 . washington , dc .\ngorski , l . g . 1971 . traill ' s flycatchers of the\nfee - bee - o\nsongform wintering in peru . auk 88 : 429 - 431 .\nharrison , h . h . 1979 . a field guide to western birds nests . houghton mifflin company , boston , ma . 279 pp .\njohnsgard , p . a . 1992 . birds of the rocky mountains with particular reference to national parks in the northern rocky mountain region . lincoln : university of nebraska press . xi + 504 pp .\nmarks , j . s . , p . hendricks , and d . casey . 2016 . birds of montana . arrington , va . buteo books . 659 pages .\nmontana bird distribution committee . 2012 . p . d . skaar ' s montana bird distribution . 7th edition . montana audubon , helena , montana . 208 pp . + foldout map .\nsibley , d . a . 2000 . the sibley guide to birds . national audubon society and alfred a . knopf , inc . , new york , ny . 544 pp .\nstiles , f . g . and a . f . skutch . 2003 . a guide to the birds of costa rica . comstock publishing associates , cornell university press , ithaca . 511 pp .\namerican ornithologists union . 1983 . checklist of north american birds , 6th edition . 877 pp .\namerican ornithologists\u2019 union [ aou ] . 1998 . check - list of north american birds , 7th edition . american ornithologists\u2019 union , washington , d . c . 829 p .\ncasey , d . 2005 . rocky mountain front avian inventory . final report . prepared for the u . s . fish and wildlife service and the nature conservancy by the american bird conservancy , kalispell , montana .\nehrlich , p . , d . dobkin , and d . wheye . 1988 . the birder\u2019s handbook : a field guide to the natural history of north american birds . simon and schuster inc . new york . 785 pp .\ngodfrey , w . earl . 1966 . the birds of canada . national museums of canada , ottawa . 428 pp .\njohnsgard , p . a . 1986 . birds of the rocky mountains : with particular reference to national parks in the northern rocky mountain region . colorado associated university press , boulder , co .\nkeast , a . , and e . s . morton . 1980 . migrant birds in the neotropics : ecology , distribution , and conservation . smithsonian institution press , washington , dc .\nlenard , s . , j . carlson , j . ellis , c . jones , and c . tilly . 2003 . p . d . skaar\u2019s montana bird distribution , 6th edition . montana audubon , helena , mt . 144 pp .\nmontana bird distribution online database . 2001 . helena , montana , usa . april - september 2003 .\nsibley , d . 2014 . the sibley guide to birds . alfred a . knopf , new york , ny . 598 pp .\nskaar , p . d . 1969 . birds of the bozeman latilong : a compilation of data concerning the birds which occur between 45 and 46 n . latitude and 111 and 112 w . longitude , with current lists for idaho , montana , wyoming , impinging montana counties and yellowstone national park . bozeman , mt . 132 p .\nterres , j . k . 1980 . the audubon society encyclopedia of north american birds . alfred a . knopf , new york . 1109 pp .\nu . s . forest service . 1991 . forest and rangeland birds of the united states : natural history and habitat use . u . s . department of agriculture , forest service agricultural handbook 688 . 625 pages .\nwright , p . l . 1996 . status of rare birds in montana , with comments on known hybrids . northwestern naturalist 77 ( 3 ) : 57 - 85 .\n. you can download select species by searching or when you ' re on a taxa page like class , order , and family .\nno modification . singing bird perched approximately 6 feet above ground in the top of rhododendron shrub .\nnatural vocalization , windy morning just behind the dock in a small wooded brushy lot . bird was perched on a willow type bush about 8 feet up .\nblack spruce ( picea mariana ) bog with a dwarf birch ( betula glandulosa ) and labrador tea ( rhododendron groenlandicum ) dominated understory . transitioning to willow ( salix sp . ) and white spruce ( picea glauca ) in drier upland areas .\nheard singing in dense black willow stand on the bank of the mississippi river . continued singing while foraging and eventually flew within 10ft and intermittently gave different calls .\nmixed paper birch - quaking aspen woodland about 10 - 15 meters from muddy river , a sinuous watercourse with many sloughs . within a kilometer were many muskegs and lakes surrounded by spruce .\nsame individual featured in xc194087 . habitat : shrubland , river , mature mixed forest .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nand indistinct white eye - ring . wings are olive - brown with two white or pale bars . bill is short with orange\nblack legs and feet . weak fluttering direct flight with shallow , rapid wing beats .\nan estimated 63 % of their population breeds in canada ' s boreal forest .\na group of flycatchers has many collective nouns , including an\noutfield\n,\nswatting\n,\nzapper\n, and\nzipper\nof flycatchers .\nthe passeriformes ( pronounced pas - ser - i - for - meez ) , a large taxonomic order that includes antbirds , cotingas , and flycatchers , is composed of one hundred eighteen families of birds .\nthe tyrannidae ( pronounced tie - ran - uh - dee ) , or tyrant flycatchers , is a very large , successful family of four hundred and twenty - four species in one hundred genera only found in the americas .\nsome tyrant flycatchers are known for their bold , aggressive behavior , this family often called the tyrant flycatchers for this reason . the eastern kingbird in particular , seems to go out of its way to chase much larger birds ( such as turkey vultures ) away from its territory .\nsmall to medium in size , tyrant flycatchers have stocky heads with medium sized beaks , tails that vary in length , and long wings . they also have short legs suited to their arboreal lifestyles .\ntyrant flycatchers do not nest in colonies and mostly forage in pairs or alone although the eastern kingbird forms flocks during migration and on its wintering grounds in amazonia . most north american flycatchers share a similar foraging strategy that often varies by niche and prey item . this foraging strategy involves watching for insects from a perch , sallying out to catch one with a snap of the beak , and returning to the perch to eat it .\n\u00a9 2002 - 2013 urltoken all rights reserved . mitch waite group . no part of this web site may be reproduced without written permission from mitch waite group . privacy policy\nrelating to or living or located on the bank of a natural watercourse ( as a river ) or sometimes of a lake or a tidewater ."]}
{"id": 1928, "summary": [{"text": "the yellow-tailed parrot ( pionites xanthurus ) is one of the four species in the genus pionites of the family psittacidae .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "originally the species was considered to be a subspecies of pionites leucogaster , but recent morphological work suggests the species should be split into three .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the species is rare in captivity in comparison to other taxa of the genus . ", "topic": 10}], "title": "yellow - tailed parrot", "paragraphs": ["another yellow - tailed parrot ( pionites xanthurus ) showing its rosy - pink legs .\n. only wpt members gain exclusive access to some of the world ' s top parrot specialists .\n, with which this species was formerly considered to be conspecific , a medium - sized , chunky , short - tailed parrot , with apricot - orange cap , . . .\nthe yellow - tailed black - cockatoo is found in south - eastern australia , from eyre peninsula , south australia to south and central eastern queensland .\nlisten to exciting podcast interviews with parrot specialists from around the world , many available for wpt members only .\nthe yellow - tailed black - cockatoo is a large cockatoo . it is easily identified by its mostly black plumage , with most body feathers edged with yellow , not visible at a distance . it has a yellow cheek patch and yellow panels on the tail . the female has a larger yellow cheek patch , pale grey eye - ring ( pink in males ) , white upper bill ( grey - black in males ) and black marks in the yellow tail panels . young birds resemble the adult female , but young males have a smaller cheek patch .\nthe yellow - tailed black - cockatoo inhabits a variety of habitat types , but favours eucalypt woodland and pine plantations . small to large flocks can be seen in these areas , either perched or flying on slowly flapping wings .\nthe yellow - tailed black cockatoo will brace itself\nwoodpecker fashion\nwith their tails while looking for grubs and larvae . they will also perch on a\nchopping platform\ngouged out from the trunk of a tree .\nuntil recently , the short - billed black - cockatoo , c . latirostris , found in south - western australia , was considered a subspecies of the yellow - tailed black - cockatoo . this species has white , instead of yellow , panels in the tail . another similarly sized black - coloured cockatoo is the red - tailed black - cockatoo , c . magnificus . this species overlaps with the range of the yellow - tailed black - cockatoo in south - eastern queensland . it has red panels in the tail , and spotting on the body and head . the smaller ( 48 cm ) glossy black - cockatoo , c . lathami , also has red panels in the tail .\nyellow - tailed black - cockatoos feed in small to large , noisy flocks . the favoured food is seeds of native trees and pinecones , but birds also feed on the seeds of ground plants . some insects are also eaten .\n\u2191 contact us | terms & conditions | privacy policy | disclaimer | \u00a9 2018 world parrot trust . all rights reserved . | design : david occhino design\nthe yellow - tailed black - cockatoo is one of six species of black - cockatoo in australia . in recent years it has been in rapid decline because of native habitat clearance , with a loss of food supply and nest sites .\nz . f . funerea : male - in general brown / black , with feathers finely margined dull yellow ; soft yellow ear - coverts ; side tail feathers have wide yellow band near tip spotted with brown / black . bill slate grey . eye ring pink , eye dark brown . female - ear coverts bright yellow ; tail band more heavily spotted brown / black . bill horn in colour . eye ring grey . z . f . xanthanotus : both adults as in funereus but with significantly shorter tail ; little brown spotting in yellow tail band , sometimes missing in male ; smaller in size .\nhitherto considered conspecific with p . xanthurus and p . leucogaster , but separated as a species distinct from former by its green vs yellow tail ( 3 ) , black vs pinky - yellow feet ( 3 ) , and unknown - width hybrid zone ( at least 1 ) ; and from latter by its yellow vs green lower flanks and thighs ( 3 ) , black vs pinky - yellow feet ( 3 ) , and unknown - width hybrid zone ( at least 1 ) . monotypic .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . yellow - tailed parrot ( pionites xanthurus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nhitherto considered conspecific with p . xanthomerius and p . leucogaster , but separated as a species distinct from former by characters given under that species , and from latter by its yellow vs green tail ( 3 ) , yellow vs green lower flanks and thighs ( 3 ) , and unknown - width hybrid zone ( at least 1 ) . monotypic .\nyellow - tailed black - cockatoos have a long breeding season , which varies throughout their range . both sexes construct the nest , which is a large tree hollow , lined with wood chips . the female alone incubates the eggs , while the male supplies her with food . usually only one chick survives , and this will stay in the care of its parents for about six months .\ncites birdlife international internet bird collection a guide to parrots of the world , juniper and parr , 1998 ml media collection catalogue 4062 , yellow - tailed black cockatoo calyptorhynchus funereus , loetscher , fred w . , jr . , tasmania , australia , mar . 17 1969 , cornell lab of ornithology . site parrots of the world , forshaw and cooper , 1989 . 2010 edition parrots of the world , forshaw , 2006 . parrots in aviculture , low , 1992 . guide to incubation and handraising parrots , digney , 1998 .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . black - legged parrot ( pionites xanthomerius ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ne peru ( e of r ucayali ) and bolivia ( at least formerly s to santa cruz ) to w brazil s of amazon ( e to r juru\u00e1 ) ; recently also recorded in extreme se colombia ( n of amazon ) # r .\nnot globally threatened . cites ii . common in most of range and in parts of e peru abundant , but suffering from habitat destruction in the e & sw , and possibly extinct in . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nrecent reappraisal of higher taxonomy of parrots # r proposed arrangement into three superfamilies , here treated as families ( strigopidae , cacatuidae , psittacidae ) ; same study split psittacidae , as here defined , into three families , with additional recognition of psittrichasidae ( psittrichas to coracopsis , below ) and psittaculidae ( psephotus to micropsitta , below ) ; in present work , separation of these families considered to require further study and perhaps additional support . in the past , present family was often split into two , with recognition of family loriidae ; at the other extreme , it was sometimes considered to include all psittaciformes .\nrecent molecular studies indicate that this genus and deroptyus are sister - taxa # r # r # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nbrazil s of amazon from r pur\u00fas and r juru\u00e1 to r madeira catchment in amazonas .\nno information , though basic details are unlikely to differ significantly from p . leucogaster .\nno data , though basic details of breeding biology are unlikely to differ significantly from p . leucogaster .\nvulnerable . cites ii . no population estimate . suspected to lose 17\u00b78\u201322\u00b72 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 24 years ) from 2002 , based on a . . .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\narthur grosset , jacob . wijpkema , jacqueserard , lindolfo souto , mark sutton .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\npionites leucogaster xanthurus : brazil s of the amazon ( r . pur\u00fas and r . juru\u00e1 to r . madeira )\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 296 , 801 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\npionites leucogaster , p . xanthomerius and p . xanthurus ( del hoyo and collar 2014 ) were previously lumped as p . leucogaster following sibley and monroe ( 1990 , 1993 ) .\nbased on a model of future deforestation in the amazon basin , and the potential susceptibility of this newly split species to hunting , it is suspected that its population will decline rapidly over three generations from 2002 , and it is therefore listed as vulnerable .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' fairly common ' ( stotz et al . 1996 ) . trend justification : this species is suspected to lose 17 . 8 - 22 . 2 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 24 years ) from 2002 , based on a model of amazonian deforestation ( soares - filho et al . 2006 , bird et al . 2011 ) . given the susceptibility of the species to hunting and trapping , and the fact that it is intolerant of habitat degradation and small fragments , it is suspected to decline by 30 - 49 % over this time period .\n2011 ) . despite being common in undisturbed landscapes , it is not thought to be tolerant of secondary forest or agropastoral land and appears restricted to alluvial habitats . it may also be susceptible to hunting ( a . lees\nconservation actions underway it occurs within juruena national park . no targeted conservation actions are known for this species .\nexpand the protected area network to effectively protect ibas . effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas , utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation . conservation on private lands , through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture , is also essential ( soares - filho\n2006 ) . campaign against proposed changes to the brazilian forest code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as permanent preservation areas ( apps ) , which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : pionites xanthurus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\nthe contact call is a drawn - out\nkee - ow\n. some screeches are also given .\nmedium to large ( 45 cm to 60 cm e . g . raven )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nin flight a loud unusual lengthy whistle . also emits harsh alarm notes . young birds emit a constant harsh raspy call .\nnuts including : walnuts , almonds and pine nuts ; sunflower seeds , wheat , maize and fresh corn ; fresh fruit and green leaves sometimes accepted ; peas in the pod ; in australia banksia and hakia nuts ; complete kibble ; when rearing young provide mealworms .\nare avid chewers so provide with lots of bird - safe wood ( fir , pine , eucalypt , etc ) , wood blocks , and vegetable tanned leather chew toys .\nopen at the top 24\nx 24\nx 48\n( 61cm x 61cm x 122cm ) vertical box . provide with branches to provoke chewing and breeding behaviour .\nis declining in some areas ( eyre peninsula ) due to habitat loss , but in general population is stable .\nz . f . funerea : ce and se australia from c queensland south to e victoria , then west . z . f . xanthanotus : tasmania and se mainland australia from c victoria west to se south australia , including kangaroo island .\nfound in higher rainfall habitat such as coastal areas , eucalyptus woodlands , pine plantations , heathland , orchards and farmland .\neats seeds of : pines , eucalypt , hakea , casuarina , banksia and acacia . also fungus from seed cases . also feeds on wood - boring larvae which are removed from trunks or roots of trees .\nis reliant on eucalyptus woodland for breeding ; is nomadic , will move between hills and coastland in response to breeding season . are encountered in large flocks of 300 birds or more ; is noisy and conspicuous .\n1 or 2 ovate eggs , 50 . 0 x 34 . 5mm ( 2 x 1 . 3 in ) .\nin northern part of range , april - july ; in n new south wales , january - may ; in s new south wales , december - february ; in s australia and tasmania , november - january .\ngain exclusive access to 600 + pages of additional research , seminars and podcasts , specialists to ask your toughest questions , and dozens of other fun resources - when you become a wpt member . join today > >"]}
{"id": 1931, "summary": [{"text": "ponticola cyrius is a species of gobiid fish endemic to the kura river in the southern caucasus countries of georgia , turkey , iran and azerbaijan .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it reaches a length of 13 centimetres ( 5.1 in ) sl .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it lives in the upper parts of the kura river , massuleh river and the pasikhan river and in the anzali mordab ( iran ) .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "downstream in kura it is replaced by ponticola gorlap . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "ponticola cyrius", "paragraphs": ["ponticola cyrius is a species of gobiid fish endemic to the kura river in the southern caucasus countries of georgia , turkey , iran and azerbaijan .\nthe sea breams or porgies are found in the atlantic , indian and pacific oceans and comprise about 36 genera and about 130 species ( nelson , 2006 ; eschmeyer and fong , 2011 ) . some commonly enter estuaries and penetrate up rivers . maximum length is about 1 . 2 m .\nthis family is characterised by a groove in the distal end of the premaxilla which accommodates the maxilla ; the body is oblong to ovate and is compressed ; the head is large with a steep upper profile ; the preopercle margin is smooth ; scales are weakly ctenoid , moderate in size and extend on to the cheeks and operculum ; teeth are conical to incisiform and molar teeth are found in some at the rear of the jaw ; there are no teeth on the vomer , palatines or tongue ; the dorsal fin is continuous with an anterior spiny portion and a soft - rayed posterior portion about equal in size ; with 10 - 13 spines and 10 - 15 soft rays respectively ; spines fold into a groove ; the anal fin has 3 spines ( the second the largest ) and 8 - 14 soft rays ; branchiostegal rays 5 - 6 ; branchiostegal rays 5 - 6 ; and lateral line not continued onto the caudal fin but with enlarged scales near the head .\nmany species in this family are hermaphrodites with male and female sex organs developing simultaneously , changing sex from male to female ( protandry ) , or from female to male ( protogyny ) . these fishes are often important as food or sought by anglers . young fish may very different in colour to adults , usually being more vividly coloured with distinctive patterns . most species are marine ( see marine list in checklists in the\n) but a few enter fresh water and penetrate a considerable distance from the sea including one species in iran .\nmembers of this genus have a compressed and moderately deep body , 4 - 6 enlarged incisiform teeth at the front of the jaws followed by 3 - 4 rows of molars , the second anal fin spine is longer than the third , there is a scaly sheath at the base of the dorsal and anal soft fins , and moderate - sized scales . iwatsuki and heemstra ( 2010 ) revised the genus in the western indian ocean .\n\u0634\u0627\u0646\u0643 ( = shanak ) , \u0634\u0627\u0646\u0643 \u0632\u0631\u062f\u0628\u0627\u0644\u0647 ( = shanak - e zardbaleh or yellowfin shanak ) .\n[ shanak , shaghoom , shaam , sha ' m , shaem , sheim or sha - om in arabic ; yellow - finned porgy or seabream , yellow - finned black porgy , japanese silver bream ] .\nal - hassan ( 1990 ) found differences in two meristic characters ( pectoral and dorsal fin ray counts ) but no differences in electrophoretic characters between populations from the shatt al arab and khor al zubair areas of southern iraq . he concludes that there is only one stock of this species in southern iraq as meristic variation may reflect environmental conditions .\nthis species is the only sparid member recorded from iranian freshwaters and is recognised by the dorsal fin spines alternately thick and thin and the colour pattern .\nupper profile of head steep and convex back to above the posterior eye margin . the head bulges over the eye . dorsal fin spines 11 - 13 , soft rays 9 - 13 . anal fin with 3 spines , the second much stronger and wider than the third , and 8 - 9 soft rays . pectoral fin branched rays 10 - 16 . there is a strong spine in the pelvic fin and a well - developed axillary scale . lateral line scales 41 - 46 , or 48 - 50 , or up to 55 depending probably on differing counting methods . the scales are vertical ovals with the anterior margin wavy where radii intersect . they have very fine circuli , moderate numbers of posterior radii , a subcentral posterior focus , and ctenii on the central part of the posterior margin extending inwards towards the focus . four or five series of preopercular scales . the first pelvic fin ray is elongated as a small filament . there is a strong pelvic axillary scale . there are 3 - 4 scale rows sheathing the dorsal and anal fin bases . there are 4 - 6 compressed teeth in front of each jaw followed by 3 - 5 rows of molar teeth . the chromosome number is 2n = 48 ( klinkhardt\nmeristic values for iranian specimens are : - dorsal fin spines 12 , soft rays 10 , anal fin spines 3 , soft rays 8 , pectoral fin branched rays 13 , scales mostly lost .\nthis species is a protandrous hermaphrodite , being male early in its life and then becoming female later . catches will include males , females and hermaphrodites , e . g . in abu - hakima ' s ( 1984a ) study in kuwait , there were 326 males , 343 females and 41 hermaphrodites .\noverall colour is a silvery - grey or silvery - white with the back darker and the belly yellowish . scales each have a dark , brownish to golden spot at the base which line up to form apparent stripes along the flank . there is a dark blotch at the upper corner of the gill opening , on both the body and gill cover . there is a dark band over the head between the eyes and the edge of the operculum is dark . dorsal fin spines are white and the membranes are grey , with dark margins between the spine tips . the soft dorsal fin is dark grey with a light orange tinge . there is a small back spot at the pectoral fin base and the fin is mostly hyaline with a light orange tinge . the anal and pelvic fins are a light yellowish - brown . the caudal fin is dark grey on the upper lobe and yellow on the lower with a black margin . the peritoneum is silvery brown in preserved fish with widely scattered melanophores .\nfound from the persian gulf to japan and north australia . recorded from the helleh river in bushehr province , iran ( j . hol\u010d\u00edk , pers comm . , 1995 ) , from the bahmanshir river ( marammazi , 1995 ; eskandary\nthis marine species enters rivers in southern iran and presumably freshwater stocks are maintained from this marine gene pool .\nthe usual habitat is over sand and rock bottoms in the sea down to about 50 m , but young fish may enter estuaries and may penetrate considerable distances inland , although some fish remain at sea permanently . the frequency of penetration into iranian rivers along the persian gulf coast is not known . larger specimens are known to penetrate the shatt al arab in autumn , october to december , and this water body is an important nursery for this species , found there year round as young . adults emigrate from january to march ( al - hassan , 1990 ; hussain\n. , 1987 ) . at a freshwater station on the shatt al basrah canal with salinities up to 3 . 5\u2030 , al - daham and yousif ( 1990 ) found this species to be the second most dominant after\n, comprising 7 . 1 % by number and 10 . 9 % by weight . al - daham\n. ( 1993 ) found young fish in the shatt al basrah mostly from april to october . cage - cultured fish are reared at 14 - 31\u00b0c in kuwait bay ( abou - seedo\nbut not other species which begin to spawn in april ( abou - seedo and dadzie , 2004 ) . savari\n. ( 2011 ) showed that hormones could also be used in this regard .\na fast growing and hardy fish . life in iranian fresh waters has not been studied and information is about marine or estuarine populations .\na study of fish in the shatt al basrah canal , a man - made estuary of southern iraq , was based on mostly small and immature fish ( 49 - 181 mm standard length ) caught mostly in april - october . the length - weight relationship was w = 0 . 0511 l 2 . 893 , the dominant age group was 1 + fish , the maximum age was 3 + years , fish grew to 95 , 155 and 215 mm total length in their first three years of life , and mortality ( z ) was 2 . 23 ( al - daham et al . , 1993 ) .\nheydarnejad ( 2009 ) gave the length - weight relationship for an iranian sample as w = 0 . 0451tl 3 . 091 .\nfreshwater food habits not known for iran in detail but the one specimen examined contained plant fragments and scales of a cyprinid .\n. ( 1993 ) have shown for fish from the shatt al arab near basrah , iraq that haematological parameters vary with reproductive phase and between sexes . cage - reared fish in kuwait bay have a prolonged spawning season from february to april . fecundity there is up to 3 , 837 , 000 eggs . spawning in the shatt al arab estuary is reported for april ( hussain and ahmed , 1995 ) and al - daham\n. ( 1993 ) record a spawning season for the northwestern arabian ( = persian ) gulf as january to april with a peak in february and march . abu - hakima ( 1984a ) found the spawning period in kuwait waters to be january to march with fecundity up to 2 , 152 , 993 eggs . this species is a protandrous hermaphrodite with males dominating in smaller size groups ( 22 . 3 - 24 . 2 cm ) while females dominate in larger groups ( 24 . 3 - 26 . 2 cm ) ( abou - seedo\n. , 2003 ) . samuel and mathews ( 1987 ) give a spawning date of 1 december for their kuwait sample . the gonadosomatic index was highest in february - march in hosseini ' s ( 1998 ) study in coastal waters of the northern persian gulf .\nthe average absolute fecundity in coastal waters near bushehr in iran was 1 , 842 , 700 , sex ratio was 1 : 1 , and the spawning peak was january - february ( hossini and savari , 2004 ) .\na good food fish of high market value seen in bazaars along the persian gulf coast and in the shatt al arab . it was selling at u . s . $ 3 . 5 - 5 . 5 per kg in kuwait about 1980 , with 213 tons landed in 1995 for a value of u . s . $ 1 , 769 , 407 ( abou - seedo\n. , 2003 ) and this has been proposed for iranian waters in the persian gulf ( regunathan and kitto , 2005 ) . experimental culture has been tried at qeshm island where a million larvae were produced in march with 100 , 000 larvae 2 . 0 - 3 . 5 cm long surviving in may ( www . shilat . com , downloaded 7 june 2007 ) . it is caught by trawls , handlines , in hadra ( fixed stake nets ) and gargoor ( fish pots ) and in the sport fishery in the arabian ( = persian ) gulf ( samuel and mathews , 1987 ; carpenter\nthis marine species is fished commercially in the sea and populations there may be under some threat as a consequence . the status of freshwater populations is unclear as they appear quite rare and are presumably derived from marine populations at intervals .\nthe frequency of occurrence , detailed distribution and biology of this species in iranian fresh waters needs study .\niranian material : uncatalogued , 1 , 62 . 9 mm standard length , bushehr , about15 km above mouth in helleh river ( ca . 29\ncomparative material : bm ( nh ) 1974 . 2 . 22 : 1859 , 1 , 76 . 4 mm standard length , iraq , basrah ( 30\u00ba30 ' n , 47\u00ba47 ' e ) ; bm ( nh ) 1974 . 2 . 22 : 1858 , 1 , 76 . 3 mm standard length , iraq , beree ( no other locality data ) .\ncichlids are found in fresh and brackish waters of central and south america , africa , madagascar , the levant , southern india , sri lanka and southern iran . there are about 221 genera and about 1606 species ( nelson , 2006 ; eschmeyer and fong , 2011 ) but only 1 is found in iran . maximum length is about 80 cm .\nmurray ( 2001 ) reviews the fossil record and the biogeography of the family and suggests an origin less than 65 mya in the early tertiary in contrast to other studies that give an origin over 130 million years ago . their salinity tolerance has enabled them to cross marine barriers .\nmahi - e karoo , siklid irani , siklid - e hormuz , cichlid - e hormuz .\n. , 2010 ) from northeast africa , on the basis of the low gill raker count , lower pharyngeal bone and teeth morphology , and morphometric characters such as a deep preorbital depth , long snout , head length and the small eye . trewavas ( 1983 ) places\ntrewavas , 1942 of the jordan river basin and that this requires further investigation . schwarzer\nmay be common responses to temperature and salinity extremes . in addition , trewavas ( 1983 ) suggests a possible relationship of\n( hilgendorf , 1905 ) of the african rift valley . this species too is found in waters of high temperature and mineral content . klett and meyer ( 2002 ) group this genus with\nthe type locality is the\nmehran river at 27\u00b004 ' n , 54\u00b035 ' e , hormozdgan province\n( coad , 1982a ) . the holotype , 94 . 2 mm standard length , is a female with eggs in the mouth held in the canadian museum of nature , ottawa under cmnfi 1979 - 0408a ( see figure above ) . paratypes are cmnfi 1979 - 0408b , 15 , 24 . 3 - 86 . 5 mm standard length , same locality as the holotype and cmnfi 1979 - 0139 , 35 , 29 . 6 - 95 . 2 mm standard length , stream in rasul river drainage between chahar berkeh and tang - e dalan , ca . 27\u00b025 . 5 ' n , 54\u00b059 ' e , fars - hormozgan border . paratypes were deposited in the british museum ( natural history ) , london under bm ( nh ) 1981 . 1 . 12 : 1 - 2 ( 2 specimens ) , mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle , paris under mnhn 1981 - 107 , 108 ( 2 ) , california academy of sciences , san francisco under cas 47324 ( 2 ) , the royal ontario museum , toronto under rom 36389 ( 1 ) and the university of british columbia , vancouver under bc 81 - 1 ( 1 ) .\nthis is the only cichlid species in iran , easily recognised by the single nostril opening on each side of the head .\nthis cichlid is uniquely characterised by a nearly circular dental field on the lower pharyngeal bone , the teeth there being of uniform size and not enlarged medially and by cheek , operculum , belly , isthmus and area between the pectoral and pelvic fin bases naked or poorly scaled . other significant characters are the posteriorly rounded dorsal and anal fins , short pectoral fins not reaching the vent , cycloid scales with granular posterior circuli bearing rounded or irregular protuberances , inferior apophyses for support of the swimbladder centred around the fourth vertebra ( figured in coad ( 1982a ) ) , mesethmoid not meeting the vomer , modal vertebral count 29 , median length of lower pharyngeal bone 31 . 8 - 40 . 9 % ( mean 35 % ) length of head , and pharyngeal blade / median length toothed area 0 . 6 - 1 . 0 , mean 0 . 8 .\nscales are regularly arranged on the flanks except that in some large specimens the regular scale rows are interspersed with irregularly distributed smaller scales , particularly on the upper flank . scales may be absent entirely from the head , sparse above the lateral line anteriorly and on the belly posterior to the pelvic fins , absent from the dorsal and anal fin bases , absent from between the pectoral and pelvic fin bases and on the belly and isthmus anterior to the pelvic fins . however , in other specimens the head may be scaled dorsally to above the eyes , with scales variably imbricate , there may be 2 - 3 rows containing 4 - 7 minimally or non - imbricate scales on the cheek which is never completely scaled . the dorsal border of the opercle may have two large scales next to each other and a single scale may be present over the centre of the subopercular bone . scales may be present on the whole belly , isthmus and between the pectoral and pelvic fin bases , but they are minute , embedded , and non - imbricate . their extent and number varies between individuals . small to minute scales , numbering up to about 20 , are present on the caudal fin base , extending distally onto the fin membranes for more than half the fin ray length in some specimens .\nflank scales below the mid - point of the spiny dorsal fin and beneath the upper lateral line are cycloid or very weakly ctenoid . the focus is central and there are 9 - 14 , mean 12 . 4 , radii on the anterior field based on 5 scales from 7 adult specimens 59 . 2 - 87 . 1 mm standard length . posterior circuli are granular so the exposed scale surface has rows of rounded or irregular protuberances .\nthe gut is a tightly coiled spiral with its apex ventral . gut length in 5 specimens ( 59 . 2 - 90 . 5 mm standard length ) is 6 . 8 - 8 . 3 , mean 7 . 6 , times the standard length . gill rakers are short and rounded , reaching the adjacent raker or a little further when appressed .\ntype ( greenwood , 1978 ) . the mesethmoid does not meet the vomer , the intervening space being cartilaginous . pores at the openings of the cephalic lateral line canals on the preorbital and preoperculum are single not multiple . the inferior apophyses for support of the anterior end of the swimbladder involve vertebrae 2 to 5 , the fourth vertebra being involved in 8 out of 10 fish examined .\nteeth in the jaws are often irregularly arranged so that 4 rows are found in some places in both jaws . in some individual fish where teeth are regularly arranged there are 3 rows in the upper jaw and 4 rows in the lower jaw . number of rows decreases laterally to one at the rictus . the outer row teeth are bicuspid with the lateral cusp the smaller , while inner row teeth are tricuspid , with the central cusp the most prominent . the upper jaw has more teeth than the lower jaw .\nthe diploid chromosome number is 2n = 44 , comprising 25 submetacentic , 18 subtelocentric and 1 metacentric chromosomes with an arm number of 70 . the chromosome count may indicate a relationship to the levantine\nscales in upper lateral line 17 ( 1 ) , 18 ( 1 ) , 19 ( 2 ) , 20 ( 8 ) , 21 ( 9 ) , 22 ( 10 ) , 23 ( 7 ) , 24 ( 4 ) , 25 ( 2 ) , 26 ( 1 ) or 29 ( 1 ) ; scales in lower lateral line 9 ( 6 ) , 10 ( 17 ) , 11 ( 14 ) or 12 ( 9 ) ; total scales in lateral series 28 ( 1 ) , 29 ( 2 ) , 30 ( 4 ) , 31 ( 9 ) , 32 ( 13 ) , 33 ( 5 ) , 34 ( 4 ) , 35 ( 4 ) , 36 ( 3 ) or 40 ( 1 ) ; scales around caudal peduncle 16 ( 15 ) , 17 ( 13 ) , 18 ( 15 ) , 19 ( 2 ) or 20 ( 1 ) ; precaudal vertebrae 14 ( 2 ) , 15 ( 53 ) or 16 ( 11 ) ; caudal vertebrae 13 ( 26 ) , 14 ( 35 ) or 15 ( 5 ) ; total vertebrae 28 ( 19 ) , 29 ( 40 ) or 30 ( 7 ) .\ndorsal fin spines 14 ( 6 ) , 15 ( 46 ) or 16 ( 14 ) ; dorsal fin branched rays 9 ( 2 ) , 10 ( 36 ) or 11 ( 28 ) ; anal fin branched rays 6 ( 7 ) , 7 ( 20 ) , 8 ( 38 ) or 9 ( 1 ) ; pectoral fin branched rays 11 ( 42 ) or 12 ( 24 ) ; and total gill rakers 14 ( 6 ) , 15 ( 9 ) , 16 ( 24 ) , 17 ( 19 ) , 18 ( 6 ) or 19 ( 1 ) .\nhead length is greater in females while pelvic fin length is smaller in females compared to males . interorbital width is greater in males . dorsal and anal fins are larger in males when expressed in terms of longest ray length in head length ( coad , 1982a ) . colour differs as described below .\nlive specimens are brightly coloured in spawning condition ( based on aquarium photographs in schulz ( 2004 ) ) . the male is brick - red on the lower sides and underside of the head with black on the dorsal head surface . the underside of the head may also be black . the belly anterior to the pelvics is black . the chin is white . the sides off the head have a few , scattered white spots but the body , dorsal and caudal fins are densely covered with white spots and blotches . those on the dorsal fin are arranged in oblique rows and those on the caudal fin in bars . the anal fin has white spots also but these are not present distally . the pectoral fin has darkened rays but lacks spots . the pelvic fin has white spots proximally but less than the anal fin but is overall a dark black . other reports and photographs ( svardal ( 2006 ) and svardal and svardal ( 2006 ) ) show dominant spawning males to be black with brilliant turquoises blotches on the body but especially so on the fins . the female has an overall silvery colour with up to 9 faint to moderate flank bars . fins are yellowish . the dorsal fin has a black tilapia - mark on the posterior dorsal fin .\noverall body colour outside the spawning season is a light lime green , with an iridescent tinge to the posterior edge of the operculum and on the back . the dorsal fin has light , lime - green , oblique bars , the last one or two black - edged and spot - like . the peritoneum is black .\npreserved specimens have the following pigmentation . young fish have a distinct tilapia - mark , a spot on the rays of the soft dorsal fin typical of these cichlid fishes . the spot is black and is surrounded by a hyaline ring . occasionally a second spot is found posterior to the first spot . the principal spot is often retained in adult fish . young also have 7 - 11 bars along the flank which are also retained by adults but are then less distinct . in adults the dorsal fin rays and membranes are covered with melanophores interspersed with hyaline spots and irregular blotches . wavy , oblique bars are found posteriorly on the soft dorsal fin in some specimens . the caudal fin has a series of about 7 narrow bars in some male specimens while females are uniformly grey . the anal fin is narrowly barred with up to 6 vertical to oblique bars in some specimens , in others uniformly pigmented grey proximally fading to hyaline distally . pectoral and pelvic fins are not barred and are lightly pigmented , the pelvics being the darker . the head and body , including the belly , are more heavily pigmented to give an overall brown colour , lightest on the belly anterior to the pelvic fins in females . scales are not pigmented on their free margins , which are pale .\nsome specimens may be quite dark , particularly the back and fins and strikingly the lips .\nattains 11 . 09 cm standard length or 12 . 95 cm total length ( esmaeili and ebrahimi , 2006 ) . lamboj\nthe cichlid is restricted to rivers draining to the straits of hormuz in southern iran ( coad , 1982a ; abdoli , 2000 ) . svardal and svardal ( 2006 ) also map this species at 27 . 770\u00b0n , 54 . 999\u00b0e , slightly to the north of samples mapped here . the distribution mapped by stiassny in keenleyside ( 1991 ) following berra ( 1981 ) is too far north . the map in berra ( 2001 ) is more accurate . abdoli ( 2000 ) records this species from the lower minab basin , lower hasan langi , middle to lower kul , gowdar and middle to lower mehran rivers .\nspecimens kindly sent to me by h . r . esmaeili in 1997 are from the dozdan river at 27\u00b026 ' n , 57\u00b010 ' e , an eastwards extension into the minab river basin . the cichlid was not collected there in the 1970s . the new record may simply be filling in a collecting gap , a natural range extension or possibly the result of an introduction .\nbleher ( 2011a ) found only 2 of the 22 sites recorded by coad ( 1982 ) to still have water , although i have observed river stretches drying up and re - connecting and not always the same stretches .\ntrewavas ( 1983 ) suggests that the ancestor of this cichlid was distributed across the arabian peninsula in the late pliocene / early pleistocene when this area was more humid . desiccation in the pleistocene and recent periods then led to the extinction of the ancestor . a miocene - oligocene fossil\n. however trewavas ( 1983 ) reports that this fossil cannot be identified as a cichlid . micklich and roscher ( 1990 ) and lippitsch and micklich ( 1998 ) also report three species of what are presumably cichlids from southwest saudi arabia in the baid formation of oligocene age at ad darb , tihamat asir . they belong to the basal grade of cichlids and to two different clades within the african assemblage . whybrow and clements ( 1999 ) record unidentified cichlidae from the early oligocene from the coastal trip of dhofar , sultanate of oman with a date of 33 mya . murray ( 2001 ) reviews these and other cichlid fossil material and the identity of omani material as cichlids appears questionable . southwest saudi arabian material is more clearly cichlid but does not point to a continuous distribution eastwards across the arabian peninsula . however , b\u0103n\u0103rescu ( 1992b ) considers that a common ancestor to\nevolved in the arabian peninsula from african forebears in the miocene , the latter lineage extending its range northwards to the levant and the former eastwards to oman and southern iran , the straits of hormuz not then being in existence . murray ( 2001 ) gives an earliest date for colonisation of\nancestors to be the middle miocene when southern iran rose above sea level . she does not consider a coastwise dispersal through brackish waters of arabia to be a possible route as cichlids are not found there today but indicates a route through the tethys sea / indian ocean could be possible .\ncould be a relict of a once wider distribution across the tigris - euphrates basin in a northern arc rather than directly across the arabian peninsula . the absence of cichlids from southern arabia today warrant this alternative hypothesis . warm streams have probably been continually present in southern arabia and support a limited fish fauna today . there is no apparent reason why cichlids should have become extinct there . murray ( 2001 ) points out that\nlives at 40 - 400 m above sea level and is limited by mountains north of the present distribution , and so it must have arrived before the mountains attained their current height , to support coad ' s hypothesis .\nthe headwaters of the tigris - euphrates basin are narrowly separated from the levant rift valley today and at times in the past may have had direct exchanges of faunas ( kosswig , 1965 ; 1973 ; krupp , 1987 ) . the modern absence of cichlids from the tigris - euphrates basin may be explained by low temperatures . the effects of low temperature on\n, which occurs naturally in the southern levant rift valley , begin to die at 11\u00b0c and cease all motion at temperatures below 10\u00b0c ( chervinski and lahav , 1976 ) . most of syria , northern iraq and the northern arabian peninsula have temperatures below 10\u00b0c in winter ( beaumont\nis found mainly in saline streams . this hypothesis can only be confirmed by fossil discoveries .\nthe streams in which this species lives are subject to desiccation with continuous flow breaking up into isolated pools . the survival of cichlid populations in these pools varies between years and some pools may be fishless in one year and populated in another .\nthe area around the straits of hormuz is rich in salt domes and consequently most surface streams are saline , up to 80 ms . cichlids are found in these streams but also in the sar khun oasis which is fresh with a conductivity of 1 . 6 ms . apparently they can be transported at 10 ms as this is less stressful . stream waters are cloudy to clear and colourless . water temperatures in winter ( november to march ) range from 15 to 33\u00b0c and would be considerably higher in summer when air temperatures reach 45\u00b0c with no riparian shade and low water levels . lamboj\n. ( 2006 ) and svardal ( 2006 ) give water temperatures of 33 - 40\u00b0c and conductivity of 45 - 75 ms .\nstreams are 1 to 50 m wide and consist of alternating riffles and pools with occasional backwaters . the bottom is pebbles , sand or mud . aquatic vegetation is restricted to encrusting algae .\nunknown . esmaeili and ebrahimi ( 2006 ) give a significant length - weight relationship based on 379 fish measuring 2 . 74 - 11 . 09 cm standard length . the\n- value > 3 indicating a fish that becomes more rotund as length increases ) .\ngut contents of 5 specimens ( 41 . 2 - 90 . 5 mm standard length ) included only algae and diatoms suggesting food is scraped from rocks and from bottom deposits . this is consistent with an elongate gut and black peritoneum . aquarium specimens eat algal tabs but also appreciate insects and fish remains .\nthis species is a mouth brooder . a breeding female and a male were caught in a backwater on march 18 of the mehran river ( the type series ) . this backwater was 1 - 5 m wide , maximum depth was 40 cm over a mud bottom , the water was cloudy and highly saline ( 40ms ) and temperature ranged from 26\u00b0c at the mouth of the backwater to 33\u00b0c at its head . eggs in fish taken in november and january are small so the breeding season is deduced to be around march . five eggs ranged in length from 3 . 2 to 3 . 8 mm , mean 3 . 6 mm and in width from 2 . 4 to 2 . 7 , mean 2 . 5 mm . total number of eggs from 2 females , 59 . 0 - 59 . 2 mm standard length was 36 and 38 respectively . eggs are yellow - orange in preserved fish .\na female 116 . 9 mm standard length from the mehran river had 153 larvae in her mouth , ranging in length from 9 . 6 to 10 . 9 mm ( h . r . esmaeili , pers . comm . , 6 october 2005 ; esmaeili\n. ( 2009 ) found a sex ratio biased towards males in may and june , presumably because males were defending nests and easily caught , or possibly differential survival of the sexes . they suggest that the breeding season begins in march and lasts until the end of june with a peak in may . eggs attained 3 . 76 mm and fecundity reached 151 eggs with a relative fecundity of 5 . 4 eggs per gram body weight . esmaeili et al . ( 2010 ) detail gonad morphology and histology and confirmed peak spawning in may .\nschulz ( 2004 ) observed fish in the field and found each male occupying a territory defending a nest about 1 m from each neighbouring nest . the nests were made on light grey , fine sand and consisted of a pit approximately 15 cm in diameter . the pit was black because of anoxic conditions below the sand surface . the actual nest was about the same as the body length of the fish ( 8 - 10 cm ) and lay at the centre of the pit . the pit was surrounded by a rim about 1 . 5 cm high with an internally indented margin . simpler pits are built where building materials are unavailable . females were present in schools in deeper water in the river centre . individual females swam purposefully to the nest defended by the male . the male directed the female to the nest centre with folded up fins while the female spread her fins and showed radiating colour changes . spawning occurred immediately and neighbouring males intervened continuously at a speed that did not allow full analysis of the movements . a defending male would chase away an intruding male allowing another male into the unprotected nest to mate with the female . a clutch of eggs was always inseminated by a whole group of males .\npiscivorous birds have been observed along the streams where the cichlid is found . ansary\nsaadati ( 1977 ) suggests that this salt - tolerant species could be a valuable resource if introduced into the saline and fishless waters of internal basins . however this is not advisable since the native fauna , evolved in a fishless environment , could be devastated before it has even been documented . esmaeili\n. ( 2009 ) note that it is eaten by local people when available in large numbers in spring . it is now an aquarium fish in germany ( schulz , 2002 ; 2004a ; 2004b ; oliver lucanus , pers . comm . , 23 january 2004 ; lamboj\n. , 2006 ; svardal , 2006 ; svardal and svardal , 2006 ) and juveniles sell for about $ 80 each urltoken 21 march 2010 ) . articles in aquarium magazines give photographs in spawning condition , including mouth - brooding , and details for their maintenance , including water with a conductivity of 50 - 70ms / cm nacl or sea salt mixture , tank water changed once a week , vegetarian food tabs ( containing the blue - green alga\n) , and a temperature of 20 - 35\u00b0c , optimally 27\u00b0c . it has been noted that males , in continually defending a nest and courting ,\nwear out\nearlier than females ( thomas schulz ,\nmay well be on its way to extinction - if it is not gone already\n. bailey ( 2006 ) apparently repeats this . however its habitat is mostly saline streams which cannot readily be used for agriculture or industry . the surrounding area is not industrialised , nor likely to be , and was never a war zone so pollution is not a problem for this species .\nflash floods are probably a significant problem as water drains rapidly off vegetation barren land . the scouring action may well displace or strand cichlids . mouth brooding offers protection against floods and against associated fishes .\nsvardal ( 2006 ) and svardal and svardal ( 2006 ) give details of capture , transport and aquarium care of this species .\nrabbaniha ( 1993a , 1993b , 1994 ) gives farsi accounts of this species and cichlids in general . the account is based principally on coad ( 1982a ) .\ntype material : see above , cmnfi 1979 - 0408a , cmnfi 1979 - 0408b , cmnfi 1979 - 0139 , bm ( nh ) 1981 . 1 . 12 : 1 - 2 , mnhn 1981 - 107 , 108 , cas 47324 , rom 36389 and bc 81 - 1 .\nintroduced to the tigris river basin in iraq but did not apparently survive winterkill ( herzog , 1969 ) . mutlak and al - faisal ( 2009 ) , however , record\n) from basrah in southern iraq and this species could easily become established in iran . no iranian record confirmed as yet . red tilapias (\nsp . ) have been studied in aquaponic systems in iran so there is a potential for an exotic release ( rafiee and saad , 2005 ) . fingerlings from indonesia have been reared using saline waters at bafgh , yazd province in 3 ton fibreglass tanks . larvae were successfully grown to 2 . 0 kg at 28\u00b11\u00bac (\nintroduced to the tigris river basin in iraq but did not apparently survive ( job , 1967 ) . redbelly tilapias are established in the syrian euphrates ( r . beck , pers . comm . , 2000 ) and a recent report by beshar abd al - hussain al - saadi (\n. , 10 october 2006 ) of a cichlid at al musayyib on the euphrates river in iraq may well be this species . mutlak and al - faisal ( 2009 ) , record this species from basrah in southern iraq and these could spread to iranian waters . no iranian record as yet . the farsi name is \u062a\u064a\u0644\u0627\u067e\u064a\u0627 ( = tilapia ) .\nthe gobies are a world - wide family found mostly in warmer marine waters although some species enter fresh water and others live there permanently ( see also marine list in checklists in the introduction ) . the number of species is high and this may be the most speciose fish family in the world with about 248 genera and about 1630 species , perhaps more ( eschmeyer and fong , 2011 ) . a diversity of gobies occurs in the caspian sea basin . not all caspian gobies have valid iranian records but most will probably be found there . several gobies penetrate southern waters of iran from the persian gulf and sea of oman and are described here . others will probably be discovered when more detailed surveys are made .\ngobies are easily distinguished by their pelvic fins being united as an adhesive or sucking disk or cup . body form and coloration are diverse . the pattern of head canals , canal pores and neuromasts is distinctive and used in identifying and relating species ( except in\n( pinchuk , 1991 ) ) . however the neuromasts may be sunken in narrow furrows or pits and completely covered by epithelium so they do not preserve well and this can lead to confusion in identifications ( zambriborshch , 1968 ) . there is usually a short spiny dorsal fin ( 2 - 8 flexible spines ) separated from , but close to , a soft dorsal fin . the soft dorsal fin and anal fin are longer than the caudal peduncle . scales may be cycloid , ctenoid or rarely absent . no obvious lateral line . there are 5 branchiostegal rays . gill membranes are connected to the isthmus and gill openings are moderate to wide , or very restricted in the mudskippers . the head is usually blunt and the mouth is usually large . teeth are usually small and conical in one to several rows in both jaws . miller in miller ( 2003 ) gives a suite of osteological characters defining the family .\nmost gobies are quite small ( 5 - 10 cm ) and they are often very abundant . maximum size is about 50 cm . some of the world ' s smallest vertebrates are gobies from the indian ocean , mature at 8 mm . others , however , are large and form part of fisheries in both the caspian sea and the indian ocean . they are not significant food fishes in iran . gobies tend to rest on the bottom and move in sudden , characteristic dashes . the male goby guards a nest . food is crustaceans , worms , molluscs and small fishes . many gobies are important in the aquarium trade since they are beautifully coloured , small and tough .\nthey are known generally as gav mahi ( = cow fish ) or sag mahi ( = dog fish ) or contain the word gel ( = mud ) in iran . a general review in farsi of the caspian gobies is given by aslaanparviz ( 1991 ) .\nthe males of some caspian species become black during the spawning season , their fins elongate , head shape alters and some even become naked . loss of tubercles in adult male gobies of the genus\nmakes it possible to identify only juveniles and females . the males build nests and guard the eggs . life span of certain caspian species is said to be as short as one year , e . g . some species of\n, as much as 10 - 15 % of total biomass in some areas ( mamedov , 2006 ) .\nthe black and caspian sea basins contain an endemic sarmatian fauna of gobies . there are two main clades , the gobiine - benthophilines ( or transverse gobiids ) and the pomatoschistines ( or sand gobies ) , that have probably been distinct for at least 40 million years . miller ( 2001 ) and miller in miller ( 2003 ) reviews the evolutionary history of these two clades and their anatomical differences based on head papillae and osteology . the transverse gobiids include\n. the sarmatian fauna was separated from the atlantic - mediterranean fauna with the isolation of the paratethys during the late miocene messinian salinity crisis as the mediterranean dried . partial flooding of the mediterranean from the paratethys in the early pliocene allowed sarmatian gobies to spread westwards . within the ponto - caspian basin , evolution of species flocks was favoured by basin sub - divisions and rejoinings . the benthophilines may be a monophyletic group from these events .\nahnelt and duchkowitsch ( 2004 ) give information on the neogobiine stock . about 12 - 13 million years ago in the middle miocene , the ponto - caspian endemic and ancestral neogobiine stock may have differentiated from an atlantic - mediterranean gobiine stock . at this time the paratethys was a sea with reduced salinity and a high level of endemism . the\nstock that invaded the mediterranean basin after that sea was restored about 5 million years ago in the late miocene .\nranges from 4 . 29 to 6 . 25 mya and the paper gives divergence times for major lineages in relation to geological events in the ponto - caspian . these events include connections with , and isolation from , the world ocean and salinity changes in a range of 1 - 30 p . p . t . over the last 5 million years . most genera diversified about 5 mya when the black and caspian seas separated .\nthe principal recent works on the systematics of caspian gobies are by v . i . pinchuk , d . b . ragimov , ye . d . vasil ' yeva , h . ahnelt and p . j . miller . earlier works are by b . s . iljin ( also spelled il ' in or ilyin ) . later molecular studies are cited above .\nother gobies in iran are the familiar tropical mudskippers which can move quickly over land , using the muscular - based paired fins to row across mud , and some can even clasp and climb mangroves . they can live out of water because the gill openings are small to prevent desiccation of the gills , oxygen can be taken into the chamber and absorbed through the gills and chamber wall , and they can also absorb oxygen through their skin . they often rest with the tail immersed in water for this purpose or roll around in shallow water to moisten themselves . they may live entirely in water , or will come onto land even when there is enough oxygen in the water . their eyes are high on the head , protruding and able to revolve independently , and have a movable lower lid . the eyes are retracted periodically into small cups below the head to moisten them . such eyes are very effective as a means to watch for potential enemies on land but their vision under water is blurred . mudskippers have elaborate reproductive behaviour which involves tail standing , flip - flops , and fin displays . they are very territorial and defend their territory against other mudskippers and crabs . they can deliver a skin - breaking bite to humans even though they are only about 15 cm long !\nthis genus comprises only a single species and so its characters are those of the species . the snout is very distinctive and details of neuromasts are not given here as they are not needed in identification , although of importance in relating the genus . the genus is closely related to the tadpole goby clade comprising\nand details are give in miller in miller ( 2004 ) . this author also gives an alternative terminology for the arrangement of neuromasts than that of ahnelt\neichwald , 1831 by berg ( 1927 ) but later iljin ( 1930 ) erected a new genus because of its unusual and distinctive morphology . the type locality is the caspian sea at 37\u00b058 ' n , 52\u00b022 ' e at a depth of 294 m ( but see below ) .\n. ( 2000 ) although berg ( 1927 ) mentions 15 fish in his description . ragimov ( 1985 ) states that berg described this species from a single young specimen and also visually observed 15 others for a total of 16 in the type series .\nthe duckbill tadpole goby is characterised by the elongate and flattened head which is similar to a duck ' s bill . unlike gobies of the genus\nfirst dorsal fin with 3 - 4 spines , usually 4 , second dorsal fin with 1 spine followed by 8 - 11 , usually 10 , soft rays . anal fin with 1 spine followed by 8 - 11 soft rays . pectoral fin rays 14 - 16 . gill rakers on the posterior part of the arch are very short and anteriorly are minute . pit organs on the side of the head are papilliform and clearly visible with the naked eye . further details of anatomy are given by ahnelt\niranian specimens had the following meristics : - first dorsal fin with 4 ( 4 ) spines ; second dorsal fin with 1 ( 4 ) spine followed by 10 ( 4 ) soft rays ; pectoral fin rays 14 ( 1 ) , 15 ( 2 ) or 16 ( 1 ) ; anal fin with 1 ( 4 ) spine followed by 11 ( 4 ) soft rays ; and total vertebrae 29 ( 4 ) .\noverall , colour is a light grey or pale fawn fading to a whitish grey on the belly . various speckles and melanophores are found on the back and upper flank . the dorsal , caudal and pectoral fins have dark grey speckles . the head sides from the snout to the cheek are dark with transversal suborbital papillae series whitish giving the impression of narrow light stripes below the eye and on the cheek . the peritoneum is black or densely covered in fine speckles .\nreaches 11 . 2 cm , or 13 cm total length ( jolodar and abdoli , 2004 ) . females may be larger than males ( mean total length 84 mm versus 77 mm ) .\nknown only from the caspian sea and one of the endemic sarmatian fauna ( see family account ) .\nfound to a depth of 294 m on white silt bottoms according to berg ( 1927 ) but the data in zisp states 244 sazhems ( = 446 . 5 m ) . recent iranian material is from 45 - 80 m , at 9 . 7 - 16 . 4\u00b0c at 50 m ( ahnelt\n. , 2000 ) and jolodar and abdoli ( 2004 ) state it lives mainly at 50 - 100 m depths in the south caspian sea .\nunknown but the duck bill may be an adaptation for feeding on silt bottoms ( ragimov , 1986 ) .\napparently mature eggs reach 1 . 9 mm in diameter in the iranian specimen .\n. ( 1999 ) consider this species to be data deficient in the south caspian sea basin according to iucn criteria .\nmore specimens need to be caught to assess its distribution , numbers , variation and biology .\niranian material : cmnfi 1999 - 0023 , 4 , 76 . 1 - 79 . 1 mm standard length , gilan , caspian sea off astara ( 38\u00ba00 ' n , 49\u00ba30 ' e to 38\u00ba20 ' n , 50\u00ba00 ' e ) .\ncaspian sea basin but no iranian record although kottelat and freyhof ( 2007 ) map it from the iranian shore .\nde filippi , 1863 described from lake palestrom near poti , georgia is a synonym .\nreported from the south caspian sea by naseka and bogutskaya but no confirmed specimen from iran .\noriginally described from the lower dnieper river between kherson and kakhovka and the south bug river between novaya odessa and nikolayev , ukraine and also recorded from the caspian sea basin but no iranian record . ragimov ( 1998c ) and miller ( 2004 ) give recent descriptions . pinchuk and miller in miller ( 2004 ) question the validity of the caspian sea record for this species .\ncaspian sea basin , described from off chikishlar at 37\u00b045 . 5 ' n , 53\u00b047 ' e and southwest of ulsky bank at 38\u00b005 ' n , 52\u00b034 ' e , turkmenistan , but no iranian record . known only from the two type specimens , now lost ( reshetnikov\niljin , 1941 . miller in miler ( 2004 ) gives a general map that encompasses the southeastern caspian sea including iranian waters but the only records are not in iran .\nthe tadpole gobies are found in the black and caspian seas where there are about 20 species , 16 endemic to the caspian ( pinchuk and miller in miller , 2004 ; boldyrev and bogutskaya , 2007 ) . the general farsi name for fishes in this genus is \u06af\u0627\u0648 \u0645\u0627\u0647\u064a ( gav mahi ) or \u0633\u06af \u0645\u0627\u0647\u064a ( sag mahi ) , not repeated under each species description .\nmembers of this genus are characterised by the broad and flattened head , dorsal muscles not extending to the eyes , no sensory canals or pores , first dorsal fin with 2 - 4 rays , well - separated form the second dorsal fin , the caudal fin has only 2 rows of papillae , head and body scaleless but with spinulose bony granules , scutes and platelets except in adult males which are naked ( and cannot therefore be readily identified ) , anterior nostrils developed as small tubes overlying the upper lip , no swimbladder , a longitudinal dermal fold usually present on each side behind the mouth corner , and presence of a chin barbel . there is no pelagic larval stage and eggs are large and oligoplasmatic . ahnelt ( 2003 ) discuss the unique specialisations in the postcranial skeleton of benthophiline gobies ( which also includes\n) including reductions in vertebral numbers and arrangement of pterygiophores . pinchuk and miller in miller ( 2004 ) review other characters that show relationships of this specialised group within a larger tadpole - goby clade , the broad and flattened head being the most obvious .\nthese fishes are found in brackish waters with a salinity up to about 20\u2030 , in deeper waters , estuaries and coastal waters . they can dig themselves into bottom sediments and are usually found on mud , silt or sand . food is insect larvae , crustaceans and molluscs . life span of these tadpole gobies is only a year , some individuals maturing at 6 - 7 months , called ephemery . fish die after spawning , females earlier than males by 3 - 4 weeks ( boldyrev and bogutskaya , 2004 ; 2007 ) . eggs are laid inside an empty mollusc shell ."]}
{"id": 1932, "summary": [{"text": "kimberleyeleotris is a genus of sleeper gobies endemic to australia , where they are only known from rivers in the kimberley region of western australia . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "kimberleyeleotris", "paragraphs": ["drysdale gudgeon , kimberleyeleotris notata . source : jill ruse . license : all rights reserved\nmitchell gudgeon , kimberleyeleotris hutchinsi . source : mark allen . license : all rights reserved\nkimberleyeleotris hutchinsi voucher ams i . 33464 - 004 zic family member 1 ( zic1 ) gene , partial cds\nkimberleyeleotris hutchinsi voucher ams i . 33464 - 004 cytochrome b ( cytb ) gene , complete cds ; mitochondrial\nkimberleyeleotris hutchinsi voucher ams i . 33464 - 004 recombination activating protein 1 ( rag1 ) gene , partial cds\nkimberleyeleotris hutchinsi voucher ams i . 33464 - 004 g protein - coupled receptor 85 ( gpr85 ) gene , partial cds\nkimberleyeleotris hutchinsi voucher ams i . 33464 - 004 12s ribosomal rna gene , partial sequence ; trna - val gene , complete sequence ; and 16s ribosomal rna gene , partial sequence ; mitochondrial\nwager , r . 1996 . kimberleyeleotris notata . in : iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . < urltoken > . downloaded on 10 january 2012 .\nwager , r . 1996 . kimberleyeleotris hutchinsi . in : iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . < urltoken > . downloaded on 10 january 2012 .\nkimberleyeleotris notata hoese & allen 1987 , mem . mus . vict . 48 ( 1 ) : 40 , figs 3 , 4 . type locality : drysdale river , 4 km above junction with forest creek , kimberley region , western australia .\nkimberleyeleotris hutchinsi hoese & allen 1987 , mem . mus . vict . 48 ( 1 ) : 36 , figs 1 , 2 [ incorrectly spelled kimberleotris hutchinsi ] . type locality : tributary of mitchell river , kimberley region , western australia .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by cmilitante , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by cmilitante , 14 / 03 / 2013\nknown only from the drysdale river in the kimberley region of north western australia . the species inhabits clear , freshwater pools of slow - flowing streams over rocky and sandy bottoms .\nthe specific name notata is from the latin nota ( mark , sign ) , in reference to the pattern of markings on the side of this species .\nallen , g . r . 1982 . inland fishes of western australia . perth : western australian museum 86 pp . 6 figs 20 pls [ p . 61 , pl . 13 ( 7 ) , as new genus and species b ]\nallen , g . r . 1989 . freshwater fishes of australia . neptune , new jersey : t . f . h . publications 240 pp . , 63 pls\nallen , g . r . , midgley , s . h . & allen , m . 2002 . field guide to the freshwater fishes of australia . perth : western australian museum 394 pp .\nmorgan , d . l . , allen , g . r . , pusey , b . j . & burrows , d . w . 2011 . a review of the freshwater fishes of the kimberley region of western australia . zootaxa 2816 : 1 - 64 .\nmorgan , d . l . , unmack , p . j . , beatty , s . j . , ebner , b . c . , allen , m . g . , keleher , j . j . , donaldson , j . a . & murphy , j . 2014 . an overview of the ' freshwater fishes ' of western australia . journal of the royal society of western australia 97 : 263 - 278 .\nunmack , p . j . 2001 . biogeography of australian freshwater fishes . journal of biogeography 28 : 1053 - 1089 .\noceania : known only from the drysdale river system in the northern kimberley region of western australia .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 4 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5259 )\ninhabits clear , freshwater pools of slow - flowing streams over rock and sand bottoms ( ref . 44894 ) .\nallen , g . r . , 1989 . freshwater fishes of australia . t . f . h . publications , inc . , neptune city , new jersey . ( ref . 5259 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 7500 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 1 \u00b10 . 1 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nyearsley , g . k . , last , p . r . & morris , g . b . 1997 ,\ncodes for australian aquatic biota ( caab ) : an upgraded and expanded species coding system for australian fisheries databases\n, pp . 15 pp . + appendices\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 4c50c7ca - a0a1 - 4e17 - b27c - 17d9fe569d8d\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 2dd4c6c8 - c2ce - 4d3b - 83b2 - 77207e14f225\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 450751\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\noceania : known only from the mitchell river system in the northern kimberley region of western australia .\ninhabits still or slow - flowing waters , usually in rocky pools . occurs in streams . usually found close to submerged sandstone boulders , but occasionally seen hovering in mid - water ( ref . 44894 ) . solitary , often hovering over submerged sandstone boulders , but sometimes forms loose aggregations in mid - water . males are more colorful and slightly larger than females . attractive species well suited for captivity , but is unknown to aquarists ( ref . 44894 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : ad4ce6ca - 0e2f - 4d29 - 9617 - 26b23a9be30b\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 48e069e4 - d923 - 45b1 - a8c0 - 107279c373f1\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 434542\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nformat summary genbank genbank ( full ) fasta asn . 1 xml insdseq xml tinyseq xml feature table accession list gi list gff3\nfinds sub - sequences or patterns in the sequence and highlights the matching regions . the tool works with standard single letter nucleotide or protein codes including ambiguities and can match prosite patterns in protein sequences . more . . .\nfinds sub - sequence or patterns in the sequence and highlights the matching region . the tool works with standard single letter nucleotide or protein codes including ambiguities and can match prosite patterns in protein sequences . more . . .\na small pale greyish - brown gudgeon with a darker underside , with black anterior dorsal - fin spines and an orange patch on the fin , a large black blotch anteriorly on the base of the second dorsal fin and white spots on the fin , a reddish - orange anal fin , and a white margin on the dorsal , anal and pelvic fins . males are more densely covered in melanophores than females ; .\nknown only from the mitchell river in the kimberley region of western australia . the species inhabits still to moderately fast - flowing freshwater rocky streams and pools .\npale greyish - brown , pale purple ventrally on head , body darker ventrally ; scale pockets edged with melanophores and lines of melanophores on skin along margins of muscle segments ; males with dense melanophores scattered over body , often more so ventrally on caudal peduncle ; females with few scattered melanophores ; large median black blotch ventrally behind urogenital papilla connecting to thin black line on either side of anal fin base , lines joining behind anal fin to form thin median black stripe extending to anterior base of unsegmented caudal rays . first dorsal fin black before fourth spine , black extending onto and along distal tip of fin ; fin otherwise mostly clear ; second dorsal with large black blotch at base anteriorly , extending just anterior to third segmented ray , thin black distal margin ; often with broad , black stripe on distal upper third of fin ; rest of fin mostly clear ; anal fin mainly reddish orange with faint blotch near base anteriorly ; caudal fin pale grey with scattered melanophores . pectoral base with few scattered melanophores ; pectoral fin clear to grey . pelvic fins clear to white , with few elongate melanophores along lateral margins of rays in males .\nthe species is named for j . b . hutchins , former curator of fishes at the western australian museum , who collected the type specimens .\nallen , g . r . 1982 . inland fishes of western australia . perth : western australian museum 86 pp . 6 figs 20 pls [ 61 , pl . 13 ( 7 ) , as new genus and species b ]\nmorgan , d . l . , allen , g . r . , pusey , b . j . & burrows , d . w . 2011 . a review of the freshwater fishes of the kimberley region of western australia . zootaxa 2816 : 1 - 64\nallen , g . r . 1982 . inland fishes of western australia . perth : western australian museum 86 pp . 6 figs 20 pls [ 61 , pl . 13 ( 7 ) ] ( as new genus and species b )\nallen , g . r . 1989 . freshwater fishes of australia . neptune , new jersey : t . f . h . publications 240 pp . , 63 pls [ 201 ]\nallen , g . r . , midgley , s . h . & allen , m . 2002 . field guide to the freshwater fishes of australia . perth : western australian museum 394 pp . [ 302 ]\nhoese , d . f . 2006 . eleotridae ( pp . 1596 - 1610 ) . in : beesley , p . l . & wells , a . ( eds ) 2006 . zoological catalogue of australia . volume 35 australia : abrs & csiro publishing parts 1 - 3 2178 pp .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : b543ce97 - 963e - 48f2 - 82f7 - ea917623c872\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 12f7654c - 734e - 4b95 - bc75 - 16fb722f293f\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 328118\nthis is intended to provide a comprehensive up to date list of australian freshwater fishes . it includes : all species which are strictly freshwater , that is they never occur in estuaries or marine environments ; species which primarily occur in freshwater , but also occur in tidal reaches , or occasionally in estuaries , e . g . ,\nophisternon gutturale ( richardson 1845 ) multiple spp . ( 2 - 3 ? )"]}
{"id": 1943, "summary": [{"text": "inglis drever ( 18 march 1999 \u2013 october 2009 ) was a champion racehorse trained in the north of england by howard johnson .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "he was one of the most successful hurdle racing horses to date and won the world hurdle three times , bettered only by the former champion big buck 's .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he is seen by many as having been the greatest staying hurdler of all time . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "inglis drever", "paragraphs": ["inglis drever : ruled out for the remainder of this season . photograph : pa .\nbbc sport | other sport . . . | horse racing | inglis drever eyes chepstow test\ninglis drever\u2019s owner graham wylie is now enjoying great success with ireland\u2019s dominant force willie mullins .\nbut more than any , inglis drever was the horse who got me interested in racing .\ntriple world hurdle winner inglis drever was put down on friday after suffering a serious bout of colic .\nracing is mourning a jumps legend after three - time world hurdle hero inglis drever died on friday morning .\ninglis drever began his career on the flat for sir mark prescott , for whom he won four races .\nand when inglis drever made it three , he joked :\ni ' m a complete slapper .\nthree - time world hurdle winner , inglis drever , has been put down after a bout of colic .\ninglis drever denied baracouda a third stayers ' crown with a famous success in the ladbrokes world hurdle at cheltenham today .\nwylie ' s substantial and still growing investment in racing is one of inglis \u00addrever ' s legacies to the winter game .\n3 times world hurdle winner inglis drever was sadly put to sleep this morning after suffering from a bad bout of colic .\ninglis drever made history at the cheltenham festival last march when he became the first horse to win the world hurdle three times .\ninglis drever will bid to maintain his status as champion stayer after being confirmed for the rescheduled totesport long walk hurdle on 27 december .\na new order is emerging in jump racing and it was suitably demonstrated as inglis drever saw off baracouda in the ladbrokes world hurdle .\nmassive repsect to inglis drever , a wonderful horse who won at the festival only to get beaten at aintree such was his way .\nplans for inglis drever to return to cheltenham this march were scrapped after he failed to recover from an injury sustained at newbury last november .\ninglis drever ' s trainer howard johnson said :\nchepstow is a flat , left - handed track and that is what he likes .\ninglis drever runs in to win the world hurdle for a second time in 2007 . photograph : tony marshall / empics sport / pa photos\nbut more than any horse - probably apart from lord transcend - inglis drever was the horse who got me seriously interested in racing .\njohnson has had a number of top - class horses pass through his hands , but places inglis drever at the top of the tree .\nit wasn\u2019t his ability that we found so endearing . greater horses have come and gone that didn\u2019t enjoy half the love and respect that inglis drever rightfully earned\nvery nice tribute bosranic . cant add much to that but to say inglis drever will be missed lots . condolences to all connected with this mighty racehorse .\nstaying power : thelaadbroke world hurdle ( stayers hurdle ) cheltenham : inglis drever and baracouda d . m . dent 15\nx10\nltd ed 200 \u00a359 giclee\nbut all the while lee was stoking up inglis drever ( 5 - 1 ) and the writing was on the wall for his rivals as he surged towards the last .\nin the meantime , johnson hopes to send inglis drever back to the flat for the northumberland plate , a race with near - mythical status in the north - east .\nbut a disappointing workout at the weekend convinced them to abandon plans to send inglis drever back to the cheltenham festival , after which the decision was taken to retire him .\ninglis drever made history at the cheltenham festival last year when he became the first horse to win the world hurdle three times , showing tremendous courage to overhaul kasbah bliss .\nentries for the ladbrokes world hurdle at the cheltenham festival close this week but the list is set to be drawn up without howard johnson ' s triple winner inglis drever .\nanother endearing quality in the constitution of inglis drever was his tendency to hit a flat spot in his races - as evidenced by his world hurdle victories in 2005 and 2007 .\ninglis drever was ridden at cheltenham by three different jockeys , the last of them being denis o\u2019regan who said : \u201cwords can\u2019t describe how much of a legend he truly was .\nas inglis drever came to the last that day , finding himself in yet another battle , the outcome was inevitable . he was never going to come second in a fight , but still the cheltenham faithful , who cast aside their own selfish motivations for his success , roared inglis drever up the hill to a victory that would catapult him into deserved immortality .\nthe big players were held up towards the rear , however , with baracouda as usual looking to be cruising as the others , including inglis drever , started to come under pressure .\ninglis drever made history at the festival last march when he became the first horse to win the world hurdle three times and wylie credits the horse with getting him seriously involved in racing .\non friday howard johnson\u2019s yard , and racing in general , were mourning the death of inglis drever , the only horse to win the ladbrokes world hurdle at the cheltenham festival three times .\nedward gillespie , the managing director of cheltenham , said yesterday that the course will take time to consider the best way to commemorate inglis drever . a statue , however , does not seem likely .\ninglis drever was only six years old when he beat the great baracouda in this race two years ago , and was sidelined with an injury when my way de solzen took the prize 12 months ago .\nreally sad news his third ( ? ) win in the stayers hurdle at cheltenham with his devoted groom cheering him on was a magic moment . thanks for the memories inglis drever and rest in peace .\nperhaps the most piquant aspect to the retirement of inglis drever , announced yesterday , is that he should so narrowly have missed the opportunity to measure the pretensions of his obvious heir . there is no doubting the regal bearing of punchestowns , whose accession as the new monarch of staying hurdlers could well be hastened at cheltenham on saturday . thus far , indeed , he has gone about things with rather more panache than inglis drever . but it would be unusual for any horse to dominate this exacting discipline without also disclosing a coarser grain , and inglis drever would never have surrendered his crown without an almighty scrap .\nwylie does not like to name horses in advance of particular meetings or races -\nit jinxes them ,\nhe maintains - so we won\u2019t mention the name of possible champion hurdle entry inglis drever .\nin a move away from the sadness that normally heralds the end of a career , trainer howard johnson described himself as\nover the moon\nafter the retirement of triple world hurdle winner inglis drever today .\nmeanwhile , the pair at the top of the pecking order to take over the staying hurdle mantle from inglis drever are set to clash in the cleeve hurdle on festival trials day at cheltenham a week on saturday .\ninglis drever , the only horse to win the staying hurdlers ' championship at cheltenham three times , will not get the chance to make it four , after he was retired from racing yesterday by graham wylie and howard johnson , his owner and trainer . ladbrokes , the sponsors of the world ( formerly stayers ' ) hurdle , said later that they will refund all ante - post bets on inglis drever for this year ' s race .\nwhen he hears the roar of the crowd , though , inglis drever concentrates hard and has a finishing surge that is difficult to resist . paddy brennan powered him towards the lead on the run down the hill and had two lengths to spare at the final flight . mighty man then summoned a strong challenge as they galloped up the hill but inglis drever was never going to yield the advantage and held on by three - quarters of a length .\ninglis drever , won 17 races from 35 starts earning nearly \u00a3800 , 000 in prize - money . thirteen of his victories came over hurdles after he was recruited from sir mark prescott\u2019s flat stable for 110 , 000 guineas .\nalthough he was to make his mark as a staying hurdler , inglis drever was kept to two miles for most of the 2004 / 05 season and even won a recognised trial for the champion hurdle , wincanton ' s kingwell hurdle . but there was a strong field for that year ' s champion , with hardy eustace , harchibald and brave inca in their prime , so inglis drever was stepped up in trip for the three - mile world hurdle .\nracing : three - time world hurdle hero inglis drever has died . the howard johnson - trained 10 - year - old , who retired from racing in january , was put down this morning after suffering a fatal bout of colic .\ninglis drever won 17 of 35 career outings , amassing almost \u00a3800 , 000 in prize money . trained on the flat by sir mark prescott , he won four handicaps but was only 11th behind landing light when fancied for the 2003 cesarewitch .\nwylie , who owned three - time world hurdle winner inglis drever , admitted he knew that striking article had undergone a neurectomy but , like johnson , claimed to be unaware that running a horse after the treatment breached the rules of racing .\ninglis drever , who racked up a hat - trick of victories in the world hurdle at the cheltenham festival , has been retired this morning . the 10 - year - old failed to recover from a leg injury sustained at newbury in november .\ninglis drever , a horse who failed three veterinary inspections before being sold privately to graham and andrea wylie , galloped his way into festival history yesterday by winning the ladbrokes world hurdle a record third time to the wild cheering of an appreciative cheltenham crowd .\nbut johnson , best known for his handling of three - time world hurdle winner inglis drever and horses like direct route who was denied the 2000 queen mother champion chase by a whisker , has no intention of making what would be a dramatic comeback .\ninglis drever was pulled up after suffering a hock injury on his seasonal debut at newbury last november , but graham wylie ' s gelding was given time to recover and a positive x - ray last week appeared to give hope of a fourth cheltenham festival victory .\nthe bookmakers ladbrokes and paddy power announced they would refund all single bets on inglis drever for this year ' s world hurdle , as a goodwill gesture . the horse had been as short as 4 - 1 in the ante - post market before his injury .\nformal presentations of the season ' s order of merit also took place with john webb , owner of overall winner and top hurdler royal shakespeare receiving a cheque for \u00a3250 , 000 from andrea and graham wylie , owners of last year ' s inaugural winner inglis drever .\nthe 2005 , 2007 and 2008 world hurdle winner was pulled up in the long distance hurdle at newbury in november and while johnson doesn ' t want inglis drever to go out of the game with a whimper , he would find it hard to suffer his champion being heckled at his favourite racecourse .\nthe trainer has little else to regret in his supervision of a horse whose influence on his own career can scarcely be exaggerated . for it was inglis drever who convinced graham wylie that racing could become a conduit between his wealth and pleasure , and that johnson was the man to trust with the project .\nhopes that inglis drever might bid for a fourth win at the festival were raised earlier this month , when a scan on a leg injury , sustained at newbury in november , appeared clear . however , the 10 - year - old worked poorly at the weekend and the decision to retire him followed soon afterwards .\nin 14 runs over three miles , inglis drever failed to finish in the first three on only two occasions , when falling at chepstow and when pulled up at newbury on his final start . he returned with an injury on both occasions , the most recent of which has brought his fine career to an end .\nbut despite the dark clouds , tidal bay , the winner of tuesday ' s arkle trophy for rider denis o ' regan and the same owner - trainer combination , and inglis drever , who displayed typical courage for o ' regan in one of the most thrilling finishes of the week , both secured major prizes for their connections .\nmore than any horse , probably apart from lord transcend , inglis drever was the horse who got me seriously interested in racing ,\nwylie said yesterday .\npeople might think cheltenham gave me my favourite memories of him , but it was actually a day at haydock in 2005 when both him and lord transcend won .\nas it is , the substance of his achievements can be represented at the festival in march only by kasbah bliss , the french horse who made him work so hard for that unprecedented third success in the ladbrokes world hurdle last year . in the meantime , inglis drever will abide in the esteem of all and the affection of many .\ninglis drever instilled in me such a passion ,\nwylie said yesterday .\nmore than any horse \u2013 probably apart from lord transcend \u2013 he was the one who got me seriously interested in racing . people might think cheltenham gave me my favourite memories of him , but it was a day at haydock in 2005 when both he and lord transcend won .\ninglis drever had a career record of 17 wins from 35 starts and his appetite for a battle , particularly on the climb to the line at cheltenham , made him hugely popular with punters . he was famous , too , for hitting a\nflat spot\nin a race when he appeared to be in trouble , only to run on strongly in the closing stages .\nat around evens , however , this is surely one favourite that has to be taken on . it is time for a fresh face on the stayers ' scene , and inglis drever looks the one . at 10 , baracouda is not getting any better . iris ' s gift last year showed that the french horse is beatable , though that is not to denigrate his tremendous record .\nsince then , wylie\u2019s colours have been carried by some of the best recruits to national hunt which racing has seen in many years . inglis drever , valley henry , royal rosa , arcalis , and chivalry are but five of the powerful string owned by the modest man whose quiet tones betray his upbringing in the north - east of england , but which also mask his true origins .\nafter hitting his usual flat spot in the middle stages of the race , inglis drever knuckled down to an intense battle with the francois doumen - trained kasbah bliss , which he won by calling on all stamina reserves . he jumped into the lead at the final flight and held off kasbah bliss by a length , with a gap of seven lengths back to the game kazal in third .\nprevented by a tendon injury from defending his crown , inglis drever won it back in 2007 , outbattling mighty man by three - quarters of a length . his pattern of finishing strongly after appearing to struggle was now well established and he again made his supporters wait when landing his third world hurdle last year , getting past kasbah bliss only on the run - in for what turned out to be his final victory .\nif there were a group of horses ahead of him turning in , as far as he was concerned they all had bullseyes on their backsides and the drever would pop his eyes out of their sockets and take aim .\nblack jack ketchum had a question to answer as he set off for the ladbrokes world hurdle here yesterday , and if the reply was not one that many punters wanted to hear , at least he did not keep them waiting . he barely took off at the third flight and suffered the first fall of his career , which left the way clear for inglis drever to win the stayers ' championship event for the second time in three years in his familiar , curmudgeonly style .\ninglis drever can be a difficult horse to warm to , as punters tend to prefer their horses to look like potential winners at every stage of a race . howard johnson ' s runner , by contrast , often needs persuasion to keep him interested in the early part of a race , and he was on and off the bit throughout the first two miles yesterday . there were several sloppy jumps on the first circuit too , as if the eight - year - old could not quite be bothered .\ndevastating news . inglis was a proper nh legend and he will live long in the memory of all those who had the pleasure of seeing him race . huge condolences to connections and also his die - hard fans , of which he had many .\ninglis drever introduced his owner as a man agreeably lacking airs , while johnson ' s bluff geordie cadences also enriched the tale . then there was the horse ' s groom , ginni wright , whose emotional celebrations were shared by many who learned of her battles with cancer . but the central character was always the horse . his habit of hitting a flat spot before gathering momentum implied a latent vulnerability \u2013 a pleasing sense that it did not come easily , but that he would always do his utmost .\ninglis drever left the door ajar by apparently recovering from his newbury injury , but johnson explained :\nwe put shoes on him the other day , rode him out , and he didn ' t even want the jockey to get on him . he was telling me he ' d had enough . i think i ' ve done the right thing for the public . i didn ' t want to go to cheltenham against younger horses and be pulled up or get beat 20 lengths . one day we might find another like him . but we ' ll struggle .\ngraham wylie ' s personal favourite is lord transcend , the horse who managed to get him involved in the racing game , but inglis drever is now in the same bracket .\nhe ' s a street fighter who never knows when he is beaten and he loves the attention he gets in the winner ' s enclosure ,\nwylie said .\nmaybe one day i ' ll realise what he ' s done , but it is all so emotional now . i just sat quietly in the stand and watched and watched , and he had so many traffic problems . but when he came over the last , he was too good for them .\nconnections of inglis drever ( 3 . 15 ) have always considered him a stayer in the making , and that certainly looked the case when he finished strongly to take second place behind fundamentalist in last season ' s sunalliance hurdle . nothing was in his favour in the kingwell hurdle at wincanton last time out - a right - hand course and having to make his own running - but he still won by five lengths . at odds of 7 - 1 he is the each - way value . rule supreme , who would have beaten baracouda and crystal d ' ainay in a few more strides at windsor , is another reason to be wary of taking a short price about the favourite .\nwe use cookies to personalise content , target and report on ads , to provide social media features and to analyse our traffic .\n\u201cthey took him away yesterday and from what i can understand they couldn\u2019t do anything with him , \u201d johnson said .\n\u201cgraham ( wylie , owner ) rung me yesterday morning to say he was thrashing on the ground so they got the vets up there to look at him and they rushed him straight in ( for surgery ) .\n\u201cthey put him on a drip overnight and they rang mr wylie back this morning to say his heart rate was over 70 and it should 33 , so they have had to put him down on humane grounds . \u201d\n\u201cwithout a doubt he\u2019d be number one when it comes to horses i\u2019ve trained , \u201d added johnson .\n\u201che went to graham\u2019s for a good retirement and i haven\u2019t actually seen him since he left . it is just one of those things . \u201d\nhis indomitable spirit and appetite for a scrap made him one of the most popular national hunt horses in training .\nthe brilliant gelding signed off with 17 wins - 12 of which came at graded level - from 35 starts and amassed nearly \u20ac880 , 000 in prize - money .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsky sports news takes you through all of the day ' s racing news , plus alex hammond ' s tip of the day .\nfollow the latest from the written press with the best gossip and speculation from the papers .\nsky has launched a pub finder for eager fans wanting to find a venue to watch sky sports .\nget a sports star to visit your old secondary school as part of our free schools initiative .\nnewbury sat , 29th nov , 08 p . u . , 7 / 4fav , denis o ' regan\nopen an account with betfair and bet at least \u20ac5 at min odds of 1 / 5 on the sportsbook . win or lose betfair match your first bet up to \u20ac50 . free bet stakes not returned\nhaving his first try at this three - mile trip , the six - year - old surged to the front at the last and was far too strong for baracouda up the hill .\nthe win continued a great week for trainer howard johnson , owner graham wylie and jockey graham lee , who were landing their third prize following arcalis and no refuge .\nbaracouda ' s pacemaker knife edge took the field along at a fair old clip in the early stages , with emotional moment , westender and yogi also prominent .\nwestender led from some way out as knife edge gave way , and he was still there two out , with rule supreme hot on his heels and baracouda set to pounce .\nbaracouda , the 6 - 5 favourite , gave brave chase but was three lengths away at the line , with a further three - quarters of a length back to rule supreme .\nhe didn ' t travel great , he didn ' t jump great but he ' s got a big heart and in the end i think i got there a bit too soon - but i wasn ' t going to stop when i got him going ,\nlee told channel 4 racing .\ni was forced to track baracouda for a while because i wasn ' t travelling well , but i ' m so happy for the horse . to be narrowly beaten in the sunalliance last year and now this , i ' m so chuffed for him . he ' s tough .\njohnson said :\ni never usually shake , but watching that race today made me shake a little bit because i love this horse . he ' s a proper little jack russell terrier .\nhe jumped as straight as a die today . graham gave him a lovely ride . all credit to the staff at home and the girl who does him . it ' s great .\nit ' s working out well with graham and andrea ( wylie ) . let ' s hope it lasts .\ni knew he ' d come up the hill . we ' ve got one that ' s high and steep at home . when he ' s on form he goes up our hill great .\nthat ' s the secret about training our horses - going up steep hills . it seems to get their wind right and helps them be fit and healthy .\nwylie added :\nit ' s all down to howard and to graham . howard ' s spent a lot of time getting the horses ready . he ' s done a brilliant job .\nhe was really a splendid second ,\nhe said .\ntony ( mccoy ) was impeccable , he gave him the perfect ride . we were just beaten by a better horse and we have to respect that .\nhe may go to aintree . we will certainly enter him , but it is too early to say whether he will go over fences or not .\nmaybe as he is getting older he does not have the speed he had in the past , but he has run a good race .\nowner jp mcmanus added :\nwe were just beaten by a better horse . he ran his heart out . all credit to francois , he had him ready to run the race of his life .\nrule supreme ' s trainer willie mullins said :\nhe ' s had a hard race . i ' m happy with the horse . there are no excuses really .\ni am a bit disappointed as he was in the form of his life , but he was beaten fair and square , and perhaps that ' s as good as he is .\nhe ' ll definitely go to punchestown now and then we ' ll go for the french champion hurdle again .\nearlier , thisthatandtother denied fondmort in a thrilling finish to the new daily telegraph festival trophy chase .\nfondmort held a slight advantage after jumping the last , but the paul nicholls - trained thisthatandtother ( 9 - 2 ) , ridden by ruby walsh , battled on just the better up the hill and wore down nicky henderson ' s charge in the last 50 yards to win by half a length .\nirish raider rathgar beau , who finished third , lost his winning chance with a mistake at the final fence when bang in contention .\nand even earlier , king harald put up tremendous front - running performance under mattie batchelor to land the jewson novices ' handicap chase on the third day of the cheltenham festival .\nthe mark bradstock - trained seven - year - old had four lengths to spare at the line from lacdoudal after an incident - packed affair .\n\u00a9 2018 guardian news and media limited or its affiliated companies . all rights reserved .\nstaying hurdlers often endure much longer than the two - milers and if he stays sound , the 6 - 1 offered by ladbrokes for the race next year could prove to be a very fair price .\nhe tends to come on and off the bridle ,\njohnson said ,\nbut i said to paddy that as soon as you come down that hill and get a bit of light , he ' ll pick up .\nhe will never go chasing now , as you don ' t need to send a dual winner of this race over fences . it ' s always been an ambition of mine to have a runner in the northumberland plate , so i may run him in that and then turn him out .\nthere was little to be said about black jack ketchum , though jonjo o ' neill , his trainer , confirmed that the horse seemed to have emerged unscathed .\nlife goes on ,\nhe said .\nthe horse is ok , and we ' ll just have to try again .\ntaranis was a tenacious winner of the ryanair chase after being left in front by the fall of crozan at the fourth - last , which was probably a couple of furlongs further from the finish than ruby walsh would have chosen . the line eventually arrived just in time as our vic staged an extraordinary late rally , failing only by a neck , having looked to be one of the first beaten three - out .\nhe ' s a horse that tends to idle in front and i was a bit concerned when crozan fell , but ruby has given him a great ride ,\npaul nicholls , who was welcoming back his 100th winner of the season , said .\nwhen they looked to be catching him at the finish it was more to do with him idling than the others making ground . he ' s only six and i think he may well get three miles next season .\nprevious form at the festival usually proves significant and idole first , who took the coral cup over hurdles two years ago , added a victory over fences in the racing post plate .\nferdy murphy , meanwhile , saddled his second winner of the week when l ' antartique took the jewson novice handicap chase at 20 - 1 , giving anyone who played up their winnings from the 50 - 1 chance joes edge on tuesday a 1070 - 1 double .\nit ' s 27 years since anaglog ' s daughter won here [ in the arkle trophy ] ,\ntony durkan , the winning owner , said ,\nand she was beaten in the champion chase the next year . this is a lovely horse and we hope that he hope that he will go on to better things .\nwith hardy eustace successfully defending his crown , and moscow flyer regaining his , the pattern is set for a repeat performance by baracouda in this afternoon ' s ladbrokes world hurdle , the race he won two years in succession before relinquishing his title 12 months ago .\ncoming into last year ' s race baracouda had won the long walk hurdle and newbury ' s long distance hurdle by a total of 37 lengths , but this season he has won the same races only narrowly from crystal d ' ainay . admittedly he had crystal d ' ainay a long way behind him in third place here last year , but alan king ' s gelding faced a stiff task then as a five - year - old .\n2 . 00 jewson h ' cap chase : one of the new races at this year ' s festival , this has been the target for liverpool echo , whose trainer , henry daly , has a fine record in handicaps here . liverpool echo was becoming somewhat expensive to follow until he beat copsale lad convincingly at kempton . that form is working out well .\n2 . 35 festival trophy chase : our vic runs here rather than in the gold cup and this 2m5f is more his trip , because he seemed to get outstayed when third in last season ' s sun - alliance chase . though given time to get over his final - fence fall in the bonusprint chase here in december , he has yet to confirm his high home rating on the track . at 10 - 1 , fondmort makes more appeal . best when fresh , nicky henderson ' s nine - year - old has a fine record at cheltenham and last season ran a highly creditable third under top weight in the mildmay of flete . he now meets our vic and thisthatandtother - second in the bonusprint - on more favourable terms than when only seventh in that race , when henderson ' s horses were out of sorts .\n4 . 00 mildmay of flete chase : martin pipe has won four of the last seven runnings of this handicap , and he looks to have prepared polar red for a second crack after his creditable sixth behind tikram 12 months ago . polar red , now 3lb lower , has been freshened up by a mid - season break and two recent spins over hurdles .\n4 . 40 national hunt chase : stormez and celestial gold have finished second for the pipe stable here in the last two seasons . sixo could go one better , having run well against the useful novice distant thunder at newbury . by roselier , a strong influence for stamina , sixo should be in his element over this marathon trip .\n5 . 20 pertemps hurdle final : with some solid course form to his name , the dark lord should be a leading player . he was staying on strongly at the finish of the sandown handicap hurdle last time and his stable is in better form now .\nthe decision was made following a disappointing workout at the weekend by the 10 - year - old , who notched up 17 wins from 35 starts , amassing almost \u00a3800 , 000 in prize money in the process .\nbut rather than wallowing in despair at the decision , johnson breathed a sigh of relief .\ni ' m over the moon i ' ve retired him ,\nhe said .\nwe put shoes on him the other day , we rode him out and he didn ' t even want the jockey to get on him .\nhe was telling me he ' d had enough , so he ' s gone into retirement . i think i ' ve done the right thing for everybody .\ni didn ' t want to go to cheltenham against younger horses and either be pulled up or get beat 20 lengths - that wasn ' t for me .\nhe said :\nwe decided on saturday that he wasn ' t interested any more . at the end of the day , he has won three world hurdles and has been one of the greatest horses .\nhoward says to let him chill out and he ' ll have a box next to one of our broodmares . i ' m sure he ' ll have a long and happy retirement .\nthe howard johnson - trained 10 - year - old , who retired from racing in january , had to be put down after suffering a fatal bout of colic .\njohnson said :\nthey took him away yesterday and from what i can understand they couldn ' t do anything with him .\ngraham ( wylie , owner ) rung me yesterday morning to say he was thrashing on the ground so they got the vets up there to look at him and they rushed him straight in ( for surgery ) .\nthey put him on a drip overnight and they rang mr wylie back this morning to say his heart rate was over 70 and it should be 33 , so they have had to put him down on humane grounds .\njohnson added :\nwithout a doubt he ' d be number one when it comes to horses i ' ve trained .\nhe went to graham ' s for a good retirement - it is just one of those things .\nthe brilliant gelding signed off with 17 wins - 12 of which came at graded level - from 35 starts and amassed nearly \u00a3800 , 000 in prize - money .\nhe was transferred to johnson ' s yard in 2003 , when he made a winning debut for his new team in november .\nalthough the star hurdler will be best remembered for his exploits at cheltenham , he also won the long distance hurdle at newbury three times ( 2005 - 07 ) - in addition to big - race triumphs at sandown , warwick , wincanton , haydock and wetherby .\njohnson said :\nhe ' s been a fantastic servant to me and the yard and has kept me going since we bought him off sir mark .\nhe won three world hurdles and was the first horse to win the order of merit .\nyou could always tell when he was right and he was a peach to train .\nhe wouldn ' t hurt a butterfly and you always knew he would come up hills because as soon as he saw our hills at home he used to fly .\nit ' s very upsetting and i ' ve said to mr wylie that we ' ll get him cremated and get him back into what i call the ' millionaire ' s field ' in front of our house .\nhe used to love it in there , and spent his summers in there every year since he arrived , so i think we should bury his ashes in there .\nthere was no sign of that trademark quirk at prestbury park last march , however , as he powered up the hill to record a no - nonsense verdict over kasbah bliss .\ndefeat at aintree - never his happiest hunting ground - followed last april , after which he was sent to newbury for his seasonal debut .\nbut denis o ' regan ' s mount suffered a hock injury and was pulled up after four out .\nalthough there were hopes he had made a full recovery , johnson realised the game was up in january .\nthe jockey was in the saddle when the horse won his third ladbrokes world hurdle and described him as the best horse he will ever ride .\nit ' s shocking news . i won the world hurdle on him and the long distance hurdle as well ,\nhe said .\nhe was a top - class hurdler and it ' s a shame he ' s died so young , but he ' s a horse that will stick in the memory for a long time .\nhe ' s the best horse i ' ve ridden and will probably be the best horse i ' ll ever ride .\nhe ' s brought my career to the fore and it ' s a sad ending to a great career for that horse .\ngraham lee ' s association with the horse lasted from november 2003 to december 2005 .\ntheir seven victories included a first world hurdle in 2005 when the pair dethroned the french champion baracouda .\nlee said :\nwhen you are a jockey you want to have big rides in big races and he was a very , very good horse .\nsee today ' s front and back pages , download the newspaper , order back issues and use the historic daily express newspaper archive .\ncopyright \u00a92018 express newspapers .\ndaily express\nis a registered trademark . all rights reserved .\nthe ten - year - old , who retired in january this year , underwent surgery on thursday after being found lying in a field at owner graham wylie\u2019s stud at humshaugh in northumberland , but his condition worsened on friday morning .\nat kelso on saturday after silk drum had made a winning start over fences for graham wyile , the owner said : \u201cyesterday was very difficult . i walk around the house and there are photos everywhere , all his trophies and dvds .\n\u201ci have very happy memories , but on a day like today it\u2019s very distressing . \u201d\njohnson was also distressed saying : \u201ci\u2019ve not seen the lovely horse since he left here for his retirement ; i will never have one like this to win three world hurdle and an order of merit . he\u2019s been my pride and joy and i will never get another to replace him . \u201d\n\u201che had a fantastic racing career and will be remembered for a very long time . i was very lucky to ride him and his final world hurdle win was a wonderful performance . \u201d\nstaying on a sombre theme , barry keniry faces a lengthy spell on the sidelines due to a broken leg at kelso on saturday .\nthe leyburn - based jockey was riding the shy man for the george moore stable when he came crashing down from fences from the finish .\nyesterday he underwent surgery on the injured leg in the boarders hospital , and it remains to be seen just how long the irishman will be out of action .\nthis week\u2019s local racing kicks off today at pontefract where there is an eight race card due of at 2 . 10pm .\nthe highlight race at the west yorkshire comes up at 3 . 40pm , a listed race over the one mile trip .\namong the 11 runners is hot prospect , who looks a very interesting colt . trained by michael jarvis , he was a very impressive winner at sandown last time out and with kieren fallon booked he could just turn out to be a very hot prospect .\nthis website and associated newspapers adhere to the independent press standards organisation ' s editors ' code of practice . if you have a complaint about the editorial content which relates to inaccuracy or intrusion , then please contact the editor here . if you are dissatisfied with the response provided you can contact ipso here\n\u00a9copyright 2001 - 2018 . this site is part of newsquest ' s audited local newspaper network . a gannett company . newsquest ( north east ) ltd , loudwater mill , station road , high wycombe , buckinghamshire . hp10 9ty | 3223496 | registered in england & wales\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe race was abandoned at windsor last weekend and so switches to chepstow as part of the welsh national meeting .\nhe has come back from windsor in good order and i will definitely put him in - he won ' t mind the soft ground .\nofficials at the bhb have also decided to revert to the original entry system , which will allow four - times winner of the race baracouda to run , after he was initially missed out of the entry stage due to a clerical error .\nhowever , francois doumen has not yet decided whether baracouda will take part in the rescheduled event .\nhe said :\ni will need to think about it and will make a decision later in the week .\nsport homepage | football | cricket | rugby union | rugby league | tennis | golf | motorsport | boxing | athletics | snooker | horse racing | cycling | disability sport | olympics 2012 | sport relief | other sport . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe magnitude of this triumph can be viewed against the backdrop of depression that descended on howard johnson ' s yard in the build - up to jump racing ' s most important meeting when a collection of his stable stars were coughing and breaking blood vessels .\no ' regan declared :\nwhat a horse . he just took off . howard said beforehand that he wouldn ' t want to get there before the last . i was a bit down at the last but he jumped well , and he did the rest himself .\njohnson ' s comment that\nthis is near enough the greatest training performance of my life\nis indeed accurate . the winner , who had been bought out of sir mark prescott ' s newmarket yard off the flat to win the northumberland plate , was purchased unvetted . a persistent leg injury had been his problem .\njohnson said suggestions of retirement had been put on hold .\nhe ' s only nine , but i don ' t want anything to happen to him ,\njohnson said .\nhe might go to aintree , he might come back here next year , but there are not many races left in him .\nowner trevor hemmings landed the first two races , the peter o ' sullevan national hunt chase with the alan king - trained old benny , and the royal & sunalliance chase with the jonjo o ' neill - trained albertas run , who was a first winner at this year ' s festival for tony mccoy .\nour vic , who chased home kauto star in the king george at kempton park on boxing day , finally enjoyed his moment of glory at the highest level when taking the ryanair chase , a race in which he finished second last year . first - time blinkers worked a treat as our vic blazed a trail in front .\ntrainer david pipe said :\nthe blinkers sharpened him up a bit and timmy got some fantastic jumps out of him .\nwe decided on saturday that he wasn ' t really interested in his racing any more ,\nwylie said yesterday .\nwe always knew that he would tell us when he wanted to be retired . that day has now come .\nobviously we would like to do something appropriate in due course ,\ngillespie said .\nat this stage we are just delighted that he has been retired fit and healthy .\nwe have just four statues [ of horses ] at the moment : arkle , dawn run , golden miller and , most recently , best mate . there are no hurdlers , though istabraq is one about whom the question has been asked , but it has just not been possible to achieve . we have plenty of room but statues are incredibly expensive .\ncheltenham will stage its last meeting before the festival this saturday and , though the track lost a meeting to waterlogging in december , simon claisse , the clerk of the course , is confident that this card will proceed as planned .\nthe rain we are forecast is due to arrive between now and friday morning , after which it should be basically dry through to racing ,\nhe said .\nit seems certain that great leighs racecourse in essex will remain closed for at least another week , however . the british horseracing authority said yesterday that it has yet to receive a formal application for a racecourse licence from deloitte , the administrator trying to rescue the track .\nwith entries for next thursday ' s meeting due to close tomorrow , that card now seems sure to be staged elsewhere .\nhis trainer , howard johnson , had indicated recently that an x - ray showed the injury to be clearing . johnson said at that stage that the horse might return to the racecourse but the horse ' s demeanour has convinced him otherewise .\nwe decided on saturday that he wasn ' t really interested in his racing any more ,\nsaid the horse ' s owner , graham wylie .\nwe always knew that he would tell us when he wanted to be retired . that day has now come .\ni ' m over the moon i ' ve retired him ,\nsaid johnson .\ni ' m happier in myself now . we put shoes on him the other day , we rode him out and he didn ' t even want the jockey to get on him . he was telling me he ' d had enough . we gave him a jog along the road and i wasn ' t happy , so he ' s gone into retirement .\nthe following month , he joined johnson ' s yard and made his hurdling debut at aintree , winning easily . he remained unbeaten over hurdles until that season ' s cheltenham festival , when he was edged out by fundamentalist in the race known then as the royal & sunalliance novices hurdle .\nit proved the making of him . his performance that day was a revelation as , after appearing beaten half a mile from home , he bounded up the hill , finishing three lengths clear of baracouda , himself a dual winner of the race .\ni just hope sir mark will find me another one - he ' s on the case ,\nadded johnson .\ni think i ' ve done the right thing for the public and everybody . i don ' t want to go to cheltenham against younger horses and either be pulled up or get beat 20 lengths - that wasn ' t for me .\nprescott added his own tribute , saying :\nhe ' s one of those lovely horses who ' s done everybody well all his life . he was a very nice yearling - any fool could have picked him . he was a very nice horse for us and made a jolly nice price for us and he gave mr wylie a marvellous introduction into racehorse ownership .\ntime has been called on the 10 - year - old ' s illustrious career after he failed to recover from an injury sustained at newbury in november ."]}
{"id": 1944, "summary": [{"text": "orthotylus marginalis is a species of stinkbugs from miridae family that can be found throughout europe ( except for liechtenstein and various european islands ) . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "orthotylus marginalis", "paragraphs": ["in great britain and / or ireland : foodplant / feeds on orthotylus marginalis feeds on salix caprea foodplant / feeds on orthotylus marginalis feeds on salix cinerea ssp . oleifolia foodplant / feeds on orthotylus marginalis feeds on salix foodplant / feeds on orthotylus marginalis feeds on alnus glutinosa foodplant / feeds on orthotylus marginalis feeds on malus foodplant / feeds on orthotylus marginalis feeds on ribes foodplant / feeds on orthotylus marginalis feeds on prunus spinosa animal / predator orthotylus marginalis is predator of tetranychus urticae animal / predator orthotylus marginalis is predator of aphidoidea animal / predator orthotylus marginalis is predator of insecta\nleaf beetles on willows : orthotylus marginalis\n. department of ecology , swedish university of agricultural sciences .\northotylus marginalis population density was estimated in 15 of the gray willow stands in june 1999\u20132011 and in the two other stands in 1999\u20132010 and 1999\u20132005 . all insects on the upper 35 cm of each current - year shoot were dislodged into a white plastic container . orthotylus marginalis nymphs were counted and then re - released . the number of shoots sampled was proportional to the size of the stand . for a detailed description of the sampling method see dalin ( 2006 ) .\nthe adult orthotylus flavosparsus is normally about 4 millimetres ( 0 . 16 in ) in length , and green in colour .\npopulation densities related to leaf nitrogen status . predicted mean number of orthotylus marginalis individuals per 35 cm shoot ( based on data from 17 gray willow stands collected over 13 years ) related to measured spad values ( relative difference in leaf nitrogen concentration\u2014 lower horizontal scale ) and to the predicted corresponding leaf nitrogen concentration ( upper horizontal scale )\northotylus flavosparsus is a species of plant - eating bug in the miridae family , which is found everywhere in europe except for albania and iceland . it was introduced to north america .\npredation rate related to leaf nitrogen status . number of leaf beetle eggs consumed by orthotylus marginalis ( day \u00d7 mg dry weight ) \u22121 related to leaf nitrogen status under three nitrogen treatment levels ( n = 37 ) . predation rates differed between all treatments at p < 0 . 01 . box plots show medians with the first and third quartile and 95 % confidence interval of the median\ntotal numbers of o . marginalis nymphs surviving to the adult stage under the 1 . 4 , 8 . 4 and 15 . 4 mg n week \u22121 nitrogen treatments were : 6 in all cases with prey absent ; and 15 , 10 and 13 , respectively , with prey present . orthotylus marginalis survival was clearly higher on plants in the presence of prey ( f 1 , 72 = 22 . 41 , p < 0 . 001 ) , but there was no difference in survival on plants under different nitrogen treatments ( f 2 , 72 = 1 . 50 , p = 0 . 23 ) . however , these results should be treated cautiously as various mortality factors , such as parasitization and molting failure , were not necessarily related to leaf nitrogen status . mortality due to parasitization was 16 % for o . marginalis with no prey and 11 % with prey present .\nperformance related to leaf nitrogen status . dry weight ( mg ) of orthotylus marginalis adults in the a absence ( n = 18 ) and b presence of prey ( n = 38 ) on plants exposed to different nitrogen treatments . performance differed between all nitrogen treatments in the absence of prey at p < 0 . 01 , but there was no difference between any of the treatments in the presence of prey . box plots show medians with the first and third quartile and 95 % confidence interval of the median\npopulation variability related to leaf nitrogen status . variability ( cv = coefficient of variation ) in population density of orthotylus marginalis related to measured spad values ( relative difference in leaf nitrogen concentration\u2014 lower horizontal scale ) and to the predicted corresponding leaf nitrogen concentration ( upper horizontal scale ) . solid and dotted lines indicate model predictions and standard error of predicted means ( r 2 = 0 . 53 ) , respectively . open circles are data points used in the model . data points indicated by crosses were not considered in the model . population variability was calculated from data collected in 15 stands over 10 years . a small cv represents high stability between years\ntwo new records of the subfamily orthotylinae ( heteroptera : miridae : orthotylinae ) , zanchius tarasovi kerzhner , 1988 and orthotylus bilineatus ( fall\u00e9n , 1807 ) , are reported for the first time to the korean fauna . the genus zanchius is also first recorded from the korean peninsula . redescriptions of genitalia , diagnoses of each species and genus , and biological notes are presented with the photographs and illustrations .\nthe effects of leaf nitrogen status on performance and predation rate in the greenhouse experiment were examined using two glmms . response variables in the two performance models were o . marginalis survival ( binomial distribution , logit link ) and adult dry weight ( \u00b5g ) ( poisson distribution , log link ) . the response variable in the predation model was total egg consumption by o . marginalis ( poisson distribution , log link ) using an offset for development time ( days ) and adult dry weight ( mg ) . over - dispersion was accounted for using quasi - models . fixed effects in both performance models were nitrogen treatment and the presence / absence of prey , and in the predation model nitrogen treatment . we incorporated a variance structure in the omnivore performance models to account for differences in residual spread between groups with and without prey . gray willow clone was included as a random effect in all models .\naltogether 90 o . marginalis nymphs were collected for the greenhouse experiment from the same gray willow stand . all individuals were collected simultaneously , on the first day that first stage nymphs appeared in late may . the nymphs were randomly assigned to plants under different nitrogen treatments and plants with or without prey : 45 to plants with prey and 45 to plants without prey . perforated plastic bags ( 0 . 5 mm diameter perforations , baumann saatzuchtbedarf , germany ) sealed at the base of the pot , prevented mirids from escaping and stopped potential prey from accessing the plants .\nthe relationship between o . marginalis population density and gray willow leaf nitrogen status in the field study was examined using a generalized linear mixed model ( glmm ) ( poisson distribution , log link function ) with an offset for number of samples in each stand . the fixed effects were the spad values recorded in june , sampling year and stand area . by treating gray willow stand as a random effect , the model intercept was allowed to vary between stands and between years within stands . temporal autocorrelation was accounted for by introducing an autoregressive first - order structure , with observation year nested within willow stand .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nis one of the larger species and is found on willows and sallows . the upper surface is covered in dense pale hairs , and the membrane veins are green . the 1st antennal segment is brownish .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nlike most websites we use cookies . this is to ensure that we give you the best experience possible .\ncontinuing to use urltoken means you agree to our use of cookies . if you would like to , you can learn more about the cookies we use .\nwe\u2019d value your feedback on the tool . our survey takes only five minutes to complete .\nthe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .\none or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using .\nplease consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser .\nare 6 millimetres ( 0 . 24 in ) long , and are green coloured . their upper surface is covered with dense pale hairs , with brownish\nkerzhner i . m . , josifov m . ( 1999 ) .\nfamily miridae\n. in aukema , berend and rieger , christian . catalogue of the heteroptera of the palaearctic region . 3 , cimicomorpha ii . amsterdam : netherlands entomological society . pp . 1\u2013577 , pages 253 & 263 . isbn 978 - 90 - 71912 - 19 - 1 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nyour browser doesn ' t support javascript or you have disabled javascript . please enable javascript , then refresh this page . javascript is required on this site .\neuropean union funding : for a one - year period ( 2017 - 12 - 16 to 2018 - 12 - 15 ) , eppo has been awarded an eu grant for the further development of the eppo code system ( agreement nb : sante / 2017 / gs / eppo / s12 . 768842 ) . the eu commission is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information from this project subsequently included in the eppo global database .\nadults are 6 millimetres ( 0 . 24 in ) long , and are green coloured . their upper surface is covered with dense pale hairs , with brownish antennas .\nthe species members feed on alder , apple trees , currant , sloe , sallow , and willows . adults feed on aphididae , carabidae , and psyllidae . in some cases , they also feed on plants of pear trees , causing the pears to have stoney pits , among other damages .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nopen access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international license ( urltoken ) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided you give appropriate credit to the original author ( s ) and the source , provide a link to the creative commons license , and indicate if changes were made .\nthe online version of this article ( doi : 10 . 1007 / s00442 - 016 - 3742 - y ) contains supplementary material , which is available to authorized users .\nplant traits , such as nutrient status , morphology and secondary metabolites affect herbivore performance , long - term population dynamics and community structure and can even cascade across trophic levels to mediate trophic interactions ( price et al . 1980 ; underwood and rausher 2000 ; harvey et al . 2003 ; dalin and bj\u00f6rkman 2003 ; kagata and ohgushi 2006 ; bukovinszky et al . 2008 ; carmona et al . 2011 ; volf et al . 2015 ) . the interactions between plant - feeding omnivores and their herbivore prey can be mediated by plant traits ( 1 ) via density effects and ( 2 ) by altering the omnivores\u2019 trophic status ( behavioral effects ) ( agrawal et al . 1999 ; eubanks and denno 1999 , 2000 ; eubanks 2005 ) .\nomnivory and trophic behavior is determined by evolutionary history , driven by resource abundance and quality to optimize nutritional needs ( agrawal et al . 1999 ; coll and guershon 2002 ; eubanks et al . 2003 ) . plant feeding allows for survival of small omnivore nymph stages and for persistence during periods of rapidly declining prey densities ( naranjo and gibson 1996 ; wheeler 2001 ; coll and guershon 2002 ; eubanks and styrsky 2005 ) . feeding on high - quality host plants can , thus , strengthen the buffering effect of this alternative resource , which should increase and stabilize omnivore population density and enhance the long - term predation pressure ( density effect ) . high plant quality can , however , also increase the omnivores\u2019 relative consumption of plant resources and reduce the average per capita predation rate ( behavioral effect ) ( eubanks and denno 2000 ; coll and guershon 2002 ) .\nnitrogen concentration is a characteristic of plant nutrient status with a potentially strong direct effect on omnivore performance in the absence of prey , which is also relevant for comparing the relative importance of resources at different trophic levels ( eubanks and denno 1999 , 2000 ; fagan et al . 2002 ; denno and fagan 2003 ; matsumura et al . 2004 ) . herbivore population density commonly increases on nitrogen enriched plants ( mattson 1980 ; awmack and leather 2002 ) and sap - feeding insects ( i . e . , many heteropteran omnivores ) may be especially responsive to enhanced plant nitrogen , since they feed selectively and often on tissue that does not contain nitrogen - based allelochemicals ( toxic secondary metabolites ) ( holopainen et al . 1992 ; wheeler 2001 ; huberty and denno 2004 ) . nitrogen concentration is substantially lower in plant than in herbivore biomass and the relative abundance of nitrogen in relation to growth conditions is , by orders of magnitude , more variable in plants than in herbivores ( mattson 1980 ; sterner and elser 2002 ; andersen et al . 2004 ) . the stoichiometric mismatch in nitrogen across trophic levels has also been critical for the evolution of omnivory in heteropteran insects ( eubanks et al . 2003 ) .\nthe gray willow ( salix cinerea l . ) grows in wet moderately nutrient - rich soils and often forms dense stands along small streams , ditches and pastures and at forest edges ( jonsell 2000 ) . stands generally consist of individuals of the same clone and range from a few square meters to several hectares in size ( although small stands are more common ) .\nleaf nitrogen status in the field study and the greenhouse experiment was estimated using an optical chlorophyll meter ( model , spad - 502 , konica minolta sensing , japan ) . this is a non - destructive alternative to analytical methods that can be used to estimate leaf nitrogen content per unit area ; the method is commonly used in plant sciences and has been extensively evaluated for a number of hardwoods , including salix and populus species ( bonneville and fyles 2006 ; weih and r\u00f6nnberg - w\u00e4stjung 2007 ; bonosi et al . 2010 ) . spad values are , however , mainly useful for relative comparisons of nitrogen content in leaves , under similar environmental conditions ( chang and robison 2003 ) .\none - year - old shoots were cut from 15 of the gray willow stands and used to create a leaf nitrogen gradient in the greenhouse , similar to the one recorded in the field . the shoots were stored at \u22125 \u00b0c for 3 months and then divided into 90 ( 6 \u00d7 15 ) cuttings ( length 20 cm , diameter 0 . 9\u20131 . 7 cm ) . the cuttings were placed in water in the greenhouse for 2 weeks to initiate root development , before being planted in pots with 2 dm 3 sand ( grain size 0 . 2\u20131 mm ) . the insides of the pots were lined with cloth , so that water and air ( but not the sand ) could pass through the holes in the base of the pots . the sand was saturated with water at all times . this ensured that water availability would not influence access to nitrogen and simulated the conditions gray willows experience in the field ( growing in wet soils or more or less directly in water ) .\nsix cuttings from each of the 15 stands were randomly assigned to three different fertilization treatments in the greenhouse , corresponding to 1 . 4 , 8 . 4 or 15 . 4 mg n \u00d7 week \u22121 . these fertilization levels were used in a preceding pilot study and therefore known to create nitrogen levels similar to those observed in gray willow stands in the field . to fertilize the plants we used a complete nutrient solution , \u2018blomstra\u2019 ( wallco , sweden ) ( n : p : k 5 : 1 : 4 . 3 , ph 7 . 8 ) . the temperature in the greenhouse ranged from 18 to 24 \u00b0c . leaf nitrogen status of plants in the greenhouse was recorded 30 days after the first fertilizer application to ensure that the selected treatments resulted in leaf nitrogen concentrations similar to those observed in the field . spad values were recorded at five different positions between the mid - rib and the leaf margin , on three leaves from the mid part of each plant .\nthe relationship between spad - 502 chlorophyll meter values and leaf nitrogen concentrations was determined using three leaf samples collected from each gray willow stand ( n = 51 ) in the field in june , 2011 , covering almost the full spectrum of values found in gray willow stands at that time of the year . in addition , three leaf samples were collected from clones of the same willows grown in the greenhouse ( n = 45 ) . the aim was to determine whether the relationship between spad values and nitrogen concentrations differed between greenhouse and field samples , for instance due to differences in light and hydrological conditions . mass - based leaf nitrogen concentrations of sampled leaves were determined by gas chromatography using a carlo erba na 1500 elemental analyzer ( carlo erba , milano , italy ) .\nthe relationship between spad values and mass - based leaf nitrogen concentrations in leaves sampled in the field and in the greenhouse experiment was validated using a linear model . leaf origin was treated as a fixed effect in the model .\nthe predicted difference in spad values between gray willow stands in the field study and nitrogen treatments in the greenhouse experiment was tested using two separate linear mixed models . potential correlation between data points due to repeated measures of spad values in the field was accounted for by incorporating a first - order autoregressive correlation structure for the time variable ( month ) . by treating stand as a random effect in the models , the intercept was allowed to vary among willow clones .\ntwo measures were used to estimate population variability : the coefficient of variation ( cv ) and the inter - quartile ratio ( iqr ) . cv was calculated for each stand by dividing the standard deviation of density by the mean density . cv thus provides a standardized measure of variability which allows for comparisons regardless of the mean . however , cv is sensitive to zero counts and low means ( heath 2006 ) . the iqr equals the inter - quartile range divided by the median and provides an alternative measure of variability that is independent of both observation extremes and the mean . we fitted two separate linear models with the response variable population variability expressed either as cv or iqr and leaf nitrogen status and willow stand area as fixed effects . cv and iqr were estimated using a subset of the population density data ( for 15 stands , 1999\u20132008 ) . the selection of data was intended to optimize the number of stands sampled over the same years and the longest continuous time period . the model was restricted to spad values in the range 30\u201336 because of the low number of observations below this range ( spad < 30 ) . including or excluding the two observations in this lower range in the model did not change the overall results .\nanalyses were performed in r version 3 . 1 . 0 ( r development core team 2014 ) using the mass package glmmpql function for the poisson glmms ( venables and ripley 2002 ) and the nlme package lme function for the linear mixed model ( pinheiro et al . 2011 ) .\n) . the relationship was best described by the model spad = 0 . 41n\nspad - leaf nitrogen validation models plotted with field - and greenhouse - recorded leaf nitrogen gradients . predictions were based on linear models describing the relationship between spad values and leaf nitrogen concentrations ( mg \u00d7 g \u22121 ) in gray willow leaves ( r 2 = 0 . 67 ) , collected in the greenhouse ( solid line ) and the field ( dotted line ) . fine dotted gray lines are standard errors of prediction estimates . open squares show mean spad values recorded in june for 17 gray willow ( salix cinerea ) stands in forest and open habitats ( squares with white and gray backgrounds , respectively ) . solid squares show mean greenhouse spad values recorded under the 1 . 4 , 8 . 4 and 15 . 4 mg n \u00d7 week \u22121 nitrogen treatments . bars show standard errors\nthe recorded spad values ranged from 25 . 07 to 36 . 39 in may and from 20 . 06 to 36 . 72 in june ( fig .\n< 0 . 001 ) . when spad values were translated into nitrogen concentrations using the spad\u2013nitrogen validation for gray willow in the greenhouse , the range was similar to the field - recorded nitrogen concentrations ( fig .\n) . population density increased by 195 % with a spad value increase from 30 . 75 to 36 . 49 , which is approximately equivalent to an average increase in leaf nitrogen from 26 to 40 mgn \u00d7 g\n= 0 . 44 ) . population variability , expressed as cv , decreased by 63 % with a spad value increase from 30 . 75 to 36 . 49 , which is approximately equivalent to an average increase in leaf nitrogen from 26 to 40 mgn \u00d7 g\n) . adults with access to both plant and prey exhibited , on average , 89 % higher dry weight , compared to individuals without access to prey . dry weight of individuals without prey increased by , on average , 69 % from the lowest ( 1 . 4 mg n week\n< 0 . 01 . predation rate decreased by , on average , 28 % from the lowest ( 1 . 4 mg n week\nwe utilized a combination of data from long - term field studies and controlled greenhouse experiments to show that feeding on plant resources with a high nitrogen status increases and stabilizes omnivore population density , and enhances performance in the absence of prey . to our knowledge , this is the first empirical evidence under field conditions for this effect . moreover , we found that leaf nitrogen status can alter the omnivore\u2019s trophic behavior : individuals on plants with higher nitrogen status consume less prey . both results are consistent with accumulating ( but scattered ) evidence linking the distribution , dispersal , performance , oviposition preference and trophic behavior of omnivorous insects to intra - specific variation in plant quality ( agrawal et al . 1999 ; eubanks and denno 1999 , 2000 ; eubanks and styrsky 2005 ; groenteman et al . 2006 ; jim\u00e9nez et al . 2012 ) .\nthe long - term population level effect and the behavioral effect ( plant vs . prey feeding ) of leaf nitrogen status differed with respect to the consequence for omnivore prey suppression and the outcome of the plant\u2013herbivore\u2013omnivore interaction . the different environmental conditions ( field vs . greenhouse ) and spatial and temporal scales make it impossible to integrate the effects entirely and to predict the net outcome of leaf nitrogen status on prey suppression . the density effect associated with increased plant nutrient status seems , however , as expected , to be stronger than the per capita changes in trophic behavior\u2014especially when longer time scales are considered ( eubanks and denno 2000 ) . consequently , we expect the long - term effect of high leaf nitrogen status ( population stability ) to outweigh the short - term behavioral effect on per capita predation rates\u2014resulting in a net increase in population predation rates with increasing leaf nitrogen status .\nsupplementary material 3 ( csv 1 kb ) ( 1 . 6k , csv )\nsupplementary material 4 ( csv 8 kb ) ( 8 . 9k , csv )\nsupplementary material 5 ( csv 3 kb ) ( 3 . 1k , csv )\nwe thank martin weih for advice on spad - nitrogen validation , tomas gr\u00f6nqvist for gc analyses , marie melander and karin eklund for field assistance . support for this work was provided by energimyndigheten , future forests and the oscar and lili lamm foundation .\nasl , pd and cb conceived and designed the experiments . asl and pd collected the data . asl analyzed the data and wrote the manuscript ; other authors provided editorial advice .\nagrawal aa , kobayashi c , thaler js . influence of prey availability and induced host resistance on omnivory by western flower thrips .\nawmack c , leather s . host plant quality and fecundity in herbivorous insects .\nbj\u00f6rkman c , dalin p , eklund k . generalist natural enemies of a willow leaf beetle (\nbj\u00f6rkman c , bommarco r , eklund k , h\u00f6glund s . harvesting disrupts biological control of herbivores in a short - rotation coppice system .\nbonneville m , fyles jw . assessing variations in spad 502 chlorophyll meter measurements and their relationships with nutrient content of trembling aspen foliage .\ngenotypes to temporary water stress are different from the responses to permanent water shortage .\nbukovinszky t , van veen fjf , jongema y , dicke m . direct and indirect effects of resource quality on food web structure .\ncarmona d , lajeunesse mj , johnson mt . plant traits that predict resistance to herbivores .\nchang sx , robison dj . nondestructive and rapid estimation of hardwood foliar nitrogen status using the spad - 502 chlorophyll meter .\ncoll m , guershon m . omnivory in terrestrial arthropods : mixing plant and prey diets .\ndalin p , bj\u00f6rkman c . adult beetle grazing induces willow trichome defence against subsequent larval feeding .\ndenno r , fagan w . might nitrogen limitation promote omnivory among carnivorous arthropods ?\nemmerson m , yearsley jm . weak interactions , omnivory and emergent food - web properties .\neubanks md ( 2005 ) predaceous herbivores and herbivorous predators : the biology of omnivores and the ecology of omnivore\u2013prey interactions . ecol . predator - prey interact . oxford university press , pp 3\u201316\neubanks md , denno rf . the ecological consequences of variation in plants and prey for an omnivorous insect .\neubanks md , denno rf . host plants mediate omnivore - herbivore interactions and influence prey suppression .\neubanks md , styrsky jd . effects of plant feeding on the performance of omnivorous predators . in : w\u00e4ckers fl , van rijn pcj , bruin j , editors .\neubanks md , styrsky jd , denno rf . the evolution of omnivory in heteropteran insects .\nfagan wf , siemann e , mitter c , et al . nitrogen in insects : implications for trophic complexity and species diversification .\ngroenteman r , guershon m , coll m . effects of leaf nitrogen content on oviposition site selection , offspring performance , and intraspecific interactions in an omnivorous bug .\nharvey ja , van dam n , gols r . interactions over four trophic levels : foodplant quality affects development of a hyperparasitoid as mediated through a herbivore and its primary parasitoid .\nholopainen jk , tuhkalainen j , kainulainen p , satka h . resource partitioning to growth , storage and defence in nitrogen fertilized scots pine and susceptibility of the seedlings to the tarnished plant bug\nhuberty a , denno r . plant water stress and its consequences for herbivorous insects : a new synthesis .\njim\u00e9nez jm , wieski k , marczak lb , et al . effects of an omnivorous katydid , salinity , and nutrients on a planthopper -\nkagata h , ohgushi t . bottom - up trophic cascades and material transfer in terrestrial food webs .\nkaplan i , thaler js . do plant defenses enhance or diminish prey suppression by omnivorous heteroptera ?\nkoricheva j , larsson s , haukioja e , kein\u00e4nen m . regulation plant secondary metabolism by resource availability : hypothesis testing by means of meta - analysis .\nkratina p , lecraw r , ingram t , anholt b . stability and persistence of food webs with omnivory : is there a general pattern ?\nkrimmel ba , pearse is . sticky plant traps insects to enhance indirect defence .\nkullenberg b ( 1944 ) studien \u00fcber die biologie der capsiden . zool . bidr . fr\u00e5n uppsala . band 23 . almqvist & wiksells boktryckeri ab pp 1\u2013522\nlaw y - h , rosenheim ja . effects of combining an intraguild predator with a cannibalistic intermediate predator on a species - level trophic cascade .\nmatsumura m , trafelet - smith g , gratton c . does intraguild predation enhance predator performance ? a stoichiometric perspective .\nnaranjo se , gibson rl ( 1996 ) phytophagy in predaceous heteroptera : effects on life history and population dynamics . - in : zoophytophagous heteroptera : implications for life history and integrated pest management . tomas say publ . entomological society of america , lanham , md\npinheiro j , bates d , debroy s , et al . nlme : linear and nonlinear mixed effects models .\nprice pw , bouton ce , gross p , et al . interactions among three trophic levels : influence of plants on interactions between insect herbivores and natural enemies .\nr development core team ( 2014 ) r : a language and environment for statistical computing . r foundation for statistical computing . isbn 3 - 900051 - 07 - 0 , vienna . urltoken . accessed 10 apr 2014\nrosenheim ja , corbett a . omnivory and the indeterminacy of predator function : can a knowledge of foraging behavior help ?\nsymondson woc , sunderland kd , grennstone mk . can generalist predators be effective biocontrol agents .\nunderwood n , rausher md . the effects of host - plant genotype on herbivore population dynamics .\nvolf m , hrcek j , julkunen - tiitto r , novotny v . to each its own : differential response of specialist and generalist herbivores to plant defence in willows .\nweih m , r\u00f6nnberg - w\u00e4stjung a - c . shoot biomass growth is related to the vertical leaf nitrogen gradient in\nbiology of the plant bugs ( hemiptera : miridae ) : pests , predators , opportunists .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\npeer review under responsibility of national science museum of korea ( nsmk ) and korea national arboretum ( kna ) .\n\u00a9 2016 , national science museum of korea ( nsmk ) and korea national arboretum ( kna ) . production and hosting by elsevier .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nthe species can be found on oraches and chenopods , which is their main food .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nsources results page - southwood , t . r . e . & leston , d . ( 1959 ) land and water bugs of the british isles 1 - 436 : 261\nthe influence of plant sex on the performance of a detrimental herbivore and two biocontrol agents in the dioecious grey willow , salix cinerea .\ndioecious plants can be used as model systems for studying how variation in host plants affects plant - insect interactions . this thesis describes investigations into the impact of plant sex on plant - herbivore - predator interactions for the host plant salix cinerea . both herbivores and predators were found to prefer female plants , all other things being equal . as a result , top - down control had a more significant impact on the herbivore population on female plants than was the case for males . despite this , phratora beetles were more abundant on , and preferred , female plants . this may be due to bottom - up control , since female plants have longer leaves . both herbivores and biocontrol agents were more abundant on female plants in the field . because of predation by omnivores , survival rates for herbivore eggs on female plants were lower than those for male plants , and omnivore predation was the primary cause of death among herbivore eggs . these findings may provide novel opportunities for pest control in salix short rotation coppices .\n( nl , nj ) > dept . of ecology ( s ) > dept . of ecology\nepsilon archive for student projects is powored by eprints 3 developed by school of electronics and computer science at university of southampton . more information ."]}
{"id": 1948, "summary": [{"text": "the fall armyworm ( spodoptera frugiperda ) is part of the order of lepidoptera and is the larval ( see caterpillar ) life stage of a fall armyworm moth .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is regarded as a pest and can wreak havoc with crops if left to multiply .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "its scientific name is derived from its feeding habits : frugiperda is latin for lost fruit as it can destroy crops .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "native to the americas , these caterpillars mainly attack maize crops .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they will eat everything in an area , and once the food supply is exhausted , the entire \" army \" will move to the next available food source . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "fall armyworm", "paragraphs": ["fall armyworm resembles both armyworm and corn earworm , but fall armyworm has a white inverted\ny\nmark on the front of the dark head .\nthe fall armyworm is adding to the devastation already caused by the native african armyworm , spodoptera exempta .\nfall armyworm injury to corn plant . ( left ) fall armyworm larva damage on corn foliage . ( right ) images by eric bohnenblust .\nan investigation by cabi has found that the fall armyworm is established in ghana .\nspecies spodoptera frugiperda - fall armyworm moth - hodges # 9666 - bugguide . net\nspodoptera frugiperda ( fall armyworm ) ; larva on tomato ( lycopersicon esculentum ) .\nmanagement fall armyworm can be one of the most difficult insect pests to control in maize . fall armyworm can only be effectively controlled while the larvae are small .\nspodoptera frugiperda ( fall armyworm ) ; egg mass on cotton ( gossypium hirsutum ) .\nspodoptera frugiperda ( fall armyworm ) ; larval damage on maize ( zea mays ) .\nspodoptera frugiperda ( fall armyworm ) ; larva on bermuda grass ( cynodon dactylon ) .\nspodoptera frugiperda ( fall armyworm ) ; larval damage on sorghum ( sorghum bicolor ) .\nspodoptera frugiperda ( fall armyworm ) ; larva feeding on rice ( oryza sativa ) .\ncotesia marginiventris and chelonus insularis were the two most common parasitoids attacking fall armyworm larvae .\nluginbill p . 1928 . the fall armyworm . usda technical bulletin 34 . 91 pp .\nspodoptera frugiperda ( fall armyworm ) ; larva on hay grass . usa . august 2006 .\nspodoptera frugiperda ( fall armyworm ) ; larval damage in whorl of maize ( zea mays ) .\nspodoptera frugiperda ( fall armyworm ) ; larva , on cotton ( gossypium hirsutum ) . usa .\nspodoptera frugiperda ( fall armyworm ) ; severe larval damage on cotton boll ( gossypium hirsutum ) .\nfall armyworm adult male ( left ) , adult female ( right ) . images by ian grettenbergerground\nspodoptera frugiperda ( fall armyworm ) ; adult at rest , lateral view . laboratory image . usa .\nluginbill p . the fall armyworm . us dept agric tech bull . 1928 ; 34 : 1\u201391 .\nand they say there is confusion over the identity of the fall armyworm as it is similar to other types of armyworm , which are already present in africa .\nspodoptera frugiperda ( fall armyworm ) ; larva , on cotton ( gossypium hirsutum l . ) . usa .\nlima er , mcneil jn . female sex pheromones in the host races and hybrids of the fall armyworm ,\nscientists tackle deadly fall armyworm infestation devastating maize in southern africa | cimmyt . international maize and wheat improvement center\nhost plants fall armyworm is polyphagous which can attack maize , sorghum , bermuda grass , soybean , cotton and beans . it is reported that fall armyworm larvae can attack over 60 species of plants representing more than 20 families .\nmaize plants damaged by fall armyworm in a farmer\u2019s field in southern malawi in balaka district . cimmyt / christian thierfelder\nmulti - pronged approach key for effectively defeating fall armyworm in africa \u00bb cimmyt . international maize and wheat improvement center\nthere is some suppression of fall armyworm larvae with some types of bt corn such as the yieldgard and to a lesser extent knockout / naturegard . herculex does provide the best fall armyworm control among the different types of bt corn . however , with later planting dates ( after june 1 ) and high fall armyworm levels , all bt corn hybrids will need to be monitored for fall armyworm activity and treated with an insecticide according to the above economic threshold .\nspodoptera frugiperda ( fall armyworm ) ; adult male . museum set specimen . links to spodoptera id : urltoken - urltoken\ngiven the severe economic threat that the fall armyworm poses , governments and international bodies are putting in place emergency plans .\n. techniques to improve the management of fall armyworm in overwintering areas of south florida using conservation biological control are discussed .\nsparks an . 1979 . a review of the biology of the fall armyworm . florida entomologist 62 : 82 - 87 .\nfao , 2018b . briefing note on fall armyworm ( faw ) in africa . 16 february 2018 , 7 pp . urltoken\nin africa , a deadly pest called the fall armyworm has invaded large swathes of land , causing major damage to crops .\nmr chabikwa said he expects the fall armyworm to multiply next cropping season due to a lack of information and effective control .\nallele linked to resistance against cry1fa corn in fall armyworm from puerto rico has been recently described ( banerjee et al . ,\ngoergen g , kumar pl , sankung sb , togola a , tamo m . first report of outbreaks of the fall armyworm\ncommon name : fall armyworm scientific name : spodoptera frugiperda ( j . e . smith ) ( insecta : lepidoptera : noctuidae )\nthe fao is to hold an emergency meeting in harare between 14 and 16 february to decide emergency responses to the fall armyworm threat .\nfigure 4 . mature larva of the fall armyworm , spodoptera frugiperda ( j . e . smith ) . photograph by james castner .\nspodoptera frugiperda ( fall armyworm ) ; early instar larvae ( arrowed ) , and damage on cotton boll bract ( gossypium hirsutum ) .\nthe fall armyworm poses a major threat to food security and agricultural trade , warns the centre for agriculture and biosciences international ( cabi ) .\nthe recent discovery of fall armyworm in africa will be a huge threat to food security and also to trade in the region .\nvickery ra . 1929 . studies of the fall armyworm in the gulf coast region of texas . usda technical bulletin 138 . 63 pp .\nthe fall armyworm makes a lot of yellowish debris and whitish powder on the leaves and in the funnel where they are , she says .\nlu yj , kochert gd , isenhour dj , adang mj . molecular characterization of a strain - specific repeated dna sequence in the fall armyworm\nhuang f , qureshi ja , meagher rl , reisig dd , head gp , andow da , et al . cry1f resistance in fall armyworm\nthe corn earworm has a orange - brown head , while the armyworm has a brown head with dark honeycombed markings . fall armyworm has four dark spots arranged in a square on top of the eighth abdominal segment .\niita , 2016 . first report of outbreaks of the\nfall armyworm\non the african continent . iita bulletin , no . 2330 . urltoken\nthese include monitoring with pheromone traps to determine the spread of the fall armyworm , road shows to increase public awareness and emergency registration of pesticides .\nto differentiate this larva from other armyworm species or corn earworm one needs to look at the head of the insect . the fall armyworm ' s head has a predominant white , inverted y - shaped suture between the eyes .\nall jn . 1988 . fall armyworm ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) infestations in no - tillage cropping systems . florida entomologist 71 : 268 - 272 .\nfao , 2017b . briefing note on fap actions on fall armyworm in africa 15 december 2017 , 7 pp . . urltoken fao , rome , italy\nfao , 2018 . in : briefing note on fao actions on fall armyworm in africa 31 january 2018 fao , rome , italy , 6 pp .\nippc , 2017d . preliminary report on fall armyworm in zambia . ( no . zmb - 02 / 2 ) rome , italy , fao , urltoken\ngene to study the divergence of the fall armyworm host strains . insect molecular biology . 2016 ; 25 ( 3 ) : 324\u201337 . pmid : 26991678\nthe female fall armyworm can lay up to 1 , 000 eggs at a time and can produce multiple generations very quickly without pause in tropical environments .\nfigure 2 . egg mass of the fall armyworm , spodoptera frugiperda ( j . e . smith ) . photograph by james castner , university of florida .\nashley tr , wiseman br , davis fm , andrews kl . 1989 . the fall armyworm : a bibliography . florida entomologist 72 : 152 - 202 .\nfao , 2017a . fao advisory note on fall armyworm ( faw ) in africa , 7 pp . . 5 june 2017 . fao , rome , italy\nchemical control in the us control of the fall armyworm has depended exclusively on insecticide for many years . as a result , fall armyworm has developed resistance to major classes of insecticides in the us . the first resistance reported was to carbaryl , but resistance to parathion - methyl , fluvalinate , lambda - cyhalothrin , carbamate , organophosphates and pyrethroid has also been reported . again this emphasise the possibility of fall armyworm developing resistance to insecticides and that label instructions should be followed .\nfall armyworm can be one of the more difficult insect pests to control in field corn . late planted fields and later maturing hybrids are more likely to become infested . fall armyworm causes serious leaf feeding damage as well as direct injury to the ear . while fall armyworms can damage corn plants in nearly all stages of development , it will concentrate on later plantings that have not yet silked . like european corn borer , fall armyworm can only be effectively controlled while the larvae are small . early detection and proper timing of an insecticide application are critical .\nfigure 1 . eggs of the fall armyworm , spodoptera frugiperda ( j . e . smith ) , hatching . photograph by james castner , university of florida .\nfigure 6 . typical adult male fall armyworm , spodoptera frugiperda ( j . e . smith ) . photograph by lyle j . buss , university of florida .\nfigure 7 . typical adult female fall armyworm , spodoptera frugiperda ( j . e . smith ) . photograph by lyle j . buss , university of florida .\nthe fall armyworm even bores into the ears ( cobs ) and does far more damage than the stalk borer or bollworm , which usually attack at cob stage .\nfigure 8 . corn leaf damage caused by the fall armyworm , spodoptera frugiperda ( j . e . smith ) . photograph by paul choate , university of florida .\ncool , wet springs followed by warm , humid weather in the overwintering areas favor survival and reproduction of fall armyworm , allowing it to escape suppression by natural enemies . once dispersal northward begins , the natural enemies are left behind . therefore , although fall armyworm has many natural enemies , few act effectively enough to prevent crop injury .\nnagoshi rn , meagher rl . behavior and distribution of the two fall armyworm host strains in florida . florida entomologist . 2004 ; 87 ( 4 ) : 440\u20139 .\nlu yj , adang mj . distinguishing fall armyworm ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) strains using a diagnostic mitochondrial dna marker . florida entomologist . 1996 ; 79 : 48\u201355 .\nluginbill , p . the fall armyworm . technical bulletin united states department of agriculture , v . 34 , p . 1 - 91 , 1928 . [ links ]\nnairobi , kenya ( 28 april 2017 ) \u2013 tackling the menace of the tenacious fall armyworm pest to avoid economic hardship for smallholder farmers across africa requires quick and coordinated action , a massive awareness campaign , scientific innovation and multi - institutional collaboration , said scientists attending the stakeholders consultation meeting on the fall armyworm in nairobi this week .\nthe fall armyworm \u2013 spodoptera frugiperda \u2013 was first reported on the african continent in nigeria . it subsequently appeared across parts of west and central africa , before extensively invading farmers\u2019 fields in southern africa in december 2016 . the destructive activities of the fall armyworm have only served to add to devastation caused by the native african armyworm ( spodoptera exempta ) and severe drought caused by an el nino weather system in 2015 - 2016 .\nfigure 3 . newly hatched larva of the fall armyworm , spodoptera frugiperda ( j . e . smith ) . photograph by lyle j . buss , university of florida .\npitre hn , hogg db . 1983 . development of the fall armyworm on cotton , soybean and corn . journal of the georgia entomological society 18 : 187 - 194 .\nnagoshi rn , meagher rl . review of fall armyworm ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) genetic complexity and migration . florida entomologist . 2008 ; 91 ( 4 ) : 546\u201354 .\npashley dp . quantitative genetics , development , and physiological adaptation in host strains of fall armyworm . evolution . 1988 ; 42 ( 1 ) : 93\u2013102 . pmid : 28563847\nscientists fear the fall armyworm could continue to multiply and become endemic across the continent . professor kenneth wilson at britain\u2019s lancaster university , who has extensive experience working on the african armyworm , predicts the pest could potentially spread into the middle east and eventually to europe .\nashley tr , wiseman br , davis fm , andrews kl , 1989 . the fall armyworm : a bibliography . florida entomologist , 72 ( 1 ) : 152 - 202 .\nippc , 2018 . report on fall armyworm ( spodoptera frugiperda ) . ippc official pest report , no . gha - 01 / 4 . rome , italy : fao . urltoken\neradication of the fall armyworm at this stage is unlikely . control of the pest will be best achieved if managed on an international scale with southern african countries coordinating their efforts .\n\u201cwe need to act fast , failure is not an option , \u201d rugalema said , adding that adequate funding and taking a regional approach to controlling the fall armyworm are vital .\nnagoshi rn , brambila j , meagher rl . use of dna barcodes to identify invasive armyworm\nit\u2019s also possible that the fall armyworm arrived over the atlantic through wind currents . this is because wind - borne adult insects can move over vast distances . the fall armyworm wouldn\u2019t be the first insect species crossing the atlantic in this way . the most famous example is the monarch butterfly , danaus plexippus , crossing the atlantic from america to the british isles .\njohnson sj . 1987 . migration and the life history strategy of the fall armyworm , spodoptera frugiperda in the western hemisphere . insect science and its applications 8 : 543 - 549 .\nnagoshi rn . improvements in the identification of strains facilitate population studies of fall armyworm subgroups . annals of the entomological society of america . 2012 ; 105 ( 2 ) : 351\u20138 .\nin its native regions , it can travel up to 2000 km each year in search of warmer climates . the worm is averse to the harsh winters of north america , returning to tropical habitat in the autumn , which americans call \u201cfall\u201d , hence the name \u201cfall armyworm\u201d .\nvery early symptoms of fall armyworm resemble european corn borer infestation . small holes and\nwindow pane\nfeeding in the leaves emerging from the whorl are common . although initial symptoms of damage are similar , thresholds and control measures differ . therefore it is important to find the live larvae and determine which insect is causing the damage . unlike armyworm , fall armyworm feeds during the day and night , but are usually most active in the morning or late afternoon .\nfarmers there are putting sandy soil into the maize funnels , according to bridget oconnor . the sand is abrasive to the skin of the fall armyworm and can kill it , she adds .\npashley dp , martin ja . reproductive incompatibility between host strains of the fall armyworm ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america . 1987 ; 80 : 731\u20133 .\na : yes . a survey carried out from june to august 2016 in embu and kisii counties showed fall armyworm infestation . although the infestation is still low in comparison to other parts of the region , the situation could change . scientists from the university of nairobi also reported sightings of fall armyworm maize damage in machakos county . anani bruce , cimmyt maize entomologist , nairobi , kenya\nthe fall armyworm , spodoptera frugiperda ( j . e . smith ) , is the primary pest of corn production in south america and in portions of the southeastern united states [ 1 ] . although it is unable to survive freezing winters , fall armyworm infestations extend as far north as canada , the result of annual long - distance migrations from overwintering areas in southern united states and mexico [ 2 \u2013 4 ] . in 2016 , severe outbreaks of fall armyworm were reported in several western and central african countries , representing the first indication of the species establishing itself in the eastern hemisphere [ 5 ] . the voracious feeding and long - distance flight behaviors exhibited by fall armyworm indicate a significant threat to african agriculture with the potential for rapid dispersion throughout the hemisphere .\nthe fall armyworm has several characteristics that make it difficult to control . apart from being a strong flyer , adult females are highly fertile , laying in excess of 1000 eggs during their lifetime .\nthe fall armyworm has been reported to cause annual losses of us $ 600 million in brazil alone . caterpillars also feed on other important crops , such as cowpea , potato , and soybean .\ngene facilitate host strain identification of fall armyworm ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) populations in the southeastern united states . j econ entomol . 2006 ; 99 ( 3 ) : 671\u20137 . pmid : 16813297\na : a transgenic maize trial ( under confined field trials ) was attacked by the fall armyworm in namulonge and kassesse ( uganda ) during the first and second cropping seasons in 2016 . the mon810 bt maize entries showed resistance to the fall armyworm compared to non - transgenic maize materials . this however , needs to be further confirmed through additional experiments . anani bruce , cimmyt maize entomologist\nlarvae should not be mistaken for the african armyworm ( photo 3 ) , the lesser armyworm ( photo 4 ) , the cotton leaf worm ( photo 5 ) , the african bollworm ( photo 6 ) , the false armyworm ( photo 7 ) or the common cutworm ( photo 8 ) .\nall jn , stancil jd , johnson tb , gouger r . 1996 . controlling fall armyworm infestations in whorl stage corn with genetically modified bacillus thuringiensis formulations . florida entomologist 79 : 311 - 317 .\nmarenco rj , foster re , sanchez ca . 1992 . sweet corn response to fall armyworm ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) damage during vegetative growth . journal of economic entomology 85 : 1285 - 1292 .\nroberts pm all jn . 1993 . hazard for fall armyworm ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) infestation of maize in double - cropping systems using sustainable agricultural practices . florida entomologist 76 : 276 - 283 .\nthe fall armyworm spodoptera frugiperda is a lepidpopteran pest that feeds in large numbers on leaves and stems of more than 80 plant species , causing major damage to economically important cultivated grasses s . . .\nfall armyworm may be found feeding during daylight hours , and they typically are found scattered throughout a field . besides feeding on leaves , they may attack the tassels and / or ears of corn .\npashley dp , sparks tc , quisenberry ss , jamjanya t , dowd pf . two fall armyworm strains feed on corn , rice and bermudagrass . louisiana agriculture magazine . 1987 ; 30 : 8\u20139 .\nnagoshi rn , meagher rl . seasonal distribution of fall armyworm ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) host strains in agricultural and turf grass habitats . environ entomol . 2004 ; 33 ( 4 ) : 881\u20139 .\npheromone lure pheromone traps can be used as an early warning . to optimise pheromone lure captures for fall armyworm , it is essential to have the correct blend of components . therefore , if pheromone traps are used it should be kept in mind that the two strains of fall armyworm have differences in sex pheromone composition and that the different combinations in the lure can affect the amount of male moth captures .\nmoths are typically attracted to fields of late - maturing corn to lay their eggs . the larvae are primarily daytime feeders . they appear in corn fields late in the season , from mid - july through harvest . fall armyworm , unlike armyworm , are typically found damaging corn in patches throughout a field .\npashley dp . host - associated genetic differentiation in fall armyworm ( lepidoptera , noctuidae ) \u2014a sibling species complex . annals of the entomological society of america . 1986 ; 79 ( 6 ) : 898\u2013904 .\nthe african armyworm is usually hatched somewhere outside the farms and then steadily eat their way through everything in their path en masse , they say . by contrast , the fall armyworm moth lays its eggs on the host plant . it does not eat everything and as it grows it moves up the maize plant .\na : we do have a few cimmyt maize inbred lines that can potentially offer partial resistance to the fall armyworm , but intensive breeding efforts are needed to identify more sources of resistance and to develop africa - adapted improved maize hybrids with resistance to fall armyworm , including other relevant traits required by smallholders in the continent . b . m prasanna , director of cimmyt\u2019s global maize program & cgiar research program maize .\nnatural enemies because the fall armyworm is invasive in africa , it is not yet known which natural enemies will play a role in attacking this species . however , the nuclear polyhedrosis virus is an important mortality agent for fall armyworm in the us . a total of 63 individual parasitoids are also reported , which belongs to the two orders of diptera and hymenoptera , as well as potential pathogens and predators in latin america .\nfao said it will support countries in close collaboration with sadc and other partners and stakeholders to implement the necessary assessment activities aimed at improving understanding on the extent and intensity of the fall armyworm threat to the region .\njohnson sj , 1987 . migration and the life history strategy of the fall armyworm , spodoptera frugiperda in the western hemisphere . insect science and its application , 8 ( 4 - 6 ) : 543 - 549 .\npashley dp , hammond am , hardy tn . reproductive isolating mechanisms in fall armyworm host strains ( lepidoptera , noctuidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america . 1992 ; 85 ( 4 ) : 400\u20135 .\nhow the pest was introduced in africa from its native habitat in the americas is unclear . however , such invasive pests as the fall armyworm are known to cross continents either through infested commercial grain or through jet streams across oceans . many fall armyworm moths have been collected in the gulf of mexico as far as 250 km from land , indicating the possibility of seasonal trans - gulf migration between the united states and the tropics .\ngenetically modification bt technology has been used to control fall armyworm with success in other countries , however to protect the technology it will still be important to scout for damage in the crop and to have additional control strategies in place . resistance of fall armyworm to bt maize has been reported in puerto rico , brazil and the south - eastern region of the us . therefore , insect resistance management and integrated pest management are still important .\nthe fall armyworm is a highly polyphagous migratory lepidopteran pest species . it can colonize over 80 different plant species including many grasses , and crops such as alfalfa , soybean , sorghum , and corn . in pennsylvania , low populations are usually present late in the summer , but population densities are rarely high enough to be of economic concern in field corn . on the rare occasion that fall armyworm is problematic in field corn ; the late - season timing of the infestations makes them difficult to manage because insecticide application may require specialized equipment to pass over tall corn . fall armyworm is more likely to be an economic pest in sweet corn and vegetable crops .\nfall armyworm generally feeds on foliage , but during heavy infestations , larvae will also feed on corn ears . foliar damage to corn is usually characterized by ragged feeding , and moist sawdust - like frass near the whorl and upper leaves of the plant . early feeding can appear to be similar to european corn borer damage ; however european corn borer larvae bore into the stalk whereas fall armyworm larvae continue to feed on the foliage making larger more ragged holes . ear damage is similar to the damage caused by the corn earworm , chewed kernels and visible frass , except that fall armyworm tends to burrow through the husk instead of feeding down through the silks .\nhe said the fall army worm is traditionally found in the united states and probably came with imported maize .\nthe fall army worm recently invaded zambia , posing a threat to crops in six of the zambian provinces .\ncircles approximate locations were fall armyworm surveys were performed with color indicating the haplotype metric found . green circles , fl - type ; red , tx - type ; red and green , faw [ m ] mixed profile .\nthe aim of this work was to evaluate the attractiveness of different cotton plant parts and varieties to newly hatched fall armyworm larvae and the non - preference of the larvae for feeding on these plant parts and cotton varieties .\nfigure 5 . head capsule of fall armyworm , spodoptera frugiperda ( j . e . smith ) showing light - colored inverted\ny\non front of head . photograph by lyle j . buss , university of florida .\nstarratt an , mcleod dgr , 1982 . monitoring fall armyworm , spodoptera frugiperda ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) , moth populations in southwestern ontario with sex pheromone traps . canadian entomologist , 114 ( 7 ) : 545 - 549 .\nwonder chabikwa , president of the zimbabwe commercial farmers union ( zcfu ) , which represents 25 000 farmers , said farmers , both small and large , were taken by surprise when the fall armyworm laid siege on their farms .\nhe said while the country was receiving good rains , the fall army worm , was a threat to crops .\ntumlinson jh , mitchell er , teal pea , heath rr , mengelkoch lj . 1986 . sex pheromone of fall armyworm , spodoptera frugiperda ( j . e . smith ) . journal of chemical ecology 12 : 1909 - 1926 .\nfao has initiated the process of procuring pheromone insect lure traps which are used for capturing armyworm and monitoring their spread .\nthe fall armyworm , so called because it eats its way through most of the vegetation in its way as it marches through crops , is native to north and south america but was identified for the first time in africa last year .\nthese results illustrate how the assessment of strain proportions can vary substantially depending on the methodology used . despite this variability , the genetic marker data consistently indicate that the corn - strain is the predominant fall armyworm subpopulation present in the togo collections\nin conclusion , genetic markers provide an important resource for the investigation of fall armyworm infesting agricultural areas of africa . genetic analysis can confirm species identification based on morphology , is the only reliable means of identifying host strains , can provide an indication of where in the western hemisphere the population invading africa might have originated , and can detect a bt - resistance trait that could compromise the effectiveness of bt pesticides and bt crops as control options . the togo population may not be representative of fall armyworm in other parts of africa and may be susceptible to future invasive introductions , indicating the need for continued and more comprehensive genetic characterizations of african fall armyworm populations to monitor and forecast the spread of this invasive pest .\nthe fall armyworm , a recent interloper in africa widely prevalent in the americas , attacks more than 80 different plant species , including maize , a major food staple in sub - saharan africa on which more than 200 million people depend .\nin this paper we analyze specimens from several agricultural regions in the african nation of togo collected in the latter half of 2016 . genetic analyses confirmed the fall armyworm identification of the specimens , estimated host strain identity , and tested for the presence of the puerto rico bt - resistance allele . the haplotype and marker data were used to extrapolate the most likely western hemisphere source locations . the ramifications of these results on the pest potential of the togo fall armyworm population are discussed .\nthe high levels of damage caused by the fall armyworm to cotton plants in brazil the economic importance of the crop ( soares ; vieira , 1998 ) , the use of chemical insecticides as the only control measure ( valicente ; fonseca , 2004 ) and the scarcity of data regarding new control tactics justify studies of the feeding habits of the fall armyworm on cotton plants . these studies can potentially with a possible contribute to the optimization of measures for the management of this pest .\nhe said the country was on high alert for the fall army worm and a possible army worm attack on crops .\npannuti ler , baldin ell , hunt te , paula - moraes sv . 2015 . on - plant larval movement and feeding behavior of fall armyworm ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) on reproductive corn stages . environ . entomol . 45 : 192 - 200\npair sd , raulston jr , westbrook jk , wolf ww , adams sd . fall armyworm ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) outbreak originating in the lower rio - grande valley , 1989 . florida entomologist . 1991 ; 74 ( 2 ) : 200\u201313 .\nnagoshi rn , silvie p , meagher rl . comparison of haplotype frequencies differentiate fall armyworm ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) corn - strain populations from florida and brazil . j econ entomol . 2007 ; 100 ( 3 ) : 954\u201361 . pmid : 17598561\nthe genetic similarity of the togo collection with puerto rico fall armyworm is of particular concern because of field - evolved resistance to cry1fa corn that arose in fall armyworm populations in puerto rico and was present in high frequency in bt cornfields ( [ 32 , 40 ] ) . genotyping for the allele linked to resistance in puerto rico ( sfabcc2mut ) did not detect its presence among the togo specimens , as all individuals tested were homozygous for the wild type ( susceptible ) allele ( fig 6 ) .\nspodoptera frugiperda ( fall armyworm ) ; larva on maize cob . the larvae , which are marked with a distinct inverted\ny\non the front of the head , feed on a wide variety of plants , and are a particular problem in fall seeded alfalfa and wheat . milo , sweet corn , and field corn also are important hosts . laboratory image . usa .\nthe scientific name , spodoptera frugiperda , refers to the grey - patterned wings of the moths and the fruit destroying habits of the caterpillars . the common name , fall armyworm , is based on the habit of mass movements of the caterpillars in autumn .\nanother reason the fall armyworm is difficult to manage is because of its tendency to build up resistance to pesticides . there have been efforts to curb its devastating effect by planting bt - maize . but this remains highly contested territory in many african countries .\nthe fall armyworm has invaded south africa in january , after reports of invasion in west and central africa . this species mainly established in maize fields in south africa . other crops that were attacked in south africa were sorghum , sweet corn and potatoes . the first observation of fall armyworm on the africa continent was made in late january last year on maize in the rainforest zone of south - western nigeria and in maize fields at the international institute of tropical agriculture ( iita ) at ibadan and ikenne .\na conservative estimate indicates the loss of africa\u2019s maize due to the fall armyworm could cost the continent $ 3 billion in the coming year , according to roger day , sanitary and phytosanitary coordinator at the center for agricultural and biosciences international ( cabi ) .\nthe fall armyworm is an economically important pest of sorghum and corn as it feeds on the growing leaves and the ear / seed head . to screen sorghum and corn plants for resistance to fall armyworm feeding , field , greenhouse , or laboratory bioassays are often used individually or in combination . laboratory bioassays are best for insect confinement but as the number of replications and entries increase , a large amount of time each day is spent by the experimenter replenishing leaf tissue , adding water , and cleaning the experimental system . a previous study had used agar plates containing benzimidizole , a chemical that prevents leaf dying , to assess the russian wheat aphid feeding on barley . we sought to determine if agar plates containing benzimidizol could be used to assess fall armyworm feeding in sorghum and corn . we found this method accurately identified resistant and susceptible maize lines and was able to be used for sorghum . furthermore this method requires no labor by the experimenter until 7 days after the experimental setup , preserved sorghum and corn leaf tissue , and minimal fungal and bacterial contamination was seen . thus , the benzimidazole agar plate method is an easy and effective method for assessing fall armyworm feeding on maize and sorghum and thus can be used to identify maize and sorghum plants with resistance to fall armyworm feeding .\ndr jayne crozier , of cabi , said the fall armyworm ' s presence had now been confirmed in west africa and was thought to be present in the south and east of the continent , many parts of which rely on maize for their staple diet .\nwhichever way the fall armyworm arrived , its rapid spread across the african continent attests to its high dispersal ability . as strong flyers adult moths cross borders with ease . in the us the species has long been known to use jet streams for adult dispersal .\nnagoshi rn , meagher rl , hay - roe m . inferring the annual migration patterns of fall armyworm ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) in the united states from mitochondrial haplotypes . ecology and evolution . 2012 ; 2 ( 7 ) : 1458\u201367 . pmid : 22957154\nnagoshi rn , meagher rl , jenkins da . puerto rico fall armyworm has only limited interactions with those from brazil or texas but could have substantial exchanges with florida populations . j econ entomol . 2010 ; 103 ( 2 ) : 360\u20137 . pmid : 20429449\n\u201cthe truly frightening risk of the fall armyworm to food security in africa must be recognized and tackled with a holistic integrated pest management program , \u201d said b . m . prasanna , director of the global maize program at the international maize and wheat improvement center ( cimmyt ) and the cgiar research program on maize . \u201cwe cannot eliminate the pest from africa \u2013 now that it\u2019s here , it will stay , but we can provide support to farmers and provide options to manage their crops against the fall armyworm . \u201d\nthere has been an outbreak of the fall army worm in six districts in matabeleland north , a senior government official has said .\nashley , t . r . , e . r . mitchell , n . c . leppla , and e . e . grissell . 1980 . parasites attacking fall armyworm larvae spodoptera frugiperda in late planted field corn . florida entomologist 63 : 136\u2013142 . full text\nprowell dp , mcmichael m , silvain jf . multilocus genetic analysis of host use , introgression , and speciation in host strains of fall armyworm ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america . 2004 ; 97 ( 5 ) : 1034\u201344 .\nscientists believe that the fall armyworm may have spread and proliferated on the continent due to warmer global temperatures over the past few years . they suspect the pests may have travelled from the americas in warm ocean jet streams or arrived by some other form of transportation .\nlater that season high numbers of fall armyworm were also reported from northern nigeria , benin and togo . in april last year government of s\u00e3o tom\u00e9 and principe called for assistance from the food and agriculture organisation of the united nations ( fao ) . thereafter , in june last year , the federal government of nigeria reported fall armyworm on maize in edo and adjacent states in the southwest of the country . this pest then spread through the rest of africa , travelling southwards to south africa in a little bit more than nine months .\npair sd , gross jr hr 1984 . field mortality of pupae of the fall armyworm , spodoptera frugiperda ( j . e . smith ) , by predators and a newly discovered parasitoid , diapetimorpha introita . journal of the georgia entomological society 19 : 22 - 26 .\nfully grown larvae are 1 . 25 \u2013 1 . 5 inches in length and vary in color from pale green to almost black , with a reddish - brown head . they closely resemble true armyworm , and corn earworm larvae in appearance . the difference is that the heads of fall armyworms have a prominent inverted\ny\nand black tubercles from which hairs arise arrayed throughout the body . fall armyworm pupates in the soil , and pupae can be identified by their smooth , leathery skin that is reddish - brown to dark brown .\nothers say it was accidental , shipped by air , or by climate change - induced strong winds . with more than 80 host plants identified , the fall armyworm can also attack crops like cowpea , groundnuts , potato , soyabean and cotton , according to the iita .\narmyworm crusade sixteen eastern and southern african countries have agreed to coordinate an emergency response to tackle the fall - armyworm infestation that is threatening food security in sub - saharan africa . the decision was made at a meeting in harare , zimbabwe , on 16 february . endemic to south america , the fall armyworm ( spodoptera frugiperda , pictured ) was first observed in africa in early 2016 and has since been detected in at least seven countries . in its larval form , the pest consumes the foliage and flowers of a wide variety of crops . estimates by the food and agriculture organization of the united nations suggest that more than 250 , 000 hectares of african cropland have been affected .\nmr nyoni said it was important for farmers to thoroughly check their crops and make sure they are safe from the fall army worm .\nparticipants at the harare meeting agreed that the fall armyworm infestation shows the urgent need for swift and coordinated action to deal with such threats . they identified gaps in the region\u2019s early warning systems , response , preparedness , contingency planning , including information dissemination and effective regional coordination .\ndavis fm , baker gt , williams wp , 1995 . anatomical characteristics of maize resistant to leaf feeding by southwestern corn borer ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) and fall armyworm ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . journal of agricultural entomology , 12 ( 1 ) : 55 - 65 .\nthe fall armyworm is an invasive american moth , difficult to detect and to control . it was first noticed in africa in january 2016 , causing massive damage to crops in several west african countries , according to the international institute of tropical agriculture ( iita ) in benin .\nnagoshi rn , fleischer sj , meagher rl , hay - roe m , khan a , mur\u00faa gm , et al . fall armyworm migration across the lesser antilles and the potential for genetic exchanges between north and south american populations . plos one . 2017 ; in press .\nthe fall armyworm , spodoptera frugiperda ( j . e . smith ) , a native species of tropical and subtropical regions of the americas , is geographically widespread ( luginbill , 1928 ) and feeds on a wide range of cultivated plants ( luginbill , 1928 ) . although the fall armyworm prefers to feed on plants of the grass family ( maize , millet , wheat , sorghum , rice and sugar cane ) , it will attack other such economically important crops as peanuts , potato , soybean and cotton ( ali et al . , 1989 ) .\na comprehensive account of the biology of fall armyworm was published by luginbill ( 1928 ) , and an informative synopsis by sparks ( 1979 ) . ashley et al . ( 1989 ) presented an annotated bibliography . a sex pheromone has been described ( sekul and sparks 1976 ) .\n\u201cfall armyworm , which is mostly associated with the americas , is a new threat in southern africa and we are very concerned with the emergence , intensity and spread of the pest . it is only a matter of time before most of the region will be affected , and the costs and implications of this are very serious , as seen in places where fall armyworm is endemic such as brazil , where the government spends in excess of $ 600 million each year to try to control infestations , \u201d said david phiri , fao subregional coordinator for southern africa .\n\u201cthe insect is establishing itself and is expected to remain an economic pest for very long time to come hence we need to put in place a short and long term fall armyworm management and control plan , \u201d said bayeh mulatu , national integrated pest management expert at fao ethiopia .\nit is also important not to rely on one control practice . integrated pest management should always be kept in mind . in collaboration with the department of agriculture , forestry and fisheries ( daff ) a list of insecticides registered to control fall armyworm is available ( table 1 ) .\nnumerous species of parasitoids affect fall armyworm . the wasp parasitoids most frequently reared from larvae in the united states are cotesia marginiventris ( cresson ) and chelonus texanus ( cresson ) ( both hymenoptera : braconidae ) , species that are also associated with other noctuid species . among fly parasitoids , the most abundant is usually archytas marmoratus ( townsend ) ( diptera : tachinidae ) . however , the dominant parasitoid often varies from place to place and from year to year . luginbill ( 1928 ) and vickery ( 1929 ) describe and picture many of the fall armyworm parasitoids .\nthere\u2019s disagreement about how the fall armyworm arrived in africa . one suggested avenue is that it arrived on foodstuffs imported from the americas . this is feasible as insects can readily cross borders with infested plant material . the species has been intercepted on shipments destined for europe on several occasions .\nsince the first fall armyworm larvae were collected in the settlers area mid - january this year and reared through to moths for identification , dr vivienne uys ( arc - ppri ) made the positive identification in early february as spodoptera frugiperda ( je smith ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) .\ndescription and life history the life cycle of the fall armyworm is about 24 to 30 days in favourable temperature and humidity . the number of generations occurring in an area will vary with the appearance of the dispersing moths . this species does not have a diapause ( overwintering ) stage .\nnagoshi rn , silvie p , meagher rl , lopez j , machados v . identification and comparison of fall armyworm ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) host strains in brazil , texas , and florida . annals of the entomological society of america . 2007 ; 100 ( 3 ) : 394\u2013402 .\n\u201cwe need to understand better the behavioral ecology of the fall armyworm in the africa context . how it breeds , travels and feeds on crops , as this is critical for effectively managing the devastation this pest can cause and its major risk to food security , \u201d martin kropff cautioned .\n\u201cscientists at cimmyt are currently researching available breeding resources characterized with potential resistance to fall armyworm and screening elite maize germplasm to identify possible sources of resistance , \u201d said b . m . prasanna , director of cimmyt\u2019s global maize program and the cgiar research program maize . \u201cmaize lines with partial resistance to fall armyworm were developed in the past , but the work was not scaled - up given the need to focus breeding programs on other high priority traits , including drought tolerance , heat tolerance , and resistance to major diseases , such as maize lethal necrosis ( mln ) . \u201d\nthis came at the end of a three - day , fao - organized emergency meeting in harare to discuss ways to respond to a major fall armyworm infestation affecting at least seven countries in the region , whose combined population is more than 70 percent of the total population of southern africa .\nfall armyworm eggs are laid in clusters of 50 or more in a single layer attached to foliage . eggs are dome - shaped and dirty white to gray in color . after egg deposition , the female deposits grayish scales over the egg mass , giving it a hairy or moldy appearance .\nmitchell er , mcneil jn , westbrook jk , silvain jf , lalannecassou b , chalfant rb , et al . seasonal periodicity of fall armyworm , ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) in the caribbean basin and northward to canada . j entomol sci . 1991 ; 26 ( 1 ) : 39\u201350 .\nmur\u00faa mg , nagoshi rn , dos santos da , hay - roe m , meagher rl , vilardi jc . demonstration using field collections that argentina fall armyworm populations exhibit strain - specific host plant preferences . j econ entomol . 2015 ; 108 ( 5 ) : 2305\u201315 . pmid : 26453719\nthe fall armyworm is native to the tropical regions of the western hemisphere from the united states to argentina . it normally overwinters successfully in the united states only in southern florida and southern texas . the fall armyworm is a strong flier , and disperses long distances annually during the summer months . it is recorded from virtually all states east of the rocky mountains . however , as a regular and serious pest , its range tends to be mostly the southeastern states . in 2016 it was reported for the first time in west and central africa , so it now threatens africa and europe .\ntazelekew habtamu , a maize farmer in southern ethiopia where the insect set foot for the first time in ethiopia , observed unusual insect pest infestation on his maize farm in the first week of march 2017 . he reported the case to a local agriculture extension worker , who facilitated immediate pesticide spraying . \u201cat first , the fall armyworm infestation was huge , \u201d said tazelekew . \u201cthe pesticide spray killed most of the pests . i would have lost my maize plants if i did not use the pesticide . however , some remnants of the fall armyworm are still attacking my maize field . \u201d\nthe africa wide meeting on the fall armyworm that was held in nairobi , kenya gave the responsibility to fao to coordinate interventions to bring the fall armyworm problem under control . in addition to funding of usd 52 000 , fao supports the government\u2019s prevention efforts with expert advice and consultation , and facilitation of field assessments , surveillance and monitoring . in addition , in collaboration with the desert locust control organization for eastern africa ( dlco - ea ) and other development partners , fao is developing a project to derail the insect expansion and mass multiplication so that yield loss could be minimized significantly .\nhowever , that\u2019s not the way of the african armyworm , scientists at the international centre of insect physiology and ecology ( icipe ) in kenya concluded .\ncimmyt , 2018 . fall armyworm in africa : a guide for integrated pest management . first edition . . prasanna , b . m . , huesing , j . e . , eddy , r . , peschke , v . m . , eds . cimmyt , mexico , 109 pp .\nhruska aj , gould f , 1997 . fall armyworm ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) and diatraea lineolata ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) : impact of larval population level and temporal occurrence on maize yield in nicaragua . journal of economic entomology , 90 ( 2 ) : 611 - 622 ; 27 ref .\nin collaboration with the food and agriculture organization of the united nations ( fao ) and other development partners , the government of ethiopia has intensified efforts to protect major maize growing areas from the ravage of the fall armyworm . the fall armyworm , which first arrived in africa in 2016 , was intercepted on a few hectares of irrigated maize fields in southern ethiopia in the last week of february 2017 . it has now covered about 52 962 hectares in 144 districts in three of the major maize - growing regional states \u2013 gambella , oromia and southern nations nationalities and peoples\u2019 region ( snnpr ) .\nluttrell , r . g . ; mink , j . s . damage to cotton fruiting structures by the fall armyworm , spodoptera frugiperda ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . journal of cotton science , v . 3 , n . 2 , p . 35 - 44 , 1999 . [ links ]\nfall armyworm larva vary from light tan to black with three light yellow stripes down the back . there is a wider dark stripe and a wavy yellow - red blotched stripe on each side . larvae have four pairs of fleshy abdominal prolegs in addition to the pair at the end of the body .\nfao says the fall armyworm is now present in namibia , south africa , mozambique , malawi and zambia , threatening agriculture output in a season of plenteous rainfall . authorities here say it has spread to nearly all the country\u2019s ten provinces . the amount of damage caused in zimbabwe so far is unknown .\nto differentiate the fall armyworm from other species a predominant white , inverted y shape is present on the forehead between the eyes ( photo 2 ) . the duration of the larval stage can be as short as 14 days in summer . unlike other armyworms , larvae feed during the day and night .\nali , a . ; luttrell , r . g . ; pitre , h . n . feeding sites and distribution of fall armyworm ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) larvae on cotton . environmental entomology , v . 19 , n . 4 , p . 1060 - 1067 , 1990 . [ links ]\nmihm ja , smith me , deutsch ja , 1988 . development of open - pollinated varieties , non - conventional hybrids and inbred lines of tropical maize with resistance to fall armyworm , spodoptera frugiperda ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) , at cimmyt . florida entomologist , 71 ( 3 ) : 262 - 268 ."]}
{"id": 1951, "summary": [{"text": "atergatis subdentatus , also known as the red reef crab , dark-finger coral crab or eyed coral crab , is a species of crab in the family xanthidae . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "atergatis subdentatus", "paragraphs": ["animalia - arthropoda - crustacea - malacostraca - decapoda - brachyura - xanthidae - atergatis - a . subdentatus\nlet ' s do some zoology ! - red reef crab ( atergatis subdentatus ) also known . . .\n\u00bb species cancer ( atergatis ) frontalis de haan , 1835 accepted as atergatis latissimus ( h . milne edwards , 1834 )\ndistribution & ecology : wallis & futuna ( ? futuna ) . regional records : wallis & futuna - atergatis subdentatus - poupin & juncker , in preparation ( ? futuna , det . from photograph only and ser\u010dne , 1984 key ) . depth distribution : 1 - 10 m\nlooking at gosliner , et al , again , i think i can rule a . subdentatus out as they list\nphilippines and japan ) for distribution . the photographs were taken on the gbr .\ni don ' t know if the dark spot enclosing 2 smaller white spots belongs to a . subdentatus or carpilius convexus . some of what i ' ve found indicates that it ' s characteristic of c . convexus so i ' m confused . . . . . ( as usual )\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nbroadly subquadrilateral , regions ill - defined , covered with very fine punctulation near the anterior and antero - lateral borders . antero - lateral borders well convex and arched and with no distinct indentation , the\nbears two obtuse teeth at inner angle , followed by four to five bundles of brush - like hairs .\nde haan , w . , 1833 - 1849 . crustacea . in : ph . f . von siebold , fauna japonica sive descriptio animalium , quae in itinere per japoniam , jussu et auspiciis superiorum , qui summum in india batava imperium tenent , suscepto , annis 1823 - 1830 collegit , notis , observationibus et adumbrationibus illustravit : ix - xvi , i - xxi , vii - xvii , 1 - 243 , pls a - j , l - q , 1 - 55 , circ . tab . 2 . ( for dates see sherborn & jentink , 1895 and holthuis , 1953 . )\nmilne edwards , a . , 1865c . \u00e9tudes zoologiques sur les crustac\u00e9s r\u00e9cents de la famille des canc\u00e9riens . canc\u00e9rides , pirim\u00e9lides , carpilides , premi\u00e8re partie . nouvelles archives du mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle , paris , 1 : 177 - 308 , pls 11 - 19 .\nmiyake , s . , 1983 . japanese crustacean decapods and stomatopods in color . vol . ii . brachyura ( crabs ) , i - viii , 1 - 277 , pls 1 - 64 . hoikusha , osaka . ( in japanese ; second edition in 1992 )\nmuraoka , k . , 1998 . catalogue of the brachyuran and anomuran crabs donated by prof . dr . tune sakai to the kanagawa prefectural museum . catalogue of the collection in the kanagawa prefectural museum of natural history , 11 : 5 - 67 , pls 1 - 16 .\nortmann , a . e . , 1893b . die decapoden - krebse des strassburger museums , mit besonderer ber\u00fccksichtigung der von herrn dr . d\u00f6derlein bei japan und bei den liu - kiu - inseln gesammelten und zur zeit im strassburger museum aufbewahrten formen . theil vii . abteilung brachyura ( brachyura genuina boas ) , ii . unterabteilung : cancroidea , 2 . section : cancrinea , 1 . gruppe : cyclometopa . zoologische jahrb\u00fccher , abtheilung f\u00fcr systematik , geographie und biologie der thiere , 7 : 411 - 495 , pl . 17 .\nparisi , b . , 1916 . i decapodi giapponesi del museo di milano . iv . cyclometopa . atti societas italiano sciences naturelle , 55 : 153 - 190 , 4 figs , pls 7 - 11 . ( in italian )\nsakai , t . , 1936b . crabs of japan : 66 plates in life colours with descriptions . sanseido , tokyo ( 1935 ) : 1 - 239 , figs 1 - 122 , 27 pages of bibliography & index , frontispiece ( in colour ) , pls 1 - 66 ( colour ) . ( in japanese )\nsakai , t . , 1939 . studies on the crabs of japan . iv . brachygnatha , brachyrhyncha , pp . 365 - 741 , figs 1 - 129 , pls 42 - 111 , table 1 . yokendo co . , tokyo .\nsakai , t . , 1965b . the crabs of sagami bay , collected by his majesty the emperor of japan , i - xvi , 1 - 206 ( english text ) , figs 1 - 27 , pls 1 - 100 : 1 - 92 ( japanese text ) : 1 - 26 ( references and index in english ) : 27 - 32 ( index in japanese ) , 1 map . maruzen co . , tokyo .\nsakai , t . , 1976a . crabs of japan and the adjacent seas . ( in 3 volumes : ( 1 ) english text : i - xxix , 1 - 773 , figs 1 - 379 , ( 2 ) plates volume : 1 - 16 , pls 1 - 251 , ( 3 ) japanese text : 1 - 461 , figs 1 - 2 , 3 maps . ) kodansha ltd , tokyo .\nser\u00e8ne , r . , 1984 . crustac\u00e9s d\u00e9capodes brachyoures de l ' oc\u00e9an indien occidental et de la mer rouge , xanthoidea : xanthidae et trapeziidae . avec un addendum par crosnier ( a ) : carpiliidae et menippidae . faune tropicale , no . xxiv : 1 - 349 , figs a - c + 1 - 243 , pls 1 - 48 . ( in french ) ( translated into english by r . w . ingle ) .\nwada , k . , 1995 . brachyura . in : s . nishimura , guide to seashore animals of japan with color pictures and keys . vol . 2 : 379 - 418 , pls 101 - 118 . ( in japanese )\nyamaguchi , t . & k . baba , 1993 . crustacean specimens collected in japan by ph . f . von siebold and h . b\u00fcrger and held by the nationaal natuurhistorisch museum in leiden and other museums . in : t . yamaguchi ( ed . ) , ph . von siebold and natural history of japan . crustacea . carcinological society of japan : 145 - 570 , figs 1 - 200 d + ii a - f + 3 fig . n . n . + iii a - d .\nyamaguchi , t . , 1993 . a list of species described in the crustacea volume of fauna japonica as belonging to the japanese fauna . in : t . yamaguchi ( ed . ) , ph . von siebold and natural history of japan . crustacea . carcinological society of japan : 571 - 598 , figs 1 - 2 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe xanthid crabs include a number of known poisonous species that are highly toxic and not to be eaten . ( see : hawaiian pom pom crab . ) the neurotoxin is reportedly similar to that found in certain pufferfishes and is not destroyed by cooking .\nsmall specimens of this species sometimes make their way into the aquarium trade or into aquariums hitch - hiking on live rock . they can be quite destructive in a reef aquarium , but fascinating to watch in a setting without vulnerable invertebrates .\nthis reddish - brown crab may have symmetrically distributed red or yellow splotches , and its claw tips may be dark or black . its carapace has a texture similar to that of an orange peel .\nhabitat : rocky reefs , inshore areas , 3 m to 30 m deep ( 10 to 98 ft . ) .\nurltoken | urltoken | urltoken microcosm\u2122 is a trademark of microcosm , ltd . 823 ferry road | charlotte , vt | usa 05445 | telephone 802 - 425 - 5700 ext . 19\nmicrocosm aquarium explorer is a world - class online resource devoted to the underwater worlds that are home to fishes , corals , aquatic plants and invertebrate life of special interest to aquarium keepers . the mission of microcosm aquarium explorer is to inspire and inform those with an interest in the natural world , with particular emphasis on tropical coral reef and rainforest aquatic ecosystems that are the models for aquarists creating captive microcosms in their home aquaria .\ntanglenetted at 120 - 150 m . masbate . philippines . cw 16 mm .\ndived at 12 m under rock , rubble and sea weed . bahia de bandeiras . jalisco . mexico . 2012 . cw 51 mm .\nphilippines . bohol . collected by local fishermen by tangle nets at 100 m . cw 120 mm .\njapanese crustacean decapods and stomatopods in color , vol . ii . brachyura ( crabs ) .\nsystema brachyurorum : part i . an annotated checklist of extant brachyuran crabs of the world .\nin : nishimura , s . ( ed . ) , guide to seashore animals of japan with color pictures and keys , vol . ii . hoikusha , osaka , 379 - 418 ( in japanese ) .\noccurrence record in darwincore format ( elements of obis schema and some of dwc1 . 4 )\nhi , i ' m andrew and i\u2019m just a simple zoology student and crustacean researcher from ohio . this blog centers around animal ids so feel free to send me any unknown species ( and its location ) that you have and i will take my best shot at iding it ! i also occasionally post random zoology / animal factoid things . disclamer : none of the pictures are mine unless stated\n: compilation of references cited in poupin ( 1996 , 1998 , 2003 ) and poupin et al . ( 2009 ) - pdf 412 ko\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nyou currently have javascript disabled . several functions may not work . please re - enable javascript to access full functionality .\n, but i ' m not sure about the lighter patterns . any ideas ?\ndiagnostic characters : carapace ovate ; dorsal surface very smooth and convex . colour : uniform red to reddish brown , with irregular dark brown patches on the dorsal surface of carapace .\nallen and steene have two photographs of c . convexus . one is uniformly coloured with the dark spot with two smaller white spots in the centre of the carapace . the other shows a more mottled form . perhaps it is c . convexus after all .\nspecies name pilodius spinipes heller , 1861 identification key all four spines of the antero - lateral margin equal . cheliped carpus with single furrow anteriorly . 2 p with single sinuous transverse row of adjoining pearliform granules .\nclark and galii 1993 , journal of national history , vol . 27 , p . 1155\n\u00bb species cancer ( eudora ) incisus de haan , 1833 accepted as ozius guttatus h . milne edwards , 1834 ( nomen nudum )\n\u00bb species cancer ( thelphusa ) tridens de haan , 1835 accepted as parathelphusa tridentata h . milne edwards , 1853 ( nomen nudum )\nspecies cancer acantha h . milne edwards , 1834 accepted as actaea acantha ( h . milne edwards , 1834 )\nspecies cancer aculeatus o . fabricius , 1780 accepted as lebbeus groenlandicus ( fabricius , 1775 )\nspecies cancer buso k . sakai accepted as hyas araneus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ( incorrect spelling )\nspecies cancer calculosa h . milne edwards , 1834 accepted as actaea calculosa ( h . milne edwards , 1834 )\n, composite species based on description by brown ( 1756 ) , which referred in part to an east american species of petrochirus and one or more indo - pacific species of coenobita . linnaeus ( 1767 ) subsequently applied the specific name diogenes to the species of )\n, transferred to calcinus by holthuis ( 1977 ) as senior synonym of c . ornatus ( roux , 1830 ) )\nlinnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nt\u00fcrkay , m . ( 2001 ) . decapoda , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 284 - 292 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nadema , j . p . h . m . ( 1991 ) . de krabben van nederland en belgie ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura ) [ the crabs of the netherlands and belgium ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura ) ] . nationaal natuurhistorisch museum : leiden , the netherlands . isbn 90 - 73239 - 02 - 8 . 244 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]"]}
{"id": 1961, "summary": [{"text": "the annandale 's guitarfish ( rhinobatos annandalei ) is a type of ray .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is found in the indian ocean around india , pakistan , sri lanka and possibly the persian gulf .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is predominantly found in the marine waters , but also enters the brackish waters and freshwater rivers as well .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it reaches a length of approximately 56 cm .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they are ovoviviparous fishes . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "rhinobatos annandalei", "paragraphs": ["citation :\nannandale ' s guitarfishes , rhinobatos annandalei ~ marinebio . org .\nmarinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 1 / 14 / 2013 2 : 22 : 00 pm ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio\n( of rhinobatus annandalei norman , 1926 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nresearch rhinobatos annandalei \u00bb barcode of life ~ bioone ~ biodiversity heritage library ~ cites ~ cornell macaulay library [ audio / video ] ~ encyclopedia of life ( eol ) ~ esa online journals ~ fishbase ~ florida museum of natural history ichthyology department ~ gbif ~ google scholar ~ itis ~ iucn redlist ( threatened status ) ~ marine species identification portal ~ ncbi ( pubmed , genbank , etc . ) ~ ocean biogeographic information system ~ plos ~ siris ~ tree of life web project ~ unep - wcmc species database ~ worms\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . , fricke , r . and van der laan , r . ( eds ) . 2016 . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . updated 29 september 2016 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 29 september 2016 ) .\neastern central and southeast atlantic : this species was first described from accra , ghana ( norman 1930 ) and is reported from southern senegal to angola ( schneider 1990 , bianchi 1986 , s\u00e9ret in press ) .\nit has never been abundant but nowadays it has become evidently rare , taken in fisheries on an increasingly rare basis ( b . s\u00e9ret pers . obs . 2008 ) .\nan inshore guitarfish occurring in shallow coastal waters to about 35 m depth ( schneider 1990 ) . maximum size is about 80 cm total length ( tl ) and the species commonly reaches 60 cm tl ( schneider 1990 ) . males mature at about 46 cm tl , females at about 52 cm tl , size at birth about 15 cm tl . ovoviviparous with litters of 2 - 3 pups ; a sluggish bottom - dweller feeding on benthic invertebrates mainly shrimps ( s\u00e9ret in press ) .\nflesh consumed fresh , dried , salted and smoked . fins probably utilized for the international shark fin trade .\nthere are no known conservation measures in place for this species . recommended : efforts should be made to quantify catch levels and determine population trends , which will require capacity - building , education and training programmes . measures to protect and restore this species habitat would also be beneficial , such as identification and management of marine protected areas to conserve nursery grounds . research is needed on the species ' life - history characteristics . the development and implementation of management plans ( national and / or regional e . g . , under the fao international plan of action for the conservation and management of sharks : ipoa - sharks ) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species in the region . a seasonal ban on the targeted exploitation of this species elsewhere within the west african region would decrease the rate of capture of reproductively active individuals ( m . ducrocq pers . comm . 2006 ) . a ban on finning and the dumping of carcasses should be considered , as this would represent the most effective method of decreasing the fishing pressure on this species . otherwise , the implementation of licences for targeted and non targeted shark fishing and finning and a tax system on shark fins are recommended as measures to control the fishing pressure impacting this species .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngreek , rhinos = nose + greek , batis , - idos = a ray ( raja sp . ) ( ref . 45335 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 56 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 47613 )\noccurs mainly in the marine environment , but also enters the lower reaches of rivers . ovoviviparous ( ref . 50449 ) .\nexhibit ovoviparity ( aplacental viviparity ) , with embryos feeding initially on yolk , then receiving additional nourishment from the mother by indirect absorption of uterine fluid enriched with mucus , fat or protein through specialised structures ( ref . 50449 ) .\ntalwar , p . k . and a . g . jhingran , 1991 . inland fishes of india and adjacent countries . vol 1 . a . a . balkema , rotterdam . 541 p . ( ref . 4832 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00316 ( 0 . 00159 - 0 . 00631 ) , b = 3 . 11 ( 2 . 93 - 3 . 29 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 7 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( fec assumed to be < 100 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 47 of 100 ) .\nnorman , j . r . 1926 . a synopsis of the rays of the family rhinobatidae , with a revision of the genus rhinobatus . proceedings of the general meetings for scientific business of the zoological society of london 1926 1926 ( 4 ) : 941 - 982 .\nindian ocean : india , sri lanka , pakistan and also possibly from the gulf ( talwar and jhingran 1991 , bianchi 1985 , assadi and dehghani 1997 , vossoughi and vosoughi 1999 ) .\nno information is currently available on the habitat or biology of this guitarfish . maximum total length is reported at approximately 56 cm ( assadi and dehghani 1997 ) .\nthis species is presumably taken in a variety of fisheries ; including demersal trawls , gillnets , trammelnets and setnets operating within its range , but no information is available on its capture .\nnone in place . information on the full distribution , occurrence , life - history parameters and threats are required to make a full assessment of this species threat status .\na synopsis of the rays of the family rhinobatidae , with a revision of the genus rhinobatus .\nnorman , 1926 : in : database of modern sharks , rays and chimaeras , www . shark - references . com , world wide web electronic publication , version 07 / 2018\nhost - parasite list / parasite - host list ( version : 01 . 04 . 2015 ) 544 pp , 5 , 37 mb new !\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\noccurs mainly in the marine environment , but also enters the lower reaches of rivers . ovoviviparous ( ref . 50449 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis home page section for this species is currently being developed and will be completed asap ! if you would like to help out or know of a great video , photo or site about this species , let us know and we ' ll notify you as soon as it is finished . our current project plan is to have all marine species home pages finished before christmas this year . if you ' d like to find out more about our ongoing projects here at marinebio , check out our marinebio projects page .\nstart or join a discussion about this species below or send us an email to report any errors or submit suggestions for this page . we greatly appreciate all feedback !\nhelp us protect and restore marine life by supporting our various online community - centered marine conservation projects that are effectively sharing the wonders of the ocean with millions each year around the world , raising a balanced awareness of the increasingly troubling and often very complex marine conservation issues that affect marine life and ourselves directly , providing support to marine conservation groups on the frontlines that are making real differences today , and the scientists , teachers and students involved in the marine life sciences .\nwith your support , most marine life and their ocean habitats can be protected , if not restored to their former natural levels of biodiversity . we sincerely thank our thousands of members , donors and sponsors , who have decided to get involved and support the marinebio conservation society .\ndeep music digitally imported urltoken proton radio * radio paradise radiotunes somafm wers 88 . 9 fm\n~ sharing the wonders of the ocean to inspire conservation , education , research , and a sea ethic ~ marinebio . org , inc . is a u . s . 501 ( c ) 3 charitable , nonprofit organization . contact : info @ urltoken all marinebio conservation society memberships and donations are tax deductible in the united states . > < ( ( ( ( \u00b0 > \u00a9 1998 - 2017 marinebio copyright & terms of use . privacy policy . > - < \u00b0\u00b0 > - <\nfor all at last returns to the sea \u2014 to oceanus , the ocean river , like the everflowing stream of time , the beginning and the end .\n- rachel carson\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspecial publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nbor , p . h . f . ( 2002 ) nederlandse naamlijst van de recente haaien en roggen ( chondrichthyes : elasmobranchii ) van de wereld . : world wide web electronic publication www . rajidae . tmfweb . nl , version ( 05 / 2002 ) .\nchinese academy of fishery sciences ( 2003 ) chinese aquatic germplasm resources database . : urltoken\ncompagno , l . j . v . ( 1999 ) checklist of living elasmobranchs . : p . 471 - 498 . in w . c . hamlett ( ed . ) sharks , skates , and rays : the biology of elasmobranch fishes . johns hopkins university press , maryland .\nde bruin , g . h . p . , b . c . russell and a . bogusch ( 1995 ) fao species identification field guide for fishery purposes . the marine fishery resources of sri lanka . : rome , fao . 400 p .\neschmeyer , william n . , ed . , 1998 : catalog of fishes . special publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3 . 2905 .\nfao - fies ( 2017 ) aquatic sciences and fisheries information system ( asfis ) species list . : retrievef from urltoken ( accessed 08 / 06 / 2017 ) .\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication .\ntalwar , p . k . and a . g . jhingran ( 1991 ) inland fishes of india and adjacent countries . vol 1 . : a . a . balkema , rotterdam . 541 p .\nwu , h . l . , k . - t . shao and c . f . lai ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) latin - chinese dictionary of fishes names . : the sueichan press , taiwan . 1028 p ."]}
{"id": 1965, "summary": [{"text": "the king quail ( excalfactoria chinensis ) , also known as the blue-breasted quail , asian blue quail , chinese painted quail , or chung-chi , is a species of old world quail in the family phasianidae .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "this species is the smallest \" true quail \" , ranging in the wild from southeastern asia to oceania with 10 different subspecies .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "a failed attempt was made to introduce this species to new zealand by the otago acclimatisation society in the late 1890s .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "it is quite common in aviculture worldwide , where it is sometimes misleadingly known as the \" button quail \" , which is the name of an only very distantly related family of birds , the buttonquails . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "king quail", "paragraphs": ["common name / s : king quail , chinese quail , chinese painted quail .\nking quail for sale adoption from queensland brisbane metro @ urltoken classifieds king quail for sale adoption from queensland brisbane metro @ adpost . more\nchinese button quail , jumbo brown coturnix pharaoh quail , italian speckled coturnix pharaoh quail , texas a & m ; quail , tibetan tuxedo quail , georgia giant bob white quail , tennessee red quail , mexican speckled quail , gamble quail , etc . . .\na male ( left ) and female ( right ) king quail allopreening and huddling .\ntwo king quail eggs in a communal nest ( photo courtesy of j . greaves )\neggs , chicks , and adults of button quail , african harlequin quail , california valley quail , texas blue scaled quail , various coturnix quail , white bobwhite quail , snowflake bobwhite quail , and possibly others .\nbeautiful healthy button quail , coturnix quail & valley quail always available eggs and live birds .\nfrontal view of a male king quail in captivity ( photo courtesy of j . greaves )\nfrontal view of a female king quail in captivity ( photo courtesy of j . greaves )\nking quail are small and can live well with other birds including finches and doves . due to the very small size of baby king quail chicks , the cage or aviary has to have a fine mesh wire . many people raise king quail as pets because they can become fairly tame . king quail thrive on commercial bird feed , but also eat vegetation and insects . more\nking quail are not listed as threatened on the australian environment safety and biodiversity conservation act 1999 .\nthese are my beautiful king quails with their week old chicks . i have been breeding king quail for a few years and these were their first clutch of chicks . we have king quail for sale at $ 5 . 00 au . we usually have both young and adult king quails for sale . please subscribe ! ! !\ni would probably google search\nbutton quail\nas\nking quail\nis not the common term used in the pet trade .\nx 18 cockatiels x 1 silver male king quail $ 300 for the lot . please call or message\nit is so difficult to find any king quail eggs at all here in australia at the moment .\nphoto of king quail photo of young king quail * an australian quail ( click on photo to enlarge ) left = young , right = hen on 16 eggs . * photos donated by jessica & sarah * scientific name : coturnix chinensis * common name / s : king quail , chinese quail , chinese painted quail . * sub species in country / area of origin : 2 in australia , plus others overseas . more\nthe chinese painted quail ( button quail , blue - breasted quail ) , conturnix chinensis , and the japanese quail , c . japonica , part 1\nthe chinese painted quail ( button quail , blue - breasted quail ) , conturnix chinensis , and the japanese quail , c . japonica \u2013 part ii\ncommon name : chinese painted quail are also known as blue - breasted quail , blue quail , king quail ( finn , 1911 ) , and island painted quail ( mcgregor , 1909 ) . sometimes the names refer to subspecies or races rather than the nominate .\norange breasted waxbilled $ 50 pr african fires $ 50 pr spare cockbirds $ 10 . king quail $ 8 pr .\nbreeding pair of silver king quails for sale . $ 25 will not separate .\nsmall , quiet and unobtrusive the king quail is commonly found in pairs or small parties of around 5 or six , although groups as large as 40 have been recorded . unlike th stubble quail , the king quail does not appear to follow seasonal food sources . king quail live exclusively on the ground and will hide in dense undergrowth rather than fly up when disturbed . like so many other quail , it will burst suddenly into flight when almost trodden on . more\nback to the button quail bulletin board . back to the button quail home page .\nthe red - backed button - quail , turnix maculosus , and the brown quail live in similar habitats to the king quail and are dark on top and so the three could be confused . however , in flight , the king quail has narrower more pointed wings and is uniformly dark on its upperparts , with no pale panel on its underwing . adult brown quail are much larger than king quail . adult female and juvenile king quail on the ground could be confused with stubble quail , coturnix pectoralis , which are larger and are paler grey - brown on their upperparts with bolder creamy streaking . the stubble quail also has a paler head and is a paler creamy - buff underneath , with heavy dark streaking on its breast and sides .\naustralia has 10 native species of quail . the king quail , brown quail and the stubble quail are true quail , comprise 3 species and belong to the genus coturnix . the other 7 species of quail are referred to as button quail and belong to the genus turnix . it is easy to distinguish between the two genus of australian quail . the coturnix quail have four toes and three of the toes point forward and the other toe points backwards . the turnix quail have three toes on each foot and each toe points forward .\njumbo coturnix : quail are just larger selectively bred coturnix quail and are commonly used for meat . they are not a different quail just\ncompatible with most finches , small parrots , doves and pigeons . king quail can often be successfully bred in a colony situation . king quail can be successful in a relatively small cage / aviary of about 1 square metre per pair . hatchling baby king quail are capable of getting through 13 mm ( half inch ) aviary wire . mouse proof wire ( 7mm ) may be necessary to prevent escapes .\ntagged : , king _ quail _ ( coturnix _ chinensis ) , king _ quail , coturnix _ chinensis , quail , singapore , migratory _ chicken , singapore _ hen , pulau _ punggol _ barat , boonhong , nikon , nikon _ d500 , nikkor _ two hundred - 500mm _ f5 . 6 , nikkor\non another note , in australia the name button quail refers to a number of species of our native quail . all are protected in the wild as are king quail , another native species . it is facinating to me that the chinese painted quail or king quail or button quail or whatever you want to call these wonderful birds , is native to australia as well as china and other parts of asia . how this happened is a mystery to me .\n2 brown / blue male king quails for sale . too many males . $ 5 ea\nking quail for sale . white and pied colours $ 20each . pairs only avalible . please ring steven to enquire * * * * 6128\nking quail can be housed with multiple females to each male to maximize breeding output . groups of three or four are most common . urltoken\nthe king quail coturnix chinensis by luke sullivan . introduction the king quail is a great bird for the beginning aviculturist . it is easily bred , very inexpensive and fairly easy to manage . king quails are readily available from pet shops , commercial and private breeders and even in markets . you might find that at some places females will cost more than males because of availability . more\nking quail have a big appetite for live foods and will often out compete other birds for their fair share . finches will benefit from a separate supply well out of the reach of the quail .\nthe other quail as shown in the list opposite are introduced species of quail commonly held by aviculturalists . ( bob white , californian and european quail )\nwe have not seen a king quail in the wild yet . the photos below , kindly contributed by j . greaves , were taken in captivity .\npicture of the king quail has been licensed under a creative commons attribution - share alike . original source : own work author : andr\u00e9 karwath aka aka\nhatching and raising quail with a mother hen - organic quail . nos cailles bio - crias de codorniz\nclick the chinese painted quail ( button quail , blue - breasted quail ) , conturnix chinensis , and the japanese quail , c . japonica , part 1 , to read the first part of this article .\nthe king quail is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\naustralia has ten native species of quail but these can be divided into two groups . the king quail , brown quail and the stubble quail are from the genus coturnix which has four toes , three facing forward and one facing back . the other group is from the genus turnix and is commonly called button quail which has only three toes , all of which face forward .\ncitation : adkins - regan e ( 2016 ) pairing behavior of the monogamous king quail , coturnix chinensis . plos one 11 ( 6 ) : e0155877 . urltoken\nking quail chicks are precocial , i . e . they leave the nest very shortly after hatchling and will feed themselves , under the supervision of their parents .\nprobably the easiest of all the species of quail to feed . good quality finch or small parrot mix plus insects , green grasses and vegetable green foods as per\nquail\nweb page . king quail are less reliant on live foods than other quail for good breeding results . may eat some of the commercial poultry pellets .\nking quail will probably incubate and raise their own young . hatchling baby quail are capable of getting through 13 mm ( half inch ) aviary wire . mouse proof wire ( 7mm ) may be necessary to prevent escapes .\nbutton quail and coturnix quail eggs and adult birds available to ship as of the 1st of may , 2003 .\nchinese painted quail ( button quail ) . we have adults , young pairs , and fertile eggs on occasion . we also have coturnix quail - see notes section below .\nincubation lasts about 21 days . the brown , king and stubble quail lay large clutches of eggs , often 2 or 3 times as many as the button quail . with the turnix quail the males do the incubating . the cock bird will mate with multiple hens if given the chance .\nbutton quail and hatching eggs . many color mutations available . occasionally offering coturnix quail as well in lots of colors .\npure normal coloured king quail - $ 20 a pair , multiple pairs available , no spare hens . king quail are small ornamental quail for pet keeping only , they are too small for egg or meat production . photos from the internet - birds available are young and look the same as pics . please phone during business hours ( no text sms ) or message me here at gumtree to arrange a pick up .\nking quail have become rare in southern new south wales and victoria mainly because their habitats have been modified by drainage or burning . their eggs and chicks are damaged by harvesting machinery .\nthe king quail ( coturnix chinensis ) , also regarded as the button quail , chinese painted quail , chung - chi , asian blue quail or blue - breasted quail , is in the exact same family members as the pheasants phasianidae of the buy galliformes , gallinaceous birds . these birds all have a distinctly much larger breast - bone than other birds with far more muscle surrounding the spot . this is why they are hunted for their meat .\nthe king quail coturnix chinensis also known as the chinese painted quail or asian blue quail is a small ground dwelling bird which has widespread distribution from india , through south eastern china , south east asia and new guinea to australia . the sub species coturnix chinensis victoriae occurs along eastern australia from cape york to western victoria . more\nif it is a dominant mutation then you should have no trouble breeding more , but as the only reference to the grizzled mutation in king quail that i can find is in bird that look cinnamon , i would not be calling it a grizzle , if anyone can find a photo of a\nnormal\ngrizzled king quail and post a link or the photo that would be good .\nquail , king quail or blue - breasted quail is in the same family as the pheasants phasianidae of the order galliformes , gallinaceous birds . this species is the smallest\ntrue quail\nand is quite common in aviculture worldwide . in the wild they range from southeastern asia to oceania with 10 different subspecies . it sometimes goes by the name\nbutton quail\n, though this name properly refers to similar - looking but distantly related birds of the genus turnix . more\nlisten to your quail . males such as the coturnix quail will crow now and then and females do not . but if you have button quail , females might also crow mainly to call for chicks .\nhi i have king quails for sale silver and brown pairs available $ 10 a pair . . all young birds . . cheers alan\ni have king quails for sale . they are different colours as in the photos above . price from 10 to 25 a pair .\nking quails breeding pairs $ 15 a pair females $ 10 males $ 5 mainly normal , and cinnamon . i have 1 female silver\nking quail mainly eat grass seeds and green leaf blades but also eat adult and larval insects . they mostly feed during the day but also on moonlit nights . they forage on the ground in grasslands .\ncommon king quail at one time or another and were the species that introduced many breeders to the more uncommon species . quail 01 for the past ten years , i have been keeping the little button quail . in the beginning i started out with the black breasted button quail ( turnix melangaster ) i had some success with this species , however due to the fact that my aviary flights are covered with crushed brick gravel , i opted to move the black breasted quail on . more\nhorizontal image of willow trees and a large boulder reflected in still water in quail creek at the head of quail lake in hurricane utah .\nhorizontal image of a willow branch and distant trees reflected in still water in quail creek at the head of quail lake in hurricane utah .\nyour king quail hen pecks at the male quail wont lay eggs ? post a question - any question - to the wikianswers community : copyrights : animal encyclopedia . grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . copyright \u00a9 2005 by the gale group , inc . all rights reserved . more\njuvenile king quail for sale from\npickles button breeding\nmales - $ 8 . 00 females - $ 10 . 00 currently 2 brown females and 1 white male available . to keep as pets , only . ( note - these king quail are the smallest birds in the quail family . they grow to approx 10cm tall . ) pick up from upper caboolture - please make contact by call or text 7 : 00am - 8 : 00pm or email anytime . visit my blog urltoken\ni have been raising button quail for over 8 years and have all of the major named mutations plus some unique birds . i am hoping to develop a heavilly feather legged button quail with the help of mary foster from some lightly feather legged chicks . i also raise 5 color types of corturnix quail , blue scale quail , gambles quail , valley quail , and 3 color types of bobwhite as well as other birds .\nking quail are found in tropical and temperate shrublands and grasslands , towards coastal areas . they occur in very dense ground vegetation , such as grass , shrubs , ferns , herbs , at damp or swampy sites .\nonce while visiting a nursing home i saw tiny quail at the bottom of the aviary . are there minature quail breeds for this purpose or do you suppose they had quail chicks in the aviary ? thanks for any info\u2026\nking quails , $ 20 . 00 pr . phone calls only , no text , no emails , thank you . . . . ingham 4850\nmy daughter just bought her first incubator and she wants to hatch king quail . we have three in our aviary , but they are currently on eggs or have chicks and are not laying . they are normal coloured .\n) , also known as blue - breasted quail , belong to the pheasant family phasianidae . the king quails are distributed in india , sri lanka , china , taiwan , indonesia , philippines , australia and new guinea .\nthe overall goal of the experiments reported here was to develop king quail as subjects for the study of avian pairing behavior , allowing a comparison with japanese quail . the specific goals were : ( 1 ) to develop suitable testing paradigms for eliciting and measuring the behavior ; ( 2 ) to determine whether king quail form selective male - female social relationships ; and ( 3 ) to determine whether paired birds remember the former partner after an extended separation . the focus was on the behavior of males because most of the extensive body of work on neuroendocrine mechanisms of behavior of japanese quail concerns males .\nbreeding quail can be hard at times . you will have to have a lot of space to house the quail , you will have to spend a lot of money on feed , water and housing for the quail , and you will have to give up most of your time on the quail .\nking quail were introduced a number of times in victoria and may have been released in south australia . however there appear to be none living now in south australia . they were first discovered in the kimberleys area in 1974 .\nthree young male and two female king quails available for sale . just starting to mature now . will sell singles . $ 5 . 00 each .\nmap 24 king valley . including tatong , wrightley , ceshunt , black range creek , carbool , hansonville south and molyullah . sheet _ 24 . pdf\nin the wild , the diet program of king quails consists of little bugs , seed and a variety of grasses that are accessible at the time .\nyou may have to get a egg shipment , considering you are in australia its hard to find king quail here too , i wanted some i ' m going to order from someone on ebay when the ad comes back on .\nhousing requirements : refer to\nquail\nweb page for general details on the housing of quail or read on for specific details for this bird . .\ndiet / feeding : refer to\nquail\nweb page for general details on the feeding of quail or read on for specific details for this bird .\nwhether you are choosing the quails from your flock or from a store , choose the healthiest quail you can see / find . healthy quail will be :\nthis was the basis for the growth of my interest in hatching of previously wasted eggs that were laid on the floor of my aviaries . the first requirement is to obtain healthy breeding stock . king quail and japanese quail and readily available , but native brown and stubble quail and two species of american quails ( californian and bob - white ) will need extra effort to source good birds .\nthese quail provide food for many peoples , including those from the far east .\nharrison , c . 1965 . plumage pattern and behaviour in the painted quail .\nraising quail organically with a mother hen update . cailles bio grandissent . codornices org\u00e1nicas\nquail hatching and moving the babies into the brooder box . super cute babies .\nconsider giving your female hen layer - pellets . layer - pellets usually have more protein than normal quail feed and helps your quail lay strong , healthy eggs .\ncalifornia quail - close - up - a telephoto image of a california quail perched on a stump . head markings and feather patterns and details in sharp focus .\nbutton quail eggs and adults , ornamental pheasants and a few breeds of partridge .\nlike other quail and pheasants , button quail relish dust baths and do not bathe in water . a sand - filled bowl should be provided for this purpose .\nbaby king quail can drown in the water bowl . to minimize the risk of the young drowning , a shallow container / bowl / dish can replace the usual parrot or finch water utensil . small pebbles or small clean rocks can be placed in the shallow water bowl to help reduce the risk of a young quail drowning .\nthe grits and calcium supplies provided for finches and parrots should be available to quail .\na / a vol 14 no 7 jul 1960 page 94 ( harlequin quail ) .\na / a vol 6 no 10 oct 1952 page 119 ( harlequin quail ) .\nthe bulletin no 24 , oct 1944 page 2 - 3 ( button quail ) .\nmove your quail chicks to a proper cage at 4 - 6 weeks of age .\nmoving both the mother quail and father quail is optional . normally the male quail will be happy to take care of the chicks but at times he can be aggressive , so it is best to observe what he does for the first week or so .\ni have a good record with freighting quail eggs . all over australia for many years\n609 quail head stock photos , vectors , and illustrations are available royalty - free .\nthe use of pelletised foods is increasing in all areas of bird feeding and many people have good success with the use of poultry pellet feeds as a supplement to the above discussed foods for quail . the commercial farmers of quail such as european quail have developed and produce a nutritionally balanced pellet food suitable for aviary use for most types of quail .\nhi frank , i keep chinese painted quail ( we call them king quail in australia ) in large aquariums and cages . yesterday i noticed 2 out of 5 of my four week old quails ( raised by their parents ) are a bit lame . they still look healthy and have no problems eating , but they appear to have no strength and they move slow if i go to pick them up . i think it is similar to a hen quail i once bought but died a month or so later . have you encountered or heard of anything like this before ? are there any common diseases in king quail you know about ? please , any help would be greatly appreciated \u2013 brendon\nking quails are small , plump , chicken - like birds with predominantly dark - brown , highly cryptic plumage with grey streaks and almost no visible tail . king quails are dimorphic , i . e . males and females are different . male king quails have a black and white facial pattern , bluish - grey flanks and cheeks and a brown belly . females have light - brown , mottled facial and frontal plumage . the irises of both sexes are brown , the bill is black and the legs are yellow .\nmap 18 glenrowan . including winton wetlands , warby - ovens np , king river , millawa , meadow creek , fifteen mile creek and larg . sheet _ 18 . pdf\nmap 74 bairnsdale . including melwood , moornmurg flora and fauna reserve , lake victoria lake king , colquhoun regional park , mossiface and mount taylor . sheet _ 74 . pdf\nzebra finches are also one of the two species used for a majority of the avian research on neuroendocrine mechanisms of behavior more generally . the other is the japanese quail ( coturnix japonica ) . male japanese quail interacting with females are vigorous rapid copulators but non - copulatory social contact behavior like allopreening and huddling has not been reported [ 16 , 17 ] . the limited information available from the field suggests that the mating system of wild birds is probably flexible , with short - term serial pairings at best [ 17 , 18 ] . in contrast , king quail ( also called asian blue quail , blue - breasted quail , or chinese painted quail ) are invariably described as monogamous with strong pair bonds , based on field sightings and observations of zoo - housed animals [ 18 , 19 ] . like japanese quail , king quail are well suited to laboratory research [ 20 ] . although an ethogram was published some years ago [ 21 ] , there has been little subsequent behavioral research published on this species and none on its social behavior .\ni haven\u2019t mixed king pigeons with other birds . although they are quite large , kings are much like other rock doves in my experience , and should leave the quail alone . they may stress the quail a bit when landing or , especially , if they become startled and explode into flight , but other than that i think it should work out .\nwanted male or female brown quails preferably around the ipswich area . please email or text as i cannot always answer the phone . i do not want jap or king quails .\nin the turnix or button quail the hen is larger than the cock bird . the button quail hens have a brighter coloured plumage than the males . in the coturnix quail the sexes are about equal in size but the males have a brighter coloured plumage than the hens .\nthe bulletin no 26 , dec 1944 page 5 - 6 ( breeding harlequin quail ) .\ndo not touch or mess with the eggs unless necessary , the quail might discard them .\nquail dale wrote : sorry but this post has annoyed me since i joined the forum .\ni have been raising buttons , as well as other varieties of quail for 18 years .\nnatural ant control - quality organic quail food . anti fourmi bio \u00bfuna invasi\u00f3n de hormigas ?\nking quails for sale . $ 7 each or $ 12 for two . all are splits with a combinations of colors . both male and female . pick up in point cook .\nmy king quails have started laying eggs and their not sitting on them their only checking them every now and then i also don ' t know which one is laying the eggs .\nuse vent sexing . this is the most accurate way to tell the sex of your quail . if you press lightly above the vent you should see a bump and some white foam coming out . if so your quail is a male , if not your quail is a female .\ntaxonomy : in aviculture , these birds are known as button quail , although this is a misnomer . the true button quail are members of the order gruiformes , family turnicidae , and genus turnix . they are morphologically and behaviorally different from chinese painted quail , although their geographic ranges overlap .\nmeade - waldo , e . 1898 . breeding the chinese painted quail ( excalfactoria chinensis ) .\na / a vol 54 no . 1 jan 2000 page 5 - 8 ( button quail )\ndrinking , not all of the time but you should at least see the quail drink occasionally .\nlauber , j . k . , 1964 . sex - linked albinism in the japanese quail .\nthe hinged side , because a quail can get its head in between a very small space .\necology and management of quail in australia is the first academic study of this game bird as it exists in australia . written by australian wildlife biologist dr graham hall and published in collaboration with the ssaa , the book examines australia\u2019s three quail species - brown , stubble and king - and their introduction to and history in this country . also covered are the habitats and current populations of these species , practices for managing them , and the future of quail research and hunting in australia .\nking quail have quite a variety of calls . while fairly silent outside the breeding season , one of the best indicators of its presence is a high - pitched three - note call , which has a low volume and is uttered monotonously near sun set . it may be heard all d\nthere is a chance that the mother quail will abandon or harm the chicks leading to you hand - raising them . many people say that quail don ' t make good mothers but this depends on the quail themselves and your experience . however , you must always be prepared for the worst .\nthe best way to keep baby king quailssafe from other birds is keeping them away from each other . place the mother and baby quail in a large cardboard box or cage with holes smaller than \u00bd inch in a draft - free room . attaching screen to the bottom and sides of the cage will ensure that the tiny quail cannot squeeze through the wire and later freeze to death . more\n. if you ' re planning on selling your quail , buyers prefer ones that are sexed and it ' s easier to put a price on your quail . some methods can be seen below :\nthe groundbreaking publication delves into the specifics of the three quail species found in australia : brown , stubble and king . two of these species have a \u2018game\u2019 status , which allows them to be hunted in some states , making the research relevant and significant to game bird hunters around the country .\nif you need to stay with native species , the button quail described here would be a good choice . other larger natives sometimes seen in captivity are the stubble quail , conturnix pectoralis and the brown quail c . ypsilophorus . both are rather shy and require a large , well - planted aviary .\nassorted king quails for sale . pairs or single males . sorry , no spare hens . normals - $ 5 each silvers - $ 10 each cinnamons - $ 15 each pieds - $ 15 each\nharrison , c . 1973b . further notes on the behaviour of painted quail ( excalfactoria chinensis ) .\npappas , j . 1996 . some observations on the behaviour and care of the chinese painted quail .\na / a vol 50 no . 11 nov 1996 page 251 - 253 ( kurrichane button quail )\nquail can have different coloured feathers but be the same breed , they can still be bred though .\nvector flat illustration of quail head . isolated on white background . icon . cartoon . for kids .\nbrussel sprouts , asparagus and quail eggs on optimistic green background . spring food concept . flat lay .\nin quail was sequenced using genomic dna and chicken - specific primers . a mutation was found in the\nconverting caged quail to organic free - range . part 1 . cailles bio en conversion . codorniz org\u00e1nicos\ni\u2019m interested in breeding quail in australia . can you tell me what kind of non - australian native quail breeds the best ? do any quails hatch their own eggs well in captivity without artificial incubation ?\nking quails for sale ! beautiful little birds , great addition to any aviary or cage . young birds , selling either males only or as pairs . available colours are : natural , silver and cinnamon .\nregardless of the limited information about the mating system of either king or japanese quail in the wild , there is clearly a pronounced contrast between the overt behavior patterns of the sexes together\u2014allopreening and huddling with little copulation in king quail and high frequency copulation with no allopreening or huddling in japanese quail . because few birds , including zebra finches , have relatives with a different mating system , the behavioral differences between these two quail species thus offer a new and unique opportunity for a comparative approach to discovering the neuroendocrine and neural basis of pairing behavior in birds . a logical next step would be to test mechanism hypotheses in birds of both species that were raised under the same conditions and tested in the same way . a comparison of the underlying mechanisms in the two quail species , when combined with the important work that has already gone on with voles , will help reveal which mechanisms are likely to generalize across the multiple independent evolutionary origins of monogamy in vertebrates [ 42 ] . the two quail species also raise interesting questions about the ultimate causes of the difference in the behavior of the sexes with each other . king quail are smaller and have a tropical distribution . japanese quail , like the sibling species coturnix coturnix , breed mainly in the temperate zone and their flexible mating system seems to be the derived state in their clade [ 39 ] . whether or how size or climate were involved in the evolution of the species difference are also questions for the future .\nmap 41 wonnangatta . including king river , howqua river , mcallister river , humffray river , mt . sarah natural features and scenic reserve , mt . selwyn creek and catherine river . sheet _ 41 . pdf\nthe experiments also provided information about some of the other behavior of this little - studied species . males never did any kind of strutting ( including the wings - down display ) to a female once they were cohabiting , even following a brief separation , and wings - down displays were often accompanied by lunging and attacking . this suggests a strictly aggressive function consistent with the \u201cwings - down attack\u201d name given by schleidt et al . [ 21 ] . in the king quail tests , only males ever growled , and much more growling occurred when males could not see other birds , consistent with its description as a \u201cseparation call\u201d [ 19 ] . male japanese quail emit a vocalization that is somewhat acoustically similar , but it is associated with strutting [ 31 ] , whereas king quail growls never occurred together with wings - down displays in the experiments . the loud long - distance advertisement call of male japanese quail is the crow , which attracts females [ 32 ] . males crow much less when in visual contact with a female [ 33 ] . the loud calls of the king quail occurred only occasionally during the tests but were emitted by females as well as males .\nmills ad , crawford ll , domjan m , faure jm . the behavior of the japanese or domestic quail\nquail as a new laboratory research animal . poult sci . 1994 ; 73 : 763\u2013768 . pmid : 8072918\naustralian quail generally do not use a perch either during the day or to roost on during the night . two of the introduced quail , the californian and the bobwhite will use a perch at night to roost .\nhe said the data available on quail in australia could be seen as limited and out of date . for example , in the past 100 years , only 20 scientific publications have been published on australian quail . in contrast , more than 10 , 000 publications have been published on the north american bobwhite quail . new and relevant information would be beneficial to ensure hunters could continue to sustainably hunt quail as game in this country .\nlast edited by quail dale on 09 jan 2011 , 21 : 00 , edited 1 time in total .\nconsider adding a nesting box for the quail . you can make a nesting box out of plastic container , pots or small cardboard boxes as long as they have an entrance to them . the nesting box should be a bit bigger than the quail itself and the quail should be able to fit through the hole / entrance .\nbest housed in pairs , trios , or quatour in a planted aviary , but can be retained singly in chicken cages , or without a doubt in colonies in significant flights . some preventing amid males will transpire . it will be vital to watch for in excess of - bullying in the female pecking buy , as perfectly as becoming careful that other dynamics in social teams exist , & these might result in injuries . suspension cages do not function perfectly for this species of quail as they do for the a little much larger species these types of as bobwhite quail , california quail , or japanese quail simply because of their lesser sized ft a much finer dimension floor wire would need to be employed . king quail also are not normally essential to be farmed in these types of a manner as the aforementioned quail species as they are not bred for consumption or for activity launch .\nthe male king quail comes in quite a few hues , which includes blue , brown , silver , maroon , darkish brown & almost black . they have orange ft which are difficult and equipped to withstand a continuous life on the ground like quite a few other activity birds . the female is similar to the male but simply cannot appear in shades of blue . they can dwell up to 13 several years in captivity but only 3 - 6 on normal . in the wild they might dwell only one . 5 several years . the eggs of king quail are a light , creamy - brown colour and a little pointed at the \u2018top\u2019 roughly ovular in condition .\nharrison , c . 1973a . plumage pattern in the buff varieties of the house sparrow and the painted quail .\nwhite dj , galef bg . affiliative preferences are stable and predict mate choices in both sexes of japanese quail ,\nan australian quail ( click on photo to enlarge ) left = young , right = hen on 16 eggs .\nquail differ in one huge respect when compared with almost all other species of birds . quail are generally divided into two groups as far as incubation are concerned . coturnix hens do the incubating of the eggs and the incubation .\nset of various cartoon birds . owl , duck , chick , quail , turkey , swan . vector clip art\nspotted - bellied bobwhite , colinus cristatus , rare bird from costa rica forest . quail in the nature habitat .\nbrussel sprouts , asparagus , quail eggs and cutting board on optimistic green background . spring food concept . minimal .\nblack and white illustration of a california valley quail head looking to side set inside circle done in retro style .\nmutations associated with variation in plumage color in chicken and japanese quail . two of them are apparent null mutations causing\n[ quote =\nquail dale\n] sorry but this post has annoyed me since i joined the forum .\nyes they are\u2026assuming those sold in your area\u2019s stores are bobwhite quail eggs , as is typical . best , frank\ni have various young finches for sale , and have just coloured up or colouring up . pick up kippa - ring . seagreen parrot finches $ 70pr seagreens light pied $ 45ea cordon bleus $ 70pr ( sold ) cuban cocks $ 25ea tri colour parrot finch cock $ 60ea jacarini hen $ 30 king quail $ 5ea ruddy cock $ 20ea\nthe king quail is a small dark quail , mostly brown in colour . the adult male has a distinctive appearance with a blue - grey forehead and face , and a black and white pattern on its chin and throat . it has faint white streaks and black bars on the top of its head and on its wings . the sides of its face , its chest and its sides are slate - blue . it has a chestnut belly and yellow legs . the female is like a minature brown quail , coturnix ypsilophora , and is dark brown and faintly streaked . it has a white throat and is the only small quail with a barred underside . it is also known as blue - breasted , chestnut - bellied , dwarf , least , swamp , chinese , or chinese painted quail .\nthe most important outcome of these experiments is the striking contrast between the behavior of king quail and japanese quail . in the king quail , only two copulation attempts were seen in over 18 hours of video recordings of males and females together in the same cage . instead , close and often mutual allopreening and huddling characterized male - female interactions once initial aggression or avoidance subsided . japanese quail , on the other hand , are famous for vigorous short latency copulation whenever males and females are placed in the same cage . they have been important subjects for studying the hormonal and neural mechanisms for avian copulatory behavior and the consequences of copulation for fertilization success [ 16 , 29 ] . although one recent study with japanese quail interprets the results of separation - reunion tests as indicating pair bonds [ 34 ] , allopreening and huddling have never been reported in this species [ 17 ] . proximity in choice tests predicts copulation , and females aggregate to try to avoid copulatory attempts by non - preferred males [ 25 , 35 ] .\nriters lv , balthazart j . behavioral evidence for individual recognition in japanese quail . behaviour 1998 : 135 : 551\u2013578 .\nquail that are noisy , especially in the morning , should be housed in an aviary most distant away from neighbours .\nthe cheaper species of quail are often put in an aviary to help\nclean up\nthe floor . they usually receive an adequate balance of foods and nutrients but with the rarer more expensive quail there should be more attention to the quail receiving a more planned balanced diet . adequate supply of insect live food will be beneficial especially during breeding season .\na / a vol 16 no . 4 apr 1962 page 53 - 54 , 56 ( introduction to quail ) .\nit was very informative . especially the part on the separation of the male quail from the female after the chicks\nto some great info . enjoy . i hope this helps out , and welcome to the quail forum on byc .\nin quail are orthologous . all five intergeneric hybrids from the crossing of albinos from the two phasianidae species were albino (\nchinese blue breasted quail . young adults & eggs available most of the year . also have coturnix trios & eggs .\nall of our quail have come from canadian stock . our breeding program ensures your button & coturnix purchases are unrelated .\nquail can be used to add visual balance to the aesthetics of an aviary . finches and suitable small parrots flying around and occupying the middle and upper part of the aviary and the quail taking up the lower level and floor real estate .\nwerret , w . f . , a . j . candy , j . o . king and p . m . sheppard , 1959 . semi - albino : a third sex - linked allelomorph of silver and gold in the fowl .\nthese formative steps , according to graham , are the building blocks for further study into population movements and ecology , all of which will provide the necessary information for quail management . ecology and management of quail in australia is a publication supported by the ssaa because better knowledge and management of quail will benefit ssaa members and other hunters to help continue sustainably harvesting this resource .\ncheck for availability for mutations . we have almost every one but few of certain ones . have started birds , laying birds , and eggs to ship . email to make sure i can ship to your area for live birds . we also raise exotic chickens , pheasants , texas a & m quail , dark range quail , and large coturnix quail in small quantities .\ncoturnix hens do the incubating of the eggs and the incubation . as with the turnix quail , some aviculturalists can\ndouble use\nsome birds . with coturnix quail the opposite of the turnix quail is practiced . the cock bird is removed once the hen has definitely commenced incubation duties . the same problems and benefits have to be observed as outlined in the above paragraph .\n6 to 10 week old king quail ( coturnix chinensis ) for sale or will trade for other young king quail needed to introduce a new bloodline for breeding . only males available atm for $ 10 ( current batch of females sold out ) . i will have more females available in about 8 weeks in a variety of colours $ 15 each . females are great egg layers from about 6 weeks of age and will go clucky if put with a male to breed . these australian native quail are bred and hatched naturally not hatched in an incubator . you can have 1 male with 3 to 4 or even 5 females . they are wonderful pets for small spaces and kids . they are only small ground dwelling birds about the size of a closed fist . they can live at the bottom of an aviary housing finches and canaries . my females sell out quickly !\nbob white quail $ 15 each , californian quail $ 25 each . minimum buy 8 birds . good opportunity for new breeding stock . can arrange freight within australia from dilston tasmania . please phone allen on 0418 122 951 . no texts or emails please\nthe rainy season dictates the breeding season with respect to geographic location for these quail and their subspecies ( johnsgard , 1988 ) .\nharrison , c . 1968 . some notes on the behaviour of nesting painted quail , and some further notes on their calls .\na brown quail in the white skink habitat area as well as a white - naped honeyeater feeding in some small trees nearby .\nnewly hatched button quail are , quite literally , the size of bumblebees \u2013 check that they cannot squeeze through the cage\u2019s mesh .\npheasants do present a problem\u2026males of most species are usually extremely territorial , even if unpaired , and would likely attack the quail .\nif the quail are housed in an aviary with birds that are fed from an elevated platform , care must be taken to ensure the quail have sufficient of their preferred seeds / grains and not have to survive on the unwanted food of the other birds . quail eat the whole seed . most other types of birds remove the seed husk then eat the de - husked seed . sometimes it can appear there is adequate seed on the floor for the quail but closer inspection reveals it is mostly the empty seed husks .\nadult male japanese quail available . hatched jan 2018 . his mother attacked him when he was young so he has a bald spot behind his head , but that doesnt seem to bother him at all . he would carry the same broody genes his mother had which he can pass to his daughters . local pickup only . message or email for more information . king quails also available .\nthe breeding season of king quails depends on geographic latitude . while they can , in principle breed any time of year , their core breeding periods are september to march in the south - eastern part of the continent and february to may in the north .\nif you are located in a very arid region of australia , you might consider the gamble\u2019s quail , lophortyx gambelii . also known as the desert quail , they are quite beautiful and well adapted to hot , dry climates . they too breed well in aviaries .\ni have a female king quail approx 6months old , free to give away to a good home . she ' s very lonely , as her friend passed away , and would now love the company of other quails or other avairy birds i . e . finches or canaries . please e - mail kerynmarshall @ bigpond . com . collection is avaliable from eight mile plains , brisbane only . more\nalthough most birds are socially monogamous , research using experimental manipulations to test hypotheses about underlying hormonal and neural mechanisms for the formation and maintenance of pair relationships has been largely limited to zebra finches [ 13 ] . the experiments reported here establish king quail as a highly suitable species for the study of avian pairing behavior . the behavior is distinctive and easily measured . the birds have the same practical advantages as japanese quail , including ease of hatching , rearing , and housing , short development time , and disease resistance [ 29 ] ."]}
{"id": 1966, "summary": [{"text": "neocirrhites armatus , the flame hawkfish , is a species of hawkfish native to tropical reefs of the pacific ocean at depths of from 1 to 10 metres ( 3.3 to 32.8 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this fish reaches a length of 9 centimetres ( 3.5 in ) tl .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this species is also found in the aquarium trade .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is the only known member of its genus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is bright red with black dorsal markings .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "like most hawkfishes , the flame hawkfish lacks a swim bladder .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it is a percher and a bottom-dweller , living on and about coral heads and stony reefs . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "neocirrhites armatus", "paragraphs": ["neocirrhites armatus , the flame hawkfish , perched in a saltwater aquarium . ( image credit : ben young landis / cc - by )\nflame hawkfish ( neocirrhites armatus ) are so named because of their brilliant red color . they also have a black stripe that runs along the base of their dorsal fin , as well as black circles around their eyes .\nthis is a flame hawkfish ( neocirrhites armatus ) , a small , tropical marine fish no bigger than a cosmetic compact mirror . that night dining out , i happened to be seated next to one of the restaurant\u2019s saltwater aquariums .\nsadovy , y , tj donaldson . 1995 . sexual pattern of neocirrhites armatus ( cirrhitidae ) with notes on other hawkish species . environmental biology of fishes 42 ( 2 ) : 143 - 150 . doi : 10 . 1007 / bf00001992\nneocirrhites armatus is widespread in the pacific and commonly seen in parts of its range . neocirrhites armatus is closely associated with particular corals , however it is not known if this species is a coral obligate . very substantial declines in abundance of its host coral species could then lead to reductions in populations of this species . it is unlikely that this is a major threat to the species at this time , and there are no other known major threats . the species is listed as least concern .\nthere are no known conservation measures in place for neocirrhites armatus . the species does occur in marine protected areas in some parts of its range - for example the phoenix islands protected area in kiribati and the great barrier reef marine park in australia .\nlarger hawkfishes might eat small fish , shrimps etc . in the aquarium . species of the cyprinocirrhites and neocirrhites genera are least likely to eat shrimps etc .\nneocirrhites armatus is not common in museum collections , having only 109 records worldwide ( accessed through the fishnet2 portal , www . fishnet2 . net , 2015 - 02 - 23 ) . it is very commonly seen in parts of micronesia , especially in guam and the northern mariana islands ( i . williams pers . comm . 2015 ) .\nneocirrhites armatus is a solitary species that inhabits seaward reefs at depths down to 25 metres . it is usually found perching among branches of pocillopora ( for example p . eydouxi and p . elegans ) and stylophora coral heads which it inhabits for shelter as protection . this species has a maximum total length of 9 cm ( allen and erdmann 2012 ) .\n( of neocirrhitus armatus castelnau , 1873 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nneocirrhites armatus is distributed in the western pacific , from japan ( the ryukyu and ogasawara islands ) , micronesia , papua new guinea ( the louisiade group ) , across melanesia and polynesia to the pitcairn islands , south to the great barrier reef , australia ( allen and erdmann 2012 ) . this species is found to depths of at least 25 m , but more commonly in 10 - 15 m ( i . williams pers . comm . 2015 ) .\nthere are no known major threats at this time . neocirrhites armatus is collected for the aquarium trade , but this is not thought to have a substantial impact on populations of this species . as this species is closely associated with corals , any threat to these corals could eventually impact this species . for example , such corals could be affected by climate change ( bleaching or acidification ) or destruction of coral habitat . very substantial declines in abundance of its host coral species could then lead to reductions in populations of this species ; however , it is unlikely that such impacts would threaten this species within three generation lengths .\ndonaldson replies : \u201ci am still investigating the question you raised but can offer a bit of insight . with neocirrhites and probably oxycirrhites typus , both obligate coral - dwelling species , sex - change is probably driven by environmental / behavioral cues , e . g . the loss of the male in a mating group . \u201d\ngreek , neos = new + latin , cirrus = curl ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 1 - 10 m ( ref . 9710 ) . tropical ; 30\u00b0n - 28\u00b0s\npacific ocean : ryukyu islands to the line islands and mangar\u00e9va , south to the great barrier reef and the austral islands ; caroline , mariana , and the wake islands in micronesia .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 9 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 559 )\ncommon along surge - swept reef fronts and submarine terraces to a depth of about 11 m . usually seen hiding among branches of live corals ( stylophora mordax , pocillopora elegans , p . eydouxi , or p . verrucosa ) . retreats deep into the coral when approached ( ref . 9710 ) . feeds on small crustaceans ( ref . 89972 ) . oviparous , monogamous ( ref . 52884 ) . highly priced aquarium fish , requires well - oxygenated water and fades in captivity ( ref . 37816 ) .\npelagic spawners ( ref . 31569 ) . monogamous mating is observed as both facultative and social ( ref . 52884 ) . also ref . 103751 .\nrandall , j . e . , g . r . allen and r . c . steene , 1990 . fishes of the great barrier reef and coral sea . university of hawaii press , honolulu , hawaii . 506 p . ( ref . 2334 )\n) : 25 . 2 - 29 . 4 , mean 28 ( based on 993 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01585 ( 0 . 00631 - 0 . 03980 ) , b = 3 . 01 ( 2 . 79 - 3 . 23 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 5 \u00b10 . 50 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na hardy marine , suitable for reef or fish - only systems , but will prey on small ornamental fish and motile invertebrates\u2014this is not restricted to animals small enough to be ingested whole , as they will dismember larger prey items . highly oxygenated water\na hawkfish wants a high perch from which it can keep an eye on the scene below , and down from which it can swoop onto its prey . in the wild it is an obligate resident of coral branches , and in the aquarium it needs a suitable habitat into which it can div\ncarnivorous . despite the fact that their natural behaviors are centered around a highly predatory lifestyle , flame hawks are usually easy to wean over to prepared foods and will then greedily accept all regular aquarium fare .\nbelieved to be a protogynous hermaphrodite , with the male generally being slightly larger . although captive spawnings occur , no successful rearing of the fry , which have a long planktonic stage , has been reported .\nbright red with a broad , arc - shaped black dorsal band and a black eye ring .\na bit pricier than other hawkfishes , the flame hawk is still less expensive than many other popular marines . its color and personality ensure its steady popularity . lacking a swimbladder , these animals stay motionless on their perch until prey is sighted , at which point they swoop down onto their meal like their avian namesakes . because a hawkfish can be extremely territorial about its perch , it is recommended that other species be stocked in the aquarium first to allow them to establish territories before the hawkfish arrives to claim what it wants . the flame hawk is a beautiful and fascinating fish that certainly deserves its continued popularity .\nthis little fish was my dinner date on a recent night out . though it turns out she has quite the complicated love life .\nnative to the coral reefs of the western pacific ocean , the flame hawkfish is a sought - after species in the aquarium fish trade . hobbyists enjoy its inquisitive nature , darting about the fish tank and peering at visitors with muppet - like , googly eyes . hawkfish are called such because of their habit of perching atop coral branches like hawks \u2014 then bursting off for circling swims to patrol their patch of territory , before returning to their favorite perching branch .\nwhile our date that night was brief , the flame hawkfish has no shortage of romantic intrigue .\nthe flame hawkfish favors a specific type of coral and is highly preferential in terms of territory \u2014 some individuals have been observed to reside continuously on the same coral head for more than two years ( donaldson 1989 ) .\nwithin their little homefront , flame hawkfish often live in monogamous pairs , defending their territory against intruding males and large females . couples engage in frequent courtship year - round , and courtship takes place \u2014 you guessed it \u2014 around sunset ( donaldson 1989 ) .\nbut like many other reef fish species , the \u201crelationship status\u201d of flame hawkfish has dizzying twists , many of them described by biologist terry donaldson in a 1989 study .\nit seems that flame hawkfish monogamy depends on the size and number of their coral head habitat . on reefs where suitable coral heads are located sufficiently apart , flame hawkfish are likely to form monogamous pairs , presumably because the chance of males finding and meeting female mates is much lower .\nbut on coral heads large enough to support the territories of multiple females , or on reefs where suitable coral heads are located close enough together , males will \u201cacquire\u201d additional females \u2014 and a small harem forms .\ndonaldson observed two of these relationship structures . in one , \u201ca male living with a female often made visits to a second adjacent female during courtship periods , but returned to the coral where the first female resided . \u201d\nin another , a single male living alone will have visited \u201ceach of the females in adjacent coral heads during courtship periods but returned to its own coral head when courtship had been completed . \u201d\nto use american english vernacular , some male flame hawkfish , it would appear , are \u201cplayahs\u201d .\nbut wait , there\u2019s more ! it turns out that flame hawkfish are \u201cprotogynous hermaphrodites\u201d \u2014 all flame hawkfish are born female , but as they grow larger , their gonads will change from egg - producing ovaries into sperm - producing testes . the sex change is permanent and males can\u2019t change back into females \u2014 although there are other species of hawkfish that can do so ( sadovy and donaldson 1995 ) .\nthis expected sex change might explain why on smaller coral heads where mates are hard to come by , flame hawkfish couples will chase away intruding males and and large females .\na resident female has an obvious incentive to chase away intruding females , to prevent them from stealing her man , so to speak . but a resident male has an incentive to chase away large females because a large female could be ready to change into a male \u2014 one that could subsequently steal his woman .\nso , it was probably for the better that my hawkfish date didn\u2019t get too serious . even if we had hit it off , i might have come home one day to find all my possessions thrown out of my house , with my hawkfish bride - turned - groom possibly on the prowl and sleeping around with my neighbors . my life ruined because of some pint - sized , tomato - colored sleazeball\u2026\naddendum october 27 , 2013 : professor terry donaldson followed up with me by email , and offered even more fascinating observations about the breeding ecology of the flame hawkfish . i asked him whether flame hawkfish changed sex simply as they grew larger , or whether females changed sex when a resident male is lost .\ndonaldson adds he suspects flame hawkfish are capable of bidirectional sex change \u2014 unlimited gender switches between male / female states \u2014 and he hopes to conduct further studies .\n\u201cbidirectional sex change might occur also , but again this would be driven by a behavioral cue . if a larger male succeeds in gaining entry into a coral head , it might force the smaller resident male to change back into a female , so as to make the best of a bad situation without losing available microhabitat and mating opportunities . \u201d\ndonaldson , tj . 1989 . facultative monogamy in obligate coral - dwelling hawkfishes ( cirrhtidae ) . environmental biology of fishes 26 ( 4 ) : 295 - 302 . doi : 10 . 1007 / bf00002466\nfish are amazing and underrated creatures . join me as i geek out and explore the amazing diversity of fish species on our planet . read more about our journey or look up our index of species featured so far .\nben young landis is a science writer and consultant by day , amateur cook by night , and fish geek 24 / 7 . drop a line at @ younglandis or via email .\nadvertisements that appear on this website are selected by wordpress . com , and are not endorsements by the author .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed ) . 2014 . catalog of fishes . updated 6 october 2014 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 6 october 2014 ) .\namerican samoa ; australia ; cook islands ; fiji ; french polynesia ; guam ; japan ; kiribati ( kiribati line is . , phoenix is . ) ; korea , republic of ; marshall islands ; micronesia , federated states of ; new caledonia ; northern mariana islands ; papua new guinea ; pitcairn ; samoa ; solomon islands ; tokelau ; tonga ; tuvalu ; united states minor outlying islands ( wake is . ) ; vanuatu ; wallis and futuna\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t67997836a115452899 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis species can be kept in a small tank , if it is specifically equipped to meet its needs .\nit is recommended however , to keep it in an aquarium which is larger then described above .\nthis species can be a threat for small fishes , crustaceans , worms , snails etc .\nfood with plenty of pigment and generally a varied diet of high quality can help alleviate colour loss .\nwhen a male is needed , a female changes sex and takes on the role .\nthis species can be aggressive when kept together with fish that are very similar , or if they are not provided with adequate space .\nhawkfish stay still and wait for food most of the time , they are therefore suitable for smaller aquaria .\nvery aggressive genera the very aggressive species will sometimes attack many different types of fish , even the ones that are larger than themselves .\nsemi aggressive genera the semi aggressive species are most threatening towards fish whose behaviour mimcks their own , and fish which are introduced after they have settled in .\nless aggressive genera the less aggressive species are rarely threatening towards fish that which do not resemble them .\nhawkfish do not place many demands on their surroundings or water quality , as they are fairly hardy .\nit is possible to keep several hawkfish together , but sometimes they will suddenly begin to fight after some time in the aquarium . this may be due to them changing gender so one can end up with two males .\nscott w . michael . 2001 . basslets , dottybacks & hawkfishes : v . 2 ( reef fishes ) - tfh publications / microcosm ltd . - ( english ) james w . fatherree . the hawkfishes - reefs magazine - ( english ) bob fenner . hawkfishes , family cirrhitidae part i , part ii , part iii - wet web media - ( english )\nfroese , r . and d . pauly . editors . 2014 . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . urltoken , version ( 08 / 2014 ) .\nminimum volume\nindicates the size of the tank needed to house this species under optimal conditions .\nthis is based on a medium size animal , which you want to keep for several years . it might be possible to keep smaller specimens for a limited period in a smaller tank . a larger tank might be needed for fully - grown specimens .\nhardiness\nindicates how resistant this species is to disease and how well i tolerates bad conditions in general . some species doesn ' t handle transportation very well , but that doesn ' t mean that the species isn ' t hardy under the right conditions .\nin this case , a\nnormal\naquarium is a reef aquarium with mixed corals or a fish only aquarium with an approximately salinity of 1 . 026 ( sg ) and a temperature close to 26\u00b0c . species requiring more than a 4000 - liter tank are considered not suitable for home aquarium .\nspecial aquariums may cover tanks with low salinity , sub - tropical temperature , deep sand bed , sea grass etc .\nalways reef safe : no sources indicate that this species will harm corals or other invertebrates .\noften reef safe : only a few aquarists has reported problems keeping this species with corals and other invertebrates .\nreef safe with caution : this species may be a threat to some types of invertebrates .\nreef safe with luck : most specimens will harm corals and / or other invertebrates , but you might be lucky .\nnot reef safe : this species is a threat to most corals and / or other invertebrates .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nin their natural environment , flame hawkfish are often found in living in pairs in the shallow waters of the pacific ocean . they are usually found along coral reefs .\nflame hawkfish are bottom - dwelling fish and they often hide among hard corals . you should also provide lots of live rock in their aquarium .\nalthough flame hawkfish do best when living among hard corals , they often eat the other inhabitants in a reef tanks , such as small crustaceans and molluscs . they will eat your ornamental shrimps and hermit crabs , and sometimes even smaller fish and some sessile invertebrates .\nin fact , their natural diet consists of small molluscs and other crustaceans . in captivity , flame hawkfish sometimes lose their brilliant red color due to dietary deficiencies . to prevent this , feed them meaty marine foods , chopped up sea food ( crab , shrimp , squid ) as well as other meaty marine fish foods ( mysid shrimp , vitamin enriched brine shrimp , frozen marine fish food ) . they enjoy eating marine snails and feeder shrimp .\nflame hawkfish are small fish , reaching only about 3 . 5 - 4 inches ( 9 - 10 cm ) in length . despite their small size they can become territorial toward other bottom - dwelling fish . they are generally peaceful with non bottom - dwellers .\nimage of flame hawkfish \u00a9 marc atkins , image from urltoken - may not be copied .\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]"]}
{"id": 1968, "summary": [{"text": "the fiery topaz ( topaza pyra ) is a species of hummingbird in the trochilidae family .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is found in brazil , colombia , ecuador , peru , and venezuela .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "fiery topaz", "paragraphs": ["in the amazon rainforest of ecuadorlives one of the most beautiful hummingbirds : fiery topaz i feeds on nectar from marcgraviacea flowers and sometimes comes out to eat fresh hatched mayflies . # amazonbirdingweek\nthe yasuni wilderness brings our latest finding , this time we were able to capture a few glimpses of an iconic species of hummingbird : fiery topaz ; while exploring the heart of the yasuni biosphere reserve . stay tune and get our lates findings : subscribe\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . , kirwan , g . m . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . fiery topaz ( topaza pyra ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' rare ' ( stotz et al . 1996 ) . trend justification : this species is suspected to lose 4 . 1 - 4 . 3 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 12 years ) based on a model of amazonian deforestation ( soares - filho et al . 2006 , bird et al . 2011 ) . it is therefore suspected to decline by < 25 % over three generations .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\noften lumped with t . pella , and some individuals of that species resemble present species in having glittering orange belly . however , here split on account of ( in male ) black extending over rear ear - coverts and nape and lower on breast below green throat patch , forming a stronger , more distinctive hood ( 3 ) ; more golden , less vinous shade on mantle and back ( 1 ) ; stronger and rather more extensive green on rump and uppertail - coverts ( ns [ 1 ] ) ; almost uniformly dark blue - black secondaries and tail vs secondaries and outer rectrices rich rufous ( 3 ) ; and ( in female ) narrower glittering throat patch ( ns [ 1 ] ) and whitish - buff outer vane of outer rectrix ( ns [ 2 ] ) ; further differences exist # r . two subspecies recognized .\nwhat do ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) mean ? learn more about the scoring system .\n( gould , 1846 ) \u2013 s venezuela ( amazonas ) , se colombia and nw brazil .\n. , 2000 \u2013 e ecuador and ne peru ( loreto , ucayali ) .\nmale 21\u201323 cm ( including bill 2\u00b72 cm and tail 9\u00b79\u201311\u00b78 cm ) , 12\u201317 g ; female 13\u201314 cm , 10\u00b72\u201312 g ( races combined ) . compared to nominate race of\nsong described as a \u201crich chatter decelerating into a series of \u201ctchip\u201d notes followed by high wiry . . .\noccurs in lowlands generally below 400 m , and seems to be largely restricted to forests ( including . . .\n. mainly seen foraging for nectar in the upper storey of flowering . . .\nfew nesting data , but at least five nests with eggs , one in amazonas ( w brazil ) in may , two in acre ( sw brazil ) both in jul and two in e . . .\nmainly sedentary during breeding season , but is speculated to engage in some temporal movements , . . .\nnot globally threatened . cites ii . locally common but frequently considered rare due to its secretive habits in the treetops . no abundance data available , but has recently . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nperhaps related to eulampis and anthracothorax through nest and display ; in past placed close to oreotrochilus .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : topaza pyra . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 298 , 306 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 394 side a track 21 seq . b )\ncalls from a male bird high in a tall flowering tree , in terra firme forest .\nsame bird as xc332892 . two birds , one same as above . both perched on tall tree in garden by stream ; one bird singing very persistently .\nmale singing strongly in garden . two birds present . one perching on top of low tree , a regular perch over several mornings .\nadult male and immature male fly - catching in the evening sun from branches above the river .\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 394 side a track 21 seq . d )\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 394 side a track 21 seq . c )\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 394 side a track 21 seq . a )\nperch height 20 m . distance to mike : 25 m . series of tanager - like tzip calls apparently given by male , but female of pair may also have contributed ; birds were feeding in the canopy of a flowering tree . habitat : evergreen lowland forest , terra firme forest , ridge - top . ref : ec03b15322\nthey like to feed on red flowers of epyphyte plants of the genera marcgravia . trip report :\nseveral birds , mostly males . on seemingly green marcgravia flowers high on stems and thick branches of large tree in humid forest . filtered version on moore et al . ( 2013 ) urltoken\nthree males\nfighting\nat a flowering tree around a clearing in campina forest , calling in flight as they hovered facing each other just above the crown of the tree , c . 8 m above ground .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . this website uses cookies that provide targeted advertising and which track your use of this website . by clicking \u2018continue\u2019 or by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\na large south american hummingbird , topaza pyra , the male of which has metallic orange and red plumage on the back and belly .\nstay up to date with our latest news and receive new words updates , blog posts , and more .\nin this article we explore how to impress employers with a spot - on cv .\narchaic words have a charm that never fades away , from french sounding to wondrously mysterious ones ."]}
{"id": 1977, "summary": [{"text": "betta simorum is a species of gourami endemic to indonesia .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this species grows to a length of 6.4 centimetres ( 2.5 in ) sl .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this species can also be found in the aquarium trade . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "betta simorum", "paragraphs": ["betta simorum should have soft acidic water that is well filtered . they should be kept at high 70s to low 80s f .\nyes , they are wild bettas . the species name is betta simorum . i was also able to get my hands on a pair of wild betta coccina , but i do not have any pics of them yet .\ntake care not to overfeed as betta spp . seem particularly prone to obesity .\ni found one of the simorum on the floor yesterday so i am down to 4 . i ' m pretty devastated . i don ' t have a cover for the\nsimorum : named for thomas g . k . sim and his wife farah , proprietors of sindo aquarium pte . ltd . \u2018for being such excellent hosts during our stays in jambi\u2019 .\nin order to be able to post messages on the betta fish and betta fish care forums , you must first register . please enter your desired user name , your email address and other required details in the form below .\nmy theory is that wild bettas are a whole lot more likely to jump than splendens . i ' ve kept betta rutilans , betta patoti , and now betta simorum and betta coccina . i have never lost a single splendens to jumping . in contrast , i ' m pretty sure my rutilans male jumped ( i still have the female , but he just disappeared ) , my 5 patoti were all found dry on the floor the very next day after i got them , my remaining 4 simorum are doing well after the one jumped while the tank was covered , and my coccina won ' t get the chance because i covered the tank really well with some random lids and styro i had laying around ( a temporary solution until i make a cover for them too ) . the coccina tank was a lot easier to cover because there is not a\nbetta simorum can be housed in pairs , species tanks , and community tanks . pairs can be housed in a 20 gallon tank , groups should be housed in a 55 gallon tank or larger . pairs should be given cover such as caves and plants . in a pair or species situation it is possible that fry could be discovered in the tanks .\nthey are like the giants of the wild betta . good luck stone they are very interesting fish . please keep us updated they are beautiful .\nnotes : this species was described as b . simorum by heok hui tan and dr peter ngin 1996 . it is named after fish collector thomas sim , who along with his wife collected it in the wild using baited cages . closely related to betta bellica . there are a number of differences , but the more obvious ones are the sloping profile to the head and the elongated pelvic fins .\ni never had a cover on my 29 gallon with my king betta so . . . that theory cant be very right . anyway awesome fish ! !\nthe fry are large enough to accept motile foods such as microworm and artemia nauplii immediately , though it should be noted that there exist reports of young betta developing health issues if fed excessive amounts of the latter .\nthe genus betta is the most speciose within the family osphronemidae with almost 70 recognised members and looks set to grow further with new ones continuing to be described on a regular basis since the turn of the century .\nnot for me lol . . . my betta splenden male jumped yesterday . . . thankfully i was in the room and saw when he jumped , so he was out of the water for maybe 15 seconds .\nkeep the tank well - covered and do not fill it to the top as like all betta spp . it requires occasional access to the layer of humid air that will form above the water surface , and is an excellent jumper .\nschindler , i . and j . schmidt , 2006 - zeitschrift f\u00fcr fischkunde 8 ( 1 / 2 ) : 47 - 69 review of the mouthbrooding betta ( teleostei , osphronemidae ) from thailand , with descriptions of two new species .\n30 cube that i have the fish in right now , so i am using a large rubbermaid lid that covers the entire tank except for a couple of teeny areas around the filter . the betta jumped out of one of those teeny areas .\ni always think it ' s weird how this species and b . bellica bubblenest when all the other bigger species mouthbrood . i wonder how big the nest of a male b . simorum is ? just make sure you have every single inch of your tank covered . i used to use cling wrap and then glass over the top for my bigger wilds because they were strong enough to get through just the cling wrap .\ntan , h . h . and p . k . l . ng , 2005 - raffles bulletin of zoology supplement ( 13 ) : 43 - 99 the fighting fishes ( teleostei : osphronemidae : genus betta ) of singapore , malaysia and brunei .\ntan , h . h . and p . k . l . ng , 1996 - raffles bulletin of zoology 44 ( 1 ) : 143 - 155 redescription of betta bellica sauvage , 1884 ( teleostei : belontiidae ) , with description of a new allied species from sumatra .\ncopyright \u00a92004 - 2007 international betta congress inc . all rights reserved . the ibc & ibc - smp logo used on these pages are the registered property of the ibc inc . and can not be used without permission . for questions in regards to this website , contact the smp chairperson last update :\ni came up with a theory when i had both male and female bettas . the males ( with long finnage ) will not jump out of the tank ( i ' ve had a betta in an open top tank before and it never jumped ) while females ( with short finnage ) will jump out of any tiny gap or hole they can squeeze through / find .\ngiants were developed out of thailand from larger then average splendens . . . not a wild betta as a lot of people seem to believe . i love wilds , and am jealous of you for getting these guys ! make sure to post pics of the tank ( since you and peachii ' s tanks always look so good ) , and of course the fish when they arrive .\ni ' m sorry for your loss . i came up with a theory when i had both male and female bettas . the males ( with long finnage ) will not jump out of the tank ( i ' ve had a betta in an open top tank before and it never jumped ) while females ( with short finnage ) will jump out of any tiny gap or hole they can squeeze through / find . that theory proved correct , for me at least . lol\ni will need to eventually only keep a pair when they get bigger , one male and one female , however , i suspect that i may have all males . the breeder sent me 4 juveniles in the hopes that i would get at least one male / female pair , but as of right now they all look male . if anyone can identify them for me , i would be grateful ! i will be selling the other betta when they get a bit older and easier to sex .\nthanks all , yeah we are pretty excited about these guys the breeder is going to try to pick out 1 male 3 females for us , we have that 20l set up but yeah it just had plants and snails and not really fish ready , so over the next few days we will be busy getting it ready for them . we are getting these guys pretty cheap in my opinion less than we pay for most bettas we can buy locally but they shipping is actually more then they are , and the breeder says they are super easy to take care of and breed like crazy said his male was in a tank with 3 females and had 3 spawns all going at the same time lol . looks like i am going to learn how to be a betta daddy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis species has been collected from various localities in the province of jambi , sumatra , the adjacent province of riau , and the kapuas river system in kalimantan barat ( west kalimantan ) province , borneo .\nthe type specimens were collected from \u2018swamp in rantau panjang , jambi province , sumatra , indonesia\u2019 , not to be confused with the town of the same name on the thai - malay border , whilst in riau the species appears restricted to the indragiri river basin .\npopulations from different localities are often labelled as such by collectors and enthusiasts in order to maintain accuracy and preserve pure bloodlines , e . g . , rantau panjang , pematang lumut ( both in jambi ) , sungai bengkwan ( riau ) , etc .\nthese ancient biotopes are usually found in areas of rainforest , the dense canopy of branches above meaning very little light penetrates the water surface with riparianvegetation tending to grow thickly .\nthe water is typically stained darkly with humic acids and other chemicals released by decaying organic material .\nthe dissolved mineral content is generally negligible and the ph can be as low as 3 . 0 or 4 . 0 .\nthe substrate is usually covered by fallen leaves , branches and submerged tree roots and at certain times of year the fish may be forced to survive within the moist leaf litter for several weeks as permanent water is not always available .\ncan be maintained in a fully - decorated aquarium although many breeders prefer not to use a substrate for ease of maintenance .\ndriftwood roots and branches can be used and placed such a way that a few shady spots are formed while clay plant pots or lengths of piping can also be included to provide further shelter .\nthe addition of dried leaf litter further emphasises the natural feel and as well as offering additional cover for the fish brings with it the growth of microbe colonies as decomposition occurs .\nthese can provide a valuable secondary food source for fry and the tannins and other chemicals released by the decaying leaves are also considered beneficial for fishes from blackwater environments .\nthere is no need to use natural peat , however , the collection of which is both unsustainable and environmentally - destructive .\nlike others in the genus this species seems to do best under fairly dim lighting .\nyou could add aquatic plant species that can survive under such conditions such as microsorum , taxiphyllum or cryptocoryne spp . , and a few patches of floating vegetation would be useful as well .\nthis species requires acidic conditions with negligible carbonate hardness and very low general hardness so a reverse osmosis unit or other method of obtaining soft water may need to be employed , and this can be further acidified using phosphoric acid or similar if necessary .\nas it naturally inhabits sluggish waters filtration should not be too strong , with an air - powered sponge filter set to turn over gently adequate .\na study conducted in 1994 ( in which the species was considered to be b . bellica ) revealed a preference for odonate ( dragon and damselfly ) nymphs , although it probably predates on other small invertebrates as well .\nlike b . bellica it\u2019s a prodigious jumper and has been observed to leap from the water to catch prey from overhanging leaves or branches .\nin captivity it will normally accept dried foods once they\u2019re recognised as edible , but should be offered small live or frozen foods such as daphnia , artemia or bloodworm regularly to ensure development of optimal colour and condition .\nnot recommended for the standard community set - up for reasons already touched upon .\nit\u2019s care requirements and disposition mean it is best kept alone or with very peaceful species since much bigger or more vigorous fishes are likely to intimidate it .\nsome small cyprinids are suitable and it could even be maintained alongside other anabantoids given sufficient space .\nmixed reports exist as to whether it can be maintained in multiple pairs or harem - type groups comprising a single male alongside several females .\nsome report that although some chasing and squabbling over territory occurs actual physical damage is rare , while others recommend keeping it in single pairs having observed sustained aggression towards conspecifics from the dominant individuals in a group .\nmature males are more intensely - coloured and develop slightly more extended fins than females .\nbubble - nester . it\u2019s particularly important to provide plenty of cover for the female , and empty camera film canisters or lengths of plastic tubing are often used to offer potential nesting sites .\nthe tank should have the tightest - fitting cover you can find ( some breeders use clingfilm instead , to ensure no gaps ) because the fry need access to a layer of warm , humid air without which development of the labyrinth organ can be impaired .\nthe male may construct the nest in a tube or canister , under a broad plant leaf or among fine - leaved surface vegetation , and will not usually tolerate the female in the vicinity until it\u2019s complete .\njust prior to spawning the body colour of the female pales and dark bars appear on the flanks , with the act itself normally occurring below the nest in an \u2019embrace\u2019 typical of anabantoids , with the male wrapping himself around the female .\nat the point of climax milt and 5 \u2013 20 eggs are released which the female proceeds to catch between pelvic fins and body .\nthe male then transfers them to his nest while the female recovers any that fell .\nthis cycle is then repeated until the female is spent of eggs , a process that can take some time .\npost - spawning the female is best removed as the male assumes sole responsibility for guarding and tending the nest , and may attack his former mate .\nthe eggs hatch in 24 - 48 hours , remaining in the nest for a further 3 - 4 days until the yolk sac is fully - absorbed , while the male continues to collect and return any that fall .\nonce the fry begin to swim freely the male can also be removed as he may begin to eat them .\noffer small amounts of different foods 2 - 3 times per day for optimal growth rate , and don\u2019t change too much water at once , with regular , small changes preferable to intermittent larger ones .\nthis species is included in the b . bellica group of closely - related species within the genus , an assemblage of which members share the following set of characters : long and slender body with dorsal and ventral margins almost parallel ; body depth 23 - 28 % sl ; 30 - 33 anal - fin rays ; 11 - 13 dorsal - fin rays ; 32 - 34 total vertebrae ; body dark brown in colour with iridescent green markings on each individual scale .\nit can be distinguished from b . bellica , currently the only other member of the group , by the following characters : head slanted ; dorsal surface of head noticeably concave behind eye ; pelvic - fin tip extending to 14th anal - fin rays ; pelvic - fin length 31 . 3 - 48 . 3 % sl ; 33 . 5 - 35 lateral scales ( mode 34 ) ; adpressed pelvic - fin reaching beyond anal - fin origin ; distance between pelvic and anal - fin origins 8 . 5 - 13 . 1 % sl , mean 9 . 9 .\nmember species have successfully adapted to inhabit a variety of ecological niches from stagnant ditches to flowing hill streams including some extreme environments such as highly acidic peat swamp forests .\nthe referral of members to a number of groups containing closely - related species is now generally accepted but largely based on morphological / behavioural characters .\nmolecular phylogenetic work may therefore prove useful in more precisely determining relationships between these fishes .\na full list of the species groups as currently recognised can be found here .\nlike others in the suborder anabantoidei this species possesses an accessory breathing organ known as the labyrinth .\nso - called due to its maze - like structure this organ allows the fish to breathe atmospheric air to a certain extent .\ncomprising paired suprabranchial organs formed via expansion of the epibranchial ( upper ) section of the first gill arch and housed in a chamber above the gills , it contains many highly - vascularised , folded flaps of skin which function as a large respiratory surface .\nits structure varies in complexity between species , tending to be better - developed in those inhabiting harsher environments .\ntan , h . h . and p . k . l . ng , 2005 - raffles bulletin of zoology supplement ( 13 ) : 115 - 138 the labyrinth fishes ( teleostei : anabantoidei , channoidei ) of sumatra , indonesia .\nhabitat : among leaf litter in the shallow peat swamps with a low ph of 3 . 0 - 4 . 0 .\naquarium : i kept four semi - adult fish in a 45x30x30cm / 18 \\\nx12 \\\nx12 \\\nplanted tank . given their size , put pairs in a 60x30x30 / 24 \\\nx23 \\\nx12 \\\ntank if you are thinking of putting other fishes in with them .\ndiet : wild fish feed on dragonfly and damselfly larvae . aquarium fish take flakes , while glassworm , bloodworm and black mosquito larvae are good for conditioning .\nbreeding : the male builds a large bubblenest among floating plants and can be aggressive , so spawn in pairs only . he looks after the fry until they are free - swimming . just before , remove the nest to another tank . feed fry infusorians for a day or two , then brineshrimp .\nunder strong light , the fish look washed out and show their displeasure by displaying longitundinal stripes on the body ( a junior synonym for b . bellica once was b . fasciata . ) subdued lighting will bring out the colouration ot the full .\nthe body is basically light brown , but the scales are resplendent in both sexes showing iridescent green . if you keep them in a species - only tank , try shading one end from overhead lighting .\nthe tailfin , shaped like the ace of spades in mature males , can propel them into orbit , it seems ! keep a well - fitting lid on the tank .\navailability : these fish were on sale at wholesale tropicals , london , and are only sporadically seen in the trade . the anabantoid association of great britain may be able to assist in sourcing fish .\n\u00a9 1955 - 2016 bauer consumer media limited are authorised and regulated by the financial conduct authority ( firm reference no . 710067 ) media house , peterborough business park , peterborough , pe2 6ea .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nmales are more intensely colored . males also have pointed dorsal , caudal and anal fins whereas females are rounder .\ntan , h . h . and ng , p . k . l . 1996 . [ 104 ]\nlast modification submitted by gerald griffin 05 . 17 . 08 ( mm . dd . yy )\ngot a couple of decent pics tonight . . . these fish have only been here for a day so they are still quite shy . we were able to pick up a group of 5 . ; d\ncross your fingers and wish me luck ! from the research i have done about them , it appears they are bubblenesters . as with a lot of wild bettas , pairs and groups can actually be housed together .\nomg . . . i went out to the fishroom a little while ago and found another one on the floor ! it looked sorta dry , but i must have gotten there just in time to put it back into the tank . once it swam around enough to get the dog hair off of itself , i couldn ' t tell which one it was anymore . * phew ! * these crazy jumpin ' bettas are gonna give me a heart attack this week !\ni spent the past 30 minutes or so making a homemade cover out of eggcrate . i cut out a piece off the back of the cover just large enough to go around the filter (\n70 ) . i ' m satisfied with the fit of the cover but i ' m not sure if they might be able to jump out of the holes . . . so i ' m off to hobby lobby to buy some craft mesh so i can put that on top of the cover ! i am determined not to lose any more bettas ! ! !\ni had a pk who was a jumper . . . . that ' s how he died . i can see how the short fins would not hinder their jumping abilities . hope you don ' t lose anymore ! they are so pretty !\nwe are getting 4 of these wild bettas , people who know me know how i love my giants / kings and these wilds get up to 5 inches , are bubble nesters and you can keep 1 male and several females together , we have a 20l we are going to turn into a blackwater tank with leaf little the whole 9 yards for these guys maybe even see if we can get them to breed .\nthey are beautiful stone , i love their spade tails too . so excited for you , best of luck and hope you get lots of babies in the future . cant wait to see pics of the tank when you get it all set up , sounds awesome : )\nyeah we were warned that they are jumpers . . . . . . right now they are under an inch long so i will work out a top but we might make the tank ripvariumish and maybe only have it like 3 / 4 full\nplease enter a password for your user account . note that passwords are case - sensitive .\nphysical appearance : green or brown with a blue variety that had an appearance amongst breeders but no longer exists . use a covered fish tank to prevent these fish from jumping out and provide privacy areas for the female such as vegetation .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service ."]}
{"id": 1978, "summary": [{"text": "acrobasis nuxvorella , the pecan nut casebearer , is a moth of the family pyralidae described by herbert h. neunzig in 1970 .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in the united states in eastern new mexico , texas , oklahoma , louisiana , missouri , southern illinois , mississippi , alabama , florida , georgia , south carolina and north carolina .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the larva feed on carya illinoensis .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it is the most damaging insect pest of pecans in texas .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the larvae feed first on buds below the cluster , then attack the nuts .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they enter the nuts by cutting a circular hole in the base .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "as they feed , they push frass out the hole where it accumulates .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "a single larva may destroy the entire cluster , before pupating in one of the last nuts fed upon . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "acrobasis nuxvorella", "paragraphs": ["a new pheromone race of acrobasis nuxvorella ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nrelative abundance and flight phenology of two pheromone types of acrobasis nuxvorella ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) .\nrelative abundance and flight phenology of two pheromone types of acrobasis nuxvorella ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nacrobasis nuxvorella neunzig , 1970 ; ann . ent . soc . amer . 63 : 1659 ; tl : rowland , north carolina\nacrobasis amplexella ragonot , 1887 ; n . amer . phycitinae galleriidae : 3 ; tl : north carolina\nacrobasis vaccinii riley , 1884 ; can . ent . 16 ( 12 ) : 237 ; tl : massachusetts\nacrobasis rufizonella ragonot , 1887 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 1887 : 227 ; tl : wladiwostok\nacrobasis atrisquamella ragonot , 1887 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 1887 : 228 ; tl : asia minor\nacrobasis carpinivorella neunzig , 1970 ; ann . ent . soc . amer . 63 : 1662 ; tl : madison , connecticut\nacrobasis elyi neunzig , 1970 ; ann . ent . soc . amer . 63 : 1661 ; tl : maxton , north carolina\nacrobasis caryalbella ely , 1913 ; ins . insc . mens . 1 ( 5 ) : 52 ; tl : east river , connecticut\nacrobasis comptoniella hulst , 1890 ; trans . amer . ent . soc . 17 : 125 ; tl : long island , new york\nacrobasis irrubriella ; [ nacl ] , # 5676 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 58 , pl . 6 , f . 9\nacrobasis ostryella ely , 1913 ; ins . insc . mens . 1 ( 5 ) : 54 ; tl : east river , connecticut\nacrobasis kearfottella dyar , 1905 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 7 ( 1 ) : 34 ; tl : cleveland , ohio\nacrobasis betulivorella neunzig , 1975 ; proc . ent . soc . washington 77 ( 2 ) : 238 ; tl : elizabethtown , north carolina\nacrobasis amplexella ; [ nacl ] , # 5654 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 23 , pl . 2 , f . 11 - 17\nacrobasis elyi ; [ nacl ] , # 5666 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 34 , pl . 3 , f . 35 - 36\nacrobasis stigmella ; [ nacl ] , # 5669 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 42 , pl . 4 , f . 12 - 16\nacrobasis aurorella ; [ nacl ] , # 5670 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 43 , pl . 4 , f . 17 - 20\nacrobasis exsulella ; [ nacl ] , # 5672 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 44 , pl . 4 , f . 21 - 29\nacrobasis angusella ; [ nacl ] , # 5673 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 46 , pl . 4 , f . 35 - 37\nacrobasis latifasciella ; [ nacl ] , # 5675 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 47 , pl . 4 , f . 38 - 39\nacrobasis evanescentella dyar , 1908 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 10 ( 1 - 2 ) : 44 ; tl : orlando , florida\nacrobasis aurorella ely , 1910 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 12 ( 2 ) : 67 ; tl : waschington , d . c\nacrobasis cunulae dyar & heinrich , 1929 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 31 ( 2 ) : 37 ; tl : mobile , alabama\nacrobasis stigmella dyar , 1908 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 10 ( 1 - 2 ) : 43 ; tl : east river , connecticut\nacrobasis latifasciella dyar , 1908 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 10 ( 1 - 2 ) : 45 ; tl : new brighton , pennsylvania\nacrobasis palliolella ; [ nacl ] , # 5659 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : f . 13b , pl . 4 , f . 40 - 44\nacrobasis cunulae ; [ nacl ] , # 5685 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 54 , 13e , pl . 5 , f . 29 - 30\nacrobasis irrubriella ely , 1908 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 10 ( 3 - 4 ) : 161 ; tl : east river , connecticut\nacrobasis carpinivorella ; [ nacl ] , # 5665 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 61 , f . 14a , pl . 6 , f . 2023\nacrobasis sylviella ely , 1908 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 10 ( 3 - 4 ) : 161 ; tl : east river , connecticut\nacrobasis coryliella dyar , 1908 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 10 ( 1 - 2 ) : 47 ; tl : ( new york ? )\nacrobasis vaccinii ; [ nacl ] , # 5653 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 21 , f . 5a , pl . 2 , f . 1 - 10\nacrobasis minimella ; [ nacl ] , # 5657 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 4a , 7c - d , pl . 3 , f . 17 - 22\nacrobasis caryalbella ; [ nacl ] , # 5660 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 50 , f . 13a , pl . 5 , f . 11 - 13\nacrobasis cirroferella ; [ nacl ] , # 5684 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 56 , f . 14e , pl . 5 , f . 38 - 39\nacrobasis betulivorella ; [ nacl ] , # 5689 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 60 , f . 13h , pl . 6 , f . 18 - 19\nacrobasis ostryella ; [ nacl ] , # 5680 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 63 , f . 14g , pl . 6 , f . 31 - 35\nacrobasis coryliella ; [ nacl ] , # 5682 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 65 , f . 14i , pl . 6 , f . 41 - 43\nacrobasis comptella ; [ nacl ] , # 5656 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 29 , f . 5d , 8b , pl . 3 , f . 7 - 16\nacrobasis comptoniella ; [ nacl ] , # 5691 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 56 , f . 6c , 14c , pl . 5 , f . 31 - 37\nacrobasis betulella ; [ nacl ] , # 5688 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 59 , f . 3e , 14f , pl . 6 , f . 10 - 17\nacrobasis blanchardorum neunzig , 1973 ; proc . ent . soc . washington 75 ( 2 ) : 165 ; tl : sierra diablo wildlife mgt . area , culberson co . , texas\nacrobasis blanchardorum ; [ nacl ] , # 5694 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 8a , pl . 3 , f . 23 - 28 , pl . e , f . 2\nacrobasis evanescentella ; [ nacl ] , # 5668 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 36 , pl . 3 , f . 40 - 41 , pl . 4 , f . 1\nacrobasis juglandis ; [ nacl ] , # 5661 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 50 , f . 3a , 5e , 13d , pl . 5 , f . 1 - 10\nacrobasis kearfottella ; [ nacl ] , # 5663 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 51 , 13c , pl . 5 , f . 14 - 19 , pl . e , f . 3\nacrobasis sylviella ; [ nacl ] , # 5662 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 61 , f . 14d , pl . 6 , f . 24 - 27 , pl . e , f . 5\nacrobasis caulivorella neunzig , 1986 ; moths america n of mexico 15 . 2 : 41 , f . 11a - b , 12a , pl . 4 , f . 9 - 11 ; tl : dellwood , florida\nacrobasis tricolorella ; [ nacl ] , # 5655 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 28 , 7a - b , pl . 2 , f . 34 - 45 , pl . 3 , f . 1 - 6\nacrobasis juglanivorella neunzig , 1986 ; moths america n of mexico 15 . 2 : 38 , f . 9a - b , 10b , pl . 4 , f . 7 - 8 ; tl : dane co . , wisconsin\nacrobasis caryivorella ; [ nacl ] , # 5686 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 52 , f . 5f , 13f , pl . 5 , f . 20 - 28 , pl . b , f . 3 - 4\nacrobasis texana neunzig , 1986 ; moths america n of mexico 15 . 2 : 34 , f . 9c - d , 10a , pl . 3 , f . 37 - 39 ; tl : junction , kimble co . , texas\nacrobasis demotella ; [ nacl ] , # 5674 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 5c , pl . 4 , f . 30 - 34 , pl . b , f . 1 - 2 , pl . e , f . 4\nacrobasis rubrifasciella ; [ nacl ] , # 5690 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 57 , f . 3c , 5h , 14b , pl . 5 , f . 40 - 42 , pl . 6 , f . 1 - 8\nacrobasis kylesi neunzig , 1986 ; moths america n of mexico 15 . 2 : 62 , f . 11c - d , 12b , 13g , pl . 6 , f . 28 - 30 ; tl : saline , bienville parish , louisiana\ntwo synthetic sex pheromones have been developed and are currently used to detect the flight of the pecan nut casebearer , acrobasis nuxvorella neunzig , the most damaging pest of pecan [ carya illinoinensis ( wangenh . ) k . koch ] . one pheromone ( referred to as standard ) is attractive to moths in the southern united states , but not in mexico . the other pheromone ( referred to as mexican ) is attractive to moths in the southern united states and in mexico . these two pheromones have been implemented by producers as an important tool in monitoring the activity of this pest and have allowed for more efficient pesticide use . in the future , these pheromones could be used as a means of population reduction through pheromone based control methods . trapping data taken over a 3 - yr period were used to determine if phenological differences exist between pheromone types of pecan nut casebearer . the relative abundance of each pheromone type at several locations in the united states also was evaluated . results of this study indicate that no phenological differences exist between the two pheromone types studied in the united states and that significantly more males are attracted to field - deployed pheromone traps baited with the standard pheromone than to traps baited with the mexican pheromone .\ntinea obtusella h\u00fcbner , 1796 ; samml . eur . schmett . [ 6 ] : ( ? )\nfrom ( nova scotia - florida ) - to ( wiscon - texas ) , introduced ? ( washington ) . see [ maps ]\nlarva on vaccinium corymbosum , v . macrocarpon , v . vitis - idaea , v . stamineum , gaylussacia spp . [ mna15 . 2 ] , 23\nnova scotia , prince edward i . , new brunswick , quebec , ontario , maine , new hampshire , massachusetts , connecticut , new york , pennsylvania , mountains ( virginia , north carolina ) , florida ? . see [ maps ]\nlarva on kalmia angustifolia , k . latifolia [ mna15 . 2 ] , 24\nlarva on malus pumila , cydonia oblonga , prunus spp . , cotoneaster , pyracantha , crataegus spp . , eriobotrya japonica [ mna15 . 2 ] , 27\ns . canada , n . usa , rocky mountains - new mexico , arizona , california . see [ maps ]\nlarva on prunus spp . , malus pumila , prunus armeniaca , sorbus americana , rosa sp . , amelanchier sp . , heteromeles arbutifolia , ( buds and fruits ) [ mna15 . 2 ] : 28\ncalifornia , oregon , washington , nevada , arizona , utah , new mexico , w . texas , w . oklahoma . see [ maps ]\nlarva on quercus dumosa , q . douglasii , q . garryana , quercus x _ turbinella _ ajoensis , chrysolepis sempervirens [ mna15 . 2 ] , 29\ncape cod , massachusetts - florida - e . texas - arkansas , tennessee , missouri . see [ maps ]\nlarva on quercus spp . , quercus marilandica , q . velutina , q . rubra , q . falcata , q . laevis , q . alba [ mna15 . 2 ] , 31\nw . texas , new mexico , arizona , colorado . see [ maps ]\nse . ontario , michigan , illinois - south carolina , nw . arkansas . see [ maps ]\nlarva on carya spp . , c . cordiformis , c . tomentosa , c . pallida , c . glabra , c . ovata , carya carolinae - septentrionalis [ mna15 . 2 ] , 34\nlarva on carya spp . , c . tomentosa [ mna15 . 2 ] , 34\nlarva on carya spp . , carya illinoensis [ mna15 . 2 ] , 37\ne . new mexico , texas , oklahoma , louisiana , missouri , s . illinois , mississippi , alabama , florida , na . georgia , south carolina , north carolina . see [ maps ]\nontario , connecticut , new york , new jersey , district of columbia , michigan , illinois , missouri , tennessee , arkansas , north carolina , south carolina , na . georgia , florida , e . texas . see [ maps ]\nlarva on carya spp . , c . tomentosa , c . glabra , c . pallida , juglans regia ? [ mna15 . 2 ] , 43\nmassachusetts , connecticut , new york , new jersey , pennsylvania , district of columbia , west virginia , tennessee , north carolina , michigan , missouri . see [ maps ]\nlarva on carya spp . , c . tomentosa , c . illinoensis [ mna15 . 2 ] , 45\nontario , new hampshire , new york , pennsylvania , w . north carolina , michigan , illinois , missouri , arkansas , e . texas . see [ maps ]\nlarva on carya spp . , c . glabra , carya ovalis , c . tomentosa [ mna15 . 2 ] , 46\nlarva on juglans nigra , carya spp . ? [ mna15 . 2 ] , 57\nontario , new york , connecticut , pennsylvania , tennessee , n . north carolina , michigan , illinois , wisconsin , missouri , nw . arkansas . see [ maps ]\nlarva on carya spp . , c . ovata , carya carolinae - septentrionalis [ mna15 . 2 ] , 49\nontario , from ( vermont - florida ) - to ( north dakota - new mexico ) . see [ maps ]\nphycita juglandis lebaron , 1872 ; 2 nd ann . rept . noxious insects state of illinois : 123 ; tl : ( illinois ? )\nlarva on carya illinoensis , juglans nigra , j . cinerea , juglans microcarpa [ mna15 . 2 ] , 50\nmassachusetts , connecticut , new york , michigan , w . virginia , missouri , nw . arkansas . see [ maps ]\nlarva on carya spp . , c . ovata , c . tomentosa , c . glabra [ mna15 . 2 ] , 51\nfrom ( quebec - florida ) - to ( illinois , missouri , arkansas , e . texas ) . see [ maps ]\nlarva on carya spp . , c . tomentosa , c . glabra , c . ovata , c . cordiformis [ mna15 . 2 ] , 52\nse . ontario , massachusetts - florida - texas , missouri , new mexico . see [ maps ]\nlarva on carya spp . , juglans spp . [ mna15 . 2 ] , 53\nontario , massachusetts , connecticut , new york , na . georgia , alabama , florida , mississippi , texas . see [ maps ]\nnova scotia , new brunswick , quebec , ontario , maine , new hampshire , vermont , massachusetts , connecticut , new york , new yersey , michigan , wisconsin . see [ maps ]\nlarva on myrica asplenifolia , m . gale , m . pensylvanica [ mna15 . 2 ] , 56\nnova scotia - manitoba , from ( maine - n . florida ) - to ( minnesota - e . texas ) . see [ maps ]\nlarva on alnus spp . , alnus serrulata , a . rugosa [ mna15 . 2 ] , 58\nlarva on betula , b . populifolia , b . papyrifera [ mna15 . 2 ] , 60\ne . north carolina , se . mississippi , e . texas . see [ maps ]\nontario , new york , michigan , massachusetts , connecticut , north carolina , louisiana . see [ maps ]\nlarva on ostrya virginiana , less corylus spp . [ mna15 . 2 ] , 62\nontario , massachusetts , connecticut , north carolina , florida , missouri , nw . arkansas . see [ maps ]\nontario , massachusetts , connecticut , n . north carolina , iowa , wisconsin , illinois , missouri . see [ maps ]\nlarva on corylus americana , c . cornuta [ mna15 . 2 ] , 64\nmassachusetts , connecticut , new york , north carolina , illinois , wisconsin . see [ maps ]\nthis information is not automatically synchronized with globiz and can sometimes be lagging behind .\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nfourth annual report on the noxious , beneficial and other insects of the state of missouri , made to the state board of agriculture . . . 4th ann . rep . , missouri :\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nlures : usa ( p368 - us lure ) mexico ( p368 - mex lure ) pheromone lure for monitoring mexican & us strain .\nexcellent trap for many moths . waterproof carton material . comes with hang wire . available in singles , 5 pack or 10 pack .\nexcellent trap for many moths . waterproof carton material . comes with hang wire .\ndistributor for products for forest insect pests in canada and us ( except colorado ) .\ndistributor for agriculture ( us ) , home / garden ( us ) and forestry ( colorado ) products .\n: this species occurs only on pecan . similar larvae on hickory and walnut belong to other , closely related , species .\n: most of the damage is caused by first generation larvae feeding in the young nuts in late may and early june . due to the small size of the nuts , each larvae feeds in several nuts to complete its development . a larva often destroys an entire nut cluster . second generation larvae do similar damage but usually each larva only damages one nut . overwintered larvae cause a certain amount of damage by tunneling and killing new shoots early in the spring .\n: the pecan nut casebearer overwinters as a small larva in a cocoon - like hibernaculum at the base of a pecan bud . these larvae emerge at budbreak , feed on the buds , and then bore into the tender shoots where they pupate . adults emerge in late may , mate , and lay eggs on the tips of the developing nuts . first generation larvae hatch and begin feeding in the nuts , usually entering through the stem end and completely hollowing out the nut . each larva moves from nut to nut in a cluster , spinning a silken web over the base of the nuts . larvae pupate in a damaged nut and new adults emerge about 10 days later . larvae of the second generation feed on maturing nuts from late july to late august . the larger size of the nuts enables a larva to develop in a single nut . adults emerging in september give rise to the small larvae which construct hibernacula and overwinter .\n: the adult is a small , brownish gray moth about 1 / 3 inch long . it has a ridge or tuft of dark scales extending across the middle of each front wing . the eggs are flat , very small , and white when newly laid . they develop red lines after two or three days and turn entirely red before hatching . full grown larvae are about 1 / 2 inch long with olive green to dark green bodies and yellowish brown heads .\n) is an insect pest of pecan nuts . it was first detected in new mexico in 1987 .\ncasebearer larvae tunnel into developing nuts , often destroying all of the nuts in a cluster . this is the most important pest of pecans in texas .\ngreat lakes ipm , inc . 7563 n crystal rd vestaburg mi 48891 989 - 268 - 5693 989 - 268 - 5911 800 - 235 - 0285 fax : 989 - 268 - 5311 hours : monday - friday 7 : 00 am - 4 : 00 pm email : glipm @ urltoken\nplease contact us if you do not find what you are looking for . * * *\nafter filling out the order form , you may mail , fax , email , or call us with your order . mailing address , fax number , phone number , and email are listed above .\nscentry 4 - station kits contain all the materials required to maintain 4 - trap stations for a 12 - 18 week period under normal conditions and will monitor 40 acres or more . the 4 station kit contains 4 reusable ( plastic top ) wing traps , 8 extra replacement bottoms , and 12 pheromone lures . the 2 - station kit contains 2 traps , 4 extra trap bottoms , and 6 lures . the delta style kits contain 12 traps and 12 lures . we recommend using the large heliothis trap for all heliothis or helicoverpa species and european corn borers as no wing trap kits are available for these insects . this trap can be used on black cutworm as well . field life averages 4 - 6 weeks for most lures . all heliothis or helicoverpa spp . , and peach twig borer have a 2 week field life . the clearwing borer complex has an extended field life of 8 - 12 weeks .\nwhen ordering a case of lures , please insert a - 12 after the item number .\n3 station kits contain 3 complete traps , 3 extra liners , and 9 pheromone lures which will monitor a block up to 30 acres for the entire season . single station kits contain 1 complete trap , 1 extra liner , and 1 lure . when ordering a 25 / case of lures , please insert a - 25 after the item number .\n* field life for standard pheromones is 4 - 6 weeks for most insects .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nneunzig , h . h . , 1986 . moths of america north of mexico , fascicle 15 . 2 , p . 37 ; pl . 4 . 2 - 6 . order\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nharris mk 1 , fu aa , nunez h , aranda - herrera e , moreira ja , mcelfresh js , millar jg .\ndepartment of entomology , texas a & m university , college station , tx 77843 - 2475 , usa . mharris @ urltoken\nresearch support , u . s . gov ' t , non - p . h . s .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ndepartment of entomology , texas a & m university , 2475 tamu , college station , tx 77843 , usa ."]}
{"id": 1979, "summary": [{"text": "erechthias lychnopa is a moth of the family tineidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from new zealand .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 15 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are grey , irrorated ( speckled ) with blackish scales which are edged in whitish .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is a white mark on the middle of the costal edge .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the median portion of the apical area is dark grey mixed with blackish and speckled with white .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "above and below this are orange ochreous spots .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are dark grey with an apical spot consisting of whitish speckling . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "erechthias lychnopa", "paragraphs": ["have a fact about erechthias lychnopa ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for erechthias lychnopa ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nzimmerman , e . c . 1978 ,\nmicrolepidoptera\n, insects of hawaii , vol . 9 , no . 2 vols , pp . i - xviii , 1 - 1903 , pls 1 - 8\nbradley , j . d . 1956 ,\nmicrolepidoptera from lord howe island and norfolk island\n, bulletin of the british museum ( natural history ) entomology , vol . 4 , pp . 145 - 164\nmeyrick , e . 1929 ,\nthe micro - lepidoptera of the\nst . george\nexpedition\n, transactions of the entomological society of london , vol . 76 , pp . 489 - 521\ngozm\u00e0ny , l . a . 1968 ,\nsome tineid moths of the ethiopian region in the collections of the british museum ( nat . hist . ) . 2\n, acta zoologica hungarica , vol . 14 , pp . 301 - 334\nmeyrick , e . 1886 ,\ndescriptions of lepidoptera from the south pacific\n, transactions of the entomological society of london , vol . 1886 , pp . 189 - 296\nmeyrick , e . 1880 ,\ndescriptions of australian micro - lepidoptera . iv . tineina\n, proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales , ser . 1 , vol . 5 , no . 2 , pp . 204 - 271\nturner , a . j . 1933 ,\nnew australian lepidoptera\n, transactions of the royal society of south australia , vol . 57 , pp . 159 - 182\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 5ce3445d - 7d3a - 48b7 - b844 - 0d63597d7da9\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 88366219 - 5c6b - 4095 - b986 - e529e2ac150f\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 54448637 - 7fce - 4845 - a491 - 2e68c93d517c\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 259814\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n[ read before the wellington philosophical society , 10th september , 1925 ; received by editor , 11th september , 1925 ; issued separately , 19th february , 1927 . ]\nthe following material has been communicated by my esteemed correspondent , mr . g . v . hudson , and was captured by himself , except where otherwise specified .\n\u2640 22 mm . head , palpi , and thorax dark fuscous with a few whitish specks , collar mixed ochreous . forewings moderate , rather dilated , termen little oblique ; rather dark fuscous , a few scattered whitish and ochreous scales ; first and second lines hardly indicated by limiting shades of scattered white - scales , posterior edge of second line more distinctly white on costa ; orbicular small , round , blackish , claviform beneath it , more elongate and undefined , blackish , discal forming a small transverse light ochreous spot edged on each side with some blackish suffusion ; subterminal line hardly indicated by a few white scales : cilia grey - whitish , a grey subbasal shade . hindwings grey , somewhat darker posteriorly ; cilia whitish , a grey subbasal shade .\nmount holdsworth , tararua range , about 4 , 000 feet , in january ; one specimen . very distinct , possibly allied to encapna .\n[ the section below cannot be correctly rendered as it contains complex formatting . see the image of the page for a more accurate rendering . ]\n\u2642 24 mm . head , palpi , and thorax brown mixed dark fuscous . forewings narrow at base , moderately dilated , termen rather oblique ; brown , suffusedly mixed blackish - fuscous , tending to form thick undefined streaks between veins ; first and second lines obscurely whitish , rather irregular , first rather curved , hardly oblique , edged with blackish shade posteriorly , second at 4 / 5 , nearly parallel to termen , but rather excurved on median third , edged with blackish shade anteriorly ; orbicular and claviform elongate , suffused , blackish , confluent with dark margin of first line , discal suffused x - shape , blackish ; subterminal line obscure , greyish , incurved in middle but not quite touching second line : cilia whitish - grey , a grey subbasal shade . hindwings pale brassy - greyish ; cilia whitish , a pale grey subbasal line .\nmount holdsworth , in forest about 2 , 500 feet , in january ; one specimen . perhaps allied to axena .\n\u2642 18 mm . head ochreous - whitish . palpi grey , base white . thorax light fuscous . forewings elongate , not dilated , apex pointed ,\ntermen oblique ; light fuscous , a few scattered whitish scales ; discal spot cloudy , darker fuscous : cilia whitish - fuscous , base mixed grey . hindwings whitish - grey , greyer near termen ; cilia grey - whitish .\nbold peak , l . wakatipu , in january ; one specimen . a peculiar form ; the male would probably have more ample forewings .\na \u2640 of this species ( described from \u2640 only ) from paekakariki is somewhat smaller than \u2640 ( 15 mm . ) , and has grey hindwings , but otherwise does not differ particularly ; the costal fold of forewings extends to \u2153 .\na \u2640 from botanical gardens , wellington , which i assign to this species , has the forewings , except extreme costal edge and cilia , wholly suffused light ferruginous , with distinct black discal dot . after seeing this i am satisfied that the specimen originally described as \u2640 of epichorista siriana is a similar variety of leucaniana , and that the true \u2640 of siriana resembles the \u2642 .\nmount arthur , 4 , 200 feet , in january ; two specimens ( \u2642 miss stella hudson , \u2640 taken by mr . hudson six years later at same place and season , both in fine condition ) . next latomana .\n\u2642 14 mm . head , palpi , thorax dark bronzy - brown . antennal ciliations three , whorled . forewings somewhat dilated , with slender costal fold on basal fifth , termen rather oblique ; ochreous , tinged or suffused purplish - grey except towards costa ; markings dark ferruginous - brown suffused dark fuscous on edges ; basal patch moderate , edge straight , almost direct ; central fascia moderate , somewhat narrower on dorsum , hardly oblique ; an almost direct fascia from costa at 2 / 3 , moderately broad on costa but finely attenuated on dorsal half , an -\nterior margin somewhat excavated above middle and edged with a whitish mark ; posterior area beyond this wholly dark purplish - grey except a small ochreous costal spot beyond fascia , and an irregular ferruginous - ochreous subterminal streak : cilia ochreous , basal third and an apical spot dark grey . hindwings dark grey ; cilia light grey , basal third grey .\nsinclair stream , wainui - o - mata , in december ; one specimen . quite peculiar .\n\u2642 21 mm . head white , a greyish bar on face , crown greyishtinged , collar ferruginous - grey . palpi whitish mixed grey and ferruginous . thorax white , a transverse median band and apex of crest deep ferruginous . forewings elongate - triangular , costa with moderate fold from base to \u00bc , termen nearly straight , somewhat oblique ; whitish mixed light violet - grey , with some ferruginous strigulae ; a moderate basal patch , with subquadrate central prominence whence a strigula connects with a spot on dorsum before middle ; central fascia moderately broad , rather oblique ; costal patch represented by four dark violet - grey spots and an elongate - triangular violet - grey and ferruginous suffusion connecting them beneath ; an erect fasciate evenly broad and straight - edged streak from tornus nearly reaching this : cilia pale grey . hindwings grey , somewhat darker posteriorly ; cilia grey .\narthurs pass , about 4 , 000 feet , in january ( miss stella hudson ) ; one specimen ; stated to occur also on mount arthur . next sanguinea .\na fine example from wainui - o - mata shows a well - marked subdorsal tuft on forewings before middle , and thoracic crest ; i am not disposed , however , at present to separate it generically from borkhausenia , to some forms of which it is in all other respects closely related , but the structures should be noted .\nhead with appressed scales ; ocelli posterior ; tongue developed . antennae \u00be ( in \u2642 probably with long ciliations ) , basal joint moderate , with narrow pecten . labial palpi moderate , curved , ascending , slender , second joint loosely scaled beneath , terminal joint shorter than second , pointed . maxillary palpi rudimentary . thorax with posterior crest . posterior tibiae rough - scaled above , with whorls of projecting scales on origin of spurs . forewings with large tufts of scales on surface ; 1b furcate , 2 from near angle , 7 absent , 11 from middle . hindwings under 1 , elongate - ovate , cilia 1 ; 3 and 4 connate , 5\u20137 somewhat approximated towards base .\na new form of unusual interest , allied to the remarkable australian genus petalanthes , of which it appears to be a development , differing in the absence of vein 7 , and reduction of terminal joint of palpi ; it belongs to the group of trachypepla . i infer , therefore , that it is to be included in that portion of the new zealand fauna which immigrated from queensland by way of new caledonia .\nshedwood forest , tapawera , january ( miss stella hudson ) ; one specimen . this seemingly obscure but really beautiful little insect ( the smallest of the 154 new zealand oecophoridae ) is probably adapted by its complex marking and rough scaling for concealment on tree - trunks , and by its bright metallic and coppery ornamentation for flying in sunshine , both these habits being characteristic of the species of petalanthes also .\nkarori , wellington , february ; one specimen . this is in very good condition and shows no apparent raised scales , but seems to be truly allied to photinella , in which they are very slightly developed ; it is therefore probably assignable to trachypepla .\n\u2642 21 mm . head white , a dark fuscous bar on face . palpi white suffusedly mixed dark grey . thorax white , patagia suffused dark grey except tips . forewings moderate , posteriorly dilated , termen straight , rather oblique ; white , irregularly sprinkled grey , unevenly strewn with blackish or dark brown dots , tending to form longitudinal or transverse series ; some ferruginous suffusion towards base of costa ;\na small dark fuscous spot on costa at \u2153 , whence a fine rather curved dark fuscous stria runs to dorsum , adjoining this posteriorly a suffused feruginous spot in disc and some grey marbling towards dorsum ; a transverse brown - whitish mark on end of cell edged anteriorly with a few black scales , and posteriorly with dark grey suffusion , beyond this a transverse fascia , of grey marbling obscurely interrupted below middle , becoming darker and broader towards costa , on which it forms three or four small spots ; some slight brownish suffusion near termen ; a terminal series of blackish marks ; cilia grey - whitish , base barred white , a dark grey subbasal and pale grey postmedian line . hindwings whitish - grey ; a light grey spot on end of cell ; cilia whitish , basal half faintly barred greyish .\nmount arthur , 4 , 000 feet , in january ( selwyn woodward ) ; one specimen . this , the third species of the endemic genus proteodes , is very distinct and interesting .\n\u2640 16 mm . head whitish with a few blackish scales . palpi whitish sprinkled blackish , terminal joint with broad blackish band . thorax pale pink mixed dark grey . forewings somewhat dilated , apex obtuse - pointed , termen faintly sinuate , oblique ; light rose - pink suffusedly mixed dark grey ; a small black spot on base of costa , and one just beyond and beneath it ; stigmata forming small black spots , plical obliquely beyond first discal and rather smaller , each of these followed by a white dot , second discal subquadrate ; the pink groundcolour forms small distinct spots on costa at middle and \u00be between patches of dark suffusion : cilia grey mixed pinky - whitish , base rose - pink . hindwings grey finely irrorated blackish - grey ; cilia grey , basal third blackish - grey .\nmount arthur , about 3 , 500 feet , in january ( selwyn woodward ) ; one specimen .\nhead smooth ; ocelli posterior , tongue developed . antennae ( partly broken ) , basal joint elongate , rather dilated towards apex , without pecten ( ? ) . labial palpi , very long , recurved , slender , smooth , terminal joint as long as second , acute . maxillary palpi obsolete . posterior tibiae clothed with hairs above . forewings with 1b simple , 2 from angle , 2\u20134 parallel , 5 absent , 6 and 7 out of 8 , 7 to costa , 11 from middle . hindwings 3 / 5 , lanceolate , cilia 3 ; 2\u20134 parallel , 5 absent , 6 and 7 stalked .\n\u2640 14 mm . head , thorax ochreous - whitish ( rubbed ) . palpi whitish . forewings lanceolate , apex acutely produced , caudulate ; ochreous - whitish ; a fine dark grey line from disc at 4 / 5 to apex , terminating in a black apical dot : cilia ochreous - whitish , round apex short segments of blackish subbasal and grey postmedian lines . hind - wings pale grey ; cilia whitish .\narthur ' s pass , 4 , 000 feet , in february ; one specimen .\n\u2640 16 mm . head and palpi fuscous . thorax rather darker bronzy - fuscous . abdomen dark fuscous , ventral surface pale yellow . forewings suboblong , termen hardly oblique ; fuscous , with numerous irregular transverse cloudy dark purplish - fuscous striae ; second discal stigma forming a small transverse dark fuscous spot ; two slight whitish marks on dorsum about middle : cilia fuscous . hindwings blackish - grey ; cilia grey , basal third dark fuscous .\nmount arthur , 4 , 000 feet , in january , one specimen . not in good condition , but quite a peculiar species .\nkaraka grove , near sinclair head , wellington , in november ; one specimen . near externella , but apparently quite distinct .\npage 219 and 220 : gen . nov . 3 et n . sp . nzac e ip gen\nfirst sustainment newsletter forward feb 08 - fort riley , ks - u . s . . . .\nclick here urltoken pdf free download the case of the speluncean explorers : nine new opinions for ipad this volume revisits and updates lon fuller s classic article , first published in 1949 . the story describes the fate of explorers who become trapped in a cave and are forced to cannibalize one of their team . the subsequent trial of the defendants upon rescue is used to introduce students to the key theories of law , such as utilitarianism and naturalism , as five supreme court judges offer differing opinions on what should be done with the defendants .\nclick here urltoken pdf free download nine minutes on monday : the quick and easy way to go from manager to leader book online argues that employee engagement comes down to one thing : a constant dedication to meeting the universal needs that drive performance excellence . this book combines proven engagement drivers and principles of human motivation into a simple system of execution that will show immediate results .\nthe first bit you already know . carl baratand the . . . - the ibiza sun\nyou have already flagged this document . thank you , for helping us keep this platform clean . the editors will have a look at it as soon as possible ."]}
{"id": 1985, "summary": [{"text": "the brush-tailed bettong ( bettongia penicillata ) , also known as the woylie , is an extremely rare small marsupial that belongs to the genus bettongia .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is endemic to australia .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "there are two subspecies , b. p. ogilbyi and the now extinct b. p. penicillata . ", "topic": 10}], "title": "woylie", "paragraphs": ["gray , 1837 ( potoroidae ) ( woylie , brush - tailed bettong ) .\nas a potential disease agent involved in the recent woylie declines could be clarified .\nall west australian woylies fall under the guiding hand of adrian wayne , dpaw\u2019s woylie expert . adrian coordinates research , conservation activities and the work of kanyana\u2019s woylie team .\na map of the historical distribution of the woylie , and the locations where the woylie is currently known from , including translocated populations . ( dbca , 2017 ) .\nwoylie have decline by up to 95 % since 2001 . why is a mystery .\nwoylie cheek - pouches are convenient for storing food and their prehensile tails carry nest materials .\np2 within the woylie remains unknown . however , it has been hypothesised from histopathological observations that when\nthe woylie was once hailed as one of the success stories of wildlife conservation programs . in 1996 , as a direct result of a recovery program , the woylie was removed from the threatened ( specially protected ) fauna notice under the western australian wildlife conservation act 1950 . however , a dramatic decline in woylie numbers started in 1999 and consequently , the woylie was re - listed in 2008 .\nnational recovery plan for the woylie ( bettongia penicillata ogilbyi ) ( pdf - 1 . 22 mb )\nnational recovery plan for the woylie ( bettongia penicillata ogilbyi ) ( doc - 2 . 21 mb )\nwayne af : diagnosis of recent woylie ( bettongia penicillata ogilbyi ) declines in southwestern australia : progress report of the woylie conservation research project . 2008 , perth : western australia government department of environment and conservation\nwayne af : diagnosis of recent woylie ( bettongia penicillata ogilbyi ) declines in southwestern australia : progress report of the woylie conservation research project . 2008 , western australia government department of environment and conservation : perth\n( commonly known as the woylie ) for which this tick appears to have a high predilection . woylie is the aboriginal name given by the noongar people who live in the south - west corner of western australia [\nthe woylie is an example where continual research is needed on wildlife populations , even when we think they are in the clear . without dedicated researchers , the extent of the recent decline of the woylie would have gone unnoticed . without continual research - lead conservation of the woylie , the reasons for the decline will remain a mystery .\nalthough their tail looks like that of other kangaroo - like animals , a woylie\u2019s tail has one amazing difference . it can coil up like a possum\u2019s tail to hold grasses and branches that the woylie collects to make its nest .\nphenotype 2\u201d ( p2 ) comprising trypomastigotes found in woylie id : wc2807 , wc2841 & wc2930 . mean morphological traits for\na national recovery team for the woylie was re - established in 2008 . there are a number of conservation initiatives for the woylie that are part of larger ongoing projects as well as more recent activities directed by the recovery team . these include :\nkanyana kept records on all woylie pregnancies and the offsprings\u2019 genetic lineage . despite regular messages to dec about kanyana\u2019s growing woylie colony ( and the rising costs of housing and feeding ) , dec was firm in its decision not to allow any translocations for fear of spreading disease . the cause of the woylie decline in the wild remained unknown and the population was continuing to crash .\nthe woylie has shown some dramatic changes in conservation status . the iucn listed the woylie as endangered in 1982 , due to its dramatic decline . a review of the conservation status of the woylie undertaken in 1998 , lead to its status being downgraded on western australian , australian and international threatened species lists , due to its apparent recovery in response to both fox baiting and reintroductions .\nwith the recent woylie decline may be another similar case . however , further research is needed to investigate whether the histopathological association of\njustification : the woylie has suffered a > 90 % reduction in population size over the past 10 years and the decline is continuing .\nwere detected from different organs of the single euthanised woylie from nar . the organs tested for the three different trypanosomes are listed in table\nvisitors are welcome to help us expand the meaning of woylie . fill in the form below to add your definition , example or comment .\nchanges in the trypanosome prevalence at the uwr and the changing woylie population status at warrup , ( which is part of the kp ) .\nthis is the first national recovery plan for the woylie and the third western australia recovery plan for the species . it details the woylie ' s current distribution , habitat and threats , as well as the recovery objectives and actions necessary to ensure the species ' long - term survival .\nbounding away in the blink of an eye , releasing a woylie into the wild is a challenging task for department of parks and wildlife officers .\nwoylie introductions have been made to the arid recovery reserve at roxby downs in south australia where tours / stays and options for volunteering are provided .\nbased on results presented here we propose the name trypanosoma vegrandis sp . nov . for this morphologically and genetically distinct species found within the woylie .\n2009 , tim winton , silent country : travels through a recovering landscape , robyn davidson ( editor ) , the best australian essays 2009 , page 16 , \u2018like a woylie , \u2019 said john dell , \u2018closely related . \u2019 ah . of course . even i ' d heard of the woylie . but like most of my countrymen , i couldn ' t have described one for love nor money . the woylie belongs to the great treasury of marsupials that we revere and know nothing about . as i learnt that day , the boodie and the woylie are different species of bettong .\nthe trypanosomes of the woylie are suspected of playing a role in the recent decline of their host . an association was identified linking the intracellular stage of\nfound in gilbert\u2019s potoroo , being relatively longer and thinner . the smallest length recorded in the woylie was 30 . 25 \u03bcm , while in the potoroo it was 25 . 0 \u03bcm and the widest length recorded in the woylie was 10 . 23 \u03bcm , while in the potoroo it was 15 . 4 \u03bcm [\nsp . nov . genotype 2\u201d ( g2 ) comprising trypomastigotes found in woylie id : 7225370 & k734 . mean morphological traits for each group are shown in table\non a single occasion at nar , an injured adult woylie ( origin : pp ) was captured . this woylie had lost significant body mass and was euthanized following examination by qualified veterinary staff . tissue samples were collected during autopsy and were taken from near the center of each organ before being stored in 70 % ethanol .\none of the animals at risk is the woylie . in the past five years , tens of thousands of these tiny kangaroo - like marsupials have simply dropped dead .\nidentified by molecular methodology for woylie id : wc2741 at nar was confirmed by microscopy in april 2012 during the hybridization and staining procedure . when the fluorescent conditions of figure\nwayne a , maxwell m , nicholls p , pacioni c , reiss a , smith a , thompson rca , vellios c , ward c , wayne j : the woylie conservation research project : investigating the cause ( s ) of woylie declines in the upper warren region . 2011 , perth : western australia government department of environment and conservation\nthreatened species scientific committee ( 2009 ) commonwealth listing advice on bettongia penicillata ogilbyi ( woylie ) . department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts , canberra .\nleonie harris : researcher andrew thompson has found two parasite infestations in the woylie blood , but whether it ' s causing the death or attacking weak animals is still unclear .\n] . other dissimilarities included a larger pk mean in the woylie ( 11 . 44 \u03bcm compared to 8 . 1 \u03bcm in the potoroo ) , a smaller kn and ff mean in the woylie ( 4 . 36 \u03bcm and 8 . 24 \u03bcm compared to 5 . 8 \u03bcm and 10 . 8 \u03bcm respectively in the potoroo ) [\ndepartment of environment and conservation ( 2012 ) . national recovery plan for the woylie ( bettongia penicillata ogilbyi ) . perth , western australia : department of environment and conservation .\nawc protects almost 10 % of the world ' s remaining woylie population . awc supports important populations of woylies within predator - proof fenced areas on karakamia , scotia , yookamurra and mt gibson sanctuaries . the karakamia population has the distinction of being the only population of woylies in western australia that has not declined in recent years . awc ecologists monitor populations of the woylie on the four sanctuaries where it occurs . awc contributes to the national woylie recovery team , and facilitates a number of research projects that are investigating the causes of population decline .\nleonie harris : in five years the total woylie population dropped by 80 per cent to fewer than 10 , 000 animals , a faster decline than polar bears or the tasmanian devil .\nthe diet of the woylie is similar to potoroos as includes a large diversity and proportion of hypogeous fungi in its diet particularly in summer and autumn in dry sclerophyll forest in wa .\n2007 , the bulletin , issues 6559 - 6566 , page 27 , it ' s a whodunit involving the woylie , the marsupial poster - child for recovery programs involving endangered animals .\nwith the internal organs of the woylie has altered the long term health of the host and influenced the recent decline , or is a result of other , as yet unidentified , stressors . future investigations will need to correlate the changes of woylie health ( over multiple generations and from several different populations ) with pathological results , such as haematopathology , histopathology and clinical pathology .\nwayne a , maxwell m , nicholls p , pacioni c , reiss a , smith a , thompson rca , vellios c , ward c , wayne j , wilson i , williams m : the woylie conservation research project : investigating the cause ( s ) of woylie declines in the upper warren region . 2011 , western australia government department of environment and conservation : perth\nwoylie demographics are being researched by trapping animals and radio - telemetry has been used to monitor their survival . food resources , disease and predation have also been the focus of investigations to help identify the possible causes for the woylie decline . current evidence suggests that woylies have been predated by cats predominantly , but also foxes , and that they may have become more vulnerable to predation by some form of disease . efforts continue to verify the real causes because knowing for certain is the best way to inform how conservation and management can most effectively save the woylie .\nwestern australia department of environment and conservation ( wa dec ) ( 2010o ) . fauna species profiles - woylie ( or brush - tailed bettong ) bettongia penicillata . available from : urltoken .\ndepartment publications and resources , including staff research publications . for research - based publications , refer to this list of public publications that have been produced as part of the woylie conservation research project .\nin this study , we provide a possible temporal connection implicating t . copemani as the disease agent linked with the recent decline of the kingston indigenous woylie population within the upper warren region of western australia . the chronic association of trypanosomes with the internal organs of its host may be potentially pathogenic and adversely affect their long term fitness and coordination , making the woylie more susceptible to predation .\n\u00b7 the woylie subpopulations in the upper warren at least , provide evidence that potentially pathogenic parasites may be associated with the declines and that it is possible disease is making woylies more vulnerable to predation .\nthreats : predation by foxes and feral cats is a major cause of the decline in woylie numbers , however , there may be a disease affecting woylies which makes it easier for predators to catch them .\nthe woylie ( or brush - tailed bettong ) was once widespread in the south - west of wa and the rangelands of wa , nt , sa , nsw and north - western victoria . ( image :\na total of 20 trypanosomes were identified in stained blood smears from these same four woylies ( woylie id : 7199222 , 7236356 , 7225370 & k734 ) and measured . all were identified as trypomastigote forms ( figure\nsp . nov . in four woylies at kws ( woylie id : 7199222 , 7236356 , 7225370 & k734 ) during the trapping sessions of september 2011 and february 2012 . these same four woylies tested negative to\npacioni c , wayne af , spencer pbs : effects of habitat fragmentation on population structure and long distance gene flow in an endangered marsupial : the woylie . j zool . 1987 , 283 : 98 - 107 .\nthe samples included in this study were collected as a part of the larger woylie conservation research project and its components that were variously funded by the department of parks and wildlife ( wa ) , state ( natural resource management , western australia ) and federal [ caring for our country and the australian research council ( lp 130101073 and lp 0775356 ) ] government - funded projects , and as a part of the woylie disease investigation project .\na woylie is a brush tailed bettong , scientific name : bettongia penicillata . woylies are a small brown kangaroo - like animal that weighs up to 1 . 8kg . they live in eucalypt forests and eat fungi as well as other plant material , digging shallow holes and moving more than 5 tonnes of soil per year . \u2018woylie\u2019 comes from the noongar language , meaning \u2018stick - carrier\u2019 as they carry sticks in their tails to make nests .\nin these five woylies ( wc2842 during dec 2011 ; < 50 \u03bcl of blood was collected from this woylie on this occasion ) microscopy was used alone to confirm the morphological presence of two trypomastigotes on the blood slides .\nliz appelt : when i do education sessions now i say to children and people ,\ntake a look , because you may now ever see another one . it may be the last woylie we ' ll see\n.\ninvestigation into the cause of the decline in the form of the woylie conservation research project . phase 1 of the project , predominantly based in the upper warren region of western australia , has been completed and the results reported ( see wayne , 2008 ) . the project was explorative in approach and aimed to diagnose the cause of the woylie declines . phase 2 aims to investigate and scientifically test the most likely causes of the decline identified in phase 1 .\nin this report we describe the morphological polymorphism of t . copemani , which includes the different trypomastigote phenotypes from the blood of woylies . we also provide the first morphological observations and taxonomic description of trypanosomes from a new genetically diverse clade , for which we propose the name t . vegrandis . up until now this small trypanosome has only been identified by pcr from a variety of hosts , including the woylie . using fluorescence in situ hybridisation and light microscopy , we described a mixed trypanosome infection in a woylie , with both t . copemani and t . vegrandis observed . the temporal reduction of t . copemani p2 in the peripheral blood of the woylie and its ability to invade cells may suggest that this more virulent phenotype could become localised within the tissues of the host . over time , tissue degeneration of the host could result in an overall reduced fitness , making the woylie more susceptible to predation in the wild .\nalso during this time , kanyana received another orphaned male woylie from dec resulting from a trapping event . dec requested that kanyana also raise this woylie ( blur ) to independence . again , due to enclosure space limitations and an understanding that decs translocation policy would be short term , claire and blur were housed together , began to breed and produce healthy offspring . woylies , when content , are happy and prolific breeders . kanyana population quickly moves beyond 20 youngsters .\npacioni c , wayne af , spencer pbs : effects of habitat fragmentation on population structure and long distance gene flow in an endangered marsupial : the woylie . j zool . 2011 , 283 ( 1987 ) : 98 - 107 .\nwoylie \u2013 a small bettong , bettongia pencillata , of central and southern australia , having a long prehensile tail covered with black hairs on the upper surface towards the tip ; brush - tailed bettong . also woilie . [ nyungar walyu ]\nconservation at perth zoo : perth zoo is part of a conservation research project which is helping to identify the causes behind the decline in woylie numbers in the south - west of western australia and to rebuild their numbers in the wild .\nyes , kanyana holds regular nocturnal tours . most people will never be lucky enough to see a woylie in the wild , and a kanyana nocturnal tour provides a unique opportunity to see these fascinating animals at night while they are active .\nbotero a , thompson ck , peacock cs , clode pl , nicholls pk , wayne af , et al . trypanosomes genetic diversity , polyparasitism and the population decline of the critically endangered australian marsupial , the brush tailed bettong or woylie (\nthe woylie is currently specially protected under the western australian wildlife conservation act 1950 as threatened fauna , with a ranking of critically endangered and is also listed as endangered under the commonwealth environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 ( epbc act ) .\ngarkaklis mj , bradley js , wooller rd ( 1998 ) the effects of woylie ( bettongia penicillata ) foraging on soil water repellency and water infiltration in heavy textured soils in southwestern australia . australian journal of ecology 23 , 492 - 496 .\n] . the localisation of trypomastigotes within the internal organs of the woylie may be a very important phase for maintaining infection within the host , but as a consequence may be chronically pathogenic , adversely affecting the fitness and coordination of the host .\nhas had a chronic effect upon the fitness and coordination of the woylie , and has been influential during the recent declines , then it is reasonable to question whether this same parasite has inflicted similar pathological changes and tissue degeneration in its other host species .\ngray , 1837 ( potoroidae ) ( woylie , brush - tailed bettong ) , of which indigenous populations are now restricted to the south - western corner of australia . investigations into rapid population declines experienced by this marsupial commenced in 2006 and are still ongoing [\nthe perup sanctuary is a 423 hectare predator - free enclosure in native bushland near manjimup . it was established in late 2010 as an insurance colony in case the most important woylie populations in the wild became extinct . with a good representation of the genetic diversity of the woylie it is also an excellent source for translocations to help reintroduce the woylie to areas where it is safe to do so . in just the first four years their numbers in the sanctuary increased from a founding stock of 87 adults to more than 400 , plus nearly 300 that have been translocated to three sites to help stimulate their recovery in the wild . more recently , a fenced area has been built at dryandra woodland , and woylies are one of the species that will benefit from this predator - free environment .\nleonie harris : in this forest in wa ' s south - west . the unknown killer is just starting to creep in to the last healthy woylie population . a team led by adrian wayne is trapping the animals to give them health checks and then releasing them .\nthe woylie population has declined from 225 , 000 to between 10 , 000 \u2013 20 , 000 in the last 15 years . predation by european foxes is the major cause of range contraction and decline of woylie populations . however , predation by feral cats is emerging as another serious threat . in western australia , woylies increased in distribution and abundance following large - scale fox - baiting during the 1980s ; however , most populations have declined again in the last decade . the most likely cause is predation by feral cats , although research is also being conducted into the potential role of disease in population decline . in the past , extensive areas occupied by the woylie were cleared for agriculture , and millions of woylies and other bettongs were killed as agricultural pests or for the fur trade in the early 20 th century .\naccording to a major new survey nearly 800 australian - fish , birds and plant species are headed for extinction . one of the animals at risk is the woylie . in the past five years , tens of thousands of these tiny kangaroo - like marsupials have simply dropped dead .\nas the recent causes of decline are unknown , it is difficult to plan actions for the woylie recovery . as with all declining species , additional research is essential to pinpoint causes of decline . as well as controlling foxes and cats , surveillance monitoring for diseases needs to continue .\n) during november and december , 2010 . uwr is predominantly publicly - owned conservation estate and state forest , managed by the department of environment and conservation ( dec ) , and supports the largest wild woylie population and two of the four indigenous genetically distinct subpopulations extant at the time [\nstart , a . n . , a . a . burbidge & d . armstrong ( 1995 ) . woylie recovery plan . wildlife management program . 16 . perth : western australian department of conservation and land management and south australian department of environment and natural resources . available from : urltoken .\nkanyana limits human contact with its woylies to ensure the animals retain the survival instincts required of them when their back in the wild . significant time and effort goes into \u2018enrichment\u2019 of the woylie enclosures at kanyana . recently , kanyana was commended by the national zoo and aquarium association for its \u2018enrichment\u2019 programs .\n] . the factors responsible for this recent and rapid decline remain unclear , with the future survival of indigenous woylies becoming increasingly uncertain . however , recent spatio - temporal population modelling has hypothesised that disease , in conjunction with predation , may have been the main contributing factors to the recent woylie population declines [\nkey research collaborators with the department of parks and wildlife include murdoch university , perth zoo , australian wildlife conservancy , university of western australia , james cook university , world wildlife fund and department of environment , water and natural resources . a major collaborative project with warren catchments council was completed in 2013 , with support from the federal caring for our country and wa state natural resource management programs . many university students and other partnerships and collaborations have been involved in the efforts to save the woylie . many university students , volunteers , and other partnerships and collaborations have been involved in the efforts to save the woylie .\nthe campaign of both intense fox bating and reintroduction into baited areas , and areas surrounded by predator proof fences was successful in the initial recovery of the woylie . from the initial three populations found in the 1970s , woylies were established in an additional 22 locations across western australia , south australia and new south wales .\nhall et al . ( 1991 ) was the first edition of the woylie recovery plan and guided work between 1991 and 1993 . nelson et al . ( 1992 ) guided work in south australia . start et al . ( 1995 ) was the second edition of woylie recovery plan for the period 1994 - 2003 , written with the expectation that the species could be removed from the threatened species list within a short period of time . woylies were removed from the commonwealth and western australian threatened species lists in 1996 following an assessment of status ( start et al . 1998 ) . however , from about 2000 , woylies have suffered a significant ongoing decline and they became again the subject of conservation research and management . woylie conservation was then guided by an interim recovery plan ( freegard 2008 ) . a revised national recovery plan was finalised in 2012 ( yeatman and groom 2012 ) . this recovery plan , guided by a national recovery team , has seven recovery actions :\nin 2006 , when it became apparent that declines in numbers were continuing and not isolated to a single location , the intensive woylie conservation research project began . the project is focused on an area east of manjimup where the greatest amount of information is available , but the project is also gathering information from other locations . it complements the standard fauna monitoring being undertaken through the western shield program . the project aims to determine the underlying factors responsible for the recent woylie decline in the upper warren region of south - west wa . it is also identifying management strategies required to reverse these declines . you can read more about the project in the following report \u2013\nexplanation of listing , between 11 june 2009 and 4 may 2016 , the woylie was included in the epbc act list of threatened species as b . penicillata ogilbyi . between 5 may 2016 and 14 february 2018 , it was listed as b . penicillata . from 15 february 2018 , it was listed as b . penicillata ogilbyi .\n] , it may be possible that trypanosomes have affected the long term health , coordination and fitness of these woylies , thus increasing their susceptibility to predation ( or to the other , as yet unidentified , stressors ) . if so , this could provide a temporal link implicating trypanosomes as the disease agent associated with the woylie decline . figure\n] . however , it must be noted that due to the spatial variation of the trypanosomes infecting the kp and pp woylies within the uwr , we can no longer assume a uniform distribution of parasites throughout this region . because of these spatial differences and the incomplete spatial correspondence in this current comparison between woylie abundance and trypanosome prevalence ( figure\nforty - one woylies were translocated to the perup sanctuary mainland island in october - december 2010 . in november 2012 , 161 independent woylie individuals were captured but due to trap saturation ( 80 traps x 4 nights ) an accurate estimate could not be achieved . the number is probably around 200 ( a . wayne pers . comm . ) .\nrecovery plan required , the species has experienced significant declines in extent of occurrence and population size since european settlement , and is currently undergoing a severe decline . while this decline may be cyclical and the woylie may naturally recover , the impact of feral predators and other threats on this cyclical process is not known ( 26 / 05 / 2009 ) .\ndescription : the woylie is a small macropod with light brown hair and a black crest on its tail , which is 29\u201336 cm long . it has strong , clawed front feet which are used for digging for food and nest making . while they forage slowly , woylies are capable of rapid movement if startled and can spring away at surprising speed .\nin spite of a number of captive breeding programs the reproductive behaviour of the woylie is not well - described but likely to be typical of the other rat - kangaroos with ardent males repelled by similar - sized unreceptive females until such time as they reach oestrus . nests are constructed and it is likely that male woylies regularly visit the nests of females within their home range .\nthreatened species scientific committee ( tssc ) ( 2009w ) . non - current commonwealth listing advice on bettongia penicillata ogilbyi ( woylie ) . department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 11 - jun - 2009 . ceased to be in effect under the epbc act from 14 - feb - 2018 .\nthreatened species scientific committee ( tssc ) ( 2009x ) . non - current commonwealth conservation advice on bettongia penicillata ogilbyi ( woylie ) . department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 11 - jun - 2009 . ceased to be in effect under the epbc act from 04 - may - 2016 .\nthe woylie is a small marsupial with greyish - brown fur on the upperparts and flanks and pale grey fur on the underside . the tail is darkly coloured with a distinctive black brush at the end ( hence the species\u2019 common and scientific name ) . adult males grow to 36 cm ( head - body ) and 1 . 8 kg . females are slightly smaller than males .\nhowever in 2008 , the woylie was again listed as critically endangered by the iucn . this was due to a declining rate in numbers of 25 - 95 % per annum since 2001 , leading a 90 % decline between 1999 and 2006 . estimations of total decline between 2001 and 2006 were around 70 - 80 % , equating to 8 , 000 - 15 , 000 animals .\nthe red fox is controlled via aerial and ground baiting in > 30 000 km 2 of conservation lands in the south - west of western australia . there is ongoing , long - term research aimed at developing operational feral cat control technology . conservation lands in the south - west of western australia with woylie subpopulations and the perup sanctuary are managed by the western australian department of environment and conservation . the south australian department of environment and natural resources manages islands in south australia with woylie subpopulations . the australian wildlife conservancy manages karakamia , yookamurra and scotia sanctuaries , plus mt gibson sanctuary ( where woylies will be reintroduced in 2014 ) . wadderin sanctuary ( 430 ha ) is managed by a local community group with assistance from wildlife research and management ltd and the shire of narambeen .\nan example of one of these species is the woylie or brush - tailed bettong ( bettongia penicillata ) . with a former distribution covering large areas of arid and semi - arid northern territory , south australia , new south wales and victoria , its natural occurring populations became restricted in the 1970s to three small wheatbelt reserves in western australia \u2013 dryandra woodland , and tutanning and perup nature reserves .\nkanyana now had five females and one male from tutanning for breeding . two of these females were old , hadn\u2019t been bred in years and it was unclear whether they could breed again . to optimise the genetic diversity of the kanyana\u2019s tutanning woylies , dpaw transferred the remaining male perth zoo woylie ( brian ) up to lesmurdie . the colony at kanyana then consisted of five females and two males\nthe main threats to the woylie were red foxes . one of the reasons they were able to survive in the three remaining reserve areas , was the presence of gastrolobium plants , which contain monofluoroacetate , the compound present as sodium monofluoroacetate in \u201c1080\u201d toxic baits . these plants both protect the woylies with cover , as well as possibly causing reduction in predators due to secondary poison when the predators eat them .\nthank you for visiting international - dictionary . com , a free online dictionary with over 200 , 000 definitions of words and phrases . you are visitor 32 on this page . please help us expand the meaning of woylie by providing an alternate definition or example above . please add comments to help us improve the site . there are 3 categories for this word . this is word 278003 in our dictionary .\nduring the 29 months of woylie sampling at the five locations in wa , a total of 881 blood samples were collected from 262 individuals ( with these same blood samples contributing to the temporal and spatial results below ) . of these 262 individuals , 134 ( 51 . 1 % ) were sampled only once , while the remaining 128 individuals ( 48 . 9 % ) were sampled two or more times .\ndata gathered through population monitoring provides valuable information to assess the conservation status of the species . there are currently 42 sites throughout the south - west of wa where woylies are monitored . the majority of these sites are part of the department\u2019s western shield animal conservation program . the program controls foxes and feral cats by baiting and monitors some of wa\u2019s most vulnerable native animals , including the woylie , which benefit from predator control .\nthis temporal fluctuation of trypanosome infected woylies from the uwr between 2006 and 2012 appears to be of particular importance , as these data sets could provide the necessary link connecting trypanosomes as the chronic disease agent associated with the recent woylie decline . it has recently been identified that woylies within the same region ( kp woylies ) underwent a period of recovery between 2005 and 2008 , before suffering a second decline that began in 2009 [\nthis study highlights the potential negative impact of t . copemani , and its possible association with the recent decline of indigenous woylies in wa . in this study , we demonstrated the variable spatial prevalence of t . copemani among the five study sites , and the declining molecular detection of t . copemani from the peripheral blood of the woylie . the reduction in parasitaemia of t . copemani over time may indicate the transitioning of the infection from the acute to chronic phase . we also highlight that the fluctuating trypanosome prevalence of the uwr between 2006 and 2012 could have been influential during the population changes reported for one of the two indigenous populations within this region . here we add to the growing evidence that trypanosomes could have been influential during the recent declines of indigenous woylies in wa . the associated degenerative pathology from the localisation of t . copemani in the capillaries and / or cells of the internal organs may be chronically pathogenic , adversely affecting the long term fitness and coordination , and making the host more vulnerable to predation . we also highlight the necessity to continue monitoring remaining woylie populations , both in the wild and in captivity , and to more thoroughly and rigorously test the nature and strength of the association between trypanosomes and population changes of the woylie and other host species .\nthere is also \u201cpresumed extinct\u201d which sounds sensible , but can be over - turned . i know of two \u201cpresumed extinct\u201d animals that have been rediscovered in my lifetime ( the noisy scrub bird and gilbert\u2019s pottoroo ) . and i can think of several others that were said to be \u201con the brink of extinction\u201d ( e . g . , the woylie and the rock wallaby ) , whose populations recovered amost overnight thanks to fox control programs .\nwoylie once occupied most of the australian mainland south of the tropics including the arid and semi - arid zones of western australia , the northern territory , new south wales and victoria . however , they are now only found in two small areas : upper warren and dryandra woodland . there are also translocated populations at batalling and inside fenced areas in mt gibson , karakamia and whiteman park , and also in new south wales and south australia .\nwith the capillaries and / or cells of internal organs could be responsible for digestive manifestations identified from woylies of ill health . in a newspaper article from \u2018the western mail\u2019 in 1930 , mr . t . smith of kalgoorlie commented that he could assure that disease did get amongst the kangaroo rat [ woylie ] , killing them off in great numbers , with dying individuals having growths in their throats that appeared to interfere with the ability to swallow [\ninconsistent detection of the parasite from the peripheral blood , as was observed in this study , would appear to coincide with transition to the chronic phase , with localisation of these trypanosomes in the capillaries and / or cells associated with the internal organs . the chronic localisation of trypanosomes has previously been demonstrated for the woylie ; a molecular analysis of three deceased individuals identified trypanosomes associated with the tissues of the internal organs , while being absent from the peripheral blood [\nthe declines have occurred in most known large woylie populations and are not limited to western australia . a translocated population at venus bay ( south australia ) suffered a dramatic crash in 2006 following a slow decline over the previous 12 months . this may have been a result of the restriction of emigration and subsequent resource limitation exacerbated by a series of six frosts . this suggests that the decline of this population may not be associated with the decline of the western australian populations .\nthe woylie favours dry sclerophyll forest and woodlands with an overstorey of jarrah ( eucalyptus marginata ) and wandoo ( e . wandoo ) . the understorey is formed by low xeric scrub or tussock grasses . in the francoise peron national park at shark bay in western australia and scotia sanctuary in western nsw , woylies and boodies co - exist through introduction and in the latter area use similar microhabitats favouring sites with 10 - 25 % canopy cover relatively high ground cover and height .\nin the woylie were wider ( 6 . 16 \u03bcm compared to 4 . 2 \u03bcm in the quokka ) , had a larger pk and na mean ( 11 . 44 \u03bcm and 15 . 85 \u03bcm compared to 6 . 5 \u03bcm and 13 . 7 \u03bcm respectively in the quokka ) and a smaller kn and ff mean ( 4 . 36 \u03bcm and 8 . 24 \u03bcm compared to 5 . 9 \u03bcm and 12 . 1 \u03bcm respectively in the quokka ) [\naa , ae and at conceived and designed the tick identification study , aw , at , al , hb , ya , an , sg and km designed the broader woylie study , aw , hb , an and sg undertook field work and sample collection ae , hb , ya and aa identified collected tick specimens , ae and pc undertook morphological imaging and provided morphometric data , aa conducted genetic characterisation and drafted the manuscript with input from all co - authors . all authors read and approved the final manuscript .\nmeanwhile , in early 2008 , june butcher identified mike and mary mccall\u2019s property ( heron\u2019s brook , margaret river ) as an ideal site for woylie releases . the mccall\u2019s property won a dec land for wildlife award in 2009 which helped dec decide to allow kanyana\u2019s woylies to head south . kanyana volunteers caught up 27 animals , checked them , microchipped them , weighed them , took blood samples and sent them to margaret river for a wonderful new life in march 2010 . this colony has now become an \u201cinsurance population\u201d .\noriginally from the us , phd student krista jones received both her dvm and ms in ecology from the university of california , davis . together with collaborators at dpaw , whiteman park , and the awc , her dissertation project will investigate factors influencing pathogen transmission in the critically endangered woylie , a small marsupial . she is thrilled to join such a supportive group and be able to combine her interests in conservation , wildlife behavior , and population health , while developing new skills in social network theory , disease modeling , and parasitology .\nthe foraging of woylies , like the other bettongs and potoroos , alters soil structure and is likely to be beneficial to increasing the permeability of hard surfaces and the incorporation of humus into the soil . thus the extinction of this species across almost all of its range at the time of european settlement has come at a considerable cost to the dispersal and viability of now commercially important trees and the adverse compaction of soils . thus the various intensive and small - scale projects to bring the woylie back into the rangelands should be applauded for their economic sense .\nthe critically endangered brush - tailed bettong is reliant on the monitoring and reduction of fox populations as well as careful habitat management for its survival ( 7 ) . research is currently underway to identify possible new translocation sites ( 1 ) , and an investigation is being carried out by the woylie conservation research project to discover why all large brush - tailed bettong populations across australia dramatically declined in 2001 . predation , disease and food availability are the main areas under investigation ( 1 ) , and hopefully the findings will enable the prevention of further declines in the future .\namanda started her phd at murdoch university in 2011 , after completing her undergraduate degree in zoology and biochemistry at uwa . during her honours project at uwa she investigated fairy - wren ecology and this included some behavioural studies . she soon realised that animal behaviour was one of her main scientific interests , along with conservation of native australian animals . these interests have come together nicely in her phd \u2013 part of her work at murdoch will be to study whether toxoplasma affects the behaviour of the woylie ; a native marsupial that is now threatened due to recent population declines .\nblood collected in edta tubes was used for genomic dna extraction , along with tissue samples from the single dead woylie from nar . dna was extracted from 300 \u03bcl of host blood and 10\u201320 mg of host tissue using the wizard\u00ae genomic dna purification kit ( cat # a1125 ) as per the protocol for whole blood extraction and animal tissue ( promega , wisconsin usa ) . dna was eluted in 60 \u03bcl of dna rehydration solution and stored at \u221220\u00b0c prior to use . a negative control was included in each batch of dna extractions that contained neither blood nor tissue .\nhere we report for the first time on the morphological diversity of trypanosomes infecting the woylie and provide the first visual evidence of a mixed infection of both t . vegrandis sp . nov and t . copemani . we also provide supporting evidence that over time , the intracellular t . copemani phenotype 2 may become localised in the tissues of woylies as the infection progresses from the active acute to chronic phase . as evidence grows , further research will be necessary to investigate whether the morphologically diverse trypanosomes of woylies have impacted on the health of their hosts during recent population declines .\nadult male ( ear tag number wc27 / 41 ) was transferred from a wild population at keninup , wa ( 33 . 94s , 116 . 57e ) to nar on 11 november 2010 . keninup is a forest location close to keninup creek . the woylie died on 5 june 2012 and was taken to murdoch university for post - mortem examination . oxyurids from the caecum and colon were fixed in glycerine alcohol . the remaining caecum and contents were fixed in glycerine alcohol and nematodes were removed at a later date . these specimens have been deposited in the south australian museum .\nthe paruna sanctuary in the avon valley near perth is also an excellent place to see woylies . this is one of a number of sanctuaries run by the australian wildlife conservanc y that have re - introduced threatened macropods into parts of their former range . the woylie has been a particularly successful member of these re - introductions . the paruna sanctuary has visitor facilities but access is by prior arrangement . woylies have also been introduced into australian wildlife conservancy properties at scotia in new south wales and yookamura in south australia . these sanctuaries also have boodies and mala but access is only through volunteering programs .\nlike the boodie , the woylie was once the most widespread in the rangelands of western australia , northern territory , south australia , new south wales and north - western victoria . at the time of discovery there were three disjunct populations - a north - western , south - western and south - eastern - of which only the south - western remains with the sub - specific name of ogilbyi . from these founders , reintroductions have been made into fenced reserves in south australia , nsw and western australia . intensive fox control in the south - west has seen expansion of populations from their remnant distribution .\nwe thank peta clode and crystal cooper of the centre for microscopy , characterisation and analysis at the university of western australia for their help with scanning electron micrographs , craig thompson at murdoch university for providing access to the woylie gut contents , andrew thompson at murdoch university for supporting this project , leslie chisholm at the south australian museum for the loan of potoroxyuris specimens , and ian beveridge at the university of melbourne for macropoxyuris specimens . we are grateful to amanda ash and susan harrington for their constructive comments on an early draft , and to two anonymous referees for providing helpful comments on a previous version .\nindividual woylies were identified by either an ear tag or a permanent integrated transponder ( pit ) number to ensure that blood was only extracted once per trapping session . using a 25g \u00d7 5 / 8\u201d needle and 1 ml syringe , 300 \u03bcl of blood was collected from the lateral caudal vein of each woylie and placed into a minicollect 1 ml edta tube ( greiner bio - one , germany ) to prevent clotting and kept at 4\u00b0c for dna extraction and pcr . after blood collection , all woylies were released at the point of capture , except for 54 woylies captured in the uwr during november and december 2010 .\nthey are solitary animals but nest sharing ( usually mother and young at heel ) has been recorded ( sampson 1971 , christensen and leftwich 1980 , start et al . 1995 ) . they occupy home ranges , the size of which varies between habitats , sites and according to woylie density . small home ranges ( less than 6 ha ) are generally observed at high density occurrences ( nelson 1989 in nelson et al . 1992 ; hide 2006 ) . males tend to have larger home ranges than females ( sampson 1971 , leftwich 1983 ) , although this is not always so when woylies are at higher densities ( yeatman 2010 ) .\nas evident in this study , the kp woylies had very dissimilar trypanosome prevalences to its neighbouring population ( pp ) within the uwr . there are four possible reasons for the very low prevalence from the kp . firstly , the remaining kp woylies are more resistant to trypanosome infections ( and the number of woylies in this population should increase ) ; or they are all chronically infected and trypomastigotes are being maintained at molecularly undetectable levels in the peripheral blood of the host ( and number of woylies in this population should continue to decline ) . the very low prevalence of trypanosomes could be a function of woylie density and / or time since the decline ( kp woylies declined earlier than pp [\nafter removing the animal from the trap , a 400 \u03bcl sample of blood was collected from the lateral caudal vein using a 25g x 5 / 8\u201d needle and 1 ml syringe . from the collected blood , 300 \u03bcl was placed into a minicollect 1 ml edta tube ( greiner bio - one , germany ) to prevent clotting and kept at 4\u00b0c for dna extraction and pcr . with the remaining blood , multiple thin blood smears were made from each woylie sampled . wet mounted slides were also collected during the february 2012 sampling at kws . after blood collection , woylies were released at the point of capture , except for eight woylies from the uwr , which were translocated to nar for release .\nthe woylie like most of the rat - kangaroos has a gestation period just shorter than the oestrous cycle and thus has a post - partum oestrus with mating taking place very soon after the current pouch young vacates the pouch permanently . however , if a male is not present ovulation does not occur and the female will not enter oestrus until introduced to a may . woylies show embryonic diapause and breed continuously regardless of season . pouch life is around 3 . 5 months and thus they are able to produce more than one young per year . males become sexually mature at around 13 months and females much earlier at 10 months . in captivity on a high quality diet , breeding may commence earlier and the maximal production of 3 young per year achieved but more usually two ."]}
{"id": 1989, "summary": [{"text": "lyle 's flying fox ( pteropus lylei ) is a species of flying fox in the family pteropodidae .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it is found in cambodia , thailand , and vietnam .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it can do fairly well in some urban areas .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "1 it is killed for bushmeat in parts of its range . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "lyle ' s flying fox", "paragraphs": ["lyle\u2019s flying fox ( pteropus lylei ) is a medium - sized flying fox which forms large colonies high up in trees . lyle\u2019s flying fox has a long dark muzzle , large eyes and a ring of orange fur around the neck , and bears some resemblance to a fox , hence the common name \u2018flying fox\u2019 ( 5 ) .\nbbc two - lyle\u2019s flying fox - thailand : earth ' s tropical paradise , the central heartland - in pictures . . .\nfarmers also pose a threat as they consider lyle\u2019s flying fox to be a crop pest , resulting in persecution of this species ( 3 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - lyle ' s flying fox ( pteropus lylei )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - lyle ' s flying fox ( pteropus lylei )\ntitle =\narkive species - lyle ' s flying fox ( pteropus lylei )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nlyle ' s flying fox is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and is listed on appendix ii of cites ( 4 ) .\nthe diet of lyle\u2019s flying fox consists mainly of ripe fruit . however , this species will also feed on nectar , pollen and blossoms to ensure it gets enough energy . fruit is very low in protein and sodium , so the salivary gland of lyle\u2019s flying fox has become specially adapted to ensure this species can extract the required nutrients ( 7 ) .\nthe population of lyle\u2019s flying fox is believed to be in decline , a trend which is expected to continue due to human pressures on its environment ( 1 ) . habitat loss is a major threat to the population ( 1 ) , with deforestation and construction projects irreversibly destroying the forests that lyle\u2019s flying fox relies on for roosting and for food ( 3 ) .\nunlike other bat families , fruit bats do not hibernate . instead , lyle\u2019s flying fox produces heat by shivering , which keeps its body temperature between 33 and 37 degrees celsius ( 6 ) .\nthe wings and back of lyle ' s flying fox are dark brown or black , which strongly contrast against the bright fur around the head and neck . its lower body varies from a deep dark - brown to a brighter yellow - brown . its breast and belly are black - brown , which is similar to the large flying fox ( pteropus vampyrus ) ( 3 ) .\nlyle\u2019s flying foxes are the largest bats in the world , as some species can have a wingspan of up to two metres and weigh around 1 . 5 kg .\nthe lyle ' s flying fox is listed as least concern ( lr / lc ) , lowest risk . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category , on the iucn red list of threatened species\nlanlua , p . , sricharoenvej , s . , niyomchan , a . and chico , d . e . ( 2007 ) unique cellular structures in the parotid gland of an old world fruit bat , pteropus lylei ( lyle ' s flying fox ) . italian journal of anatomy and embryology , 112 : 179 - 90 .\nlyles\u2019s flying fox can be found in some of southeast asia\u2019s most secluded jungles , as well as in the middle of villages or even large urban metropolises such as bangkok . the species usually roosts in temples in the middle of urban areas ( 3 ) .\nunlike the majority of animals in the chiroptera order , which are nocturnal , insectivores and orient themselves using ultrasounds , lyle\u2019s flying foxes are crepuscular , feed on fruit , flowers and nectar and use their sight to guide them while flying and to find food .\nthe habitat of lyle\u2019s flying foxes is limited to thailand , cambodia , viet nam , and the yunnan province of china . even though little is known about populations within china , lyle\u2019s flying foxes have been listed by iucn as vulnerable or one step away from being considered endangered . until recent hunting restrictions were put into place , fruit bats were considered a delicacy and were hunted legally .\nhondo , e . , inoue , n . , maeda , k . , rerkamnuaychoke , w . and duengkae , p . ( 2010 ) movement of lyle ' s flying fox ( pteropus lylei ) in central thailand . journal of wildlife in thailand , 17 : 55 - 63 .\nlyle\u2019s flying fox is native to southeast asia and is found in thailand , vietnam , cambodia , malaysia , and yunnan in china . this species has been mostly documented in thailand , where at least 11 colonies have been identified , the largest containing around 3 , 000 individuals ( 1 ) .\nalthough it is a nocturnal species , lyle\u2019s flying fox is very sociable and noisy during the day , as this is when females suckle their young ( 5 ) . large noisy colonies are very conspicuous , but they have few natural predators and so can hang safely up in the trees all day ( 6 ) .\nlyle\u2019s flying fox\u2019s primary sense when foraging is vision , as it lacks the echolocation abilities of insectivorous bats . it has well developed teeth which are used to chew fruit while spitting out most of the seeds and pulp ( 5 ) . some seeds are ingested , which is important for the local ecosystem as it allows for the dispersal of seeds into other areas ( 2 ) .\nlyle\u2019s flying fox , and other species of bat , have been found to harbor large reservoirs of the nipah virus . although the virus does not harm the bat , it can be deadly to humans , and there is substantial data suggesting that recent outbreaks were caused by bat to person transmission of the virus ( 8 ) .\nlyle\u2019s flying fox is listed in appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) , so trade in this species should be carefully monitored ( 4 ) . there are no known populations within protected areas in vietnam or cambodia . however , this species is protected by monks in thailand where populations roost in temple roofs ( 1 ) .\nlyle\u2019s flying foxes are the largest bats in the world , as some species can have a wingspan of up to two metres and weigh around 1 . 5 kg . they do not have tails , have a claw on the second digit of each wing and have two incisors on each maxilla . their faces are reminiscent of a small fox and , hence , its common name .\nhunting still occurs in some places , but habitat degradation and destruction has also contributed to the 30 % population decline over the past 15 years ( three generations ) . in thailand and cambodia , lyle\u2019s flying foxes are considered pests and are not protected except on temple grounds . for this reason , large , noisy colonies of lyle\u2019s flying foxes can be found colonizing the trees over some buddhist temples in cambodia and thailand . up to 11 colonies are known to exist in thailand and the largest contains close to 3000 individuals .\nlyle\u2019s flying foxes will colonize trees in large groups , where they nest and suckle their young during the day . at night they depart to forage for food and have been known to travel 40 miles away to find food . rather than using echolocation as their insectivore cousins do , fruit bats rely on well - developed visual and olfactory senses .\nin central thailand ' s forests , plains and city streets , nature lives alongside people .\nfujita , m . ( 1988 ) flying foxes and economics . bats magazine , 6 : 1 . available at : urltoken\nthe size of fruit bats can be truly startling when first encountered at night by strangers to tropical climes and has resulted in reports of vampire bats or flying pterodactyls , but unless you\u2019re a fruit or flower , or smell like one , you have little to fear . okay , a little fear is appropriate . over the past 10 years or so several research studies have found that fruit bats , including lyle\u2019s flying foxes , are hosts for emerging viruses that can infect and kill livestock and\n) belongs to the large family of mammalian old world fruit bats or flying foxes . the spanish name is zorro valador de lyle . as the common name suggests fruit bats live on nectar , pollen , blossoms , and fruit , and for this reason their habitats are limited to tropical and subtropical regions of the world . old world fruit bats are the largest bats in the world , with wing spans up to 6 feet ( 1 . 8 meters ) and weighing as much as 2 . 2 pounds ( 1 . 5 kg ) . by comparison , the size of lyle\u2019s flying foxes is about mid - sized within the fruit bat family .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nluby , s . p . et al . ( 2009 ) recurrent zoonotic transmission of nipah virus into humans , bangladesh , 2001 - 2007 . emerging infectious diseases , 15 : 1229 - 1235 .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nthis species is listed on appendix ii of cites . there are no known populations within protected areas in viet nam ( son nguyen truong pers . comm . ) or cambodia . the species is protected by monks in thailand ( s . bumrungsri pers . comm . ) .\nnothing is known from china about the ecology of this species ( smith et al . 2008 ) . in other areas , it is known to form large colonies in trees that can become stripped of leaves by the bats ' activity . it feeds in orchards and is regarded as a serious pest in thailand ( s . bumrungsri pers . comm . ) . it occurs in mangrove forest in viet nam ( son nguyen truong pers . comm . ) . this species travels up to 50 km between colonies ( s . bumrugsri pers . comm . ) .\nin thailand the species is threatened through loss of roosting habitat , as existing trees die and are not replaced , it is also subject to hunting ( s . bumrungsri pers . comm . ) . it is also threatened in cambodia by hunting ( p . bates pers . comm . ) .\necholocation detecting objects by reflected sound . used by bats and odontocete cetaceans ( toothed whales , dolphins and porpoises ) for orientation and to detect and locate prey . gland an organ that makes and secretes substances used by the body . hibernation a winter survival strategy in which an animal\u2019s metabolic rate slows down and a state of deep sleep is attained . while hibernating , animals survive on stored reserves of fat that they have accumulated in summer . insectivorous insect - eating . nocturnal active at night .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nhutson , a . m . , racey , p . a . ( chiroptera red list authority ) , chanson , j . & chiozza , f . ( global mammal assessment team )\njustification : listed as vulnerable as it is estimated that a decline of over 30 % has occurred in a fifteen year time period ( three generations ) including the past and the present , and this decline is expected to continue due to increasing trade and hunting pressure and ongoing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat .\nthis species is known from yunnan in china ( smith et al . 2008 ) , extending in to cambodia , thailand , and viet nam .\nthe largest known colony in thailand is about 3 , 000 individuals and up to 11 colonies have been identified . there are three known colonies in viet nam ( son nguyen truong pers . comm . ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ncolonies inhabiting the forest roost in the tops of tall canopy trees , which they revisit year after year ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nwilson , e . d . ( 1997 ) bats in question : the smithsonian answer book ( second edition ) . smithsonian institution press , washington d . c .\nallen , g . m . ( 1980 ) bats : biology , behavior and folklore . harvard university , dover publications inc .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nwith an isolated population in yunnan ( china ) and extending through cambodia , thailand and vietnam .\ngestation lasts from 140 to 190 days and only one baby is generally born in each birth , occasionally two . the mother takes the baby right when it is born and it remains clinging to her body for several days . after this period , the baby pup remains on tree branches and holes when the mother goes out to feed .\ngregarious animals , they form large colonies that come together to rest in the immense trees in the jungle . the largest known colony is in thailand , comprised of some 3000 specimens .\ntheir populations are shrinking considerably in recent years due to direct hunting , deforestation and the progressive deterioration of their habitat . according to the iucn ( international union for the conservation of nature ) , the species has diminished by some 30 % in the last 15 years .\na curated database of candidate human ageing - related genes and genes associated with longevity and / or ageing in model organisms .\na curated database of genes associated with dietary restriction in model organisms either from genetic manipulation experiments or gene expression profiling .\nprojects focused on gene expression profiling of ageing and of dietary manipulations of ageing , such as caloric restriction .\nsoftware for ageing research , including the ageing research computational tools ( arct ) perl toolkit .\na curated database of ageing and life history information in animals , including extensive longevity records .\nthe benchmark genome assembly and annotation of the long - lived , cancer - resistant naked mole - rat ( heterocephalus glaber ) .\na high - coverage genome of the bowhead whale ( balaena mysticetus ) , the longest - lived mammal .\nanalyses using the anage database to study the evolution of longevity and ageing in vertebrate lineages .\na portal of ageing changes covering different biological levels , integrating molecular , physiological and pathological age - related data .\nthe whosage database contains people and biotech companies that are contributing to increase our understanding of ageing and life - extension .\none specimen was at least 20 . 4 years old when it died in captivity [ 0671 ] .\n[ 0730 ] smith et al . ( 2003 ) , body mass of late quaternary mammals\ncomments , suggestions , ideas , and bug reports are welcome . please contact us .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nall the travel information regarding products , services and travel deals on the website is provided by the suppliers of the particular products and services . the information may change without notice ; therefore , check the accuracy of the information with the relevant supplier before making use of it .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 1996, "summary": [{"text": "heterobranchus boulengeri is a species of airbreathing catfish found in the democratic republic of the congo , zambia and zimbabwe .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is found in lake mweru , the lukonzolwa river and the upper congo river . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "heterobranchus boulengeri", "paragraphs": ["heterobranchus boulengeri ( pellegrin 1922 , bu : 147 ) . . . heterobranchus longifilis . . . urltoken 6 eschmeyer reference - new / other species . . . boulengeri . to species summary . heterobranchus boulengeri . . . heterobranchus boulengeri . to species summary . microlepidogaster bourguyi . more\njennifer hammock chose to hide data on\nheterobranchus longifilis valenciennes , 1840\n.\n( 1 ) large chrysichthys sharpii 6 , clarias sp . ( t ) heterobranchus boulengeri serranochromis spp . ( b ) ( 2 ) c . sharpii , clarias gariepinus ; c ngamensis ( t ) auchenoglanis occidentalis ( b )\nc . ngamensis ; c . gariepinus ; h . boulengeri ; serranochromis sp . 2 . o . mweruensis ( t ) ; tilapia rendalli and clariids ( b )\nc . michael hogan selected\nrange description\nto show in overview on\nheterobranchus longifilis valenciennes , 1840\n.\nc . michael hogan marked the classification from\nspecies 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013\nas preferred for\nheterobranchus longifilis valenciennes , 1840\n.\nheterobranchus : from the greek heteros , meaning different and branchos , meaning fin ; in reference to the presence of the two dorsal fins ( rayed and adipose ) . named to honour the belgian - british zoologist , george albert boulenger .\nheterobranchus : from the greek heteros , meaning different and branchos , meaning fin ; in reference to the presence of the two dorsal fins ( rayed and adipose ) . the specific epithet comes from the latin longus , meaning long and filum , meaning thread ; in reference to the long barbels of the fish .\nteugels , g . g . , b . denayer and m . legendre ( 1990 ) a systematic revision of the african catfish genus < i > heterobranchus < / i > geoffroy - saint - hilaire , 1809 ( pisces : clariidae ) . : zool . j . linn . soc . 98 : 237 - 257 .\nhead generally longer and much more flattened than in other heterobranchus species . in dorsal outline , spatulate . snout rectangular and lower jaw extending beyond upper . dark brown dorsally , on the flanks and on the upper side of the paired fins , light brown to greyish on the belly and the lower side of the paired fins . underparts of the head can be bright yellow .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\ndiet of adults consists of fishes . juveniles feed on insect larvae and other invertebrates ( ref . 78218 ) .\nafrica : lake mweru system below johnston falls , including mweru wantipa ( ref . 78218 ) , in democratic republic of the congo and zambia\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n600mm or 23 . 6\nsl . find near , nearer or same sized spp .\nthe genital papilla , which is right below the anus , is elongated and pointy in males while it is round and relatively larger ( and larger than the anus ) in females . in ventral view especially , females are much broader in the body than males of equal age and rearing practices .\nget or print a qr code for this species profile , or try our beta label creator .\nhas this page been useful ? please donate to our monthly hosting costs and keep us free for everyone to enjoy ! explore our youtube channel , facebook page or follow us on twitter .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 urltoken , part of the aquatic republic network group of websites . all rights reserved . cite this website . by accessing this site you agree to our terms and conditions of use . our privacy policy .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\npellegrin , j . 1922 . poissons nouveaux ou rares du mus\u00e9e du congo . revue zoologique africaine 10 : 272 - 280 .\nchinese academy of fishery sciences ( 2003 ) chinese aquatic germplasm resources database . : urltoken\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication .\nmwape , l . m . ( 2003 ) bemba local names of lake fishes in northern zambia . : p . 246 - 249 . in m . l . d . palomares , b . samb , t . diouf , j . m . vakily and d . pauly ( eds . ) fish biodiversity : local studies as basis for global inferences . acp - eu fish . res . rep . 14 : 281 p .\nvarjo , m . , l . koli and h . dahlstr\u00f6m ( 2004 ) kalannimiluettelo ( versio 10 / 03 ) . : suomen biologian seura vanamo ry .\nwu , h . l . , k . - t . shao and c . f . lai ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) latin - chinese dictionary of fishes names . : the sueichan press , taiwan . 1028 p .\nhardly anything is known about the biology of this species ( ref . 78218 ) . maximum reported size for west africa : 800 mm tl ( ref . 57129 ) .\nafrica : nile ( ref . 3820 ) , senegal , gambia , volta , niger , benue rivers and lake chad ( ref . 57129 )\nthis database was established according to official pieces of work and with the help of famous scientists . however , there might be some errors .\nthe vernacular names were collected in the field and in the colonial literature from the first part of the 20th century . the monks who established the first dictionaries were not necessarily informed naturalists . therefore , errors must have been committed .\nwe invite everyone who could help us to improve this working tool to contact us in order to correct us and share her / his knowledge with us .\n1500mm or 59 . 1\nsl . find near , nearer or same sized spp .\ndorsal - fin rays 26 - 35 ; anal - fin rays 42 - 52 ; vertebrae 55 - 61 . head long , broad and somewhat rectangular in dorsal outline ; snout broadly rounded ; eyes with supero - lateral position . frontal fontanelle long and narrow ; occipital fontanelle oval - shaped . toothplates wide . suprabranchial organ well developed . pectoral spine strongly serrated on anterior side . adipose fin with blackish posterior part , nearly as long as dorsal fin ; caudal fin barred . openings of secondary canals hardly visible but display a regular pattern .\nafrica : nile , niger , s\u00e9n\u00e9gal , congo system , upper and middle zambezi . also from lakes tanganyika and edward gambia and b\u00e9nou\u00e9 river , chad and volta basins , and the coastal basins of guinea to nigeria .\nsimply anything digestible it can fit into its mouth . will therefore take all normal aquarium foods .\nnot really an aquarium fish . although largely inactive and so doesn ' t require a great deal more room than simply to turn around do bear in mind though that this fish can easily reach the size of 1m in captivity .\nwill attack surprisingly large fish often with fatal results , a greedy , voracious predator . one for a species tank .\nduring spawning , the male first follows the female , swimming with the head against the side of the female , interspersed with periods of solitary swimming or inactivity ) . the pair then swim head against head with the male on top . this is followed by the male folding the body first around the head , and then the body of the female . during the latter stage , eggs and sperm are released . the female then pushes her head into the substrate and beats her tail vigorously , mixing the eggs and sperm .\nhist . nat . poiss . v . 15 - pp394 - pl . 447 poncin , petitfrere , vandewalle & ruwet ( 2002 ) , the reproductive behaviour of the african catfish heterobanchus longifilis ( siluriformes , clariidae ) in an aquarium - preliminary results .\n( 1 ) arapaima , ( 2 ) dazza3 , who also notes :\nfast growing . can be aggressive . very active . wet pet\n. click on a username above to see all that persons registered catfish species . you can also view all\nmy cats\ndata for this species .\nmax . size in west africa reported as 510 mm tl ( ref . 57129 ) .\nafrica : coastal basins from the konkour\u00e9 ( guinea ) to the cross ( cameroon ) ; present in the upper senegal , but apparently absent from the gambia and the niger ( ref . 57129 )\njennifer hammock removed an association between\nzambezi river demersal habitat\nand\nhippopotamyrus discorhynchus ( peters , 1852 )\n.\njennifer hammock added an association between\nzambezi river demersal habitat\nand\nzaireichthys rotundiceps ( hilgendorf , 1905 )\n.\nmanagement , co - management or no management ? major dilemmas in southern african freshwater fisheries . part 2 : case studies .\nthe high diversity of methods used could be complementary to each other in exploiting different parts of the fish community . this diversity in fishing patterns can be considered as adaptations to the large diversity of species in the fishery . characteristic of the specialization is that all gears require relatively low - investments ( traps , hooks and lines , etc . ) or , if requiring more investment as in case of gillnets , the gears can be used in a large variety of fishing patterns , thus making them highly adaptable to changing circumstances . all these gears also do not last long , a few years at the most , before they need to be replaced , again contributing to the high adaptability to changing circumstances . the only fishery that requires larger investments , the pelagic light fishery , has converged after initial years of experimentation on a low cost method , both in terms of capital and organization of labour . in the following paragraph we will discuss the result of both this adaptability and the huge increase in effort in particular of the gillnet based fishery .\n1 . large variety of species ( t ) 2 . oreochromis mweruensis ( t ) 3 . serranochromis spp . ( t ) 4 . tylochromis mylodon ( t ) ; all areas : clarias or the other cichlids mentioned ( b ) , many other species ( o )\nhydrocynus vittatus ; alestes macrophthalmus ( t ) cichlids , clarias spp . ( b ) large barbus and a variety of other species ( o )\no . mweruensis ( t ) serr . spp . ( b ) many other species e . g . hydrocynus , barbus etc . ( o )\nt . mylodon ( t ) o . mweruensis and many other species ( b )\nm . moeruensis ( t ) ; serr . macrocephalus ( b ) ; a . macrophthalmus ( b )\nsmall and juvenile cichlids ( e . g . pseudocrenilabus philander ) ; small barbus spp . two main types : 1 . ( dominant ) clarias theodorae ; c . buthupogon ( t ) ctenopoma sp . ( b )\ntilapia rendalli ( t ) . t . sparmanni ( t ) ; serranochromis sp . ( b ) pseudocrenilabrus philander\n1 most active methods are illegal . reported effort through framesurveys for these methods is probably an underestimate ; 2 mapira = gillnetting at mid - water depths ; 3 kutumpula = chasing fish into the net by beating on the water with a knobbed stick ; 4 seining = three types of seining are used . the number of fishermen refers to all methods ; 5 chisense gears = all are light fisheries except chasing . japan = a net hung in between two loose bamboo poles sticking from the side of the canoe , is lowered under the light and hauled inside by at least 2 - 4 people pulling ropes and poles . a boat seine is operated from two boats by 7 - 8 persons ; method comparable to purse seine but the net is closed at the bottom only at hauling onto the canoe ; mutobi = handheld scoopnet operated by one person ; chasing = two women walking at kneedepth in the water who haul a piece of netting or cloth in between ; 6 previously chrisichthys mabusi ( rich , 1986 ) .\nfigure 9 . development of catch rates in the fishery and in experimental surveys with gillnets of dominant mesh sizes in the fishery ( 76 - 102 mm in 1970s and 63 - 76 mm in 1980s and 1990s ) . catch rates from the fishery are standardized to 100 kg / m gillnet ; catch rates from experimental gear = kg / 100 m 2 . water level is shown as annual deviations of the long term mean . grey bars indicate years over which biomass - size distributions are calculated ( see text )"]}
{"id": 2005, "summary": [{"text": "oenomaus ortygnus , the aquamarine hairstreak , is a species of butterfly of the lycaenidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found from brazil through central america to tamaulipas , mexico .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "rare strays may be found up to southern texas .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of low elevation wet and dry tropical forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is 30 \u2013 38 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the upperside is blue with black borders and the underside is gray with a pink sheen .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there are no submarginal or postmedian lines .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there are three or four black spots on the hindwings .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from january to november in mexico .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on annona species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they bore into and feed upon the buds , flowers and fruits of their host plant . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "oenomaus ortygnus", "paragraphs": ["new host plant records for oenomaus ortygnus ( cramer ) ( lepidoptera : lycaenidae ) in mexico .\nnew host plant records for oenomaus ortygnus ( cramer ) ( lepidoptera : lycaenidae ) in mexico . - pubmed - ncbi\nthis is the first record of oenomaus ortygnus ( cramer ) damaging fruits of ilama ( annona diversifolia ) and extends the butterfly distribution for three states in mexico .\nthis is the first record of oenomaus ortygnus ( cramer ) damaging fruits of ilama ( annona diversifolia ) and extends the butterfly distribution for three states in mexico .\noenomaus ortygnus ; [ nacl ] , # 4294 ; [ bow ] : pl . 67 , f . 20 ; [ opler ] ; [ nl4a ] , # 880\ncalvo r ( 1998 ) reproducci\u00f3n de oenomaus ortygnus ( lepidoptera : lyacaenidae ) en barva , heredia , costa rica . rev biol trop 46 : 101 - 104 . [ links ]\noenomaus isabellae faynel , 2006 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 111 ( 2 ) : ( 137 - 156 ) ; tl : french guiana\nfaynel c ( 2006 ) le genre oenomaus h\u00fcbner , 1819 , en guyane fran\u00e7aise ( lepidoptera , lycaenidae ) . bull soc entomol fr 111 : 137 - 156 . [ links ]\nfennah rg ( 1937 ) lepidopterous pests of the sour - sop in trinidad . ( 2 ) thecla ortygnus cramer . trop agric 14 : 244 - 245 . [ links ]\nfaynel c ( 2008 ) le genre oenomaus h\u00fcbner , 1819 , en guyane fran\u00e7aise . 2 e partie ( lepidoptera , lycaenidae ) . bull soc entomol fr 113 : 15 - 32 . [ links ]\npe\u00f1a & bennett ( 1995 ) reported 296 species of neotropical insects associated with annona ( annonaceae ) , among them , the borers , such as bephratelloides cubensis ( ashmead ) ( hymenoptera : eurytomidae ) , cerconota anonella ( sepp ) ( lepidoptera : elachistidae ) , and oenomaus ortygnus ( cramer ) ( lepidoptera : lycaenidae ) , are the main pests causing economically important damages to the crops .\noenomaus ortygnus has been found in 12 states of mexico ( fig 2 ) ( godman & salvin 1887 - 1901 , kendall 1975 , raguso & llorente - bousquets 1990 ) . the report of kendall ( 1975 ) of females ovipositing and larvae feeding on the fruits of annona globiflora schltdl . ( annonaceae ) in ciudad mante , tamaulipas , is the only information available so far for mexico . to update the status of this pest in mexico , we inspected the most important annona growing areas from march 2008 to february 2009 .\nall fruits of a . reticulata and a . diversifolia attacked by o . ortygnus showed necrosis ( fig 1a ) . larvae are usually found under the dead tissue ( fig 1b ) , feeding on the fruit pulp . one to five larvae may be found per fruit . in the laboratory pupation occurred on the external surface of the fruit ( fig 1c ) as observed by calvo ( 1998 ) with a population of o . ortygnus at the estaci\u00f3n experimental santa l\u00facia , barva , heredia , costa rica .\nfive fruits of annona reticulata l . that showed damage by o . ortygnus were collected in march 2008 in tepalcingo , morelos ( 18\u00ba35 ' n , 98\u00ba50 ' w , elevation 1169 m ) . six fruits of a . diversifolia safford with the same damages were found in september 2008 in cacahuamilapa , guerrero ( 18\u00ba40 ' n , 99\u00ba30 ' w , elevation 1163 m ) . three fruits of a . reticulata were attacked by o . ortygnus in february 2009 in zacapala , puebla ( 18\u00ba35 ' n , 98\u00ba03 ' w , elevation 1254 m ) . collected fruits were placed in plastic containers ( 40 x 21 x 12 cm ) and covered with cheesecloth so that adults could not escape . the samples were incubated at 26 \u00b1 1\u00bac and relative humidity of 50 % . five adults of o . ortygnus , from larvae reared on these fruits , emerged in the lab .\nthe present report increases the knowledge about o . ortygnus in two ways : it adds a new record of annona as larval host plant and extends the known distribution of the butterfly for the morelos state in mexico . adults were deposited in the fruit pest collection at fundaci\u00f3n salvador s\u00e1nchez col\u00edn cictamex , s . c . , coatepec harinas , estado de m\u00e9xico , m\u00e9xico .\nalthough the presence of o . ortygnus has been often noticed on bullock heart ( a . reticulata l . ) , soursop ( a . muricata l . ) and cherimola ( a . cherimola mill . ) ( dom\u00ednguez - gil 1978 , calvo 1998 , coto & saunders 2001 , beccaloni et al 2008 ) , we found no evidence that this butterfly damaged soursop and cherimola in our surveys . we visited orchards in las varas , nayarit ( 21\u00ba11 ' n , 105\u00ba08 ' w , elevation 40 m ) and coatepec harinas , estado de m\u00e9xico ( 18\u00ba45 ' n , 99\u00ba45 ' w , elevation 2119 m ) in july , august , and november 2008 , other insect pests were recorded attacking a . muricata as b . cubensis and talponia batesi heinrich ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) on cherimola , respectively .\nthe authors acknowledge dr . robert k . robbins ( national museum of natural history , smithsonian institution ) for important comments , corrections , and for reviewing the manuscript . for sharing with us information on the geographical distribution of o . ortygnus in mexico , we thank dr . jorge llorente - bousquets , dr . mois\u00e9s armando luis - mart\u00ednez , dr . isabel vargas - fern\u00e1ndez ( museo de zoolog\u00eda\nalfonso l . herrera\n, departamento de biolog\u00eda evolutiva , facultad de ciencias , universidad nacional aut\u00f3noma de m\u00e9xico ) , and dr . robert k . robbins . for financial support , md thanks funda\u00e7\u00e3o de amparo \u00e0 pesquisa do estado de s\u00e3o paulo / fapesp ( as part of the project\nsystematics , bionomy , and evolution of neotropical lepidoptera \u0096 process number 02 / 13898 - 0 ) and pr\u00f3 - reitoria de pesquisa of the universidade de s\u00e3o paulo / usp / projeto 1 and m . sc . jorge v\u00e1ldez - carrasco for helping with the illustrations . thanks also to anonymous reviewers for valuable comments .\nupperside blue with black borders . underside gray with a pink sheen ; no submarginal or postmedian lines . hindwing has 3 or 4 black spots .\neggs are laid singly on the host plant ; caterpillars bore into and feed upon the buds , flowers and fruits .\njanuary - november in mexico , strayed to south texas in mid - december .\nbrazil north through central america to tamaulipas , mexico . rare stray to south texas .\ng4 - apparently secure globally , though it might be quite rare in parts of its range , especially at the periphery .\ns . texas , mexico - brazil , surinam , trinidad . see [ maps ]\npanama - brazil ( par\u00e1 , rio de janeiro ) . see [ maps ]\nthecla geba hewitson , 1877 ; ill . diurn . lep . lycaenidae ( 7 ) : 198 , pl . 79 , f . 641 - 642 ; tl : ecuador\nthecla atena hewitson , 1867 ; ill . diurn . lep . lycaenidae ( 3 ) : 92 , pl . 36 , f . 93 , pl . 37 , f . 101 ; tl : brazil , amazon\ne - mail : jshuey at tnc . org ; director of conservation science ; indiana office of the nature conservancy ;\nbutterflies of north america . 2 . scientific names list for butterfly species of north america , north of mexico .\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nupperside iridescent greenish - blue with black borders in males ; pale blue in females . underside gray with an aquamarine band along the trailing edge of the hindwing . hindwing has 3 or 4 black spots .\nvery rare vagrant in the lower rio grande valley of southernmost texas ; normally found from tamaulipas , mexico south to brazil .\nadults are nectar feeders ; us records have mostly been on eupatorium betonicifolium . caterpillars found on plants in the genus annona ; no known host plants or documented reproduction in the us .\nmost recent us record was november 5 2005 , at bentsen - rio grande valley state park . prior to that , november 22 2003 at the naba international butterfly park . two individuals were seen and one collected in brownsville in december 1962 .\nwauer , roland h .\nbutterflies of the lower rio grande valley\nboulder co : johnson books , 2004 .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nnaba checklist of north american butterflies occurring north of mexico - edition 2 . 3\n[ cite : 1318989 this link is a list of just the names including typo corrections , additions and updates to the following checklist : cassie , b . , j . glassberg , a . swengel & g . tudor . 2001 . north american butterfly association ( naba ) checklist & english names of north american butterflies . second edition . north american butterfly association , morristown , nj .\nthe second edition of the checklist includes all 722 species of butterflies that have been recorded in north american , north of mexico and in hawaii , giving both english and scientific names .\na catalogue of the butterflies of the united states and canada - - by jonathan p . pelham\ntaxonomic checklist used on bugguide for butterflies - - does not seem to have a link , so here it is . link updated 16 october 2016 as per comments .\na downloadable pdf file with extensive data on habitats , hostplants , flight dates , and range in the carolinas . you must give an e - mail address to reach the download - - the authors want to inform you of updates . ( this is produced by the north carolina wildlife resources commission , a state agency . ) ( i thought i had posted this before , but cannot find it . )\nsammlung europ\u00e4ischer schmetterlinge , errichtet von jacob h\u00fcbner in augsburg ( 1793\u20131841 ) : updated plates legend .\nseachable database with information on the general classification and the diet and feeding behaviour of the orders of insects and arachnids found in canada\u2019s forest environments . cite : 1463600\nan invaluable site for synonyms , links to original descriptions , literature , and other information . covers the entire world , but tends to have more complete information for european and north american species . a great place to begin literature searches . cite : 1329955\nthe best online resource for moths of great britain and ireland . cite : 1329952\npublisher ' s page glassberg , j . 2018 . a swift guide to butterflies of mexico and central america , second edition . princeton university press , princeton , nj . 304 pp . 3 , 250 color photos and maps a groundbreaking photographic field guide to almost all of mexico ' s butterfly species and many of central america ' s this is a revised second edition of a groundbreaking photographic field guide to the butterflies of mexico and central america . written by jeffrey glassberg , the pioneering authority on the field identification of butterflies , the guide covers more than 2 , 000 species and features over 3 , 700 large , gorgeous color photographs , the very best images available , accompanied by authoritative facing - page text . this second edition includes more species , more than 1 , 500 new photos , and updated text , maps , and species names . and range maps , field marks , and host plants are included for all mexican butterflies . the result is an ideal field guide that will enable you to identify almost every butterfly you see .\na systematic revision of some of the american butterflies , with brief notes on those known to occur in essex co . , massachusetts .\nfull text scudder , s . h . 1872 . a systematic revision of some of the american butterflies , with brief notes on those known to occur in essex county , massachusetts . annual report . peabody academy of science 4 : 24 - 83 .\nby kendall , r . o . , & w . w . mcguire .\nfull pdf kendall , r . o . , & w . w . mcguire . 1984 . some new and rare records of lepidoptera found in texas . bulletin of the allyn museum 86 : 1 - 50 . introduction some of the records treated here have appeared in the lepidopterists ' news ( season summary ) and others in the southern lepidopterists ' news . for historical and biological abstracting purposes they are formalized in this paper , together with appropriate credits and reference citations . it will be noted that these particular species , except for staphylus azteca ( scudder ) and atrytone mazai freeman ( oversightsl , were not included in the 1981 miller and brown catalogue / checklist because their original appearance in the literature was not in a formal publication .\nan annotated checklist of the butterflies of bentsen - rio grande valley state park and vicinity .\ntexas parks & wildlife department , austin . mimeograph pp . 1 - 22 . , 1974\nmcguire , w . w . & m . a . richard . 1974 . an annotated checklist of the butterflies of bentsen - rio grande valley state park and vicinity . texas parks & wildlife department , austin . mimeograph pp . 1 - 22 .\nthe species listed here in are primarily a result of the collecting by the authors during the period 1972 - 1973 . certain important records of the previous several years are also included . additionally , the checklist incorporates records of a number of other lepidopterists . the primary focus of the checklist , then , is upon recent collecting , rather than being an attempt to list all known records from the mid - valley area .\ndurden , c . j . 1990 . guide to butterflies of austin . texola 6 : 1 - 109 . invaluable resource for information on austin ' s butterflies . see : travis county butterfly checklist\nthe butterfly fauna of barton creek canyon on the balcones fault zone , austin , texas , and a regional list .\njournal of the lepidopterists ' society 36 ( 1 ) : 1 - 17 . , 1982\nfull pdf durden , c . j . 1982 . the butterfly fauna of barton creek canyon on the balcones fault zone , austin , texas , and a regional list . journal of the lepidopterists ' society 36 ( 1 ) : 1 - 17 . abstract . diversity of substrate , topography and water supply , and climate and vegetation account for the occurrence of 74 % of the regional fauna along a 1 . 1 km stretch of barton creek . monthly mean weather records for 40 years are analyzed on a bioclimagram and the modes matched with habitat types . 172 species are listed for the ten counties around austin , and range , habitat , abundance , and residency are indicated for the 127 found at the study site .\nbutterflies of the upper frio - sabinal region , central texas , and distribution of fauna elements across the edwards plateau .\njournal of the lepidopterists ' society , 52 ( 3 ) : 229 - 261 . , 1998\nfull pdf gaskin , d . e . 1998 . butterflies of the upper frio - sabinal region , central texas , and distribution of fauna elements across the edwards plateau . journal of the lepidopterists ' society , 52 ( 3 ) : 229 - 261 . abstract . a survey of the butterfly fauna ( 1988 - 96 ) of the upper frio - sabinal region of the southern edwards plateau , texas , is presented . butterflies were observed along transects at five study sites and during repeated opportunistic transects at 12 secondary localities . a total of 28 , 03 . 5 specimens , comprising 100 species was recorded .\ngeyata ajilvsgi . 1990 . butterfly gardening in the south : cultivating plants that attract butterflies . taylor publishing co . , dallas . xii + 342 pp . = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = select quotes from miller ' s review ( full pdf ) : novice and master gardeners in the southern u . s . , particularly in the rio grande valley , texas , have an extraordinary treat in store with this volume . there are special sections of the book devoted to creating a personal butterfly garden and to methods of attracting butterflies , highlighted by personal observations on such topics as the important characteristics of floral nectaries ( color , shape and fragrance ) and how to choose the appropriate plants , with one of my favorites - adopt a weed .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ncasta\u00f1eda - vild\u00f3zola a 1 , nava - d\u00edaz c , duarte m , franco - mora o , hern\u00e1ndez - fuentes lm .\ncentro de investigaci\u00f3n y estudios avanzados en fitomejoramiento , facultad de ciencias agr\u00edcolas , campus el cerrillo , universidad aut\u00f3noma del estado de m\u00e9xico , toluca , estado de m\u00e9xico , m\u00e9xico . acastanedav @ urltoken\nneotrop . entomol . vol . 40 no . 4 londrina july / aug . 2011\nbeccaloni gw , viloria al , hall sk , robinson gs ( 2008 ) catalogue of the hostplants of the neotropical butterflies . cat\u00e1logo de las plantas hu\u00e9sped de las mariposas neotropicales . zaragoza , sociedad entomol\u00f3gica aragonesa vol . 8 , 536p . [ links ]\nclench hk ( 1964 ) a new hairstreak for the united states . j lepid soc 18 : 189 - 190 . [ links ]\ncoto d , saunders jl ( 2001 ) insectos plaga de la guanabana ( annona muricata ) en costa rica . man integr plagas 61 : 60 - 68 . [ links ]\ndom\u00ednguez - gil oe ( 1978 ) insectos perjudiciales del guan\u00e1bano ( annona muricata l . ) en el estado zulia , venezuela . rev fac agron ( luz ) 4 : 149 - 163 . [ links ]\ngodman fd , salvin o ( 1887 - 1901 ) biologia centrali - americana . insecta . lepidoptera - rhopalocera . fam . lycaenidae 2 : 1 - 112 . [ links ]\njanick j , paull re ( 2008 ) the encyclopedia of fruit and nuts . cambridge , cabi publishing , 800p . [ links ]\nkendall o ( 1975 ) larval foodplants for seven species of hairstreaks ( lycaenidae ) from mexico . bull allyn mus 24 : 1 - 4 . [ links ]\nopler pa , lotts k , naberhaus j ( 2010 ) butterflies and moths of north america . ( urltoken ) , accessed on 11 . ix . 2010 . [ links ]\npe\u00f1a je , bennett fd ( 1995 ) arthropods associated with annona spp . in the neotropics . fla entomol 78 : 329 - 349 . [ links ]\nraguso ra , llorente - bousquets je ( 1990 ) the butterflies ( lepidoptera ) of the tuxtlas mts . , veracruz , mexico , revisited : species - richness and habitat disturbance . j res lepid 29 : 105 - 133 . [ links ]\nsociedade entomol\u00f3gica do brasil r . harry prochet , 55 86047 - 040 londrina pr brasil tel . : ( 55 43 ) 3342 3987 editor @ urltoken"]}
{"id": 2008, "summary": [{"text": "rhinodipterus is an extinct genus of prehistoric dipnoan sarcopterygians or lobe-finned fish , that lived in the devonian period , between 416 and 359 million years ago .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it is believed to have inhabited shallow , salt-water reefs , and is one of the earliest known examples of marine lungfish .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "research published in 2010 based on an exceptionally well-preserved specimen from the gogo formation of australia has shown that rhinodipterus has cranial ribs attached to its braincase and was probably adapted for air-breathing to some degree .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "this could be the only case known for a marine lungfish with air-breathing adpatations . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "rhinodipterus", "paragraphs": ["( a ) rhinodipterus sp . skull in ventral view . ( b ) rhinodipterus sp . mandible in dorsal view . ( c ) rhinodipterus sp . ceratohyal in lateral view . ( d ) the extant protopterus showing arrangement of cranial ribs attached to neurocranium ( adapted from bemis 1986 ) .\nrhinodipterus secans ( gross , 1956 ) : luk\u0161evi\u010ds , 2001 , lk . 503 , joon .\nrhinodipterus secans ( gross , 1956 ) : krupina , 2004 , lk . 394 , joon .\nrhinodipterus secans : gross , 1956 , lk . 20 - 32 , joon . text fig . 12 - 23 ; 5 - 7\nin griphognathus whitei from the gogo formation , an exact contemporary of rhinodipterus with a similar long - snouted morphology , parts of the cranial cavity and labyrinth spaces ( fig . 4e ) have been described from acid - prepared specimens [ 52 ] . the information is more limited than that for rhinodipterus , but certain comparisons can be made . the olfactory canals , which are very long , merge posteriorly with a short and narrow telencephalic cavity ( [ 52 ] figs . 56 , 61 , 63 ) . proportionately , this cavity appears somewhat smaller than that of rhinodipterus , with a less pronounced ventral bulge ( [ 52 ] fig . 10 ) . there is a large anterodorsally directed pineal recess ( [ 52 ] fig . 10 ) ; this region of the cranial cavity is unfortunately damaged in rhinodipterus , so the two taxa cannot be compared in this respect . the labyrinth cavity and supraotic cavity of griphognathus have been figured in some detail ( [ 52 ] fig . 46 ) . the supraotic cavity is broadly similar to that of rhinodipterus but is not as bulbous and sac - like . however , the labyrinth cavity has an enlarged utricular recess ( fig . 4e ) , very similar to that of rhinodipterus .\npalaeozoic global oxygen levels ( berner 2006 ) and the rise of air - gulping . shaded area represents global oxygen levels of 15 % or less . rhinodipterus has been added to the pruned tree of ahlberg et al . ( 2006 ) to show monophyly of air - gulping dipnoans .\nas can be seen , these comparisons yield a remarkably consistent picture : on every point , the endocast of rhinodipterus is more similar to the brain of neoceratodus than to the lepidosirenids . given that rhinodipterus is a stem lungfish , this strongly suggests that the similarities reflect retained primitive characters in neoceratodus , relative to a more derived morphology in lepidosirenids . comparison with other members of the lungfish stem group , and with the non - dipnoan sarcopterygians eusthenopteron , tungsenia and spodichthys , support this conclusion and add further information about character evolution in the early part of the lungfish stem lineage .\nin chirodipterus wildungensis ( figs . 4c , 5c ) , which comes from the latest frasnian [ 53 ] of bad wildungen , germany , and is thus the youngest of the fossil lungfish discussed here , the telencephalic cavity appears to be somewhat larger and deeper than that of rhinodipterus . the olfactory bulbs were pedunculate , though it is difficult to determine the exact length of the tracts . dorsally there is a prominent pineal recess . the labyrinth cavity of chirodipterus is similar to that of rhinodipterus except that the utricular cavity is slightly smaller ( figures 4 and 5 ) . supraotic cavities have not been described .\nour work represents the first virtual endocast of any lungfish . despite being late devonian in age , rhinodipterus kimberleyensis is one of the most derived near - complete fossil lungfish braincases known . not surprisingly , of all the known stem lungfish endocasts , rhinodipterus resembles the similarly - aged chirodipterus wildungesis and griphognathus whitei most closely [ 21 ] , [ 52 ] . with respect to extant taxa , the endocast of rhinodipterus consistently resembles the brain of neoceratodus more than the lepidosirenids , suggesting neoceratodus has retained more primitive characters than the other extant lungfish taxa . the stark difference in morphology between the australian lungfish and the lepidosirenids is again noted . the early evolution of the lungfish stem group is characterized by expansion of the ventral part of the telencephalon , possibly related to evolution of an enhanced sense of smell , and slightly later , expansion of the utricular recess . undoubtedly these changes in labyrinth proportions relate to increased sensitivity for some sensory input , whether it be acceleration , gravitational or auditory , or a combination of all three .\nthe distinct \u2018stepped\u2019 shape of the ceratohyal ( indicated by the ventral notch ) in rhinodipterus ( figure 1 c ) is more similar to neoceratodus ( g\u00fcnther 1871 ) than other devonian genera . the strong posterior margin of this bone indicates a robust connection of the sternohyoideus muscle to the pectoral girdle . the large lateral crest on this bone provides a larger area for interhyoideus muscle attachment , and these features indicate highly controlled mobility of the hyoid arch . as neoceratodus uses its ceratohyals to push air from the branchial chambers into the lung when breathing ( den blaauwen et al . 2005 ) , we suggest that rhinodipterus also had increased capacity for this action when compared with other marine dipnoans .\nthe form of the sacculolagenar pouch in rhinodipterus is also worth mentioning . most extant fish and amphibians possess separate saccular and lagenar maculae , however modern lungfish are unusual in this respect in having just one [ 65 ] . primitive osteichthyans , including the earliest lungfish and tetrapods , also have a common sacculolagenar chamber as opposed to the large , separate lagena outgrowth seen in modern tetrapods [ 58 ] and actinopterygians [ 47 ] . although rhinodipterus maintains a common sacculolagenar pouch , its ventral margin shows a distinct ventral notch ( figs . 4f , 5d ) . this is particularly unusual as none of the other stem lungfish with labyrinth morphology known appear to do so , nor do the extant taxa .\nthe presence of the large articulations for cranial ribs , an elongate parasphenoid ( figure 1 a ) and a mobile ceratohyal and pectoral girdle in rhinodipterus indicate air - gulping behaviour . cranial ribs anchor the pectoral girdle during air - gulping in extant forms ( figure 1 d ) and are a key feature in all air - breathing forms ( long 1993 ) .\nhere we present an investigation by x - ray computed tomography ( \u00b5ct ) of the braincase and cranial cavity of rhinodipterus kimberleyensis [ 30 ] , [ 31 ] , a recently described stem - group dipnoan from the late devonian gogo formation in northern western australia . the gogo formation is a lagerst\u00e4tte known for its perfect 3d preservation and high diversity of taxa [ 32 ] , [ 33 ] . rhinodipterus is one of the most crownward stem dipnoans with a near - complete ossified braincase known . lungfish endoskeletons have undergone a radical reduction in ossification since the devonian , possibly as a result of paedomorphosis [ 34 ] , with the result that many post - devonian lungfish are known only from dermal bones and teeth , and none preserves a complete three - dimensional braincase .\nholodipterus gogoensis , also from the gogo formation , shows the shape of the braincase particularly well in one weathered specimen ( anu 49102 ) [ 24 ] . the authors have identified numerous nerve canals and approximate endocranial proportions . holodipterus shows two short , robust , and broadly diverging olfactory canals ( [ 24 ] fig . 6b ) , contrasting with the narrower and more elongate canals in rhinodipterus . the space for the telencephalon is relatively short and does not allow for any considerable ventral expansion . like griphognathus , holodipterus also exhibits a large , anterodorsally directed pineal recess ( [ 24 ] fig . 6b ) . the labyrinth region more closely resembles chirodipterus wildungensis ( fig . 4c ) with space for a high superior sinus but lacking a distinctively enlarged utriculus , such as that in rhinodipterus .\nwhen the cranial cavity of rhinodipterus is compared with the brain morphology of the extant lungfish ( figure 1 ) , substantial differences in telencephalic morphology immediately become apparent . all the extant genera have large telencephalic lobes : in protopterus and lepidosiren they are oblong [ 12 ] , [ 16 ] , [ 18 ] , whereas in neoceratodus they are rounder , and very deep ventrally [ 14 ] . the olfactory bulbs are sessile in the lepidosirenids but separated from the telencephalon by short olfactory tracts in neoceratodus ; in all three genera the olfactory bulbs ( or tracts ) attach anterodorsally on the telencephalon . in rhinodipterus the telencephalic lobes must have been much smaller , though the predominantly ventral expansion of the telencephalic cavity suggests a shape somewhat like the brain in neoceratodus , and the olfactory tracts must have been long .\nthe labyrinth region of modern lungfish are distinguished from those of other gnathostomes by possession of an enlarged utriculus [ 51 ] , [ 52 ] . in the lepidosirenids this is enormous , as big as or bigger than the ( undifferentiated ) sacculolagena , whereas neoceratodus shows a less extreme morphology with a somewhat smaller utriculus ( figure 4 ) . rhinodipterus has a labyrinth cavity resembling that of neoceratodus , except that its utricular cavity is slightly smaller and does not extend so far posteriorly ( figure 4f , g ) . the sinus superior is tall and narrow , as in all modern lungfish . the only surprising feature of the ear of rhinodipterus is the shallow notch , situated approximately between the saccular and lagenar portions , which is not matched either by modern lungfish or by other fossil stem lungfish ( see below ) .\nfigure 1 shows the characteristic elongated parasphenoid and articulations for cranial ribs of rhinodipterus . the lengthening of the parasphenoid extending posterior to the neurocranium significantly enlarges the buccal cavity , would have enabled the animal to hold a large air bubble . the slot between the tooth plates for a tongue pad ( figure 1 b ) acts as a stop - valve when air is being forced into the lungs ( campbell & barwick 1988 ) .\nit is popularly believed that vertebrate air - gulping originated in a tropical lowland setting ( thomson 1969 ) . most fossil lungfish inferred to be air - gulpers have all been from freshwater deposits . the exceptions are the escuminac bay fauna , and partial remains of rhinodipterus from marginal marine environments from the late devonian of europe ( gross 1956 ; \u00f8rvig 1961 ; cloutier 1996 ) . usually , marine dipnoi lack the morphological features that would indicate that they were air - breathers ( den blaauwen et al . 2005 ) , and no evidence of cranial ribs in the common late devonian marine gogo fauna ( holodipterus , chirodipterus , griphognathus ) ( miles 1977 ) . however , cranial rib articulations and other features suggesting air - gulping behaviour have been found in a new species of rhinodipterus recently discovered from the shallow marine reef environment of the gogo formation , western australia .\na new species of rhinodipterus from the gogo formation of western australia is known from a single incomplete specimen ( wam 09 . 6 . 149 ) and will be described in detail in a separate paper ( clement in preparation ) . the specimen was prepared by one of us ( j . l . ) using weak acetic acid ( 7\u201310 % ) , fortified by mowital b30 consolidant , and coated in a sublimate of ammonium chloride for photography .\nthe pineal and parapineal organs primitively reached close to the skull roof , though there may not have been a pineal foramen ( a foramen is present in dipnorhynchus and powichthys , but absent in all other members of the lungfish total group ) . this condition is characteristic of all known stem group members ( though unknown in rhinodipterus because of specimen damage ) ; the reduced size and height of the pineal - parapineal complex in extant lungfish is derived ( as recognised by stensi\u00f6 1963 [ 50 ] ) . lepidosirenids are more derived than neoceratodus in this regard .\nfigures 2 and 3 show a virtual endocast of the neurocranial cavity of rhinodipterus kimberleyensis . it measures approximately 45 mm in length , and 20 mm at the widest point across the horizontal semicircular canals . the neurocranium is incomplete anteriorly ( snout tip missing ) , and damaged dorsally in the orbito - temporal region [ 31 ] , but otherwise it is complete and uncompressed with many smaller canals for cranial nerves or blood vessels identifiable . the posterior portion of the neural cavity corresponding to the myelencephalic region or hindbrain ( including the labyrinth region ) is particularly well preserved .\ntogether , these patterns build up a picture of rather modest , directional change during the early evolution of lungfish , centered principally on ventral telencephalic expansion and enlargement of the utriculus . this was a prolonged process , as shown by the substantial differences between even the most derived devonian stem group members such as rhinodipterus , and the extant lungfish . stensi\u00f6 ' s ( 1963 : p . 82 [ 50 ] ) assertion , based on chirodipterus wildungensis , that the extant \u2018dipnoan brain had evolved prior to the beginning of the devonian and that since that time it has remained practically unchanged\u2019 is incorrect .\na , youngolepis praecursor ( from chang [ 25 ] , fig . 19 ) ; b , dipnorhynchus sussmilchi ( from campbell and barwick [ 22 ] , fig . 25 ) ; c , \u2018 chirodipterus\u2019 australis ( from miles [ 52 ] , fig . 48 ) ; d , chirodipterus wildungensis ( from s\u00e4ve - s\u00f6derbergh [ 21 ] , fig . 9 ) ; e , griphognathus whitei ( from miles [ 52 ] , fig . 46 ) ; f , rhinodipterus kimberleyensis ( wam 09 . 6 . 149 ) ; g , neoceratodus forsteri ; and h , protopterus annectens ( both from retzius [ 51 ] , plate xxiv ) . not to scale , anterior is to the right .\nthe middle part of the cranial cavity of rhinodipterus is less informative , partly because it is damaged dorsally , but it nevertheless allows some comparisons to be made with the extant genera . the hypophysis appears to have been oriented ventrally as in neoceratodus , not posteroventrally as in lepidosiren [ 14 ] , [ 18 ] and protopterus [ 12 ] . the shape of the mesencephalic - metencephalic cavity suggests the presence of quite large auricles extending forward on either side of a raised middle region of the brain , as in neoceratodus or latimeria . the raised middle region would have comprised the optic tectum and cerebellum , but unfortunately nothing can be said about their morphology and relative proportions beyond the fact that they were narrow in dorsal view .\nthe distribution of cranial ribs is known from the middle devonian to recent lungfish . recorded from howidipterus and barwickia from a middle devonian lacustrine site in australia ( long 1992 ) , they are also present in later taxa such as sagenodus ( schultze & chorn 1997 ) and gnathorhiza ( berman 1976 ) . like the extant taxa , these fishes inhabited freshwater systems exposed to seasonal drying or anoxia , possibly caused by rotting vegetation . fleurantia and scaumenacia from the marginal marine late devonian deposits of quebec also possess cranial ribs ( cloutier 1996 ) , their presence in dipterus from the fluvial old red sandstone of scotland is not confirmed ( ahlberg & trewin 1995 ) . schultze ( 1975 ) was first to record the presence of cranial ribs in rhinodipterus .\nthe evolution of labyrinth morphology over time begs an obvious question : how does it relate to function and behaviour ? the vestibular system in fish is involved in detecting body orientation in three dimensions , and respond to other cues such as gravity and acceleration . clement [ 31 ] previously discussed semicircular morphology and its bearing on locomotive behaviour . the similarity between the labyrinth region of neoceratodus and rhinodipterus ( fig . 4f , g ) drew her to conclude that some late devonian lungfish may have obtained similar functional abilities of the labyrinth as seen in extant taxa . narrower semicircular canals increase sensitivity and are associated with more rapid swimming or accurate maneuverability [ 66 ] . the loss of ampullae , narrowing and heightening ( effectively lengthening ) of the canals - a trend seen over time in lungfish - almost certainly enhances sensitivity .\nthe semicircular canals have already been described in r . kimberleyensis [ 31 ] , the sacculolagena and utricular recess could not be modeled at that time and were thus neglected in that description . these regions are in fact ossified , well preserved and visible from the scan data , measuring close to 20 mm across their widest point ( fig . 2 ) . the sinus superior is laterally compressed and stands vertically ( fig . 3c ) . both the utricular recess and sacculolagena are large , rounded structures . the sacculolagena of rhinodipterus protrudes ventrally below the notochordal chamber , and there is a distinct ventral notch in the sacculolagena ( fig . 3c ) . an expansion in the anterior semicircular canal exists for the anterior ampulla , but the absence of a significant expansion for the posterior ampulla on the posterior semicircular canal [ 31 ] is confirmed .\ndescription : this is a fine example of the lungfish rhinodipterus . it has long been believed that air breathing developed in lungfish living in freshwater habitats , and then spread to marine taxa . specimens of this genus found in australia last year have raised doubts about this long - held hypothesis . the long mouth cavity of this fish coupled with the articulation of the cranial ribs are much like those of the extant freshwater lungfishes of today . while the invasion of freshwater habitats from the marine realm was previously thought to be the driving force in the development of air breathing , this new data has led some researchers to theorise that a drop in ambient oxygen levels was more likely . examples such as this are rarely available . the repaired crack detracts but little from the specimen offered here , the only one i have ever been able to secure .\nrhinodipterus provides the earliest unequivocal evidence of air - gulping adaptations in a marine lungfish . extant lungfish shed little light on the selective pressures of the earliest air - breathing dipnoans . despite the ambiguity of the environment in which air - gulping evolved , this observation raises some interesting phylogenetic implications . do all the air - gulpers belong to a single lineage or did air - gulping evolve more than once in the dipnoi ? such a complex suite of characters as those involved in aerial respiration most probably evolved only once , suggesting that these fishes comprise a monophyletic group ( figure 2 ) , based on the recent phylogenetic analysis of lungfishes by ahlberg et al . ( 2006 ) . we suggest that it was a combination of increased metabolic activity combined with low global oxygen levels that drove the evolution of air - gulping in lungfishes during the devonian period .\nthe presence of rhinodipterus in marine conditions might indicate that these environments were oxygen stressed . many of the exceptionally preserved specimens from gogo show asymmetry ( e . g . variable shape and number of dermal skull bones ) with high levels of variability often present within the same individual ( long & trinajstic in press ) . increasing asymmetry has been shown to occur in animals in stressed habitats ( parsons 1992 ) . the superb state of preservation of the gogo fossils also indicates quick burial and low oxygen levels . while marine conditions were generally better oxygenated than many freshwater environments , there was still sufficient hypoxia in some marine environments to select for air - gulping ( playford & wallace 2001 ) . a large spiracular notch suggests accessory air intake by comparison with extant forms like polypterus . the tetrapodomorph fish gogonasus shows large spiracular openings on top of the skull ( long et al . 2006 ) , indicating that some other gogo fishes may also have been adapting to hypoxic conditions .\na , youngolepis praecursor ( from chang [ 25 ] , fig . 19 ) ; b , dipnorhynchus sussmilchi ( from campbell and barwick [ 22 ] , fig . 25 ) ; c , chirodipterus wildungensis ( from s\u00e4ve - s\u00f6derbergh [ 21 ] , fig . 9 ) ; d , rhinodipterus kimberleyensis ( wam 09 . 6 . 149 ) ; and e , eusthenopteron foordi ( from jarvik [ 69 ] , figs . 57 , 59 ) . not to scale , anterior is to the right , grey arrows indicate telencephalic ventral expansion . abbreviations : n . i , olfactory nerve ; n . ii , optic nerve ; n . iii , oculomotor nerve ; n . iv , trochlear nerve ; n . v , trigeminal nerve ; n . vii , facial nerve ; n . viii , auditory nerve ; n . ix , glossopharyngeal nerve ; n . x , vagus nerve ; pin , pineal gland . colour key : green , telencephalic region ; red , diencephalic region ; blue , mesencephalic region ; yellow , metencephalic and myelencephalic regions ; and orange , labyrinth region .\nthe reconstruction of internal structures in vertebrate fossils has undergone a technical revolution in recent years with the shift from physical serial sectioning or grinding [ 35 ] , [ 36 ] to tomographic techniques based on x - rays or other types of radiation that penetrate the specimen [ 37 ] \u2013 [ 42 ] . while brains themselves are only very rarely preserved [ 43 ] , the study of cranial endocasts as a proxy for brain morphology [ 44 ] is a thriving field . of course , one must take care when interpreting endocasts , especially those of fishes where the brain can incompletely fill the neurocranial cavity [ 14 ] , [ 43 ] . nevertheless , endocasts of exquisitely preserved fossils can provide much information about the relative sizes of different regions of the brain , and thus provide a basis for tentative inferences about the sensory and motor capabilities of the animal [ 45 ] . endocasts are also highly character rich , highlighting an underutilized source of anatomical traits for comparative morphology and cladistic analysis . the cranial endocast of rhinodipterus presented here is the first near - complete cranial cavity of a stem lungfish to be imaged tomographically . it demonstrates both the utility of the technique and the high quality of the anatomical data obtainable from gogo formation material .\nrecent discoveries of tetrapod trackways in 395 myr old tidal zone deposits of poland ( nied\u017awiedzki et al . 2010 nature 463 , 43\u201348 ( doi : 10 . 1038 / nature . 08623 ) ) indicate that vertebrates had already ventured out of the water and might already have developed some air - breathing capacity by the middle devonian . air - breathing in lungfishes is not considered to be a shared specialization with tetrapods , but evolved independently . air - breathing in lungfishes has been postulated as starting in middle devonian times ( ca 385 ma ) in freshwater habitats , based on a set of skeletal characters involved in air - breathing in extant lungfishes . new discoveries described herein of the lungfish rhinodipterus from marine limestones of australia identifies the node in dipnoan phylogeny where air - breathing begins , and confirms that lungfishes living in marine habitats had also developed specializations to breathe air by the start of the late devonian ( ca 375 ma ) . while invasion of freshwater habitats from the marine realm was previously suggested to be the prime cause of aerial respiration developing in lungfishes , we believe that global decline in oxygen levels during the middle devonian combined with higher metabolic costs is a more likely driver of air - breathing ability , which developed in both marine and freshwater lungfishes and tetrapodomorph fishes such as gogonasus .\ndipnoans , or lungfish , are an ancient lineage of osteichthyan fish that first appeared in the early devonian ( chang & yu 1984 ) . today they are represented by three genera , all of which respire bimodally to some extent ( graham 1997 ) . all exist in freshwater environments exposed to seasonal drying or anoxic conditions . lungfish take in air by gulping a bubble in the mouth , thus a large buccal cavity is an intrinsic feature of all modern air - breathing species .\nthe gogo formation is an early to mid - frasnian shallow marine inter - reef shale deposit within a large reef complex in the canning basin , western australia ( playford 1980 ) . gogo has yielded an incredibly diverse fish fauna with over 50 species described so far , more than 10 of which are dipnoans .\nair - gulping specializations first appeared within the dipnoi during the middle devonian ( figure 2 ) , a time of maximum low global oxygen levels ( berner 2006 ) . air - gulping is thought to have evolved to supplement conventional aquatic respiration during this time of low oxygen ( thomson 1969 ) . their adaptations have also been interpreted as for buoyancy control ( graham 1997 ) , to allow the expulsion of excessive carbon dioxide ( thomson 1969 ) , or to supply the heart with an additional source of oxygen ( farmer 1999 ) . however , in many extant fishes including neoceratodus , activity is a stronger stimulus for air breathing than aquatic hypoxia ( johansen et al . 1967 ) . the question remains as to whether such adaptations were environmentally or metabolically induced .\nmarine waters are usually better oxygenated than most freshwater environments because of increased wind - driven mixing and tidal flushing ( graham 1997 ) . this trend contributed to the belief that air - gulping must have evolved in hypoxic or anoxic freshwater conditions . however , while hypoxia in marine environments is generally not as extreme , widespread or prolonged as in freshwater habitats , it does still exist . an expansion of hypoxic waters across continental shelves occurred during the warm climate of the palaeozoic ( berry et al . 1989 ) , with hypoxic conditions common in shallow marine and estuarine areas . despite this , few workers considered that aerial respiration could have evolved in marine waters .\necological radiations of fishes in the devonian are likely to have been associated with increased metabolic costs for greater mobility , and more intensive competition and predation pressures ( graham 1997 ) . the ability to extract additional oxygen could have afforded air - gulping lungfishes the selective advantage of higher rates of metabolic activity , and does not confine their evolution to specific ecological conditions .\nwe thank k . campbell for useful discussion , g . young for comments on the manuscript , and a . warren who discovered the specimen . this work was funded by arc discovery grant dp0772138 .\nstructure and phylogenetic significance of diabolichthys speratus gen . et sp . nov . , a new dipnoan - like form from the lower devonian of eastern yunnan , china\nthe postcranial anatomy of two middle devonian lungfishes ( osteichthyes , dipnoi ) from mt . howitt , victoria , australia\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see the biology letters web site .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncitation : clement am , ahlberg pe ( 2014 ) the first virtual cranial endocast of a lungfish ( sarcopterygii : dipnoi ) . plos one 9 ( 11 ) : e113898 . urltoken\ncopyright : \u00a9 2014 clement , ahlberg . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\ndata availability : the authors confirm that all data underlying the findings are fully available without restriction . all relevant data are within the paper .\nfunding : this work was funded by a wallenberg scholarship from the knut and alice wallenberg foundation , awarded to pea . urltoken . the funder had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nof the extant dipnoans , the neoceratodontid lineage is thought to have diverged from the lepidosirenids ( protopterus and lepidosiren ) as long ago as the permian [ 10 ] , [ 11 ] . as would be expected , the lepidosirenid lungfish are more similar to each other than to neoceratodus , the sole remaining species of the neoceratodontidae . the two lungfish families differ strikingly in a number of morphological features , including their overall body shape , both body and paired fins , skull roof , dentition , and in a number of soft tissue elements including their nervous systems [ 12 ] \u2013 [ 18 ] .\na , latimeria ; b , neoceratodus ; and c , protopterus in dorsal view , modified from northcutt [ 16 ] ; and schematic representations of extant sarcopterygian brains showing brain divisions , latimeria in d , dorsal and e , lateral view ( adapted from niewenhuys [ 19 ] ) ; neoceratodus in f , dorsal ( adapted from northcutt [ 16 ] , [ 17 ] ) and g , lateral view ( adapted from holmgren and van der horst [ 14 ] ) ; and protopterus in h , dorsal view ( adapted from northcutt [ 16 ] ) and i , lepidosiren in lateral view ( adapted from collin [ 18 ] ) . scale bar equals 1 cm . abbreviations : a , auricle ; c , cerebellum ; n . ii , optic nerve ; n . v , trigeminal nerve ; n . x , vagus nerve ; t , telencephalon .\nthe first illustrated endocast of any devonian lungfish was that of chirodipterus wildungensis [ 21 ] . later , a number of uncrushed specimens were used to reconstruct the neurocranial cavity of dipnorhynchus illustrating the relationship between the braincase and the canals for nerves and blood vessels [ 22 ] , [ 23 ] , and again similarly for holodipterus from a single specimen [ 24 ] . partial endocasts of the extinct dipnomorphs youngolepis [ 25 ] and powichthys [ 26 ] , and the porolepiform glyptolepis [ 27 ] are also known , as are those of primitive tetrapodomorphs such as tungsenia [ 28 ] and eusthenopteron [ 29 ] .\nclement 2012 ( wam 09 . 6 . 149 ) from the frasnian gogo formation , was acid - prepared by prof . john a . long ( mv ) , and is currently housed at the west australian museum , perth . the uncrushed specimen was scanned at the australian national university ( anu ) high resolution x - ray computed tomography facility [ 46 ] , with a scan resolution of 55 . 5 microns . three - dimensional modeling and segmentation was completed using the software vgstudio max , version 2 . 2 ( volume graphics inc . , germany ) . permits were not required for the described study , which complied with all relevant regulations .\nwe use the following brain terminology herein : telencephalon and diencephalon comprise the forebrain , the mesencephalon the midbrain , and the hindbrain is composed of the metencephalon and myelencephalon . anteriorly , housed within the olfactory canal , the olfactory tract is an extension of the brain itself ( not a nerve ) . the tract can be expanded into an olfactory bulb anteriorly , usually contained within a nasal sac or cavity [ 47 ] .\n( wam 09 . 6 . 149 ) cranial endocast in a , dorsal ; and b , ventral views .\nabbreviations : n . ii , optic nerve ; n . v , trigeminal nerve ; n . x , vagus nerve .\n( wam 09 . 6 . 149 ) cranial endocast in a , anterior ; b , posterior ; and c , lateral views .\nthe telencephalic region is long ( at least longer than 14 mm ) and slightly broader than the midbrain cavity ( by approx . 0 . 5 mm ) . anteriorly , the endocast has long , slender olfactory canals that are circular in cross - section . they lie close to each other and diverge only narrowly ( fig . 2 ) . the anterior portion of the snout is missing , so the nasal capsules are unknown . the olfactory canals merge with the telencephalic cavity proper in the posterior third of the telencephalic region ; relative to the canals , the cavity bulges ventrally as well as ( to a lesser degree ) laterally and dorsally .\nposterior to the telencephalon , the anterior margin of the diencephalic region is marked by the canals for the optic nerves ( n . ii ) that emerge into the orbits . a small , smoothly rounded ventral protuberance , separated from the telencephalic cavity by a distinct notch , represents the hypophysial fossa ( fig . 2b , 3a , c ) . two pairs of canals for blood vessels emerge from the hypophysial fossa ; anteriorly possibly for the ophthalmic artery and posteriorly possibly for the pituitary vein ( fig . 2b ) . unfortunately this region of the braincase has suffered some damage dorsally , so canals for nerves iii and iv that should emerge from the dorsal part of the cranial cavity are not preserved . the diencephalic , mesencephalic and metencephalic regions are strongly laterally compressed ( between 3 . 5\u20135 . 1 mm in width ) , all slightly narrower than the telencephalic region ( \u22485 . 5 mm ) .\nwide canals for the trigeminal nerves ( n . v ) anterior to the labyrinth region mark the anterior boundary of the myelencephalic region ( fig . 2 ) . while the mesencephalic and metencephalic regions are short , the myelencephalon is longer ( almost the same length as all three preceding regions combined , \u224810 mm ) . dorsally , the supraotic cavities are well defined and carry broad , bulging anterior and posterior prominences ( figs . 2a , 3b ) . in anterior view two deep indentations where the supraotic cavities attach to the cranial cavity can be seen ( fig . 3a ) .\non either side of the specimen , behind the labyrinth region , a thick canal for the vagus nerve ( n . x ) extends posterolaterally . posterior to the vagus nerve , five narrow canals for spinal nerves can be seen extending laterally from the cranial cavity ( figs . 2 , 3b , c ) . moving from the posterior margin of the labyrinth region to the posterior end of the endocast , the cranial cavity gradually narrows by nearly half its width , and also becomes lower . at its most posterior point the cranial cavity has a narrow upright - oval cross - section ( fig . 3b ) .\nthe canal for the notochord is wide and circular in cross - section posteriorly . it gradually narrows and becomes shallower towards the anterior , while simultaneously flexing ventrally to accommodate the ventral expansion of the mesencephalic - metencephalic region of the cranial cavity ; its anterior end lies just posterior to the hypophyseal fossa ( fig . 2b ) .\nobviously care must be taken when interpreting cranial cavity endocasts , especially as the shape of fish brains are generally not constrained as tightly as in other groups such as mammals and birds [ 48 ] , [ 49 ] . however , stensi\u00f6 [ 50 ] noted that the telencephalic and diencephalic regions in neoceratodus very closely reflected the shape of the cranial cavity . moreover , no part of the brain can be larger than the cavity that houses it , and this simple fact places strong constraints on the inferred brain morphology .\nchirodipterus australis from the gogo formation , which has been figured in the same manner as griphognathus whitei [ 52 ] shows some interesting differences from chirodipterus wildungensis . the overall shape of the cranial cavity is similar , again with a well - developed pineal recess , but the telencephalic cavity appears to be proportionately shorter and the olfactory canals are long ( [ 52 ] figs . 17 , 66 ) . in the labyrinth cavity , the utricular recess is much smaller than in the aforementioned taxa ( figure 4c , d ) and the supraotic cavity is small and simple in shape ( [ 52 ] fig . 47 ) . as previously recognized [ 54 ] , these and other features suggest that \u2018chirodipterus\u2019 australis is not closely related to c . wildungensis and should not be assigned to that genus , \u2018c . \u2019 australis is probably a less crownward member of the stem group than c . wildungensis .\nthe stem - group members discussed above are all forms that from a traditional \u2018key character\u2019 perspective would be ( and have been ) deemed conventional \u2018fossil lungfish\u2019 : they possess major components of the modern lungfish character complex such as autostyly , absence of an intracranial joint , and a palatal bite . this contrasts with youngolepis , powichthys and porolepiforms - considered in the next section - which are assigned to the most basal part of the dipnoan stem group in the majority of recent analyses [ 28 ] , [ 55 ] but are not so obviously lungfish - like . the \u2018fossil lungfish\u2019 are all undisputed members of the stem group [ 22 ] , [ 55 ] , [ 56 ] and are always recovered crownward to youngolepis , powichthys and porolepiforms .\nthe cranial cavity of youngolepis ( fig . 5a ) has been described in its entirety [ 25 ] , whereas in powichthys and porolepiforms ( represented here by glyptolepis groenlandica ) the part posterior to the diencephalon is unknown [ 26 ] , [ 27 ] . the telencephalic regions of all three taxa resemble each other , and differ from those of the \u2018fossil lungfish\u2019 as well as extant lungfish , on several points . the telencephalic cavity proper is very short , and the olfactory canals correspondingly long . furthermore , there is no ventral expansion of the telencephalic cavity ; insofar as there is a vertical expansion at all ( in powichthys and glyptolepis , but not in youngolepis ) it is dorsal to the exits of the olfactory canals . in eusthenopteron ( figure 5e ) , tungsenia and spodichthys , which are members of the tetrapod stem group and can thus be used as an outgroup in this context , the telencephalic cavity is longer than in youngolepis , powichthys and glyptolepis , but there is again no obvious ventral expansion [ 28 ] , [ 29 ] , [ 57 ] . all six genera have large anterodorsally directed pineal recesses . the otic region of youngolepis closely resembles that of eusthenopteron ( fig . 5a , e ) : the utricular recess is not enlarged , the sinus superior is low , and the supraotic cavity resembles that of griphognathus .\nprimitively , the nasal cavities are separated from the telencephalic cavity by long olfactory canals . although the exact location of the olfactory bulb within the cranial cavities of the fossil forms is not strongly constrained ( see jarvik 1980 : fig . 89 , for one attempt at reconstruction [ 29 ] ) , it is clear that pedunculate olfactory bulbs are primitive for the lungfish total group . sessile bulbs are a derived feature of lepidosirenids .\nthe telencephalon proper is primitively short . all extant lungfish have a longer telencephalon than the stem group members . lepidosirenids are more derived than neoceratodus in this regard .\na ventral expansion of the telencephalon is primitively absent ( as shown by youngolepis , powichthys and glyptolepis ) , but begins to develop in conjunction with other aspects of lungfish morphology such as autostyly and a palatal bite . dipnorhynchus and all more crownward stem lungfish have such an expansion , but it is smaller than that of modern lungfish .\nan expanded utriculus develops gradually within the lungfish stem group , crownward of dipnorhynchus . the utriculi of extant lungfish are larger than those of any stem group members , but once again the lepidosirenids are much more derived than neoceratodus .\nthe neuroanatomy of extant lungfish allow us to draw some tentative conclusions about the functional significance of the telencephalic expansion . in neoceratodus the part of the telencephalon that lies ventral to the plane of the olfactory tract consists entirely of the subpallium [ 14 ] . this region of the brain appears to deal substantially with olfaction , and we can probably conclude that the ventral expansion of the telencephalon during lungfish evolution related functionally to the development of an enhanced sense of smell [ 19 ] . conversely , the mesencephalon , which receives visual input , is proportionately small in both stem and crown lungfish , relative to most actinopterygians and chondrichthyans .\nthere are surprisingly few studies on lobe - finned fish labyrinths , despite the likely insights they could provide into the transition of the early tetrapods [ 58 ] \u2013 [ 60 ] . retzius [ 51 ] was the first to describe them in lungfish , millot and anthony [ 61 ] for the coelacanth . later authors have expanded this work [ 62 ] \u2013 [ 65 ] . latimeria is considered to have an labyrinth region \u201cwith tetrapod affinities\u201d [ 62 ] , whereas the dipnoan labyrinth has been described as having a mix of chondrichthyan and lissamphibian features [ 64 ] .\nthe functional significance of the striking utricular expansion in the dipnoi is surprisingly difficult to determine . early literature considered the utricule most important for postural control ( particularly horizontal movement ) , whereas the sacculolagena was considered to have a more auditory role [ 67 ] . however , more recent literature suggests that all otolith organs may have both auditory and vestibular roles [ 67 ] , often varying between different fish species [ 68 ] . although conclusions can ' t be drawn without experimental evidence , the changing proportions of labyrinth organs likely indicate an altered sensitivity of the vestibular system with respect to posture control , and may or may not have had an additional role in hearing .\nthanks are due to a number of people , firstly prof . john long who led the 2008 museum victoria / australian national university gogo expedition , funded by arc discovery grant dp 0772138 , during which dr . anne warren discovered the specimen , prof . john long also prepared the specimen . we are indebted to prof . t . senden of australian national university for scanning the specimen , and many thanks are also due to dr . sophie sanchez for assistance with three - dimensional modeling and rendering of the specimen . the manuscript was improved by three helpful reviews , and amc wishes to acknowledge dr . tom challands for valuable discussions concerning lungfish endocast morphology .\nconceived and designed the experiments : amc pea . performed the experiments : amc . analyzed the data : amc pea . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : amc pea . wrote the paper : amc pea .\ngen . et sp . nov . , a new dipnoan - like form from the lower devonian of eastern yunnan , china . proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales 107 : 171\u2013184 .\nfrom the xishancun formation ( early lochkovian ) of qujing , china . geobios ms 19 : 293\u2013299 .\nclack ja ( 2011 ) the fossil record of lungfishes . in : j\u00f8rgensen jm , joss jeditors . the biology of lungfishes . enfield , usa : science publishers .\ncloutier r ( 1996 ) dipnoi ( akinetia : sarcopterygii ) . in : schultze hp , cloutier reditors . devonian fishes and plants of miguasha , quebec , canada munich : verlag dr friedrich pfeil . pp . 198\u2013226 .\nahlberg pe ( 1991 ) a re - 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{"id": 2009, "summary": [{"text": "malo kingi or the common kingslayer is an irukandji jellyfish named after victim robert king , a tourist from the united states swimming off port douglas , queensland , who died from its sting .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it was first described to science in 2007 , and is one of four species in genus malo .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it has some of the world 's most potent venom , even though it is no bigger than a human thumbnail .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "as an irukandji , it can cause irukandji syndrome , characterized by severe pain , vomiting , and rapid rise in blood pressure . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "malo kingi", "paragraphs": ["two malo kingi specimens , opaque due to preservation . credit : lisa - anne gershwin\nno one has contributed data records for malo kingi yet . learn how to contribute .\nsynonymy straehler - pohl 2014 suggests that malo kingi is a junior synonym of malo maxima . no genetic data included . [ details ]\nmalo kingi , the common kingslayer . credit : gondwanagirl ; distributed under a cc - by 2 . 0 license\nmalo kingi : a new species of irukandji jellyfish ( cnidaria : cubozoa : carybdeida ) , possibly lethal to humans , from queensland , australia .\n( l ) the halo - form tentacle of an adult malo kingi . ( r ) . tentacle of a young pseudo - irukandji form lacking the species ' characteristic halos . credit : lisa - anne gershwin .\ngershwin , l . 2007 . malo kingi : a new species of irukandji jellyfish ( cnidaria : cubozoa : carybdeida ) , possibly lethal to humans . zootaxa 1659 : 55\u201368 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\naww look at this tiny jelly ! the common kingslayer ( malo kingi ) is only about 5 millimetres ( 0 . 20 in ) to 25 millimetres ( 0 . 98 in ) wide ( or wider ) and has four long tentacles , which can range in length from just a few centimeters up to 1 metre ( 3 . 3 ft ) in length . wait . wait a sec . why is it called the common kingslayer ? that sounds just a taaaad bit ominous , no ?\na number of nematocysts were recovered from king ' s body and clothing , and were examined by australian jellyfish expert and csiro researcher , lisa - anne gershwin . in her 2007 zootaxa paper she concluded that these nematocysts were like none she ' d ever seen before . she compared cells from these nematocysts with those from several specimens of a new species she had found in 1999 , and it was a perfect match . in 2007 , gershwin named this new species malo kingi , after the scientist it felled .\nsome species of box jellyfish ( cubozoans ) can weigh up to 2 kg , but many are absolutely tiny . like the bell - shaped body of c . barnesi , m . kingi ' s bell grows to no more than 3 cm high . and not only is m . kingi tiny , it ' s also transparent , making it extremely difficult to spot in the water . the species is distinguished from all others by having strange halo - like rings of tissue encircling its four tentacles .\nstraehler - pohl , i . ( 2014 ) . critical evaluation of characters for species identification in the cubomedusa genus malo ( cnidaria , cubozoa , carybdeida , carukiidae ) . plankton and benthos researchm . 9 ( 2 ) : 83\u201398 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\ngershwin reported that m . kingi ' s danger to humans has been ambiguous , citing several attacks that have resulted in only minor symptoms . in the 1960s , australian medical toxicologist , jack h . barnes , tested the venom of a m . kingi specimen in his collection , and got off lightly . in his report , barnes even named his attacker ' pseudo - irukandji ' , because of its inability to inflict the full force of irukandji syndrome . gershwin noted that barnes happened to choose the smallest , and likely youngest , specimen in his collection , and argued that a life in captivity could have messed with the jellyfish ' s toxicity levels :\ngershwin looked into a number of other non - fatal m . kingi attacks , and found that none of them could be attributed to an adult specimen .\nit is possible that as pseudo - irukandji matures , it concurrently changes its physical and chemical properties , becoming lethal with halo - form tentacle bands ,\nshe concluded . so if you ' re going to have an encounter with the kingslayer , make sure it ' s a baby one .\nin 2003 , while investigating king ' s death , gershwin suffered a m . kingi sting herself , and just like barnes , her symptoms were mild . her attacker was also small , and gershwin noted that it was missing the distinctive halo - form tentacles , plus gonads , suggesting to her that it was a juvenile .\ni was personally stung quite extensively across the palms of both hands by this species in june 2003 at port douglas , without systemic effects ,\nshe wrote .\nhowever , both hands blistered badly and several layers of skin completely peeled about one week after the sting event . the specimen proved to be immature when examined , and was subsequently used for dna analysis .\nto use this website , cookies must be enabled in your browser . to enable cookies , follow the instructions for your browser below .\nthere is a specific issue with the facebook in - app browser intermittently making requests to websites without cookies that had previously been set . this appears to be a defect in the browser which should be addressed soon . the simplest approach to avoid this problem is to continue to use the facebook app but not use the in - app browser . this can be done through the following steps :\nbefore the cookie settings change will take effect , safari must restart . to restart safari press and hold the home button ( for around five seconds ) until the iphone / ipad display goes blank and the home screen appears .\na note about relevant advertising : we collect information about the content ( including ads ) you use across this site and use it to make both advertising and content more relevant to you on our network and other sites . this is also known as online behavioural advertising . you can find out more about our policy and your choices , including how to opt - out here .\n\u201chow\u2019s it feel , kingslayer , to have all the gold in the world but it won\u2019t buy your sword hand back ? \u201c \u201ca minor setback , if truth be told .\na minor setback , if truth be told . but look - i have spares !\nthis tiny species of jellyfish is one of the most venomous creatures in the world . thanks to its role in the death of robert king , a nestl\u00e9 research scientist from ohio , it has been nicknamed the common kingslayer .\nin 2002 king had travelled to australia with his partner to spend some time snorkelling in opal reef , which is just off port douglas in queensland . earlier that year , british tourist richard jordan had been stung by a jellyfish 700 km away on hamilton island . the venom from the sting brought on irukandji syndrome , and jordon was its first documented fatality . named after a local indigenous australian tribe near cairns in queensland , irukandji syndrome is brought on by a sting from one of 10 species of venomous jellyfish found in tropical and temperate oceans around the world . many of them are found in australian waters .\n( and now would be a good time to mention that there ' s a book by sydney - based author , wendy lewis , that recounts king and jordon ' s tragic encounters with these jellyfish called see australia and die . see australia and die . help i live here and my cat brings spiders into my house through the window . )\nwhile rarely fatal , irukandji syndrome sends most of its victims to hospital . it takes 5 - 10 minutes after the sting for symptoms to set in , but when they do , they ' re excruciating . a typical set of symptoms includes severe lower back pain , vomiting and muscle cramps , and if particularly serious , could result in toxic heart failure , fluid on the lungs or a brain haemorrhage . around 30 % of cases result in some form of heart failure , and one in five victims suffer life - threatening complications and end up on life support .\nscale illustration of the irukandji jellyfish , carukia barnesi . credit : anynobody ; distributed under a cc - by 2 . 0 license\njellyfish deliver venom via nematocysts . when a jellyfish ' s tentacle touches its victim , these little harpoon - shaped darts fire into the victim ' s skin to deliver venom into the bloodstream . no nematocysts were recovered from jordan ' s body , which made it difficult to nail down a culprit , but it ' s widely assumed that he was stung by carukia barnesi , a box jellyfish species from the whitsundays area commonly known as the irukandji jellyfish .\nhis specimens had been in captivity for hours prior to the stinging experiment ; the degree to which the condition of the animal affects its sting ability is undocumented , but i have often observed cubozoans stinging each other and the sides of the collecting container . it is not difficult to imagine that they could have expended much of their stinging ability without sufficient time to regenerate it .\norder my book , zombie tits , astronaut fish and other weird animals from amazon .\nthe views expressed are those of the author ( s ) and are not necessarily those of scientific american .\nbec crew is a sydney - based science writer and award - winning blogger . she is the author of ' zombie tits , astronaut fish and other weird animals ' ( newsouth press ) .\nyou\u2019re about to get the stink bugs , america . but no , they won\u2019t be man - faced .\ndiscover world - changing science . explore our digital archive back to 1845 , including articles by more than 150 nobel prize winners .\nscientific american is part of springer nature , which owns or has commercial relations with thousands of scientific publications ( many of them can be found at urltoken ) . scientific american maintains a strict policy of editorial independence in reporting developments in science to our readers .\ncollins , a . g . ; jarms , g . ( 2018 ) . world list of cubozoa .\nhabitat : mostly australia but has been found of the coast of japan and florida . status : not evaluted\nwell\u2026 upon further research , this itty - bitty jelly is so cute it might kill you . no , really . and not from like the sheer adorableness of it\u2026 but from its insanely poisonous sting . this species of box jellyfish was described as recently as 2007 after an 44 year - old american tourist by the name of robert king was swimming in australian waters and encountered this minute box jellyfish . he was stung and died soon after . that\u2019s where i\u2019s morbid name of \u2018common kingslayer\u2019 comes from ( after robert king ) .\ncarly brooke is the animal - obsessed founder and author of the award - winning animal website , the featured creature . com , where little - known species become known .\ni have a confession : i love animals . join me and the rest of the featured creature community as we learn about the weirdest , coolest , and craziest animals out there . including your dog , mr . scrufflebutt ( if you submit him ! ) .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 0b1ea70c - fe09 - 4e24 - 99c4 - 7453e3779c30\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : c4be67ba - 0eda - 4449 - 9637 - 55ada058fb3e\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 598879\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\ndeadly snakes vs albino alligator ! ! ! ep . 429 : snakebytestv : animalbytestv\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncopyright \u00a9 1995 to 2015 , james cook university . all rights reserved . abn 46253211955 member of innovative research universities feedback | terms of use | privacy statement | cricos provider code : 00117j\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the annotation score provides a heuristic measure of the annotation content of a uniprotkb entry or proteome . this score < strong > cannot < / strong > be used as a measure of the accuracy of the annotation as we cannot define the \u2018correct annotation\u2019 for any given protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / annotation _ score ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this indicates the type of evidence that supports the existence of the protein . note that the \u2018protein existence\u2019 evidence does not give information on the accuracy or correctness of the sequence ( s ) displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ existence ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides any useful information about the protein , mostly biological knowledge . < p > < a href = ' / help / function _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000256\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information about the protein and gene name ( s ) and synonym ( s ) and about the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / names _ and _ taxonomy _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides an exhaustive list of all names of the protein , from commonly used to obsolete , to allow unambiguous identification of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ names ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been imported from another database using automatic procedures . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000313\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section indicates the name ( s ) of the gene ( s ) that code for the protein sequence ( s ) described in the entry . four distinct tokens exist : \u2018name\u2019 , \u2018synonyms\u2019 , \u2018ordered locus names\u2019 and \u2018orf names\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides information on the name ( s ) of the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / organism - name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section shows the unique identifier assigned by the ncbi to the source organism of the protein . this is known as the \u2018taxonomic identifier\u2019 or \u2018taxid\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ identifier ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section contains the taxonomic hierarchical classification lineage of the source organism . it lists the nodes as they appear top - down in the taxonomic tree , with the more general grouping listed first . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ lineage ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section describes post - translational modifications ( ptms ) and / or processing events . < p > < a href = ' / help / ptm _ processing _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018ptm / processing\u2019 section denotes the presence of an n - terminal signal peptide . < p > < a href = ' / help / signal ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018ptm / processing\u2019 section describes the extent of a polypeptide chain in the mature protein following processing . < p > < a href = ' / help / chain ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on sequence similarities with other proteins and the domain ( s ) present in a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / family _ and _ domains _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> family and domains < / a > section describes the position and type of a domain , which is defined as a specific combination of secondary structures organized into a characteristic three - dimensional structure or fold . < p > < a href = ' / help / domain ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000259\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018family and domains\u2019 section denotes the positions of regions of coiled coil within the protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / coiled ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > uniprotkb keywords constitute a < a href =\nurltoken\n> controlled vocabulary < / a > with a hierarchical structure . keywords summarise the content of a uniprotkb entry and facilitate the search for proteins of interest . < p > < a href = ' / help / keywords ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section displays by default the canonical protein sequence and upon request all isoforms described in the entry . it also includes information pertinent to the sequence ( s ) , including < a href =\nurltoken\n> length < / a > and < a href =\nurltoken\n> molecular weight < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequences _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is complete or not . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the checksum is a form of redundancy check that is calculated from the sequence . it is useful for tracking sequence updates . < / p > < p > it should be noted that while , in theory , two different sequences could have the same checksum value , the likelihood that this would happen is extremely low . < / p > < p > however uniprotkb may contain entries with identical sequences in case of multiple genes ( paralogs ) . < / p > < p > the checksum is computed as the sequence 64 - bit cyclic redundancy check value ( crc64 ) using the generator polynomial : x < sup > 64 < / sup > + x < sup > 4 < / sup > + x < sup > 3 < / sup > + x + 1 . the algorithm is described in the iso 3309 standard . < / p > < p class =\npublication\n> press w . h . , flannery b . p . , teukolsky s . a . and vetterling w . t . < br / > < strong > cyclic redundancy and other checksums < / strong > < br / > < a href =\nurltoken\n> numerical recipes in c 2nd ed . , pp896 - 902 , cambridge university press ( 1993 ) < / a > ) < / p >\n< p > this section is used to point to information related to entries and found in data collections other than uniprotkb . < p > < a href = ' / help / cross _ references _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides general information on the entry . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ information _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides a mnemonic identifier for a uniprotkb entry , but it is not a stable identifier . each reviewed entry is assigned a unique entry name upon integration into uniprotkb / swiss - prot . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides one or more accession number ( s ) . these are stable identifiers and should be used to cite uniprotkb entries . upon integration into uniprotkb , each entry is assigned a unique accession number , which is called \u2018primary ( citable ) accession number\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / accession _ numbers ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section shows the date of integration of the entry into uniprotkb , the date of the last sequence update and the date of the last annotation modification ( \u2018last modified\u2019 ) . the version number for both the entry and the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > are also displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ history ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section indicates whether the entry has been manually annotated and reviewed by uniprotkb curators or not , in other words , if the entry belongs to the swiss - prot section of uniprotkb ( < strong > reviewed < / strong > ) or to the computer - annotated trembl section ( < strong > unreviewed < / strong > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 ."]}
{"id": 2017, "summary": [{"text": "emeraldella is a genus of arthropod known from the middle cambrian burgess shale .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "21 specimens of emeraldella are known from the greater phyllopod bed , where they comprise < 0.1 % of the community . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "emeraldella", "paragraphs": ["other deposits : emeraldella sp ? from the marjum formation , house range , utah , usa .\nemeraldella brocki is very rare in the walcott quarry ( less than 0 . 01 % of the community , caron and jackson , 2008 ) .\nemeraldella is a rare arthropod of relatively large body size that belongs with the trilobite - like arthropods , artiopoda . e . brutoni n . sp . from the wheeler formation of west - central utah is the second species described and marks the first confirmed occurrence of emeraldella outside the burgess shale of british columbia . an articulated , flagelliform telson , similar to that of the burgess shale taxon molaria , is recognized in emeraldella . evidence for the presence of lamellae on the exopods of molaria is presented , supporting affinity of that taxon with artiopoda . a close relationship between emeraldella and molaria is tentatively suggested , based on the morphology of tergites and telson .\nemeraldella brocki was first described by walcott ( 1912 ) . bruton and whittington ( 1983 ) restudied the material in detail , clarifying many aspects of the animal\u2019s morphology . one possible specimen of emeraldella has also been described from the marjum formation in utah ( briggs and robison , 1984 ) . further work examining the phylogenetic placement of emeraldella and the arachnomorphs has been conducted by hou and bergstr\u00f6m ( 1997 ) , wills et al . ( 1998 ) , edgecombe and ramsk\u00f6ld ( 1999 ) , budd ( 2002 ) , cotton and braddy ( 2004 ) , scholtz and edgecombe ( 2006 ) and hendricks and lieberman ( 2008 ) .\nemeraldella \u2013 from emerald lake , peak , pass , river and glacier north of burgess pass , british columbia , canada . emerald lake was named by guide tom wilson in 1882 for the remarkable deep green colour of the water .\nbruton , d . l . and h . b . whittington . 1983 . emeraldella and leanchoilia , two arthropods from the burgess shale , middle cambrian , british columbia . philosophical transactions of the royal society of london b , 300 : 553 - 582 .\nemeraldella bella is a problematic animal that also occurs in the burgess shale that is usually considered a primitive soft - bodied arthropod of uncertain class . research has also suggested that the animal belongs to a clade related to chelicerata that includes the spiders and scorpions ( araneida ) , horseshoe crabs ( xiphosura ) and the extinct sea scorpions ( eurypterida ) . this specimen is exceptional and rare in the marjum formation of utah and is shown here with both part and counterpart . emeraldella also has some similarities to parapaleomerus sinensis from the chengjiang biota .\ndescription : this unusual specimen has trilobitomorph features , and has as yet not been described in the literature . it is thought to have affinities with the burgess shale genus emeraldella . notice that the pointed telson is present , a feature not always preserved with either the trilobitomorphs or the aglaspidids of the region . notice too the strong segmentation evident in this part / counterpart example .\nemeraldella is of uncertain phylogenetic affinity due to the paucity of specimens . it was previously placed in the arachnomorphs , as closely allied either with the chelicerates ( wills et al . 1998 ; cotton and braddy , 2004 ; hendricks and lieberman , 2008 ) or the trilobites and lamellipedians ( hou and bergstr\u00f6m , 1997 ; edgecombe and ramsk\u00f6ld , 1999 ; scholtz and edgecombe , 2006 ) , but it has also been considered as a stem - lineage euarthropod ( budd , 2002 ) .\nthe trunk of emeraldella has eleven broad segments with curved , smooth margins . each segment has a pair of biramous limbs similar to the ones of the head . behind the trunk segments are two cylindrical body tergites and a long , tapering posterior spine . a dark band running the length of the trunk and into the base of the posterior spine may be the alimentary canal . in the head region , the alimentary canal is u - shaped as it leads forward and upwards from the backward - facing mouth .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nbrocki \u2013 for reginald walter brock , director of the geological survey of canada from 1907 to 1914 .\nlectotype \u2013 usnm 57702 in the national museum of natural history , smithsonian institution , washington , dc , usa .\nmiddle cambrian , bathyuriscus - elrathina zone ( approximately 505 million years ago ) .\nthe body consists of a semicircular head shield , segmented trunk and elongated posterior spine , with total body length ( excluding spine and antennae ) ranging between 1 . 1 cm and 6 . 5 cm . with antennae and spine the entire animal would have reached up to 15 cm in length . the body is convex in cross - section and tapers along the posterior half of the trunk . the head shield is smooth , with no evidence of eyes . a pair of long , flexible antennae consisting of over 110 short segments with bristled junctions is attached to the ventral surface at the front of the head . the mouth is ventral and faces backwards . behind the antennae are five pairs of biramous limbs with a segmented inner branch and a lobed outer branch . the inner branch has six podomeres , including the gnathobase ( a robust and spiny basal podomere or segment used for crushing food items ) , four adjacent podomeres that also bear spines , and a slender terminal podomere armed with three sharp claws . the outer branch of the biramous limb is broad and has three main lobes with filaments and blades .\nthe inner branches of the biramous limbs were likely used for walking on the sea floor , especially the middle eight or nine limbs , which were longer than the posterior limbs . spines on the inner margin of the walking limbs could have been used to grasp soft prey items , and the terminal claws would push food towards the ventral gnathobases . these strong spiny plates would then shred the food and pass it along the underside of the body towards the mouth . the antennae were used to explore the environment and search for live prey or carcasses , perhaps by ploughing through the soft sediment . while the head was tilted down in the search for food , the posterior segments of the body and the posterior spine may have flexed upwards for balance . the outer limb lobes likely served as gills for respiration . the animal might have been capable of short bursts of swimming , using its broad outer limb branches to propel itself through the water using a wave - like motion .\nbriggs , d . e . g . and r . a . robison . 1984 . exceptionally preserved non - trilobite arthropods and anomalocaris from the middle cambrian of utah . the university of kansas paleontological contributions , 111 : 1 - 24 .\nbudd , g . e . 2002 . a palaeontological solution to the arthropod head problem . nature , 417 : 271 - 275 .\ncaron , j . - b . and d . a . jackson . 2008 . paleoecology of the greater phyllopod bed community , burgess shale . palaeogeography , palaeoclimatology , palaeoecology , 258 : 222 - 256 .\ncotton , t . j . and s . j . braddy . 2004 . the phylogeny of arachnomorph arthropods and the origin of the chelicerata . transactions of the royal society of edinburgh - earth sciences , 94 : 169 - 193 .\nedgecombe , g . d . and l . ramsk\u00f6ld . 1999 . relationships of cambrian arachnata and the systematic position of trilobita . journal of paleontology , 73 : 263 - 287 .\nhendricks , j . r . and b . s . lieberman . 2008 . phylogenetic insights into the cambrian radiation of arachnomorph arthropods . journal of paleontology , 82 : 585 - 594 .\nhou , x . and j . bergstr\u00f6m . 1997 . arthropods of the lower cambrian chengjiang fauna , southwest china . fossils and strata , 45 : 1 - 116 .\nscholtz , g . and g . d . edgecombe . 2006 . the evolution of arthropod heads : reconciling morphological , developmental and palaeontological evidence . development genes and evolution , 216 : 395 - 415 .\nwalcott , c . d . 1912 . middle cambrian branchiopoda , malacostraca , trilobita and merostomata . smithsonian miscellaneous collections , 57 : 145 - 228 .\nwills , m . a . , d . e . g . briggs , r . a . fortey , m . wilkinson , and p . h . sneath . 1998 . an arthropod phylogeny based on fossil and recent taxa . pp . 33 - 105 . in g . d . edgecombe ( ed . ) , arthropod fossils and phylogeny . columbia university press , new york .\nhou & bergstr\u00f6m , 1997 : arthropods of the lower cambrian chengjiang fauna , southwest china . - - fossils & strata , number 45 , 22nd december 1997 , pp . 1 - 116 briggs d . e . g . , and r . a . robison . 1984 . exceptionally preserved non trilobite arthropods and anomalocaris from the middle cambrian of utah . university of kansas paleontological contributions , paper 111 : 1 - 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6414 , 711 tty .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nparent taxon : arachnomorpha according to d . e . g . briggs et al . 2008\ndepartment of earth sciences , university of cambridge , sedgwick museum , downing street , cambridge cb2 3eq , u . k .\nthis text was harvested from a scanned image of the original document using optical character recognition ( ocr ) software . as such , it may contain errors . please contact the royal society if you find an error you would like to see corrected . mathematical notations produced through infty ocr .\nyou may be able to gain access using your login credentials for your institution . contact your library if you do not have a username and password .\npay per article - you may access this article or this issue ( from the computer you are currently using ) for 30 days .\nregain access - you can regain access to a recent pay per article or pay per issue purchase if your access period has not yet expired .\nthank you for your interest in spreading the word on philosophical transactions of the royal society b : biological sciences .\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see the philosophical transactions of the royal society b : biological sciences web site .\nfull - 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{"id": 2020, "summary": [{"text": "hypsoblennius exstochilus , the longhorn blenny , is a species of combtooth blenny found in the western central atlantic ocean .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "this species grows to a length of 5 centimetres ( 2.0 in ) tl . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "hypsoblennius exstochilus", "paragraphs": ["ever since i first saw a photo of a longhorn blenny \u2014 hypsoblennius exstochilus \u2014 many years ago , the rare little caribbean fish with cirri extending from its head like a pair of telephone communication towers has been on my wish list of must - see animals . that is until we are enticed to explore bonaire\u2019s \u201cwild side\u201d with bas tol , premier dive guide and king of the island\u2019s lionfish slayers , with a promise of finding our long - sought prize hiding in the surge - swept shallows lining a blustery bay on the windy eastern shore .\ngreek , hypsi = high + greek , blennios = mucus ( ref . 45335 )\nwestern central atlantic : bahamas ( ref . 5521 ) and cuba ( ref . 26340 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 5 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 26340 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 11 - 12 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 13 - 15 ; anal spines : 2 ; anal soft rays : 15 - 16 . gill opening extending ventrally to opposite 4th - 7th pectoral - fin ray ; segmented dorsal - fin rays 13 - 15 ; segmented pelvic - fin rays 3 ; last dorsal - fin spine 8 . 5 - 15 . 5 % sl ; dorsal - fin spines slender and flexible ; elongate fleshy flap , which usually projects laterally , present posteriorly on lower lip ; infraorbital bones 4 .\nadults inhabit shallow rocky areas ( ref . 5521 ) . oviparous . eggs are demersal and adhesive ( ref . 205 ) , and are attached to the substrate via a filamentous , adhesive pad or pedestal ( ref . 94114 ) . larvae are planktonic , often found in shallow , coastal waters ( ref . 94114 ) .\nb\u00f6hlke , j . e . and c . c . g . chaplin , 1993 . fishes of the bahamas and adjacent tropical waters . 2nd edition . university of texas press , austin . ( ref . 5521 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00741 ( 0 . 00330 - 0 . 01663 ) , b = 3 . 00 ( 2 . 80 - 3 . 20 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 9 \u00b10 . 2 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 11 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) . 2014 . catalog of fishes . updated 27 august 2014 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 august 2014 ) .\nsmith - vaniz , w . f . , williams , j . t . , eytan , r . i . & smith , m . l .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis species is distributed in the western atlantic from the bahamas ( b\u00f6hlke and chaplin 1993 ) , and in the caribbean from cuba ( claro 1994 ) , jamaica , and puerto rico to the virgin islands ( williams 2002 ) .\nbahamas ; cuba ; jamaica ; puerto rico ; virgin islands , u . s .\nthis species is known from approximately a dozen specimens ( b\u00f6hlke and chaplin 1993 ) .\nthis species is found in rocky areas in water less than 6m deep . typically these areas have rather strong wave action and an eroded bottom that was usually studded with small corals and sea - fans ( b\u00f6hlke and chaplin 1993 ) . it is oviparous , has distinct pairing , and its eggs are demersal and adhesive ( breder and rosen 1966 ) .\nsmith - vaniz , w . f . , williams , j . t . , eytan , r . i . & smith , m . l . 2014 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nbeginner ' s aquarium guide ep . 1 - blennies ( + nano news )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nclaro , rodolfo , and lynne r . parenti / claro , rodolfo , kenyon c . lindeman , and l . r . parenti , eds .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\napril 17th is national haiku poetry day and to celebrate , we offer blenny haiku . please , no judging or heckling \u2013 just having a little fun here \u2013 but feel free to contribute your own by commenting at the end of this post . sneaky fangblenny in cleaning stations you lurk no do - gooder , you spinyhead blenny often\u2026\nbonaire , september 2013 ~ week 3 of our blenny challenge and we\u2019re a bit silly and punchy from being tossed around in the surf . we wanted to explore the east side of the island \u2013 the windward , or wild side as it is known \u2013 but conditions have to be absolutely perfect in order for\u2026\nbonaire , september 2012 ~ a new species for our life lists but the longhorn blenny images did not come easily . ned describes our adventure in the latest post about our september stay with buddy dive in bonaire over on our travel journal : urltoken but i just had to share another super close - up blenny face here : \u2026\nmarine life observations from anna & ned deloach . for stories and photos from our life underwater ,\nmoderately elongate ; short robust head , with very steep front profile ; a very long cirrus with a thick central stalk covered with rear - pointing branches over eye , no cirri at nostrils or on nape ; an elongate fleshy flap at rear end of lower lip ; teeth with blunt flattened tips , in single rows , not movable , no canines on either jaw ; gill openings restricted to sides of body by fusion of gill cover membranes to throat ; dorsal fin xi - xiii ( spines slender and flexible ) , 13 - 16 , with a slight notch between the spiny and soft parts ; pelvic fins i , 3 ; fin rays unbranched , except on tail fin ; lateral line ends under end of spiny dorsal fin ; no scales .\nyellowish ; a dark brown bar down through eye to lower body and up along main shaft of eye cirrus ; front and sides of head heavily mottled with white ; white mottling along upper back and front ~ 6 spines of dorsal fin , a dark spot centered on 2nd dorsal spine .\nit takes two weeks before the prevailing winds calm sufficiently for us to tackle the shore entry into the rockycove where the blennies make their home . burdened with extra weights , we stumble our way through the minefield of ankle - twisting rocks until we can at last plunge into the relative safety of waist - deep waves .\nas the bubbles clear , we find ourselves swimming over an algae garden stretching as far as our eyes can see . within 10 minutes , we find our first blenny poking its head out of a rock hole half - hidden among the billowing fronds . but such glimpses are brief as swells lift us up and away , and we kick , tumble , and struggle for control . with three of us hunting , we locate a longhorn about every 10 minutes or so in depths from three to 10 feet . as it turns out , our blenny hunt is the perfect mission : conditions hover at the edge of doable , yet it\u2019s sufficiently daunting to make for a lively tale . \u2014 story and photo by ned and anna deloach\nmany products featured on this site were editorially chosen . scuba diving may receive financial compensation for products purchased through this site .\nurltoken is part of the bonnier dive group , a division of bonnier corporation .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 scuba diving . a bonnier corporation company . all rights reserved . reproduction in whole or in part without permission is prohibited ."]}
{"id": 2024, "summary": [{"text": "trichonotus is a genus of marine perciform fishes .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "species of trichonotus are distributed throughout the indo-west pacific .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "this genus is the only member of the family trichonotidae . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "trichonotus", "paragraphs": ["kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nsatulakaivautuja\nto\ntrichonotus setiger bloch and schneider , 1801\n.\njustification : trichonotus filamentosus is widely distributed . there are no known major threats . it is assessed as least concern .\nkatayama , e . , h . motomura and h . endo , 2012 . a new species of trichonotus ( perciformes : trichonotidae ) from somalia and redescription of trichonotus cyclograptus ( alcock , 1890 ) with designation of a lectotype . zootaxa 3565 : 31 - 43 . ( ref . 93824 )\na male elegant sand diver , trichonotus elegans , at tulamben , bali , indonesia . source : klaus stiefel / flickr . license : cc by attribution - noncommercial\njustification : trichonotus elegans is widespread throughout the indo - west pacific and can be locally abundant . there are no known major threats . it is assessed as least concern .\ntrichonotus elegans shimada & yoshino , 1984 , japan . j . ichthyol . 31 ( 1 ) : 15 , figs 1 - 4 . type locality : yaeyama islands , japan .\nclark , e . & k . von schmidt , 1966 . a new species of trichonotus ( pisces , trichonotidae ) from the red sea . bull . sea fish . res . sta . , haifa 42 : 29\u201336 .\ndorsal soft rays ( total ) : 39 - 41 . trichonotus halstead is similar to t . setiger but has a beautifully colored dorsal fin ( ref . 48636 ) . no free pterygiophores under dorsal fin ( ref 12934 ) .\nclark , e . and m . pohle , 1996 . trichonotus halstead , a new sand - diving fish from papua new guinea . environ . biol . fish . 45 ( 1 ) : 1 - 11 . ( ref . 26146 )\nrandall , j . e . and a . b . tarr , 1994 . trichonotus arabicus ( perciformes : trichonotidae ) , a new species of sand diver from the arabian gulf and oman . fauna of saudi arabia 14 : 309 - 316 . ( ref . 10682 )\ntrichonotus filamentosus is found in the western pacific from japan and china . it was recently reported from the chesterfield islands ( kulbicki et al . 1994 ) . it also occurs in indonesia , bali , the philippines , papua new guinea , and new caledonia . it is found at depths of 6 to 35 m ( r . myers unpublished data ) .\ntrichonotus elegans is found in the western indian ocean from the maldives and chagos , and in the western pacific from indonesia and the andaman sea to fiji , north to the ryukyu islands , south to the coral sea ( anderson et al . 1998 ) . this species is found at depths ranging from 1 to 40 m ( allen and erdmann 2012 ) .\ntrichonotus elegans is found in coastal reef slopes and deep outer reef lagoons in current channels . usually in large groups with several large males ( kuiter and tonozuka 2001 ) . inhabits sand - rubble bottoms ( allen and erdmann 2012 ) . found hovering above sandy slopes . usually forms a harem of one male - phase fish and about a dozen female - phase fish ( shimada and yoshino 1984 ) . normally buried when no current is running ( kuiter and tonozuka 2001 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by cmilitante , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by cmilitante , 14 / 03 / 2013\ngreek , thrix = hair + greek , noton = back ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 10 - 40 m ( ref . 90102 ) . subtropical\nwestern indian ocean : maldives ( ref . 30829 ) . western pacific : indonesia to fiji , north to the ryukyu islands , south to the coral sea .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 18 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 559 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 3 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 43 - 45 ; anal spines : 1 ; anal soft rays : 39 - 42 . identified by the long filaments on the dorsal fin of the male ( ref . 48636 ) . body scaleless above and below lateral line on anterior half ( ref 12934 ) .\nfound in coastal reef slopes and deep outer reef lagoons in current channels . usually in large groups with several large males ( ref . 48636 ) . inhabits sand - rubble bottoms ( ref . 90102 ) . found hovering above sandy slopes . usually forms a harem of one male - phase fish and about a dozen female - phase fish ( ref . 37240 ) . normally buried when no current is running ( ref . 48636 ) .\nshimada , k . and t . yoshino , 1984 . a new trichonotid fish from the yaeyama islands , okinawa prefecture , japan . jap . j . ichthyol . 31 ( 1 ) : 15 - 22 . ( ref . 37240 )\n) : 24 . 6 - 28 . 8 , mean 27 . 4 ( based on 184 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5020 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00389 ( 0 . 00180 - 0 . 00842 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 5 \u00b10 . 5 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 12 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 18 - 23 m ( ref . 93824 ) . tropical\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 11 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 93824 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 4 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 45 - 46 ; anal soft rays : 37 - 38 ; vertebrae : 53 . this species is distinguished from other congeners in having the following set of characters : elongated dorsal - fin spines in males absent ; d iv , 45 - 46 ; a 37 - 38 ; lateral - line scales 57 - 59 ; free dorsal pterygiophores 2 ; gill rakers 6 + 23 ; in males body markings 12 ; median predorsal - fin scales 10 ; interorbital width 43 . 7 % of eye diameter ; small abdominal scales ( ref . 93824 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .\nin the wild , the blue spot sanddiver occurs in small schools above the sandy flats and slopes where current are the strongest . they will spend their time swimming against the current catching zooplankton out of the water column with their large mouths . when startled , they will quickly dive into the sand and stay submerged for long periods of time . the blue spot sanddiver will do well in established reef aquariums or peaceful fish aquariums utilizing live rock for filtration or decoration . they need at least a 3\nsand bed as a substrate and may spend long periods buried in the sand . they are a peaceful fish that will not do well with aggressive tank mates . they need strong , non - laminar water movement , especially lower in the aquarium , to feel comfortable .\nthe blue spot sanddiver will accept small meaty foods such as brine shrimp . it is advised to purchase live brine with this fish in order to stimulate the feeding response in your aquarium . they will take to other prepared foods once established in their new homes .\ndue to availability and individuality of each species , colors and sizes may vary .\nelegant sand diver hover over sandy - rubble bottoms , diving into the sand when threatened . males usually have a harem of females and juveniles .\nmales differ from females in both colour and form . males having very long filamentous dorsal - fin spines , taller soft dorsal - fin rays , and a pointed tail .\noccurs at the territory of ashmore & cartier islands in the timor sea , and at lizard island , great barrier reef , queensland , and at bramble reef in the coral sea . elsewhere , widespread in the indo - west pacific .\nmeristic features : dorsal fin iii , 43 - 45 ; anal fin i , 39 - 42 ; pectoral fin 12 - 14 ; lateral line scales 56 - 59 ; vertebrae 53 - 56 . head and anterior half of body mostly naked - except for lateral line scales , 3 - 4 scales behind and below eye , and scales along dorsal and anal - fin bases . males with very long filamentous dorsal - fin spines , taller dorsal - fin rays and a pointed caudal fin ( fin rounded in females ) .\npictorial guide to indonesian reef fishes . part 2 . fusiliers - dragonets , caesionidae - callionymidae\nreef and shore fishes of the south pacific . new caledonia to tahiti and the pitcairn islands\nshimada , k . & yoshino , t . 1984 . a new trichonotid fish from the yaeyama islands , okinawa prefecture , japan .\nas its common name suggests the elegant sand diver can literally dive head first into sandy seabeds .\nthe species has a very enlongate body and a black spot at the base of the leading dorsal fin rays . these rays are extremely elongate in males .\nthe map below shows the australian distribution of the species based on public sightings and specimens in australian museums . click on the map for detailed information . source : atlas of living australia .\nallen , g . r . 1997 . marine fishes of tropical australia and south - east asia . western australian museum . pp . 292 .\nhoese , d . f . , bray , d . j . , paxton , j . r . & g . r . allen . 2006 . fishes . in beesley , p . l . & a . wells . ( eds ) zoological catalogue of australia . volume 35 . abrs & csiro publishing : australia . parts 1 - 3 , pages 1 - 2178 .\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nbalon , e . k . , 1990 . epigenesis of an epigeneticist : the development of some alternative concepts on the early ontogeny and evolution of fishes . guelph ichthyol . rev . 1 : 1\u201348 .\nclark , e . , 1983 . life in an undersea desert . nat . geog . mag . 164 : 129\u2013144 .\nclark , e . , j . f . pohle & d . c . shen , 1990 . ecology and population dynamics of garden eels at r\u00e2s mohammed , red sea . nat . geog . res . exploration 6 : 306\u2013318 .\nclark , e . , m . pohle & j . rabin , 1991 . spotted sandperch dynamics . nat . geog . res . exploration 7 : 138\u2013155 .\nclark , e . & j . f . pohle , 1992 . monogamy in tilefish . nat . geog . res . exploration 8 : 276\u2013295 .\nhubbs , c . l . & k . f . lagler , 1947 . fishes of the great lakes region . cranbrook institute of science , bloomfield hills . 186 pp .\nmabee , p . m . , 1988 . supraneural and predorsal bones in fishes : development and homologies . copeia 1988 : 827\u2013838 .\nnelson , j . s . , 1994 . fishes of the world . john wiley and sons , new york . 600 pp .\nshimada , k . & t . yoshino , 1984 . a new trichonotid fish from the yaeyama islands , okinawa prefecture , japan . japan j . ichthyol . 31 : 15\u201319 .\nclark , e . & pohle , m . environ biol fish ( 1996 ) 45 : 1 . urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) . 2014 . catalog of fishes . updated 4 december 2014 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 4 december 2014 ) .\ncarpenter , k . e . & smith - vaniz , w . f .\nthere are 34 museum records with up to 31 individuals per lot ( accessed through fishnet2 portal , www . fishnet2 . net , march 2015 ) . it is presumed to be locally abundant in some areas .\nthis species is found on sandy bottoms in shallow waters and is seen singly in coastal and sandy slopes . it feeds on zooplankton and reaches a maximum size of 15 cm ( kusen et al . 1991 ) .\nthere is no species - specific use and trade information available for t . filamentosus .\nthere are no known species - specific conservation measures in place for t . filamentosus . it is found in marine protected areas throughout its range ( iucn and unep 2014 ) .\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\ncarpenter , k . e . & smith - vaniz , w . f . 2016 .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t69739591a115473038 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nwestern indian ocean : known only from delagoa bay , mozambique to durban , south africa .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 19 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5466 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 45 - 47 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 37 - 39 . amber above with turquoise blue and red dots , faint rosy color below ; anal and pelvic fins with dark red dots ( ref . 5466 ) .\nheemstra , p . c . , 1986 . trichonotidae . p . 736 . in m . m . smith and p . c . heemstra ( eds . ) smiths ' sea fishes . springer - verlag , berlin . ( ref . 5466 )\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 \u00b10 . 5 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 11 - 35 m ( ref . 90102 ) . tropical\nwestern pacific : papua new guinea ( ref . 26146 ) and indonesia ( ref . 28620 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 15 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 48636 )\nlike other sand divers , it occurs on sand slopes with strong currents at times ( ref . 48636 ) . minimum depth reported from ref . 26146 .\n) : 27 . 5 - 29 , mean 28 . 2 ( based on 50 cells ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 5 \u00b10 . 48 se ; based on food items .\nmarine ; brackish ; reef - associated ; depth range 10 - 80 m ( ref . 86942 ) . tropical\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 22 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 48636 )\ndorsal soft rays ( total ) : 39 - 41 . males recognized by long dorsal fin rays and large size ( ref . 48636 ) . under dorsal fin with 1 or 2 free pterygiophores ( ref 12934 ) .\nfound in steep sand slopes in large aggregations ( ref . 8631 ) . hovers above clean sandy bottoms ; darts into the sand when disturbed . usually slightly silty habitat . usually seen resting on substrate , leaving substrate to grab prey from zooplankton floating over , or when displaying ( ref . 48636 ) .\nrandall , j . e . , g . r . allen and r . c . steene , 1990 . fishes of the great barrier reef and coral sea . university of hawaii press , honolulu , hawaii . 506 p . ( ref . 2334 )\n) : 24 . 6 - 29 , mean 28 ( based on 932 cells ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 \u00b10 . 45 se ; based on food items .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 11 of 100 ) .\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 10 - 217 m ( ref . 86942 ) . temperate\nwestern pacific : japan and china . recently reported from the chesterfield islands ( ref . 11897 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 15 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 559 )\ndorsal soft rays ( total ) : 43 - 44 . recognized by the black spot on the head . males lack dorsal filaments but have a long extended ventral fin ray ( ref . 48636 ) .\nfound on sandy bottoms in shallow waters ( ref . 32211 ) . seen singly or in coastal sand slopes ( ref . 48636 ) . feed on zooplankton ( ref . 9137 ) .\nmasuda , h . , k . amaoka , c . araga , t . uyeno and t . yoshino , 1984 . the fishes of the japanese archipelago . vol . 1 . tokai university press , tokyo , japan . 437 p . ( text ) . ( ref . 559 )\n) : 17 . 9 - 28 . 1 , mean 26 . 2 ( based on 564 cells ) .\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 0 - 2 m ( ref . 10682 ) . tropical\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 14 . 5 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 11441 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 3 - 4 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 44 - 47 ; anal spines : 1 ; anal soft rays : 36 - 39 ; vertebrae : 52 - 54 . females with an indistinct narrow dark stripe on body above lateral line and no black on anterior part of dorsal fin ; males with a longitudinal row of 14 brown spots and 3 rows of small , dark edged , pale blue spots on body ; dorsal and anal fins with a row of yellow dots on each membrane .\nfeeds on zooplankton about half a meter above the sand substratum ( ref . 10682 ) .\n) : 26 . 1 - 29 . 2 , mean 27 . 7 ( based on 298 cells ) .\nfound in steep sand slopes in large aggregations ( ref . 8631 ) . hovers above clean sandy bottoms ; darts into the sand when disturbed . usually slightly silty habitat . usually seen resting on substrate , leaving substrate to grab prey from zooplankton floating over , or when displaying ( ref . 48636 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\neschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of trichonotops schultz , 1960 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of taeniolabrus steindachner , 1867 ) nomenclator zoologicus online . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\naustralia ; british indian ocean territory ; china ; disputed territory ( spratly is . ) ; fiji ; guam ; india ; indonesia ; japan ; kiribati ( gilbert is . ) ; malaysia ; maldives ; marshall islands ; micronesia , federated states of ; myanmar ; nauru ; new caledonia ; northern mariana islands ; palau ; papua new guinea ; philippines ; solomon islands ; taiwan , province of china ; thailand ; timor - leste ; vanuatu\nthere are 12 museum records with up to 57 individuals per lot ( accessed through fishnet2 portal , www . fishnet2 . net , march 2015 ) . this species is locally abundant in the philippines ( k . carpenter pers . comm . 2015 ) .\nthere are no known species - specific conservation measures in place for t . elegans . it is found in marine protected areas throughout its range ( iucn and unep 2014 ) .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t69739558a115472765 .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 2032, "summary": [{"text": "eophrynidae is a family of the extinct arachnid order trigonotarbida .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "eophrynids lived during the carboniferous period in what is now modern europe and north america.the family is probably found within the ' eophrynid assemblage ' clade ; ( aphantomartus ( alkenia ( pseudokreischeria ( kreischeria ( eophrynus + pleophrynus ) ) ) ) ) . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "eophrynidae", "paragraphs": ["1930 ) wird erneut beschrieben und als der \u00e4lteste bekannte vertreter der eophrynidae zur familie der eophrynidae gestellt . dies legt nahe , da\u00df die trigonotarbiden sich bereits w\u00e4hrend des unterkarbons in die aus dem oberkarbon bekannten familien aufgespalten hatten .\neophrynidae is a family of the extinct arachnid order trigonotarbida . eophrynids lived during the carboniferous period in what is now modern europe and north america .\n1930 ) , is redescribed and referred to the family eophrynidae as the oldest known eophrynid . it suggests that trigonotarbids had diversified into the recognised upper carboniferous families by the lower carboniferous .\nthis page is based on the copyrighted wikipedia article eophrynidae ; it is used under the creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license ( cc - by - sa ) . you may redistribute it , verbatim or modified , providing that you comply with the terms of the cc - by - sa\na new eophrynid trigonotarbid ( arachnida : trigonotarbida : eophrynidae ) from the pennsylvanian ( kasimovian ) astrasado formation of the kinney brick quarry , new mexico is described . this fossil \u2013 the first arachnid to be recorded from the astrasado formation \u2013 is preserved primarily as a dorsal opisthosoma . pleophrynus hawesi sp . nov . diagnostically preserves evidence for three pairs of posterior opisthosomal spines rather than the two usually seen in other eophrynids . a comparison of opisthosomal tuberculation patterns among the best known eophrynid species is included . at ca . 304 . 0\u2013306 . 5 ma , our new taxon represents one of the youngest records of eophrynidae , while the kinney brick quarry is only the twelfth site in north america to yield trigonotarbid arachnids ; compared to more than 60 such localities in europe .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nfull reference : f . karsch . 1882 . ueber ein neues spinnenthier aus der schlesischen steinkohle und die arachniden der steinkohlen - formation \u00fcberhaupt . zeitschrift der deutschen geologischen gesellschaft 34 : 556 - 561\nparent taxon : trigonotarbida according to j . a . dunlop et al . 2013\nsee also brauckmann et al . 2003 , haase 1890 , petrunkevitch 1945 and petrunkevitch 1949\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\n( eds . ) paleotectonic investigations of the mississippian system in the united states part 1 : introduction and regional analyses of the mississippian system . - u . s . geological survey professional paper 1010 - c : 13\u201348 , washington .\n1994a . palaeobiology of the trigonotarbid arachnids . - unpublished ph . d . thesis , university of manchester .\n\u2014 1994b . the palaeobiology of the writhlington trigonotarbid arachnid . - proceedings of the geologists\u2019 association\n\u2014 1995 . a redescription of two eophrynids ( arachnida : trigonotarbida ) from the coal measures of ostrava , czech republic . - neues jahrbuch f\u00fcr geologie und pal\u00e4ontologie , monatshefte 1995 : 449\u2013461 , stuttgart .\n1990 . land animals in the silurian : arachnids and myriapods from shropshire , england . - science\n1913 . a monograph of the terrestrial palaeozoic arachnida of north america . - transactions of the connecticut academy of arts and science\n\u2014 1953 . paleozoic and mesozoic arachnida of europe . - memoirs of the geological society of america\n( ed . ) treatise on invertebrate paleontology , pt . p , arthropoda 2 , chelicerata : 42\u2013162 , geological society of america and university of kansas press ( lawrence / kansas ) .\n1924 . beitrag zur geologie des steinkohlengebiets im s\u00fcdharz . - jahrbuch des halleschen verbands f\u00fcr die erforschung der mitteldeutschen bodensch\u00e4tze und ihrer verwertung\npocock ( basal stephanian ; prov . le\u00f3n , n . w . spain ) , with remarks on aphantomartid taxonomy . - boletin geol\u00f3gico y minero de espa\u00f1a\n1987 . new terrestrial arachnids from the devonian of gilboa , new york ( arachnida , trigonotarbida ) . - american museum novitates :\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nhallan , j . ( 2000 - current ) . biology catalog . web compilation accessible at urltoken ( accessed june 2012 ) .\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\nthe university of kansas prohibits discrimination on the basis of race , color , ethnicity , religion , sex , national origin , age , ancestry , disability , status as a veteran , sexual orientation , marital status , parental status , gender identity , gender expression and genetic information in the university\u2019s programs and activities . the following person has been designated to handle inquiries regarding the non - discrimination policies : director of the office of institutional opportunity and access , ioa @ urltoken , 1246 w . campus road , room 153a , lawrence , ks , 66045 , ( 785 ) 864 - 6414 , 711 tty .\nhasse , e . 1890 . beitr\u00e4ge zur kenntnis der fossilen arachniden . zeitschrift der deutschen geologischen gesellschaft , 42 : 629 - 657 .\nlua error in package . lua at line 80 : module ' module : buffer ' not found .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nget cash back by selling your textbooks through alibris . our program is as easy as 1 - 2 - 3 and offers super competitive prices .\nas one of the premier rare book sites on the internet , alibris has thousands of rare books , first editions , and signed books available .\nwith one of the largest book inventories in the world , find the book you are looking for . to help , we provided some of our favorites .\nwith an active marketplace of over 175 million items , use the alibris advanced search page to find any item you are looking for .\nthrough the advanced search page , you can find items by searching specific terms such as title , author , subject , isbn , etc or you can narrow your focus using our amazing set of criteria parameters .\nlike classical music ? so does alibris . see one of the largest collections of classical music around .\nthrough the advanced search , you can find items by searching specific terms such as title , artist , song title , genre , etc or you can narrow your focus using our amazing set of criteria parameters .\nthrough the advanced search , you can find items by searching specific terms such as title , director , actor , genre , etc or you can narrow your focus using our amazing set of criteria parameters .\nmillions of books available with some of the lowest prices you will find online .\nfind the items displaying the free shipping icon . add $ 39 + into your cart and your items ship for free !\nget exclusive access to all of our latest deals and coupons . changes daily .\ncome back each month to discover new genres and titles through the alibris seasonal guide .\nby signing up you enjoy subscriber - only access to the latest news , personalized book picks and special offers , delivered right to your inbox .\nhephaestus books represents a new publishing paradigm , allowing disparate content sources to be curated into cohesive , relevant , and informative books . to date , this content has been curated from wikipedia articles and images under creative commons licensing , although as hephaestus books continues to increase in scope and dimension , more licensed and public domain content is being added . we believe books such as this represent a new and exciting lexicon in the sharing of human knowledge . this particular book contains . . . read more\nhephaestus books represents a new publishing paradigm , allowing disparate content sources to be curated into cohesive , relevant , and informative books . to date , this content has been curated from wikipedia articles and images under creative commons licensing , although as hephaestus books continues to increase in scope and dimension , more licensed and public domain content is being added . we believe books such as this represent a new and exciting lexicon in the sharing of human knowledge . this particular book contains chapters focused on prehistoric arachnids , and trigonotarbids . read less\ncurrently there are no copies available . however , our inventory changes frequently . please check back soon or try\narticles on 20th - century explorers , including : jacques cousteau , richard evelyn byrd , thomas gann , f . a . mitchell - hedges , teoberto maler , william healey dall , edward herbert thompson , ernesto s nchez la cruz , theos casimir bernard\nterms of use | privacy policy | recommendations by simularity | copyright \u00a9 1998 - 2018 alibris . all rights reserved .\nalibris , the alibris logo , and urltoken are registered trademarks of alibris , inc .\ncopyright in bibliographic data and cover images is held by nielsen book services limited , baker & taylor , inc . , or by their respective licensors , or by the publishers , or by their respective licensors . for personal use only . all rights reserved . all rights in images of books or other publications are reserved by the original copyright holders ."]}
{"id": 2034, "summary": [{"text": "acanthaspis petax is a species of assassin bug that preys on ants .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "this species uses carcasses of its preferred prey item to disguise itself from predation from spiders in the salticidae family .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "this insect lives in east africa near lake victoria , in countries including uganda , kenya , and tanzania .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it measures about 1 cm ( 0.4 in ) in length . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "acanthaspis petax", "paragraphs": ["the wierd but facinating acanthaspis petax in khao yai national park . inset is a jumping spider seen on an adjacent branch at the same time\nrobert jackson and simon pollard from the university of canterbury have been studying a pretender with a much more gruesome disguise \u2013 the ant - snatching assassin bug acanthaspis petax , which covers itself with the corpses of its own prey .\nheres turmeric , shes an asocial assassin bug , based on milkweed assassin bug and acanthaspis petax . she carved those skulls out of wood in hopes people would just leave her be , shes old and tired and not great with socialization\nacanthaspis petax is famous for it ' s incredible use of dead ants to perform a macabre form of aggressive mimicry . as you can see from the photograph this assassin bug covers itself by stacking the exoskeletons of dead ants into its back and carrying them around like a rucksack !\nbut why do the assassin bugs refrain from using other insects in the same way ? the researchers suggest that acanthaspis petax may actually be relying on the spiders\u2019 inherent reluctance to attack ants . because ants have a tendency to swarm and may secrete chemical weapons , the spiders don\u2019t typically hunt them .\nfor years , scientists debated why acanthaspis petax engaged in this unusual behavior . it hunts several different types of prey , but appears to exclusively stack ant bodies on its back . some suggested that the ant corpses may provide olfactory camouflage when hunting , while others thought the mound of bodies may be used as a visual distraction for larger creatures that are hunting the assassin bug .\nit is believed that they perform this grizzly feat in order to mask themselves from the predatory jumping spiders ( salticidae ) that sometimes feed on them . it is thought that jumping spiders do not normally attack ants due to their nature of swarming and use of acids as defence . an incredible form of camoflague and defense by acanthaspis petax showing just how complex the interactions of species in bio - diverse habitats like khao yai national park can be .\na fascinating find by ian edwardes in khao yai national park is the assassin bug acanthapsis petax . known to exist in africa , malaysia and the philippines this incedible member of the reduviidae family is now known to be found in thailand also .\nthis is acanthaspis petax , a member of the reduviidae family , which is found in east africa and malaysia . like other assassin bugs , it hunts its prey by piercing it with its proboscis , injecting paralysis - inducing saliva and an enzyme that dissolves tissue , then sucking out the innards . but unlike other bugs , it then fashions empty ant exoskeletons into protective outerwear . the insect can carry as many as 20 dead ants at a time , and binds them together with a sticky excretion into a cluster that may be larger than its own body .\nassassin bugs are insects of the family reduviidae and while reduviidae is a large family one species ( acanthaspis petax ) from malaysia does something extraordinary , when the assassin bug attaches its prey it injects it with a enzyme that liquefies the its innards so the bug can easily suck them out leaving the prey as an empty husk of an exoskeleton . the assassin then takes the empty shell and attacks it to its back using a sticky substance to keep them in place , the bug will pile these carcasses high making a mound of twenty or more exoskeletons . these trophies provide the bug several benefits as the mound of dead prey will make any predator think twice before attacking the assassin bug , and if a predator does attack the expendable mound of husks will serve as the first line of defense so the bug can escape .\nmany animals in our world are known to collect things : cats can start collections of garden gloves , birds will steal beads and bottle caps for their nests , squirrels hoard stashes of nuts . most often , animals collect and store food . even if they\u2019re not hungry now , food is too good to pass up , so they will store it for later when they need it . those who don\u2019t collect food often run their collections for aesthetic reasons . birds build their nests with brightly colored objects to attract mates ; decorator crabs and sea urchins add bits of ocean debris to their camouflage . some insect larvae will spin bits of trash into their cocoons in order to strengthen them . or my personal favorite , the acanthaspis petax collects the carcasses of ants that it has eaten and stores them on its back , so it looks bigger , badder , and is less likely to be eaten by its own predators .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : world journal of zoology publisher : faisalabad idosi publications . isbn / issn : 1991 - 6442 , 1817 - 3098 oclc : 956131812\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nversio\u00ec\u0081n electro\u00ec\u0081nica . forma de acceso : world wide web . acceso a trave\u00ec\u0081s de sabio , limitado a usuarios de la biblioteca de la universidad de navarra .\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nurltoken ; _ ver = z39 . 88 - 2004 & ctx ; _ enc = info : ofi / enc : utf - 8 & rfr ; _ id = info : sid / sfxit . com : opac _ 856 & url ; _ ctx _ fmt = info : ofi / fmt : kev : mtx : ctx & sfx . ignore ; _ date _ threshold = 1 & rft . object ; _ id = 1000000000564763 & svc ; _ val _ fmt = info : ofi / fmt : kev : mtx : sch _ svc &\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nthe nymphs cover themselves with their victims ' bodies . three nymphs and one adult are in the video , but there were eight nymphs hanging around . this is one of my favourite bugs .\nthis modern - day assassin bug stacks dead ant bodies on its back to confuse predators .\nimagine you\u2019re wandering in the forests near lake victoria , in kenya or tanzania , when you spot something strange crawling on a leaf . it looks like a dozen or so ants , stuck together in a ball . but look more closely and you\u2019ll see the ants are dead . and there\u2019s a nasty - looking insect underneath , hauling these ants corpses along like a miniature backpack .\nin 2007 , a team of researchers from new zealand carried out an experiment to test whether the insect\u2019s corpse - carrying strategy truly helped protect it from predation . in the study , they left assassin bugs alone in glass cages with several species of jumping spiders , which are their natural predators . some of the insects were carrying balls of ant carcasses on their backs ( the researchers called these \u201cmasked\u201d bugs ) while others were left naked . since the jumping spiders have excellent vision but a poor sense of smell\u2014they hunt by using their acute sense of sight to make a precisely gauged leap and land on their prey\u2014the experiment would indicate if the ant bodies served as visual camouflage or not .\nthe result : the spiders attacked the naked bugs roughly ten times more often than the masked ones . the researchers even repeated the experiment with dead , preserved assassin bugs , to control for the effects of movement and behavior , and the results remained the same . carrying that ball of dead ants , it turns out , is a great strategy for the assassin bug to use in trying to survive for its next meal .\nthe scientists speculate that the large mound of corpses changes the visual form of the insect to the point where the spiders can\u2019t recognize it as prey .\njoseph stromberg is a science reporter for vox . com . he was previously a digital reporter for smithsonian .\na mongoose is lightning fast and has razor - sharp teeth . a black mamba can kill 15 grown men with just one bite . which of these two mortal enemies will win ?\nis a kiss really just a kiss ? in this one - minute video , our ask smithsonian host , eric schulze , explains why we pucker up .\nsand strikers , also known as bobbit worms , are primitive - looking creatures that lack eyes , or even a brain . despite this , they are savage predators who shoot out grapple - like hooks to reel in passing fish .\nwhat ' s the difference between england , britain and the u . k . ?\nget the best of urltoken by email . keep up - to - date on :\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nwell it ' s halloween and while that is not really a thing here in australia i thought i should choose an appropriate creature for my slowly growing american audience . i thought of some sort of bat ( of which i have many ) or something which looks evil like last week ' s leaf tailed gecko but i decided that\nwould be perfect . it is a bug which makes a costume out of the dead bodies of its prey .\nreduviidae ( assassin bugs ) are one of my favorite families . they have a curved\nand raptorial spiny forelegs which make they use to deadly effect when catching prey .\n( these sems are my own work , they are of a reduviid in the genus oncocephalus . if you want to use them for any purpose in any form you can , without condition . if you do use them i would appreciate a link to this blog if possible . )\nmany members of this family are highly specialized in the prey which they catch and have developed some really cool tricks for killing prey , which has earned the family the common name assassin bug .\nis a voracious predator of arthropods . it is an ant hunting specialist and has a horrifying trick . when it kills an ant and sucks out its fluids , as assasin bugs do , it uses the dried out remains to disguise itself . it excretes a glue like substance and sticks the ant husk to itself . it can stick up to 20 ants onto itself at a time .\nthis may seem like a fairly useless disguise , but the purpose seems to be to give the bug the appearance of being an ant swarm . predators are reluctant to attack ants because they are fairly unpalatable and they tend to defend themselves in swarms . this has been shown to work in experiments with jumping spiders . there has also been speculation that the dead ants act as a visual and / or olfactory camouflage which assists them in capturing ants .\nis from malaysia , which i was a little confused about because i had always thought it was african . upon trying to find out weather this meant the malaysian peninsula or borneo i could not find any records of asian specimens in the literature . according to the literature i have read , they all seem to come from africa , most commonly uganda , but some records from west central africa exist . i ' m not sure where this discrepancy comes from .\nunused creatures in my backlog . if i can ' t thick of anything else to add to the list i will run out of material on 22 / 03 / 2017 . if you have any creatures to suggest , please let me know , details are on the contact me page .\nthis is an old article , reposted from the original wordpress incarnation of not exactly rocket science . i\u2019m travelling around at the moment so the next few weeks will have some classic pieces and a few new ones i prepared earlier .\nthe animal world is full of charlatans . some have bodies shaped by natural selection to fade into the background or resemble other harmful species . yet others , like chameleons and octopuses , have the rare ability to actively change their colour or shape to actively hide themselves from view .\nmany species disguise themselves through their behaviour rather than their bodies ; like human soldiers in camouflage gear , they don special suits to remain inconspicuous .\ndecorator crabs , for example , coat their shells with a collection of sea anemones , algae , corals and sponges , held on with velcro - like bristles while other crabs actively carry these living masks with specially modified legs . these species have the cartoonish air of a man carrying a pot plant in front of him while sneaking past on tip - toes . but some charlatans are not so amusing .\nthe word \u2018bug\u2019 has a specific technical meaning \u2013 it refers to a group of insects , the hemipterans , that have sucking mouthparts . most , like aphids , use these to gulp plant sap but the assassin bugs use them for murder . they grab passing insects , stab them with their syringe - like mouthparts , inject paralytic saliva and digestive enzymes and suck up the broken - down bodily fluids .\nmost species discard the lifeless husks but the ant - snatcher secretes fine sticky threads from its back and there it sticks the remains of its prey . an earlier study suggested that the assassin bug\u2019s cadaverous backpack protected it from other predators and now , jackson and pollard have tested this theory by pitting the bugs against jumping spiders .\njumping spiders are superb stalkers that use keen vision and accurate leaps to ambush prey . jackson and pollard let three species of jumping spiders loose upon either naked assassin bugs or those bearing ant - coats .\nthey found that the spiders attacked the naked bugs about ten times more than the covered ones , even if the bugs in question were actually dead and preserved .\nthe fact that the dead shielded bugs were just as uninviting as their living peers suggests that the disguise has nothing to do with a change in the bugs\u2019 behaviour or motion but everything to do with the ants they carried . clearly , when faced with a jumping spider , wearing a coat of dead ants can mean the difference between life or death to an assassin bug .\nwhy does it work ? unlike the decorator crabs , the assassin bugs weren\u2019t plastering themselves with local wildlife to blend in . certainly , the experiments were done in glass cages with no other ants around . instead , jackson and pollard suggests that the ants break up the bug\u2019s form so that instead of a characteristic shape that the spider can tag as \u2018prey\u2019 , it sees a jumbled mess that doesn\u2019t look like anything it has ever eaten before . it sees the bug , but doesn\u2019t register it as a meal .\nthere is a final possibility though . ants are not easy prey \u2013 they have chemical weapons and strength in numbers and many small predators give them a wide berth . so the bugs\u2019 grisly defence may rely on using ants in particular and jackson and pollard are now putting this idea to the test .\nreference : jackson , r . r . , pollard , s . d . ( 2007 ) . bugs with backpacks deter vision - guided predation by jumping spiders . journal of zoology , 273 ( 4 ) , 358 - 363 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1469 - 7998 . 2007 . 00335 . x\nwildlife thailand is a community website for sharing information , photographs and experiences on thailand ' s wildlife , bio - diversity and protected areas . creating awareness of this wonderful world around us .\nhere is another example , seen in pang sida national park , of a creature using the exoskeletons of insects as protection . its a larval nymph but of what i have absolutely no idea .\ni do not know the answer . what i do know is that my gps struggles in deep valleys to ' contact ' the . . .\n500 pf f5 . 6 about to be announced . . . 24 cm long . . . . . 4300 usd expensive for f5 . 6 but 24 cm is . . .\nif there is a clear ' trail ' forming from the bite site ( see pic below for example ) , then likely it . . .\nits about time for a redesign of the web site - this design has served us well but its now time to . . .\ngood to hear the chicks of the blue - banded kingfisher have fledged successfully .\nthe draco is d . blanfordii and the calotes is c . emma . the calotes emma can be distinguished by the . . .\nan interesting article here . . . we make no comment . . . . . we leave it to you to read between the . . .\ni sat by a leaf i saw a neocollyris bonelli ( i think - the smaller tiger beetles can be confusing ) . . .\nthanks ton ! heres a couple more . without a doubt the biggest earwig that i have ever seen - . . .\n. . . . . i call on all citizens , businesses and governments to play their part in protecting the world\u2019s wild animals and plants . the actions taken by each of us will determine the fate of the world\u2019s wildlife . the future of wildlife is in our hands !\ncookies make it easier for us to provide you with our services . with the usage of our services you permit us to use cookies .\nthe pok\u00e9mon world is interesting because many of their animals have evolved to look like man - made objects , such as voltorb or klefki . klefki is the key ring pok\u00e9mon , who mischievously collects keys and jingles them at its foes . it makes sense that , if its goal is to collect keys , it would evolve to look like a keyring so it could potentially trick people into giving them their keys . klefki\u2019s shape is it\u2019s own form of unique camouflage , but it begs the question : why does kelfki want the keys in the first place ?\nour first clue is in the pok\u00e9dex : \u201cthese key collectors threaten any attackers by fiercely jingling their keys at them\u201d , making noise is an excellent way to scare off predators , and if klefki isn\u2019t capable of making threatening noises itself it has to resort to using tools . orangutans have been known to strip leaves from a branch and hold them in front of their mouths before they scream out an alarm ; a very primitive megaphone , and one of the only examples of animals using tools to manipulate sound in our world .\nperhaps many wild pok\u00e9mon have learned to associate human sounds with danger . if they hear the opening of a pok\u00e9ball , the whir of a chainsaw , or the jingling of keys , wild pok\u00e9mon know that humans are nearby and they may be in trouble . klefki uses this to its own advantage \u2013 by collecting and jingling keys , it can make other pok\u00e9mon afraid of it .\nso back to klefki . we know klefki uses its keys to make noises , but it probably does it for other reasons as well . for example , a klefki with the most keys is probably the loudest and strongest , meaning that it would be more attractive to other klefki in the interest of survival of the fittest . because of this , klefki became the little kleptomaniac that it is . collecting keys became a part of the species\u2019 culture and survival .\nfor reference , the earliest known lock and keys in our world date back to the ancient egyptians , around 4000 bc . although the first all - metal key is from about 900 ad .\nevolution ( of the darwinian variety ) , as you might know , is a very long and slow process . biologists estimate it takes on average one million years for major changes in a species to occur . if klefki did evolve into a keychain with the purpose of collecting keys , the pok\u00e9mon world must have had keys around for much longer than we have , considering we\u2019ve only had keys for 6000 years . either that , or their evolution happens much more quickly ( which we already knew , anyways ) .\nklefki collects keys to makes noises and scare off predators by tricking them into thinking humans are nearby . it evolved to look like a keyring so it could more easily collect keys ."]}
{"id": 2036, "summary": [{"text": "nassarius oneratus , common name the loaded nassa , is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family nassariidae , the nassa mud snails or dog whelks . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "nassarius oneratus", "paragraphs": ["what type of species is nassarius oneratus ? below , you will find the taxonomic groups the nassarius oneratus species belongs to .\nwhich photographers have photos of nassarius oneratus species ? below , you will find the list of underwater photographers and their photos of the marine species nassarius oneratus .\nhow to identify nassarius oneratus marine species ? below , you will find the list of main identification criteria and physical characteristics of marine species nassarius oneratus . for each identification criteria , the corresponding physical characteristics of marine species nassarius oneratus are marked in green .\nwhere is nassarius oneratus found in the world ? below , you will find the list and a world map of the geographic distribution where the marine species nassarius oneratus can be found .\nnassariidae \u00bb nassarius oneratus , id : 213396 , shell detail \u00ab shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc .\nnassarius plicatellus adams : synonym of nassarius niveus ( a . adams , 1852 )\nnassarius weyersi craven : synonym of nassarius pumilio ( e . a . smith , 1872 )\nnassarius ( nassodonta ) h . adams , 1867 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( tritia ) a . adams , 1853 : synonym of nassarius ( hinia ) gray , 1847 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius monile ( kiener , 1834 ) : synonym of nassarius distortus ( a . adams , 1852 )\nnassarius fenestratus ( marratt , 1877 ) : synonym of nassarius albescens gemmuliferus ( a . adams , 1852 )\nnassarius gemmuliferus a . adams , 1852 : synonym of nassarius albescens gemmuliferus ( a . adams , 1852 )\nnassarius ( cryptonassarius ) watson , r . b . , 1882 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( hima ) gray , 1852 ex leach , ms . : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( naytia ) h . adams & a . adams 1853 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( reticunassa ) iredale , 1936 : synonym of nassarius ( hima ) gray , 1852 ex leach , ms . alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( mirua ) marwick , 1931 : synonym of nassarius ( hima ) gray , 1852 ex leach , ms . ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( caesia ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( niotha ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( phrontis ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( telasco ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( uzita ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( zeuxis ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805\nnassarius ( austronassaria ) c . laseron & j . laseron , 1956 : synonym of nassarius ( plicarcularia ) thiele , 1929 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( bathynassa ) ladd , 1976 : synonym of nassarius ( zeuxis ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( demondia ) addicott , 1956 : synonym of nassarius ( caesia ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( glabrinassa ) shuto , 1969 : synonym of nassarius ( zeuxis ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( schizopyga ) conrad , 1856 : synonym of nassarius ( caesia ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( tarazeuxis ) iredale , 1936 : synonym of nassarius ( telasco ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( tavanothia ) iredale , 1936 : synonym of nassarius ( niotha ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( usita ) noszky , 1936 : synonym of nassarius ( uzita ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( venassa ) martens , 1881 : synonym of nassarius ( zeuxis ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius unicolor kiener , l . c . , 1834 : synonym of nassarius micans ( a . adams , 1852 )\nnassarius ( tritonella ) a . adams , 1852 : synonym of nassarius ( hima ) gray , 1852 ex leach , ms . ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\nnassarius ( amycla ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : synonym of nassarius ( gussonea ) monterosato , 1912\n( of nassarius ( plicarcularia ) oneratus ( deshayes , 1863 ) ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]\nnassarius ( zaphon ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 : synonym of nassarius ( caesia ) h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( alternate representation of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 )\n( of nassarius ( plicarcularia ) oneratus ( deshayes , 1863 ) ) tsuchiya k . ( 2017 ) . family nassariidae . pp . 910 - 917 , in : t . okutani ( ed . ) , marine mollusks in japan , ed . 2 . 2 vols . tokai university press . 1375 pp . [ details ]\nnassa tegula reeve , 1853 : synonym of nassarius striatus ( c . b . adams , 1852 )\nnassa miser ( dall , 1908 ) : synonym of nassarius coppingeri ( e . a . smith , 1881 )\nnassarius ( polinices , nassarius ) is prey of : pagurus cancer myoxocephalus tautogolabrus pseudopleuronectes asterias based on studies in : usa : massachusetts , cape ann ( littoral , mudflat ) this list may not be complete but is based on published studies .\nnassarius ( polinices , nassarius ) preys on : solemya ensis macoma mya gemma onoba littorina littorea based on studies in : usa : massachusetts , cape ann ( littoral , mudflat ) this list may not be complete but is based on published studies .\nthe shells of various species of nassarius are popular with shell collectors , and are sometimes used in jewelry and other forms of decoration .\nnassarius vibex is a species which is often selected for marine aquaria . it is often confused with nassarius obsoletus , a cooler water snail less suited to tropical marine aquarium temperatures . in aquaria , the nassarius is considered nearly indispensable for keeping sand beds clean and healthy , as these snails tend to burrow and plow through the upper layer in a conch - like fashion , keeping algae and detritus from building up visibly on the surface .\nnassarius oneratus seems to prefer relatively shallow water on both eastern and western seaward reefs , but can also be found on some lagoon pinnacles . on the seaward reef , it often lives buried under thin layers of sand over hard reef up on the flat in shallow water . on the intertidal , reasonably fresh - looking shells inhabited by hermit crabs are common in some places , but we have not seen living animals in those areas . it is possible that shells living on the shallow seaward reefs are regularly tossed up on the reefs , where they are taken over by hermits . maximum size we have seen is 15 . 2mm .\nnassa lamarck , 1799 : established for the species buccinum mutabile linnaeus , 1758 , which is now classified as a synonym of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 in the family nassariidae .\naccording to van regteren altena et al . ( 1965 ) and van aartsen et al . ( 1984 ) hinia gray , 1847 is considered as a subgenus of nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1806 .\nthe name is derived from the latin word\nnassa\n, meaning a wickerbasket with a narrow neck , for catching fish . nassarius would then mean\nsomeone who uses such a wickerbasket for catching fish\n.\nmost nassarius species are very active scavengers , feeding on crabs and carrion as dead fish , etc . they often burrow into marine substrates and then wait with only their siphon protruding , until they smell nearby food .\nr . n . kilburn .\ndescription of new species of phos and nassarius from south - eastern africa ( mollusca : gastropoda : buccinidae , nassariidae\n. pietermaritzburg , natal museum in : annals of the natal museum . - vol 41 ( december , 2000 ) , pp . 203 - 208\nr . n . kilburn .\ntaxonomic notes on south african marine mollusca : 2 : with the description of new species and subspecies of conus , nassarius , vexillum and demoulia\nin : annals of the natal museum . - vol 21 , 2 ( 1972 ) , pp . 391 - 437\nbouchet , p . ; gofas , s . ( 2010 ) . nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1806 . in : bouchet , p . ; gofas , s . ; rosenberg , g . ( 2010 ) world marine mollusca database . accessed through : world register of marine species at urltoken on 2010 - 11 - 30\nnassarius - species dictionary - global : ispot nature - your place to share nature . ispot is a website aimed at helping anyone identify anything in nature . once you ' ve registered , you can add an observation to the website and suggest an identification yourself or see if anyone else can identify it for you .\nhaitao li ( \u674e\u6d77\u6d9b ) , duan lin ( \u6797\u7aef ) , hongda fang ( \u65b9\u5b8f\u8fbe ) , aijia zhu ( \u6731\u827e\u5609 ) and yang gao ( \u9ad8\u9633 ) , species identification and phylogenetic analysis of genus nassarius ( nassariidae ) based on mitochondrial genes , chinese journal of oceanology and limnology , volume 28 , number 3 / may , 2010 , pp . 565 - 572 , doi 10 . 1007 / s00343 - 010 - 9031 - 4\n( of nassa obliqua hombron & jacquinot , 1848 ) hombron , j . b . & jacquinot , h . ( 1848 ) atlas d\u2019histoire naturelle . zoologie par mm . hombron et jacquinot , chirurgiens de l\u2019exp\u00e9dition . in : voyage au pole sud et dans l\u2019oc\u00e9anie sur les corvettes l\u2019astrolabe et la z\u00e9l\u00e9e ex\u00e9cut\u00e9 par ordre du roi pendant les ann\u00e9es 1837 - 1838 - 1839 - 1840 sous le commandement de m . dumont - d\u2019urville capitaine de vaisseau publi\u00e9 sous les auspices du d\u00e9partement de la marine et sous la direction sup\u00e9rieure de m . jacquinot , capitaine de vaisseau , commandant de la z\u00e9l\u00e9e . 26\u00e8me livraison : pls 17 , 21 , 23 , 24 , 25 . page ( s ) : pl . 21 figs 43 - 44 [ details ]\ndrivas , j . ; jay , m . ( 1987 ) . coquillages de la r\u00e9union et de l ' \u00eele maurice . collection les beaut\u00e9s de la nature . delachaux et niestl\u00e9 : neuch\u00e2tel . isbn 2 - 603 - 00654 - 1 . 159 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\ncernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]\nmarais j . p . & kilburn r . n . ( 2010 ) nassariidae . pp . 138 - 173 , in : marais a . p . & seccombe a . d . ( eds ) , identification guide to the seashells of south africa . volume 1 . groenkloof : centre for molluscan studies . 376 pp . [ details ]\n( of nassa obliqua pease , 1865 ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]\n( of nassa obliqua hombron & jacquinot , 1848 ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]\n( of nassa onerata deshayes , 1863 ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]\n( of nassa onerato [ sic ] ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]\ntsuchiya k . ( 2017 ) . family nassariidae . pp . 910 - 917 , in : t . okutani ( ed . ) , marine mollusks in japan , ed . 2 . 2 vols . tokai university press . 1375 pp . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\nguam . baracuda rock . in sand , at 45 ft deep . ex - coll . a . arthur . june 1985 .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 001 seconds . )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nversion 43 . 0 went live 11 / 6 / 2018 - i hope that the majority of issues have been fixed . my email address is on the home page if you see anything wrong .\n( deshayes , g . p . in maillard , l . , 1863 )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndepth range based on 3605 specimens in 218 taxa . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 1024 samples . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 0 - 80000 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 4 . 888 - 28 . 540 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 033 - 33 . 876 salinity ( pps ) : 18 . 065 - 38 . 201 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 0 . 907 - 6 . 964 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 063 - 2 . 633 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 380 - 83 . 712 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : 0 - 80000 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 4 . 888 - 28 . 540 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 033 - 33 . 876 salinity ( pps ) : 18 . 065 - 38 . 201 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 0 . 907 - 6 . 964 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 063 - 2 . 633 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 380 - 83 . 712 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\nr . w . dexter , the marine communities of a tidal inlet at cape ann , massachusetts : a study in bio - ecology , ecol . monogr . 17 : 263 - 294 , from p . 284 ( 1947 ) .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . no available public dna sequences . download fasta file\nspecies within this genus are found worldwide . these snails usually live on mud flats or sand flats , intertidally or subtidally .\nthe shells of species in this genus have a relatively high cyrtoconoid ( approaching a conical shape but with convex sides ) spire and a siphonal notch .\nis believed to be 90 , 000 years old . a further group of pierced shells , some with red\n) . these beads had previously been thought to be the oldest examples of jewelry .\n. however , this division is difficult to define , resulting in much confusion . even\nshows that the division into these subgenera appears to be uncertain and unreliable . there seem to be two groups within the genus\n. in the end , the molecular phylogeny did not match the previous morphological phylogeny .\n, most of which have become synonyms . the following species are accepted names according to the\nbouzouggar , a . , barton , n . , vanhaeren , m . , d ' errico , f . , collcutt , s . , higham , t . , hodge , e . , parfitt , s . , rhodes , e . , schwenninger , j . - l . , stringer , c . , turner , e . , ward , s . , moutmir , a . and stambouli , a . 2007 .\n82 , 000 - year - old shell beads from north africa and implications for the origins of modern human behavior\nproceedings of the national academy of sciences , june 4 , 2007 ; urltoken\ncernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356\nbernard , p . a . ( ed . ) ( 1984 ) . coquillages du gabon [ shells of gabon ] . pierre a . bernard : libreville , gabon . 140 , 75 plates pp\nkay c . vaught ( 1989 ) . classification of the living mollusca . isbn 978 - 0 - 915826 - 22 - 3 .\nwolff , w . j . ; duiven , p . ; esselink , p . ; gueve , a . ( 1993 ) . biomass of macrobenthic tidal flat fauna of the banc d ' arguin , mauritania . hydrobiologia 258 ( 1 - 3 ) : 151 - 163\nnassa r\u00f6ding , 1798 for mainly muricid species with the type species : nassa picta r\u00f6ding , 1798 ( = nassa serta ( brugui\u00e8re , 1798 ) .\nnassa r\u00f6ding , 1798 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 24 february 2011 .\nnassa francolina ( brugui\u00e8re , 1789 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa serta ( brugui\u00e8re , 1789 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa situla ( reeve , 1846 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa tuamotuensis houart , 1996 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa kraussiana dunker . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa lathraia . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa munda . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa obockensis . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa optima sowerby , 1903 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa pulla ( linnaeus , 1758 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa steindachneri . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa stiphra . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nnassa xesta . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 25 april 2010 .\nhouart r . ( 1996 ) the genus nassa r\u00f6ding 1798 in the indo - west pacific ( gastropoda : prosobranchia : muricidae : rapaninae ) . archiv f\u00fcr molluskenkunde 126 ( 1 - 2 ) : 51 - 63\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nb . wilson , c . wilson , p . baker ( 1994 ) .\naustralian marine shells : prosobranch gastropods : part 2 ( neogastropods )\n. kallaroo , odyssey publishing , 370 p .\ndavid freeman .\nbullia species in south africa\nin : the strandloper . - n\u00ba 214 ( 1985 ) , pp . 5 - 7 , 12\nphilippe bouchet , jean - pierre rocroi ( 2005 ) .\nclassification and nomenclator of gastropod families\n. hackenheim , conchbooks ; malacologia\nr . tucker abbott , s . peter dance ( 1986 ) .\ncompendium of seashells : color guide to more than 4 , 200 of the world ' s marine shells\n. melbourne , fl , usa , american malacologists inc . , 411 p .\nalain robin ( 2008 ) .\nencyclopedia of marine gastropods\n. hackenheim , germany , xenophora , conchbooks , 480 p .\nr . n . kilburn .\nfour new bullia species ( mollusca gastropoda nassariidae ) from kenya and mozambique\nin : annals of the natal museum . - vol 23 , 2 ( october 1978 ) , pp . 297 - 303\ntakashi okutani ( ed . ) ( 2000 ) .\nmarine mollusks in japan\n. tokyo , tokay university press , 1173 p . ; illustrated ;\nsteyn , douw g . , lussi , markus ( 2005 ) .\noffshore shells of southern africa : pictorial guide to more than 750 gastropods\n. [ s . l . ] , douw g . steyn & markus lussi , 289 p\nguido t . poppe ( 2008 ) .\nphilippine marine mollusks : volume 2 : gastropoda part 2\n. hackenheim , germany , conchbooks , 848 p .\nrichard kilburn , elizabeth rippey ( 1982 ) .\nsea shells of southern africa\n. johannesburg , macmillan south africa , xi + 249 p .\ncarlos leobrera , f . m . leobrera ( eds . ) ; f . j . springsteen ( scientific researcher ) ; neal oshima ( photographer ) ( 1986 ) .\nshells of the philippines\n. manila , carfel seashell museum , 377 p\nworld register of marine species .\nworms : world register of marine species\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by kbanasihan , 06 / 28 / 2010\nthis species occurs in the red sea and in the indian ocean off madagascar and in the central pacific ocean ."]}
{"id": 2042, "summary": [{"text": "\u2020 partula dolorosa was a species of air-breathing tropical land snail , a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family partulidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this species was endemic to a highland on raiatea , french polynesia .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is now extinct . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "partula dolorosa", "paragraphs": ["toothed partula - partula dentifera ( ew ) , may be confused with raiatea ground partula p . navigatoria , in captivity only ( bristol zoo )\npartula snails are the poster children of invert conservation success stories but surprisingly they don ' t show up much on the internet , mostly as partula spp on individual zoo ' s sites . . . . . any improvements on following details are much appreciated .\npartula snails are the poster children of invert conservation success stories but surprisingly they don ' t show up much on the internet , mostly as partula spp on individual zoo ' s sites . and as this group of species didn ' t gain much attention on my other thread\ntoday , the zoological society of london runs the partula programme consortium which maintains a captive breeding program in the united kingdom , france and the united states .\ncommon names have been probably created by gerlach , which i feel is probably fair enough if you want gain some attention from a wider audience . he has written a book covering partula\nsearching for\npartula\n. in : iucn 2010 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2010 . 3 . < www . iucnredlist . org > . downloaded on 14 september 2010 .\ncrampton h . e . ( 1916 ) . studies on the variation , distribution and evolution of the genus partula . the species inhabiting tahiti . carnegie institution of washington , 228 : 1 - 311 .\ncrampton h . e . ( 1932 ) . studies on the variation , distribution and evolution of the genus partula . the species inhabiting moorea . carnegie institution of washington , 410 : 1 - 335 .\na fascinating summary tetrapod . thanks for this ! do you happen to know where the last extinct animals died ? i noticed that partula rosea is missing - has taxonomy changed or had it just missed the list ?\njung , younghun , taehwan lee , burch j . b . & diarmaid \u00f3 foighil . ( 2005 )\nhistorical phylogeny of tahitian partula\n. proc . joint conference - american malacological society and western society of malacologists .\nmayer a . g . ( january 1902 ) .\nsome species of partula from tahiti . a study in variation\n. memoirs of the museum of comparative zo\u00f6logy xxvi ( 2 ) , cambridge , u . s . a .\ncrampton h . e . ( 1925 ) . studies on the variation , distribution and evolution of the genus partula . the species of the mariana islands , guam and saipan . carnegie institution of washington , 228a : 1 - 116 .\nthe wolfsnail chose instead to hunt and eat members of the nearly 76 species of partula that were endemic to tahiti , devouring all but about 5 species in a decade . several scientists recognized what was going on , and were able to save several species prior to their becoming extinct .\ncheers temp ! have modified my list to fit data on the eaza tag list but obviously may be out of date . realised that there were a load more partula scattered over the south pacific as well as the other species mentioned . do you have have any info on captive breeding programs for any of them ?\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nin the late 1980s , native partulid species began disappearing rapidly . by 1992 there were few left and no live individuals of this species were found during surveys in 1994 and 2000 or during subsequent scientific expeditions to high altitudes .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis species was only found on the high temehani plateau on raiatea . it was discovered by henry crampton in 1909 and a few were found in 1992 when the last surviving raiatean\ninvaded the plateau shortly afterwards . unfortunately it did not establish in captivity and is now extinct .\ngerlach j . ( 2016 ) . icons of evolution : pacific island tree - snails of the family partulidae . phelsuma press . isbn : 978 - 0 - 99322 - 033 - 3 . [ details ]\nas a group there are around 83 spp spread throughout the south pacific , with 51 spp extinct and 11 extinct in the wild . the ones we are most ' familiar ' with are those that are / were found in french polynesia .\na fascinating summary tetrapod . thanks for this ! do you happen to know where the last extinct animals died ?\nit is perhaps worth pointing out that your list only includes the zoos in english - speaking countries that maintain these snails . although a number of british zoos maintain the largest number of species , several are also maintained at zoos in the netherlands ( artis ) , denmark ( randers ; they took over copenhagen ' s project in 2009 ) , latvia ( riga ) , poland ( poznan ) and france ( thoiry ) .\nsnails aren ' t alone . there are also other pacific island snails ( e . g . ,\n) where captive breeding plays an important role in their continued survival , although their management generally involves non - zoo organizations .\n, which only survives in captivity . as far as i know , this is the only aquatic snail that has been saved like this . this species was restricted to rapids that disappeared when the yacyret\u00e1 dam opened ; a few relatives became entirely extinct ( none in captivity ) when it opened .\nthis may repeat itself soon : the fish species that may well go extinct / extinct in the wild with the opening of the belo monte dam have received some media attention ( especially the zebra pleco ) . however , the same rapids are home to several distinctive aquatic snails found no where else in the world ; indeed they provide a stable food for many of the catfish species found there . i ' m not aware of anyone having started a captive breeding program for any of these snails . some may survive in the remaining dwindling rapids of volta grande , but it rather likely that many will disappear .\njoined : 20 oct 2012 posts : 5 , 934 location : connecticut , u . s . a .\nnot sure how rosea was missed , but definitely still exists as a species . extinct in wild , held at marwell ( amongst others ) .\ni ' m not sure if more species are kept ( and bred ) behind the scenes .\ncategories : 2 , 605 albums : 19 uploaded media : 338 , 562 embedded media : 206 comments : 365 , 567 disk usage : 108 . 3 gb\nthe encyclopedia of world problems and human potential is a collaboration between uia and mankind 2000 , started in 1972 . it is the result of an ambitious effort to collect and present information on the problems with which humanity is confronted , as well as the challenges such problems pose to concept formation , values and development strategies . problems included are those identified in international periodicals but especially in the documents of some 60 , 000 international non - profit organizations , profiled in the yearbook of international organizations .\nthe encyclopedia includes problems which such groups choose to perceive and act upon , whether or not their existence is denied by others claiming greater expertise . indeed such claims and counter - claims figure in many of the problem descriptions in order to reflect the often paralyzing dynamics of international debate . in the light of the interdependence demonstrated among world problems in every sector , emphasis is placed on the need for approaches which are sufficiently complex to encompass the factions , conflicts and rival worldviews that undermine collective initiative towards a promising future .\nthe union of international associations ( uia ) is a research institute and documentation centre , based in brussels . it was established in 1907 , by henri la fontaine ( nobel peace prize laureate of 1913 ) , and paul otlet , a founding father of what is now called information science .\nnon - profit , apolitical , independent , and non - governmental in nature , the uia has been a pioneer in the research , monitoring and provision of information on international organizations , international associations and their global challenges since 1907 .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe iucn red list of threatened species ( version 2011 . 1 ) shows that at least 1584 of the about 85 , 000 living mollusc species on earth are known to be threatened with extinction ( iucn 2011 ) . according to the iucn at least 32 bivalve species , 3 bivalve subspecies , 281 gastropod species and 5 gastropod subspecies have become extinct since the year 1500 ( iucn 2011 ) . this website sadly lists even more molluscs extinctions .\nhas been released under the creative commons attribution non - commercial no derivatives 3 . 0 licence .\ndo you know any species or subspecies that should be added to this list or has been rediscovered ? if so , please contact this website .\nthe subjoined table shows the bivalve species and subspecies that recently became globally extinct .\n) has recently been in choccolocco creek , a coosa river tributary ( \u00f3 foighill et al . 2011 ) in alabama , united states . other recent\n) . the iucn red lists of threatened species ( version 2011 . 1 ) still lists these species as extinct ( bogan 2000 ; iucn 2011 ) .\nbank , r . a . ( 2010 ) fauna europaea : bythinella austriaca . in karsholt , o . & nieukerken , e . j . van ( eds . ) ( 2010 ) fauna europaea : lepidoptera , moths . fauna europaea version 2 . 2 , urltoken .\nbogan , a . e . ( 2000 ) . rhodacme filosa . in : iucn ( 2010 ) . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2010 . 4 . < urltoken > . downloaded on 02 june 2011 .\nfalkner , g . , ripken , t . e . j . , falkner , m . , ( 2002 ) . mollusques continentaux de france liste de r\u00e9f\u00e9rence annot\u00e9e et bibliographie . patrimoines naturels , 52 , museum d\u2019histoire naturelle , paris . 350pp .\nfontaine , b . et al . , ( 2007 ) the european union\u2019s 2010 target : putting rare species in focus . biological conservation 139 : 167\u2013185 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . biocon . 2007 . 06 . 012 .\niucn ( 2011 ) . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 1 . < urltoken > . downloaded on 25 june 2011 .\n\u00f3 foighil d , li j , lee t , johnson p , evans r , et al . ( 2011 ) . conservation genetics of a critically endangered limpet genus and rediscovery of an extinct species . plos one 6 ( 5 ) : e20496 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0020496 . available online : urltoken .\nmaas , p . h . j . ( 2011 ) . globally extinct : molluscs . in : tsew ( ) . the sixth extinction website . < urltoken > . downloaded on .\nif you see any errors , questions or suggestions on what is shown on this page , please contact us so that we can correct or extend the information provided .\ncopyright \u00a9 2000 - 2015 [ urltoken & the sixth extinction ] . all right reserved .\nare now completely extinct , a further 11 survive only in captivity and just 5 species still exist in the wild in french polynesia . the\nfor the surviving species has been in place since the early 1990s and many species have existed only in small boxes in controlled conditions for many generations . efforts are underway to find a way of returning them to the wild . this requires new approaches to conservation and reintroduction as there is no realistic prospect of eliminating\npartulids are spread over 5 , 000 square miles ( 13 , 000 km 2 ) of pacific ocean islands , from the society islands to palau .\nceremonial wear and jewelry , these small snails ( averaging about one - half to three - quarters of an inch in length ) gained the attention of science when dr .\nwhat happened to the partulids of the island of tahiti is a demonstration of the possible deleterious effects of attempted biological control . after an infestation of the introduced giant african land snails ( achatina spp . ) , the carnivorous florida rosy wolfsnail ( euglandina rosea ) was introduced into tahiti in an attempt to combat the african species .\nthe iucn red list of threatened species version 2009 . 2 contains 13 critically endangered , 11 extinct in the wild and 51 extinct\nf\u00e9russac a . \u00e9 . d ' a . de ( june 1821 ) . journ . de physique 92 : 460 ; 1821 , h . n . g . et p . moll . , tabl . lima\u00e7ons , 23 .\nmyers , p . ; espinosa , r . ; parr , c . s . ; jones , t . ; hammond , g . s . & dewey , t . a . ( 2006 ) . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at urltoken .\niucn ( 2008 ) . 2008 iucn red list of threatened species . < www . iucnredlist . org > . downloaded on 23 december 2008 .\niucn ( 2009 ) . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2009 . 2 . < www . iucnredlist . org > . downloaded on 14 november 2009 .\nlee , t . ; burch , j . b . ; coote , t . ; pearce - kelly , p . ; hickman , c . ; meyer , j . y . ; \u00f3 foighil , d . ( 2009 ) .\nmoorean tree snail survival revisited : a multi - island genealogical perspective\n. bmc evolutionary biology 9 : 204 . doi : 10 . 1186 / 1471 - 2148 - 9 - 204 . pmc 3087522 . pmid 19686604 .\nlee , t . ; burch , j . b . ; jung , y . ; coote , t . ; pearce - kelly , p . ; \u00f3 foighil , d . ( 2007 ) .\ntahitian tree snail mitochondrial clades survived recent mass extirpation\n. current biology 17 ( 13 ) : r502\u2013r503 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . cub . 2007 . 05 . 006 . pmid 17610827 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !"]}
{"id": 2044, "summary": [{"text": "policeman ( 16 april 1977 \u2013 2001 ) was a french thoroughbred racehorse and sire .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "he raced only as a three-year-old in 1980 , when he won three of his eleven races including a 54/1 upset victory in the prix du jockey club .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he began his racing career at cagnes-sur-mer where he won two minor races before being transferred to the major french racecourses in spring .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "after finishing third in the prix de guiche and the prix matchem he won the prix du jockey club with a front-running performance , defeating a field which included shakapour , providential and argument .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he went on to finish third in the grand prix de saint-cloud but ran poorly in his last two races and was retired to stud at the end of the year .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "policeman was exported to stand as a breeding stallion in new york state but had little success as a sire of winners . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "policeman ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["a policeman has been sacked after taking sick days to watch his horse race .\nillustration of a mounted policeman police officer riding a horse on isolated background done in cartoon style .\nplymouth , u . k . union street , policeman , horse drawn wagon , devon , c . 1909\nvector - illustration of a mounted policeman police officer riding a horse on isolated background done in cartoon style .\npoliceman and a horse on isolated background royalty free cliparts , vectors , and stock illustration . image 57246785 .\nillustration of a mounted policeman police officer riding a horse on isolated background done in cartoon style . | pinterest\npoliceman on horse old cars background 20 ' s / 30 ' s - $ 9 . 44 | picclick\na policeman faces a gross misconduct hearing for allegedly calling in sick three times so he could watch his horse at the races .\nillustration of a mounted policeman police officer riding a horse . . royalty free cliparts , vectors , and stock illustration . image 36303123 .\nthe woman who pushed over a policeman at the races has updated her facebook profile pic to this .\nif you think back to the turn of the century every village had a policeman that used horses . the aim of this is to bring police back into the countryside - you ' ve basically got a 10ft policeman .\nhe was caught on television celebrating the horse\u2019s victory in the group one commonwealth cup .\na woman has been arrested after she pushed a victorian policeman into a bush during the melbourne cup at flemington . courtesy channel seven\nand a policeman and a paramedic who both volunteered to jump in were given orders not to do so by a fire station watch manager .\n18 months ago darren smith ' s horse training operation was shut down by racing new south wales stewards .\nplay policeman horse and spend some fun time with one more horse puzzle game . meet the new super hero in your neighborhood ! it is the best police - horse in the world . use your mouse to interact and rearrange the pieces in the jigsaw puzzle . click and hold left mouse button while the cursor is over a piece of the jigsaw and drag it to its correct position . depending of your skills you can choose and set the difficulty mode before you begin the game . the easy mode is reserved for the youngest and the beginners , while the other two modes have more jigsaw pieces and are little bit heavier to be solved . choose the one that fits you and solve the policeman horse puzzle now !\nwe do not accept he was sick at all . he was throwing a sickie to go horse racing .\ninstead he went to royal ascot , where another horse he had an interest in \u2014 quiet reflection \u2014 was running .\nwebby said yesterday ' s win was not expected despite the horse having won a trial at foxton on december 15 .\nthe policeman , who serves in the gloucestershire constabulary , will face a gross misconduct hearing at their head office in waterwells , gloucester on monday , july 17 .\npc adams , an officer at gloucester ' s barton street station , part - owned a horse with a racing syndicate .\npc jonathan adams failed to turn up to work on three occasions and instead went horse racing , it has been claimed .\nphoto : darren smith ' s newcastle horse training operation was shut down by racing new south wales stewards 18 months ago .\nstewards based their decision to ban smith by relying on a rule prohibiting any substance which alters the blood pattern of a horse .\ncategory . urltoken so do not go anywhere , stay on urltoken and play thousand of free horse , pony and other animal games .\na cancer - suffering trader had his final wish fulfilled when his much - loved market horse visited him at hospital before he died .\na newcastle horse trainer , found guilty of dozens of doping charges , has today lost an appeal against the length of his sentence .\na police officer who threw a\nsickie\nthree times to watch horse racing has been sacked after being found guilty of gross misconduct .\nhe is accused of going to ascot to see his syndicated horse , quiet reflection , win the commonwealth cup on day four of royal ascot .\n\u201cbut you know what ? it\u2019s not all about strength . it\u2019s about getting a horse into a rhythm for you . it\u2019s being patient . \u201d\nplans for yours are uncertain , but thurlow was not ruling out the horse contesting next month ' s wellington cup at trentham on january 29 .\nthe tragic death of a well - regarded stallion at the widden stud in the hunter this week has put a dampener on horse birthday celebrations .\nin june 2016 he reported in sick again and went to royal ascot to watch quiet reflection , another horse owned by his syndicate , win the commonwealth cup .\nthe horse won a trial at waverley late in november before finishing a good third at new plymouth on december 9 at her first start of her current campaign .\nthomas thorpe , 74 , was well - known in chesterfield , derbyshire , as the man who welcomed visitors to to the town along with ben the horse .\nstormin norman is prepared at new plymouth by robert patterson for webby , his son , zane , a new plymouth policeman , and long time friends and racing associates john and darren carter , of the bay of plenty .\non both occasions it is alleged he actually went to nottingham racecourse to watch his horse little lady kate , which he co - owned as part of a syndicate .\nplease keep me up to date with special offers and news from horse & hound and other brands operated by ti media limited via email . you can unsubscribe at any time .\nbefore going into duty the specials and their mounts had to pass an assessment with jacko jackson , a field officer with world horse welfare ( whw ) , and former police officer .\nthe panel was told that in september 2015 and april 2016 he had reported in sick and went to nottingham racecourse to watch the horse he part - owned , named little lady katy .\nstephen morley , presenting the case for the force , told the hearing :\nin a nutshell , on three occasions he deliberately reported sick in order to go to the horse races .\nyou couldn ' t see anything inside the bus , as a big horse was in the way . but it was obvious a mounted police officer was assisting at the scene .\n' he loved those horses so much . he was always out wanting to spent time with them . he loved being on the market , with ben and the other horse sam . '\nfans have this week paid their respects to sonny . one , dean hallsworth , said : ' r . i . p town won ' t be the same without the horse and cart ' .\nas the only north american graded winner by french - bred policeman , who in his entire career sired only four black - type stakes winners and also had no group winners in europe , claramount entered stud in 1990 with a certain degree of understandable prejudice against his sire line .\nhowever , instead of going to work he went to watch the racing at nottingham where a horse he had a share in \u2014 little lady katie \u2014 was running . this happened again on 6 april 2016 .\n' ' we set up a racing partnership in 1980 and every horse we have raced since we have bred . we ' ve replaced members that have died with our sons , ' ' said webby senior .\n\u201cit is such a chauvinistic sport , \u201d she said . \u201csome of the owners wanted to kick me off the horse , but i thought he had what it takes to run a race in the melbourne cup . \u201d\nit shows how the force is helping to address concerns like fly - tipping , metal theft and most importantly , for the farmers and stables - they see horse patrols where you ' d never normally see police patrolling .\ninsp george holland , who leads the project in hertfordshire , said :\npart of the idea was to get people that ride , who live in the countryside and interested in country issues , to use their horse as transport .\nin the official french rating for two - year - olds in 1979 , argument was rated ten pounds inferior to the top - rated dragon , a colt he had beaten in the prix la rochette . in the following year , timeform rated argument on 133 ( four pounds below the sprinter moorestyle ) and named him the season ' s best middle - distance horse . in the official international classification he was rated the best horse trained in france and equal - second among all european racehorses , level with ela - mana - mou and one pound below moorestyle . in the following year he was given a rating of 129 by timeform and was rated six pounds behind the top - rated older horse northjet in the international classification .\nfantasticprivilege ( 07g , seasoned star , racing is fun ) . 10 wins from 1300m to 1700m , macau race horse owners association bowl , 2d macau sand mile , hull h . , avondale h . , 3d macau spring trophy , l .\nhe won 14 races while campaigning under five different sets of colors at seven tracks in two countries and on both sides of the north american continent , earning $ 484 , 039 . as a sire , the son of french derby winner policeman out of 1988 new york broodmare of the year fifties galore , by cornish prince , has compiled a generally overlooked record .\nedwin wachtel ' s claramount , 1988 new york bred horse of the year , died of a ruptured aorta on feb . 17 at james edwards ' the stallion park in millbrook , where he had stood since entering stud in 1990 . he was 19 years old .\nargument was a dark - coated bay horse with a white coronet on his right hind foot bred in france by pierre ribes . argument was by far the best horse sired by kautokeino , who won the prix juigne on his debut before his racing career was ended by injury when finishing third to sassafras in the 1970 prix la force . he was one of at least five winners produced by the mare arantelle . the colt raced in the colours of his breeders ' wife and was sent into training with john cunnington , jr . at chantilly .\nwe had actually got lost when we came across this strange scene of a horse appearing to get on a bus outside sainsbury ' s . it was just a very unusual image , and i always keep my phone handy due to the nature of my work , crowcroft told the islington gazette .\nmr pommeroy ( 11c , rahy , green dancer ) . 3 wins - 1 at 2 - at 1300m , 2000m , \u20ac98 , 600 , 234 , 880dhs , cagnes - sur - mer prix policeman , l , 2d meydan jebel ali port h . , 3d meydan al rashidiya s . , gr . 2 , chantilly prix daphnis , gr . 3 , longchamp prix la force , gr . 3 , meydan dubai millennium s . , l , chantilly prix des dormants , 4th longchamp prix du prince d ' orange , gr . 3 .\non 30 august , argument was sent to chicago to represent france in the inaugural running of the arlington million , then the world ' s most valuable horse race , and finished sixth behind john henry . argument ' s final european race came in the prix de l ' arc de triomphe on 4 october when he started at odds on 34 / 1 and made steady progress in the straight to finish sixth in a field of twenty - four runners behind gold river . for his final two races , argument competed in north america , finishing fourth behind open call in the canadian international stakes and seventh to providential in the hollywood turf cup .\nargument began his second season by winning the prix mary over 1600m at saint - cloud racecourse in april . he was then moved up to group one class for the first time for the poule d ' essai des poulains . starting at odds of 13 / 1 he finished fourth behind in fijar , moorestyle and ruscelli , but was promoted to third when ruscelli was disqualified for causing interference . argument was moved up in distance for the prix lupin over 2100m at longchamp on 18 may . he started a 21 / 1 outsider and finished second , beaten half a length by belgio , with in fijar in third . in the prix du jockey - club at chantilly racecourse on 8 june , argument produced his worst effort of the season as he finished last of the fourteen runners behind the 54 / 1 outsider policeman . on 21 july argument was sent to belgium for the grand prix prince rose over 2200m at ostend and won the race by two lengths from dhausli and strong gale . he returned to france in august for the prix de la cote normande over 2000m in which he was beaten a head by glenorum , to whom he was conceding nine pounds . he then traveled to germany for the grosser preis von baden in which he finished fifth behind nebos : desaint was fined by the local racecourse stewards for his riding performance in a rough and slowly run race .\npicture topic : patrolman on horse with old cars as background dated : 20 ' 30 ' s detail : patrolman on horse / measures 4 1 / 2 x 3 1 / 4 condition : good unless otherwise specified - some curving item will be in plastic and backed on cardboard for safe transit . i do combine shipping on multiple items . each delivery comes with a delivery confirmation so that i know that your treasure arrived safely . 100 % satisfaction guaranteed ! inventory being added daily so come back often . only a fraction of our inventory is listed at auction for vintage photo ' s . . alot more in our store . to search all listings , enter your search term ( photo ) in the search box in the store home page then click search . please note $ 2 . 50 u . s . shipping and handling includes ; cardboard backing , mailer , plastic sleeve for safe transit & 1st class us postal service . insurance available on request . photos can be shipped together to save on postage , one shipping $ 2 . 50 charge ships as many photos as you can buy ! please take a look at our other auctions and store items ! be sure to add me to your favorites list ! i have hundreds of vintage photos which i will be listing . all kinds of topics , scenes , holdiays and plus more . . will be listing a few each week so stop by often you ' ll never know what you will find in your topic area . . . . . please visit my online ebay store for similar items : lastcenturyephemera international buyers please note : yes . . i will ship out of the country but only if i can get online tracking . this online tracking is required with paypal . understand that it might be very expensive for this online tracking . . and this is paypals rule to send it like this . . not mine . if paypal is your option for this item shipping will be expensive overseas . you are free to email me with other options . powered by ebay turbo lister the free listing tool . list your items fast and easy and manage your active items .\nclaramount ' s history as racehorse and sire is an intriguing journey for a new york - bred . foaled at tom martin ' s kinderhill farm in old chatham , he traveled from new york to kentucky as a weanling , then to florida , mexico city , northwards to agua caliente near the u . s . border , then to southern california , and finally back to new york , where he became a grade ii stakes winner .\ndespite that drawback , he compiled a sire record that is a statistical marvel , getting better than 78 percent winners from starters with average earnings per runner of more than $ 62 , 000 to date . his runners include three - time graded winner stalwart member , whose earnings in 2002 climbed to $ 758 , 696 , plus other stakes winners broomesse ( $ 396 , 434 ) , fickle fanny ( $ 382 , 370 ) , diplomatic corps ( $ 301 , 129 ) and mount intrepid ( $ 284 , 118 ) , named foals , claramount was represented by progeny earnings of over $ 1 - million in 2000 , 2001 , and 2002 . offspring of claramount have earned over $ 7 . 4 - million to date .\njockey : jose a . santos trainer : howard m . tesher owner : wachtel edwin breeder : farm & breeding racing program - 1 979 - series , kinderhill\n* current year statistics include all north american races and dubai world cup day . career statistics include results from all countries .\n* current year includes north american and dubai world cup day statistics ; all previous years include results from all countries .\nequibase company is the official supplier of racing information and statistics to america ' s best racing , breeders ' cup , daily racing form , ntra , the jockey club , tra , tvg and xpressbet .\nproprietary to and \u00a9 2018 equibase company llc . all rights reserved . the terms of use for this web site prohibit the use of any robot , spider , scraper or any other automated means to access the contents of this site . the terms of use also expressly prohibit the republication or dissemination of the contents of this screen without the prior written consent of equibase company llc .\nthe haplotype reported in contemporary samples from family 6e represents a different founder than those responsible for other branches of family 6 . the haplotype identified in the remains of hyperion is quite close , but not completely consistent , with the 6e haplotype . it does not necessarily represent a separate founder . see equine genetic genealogy and deep - rooted anomalies .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\npc jonathan adams , of ross - on - wye , went twice to nottingham racecourse and to royal ascot where he was seen celebrating a win on television .\nthe officer said the trips were\ntherapeutic\nto deal with a\ntoxic\nwork environment .\na disciplinary hearing concluded pc adams was\nnot as sick as he claimed\n.\nthe misconduct panel was shown a television clip of pc adams jumping around and celebrating .\npc adams said he had taken time off to avoid a\ntoxic\nenvironment at barton street station . he described suffering stomach cramps , migraines and irritable bowel syndrome .\nthe hearing was told it was\nquite clear\nhe was\nnot ok\nand was\nstruggling with his environment\n.\nrichard shepherd , representing pc adams , said :\nhe would not have let his colleagues down to go on a jolly at the races . it is not in his dna .\nbut alex lock , chair of the panel , said :\nwe are forced to conclude that pc adams was not suffering the degree of sickness that he claimed he was .\nit is important that police officers are honest and that public confidence should be upheld .\nin the circumstances we conclude that dismissal without notice is appropriate in order to maintain public confidence in the force .\nthe foreign secretary quits , telling theresa may\nneedless self - doubt\nis leading to\nsemi - brexit\n.\npc jonathan adams , 32 , of gloucestershire constabulary , called in sick multiple times when he was actually at the races .\non 30 september 2015 , he did not turn up for work and told the force he was unwell .\npc adams requested time off from 14 - 20 june 2016 , which was refused by his line manager due to the operational problems this would cause .\npc adams then failed to turn up to work on 17 june and again told the force he was sick .\nin his defence , the hearing was told how pc adams was genuinely sick on those days found going to the races helped him cope . several positive character references were made in his favour , it has been reported by multiple news outlets .\nall three of these gross misconduct allegations were proved at a two - day hearing , which took place at the force\u2019s headquarters on 17 - 18 july , and pc adams was dismissed without notice .\nin a statement released after the hearing , deputy chief constable jon stratford said the behaviour was \u201cclearly unacceptable and not befitting an officer\u201d .\n\u201cwe are aware that our officers have a high workload at this time , which makes it all the more unacceptable for an officer to let their colleagues down in this way , \u201d he added .\n\u201cpolicing in any area or department can be very challenging , particularly as the number of officers has decreased over the last few years .\n\u201cwe recognise the impact this can have on welfare and have a number of safeguards in place , including a wellbeing programme and an occupational health nurse who specialises in mental health , to help ensure the welfare of our officers . \u201d\nby submitting your information , you agree to the terms & conditions and privacy & cookies policy .\nwe ' d also like to send you special offers and news just by email from other carefully selected companies we think you might like . your personal details will not be shared with those companies - we send the emails and you can unsubscribe at any time . please tick here if you are happy to receive these messages .\n\u00a9 copyright ti media limited . all rights reserved . terms & conditions | privacy policy | cookie consent\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nit has been played 6924 times and has been rated from administrators of urltoken with 4 . 70 stars out of 5 . if you like this kind of games you are welcome to play other amazing games in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\n/ / urltoken\nnumber of refugees accepted into the u . s . falls below the rest of the world combined for the first time since 1980\nhe faces a separate allegation of phoning in ill on a day he had already unsuccessfully tried to book off as annual leave . the request was turned down by his line manager .\nflying on top of the world : british daredevil and his team . . .\nin a summary of the hearing published online , a police spokesman said : ' if proven , this allegation has been assessed as being sufficiently serious so as to amount to gross misconduct . '\npc adams is alleged to have failed to have turned up to work after calling in sick on september 30 , 2015 and on april 6 , 2016 .\npc adams was then allegedly refused leave from june 14 to june 20 , 2016 , but is accused of calling in sick and attending ascot to watch quiet reflection , which he also part - owned in a syndicate .\nquiet reflection ended up winning the commonwealth cup on day four of the royal ascot where it was the 7 - 4 favourite .\n' we know where you live ' : angry protesters confront mitch . . .\n' diana would be ashamed ' : meghan ' s bitter half - sister . . .\npolice find the body of a missing four - month - old boy near . . .\n' prostitutes , orgies , group sex - all of it ' : ex - wife of . . .\nwoman , 38 , ' shoots her father in the head and then lives . . .\nalive ! four thai boys who made it out of cave in daring . . .\nbottleneck of 700 , 000 migrants wait in libya to cross the . . .\nwhat was agreed at chequers . . . and how the three - page . . .\n' this is no sell - out ' : theresa may insists she has chosen . . .\nsydney tower skywalk was ' shut down due to unsafe winds ' . . .\nselena gomez is seen with same mystery man she was with in may . . . after news her ex justin bieber is engaged to hailey baldwin\nkhloe kardashian reveals she stopped breast - feeding daughter true . . . three months after giving birth\ngiuliana rancic takes a hike with bill . . . as the couple vacation with friends ahead of her return to e ! news\nkhloe kardashian shows off neon sign in true ' s nursery . . . as she reveals it ' s kris jenner ' s handwriting\nmakeup artist joyce bonelli reaches out to the kardashian clan on instagram . . . after the famous family ' fire ' and unfollow her on social media\ndaddy daycare ! jared kushner takes kids back to d . c . after weekend in new jersey - as ivanka dons a short dress for visit to a nyc asphalt company\nsofia richie , 19 poses in a bikini top just after scott disick ' s ex kourtney kardashian , 39 , did the same . . . and fans call her out for it\nnaomi campbell wows in flamboyant feathered gown . . . while ashley graham sizzles in plunging lace dress as they walk in dolce & gabbana show in italy\nnaya rivera sells her five - bedroom la home for a cool $ 3 . 55 million after finalizing her divorce from ryan dorsey\nmel b ' is unable to pay her back taxes amid ongoing divorce battle with stephen belafonte . . . as it ' s estimated the pair owe up to $ 650k ' to the irs\nkylie jenner rocks curve - clinging attire as she shows off body . . . and considers going back to blonde\ndakota johnson dons striped wrap dress in la . . . after calling co - star chris hemsworth ' spectacular '\ncardi b hits back at troll who mocked her baby shower . . . as she shows off naked baby bump for photoshoot\nbuy your own celebrity hideaway ! castle adored by michael douglas and jack nicholson goes on sale for $ 5 . 2m ( and even comes with treehouse )\nant - man and the wasp soars to $ 76 million on opening weekend . . . beating its prequel by $ 19 million\nliam payne and cheryl split : carefree 1d star returns to stage for first time since break - up . . . as he poses happily with his backing dancers in france\ntristan thompson goes house hunting alone as he checks out $ 2m property in la with its own basketball court . . . just minutes from khloe ' s mansion\nchris hemsworth kicks off filming for the star - studded men in black spin - off as he cuts a sharp figure in london . . . 21 years after the first film hit screens\njill zarin admits she ' s ready to date again after being spotted with handsome businessman . . . following beloved husband bobby ' s death\ndj khaled cancels wireless performance due to ' travel issues ' just hours before his slot . . . as fans rage over his ' vacation ' snap\n13 reasons why villain justin prentice says he ' s not bothered by social media trolls . . . and that getting attacked online means he ' s doing his job as an actor\n' she didn ' t get those from me ' : kylie jenner says daughter stormi has dad travis scott ' s lips . . . as star reveals her breasts are ' three times the size ' post - baby\nkevin hart celebrates 39th birthday in las vegas . . . nearly a year after sin city cheating scandal\ndakota fanning joins michael b . jordan in voice cast of western anime series gen : lock\n' i regret making it public ' : guy pearce is remorseful for asserting his former co - star kevin spacey was ' handsy ' with him on the set of l . a . confidential\niconic movie home where molly ringwald ' s sixteen candles was filmed finally sells for $ 1 . 135 million after two years on market\nkendra caldwell duggar struggles through labor on counting on . . . before welcoming baby garrett\nwhy madonna dated only toyboys and why , as she pushes 60 , she ' s finally got bored with them . . . by the writer who knows her best\nbrooklyn beckham and squeeze lexy panterra get cozy at london club . . . enraging ex tallia storm\nyolanda hadid ' splits from boyfriend matt minnis ' . . . less than a year after david foster divorce\nbrooklyn beckham utilises his camera skills at wireless festival . . . after his debut photography book was slammed by fans\njustin bieber is the perfect gentleman as he handles the bags . . . while crop top - clad hailey baldwin struts alongside\n' i just don ' t want stuff ' kim kardashian doesn ' t buy her kids gifts to avoid spoiling them and sticks to a household budget . . . but says kanye is the ' biggest shopper '\njoanna gaines shares husband chip ' s unique birth tradition . . . as he cradles newborn son crew\nkylie jenner gushes baby stormi is ' changing every week ' and ' has cutest personality ' . . . as new mom admits to binge watching the handmaid ' s tale\nlena dunham says she was ' really smart ' to date ex jack antonoff . . . after posting nude selfie\ntom brady shows no mercy as he takes on gisele and his cancer - survivor mom in dodgeball . . . with a ' no crying ' rule\nlauren conrad ' s son liam takes a handful of cake . . . as proud mom ' celebrates one year with our little guy '\nkhloe kardashian ' anxious but eager ' as she gets back to work for the first time since true ' s birth . . . and her alarm goes off at 4 . 35am\nnia vardalos ' divorce filing . . . as duo split following 25 years of marriage\nkendall jenner boats in sheer dress . . . after snuggling up to her nba beau ben simmons at khloe kardashian ' s party\nkeyshia cole announces pregnancy on instagram . . . as boyfriend niko khale posts beach pic of couple\nanthony bourdain leaves majority of his $ 1 . 2m estate - which was rumored to be worth at least $ 16m - to 11 - year - old daughter ariane\nben affleck ' s $ 19m la mansion is surrounded by moving trucks . . . as it ' s revealed girlfriend lindsay shookus plans to spend more time on west coast\nbeaming kate gazes lovingly at sleeping prince louis as she and william attend his christening in their . . .\ntroubled actor jonathan rhys meyers is detained at lax after getting into a ' drunken fight with his wife and . . .\n' we only knew each other between action and cut ' : robin wright breaks her silence on kevin spacey ' s sexual . . .\nsupreme court cliffhanger is set for tonight as trump narrows his choices but keeps even his closest aides . . .\ntrump insists kim jong - un ' will honor ' promise to denuclearize despite blasting ' gangster - like demand ' and . . .\nlesbian couple are charged with neglect after they ' repeatedly gave young son marijuana for good behavior . . .\nfinal four thai cave boys and coach are in ' good health ' but must remain trapped underground for at least . . .\nrescued thai cave boys face a lifetime of trauma from their ordeal as traumatic memories could trigger fear . . .\nfrantic parents of rescued thai cave boys have not been told which children have been saved \u2013 as teammates . . .\nthree men will be executed over the infamous gang - rape and murder of a female student , 23 , on a delhi bus in . . .\nhollywood hostage actor who lost his eye , had nose and tongue slit , and was ' deprived of a member of his . . .\nhandcuffed harvey weinstein pleads not guilty to new rape charges , then shares a laugh with his lawyer after . . .\nmesmerising maps reveal record - breaking temperatures across the world as the earth experiences ' one of the . . .\ncouple arrested after their four - year - old son accidentally shots himself between the eyes could face ten . . .\npicture exclusive : a wintour wedding ! vogue editor - in - chief anna ' s daughter bee shaffer is the picture of . . .\nnumber of refugees accepted into the u . s . falls below the rest of the world combined for the first time . . .\nrevealed : the four warning signs you could be heading for divorce - including critcising your partner ' s . . .\nhere comes aunt meghan ! duchess of sussex looks elegant in an olive green shift dress by ralph lauren as she . . .\nprince louis ' godparents revealed : kate and william opt for childhood friends - including guy pelly - as . . .\nfit for a prince ! louis becomes the eighth royal baby to wear the historic honiton lace christening robe on . . .\nsuch a perfect princess ! cute charlotte steals the show again with her royal wave - and a very polite . . .\npregnant pippa looks glowing in a very appropriate shade of baby blue - as she joins her parents and brother . . .\nthe duke and duchess of cambridge will serve slices of their wedding fruit cake from seven years ago to . . .\nit ' s a hat trick for mcqueen ! kate repeats the look she chose for george and charlotte ' s christenings in a . . .\n' he was my son ! ' devastated father sobs as he is detained by police moments after his two - year - old . . .\nerdogan becomes the ' 21st century ataturk ' : president is sworn in with sweeping new powers that put him on . . .\nman , 52 , fatally shot by police in florida refused multiple orders to put down eight - inch knife and charged . . .\n\u20182 days , 8 wild boars . hooyah\u2019 : upbeat navy seals celebrate successful rescue of eight thai cave boys after elite divers pulled them through flood water - leaving just four children and their coach trapped for another night\n' hi . i ' m linda o ' keefe . . . 45 years ago today , i disappeared and my killer was never found ' : police tweet as the 11 - year - old girl who was murdered in 1973 in a bid to publicize the cold case\nfarm heroes saga , the # 4 game on itunes . play it now !\nsorry , we just need to make sure you ' re not a robot . for best results , please make sure your browser is accepting cookies .\ninvictor tries to help his owner save a man collapsed on a bus in london .\nthe number 43 bus was travelling through north london ' s borough of islington when politician simon crowcroft saw the equine passenger try to board the bus , cnn reported .\nthere was no horsing around . invictor was with his owner , metropolitan police constable dan smith , who had boarded the bus to help a man who collapsed .\nthe metropolitan police task force ' s congratulated invictor on being a\nteam player\nand stepping\nto help pc dan smith with a person collapsed on a bus\n.\ni think the photo appeals to a lot of people , particularly those who like animals . but it also says a lot about the met police - - that they are on hand to assist the general public . . . i think that is very reassuring in the world that we live in ,\ncrowcroft said .\nparamedics treated the man who collapsed and took him to hospital\nas a precaution\n, a spokesperson for the metropolitan police told cnn .\ncopyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 ebay inc . all rights reserved . user agreement , privacy , cookies and adchoice\nby creating an account , i agree to shutterstock ' s website terms , privacy policy , and licensing terms .\n\u00a9 2003 - 2018 shutterstock , inc . all rights reserved . made in nyc .\nsmall ( s ) has the shortest download time and is suitable for digital use .\nlarge ( l ) is suitable for large prints as well as digital use . it is the original image provided by the contributor .\nyou can redownload your image for free at any time , in any size .\neditorial content , such as news and celebrity images , are not cleared for commercial use . learn more on our support center .\nsign up to browse over million images , video clips , and music tracks . plus , get free weekly content and more .\n( we only support jpg and png images under 5mb and no larger than 4000px on either side at this time . )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsearch 123rf with an image instead of text . try dragging an image to the search box .\nsarah finn , who shot to notoriety as the melbourne cup\u2019s \u201cblue dress woman\u201d , has apologised . but her friends seem amused by the situation .\nthe woman who pushed over a senior police officer in full view of television cameras is reticent over the attention she\u2019s received , issuing an apology for her actions .\nsarah finn told seven news : \u201cmy level of intoxication is no excuse . \u201d\n\u201ci deeply apologise for my actions . i acknowledge a massive error in judgement on my behalf . \u201d\nthe 25 - year - old sent acting superintendent steven cooper flying backwards into a flower bed after the melbourne cup at flemington racecourse , and will be charged with assaulting police .\nthe woman earlier appeared to be revelling in the national attention , posting a new profile picture to her facebook account on wednesday afternoon of herself seated on a police motorcycle holding four packets of chips .\nthe photo appears to have been taken at flemington , because she is in the same short blue dress she was wearing when the incident occurred .\nher friends seemed amused by the update , with one posting \u201cyou are a funny lady ! \u201d and another writing \u201cthat cop would have been loving it\u201d .\non tuesday , acting supt cooper had been about to speak to media about the behaviour of the 94 , 000 strong crowd when the woman approached him .\nafter he fell she turned around and giggled and seemed surprised when she was quickly led away by officers .\nshe was seen chatting to members of the media just before the incident and acting supt cooper said he believed she had made comments along the lines of \u201cwhat do i have to do to get on the news ? \u201d .\nthe woman posted a message on channel 7\u2019s facebook page saying : \u201cyou guys forgot to mention that you told me to do it . \u201d\n\u201cshe wanted her five minutes of fame and got it , \u201d he told melbourne radio station 3aw this morning .\nhowever seven news cameraman james paul has denied she was told to do it . \u201cno , no one said unequivocally go and push a police superintendent in the chest that will be a grand idea \u2014 no one at all said that at any point of time . \u201d\nat first , he thought the woman was a reporter and wondered what she wanted . \u201cvery odd behaviour . she walked up to me and i thought \u2018what\u2019s she doing , is she just come over say hello or something . . . clearly not , \u201d he told channel 7 .\nhe didn\u2019t speak to her but the colleague who interviewed her indicated she wasn\u2019t affected by alcohol .\n\u201cshe\u2019ll be charged with assault and damage because during the push she broke a pair of glasses . \u201d\na victoria police spokeswoman confirmed to urltoken the woman would get a summons to appear in court on a charge of assaulting police .\nacting supt cooper said he was \u201ccopping it from all my mates\u201d after the clip went viral .\n\u201ci certainly don\u2019t condone the behaviour but i see why ( it\u2019s got so much attention ) . \u201d\nfinn became the sixth person to be evicted from the crowd . the others were for trespass , being drunk or anti - social behaviour .\nas urltoken reported yesterday , the fans at flemington really let loose towards the end of the day . sometimes the revelry can take an ugly turn , leaving the nation in a state of cultural cringe .\nby 4 . 30pm , before the final race for the day had kicked off , a violent punch - up had broken out in front of the stands in the general admission section , with several men and a few women involved in the brawl . one man had blood streaming from his head as he was restrained by an officer .\na scuffle breaks out tuesday afternoon after the running of the melbourne cup in flemington .\nthe nasty scuffle , which had to be broken up by up to 10 police officers , was captured on camera by urltoken and reveals just how rough things can get when racegoers have been drinking in the sun since 10am .\nmost involved in the fight were swiftly ejected by security guards , who worked quickly to maintain order .\ndrunk , but unquestionably more peaceful , were the hordes of punters passed out among the cigarette butts , broken plastic cups and discarded clothing items . one young woman leaving the birdcage stumbled into a bush and had to be retrieved by a bemused girlfriend .\na woman stumbles into a bush after the race and was helped to her feet by a passer by . courtesy : simone mitchell .\nthe wheels start to fall off the melbourne cup cart . picture : jake nowakowski\nstaff members were already working quickly to clean the debris , but they were fighting an uphill battle against the thousands of seagulls , who got the hot tip on the leftovers and descended upon flemington to feast .\nof course , the crowd chaos did occur against a much more positive backdrop , with michelle payne becoming the first female jockey to win the melbourne cup . she did it on 100 / 1 outsider prince of penzance .\non a day full of questionable behaviour , payne was a model of maturity . she used her victory to hit out against sexism in the racing industry .\n\u201cracing is a very male dominated sport , \u201d she said at the victory presentation , clearly alluding to the fact that many owners believe male jockeys are stronger .\nshe then reserved a classic aussie insult for those who thought she might have performed her job more effectively if she had a deep voice and a bulge in her pants : \u201cget stuffed\u201d .\nworld cup fifa 2018 : harry maguire photo goes viral , kyle wa . . .\na note about relevant advertising : we collect information about the content ( including ads ) you use across this site and use it to make both advertising and content more relevant to you on our network and other sites . find out more about our policy and your choices , including how to opt - out .\nnews limited copyright \u00a9 2018 . all times aest ( gmt + 10 ) .\nthis site uses cookies . by continuing to browse you are agreeing to our use of cookies and other tracking technologies . find out more here . got it !\n$ 9 . 44 buy it now 26d 4h , $ 2 . 00 shipping , 30 - day returns\nviews , 0 views per day , 2 , 944 days on ebay . normal amount of views . 0 sold , 1 available .\n- 13 , 178 + items sold . 0 . 1 % negative feedback . top - rated plus ! top - rated seller , 30 - day return policy , ships in 1 business day with tracking .\n13 , 178 + items sold . 0 . 1 % negative feedback . top - rated plus ! top - rated seller , 30 - day return policy , ships in 1 business day with tracking .\ncopyright \u00a9 2008 - 2018 picclick \u00ae llc . all rights reserved . . . . with a mighty hand and outstretched arm ; his love endures forever .\nthoroughbrednews is an independently owned and operated industry news platform with 25 years of experience of working with industry partners and publishing news content from around the world .\nwaverley trainer bill thurlow is a believer of keeping himself in the best company and his horses in the worst .\nfollowing the old racing adage paid dividends for thurlow when yours scored an easy victory in the rating 80 2000m race at stratford last friday .\n' ' i placed him to win . i was sick of him running third , fourth or fifth in open company , ' ' thurlow said when asked way he hadn ' t opted to line yours up in the stratford cup , the feature race on the day .\nyours ' recent racing has been against open class opposition and he had finished a creditable fifth in the manawatu cup at his previous start on december 18 .\nyours , now the winner of seven races , including last year ' s waverley cup , is not in the list of entries for the wellington racing club ' s feature staying race , but there is a late entry clause should his connections decide to pay a late fee of $ 3700 prior to january 25 .\n* i predict a riot looked a sound purchase when scoring an impressive victory in the the maiden 1200m race on her home track yesterday .\nthe king ' s chapel three - year - old stormed from well back for winning rider lisa allpress to snatch victory by a head right on the line from another debutant , curiousity , with first starter feistybabe a further 1 - 3 / 4 lengths third .\nthe race produced a stratford - trained trifecta of $ 2166 . 80 with the second and third horses both representing the bothwell stable .\ni predict a riot is trained on the course by tina egan for owners john gray and his mother dale goldfinch , manager of the airspresso cafaac\u00e9 and bar at new plymouth airport .\nit is goldfinch ' s first venture into racing as an owner , while gray , egan ' s partner , races the capable winter galloper monkey briscoe out of egan ' s stable .\n' ' i paid $ 2100 for him at the karaka festival sale , ' ' gray said after the win , adding he liked the filly because she was out of a kaapstad mare and he liked the look of her .\ni predict a riot was given one start as a three - year - old last season before being put aside for a spell to strengthen .\ngray said monkey briscoe was enjoying a well earned break and will be brought back into work in preparation for racing next winter .\n* retired stratford panelbeater norm webby tasted success as a racehorse owner for the first time in almost six years when his namesake stormin norman scored an upset win at odds of 15 to 1 in the maiden 1600 yesterday .\nwebby has raced a number of talented gallopers during the past 30 years or so , including open class performer call me stumpy , somojo and group race winner mollotoff and prince of toffs to name a handful .\nwebby rated somojo , who won a counties cup , his best , while mollotoff ' s success in the lion red classic at a night meeting at avondale was a memorable win .\n' ' this is my first winner since prince of toffs won the wairarapa in january 2005 . ' '\n' ' it ' s pretty exciting more because our trainer thought that being so lazy , he might need the experience . ' '\nstormin norman woke up in the home straight snatching victory on the line from pacemaking and race favourite captain cruising , who had looked all over the winner 200 metres from the post .\nargument ( 7 february 1977 \u2013 after 1996 ) was a french thoroughbred racehorse and sire . in his early racing career he showed consistent form and was placed in several important races , but showed marked improvement in the autumn of 1980 . he was considered an unlucky loser when narrowly beaten in the prix de l ' arc de triomphe and then traveled to the united states where he won the washington , d . c . international stakes . at the end of the year he was officially the best racehorse trained in france . in the following spring he won the prix d ' harcourt and prix ganay but his form deteriorated thereafter and he was beaten in his remaining six races . he made no impact as a sire of winners ."]}
{"id": 2046, "summary": [{"text": "ctenosaura is a lizard genus commonly known as spinytail iguanas or ctenosaurs .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the genus is part of the large lizard family , iguanidae and is native to mexico and central america .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the name is derived from two greek words : ctenos ( \u03ba\u03c4\u03b5\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2 ) , meaning \" comb \" ( referring to the comblike spines on the lizard 's back and tail ) , and saura ( \u03c3\u03b1\u03cd\u03c1\u03b1 ) , meaning \" lizard \" . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "ctenosaura", "paragraphs": ["the spiny - tailed iguanas are composed of the following species : ctenosaura acanthura , ctenosaura alfredschmidti , ctenosaura bakeri , ctenosaura clarki , ctenosaura conspicuosa , defensor , ctenosaura flavidorsalis , ctenosaura hemilopha , ctenosaura macrolopha , ctenosaura melanosterna , ctenosaura nolascensis , ctenosaura oaxacana , ctenosaura oedirhina , ctenosaura palearis , ctenosaura pectinata , ctenosaura praeocularis , ctenosaura quinquecarinata , and ctenosaura similis .\ncyclura ( ctenosaura ) hemilopha cope 1863 : 105 ctenosaura hemilopha \u2014 cope 1866 : 312 ctenosaura interrupta bocourt 1882 ctenosaura hemilopha \u2014 boulenger 1885 : 197 ctenosaura insulana dickerson 1919 ctenosaura hemilopha insulana \u2014 lowe & norris 1955 ctenosaura hemilopha interrupta \u2014 lowe & norris 1955 ctenosaura hemilopha hemilopha \u2014 smith 1972 ctenosaura hemilopha \u2014 stebbins 1985 : 236 ctenosaura hemilopha \u2014 liner 1994 ctenosaura ( ctenosaura ) hemilopha \u2014 k\u00f6hler et al . 2000 ctenosaura ( ctenosaura ) hemilopha \u2014 k\u00f6hler 2003 ctenosaura hemilopha interrupta \u2014 liner 2007 ctenosaura hemilopha hemilopha \u2014 liner 2007\nlacerta acanthura shaw 1802 : 216 uromastyx acanthurus \u2014 merrem 1820 cyclura teres harlan 1825 ct . [ enosaura ] cycluroides wiegmann 1828 iguana ( ctenosaura ) cycluroides \u2014 gray 1831 ( in cuvier ; edit . griffith ) iguana ( ctenosaura ) acanthura \u2014 gray 1831 ( in cuvier ; edit . griffith ) cyclura shawii gray ( substitute name for lacerta acanthura shaw ) iguana ( ctenosaura ) armata gray 1831 ( in cuvier ; edit . griffith ) iguana ( ctenosaura ) lanceolata gray 1831 ( in cuvier ; edit . griffith ) iguana ( ctenosaura ) bellii gray 1831 ( in cuvier ; edit . griffith ) iguana ( cyclura ) teres \u2014 gray 1831 ( in cuvier ; edit . griffith ) c . [ yclura ] articulata wiegmann 1834 c . [ yclura ] denticulata wiegmann 1834 ignana [ sic ] ( cyclura ) acanthura \u2014 blainville 1835 : 288 cyclura acanthura \u2014 dum\u00e9ril & bibron 1837 : 222 cyclura ( ctenosaura ) denticulata \u2014 fitzinger 1843 cyclura semicristata fitzinger 1843 cyclura ( ctenosaura ) articulata \u2014 fitzinger 1843 cyclura ( ctenosaura ) shawii \u2014 fitzinger 1843 cyclura ( ctenosaura ) bellii \u2014 fitzinger 1843 ctenosaura acanthura \u2014 gray 1845 cyclura denticulata \u2014 hallowell 1855 cyclura acanthura \u2014 sumichrast 1864 : 500 cyclura ( ctenosaura ) acanthura \u2014 cope 1869 ctenosaura teres \u2014 bocourt ( in dum\u00e9ril & bocourt ) 1874 ctenosaura acanthura \u2014 boulenger 1885 : 1915 ctenosaura acanthura \u2014 g\u00fcnther 1885 : 56 ctenosaura multispinis cope 1886 : 267 ctenosaura teres \u2014 cope 1886 : 269 ctenosaura acanthura \u2014 smith & taylor 1950 ctenosaura acanthura \u2014 liner 1994 ctenosaura ( ctenosaura ) acanthura \u2014 k\u00f6hler et al . 2000 ctenosaura ( ctenosaura ) acanthura \u2014 k\u00f6hler 2003 ctenosaura acanthura \u2014 mata - silva et al . 2015\nontogenetic variation in digestion by the herbivorous lizard ctenosaura pectinata . - pubmed - ncbi\nthis is a male san esteban island spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura conspicuosa ) .\nontogenetic plasticity of food habits in the mexican spiny - tailed iguana , ctenosaura pectinata .\nschmidt ( 1922 ) and grismer ( 1999 ) synonymized ctenosaura insulana with ctenosaura hemilopha . grismer ( 1999 ) also elevated conspicuosa , macrolopha , and nolascensis to full ( evolutionary ) species status .\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30c8\u30ae\u30ec\u30c8\u30b2\u30aa\u30a4\u30b0\u30a2\u30ca\nto\nctenosaura hemilopha cope 1863\n.\nmalfatti , m . ( 2007 ) genus ctenosaura . west coast iguana . available at : urltoken\ninvasive black spiny - tailed iguanas ( ctenosaura similis ) on gasparilla island , florida , usa .\nthe animal ageing and longevity database , 2016 . ctenosaura similis . human ageing genomic resources . urltoken\nontogenetic plasticity of food habits in the mexican spiny - tailed iguana , ctenosaura pectinata . - pubmed - ncbi\nctenosaura similis ( black spiny - tailed iguana ) ; male . caye caulker , belize . march 2016 .\ninformations on ctenosaura similis has been recorded for the following locations . click on the name for additional informations .\ninvasive black spiny - tailed iguanas ( ctenosaura similis ) on gasparilla island , florida , usa . - pubmed - ncbi\neffect of feed type and sex on digestibility and feed efficiency utilization in black spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura pectinata ) .\nctenosaura similis ( black spiny - tailed iguana ) ; female . barra honda national park , costa rica . february 2007 .\nof the species depicted in our species chart , the yucatan spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura defensor ) comes in the smallest at roughly 10 inches whereas ctenosaura similis , commonly known as the black spiny - tailed iguana , can ascertain lengths of 5 feet .\nbocourt , m . f 1882 . note sur les esp\u00e8ces appartenant au genre ctenosaura . le naturaliste 2 : 47 - get paper here\nalso known as the balsas armed lizard , the michoacan dwarf spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura clarki ) is a small brown and tan coloured lizard . it belongs to a group of poorly understood iguanas , the ctenosaura , that all share a characteristic spiny tail ( 2 ) .\nsubgenus ctenosaura wiegmann , 1828 , status nov . - c . acanthura , c . hemilopha , c . pectinata and c . similis .\nrecommended citation : global invasive species database ( 2018 ) species profile : ctenosaura similis . downloaded from urltoken on 09 - 07 - 2018 .\neffect of feed type and sex on digestibility and feed efficiency utilization in black spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura pectinata ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nctenosaura similis ( black spiny - tailed iguana ) ; close view of a male . barra honda national park , costa rica . february 2007 .\ngaal , r . and henningheim , e . ( 2008 ) studbook annual report : ctenosaura melanosterna . european studbook foundation , netherlands . available at urltoken\nctenosaura similis ( black spiny - tailed iguana ) ; male ( centre ) with two females . barra honda national park , costa rica . february 2007 .\nfitch hs ; henderson rw , 1978 . ecology and exploitation of ctenosaura similis . university of kansas science bulletin , 51 ( 15 ) : 483 - 500 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - roatan spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura oedirhina )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - roatan spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura oedirhina )\ntitle =\narkive species - roatan spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura oedirhina )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - utila spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura bakeri )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - utila spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura bakeri )\ntitle =\narkive species - utila spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura bakeri )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthis species was only fairly recently described , hence it is often referenced in the literature as ctenosaura bakeri or enyaliosaura bakeri , the sister species it was split from .\nbecause this species was described relatively recently , it is often referenced in the literature as ctenosaura palearis or enyaliosaurus palearis , the sister species that it was split from .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - michoacan dwarf spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura clarki )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - michoacan dwarf spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura clarki )\ntitle =\narkive species - michoacan dwarf spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura clarki )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - honduran paleate spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura melanosterna )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - honduran paleate spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura melanosterna )\ntitle =\narkive species - honduran paleate spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura melanosterna )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nsmith , h . m . 1972 . the sonoran subspecies of the lizard ctenosaura hemilopha . great basin naturalist 32 ( 2 ) : 104 - 111 - get paper here\nto cite this page : tran , e . 2001 .\nctenosaura similis\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndurtsche rd , 2000 . ontogenetic plasticity of food habits in the mexican spiny - tailed iguana , ctenosaura pectinata . oecologia , 124 ( 2 ) : 185 - 195 .\nhenderson rw , 1973 . ethnoecological observations of ctenosaura similis ( sauria : iguanidae ) in british honduras . journal of herpetology , 7 ( 1 ) : 27 - 33 .\nctenosaura similis , commonly known as the black spiny - tailed iguana , black iguana , or black ctenosaur , is a lizard native to mexico and central america that has been introduced to the united states in the state of florida . it is the largest species in the genus ctenosaura and has been recorded as the fastest - running species of lizard .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - five - keeled spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura quinquecariniata )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - five - keeled spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura quinquecariniata )\ntitle =\narkive species - five - keeled spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura quinquecariniata )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nanderson c ; enge km , 2012 . geographic distribution : ctenosaura similis ( gray ' s spiny - tailed iguana ) . herpetological review , 42 ( 4 ) : 568 .\ncook , david g . and dennis haussler . 2013 . ctenosaura hemilopha ( baja california spiny - tailed iguana ) dispersal phenomenon . herpetological review 44 ( 2 ) : 321 - 322\nenge km ; krysko kl ; borgia ap , 2006 . geographic distribution : ctenosaura similis ( black spiny - tailed iguana ) . herpetological review , 37 ( 4 ) : 494 .\nmora - benavides jm , 1987 . predation by loxocemus bicolor on the eggs of ctenosaura similis and iguana iguana . journal of herpetology , 21 ( 4 ) : 334 - 335 .\nintegrated taxonomic information facility ( itis ) , 2012 . ctenosaura similis ( gray , 1831 ) summary : available from : urltoken ; _ value = 585835 [ accessed 27 february 2012 ]\nbailey , j . w . 1928 . a revision of the lizards of the genus ctenosaura . proc . us natl . mus . 73 : 1 - 55 . - get paper here\nmora jm , 2010 . natural history of the black spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura similis ) at parque nacional palo verde , costa rica , with comments on the conservation of the genus ctenosaura . in : conservation of mesoamerican amphibians and reptiles [ ed . by wilson ld , townsend jh , johnson j ] . utah , usa : eagle mountain publishing , 716 - 734 .\nbarrio - amor\u00f3s cl ; rivas - fuenmayor g , 2008 . spiny - tailed iguanas ( ctenosaura similis ) in venezuela : a preliminary report . iguana , 15 ( 3 ) : 161 .\nkohler g ; schroth w ; streit b , 2000 . systematics of the ctenosaura group of lizards ( reptilia : sauria : iguanidae ) . amphibia - reptilia , 21 ( 2 ) : 177 - 191 .\nbl\u00e1zquez , m . c . ; rodr\u00edguez estrella , r . & mungu\u00eda vega , a . 2006 . characterization of 10 microsatellite loci in the spiny - tailed iguana ctenosaura hemilopha . molecular ecology notes 6 : 753\u2013755\npasachnik , s . and pineda , e . a . ( 2009 ) iif supports research on the distribution of honduran paleate spiny - tailed iguana , ctenosaura melanosterna . international iguana foundation , texas . available at urltoken\nctenosaura similis , commonly known as black spiny - tailed iguana , is the largest and most widely distributed ctenosaur . its native range stretches from southern mexico to panama where is exploited for food and t . . .\navery ml ; eisemann jd ; keacher kl ; savarie pj , 2011 . acetaminophen and zinc phosphide for lethal management of invasive lizards ctenosaura similis . current zoology , 57 ( 5 ) : 625 - 629 . urltoken\nflores d ; esqueda lf , 2008 . first record of the spiny - tailed iguana ctenosaura similis ( gray , 1831 ) ( squamata : iguanidae ) in venezuela . herpetotropicos , 4 ( 1 ) : 41 .\nzarza , eugenia ; victor h . reynoso and brent c . emerson 2008 . diversification in the northern neotropics : mitochondrial and nuclear dna phylogeography of the iguana ctenosaura pectinata and related species . molecular ecology 17 : 3259\u20133275\nruiz - campos , gorgonio and jorge h . valdez - villavicencio . 2011 . geographic distribution : ctenosaura hemilopha ( baja california spiny - tailed iguana ) . herpetological review 42 ( 3 ) : 391 - get paper here\navery ml ; tillman ea ; krysko kl , 2009 . gopherus polyphemus ( gopher tortoise ) , ctenosaura similis ( gray ' s spiny - tailed iguana ) predation . herpetological review , 40 ( 4 ) : 435 .\nk\u00f6hler , g . and hasbun , c . r . ( 2001 ) a new species of spiny - tailed iguana from mexico formerly referred to ctenosaura quinquecarinata ( gray 1842 ) . senckenbergiana biologica , 81 : 257 - 267 .\ngutsche a ; kohler f , 2008 . phylogeography and hybridization in ctenosaura species ( sauria , iguanidae ) from caribbean honduras : insights from mitochondrial and nuclear dna . zoosystematics and evolution , 84 ( 2 ) : 245 - 253 .\nthere has been considerable debate over the species status of the nolasco spiny - tailed iguana , and it is often referenced in the literature as ctenosaura hemilopha hemilopha ( lowe and norris 1955 ) or ctenosaura hemilopha nolascensis ( smith 1972 ) . the iguana was most recently recognized at the species level by grismer ( 1999a ) . genetic components of two lineages have been detected within the island ( cryder 1999 , davy et al . 2010 , reynoso et al . 2010 ) .\nk\u00f6hler , g . ; w . schroth & b . streit 2000 . systematics of the ctenosaura group of lizards ( reptilia : sauria : iguanidae ) . amphibia - reptilia 21 ( 2 ) : 177 - 191 - get paper here\nspiny - tail iguanas have become more popular over recent years and can be ordered online and purchased at reptile shows . some specialty reptile shops can aquire varying species upon request . occasionally the big box pet stores will carry a ctenosaura .\nthe reptile database , 2016 . ctenosaura similis ( gray , 1831 ) . the reptile database . urltoken ; = similis & search ; _ param = % 28 % 28search % 3d % 27ctenosaura + similis % 27 % 29 % 29\nctenosaura hemilopha conspicuosa is very interesting reptile ! it\u2019s a \u201ebit bigger\u201c but very beautiful , with a lot of rough charm on my wish list ! can you tell mi something about its housing , personality etc . and post some photos ?\nperez - ramos , e . and saldana - de la riva , l . ( 2005 ) distribucion ecologica de ctenosaura clarki ( reptilia : iguanidae ) en guerrero y micoacan , mexico . revista de zoologia , 16 : 16 - 24 .\nbuckley , l . j . and axtell , r . w . ( 1997 ) evidence for specific status of the honduran lizards formerly referred to ctenosaura palearis ( reptilia : squamata : iguanidae ) . copeia , 1997 : 138 - 150 .\nengeman rm ; kennedy m ; constantin bu ; christie ml ; hall pt , 2009 . ctenosaura similis ( black spinytail iguana ) , gopherus polyphemus ( gopher tortoise ) concurrent burrow use . herpetological review , 40 ( 1 ) : 84 .\nk\u00f6hler , g . , and b . streit . 1996 . notes on the systematic status of taxa acanthura , pectinata , and similis of the genus ctenosaura ( reptilia : sauria : iguanidae ) . senckenbergiana biologica 75 : 33 - 43 .\nmckercher , e . 2001 . ctenosaura pectinata ( iguanidae ) on gasparilla island , florida : colonization , habitat use and interactions with gopherus polyphemus . m . s . thesis , university of florida , gainesville , florida , usa . 117pp .\nkrysko kl ; king fw ; enge km ; reppas at , 2003 . distribution of the introduced black spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura similis ) on the southwestern coast of florida . florida scientist , 66 ( 2 ) : 74 - 79 .\npasachnik , s . & mccranie , j . r . 2010 . \ufffd ctenosaura similis . in : iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 27 february 2012 ]\nkelly paul is a hobbyist with a lifelong interest in reptiles . he has bred more than two dozen species , including six ctenosaura . he has been a guest speaker at several events , including the international herpetological symposium . email him at blueghostreptile @ urltoken .\nfitch hs ; hackforth - jones j , 1983 . ctenosaura similis ( garrobo , iguana negra , ctenosaur ) . in : costa rican natural history [ ed . by janzen dh ] . chicago and london : university of chicago press , 394 - 396 .\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 0 . 1 . 0 green iguana - 4 . 4 . 5 chuckwalla - 1 . 1 . 0 ctenosaura hemilopha conspicuosa - 1 . 0 . 0 bosc monitor - 0 . 1 . 0 ctenosaura similis - 1 . 1 . 0 bearded dragon - 0 . 1 . 0 rainbow boa - 1 . 0 . 0 royal python - 1 . 2 . 6 corn snake - and lots n lots of geckos\nk\u00f6hler , g . and b . streit . 1996 . notes on the systematic status of the taxa acanthura , pectinata , and similis of the genus ctenosaura ( reptilia : sauria : iguanidae ) . senckenbergiana biologica 75 ( 1 / 2 ) : 33 - 43 .\nmalone , catherine l . ; v\u00edctor hugo reynoso , larry buckley 2017 . never judge an iguana by its spines : systematics of the yucatan spiny tailed iguana , ctenosaura defensor ( cope , 1866 ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 115 : 27 - 39 - get paper here\npasachnik , s . a . , martinez , a . & perez , m . s . 2011 . ctenosaura bakeri . in : iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 15 januray 2012 )\nuntil 1997 , the honduran paleate spiny - tailed iguana was thought to be conspecific with the guatemalan spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura palearis ) , but it is now considered a separate species based on differences in colour , skeletal structure and behaviour ( 4 ) ( 6 ) .\nsimilar to other members of the ctenosaura genus , the five - keeled spiny - tailed iguana is oviviparous . little is known about the number of eggs laid in the wild , although a captive bred female is known to have laid five eggs in one clutch ( 2 ) .\nthis scheme was subsequently considered untenable , and 18 species of ctenosaura are now recognized ( iguana taxonomy working group , 2011 ) . according to the iguana taxonomy working group ( 2011 ) , \u201ca well - resolved phylogenetic hypothesis of all taxa in this genus is sorely needed . \u201d\ntownsend , j . h . , k . l . krysko , and k . m . enge . 2003 . the identity of spiny - tailed iguanas , ctenosaura , introduced to florida , usa ( squamata : sauria : iguanidae ) . herpetozoa 16 : 67 - 72 .\na prerequisite for breeding spiny - tailed iguanas , of course , is healthy animals . ctenosaura as young as 14 months have laid fertile eggs , but i wouldn\u2019t recommend breeding spiny - tailed iguanas that are that young . i recommend waiting until they are at least 2 years old .\navery ml ; tillman ea ; spurfeld c ; engeman rm ; maciejewski kp ; brown jd ; fetzer ea , 2014 . invasive black spiny - tailed iguanas ( ctenosaura similis ) on gasparilla island , florida , usa . integrative zoology , 9 ( 5 ) : 590 - 597 . urltoken\nfarallo vr ; sasa m ; wasko dk ; forstner mrj , 2010 . reduced foraging in the presence of predator cues by the black spiny - tailed iguana , ctenosaura similis ( sauria : iguanidae ) . phyllomedusa - journal of herpetology , 9 ( 2 ) : 109 - 119 . urltoken\nmorales - m\u00e1vil , jorge e . ; emilio a . su\u00e1rez - dom\u00ednguez , and carlos r . corona - l\u00f3pez 2016 . biology and conservation of the gulf spiny - tailed iguanas ( ctenosaura acanthura ) . herp . cons . biol . 11 ( monograph 6 ) - get paper here\nkrysko kl ; larson kw ; diep d ; abellana e ; mckercher er , 2009 . diet of the nonindigenous black spiny - tailed iguana , ctenosaura similis ( gray 1831 ) ( sauria : iguanidae ) , in southern florida . florida scientist , 72 ( 1 ) : 48 - 58 .\nkrysko , k . l . , f . w . king , k . m . enge , and a . t . reppas . 2003 . distribution of the introduced black spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura similis ) on the southwestern coast of florida . florida scientist 66 : 141 - 146 .\nmendoza quijano , fernando , sol de mayo a . mejenes l\u00f3pez , magaly hern\u00e1ndez aquino and gunther k\u00f6hler 2002 . ctenosaura acanthura ( shaw , 1802 ) . an addition to the known fauna of the mexican state of hidalgo . herpetozoa 15 ( 1 / 2 ) : 91 - 92 - get paper here\ngonz\u00e1lez - garc\u00eda a ; belliure j ; g\u00f3mez - sal a ; d\u00e1vila p , 2009 . the role of urban greenspaces in fauna conservation : the case of the iguana ctenosaura similis in the ' patios ' of le\u00f3n city , nicaragua . biodiversity and conservation , 18 ( 7 ) : 1909 - 1920 . urltoken\nsu\u00e1rez - dom\u00ednguez , emilio alfonso ; morales - m\u00e1vil , jorge eufrates ; chavira , roberto ; boeck , lourdes 2011 . effects of habitat perturbation on the daily activity pattern and physiological stress of the spiny tailed iguana ( ctenosaura acanthura ) . amphibia - reptilia 32 ( 3 ) : 315 - 322 - get paper here\nthe five - keeled spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura quinquecariniata ) is a medium - sized , robust lizard so named for the five rows of enlarged spines on its flattened , heavily armoured tail ( 2 ) . the adult five - keeled spiny - tailed iguana\u2019s tail is almost twice the length of its body ( 3 ) .\nthe first part of the scientific name for the honduran paleate spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura melanosterna ) , ctenosaura , derives from two greek words meaning \u2018comb lizard\u2019 ( 3 ) and refers to its large , flattened spines ( 4 ) . the upper back , chest and forelimbs of the honduran paleate spiny - tailed iguana are dark - brown to black , and contrast with the pale blue lower body and tail . large tan - coloured scales cover the head , and the eyes are bright orange . the flap of skin , known as the \u2018dewlap\u2019 , which hangs from under the chin , is typically larger and more prominent on males ( 4 ) ( 5 ) .\nwhen it comes to invasive species in south florida , the black spiny - tailed iguana , ctenosaura similis , holds its own . the central american native isn\u2019t imported for the pet trade like the green iguana ( iguana iguana ) , but the species still has managed to spread far and wide , now numbering in the tens of thousands .\nwhile removing iguanas would benefit county managers who are trying to eliminate brazilian pepper , that effort still doesn\u2019t address the problem with raccoons , which are florida natives . even so , managers must try to remove all non - indigenous species , krysko said . \u201cyou can\u2019t let up on plants , you can\u2019t let up on the ctenosaura . \u201d\nclutch size varies with species , size and age of the female . smaller ctenosaura and younger animals lay approximately four to 10 eggs . large , mature female mexican ( c . pectinata ) and black ( c . similis ) spiny - tailed iguanas may lay 40 to 55 eggs . the eggs of most species are about the size of bearded dragon eggs .\npasachnik , s . a . , ariano - s\ufffdnchez , d . , burgess , j . , montgomery , c . , mccranie , j . r . & k\ufffdhler , g . 2010 . ctenosaura oedirhina . in : iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 15 januray 2012 )\nhi all ! i\u0092m new to this site and i\u0092m curious about ctenosaura species . does anyone have experience in keeping them ? there are some species that seem to be very interesting for housing , like : c . clarki , c . quinquecarinata , c . palearis , c . bakeri . . . i\u0092d like to now something about them from the \u0084first hand\u0093 . thanks !\nold cutler road , miami ( eggert 1978 ) , but this population was misidentified and was actually ctenosaura pectinata ( wilson and porras 1983 ) ; a large population of c . similis is present on key biscayne , and a large , breeding population occurs at amelia earhart park in hialeah ( townsend et al . 2003 ; k . enge , ffwcc , quincy , personal observation )\nhabitat loss and degradation , mainly due to conversion for agriculture and cattle grazing , are the primary reasons for the extreme rarity of the honduran paleate spiny - tailed iguana ( 1 ) . it is also hunted for its meat , skin and eggs and is collected for the exotic pet trade where , like all ctenosaura species , it is in high demand ( 1 ) ( 6 ) .\nthe black spiny - tailed iguana is native to central america , and has the widest range of all ctenosaura species from the isthmus of tehuantepec to northeastern nicaragua and western panama on the respective atlantic and pacific coasts . it is commonly found throughout costa rica , honduras and has been reported in colombia . in addition to its varied appearance it may interbreed with other ctenosaur species throughout this range .\nhistory : etheridge ( 1982 ) cites shaw 1802 ( gen . zool . , london , 3 ( 1 ) : 216 ) as first author . however , the first part of \u201cgeneral zoology , vol . 3\u201d appeared already 1795 . bailey ( 1928 ) mixed up c . acanthinura , similis , and pectinata . see smith & taylor ( 1950 : 74 ) for details . synonymy : zarza et al . ( 2008 ) demonstrated that this taxon is nested within the diverse taxon currently called c . pectinata . until the taxonomy of c . pectinata is clarified ( see comment on that species ) , we continue to recognize acanthura as a separate species from pectinata . type species : ctenosaura cycluroides wiegmann 1828 is the type species of the genus ctenosaura wiegmann 1828 ( designated by fitzinger 1843 ) .\nthis species is of limited value in the pet trade as it can be aggressive and \u201cdifficult\u201d ( stephen et al . , 2011 ) . total imports of c . similis to the us peaked in 2004 ( 3296 animals ) , but decreased to 76 by 2008 ( stephen et al . , 2011 ) . illegal international trade involving this and other species of ctenosaura on the internet is common ( stephen et al . , 2011 ) .\non the mainland in the valle de agu\u00e1n , a subpopulation occurs within pico bonito national park south , although limited protection or enforcement against collecting is allotted in this area . within the valle de agu\u00e1n , locals are working to create a research and breeding station similar to the one established on utila for the protection and management of the utila spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura bakeri ) . the board of directors for the utila station will advise the agu\u00e1n station .\nonce considered one of the rarest iguanas in existence , the utila spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura bakeri ) is named after the single island it inhabits and the whorls of enlarged spiny scales that encircle the tail ( 2 ) . the colour of adult utila spiny - tailed iguanas varies from light grey to dark grey - brown , often with an attractive turquoise tinge ( 3 ) . all juveniles , however , are a uniform grey - brown ( 3 ) .\njustification : ctenosaura clarki is known only from michoac\u00e1n , mexico . area of occupancy is less than 2 , 000 km\u00b2 ( vu b2 ) . current population size is estimated at perhaps less than 2 , 500 individuals distributed in 10\u201315 isolated subpopulations ( severe fragmentation \u2013 vu b2a ) , with several hundred individuals in each subpopulation . habitat status and threats to the species are unknown , however , there is habitat loss due to agriculture in the region ( vu b2b ( iii ) ) .\nspecies account : this species is native to both drainages of southern mexico and has established populations in dade , lee , and charlotte counties in florida . it is difficult to distinguish this species from the mexican spinytail iguana ( ctenosaura pectinata ) , but ctenosaura similis has 0 - 2 scales separating the short crest along the back and tail , 2 complete rows of intercalary scales between the whorls of enlarged scales on the tail , and dark dorsal crossbands ( k\u00f6hler and streit 1996 ) . adult males may reach nearly 1 . 2 m ( 4 ft ) in length . these primarily terrestrial lizards are extremely wary and typically dash to their burrows , although they will climb agilely if they cannot reach their burrows ( bartlett and bartlett 1999 ) . according to wilson and porras ( 1983 ) , eggert ( 1978 ) misidentified a population of this species along old cutler road in miami , but black spinytail iguanas are found on key biscayne in dade county ( townsend et al . 2003 ) .\nspiny - tailed iguanas ( ctenosaura spp . ) are native to hot and dry areas of mexico and central america . they can make great pets or display animals . despite laws to protect them , most spiny - tailed iguana populations are declining in the wild due to hunting , loss of habitat and poaching for the pet trade . every effort should be made to purchase captive - born - and - bred animals because they generally are hardier and less skittish , and purchasing them helps take pressure off wild populations .\nremarks : the lizards that exist at the arizona - sonora desert museum are a genetic cross between ctenosaura conspicuosa ( san esteban island spiny - tailed iguana ) and c . hemilopha macrolopha ( sonoran spiny - tailed iguana ) . by thomas c . brennan brennan , t . c . , & a . t . holycross . 2006 . a field guide to amphibians and reptiles in arizona . arizona game and fish department . phoenix , az stebbins , r . c . 2003 . a field guide to western reptiles and amphibians , third edition . houghton mifflin company , boston , ma .\ni incubate all my ctenosaura eggs at 86 to 88 degrees fahrenheit with about 70 percent humidity . i have used perlite , vermiculite and sand as incubation mediums , though recommend vermiculite . mix it with enough water so that if you squeeze it with your hand as hard as you can , only a few drops of water will fall out . i live in phoenix , where it is hot and dry , and i check the moisture content of the incubation medium about every 15 days . if it is too dry the eggs will collapse , and if it\u2019s too wet mold and fungal growth will develop . following these guidelines , eggs should hatch after 65 to 80 days .\njustification : ctenosaura alfredschmidti is known only from the vicinity of the type locality in southern campeche , mexico . total range is not known , although it is currently known only from an area of less than 100 km\u00b2 ( cr b1 ) . population size and trends are unknown , although it is thought that there may be fewer than 2 , 500 . quality of habitat is believed to be decreasing and future population declines may be seen due to habitat loss ( cr b1b ( iii ) ) . not enough data are available to be able to say how many locations this species occurs in or degree of fragmentation . however , it nearly meets the thresholds for cr b1ab ( iii ) and therefore is assessed as near threatened .\nthe primary threats to the nolasco spiny - tailed iguana are severe weather and climate change , causing habitat shifts , drought , extreme temperature , and hurricanes . high temperatures are particularly harmful to eggs and hatchlings . invasive alien rats occur on the island , however , the degree to which they negatively affect the iguana population is unknown . genetic data suggests that there may be some hybridization on the island with ctenosaura conspicuosa ( davy et al . 2010 ) . additional research is needed to quantify this occurrence and determine if this poses a future threat to the species . nolasco spiny - tailed iguanas occur within the pet trade on a limited scale . historically this species may also have been hunted for food but this practice is believed to have ceased .\nctenosaura similis , commonly known as black spiny - tailed iguana , is the largest and most widely distributed ctenosaur . its native range stretches from southern mexico to panama where is exploited for food and traditional medicine . it generally is found in seasonally dry , lowland habitats but can occur in sites up to 900 m elevation . it is often found in close proximity to human activity . the capacity of c . similis to co - exist in altered environments coupled with its high fecundity has contributed to its successful establishment and spread in florida , usa , where it consumes valuable horticultural plants , invades dwellings , and threatens imperilled native species through predation and usurpation of burrows . the invasive range of c . similis also includes venezuela and the colombian islands of providencia and san andres .\nfeed adult spiny - tailed iguanas a wide range of food , such as mixed greens , shredded carrots , mulberry and hibiscus leaves , and edible wild plants such as purslane , clover , dandelions , greens and flowers . seasonal fruit and vegetables can also be offered ( mine love figs ) . i feed baby and juvenile spiny - tails the same as the adults , except i also give them some insects , particularly crickets about half the size of the young lizards\u2019 heads . i have also offered zoophobas , tomato hornworms and silk worms . i have never fed vertebrate prey such as mice to my ctenosaura , but know keepers who have with no harmful effect . calcium and vitamin supplements should be provided two to three times a week ( gravid females should receive supplemental calcium every day ) . dry commercial iguana diets are also available .\na great way to build trust and calm new ctenosaura is by hand - feeding them . once they are comfortable with your presence and are taking food from your fingers , you can begin to pick them up . when picking up a pet spiny - tailed iguana , it is best to approach slowly and place your hand palm side up in front of the lizard . try putting your other hand behind it and gently coax the spiny - tail onto your hand . never restrain your animal by the tail , as it can break off . every spiny - tailed iguana is different . some are so tame and inquisitive they seem to enjoy human interaction . others are a little flighty and require a bit more patience when interacting . any spiny - tailed iguana that does not like to be handled will still make a fine display animal .\nspiny - tailed iguanas have been considered ill tempered , but this is not true for all ctenosaura , especially in regard to captive - born - and - bred animals that behave differently than their wild - caught counterparts . captive - born - and - bred mexican spiny - tails ( c . pectinata ) and baker\u2019s iguanas ( c . bakeri ) can make great pets with very little effort . the san esteban island spiny - tailed iguana ( c . conspicuosa ) , sonoran black iguana ( c . macrolopha ) and honduran black - chested iguana ( c . melanosterna ) can also tame down quite nicely with a little effort and patience . wild - caught guatemalan spiny - tailed ( c . palearis ) and club - tailed ( c . quinqucarinata ) iguanas can make great display animals , and with time they will often take food from your hand .\nblack spiny - tailed iguana have distinctive black , keeled scales on their long tails , which gives them their common name . they , along with c . pectinata , are the largest members of the genus ctenosaura . the males are capable of growing up to 1 . 3 meters ( 4 ft 3 in ) in length and the females are slightly shorter , at 0 . 8 - 1 meter ( 2 ft 7 in 3 ft 3 in ) . they have a crest of long spines which extends down the center of the back . although coloration varies extremely among individuals of the same population , adults usually have a whitish gray or tan ground color with a series of 4 - 12 well - defined dark dorsal bands that extend nearly to the ventral scales . males also develop an orange color around the head and throat during breeding season with highlights of blue and peach on their jowls .\nmexican law forbids national and international trade and lists this species with special protection under the name of ctenosaura hemilopha ( nom - 059 - 2010 ) . however , there are no international regulations in place , such as the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ( cites ) , to protect the nolasco spiny - tailed iguana from international trade . san pedro nolasco island is part of the gulf of california biosphere reserve . settlements cannot be constructed and the extraction of flora and fauna is not permitted in this area . the island can only be visited with special permits and research is regulated . though proper laws to protect these iguanas exist , additional enforcement is needed in order to regulate the extraction of individuals for the pet trade . a national plan to regulate invasive alien rats is in place , however , action on this plan has not yet been initiated on this island . additional research is needed to characterize the life history , taxonomy , and population trends of this iguana .\nthe relationship between locomotion and aspiration breathing was investigated in the lizards iguana iguana , ctenosaura similis , varanus exanthematicus and varanus salvator , and the quail coturnix coturnix . respiratory air - flow during walking and running on a 7 . 3 m track or on a treadmill was measured with a bidirectional flow meter attached to one nostril . in all four species of lizards , lung ventilation drops markedly during locomotion . tidal volume decreases as speed increases , often by more than an order of magnitude at intermediate and high speeds , and the rate of decline is most pronounced at the lowest speeds . minute ventilation peaks at or before the reported maximum aerobic speed and decreases at higher speeds . in contrast , quail increase their minute ventilation during running . several observations support the hypothesis that the aspiration of lizards is mechanically constrained by locomotion which employs lateral vertebral bending and sprawling posture . 1 . minute ventilation decreases as running speed increases . 2 . disruption of ventilation is temporally coincident with the locomotor movements . 3 . during running the largest breaths correspond to the strides of longest duration or to brief pauses in the locomotor movements .\nhabitat loss and modification associated with residential and commercial development , as well as small - scale agriculture and ranching , is the main threat to the iguana . the population is expected to decline dramatically if the current rate of habitat conversion continues ( s . pasachnik pers . comm . 2009 ) . small - scale eradication of individuals due to them being perceived as pests is also a threat . the wide - ranging congener , ctenosaura similis , has recently been introduced to a small satellite island , less than 50 m from roat\u00e1n . this invasive species could easily disperse to roat\u00e1n and also threaten the roat\u00e1n spiny - tailed iguana through competition and hybridization . current efforts are under - way to minimize this threat through removal ( s . pasachnik pers . comm . 2009 ) . although this iguana is listed in appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ( cites ) , exploitation for food and the pet trade are both contributing to the decline of this species . hunting for food , both whole animals and eggs , is a significant threat to the persistence of this species .\ndigestibility , feed efficiency , and the effect of sex were evaluated in black iguanas ( ctenosaura pectinata ) using two commercial pellets ( rabbit and chicken ) . the experiment was performed in 80 iguanas in a completely randomized design with a factorial arrangement 2\u00d72 over 105 days . no differences were detected by food type in weight gain ( chicken vs . rabbit : 121 vs . 154 mg / d ) and daily intake ( chicken vs . rabbit : 524 vs . 551 mg / d ) , but differences were detected ( p < 0 . 05 ) in feed conversion ( chicken vs . rabbit : 6 . 45 vs . 4 . 47 ) . rabbit pellets showed higher digestibility than chicken food ( p < 0 . 01 ) in dry matter ( 59 . 8 vs . 41 . 4 % ) and ndf ( 55 . 4 vs . 43 . 6 % ) , respectively . sex had no effect in any of the variable responses . black iguanas can be raised since 6 months old in captivity with commercial food designed for rabbit or broiler . no special physiological adaptations occur in black iguanas correlated with change in feeding habits during ontogeny .\ni tested the hypothesis that an animal with an ontogenetic diet shift must have different digestive efficiencies for foods that correspond to its diet shift , so that nutrient and energy extraction are maximized . the iguanine lizard ctenosaura pectinata undergoes an ontogenetic diet shift from eating insects as a juvenile to plants as an adult . when fed six different pure foods from the natural diets of different age classes , c . pectinata assimilated nutrients and energy differently depending on food type and age class . extraction of energy and nutrients in insect larvae was maximized by juvenile lizards . calcium , phosphorus , and energy were readily assimilated from flowers and fruit by immature and adult lizards . magnesium levels were highest in leaves and were extracted by immature and adult lizards , but xenobiotic effects of one plant leaf ( croton suberosus ) , eaten by adults , killed juvenile lizards . although juvenile c . pectinata ate some flowers ( senna wislizenii ) naturally , they were less efficient at digesting cell walls from these plant parts than were older lizards . ontogenetic changes in ctenosaur digestive physiology were not the result of a trade - off involving ecological costs of different foods ; rather , each age class preferred a diet that maximized its physiological benefit .\nthe native range of ctenosaura similis extends from southern mexico through panama . from an initial introduction of 3 animals in 1979 , the species now numbers in the thousands on gasparilla island in southwest florida . in response to complaints of property damage from residents and threats to native species , local officials and the us department of agriculture wildlife services began a removal program in 2008 . through 2011 , trappers removed 9467 ctenosaurs . the number removed declined from 32 iguanas / day in 2008 to 1 . 9 iguanas / day in 2011 despite no easing of the control effort . we necropsied 2757 ctenosaurs to document aspects of their natural history . females outnumbered males overall , although the largest size class ( > 300 mm snout - vent length ) included 32 males and just 2 females . reproduction was seasonal . we found oviducal eggs in females from early apr to early jun , approximately 2 months later than c . similis in its native range . we trapped hatchlings from late jul to early oct coincident with the summer rainy season . clutch size increased with female body size , with 62 being the largest clutch size recorded . in general , the biology of the invasive population on gasparilla island resembles native c . similis populations in central america , except for the lack of large individuals . we suggest that shorter day length and colder temperatures create environmental conditions that are suboptimal for individual growth compared to those in the native range .\nthis study was conducted to compare the growth patterns of black iguana ( ctenosaura pectinata ) under captivity in two communities : montecillo , state of mexico ( temperate weather ) and nisanda , oaxaca ( tropical weather ) . two hundred and sixty black iguana newborns were included . in montecillo , iguanas were fed a diet containing 16 % to 22 % crude protein ( cp ) , and 13 to 25 % neutral detergent fiber ( ndf ) . in nisanda , iguanas were fed with \u201ctulipacho\u201d ( hibiscus sp ) containing 21 . 64 % cp and 31 . 62 % ndf . variables analyzed included : body weight ( g ) , snout - vent length ( mm ) , total length ( snout - tail , mm ) and percent mortality . growth parameters on each population were estimated with a sigmoid model . the average body weight after 761 d was greater ( p\u20390 . 01 ) for the iguanas in montecillo ( 232 . 0 g ) than in nisanda ( 30 . 2 g ) . snout - vent length and total length variables were different ( p\u20390 . 01 ) with values of 152 . 1 mm and 452 . 6 mm in montecillo , vs . 90 . 1 mm and 204 . 0 mm in nisanda , respectively . mortality was higher ( p\u20390 . 01 ) in nisanda than in montecillo ( 81 . 2 % vs . 7 . 3 % ) . it is concluded that growth patterns of black iguana under captivity are determined by proper management and nutrition systems , when and if adequate temperature is provided in the iguana\u2019s house .\nontogenetic shifts from insect consumption by juveniles to plant consumption by adults are rare in the herbivorous lizard family iguanidae . my investigations on diet and digestive tract anatomy of the iguanid lizard ctenosaura pectinata show that this species has an ontogenetic diet shift . insects were rare in adult diets but constituted 86 . 5 % ( by volume ) of the food eaten by the smallest juveniles . all age classes ate some plant parts from a range of plant types , but flowers and leaves of legumes were a primarily food source . non - adult lizards had the widest food niche breadths . arthropods in the diet of juveniles and immatures covaried seasonally with the decline of arthropod abundance . several hypotheses could explain this ontogenetic plasticity in diet . i rejected hypotheses that gut structure constrained juveniles to an arthropod diet and that insect consumption was purely an artifact of plant consumption because ( 1 ) size - adjusted gut morphology and capacity was similar among age classes , and ( 2 ) no food plants sampled had an excessive density of arthropods . i supported an alternative hypothesis that juveniles can eat plants but do not because insects provide a more nutritious diet . this conclusion was based on the observation that the juvenile hindgut is similar to that of herbivorous adults , and the propensity for juveniles to consume primarily , but not exclusively , insects when they were most abundant . the hindgut represents the site of fermentative plant fiber breakdown in many herbivorous lizards . insect foods can compensate for size - related nutritional needs ( energy and protein ) and digestive limitations in juveniles . opportunistic feeding to maintain a broad diet might help juvenile and immature lizards through high - predation - risk growth periods by reducing searching costs , increasing nutritional and energetic gains due to associative effects , and increasing new food exposure .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nuetz , p . & jir\u00ed hosek ( eds . ) , the reptile database , ( http : / / www . reptile - database . org )\nbanks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , and a . l . gardner\nchecklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada\nbuckley , larry j . , kevin de queiroz , tandora d . grant , bradford d . hollingsworth , et al .\nflores - villela , oscar / mccoy , c . j . , ed .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngrismer , l . l . 1999 . an evolutionary classification of reptiles on islands in the gulf of california , m\u00e9xico . herpetologica 55 ( 4 ) : 446 - 469 .\njustification : the nolasco spiny - tailed iguana is known only from the island of san pedro nolasco , mexico . iguanas are found throughout the approximately 3 km\u00b2 island . though this iguana has a very restricted range , the population size is not known to be decreasing or subject to extreme fluctuations . however , there are a number of threats and potential future threats , which , once these start to cause any declines , the species would immediately qualify for a critically endangered listing given the small size of the area and it essentially being a single location for most of the threats listed .\nnolasco spiny - tailed iguana is found only on the island of san pedro nolasco , sonora , mexico ( smith 1972 ; grismer 1999a , b ) . the island is approximately 3 km\u00b2 and the iguana occurs from sea level up to 328 m .\nthe population size is unknown but thought to be less than 2 , 500 animals due to its restriction on san pedro nolasco island . however , the density on the island appears to be high . approximately 40 individuals were observed during a single day of sampling on a 0 . 5 km transect , resulting in an estimate of 80 iguanas / km ( v . reynoso pers . comm . 2005 ) .\nno historic population size data are available . it is known that iguanas are being extracted for the pet trade , however , the threat is minimal and the population is thought to be currently stable .\nthe nolasco spiny - tailed iguana is most often found under rocks , within hollow trees , and on cacti within tropical dry shrubland and rocky shoreline between 0 - 50 m above sea level . the island of san pedro nolasco is completely undisturbed by human activities other than fishing and sport diving . this iguana is primarily herbivorous , specializing on cacti fruits of the organ pipe cactus ( stenocereus thurberi ) and the endemic near threatened isla san pedro cactus ( echinocereus websterianus ) after the flowering season . in very dry seasons , iguanas may eat the stems of cholla ( cylindropuntia spp . ) .\nnolasco spiny - tailed iguanas occur within the pet trade on a limited scale . historically this species may also have been hunted for food but this practice is believed to have ceased .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\njustification : the roat\u00e1n spiny - tailed iguana is found in an area less than 5 , 000 km\u00b2 and the population is severely fragmented , occurring in 5\u201310 isolated subpopulations . the iguana is continuing to decline due to ongoing habitat loss and hunting pressure , and is therefore listed as endangered .\nthe roat\u00e1n spiny - tailed iguana is restricted to isla roat\u00e1n and isla barbaretta , honduras . this iguana has also been recorded from big pigeon cay , an islet of roat\u00e1n ( mccranie\n. 2005 ) , but this was not confirmed on recent surveys ( s . pasachnik pers . obs . 2010 ) . similarly , reports of this iguana occurring on morat , a small island between roat\u00e1n and barbaretta , were not confirmed in 2006 ( s . pasachnik pers . obs . ) . there are small subpopulations of this iguana on multiple small cays around roat\u00e1n , however , the names of these cays are often inconsistent , further hindering systematic surveying ( s . pasachnik pers . obs . 2010 ) . it is recorded as occurring from sea level up to 100 m .\ntotal population size is not known , but perhaps is less than 2 , 500 mature individuals , split into 5 - 10 subpopulations . the sustainability of each subpopulation is not known . genetic data indicate that there are distinct haplotypes throughout the island , but more data are needed in order to understand the degree of divergence between subpopulations ( s . pasachnik pers . comm . 2009 ) .\nthe roat\u00e1n spiny - tailed iguana occurs in a variety of habitat types including beach and rocky ocean front , mangrove , and tropical dry forest ( holdridge 1967 ) . it is semi - arboreal , and uses hollow branches and rocks as retreats . little is known about the ecology of this iguana , however , research is currently under - way to obtain natural history data for this species ."]}
{"id": 2047, "summary": [{"text": "homecoming queen is an irish thoroughbred racehorse .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "she showed moderate form as a two-year-old in 2011 but demonstrated dramatic improvement in the spring of 2012 and won the 1000 guineas by nine lengths .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "she was beaten in her two subsequent races and was retired to stud in july 2012 . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "homecoming queen ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["jockey ryan moore drove homecoming queen - a 25 - 1 outsider - to a convincing victory by nine lengths .\nbreakthrough : courtney pearson , the first ever african - american homecoming queen at the university of mississippi , rides in the homecoming parade in oxford , miss . on friday , oct . 12\naside from camelot , the o ' brien - trained homecoming queen won the 1000 guineas while was landed the investec oaks .\nkingston police said the horse was actually slapped three times during queen ' s homecoming . two men and a woman were charged in connection with the slaps , police said . no one was injured .\nthe viera high school homecoming queen was caia gillett , a 17 - year - old senior whom she had just met that night .\nhomecoming queen could have booked a trip to the breeders cup after an impressive victory in the lanwades & staffordstown studs stakes at the curragh .\na harness jewels victory would be a perfect homecoming for dean and nicole molander .\nhomecoming queen won the 1 , 000 guineas at newmarket as trainer aidan o ' brien completed a guineas double following camelot ' s victory on saturday .\ndisabled teen crowned homecoming queen in awesome way high school senior jazzmin samuel was hoping she ' d be crowned homecoming queen . she has cerebral palsy and has never felt like she fit in at school . what happened during the crowing ceremony will warm your heart . check out this story on urltoken urltoken\nhorse racing stats \u2013 runner and rider profiles for epsom oaks \u2013 . . .\nmaybe was the 13 - 8 favourite but stablemate homecoming queen set off at a blistering gallop and joseph o ' brien ' s mount never looked content .\na california high school senior who is allergic to the sun has traded her ultraviolet ray - blocking mask for a tiara as she was crowned homecoming queen .\nhomecoming queen came good on her first handicap outing , and eighth career start , when making virtually all under seamie heffernan in the new tote sports lounge nursery .\nhe went on to attend the royal agricultural college and became a successful horse breeder .\nnicely - backed homecoming queen showed her battling qualities when fending off fire lily at leopardstown by a neck in the group 3 1 , 000 guineas trial stakes at leopardstown .\nreflecting on the fact that 50 - years ago she would have been kept out of ole miss because of segregation , pearson was clear what her homecoming queen victory means .\na brief video of the incident has gone viral online , in which a girl wearing a queen ' s university sweater can be seen pulling the stunt during a homecoming event .\nthey say three people were charged with slapping a kingston police horse in separate incidents on saturday .\nhomecoming queen faces seven rivals as she attempts to follow up her surprise victory in the 1000 guineas at newmarket in the etihad airways - sponsored irish equivalent at the curragh on sunday .\nas befitting a horse named after a roman emperor , honorius is a horse of great style and presence and he is sure to impress breeders as he begins his stud career at larneuk stud , euroa .\n\u2018we are ready and we are excited for the arrival of hms queen elizabeth . \u2019\nkingston , ont . - - police say they made 19 arrests and issued 166 tickets or charges during queen ' s university homecoming events in kingston , ont . , on friday and saturday .\naidan o\u2019brien added the qipco 1000 guineas to his 2000 guineas victory yesterday with camelot when the outsider of his two runners , homecoming queen , led all the way to win the fillies\u2019 classic impressively .\nqueen ' s logic was sired by grand lodge out of the mare lagrion . [ 4 ] apart from queen ' s logic , grand lodge ( winner of the dewhurst stakes and the st . james ' s palace stakes ) sired the winners of over six hundred races including sinndar , grandera and indian lodge ( prix du moulin de longchamp , prix de la for\u00eat ) . queen ' s logic was the first important winner for her dam lagrion , who went on to produce the 2007 european horse of the year dylan thomas and the 1000 guineas winner homecoming queen .\nfifty - years ago courtney roxanne pearson would not have been allowed to enroll at the university of mississippi because she was black let alone think of becoming the first african - american homecoming queen of ole miss .\nhigh school senior jazzmin samuel was hoping she ' d be crowned homecoming queen . she has cerebral palsy and has never felt like she fit in at school . what happened during the crowing ceremony will warm your heart .\nhigh school senior jazzmin samuel was hoping she ' d be crowned homecoming queen . she has cerebral palsy and has never felt like she fit in at school . what happened during the crowning ceremony will warm your heart .\nit comes as a countdown begins on the much - anticipated homecoming of 65 , 000 - tonne floating fortress to portsmouth .\nin the video , the giggling student runs out from her group of friends and slaps the horse on the hindquarters .\nthis year , a friend nominated jazzmin for homecoming court and with overwhelming support , she made the cut . students campaigned for her to be queen , and she waited with anticipation to see if she would wear the crown .\nand designs on rome , hong kong horse of the year . as well as south american stars salto olimpico and maraton , hong kong mile winner beauty only , nz 1000 guineas winner rollout the carpet , oakleigh plate victor sheidel , american big race winner rich tapestry , uk 1000 guineas heroine homecoming queen and the , high class french galloper morandi .\nthe crown glistened in the glow of the friday night lights and with great anticipation the queen was named .\nthe horse , murney , is still in training and was\nstartled by slaps but kept her restraint ,\npolice said .\njockey ryan moore sent homecoming queen to the front immediately on leaving the stalls , and it might have been thought that she was making the pace for her more fancied stable companion , the champion two - year - old filly of 2011 , maybe .\nmy horse is a nice stayer , he ' s done nothing but improve , so we ' re looking forward to it .\nthe horse became wedged under the stalls in a freak incident that came one month after two horses were killed in the grand national at aintree .\ntwo years later an imposing son of danehill , a horse standing his second season at coolmore stud , was chosen as zarinia ' s mate .\nhowever , as far as camelot is concerned , a dark shadow now lurks below him on the leader - board for the horse of the year and that is frankel , whose second group one victory of the season was achieved in sensational style in the queen anne .\nbut the police horse was quick to dish out justice , kicking her to the ground with its back leg a split - second after the slap .\nno horse has attempted the feat since the vincent o ' brien - trained nijinsky , who , like the unbeaten camelot , was housed at ballydoyle .\nbut moore kicked homecoming queen on at the two - furlong pole and from then on she went further and further clear , coming home nine lengths in front of the john gosden - trained starscope . maybe was another length back in third , and gosden also took fourth with the fugue .\naidan o\u2019brien became the first man since fred darling in 1942 to win both guineas in the same year on two occasions when homecoming queen romped away with the qipco 1000 guineas the day after camelot took the qipco 2000 guineas . ( the trainer won both guineas in 2005 as well ) .\n' i hope that after homecoming 2012 everyone gives ole miss the respect it deserves and that this election inspires someone else to follow their dreams , ' said pearson .\nthat ' s the lesson a young student learned in kingston , ont . , this week , after getting hoofed by an annoyed horse for her mischievous antics .\nporchey was first introduced to horse on a stable visit to beckhampton with his father in 1942 . it was here that he first met the young princess elizabeth .\ndespite not having been to royal ascot , the derby winner camelot still maintains a healthy lead in the race to become this year\u2019s cartier horse of the year .\ntrainer mahmood al zarooni said :\nwe can dream of beating camelot but anything can happen in this game and our horse deserves to take his chance .\nhomecoming queen ( ire ) b . f , 2009 { 9 - c } dp = 5 - 6 - 11 - 1 - 1 ( 24 ) di = 2 . 20 cd = 0 . 54 - 16 starts , 4 wins , 1 places , 2 shows career earnings : \u00a3286 , 208\nand her blood flows through many a great australian horse with eight carat - record breaking dam of five group one winners including the champion octagonal - also a descendant .\n* out of high - class racemare barshiba & a half - sister to last year\u2019s 50 / 1 group one juddmonte international heroine arabian queen .\nplease keep me up to date with special offers and news from horse & hound and other brands operated by ti media limited via email . you can unsubscribe at any time .\nmark has been so good to us and so have all his staff so it has made it much easier for us with having the horse there ,\nshe said .\ngosden said :\nthought worthy has been fine since york where he showed he ' s a very game horse . he ' s from a family of tough staying horses .\nthe couple had three children : henry , carolyn and george \u2013 the current earl of carnarvon , who the queen was pictured holding at his christening .\nthe pair bonded over a shared love of horses and in 1969 the queen appointed porchey as racing manager , a role he held until his death .\nlike camelot , homecoming queen is owned and bred by the coolmore team in ireland . she is a half - sister to their great champion dylan thomas by their young sire holy roman emperor , and this was her 13th racecourse start \u2013 it took her eight attempts to break her maiden last year as a two - year - old .\nthe news understands that preparations are being made for an arrival on friday \u2013 but this is not fixed in stone as poor weather could postpone the homecoming until later on in the window .\nsuch as caulfield cup hero mongolian khan , also winner of the new zealand and australian derbies . . . the only horse to claim all three of those coveted group one races .\nthe crown follows the queen ( claire foy ) and her husband prince philip ( matt smith ) as she adjusts to life as britain ' s monarch .\nin real life the queen and porchey ' s friendship sparked rumours that the two were having an affair . but was there any truth to the gossip ?\nthe queen wrote in a message which was read at a remembrance service for the 9 / 11 victims : \u201cgrief is the price we pay for love . \u201d\nqueen ' s logic was trained throughout her career by mick channon at west ilsley , berkshire and was ridden in four of her five races by steve drowne .\nfive of her progeny , including canadian horse of the year l ' enjoleur , were stakes winners and she spurred a dynasty whose members include the australian champion stallions flying spur and encosta de lago .\nincluding a tough fellow by the name of honorius , a horse whose illustrious background demands attention ! a proven high class sire line , an internationally prolific family . . . he has it all .\nlast year\u2019s horse of the year frankel does not feature at the top of the table despite a successful romp in the lockinge but , as yet , he has scored fewer points than one or two other colts and the gelding cirrus des aigles , who have been much busier . that should change when he has run in the queen annne stakes at at royal ascot .\nhe ' s the sort of horse that needs to get out and roll rather than sit and wait for a sprint home and that ' s what a draw like that is made for .\n, an even better racemare who won the same two races four years later . spinaway and wheel of fortune were daughters of the oaks winner queen bertha an influential broodmare ,\nholy roman emperor had his first foals in 2008 . he had five sws in his that crop , led by the ultra - consistent gsw and g1 - placed banimpire ( winner of the prestigious g2 ribblesdale at royal ascot ) . his second crop includes 1000 guineas winner homecoming queen . he already has four sws from this third crop , two - year - olds of this year .\nthe race was delayed by half an hour as the charlie hills - trained gray pearl went down in the starting stalls and got trapped . she was removed in a horse ambulance but was later put down .\nhaggas said :\nhe ' s very well and will have enjoyed the rain that came on wednesday . he ' s an improving young horse , but he ' s got another huge mountain to climb .\nalthough mick channon was not immediately impressed by queen ' s logic (\nshe was just a lump of horse flesh\n) , she soon showed herself to be a potentially useful filly in home exercise gallops , and was campaigned ambitiously from the start . [ 5 ] queen ' s logic never ran in a maiden race , instead making her debut against more experienced fillies , including two winners , in a minor stakes race at newbury in may 2001 . after starting slowly , she raced behind the leaders before accelerating into the lead and winning\nreadily\n. [ 6 ]\ncaia , like many teenage girls , had also hoped to be queen and this was her moment . but she turned to principal mike alba and said ,\nam i allowed ?\nwe think camelot is like no other horse . who knows what is going to happen - we don ' t take anything for granted . we will do our very best - it ' s all we can do .\nin a series of tweets , police said the female suspect was a queen ' s student , while one male was from algonquin college and the other was a resident of cobourg , ont .\nin netflix\u2019s new series the crown , queen elizabeth grows closer to her friend lord porchester as her marriage to prince philip crumbles . but what was her relationship with porchey like in real life ?\ngossips at the time claimed that andrew had been conceived while philip was on an overseas tour in early 1959 . in fact , the dates did not match up for this to be true , and andrew was conceived after philip ' s homecoming .\nnever tasting defeat , zarkava earned the title of cartier european horse of the year and has already produced a group one winner - her son zarak charging home from the rear to claim the grand prix de saint - cloud in early july .\npolice say one accused is a female queen ' s student , one of two men is an algonquin college student from ottawa , and the second man is from the cobourg , ont . , area .\nkristen manning is a freelance racing writer and pedigree analyst based in melbourne . a keen owner / breeder who loves every aspect of thoroughbred horse racing , she has written two books focusing on the deeds of fields of omagh and prince of penzance .\nit ' s not a one - horse race , camelot has to turn up , he has to perform and he has to run over a mile and six and a half furlongs , but obviously he has the best form by far .\ngoing down fighting when only just being beaten by teofilo in the group one dewhurst stakes at newmarket , holy roman emperor looked to have so much ahead of him but with fellow coolmore horse george washington proving infertile he was rushed off to stud to fill that gap on the roster .\nturftrax facts - the qipco 1000 guineas the winner homecoming\u2019s queen top speed during the qipco 1000 guineas was 39 miles per hour between the seven - furlong pole and five - furlong marker . her speed slowed to 34 miles per hour in the last three furlongs but her last three sectionals of 12 . 32s , 12 . 60s and 13 . 82s were faster those of any other in the race she led all the way and her fastest time for a furlong was 11 . 52s from the seven - furlong pole to the six - furlong marker .\nuk horse of the year , one whose record mare earnings took ten years to surpass . a true legend of the turf - and another great mare to make her mark over the generations with her unraced daughter zahra the foundation mare of the aga khan ' s prolific\nz\nfamily .\nlittle wonder that australians have been keen to tap into the influence of this family and it was kia - ora stud , nsw who imported zariya ' s irish bred granddaughter zarinia in 2005 . . . and they struck gold early with her second foal being south african horse of the year igugu .\nnetflix ' s new royal drama stars claire foy as the young monarch and matt smith as prince philip . the 10 - part series focusses on the first days of elizabeth ' s reign as queen as well as her struggle to maintain her marriage .\nat three , queen ' s logic was aimed at the 1 , 000 guineas at newmarket . her preparation race for the classic was the group three fred darling stakes at newbury . starting at odds of 1 / 3 , queen ' s logic took the lead a furlong out and won comfortably by one and three quarter lengths from roundtree . [ 13 ] although her performance was described as\nfine , rather than scintillating\n, her price shortened even further to 7 / 4 . [ 14 ]\nit was hoped that queen ' s logic could recover in time for a run in the sussex stakes , but the coughing returned and channon decided that\nit wouldn ' t be fair\nto continue her training . her retirement was announced in july .\nafter several false starts caused by the misbehaviour of whitelock , the race began and tom cannon tracked the leaders on the favourite before taking the lead on the turn in to the straight . queen adelaide emerged as a threat , but busybody , racing down the centre of the course , drew ahead and opened up a clear lead approaching the final furlong . superba made a strong late challenge but busybody held on in an exciting finish to win by half a length , the pair finishing well clear of queen adelaide in third .\nfor her next start , she was moved straight into group race company for the queen mary stakes at royal ascot . starting at 13 / 2 she was towards the back of the field in the early stages , before making her challenge two furlongs from the finish . she caught the aidan o ' brien - trained sophisticat inside the final furlong and won by half a length [ 7 ] although the 1 , 000 guineas was more than ten months away , the bookmakers offered queen ' s logic at odds of 25 / 1 . [ 8 ]\nqueen ' s logic has made an impact as a broodmare : her daughter lady of the desert ( sired by rahy ) , was the highest - rated three - year - old filly in the world in the sprint division of the 2010 world thoroughbred rankings . [ 19 ]\nqueen ' s logic is a chestnut mare bred in ireland by kip mccreery . as a yearling she was sent to the deauville sales , where she was bought for \u20ac152 , 449 [ 2 ] by the bloodstock agent charles gordon - watson [ 3 ] on behalf of jaber abdullah .\nholy roman emperor ' s grandam is northern dancer ' s finest daughter fanfreluche - canadian horse of the year , us champion 3y0 filly . best remembered as the victim of a kidnap , she was saved by a family who found her wandering along the road ! fortunately she was eventually returned to clairbone farm from where she proved a powerful breeding force .\nin the international classification for 2001 , queen ' s logic was assigned a figure of 122 , making her the best two - year - old filly in europe by a margin of eight pounds . the only colt in europe rated her superior was the breeders ' cup juvenile winner johannesburg . [ 17 ]\nin a tense scene , the queen tells philip :\ni have nothing to hide from you . porchey is a friend . and yes , there are those who would have preferred me to marry him , but to everyone ' s regret and frustration the only person i have ever loved is you .\ntwo days later busybody and queen adelaide met for the fourth and final time in the oaks over the same course and distance with busybody starting favourite at the unusual odds of 100 / 105 in a field of nine . the race took place in fine weather and attracted a\nlarge and fashionable\ncrowd .\nand that it did . dozens of students posted on social media praising caia with a virtual pat on the back and celebrating with jazzmin . it was a selfless act , said alba , and although caia gave up her position as queen , she will forever be remembered for having the grace and compassion of royalty .\nbig - race wins : dubai world cup ( 2014 african story ) , qipco champion stakes ( 2013 farhh ) , lockinge stakes ( 2013 farhh ) , dubai duty free stakes ( 2013 sajjhaa ) , premio roma ( 2012 hunter\u2019s light ) , juddmonte international ( 2015 arabian queen ) . accolades : stobart champion flat jockey 2015\nfour days after her appearance in the auction ring , busybody returned to newmarket for the 1 , 000 guineas in which she was again matched against\nthe adelaide filly\n, now officially named queen adelaide . busybody was made favourite at odds of 85 / 40 in a field of six and was ridden by tom cannon . the early pace was slow and busybody pulled hard against cannon ' s attempts to restrain her before the race began in earnest two furlongs from the finish . busybody and queen adelaide quickly went to the front , and after\na pretty race\n, the favourite prevailed by half a length , with whitelock finishing third ahead of sandiway ,\nat friday ' s homecoming game , the court rode to the middle of the field in a chevrolet corvette . jazzmin needed some extra help from her brother , who delicately helped move her wheelchair out of the car and on to the 50 - yard line . the crowd stood to their feet and cheered for jazzmin as she lined up with the other candidates . the electric moment nearly brought jones to tears as jazzmin ' s face lit up with a smile .\nthis family stems from the great champion racemare and horse - of - the - year in italy , maria waleska ( dual gr . 1 winner , dual classic winner ) , herself dam of the european champion sprinter , polish patriot . ecossaise will provide her eventual purchaser with an exceptional opportunity to breed from a daughter of a most important broodmare sire , from a very\nlive\nfamily with plenty of potential for further black type additions .\nsince the first of september , holy roman emperor has sired leitir mor , winner of the g3 round tower s . at the curragh ; and sunday times , winner of the g3 sceptre s . at doncaster . in 2012 , holy roman emperor has over 100 individual winners and almost \u00a32 , 000 , 000 in progeny earnings ( ranked in the top 10 on the european sire list ) and eight individual sws , led by homecoming queen . four of his sws are two - year - olds . lifetime , nine of his 17 sws ( 18 counting smashing , winner of the indian oaks and several other non - black - type races in that country ) are two - year - old sws , with a total of eight gsws . he is ranked second on the european two - year - 0ld sires list with 27 individual winners .\ntwo months later , queen ' s logic returned to the racecourse for the lowther stakes at york . this was her first attempt at six furlongs . apart from sophisticat , who opposed her again , the field included the cherry hinton stakes winner silent honor , who was made the 9 / 4 favourite . queen ' s logic ran her now familiar race , chasing the leaders before accelerating in the closing stages and taking the lead close home to beat sophisticat by one and a quarter lengths , with silent honor third . [ 9 ] her price for the 1 , 000 guineas was cut to 14 / 1 even though some [ 10 ] felt that her sheer speed and racing style suggested that she was essentially a sprinter who might struggle over one mile .\nqueen ' s logic is a retired thoroughbred racehorse and active broodmare , bred in ireland and trained in the united kingdom . she is notable for winning the title of european champion two - year - old filly of 2001 at the cartier racing awards , and for retiring undefeated . she has been described as\nthe most outstanding filly to have never won a classic .\n[ 1 ]\n9th march 2012 another win for our new boy the new boy at lanwades , aussie rules , had another three - year - old winner yesterday this time at wolverhampton . yarra valley , a filly , having her third run of her career was held up , made some good headway two furlongs from home to take the 7f maiden in what looks to be a decent race . she is owned and trained by willie musson and was bred by aussie rules\u2019 breeder denford stud who are supporting the horse again in 2012 by sending some good mares .\non the morning of the day before the 1 , 000 guineas , queen ' s logic was found to be lame . channon insisted that the injury was not serious , [ 5 ] but he was unwilling to risk his filly and she was withdrawn from the race . [ 15 ] a plan to run her instead in the irish 1 , 000 guineas had to be abandoned when she contracted a viral infection and began\ncoughing\n. [ 16 ]\nbackground : garry and suzanne brandt had their first runner in 2014 . the couple run the north london - based import business harlequin direct ltd and were tempted to dip their toes into racehorse ownership when meeting owner derrick bloy on holiday . harlequeen was only the second horse owned by the brandts , with their first being the four - time winner harlequin striker , also with mick channon before being switched to dean ivory\u2019s yard this year . garry gave suzanne harlequeen for her birthday and his mother telma went racing for the first time at goodwood last year when harlequeen won .\nall samples from contemporary members of family 9c have been reported to have the same haplotype as one of two haplotypes known to occur in 9b , indicating that if there was indeed any fabrication in the pedigree of the young sir peter mare it did not remove her from her true matrilineage . the haplotype found in 9c and part of 9b has also been reported in family branches 12c , 12d and 12f . see equine genetic genealogy and deep - rooted anomalies .\nthe pedigree given for young sir peter mare may have been fabricated . she is recorded in the stud book as such :\nthis pedigree was stated by mr baker of elemore hall and mr butler to have been invented . the rev mr perceval of acomb bred all these colts , and they were sold to mr baker and sir f boynton as half - breds , and won many half - bred races .\nmr baker ' s entry of quilter was by standard , dam by sir peter pellet ( son espersykes ) , out of a well - bred mare ( pedigree unknown ) ; but the above pedigree is quite possible .\nsir peter pellet was later called milfield . while in these cases it is impossible to know the motives or sincerity of all parties involved , it is interesting that the general stud book made note of it . it is possible to introduce a half - bred into the pedigree on either the dam ' s side or the sire ' s side .\nthe family of spitfire has produced some of the most distinguished horses ever known .\n\u00a359 . 70 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a345 , 839 . 74 - 559 . 76 winning units\n\u00a329 . 50 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a34 , 170 . 62 - 104 . 32 winning units\ndistances : hd , 1\u00bel , 1\u00bdl time : 1m 12 . 03s ( slow by 2 . 23s ) total sp : 114 %\ndistances : 2\u00bdl , nk , \u00bel time : 57 . 41s ( slow by 0 . 21s ) total sp : 111 %\ndistances : hd , \u00bel , 3l time : 1m 38 . 66s ( slow by 1 . 46s ) unplaced fav : whatsthemessage 5 / 2f total sp : 111 %\ndistances : 1\u00bel , nse , nk time : 2m 53 . 43s ( slow by 7 . 43s ) unplaced fav : luv u whatever 5 / 2f total sp : 111 %\ndistances : 4l , \u00bel , nk time : 1m 29 . 63s ( slow by 2 . 33s ) total sp : 116 %\ndistances : hd , 1\u00bcl , 2\u00bel time : 1m 31 . 16s ( slow by 3 . 86s ) unplaced fav : different journey 5 / 2f total sp : 117 %\ndistances : 4\u00bdl , 1\u00bdl , shd time : 1m 13 . 63s ( slow by 3 . 13s ) total sp : 115 %\ndistances : 1\u00bdl , 1\u00bcl , shd time : 1m 39 . 73s ( slow by 2 . 03s ) unplaced fav : shamaheart 7 / 2f total sp : 117 %\ndistances : 1l , nk , 2l time : 1m 29 . 86s total sp : 113 %\ndistances : hd , 2\u00bcl , 1\u00bcl time : 1m 31 . 21s unplaced fav : alfirak 6 / 4f total sp : 119 %\ndistances : nk , nk , 1l time : 1m 13 . 14s ( slow by 2 . 94s ) total sp : 123 %\ndistances : \u00bel , 2l , hd time : 1m 13 . 86s ( slow by 3 . 66s ) total sp : 121 %\ndistances : nk , 1\u00bcl , 1l time : 2m 12 . 59s ( slow by 8 . 09s ) total sp : 111 %\ndistances : shd , hd , 2l time : 1m 45 . 90s ( slow by 5 . 30s ) unplaced fav : brigand 11 / 10f total sp : 111 %\n\u00a3134 . 50 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a370 , 403 . 42 - 382 . 07 winning units\n\u00a331 . 10 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a37 , 689 . 58 - 182 . 62 winning units\ndistances : 1\u00bel , 1l , nk time : 1m 15 . 80s ( slow by 3 . 60s ) total sp : 125 %\ndistances : nk , 1\u00bel , hd time : 1m 31 . 96s ( slow by 5 . 86s ) unplaced fav : cupid ' s arrow 4 / 1j , be bold 4 / 1j total sp : 122 %\ndistances : \u00bdl , 13l , nse time : 2m 40 . 17s ( slow by 5 . 17s ) total sp : 119 %\n\u00a3294 . 80 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a364 , 468 . 45 - 159 . 62 winning units\n\u00a354 . 30 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a35 , 729 . 64 - 77 . 96 winning units\ndistances : 6l , shd , 4\u00bdl time : 5m 49 . 80s ( slow by 14 . 80s ) unplaced fav : master sunrise 6 / 4f total sp : 115 %\nnewton geronimo was withdrawn . price at time of withdrawal 13 / 8f . rule 4 applies to all bets - deduction 35p in the pound\ndistances : 1\u00bdl , hd , 2\u00bdl time : 3m 42 . 80s ( slow by 2 . 80s ) unplaced fav : tommy hallinan 9 / 4j total sp : 117 %\ndistances : 6l , 11l , hd time : 5m 44 . 60s ( slow by 22 . 60s ) total sp : 116 %\ndistances : nk , 2l , 1\u00bel time : 3m 44 . 70s ( slow by 4 . 70s ) unplaced fav : excellent team 100 / 30f total sp : 113 %\ndistances : 1\u00bel , \u00bdl , nk time : 2m 2 . 21s ( slow by 0 . 21s ) total sp : 120 %\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 2 . 90 place 1 . 70 , 2 . 00 , 4 . 40 df 7 . 80 sf 12 . 90\ndistances : \u00bel , \u00bdl , nse time : 2m 31 . 62s ( slow by 2 . 62s ) unplaced fav : north hunter 12 / 5f total sp : 121 %\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 25 . 60 place 5 . 70 , 2 . 90 , 2 . 80 df 110 . 70 sf 295 . 60\ndistances : hd , \u00bel , \u00bdl time : 1m 27 . 55s ( slow by 4 . 25s ) total sp : 120 %\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 5 . 50 place 1 . 80 , 2 . 40 , 1 . 60 df 28 . 80 sf 58 . 00\ndistances : nse , 1\u00bdl , snk time : 1m 52 . 14s ( slow by 3 . 64s ) unplaced fav : flowrider evensf total sp : 121 %\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 1 . 50 ( coupled with flowrider ) place 1 . 80 , 1 . 90 sf 8 . 00\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 2 . 30 place 4 . 10 , 5 . 10 , 4 . 10 df 64 . 60 sf 146 . 60\ndistances : hd , 1l , snk time : 1m 25 . 85s ( slow by 2 . 55s ) total sp : 121 %\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 5 . 50 place 2 . 00 , 3 . 80 , 3 . 00 df 31 . 40 sf 55 . 20\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 5 . 70 place 1 . 90 , 2 . 20 , 1 . 90 df 26 . 60 sf 50 . 50\ndistances : snk , 1\u00bcl , 1\u00bel time : 2m 3 . 57s ( slow by 1 . 57s ) unplaced fav : ducale di maremma 14 / 5f total sp : 121 %\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 11 . 80 place 3 . 70 , 3 . 10 , 6 . 60 df 37 . 80 sf 87 . 60\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsky sports news takes you through all of the day ' s racing news , plus alex hammond ' s tip of the day .\nfollow the latest from the written press with the best gossip and speculation from the papers .\nsky has launched a pub finder for eager fans wanting to find a venue to watch sky sports .\nget a sports star to visit your old secondary school as part of our free schools initiative .\nsamitar caused a 12 / 1 upset to win the etihad airways irish 1 , 000 guineas at the curragh today , scoring first irish classic winners for trainer mick channon and jockey martin harley , on his first ever classic ride .\ncoral wave produced a gutsy performance to emerge on top after a three - way battle in the group three cl weld stakes at the curragh .\namong equals landed cork\u2019s opening six furlong two - year - old maiden after a battle with limetree lady in the final furlong , as the pair pulled clear of the remainder .\ncrimson sunrise snatched victory late on in the opening lynn lodge stud auction maiden at navan this afternoon .\nafter race at leopardstown sun , 15th apr , 2012 ( 1st ) she is a hardy little filly and she improved nicely from the curragh [ ninth on 25th march ] . she will go into one of the guineas now . a p o ' brien\nafter race at curragh sun , 9th oct , 2011 ( 1st ) she always worked like a very good filly but took a while to win and she ended up at fairyhouse off a mark of 72 , . then she had a great run here . maybe i was running her over too short . she ' s a good mover and has a big heart . she ' s a very well - bred filly . joseph said to go to america ( breeders cup ) for the fillies race . we ' ll see . obviously she ' s a filly with a lot of ability . a p o ' brien\nafter race at fairyhouse sun , 18th sep , 2011 ( 1st ) she has a lovely pedigree and has been running well in maidens . she broke well , and kept on well in the straight . a p o ' brien\nopen an account with betfair and bet at least \u20ac5 at min odds of 1 / 5 on the sportsbook . win or lose betfair match your first bet up to \u20ac50 . free bet stakes not returned\nfrankel ' s last ever race , win 14 / 14 . now officially retired to stud .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmy miss aurelia brings an imposing 3 - for - 3 record . . .\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\nat 2 : won lanwades & staffordstown studs s . ( ire , 7ft , cur ) ; 2nd c . l . weld park s . ( ire - g3 , 7ft , cur )\nat 3 : won one thousand guineas s . ( eng - g1 , 8ft , nmk ) , leopardstown 1000 guineas trial s . ( ire - g3 , 7ft , leo )\nthe video ends with the girl rejoining her friends , still laughing and apparently unhurt .\ntwo kingston police officers are shown on horseback in this photo shared on twitter by the kingston police department .\ngrizzly hunters from eu granted permits to export from b . c . despite ban : report\nat least two u . s . children dead , one severely injured from self - inflicted gunshot wounds\ntoronto stocks higher , while u . s . markets also gain ground ; loonie higher\nbmw : tariffs mean higher prices in china for u . s . - made suvs\nthe race was marred by gray pearl being fatally injured in the stalls , which led to a half - hour delay .\nstarscope was second with the previously unbeaten favourite maybe , ridden by o ' brien ' s son joseph , third .\nmoore kicked on again going into the dip aboard ballydoyle ' s supposed second string and the daughter of holy roman emperor stretched clear .\nit was the first victory in the newmarket fillies ' classic for moore , who said :\naidan said she was very fit and very well .\ni thought i was going a stride too quick , but she just kept going . there ' s not much of her , but she tries very hard . she ' s very tough .\naiden o ' brien said :\nit ' s incredible . she ' s a very good filly .\ngray pearl ' s death in the starting stalls meant it was a very subdued crowd that greeted moore in the unsaddling enclosure and he described the events as\nvery sad\n.\nracegoers feared the worst when screens were put up across the centre of the course and gray pearl had to be put down after suffering what vets called\nan apparent spinal injury\n.\nveterinary officer chris hammond said :\nto minimise distress to the filly , a decision was made to have her put down on welfare grounds .\nwe are sorry , but the system was unable to process your request because your web browser did not behave as expected . cookies are required by this website in order to ensure a seamless user experience .\nit was a first qipco 1000 guineas success for moore , who said : \u201caidan said she was very fit and very well . i thought i was going a stride too quick , but she just kept going . there\u2019s not much of her , but she tries very hard . she\u2019s very tough . \u201d\nhowever , this was a highly impressive performance and she is a short as 3 - 1 to take the second fillies\u2019 classic , the oaks at epsom , in a month\u2019s time .\nby submitting your information , you agree to the terms & conditions and privacy & cookies policy .\nwe ' d also like to send you special offers and news just by email from other carefully selected companies we think you might like . your personal details will not be shared with those companies - we send the emails and you can unsubscribe at any time . please tick here if you are happy to receive these messages .\n\u00a9 copyright ti media limited . all rights reserved . terms & conditions | privacy policy | cookie consent\nthe honorius story is one of many threads , beginning way back to the the tetrarch , the unbeaten star of the turf who stamped so many his progeny with his distinctive grey coat - including the wondrous mumtaz mahal .\nlike honorius named after royalty , that legendary mare was superior not only on the track but at stud and her genes are still a dominant force in international racing . . . passed on to the likes of nasrullah , royal charger and mahmoud .\none of the mumtaz mahal clan ' s finest achievements is petite etoile , the winner of 14 of her 19 starts - never once out of the first two . the highest ever timeform rated three - year - old filly until bettered only slightly by her relation habibti over two decades later .\nmany a high class performer has stemmed from this branch of the mumtaz mahal dynasty , none better than the masterpiece zarkava - the first filly in 15 years to defeat the older horses in the world ' s great test of thoroughbred class , the prix de l ' arc de triomphe .\nzahra ' s daughter zariya by the influential blushing groom is another to contribute to the considerable fortunes of this great family , two times hong kong group one winner sir andrew and australian group 2 winner zerpour amongst her descendants .\nalso recipient of several other championship titles - a common theme in this family - igugu was the first filly to win the coveted triple tiara and her four group one victories made her a heroine to the south african racing public .\nby a champion , breed shaping stallion , holy roman emperor hails from one of the world ' s great thoroughbred families , one held in such high regard that his full sister milanova set an australian record when fetching a whopping $ 5 million at the 2008 inglis easter broodmare sale .\ntheir dam l ' on vite by the immortal secretariat , has produced four stakes winners - holy roman emperor the star whilst milanova was successful at group three level ( producing a group three winner in ireland ) as was big viking in japan . . . whilst heart of oak won listed races in germany .\nbut back to her grandson holy roman emperor . with such a background of course expectations were high and he did not disappoint - at debut racing away with a maiden at leopardstown and two starts later claiming the group two railway stakes at the curragh .\non the strength of that victory sent out favourite in the group one phoenix stakes at the same track , holy roman emperor was a dominant winner before a gallant second to rising star teofilo in the group one national stakes .\nfrom there he headed to paris where his two length victory in the group one grand criterium in record time earned him the title of french champion 2y0 , also securing the highest ever juvenile timeform rating for a son of danehill .\nand the track ' s loss has proven breeding ' s gain with holy roman emperor proving himself to be one of danehill ' s classiest and most versatile sons , to date represented by 67 stakes winners , ten of whom have been successful at the elite level .\na truly international success story is holy roman emperor . . . winners in 41 different countries ! a stallion whose stats read so very well - a 65 . 3 % winners - to - runners strike rate , 6 . 2 % stakes winners to runners . prize money earnings in excess of $ 82 million , stakes winners who have won over a variety of distances from 1000m to 2500m .\nget some of the fun of being an owner with . . . read more\nthey say the majority of the offences were liquor licence act violations , followed by bylaw violations relating to noise , and a high percentage of the arrests were for public intoxication .\na major economic boost for ottawa will be made official on tuesday : amazon is coming to town .\n.\ni had great support . i\u2019m super happy and thankful and blessed . \u201d\nthat puts her at risk of third - degree burns or even death when exposed to sunlight .\n\u201cshe slowly lost her hearing ; she wears hearing aids , \u201d her mom pam mccoy said . \u201cit has affected her speech , it affected her gait .\nriley goes to school every day in a nasa - approved uv - blocking mask that covers her head , face and neck . she also covers her arms by wearing long gloves .\n\u201ci was really worried when she came to school it was going to be a rude awakening and that there was going to be bullying , \u201d her mom said .\ni got a lot of encouragement ,\nriley said . \u201ci\u2019m very thankful and very blessed to have people in my life and friends . \u201d\nthat\u2019s the message today that\u2019s been sent out by the commander of portsmouth naval base , commodore jeremy rigby .\nthe mighty new aircraft carrier has been given a window between thursday and next monday for the historic moment to happen .\ncdre rigby , who has been overseeing a major \u00a3100m overhaul of the city\u2019s naval base ahead of the arrival , said his team is ready to go .\n\u2018there\u2019s a palpable sense of excitement around the naval base , \u2019 he said . \u2018it started when we first heard the ship was going to be based here .\n\u2018portsmouth naval base knows it\u2019s got a future until the end of the century as a hub for maritime skills and job security , the supply chain in the area \u2013 everybody now knows that they\u2019ve got a part to play .\n\u2018just thinking that we\u2019re going to be the launch pad for the royal navy , travelling around the world for uk security and influence for the next 50 years , is a great feeling . \u2019\nto get ready for the major milestone of her arrival , the naval base has undergone one of the most extensive refits in almost a century .\ncdre rigby added : \u2018i don\u2019t think there\u2019s one part of the naval base that hasn\u2019t been touched by it , from the accommodation , getting the jetties ready , sorting out the navigation , the guys trying to work out the skills set that they\u2019re going to need , getting the workshops up and running \u2013 fixing all the roads .\n\u2018you can\u2019t see one part of the naval base that hasn\u2019t had to lift its game and i think we will all be feeling quite an emotional moment when the ship comes alongside . \u2019\nseason one examines the difficulties that philip faced adjusting to life in his wife\u2019s shadow , and his growing jealousy of her friendship with racing manager lord \u2018porchey\u2019 porchester ( joseph kloska ) .\nin episode nine , the couple have an explosive row over elizabeth and porchey ' s closeness .\nas a young lady , elizabeth was said to have had a list of \u201cflirts\u201d which included her friend porchey .\n\u201cshe clearly found him sexually attractive , \u201d a lady - in - waiting told the daily telegraph\u2019s graham turner .\nin the late 1950s , it was suggested that porchey might be the father of prince andrew , who was born on february 19 , 1960 .\nbuckingham palace has never commented on the rumours , but it is generally accepted that the two were nothing more than firm friends .\nporchey had married an anglo - american noblewoman named jean margaret wallop on january 7 , 1956 .\nporchey died of a heart attack on september 11 , 2001 on the same day that thousands were killed in the new york terror attack .\nher uncharacteristically sentimental words were seen by many as a reference to her own personal grief at losing her friend porchey ."]}
{"id": 2050, "summary": [{"text": "laevistrombus turturella is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusc in the family strombidae ( true conches ) .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "there are only two living species within the genus laevistrombus ; the other congener is laevistrombus canarium , the dog conch . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "laevistrombus turturella", "paragraphs": ["laevistrombus aff . turturella ( r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) ; calitoban , philippines ; from fishermen ; 52 mm ; coll . ulrich wieneke\nlaevistrombus turturella ( r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) ; philippines islands ; t : 112 mm , b : 108 mm ; coll . christian b\u00f6rnke\nlaevistrombus turturella ( r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) ; freak ; nha trang , kh\u00e1nh h\u00f2a province , vietnam ; 83 mm ; coll . cu dieu\nlaevistrombus turturella ( r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) ; upper pliocene ;\nsolo river\n, sangiran , java , indonesia ; coll . elmar mai\nlaevistrombus turturella ( r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) ; dumaguete , negros island , negros oriental province , negros island region , philippines ; 63 mm ; coll . roland hoffmann\n- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : laevistrombus turturella ( p . f . r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) - id : 1450000355\nlaevistrombus turturella ( r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) ; krabi , krabi province , thailand , andaman sea ; black parietal and outer lip edge ; 2007 ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 6322\nlaevistrombus turturella ( r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) ; sattihip , chonburi province , thailand ; 15 ft in sand & rubble ; t : 64 mm , b : 62 , 5 mm ; 1974 ; coll . paul merrill\nlaevistrombus turturella ( r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) ; ubin island ( pulau ubin ) , northeast of singapore , southeast asia ; taken on muddy sand during very low tide ; 60 , 5 mm ; 9 / 2001 ; coll . paul merrill\noften mentioned as strombus canarium [ = laevistrombus canarium ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ] , which is a closely related species not known from singapore .\nliverani v . ( 2014 ) the superfamily stromboidea . addenda and corrigenda . in : g . t . poppe , k . groh & c . renker ( eds ) , a conchological iconography . pp . 1 - 54 , pls 131 - 164 . harxheim : conchbooks . [ details ]\n( of strombus isabella lamarck , 1822 ) liverani v . ( 2014 ) the superfamily stromboidea . addenda and corrigenda . in : g . t . poppe , k . groh & c . renker ( eds ) , a conchological iconography . pp . 1 - 54 , pls 131 - 164 . harxheim : conchbooks . [ details ]\nmorton b . & morton je . ( 1983 ) . the sea shore ecology of hong kong . hong kong : hong kong university press . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ngmelin , 1791 , p . 3517 , strombus canarium ( sp . 24 )\nst . testa ovato - oblonga , dorso laeviuscula , basi striata , albida aut pallide fulva ; spira exserta : anfractibus valde convexis ; apertura intus alba , extus aureo tincta ; labro anterius sinu distincto .\nstrombus canarium in duclos , 1844 , pl . 7 , fig . 7 , 8\nstrombus isabella in duclos , 1844 , pl . 27 , fig . 4 , 5\nstrombus isabella in reeve , 1851 , strombus , pl . 18 , fig . 51\nstrombus isabella var . thersites martin , 1899 , pl . xxx , fig . 423 , 424 , 425\nthe intertidal molluscs of pulau semakau : prelimineary results of\nproject semakau\n.\nraffles museum of biodiversity research rmbr has its origins in the raffles museum which was founded in 1849 . established on\u2026\ndeveloped by moving mouse \u00a9 2018 lee kong chian natural history museum . all rights reserved . terms of use .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\naccessed through : world register of marine species at urltoken on 2012 - 08 - 21 .\nin : okutani , t . ( ed . ) , marine mollusks in japan . tokai university press , tokyo , 181 - 187 ( in japanese ) .\noccurrence record in darwincore format ( elements of obis schema and some of dwc1 . 4 )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 001 seconds . )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is turned off in your web browser . please turn it on to take full advantage of arctos , or try our html specimensearch option .\ntaxon name is the\nnamestring\nor\nscientific name ,\nthe\ndata\nthat is used to form identifications and the core of every taxonomy record .\ntaxon term is the data value of either a classification term (\nanimalia\n) or classification metadata ( such as name authors ) .\nterm type is the rank (\nkingdom\n) for classification terms , in which role it may be null , and the label for classification metadata (\nauthor text\n) .\nsource indicates the source of a classification ( not a taxon name ) . some classifications are local ; most come from globalnames .\ncommon names are vernacular term associated with taxon names , and are not necessarily english , correct , or common .\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\naccessed through : world register of marine species at urltoken on 2012 - 08 - 21 .\ndescription color : whitish or cream colored , marked throughout with fine , close - set , irregularly wavy , transpiral , brownish or orange brown lines ; the columella or and interior of aperture white . shell large and massive ; body whorl is much broader than the height of the shell ; spire short but the apex is sharp and pointed . the surface of the shell is smooth and glossy , uppermost whorls of the spire are finely spirally grooved ; expansion of outer lip is broad , wing - like , its edge standing out at a distance away from the inner border of the aperture . the whorls are smoothly rounded near the upper part .\neconomic importance and threats importance : commercial ( they are used to make toys and dolls as figures of birds , human beings etc . by gluing the shells together . rings made out of shells are worn on fingers by some people in tamil nadu and in chains in malabar and kanara . )\n\u2022 tamil nadu , gulf of mannar ( lat : 8 . 5 ) ( long : 79 ) india\n\u2022 lakshadweep , kavaratti atoll ( lat : 10 . 55 ) ( long : 72 . 63 ) india\n\u2022 tamil nadu , krusadai island ( lat : 9 . 23 ) ( long : 79 . 22 ) india\n\u2022 tamil nadu , pamban ( lat : 9 . 29 ) ( long : 79 . 21 ) india\ndr . ramesh , r ; dr . nammalwar , p and dr . gowri , vs ( 2008 ) database on coastal information of tamil nadu report submitted to environmental information system ( envis ) centre , department of environment , government of tamil nadu institute for ocean management , anna university , chennai , tamil nadu . available at - urltoken\nsamuel , vd ; chacko , d and edward , jkp ( 2005 ) preliminary study on the molluscan diversity of \u201cthe lost world\u2019\u2019\u2013 dhanushkodi , east coast of india proceedings of the national seminar on reef ecosystem remediation sdmri special research publication no . 9 54 - 58 available at - urltoken\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nstrombidae , or the conchs are one of the more familiar of the molluscan groups . though many larger molluscan species are commonly referred to as conchs , the strombs or generically , strombus are the true conch shells . the number of species in the family numbers around 60 species , which is small in comparison with other molluscan families . yet the size difference between the largest and smallest strombus species is huge . a few grow to be the largest and heaviest of the marine mollusks such as eustrombus goliath\n. the largest recorded shell is around 380 millimeters . at the other end of the size spectrum is\n, a species that rarely reaching 25 millimeters in length . a comprehensive display of strombs are quite beautiful . some of the species can vary considerably in color and make for an\nthe family strombidae has in recent years undergone a major taxonomic revision . numerous neatly organized subgenera for the various species within the genus strombus have been raised to full genera , and new genera have been errected for species that did not clearly fit within the classic arrangement . the most significant taxonomic change within the family strombidae is that the spindly tibia have been reclassified in the family rostellariidae based on anatomy and shell morphology . the conchological community has been slow to adopt this new classification . the various ' strombus ' species are arranged here according to the revised nomenclature .\nsearch urltoken search urltoken - enter search word . avoid using the word\nshell\n- e . g . , use conch instead of conch shell . * * * google strombidae on the internet\nclick on the thumbnail images for an enlarged view . images will open up in a separate , resizeable window .\n* turn off your browser ' s pop - up blocker to see enlarged pictures and links . *\ntaxonomic ref . : ponder & lindberg . 1997 . towards a phylogeny of gastropod molluscs ; an analysis using morphological characters . zoological journal of the linnean society , 119 83 - 265 .\ndillwyn , 1817 - philippines , 27 - 36mm - found in a rainbow of varied colors and patterns .\ndillwyn , 1817 - philippines , 28mm - a striking solid orange color form .\ndillwyn , 1817 - tulear , madagascar , 47mm - at 47mm , this specimen is considered well above average in size .\nsowerby , 1842 - mozambique , 29 - 34mm - intertidal sand dweller found in the western indian ocean & red sea .\nsowerby , 1842 - marshall islands , 15 - 17mm - found scuba diving among sand and rubble . the species has an interesting red operculum with a serrated edge .\nkiener , 1843 - hawaii , 19mm - an unusual orange color form . this species is the smallest of the genus .\nduclos , 1844 - mozambique , 39mm - the geographical range of this subspecies is the indian ocean from east africa to vietnam . it can be found in relatively shallow water . the illustrated shell represents a very shouldered form .\nswainson , 1821 - madagascar , 23mm - the color and patterns of this species varies considerably throughout its indo - pacific range , as well as within individual populations as illustrated here .\nlinn\u00e9 , 1758 - philippines - the shell is found in a array of color forms . in nature the shell is often covered with a thick periostracum and organic growth that masks the color . lip color can be white or black , though the lighter colored shells tend to have a white lip .\nlinn\u00e9 , 1758 - philippines - black color form . the species is quite variable with a number of subspecific names applied to geographical forms .\nwood , 1828 - vanuatu , 18 - 20mm - dwarf adult specimens . the subspecies is restricted to a portion of melanesia .\nsowerby , 1842 - madagascar , 32 - 33mm - one of many forms widely varying forms found throughout the range of the species from the eastern mediterranean through the indian ocean . the form coniformis is found from mauritius through east africa .\nduclos , 1844 - philippines , 39mm - this form is limited to the southern pacific . it is differentiated from typical d . dilatatus by the shorter canal at the aperture .\n( reeve , 1850 ) , - vietnam , 65 - 67mm - a form limited to the indian ocean . taken in trawl nets of a commercial fishing boat .\n( swainson , 1821 ) - philippines , 31mm - distributed through the western pacific , but not found in the indian ocean , where the nominate form is found .\n( r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) - australia , 65mm - as with many species of the genus , this is an intertidal dweller .\npilsbry , 1917 - hawaii , 92mm - a fresh dead collected specimen . the subspecies is very rare in this size and condition , and is endemic to the hawaiian islands .\npilsbry , 1917 - hawaii , 65 . 7mm - also dead taken . the lip is immature , but rarely seen this dark and beautiful . the species is a sand dweller .\n( linn\u00e9 , 1758 ) - mahe island , seychelles , 57 . 3mm - the nominate form of gibberulus gibberulus [ synonym : strombus gibberulus ] .\nm\u00f6rch , 1850 - saudi arabia , 43mm - a pale form . [ synonym : strombus gibberulus albus ]\nr\u00f6ding , 1798 - coral sea , 40 - 46mm - these specimens were taken near east diamond island , way out in the middle of nowhere ! a geographical morph with a dark band below the suture line on the body whorl is more typical at this location ( middle specimen ) , though a wider range of coral sea color forms is illustrated here . [ synonym : strombus gibberulus gibbosus ]\nm\u00f6rch , 1852 , pterocera anton , 1839 ( non lamarck , 1799 ) ; subgenus : millepes m\u00f6rch , 1852 .\nlinn\u00e9 , 1758 - philippines , 121 - 132mm - dwarf adult specimens of a species that typically grows to over 200mm in length . the depth of aperture color and pattern on the dorsum varies considerably .\n( linn\u00e9 , 1758 ) - mellish reef , coral sea , 76mm - a pure white color form . taken scuba diving in \u00b135 feet of water on sand , during a night dive .\n( r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) - davao , philippines , 97 . 2mm - an extremely large specimen for the species . closely related to l . canarium .\nr\u00f6ding , 1798 , pterocera lamarck , 1799 , pteroceras link , 1807 ( err . ) , pteroceres montfort , 1810 ( err . ) , digitator fabricius , 1823 ( nom . nud . ) , pterocerus brongniart , 1829 ( err . ) , heptadactylus m\u00f6rch , 1852 .\n( link , 1807 ) - philippines , 128mm - the nominate form of the species . digits are proportionately shorter than the localized form l . c . pilsbryi .\nabbott , 1961 - marquesas , 254mm - a huge specimen , 4 . 2mm smaller than the largest recorded size for the species . the subspecies is limited to french polynesia .\n( linn\u00e9 , 1758 ) - philippines , 129 - 137mm - the illustrated specimens exhibit extremely dark coloration .\n( swainson , 1821 ) - tahiti , 131mm - endemic to polynesia . the dark - tipped digits are characteristic of this uncommon species .\n( born , 1778 ) - madagascar , 39 - 40mm - species is limited to the western indian ocean and the rea sea ; forms from the latter location have been described as subspecific . knobby and smooth - shouldered forms are found throughout its range .\n( roding , 1798 ) - davao , philippines , 52mm - orange color form .\niredale , 1921 ; aliger thiele , 1929 ; eustrombus wenz , 1940 . .\n( linn\u00e9 , 1758 ) - cabo rojo , puerto rico . the famed rooster tail conch is found in a variety of colors ; this specimen has shades of pink . [ synonym : strombus gallus ]\n( gmelin , 1791 ) - aguadilla , puerto rico - 77mm . a gerontic specimen with a blackened lip . strombs found along the west coast of puerto rico seem to be prone to this type of discoloration . [ synonym : strombus raninus ]\n( gray , 1852 ) - andaman sea , 109mm - once considered one of the rarest shells , now it is commonly trawled off the coast of thailand and burma ( myanmar ) , a by - product of commercial fishing boats . m . listeri is the only species in the genus .\n( linn\u00e9 , 1758 ) - philippines , 163mm - grows to over 200mm . the shell is heavy with a thick calcareous shell .\n( emerson , 1965 ) - somalia , 95mm - a dead taken specimen . live specimens rarely surface in trawling nets .\n( emerson , 1965 ) - somalia , 101 . 7mm - a beautiful shell with mature , fully developed wing .\n, or cap shell attached to the body whorl , which when removed leaves an crater - like indentation in the shell .\nstrombus linn\u00e9 , 1758 ; vaught , 1989 : 31 ; le renard , 1996 : 41 , strombella schl\u00fcter , 1838 , conomurex fischer p . , 1884 ex bayle ms , strombus ( conomurex ) ; vaught , 1989 : 31 .\ngmelin , 1791 - florida keys , 87 - 100mm - a relatively large and variably colored species . it is common throughout its range .\ngmelin , 1791 - florida keys , 81 - 88mm - two distinct color forms from the same locale .\nlinn\u00e9 , 1758 - florida keys , 89mm - typical specimens have longer spines on the spire than does strombus alatus .\n: kronenberg , g . c . & g . j . vermeij . terestrombus and tridentarius , new genera of indo - pacific strombidae ( gastropoda ) , with comments on included taxa and on shell characters in strombidae . vita malacologica ( 1 ) 49 - 54 .\n( r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) - philippines , 30 - 40mm - the thin , shiny shell is characteristic of this species . do not confuse with\nsowerby ii , 1842 - philippines , 36 - 41mm - typical form with taller spire .\n( sowerby , 1842 ) - philippines , 34mm - an unusual solid orange color form .\n( lightfoot , 1786 ) - somalia , 114 . 5mm - the coloring varies widely ; this specimen has an unusual dark striped pattern on the back . [ synonym : strombus tricornis ]\n( lightfoot , 1786 ) - somalia , 128 . 7mm - a specimen with an extremely dark dorsum coloring . typically the species exhibits a much lighter color .\n( linn\u00e9 , 1758 ) - solomon islands , 32mm - the type species of the genus . the color - pattern of the body whorl varies .\nstrombidae on this page click name to view image - click \u00bb to view caption below ."]}
{"id": 2052, "summary": [{"text": "the chacoan gracile opossum ( cryptonanus chacoensis ) is a species of opossum in the family didelphidae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is native to argentina , brazil and paraguay .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its habitat is seasonally flooded grasslands and forests in and near the gran chaco . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "chacoan gracile opossum", "paragraphs": ["\u2014 northern gracile opossum [ 1 ] conservation status least concern ( iucn 3 . 1 ) [ \u2026\n\u2014 agricola s gracile opossum [ 1 ] conservation status data deficient ( iucn 3 . 1 ) [ 2 \u2026\nthis opossum is mostly arboreal , but it may forage on the ground for food .\n\u2014 chestnut striped opossum [ 1 ] conservation status data deficient ( iucn 3 . 1 ) \u2026\n\u2014 maraj\u00f3 short tailed opossum [ 1 ] conservation status data deficient ( iucn 3 . 1 ) \u2026\n\u2014 neblina slender opossum [ 1 ] conservation status least concern ( iucn 3 . 1 ) [ \u2026\nthis mouse opossum does not have a pouch . it is reddish or grayish brown in color with a cream - colored belly and a dark eye ring . it is up to 13 . 5 centimeters long , not including its slender , scaly tail , which may be over 15 centimeters long .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nin the original description was named marmosa agilis chacoensis tate , 1931 . a new name combination and synonymy , marmosa ( thylamys ) agilis agilis , was proposed by cabrera , 1958 . gardner and creighton , 1989 gave a new name combination , gracilinanus agilis . voss et al . ( 2005 ) described a new genus , cryptonanus , and transferred gracilinanus agilis to this new genus , and renamed the taxon as c . chacoensis .\ncarmignotto , a . p . , de la sancha , n . & flores , d .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern because of its wide distribution , presumed large population , occurrence in a number of protected areas , tolerance to some degree of habitat modification , and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category .\nthe species occurs in northern argentina , southern bolivia ( tarija ) , paraguay , and in brazilian states of mato grosso , mato grosso do sul , and rio grande do sul ( voss et al . 2005 , ast\u00faa 2015 ) . martinelli et al . ( 2011 ) reported this species for minas gerais , brazil , extending its distribution c . 800 km e of previous records . the species could occur in uruguay but has not yet been properly documented .\nit inhabits seasonally flooded forests and grasslands , but it has also been captured in open habitats , forest fragments , gallery forests in argentina , and plantations . the species seems to be adaptable to disturbed habitats , and it may be expanding in range with deforestation in the atlantic forest of paraguay , although there is no data to substantiate this ( de la sancha in litt . 2006 ) . it is found from 50 - 1 , 800 m ( voss et al . 2005 ) .\nthere are not currently any major threats to the species ( de la sancha in litt . 2006 ) .\nit is known from at least two protected areas in brazil and from at least multiple protected areas in paraguay .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nthis species is known only from around six localities in southeastern peru through northwest bolivia . the localities include the type locality the aceramarca river ( tributary of the unduavi river in yungas ) in la paz , bolivia ( gardner , 2005 ) . it has an altitudinal range of 2 , 600 to 3 , 290 m ( salazar et al . , 2002 ) .\nthis species inhabits tropical forests ( elfin forest ) . it is likely that g . aceramarcae is arboreal , although it may forage for fruit , insects and other small invertebrates on the forest floor . there are no records outside of forest .\namori , g . ( small nonvolant mammal red list authority ) & schipper , j . ( global mammal assessment team )\nthis species is list as least concern , although it is poorly known , the species range is not under enough threat to qualify for a higher category , a large presumed global population , and is found in protected areas .\nthere is very little known about threats , although deforestation rates in the species range are not currently suspected to be high .\ngardner , a . ( 2005 ) . wilson , d . e . ; reeder , d . m , eds . mammal species of the world ( 3rd ed . ) . johns hopkins university press . p . 6 . isbn 978 - 0 - 8018 - 8221 - 0 . oclc 62265494 .\npatterson , b . & solari s . 2008 . gracilinanus aceramarcae . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2014 . 3 . downloaded on 30 march 2015 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nvoss , r . s . ; lunde , d . p . ; jansa ; s . a . ( 2005 ) .\non the contents of gracilinanus gardner & creighton , 1989 , with the description of a previously unrecognized clade of small didelphid marsupials\n. american museum novitates 3482 : 1\u201334 . doi : 10 . 1206 / 0003 - 0082 ( 2005 ) 482 [ 0001 : otcogg ] 2 . 0 . co ; 2 . hdl : 2246 / 5673 .\n^ a b pires costa , a . & patterson , b . ( 2008 ) . cryptonanus chacoensis . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 20 march 2009 .\n. in wilson , don e . , and reeder , deeann m . , eds .\ntate , g . h . h . ( 1931 ) .\nbrief diagnoses of twenty - six apparently new forms of marmosa ( marsupialia ) from south america\n. american museum novitates 493 : 1\u201314 . hdl : 2246 / 3835 .\n\u2014 conservation status data deficient ( iucn 3 . 1 ) [ 1 ] \u2026\n\u2014 for the eastern hemisphere marsupial , see possum . didelphimorphia [ 1 ] temporal range : late cretaceous\u2013recent \u2026\nwe are using cookies for the best presentation of our site . continuing to use this site , you agree with this . ok\nevi , an amazon company , was founded in 2005 under the name true knowledge . the team started out with a mission to make it possible to access the world ' s knowledge simply by asking for information using natural language .\nwe\u2019re part of the amazon alexa team based in amazon ' s innovative cambridge development centre , alongside other amazon teams including prime air , core machine learning , amazon devices and amazon web services ."]}
{"id": 2058, "summary": [{"text": "rowton ( 1826 \u2013 1841 ) was a british-bred thoroughbred racehorse and sire best known for winning the st leger stakes in 1829 .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "he was lightly campaigned during his racing career , competing in eleven races in five seasons and winning seven times .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "until his last competitive season he was raced exclusively in yorkshire running only at the meetings at york in august and doncaster in september .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "apart from the st leger , his wins included the york two-year-old stake , the great subscription purse and a division of the oatlands stakes .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "on his final appearance he ran a dead heat for the ascot gold cup before being beaten in a run-off by the filly camarine .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "after three seasons at stud in england he was exported to the united states where he died in 1841 . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "rowton ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["i kept my horse at rowton stables and can ' t recommend the livery service highly enough . when i subsequent\nabout rowton stables as did we . we can ' t thank nicky and her staff highly enough for transformi\nif you ' ve visited one of these horse riding and stables in rowton , please consider leaving a review on the attraction page to help others plan their next fun day out .\nwe ' ve rounded up the best horse riding and stables in rowton in our quest to discover brilliant family attractions and places to visit near you . there are 13 rowton horse riding and stables to pick from . alternatively , why not explore some other sports and activities days out nearby , including indoor skydiving , paintballing or crazy golf . find the perfect places to go with your kids and get out on your next adventure !\nmy horse has been at rowton stables a few weeks now and we both love it there . we have both been made to feel really welcome and nothing is to much trouble . clean tidy yard and lovely well fence paddo\nled a detachment of 300 horse to reinforce poyntz at rowton heath , they were described by brereton as ' valiant and well - armed ' . some of hawksworth ' s correspondance survives link to sale at bonham ' s .\nby signing up , i agree to the bolesworth international horse show\u2019s privacy policy .\nly decided to sell my horse , nicky did a fantastic job . she has been profession\nparliamentarian : horse - regiments : col . - william - purefoy - bcw project regimental wiki\nrowton ( gb ) ch . h , 1826 { 29 } dp = 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 ( 0 ) di = inf cd = inf\nhoward grotts wins the iron horse bicycle classic mountain bike men\u2019s pro race sunday on main avenue .\nvamplew , wray ; kay , joyce ( 2005 ) . encyclopedia of british horse racing . routledge .\nthe battle of rowton heath , also known as the battle of rowton moor , occurred on 24 september 1645 during the english civil war . fought by the parliamentarians , commanded by sydnam poyntz , and the royalists under the personal command of king charles i , it was a significant defeat for the royalists , with heavy losses and charles prevented from relieving the siege of chester .\nant that she was happy and settled while away . nicky has done a brilliant job with both horse and rider , absolutely\nin june camarine raced away from newmarket for the first time when she ran in the ascot gold cup over two and a half miles in front of a large and enthusiastic crowd which included the king . she was ridden by james robinson and was opposed by the six - year - old rowton , the winner of the 1829 st leger and the saddler , winner of the 1831 doncaster cup . rowton , ridden by sam chifney , made the running from the saddler , with camarine held up in third before robinson moved her up to challenge for the lead in the straight . after a particularly severe contest , camarine and rowton crossed the line together , with the judge calling a dead heat . the older horse hung away from the rails and appeared to have hampered the filly in the closing stages ; it was only with some difficulty that wood was persuaded not to lodge a formal objection . a run - off over the same course was arranged to decide the race , and robinson again restrained the filly in the early stages before overtaking rowton in the straight and winning by two lengths .\nreference point was voted 1987 british horse of the year by the racecourse association , attracting twelve of the twenty votes . [ 16 ]\nwhat happened to . . . trempolino ? | sporting life - horse racing news | live racing results , racecards , live betting shows\nno future events currently found at the white horse in chester ( view past events ) . check out the similar venues below or view events in chester .\nparliamentarian / horse - regiments / col . - william - purefoy . txt \u00b7 last modified : 07 / 02 / 2017 12 : 39 by ivor - carr\nno hard sell , just hard work and sensible advice . one of the very few times i have left a horse anywhere without worrying . i would have no hesitation\nthe best there is . she has broken in & cared for several of my homebreds & her care & ability with any type of horse is second to none .\n. sending her away was a really difficult decision as their hasn ' t been any horse up to yet , that i couldn ' t deal with . but my confidence\ndurango\u2019s ben sonntag rode to second place in the mountain bike race and in the king of the mountain competition at the iron horse bicycle classic on sunday in downtown durango .\ndurangoans took the first eight spots in the mountain bike race . behind mcelveen in fifth was lucas rowton , followed by stephan davoust and nick gould . andre bos was ninth to represent durango , and 18 - year - old and future flc racer keiran eagen , a recent animas high school graduate , placed 10th .\nwith the two french colts finishing five lengths clear of the british filly sanlinea . he became the first french horse to win the st leger since rayon d ' or in 1870 .\nabelson , edward ; tyrrel , john ( 1993 ) . the breedon book of horse racing records . breedon books publishing . isbn 978 - 1 - 873626 - 15 - 3 .\nall the horse riding and stables we list are rated according to the ages they are suitable for , facilities and whether they are suitable for rainy days or best when the sun is shining .\nmorris , tony ; randall , john ( 1990 ) . horse racing : records , facts , champions ( third edition ) . guinness publishing . isbn 0 - 85112 - 902 - 1 .\nreference point was given a timeform rating of 139 , the eleventh highest awarded to any horse up to that time , and higher than those of nijinsky , alleged and troy . [ 16 ] in their book a century of champions , john randall and tony morris rated reference point the thirty - sixth best british horse of the 20th century and the second best derby winner of the 1980s behind shergar . [ 5 ]\ndurango\u2019s rotem ishay had a drink while he rode through steamworks brewing co . during the iron horse bicycle classic professional men\u2019s mountain bike race . he finished third in the race and in the king of the mountain standings .\nrowton heath has been called\na major disaster\nfor charles , with casualties estimated at 600 dead and 900 injured , including 50 members of the life guard and lord bernard . parliamentarian losses were also heavy , although unknown , and the battle did give chester some respite . despite this , charles withdrew the next day with the remaining 2 , 400 horse , heading to denbigh castle before moving on to newark - on - trent . with this retreat , chester was left without additional support , and surrendered to the parliamentarians on 3 february 1646 . the remaining royalist cavalry were eventually destroyed in their entirety when poyntz ambushed them at sherburn - in - elmet on 15 october 1645 .\nthe royalists in chester saw the parliamentarian reinforcements under jones and booth advance , and sent shakerley to warn langdale ' s force . after receiving the message , langdale withdrew nearer to chester , reforming at rowton heath , an entirely open space . at the same time the royalists in chester began to move , with gerard advancing with 500 foot and 500 cavalry . gerard hoped to attack jones ' s force from the rear , but the parliamentarians responded by dispatching 200 cavalry and 200 infantry to prevent this . with a shorter distance to travel , this force met gerard on hoole heath , and after a confused engagement in which lord bernard stewart was slain , gerard ' s force was prevented from marching to langdale ' s aid . instead , jones and booth linked up with poyntz , giving a combined parliamentarian force of 3 , 000 horse and 500 musketeers against a tired royalist army of approximately 2 , 500 horse . at approximately 4 : 00 pm poyntz advanced , covered by the musketeers firing a full volley .\nit does not matter ! ) we all support each other and have a great social group . nicky is an amazing yard owner , i know i can leave my horse with her and i don ' t have to worry , she is so trust worthy , knowledgab\nhacking & jumping my mare back at home every day & it ' s enjoyable again . she is a different horse & is happy & relaxed when working . not to mention everytime i went to visit my mare , she looked fantastic & happy . i can ' t begin to thank nicky enough for everything\nthis page is based on the copyrighted wikipedia article scratch ( horse ) ; it is used under the creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license ( cc - by - sa ) . you may redistribute it , verbatim or modified , providing that you comply with the terms of the cc - by - sa\ncharles the twelfth was a\nvery fine and racing - like\ndark brown horse standing sixteen hands high [ 1 ] bred by major nicholas yarburgh of heslington hallin north yorkshire . [ 2 ] yarburgh sent the colt into training with john scott who trained forty classic winners at his base at whitewall stables , malton , north yorkshire .\nin her first season as a broodmare , camarine was covered by her former rival rowton , and produced a colt named glenlivat . her next five seasons however , saw her produce no foals which lived to maturity . on the death of mark wood in 1837 she was offered for sale and bought for 1 , 550 guineas by lord george bentinck . at the same sale , glenlivat became the most expensive yearling ever sold at auction when he was bought for 1 , 010 guineas by the duke of richmond . glenlivat eventually won two small races but was not a top class runner . he died in 1841 in the same year as his dam .\nprior to the battle , charles had been attempting to link up with the marquess of montrose in scotland following the royalist defeat in the battle of naseby . although his attempts to do so were unsuccessful , they were disruptive enough that the committee of both kingdoms ordered sydnam poyntz to pursue the king with approximately 3 , 000 horse . after charles was informed that chester , his only remaining port , was under siege , he marched there with the intent of relieving the defenders , ordering 3 , 000 horse under the command of marmaduke langdale to camp outside the city while he and 600 others travelled into chester itself on 23 september 1645 . the intent was to attack the besieging parliamentarians from both sides , charles mistakenly believing that poyntz had failed to follow them . in fact he was barely 15 miles ( 24 km ) behind , and moved to attack langdale ' s force in the early hours of 24 september . although langdale drove poyntz off , the parliamentarians besieging chester sent reinforcements , and langdale was forced to retreat to rowton heath , closer to chester , and wait for his own reinforcements . this force , under charles gerard and lord bernard stewart , was prevented from joining them , and langdale was instead attacked by both poyntz ' s force and the reinforcement . after being driven off the field and failing in an attempt to regroup at chester itself , the royalists retreated as dusk fell .\ndurango\u2019s howard grotts took first place in the iron horse bicycle classic pro men\u2019s mountain bike race on sunday in downtown durango . after also placing third in the pro men\u2019s road race from durango to silverton on saturday , he was crowned king of the mountain . \u201cto bring it home and be wearing the stars and stripes here on memorial weekend , it\u2019s a pretty cool thing , \u201d grotts said .\nthe 24 - year - old from durango claimed first - place in the iron horse bicycle classic men\u2019s professional mountain bike race sunday in downtown durango . the national champion and 2016 olympian was dominant in the three climbs up chapman hill and finished the 18 - mile course in 1 hour , 12 minutes , 26 . 4 seconds to finish more than a minute ahead of benjamin sonntag and rotem ishay .\nly for shows . it is a truly great yard with amazing service , she goes above and beyond any normal livery service , nicky does it because she loves her job , although it ' s her business she really is great at what she does and these yards are very few and far between . she brings the best out of you and your horse whether your there for a short period for rechooling\nthe filly was never entered for any of the british classic races but proved herself the best of her generation by beating the winners of both the epsom derby and the epsom oaks in the space of three days at newmarket in october 1831 . in the following year she won the ascot gold cup , the year ' s most important weight - for - age race in a run - off after being held to a dead heat by the st leger winner rowton . from the summer of 1832 , few owners were willing to try their horses against her and she won several prizes by walkover or forfeit . she was retired from racing after sustaining an injury in the spring of 1834 . she made little impact as a broodmare and died in 1841 .\ncamarine was rested until autumn when she returned to newmarket and was able to\nwin\nthree successive prizes without having to race . on 2 october the 1830 derby winner priam failed to appear for a race against the filly over the four mile beacon course , enabling wood to claim \u00a3130\nand the cup\n. two weeks later wood issued a challenge for\nthe whip\n, a silver trophy which was said to incorporate hairs from the tail and mane of eclipse . when no horse appeared to oppose camarine , wood was able to claim the trophy without a race . at the houghton meeting on 1 november camarine was scheduled to run a match race in which she was set to concede nineteen pounds to john gully ' s st leger winner margrave over ten furlongs . the colt did not appear and gully paid a forfeit to wood . on the following day camarine returned to active competition and ran twice . she began by winning a five furlong match for \u00a3200 against mr m stanley ' s horse crutch . later in the afternoon she carried top weight of 130 pounds in the audley end stakes over one and three quarter miles . ridden again by robinson she started 4 / 6 favourite and won from mr day ' s horse mazeppa and three others .\nshort bibliography fairfax - blakeborough j . , northern turf history , ( vols . 1 - 3 ) , c . 1950 orton john , turf annals of york and doncaster , york , 1855 dixon h . h . ,\nthe druid ,\nscott and sebright , 1862 dixon h . h .\nthe druid ,\nsilk and scarlet , 1858 fletcher j . s . , the history of the st . leger stakes , c . 1926 longrigg r . , the history of horse racing , 1972 - - david wilkinson\ncharles ' s force consisted of 3 , 500 horse , organised into four brigades , the largest grouping being the 1 , 200 soldiers of the northern horse under sir marmaduke langdale . in addition , there was gerard ' s brigade , consisting of 800 men who had served under him in south wales , sir william vaughan ' s 1 , 000 - strong brigade , and the 200 members of the life guards , charles ' s personal bodyguard , under lord bernard stewart . although experienced , the troops were depleted in number , and had low morale due to the recent string of defeats . charles and gerard evaded the loose parliamentarian siege around the city , taking 600 men into chester , while the approximately 3 , 000 remaining cavalry under langdale crossed the river dee at holt and bivouacked at hatton heath , five miles to the south of chester itself . the plan was to trap the besiegers between the two forces , destroying them or forcing them to retreat ; as they numbered only 500 cavalry and 1 , 500 foot , this was considered to be relatively simple .\nreference point was a dark - coated bay horse bred by his owner , louis freedman , at his cliveden stud in berkshire , england . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] he was sired by mill reef the 1971 epsom derby winner who went on to be leading sire in great britain and ireland in 1978 and 1987 . reference point ' s dam , home on the range , was a high class racemare who won the sun chariot stakes in 1981 . apart from reference point , the best of her progeny was known ranger , who won nineteen races in europe and north america . [ 4 ]\ncamarine was a dark chestnut mare with a white blaze and four white socks bred near brandon in suffolk by robert wilson , 9th baron berners . she was sired by wilson ' s horse juniper , a\nuseful\nstallion , best known as the damsire of velocipede although he may have been the sire of the 1000 guineas winner catgut . camarine came from juniper ' s last crop of foals and was said to bear a striking resemblance to her sire . in early 1831 , camarine entered the ownership of sir mark wood , 2nd baronet , whose other good horses included lucetta ( ascot gold cup ) and galantine ( 1000 guineas ) .\nthe brown laurel ( 1824 ) was born at heslington hall , near york , bred by major nicholas yarburgh from wagtail , who was also bred by the major . wagtail was by prime minister , a half - sister to tranby . laurel was a brother to belinda , who ran second in the doncaster st . leger , and a half - brother to st . leger winner charles xii . he became a great cup horse , and ran until to the age of seven . he ran twice at the age of three , not placing in the york st . leger , and running\na bad third\nto matilda in the doncaster st . leger .\nreference point ( 26 february 1984\u2013 december 1991 ) was a british thoroughbred race horse and sire . in a career which lasted from august 1986 to october 1987 he ran ten times and won seven races . as a three - year - old he overcame sinus problems before winning york ' s dante stakes , the derby , ascot ' s king george vi and queen elizabeth diamond stakes , the great voltigeur and st . leger in 1987 . it was not until 2012 that another derby winner contested the st . leger ; when camelot attempted , and failed , to win the english triple crown . his final race of the season resulted in failure in the prix de l ' arc de triomphe at longchamp , paris when an abscess was later found to have been responsible for his below - par performance .\nthe royalists , while losing fewer soldiers , were now in a precarious position , since reinforcements from chester were needed to follow up on the success and defeat poyntz ' s force . as such , langdale sent lieutenant colonel jeffrey shakerley to report to charles , requesting reinforcements . shakerley arrived in chester and delivered his message after 15 minutes , but no orders were issued for a further six hours after that . barratt speculates that one reason could have been the fatigue of the royalist troops , and another the rivalries amongst the royalist commanders : gerard and digby opposed each other , with other commanders disliking langdale ; and charles not being strong enough to stop the disputes . the parliamentarians , however , did send support : at approximately 2 : 00 pm , the chester forces dispatched 350 horse and 400 musketeers under colonels michael jones and john booth to reinforce poyntz .\n. . . there was nothing in his appearance , which warranted him becoming so celebrated through blacklock , and of the last - named he told us mr . sylvester reed ( who bought whitelock from\u00e4the sykes at sledmere ) said ' he dare not venture on his forelegs , as his fetlocks and pasterns , almost formed a straight line . he was a great black - brown , with a stride , which required half - a - mile to settle in ; a head like half a moon , with eyes quite in his cheeks , and quarters and shoulders as fine as horse could wear . perhaps to the eye he might be rather light in the fore - ribs , though the tape told a different tale , and the hocks of his stock generally stood well away from them , a formation which requires great strength in loin to support . the hunting field was quite as much their sphere as the racecourse .\nthe royalist plan failed to take into account poyntz and his 3 , 000 cavalry ; evidently , they assumed he had lost track of them . this assumption was mistaken , and as charles entered chester , poyntz ' s soldiers arrived in whitchurch , approximately 15 miles from chester . after hearing about the situation , poyntz promised to advance in the morning\nwith a considerable body of horse\n, which encouraged the parliamentarians around chester to continue resisting . one of his messengers was intercepted by sir richard lloyd , however , who immediately sent a message to charles and langdale . after a brief council of war , they resolved that gerard ' s force and the lifeguards , along with 500 foot , would advance to either join with langdale or prevent colonel jones ' s forces linking up with poyntz . charles would remain in chester , and watch the ensuing battle from a tower in chester ' s defences , later known as king charles ' tower .\nthe stewards of the jockey club have decided to construct a new and cheaper ring , immediately on the right of the new stand on the flat at newmarket . this is to be done with a view of stopping the ready - money betting , traffic outside . at the sale of the late lord lonsdale ' s horses the five lots realised under \u00a31000 , valour , at \u00a3500 , fetching th 6 highest price . i notice that mr h . mills ' horse dr tanner , who was \u00abo named in the hope that it would make him\nfast ,\nhas won several races lately , so that the change of name has had a beneficial result . mr c . j . cunningham , one of the best amateur cross - country riders in england , rode in twelve races at the eglington hunt meeting on march 30th and 31st . out of the dozen he won no less than eight , was second in two , third in one , and unplaced only once . the list of winning jockeys up to april 14th stood as follows : \u2014\nthe decision was made to aim reference point for both the st leger and the prix de l ' arc de triomphe . in his prep race he ran in the great voltigeur stakes at york in august . he won comfortably at odds of 1 / 10 , but sustained a minor injury when slipping on the heavily - watered ground . [ 12 ] only six horses opposed him in the st leger at doncaster in september . he started the 4 / 11 favourite and won by one and a half lengths from mountain kingdom . the win took his earnings to \u00a3774 , 275 , a record for a horse racing exclusively in britain . [ 13 ] on his final start , reference point started odds - on favourite for the prix de l ' arc de triomphe at longchamp in october . as usual , he led from the start , but in the straight he weakened abruptly and finished eighth behind trempolino . [ 14 ] he returned from the race lame , and was found to be suffering from an abscess in his foot . [ 15 ] reference did not race again and was retired to stud .\nchester had come under siege during december 1644 , with a loose blockade or\nleager\nformed around the town . with bristol now fallen to the parliamentarians , chester was the last port under royalist control , and crucial due to its links with recruiting efforts in ireland and north wales . on 20 september 1645 , a force of 500 horse , 200 dragoons and 700 foot under the command of michael jones attacked the royalist barricades , and with the defenders completely taken by surprise , they fell back to the inner city . on 22 september , parliamentarian artillery began bombarding the city , and after breaching the walls ( and having a summons to surrender refused by the defenders ) , the parliamentarians attacked in two places . both were repulsed , in one case due to the defenders counter - attacking on foot , and in the other due to the inadequate length of the attacker ' s scaling ladders preventing them from climbing the wall . despite this success , the attacking parliamentarian forces grew in strength while the defenders were weary ; as such , the arrival of charles and his force on 23 september was met with delight .\nfourteen racers ran for the english derby , won by shotover . the french derby was run at chantilly on the sunday before the english derby . tho result was a dead heat and division of the stakes between count de lagranges colt dandin ( by gabier\u2014 dulce domini ) and m . chaslon ' s st . james ( by le petit caporal\u2014 apparition ) . the third horse was m . devigne ' s colt jasmin ( by androcles \u2014 barbillonne ) . the race haa now been run forty - seven timed , and count de lagrange has won it eight times \u2014namely , withventre st . gris , in 1858 ; black prince , in 1859 ; gabrielle d ' estrdes , in 18g1 ; consul , in 1869 ; insulaire , in 1878 ; zut , m 1879 ; albion , in 1881 ; and ( half the stake ) dandin , in 1882 . at gosforth park meeting on april 10th the juvenile plate of 600 guineas\u2014 of which 200 guineas is divided equally between the breeder , nominator , trainer , and rider of the winnerwas won by mr w . i ' anson ' s eh c royal stag , by syrian\u2014 doefoot , beating eleven others . the winners dam is only a half - bred mare , there being a flaw in her pedigree ; but royal stag had performed so well in private that he was made a warm favourite against his higher -\nhis first classic win was with lord grosvenor ' s john bull in the 1792 derby ; he later rode daedalus ( 1794 derby ) , nike ( 1797 oaks ) and bellina ( 1799 oaks ) for the earl . he later often rode for robert robson ,\nthe emperor of trainers ,\nwhose patrons were the 3rd and 4th dukes of grafton . he won eleven classics for them . buckle ' s last classic races were the guineas of 1827 with turkoman and arab , when he was 60 . he died on 5th february 1832 , just 3 months after wearing his last silk . he is buried in a sumptuous grave in his local churchyard .\nno better rider ever crossed a horse ; honour his guide , he died without remourse , jockeys attend from his example learn the meed that honest worth is sure to earn .\nhambletonian ' s legacy hambletonian may have been the greatest racehorse of his time but his immediate progeny were regarded , as lack lustre . hambletonian went to stud at hornsey ' s stables in middlethorpe , york at the modest sum of 10 guineas per mare . one of his early coverings was squire garforth ' s rosalind , by phoenomenon who produced whitelock , and continued the sire line . another son was doncaster cup winner camillus , who , located at the sykes sledmere stud on the yorkshire wolds , was later a moderately successful sire . nevertheless the\ngreat channel\nof his line from eclipse through king fergus was continued through , whitelock ( 1803 ) to blacklock ( 1814 ) and on to st . simon . the druid said of whitelock :\ngully , a notorious gambler , was offered 10 - 1 against the ride taking place within nine hours , and tranby was loaned to ensure osbaldeston would win . osbaldeston won the bet by taking eight hours , 42 minutes to cover the milage on 29 horses , the fastest of which was tranby , who was ridden four times in the four - mile laps ( 16 miles total ) ; his second lap was run in eight minutes flat . in england , tranby sired a moderately good cup horse , i - am - not - aware . tranby was sold to america and imported by merritt & co . of hicks ford , virginia , in 1835 . he was one of eighteen stallions purchased on speculation by dr . a . t . b . merritt and his two brothers between 1832 and 1837 to sell to american breeders . in 1836 tranby was sold on to robert gilmore of baltimore , maryland . he was a moderately successful sire of 28 winners of 52 races between 1839 and 1846 , most of which showed they could go a distance and carry weight . in kentucky , he sired a daughter , foaled in 1844 , that became the dam of the good racehorse and top sire vandal ( 1850 , by glencoe ) , who got four great producers - - ella d . , vandalite , capitola ( dam of king alfonso ) and mollie jackson - - and virgil , the sire of hindoo . she was also the dam of the good gelding alaric ( 1842 , by mirabeau ) , levity ( 1845 , by trustee ) , who became one of the great american broodmares , ancestress of luke blackburn , the bard , and many other american winners .\nif you are not a member of a partner institution , whole book download is not available . ( why not ? )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\n1st st . leger stakes . sent to virginia in 1835 ; he died in 1841 . ( close )\ned in straight away greeted by lots of friendly faces and happy horses , which really meant a lot to us both . on each\nt in not only her work but her attitude , and treated like the princess she is . rome loved everything\nso well . i would recommed the yard to anyone . best yard i have been on . xx\nalism . i cannot recommend her highly enough . we were looking for someone calm and kind to bring scarlett back into work , but it was also import\ni ' ve been a livery at nicky ' s for over 10 years now and i certainly would not go anywhere else . if you want a nice relaxing friendly yard with a great atmosphere\ng , broncing she was an absolute nightmare in all aspects . she had a new fitted saddle , massages , blood tests , scans , teeth & back checked & nothing seemed to make a difference\ny been kicked to the floor . nicky was happy to take my mare & 6 weeks later , i am schooling ,\nent & advice she still offers even though my mare is back home with me . cannot recommend this lady enough ! !\nd i wouldn ' t hesitate to recommend her and the yard . thanks nicky : )\nthe animals cared for with genuine affection and the staff are always friendly and happy to help . i ' ve been there at all\nal , fun , caring and lovable yard . there is nothing that nicky wouldn ' t do for you , she has such a passion for horses and people and h\nwe have a lot of friendly robins here . . this one in particular , i find it in the caravan on a regular basis and now he / she follows me around and now eats out of our hands \u2764\ufe0f\u2764\ufe0f\u2764\ufe0f\nit is with a heavy heart that i\u2019m finally putting \u2018the bug\u2019 up for sale . he came to me 8yrs ago on sales livery and my stepfather ( my hero ) fell in love with him so we ended up keeping him . in the 8 years we have had him he has hunted , jumped , hacked , driven and done some showing where he always won best driving type cob and traditional cob . we have had lots of fun driving him to various pubs on a sunday afternoon . he has been ridden by all ages and abilities and you could put your granny on him 99 % of the time but don\u2019t be fooled as he can be \u2018all there\u2019 when he wants to . he is absolutely stunning and you\u2019d go a long way to find a better stamp of a cob . he likes a routine and does like to have company . he is good to hack out alone and in company , excellent in all types of traffic . good to catch , box , shoe , clip etc . never been lame , sick or sorry . unfortunately his tail got chewed last year ( you can see in pics ) but is growing back fine . he would suit a competent novice but would need someone with a bit of confidence as he\u2019s a bit of a character . can be left for weeks without riding , good as gold to get back on , never any different . fine out with mares and geldings , if anything he usually gets bullied . always snaffle mouth , never strong .\nmany of the places we list are historic or educational in nature and would be suitable for class trips or as ways to keep the learning up whilst having fun over the school holidays .\nregistered in england and wales , company number : 05813603 . registered address : 3 & 4 regal court , 6 sovereign road , kings norton business centre , birmingham , b30 3hn , england .\nthis email address is being protected from spambots . you need javascript enabled to view it .\ni\u2019m looking for someone to share or loan to the right person . my two beautiful horses . i would like someone trustworthy , kind and that has patience for a younger pony , she is coming along nicely with . . .\nstunning palomino pony for part loan to stay on current yard in frodsham , cheshire . champie is 19 years old , been to pony club at cheshire hunt north for many years , and has done numerous camps . good . . .\n* for part loan ( 4 days a week ) beautiful 16 . 1hh gelding *\nbeautiful 16 . 1hh 7 year old gelding to part loan on current yard . ( sadly readvertised due to timewaster ) based on a very friendly full livery yard in the widnes / cronton area ( no mucking our required ) . sydney . . .\ni ' m looking for an experienced person to part loan my mare . she has been hacking out alone and getting used to seeing the world , proving to be confident but needs a confident rider to give her confidence . . .\ngrey gelding for loan dickie is my 15 year old , 16 . 2hh selle francis , he was an ex racer but don ' t let that put you off . i know his full history from leaving the race yard , he is a very well loved . . .\nfor part loan in tarbock green , to stay on her current yard . 13 . 2hh 16 year old welsh section c mare . tia is a fun ride for a confident and experienced rider . she has been ridden by riders of all ages . . .\nlooking for an experienced rider to help with exercise and chores for frosty . he ' s sane and sensible . looking for someone to mainly hack / lightly school . stabled on a private yard in hargrave with arena . . . .\n15hh appaloosa for part loan in penketh , must be a confident adult , with lots of experience .\n13hh 7 year old native coloured gelding . looking for part / full loan on current livery yard but would consider moving after a trial period . reuben has been out of work since last october due to my work . . .\n12years old 15hh , looking for a full loaner for my boy within an hour of chester . would love him to continue with his dressage , but equally enjoys jumping , cross country or just fun rides . loves people . . .\nkept at alvanley , cheshire 14 . 2 hh mare med weight cob for loan . 5 years old , 6 in june . she is a great all rounder . not silly . opportunity to compete , i need help bringing her education on more . . . . . . . .\ni ' m looking for someone to love and care for my boy as much as i do . buddy is 14 yrs old and has the most amazing loving temperament . he is available for hacking and light schooling 2 / 3 days a week . . . .\nanyone iinterested in part loaning one of my ex racehorses , brilliant hacking ausum fun to jump and work nicely on flat . as long as you put the work in toget him fit im happy for you to compete him . . .\nfor part loan - tarbock green 15 . 0hh egyptian arab gelding jj is a fun and safe ride for a confident rider as he is really forward going and well behaved in a cross country field , he is the perfect . . .\nlightweight rider / loaner wanted for 13 . 3 new forest cross . must be older teenager or small adult as cherry is not a child\u2019s pony , can be spooky at times and will take advantage of a non - competent rider . . .\n12 . 2 mare , for loan , \u00a320 . 00 pw no bills , all inc\n* * for loan , \u00a320 . 00 pw all bills included , nothing extra to pay , look after , treat as own and enjoy * * looking for someone to share our pony beautiful 13 year old mare , 12 . 2 hh , and to treat her as . . .\npic for attention hi we currently have a 12hh grey mare that is sadly going to waste shes an ideal leadrein pony and would give any child confidence she will stand all day and be fussed over shes good . . .\nyou are currently on search results page 1 of 65 . there are no previous pages\npreloved and the heart device is a registered trademark of moo limited . preloved , the joy of second hand , preloved people and the second hander are trademarks of moo limited . copyright 1997 \u2013 2018 moo limited . all rights reserved . use of this web site constitutes acceptance of the preloved terms and conditions , privacy policy and cookies policy .\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience . by using preloved , you agree to our use of cookies . find out more\nbeginning of a dialog window , including tabbed navigation to register an account or sign in to an existing account . both registration and sign in support using google and facebook accounts . escape will close this window .\nby clicking register , you agree to etsy ' s terms of use and privacy policy . etsy may send you communications ; you may change your preferences in your account settings .\nsorry , that ' s unavailable . see what else ypsa has for sale .\nyou ' ve already signed up for some newsletters , but you haven ' t confirmed your address . register to confirm your address .\nset where you live , what language you speak , and the currency you use . learn more .\nstart typing the name of a page . hit esc to close , enter to select the first result .\nfriendly village pub with great food and newly decorated interior , live music , usually with theme food for that evening . tel : 01829 741633\n\u201con your side since 2001 , because we believe true fans deserve a fairer and smarter way to discover music events they love . \u201d\nwe use cookies to make sure we give you the best experience possible . by continuing , you ' re accepting that you ' re happy with our cookie policy . click here to find out more .\nsummary : light rain throughout the week , with high temperatures falling to 71\u00b0 on saturday .\nhoward grotts didn\u2019t have enough in his legs to climb with friend sepp kuss all the way to silverton on saturday . nobody had the legs to climb with grotts on sunday .\ngrotts , who was third in the 47 - mile road race from durango to silverton on saturday , won king of the mountain honors as the top overall rider in the road race and mountain bike race combined .\n\u201ci\u2019m really stoked , \u201d grotts said . \u201cfirst year they\u2019re having this king of the mountain competition . to bring it home and be wearing the stars and stripes here on memorial weekend , it\u2019s a pretty cool thing . \u201d\ngrotts and payson mcelveen entered steamworks brewing co . together during the first lap of racing , which included sections of single - track , asphalt and a fast and furious climb and ride into and through steamworks\u2019 bar . it\u2019s an event unlike any other with fans roaring , racers showing off with wheelies and even some , including ishay , reaching out and enjoying a quick taste of beer as they go through the bar .\n\u201cthe atmosphere in steamworks is just incredible , \u201d grotts said . \u201cpeople offering you beer handouts , don\u2019t really have time to grab one , but it\u2019s still really cool when you enter the pitch - black bar and everyone is screaming their heads off . it\u2019s always the highlight of the lap . \u201d\nmcelveen had tough luck with a mechanical issue involving his bike seat . he had to stop and fix it but still hung on to finish fourth .\n\u201ci wanted to use howard to get a gap on the other guys , \u201d mcelveen said . \u201ci knew i wasn\u2019t gonna be able to hold his pace , but i was able to get a good gap . then my legs started feeling funny . i thought maybe i just rode too hard . the group behind me , todd , ben and rotem got in front of me . i was still feeling weird and couldn\u2019t catch their wheel . then , going down the descent , all a sudden the seat was sideways under me between my legs . i was like , \u2018aw , that\u2019s what it is , \u2019 so i had to stop , pull it back up , tighten it again and got passed by a couple more people but was able to come back and ride it to fourth . \u201d\nthe chase group at the end of the first lap involved ishay , sonntag and two - time defending winner todd wells . sonntag and ishay rode together strong to finish second and third , respectively .\n\u201conce chapman opened up the second half with a steep chute , payson and howie attacked , \u201d sonntag said . \u201ci wasn\u2019t 100 percent sure how full the tank was after ( the road race ) yesterday , so i let them go because i felt the pace of howard i couldn\u2019t go anyways . rotem and i got ourselves up from todd and rode together until the last lap and i got him at chapman , a race decisive point on the course . \u201d\nsonntag finished second in the king of the mountain standings after placing fourth in the road race . ishay was third in the overall after taking fifth in the road race and third in the mountain bike . both men were inspired by having their families in durango . sonntag is from germany , and his family visited for the first time since 2011 . ishay is from israel , and his mom made her first trip to durango while his dad , yaacov , made his third trip and competed in the men\u2019s mountain bike race in the 55 - and - older category in which he finished 13th .\n\u201ci work at fort lewis college at the exercise performance center , and i tell people all the time there is more to bike racing than exercise and physiology , \u201d ishay said . \u201cfor me , my parents coming to visit from israel brought a lot of joy and fun and kicked my spirits up .\n\u201ci\u2019ve known sonntag for a few good years . we were the two top foreigners racing for flc for years . we\u2019ve always had a unique connection and raced internationally together on the same team . racing together with him , it\u2019s a mutual help for each other and we always want each other to do well . \u201d\nwells did not finish with an official time . he had a flat tire going up chapman hill , continuing a tough stretch for the three - time olympian and durango hero .\n\u201ci was riding with rotem and the german and got a flat tire , \u201d wells said . \u201cluckily , i had a spare at the top of chapman , but by the time i rode / ran the way up there , it was over . that flat i could actually ride most of the single - track fine but on the steep climb , nope . \u201d\nfor grotts , it was a glorious return to the ihbc after not racing it since 2012 because of world cup scheduling conflicts . in a post - olympic year , he is happy to race more domestic events and will continue in two weeks at the gopro games in vail before going to the marathon world championships in germany .\n\u201cthe community here gets behind any cycling event 100 percent , \u201d he said . \u201cit\u2019s just always fun to race here in durango . \u201d\nwe asked readers to send in a drawing , photo or sign ( 9 . 625 inches wide and 2 . 77 inches tall ) thanking firefighters . we are running the top five entries on the durango herald front page starting saturday , july 7 . pick your favorites and check out the printed newspaper to see which submissions won .\nherald readers share their photos from the 416 fire . if you have photos to share , please email claws @ bcimedia . com .\nvandals target owner of durango & silverton narrow gauge railroad , but . . .\n\u00a9 1996\u20132018 durango herald | ballantine communications , inc . all rights reserved . | terms of use | privacy policy\na 19th c source contains comments on purefoy ' s flag : colonel purefoy gave his own crest with this motto alluding to his name ' pure foi , ma joie ' - a pure faith is my delight . 2 )\naccording to prestwich ; colonel purefoy . azure ; in bafe his creft , viz . on a wreath or and azure , a dexter hand armed in a gauntlet proper , grasping , in pale , near the bottom , a broken tilting spear or ; over all . in chief , a scroll , thereon pure foi ma joy ; fringed or and azure 3 ) .\nthe various purefoy branches had different devices . one list ( encyclop . heraldica vol 2 wm berry 1828 has a similar list ) gives : purefoy armorials : ( the names are dwellings of the purefoy branches )\ncolonel wm purefoy was of caldecot and near drayton so would use black and silver i think , crg .\ncrgsos writes : a 19th c source contains comments on purefoy ' s flag : the gentlemans magazine vol 89 / 2 1819 page 211 says\ncolonel purefoy gave his own crest with this motto alluding to his name ' pure foi , ma joie ' - a pure faith is my delight .\nthis motto is also mentioned by dugdale in 1730 although on a tomb . the armorials for purefoy of caldecot ( col . purefoy ' s home ) include a black background ( sa ) and three pairs of clasped gauntlets in silver ( ar ) .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nbay colt , 1792 . by king fergus - grey highflyer by highflyer darley arabian sire line : king fergus branch . family # 1"]}
{"id": 2071, "summary": [{"text": "the northern flicker ( colaptes auratus ) is a medium-sized bird of the woodpecker family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is native to most of north america , parts of central america , cuba , and the cayman islands , and is one of the few woodpecker species that migrate .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "over 100 common names for the northern flicker are known , including yellowhammer ( not to be confused with the eurasian yellowhammer ) , clape , gaffer woodpecker , harry-wicket , heigh-ho , wake-up , walk-up , wick-up , yarrup , and gawker bird .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "many of these names derive from attempts to imitate some of its calls . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "northern flicker", "paragraphs": ["boreal flicker , common flicker , cuban flicker , gilded flicker , gilded woodpecker , golden - winged woodpecker , guadalupe flicker , malherbe\u2019s flicker , mearns\u2019 flicker , northwestern flicker , red - shafted flicker , red - shafted woodpecker , san fernando flicker , san pedro flicker , southern flicker , yellowhammer , yellow - shafted flicker .\nthere are five subspecies of northern flicker : the yellow - shafted flicker , the red - shafted flicker , the gilded flicker , the guatemalan flicker , and the cuban flicker and throat color , head color and the presence of a red marking on the neck can vary depending on the subspecies .\nthe northern flicker is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\ngilded flicker the gilded flicker of the desert southwest is very similar , but slightly smaller and has an all brown crown .\nthe northern flicker can be found in open forests , woodlots and groves . it is common in parks and gardens .\nthe longest lifespan recorded is 9 years and 2 months for a yellow - shafted form of the northern flicker and 6 years and 8 months for a red - shafted form of the northern flicker . most northern flickers probably live much less than this , maybe surviving only a few years .\nnorthern flicker male rolling rattle call ( territorial ) : wik - wik wik . seen on telephone pole outside house . not modified .\nthe oldest known yellow - shafted form of the northern flicker was a male and was at least 9 years , 2 months old when he was found in florida . the oldest red - shafted form of northern flicker lived to be at least 8 years , 9 months old .\nearly research on the northern flicker focused on phenotypic variation and dynamics of the hybrid zone . the detailed and descriptive work of lester short (\ndetection of 1 northern flicker by detailed ecological unit in yukon - charley rivers national preserve , alaska , avian inventory , june 1999 and 2000 .\nthe northern flicker is one of the few north american woodpeckers that is strongly migratory . flickers in the northern parts of their range move south for the winter , although a few individuals often stay rather far north .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - northern flicker ( colaptes auratus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - northern flicker ( colaptes auratus )\ntitle =\narkive species - northern flicker ( colaptes auratus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\na loud , repeated flicker or wicka - wicka - wicka ; also a loud kleeer .\nto make it a female yellow - shafted flicker , add a red crescent on the back of the head . then add a black malar mark to turn it into a male yellow - shated flicker .\nthe red - shafted and yellow - shafted forms of the northern flicker formerly were considered different species . the two forms hybridize extensively in a wide zone from alaska to the panhandle of texas . a hybrid often has some traits from each of the two forms and some traits that are intermediate between them . the red - shafted flicker also hybridizes with the gilded flicker , but less frequently .\nthe northern flicker , which is a woodpecker , pecks on the sides of trees for food , but it mainly searches leaf litter and dead bark looking for its favorite prey \u2014 ants .\nthe northern flicker breeds throughout most of the u . s . , as well as large parts of canada and small parts of northern mexico . other subspecies occur in cuba , and in southern mexico south to central america . its population has been declining in recent years .\nclick the range map to learn more about the distribution of northern flickers in washington .\nrange : northern flicker ranges from alaska to quebec , and south throughout the entire united states . it winters in the southern part of its range , and in northern mexico . we can find it on grand cayman , cuba and as far south as the highlands of nicaragua .\ngila woodpecker the gila woodpecker looks much like a flicker without the crescent black markings on the upper chest .\nthis is a hybrid flicker ( luteus x cafer ) . here is a photo of the bird : urltoken\nalthough it can climb up the trunks of trees and hammer on wood like other woodpeckers , the northern flicker prefers to find food on the ground . ants are its main food , and the flicker digs in the dirt to find them . it uses its long barbed tongue to lap up the ants .\nconserving the northern flicker is of critical importance if biodiversity in north american forests is to be preserved as it acts as a keystone species by excavating a large proportion of the nest cavities used by many other cavity - nesting bird species . despite this , there have been few conservation actions targeting the northern flicker , and conducting further studies into determining the main cause of the species\u2019 decline is of paramount importance . it is also recommended that snags should be left in managed forests to prevent the loss of nesting habitat ( 4 ) . the northern flicker is also protected by the migratory bird treaty act , which has been ratified by the governments of mexico , canada and the united states and prohibits the killing or harming of the northern flicker , including its nests and eggs ( 6 ) .\n\u2022 the northern flicker is one of the few north american woodpeckers that is strongly migratory . flickers in the northern parts of their range move south for the winter , although a few individuals often remain far to the north . they are permanent residents across much of the u . s .\nnorthern flickers are migratory , moving between summer and winter ranges during the spring and fall .\nadult male northern wheatear in breeding plumage , alaska . photo by mark peck via birdshare .\nthe northern flicker is a common , primarily ground - foraging woodpecker that occurs in most wooded regions of north america . its taxonomic status has been debated because of hybridization among subspecies groups , each readily distinguished by plumage coloration . two subspecies , the yellow - shafted flicker ( colaptes auratus auratus ) of eastern north america and the red - shafted flicker ( c . a . cafer ) of western north america , form a long , narrow hybrid zone in the great plains that parallels the rain shadow of the rocky mountains and crosses the canadian rockies extending to southern alaska . this hybrid zone has been of great interest to ornithologists and evolutionary biologists for more than a century . hybridization occurs on a more limited basis between the\nred - shafted\nflicker and the gilded flicker ( c . chrysoides ) , a separate species associated with the sonoran desert . two other subspecies groups of the northern flicker are allopatric ; the cuban flicker ( chrysocaulosus group ) occurs on cuba and grand cayman island , and the guatemalan flicker ( mexicanoides group ) occurs in the highlands of southern mexico south to northwestern nicaragua .\n\u2022 the family picidae has over 200 species and is found almost everywhere , with about 20 species breeding in north america . the northern flicker , colaptes auratus , has many subspecies . the male yellow - shafted flicker ( c . a . luteus ) has the typical black mustache . the male red - shafted flicker ( c . a . cafer ) has a red i\u2019 mustache . interbreeding can produce offspring with either black or red mustaches .\nflicker would suggest poor smoothing capacitors . . . and they ' re likely to be the first things to go .\nmoore , w . s . 1987b . random mating in the northern flicker hybrid zone : implications for the evolution of bright and contrasting plumage patterns in birds . evolution no . 41 : 539 - 546 . close\nhabitat : northern flicker lives in wooded areas , with stand of dead trees . it likes also open areas , forest edges , clearings , burnt areas , agricultural lands and residential areas , parks and large gardens .\nin general , populations of the northern flicker across north america are stable . however , habitat loss is a main cause of any decrease in woodpecker numbers . the european starling is the flicker\u2019s worst enemy in colorado , competing for food and nest holes . since woodpeckers damage trees and utility poles with their drilling , humans often target the birds .\nthe gilded flicker closely resembles the northern flicker and combines some features of the yellow - shafted ( yellow wings and tail base ) and the red - shafted ( head pattern ) . the gilded flicker is smaller and shows black on the distal half of the undertail ; northern flicker undertails are black on about the distal third ( note that all flicker tails look mostly black from above ) . the crown of the gilded is more extensively brown than in the red - shafted northern , and the back is paler , more gray - brown , with narrower and more widely spaced black bars ( but note that interior western red - shafted are paler backed than northwestern birds ) . the black crescent on the chest of the golden is thicker and more truncated on the sides . the spotting on the underparts is broadened into short bars or crescents on the flanks of the gilded ; northerns have round spots throughout the underparts .\nthe image below is a female red - shafted flicker . add a red malar strip and it would be a male .\nunlike most woodpeckers , the flicker eats large numbers of ants , along with other insects as well as fruits and berries .\ni supplied a link to an industry led magazine which details what causes led flicker , which is what this thread is about .\nbrigham , r . m . , m . j . sarell , and c . g . harris . 1990 . \u201croosting of northern flicker ( colaptes auratus ) under a concrete bridge . \u201d northwestern naturalist 71 : 52 - 53 .\nlike most woodpeckers , northern flickers drum on objects as a form of communication and territory defense . in such cases , the object is to make as loud a noise as possible , and that\u2019s why woodpeckers sometimes drum on metal objects . one northern flicker in wyoming could be heard drumming on an abandoned tractor from a half - mile away .\nnorthern flickers feed principally on ants but also take other insects and some fruit , seeds , and berries .\ndobkin , d . s . 1992 . neotropical migrant land birds in the northern rockies and great plains . usda forest service , northern region . publication no . r1 - 93 - 34 . missoula , mt .\nbreeding interval northern flickers breed each year , they may have one or two clutches within the nesting season .\nthe northern flicker is a large bird measuring between 10 - 14 inches long . the back and wings are brown / tan and black - barred with a whitish or buffy breast with black spots and a wide black band across the breast .\nwhen the northern flicker migrates to its breeding ground , the area resonates with sound . the flicker\u2019s characteristic call , wick , wick , wick , sounds like \u201cwake - up , wake - up , wake - up . \u201d the call announces the flicker\u2019s arrival , and the male and female mate . the male flicker frequently drums , especially on metal , a noise that can be annoying to many humans . but overall , the bird does not tap as much as other woodpeckers do for communication . instead a loud klee - yer call is used for long - distance beckoning , especially by highly vocal fledglings . in short flight , the flicker rapidly beats its wings to rise , then slows to dip about every 3\u2032 , stalling motionlessly for a brief moment before continuing the pattern . when flickers that live in the northern regions migrate , they follow fixed courses , traveling in large flocks . since the flicker is such an indeterminate egg - layer , humans have removed eggs to see just how many a female flicker will lay . the record is 71 eggs in 73 days . scientists have seen a male flicker treat his female partner as a rival when a fake black mustache was fastened on her face . as soon as it was removed , he accepted her back at the nest .\nnorthern flickers range from alaska eastward to quebec , then south throughout the entire united states . northern flickers are migratory . they winter in the southern part of the united states and in northern mexico . in addition , these woodpeckers are found on grand cayman , cuba , and range as far south as the highlands of nicaragua .\nthe flicker is named for its flight pattern : it \u201cflicks\u201d up and down , revealing brilliant yellow underwings that glitter in the sunlight .\nnowster wrote : flicker would suggest poor smoothing capacitors . . . and they ' re likely to be the first things to go .\nmeasuring almost 20\u2033 in length , the great slaty woodpecker ( mulleripicus pulverulentus ) is 40 % longer than the northern flicker ; and at 19 oz . weighs three times as much . it is the largest old world woodpecker : the great slaty is slate - gray ( hence its name ) and has a long neck and tail , perfect for long days spent hammering and drilling on the sides of trees in southeast asia . this sharply contrasts with the varied colors of the flicker\u2019s plumage and its shorter neck , adapted for life spent mainly on the ground in north america foraging for ants and other insects . northern flicker great slaty woodpecker\nchances are , if you have northern flickers ; a suet feeder will bring them in for a close look .\nthe yellow - shafted flicker has a red patch on its neck and yellow feathers on the inside of its wings . the male has a black mustache . yellow - shafted flickers can be found in the east and the north . the red - shafted flicker has pinkish feathers on the inside of its wings and the male has a red mustache . the red - shafted flicker is common in the west . the gilded flicker can be found in the deserts of southeastern california and southern arizona . it has yellow wing linings and the males have a red mustache .\nthe northern flicker has a large range , estimated globally at 15 , 000 , 000 square kilometers . native to north and central america and nearby island nations , this bird prefers forest ecosystems , though it can live on arable or pasture land or in urban areas . the global population of this bird is estimated at 16 , 000 , 000 individuals and does not show signs of significant decline that would necessitate inclusion on the iucn red list . for this reason , the current evaluation status of the northern flicker is least concern .\n\u2022 the red - shafted and yellow - shafted forms of the northern flicker formerly were considered different species . the two forms hybridize extensively in a wide zone from alaska to the panhandle of texas . a hybrid often has some traits from each of the two forms .\nbehaviour : northern flicker male recognizes female by sight . pairs often mate for life , and typically return to the same area for nesting . it can have aggressive displays to protect its mate or territory . it may point the bill at a rival , with the head tilted forward , or pecks at an opponent . for a more aggressive display , a northern flicker may use side to side head and body movements against an opponent . a \u201chead - bobbing\u201d display may be used too . sometimes , these displays are accompanied by tail spreading .\nwiebe , k . l . and moore , w . s . ( 2008 ) northern flicker ( colaptes auratus ) . in : poole , a . ( ed . ) the birds of north america online . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca . available at : urltoken\ndiet : northern flicker main food is ants . but they consume others insects , including grasshoppers , crickets , termites , wasps , aphids , beetles and their larvae , caterpillars and spiders . they consume also cherries and berries , and weed seeds , acorns and other nut kernels .\nwiebe , karen l . and william s . moore . 2017 . northern flicker ( colaptes auratus ) , version 2 . 1 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto northern flicker sings while is flying . its song is a loud \u201cwick - wick - wick - wick - wick\u201d . individual notes sound like a loud \u2018klee - yer\u201d and a squeaky \u201cflick - a , flick - a , flick - a\u201d .\nthe northern flicker is also unusual for being one of few north american woodpeckers that exhibits strong migratory behaviour ( 3 ) . those populations in the southern and central parts of the species\u2019 range may remain in the same location all year round , but those at more northerly locations tend to travel southwards before the onset of winter ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . typically , they leave the northern breeding grounds from the end of august to late october or november , with most birds departing in september . whilst migrating , the northern flicker flies low over the ground , often in large flocks , and does not return to the breeding grounds until early march to may the following year ( 2 ) .\nhow often does reproduction occur ? northern flickers breed each year , they may have one or two clutches within the nesting season .\nthe flicker can be found in much of north america from the tree line in canada and alaska south to nicaragua . flickers in alaska and canada are migratory .\n) . the largest study dedicated to understanding the reproductive ecology , life history , and population ecology of the northern flicker is a long - term study by k . l . wiebe at riske creek , central british columbia , where 100\u2013150 color - banded nesting pairs have been monitored annually since 1997 .\nthis is a yellow - shafted flicker eating suet . if you would like to attract these birds to your backyard just click the link below for some great ideas .\nnorthern flickers use a drumming technique to attract a mate . unfortunately for many people , they often practice on the metal flues of fireplaces .\nrange / habitat : northern flickers can be found throughout most wooded regions of north america . prefers forest edges and open woodlands approaching savannas .\nmoore , w . s . 1995 . northern flicker ( colaptes auratus ) . species account number 166 . the birds of north america online ( a . poole , ed . ) . ithaca , ny : cornell laboratory of ornithology ; retrieved 3 / 25 / 2008 from the birds of north america online database\nreproduction : breeding season occurs from february to july . northern flicker\u2019s nest is excavated in dead tree trunks , or in a dead part of live trees , or telephone poles . it may be found in unlined tree cavities , or in earthen banks of termite\u2019s nests . the nest is usually built below 3 meters .\nas a broadly distributed species , the northern flicker occupies a diversity of habitats . it may be found in almost any habitat with trees and access to open ground , preferring open woodlands , savannas and forest edges , although it tends to avoid the densest forests ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 7 ) .\nas its broad geographic distribution suggests , the northern flicker is a generalist in many respects , but in others it is a specialist . it is clearly a species of open woodlands , savannas , farmland with tree rows , and forest edges . it eats mostly ants but also beetle larvae and\u2014during late autumn , winter , and early spring\u2014a variety of berries . the northern flicker is well adapted to habitats altered by humans , commonly breeding in urban as well as suburban and rural environments , and visiting backyard bird feeders . nevertheless , data from the north american breeding bird survey indicate significant declines in abundance . reasons for these declines are unclear , but likely explanations are habitat loss and competition with the european starling ( sturnus vulgaris ) for nest cavities . although the northern flicker remains abundant , this declining trend should be viewed with concern because the species plays a central role in the ecology of woodland communities where it excavates many of the cavities later used by other hole - nesting species .\nnorthern flicker : this species breeds from alaska east through manitoba to newfoundland and south throughout the u . s . and into mexico and cuba . it is a resident from approximately the u . s . - canada border southward , as the northernmost birds are migratory . preferred habitats include forest edges and open woodlands approaching savannas .\nthe flicker ' s diet is mostly insects , including ants . they also eat termites , beetles , caterpillars , fruits , and berries . they will sometimes eat seeds and nuts .\n. once they reach adulthood , northern flickers are preyed upon by several birds of prey that specialize on hunting birds . in eastern north america this includes\ndistribution : northern flickers winter within north america throughout most of the contiguous united states . in summer , they range throughout most of alaska and canada . within yukon - charley rivers national preserve , these birds were detected only rarely during the yukon - charley rivers national preserve bird inventory , june 1999 and 2000 . one northern flicker was detected in the boreal forests of the ogilvie foothills ( of ) ecological unit during the survey . woodpecker species were not well inventoried using our sampling technique .\nif you want to attract a flicker to your backyard keep a fresh birdbath , don ' t kill your ants in your backyard and lay out apples , peanut butter , or raisins .\nnorthern wheatears breed all the way across northern eurasia and reach north america in both the west ( alaska and the yukon ) and the east ( the canadian arctic ) . so why don\u2019t we get to see them in the winter , the way we get to see snow buntings , american tree sparrows , and snowy owls ? because all of the world\u2019s northern wheatears , save a few vagrants , spend the winter in the same region : sub - saharan africa .\nwoodpeckers of the family picidae ( meaning\nsmeared with pitch\n) are highly arboreal birds with chisel - like bills , strong claws , short legs and stiff tail - feathers . they usually occur singly in wooded areas , using their sharp claws to easily climb trees . most species\ndrum\nor tap - out their songs on resonant trunks or branches . by using their stiff tail - feathers as props , they are able to anchor on tree trunks and drum signals or excavate cavities with their strong , sharp bills . five species of woodpeckers occur in yukon - charley rivers national preserve : the northern flicker and the three - toed , black - backed , downy and hairy woodpeckers . the northern flicker is so named for its distinctive\nflicker\n- sounding call note . in reference to their tree - boring habits and colaptes auratus aptly means\ngolden chisel !\nmoore , w . s . and j . t . price . 1993 .\nthe nature of selection in the northern flicker hybrid zone and its implications for speciation theory .\nin hybrid zones and the evolutionary process . , edited by r . g . harrison , 196 - 225 . oxford , uk : oxford univ . press . close\nthe northern flicker ranges from the tree line in canada and alaska , south and eastwards across the north american continent , generally east of the rocky mountains , to the gulf of mexico , central america and the northern antilles ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . the red - shafted form is largely restricted to the western half of the united states , while the yellow - shafted form is found in the eastern half , with a broad zone in the centre of the country where the two forms interbreed ( 4 ) .\ndespite being adept at climbing up the trunks of trees and hammering at wood to extract embedded insects , unlike other woodpeckers the northern flicker prefers to forage for food on the ground , hopping or running short distances between prey ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . ants may comprise as much as 75 percent of its diet ( 2 ) , which it captures by hammering and digging at the soil , before darting out its long , barbed tongue at the end of the bill to snare its prey ( 3 ) . the northern flicker also eats beetles , flies , butterflies , moths and snails , and often forages amongst other birds including sparrows and blackbirds , either alone , in pairs , in family groups , or in flocks of up to 15 birds ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . when startled , unlike most other woodpeckers which quickly clamber up a nearby tree trunk , the northern flicker alights upon a thin horizontal branch and sits in a characteristic erect posture . it flies in a smooth rising and falling motion as it alternates periods of flapping with gliding ( 3 ) .\nthe northern flicker is a large brown woodpecker . it has a white tail with black bars and a black tip , a light brown to off - white breast with black to brown spots . it has a black\nbib\non its upper chest . males have a black or red\nmustache\nthat runs from its bill down to its cheek .\ndrumming ( 8 drums ) from two red - shafted flicker males in close proximity to each other in cottonwoods along the cache la poudre river . recording unmodified except for removal of 90 seconds of silence .\nnorthern flickers generally nest in holes in trees like other woodpeckers . occasionally , they\u2019ve been found nesting in old , earthen burrows vacated by belted kingfishers or bank swallows .\nyear - round area includes both resident and wintering populations . the northern limit of year - round range is variable . see figure 2 for breeding distribution of subspecies .\nat the species level , northern flickers are partial migrants , because some individuals in the south are non - migratory , but northern populations would be considered short - distance migrants as all individuals leave the breeding area . the location of wintering areas on the continent suggests the main attribute of suitable habitat is snow - free ground favourable for foraging (\nthis bird will use a properly constructed bird house for nesting . as a cavity nester the flicker will excavate a nest in a tree , post , or catus anywhere from 8 - 100 feet above the ground .\nthe flicker is the only woodpecker in north american that commonly finds food on the ground . it often forages for ants and beetle larvae on the ground . it will sometimes perch on tree limbs to eat berries .\nnorthern flickers usually excavate nest holes in dead or diseased tree trunks or large branches . in northern north america look for nests in trembling aspens , which are susceptible to a heartrot that makes for easy excavation . unlike many woodpeckers , flickers often reuse cavities that they or another species excavated in a previous year . nests are generally placed 6 - 15 feet off the ground , but on rare occasions can be over 100 feet high . northern flickers have been known to nest in old burrows of belted kingfishers or bank swallows .\nalthough still widespread and relatively common , northern flicker populations have been in decline for several decades , estimated at around two percent per year . the principle cause of this decline is unclear , but it may be due to competition for nest cavities with other birds , reduced availability of nest sites , or the application of pesticides ( 4 ) . competition with introduced european starlings ( sturnus vulgaris ) is often evoked as an explanation for dwindling numbers of the northern flicker , but while some studies have found evidence to support this notion , others have not ( 4 ) ( 7 ) . similarly , the policy of removing snags , dead limbs and diseased trees from urban areas and managed forests may be limiting the availability of nesting cavities , but it is still unclear how significant a factor this is . there is also some limited evidence to suggest that the northern flicker is susceptible to ingesting pesticides used on golf courses , agricultural fields and suburban fields ( 4 ) . in cuba , deforestation is the greatest threat to the species , while it is now thought to be extinct in guadeloupe as a result of habitat destruction by feral goats and predation by cats ( 2 ) .\nthe distribution of distances travelled between breeding and wintering sites of individual northern flickers ( n = 199 ) . data are based on continent - wide banding recoveries and geolocator data .\nthe northern flicker is one of the largest and most beautiful woodpeckers in north america . we receive numerous calls each year along with customers stopping by wild bird habitat asking about this bird that they occasionally see in their yards . it does not frequent feeders and bird baths as often as other woodpeckers , but when it appears the shear size of this bird makes it very noticeable and a joy to see .\nwith ants as an important food source , the flicker often forages on the ground , but will also climb tree trunks and limbs like other woodpeckers . when eating fruits , it may forage out at the tips of branches .\nto find northern flickers , try walking through open woods or forest edges , but scan the ground . you may flush a flicker from a feeding spot up into a nearby tree . look for the obvious white rump patch in flight . also , be sure to listen for their loud , ringing call and their piercing yelp . in late summer , listen for the incessant yammering of hungry nestlings to find a nest .\nprotection / threat / status : young in the nest are vulnerable to predators such as racoons , squirrels and snakes . later , they are preyed upon by birds of prey ( cooper \u2019s hawk , and sharp - shinned hawks in north america ) . populations are not seriously endangered by human activities , but they loose their habitat . northern flicker helps to control the populations of their preys , especially ant\u2019s populations , and aphids .\nnorthern flickers help to control the populations of their invertebrate prey , especially ant populations . they also create nests that are later used by other cavity - nesting species of birds and by squirrels .\nat the start of the breeding season , the birds perform courtship displays including drumming , bowing and chasing in order to attract a mate . a flicker usually remains paired for life , but renews its bond each year through these rituals . after selecting a site , both birds excavate a hole that takes up to three weeks to construct . the number of eggs a flicker will lay is dependent on how many she observes in her initial clutch . if a predator robs an egg or two during egg laying , the flicker will lay replacements . the male and female share incubation duties , and an average of 5 - 7 chicks hatch after about 12 days . both sexes feed the chicks until they fledge about one month later .\nq . can you tell a migrant just by its size or color ? a . although different populations of robins are slightly different sizes and the color intensity of the plumage varies somewhat geographically , robins don ' t really show the cut - and - dried plumage variations that populations and subspecies of others birds do . on average , robins are smallest in the warm , humid southeastern us , and smaller than average along the humid coast of northern california and the pacific northwest . robins are largest in the high , dry rocky mountains , northern great plains , and northern deserts of the west .\nmale and female northern flickers make a loud , evenly spaced , rapid drumming sound by hammering against trees or metal objects . you can often see a drumming bird pause , move its head just an inch or so away , and then begin drumming again with a very different quality of sound . flicker drumming lasts about a second , during which the bird strikes the tree around 25 times . drumming in woodpeckers takes the place of singing in songbirds .\nnorthern flickers do not act like typical woodpeckers . they mainly forage on the ground often seen among sparrows and blackbirds . when you see a flicker in a tree they will be perched in an upright stance on thin horizontal branches . other woodpeckers cling to branches or tree trucks using their tail for leverage . neither do they fly in rapid undulating patterns as other woodpeckers . they will rise and drop smoothly as they alternate flapping their wings then gliding .\nnorthern flickers do not respond strongly to predators . they may make tentative flights around the predator or make bill - poking movements towards the predator . young in the nest are vulnerable to nest predators such as\njohnsgard , p . a . 1992 . birds of the rocky mountains with particular reference to national parks in the northern rocky mountain region . lincoln : university of nebraska press . xi + 504 pp .\nkerpez , t . a . and n . s . smith . 1990 . nest - site selection and nest - cavity characteristics of gila woodpeckers and northern flickers . condor 92 : 193 - 198 .\n] suggests that at least 69 species of birds show similar latitude - based migration tendencies with northern populations tending to be more migratory and southern ones sedentary ( e . g . red - tailed hawks (\nnorthern flickers don\u2019t habitually visit bird feeders , but you can find them in backyards and at bird baths . if your backyard has a mixture of trees and open ground , or if it\u2019s near woods , you may find northern flickers simply by walking around the wooded edges . find out more about what this bird likes to eat and what feeder is best by using the project feederwatch common feeder birds bird list .\naggressive displays such as\nbill directing\nor\nbill poking\nare used by flickers . that is , a flicker may point his bill at a rival with his head tilted forward , or actually peck at an opponent . a more aggressive display is\nhead swinging ,\nwhereby a flicker will use side - to - side movements of his head and body against an opponent . there is also a\nhead bobbing\ndisplay that may be used . sometimes tail spreading accompanies head swinging or bobbing displays .\nnorthern flickers are found in wooded areas that have stands of dead trees . they are also found in open areas , forest edges , clear - cut areas , burnt areas , agricultural lands , and residential areas .\ndiet : northern flickers feed primarily on insects and dine on ants more than any other north american bird ! they also occasionally will consume seeds , acorns , nuts and grains . young birds are fed regurgitated food .\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\nthe northern flicker is a large , mostly brownish woodpecker with extensive gray on the head and neck , a black bib , and large , round , black spots on the breast and flanks . its upperparts have black barring , and in flight it shows a white rump and colorful patches in the primaries , which may be red in western birds , or yellow in eastern birds . these patches are visible from above , but are much more extensive on the undersides of the wings .\nnorthern flickers are large , brown woodpeckers with attractive black - scalloped plumage and black bars on the wings . they have a noticeable black patch on the upper breast below the throat resembling a bib while the lower breast and belly are beige with black spots . male flickers have marking on each side of the face referred to as a mustache . females lack these marks . if the markings are black it is a yellow - shafted flicker more common in the eastern united states . if they are red it is a red - shafted flicker a western bird . these colors may also be noticeable as a flash of yellow or red in the wings when they fly . both have a white rump under a brown tail that is very conspicuous in flight .\na few woodpeckers seasonally leave the northern high elevations of their nesting range while others are\nirruptive\nspecies , like some hawks and owls , which will move hundreds or thousands of miles based on their food supply .\nhutto , r . l . and j . s . young . 1999 . habitat relationships of landbirds in the northern region , usda forest service , rocky mountain research station rmrs - gtr - 32 . 72 p .\nthis brown woodpecker flashes bright colors under the wings and tail when it flies . its ringing calls and short bursts of drumming can be heard in spring almost throughout north america . two very different - looking forms - - yellow - shafted flicker in the east and north , and red - shafted flicker in the west - - were once considered separate species . they interbreed wherever their ranges come in contact . on the western great plains , there is a broad zone where all the flickers are intergrades between red - shafted and yellow - shafted .\nthis woodpecker ranges from alaska eastward to quebec , then south throughout the entire united states . northern flickers are migratory and winter in the southern part of this range and in northern mexico ( palmer and fowler 1975 , farrand , jr . 1988 , winkler et al . 1995 ) . in addition , these woodpeckers are found on grand cayman , cuba , and range as far south as the highlands of nicaragua ( winkler et al . 1995 ) .\nnorthern flickers are active during the day . they protect territories that may include small family groups . male flickers recognize females by sight . to protect their mates or territories , birds of the same sex become aggressive towards each other .\nmale northern flickers of the western form have a red malar stripe extending downward and rearward from the base of the bill . males of the eastern form have a black malar stripe and a red patch on the rear of the crown .\n\u2022 like most woodpeckers , northern flickers drum on objects as a form of communication and territory defense . in such cases , the object is to make as loud a noise as possible , and that\u2019s why woodpeckers sometimes drum on metal objects .\nnorthern flickers are partially migratory . red - shafted flickers tend to over - winter on their breeding grounds or migrate shorter distances than yellow - shafted flickers , but both tend to withdraw from higher elevations and winter in the western washington lowlands . yellow - shafted flickers , which are strongly migratory , become more common in washington , especially along the outer coast , in winter . this increase is probably due largely to yellow - shafted flickers that have migrated to washington from alaska and the northern rocky mountains .\nthe breeding season occurs from february to july . the nest is made in dead tree trunks , dead parts of live trees , or telephone poles . northern flickers will also build nests in nestboxes . nests are usually built below 3 meters above the ground .\nnorthern flickers play an important role in forested ecosystems by excavating nesting and roosting holes that are subsequently used by other birds , animals , and reptiles that cannot make their own . they are abundant and widespread throughout their range and are the most common woodpecker in washington . the spread of residential development , roads , and the increasing fragmentation of the forest have increased the amount of habitat for northern flickers . however slight declines have been observed recently , which may be due to competition with european starlings for nest holes .\nhutto , r . l . , and j . s . young . 1999 . habitat relationships of landbirds in the northern region , usda forest service . u . s . forest service general technical report rmrs - gtr - 32 , ogden , utah .\nopen water during these winter months seems to attract them almost more than the backyard bird feeders do . most reports we receive are flickers visiting a bird bath . i have a 16 foot shallow stream between two small reservoirs in my backyard running over two waterfalls , even at thirty below windshield temperatures . you can just about count on multiple daily visits by a flicker , and each time it is just as exciting as the last . at a recent bird feeding workshop we conducted in columbus for the central community college extended learning services , several attendees asked about witnessing these large birds at their bird baths . it was the flicker .\nopen forests , woodlots , groves , towns , semi - open country . with its wide range , from alaska to nicaragua , the flicker can be found in almost any habitat with trees . tends to avoid dense unbroken forest , requiring some open ground for foraging . may be in very open country with few trees .\nmcclelland , b . r . 1977 . relationships between hole - nesting birds , forest snags and decay in western larch - douglas fir forests of the northern rocky mountains . ph . d . thesis . , univ . of montana , missoula . 483 pp .\nnorthern flickers can be found throughout north america in parks , suburbs , farmlands , woodlands , and deserts . their appearance differs depending on where they live . in the east the bird is know as the yellow - shafted since it has yellow under its wings .\nvocalizations : the low - pitched song of the northern flicker is long and strong series of\nkwikwikwikwik\nnotes . on the breeding grounds , their call notes are loud and repeated ,\nflick\nor\nflicker .\nthey also give a shrill , descending\nkee - oo\nor\nklee - yer\ncall year - round . while their drumming is moderate to fast in speed , the pattern is variable . nests : northern flickers nest within a variety of deep cavities that are used perennially . cavities such as bank swallow burrows , kingfisher holes or nest boxes may be used , though holes chiseled into trunks or large branches of trees and snags are preferred . while males tend to select the site , cavities are excavated by both sexes in about 12 days . occasionally , squirrels , starlings , screech owls or kestrels take over these excavations , displacing the poor flickers ! a clutch consists of 3 - 12 , 28mm , white eggs that are unmarked . although both parents incubate the clutch for 11 - 14 days , the female does most of the sitting and brooding . offspring fledge in 25 - 28 days post - hatching and are reared by both parents .\npopulations are not seriously endangered by human activity , although human activity sometimes destroys their habitat . few conservation measures are being taken because northern flickers are not recognized as endangered . as a migratory north american bird they are protected by the u . s . migratory bird act .\n] . other climatic variables , such as rain , and cold temperatures are less likely than snow cover to restrict access to ground - dwelling arthropods . our data show that migration in flickers is not leapfrog or chain migration and indicate that more northern populations must travel longer distances to reach locations that remain snow - free during winter creating an overlap in the wintering sites of both southern - and northern - breeding individuals . among species with a large geographical breeding range , it is common for migration propensity to vary with latitude as we found in flickers [\ndescription : northern flicker has a grey - brown barred back , and white rump . male has a tan head , grey crown , red nape , black moustache and a black crescent on the breast . the underparts are light tan with dense black spotting ( lower breast , flanks and belly ) . the tail is black - tipped . undertail coverts and wing lining are yellow . in flight , we can see its white rump patch and its largely yellow underwing . the bill is strong , straight and chisel - shaped . the greenish - grey legs are short , and the feet are zygodactylous . claws are long .\nit prefers to feed on the ground , where it hops awkwardly . to feed , it uses its long barbed tongue to lap up the ants . we can find it on dead trees where it moves as tits . it feeds mainly on ants and larvae , but also other insects , spiders , molluscs and some crustaceans . in winter , it consumes fruits , berries , seeds and acorns . usually seen alone , in pairs or in family groups , it may feed in small flocks during the migrations . the northern flicker is one of the few north american woodpeckers that are strongly migratory , mainly the northernmost populations .\nmale flickers recognize females by sight . to protect his mate or territory , birds of the same sex become aggressive toward each other ( palmer and fowler 1975 ) . aggressive displays such as\nbill directing\nor\nbill poking\nare used by flickers . that is , a flicker may point his bill at a rival with his head inclined forward , or actually peck at an opponent . a more aggressive display is\nhead swinging ,\nwhereby a flicker will use side - to - side movements of his head and body against an opponent . there is also a\nhead bobbing\ndisplay that may be used . sometimes tail spreading accompanies head swinging or bobbing displays ( short 1982 , bent 1992 ) .\nnorthern flickers mainly consume insects and invertebrates , such as grasshoppers , crickets , ants , termites , wasps , aphids , beetles and their larvae , caterpillars , and spiders . they also consume fruits in the fall and winter , as well as weed seeds , acorns , and other types of nuts .\nnorthern yellow - shafted flickers from alaska and canada strongly migratory , most traveling east and then south . big flights move down atlantic coast in fall , migrating by day . red - shafted flickers often migrate shorter distances , moving southward and from mountains into lowlands ; some spread eastward on great plains in winter .\n) . many researchers have reported on aspects of behavior and nest use by northern flickers as part of general studies of cavity - nesting birds . recently , such interest has intensified as flickers have been recognized as\nkeystone\nexcavators that may influence the abundance of secondary cavity - nestering species in forest systems (\nnorthern flickers make a loud , rolling rattle with a piercing tone that rises and falls in volume several times . the song lasts 7 or 8 seconds and is quite similar to the call of the pileated woodpecker . you\u2019ll hear it in the spring and early summer , while pairs are forming and birds are establishing their territories .\nspring is on its way when the loud joyful call of the flicker :\nwicker , wicker , wicker\n, echoes through the woodlands . males are known for drumming in long continuous rolls made by rapid blows with his bill . male flickers will often return to their favorite drumming spot where most likely it is the loudest and noisiest spot . flickers are found in southern states and east of the rocky mountains .\nflight : the flight of a flicker is preformed in a straighter manner than that of any other woodpecker . their migrations are performed at night , even during the coldest winters . when passing from one tree to another on wing , they also fly in a straight line , until right before they land , they then suddenly raise themselves a few feet and fasten themselves to the bark of the trunk by their claws and tail .\nbirds exhibit diverse strategies for migrating between their breeding and wintering sites , such as variation in routes , timing and distances travelled . patterns of migration can be described at different taxonomic and spatial scales and vary between species , between populations and also within populations [ 1 ] . many individuals in the northern hemisphere show roughly north\u2013south parallel movements meaning that western - breeding populations winter farther west than eastern - breeding populations , on a continental scale [ 2 \u2013 5 ] . however , cases where eastern and western populations cross - over during migration are also known [ 6 ] . populations may also differ in their propensity to migrate based on latitude . for example , northern populations of european robins ( erithacus rubecula ) are migratory , whereas southern populations are resident [ 7 ] . in other cases \u2018leapfrog\u2019 migrations may occur where northern - breeding populations winter at more southerly latitudes than do the southern - breeding populations [ 8 ] . chain migration , in contrast to \u2018leapfrog\u2019 migration , occurs when winter populations occur in the same north\u2013south sequence as breeding populations [ 1 ] ."]}
{"id": 2073, "summary": [{"text": "the siamese fireback ( lophura diardi ) also known as diard 's fireback is a fairly large , approximately 80 cm long , pheasant .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the male has a grey plumage with an extensive red facial skin , crimson legs and feet , ornamental black crest feathers , reddish brown iris and long curved blackish tail .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the female is a brown bird with blackish wing and tail feathers .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the siamese fireback is distributed to the lowland and evergreen forests of cambodia , laos , thailand and vietnam in southeast asia .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "this species is also designated as the national bird of thailand .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the female usually lays between four and eight rosy eggs .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the scientific name commemorates the french naturalist pierre-m\u00e9dard diard . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "siamese fireback", "paragraphs": ["embed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - siamese fireback ( lophura diardi )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - siamese fireback ( lophura diardi )\ntitle =\narkive species - siamese fireback ( lophura diardi )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe siamese fireback is thought to be omnivorous , feeding on an array of fallen fruits and berries , as well as insects , worms and small land - crabs ( 4 ) .\nthe siamese fireback is currently known to occur in just two protected areas , nam bai cat tien national park in vietnam and xe pian national protected area in laos ( 4 ) .\n: fireback hens , despite not being colorful , their unique markings make them more attractive than other pheasant hens . the siamese fireback hen has no crest , her facial wattles are smaller than the male ' s , but just as bright . the head , throat , chin and neck are grayish - brown ; the upper back and upper breast are bright chestnut . the lower back , wings and tail are chestnut , vermiculated with white and black . the bill is dark gray and the legs and feet are red .\n: this species was once readily available in america , but has somewhat declined over the last 15 years . they do best in a large planted aviary with lots of shade to simulate the forests for which they naturally inhabit . siamese fireback will require good shelter and heat during the colder months in northern climates . provide the birds with plenty of green food and mealworms .\nmcgowan , p . j . k . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . siamese fireback ( lophura diardi ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe siamese fireback is threatened by habitat loss and overexploitation for food and sport ( 4 ) . although this pheasant seems to tolerate considerable degradation of its forest habitat , extensive lowland forest destruction within its range is a concern for this lowland specialist ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . numbers have greatly declined during the past half century and its range has contracted , partly due to habitat changes , but probably more markedly due to excessive hunting and snaring ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .\na lowland resident of evergreen , semi - evergreen and bamboo forest , second - growth and scrub , often seen near open patches such as roads and tracks through the forest . chiefly found below 500 m above sea level , but occasionally up to 800 m , and perhaps even 1 , 150 m ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . the siamese fireback appears to tolerate some degradation of its forest habitat , such as moderate logging and cultivated fields in small clearings ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .\nthe siamese fireback is thought to be omnivorous , feeding on an array of fallen fruits and berries , as well as insects , worms and small land - crabs ( 4 ) . little information is available on the breeding behaviour of this shy bird in the wild , other than that eggs have been collected between mid - april and late june , and that one nest was situated on the ground in a hollow at the base of a tree . clutches seem to contain between four and eight eggs , and are incubated for 24 to 25 days in captivity ( 4 ) . males attain adult plumage in their first year but do not typically breed until their third ( 3 ) . like other\n: very beautiful bird that will attain its adult plumage the first year . the crest is long and made up of purple - black feathers . the facial wattles are bright red , the throat , head and face behind the wattles are black . the breast , neck and upper back is gray with very fine vermiculations . the middle of the back is bright yellow ( hence the name\nfireback\n) , the lower back is metallic blue with chestnut fringes . the tail is long and curved with metallic black , blue and green sheens . the wings are gray with black and white streaks ; the belly and lower areas are black . the bill is yellow , legs and feet red . like other species of\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\n60 - 80 cm . male is a slender grey pheasant with an irridescent green ( can appear black ) tail . long red legs and facial skin . prominent coronal tuft . female lacks crest , has a rufous mantle and underparts and banded wings and tail .\nthis species is listed as least concern as it is more resilient to the threats of habitat alteration and hunting pressure than once thought , thus the rate of population decline is not suspected to be as rapid as was indicated . as habitat loss and hunting are ongoing threats , the population is suspected to be undergoing a slow to moderate decline ; however , this is not thought to approach the threshold for vulnerable . the species is not thought to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under any of the other criteria .\nlophura diardi is found in thailand ( uncommon to locally common resident , principally in the north - east and south - east , c . 5 , 000 individuals estimated ) , laos ( widespread and locally abundant , but heavily snared ) , cambodia ( locally common and widespread ) and vietnam ( locally common and widespread in central and southern regions ) . its total population size has not been recently estimated , although the population in cambodia may be conservatively estimated at c . 2 , 000 individuals ( f . goes in litt . 2011 ) . the species is suspected to be undergoing a slow to moderate decline owing to continued habitat loss and hunting pressure .\nthe total population is suspected to number 20 , 000 - 49 , 999 individuals based on a conservative estimate of c . 2 , 000 individuals in cambodia ( f . goes\n2011 ) and an estimate of c . 5 , 000 individuals in thailand .\nthis species is suspected to be experiencing a slow to moderate population decline owing to continued habitat loss and degradation and on - going hunting pressure .\nit occurs in evergreen , semi - evergreen and bamboo forest , secondary growth and scrub , often near roads and tracks through the forest , chiefly in the plains and foothills to 500 m , but occasionally up to 800 m , and perhaps 1 , 150 m . it seems able to tolerate considerable degradation of its forest habitat . the species occurs in small groups which are presumed to be family parties .\nthe species occurs in a number of protected areas , however they often provide only limited protection against hunting and logging activities ( s . mahood\nincrease the existing protected area network . support governments in their efforts to control illegal logging in south - east asia . determine the current global population size and trend . support efforts to tackle the issue of hunting inside protected areas .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nlittle information is available on the breeding behaviour of this shy bird in the wild , other than that eggs have been collected between mid - april and late june , and that one nest was situated on the ground in a hollow at the base of a tree . clutches seem to contain between four and eight eggs , and are incubated for 24 to 25 days in captivity ( 4 ) . males attain adult plumage in their first year but do not typically breed until their third ( 3 ) . like other lophura pheasants , males of this species perform courtship displays in which they whistle and whirr their wings ( 2 ) .\nfound in southeast asia , from east myanmar , through north , central and east thailand , central and south laos , north and central cambodia to central vietnam ( 4 ) .\nclassified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list 2006 ( 1 ) .\ndel hoyo , j . , elliott , a . & sargatal , j . ( 1994 ) handbook of the birds of the world - new world vultures to guineafowl . vol . 2 . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nomnivore an organism that feeds on both plants and animals . vermiculations wormlike ; often used to describe fine , wavy lines of colour on bird feathers . wattle bare fleshy skin that hangs from the bill , throat or eye of birds .\ndelacour , j . ( 1951 ) the pheasants of the world . country life ltd . , london .\ndel hoyo , j . , elliott , a . and sargatal , j . ( 1994 ) handbook of the birds of the world - new world vultures to guineafowl . vol . 2 . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nflpa - images of nature pages green house wetheringsett stowmarket suffolk ip14 5qa united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 861 113 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 860 222 pictures @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhas alternatively been placed in genus diardigallus , but recent genetic work found no evidence that lophura as currently constituted is polyphyletic # r . the same work identified five clades within lophura , one of which consists of present species and l . ignita ( with l . rufa ) # r . monotypic .\ne myanmar through n , c & se thailand , c & s laos and n & c cambodia to c & s vietnam .\nmale c . 80 cm ( tail 33\u201336 cm ) , one bird 1420 g ; female c . 60 cm ( tail 22\u201326 cm ) , 680\u20131025 g . male distinctive , with mostly grey upperparts , large wattles . . .\nmale gives loud whistling call in advertisement and a repeated \u201cpee - yu pee - yu\u201d ; male . . .\na lowland forest resident . in thailand and laos , inhabits primary and secondary evergreen forest , . . .\nbelieved to be omnivorous , feeding on a variety of fallen fruits and berries , and also insects , worms , small land crabs , etc . also claimed . . .\nmating system apparently polygamous , with dominant male largely monopolizing proximity , and therefore access to all the females in a group . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . previously considered near threatened . mace lande : vulnerable . based on a recent population estimate for whole of thailand of c . 5000 . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nincludes , in tetraonini , all taxa that have commonly been separated in families meleagrididae and tetraonidae .\nbroad molecular study of phasianidae found that lophura forms , together with crossoptilon , one branch of a subclade that also comprises pucrasia , syrmaticus , chrysolophus and phasianus # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : lophura diardi . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 873 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\npheasants , males of this species perform courtship displays in which they whistle and whirr their wings ( 2 ) .\nkari pihlaviita marked the finnish common name\nsavufasaani\nfrom\nlophura diardi ( bonaparte , 1856 )\nas trusted .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n: very dense forests , bamboo and evergreen from sea - level to 2 , 000 feet .\n, they can grow fairly long spurs that the keeper will need to keep trimmed to prevent injuries to the hen when breeding .\n: not much is known of this specie ' s status in the wild , but with rapid deforestation in its native lands , its outlook can not be good .\nthe species is named for the french naturalist & explorer pierre - medard diard ( 1794 - 1863 ) by ornithologist charles lucien bonaparte who first described the species 1856 .\n: third year , but i ' ve heard from those who have had some second year males that were fertile . males will attain adult plumage the first year , but will have smaller tails than mature birds .\n( l to r ) : 1 , jan harteman ; 2 , myles lamont ; 3 , mel royal .\n. 2nd ed . , world pheasant association and spur publications , hindhead , u . k .\nrobson , c . 2002 . birds of thailand . princeton university press , princeton , nj .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 2075, "summary": [{"text": "strombus pugilis , common names the fighting conch and the west indian fighting conch , is a species of medium to large sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family strombidae , the true conchs .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "s. pugilis is closely similar to strombus alatus , the florida fighting conch .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is unsettled whether they are distinct species or merely subspecies . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "strombus pugilis", "paragraphs": ["subspecies strombus pugilis peculiaris m . smith , 1940 accepted as strombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758\nmarlo added a link to\nstrombus pugilis\non\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758\n.\nstrombus pugilis in reeve , 1851 , strombus , pl . 16 , fig . 39\nmarlo added a link to\nlet ' s talk seashells ! - > strombus pugilis vs strombus alatus\non\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758\n.\nshell length , developmental characteristics and mortality of strombus pugilis larvae reared in laboratory .\ncolton , 1905 on sexual dimorphism of strombus pugilis alatus , p . 140 :\nstrombus pugilis peculiaris m . smith , 1940 ( esp\u00e8ce cd _ nom = 575581 )\nstrombus pugilis var . in kiener , 1843 , pl . ? , fig . 2\nstrombus pugilis in duclos , 1844 , pl . 17 , fig . 1 , 2\nstrombus pugilis in duclos , 1844 , pl . 18 , fig . 1 , 2\nstrombus pugilis var . sloani in duclos , 1844 , pl . 17 , fig . 4\nstrombus pugilis ( anatomie ) in duclos , 1844 , pl . 17 , fig . 5\nstrombus pugilis juvenile in duclos , 1844 , pl . 17 , fig . 8 , 9\nstrombus pugilis nicaraguensis in clench & abbott , 1941 , p . 8 , pl . 6\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; florida , usa ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 0278\nstrombus pugilis alatus in clench & abbott , 1941 , p . 7 , pl . 5\nstrombus alatus in reeve , 1851 , strombus , pl . 16 , fig . 40\nsyn . : strombus pugilis worki petuch , 1993 : 51 - 54 , figs . 1 - 3\nstrombus pugilis var .\ndouble car\u00e8ne\nin duclos , 1844 , pl . 17 , fig . 3\nstrombus pugilis worki petuch , 1993 ; espirito santo state , brazil ; 78 mm ; coll . ulrich wieneke\nboth strombus alatus and strombus pugilis can exhibit the anomaly that was described as \u0093sloani leach , 1814\u0094 this name has no validity and is considered a synonym .\nboth strombus alatus and strombus pugilis can exhibit the anomaly that was described as \u0093sloani leach , 1814\u0094 . this name has no validity and is considered a synonym .\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; santa maria ? , colombia ; 1972 ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 1943\n[ obtaining of egg masses of the snail , strombus pugilis ( mesogastropoda : strombidae ) under laboratory conditions ] .\njennifer hammock split the classifications by inventaire national du patrimoine naturel from strombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 to their own page .\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nrote fechterschnecke\nto\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758\n.\nstrombus pugilis in the laboratory . manzano , nancy brito . aquaculture v . 167 no1 - 2 ( aug . 1\ndevelopment , growth and survival of larvae of the fighting conch strombus pugilis l . ( mollusca : gastropoda ) in the laboratory\nreproduction , laboratory culture , and growth of strombus gigas , s . costatus and s . pugilis in los roques , venezuela\ncomment gijs kronenberg :\nsouth of amazone river , this should be s . pugilis worki petuch . is within variability of s . pugilis\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; martinique island , lesser antilles , caribbean sea ; 1989 ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 6367\ncolton , h . s . ( 1905 ) . sexual dimorphism in strombus pugilis . nautilus , 3 , 139 - 140 .\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; peanut island , palm beach county , florida ; length 82 . 22 mm ; coll . dennis sargent\n[ obtaining of egg masses of the snail , strombus pugilis ( mesogastropoda : strombidae ) under laboratory conditions ] . - pubmed - ncbi\n7 . give some facts about the life of a strombus pugilis ( fighting conch ) and explain why this shell is so named .\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; colon bay , colon province , panama , caribbean sea ; 1971 ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 5575\ncolton , h . s . ( 1905 ) . sexual dimorphism in strombus pugilis . nautilus , vol . 18 , 138 - 140 .\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; ubatuba , sao paulo state , brazil ; by diver at 5 m ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 6463\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; guarapari , espirito santo state , brazil ; in sand at low tide ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 6463\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; guarapari , espirito santo state , brazil ; muddy sand ; 74 mm ; 11 / 1992 ; coll . ulrich wieneke\nbower , w . j . ( 1945 ) . egg laying process of strombus pugilis alatus gmelin . the nautilus 59 ( 1 ) , 35 .\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; playa del carmen , solidaridad municipality , quintana roo state , yucatan peninsula , mexico , caribbean sea ; coll . virgilio liverani\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; puerto rico island , usa , northeastern caribbean sea ; dy diver at 10 m ; 76 mm ; coll . ulrich wieneke\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; bonaire island , netherlands antilles , the netherlands , caribbean sea ; 6 / 1971 : coll . gijs kronenberg no . 5577\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; near malmok , aruba island , netherlands antilles , the netherlands , caribbean sea ; beached ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 5580\ncolton , h . s . ( 1905 ) . some notes on living strombus pugilis . the nautilus 19 ( 8 ) : 85\u009688 , pl , 3 .\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; juvenile ; malmok , aruba island , netherlands antilles , the netherlands , caribbean sea ; beached ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 5580\nsyn . : strombus pugilis peculiaris m . smith , 1940 : 35 , 36 left column top row specimen on right [ sp . 500 ] [ = sloani form ]\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; tertiary ( miocene ? ) , jamaica , caribbean sea ; coll . bm ( nh ) no . g4046 ; copyright bm ( nh )\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; portobelo bay , colon province , panama , caribbean sea ; dredged at 120 ft . ; 1987 ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 1943\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; portobelo bay , colon province , panama , caribbean sea ; dredged at 120 ft . ; 1987 ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 5579\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; aruba island , netherlands antilles , the netherlands , caribbean sea ; t : 60 mm , b : 82 mm ; coll . ulrich wieneke\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; portobelo bay , colon province , panama , caribbean sea ; snorkeling at 2 - 4 m ; 87 mm ; 2002 ; coll . ulrich wieneke\n23 . seasonality in reproductive activity and larval abundance of queen conch strombus gigas .\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; cabo blanco formation , pleistocene ; amuay bay , paraguana peninsula , falcon state , venezuela , caribbean sea ; coll . stichting schepsel schelp no . sss 22216\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; punta mizuc , cancun , quintana roo , yucatan peninsula , mexico , caribbean sea ; at 15 m on sand ; 83 mm ; coll . ulrich wieneke\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; porto belo , santa catarina state , brazil ; at 2 - 4 m on muddy sand ; 3 / 1985 ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 0728\ngoodrich , c . ( 1944 ) . variations in strombus pugilis alatus . occasional papers of the museum of zoology , university of michigan , no . 490 , 1 - 10 , fulltext\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; la isabela formation , pleistocene ; la isabela near luperon , puerto plata province , dominican republic , caribbean sea ; coll . stichting schepsel schelp no . sss 51465\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; cactus bay , malmok , aruba island , netherlands antilles , the netherlands , caribbean sea ; at 6 m ; 1987 ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 0901\nstrombus pyrulatus in duclos , 1844 , pl . 19 , fig . 1 , 2\n25 . evidence of survival value related to burying behavior in queen conch strombus gigas .\nstrombus pugilis worki petuch , 1993 ; off vittoria , espirito santo state , brazil ; trawled by shrimp boats from rubble at 20 - 25 m ; 79 mm ; 5 / 2001 ; coll . ulrich wieneke\nshell , strombus pugilis poster print by samuel brookes ( 8 x 10 ) shell , strombus pugilis was reproduced on premium heavy stock paper which captures all of the vivid colors and details of the original . the overall paper size is 8 . 00 x 10 . 00 inches and the image size is 8 . 00 x 10 . 00 inches . this print is ready for hanging or framing . brand new and rolled and ready for display or framing . print title : shell , strombus pugilis . paper size : 8 . 00 x 10 . 00 inches . product type : fine art print , artist : samuel brookes .\ngenetic variation in the queen conch , strombus gigas , across its geographic range . preliminary results\nstrombus pyrulatus juvenile in duclos , 1844 , pl . 19 , fig . 7 , 8\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; florida , usa ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 5410\nstrombus cf . pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; pliocene / pleistocene ; boca chica , margarita island ( isla margarita ) , new sparta state , venezuela , caribbean sea ; coll . stichting schepsel schelp no . sss 58335\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; off san pedro town , ambergris caye island , belize , caribbean sea ; at 7 ft . in and on sand ; 8 / 1990 ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 3730\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; off los taques , paraguana peninsula , falcon state , venezuela , caribbean sea ; dredged on muddy sand at 12 m ; 9 / 2009 ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 6378\n( of strombus pugilis pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ) liverani v . ( 2014 ) the superfamily stromboidea . addenda and corrigenda . in : g . t . poppe , k . groh & c . renker ( eds ) , a conchological iconography . pp . 1 - 54 , pls 131 - 164 . harxheim : conchbooks . [ details ]\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; off el pico , paraguana peninsula , falcon state , venezuela , caribbean sea ; at 1 - 5 m , in sand and weed ; 1984 ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 0693\nsyn . : strombus cornutus g . perry , 1811 : pl . 12 , fig . 4\n12 . developmental plasticity in the shell of the queen conch strombus gigas . martn - mora ,\nconch , strombus gigas ( mollusca , gastropoda ) , in mexico . garca santaella , eduardo .\nstrombus pugilis forma nicaraguensis fluck , 1905 ; sandy bay , atl\u00e1ntico sur , nicaragua , caribbean sea ; taken on sand and mud at a depth of 2 - 3 m ; 69 mm ; 5 / 1993 ; coll . ulrich wieneke\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; florida , usa ; 81 , 7 mm ; coll . goran vertriest\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; florida , usa ; 84 , 6 mm ; coll . goran vertriest\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; playa del carmen , solidaridad municipality , quintana roo state , yucatan peninsula , mexico , caribbean sea ; t : 102 mm , b : 93 mm ; at 12 m on sand ; coll . christian b\u00f6rnke\nm\u00f6rch , 1850 - saudi arabia , 43mm - a pale form . [ synonym : strombus gibberulus albus ]\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 : lamy & pointier ( 2018 ) [ statut pour la guyane fran\u00e7aise ] lamy , d . & pointier , j . - p . 2018 . mollusques marins et dul\u00e7aquicoles des antilles fran\u00e7aises . plb editions . 788 pp .\nthe ciliary photoreceptor in the teleplanic veliger larvae of smaragdia sp . and strombus sp . ( mollusca , gastropoda )\n2007 : apicomplexan parasites in strombus gigas in the guadeloupean archipelago . master thesis at the university of antilles - guyane\n? syn . : strombus pyrulatus var . albicans sowerby 1st , 1825 : 68 [ nom . nud . ]\n6 . the status of queen conch , strombus gigas , research in the caribbean . stoner , allan w .\nvolland j - m . , gros o . 2012 . cytochemical investigation of the digestive gland of two strombidae species ( strombus gigas and s . pugilis ) in relation to the nutrition . microscopy research and techniques . in press . doi 10 . 1002 / jemt . 22074\nstrombus linn\u00e9 , 1758 ; vaught , 1989 : 31 ; le renard , 1996 : 41 , strombella schl\u00fcter , 1838 , conomurex fischer p . , 1884 ex bayle ms , strombus ( conomurex ) ; vaught , 1989 : 31 .\nlinn\u00e9 , 1758 - florida keys , 89mm - typical specimens have longer spines on the spire than does strombus alatus .\nshell , strombus pugilis was reproduced on premium heavy stock paper which captures all of the vivid colors and details of the original . the overall paper size is 8 . 00 x 10 . 00 inches and the image size is 8 . 00 x 10 . 00 inches . this print is ready for hanging or framing . brand new and rolled and ready for display or framing . print title : shell , strombus pugilis . paper size : 8 . 00 x 10 . 00 inches . product type : fine art print , artist : samuel brookes .\nstrombus pugilis linnaeus , 1758 ; beach 2 km west of juan griego , margarita island ( isla margarita ) , new sparta state , venezuela , caribbean sea ; beached after storm ; t : 57 mm , b : 72 mm ; 3 / 2008 ; coll . ulrich wieneke\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; centent key , monroe county , florida , usa ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 0342\nfamily : strombidae\n. strombus gigas linnaeus , 1758 . fao species identification sheets . rome : fao . 1977 .\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; palm beach area , florida , usa ; shallow water ; 1985 ; coll . koenraad de turck\n16 . structure and optics of the eye of the hawk - wing conch , strombus raninus ( l . ) . seyer ,\ni found an interesting molluscan phenomenon along the south central coast of jamaica . all of the strombus we found had dwarf adult shells . no typical size specimens were present . the largest strombus pugilis was 55mm ; the smallest 50mm ( lower left ) . the upper left specimen is 52mm , which was an average size . the right specimen is a 64mm strombus costatus . typically specimens are found in sizes 20 to 50mm or more for the costatus and 10 to 25mm larger for the pugilis . i ' m not sure what is causing the dwarfism , but warmer than normal water temps might be the culprit causing the mollusks to mature at an earlier stage of growth and create the mature lip at a smaller size .\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; key largo , monroe county , florida , usa ; 1972 ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 5413\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; sanibel island , lee county , florida , usa ; 1970 ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 5409\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; sanibel island , lee county , florida , usa ; 1970 ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 4000\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; subadult ; sanibel island , lee county , florida , usa ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 1661\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; pliocene ; south bay , palm beach county , florida , usa ; 95 mm ; coll . rupert hochleitner\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; estero island , lee county , florida , usa ; 11 / 1973 ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 5407\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; pinellas county , florida , usa ; t : 80 mm , b : 74 mm ; coll . david carroll\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; pinellas county , florida , usa ; t : 85 mm , b : 81 mm ; coll . david carroll\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; peanut island , palm beach county , florida , usa ; length 99 . 31 mm ; coll . dennis sargent\nm . r . enriquez - diaz , j . m . volland , j . f . chavez - villegas , d . aldana - aranda , o . gros ; development of the planktotrophic veligers and plantigrades of strombus pugilis ( gastropoda ) , journal of molluscan studies , volume 81 , issue 3 , 1 august 2015 , pages 335\u2013344 , urltoken\nstrombus alatus , commonly known as the florida fighting conch , contains a small , jagged spire at the top of the shell and about seven whorls .\n( linn\u00e9 , 1758 ) - mahe island , seychelles , 57 . 3mm - the nominate form of gibberulus gibberulus [ synonym : strombus gibberulus ] .\n2 . settlement and recruitment of queen conch , strombus gigas , in seagrass meadows : associations with habitat and micropredators . stoner , allan w . fishery\nthe developmental characteristics of strombus pugilis larval organogenesis observed by light microscopy are shown in table 1 . sensory organs ( ocular tentacles ) appeared in early veligers ( 4 d ) . the organs allowing benthic feeding appeared after 29 d of larval development . transformation from pelagic to a primarily benthic behaviour occurred at 25 d and plantigrades were observed at 30 d .\nshawl , a . & a . spring . 2003 . culturing the florida fighting conch strombus alatus . tropical fish hobbyist l1 5 : 94 - 97 .\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; fort myers , lee county , florida , usa ; in sandy grass at low tide ; 89 mm ; coll . ulrich wieneke\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; keys , monroe county , florida , usa ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 5408 ( t ) , 0325 ( b )\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; pleistocene , caloosahatchee river , port la belle , hendry county , florida , usa ; coll . antoine heitz no . 2090 c\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; bermont formation , middle pleistocene ; hendry county , florida , usa ; 1995 ; coll . stichting schepsel schelp no . sss 24294\nariste - zelise o . , santos j . , enriquez diaz m . , montejo j . , volland j - m . & aldana aranda d . 2010 . habitat impact in the reproductive cycle of strombus pugilis in the campeche bank and analysis of apicomplexa and urospherules - like granules . 63 rd annual conference of the gulf and caribbean fisheries institute . san juan , puerto rico\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; peanut island , palm beach county , florida , usa ; t : 92 mm , b : 95 mm ; coll . christian b\u00f6rnke\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; sanibel island , lee county , florida , usa ; by scuba at 55 ' deep ; 1988 ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 5412\nthe aims of this study were ( 1 ) to describe , using light microscopy and sem , developmental patterns of organogenesis , growth and mortality of s . pugilis larvae ; ( 2 ) to investigate the ultrastructure of shell and soft tissues in order to facilitate the identification of gastropods in the plankton and in the meiobenthos and ( 3 ) to perform larval rearing in support of aquaculture for strombus species .\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; fort worth inlet , palm beach county , florida , usa ; at 10 ' - 20 ' on sand ; coll . gijs kronenberg no . 5411\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; pleistocene , new county pit , west of la belle , hendry county , florida , usa ; coll . antoine heitz loc . no . ha 28135\nstrombus sloanii . s . anfractu basilari l\u00e6vis , basi longitudinaliter undulato - sulcato , apice processibus quadratis , compressis , elevatis ; anfractibus superis nodosis , longitudinaliter lineatis , lineis elevatis .\n( lightfoot , 1786 ) - somalia , 114 . 5mm - the coloring varies widely ; this specimen has an unusual dark striped pattern on the back . [ synonym : strombus tricornis ]\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; punta rassa , cape coral - fort myers , lee county , florida , usa ; low tide , exposed sand ; 93 mm ; coll . virgilio liverani\ni am working with aaron at stri to collect modern , archaeological , and paleontological shell materials from bocas del toro . strombus pugilis is a species of conch that has decreased in body size at maturity over the past ~ 7000 years possibly due to size - selective human subsistence pressures . i\u2019ll export these shell samples , along with some modern tissue samples , back to psu and attempt to extract and sequence both modern and ancient dna from these materials .\nas a juvenile , the fighting conch strombus pugilis lives hidden in the muddy sediments of lagoons . it emerges to compete for mates when it reaches sexual maturity , but only after it has thickened up its outer lip as a protection from predators . by observing the size of shells and the thickness of lips in fossil , archeological and modern conchs the researchers found that size at sexual maturity declined during the past 1 , 500 years in concert with human harvesting .\nsloane ' s strombus . basal whirl smooth ; base with longitudinal undulating grooves ; apex with elevated , compressed , quadrate processes ; superior volutions knotted , longitudinally lineated , the lines elevated .\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; bermont formation , middle pleistocene ; belle glade ( r441 ) , palm beach county , florida , usa ; 1995 ; coll . stichting schepsel schelp no . sss 24299\n( linn\u00e9 , 1758 ) - cabo rojo , puerto rico . the famed rooster tail conch is found in a variety of colors ; this specimen has shades of pink . [ synonym : strombus gallus ]\nmerz , r . a . ( 1979 ) . a study of the behavioral and biomechanical defenses of strombus alatus , the florida fighting conch . master ' s thesis . university of florida , gainesville .\nsyn . : strombus dubius sowerby . tryon , 1885 : 109 [ non solander , 1766 , nec swainson , 1823 , nec sowerby 2nd , 1842 nec kiener , 1843 ] based on misidentification by tryon .\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; double spined form ; collected on exposed sand and grass flats at low tide , riviera beach , peanut island , palm beach county , florida , usa ; july 2003 ; coll . aart dekkers no . str0459\n( gmelin , 1791 ) - aguadilla , puerto rico - 77mm . a gerontic specimen with a blackened lip . strombs found along the west coast of puerto rico seem to be prone to this type of discoloration . [ synonym : strombus raninus ]\nstrombidae , or the conchs are one of the more familiar of the molluscan groups . though many larger molluscan species are commonly referred to as conchs , the strombs or generically , strombus are the true conch shells . the number of species in the family numbers around 60 species , which is small in comparison with other molluscan families . yet the size difference between the largest and smallest strombus species is huge . a few grow to be the largest and heaviest of the marine mollusks such as eustrombus goliath\nalthough strombus alatus is the most common species of strombus in northern areas and its planktonic larvae occur in the neritic waters off north carolina ( thiriot - quievreux 1983 ) , it disappeared from bermuda sometime since the pleistocene , when glaciers forced the gulfstream to the south and into a more east west orientation , bringing it closer to bermuda ( keffer et al . , 1988 ) . bermuda now lies in the central oceanic gyre of the north atlantic , more than 1500 km from the gulf stream .\ngillette , p . & a . shawl , 2006 . effects of diet and sex ratio on the reproductive output of the florida fighting conch , strombus alatus . proceedings of the 57 . annual gulf and caribbean fisheries institute : 57 , 947 - 954 .\nhargreave , d . ( 1995 ) . an ontogenetic approach to understanding changes in shell morphology over time : the strombus alatus complex in the plio - pleistocene of southern florida . tulane studies in geology and paleontology , 27 ( 1 - 4 ) , 1 - 52 .\nthe family strombidae has in recent years undergone a major taxonomic revision . numerous neatly organized subgenera for the various species within the genus strombus have been raised to full genera , and new genera have been errected for species that did not clearly fit within the classic arrangement . the most significant taxonomic change within the family strombidae is that the spindly tibia have been reclassified in the family rostellariidae based on anatomy and shell morphology . the conchological community has been slow to adopt this new classification . the various ' strombus ' species are arranged here according to the revised nomenclature .\nplantigrades of strombus pugilis . a . light micrograph of plantigrade with eyes ( white arrowheads ) and tentacles . operculum and foot possess several pigmented dots ( arrows ) . b . showing two eyes located at the bases of tentacles . the proboscis ( pr ) is outside shell . c . proboscis ( pr ) and two ocular tentacles ( arrows ) are well developed . shell appears dirty , covered with biofilm . operculum ( star ) is attached to extended foot , with furrow ( black arrow ) in the propodium ( p ) . d . at 35 d shell has 4 . 5 whorls ; on body whorl the spiral sculpture band ( arrows ) is typical of juveniles of the genus strombus . e . shell of plantigrades is characterized by numerous striae that are typical of adult shell . scale bars : a = 100 \u00b5m ; b = 70 \u00b5m ; c = 100 \u00b5m ; d = 125 \u00b5m ; e = 40 \u03bcm .\nstrombus alatus gmelin , 1791 ; riviera beach , peanut island , palm beach county , florida , usa ; live collected in eel - grass at 1 m ; t : 86 mm , m : 85 mm , b : 84 mm ; 5 / 1985 ; coll . christian b\u00f6rnke\nthe team suggests that declining yields may not be the only detrimental effects of an evolutionary change to mature at smaller size . the ability to reproduce , the quality of offspring and other vital traits can be damaged by size - selective evolution . further study is required to learn the extent to which the fitness of s . pugilis has decreased because of long - term size - selective evolution .\nmitton , j . b . , berg , c . j . , & orr , k . s . ( 1989 ) . population structure , larval dispersal , and gene flow in the queen conch , strombus gigas , of the caribbean . the biological bulletin , 177 ( 3 ) , 356 - 362 .\nvolland j - m . , aldana aranda d . & gros o . 2008 . detection of apicomplexa like parasites in two species belonging to the family strombidae : strombus gallus , linnaeus , 1758 and s . raninus , gmelin 1791 . 61 st annual conference of the gulf caribbean fisheries institute . pointe \u00e0 pitre , guadeloupe\nlate veliger larvae of strombus pugilis . a . light micrograph of 9 d larva . the velum has four lobes and cilia of preoral band are active at periphery ( arrows ) . the digestive tract ( star ) and visceral mass ( vm ) are visible through shell . b . sem view of four - lobed velum of 10 - d larva . long cilia responsible for propelling veliger are located at periphery of velum . c . light micrograph of visceral mass as observed in a living 10 - d veliger through its calcified shell . arrow heads , digestive gland lobes ; dg , digestive gland ; i , intestine ; s , stomach . d\u2013e . sem views of two - whorled shell of 9\u201310 - d veliger . scale bars = 50 \u03bcm .\nin the environment around sanibel island , it is both short and long spired , and at every stage between these extremes . sculpture ranges from feebly nodulous to stoutly spinose . color is protean , uncorrelated with any other character so far as could be learned . in short , the striking feature of alatus , in contrast to typical pugilis , is the absence of uniformity . distribution is from north carolilia to the shores of the gulf of mexico in texas .\nthe combined influence of feeding schedule and photoperiod on fighting conch , strombus pugilis ( linn\u00e9 , 1758 ) larvae growth and survival was studied using two feeding schedules ( 12 h and 24 h with food ) and three photoperiods ( 0 h light , 12 h light and 24 h light ) . this effect of feeding and photoperiods was tested in three months ( may , june and july ) . shell length was measured every two days to establish growth for each treatment . for the three experiments , continuous darkness and feeding were advantageous for larvae growth with the higher growth rate ( 42 \u03bcm d \u2212 1 ) while continuous light and feeding had a negative effect on growth ( 29 \u03bcm d \u2212 1 ) and survival ( 13 % ) . however the highest survival ( 44 % ) was obtained in 12 h light and 24 h feeding .\nr\u00f6ding , 1798 - coral sea , 40 - 46mm - these specimens were taken near east diamond island , way out in the middle of nowhere ! a geographical morph with a dark band below the suture line on the body whorl is more typical at this location ( middle specimen ) , though a wider range of coral sea color forms is illustrated here . [ synonym : strombus gibberulus gibbosus ]\npediveligers of strombus pugilis . a . light micrograph of a young swimming pediveliger showing a velum with six lobes . scale bar : 100 \u03bcm . b . sem view of the six - lobed velum from 10 - d larva . the foot is covered by an operculum ( arrow ) . in the centre of the large velum the ocular tentacles ( arrows heads ) are obvious . c . sem detail of one lobe of velum showing numerous long cilia at periphery . small nuclei of non - ciliated cells in central part of velum are visible ( arrows ) . d . sem micrograph of operculum ( o ) attached to foot ( f ) . its wrinkled surface is probably due to its uncalcified state . e . semithin midgut transverse section of 14 d pediveliger . dg , digestive gland ; s , stomach ; v , velum . scale bars : a = 100 \u00b5m ; b = 70 \u03bcm ; c = 10 \u03bcm ; d = 20 \u03bcm ; e = 50 \u03bcm .\nthe shell differs from the typical pugilis , especially in its smaller size , varying very little from 55 to 62 mm . the spire is regularly tuberculated , rather high , acute , and sculptured with distinct revolving raised lines ; prominent revolving ridges also mark the entire body - whorl , or in some specimens a large portion of it . the color is uniform dark salmon , except the spire , which tends to whiteness , while the aperture is lighter and brighter than the external parts , and anteriorly has just a suggestion of purple . the epidermis is thin .\nkosloski , m . e . ( 2008 , october ) . are museum collections adequate to test the escalation hypothesis ? : a preliminary case study using the plio - pleistocene strombus alatus species complex from florida . in 2008 joint meeting of the geological society of america , soil science society of america , american society of agronomy , crop science society of america , gulf coast association of geological societies with the gulf coast section of sepm .\nthe number and types of structures that appear in strombid development during the veliger stage , such as the eyespots , the increase of velar lobes ( from 2 to 6 ) , heart and propodium are similar among the genera laevistrombus from the indo - pacific and strombus and lobatus from the atlantic ( d ' asaro , 1965 ; davis , bolton & stoner , 1993 ; brito - manzano et al . , 1999 ; brito - manzano & aldana - aranda , 2004 ; cob et al . , 2009a , b ) .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\nthe evolution of gastropod body size in the deep sea is reexamined . using an extended and updated data set , and improved statistical methods , it is shown that some results of the previous study may have been artifactual , but that its central conclusion is robust . it is further shown that the effect is not restricted to a single gastropod clade , that its strength increases markedly with depth , but that it applies even in the mesopelagic zone .\nthe replication of the island rule in a distant taxonomic group and a partially analogous ecological situation could help to uncover the causes of the patterns observed\u2014which are currently much disputed . the gastropod pattern is evident at intermediate depths , and so cannot be attributed to the unique features of abyssal ecology .\ncitation : welch jj ( 2010 ) the \u201cisland rule\u201d and deep - sea gastropods : re - examining the evidence . plos one 5 ( 1 ) : e8776 . urltoken\ncopyright : \u00a9 2010 john j . welch . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : some preliminary work undertaken when jw was funded by bbsrc grant do17750 awarded to andrew rambaut . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nhere , i re - examine whether deep - sea gastropods manifest the island rule , making use of the improved statistical methods , and data collated from the recently updated malacolog database [ 24 ] , which has been both expanded , and revised to reflect advances in gastropod systematics [ 25 ] . it is found that the central conclusion of mcclain et al . [ 12 ] is robust , and that gastropod colonists of the deep - sea benthos do indeed exhibit island - rule - like evolution .\npart a shows how different tests of the \u2018island rule\u2019 can give qualitatively different results . \u201cdeep - sea\u201d species were defined as those with a depth range midpoint > 200m , and all other species defined as \u201cshallow - water\u201d . the ordinary - least - squares regression ( dashed line ) differs significantly from the 1\u22361 line of the null ( dotted line ) , but the standardized - major - axis regression ( solid line ) shows no significant departure . part b shows a less ambiguous case : \u201cdeep - sea\u201d species are those never observed above 400m , and \u201cshallow - water\u201d species those never observed below 200m ; body sizes are within - genus means , taking equal numbers of deep - and shallow - water species in each genus .\nthe body sizes of deep - sea gastropods are plotted against those of their shallow - water congeners . \u201cshallow - water\u201d species were never observed below 200m , and \u201cdeep - sea\u201d species never observed above depths of a : 200m , b : 400m and c : 600m . separate standardized - major - axis regression lines are shown for the neogastropoda ( black points ) and all other groups ( grey points ) . the dotted line is the 1\u22361 expected under the null . genera with fewer than two deep and two shallow species were excluded .\nsimilarly , predator release is a particularly plausible explanation of the vertebrate island rule [ 1 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 6 ] , [ 11 ] ; this is partly because it can naturally account for both dwarfism and gigantism ( by assuming that large and small body sizes evolve as alternative strategies for predator avoidance ) , and partly because predator release is so clearly implicated in other unusual characteristics of island endemics ( such as tameness ) [ 37 ] , [ 38 ] . but there is little evidence that reduced predation characterises the deep - sea [ 12 ] , [ 14 ] , and indeed there is direct evidence of substantial predation acting on deep - sea gastropods [ 12 ] , [ 39 ] \u2013 [ 41 ] . the gastropod results therefore argue against the predator release hypothesis as a general explanation of the island rule [ 12 ] .\nwe are therefore still far from understanding the causes of the patterns observed \u2013 and particularly the roles of inter - and intra - specific competition [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 11 ] , [ 12 ] . a detailed clarification of where the pattern does and does not hold will be an important step toward achieving this goal [ 4 ] , [ 12 ] , [ 19 ] , [ 20 ] .\nmany thanks are due to andrew rambaut for providing a script to mine the malacolog database . many thanks also to lucy weinert , nicolas bierne , gary rosenberg , shai meiri . simon joly and an anonymous reviewer , who all greatly improved the manuscript with their comments and advice .\nconceived and designed the experiments : jw . performed the experiments : jw . analyzed the data : jw . wrote the paper : jw .\nfoster jb ( 1964 ) evolution of mammals on islands . nature 202 : 234\u2013235 .\nvan valen l ( 1973 ) pattern and balance in nature . evolutionary theory 1 : 31\u201349 .\nlomolino mv ( 1985 ) body size of mammals on islands : the island rule re - examined . am nat 125 : 310\u2013316 .\nlomolino mv ( 2005 ) body size evolution in insular vertebrates : generality of the island rule . j biogeog 32 : 1683\u20131699 .\nmacarthur rh , wilson eo ( 1963 ) an equilibrium theory of insular zoogeography . evolution 17 : 373\u2013387 . 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( doi :\ndo these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !\ndistribution : usa : florida : east florida ; colombia : offshore islands ; costa rica , panama , colombia ; abc islands : curacao ; venezuela : gulf of venezuela , carabobo , sucre , islas los roques , isla margarita ; cuba : north havana province , north matanzas , villa clara , santiago de cuba ; jamaica , puerto rico ; virgin islands : st . croix ; martinique , brazil : ceara , rio grande do norte , pernambuco , alagoas , bahia , espirito santo , rio de janeiro , sao paulo , parana , santa catarina\nthe mollusca of porto rico u . s . fisheries commission bulletin 20 351 - 524 , pls . 53 - 58 .\nsystema naturae systema naturae , 10th ed . , vol . 1 824 pp . laurentii salvii : holmiae [ stockholm , sweden ] .\nconchology iv + 5 pp . , 61 pls . william miller : london .\nmolluscan discoveries from the tropical western atlantic region . new mollusks from the gulf of mexico , bahamas platform , caribbean basin , and brazil la conchiglia 24 ( 266 ) 51 - 56 . [ stated date : - - mar 1993 . ]\nmuseum boltenianum viii + 199 pp . hamburg . [ stated date : - - sep 1798 . ]\nanimal - based remedies constitute an integral part of brazilian traditional medicine . due to its long history , zootherapy has in fact become an integral part of folk medicine both in rural and urban areas of the country . in this paper we summarize current knowledge on zootherapeutic practices in northeast of brazil , based on information compiled from ethnobiological scientific literature .\nin order to examine the diversity of animals used in traditional medicine in northeast of brazil , all available references or reports of folk remedies based on animals sources were examined . 34 sources were analyzed . only taxa that could be identified to species level were included in assessment of medicinal animal species . scientific names provided in publications were updated .\nthe review revealed that at least 250 animal species ( 178 vertebrates and 72 invertebrates ) are used for medicinal purposes in northeast of brazil . the inventoried species comprise 10 taxonomic categories and belong to 141 families . the groups with the greatest number of species were fishes ( n = 58 ) , mammals ( n = 47 ) and reptiles ( n = 37 ) . the zootherapeutical products are used for the treatment of different illnesses . the most widely treated condition were asthma , rheumatism and sore throat , conditions , which had a wide variety of animals to treat them with . many animals were used for the treatment of multiple ailments . beyond the use for treating human diseases , zootherapeutical resources are also used in ethnoveterinary medicine\nthe number of medicinal species catalogued was quite expressive and demonstrate the importance of zootherapy as alternative therapeutic in northeast of brazil . although widely diffused throughout brazil , zootherapeutic practices remain virtually unstudied . there is an urgent need to examine the ecological , cultural , social , and public health implications associated with fauna usage , including a full inventory of the animal species used for medicinal purposes and the socio - cultural context associated with their consumption .\nhumans depend on biodiversity and the capacity of ecosystems to provide a multitude of goods and services that underpin a healthy human and natural environment . biodiversity is essential for human health , for example , in the provision of the raw materials for medicines . indeed , some 20 , 000 species are used in traditional medicine , which forms the basis of primary health care for about 80 percent of the 3 billion people in developing countries . more than half of the world ' s modern drugs are derived from biological resources , which supports the traditional and modern pharmaceutical sectors [\n] . although plants and plant - derived materials make up the majority of ingredients used in most traditional medical systems globally , whole animals , animal parts , and animal - derived products ( e . g . , urine , fat , etc . ) also constitute important elements of the materia medica . indeed , zootherapy , the use of animal products in healing , is an ancient and widespread practice across most cultures [\nlittle attention has been paid to the cultural , medical , economic , or ecological significance of zootherapeutic practices , even though the federal government ' s national policy of pharmaceuticals ( pol\u00edtica nacional de medicamentos , portaria no . 3916 / 98 ) specifies that\nthe support to research aiming to use the therapeutic potential of the national flora and fauna , with emphasis on certification of their medical properties , should be continued and expanded\n[\n] . nevertheless , since the 1980s various publications have shown the importance of zootherapy for traditional communities from distinct socio - cultural - environmental landscapes in brazil . most of the available information on the subject is concentrated in the northeast of the country [\nin addition , the edibility of these medicinal resources must be analyzed because there must be complex interactions between diet and the medicinal use . a number of food animals are also used as remedies [\n] . although often regarded as supplementary to local peoples ' diet , wild food and medicine are essential in times of crisis and play an important nutritional role . the neglect of traditional food and medicines may seriously deteriorate the health and well being of traditional peoples [\n] . furthermore , nature - based traditional food and medicine are generally viewed as interchangeable , diet being highly regarded as the primary basis for sustaining and / or restoring health and well - being . consequently , foods are considered and often times chosen for their distinctive medicinal or healing values .\n] . in that context , the aim of this paper is summarize current knowledge on zootherapeutic practices in of northeast of brazil , based on information compiled from ethnobiological scientific literature , aiming to establish a regional data base . contributions is expected in order to increase our knowledge concerning the faunistic resources used in the traditional medicine in the country , alerting for the need of protecting the biodiversity and the traditional knowledge and still emphasize the importance of a therapeutic modality that although widely disseminated at the country , is getting little attention from the scientific community .\nthe total area of the brazilian northeast is 1 , 561 , 177 . 8 km\n, which extends from 02\u00b054 to 17\u00b021s and from 35\u00b0 to 46\u00b030w and includes nine states : maranh\u00e3o , piau\u00ed , cear\u00e1 , rio grande do norte , para\u00edba , pernambuco , alagoas , sergipe and bahia ( figure .\n] . this region is home to around 51 million people , representing 28 . 9 % of the total population of brazil , most of whom live in the urban area . the inhabitants of northeast brazil exhibit a high degree of race mixing . according to the 2006 census of brazilian institute for geography and statistics ( ibge ) , people of multiracial ( european , amerindian and african ) background make up 62 . 5 % of the population , while those of total or predominantly black ancestry account for 7 . 8 % . this region was not heavily affected by the wave of european immigration that took place in southern brazil during the 19th century \u2013 the northeast was ( and still is ) the poorest part of brazil , and therefore there was little incentive for new immigrants to stay [\nas a result of the huge land mass involved , the diverse physio - geography of the region , as well as the conjunction of two major weather systems , provided by the ne and se trade winds , rainfall patterns in northeast brazil are typically diverse and instable . the precipitation within the region varies from being extremely wet , with an annual rainfall of up to around 2 , 000 mm along the coast , to only 300\u2013500 mm in the semi - arid zone , where the rainfall is usually restricted to a few months during the year . the availability of water determines the type and abundance of vegetation and fauna that exists in the region , as therefore in turn the patterns of human exploitation of natural resources [\nthe predominant vegetation type in this region is composed of several forms of caatinga biome . the structure of these forests can vary considerably from forests composed of mostly spiny trees , 6 to 10 m tall , often with a ground - layer of small deciduous shrubs and annual herbs , predominantly leguminosae , to deciduous woodlands of lower stature , with a high proportion of shrubs and subshrubs and the presence of many cacti , bromeliads and euphorbiaceae [\n] . the northeast region as a whole holds more types of vegetation than any other region in brazil . in addition to the caatinga biome , there are the atlantic rainforests , seasonal forests and inland mountain forests ,\nand shore dunes , mangroves , cerrados ( savannah - like vegetation ) and ' campos rupestres ' , all of which exhibit rich animal and plant biodiversity .\n] . 34 ethnobiological sources documenting the medicinal use of animals were analyzed . only taxa that could be identified to species level were included in the data base . scientific names were updated in accordance with the integrated taxonomic information system ' s\ncatalogue of life : 2008 annual checklist\n["]}
{"id": 2076, "summary": [{"text": "cicindela columbica is a species of beetle in the tiger beetle subfamily , cicindelinae , known commonly as the columbia river tiger beetle .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is endemic to idaho in the united states .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "today the beetle is probably restricted to the lower salmon river system in idaho .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "its range once extended into oregon and washington , but it has been extirpated from these states by the installation of dams on the columbia river .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this beetle lives on sand bars and river beaches , especially near dunes , hunting and consuming smaller arthropods .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the larvae are also predatory , hiding in sand burrows for prey .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "damming of the rivers has affected water levels , inundating their river bank habitat and causing widespread loss of populations . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "cicindela columbica", "paragraphs": ["beer , f . m . 1971 . note on cicindela columbica . cincindela 3 ( 2 ) : 32 .\nshook , g . 1981 . the status of the columbia river tiger beetles ( cicindela columbica ) in idaho . pan - pacific entomologist 57 : 359 - 363\nbartels , p . 1995 . survey for columbia tiger beetle ( cicindela columbica ) columbia river and snake river . washington department of fish and wildlife . 7 pp .\nshook , g . 1981 . the status of the columbia river tiger beetles ( cicindela columbica ) in idaho . pan - pacific entomologist 57 : 359 - 363 .\nbartels , peggy , 1995 . survey for columbia tiger beetle ( cicindela columbica ) columbia river and snake river . washington department of fish and wildlife . 7 pp + .\nshook , g . 1981 . the status of the columbia tiger beetle ( cicindela columbica hatch ) in idaho ( coleoptera : cicindelidae ) . pan - pacific entomologist 57 ( 2 ) : 359 - 363 .\ncicindela columbica has no federal status at the present time . the u . s . fish and wildlife service was petitioned by g . shook in 1979 to list this species as endangered or threatened , based on the threat presented by a proposed dam on the lower salmon river . in 1988 , when the usfws wrote its finding , this dam was no longer proposed and the petition was declared to be unwarranted . cicindela columbica is ranked as a type 2 sensitive species by the bureau of land management , which indicates a species that is experiencing significant declines throughout its range with a high likelihood of being listed in the foreseeable future due to their rarity and / or significant endangerment factors .\nleffler , s . r . and pearson , d . l . 1976 . tiger beetles of washington . cicindela 8 ( 2 / 3 ) : 21 - 60 .\nleffler , s . r . and pearson , d . l . 1976 . tiger beetles of washington . cicindela 8 ( 2 / 3 ) : 21 - 60 .\nleffler , s . r . and d . l . pearson . 1976 . tiger beetles of washington . cicindela 8 ( 2 / 3 ) : 21 - 60 .\nleffler , sanford r . , 1987 . synonmymic notes on , and additions to ,\nnote on cicindelid habitats in oregon by maser and beer ( 1984 ) . cicindela 19 ( 1 ) 1 - 12\ncicindela columbica is in the family cicindelidae ( tiger beetles ) . adults are 12 - 14 mm ( 0 . 47 - 0 . 55 in . ) long , with an iridescent black body , metallic bronze elytra with pale wavy markings , and long slender antennae and legs . the head is dark with prominent eyes and large sickle shaped mouthparts ; the head and eyes together are wider than the thorax . the legs , thorax and head are pubescent ( hairy ) . tiger beetle larvae live in burrows in the sand . larvae hide at the mouth of the burrow and seize passing prey with large sickle - shaped mandibles .\npearson , d . l . , t . g . barraclough , and a . p . vogler . 1997 . distributional range maps for north american species of tiger beetles ( coleoptera : cicindelidae ) . cicindela , 29 ( 3 - 4 ) : 33 - 84 . available online : urltoken\nmore recent surveys have found c . columbica populations in the lower salmon river canyon , from near slate creek to eagle creek ( ~ 42 km [ 26 mi ] reach ) , but not on the snake river from the mouth of the salmon river on the oregon - idaho border to heller\u2019s bar , washington ( shook 1981 ) . no c . columbica were found on the lower salmon river below eagle creek , or along the idaho - oregon or idaho - washington snake river corridors . the largest populations on the lower salmon were estimated to number from 200 - 400 beetles , but it was noted that accurate population assessments are difficult due to the active and fast - moving nature of these beetles .\na few years ago i made a reduction blockprint of cicindela columbica , the columbia river tiger beetle . these beetles are member of a subfamily of brilliantly colored , sleek , swift and fierce predators , mostly found in sandy habitats . the columbia river tiger beetle has suffered grievously as a result of the epidemic of dam building in the northwest - found now only along a few select drainages in idaho , the sandbars it used to hunt on in oregon drowned by the huge slackwater lakes that stretch for miles behind the dams . i\u2019m a big fan of tiger beetles - their jaws are wicked and their shells glint in the sun . yet another reason to call for the freeing of our rivers !\nthe lower salmon river , where this species still persists , is a popular destination for recreational users , with extensive boating , rafting , fishing , camping , and hiking activities . excessive foot , livestock , and / or vehicular traffic in the sandy riparian areas inhabited by c . columbica can seriously degrade habitat , destroying larval burrows and potentially killing young larvae . over - collecting has also been suggested as a potential threat to this species ( labonte 1995 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthis riparian species has been extirpated from most of its range due to water level impacts from dams . it is now restricted to one river system at more than 20 scattered patches of sand bars and dune habitat , representing a single location . these patches may represent several metapopulation with a smaller number of subpopulations and may occur as only a single population . it has an extent of occurrence ( eoo ) of 400 km 2 and an area of occupancy ( aoo ) of 10 km 2 . it is subject to various riparian impacts , which are causing the observed continuing decline in the habitat extent and quality . therefore , it is assessed as endangered .\nthis species is now believed to be limited to the lower salmon river in idaho , usa . it is possible but doubtful that it occurs in a small section of the lower snake river in idaho , and surveys are needed to confirm this .\na survey along a portion of its range along the lower salmon river of idaho found it at 14 locations separated by approximately one or more river miles . the estimated adult population size at two of the largest sites , each over 400 m long , were greater than 200 and greater than 400 individuals . adults were abundant and gregarious at some of the other sites . the species is also known from five or more additional sites along another section of the salmon river , but this section has not been systematically surveyed . it has not been determined if there has been a recent decline of the species within its range .\nthis species occurs in patches of sand bars and beaches usually backed by dunes along the lower salmon river . adults are active visual hunting predators searching for small arthropods along the water edge habitats . larvae are sit - and - wait predators found in shallow burrows in the upper beach . development time is two or three years . adults that overwintered are active in april and may with a new adult cohort present in august in september . adults and larvae both overwinter .\nthe primary known threats throughout its limited range are natural water level changes which can episodically eliminate its sand bar and beach habitats . prolonged inundation of the habitat can result in larval mortality . disturbances from pedestrian and vehicular activity may impact some sites .\nthis species has been extirpated from a very larger portion of its range , but its current distribution and abundance is not fully known . there is currently no active management or monitoring of this species to determine any changes in its conservation status . it is not currently listed by the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nadults and larvae are voracious predators on other insects . larvae use their jaws to capture prey that wander close to the mouths of their burrows . adults are active , fast - running , strong - flying hunters that forage for prey on sandbars and dunes during the day and burrow into the sand at night .\ntiger beetles are popular with collectors due to their bright metallic coloration and striking patterning , and enthusiasts are often eager to obtain a rare specimen for their collections . additional potential threats such as the effects of disease , predation , and loss of open sandy habitat due to encroachment by vegetation , especially invasive species , have not been assessed .\nhatch , m . 1938 . the coleoptera of washington : carabidae : cicindelidae . university of washington biology 1 : 225 - 240 .\nlabonte , j . r . 1995 . possible threatened or endangered terrestrial predaceous coleoptera of the columbia river basin . prepared for the blm / usfs eastside ecosystem management project . corvallis , or . 31 pp . available at urltoken\npearson , d . l . 1988 . biology of tiger beetles . annual review of entomology 33 : 123 - 147 .\nstagliano , david , m . , george m . stephens and william r . bosworth . 2007 . aquatic invertebrate species of concern on usfs northern region lands . report to usda forest service , northern region . montana natural heritage program , helena , montana and idaho conservation data center , boise , idaho . 95 pp . plus appendices .\nsign up for our newsletter to receive up to date information about our programs and events .\nthe xerces society \u2022 628 ne broadway ste 200 , portland or 97232 usa \u2022 tel 855 . 232 . 6639 \u2022 fax 503 . 233 . 6794 website terms of use \u2022 privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\na field guide to the tiger beetles of the united states and canada david pearson , c . barry knisley , charles j . kazilek , david l . pearson , barry c . knisley . 2005 . oxford university press .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nitis reports - - itis ( the integrated taxonomic information system ) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nfreitag , r . p . 1999 . catalogue of the tiger beetles of canada and the united states . national research council research press , ottawa , canada . 195 pp .\nlimited remaining range along a single river , with the usual threats for riparian tiger beetles . extirpated from most of recent range .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\nformerly known from the columbia , snake , and salmon rivers in id , wa and or . no populations have been found along the columbia since 1971 or along the lower snake since the completion of lower granite dam . it still occurs along the salmon river in id and may be present along the snake river in id .\nthirteen locations are known along the salmon river in id , but they may represent one population ( stephens 2002 ) . none of the several historical populations along the columbia in wa and or have been seen since 1976 .\nloss of habitat and disturbances vehicles or excessive foot traffic the main threats at undammed sites . dams destroy habitat and fragment that which remains , limiting dispersal and recolonization .\n( 250 - 20 , 000 square km ( about 100 - 8000 square miles ) ) formerly known from the columbia , snake , and salmon rivers in id , wa and or . no populations have been found along the columbia since 1971 or along the lower snake since the completion of lower granite dam . it still occurs along the salmon river in id and may be present along the snake river in id .\na medium - sized ( 12 - 13 mm ) brown and white beetle .\nsandbars and dunes along banks of the columbia river\n( freitag , 1999 ) . however apparently the species no longer occurs there knisley and schultz ( 1997 , p . 70 ) .\nthis species probably has a three year life cycle and so larvae are always present in their burrows at any season .\nan area of sand or other appropriate substrate , for high quality occurrences generally a cluster of several such areas , along a river or stream or occasionally ditch or some sort of embankment where a colony occurs with potential for persistence or regular recurrence . minimally a collection or photograph of an adult associated with a habitat patch . single isolated colonies should not be ranked higher than c and high quality occurrences will be clusters of several such colonies along a river or stream .\nbefore trying to map an occurrence for any species consult the habitat comments field and relevant literature such as freitag ( 1999 ) , knisley and schultz ( 1997 ) , larochelle and lariviere , 2001 , and leonard and bell ( 1999 ) and if necessary the original references in them to determine the precise species - specific habitat parameters such as soil type , vegetation cover etc .\npossibly dams , rip - raps , groins etc . but for now it is suggested the disturbances they create be treated as unsuitable habitat unless direct observations show them to be barriers . some adults should be able to move over or around them , especially during low water periods when unvegetated areas are exposed .\nc . puritana is included with some reservation . these specs should be workable ( but the distances may be somewhat exceeded for practical reasons ) on the connecticut river , but probably not on its other occurrence on chesapeake bay .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nfranklin , m . d . h . 2001 . the status of tiger beetles along the hanford reach or the columbia river . m . s . thesis . wa state univ . 75 pp .\nhoback , w . wyatt , and john j . riggins . 2001 . tiger beetles of the united states . jamestown , nd : northern prairie wildlife research center online . urltoken ( version 12dec2003 ) accessed 10 dec . 2007 .\nknisley , c . b . and t . d . schultz . 1997 . the biology of tiger beetles and a guide to the species of the south atlantic states . virginia museum of natural history special publication number 5 . virginia museum of natural history : martinsville , virginia . 210 pp .\nleffler , sanford . 1979 . tiger beetles of the pacific northwest ( coleoptera : cicindelidae ) phd dissertation , university of washington .\npearson , d . l . , c . b . knisley and c . j . kazilek . 2006 . a field guide to the tiger beetles of the united states and canada : identification , natural history , and distribution of the cicindelidae . oxford university press , new york , new york . 227 pp .\nperkins , p . d . 1983 . north american insect status review . contract 14 - 16 - 0009 - 79 - 052 . final report to office of endangered species , u . s . fish and wildlife service , department of the interior . 354 pp .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nthis print is made from films recaptured from that blockprint - printed during the reduction process on tracing paper and then exposed as screens . it\u2019s five colors , two of which are rich golds , and three of which are really intense split - fountain fades . it\u2019s a vivid print , like the beetles themselves - the camera has a hard time capturing it !\nif you missed it last week : the 2012 justseeds / eberhardt press organizer is out . i\u2019m busy wiring them together as fast as i can , while charles of eberhardt stands behind\u2026\nhere\u2019s a new project : a bushmeat food - cart . the project is called viande de brousse , the french translation of bushmeat , meaning simply wild meat hunted from the forest , or bush , as\u2026\nbay - area arts organizer david solnit has been making art for protest movements for decades , and has established a practice of simple , reliable techniques for amplifying messages in the streets . i\u2019ve\u2026\nhere\u2019s some pictures from the ongoing large print project in portland . icky , pete and roger have begun carving a 3\u2032 x 10\u2032 block of lino to make a counterpart to\u2026\ndata and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho ."]}
{"id": 2086, "summary": [{"text": "the lesser water boatman ( corixa punctata ) is a water-dwelling insect of the order hemiptera .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "adults normally range in size from 5 to 15 mm long , and are found in ponds , lakes and sometimes even swimming pools .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the boatman feeds on algae and dead plant material .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they have long hind legs which they use to swim on top of water .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "these powerful legs are covered in tiny hairs which helps them float on the surface of the water .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they breathe oxygen by trapping air beneath their wing cases when they are on the surface as the oxygen is trapped by tiny hairs .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "they use trapped air in their physical gill to convert water-borne sounds into airborne sounds that they can hear .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "they are similar to notonecta glauca , the water boatman or back swimmer by appearance , although these lesser waterboatman are herbivores and swim on their fronts .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they are not related to notonecta glauca , the water boatman or back swimmer , nor to the european micronecta scholtzi , also known as the \" lesser water boatman \" . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "lesser water boatman", "paragraphs": ["there are actually two different species of water boatmen here in the uk \u2013 the greater water boatman ( known in america as the backswimmer ) and the lesser water boatman . they are very similar in appearance but with some subtle differences .\nthe last larva ( nymphs ) of the lesser water boatman moult to adults . for some species it is now prime time for chirping .\non the left a corixa larva . like all bugs , lesser water boatman have an incomplete metamorphosis , the newly hatched larva already have a strong resemblance with the adult ( the\nhave you ever seen a water boatman ? no , i don\u2019t mean a man rowing his boat on the water ! the water boatman i\u2019m talking about is an insect which lives in ponds . you may have them in your own back garden if you have a still - water pond .\na tiny water boatman is the loudest animal on earth relative to its body size , a study has revealed .\nmore than 500 species of water boatman exist in the world , and they major portion belongs to north america .\n) are used to that purpose . it is remarkable that the females too have a ribbed snout . that the sound is meant to communicate is confirmed by the fact that many lesser water boatman species have\ngives the best chances of seeing a lesser water boatman without using a net : the water is still clear then and there are less weeds and algae . you can see the little boatsmen busy at the bottom , at a closer look you see two little clouds of matter whirling after their front legs\nanother difference between the two insects is their diet . the lesser water boatman is vegetarian and eats algae and plant detritus . its greater cousin however , is a carnivore . it preys upon other invertebrates , tadpoles and even small fish ! they kill their victims by stabbing with their sharp mouthparts and injecting a poison . this liquefies the internal organs which the water boatman then sucks up as if through a straw .\n) , it is for this reason that lesser water boatman also called water crickets . the modest sound is mostly noticed when the animals are kept in an aquarium or the like . on warm evenings when the air is full of electricity you hear a short and soft chirping , like a cricket , but somewhat lower pitched .\n. the lesser water boatman is not the only water insect making sounds , many beetles are able to do that . but for those sounds the purpose is to startle a possible predator . hearing organs were not found on these beetles . the sounds are made by rubbing the abdomen against the under side of the hardened front wings . especially the\nas a true bug the lesser water boatman is somewhat flat , though the body is highly adapted to the life it leads in the water . when the shields and the wings are extended , the body does remind to that of a tiny fly . when submerged it looks more powerful by the surrounding bubble , which also streamlines the total profile .\nboth species have long and powerful back legs which they use as oars to help them swim . they swim on the surface of the pond and that\u2019s how you can tell them apart \u2013 lesser water boatmen swim on their bellies but greater water boatmen swim on their backs , beneath the water .\nthis minuscule water boatman might be smaller than a drawing pin , but it ' s also the loudest animal on the planet . well , relative to its body size , at least .\nthey don\u2019t have to sneak out of the water to fly ; they can take a flight directly from the water surface .\ninsects are classified in the orders , suborders , infra - orders and then families . an order of insects can have a large number of species . water boatman is classified in the order \u2018hemiptera\u2019 and the suborder \u2018hetropetra . \u2019 they have further grouped in the infra - order \u2018nepomarpha , \u2019 and their family name is \u2018corixidae . \u2019 the family includes too many lookalike species like backswimmers and lesser water boatmen .\n[ partner id =\nwireduk\nalign =\nright\n] the male lesser water boatman , aka micronecta scholtzi , can create mating calls as loud as 99 . 2 decibels , which is the equivalent of sitting in the front row of a loud , full - blown orchestra , or standing 15 meters away from a hurtling freight train .\nmost lesser water boatman can survive the wintertime , even under a layer of ice : the animals row slowly underneath the ice in search of a trapped air bubble . they replenish their own air supply with the air of such a bubble and dive to the bottom again . this is shown on this composite photo , on the left with a larger bubble , on the right with a small one , there you can see vaguely the bent head . with even lower temeratures , they still can survive : as an extra bonus the ( ice ) cold water contains more oxygen which enhances the gas exchange between the water and their bubbles , which are somehow also larger then normal at these times and furthermore the animals keep still . many migrate to streams that stay open and rest there in masses in the water plants . all lesser water boatman species have turned in the adult animal in the winter , except micronecta .\nthis is another type of water boatmen that is lesser water boatmen . these species are mostly seen in the united kingdom . there are yellow lines all over their dark and boat - shaped body . their long thin legs help them to swim , not on their back , on their bellies . unlike the greater water boatmen ( backswimmers ) , they choose to eat plants . besides being under the water surface , they show up at night ; artificial lights seem to fascinate them . they can be seen flying near these places . they need to be on the surface very often to meet their need of air supply underwater . they collect the air in their specific body parts to utilize under the water surface . the term \u2018lesser water boatmen\u2019 is commonly used in the uk for usual water boatmen .\n. if the air in the bubble gets older , the movements intensify , so you will see this behaviour more when the lesser water boatman is under water half an hour or so . when the air supply is used up , the lesser water boatman rows in a flash to the surface , touches the surface with its back , head and body bend , creating a large gap of air between them . less then half a second is sufficient to replenish the air supply and with high speed the bug rows down again . the body is cleaned often and thoroughly with the legs . the insect is able to fly very well and can make a sprint start : swimming quickly upwards it pierces the surface film and takes off immediately - few insect species are able to do this . they mostly fly at dawn and night .\nwe were very surprised . we first thought that the sound was coming from larger aquatic species such as a sigara species [ of ] lesser water boatmen ,\nsaid engineering expert dr james windmill from the university of strathclyde , glasgow .\ncooking oil can also be used to make the water surface difficult to stay .\nthe water boatman , a common water bug , is a member of the \u2018corixidae\u2019 family . the \u2018hemiptera\u2019 order is classified into more than 300 species of the water boatman . they are found in quite a large number all around the globe and are commonly seen in still or running water such as ponds , lakes , rivers , etc . they are supposed to keep their air bubbles filled so that can breathe underwater as they lack gills like other aquatic animals . they are fond of flying in the artificial lights lit up at night near their residence . their eating habits , sometimes , prove to be helpful as they feed on mosquitoes and other dangerous small insects .\nthe front legs are short , the foot ( tarsus ) is broadened and equipped with long hairs . with its front legs the lesser water boatman whirls up the garbage layer ( detritus ) on the bottom , while the hairs sieve the material out , which is then brought to the snout in search of nourishment . on the thigh ( femur ) of each front leg the males of some species have short thorns , which where erroneously thought to be used for making sound ( stridulation ) .\n) to their snouts . that is sieved through the hairs on their front legs and thrown backwards in small quantities , while the little head moves up and down in search of eatable particles . see the picture on the left . when the weather gets warmer , the mating rituals begin , with many short flights above the water . one fine day in may i was lying on my back in the sun next to a ditch and then saw one lesser water boatman after another dashing from the\ndepths\n, sometimes leaping out of the water ( ! ) , resting for a brief moment on the surface , shining in the sun , to become suddenly airborne . after a short flight they dived back into the water . it really looked like playing . . .\nthe have to keep themselves clung to the plants under the water surface to avoid floating .\nthe lesser water boatman is totally adapted for a life under water . and that ' s where they live almost their entire life . growing up , eating , mating and laying eggs - it all happens in the fourth element . most of the time corixa rests easy on the bottom with it ' s clawed mid legs , or is anchored to a water plant . sometimes , when the bottom or the water plant isn ' t firm enough , and if the insect is lighter then water it will float up slowly like a balloon , then suddenly it rushes down again in search of a better spot . the body is kept more or less horizontal , a little tilted forward , possibly for the best balance with the upward thrusting bubble of air under the abdomen , which makes most species lighter then water . the hind legs are kept side wards , mostly with a rowing movement every second , as if the balance on the two mid legs just can ' t be reached .\nwater boatmen love to fly in the night lights , but these lights do not attract backswimmer . they can also fly but the insects you see near the lights art night are water boatmen .\nthe eggs are glued to water plants , mostly not in a layer , but one by one .\nso while an african elephant ' s rumbling call can be 117 decibels , if the trunked beast was reduced to the size of a water boatman , the marine insect would far outclass it . as would , it turns out , a snapping shrimp , a speckled bush cricket , a bronze dainty frog , an alligator and a human .\nif you get pinched in your swimming pool , don\u2019t blame water boatmen for that . they are surely backswimmers .\nmore lights near the pool mean more water boatmen . avoid the type of lights that attract the insects more .\nin mexico , people collect the water boatmen eggs to make flour out of it and use as a food item .\nto make this colossal acoustic din , the male water boatman rubs his penis ( or\ngenitalia appendage\n) against the ridged surface of his abdomen , like a wooden spoon against a washboard . size doesn ' t matter for this tiny marine animal , though , as the whole area measures about 50 micrometers across \u2013 roughly the width of a human hair .\nwater boatmen are deprived of the ability to thus they are non - predator while backswimmers love to feed on aquatic insects .\nwater boatman can be named as the bug with a singing penis because they sing loud by rubbing their penis on their stomach for the purpose of inviting the females for mating . moreover , the term used for it is stridulating . the sound they make is so loud that it is easily audible to the person standing nearby . the frequency of their sound can reach up to 90 decibels . the singing sound is clearly audible out of the water even after losing most of the sound while crossing from water to air . this is surprising that the sound with such high frequency is created by an insect hardly a half inch long .\nthe body color of almost a half inch long water boatman is dark brown or black but can be light brown with dark spots , depending on the kind . they make the jerking movements during swimming with their long , hairy and oar - like hind legs . then they have slender middle legs and short front legs that are strong enough to capture the prey . having the triangular mouthparts , their flattened body is elongated and oval shaped . the air bubbles are hidden under their wings , used for the survival under the surface of the water .\nto produce the intense sound , the water boatmen\nstridulate\nby rubbing a ridge on their penis across the ridged surface of their abdomen .\nhousehold swimming pools can contain abundant of water boatmen . now the question is that what they find so appealing in the swimming pools except water ? and the answer is that algae , grown on the walls of swimming pools . not all the insects you find in the pool are water boatmen ; some are backswimmers that may take water boatmen as their food . you can get interrupted by them while enjoying in the pool because of their biting habit , to be saved from them , you need to remove both the species . use the following tricks to get them disappeared from the pool :\nalthough 99 % of the sound is lost when transferring from water to air , the songs were still loud enough to be audible to the human ear .\n( hygrobia hermannii ) is known for its name giving noises . other water beetles that make creaking sounds when scared are the great silver beetle , the whirligig beetle and\nslow moving streams , lakes , rivers , ponds and the watery places where abundant of aquatic vegetation can be found , are the places where they like to live . their home is on the muddy surfaces deep down in the water near the aquatic plants . these locations can be anywhere in the world regardless the water being fresh or salty .\nwater boatmen cannot swim on their back , they use their long rare legs and can only swim on the other hand , backswimmer is named after their ability to swim upside down .\nyou get a burning feeling when water boatmen bite . the pinching feel can lead to the swelling of the affected area . these insects are not that harmful those with sensitive skin can get it in severe form .\nmost of the water boatmen are non - predatory and are herbivores , but those are also found that hunt mosquito larvae and other aquatic insects . non - predatory water boatmen satisfy their hunger with algae and the plant that are grown underwater . their saliva helps them to extract the juices from the plants by dissolving them which they suck with their sharp mouthparts . they only can take the juices from the plants as they are unable to bite .\n) , so the uncovered top of the abdomen is visible . the first instar larva are heavier than water but have skin breathing so they don ' t need to go up for air . the last instar larva have the breathing habits of the adult . after several moultings the larva has become the adult insect in the autumn , at least if it ' s still alive , for it is good snack for many inhabitants of the water world , for example trouts . many sports fishermen are acquainted with this fact and make\npour a small amount of liquid dish soap close to the particular light source near the pool and turn all the other outdoor lights off . this method will make difficult for them to stay on the water surface to collect the air to breathe and they will die .\nanother fascinating fact about both species is that , despite living in ponds and frequently visiting its depths , they do not have gills and breathe air . in order to stay submerged for longer they have developed a very clever trick \u2013 it\u2019s very similar to how we humans can stay under water . when diving we take our own supply of air with us in a scuba tank . water boatmen can trap air around their bodies and use this to breathe . in fact , the only reason they visit the surface is to top up their air supply .\nboth the species may look the same , but they have got distinctive characteristic . they both are aquatic and can be living at the same place ; this is the reason people find it difficult to differentiate and call all of them water boatmen . they are different in so many ways such as :\nremarkably ,\nsaid stratchclyde university ' s james windmill in a press release ,\neven though 99 percent of sound is lost when transferring from water to air , the song is so loud that a person walking along the bank can actually hear these tiny creatures singing from the bottom of the river .\nreproduction experiences the three stages of development . males attract the female by making sounds to mate . they lay eggs after mating that remain attached to the plants or water rocks before they hatch into the nymph . the nymph comes to the surface to fill the air bags . then they undergo gradual molting to become an adult . the process lasts for six weeks . they get their wings in the final stage when they become adults .\nif we specifically talk about the corixidae species , they do not bite . however , there are some lookalike species from a different family that shares basic features with water boatmen and often called with the same name . so , in that case , we can say that they bite . you may encounter them while cleaning up your pool . their bite can be hurting as they release a poisonous substance through the mouth to hunt the prey . so be careful while cleaning the pool from inside .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nabout us | terms of service | privacy policy | links | advertise | \u00a9 copyright 2014 g . bradley\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nof the pictured , about 7 mm sized sigara ( two males ) . only the males have little thorns (\nbecause one thought that they were be rubbed over the ribbed snout , to generate the chirping . later it was proved that not those thorns , but small grooves on the thigh (\nmating is still going on : the animals grab each other and float up steer less winding to the surface . . .\nall pictures on this site have been made by g . h . visser ( almelo , holland ) , unless otherwise mentioned . all rights remain with him . these photo ' s may not be used for other then strictly private uses . in case you want to use them for purposes including third parties , you must request permission , by e - mailing the author . i encourage especially those wanting to use the pictures for nature - expositions or other educative targets .\nhover the mouse pointer over the links on the left ( general , the head etc . ) , and you ought to see pictures and text changing . keep the pointer over the part you wish to see . clicking on a link will bring you to a page with more information and pictures . if it doesn ' t work right or you find this too cumbersome , then click on on the word here in the line higher on this page\nthe head is relatively large with big facet - eyes and sits as a streamlining helmet in front of the body . the head ends below in the short , ribbed snout . the front , the face ( frons ) as you might say , has a groove at some species . the antennae are almost not present , and hidden behind the eyes . the neck is thin and protected by the shield which is attached behind the head .\nin the chest ( thorax ) are breath openings ( stigmata ) , in some species a pair may be transformed in a hearing organ . to each of the three segments of the chest is pair of legs attached . the three pairs are totally different .\nthe legs of the second pair , are relatively long and sparely haired , and end in strong claws , with which the insect attaches itself to its resting place .\nthe third pair of legs provides the propulsion : the end part is broadened en flattened and equipped with two seams of long hairs , which flap out with the back stroke , providing a wide surface and flap in at the front stroke , thus giving much less resistance and braking as little speed as possible .\nthe body ( abdomen ) is flat and relatively small . at the endpoint are long hairs protruding , possibly acting as a kind of\nkite tail\nfor balance , and probably having a function to help the insect piercing the surface film while taking air .\nthe coloured front wings are a bug ' s ( hemelytra ) which means half hardened , but with corixa this does not mean that a part is membraneous , see the picture . the front wings are used as cover and under these the second , total membraneous wings are kept folded up . with the second pair the insects flys . between the two wing pairs there is a thin layer of air .\non the next page : the life of corixa and how its structure relates to that .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\nscientists from france and scotland recorded the aquatic animal\nsinging\nat up to 99 . 2 decibels , the equivalent of listening to a loud orchestra play while sitting in the front row .\nthe insect makes the sound by rubbing its penis against its abdomen in a process known as\nstridulation\n.\nin a study published in the journal plos one , the scientists discovered that the small animals make a mighty sound .\nthe team of biologists and engineering experts recorded the insects using specialist underwater microphones .\non average , the songs of m . scholtzi reached 78 . 9 decibels , comparable to a passing freight train .\nwhen we identified without any doubt the sound source , we spent a lot of time making absolutely sure that our recordings of the sounds were calibrated correctly .\ndr windmill explained that the reason the insects don ' t deafen us is down to the bug ' s underwater lifestyle .\nthe song is so loud that a person walking along the bank can actually hear these tiny creatures singing from the bottom of the river ,\nsaid dr windmill .\nthe majority of the loudest animals on earth are also the biggest , with blue whale songs reaching 188 db and elephants ' rumbling calls measuring 117 db .\nalthough remarkable acoustic signals are made by a range of invertebrates , including the miniature cricket and preying mantis , and by large mammals , none compare to m . scholtzi once body size is taken into account .\nif you scale the sound level they produce against their body size , micronecta scholtzi are the loudest animals on earth ,\nsaid dr windmill .\nresearchers believe that sexual selection could be the reason why the insects ' songs reach such high amplitude .\nwe assume that this could be the result of a runaway selection ,\nbiologist and co - author dr jerome sueur from the museum of natural history , paris , told the bbc .\nmales try to compete to have access to females and then try to produce a song as loud as possible potentially scrambling the song of competitors .\ndr sueur explained that the competition could have exaggerated the volume of males ' songs over time .\nin many insects , the song volume is limited because predators would hear them , but observations suggest that m . scholtzi lack auditory predators .\nthere is at least another one insect producing sound with its genitalia . this is a pyrallid moth , syntonarcha iriastis , that uses highly modified genitalia to produce ultrasonic signals ,\nexplained dr sueur .\ninsects seem to be able to use any part of their body to generate sound . some of them use their wings , others their legs , abdomen , head , wings , thorax etcetera .\nwhat makes m . scholtzi extraordinary is that the area they use to create sound only measures about 50 micrometres across , roughly the width of a human hair .\nwe really don ' t know how they make such a loud sound using such a small area ,\nsaid dr windmill .\nwithout any obvious adaptations to amplify the sound , the question of how the animals physically make such a loud call remains a mystery .\nthese very small bugs create sound at very high level , and it could be very useful for future ultrasonic systems to learn how they do that ,\nsaid dr windmill .\nthe bbc is not responsible for the content of external sites . read more .\nthis page is best viewed in an up - to - date web browser with style sheets ( css ) enabled . while you will be able to view the content of this page in your current browser , you will not be able to get the full visual experience . please consider upgrading your browser software or enabling style sheets ( css ) if you are able to do so .\nthe act of rubbing two body parts together to make a noise is called stridulation , and is seen in insects from grasshoppers to spiders . the only known mammal to stridulate is the streaked tenrec , a spiky hedgehog - like critter from madagascar that rubs its quills together .\nwindmill and his team looked at lots of marine and terrestrial creatures and measured their different auditory outbursts in\nacoustic pressure\nto find out how loud animals are in relation to their body size .\nuse of and / or registration on any portion of this site constitutes acceptance of our user agreement ( updated 5 / 25 / 18 ) and privacy policy and cookie statement ( updated 5 / 25 / 18 ) . your california privacy rights . the material on this site may not be reproduced , distributed , transmitted , cached or otherwise used , except with the prior written permission of cond\u00e9 nast . ad choices .\nneed to hire an exterminator ? get a free estimate online from top local home service pros in your area .\nthe bite can be treated with painkillers and antihistamine . if your skin is sensitive or allergic and gets the severe reaction , consult a physician instantly .\nuse the algaecides , bleach or hydrogen peroxide to remove the food sources of the bugs .\nregularly remove the dead insects because they can invite the bugs that can eat on them .\nthese species are known for their loud sounds and also considered as the loudest .\nthey are one of the most boisterous bugs . they use their ability to sing in a loud voice to invite the females for mating .\n? there are four quizzes on invertebrates \u2013 see if you can spot either of our native species in them .\nyour current browser isn ' t compatible with soundcloud . please download one of our supported browsers . need help ?\nyour comments are sought . reliance : ditch animal underwater noise 140729 _ 0314 . wav by klankbeeld ( urltoken ) spring sunsets are here ! by vince alongi ( urltoken ) every person is a human ."]}
{"id": 2089, "summary": [{"text": "buccinum pulchellum is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family buccinidae , the true whelks .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "not to be confounded with : buccinum pulchellum blainville , 1829 : synonym of zafrona pulchella ( blainville , 1829 ) buccinum pulchellum calcara , 1845 : synonym of mazatlania cosentini ( philippi , 1836 ) buccinum pulchellum c. b. adams , 1851 : synonym of decipifus sixaolus olsson & mcginty , 1958", "topic": 21}], "title": "buccinum pulchellum", "paragraphs": ["what type of species is buccinum pulchellum ? below , you will find the taxonomic groups the buccinum pulchellum species belongs to .\nwhich photographers have photos of buccinum pulchellum species ? below , you will find the list of underwater photographers and their photos of the marine species buccinum pulchellum .\nhow to identify buccinum pulchellum marine species ? below , you will find the list of main identification criteria and physical characteristics of marine species buccinum pulchellum . for each identification criteria , the corresponding physical characteristics of marine species buccinum pulchellum are marked in green .\nworms - world register of marine species - buccinum pulchellum g . o . sars , 1878\nbuccinum pulchellum , g . o . sars , 1878 , photos , facts and physical characteristics\nwhere is buccinum pulchellum found in the world ? below , you will find the list and a world map of the geographic distribution where the marine species buccinum pulchellum can be found .\nnomenclature the name buccinum pulchellum g . o . sars , 1878 , is a junior homonym of b . pulchellum blainville , 1829 , and several others . . . .\n( of buccinum pulchellum blainville , 1829 ) monsecour k . ( 2010 ) . checklist of columbellidae . pers . com . [ details ]\n\n' buccinum pulchellum\n' is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family buccinidae , the true whelks .\n- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : buccinum pulchellum g . o . sars , 1878 - id : 1960700695\nnomenclature the name buccinum pulchellum g . o . sars , 1878 , is a junior homonym of b . pulchellum blainville , 1829 , and several others . the conditions of iczn art . 23 . 9 may apply and , in the meantime , worms maintains prevailing usage . [ details ]\nto biodiversity heritage library ( 27 publications ) ( from synonym buccinum pulchellum blainville , 1829 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 5 publications ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 6 publications ) ( from synonym columbella subcostulata c . b . adams , 1845 ) to encyclopedia of life to itis\n( of buccinum oryza dunker , 1847 ) monsecour k . ( 2010 ) . checklist of columbellidae . pers . com . [ details ]\nbuccinum is a genus of medium - sized sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family buccinidae , the true whelks . snails in this genus are commonly called whelks , a name shared with several related and unrelated species . the common whelk buccinum undatum is the most common representative of the genus in the northern atlantic ocean .\n( of buccinum pulchellum blainville , 1829 ) blainville h . m . ( d . de ) ( 1828 - 1830 ) . malacozoaires ou animaux mollusques . [ in ] faune fran\u00e7aise . levrault , paris 320 p . , 48 pl . [ livr . 18 ( 1828 ) , p . 1 - 80 ; livr . 2 ( 1829 ) , p . 81 - 176 ; livr . 23 ( 1829 ) , p . 177 - 240 ; livr . 28 ( 1830 ) , p . 241 - 320 ] . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 178 [ details ]\nsars , g . o . ( 1878 ) . bidrag til kundskaben om norges arktiske fauna . i . mollusca regionis arcticae norvegiae . oversigt over de i norges arktiske region forekommende bl\u00f8ddyr . br\u00f8gger , christiania . xiii + 466 pp . , pls 1 - 34 & i - xviii . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ngofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nblainville h . m . ( d . de ) ( 1828 - 1830 ) . malacozoaires ou animaux mollusques . [ in ] faune fran\u00e7aise . levrault , paris 320 p . , 48 pl . [ livr . 18 ( 1828 ) , p . 1 - 80 ; livr . 2 ( 1829 ) , p . 81 - 176 ; livr . 23 ( 1829 ) , p . 177 - 240 ; livr . 28 ( 1830 ) , p . 241 - 320 ] . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 178 [ details ]\nmonsecour k . ( 2010 ) . checklist of columbellidae . pers . com . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nblainville h . m . ( d . de ) ( 1828 - 1830 ) . malacozoaires ou animaux mollusques . [ in ] faune fran\u00e7aise . levrault , paris 320 p . , 48 pl . [ livr . 18 ( 1828 ) , p . 1 - 80 ; livr . 2 ( 1829 ) , p . 81 - 176 ; livr . 23 ( 1829 ) , p . 177 - 240 ; livr . 28 ( 1830 ) , p . 241 - 320 ] .\nmonsecour k . ( 2010 ) . checklist of columbellidae . pers . com .\ndepth : 0 to 9 m ( live 0 . 6 to 9 m )\ntype locality : ham bay , st . croix [ by lectotype designation of usticke ( 1971 ) ]\ncomments : spelled ' multicosta ' in the text and on the plate , but ' multicostata ' in the index ; the latter spelling is here adopted as it was used by usticke ( 1971 ) and boyko & cordeiro ( 2001a ) .\ntype locality : st . croix ( harvey ' s is . ) ; st . martins ; st . barts ; antigua ; grenada\ndistribution : virgin islands : st . croix ; st . martin / st . maarten , st . barthelemy / st . bartholomew , antigua ; st . vincent & the grenadines : grenada\ncomments : also treated as a subspecies by usticke , therefore available under iczn article 45 . 6 . 1 ; see boyko & cordeiro ( 2001a ) .\nspecierum novarum conchyliorum , in jamaica repertorum , synopsis proceedings of the boston society of natural history 2 1 - 17 . [ stated date : - - jan 1845 . ]\ndiagnoses buccinorum quorundam novorum zeitschrift f\u00fcr malakozoologie 4 59 - 64 . [ stated date : - - apr 1847 . ]\na supplementary listing of new shells , to be added to the check list of the marine shells of st . croix 32 pp . , 6 pls . author : st . croix . [ stated date : - - feb 1969 . ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe shell reaches a maximum size of 4mm , has a smooth , bulbous protoconch of 1 . 5 dark brown whorls . adults have three moderately convex whorls , with low - lying axial ribs crossed by black - brown spiral cords to form small beads . the shell is pale orange between the cords . the operculum is yellow - brown , thin and translucent . the animal is creamy yellow , with patches of black on the head and upper surface of the foot .\nolsson , a . a . & mcginty , t . l . 1958 . recent marine mollusks from the caribbean coast of panama with the description of some new genera and species . bulletins of american paleontology vol . 39 ( 177 ) radwin , g . e . 1978 . the family columbellidae in the western atlantic , part iib \u2013 the pyreninae ( continued ) . the veliger 20 ( 4 ) : 328 - 344 . redfern , c . 2001 . bahamian seashells . bahamianseashells . com , inc . boca raton , florida . page : 98 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nerror . page cannot be displayed . please contact your service provider for more details . ( 25 )\nrosenberg , g . ; moretzsohn , f . ; garc\u00eda , e . f . ( 2009 ) . gastropoda ( mollusca ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 579\u2013699 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of columbella subcostulata c . b . adams , 1845 ) monsecour k . ( 2010 ) . checklist of columbellidae . pers . com . [ details ]\n( of mitrella elegantula m\u00f6rch , 1860 ) monsecour k . ( 2010 ) . checklist of columbellidae . pers . com . [ details ]\n( of anachis subcostulata ( c . b . adams , 1845 ) ) integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of anachis subcostulata var . subcincta nowell - usticke , 1969 ) monsecour k . ( 2010 ) . checklist of columbellidae . pers . com . [ details ]\nrosenberg , g . ; moretzsohn , f . ; garc\u00eda , e . f . ( 2009 ) . gastropoda ( mollusca ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 579\u2013699 < i > in : < / i > felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . texas a & m press , college station , texas .\nrosenberg , g . ; moretzsohn , f . ; garc\u00eda , e . f . ( 2009 ) gastropoda ( mollusca ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 579\u2013699 < i > in : < / i > felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota\nturgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , et al . , 1998 : common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks , 2nd ed . . american fisheries society special publication 26 . 526 .\ndistribution : greenland : west greenland , east greenland ; canada : nunavut , queen elizabeth islands , baffin island , labrador , gulf of st . lawrence , quebec , nova scotia ; usa : massachusetts\ndistribution : greenland : west greenland , east greenland ; canada : gulf of st . lawrence\ncomments : non dall , 1885 , nec posselt & jensen , 1898 , p . 209 .\ndistribution : greenland : west greenland ; canada : nunavut , baffin island , newfoundland , gulf of st . lawrence\nreferences : m\u00f6ller ( 1842a ) m ; posselt & jensen ( 1899 ) n ; f . c . baker ( 1919 ) { n } ; macpherson ( 1971 ) ddsew ; golikov ( 1980 ) s\nmollusca of the crocker land expedition to northwest greenland and grinnell island bulletin of the american museum of natural history 41 479 - 517 , pls . 25 - 27 . [ stated date : 01 dec 1919 . ]\nobservations on new or interesting mollusca contained , for the most part , in the museum of the zoological society zoological journal 4 359 - 379 , pl . 9 . [ stated date : - - jan 1829 . ]\nencyclop\u00e9die m\u00e9thodique . histoire naturelle des vers encyclop\u00e9die m\u00e9thodique . histoire naturelle des vers 1 1 - 344 . panckoucke : paris .\ndans un voyage au p\u00f4le bor\u00e9al journal de physique , de chimie , et d ' histoire naturelle 88 462 - 467 . [ stated date : - - jun 1819 . ]\nbeitr\u00e4ge zu einer malacozoologia rossica . ii . aufz\u00e4hlung und beschreibung der zur meeresfauna russlands geh\u00f6rigen einschaler m\u00e9moires de l ' acad\u00e9mie imp\u00e9riale des sciences de saint - p\u00e9tersbourg , sciences naturelles ( 6 ) 6 329 - 516 , pls . 1 - 11 .\nfortegnelse over gro / nlands blo / ddyr gro / nland geographisk og statistisk beskrevet 2 75 - 100 commission hos universitetsboghandler : kjo / benhavn . [ stated date : 08 apr 1857 . ]\ncatalogue des mollusques du spitzberg recueillis par le dr . h . kroyer pendant le voyage de la corvette\nen juin 1838 m\u00e9moires de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 malacologique de belgique 4 7 - 32 .\ngro / nlands brachiopoder og blo / ddyr meddelelser om gro / nland 23 xix + 298 pp . , 2 pls . , 1 fold - out map .\nbidrag til kundskaben om norges artktische fauna . i . mollusca regionis articae norvegiae xvi + 466 pp . , 1 map , pls . 1 - 34 , i - xviii . bro / gger : christiania .\ncatalogue of marine mollusca added to the fauna of the new england region , during the past ten years transactions of the connecticut academy of arts and sciences 5 451 - 587 , pls . 42 - 44 , 57 - 58 .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more"]}
{"id": 2096, "summary": [{"text": "crotalus cerastes cercobombus is a venomous pitviper subspecies found in an area that covers much of the eastern part of the sonoran desert in the southwestern united states and northwestern mexico .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the subspecific epithet means buzzertail . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "crotalus cerastes cercobombus", "paragraphs": ["crotalus cerastes cerastes hallowell 1854 crotalus cerastes hallowell 1854 : 95 crotalus cerastes cerastes klauber 1944 crotalus cerastes \u2014 stebbins 1985 : 229 crotalus cerastes \u2014 liner 1994 crotalus cerastes \u2014 mcdiarmid , campbell & tour\u00e9 1999 : 279 crotalus crastes [ sic ] \u2014 aldridge & duvall 2002 ( in error ) aechmophrys cerastes \u2014 hoser 2009 crotalus cerastes cerastes \u2014 beaman & hayes 2008 crotalus cerastes \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 189 crotalus cerastes cercobombus savage & cliff 1953 crotalus cerastes cercobombus \u2014 beaman & hayes 2008 crotalus cerastes cercobombus \u2014 skubowius 2012 crotalus cerastes laterorepens klauber 1944 crotalus cerastes laterorepens \u2014 klauber 1952 : 112 crotalus cerastes laterorepens \u2014 beaman & hayes 2008\nteunissen , daisy 2012 . crotalus cerastes cercobombus . litteratura serpentium 32 ( 4 ) : 236 - 245 - get paper here\nhouston , t . c . 2005 . ophiophagy in a captive sonoran desert sidewinder ( crotalus cerastes cercobombus ) . herpetol . rev . [ in review ]\nthere are 3 subspecies of sidewinder . mojave desert ( cerastes ) , sonoran desert ( cercobombus ) and colorado desert ( laterorepens ) .\nsonoran desert sidewinder ( c . c . cercobombus - savage & cliff , 1953 )\nscientific name : crotalus cerastes cercobombus description : sidewinders are know for their sideways locomotion , moving in an s - shaped curve . they can be colored cream , tan , pink or gray without a conspicuous pattern .\nsievert , j . 2002 . beobachtungen bei der vergesellschaftung von m\u00e4nnlichen crotalus cerastes cerastes hallowell 1854 im terrarium . sauria 24 ( 3 ) : 45 - 46 - get paper here\nsievert , jens 2008 . die seitenwinderklapperschlange crotalus cerastes . natur und tier verlag , m\u00fcnster , 64 pp . - get paper here\nvenomous ! crotalus scutulatus scutulatus and crotalus cerastes laterorepens hybridized in captivity . the validity of the subspecies of c . cerastes is questioned by crother ( 2000 ) . nomenclature : hoser\u2019s 2009 classification and nomenclature has been rejected as unnecessary and unavailable by w\u00fcster & bernils 2011 .\nstrimple , pete 1993 . crotalus cerastes , the sidewinder . litteratura serpentium 13 ( 6 ) : 180 - 183 - get paper here\nsievert , j . 2002 . crotalus cerastes hallowell . sauria ( suppl . ) 24 ( 3 ) : 559 - 564 - get paper here\nalso , shouldn ' t it be crotalus viridus concolor instead of crotalus concolor . since it is a subspecies of the prarie rattlesnake ( crotalus viridus viridus ) . phillip higgins live and let live\nrandel , c . j . , iii , and h . o . clark , jr . 2007 . mojave desert sidewinder ( crotalus cerastes cerastes ) behavior . sonoran herpetologist 20 ( 9 ) : 96 . - get paper here\ncercobombus : mexico ( nw sonora ) , usa ( arizona ) ; type locality : near gila bend , maricopa county , arizona , usa .\nbakker , john 2003 . my experiences in keeping and breeding crotalus cerastes hallowell , 1854 . litteratura serpentium 23 ( 3 ) : 141 - 144 - get paper here\ntai - a - pin , j . 2008 . crotalus cerastes , de sidewinder of hoornratelslang . lacerta 66 ( 1 - 3 ) : 22 - 29 - get paper here\npowell , r . ; inboden , m . & smith , d . b . 1990 . erstnachweis von hybriden zwischen den klapperschlangen crotalus cerastes laterorepens klauber 1944 und crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( kennicott 1861 ) . salamandra 26 ( 4 ) : 319 - 320 - get paper here\ncrotalus cerastes - hallowell , 1854 - proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , vol . 7 , p . 95 crotalus cerastes laterorepens - klauber , 1944 - trans . san diego soc . nat . hist . , vol . 10 , p . 94 , fig . 2 , map from original description citations for the reptiles and amphibians of north america \u00a9 ellin beltz\nc . c . laterorepens - colorado desert sidewinder compared to c . c . cerastes - mohave desert sidewinder\nrorabaugh , j . c . 2007 . apparent rain harvesting by a colorado desert sidewinder ( crotalus cerastes laterorepens ) . sonoran herpetologist 20 ( 12 ) : 128 - 129 . - get paper here\nthis subspecies , crotalus cerastes laterorepens - colorado desert sidewinder , is found in southeastern california - roughly south of the san bernardino county line and west to the slopes of the peninsular ranges . the species crotalus cerastes - sidewinder , is found in the southern california deserts , east through southern nevada to extreme southwestern utah , into western arizona , and south into northeast baja california mexico , and northwest sonora , mexico .\nwalde , andrew d . ; andrea currylow , angela m . walde , joel strong 2016 . arboreal behaviours of the sidewinder ( crotalus cerastes ) rattlesnake herpetology notes 9 : 55 - 58 - get paper here\ngreat article . i am looking to purchase a pair or two of crotalus cerastes sonoran and mojave or other southern cal subspecies . captive born only . cash paid . will p / u within 150 miles .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - sonoran sidewinder ssp . < i > cercobombus < / i > with prey\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - sonoran sidewinder ssp . < i > cercobombus < / i > with prey\ntitle =\narkive photo - sonoran sidewinder ssp . < i > cercobombus < / i > with prey\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ngoodman , c . m . , schraft , h . a . & clark , r . w . 2017 . crotalus cerastes ( sidewinder ) diet / scavenging . herpetological review 48 ( 3 ) : 670 .\nklauber , laurence m . 1944 . the sidewinder , crotalus cerastes , with description of a new subspecies . transactions of the san diego society of natural history 10 ( 8 ) : 91 - 126 - get paper here\nblomstem , patrik , gordon w . schuett , mats h\u00f6ggren and randall s . reiserer . 2016 . fifteen consecutive years of successful reproduction in a captive female sidewinder ( crotalus cerastes ) herpetological review 47 ( 1 ) : 69 - 72\nthe sidewinder is a small rattlesnake from the southwest range of the united states and the northwest of mexico . hallowell was the first to describe the species in 1854 as crotalus cerastes ( 58 . 7 cm ) . l . klauber described the subspecies\nsavage , j . m . and cliff , f . s . 1953 . a new subspecies of sidewinder , crotalus cerastes , from arizona . nat . hist . misc . ( chicago acad . sci . j ( 119 ) : 1 - 7\nfig 2 . variation to an extent is common within this species . this photograph illustrates the variation in crotalus concolor .\nplease note a new website : western rattlers : biological notes on the crotalus oreganus complex from the colorado plateau . urltoken\ncerastes : e california , w nevada , sw utah , nw arizona ; type locality : bank of the mojave river and mojave desert , california , usa .\nwebber , michael m . ; tereza jezkova , and javier a . rodr\u00edguez - robles < br / > 2016 . feeding ecology of sidewinder rattlesnakes , crotalus cerastes ( viperidae ) herpetologica , vol . 72 , no . 4 , december 2016 : 324 - 330 . < br / > - get paper here\nthe dark segment of the rattle closest to the body on an adult c . c . laterorepens is black . the dark segment of the rattle closest to the body on an adult c . c . cerastes is brown , the dark rattle segment may not become fully black on c . c . laterorepens until the snake is an adult with 3 or more rattle segments . the last dark marks on the tail do not always correspond to the color of the dark rattle segment . c . c . cerastes has 21 scale rows . c . c . laterorepens has 23 scale rows . c . c . laterorepens has a higher number of ventral scales than c . c . cerastes . for more information see klauber , 1944 c . cerastes subspecies .\nwinchell , s . 2007 . klapperschlangen ! die gattung crotalus . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 12 ( 66 ) : 18 - 25 - get paper here\nsidewinders are nice snakes ! i publish small herpmagazine r\u00e4stik ( adder ) , where are articles in estonian but are abridged versions from all articles in english ) . in next issue is article about mojave sidewinder ( crotalus c . cerastes ) . this subspecies is quite interesting but very tiny . especially juveniles whom should force - feed quite long time . very often to 1 year . after that they eat without help . other two subspecies - colorado sidewinder ( crotalus c . laterorepens ) and sonora sidewinder are much bigger . toomas urltoken\nbrennan , t . c . , holycross , a . t . 2004 crotalus oreganus concolor . geo . dist . herpetol . rev . 35 ( 2 ) .\nsome rattlesnake species are very rare and have small ranges . the banded rock rattlesnake , crotalus lepidus is\na very obscure , protected species in the chiricahua mountains .\nthe ridgenose rattlesnake , crotalus willardi , is a another very rare , protected species , also found in the chiricahua mountains in southern arizona , as is sisturus milarius , the western massasauga ,\na pygmy rattler .\nsmaller pygmy rattlers are placed in the genus sisturus . the tiger rattlesnake , crotalus tigris , is also\nvery rare\nand has distinct tiger - like stripes .\nhoser , r . 2009 . a reclassification of the rattlesnakes ; species formerly exclusively referred to the genera crotalus and sistrurus . australasian j . herpetol . 3 : 1 - 21 - get paper here\nthey belong to the genus crotalus , that of rattlesnakes and 3 subspecies are currently recognized by scientists . they are also known by other common names like the horned rattlesnake , sidewinder rattlesnake or sidewinder rattler .\nashton , k . g . 2003 . movement and mating behavior of adult m ale midget - faded r attlesnakes , crotalus oreganu s concolor , in wyoming . copeia 2003 : 190 - 19 4 .\nashton , k . g . and t . m . patton . 2001 . movement and reproductive biology of female midget faded rattlesnakes , crotalus viridis concolor , in wyoming . copeia 2001 : 229 - 234 .\nc . c . cerastes - mohave desert sidewinder c . s . scutulatus - northern mohave rattlesnake c . atrox - western diamond - backed rattlesnake c . ruber - red diamond rattlesnake c . m . pyrrhus - southwestern speckled rattlesnake c . o . helleri - southern pacific rattlesnake\nw\u00fcster , w . & b\u00e9rnils , r . s . 2011 . on the generic classification of the rattlesnakes , with special reference to the neotropical crotalus durissus complex ( squamata : viperidae ) . zoologia 28 ( 4 ) : 417\u2013419\nmackessy , s . p . , k . williams , and k . g . ashton . 2003 . ontogenetic variation in venom composition and diet of crotalus oreganus concolor . a case of venom paedomorphosis ? . copeia 2003 : 769 - 782 .\ndouglas , michael e . ; marlis r . douglas , gordon w . schuett & louis w . porras 2006 . evolution of rattlesnakes ( viperidae : crotalus ) in the warm deserts of western north america shaped by neogene vicariance and quaternary climate change . molecular ecology 15 : 3353 - 3374\nthe midget faded rattlesnake is one of the smallest rattlesnakes in colorado plateau region of the united states . these small rattlesnakes are believed to be a stunted form of the great basin rattlesnake ( crotalus lutosus ) similar in superficial appearance to the hopi rattlesnake ( crotalus viridis nuntius ) . although nuntius and concolor are similar it is not believed to be a direct relationship ( douglas et al . 2002 ) . recent studies using mitochondrial dna ( mtdna ) and d - 2 loop sequencing has suggested to elevate midget faded rattlesnakes as well as others from the \u201cwestern viridis complex\u201d to full species status ( douglas et al . 2002 ) .\nvery nice ! ( have read the dutch version already : ) ) good to hear you ' l keep breeding them . ( just for readers ' info , i ' ve bought 2 crotalus c c neonates from john , and they are absolutely perfect snaks ( if you get them feeding that is : ) ) bye , peter\nkinds of rattlesnakes in arizona . a strict inclusion chart of the scientific taxonomy . herein the known species and subspecies are presented according to their scientific classification . the genus sisturus represents the pygmy rattlesnakes , of which one species is known in arizona . in the genus crotalus there are ten species and six subspecies of two of the species .\ndouglas , m . e . , m . r . douglas , g . w . schuett , l . w . porras , and a . t . holycross . 2002 . phylogeography of the western rattlesnake ( crotalus viridis ) complex , with emphasis on the colorado plateau . in scheutt et al . [ eds . ] , biol . of the vipers 2002 : 11 - 50 .\nin conclusion , midget faded rattlesnakes ( crotalus concolor ) are a wonderful and unique species that requires little effort for successful captive propagation . although , keeping and breeding concolor is a rewarding experience for all involved , t hese animals are at high risk from human encroachment and are a species that needs conservational attention . therefore , with an increase in captive propagation , research , and public education this species can be around for many more generations to enjoy .\nthe western diamondback rattlesnake , crotalus atrox , is the most common species . they are difficult to see ;\nthey blend in very well .\nmany years ago it wasn ' t too uncommon to find six - footers , but now with habitat destruction . . . seeing anything over four feet is pretty rare .\nthe western diamondback range is arkansas to southern california and south into northern mexico . they have ten rattles at about 5 - 6 years of age .\nthere are\nseventeen different types of rattlesnakes\nin arizona . direct elicitation revealed that\ntypes\nrefers to the\neleven main species and six subspecies\nso far known and recorded in arizona . rattlesnakes in arizona belong to two genera of snakes . one species is a member of the genus sisturus .\nthe smaller pygmy rattlers are in the sisturus .\nthe remainder are members of the genus crotalus . arizona has more types of rattlesnakes than in any other area in their range , with seventeen of the\nthirty known species , including subspecies\nof rattlesnakes .\nthe arizona speckled rattlesnake , crotalus mitchelli ,\nhas a very unique distinction . . . of being the only blue - eyed snake in the entire northern hemisphere .\nits coloration\nranges all the way from a snow white , all the way to a grey , all the way to royal blue in some areas , and in the red rock areas it will actually take on a red tint .\ntheir head is small , and as a bat eater they are unique . they are\ntwice as venomous as a western diamondback\nalthough\nfull grown at three feet\nin length . they are most prevalent in mountains in the gila bend to yuma area . they are an uncommon species .\nthe venom of the midget faded rattlesnake is composed of a much higher neurotoxin than one would assume . this species carries the presence of a phospholipase a2 - based b - neurotoxin ( concolor toxin ) and several myotoxins ( mackessy et al . 2003 ) which makes concolor venoms highly toxic . in fact concolor is the most toxic out of the ( western rattlesnake clade , crotalus oreganus ) . it was hypothesized that concolor had an ontogenetic variation in venom composition due to is shifts in diet from juvenile to adulthood . however , it was discovered that although juveniles feed predominantly on lizards ( scleoporus ssp . ) and adult s on rodents ( peromyscus and tamias ) there isn ' t much in ontogenetic varia tion in venoms ( mackessy et al . 2003 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nuetz , p . & jir\u00ed hosek ( eds . ) , the reptile database , ( http : / / www . reptile - database . org )\nmcdiarmid , roy w . , jonathan a . campbell , and t ' shaka a . tour\u00e9\nsnake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , vol . 1\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nlaterorepens : california , arizona , ne baja california , nw sonora ; type locality : the narrows , san diego county , california , usa .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\naldridge , r . d . & duvall , d . 2002 . evolution of the mating season in the pitvipers of north america . herpetological monographs 16 : 1 - 25 - get paper here\nalshammari , ahmed m . eman el - abd ; massimo ciccozzi ; alessandra lo presti ; marta giovanetti ; eleonora cella 2014 . single - gene versus double - gene tree analyses in molecular classification of saudi venomous snakes . arab j sci eng . ; < br / > doi 10 . 1007 / s13369 - 014 - 1491 - y - get paper here\nbeaman , k . r . & hayes , w . k . 2008 . rattlesnakes : research trends and annotated checklist . in : hayes et al . ( eds ) , the biology of rattlesnakes . loma linda university press , pp . 5 - 16\nbezy , r . l . , p . c . rosen , t . r . van devender , and e . f . enderson . 2017 . southern distributional limits of the sonoran desert herpetofauna along the mainland coast of northwestern mexico . mesoamerican herpetology 4 ( 1 ) : 138\u2013167 - get paper here\ncampbell , j . a . & lamar , w . w . 1989 . the venomous reptiles of latin america . comstock publishing / cornell university press , ithaca\ncrother , b . i . ( ed . ) 2012 . standard common and current scientific names for north american amphibians , turtles , reptiles , and crocodilians , seventh edition . herpetological circular 39 : 1 - 92\ncunningham , john d . 1966 . field observations on the thermal relations of rattlesnakes . southwestern naturalist 11 ( 1 ) : 140 - 142 - get paper here\nhallowell , e . 1854 . description of new reptiles from california . proc . acad . nat . sci . philad . 7 [ 1854 ] : 91 - 97 - get paper here\nheimes , p . 2016 . snakes of mexico . chimaira , frankfurt , 572 pp\njones , thomas r . ; randall d . babb , frank r . hensley , christine liwanpo , and brian k . sullivan 2011 . sonoran desert snake communities at two sites : concordance and effects of increased road traffic . herp . cons . biol . 6 ( 1 ) : 61 - 71 - get paper here\nklauber , laurence m . 1952 . taxonomic studies on rattlesnakes of mainland mexico . bulletins of the zoological society of san diego ( 26 ) : 1 - 143\nklauber , lawrence m . 1943 . the correlation of variability within and between rattlesnake populations . copeia 1943 ( 2 ) : 115 - 118 - get paper here\nlillywhite , harvey b . 2014 . how snakes work : structure , function and behavior of the world ' s snakes . oxford university press , new york , 256 pp\nmarvi , hamidreza ; chaohui gong , nick gravish , henry astley , matthew travers , ross l . hatton , joseph r . mendelson iii , howie choset , david l . hu , and daniel i . goldman 2014 . sidewinding with minimal slip : snake and robot ascent of sandy slopes . science 346 ( 6206 ) : 224 - 229 ; doi : 10 . 1126 / science . 1255718 - get paper here\nmcdiarmid , r . w . ; campbell , j . a . & tour\u00e9 , t . a . 1999 . snake species of the world . vol . 1 . herpetologists\u2019 league , 511 pp .\nmeik , jesse m and andr\u00e9 pires - dasilva 2009 . evolutionary morphology of the rattlesnake style . bmc evolutionary biology 2009 , 9 : 35 - get paper here\nnev\u00e1rez - de los reyes ; manuel , david lazcano , javier banda - leal and ian recchio 2014 . notes on mexican herpetofauna 22 : herpetofauna of the continental portion of themunicipality of hermosillo , sonora , mexico . bull . chicago herp . soc . 49 ( 8 ) : 105 - 115 - get paper here\nphelps , t . 2010 . old world vipers . edition chimaira , frankfurt , 558 pp . [ critical review in sauria 33 ( 3 ) : 19 and hr 43 : 503 ]\nreiserer , randall s . and gordon w . schuett 2016 . the origin and evolution of the rattlesnake rattle : misdirection , clarification , theory , and progress - get paper here\nskubowius , bernd 2012 . auf schlangensuche in arizona . draco 13 ( 50 ) : 62 - 69 - get paper here\nstebbins , r . c . 1985 . a field guide to western reptiles and amphibians , 2nd ed . houghton mifflin , boston\nwallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .\nwerning , heiko 2012 . die reptilien und amphibien des s\u00fcdwestens . draco 13 ( 50 ) : 18 - 60 - get paper here\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\nwe request that if you make use of the textual contents of this site in reports , publications , etc . that you cite and credit the author ( s ) and photographer ( s ) . all photos on this website are copyrighted . however , those found in the species account and habitat sections may be used for any noncommercial scientific , educational , or conservation purposes provided that photographs are not altered and continue to bear the copyright symbol and name of the photographer . please contact the photographer regarding commercial use of copyrighted photographs .\nit is finally a sunny day in central europe and my sidewinder takes a little sunbath thousands of miles from home . enjoy . . .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n) and sometimes - rocky hills . the difference between the three subspecies ( aside from geographical variations ) is primarily their size , with\nall three sidewinders have the characteristic elevated scales ( horns ) above their eyes . it is thought that these\nhorns\nprotect the eyes when digging in the sand . the color of the three species varies from yellow , light brown to grey .\nis normally of a creamy white color . all three sidewinders have 28 - 45 red - brown spots along the length of their back . along the length of the back are from 141 - 146 scales .\nconsists primarily of mice , kangaroo rats and lizards . funk ( 1965 ) also mentioned birds ( sparrow ) and small snakes ( arizona ,\nis primarily nocturnal and cars kill many snakes while they lay on the ( still ) warm asphalt . in spite of their small size , they are still a complete rattlesnake . the venom is potentially deadly and the only reason that bite accidents normally are not fatal is because of the small quantity of venom that is injected . the rattle is well developed and can be heard from a long distance away .\nthe male ( captive bred in 1993 in germany ) i bought in february 1996 . the animal was and still is about 40 cm long . it was placed in a terrarium measuring 100 - 50 - 50 cm . this terrarium was heated using a 60 - watt lightbulb , which was placed over a rocky cave . as a substrate i used sand and some rocks . cactuswood and a small water container were placed in the terrarium . the dth was 35\u00b0 celsius under the lightbulb and 22\u00b0 celsius at the other end of the terrarium . ntl was 20\u00b0 celsius .\nthe male is a moderate eater who eats about six mice between two hibernations . after i had the male for about six months , i bought a beautiful looking female at a snake convention . i could not have been happier , but the very next morning she died !\nseveral months later i bought 10 one - month - old juveniles . each animal was placed in a transparent shoebox with sand as a substrate , a hiding box and a watercontainer . these shoeboxes were placed on a heating strip .\nin the beginning all the animals refused to eat , but after several force - feeding they all took pinkies willingly . prey was offered every 7 - 10 days and the juveniles did well . when the animals were about 4 months old they began to die one by one . after research there was no cause found . all the young ate well and then died one or two days later . (\nafter this disappointment i bought an adult female in october 1998 . because i knew the owner and had seen the animal many times at his house . i was sure i could place the two animals together . well , that was a hit . i put the two together at 1800 hrs and ten minutes later they were in copula until 1120 hrs the next morning . this kind of mating was seen daily over a long period and when the animals were placed in hibernation there were 162 hours of mating on the record . the female had eaten the entire time , sometimes even during mating .\nthe animals were placed in hibernation in november 1998 at a constant temperature of 15\u00b0 celsius . in march the animals were placed back in the terrarium with the normal heating . the female started eating right away but the male only wanted to mate . maybe this is the time to mention that according to renae thijssen , two males cannot be kept together . he has seen that some males , who were kept together for a long time , started to bite each other heavily for no apparent reason .\nin the following weeks , i observed numerous matings . the female always stayed in the warm area of the terrarium and ate everything she could catch . she became heavier , and on the 24\nof june she laid 8 infertile eggs . after i cleaned the terrarium , i offered her two mice , which she took like there was no tomorrow . much to my surprise , the two lovers were in copula the next morning .\nwent wrong the last time ? was one of the animals infertile or was the female already pregnant and did the eggs die during hibernation ? after discussing this with my friend renae thijssen , we decided to use the following technique . the animals were not placed in hibernation and a 15 - watt heating pad was placed in the rocky cave , which was heated 24 / 7 .\nthe lightbulb was burning on the normal schedule . this gave the animals the chance to select their favourite spot . it was odd to see that the female stayed in the cool area of the terrarium almost all of the time . the animals just kept on mating and both stayed on their food . in the beginning of march , the female became extremely heavy . with a length of 52 cm , the girth of her body measured about 20 - cm . from march on she stayed on the heating pad at night with the rear end of her body , but as soon as the light went on she went to the cooler area . her eating habits were ferocious , - - 2 - 3 mice were taken and if i were not careful , she would steal the mouse from the male .\nfrom the end of april on she stayed almost constantly on the heating pad . only with the extreme temperatures in the first two weeks of may she would sometimes leave the hotspot .\nof may she refused food for the first time since 1998 . she stayed near a mouse with her head resting on it as if she wanted to save it for later . after i removed the smelly mouse after two days she instantly moved to the warm end of the terrarium .\ni got a good tip from a friend , renae thijssen . he has bought many young sidewinders in the past and they have all survived . one of his techniques is to give all the juveniles a drop of water on a regular basis . this is done by placing a drop of water on the juveniles mouth with a pipette . i cannot say if this method works , but it is worth trying . who knows ?\nshows that young snakes of this species have to\nlearn to drink\n. in all rattlesnake literature it is said that\ni would like to thank rena thijssen for his advice and cooperation , and my very good friend fred van lit for editing the english version of this article .\nthat is a great article . as someone that just moved to the southwest and keeps ` winders , you have put together a very good over view of keeping these animals . thanks , i ` ll use your info for my animals . bill .\nhey john that is a very good article you wrote and makes me want to work with sidewinders even more . i am 14 years old and have the experience needed and know the responsibilities towards keeping these snakes . do you think it is okay for me to keep sidewinders as my first venomous . i have worked with these guys before , so i know what i am doing . i have also worked with other rattlesnakes out in the field .\nthank you for your article . i have been seriously considering keeping sidewinders lately and this article has given me some much needed insight . luke\ngreat article , very informative and i enjoyed it very much . since the original article was written several years ago , how about writing an update discussing how everything went with the neonates and what you have going on with this species now ? shannon\ngreat article , very informative and i enjoyed it very much . since the original article was written several years ago , how about writing an update discussing how everything went with the neonates and what you have going on with this species now ?\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis species ' range extends from southeastern california , southern nevada , and extreme southwestern utah , south through southwestern arizona in the united states , to northeastern baja california and northwestern sonora , and isla tiburon , in mexico ( grismer 2002 , stebbins 2003 , campbell and lamar 2004 ) . in sonora , this species occurs north and west of the nogales - hermosillo - guaymas highway , with the heaviest concentration in the desierto de altar ( armstrong and murphy 1979 ) . the elevational range extends from below sea level to about 6 , 000 feet ( 1 , 830 m asl ) ( stebbins 2003 ) , but most localities are below 1 , 200 m asl ( campbell and lamar 2004 ) .\nthis species is represented by a large number of occurrences . the adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100 , 000 . this snake is locally common in suitable habitat . its extent of occurrence , area of occupancy , number of subpopulations , and population size are probably relatively stable .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nusing this photo this photo and associated text may not be used except with express written permission from thomas eimermacher . to obtain permission for personal , academic , commercial , or other uses , or to inquire about high resolution images , prints , fees , or licensing , or if you have other questions , contact thomas eimermacher dispholidini [ at ] gmail . com . ( replace the [ at ] with the @ symbol before sending an email . )\n0000 0000 1206 1220 copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 uc regents . all rights reserved .\nnhpa / photoshot holdings ltd 29 - 31 saffron hill london ec1n 8sw united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 7421 6003 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 7421 6006 sales @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nthe average size of a mature sonoran desert sidewinder is 1 . 5 - 2 feet , with some getting as large as 2 . 5 feet in length .\nthe sonoran desert sidewinder looks as if it has horns over its eyes and is sometimes called the horned rattlesnake . these horns are actually upturned scales , and are not truly horns . the body is typically a sandy tan , gray , or cream color and is patterned with dark blotches of brown or grey on the back and sides . there is a dark cheek - stripe on both sides of the head that starts at the eye and runs diagonally down and backwards above the mouthline . the tail often has a few to several rings . the end of the tail has a rattle on it .\nthe sidewinder gets its name from the unique sidewinding motion it uses to move . the sidewinding motion is used to move across loose sand without slipping . the sidewinder leaves a series of j marks in the sand .\nthe sonoran desert sidewinder has elliptical pupils that look like cat ' s eyes and like all pit vipers , has a heat - sensing pit between the nostril and eye on each side of its head .\nin the united states , the sonoran desert sidewinder is found only in arizona .\nmap does not show area of true distribution , only the states in which there is a population . actual distribution in any highlighted state may be limited .\nspecies found in the desertic regions of the southwestern united states and northwestern mexico . in the us they are found in desert regions of eastern california , southwestern utah , southern nevada , and western arizona , and in mexico , it ' s found in western sonora and eastern baja california .\nthe sidewinder inhabits mostly with wind - blown sands , particularly where sand hummocks are topped with vegetation . but they are also found in areas with open terrain which enables their sidewinding locomotion like open flats , hardpan , and rocky hillsides , and other arid areas usually with creosote bush growth .\n, which enhances traction and makes possible its movement on loose windblown desert sand .\nhowever this peculiar locomotion is used by the sidewinder on any substrate and as the snake progresses over the loose sand it leaves a j - shaped impression , with the tip pointing in the direction of travel .\nthis is a small rattlesnake species , on average adult specimens measures between 17 and 30 inches ( 43 to 76 cm ) in length , males are smaller than the females , which is unusual for this type of snakes .\n\u200bthe sidewinder pattern consists of a ground color that may be yellowish - brown , cream , buff , pink or grayish , overlaid with 30 to 46 dorsal elliptical or rhombus shaped blotches . like other rattlesnakes the sidewinder as a thin neck and a very distinct large triangular head , their tail is thick with the obvious rattle . \u200bthe belly is white and they have the capability of displaying a different coloration depending on the ambient temperature in a process known as metachrosis .\nthey have keeled dorsal scales and because of the raised supraocular scales above the eyes , they are sometimes referred to as the horned rattlesnake .\nthis evolutionary adaptation may help the snake shade the eyes from the sun or possibly prevent sand from drifting over them as the snake lies almost totally buried in it , in ambush waiting for prey .\nthe sidewinder is active from november to march , maybe longer in the southern part of its range , but during hot months the snake is nocturnal and becomes diurnal during the cooler months . in captivity , they have lived between 20 to 30 years , but in the wild , they probably don ' t live that long .\n- found in the us in maricopa , yuma , pima and pinal counties in arizona and south into sonora , mexico .\n- found in the united states inhabiting desert areas of riverside county in california to pinal county in arizona and south to sonora and baja california in mexico .\n, but the species possess a much weaker venom when compared to other rattlesnake species . its venom is about 16 times less toxic than that of the\nthis fact combined with their small size venom glands , makes the sidewinder less dangerous to humans than their larger relatives like the eastern diamondback rattlesnake .\nthe bite symptoms include nausea , chills , coagulopathy , dizziness and shock , and can cause pain , swelling , hemorrhagic bleb formation and ecchymosis .\nthe sidewinder like most rattlesnakes is an ambush hunter , it stays coiled and waits for unsuspecting prey to approach within striking distance , then strikes and releases the prey . it uses its hollow retractable fangs to inject the venom and kill the prey and also to begin digesting it .\nthe snake follows the trail of the envenomated animal and swallows it whole . they feed on lizards , mice , birds and even other snakes .\nthe juveniles sidewinders use their tails to attract lizard prey in a behavior called\ncaudal luring\n. the adult specimens gradually lose this behavior when they make the transition from small lizards to their primary diet item , desert rodents .\nthe mating season takes place in the spring from april through may , but they do on occasion mate in the fall . like all rattlesnakes they are ovoviparous . females\nthe young snakes range from 6 to 8 inches in length , they are born inside a thin membrane from which they break out within just a few minutes after birth . the hatchlings will stay with the female in a burrow for a week up to 10 days , after shedding for the first time , they abandon the burrow and are ready to fend for themselves .\n, which give no parental care , during this short period the sidewinder female guards and protect the young snakes from predators .\nsometimes the females dies of sheer exhaustion after giving birth , which may last 2 to 3 hours .\nwhen they are born the younglings have only a single rattle button at the end of their tail . the sidewinder rattlesnake matures at 2 to 3 years of age and reproducing annually , but might not reproduce for 1 o 2 years if the food supply is scarce .\n, it ' s listed as such due to their wide distribution and presumed large population . in the last assessment done in 2007 , their population trend was considered stable .\ndid you know ? a group of snakes is called a bed , den , pit or nest , find more facts about snakes for kids .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\na variety of organizations and individuals have contributed photographs to calphotos . please follow the usage guidelines provided with each image . use and copyright information , as well as other details about the photo such as the date and the location , are available by clicking on the\nadult , imperial county , coiled up on a rock at night . \u00a9 stuart young\nblack coloring at the base of the rattle . ( compare with the brown coloring of the mohave desert sidewinder . )\ncalifornia park warning sign . click the picture to see more rattlesnake warning signs .\nrattlesnakes are important members of the natural community . they will not attack , but if disturbed or cornered , they will defend themselves . reasonable watchfulness should be sufficient to avoid snakebite . give them distance and respect .\nrattlesnakes are also among the most reasonable forms of dangerous wildlife : their first line of defense is to remain motionless ; if you surprise them or cut off their retreat , they offer an audio warning ; if you get too close , they head for cover . venom is intended for prey so they ' re reluctant to bite , and 25 to 50 percent of all bites are dry - no venom is injected .\nleslie anthony . snakebit : confessions of a herpetologist . greystone books , 2008 .\nadults are 17 - 33 inches . ( 43 - 84 cm ) . snakes encountered will generally be 12 - 18 inches . juveniles are about 7 inches at birth .\na heavy - bodied venomous pit viper with a thin neck , a large triangular head , and a thick tail with a rattle on the end made of loose interlocking segments . a new rattle segment is added each time the skin is shed , which can be more than one time per year . pupils are elliptical . scales are keeled . the supraocular scale over each eye is enlarged and raised up over the eye giving the appearance of a\nhorn\nover each eye . these scales can fold down over the eyes to protect them when the snakes is buried or crawling in underground burrows . has two pits , one on each side of the front of the head above the mouth that are used to sense heat when hunting warm - blooded prey .\npale cream , tan , brown , pink , or grayish back color usually closely matches the soil surface allowing the snake to blend in with the background . around 40 darker blotches on the back . a dark stripe extends through each eye .\njuveniles are born with only a single rattle button at the end of the tail .\nprimarily nocturnal and crepuscular during periods of excessive daytime heat , but also active during daylight when the temperature is more moderate . not active during cooler periods in winter .\nmoves with a sidewinding locomotion , throwing raised loops of the body to the side to push itself forward in an s - sheped curve . a sidewinders trail looks like a series of parallel j - shaped lines pointing roughly 45 degrees from the direction of movement .\nrattlesnakes have long , hollow , movable fangs connected to venom glands . the fangs are replaced if broken . a snakes uses its fangs to inject a toxic venom which quickly immobilize its prey . a rattlesnake can control the amount of venom injected . though the amount of venom a sidewinder injects is relatively small and rarely deadly , bites on humans are still potentially dangerous without immediate medical treatment . sometimes a rattlesnake bites but does not inject venom . these are called\ndry bites .\na dry bite may still require medical attention . even a dead snake can bite and inject venom if the jaws open reflexively when they are touched .\nwhen alarmed , a rattlesnake shakes its tail back and forth . the movement rubs the rattle segments together producing a buzzing sound which serves as a warning . newborn snakes have only one rattle segment which does not make a sound .\neats mainly lizards when young , and eats increasingly larger prey including small rodents when grown . an ambush hunter , it sits buried beneath the surface of loose sand with just the top of the head showing , near kangaroo rat warrens , and lizard or rodent trails , then strikes at and releases the prey . the snake then follows the trail of the envenomated animal and swallows it whole . young snakes may use their tail to lure their prey ( caudal luring . ) they coil up and lie still , raise up the tail , and wiggle it . pits on the sides of the head sense heat . these heat sensors help the snake to locate prey by their warmth . long , hollow , movable fangs connected to venom glands inject a very toxic venom which quickly immobilizes the prey . the snake can control the amount of venom injected and the fangs are replaced if broken .\nclick on this picture to see an illustrated interpretation of the various ways pit vipers ( including rattlesnakes ) perceive their prey , using their eyes , their sense of smell , their ability to detect vibrations , and their ability to sense heat . \u00a9 frank buchter\nrattlesnakes are ovoviparous . the mother keeps her fertilized eggs inside her body and gives birth to living young . females probably start bearing young at three years of age and breed annually . ( klauber , 1982 ) breeding occurs in the spring . 2 to 18 young are born from july to september . ( stebbins & mcginnis , 2013 )\ninhabits primarily areas of wind - blown sands , especially where sand hummocks are topped withvegetation . also found in hardpan , open flats , rocky hillsides , and other desert areas , especially those grown with creosote bush , where the terrain is open , not obstructed by rocks or vegetation , allowing the broad sidewinding locomotion .\ndouglas et al . ( 2006 , mol . ecol . 15 : 3353\u20133374 ) , using mtdna , found several geographically distinct lineages within\nthe following status listings are copied from the april 2018 special animals list and the 2017 endangered and threatened animals list , both of which are published by the california department of fish and wildlife . if no status is listed here , the animal is not included on either cdfw list . this most likely indicates that there are no serious conservation concerns for the animal . to find out more about an animal ' s status , you can go to the natureserve and iucn websites to check their rankings . check here to see the most current complete lists . this snake is not included on the special animals list , which indicates that there are no significant conservation concerns for it in california .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : this animal is venomous and bites may cause injury or death . if encountered it should be left alone .\ncopyright\u00a9 2000 - 2018 , arizona herpetological association . all editorial content and graphics on this site are protected by u . s . copyright and international treaties and may not be copied without the written permission of arizona herpetological association , which reserves all rights .\nthis paper presents and analyzes the domain of rattlesnakes of arizona as expressed by a person of greater than common knowledge . taxonomic classification of rattlesnakes and rattlesnake attributes are the primary focus . cause - effect , spatial , functional and sequence relationships are also expressed in the domain .\ni interviewed a person dedicated to educating people about rattlesnakes . he lectures on rattlesnakes and presents live rattlesnake shows . his educational efforts focus on understanding rattlesnake behavior and what is proper and safe human behavior in relation to rattlesnakes . he tries to convince people to not kill rattlesnakes , to relocate them instead . he encourages understanding of the beneficial role of rattlesnakes in rodent control and consequent human disease vector control .\nmy informant is called upon to remove and relocate rattlesnakes from human use areas . he releases them into habitats undisturbed by people . he is the founder and owner of a live rattlesnake exhibit , a business and a vehicle for educating the public . he has been featured in articles and other media because of his experience with , knowledge of , and interest in rattlesnakes . he majored in communications and studied zoology at the university level .\nmost of the interview took place in the informant ' s place of work , a live rattlesnake exhibit . the interview incorporated a live rattlesnake show with the informant handling and displaying five large and venomous rattlesnakes . the interview was concluded at a place of refreshment . just under two hours was spent with the informant on the first day . another hour was spent to review the material ."]}
{"id": 2101, "summary": [{"text": "the blue sucker ( cycleptus elongatus ) is a freshwater species of fish in the sucker family .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "the species has an average weight of 2-3 kilograms and an average length of 76 centimeters .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the record length has been recorded at 102 centimeters . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "blue sucker", "paragraphs": ["there are actually three species of blue suckers - the southeastern blue sucker ( cyceptus meridionalis ) , the rio grande blue sucker ( cycleptus sp . undesribed ) , and the\nnormal\nblue sucker ( cycleptus elongatus ) . they all look and behave identically .\nfew blue sucker sampled in fort peck reservoir indicating their avoidance of lake environments .\nthe blue sucker appears to be somewhat common in the missouri and yellowstone rivers .\nthe blue sucker is monogeneric and is not known to hybridize with any other species .\nin montana , the blue sucker is present in most places that have available habitat .\ncool fact\n: the blue sucker is the most rare sucker in the state , but recently has been found in increasing numbers .\nmanagement of the blue sucker consists mainly of routine monitoring of the population status and habitat protection .\ntuberculate blue sucker . they are incredibly cool looking fish . wisconsin river , may , 2013 .\nblue sucker data records are sparse since most information collected on blue suckers is by - catch data collected in the course of targeting other species .\nthe blue sucker is considered an indicator species for ecosystem health because of its habitat - specific requirements .\nsutton , m . 2009 . blue sucker stock characteristics in the wabash river indiana - illinois , usa .\nyeager , b . , k . semmens . 1987 . early development of the blue sucker , cycleptus elongatus .\nmestl , g . 2009 . seasonal use distributions and migrations of blue sucker in the middle missouri river , usa .\nas the police are dragging blue off at the end it ' s implied blue will name him as an accomplice .\nin 1994 the blue sucker was listed by the u . s . fish and wildlife service as a category 2 species .\nwe\u2019d love your help . let us know what\u2019s wrong with this preview of sucker for the boss by blue sky books .\nblue sucker sampled in montana are typically older and large fish with lengths of 60 to 75 centimeters and 3 - 5 kilograms .\nthis article focuses on blue jones ' real world persona . for his brothel reality counterpart , see blue jones ( brothel ) .\nlike all big river fish , riverine losses have occurred due to impoundments , where there have been major population losses and blue sucker populations have been fragmented . in montana , the blue sucker is present in most places that have available habitat . the lower yellowstone river blue sucker population would probably exist farther upriver if the cartersville diversion dam and other diversion dams on the yellowstone did not restrict upriver passage .\nburr , b . , j . garvey . 2006 . ecology of larval blue sucker ( cycleptus elongatus ) in the mississippi river .\ndaugherty , d . , t . bacula , m . sutton . 2008 . reproductive biology of blue sucker in a large midwestern river .\nhowever , where extensive riverine losses have occurred due to impoundments , there have been major population losses and blue sucker populations have been fragmented .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - close up of blue sucker\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - close up of blue sucker\ntitle =\narkive photo - close up of blue sucker\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nlength - frequency distribution for blue sucker populations sampled by electrofishing and drift netting in the upper and lower missouri and lower yellowstone rivers , montana .\nthe usfws , usgs , and montana fish , wildlife , and parks currently track movements of tagged blue sucker in the yellowstone and missouri rivers .\nthe blue sucker maintains its level i species of conservation priority ranking . currently a project to identify this species important spawning areas is under development .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - blue sucker , held by researcher\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - blue sucker , held by researcher\ntitle =\narkive photo - blue sucker , held by researcher\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe blue sucker has a back and sides that are dark blue to dark olive , and a white underside . its most distinctive features are its elongated head / snout and the tall , sickle - shaped dorsal fin .\nthe blue sucker is listed as threatened in wisconsin ( see the wi dnr blue sucker page for information and photos ) . its range has been massively curtailed by the march of \u201cprogress\u201d : dams , dredging , pollution , silt , reduced flow , warmer water , and other side effects of our presence .\nto ask other readers questions about sucker for the boss , please sign up .\n2 . ( a sucker for ) a person particularly susceptible to or fond of a specified thing : i always was a sucker for a good fairy tale .\neitzmann , j . , a . makinster , c . paukert . 2007 . distribution and growth of blue sucker in a great plains river , usa .\npractical joke . . . . after eating something with a blue coding then giving a guy head and leaving a tint of blue on his junk .\n12 - pound blue sucker captured by corey geving while electrofishing in the mississippi river at the minnehaha creek off - leash dog park in downtown minneapolis , mn . 2006\nblue suckers prefer waters with low turbidity and swift current ( brown 1971 ) .\nhah after sally blue suckered dave . . he thought he got an std .\nmestl , g . 2010 . seasonal resource selection by blue suckers cycleptus elongatus .\nminytrema melanops , the spotted sucker . ( image credit : ohio department of natural resources )\noh man , i fish this stretch all the time . plenty of sturgeon and redhorse , but i\u2019ve never seen a blue sucker here . cool read , thanks for sharing !\nin the spring blue suckers migrate upriver and congregate in fast rocky areas to spawn .\nthe blue sucker is extremely sensitive to pollution , and its presence indicates a healthy environment . the decline of the blue sucker in the 20th century was probably caused by siltation , pollution , physical changes in the environment ( such as the partial filling of channels by floods ) , and dams ; which slow the current , increase silting , and block migration .\nthe table below lists the natural communities that are associated with blue sucker . only natural communities for which blue sucker is\nhigh\n( score = 3 ) or\nmoderate\n( score = 2 ) associated are shown . see the key to association scores for complete definitions . please see the wildlife action plan to learn how this information was developed .\nblue suckers have been found in many of the major tributary streams during their spawning season .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . status report on blue sucker ( cycleptus elongatus ) , a candidate endangered or threatened species . north dakota state office : ecological services . 1993 .\ndnr icthyologist john lyons gives a hands - on lesson about the blue sucker , a resident of deep large - river habitats that is almost never seen by anyone other than fish biologists . yet , because it only thrives in the least - modified and highest - quality waters , the abundance of the blue sucker is a key indicator of the health of the state ' s largest rivers .\nsucker punch will now succeed if the opponent is using me first , regardless of who is faster .\nblue sucker eggs develop inside the body of the females . neither one of the parents invests time or energy into their young after females release the eggs . adults and juveniles live in different habitats .\nidentification : elongate body with small head . snout pointed , slightly bulbous at tip . back and sides blue to blue black , belly whitish . adult length : 2 feet ( 61cm ) .\nhistorically , the blue sucker was common and a highly prized commercial species known locally as \u201csweet sucker\u201d . however , in the 1930\u2019s , the construction of the u . s . lock and dam system for navigation on the upper mississippi river drastically altered the species\u2019 habitat from a free - flowing river into a series of reservoirs . this , in conjunction with widespread water pollution over several decades , decimated populations . since the passage of the clean water act in 1972 , the blue sucker has exhibited a remarkable recovery . however , its abundance remains far below historical accounts , and it is generally rare throughout its range . for these reasons , the blue sucker was listed as a special concern species in 1984 .\ni caught 10 blue suckers in kansas today . one weighing 8lbs and being nearly 30 inches . wondering if it is normal to find blue suckers in kansas or if this is some sort of accident .\nwhat ' s in a name ? blue sucker : named for its deep blue color cycleptus ( sigh - klep \u00b4 - tuss ) refers to its small , round mouth ; coined by the namer elongatus ( eelong - got \u00b4 - tuss ) means\nelongate\nin latin ; based on its long body .\ngreat explanation . one last thing is still circling in my head is ' sucker ' is a negative word . ' sucker ' is loser . ' suck at ' means ' not good at ' . ' sucker for ' seems to be a more positive word much like ' i love it ' . this sounds conflicting to me .\nblue sucker ( cycleptus elongatus ) , a fish listed as threatened in wisconsin , prefers large , deep rivers with moderate to strong currents over substrates of gravel or cobble . spawning occurs from late april through early may .\nthe blue sucker is a fish of legend . once extremely common throughout the central united states , it has since declined due to the damming of the continent ' s major rivers . a mysterious wanderer of the deep , blues travel hundreds of miles to find their ancestral spawning sites . blue suckers are big fish - they can easily top ten pounds and a few up to 20 pounds have been taken in years past . to catch a blue sucker on hook and line is one of the greatest fishing accomplishments that any american angler can hope to achieve .\nhand , g . r . , and d . c . jackson . 2003 . blue sucker stock characteristics in the upper yazoo river basin , mississippi , usa . fisheries management and ecology 10 ( 3 ) : 147 .\nsucker punch has a power of 80 . it has a priority of + 1 , so it is used before all moves that do not have increased priority . if sucker punch ' s target has selected a physical or special attack and has not yet had a chance to execute its move , sucker punch will damage the target ; otherwise , sucker punch will fail . sucker punch only depends on the move the target has selected , and is not affected by any consideration of whether the attack can actually be executed , such as status conditions like sleep or freeze or abilities like truant .\ni don ' t know why i volunteered for this job . i ' m a sucker for punishment i guess .\nadditional research needs for the blue sucker in minnesota include life history studies , identification of habitat guilds , and identification of limiting factors and opportunities for fish passage around dams on the minnesota , mississippi , and st . croix rivers .\nblue ' s incarnations : orderly ( top ) , thug ( center ) , brothel host ( bottom ) .\nsucker punch ( japanese : \u3075\u3044\u3046\u3061 surprise attack ) is a damage - dealing dark - type move introduced in generation iv .\nblue suckers make long spawning movements from the lower missouri river to upstream areas and tributary streams . dispersal downstream follows .\nthere are strong indications that blue has raped most of the women in lennox house , including dr . vera gorski .\ndaugherty , d . j . , t . d . bacula , and t . m . sutton . 2008 . reproductive biology of blue sucker in a large midwestern river . journal of applied ichthyology 24 ( 3 ) : 297 - 302 .\nthe use of water for agricultural , industrial , and municipal purposes along the river may impact blue sucker populations by reducing water levels . entrainment of fish in irrigation systems , and oil and gas development within the basin are also recognized as threats .\ncoloration : life colors of male olive blue or slate olive on dorsum and sides of body with brassy reflections ; venter bluish - white ; lips white ; all fins dark blue - gray , dusky , or black . breeding males darken to blue - black . no significant color differences between males and females . peritoneum silvery ( burr and mayden 1999 ) .\nblue jones is the main antagonist of sucker punch . within the lennox house , he appears as an orderly in charge of main operations and basic registration of girls , while within babydoll\u2019s fantasies he appears as a mobster who owns and operates the brothel .\nvery few young - of - year ( yoy ) blue suckers have been collected while sampling with a variety of methods .\nthe table below lists the ecological landscape association scores for blue sucker . the scores correspond to the map ( 3 = high , 2 = moderate , 1 = low , 0 = none ) . for more information , please see the wildlife action plan .\neitzmann , j . l . , a . s . makinster , c . p . paukert . 2007 . distribution and growth of blue sucker in a great plains river , usa . fisheries management and ecology 14 ( 4 ) : 255 - 262 .\nlyons believes that both blue sucker and shovelnose sturgeon populations are stable in the wisconsin river , which is good news . if they can get a passage built around the dam and the fish actually use it , the news will only get better and better .\nprior to an update to niantic ' s servers on july 30 , 2016 , sucker punch had an energy gain of 4 % .\nmanagement of the blue sucker consists mainly of routine monitoring of population status and habitat protection . the blue sucker is considered an indicator species for ecosystem health because of its habitat - specific requirements . current monitoring information indicates the populations are in stable condition . efforts towards locating spawning and rearing areas should be continued . habitat protection includes protecting or promoting the natural spring - time hydrograph . establishment of more natural seasonal flow conditions are presently being discussed and initiated for three storage reservoirs in montana ( montana afs species status account ) .\ntuberculate blue sucker . they are incredibly cool looking fish . wisconsin river , may , 2013 . blue sucker ( cycleptus elongatus ) held by john lyons . this is the only full body shot i took all day . blue sucker ( cycleptus elongatus ) lips . the definition of papillose . blue sucker ( cycleptus elongatus ) lips . i got to act for a minute like i\u2019d caught this 35 - 40 lb . lake sturgeon netted during electrofishing on the wisconsin river , may , 2013 . shovelnose sturgeon , top view . wisconsin river , may , 2013 . shovelnose sturgeon , bottom view . wisconsin river , may , 2013 . shovelnose sturgeon tail ( with filament ) . wisconsin river , may , 2013 . john lyons with a tuberculate river redhorse ( moxostoma carinatum ) . wisconsin river , may , 2013 . ( aaron contemplates the universe in the background . ) river redhorse ( moxostoma carinatum ) . wisconsin river , may , 2013 . river redhorse ( moxostoma carinatum ) all tubed up for the party . wisconsin river , may , 2013 .\nat least in my experience ,\ni ' m a sucker for x\nmeans that i am drawn to x regardless of what other characteristics x may have . the connection to sucker meaning something like loser , therefore , is that someone who is a sucker for something may get into a bad situation as a result , or at the very least enjoys x to a degree that seems injudicious and excessive .\nafter blue kills amber and blondie with the gun he gets from cj , he mutters that he doesn ' t like guns .\nmorey , n . m . , and c . r . berry , jr . 2003 . biological characteristics of the blue sucker in the james river and the big sioux river , south dakota . journal of freshwater ecology 18 ( 1 ) : 33 - 42 .\nmoss , r . e . , j . w . scanlan , and c . s . anderson . 1983 . observations on the natural history of the blue sucker ( cycleptus elongatus le sueur ) in the neosho river . american midland naturalist 109 : 15 - 22 .\n' sucker ' , afaik , is used to indicate a ' loser ' . if my understanding above is correct . . . how does ' sucker for ' becomes an indication of an enthusiast and not of a loser ? ( i know ' suck at ' indicates a loser . )\ndiet : a gregarious fish , blue suckers are bottom feeders . eat insects , insect larvae , crustaceans , plant material and algae .\nfish surveys of the minnesota , mississippi , and st . croix rivers have shown increasing numbers of blue sucker since the early 1990s . large tracts of the mississippi river are protected within the boundaries of the upper mississippi river national wildlife and fish refuge , and the st . croix river is afforded some protection by its designation as a national scenic riverway , as well as by three state parks and a state scientific and natural area . the recent inception of minnesota\u2019s clean water legacy program will eventually yield benefits to blue sucker habitats through nutrient and sediment load reductions .\nthe blue sucker is an elongate , torpedo - shaped fish with a distinctly pointed snout , an underslung mouth , and a long dorsal fin . the pectoral finsare distinctly sickle - shaped . the overall color is a steely blue - gray ; this can be variable in that murkier water produces lighter coloration , while fish from clearer waters tend to be darker . overall , it ' s a striking and unique fish .\nthe blue sucker is currently listed as an\ns2s3\nspecies of concern in montana because they are potentially at risk of extirpation in the state , because of limited and / or declining numbers , range and / or habitat , even though it may be abundant in some areas .\nmanagement guidelines : wisconsin populations of blue sucker represent some of the largest remaining in the upper mississippi river basin , and therefore merit careful management . this species is intolerant to turbidity and pollution , so sources of pollution discharge and soil runoff within its range should be monitored and minimized .\n(\nstatus report on blue sucker ( cycleptus elongatus ) , a candidate endangered or threatened species\n, 1993 ; burr and garvey , 2006 ; eitzmann , et al . , 2007 ;\nspecies profile : minnesota department of natural resources\n, 2012 ; sutton , 2009 )\nin montana , the most informative data available about blue suckers is length distribution data for the three river reaches where this species is found .\n(\nstatus report on blue sucker ( cycleptus elongatus ) , a candidate endangered or threatened species\n, 1993 ; burr and garvey , 2006 ; eitzmann , et al . , 2007 ;\nspecies profile : minnesota department of natural resources\n, 2012 ; yeager and semmens , 1987 )\nbreeding males darken and develop small tubercles ( small , hardened , breeding growths ) sprinkled on the head , scales , and rays of all fins . presumably a bottom feeder , the blue sucker\u2019s diet likely includes aquatic insects , insect larvae , crustaceans , plant material , and algae . young blue suckers are likely preyed on by walleye ( stizostedion vitreum ) and small mouth bass ( micropterus dolomieu ) as well as by fish - eating birds .\nbiological notes on blue suckers in the mississippi river . trans . amer . fish . soc . 109 ( 3 ) : 323 - 326 .\nbeing colorblind doesn ' t mean you see the world in black and white . but it does mean that you have difficulty distinguishing between certain colors . for mark zuckerberg , blue is the\nrichest\ncolor he can see \u2014 which is why facebook ' s dominant color is blue .\n[ mark zuckerberg ] walked into the house , which is painted in various shades of blue and beige , except for the kitchen , which is a vibrant yellow . colors don ' t matter much to zuckerberg ; a few years ago , he took an online test and realized that he was red - green color - blind . blue is facebook ' s dominant color , because , as he said ,\nblue is the richest color for me\u2014i can see all of blue .\nstanding in his kitchen , leaning over the sink , he offered me a glass of water .\ni recently came across a couple usages of ' sucker for ' which indicates that it means ' crazy about ' , ' enthusiastic for ' , or ' interested in ' . for example , ' i am a sucker for sports . ' , seems to say , ' i am a sports enthusiast . ' .\nmoss , r . e . , j . w . scanlan , and c . s . anderson . 1983 . observations on the natural history of the blue sucker ( cycleptus elongatus le sueur ) in the neosho river . amer . midl . nat . 109 ( 1 ) : 15 - 22 .\nadams , s . r . , m . b . flinn , b . m . burr , m . r . whiles , and j . e . garvey . 2006 . ecology of larval blue sucker ( cycleptus elongatus ) in the mississippi river . ecology of freshwater fish 15 : 291 - 300 .\nvokoun , j . c . , t . l . guerrant , and c . f . rabeni . 2003 . demographics and chronology of a spawning aggregation of blue sucker ( cycleptus elongatus ) in the grand river , missouri , usa . journal of freshwater ecology 18 ( 4 ) : 567 - 575 .\nprior to an update to niantic ' s servers on february 16 , 2017 , sucker punch had a power of 7 and a duration of 0 . 7 seconds .\nthe blue sucker has a widespread distribution extending throughout the mississippi , missouri , ohio , and portions of the rio grande river systems ( elstad and werdon 1993 ) . in montana , it is found in the missouri as far upriver as morony dam near great falls , and in the yellowstone upriver of forsyth , mt .\nmontana has some of the finest habitat for blue suckers found in their range and losses of the montana populations would be significant to the overall gene pool .\nthe table below provides information about the protected status - both state and federal - and the rank ( s and g ranks ) for blue sucker ( cycleptus elongatus ) . see the working list key for more information about abbreviations . counties shaded blue have documented occurrences for this species in the wisconsin natural heritage inventory database . the map is provided as a general reference of where occurrences of this species meet nhi data standards and is not meant as a comprehensive map of all observations .\ndyer , w . g . , and w . j . ploy . 2002 . first record of rhabdochona cascadilla wigdor , 1918 ( nematoda : thelazioidea ) in the blue sucker , cycleptus elongatus ( lesueur , 1817 ) , from illinois . transactions of the illinois academy of science 95 ( 2 ) : 107 - 109 .\nleiby , p . d . , d . c . kritsky , and d . d . bauman . 1973 . studies on helminthes of north dakota . vii . ancyrocephalinae ( monogenea ) from the gills of the blue sucker , cycleptus elongatus ( lesueur ) . can . j . zool . 51 : 777 - 779 .\ndespite its name , sucker punch is not a punching move . the term sucker punch refers to an unexpected or cheap shot at an opponent , akin to its japanese name , which translates to surprise attack . thus , many pok\u00e9mon that do not possess arms can learn this move , and its base power is not increased by iron fist .\nspotted sucker ( minytrema melanops ) swimming in the head spring of the ichetucknee river , florida , usa . ( image credit : ben young landis / cc - by )\nmoreover , because of the blue suckers preference for main channel swift water habitats , they are difficult to sample and consequently have not been sampled in large numbers .\nhogue , j . j . , jr . , j . v . conner , and v . r . kranz . 1981 . descriptions and methods for identifying larval blue sucker , cycleptus elongatus ( lesueur ) . rapp . p . - v . reun . cons . int . explor . mer . 178 : 585 - 587 .\nmulling over the german word for thursday while sheltering yourself from a torrential storm one morning , this one may have hit you like a bolt out of the blue .\nthe loss of suitable habitat caused by a change in the riverine regime is the largest problem affecting this species . historically , blue suckers were present throughout the entire missouri river system . the construction of dams and channelization has largely changed the river system . dams have reduced the sediment load , which in turn has lowered turbidity . the release of cold water from impoundments has lowered the overall temperature of the system making much of the missouri river too cold for blue sucker . dams also have fragmented populations by restricting movement throughout the system .\nlyons , j . 2014 . blue sucker , cycleptus elongatus . online account in : j . lyons , editor . fishes of wisconsin e - book . wisconsin department of natural resources , madison , and u . s . geological survey , middleton , wi . < http : / / www . fow - ebook . us > . accessed 6 may 2016 .\nwhite , ds , kh haag . 1977 . foods and feeding habits of the spotted sucker , minytrema melanops ( rafinesque ) . american midland naturalist 98 ( 1 ) : 137 - 146 .\ni ' m a sucker for sports\n, basically means ,\ni haven ' t grown out of sports , and i can ' t help but want more of it .\n5 . the traditional seersucker fabric is blue and white , but you can also find shorts , suits , pants , shirts , skirts , and dresses in a variety of colors .\nthe blue sucker prefers deep , swift water in channels of large rivers with sand , gravel , or rubble bottoms . the species are often associated with wing dams on the mississippi river and with woody snags in the st . croix river . they are tolerant of high turbidities , if currents are swift enough to prevent siltation ( j . t . hatch , in preparation ) .\ngood article ! i recently caught a 17 . 5 inch spotted sucker while fishing in northern florida . its definitely one of my most unique freshwater catches i have had in the state of florida .\n@ nishant i think alcas has explained that very well . you lose out to your attraction to { whatever } , possibly against your better judgement . sucker for is not necessarily a positive idiom .\nprior to an update to niantic ' s servers on february 21 , 2017 , sucker punch had a power of 8 , an energy gain of 9 % , and a duration of 1 . 2 seconds .\nadditionally , young - of - the - year blue suckers have been sampled at the milk river confluence and in big muddy creek of the lower missouri river ( liebelt 1996 and stewart 1980 ) .\n@ nishant : think about\nsucker for\nas\naddicted to\n. example 3 :\ni don ' t know why i volunteered for this job . i ' m addicted to punishment i guess\n.\nblue suckers occur at highest frequency in the missouri river\u2019s freeflowing stretches above lake sakakawea and lake oahe . the confluence areas of larger tributaries such as the knife and cannonball rivers are likely key areas for spawning .\nthe ichetucknee river is one such ecosystem . even though we visited on a clouded , rainy day , the radiant blue of the ichetucknee\u2019s waters easily fought through the gray - gloom light to greet our eyes .\nblue suckers are considered near threatened by the iucn red list , and of special concern by the us fish and wildlife service . more information on population distribution and densities is needed to further assess this species ' conservation needs . the decline in their numbers appears to have been caused by pollution , buildup of sediment , overfishing , and building dams . blue suckers also face competition from invasive species for resources and breeding habitat .\nit goes without saying that this fish should be protected and conserved wherever possible . in angling for this fish , please exercise restraint and prudence . however , on the whole , the establishment of the blue sucker as a sportfish of the highest order will do more for the species than any efforts at concealing its habits or protecting the individuals . hence , i will do my best to tell you what i have found out over the years .\nsucker for sports\nmeans you will watch / play / purchase things related to sports without consideration of what other qualities it has other than being a\nsport\n.\nsucker for football\nwould mean you will watch , buy , engage in anything football related with little or no regard to its other qualities other than it is football related . this is usually in a negative way , most of the time , self - deprecating in a light - hearted manner .\nwhere do they live ? the blue sucker is one of minnesota ' s rare fishes , known only to live in its large , southern rivers , including the lower portions of the minnesota , st . croix , and mississippi rivers . they are commonly located in deeper fast moving channels of these rivers where the bottoms have lots of gravel or cobble . they are found living with the following fish : shorthead redhorse , common carp , shovel nose sturgeon , sauger and walleye .\nall of these illustrate the concept that to be a sucker for something means to be attracted to it while being somewhat blind to its other qualities , suffering as a result . 1 ) would be most likely uttered in a context where the speaker is justifying how he got involved in a regrettable relationship - he shouldn ' t have been with this person for some reason , but he ' s a sucker for a pretty face . 2 ) implies that ted not only likes whipped cream , but will automatically eat any dessert with whipped cream on it , no matter how tasteless the amount of whipped cream . 3 ) has the speaker sarcastically suggesting that , since her job is so unpleasant , nobody would have volunteered for it unless they were a sucker for punishment .\nback at the asylum , after babydoll is lobotomized , it is revealed that blue faked dr . gorski\u2019s signature on the medical forms authorizing the lobotomy . as a way of getting revenge upon baby for being stabbed , blue once again attempts to advance on her , but this time he softly complains that she has lost herself , and that she isn ' t allowed to lose herself until he says so . he even releases a tear because baby is unable to resist . he kisses her , but she doesn ' t fight or struggle or does anything . to get a reaction , blue begins to strangle babydoll ; however before he can do any real harm police officers , led by dr . gorski , arrest him for forgery . as he is being taken away , the clearly insane blue yells about the money babydoll ' s stepfather gave him and says he protects his girls , nothing was done to babydoll , and claims he will tell the officers everything .\nwhat do they eat ? blue suckers keep roughly the same diet during the juvenile and adult period of their life cycles . adults just include larger food items . they eat mostly aquatic insect larvae but also include crustaceans , plant materials and algae .\nmisunderstood loner with a heart of gold : baby doll initially views her as an aloof advisor who is powerless to help them against blue . it turns out that she ' s a kind , caring psychiatrist who wants to help the girls recover .\nthe spotted sucker has a wide geographic range , spanning southern ontario down through more than 22 states in the u . s . , including wisconsin , kansas , pennsylvania , kentucky , north carolina , and the gulf coast states like texas , louisiana , mississippi , alabama and georgia .\nthe distribution of blue sucker ( cycleptus elongatus ) in minnesota includes the mississippi river downstream of st . anthony falls , minnesota river downstream of granite falls , and st . croix river downstream of taylors falls . historically , it occurred in the st . croix river upstream of taylors falls , but has not been reported there since 1979 ( lyons et al . 2012a ) . the species has also been found in lower reaches of the cannon and zumbro rivers in southeastern minnesota and in wisconsin\u2019s chippewa river ( hatch et al . in preparation ) .\nhow big do they get ? how long do they live ? the blue sucker has not been carefully studied . we believe it commonly lives to 7 or 8 years old , but it can live for more than 10 years . lengths of 500 - 600 mm ( 20 - 24 in ) or more are common . these fish typically weigh 2 - 3 kg ( 4 - 6 lbs ) . the minnesota state record for this fish is 6 . 85 kg ( 14 lbs 3 oz ) and was caught from the mississippi river in wabasha county .\nspotted suckers belong to family catostomidae , collectively known as \u201csuckers\u201d after their mouth shape and feeding habits . all are freshwater species , with nearly 80 in the united states , canada and mexico , and curiously , one in siberia and one in china . their names are as diverse as their range of shapes , sizes and colors \u2014 quillback , chubsucker , hog sucker , buffalo , jumprock , razorback , redhorse . and during breeding time , many sucker species get pimply \u2014 they develop bumpy growths called tubercles on their fins , and depending on the species and gender , on their heads as well .\nblue , from the girl\u2019s point of view , is seen as a threat . he believes he holds the power within the brothel : \u201ci\u2019ve got everything under control . \u201d he is shown exerting his power over both dr . gorski and the girls . after observing the girls changing behaviors as a result of babydoll\u2019s presence blue begins to become suspicious of the activities of the girls , and ultimately overhears blondie talking about the girls plan to escape . as a result , he directly confronts them and shoots both amber and blondie dead . in a fit of lust , blue tries to feel the pleasure he grants his clients by attempting to rape babydoll , claiming he doesn\u2019t want anybody to play with his \u2018toys\u2019 . however baby overpowers him , stabbing him with the knife that was collected from the cook , claiming that he will never have her .\nrestoring blue suckers to historic habitats in minnesota will require dam removal or installation of fish passage features such as ladders or lifts on the st . croix river at taylors falls , the minnesota river from granite falls to big stone lake , and the mississippi river at lock and dam 1 .\nin the \u2018real world\u2019 blue takes a bribe from baby\u2019s stepfather to have her lobotomized in five days\u2019 time when the doctor comes in order to relieve her of any memories pertaining to the murder of her sister or her mother\u2019s fortune . in those 5 days babydoll attempts to escape the lennox house .\nthe beauty of german is its\ndoes what it says on the tin\nstructure . a vacuum cleaner is a staubsauger - literally dust sucker , because that ' s exactly what it does . in the same vein , an airplane is a flugzeug ( a flying thing ) and a lighter is a feuerzeug ( fire thing ) .\n' fond of ' yeah this word - - i take this word as a positive word ( unless used sarcastically ) , while ' sucker ' rings as ' boo ! ' ( perhaps my own mental circuitry ) in my mind . it was confusing . but i am more at ease with it . : ) thanks for the answer .\nblue suckers are the most migratory of the purely freshwater american fishes , often travelling hundreds of miles from their normal summer habitat to the spawning grounds in the spring . they are also amazingly attached to their home base , often returning to the exact spot they started in after swimming hundreds of miles up and downstream . some blue suckers have been tracked swimming three hundred miles up and downriver every single year for a decade . each summer , they returned to spend the summer under the same sunken log as they had year before . how the fish are able to do this is unknown , but it ' s something to keep in mind when looking for them .\none fish new to me was the spotted sucker ( minytrema melanops ) , which cruised along the spring bottom , using their underslung jaws and fleshy lips to suck up sand and sift out crustaceans and aquatic insects ( white and haag 1977 ) . wary feeders , their sleek , spotted bodies easily swam out of the way as i approached , like herds of deer browsing and pausing across a meadow .\n\u201cyoung mammal before it is weaned\u201d , late 14c . , agent noun from suck . slang meaning \u201cperson who is easily deceived\u201d is first attested 1836 , in american english , on notion of naivete ; the verb in this sense is from 1939 . but another theory traces the slang meaning to the fish called a sucker ( 1753 ) , on the notion of being easy to catch in their annual migrations .\nlyons explained that the sampling we did ( and which he and his crews do periodically in the same area ) is part of a project aimed at better understanding the biology\u2014age and growth , seasonal movements , habitat use , and timing and locations of spawning\u2014of shovelnose and lake sturgeon , paddlefish , and blue suckers in the wisconsin river . the plan is to build a serious fish passage to let fish get around the prairie du sac dam . this will make it possible for paddlefish , shovelnose , and blue suckers to re - establish themselves above the dam and it will allow lake sturgeon access to prime spawning habitat above the dam . information gained in advance of such a major project should help make sure it is designed and operated as effectively as possible .\nin reality , blue was dressed in the fashion of an orderly which consists of scrubs with possibly white loafers and a white coat . in the brothel dream , he sports a moustache and tends to wear fancy suits both on and off stage . at the end , he ' s shown without his orderly coat and with a bandage where babydoll stabbed him , with an obvious bloodstain on his t - shirt .\nblue is one of the most unbalanced people at lennox house . he feels the need to be in control of situations and people at all times \u2014 yet he is unable to control himself : he is calm and smiling one moment , then yelling and violent the next . he frightens all the girls \u2014 even dr . gorski . he is scary enough that even his co - conspirators ( including cj and danforth ) fear disobeying him .\nhabitat includes the largest rivers and lower parts of major tributaries . usually this sucker occurs in channels and flowing pools with moderate current ( 1 . 0 - 2 . 6 meters / sec ) . it also occurs in some impoundments . adults probably winter in deep pools . young occupy shallower and less swift water than do adults . adults move upstream to spawn on riffles . in kansas , spawning occurred in deep ( 1 - 2 meters ) riffles with cobble and bedrock substrate ( moss et al . 1983 ) .\nthe original meaning of sucker is , in the oed\u2019s definition , \u2018a young mammal before it is weaned ; a child at the breast\u2019 . it\u2019s a small step for it to take on the figurative sense of \u2018a greenhorn , simpleton\u2019 , first recorded in the united states in 1838 . from there it has come to mean someone who is gullible , and , by further extension , someone whose enthusiasm for something is so great that it will persist in the face of all obstacles . it also means , apparently , an inhabitant of the state of illinois .\na good number of years ago i got into some very nice blue suckers in the st . croix river below taylors falls . i caught a few on a white mr twister in the tailout of a swift deep hole . it is difficult to get to that spot unless the water is low . they jumped as many as five times as they were going away and were quite a load on light tackle ! the others i caught were on leeches off a shelf and they too jumped numerous times . i got some good photos before i released these rare beauties ! this is a great site for under appreciated fish !\nthis sucker occupies gulf slope drainages from the sabine river to the rio grande / pecos river drainage , in texas , new mexico , and mexico ; the mississippi river basin north to wisconsin and minnesota ; the missouri river drainage northwestward to the dakotas and montana ; the ohio river drainage eastward to western pennsylvania ( extirpated in pennsylvania ) ( burr and mayden 1999 ) , and the tennessee river basin to eastern tennessee and northern alabama . it is now seemingly common only in the missouri and neosho rivers and middle rio grande ( etnier and starnes 1993 , cross and collins 1995 ) , and in the mississippi river south of the missouri river in missouri ( pflieger 1997 ) . the rio grande population is to be described as a distinct species ( buth and mayden 2001 ) .\ni ' ve researched and even came across other articles / blogs that have a 10 step program on how to get verified on facebook . well , i tried and it didn ' t work . one of those steps even included putting out an ad for 7 days . hmmmmm . . . . well . . . . i tried . still didn ' t work . okay , call me a sucker , but now you don ' t have to waste your money on it , because it doesn ' t work . there are all kinds of hints that say to classify yourself as public figure , but i can ' t say they are helpful as nothing has worked . so in regards to this 10 step program to get verified on facebook , i now need a 12 - step program for recovery .\ncatching blue suckers is not particularly problematic - if you can find them . because they can travel hundreds of miles , live in deep , fast water , and their migratory patterns are poorly understood , it is fiendishly difficult to determine when and where they will appear . for the majority of the year , they frequent fast , main - channel areas , preferably with hard bottoms - in particular , wingdam tips , rip - rap areas , and deep , fast runs . unfortunately , this means they are usually going to be found in areas where barges travel , and where it ' s almost impossible to park a boat . because of this , most anglers who pursue this fish resort to chasing after them during their spring spawning run . this is an endeavor which can be either spectacularly successful or dismally unsuccessful , depending on whether you hit the migration right .\nstanding in the middle of the electrofishing boat gripping a 10 foot long net handle , trying desperately not to miss blue suckers or sturgeon , i watched literally hundreds upon hundreds of fish surface , some floating still as if dead and others launching themselves out of the water like miniature silver carp . in addition to the sturgeon and blues we were after , there were shorthead , golden and silver redhorses ( and at least one river redhorse ) , quillback ( and possibly some river and / or highfin ) carpsuckers , smallmouth ( and possibly bigmouth and / or black ) buffalo surfacing all around me . there were also a few walleyes , smallmouth bass , mooneyes , and one large , beautiful paddlefish . sometimes there would be a couple dozen fish within a few feet of me\u2014fish i would have had no idea were there in such numbers if i\u2019d been fishing .\nin mississippi river pools 4 and 8 from 1992 - 2015 , 109 of 167 blue suckers were found along main channel borders , while 83 fish exhibited a preference for sites with wing dams . the species was also reported along side - channel borders ( 36 ) , tailwater zones of dams ( 14 ) , impoundments ( 6 ) , and backwaters ( 2 ) . secchi disc readings ( transparency ) ranged from 26 - 137 cm ( 10 . 2 - 53 . 9 in . ) , depths from 0 . 2 - 19 . 0 m ( 0 . 7 - 62 ft . ) ( 154 fish at 3 . 5 m ( 11 . 5 ft . ) or less ) , and velocities from 0 . 0 - 0 . 85 m / s ( 0 . 0 - 2 . 8 ft . / s ) ( ltrmp 2016 ) .\naccording to zack snyder , no . rocket , amber and blondie may have been killed off in the brothel fantasy , but nobody died in reality . it ' s left completely open what did happen to them . babydoll says to sweet pea that she is the only one who could have survived outside , meaning that she was actually sane and didn ' t belong in the asylum . however the others were not sane , so babydoll had them killed off to explain why they couldn ' t escape the brothel . notably when discussing babydoll ' s situation with the lobotomy surgeon , dr gorski does not mention anything about patients being killed . likewise , the cook is still seen working in the kitchen , which he most certainly wouldn ' t be if he had actually killed rocket . this implies that the girls are all alive and well , and have a chance at getting better once blue is removed from the hospital .\na lot of people have taken wiseman and baby doll ' s\nfive things\nlist to be literal , citing as discrepancies the fact that she needed cloth and liquor to start the fire and a place to do so . the list of five things would seem to refer to items that the girls didn ' t already have . it ' s shown in several scenes that they ' re allowed alcohol in the backstage area ( the girls drinking after getting the lighter ) or else there ' s cleaning fluid in the supply closet\u2014which is bound to be flammable . cloth is easily gotten from the beds . the items baby doll talks about weren ' t available to them : the map in the office , the mayor ' s lighter , the cook ' s knife and the key around blue ' s neck . therefore , they ' re referring only to things for which they ' ll need a diversion ( baby ' s dancing ) to steal .\nin the extended cut , there is an additional scene in between babydoll helping sweet pea escape and her lobotomy . the high roller is revealed to be a nice and caring man who is offering her freedom . he does not want to have her by force , but merely wants to know her . babydoll chooses to give herself to him , and the scene then cuts to the lobotomy . this scene has multiple meanings : first of all , babydoll has spent the entire movie being sexually abused and objectified by the people around her . so this moment is with someone who does not see her as a sex toy , but as a person . she had previously only thought of her sexuality as something disgusting used to pleasure blue and his cronies , or a weapon to use against blue . this scene shows her embracing her sexuality as something beautiful and wonderful\u2014and as a form of love . next , the scene represents that babydoll is actually getting better through dr gorski ' s therapies in the real world . for example , babydoll has been abused and objectified by the men around her . but this scene here shows that she is still able to move past her traumas . in spite of the abuse she suffered in the past , she ' s still able to have such a beautiful and passionate moment . thirdly , the scene shows that a girl ' s sexuality is nothing to be ashamed of\u2014and babydoll takes control of her own sexuality her way , without men dictating it for her . finally , going back to gorski ' s therapies , it ' s implied that she allowed herself to be lobotomised as penance . as she accidentally killed her sister , the lobotomy is her way of making sure she pays for her crime . but through gorski ' s therapies , she comes to realise that the sister ' s death was not her fault and she can again move past her traumas . the fact that she writes herself a happy ending\u2014falling in love with a kind man who wants to give her the best life possible\u2014shows that she has forgiven herself for her crime . essentially the scene is a bit hint that babydoll * will * get better and possibly live a better life ."]}
{"id": 2105, "summary": [{"text": "the chiricahua leopard frog ( lithobates chiricahuensis syn . rana chiricahuensis ) is a species of frog in the family ranidae , the true frogs .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is native to mexico and arizona and new mexico in the united states .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its natural habitats are temperate forests , rivers , intermittent rivers , swamps , freshwater lakes , intermittent freshwater lakes , freshwater marshes , intermittent freshwater marshes , freshwater springs , ponds , and open excavations .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss and chytrid fungus to such an extent that it has been eliminated from 80 % of its former habitat .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the phoenix zoo , arizona 's department of game and fish , and the usfws are trying to mitigate threats through captive breeding and reintroduction efforts . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "chiricahua leopard frog", "paragraphs": ["u . s . fish and wildlife service . 2006 . chiricahua leopard frog (\nchiricahua leopard frog egg masses , huachuca mtns , az . photo by jim rorabaugh\nchiricahua leopard frog , santa cruz co . , az . photo by jim rorabaugh .\nsonoran whipsnake eating chiricahua leopard frog , dragoon mtns , az . photo by jim rorabaugh\nfigure 2 . chiricahua leopard frog , huachuca mountains , az . photo by jim rorabaugh\nfigure 1 . chiricahua leopard frog , coconino county , az . photo by jim rorabaugh .\nfigure 6 . chiricahua leopard frog egg mass , huachuca mountains , az . photo by jim rorabaugh\nfigure 3 . chiricahua leopard frog thigh pattern , santa cruz county , az . photo by jim rorabaugh\nfigure 4 . late stage chiricahua leopard frog tadpole , huachuca mountains , az . photo by jim rorabaugh\nchiricahua leopard frogs can darken their abdominal skin under certain conditions , a camouflaging ability .\nmay 2009 - wildearth guardians and the u . s . fish and wildlife service reach a settlement in the chiricahua leopard frog case\nreproductive interference . male chiricahua leopard frog in amplexus with a female bullfrog . pieper hatchery spring , tonto nat forest . photo by abi king\nfigure 5 . distribution of the chiricahua leopard frog . the distribution south of chihuahua is not well known . the type locality for the vegas valley leopard frog is not included ( it is off the map to the northwest ) .\napril 2008 - wildearth guardians files lawsuit challenging the u . s . fish and widllife service\u2019s failure to designate critical habitat for the chiricahua leopard frog\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - chiricahua leopard frog ( rana chiricahuensis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - chiricahua leopard frog ( rana chiricahuensis )\ntitle =\narkive species - chiricahua leopard frog ( rana chiricahuensis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\n203 mm svl ) and lack dorsolateral folds . the chiricahua leopard frog is known to hybridize with the northern leopard frog and lowland leopard frog . in wild populations , rates of hybridization are low ( 0 - 7 % , platz and mecham 1979 ) , although green and delisle ( 1985 ) noted two of four frogs were hybrids at a site with northern and chiricahua leopard frogs in coconino county , az . frost and bagnara ( 1977 ) found no evidence for hybridization between the chiricahua and plains (\ndiet : the chiricahua leopard frog presumably feeds upon a wide variety of invertebrates as well as some small vertebrates ( including juveniles of their own kind ) .\nvariations in the expressed antimicrobial peptide repertoire of northern leopard frog ( rana pipiens ) . . .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 2002 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; listing of the chiricahua leopard frog ( rana chiricahuensis ) . federal register : 40790 - 4081 .\ngoldberg , c . s . , field , k . j . and sredl , m . j . 2003 . ramsey canyon leopard frog identity crisis : mitochondrial dna analyses support designation as chiricahua leopard frog . arizona game and fish department , nongame and endangered wildlife program technical report 218 , phoenix , arizona .\nplatz and mecham , 1979 ; chiricahua leopard frog . in : lanoo mj ( ed ) amphibian declines ; the conservation status of united states species . university of california press , berkeley , pp 546\u2013549\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 2000 . proposal to list the chiricahua leopard frog as threatened with a special rule . federal register ( 14 june 2000 ) : 37343 - 3735 .\nnighttime in the white mountains of arizona , and the sound of heavy snoring echoes down a sluggish stream . but there are no sleeping campers here ; this is the sound of an imperiled male chiricahua leopard frog , calling for a mate . despite many challenges to its survival , the chiricahua leopard frog is lucky . in a world where frogs are rapidly disappearing , this frog is one of eight listed as \u201cthreatened\u201d or \u201cendangered\u201d under the endangered species act ( esa ) .\nnone of the other five leopard frogs in arizona , or other three leopard frogs in the 100 - mile circle , ever exhibit a salt and pepper pattern on the rear of the thigh . the chiricahua leopard frog is also the only leopard frog species in our area likely to have a dorsum that is entirely green ( although many chiricahua leopard frogs lack green in the dorsal pattern ) . the upturned eyes are also diagnostic . in all other leopard frogs in our area the eyes are positioned lower down , so the angle of view is more or less lateral to the head , rather than upturned . these characters combined with a preponderance of small , dark spots on the dorsum and relatively rough skin are usually enough to distinguish this species from other southwestern leopard frogs . the advertisement call of the chiricahua leopard frog is also diagnostic ( see activity and reproduction ) . american bullfrogs (\njennings , r . d . 1988 . ecological studies of the chiricahua leopard frog , rana chiricahuensis , in new mexico . report to share with wildlife , new mexico department of game and fish , santa fe .\nusfws ( u . s . fish and wildlife service ) . 2007 . chiricahua leopard frog ( rana chiricahuensis ) recovery plan . region 2 , u . s . fish and wildlife service , albuquerque , nm .\nchristman , b . l . , and m . r . cummer . 2006 . stomach contents analysis of the chiricahua leopard frog ( rana chiricahuensis ) and plains leopard frog ( rana blairi ) in new mexico . final report to the new mexico department of game and fish . share with wildlife contract 05 - 516 . 0000 . 051 .\nin the laboratory , crayfish ( orconectes virilis ) can kill and consume tadpole , metamorph , and adult chiricahua leopards frogs , and their presence has been linked to the disappearance of chiricahua leopard frog populations ( fernandez and rosen 1996 , 1999 ) . sredl and howland ( 1995 ) found that chiricahua leopard frogs were almost always absent from sites with american bullfrogs and non - native predatory fishes , such as bluegill and other sunfishes , largemouth bass , and carp ( including koi ) . tiger salamanders ( ambystoma mavortium ) likely prey upon chiricahua leopard frog tadpoles and juvenile frogs . chiricahua leopard frogs coexist with a number of native fishes , and in some sites persist with mosquitofish ( gambusia affinis , usfws 2007 ) . the likelihood of coexisting with predators , especially non - native species , is likely correlated with habitat complexity and the presence of escape cover . chiricahua leopard frogs typically jump into water when threatened , but do not emit an alarm call ( sredl and jennings 2005 ) .\njennings , r . d . activity and reproductive phenologies and their ecological correlates among populations of the chiricahua leopard frog , rana chiricahuensis . unpublished report for new mexico department of game and fish , santa fe , new mexico .\njennings , r . d . 1988 . ecological studies of the chiricahua leopard frog , rana chiricahuensis , in new mexico . report to share with wildlife , new mexico department of game and fish , santa fe , new mexico .\nvia phylogenetic placement of archival specimens highlights the utility of museum collections to provide evidence of pre - anthropogenic - disturbance conditions and better defines paths toward recovery of several imperiled leopard frogs in southwestern north america . although the chiricahua leopard frog may remain a valid taxon in southern ( goldberg et al .\na wide variety of vertebrates and invertebrates likely prey upon chiricahua leopard frogs and their tadpoles and eggs , including aquatic insects , fishes , snakes , birds , american bullfrogs and possibly other anurans , and a variety of mammals ( sredl and jennings 2005 ) . however , predation in the wild has rarely been reported . eric enderson has a picture on the tucson herpetological society website of a black - necked gartersnake ( thamnophis cyrtopsis ) eating a metamorph chiricahua leopard frog . rorabaugh and jones ( in press ) observed a sonoran whipsnake ( coluber bilineatus ) with an adult chiricahua leopard frog in its mouth in the dragoon mountains , az . tom deecken ( pers . comm . 2014 ) watched a mexican gartersnake ( t . eques ) feeding on young chiricahua leopard frogs in the huachuca mountains , az .\nthe u . s . fish and wildlife service listed the chiricahua leopard frog as a\nthreatened\nspecies in 2002 . listing prompted numerous efforts to protect and restore habitat for the frog and control exotic species on both public and private land . although the species has continued to decline in new mexico , populations and occupied sites have increased in arizona since 2002 . designation of critical habitat , as required under the esa , will help ensure long - term recovery of the chiricahua leopard frog . protecting the frog and its habitat will provide for a safer , healthier environment for both frogs and people . and that\u2019s nothing to snore at .\nfernandez , p . j . and p . c . rosen . 1999 . efforts to eradicate introduced crayfish in a stream habitat of the chiricahua leopard frog in the white mountains , arizona . sonoran herpetologist 12 ( 8 ) : 87 .\nboykin , k . g . , and k . c . mcdaniel . 2008 . simulated potential effects of ecological factors on a hypothetical population of chiricahua leopard frog ( rana chiricahuensis ) . ecological modelling 218 ( 2008 ) : 175 - 181 .\nrorabaugh , j . 2010 . a comparison of the status of the chiricahua leopard frog ( lithobates chiricahuensis ) in arizona from 2002 to 2009 . u . s . fish and wildlife service . ecological services . tucson , arizona . january 2010 .\nthe chiricahua leopard frog was proposed for federal listing as a threatened species in a federal register notice published on 14 june 2000 ( 65 fr 37343 ) . the final rule was published 13 june 2002 ( 67 fr 40794 ) and included a special rule promulgated under section 4d of the esa that excluded livestock operations and maintenance at cattle tanks on non - federal lands from the esa\u2019s section 9 take prohibitions . collection of the species is prohibited by arizona game and fish commission order 41 , except with special permits . collection is similarly prohibited in mexico where the chiricahua leopard frog is listed as a threatened species by the mexican government . chiricahua leopard frogs are not protected by state regulations in new mexico . in a 20 march 2012 federal register notice , 10 , 346 acres ( 4 , 187 hectares ) in 39 units in arizona and new mexico were designated as critical habitat for the chiricahua leopard frog ( 77 fr 16347 ) .\njennings , r . d . 1990 . activity and reproductive phenologies and their ecological correlates among populations of the chiricahua leopard frog , rana chiricahuensis . report to endangered species program / share with wildlife , new mexico department of game and fish , santa fe .\n\u2014an extinct species\u2014to advance recovery planning for leopard frog populations in southwestern north america . phylogenetic analyses of nuclear and mtdna sequence variation among century - old specimens placed\nfernandez , p . j . 1996 . a facility for captive propagation of chiricahua leopard frogs ( rana chiricahuensis ) . herpetoculture , pp . 7 - 12 . international herpetological symposium .\nclarkson et al . ( 1986 ) were the first to report declining populations of chiricahua and other leopard frog species in arizona . elaborating on that earlier report , clarkson and rorabaugh ( 1989 ) found chiricahua leopard frogs at only two of 36 sites in arizona that supported the species in the 1960s and 1970s . they suggested that predation by introduced american bullfrogs and fishes , as well as habitat alteration were likely contributing factors in observed leopard frog declines in arizona , but that disappearances of chiricahua leopard frogs were often in places that lacked introduced predators and significant habitat disturbance . in a status assessment of mexican and narrow - headed gartersnakes ( thamnophis eques and t . rufipunctatus , respectively ) , rosen and schwalbe ( 1988 ) noted that american bullfrogs prey upon and had replaced leopard frogs at some sites in southern arizona . they suggested that non - native predatory fish may have the same effect .\nplatz , j . e . 1997 . status survey of the ramsey canyon leopard frog , rana subaquavocalis . report to the arizona game and fish department , phoenix .\ncanyon , huachuca mountains , az that they keyed out to r . montezumae of mexico , which was among the first recognition of a frog that would later be named lithobates chiricahuensis . mecham ( 1968 ) quantified the morphological differences between the \u201csouthern form\u201d ( = l . chiricahuensis ) and the northern leopard frog ( l . pipiens ) in the white mountains of arizona . he stated that this southern form resembled frogs from southwestern new mexico and southeastern arizona . employing electrophoresis of frog hemoglobin , platz and platz ( 1973 ) presented evidence for three species of leopard frogs in arizona , including the northern form ( = l . pipiens ) , mecham\u2019s southern form , and the lowland form . platz and mecham ( 1979 ) subsequently described the southern form as the chiricahua leopard frog ( rana [ = lithobates ] chiricahuensis ) and platz and frost ( 1984 ) described the lowland form as the lowland leopard frog ( rana [ = lithobates ] yavapaiensis ) . the type locality for the chiricahua leopard frog is herb martyr reservoir in cave creek of the chiricahua mountains , az . frost et al . ( 2006 ) proposed the genus name lithobates for all leopard frogs and other related ranid frogs , which was subsequently adopted by the society for the study of reptiles and amphibians ( crother 2008 , 2012 ) , but remains controversial ( see pauly et al . 2009 ) .\nrosen , p . c . , c . r . schwalbe , and s . s . sartorius . 1996 . decline of the chiricahua leopard frog in arizona mediated by introduced species . report to heritage program , arizona game and fish department , phoenix . iipam project no . i92052 .\nfernandez , p . j . , and j . t . bagnara . 1995 . recent changes in leopard frog distribution in the white mountains of east central arizona . page 4\nrorabaugh , j . , m . kreutzian , m . sredl , c . painter , r . aguilar , j . c . bravo , and c . kruse . 2008 . inching towards recovery : the case of the chiricahua leopard frog . endangered species bulletin 33 ( 1 ) : 11 - 14 .\nsome other ranid frogs ( e . g . northern leopard frog ) use different habitats seasonally , and move among those habitats as the seasons change . no marked seasonal use has been noted in the chiricahua leopard frog , except that when the summer rains come , the frogs often spread out along drainages into ephemeral reaches and likely use the uplands to a greater degree than during the dry foresummer . based on our anecdotal observations , juveniles may use shallow water and marshy areas more than adults , as well . during drought , when water is scarce , chiricahua leopard frogs concentrate into the last remaining pools . at dry cattle tanks , they have been found in cracks in the mud where conditions remain moist .\njennings , r . d . 1995 . investigations of recently viable leopard frog populations in new mexico : rana chiricahuensis and rana yavapaiensis . new mexico game and fish department , santa fe .\njennings , r . d . and scott , jr . 1993 . ecologically correlated morphological variation in tadpoles of the leopard frog , rana chiricahuensis . journal of herpetology : 285 - 293 .\nchristman , b . l . , c . g . kruse , and s . debrott . 2003 . survey and monitoring of chiricahua leopard frog ( rana chiricahuensis ) populations on the ladder ranch and adjacent gila national forest lands : sierra county , new mexico . turner endangered species fund , ladder ranch , nm .\ngoldberg et al . ( 1998 ) documented six species of trematodes and one species of nematode in chiricahua leopard frogs from arizona . a generalized discussion of amphibian parasites and their effects is found in usfws ( 2007 ) .\ngoldberg , c . s . , k . j . field , and m . j . sredl . 2004 . ramsey canyon leopard frogs\u2019 ( rana subaquavocalis ) identity crisis : mitochondrial sequences support designation as chiricahua leopard frogs ( rana chiricahuensis ) . journal of herpetology 38 ( 3 ) : 313 - 319 .\ndescription : this leopard frog grows to about 4 . 3 inches in length , and is a green or brown frog with dorsolateral folds and numerous , relatively small dark spots . in southeastern arizona , frogs are often green , or have green on the head . the chiricahua leopard frog is distinguished from other arizona leopard frogs by a combination of characters , including a distinctive salt and pepper pattern on the rear of the thigh of adults and some juveniles , dorsolateral folds that are interrupted and inset towards the rear ; stocky body proportions ; eyes that are relatively high and upturned on the head ; and relatively rough skin on the back and sides . compared to other leopard frogs , the tadpoles are relatively dark , mottled , and stocky . tadpoles grow to > 3 inches . distribution : the chiricahua leopard frog occurred historically in the mountains and valleys along the mogollon rim east of camp verde and the verde river , but also in southeastern arizona south of the gila river from the baboquivari mountains east to peloncillo mountains . although still fairly well distributed through this range , the species has disappeared from about 88 % of its historical localities in arizona .\nchristman and cummer ( 2006 ) examined stomach contents of 56 chiricahua leopard frogs from new mexico . the most common prey items were insects ( coleoptera , hemiptera , and diptera \u2013 75 . 2 % by frequency ) . vertebrates were uncommon in the diet , and included one cyprinid fish and remnants of a frog or late stage tadpole . both terrestrial and aquatic prey were taken in similar proportions ( 44 . 6 and 37 . 3 % , respectively ) . incidental material in the stomachs included plant material , wood , and stones . the authors concluded that the chiricahua leopard frog is a prey generalist , taking what is available . however , they suggested bombardier beetles ( brachinus sp . ) are avoided . those beetles were common at frog collection sites but were not found in stomachs .\n) . the declining leopard frog species ( family ranidae ) from southwestern north america present an example of how uncertain taxonomic status can impede or complicate conservation strategies ( e . g . jaeger et al .\nfernandez , p . j . , and j . t . bagnara . 1993 . observations on the development of unusual melanization of leopard frog ventral skin . journal of morphology 216 : 9 - 15 .\nplatz , j . e . , and j . s . frost . 1984 . rana yavapaiensis , a new species of leopard frog ( rana pipiens complex ) . copeia 1984 : 940 - 948 .\nplatz , j . e . and mecham , j . s . 1979 . rana chiricahuensis , a new species of leopard frog ( rana pipiens complex ) from arizona . copeia : 383 - 390 .\nin new mexico , randy jennings did not consider the chiricahua leopard frog in jeopardy based on surveys from 1983 - 87 ( pers . comm . in clarkson and rorabaugh 1989 ) , but in a subsequent report , he found the species at only 6 of 33 sites that had supported the species during the previous 11 years ( jennings 1995 ) .\nthe chiricahua leopard frog is typically green with namesake dark , leopard - like patterning and golden eyes . they are stocky animals that can grow up to 4 . 3 inches long , and are most active at night . for successful reproduction , these frogs need permanent water 15 to 35 cm deep . they lay their eggs in masses near the shore on vegetation growing close to the water\u2019s surface . after metamorphosis , the frogs eat an array of invertebrates and small vertebrates .\nfrost , j . s . and bagnara , j . t . 1977 . sympatry between rana blairi and the southern form of leopard frog in southeastern arizona ( anura : ranidae ) . southwestern naturalist : 443 - 453 .\nthe chiricahua leopard frog is a species of high valleys and mountains , from about 1 , 034 m elevation in the altar valley , pima county , to 2 , 709 m in the white mountains , az . vegetation communities in these areas include chihuahuan desertscrub , semi - desert grassland , plains grassland , oak woodland , pinyon - juniper woodland , pine - oak woodland , and mixed conifer forest . within these communities , the chiricahua leopard frog is typically found at or near ci\u00e9negas , pools , livestock tanks , mine adits , wells , lakes , reservoirs , streams , and rivers with permanent or nearly permanent surface water . this species is rare or absent in high gradient , shallow flowing water , and more likely to be found in deep , still pools .\nplatz , j . e . 1993 . rana subaquavocalis , a remarkable new species of leopard frog ( rana pipiens complex ) from southeastern arizona that calls under water . journal of herpetology 27 ( 2 ) : 154 - 162 .\nplatz , j . e . , and j . s . mecham . 1979 . rana chiricahuensis , a new species of leopard frog ( rana pipiens complex ) from arizona . copeia 1979 ( 3 ) : 383 - 390 .\nrand , a . s . 1950 . leopard frogs in caves in winter . copeia 1950 : 324 .\nfield , k . j . , t . l . beatty sr . , and t . l . beatty jr . 2003 . rana subaquavocalis ( ramsey canyon leopard frog ) ; diet . herpetological review 34 ( 3 ) : 235 .\nremarks : the range of the chiricahua leopard frog in arizona is split into southeastern and east - central ( mogollon rim ) disjunct populations that may be different species or subspecies . in addition , some authors consider frogs from the eastern slope of the huachuca mountains to be a separate species ( ramsey canyon leopard frog , rana subaquavocalis \u2013 see platz 1993 , but also goldberg et al . 2004 ) . the chiricahua leopard frog ( not including the \u201cramsey canyon leopard frog\u201d ) is listed as a threatened species under the endangered species act . causes of decline include chytridiomycosis ( a fungal disease ) , predation by non - native species , habitat loss and degradation , and other factors . a recovery team has prepared a draft recovery plan . by jim rorabaugh federally protected rana chiricahuensis is listed as threatened under the endangered species act . it is against federal law to harass , harm , pursue , hunt , shoot , wound , kill , trap , capture , or collect this animal or to attempt to engage in any such conduct . more information on federal listing here : urltoken protected in az it is against arizona state law to harass , harm , pursue , hunt , shoot , wound , kill , trap , capture , or collect this animal or to attempt to engage in any such conduct .\njennings , r . d . 1995 . investigations of recently viable leopard frog populations in new mexico : rana chiricahuensis and rana yavapaiensis . report submitted to new mexico department of game and fish , endangered species program , santa fe , new mexico .\nthe chiricahua leopard frog historically occurred in cienegas , lakes , ponds and riparian zones at elevations between 3 , 281 to 8 , 890 feet in central and southeastern arizona , west - central and southwestern new mexico , and the sky islands and sierra madre occidental of northeastern sonora and western chihuahua , mexico . but it has now vanished from over 80 percent of its former habitat in arizona . although less is known about the new mexico population , the frog appears to have disappeared from over 80 percent of its habitat in that state , as well .\nfernandez , p . j . , and j . t . bagnara . 1991 . effect of background color and low temperature on skin color and circulating \u03ac - msh in two species of leopard frog . general and comparative endocrinology 83 : 132 - 141 .\nfrost , j . s . , and j . t . bagnara . 1977 . sympatry between rana blairi and the southern form of leopard frog in southeastern arizona ( anura : ranidae ) . the southwestern naturalist 22 ( 4 ) : 443 - 453 .\nplatz , j . e . , a . lathrop , l . hofbauer , and m . vradenburg . 1997 . age distribution and longevity in the ramsey canyon leopard frog , rana subaquavocalis . journal of herpetology 31 ( 4 ) : 552 - 557 .\njennings , r . d . 2005 . rana fisheri stejneger , 1893 , vegas valley leopard frog . pages 554 - 555 in m . lannoo ( ed ) , amphibian declines , the conservation status of united states species . university of california press , berkeley .\nthough they rarely exceed five inches in length , male chiricahua leopard frogs are scrappy for their size \u2013 they\u2019ll engage in frog - fisticuffs with other males to secure the best territories during the mating season . females are otherwise occupied : they lay as many as 6 , 000 eggs during each mating season of their 18 - year lifespan . chiricahua leopard frogs need permanent water for reproduction , but that\u2019s increasingly hard to come by ; the riparian areas they live in are often destroyed by livestock grazing , groundwater pumping , water diversion , and dams . the center for biological diversity fought for protection for this species , and in 2002 it was officially listed under the endangered species act \u2013 but without protected habitat , these frogs are still at risk .\n: evidence for phylogenetically distinct leopard frogs from the border region of nevada , utah , and arizona . copeia 2001 : 339\u2013354\ngoldberg , s . r . , c . r . bursey , and h . cheam . 1998 . helminths in two native frog species ( rana chiricahuensis , rana yavapaiensis ) and one introduced frog species ( rana catesbeianus ) ( ranidae ) from arizona . journal of parasitology 84 : 175 - 177 .\nsuggestions that the extinct vegas valley leopard frog ( rana fisheri = lithobates fisheri ) may have been synonymous with one of several declining species have complicated recovery planning for imperiled leopard frogs in southwestern united states . to address this concern , we reconstructed the phylogenetic position of r . fisheri from mitochondrial and nuclear sequence data obtained from century - old museum specimens . analyses incorporating representative north american rana species placed archival specimens within the clade comprising federally threatened chiricahua leopard frogs ( rana chiricahuensis = lithobates chiricahuensis ) . further analysis of chiricahua leopard frogs recovered two diagnosable lineages . one lineage is composed of r . fisheri specimens and r . chiricahuensis near the mogollon rim in central arizona , while the other encompasses r . chiricahuensis populations to the south and east . these findings ascribe r . chiricahuensis populations from the northwestern most portion of its range to a resurrected r . fisheri , demonstrating how phylogenetic placement of archival specimens can inform recovery and conservation plans , especially those that call for translocation , re - introduction , or population augmentation of imperiled species .\nstreicher , j . w . , c . m . sheehy iii , o . flores - villela , and j . a . campbell . 2012 morphological variation in a polychromatic population of chiricahua leopard frogs ( lithobates chiricahuensis ) from durango , mexico . journal of herpetology 46 ( 3 ) : 387 - 392 .\ndavidson , c . 1996 . frog and toad calls of the rocky mountains . library of natural sounds , cornell laboratory of ornithology , ithaca , ny .\nsredl , m . j . , and r . d . jennings . 2005 . rana chiricahuensis : platz and mecham , 1979 , chiricahua leopard frogs . pages 546 - 549 in m . j . lannoo ( ed ) , amphibian declines : the conservation status of united states species . university of california press , berkeley .\nto the south , populations occur or occurred from the baboquivari mountains in pima county , az eastward to the animas mountains and playas valley , hidalgo county , nm and south well into mexico . the northern - most records south of the gila river in arizona are two specimens from the base of the pinale\u00f1o mountains , graham county . the species is also known from the nearby galiuro mountains . in mexico , the chiricahua leopard frog occurs or occurred in eastern sonora , western chihuahua , and adjacent durango , mexico ( rorabaugh 2008 , lemos - espinal and smith 2007 , streicher et al . 2012 ) . the southern distributional limit is unclear . diaz and diaz ( 1997 ) reported the species from aguascalientes ; however , chiricahuensis - like frogs of mexico , including lithobates montezumae and l . lemosespinali could be confused with the chiricahua leopard frog , and the relationships of these similar frogs to each other and l . chiricahuensis need further work , particularly in regard to l . lemosespinali .\nlemos - espinal et al . ( 2013 ) noted some differences in chiricahua leopard frogs from southwestern chihuahua as compared to those in sonora and the united states . the maximum svl is 58 mm , and they are dark gray - brown and have fewer spots on the dorsum . the authors suggest these differences may reflect taxonomic distinctiveness .\nmecham , j . s . 1968 . evidence of reproductive isolation between two populations of the frog , rana pipiens , in arizona . southwestern naturalist : 35 - 44 .\nfield et al . ( 2003 ) noted a rufous or allen\u2019s hummingbird taken by a chiricahua leopard frog in miller canyon of the huachuca mountains , az . captives readily take crickets , mealworm larvae and adults , silkworm larvae , other invertebrates , and small fish ( demlong 1997 , usfws 2007 ) . cannibalism of larger frogs on smaller frogs occurs in captive colonies and likely occurs in the wild ( jennings 1988 ) . the tadpoles are probably mostly herbivorous . marti and fisher ( 1998 ) listed the following likely tadpole food items in ramsey canyon , huachuca mountains : bacteria , diatoms , phytoplankton , filamentous algae , water milfoil , duckweed , and detritus . we have observed wild chiricahua leopard frog tadpoles feeding upon floating algal mats . large tadpoles have been observed consuming the gelatinous envelopes of conspecific egg masses ( platz 1997 ) . in captivity , tadpoles have been fed rabbit pellets suspended in agar - gelatin blocks , boiled spinach , romaine lettuce , cucumber slices , frozen trout , duckweed , and spirulina fish food ( frost 1982 , demlong 1997 ) .\nsredl , m . j . and jennings , r . d . 2005 . rana chiricahuensis ( platz and mecham , 1979 ) chiricahua leopard frogs . in : lannoo , m . j . ( ed . ) , status and conservation of u . s . amphibians . volume 2 : species accounts , university of california press , berkeley , california .\nthe zoo\u2019s head - start program , dedicated to raising native frogs for release to supplement wild populations , is housed in the arthur l . and elaine v . johnson foundation conservation center . at the johnson center , you have the ability to see the leopard frog colonies and our staff as they work with them .\nmecham , j . s . 1968 . evidence of reproductive isolation between two populations of the frog , rana pipiens , in arizona . southwestern naturalist 13 : 35 - 44 .\nsredl , m . j . , and j . m . howland . 1995 . conservation and management of madrean populations of the chiricahua leopard frog . pages 379 - 385 in l . f . debano , g . j . gottfried , r . h . hamre , c . b . edminster , and p . f . ffolliott ( tech . eds . ) , biodiversity and management of the madrean archipelago : the sky islands of the southwestern united states and northwestern mexico . usda forest service , general technical report rm - gtr - 264 .\nbrennan , t . c . , & a . t . holycross . 2006 . a field guide to amphibians and reptiles in arizona . arizona game and fish department . phoenix , az . goldberg , c . s . , k . j . field , and m . j . sredl . 2004 . mitochondrial dna sequences do not support species status of the ramsey canyon leopard frog ( rana subaquavocalis ) . journal of herpetology 38 ( 3 ) : 313 - 319 . platz , j . e . 1993 . rana subaquavocalis , a remarkable new species of leopard frog ( rana pipiens complex ) from southeastern arizona that calls under water . journal of herpetology 27 ( 2 ) : 154 - 162 . sredl , m . j . , and r . d . jennings . 2005 . rana chiricahuensis platz and mecham , 1979 , chiricahua leopard frog . pages 546 - 549 i n m . j . lannoo ( ed ) , amphibian declines : the conservation status of united states species . university of california press , berkeley . sredl , m . j . , j . m . howland , j . e . wallace , and l . s . saylor . 1997 . status and distribution of arizona ' s native ranid frogs . pages 45 - 101 in m . j . sredl ( ed ) . ranid frog conservation and management . arizona game and fish department , nongame and endangered wildlife program , technical report 121 .\nthe center ' s public lands program will watchdog activities that could degrade this frog ' s habitat in our last desert rivers \u2014 including arizona ' s san pedro river and fossil creek .\nit might be surprising to many that in a state known for its arid environments that among the animals comprising arizona\u2019s rich biodiversity are 25 species of native amphibians , including 24 frog species ( i . e . , both frogs and toads ) and only one species of salamander ( the tiger salamander ) . indeed , several of these amphibians are only found in some of the most arid parts of the deserts that make up much of arizona . what might not be surprising is that the aquatic habitats that support many of arizona\u2019s amphibians have been diverted or destroyed because of the high demand for water in the state . many of our amphibians have suffered serious population declines and some , such as the chiricahua leopard frog and sonoran tiger salamander , are protected under the endangered species act .\nspecimens , we needed to provide a comparative sequence library for representative southwestern and western ranid frog species . we used a combination of genbank accessioned sequences ( dataset i ( gi55418335\u2013gi55418396 ) from hillis and wilcox\nthe chiricahua leopard frog recovery plan ( usfws 2007 ) is the primary document guiding conservation activities for this species . it includes recommended recovery actions to reduce or eliminate threats , an implementation schedule for those actions , measurable criteria to gauge recovery success , and much other information needed to conserve the species . recovery criteria need to be met in each of eight recovery units . the primary recovery actions include 1 ) protecting remaining populations , 2 ) identifying , restoring or creating , and protecting unoccupied sites as necessary to support viable chiricahua leopard frog populations and metapopulations , 3 ) establishing new or reestablishing former populations , 4 ) augmenting populations as needed to increase persistence , 5 ) monitoring populations and recovery , 6 ) conducting research that promotes recovery , 7 ) developing support for the recovery program , 8 ) developing cooperative projects with non - federal landowners , 9 ) amending land use plans as needed , 10 ) working with tribal partners , 11 ) working with mexican partners , and 12 ) practicing adaptive management . the recovery program is guided by a recovery team , three regional steering committees , and numerous local recovery groups , most of which meet on a regular basis . the recovery plan and other documents pertaining to the species can be downloaded from the following site :\nfrom century - old archival museum specimens to address alternative taxonomic hypotheses , and in so doing , to advance the recovery planning of imperiled leopard frogs across southwestern north america .\ncunjak , r . a . 1986 . winter habitat of northern leopard frogs , rana pipiens , in a southern ontario stream . canadian journal of zoology 64 : 255\u2011257 .\nhale , s . f . 1992 . a survey of the historic and potential habitat for the tarahumara frog , ( rana tarahumarae ) in arizona . report to the arizona game and fish department , phoenix .\nmost of the southwestern streams the chiricahua leopard frog calls home have shrunken or disappeared . groundwater pumping , damming , and water diversion have dried up streams and interrupted pool creation . cattle destroy vegetation , trample banks , and pollute water with silt and droppings . some leopard frogs , particularly males , will travel long distances ( more than two miles ) along connected riparian habitat in search of food or mates , highlighting the importance of habitat corridors for this species . but now their routes are dry or home to dangerous introduced predators and competitors such as bullfrogs , game fish , and crayfish , leaving the frogs stranded in isolated pockets . weakened by stresses like pollution , pesticides , and increased uv radiation , the species is being devastated by chytrid fungus , which is killing frogs worldwide and is linked to global warming .\nthe northern leopard frog ( rana pipiens or lithobates pipiens ) is historically found in most of the provinces of canada and the northern and southwest states of the united states . in the last 50 years , populations have suffered significant losses , especially in the western regions of the species range . using a peptidomics approach , we show that the pattern of expressed antimicrobial skin . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe relationships of anurans commonly called \u201cleopard frogs\u201d or \u201cmeadow frogs\u201d have baffled herpetologists for over 100 years ( moore 1975 , hillis 1988 ) . from the mid - 1920s through the early - 1960s , most authorities listed only one to three species of leopard frog in the southwestern united states ( moore 1944 , wright and wright 1949 , stebbins 1951 ) , including the broad - ranging rana pipiens , as well as r . fisheri and r . onca of southwestern nevada and adjacent portions of utah and arizona ( although some considered the latter two to be subspecies of pipiens , or to be synonyms \u2013 see pace 1974 ) . wright and wright ( 1949 ) recognized considerable variation within r . pipiens in north america , even singling out questionable frogs in a section of their book called \u201carizona puzzles . \u201d in addition , they were among the first authorities to refer to the leopard frogs as the r . pipiens complex . interestingly , they noted large leopard frogs from carr\nzweifel , r . g . 1995 . rana revisited : some r . chiricahuensis sites in the chiricahua mountains then and now . page 12 in program and abstracts of the first annual meeting of the southwestern working group of the declining amphibian populations task force , phoenix , az .\nhekkala , e . r . , r . a . saumure , j . r . jaeger , h . - w . heermann , m . j . sredl , d . f . bradford , d . drabek , and m . j . blum . 2011 . resurrecting an extinct species : archival dna , taxonomy , and conservation of the vegas valley leopard frog . conservation genetics 12 : 1379 - 1385 .\nemery , a . r . , a . h . berst ; k . kodaira . 1972 . under - ice observations of wintering sites of leopard frogs . copeia 1972 : 123 - 126 .\npace , a . e . 1974 . systematic and biological studies of the leopard frogs ( rana pipiens complex ) of the united states . miscellaneous publications , museum of zoology , university of michigan 148 .\nit occurs in coconino , tonto , apache , sitgreaves , gila , and coronado national forests ( jennings 1995 ; sredl et al . 1997 ) . both the northern and southern populations of r . chiricahuensis are listed as threatened under the endangered species act in 2002 , and a recovery team was established in 2003 . conservation actions will include both short - term interim actions to prevent further deterioration of the species\u2019 status , and longer - term planning for eventual recovery of the species . arizona game and fish commission order 41 prohibit the collection of this species from the wild in arizona . it is included as wildlife of special concern in arizona ( arizona game and fish department 1996 ) . priority research topics include identification of the importance of disease , pesticides and other contaminants , climate change , uv radiation , fire management , and possibly other threats to the status and recovery potential of the chiricahua leopard frog . also , research is needed on key aspects of the frog\u2019s status , distribution , and ecology .\nclarkson , w . r . and rorabaugh , j . c . 1989 . status of leopard frogs ( rana pipiens complex : ranidae ) in arizona and southeastern california . southwestern naturalist : 531 - 538 .\nfrost , j . s . and platz , j . e . 1983 . comparative assessment of modes of reproductive isolation among four species of leopard frogs ( rana pipiens complex ) . evolution : 66 - 78 .\nscott jr , n . j . and jennings , r . d . 1985 . the tadpoles of five species of new mexican leopard frogs . occasional papers for the museum of southwestern biology : 1 - 21 .\nscott , n . j . , and r . d . jennings . 1985 . the tadpoles of five species of new mexican leopard frogs . occasional papers for the museum of southwestern biology 3 : 1 - 21 .\nclarkson , r . w . , and j . c . rorabaugh . 1989 . status of leopard frogs ( rana pipiens complex ) in arizona and southeastern california . southwestern naturalist 34 ( 4 ) : 531 - 538 .\nfrost , j . s . , and j . e . platz . 1983 . comparative assessment of modes of reproductive isolation among four species of leopard frogs ( rana pipiens complex ) . evolution 37 : 66 - 78 .\njennings , r . d . , and n . j . scott . 1991 . global amphibian population declines : insights from leopard frogs in new mexico . report to the new mexico department of game and fish , albuquerque .\nskeletochronology of frogs from the east side of the huachuca mountains , cochise county , az revealed that 47 percent of sampled adults were age six or older . the oldest frogs were estimated at 10 years post - metamorphosis ( platz et al . 1997 ) . however , this area may be anomalous , as durkin ( 1995 ) found no evidence of chiricahua leopard frogs living longer than six years . platz et al . \u2019s work in the huachuca mountains was before the onset of periodic disease - related die offs . longevity at that site is probably much less now .\nas part of the association of zoos and aquariums , and in cooperation with arizona game and fish department ( agfd ) and the u . s . fish and wildlife service , the phoenix zoo has been involved in local , regional and international efforts to save and protect numerous wildlife species , including the amphibian population . because of high mortality rates in the wild of chiricahua leopard frog eggs , and small tadpoles , captive head - starting provides a greater chance of survival for late - stage tadpoles or small frogs . in the wild , approximately five percent or less of the eggs in a mass survives to metamorphosis . in captivity , more than 90 percent of an egg mass survives to be released as froglets or late - stage tadpoles . by releasing a large number of animals back into a site , chances are greatly increased that more will survive to adulthood and reproduce , as well as preserving valuable genes .\n80 mm total length prior to metamorphosis . small tadpoles are a dark velvety olive dorsally and on the sides , and white to pale gray with bronze patches ventrally . large tadpoles are generally dark gray or olive dorsally with pale venters and heavy mottling on the tail fin ( scott and jennings 1985 , fig . 4 ) . mouth parts are illustrated in scott and jennings ( 1985 ) . lateral lines of southwestern us leopard frog tadpoles may be diagnostic ( fritts et al . 1984 ) , but these differences need to be more fully explored .\nthis species is known from arizona and new mexico in the united states , and from mexico ( platz and mecham 1979 ) . the range of this species is divided into two areas . the first includes northern montane populations along the southern edge of the colorado plateau ( = mogollon rim ) in central and eastern arizona and west - central new mexico . the second includes southern populations located in the mountains and valleys south of the gila river in south - eastern arizona and south - western new mexico , and extends into mexico along the eastern slopes of the sierra madre occidental ( platz and mecham 1979 ) . populations in the northern portion of the range might soon be described as a new species ( platz pers . comm . ) . elevations of chiricahua leopard frog localities range from 1 , 000 - 2 , 710m asl ( platz and mecham 1979 ; sredl et al . 1997 ; smith and chiszar 2003 ) .\nplatz , j . e . , and t . grudzien . 1999 . the taxonomic status of leopard frogs from the mogollon rim country of central arizona : evidence for recognition of a new species . proceedings of nebraska academy of sciences 109 : 51 .\nbehavior : can be found active day or night , although they are easier to find and observe at night with a headlamp or flashlight . this is probably the most aquatic of the native leopard frogs , but can move overland and along drainages during summer monsoons .\nfritts , t . h . , r . d . jennings , and n . j . scott , jr . 1984 . a review of the leopard frogs of new mexico . report to the new mexico department of game and fish , santa fe , nm .\nolah - hemmings v , jaeger jr , sredl mj , schlaepfer ma , jennings rd , drost ca , bradford df , riddle br ( 2010 ) phylogeography of declining relict and lowland leopard frogs in the desert southwest of north america . j zool 280 : 343\u2013354 . doi :\nactivity depends primarily on water temperature . as water temperature drops to 12 - 13 0 c or below , frogs are rarely seen . at water temperatures of 14 0 c and above usually some frogs are found active . active frogs have been found year - round in warm springs in new mexico , but where water temperature varies with ambient air temperature , frogs are most active from april through september . chiricahua leopard frogs are easiest to approach and identify at night with a flashlight or headlamp , but they are active day and night . juveniles are perhaps more active by day , and adults more active at night ( jennings 1988 ) . winter retreats have not been identified ; however , northern leopard frogs are known to overwinter at the bottom of well - oxygenated ponds or lakes , they may dig shallow depressions or bury themselves in mud , and they have been found during the winter in caves ( rand 1950 , emery et al . 1972 , nussbaum et al . 1983 , cunjak 1986 , harding 1997 ) .\nmany of arizona\u2019s native frogs , particularly the five species of leopard frogs and the tarahumara frog , might be considered \u201ctypical\u201d stream - dwelling frogs ; never being found too far from permanent water where they lay eggs , develop as tadpoles , and live as adult frogs . but , some of the most astonishing adaptations to desert life are exhibited by a number of frogs and toads that live much of their lives buried underground , only to emerge briefly to breed and grow during the summer rains . this group includes \u201ctypical\u201d toads like the sonoran green toad , couch\u2019s spadefoot , the tiny narrow - mouthed toad , and even a \u201ctrue\u201d treefrog , the lowland burrowing treefrog . perhaps one of the most unusual frogs in arizona is the barking frog , which is found in rocky outcrops where it lays its eggs in relatively dry crevices , and the young develop entirely within the egg and skip the tadpole stage . thus , despite the relatively few species overall , arizona can claim to have a richly diverse amphibian fauna .\nin addition to the 25 species of native amphibians , arizona has become home to four types of exotic amphibians : bullfrogs , rio grande leopard frogs , african clawed frogs and barred tiger salamanders . bullfrogs have become so numerous and widespread that they are now seriously threatening native aquatic wildlife populations , particularly amphibians and reptiles .\nsredl , m . j . , howland , j . m . , wallace , j . e . and saylor , l . s . 1997 . status and distribution of arizona\u2019s native ranid frogs . in : sredl , m . j ( ed . ) , ranid frog conservation and management , pp . 37 - 89 . arizona game and fish department , phoenix , arizona .\nsredl , m . j . , j . m . howland , j . e . wallace , and l . s . saylor . 1997 . status and distribution of arizona\u2019s native ranid frogs . pages 45 - 101 in m . j . sredl ( ed ) . ranid frog conservation and management . arizona game and fish department , nongame and endangered wildlife program , technical report 121 .\npeptidomic analysis of an extract of the skins of specimens of dybowski ' s brown frog rana dybowskii gunther , 1876 , collected on tsushima island , japan led to the identification of 10 peptides with differential antibacterial and hemolytic activities . the primary structures of these peptides identified them as belonging to the brevinin - 1 ( 5 peptides ) and brevinin - 2 ( 5 peptides ) families of . . . [ show full abstract ]\nrosen , p . c . , schwalbe , c . r . , parizek , d . a . j . , holm , p . a . and lowe , c . h . 1995 . introduced aquatic vertebrates in the chiricahua region : effects on declining ranid frogs . in : debano , l . f . , gottfried , g . j . , hamre , r . h . and edmi , c . b . ( eds ) , biodiversity and management of the madrean archipelago : the sky islands of southwestern united states and northwestern mexico , rocky mountain forest and range experimental station , fort collins , colorado .\nbalancing selection is common on many defense genes , but it has rarely been reported for immune effector proteins such as antimicrobial peptides ( amps ) . we describe genetic diversity at a brevinin - 1 amp locus in three species of leopard frogs ( rana pipiens , rana blairi , and rana palustris ) . several highly divergent allelic lineages are segregating at this locus . that this unusual pattern . . . [ show full abstract ]\nsimilarly barred or have dark spots . dorsal spots and crossbars often fade with age and are absent in some very large frogs . the rear of the thigh in adults from southern populations typically is a salt and pepper pattern consisting of a very dark background overlain with numerous white - tipped pustules that are most prominent near the urostyle ( fig . 3 ) . juveniles may exhibit a dark reticulation on the rear of the thigh or have the salt and pepper pattern . the salt and pepper pattern is also present in many northern frogs , but some juveniles and adults exhibit a dark and light reticulate pattern . there is no discernible light upper lip stripe anterior to the eyes , although that area may be a green that is somewhat lighter in color than surrounding pigment . the venter is cream to yellowish cream , often with grayish mottling on the chin and throat ( platz and mecham 1979 , degenhardt et al . 1996 , dodd 2013 , pers . obs . ) . individual chiricahua leopard frogs can darken their skin color in response to low water temperature and reduced reflectance off the water\u2019s surface ( fernandez and bagnara 1991 , 1993 ) ."]}
{"id": 2108, "summary": [{"text": "the lovebug ( plecia nearctica ) is a species of march fly found in parts of central america and the southeastern united states , especially along the gulf coast .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is also known as the honeymoon fly or double-headed bug .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "during and after mating , adult pairs remain coupled , even in flight , for up to several days .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the species was first described in 1940 by d. e. hardy , but was seen in louisiana as early as 1911 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "at that time , he reported the incidence of lovebugs to be widespread , but most common in texas , florida , alabama , mississippi , and louisiana .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "however , by the end of the 20th century the species had spread heavily to all areas bordering the gulf of mexico , as well as georgia and south carolina .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "l. a. hetrick , writing in 1970 , found the bug was also widespread in central and northern florida and described its flights as reaching altitudes of 300 to 450 metres ( 980 to 1,480 ft ) and extending several kilometers over the gulf .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "in 2006 , it was reported as far north as topsail beach , north carolina .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "lovebugs ' larvae feed on partially decayed vegetation in the landscape and , in this respect , are beneficial to humans .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "adults primarily feed on nectar from various plants , particularly sweet clover , goldenrod , and brazilian pepper . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "lovebug", "paragraphs": ["i heard that uf was responsible for releasing the lovebug . is that true ?\ncallahan , p . , h . denmark . 1974 . the lovebug phenomenon .\nyou can read more about lovebug myths and facts at this uf / ifas document .\noriginally an invasive species from central america , the lovebug\u2014harmless to humans\u2014is now found throughout florida .\nyou could become a & apos ; lovebug & apos ; because you are so full of love . someone else could become a lovebug because they are so full of love . to be called a lovebug is the ultimate expression of affection , you are so full of love .\n, proved to be pathogenic to the lovebug and to cause signifigant mortality among larva and adults .\nthe lovebug in florida : setting the record straight ( 3 . 9mb powerpoint ) - uf / ifas\nchemical controls are ineffective , as the lovebug is widespread and continually drifts onto highways from adjacent areas .\nfigure 5 . larvae of the lovebug , plecia nearctica hardy . photograph by james castner , university of florida .\nthe first lovebug messages were intercepted by messagelabs ' skeptic heuristic detection engine just after midnight on 4 may 2000 .\nchambers , s . 1977 . genetic characteristics of a colonizing episode in the lovebug , * plecia nearctica * .\nvan handel , e . 1976 . metabolism of the lovebug * plecia nearctica * ( diptera : bibionidae ) .\nlarval lovebug . photo : dr . timothy a . mousseau , dept of biological sciences , university of south carolina .\nbuschman , l . 1976 . invasion of florida by the lovebug * plecia nearctica * ( diptera : bibionidae ) .\nthornhill , r . 1976 . reproductive behavior of the lovebug , * plecia nearctica * ( diptera : bibionidae ) .\njonas brothers lyrics are property and copyright of their owners .\nlovebug\nlyrics provided for educational purposes and personal use only .\nthe lovebug laboratory is staffed with leading scientists , doctors and medical experts working to pick the prime probiotics for each of our products .\nthornhill , r . 1980 . sexual selection within mating swarms of the lovebug , * plecia nearctica * ( diptera : bibionidae ) .\nthe tool looks at previously analysed malcode to identify potential threats , and blocked lovebug based on characterstics seen in the melissa virus , said fletcher .\nuf\u2019s only significant research on lovebugs came in the early 1970s , when the usda funded studies to determine the extent of florida\u2019s newly arrived lovebug problem .\nlovebug was primitive by today ' s standards , being a simple script virus with clear , unobfuscated code that was easy to understand , said fletcher .\nhieber , c . , j . cohen . 1983 . sexual selection in the lovebug , * plecia nearctica * : the role of male choice .\ncherry r . 1998 . attraction of the lovebug , plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) , to anethole . florida entomologist 81 : 559 - 562 .\nthis enabled lovebug to spread faster and wider than anything we had seen before ,\nsaid fletcher , chief architect at symantec hosted services , formerly messagelabs .\nlovebugs are an introduced species , and do not have many natural enemies . because of this , lovebug populations continue to grow and move . many people consider\ncherry , r . 1998 . attraction of the lovebug , plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) to anethole . florida entomologist 81 : 559 - 562 . urltoken\nbuschman ll . 1976 . invasion of florida by the\nlovebug ,\nplecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) . florida entomologist 59 : 191 - 194 .\nhieber cs , cohen ja . 1983 . sexual selection in the lovebug , plecia nearctica : the role of male choice . evolution 37 : 987 - 992 .\nkish , l . , i . terry , g . allen . 1977 . three fungi tested against the lovebug , * plecia nearctica * , in florida .\nchambers sm . 1977 . genetic characteristics of a colonizing episode in the lovebug , plecia nearctica . annals of the entomological society of america 70 : 537 - 540 .\nthis 1975 range map shows the extent of the lovebug invasion ; it is now reported in north carolina and oklahoma . ( figure from cuda & leppla , uf )\nkish lp , terry i , allen ge . 1977 . three fungi tested against the lovebug , plecia nearctica , in florida . florida entomologist 60 : 291 - 295 .\nthornhill r . 1976b . reproductive behavior of the lovebug , plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america 69 : 843 - 847 .\ntrimble jj . 1974 . ultrastructure of the ejaculatory duct region of the lovebug , plecia nearctica hardy . international journal of insect morphology and embryology 3 : 353 - 359 .\nlovebugs plastered on car . acid from the smashed lovebug bodies etch vehicle paint if allowed to remain on very long . photo credit : tim donovan , florida fish and wildlife\nthe adult lovebug lives only about three to four days , which is just long enough to mate , feed and disperse eggs . a female lovebug can lay an average of 350 eggs , which she deposits under decaying vegetation in grassy or weedy areas . after the eggs are laid , the larvae develop and begin feeding on grass and decomposing leaves . the next phase of the lovebug life cycle is the pupal stage and this can last seven to nine days before lovebugs become adults and start the cycle all over again .\nbuschman , l . l . 1976 . invasion of florida by the\nlovebug\nplecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) . florida entomologist 59 : 191 - 194 . urltoken\nwhitesell . 1974 . heat , sound , and engine exhaust as\nlovebug\nattractants ( diptera : bibionidae : plecia nearctica ) . environmental entomology 3 : 1038 - 1039 .\nvan handel e . 1976 . metabolism of the\nlovebug\nplecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america 69 : 215 - 216 .\na decade after the lovebug computer virus caught the online world by surprise , social engineering is still a popular element of cyber attacks , but it has become far more sophisticated .\ncallahan , p . , h . denmark . 1973 . attraction of the lovebug , * plecia nearctica * ( diptera : bibionidae ) , to uv irradiated automobile exhaust fumes .\nthornhill , r . 1976c . reproductive behavior of the lovebug , plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) . ann . entomol . soc . amer . 69 : 843 - 847 .\nwhitesell jj . 1974 . heat , sound , and engine exhaust as\nlovebug\nattractants ( diptera : bibionidae : plecia nearctica ) . environmental entomology 3 : 1038 - 1039 .\nvan handel , e . 1976 . metabolism of the\nlovebug\nplecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) . ann . entomol . soc . amer . 69 : 215 - 216 .\nlay their eggs in places with dying vegetation . after hatching , the larva feeds on this vegetation . lovebug larva benefit humans by breaking down dead vegetation and returning it to the soil .\ncallahan , p . s . 1985 . dielectric waveguide modeling at 3 . 0 cm of the antenna sensilla of the lovebug , plecia nearctica hardy . applied optics 24 : 1094 - 1097 .\nthe key thing about the lovebug worm , was that it used social engineering ,\naccording to paul fletcher , a member of the first security team to intercept and name the virus .\nthe lovebug was about wanting to be seen , but most of the e - mail - borne malware of today is designed to steal information , undetected for months or years , said fletcher .\nlovebug life cycle with the approximate duration and size of each stage ( not drawn exactly to scale , adult pair 0 . 6 in . head to head ; partially derived from pinto 2002 ) . the lovebug has two generations each year , emerging as adults in april - may ( winter generation , larvae 240 days ) and august - september ( summer generation , larvae 120 days ) .\nhieber , c . s . and j . a . cohen . 1983 . sexual selection in the lovebug , plecia nearctica : the role of male choice . evolution 37 : 987 - 992 .\ncallahan ps , denmark ha . 1973 . attraction of the\nlovebug ,\nplecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) to uv irradiated automobile exhaust fumes . florida entomologist 56 : 113 - 119 .\nkish lp , allen ge , kimbrough jw , kuitert lc . 1974 . a survey of fungi associated with the lovebug , plecia nearctica , in florida . florida entomologist 57 : 281 - 284 .\nan army isn\u2019t going to win the war if the soldiers don\u2019t make it to the battlefield . that\u2019s why the microscopic soldiers in each lovebug probiotics supplement are guarded by bio - tract \u00ae technology .\nthat\u2019s why lovebug probiotics are carefully created probiotics to benefit everyone . our supplements are geared toward various needs and stages of life , from young infants , to kids , to full - grown adults .\n, nor are there any that particularly feed on the adult fly . lovebugs are considered to be pests to humans . biologists have tested different fungi on lovebug larva as a possibility of biological control .\ncallahan ps , denmark ha . 1974 . the\nlovebug\nphenomenon . proceedings of the tall timbers conference on ecological animal control by habitat management ( march 1973 ) . 5 : 93 - 101 .\nevans he . 1985 . the lovebug . in the pleasures of entomology . portraits of insects and the people who study them . smithsonian institution press , washington , d . c . , 238 pp .\ndenmark , h . a . and f . w . mead . 2001 . lovebug . university of florida , ifas , entomology and nematology department , featured creatures , eeny - 47 . ( urltoken ) .\nmousseau , t . a . 2004 . populations of the lovebug , plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) go unchecked by predators . bull . royal entomol . society . antenna 28 : 78 - 80 .\nthere\u2019s nothing about the lovebug that would harm florida\u2019s blood - feeding mosquito species . so it\u2019s hard to imagine any competent scientist looking at plecia nearctica and thinking \u201cthis creature could help us control mosquito populations . \u201d\nsome natural enemies of lovebugs are fungi . although more time and research is needed , nine different species of fungi are known to affect lovebug larvae . however , available data indicate that only the fungus beauveria bassiana causes significant mortality levels ( 27 to 33 % ) in adults and immatures . laboratory studies using invertebrate predators found in lovebug - infested pastures indicated that these predators included earwigs , two species of beetle larvae , and a centipede .\nlovebug adults are attracted to light - colored surfaces , especially if they are freshly painted , but the adults can congregate almost anywhere by reacting to the effects of sunlight on automobile fumes , asphalt , and other products .\nkish , l . p . , i . terry , g . e . allen . 1977 . three fungi tested against the lovebug , plecia nearctica , in florida . florida entomologist . 60 : 291 - 295 . urltoken\njack : hows things with jane ? eddi : oh ok , she & apos ; s my lil lovebug . jack : i see , she must really love you then ! eddi : yep : ) emily : hows things with jack ? jane : great thanks ! but i & apos ; m turning into a bit of a lovebug . emily : i guess you & apos ; ve proppa fallen for him then ? jane : yep : )\nbuy lovebug from\na little bit longer\non itunes : song = urltoken video = urltoken more . . . get the free jonas brothers app : itunes = urltoken and android = urltoken more . . . official website = urltoken\nlovebug tablets release the good bugs gradually over an 8\u201310 hour period , delivering billions of helpful organisms deep down into your digestive tract so they can get to work . this technology provides you with the maximum probiotic benefit throughout the day .\ncallahan , p . s . and h . a . denmark . 1973 . attraction of the\nlovebug ,\nplecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) , to uv irradiated automobile exhaust fumes . florida entomologist 56 : 113 - 119 . urltoken\ncallahan ps , carlysle tc , denmark ha . 1985 . mechanism of attraction of the lovebug , plecia nearctica , to southern highways : further evidence for the ir - dielectric waveguide theory of insect olfaction . applied optics 24 : 1088 - 1093 .\ni never understood what all the hype about probiotics was , until now . these products are life changing ! it ' s like i have a brand new digestive system . i am a lovebug convert for life ! kate - san francisco , ca\nduring the past several years , both the april\u2013may and august\u2013september lovebug flights have been substantially reduced in north central florida . this reduction in the population is partly attributed to predators . larvae aggregate in extremely high numbers in pastures and other grassy habitats . this makes them vulnerable to foraging birds . lovebug larvae have been found in the gizzards of robins and quail . although examinations of the stomach contents of armadillos have been negative , observations suggest that they , too , may be excellent predators of the larvae .\nthe lovebug invasion will soon be over for this season , but we can expect a revival in august and september for another four weeks or so . lovebugs don ' t bite , poison , or carry diseases . they are simply an inconvenient nuisance .\nafter a lovebug - filled drive , wash your car with water and scrub it to remove the lovebugs . a hood air deflector or screen will reduce the number of spattered lovebugs on your car . using car wax will protect an automobile ' s paint .\nflorida was one of the last gulf coast states the lovebug moved into . they were initially reported in 1949 , in escambia county \u2013 the county at the westernmost tip of florida\u2019s panhandle . the insect gradually made its way further east and south into peninsular florida .\nare completely dependent upon nectar and pollen as food . lovebugs feed during the day , and are thought to stop feeding in the late afternoon . lovebug larvae use decaying vegetation as a source of food . emerging lovebugs cannot survive more than 24 hours without food .\nlocal reduction of annual burning of woodlands , the development of improved pastures , and the increase of cattle probably have contributed to the presence of larger populations of lovebugs . chemical controls are ineffective as the lovebug is widespread and adults continually drift onto highways from adjacent areas .\nthe slow - moving lovebug , often attached to a mate , is a familiar sight to most people in the southern united states in the summer and early fall . these creatures are well known for splattering bug guts all over people\u2019s cars , generally causing a mess .\nkish , l . p . , g . e . allen , j . w . kimbrough , and l . c . kuitert . 1974 . a survey of fungi associated with the lovebug , plecia nearctica , in florida . florida entomologist 57 : 281 - 284 . urltoken\nlovebug swarms can get so large and thick that drivers cannot see ahead of them . this in turn can create a dangerous hazard . it is quite common to see motorists pulled over waiting for the swarm to pass . only then can they get back on the road and drive safely .\nnow , let\u2019s talk about the really miraculous lovebugs that are anything but a nuisance to humans . lovebug probiotics retain the cutesy name , but nothing else from its namesake . our lovebugs work in quite the opposite way , and support gut health while offering your body hundreds of health benefits simultaneously .\ncallahan , p . s . , t . c . carlysle , and h . a . denmark . 1985 . mechanism of attraction of the lovebug , plecia nearctica , to southern highways : further evidence for the ir - dielectric waveguide theory of insect olfaction . applied optics 24 : 1088 - 1093 .\na number of insecticides have been evaluated for effectiveness in controlling lovebug larvae and adults . most of them kill lovebugs but are impractical because high populations of the insects occur over vast areas of the state . a vacuum cleaner can be used to remove adults from confined areas , such as in buildings and vehicles .\nno parasites have emerged from lovebug larvae or adults held in the laboratory , and few cases of predation have been observed in nature over the years ( hetrick 1970 , mousseau 2004 ) . apparently lovebugs adults are avoided by red imported fire ants , solenopsis invicta buren ( = s . wagneri santschi ) , and other predators but one periodically eaten by spiders , dragonflies , and birds . they have aposematic coloration that implies defensive mimicry but have not been chemically analyzed or tested as food for predators ( dunford et al . 2008 ) . bee keepers report anecdotally that honeybees do not visit flowers infested with lovebugs . fungal pathogens , identified by screening larvae and adults , could be limiting lovebug populations ( kish et al . 1974 , 1977 ) . these fungi include the well - known insect pathogenic genera , metarhizium , beauveria , conidiobolus , and tolypocladium . although not yet studied , lovebug eggs may be subjected to predation or parasitism .\ndunford , j . c . , m . a . branham and j . m . leavengood , jr . 2008 . additional notes on aposematic insects at archbold biological station , florida , with comments on the arrival of the lovebug , plecia nearctica hardy . journal of entomological science 43 : 337 - 343 .\nthe lovebug , plecia nearctica hardy , is a bibionid fly species that motorists may encounter as a serious nuisance when traveling in southern states . it was first described by hardy ( 1940 ) from galveston , texas . at that time he reported it to be widely spread , but more common in texas and louisiana than other gulf coast states .\nthe species was formally described under the name plecia nearctica in 1940 , by an entomology graduate student at the university of kansas , d . elmo hardy . he had witnessed swarms of the insect in texas and louisiana . incidentally , the lovebug had been recognized by scientists even earlier , and was given a provisional scientific name , plecia bicolor .\nsoon after rainy periods in the spring and especially in the fall in the wooded upper coast counties of texas , \u201clovebugs\u201d ( plecia narctica ) emerge as adults and mate in swarms around roads and buildings . in reality , these insects are actually flies . the common name , lovebug , has been given to these black colored , orange - backed flies because they are most often seen flying around in mating pairs .\nthe imminent demise of thousands of lovebugs on the windshield and front of a car will not dissolve the paint . the fluid of a smashed lovebug is not the same as battery acid , but the dead insect will become acidic within 24 hours if allowed to remain baking in the sun on the car surface . experts advise removal as soon as possible , before damage can occur , with scrubbing as a removal technique .\nemerge from their pupal stage ready to mate . males emerge first and hover above the emergence site . male lovebug swarms consist of large males near the ground , medium males in the middle , and small males farthest from the ground . the large males ( closest to the ground ) are able to\npair\nwith the females before the other males . there is evidence of a great amount of male intraspecific competition over females .\nstatus : semi - annual pest . this species ' reputation as a public nuisance is due to its slightly acidic body chemistry ( affecting automobile windshields , hoods , and radiator grills when the vehicles travel at high speeds ) the remains become dried and extremely difficult to remove . research showed that migration explained the introduction of the lovebug into florida and other southeastern states , contrary to the urban myth that the university of florida created them by manipulating dna to control mosquito .\non to a bug that most of us wish was a myth : the lovebug . there ' s a legend that lovebugs were somehow developed by the government to stem the mosquito problem you ' re all probably very aware of down here in florida . supposedly , they were trying to create only a female bug that would attract male mosquitoes , distracting them from actual reproduction . unfortunately , they accidentally created a male as well , and the things bred like crazy .\nsome people consider the lovebug to be among the peskiest alien invasive species to become established in the gulf states . on the contrary , these potentially annoying flies are actually beneficial as larvae because they help to decompose dead plant material . people would also appreciate esthetic aspects of the adults , if these insects were not such a nuisance . like cute little migratory birds , lovebugs signal changes in the seasons from spring to summer and again from summer to fall . moreover , if they were larger , people could easily see and admire their delicate features , particularly the big round eyes of the males . wilhelm rudolph wiedemann named the lovebug genus plecia in 1828 , so his concept for the term may never be known . a reasonable guess , however , is that he applied the greek verb\npleo\nintending to mean\nto sail\n( jaeger , e . c . 1955 ) . lovebugs sail from flower to flower much like butterflies and in smaller numbers could be perceived as beautiful . they have become less abundant over the past 30 years , and people living in the gulf states are beginning to accept them as a normal part of nature . however , newcomers are much less tolerant of lovebugs until they learn that these insects are not dangerous . since lovebug populations tend to rebound unpredictably , we are fortunate that these creatures create inconveniences and tickle , rather than threaten human health and the environment .\nlovebug pairs are not strong fliers , so tend to remain within a few hundred yards of emergence sites when there is little or no wind ( thornhill 1976b ) . they are able to move across the wind when it is 5 - 7 mph and search for sources of nectar and suitable oviposition sites . stronger winds blow them as high as 1500 ft in the air and concentrate them against down - wind objects . coupled females initiate and control flight but males assist if they are able to obtain food ( sharp et al . 1974 ) . locations within 20 - 30 miles can have quite different levels of lovebug emergence and dispersal ( cherry and raid 2000 ) , and this variable distribution can lead to naturally occurring\nhotspots\nin different places from year to year . lovebugs are most abundant in moist grassy habitats . people who live near these habitats , or are exposed to winds that deposit the insects at their homes , can perceive erroneously that they are attracting these pests .\nlovebug larvae thrive in moist habitats high in organic matter such as bar ditches and swampy areas . they are harmless in their immature state and actually help nature by decomposing dead plant tissues . mass adult emergence occurs during specific periods of the year as dictated by environmental conditions ( prolonged periods of soil saturation from rains ) conducive to their development . adults spend their time sipping nectar from flowers and searching for mates and mating while hovering in the air . it has been thought that car fumes contained some properties that were attractive to these flies , but they are naturally attracted to open spaces within their generally wooded habitats . because of their harmless biology , chemical control using insecticides has not been recommended . they do not respond to insect repellents ( citronella , deet ) since they are not attracted by carbon dioxide as are blood - feeding arthropods . adulticides , such as fogs and aerosol insecticides , designed to quickly knock down and kill swarming adults , will affect exposed insects . however , these compounds are readily displaced by wind currents and are generally quick to lose effectiveness relative to the duration of lovebug swarming periods , which may last several weeks . at best , all that can be done is to learn how to cope with lovebug swarms . populations of adult flies may be drastically diminished by heavy rains . otherwise , adults may naturally be present for a period of several weeks in the spring and especially in the late summer or early fall . it may be helpful to remember the following points .\nin the lovebug , copulation begins with males flying and swarming above females , who remain on or close to the ground . the swarm is most dense from one foot to about five feet off the ground , but the swarm can be as high as 20 feet above the ground and can contain up to 40 - plus males . larger males often dominate the bottom of the swarm in competition to get a fit mate . the males prefer larger , heavier females because they provide better odds of reproducing and mating .\nwithin florida , this fly was first collected in 1949 in escambia county , the westernmost county of the florida panhandle . today , it is found throughout florida . with numerous variations , it is a widely held myth that university of florida entomologists introduced this species into florida . however , buschman ( 1976 ) documented the progressive movement of this fly species around the gulf coast into florida . research was conducted by university of florida and u . s . department of agriculture entomologists only after the lovebug was well established in florida .\nadult lovebugs are nonthreatening to humans because they do not bite or sting . they primarily feed on nectar from various plants , particularly sweet clover , goldenrod , and brazilian pepper . under laboratory conditions , male lovebugs live for about 92 hours , whereas females live up to 72 hours . in nature , the adults live just long enough to mate , feed , disperse and deposit a batch of eggs\u2014about three to four days . lovebug flights are usually restricted to daylight hours and temperatures above 68\u00b0f . at night lovebugs rest on low - growing vegetation .\nthompson ( 1975 ) reported over 200 species in the genus plecia . however , there are only two species of plecia in the u . s . \u2014 plecia nearctica and plecia americana hardy . their ranges are similar , but plecia americana extends northeastward to north carolina and south to mexico , whereas plecia nearctica ranges farther south to costa rica . plecia americana is a woodland species that does not seem to be a problem on highways . before hardy described the lovebug species as plecia nearctica , it was known as plecia bicolor bellardi ( hetrick 1970a ) .\nlovebugs are small , slow herbivorous insects that feed on the pollen and nectar found in flowers . thus , they lack the mandibles ( jaws ) , grasping legs , speed , and other characteristics of predaceous insects , such as dragonflies . lovebugs are active during the day , whereas most mosquitoes are crepuscular ( active at twilight ) or nocturnal , and they are only adults for a few weeks each year . for these and many other reasons , the lovebug would be a poor candidate to genetically engineer as a mosquito predator , even if it were possible .\nit is during the daylight that lovebugs become a problem . during this time , males will do nothing but follow females . females will seek good egg sites and consequently , massive swarms of these flies will form . since females are searching for good places to lay eggs , they tend to be attracted to areas which produce methane or co2 gas ; both are associated with decaying organic matter . car emissions have similar gases so consequently , lovebug swarms will find their way onto highways following the gases released by automobile exhaust pipes . it is here where lovebugs have earned their notorious reputation .\nlastly , if you just have the occasional lovebug flying around , space spray any room using aquacide aerosol . this water based space spray is ideally suited for flying pests and can be applied as often as is needed . it uses pyrethrin as an active which means there won\u2019t be any lasting residual . but its very safe for use in the home and won\u2019t pose a hazard to people or pets so then can remain even when treating . remember that aquacide is a not a true \u201ccure\u201d . so if you have a large population of lovebugs outside the home , treating the yard will help stop them from invading .\nspattered bugs should be washed off the car as soon as possible . lovebugs are more easily removed , and the chance of damaging the car\u2019s finish is lessened , if the car has been waxed recently . when the remains are left on an unwaxed car for several days , the finish will often be permanently damaged . soaking splattered lovebugs for several minutes with water aids in their removal . when lovebugs are numerous , motorists may choose to spread a light film of baby oil over the front of the hood , above the windshield , and on the grill and bumper . this practice will make lovebug removal a simpler task .\nit ' s like mass murder of the\nlove bugs\nby everyone that has to drive during the love bug season below link for member ' s that want to know more about how bugs love to ruin your ride they love , then they die , or get smashed by your monte : ( lovebug - wikipedia , the free encyclopedia < button class = vspib type = submit > < / button > < cite > urltoken lovebug < / cite > - cached similar you + 1 ' d this publicly . undo for other uses , see love bug ( disambiguation ) . . . . at that time , he reported the incidence of lovebugs to be widespread , but most common in texas and . . . semi - annual pest status - folklore - management - citations sometimes , they are so thick that they will block your view . . . they are difficult to remove , especially if they aren ' t removed fast . . . . i just use heavy coats of wax for protection . . . . on long trips you have to stop & clean them off often . . . they do eat your paint ` if you don ' t clean them soon . : ( the price floridians pay 2 live & love in a paradise called florida ~ >\nlovebugs are members of the fly family and certain times of the year , they will become a huge nuisance along roadways and in the yard . they\u2019re active in many regions of the united states and seem to have two primary seasons . the first is in spring , during the months of april , may and june . the second season is in the fall and usually during the months august , september and october . lovebugs are well known even though their season is short and limited . this article will explain some basic biology of the lovebug , explain why they are a major problem and what can be done to minimize and treat local infestations .\ni recently received a call from a guy who lives south of daytona who was shocked to see some kind of insect eating lovebugs on his porch . a family member told him that this was unheard of , since everyone knows nothing eats lovebugs , so they decided to call me here at the headquarters of the entomological society of america . i asked if he could send me a photo , which he did , and it turned out to be an assassin bug nymph , a voracious hunter . i\u2019m sure praying mantises and other insect predators would be happy to dine on them as well , and lovebug larvae have been found in the gizzards of robins and quail .\ninsecticides available to the public for controlling houseflies , mosquitoes , and other flies will also kill lovebug adults . however , there are risks associated with using these products around humans and pets , and the lovebugs will return almost immediately . other insects are often misidentified as being lovebugs , some of which are innocuous or beneficial , and therefore , should not be killed . it is important to preserve lady beetles , lacewings , honeybees , and other insects that help to protect or pollinate plants . thus , insecticides are expensive , potentially harmful , and of no value in controlling lovebugs . it is best just to avoid lovebugs if they become a nuisance during their brief appearances each year .\ncallahan and denmark ( 1973 ) reported that ambient temperatures above 28\u00b0c and visible light at above 20 , 000 lux ( 2000 ft - c ) stimulated lovebug flight but not orientation behavior . lovebugs are attracted to irradiated automobile exhaust fumes ( diesel and gasoline ) when the ultraviolet light incident over the highway ranges from 0 . 3 to 0 . 4 microns ( 3000 to 4000 angstroms ( a ) ) between 10 am and 4 pm , with a temperature above 28\u00b0c . hot engines and the vibrations of automobiles apparently contribute to the attraction of lovebugs to highways . callahan et al . ( 1985 ) reported that formaldehyde and heptaldehyde were the two most attractive components of diesel exhaust .\n1 . thorax with dorsum rufous and pleura extensively black ; head with oral margin distinctly produced forward . male genitalia with 9th tergum not as broad as in plecia americana , just slightly broader than long , with shallow medial excavation and ventromedial flap , not produced ventrolaterally ; 9th sternum with dorsolateral lobe extending under 9th tergum , produced ventromedially into a narrow forked process ; telomeres large , l - shaped in lateral view . female genitalia with 9th tergum large , almost completely concealing cerci in lateral view , strongly excavated dorsomedially ; cerci small , narrow in dorsal view ; 8th sternum small , with a shallow medial excavation ; ovipositor lobes broad , blunt apically and strongly sclerotized dorsally . . . . . lovebug , plecia nearctica hardy\nwhen numerous lovebugs are smashed on the front of a vehicle , the contents of their bodies , especially eggs , coat the painted surface . no permanent damage is caused , however , if the surface is cleaned before the coating is baked by the sun for a day or two . marisa and jeffrey gedney ( personnel communication ) determined that macerated lovebugs are about neutral with a ph of 6 . 5 but become acidic at 4 . 25 within 24 hours . yet , automobile paint was not damaged after being coated with macerated lovebugs and held in a humid indoor environment for 21 days . a lovebug - coated surface exposed to the sun for an extended period of time , however , may be damaged by the insects and their removal ( denmark and mead 2001 ) . the front of a vehicle can be protected by coating it with \u201ccar wax\u201d and removing the lovebugs within 24 hours .\nthe \u201clovebug\u201d ( figure 1 ) is a fly in the family bibionidae that is easily identified by its black , slender body and red thorax . these small flies , also known as march flies , are closely related to mosquitoes and gnats . the males are about 1 / 4 inch in length , while females are 1 / 3 inch in length . there are two known species of lovebugs in the united states . one is a native species , and the other is an invasive species that first appeared in southern louisiana during the 1920s . the outbreak soon spread southward , crossing deep into mississippi and alabama , and finally reaching florida in 1947 . they have since migrated northward , reaching from georgia to south carolina . both species have two key outbreaks in population a year : once during april\u2013may and the next in august\u2013september . they are often found near or by highways and are a nuisance and hindrance to drivers .\nif have lovebug activity in your yard , expect to see their swarms alight and congregate more and more from year to year once the problem starts . if you have a well landscaped yard with plenty of flowers and other plants which produce nectar and other sweet smells of plant life , they\u2019ll keep coming back as they need nectar to fuel their swarming . aphids and whiteflies allowed to live in your plants will cause the release of honey dew which in turn will attract feeding lovebugs . such invasions can become messy and relentless . worse yet is that once they start , they don\u2019t seem to ever stop . the members of any swarm will die off within a week yet once they are found in or around any property , expect them to come back year after year if you don\u2019t take some defensive measures . these measures will help to kill off local invasions so they don\u2019t find their way into your home and become established .\nthe\nlovebug ,\nplecia nearctica hardy ( diptera : bibionidae ) , is a seasonally abundant member of a generally unnoticed family of small flies related to gnats and mosquitoes . the males are about 1 / 4 inch and the females 1 / 3 inch in length , both entirely black except for red on top of their thoraxes ( middle insect body segment ) . other common names for this insect include march flies , double - headed bugs , honeymoon flies , united bugs , and some expletives that are not repeatable . lovebugs characteristically appear in excessive abundance throughout florida as male - female pairs for only a few weeks every april - may and august - september ( ipm florida 2006 ) . although they exist over the entire state during these months , they can reach outbreak levels in some areas and be absent in others . they are a nuisance pest , as opposed to destructive or dangerous , in areas where they accumulate in large numbers .\nalthough the lovebug has two distinct generations per year in florida , adults can be found during most months ( buschman 1976 ) . higher temperatures cause adult populations to peak slightly earlier in the southern areas of the state . as in all other flies , lovebugs exhibit complete metamorphosis , having egg , larva , pupa and adult stages ( figure 3 ) . an individual female deposits an average of 350 eggs under decaying vegetation in a grassy or weedy area with adequate moisture . conditions must not be too wet or dry , although the larvae soon emerge and can move short distances to locate the best habitats . larvae develop more rapidly at higher temperatures , so the summer generation is shorter than the one in the winter . the larvae feed on decomposing leaves and grass until they pupate . the pupal stage lasts 7 - 9 days ( hetrick 1970 ) . in nature , the adults live just long enough to mate , feed , disperse and deposit a batch of eggs , about 3 - 4 days ( thornhill 1976b ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nj . weston , d . e . short , and m . p . lehnert 2\nthis fact sheet is excerpted from sp486 : pests in and around the southern home , which is available from the uf / ifas extension bookstore . urltoken\nfemale lovebugs lay 100 to 350 eggs that are deposited underneath debris and decaying vegetation . after about 20 days the larvae hatch and feed on the decaying plant vegetation . the larvae act as a decomposer in the natural habitat by converting the plant material into nutrients that can then be used by the growing plants . once the larvae mature and have stopped feeding on the decomposing vegetation , they pupate . in warmer climates such as florida , the generation during the summer is significantly shorter than the winter generation because the rate at which the larvae pupate increases significantly with an increase in temperature . the pupal stage generally lasts about seven to nine days .\nmales hover over the females by orienting themselves with the wind in order to ease flight . as the females emerge from the vegetation , males immediately swoop down and grasp a female . at times , males will grasp a female that is already mating with a male in an attempt to disrupt mating . as many as 10 males have been observed holding onto a female , each attempting to copulate . after finding a match , the pair will come to a rest on the vegetation below and finish their mating process , during which the male faces the opposite direction of the female .\nlovebugs are a considerable nuisance to motorists . they congregate in unbelievable numbers along highways , and the insects spatter on the windshields and grills of moving vehicles . windshields become covered with the fatty remains , and vision is obstructed . during flights , the flies clog radiator fins , causing cars to overheat . they also get into refrigeration equipment on trucks , causing them to malfunction . the fatty tissue will cause pitting of the car\u2019s finish if it is not removed within a few days . flies enter cars and sometimes are crushed by drivers and passengers , causing stains on clothing . they are also a considerable nuisance to fresh paint . the flies enter houses under construction in such numbers that carpenters refuse to work . beekeepers complain because worker bees do not visit flowers that have been infested with the flies .\nthere are several things that can be done to lessen the problem facing motorists . by traveling at night motorists can avoid the insects ; lovebugs reach peak activity at 10 am and stop flying at dusk . traveling at slower speeds will reduce the number of bugs that will be spattered . a large screen placed in the front of the grill will keep the radiator fins from clogging , and will protect the finish on the front of the car . if a large screen is not used in front of the grill , a small screen can be placed behind the grill in front of the radiator .\nthis document is eny - 329 , one of a series of the department of entomology and nematology , uf / ifas extension . original publication date october 1993 . revised may 2003 and july 2011 . reviewed january 2017 . visit the edis website at urltoken .\nj . weston ; d . e . short , retired professor ; and m . p . lehnert , ms 2008 ; department of entomology and nematology , uf / ifas extension , gainesville , fl 32611 .\nthe institute of food and agricultural sciences ( ifas ) is an equal opportunity institution authorized to provide research , educational information and other services only to individuals and institutions that function with non - discrimination with respect to race , creed , color , religion , age , disability , sex , sexual orientation , marital status , national origin , political opinions or affiliations . for more information on obtaining other uf / ifas extension publications , contact your county ' s uf / ifas extension office . u . s . department of agriculture , uf / ifas extension service , university of florida , ifas , florida a & m university cooperative extension program , and boards of county commissioners cooperating . nick t . place , dean for uf / ifas extension .\npair of mating lovebugs with larger female on left . note the elongated female rostrum ( snout - like prolongation of the head ) and large circular male eyes .\ntaxonomic characters to distinguish p . nearctica from p . americana . head of plecia nearctica male ( a ) and female ( b ) , head of p . americana , male ( c ) and female ( d ) : ocelli ( o ) , antenna ( a ) , oral margin - forward ( om - f ) , and oral margin - convex ( om - c ) . wing of p . nearctica ( e ) : costa ( c ) , radial sector ( rs ) , medial cell ( mc ) , anal cell ( a ) , and basal cells ( bc ) .\nlovebugs are not native to most of the southern united states ( hardy 1945 ) . according to buschman ( 1976 ) , since 1940 p . nearctica has extended its range from louisiana and mississippi across the gulf states , reaching florida in 1949 . in the late 1960s , it became established entirely across north florida . during the 1970s explosive populations occurred progressively southward nearly to the end of peninsular florida and northward into south carolina ( figure 4 ) . its movement may have been accelerated by prevailing winds , vehicle traffic , sod transport , increased habitat along highways , and expansion of pastures , but not by uf researchers .\npattern of migration of plecia nearctica from central america to the southeastern u . s .\nafter mating , lovebugs disperse as coupled pairs , presumably flying in search of nectar on which to feed and suitable oviposition sites . mated females are attracted to sandy sites with adequate moisture , dead leaves , grass clippings , cow manure , and other decomposing organic debris . cherry ( 1998 ) found that lovebugs are attracted to anethole , an essential oil found in plants that also attracts bees . both sexes of adults also are attracted to the floral odorant , phenylacetaldehyde ( arthurs et al . 2012 & 2015 ) . additionally , female lovebugs are attracted to uv irradiated aldehydes , a major component of automobile exhaust fumes ( callahan and denmark 1973 , callahan et al . 1985 ) . they may confuse these chemicals with the odors emitted from decaying organic matter at typical oviposition sites . heat has also been shown to attract lovebugs ( whitesell 1974 ) and contribute to their abundance on highways . additionally , lovebugs seem to collect on light - colored buildings , especially when freshly painted ( callahan 1985 ) . many kinds of flies are attracted to light - colored and shiny surfaces , although the physiological or behavioral mechanisms are unknown . thus , lovebugs apparently accumulate in relatively warm , humid , sunny areas with food and chemicals in the atmosphere that mimic oviposition sites .\nthe general pattern of mating in lovebugs begins with males forming swarms above emergence areas each day in the morning and afternoon ( leppla et al 1974 , thornhill 1976c ) . individual males also may fly just above these areas . females emerge from the soil later than males , crawl onto vegetation , and fly into the swarms . a male may grasp a female before or after she flies into a swarm . in either case , the pair lands on vegetation where the male transfers sperm to the female . sperm transfer requires an average of 12 . 5 , hours but the pair can remain coupled for several days during which they feed and disperse ( thornhill 1976c ) . the male ejects a depleted spermatophore after separating from the female ( leppla et al . 1975 ) , and both sexes may mate again . pairs formed during the morning hours begin dispersal flights , whereas those that couple in the evening remain on vegetation until taking flight the following day .\nmyth : the body fluids of lovebugs are acidic and immediately dissolve automobile paint .\nthe university of florida research programs in urban and public health entomology are among the strongest in the u . s . priority is placed on destructive or dangerous pests that threaten human health and resources . these pests include mosquitoes that transmit west nile virus , equine encephalitis , and other diseases ; those that infest people , livestock and pets ; and urban insects , such as cockroaches , ants , and termites . nuisance pests like lovebugs and blind mosquitoes are important but much less damaging and costly . the florida legislature funded research on lovebugs at the university of florida during the outbreak that swept through the state in the early 1970s . additional resources were contributed by the usda and florida department of agriculture and consumer services , division of plant industry . even though this support is no longer available , the university of florida continues to provide information to help educate florida residents and tourists about lovebugs .\nit is possible but usually not necessary to avoid lovebugs and the problems they cause . unlike some of their close relatives , lovebugs do not bite , sting , or transmit diseases and are not poisonous . lovebugs are only active in the daylight and are much less mobile during the early and late daytime hours . typically , the pairs fly across the wind during their dispersal flights and are blown against obstacles , especially vehicles traveling at high speeds . their remains can be removed from surfaces easily if not left to bake in the sun . lovebugs are poor fliers that can be kept out of a building by creating positive pressure with an air - conditioning fan . if a few lovebugs enter , a vacuum cleaner can be used to remove them . screens can be added to windows and doors , particularly on the prevailing windward side of a building , and placed over decks and swimming pools . a fan can be used outside near work or recreational areas to keep lovebugs away . due to their abundance and mobility , lovebugs cannot be controlled effectively with poisons or repellents .\nthe figures were prepared by s . h . johnson ; j . p . cuda , m . a . branham , and j . l . gillett - kaufman provided very helpful reviews of the manuscript .\narthurs , s . p . , n . tofangsazi , r . l . meagher and r . cherry . 2012 . attraction of plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) to floral lures containing phenylacetaldehyde . florida entomologist . 95 : 199 - 201 . urltoken\narthurs , s . p . , c . morales - reyes and r . h . cherry . 2015 . trap design for lovebugs , plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) . florida entomologist 98 : 892 - 898 . urltoken"]}
{"id": 2110, "summary": [{"text": "rissoina spirata , common name the spiral risso , is a species of minute sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk or micromollusk in the family rissoinidae . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "rissoina spirata", "paragraphs": ["have a fact about rissoina spirata ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for rissoina spirata ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nrissoina ( rissoina ) orbigny , a . v . m . d . d ' , 1840 type species : unknowngenustype\nchiliostigma melvill , j . c . , 1918 type species : rissoina ( rissoina ) refugium melvill , j . c . , 1918\nrissoina ( rissolina ) gould , a . a . , 1861 type species : rissoina ( rissolina ) plicatula gould , a . a . , 1861\n- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : rissoina spirata ( g . b . i sowerby , 1825 ) - id : 5192001062\nrissoina ( moerchiella ) , r . ( apataxia ) , r . ( alinzebina )\nmisidentification rissoina decussata ( montagu , 1803 ) [ giannuzzi - savelli et al . , 1997 ]\nrissoina ( moerchiella ) nevill , 1885 type species : moerchiella gigantea deshayes , g . p . , 1848\n( of zebina spirata ( sowerby , 1825 ) ) taylor , j . d . ( 1973 ) . provisional list of the mollusca of aldabra atoll . [ details ]\n( of rissoa spirata g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ) sleurs w . j . m . ( 1993 ) . a revision of the recent species of rissoina ( moerchiella ) , r . ( apataxia ) , r . ( ailinzebina ) and r . ( pachyrissoina ) ( gastropoda : rissoidae ) . bulletin de l ' institut royal des sciences naturelles de belgique , 63 : 71 - 135 [ details ]\nin some areas , a few genera went through a speciation process that led to a high number of both species and endemics , for example , alvania , crisilla , onoba , pusillina , rissoa , and setia at the mediterranean ; benthonellania and rissoina at the caribbean ; manzonia and crisilla at the madeira , selvagens , and canaries archipelagos ; crisilla and schwartziella at the cape verde archipelago ; onoba at iceland ; and cingula at the geographically isolated saint helena island .\n( of rissoa spirata g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ) sowerby i , g . b . ( 1821\u201334 ) . the genera of recent and fossil shells , for the use of students , in conchology and geology . g . b . sowerby , london . vol . 1 pl . 1 - 126 + text ( unpaginated ) [ 1821 - 1825 ] ; vol . 2 : pl . 127 - 162 + text ( unpaginated ) [ 1825 - 1834 ] ( [ published in 42 numbers . for complete collation see sykes , 1906 and see petit r . e . 2006 . notes on sowerby ' s the genera of recent and fossil shells ( 1821\u20131834 ) archives of natural history 33 : 71 - 89 ] . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : plate 209 ; note : no page number [ details ]\nsowerby , g . b . , i . ( 1821\u20131834 ) the genera of recent and fossil shells , for the use of students in conchology and geology : plates of genera ; also corresponding letter - press , descriptive of the characters by which each genus is distinguished . particularly th page ( s ) : no page number [ details ]\ndautzenberg , ph . ( 1929 ) . contribution \u00e0 l ' \u00e9tude de la faune de madagascar : mollusca marina testacea . faune des colonies fran\u00e7aises , iii ( fasc . 4 ) . soci\u00e9t\u00e9 d ' editions g\u00e9ographiques , maritimes et coloniales : paris . 321 - 636 , plates iv - vii pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nstreftaris , n . ; zenetos , a . ; papathanassiou , e . ( 2005 ) . globalisation in marine ecosystems : the story of non - indigenous marine species across european seas . oceanogr . mar . biol . ann . rev . 43 : 419 - 453 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nzenetos , a . , m . e . \u00e7inar , m . a . pancucci - papadopoulou , j . g . harmelin , g . furnari , f . andaloro , n . bellou , n . streftaris & h . zibrowius . ( 2005 ) . annotated list of marine alien species in the mediterranean with records of the worst invasive species . mediterranean marine science 6 ( 2 ) : 63 - 118 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\npetit , r . e . ( 2009 ) . george brettingham sowerby , i , ii & iii : their conchological publications and molluscan taxa . zootaxa . 2189 : 1\u2013218 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\ngalil , b . ( 2007 ) . seeing red : alien species along the mediterranean coast of israel . aquatic invasions . 2 ( 4 ) : 281 - 312 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ncheck list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nkatsanevakis , s . ; bogucarskis , k . ; gatto , f . ; vandekerkhove , j . ; deriu , i . ; cardoso a . s . ( 2012 ) . building the european alien species information network ( easin ) : a novel approach for the exploration of distributed alien species data . bioinvasions records . 1 : 235 - 245 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\npublication date the year of publication ( 1833 ) is given by petit ( 2009 ) . [ details ]\ntaylor , j . d . ( 1973 ) . provisional list of the mollusca of aldabra atoll . [ details ]\nshort description shell elongated , high - spired , of 7 - 8 moderately convex whorls with a distinct rim under the suture ; body whorl distinctly constricted . sculpture of spire whorls of oblique axial ribs which fade out on the body whorl or the previous one . spiral sculpture of very faint grooves . aperture oval , with a thickened outer lip , smooth inside , and a hardly indicated siphonal canal .\ncommon size : reported mediterranean specimens 6 - 8 mm , up to 14 mm in the red sea .\ndistinguishing characteristics this species is unmistakable , owing to the strong subsutural rim crenulated by the axial ribs .\ndistribution worldwide : indo - pacific . mediterranean : a spurious record in 1974 from the tyrrhenian sea ( bogi et al . , 1984 ) not further documented and possibly based on a displaced specimen . the records from haifa , israel seem more likely ( giannuzzi - savelli et al . , 1997 ) .\nbogi c . , coppini m . and margelli a . , 1984 . ritrovamento nel mediterraneo di\ngiannuzzi - savelli r . , pusateri f . , palmeri a . and ebreo c . , 1997 . atlante delle conchiglie marine del mediterraneo . vol . 2 : caenogastropoda . la conchiglia , roma , 258 p .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nlike most websites we use cookies . this is to ensure that we give you the best experience possible .\ncontinuing to use urltoken means you agree to our use of cookies . if you would like to , you can learn more about the cookies we use .\nwe\u2019d value your feedback on the tool . our survey takes only five minutes to complete .\nthe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .\none or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using .\nplease consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nshell gallery view \u00ab shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc . \u00bb conchological megadatabase on mollusks\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\nclick on an image to view all the information : family , species , author , date , and full locality .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 3 . 132 seconds . )\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nsowerby , g . b . , i . ( 1821\u20131834 ) the genera of recent and fossil shells , for the use of students in conchology and geology : plates of genera ; also corresponding letter - press , descriptive of the characters by which each genus is distinguished . particularly th\ndautzenberg , ph . ( 1929 ) . contribution \u00e0 l ' \u00e9tude de la faune de madagascar : mollusca marina testacea . faune des colonies fran\u00e7aises , iii ( fasc . 4 ) . soci\u00e9t\u00e9 d ' editions g\u00e9ographiques , maritimes et coloniales : paris . 321 - 636 , plates iv - vii pp .\ngalil , b . ( 2007 ) . seeing red : alien species along the mediterranean coast of israel . < em > aquatic invasions . < / em > 2 ( 4 ) : 281 - 312 .\npetit , r . e . ( 2009 ) . george brettingham sowerby , i , ii & iii : their conchological publications and molluscan taxa . < em > zootaxa . < / em > 2189 : 1\u2013218 .\nstreftaris , n . ; zenetos , a . ; papathanassiou , e . ( 2005 ) . globalisation in marine ecosystems : the story of non - indigenous marine species across european seas . < em > oceanogr . mar . biol . ann . rev . < / em > 43 : 419 - 453 .\nzenetos , a . , m . e . \u00e7inar , m . a . pancucci - papadopoulou , j . g . harmelin , g . furnari , f . andaloro , n . bellou , n . streftaris & h . zibrowius . ( 2005 ) . annotated list of marine alien species in the mediterranean with records of the worst invasive species . mediterranean marine science 6 ( 2 ) : 63 - 118 .\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ns\u00e9rgio p . \u00e1vila , 1 , 2 , 3 , * jeroen goud , 4 and ant\u00f3nio m . de frias martins 1 , 2\n4 national museum of natural history , invertebrates , naturalis darwinweg , leiden , p . o . box 9517 , 2300 ra leiden , the netherlands\nthis is an open access article distributed under the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original work is properly cited .\nrapoport ' s latitudinal rule relates geographical distribution with latitude [ 1 , 2 ] . this rule states that the range of the geographical distribution of species increases with latitude [ 3 ] . several hypotheses were provided : the seasonal variability hypothesis [ 2 , 4 ] , the differential extinction hypothesis [ 3 ] , the competition hypothesis [ 5 \u2013 7 ] , or the milankovitch climate oscillations , which force larger distributional changes [ 8 ] .\nto our knowledge , this is the first attempt to summarize present information about the geographic distributional pattern of this family in the atlantic ocean and the mediterranean sea , with the purpose of identifying the biotic similarities between areas .\nthe geographical distribution of the rissoidae in the atlantic ocean and mediterranean sea was compiled through an exhaustive search of the primary literature and is up to date until july 2011 . the following sites and references were considered :\npor : western atlantic iberian fa\u00e7ade ( from cabo vil\u00e1n , western galician shores , down to cape s\u00e3o vicente ) and southern shores of algarve , portugal ) : nobre [ 33 , 34 ] , nobre and braga [ 35 ] , macedo et al . [ 36 ] , rol\u00e1n [ 37 ] ,\nmed : mediterranean : nordsieck [ 19 ] , aartsen and fehr - de - wal [ 38 ] , aartsen [ 39 \u2013 47 ] , verduin [ 48 \u2013 50 ] , aartsen and verduin [ 23 , 51 ] , palazzi [ 52 ] , aartsen et al . [ 53 ] , amati [ 54 \u2013 56 ] , amati and nofroni [ 57 \u2013 59 ] , amati and oliverio [ 56 ] , oliverio [ 60 \u2013 62 ] , oliverio et al . [ 63 ] , aartsen and linden [ 64 ] , linden and wagner [ 65 ] , hoenselaar and moolenbeek [ 66 ] , aartsen and menkhorst [ 53 ] , giusti and nofroni [ 67 ] , aartsen et al . [ 68 ] , amati et al [ 69 ] , hoenselaar and hoenselaar [ 70 ] , nofroni and pizzini [ 71 ] , oliverio et al . [ 72 ] , aartsen and engl [ 73 ] , smriglio and mariottini [ 74 ] , margelli [ 75 ] , bogi and galil [ 76 ] , buzzurro and landini [ 77 ] , pe\u00f1as et al . [ 78 ] , oliver and templado [ 79 ] , ciesm , clemam ,\nazo : azores : watson [ 80 ] , dautzenberg [ 81 ] , amati [ 82 ] , gofas [ 83 ] , oliverio et al . [ 72 ] , linden [ 84 ] , linden and van aartsen [ 85 ] , \u00e1vila [ 86 \u2013 88 ] ,\nlus : lusitanian group of seamounts ( a chain of seamounts located between portugal and madeira ) : gorringe , josephine , amp\u00e8re , seine : \u00e1vila and malaquias [ 89 ] , beck et al . [ 90 ] , gofas [ 91 ] ,\nmad : madeira , porto santo and desertas islands , nobre [ 92 ] , van aartsen [ 47 ] , palazzi [ 52 ] , verduin [ 93 ] , moolenbeek and hoenselaar [ 94 , 95 ] , segers et al . [ 96 ] ,\ncan : canary islands : van aartsen [ 47 ] , moolenbeek and faber [ 98 ] , rol\u00e1n [ 99 ] , verduin [ 93 ] , linden and wagner [ 100 ] , moolenbeek and hoenselaar [ 94 , 95 , 101 ] , segers [ 102 ] , hern\u00e1ndez - otero et al . [ 103 ] ,\ntrs : trist\u00e3o da cunha island : worsfold et al . [ 112 ] , malacolog ,\ncrl : carolinian biogeographical province\u2013atlantic shores of usa , between cape hatteras , north carolina ( 35\u00b0 n ) and cape canaveral ( 28\u00b030\u2032 n ) : rex et al . [ 120 ] , malacolog ,\ntro : tropical biogeographical province ( from now on generically designated as \u201ccaribbean\u201d ) \u2014atlantic shores of usa , south of cape canaveral ( 28\u00b030\u2032 n ) , including western and eastern shores of florida , gulf of mexico ( louisiana and texas shores , as well as yucatan peninsula , m\u00e9xico ) , bahamas , caribbean sea , south to cabo frio ( brazil ) ( 23\u00b0s ) : dall [ 121 ] , baker et al . [ 122 ] , faber and moolenbeek [ 123 ] , jong and coomans [ 124 ] , leal and moore [ 125 ] , faber [ 126 ] , leal [ 127 ] , rol\u00e1n [ 128 ] , espinosa and ortea [ 129 ] , rosenberg et al . [ 130 ] malacolog ,\nant : antarctic\u2014from 60\u00b0s south , including south orkney islands ( signy island ) , south shetland islands , antarctic peninsula and weddell sea : ponder [ 132 ] .\nwe have also consulted other bibliographical sources , with a wider systematical or geographical subject , such as babio and thiriot - qui\u00e9vreux [ 134 ] , aartsen [ 40 ] , fretter and graham [ 30 ] , ponder [ 21 ] , verduin [ 135 ] , templado and rol\u00e1n [ 136 ] , hoenselaar and moolenbeek [ 66 ] , moolenbeek and hoenselaar [ 137 ] , moolenbeek and faber [ 138 \u2013 140 ] , sleurs [ 141 \u2013 143 ] , hoenselaar [ 70 , 144 ] , bouchet and war\u00e9n [ 27 ] , sleurs and preece [ 145 ] , war\u00e9n [ 146 ] , hoenselaar and goud [ 147 ] , goud [ 148 ] , gofas et al . [ 149 ] , rol\u00e1n [ 150 ] , gofas [ 91 ] , and garilli [ 151 ] . malacolog , ciesm , clemam , and worms web databases were very useful and widely consulted .\nthe bathymetrical zonation considers shallow species ( those living between the intertidal and 50 m depth ) and deep species ( those usually living below 50 m depth ) . the choice of the threshold at 50 m depth is related with the following reasons : ( i ) algal species to which rissoidae are very often associated are rare below 50 m depth ; ( ii ) direct sampling by scuba - diving is more frequent in waters less than 50 m depth ; ( iii ) in waters deeper than 50 m depth , usually the samplings are obtained via indirect methodologies ( grabs , most often ) .\nthe complete database was last updated in october 2011 and is available from the authors upon request .\nwhere a is the total number of rissoid species present in area a , and b is the total number of rissoid species present in area b . when a faunal flow happened in historical times , from a source area to the target area , we expect the target area to show a subset of the species present in the source area . so , different values of the two indices ( x a and x b ) are expectable , and the source area must have the smaller value [ 167 ] .\nthe mediterranean sea is the most diverse site , with 160 species of rissoidae , followed by canary islands ( 89 species ) , caribbean ( 77 ) , portugal ( 74 ) , and cape verde ( 67 ) . the lowest diversity sites are the carolinian province ( 18 species ) , greenland ( 16 ) , arctic ( 13 ) , angola ( 11 ) , new scotia biogeographical province ( 10 ) , antarctic ( 8 ) , virginian biogeographical province , tristan da cunha island , and brazil ( all with just 7 species ,\n( 11 ) are species - abundant in the mediterranean and along the portuguese shores .\n( as the name indicates ) are restricted to higher latitudes ( arctic , greenland , iceland , and scandinavia ) .\nis reported to the atlantic shores of north america ( nsc and vir ) .\nis a genus with high number of species at iceland and greenland ( 9 and 5 , resp . ) , but the most diverse sites are in the south atlantic : 22 species at southeast of south america and 6 species at tristan da cunha island and antarctic (\nare particularly species - diverse in the macaronesian archipelagos , especially at canary islands , selvagens and madeira , porto santo , and desertas islands .\nspp . is very abundant at cape verde archipelago ( 26 species ) as well as in the carolinian and tropical provinces , and at saint helena islands ( 4 , 9 , and 5 species , resp . ) .\nstosicia and voorwindia occur predominantly in the indo - pacific region [ 21 ] , with just two species reported to the western atlantic , stosicia aberrans [ 172 ] , and stosicia houbricki [ 173 ] ( = stosicia fernandezgarcesi [ 129 ] , all restricted to the tropical province ; voorwindia tiberiana [ 163 ] occurs in the mediterranean , where this lessepsian species is considered as alien ( nonestablished , ciesm database ) . however , fossil species of stosicia are known from the lower miocene of the eastern atlantic and the mediterranean [ 173 ] .\nthe mediterranean and cape verde islands are the sites with higher numbers of endemic species ( 71 and 58 , resp . ) , with predominance of\n( 20 ) at cape verde . caribbean also has a high number of endemisms ( 57 species ) , especially of the genera\n) . however , if these figures are viewed in percentages , saint helena island , cape verde , and tristan da cunha are the sites with higher percentages of rissoid endemisms ( 90 . 0 % , 86 . 6 % , and 85 . 7 % , resp . ) . other sites with high percentage values are the meteor group of seamounts ( 76 . 9 % ) , the caribbean ( 74 . 0 % ) , southeastern shores of south america ( 66 . 7 % ) , the azores ( 44 . 7 % ) , and the mediterranean ( 44 . 4 % ) . antarctic ( 37 . 5 % ) , the lusitanian group of seamounts ( 37 . 0 % ) , the west - african shores ( 24 . 0 % ) , and canary islands ( 19 . 1 % ) also have a significant amount of endemic rissoids (\n) , thus only 3 species are endemic to these islands ( 7 . 9 % ) . similar percentages of rissoid endemics occur at greenland ( 6 . 3 % ) and scandinavia ( 3 . 3 % ) . iceland has 12 . 0 % of endemisms (\nmost of the 542 - rissoid species that live in the atlantic and in the mediterranean are shallow species ( 329 ) . one hundred and forty - six are considered as deep species , living in waters with more than 50 m depth , and 23 species are reported to both shallow and deep waters . it was not possible to establish the bathymetrical zonation of 44 rissoid species .\nare mostly constituted by shallow species . some of these genera ( e . g . ,\n) are exclusively littoral . in the eastern - atlantic shores and at latitudes higher than 55\u00b0 n ( arctic , greenland , iceland , and scandinavia ) ,\nbathymetric zonation of the rissoidae . lit\u2014littoral species ( usually living at depths less than 50 m depth ) ; deep\u2014deep species ( usually living at depths higher than 50 m depth ) . other abbreviations as in\n) . there is a predominance of nonplanktotrophs in islands , seamounts , and at high and medium latitudes . this pattern is particularly evident in the genera\n. planktotrophic species are more abundant in the eastern atlantic and in the mediterranean sea . the british isles and angola are the only sites with excess of planktotrophs in relation to nonplanktotrophic rissoids .\nis a very diverse genus in the mediterranean sea and along the shores of portugal , and most are planktotrophic species . in the arctic , greenland , southeastern south america , and antarctic , all rissoid species are nonplanktotrophs (\nscandinavia , british isles , portugal , angola , and the carolinian province are the only sites with higher numbers of shallow planktotrophic species relative to the number of shallow non - planktotrophs ( cf . tables\nbenthonella tenella [ 169 ] , the sole representative of this genus in the studied area , is the rissoid species with wider geographical range in the atlantic ; other species with large geographical ranges are obtusella intersecta [ 174 ] and alvania cimicoides [ 175 ] ; all of them are deep planktotrophic species , although obtusella intersecta may also occur in the littoral .\nwe used pae separately on the shallow and on the deep rissoid species . after removing all the endemic species ( no cosmopolitan species were found ) , 115 shallow species and 41 deep species of rissoids were analysed with the pae methodology , using paup * .\n= 180 , ci = 0 . 6389 , ri = 0 . 7005 ) with three main groups . the first one strongly clusters portugal , the mediterranean , british isles , and scandinavia , with bootstrap values higher than 91 % . a second group subdivides in two : the first subgroup , the macaronesian archipelagos of madeira , canary islands , selvagens , and the azores clusters ; the second subgroup has west - african coast , angola , and cape verde islands . in a third group , western atlantic sites are clustered : caribbean and carolinian province cluster to brazil at 65 % bootstrap value . saint helena island weakly clusters to the previous sites ( bootstrap value of only 51 % ) . new scotia and virginian provinces cluster in an independent group ( 66 % ) , as well as southern south america and antarctic ( 95 % ) (\n. bootstrap values are higher than 50 % only for three groups : portugal - mediterranean ( 78 % ) , caribbean - carolinian province ( 75 % ) , and new scotia province - virginian province . some other sites also cluster , but at values lower than 50 % (\n, and support the patterns found by both the pae analysis and the geographical distribution . four main source areas for rissoids emerge : mediterranean , caribbean , canaries / madeira archipelagos , and the cape verde archipelago . in the western atlantic , a rissoid movement originating in the caribbean seems to have developed southwards to brazil (\nprobable colonization patterns of rissoid fauna in the central west - atlantic . the arrows represent the probable main flux direction of faunas , and the associated numbers represent , for each pair of areas , the higher of the two similarity index values computed as described in the methods , abbreviations as in\nprobable colonization patterns of rissoid fauna in the northwest atlantic . the arrows represent the probable main flux direction of faunas , and the associated numbers represent , for each pair of areas , the higher of the two similarity index values computed as described in the methods , abbreviations as in\nprobable colonization patterns of rissoid fauna in the south atlantic . the arrows represent the probable main flux direction of faunas , and the associated numbers represent , for each pair of areas , the higher of the two similarity index values computed as described in the methods , abbreviations as in\nprobable colonization patterns of rissoid fauna in the central east - atlantic . the arrows represent the probable main flux direction of faunas , and the associated numbers represent , for each pair of areas , the higher of the two similarity index values computed as described in the methods , abbreviations as in\n) . scandinavia seems to be the source area for both iceland and arctic ( 64 and 54 % , resp . ) and iceland probably played an important role as a source for both greenland and arctic . the mediterranean is weakly related with the west - african shores ( 44 % ,\n) . the relationships between the azores and both madeira and canaries are weak ( 32 and 24 % , resp . ) , and canaries seem to be the main source of the rissoid fauna of madeira ( 67 % ) and selvagens ( 79 % ) . cape verde archipelago is isolated from all sites (\nprobable colonization patterns of rissoid fauna in the macaronesian islands , northeast - atlantic , and mediterranean . the arrows represent the probable main flux direction of faunas , and the associated numbers represent , for each pair of areas , the higher of the two similarity index values computed as described in the methods , abbreviations as in\nprobable colonization patterns of rissoid fauna in the northeast atlantic . the arrows represent the probable main flux direction of faunas , and the associated numbers represent , for each pair of areas , the higher of the two similarity index values computed as described in the methods , abbreviations as in\nit is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss in detail all hypotheses related with rapoport ' s latitudinal rule ( e . g . , the seasonal variability hypothesis [\n] ) , but one of the corollaries of the seasonal variability hypothesis is that , at low latitudes , the expected bathymetrical range of a given species , in average , should be lower than at high latitudes . stevens [\nrelation between ( a ) number of rissoids with large bathymetrical range ( # sh - de : shallow - deep ) and latitude in the eastern atlantic ; ( b ) number of littoral rissoids and latitude in the eastern atlantic ; ( c ) number of littoral rissoids and latitude in the western atlantic ; ( d ) number of littoral rissoids and latitude in the western atlantic .\n] , when they compared the north and south hemispheres of the east - pacific coast of america . in the northern hemisphere , there is correspondence between the diversity latitudinal gradient and ssts , but in the southern hemisphere , in particular from 40 to 60\u00b0s , the number of species increases with latitude , even though ssts decrease monotonically with this variable . this pattern is also evident with the shallow rissoidae along the west - atlantic coasts of south america ( figures\n) and the explanation is dependent on the coastal area ( comprising depths less than 200 m ) which , according to valdovinos et al . [\n] , is a factor that better explains biodiversity than ssts . thus , the increase of the number of shallow rissoids with latitude along the southern south - america shores (\n) . this is certainly due to the high sampling effort for this region , but we think that other reasons are also behind this fact ( see below ) . a similar trend was also reported in several other taxonomic groups ( hydromedusae , siphonophora , chaetognatha , appendicularia , salpida , cephalopoda , euphausiacea , decapoda , and pisces ) [\n] , reinforcing the mediterranean as an area of high marine biodiversity . this is even more interesting if we think that the mediterranean area was repopulated just 5 . 33 ma ago , when the \u201cmessinian salinity crisis\u201d ended [\n] . this dramatic event occurred between 5 . 96\u20135 . 33 ma and provoked an almost complete annihilation of the mediterranean marine fauna and flora [\n] . the reopening of the connection between the atlantic and the mediterranean happened 5 . 33 ma ago and , although there are different hypothesis under discussion such as tectonic movements of the crust [\n] , and this may be the reason for the high number of rissoid species that this area possesses nowadays .\nby definition , \u201ca species can be endemic to an area for two different reasons : ( a ) because it has originated in that place and never dispersed , or ( b ) because it now survives in only a part of its former wider range\u201d [ 196 ] . we do not know any endemic rissoid to the azores , madeira , or canaries that is documented in the fossil record as formerly having a broader geographic distribution [ 197 , 198 ] . so , they are autochthonous descendents of immigrants , rather than geographic relicts .\nit is a well - known fact that biotic communities in high latitudes are usually rich in nonplanktotrophic species [ 157 , 201 ] . this is thorson ' s rule \u201cpelagic development reveals a clear biological polarity : from low towards high latitude pelagic development disappears progressively and becomes replaced by direct development , demersal development , and viviparity\u201d [ 202 , 203 ] . thorson ' s original formulation related also pelagic development with depth , saying that the number of species with such a type of development would gradually diminish from the shallow shelf downwards to the abyssal depths , until its complete disappearance [ 202 ] a concept that did not hold [ 204 , 205 ] .\n] stated that species with a planktotrophic larval development and long - distance dispersal usually have wider geographical ranges , longer geological ranges , and smaller speciation and extinction rates than nonplanktotrophic relatives . he detected changes in the modes of larval development of cretacian molluscs , from planktotrophic to nonplanktotrophic , but the reverse was not found . in the mediterranean , sibling species were found , almost identical in their teleoconchs and differing mostly in their protoconchs : one multispiral , denoting a planktotrophic larval development , the other one paucispiral , denoting a nonplanktotrophic larval development [\n] at rockall , an isolated and inhabited islet located in the north atlantic ( 57\u00b0n , 13\u00b0w ) , first noted this phenomenon and stated that a pelagic phase may be an advantage for dispersal , but it may exclude species from certain habitats , namely , from oceanic islands . moreover , larvae of nonplanktotrophic species are protected from the surrounding environment during the initial phase of their development , by the walls of the egg . in addition , they do not need external food supply , as vitelum provides them all energy they need to account for the completion of the metamorphosis [\n] and resources for larval stages are available only during short periods , there exists such a predominance of nonplanktotrophic rissoid species .\n) . similar speciation events also happened in other families of gastropods ( e . g . , in cape verde , conidae , with about 45 species / subspecies , and\n) . interestingly , canaries act as a probable source of rissoid fauna , instead of recipient , when compared to all areas , with the sole exception of the mediterranean .\nstevens gc . the latitudinal gradient in geographical range : how so many species coexist in the tropics .\nrosenzweig ml . on continental steady states of species diversity . in : cody ml , diamond jm , editors .\ncambridge , mass , usa : belknap press of harvard university press ; 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1982 ; venice , italy . pp . 151\u2013177 .\nkrijgsman w , langereis cg , zachariasse wj , et al . late neogene evolution of the taza - gercif basin ( rifian corridor , morocco ) and implications for the messininan salinity crisis .\nkrijgsman w , garc\u00e9s m , agust\u00ed j , raffi i , taberner c , zachariasse wj . the \u201ctortonian salinity crisis\u201d of the eastern betics ( spain )\nbarbieri r , ori gg . neogene palaeoenvironmental evolution in the atlantic side of the rifian corridor ( morocco )\npopov sv , shcherba ig , ilyina lb , et al . late miocene to pliocene palaeogeography of the paratethys and its relation to the mediterranean .\nduggen s , hoernie k , van den bogaard p , r\u00fcpke l , morgan jp . deep roots of the messinian salinity crisis .\nloget n , van den driessche j . on the origin of the strait of gibraltar .\nharzhauser m , piller we , steininger ff . circum - mediterranean oligo\u2014miocene biogeographic evolution\u2014the gastropods\u2019 point of view .\nshackleton nj , kennett jp . late cenozoic oxygen and carbon isotope changes at dsdp site 284 : implications for glacial history of the northern hemisphere and antarctica .\nvan den hoek c . phytogeographic provinces along the coasts of the northern atlantic ocean .\nvan reine wfp , john dm , lawson gw , kostermans lbt , editors .\nbrussels , belgium : foundation for the promotion of scientific research in africa ; 2006 .\nmironov an , krylova em . origin of the fauna of the meteor seamounts , north - eastern atlantic . in : mironov an , gebruk av , southward aj , editors .\n\u00e1vila sp , amen r , azevedo jmn , cach\u00e3o m , garc\u00eda - talavera f . checklist of the pleistocene marine molluscs of prainha and lagoinhas ( santa maria island , azores )\n\u00e1vila sp , da silva cm , schiebel r , cecca f , backeljau t , de frias martins am . how did they get here ? palaeobiogeography of the pleistocene marine molluscs of the azores .\nfretter v , graham a . british prosobranch molluscs , their functional anatomy and ecology .\nthorson g . the distribution of benthic marine mollusca along the n . e . atlantic shelf from gibraltar to mursmank . in : proceedings 1st european malacological congress ; 1962 ; pp . 5\u201325 .\nmileikovsky sa . types of larval development in marine bottom invertebrates , their distribution and ecological significance : a re - evaluation .\nrex ma , etter rj , stuart ct . large - scale patterns of species diversity in the deep - sea benthos . in : ormond rfg , gage jd , angel mv , editors .\nrex ma , war\u00e9n a . planktotrophic development in deep - sea prosobranch snails from the western north atlantic .\nponder wf . the truncatelloidean ( rissoacean ) radiation\u2014a preliminary phylogeny . in : ponder wf , editor .\nconti ma , monari s , oliverio m . early rissoid gastropods from the jurassic of italy : the meaning of first appearences .\nkowalke t , harzhauser m . early ontogeny and palaeoecology of the mid - miocene rissoid gastropods of the central paratethys .\npoulin e , palma at , f\u00e9ral jp . evolutionary versus ecological success in antarctic benthic invertebrates .\n\u00e1vila sp . oceanic islands , rafting , geographical range and bathymetry : a neglected relationship ? . in : hayden tj , murray da , o\u2019connor jp , editors . in : proceedings of the 5th international symposium on the fauna and flora of atlantic islands , vol . 9 ; 2006 ; dublin , ireland . irish biogeographical society ; pp . 22\u201339 .\nparis , france : c . n . f . r . a . ; 1988 . biologie larvaire et strat\u00e9gie de reproduction des ann\u00e9lides polych\u00e8tes en province subantartique ; pp . 145\u2013152 .\nduch\u00eane jc . adelphophagie et biologie larvaire chez boccardia polybranchia ( carazzi ) ( ann\u00e9lide polych\u00e8te spionidae ) en province subantartique .\nbhaud m , duch\u00eane jc . change from planktonic to benthic development : is life cycle evolution an adaptive answer to the constraints of dispersal ?\ncolognola r , masturzo p , russo gf , scardi m , vinci d , fresi e . biometric and genetic analysis of the marine rissoid rissoa auriscalpium ( gastropoda , prosobranchia ) and its ecological implications .\noliverio m , tringali l . two sibling species of nassariinae in the mediterranean sea ( prosobranchia : muricidae : nasariinae )\noliverio m . biogeographical patterns in developmental strategies of gastropods from mediterranean posidonia beds .\ngili c , martinell j . phylogeny , speciation and species turnover . the case of the mediterranean gastropods of genus\n( mollusca : buccinidae ) from the cape verde archipelago with the description of two new species .\n( mollusca : buccinidae ) from the cape verde archipelago , with the description of three new species .\nvanderpoorten a , rumsey fj , carine ma . does macaronesia exist ? conflicting signal in the bryophyte and pteridophyte floras .\nwirtz p . three shrimps , five nudibranchs , and two tunicates new for the marine fauna of madeira .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nalvania risso , a . , 1826 type species : alvania ( alvania ) europea risso , a . , 1826\nalvania ( alvanolira ) nordsieck , f . , 1972 type species : alvania ( alvanolira ) lineata risso , a . , 1826\nalvania ( coronalvania ) nordsieck , f . , 1972 type species : alvania ( coronalvania ) corona nordsieck , f . , 1972\nalvania ( lanciella ) nordsieck , f . , 1972 type species : alvania ( lanciella ) lanciae calcara , p . , 1845\nalvania ( linemera ) finlay , h . j . , 1924 type species : turboella interrupta adams , j . , 1798"]}
{"id": 2112, "summary": [{"text": "afrixalus ( commonly known as the banana frogs , spiny reed frog , cat 's eye reed frogs , or leaf-folding frogs , or ) is a genus of frog in the family hyperoliidae .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "they occur in the subsaharan africa .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "they lay their eggs in vegetation above water , often folding leaves around the eggs for protection \u2014 hence the common name \" leaf-folding frogs \" . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "afrixalus", "paragraphs": ["poynton and broadley ( 1987 ) referred to true afrixalus brachycnemis as\nafrixalus sp .\n. the species that they treated as afrixalus brachycnemis is now treated as afrixalus delicatus ( m . pickersgill pers . comm . ) . this species is a member of the afrixalus stuhlmanni group ( pickersgill 2005 ) .\nwe follow perret ( 1976 ) , r\u00f6del ( 2000 ) and pickersgill ( in prep . ) in separating afrixalus fulvovittatus from the so - called afrixalus vittatus complex of schi\u00f8tz ( 1999 ) , which includes afrixalus quadrivittatus , a . upembae and a . vittiger .\nafrixalus unicolor \u2014 pickersgill , 1996 , herptile , 21 : 81 ; pickersgill , 2007 , frog search : 469 .\nafrixalus fornasinii \u2014 guib\u00e9 , 1948 , bull . mus . natl . hist . nat . paris , ser . 2 , 20 : 500 , by implication .\nafrixalus unicolor \u2014 guib\u00e9 , 1948 , bull . mus . natl . hist . nat . paris , ser . 2 , 20 : 500 , by implication .\nafrixalus fornasinii \u2014 schi\u00f8tz , 1974 , vidensk . medd . dansk naturhist . foren . , 137 : 12 . rejected by schi\u00f8tz , 1999 , treefrogs afr . : 67 .\nafrixalus spinifrons is an endemic species complex comprising afrixalus knysnae and two subspecies , afrixalus spinifrons spinifrons confined to the central kwazulu - natal coast and a . s . intermedius from the kwazulu - natal midlands ( sensu pickersgill 1996 ) . subpopulations from the eastern cape and kwazulu - natal previously assigned to afrixalus knysnae were re - assigned to a . spinifrons ( pickersgill 1996 ) . tarrant ( 2012 ) showed that , according to molecular and morphological descriptions , eastern cape populations should be referred to a . s . intermedius instead of a . s . spinifrons as previously thought . tarrant ( 2012 ) also suggested that the umkomaas river is a possible boundary to a . s . spinifrons . the two subspecies are distinguishable on the basis of morphology , genetics and calls .\nconservation actions although there are many threats to individual sites , the species as a whole is not considered to require conservation effort at this time . afrixalus spinifrons intermedius occurs in the khahlamba - drakensberg national park , silaka nature reserve ( venter and conradie 2015 ) and hluleka nature reserve ( venter and conradie 2015 ) . afrixalus s . spinifrons occurs in a number of coastal protected areas .\nafrixalus fornasinii unicolor \u2014 laurent , 1951 , ann . soc . r . zool . belg . , 82 : 24 . status rejected by loveridge , 1955 , j . e . afr . nat . hist . soc . , 22 : 195 .\nit is common wherever it is the only dwarf afrixalus species present . where it is sympatric with arixalus delicatus , this species always appears to be the more rare of the two , and its populations are much smaller , with numbers of calling males at several sites estimated to be less 50 individuals .\nafrixalus fornasinii fornasinii \u2014 guib\u00e9 , 1948 , bull . mus . natl . hist . nat . paris , ser . 2 , 20 : 500 , by implication ; laurent , 1951 , ann . soc . r . zool . belg . , 82 : 24 ; loveridge , 1953 , bull . mus . comp . zool . , 110 : 345 .\nthis species occurs in the hilly areas of the west african forest zone in c\u00f4te d\u2019ivoire , guinea , liberia and sierra leone . it has also recently been recorded from ghana in the ankasa conservation area ( aca ) a twin wildlife protected area comprised of nini - suhien national park to the north and the ankasa forest reserve to the south . the distributional limits of this species , especially in relation to afrixalus vittiger , remain largely unknown , and the map should be regarded as provisional .\nmany of the historical sites of this once common species have disappeared under development ( pickersgill et al . 2004 , pickersgill 2007 ) . certain subpopulations , especially in coastal kwazulu - natal , are affected by loss of wetlands . this habitat loss is a result of urban and recreational development and direct drainage of wetlands for afforestation , especially eucalyptus plantations and agricultural activities , including sugarcane ( j . tarrant pers . comm . august 2016 ) . other threats include pesticides and overgrazing or trampling by livestock . coastal populations may be at higher risk than those inland due to heavier development pressure along the kzn coastline . afrixalus spinifrons intermedius has been highlighted as having particular conservation significance for kwazulu - natal since it is endemic to the province ( armstrong 2001 ) .\nthis species is difficult to detect , but it is known to be doing well at some sites where it appears to be abundant . the southern eastern cape subpopulation is scarce and very difficult to detect ( venter and conradie 2015 , j . tarrant pers . comm . august 2016 ) and this might be due to the fact that these subpopulations are on the edge of the species\u2019 distribution . subpopulations in silaka nature reserve , near port st . johns in the eastern cape , occur in abundance ( venter and conradie 2015 ) , as do populations of afrixalus spinifrons intermedius in the kwazulu - natal midlands ( j . tarrant pers . comm . august 2016 ) . coastal populations of a . s . spinifrons are less abundant ( j . tarrant pers . comm . august 2016 ) .\nthis species , which is endemic to south africa , occurs as two subspecies : afrixalus spinifrons spinifrons and a . s . intermedius . the nominate subspecies occurs at low to intermediate altitudes ( below 700 m asl ) in kwazulu - natal ; the latter occurs at altitudes up to 1 , 500 m asl in western kwazulu - natal , between the midlands and foothills of the drakensberg , and in the eastern cape province . according to pickersgill ( 2007 ) , a . s . spinifrons and a . s . intermedius appear to intergrade on the escarpment at about 700 m asl . tarrant ( 2012 ) showed that , according to molecular , acoustic and morphological analyses , the eastern cape subpopulations of this species should be referred to a . s . intermedius , instead of a . s . spinifrons as previously thought .\nsee short accounts in poynton , 1964 , ann . natal mus . , 17 : 183 , poynton and broadley , 1987 , ann . natal mus . , 28 : 192\u2013193 , and lambiris , 1988 , lammergeyer , 39 : 133\u2013134 , as well as a longer one by schi\u00f8tz , 1975 , treefrogs e . afr . : 81\u201384 . see schi\u00f8tz , 1999 , treefrogs afr . : 67 for discussion ( and rejection ) of afrixalus unicolor . see also accounts by channing , 2001 , amph . cent . s . afr . : 137\u2013139 ; channing and howell , 2006 , amph . e . afr . : 134\u2013135 ; pickersgill and bishop , 2004 , in minter et al . ( eds . ) , atlas frogs s . afr . lesotho and swaziland : 127\u2013128 , pickersgill , 2007 , frog search : 464\u2013469 , and du preez and carruthers , 2009 , compl . guide frogs s . afr . : 230\u2013231 . loader , poynton , and mariaux , 2004 , afr . zool . , 39 : 71\u201376 , provided a record for mahenge mountain in tanzania and detailed the range . pickersgill , 2007 , frog search : 469\u2013472 , provided an account for afrixalus unicolor ( boettger , 1913 ) by did not address the rejection of this taxon by schi\u00f8tz , 1999 , treefrogs afr . : 67\u201369 , who provided a brief account and map . mercurio , 2011 , amph . malawi : 148\u2013152 , provided an account for malawi . see comments regarding a specimen from malundwe mountain , tanzania , by lawson and collett , 2011 , fieldiana , life earth sci . , 4 : 76 . channing , r\u00f6del , and channing , 2012 , tadpoles of africa : 187\u2013188 , reported on comparative tadpole morphology . harper , measey , patrick , menegon , and vonesh , 2010 , field guide amph . e . arc mts . tanzania and kenya : 160\u2013161 , provided a brief account and photograph . ohler and fr\u00e9tey , 2014 , j . e . afr . nat . hist . , 103 : 84\u201385 , provided a brief discussion of a colleciton from northern mozambique .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfrost , d . r . 2016 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 ( 31 march 2016 ) . new york , usa . available at : urltoken .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its relatively wide distribution , tolerance of habitat modification and its presumed large population .\nit occurs widely in degraded former forest ( farm bush ) in the forest zone . it is not found in primary or even secondary forest . the eggs are deposited on folded leaves above water , and the tadpoles fall into ponds where they develop .\nthere are no obvious threats , though local populations might be impacted by very severe habitat clearance .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nfrost , d . r . 2014 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 ( 27 january 2014 ) . new york , usa . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 january 2014 ) .\nchanning , a . , rebelo , a . , turner , a . a . , de villiers , a . , becker , f . , harvey , j . , tarrant , j . , measey , j . , tolley , k . , minter , l . , du preez , l . , burger , m . , cunningham , m . , baptista , n . , hopkins , r . , davies , s . , conradie , w . & chapeta , y .\njustification : listed as least concern due to its overall wide distribution and presumed large population . however , certain sites where this species occurs , particularly coastal kwazulu - natal , are experiencing ongoing habitat transformation which may seriously impact on long - term population viability . its area of occupancy ( aoo ) may therefore be prone to continuing decline and the species should therefore be carefully monitored . furthermore , should the two subspecies be spilt in the future , this would have implications for conservation status . since the taxa contained within this complex have different geographical ranges , and possibly differing ecological requirements , protection plans should be precisely defined in order to increase their impact on target populations .\nresearch needed additional molecular work is required to to clarify taxonomic boundaries . because the ecological divergence and differences in geographical distribution between species of this complex could influence the relative conservation efforts , a clear description of their taxonomic status is necessary by way of various independent criteria . monitoring of breeding sites is recommended .\niucn ssc amphibian specialist group & south african frog re - assessment group ( sa - frog ) . 2016 .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution and presumed large population .\nthis species ranges from extreme southeastern guinea through liberia , c\u00f4te d\u2019ivoire and western ghana , with a disjunct population in southwestern nigeria . records on the guinean side of mount nimba were made in 2006 ( a . hillers unpubl . data ) . in 2010 , it was found in the yaya classified forest ( al\u00e9p\u00e9 region , southeast c\u00f4te d ' ivoire ) ( n . g . kouam\u00e9 pers . comm . may 2012 ) , and in atewa in ghana in 2006 ( n . g . kouame pers . comm . june 2012 ) . it has recently been confirmed in tano\u00e9 - ehy swamp forests ( kpan et al . 2014 ) and yakass\u00e9 - m\u00e9 village forest , southeastern c\u00f4te d ' ivoire ( kouam\u00e9 et al . 2014 ) . in c\u00f4te d ' ivoire it is found in lowland areas ( 500\u20131 , 000 m asl ) , but it is likely to occur much lower in other parts of its range down to sea level . as such , the northern boundary of the range map follows the wwf ecozones for western and eastern guinean forests , and nigerian lowland forest .\nthis species is rare in southeastern c\u00f4te d ' ivoire and in atewa ( n . g . kouame pers . comm . june 2012 ) . due to ongoing decline in the extent and quality of habitat , the population is suspected to be decreasing .\nit is found mostly in primary rainforest , although it has been recorded in farm bush adjacent to forest ( degraded forest and farmland ) ( hillers and r\u00f6del 2007 ) and regenerating secondary forest along an old logging road ( n . l . gonwouo pers . comm . may 2012 ) . it is often found with\nusing more open , exposed sites , and this species calling from dense vegetation . during breeding , the eggs are laid on leaves overhanging temporary ponds , into which the larvae fall and develop .\nforest habitat throughout the region is decreasing as a result of agricultural encroachment ( coffee and cacao plantations in liberia , c\u00f4te d ' ivoire and ghana ) , expanding human settlements , and logging .\nindividuals from nigeria tested positive for bd ( imasuen et al . 2011 ) suggesting that chytridiomycosis could be a threat to this species , although no mortalities or ill effects have yet been observed .\nconservation actions this species occurs in several protected areas including the mount nimba world heritage site in guinea , yaya classified forest in southeastern c\u00f4te d ' ivoire ( n . g . kouame pers . comm . may 2012 ) , atewa range forest reserve in ghana ( n . g . kouame pers . comm . june 2012 ) and okomu national park in nigeria ( imasuen et al . 2011 ) . research needed research is needed for the life history of this species .\nfrost , d . r . 2013 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 6 ( 9 january 2013 ) . electronic database . american museum of natural history , new york , usa . available at : urltoken .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , tolerance of habitat modification and its presumed large population .\nthis species apparently occurs in three major isolated populations : from eastern sierra leone east to western togo ; from western nigeria to western democratic republic of congo ; and in western angola . although the presence of the species is uncertain in togo , it is included in the species distribution on the map . however , it is possible that the angolan population is in fact contiguous with the one to the north . records from uganda and western kenya refer to\n, and records from the central african republic presumably refer to another species . the record in r\u00f6del ( 2000 ) refers to another species .\nit is a common species , and is probably increasing , as forest is lost .\nit lives in grassy vegetation , cultivated land , bush land and degraded forest in the forest belt and in forest outliers and gallery forests in moist savanna . it is very adaptable , but needs some form of cover . it is not found in primary rainforest . the eggs are deposited on folded leaves above still water , and the tadpoles fall into ponds , puddles , ditches , ruts and herbaceous marshes where they develop .\nit presumably occurs in many protected areas . it has been reported for kyabobo national park ( leach\u00e9\nfrost , d . r . 2015 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 . new york , usa . available at : urltoken .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , tolerance of a broad range of habitats and presumed large population .\nthis species ranges from western angola , up to gabon where it has been recorded in the invindo national park , east through the democratic republic of congo , to uganda and western kenya . it is likely that is occurs throughout the congo basin ( m . dehling pers . comm . november 2015 ) .\nit lives in degraded secondary forest and heavily degraded former forest , including farm bush , in the central african rainforest belt . it breeds in small temporary and permanent water bodies with overhanging vegetation , including artificial waterbodies , e . g . in old drums ( m . dehling pers . comm . october 2015 ) .\nit is a very adaptable species that is unlikely to be facing any significant threats .\nconservation actions it occurs in several protected areas , but no conservation actions are currently in place for this species . research needed further work is required to clarify its taxonomy .\nfrost , d . r . 2014 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 ( 7 july 2014 ) . electronic database . american museum of natural history , new york , usa . available at : urltoken .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its relatively wide distribution , tolerance of a broad range of habitats , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis species occurs above 400m asl in northern mozambique , malawi , and eastern zambia , north to southwestern tanzania in the rungwa area north of lake rukwa . there are very few records from the northern part of its range , presumably due to lack of survey work , and its distributional limits are still poorly known .\nit is a species of grassy pools and marshes in moist grassland and savannah . it can survive in anthropogenic habitats . it breeds in ephemeral ponds and with dense peripheral vegetation .\n, which appears to be an aggressive competitor . some populations might be impacted by agricultural spread . chemical spraying to control mosquitoes might impact some populations .\nspecies boundaries in this complex are uncertain and taxonomic studies using calls , morphology and genetics are necessary .\nendangered b1ab ( i , ii , iii , v ) + 2ab ( i , ii , iii , v ) ver 3 . 1\njustification : listed as endangered , in view of its extent of occurrence being 816 km 2 , the area of occupancy being 27 km 2 , with all individuals in five locations , and a continuing decline in the quality of its habitat , area of occupancy , and number of mature individuals .\nthis species is known from around five locations at low altitudes , on either side of the border between the eastern cape and western cape provinces in south africa . this species was rediscovered at covie in 2011 , where it was previously not found for four years and thought to be extinct from that location ( w . conradie pers . comm . august 2016 ) . it occurs up to 300 m asl , its extent of occurrence ( eoo ) is 816 km 2 , and its area of occupancy ( aoo ) is 27 km 2 .\nthe spatial distribution of this species is not considered to be severely fragmented as no one site holds > 50 % of individuals and the distances between subpopulations are considered to be too great for dispersal within one generation . there are four known subpopulations ( l . du preez pers . comm . august 2016 ) . only the groenvlei subpopulation is a fairly large site , whereas the other sites are tiny waterbodies ( l . du preez pers . comm . august 2016 ) . at groenvlei , the frogs are concentrated in a few reed beds along the periphery ( l . du preez pers . comm . august 2016 ) . the saasveld and groenvlei subpopulations are relatively stable , but the other sites are being degraded and the species is suspected to be decreasing at these locations ( l . du preez pers . comm . august 2016 ) . visits to six historic sites indicated that five of these no longer exist or are not suitable . specifically , the crags sites have been degraded to the extent that most of them no longer contain suitable habitat ( l . du preez pers . comm . august 2016 ) . ongoing studies will attempt to determine the viability and dispersal potential between sites ( l . du preez pers . comm . october 2015 ) .\nit lives in a coastal mosaic of vegetation types , including mountain fynbos heathland and forest . it breeds in small dams and shallow semi - permanent water with much emergent vegetation , and even in well vegetated ornamental garden ponds . it is suspected that this species requires high water quality for breeding . species in this genus deposit between 20 and 50 eggs on vegetation above water , folded in a grass leaf . tadpoles emerge , drop into the water and remain there until metamorphosis .\nalthough some known sites are pristine , others are threatened by habitat loss due to urban and recreational development , afforestation , invasive vegetation , agricultural expansion , chemical pollution , and livestock . these threats are likely to negatively affect breeding sites . habitat loss is the primary threat . the sites at saasveld groenvlei do not seem to have been impacted too severely , but the other sites are being degraded ; the crags sites have been seriously degraded to the extent that most of the historic sites no longer are suitable ( l . du preez pers . comm . august 2016 ) . livestock is a huge problem in the covie and especially the crags sites as these sites are used by cattle as drinking holes : this is an intensive milk producing area and the cattle destroy the vegetation these frogs need to breed ( l . du preez pers . comm . august 2016 ) . pollution in the form of urine and faeces from cattle , together with trampling , adds to habitat loss ( l . du preez pers . comm . august 2016 ) . drought may cause additional stressors for this species .\nconservation actions it occurs in tsitsikamma national park , goukamma nature reserve , and diepwalle forestry area . an assessment of the health of all known sites is ongoing ( l . du preez pers . comm . october 2015 ) . once this has been achieved , monitoring at known breeding sites should be instigated . conservation needed this species ranks amongst the highest in the need for conservation orientated research within south african threatened frogs ( measey 2 011 ) . in the light that many of the sites are so small , there is a need to take action to preserve these sites ( l . du preez pers . comm . august 2016 ) . control of invasive vegetation is imperative for this species ' survival . research needed the taxonomy of the species complex is in need of comprehensive review ( channing et al . 2011 ) . important questions are still unanswered concerning the call and tadpoles of this species , as well as its breeding phenology . there is a definite need to identify management areas and direct threats ; in particular , the effects of changes in water quality at sites with this species need to be documented . there is also a need to study the feasibility of restoring historical sites .\n( males 25\u201328 mm , females 26\u201329 mm ) from bushland localities in west africa and the coastal regions of cameroun to coastal angola . dorsum dark with a pattern in silverish white , normally consisting of a triangle on top of the snout continuing into a broad dorsolateral stripe to the groin . a light spot in the lumbar region , sometimes confluent with the dorsolateral stripes , and two light spots on tibia , or tibia uniformly light . although normally constant in pattern , individuals in some populations can vary considerably , e . g . having a light middorsal stripe or even a uniform light dorsum .\n( peters 1877 ) with a light upper side of tibia . rio muni to coastal angola . it is disputed whether the name\nis widely distributed and common in bushland localities in the west african forest belt and in forest outliers in the humid savanna . the farthest west i have found it is in eastern sierra leone , while apparently suitable localities further west had populations of\ninstead . towards the east it is recorded commonly from coastal cameroun to coastal angola .\nthe voice consists of an initial sound followed by a number of figures , about 12 per second with a frequency - intensity maximum at 3800\u20134100 cps .\nthe eggs are white , surrounded by clear jelly . they are deposited in small clumps on leaves which are then folded and glued together . the tadpoles are streamlined with a terminal mouth and a tooth formula of 0 / 1 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\n( males 23\u201327 mm svl , females 25\u201328 mm ) from savanna and bushland . dorsum dark brown with three regular light longitudinal stripes of equal width , confluent on the head .\nis a characteristic and abundant element of the savanna and open forest in the northern half of africa . perret has studied this form extensively and has noted small differences between the populations , differences which in cameroun are consistent so that two types are allopatrically distributed in savanna and bushland respectively . the differences are :\ntype a : slender , light stripes without fine dark midline , two dark dorsal lines without an expansion at eye level . small dorsal asperities in males . strictly savanna - living .\ntype b : stout , fine dark line or median punctuation in light lines , dark dorsal lines expanded on the upper eyelid ; no dorsal asperities in males . savanna and bushland , or bushland alone .\noutside cameroun the picture becomes complicated . throughout west africa type a seems to be the only form which occurs except in sierra leone and liberia , where some samples taken in bushland show type b characters . further east , in the savanna of northern r . d . congo , south - western ethiopia and uganda the characters do not seem to vary consistently , and both type a and b can be found or , in uganda , populations with a mixture of characters ( such as expansion of dark lines at eye level but no fine dark midline ; male with asperities ) . laurent has analysed the populations from r . d . congo and found small morphological differences between bushland and savanna forms here , but cannot correlate these differences with those from populations in cameroun . in some literature ( schi\u00f8tz 1974 , 1975 ) it has been advocated that there are two species ,\n( type a ) from northern cameroun westwards , and another , largely type b , from central cameroun east - and southwards . in other literature ( frost 1985 , r\u00f6del 1996 ) that there are two species ,\n( type b ) both distributed from sierra leone eastwards to ethiopia , and that they are partly sympatric but that the latter has a disjunct distribution and is split up into several subspecies and distributed further to the south .\nalso the names applied show a certain level of confusion . perret ( 1976 ) , frost ( 1985 ) and r\u00f6del ( 1996 ) used the name\nfor type b , both with liberia as the type locality , but perret ( in . litt . ) has pointed out that his use of the name\nfor type a is probably incorrect . this use cannot be justified from the description , and it is unlikely that such a strict savanna species can be found in liberia , the type locality for\n, and the widespread and abundant striped savanna form ( type a ) may be unnamed . schi\u00f8tz ( 1975 ) referred type b in uganda to\n( type loc . sangmelina , cameroun ) has been regarded as the subspecies or species ( type b ) which occurs in the southern , forested cameroun . a name frequently used for the more eastern and southern type b specimens is\nwith a thin light midline and broad , irregular dorsolateral lines , as seen from peters\u2019 illustration . unfortunately his type has disappeared .\nstrictly a savanna dweller in most of west africa , and seems more abundant in dry savanna than in the humid , southern savanna . in western sierra leone apparently occurring in bushland , possibly because a second species is involved . the name\nshould probably be restricted to the form occurring in dry , open forest in sierra leone and western liberia . the\ncomplex is distributed from cameroun to south - western ethiopia and south through much of r . d . congo to western kenya and western tanzania .\nit is not known whether there are consistent differences between the voices of the different forms or species . a voice from tamale , ghana ( type a ) has two motifs . the first , the initial sound , consists of a number of segments with rising frequency and repetition rate . the main motif is a series of figures , about 15\u201318 per second with an indistinct frequency - intensity maximum at about 3800\u20134000 cps . a second voice from the eastern form , from toro g . r . , uganda has an initial sound of varying length followed by a series of clicks , about 11\u201312 per second with a frequency - intensity maximum of about 3000\u20133500 cps . a voice recorded from gambela , ethiopia ( largen ) has only 6\u20137 clicks per second , but is otherwise identical to the voice from uganda . in cameroun where both forms occur ( although not sympatrically ) , amiet has noted a conspicuous difference in their voices .\nwith respect to development , the tadpoles from west africa ( type a ) have the usual shark - like appearance , a size up to 21 mm ( 6 + 15 ) and a tooth formula of 0 / 1 .\nspecies description : gilles s , grell o , sinsin b , rodel m - o , 2006 . the amphibian fauna of pendjari national park and surrounding , northern benin . salamandra 42 : 93 - 108 . ; asw\ndistributed throughout western africa , probably extending as far as western ethiopia . there is uncertainty about both the species delimitation and the name . see further discussion under the account for\nspecies description : koehler , scheelke , schick , veith , and loetters , 2005 , afr . zool . , 40 : 132\nfrom open vegetation in the forest belt and humid savanna in central africa . the name\nthis species is found in central africa . it inhabits open vegetation , in humid savanna and the forest belt . since both the taxonomy and nomenclature are unsettled , it is difficult to give an exact distribution with confidence .\n* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .\nwill find all uses of\nhyl . . .\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hylarana , hyla , hylidae , hylinae , hylaedactyla .\nwill find all uses of\n. . . hyla\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hyla , hylidae , plectrohyla , ptychadena hylaea , adenomera hylaedactyla\nwill find all records that contain stand - alone uses of hyla : e . g . , hyla , hyla arenicolor\ninterprets this as\nlithobates or pipiens\nso will find the union of all records that contain either\nlithobates\nor\npipiens\n: e . g . , lithobates omiltemanus , hylorana pipiens\ninterprets this as\nlithobates and pipiens\nso will return all records that have the character string\nlithobates pipiens\nanywhere within a record : e . g . , all members of the lithobates pipiens complex .\neuchnemis fornasini bianconi , 1849\n1848\n, nuovi ann . sci . nat . , bologna , ser . 2 , 10 : 107 . syntypes : mzub 100174 , 100174a , and 100064 , according to bonfitto , 1991 , boll . mus . reg . sci . nat . torino , 9 : 364 ; type locality :\nmozambico\n; restricted to\ninhambane , mozambico\n, by bonfitto , 1991 , boll . mus . reg . sci . nat . torino , 9 : 362 . ( only a single i in original orthography\u2014drf . )\nhyperolius bivittatus peters , 1854 , ber . bekannt . verhandl . k . preuss . akad . wiss . berlin , 1854 : 627 . syntypes : zmb 4529 ( 7 specimens ) , according to bauer , g\u00fcnther , and klipfel , 1995 , in bauer et al . ( eds . ) , herpetol . contr . w . c . h . peters : 44 . type locality :\nterra boror\n, mozambique ; rendered as\ntette\nand\nmozambique\nby ahl , 1930 , sitzungsber . ges . naturforsch . freunde berlin , 1930 : 101 . synonymy by g\u00fcnther , 1859\n1858\n, cat . batr . sal . coll . brit . mus . : 87 ; peters , 1882 , naturwiss . reise mossambique , zool . 3 : 160 ; boulenger , 1882 , cat . batr . sal . coll . brit . mus . , ed . 2 : 130 .\nhyperolius fornasinii \u2014 g\u00fcnther , 1859\n1858\n, cat . batr . sal . coll . brit . mus . : 87 . incorrect subsequent spelling .\nrappia fornasinii \u2014 g\u00fcnther , 1869\n1868\n, proc . zool . soc . london , 1868 : 479 .\nmegalixalus fornasinii \u2014 peters , 1882 , naturwiss . reise mossambique , zool . 3 : 160 ; boulenger , 1882 , cat . batr . sal . coll . brit . mus . , ed . 2 : 130 .\nmegalixalus fornasinii var . unicolor boettger , 1913 , in voeltzkow ( ed . ) , reise ost - afr . , 3 ( 4 ) : 349 . syntypes : smf , mcz 15429 ( on exchange from smf , according to barbour and loveridge , 1946 , bull . mus . comp . zool . , 96 : 153 ) ; smf 7274 designated lectotype by mertens , 1967 , senckenb . biol . , 48 ( a ) : 48 . type locality : pemba island , tanzania .\nmegalixalus fornasinii \u2014 nieden , 1915 , mitt . zool . mus . berlin , 7 : 372 . loveridge , 1942 , bull . mus . comp . zool . , 91 : 395 .\nmegalixalus loveridgii procter , 1920 , proc . zool . soc . london , 1920 : 418 . holotype : bmnh 1947 . 2 . 9 . 83 , according to museum records . type locality :\nmorogoro\n, kenya . synonymy by parker , 1931\n1930\n, proc . zool . soc . london , 1930 : 900 .\nmegalixalus unicolor \u2014 ahl , 1930 , sitzungsber . ges . naturforsch . freunde berlin , 1930 : 101 ; ahl , 1931 , das tierreich , 55 : 443 .\nmegalixalus fornasinii loveridgei \u2014 parker , 1931\n1930\n, proc . zool . soc . london , 1930 : 900 . suggested as a likely arrangement . status rejected by loveridge , 1955 , j . e . afr . nat . hist . soc . , 22 : 195 .\nfornasini ' s frog ( hewitt , 1937 , guide vert . fauna e . cape province , rept . amph . fishes : 113 ) .\nspiny reed frog ( wager , 1965 , frogs s . afr . : 192 ) .\ngreater leaf - folding frog ( passmore and carruthers , 1978 , j . herpetol . assoc . afr . , 19 : 7 ; passmore and carruthers , 1979 , s . afr . frogs : 238 ; pickersgill and bishop , 2004 , in minter et al . ( eds . ) , atlas frogs s . afr . lesotho and swaziland : 127 ; du preez and carruthers , 2009 , compl . guide frogs s . afr . : 230 ) .\nbrown and white spiny reed frog ( passmore and carruthers , 1978 , j . herpetol . assoc . afr . , 19 : 7 ; passmore and carruthers , 1979 , s . afr . frogs : 238 ) .\nbrown - striped spiny reed frog ( ananjeva , borkin , darevsky , and orlov , 1988 , dict . amph . rept . five languages : 70 ) .\nfornasini ' s banana frog ( broadley , 1973 , j . herpetol . assoc . afr . , 10 : 23 ; passmore and carruthers , 1978 , j . herpetol . assoc . afr . , 19 : 7 ; passmore and carruthers , 1979 , s . afr . frogs : 238 ) .\nfornasini ' s spiny reed frog ( lambiris , 1990\n1989\n, monogr . mus . reg . sci . nat . torino , 10 : 159 ; channing and howell , 2006 , amph . e . afr . : 134 ) .\nzaire banana frog ( frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 65 ) .\nfornasini ' s spiny reed frog ( channing , 2001 , amph . cent . s . afr . : 137 ) .\nmozambique banana frog ( channing and howell , 2006 , amph . e . afr . : 134 [ alternative name ] ) .\nsilver - banded banana frog ( channing and howell , 2006 , amph . e . afr . : 134 [ alternative name ] ) .\nsavannas of coastal southern kenya southward through eastern and southern tanzania , malawi , mozambique , and extreme eastern zimbabwe to extreme southern coastal kwazulu - natal , rep . south africa .\nplease note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .\nfor access to available specimen data for this species , from over 350 scientific collections , go to vertnet .\ncopyright \u00a9 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved ."]}
{"id": 2114, "summary": [{"text": "the red-banded flowerpecker ( dicaeum eximium ) is a species of bird in the dicaeidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is endemic to papua new guinea .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "red - banded flowerpecker", "paragraphs": ["red - banded flowerpecker - the red - banded flowerpecker is a species of bird in the dicaeidae family . red - capped flowerpecker - the red - capped flowerpecker is a small passerine bird endemic to , and widespread within , new guinea and adjacent islands . red - chested flowerpecker - the red - chested flowerpecker is a species of bird in the dicaeidae family . red - striped flowerpecker - the red - striped flowerpecker is a species of bird in the dicaeidae family . more\nred - banded flowerpecker ( dicaeum eximium ) is a species of bird in the dicaeidae family .\nthe red - banded flowerpecker is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\ncheke , r . & mann , c . ( 2018 ) . red - banded flowerpecker ( dicaeum eximium ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : dicaeum eximium . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : although this species may have a restricted range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe population size of this species has not been quantified , but it is described as common in canopy in central new britain . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\np . l . sclater , 1877 \u2013 new hanover and new ireland ( including selapiu and lihir group ) , in n bismarck archipelago .\nsalvadori , 1880 \u2013 new britain ( including islands of lolobau and watom ) , in s bismarck archipelago .\n8\u20139\u00b75 cm ; 7\u20139\u00b75 g . male nominate race has brownish crown and side of head , contrasting olive - brown and bronze - green upperparts , rump scarlet , tail . . .\nforest , including degraded forest and forest edge , but rarely coastal or montane forest ; also tall . . .\ninsects recorded as taken . few other data , but recorded as foraging for fruits and around flowers in canopy .\nbirds with enlarged ovaries in jul and aug ; thought to be possibly double - brooded . nest with overhanging roof , but no porch , usually below . . .\nnot globally threatened . restricted - range species : present in new britain and new ireland eba . poorly known . although large areas of lowland forest have been or are being . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nalthough this species may have a restricted range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nnote : the language you choose must correspond to the language of the term you have entered . for example , if you enter a french term , choose an option under \u201cfrench . \u201d\nin english scientific usage , all elements of names of bird species require capital letters except for hyphenated adjectives where the second word is not capitalized , for example , black - crowned night heron .\ndic\u00e9e des bismark : nom fran\u00e7ais uniformis\u00e9 par la commission internationale des noms fran\u00e7ais des oiseaux .\nen fran\u00e7ais , les noms des esp\u00e8ces d ' oiseaux acqui\u00e8rent une valeur de nom propre ; tous les substantifs g\u00e9n\u00e9riques de m\u00eame que tous les qualificatifs sp\u00e9cifiques qui pr\u00e9c\u00e8dent le substantif g\u00e9n\u00e9rique doivent prendre la majuscule , par exemple : p\u00e9trel minime , petit butor .\naccess a collection of canadian resources on all aspects of english and french , including quizzes .\na collection of writing tools that cover the many facets of english and french grammar , style and usage .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 2119, "summary": [{"text": "quelea / \u02c8kwili\u0259 / is a genus of small passerine birds that belongs to the weaver family ploceidae , confined to africa .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "these are small-sized , sparrow - or finch-like gregarious birds , with bills adapted to eating seeds .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "queleas may be nomadic over vast ranges ; the red-billed quelea is said to be the most numerous bird species in the world . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "quelea", "paragraphs": ["male ( right ) and female red - billed queleas ( quelea quelea ) .\na flock of red - billed queleas ( quelea quelea ) , etosha national park , namibia .\nquelea quelea .\na dictionary of zoology . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nquelea quelea .\na dictionary of zoology . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\n: a red - billed bird ( q . quelea ) often kept as a cage bird\nthe red - billed quelea is not a prohibited or restricted invasive animal under the biosecurity act 2014 .\n( red - billed quelea ) is the most numerous bird in the world , numbering thousands of millions .\n\u2026of the african weaverbird ( quelea ) have been estimated to exceed 1 , 000 , 000 individuals . \u2026\n\u2026a grain - eating finch , the red - billed quelea ( quelea quelea ) , occurs like locusts , in plague proportions so numerous that alighting flocks may break the branches of trees . the use of city buildings for roosts by large flocks of starlings and blackbirds is also a problem , as is the nesting of albatrosses on\u2026\nquelea .\nthe columbia encyclopedia , 6th ed . . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\n\u2026red - billed weaver , or quelea ( quelea quelea ) , of the african savannas can sometimes become an agricultural pest ; it has been reported nesting in colonies covering several square miles of trees and harbouring millions of birds . bishop birds ( euplectes ) weave nests with a side entrance , generally in wet grassy areas . ( see \u2026\nquelea supports the zefania xml bible format , so you can easily download and use the language and translation of your choice .\nresearch in this programme centres on the ecotoxicological risk and environmental impact assessments of quelea control operations in terrestrial and wetland biomes .\nyou ' re no longer restricted to just colours or still images as backgrounds ( though of course , quelea supports those too . )\nquelea .\nthe columbia encyclopedia , 6th ed . . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nwhat made you want to look up quelea ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nearly detection is essential for preventing pest establishment . if you have seen or are in possession of a red - billed quelea contact biosecurity queensland on 13 25 23 .\nthe waxy preen - gland secretions have not been studied extensively in passerine birds . poltz & jacob ( 1974 ) analysed samples from four ploceinae , including q . quelea and p . cucullatus . they found that the fatty acids were identical in three ploceus species , while the dominant compound in q . quelea was different . the alcohol component was almost exclusively one type in ploceus , and this was also the major constituent in quelea , with significant contributions from other alcohols . this suggests that that these secretions may be informative at the generic level .\ncraig , a . ( 2018 ) . cardinal quelea ( quelea cardinalis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nfind the projector background difficult to read ? quelea can push out lyrics to any mobile device with a browser , all in real time - and you can choose the colours to best suit your needs .\nquelea doesn ' t just focus on the display , it helps with the setup as well . it ships with a variety of test patterns you can use to make sure it ' s calibrated and positioned correctly .\nthe red - billed quelea is not a prohibited or restricted invasive animal under the biosecurity act 2014 . however , by law , everyone has a general biosecurity obligation ( gbo ) to take reasonable and practical steps to minimise the risks associated with invasive plants and animals under their control .\ntens of thousands of quelea ' s came to feed on the superabundance of grass seed after the rains on our home estate . the recording includes both hundreds of birds calling whilst they feed but also the whirring of wings as they fly up and down from one patch of seed to another .\ncrook ( 1963 ) examined nest structure and classified the nests of p . bicolor , p . ocularis , p . philippinus and p . cucullatus in separate types , while the nests of euplectes , quelea and f . madagascariensis all were placed in the same category . later schnell ( 1973 ) carried out a phenetic analysis of crook ' s data . clustering by correlation coefficients grouped quelea and euplectes together ; f . sechellarum was linked with p . bicolor , f . madagascariensis with p . ocularis , and p . cucullatus with p . velatus . a slightly different arrangement resulted when he used distance coeeficients : quelea , euplectes , and f . madagascariensis formed one cluster , and p . cucullatus and p . velatus still were in the same cluster , but p . bicolor was isolated . in both these analyses , p . philippinus was not associated with any of the other species considered here .\npesticide fate and behaviour in the environment is followed in biotic matrices ( invertebrates , vertebrates , plants ) as well as abiotic matrices ( water , air - borne residues and soil ) . in addition , integrated decision support systems are being developed to assist managers in the integrated control of redbilled quelea in south africa .\n\u2026or eliminated ( locusts , tsetse flies , quelea finches\u2014which do immense damage to grain crops\u2014and some ungulates or carnivores ) , ( 3 ) species that provide a spectacle and bring economic benefit ( elephants , the larger plain ungulates , primates , or carnivores ) , and ( 4 ) endangered , rare , or unique species . \u2026\n\u2026numbers of birds , the red - billed quelea , or \u201cmillet eater , \u201d which destroys crops , is notable , as are the partridge and the guinea fowl . reptiles are numerous and include pythons , as well as cobras and other venomous snakes . crocodiles , hippopotamuses , and turtles are found in the rivers . the rivers and the coastal\u2026\nthere ' s some good lyrics projection software out there already , some of which is free and open source , some of which is commercial . with quelea we aim to incorporate the best features of existing solutions as well as leveraging new , useful technologies that existing solutions don ' t have - providing it all under a free , open source license .\n( order passeriformes ) . it occurs in such enormous numbers that it often destroys grain crops and , by roosting , breaks branches . efforts to control quelea populations with poisons , napalm , pathogens , and electronic devices have had poor success ; but dynamiting the dense colonies , which may contain more than two million pairs in less than 50 hectares ( 125 acres ) , has achieved local control .\nnative to africa , the red - billed quelea is a small finch with a brown body and red bill . it can form nomadic super - colonies of up to 30 million birds , feeding on grains such as sorghum , wheat , barley , rice and corn . red - billed queleas are one of the world\u2019s most abundant and destructive birds , causing us $ 70 million damage to grain crops each year .\nbasing his conclusions primarily on morphology and plumage characters , moreau ( 1960 ) suggested that foudia was closer to euplectes than to quelea . he also suggested that p . sakalava and p . nelicourvi had a recent common ancestor , and represented dry - country and forest versions of the same stock . elsewhere he commented that asian weavers appeared to have been better island colonists than african species , though he did not infer that asia was therefore a more likely source for the madagascar ploceus species .\nfour ploceidae occur naturally on madagascar : forest fody foudia omissa and madagascar fody f . madagascariensis , and nelicourvi weaver ploceus nelicourvi and sakalava weaver p . sakalava . a preliminary phylogenetic analysis using morphological characters and features of their breeding biology supports the view that the genus foudia may be closest to the african genera quelea and euplectes . the madagascan ploceus species may be linked to the solitary , insectivorous african weavers , or the asian baya weaver p . philippinus , rather than derived from the colonial savanna weavers of africa .\nin a comparative study of limb musculature bentz ( 1979 ) dissected specimens of p . ocularis , p . cucullatus , q . quelea , f . madagascariensis and e . afer . four characters of the forelimb muscles and six on the hindlimb were shared by all these species . although f . madagascariensis had one autapomorphy on the forelimb and e . afer one on the hindlimb , comparison with the estrildidae suggested that the most significant variation in limb muscle morphology was at the family or subfamily level , rather than at the generic level .\nkaryotyping has not been used widely in bird studies . christidis ( 1986 ) commented that f . madagascariensis appeared to have a karyotype identical to that of p . velatus and p . philippinus . thus this character may not provide useful information on relationships within the sub - family . dna studies have yet to include any madagascar ploceids . dna - hybridization showed q . quelea and q . erythrops as close relatives , with euplectes their sister taxon , and ploceus species , including p . cucullatus , forming part of the same branch ( sibley & ahlquist 1990 ) .\ntable 2 shows the character states for the species in fig . 1 . the uninformative characters , which showed the primitive condition in all taxa , were disregarded in the analysis . with regard to skeletal characters , these are remarkably uniform in the three genera foudia , euplectes and quelea . i have data for eight other euplectes species , and all members of this genus share the same character states for these nine skeletal features . in contrast , the 17 species of ploceus examined so far represent seven different combinations of skeletal characters . this implies that the current genus , which includes more than 60 species in most checklists , is likely to be paraphyletic .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nthat ' s right - you can grab content from pretty much anywhere , including easyworship , openlp , opensong , survivor songbooks , kingsway online library ( and we ' re always looking to include more . )\nmigrate from github to sourceforge with this tool . check out all of sourceforge ' s recent improvements .\nget newsletters and notices that include site news , special offers and exclusive discounts about it products & services .\ni agree to receive these communications from sourceforge . net . i understand that i can withdraw my consent at anytime . please refer to our terms of use and privacy policy or contact us for more details .\ni agree to receive these communications from urltoken via the means indicated above . i understand that i can withdraw my consent at anytime . please refer to our terms of use and privacy policy or contact us for more details .\nyou seem to have css turned off . please don ' t fill out this field .\nprojection software designed around the needs of the modern , multimedia rich church . this project has moved to github . please see urltoken for up - to - date code and new releases .\nthat\u2019s not all - contest participants also get forever free vm backup ! so if you want to win and get an easy - to - use solution for you to back up and restore your hyper - v and vmware - based virtual machines , download altaro vm backup for free today ! with its straightforward ui and simple setup , altaro vm backup enables you to get up and running quickly , without the need for complex configurations or software dependencies . don\u2019t miss out !\namazing church software with really good support of programators and format of video ( thanks to vlc ) . and at all program is still improved !\nlove words ? you must \u2014 there are over 200 , 000 words in our free online dictionary , but you are looking for one that\u2019s only in the merriam - webster unabridged dictionary .\nthe story of an imaginary word that managed to sneak past our editors and enter the dictionary .\ntake this quiz and discover 12 words for things you didn ' t know had words .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncramp , s . and simmons , k . e . l . ( eds ) . 1977 - 1994 . handbook of the birds of europe , the middle east and africa . the birds of the western palearctic . oxford university press , oxford .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as possibly the most abundant bird in the world ( fry and keith 2004 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nless than 5 in . ( 13 cm ) long and weighing slightly more than 1 / 2 oz ( 1 . 4 grams ) , these tiny birds are found throughout sub - saharan africa in areas receiving less than 30 in . ( 76 cm ) of annual rainfall .\nwith the spread of grain farming and irrigation , they have extended their natural habitats , generally picking new breeding grounds every year . highly mobile , they often descend in a locustlike manner upon fields and in flight may indeed be mistaken for locusts . queleas are often found in concentrations of more than a million birds ; such a flock can destroy up to 60 tons of grain in a single day , consuming half and knocking the rest to the ground . hence , they are hunted aggressively with poisons and fire , but , as with locusts , to little effect .\nqueleas nest in thick thornbushes and trees ; a colony may cover up to 4 sq mi ( 10 . 4 sq km ) . the males build the simple grass nests , and a single thatched nest may house hundreds of females and their young , with only a few highly polygamous males . queleas are persistent and prolific breeders , beginning as early as nine months of age . in addition to grain , queleas also feed on insects and , in the\n, strip the leaves from trees . the size of their groups is sufficient to break branches and flatten plants . queleas are classified in the phylum\nurltoken gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the modern language association ( mla ) , the chicago manual of style , and the american psychological association ( apa ) .\nwithin the \u201ccite this article\u201d tool , pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style . then , copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list .\nbecause each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article , urltoken cannot guarantee each citation it generates . therefore , it\u2019s best to use urltoken citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication\u2019s requirements and the most - recent information available at these sites :\nmost online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers . therefore , that information is unavailable for most urltoken content . however , the date of retrieval is often important . refer to each style\u2019s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates .\nin addition to the mla , chicago , and apa styles , your school , university , publication , or institution may have its own requirements for citations . therefore , be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list .\n\u00a9 a dictionary of zoology 1999 , originally published by oxford university press 1999 .\na family of small , stocky birds that have short , stout bills . the weavers ( e . g .\n, of which there are about 56 species , many kept as cage birds ) are mainly black with yellow , red , or brown . sparrows are mainly brown . some members of the genus\n( bishops and whydahs ) have long tails . many ploceids are gregarious , inhabit forest , grassland , desert , urban areas , and cultivated land , and feed on seeds and insects . many build elaborate woven nests , suspended from trees , with a long entrance tunnel . others build untidy nests in trees , grass , and buildings . some are parasitic and most are colonial .\n( house sparrow ) , one of 18 species in its genus , is particularly associated with humans . rock sparrows ( five species of\n) inhabit open , rocky country , bush , and forest . there are 17\u201319 genera , comprising 145 species , many kept as cage birds ( e . g .\nploceidae .\na dictionary of zoology . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nploceidae .\na dictionary of zoology . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nqueleas breed in thorn - scrub country : every bush and tree for miles around may contain hundreds of their globular nests , which are built by the males ( black - faced , with pinkish foreparts at that season ) . each pair has two or three young , which within the year may wander hundreds of miles and breed in their turn . the \u201clocust bird\u201d plague has been the indirect and complicated result of human exploitation of marginal land for stock raising and of the large - scale cultivation of grains . queleas are thought to be among the most populous bird species in the world .\nwe welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles . you can make it easier for us to review and , hopefully , publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind .\nencyclop\u00e6dia britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience .\nyou may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered .\nat the bottom of the article , feel free to list any sources that support your changes , so that we can fully understand their context . ( internet urls are the best . )\nyour contribution may be further edited by our staff , and its publication is subject to our final approval . unfortunately , our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions .\nour editors will review what you ' ve submitted , and if it meets our criteria , we ' ll add it to the article .\nplease note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors , and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed .\nhorse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , \u2026\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\ncorrections ? updates ? omissions ? let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article ( requires login ) .\nif you prefer to suggest your own revision of the article , you can go to edit mode ( requires login ) .\nour editors will review what you\u2019ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article .\nurltoken unabridged based on the random house unabridged dictionary , \u00a9 random house , inc . 2018\nseveral birds calling and singing at a small colony ; most nests still under construction .\nflock calls from group in trees in the rest camp . flocks of many thousands of post - breeding birds seen over nearby grasslands .\nrelaxed chattering and some descending whistles from a whole bunch of queleas resting in the crown of an acacia tree in the heat of the day .\nseveral hundred birds at dawn in mangrove , before taking off from the roost .\nseveral dozen birds at presumed breeding site ( same group of bushes as xc110348 ) . same flock as xc324311 .\nseveral dozen birds at presumed breeding site ( same group of bushes as xc110348 ) . same flock as xc324312\nflock feeding on the ground and in short grass . habitat : accacia savanna .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nred - billed queleas coming to a waterhole for a drink chasing an african elephant away .\njuan sanabria , josep del hoyo , doug and denise norris , dani\u00eal jimenez , per . alstrom , yo\u00ebl jimenez , marc de bont , trheijnen .\n\u00e9ric roualet , paul van giersbergen , petemorris , holger teichmann , aleix comas , jens thalund , lars petersson , fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric pelsy , loutjie , guy poisson , robert erasmus , james kashangaki , smoghead , mauriravasini , ruben gaasenbeek , markus lilje , billonneau jean claude , tomasz doro\u0144 , priska r\u00fcegg , buchert , ossewa , arthur grosset , lutz duerselen , lad , antero topp , danielengelbrecht , manakincarmelo , paul cools , morten venas , juan jos\u00e9 baz\u00e1n hiraldo .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nzoonomen - zoological nomenclature resource , 2011 . 12 . 18 , website ( version 18 - dec - 11 )\nzoonomen - zoological nomenclature resource\nmaintained by alan p . peterson at urltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be uncommon though locally abundant ( fry and keith 2004 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is turned off in your web browser . please turn it on to take full advantage of arctos , or try our html specimensearch option .\ntaxon name is the\nnamestring\nor\nscientific name ,\nthe\ndata\nthat is used to form identifications and the core of every taxonomy record .\ntaxon term is the data value of either a classification term (\nanimalia\n) or classification metadata ( such as name authors ) .\nterm type is the rank (\nkingdom\n) for classification terms , in which role it may be null , and the label for classification metadata (\nauthor text\n) .\nsource indicates the source of a classification ( not a taxon name ) . some classifications are local ; most come from globalnames .\ncommon names are vernacular term associated with taxon names , and are not necessarily english , correct , or common .\nsometimes placed with q . erythrops in a separate genus , queleopsis . proposed race rhodesiae ( described from e zambia ) alleged to have brown on nape more extensive , but individual variation occurs throughout species\u2019 range . treated as monotypic .\ns south sudan , ne drcongo , uganda , w kenya , rwanda and nw & n tanzania s to e zambia and , rare , c malawi ; rare non - breeding visitor to s ethiopia .\n11 cm ; 11\u201315 g . small , short - tailed weaver . male breeding has bright red head down to throat and to variable extent onto breast ; nape and upperparts light brown with . . .\nsong a repetition of buzzes or sizzles introduced by sharp notes , terminating in nasal whistle ,\n. . .\nrank grass and wooded grassland , generally in dry areas . recorded at altitudes of 400\u20133000 m . . .\nbreeds aug\u2013sept in drcongo , mar\u2013jul in uganda and kenya , feb\u2013may in tanzania and feb in zambia . polygynous . colonial , in . . .\nflocks appear in many areas after rain , but may move on without breeding ; not clear if seasonal . . .\nnot globally threatened . locally abundant . a pest of agricultural crops in some parts of e africa .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na molecular phylogeny of the african widowbirds and bishops , euplectes spp . ( aves : passeridae : ploceinae ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\na molecular phylogeny of the african widowbirds and bishops , euplectes spp . ( aves : passeridae : ploceinae ) .\ndepartment of zoology , g\u00f6teborg university , box 463 , 405 30 g\u00f6teborg , sweden .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nthis tool provides a simple way to produce distributions of trees with subsets of taxa . the upper limit for the tool is 2 , 500 species . if larger subsets ar required you can download full trees .\nthe tool first trims to a subset , and then samples trees from a chosen pseudo - posterior distribution . note that any further analyses should only be conducted with a large sample of trees .\n. then copy and paste or drag and drop them into the box to the right .\nalternatively , download the taxonomy file and paste species names from the \u201cscientific\u201d column .\nplease note : if you have different names , you will have to resolve to the available list .\nclick \u201cget trees\u201d to download a zipped set of randomly selected trees with metadata including accession numbers and citations to original sources .\nresults taking longer than expected ? traffic volume may result in longer processing times . if you don ' t recieve an email with the completed subset trees within 24 hours , please contact us .\nnote : once completed , a link to the generated phylogeny subsets will be emailed to the address provided .\ncraig , a . j . f . k . 1999 . weaving a story : the relationships of the endemic ploceidae of madagascar . in : adams , n . j . & slotow , r . h . ( eds ) proc . 22 int . ornithol . congr . , durban :\n, primarily on the basis of their nesting and courtship behaviour . crook ( 1964 ) tentatively assigned the two endemic\n, to a group that includes both african and asian ploceids , noting that little information was available for them .\nprevious accounts of the biogeography of the madagascar avifauna have neglected the ploceidae ; they were not mentioned at all by griveaud ( 1967 ) nor by keith ( 1980 ) . apart from incidental observations , little has been recorded concerning the biology of these species , which are also of minor conservation concern compared to other malagasy endemics . recent research has focussed on endangered\nalso comes from populations introduced on other indian ocean islands ( e . g . , crook 1961 ; safford 1997 ) . in this paper i have used published information and data from museum specimens to compare the four madagascar ploceids ,\n, to possible relatives in africa and asia . from asia , i selected only baya weaver\n, the most widespread and best - known species . from africa , i chose four\nthere is a long tradition of including many species of weavers in the genus ploceus . reichenow ( 1886 ) recognised 38 taxa in six subgenera . he included p . sakalava in the subgenus ploceus alongside the asian species streaked weaver p . manyar , black - breasted weaver p . benghalensis and asian golden weaver p . hypoxanthus ; p . velatus was placed in the subgenus sitagra ; and p . cucullatus in hyphantornis . ploceus ocularis and p . bicolor were assigned to the genus symplectes ( reichenow 1887 ) . in the most recent comprehensive afrotropical checklist , dowsett & forbes - watson ( 1990 ) recognise 56 species of ploceus . of the current world checklists , only wolters ( 1979 ) has broken up this large genus . he restricted ploceus to the five asian species ; placed sakalava and nelicourvi as the only two species making up nelicurvius ; ocularis in hyphanturgus ; bicolor in symplectes ; and velatus and cucullatus in textor . unfortunately wolters did not publish any reasons for these decisions , but morlion ( 1980 ) noted differences in pterolyosis within the genus ploceus that could support such subdivisions .\nmy original field studies of ploceids in south africa were stimulated and guided by the late profs . g . j . broekhuysen and k . immelmann , and by prof . g . l . maclean and dr . c . j . skead . for access to museum specimens , i am grateful to d . allan , t . cassidy , k . garrett , j . hinshaw , a . c . kemp , w . e . lanyon , m . louette , r . b . payne , and d . willard . research funding has been provided by rhodes university , and the foundation for research development . n . barker assisted with the systematic analysis , and p . e . hulley and c . j . whittington - jones commented on a draft of the paper .\nbenson , c . , colebrook - robjent , j . f . r . & williams , a . 1977 . contribution \u00e0 l ' orithologie de madagascar . l ' oiseau et le revue fran\u00e7aise d ' ornithologie 47 : 167 - 191 .\nbentz , g . d . 1979 . the appendicular myology and phylogenetic relationships of the ploceidae and estrildidae ( aves : passeriformes ) . bulletin of the carnegie museum of natural history 15 : 1 - 25 .\nchristidis , l . 1986 . chromosomal evolution in finches and their allies ( families : ploceidae , fringillidae , and emberizidae ) . canadian journal of genetics and cytology 28 : 762 - 769 .\ncollar , n . j . , crosby , m . j . & stattersfield , o . j . 1994 . birds to watch 2 . cambridge ; birdlife international .\ncraig , a . j . f . k . 1984 . the spectacled weaver ploceus ocularis and monogamy in the ploceinae . proceedings of the fifth pan - african ornithological congress : 477 - 483 .\ncraig , a . j . f . k . 1995 . adaptation and evolution in ploceid weaver nests . ostrich 66 : 100 - 102 .\ncrook , j . h . 1960 . studies on the reproductive behaviour of the baya weaver ploceus philippinus ( l ) . journal of the bombay natural history society 57 : 1 - 44 .\ncrook , j . h . 1961 . the fodies ( ploceinae ) of the seychelles islands . ibis 103a : 517 - 548 .\ncrook , j . h . 1963 . a comparative analysis of nest structure in the weaver birds ( ploceinae ) . ibis 105 : 238 - 262 .\ncrook , j . h . 1964 . the evolution of social organisation and visual communication in the weaverbirds ( ploceinae ) . behaviour supplement 10 : 1 - 178 .\ndavis , t . a . 1971 . variation in nest - structure of the common weaverbird ploceus philippinus ( l . ) of india . forma functio 4 : 225 - 239 .\nde queirez , a . & wimberger , p . h . 1993 . the usefulness of behavior for phylogeny estimation : levels of homoplasy in behavioral and morphological characters . evolution 47 : 46 - 60 .\ndowsett , r . j . & forbes - watson , a . d . 1993 . checklist of birds of the afrotropical and malagasy regions . vol . 1 : species limits and distribution . liege ; tauraco press .\nfarris , j . s . 1988 . reference manual for hennig86 , version 1 . 5 . new york ; the author .\nfrith , c . b . 1976 . a twelve - month field study of the aldabran fody foudia eminentissima aldabrana . ibis 118 : 155 - 178 .\ngriveaud , p . 1967 . le peuplement ornithologique de madagascar : origines - biog\u00e9ographie . cahiers orstrom , serie biologie , number 4 : 53 - 76 .\nkeith , s . 1980 . origins of the avifauna of the malagasy region . proceedings of the fourth pan - african ornithological congress : 99 - 108 .\nlangrand , o . 1990 . guide to the birds of madagascar . new haven & london ; yale university press .\nmoreau , r . e . 1960 . conspectus and classification of the ploceine weaver - birds . ibis 102 : 298 - 321 , 443 - 471 .\nmorlion , m . l . 1980 . pterylosis as a secondary criterion in the taxonomy of the african ploceidae and estrildidae . proceedings of the fourth pan - african ornithological congress : 27 - 41 .\nnewton , r . 1959 . notes on the two species of foudia on mauritius . ibis 101 : 240 - 243 .\npoltz , j . & jacob , j . 1974 . b\u00fcrzeldr\u00fcsensekrete bei ammern ( emberizidae ) , finken ( fringillidae ) , und webern ( ploceidae ) . journal f\u00fcr ornithologie 115 : 119 - 127 .\nrand , a . l . 1936 . the distribution and habits of madagascar birds . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 72 : 143 - 499 .\nreichenow , a . 1886 . monographie der gattung ploceus cuv . zoologisches jahrbuch 1 : 113 - 164 .\nreichenow , a . 1887 . monographie der gattung symplectes sw . zoologisches jahrbuch 2 : 625 - 638 .\nsafford , r . j . 1997 . the nests of sympatric native and introduced fody foudia species on mauritius . ostrich 68 : 27 - 30 .\nschnell , g . d . 1973 . a reanalysis of nest structure in the weavers ( ploceinae ) using numerical taxonomy techniques . ibis 115 : 93 - 106 .\nsibley , c . g . & ahlquist , j . e . 1990 . phylogeny and classification of birds . new haven & london ; yale university press .\nswofford , d . l . 1993 . paup : phylogenetic analysis using parsimony , version 3 . 1 . 1 . champaign ; illinois natural history survey .\nwolters , h . e . 1979 . die vogelarten der erde , lieferung 4 . hamburg & berlin ; paul parey .\ncharacter states of male birds used for a phylogenetic comparison of selected ploceidae ; the presumed primitive condition is coded as 0 .\nthe ploceidae , or weavers , are small passerine birds related to the finches .\nthe weaver group is divided into the buffalo , sparrow , typical , and widow weavers . the males of many species are brightly coloured , usually in red or yellow and black , some species show variation in colour only in the breeding season .\nthe birds build their nests together for protection , often several to a branch . usually the male birds weave the nests and use them as a form of display to lure prospective females . the weaver bird colonies may be found close to water bodies . they sometimes cause crop damage , notably the\ncraig , adrian ( 2010 ) .\nfamily ploceidae ( weavers )\n. in del hoyo , j . ; elliott , a . ; and christie , d . a . handbook of the birds of the world 15 . barcelona : lynx edicions . pp . 74\u2013197 .\nfry , c . h . & keith , s . ( 2004 ) the birds of africa vol . vii . christopher helm , london\nallende , luis m . ; rubio , isabel ; ru\u00edz - del - valle , valentin ; guill\u00e9n , jesus ; mart\u00ednez - laso , jorge ; lowy , ernesto ; varela , pilar ; zamora , jorge ; arnaiz - villena , antonio ( 2001 ) .\nthe old world sparrows ( genus passer ) phylogeography and their relative abundance of nuclear mtdna pseudogenes\n( pdf ) . journal of molecular evolution 53 ( 2 ) : 144\u2013154 . pmid 11479685 . archived from the original on 21 july 2011 .\narnaiz - villena , a ; g\u00f3mez - prieto p ; ruiz - de - valle v ( 2009 ) .\nphylogeography of finches and sparrows\n. nova science publishers . isbn 978 - 1 - 60741 - 844 - - 3 .\nred - headed fody ( f . eminentissima ) ( comoro fody and aldabra fody if species split )\ncuckoo - finch also called parasitic weaver ( a . imberbis ) ( probably belongs in viduidae )\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthanks ! when you ' re ready , just click\nstart survey\n.\nit looks like you\u2019re about to finish your visit . are you ready to start the short survey now ?\nred - billed queleas are occasionally kept as pets in australia . they have not been recorded in the wild in queensland , but would be well suited to queensland\u2019s tropical and subtropical savannas .\nfound in tropical and subtropical seasonally dry savannas , grasslands , woodlands , croplands .\nprefers thorny or spiny vegetation ( e . g . acacia savannas ) during breeding season .\nbreeds several times in same season , with 1 - 2 year break between seasons .\ncould cause significant damage to queensland ' s $ 400 million per annum cereal grain crops .\nherons , storks , falcons , goshawks , owls , hornbills , rollers , kingfishers , crows , marabou , shrikes , snakes , lizards , small mammals .\nlocal governments must have a biosecurity plan that covers invasive plants and animals in their area . this plan may include actions to be taken on certain species . some of these actions may be required under local laws . contact your local government for more information .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nyou may be trying to access this site from a secured browser on the server . please enable scripts and reload this page .\nit looks like your browser does not have javascript enabled . please turn on javascript and try again ."]}
{"id": 2125, "summary": [{"text": "colias gigantea , the giant sulphur or giant northern sulfur , is a butterfly in the family pieridae found in north america .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "its range includes alaska across canada to the east coast and wyoming , montana , and oregon .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "flight period is from june until early august .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "wingspan is from 37 to 55 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "larvae feed on salix spp . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "colias gigantea", "paragraphs": ["dana campbell set\nimage of colias gigantea\nas an exemplar on\ncolias gigantea strecker 1900\n.\ngiant sulphur ( colias gigantea gigantea ) . churchill , man . j . t . troubridge\ncolias gigantea mayi f . chermock and r . chermock , 1940 ( tsn 778499 )\nfor now pelham ( 2008 ) is followed and colias gigantea and c . scudderi are retained as separate species . hammond and mccorkle ( 2008 ) treat c . gigantea ( and its subspecies ) as subspecies of colias scudderi .\nfor now pelham ( 2008 ) is followed and colias gigantea and c . scudder i are retained as separate species . hammond and mccorkle ( 2008 ) treat c . gigantea ( and its subspecies ) as subspecies of colias scudderi .\nb . c . conservation data centre . species summary : colias gigantea gigantea . b . c . minist . of environment . available : urltoken ( accessed jul 9 , 2018 ) .\nthere are three subspecies of colias gigantea recognized : c . g . gigantea , c . g . mayi and c . g . harroweri ( guppy and shepard 2001 ) . layberry et al . ( 1998 ) state\nsome authors treat gigantea as a subspecies of the western u . s . mountain species scudder ' s sulphur\n. c . g . gigantea and c . g . mayi are documented in british columbia . c . c . gigantea is documented only from the extreme northwestern region of bc .\nremarks : some authors treat gigantea as a subspecies of the western u . s . mountain species scudder ' s sulphur ( c . scudderi reakirt , 1865 ) .\nthe northwestern bc populations are the nominate subspecies c . g . gigantea strecker , 1900 ( tl :\nwest coast of hudson bay above fort york , [ manitoba ]\n) . females are usually white ( occasionally yellow ) and males are a cold yellow with a narrow black wing border . atlin populations have been called c . pelidne or c . interior by some authors . the northeastern bc populations are subspecies mayi f . & r . chermock , 1940 ( tl : riding mountains , mb ) , with females usually yellow ( occasionally white ) and males a warmer yellow than the nominate subspecies . adults of subspecies mayi are much larger than those of subspecies gigantea .\nc . g . gigantea are an overall yellowish colour , brighter in males and paler yellow to white in females . the males have a black border to both the fore and hind wing dorsal surfaces . there is a pinkish fringe outlining both the extreme wing edges . within the centre of the hindwing there is an obvious white spot . the wingspan ranges from 37 - 55 mm .\nsubspecies : the nominate subspecies gigantea occurs in most of the canadian range . subspecies harroweri , which is smaller , occurs from wyoming into southwestern alberta north to crowsnest pass . some authors believe that the larger form from southern manitoba , mayi f . & r . chermock , should be recognized as a separate subspecies ( klassen et al . , 1989 ) , but the differences are slight .\nresident in northern north america and intermountain west ( scott 1986 ) . habitats are willow bogs . host plants are usually shrubs with hosts restricted to a few species mostly in one genus ( salix ) of family salicaceae . eggs are laid on the host plant singly . individuals overwinter as 2nd , 3rd or 4th instar larvae . there is one flight each year with the approximate flight time jun15 - jul15 ( scott 1986 ) . sometimes listed as a subspecies of colias scudderi ( scott 1986 ) .\ndiagnosis : this is one of the largest ( wingspan : 37 to 55 mm ) sulphurs found in canada . it is bright , lemon yellow above with a narrow black border on the upperside in the male . the dark border is largely absent in the female ; some females are white . there is a yellow spot in the centre of the hindwing and a bright pink fringe on the wings . the yellow underside has almost no dark shading and a silver , brown - rimmed spot in the middle of the hindwing .\nrange : a widespread western species , it is found from the arctic ocean in yukon , east along the northern limit of the boreal forest to the western shores of hudson bay and james bay , and southward into the western u . s . it is absent from open prairie habitats and from most of southern british columbia , except for a small area around jesmond and 100 mile house .\nsimilar species : queen alexandra ' s sulphur ( c . alexandra ) lacks the pink fringe on the wings . the pink - edged sulphur ( c . interior ) is smaller , with more rounded wings , and has an orange spot in the middle of the hindwing above . the pelidne sulphur ( c . pelidne ) is smaller , and has dusky shading on the underside of the hindwing , often with pink shading over the white spot . [ compare images ]\nearly stages : the larvae feed on a variety of willows ( salix spp . ) .\nabundance : the giant sulphur is localized to willow bogs , but is widespread in western canada . it is described as common in northern manitoba ( klassen et al . , 1989 ) .\nhabits : in the northern boreal forests and southern tundra , the giant sulphur is found in moist areas with willows . farther south it is restricted to willow bogs and their immediate surroundings . it is an active species that flies swiftly around its chosen territory , stopping to feed on a variety of flowers , including asters .\n\u00a9 2002 . this material is reproduced with permission from the butterflies of canada by ross a . layberry , peter w . hall , and j . donald lafontaine . university of toronto press ; 1998 . specimen photos courtesy of john t . fowler .\nupper surface of male yellow with narrow black borders ; lower surface without submarginal black spots . female with 2 forms , yellow or white ; both may have black border reduced or lacking .\ng4 - apparently secure globally , though it might be quite rare in parts of its range , especially at the periphery .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nnaba checklist of north american butterflies occurring north of mexico - edition 2 . 3\n[ cite : 1318989 this link is a list of just the names including typo corrections , additions and updates to the following checklist : cassie , b . , j . glassberg , a . swengel & g . tudor . 2001 . north american butterfly association ( naba ) checklist & english names of north american butterflies . second edition . north american butterfly association , morristown , nj .\nthe second edition of the checklist includes all 722 species of butterflies that have been recorded in north american , north of mexico and in hawaii , giving both english and scientific names .\na catalogue of the butterflies of the united states and canada - - by jonathan p . pelham\ntaxonomic checklist used on bugguide for butterflies - - does not seem to have a link , so here it is . link updated 16 october 2016 as per comments .\na downloadable pdf file with extensive data on habitats , hostplants , flight dates , and range in the carolinas . you must give an e - mail address to reach the download - - the authors want to inform you of updates . ( this is produced by the north carolina wildlife resources commission , a state agency . ) ( i thought i had posted this before , but cannot find it . )\nsammlung europ\u00e4ischer schmetterlinge , errichtet von jacob h\u00fcbner in augsburg ( 1793\u20131841 ) : updated plates legend .\nseachable database with information on the general classification and the diet and feeding behaviour of the orders of insects and arachnids found in canada\u2019s forest environments . cite : 1463600\nan invaluable site for synonyms , links to original descriptions , literature , and other information . covers the entire world , but tends to have more complete information for european and north american species . a great place to begin literature searches . cite : 1329955\nthe best online resource for moths of great britain and ireland . cite : 1329952\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nspecies account authors : crispin guppy and jon shepard . extracted from butterflies of british columbia\ngiant sulphurs , the largest sulphur in bc , have yellow males and pale yellow to white females . the hindwing discal cell spot is very large on both the upper and lower hindwing , and usually has a satellite spot on the underside . there are no submarginal spots on the underside of the wings . unlike in most sulphurs , on the upperside of the wings there is very little dark scaling at the wing bases .\ngiant sulphurs are univoltine , and fly from late june through july . near nordegg , ab , oviposition occurred on several varieties of dwarf willows on hillocks in muskeg . the eggs hatched after 10 days and larval growth was slow , suggesting that the larvae hibernate ( mcdunnough 1922 ) . in the peace river region of alberta , they are universally restricted to wet willow fens and catchment marshes with willows ( kondla et al . 1994 ) . the larval foodplants are various species of willow ( mcdunnough 1922 ) . oviposition on salix reticulata at churchill , mb , was observed by klots ( 1975 ) , who reared the resulting larvae to the third instar .\ngiant sulphurs inhabit boreal willow fens in northern bc and in the cariboo region .\ngiant sulphurs occur from northern ak and yt , across southwestern nt and central and northern bc , to hudson bay and on .\nbc ministry of environment : bc species and ecosystems explorer - - the authoritative source for conservation information in british columbia .\nrecommended citation : author , date . page title . in klinkenberg , brian . ( editor ) 2017 .\n[ efauna . bc . ca ] . lab for advanced spatial analysis , department of geography , university of british columbia , vancouver . [ accessed :\ndisclaimer : the information contained in an e - fauna bc atlas pages is derived from expert sources as cited ( with permission ) in each section . this information is scientifically based . e - fauna bc also acts as a portal to other sites via deep links . as always , users should refer to the original sources for complete information . e - fauna bc is not responsible for the accuracy or completeness of the original information .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nlayberry , r . a . , p . w . hall , and j . d . lafontaine . 1998 . the butterflies of canada . university of toronto press : toronto , canada . 280 pp . + color plates .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\npelham , j . p . 2008 . a catalogue of the butterflies of the united states and canada with a complete bibliography of the descriptive and systematic literature . the journal of research on the lepidoptera . volume 40 . 658 pp .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nguppy , c . s . and j . h . shepard . 2001 . butterflies of british columbia . ubc press and royal british columbia museum : victoria , british columbia . 414 pp .\nmiller , l . d . and f . m . brown . 1981 . a catalogue / checklist of the butterflies of america north of mexico . the lepidopterists ' society memoir no . 2 , sarasota , florida . 280 pp .\nconsidered an ' active ' species that flies swiftly ( layberry et al . 1998 ) .\ndocumented in moist boreal forests and bogs with abundant willow . larvae are thought to feed upon various species of willows ( salix spp . ) ( layberry et al . 1998 ) .\nthere are no specific subnational food habits for this subspecies . the larval foodplants are various species of willow ( salix spp . ) ( layberry et al . 1998 ; guppy and shepard 2001 ) .\none generation per year . records for this species are from june through july ( guppy and shepard 2001 ) . information on the life history of this subspecies is not available .\nthis is not a range map . this species is known to occur somewhere in the shaded regional district ( s ) . the actual range of the species within each regional district may be much smaller .\nguppy , c . s . , and j . h . shepard . 2001 . butterflies of british columbia . ubc press in collaboration with royal b . c . mus . 414pp .\nlayberry , r . a . , p . w . hall , and j . d . lafontaine . 1998 . the butterflies of canada . university of toronto press . 280pp . + color plates ."]}
{"id": 2126, "summary": [{"text": "paralepetopsis ferrugivora is a species of sea snail , a true limpet , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family neolepetopsidae , one of the families of true limpets . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "paralepetopsis ferrugivora", "paragraphs": ["paralepetopsis mclean 1990 : 510 . type species ( od ) : paralepetopsis floridensis mclean 1990 . type locality : florida escarpment seeps ( 26 [ degrees ] 03 ' n , 84 [ degrees ] 54 ' w ) , 3270 m .\nhere i take the opportunity to describe three additional northeastern pacific species of the family neolepetopsidae , including two species of the genus paralepetopsis and one new species of neolepetopsis . one of the species , a new paralepetopsis , is from the hydrothermal vent habitat ; another new paralepetopsis and a new neolepetopsis are from whale bone , which is an hitherto unknown habitat for the family , although the whale bone habitat is known for the cocculiniform families pyropeltidae , cocculinidae ( see mclean 1992 ) , and osteopeltidae ( see marshall 1994 ) . only the family pyropeltidae has previously been known from both the vent / seep and whale bone habitat .\nthe undifferentiated shafts of the marginals are unique in the genus . however , this could mean that the tooth rows examined came from the developing end of the ribbon . the cusps have a rounded edge , unlike the square rachidian of paralepetopsis floridensis and the acutely pointed outline of the other cusps of p . floridensis .\nshells of the new species were photographed with three views . the radula from the single specimen of paralepetopsis tunnicliffae was mounted for sem ; radulae of the two other new species were whole - mounted in stain - suffused , nonresinous mounting medium . for these two new species , the entire radular ribbon was digitally photographed through a light microscope , which enabled a count of the tooth rows and , at higher resolution enabled confirmation of the generic identification indicated by the shell morphology .\nradula prepared for sem ( fig . 3f ) . the radular sem shows two pairs of lateral teeth and the broad overhanging cusps expected in paralepetopsis . the shafts of the rachidian and inner pair of lateral are narrow ; the cusp of the second pair is larger than that of the first pair ; the shaft of the second pair is hidden behind the larger pluricuspid . the shafts of the marginals are not differentiated from the base of the ribbon , but the cusps are in their expected positions and may be distinguished from debris on the outer edge of the ribbon that shows in figure 3d .\nafter more than 2 years of preparations , the diatombase portal is now officially launched . . . .\nlast week - on may 30 and 31st \u2013 8 thematic experts on talitridae came together for the first time during a lifewatch - worms sponsored workshop . the workshop took place at the hellenic centre for marine research in crete , where it was organized back - to - back with the 8th international sandy beaches symposium ( isbs ) . the group focused on identifying relevant traits for the talitridae , and adding this data through the amphipoda species database . . . .\non 23 april 2018 , a number of editors of the world register of introduced species ( wrims ) started a three day workshop in the flanders marine institute ( vliz ) . these three days were used to evaluate , complete and improve the content of this worms thematic register ( tsd ) . . . .\nthe 2nd worms early career researchers and 3rd worms achievement award were granted respectively to fran\u00e7ois le coze and geoff read . congratulations ! . . .\nin 2018 , to celebrate a decade of worms ' existence , it was decided to compile a list of our top marine species , both for 2017 and for the previous decade . . . .\nthe scleractinian corals are now accessible though their own list portal . this world list contains over 1 500 accepted names of extant species and is one of the most complete existing resources for scleractinian taxa . . .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nwar\u00e9n a . & bouchet p . ( 2001 ) . gastropoda and monoplacophora from hydrothermal vents and seeps new taxa and records . the veliger , 44 ( 2 ) : 116 - 231 , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 120 - 125 ; 142 [ details ]\nnote mid atlantic ridge ( 37\u00b017 . 50 ' n , 32\u00b017 ' w , . . .\ntype locality mid atlantic ridge ( 37\u00b017 . 50 ' n , 32\u00b017 ' w , 1665 - 1728 m ) [ details ]\nwar\u00e9n & bouchet , 2001 . accessed through : costello , m . j . ; bouchet , p . ; boxshall , g . ; arvanitidis , c . ; appeltans , w . ( 2018 ) european register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 180859 on 2018 - 07 - 09\ncostello , m . j . ; bouchet , p . ; boxshall , g . ; arvanitidis , c . ; appeltans , w . ( 2018 ) . european register of marine species .\nintergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nwar\u00e9n a . & bouchet p . ( 2001 ) . gastropoda and monoplacophora from hydrothermal vents and seeps new taxa and records .\nwar\u00e9n a . & bouchet p . ( 2001 ) . gastropoda and monoplacophora from hydrothermal vents and seeps new taxa and records . the veliger , 44 ( 2 ) : 116 - 231\nwar\u00e9n & bouchet , 2001 . in : costello , m . j . ; bouchet , p . ; boxshall , g . ; arvantidis , c . ; appeltans , w . ( 2014 ) european register of marine species , accessed through pesi at\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 license\npesi is funded by the european union 7th framework programme within the research infrastructures programme . contract no . ri - 223806 . activity area : capacities . period 2008 - 2011 - website hosted & developed by vliz banner picture : gannet ( morus bassanus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) by karl van ginderdeuren - contact pesi\nphotographer : r . von cosel , a . le goff , p . briand & a . war\u00e9n . publisher : allen , chris .\nr . von cosel , a . le goff , p . briand & a . war\u00e9n\nedited by norman h . sleep , stanford university , stanford , ca , and approved march 24 , 2011 ( received for review june 30 , 2010 )\neight carbonate blocks were dredged during the momardream cruise ( momar 08 leg 2 , august\u2013september 2008 ) from the northwestern flank of the rainbow massif , which is situated on a nontransform offset at 36\u00b014 . 15n , 33\u00b053 . 50w (\n) . this site , which we name ghost city , is 1 , 200 m northeast of the rainbow vent field at around 2 , 100 m water depth . the dredge from which the carbonates were collected sampled a transect around 800 m long on the seafloor and recovered , in addition to the carbonates , three shells of thyasirid bivalves , numerous pieces of serpentinized peridodite , and some troctolites and gabbros . the carbonates are white to ivory in color , ranging from 750 to 25 cm\nc values of 4 . 88 \u00b1 0 . 19\u2030 and - 0 . 66 \u00b1 1 . 18\u2030 , respectively (\n) . isotopic measurements of a series of subsamples from one authigenic carbonate crust gave u / th ages ranging from 46 \u00b1 0 . 3 kyr to 193 \u00b1 11 kyr (\n) close to the modern seawater signature ( 146 . 6 \u00b1 2 . 6\u2030 ) (\n) , which suggests that its u / th ratio may be considered as the most representative of the formation age of ghost city carbonates . the corresponding u / th age ( 110 \u00b1 0 . 9 kyr ) lies in the same range as the older chimneys from lost city ( 122 \u00b1 12 kyr ) (\n) and suggests that ghost city carbonate formation is significantly older than the first evidence of rainbow vent activity ( 23 \u00b1 1 . 5 kyr ) (\nsr ) of 0 . 70916 \u00b1 0 . 00006 , close to seawater ratios .\nlocation of the ghost city fossil hydrothermal field at different scales . ( a ) large scale map showing hydrothermal vents hosted by volcanic rocks ( red dots ) and gabbros and peridotites ( green dots ) ; ghost city is in the vicinity of the rainbow hydrothermal field . ( b ) standard multibeam bathymetrical map of three mar segments between 36\u00b000 and 36\u00b020n . these segments show a typical slow - spreading axial valley offset by two nontransform discontinuities . both rainbow and ghost city are located at the northern end of the segment centered on 36\u00b010n . ( c ) high resolution multibeam bathymetric map acquired at low ship speed during the flores cruise of the r / v l\u2019atalante showing the rainbow vent field on the western flank of the rainbow massif ; the ghost city fossil site is located on the northwestern flank of this gabbroic and peridotitic structure approximately 1 , 200 m northeast of the rainbow vent field , at a depth of 2 , 100 m .\noxygen and carbon isotopic composition of ghost city carbonates and bathymodiolus shells and living bathymodiolus shells from the rainbow hydrothermal vent field . domains limited by lines represent the scatterplot of canonical scores obtained by applying discriminant functions to the data .\nthe oxygen and carbon isotope values of the ghost city authigenic carbonates are consistent with those observed in serpentinization contexts . the\n) and an isotopically lighter - dic source . owing to the very low concentration of inorganic carbon in serpentinization fluids , the most likely origin for this\nc depleted dic is the oxidation of methane . methane in serpentinization fluids are characterized by light carbon isotopic signatures ( e . g . ,\nin the zambales ophiolite , - 10 . 3\u2030 at logatchev , - 16 . 7\u2030 at rainbow , and - 11 . 9\u2030 at lost city ) (\n) , which can be further fractionated by methanotrophic microbes converting methane into inorganic carbon . while abiotic methane oxidation is kinetically inhibited at low temperature (\n) , microbial oxidation of methane can occur in subseafloor habitats with various electron acceptors ( e . g . , oxygen and sulfate ) during the mixing of seawater with end - member fluids (\n) , the fractionation factor resulting of anaerobic or aerobic methane oxidation can be as high as 1 . 039 (\n) and will result in further depletion of the initial carbon isotopic ratio by at least - 13\u2030 . only a small fraction ( approximately 5 % ) of this\nc depleted methane is thus sufficient to explain the slightly negative carbon isotopic signature of some ghost city carbonates . an additional contribution from biogenic methane formed during the subseafloor mixing of seawater and the end - member fluid , as described in proskurowski et al . (\n) , cannot be ruled out . this assumption is supported by the identification of both methanogenic and anaerobic methane - oxidizing archaea at lost city , particularly in the less active chimneys where seawater mixing is occurring (\n, and mixing is required to compensate the poor supply of this ion from the fluid . as a consequence , the substantial isotopic fractionation resulting of biogenic methane formation that was observed at basalt - hosted diffuse vents (\n) may not be achieved due to limiting inorganic carbon conditions . the relative importance of biogenic methane is therefore difficult to estimate from ghost city samples\u2019 isotopic ratios .\nthe geological context , as well as petrographic and isotopic data , provides supporting evidence that the ghost city carbonates were formed 110 , 000 years ago from venting of metal - poor fluids . despite the proximity with the rainbow high - temperature vents field , the lack of polymetallic sulfide precipitates in the ghost city carbonate samples precludes a high - temperature metal - rich hydrothermal fluid contribution in their formation . more likely , these fluids were formed from low - temperature hydrothermal circulation related to serpentinization and were probably close in composition to those currently venting at lost city .\nanalyses of carbonate matrix , oxide crust , and mussel shells were made at the istep laboratory ( upmc univ paris 06 ) on a siemens d501 . bathymodiolus aff . azoricus mussel shells were scrubbed in distilled water with a toothbrush immediately upon collection to remove loosely attached biogenic and inorganic particles . sample powders of original calcitic outer layer and aragonitic inner layer of the shells were drilled from a depth of approximately 0 . 1 mm .\npolished thin sections of carbonates were observed using a stereomicroscope zeiss stereo discovery v20 ( fig . 2 and fig . s1 ) porosity measurements were made using jmicrovision software ( urltoken ) .\nanalyses were made in the p\u00f4le spectrom\u00e9trie oc\u00e9an ( brest ) on a neptune mc - icpms . for uranium and thorium isotope measurements , about 2 mg of carbonate sample was dissolved in 7 . 5m hno 3 and spiked with a mixed 236 u / 229 th spike ( 66 ) . u and th were separated chemically using conventional anion exchange techniques adapted from previous studies ( 67 ) . u and th concentrations and isotope ratios were then measured in the mc - icpms . the carbonate age was corrected for detrital contamination ( inherited 230 th ) using measured 232 th concentrations and assuming a typical 232 th / 230 th ratio ( 150 , 000 ) for the contaminant detrital phase , but this correction was insignificant on the calculated age ( about 1 % ) ( 68 ) . strontium was isolated using sr resin and the isotope ratios were measured using the mc - icpms . isotope ratios were normalized to 86 sr / 88 sr = 0 . 1194 and corrected from 87 rb and 86 kr interferences on the 87 sr and 86 sr signal , respectively .\nauthor contributions : f . l . , m . d . r . , j . d . , b . i . , y . f . , f . g . , and n . l . b . designed research ; f . l . , c . t . l . , m . d . r . , g . b . , and v . g . performed research ; f . l . , c . t . l . , m . d . r . , g . b . , and n . l . b . analyzed data ; and f . l . , c . t . l . , and n . l . b . wrote the paper .\nstable isotope evidence for a putative endosymbiont - based lithotrophic bathymodiolus sp . mussel community atop a serpentine seamount\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see the pnas web site .\nresearchers used field data from 2012 to 2015 to study mortality and allele frequency changes in the sea star pisaster ochraceus during a mass mortality event in northcentral california , and found that surviving adult and juvenile sea stars experienced 81 % mortality and allele shifts , according to the authors .\na survey of more than 4 , 600 american adults conducted in 1995 - 1996 and in 2011 - 2014 suggests that among individuals of low socioeconomic status , negative affect increased significantly between the two survey waves , whereas life satisfaction and psychological well - being decreased .\na study of cognitive ability in norwegian males born from 1962 to 1991 suggests that environmental factors rather than changing genetic composition of families likely account for most of the change in norwegian population iq .\nthe mathematical tools behind recent gerrymandering cases have brought a modicum of precision into the political arena\u2014but this rigor hasn\u2019t always been enough to spur policy changes .\nthree new species of the family neolepetopsidae ( patellogastropoda ) from hydrothermal vents and whale falls in the northeastern pacific . - free online library\nthree new species of the family neolepetopsidae ( patellogastropoda ) from hydrothermal vents and whale falls in the northeastern pacific .\nmla style :\nthree new species of the family neolepetopsidae ( patellogastropoda ) from hydrothermal vents and whale falls in the northeastern pacific . .\nthe free library . 2008 national shellfisheries association , inc . 09 jul . 2018 urltoken\nchicago style : the free library . s . v . three new species of the family neolepetopsidae ( patellogastropoda ) from hydrothermal vents and whale falls in the northeastern pacific . .\nretrieved jul 09 2018 from urltoken\napa style : three new species of the family neolepetopsidae ( patellogastropoda ) from hydrothermal vents and whale falls in the northeastern pacific . . ( n . d . ) > the free library . ( 2014 ) . retrieved jul 09 2018 from urltoken\nspecimens are deposited in the type collection of the natural history museum of los angeles county ( lacm ) .\nneolepetopsis mclean , 1990 : 492 . type species ( od ) : neolepetopsis gordensis mclean , 1990 . type locality : escanaba trough , gorda ridge , off northern california ( 41 [ degrees ] 29 ' n , 128 [ degrees ] 29 ' w ) , 3 , 271 m .\nshell sculpture coarsely clathrate , shell interior with transparent zones . radula with well - formed rachidian , two pairs of laterals , paired pluricuspid teeth , and two pairs of marginals .\nfour species , all from abyssal depths at hydrothermal vents , were originally described by mclean ( 1990 ) . two of these species , n . verruca from the east pacific rise at 21 [ degrees ] n , and n . occulta from the green seamount at 21 [ degrees ] n have not been subsequently reported . the species n . densata from the east pacific rise at 12 [ degrees ] n was reported by gustafson & lutz ( 1994 ) from the galapagos rift ; waren & bouchet ( 2001 ) illustrated the shell and radula of n . densata , with figures that closely matched my original figures .\nthe new species of neolepetopsis described here was collected from whale bone , in contrast to the original records of other species from hydrothermal vents . neolepetopsis remains known only from abyssal depths in the eastern pacific , as yet unreported from other vent / seep sites elsewhere .\nneolepetopsis nicolasensis mclean , new species ( figs . 1c , 3a , 3c )\nholotype lacm 3089 , paratype lacm 3 , 090 , 960 m on whale skeleton , nw of san nicolas island , ca ( 33 [ degrees ] 20 . 35 ' n , 119 [ degrees ] 58 . 85 ' w ) , collected by craig smith ( atv 113 ) , april 30 , 1995 . two specimens . for further information on the habitat and collecting records , see smith & baco ( 2003 ) and baco & smith ( 2003 ) .\nshell ( fig . 1c ) : sturdy , oval to oblong , slightly narrower anteriorly , profile low , highest elevation at apex ; shell margin in same plane ( ends not raised ) . apex on midline , nearly central but slightly closer to anterior end . apex eroded , lacking protoconch ; periostracum lacking . sculpture reticulate , concentric ridges well - defined , about equal in strength to radial ribs , producing nodes on crossing radial ribs ; radial and concentric sculpture diminishing in strength near margin ; radial ribs not projecting at margin . shell interior opaque white in area corresponding to apex ; outline of muscle scar not well marked , sides of interior translucent , revealing concentric sculpture of exterior ; shell margin translucent , with dark line at 0 . 4 mm from edge marking transition to thicker inner layer . length 7 . 5 mm , width 5 . 7 mm , height 2 . 1 mm ( holotype ) , length 6 . 6 mm , width 4 . 6 mm , height 1 . 9 mm ( paratype ) .\nthe shell of n . nicolasensis is not like that of n . gordensis , because the radial sculpture does not have the sharp projections of the radial ribs at the margin , showing in both forms , the regular ( fig . 1b ) and the laterally compressed ( fig . 1a ) . the shell is not comparable to that of n . densata , which has a much lower profile and fully transparent interior . the shell interior is most like that of n . verruca in having a dark band along the margin in interior view , but the band is a line , rather than the broader band of n . verruca . the concentric sculpture of n . verruca is much more pronounced in lateral view . there was no original radular preparation for n . verruca . the shell interior is not like that of n . occulta , which is fully transparent except in the central area .\nshell sculpture of radial ribs and concentric growth lines weak , shell interior fully opaque . radula with rachidian and two pairs of laterals with straight shafts , cusps usually broad .\nthe weak radial and concentric sculpture differs from the strongly clathrate sculpture of neolepetopsis ; the shell interior is opaque , rather than partially transparent .\nholotype lacm 3 , 091 ; 2 , 145 m , clam bed , chowder hill , middle valley segment , juan de fuca ridge west of juan de fuca strait ( 48 [ degrees ] 27 . 5 ' n , 128 [ degrees ] 42 . 5 ' w ) ( station hs 192 ) , collected by verena tunnicliffe , june 26 , 1992 . single specimen . for collection details see juniper et al . ( 1992 ) .\nshell ( fig . 2a ) : elliptical in outline , anterior end slightly narrower , profile moderately high , highest elevation of shell at apex ; shell margin in same plane . apex on midline , closer to anterior edge . apex eroded , protoconch missing . periostracum thin , light tan . all slopes moderately convex . sculpture of fine radial striae and concentric growth irregularities . shell interior with thickened opaque area at apex , slopes of interior translucent , revealing faint indications of radial and concentric irregularities of exterior ; inner margin of lip 0 . 5 mm broad , thinner and more translucent than thicker part of interior slope . muscle scar not well marked , but faintly indicated if the shell is tilted for viewing . length 10 . 6 mm , width 8 . 2 mm , and height 3 . 6 mm ( holotype ) .\nthe shell profile is lower than that of the type species p . floridensis . shell sculpture is similar , but the interior differs in having the muscle scar weakly indicated .\nholotype , lacm 3092 , paratype lacm 3093 , 1 , 800 m , on whale skeleton , san clemente seep , sw of san diego , ca ( 32 [ degrees ] 12 ' n , 117 [ degrees ] 44 ' w ) , collected by craig r . smith , alvin dive 3534 , march 29 , 2000 . two specimens . for further information on the habitat and collecting records , see smith & baco ( 2003 ) and baco & smith ( 2003 ) .\nit is clear that the radula differs from the more northern p . tunnicliffae because the pluricuspid has a narrower base and the marginal teeth are well marked , quite unlike the condition in p . tunnicliffae , in which only the tips are revealed .\nthe whale - fall habitat in the eastern pacific has been known for at least 15 years , and has been reported on by smith et al . ( 1989 ) , smith ( 1992 ) , smith & baco ( 1998 ) , baco & smith ( 2003 ) , smith & baco ( 2003 ) , bennett et al . ( 1994 ) . elsewhere , whale - bone associated molluscs have been reported from new zealand ( marshall 1987 , marshall 1994 ) , from japan by okutani et al . ( 2003 ) , and by fujiwara et al . ( 2007 ) . the mytilid mussel ides washingtonia is the most abundant northeastern pacific molluscan species known from whale bone , sunken wood , and seeps . the whale - fall habitat has also been reported from oligocene deposits ( squires , et al . 1991 , goedert et al . 1995 ) , and widely from cenozoic fossil deposits ( kiel & goedert 2006 ) . kiel & goedert considered the modern whale fall species community to have arisen in the early miocene .\ncocculiniform limpets associated with the whale - fall habitat in southern california have previously been described ( mclean 1992 ) . it is noteworthy that only two of the vent - limpet families , the pyropeltidae and the neolepetopsidae are now known to occur in the hydrothermal vent habitat and the whale - fall habitat . the whale bone oil and the ubiquitous chemosynthetic bacterial mats are not the same , but two species of pyropelta have colonized both habitats , as reported by mclean ( 1992 ) .\nbaco , a . r . & c . r . smith . 2003 . high species richness in deep - sea chemoautotrophic whale skeleton communities . mar . ecol . prog . ser . 260 : 109 - 114 .\nbeck , l . 1996 . morphology and anatomy of new species of neolepetopsid , acmaeid , fissurellid and pyropeltid limpets from edison seamount off lihir islands ( west pacific ) . arehiv fur molluskenkunde 125 : 87 - 103 .\nbennett , b . a . , c . r . smith , b . glaser & h . l . maybaum . 1994 . faunal community structure of a chemoautotrophic assemblage on whale bones in the deep northeast pacific ocean . mar . ecol . prog . ser . 108 : 205 - 223 .\nbouchet , p . & j - p . rocroi . 2005 . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia , 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 [ part 1 . nomenclator of family - group names ( bouchet & rocroi ) . part 2 . working classification of the gastropoda ( modern\narchaeogastropods\nby waren & bouchet ) ] .\ncruz , r . & m . farina . 2005 . mineralization of major lateral teeth in the radula of a deep - sea hydrothermal vent limpet ( gastropoda : neolepetopsidae ) . mar . biol . ( berlin ) 147 : 163 - 168 .\nfretter , v . 1990 . the anatomy of some new archaeogastropod limpets ( order patellogastropoda , suborder lepetopsina ) from hydrothermal vents . j . zool . 222 : 529 - 526 .\nfujiwara , y . , m . kawato , t . yamamoto , t . yamanaka , w . sato - okoshi , c . noda , s . tsuchida , t . komai , s . s . cubelio , t . sasaki , k . jacobsen , k . kubokawa , k . fujikura , t . maruyama , y . furushima , k . okoshi , h . miyake , m . miyazaki , y . noqi , a . yatabe & t . okutani . 2007 . three - year investigations into sperm whale - fall ecosystems in japan . mar . ecol . 28 : 219 - 232 .\ngoedert , j . l . , r . l . squires & l . b . barnes . 1995 . paleoecology of whale - fall habitats from deep - water oligocene rocks , olympic peninsula , washington state . palaeogeogr . palaeoclimatol . palaeoecol . 118 : 151 - 158 .\ngustafson , r . g . & r . a . lutz . 1994 . molluscan life history traits and deep - sea hydrothermal vents and cold methane / sulphide seeps . in : c . m . young & k . j . eckelbarger , editors . reproduction , larval biology , and recruitment of the deep - sea benthos . new york : columbia university press . pp . 76 - 97 .\nhedegaard , c . 1990 . shell structure of the recent vetigastropoda . j . mollus . stud . 63 : 369 - 377 .\njuniper , s . k . , v . tunnicliffe & e . c . southward . 1992 . hydrothermal vents in turbidite sediments on a northeast pacific spreading centre : organisms and substratum at an ocean drill site . can . j . zool . 70 : 1792 - 1809 .\nkiel , s . 2004 . shell structures of selected gastropods from hydrothermal vents and seeps . malacologia 46 : 169 - 183 .\nkiel , s . & j . l . goedert . 2006 . deep - sea food bonanzas : early cenozoic whale - fall communities resemble wood - fall rather than seep communities . proc . roy . soc . , biol . sci . , ser . b , 273 . pp . 2625 - 2631 .\nlindberg , d . r . 1998 . comments on\nlepetopsina .\nin p . l . beesley , g . j . b . ross & a . wells , editors . mollusca : the southern synthesis . fauna of australia , vol . 5 . melbourne : csiro publishing , part b , i - vii , pp . 565 - 1234 .\nmarshall , b . a . 1987 . osteopeltidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) : a new family of limpets associated with whale bone in the deep - sea . j . mollus . stud . 53 : 121 - 127 .\nmarshall , b . a . 1994 . deep - sea gastropods from the new zealand region associated with recent whale bones and an eocene turtle . nautilus 108 : 1 - 8 .\nmclean , j . h . 1990 . neolepetopsidae , a new docoglossate limpet family from hydrothermal vents and its relevance to patellogastropod evolution . j . zool . 222 : 485 - 528 .\nmclean , j . h . 1992 . cocculiniform limpets ( cocculinidae and pyropeltidae ) living on whale bone in the deep sea off california . j . mollus . stud . 58 : 401 - 414 .\nsasaki , t . & a . waren . 2007 . anatomy of eulepetopsis vitrea mclean , 1990 ( patellogastropoda : neolepetopsidae ) . in : k . jordaens , n . van houtte , j . van geothem & t . backeljau , editors . abstracts , world congress of malacology . antwerp , belgium , july 15 - 20 , 2007 . pp . 195 .\nsmith , c . r . 1992 . whale falls . chemosynthesis on the deep seafloor . oceanus 35 : 74 - 78 .\nsmith , c . r . & a . r . baco . 1998 . phylogenetic and functional affinities between whale - fall , seep , and vent chemoautotrophic communities . cah . biol . mar . 39 : 345 - 346 .\nsmith , c . r . & a . r . baco . 2003 . ecology of whale falls at the deep - sea floor . oceanogr . mar . biol . ann . rev . 41 : 311 - 354 .\nsmith , c . r . , h . kulkert , r . a . wheatcroft , p . a . jumars & j . w . deming . 1989 . vent fauna on whale remains . nature 341 : 27 - 28 .\nwaren , a . & p . bouchet . 2001 . gastropoda and monoplacophora from hydrothermal vents and seeps ; new taxa and records . veliger 44 : 116 - 231 .\nnatural history museum of los angeles county , 900 exposition blvd . , los angeles , california 90007\ncopyright 2008 national shellfisheries association , inc . no portion of this article can be reproduced without the express written permission from the copyright holder .\nlife in extreme environments : a tribute to melbourne r . carriker , gentleman malacologist .\ntaxonomic review of the hydrothermal vent shrimp genera rimicaris williams & rona and chorocaris martin & hessler ( crustacea : decapoda : caridea : . . .\ninteractions of deep - sea vent invertebrates with their environment : the case of rimicaris exoculata .\nthe morphology of bacterial symbioses in the gills of mussels of the genera adipicola and idas ( bivalvia : mytilidae ) .\nvariation in sulfur speciation with shellfish presence at a lau basin diffuse flow vent site .\nhydrothermal vent mussel habitat chemistry , pre - and post - eruption at 9 [ degrees ] 50 ' north on the east pacific rise .\ninterrelationships between vent fluid chemistry , temperature , seismic activity , and biological community structure at a mussel - dominated , deep - sea . . .\nterms of use | privacy policy | copyright \u00a9 2018 farlex , inc . | feedback | for webmasters"]}
{"id": 2137, "summary": [{"text": "the western jumping mouse ( zapus princeps ) , is a species of rodent in the family dipodidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is found in canada and the united states .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "western jumping mice evolved during the pleistocene , possibly from the fossil species zapus burti , which is known from the late blancan .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "their closest relatives appear to be pacific jumping mice , with which they can still interbreed to produce fertile offspring . ", "topic": 16}], "title": "western jumping mouse", "paragraphs": ["western jumping mice are found throughout western canada and much of the western united states .\nright : a western jumping mouse in hibernation . ( photo courtesy of v . b . scheffer )\nbrown , l . 1967 . seasonal activity patterns and breeding of the western jumping mouse ( * zapus princeps * ) in wyoming .\nmalaney jl , conroy cj , moffitt la , spoonhunter hd , patton jl , cook ja . phylogeography of the western jumping mouse (\nbrown , l . 1970 . population dynamics of the western jumping mouse ( * zapus princeps * ) during a four - year study .\nbosque del apache national wildlife refuge [ banwr ] new mexico meadow jumping mouse .\nclark , t . w . 1971 . ecology of the western jumping mouse in grand teton national park , wyoming . northwest sci . 45 : 229 - 238 .\ncranford , j . a . 1983 . ecological strategies of a small hibernator , the western jumping mouse zapus princeps . canadian journal of zoology 61 : 232 - 240 .\nwestern jumping mice have large hind legs and a band of dark fur on their back . like other rodents , they have a long tail and pointed face . smaller than most rats , the western jumping mice measure up to 25 centimetres in length .\nthese groups contend saving streamside habitat hurts their business , and they argue that the mouse is not a separate - enough species , distinct from the more - abundant western jumping mouse , to qualify for endangered species act protection .\n) . however , this would not account for lack of detectability of other demographic groups . third , as in the western harvest mouse (\nwestern jumping mice can live as long as 6 years if they survive their first season of hibernation . half of all juveniles that enter their first winter hibernation will die . because western jumping mice hibernate they are only active for a short period each year .\nluoma , s . n . 1969 . a study of hibernation in the western jumping mouse , zapus princeps . m . s . thesis , montata state university . 39 pp .\nwright gd , frey jk . herbeal feeding behavior of the new mexico meadow jumping mouse (\nwright gd , frey jk . habitat selection by the endangered new mexico meadow jumping mouse (\nfinal rule . determination of endangered species status for the new mexico meadow jumping mouse throughout its range .\nwestern jumping mice need high - energy foods to increase fat storage for their long hibernation periods . the main foods eaten by western jumping mice are arthropods , seeds and leaves . seeds are important in the fat deposition , however , arthropods may be a critical substitute when seeds are not available .\nbrown , l . n . 1970 . population dynamics of the western jumping mouse ( zapus princeps ) during a four - year study . j . mammal . 51 ( 4 ) : 651 - 658 .\nbrown , l . n . 1967 . seasonal activity patterns and breeding of the western jumping mouse ( zapus princeps ) in wyoming . am . midl . nat . 78 ( 2 ) : 460 - 470 .\nmorrison p , ryser fa . metabolism and body temperature in a small hibernator , the meadow jumping mouse ,\nwestern jumping mice are important prey species for many predators in the ecosystems in which they live . they are also important as consumers of seeds and arthropods .\nthe woodland jumping mouse is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nvariation in phenology of hibernation and reproduction in the endangered new mexico meadow jumping mouse ( zapus hudsonius luteus ) .\nfrey jk . evidence for the historical occurrence of the meadow jumping mouse in the verde river watershed , arizona .\nmalaney jl , cook ja . using biogeographic history to inform conservation : the case of preble\u2019s meadow jumping mouse .\nwhitaker , j . 1963 . food , habitat , and parasites of the woodland jumping mouse in central new york .\nwright gd , frey jk . cool season activity of the meadow jumping mouse in the middle rio grande , 2010 .\nthe jumping mouse has large hind legs and a band of dark fur on its back . like other rodents it has a long tail and pointed face . smaller than most rats , the jumping mouse measures up to 25 cm in length .\nin the southern parts of its range , the woodland jumping mouse is often restricted to mountain peaks ( 2 ) ( 5 ) .\nvariation in phenology of hibernation and reproduction in the endangered new mexico meadow jumping mouse ( zapus hudsonius luteus ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nschorr ra , lukacs pm , florant gl . body mass and winter severity as predictors of overwinter survival in preble\u2019s meadow jumping mouse .\nthe meadow , pacific , and western jumping mice ( zapus hudsonius , z . trinotatus , and z . princeps , respectively ) range over much of north america , in grasslands as well as riverine and wet meadow habitats of cool and moist forests . the only species found outside north america is the sichuan jumping mouse ( eozapus\u2026\nwestern jumping mice hibernate during the winter and spend most of their days in the summer building up fat reserves for this dormant period . seeds , leaves , and insects like spiders , centipedes , and crustaceans provide the high fat and energy foods these mice need to survive . they forage mainly at night . when scared from it ' s hiding place the western jumping mouse will make a series of jumps and then remain still in a new hiding spot to confuse predators .\nwestern jumping mice exhibit low predation by mammalian carnivores during hibernation . one of the reasons for this is that their hibernation chambers are hidden far beneath the layers of snow . also , jumping mice give off little odor during hibernation , making them difficult find .\n, is the most common external parasite of woodland jumping mice . there can be as many as several hundred of these mites per mouse .\ndavis , w . b . 1937 . some mammals from western montana and eastern idaho . the murrelet 18 ( 2 ) : 22 - 27 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - woodland jumping mouse ( napaeozapus insignis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - woodland jumping mouse ( napaeozapus insignis )\ntitle =\narkive species - woodland jumping mouse ( napaeozapus insignis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nwestern jumping mice hibernate during the winter and spend most of their days in the summer building up fat reserves for this dormant period . seeds , leaves , and insects like spiders , centipedes , and crustaceans provide the high fat and energy foods these mice need to survive . they forage mainly at night . when scared from their hiding place the western jumping mice will make a series of jumps and then remain still in a new hiding spot to confuse predators .\nbrannon , m . p . ( 2005 ) distribution and microhabitat of the woodland jumping mouse , napaeozapus insignis , and the white - footed mouse , peromyscus leucopus , in the southern appalachians . southeastern naturalist , 4 ( 3 ) : 479 - 486 .\n. however , woodland jumping mice have a white - tipped tail , are larger , and are more brightly tricolored than are meadow jumping mice . also , woodland jumping mice are rarely found in open areas , whereas\nthe woodland jumping mouse occurs at a range of elevations , from near sea level to around 2 , 000 metres in the appalachian mountains ( 2 ) ( 6 ) .\ndid not catch any jumping mice at banwr in september , but caught a 20 . 0 g young of the year female on 22 and 25 october . this jumping mouse was radio - collared and its last above ground movement was 26 october (\nthe timing of reproduction for western jumping mice varies from year to year . many females less than 2 years old do not breed . if they do breed it will usually occur later in the season and they produce smaller litter sizes than older females .\nthe woodland jumping mouse would benefit from further research into its abundance , the extent of its distribution , and the potential impacts of any threats on its populations ( 1 ) .\nin california , the western jumping mouse is distributed in the sierra nevada from southeastern shasta co . south through plumas co . to northeastern tulare co . it also is found in north - central california in siskiyou and trinity cos . , in eastern modoc co . and in western tehama co . probably distributed throughout north - central and northeastern california , though confirmed locality data are sparse ( see hall and kelson 1959 , hall 1981 ) . jumping mice are confined to wet areas in a variety of coniferous forest , riparian , and grassland habitats . locally common to abundant in thick , herbaceous vegetation near water .\na trap is set during a study of the rare jumping mouse , at rocky flats national wildlife refuge on july 18 , 2017 in broomfield . they are trying to find out whether mouse has survived and how much protection it needs up and down colorado ' s booming front range .\nbeginning in march 1992 , but did not capture a jumping mouse until 13 may . males made up 83 % of captures during may with the first female caught on 20 may (\na ribbon marks a trap during a study of the rare jumping mouse , at rocky flats national wildlife refuge on july 18 , 2017 in broomfield . they are trying to find out whether mouse has survived and how much protection it needs up and down colorado ' s booming front range .\nneumann r , cade tj . photoperiodic influence on the hibernation of jumping mice .\nwestern jumping mice are found primarily in moist fields , thickets , and woodlands , especially where grasses , sedges , or other green plant cover is dense . they are also found in grassy edges of streams , ponds , and lakes , usually within 50 meters of water .\nit was one of several mouse - trapping expeditions planned this summer to detect the preble\u2019s mouse , including one at the u . s . air force academy north of colorado springs and in the foothills west of boulder .\n) . however , the timing differed . jumping mice at banwr emerged ca 4 weeks\nhafner dj , petersen ke , yates tl . evolutionary relationships of jumping mice ( genus\nrocky flats national wildlife refuge \u2014 the hunt is on for the preble\u2019s meadow jumping mouse \u2014 as is a trump - backed fight that holds it up as proof the endangered species act needs tweaking .\n\u201cwe could delist the mouse due to extinction , \u201d hansen said . \u201cbut we\u2019re not going to let that happen to this mouse . we have enough tools , and conservation partners , to make sure that doesn\u2019t happen . \u201d\nalison michael holds a deer mouse , that was caught in a trap , as she works on a study on the rare jumping mouse , at rocky flats national wildlife refuge on july 18 , 2017 in broomfield . they are trying to find out whether mouse has survived and how much protection it needs up and down colorado ' s booming front range . they found two meadow vole mice , and 11 deer mice , but no jumping mice , in the 200 traps , during the first day of the study .\nalison michael holds a meadow vole mouse , that was caught in a trap , as she works on a study on the rare jumping mouse , at rocky flats national wildlife refuge on july 18 , 2017 in broomfield . they are trying to find out whether mouse has survived and how much protection it needs up and down colorado ' s booming front range . they found two meadow vole mice , and 11 deer mice , but no jumping mice , in the 200 traps , during the first day of the study .\nwhitaker jr , j . o . ( 1963 ) food , habitat and parasites of the woodland jumping mouse in central new york . journal of mammalogy , 44 ( 3 ) : 316 - 321 .\nadelman , e . b . 1979 . a survey of the nongame mammals in the upper rattlesnake creek drainage of western montana . m . s . thesis . university of montana , missoula . 129 pp .\na deer mouse is caught in a trap at rocky flats national wildlife refuge on july 18 , 2017 in broomfield .\nalthough usually silent , the woodland jumping mouse may sometimes utter a low clicking or clucking sound , or squeal if disturbed . it may also drum its tail ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 6 ) .\nscott quigley , left , writes down information as alison michael holds a deer mouse , that was caught in a trap , as they work on a study on the rare jumping mouse , at rocky flats national wildlife refuge on july 18 , 2017 in broomfield . they are trying to find out whether mouse has survived and how much protection it needs up and down colorado ' s booming front range . they found two meadow vole mice , and 11 deer mice , but no jumping mice , in the 200 traps , during the first day of the study .\n: owls , hawks , weasels , snakes , foxes , coyotes , and skunks are principal predators of the meadow jumping mouse . little is known about longevity in this species , but it may live about two years .\nalthough it may use long leaps to escape danger , the woodland jumping mouse more often walks around on all fours when moving slowly , or uses short hops for greater speed ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . when escaping , it usually makes several leaps before stopping and remaining motionless under nearby cover ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the woodland jumping mouse climbs well in bushes , but does not ascend trees ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nthe woodland jumping mouse is a common and widespread species and is not currently considered at risk of extinction . its populations are believed to be stable , and it is not facing any major threats at present ( 1 ) .\nlike all jumping mice , the woodland jumping mouse has prominently grooved incisors ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) . this species is distinguished from jumping mice in the genus zapus by its white tail tip and by differences in its teeth , and from eozapus species by lacking a dark stripe on the belly ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) . across its range , the woodland jumping mouse varies in appearance , with northern populations generally being larger and paler than those in the south ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . some scientists have recognised up to five subspecies ( 2 ) .\ncolorado cattlemen\u2019s association vice president terry fankhauser said regulations on streamside construction have had a negative economic impact . he lauded work by gov . john hickenlooper and other western governors to give states a greater voice in handling endangered species issues .\nthere are no specific conservation measures currently known to be in place for the woodland jumping mouse . this colourful rodent occurs within a number of protected areas , but there are no conservation efforts targeting its specific needs ( 1 ) .\novaska , k . and herman , t . b . ( 1988 ) life history characteristics and movements of the woodland jumping mouse , napaeozapus insignis , in nova scotia . canadian journal of zoology , 66 : 1752 - 1762 .\nthe preble\u2019s mouse stands out as a \u201crelic species\u201d that evolved during the ice age , when colorado was wetter . the mouse adapted to wet conditions . then , as glaciers retreated , the mouse was confined to increasingly isolated stream corridors . preble\u2019s mice need free - flowing water to drink , unlike other species in the semi - arid west that can metabolize water from plants or drops of dew .\nwoodland jumping mice can be nervous in captivity . tail drumming and sporadic jumping are signs of excitability or nervousness . after about a month of captivity , woodland jumping mice calm sown and are easy to handle . these animals are not usually aggressive toward each other , and do not fight over food . when given the choice , they prefer to sleep in the same nest box as other woodland jumping mice .\nzwank pj , najera sr , cardenas m . life history and habitat affinities of meadow jumping mice (\ncostello , r . , a . rosenberger . 2003 .\nnapaeozapus insignis , woodland jumping mouse\n( on - line ) . smithsonian national museum of natural history : north american mammals . accessed march 29 , 2004 at urltoken .\nover 20 years , requirements to minimize harm to preble\u2019s mouse habitat have hurt landowners looking to develop , colorado association of home builders ceo scott smith said . \u201cif you have property deemed to be mouse habitat , it has significant impacts . it sterilizes your property . \u201d\nalison michael hunts for a trap , as she works on a study on the rare jumping mouse , at rocky flats national wildlife refuge on july 18 , 2017 in broomfield . they are trying to find out whether mouse has survived and how much protection it needs up and down colorado ' s booming front range . they found two meadow vole mice , and 11 deer mice , but no jumping mice , in the 200 traps , during the first day of the study .\nage class of specimens of the new mexico meadow jumping mouse ( zapus hudsonius luteus ) by date of capture for ( a ) valley populations and ( b ) montane populations . age class was determined by characteristics of the skull and dentition .\nare adapted to jumping , and so have long hind legs with elongated ankle bones and long toe bones .\nwoodland jumping mice have no special status on the iucn red list , us federal list , or cites .\n) . thus , different species and populations of jumping mice adjust to short activity intervals in different ways .\nthey have quite a large range extending in canada from southern yukon to south - western manitoba . jumping mice are also common in the u . s . from california east to montana and new mexico . because owls and foxes are their predators , these mice like to live under thickets , brushes , and in dense grasslands where they are hard to find .\nfrom left , scott quigley , david lucas , and alison michael head out to look at traps as they study the rare jumping mouse , at rocky flats national wildlife refuge on july 18 , 2017 in broomfield . they are trying to find out whether mouse has survived and how much protection it needs up and down colorado\u2019s booming front range . they found two meadow vole mice , and 11 deer mice , but no jumping mice , in the 200 traps , during the first day of the study .\nfrom left , david lucas , scott quigley and alison michael head out to look at traps as they study the rare jumping mouse , at rocky flats national wildlife refuge on july 18 , 2017 in broomfield . they are trying to find out whether mouse has survived and how much protection it needs up and down colorado ' s booming front range . they found two meadow vole mice , and 11 deer mice , but no jumping mice , in the 200 traps , during the first day of the study .\nhowever , residential , agricultural and industrial development may reduce the habitat available to the woodland jumping mouse in some areas , particularly affecting suitable hibernation sites . in future , a more serious threat is likely to come from climate change , which could cause a decline in the southern populations of this species , which are already restricted to cooler environments at high elevations . climate change may also cause reduced winter snowfall , removing the insulating layer that the woodland jumping mouse needs to survive its hibernation period ( 1 ) .\nfrom left , scott quigley , david lucas , and alison michael head out to look at traps as they study the rare jumping mouse , at rocky flats national wildlife refuge on july 18 , 2017 in broomfield . they are trying to find out whether mouse has survived and how much protection it needs up and down colorado ' s booming front range . they found two meadow vole mice , and 11 deer mice , but no jumping mice , in the 200 traps , during the first day of the study .\nspecimen data used in the evaluation of the phenology of hibernation and reproduction in the new mexico meadow jumping mouse ( zapus hudsonius luteus ) . museums acronyms are defined in text . julian date is the date of capture . age class is described in text .\n\u201cwhy waste money protecting a population that is not important to the species as a whole or to biodiversity ? \u201d pacific legal foundation attorney damien schiff said , making the groups\u2019 case to delist the preble\u2019s mouse . \u201cit is not economical or socially feasible to protect every population . you should prioritize based on the most ecologically or biologically significant species . the preble\u2019s jumping mouse is not high on that list . \u201d\n: food of the meadow jumping mouse consists of fruits and green vegetation , but principally seeds and grasses which they pull down to ground level by cutting the bases of the stalks . some animal food is eaten , especially in the spring when seeds are scarce .\nthe three - colored pattern found on the fur of woodland jumping mice helps to conceal these animals against dead vegetation . if they are pursued by predators , woodland jumping mice escape by jumping quickly , then remaining still for a little while . their coloration , escape behavior , and relative lack of odor are probably all ways they avoid predators . woodland jumping mice are mostly safe from predators during hibernation . timber rattlesnakes , broad - banded copperheads , screech owls , bobcats , minks , striped skunks , gray wolves , and house cats are all known predators of woodland jumping mice .\nthe woodland jumping mouse has rather coarse fur , due to a layer of stiff guard hairs ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . its fur is quite bright , with yellow - orange to reddish - brown sides , sprinkled with dark hairs . the sides contrast with the brown to black back and top of the head , and with the pure white underparts . the tops of the feet are also white , while the tail is distinctly bi - coloured , being dark brown above and white below , with a white tip ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) . the ears of the woodland jumping mouse are of moderate size and are furred on the outside ( 6 ) . the female woodland jumping mouse is usually slightly larger than the male ( 2 ) .\nhow often does reproduction occur ? woodland jumping mice breed once or twice in one season ( may through september ) .\nare also found on woodland jumping mice . internal parasites include protozoans , cestodes or tapeworms , and nematodes or roundworms .\nwestern jumping mice mate soon after they emerge from hibernation , usually in june . their gestation period is approximately 18 days and they give birth to 3 to 9 young . a newborn weighs about 1 gram . they can have 2 or 3 litters per year but will usually have only one litter . young born too late in the year do not acquire sufficient fat reserves to survive hibernation .\nusually tall grass along streams , with or without a brush or tree canopy . also dry grasslands in north - central mt . mesic forests with sparse understory herbage in western mt . from valley floors to timberline and alpine wet sedge meadows ( hoffmann and pattie 1968 ) .\nthe pacific jumping mouse is common within its range . population densities vary greatly , from three individuals per hectare in dry grassy areas , to 40 per hectare in mesic meadows where forbs are more abundant than grasses ( cranford 1999 , in wilson and reeder , 2005 ) .\norrock , j . l . , farley , d . and pagels , j . f . ( 2003 ) does fungus consumption by the woodland jumping mouse vary with habitat type or the abundance of other small mammals ? canadian journal of zoology , 81 : 753 - 756 .\nfrench ar , forand s . role of soil temperature in timing of emergence from hibernation in the jumping mouse , zapus hudsonius . in : heldmaier g , kligenspor m , editors . life in the cold : eleventh international hibernation symposium ; berlin . 2000 . pp . 111\u2013118 .\nwoodland jumping mice eat fungi and help to disperse mycorrhizal fungi . mycorrhizal fungi are very important to the ecosystem because they provide trees with nutrients . they also break down detritus . woodland jumping mice are often found with other small mammals , such as\na highly specialized granivore , eating mainly grass seeds , and hibernating for up to 8 mo each yr . the need for an abundant seed supply probably explains the restricted ecological distribution and patchy abundance . despite the name , a jumping mouse generally moves about on all 4 feet . predators include foxes , coyotes , mustelids , house cats , owls , hawks , snakes , and some fish . jumping mice are good swimmers .\nmeaney ca , ruggles ak , lubow bc , clippinger nw . abundance , survival , and hibernation of preblei\u2019s meadow jumping mice (\nthe only species in its genus ( 2 ) ( 3 ) , the woodland jumping mouse ( napaeozapus insignis ) is a small rodent with long hind feet and a distinctly long tail , which makes up more than half of its total length ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) . using the hind limbs for propulsion and the tail for balance , the woodland jumping mouse is able to make large leaps of up to three metres at a time ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) , although it more commonly moves with shorter hops ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nthe diet of the woodland jumping mouse includes a variety of fungi , seeds , caterpillars , beetles , nuts , fruits and other plant material ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) ( 8 ) . fungi often make up over a third of the diet ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 8 ) , with underground species such as those in the genus endogone being particularly important ( 2 ) ( 5 ) ( 8 ) ( 9 ) . the association of the woodland jumping mouse with cool , moist habitats may partly relate to the availability of this food source ( 7 ) .\n1994 . meadow jumping mice habitat affinities and capture success in two trap types at bosque de apache national wildlife refuge . 86 pp .\nin fact , the crew did not catch a single preble\u2019s mouse along a 1 - mile stretch of the creek where , on average , 44 mice had appeared in previous surveys .\nyet development pressures mount \u2014 to widen interstate 25 through mouse habitat between castle rock and colorado springs , to build new housing and to install more big - box stores . and , in washington , d . c . , and in pro - industry law offices , attorneys argued last week that it makes no sense to give so much power to a mouse .\nprevious mouse surveys found scores of the mice along front range streams , including an estimated 77 along rock creek in the late 1990s . but , increasingly , preble\u2019s mice aren\u2019t found .\nbrown , l . n . 1967b . seasonal activity patterns and breeding of the western jumping mouse ( zapus princeps ) in wyoming . am . midl . nat . 78 : 460 - 470 . godin , a . j . 1977 . wild mammals of new england . johns hopkins univ . press , baltimore , md . 304pp . hall , e . r . 1981 . the mammals of north america . second ed . 2 vols . john wiley and sons , new york . 1271pp . hall , e . r . , and k . r . kelson . 1959 . the mammals of north america . 2 vols . the ronald press , new york . 1162pp . krutzsch , p . h . 1954 . north american jumping mice ( genus zapus ) . univ . kans . nat . hist . publ . 7 : 349 - 372 . meyers , l . g . 1969 . home range and longevity in zapus princeps in colorado . am . midl . nat . 82 : 628 - 629 . stinson , n . , jr . 1981 . home range of the western jumping mouse , zapus princeps , in the colorado rocky mountains . great basin nat . 37 : 87 - 90 . vaughan , t . a . , and w . pease - weil . 1980 . the importance of arthropods in the diet of zapus princeps in a subalpine habitat . j . mammal . 61 : 122 - 124 .\n\u201cdevelopment has proceeded along the front range , \u201d he said . \u201cin areas where development could affect the mouse , we have worked with developers and other project proponents to avoid and minimize their potential impacts on the mouse , other listed species , and other natural resources \u2014 and , if necessary , pursue incidental - take permits under the esa so that projects proceed . \u201d\nthe woodland jumping mouse is most active at night , although it may also be active at dawn and dusk , especially in cloudy or rainy weather ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 6 ) . this species has a long hibernation , usually lasting from september or october until april or may . during the autumn , the woodland jumping mouse starts to accumulate extra body fat in preparation for hibernation , and will sometimes increase to one and a half times its spring weight ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 6 ) . no extra food is eaten over the winter months , so any individuals without sufficient fat reserves do not survive ( 1 ) . in the spring , male woodland jumping mice emerge a couple of weeks before the females ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 10 ) .\n: the meadow jumping mouse occurs in the eastern third of kansas where it inhabits abandoned fields or grassy meadows associated with shrubs or trees , generally in moist situations . it uses trails made by voles , but , like harvest mice , prefers to live independently of trail systems . its distribution in the state is localized and variable .\nsaving the mouse requires continued work by all to preserve and protect streamside habitat , which also helps many other species and people who rely on streams for water and recreation , federal wildlife officials say .\nbreeding season mating occurs immediately after woodland jumping mice emerge from hibernation in early may . mating may also occur in mid - summer ( second litter ) .\nwoodland jumping mice eat a variety of foods , including fruits , seeds , fungi , and insects . in many areas , these mice depend on the fungus\nthe jumping mouse can have up to 3 litters a year starting directly after the snowmelt in the spring . each litter has 3 - 9 young that weigh less than a gram each . owls , weasels , foxes , and skunks all like to eat this furry rodent . habitat destruction alongside rivers and streams is the main threat faced by these important mammals .\nthe colorado association of home builders , colorado cattlemen\u2019s association , and housing and building association of colorado springs recently petitioned the federal government demanding that the protection granted in 1998 for the preble\u2019s mouse be removed .\nthe preble\u2019s mouse counts can be slow . trappers lay out metal boxes at night , baited with molasses - covered oats or alfalfa . they put them in thick willows , then check them at dawn .\n. woodland jumping mice can climb within bushes and on vines but are not arboreal . lastly , they can swim underwater and on the surface for short distances .\na fish and wildlife service review in 2013 concluded that human development and other activities fragmented and changed preble\u2019s mouse habitat , that the mice are likely to face extinction \u201cwithin the foreseeable future , \u201d and that they require continued protection .\npercent of records by month for the new mexico meadow jumping mouse ( zapus hudsonius luteus ) based on museum specimens from low elevation valleys and montane populations . percent of records by month for bosque del apache national wildlife refuge ( valley , rio grande population ) is based on field data reported by najera ( 1994 ) and sr najera , pj zwank , & m cardenas ( 1994 , unpublished data ) .\nlittle is known about how woodland jumping mice benefit humans . the disperal of mycorrhizal fungi by these animals benefits many species of trees , some of which may be economically important .\nthe preble\u2019s mouse , found only on colorado\u2019s front range , \u201cis a case in point , \u201d schiff said . \u201cyou have a significant amount of time and resources being expended over a population that doesn\u2019t merit that degree of attention . \u201d\nthe newborn woodland jumping mice are naked and blind and weigh just 0 . 9 grams . the young are fully furred by 24 days old and open their eyes at 26 days ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . weaning takes place by about 34 days old ( 3 ) . neither the male nor female woodland jumping mouse breed until after their first hibernation ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 10 ) . this species may live up to three or four years , but most individuals probably do not survive beyond one or two years ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) .\n: the meadow jumping mouse has a nervous disposition and , when disturbed , will immediately jump through the grass in erratic leaps using its tail as a balance . it is a good climber , frequently ascending stalks of plants while foraging . it is also a good swimmer . an oval nest ( 100 to 150 m ) is made of grass , rootlets and other plant fibers , and is placed either underground , under logs , on the surface of the ground , or sometimes a few millimeters above ground in hummocks of grass . the meadow jumping mouse is essentially solitary , and is rarely found in groups . in early autumn after accumulating fat , it retreats to a subterranean nest which is placed below the frost line and , after losing the tunnel , curls up in its nest with its tail wrapped around it and spends the next six or seven months in hibernation .\nthompson , richard w . , western resource dev . corp . , boulder , co . , 1996 , wildlife baseline report for the montana [ montanore ] project , lincoln and sanders counties , montana . in application for a hard rock operating permit and proposed plan of operation , montanore project , lincoln and sanders counties , montana . vol . 5 . stroiazzo , john . noranda minerals corp . , libby , mt . revised september 1996 .\nthe tiny mouse with a huge vertical leap \u2014 officially designated threatened , meaning vulnerable to extinction \u2014 has for two decades forced developers and cattlemen to take better care of streamside habitat along colorado\u2019s front range , one of the nation\u2019s fastest - growing regions .\nas its common name suggests , the woodland jumping mouse is found primarily in wooded habitats . it prefers relatively cool , moist areas with dense vegetation , particularly in spruce - fir and hemlock - hardwood forests ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) . this species is often found along streams or around bogs or swamps ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .\nin the northern portion of this species ' range , woodland jumping mice are 12 % larger in body size than they are in the south . northern and eastern populations tend to be more yellowish and southern populations are reddish - orange . northwestern populations have pale colored sides and dark backs . these distinctions in appearance and geographic differences helped whitaker ( 1972 ) to identify five subspecies of woodland jumping mice .\nthan other habitats . these rodents prefer forested areas with dense woody undergrowth . throughout their range , woodland jumping mice are found in spruce - fir and hemlock - hardwoods . they are also found at forest edges when these provide sufficient cover ( shrubs , ferns , grasses , rocks ) and access to water . woodland jumping mice occur from sea level to elevation of 2013 m in the appalachian highlands .\nsurveyors running 200 traps a night all week saw nothing of the mouse\u2019s famed leaps and midair twisting to evade predators . and this habitat is as good and undisturbed as it gets , because rocky flats was closed off as the site of a cold war nuclear bomb factory .\nwestern jumping mice have yellow sides with a dark band down the middle of their back . their belly is usually white , but can sometimes have a yellow tinge . the body length including the tail is 215 - 260 mm . they have a long tail ( 126 - 160 mm ) that is darker on the top than the bottom . males and females are similar in size and characteristics . weight ranges from 18 to 24 grams , but can reach up to 35 grams before they enter hibernation . the hind feet are very large with each foot measuring 28 - 34 mm and they can hop up to 2 m . each upper tooth row has 4 molariform teeth with the first reduced in size .\npopulations of pacific jumping mice appear secure , however , potential threats to long term viability exist . as with similar species , populations of pacific jumping mice are often greatly reduced by wildfires and prescribed burns , which are becoming increasingly common throughout its range . because of its reliance on mesic , montane habitats , this species may also be threatened by climate change . but overall there are no major threats to the species at present .\nnormally , woodland jumping mice use a four - legged walk when moving around . however , when speed is needed they resort to a four - legged hopping locomotion . a hop normally covers 0 . 6 to 0 . 9 m , but can be as long as 1 . 8 m and as high as 0 . 6 m . jumping mice travel along trails created by other small mammals , but not nearly as regularly as do\ni am grateful to greg wright for his assistance and the many insightful discussions we have had about jumping mice . i thank scott wait of colorado parks and wildlife and jennifer l . zahratka for providing information about jumping mice at sambrito creek . i thank christina kenny for assistance creating the histograms . i thank fs dobson , an anonymous reviewer , and the academic editor , d kramer , for constructive suggestions that greatly improved the paper .\nthe endangered species act requires landowners to at least consult with federal officials before disturbing mouse habitat and to obtain permits for projects where harm can be minimized through careful planning . over two decades , hansen said , this process has resulted in higher - quality development along colorado\u2019s front range that saves streamside terrain .\nalthough not specifically reported for this species , there is undoubtedly tactile communication between mates , as well as between mother and offspring . it is also likely that , as in other small rodents , chemical signals pass between individuals helping to identify individuals , sexes , and the reproductive condition of any particular mouse .\nthe woodland jumping mouse occurs in the north - eastern united states and south - eastern canada . in canada , it has been recorded from southern labrador , south through quebec , and east through southern and central ontario , as far as manitoba . its range extends south through the north - eastern united states , along the appalachian mountains and as far south as northern georgia ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) . it is also found in northern michigan and northern wisconsin ( 1 ) ( 5 ) .\nmales come out of hibernation about 2 weeks before females , and mating occurs as soon as the females emerge . mating can also place again in mid - to late - summer , in which case it produces a second litter . there is not much information available on the mating system of woodland jumping mice . in captivity , females sometimes injure the ears and tails of males who pursue them for mating . however , captive woodland jumping mice are generally passive with each other , even while breeding .\nreproductive data for female meadow jumping mice ( zapus hudsonius luteus ) that were field - evaluated to be pregnant at bosque del apache national wildlife refuge , socorro county , new mexico , 2009\u20132010 ( wright , 2012 ; frey & wright , 2012 ) .\nrelationship between the temperature equivalent ( c\u00b0 ) of a location and the earliest known date for emergence of the new mexico meadow jumping mouse ( zapus hudsonius luteus ) from hibernation . temperature equivalents are relative to a hypothetical location with approximate average conditions for new mexico : 34\u00b0 n latitude , 1 , 981 m elevation , and mean annual temperature of 12 . 2 \u00b0c . solid dots and regression line are based on dates of earliest capture during field studies ; stars are earliest dates of representative museum specimens . julian dates range from 1 may ( 121 ) to 3 july ( 184 ) .\nage of new mexico meadow jumping mice ( zapus hudsonius luteus ) by month captured in the middle rio grande valley at bosque del apache national wildlife refuge , socorro county , new mexico . the number of known pregnant females is indicated with a \u201cp\u201d in parentheses .\nthis small rodent builds a globular nest of dry grass and leaves , usually in an underground burrow , in a hollow log or fallen tree , or in a pile of brush ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . burrows may be dug by the mouse itself , or taken over from another small animal . the entrance is concealed during the day ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . the breeding season of the woodland jumping mouse runs from may to early september , although births usually peak in june and august ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) . the gestation period is about 21 to 29 days ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 5 ) , and litter size ranges from 2 to 7 ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . females sometimes have two litters a year , particularly in more southerly populations ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) .\nthey jump to evade predators from coyotes to owls , fish and wildlife service biologist craig hansen said . \u201ci\u2019ve seen prodigious leaps , from a foot up to 5 feet . they crouch in vegetation and wait for predators to get close . it is a shock - and - awe defense . it surprises predators . then the mouse jumps away . \u201d\nit would take years before the mouse could vanish , because 34 , 935 acres of \u201ccritical habitat\u201d along streams in colorado ensure survival is likely . and wildlife researchers say it is difficult to prove a species has gone extinct . if that happened , the endangered species act protections legally could be removed . few species have been removed from the endangered list due to extinction .\nwoodland jumping mice are found throughout northeastern north america , from central manitoba to northern quebec and south into the lower appalachian mountains ( northern georgia ) . in michigan , these mice may be found in the upper peninsula and in the northern three tiers of counties in the lower peninsula .\n: the meadow jumping mouse is a graceful , colorful mammal that can be distinguished from other kansas rodents by : 1 ) long tapering tail , bicolored grayish - brown above and yellowish - white below with a black tip , 2 ) large hind feet , 3 ) small front feet , 4 ) long , coarse , yellowish - brown fur on the upper body with black - tipped guard hairs that form a dark dorsal stripe , 5 ) yellowish - orange to pinkish - buff sides , 6 ) white underparts , and 7 ) dark ears edged with buff or white . sexes are alike . young are duller in color than adults and have softer fur .\n= 9 ) of jumping mice caught in may were male . the earliest capture date for a valley specimen outside the middle rio grande valley were two females caught 24 june at espanola , rio arriba county , new mexico ( 36 . 0\u00b0n latitude , 1 , 700 m elevation ) .\nwoodland jumping mice are normally active at night , but may be active during the day , especially on cloudy or rainy days . these animals seek shelter in burrows they dig for themselves , burrows of other small mammals , or under shrubs . during the day , woodland jumping mice cover the entrance to their burrows . a tunnel may be 1 . 5 m in length . a globular nest is built in a small tunnel , in brush , or on the ground . the nest is made of grass and dead leaves , and can be as large as 154 mm in diameter .\nwoodland jumping mice are found in a wide variety of habitats in michigan . these include old growth dry and wet hardwoods , second growth hardwoods , mixed conifer swamp , tamarack and black spruce bog , second - growth fir and spruce , and in grassy areas with second - growth ash cover .\nalong the rio grande and the lowest elevation location ( i . e . , highest temperature equivalent ) where the species is currently known to persist . field studies at banwr have revealed a sharp reduction in detectable above - ground activity of jumping mice during late summer . in 1991 and 1992 ,\ndevelop more slowly than other rodents . it is possible that they need extra time for the growth and coordination of their very specialized jumping limbs . litters contain from 1 to 7 young , and pregnancy lasts from 23 to 29 days . at birth , young are blind , naked , unpigmented , and weigh about 1 g . by the age of 10 days , young woodland jumping mice have pigment spots beneath the skin all over the body . their bodies are covered with fine hair by day 14 . young jumping mice are fully furred by 24 days and their eyes open by 26 days . by day 34 , the young are weaned and they have the appearance of adults , except they are smaller and their sides are yellowish brown ( adults have orange - brown sides ) . juveniles lose their yellowish fur when they molt , at about 63 to 80 days after birth . most adults go through their yearly molt in august .\nwoodland jumping mice hibernate for at least six months of the year . they spend september / october until may in a subterranean burrow . young do not enter hibernation until late october , about one month after adults begin hibernation . body fat is quickly accumulated several weeks before entering hibernation . an adult that weighs 20 g in the summer may gain up to 10 g to in preparation to hibernate . while hibernating , woodland jumping mice curl up in a ball in their underground nests and enter a torpor where their normal body temperature of 37 c drops considerably . finally , up to 35 % of their weight is lost during hibernation .\nis not found in any other small mammal . these mice were also found to have eaten raspberries , may apples , blueberries , ferns , leaves , and nuts . insects are another important part of the diet of these mice , providing about 22 % of their food . woodland jumping mice do not cache food .\n) . at fenton lake , morrison ( 1987 , unpublished data ) caught 5 jumping mice in october that previously had been captured with the last caught on 3 october after which trapping ended . thus , there could have been later dates of activity . morrison ( 1987 , unpublished data ) thought that most adults had entered hibernation by mid - september and that later occurrences were young of the year . however , in the white mountains near greer , i caught five jumping mice on 12 september , which included four young of the year weighing < 20 g , and one adult female that weighed 34 g that was imminently ready for hibernation .\nnot much is known about the communication in woodland jumping mice . in captivity , individuals are very tolerant of each other and show few signs of aggression . individuals are normally silent ; however young mice are constantly squeaking and making suckling sounds shortly after being born . adults utter a soft clucking sound while sleeping or just before hibernation .\n) caught jumping mice through september and until 22 october , although all were considered young of the year in these months except an adult female ( 24 . 0 g ) on 12 september and an adult male that weighed 32 . 0 g on 27 september and 35 . 0 g on 1 october , and was imminently ready for immergence ("]}
{"id": 2146, "summary": [{"text": "mister majestic ( 2 february 1984 \u2013 after 1999 ) was an irish-bred british-trained thoroughbred racehorse and sire .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "he was a specialist sprinter who showed his best form as a two-year-old in 1986 .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "after winning four minor races in the early part of the year he returned in the autumn to record a 33/1 upset win in the group one middle park stakes .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in the following year he won two races , including the leisure stakes , from seven starts before being retired from racing .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he stood as a breeding stallion in ireland and italy but had little success as a sire of winners . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "mister majestic ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["street spice , valiant city , lahshad , mister marti gras , fordubai ) .\najdal broke from the gates fastest of all and was immediately joined by gayanne in the centre , rich charlie and mister majestic on the far rails . mister majestic went on and gave ajdal a nice lead for a couple of furlongs but by the 3 furlong marker the furious early pace was beginning to take its toll and gayanne went on from ajdal .\ncongratulations to mack weaver and maggie gun ( owned by madison bohman ) . maggie gun ( by gunner x lookout majestic by majestic dell ) was the youth reserve world champion .\nfiona course and\nmister majestic\ntook out supreme senior led . later in the day fiona saddled up to claim the reserve champion ridden hack and take out the champion senior rider\neagle , majestic affair , cat burglar , departing , top billing , natchez , noble bird ) .\nmajestic prince was the third horse to win the kentucky derby while unbeaten , following regret ( 1915 ) and morvich ( 1922 ) . he was the first horse to win both the derby and the preakness while unbeaten .\nin this respect , the report of the council inspector is inaccurate . i traded from 1974 to 1989 as abbeville stud and many successful racehorses were bred on the property , including mister majestic , a newmarket group 1 winner .\nmr majestic , derek morton and geoff glazzard\u0092s popular dutch - bred stallion , was put down last week following an accident .\ndescribed him as \u201ca grand mover\u201d with \u201ca charming disposition\u201d ; writer jim bolus described him as \u201cplayful\u201d with a majestic presence .\nhis early purchases included the group one two - year - old winners creag an sgor and mister majestic , both of whom won the middle park stakes at newmarket . this success continued with the creation in 1992 of highclere thoroughbred racing limited of which john is a director .\nmajestic prince was the fifth winning derby mount for jockey william hartack , tying eddie arcaro ' s record for derby wins during a riding career .\njohnson began his career as an owner on the flat , winning the middle park stakes at newmarket in 1986 with mister majestic . but his passion was for jump racing , and his first horse to be trained by martin pipe at pond house , nicholashayne in somerset , was beebob in 1991 . at his peak , johnson owned or had an interest in 100 horses .\nearlier , albert the great\u2019s moonshine mullin , offlee wild\u2019s bayern , and the late rockport harbor\u2019s majestic harbor all received automatic bids to the breeders\u2019 cup classic .\nread the full story below , courtesy of the american quarter horse journal . urltoken\nmajestic prince was bred by leslie combs ii & frank mcmahon ( ky ) . he was owned by frank mcmahon , who effectively bought out combs ' share when purchasing the colt for a then - record us $ 250 , 000 at the 1967 keeneland july yearling sale . majestic prince was trained by johnny longden . following his retirement , majestic prince was syndicated for us $ 60 , 000 per share and entered stud in kentucky at spendthrift farm , where he died of a heart attack in 1981 .\naccording to jockey club records , majestic prince sired 187 winners ( 51 . 7 % ) and 32 stakes winners ( 8 . 8 % ) from 362 named foals ;\ncongratulations also to jerry for his stallions\u2019 success at the futurity . both dun gotta gun and mister nicadual ( both standing at mcquay stables ) had finalists in the futurity ! great job to trey pool who tied for fourth with jerry\u2019s stallion , check this dually ( mister nicadual x footworks yellow jac ) in the level 1 open ! trey also placed seventh in the level 1 with nicastar lite ( mister nicadual x dun it on a star ) , taking home over $ 28 , 000 collectively ! way to go !\nwe\u2019d also like to congratulate trey pool and my daddy is dually ( mister nicadual x dun it on a star ) , owned by jerry kimmel , placing 12th in the l1 , 16th in the l2 , and 26th in the l3 open futurity and adding over $ 7 , 000 to their lte , as well as mister nicadual\u2019s sire record .\nfrench bow , by loup sauvage . unraced . half - sister to mister bow , ripplette ( dam of magic music ) . dam of 4 named foals , none raced .\nmister booze ( 11g , buck ' s pride , maizcay ) . 8 wins - 2 at 2 - to 1350m to 2016 - 17 , brc rawgroup hospitality 2yo h .\n* statistics courtesy of robin glenn database , national reining horse association , and show websites .\ntwo weeks after that , majestic harbor , a son of late sire rockport harbor , took the grade 1 gold cup at santa anita ( formerly the hollywood gold cup ) . rockport harbor was , like offlee wild , a darley - owned horse standing at pin oak lane .\nmister nicadual sired 1st and 3rd place in the youth non pro futurity , and dun gotta gun sired 2nd place . congratulations to these great stallions , and to owner , jerry kimmel !\nand third dam of grade ii winner real cozzy . majestic prince is also a half brother to multiple stakes winner lovely gypsy ( by armageddon ) ; to stakes - placed betty loraine ( by\ni have this strange thing that i remember every horse i have bought fairly intimately . motivator was sold from the wall boxes at tattersalls . if you are looking at a horse you have to be on the same level as the horse and , to give the horse the best chance , people need to see it walk on the level . the wall boxes are all on a slope .\ncarlee mccutcheon enjoyed showing her horse , dun it got lucky , in the youth horsemanship clinic & class .\na chestnut , majestic prince stood 16 . 1 hands . he was considered an extremely handsome and well - made horse , beautifully balanced with a look of great quality , but a bit heavy - bodied for his underpinning and with suspicious - looking ankles . he possessed excellent tactical speed and was thoroughly game . charles hatton of the\njoin horse deals and derek ' o leary for all the action from the ev amateur hack championships at werribee .\nan exceptionally handsome colt , majestic prince was one of the few auction sales toppers to live up to both his looks and his price . lightly raced at 2 , the unbeaten colt won hard - fought victories over eventual horse of the year arts and letters in the kentucky derby and preakness stakes . he went into the belmont stakes with a chance to sweep the triple crown but against the advice of trainer john longden , who felt that the prince was tired and had lost too much weight after the previous two races . longden ' s fears proved well founded as majestic prince\ni ' d be a fool to continue buying expensive yearlings . i must spend r100 000 or more to buy a quality horse - and the breeder who sold it to me can import an even better one for less money and come and beat me . it just does not make sense . i might as well buy the imported horse myself . for a good imported horse is superior to a good local horse . nobody can argue with that .\nof course , that in itself isn\u2019t enough . the horse also has to have demonstrated the ability to get a runner .\ntalented filly may just be putting it all together right on time for her connections . her elimination win was dynamic . her maternal line includes the talented majestic son , so it comes as no surprise that she has that kind of ability . a major win contender .\nthe royal ascot racing club came into being towards the end of 1997 and was the brainchild of harry herbert who manages its horse .\nmajestic prince ' s victory in the 1969 kentucky derby made john longden the only person to both ride and train a kentucky derby winner . he had previously won the derby as the jockey of 1943 triple crown winner count fleet . longden ' s unique accomplishment was ranked # 51 in horse racing ' s top 100 moments , a review of racing in the 20th century compiled by the blood - horse and released in 2006 . the prince also made longden the first and only person to both ride and train winners of the preakness stakes .\nyou won ' t find a middle distance class horse that is built the same as a fast run and jump sprinting type . the muscle formation on a later maturing horse is completely different - it is a bit like looking at linford christie and a kenyan marathon runner .\ncongratulations to mandy mccutcheon and dun git a nicadual , owned by mcquay stables , and by the great mister nicadual : champions in the john deere non pro futurity ! mandy also placed third with coronas in hollywood , also owned by tim and colleen mcquay . way to go , mandy !\nmajestic prince is outcrossed through five generations . he is a full brother to 1971 english champion 2 - year - old male crowned prince ; to stakes - placed our queen , second dam of grade iii winner casino magistrate ; to caronatta , dam of restricted stakes winner rally run ( by\nanyone following british horse racing during the 1980s cannot fail to fondly recall a host of exciting 3 year old winners of the july cup at newmarket .\nthe ability of a horse is present from birth , as a result of genetic fusion . horses either have it , or they don ' t . there may be lots of reasons that prevent a horse from showing its natural ability , but given a sound horse and a capable trainer there is every reason to believe that the innate ability will come out on the track . assessing that ability and expressing it in a figure is done through handicapping .\nsurprisingly , few people in racing appear to put emphasis on determining the most suitable distance for a horse . we have yet to see a breeders yearling advertisement where the distance for which the horse is bred is mentioned . trainers generally try a horse over a variety of distances , to find out what suits bets - with at least a third of all races in south africa run at a false pace that can be a trying task at times .\nserved notice as a very fast horse at dover last year . he is yet to beat a field like this and has always excelled in delaware , but he is a horse with a lot of ability that can force the issue here . curious to see him on the mile track , too .\nboth tim and colleen were quick to thank former owners , robert thompson and lisa coulter . tim said , \u201cwe appreciate the opportunity to own this horse . \u201d\ncongratulations to jeanna schaffhauser and her horse , dunitwithasmokingun ( gunner x dun it doll ) , who tied for 14th in the l3 non pro futurity and placed 8th in the l2 , adding over $ 300 to her lifetime earnings and giving \u201cdomingo\u201d his first show earnings ! congratulations also to our other non pro futurity money winners , cade mccutcheon and dually with a star ( mister nicadual x dun it on a star ) , owned by tom mccutcheon , placing 9th in the l2 and 7th in l1 . cade was also champion in the youth 13 & under with his horse , dun it got lucky ( hollywood dun it x my lucky moonstone ) .\nmcquay stables , located in tioga , texas , is a leader in the reining horse industry . home to the late hollywood dun it , it now features a roster of top stallions that includes nrha hall of fame inductee gunner , dun gotta gun , mister nicadual , smart and shiney , and hollywoodstinseltown . tim mcquay is also an nrha hall of famer and nrha $ 2 million rider , and colleen mcquay has served the industry as an nrha board member and executive committee for many years .\nthe prowess of his sire was a given , and his dam is an own daughter of mr melody jac , the horse tim rode to win the 1988 national reining horse association futurity . \u201cmr melody jac was very good to me and i love the hollywood jac 86 bloodlines so this pedigree also works for what i like .\nlyle lovett also visited , and had a great time showing his horses in the non pro futurity , limited non pro , and novice horse non pro 1 and 2 . congratulations to lyle and his horse , master pepto , for placing fifth in both the novice horse level 1 and 2 ! lyle and his mares , fifth avenue dun it and mistress with a gun , also had a great time showing in this class , as did his gelding , sns uvalde king , who he showed in the non pro futurity . sam shaffhauser also placed six with master pepto in the novice horse open level 1 ! way to go , lyle and sam !\n\u201cnot only is tim mcquay one of the horse world\u2019s best athletes , but he exemplifies a superb level of horsemanship both in and out of the ring , \u201d said becky minard , founder and president of smartpak equine . \u201ctim has revolutionized the world of reining by introducing an unprecedented level of training and care for the horse , and we are thrilled to be part of his horse care program . busy professionals like tim can really benefit from the convenience and time savings that smartpaks provide . \u201d\nwhen offlee wild came to pin oak lane , solomon said he had an inkling something big could happen . \u201che\u2019s a physical horse that\u2019s pretty impressive , \u201d he said .\nplease keep me up to date with special offers and news from horse & hound and other brands operated by ti media limited via email . you can unsubscribe at any time .\ni was excited by montjeu ' s offspring because i was associated with the horse and still am now . i was involved with john hammond through montjeu ' s career .\nhis runners have amassed more than $ 1 million and include 2015 stakes performers my dream boat , winner of the prix perth - g3 in france ; great dancer ( ire ) , third in the hill prince stakes - g3 at belmont park ; and mister brightside ( ire ) , second in santa anita\u2019s twilight derby - g2 in his only u . s . start .\n* * please note : all photo ' s , results and video ' s on this website are copyright to horse deals magazine . any reproduction without written permission is prohibited . * *\nit has all worked itself out for the royal ascot racing club . i buy for different people and you never know where the next very good horse is going to come from .\nmister bow ( kenvain ) . 3 wins - 2 at 2 - to 1500m , a $ 88 , 288 , ajc fc griffiths 2yo h . , stc gjc moore h . , 2d mvrc grosby kids s . , l , 3d stc peter pan s . , gr . 2 , vatc new gleam h . , ajc cellnet mobil 2yo h . , vatc veneda h .\nyet the horse hardest to beat in any race is a front runner . the explanation for this is in itself quite simple . take a sprinter , capable of running 1000m in 57 seconds . given the opportunity to pace himself correctly , a horse like this will reproduce the 57 seconds with regularity . given a strong build and a short back , weight will have virtually no influence on his performance - whether with 52 or 58 kilos , the time will be the same . if such a horse gets to the front at the beginning of a race , any other horse that races off the pace will have to cover the distance in a faster time to beat the front runner . but if 57 seconds is about as fast as any horse can run ( depending on the track where it races ) , it becomes a mechanical impossibility to come from behind : horses simply cannot run faster than their bodies allow them to , however well they may be off at the weights .\n\u201cas you go back a bit , this isn\u2019t the first good horse [ offlee wild ] has had , \u201d he pointed out . among the others are eclipse champion juvenile filly she be wild .\nmotivator was the perfect example of that sort of horse who might not have been the most obvious to pick out at the sales but john ' s eye could see where the animal was headed .\ndon\u2019t forget jockey martin garcia , who picked up the mount from the injured gary stevens . \u201ci knew i was on a really good horse , \u201d he said after the race . but this good ?\nmoonshine mullin earned a 101 beyer and a trip to the breeders\u2019 cup classic for the effort . he is the first horse to gain automatic entry as part of the \u201cwin and you\u2019re in\u201d challenge series .\nsmartpak equine was founded by riders and horse owners who ride and show dressage , hunter / jumper , polo , eventing , reining , western pleasure and have logged many miles trail riding . in addition to the smartpak supplement system , the company offers a broad line of horse health and rider items , dog supplies , and equine and canine pharmacy items sold through the company\u2019s catalog , web site and retail store .\nwarren ' s buying record is a good one . his group one winners have included creag - an - sgor ( middle park - 20 , 000 guineas ) , mister majestic ( middle park - 26 , 000 irish guineas ) , park express ( champion stakes - 42 , 000 guineas ) , lake coniston ( july cup - 22 , 000 guineas ) , cloudings ( prix lupin - 100 , 000 guineas ) , tamarisk ( stanley leisure sprint cup - 78 , 000 guineas ) , housemaster ( hong kong champions & chater cup - 70 , 000 guineas ) , petrushka ( 110 , 000 irish guineas ) , arctic owl ( irish st leger - 10 , 000 guineas ) , leadership ( premio di milano 350 , 000 irish guineas ) , tiber ( hong kong classic - 150 , 000 irish guineas ) and now motivator .\nso motivator would have been in most people ' s eyes a horse who was going to take time and , if he didn ' t gain his strength and didn ' t develop the right way , be a slowish middle distance horse . i took the view that he used himself beautifully - a fantastic athlete - you could not hear him when he walked as his feet never seemed to touch the ground .\nthe horse he beat three starts back went in the hambletonian earlier . his last two starts have not been as sharp and he is yet to excel against stakes company . siding with others in this spot .\n) , dam of stakes winner minstrel grey ( by tudor grey ) and second dam of grade iii winner with a twist ; and to my guest ( by mister gus ) , dam of grade iii winner native guest ( by raise a native ) and stakes winners raise your sights ( by raise a native ) and memorable mitch ( by mehmet ) . in addition , gay hostess is a half sister to dancing hostess ( by\ni took him up to near the main ring where there is a nice flat piece of land . i walked him up and down there two or three times and he was a horse who excited me .\ncongratulations to mandy mccutcheon and dun git a nicadual , owned by mcquay stables , champions in the non pro futurity at the 2011 scottsdale classic ! we are so proud of dun git a nicadual for his success in scottsdale , especially after his success in tulsa ( john deere non pro futurity champion ) . he is by mister nicadual , owned by jerry kimmel , and out of gotta git ya dun . way to go , mandy ! !\ni am lucky to be given orders to buy horses like motivator . what is exciting is to be able to buy a horse that has provided 230 people with plenty of pleasure - it is so rewarding .\ntim and the reiners enjoyed their time in tulsa at the ariat tulsa reining classic , held at expo square august 24 - september 2 . we were joined by friends and family , and had a successful horse show !\nthese sort of performances are a handicappers nightmare . the winning horse will be penalised and repeat the performance next time out , with little difference in the relative outcome . or the pace may be too fast or too slow the time after and the frontrunning horse gets beaten out of sight . from the point of gauging ability , horses that win races from the front in good time are extremely hard to evaluate , except perhaps for distance suitability .\nother high - earning gunner offspring from 2012 include # 1 money - earning horse nrha open futurity champion , americasnextgunmodel ( out of cee dun it do it and raised by silva reining horses ) earning $ 192 , 320 , and # 5 money - earning horse , tinker with guns ( out of tinker nic ) earning $ 110 , 427 . gunner sired a total of 204 foals in 2012 with average offspring earnings of $ 7 , 383 .\n\u201che\u2019s a speightstown group 1 winner , \u201d said solomon . \u201cand he was a very fast horse . plus he has an outstanding pedigree for both the grass and the dirt . i think he\u2019ll be a great fit . \u201d\none f the more intriguing aspects of bloodstock selection is the prediction of a horse ' s best distance . there can be little doubt that there are many distinct distance categories ( we count at least 8 between distances from 1000 to 2000m ) - logically , the more often a horse races over his best distance , the better his chances of showing his best form . that apart from the vital task of adjusting the training programme to his best distance .\nbrancaster was the club ' s first successful horse and he won the group three horris hill stakes at newbury and the following year ran in two classics , finishing fourth in the 2000 guineas before coming 10th in the vodafone derby .\nchased a very sharp horse last time who raced in the open to start the card . he has speed and it would be fitting for the leading trainer / driver combination to win the season finale . he is an obvious threat .\ncolleen mcquay added , gunner was a sweet happy horse , and when i look at all he has given us i can only be grateful for the time we shared with him . losing him leaves another hole in our hearts .\nbut how good is fools holme ? nothing in any of his previous 8 races ( 7 of which he had won ) made him anywhere near as good as he showed here . the horse had a big reputation , not least because of what both millard and coetzee had publicly said about him when due to a hock injury the horse had to be withdrawn from the j & b met in january . significantly , though , when millard was asked in a televised interview round about the time of the rothmans july , when he regarded as the best horse he ever trained , the champion trainer mentioned three he did not wish to separate - and fools holme , we noted , was not one of them .\nin the ancilllary arena , lyle lovett showed sns uvalde king and two gun shiner to ribbons in the novice horse non pro classes , and carlee mccutcheon was crowned winner of the short stirrup 10 & under class both days aboard get juiced .\nso , losing any horse would be hard . but saying goodbye to a great one pushed the difficulty to another level when colonels smoking gun , known worldwide simply as\ngunner ,\nlost his battle with laminitis on july 8 . the national reining horse association ( nrha ) hall of fame inductee and $ 5 million sire was humanely put down after spending the last week at equine medical associates in pilot point , texas , under the constant care of dr . john mccarroll .\ngunner was a horse for the ages . when he made his center - stage debut at the nrha futurity in 1996 , the reining world fell in love with the diminutive sorrel with the floppy ears and white tail . after tying for the nrha futurity open reserve title as a 3 - year - old , he went on win the us equestrian team reining championship in 2001 . he was immortalized as a breyer horse and finished his career with earnings over $ 177 , 000 .\nanother winner was rose colored gunner , a 6 - year - old mare by gunner and out of alicia rose by topsail whiz . owner isabell silvertolpe rode her to the apha freestyle reining sweepstakes at the american paint horse association world championship show .\nwfa can best be defined as the physical progress a horse makes as it matures . just in the same way as zola budd , under conditions of continuous training , improves her strength of bone and muscle as she matures . the difference is of course that the thoroughbred is uniquely precocious in terms of maturity rate : by the age of 18 - 24 months the horse will have 95 % of its mature height and weight , and by the age of four full maturity will have been reached .\ntim showed the flashy dun stallion in the 1986 national reining horse association futurity and won the 1987 nrha derby open championship . when he discovered \u201cdun it\u2019s , \u201d owners cliff and gwen steif , were selling the horse , tim wanted to buy him , but the price of $ 100 , 000 was a little steep . however , his wife , colleen , convinced him they couldn\u2019t let this opportunity slip away , and with a little creative financing , the mcquays became dun it\u2019s owners in 1987 .\nin a letter to an bord pleanala appealing the refusal , ms haughey , who runs a thriving horse stud business in the curragh where she now lives , says she wants to move back to her home area to be near her parents and siblings .\nhis connections appear convinced , however , that sea captain will be best up the straight . his track record to date does not bear that out - a horse that fails to run on in sprints either is outclassed or in need of more ground .\ncongratulations to our other non pro classic finalists , lyle lovett and mistress with a gun ( gunner x shiners mistress ) , tied for twelfth and owned by lyle , and to lexie stovel and last pop star ( smart starbuck x mm jiffy pop ) , owned by lexie ! we\u2019re glad our non pros had a great time horse showing ! thank you so much to jerry kimmel for sponsoring the dun gotta gun & mister nicadual usef reception friday evening ! we had a great time ! saturday marked the start of the open classic finals . congratulations to our finalists , tim and show your guns ( gunner x good time showgirl ) , owned by ken stovel , and sam schaffhauser and master pepto ( peptoboonsmal x shiney missy ) , owned by lyle lovett ! tim and sam are very thankful to ken and lyle for letting them show these very nice horses ! also on saturday was the usef youth qualifier , where lexie stovel was champion with her horse solano glo rey ct ( \u201cjesse\u201d ) . congratulations , lexie !\nhe was , for me , nearly the best horse i have ever known . although i had seen mill reef and other great horses perform , being close to montjeu , i could not believe what the horse was doing . he was winning derbys with his head in his chest and king georges in hack canters - it was unbelievable and we always felt that if we threw caution to the wind that we could have brought him back in distance and won a group one over a mile very easily .\ncongratulations to cade mccutcheon and dually with a star ( mister nicadual x dun it on a star ) , owned by tom & mandy mccutcheon , youth non pro futurity champions ! cade also tied for 12th on dually with a star in the l4 non pro futurity . the duo placed 6th in the l3 and took the reserve championship in the l2 and l1 non pro futurity , taking home over $ 36 , 000 . cade also took 5th place in the l1 non pro futurity on dun it dually ( mister nicadual x indy star dun it ) , owned by mcquay stables , as well as placed 3rd in the youth non pro futurity on dun it dually , and tied for 8th with vaquero in a benz , owned by tom & mandy . breaking nrha records as the youngest rider to make the l4 np finals ( at age 12 , cade broke his mother\u2019s record , who was 13 at her first finals ) , cade finished his friday finals day with earning a little over $ 40 , 000 and a pretty big smile on his face !\nhis recent form has certainly been solid . he has won two of his last four starts and beat a nice horse last time in murmur hanover . another that is versatile , but appears to really relish the front - end . should be in the mix .\nolympic fei discipline . finding inspiration in his wife , mandy mccutcheon , tom has made history yet again for himself and gunners special nite , owned by sarah willeman . this wonderful horse is by gunner , and was actually raised and started here at mcquay stables .\ncoming off a win in this year\u2019s all american quarter horse congress futurity gunnatrashya ( gunner x natrashya ) and shawn flarida marked a 228 . 5 to take the level 4 open futurity championship and the $ 125 , 000 purse for owner arcese quarter horses usa .\nin general , an evaluation of the time of a race doesn ' t necessarily tell you how good a horse is ; what it does show is how bad he isn ' t . but a\ngood\ntime certainly indicates a good horse - and that ' s important especially with youngsters . going only by form , you would only get quick insight if your runner beats what you perceive to be a strong field . otherwise it ' ll have to run at least a few races to give an idea , and even then you may not spot the exceptional animal . with time on your side , and the luck of a true run race , you could hit the jackpot very early on in the horse ' s career , even if all he beats is a field of newcomers .\na candidate for horse of the year again based on what she has done . we all know she loves this track , winning the hambletonian oaks , moni maker and breeders crown here . deserving short - priced favorite will be a popular single in the pick 4 .\nhe really couldn\u2019t have finished any better last time and that race produced a next out winner in calvin b . the top three finishers in that race would be odds - on favorites and this horse came home in 26 - flat . i like him in this spot .\nunderstanding that to keep top level reining horses healthy and performing their best requires a sound nutritional program , smartpak is committed to offering supplements that provide targeted solutions to help offer additional support or to manage a particular problem . and their very own smartsupplement line of products includes over 40 cutting edge supplement formulas at a savings of up to 40 % ingredient for ingredient when compared to similar products . the mcquay philosophy puts the horse first \u2013 and is a total program to attain a long - term career for a reining horse , making it a great fit with smartpak . with a worldwide clientele , mcquay travels stateside and abroad where he presents reining clinics and consults with horse owners and professionals . his training program for professionals and non pros is one for the ages \u2013 and one that many other pros admittedly have copied .\nmandy also had a very successful futurity , placing top five on all three of her horses ! mandy and justa smart star were reserve champions in the non pro level 4 futurity , mandy and starbucks deja vu tied for third , as well as mandy and dun git a nicadual , owned by mcquay stables , tying for fifth . she walked out with over $ 60 , 000 ! dun git a nicadual is by mister nicadual , owned by jerry kimmel , and out of gotta git ya dun , owned by monica hicks . great job , mandy ! !\nhe was a $ 61 , 000 purchase at the sale here last week . he has always been a horse with a lot of speed and talent . the downside has been inconsistency . he qualified well , but will certainly have to improve on his last pair of starts .\nactual time recorded by a horse conveys in itself practically nothing . the early pace , the track , the weather - they are elementary components in the evaluation of a race . to assess the real value of time requires quantifying the seemingly imponderable factors , and compensating for their effects .\nhe was an odds - on favorite last week and worked out a perfect second over trip . but , not only could he not get by the winner , he failed to reach the horse who provided his cover . likely favorite again could prove an underlay . needs his absolute best .\nat mcquay stables in tioga , texas , the focus has long been on exceptional performance \u2013 both human and equine . but people close to owners tim and colleen mcquay know that underlying all the awards and accolades the couple ' s real focus has always been the love of the horse .\nyou might even throw in those who wagered on the dark bay or brown colt , who took home a tidy $ 11 . 40 for each $ 2 win wager \u2014 not bad money on a horse whose trainer has now won half of the last 14 runnings of monmouth\u2019s biggest race .\nmy dream boat , four - year - old son of lord shanakill , won the 1 . 25 mile g3 bet365 gordon richards stakes by 1 . 25 lengths today at sandown defeating the favorite , last year\u2019s winner western hymn ridden by frankie dettori . carrying a 3 lb . penalty to the field for winning a race at this level at saint - cloud in november , my dream boat squeezed through a gap in the final furlong . a g3 winner in france his last time out , my dream boat has won four of his last five starts . he is trained by clive cox : \u201cit\u2019s a thrill to have a horse on such an upward curve and he\u2019s a great horse to be involved with . \u201d his impressed jockey , adam kirby said , \u201che\u2019s a very nice horse , but if he keeps improving the way he is , the sky could be the limit . \u201d\nhe has chased j l cruze in his last four starts and he got a little bit closer each time . he is also coming out of back to back world record performances . the post won\u2019t help his cause , but this horse has been very sharp against the best trotter in the country .\nthere are many examples of this theory . sea shore , quite clearly not in the same class as sunera , came within a hair ' s breath of beating sunera over the sharp kenilworth 1000 . heavenly boy , the barbican and military song , all somewhat behind the best have won many races that way . over slightly more ground , rise and rule is an extremely hard horse to beat over a sharp 1400m . but it takes a horse of above average ability , good going and a sharp track ( such as greyville or the kenilworth old course with its short run - in ) to achieve it .\nhe has come a long way in a very short period of time . just two months ago he was racing for $ 3 , 000 at plainridge and here he is , a contender in a $ 40 , 000 open on hambletonian day . a very sharp horse gets a huge test for class today .\nlexie stovel enjoyed her visit to oklahoma city as well , showing her two horses , two cee command and solano glo rey ct , in the limited non pro , novice horse non pro , and youth classes . we had a great time cheering lexie on , alongside the stovels ! good job , lexie !\nin march of 2012 , hollywood dun it will be inducted into the american quarter horse association hall of fame , along with bob loomis , gordon hannagan , walter fletcher , indigo illusion , and streakin la jolla . we are so proud and excited for this amazing honor , and also congratulate his fellow inductees .\nsmartpak equine was founded in 1999 with the purpose of simplifying the administration of nutritional supplements and medications to horses . the patented smartpak\u2122 supplement feeding system has been adopted by thousands of barns and horse owners across the country , who value knowing that their supplements will be fed correctly . the smartpak system has been embraced by riders from all disciplines and all levels , including seven olympic medalists . in addition to the smartpak supplement system , the company offers a broad line of horse health and rider items , dog supplies , and equine and canine pharmacy items sold through the company\u2019s catalog and web site . smartpak was recently named to\nhe had slightly gone in his coat . but he walked very well and had a terrific head - there was something very taking about him . john saw him and the first thing he said to me was goodness , this horse is going to change out of all recognition in the next few months ' .\nfirst , my parents , who have given me every opportunity to ride the best horses they could get their hands on . there are two things i can always hear when i\u2019m in the arena ; the faint whistle of my mom and the reassuring voice of my dad as i lope past . there have been a few horses that they provided that taught me just how humbling showing can be , but i learned to accept defeat and to remember there will always be another horse show . my parents have amazing horse sense and have instilled in me the appreciation of a great horse . throughout my life they have been there to support me at every turn i chose to take , without judgement - maybe not without an opinion about how it should be done - but with total support in helping me achieve my goals . mom and dad , i only hope i can be as good a parent to my kids as you have been to me .\ni am always prepared to spend more if i think the horse has the ability to be a middle distance classic prospect - like petrushka and highest - and if i ever feel they will stay a mile and a quarter or a mile and half and be proper horses i will throw the dice and spend more .\ni liked motivator very much . it is a bit like looking at a girl - you either like them or you don ' t . being a nice horse , i had to take him away from the wall boxes which is always a bit of a performance - most people look at horses where they are .\nmcquay\u2019s introduction to team smartpak comes on the heels of smartpak\u2019s new \u201cwhat the pro\u2019s use\u201d campaign , giving horse owners a glimpse into what\u2019s involved in taking care of some of the nation\u2019s top equine athletes . via their website , facebook and print advertisements smartpak shares interviews from top riders across multiple disciplines discussing how they use supplements to keep their horses performing their best , what some of their favorite equine products are , and why they choose smartpak for their horse\u2019s health care needs . whether it be the peace of mind they get from knowing their supplements will be fed correctly , the ease of traveling , retaining the potency of their supplements or the top notch customer service , every rider has their own reasons for using the leading daily dose supplement provider . horse owners also have the opportunity to learn more about the everyday lives of these top riders including what riding superstitions they have , what they like to do in their free time , and even what they like to eat .\nas tim is so impressed with yellow jersey as a reiner , the obvious question is whether or not his career in the arena is over . tim said , \u201cwe hope to make breeding the priority , but i do think there\u2019s a lot of show horse left if we did decide to show him in international competition . \u201d\nwell , we can argue , and we will . this quote from a disgruntled major cape owner appeared in the cape times on november 12th 1985 , shortly after sunera had registered her third win in the cape . we have enough experience and evidence to show that an imported horse with a reasonable timeform rating will , if sound and fit , produce that same timeform rating will , if sound and fit , produce that same timeform rating in this country , just as any horse with at least some ability will run up to form wherever it races . spanish pool , foveros , breezing in and others did exactly that . but to win major races in south africa it is necessary to import a horse with a timeform rating of certainly over 110 . such horses do not exactly grow on trees , and if they can be bought at all , it will be at a price . and with the rand sunk to desperate depths , it takes a brave soul indeed to take that plunge .\n\u201cit\u2019s gratification for me to be taking a son of dun it to the world equestrian games , \u201d tim said . \u201cit makes you feel so proud of dun it and i\u2019m so proud of the horse i\u2019ll be showing too . he\u2019s another superstar , i think , but we\u2019ll just have to see what his babies ride like . \u201d\nmoulton then , by 2400m hors epardao out of miler close up , could either have been a miler or a 2400m horse . since he won from 1800 to 2200m in the best company , he must have stayed 2400m , even though never tried . on this side of hot touch pedigree our either / or theory fits a neat pattern .\nroland gardens has made his mark at stud in south africa . wild west , runner - up in the july at 3 , won the met as a 4yo . enchanted garden , voted\nhorse of the year\nlast season has been extensively discussed in the august 1986 columns of this magazine . honey bear is his third major winner .\nthe reiners recently returned from katy , tx and had a great time at the national reining breeders classic , held at the great southwest equestrian center . good times were had with friends and family during our stay at the horse show ! special thanks to sean brown , pauline \u201ccookie\u201d cook , and the great southwest equestrian center for once again making the nrbc such a special event ! also thank you to mike christian and his team , including colleen\u2019s nephew chad vanderlinde ( who comes to help us each year after completing several months of the wellington horse shows ) , and cheryl cody with the promanagement team ; along with our great team of officials , this group produces a show like no other !\nto be in the company of people who have made such a huge impact on the reining horse industry is truly an honor . i hope i can continue to help our sport grow . it means so much to me to join my father and all the great horsemen in the nrha hall of fame . i will remember this night forever . \u201d\nthen it comes down to continually going through the horses time and time again to eliminate conformation that i don ' t particularly like until i have got a fine - tuned list of horses i am interested in - the pedigree would then dictate the price but the physical specimen should be the same for a 50 , 000 guineas and a 150 , 000 guineas horse .\ngun dealer , a 2002 stallion by gunner and out of peppy oak , is featured in this month\u2019s nrha reiner magazine as the 2010 nrha limited open world champion . gun dealer is owned by tim and lisa stanton from pickering , ontario , canada , and ridden by lisa stanton at the all - american quarter horse congress . click the link below to read the article !\nimpeccable pedigree as he is a full - brother to shake it cerry , last year\u2019s trotter of the year . he was 2nd in the peter haughton last year and if you toss out his most recent effort , his form looks awfully imposing . unsure why he threw in a clunker at vernon , but not every horse races well up there and he is a bounce - back candidate .\nnow we would obviously struggle to buy a montjeu because they would not be in our price range any more . john knew everything there was to know about montjeu - he looks after madame boulay ' s interests and , therefore , along with coolmore , he managed the horse . he was keen that we looked closely at the montjeus and we were very fortunate to come up with motivator .\nsold as the top priced horse in june ' 85 ( r58 000 ) , sea captain made his debut in june 1986 , when just 3 years old , over the rather stiff clairwood 100m . despite losing 2 lengths at the start , he raced handy and drew clear at the 200m to win as he liked . he started 2 / 1 second favourite and earned a rating of 76 .\nthe most exciting time in racing in south africa is from december to march . that ' s when the new crop of juveniles is best assessed - all youngsters run on ability only , the distance is of virtually no importance ( they all race from 800 - 1000m , 1200m at most ) , nor is fitness a prime consideration as long as the horse has shown it is ready to run .\nthough on a tight schedule performing , lyle lovett joined us on the weekend and won the limited non pro which had over 80 entries , on his horse , sns uvalde king . congratulations lyle and to one of our ariat team members , collene burnell , who tied for second in the same class on her mare , white n shiney pearl ! both of these horses are by smart and shiney ."]}
{"id": 2169, "summary": [{"text": "coregonus albula , known as the vendace or as the european cisco , is a species of freshwater whitefish in the family salmonidae .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is found in lakes in northern europe , especially finland , sweden , russia and estonia , and in some lakes of norway , the united kingdom , northern germany and poland .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is also found in diluted brackish water in the gulfs of finland and bothnia , both of which are in the baltic sea .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the length of an adult is normally about 20 cm ( 8 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the maximum age is about ten years .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the vendace is traditionally the most important target of freshwater fisheries in parts of fennoscandia and russia .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "vendace roe is considered a delicacy , which has been granted a pdo status in the swedish bothnian bay archipelago ( kalix l\u00f6jrom ) . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "coregonus albula", "paragraphs": ["semen biology of vendace ( coregonus albula l . ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nbiological and morphological characteristics of vendace , coregonus albula l . from lakes drawsko and pe\u0142cz\nviet\u0113jo eiropas rep\u0161a ( coregonus albula ( l . ) ) popul\u0101ciju morfologiskais raksturojums da\u017eos latvijas . . .\ncombined assessment of genetic variability of coregonus albula ( l . ) populations in latvia based on a . . .\nage , growth and condition of vendace coregonus albula ( l . ) from lakes morzyczko and pe\u00a3cz ( nw poland )\nestimation of genetic variability in populations of vendace ( coregonus albula ( l . ) ) in latvian lakes . . .\njennifer hammock split the classifications by inventaire national du patrimoine naturel from coregonus albula ( linnaeus , 1758 ) to their own page .\nkatja schulz marked the finnish common name\nmixikk\u00fa maiva\nfrom\ncoregonus albula ( linnaeus , 1758 )\nas untrusted .\nselected biological characteristics of the catch - available part of population of vendace , coregonus albula ( l . ) from lake miedwie , poland\nfuller p ; nico l , 2012 . coregonus albula . usgs nonindigenous aquatic species database . gainesville , fl , usa : usgs . urltoken\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - vendace ( coregonus albula )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - vendace ( coregonus albula )\ntitle =\narkive species - vendace ( coregonus albula )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nkottelat m ; freyhof j , 2008 . coregonus albula . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . gland , switzerland : iucn . urltoken\nreshetnikov ys , 2003 . coregonus albula . in : atlas of russian freshwater fishes , volume 1 , 1 . moscow , russia : nauka , 135 - 137 .\ntargeted fishing of c . albula may be difficult , but possible , especially on the spawning grounds .\npollan ( coregonus autumnalis ) , another coregonid fish , is only found in irish waters .\nsemenov d , 2011 . data on the morphology and ecology of vendace coregonus albula ( salmoniformes , coregonidae ) from the kuybyshev reservoir . journal of ichthyology , 51 ( 5 ) : 410 - 413 .\nvuorinen j ; himberg mkj ; lankinen p , 1981 . genetic differentiation in coregonus albula ( l . ) ( salmonidae ) populations in finland . hereditas , 94 ( 1 ) : 113 - 121 .\ngillraker development in juvenile polymorphic european whitefish ( coregonus lavaretus l . ) in lake femund , norway\nauvinen h , 1988 . distribution and food of vendace ( coregonus albula ( l . ) ) larvae in lake pyhaejaervi ( karelia , se finland ) . finnish fisheries research , 9 : 107 - 115 .\nliso s ; gjelland k\u00f8 ; reshetnikov ys ; amundsen pa , 2011 . a planktivorous specialist turns rapacious : piscivory in invading vendace coregonus albula . journal of fish biology , 78 ( 1 ) : 332 - 337 . urltoken\nmorphological divergence and origin of sympatric populations of european whitefish ( coregonus lavaretus l . ) in lake femund , norway\ngill raker counting for approximating the ratio of river - and sea - spawning whitefish , coregonus lava . . .\ncoregonus lavaretus isolate 5 haplotype a3 cytochrome b ( cytb ) and nadh dehydrogenase subunit 3 ( nd3 . . .\nn\u00e6sje tf ; sandlund ot ; jonsson b , 1986 . habitat use and growth of age - 0 whitefish , coregonus lavaretus , and cisco , c . albula . environmental biology of fishes , 15 ( 4 ) : 309 - 314 .\nmutenia a ; salonen e , 1992 . the vendace ( coregonus albula l . ) , a new species in the fish community and fisheries of lake inari . polish archives of hydrobiology , 39 ( 3 - 4 ) : 797 - 805 .\nvuorinen j ; n\u00e6sje tf ; sandlund ot , 1991 . genetic changes in a vendace coregonus albula ( l . ) population , 92 years after introduction . in : journal of fish biology , 39 ( supplement a ) . 193 - 201 .\nthere is confusion over whether or not the true coregonus albula was actually the one imported and stocked in this country . todd ( 1983 ) investigated the history of the early coregonus transfers and summarized much of the information . he was informed by one german contact that the fish imported to the united states from hatcheries on the bodensee / lake constance ( such as the 1885 shipment and possibly others ) were more likely c . wartmanni . kendall ( 1914 ) used the name leucichthys albula for this species .\ngordeeva nv ; kholod on ; dvoryankin ga ; sendek ds ; sterligova op , 2009 . on the origin of solovetskaya vendace coregonus albula and of the syamozero smelt osmerus eperlanus . journal of ichthyology , 49 ( 1 ) : 23 - 31 . urltoken\namundsen pa ; staldvik fj ; reshetnikov ys ; kashulin n ; lukin a ; b\u00f8hn t ; sandlund ot ; popova oa , 1999 . invasion of vendace coregonus albula in a subarctic watercourse . biological conservation , 88 ( 3 ) : 405 - 413 .\nsandlund ot ; jonsson b ; n\u00e6sje tf ; aass p , 1991 . year - class fluctuations in vendace , coregonus albula ( linnaeus ) : who ' s got the upper hand in intraspecific competition ? journal of fish biology , 38 : 873 - 885 .\nwheeler ( 1969 ) ; ladiges and vogt ( 1986 ) . the taxonomy and systematics of coregonus is particularly problematic . some of the confusion is the result of the many early introductions and transplants of the various species and populations within europe and elsewhere ( e . g . , leviton 1996 ) . furthermore , the reportedly frequent hybridization between related coregonus species also has contributed to the taxonomic confusion . many ichthyologists ( e . g . , berg 1948 ) have historically recognized only a few widespread , polytypic species of coregonus ( including c . albula ) across europe . recently , kottelat and freyhof ( 2007 ) recognized 59 species of coregonus .\nczerniejewski p ; wawrzyniak w , 2006 . management of vendace ( coregonus albula ( l . ) ) in the lakes of northwest poland in the late twentieth and early twenty - first centuries . archives of polish fisheries , 14 ( 1 ) : 105 - 121 .\nb\u00f8hn t ; amundsen pa , 1998 . effects of invading vendace ( coregonus albula l . ) on species composition and body size in two zooplankton communities of the pasvik river system , northern norway . journal of plankton research , 20 ( 2 ) : 243 - 256 .\ntable 1 . states with nonindigenous occurrences , the earliest and latest observations in each state , and the tally and names of hucs with observations\u2020 . names and dates are hyperlinked to their relevant specimen records . the list of references for all nonindigenous occurrences of coregonus albula are found here .\nbaltic sea migration patterns of anadromous , coregonus lavaretus ( l . ) s . str . and sea - spawning europe . . .\nscientific synonyms and common names coregonus albula linnaeus , 1758 synonyms : salmo albula linnaeus , 1758 , syst . nat . , ed . x : 310 ( ' habitat in europa ' ) . coregonus albula var delta finnica g\u00fcnther , 1866 , cat . fish . , 6 : 193 ( gulf of finland ) . coregonus albula : smitt , 1895 , 2 ( partly ) : 893 , pl . xlii ( fig . 2 ) ( col . ) ehrenbaum , 1936 : 37 , fig . 17 alm , in andersson et al . , 1942 , 2 : 639 , pl . 125 ( col . ) berg , 1948 , 1 : 317 , fig . 180 - 181 wheeler , 1969 : 149 , fig . 66 . common names : coregone blanc [ fr ] europeiskaja riapushka [ ru ] helting [ da ] lakesild [ no ] mar\u00e4ne [ de ] mixikk\u00fa maiva [ su ] ryapushka [ ru ] sielawa [ pl ] sikl\u00f6ja [ sv ] smaasild [ sv ] vendace [ en ]\nvuorinen pj ; kein\u00e4nen m ; peuranen s ; tigerstedt c , 2003 . reproduction , blood and plasma parameters and gill histology of vendace ( coregonus albula l . ) in long - term exposure to acidity and aluminum . ecotoxicology and environmental safety , 54 ( 3 ) : 255 - 276 .\navailable data do not allow to distinguish c . albula as a whole from c . sardinella and c . vandesius . a very high variability is reported for all morphological characters between the many populations referred to c . albula , suggesting that several species might be involved . further studies are needed to resolve their identity .\nwinfield , i . j . , fletcher , j . m . and james , j . b . ( 2004 ) conservation ecology of the vendace ( coregonus albula ) in bassenthwaite lake and derwent water , u . k . annales zoologici fennici , 41 : 155 - 164 . available at : urltoken\nwinfield , i . j . , fletcher , j . m . and james , j . b . ( 2004 ) conservation ecology of the vendace ( coregonus albula ) in bassenthwaite lake and derwent water , u . k . annales zoologici fennici , 41 : 155 - 164 . available at : urltoken\nteleost fishes of the coregonidae are good model systems for studying postglacial evolution , adaptive radiation and ecological speciation . of particular interest is whether the repeated occurrence of sympatric species pairs results from in - situ divergence from a single lineage or from multiple invasions of one or more different lineages . here , we analysed the genetic structure of baltic ciscoes ( coregonus albula complex ) , examining 271 individuals from 8 lakes in northern germany using 1244 polymorphic aflp loci . six lakes had only one population of c . albula while the remaining two lakes had c . albula as well as a sympatric species ( c . lucinensis or c . fontanae ) .\ncomparative analysis of complete mitochondrial genomes suggests that relaxed purifying selection is driving high nonsynonymous evolutionary rate of the nadh2 gene in whitefish ( coregonus ssp . )\nthe effect of stocking size on the first winter survival of whitefish , coregonus lavaretus ( l . ) , in the gulf of bothnia , baltic sea\npam fuller , and leo nico , 2018 , coregonus albula ( linnaeus , 1758 ) : u . s . geological survey , nonindigenous aquatic species database , gainesville , fl , urltoken revision date : 2 / 29 / 2012 , peer review date : 4 / 1 / 2016 , access date : 7 / 9 / 2018\nsarvala j ; rahasilta m ; hangelin c ; hirvonen a ; kiiskila m ; saarikari v , 1988 . spring abundance , growth and food of 0 + vendace ( coregonus albula l . ) and whitefish ( c . lavaretus l . ) in lake pyh\u00e4j\u00e4rvi , sw finland . finnish fisheries research , 9 : 221 - 233 .\nb\u00f8hn t ; amundsen pa , 2004 . invasion - mediated changes in the population biology of a dimorphic whitefish coregonus lavaretus population . annales zoologici fennici , 41 : 125 - 136 .\nthe vendace ( coregonus albula l . ) inhabits several latvian lakes . in latvia this species is included into the list of specially protected species with limited use . taking into consideration the high variability of vendace and the fact that it belongs to valuable and marketable fish , there arises a scientific interest to reveal possible reasons influencing its variability . there is no precise . . . [ show full abstract ]\n. . . ako coregonus lavaretus lavaretus ( martyniak et al . , 2004 ) . o tomto probl\u00e9me sa zmie\u0148oval u\u017e v druhej polovici minul\u00e9ho storo\u010dia aj sw\u00e4rdson ( 1956 sw\u00e4rdson ( , 1979 ) a nesk\u00f4r aj himberg & lehtonen ( 1995 ) . pr\u00e1ve sw\u00e4rdson popisuje druh coregonus lavaretus a ostan\u00e9 pop\u00edsan\u00e9 druhy a poddruhy ozna\u010duje ako mlad\u0161ie synonym\u00e1 tohto plastick\u00e9ho a adaptabiln\u00e9ho druhu . . . .\nwhile the population genetic data alone can not unambiguously uncover the mode of speciation , our data indicate that multiple lineages may be responsible for the complex patterns typically observed in coregonus . relative differences within and among lakes raises the possibility that multiple lineages may be present in northern germany , thus understanding the postglacial evolution and speciation in the c . albula complex requires a large - scale phylogenetic analysis of several potential founder lineages .\nvendace ( c . albula ) is a salmonid fish with native distribution in northern parts of europe . it is an obligate planktivore with characteristics typical for pelagic fish ; a protruded lower jaw and a slender bo . . .\nvendace ( coregonus albula ( l . ) ) is found in several latvian lakes and is included in a list of specially protected species with restricted use in latvia . however , a lack of basic data on the biology and population status of these populations hinders the sustainable use of this fish and national efforts to manage its populations . the rapd technique was used to evaluate genetic diversity among . . . [ show full abstract ]\n. . . the value of the commercial catch of whitefish from the baltic sea was about 2 million euros in 2005 , and the catch totalled 765 000 kilos . according to the present view , all native scandinavian whitefishes belong to same species , coregonus lavaretus sensu lato ( nikolsky and reshetnikov 1970 ; reshetnikov 1980 ; himberg and lehtonen 1995 ) , rather than the five - species complex based on morphological variation previously proposed by sva\u00a8rdson ( 1957 , 1979 , 1998 ) , although very little genetic research has been carried out on this topic . the only other native coregonid species in finland is the vendace ( coregonus albula ) . . . .\nseveral shipments of eggs , originally identified as coming from coregonus albula , were imported from germany by the u . s . fish commission in the 1880s . the commission instructed c . g . atkins to hatch the eggs in captivity ; all or most of the surviving young were later released into the two maine lakes ( e . g . , smiley 1885 ) . intentionally stocked , this species was apparently seen as a potential food fish .\nn\u00fcsslin , 0 . 1908 . die larven der gattung coregonus , ihre beziehungen zur biologie , und ihre systematische bedeutung . verh . dr . zool . ges . : pp . 172 - 194 , 17 fig .\na great number of intra - specific forms of local populations of vendace ( coregonus albula ) are presumed to be a result of hybridisation between different incipient forms . morphological and genetic analysis for the study of vendace population of lake nirza in latvia was used . body length , weight and age in different male and female groups were used for morphological analysis . genetic polymorphism and genetic structure of the vendace population of lake nirza have been evaluated by electrophoresis based on the analysis of isoenzyme systems . four isoenzyme systems ( malic enzyme ( me ) , esterases ( est ) , peroxide dismutase ( sod ) , malate dehydrogenase ( mdh ) ) and non - specific protein were analysed . sixteen polymorphic loci were selected for genotype analysis . the genetic analysis of the vendace population from lake nirza showed that homozygotes dominate over heterozygotes . however , distribution of genotypes among different isoenzyme systems is different . the present study provides the first report on the application of isoenzyme markers for genetic investigations of coregonus albula populations in latvian lakes .\nvendace ( coregonus albula ( l . ) ) is a very plastic species of freshwater whitefish which is widespread in europe . but in latvia this species is included into the list of specially protected fish species with limited use . we examined cross - species amplification of 14 microsatellite loci ( cocl - lav22 , cocl - lav23 , cisco - 59 , cisco - 106 , cisco - 90 , cisco - 126 , cisco - 157 , cisco - 179 , cisco - 181 , cisco - 183 , . . . [ show full abstract ]\nkahilainen kk ; ostbye k ; harrod c ; shikano t ; malinen t ; merila j , 2011 . species introduction promotes hybridization and introgression in coregonus : is there sign of selection against hybrids ? molecular ecology , 20 ( 18 ) : 3838 - 3855 .\nthis vendace ( coregonus albula ) is one of the uk ' s rarest freshwater fish ( 2 ) ; it is a small , streamlined ( 2 ) and slim fish with a bluish green back ( 5 ) , a white belly ( 6 ) and silvery flanks ( 5 ) . the fins are grey in colour becoming darker towards the margins ( 6 ) . it has large eyes , a relatively small mouth and an adipose fin ( 5 ) . other common names for this species include ' whitefish ' and ' european cisco ' in england and ' fendas ' in welsh ( 7 ) .\netheridge ec ; adams ce ; bean cw ; durie nc ; gowans ard ; harrod c ; lyle aa ; maitland ps ; winfield ij , 2012 . are phenotypic traits useful for differentiating among a priori coregonus taxa ? journal of fish biology , 80 ( 2 ) : 387 - 407 .\nthe effects of hybridization and stocking on the commercially important coregonus can be quantified and accounted for , thus the group remains an excellent model for the study of speciation in sympatry . despite having used more than 1200 marker loci in a study of 10 populations , our data failed to provide conclusive evidence for whether spring - spawning coregonus stem from parallel sympatric speciation . parallel trends in niche differentiation and phenotypic differentiation are evident in both lakes with sympatric populations , but neutral genetic differentiation suggests allopatric speciation and introgression on secondary contact . it is clear that population genetic criteria alone cannot resolve the mechanisms of speciation , and that our analysis benefited from a large spatial scale of sampling . examination of relative differences within and among lakes has raised the possibility that multiple lineages may be present in northern germany . as a result , phylogenetic analysis and sampling of additional lakes from potential source populations from a broad geographic range is required for an unequivocal identification of the evolutionary mechanisms and phylogeography which have led to the ecological and genetic diversity found in the c . albula complex .\nthe objective of this study was to describe the morphometry and motility parameters of vendace ( coregonus albula ) spermatozoa . morphometric parameters of vendace sperm head and tail were of values similar to rainbow trout . the effects of ph , sodium , potassium and calcium ion concentrations on computer - assisted sperm analysis ( casa ) sperm motility characteristics were tested . vendace sperm was motile in a wide ph range of 6 . 0\u201310 . 5 with the optimum ph established at 9 . 0 . increases in potassium and calcium ions caused decreases in the percentage of motile sperm . the casa parameters and erratic sperm movement pattern of vendace spermatozoa were similar to whitefish ( c . lavaretus ) sperm motility , suggesting that there is a coregonid - specific sperm motility pattern .\nthe objective of this study was to describe the morphometry and motility parameters of vendace ( coregonus albula ) spermatozoa . morphometric parameters of vendace sperm head and tail were of values similar to rainbow trout . the effects of ph , sodium , potassium and calcium ion concentrations on computer - assisted sperm analysis ( casa ) sperm motility characteristics were tested . vendace sperm was motile in a wide ph range of 6 . 0 - 10 . 5 with the optimum ph established at 9 . 0 . increases in potassium and calcium ions caused decreases in the percentage of motile sperm . the casa parameters and erratic sperm movement pattern of vendace spermatozoa were similar to whitefish ( c . lavaretus ) sperm motility , suggesting that there is a coregonid - specific sperm motility pattern .\n. . . both lineages can exhibit dwarf - sized pelagic or larger sized benthic forms , however , when occurring in sympatry individuals belonging to the acadian lineage tend to have evolved towards the dwarf phenotype ( bernatchez & dodson , 1990 ; lu et al . , 2001 ) . also in europe several differentiated forms exist ( himberg & lehtonen , 1995 ; kottelat & freyhof , 2007 ; \u00f8stbye et al . , 2006 ; \u00f8stbye et al . , 2005 ) like the north sea houting ( abbreviated nsh ) ( coregonus oxyrhinchus ) , a recently diverged species or ecotype of the european lake whitefish ( abbreviated elw ) ( coregonus lavaretus ) ( hansen et al . , 2008 ; jacobsen et al . , 2012 ) . . . .\nvendace have been observed to reduce zooplankton diversity , resulting in smaller zooplankton species and smaller sizes of individual zooplankters ( b\u00f8hn and amundsen , 1998 ; amundsen et al . , 2009 ) . they have also led to large reductions in densities of native planktivorous coregonus lavaretus ( b\u00f8hn and amundsen , 2001 ; gjelland et al . , 2007 ; b\u00f8hn et al . , 2008 ) .\nbackground . the ability to distinguish between stocks in mixed fisheries is a prerequisite for a sustainable fisheries management . in the gulf of bothnia the relative contribution of endangered river - spawning and sea - spawning whitefish , coregonus lavaretus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , to fisheries catches are currently not well known . this also applies to the southern aland islands , a major feeding . . . [ show full abstract ]\nbiology and management of coregonid fishes , 19 august 1990 , quebec , canada : eds . t . n . todd and m . luczynski , polski archiwum hydrobiologii , issn 0032 - 3764 ; 39 ( 1992 ) 3 - 4 , 463 - 472 anadromous european whitefish , coregonus lavaretus ( l . ) , spawn in several rivers along the coasts of the baltic sea . damming and pollution have weakened or totally destroyed many populations . european whitefish . . . [ show full abstract ]\nvendace ( c . albula ) is a salmonid fish with native distribution in northern parts of europe . it is an obligate planktivore with characteristics typical for pelagic fish ; a protruded lower jaw and a slender body with black , silvery and white dorsal , lateral , and ventral sides , respectively . another typical pelagic character of vendace is diel vertical migration behaviour . it has an opportunistic life history with many small eggs , high mortality rates , and a relatively short generation time . it is highly specialized , and considered the most specialized zooplanktivorous fish species in the scandinavian freshwater fish fauna by sv\u00e4rdson ( 1976 ) .\n. . . the european whitefish species complex ( coregonus lavaretus l . ) illustrates the full range of problems associated with the interpretation of morphological diversity . here , the traditional species designations suggested that numerous whitefish species inhabit european waters ( linnaeus , 1758 ; steinmann , 1950a steinmann , , b , 1951 sv\u00e4 rdson , 1957 sv\u00e4 rdson , , 1998 berg , 1962 ; resethnikov , 1968 ; himberg & lehtonen , 1995 ; kottelat , 1997 ) . however , the phenotypic species classification poses two fundamental problems ( see felsenstein & sober , 1986 ; humphries & parenti , 1999 ) . . . .\narch . hydrobiol . spec . issues advanc . limnol . , vol . 46 , nr . july , 39 - 47 the scientific nomenclature in the systematic literature of coregonid fishes from northwest europe is chaotic despite the application of exact and powerful modern methods in molecular biology and population genetics . altogether over one hundred species have been descriped . there are many parallel scientific names for the same whitefish populations and often old , wrongly used scientific names are still in use . recent advances in research have shown that the number of coregonid fish species in fennoscandia and western europe can be reduced to four species : coregonus lavaretus l . , c . autumnalis pollan thompson , c . albula l . and the introduced c . peled gmelin . the existence of ecologically or morphologically well distinguished sympatic whitefish populations and geographical subspecies motivates a subdivision . the most suitable system is the use of a binominal name followed by a third name descriping an ecological feature , and a fourth name naming the locality of the whitefish populations . the supplementary coding system , well developed , can be useful in fishery management , and it needs a solid background data . the purpose of our paper is to propose a nomenclature and taxonomy for north and west european coregonid fishes hereby provoking further discussion . int . symposium on biology and management of coregonid fishes\n. . . the european whitefish coregonus lavaretus ( l . ) is a salmonid widely distributed across the palearctic . the species exhibits great variation in morphology and ecological plasticity , which makes its taxonomy extremely difficult ( sv\u00e4rdson , 1979 ; reshetnikov , 1980 reshetnikov , , 1988 himberg & lehtonen , 1995 ) . virtually all coregonids inhabiting the coastal zone of the baltic sea belong to c . lavaretus sensu lato and include sympatric anadromous and sea - spawning forms ( himberg , 1970 ; lehtonen , 1981 ; amundsen , 1988 ; lehtonen & b\u00f6hling , 1988 ; himberg & lehtonen , 1995 ; s\u00e4is\u00e4 et al . , 2008 ) . . . .\n. . . though the use of marine habitats varies , nearly all salmonids spawn exclusively in fresh water , defined as b1 psu ( scott and crossman , 1973 ) , however , exceptions do occur . some european lake whitefish , coregonus lavaretus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , live entirely within the brackish waters of the baltic sea ( himberg and lehtonen , 1995 ) . pink salmon , oncorhynchus gorbuscha ( walbaum , 1792 ) , and chum salmon , oncorhynchus keta ( walbaum , 1792 ) , are known to spawn in the intertidal zone of prince william sound , alaska ( helle et al . , 1964 ; scott and crossman , 1973 ) demonstrating exclusive marine residency . . . .\n. . . coregonus is the most species - rich genus among the salmonid fishes and represents one of the well - known examples of adaptive radiation among fishes ( givnish , 1997 ; bernatchez , 2004 ) . due to high phenotypic diversity , the taxonomy of coregonid fishes has been rather controversial ( berg , 1962 ; sv\u20ac ardson , 1979 ; himberg & lehtonen , 1995 ; reshetnikov , 2004 ) . in european and north american post - glacial lakes , whitefish from the c . lavaretus / clupeaformis species complex frequently occurs in two or more ecotypes that have evolved in sympatry ( bernatchez , 2004 ; \u00f8stbye et al . , 2005a ; siwertsson et al . , 2010 ; kahilainen et al . , 2011 ) . . . .\n. . . the species exhibits great variation in morphology and ecological plasticity , which makes its taxonomy extremely difficult ( sv\u00e4rdson , 1979 ; reshetnikov , 1980 reshetnikov , , 1988 himberg & lehtonen , 1995 ) . virtually all coregonids inhabiting the coastal zone of the baltic sea belong to c . lavaretus sensu lato and include sympatric anadromous and sea - spawning forms ( himberg , 1970 ; lehtonen , 1981 ; amundsen , 1988 ; lehtonen & b\u00f6hling , 1988 ; himberg & lehtonen , 1995 ; s\u00e4is\u00e4 et al . , 2008 ) . coregonus lavaretus has been an important species for both commercial and recreational fisheries in the baltic sea , but during the last halfcentury the natural population has drastically declined , especially in estonian waters ( saloj\u00e4rvi et al . , 1985 ; ojaveer , 1999 ; s\u00f5rmus & turovski , 2003 ) . . . .\naflp demonstrated a significant population structure ( bayesian \u03b8 b = 0 . 22 ) . lower differentiation between allopatric ( \u03b8 b = 0 . 028 ) than sympatric ( 0 . 063 - 0 . 083 ) populations contradicts the hypothesis of a sympatric origin of taxa , and there was little evidence for stocking or ongoing hybridization . genome scans found only three loci that appeared to be under selection in both sympatric population pairs , suggesting a low probability of similar mechanisms of ecological segregation . however , removal of all non - neutral loci decreased the genetic distance between sympatric pairs , suggesting recent adaptive divergence at a few loci . sympatric pairs in the two lakes were genetically distinct from the six other c . albula populations , suggesting introgression from another lineage may have influenced these two lakes . this was supported by an analysis of isolation - by - distance , where the drift - gene flow equilibrium observed among allopatric populations was disrupted when the sympatric pairs were included .\nthe genetic analysis is made on the population of the european smelt osmerus eperlanus occasionally introduced to lake syamozero ( karelia ) and of the vendace coregous albula supposedly acclimatized in solovetskie islands as a result of fish cultural activities of the solovetskii monastery . they are compared with several natural populations\u2014possible donors for both introductions . genetic variation in a sample of smelt was estimated by means of restrictase analysis of mtdna ( fragment nd1 / nd2 ) in samples of vendace\u2014by means of allozyme analysis of six isoenzyme systems . the probable population for the syamozero smelt is the population of onega lake in spite of the previously noted greater morphological similarity of colonizers with the smelt of ladoga lake . a high level of genetic variation in the syamozero smelt in comparison with native populations indicates that , beside the introduction from onega lake , there were repeated introductions from neighboring water bodies . the genetic analysis of the solovetskaya vendace does not prove that the vendace appeared on islands due to acclimatization . frequencies of alleles of allozyme loci in the solovetskaya population significantly differ from frequencies in continental populations . still , it is compared with some populations of the arkhangelsk oblast . estimations of genetic diversity of the solovetskaya vendace turned out to be comparable with those in native populations .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\na widespread species with no known major widespread threats . identities of some lacustrine populations needs to be confirmed .\nbaltic basin , lakes of upper volga drainage ( seliger , vseluga , perejaslavskoe ) , some lakes of white sea basin and north sea basin east of elbe drainage . anadromous in gulf of finland and marine in northernmost freshened part of gulf of bothnia . north to about 69\u00b0n in lake inari , northern finland . frequently stocked in lakes and reservoirs in northern and central germany and poland .\nvery common . the species extended its range to the north through shipping canals and translocations .\nhabitat : lacustrine and marine in open water . at sea , forages close to coast . spawns along shores , at 3 - 10 m depth , rarely to 22 m depth or just below surface . spawns deeper in clear lakes and closer to surface in lakes with humic waters . biology : anadromous , marine and landlocked populations . spawns for the first time at 2 - 5 years ( 2 - 3 in lake onega ) , males usually earlier than females . spawns in october ( central finland ) , december ( northern germany ) at 6 - 7\u00b0c . anadromous populations start migrating to rivers in august ( neva ) . eggs hatch in march - april and juveniles migrate to sea in late summer of first year in anadromous populations . larvae pelagic close to water surface , usually close to shore . usually occurs in deep waters in daytime and moves to upper layers at night . feeds on zooplankton .\nwhen the 2010 assessment of this species was published in 2011 , a 2013 citation reference was accidentally attached to the account and hence the previous version of the assessment showed it as being published in 2013 when it should have been 2011 . the error is corrected here and is therefore given a 2016 citation date ; the 2011 reference that should have been used in the citation is under the references .\n( errata version published in 2016 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2011 : e . t5360a97801719 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngreek , kore = pupils of the eye + greek , gonia = angle ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; freshwater ; brackish ; benthopelagic ; anadromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 30 - ? m . temperate ; 71\u00b0n - 69\u00b0n , 2\u00b0w - 61\u00b0e\neurope : baltic basin , lakes of upper volga drainage ( seliger , vseluga , perejaslavskoe ) , some lakes of white sea basin and north sea basin east of elbe drainage . anadromous in gulf of finland and marine in northernmost freshened part of gulf of bothnia ; north to about 69\u00b0 n in lake inari , northern finland ; lower rhine ( now extirpated ) . frequently stocked in lakes and reservoirs in germany and poland . appendix iii of the bern convention ( protected fauna ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 48 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 556 ) ; common length : 20 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 556 ) ; max . published weight : 1 . 0 kg ( ref . 556 ) ; max . reported age : 10 years ( ref . 593 )\nlacustrine and marine in open water . at sea , forages close to coast ( ref . 59043 ) . forms pelagic schools in deeper lakes ( ref . 4779 ) . spawns along shores , at 3 - 10 m depth , rarely to 22 m depth or just below surface . spawns deeper in clear lakes and closer to surface in lakes with humic waters ( ref . 59043 ) . spawns on shallow sand or gravel substrate . anadromous in the baltic . feeds on planktonic crustaceans ( ref . 4779 ) .\nascend a short distance up the rivers in shoals in late august to mid - october . mature in the second year ( lacustrine forms later ) and the young ones descend in late summer ( ref . 4779 ) .\nsvetovidov , a . n . , 1984 . salmonidae . p . 373 - 385 . in p . j . p . whitehead , m . - l . bauchot , j . - c . hureau , j . nielsen and e . tortonese ( eds . ) fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean . unesco , paris . vol . 1 . ( ref . 4779 )\n) : 2 . 1 - 4 . 5 , mean 2 . 6 ( based on 38 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00468 ( 0 . 00387 - 0 . 00565 ) , b = 3 . 21 ( 3 . 17 - 3 . 25 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 1 \u00b10 . 17 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 0 . 3 - 0 . 7 ; tm = 2 ; tmax = 10 ; fec = 2 , 000 ) .\nprior r = 0 . 43 , 2 sd range = 0 . 17 - 1 . 06 , log ( r ) = - 0 . 84 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 45 , based on : 1 m , 6 k , 8 tgen , 1 tmax , 11 fec records\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 27 of 100 ) .\nappearance : a small , slim , streamlined fish most easily confused with bleak or with small whitefish or peled . unlike the bleak , the vendace is a member of the salmon family and thus has an adipose fin . distinguished from the whitefish and peled by its much longer lower jaw . in the whitefish the upper jaw is longer and in the peled the jaws are of equal length .\ncolouring : back dark bluish green or brownish , sides silvery and belly white .\nreproduction : spawns in october - november , sometimes in shallows sometimes in water up to 20 m deep , depending on the lake . some lakes have populations that spawn in early spring in deeper water than autumn - spawning vendace in the same lake . spawns at a young age , usually two years , sometimes in the autumn of its first year .\nfood : plankton , older fish also take surface insects and small fish fry .\ndistribution and habitat : originally a fish of the large lakes of se finland , vendace have been transplanted for purposes of commercial exploitation throughout finland with the exception of northernmost lapland , although populations have been established in lake inarinj\u00e4rvi and the river paatsjoki . does not tolerate brackish water well and in the sea is restricted to the eastern gulf of finland and the northernmost gulf of botnia . vendace move in shoals in open water , preferring deep , clear water . can tolerate more eutrophic waters provided oxygen levels are good .\nfacebook | contact information | terms of use and privacy policy | all rights reserved . \u00a9 copyright luontoportti / naturegate 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nin britain the vendace occurs only as non - migratory freshwater populations , but in the baltic it occurs as anadromous populations ( they spend most of their time in saltwater and migrate to freshwater to spawn ) ( 7 ) . the vendace feeds primarily on free - swimming organisms such as water fleas ( 6 ) and planktonic crustaceans ( 5 ) .\nspawning occurs in november and december ( 6 ) ; adults move to the edges of lakes , and females scatter the small two millimetre diameter yellow to orange eggs in gravely areas in still water ( 6 ) . the eggs are fertilised externally and develop slowly on the bottom of the lake ( 7 ) , hatching the following spring ( 2 ) . individuals are thought to live up to six years of age ( 2 ) .\nfound in north - west europe between the english lake district in the east to western russia , and from a northern extreme in scandinavia to north western russia reaching south to bavaria ( 2 ) . historically the vendace has been recorded from just four uk lakes ; two in scotland ( 3 ) , and two in the english lake district ( 8 ) . one of the scottish populations has not been recorded since 1911 when a sewage works was built ; the other scottish population has not been recorded since the 1970s ( 9 ) and so the species is classed as extinct in scotland ( 10 ) .\nyou can view distribution information for this species at the national biodiversity network atlas .\noccurs in open water shoals in deep , cold lakes where the vendace can take refuge from hot summer temperatures ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . it also requires shallow areas with a gravely substrate for spawning ( 7 ) .\nthe vendace is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , annex iii of the bern convention , annex v of the ec habitats and species directive , schedule 5 of the wildlife and countryside act 1981 ( 3 ) , and schedule 3 of the conservation regulations 1994 ( 4 ) .\nthe vendace has faced pressure from the introduction of non - indigenous fish species , which were probably introduced by pike anglers using live bait ( 2 ) . juvenile roach compete for planktonic food with vendace , and ruffe eat vendace eggs ( 2 ) . ruffe were recorded in derwent water for the first time in 2001 ( 11 ) . other threats are habitat loss and pollution , particularly eutrophication resulting from nutrient enrichment ( 3 ) , and siltation of spawning sites with organic matter ( 9 ) . the a66 passes close to bassenthwaite lake ; an accident involving an industrial tanker would be devastating ( 2 ) .\nthe vendace is fully protected under the wildlife and countryside act ( 1981 ) , and both lakes are sites of special scientific interest ( sssis ) and candidate special areas of conservation ( 2 ) . bassenthwaite lake is also a national nature reserve managed by the national trust . the management plan for this site takes into account the presence of vendace ( 3 ) . a current conservation measure involves hatching vendace eggs from bassenthwaite lake in captivity and releasing the young back into the lake ( 11 ) . in addition , young vendace from bassenthwaite and derwent water have been released into two scottish water bodies . a survey of water bodies in cumbria aimed to detect suitable places for the establishment of refuge populations , however no suitable sites were found ( 11 ) .\nthe vendace is a priority species under the uk biodiversity action plan ( uk bap ) ; the species action plan aims to maintain the current populations and re - introduce the species to scotland by 2005 ( 3 ) .\nthere may be further information about this species available via the national biodiversity network atlas .\nadipose fin in some fish , a second dorsal fin consisting of a flap of fatty tissue which lacks supporting rays . anadromous in fish : those species that spend most of their lives at sea but migrate to fresh water to spawn . crustaceans diverse group of arthropods ( a phylum of animals with jointed limbs and a hard chitinous exoskeleton ) characterised by the possession of two pairs of antennae , one pair of mandibles ( parts of the mouthparts used for handling and processing food ) and two pairs of maxillae ( appendages used in eating , which are located behind the mandibles ) . includes crabs , lobsters , shrimps , slaters , woodlice and barnacles . eutrophication nutrient enrichment of aquatic or terrestrial ecosystems . fertilisation the fusion of gametes ( male and female reproductive cells ) to produce an embryo , which grows into a new individual . indigenous a species that occurs naturally in an area . planktonic aquatic organisms that drift with water movements ; may be either phytoplankton ( plants ) , or zooplankton ( animals ) . re - introduce attempt to establish a native species back into an area where it previously occurred . spawning the production or depositing of large quantities of eggs in water .\ncihar , j . ( 1991 ) a field guide in colour to freshwater fish . aventium publishing , prague .\nnewdick , j . ( 1979 ) the complete freshwater fishes of the british isles . ac & black , london .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe nonindigenous occurrences section of the nas species profiles has a new structure . the section is now dynamically updated from the nas database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information . occurrences are summarized in table 1 , alphabetically by state , with years of earliest and most recent observations , and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed . the table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states , years , and drainages selected . references to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables .\nnorthern europe , northern parts of the former ussr , the baltic and north sea basins , and the swiss alps ( ladiges and vogt 1986 ; leviton 1996 ) .\nbaird , s . f . 1889 . report of the commissioner for 1886 . part xiv . u . s . commission of fish and fisheries , washington , d . c .\nbean , t . h . 1892 . observations upon fishes and fish - culture . bulletin of the u . s . fish commission 10 : 49 - 61 .\nberg , l . s . 1948 - 1949 . freshwater fishes of the u . s . s . r . and adjacent countries , 4th edition . three volumes . translated from russian , 1962 - 1965 , for the smithsonian institution and the national science foundation , by israel program for scientific translations , jerusalem , israel . volume 1 : 504 pp . ; volume 2 : 496 pp . ; volume 3 : 510 pp .\nkendall , w . c . 1914 . an annotated catalogue of the fishes of maine . proceedings of the portland society of natural history 3 : 1 - 198 .\nkottelat , m . , and j . freyhof . 2007 . handbook of european freshwater fishes . publications kottelat , cornol , switzerland .\nladiges , w . , and d . vogt . 1986 . guida dei pesci d ' acqua dolce d ' europa . franco muzzio & co editore , padova , italy .\nsmiley , c . w . 1885 . notes upon fish and the fisheries . bulletin of the u . s . fish commission 5 : 465 - 469 .\ntodd , t . n . 1983 . the feasibility of mass - culturing coregonines in the great lakes . research completion report , u . s . fish and wildlife service , ann arbor , mi .\nwheeler , a . 1969 . the fishes of the british isles and north - west europe . michigan state university press , east lansing , mi .\nthis information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision . it is being provided to meet the need for timely best science . the information has not received final approval by the u . s . geological survey ( usgs ) and is provided on the condition that neither the usgs nor the u . s . government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information .\nthe data represented on this site vary in accuracy , scale , completeness , extent of coverage and origin . it is the user ' s responsibility to use these data consistent with their intended purpose and within stated limitations . we highly recommend reviewing metadata files prior to interpreting these data .\ncitation information : u . s . geological survey . [ 2018 ] . nonindigenous aquatic species database . gainesville , florida . accessed [ 7 / 9 / 2018 ] .\ncontact us if you are using data from this site for a publication to make sure the data are being used appropriately and for potential co - authorship if warranted . for queries involving fish , please contact pam fuller . for queries involving invertebrates , contact amy benson .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nlike most websites we use cookies . this is to ensure that we give you the best experience possible .\ncontinuing to use urltoken means you agree to our use of cookies . if you would like to , you can learn more about the cookies we use .\nwe\u2019d value your feedback on the tool . our survey takes only five minutes to complete .\nvendace have been introduced into non - native lake systems in many countries , and in some of them changes within the colonizer population have been studied . however , scientific studies of the effects of vendace invasion on the receiving ecosystem are limited to the inari - pasvik watercourse in the border area between russia , finland and norway . research here has examined effects on the resource level ( b\u00f8hn and amundsen , 1998 ; amundsen et al . , 2009 ) , effects from exploitative competition ( b\u00f8hn and amundsen , 2001 , 2004 ; gjelland et al . , 2007 ; b\u00f8hn et al . , 2008 ) , as prey for piscivorous predators ( jensen et al . , 2008 ) , and experiments using brown trout stocking as an agent for biological control of vendace ( k . \u00f8 . gjelland , norwegian institute for nature research , in prep . ) .\nstrong effects from the vendace planktivory have been reported as reduced zooplankton diversity , reduced individual zooplankter size , and reduced zooplankton densities . this has resulted in lowered zooplankton availability for planktivorous fish , and to a large extent displaced native planktivores from the pelagic fish communities through exploitative competition . due to its relatively small size , vendace is an attractive prey and an important food source for pelagic piscivores . vendace have been purposely introduced to a wide range of lakes and reservoirs .\nstudies of changes in the invading vendace population come from many different lake systems , e . g . lake osensj\u00f8en , southern norway (\nsome authors recognize coregonids as a distinct family ( coregonidae ) , classified as a sister family to salmonidae ( e . g .\n) . the complexity of phenotypic and genotypic variation within the coregonids poses a challenge to the coregonid nomenclature . distinguishing between\nthe back of the vendace is dark green / blue / black , flanks silvery white , belly whitish , tip of snout and lower jaw black . body is slender when small , moderately slender with increasing size , head relatively small , lower jaw projects beyond tip of snout , upper jaw reaches back to level of pupil , tip of lower jaw fits into a groove in the upper jaw . gillrakers 45 - 52 . pre - dorsal distance greater than distance from dorsal origin to base of last anal finray ; dorsal finrays iii - iv 8 - 9 , anal finrays iii - iv 10 - 12 ( 13 ) . scales moderate , 77 - 85 ( 86 , 88 ) in lateral line . vertebrae 57 - 59 ( 60 ) ( kottelat and freyhof , 2008 ) .\nvendace matures within the second to fifth years of life , at lengths 9 - 20 cm . in most populations , vendace rarely attain lengths > 25 cm (\nthe native range of vendace is within drainages connected with the north and baltic sea , between the british isles in the west and the petchora drainage ( russia ) in the east ( svetovidov , 1984 ; groot , 1990 ; reshetnikov , 2003 ; kottelat and freyhof , 2007 , 2008 ; etheridge et al . , 2012 ) . some populations are also found in drainages to the white sea and in lakes of the upper volga drainage ( reshetnikov , 1980 ) .\n, 2008 ) . within and at the fringes of its geographic range , it has also been translocated and introduced to many lakes and reservoirs where it was previously absent ( e . g .\nthe native vendace populations of the british isles are threatened ( etheridge et al . , 2012 ) .\nthe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .\nintroduced from poland and czech rep . for mosquito control and by spread from other countires\nblanc et al . , 1971 ; sandlund , 1992 ; amundsen et al . , 1999\nreshetnikov , 1980 ; holcik , 1991 ; reshetnikov et al . , 1997 ; reshetnikov , 2003\nvendace is a valuable species for freshwater fisheries and also marine fisheries in the bothnian bay ( northern part of the baltic sea ) and in the gulf of finland . vendace have been introduced into non - native lake systems in many countries ; in some of them changes within the colonizer population have been studied , and reduced food availability has been indicated . most introductions are related to deliberate stocking and / or aquaculture for the purpose of increasing the potential for freshwater fisheries . subsequent establishment and spread depends on the characteristics of the receiving ecosystem , and may be aided by the construction of reservoirs ( e . g . semenov , 2011 ) .\nthere are many accounts of introduction , mostly in europe within or at the fringes of the geographic range of native vendace . accounts also exist for more remote locations such as for maine , usa ( unsuccessful introduction ; fuller and nico , 2012 ) and for kazakhstan ( established ; mitrofanov and petr , 1999 ) . in norway , hatchery - produced vedace fry was deliberately introduced in a number of lakes between 1860 and 1900 . of the 16 documented cases , only one succeeded ( sandlund et al . , in press ( 2012 ) ) . although some of the introductions have been successful , probably most of them have failed ."]}
{"id": 2173, "summary": [{"text": "calamaria is a large genus of dwarf burrowing snakes of the family colubridae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it contains 60 recognized species .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they are found in asia . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "calamaria", "paragraphs": ["calamaria gervaisii dum\u00e9ril , bibron & dum\u00e9ril 1854 : 76 calamaria gervaisi \u2014 jan 1865 calamaria mindorensis boulenger 1895 : 4481 calamaria gervaisii iridescens taylor 1917 calamaria tropica taylor 1922 calamaria polillensis taylor 1923 calamaria hollandi taylor 1923 calamaria gervaisi hollandi \u2014 leviton 1963 calamaria gervaisii \u2014 inger & marx 1965 : 106 calamaria gervaisii \u2014 manthey & grossmann 1997 : 328 calamaria gervaisii \u2014 inger & voris 2001 calamaria gervaisi iridescens \u2014 alcala et al . 2004 calamaria gervaisii \u2014 gaulke 2011 : 254 calamaria gervaisii \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 136\ncalamaria lovii boulenger 1887 : 169 calamaria lovii \u2014 manthey & grossmann 1997 : 329 calamaria lovii \u2014 chan - ard et al . 1999 : 31 calamaria lovi \u2014 inger & voris 2001 calamaria lowi \u2014 malkmus et al . 2002 : 317 calamaria lovii \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 139 calamaria lovii lovii boulenger 1887 calamaria lowi \u2014 mocquard 1890 calamaria ventralis cochran 1923 calamaria javanica lineata brongerma 1928 calamaria lovii lovii \u2014 grismer et al . 2004 calamaria lovii lovii \u2014 sang et al . 2009 calamaria lovii gimletti boulenger 1905 calamaria gimletti boulenger 1905 : 456 calamaria doerianense brongersma 1928 : 255 calamaria pavimentata sclater 1891 ( non dum\u00e9ril & bibron ) calamaria javanica wall 1921 ( non boulenger ) calamaria melanota chasen & smedley 1927 ( non jan ) calamaria gimletti \u2014 smedley 1931 : 53 calamaria gimletti \u2014 tweedie 1940 calamaria gimletti \u2014 tweedie 1954 calamaria fraseri taylor 1962 calamaria lovii gimletti \u2014 grismer et al . 2004 calamaria lovii gimletti \u2014 orlov 2009 calamaria gimletti \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 137 calamaria lovii ingermarxorum darevsky & orlov 1992 calamaria lovii ingermarxi darevsky & orlov 1992 calamaria lovii ingermarxorum \u2014 michels & bauer 2004 calamaria lovii wermuthi inger & marx 1965 calamaria lovii wermuthi \u2014 grismer et al . 2004 calamaria lovii wermuthi \u2014 sang et al . 2009\ncalamaria lumbricoidea h . boie in f . boie 1827 : 540 calamaria vermiformis dum\u00e9ril , bibron & dum\u00e9ril 1854 : 85 calamaria temmincki dum\u00e9ril , bibron & dum\u00e9ril 1854 : 87 calamaria lumbricoidea \u2014 dum\u00e9ril & bibron 1854 : 89 calamaria melanorhynchos bleeker 1860 calamaria alkeni bleeker 1860 calamaria lumbricoidea \u2014 jan 1865 calamaria vermiformis \u2014 jan 1865 calamaria stahlknechtii stoliczka 1873 calamaria stahlknechtii \u2014 boulenger 1885 : 388 calamaria vermiformis var . sumatranus lidth de jeude 1890 calamaria bungaroides werner 1901 : 300 calamaria vermiformis \u2014 lidth de jeude 1922 : 247 calamaria bruegeli mertens 1924 ( fide manthey 1983 ) calamaria go\u0308ringi vogt 1925 : 64 calamaria vermiformis \u2014 tweedie 1950 calamaria vermiformis \u2014 tweedie 1954 calamaria lumbricoidea \u2014 inger & marx 1965 : 77 calamaria vermiformis \u2014 hendrickson 1966 : 67 calamaria lumbricoidea \u2014 grandison 1972 : 86 calamaria lumbricoidea \u2014 manthey & grossmann 1997 : 326 calamaria lumbricoidea \u2014 cox et al . 1998 : 36 calamaria lumbricoidea \u2014 inger & voris 2001 calamaria lumbricoidea \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 139\ncalamaria butonensis howard & gillespie 2007 calamaria butonensis \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 135\ncalamaria ingeri grismer , kaiser & yaakob 2004 calamaria ingeri \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 137\ncyclophis calamaria g\u00fcnther 1858 cyclophis calamaria \u2014 g\u00fcnther 1859 : 231 homalosoma baliolum jan 1862 ( fide smith 1943 ) cyclophis nasalis g\u00fcnther 1864 ( fide smith 1943 ) ablabes calamaria \u2014 boulenger 1890 liopeltis calamaria \u2014 wall 1921 : 251 liopeltis calamaria \u2014 smith 1943 : 184 liopeltis calamaria \u2014 das 1996 : 57 liopeltis calamaria \u2014 karunarathna & amarasinghe 2011 liopeltis calamarius \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 385\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - calamaria ( calamaria ingeri )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - calamaria ( calamaria ingeri )\ntitle =\narkive species - calamaria ( calamaria ingeri )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ninformation on calamaria ingeri is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nsynonymy mostly after david & vogel 1996 . type species : calamaria lumbricoidea h . boie in f . boie 1827 has been considered as the type species of the genus calamaria boie 1827 ( here calamaria linnaei is considered the type species , following wallach et al . 2014 ) .\ncalamaria ingeri is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nvogt , theodor 1925 . beitrag zur kenntnis der schlangengattung calamaria . zool . anz . 62 ( 3 / 4 ) : 64 - 65\ncochran , d . m . 1923 . two new species of calamaria from borneo . proc . biol . soc . washington 36 : 91 - 92 - get paper here\nmarx , h . & r . f . inger 1955 . notes on the snakes of the genus calamaria . fieldiana : zoology 37 : 167 - 209 - get paper here\nboulenger , george a . 1895 . description of two new snakes of the genus calamaria . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 6 ) 16 : 481 - get paper here\ninger , r . f . ; marx , h . 1962 . variation of hemipenis and cloaca in the colubrid snake calamaria lumbricoidea . systematic zoology 11 ( 1 ) : 32 - 38\nbatuwita s . ( 2001 ) liopeltis calamaria ( g\u00fcnther , 1858 ) ( serpentes : colubridae ) first record from the galle district , southern sri lanka . loris , vol . 22 ( 6 )\ninger , r . f . & h . marx 1965 . the systematics and evolution of the oriental colubrid snakes of the genus calamaria . fieldiana : zoology 49 : 1 - 304 . - get paper here\nhoward , s . d . & gillespie , g . r . 2007 . two new calamaria ( serpentes ) species from sulawesi , indonesia . journal of herpetology 41 ( 2 ) : 237 - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1887 . description of a new snake , of the genus calamaria , from borneo . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 5 ) 19 : 169 - 170 - get paper here\nziegler , thomas ; nguyen van sang , nguyen quang truong 2009 . a new reed snake of the genus calamaria boie ( squamata : colubridae ) from vietnam . current herpetology 27 ( 2 ) : 71 - 80 [ 2008 ] - get paper here\njustification : calamaria lumbricoidea has been assessed as least concern in view of its moderately wide distribution from southern thailand to java and the philippines , its tolerance of a variety of habitats , including human - affected environments and because no major widespread threats have been identified .\nbhattarai , santosh , chalise , lina , gurung , ashish , pokheral , chiranjibi pd , subedi , naresh and sharma , vivek 2017 . geographic distribution : liopeltis calamaria ( lined stripe - necked snake ) herpetological review 48 ( 1 ) : 129 - get paper here\ndarevsky , i . s . & orlov , n . l . 1992 . a new subspecies of the dwarf snake calamaria lowi ingermarxi ssp . nov . ( serpentes , colubridae ) from southern vietnam . asiatic herpetological research 4 : 13 - 17 - get paper here\ngrismer , l . l . , h . kaiser & n . s . yaakob 2004 . a new species of reed snake of the genus calamaria h . boie , 1827 , from pulau tioman , pahang , west malaysia . hamadryad 28 ( 1 & 2 ) : 1 - 6\nno population data is available for this rare snake . despite numerous surveys in lam dong and ha tinh , this species has very rarely been found since its original description , although other species of calamaria have been commonly reported from the same region ( q . t . nguyen pers . comm . august 2011 ) .\nkarunarathna d . m . s . s . , perera w . p . n . ( 2010 ) new distribution records for liopeltis calamaria ( g\u00fcnther , 1858 ) ( reptilia : serpentes : colubridae ) , with notes on its bioecology and threats in sri lanka . sauria , berlin , 32 ( 2 ) : 49\u201355\norlov , nikolai l . 2009 . a new species of the genus calamaria ( squamata : ophidia : colubridae ) from the central highlands ( ngoc linh nature reserve , ngoc linh mountain , kon tum province ) , vietnam . russ . j . herpetol . 16 ( 2 ) : 146 - 154 - get paper here\n( of asterias calamaria gray , 1840 ) gray , j . e . ( 1840 ) . xxii . a synopsis of the genera and species of the class hypostoma ( asterias , linnaeus ) . annals and magazine of natural history . 6 : 175 - 184 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 179 [ details ]\nkarunarathna , d . m . s . suranjan & w . p . naalin perera 2010 . new distribution records for liopeltis calamaria ( g\u00fcnther , 1858 ) ( reptilia : serpentes : colubridae ) , with notes on its bioecology and threats in sri lanka . [ in german ] . sauria 32 ( 2 ) : 49 - 55 - get paper here\n( of asterias ( stolasterias ) calamaria gray , 1840 ) gray , j . e . ( 1840 ) . xxii . a synopsis of the genera and species of the class hypostoma ( asterias , linnaeus ) . annals and magazine of natural history . 6 : 175 - 184 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 179 [ details ]\nkoch , a . ; arida , e . ; mcguire , j . a . ; iskandar , d . t . & b\u00f6hme , w . 2009 . a new species of calamaria ( squamata : colubridae ) similar to c . ceramensis de rooij , 1913 , from the banggai islands , east of sulawesi , indonesia . zootaxa 2196 : 19\u201330 - get paper here\n( of asteracanthion calamaria ( gray , 1840 ) ) dujardin , m . f . and hupe , m . h . ( 1862 ) . histoire naturelle des zoophytes \u00e9chinodermes : comprenant la description des crino\u00efdes , des ophiurides , des ast\u00e9rides , des \u00e9chinides et des holothurides . paris : libraire encyclopedique de roret . 627 pages , 10 plates . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 339 [ details ]\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\ntype : bmnh 1946 . 1 . 5 . 60 ( and possibly additional specimens ) .\nbeddome , richard henry 1863 . further notes upon the snakes of the madras presidency ; with descriptions of new species . madras quart . j . med . sci . , 6 : 41 - 48 [ reprint : j . soc . bibliogr . nat . sci . , london , 1 ( 10 ) : 306 - 314 , 1940 ]\nbhupathy , subramanian & n . sathishkumar 2013 . status of reptiles in meghamalai and its environs , western ghats , tamil nadu , india . journal of threatened taxa 5 ( 15 ) : 4953 - 4961 - get paper here\nboulenger , george a . 1890 . the fauna of british india , including ceylon and burma . reptilia and batrachia . taylor & francis , london , xviii , 541 pp . - get paper here\nboulenger , george a . 1894 . catalogue of the snakes in the british museum ( natural history ) . volume ii . , containing the conclusion of the colubrid\u00e6 aglyph\u00e6 . british mus . ( nat . hist . ) , london , xi , 382 pp . - get paper here\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1858 . catalogue of colubrine snakes of the british museum . london , i - xvi , 1 - 281\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1859 . on the geographical distribution of reptiles . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 3 ) 3 : 221 - 237 - get paper here\njan , g . 1865 . iconographie g\u00e9n\u00e9rale des ophidiens . 13 . livraison . [ homalosoma mite ] . j . b . baili\u00e8re et fils , paris - get paper here\nkarunarathna , suranjan ; d . m . s . and a . a . thasun amarasinghe 2011 . a preliminary survey of the reptile fauna in nilgala forest and its vicinity , monaragala district , sri lanka . taprobanica 3 ( 02 ) : 69 - 76\nlenz , norbert 2012 . von schmetterlingen und donnerdrachen - natur und kultur in bhutan . karlsruher naturhefte 4 , naturkundemuseum karlsruhe , 124 pp .\npalot , m . j . 2015 . a checklist of reptiles of kerala , india . journal of threatened taxa 7 ( 13 ) : 8010\u20138022 - get paper here\nsharma , r . c . 2004 . handbook indian snakes . akhil books , new delhi , 292 pp .\nsmith , m . a . 1943 . the fauna of british india , ceylon and burma , including the whole of the indo - chinese sub - region . reptilia and amphibia . 3 ( serpentes ) . taylor and francis , london . 583 pp .\ntaylor , edward h . 1950 . the snakes of ceylon . univ . kansas sci . bull . 33 ( 14 ) : 519 - 603 - get paper here\nwall , frank 1921 . ophidia taprobanica or the snakes of ceylon . colombo mus . ( h . r . cottle , govt . printer ) , colombo . xxii , 581 pages - get paper here\nwallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nsynonymy after inger & marx 1965 . the type locality of c . gervaisii is \u201cjava\u201d which is erroneous according to marx 1955 . he thinks that it came from luzon .\nalcala , e . l . ; alcala , a . c . & dolino , c . n . 2004 . amphibians and reptiles in tropical rainforest fragments on negros island , the philippines . env . cons . 31 ( 3 ) : 254 - 261 - get paper here\nbeolens , bo ; michael watkins , and michael grayson 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , usa - get paper here\nbeukema , w . 2011 . herpetofauna of disturbed forest fragments on the lower mt . kitanglad rnage , mindanao isand , philippines . salamandra 47 ( 2 ) : 90 - 98 - get paper here\nbrown , r . m . ; mcguire , j . a . ; ferner , j . w . ; icarangal jr . , n . & kennedy , r . s . 2000 . amphibians and reptiles of luzon island , ii : preliminary report on the herptofauna of aurora memorial national park , philippines . hamadryad 25 ( 2 ) : 175 - 195\nbrown ; rafe ; cameron siler , carl oliveros , luke welton , ashley rock , john swab , merlijn van weerd , jonah van beijnen , dominic rodriguez , edmund jose , arvin diesmos 2013 . the amphibians and reptiles of luzon island , philippines , viii : the herpetofauna of cagayan and isabela provinces , northern sierra madre mountain range . zookeys 266 ( 2013 ) special issue : 1 - 120 < br / > doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 266 . 3982 - get paper here\ndas , i . & yaakob , n . 2007 . status of knowledge of the malaysian herpetofauna . in status of biological diversity in malaysia & threat assessment of plant species in malaysia . in : l . s . l . chua , l . g . kirton & l . g . saw ( eds . ) , status of biological diversity in malaysia & threat assessment of plant species in malaysia . forest research institute malaysia , kepong , pp . 31 - 81\ndum\u00e9ril , a . m . c . , g . bibron & a . h . a . dum\u00e9ril 1854 . erp\u00e9tologie g\u00e9n\u00e9rale ou histoire naturelle compl\u00e8te des reptiles . vol . 7 ( partie 1 ) . paris , xvi + 780 s . - get paper here\nferner , john w . , rafe m . brown , rogelio v . sison and robert s . kennedy 2000 . the amphibians and reptiles of panay island , philippines . asiatic herpetological research 9 : 1 - 37 - get paper here\ngaulke , m . 2011 . the herpetofauna of panay island , philippines . edition chimaira , 390 pp .\ninger , r . f . & voris , h . k . 2001 . the biogeographical relations of the frogs and snakes of sundaland . journal of biogeography 28 : 863 - 89 1\njan , g . 1865 . iconographie g\u00e9n\u00e9rale des ophidiens . 10 . livraison . j . b . baili\u00e8re et fils , paris - get paper here\nleviton , a . e . , 1963 . remarks on the zoogeography of philippine terrestrial snakes . proc . cal . acad . sci . ( 4 ) 31 : 369 - 416 . - get paper here\nmanthey , u . & grossmann , w . 1997 . amphibien & reptilien s\u00fcdostasiens . natur und tier verlag ( m\u00fcnster ) , 512 pp . - get paper here\nmcleod , david s . ; cameron d . siler , arvin c . diesmos , mae l . diesmos , vhon s . garcia , angela o . arkonceo , kelvin l . balaquit , charlene c . uy , mariden m . villaseran , earle c . yarra , rafe m . brown 2011 . amphibians and reptiles of luzon island , v : the herpetofauna of angat dam watershed , bulacan province , luzon island , philippines . asian herpetological research 2 ( 4 ) : 177\u2013198 - get paper here\nrelox , richel e . ; emmanuel p . lea\u0144o , and fritzie b . ates - camino 2011 . herpetofaunal endemism and diversity in tropical forests of mt . hamiguitan in the philippines . herp . cons . biol . 6 ( 1 ) : 107\u2212113 - get paper here\nsanguila mb , cobb ka , siler cd , diesmos ac , alcala ac , brown rm 2016 . the amphibians and reptiles of mindanao island , southern philippines , ii : the herpetofauna of northeast mindanao and adjacent islands . zookeys 624 : 1\u2013132 , doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 624 . 9814 - get paper here\nsmith , brian e . 1993 . notes on a collection of squamate reptiles from eastern mindanao , philippine islands part 2 : serpentes . asiatic herpetological research 5 : 96 - 102 - get paper here\nsupsup , christian e . ; nevong m . puna , augusto a . asis , bernard r . redoblado , maria fatima g . panaguinit , faith m . guinto , edmund b . rico , arvin c . diesmos , rafe m . brown and neil aldrin d . mallari 2016 . amphibians and reptiles of cebu , philippines : the poorly understood herpetofauna of an island with very little remaining natural habitat asian herpetological research 2016 , 7 ( 3 ) : 151\u2013179 doi : 10 . 16373 / j . cnki . ahr . 150049 - get paper here\ntaylor , e . h . 1923 . additions to the herpetological fauna of the philippine islands , iii . philippine journal of science , 22 : 515\u2014557 - get paper here\nboie , f . 1827 . bemerkungen \u00fcber merrem ' s versuch eines systems der amphibien , 1 . lieferung : ophidier . isis van oken 20 : 508 - 566 . - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1885 . a list of reptiles and batrachians from the island of nias . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 5 ) 16 : 388 - 389 - get paper here\nchan - ard , t . , parr , j . w . k . & nabhitabhata , j . 2015 . a field guide to the reptiles of thailand . oxford university press , ny , 352 pp . [ see book reviews by pauwels & grismer 2015 and hikida 2015 for corrections ] - get paper here\ncox , merel j . ; van dijk , peter paul ; jarujin nabhitabhata & thirakhupt , kumthorn 1998 . a photographic guide to snakes and other reptiles of peninsular malaysia , singapore and thailand . ralph curtis publishing , 144 pp .\ndas , i . 2012 . a naturalist ' s guide to the snakes of south - east asia : malaysia , singapore , thailand , myanmar , borneo , sumatra , java and bali . oxford j , ohn beaufoy publishing - get paper here\ndavid , p . & vogel , g . 1996 . the snakes of sumatra . an annotated checklist and key with natural history notes . b\u00fccher kreth , frankfurt / m .\ngrandison , a . g . c . 1972 . the gunong benom expedition 1967 . 5 . reptiles and amphibians of gunong benom with a description of a new species of macrocalamus . bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( zool . ) , london , 23 : 45 - 101 .\ngrismer , l . lee ; chan k . onn , jesse l . grismer , perry l . wood , jr . , and a . norhayati 2010 . a checklist of the herpetofauna of the banjaran bintang , peninsular malaysia . russ . j . herpetol . 17 ( 2 ) : 147 - 160 - get paper here\ngrismer , l . l . 2011 . amphibians and reptiles of the seribuat archipelago . edition chimaira , frankfurt , 239 pp .\nhendrickson , j . r . 1966 . observations on the fauna of pulau tioman and pulau tulai . 5 . the reptiles . bull . nat . mus . singapore 34 : 53 - 71\nlidth de jeude , t . w . van 1922 . snakes from sumatra . zoologische mededelingen 6 : 239 - 253 . - get paper here\nlim , k . k . p . & ng , h . h . 1999 . the terrestrial herpetofauna of pulau tioman , peninsular malaysia . raffles bull . zool . , suppl . no . 6 : 131 - 155 - get paper here\nmalkmus , r . ; manthey , u . ; vogel , g . hoffmann , p . & kosuch , j . 2002 . amphibians and reptiles of mount kinabalu ( north borneo ) . a . r . g . ganther verlag , rugell , 404 pp .\nmanthey , u . 1983 . exkursion am mt . kinabalu ( 4101 m ) , nordborneo , teil 3 : checkliste der herpetofauna oberhalb 600 m \u00fc . nn . herpetofauna 5 ( 23 ) : 20 - 31 - get paper here\nnur - amalina m . i . ; azhari , m . , norshaqinah , a . , nor azrin , n . a . , shukor , m . n . , aisah , m . s . , amirrudin , a . , grismer , l . l . and norhayati , a . 2017 . species composition of amphibians and reptiles in tembat forest reserve , hulu terengganu , terengganu , peninsular malaysia . malays . appl . biol . 46 ( 4 ) : 119\u2013129 - get paper here\nonn , chan kin ; l . lee . grismer , dionysius s . sharma , daicus belabut , and norhayati ahma 2009 . new herpetofaunal records for perlis state park and adjacent areas . malayan nature journal 61 ( 4 ) : 255 - 262\nrooijen , j . van & myriam van rooijen . 2007 . the land snakes of the santubong peninsula , sarawak , borneo : a preliminary list of species with natural history notes . russ . j . herpetol . 14 ( 1 ) : 27 - 38 - get paper here\nrooijen , j . van & van rooijen , m . 2002 . einige erg\u00e4nzungen , berichtigungen und neue beobachtungen zur herpetofauna von pulau tioman , west - malaysia . sauria 24 ( 3 ) : 3 - 12 [ erratum in 24 ( 4 ) : 34 ] - get paper here\nsmedley , n . 1932 . amphibians and reptiles from the cameron highlands , malay peninsula . bull . raffles mus . 6 : 105 - 123 [ 1931 ] - get paper here\nstoliczka , f . 1873 . notes on some species of malayan amphibia and reptilia . j . asiat . soc . bengal 42 : 111 - 126 - get paper here\nteo , r . c . h . & rajathurai , s . 1997 . mammals , reptiles and amphibians in the nature reserves of singapore - diversity , abundance and distribution . proc . nature reserves survey seminar . gardens\u2019 bulletin singapore 49 : 353 - 425\nteynie\u0301 , alexandre ; patrick david , & annemarie ohler 2010 . note on a collection of amphibians and reptiles from western sumatra ( indonesia ) , with the description of a new species of the genus bufo . zootaxa 2416 : 1\u201343 - get paper here\ntweedie , m . w . f . 1950 . notes on malayan reptiles , no . 2 . bull . raffles mus . no 23 : 191 - 199\ntweedie , m . w . f . 1954 . notes on malayan reptiles , no . 3 . bull . raffles mus . no 25 : 107 - 117\nwerner , f . 1901 . neue reptilien des k\u00f6nigsberger zoologischen museums . zool . anz . 24 : 297 - 301 - get paper here\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthis very well known snake has as many as 17 synonyms ( inger and marx 1965 ) .\ngrismer , l . , chan - ard , t . & inger , r . f .\nde silva , r . , milligan , ht , wearn , o . r . , wren , s . , zamin , t . , sears , j . , wilson , p . , lewis , s . , lintott , p . , powney , g . , diesmos , a . c . & diesmos , m .\nthis widespread snake is found throughout much of southeast asia . it has been recorded from southern thailand , peninsular malaysia ( and the island of pulau tioman ) , singapore , indonesia , borneo and the philippines ( occurring on basilan , mindanao , camiguin sur , negros , possibly panay , bohol , leyte , samar , dinagat and siargao ) ( ross and lazell jr 1990 , cox\n2002 , das 2007 , a . diesmos and a . demegillo pers . comm . ) . it can be found from lowland areas to around 1 , 400m asl ( cox\n1998 ) . in indonesia it is known from the mentawai and nasuna besar archipelagos , and nias ( david and vogel 1996 ) , sumatra , java ( inger and voris 2001 ) and sulawesi . the snake is known from fifteen localities on the island of borneo ( r . inger pers . comm . ) , where it is found in all political territories .\ndavid and vogel ( 1996 ) caution that , although this species is apparently widespread , it is uncommon and seldom seen ; however it is generally a common species in the philippines .\nthis oviparous species mainly inhabits lowland and montane moist forests . it probably also occurs in plantations and in the vicinity of rice paddies ( david and vogel 1996 ) . arcbc ( 2006 ) also state that this species can tolerate\ndegraded , secondary forest and scrub\nand r . inger ( pers . comm . ) notes it is also found in thin wooded areas at the edge of cities . it is a ground - dwelling or semi - fossorial snake , mainly active at night and often found among litter or under stones , fallen trees and decaying vegetation .\nit is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its range , as it is widespread and tolerant of habitat modification . as with many snakes , it is occasionally killed when encountered .\nthis species is present within many protected areas . there is a need for further taxonomic study of this wide ranging species . no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole .\ngrismer , l . , chan - ard , t . & inger , r . f . 2012 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nde silva , r . , milligan , ht , wearn , o . r . , wren , s . , zamin , t . , sears , j . , wilson , p . , lewis , s . , lintott , p . & powney , g .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern because it is widely distributed , is common , is likely to occur in protected areas , and there are no known major threats affecting it .\nthe species occurs in sumatra , borneo and malaysia . in sumatra , the species has been recorded from ampat lawang , south sumatra and from deli , north sumatra . in borneo the species has been recorded from sarawak and sabah , as well as from east and central kalimantan . its presence in southern thailand is uncertain . there is one doubtful record from java , considered to be in error . it occurs at elevations between 300 and 1 , 200 m .\nnumerous records of this species exist from sarawak and sabah , suggesting that this species is common .\nspecies , it is assumed that this species is fossorial and occurs in forests . most records are from lowlands around 300 - 600 m asl , but there are two records from mt . kinabalu ( 900 - 1 , 200 m asl )\nthere are no known major threats to this species , which is common and widespread .\nas this species is rather common and widespread , it is very likely to occur in protected areas in borneo as well as in sumatra . there are no conservation measures or actions in place for this species .\nthe species is known from the type series of six specimens and one doubtful record from singapore ( grandison 1978 ) . this uncertain record has not been included in the current assessment .\njustification : this species was described in 1983 and is only known from the type locality in sandakan bay , sabah , malaysia . the original lowland forest where the species was found has disappeared due to deforestation for urban development and tourism . there has therefore been an inferred population decline of close to 100 % over the past 10 years ( and therefore also within the longer of ten years or three generations ) . the species is listed as critically endangered and considered to be possibly extinct .\nthe species is only known from sandakan bay , sabah , malaysia , from an area close to sea level .\nthere is no information about the population of this species . however , population decline and possible extinction has been inferred from the observed decline in the amount of suitable habitat left for the species to survive due to human activities .\ndeforestation of lowland forest for urbanisation and tourist development is known to have completely wiped out the forest from where this species was recorded ; only one nearby , small fragment remains where this species might persist ( i . das pers . obs . 2011 ) . survey work conducted by r . inger in this area failed to locate the species ( r . inger pers . comm . 2011 ) .\nsurvey work is needed to confirm if the species is still present in the area where it was found or in nearby forest .\nthis species is a widespread endemic of the philippines . it has been recorded from the islands of luzon , polillo , mindoro , tablas , panay , negros , cebu , catanduanes , mindanao lubang , and basilan . it has a wide elevational range , being found from close to sea level to around 1 , 000 m asl .\nthis snake may be found burrowing in humus under rotting logs , under flat rocks , and between tree buttresses ( brown et al . 2000 , ferner et al . 2000 ) . it has been recorded from disturbed habitats ( for instance under logs in coconut plantations ) on luzon and catanduanes .\nin view of the species wide distribution , it seems likely that it is present within a number of protected areas . no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread species .\njustification : this species is listed as endangered because its extent of occurrence is less than 2 , 000 km 2 , all individuals are in a single location , and there is a continuing decline of the species ' habitat outside of protected areas .\nthis species is only known from the middle section of wuliang mountain which belongs to jingdong county and nanjian county , yunnan province , china . it was recorded at 1 , 100 - 1 , 200 m asl ( zhao and adler 1993 ) .\nthis species lives in mid - level mountains and hills . it has been found at the edge of montane forest along the side of a road in the evening ( rao ding - qi pers . comm . 2011 ) . there is no information available on its diet or reproduction ( zhao 2006 ) .\nthere is a decline in the habitat of this species outside of protected areas owing to conversion of land to agricultural use ( cropland ) .\npart of the range of this species is within the wuliang mountain protected area . further studies are needed into the ecology and habitat preferences of this species .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\nnostril very small , single nasal . supralabial 6 or 7 ; 3rd & 4th in contact with eyes ; loreal united with nasal ; preocular 1 or 2 ; postocular 2 ; temporal 1 + 2 . anterior genial slightly longer than posterior . maxillary teeth 24 - 26 .\n126 - 142 ( male ) , 130 - 154 ( female ) ; rounded ; anal divided .\n68 - 78 ( male ) , 53 - 72 ( female ) ; paired .\nboulenger g . a . ( 1890 ) the fauna of british india including ceylon and burma , reptilia and batrachia . london : taylor and francis .\nboulenger g . a . ( 1894 ) catalogue of the snakes in the british museum ( natural history ) . vol . 2 , london : taylor and francis .\nchikane s . , bhosale h . ( 2012 ) reptiles of kaas , northern western ghats , maharashtra , india , with notes on habitat preferences , abundances and threats . sauria , berlin , 34 ( 3 ) : 3\u201315\nganesh s . r . , bhupathy s . , david p . , sathishkumar n . , srinivas g . ( 2014 ) snake fauna of high wavy mountains , western ghats , india : species richness , status , and distribution pattern . russian journal of herpetology . vol . 21 ( 1 ) , pp . 53 \u2013 64\ndutta s . k . , acharjyo l . n . ( 1995 ) herpetofaunal resources and their conservation in orissa , india . zoos\u2019 print , vol . 10 ( 7 ) , pp . 5 - 8\ng\u00fcnther a . ( 1864 ) the reptiles of british india . london : published for the ray society by robert hardwicke\nmurthy t . s . n . ( 1990 ) illustrated guide to the snakes of the western ghats , india . records of the zoological survey of india , occasional paper no . 114\nsmith m . a . ( 1943 ) the fauna of british india , ceylon and burma including the whole of the indo - chinese sub - region , reptilia and amphibia . vol 3 serpentes . taylor & francis , london .\nsrinivasulu c . , das i . ( 2008 ) the herpetofauna of nallamala hills , eastern ghats , india : an annotated checklist , with remarks on nomenclature , taxonomy , habitat use , adaptive types and biogeography . asiatic herpetological research , vol . 11 , pp . 110\u2013131\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nhinrich kaiser associate professor | biology victor valley college 18422 bear valley road victorville , ca 92395 office : sl24 tel : 760 - 245 - 4271 ext 2772 hinrich . kaiser @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nnote ' isle de france ' ( mauritius ) ; new holland . . .\ntype locality ' isle de france ' ( mauritius ) ; new holland ( australia ) ' . [ details ]\ndescription according to clark & rowe ( 11971 ) , known from mauritius ( and east africa ) and from temperate but not tropical australia . . . .\ndescription according to clark & rowe ( 11971 ) , known from mauritius ( and east africa ) and from temperate but not tropical australia . the british museum record from the south pacific is based on the ' challenge ' specimen determined as asterias gemmifera ( a south american species ) by sladen . [ details ]\n( of asterias jehennesi valenciennes ( ms ) in perrier , 1875 ) perrier , e . ( 1875 ) . r\u00e9vision de la collection de stell\u00e9rides du museum d\u2019histoire naturelle de paris . paris , reinwald . 384 p . , available online at urltoken ; _ esc = y page ( s ) : 47 ; note : although listed as cuvier in a . m . clark ' s list , this species is listed as valenciennes in perrier ( 1875 ) [ details ]\n( of asteracanthion jehennesi valenciennes ( ms ) in perrier , 1875 ) perrier , e . ( 1875 ) . r\u00e9vision de la collection de stell\u00e9rides du museum d\u2019histoire naturelle de paris . paris , reinwald . 384 p . , available online at urltoken ; _ esc = y page ( s ) : 47 [ details ]\nclark , a . m . ; downey , m . e . ( 1992 ) . starfishes of the atlantic . chapman & hall identification guides , 3 . chapman & hall . london , uk . isbn 0 - 412 - 43280 - 3 . xxvi , 794 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nclark , a . m . ; rowe , f . w . e . ( 1971 ) . monograph of shallow - water indo - west pacific echinoderms . trustees of the british museum ( natural history ) . london . x + 238 p . + 30 pls . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\njustification : listed as data deficient because this poorly - known species has been rarely recorded , nothing is known of its distribution or population status , and its response to forest degradation from selective logging is unclear .\nthis species is currently known only from viet nam , where records exist from dalat and bao loc in lam dong province , and from huong son in ha tinh province . it has an estimated extent of occurrence , based on the combined area of the known sites , of around 5 , 250 km 2 .\nthis oviparous snake is fossorial in forest leaf litter , and has only been found in evergreen forest ( q . t . nguyen pers . comm . august 2011 ) . forest in ha tinh is pristine , and so this snake may rely on good - quality forest ( q . t . nguyen pers . comm . august 2011 ) it is nocturnal ( orlov\nin ha tinh and lam dong the main pressure on forest comes from selective logging ( q . t . nguyen pers . comm . august 2011 ) ; the extent to which this activity threatens the snake is unknown .\nno conservation measures are in place for this species . it has not been recorded from any protected areas . more information is needed on its distribution , population status and its sensitivity to threats .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndescription : body cylindrical , head hardly distinct from body , tail relatively short , dorsal scales smooth . body uniformly dark brown above with a white or yellow stripe along the side . underside with black and yellowish white bands . hatchlings have a pink head and may be confused with the pink - headed reed snake . however , they have narrow whitish bands over the back , and the underside is banded .\nbaker , n . & lim , k . 2012 . wild animals of singapore . singapore : draco publishing and distribution pte ltd . 180pp\nsupported client browser : ie6 + , firefox 1 . 05 + , chrome 12 + , opera 7 . 52 + , netscape 7 . 1 +\ntype locality : kakenauwe reserve at 5\u00b011\u20190\u2019\u2019s , 122\u00b053\u201940\u2019\u2019e , and 150 m elevation , buton island , sulawesi , indonesia .\nholotype : mbz 3125 , adult male , collected on 21 june , 2002 .\nkoch , a . 2011 . the amphibians and reptiles of sulawesi : underestimated diversity in a dynamic environment . in : f . e . zachos and j . c . habel ( eds . ) , biodiversity hotspots . springer , berlin , p . 383 - 404\nkoch , a . 2012 . discovery , diversity , and distribution of the amphibians and reptiles of sulawesi and its offshore islands . edition chimaira , 374 pp . [ isbn 978 - 3 - 89973 - 432 - 4 ] - get paper here\nwest malaysia ( pullau tioman , pahang ) type locality : pulau tioman , pahang , west malaysia .\ngrossmann , w . & tillack , f . 2004 . pulau tioman - perle im s\u00fcdchinesischen meer , teil 1 . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 9 ( 50 ) : 42 - 49 - get paper here\nindonesia ( java , borneo ) , malaysia ( sarawak , sabah ) ; type locality : rejang river , sarawak , malaysia .\ningermarxi : vietnam ; type locality : \u201cbuoenloy , gilai - contum province , vietnam ; 750 m\u201d elevation .\nnamed in honor of brooke low who gave the specimen to the london natural history museum .\nboulenger , george a . 1905 . descriptions of new snakes in the collection of the british museum . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 15 ( 89 ) : 453 - 456 - get paper here\nbrongersma , l . d . 1928 . neue reptilien aus dem zoologischen museum amsterdam . zool . anz . 75 : 251 - 257 .\ndaan , s . & hillenius , d . 1966 . catalogue of the type specimens of amphibians and reptiles in the zoological museum , amsterdam . beaufortia 13 : 117 - 144\ndavid , p . & vogel , g . 2010 . venomous snakes of europe , northern , central and western asia ( terralog 16 ) ( english and german edition ) . edition chimaira , terralog 16 , 160 pp . - get paper here\ngrandison , a . g . c . 1978 . snakes of west malaysia and singapore . annalen des naturhistorischen museums in wien 81 [ 1977 ] : 283 - 303 - get paper here\nmichels , j . p . & a . m . bauer 2004 . some corrections to the scientific names of amphibians and reptiles . bonner zoologische beitra\u0308ge 52 : 83\u201394 [ 2005 ] - get paper here\nsang , nguyen van ; ho thu cuc , nguyen , quang truong 2009 . herpetofauna of vietnam . chimaira , frankfurt , 768 pp .\nsmedley , n . 1931 . notes on some malaysian snakes . bull . raffles mus . no 5 : 49 - 54\ntaylor , e . h . 1962 . new oriental reptiles . univ . kansas sci . bull . 43 : 209 - 263 - get paper here\ntweedie , m . w . f . 1940 . notes on malayan reptiles . bull . raffles mus . , singapore 16 : 83 - 87"]}
{"id": 2177, "summary": [{"text": "acanthophis is a genus of elapid snakes .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "commonly called death adders , they are native to australia , new guinea and nearby islands , and are among the most venomous snakes in the world .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the name of the genus derives from the ancient greek acanthos/\u1f04\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2 \" spine \" and ophis/\u1f44\u03c6\u03b9\u03c2 \" snake \" , referring to the spine on the death adder 's tail .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "seven species are listed by itis , though it remains unclear how many species this genus includes , with figures ranging from 4 to 15 species being quoted . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "acanthophis", "paragraphs": ["acanthophis hawkei wells & wellington 1985 : 43 acanthophis cummingi hoser 1998 acanthophis cummingi \u2014 wells 2002 acanthophis hawkei \u2014 wells 2002 acanthophis lancasteri \u2014 wells 2002 acanthophis hawkei \u2014 fry et al . 2002 acanthophis hawkei \u2014 w\u00fcster et al . 2004 acanthophis hawkei \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 4\nacanthophis praelongus ramsay 1877 : 72 acanthophis praelongus \u2014 cogger 2000 : 634 acanthophis praelongus \u2014 schmidt & kunz 2005 : 75 acanthophis praelongus \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 4\nacanthophis wellsei hoser 1998 acanthophis wellsi \u2014 aplin & donnellan 1999 ( emendation ) acanthophis wellsi \u2014 fry et al . 2002 aggressiserpens wellsi \u2014 wells 2002 acanthophis wellsei donnellani hoser 2002 acanthophis wellsi \u2014 wilson & swan 2010 acanthophis wellsi \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 4 acanthophis wellsei \u2014 cogger 2014 : 859\nacanthophis pyrrhus boulenger 1898 : 75 acanthophis antarcticus pyrrhus acanthophis pyrrhus \u2014 cogger 2000 : 634 aggressiserpens pyrrhus \u2014 wells 2002 acanthophis pyrrhus armstrongi wells & wellington 1985 aggressiserpens armstrongi \u2014 wells 2002 acanthophis pyrrhus \u2014 wilson & swan 2010 acanthophis pyrrhus \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 4\nboa antarctica shaw & nodder 1802 : pl . 535 acanthophis cerastinus daudin 1803 : 289 acanthophis brownii leach 1814 : 12 boa ambigua leach 1814 : 12 ( nomen nudum ) ophryas acanthophis merrem 1820 : 147 vipera acanthophis schlegel 1837 : 605 vipera sorda salvado 1851 : 48 acanthophis cerastinus \u2014 dum\u00e9ril & bibron 1854 : 1389 acanthophis cerastinus \u2014 g\u00fcnther 1863 : 398 boa aculeata boulenger 1896 : 356 ( nomen nudum ) acanthophis antarcticus \u2014 werner 1899 acanthophis antarcticus \u2014 de rooij 1917 : 272 acanthophis antarcticus \u2014 cogger 1983 : 217 acanthophis antarcticus \u2014 cogger 2000 : 632 acanthophis antarcticus cliffrosswellingtoni hoser 2002 ( see comment ) acanthophis antarcticus \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 3 acanthophis antarcticus schistos wells & wellington 1985 acanthophis schistos wells & wellington 1985 : 44 acanthophis schistos \u2014 wells 2002\nclinical differences in envenomation characteristics among the races of death adder : common ( acanthophis antarcticus antarcticus ) , eastern ( acanthophis antarcticus laevis ) , desert ( acanthophis pyrrhus ) have not been reported .\nclick here for a more recent paper naming further species and subspecies of acanthophis .\nhe\u2019s published over 140 papers and five books . his principal research interest is acanthophis .\nthe kimberley death adder ( acanthophis cryptamydros ) . image credit : ryan j . ellis .\ndeath adders acanthophis : an overview , including descriptions of five new species and one subspecies .\nthe death adder ( acanthophis antarcticus ) : the effect of its bite and its treatment .\ncosts of venom production in the common death adder ( acanthophis antarcticus ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nfor numerous other papers that deal dominantly or substantially with death adders ( acanthophis spp . ) .\nacanthophis cryptamydros maddodk , ellis , doughty , a . smith and w\u00fcster , 2015 \u2013 kimberley death adder\nphotos of acanthophis antarcticus cliffrosswellingtoni subsp . nov . in life are found in hoser ( 1989 ) .\na new species of death adder ( acanthophis : serpentes : elapidae ) from north - western australia .\na new species of death adder ( acanthophis : serpentes : elapidae ) from north - western australia .\necology of the australian death adder acanthophis antarcticus ( elapidae ) : evidence for convergence with the viperidae .\ndeath adders ( genus acanthophis ) : an overview , including descriptions of five new species and one subspecies .\nacanthophis woolfi sp . nov . to view a photo of a specimen of this species - click here .\nreptilia , australian monsoonal tropics , mtdna , ndna , systematics , taxonomy , acanthophis cryptamydros sp . nov .\ntype locality : from sydney ( as port jackson ) , n . s . w . [ acanthophis brownii ]\nbiology : little known , but presumed to be similar to that of other acanthophis . worrell ( 1972 ) records this species as being most active at the end of the wet season which roughly parallels the activities of acanthophis in northern australia by the author\u2019s own investigations and what was said by o\u2019shea ( 1996 ) in his summary of new guinea acanthophis . lindgren ( 1975 ) states acanthophis in png range up to nearly 2000 metres . it is assumed that these high altitude acanthophis are probably a . laevis , at least in the highland areas west of goroka and into irian jaya .\nthe dorsal colouration of the type specimen is typical for acanthophis in that dorsally it has alternating darker and lighter crossbands .\nthe viper - like acanthophis cryptamydros has a diamond - shaped head and stout body . ryan ellis / western australian museum\nthe original description of the subspecies acanthophis pyrrhus armstrongi by wells and wellington from 1985 ( as a full species ) .\nbiology : little known , but presumed to be similar to that of other acanthophis . worrell ( 1972 ) records this species as being most active at the end of the wet season which roughly parallels the activities of acanthophis in northern australia by the author ' s own investigations and what was said by o ' shea ( 1996 ) in his summary of new guinea acanthophis . lindgren ( 1975 ) states acanthophis in png range up to nearly 2000 metres . it is assumed that these high altitude acanthophis are probably a . laevis , at least in the highland areas west of goroka and into irian jaya .\nuntil a formal naming of this taxon , it should be referred to as either praelongus , or as acanthophis sp .\na new species of death adder ( acanthophis : serpentes : elapidae ) from north - western australia . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe northern death adder ( acanthophis praelongus ) . this image shows flattening behaviour to enlarge the body and evade predators . \u00a9cnzdenek\ndeath adders ( genus acanthophis ) : an updated overview , including descriptions of 3 new island species and 2 new australian subspecies .\nkeys that differentiate different species of acanthophis have not been presented here . all keys seen by this author for the genus acanthophis appear to break down with substantial regularity due to variability within each species , even though a number of species divisions are widely acknowledged .\nbiology : not known . assumed to be similar for other acanthophis . likewise for captivity , although to date nothing is recorded .\nin 2001 this author saw a specimen in a jar labelled as\nacanthophis hawkei\n, which was in fact this species .\nthe complete amino acid sequence of a post - synaptic neurotoxin isolated from the venom of the australian death adder snake acanthophis antarcticus .\ndeath adders ( genus : acanthophis ) : an updated overview , including descriptions of 3 new island species and 2 new australian subspecies .\nupon viewing the acanthophis at the australian museum spirit house , the animal r147655 was immediately retrieved as being like no other acanthophis in the collection . that it\u2019s collection locality data matched that of specimen number 22812 at the museum of comparative zoology ( the type ) came as no surprise .\nin more recent times a number of herpetologists , including curators at the queensland museum have confused this species with the better - known acanthophis hawkei .\nnotwithstanding this , potential keepers of acanthophis species should confirm their legal positions and options with the relevant legal authorities before embarking on such a course .\ndeath adders are harvested and bred in captivity for the pet trade . no figures are available for the number of acanthophis rugosus in commercial trade .\nwhat made you want to look up acanthophis ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nthe systematics of this genus requires urgent revision . several undescribed species are likely to be present , particularly in new guinea . type species : acanthophis cerastinus daudin 1803 is the type species of the genus acanthophis daudin 1803 . subspecies : acanthophis antarcticus laevis ( macleay 1878 ) and acanthophis antarcticus rugosus loveridge 1948 have been elevated to species status . synonymy mostly after cogger 1983 . acanthophis antarcticus cliffrosswelingtoni hoser 2002 maybe synonymous to a . antarcticus ( w . w\u00fcster , pers . comm . , 15 dec 2010 ) . kaiser et al . 2013 considered the subpecies acanthophis antarcticus cliffrosswelingtoni hoser 2002 and the genus aggressiserpens wells 2002 invalid and rejected them . note that the date of shaw & nodder\u2019s publication ( 1794 ) cited by boulenger ( 1896 ) and subsequent authors is in error fide sherborn ( 1895 ) [ cited in cogger 1983 ] . the correct publication year is 1802 . venomous !\nkim , h . s . and tamiya , n . 1981 . isolation , properties and amino acid sequence of a long chain neurotoxin , acanthophis antarcticus b , from the venom of and australian snake ( the common death adder acanthophis antarcticus ) , biochemical journal , 193 : 899 - 906 .\nupon viewing the acanthophis at the australian museum spirit house , the animal r147655 was immediately retrieved as being like no other acanthophis in the collection . that it ' s collection locality data matched that of specimen number 22812 at the museum of comparative zoology ( the type ) came as no surprise .\nphotographic comparison of a common death adder ( acanthophis antarcticus ) with a terciopelo viper ( bothrops asper ) , illustrating morphological similarities ( e . g . thin tail , triangular head , thick and short body ) between acanthophis sp . and viperidae snakes ( photos : cnzdenek ; dinoanimals . com )\nnamed the kimberley death adder ( acanthophis cryptamydros ) , the snake is roughly 24 inches ( 60 cm ) long and has a diamond - shaped head .\nwells , richard w . 2002 . taxonomy the genus acanthophis ( reptilia : elapidae ) in australia . australian biodiversity record ( 5 ) : 1 - 16\ndistribution : as mentioned already acanthophis antarcticus cliffrosswellingtoni subsp . nov . appears to be distributed on the eyre peninsula of south australia and nearby places to the east and west in south australia . the status of acanthophis populations near eucla near the sa / wa border and those on nearby offshore islands is not entirely certain .\n17 / desert death adder ( a . pyrrhus ) , male , from the tits , wa . in flattened defensive posture which is typical of all acanthophis .\nhay , m . 1972 . notes on the growth and breeding of acanthophis antarcticus\u2019 , the australian herpetological society journal , 4 ( 4 ) : 14 - 15 .\nhoser , raymond 1998 . colour change in death adders ( acanthophis antarcticus ) and other reptiles . monitor 10 ( 1 ) : 4 ; 31 - get paper here\nit was suggested that perhaps a . groenveldi and a . macgregori should be treated as subspecific to a . laevis , however due to the physical distance of seram and tanimbar from new guinea and the time it is assumed that populations of acanthophis from these places have had their populations genetically isolated , it was decided to treat the three groups of acanthophis as being of separate species unless and until compelling evidence to the contrary arises . all species of acanthophis as identified here can be separated via dna analysis .\nthere may also be an undescribed subspecies in inland south - eastern queensland ( see under the discussion for the newly described subspecies acanthophis antarcticus cliffrosswellingtoni subsp . nov . ) .\ntrade : hoser ( 1991 , 1993 , 1996 ) discusses the legal and illegal trade of australian reptiles , including acanthophis , as well as conservation of these snakes . persons within australia contemplating trapping , studying or keeping these snakes , or any other acanthophis and complying with the relevant state laws are referred to hoser ( 1993 , 1996 ) .\nfyfe , g . and munday , b . 1988 . captive breeding of the desert death adder ( acanthophis pyrrhus ) , herpetofauna , 18 ( 2 ) : 21 .\nmirtschin , p . j . 1982 . further notes on breeding death adders ( acanthophis antarcticus ) in captivity . herpetofauna , 13 ( 2 ) : 14 - 17 .\nhay , m . 1972 . notes on the growth and breeding of acanthophis antarcticus ' , the australian herpetological society journal , 4 ( 4 ) : 14 - 15 .\nstorr , g . m . ( 1981 ) the genus acanthophis ( serpentes : elapidae ) in western australia . records of the western australian museum , 9 , 203\u2013210 .\nhoser , r . t . 1987 . notes on the breeding of death adders ( acanthophis antarcticus ) \u2019 , herptile , 12 ( 2 ) : 56 - 61 . *\nhoser , r . t . 1987 . notes on the breeding of death adders ( acanthophis antarcticus ) ' , herptile , 12 ( 2 ) : 56 - 61 . *\nshine , r . ( 1980 ) ecology of the australian death adder , acanthophis antarcticus ( elapidae ) : evidence for convergence with the viperidae . herpetologica , 36 , 281\u2013289 .\nschulz , k . - d . & w . grossmann 1990 . das portrait : acanthophis pyrrhus boulenger . sauria 12 ( 2 ) : 1 - 2 - get paper here\nalthough acanthophis will readily eat frogs ( see shine , ( 1980 ) for a detailed analysis of what wild death adders will eat ) , these are not recommended due to the heavy parasite burden carried by these animals . although i never had parasite problems with my acanthophis , taronga zoo in sydney reported ascarid ( blood parasite ) problems with some of it ' s desert death adders . on ( extremely ) rare occasions that acanthophis have had to be force or\nassist\n- fed , this has not posed any problems .\nboulenger , g . a . 1898 . description of a new death adder ( acanthophis ) from central australia . annals magazine of natural history , 7 ( 2 ) : 75 .\nhoser , r . t . 1982 , frequency of sloughing in captive morelia , liasis and acanthophis ( serpentes ) , herptile , 7 ( 3 ) : 20 - 26 . *\nsnakes - death adders - genus acanthophis - the definitive paper - by raymond hoser , published in the reptilian magazine ( uk ) in 1995 - . . . the full text .\nbarnett , brian f . & graeme f . gow 1994 . the berkly tableland death adder acanthophis antarcticus . litteratura serpentium 14 ( 3 ) : 80 - 85 - get paper here\nthe genus name , acanthophis , derives from the ancient greek acanthos meaning\nspine\nand ophis witch means\nsnake\n, and refers to the spine found in its tail .\ncampbell , c . h . : the death adder ( acanthophis antarcticus ) : the effect of its bite and its treatment . med j aust . 2 : 922 , 1966 .\nso i was going to make a long video of my acanthophis feeding but interesting things happened so i ended up making a short but interesting video . in the first part , you can see my acanthophis hawkei using her tail as a lure . this is called caudal luring and is a very common hunting method for several snake species . acanthophis genus in general uses caudal luring very often for hunting . the second part of the video is the unusual part . i was trying to remove my yearling female acanthophis hawkei and she went into feeding mode immediately . when she saw movement , she attacked and bit the little cactus plant , which is planted in the cage . you don ' t see a vegetarian death adder everyday so enjoy : )\nas of 1998 , there have been no records of sympatry in the wild between different species of acanthophis , a point noted by mcdowall ( 1984 ) . although there is no dispute in the fact that all acanthophis are closely related , it is uncertain if given similarities between different species reflect immediate relationships or are instead due to convergence in evolution to cope with localised conditions .\nhoser , r . t . 1981 . note on an unsuitable food item taken by a death adder ( acanthophis antarcticus ) ( shaw ) herpetofauna 13 ( 1 ) : 31 . *\nhoser , r . t . 1983 . mating behavior in australian death adders , genus acanthophis ( serpentes elapidae ) , herptile ( 8 ) 1 , 1983 : 25 - 33 . *\nvalentic , r . 1998 . notes on rearing australian death adders genus acanthophis , monitor - journal of the victorian herpetological society , 9 ( 2 ) : 32 , 42 - 47 .\nhoser , r . t . 1983 . mating behavior in australian death adders , genus acanthophis ( serpentes elapidae ) , herptile ( 8 ) 1 , 1983 : 25 - 33 . *\nhoser , r . t . 1985 . on melanistic tendencies in death adders , acanthophis antarcticus ( shaw ) . litteratura serpentium 5 ( 4 ) : 157 - 159 - get paper here\nhoser , raymond t . 1990 . literature : notes on the breeding of death adders ( acanthophis antarcticus ) . litteratura serpentium 10 ( 6 ) : 271 - 272 - get paper here\nshine , r . 1980 . ecology of the australian death adder acanthophis antarcticus ( elapidae ) : evidence for convergence with the viperidae . herpetologica 36 : 281 - 289 - get paper here\nramsay , e . p . ( 1877 ) description of a supposed new species of acanthophis from north australia . proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales , 2 , 72\u201374 .\nramsay , e . p . 1877 . description of a supposed new species of acanthophis from north australia , proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales , 2 : 72 - 74 .\nshine , r . 1980 , ecology of the australian death adder acanthophis antarcticus ( elapidae ) : evidence for convergence with the viperidae . herpetologica , 36 ( 4 ) : 281 - 289 .\nstorr , g . m . 1981 . the genus acanthophis ( serpentes : elapidae ) in western australia , records of the western australian museum , 9 ( 2 ) : 203 - 210 .\ndobiey , maik ; frank weinsheimer , guido westhoff 2008 . cannibalism in two species of death adders ( acanthophis rugosus and a . antarcticus ) . ophidia 2 ( 2 ) - get paper here\njohnston , g . 1996 . genetic and seasonal variation in body colour of the australian death adder , acanthophis antarcticus ( squamata : elapidae ) . journal of zoology 239 ( 1 ) : 187\nlongmore ( 1986 ) records no acanthophis ( of any species ) in a distinct area of the gulf of carpentaria running several hundred kilometers south from the southern most part of the gulf , although acanthophis are known from the islands of the gulf , including groote ( lancasteri ) and mornington ( species not known ) . this apparent gap separates a . lancasteri from a . praelongus in north queensland .\nthe acanthophis names as used by hoser ( 1998 ) have become adopted by some , but not all wildlife authorities and within this ambit , some names are recognised by some and others are not .\ngow , g . f . 1981 . notes on the desert death adder ( acanthophis pyrrhus ) boulenger 1898 , with the first reproductive record . northern territory naturalist , 4 : 21 - 22 .\nhoser , r . t . 1985a . genetic composition of death adders ( acanthophis antarcticus : serpentes : elapidae ) in the west head area , herptile , 10 ( 3 ) : 96 . *\nhoser , r . t . 1985b . on melanistic tendencies in death adders acanthophis antarcticus ( shaw ) . litteratura serpentium ( english edition ) , 5 ( 4 ) : 157 - 159 . *\nstorr , g . m . 1981 . the genus acanthophis ( serpentes : elapidae ) in western australia . rec . west . austr . mus . 9 : 203 - 210 - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . ( 1898 ) description of a new death adder ( acanthophis ) from central australia . annals and magazine of natural history , series 7 , 2 , 75 . urltoken\njohnston , g . ( 1996 ) genetic and seasonal variation in body colour of the australian death adder , acanthophis antarcticus ( squamata : elapidae ) . journal of zoology , 239 , 187\u2013196 . urltoken\nan extended description of the pilbara death adder , acanthophis wellsi hoser ( serpentes elapidae ) , with notes on the desert death adder , a . pyrrhus boulenger , and identification of a possible hybrid zone\nhay , m . ( 1972 ) , ' notes on the growth and breeding of acanthophis antarcticus ' , the australian herpetological society journal , 4 ( 4 ) , pp . 14 - 15 .\nhoser , r . t . ( 1987 ) , ' notes on the breeding of death adders ( acanthophis antarcticus ) ' , herptile , 12 ( 2 ) , pp . 56 - 61 .\ndeath adders ( genus acanthophis ) : an updated overview , including descriptions of three new species and two subspecies . a 2002 paper published in crocodilian - journal of the victorian association of amateur herpetologists .\nacanthophis from near camooweal , queensland , tend to have heavy white markings on the lower supralabials , ( upper lips ) but unlike in a . hawkei from anthony ' s lagoon , nt , they do not quite form a distinct\nwhite - lipped\nappearance . some reptile keepers have classified these snakes as\nbarkly adders\n( = a . hawkei ) and it is probably with these snakes that the camooweal acanthophis have closest affinity , noting that camooweal is situated roughly on the edge of the black soil part of the barkly tableland . this author regards camooweal acanthophis as a . hawkei .\nsize : despite the variations within the literature , it is generally thought that a . antarcticus , a . hawkei and a . woolfi are the three largest species of acanthophis - at least within australia .\nin acanthophis antarcticus cliffrosswellingtoni subsp . nov . the lighter triangles on the front upper labials are generally either less distinct than in a . antarcticus schistos or even absent , instead being replaced by dark pigment .\ndiagnosis : known at this stage only from the island of seram to the west of new guinea . this is also diagnostic for this species . a . groenveldi is the only acanthophis found on seram .\na pilot genetic analysis of a small number of individuals suggests that all of the species of acanthophis are closely related . acanthophis wellsi appears to be closest genetically to a . pyrrhus , but this may not denote a special cladistic affinity . a cladistic analysis of morphological characters identifies a . wellsi as a relatively plesiomorphic species , perhaps ' closest in overall body form to the common ancestor of all acanthaphis species .\nfyfe , g . and munday , b . ( 1988 ) , ' captive breeding of the desert death adder ( acanthophis pyrrhus ) ' , herpetofauna , 18 ( 2 ) , p . 21 .\nmirtschin , p . j . ( 1982 ) , ' further notes on breeding death adders ( acanthophis antarcticus ) in captivity . ' herpetofauna , 13 ( 2 ) , pp . 14 - 17 .\nthe west australian specimens of a . antarcticus schistos are separated from acanthophis antarcticus cliffrosswellingtoni subsp . nov . by dna properties , venom properties and colouration , particularly in terms of usual markings around the labial scales .\nhoser , r . t . 1995 . australia\u2019s death adders , genus acanthophis , the reptilian 3 ( 4 ) pp . 7 - 21 and cover , 3 ( 5 ) : 27 - 34 . *\nhoser , r . 1998 . death adders ( genus acanthophis ) : an overview , including descriptions of five new species and one subspecies . monitor 9 ( 2 ) : 20 - 41 - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1898 . description of a new death adder ( acanthophis ) from central australia . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 2 : 75 - get paper here\nshine ( 1981 ) found that in the wild , male acanthophis mature at about 24 months , while females mature at about 42 months . this was based on museum dissections of various species ( all lumped together ) . local populations may vary slightly on this basic pattern . captive acanthophis tend to mature much earlier , the exact rate dependent on feeding and temperature of the young snake . it is common to have both sexes mature within 24 months in a captive environment . as a snake , acanthophis lend themselves to being kept and bred in large numbers . hopefully in the future they will be more commonly seen in captivity .\nhoser , r . t . ( 1982 ) , ' frequency of sloughing in captive morelia , liasis and acanthophis ( serpentes ) ' , herptile , 7 ( 3 ) , pp . 20 - 26 .\ndeath adders ( genus acanthophis ) : an overview , including descriptions of five new species and one subspecies an 11 , 000 word paper in monitor - journal of the victorian herpetological society published in april 1998 .\nthe newly - discovered species belongs to acanthophis ( australian death adders ) , a genus of highly venomous snakes found in australia and new guinea , and also on several indonesian islands to the west of new guinea .\nin 1985 , wells and wellington assigned all western australian a . pyrrhus to a new species , namely\na . armstrongi\n. that they intended placing all a . pyrrhus from western australia into the new species is confirmed by their statement \u2018storr ( 1981 : 207 - 208 ) provided a description of a species from north - western australia that he regarded as acanthophis pyrrhus . however , we consider that this is really an undescribed species , herein named acanthophis armstrongi , and that the species acanthophis pyrrhus is confined to central australia . acanthophis armstrongi is believed confined to the pilbara and kimberley regions of western australia and can be identified by referring to the illustrations in storr ( 1981 : fig 3 ) and gow ( 1983 : plate 15 , ( upper ) , specimen from port hedland , western australia vide gow , pers . comm . ) . \u2019\nramsay , e . p . 1877 . description of a supposed new species of acanthophis from north australia . proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales , 2 : 72 - 74 . - get paper here\nhoser , r . t . ( 1983 ) , ' mating behaviour in australian death adders , genus acanthophis ( serpentes elapidae ) ' , herptile ( 8 ) 1 , 1983 , pp . 25 - 33 .\nin 1985 , wells and wellington assigned all western australian a . pyrrhus to a new species , namely\na . armstrongi\n. that they intended placing all a . pyrrhus from western australia into the new species is confirmed by their statement ' storr ( 1981 : 207 - 208 ) provided a description of a species from north - western australia that he regarded as acanthophis pyrrhus . however , we consider that this is really an undescribed species , herein named acanthophis armstrongi , and that the species acanthophis pyrrhus is confined to central australia . acanthophis armstrongi is believed confined to the pilbara and kimberley regions of western australia and can be identified by referring to the illustrations in storr ( 1981 : fig 3 ) and gow ( 1983 : plate 15 , ( upper ) , specimen from port hedland , western australia vide gow , pers . comm . ) . '\ncommon death adder ( acanthophis antarcticus ) * family : elapidae , * genus : acanthophis , * species : a . antarcticus , * phylum : chordata , * class : reptilia , * order : squamata , * suborder : serpentes , * type : reptile , * diet : carnivore , * avarege life span in the wild : averages 15 - - 20 years , * size : reaching a length of 70 - 100 centimeters , * weight : no data , * * acanthophis antarcticus , is a species of death adder native to australia . it is one of the most venomous land snakes in australia and the world . more info : urltoken\nin 1997 - 8 when doing a taxonomic review of acanthophis , this author obtained a copy of the wells and wellington paper and noted that they had in fact described\na . armstrongi\nas a pilbara death adder . however what had apparently been overlooked was that the snake described by wells and wellington had not been the undescribed form of acanthophis , but rather the local variant of what is commonly known as a . pyrrhus .\nhoser , r . t . 1995 . australia ' s death adders , genus acanthophis , the reptilian 3 ( 4 ) pp . 7 - 21 and cover , 3 ( 5 ) : 27 - 34 . *\nan extended description of the pilbara death adder , acanthophis wellsi hoser ( serpentes elapidae ) , with notes on the desert death adder , a . pyrrhus boulenger , and identification of a possible hybrid zone | western australian museum\nhoser , r . t . ( 1981 ) , ' note on an unsuitable food item taken by a death adder ( acanthophis antarcticus ) ( shaw ) ' , herpetofauna 13 ( 1 ) , p . 31 .\nhoser , r . t . ( 1985b ) ' on melanistic tendancies in death adders acanthophis antarcticus ( shaw ) . ' litteratura serpentium ( english edition ) , 5 ( 4 ) , pp . 157 - 159 .\nshine , r . ( 1980 ) , ecology of the australian death adder acanthophis antarcticus ( elapidae ) : evidence for convergence with the viperidae . ' herpetologica , 36 ( 4 ) , pp . 281 - 289 .\ndeath adders ( genus acanthophis ) are found in most parts of australia , new guinea and adjacent islands . they are unusual among the elapids in that they have evolved to become viperine in appearance and habit . all species are characterised by a broad somewhat flattened , triangular head , short stout body and a thin rat - like body ending in a curved spine . the spine and the presence of subocular scales separates acanthophis from all other australasian elapids .\nbarnett , b . f . and gow , g . f . 1992 . the barkly tableland death adder , acanthophis antarcticus , monitor , bulletin of the victorian herpetological society , 4 ( 1 ) : 13 - 23 .\ngow , g . f . ( 1981 ) ' notes on the desert death adder ( acanthophis pyrrhus ) boulenger 1898 , with the first reproductive record . ' northern territory naturalist , 4 , pp . 21 - 22 .\nhoser , r . t . ( 1985a ) , ' genetic composition of death adders ( acanthophis antarcticus : serpentes : elapidae ) in the west head area ' , herptile , 10 ( 3 ) , p . 96 .\nmy own acanthophis didn ' t seem to object to being photographed while mating . on one occasion ( 8th may 1981 ) , two mating death adders ( a . antarcticus ) were free handled by thieves ( while connected ) , had cigarettes ashed on them and yet they still continued to mate without attempting to break up ! although males of all species of acanthophis will mate other species of acanthophis , they do tend to prefer mating their own species and will do so if offered a choice ( in a captive situation ) . extremely highly sexed males will attempt to mount other males if no females are present in the same cage . this even applies with acanthophis of different species . it is not rare for a male acanthophis to run down condition fairly sharply when mating over a period extending up to two months . overfed males tend not to be as sexually active as leaner ( not necessarily thin ) males . this situation also occurs for other types of reptile . in spite of a warning to readers to watch the condition of males when mating , i have never had a male run itself down beyond the point of recovery .\nfurthermore this subspecies has ( on average ) less neurotoxic venom than all other variants of a . antarcticus known , including a . antarcticus antarcticus from eastern australia and the south - west west australian population , herein referred to as a . antarcticus schistos ( see the taxonomic note near the end of this paper ) . acanthophis antarcticus cliffrosswellingtoni subsp . nov . is separated from all other acanthophis ( all species and subspecies ) by dna and venom properties and distribution .\njohnston , g . r . 1987 . reproduction and growth in captive death adders acanthophis antarcticus ( squamata : elapidae ) . transactions of the royal society of south australia , 11 ( 1 - 2 ) : 123 - 125 .\nstettler , p . h . 1985 . australian death adders - remarks concerning the post - embryonic development of acanthophis antarcticus ( shaw , 1794 ) , litteratura serpentium , english edition , 5 ( 5 ) : 170 - 190 .\nstorr , g . m . ( 1981 ) , ' the genus acanthophis ( serpentes : elapidae ) in western australia . ' , records of the western australian museum , 9 ( 2 ) , pp . 203 - 210 .\ndiagnosis : similar in most respects to acanthophis antarcticus , the type subspecies being defined here as coming from sydney new south wales , from which they differ in their slightly smaller average size and generally different ground colouration . notwithstanding the high degree of variability in a . antarcticus in general , dorsally the grey specimens of acanthophis antarcticus cliffrosswellingtoni subsp . nov . are never as silvery , steely - grey as the grey morph of a . antarcticus typified by sydney specimens . likewise the red specimens are rarely if ever the same brick - red colour , those of acanthophis antarcticus cliffrosswellingtoni subsp . nov . tending slightly more towards an orangeish , rather than a salmon or reddish pink as in a . antarcticus .\nsynonymy after cogger 1983 , who also listed acanthophis antarcticus rugosus loveridge 1948 as a synonym of a . praelongus . closely related to a . antarcticus according to w\u00fcster ( 2004 ) . see also entry of a . laevis . venomous !\nstettler , p . - h . 1985 . australian death adders - remarks concerning the post - embryonic developement of acanthophis antarcticus antarcticus ( shaw , 1794 ) . litteratura serpentium 5 ( 5 ) : 170 - 180 - get paper here\nhoser , r . t . ( 1998 ) death adders ( genus acanthophis ) : an overview , including descriptions of five new species and one subspecies . monitor , journal of the victorian herpetological society , 9 , 20\u201330 , 33\u201341 .\nhoser , r . t . 1997a the mating behavior and breeding of australian death adders , genus : acanthophis ( serpentes : elapidae ) , monitor - journal of the victorian herpetological society 8 ( 3 ) : 135 - 144 and cover .\nmackay , w . j . 1889 . the osteology and myology of the death adder ( acanthophis antarctica ) . proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . ( 2 ) 4 : 896 - 986 - get paper here\ncommon death adder ( acanthophis antarcticus ) . note the scale colours matches either the top or underneath of leaves remarkably well . the caudal lure is adjacent the head , probably to ensure the protection of this precious , modified body part . \u00a9cnzdenek\nthe type specimen of a . laevis has not been inspected by this author , however an inspection of acanthophis from the same locality and nearby areas conform with macleay\u2019s description and this author has assigned all those snakes to a . laevis . the snake in question is substantially different to the a . praelongus described by ramsay , which is presumably based on a north queensland acanthophis , from near somerset , ( cape york ) queensland . acanthophis laevis has smooth scales , while a . praelongus tends to have slightly keeled scales . head patterning of both species is also usually radically different . for example compare the photo of a . praelongus from north queensland ( plate 380 , hoser , 1989 ) with the a . laevis shown here .\ncaptivity : breeding data for captive specimens is provided by barnett and gow ( 1992 ) . barnett quoted snout - vent lengths of offspring in a litter ranging from 193 - 207 mm , which is far in excess that recorded for any other species of acanthophis , including a . antarcticus , lending weight to claims that this is the largest form of acanthophis . the species has been bred in captivity in recent years by brian barnett in victoria ( again ) and roland burrell in south australia .\nhoser , r . t . 1998 . death adders ( genus acanthophis ) : an overview , including descriptions of five new species and one subspecies . monitor - journal of the victorian herpetological society 9 ( 2 ) : 20 - 41 . *\nthe type specimen of a . laevis has not been inspected by this author , however an inspection of acanthophis from the same locality and nearby areas conform with macleay ' s description and this author has assigned all those snakes to a . laevis . the snake in question is substantially different to the a . praelongus described by ramsay , which is presumably based on a north queensland acanthophis , from near somerset , ( cape york ) queensland . acanthophis laevis has smooth scales , while a . praelongus tends to have slightly keeled scales . head patterning of both species is also usually radically different . for example compare the photo of a . praelongus from north queensland ( plate 380 , hoser , 1989 ) with the a . laevis shown here .\nvalentic , r . 1997 . notes on the capture and captive husbandry of a female death adder acanthophis antarcticus fromthe upper eyre peninsula , sth . aust . monitor : journal of the victorian herpetological society . 9 ( 1 ) : 13 - 17\nshine , r . , spencer , c . l . & keogh , j . s . ( 2014 ) morphology , reproduction and diet in australian and papuan death adders ( acanthophis , elapidae ) . plos one , 9 , e94216 . urltoken\nacanthophis usually slough in one piece , and repeated failure by a captive snake to do so may indicate a health problem that needs to be addressed . i have never observed acanthophis soaking prior to sloughing or heard of captive specimens having difficulty in doing so . this is except for some minor problems experienced by mirtschin , who had snakes which had piecemeal sloughs . he thought this was due to excessive dryness in his cages which tended to lack cover . when feeding snakes in group cages i often had snakes bite and chew one another , with no adverse effects on one another ( hoser 1985c ) . that appeared to indicate immunity to venom by these snakes . stettler ( 1985 ) and van woerkom ( 1985 ) documented a case involving apparent non - immunity to venom in acanthophis from unknown locality whereby two apparently healthy snakes died from bites from a fellow acanthophis that was part of the same litter . although the cause of death may have been something other than venom , this whole area needs further investigation .\ndiagnosis : for the colouration in life , see this magazine depicting a specimen from just south of darwin , nt . it should be noted that in line with other acanthophis , a . cummingi is extremely variable in colour , even within a single locality .\nsheumack , d . d . , howden , m . e . h . and spence , i . 1979 . isolation and partial characterisation of a lethal neurotoxin from the venom of the australian death adder ( acanthophis antarcticus ) , toxicon 17 : 609 .\nkeys that differentiate different species of acanthophis have not been presented here . all keys seen by this author for the genus acathophis appear to break down with susbstantial regularity due to veriablity within each species , even though a number of species divisons are widely acknowledged .\nbarnett , b . f . and gow , g . f . ( 1992 ) , ' the barkly tableland death adder , acanthophis antarcticus ' , monitor , bulletin of the victorian herpetological society , 4 ( 1 ) , pp . 13 - 23 .\nstettler , p . h . ( 1985 ) , australian death adders - remarks concerning the post - embryonic development of acanthophis antarcticus ( shaw , 1794 ) ' , litteratura serpentium , english edition , 5 ( 5 ) , pp . 170 - 190 .\ni am unaware of records of captive breeding of acanthophis outside of australia , but see no difficulties in such taking place . most acanthophis ( all species ) breed only every second year . this is genetically pre - determined and contrary to popular belief is not influenced by food intake or general condition of the female prior to a given breeding season . occasional individuals ( females ) are able to breed every year , and will do so in captivity . following successful mating in autumn or spring , all acanthophis give birth in summer and early autumn ( late january to early may ) . for a . antarcticus the number of young born are known to range up to 33 . based on dissections of museum specimens , shine found the average litter size for the species of 8 .\njohnston , g . r . ( 1987 ) , ' reproduction and growth in captive death adders acanthophis antarcticus ( squamata : elapidae ) . ' transactions of the royal society of south australia , 11 ( 1 - 2 ) , pp . 123 - 125 .\nlindgren ( 1975 ) , plate 88 depicts a head photo of a snake this author believes is probably a . laevis in life . however it\u2019s facial markings are not like the a . laevis at the australian museum . it is believed that the non - black dark pigment tends to fade faster than the black pigment in preserved animals ; this trait is believed to be common to all acanthophis . the point is noted here as a lack of black pigment in a . laevis , may make specimens fade more than other acanthophis species .\nparatype : a specimen held in the museum of zoology , bogor from tanimbar , lat : 7\u00b030\u2019 long : 131\u00b030\u2019 , specimen number mzb 2056 . the dorsal colouration of the paratype specimen is also typical for acanthophis in that dorsally it has alternating darker and lighter crossbands .\nherein restricted to the cape york region of queensland and adjacent areas . refer to above descriptions of a . laevis and a . lancasteri . populations of acanthophis from western australia and the northern territory formerly referred to as this species are now classified as a . lancasteri . populations of acanthophis from new guinea and other islands north of australia that may have been referred to as this species are no longer regarded as such ( see for a . barnetti , a . crotalusei , a . laevis , above and a . rugosus below ) .\ncarpenter , c . c . , murphy , j . b . and carpenter , g . c . 1978 . caudal luring in the death adder ( acanthophis antarcticus ( reptilia , serpentes , elapidae ) ) , journal of herpetology , 12 : 574 - 577 .\nunless otherwise stated , i shall here treat new guinea acanthophis and those from adjacent islands as a variant of a . praelongus . a trait common to many a . praelongus , in particular new guinea specimens is a raised suracilliary scale above the eye . this feature is often particularly pronounced in immature specimens . it is occasionally seen to a limited degree in young a . antarcticus . a similar trait ( often even more exaggerated ) is seen in some of the true vipers . no acanthophis species are rare or endangered . all are widely distributed and common in their preferred habitats . their preferred habitats vary , but are essentially undisturbed bushland with some form of ground cover . the cover doesn ' t have to be leaf litter , but can be rocks , native grasses or almost anything else . however any disturbed habitat or grazed areas tend not to have acanthophis . acanthophis are most vulnerable to any form of human disturbance and therefore only occur in virgin bush . the construction of a road through such a habitat ( with no other development ) is not counted as disturbance .\ndue to the steady removal of bushland throughout australia , all acanthophis are in decline . for a number of reasons , the death adder ( a . antarcticus ) , often called\nthe southern variety\nnever is found in the same numbers as the other two species . it is for this reason that the name\ncommon\ndeath adder really is a misnomer . all acanthophis are mainly nocturnal and are highly secretive snakes . they spend most of their time half buried in ground litter waiting in an ambush position for food , or simply sheltering . unlike most other australian snakes , they tend not to flee when approached , relying instead on their cryptic colouration and camoflague to avoid detection . that this works is indicated by the fact that most bites from acanthophis seem to occur when they are trodden on .\ndiagnosis : this acanthophis is separated from all others in the genus by distribution , being the only species to occur on the island of tanimbar . it is separated from all other acanthophis species except laevis and groenveldi by it\u2019s ventral scalation , which is usually under 118 . ventral scale counts for two specimens of a . macgregori came to 113 . the relationship of a . macgregori to those acanthophis from adjacent islands is uncertain . specimens of the species observed by this author appear to be different from a . laevis and a . groenveldi in that the supra - ocular is not quite as raised . however this may not be a consistent diagnostic trait . this species appears to be quite unlike a . rugosa and a . lancasteri found to the mainland areas north and south of tanimbar in adjacent new guinea and australia .\nsimon t . maddock et al . 2015 . a new species of death adder ( acanthophis : serpentes : elapidae ) from north - western australia . zootaxa 4007 ( 3 ) : 301 \u2013 326 ; doi : 10 . 11646 / zootaxa . 4007 . 3 . 1\nthis jagged\nwhite - lipped\nappearance is relatively unusual in a . antarcticus and has never been seen to the same degree as is typical for a . hawkei . excluding a . antarcticus , adult a . hawkei could not be confused with any other australian acanthophis .\nlindgren ( 1975 ) , plate 88 depicts a head photo of a snake this author believes is probably a . laevis in life . however it ' s facial markings are not like the a . laevis at the australian museum . it is believed that the non - black dark pigment tends to fade faster than the black pigment in preserved animals ; this trait is believed to be common to all acanthophis . the point is noted here as a lack of black pigment in a . laevis , may make specimens fade more than other acanthophis species .\na new species of viper - like snake discovered in the kimberley region of northwestern australia is highly venomous and expertly camouflaged . called acanthophis cryptamydros , the kimberley death adder is a sit - and - wait predator \u2013 ambushing frogs , lizards , and small mammals passing by .\nthis author has been in regular contact with the western australian museum staff for many years and received correspondences from them implying that they may undertake and publish a second review of the genus acanthophis ( e . g . smith 1997 ) , the first review being that of storr ( 1981 ) . it is noted that a time frame of over 6 years has elapsed since the undescribed pilbara acanthophis was originally found by scientists and staff at the western australian museum . it is noted that to date they have chosen not to describe it as a new species .\nsynonymy : not listed by cogger 2000 . the name was emended to wellsi as the species was described in honor of richard wells . acanthophis wellsi donnellani hoser 2002 may be a synonym of a . wellsi ( w\u00fcster , pers . comm . 15 dec 2010 ) . venomous !\nmaddock , simon t . ; ryan j . ellis , paul doughty , lawrence a . smith & wolfgang w\u00fcster 2015 . a new species of death adder ( acanthophis : serpentes : elapidae ) from north - western australia zootaxa 4007 ( 3 ) : 301\u2013326 - get paper here\nlet me have a little guess at what is going on . while i do not have the wa musem publications at hand , i will hazard a guess that these august publications use one single one of the numerous names you have been throwing around in recent years : acanthophis wellsi\nacanthophis have highly varied diets , including frogs , birds , small mammals and lizards . captive a . antarcticus and a . pyrrhus have been known to take live goldfish placed writhing in their cages . diet obviously also varies with locality . west head adders ( a . antarcticus ) , have been known to disgorge frogs ( crinia signifera ) , while such prey would be absent from areas where other acanthophis may occur . one 86 . 5 cm female death adder ( a . antarcticus ) was caught in the wild , having just fed on a large 80 cm water dragon lizard ( physignathus lesueurii ) . the snake died shortly after due to the lizard ' s spines penetrating the digestive tract ( see hoser 1981 ) . acanthophis attempt to capture prey by wriggling their tails ( caudal luring ) , ( carpenter , murphy and carpenter , 1978 ) . when the prey animal ( such as a native mouse ) goes for the tail , the snake strikes at the animal with great accuracy . even if the animal struggles aggressively , acanthophis will tend to hang on until the animal is totally subdued ( dead ) .\ncopulation usually appears to be terminated by the female . this is usually done when she crawls off , dragging the male along behind her by his still joined hemipenis . mating behaviour is most likely during times of outside temperature and air - pressure changes . in a captive situation , it is best to plan matings around these conditions . although acanthophis that are housed together will mate readily , separation of sexes strongly increases the eagerness of males to mate . not all matings will result in pregnancies . acanthophis will mate at any time of year , although most activity seems to be concentrated around autumn and spring , which is also when most successful matings also occur . although it is thought that at least some acanthophis have some sperm storage capabilities , no investigation of this has yet been done . in hay ' s ( hay , 1972 ) case , his female hadn ' t mated for 12 months before giving birth . gow and barnett ( 1992 ) quote a\ngestation\nperiod for barkly adders of , 142 , 147 and 161 days in three cases . the figures quoted by gow and barnett tend towards the shorter end of the spectrum for successful matings in acanthophis ( those\ngestations\nat the short end of the spectrum are also the most commonly quoted ) . for my own breedings , the successful matings ( that resulted in young being born ) were deduced to have taken place some 6 - 9 months earlier , ( there were either no other matings or possibilities in all cases ) . assuming that young death adders develop in a similar manner in all cases , sperm storage is indicated in acanthophis by the experiences of hay and myself . further research into sperm storage capabilities of acanthophis is required .\nspecimens of acanthophis from islands in the torres strait region north of cape york in the australian museum have been seen by this author . while being tentatively assigned to this species ( a . praelongus ) by this author , do have intermediate characteristics between this species and a . laevis , the most notable being reduced ventral scale counts . noting that aplin and donnellan ( 1999 ) identified a zone of hybridization between a . wellsei and a . pyrrhus in western australia , it is likely that such may in fact occur between another two acanthophis species in the torres strait area ."]}
{"id": 2178, "summary": [{"text": "psychomastatix deserticola is a species of grasshopper in the family eumastacidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is endemic to the united states .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is known commonly as the desert monkey grasshopper . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "psychomastatix deserticola", "paragraphs": ["iucn red list of threatened species . version 2012 . 1 ( 18650 ) psychomastatix deserticola\niucn red list of threatened species . version 2012 . 2 ( 18650 ) psychomastatix deserticola\nwikipedia article copyright notice : this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . it uses material from the wikipedia article\npsychomastatix deserticola\n.\nfacts summary : the desert monkey grasshopper ( psychomastatix deserticola ) is a species of concern belonging in the species group\ninsects\nand found in the following area ( s ) : united states .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nevi , an amazon company , was founded in 2005 under the name true knowledge . the team started out with a mission to make it possible to access the world ' s knowledge simply by asking for information using natural language .\nwe\u2019re part of the amazon alexa team based in amazon ' s innovative cambridge development centre , alongside other amazon teams including prime air , core machine learning , amazon devices and amazon web services .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthis article is only an excerpt . if it appears incomplete or if you wish to see article references , visit the rest of its contents here .\nglenn , c . r . 2006 .\nearth ' s endangered creatures - desert monkey grasshopper facts\n( online ) - licensed article from wikipedia : the free encyclopedia . accessed\nsea turtles are graceful saltwater reptiles , well adapted to life at sea . unlike turtles on land , sea turtles cannot retract their legs and head . but with streamlined bodies and flipper - like limbs , they are graceful swimmers able to navigate across the oceans of the world .\nhere , we look at the seven species that can be found today , all of which are said to have been around since the time of the dinosaurs .\nlist of all endangered animals . list of all endangered plants . list of all endangered species ( animals & plants ) . by species group ( mammal , birds , etc ) . . . united states endangered species list . browse by country , island , us state . . . search for an endangered species profile .\nare you inspired by endangered animals ? check out our games and coloring pages ! more to come soon .\nthis page was last edited on 19 december 2006 , at 08 : 26 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more"]}
{"id": 2180, "summary": [{"text": "ibn bey ( 22 march 1984 \u2013 10 december 2012 ) was a british-bred thoroughbred racehorse and sire who won major races in the united kingdom , france , ireland , italy and germany as well as competing in the united states and japan .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "after winning once as a two-year-old in 1986 he won the predominate stakes in 1987 before recording his first group one success in the gran premio d'italia .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he continued to improve with age and developed into a formidable international campaigner over long distances winning the grand prix de deauville , prix maurice de nieuil , geoffrey freer stakes , preis von europa , grosser preis von berlin and irish st leger .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "on his penultimate start he produced arguably his best performance when finishing second in the breeders ' cup classic .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he was retired from racing to become a breeding stallion in japan where he had limited impact as a sire of winners .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "he died in japan in december 2012 . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "ibn bey", "paragraphs": ["funeral procession of bey of tunis , ahmad ii ibn ali , in tunisia .\nhis is a republic with an oddity . bin ali is a \u2018bey\u2019 , perhaps the country\u2019s last bey .\nhd stock video footage - funeral procession of bey of tunis , ahmad ii ibn ali , in tunisia .\nout of the high top mare rosia bay , ibn bey was a half - brother to yorkshire oaks winner roseate tern .\nmultiple group 1 winner ibn bey , who finished second in the 1990 breeders\u2019 cup classic , died in japan on monday at age 28 .\nibn bey \u2013 gran premio d ' italia ( 1987 ) , preis von europa ( 1989 ) , deutschland - preis ( 1990 ) , irish st . leger ( 1990 )\nibn bey was a group ii winner in england and france and group i - placed in both countries . he finished sixth in the 1989 japan cup ( jpn - i ) .\nin later years , bay el bey spent much of his time with varian arabians breeding manager angela alvarez , who at the time was a newcomer . bay el bey became her mentor .\nat 38 - 1 for owner yustane sohma . ibn bey exited racing with a record of 10 - 3 - 4 from 28 starts and earnings of $ 1 , 626 , 059 .\nmultiple group 1 - winner ibn bey , who finished second to unbridled in the 1990 breeders\u2019 cup classic ( gr . i ) , has died in japan . he was 28 . the son of mill reef , who stood his entire career at big red farm in japan , had been pensioned since 2007 . ibn bey was trained by paul cole for prince [ \u2026 ]\nibn bey , also a group 2 winner in england and france , finished second to kentucky derby winner unbridled in the 1990 breeders\u2019 cup classic at belmont , his only start in north america .\nas a yearwing , ibn bey was sowd for 210 , 000 guineas to de saudi fahd sawman . [ 6 ] the cowt was sent into training wif pauw cowe at his stabwe at whatcombe in oxfordshire .\n' izz al - d in ibn al - athir , the annals of the saljuq turks , 36 .\nin 1990 ibn bey began by finishing dird to creator and in the wings in de prix ganay and den ran dird to in the wings in de coronation cup . in june he was ridden by mick kinane in de gran premio di miwano , but finished fourf , more dan twewve wengds behind de winner tisserand . in juwy ibn bey was reunited wif quin and returned to germany for de grosser preis von berwin in which he faced a fiewd which incwuded mondrian as weww as de german derby winner karwoff . he recorded his fourf group one victory , beating mondrian by four wengds . [ 11 ] ibn bey and mondrian met for de dird time in de grosser preis von baden in september and on dis occasion de german horse won , uh - hah - hah - hah . ibn bey wed for most of de race but was caught inside de finaw furwong and beaten by a wengf .\nibn bey sired 79 winners for earnings of $ 15 , 937 , 010 , including taiki herakles , winner of the group 1 derby grand prix in 1999 in japan . he produced three other group stakes - placed winners .\nbay abi has 23 national winners from his 275 foals . bay el bey is his most outstanding son ; not only has he been canadian national champion stallion , but was twice us reserve national champion stallion and , has 5 more top tens . having sired the outstanding sires barbary , bey shah and huckleberry bey , bay el bey has been given the title of\nking maker\nand has established a dynasty in the show ring and in the breeding shed .\nahmad followed in his father\u2019s footsteps and pursued a military career , fighting the byzantines in the service of caliph al - muttawakkil . in 855 ibn tulun\u2019s father died and his mother married bayik bey , another high ranking turkish official in the abbasid court . ibn tulun busied himself in the war with the byzantines until 868 , when caliph al - mutazz made bayik bey the prefect of egypt , who chose to send his stepson to govern the country in his stead .\nin 1986 , de independent timeform organisation gave ibn bey a rating of 88p , de\np\nindicating dat de cowt was wikewy to make more dan normaw improvement . [ 6 ] in de fowwowing year he was given a rating if 117 by timeform , whiwst de officiaw internationaw cwassifiaction rated him on 118 , seventeen pounds behind de top - rated reference point . [ 2 ] ibn bey was water rated de best dree - year - owd cowt to race in itawy in 1988 .\n3 . ibn johara is described in index entry 3998 as an 1894 grey stallion out of johara ( q . v . ) and by \u201cibn mahroussa i . \u201d entry 4005 explains that \u201cibn mahroussa i\u201d is the grey stallion more often known as mahruss . the variant name and numerical designation appear to be raswan\u2019s own . lady anne\u2019s journal entry for january 22 , 1902 mentions \u201cthe grey horse ( now 7 years old ) by mahruss out of johara\u201d then owned by ahmed fathi and his son mohammed fathi . this is apparently ibn johara .\ntalisman bey was champion stallion at the virginia state horse show and reserve junior champion colt at the 1983 buckeye . from that time on , talisman bey was promoted through his progeny rather than continuing his show career . by the end of the 1986 show season , 20 talisman bey offspring had won nearly 60 championships . talisman bey combines the strength and conformation of his male lineage with the beauty and refinement of his dam . his ability to reproduce these traits with regularity has earned him a reputation as one of the important young sires in the arabian breed .\n\u201cwith judith 7 . 50 train , and mutlak to sale of remnant of a . p . s . stud at the serai . did not begin till long after 9 , the hour on bills , aziz brought out first only lb bid taken back . then 2 year filly b . b . azz grey fetched lbe 29 . ibn johara 32 , ibn zarifa saghir 27 , do kebir 26 , ibn bint nura saghir 56 , do kebir 43 , ibn b . jellabieh feysul 55 , ibn bint nura es shakra 44 , ibn makbula 63 , ibn aziz saghir 60 ) . johara b . helwa ( seglawieh ) 80 , b . horra and foal 125 , b . nura es shakra 106 . b . makbula 255 . of these i bid for the grey 3 yr . ibn johara 31 \u2013 splendid colt but has been ill , severe cold ( regret i did not go to 35 ) . i bought b . horra and foal and b . nura es shakra ( regret i did not buy for 55 the ch . ibn b . jell . feysul 4 years very beautiful\u2014feared to add to number of stallions as we have enough ) . sent mutlak home with the 2 mares and foal , am delighted with them\u2026\u201d\nfuneral of bey of tunis , ahmad ii ibn ali . french tricolor flag at half staff atop a building . tunisian and french flags at half staff atop another building . photograph of bey of tunis , ahmad ii ibn ali . honor guard of tunisian mounted lancers leads funeral procession . french admiral jean - pierre esteva steps from car and walks in front of formation of french sailors . he greets french naval officers and tunisian officials , including successor bey of tunis , muhammad vii al - munsif . tunisian tribesmen carry coffin as french and tunisian officers stand at attention . closeup of coffin and pallbearers as they pass the camera . this historic stock footage available in hd and sd video . view pricing below video player .\nibn tulun died in 883 of dysentery . he was succeeded by his son , kuhmarraweh , but the tulunid dynasty would come to an end in 905 when the abbasids regained control of egypt . the abbasids razed ibn tulun\u2019s capital of al - qatta\u2019i , leaving nothing standing but the mosque .\none of sultan lajin\u2019s major restorations was the mosque\u2019s minaret which , with its spiraling external staircase , is another feature that sets the mosque of ibn tulun apart from other egyptian mosques . although common to ibn tulun\u2019s homeland , particularly samarra , the minaret\u2019s composition is like no other in egypt .\nin september , ibn bey was sent to germany for de group one preis von europa over 2400 metres at cowogne in which his opponents incwuded sheriff ' s star ( coronation cup , grand prix de saint - cwoud ) and mondrian ( german derby , grosser preis von berwin , araw - pokaw , grosser preis von baden ) . ibn bey took de wead soon after de start and drew away from his opponents in de straight to record his fourf consecutive victory , winning by six wengds from mondrian , uh - hah - hah - hah . [ 10 ] on his appearance of de season , ibn bey was sent to contest de japan cup at tokyo racecourse on 26 november . he wed de fiewd for most of de way , but was overtaken in de straight and finished sixf behind de new zeawand mare horwicks who won in a worwd record time of 2 : 22 . 2 .\nwhen bay el bey returned to varian arabians , it was to live out his days in the front paddock , the one which had been bay abi ' s and was reserved for the patriarch . public attention was gradually shifting to his son , the charismatic huckleberry bey , and to his grandsons . bay el bey ' s last foal was registered in 1985 , and living in genteel retirement , he was allowed to pass his days pretty much as he wished .\nibn bey was retired to japan where he stood as a breeding stawwion at de big red farm . he sired 79 winners , incwuding de group i derby grand prix winner taiki herakwes . he was pensioned from stud duty in 2007 and died on 10 december 2012 at de age of 28 . [ 13 ]\nby the early 1990s , the success of bay el bey ' s descendants was staggering . through huckleberry bey and barbary , his influence in the performance arena was profound ; through bey shah , he nearly dominated the halter ranks . he had sired 441 registered foals , including nearly 100 champions and more than 30 national titlists . when he died on november 25 , 1996 , the arabian world knew that the most important sire of sires in the 20th century had passed .\nibn bey was a big , powerfuw chestnut horse [ 2 ] wif a white star and white socks on his hind wegs [ 3 ] bred by lord porchester . he was sired by miww reef de 1971 epsom derby winner who went on to be leading sire in great britain and irewand in 1978 and 1987 . [ 4 ] ibn bey ' s dam , rosia bay , was a daughter of de broodmare ouija , who was awso de dam of teweprompter , de grandam of ouija board and de great - grandam of austrawia . rosia bay hersewf went on to produce de yorkshire oaks winner roseate tern . [ 5 ]\nibn saud\u2019s quest for recognition of his arabian kingdom , and how british government officials turned their backs on the largest reserves of crude oil in the world .\nibn bey was sent to de united states to contest de sevenf running of de breeders ' cup cwassic at bewmont park on 27 october when he raced on dirt for de first time , and ran over a distance shorter dan one and a hawf miwes for de first time since 1986 . his opponents incwuded unbridwed , go and go , izvestia , opening verse and rhydm . ibn bey was positioned just behind de weaders before turning into de straight in second pwace . he caught de weader thirty six red inside de finaw furwong but was immediatewy overtaken on de inside by unbridwed and finished second , beaten a wengf by de winner . on his finaw appearance , on 25 november , ibn bey made a second attempt to win de japan cup . ridden by a wocaw jockey , he was hewd up in de earwy stages and despite making some progress in de straight he never reached de weaders and finished eighf behind de austrawian gewding better loosen up .\nibn bey ( gb ) ch . h , 1984 { 12 - b } dp = 9 - 7 - 22 - 10 - 2 ( 50 ) di = 1 . 17 cd = 0 . 22 - 28 starts , 10 wins , 3 places , 4 shows career earnings : $ 3 , 724 , 131\n11 . ibn azz saghir is not in the index , but there is an entry for ibn bint azz as - saghir ( 3954 ) , with the telltale variant spelling \u201cebn bent ezz el - saghir . \u201d the index lists him as an 1893 grey stallion by ibn helwa ( or \u201cebn heloua\u201d ) out of bint azz ( \u201cbent ezz\u201d ) . it seems unlikely that azz herself was producing as late as the 1890\u2019s , but a bint azz daughter also went through the sale , so this might be another case of a dropped \u201cbint . \u201d index entry 3992 implies that ibn helwa was full brother to bint helwa gsb and johara gsb .\nibn bey made his racecourse debut in de danepak bacon stakes over one miwe at newmarket racecourse in august . he stayed on weww in de cwosing stages to finish fourf of de six runners behind lack a stywe . in october he recorded his first success by beating dirteen opponents in a maiden race at haydock park racecourse . [ 6 ]\nin the spring of 1932 , on the eve of the consolidation of his arabian territories into the kingdom of saudi arabia , king abd al - aziz al saud , better known as ibn saud , dispatched his son prince faisal , along with one of his most trusted officials , fuad bey hamza , on a diplomatic tour of europe and the middle east .\n9 . ibn nura es shakra is in the index ( 3963 ) as an 1890 grey stallion by ibn sherara ( also spelled \u201ccharara\u201d ) and out of bint nura es shakra ( bint nura gsb ; see below ) . sheykh obeyd records state that ibn bint nura es shakra was bred to johara in 1897 . at that time lady anne blunt described him as \u201cibn bint nura es shakra ( white about 7 years ) by ibn sherara\u2026\u201d ( pearson / mol p . 139 ) . in later years a grey stallion named kaukab from the ali pasha collection was active in egypt . he was the sire of sahab , the grandsire of the babson import * bint serra . * bint serra\u2019s original pedigree , issued in egypt , describes \u201ckawkab\u201d as a white son of ibn sherara and \u201cbint nura . \u201d lady anne blunt owned sahab and knew his sire . in december of 1907 she referred to kaukab as \u201ca beautiful white horse about 15 years old\u201d belonging to ali pasha\u2019s son yusef bey ( j & c p . 325 ) . on february 19 , 1914 she had a visit from ibrahim bey sherif , another of ali pasha\u2019s sons : \u201che says he has \u2018taken\u2019 kaukab ( sire of sahab ) from his brother ( yusef ) and will bring that beautiful old horse to show me tomorrow . \u201d the next day \u201cibrahim bey sherif conducted by ali the syce appeared on kaukab , true to promise . that horse is indeed beautiful , light of bone as they say and pasterns rather too long , but what style , the quarter splendid ( i wish sahab had inherited that ) \u2026\u201d kaukab was apparently out of lady anne\u2019s own bint nura gsb ( shot in 1912 ) . one might suspect that kaukab and ibn bint nura es shakra were the same horse . however , notes of lady anne\u2019s quoted in a , p & c ( p . 113 ) in connection with sahab state that yusef bey sherif had kaukab \u201cgiven to him by his father before the \u2018interdict . \u2019 \u201d this makes it unlikely kaukab would have been one of the horses in the auction . if ibn bint nura es shakra and kaukab are not the same horse , then it seems they were full brothers of roughly the same age .\nmohamed b\u00e9ji ben mami\nturbe al - bey\nin discover islamic art , museum with no frontiers , 2018 . 2018 . urltoken ; isl ; tn ; mon01 ; 12 ; en\nvodafone derby record : 1985 reach ( 6th ) ; 1986 nomrood ( 11th ) ; 1987 ibn bey ( 13th ) ; 1990 zoman ( 7th ) ; 1992 alflora ( 6th ) ; 1993 redenham ( 7th ) ; 1994 waiting ( 17th ) ; 1995 riyadian ( 7th ) ; 1996 st mawes ( 17th ) ; 1998 courteous ( 12th ) ; 1999 lucido ( 15th ) .\nas a five - year - owd , ibn bey again began his season in de aston park stakes and finished second to awbadr , to whom he was conceding six pounds . he was den moved up in distance for de henry ii stakes over two miwes at sandown park racecourse and finished fiff , more dan dirteen wengds behind de winner sadeem . in juwy he was dropped in cwass and distance for a listed race over fourteen furwongs at lingfiewd park racecourse and defeated de odds - on favourite mountain kingdom ( winner of de ormonde stakes and yorkshire cup ) by two wengds . in dis race he was ridden for de first time by richard quinn , who became his reguwar jockey . later dat monf ibn bey was sent to france again and won de group two prix maurice de nieuiw and won by a short neck from de andre fabre - trained dree - year - owd mardonius . [ 8 ] two weeks water , ibn bey made his dird attempt to win de geoffrey freer stakes . starting at odds of 9 / 2 , he raced in second before overhauwing de favourite apache in de finaw strides to win by a head . [ 9 ]\nthe following year , she showed bay el bey to the first of a series of victories and high placings in the show ring , as well as bred him to one mare . his first foal , a filly named reina del bey , arrived in 1972 , precipitating eight more breedings - - and it was in that second crop that bay el bey produced barbary , the first of the impressive lineup of stallions who would become outstanding competitors as well as breeding horses , earning their sire ( and now , as the generations go forward , grandsire or great - grandsire ) the epithet\nthe kingmaker .\nthose first youngsters were enough to let sheila know that bay el bey was the next step in her program ; it remained only for him to make a name in the show ring .\nwhile prince faisal flew over the skies of london and visited military camps in moscow , fuad bey hamza was charged with discussing the finer diplomatic points in a succession of meetings held with government officials in each country on the tour . hamza\u2019s main task was to gain formal recognition of ibn saud\u2019s kingdom of hejaz - nejd ( the precursor to the kingdom of saudi arabia ) on the international stage .\noqba ibn nafi ' i establishes a base of operations at kairouan and begins the erection of the great mosque , generally thought to be the oldest sanctuary in the western section of the islamic empire .\n' izz al - d in ibn al - athir , the annals of the saljuq turks , transl . d . s . richards , ed . carole hillenbrand , ( routledge , 2002 ) , 302 .\nzoheir ibn kais leads a force which defeats a joint army of byzantines and berbers in carthage commanded by berber leader khusalah on the qairawan plain . the victors are not strong enough to follow up their victory .\nthe almohad dynasty of morocco remains in command of tunisia . caliph muhammad al - nasir ibn yaqub appoints his own governor in tunis in 1207 to manage the day - to - day administration of the state .\nafter finishing fiff behind legaw bid in de lingfiewd derby triaw on his dree - year - owd debut , ibn bey contested de predominate stakes at goodwood racecourse , a triaw race for the derby and won by two wengds from awwasmi and cwassic tawe . in de derby he started at odds of 40 / 1 and finished dirteenf of de nineteen runners behind reference point . he finished fourf at goodwood in juwy and den ran dird behind moon madness and legaw bid in de geoffrey freer stakes . in september , ibn bey was sent to itawy for de group one gran premio d ' itawia over 2400 metres at miwan and won de race by ten wengds form jung . on his finaw appearance of de season , de cowt ran poorwy in de irish st leger at de curragh , finishing sixf of de eight runners behind eurobird . [ 2 ]\nahmad ibn tulun was born in baghdad in ad 835 , the son of a turkish slave owned by the abbasid caliph al - mamun . turkish slaves often served as soldiers and court officials under the abbasids , and the elder tulun ( \u201cibn tulun\u201d means \u201cson of tulun\u201d ) was an accomplished officer , rising to the position of chief of the caliph\u2019s personal guard . tulun provided his son ahmad with an excellent education , which included studying theology at tarsus and military training at samarra . this military and religious background , combined with a youth spent observing the machinations of court politics , would prove to be a valuable skill set for ibn tulun .\nby the late 1970s , bay el bey ' s growing reputation as a sire outweighed any desire sheila varian had to show him . he remained full time at arroyo grande , where he and bay abi formed one of the only national champion father and son teams to share a barn . in 1984 , however , bay el bey was on the move , this time to florida , where he was leased by rohara arabians for two years of stud duty . in the days before the use of transported semen , the move east provided increased exposure for the stallion and allowed his son , huckleberry bey , more opportunity to develop his own following on the west coast .\nbuilt more than 1 , 100 years ago , the mosque of ibn tulun still looks largely the way it did when first constructed , although the entire city that was built around it was destroyed just 26 years later .\nkasida ( 1891 ) and manokta ( 1894 ) were foundation mares for lady anne blunt , full sisters by nasr and out of makbula gsb . it seems that ibn makbula was their brother and the third nasr foal .\nthe death of murad ii leaves the muradids in some confusion as they vie with one another for superiority . this sparks the revolution of tunis , or the muradid war of succession , which does not end until the first of the husainids has seized control in 1705 . murad ' s sons , ali bey and muhamed bey fight each other , plus their uncle , muhammad al - hafsi , several lesser commanding figures , the turkish militia and even the dey of algiers . ali bey is assassinated , and muhammad al - hafsi is recalled to constantinople ( permanently ) , but the dey of algiers manages to use his own tunisian supporters to briefly capture tunis between 1694 - 1695 .\nthe penultimate line of defense for the state is family ties and clan kinship . so writes in the fourteenth - century bin ali\u2019s compatriot , the masterful philosopher king , ibn khaldoun , in his celebrated muqaddimah ( introduction to history ) . asabiyyah ( tribal kinship or solidarity ) , makes and breaks states , ibn khaldoun rightly argues . his thesis epitomizes current statecraft in most arab republics . so long as the state\u2019s coercive \u2018reserve\u2019 is not in shortage .\nchaghri beg [ 1 ] ( turkish : \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131 bey , full name : abu suleiman dawud chaghri - beg ibn mikail ) ( 989 - 1060 ) , da ' ud b . mika ' il b . saljuq , [ 2 ] also spelled chaghri , was the co - ruler of the early seljuq empire . the name chaghri is turkic ( \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131 in modern turkish ) and literally means\nsmall falcon\n,\nmerlin\n. [ 3 ]\nthe bey of tunis recognises the newly - created republic of corsica , which has been created after a twenty - six year fight for independence . genoese rule is thrown out , if not genoese troops , who remain in various strongholds .\nubeidallah ibn al - habhab al - maousili launches an invasion of sicily which results in him seizing syracuse . he readies his forces to take the rest of the island but a berber revolt in ifriqiyya forces him to abandon the idea .\nat this time the capital of egypt was the city of fustat , which lies in the area of what is now called old cairo . ibn tulun , however , envisioned something more along the lines of baghdad or samarra , and so he began construction of his own capital city , al - qatta\u2019i . this new capital would be laid out in the persian style , with a palace and a connected mosque large enough to service all his soldiers . for the location of his city ibn tulun chose a strategic high ground called jabal yashkur , which means \u201chill of thanksgiving . \u201d ibn tulun\u2019s decision to create his own capital city exhibited an independent streak which would continue to grow as he consolidated his political power .\nthe islamic wali of ifriqiyya , zoheir ibn kais , leads a force which defeats a joint army of byzantines and berbers in carthage commanded by berber leader khusalah on the qairawan plain . the victors are not strong enough to follow up their victory .\nhe had an extremely gentle inner side ,\nsheila concurs ,\nbut he was very willing and enthusiastic in his own way .\nshe searches for adjectives .\nbay el bey was stately , wise , thoughtful , kind . . .\nit was that gentle honesty that was nearly their undoing at the canadian nationals of 1977 , when after a long , hard class , when everyone was tiring , sheila knew that bay el bey had been giving his best , and let up a little .\nchaghri beg ' s later life and death are mentioned on pages 129 - 130 in the annals of the saljuq turks : selections from al - kamil fi ' l - ta ' rikh of ibn al - athir , translated by d . s . richards .\nin britain \u2013 already an important ally of the saudi kingdom \u2013 the primary focus of the diplomatic talks was ibn saud\u2019s formal request for financial aid from the british government for use in the economic development of his kingdom , including funding the exploration for oil deposits .\nfirst , he took advantage of his connections with the abbasid court to have the locally unpopular minister of finance removed , and by 872 he had assumed control of the council of financial affairs . once in a position to do so , he boosted his own image in egypt by lowering taxes and spending more on infrastructure . meanwhile , after the murder of bayik bey in 870 , control of egypt passed to ibn tulun\u2019s father - in - law , who not only kept him in place as governor but also granted him control over alexandria .\nthe eu and the us have sympathy for and comprehension of the tunisian civil society\u2019s problem . the tunisian people through innate good sense made him their \u2018bey\u2019 . now they deserve something in return : respect and freedom from the spectre of hereditary rule that haunts most arab republics .\n10 . ibn makbula is in the index ( 4009 ) as an 1892 grey stallion . variant spelling \u201cebn makboula . \u201d beyond this , his index entry is particularly garbled . he is listed as being by a sire also named \u201cibn makbula\u201d and out of a mare named \u201cnasrat . \u201d there is no other \u201cibn makbula\u201d in the index , and the only \u201cnasrat\u201d in the index was a bay ali pasha stallion by aziz and out of bint azz . ali pasha sherif owned at least two mares named makbula , and ibn makbula\u2019s name implies he was the son of one of them . index correction 888 changes the sire to nasrat and the dam to makbula . like raswan , lady anne blunt says that ali pasha sherif bred a bay stallion named nasr or nasrat , by aziz and out of bint azz . she further records that \u201cnasr died of \u2018the eye\u2019 i . e . fell dead one day when being ridden out \u2013 this happened on a bridge . his only descendants were kasida , manokta and a colt ex mukbula\u201d ( quoted in upton , p . 116 )\ninitially the ottomans were openly opposed by muley hamida a son of the hafsid muhammad v and a man with a very low reputation . once he had been seen off , the second bey was murad bey ( murad i ) . he was of corsican janissary stock and had been sponsored by ramdan bey from an early age . upon randan ' s death he was able to succeed him in office and secure the succession of his own son . as the first of this line the dynasty is known by his name - muradid or mouradite . however , his successors were so interested in securing their position , and making that position independent of ottoman control , that they alienated much of the nobility and ended up fighting amongst themselves so that it was almost a relief when the last of them was murdered by his own general .\nbritish - bred ibn bey won 10 of 28 career starts , earning $ 1 , 626 , 059 while racing for five seasons in seven countries . he was named champion 3 - year - old colt in italy in 1987 , on the strength of a victory in the group 1 gran premio d\u2019italia . however , he found greater success in later seasons of his career , winning the group 1 europa - preis in 1989 , and taking both the group 1 grosser preis and group 1 irish st . leger the following year at age 6 .\nafter the return of the abbasids in 905 , and with the rise of cairo proper as the capital of egypt , the mosque of ibn tulun lost its former prestige and centuries of neglect took their toll . the mosque suffered major damage in the 12th century when it was used at various times to house pilgrims . in 1296 , the mamluk sultan lajin , who had hidden in the mosque in the aftermath of the assassination of sultan al - ashraf khalil ibn qalawun , made good on his promise to restore the property to its original grandeur .\nibn saud\u2019s main concern was to gain international recognition for his kingdom , which he had spent over twenty years expanding and consolidating . his second intention was to seek financial aid from britain in order to , amongst other things , fund the search for oil deposits in his dominions .\nracing for fahd salman , ibn bey was a four - time group i winner . in germany , he won the 1989 r + v - europa preis ( ger - i ) and the 1990 grosser preis der berliner bank ( ger - i ) and was a champion both years . in italy , he captured the 1987 gran premio d ' italia ( ity - i ) and was that year ' s champion 3 - year - old male . he was an irish champion the year he won the 1990 jefferson smurfit memorial irish st . leger ( ire - i ) .\nthree weeks after his defeat in germany , ibn bey contested de irish st leger over fourteen furwongs at de curragh and started de 5 / 1 second favourite behind de 1989 st leger stakes winner michewozzo . he raced in second pwace behind de dree - year - owd thetford forest ( water to win de sun awwiance novices ' hurdwe ) before taking de wead two furwong from de finish . he was headed by de outsider mr pintips but rawwied to regain de advantage 100 yards from de finish and won by a wengf . [ 12 ] after dis race he entered de ownership of yustane sohma .\nsince the 2009 elections , tunisians have started wondering whether bin ali intends to leave power in 2014 and under what scenarios . they have recently been rudely prevented from wondering too much and wandering into a different republic : one where they are visible and where the \u2018bey\u2019 and his heirs have departed for good .\nbin ali and his government must realize that people live not by bread alone . they also live as social contractors with aspirations for free speech , organized political activity , civic and social capital , and political dynamism . ruling as a \u2018bey\u2019 in modern - day tunisia betrays the very republican pretensions of the regime .\nduring his two - year residence in florida , bay el bey established an indelible link with rohara .\nhe ' s a part of our program through all three sons and one grandson , jk amadeus ,\nsays hart .\neven this year , so many years later , i would say that half of our show horses are either grandsons or great - grandsons ( or daughters ) of bay el bey - - 50 percent of the show string that we showed , and we had 21 entries at region xii .\nhis contribution ?\nmostly the motion , the stretch , the overall athletic ability .\nin 1938 , standard oil of california struck oil at al - hasa , tapping into what would become the world\u2019s largest deposit of crude oil . irrespective of ibn saud\u2019s thoughts on the success of his son\u2019s 1932 diplomatic tour , for the british government it was one visit that officials probably wanted to forget .\n6 . and 7 . ibn bint nura saghir and ibn bint nura kebir raswan describes as chestnut stallions foaled 1892 and 1889 , by aziz and out of bint nura ( index 3964 , 3962 ) . entry 3964 gives variant spelling \u201cebn bent noura el - saghir . \u201d raswan\u2019s attempt to determine which bint nura produced these stallions is similar to his treatment of the two zarifa sons . these two sons of \u201cbint nura\u201d were probably out of the same mare . ali pasha owned numerous mares known as \u201cbint nura\u201d ( see below for another ) . these two easily could have been full brothers to bint nura gsb .\n8 . ibn bint jellabieh feysul is in the index ( 3957 ) as an 1893 chestnut son of ibn nura out of bint jellabieh feysul . date , name , and color agree with the journal entry describing the auction . raswan seems to have been unaware that this horse was feysul gsb . lady anne blunt acquired him \u201cfrom seyyid mohammed fathi december 7 1898 . mohammed fathi had bought him from saleh bey sherif , his purchaser at the 2nd auction held in march 1897 ( lady anne blunt quoted in a , p & c , p . 97 ) . the facsimile page of the sheykh obeyd stud book reproduced in upton shows that lady anne blunt originally entered feysul as the son of \u201cbint jellabiet feysul , \u201d noting that feysul\u2019s dam was also known as \u201cthe lame\u201d ( el argaa ) from having broken a front leg . she later changed el argaa\u2019s other name to read \u201cbint bint jellabiet feysul , \u201d implying that one of the \u201cbints\u201d had been left out originally .\nas important as his physical presence was the sheer force of his personality .\nbay el bey had the temperament that we see in all the descendants - - ready to work , full of fire , but completely sweet ,\nsays mike nichols .\nthat ' s what characterized everything that ' s come down from him .\n12 . johara bint helwa has variant spelling \u201cgoharra bent heloua\u201d in index entries 3081 and 4550 . she is in gsb as johara , and crabbet records state she was also known as \u201cbint helwa es shakra\u201d ( the chestnut daughter of the sweet mare ) . crabbet records further state that lady anne blunt \u201c [ p ] urchased [ her ] from ibrahim bey sherif on april 19 , 1897 for lb 120 . ibrahim bey had bought her at the auction on march 26 , for lbe 80 ( quoted in upton , p . 100 ) . johara was the daughter of aziz and helwa , and was foaled about 1880 , making her one of the first aziz foals .\nahmad bey abolishes slavery in tunisia , one of several reforms in what is largely a mismanaged attempt to modernise the state . some of his efforts are handled with the support of the french but little of his changes benefit or even affect the ordinary populace . nevertheless , his cousin and successor , muhammad ii continues to follow his reformist tendencies .\nibn bey was beaten in his first four races of 1988 . he finished dird under top weight of 128 pounds in de aston park stakes at newbury , fourf behind awmaarad in de hardwicke stakes at royaw ascot , fourf , beaten 26 wengds , by unfuwain in de princess of wawes ' s stakes at newmarket , and fourf again in de geoffrey freer stakes in august . on his finaw appearance of de season , he was sent to france to contest de grand prix de deauviwwe over 2700 metres on 28 august . ridden by michaew roberts , he took de wead 400 metres from de finish and won by two wengds from de barry hiwws - trained sudden victory . [ 7 ]\n4 . and 5 . ibn zarifa saghir and ibn zarifa kebir appear to be the sons of a mare named zarifa ( \u201cthe graceful\u201d ) , as their names imply ( \u201cthe younger son of the graceful mare\u201d and \u201cthe elder son of the graceful mare\u201d respectively ) . index entries 4040 and 4041 , as well as 11242 and 11243 , interpret the names to mean \u201cthe son of the younger zarifa\u201d and \u201cthe son of the elder zarifa , \u201d which is an unlikely interpretation since the words kebir and saghir take the masculine form and therefore seem to apply to the sons . raswan says the sons were foaled in 1887 and 1888 , were both grey , and both by aziz .\nthe mosque tells the story of a court servant , the son of a turkish slave , who came to rule all of egypt and part of syria . he would rise to declare independence for his kingdom\u2013as well as himself\u2013from those who once owned him . this article will explore the history of ahmad ibn tulun and the mosque that bears his name .\npeace was established this year between king ibrahim and da\u2019ud ibn mikha\u2019il ibn saljuq , the lord of khurasan , on condition that each of them should keep what he held and abandon opposition to the other\u2019s rule . the reason for this was that the wise men on both sides considered [ the situation ] and realised that neither of the two rulers was able to take what the other held , and that the only result would be expenditure of money , exhaustion of the troops , plundering of the land and loss of life . so they worked for peace , and an accord was reached and oaths sworn . copies were drawn up , and the people were delighted and rejoiced at the prospect of prosperity .\nno tunisians are arguing for democratic \u2018compulsion\u2019 from without . given the sad state of opposition and overall civic capital , mounting a challenge against the last \u2018bey\u2019 or his heirs may prove premature for another decade . but if bin ali wishes to insist on clinging to power till \u2018death do us part\u2019 , then he must stop to insult the intelligence of his people .\na successional dispute for the umayyad caliphate sees an army march on damascus , where a new caliph is proclaimed . rebellions and revolts break out across the empire , one of which results in a change in command in tunisia ( ifriqiyya ) , as a dynasty of governors is established . handhala ibn safwan al - kalbi consents to return to islamic damascus .\nthat bay el bey was athletically inclined was apparent . in preparing for his halter competition , he often enjoyed an unconventional training regimen . one year , getting ready for nationals , sheila conditioned him with extensive rides in the country around arroyo grande , accompanied by her whippet amber , and unofficially , a jackrabbit .\nevery day , the jackrabbit would always be in the same spot , and every day we ' d chase it , my dog and my horse and me . we ' d be going wide open through rough country .\nevery day , she adds , the rabbit escaped .\nthat was bay el bey ' s exercise that year . i always exercised him under saddle , never longed him .\nthe mosque is the largest in cairo , and is the third largest in the world . it is the oldest mosque in egypt that still retains much of its original design . the mosque of ibn tulun differs from other mosques in several regards , not the least of which is that it is built of brick covered with carved stucco rather than stone and marble . one reason given for this is the fact that the architect was a christian , who decided to use brick in order to spare churches from being plundered for building materials . another explanation is that ibn tulun wanted the mosque to mirror the great mosque of samarra , which is constructed in the same way , and because brick is more fire resistant .\nthe four qadits of sicily have largely been rebuilt into a single emirate by ayyub ibn tamim , the son of the zirid emir of ifriqiyya ( regional governors of the fatamids ) . he departs in 1068 , leaving behind an island that remains divided between arabs and byzantines , and is not strong enough to continue to hold out against fresh attacks from apulia .\nhis only british classic win so far came in the 1990 st leger on snurge - a horse whom , along with ibn bey , ruby tiger and bint pasha , quinn rates as the best he has ridden . controversially lost the ride on generous in the 1991 derby to alan munro when owner prince fahd salman decided to retain the latter jockey despite quinn ' s status as stable jockey to trainer cole . the partnership of salman , cole and quinn was later resumed although the jockey rode as a freelance last season , when he had a best - ever tally of 151 victories , and only kieren fallon partnered more winners . following fallon ' s departure from warren place , quinn began as first jockey to henry cecil this season .\nin addition to his canadian national championship in stallion halter , bay el bey was named 1974 and ' 76 u . s . national reserve champion stallion , and earned seven top tens as well as eight championships and reserves at regional and class a shows . sheila also presented him briefly in english pleasure , totaling up three championships , three reserves and the region ii championship .\nsheila varian particularly remembers the sight of bay el bey and angela , heading out to the back pasture to tease the mares , a duty the stallion took over from his sire , bay abi .\nyou ' d see an empty 20 - acre pasture when angela led bay el bey in . . . and then , over the hill , the mares and foals would come running to greet him . because they were used to him and knew him , the mares didn ' t object when the foals came up to him , and he would stand with the babies all around him , talking to the mares . there was no striking , no biting , no rearing - - he knew what to do and how to do it .\nbay el bey and i trusted each other . he had a strength and seriousness about him that i admired and a playfulness that i loved . if i wasn ' t moving fast enough to those pastures , he ' d get behind me and nudge me in the back . i miss those nudges . . . especially every morning around 8 o ' clock .\n14 . fortunately , lady anne had also bought bint horra\u2019s foal , a bay filly by ibn nura just 22 days old at the time of the auction . she was known as bint bint horra , and lady anne blunt named her ghazieh . she is no . 15 in the sheykh obeyd herd book , and was the dam of ten foals for lady anne .\nwhat i remember most about him was his amazing neck , the same type that bay abi had , but with even more stretch and elegance ,\ncomments breeder mike nichols , who first saw bay el bey on a 1974 visit to varian arabians , which resulted in his purchase of the yearling barbary .\nthe trick is to get certain things simultaneously ; none is more important than the other - - type is crucial , correctness , performance , athletic ability , disposition - - you ' ve really got to get all of those or you don ' t have what we ' re looking for and you don ' t have anything you can go on with . bay el bey was living evidence of that and how brilliantly it bred on .\nhasan ibn al - nu ' man captures carthage in 695 and advances into the atlas mountains . taking advantage of his absence , a byzantine fleet arrives to retake carthage in 697 , but within a year hasan returns and defeats emperor tiberius iii at the battle of carthage . africa is abandoned to the islamic empire . carthage is again destroyed and is replaced by tunis as the regional capital .\nibn makbula appears in the journals again , entry of november 20 , 1909 : \u201cto the house of mahmud moharrem rustem purchaser of \u2026 the colt by nasrat out of makbula \u2026 a handsome wreck , eyes sunk in and looks older than his age ( 16 to 17 years ) , is very like kasida is grey , great bone , strange to say not yet white at that age . \u201d\nhusayn bey signs a treaty with france which grants it a strip of land near carthage on which king louis ix had died in 1270 , during the seventh crusade . the idea ( or pretence ) is that a monument is to be built to commemorate the french king . ten years later the first stone is laid in the construction of the cathedral of carthage , and the french now have a foothold in the country .\nin rajab of this year [ 13 august - 11 septemener 1059 ] there died chagri beg da\u2019ud ibn mikha\u2019il ibn saljuq , the brother of sultan tughril beg . it is said that his death was in safar [ 4 ] 52 [ 7 march - 4 april 1060 ] . he was about seventy years old . he was the lord of khurasan and the rival andopponent of the house of sabuktegin , and the defender of khurasan againstthe , . when he died , his son alp arslan became ruler of khurasan after him . da\u2019ud left a number of male children , including the sultan alp arslan , yaquti , sulayman , and qavurt beg . after [ the death of ] his brother da\u2019ud , the sultan tughril beg married the mother of sulayman , and named him as his successor . what happened to him we shall relate later .\nthe last independent dynasty of tunisia , the hafsids , had become increasingly caught up in the power struggle between spain and the corsairs , the latter of which were supported by the ottoman empire . the ottomans conquered tunis in 1574 and toppled the hafsids . once removed , they were replaced by ottoman governors ( labelled deys - a superior title - or beys - the inferior of the two ) , with ramdan bey being the first ."]}
{"id": 2181, "summary": [{"text": "the dwarf seahorse ( hippocampus zosterae ) is a species of seahorse found in the subtidal aquatic beds of the bahamas and parts of the united states .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "according to guinness world records , it is the slowest moving fish , with a top speed of about 152 centimetres per hour .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it is most often white in color but can range from tan , brown , yellow and green .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "in the wild , it often has small skin growths called cirri that resemble algae . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "dwarf seahorse", "paragraphs": ["noaa fisheries . dwarf seahorse ( hippocampus zosterae ) . accessed september 30 , 2014 .\ngenetic evidence for monogamy in the dwarf seahorse , hippocampus zosterae . - pubmed - ncbi\ninformation on the dwarf seahorse is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nas \u201cdata - deficient , \u201d meaning that no one has really looked into the dwarf seahorse\u2019s population dynamics .\nthe dwarf seahorse ( hippocampus zosterae ) is a small seahorse found in the western atlantic ocean . they are also known as little seahorses or pygmy seahorses .\nmasonjones , h . , s . lewis . 1996 . courtship behavior in the dwarf seahorse , hippocampus zosterae .\nzebra snout seahorse hippocampus barbouri , a beautiful seahorse but one that frequently does poor in captivity .\nmasonjones hd and sm lewis . 1996 . courtship behavior in the dwarf seahorse , hippocampus zosterae . copeia 1996 : 634 - 640 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - dwarf seahorse dorsal view\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - dwarf seahorse dorsal view\ntitle =\narkive photo - dwarf seahorse dorsal view\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - dwarf seahorse ( hippocampus zosterae )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - dwarf seahorse ( hippocampus zosterae )\ntitle =\narkive species - dwarf seahorse ( hippocampus zosterae )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - adult male dwarf seahorse with young\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - adult male dwarf seahorse with young\ntitle =\narkive photo - adult male dwarf seahorse with young\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nproject seahorse is the world\u2019s premier seahorse conservation and research organization . a wealth of information is available at their web site : urltoken\njordan , , gilbert . 1882 .\nhippocamous zosterae ( dwarf seahorse )\n( on - line ) . fishbase . accessed october 13 , 2004 at urltoken .\nvideo :\ndwarf seahorse snatches a copepod\ncheck out this up - close - and - personal video showing how these tiny seahorses can be deadlier than sharks .\nwe set out to catch a modern day unicorn , the dwarf seahorse , as dainty and secretive a creature as you can find anywhere on land or under the sea .\nin fact , the center for biological diversity filed a petition in 2011 to list the dwarf seahorse under the endangered species act . federal officials are still considering that petition .\nsoon after the deepwater horizon oil spill , the center leapt into action to fight dangerous offshore oil drilling that threatens the survival of the dwarf seahorse and countless other animal and plant species . a year later , with pollution still persisting in the gulf and the seahorse in dangerous decline , we filed a scientific petition to federally protect the species . in 2012 , the national marine fisheries service announced that the dwarf seahorse may warrant protection .\ndwarf seahorses have 9 - 10 bony rings around their trunk and 31 - 32 rings around their tail .\nthe small size and specific body ring and dorsal ray counts should be sufficient to allow the dwarf seahorse to be distinguished from the larger congener hippocampus erectus , with which it may co - occur .\nfull , round belly . a healthy seahorse is a will feed seahorse . while they tend to be fairly thin by nature , any caved in sides is a bad sign .\nhi there , i have 9 dwarf seahorses in a 35 gallon bow front . the tank is . . .\nvincent , a . 1995 . a role for daily greetings in maintaining seahorse pair bonds .\nare humans . dwarf seahorses are extremely popular in the aquarium trade because of their small size . some fisheries off the coast of florida have built their business around the capture of live dwarf seahorses in shallow grass beds for the aquarium trade . tens of thousands of\nthe marine curio industry also affects wild seahorse populations . for more about this threat , go to\nthe seed to go on a seahorse hunt was planted during a recent conversation with brian jones of the sea lab , who mentioned that the lab had acquired some dwarf seahorses from another facility and would be putting them on display .\nhigh reproductive rates and a stable population size suggest dwarf seahorses are an important trophic link in halodule seagrass communities ( strawn 1958 ) .\nthe breeding season for dwarf seahorses runs from february to november . in captivity , these animals have been reported to mate for life .\nhermit crabs are not very effective predators in general , but a very large individual might be able to overcome a dwarf seahorse . it\u2019s more likely that the crab was scavenging an already dead seahorse , but stick to very small individuals in your tank . these should be quite easy to collect in the waters inhabited by the pipefish .\n, commonly known as the dwarf seahorse , inhabits coastal waters of the western atlantic ocean , including the caribbean sea , the gulf of mexico , and the continental shelf of the southeastern united states ( jordan and gilbert , 1882 ) .\ndwarf seahorses are also collected in florida for the marine ornamental aquarium industry . annual seahorse landings vary widely , but adams et al . ( 2001 ) indicates more than 80 , 000 h . zosterae were collected in florida in 1992 .\nmasonjones , h . 2001 . the effect of social context and reproductive status on the metabolic rates of dwarf seahorses ( hippocampus zosterae ) .\ndwarf seahorses , hippocampus zosterae remains an ever popular , easy to care for aquarium pet . the basics of keeping them are . . .\nbright , active eyes . a healthy seahorse will swivel its eyes around in constant search of food .\ncitation : fedrizzi n , stiassny mlj , boehm jt , dougherty er , amato g , mendez m ( 2015 ) population genetic structure of the dwarf seahorse ( hippocampus zosterae ) in florida . plos one 10 ( 7 ) : e0132308 . urltoken\na pair of dwarf seahorses are entombed in this acrylic paperweight bought in a seashell curio shop . thousands of seahorses meet a similar fate every year .\nlarge species of seahorse , very similar to h . reidi in form and coloration . a subtropical seahorse from the pacific , found on the west coast , possibly as far north as california . outgoing , active seahorse . but very difficult to keep successfully . prone to bacterial illnesses that tend to then infect any other syngnathid inhabitants .\nyour fears are correct . seahorse should not be kept with reef lobsters . please look at the tankmates article .\nbreeding interval dwarf seahorses remate within 4 to 20 hours after the young have been released from the brood pouch . this may occur throughout the breeding season .\nfor those who have never seen a pipefish , it is the closest swimming relative of the seahorse . in fact , pipefish look just as a seahorse would look if you straightened its body out and bent the seahorse head to be in line with the rest of the body . but they share a much more fascinating trait than just appearance .\nthe trade in dwarf seahorses for both the aquarium and curio trades has historically been concentrated in florida [ 51 , 52 ] . collection of h . zosterae in florida is regulated in the same manner as other near - shore marine fishes and is subject to the restrictions of recreational and commercial fishing licenses issued by the florida fish and wildlife conservation commission [ 51 ] . the results of our analyses , considered alongside observations of the methods of dwarf seahorse collectors , suggest that the impact of the aquarium trade on h . zosterae is likely small and can be sustained by dwarf seahorse populations . implementation of seasonal restrictions on large - scale catches of dwarf seahorses , such as those for the curio trade , could be a useful management tool for curtailing collection during the peak of annual population contraction , which occurs from december to february [ 1 , 52 ] .\nstaring at a picture of a dwarf , i thought , what a thing , to catch one of these tiny and magical creatures and hold it in your hand . in a lifetime spent prowling ocean waters , i had previously encountered only one live seahorse , which my cousin mike and i caught in a seine in panama city in the 1970s . it was the more common and much larger lined seahorse .\na 10 gallon aquarium is far too small for most seahorse species , and clownfish are not good tank mates for seahorses .\nthe key to feeding dwarf seahorses dwarf seahorses are one of the only seahorse species that will thrive on a diet consisting solely of enriched brine shrimp . they will , however , appreciate an occasional meal of tiny , wild caught invertebrates \u2013 thin meshed \u201cplankton nets , \u201d ( available from biological supply houses ) drawn through shallow marine waters will yield a wealth of valuable food items . \u201cenriched\u201d brine shrimp are those that have been allowed to feed for a few days before themselves being given to the seahorses . this process increases the shrimps\u2019 nutritional value , and is indispensable if one is to succeed in keeping dwarf seahorses . therefore , brine shrimp intended as seahorse food should be given brightwell aquatic\u2019s phyto - green , or a similar product , for several days .\n2003 .\nbiology of seahorses\n( on - line ) . project seahorse . accessed october 13 , 2004 at urltoken .\ntiger tail seahorse , hippocampus comes , showing the distinctive tail coloration that earned this species it\u2019s name . photo courtesy of debby ng\none issue that new seahorse keepers struggle with is what exactly they need for an aquarium setup to keep seahorses . . . .\nthe two species highlighted in this article ( please see part i , the atlantic seahorse , published last week ) were chosen because , of all , they are the most likely to do well on diets that are within the means of most aquarists . please do not be tempted to try other species until you are well - experienced with the following animals . i will focus here on points unique to seahorse husbandry \u2013 water quality and filtration should be managed as for other marine fishes ( please see related articles posted on this blog ) . dwarf seahorse , hippocampus zosterae\nthe male seahorse carries fertilized eggs in his\nbrood pouch\nfor 9 to 45 days until the young seahorses emerge fully formed .\ngreat info\u2026i\u2019ve always been interested in keeping a seahorse tank , but haven\u2019t had much time . my reef tanks keep me busy enough !\nwe had a few local hermit crabs as you suggested in the book , but found one eating a seahorse , and so released them just to be on the safe side . could the hermit crab have killed the seahorse ? sorry for so many questions , thank you .\nas it stands , dwarf seahorses are the second most popular fish exported from the state for the aquarium trade , with reports of tens of thousands sold live each year . still , collection for the chinese market takes the lion ' s share of all seahorse species internationally . a guide to the identification of seahorses , a 2004 scientific paper about the status of global seahorse populations , states that the asian trade exceeds 50 tons of dried seahorses a year , a stunning amount considering how small even the largest seahorse species are . the international union for conservation of nature , which publishes the iucn red list of threatened species , considers all 30 - plus known seahorse species to be in danger of extinction due to exploitation and habitat loss .\nthroughout their range , using a variety of gear types and inconsistent sampling frequencies and duration ' s . throughout this section , reported seahorse densities are low , but this has been observed broadly across seahorse species ( foster and vincent 2004 ) and is strongly related to gear specificity in\nseahorses ' unique life - history characteristics and habitat specificity make them particularly vulnerable when faced with exploitation and habitat degradation . seahorses have elaborate social and reproductive behaviors , with males giving live birth and partners forming monogamous bonds that are reinforced each morning with a greeting ritual . the imperiled dwarf seahorse is too special to abandon to extinction .\na mated pair ! dwarf seahorses are known to be monogamous , and to mate for life . their elaborate courtship rituals are well documented . and here was a mated pair basically holding hands .\nand other seahorse species produce a rapid clicking sound as a form of communication . these clicking sounds have been observed during courtship and copulation , inter - male competition , feeding , and stress produced , for example , by moving a seahorse from one tank into another . dwarf seahorses produce these clicking sounds by stridulation , which is the production of sound through the grinding together of hard , usually bony structures . in this case the skull grinds against the vertebrae . more specifically ,\nmost of the harvest occurs in the grass beds of south florida , which appear to be the dwarf seahorse ' s last remaining stronghold . the state of florida recently rejected recommendations from a state panel that sought to beef up the rules governing the harvest . the rule change would have cut the number that could be harvested in a day from 400 to 200 per boat , set a limit of 25 , 000 per year for the annual harvest , and prohibited collecting dwarf seahorses anywhere but within this stronghold area . some scientists believe the seahorse populations in other parts of the state have been affected by years of heavy collection and shrimp trawling , nearly wiping them out from some areas .\nwell that depends on the seahorse you\u2019re interested in . typically the larger and more brightly colored individuals cost more than the smaller and duller colored ones\nbloating . while a fat seahorse is a healthy seahorse , they also succumb to infections that cause fluid to accumulate under the skin . it can be difficult to tell the difference in the early stages , but one thing you can do is watch for if it is still eating or not .\nwhile this just a basic overview of what is needed for keeping seahorses , following these three keys will lead to a happy , healthy seahorse tank .\nmany middle - aged and older aquarists may be familiar with dwarf seahorses , even if they don\u2019t realize it . those of us who grew up in the precomputer age reading comic books are likely familiar with the ads in the back of those comic books offering seahorses for sale . these were dwarf seahorses , and those of us who bought them had live fish arriving in the mail years before the internet began .\nthe maximum length of a dwarf seahorse is just under 2 inches . like many other seahorse species , it has a variety of color forms , which range from tan to green to almost black . their skin may be mottled , have dark spots , and covered in tiny warts . these seahorses have a short snout , and a coronet on top of their head that is very high and column - like or knob - like in shape . they may also have filaments extending from their head and body .\nas early as the mid - 1950s , dwarf seahorses were preserved , dried , and sold to shell dealers for $ 15 . 00 to $ 25 . 00 per 1 , 000 ( strawn 1954 ) .\nbaum jk , vincent acj ( 2005 ) magnitude and inferred impacts of the seahorse trade in latin america . environ conserv 32 ( 4 ) : 305\u2013319 .\nafter reading this , are you thinking of setting up your own seahorse aquarium ? stop by our forums to ask any questions you have about keeping seahorses .\ndwarf seahorses are precocious and will breed freely in captivity . some seahorse species are reported to be monogamous , but dwarfs definitely like to play the field . i have one large female that mates on a regular basis with at least four different males . their mating dance usually happens early in the morning , and i\u2019ve never seen a pair mate in the afternoon or evening .\ndwarf seahorses eat small crustaceans and tiny fish . like other seahorses , they are\nambush predators ,\nand use their long snout with a pipette - like motion to suck in their food as it passes by .\nvincent , a . 1997 .\nnova - kingdom of the seahorse\n( on - line ) . pbs . accessed october 13 , 2004 at urltoken .\nproject seahorse 2003 . hippocampus zosterae . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2014 . 2 . < urltoken > . accessed september 30 , 2014 .\nseahorse keepers are obsessed with food . live food , dead food , big food , small food . why ? because our seahorses are so dependent on it .\nthe dwarf seahorse ' s mating ritual is fascinating ,\nsaid mccawley , with the florida fwc . it is\nmarked by distinct behavior changes and intensity and occurs over 3 - 4 days . the phases include side - by - side vibrating or quivering , showing bright and / or rapid color changes , head pointing , and repeatedly rising together in the water column .\nwith adults only about an inch tall , the dwarf seahorse is the smallest of the four seahorse species found in u . s . waters . this dainty , curly - tailed fish occurs only in shallow seagrass areas in the gulf of mexico , along the atlantic coast of florida and in the caribbean . unfortunately , this seahorse now faces numerous threats to its existence , and the best available science shows that it ' s in decline . widespread loss of the species ' seagrass habitat due to pollution , damage from boats and trawls and global warming is hurting the minuscule creature \u2014 which is further endangered by collection for use in the aquarium trade , as curios , and for prepackaged traditional medicines . after the catastrophic 2010 gulf of mexico oil spill degraded much of its range , this seahorse is more threatened than ever and could disappear forever without the protection of the endangered species act .\nstrawn k . 1958 . life history of the pigmy seahorse , hippocampus zosterae jordan and gilbert , at cedar key , florida . copeia 1958 : 16 - 22 .\nlourie s ( 2003 ) fin - clipping procedure for seahorses . in : project seahorse technical bulletin 3 . fisheries centre , university of british columbia , pp 1\u20134 .\nreidi are available in australia by the only remaining commercial breeders here seahorse australia . urltoken just expensive and only seems to be females at the time of this comment .\nis one of the smallest of the many different seahorse species , ranging in size between 2 to 2 . 5 cm . the maximum reported size was a male of 5 . 0 cm ( jordan and gilbert , 1882 ) . this species of seahorse can be distinguished from other western atlantic seahorse species by the presence of 10 to 13 dorsal and pectoral fin rays ( daswon and vari , 1982 ) . also , dwarf seahorses possess 9 to 10 trunk rings , a high knob - like coronet that lacks spines or projections , knob - like spines on the body , a short snout that is one - third the length of the head , and skin covered in tiny warts ( lourie et al . , 2004 ) .\nlourie s , foster s , cooper e , vincent ac ( 2004 ) a guide to the identification of seahorses . traffic north america and project seahorse , washington dc .\nthe dwarf seahorse , hippocampus zosterae , is a small seahorse common to florida seagrass flats . it is variable in color , often tan and unpatterned , but individuals can also range in color from green to nearly black . the snout is long relative to body size and the coronet ( head projection ) is high and knob - like . the dorsal fin has 11 - 13 fin rays and a dark submarginal stripe that may aid in identification . body ring counts reveal 10 - 14 trunk rings and 31 - 33 tail rings ( hoese and moore 1977 , robins et al . 1986 ) .\nchang ch , lin hy , jang - liaw nh , shao kt , lin ys , ho hc . ( 2013 ) the complete mitochondrial genome of the tiger tail seahorse ,\ngoswami m , thangaraj k , kumar b , chaudhary l , bhaskar sk , gopalakrishnan a , et al . ( 2009 ) genetic heterogeneity of the indian stocks of seahorse (\nan ideal \u201cfirst seahorse\u201d in sharp contrast to larger fishes , dwarf seahorses offer us the opportunity to observe nearly all of their natural behaviors in captivity . due to their small size , they adjust readily to the confines of aquarium life . three pairs in a 15 gallon tank will reward you with a display of activities not often observed among captive seahorses of other species . as a consequence , their captive husbandry is well understood , and many specimens in the trade are commercially produced . this is an important consideration at a time when many seahorse species are in sharp decline ( please see below ) .\nthe size and shape of the aquarium is also important to seahorse health . 20 gallons per seahorse is the absolute minimum for a pair of seahorses . 40 gallons per pair of the really large species such as h . ingens or h . abdominalis . however , water volume is only one factor when determining the best size seahorse aquarium . seahorses need tall aquariums , as they are vertical swimmers . this is especially true if you plan to breed them . minimum tank size is three times the total adult height of the seahorse . be sure this is after you subtract the depth of your sand bed . a 20 - inch tank with a 6 inch sand bed only gives seahorses 14 inches of usable height .\nour results support an isolation by distance model as a contributing driver of population structuring in floridian h . zosterae , in which geographically proximate populations are more genetically similar than those that are farther apart [ 36 ] . these findings implicate a stepping - stone or nearest - neighbor model in the structuring of dwarf seahorse populations , though other organismal and environmental factors are likely influential , including rafting and current patterns [ 39 ] .\noverwintering cedar key dwarf seahorses disappear from the grass flats by early august and do not become member ' s of the next year ' s overwintering population . strawn ( 1958 ) suggested that individuals from this population rarely exceeded one year in age .\ndescription and habitat \u201cseapony\u201d might be a more appropriate name for this diminutive creature , which , at an adult length of 0 . 9 inches , is only slightly larger than the smallest known species , denise\u2019s pygmy seahorse ( please see below ) . ranging from florida to the bahamas , the dwarf seahorse may be white , yellow , green or black in color . it dwells in sea grass beds , so much so that the species name , \u201czosterae\u201d , is drawn from that of the plant with which it is most often associated . northern populations were formerly considered to be a separate species , h . regulus .\ndriving home , this thought occurred to me regarding the fact that they mate for life : if i were only able to move five feet an hour and i managed to find another of my species in a huge forest of grass , and that one i found was the opposite sex , i ' d probably never let her out of my sight either . especially so if she looked as lovely and delicate as a dwarf seahorse .\nwas listed in 2000 as vulnerable on the iucn red list of threatened species . one major threat to dwarf seahorses is habitat degradation due to extraction from subsistence , artisanal uses , and large - scale fisheries as well as infrastructure development such as industry , human settlement , and tourism . harvesting for local , national , and international trade and accidental mortality as bycatch in fishing nets are also threats to this population . due to the small size of dwarf seahorses , they are popular in the aquarium trade .\nboehm jt , woodall l , teske pr , lourie s , baldwin c , waldman j , et al . ( 2013 ) marine dispersal and barriers drive atlantic seahorse diversification . j biogeogr\ni\u2019m often asked which species of seahorse aquarists should get for their first aquarium . this question may sound simple enough , but different species behave differently and have varying levels of care required .\nalso has a dorsal fin with a submarginal band ( dawson and vari , 1982 ) . dwarf seahorses are found in colors of beige , yellow , green , and black , and may have white speckles or dark spots ( lourie et al . , 2004 ) .\n( 1989 ) , observing 0 . 37 animals / m\u00b2 in 1994 / 1995 combined , again showing that across habitat types , seahorse densities were stable . using otter trawls in deeper areas , thayer\nas a testament to their hardiness , most of those early shipments arrived alive and well . because the dwarf seahorse is relatively easy to care for , provided a few basic needs are met , those of us who followed the simple directions that came with them were rewarded with fish that often reproduced and survived for several generations in our care . unfortunately , i\u2019m sure many others did not follow those directions , and those poor fish in their care did not last long .\ndwarf seahorses live in shallow waters populated with seagrasses . in fact , their distribution coincides with the availability of seagrasses . they may also be found in floating vegetation . they live in the western atlantic ocean in southern florida , bermuda , bahamas and the gulf of mexico .\ndwarf seahorses are the one exception . newly hatched and enriched baby brine shrimp is generally used as a staple . this is because they are more nutritious , still having the egg yoke or being enriched . larger seahorses will not eat baby brine shrimp , its too small .\nwilson mj , and acj vincent . 1998 . preliminary success in closing the life cycle of exploited seahorse species , hippocampus spp . , in captivity . aquarium sciences and conservation 2 : 179 - 196 .\n, being a smaller species , is expected to live on average one year in the wild and in captivity ( if given proper care ) ( lourie et al . , 2004 ) . the maximum reported lifespan is 1 year for dwarf seahorses ( jordan and gilbert , 1882 ) .\ntankmates need to be slow . seahorses are not very fast at catching food ; some will stare at a piece for a good ten minutes before deciding it is edible . highly aggressive , fast tankmates will usually end up stealing all the food . in addition , gregarious , fast moving fish tend to make seahorses nervous and can cause undue stress , which can lead to illness . keep the tankmates slow and small , and your seahorse will be happiest . or don\u2019t keep them at all , as many seahorse keepers discovered they do best only with their own kind . for specific recommendations , see the article on seahorse tankmates .\ni was in surfside this weekend and caught a very small seahorse . about an inch long . it is now in a 30 gallon ice chest filled with ocean water from where i caught him\u2026 now what\u2026 .\ndwarf seahorses typically produce at least three generations per year , with four or more generations possible in the southern parts of their range [ 1 ] . most breeding activity occurs between february and october , with breeding timing and juvenile growth both closely associated with day length and regional water temperatures [ 1 , 12 ] . during the summer months , when water temperatures exceed 30\u00b0c , male dwarf seahorses may produce up to two broods per month , each containing up to 55 offspring . juvenile development is rapid , with individuals reaching reproductive maturity between two and three months of age .\nplays a vital role in the ecosystems in which they live , first as predators that help regulate populations of their marine prey . as prey for other animals , dwarf seahorses help to maintain other species by providing them with a source of food . for example , consumption of small crustaceans by\nthe dwarf seahorse is found in eelgrass beds around coastal florida , out in the atlantic to bermuda and throughout the caribbean . in fact , their specific name zosterae refers to the genus of eelgrass with which they are most often associated : zostera . while individual specimens are reputed to be tied to one area , and they don\u2019t move around much , their wide dispersal is apparently due to them hanging on when pieces of seagrass break loose and float off with the current to settle down sometimes hundreds of miles away .\nthe last issue concerning the seahorse environment is water quality . seahorses are messy eaters ; consuming large volumes of high protein , high fat foods . they have an inefficient digestive system , which leaves the aquarist with high protein , high fat poops that break down in the aquarium . for this reason , it is important for the seahorse aquarist to watch their water quality closely , and set up their aquarium to deal with these waste - producing machines .\nhello i was wondering what can be done to help the bio cube not get so hot ? i have been looking into a seahorse tank and found the biocube 32 to be suitable and many people seem to use them .\ni have not much idea about seahorses but i\u2019d loved to keep them as pets . can anyone suggest me of which kind of seahorse i should get ? i prefer the one that has a long life span . thanks !\ndwarf seahorses are small . specimens collected from cedar key seagrass beds by strawn ( 1958 ) ranged from 7 to 38 mm from the knob at the top of the head ( the coronet ) to the tip of the tail . robbins et al . ( 1986 ) indicates large specimens may reach 5 cm .\nhello , i\u2019m having difficulty adjusting the flow rate on the 2 different types of filters that i use in my seahorse aquarium . the current if blowing the seahorse around , no matterhow i try to slow it . in the spring i am planning to add pipefish , which also need slower water i believe . i have an undergravel plate already in place , and am thinking to give it a try , do you have any opinion on undergravel filters ?\nhi dena \u2013 are you prepared for the amount of work and expense keeping seahorses requires ? what did you think of the above questions ? if you think you\u2019re ready to keep a seahorse , i suggest starting with captive bred individuals . i would strongly recommend releasing this one back into the wild as close to where you found it as possible . and then take a look at so you want to set up a seahorse tank as a good starting point .\nmeasuring an inch long when full grown , they are the smallest of the four seahorse species native to the gulf of mexico , and one of the smallest vertebrates on the planet . they are also thought to be slowly disappearing .\ntipton and bell ( 1988 ) describe the predation strategy of dwarf sea horses as a\nsit - and - wait\nambush strategy . like other syngnathids , h . zosterae is a pipette feeder ( colson et al . 1998 ) , using suctorial force to capture prey with the fused tube - like jaws .\nthe network visualization and genetic distance map suggest that , with the possible exception of pensacola , some gene flow occurs between sampled locations . as the distances between these locations far exceed the capacity of h . zosterae for active migration , these findings implicate passive dispersal as a common mechanism underpinning genetic connectivity in the species . passive dispersal is likely accomplished through rafting , which has been previously documented in other seahorse species [ 38 , 40 ] , and woodall et al . \u2019s [ 14 ] reported occurrence of a north american seahorse in european waters was likely the product of a long - range dispersal by rafting . as dwarf seahorses produce benthic offspring and have limited capacity for active dispersal , rafting provides a likely explanation for our findings of genetic intermixing between distant populations [ 1 , 13 ] .\npopulation data for most of the world\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s more than 30 seahorse species is sparse . however , worldwide coastal habitat depletion , pollution , and rampant harvesting , mainly for use in asian traditional medicine , have made several species vulnerable to extinction .\ni plan to gift a seahorse to a friend . it would be nice if you could give me me detailed information about the cost involved and also any other things i should keep in mind / may overlook . thanks\u2026loved the article !\nadditional observations on dwarf seahorse reproduction are provided by strawn ( 1958 ) . microscopic examination of ripe ovaries by the author revealed two clutches of eggs , one of which is comprised of large eggs ready to be transferred to the male pouch , the other of the small , yolked eggs of the successive clutch . the largest clutch size ( mature eggs only ) was 69 eggs , and the largest brood from a male was 55 young . one female usually provided all of the eggs brooded in the male marsupium , and courting males pump their pouches full of water .\nour findings indicate significant population structuring among hippocampus zosterae populations in florida . we present strong evidence for the presence of a genetically distinct dwarf seahorse population ( pensacola ) , delineate two recognizable populations ( eastern keys and west coast ) , and suggest the presence of a fourth ( big pine key ) . the consistently high and strongly significant values for the various estimates of genetic differentiation employed in this study support the demarcation of the pensacola sample as markedly genetically differentiated from the rest of the seahorses collected in this study and the consideration of the population as a discrete management unit [ 37 ] . our analyses also lend credence to the suggestion made in previous studies that rafting may serve as a common means of passive dispersal facilitating genetic connectivity between geographically distant seahorse populations [ 2 , 4 , 21 , 38 ] .\nrange from 5 to 20 milliseconds in length and are between 2 . 65 and 3 . 43 khz . also , as size of the seahorse increases the peak frequencies of the clicking sounds decrease ( colson et al . , 1998 ) .\ndwarf seahorses have a complex , four phase courtship ritual that involves color changes , performing vibrations while attached to a holdfast . they may also swim around their holdfast . then the female points her head upward , and the male responds by also pointing his head upward . then they rise up into the water column and intertwine tails .\nlike other seahorses , dwarf seahorses are ovoviviparous , and the female produces eggs that are reared in the male ' s brood pouch . the female produces about 55 eggs which are about 1 . 3 mm in size . it takes about 11 days for the eggs to hatch into miniature seahorses which are about 8 mm in size .\nthe tank size you have sounds too small . it sounds like approximately 15 gallons ( 57 ltr ) , and you\u2019re going to want a minimum of a 29 gallon ( 110 ltr ) for most species . unless you\u2019re thinking of keeping dwarf seahorses , which have very different requirements and then the tank would be almost too big .\nafter a few minutes in one spot , they would both release their grip on their seaweed perch and slowly glide to a new spot . seahorses swim upright , standing in the water with their head straight above their tails . the only means of locomotion comes from a small fin on their back . while jacque cousteau writes in his book the ocean world that this fin can move seventy times a second , it is so ineffective that the dwarf seahorse is considered to be the slowest of all fish , capable of traveling about five feet an hour . indeed , it took the pair several minutes to transit the length of the small aquarium i placed them in . despite that shortcoming , they have been around for along time . the earliest known example of a seahorse from the fossil record is 13 million years old .\ndwarf seahorses are amazing animals . i see something new and different each time i look into their tank . i set up the tank right in my office next to my computer , so i can watch them all the time . of course , sometimes that distracts me when i\u2019m writing ! the only drawback is that they need to have small , nutritious live foods all the time . if you can meet this one non - negotiable requirement , give them a try . a colony of dwarf seahorses makes an excellent display in a 2 - to 5 - gallon nano tank and might even get you interested in trying your hand at keeping and breeding other marine fish .\nlourie , s . , s . foster , e . cooper , a . vincent . 2004 .\na guide to the identification of seahorses\n( on - line pdf ) . project seahorse . accessed october 14 , 2004 at urltoken .\na dwarf\u2019s gestation period is about 10 days at 70 degrees fahrenheit . the male carries up to a dozen or so eggs in his pouch , and each day it swells a bit as the embryos grow inside him . recent studies have shown that a pseudo - placental structure develops , and the lining of the pouch changes during embryonic development .\ndwarf seahorses are benthic at birth , settling onto the surrounding substrate and vegetation shortly after they emerge from their father\u2019s pouch [ 1 , 13 ] . adult h . zosterae are poor swimmers and may experience even more limited mobility and a greater risk of predation as a result of their small size . long - range dispersal of h . zosterae is likely restricted to instances of passive dispersal through rafting , which can occur as vegetative holdfasts break loose from the substrate and are carried by ocean currents [ 4 ] . genetic exchanges between non - contiguous seahorse populations are presumed to be rare and restricted to rafting events and limited pelagic dispersal [ 2 , 11 ] . long distance dispersal through rafting has been documented in larger seahorse species , though the success of rafting as a dispersal strategy depends chiefly upon chance and favorable current patterns [ 14 ] .\nmedium seahorse , tends to be rather shy . may need some coaxing to eat . tends to be neutral colored , yellows but more commonly greys , cream , brown . frequently reported to avoid interaction with humans and \u201chide\u201d\u009d when they are being observed .\nteske pr , hamilton h , palsboll p , choo ck , gabr h , lourie sa , et al . ( 2005 ) molecular evidence for long - distance colonization in an indo - pacific seahorse lineage . mar ecol - prog ser 286 : 249\u2013260 .\nproduces these sounds by the grinding of a bony articulation between the supraoccipital ridge of the neurocranium and the grooved anterior margin of the coronet . when dwarf seahorses lift their head , the ridge of the neurocranium slides under the medial groove of the coronet resulting in the clicking noise that is most likely used as a form of communication . the feeding clicks of\nhoese and moore ( 1977 ) indicate individuals are restricted to high - salinity grass flats , but other authors report dwarf seahorses occupy and appear capable of breeding across a broad range of salinities . strawn ( 1958 ) , for example , reported heavy summer breeding following periods of high ( 33 ppt ) and low ( 9 . 7 ppt ) salinity .\nso what is a seahorse keeper to do ? variety is the spice of life . while it may take time to convince your seahorse that mysis isn\u2019t the only thing they want to eat , most that eat frozen will learn to eat other shrimp like frozen food , such as krill . with live food , spend the money to get live saltwater shrimp and supplement . you can also enrich food with various supplements such as vibrance or selcon . feeding live shrimp high quality foods to \u201cgut load\u201d for seahorses is another option .\nheavy breathing / panting / coughing \u2013 seahorses tend to breath heavier than most fish , though rocking back and forth from breathing so hard , or looking though they\u2019re coughing every few breaths is generally a sign of gill parasites or a seahorse being at death\u2019s door .\ntissue samples were collected from h . zosterae individuals from eight locations around the florida peninsula during august 2012 and january 2013 ( table 1 ) . field collections were performed through a combination of snorkeling and dip netting . fin clips were taken from the lower corner of the dorsal fin and stored in 95 % ethanol as specified by lourie [ 19 ] and lourie et al . [ 20 ] . fin clips of thirteen dwarf seahorses from indian river , florida , were provided by a collaborating researcher who obtained them from the florida department of fish and wildlife as part of a phylogenetic study of atlantic seahorse diversification [ 2 ] .\nthe ability of seahorses to change color in many social situations is most likely a form of communication about the state or mood of the seahorse to its mate or other members of its species ( indiviglio , 2002 ) . mates also communicate with nose pointing and body vibrations .\nlourie , s . a . , a . c . j . vincent and h . j . hall , 1999 . seahorses : an identification guide to the world ' s species and their conservation . project seahorse , london . 214 p . ( ref . 30915 )\nlourie , s . a . , foster , s . j . , cooper , e . w . t . and a . c . j . vincent . 2004 . a guide to the identification of seahorses . project seahorse and traffic north america . 114 pp .\ncaution : often sold as a tropical seahorse , but much of the water they inhabit is actually subtropical . they seem to do best for most aquarists around 68 - 70f . this species is also one that almost always needs to be kept with it\u2019s own kind only .\nhello , i read this article and your name seemed familiar . i realized that i have your seahorse book also . it has been very useful to us . i have experience with many marine fishes and other animals of all kinds but seahorses have always given me more trouble than most , so any information you could send would be appreciated . i found like you that dwarf seahorses do better than some of the larger and more expensive kinds . i am using the product you mentioned in this article , phytogreen , as brine shrimp food . my husband had selco recommended to him \u2013 would it be good to used this , or both , also ?\nin nature , seahorses spend most of their time eating . this is because their digestive system is very short and not very efficient . they have evolved to be eating machines . unfortunately , they have evolved to be picky eating machines , only recognizing the movement of live food as actual food . thus comes the problem many seahorse keepers face . seahorses not only require frequent feedings of highly nutritious food , they often will only eat living food . which means for many seahorse aquarists at least one extra tank for food and a fairly large food budget .\nremember , always buy captive bred ; and if possible , get directly from a breeder to limit the risks both in accurate identification and eliminating the risk from sometimes inadequate care . i strongly recommend looking at a modern guide to buying seahorses for more information on picking your seahorse .\nhello randal , frank is no longer affiliated with our blog but feel free to let us know if you have any questions while setting up your new seahorse tank . h . zosterae have become much more difficult to find over the past couple of years and i would definitely recommend only getting captive - bred seahorses . most aquarium - suitable species are available through breeders at this point and are much better both for natural populations and aquarium suitability . if you are looking for more information , i would also recommend the libraries on urltoken and urltoken for seahorse information .\nthis is a large seahorse , very similar in shape to h . reidi . they behave much like h . reidi and are gregarious , active seahorses . common coloration : yellow with orange dots . commonly be solid yellow , yellow with black or white / light or all black .\nlourie , s . a . , a . c . j . vincent and h . j . hall , 1999 . seahorses : an identification guide to the world ' s species and their conservation . project seahorse , london . 214 p . via fishbase , september 30 , 2014 .\nwe sometimes collect at a bay in nj and often find pipefish which i believe is the northern pipefish . your book and article mentions these as doing well with seahorses . do you think they might live with dwarf seahorses , or do they need colder water . also , we use mainly brine shrimp as live foos . . can pipefish adjust to frozen food ; is brine shrimp enough for them ?\ngreat article . i recently saw a video of a male seahorse giving birth which brought back memories when i was a kid in the 60\u2019s and ordered them from a magazine . i\u2019m thinking about getting some now . what is the name of your book ? thanks for the great info . randal\ni have a wild caught seahorse from the carribean , west coast of puerto rico . i will like to know the sex , age ( young or older ) if look healthy and the kind ( species ) to get a mate for her / his . can you help me , please ?\nafter assembling the tripod and getting set up , i focused on this tiny seahorse , no more than an inch long , and to my surprise , discovered that there were two . not only were there two , but they were holding each other ' s tails and a piece of seaweed .\nseahorses are picky eaters , and the need to eat a lot . they mainly eat shrimp , but readily available brine shrimp is not an adequate diet . most captive bred seahorses eat frozen mysis and those unfortunate enough to own wild caught seahorses have to feed live foods . see our seahorse feeding guide .\ntiny , newly discovered specialists the pygmy seahorse , hippocampus bargibanti , first described in 1970 , seems to live on only 2 species of gorgonians ( soft corals ) of the genus muricella . so closely does it resemble the coral\u2019s polyps that the individual which led to the first description of the species was not discovered until it was seen on a coral that had been placed in an aquarium several days earlier ! at 0 . 8 inches in length , it was the smallest known species until the discovery , in 2003 , of indonesia\u2019s denise\u2019s pygmy seahorse . adults of this minute creature are a mere 0 . 6 inches long .\nlet\u2019s imagine the optimum environment for a home seahorse aquarium . what would be included in the way of equipment ( what would be the standard dimension tank without the added expense of a custom built tank ? ) , live rock and and other items in the tank . which species of seahorses are considered the hardest ?"]}
{"id": 2184, "summary": [{"text": "hypoplectrus nigricans , the black hamlet , is a hamlet in the family serranidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is native to shallow parts of the central western atlantic ocean and caribbean sea .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it grows to about 15 cm ( 6 in ) in total length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is a simultaneous hermaphrodite , with a breeding strategy known as egg trading .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "one fish acts as a female and lays a batch of eggs which the other fertilises .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the following night , the roles are reversed . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "hypoplectrus nigricans", "paragraphs": ["f st values for pair - wise comparisons of hypoplectrus nigricans allopatric populations , based on analysis of aflp data .\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2008 ) .\nhypoplectrus nigricans\nin fishbase . december 2008 version .\nresults of the f st outlier analyses between belize , honduras , and panama in hypoplectrus puella , h . nigricans , and h . unicolor\nhypoplectrus nigricans is a hamlet from the western atlantic . it occasionally makes its way into the aquarium trade . it grows to a size of 15 cm in length .\nhypoplectrus floridae n . sp . and hypoplectrus ecosur n . sp . , two new barred hamlets from the gulf of mexico ( pisces : serranidae ) : more than 3 % different in coi mtdna sequence from the caribbean hypoplectrus species flock\nhypoplectrus floridae n . sp . and hypoplectrus ecosur n . sp . , two new barred hamlets from the gulf of mexico ( pisces : serranidae ) : more than 3 % different in coi mtdna sequence from the caribbean hypoplectrus species flock\naguilar - perera , a . 2004 . variations in morphology and coloration in the black hamlet , hypoplectrus nigricans ( teleostei : serranidae ) . caribbean journal of science , 40 : 150 - 154 .\nnumbers and types of polymorphic aflp loci resulting from pair - wise comparisons of hypoplectrus populations .\na review of the caribbean hamlets ( serranidae , hypoplectrus ) with description of two new species .\nhypoplectrus nigricans isolate m63hn . b nadh dehydrogenase subunit 5 ( nd5 ) gene , partial cds ; nadh dehydrogenase subunit 6 ( nd6 ) gene , complete cds ; and trna - glu gene , partial sequence ; mitochondrial genes for mitochondrial products\nhypoplectrus nigricans isolate m62hn . b nadh dehydrogenase subunit 5 ( nd5 ) gene , partial cds ; nadh dehydrogenase subunit 6 ( nd6 ) gene , complete cds ; and trna - glu gene , partial sequence ; mitochondrial genes for mitochondrial products\nf st values for pair - wise comparisons of hypoplectrus chlorurus allopatric populations , based on analysis of aflp data .\nf st values for pair - wise comparisons of hypoplectrus puella allopatric populations , based on analysis of aflp data .\nf st values for pair - wise comparisons of hypoplectrus unicolor allopatric populations , based on analysis of aflp data .\nvictor , b . c . 2012 . hypoplectrus floridae n . sp . and hypoplectrus ecosur n . sp . , two new barred hamlets from the gulf of mexico ( pisces : serranidae ) : more than 3 % different in coi mtdna sequence from the caribbean hypoplectrus species flock . journal of the ocean science foundation , 5 : 1 - 19 .\ncitation :\nblack hamlets , hypoplectrus nigricans ~ marinebio . org .\nmarinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 1 / 14 / 2013 2 : 22 : 00 pm ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio\nthe blue hamlet hypoplectrus gemma and its supposed model , the blue chromis chromis cyanea . photos : a & b - dr robertson .\nthis study is based on nine samples including three sympatric species ( the barred hamlet hypoplectrus puella , the black hamlet hypoplectrus nigricans , and the butter hamlet hypoplectrus unicolor ) from three locations ( belize , honduras , and panama ) , with 14 individuals per sample ( total 126 individuals ) . this sampling design provides the opportunity to explore the population genomic patterns of local adaptation ( between allopatric populations within species ) and speciation ( between sympatric species ) within a single system , and to repeat comparisons both taxonomically ( in three species for local adaptation ) and geographically ( in three populations for speciation ) .\ndomeier , m . l . 1994 . speciation in the serranid fish hypoplectrus . bulletin of marine science , 54 : 103 - 141 .\nf st estimates among belize , honduras , and panama in hypoplectrus puella , h . nigricans , and h . unicolor at 10 microsatellite loci , 97 , 962 snps , and at the three repeated outliers identified in this study . n sample size , n / a data not available , \u2013 coverage below filtering criteria for these snps in these populations\nfischer , e . 1980 . speciation in the hamlets ( hypoplectrus : serranidae ) : a continuing enigma . copeia , 1980 : 649 - 659 .\nthe yellowbelly hamlet hypoplectrus aberrans and its supposed model , the cocoa damselfish stegastes variabilis . photos : a - f charpin ; b - dr robertson .\nthe yellowtail hamlet hypoplectrus chlorurus and its supposed model , the yellowtail damselfish microspathodon chrysurus . photos : a - c shipley ; b - dr robertson .\nthe tan hamlet hypoplectrus randallorum and its supposed model , the threespot damselfish stegastes planifrons . photos : a - p lobel ; b - dr robertson .\n( of plectropoma nigricans poey , 1852 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nthe shy hamlet hypoplectrus guttavarius and its supposed model , the rock beauty angelfish holacanthus tricolor . photos : a - f charpin ; b \u2013 j lyle .\nf st values for pair - wise comparisons of hypoplectrus sympatric morphotype populations and for pair - wise same morphotype comparisons allopatric populations , based on analysis of aflp data .\nlobel , p . s . 2011 . a review of the caribbean hamlets ( serranidae , hypoplectrus ) with description of two new species . zootaxa , 3096 : 1 - 17 .\ndistinct geographic variation in the coloration is present in h . unicolor , h . nigricans , and h . indigo , but not in the \u201cmodel\u201d of each . h . puella and h . nigricans display geographic variation in coloration that suggests that , if their coloration is cryptic , they are more cryptic at some locations than others . thus the limited information on geographic variation in hamlet coloration indicates it occurs in both \u201cmimic\u201d and non - mimic hamlets and is not related to mimicry , nor , perhaps , to crypsis .\ndomeier , m . l . , 1994 . speciation in the serranid fish hypoplectrus . bull . mar . sci . 54 ( 1 ) : 103 - 141 . ( ref . 26407 )\ngraves j . e . & rosenblatt r . h . 1980 . genetic relationships of the color morphs of the serranid fish hypoplectrus unicolor . evolution , 34 ( 2 ) , 240 - 245 .\nfischer [ 45 ] made intensive observations on h . nigricans and noted no behavioral interactions between it and the damselfishes or other species indicative of mimicry . he suggested that the coloration resemblance between h . nigricans and the two stegastes species is coincidental , and the result of independent selection for background - matching crypsis in each taxon . aguilar - perera [ 48 ] described geographic variation in color , shape and size of h . nigricans , with fish in the northwest caribbean being uniformly black , with short , blunt fins , while those in puerto rico are grey with yellow eyes , and have longer , more pointed fins ( see also [ 33 ] , [ 40 ] ) . if the black pattern is cryptic [ 45 ] , then the geographic variation described by aguilar - perera [ 48 ] indicates that the species may be less cryptic at some locations than others .\nresearch hypoplectrus nigricans \u00bb barcode of life ~ bioone ~ biodiversity heritage library ~ cites ~ cornell macaulay library [ audio / video ] ~ encyclopedia of life ( eol ) ~ esa online journals ~ fishbase ~ florida museum of natural history ichthyology department ~ gbif ~ google scholar ~ itis ~ iucn redlist ( threatened status ) ~ marine species identification portal ~ ncbi ( pubmed , genbank , etc . ) ~ ocean biogeographic information system ~ plos ~ siris ~ tree of life web project ~ unep - wcmc species database ~ worms\npuebla o , bermingham e , guichard f ( 2008 ) population genetic analyses of hypoplectrus coral reef fishes provide evidence that local processes are operating during the early stages of marine adaptive radiations . molecular ecology 17 : 1405\u20131415 .\ngarc\u00eda - machado e . , chevalier - monteagudo , p . p . & solignac , m . 2004 . lack of mtdna differentiation among hamlets ( hypoplectrus , serranidae ) . marine biology , 144 : 147 - 152 .\nonly comparisons with suitable sample sizes are shown . see table s7 for loci and outlier numbers for all comparisons . abbreviations represent the morphotypes included in each comparison : c = h . chlorurus , n = h . nigricans , p = h . puella , u = h . unicolor , v = veracruz white .\nobservations of behavioral interactions relating to mimicry have been made on only two of the seven hamlets originally described as mimics by randall and randall [ 3 ] and thresher [ 42 ] , h . nigricans and h . unicolor . in a detailed study of the behavioral ecology of h . nigricans , fischer [ 45 ] found no support for mimicry by this species , and suggested there was a coincidental similarity related to background matching coloration . h . unicolor and h . indigo are the only hamlets actually known to behave in a manner consistent with a mimetic relationship . how do information on hamlets in general relate to the nine predictions of the mimicry hypothesis ?\ncitation : holt bg , c\u00f4t\u00e9 im , emerson bc ( 2011 ) searching for speciation genes : molecular evidence for selection associated with colour morphotypes in the caribbean reef fish genus hypoplectrus . plos one 6 ( 6 ) : e20394 . urltoken\nabstract nine of the sixteen species of the western atlantic genus hypoplectrus ( serranidae ) are currently recognized to be distributed in the gulf of mexico . hypoplectrus atlahua n . sp . is only known from tuxpan banks and isla lobos , veracruz . it differs from the only other similarly colored species , h . nigricans ( i . e black hamlet ) in the number of gill rakers on the first arch , snout length , upper jaw length , pectoral and pelvic fins lengths , and coloration . it is a dark brown species , lacking nose spots , mask , caudal fin dark spots , peduncle saddle , and pectoral pigmentation , but has iridescent violet speckles and lines on cheeks and chest , and also a well - defined but rather small violet dot over the dorsal flat spine on the rear edge of the opercle .\nrepresentative images of the hypoplectrus colour morphotypes at different locations included in aflp outlier detection analysis . n . b . images for samples obtained in u . s . virgin islands not available as all individuals were released immediately after capture within this location .\naguilar - perera , a . & gonz\u00e1lez - salas , c . 2010 . distribution of the genus hypoplectrus v ( teleostei : serranidae ) in the greater caribbean region : support for a color - based speciation . marine ecology , 31 : 375 - 387 .\naguilar - perera , a . & tuz - sulub , a . n . 2010 . hypoplectrus gemma ( teleostei : serranidae ) is not endemic to southern florida waters . pan - american journal of aquatic sciences , 5 ( 1 ) : 143 - 146 .\nholt , b . g . , c\u00f4t\u00e9 , i . m . & emerson , b . c . 2010 . signatures of speciation ? distribution and diversity of hypoplectrus ( teleostei : serranidae ) colour morphotypes . global ecology and biogeography , 19 : 432 - 441 .\npuebla , o . , bermingham , e . , guichard , f . & whiteman , e . 2007 . colour pattern as a single trait driving speciation in hypoplectrus coral reef fishes ? proceedings . biological sciences / the royal society , 274 : 1265 - 1271 .\nramon , m . l . , lobel , p . s . & sorenson , m . d . 2003 . lack of mitochondrial genetic structure in hamlets ( hypoplectrus spp . ) : recent speciation or ongoing hybridization ? . molecular ecology 12 : 2975 - 2980 .\nthe significant repeated outliers were detected above consistently low , but significant , genetic divergence between pairs of morphotypes ( table 2 ) . our f st values , derived from the most comprehensive taxonomic and geographic sampling to date , are in agreement with previous analyses using aflps [ 15 ] and microsatellites [ 11 ] , [ 12 ] . these results suggest that hypoplectrus morphotypes do represent more than simple colour variants of a single species and that selection acting on a limited number of loci is indirectly resulting in low level significant isolation in other parts of the hypoplectrus genome .\nholt , b . g . , c\u00f4t\u00e9 , i . m . & emerson , b . c . 2011 . searching for speciation genes : molecular evidence for selection associated with colour morphotypes in the caribbean reef fish genus hypoplectrus . plos one , 6 ( 6 ) : e20394 .\ndel moral flores , l . , tello - musi , j . & mart\u00edinezp\u00e9rez , j . 2011 . descripci\u00f3n de una nueva especie del g\u00e9nero hypoplectrus ( actinopterigi : serranidae ) del sistema arrecifal veracruzano , suroeste del golfo de m\u00e9xico . revista de zoolog\u00eda , 22 : 1 - 10 .\nour results show evidence for consistent selection between at least two hypoplectrus morphotypes ( h . chlorurus and h . puella ) and highlight three aflp loci that show good evidence for being directly affected . selection between colour forms appears to play a role in maintaining this complex of morphotypes ; however , this has not resulted in consistent divergence for the vast majority of the loci studied . the low but significant genetic differentiation between morphotypes suggests that hypoplectrus colour forms do represent more than just colour variants of a single species . however , incipient speciation cannot be assumed and these results are consistent with the possibility of an evolutionarily stable colour polymorphism .\nthe repeated outlier loci identified are likely to be linked , either physically or otherwise , to genes coding for hypoplectrus colour pattern . an aflp outlier analysis , similar to ours , on intertidal snails [ 25 ] was followed up by sequencing of both outlier and non - outlier loci using bacterial artificial chromosome libraries [ 26 ] , allowing speculation regarding the phenotypic effects of outlier loci . applying these techniques to the repeated outliers uncovered in this study could result in a fundamental step forward in understanding exactly how hypoplectrus morphotypes differ from each other , potentially identifying regions of the genome under selection . comparative analysis of divergent and non - divergent loci may consequently prove to be informative regarding the history of polymorphism in this genus .\nhypoplectrus chlorurus , h . nigricans , h . puella and h . unicolor each provided suitable sample sizes for repeated outlier analysis . a total of 10 loci were identified using the dfdist method as being potentially under selection between morphotypes at either the 99 % or the 95 % level ( fig . 3 , table 4 ) . the frequency of repeated outliers showed the opposite pattern to that shown by general outlier frequencies , with sympatric morphotype population comparisons producing more repeated outlier loci than allopatric same morphotype comparisons . the numbers of 95sel and 99sel loci were significantly higher than expected under neutral conditions ( both p < 0 . 001 ) . the numbers of 95geo and 99geo loci did not significantly differ from null expectations , however , the relatively small sample sizes for h . puella in these analyses is likely to have reduced the probability of detecting loci in disequilibrium in these comparisons involving this species .\nin this study we use established outlier detection methods to search for molecular signatures of selection on specific loci between interbreeding populations . through analysis of amplified fragment length polymorphisms ( aflps ) we specifically considered whether individual loci are consistently associated with individual morphotypes across different locations . the aflp technique has a specific advantage over mtdna and microsatellite markers that have been so far employed for population genetic analysis of hypoplectrus [ 11 ] , [ 12 ] ; by efficiently producing hundreds of markers , it has higher potential to detect polymorphism across the genome . our study took advantage of this feature to search for direct molecular evidence of selection between hypoplectrus morphotypes across different locations . this approach has an advantage over methods such as bulk segregate analysis or qtl mapping in that it can be applied to samples from natural populations and does not require laboratory breeding , which has so far proven to be unfeasible for these fish [ 7 ] .\nusing a genome - wide scanning approach , we found evidence for consistent selection occurring between pairs of h . chlorurus and h . puella , and between h . puella and h . unicolor pairs , despite observing low to moderate overall divergence among colour forms . three aflp loci were identified as being under selection between morphotypes in pair - wise comparisons of sympatric morphotypes at two different locations , using both the dfdist and bayescan methods . these loci represent the first evidence for selection between morphotypes influencing the hypoplectrus genome across sampling locations .\nsubstantial inter - morphotype gene flow may at first seem to contradict the results of extensive spawning observations , in which only \u223c1 % of matings occurred between different morphotypes [ 7 ] , [ 13 ] . however , even this level of interbreeding could be consistent with our observed f st values given the likely size of the majority of hypoplectrus morphotype global populations . the possibility of infrequent hybridization preventing speciation has been suggested for other systems [ 28 ] , [ 29 ] , [ 30 ] , whereby equilibrium between convergence and divergence is maintained by occasional gene flow .\nhypoplectrus is a genus of small , predatory groupers endemic to the tropical northwest atlantic . it has 16 named \u2018species\u2019 [ 3 ] , [ 39 ] - [ 42 ] , eight of which have been proposed as aggressive mimics of different reef fishes [ 3 ] , [ 42 ] , [ 43 ] . below i present information on the only four species for which there are behavioral observations relating to the mimicry hypothesis . relevant information on the coloration and behavior of five other species of \u201cmimic\u201d hamlets and their \u201cmodels\u201d is summarized in appendix s1 , together with general information on the coloration of hamlets .\ntwo \u201cmimetic\u201d hamlets , h . nigricans and h . indigo , feed heavily on fish : \u223c30\u201340 % and 90 % of their identifiable stomach contents respectively [ 37 ] , [ 43 ] , [ 45 ] . in addition , fishes also make up about 10\u201325 % of the identifiable stomach contents of h . chlorurus , h . puella and h . unicolor [ 37 ] , [ 43 ] . the resemblance of the \u201cmimetic\u201d hamlet that specializes in preying on fish , h indigo , to its potential model , the fish it eats , is sufficiently vague that it was not among the original group of hamlets labeled as mimics due to their similarity to other fishes . caribbean reef fishes , including potential targets of some \u201cmimic\u201d hamlets , can readily distinguish those hamlets from their models [ 42 ] , and recognize the different ecological and threat status of each .\nthe relatively high level of genetic isolation demonstrated for the two sympatric morphotypes sampled in mexico is surprising , as there was no a priori reason to suspect this comparison to differ from the others . this comparison produced an f st of 0 . 212 , far larger than the level of isolation measured in all of other pair - wise comparisons ( all other f st < 0 . 09 ) . other unusual features of this region include the fact that just two morphotypes are abundant ( bgh , personal observations ) and one is an endemic morphotype , the veracruz white . the only other study to consider hamlets from the gulf of mexico [ 10 ] found that veracruz whites tend to feed at a higher trophic level than the sympatric h . nigricans population . this species pair may be an interesting focus for future research to determine what has driven the divergence between the two morphotypes in veracruz .\nthe overall mean f st values among morphotypes across the region and among sampling locations were similar : 0 . 051 and 0 . 052 , respectively ( for pair - wise comparisons , see table 2 ) . these values will be influenced by regional variation in the numbers of morphotypes sampled . the mean f st between sympatric morphotypes was 0 . 058 , with all pair - wise comparisons being significantly greater than zero , with the exception of the comparison of two morphotypes from honduras . within morphotypes , geographical population structure had a mean f st value of 0 . 060 ; however , there was large variation between morphotypes , ranging from 0 . 020 among h . chlorurus populations to 0 . 114 among h . nigricans populations . f st values for all sympatric inter - morphtype comparisons and all allopatric intra - morphotype comparisons are presented in tables s2 , s3 , s4 , s5 and s6 .\naccording to thresher [ 42 ] h . nigricans and s . adustus show parallel geographic variation in coloration , with the jamaican population of both having yellow bellies , and pelvic , anal and tail fins . however , at montego bay , jamaica , \u223c50 km from thresher\u2019s study site , s . adustus have the same uniform grey - brown color they have elsewhere in the caribbean area ( drr pers obs , at montego bay , florida , bermuda , the bahamas , panama , curacao , venezuela , barbados , and puerto rico ) . further , the jamaican coloration described for the hamlet and damselfish by thresher [ 42 ] fits other hamlets ( h . aberrans or h . chlorurus ) and stegastes variabilis . when color differences are the defining characteristic of most hamlet \u201cspecies\u201d ( see appendix s1 ) , whether to call hamlets with different color patterns intraspecific geographic variants rather than different species becomes a semantic issue .\nsamples were collected using scuba , from coral reef sites at eight sampling locations ( i . e . countries ) distributed across the caribbean basin ( fig . 1 ) . we refer to all individuals of a particular colour form at a particular location as a \u2018morphotype population\u2019 and all individuals of a particular colour form from throughout the hypoplectrus distribution as a \u2018global morphotype population\u2019 . fish were sampled by using micro - spears or \u201chook and line\u201d whereby baited , barbless hooks were offered to fish . hooked fish were released after fin clipping . fin clips were removed from the dorsal and anal fins and placed in ethanol and stored at 4\u00b0c . the morphotypes sampled and number of individuals collected varied among locations , depending on local abundance ( table 1 ) .\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nmceachran , j . d . ( 2009 ) . fishes ( vertebrata : pisces ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 1223\u20131316 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthere is an ongoing discussion on the validity of the hamlets as biological species ( domeier 1994 ) . hamlet\nspecies\nare defined primarily on differences in color patterns . they are known to interbreed and hybridize freely with very little consistent genetic differentiation amongst them .\nanderson , w . , carpenter , k . e . , gilmore , g . , milagrosa bustamante , g . & robertson , r .\nthis widely distributed species is common and abundant where it occurs over shallow reefs .\nthere are no known major threats . therefore , it is listed as least concern .\nis distributed in the western atlantic from southeast florida , the bahamas , in the gulf of mexico from the florida keys and from tuxpan , mexico along the northern yucatan to northwestern cuba , in the caribbean throughout the antilles to tobago , and along central and south america from mexico to santa marta , colombia and in the offshore islands off venezuela ( r . robertson pers . comm . 2014 ) . the depth range is three to 67 m ( lieske and myers 1994 ) , but is most abundant in less than 10 m depth .\nanguilla ; antigua and barbuda ; aruba ; bahamas ; barbados ; belize ; bonaire , sint eustatius and saba ; cayman islands ; colombia ; costa rica ; cuba ; cura\u00e7ao ; dominica ; dominican republic ; grenada ; guadeloupe ; guatemala ; haiti ; honduras ; jamaica ; martinique ; mexico ; montserrat ; nicaragua ; panama ; puerto rico ; saint barth\u00e9lemy ; saint kitts and nevis ; saint lucia ; saint martin ( french part ) ; saint vincent and the grenadines ; sint maarten ( dutch part ) ; trinidad and tobago ; turks and caicos islands ; united states ; venezuela , bolivarian republic of ; virgin islands , british ; virgin islands , u . s .\nthis species is common throughout its range . in a study conducted off san blas , panama , it was the most abundant hamlet on shallow reef flats ( fischer 1980 ) .\nthis species inhabits shallow reefs over hard or soft corals ( lieske and myers 1994 , smith 1997 ) . members of this genus are known to be synchronous hermaphrodites with individuals alternating male and female\nroles\nduring spawning ( fischer 1981 ) . its maximum length 15 . 2 cm tl ( randall 1996 ) .\nthis species rarely occurs in the aquarium trade and is not preferred ( r . robertson pers . comm . 2012 ) .\nthere are no known major threats . it is potentially a prey item of the invasive lionfish , however , only juveniles are consumed and it is not likely that this will drive significant population declines on a global level ( l . rocha pers . comm . 2014 ) .\nanderson , w . , carpenter , k . e . , gilmore , g . , milagrosa bustamante , g . & robertson , r . 2015 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngreek , hypo = under + greek , plektron = sting , spur ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 3 - 13 m ( ref . 9710 ) . tropical\nwestern atlantic : belize to panama ; throughout the rest of the caribbean . absent off the coast of venezuela . antilles ( ref . 26938 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 15 . 2 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 13442 )\nbody blackish ( the intensity of the black can vary from bluish to brownish ) . all fins pigmented , including the pectorals .\na solitary species ( ref . 26340 ) inhabiting shallow reefs ( ref . 9710 ) . feeds on fishes and crustaceans ( ref . 26180 ) . often found near the bottom around soft and hard corals . occasionally been seen spawning with the h . chlorurus ( ref . 26938 )\n) : 27 . 9 - 28 . 5 , mean 28 ( based on 130 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01778 ( 0 . 00692 - 0 . 04567 ) , b = 3 . 03 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 25 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 0 \u00b10 . 66 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 22 of 100 ) .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nclaro , rodolfo , and lynne r . parenti / claro , rodolfo , kenyon c . lindeman , and l . r . parenti , eds .\nnelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .\nfull author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h\u00e9ctor espinosa - p\u00e9rez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nthis is a clip of a video that i took following black hamlets around during the time of the day that they mate .\na solitary species ( ref . 26340 ) inhabiting shallow reefs ( ref . 9710 ) . feeds on fishes and crustaceans ( ref . 26180 ) . often found near the bottom around soft and hard corals . occasionally been seen spawning with the h . chlorurus ( ref . 26938 )\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\noccurrence describes how often the species is found on surveys within its distribution . it is calculated as the % of reef sites surveyed by rls divers across all the ecoregions in which the species has been observed\nabundance is calculated as the average number of individuals recorded per rls transect , where present .\nplease use this form only for a single type of error . if you see multiple errors on the page for this species , please report these in separate forms by clicking on this button again after submitting this form\nthank you for highlighting this error . we appreciate your assistance in maintaining high quality control standards\nhead and body deep , stro ngly compressed ; forehead straight ; snout relatively short ; top jaw protrusible ; rear of top jaw exposed when mouth closed , without accessory bone above it ; teeth fixed ; preoperculum angular , serrated , several small forward pointing spines on lower edge near the corner ; gill rakers 17 - 23 ; dorsal fin x , 14 - 17 , no notch after spines , membranes between spines not indented ; pelvics long , reach to or beyond anus ; tail fin slightly forked ; lateral line scales 48 - 53 ; soft dorsal and anal fins mostly scaleless .\nhead and body black , grey or dark brown ; all fins except the pectorals are colored as the body ; pectorals are black in black bodied fish , clear in those with grey bodies ; there may be a bluish cast on various parts of the body and fins .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nformat summary genbank genbank ( full ) fasta asn . 1 xml insdseq xml tinyseq xml feature table accession list gi list gff3\nfinds sub - sequence or patterns in the sequence and highlights the matching region . the tool works with standard single letter nucleotide or protein codes including ambiguities and can match prosite patterns in protein sequences . more . . .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nwestern atlantic : belize to panama ; throughout the rest of the caribbean . absent off the coast of venezuela . antilles ( ref . 26938 ) .\n15 . 2 cm tl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 13442 ) )\ndepth range based on 4 specimens in 1 taxon . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 5 - 10 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : 5 - 10 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\nreef - associated ; marine ; depth range 3 - 13 m ( ref . 9710 )\ndepth : 3 - 13m . from 3 to 13 meters . habitat : reef - associated .\ninhabits shallow reefs ( ref . 9710 ) . often found near the bottom around soft and hard corals . feeds on fishes and crustaceans . carnivore ( ref . 57616 ) .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there are 4 barcode sequences available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is a sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\neri publication repository is powered by eprints 3 which is developed by the school of electronics and computer science at the university of southampton . more information and software credits .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmarine ; occupy small territories at the foot of , or near hard or soft coral reefs .\nbody and fins are a mat dark blue brown to black . pelvic fins are long . length 3 - 4 . 5in . , max . 6in .\nclaro , r . , 1994 caracter\u00edsticas generales de la ictiofauna . p . 55 - 70 . in r . claro ( ed . ) ecolog\u00eda de los peces marinos de cuba . instituto de oceanolog\u00eda academia de ciencias de cuba and centro de investigaciones de quintana roo . humann , p . and deloach , n . ( 2002 ) reef fish identification . florida , caribbean , bahamas . new world publications , inc . jacksonville , florida , usa . lieske , e . and r . myers , 1994 collins pocket guide . coral reef fishes . indo - pacific & caribbean including the red sea . haper collins publishers , 400 p . ogden , j . c . , j . a . yntema , and i . clavijo , 1975 an annotated list of the fishes of st . croix , u . s . virgin islands . spec . publ . no . 3 . smith , c . l . , 1997 national audubon society field guide to tropical marine fishes of the caribbean , the gulf of mexico , florida , the bahamas , and bermuda . alfred a . knopf , inc . , new york . 720 p .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncopyright : \u00a9 2011 holt et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : this work was funded by the national environment research council ( studentship s ner / sj2004 / 13064 and lsmsf application no . ek76 - 02 / 05 ) , with the additional funding by smgf and the sydney l . wright fellowship ( contribution number 1700 ) . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nwhether speciation can occur in the absence of geographic barriers remains controversial [ 1 ] . in this context colour polymorphisms , which occur in a wide range of taxa , provide excellent opportunities for studies of intraspecific evolutionary divergence ( e . g . [ 2 ] ) . many different mechanisms have been implicated in the origin and maintenance of colour polymorphism , including sexual selection , mimicry , predation , crypsis and genetic drift [ 3 ] . as all these mechanisms may also contribute to reproductive isolation , colour polymorphisms are often considered as systems potentially undergoing speciation ( e . g . [ 4 ] ) .\n1 = bermuda , 2 = cura\u00e7ao , 3 = dominican republic , 4 = honduras , 5 = mexico , 6 = panama , 7 = puerto rico , 8 = u . s . virgin islands .\nthe aflp procedure was based on vos et al . , [ 16 ] . dna was isolated from \u22480 . 5 cm 2 sub - samples of fin clips , using a phenol - chloroform extraction method [ 17 ] . extractions were checked for concentration and purity to ensure isolated dna was suitable for the production of clear repeatable aflp profiles . for each sample , 100 ng of dna ( 10 \u00b5l solution ) was added to 1 . 4 \u00b5l restriction digestion mixture containing 1 u ecori and 1 u msei restriction enzymes , along with 1 . 1 \u00b5l 10\u00d7ta reaction buffer ( 100 mm tris - ac ph 7 . 9 , 100 mm mgac , 500 mm kac , 10 mm dithiothreitol ( dtt ) ) and 3 \u00b5g bsa . dna was digested for three hours at 37\u00b0c . digested dna was added to 5 . 5 \u00b5l of ligation mastermix containing 1 \u00b5l 5\u00d7 t4 ligase buffer , 0 . 5 u t4 ligase , 25 pmol of ecori adaptor and 25 pmol of mse adaptor ( table s1 ) . this solution was incubated overnight at 16\u00b0c and gel electrophoresis used to ensure that the dna was fully digested . 2 \u00b5l of diluted digestion mixture was used for the pre - selective pcr , which was run in 10 \u00b5l total solution containing 5 pmol of primer eco p and 5 pmol of mse p ( table s1 ) , along with 1 \u00b5l 10\u00d7 pcr buffer , 15 nmol mgcl 2 , 2 nmol dntp and 0 . 25 u taq dna polymerase . the pre - selective pcr amplification comprised an initial denaturation step of two minutes at 94\u00b0c , followed by 20 cycles of denaturation at 94\u00b0c for 20 seconds , annealing at 56\u00b0c for 30 seconds and final extension at 72\u00b0c for two minutes .\npre - selective amplifications were checked using gel electrophoresis and then diluted to 1\u223620 concentration by the addition of sterile distilled water . 1 \u00b5l of pre - selective pcr amplification was used as the template for the selective pcr , which was added to 9 \u00b5l pcr mixture containing 5 pmol of each selective primer ( table s1 ) , 1 \u00b5l 10\u00d7 pcr buffer , 20 nmol mgcl 2 , 2 nmol dntp and 0 . 25 u taq dna polymerase . eco p selective primers were labelled with either fam or ned fluorescent labels for genotyping . pcr products were diluted 10\u00d7 with sterile distilled water , and 5 \u00b5l of diluted product of fam - labelled samples were mixed with an equal quantity of ned - labelled samples for multiplex genotyping . 0 . 5 \u00b5l of the combined diluted product was then added to 9 . 45 \u00b5l hidi formamide and 0 . 05 \u00b5l abi rox size standard . prior to genotyping all samples were denatured at 95\u00b0c for three minutes and then quenched on ice for a further three minutes . control samples were added to every 96 - well pcr reaction plate to ensure repeatability between runs .\nsamples were genotyped using an abi 3730 capillary dna analyser . the fluorescent spectra of ned and fam labels do not overlap ; however , the possibility that the two combined samples interfered with each other ' s aflp profiles was investigated by genotyping several individuals , both singly and also after combining with an alternatively labelled sample . combined dye samples proved to be equally as reliable as single dye samples . primer combinations were chosen after screening 32 different primer combinations for profile quality ( i . e . whether the presence or absence of individual peaks could be clearly determined ) and polymorphism ( i . e . there appeared to be high variation in peak presence / absence between individual profiles ) . primer pairs showing the highest levels of polymorphism were selected for further analysis .\nthe frequencies of 95 % and 99 % outliers detected using dfdist were checked for the assumptions of parametric analysis and then compared with relevant neutral expectations . neutral expectations were assumed to be 5 % and 1 % of the total number of polymorphic loci for each comparison , for the 95 % and 99 % levels respectively . the pair - wise comparisons included in this analysis were all nine sympatric morphotype comparisons ( excluding morphotype populations with sample sizes of six or fewer individuals ) as well as nine randomly selected allopatric same - morphotype comparisons and nine randomly selected allopatric different - morphotype comparisons . the mean % of outlier loci for each type of morphotype population comparison was compared against neutral expectations .\nthe second analytical method we applied to our data was a fully bayesian approach developed by foll & gaggiotti [ 23 ] , which uses the software bayescan ( available at urltoken ) . this method extends the approach developed by beaumont & balding [ 24 ] , in order to allow the use of dominant markers ( such as aflps ) and to rigorously estimate the probability that each specific locus is subject to selection , rather than solely returning the probability of a locus being selectively neutral . to provide an independent test of the repeated outliers detected using dfdist , the same pair - wise comparisons were analysed using bayescan and loci showing probability values higher than 0 . 7 for the likelihood of being under directional selection were noted ( as per [ 23 ] ) . repeated dfdist outliers that the bayescan did not find to be under selection in either comparison are considered to be false positives , those which are found to be under selection in only one comparison may be false positives or , alternatively , may represent local selection that is not consistent across morphotype populations . outliers that are shown in both pair - wise comparisons using both methods are likely to be under selection between morphotypes .\na total of 528 hamlets were sampled from eight different locations representing five different colour morphotypes , with considerable variation among the numbers of each morphotype found at each location ( table 1 ) . representative images of the morphotypes sampled at each location are presented in figure s1 . a total of 436 scorable aflp loci were produced with an overall repeatability rate of 97 . 1 % ( see table s1 for primer combinations ) . of these , 423 loci were polymorphic , i . e . , they were scored differently in at least one individual .\nglobal morphotypes ( i . e . all individuals of a given morph collected across all locations ) .\nmorphotype populations ( i . e . individuals of a given morph at a given sampling location ) .\nleft hand plots represent pairwise comparisons for populations of h . chlorurus and h . puella in curacao and panama . right hand plots represent pairwise comparisons for populations of h . puella and h . unicolor in curacao and panama . \u201csym\u201d refers to sympatric comparisons of the two morphotypes concerned ( followed by the location ) , \u201callo\u201d refers to allopatric comparisons of the two locations concerned ( followed by the morphotype ) . letters refer to loci repeated across sympatric comparisons ( see table 4 for full loci names and further details ) . dashed lines represent the simulated 95 % f st level , dotted lines represent the simulated 99 % f st level . repeated outlier comparisons that did not return any outliers repeated across sympatric comparisons are not shown .\nvalues that were significantly higher than expected in the absence of selection between colour morphotypes , in pair - wise comparisons at two separate locations , using both dfdist and bayescan outlier detection methods .\nthe bayescan analysis showed mixed support for the repeated outliers identified using dfdist . three of the outliers repeated across different comparisons of h . chlorurus and h . puella were also identified as being repeatedly under selection using bayescan . the remaining seven dfdist outliers were either only identified in one comparison ( four outliers ) or not identified in any comparison ( three outliers ) as being under selection between morphotypes by this analysis ( table 4 ) .\nfor the majority of loci , differentiation between sympatric morphotypes appears to be no more consistent than differentiation shown between allopatric populations of the same morphotype ( table 3 ) . overall , pair - wise comparisons of sympatric morphotype populations produced more outliers than expected under neutral conditions but this difference was not significant . by comparison , analysis of allopatric populations composed of the same two morphotypes did reveal a significantly higher number of 99 % outliers than expected under neutral conditions , although the number of 95 % outliers did not significantly exceed null expectations .\nthe hamlet system has attracted considerable attention as a potential case study for speciation in the marine environment . however , the identification of loci specifically associated with certain morphotypes does not necessarily imply that divergence between morphotypes is currently ongoing . an alternative explanation for these results is that assortative mating , linked to the simultaneous hermaphroditism in these fish [ 8 ] , is maintaining divergence between morphotypes but inter - morphotype reproductive isolation is not fully complete and some successful interbreeding between morphotypes is limiting further divergence . gene flow between morphotypes would also explain the lack of association between mitochondrial sequence haplotypes and morphotypes shown in other studies [ 11 ] , [ 14 ] , [ 27 ] .\nwe would like to thank terry burke , andy krupa , raj whitlock and all at the sheffield molecular genetics facility ( smgf ) , who provided first rate advice and facilities for a large part of the aflp work . we would also like to thank oscar puebla and dr e bermingham for their help in the field and for agreeing to review an early draft of this manuscript . we thank dr e whiteman and the staff at magueyes laboratories ( puerto rico ) , carmabi ( cura\u00e7ao ) , the national aquarium ( dominican republic ) , centre of ecology & fisheries ( mexico ) and b . b . s . r . ( bermuda ) for their support in the field . special thanks to yolanda leon , thad murdoch , horacio perez , joanna pitt , and monica vega for their invaluable assistance .\nconceived and designed the experiments : bgh imc bce . performed the experiments : bgh . analyzed the data : bgh bce . wrote the paper : bgh imc bce .\nalexander hj , breden f ( 2004 ) sexual isolation and extreme morphological divergence in the cuman\u00e1 guppy : a possible case of incipient speciation . journal of evolutionary biology 17 : 1238\u20131254 .\ngray sm , mckinnon js ( 2007 ) linking color polymorphism maintenance and speciation . trends in ecology & evolution 22 : 71\u201379 .\npierotti mer , seehausen o ( 2007 ) male mating preferences pre - date the origin of a female trait polymorphism in an incipient species complex of lake victoria cichlids . journal of evolutionary biology 20 : 240\u2013248 .\nbierne n , bonhomme f , david p ( 2003 ) habitat preference and the marine - speciation paradox . proceedings of the royal society b - biological sciences 270 : 1399\u20131406 .\npalumbi sr ( 1992 ) marine speciation on a small planet . trends in ecology & evolution 7 : 114\u2013118 .\n( teleostei : serranidae ) colour morphotypes . global ecology and biogeography 19 : 432\u2013441 .\nspecies complex reveals no evidence for dietary niche divergence . marine ecology - progress series 357 : 283\u2013289 .\nmccartney ma , acevedo j , heredia c , rico c , quenoville b , et al . ( 2003 ) genetic mosaic in a marine species flock . molecular ecology 12 : 2963\u20132973 .\ncoral reef fishes ? proceedings of the royal society b - biological sciences 274 : 1265\u20131271 .\nbarreto fs , mccartney ma ( 2008 ) extraordinary aflp fingerprint similarity despite strong assortative mating between reef fish color morphospecies . evolution 62 : 226\u2013233 .\nvos p , hogers r , bleeker m , reijans m , vandelee t , et al . ( 1995 ) aflp - a new technique for dna fingerprinting . nucleic acids research 23 : 4407\u20134414 .\nsambrook j , fritsch ef , maniatis t ( 1989 ) molecular cloning : a laboratory manual . new york : cold spring harbor press .\nwhitlock r , hipperson h , mannarelli m , butlin rk , burke t ( 2008 ) an objective , rapid and reproducible method for scoring aflp peak - height data that minimizes genotyping error . molecular ecology resources 8 : 725\u2013735 .\nvekemans x ( 2002 ) aflp - surv version 1 . 0 . distributed by the author . laboratoire de g\u00e9n\u00e9tique et ecologie , v\u00e9g\u00e9tale , universit\u00e9 libre de bruxelles , belgium .\nbeaumont ma , nichols ra ( 1996 ) evaluating loci for use in the genetic analysis of population structure . proceedings of the royal society of london series b : biological sciences 263 : 1619\u20131626 .\nzhivotovsky la ( 1999 ) estimating population structure in diploids with multilocus dominant dna markers . molecular ecology 8 : 907\u2013913 .\nnosil p , egan sp , funk dj ( 2008 ) heterogeneous genomic differentiation between walking - stick ecotypes : \u201cisolation by adaptation\u201d and multiple roles for divergent selection . evolution 62 : 316\u2013336 .\nfoll m , gaggiotti o ( 2008 ) a genome - scan method to identify selected loci appropriate for both dominant and codominant markers : a bayesian perspective . genetics 180 : 977\u2013993 ."]}
{"id": 2190, "summary": [{"text": "the marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) is a small seabird from the north pacific .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is a member of the auk family .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it nests in old-growth forests or on the ground at higher latitudes where trees can not grow .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "its habit of nesting in trees was suspected but not documented until a tree-climber found a chick in 1974 , making it one of the last north american bird species to have its nest described .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the marbled murrelet has declined in number since humans began logging its nest trees in the latter half of the 19th century .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the decline of the marbled murrelet and its association with old-growth forests , at least in the southern part of its range , have made it a flagship species in the forest preservation movement .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "in canada ( north of 50 \u00b0 north latitude ) and alaska , the declines are not so obvious because populations are much larger and the survey techniques have not had sufficient power to detect changes . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "marbled murrelet", "paragraphs": ["an adult marbled murrelet , a rare type of bird , floating in water .\nmarbled murrelet - kenai fjords national park ( u . s . national park service )\nrevised critical habitat for the marbled murrelet - proposed rule ; reopening of public comment period .\na marbled murrelet nesting in a douglas fir , big basin redwoods state park , california .\nmarbled murrelet nest predation risk in managed forest landscapes : dynamic fragmentation effects at multiple scales .\nthe marbled murrelet is classified as endangered ( en ) by the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nmarbled murrelet foraging ecology : spatial and temporal characteristics of habitat use in clayoquot sound , british columbia .\nin the first marbled murrelet post , we introduced some defining characteristics of the species and briefly explained why , as forest owners or land managers , it\u2019s important to pay close attention to the marbled murrelet .\nmarbled murrelet nest predation risk in managed forest landscapes : dynamic fragmentation effects at multiple scales . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe marbled murrelet can be confused with the kittlitz ' s murrelet , but the distinction between the two is evident as the bird takes flight : watch the tail retrices during takeoff , the marbled murrelet ' s retrices will change quickly from white to brown , while those of the kittlitz ' s remain white . the marbled murrelet is less than 10 inches long and weighs just seven to nine ounces .\nthe oldest known marbled murrelet was at least 10 years old when it was recaptured and rereleased during banding operations in british columbia .\nkuletz kj , piatt jf . juvenile marbled murrelet nurseries and the productivity index . wilson bulletin . 1999 ; 111 : 257\u2013261 .\nan adult marbled murrelet spends its life at sea , flying ashore once a year to nest in old - growth redwood trees .\nthe speckled , blue - green marbled murrelet eggs are pointed on one end so they don ' t roll off the nest .\nnorthwest forest plan\u2014the first 10 years ( 1994 - 2003 ) : status and trends of populations and nesting habitat for the marbled murrelet .\nt he amount of suitable habitat has continued to decline throughout the range of the marbled murrelet , primarily due to commercial timber harvest . the precise amount of suitable murrelet habitat within the listed range is unknown .\nkuzyakin , a . p . 1963 . on the biology of the marbled murrelet . ornitologiya no . 6 : 315 - 320 . close\nraphael mg . conservation of the marbled murrelet under the northwest forest plan . conservation biology . 2006 ; 20 : 297\u2013305 . pmid : 16903091\ndesignation of critical habitat for the marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) proposed rule ; finding that the revision of critical habitat should not be made .\nstrong cs . decline of the marbled murrelet population on the central oregon coast during the 1990s . northwestern naturalist . 2003 ; 84 : 31\u201337 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus )\ntitle =\narkive species - marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nalaska and british columbia : status review of the marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) in alaska and british columbia . usgs 2006 . abstract ; download report\nmiller sl , meyer cb , ralph cj . land and seascape patterns associated with marbled murrelet abundance offshore . waterbirds . 2002 ; 25 : 100\u2013108 .\nthis second post includes information to help you identify nests , as well as better understand the habitat requirements of the marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) .\na murrelet sits on its nest in the crook of a large tree branch .\nthe marbled murrelet was once known as the\naustralian bumble bee\nby fishermen and as the\nfogbird\nor\nfog lark\nby loggers .\na psychological warfare program centered on vomit could help save the marbled murrelet , an endangered seabird that nests in california ' s old - growth redwood forests .\n5 - year status review : u . s . fish and wildlife service . 2009 . final 2009 5 - year status review for the marbled murrelet . report\nsinger , s . w . et al 1990 . discovery an observation of two tree nests of the marbled murrelet . the condor . the cooper ornithological society .\nlisting status : u . s . fish and wildlife service . 1992 . final rule listing the marbled murrelet as threatened . federal register 57 : 45328 - 45337 .\n10 - year report : northwest forest plan\u2014the first 10 years ( 1994 - 2003 ) : status and trends of populations and nesting habitat for the marbled murrelet . report\nburkett ee . marbled murrelet food habits and prey ecology . in : ralph cj , hunt gl , raphael mg , piatt jf , editors . ecology and conservation of the marbled murrelet . general technical report . psw - gtr - 152 . u . s . department of agriculture , forest service . pp . 223\u2013246 . 1995 .\ncarter ha . at - sea biology of the marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) in barkley sound , british columbia . ms thesis . university of manitoba . 1984 .\nmarbled murrelets use their wings for swimming underwater , reaching depths of 90 feet .\ncritical habitat : u . s . fish and wildlife service . 1996 . final designation of critical habitat for the marbled murrelet . federal register 61 : 26256 - 26320 .\ncarter , h . r . , morrison , m . l . 1992 . status and conservation of the marbled murrelet in north america . western foundation of vertebrate zoology .\ndesignation of critical habitat for the marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) : proposed rule ; reopening of comment period , notice of availability of draft economic analysis , and amended required determinations .\nthe marbled murrelet is a small native seabird along the pacific northwest coast from northern california to central alaska , with a slender black bill and plumage that varies in color by season .\narbib , jr . , r . s . 1972a . the nesting of the marbled murrelet from recent russian literature . am . birds no . 26 : 824 - 826 . close\npgs 212 - 220 carter , h . r . , and s . g . sealy . marbled murrelet mortality due to gill - net fishing in barkley sound , british columbia .\nthe fael is accepting applications for a ph . d . assistantship focused on the breeding ecology of the marbled murrelet . the student filling this positon will be involved with field research aimed at improving our understanding of marbled murrelet nesting ecology and breeding habitat requirements , with implications for the conservation of this species in oregon and beyond . see the opportunities page for details .\na marbled murrelet chick makes its first flight straight to the ocean , a trip as far as 50 miles ( 80 kilometers ) . no test flights for these birds , biologists say .\nunlike most other seabirds , marbled murrelets are solitary ; they do not form dense colonies .\nthe marbled murrelet is considered endanged in california , and threatened in oregon , washington , and british columbia . its low reproductive rate prevents fast recovery from population decreases . the marbled murrelet is one of the few species of alcids whose known and suspected nesting habitat is not protected by federal refuge designation . several lawsuits have been filed to defer the logging of old - growth forests where murrelets are known or suspected to live . in order to save the habitat of the marbled murrelet there need to be larger forest reserves and / or substantial changes in the logging practices .\ns1 table . data on marbled murrelet use of marine habitats in northwestern washington , u . s . a . , and southwestern british columbia , canada , 2004\u20132008 , compared to available habitats .\nthe murrelet\u2019s use their torpedo - shaped body and flipper - like wings to catch their prey underwater .\neconomic analysis : u . s . fish and wildlife service . 2007 . draft economic analysis of critical habitat designation for the marbled murrelet . report . ; federal register 72 : 35025 - 35028 .\nbarrett j . the influence of oceanographic and terrestrial attributes on marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) marine habitat selection during the breeding season . m . sc . thesis , simon fraser university . 2008 .\ntypically , marbled murrelets select trees with large diameter branches covered in moss or lichen for nesting .\nbecker bh , beissinger sr . scale - dependent habitat selection by a nearshore seabird , the marbled murrelet , in a highly dynamic upwelling system . marine ecology progress series . 2003 ; 256 : 243\u2013255 .\nthe marbled murrelet , like most seabirds , spends the majority of its life on the ocean and comes on land only to breed . marbled murrelets nest in solitary pairs at very low densities , typically within 30 km of the ocean , but nests have been located up to 50 km or more inland .\nralph cj , hunt gl , raphael mg , piatt jf . ecology and conservation of the marbled murrelet in north america : an overview . in : ralph cj , hunt gl , raphael mg , piatt jf , editors . ecology and conservation of the marbled murrelet . general technical report . psw - gtr - 152 . u . s . department of agriculture , forest service . pp . 3\u201322 . 1995 .\nrecovery plan : u . s . fish and wildlife service . 1997 . recovery plan for the threatened marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) in washington , oregon and california . portland , oregon . 203 pp .\nusfws ( u . s . fish and wildlife service ) . recovery plan for the threatened marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) in washington , oregon , and california . usfws , portland , oregon . 1997 .\nbellefleur d , lee p , ronconi ra . the impact of recreational boat traffic on marbled murrelets (\npeery mz , beissinger sr , newman sh , burkett eb , williams td . applying the declining population paradigm : diagnosing causes of poor reproduction in the marbled murrelet . conservation biology . 2004 ; 18 : 1088\u20131098 .\nkuletz kj . foraging behavior and productivity of a non - colonial seabird , the marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) , relative to prey and habitat . p . d . dissertation , university of victoria . 2005 .\nmeyer cb , miller sl , ralph cj . multi - scale landscape and seascape patterns associated with marbled murrelet nesting areas on the u . s . west coast . landscape ecology . 2002 ; 17 : 95\u2013115 .\nhumans are a key link in helping keep steller ' s jays from eating marbled murrelet eggs . the parks have a\ncrumb clean\nprogram to reduce food available to jays , and lower the bird population .\nmasters of disguise , the first marbled murrelet nest wasn ' t discovered by scientists until 1974 , in big basin redwoods state park . the seabird doesn ' t actually build a nest , instead choosing a flat branch covered in cozy moss and needles , with cover to hide from airborne predators . at dawn and dusk , parents switch roles , flying offshore to dive for fish and invertebrates . [ watch the mysterious marbled murrelet ]\na steller ' s jay inspects a fake egg meant to mimic the egg of a murrelet , another type of bird . the egg contains a vomit - inducing ingredient meant to discourage the jays from eating real murrelet eggs .\nthe marbled murrelet feeds on fish such as sandlace and herring but feeds on invertebrates during winter ( 2 ) . they forage singly , in pairs or in feeding flocks of a mix of different species ( 3 ) .\nmiller sl , raphael mg , falxa ga , strong c , baldwin j , bloxton t , et al . recent population decline of the marbled murrelet in the pacific northwest . condor . 2012 ; 114 : 771\u2013781 .\nbecker bh , peery mz , beissinger sr . ocean climate and prey availability affect the trophic level and reproductive success of the marbled murrelet , an endangered seabird . marine ecology progress series . 2007 ; 329 : 267\u2013279 .\nstudy area used to examine resource selection by marbled murrelets in northwestern washington and southwestern british columbia , 2004\u20132008 .\ndescription of parameters considered for examining marine habitat selection by marbled murrelets in northwestern washington , usa , 2004\u20132008 .\nburger ae , hitchcock cl , stewart ea , davoren gk . coexistence and spatial distributions of marbled murrelets (\nhebert pn , golightly rt . at - sea distribution and movements of nesting and non - nesting marbled murrelets\nlisting : in 1992 , the washington , oregon , and california population of the marbled murrelet was federally listed as threatened . currently , the u . s . fish and wildlife service is proposing to revise its 1996 designation of critical habitat . in october 2008 , a 90 - day finding was made on a petition to delist the marbled murrelet and the usfws initiated a 12 - month status review of the species . the 12 - month finding concluded , in january 2010 , that the murrelet needs continued protection and will retain its status as a threatened species .\npeery mz , newman sh , storlazzi cd , beissinger sr . meeting reproductive demands in a dynamic upwelling system : foraging strategies of a pursuit - diving seabird , the marbled murrelet . condor . 2009 ; 111 : 120\u2013134 .\nthe bnr alternative does not preserve enough older forest habitat for the rapidly and steadily declining murrelet population . the bnr alternative fails to incorporate the best available science for recovery of marbled murrelets that nest in older forests across western washington . read more .\nthe marbled murrelet is unique among members of the alcid family in its nesting habits . this small seabird nests in trees in coastal , older forests throughout most of its range in north america and asia . first described by gmelin in 1789 ( as\nbinford , l . c . , b . g . elliott and s . w . singer . 1975 . discovery of a nest and the downy young of the marbled murrelet . wilson bull . no . 87 : 303 - 319 . close\na rare bird called the marbled murrelet lives at sea but nests on tall , thick redwood branches . attacks by steller ' s jays , another type of bird , on murrelet eggs and chicks are one of the small bird ' s greatest modern threats . biologists hope to train wild jays to avoid murrelets by setting out dummy eggs laced with a vomit - inducing chemical .\nsome jays wouldn ' t even touch the eggs \u2014 evidence that murrelet egg - nabbing is a learned behavior , golightly said .\na chunky pacific seabird , the marbled murrelet is unique among alcids ( puffin relatives ) in nesting high up in large trees in coastal forests . little - known until the past few decades , it now is thought to be seriously threatened by logging .\nlearn more about marbled murrelets and threats facing them in this video from the u . s . fish and wildlife service !\nnelson , s . kim . 1997 . marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\nthe marbled murrelet is found along a north pacific arc from kamchatka , russia through the aleutian islands to central california . in the summer , it occurs in protected bays and coves near old - growth forests . in the winter , it is found offshore .\nthis report on the marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) was compiled and editied by the interagency marbled murrelet conservation assessment core team . the 37 chapters cover both original studies and literature reviews of many aspects of the species\u2019 biology , ecology , and conservation needs . it includes new information on the forest habitat used for nesting , marine distribution , and demographic analyses ; and describes past and potential effects of humans on the species\u2019 habitats . future research needs and possible management strategies for both marine and forest habitats are suggested .\nduring courtship , the murrelet extends its beak upward in display , calls shrilly , paddles rapidly in unison with its mate for several minutes , and then dives repeatedly . once the egg is produced , the male and the female murrelet divide the responsibility of incubating the lone egg in the nest . upon hatching , the nestlings are fed larger prey than that ingested by the parents . the marbled murrelet can fly up to 100 km one way to the sea to look for food for the young . after the rearing period , murrelet fledglings fly to the sea when they leave their nest . marbled murrelets occur in loose aggregations in predictable locations near dependable food sources . groups of one or two birds comprise 63 % of all sightings , but aggregations of 100 - 3197 birds have been reported .\nthe steller ' s jay likes campgrounds and picnic sites , and its population is booming in western forests . though the jay doesn ' t rely on eggs for food , the dense population living near murrelet nesting sites means some birds find and eat murrelet eggs and chicks .\nthough the marbled murrelet was first described in 1789 , a nest site of the species was first discovered and formally documented only in 1974 . the egg , however , was known in 1898 , when a bird was shot that contained a complete egg in its oviduct .\nthe marbled murrelet is found near coastal waters , in bays and on mountains . it nests at high elevations in old growth forest , often at great distances from the coast ( 3 ) . this species can be found up to 500 meters offshore ( 2 ) .\nthe marbled murrelet is a very small , chubby , sea bird that seems to lack a neck . it has a dark brown to black dorsum and a white venter and throat . the nonbreeding plumage includes a strip of white between the back and the wing , thus the name\nmarbled\n. the breeding plumage is dark brown dorsally ; ventral feathers are white tipped with brown . males and females are of approximately the same size , 9 . 5 - 10\nwingspan . bill length is 13 - 18 mm ; wing length ( relaxed ) is 120 - 140mm . the voice of the marbled murrelet is a sharp\nkeer\nor lower\nkee .\n\u201cwe have a responsibility to restore old - growth forests and help marbled murrelet populations recover within washington , \u201d said dave werntz , science and conservation director with conservation northwest . \u201cwe can ensure jobs and wildlife over the long run if we manage our state forests sustainably . \u201d\ninland survey protocol : methods for surveying marbled murrelets in forests : a revised protocol for land management and research . january 2003 . report\noverall , the conservation of marbled murrelets may hinge on protecting not only nesting habitat\u2013the focus of conservation efforts to date\u2013but also on foraging habitat . in an effort to better understand important marine habitats for marbled murrelets , we conducted a study of marine habitat selection by individually - tagged murrelets . studies of habitat selection by individually tagged animals are important for examining habitat selection for conservation planning [ 11 ] . our objective was to model marine habitat selection by marbled murrelets during the breeding season to better understand the relative influence of marine versus terrestrial habitat features on murrelet space use while at - sea . we conducted this study in northwestern washington , the location of the steepest murrelet declines documented to date .\nmcfarlane tranquilla la , yen pp - w , bradley rw , vanderkist ba , lank db , parker nr , et al . do two murrelets make a pair ? breeding status and behavior of marbled murrelet pairs captured at sea . wilson bulletin . 2003 ; 115 : 374\u2013381 .\nincubation lasts about 30 days and both males and females incubate the egg . once hatched , nesltings are fed 2 to 4 times per day by both adults . marbled murrelet parents often fly 60 - 100 km round trip to gather herring and sand lance to feed their young .\nthe marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) is a federally threatened seabird that requires two fundamentally different habitats for breeding . foraging occurs at sea because murrelets are pursuit - diving seabirds whose primary prey are small schooling fish and large zooplankton . however , coastal , old - growth coniferous forests are used for nesting in much of their range . like many alcids , marbled murrelets do not build nests and instead rely on naturally deposited materials for a nest platform . unlike other alcids , however , in the marbled murrelet a single egg is typically laid directly on a large , mossy limb in the forest canopy . in most cases , only large , old trees have limbs of sufficient diameter for these unusual nests .\nthis sort of conditioning of the jays is called conditioned taste aversion ( cta ) . the fish and wildlife service explains that\u201days that ingest carbacholtreated eggs are expected to associate the unpleasant experience with murrelet eggs such that they modify their behavior and avoid ingesting actual murrelet eggsthey encounter in the future . \u201d\nyen ppw , huettmann f , cooke f . a large - scale model for the at - sea distribution and abundance of marbled murrelets (\nnaslund nl . why do marbled murrelets attend old - growth forest nesting areas year - round ? auk . 1993 ; 110 : 594\u2013602 .\nmarbled murrelets feed mostly on fish up to 8 or 9 cm in length and on shrimp - like crustaceans such as euphausids and mysids .\nactivity in forest nesting areas is highest from may to august , while marbled murrelets congregate in sheltered waters with abundant prey during winter months .\nwith cash earmarked for murrelets from offshore - oil - spill restoration funds , the parks have the rare ability to fund research studies and restore habitat . the two - pronged approach will teach the black - crested jays to avoid murrelet eggs on pain of puking . more importantly , it will shrink the jay population by thwarting access to their primary food source \u2014 human trash and food . [ image gallery : saving the rare marbled murrelet ]\nthe marbled murrelet is marvelously adapted to life amidst the emerald - green islands and cold , marine waters along the northwest coast of north america . marbled murrelets depend on both marine and forest habitat . murrelets are general found in near - shore waters ( within 3 miles from the coast ) with nesting areas nearby . some birds may venture miles inland to suitable nesting habitat . unlike typical seabirds that nest in dense colonies on remote islands , the marbled murrelet is a solitary , secretive nester , preferring the mossy boughs of mature coniferous trees in the coastal rainforest . while some murrelets remain at breeding areas year - round , others migrate further south . it remains a mystery where the majority of alaska\u2019s murrelets spend the winter .\nfish , u . s . and wildlife service . 1992d . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; determination of threatened status for the washington , oregon and california population of the marbled murrelet . usdi fish and wildl . serv . fed . reg . no . 57 : 45328 - 45337 . close\nfor every endangered animal , there are probably at least two plans to save it . many of these plans involve raising public awareness , conserving habitat , removing invasive species or breeding new members in captivity . but for the marbled murrelet , the plan is a little different : making their predators vomit .\nspeckman sg , piatt jf , springer am . small boats disturb fish - holding marbled murrelets . northwestern naturalist . 2004 ; 85 : 32\u201334 .\ntree searches since then have produced 19 nest locations in old growth forests . due to the difficulty of locating the nests of these elusive birds , it is necessary to implement plans for further research before the marbled murrelet becomes an indicator species such as the spotted owl ( carter and morisson , 1992 ) .\nsealy sg . feeding ecology of the ancient and marbled murrelets near langara island , british columbia . canadian journal zoology . 1974 ; 53 : 418\u2013433 .\nto boost california ' s murrelet numbers , biologists in california ' s redwood national and state parks are fighting back against steller ' s jays and their human enablers .\nbut the marbled murrelet wasn ' t out of the woods yet . the fish and wildlife service found merit in a timber - industry petition to remove the bird ' s protections based on the same unscientific finding proved tainted in february 2008 . fortunately , after the center and a coalition of conservation partners demanded that the service uphold the murrelet ' s protections , in 2009 the agency released a report finding that murrelets in washington , california and oregon still need federal safeguards , due mostly to the extensive logging of their northwest old - growth habitat . in august 2016 the fish and wildlife service finalized protections on nearly 3 . 7 million acres of critical habitat in washington , oregon and california for the marbled murrelet , firmly barring the timber industry from attempts to open up more federal lands within this area for logging .\nward ' s research revealed most park visitors only read the first sentence on signs , so starting with the marbled murrelet ' s history was wasted effort . now , with everything from stickers on the back of bathroom stalls to new signs at campsites , redwood parks visitors are warned to\nkeep it crumb clean .\nthis summer marks the new program ' s first big push , with campfire talks , tchotchkes for kids , brochures and youtube videos that highlight the murrelet ' s plight .\nfalxa ga , raphael mg . northwest forest plan\u2014the first 20 years ( 1994\u20132013 ) : status and trend of marbled murrelet populations and nesting habitat . gen . tech . rep . pnw - gtr - 933 . portland , or : u . s . department of agriculture , forest service , pacific northwest research station . 2016 .\nsupport for models explaining marine resource selection by marbled murrelets in northwestern washington , u . s . a . , and southwestern british columbia , canada , 2004\u20132008 .\nrelative influence of variables explaining marine resource selection marbled murrelets in northwestern washington , u . s . a . , and southwestern british columbia , canada , 2004\u20132008 .\nthe alaskan population is estimated at 250 , 000 birds , centered in south central and south eastern parts of the state , but extending into bristol bay and along the aleutian islands . this represents the bulk of the north american population . logging efforts are expanding in the areas of the greatest murrelet population . continued logging will produce major declines in murrelet numbers . inland records from british columbia , washington , and oregon suggested the presence of nests in old growth forests , although none had been found prior to 1990 . marbled murrelet numbers in british columbia are an estimated 45 , 000 - 50 , 000 birds , with the highest density on the west coast of vancouver island . the marbled murrelet population of washington is estimated at 5 , 000 , centered in the northern puget sound area . oregon ' s population is estimated at 2 , 000 - 4 , 000 birds , located mostly in the central coastal region . there is also a small population of murrelets , ( 1400 - 1700 birds ) on the north central coast of california .\nraphael mg , falxa ga , dugger km , galleher bm , lynch d , miller sl , et al . status and trend of nesting habitat for the marbled murrelet under the northwest forest plan . general technical report . pnw - gtr - 848 . u . s . department of agriculture , forest service , portland , or . 2011 .\nmarbled murrelet recordings by thomas g . sander \u00a9 cornell lab of ornithology macaulay library cornell lab of ornithology 159 sapsucker woods road ithaca new york 14850 united states of america tel : + 1 ( 607 ) 254 - 2404 fax : + 1 ( 607 ) 254 - 2439 email : macaulaylibrary @ urltoken website : www . birds . urltoken / macaulaylibrary\nsteller ' s jays don ' t seek out murrelet eggs . but when the birds circle picnic areas near murrelet nests , some discover the chicken - size eggs make a fine treat . the smart , savvy birds will return to the same spot over and over , searching for food . murrelets , to their misfortune , nest in the same tree every year .\nthe north american subspecies of marbled murrelet ranges from the aleutian islands and southern alaska to central california . the largest portion of the population occurs in alaska and british columbia . the listed portion of the species range extends from the canadian border south to central california . due to loss of older forests used for nesting sites , the species is declining . current estimates indicate that the population has declined by 50 to 80 percent . along the oregon coast , recent surveys have shown a decline in murrelet numbers during the 1990s . loss of viable nesting habitat is thought to be a primary factor responsible for an estimated annual 4 percent to 7 percent decline in marbled murrelet populations in washington , oregon , and california . it is unlikely that population numbers will increase rapidly due to the naturally low reproductive rate and the continued loss of nesting habitat . recovery of the species is likely to take decades .\n, the marbled murrelet is federally listed under the endangered species act as a threatened species in washington , oregon and california , and state - listed as endangered in california and as threatened in oregon and washington . critical habitat is designated for the species and a new proposal for critical habitat is available for review . a final recovery plan is in effect .\nmarbled murrelets have been called \u201cthe enigma of the pacific\u201d as they are one of the last birds in north america to have their nest described . in the united states , the first documented nest was discovered in 1974 high up in a douglas fir tree in california\u2019s big basin redwoods state park . advances in technology have allowed researchers to attach tiny radio - transmitters to adults captured at sea , and follow them back to their nests . to date , several hundred marbled murrelet nests have been located and described . the species nests primarily in mature coniferous trees . a small number of murrelet nests have been found in alaska including , some on the ground on moss - covered ledges in areas with few trees .\nin 1992 , the u . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) listed the marbled murrelet as threatened in oregon , washington and endangered in california under the federal endangered species act . they are a red list species in canada , which is similar to the u . s . listing as a threatened species . populations are declining at an annual rate of 4 - 7 % across the southern portion of their range . it is believed that marbled murrelets will likely become extinct in california within the next 40 years .\nin washington , marbled murrelets inhabit calm , shallow , coastal waters and bays , but breed inland , up to 45 miles from shore , in mature , wet forest .\ncomparison of habitat features at locations available versus used by marbled murrelets in northwestern washington , u . s . a . , and southwestern british columbia , canada , 2004\u20132008 .\nraphael mg , mack de , cooper ba . landscape - scale relationships between abundance of marbled murrelets and distribution of nesting habitat . condor . 2002 ; 104 : 331\u2013342 .\nthe marbled murrelet is not , by any stretch , a bombshell bird . its plump , football - shaped figure and homely plumage means it\u2019s usually overshadowed by its more colorful cousins\u2014puffins and auklets . but their nesting habits are nothing short of remarkable : despite their seaside lifestyle , marbled murrelets travel up to fifty miles inland to nest hundreds of feet in the air in old growth forests . rather than building traditional nests , they hunker into the moss - covered branches of centuries - old trees and lay a single egg , relying on the girth of ancient tree limbs to keep the egg stable . the wide branches of douglas firs and western hemlocks are perfect for the murrelets\u2019 stout little bodies to brood upon . unfortunately , it\u2019s this same breadth that makes old growth forests ideal for logging\u2014a practice that has devastated marbled murrelet habitat and cut some populations in half over the past 15 years .\nif additional research finds that the marbled murrelet lives exclusively in old - growth forests and that their numbers decrease proportionally with the decrease in acres of forest , then it could be deemed an indicator species thus a justifiable deterent for further logging operations . the decrease in logging leads to a loss of income and jobs in the logging industry ( carter , morrison ) .\nconservation measures taken to date include the protection of some areas supporting the marbled murrelet from future logging . detailed research has been carried out on this murrelet , and a recovery plan has been produced . furthermore , 179 km\u00b2 of afognak island has been protected since 1998 by the exxon valdex trustee council . proposed measures include research , particularly into the feeding ecology of this bird in order to fully understand the threats facing it . it is vital that suitable nesting habitat is protected and that fish stocks in known feeding areas are not severely damaged ( 2 ) .\nhaynes tb , nelson sk , newman sh . diel shifts in the marine distribution on marbled murrelets near port snettisham , southeast alaska . waterbirds . 2010 ; 33 : 471\u2013478 .\nthe u . s . department of natural resources ( wdnr ) began developing a marbled murrelet long - term conservation strategy in 2007 ( escene 2007 ) ; the final strategy still has not been released as of 2016 . the northwest forest plan ( 1994 ) is expected to ensure the protection of a large proportion of important habitats in the usa ( raphael 2006 ) .\nthe distribution and numbers of this species have declined primarily because logging and coastal development have removed significant portions of its essential nesting habitat . gill - net fishing and oil spills also kill this species and threaten its prey . the marbled murrelet was listed as a threatened species in canada in 1990 and in the southern portion of its range in the united states in 1992 (\nalthough most murrelet nesting habitat on private lands has been eliminated by logging , suitable habitat remains on federal - and state - owned lands . areas of critical habitat have been designated within the three - state area to protect habitat and promote the recovery of the species . these areas include approximately 3 million acres of federal lands and almost one million acres of state , county , city and private lands . over the next 50 to 100 years , the protected areas on federal lands should provide for an increase in suitable nesting habitat . although timber continues to be harvested , timber sale programs on federal lands require consultation with the u . s . fish and wildlife service to review and assess the potential impacts of the timber harvests on the marbled murrelet . in 1997 , the fish and wildlife service approved a recovery plan for the marbled murrelet that specified actions necessary to halt the decline of the species in the three - state area .\nin 1974 at california ' s big basin redwood state park , the marbled murrelet \u2014 the \u201cenigma of the pacific\u201d \u2014 won the distinction of being the last bird species in the united states to have its nesting site discovered . this came on the heels of more than a century of searching by early ornithologists for the elusive murrelet \u201cnest . \u201d actually , though , rather than building a nest , this seabird travels inland as much as 50 miles to lay a single egg high in the old - growth forest canopy , which it depends on for survival . but as old - growth forests have declined , so too has the murrelet , with commercial logging representing the greatest threat to the species , followed by climate change , oil spills and entanglements in gillnets .\nthe marbled murrelet is a small , robin - sized , diving seabird that feeds primarily on fish and invertebrates in near - shore marine waters . it spends the majority of its time on the ocean , roosting and feeding , but comes inland up to 80 kilometers ( 50 miles ) to nest in forest stands with old growth forest characteristics . these dense shady forests are generally characterized by large trees with large branches or deformities for use as nest platforms . murrelets nest in stands varying in size from several acres to thousands of acres . however , larger , unfragmented stands of old growth appear to be the highest quality habitat for marbled murrelet nesting . nesting stands are dominated by douglas fir in oregon and washington and by old - growth redwoods in california .\nreducing predation on murrelet nests by 40 percent to 70 percent would stabilize the santa cruz mountains murrelet population , according to the 2010 study published in the journal biological conservation . that 40 percent minimum would drop the extinction risk from about 96 percent to about 5 percent over 100 years , and result in stable population growth , reported lead study author zach peery of the university of wisconsin - madison .\nbarbaree ba , nelson sk , dugger bd . marine space use by marbled murrelets brachyramphus marmoratus at a mainland fjord system in southeast alaska . marine ornithology . 2015 ; 116 : 173\u2013184 .\na steller ' s jay inspects a fake murrelet egg that contains a vomit - inducing ingredient called carbachol . the red egg is an experimental control . tests in california ' s redwood national and state parks found jay predation dropped up to 80 percent after these dummy eggs were set out in the forests , indicating that the jays learned to avoid the murrelet eggs after the nasty effects of the fake eggs .\nto further guide management efforts , we also suggest that an important next step is to obtain spatially and temporally explicit information on the distribution of forage fish and other murrelet prey in our study area . such research should also examine the distributions of forage fish and marine invertebrates relative to remotely sensed sst and chlorophyll - a in washington . information on the distribution of forage fish would aid in assessing the extent to which remotely sensed variables can be used to predict murrelet space use or abundance in our study area . lacking such information , our results suggest murrelet use of some near - shore areas may be limited by nesting habitat availability , shoreline type , and terrestrial footprint , particularly around large metropolitan areas . future efforts should explore this further , with the possibility of protecting shoreline near the remaining tracts of nesting habitat from a high degree of development . while we recognize the challenges posed by such an approach , we contend that successful conservation of the marbled murrelet is likely to involve challenges irrespective of the approach taken .\nralph , c . john ; hunt , george l . , jr . ; raphael , martin g . ; piatt , john f . , technical editors . 1995 . ecology and conservation of the marbled murrelet . gen . tech . rep . psw - gtr - 152 . albany , ca : pacific southwest research station , forest service , u . s . department of agriculture ; 420 p\nthe marbled murrelet breeds on mountains near the coast . breeding season is from mid - april to the end of august . females have been collected with shelled eggs in their oviducts from april 23 to july 13 . the murrelet has single egg clutches . murrelets may not fledge young until mid - september , based on a 30 - day incubation and a 28 - day rearing period . nesting sites are almost exclusively in old - growth forests , yet some have been found in cavities in subalpine areas , and on the ground on islands . murrelet eggs are yellowish and spotted . the first known nest was found in a rock slide far above the timber line at 1900 ft . on chicago island , alaska , on june 13 , 1931 . ( peterson , 1961 ; carter and morrison , 1992 ) .\nalthough marbled murrelets forage in similar areas year round , they appear to be more dispersed and farther offshore in winter , although the highest densities of birds can still be found in protected water .\ndespite its amazing skills , the marbled - murrelet population is down by more than 90 percent from its 19th - century numbers in california , thanks to logging , fishing and pollution . murrelets live as far north as alaska , but the central california population is most at risk . yet even though the state ' s remaining old - growth redwood trees are now protected , the murrelets continue to disappear .\nassessment through 1995 : ralph , c . j . , g . l . hunt , jr . , m . g . raphael , and j . f . piatt , ( technical editors ) . 1995 . ecology and conservation of the marbled murrelet . general technical report psw - gtr - 152 , pacific southwest research station , u . s . d . a . forest service , albany , ca\nin 1992 , the u . s . fish and wildlife service listed marbled murrelet as a threatened species in washington , oregon , and california in response to steep declines in the abundance and distribution of their old - growth habitat . murrelets also face other threats : nest predation by crows and ravens , and reduced quantity and quality of the small forage fish that they prey on due to changing ocean conditions .\nthe exxon valdez oil spill killed between 8 , 000 and 12 , 000 marbled murrelets in prince william sound . this figure represents about 5 - 10 percent of the population in the effected area .\nnewman sh , takekawa jy , whitworth dl , burkett ee . subcutaneous anchor attachment increases retention of radio transmitters on xantus\u2019 and marbled murrelets . journal of field ornithology . 1999 ; 70 : 520\u2013534 .\nt he breeding range of the marbled murrelet extends from bristol bay , alaska , south to the aleutian archipelago , northeast to cook inlet , kodiak island , kenai peninsula and prince william sound , south coastally throughout the alexander archipelago of alaska , and through british columbia , washington , oregon , to northern monterey bay in central california . birds winter throughout the breeding range and also occur in small numbers off southern california .\nalthough we have little data on the historical status of the marbled murrelet , disturbance to nesting birds and destruction of habitat through coastal development and old - growth logging has no doubt had an impact on the population . threats in the form of gill - nets and oil spills affect this species as well . the marbled murrelet was listed by the us fish and wildlife service as threatened in 1992 , and was listed as threatened by the washington state department of fish and wildlife in 1993 . certain habitats have been designated as critical for marbled murrelets . these areas are individual trees with nesting branches suitable for nests , and forested areas within half a mile of these trees when the height of the surrounding canopy is at least half as high as the nesting tree . after many years of looking for nests , ornithologists have only found nine in washington , although the breeding population in the state is estimated at 1 , 800 birds . more study is needed to understand the current status of the population and the habitat requirements of this elusive species .\nmarbled murrelets nest from mid - april to late september . the sexually mature adult murrelet ( at age 2 or 3 of an average 15 - year lifespan ) generally lays a single egg on a mossy limb of an old - growth conifer tree . both sexes incubate the egg in alternating 24 - hour shifts for 30 days . murrelet chicks are virtually helpless at hatching and rely on the adults for food . the adults feed the chick at least once per day , flying in ( primarily at dawn and dusk ) from feeding on the ocean , carrying one fish at a time . the young fledge from the nest in about 28 days and appear to fly directly to the sea upon leaving the nest . marbled murrelets have a naturally low reproductive rate because they lay only one egg per nest and not all adults nest every year .\npredicted relative probability , with 95 % confidence intervals , of a marine area being used by marbled murrelets in washington , u . s . a . , and southwestern british columbia , canada , 2004\u20132008 .\nt he marbled murrelet is a small pacific seabird belonging to the family alcidae . they are fast fliers with rapid wingbeats and short wings . males and females have sooty - brown upperparts with dark bars . underparts are light , mottled brown . winter adults have brownish - gray upperparts and white scapulars . the plumage of fledged young is similar to that of adults in winter . chicks are downy and tan colored with dark speckling .\nif people are looking for someone to blame for the problem the murrelet is having , i think everybody has some of that blame ,\ngolightly said .\ncutting of the old - growth forests in the past is the primary thing that put us to this point , but presently , if you visit the parks and feed the animals , you ' re contributing , too . it is coming at the expense of the murrelet .\ncitation : lorenz tj , raphael mg , bloxton td jr ( 2016 ) marine habitat selection by marbled murrelets ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) during the breeding season . plos one 11 ( 9 ) : e0162670 . urltoken\nmarbled murrelets don\u2019t start breeding until they are 2 or 3 years of age and they have low reproductive output . ( again , if it helps to imagine morgan freeman\u2019s voice narrating this section , we understand ) .\nin kenai fjords , we encounter the marbled murrelet mostly during the breeding season . at this time , it is brown with irregular white bars and mottled back and wings . the neck and undersides are a yellowy - white . it has a short , thin bill often carried pointing up at an angle . winter plumage is a starker white belly and throat with black or brown covering the back , wings and the head down to and including the eye .\nmarbled murrelets normally feed in near - shore marine waters , including shallow bays , channels and fjords . although groups of up to 100 murrelets may be attracted to sites where fish are concentrated , they feed as individuals .\nfor years , the center has defended the marbled murrelet from its top threat : in 2005 , we filed suit against a logging company and the state of california for harming the bird and its forest home , and in 2008 we succeeded in halting a timber - industry attack on the bird ' s endangered species act status \u2014 a lawsuit to remove protections based on a finding that was scientifically flawed due to political interference under the bush administration . we halted another attack in 2013 , as well as filing a lawsuit against the california department of parks and recreation for its failure to protect the murrelet under a new management plan for big basin redwoods state park in california ' s santa cruz mountains .\nthe marbled murrelet is a weird little bird . it spends some of its time in the redwood forest and some of its time in the pacific ocean . they\u2019re like puffins\u2014little duck like birds with webbed feet\u2014which makes it odd to see them in the forest . but the birds breed in the forest , which is where the jay likes to snatch their eggs . because of this egg snatching , along with deforestation and pollution , the murrelet population is down by over 90 percent compared to it nineteenth century population . the steller\u2019s jay , however , is doing quite well . the cornell ornithology lab describes them as \u201cbold , inquisitive , intelligent , and noisy . \u201d now they can add \u201cpukey\u201d to that list .\nmarbled murrelets have declined by almost 30 percent since 1992 . that\u2019s steep . despite federal public land protections , in washington ssate murrelets\u2019 old forest habitat has declined by more than 10 percent , notably on state and private lands .\nraphael mg , shirk aj , falxa ga , pearson sf . habitat associations of marbled murrelets during the nesting season in nearshore waters along the washington to california coast . journal of marine systems . 2015 ; 146 : 17\u201325 .\nthe marbled murrelet is found along the western coast of the usa and canada in california , washington , oregon , british columbia , alaska , prince william sound , kenai peninsula , lower cook inlet , barren islands , afognak and kodiak islands , the alaska peninsula and the aleutians . historically , the decline of this species has been most severe in washington , oregon and california ; at present , however , the worst losses are occurring in british columbia and alaska ( 2 ) .\nthere is little information on marbled murrelet population trends , but they appear to be a species in decline . the north american waterbird conservation plan estimates a continental breeding population of 300 , 000 - 800 , 000 birds , rates the species a 15 out of 20 on the continental concern score , and lists it as a species of high concern . populations of marbled murrelet in washington , oregon , and california , are on the 2014 state of the birds watch list , which lists bird species that are at risk of becoming threatened or endangered without conservation action . the species is listed as endangered on the iucn red list , and as threatened under the endangered species act by the u . s . fish and wildlife service . logging and development of forested nesting habitat are considered the greatest threats to this species . significant portions of nesting areas have already been lost . oil spills and entanglement in gill - nets are also major risks . back to top"]}
{"id": 2192, "summary": [{"text": "macrognathus fasciatus is a species of spiny eel found in the manimala river and first described in 2014 .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "macrognathus fasciatus differs from its relative species by the presence of 28 \u2013 30 dorsal spines , 26 \u2013 27 vertical lateral lines on the body , 8 \u2013 9 whitish yellow round spots present in a row in between every two vertical lines and first dorsal spine originate at the level or a little behind the end of pectoral fin . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "macrognathus fasciatus", "paragraphs": ["macrognathus fasciatus , the new species that has been reported from the manimala river .\nthe new species , macrognathus fasciatus , is blackish brown at the back and yellow at the ventral side while the lateral sides are dark brown .\nhighlighting the significance of the discovery , mr . mathews said a new species of the macrognathus genus was being reported from kerala after a gap of 150 years .\nthe specimens of m . fasciatus were collected from the manimala river at karuthavadasserikara by mathews plamoottil , assistant professor in zoology , government college , chavara .\nnamed macrognathus fasciatus , the new species is characterised by a combination of dorsal spines , yellow vertical lines on the lateral sides interspersed with small whitish yellow round spots in a row and a small round black spot at the base of the pectoral and caudal fin . it is blackish brown at the back and yellow at the ventral side while the lateral sides are dark brown .\nthe alkaline phosphatase activity is mapped in all the parts of the digestive system of colisa fasciatus , macrognathus aculeatus , notopterus notopterus and nandus nandus . in the posterior region of the alimentary canal of all the 4 fishes the activity is poorer as compared to other parts . in colisa fasciatus and macrognathus aculeatus , the activity at the distal end of pyloric caeca is poorer as compared to the proximal part . in notopterus notopterus and nandus nandus however , it is practically of the same intensity at both the parts . mucosal and submucosal layers have been found to have intense alkaline phosphatase activity as compared to muscularis and serosal layers . except nandus nandus , gastric glands of all the remaining fishes show partial activity of this enzyme . however , gastric epithelium of all the four fishes shows good activity . hepatic cells are rich in alkaline phosphatase activity . the cytoplasm of the hepatic cells and pancreatic acinar cells have intense reaction . presence of alkaline phosphatase is in relation with the secretory and absorption activity of tissue or cells .\nplamoottil , m . and n . p . abraham , 2014 . macrognathus albus ( order : synbranchiformes ; family : mastacembelidae ) , a new fish species from kerala , india . intl . j . pure appl . zool . 2 ( 2 ) : 100 - 105 . ( ref . 97143 )\nthe discovery has been reported in the latest edition of the \u2018journal of experimental zoology , \u2019 an international science publication . the epithet fasciatus was adopted from the latin language and means ` banded , \u2019 referring to the vertical stripes present on the lateral sides of the body of the new fish .\neel - like fishes with elongated and compressed body , spiny eels are found in inland water bodies across india . three species have been recorded from kerala . the specimens of m . fasciatus were collected from the manimala river at karuthavadasserikara by mathews plamoottil , assistant professor in zoology , government college , chavara .\ntaxonomic analysis carried out in collaboration with nelson p . abraham , st . thomas college , kozhencherry , confirmed that the specimens from the manimala river belonged to a new species . the discovery has been reported in the latest edition of the \u2018journal of experimental zoology , \u2019 an international science publication . the epithet fasciatus was adopted from the latin language and means ` banded , \u2019 referring to the vertical stripes present on the lateral sides of the body of the new fish .\nanal soft rays : 65 - 67 . macrognathus fasciatus can be distinguished by the following characters : body dark brown ; presence of distinct vertical bands on the body ; presence of pre - orbital spine ; spinous part of dorsal fin originating at vertical through the level of or slightly behind the end of pectoral fin ; head length 14 . 8 - 16 . 5 % sl ; head depth 36 . 8 - 41 . 8 % hl ; eye diameter 3 . 7 - 4 . 8 % hl ; inter orbital width 10 . 0 - 10 . 9 % hl ; body width 7 . 5 - 8 . 3 % sl ; pre - dorsal length 22 . 2 - 26 . 1 % sl ; height of dorsal fin 2 . 2 - 2 . 9 % sl ; height of anal fin 1 . 7 - 2 . 6 % sl ; pre - anal length 53 . 0 - 59 . 4 % sl ; and 65 - 67 soft rays on anal fin ( ref . 97143 ) .\n: researchers from central kerala have reported the discovery of a new species of fish belonging to the spiny eel variety from the manimala river .\nmr . mathews said the new species and the research work related to it had been approved by the international commission of zoological nomenclature and registered at the zoo bank . the specimens have been deposited in the museum of the zoological survey of india at kozhikode .\ngreek , makros = great + greek , gnathos = jaw ( ref . 45335 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 30 . 7 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 97143 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00389 ( 0 . 00180 - 0 . 00842 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 34 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nresearchers from central kerala have reported the discovery of a new species of fish belonging to the spiny eel variety from the manimala river .\neel - like fishes with elongated and compressed body , spiny eels are found in inland water bodies across india .\ntaxonomic analysis carried out in collaboration with nelson p . abraham , st . thomas college , kozhencherry , confirmed that the specimens from the manimala river belonged to a new species .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by cmilitante , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by cmilitante , 14 / 03 / 2013\neschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of rhynchobdella bloch & schneider , 1801 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of rhyncobdella ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of macroganthus ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhistochemical mapping of alkaline phosphatase in the digestive system of a few teleost fishes . - pubmed - ncbi\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nz mikrosk anat forsch . 1980 ; 94 ( 1 ) : 21 - 32 .\nhistochemical mapping of alkaline phosphatase in the digestive system of a few teleost fishes .\nhmmmm , for a not give it all away hint . . . there ' s lots of varietys of me .\nahhhhh should of known it . i knew it was too easy ! ! you win"]}
{"id": 2193, "summary": [{"text": "in american comic books published by marvel comics , a mutant is a being ( usually otherwise human ) who possesses a genetic trait called an x-gene that allows the mutant to naturally develop superhuman powers and abilities .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "human mutants are considered to be of the subspecies homo sapiens superior or simply homo superior , an evolutionary progeny of homo sapiens , and are considered the next stage in human evolution , although whether this is true or not is a subject of much debate in the marvel universe .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "unlike marvel 's mutates , which are characters who develop their powers only after exposure to outside stimuli or energies ( such as the hulk , spider-man , the fantastic four , and absorbing man ) , mutants are those whose mutations are pre-natal , and whose powers typically manifest at puberty . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "mutant ( marvel comics )", "paragraphs": ["mutant ( marvel knights 2099 ) - marvel universe wiki : the definitive online source for marvel super hero bios .\nalpha the ultimate mutant - marvel universe wiki : the definitive online source for marvel super hero bios .\nnothing lasts forever , but nothing stays dead in comic books . marvel comics ' november solicitations\nnamor the sub - mariner is often labeled as marvel ' s first mutant , which is true insofar as he is the first mutant character published by marvel .\nso for your benefit , here are the six basic categories of mutants in the marvel comics universe .\ncage , luke - marvel universe wiki : the definitive online source for marvel super hero bios .\nboudreaux , bella donna - marvel universe wiki : the definitive online source for marvel super hero bios .\nthe simple answer that marvel would give you is that they don\u2019t have the mutant gene .\nin american comic books published by marvel comics , a mutant is a being who possesses a genetic trait called an x - gene that allows the mutant to naturally develop superhuman powers and abilities .\nmarvel comics is an american comic book line published by marvel entertainment , inc . affectionately called the house of ideas by the fan press , marvel\u2019s best - known comics titles include fantastic four , the amazing spider - man , the incredible hulk , iron man , daredevil , thor , captain america , and x - men . most of marvel\u2019s fictional characters reside in the marvel universe .\nmarvel adventures take place in this reality . the marvel adventures line replaced the marvel age line which replaced the tsunami line . namor has faced the fantastic four and the hulk and the avengers in this universe . marvel adventures fantastic four # , marvel super heroes #\ndeadpool ( wade wilson ) - marvel universe wiki : the definitive online source for marvel super hero bios .\nbeast ( henry mccoy ) - marvel universe wiki : the definitive online source for marvel super hero bios .\ncypher ( douglas ramsey ) - marvel universe wiki : the definitive online source for marvel super hero bios .\nthe recent dates are given regarding the comics ' edition . due to the sliding timescale , the temporal connections ( sometimes stated in the comics ) may be incoherent outside of the comics context .\napocalypse ( en sabah nur ) - marvel universe wiki : the definitive online source for marvel super hero bios .\nanother mutant birth was witnessed , by the mutant wolfsbahne : tier . [ 176 ]\nthough the mutants are considered a modern concept , introduced with marvel comics uncanny x - men # 1 ( september , 1963 ) , the term was ( seemingly ) introduced by marvel predecessor atlas comics . also , some timely comics ( atlas predecessor ) characters were later retconned as mutants . please consult the\nmutant editorial history\npage for more informations .\nnot the answer you ' re looking for ? browse other questions tagged comics marvel x - men or ask your own question .\npak , greg , and carmine di giandomenico . x - men : magneto testament . new york : marvel comics , 2009 . print .\nsome call thanos a mutant , but he really isn\u2019t . he\u2019s a titan who is a eternal / deviant hybrid . which makes him a \u201cmutant\u201d but not a marvel mutant . which is what makes all this difficult .\ncomics which tackle real world issues in society using real world groups : better .\nin 1973 , perfect film and chemical corporation changed its name to cadence industries , which in turn renamed magazine management co . as marvel comics group . goodman , now completely disconnected from marvel , created a new company called atlas / seaboard comics in 1974 , reviving marvel\u2019s old atlas name , but this project lasted only a year - and - a - half .\n- - - . \u201ci , magneto ! \u201d classic x - men # 19 . new york : marvel comics , 1988 . 21\u201332 . print .\nwe want to see ourselves in comics . we want to celebrate freaks like us .\nnot the answer you ' re looking for ? browse other questions tagged marvel x - men mutant or ask your own question .\nin the mutant x universe , namor allied with doctor doom at the request of magneto . mutant x # 12\nmutant gila monster or dr . paine\u2019s artificial mutant crocodiles\u2026 there\u2019s also the extradimensional mutant hauk\u2019ka ( i sould recheck if they are said to be mutants ) or devil dinosaur .\nin the wake of dc comics\u2019 success reviving superheroes in the late 1950s and early 1960s , particularly with the justice league of america , marvel decided to follow suit .\nin 1990 , marvel begin selling marvel universe cards with trading card maker impel . these were collectible trading cards that featured the characters and events of the marvel universe , which would spawn several more series of cards and imitations by dc .\ngiven there was little internal logic being directed toward mutant populations in the marvel universe before m - day , all we can offer is speculation based upon cultural , social , environmental and technological possibilities in the marvel universe .\ncould be . know one really knows who / what / u / vargas is , so he / she / they could in fact be marvel comics comic book villain vargas .\nthe mutant rogue is now an alpha level mutant since she can control her power , but once was a beta level .\nsuch a trigger further enhances the original powers of a mutant or can substantially alter the powers already possessed by a mutant .\nthe new mutants are three series featuring an eponymous group of teenaged mutant superheroes - in - training . the three series , two of which are now defunct , are spin - offs of the popular x - men franchise published by marvel comics .\nsinister was also listed as an alpha - level mutant , [ 17 ] although he is not a mutant but a mutate .\nhowever , the first , as in oldest known mutant in the marvel universe , would be selene , being well over 17 , 000 years old .\nnamor had his own segment in the marvel super heroes , voiced by john vernon .\nis talking about when it mentions \u201cthe most dramatic return in the marvel universe . \u201d\nedit : better not be teenage logan or i will kick marvel in the genitals .\n\u201cit really saved the industry at that time , \u201d longtime comics journalist heidi macdonald said . \u201cultimate [ marvel ] reignited interest among marvel fans and got new readers . \u201d to bring some shine and excitement to its non - ultimate universe , marvel put bendis and millar in charge of mainstream marvel titles like the avengers and wolverine as well . marvel regained the top spot in market share , and ultimate marvel was the engine that drove it there . as ultimate fantastic four writer mike carey put it , if you were an ultimate writer , artist , or editor , you were in the \u201ccool kids\u2019 club . \u201d\nboycotting marvel since one more day boycotting dc since damian wayne and the pu52 never boycotting hcrealms . ya ' ll are too much fun ! dc comics : just one more to go !\npublisher : marvel comics writer : jeff lemire artists : humberto ramos , victor olazaba colourist : edgar delgado editor : daniel ketchum release date : out now ! price : $ 3 . 99\nnamor ( or the sub - mariner as he was then known ) debuted in the golden age of comics and was the original anti - hero of comics . interestingly , namor was the first super - hero who was able to fly . his meeting and subsequent battle with the original human torch ( the android called jim hammond ) in marvel mystery comics # 8 ( june 1940 ) , made comic history as it was the first superhero meeting and team - up in comics history and it established for the first time the concept of a shared fictional universe inhabited by many various superheroes in comics .\nit began as a hail mary maneuver . ultimate marvel was a publishing experiment launched by marvel comics \u2014 the superhero - comics company that had invented the avengers , spider - man , the x - men , and countless other icons \u2014 during its darkest hour . the idea was simple : launch various comics series where all the famous marvel characters are young again and just starting their superhero careers in the modern day . give the series flashy titles like ultimate spider - man and ultimate x - men and make sure no reader will have to go back and read decades\u2019 worth of comics to understand what\u2019s going on . return to core principles . make these icons fresh again .\nnon - marvel copyright info all characters mentioned or pictured are \u2122 and \u00a9 1941 - 2099 marvel characters , inc . all rights reserved . if you like this stuff , you should check out the real thing ! please visit the marvel official site at : urltoken\nnow that i\u2019ve got that out of the way . mutants in marvel is a tricky thing because there is a \u201cmutant\u201d race . humans who are born with the \u201cx - gene\u201d . however , in the comics the term \u201cmutant\u201d is also frequently used to describe anyone of any race who happens to be different from the norm .\nmarvel has not officially stated why mutant populations appeared to be greater in the european and western world than they do in the rest of the planetary populations .\nafter necrosha and the loss of many mutant lives , doctor nemesis stated that the mutant population consisted of 181 individuals . [ 171 ]\nmarvel comics was founded by established pulp - magazine publisher martin goodman in 1939 as an eventual group of subsidiary companies under the umbrella name timely comics . its first publication was marvel comics # 1 ( oct . 1939 ) , featuring the second appearance of carl burgos\u2019 android superhero , the human torch , and the first generally available appearance of bill everett\u2019s mutant anti - hero namor the sub - mariner . the contents of that sales blockbuster were supplied by an outside packager , funnies , inc . , but by the following year timely had a staff in place .\nnon - marvel copyright info all other characters mentioned or pictured are \u2122 and \u00a9 1941 - 2099 marvel characters , inc . all rights reserved . if you like this stuff , you should check out the real thing ! please visit the marvel official site at : urltoken\ngenter , robert . \u201c\u2018with great power comes great responsibility\u2019 : cold war culture and the birth of marvel comics . \u201d journal of popular culture 40 . 6 ( 2007 ) : 953\u2013978 . print .\nlee , stan ( w ) , and jack kirby ( p ) , et al . , essential uncanny x - men vol . 1 . new york : marvel comics , 1999 . print .\nmonet st . croix is a mutant with a wide variety of mutant powers at superhuman levels and representing a near - perfect human being .\ntoday ' s marvel solicits didn ' t just give us a new look at doctor octopus ' return to amazing spider - man . we also have one hell of a tease for something to come in one of the new x - men comics , x - men : blue \u2014 one that marvel is very much wanting you to think involves a potential return for wolverine to the marvel comicsverse .\nit doesn ' t help that the terms homo superior and homo sapiens superior are used interchangeably in the comics .\ncomics which tackle real world issues between individuals using the lens of \u201cmutants\u201d instead of real world groups : fine .\ncomics which tackle real world issues in society using the lens of \u201cmutants\u201d instead of real world groups : stop .\nexcept that in logan , unlike in the comics that inspired it , that hope is very much in vain .\nmarvel\u2019s comics were noted for focusing on characterization to a greater extent than most superhero comics before them . this was true of the amazing spider - man , in particular . its young hero suffered from self - doubt and mundane problems like any other teenager . marvel superheroes are often flawed , freaks , and misfits , unlike the perfect , handsome , athletic heroes found in previous traditional comic books . some marvel heroes looked like villains and monsters . in time , this non - traditional approach would revolutionize comic books .\n, felt in love with marvel at giant size x - men 1 . never stopped since .\nfollow the avengers of the marvel cinematic universe in their adventures leading up to this . . .\nin 1968 , company founder martin goodman sold marvel comics and his other publishing businesses to the perfect film and chemical corporation . it grouped these businesses in a subsidiary called magazine management co . goodman remained as publisher .\nclaremont , chris ( w ) , and john bolton ( a ) . \u201ca fire in the night ! \u201d classic x - men # 12 . new york : marvel comics , 1987 . 21\u201332 . print .\nall names of characters and the distinctive likeness ( es ) thereof are trademarks of marvel character , inc . and are used with permission . copyright\u0161 2001 marvel characters , inc . all rights reserved .\n, a mutant is a being who possesses a genetic trait called an x - gene that allows the mutant to naturally develop superhuman powers and abilities .\nthere were many reasons the initiative could have failed , but it instead succeeded beyond its creators ' wildest dreams . indeed , the world of marvel movie adaptations \u2014 including this summer ' s megahit avengers sequel and upcoming fantastic four \u2014 owe more to the ultimate imprint than any other single marvel comics initiative . and yet , 15 years after the ultimate line\u2019s birth , marvel just killed it . last week , a five - issue miniseries called ultimate end debuted , and when it ' s done , there will be no more ultimate marvel . there is little mourning , even among die - hard comics fans who once loved the imprint .\nnamor appeared in toybiz ' s second ever marvel legends series , complete with an aquatic display base .\ni ' d say genetic ethnicity is closer to what the marvel u . identifies then as though .\nfollow the avengers of the marvel cinematic universe in their adventures leading up to this summer ' s blockbuster event , marvel ' s avengers : infinity war ! plus , tales from the long and villainous history of the mad titan , thanos ! collecting : marvel ' s avengers : infinity war . . .\nclaremont , chris ( w ) , john byrne ( p ) , and kieron dwyer ( p ) . \u201cshowdown ! \u201d classic x - men # 19 . new york : marvel comics , 1988 . 1\u201320 . print .\njames is a staff writer for io9 . he reads comics so you don ' t have to\u2014but sometimes you should anyway !\nthose dates can also be replaced if proven in comics ( or handbooks ) to be different from the publication dates . a\nas far , no known mutant has been classified as being as a dreg .\nhe is a human mutant with an undisclosed amount of lupine ancestry .\n- he lost his adamantium - he regained his adamantium lol i loved and hated when marvel did that .\ninvestor carl icahn attempted to take control of marvel , but in 199 7 , after protracted legal battles , control landed in the hands of isaac perlmutter , owner of the marvel subsidiary toy biz . with his business partner avi arad , publisher bill jemas , and editor - in - chief bob harras , perlmutter helped revitalize the comics line .\nmutants , marvel comics & apos ; best known superhuman minority group , have long served as an imperfect analogue for real world minority struggles and injustices , from the concentration camps of days of future past to the segregationist society of genosha .\ndipaolo , marc . war , politics and superheroes : ethics and propaganda in comics and film . mcfarland , 2011 . print .\nnamor , notorious mutant , attacked new york city and caused tens of thousands death and millions of displaced , along with early anti - mutant sentiment . [ 56 ]\ngenosha is a fictional country appearing in american comic book series published by marvel comics . it is an island nation that exists in marvel ' s main shared universe , known as\nearth 616\nin the marvel universe and a prominent place in the x - men chronology . the fictional nation served as an allegory for slavery and later for south african apartheid before becoming a mutant homeland and subsequently a disaster zone . the island is located off the southeastern african coast northwest from seychelles and northeast of madagascar . its capital city was hammer bay .\nthere was a wide array of causes for marvel\u2019s woes \u2014 the collapse of a comics - as - collectible - items bubble and multiple defections by top artists , for example . but one ailment was obvious to any brand - new reader who bought a marvel comic for the first time : there was so much backstory that the stories were almost incomprehensible .\nnamor ' s mutant power are the wings on his ankles which appear to allow him to fly and his greater degree of strength . namor was actually the first comic book character with the power of flight , already flying in his second comic book appearance in marvel comics # 1 , while all other contemporary characters like captain marvel , superman and wonder woman only could leap great distances and didn ' t fly canonically until several months later .\nclaremont , chris ( w ) , dave cockrum ( p ) , and sam grainger ( i ) . \u201cthe gentleman\u2019s name is magneto . \u201d classic x - men # 12 . new york : marvel comics , 1987 . 1\u201320 . print .\n\u201cwhen i got hired , i literally thought i was going to be writing one of the last \u2014 if not the last \u2014 marvel comics , \u201d says now - legendary comics writer brian michael bendis , who wrote the first comic of the ultimate line and will be writing the final one , too . when he wrote that first issue in 2000 , the once - venerable marvel was in chaos . \u201cit ' s so the opposite now , that people don ' t even know . \u201d\nin the marvel universe there are humans , mutates ( humans bestowed with powers ) , gods , aliens , homo superior superiors ( evolution ' s solution to the mutant problem ) , and mutants .\ni think ol wolvie is a mutant , but one thing hade thinking forever and bugging me whenever i go to sleep . . . is spiderman a mutant or what ?\napocalypse was not happy to learn that he was not the oldest mutant after all .\njimmy jupiter , maybe an early mutant , was active in wwii . [ 114 ]\nsince her first appearance , destiny aka irene adler has always looked older than even aunt may ( the elderly comics version , not the hot new marvel cinematic universe marisa tomei version ) and with good reason \u2013 she was born in the early 1900s .\nif they do a trade of frankencastle , i will buy it . i never buy comics but that is straight up my fucking alley .\nlund , martin . \u201crethinking the jewish - comics connection . \u201d centre for theology and religious studies , lund university , 2013 . print .\nin 1986 , marvel was sold to new world entertainment , which within three years sold it to macandrews and forbes , owned by revlon executive ronald perelman . perelman took the company public on the new york stock exchange and oversaw a great increase in the number of titles marvel published . as part of the process , marvel productions sold its back catalog to saban entertainment ( acquired in 2001 by disney ) , and marvel management closed the animation studio , opting to outsource .\nnope . there have been a number of non - human mutants important to x - men and the marvel universe .\nfor a number of years , the \u201cx - men\u201d were so popular that most of marvel\u2019s highest - selling titles were either \u201cx - men\u201d or related to \u201cx - men\u201d in some way ( \u201cx - factor , \u201d \u201cwolverine , \u201d \u201cnew mutants\u201d / \u201dx - force , \u201d etc . ) . it got to the point when characters began to associate with \u201cx - men\u201d even if they had no connection at all . \u201cspider - man\u201d promoted itself as marvel\u2019s most popular non - mutant . a new \u201cnamor\u201d ongoing series launched by touting him as marvel\u2019s first mutant . being a mutant was the thing to be for many years .\ndc was the equivalent of the big hollywood studios : after the brilliance of dc\u2019s reinvention of the superhero \u2026 in the late 1950s and early 1960s , it had run into a creative drought by the decade\u2019s end . there was a new audience for comics now , and it wasn\u2019t just the little kids that traditionally had read the books . the marvel of the 1960s was in its own way the counterpart of the french new wave\u2026 . marvel was pioneering new methods of comics storytelling and characterization , addressing more serious themes , and in the process keeping and attracting readers in their teens and beyond . moreover , among this new generation of readers were people who wanted to write or draw comics themselves , within the new style that marvel had pioneered , and push the creative envelope still further .\njuston seyfert ' s sentinel considered that lethal force was necessary to take down brian rinehart , a mutant whose mutant power level classification was beta demonstrated powerful telekinetic powers . [ 16 ]\nwhy are these comics brought into the film only for logan to dismiss them ? in part they serve as a convenient means for laura\u2019s surrogate mother to learn about eden ( which does in fact exist , raising the question of who the writers of these comics are and where they\u2019re getting their information ) , but they\u2019re also symbolically important as another reference to mythology . superhero comics have often been called \u201cmodern mythology\u201d or \u201camerican mythology , \u201d as they are where we in the contemporary world get most of our ideas about heroism . it\u2019s not hard to see how superhero comics have inherited the role that mythology played in earlier civilizations , particularly with comics frequent adaptation of mythological figures like thor , hercules , and so on .\nand what\u2019s more , among the guest creators , the solicitation lists \u201ca legendary comic strip artist making his marvel debut . \u201d\nthus , the third and final evocation of mythology is in the repeated appearance of x - men comics within the movie itself . we\u2019re shown that someone has been publishing comics based loosely on the real - life adventures of the x - men . according to logan , only about a quarter of it really happened , and what did happen didn\u2019t happen like that . this leads logan to doubt even the existence of eden , dismissing it as wishful thinking from a desperate reader . the existence of comics featuring \u201creal life\u201d superheroes is straight out of the marvel comics , where official , semi - official , and unofficial publications depicting the heroics of the fantastic four , avengers , x - men , and others are occasionally referenced .\nyou can have felines : the beast - like cat , or mutant lions created by dr .\nand the prime skrull , only known individual of the prime skrulls , who became a mutant .\nsince the 1960s , it has been one of the two largest american comics companies , along with dc comics . located in new york city , marvel has been successively headquartered in the mcgraw - hill building on west 42nd street ( where it originated as timely comics in 1939 ) ; in suite 1401 of the empire state building ; at 635 madison avenue ( the actual location , though the comic books\u2019 indicia listed the parent publishing - company\u2019s address of 625 madison ave . ) ; 575 madison avenue ; 387 park avenue south ; 10 east 40th street ; and 417 fifth avenue .\nnamor appeared in the marvel legends showdown figure game from toybiz and upper deck . he came packaged with a hammerhead shark toy .\nalthough his father never officially received the classification , david\u2019s psionic ability to absorb consciousnesses and superpowers into his own persona classifies him as an \u201comega - level mutant . \u201d although in the comics the term has not been fully defined , but has still changed in meaning over the years , typically it denotes a rare mutant of vast , vast power .\nfingeroth , danny . disguised as clark kent : jews , comics , and the creation of the superhero . new york : continuum , 2007 . print .\nabsolutely . it\u2019s certainly not a perfect metaphor\u2013 few are\u2013 but in this case the comics have done a pretty good job of addressing both of these concerns .\nsure , occasionally marvel\u2019s non - mutant heroes have to pacify public apprehension , but that\u2019s the exception , not the rule . civil war \u2018s superhuman registration act ( which has been quickly forgotten ) is little more than a blip in avengers\u2019 history , whereas mutants have been fighting the mutant registration act for decades . ( for more oppressive anti - mutant legislation see prop x which sought to rob mutants of their reproductive rights . )\nthis article suggests that scholarship on comics and identity is vulnerable to strong confirmation bias . engaging with a few common assumptions presented in writing on x - men comics ( 1963\u20131970 , 1975\u20131991 ) and identity , it offers alternative interpretations on the series\u2019 engagement with the cold war , civil rights , individual authenticity , persecution , and the holocaust . based on these discussions , the article then offers a few methodological suggestions that might help reduce bias in future studies of comics and identity .\nof course , within the marvel universe there is an option beyond registering mutants . eradicating them . at its most extreme , that idea means death camps . just below that in terms of atrocities is the idea of a mutant cure .\nhammond was apparently a mutant , having the ability to pass through solid walls and possibly other abilities .\non earth - 616 , the mutant classifications are not really used , except for the omega levels .\nthe term\nalpha mutant\n( less powerful ) can , but does not necessarily , intersect .\nwhich x - men or mutant death struck you the hardest ? let\u2019s mourn together in the comments .\ni remember an issue where a dying mutant was detected , i think by professor x using cerebro .\nxavier : the x - men will stop you , magneto ! it will be mutant against mutant\u2014to the death , need be ! ! but mankind must be saved ! ( # 4 , 10 . )\nin the sole xavier institute , the mutant students count went from 182 to 27 . [ 158 ]\ni this article is an abridged and revised version of an argument that first appeared in the author\u2019s dissertation , rethinking the jewish\u2013comics connection . see bibliography for information .\nlogan \u2013 the tenth movie in the x - men franchise of films \u2013 takes its characters and storylines from a number of different sources in the original comics .\nmarvel in 1992 acquired fleer corporation , known primarily for its trading cards , and shortly thereafter created marvel studios , devoted to film and tv projects . avi arad became director of that division in 1993 , with production accelerating in 1998 following the success of the film blade .\nmillar\u2019s initial stories for ultimate x - men may have sold like gangbusters in 2001 , but they weren\u2019t especially groundbreaking ( other than the awful goatees that artist adam kubert gave to wolverine and cyclops ) . his greatest achievement was brewing in the background . jemas and quesada had asked him to team up with superstar artist bryan hitch for the launch of ultimate marvel\u2019s take on marvel comics\u2019 premier superteam , the avengers . hitch had drawn for the authority ( though his run didn\u2019t overlap with millar\u2019s ) , where he earned a reputation for drawing comics that looked like movies : full of photorealistic figures and enormous action sequences . the ultimate - universe avengers series would be called the ultimates , and marvel wanted it to be the imprint\u2019s biggest series yet .\nwho is the most powerful x - men character in the marvel universe ? check out our ranking of the top mutants and their powers .\nnamor the sub - mariner is the ruler of undersea atlantis . the offspring of a sea captain and an atlantean princess , he has been both a hero and a villain to the surface world . namor is one of marvel ' s oldest published characters with his origins in the golden age of comics .\nuntil a certain point , the soviet union euthanized mutant children . afterwards , they started having them serve the state instead . { { r | official handbook of the marvel universe a - z update # 2 | ; ursa major ' entry }\nthey technically are mutants . . . but the term and all of its\nbaggage\nwasn ' t in vogue when the comic book series was begun . also in the marvel universe , being a\nmutant\nimplies that one was born with mutant traits or abilities , rather than gaining them through an accident or by an act of design .\nsaul was one of the externals , a rob liefeld creation that is best consigned to mutant history books .\nrachel summers was the first mutant referred to as omega - level in uncanny x - men # 208 .\n) there was talk of \u201canti - mutant hysteria . \u201d just after \u201cdays , \u201d claremont remarked that \u201c\nbel\u00e9n was an emerging mutant whose powers wreaked havoc on barcelona , spain . she was targeted by bastion ' s reprogrammed\nmutant sentinels ,\nwhich neutralized her powers and intended to take her to their master .\nfrom 1840 to 1870 , there was a small yet significant increase in the mutant population . [ 17 ]\ndespite an alleged normalization of the mutant - inhuman relations , resent and defiance kept on . [ 200 ]\nto be fair to marvel , eye - scream\u2019s power was supposed to be a joke . he was a nemesis of obnoxio the clown who starred in marvel\u2019s mad magazine rip off called crazy . i\u2019m pretty sure that if i had this power , i would eat myself to death .\nrunning from 2000 to 2015 , the \u201cultimate marvel\u201d line featured a reimagined marvel universe for the modern world . at first , it served as a way for creators to tell updated origins for classic marvel heroes and villains . later in the line\u2019s life , however , it became a place where comic book creators could tell stories that took huge risks and do things they could never get away with in the main comic book line .\nanyway , the release of the x - men : apocalypse movie revisits the whole \u201cwho\u2019s older\u201d question but from a \u201cwho\u2019s the first mutant\u201d angle . the main antagonist apocalypse , a . k . a . en sabah nur , is declared to be the world\u2019s first mutant . that was true in the comics for quite some time , but it has since been overtaken by other developments .\ntom baker is the comics editor at whatculture ! he ' s heard all the doctor who jokes , but not many about randall and hopkirk . he also blogs at urltoken\nshe was at the end of her cat years , and all she wanted was to be left alone to die in peace . one of the saddest comics i\u2019ve read .\n) , marvel comics\u2019 mutants have been increasingly inscribed with allegorical otherness . they have been subject to many of the prejudices that have historically plagued marginalized minorities , including , among other things , forced and voluntary segregation , slurs , persecution , and genocidal campaigns , and , conspiracy theories about their aims as a group .\nafter a reading on cerebro , xavier sent hank mccoy and bobby drake to investigate about\na possible class one [ mutant ]\n, who was revealed to be the gargoyle - like mutant alistair . [ 102 ]\nultimately , mutants with cgt or inhumans with kgt embedded in their genes will likely continue to exist for the foreseeable future as marvel works out its licensing issues and will return to the marvel universe in manageable numbers , likely with little consideration toward how or why their populations are what they are . what i offer here are potential reasons such disparities could exist despite the lack of awareness on the part of marvel ' s writers or editors .\nironically , scarlet witch & apos ; s attempted genocide must be a major moment in the shared history of marvel & apos ; s mutant community . it & apos ; s probably in her interests to pretend there & apos ; s no such thing .\nvary , adam b . \u201cmutant is the new gay . \u201d advocate 23 may 2006 : 44 - 45 .\nhope summers is an omega - level mutant in the card - and - figurines game heroclix . [ 49 ]\nvargas isnt a mutant he claims to be the next stage in human evolution like a naturally created captain america .\n, it is a social stigma to be a mutant . that is , to have superpowers . one issue of\nthe mutant population have varied on earth - 616 , climbing to millions and decreasing to a few hundred individuals .\nsoon after that event , yet another rise in mutant birth occurred , tied to solar flares . [ 140 ]\ncreatively and commercially , the \u201990s were dominated by the use of gimmickry to boost sales , such as variant covers , cover enhancements , regular company - wide crossovers that threw the universe\u2019s continuity into disarray , and even special swimsuit issues . in 1996 , marvel had almost all its titles participate in the onslaught saga , a crossover that allowed marvel to relaunch some of its flagship characters , such as the avengers and the fantastic four , in the heroes reborn universe , in which marvel defectors jim lee and rob liefeld were given permission to revamp the properties from scratch . after an initial sales bump , sales quickly declined below expected levels , and marvel discontinued the experiment after a one - year run ; the characters returned to the marvel universe proper . in 1998 , the company launched the imprint marvel knights , taking place within marvel continuity ; helmed by soon - to - become editor - in - chief joe quesada , and featuring tough , gritty stories showcasing such characters as the inhumans , black panther and daredevil , it achieved substantial success .\nmy first \u201cmutant experience\u201d came from the pages of x - men # 1 ( 1963 ) , when professor charles xavier gathered the original x - team of cyclops , marvel girl / jean grey , angel , iceman and beast . by default , xavier being the oldest person in the team made him the oldest / first mutant \u2026 or so i thought at the time .\nthis year , the big blue villain is set to steal the limelight again , with the ongoing apocalypse wars currently unfolding in marvel\u2019s x - titles .\nreintroduces the seemingly still vampiric monet st . croix to the marvel universe \u2013 who was revealed to be behind recent troubles the new team has faced .\n1990s peter parker : spider - man # 1 ( aug . 1990 ; black & gold edition ) , one of many spin - offs of the amazing spider man . cover art by todd mcfarlane . marvel earned a great deal of money and recognition during the early decade\u2019s comic - book boom , launching the highly successful 2099 line of comics set in the future ( spider - man 2099 etc . ) and the creatively daring though commercially unsuccessful razorline imprint of superhero comics created by novelist and filmmaker clive barker . yet by the middle of the decade , the industry had slumped and marvel filed for bankruptcy amidst investigations of perelman\u2019s financial activities regarding the company .\ndefinition of a species is any isolated group that can reproduce and create stable and viable offspring . in terms of the comics i think they consider them a different species than humans but that only shows the writers have a lack of understanding of biology . mutants have had offspring with non mutants in the comics and humans are able to produce mutant offspring therefore while the mutants have a specific gene giving them powers it ' s not enough to consider them a new species .\nmarvel studios and warner bros . are currently the big two producers of superhero television . if you\u2019re watching network television , you\u2019ll likely come across dc comics series like supergirl and the new powerless . if you prefer to stream everything you watch , you\u2019ve almost certainly seen marvel series like daredevil and luke cage . these are good and sometimes great efforts , and more series are already on the way in their respective camps . however , something has been missing : the x - men .\nthis was all well and good back in the 1970s when writers were able to tackle racism , homophobia , religious persecution , etc . in coded terms , flying under the radar of the comics code authority . but it\u2019s not the 1970s anymore and marvel can ( and should ) just go ahead and tackle those issues directly . if the creative staff at marvel isn\u2019t sure they can handle these topics using real people and cultures properly , go ahead and find some people who can .\ndespite being the first mutant , she has had minimal impact on the overall marvel mythos \u2013 her major feuds involving the likes of rachel summers and firestar \u2013 aside from headlining the necrosha x - event . she is currently a member of the sisterhood of mutants and looks resigned to the fact that she will only be famous for being the undisputed first mutant , and little else .\nrather than being represented as a force for good , as had previously been the norm in superhero comics , institutional authority was increasingly depicted as cracking down on the denizens of the marvel universe ( cf . costello 133\u2013138 ) . senator kelly was already well - established , \u201cdays\u201d presented the pentagon as \u201cmore truly representative\u2014for good or ill\u2014of the\nhere\u2019s some context to understand the red - alert disaster the comics industry had become by the eve of the ultimate experiment . in 1993 , annual combined comics sales across all publishers had been close to a billion dollars ; in 1999 , that same number was a microscopic $ 270 million . in 1989 , batman was the most - talked - about movie in america ; by 1999 , the disastrous batman & robin had squirted a stink on the very idea of a cinematic comic - book adaptation . marvel especially was feeling the burn : it went through a humiliating chapter 11 bankruptcy in the late ' 90s , saw wave after wave of layoffs , and executive leadership was shuffled every few weeks . in 1999 , after years of comics - publishing dominance , the company lost its top spot in industry market share and watched its rival , dc comics , take the throne .\nink . joined in young x - men , his mutant tattoo artist imbued him with super - powers through symbolic tattoos . he didn ' t find out he wasn ' t a mutant until a few issues into the series .\nnamor , born in 1920 , [ 47 ] is considered the\nfirst of the first mutant boom\n( he is also considered sometimes as the very first mutant erroneously ) . [ 99 ] [ 107 ] [ 108 ]\narguably what is at issue here is that marvel\u2019s mutant toys do not represent actual human beings , even though they ( like the kingpin toy ) represent fictional human beings . no actual human has been or ( probably ) could be like kingpin or marvel\u2019s mutants ( who are perhaps more properly called saltations urltoken ) even if when we tell the story of kingpin or longshot or wolverine we speak of those characters as humans .\nnamor is now a zombie attacking black bolt . he was later killed by the silver surfer in the initial attack of the marvel zombies against the herald .\nthe mutant response division ( or mrd ) was originally conceived in the wolverine and the x - men television series .\nmister sinister returned in extraordinary x - men # 4 to deliver a shocking twist in the mutant / inhuman conflict .\nborn in 1932 , [ 113 ] james\njimmy jupiter\njankovicz was maybe an early mutant . [ 114 ]\na mutant baby boom occurred in 2001 , linked by hank mccoy to his feline form secondary mutation . [ 133 ]\nsteve rogers stated that blindfold was the sole remaining mutant precog among the past larger number of them . [ 43 ]\nto marvel\u2019s credit , the ultimate universe is getting a viking funeral . there has been a years - long story line in the mainstream marvel universe , written by hickman , which has climaxed in a massive crossover event called secret wars . the catalyst , seen in this month\u2019s secret wars no . 1 , is an interdimensional apocalypse in which the ultimate universe and the mainstream marvel universe literally collide , destroying each other . at the end of the issue , a sparse page features text reading \u201c the marvel universe \u2022 1961 - 2015\u201d and \u201cthe ultimate universe \u2022 2000 - 2015 . \u201d this is , however , a bit of a misdirect : marvel has already announced plans for its post\u2013 secret wars status quo , which appears mostly to be a reconstruction of mainstream marvel ( it remains to be seen how much of this new status quo will be a reboot of its own ) . the only real death here is an ultimate death .\nwhen wanda maximoff declared \u201cno more mutants\u201d it sent a shockwave through marvel comics , with the x - men being the most affected . rogue resented scarlet witch , even though she was a former ally in the past . when steve rogers and havok created the unity squad , rogue is the most hesitant , having a strong distrust of wanda .\nwhen you expand it out to the grander narrative of marvel comics of the past fifteen years , it gets really silly . as everybody knows , mutantkind was decimated in 2005 when wanda maximoff used her poorly defined mutant powers to take away all mutant powers except for a few of the most marketable ones . for the next eight or so years , the mega - arc of all of the x - books was about people desperately trying to \u201cpreserve / re - ignite the mutant race\u201d , culminating in 2012\u2019s avengers vs . x - men , where the x - men\u2019s militant leader cyclops thought that rolling the dice on \u201cthe destruction of the planet earth\u201d versus \u201ca cosmic being might bypass planetary annihilation and instead reignite the mutant gene\u201d is a gamble worth taking , and the avengers thought it might not be ? chaos ensued .\nroyal , derek parker . \u201cjewish comics ; or , visualizing current jewish narrative . \u201d shofar : an interdisciplinary journal of jewish studies 29 . 2 ( 2011 ) : 1\u201312 . print .\n) argues his anti - mutantcy from a workingman\u2019s perspective ( np ) . mutant otherness , expressed in a variety of ways that recall real - life corollaries , had become an unmistakable part of the marvel universe\u2019s fabric . indeed , in # 234 ( late sept . 1988 ,\nin 1981 marvel purchased the depatie - freleng enterprises animation studio from famed looney tunes director friz freleng and his business partner david h . depatie . the company was renamed marvel productions and it produced well - known animated tv series and movies featuring such characters as g . i . joe , the transformers , jim henson\u2019s muppet babies , and such tv series as dungeons & dragons , as well as cartoons based on marvel characters , including spider - man and his amazing friends .\ni admit , this is a better fit , especially in terms of localized social groups and especially in terms of sinister being oscar wilde . you get the whole \u201ccoming out\u201d process , self - loathing closeted politicians , people trying to \u2018pass\u2019 , praying the mutant away , taking medication to suppress their mutant powers , girls pretending to be mutants at frat parties to impress humans\u2026 at least some of these things have happened in comics !\nthere\u2019s also longshot . who isn\u2019t really human , mutant , or even alien . he\u2019s a manufactured humanoid who resembles a human except for having 3 fingers . oh , and he has luck powers , but he\u2019s not a mutant despite appearances .\nnamor appears in the 2006 marvel ultimate alliance game as an npc . he also appears in the game boy advance version of the title as a playable character .\nideally , a critical perspective that pays attention to history , context , and biography , and takes authorial self - representation and stated intentions seriously should be developed as scholarship on comics and identity proceeds . in an ideal world , the meaning of neither comics characters nor cultural identities should be asserted without consideration of their contingency . similarly , no critical study should reduce a writer\u2019s or artist\u2019s biography to only their group belongings . and no critical study should assume , for example , that simply because jews wrote comics , they surreptitiously wrote their jewishness into them or that , because there are jews in some stories , it is ethnography . nothing should take precedence over direct engagement and quotation of the comics themselves . from the shoddiest piece of golden age hackwork to the most ostensibly literary graphic novel , every work of comics speaks volumes about the identity climate in which it was created ; as scholars , we should try to set aside our preconceived notions and listen .\nso in the movie , the reason for the mutant extinction has changed ( spoiler warning : genetically modified corn ) , and the identity of the new mutant who must be protected has changed , but the essence of the story is the same : drive across america , protect this little girl at all costs , because she is the last hope for the mutant species .\nbut there were cracks in the foundation , and they were widening . jemas was ousted in 2004 after a string of high - publicity publishing flops \u2014 some related to ultimate marvel , some tied to mainstream marvel . the second volume of the ultimates began in 2005 and was perpetually delayed due to hitch\u2019s agonizingly slow artistic process , infuriating fans and retailers . aging sci - fi writer orson scott card wrote a reviled ultimate iron man miniseries . on top of all that , marvel was simply running out of characters to ultimize . to keep this massive reboot effort relevant , quesada needed something big to get readers excited again , so he and longtime superhero writer jeph loeb concocted a major story to shake up the ultimate line . what they created was one of the biggest creative disasters in comics history , one from which ultimate marvel never quite recovered .\nthe final comic to bear the atlas globe logo was dippy duck # 1 , the company\u2019s only release with an october 1957 cover date . the first comic book labeled \u201cmarvel comics\u201d was the science - fiction anthology amazing adventures # 3 , which showed the \u201cmc\u201d box on its cover . cover - dated august 1961 , it was published may 9 , 1961 .\nenter bill jemas . he was a relative outsider to the comics world ( he\u2019d gotten his law degree from harvard before spending most of his career in the collectible - trading - card industry ) who was put in charge of marvel\u2019s editorial direction in 2000 . he hated what marvel had become : a place that was \u201cpublishing stories that were all but impossible for teens to read \u2014 and unaffordable , to boot , \u201d as he put it to me . but jemas had an idea , born of a suggestion he says the ceo of wizard , a comics - industry magazine , gave to him : \u201cturn our middle - aging heroes back into teens . \u201d in other words , he wanted to launch a reboot .\npresenting stories that , in the context of the title , were created by marvel characters ( if you remember , steve rogers was once a working comic artist ) .\nclaremont , chris ( w ) , et al . essential x - men vol . 1\u201311 . new york : marvel publishing , inc . , 1998\u20132013 . print .\n) , about an enemy who thinks that \u201cthe only good mutant is a dead mutant , \u201d that his cheyenne \u201cancestors knew the type\u201d ( np ) . there are also references to nazism and the holocaust scattered throughout the run ( e . g .\ndavid haller is a mutant \u2014 as in x - men , mutant . while he appears alongside ( and against ) many of the x - men in marvel comics , the fx show will take place in an unconnected universe to the established films . \u201cthe us government is in the early days of being aware that something called mutants exists but the public is not , \u201d said fx president john landgraf during a press tour last year . in other words , don ' t expect to see the x - men running around . legion aims to be more of a stand - alone supernatural character drama than a superhero show ."]}
{"id": 2194, "summary": [{"text": "argyrotaenia velutinana , the red-banded leafroller moth , is a species of moth of the tortricidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in the eastern united states and south-eastern canada , from quebec and ontario to florida , west to texas and at least iowa .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it has also been reported from british columbia .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the wingspan is 13 \u2013 20 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings have a wide diagonal median band that is reddish in females and blackish in males .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the basal area is light yellowish-brown with darker shading near the inner margin .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are dirty white to light grey with a pale fringe .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from february to october in two to four generations per year .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on various plants , including the leaves and fruit of apple and other fruit trees , as well as spruce and various vegetables .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they are green with a pale dorsal stripe and a yellowish head and reach a length of about 16 mm .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the species overwinters in the pupal stage in folded leaves on the ground . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "argyrotaenia velutinana", "paragraphs": ["redbanded leaf roller larva , a . velutinana . | redbanded leaf roller larva , argyrotaenia velutinana .\nspecies argyrotaenia velutinana - red - banded leafroller - hodges # 3597 - bugguide . net\nvelutinana walker , 1863 ( cacoecia ? ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 313 . tl : north america , holotype : bmnh . male .\nargyrotaenia velutinana was once considered one of the most important tortricid pests on apple in the eastern united states . its status as a major pest peaked after the widespread use of ddt in the late 1940 ' s presumably destroyed many of its natural enemies . it is currently controlled under most ipm programs and is only considered a minor pest .\nargyrotaenia velutinana completes 2 - 3 full generations over much of its range . because this species undergoes facultative diapause , the number of generations can vary depending on latitude . in the north , only two generations are completed , with a partial third possible . in the south , a possible fourth generation is present . overwintering occurs in the pupal stage .\nadults can appears similar to other species of argyrotaenia . in the nearctic , this includes species such as a . floridana , a . kimballi , a . niscana , a . pinatubana , and a . tabulana . in the palearctic , argyrotaenia ljungiana may appear similar . a genitalic dissection can be used to confirm identity . male a . velutinana have a distal , pointed projection from the median sclerotized portion of the valva that is absent in a . ljungiana .\nlarvae of argyrotaenia velutinana are highly polyphagous and have been described by freeman ( 1958 ) as feeding\non almost any plant .\nthis includes several conifers , as reported by prentice ( 1966 ) . chapman and lienk ( 1971 ) speculate that primary hosts may be limited to members of the rosaceae , as apple appears to be a preferred host in many regions . the following partial host list includes both primary and secondary hosts :\ndigachthes razowski , 1990 ( argyrotaenia ) , ann . zool . 43 : 403 . no type\noligahthes razowski , 1964 ( argyrotaenia ) , ann . zool . 22 : 458 . no type\nlignaea razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 316 no type\nochrotona razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 312 no type\ndigahthes razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 311 no type\nthe green unmarked larva can be confused with the larva of many other tortricids , including other species of argyrotaenia , epiphyas postvittana , and choristoneura rosaceana .\ntucumana trematerra & brown , 2004 ( argyrotaenia ) , zootaxa 574 : 4 tl : argentina , tucumn , ciudad universitaria . holotype : usnm . male .\ncibdela razowski , 1988 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 31 : 409 tl : peru , cuzco , tambomachay . holotype : usnm . male .\nlobata razowski , 1988 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 31 : 408 tl : bolivia , cochabamba , incachaca . holotype : usnm . male .\noccultana freeman , 1942 ( argyrotaenia ) , can . ent . 74 : 57 . tl : canada , quebec , mount lyall . holotype : cnc . male .\nrepertana freeman , 1944 ( argyrotaenia ) , sci . agric . 25 : 84 . tl : canada , new brunswick , waweig . holotype : cnc . female .\ntabulana freeman , 1944 ( argyrotaenia ) , sci . agric . 25 : 87 . tl : canada , ontario , constance bay . holotype : cnc . female .\nbrimuncus razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 316 tl : costa rica , braulio carrillo . holotype : vbc . male .\ndearmata razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 312 tl : brazil , paran , curitiba . holotype : vbc . female .\nfragosa razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 317 tl : brazil , paran , curitiba . holotype : vbc . male .\nkearfotti obraztsov , 1961 ( argyrotaenia ) , am . mus . novit . 2048 : 27 . tl : usa . california , carmel . holotype : amnh . male .\nobvoluta razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 319 tl : brazil , paran , curitiba . holotype : vbc . female .\nparturita razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 313 tl : mexico , veracruz , huatusco . holotype : vbc . male .\njamaicana razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 313 tl : jamaica , greenhills , hardware gap . holotype : cmnh . male .\nlevidensa razowski , 1991 ( argyrotaenia ) , shilap revta . lepid . 19 ( 1990 ) : 140 . tl : brazil , nova teutonia . holotype : umb . female .\nlojalojae razowski & becker , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 15 . tl : ecuador , loja , loja . holotype : vbc . male .\npolvosana obraztsov , 1961 ( argyrotaenia ) , am . mus . novit . 2048 : 31 . tl : mexico , chihuahua , la polvosa . holotype : amnh . male .\nalbosignata razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 318 tl : brazil , paran , morro de meio . holotype : vbc . male .\nchillana razowski , 1999 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 329 tl : ecuador , el oro , 6 km n chilla . holotype : cmnh . male .\nchroeca razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 314 tl : costa rica , cerro de la muerte . holotype : vbc . male .\ncubae razowski & becker , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 13 . tl : cuba , santiago , sierra maestra . holotype : vbc . male .\nfloridana obraztsov , 1961 ( argyrotaenia ) , am . mus . novit . . 2048 : 8 . tl : usa , florida , port sewall . holotype : amnh . male .\nfortis razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 319 tl : costa rica , cerro de la muerte . holotype : vbc . female .\ngranpiedrae razowski & becker , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 17 . tl : cuba , santiago , gran piedra . holotype : vbc . male .\nmagnuncus razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( argyrotaenia ) , genus 19 : 533 . tl : ecuador , province cotopaxi , via la mana , pilalo . holotype : mzuj . male .\npilalona razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( argyrotaenia ) , genus 19 : 530 . tl : ecuador , province cotopaxi , via la mana , pilalo . holotype : mzuj . male .\npomililiana trematerra & brown , 2004 ( argyrotaenia ) , zootaxa 574 : 2 tl : argentina , ro negro province , alto valle de rio negro . holotype : tremc . male .\ntelemacana razowski & becker , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 16 . tl : brazil , parana , telemaco borba . holotype : vbc . male .\nburroughsi obraztsov , 1961 ( argyrotaenia ) , am . mus . novit . 2048 : 33 . tl : usa , colorado , mesa verde national park . holotype : amnh . male .\ncupreographa razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 311 tl : mexico , veracruz , estacin biologia las tuxtlas . holotype : vbc . male .\nhodgesi heppner , 1989 ( argyrotaenia ) , fla . ent . 72 : 102 . tl : usa , florida , glade co . , fisheating creek . holotype : usnm . male .\npotosiana razowski & becker , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 17 . tl : mexico , nuevo leon , cerro potosi . holotype : vbc . male .\nsantacatarinae razowski & becker , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 14 . tl : brazil , santa catarina , sao joaquim . holotype : vbc . male .\nvinalesiae razowski & becker , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 13 . tl : cuba , pinar del rio , venales . holotype : vbc . female .\naltera razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( argyrotaenia ) , genus 19 : 533 . tl : ecuador , province carchi , res . forest golondrinas , west cordillera . holotype : mzuj . male .\ncoconinana brown & cramer , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , j . lepid . soc . 53 : 121 : tl : usa , arizona , coconino co . . holotype : usnm . male .\nconfinis razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 310 tl : mexico , chiapas , san cristobal de las casas . holotype : vbc . male .\nglabra razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 320 tl : mexico , chiapas , san cristobal de las casas . holotype : vbc . male .\nhemixia razowski , 1991 ( argyrotaenia ) , shilap revta . lepid . 19 ( 1990 ) : 139 . tl : brazil , santa catarina , nova teutonia . holotype : umb . male .\nchalarostium razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia minisignaria ssp . ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 315 tl : jamaica . blue mt . peak . holotype : cmnh . female .\nhuachucensis obraztsov , 1961 ( argyrotaenia montezumae ssp . ) , am . mus . novit . 2048 : 7 . tl : usa . arizona , huachuca mountains . holotype : usnm . male .\nsagata razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 311 tl : brazil , rio de janeiro , parque nacional itatiaia . holotype : vbc . male .\nspaldingiana obraztsov , 1961 ( argyrotaenia ) , am . mus . novit . 2048 : 20 . tl : usa , utah , utah co . , provo . holotype : usnm . male .\nsubcordillerae razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( argyrotaenia ) , genus 19 : 531 . tl : ecuador , province carchi , res . forest golondrinas , west cordillera . holotype : mzuj . male .\ntenuis razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( argyrotaenia ) , genus 19 : 532 . tl : ecuador , province carchi , res . forest golondrinas , west cordillera . holotype : mzuj . male .\natrata razowski & wojtusiak , 2009 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 51b : 152 . tl : ecuador , prov . tungurahua , banos - runtun . holotype : mzuj . male .\nchiapasi razowski & becker , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 14 . tl : mexico , chiapas , san cristobal de las casas . holotype : vbc . male .\nklotsi obraztsov , 1961 ( argyrotaenia ) , am . mus . novit . 2048 : 36 tl : usa , new mexico , panchuela ranger station , near cowles . holotype : amnh . male .\nlautana powell , 1960 ( argyrotaenia ) , pan - pacif . ent . 36 : 90 . tl : usa , california , san bernardino mountains , camp baldy . holotype : usnm . male .\nochrochroa razowski , 1999 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 310 tl : dominican republic , dominican republic ( providenciales , erebus hotel area ) . holotype : cmnh . female .\noctavana brown & cramer , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , j . lepid . soc . 53 : 121 . tl : mexico , puebla , 10 km e esperanza . holotype : eme . male .\nposticicnephaea razowski & wojtusiak , 2009 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 51b : 151 . tl : ecuador , prov . tungurahua , banos - runtun . holotype : mzuj . male .\nbialbistriata brown & cramer , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , j . lepid . soc . 53 : 124 . tl : mexico , durango , 10 mi w el salto . holotype : cnc . male .\nburnsorum powell , 1960 ( argyrotaenia ) , pan - pacif . ent . 36 : 91 . tl : usa , texas , jeff davis co . , davis mountains . holotype : cas . male .\ncordillerae razowski & wojtusiak , 2006 ( argyrotaenia ) , shilap revta . lepid . 34 : 51 . tl : venezuela , cordillera de mrida , mrida , monte zerpa . holotype : mzuj . male .\ncupressae powell , 1960 ( argyrotaenia ) , pan - pacif . ent . 36 : 83 . tl : usa , california , los angeles co . , los angeles . holotype : cas . female .\nbeyeria powell , 1960 ( argyrotaenia cupressae ssp . ) , pan - pacif . ent . 36 : 85 . tl : usa . california , alameda co , berkeley . holotype : cas . male .\nferruginea razowski & wojtusiak , 2006 ( argyrotaenia ) , shilap revta . lepid . 34 : 51 . tl : venezuela , cordillera de mrida , mrida , monte zerpa . holotype : mzuj . male .\ngraviduncus razowski & wojtusiak , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 118 . tl : peru , prov . cusco , cordillera vilcanota , marcapata . holotype : mzuj . male .\nkimballi obraztsov , 1961 ( argyrotaenia ) , am . mus . novit . 2048 : 13 . tl : usa , florida , highlands co . , archbold biological station . holotype : amnh . male .\nunda brown & cramer , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , j . lepid . soc . 53 : 119 . tl : mexico , mexico , 7 air km wsw juchitepec . holotype : eme . male .\nbisignata razowski , 1999 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 310 tl : dominican republic , dominican republic ( pedernales , 5 km ne los arroyos ) . holotype : cmnh . male .\nceramica razowski , 1999 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 309 tl : dominican republic , dominican republic ( pedernales , 8 km ne los arroyos ) . holotype : cmnh . male .\nlignitaenia powell , 1965 ( argyrotaenia ) , proc . biol . soc . wash . 78 : 72 . tl : usa , california , riverside co . , pinyon flat . holotype : cas . male .\nminisignaria razowski , 1999 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 311 tl : dominican republic , dominican republic ( pedernales , 8 km ne los arroyos ) . holotype : cmnh . female .\nnuezana razowski , 1999 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 309 tl : dominican republic , dominican republic ( la vega , 24 km se constanza ) . holotype : cmnh . female .\nthamaluncus razowski , 1999 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 311 tl : dominican republic , dominican republic ( peravia , 3 km sw la nuez ) . holotype : cmnh . male .\nfuscociliana stephens , 1852 ( argyrotaenia ) , list specimens br . anim . colln . br . mus 10 : 68 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nneibana razowski , 1999 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 310 tl : dominican republic , dominican republic ( baoruco , sierra de neiba , los guineos ) . holotype : cmnh . female .\ngraceana powell , 1960 ( argyrotaenia ) , pan - pacif . ent . 36 : 93 . tl : usa , california , riverside co . , san bernardino mountains , hathaway creek . holotype : usnm . male .\ngriseina razowski & wojtusiak , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 117 . tl : peru , dept . huanuco , via huanuco - tingo maria , carpish . holotype : mzuj . male .\nisolatissima powell , 1964 ( argyrotaenia ) , univ . calif . publ . ent . 32 : 212 . tl : usa , california , los angeles co . , santa barbara island . holotype : lacm . male .\nnigrorbis razowski & wojtusiak , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 118 . tl : peru , dept . huanuco , via huanuco - tingo maria , carpish . holotype : mzuj . female .\ndescriptions of and notes on north and central american species of argyrotaenia , with the description of a new genus . nicholas s . obraztsov . 1961 . american museum novitates , no . 2048 : pp . 1 - 42 .\ninsulana powell , 1964 ( argyrotaenia franciscana ssp . ) , univ . calif . publ . ent . 32 : 201 . tl : usa . california , ventura co . , anacapa island . holotype : lacm . male .\nspinacallis brown & cramer , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , j . lepid . soc . 53 : 119 . tl : mexico , veracruz , caon de las minas , 13 km ne perote . holotype : eme . male .\nfelisana razowski , 1999 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 309 tl : dominican republic , dominican republic ( independentia , sierra de neiba , 5 km wnw angel felis ) . holotype : cmnh . female .\ncognatana stephens , 1852 ( argyrotaenia ) , list specimens br . anim . colln . br . mus 10 : 68 . tl : united kingdom . scotland [ united kingdom ] . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nmartini powell , 1960 ( argyrotaenia ) , pan - pacif . ent . 36 : 94 . tl : usa , arizona , graham co . , pinaleno mountains , mount graham , pine crest . holotype : lacm . male .\nmesosignaria razowski , 1999 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 311 tl : dominican republic , dominican republic ( la vega , 9 km se constanza , near valle nuevo ) . holotype : cmnh . female .\npaiuteana powell , 1960 ( argyrotaenia ) , pan - pacif . ent . 36 : 87 . tl : usa , california , mono co . , rock creek , 1 mi w tom ' s place . holotype : cas . male .\ninterfasciae razowski & wojtusiak , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 117 . tl : peru , dept . pasco , oxapampa , el cedro , yanachaga - chemillen n . p . . holotype : mzuj . male .\nposticirosea razowski & wojtusiak , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 119 . tl : peru , dept . pasco , oxapampa , el cedro , yanachaga - chemillen n . p . . holotype : mzuj . female .\nrufina razowski & wojtusiak , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 116 . tl : peru , dept . pasco , oxapampa , el cedro , yanachaga - chemillen n . p . . holotype : mzuj . male .\nrufescens razowski & wojtusiak , 2009 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 51b : 152 . tl : ecuador , prov . morona - santiago , n . p . sangay , qda . shillnan , via guamote - macas . holotype : mzuj . male .\nonorei razowski & pelz , 2004 ( argyrotaenia ) , nachrbl . ent . ver . apollo ( n . f . ) 25 : 132 . tl : ecuador , morona - santiago province , macas , proao > alshi , 5 km s alshi . holotype : smfl . female .\nscotina razowski & pelz , 2004 ( argyrotaenia ) , nachrbl . ent . ver . apollo ( n . f . ) 25 : 132 . tl : ecuador , morona - santiago province , macas , proao > alshi , 5 km s alshi . holotype : smfl . male .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nadult - forewing has wide diagonal median band that is reddish in female , blackish in male ; basal area light yellowish - brown with darker shading near inner margin ; pale whitish shading in am area at inner margin forms diamond - shaped patch when wings are held together at rest ; whitish shading beyond median band except for dark triangular patch along costa in pm area ; hindwing dirty white to light gray with pale fringe .\nlarva - body green with pale dorsal stripe ; head yellowish . see photo at tortai .\npolyphagous on the foliage and fruit of deciduous trees and shrubs , herbaceous plants , and rarely conifers . it can be a major pest of apple orchards .\nearly instar larva creates small silk shelter where it skeletonizes the underside of leaf along the mid - vein . later instars silk together two leaves , or a leaf to a fruit . overwinters as pupa in folded leaf on the ground .\nwalker , f . , 1863 . list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . part xxviii \u2013 tortricites and tineites .\nlist of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . part xxviii \u2013 tortricites and tineites francis walker . 1863 . british museum ( natural history ) , p . 287 - 561 .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nalisellana robinson , 1869 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc 2 : 267 . tl : usa , ohio . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\namatana dyar , 1901 ( lophoderus ) , j . new york ent . soc . 9 : 24 . tl : usa , florida , palm beach co . , palm beach . syntypes : usnm . 3 males .\nchioccana kearfott , 1907 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc 33 : 72 . tl : usa . florida . lectotype : amnh . male .\nchiococcana meyrick , in wagner , 1912 ( argyrotoxa ) , lepid . cat . 10 : 52 . no type\nartocopa meyrick , 1932 ( tortrix ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 255 . tl : costa rica , orosi . holotype : nhmv . male .\natima walsingham , 1914 ( tortrix ) , biol . centr . - am . lepid . heterocera 4 : 292 . tl : panama , volcan de chiriqu . holotype : bmnh . female .\ncacaoticaria razowski & wojtusiak , 2006 ( bonagota ) , acta zool . cracov . 49b : 31 . tl : ecuador , prov . morona - santiago , gualaceo - limon road , east . holotype : mzuj . male .\ncitharexylana zeller , 1866 ( teras ) , stettin . ent . ztg . 27 : 138 . tl : colombia , cundinamarca , near umbaque . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . 1 female .\ncoloradanus fernald , 1882 ( lophoderus ) , trans . am . ent . soc 10 : 67 . tl : usa , colorado . syntypes : usnm . male , female .\ndichotoma walsingham , 1914 ( tortrix ) , biol . centr . - am . lepid . heterocera 4 : 291 . tl : mexico , guerrero , omilteme . holotype : bmnh . female .\ndichroaca walsingham , 1914 ( tortrix ) , biol . centr . - am . lepid . heterocera 4 : 279 . tl : mexico and costa rica , mexico ( guerrero , amula ) and costa rica ( ro susio ) . syntypes : bmnh . 1male , 1female .\ndispositana zeller , 1877 ( tortrix ) , horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 94 . tl : colombia , bogot . holotype : bmnh . female .\nspoliana zeller , 1877 ( tortrix ) , horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 96 . tl : colombia . bogot . holotype : bmnh . male .\ndorsalana dyar , 1903 ( tortrix ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 5 : 231 . tl : usa , arizona , coconino co . , williams . syntype ( s ) : usnm ; amnh . 4 males , 2 females .\ndimorphana barnes & busck , 1920 ( tortrix ) , contrib . nat . hist . lepid . n . am 4 : 215 . tl : canada . british columbia , victoria . holotype : usnm . male .\nfranciscana walsingham , 1879 ( tortrix ) , illust . typical specimens lepid . heterocera colln . br . mus 4 : 13 . tl : usa , california , san francisco . holotype : bmnh . male .\ncitrana fernald , 1889 ( tortrix ) , ent . am . 5 : 18 . tl : usa . california . syntype ( s ) : usnm : 1 male . unknown .\ngogana kearfott , 1907 ( olethreutes ) , trans . am . ent . soc 33 : 8 . tl : canada , british columbia , wellington . holotype : amnh . male .\ncrepuscularis meyrick , 1912 ( olethreutes ) , ent . mon . mag . 48 : 35 . no type\nguatemalica walsingham , 1914 ( tortrix ) , biol . centr . - am . lepid . heterocera 4 : 280 . tl : guatemala , totonicapam . holotype : bmnh . female .\nhaemothicta meyrick , 1926 ( eulia ) , exotic microlepid . 3 : 257 . tl : colombia , monte del eden . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nheureta walsingham , 1914 ( tortrix ) , biol . centr . - am . lepid . heterocera 4 : 281 . tl : guatemala , quiche mountains . holotype : bmnh . male .\niopsamma meyrick , 1931 ( tortrix ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 150 . tl : brazil , so paulo , alto da serra . holotype : nhmv . male .\nivana fernald , 1901 ( tortrix ) , j . new york ent . soc . 9 : 51 . tl : usa , florida . holotype : usnm . male .\njuglandana fernald , 1879 ( tortrix ) , can . ent . 11 : 155 . tl : usa , canada , usa , massachusetts / ohio / wisconsin ; canada , ontario . syntypes : usnm . male , female .\nlignea meyrick , 1917 ( tortrix ) , trans . ent . soc . lond . 1917 : 9 . tl : ecuador , chimborazo province , huigra . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nljungiana thunberg , 1797 ( tortrix ) , kngl . svenska vetenskakad . handl . 18 : 168 . tl : europe , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nlepidana herrich - schaffer , 1855 ( uninomial ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : pl . 58 , fig . 413 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nmicantana lucas , 1937 ( olethreutes ) , bull . soc . ent . fr . 42 : 127 . tl : france . ardche , la voulte . holotype : mnhn . male .\nmicanthana razowski , 1961 ( olethreutes ) , acta zool . cracov . 5 : 661 no type\npolitana haworth , 1811 ( tortrix ) , lepid . br . ( 3 ) : 465 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\npulchellana haworth , 1811 ( tortrix ) , lepid . br . ( 3 ) : 429 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nsylvana hubner , [ 1796 - 1799 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 20 , fig . 128 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nloxonephes meyrick , 1937 ( eulia ) , exotic microlepid . 5 : 128 . tl : argentina , pampa . lectotype : bmnh . female .\nmariana fernald , 1882 ( lophoderus ) , trans . am . ent . soc 10 : 67 . tl : usa , maine / florida . lectotype : usnm . male .\nmontezumae walsingham , 1914 ( tortrix ) , biol . centr . - am . lepid . heterocera 4 : 280 . tl : mexico , guerrero , amula . holotype : bmnh . male .\nimpositana walsingham , 1914 ( tortrix ) , biol . centr . - am . lepid . heterocera 4 : 279 . tl : guatemala . senahu , vera paz . holotype : bmnh . female .\nniscana kearfott , 1907 ( eulia ) , trans . am . ent . soc 33 : 94 . tl : usa , california , carmel . lectotype : amnh . male .\ncamerata meyrick , 1912 ( eulia ) , ent . mon . mag . 48 : 35 . no type\noligachthes meyrick , 1932 ( eulia ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 257 . tl : costa rica , orosi . holotype : nhmv . female .\noriphanes meyrick , 1930 ( tortrix ) , exotic microlepid . 3 : 608 . tl : peru , agualani . holotype : bmnh . male .\npinatubana kearfott , 1905 ( eulia ) , can . ent . 37 : 9 . tl : usa , new jersey , essex co . park . lectotype : amnh . male .\npinitubana meyrick , in wytsman , 1913 ( eulia ) , genera insectorum ( lepid . heter . tort . ) 149 : 39 . no type\nponera walsingham , 1914 ( tortrix ) , biol . centr . - am . lepid . heterocera 4 : 279 . tl : mexico , puebla , popocatepetl park . holotype : usnm . male .\nprovana kearfott , 1907 ( olethreutes ) , trans . am . ent . soc 33 : 16 . tl : canada , british columbia . lectotype : amnh . unknown .\ninvidana barnes & busck , 1920 ( tortrix ) , contrib . nat . hist . lepid . n . am 4 : 215 : tl : canada . british columbia , vancouver island , duncans . holotype : usnm . male .\npurata meyrick , 1932 ( tortrix ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 254 . tl : costa rica , irazu . lectotype : nhmv . male .\nquadrifasciana fernald , 1882 ( lophoderus ) , trans . am . ent . soc 10 : 67 . tl : usa , maine . syntypes : usnm . 2 males .\nquercifoliana fitch , 1858 ( argyrolepia ) , rep . ins . new york : 826 . tl : usa , new york . syntype ( s ) : usnm . 1 male .\ntrifurculana zeller , 1875 ( tortrix ) , verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 25 : 226 . tl : usa . texas , dallas . syntypes : bmnh : 1 ; mcz : 1 . unknown .\nsphaleropa meyrick , 1909 ( tortrix ) , trans . ent . soc . lond . 1909 : 15 . tl : bolivia , sapago . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nfletcheriella khler , 1940 ( eulia ) , an . soc . cient . argent . 128 : 371 . tl : argentina . tigre . holotype : bourc . male , female .\ntristriata meyrick , 1931 ( eulia ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 151 . tl : brazil , so paulo , alto da serra . holotype : nhmv . male .\nurbana busck , 1912 ( tortrix ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 14 : 86 . tl : mexico , mexico city . holotype : usnm . male .\nincertana clemens , 1865 ( tortrix ) , proc . ent . soc . philad . 5 : 138 . tl : usa . virginia . holotype : ansp . female .\nlutosana clemens , 1865 ( tortrix ) , proc . ent . soc . philad . 5 : 138 . tl : usa . virginia . holotype : ansp . male .\ntriferana walker , 1863 ( cacoecia ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 314 . tl : north america . holotype : bmnh . female .\nvenezuelana walker , 1863 ( dichelia ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 319 . tl : venezuela , holotype : bmnh . female .\nunless noted , all images on these pages are copyright \u00a9 2003 - 14 by todd gilligan . please do not download , copy , print , or otherwise distribute any images from these pages without the permission of the author . contact form .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nlike most websites we use cookies . this is to ensure that we give you the best experience possible .\ncontinuing to use urltoken means you agree to our use of cookies . if you would like to , you can learn more about the cookies we use .\nwe\u2019d value your feedback on the tool . our survey takes only five minutes to complete .\nthe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .\none or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using .\nplease consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser .\nforewing ground color ranges from pale brown to golden brown . the most conspicuous wing marking is the reddish - brown median fascia , which is the basis for the species ' common name . other markings can be quite variable , although generally there is a dark mark or partial fascia at the base of the wing , a reddish - brown outer costal spot , and a row of near - white scales along the termen that may extend to the median fascia in some individuals . hindwings are grayish brown . males lack a forewing costal fold .\nlate instar larvae are 13 - 18 mm in length with a green to yellowish green abdomen . the head , prothoracic shield , and thoracic legs are yellowish green and unmarked .\nin new york , adults of the overwintering ( second ) generation are present in april and may . those of the first generation are present in late june to july . in southern indiana and virginia , adults of the overwintering ( fourth ) generation are present in march and april . those of the first generation are present in late may to june , those of the second generation are present in july , and those of the third generation present in august and september .\nin the spring , females lay eggs in masses on smooth bark of the trunk and lower limbs of host trees . during the summer , females lay egg masses on the upper surface of leaves . each egg mass contains approximately 40 - 45 individual eggs . egg development time ranges from 7 - 12 days in the south to 14 - 21 days in the north . first instar larvae crawl up limbs in search of food or disperse on silk threads to other parts of the host or to other plants . early instars skeletonize the upper surface of a leaf along the midrib , concealed by a patch of silk . they remain under the silk patch until the penultimate instar , at which point they move to feed on other leaves or fruit . late instar larvae of the summer generations will often construct a shelter by webbing a leaf to fruit , and feeding underneath directly on the fruit . larval feeding damage causes fruit rot and early drop in hosts such as apple . larvae will continue to feed on fallen fruit and may be dispersed in this manner if fallen fruit is moved to a different location . larvae complete development in approximately 30 days and move to the ground to pupate in a folded leaf under other leaves and debris . adults of the first two generations eclose in 7 - 13 days ; those of the last generation eclose the following spring .\nchapman , p . j . and s . e . lienk . 1971 . tortricid fauna of apple in new york ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) ; including an account of apple ' s occurrence in the state , especially as a naturalized plant . spec . publ . geneva , ny : new york state agricultural experiment station . 122 pp .\nfreeman , t . n . 1958 . the archipinae of north america ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) . the canadian entomologist supplement 7 ( vol . 90 ) : 1 - 89 .\nprentice , r . m . 1966 . forest lepidoptera of canada recorded by the forest insect survey . vol . 4 . microlepidoptera . publication 1142 , department of forestry , canada , ottawa . 543 - 840 .\nsummerland , s . a . and d . w . hamilton . 1955 . biology of the red - banded leaf roller in southern indiana . journal of economic entomology . 48 : 51 - 53 .\ntortricids of agricultural importance by todd m . gilligan and marc e . epstein interactive keys developed in lucid 3 . 5 . last updated august 2014 .\na red - banded leafroller moth in howard co . , maryland ( 8 / 1 / 2017 ) . photo by anthony vanschoor . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in baltimore co . , maryland ( 4 / 12 / 2014 ) . photo by emily stanley . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 7 / 23 / 2016 ) . determined by roger downer / bamona . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 4 / 2 / 2016 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in anne arundel co . , maryland ( 4 / 18 / 2015 ) . determined by roger downer / bamona . photo by bill hubick . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 7 / 14 / 2017 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in harford co . , maryland ( 4 / 19 / 2014 ) . photo by mike burchett . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in worcester co . , maryland ( 6 / 13 / 2013 ) . photo by scott housten . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 4 / 4 / 2017 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 9 / 6 / 2016 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in baltimore co . , maryland ( 5 / 6 / 2014 ) . photo by scott housten . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 7 / 29 / 2016 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 6 / 16 / 2014 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in cecil co . , maryland ( 5 / 3 / 2015 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by shannon schade . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in anne arundel co . , maryland ( 6 / 20 / 2014 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by bill hubick . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in howard co . , maryland ( 8 / 7 / 2016 ) . photo by anthony vanschoor . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in dorchester co . , maryland ( 7 / 6 / 2016 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 8 / 18 / 2015 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in worcester co . , maryland ( 8 / 7 / 2013 ) . photo by scott housten . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 8 / 14 / 2015 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in dorchester co . , maryland ( 4 / 17 / 2015 ) . photo by jonathan willey . ( mbp list )\na female red - banded leafroller moth in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 4 / 2 / 2010 ) . determined by bob patterson / bugguide . photo by eric gofreed . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 6 / 18 / 2018 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in baltimore co . , maryland ( 4 / 21 / 2014 ) . photo by scott housten . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 7 / 23 / 2014 ) . verified by marcia morris / bugguide . photo by jesse christopherson . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 7 / 8 / 2016 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 5 / 3 / 2015 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 3 / 23 / 2016 ) . photo by rod burley . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 9 / 11 / 2015 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in baltimore city , maryland ( 8 / 10 / 2016 ) . determined by paul dennehy / bugguide . photo by derek hudgins . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 6 / 29 / 2016 ) . determined by roger downer / bamona . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in harford co . , maryland ( 8 / 2 / 2015 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by dave webb . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 9 / 10 / 2016 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na male red - banded leafroller moth in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 4 / 15 / 2006 ) . photo by bob patterson . ( mbp list )\na female red - banded leafroller moth in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 3 / 26 / 2004 ) . photo by bob patterson . ( mbp list )\na male red - banded leafroller moth in howard co . , maryland ( 2003 ) . photo by larry line . ( mbp list )\na female red - banded leafroller moth in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 0 / 0 / 2004 ) . specimen provided by bob patterson . photo by larry line . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 6 / 13 / 2017 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\nuse of images featured on maryland biodiversity project is only permitted with express permission of the photographer ."]}
{"id": 2196, "summary": [{"text": "the kerry slug or kerry spotted slug , scientific name geomalacus maculosus , is a rare species of medium-sized to large air-breathing land slug .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusc in the family arionidae , the roundback slugs .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "an adult kerry slug generally measures 7 \u2013 8 cm ( 2.8 \u2013 3.2 in ) in length and is dark grey or brownish in colour , with yellowish spots .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the internal anatomy of the slug shows some unusual features , and some characteristic differences from the genus arion , which is the type genus of the family arionidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the kerry slug was described in 1843 , rather late compared to many other relatively large land gastropods that form a part of the fauna of the british isles ; this is one indication of this slug 's rarity and its secretive habits .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "although the distribution of this slug species does include some wild habitats in southwestern ireland ( e.g. in county kerry ) , the species is more widespread in north-west spain and from central to northern portugal .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "however , it is not found anywhere between ireland and spain .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the species appears to require environments that have high humidity and acidic soil ( soil with no calcium carbonate in it ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the slug is mostly nocturnal or crepuscular , although in ireland it is active on overcast days .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it feeds on lichens , liverworts , mosses and fungi , which grow either on boulders or on tree trunks .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "this rare species is officially protected by conservation laws in each of the three countries in which it occurs .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "however , the survival of the kerry slug is nonetheless threatened because it lives only in completely wild , unspoiled habitat of a particular type : acidic woodlands and moorlands that support the species of lower plants on which the slug relies for food .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "this habitat type is itself at risk from a number of different factors , ranging from climate change to the construction of roads .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "attempts have been made to establish breeding populations in captivity , to help ensure the survival of this slug species , but with only limited success . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "kerry slug", "paragraphs": ["the kerry slug is found in spain , portugal , west cork and kerry . a new survey , run from\nspecies of the week kerry slug . . . - irish wildlife trust | facebook\noffspring of three species of arionid slug , resulting in a loss of \u2018species - specific\u2019 colour characteristics . the kerry spotted slug\nkerry slug ( geomalacus maculosus allman , 1843 ) recorded at lettercraffroe , co . galway\nthat is the explanation accepted by academics who studied the genetics of the kerry slug .\nspecies of the week kerry slug - . . . - irish wildlife trust | facebook\nhowever , the kerry slug\u2019s habitat can be endangered by \u201cinvasive\u201d plants such as rhododendrons .\nplatts ea , speight mcd ( 1988 ) . the taxonomy and distribution of the kerry slug\nfreshwater white - clawed crayfish , the freshwater pearl mussel and the kerry slug are protected under the act .\ni am currently investigating the influence of habitat and diet on the gut microbiome of the slug with the aim of distinguishing kerry slug populations through microbial signatures .\nthe kerry slug is not one of our most glamorous species . but biodiversity is not just about glamorous species .\nlovely diversity of kerry slug phenotypes . juvenile above shows an intermediate stage between brown and black adult colour morphs . urltoken\nthe kerry slug or kerry spotted slug , scientific name geomalacus maculosus , is a rare species of medium - sized to large air - breathing land slug . it is a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusc in the family arionidae , the roundback slugs . an adult kerry slug generally measures 7\u20138 cm ( 2 . 8\u20133 . 2 in ) in length and is dark grey or brownish in colour , with yellowish spots .\nunlike many other slug species , the kerry slug is not a pest species and is associated with wild habitats away from the influence of man , according to the npws .\nif slugs are your thing , then the kerry slug should be looked out for in wet weather . apparently it is the only slug that can roll into a ball .\nmeasures to protect the habitats of the otter and the kerry slug have been announced by minister for the environment john gormley .\nthe rare kerry slug - found only in ireland & spain - is a protected species . | snails and slugs | pinterest\nthe national biodiversitydata centre is trying to improve our knowledge on the distribution of the kerry slug in ireland . should you observe this species , please submit sightings to add to the database . detailed observations will assist us gaining a betterinsight into where the kerry slug\nanon , ( 2010 ) threat response plan , kerry slug , geomalacus maculosus . department of environment , heritage and local government .\n( kerry slug ) : what are the factors affecting catch returns in open and forested habitats ? ecol res . 2016 ; doi :\ndrawing of the jaw of the kerry slug geomalacus maculosus . the jaw of this species measures about 1 mm and has broad ribs .\nthe kerry slug displays a not very common response to disturbance in that it will detach from the substrate and roll into a ball .\nthe kerry slug is a rare slug that was first discovered in county kerry , ireland back in 1842 . since then they have also been found in parts of northern spain and portugal . they are medium sized slugs that are easy to identify by their spotted pattern .\nkerry slugs are found only in wild habitats in both woodlands and heath lands .\nfor marine slugs , see sea slug . for snails , see snail . for other uses , see slug ( disambiguation ) .\nresearcher , rory mcdonnell recently visited the m\u00fascra\u00ed gaeltacht village to search for the kerry slug as part of his research for the npws ( national parks and wildlife service ) to establish the distribution of the kerry slug in the south west . he visited cascade wood and st gobnait ' s wood in baile bh\u00fairne and has spent time on beara including glengarriff where the slug has been found in the past and a variety of location in south kerry .\none wrote : \u201cyou look bloody amazing kerry , love . keep it going . \u201d\nand the scheduled bypass for macroom had ar be forgotten about because of the kerry slugs .\ni meant before it was flooded . although a bit of an indirect route to kerry .\nthe forest service , department of agriculture , food and the marine , has published the forestry and otter guidelines and the forestry and kerry slug guidelines on this site .\naidan o ' hanlon on twitter :\nlovely diversity of kerry slug phenotypes . juvenile above shows an intermediate stage between brown and black adult colour morphs . \u2026 urltoken\nre : working on okenia zoobotryon from : dr kerry b . clark , may 18 , 1998\n\u2019the origin of the irish geomalacus maculosus - is the \u201ckerry slug\u201d really a \u201ckerryman\u201d ? \u2019 oral presentation at the molluscan forum 2013 , natural history museum , london , england .\n\u2019kerry slug - recent research findings\u2019 oral presentation at \u2019the state of insect conservation in ireland\u2019 meeting 2013 , national botanic gardens , glasnevin , dublin , ireland ( invited speaker ) .\n' the kerry slug : how should we manage a protected species in commercial conifer plantations ? \u2019 oral presentation at environ 2013 , national university of ireland , galway , ireland .\nthe irish yellow slug ( limacus maculatus ) is quite different from the kerry slug ( geomalacus malaculosus ) , albeit for its rather similar name . the first is a keel back slug from the limacidae family , recognizable by the keel at the end of its foot . also its respiratory hole is located in the rear half of its mantle shield . the kerry slug , on the other hand , is a round back slug of the arionidae family without a keel and with the respiratory hole in the front half of the mantle shield . both have in common their spotted exterior and their greenish colour , fitting the island they come from . but most likely on the british isles , the irish yellow slug might be confounded with the yellow slug ( limacus flavus ) .\nthe part of a slug behind the mantle is called the ' tail ' .\nthe bottom side of a slug , which is flat , is called the ' foot ' . like almost all gastropods , a slug moves by rhythmic waves of\n) a portion of their tail to help the slug escape from a predator .\nthat ' s a 3d printed shell around a sea - slug mouth muscle .\nbackground information on the kerry slug the kerry slug ( scientific name : geomalacus maculosus ) was first discovered beside caragh lake in co . kerry in 1842 . it is an easily recognizable , spotted , medium sized slug ( up to 9cm in length ) which is unlikely to be confused with any other species . specimens can be brown with yellow spots ( see photo ) or black with white spots ( see photo ) . unlike many other slug species , the kerry slug is not regarded as a pest and is associated with wild habitats away from humans . in ireland this invertebrate ( no backbone ) is protected under the wildlife act 1976 and under the eu habitats directive ( as an annex ii and annex iv species ) . in addition , seven special areas of conservation have been designated for the protection of the species .\nthe kerry slug ( geomalachus maculosus ) is found only in kerry and nw iberia . along with 15 plant types that occur in ireland and not in brittan the question of a land bridge between iberia and ireland after the 500 year cold snap which happened around 13000 years ago must be asked .\nthis highway would have seen traffic in the form of not only the kerry slug but humans too who gradually inched north from the south . so the first irish people would have first set up camp of the coast of what is now cork / kerry on now submerged land known as doggerland .\namong the six species of snail specifically protected by eu legislation , only one is considered safe in ireland . the kerry slug ( geomalacus maculosus ) which is \u201crestricted to sandstone areas of kerry and west cork\u201d , has \u201ca strong viable population and may be capable of expanding its range with global warming\u201d .\n. in contrast to the general behavioral pattern , the kerry slug retracts its head , lets go of the substrate , rolls up completely , and stays contracted in a ball - like shape .\nmcdonnell rj , gormally mj . a live trapping method for the protected european slug ,\n\u2022 it\u2019s the name of an environmental musical group , the banana slug string band .\nthanks kerry , look forward to seeing your site on west atlantic opisthobranchs finished . . . . bill rudman .\nit is an easily recognisable , spotted , medium - sized slug , up to nine centimetres in length , and is unlikely to be confused with any other species . it can be coloured brown with yellow spots , or black with white spots . unlike many other slug species , the kerry slug is not regarded as a pest and is associated with wild habitats away from humans .\n\u2019the impact of forestry management practices on the distribution of the kerry slug geomalacus maculosus allman and the investigation of other possible factors limiting its occurrence\u2019 poster presentation at environ 2012 , university college dublin , ireland .\na terrestrial slug between 6cms and 9 cms in length . it occurs in two colour varietys\nthe little - known kerry slug , which hit the headlines two years ago after getting in the way of a proposed bypass road in ballyvourney , co cork , is about to get back in the news .\nreich , i . , o\u2019meara , k . , mc donnell , r . j . and gormally , m . j . ( 2012 ) an assessment of the use of conifer plantations by the kerry slug (\nis documented , but varies greatly among slug species . slugs often resort to aggression , attacking both\nthe irish yellow slug can be found in literature under different synonyms . apart from the systematic name\n\u2022 it\u2019s the star of several community celebrations , including the nationally\u2013publicized russian river banana slug festival .\nslug is required for cell survival during partial epithelial - mesenchymal transition of hgf - induced tubulogenesis .\nso just as the road selection process appeared to nearing completion , the route had to be moved and the snail protected . that was duly done \u2013 along with excoriation of the environmentalists and ridicule of an innocent spotted slug . the kerry slug can be easily identified because it is the only slug that curls into a ball when poked . one can hardly blame it , given the angry councillors roaming the countryside .\na protected species under eu legislation , the slug was first discovered beside caragh lake , in co kerry , in 1842 . seven special areas of conservation ( sacs ) have been designated for the protection of the species .\nthe kerry slug is not one of our most glamorous species ,\nmr gormley said .\nbut biodiversity is not just about glamorous species . my department is committed to protecting all species of conservation concern .\na separate plan aims to protect the kerry slug , geomalacus maculosus , first discovered beside caragh lake in 1842 and described as a species new to science in 1843 . it is a protected species under the eu habitats directive .\nfree - living slugs were photographed from six sites in ireland across the western counties of galway , kerry and cork ( fig .\nbill , there ' s a shot of okenia zoobotryon at : urltoken this site ' s not quite finished , but you can use the image on your site if you like . kerry dr kerry b . clark florida institute of technology melbourne , florida usa\ngeomalacus maculosus kerry slug a rare slug found only in sw ireland , spain and possibly still in portugal . two colour versions are found , black with white marks in upland habitats and brown with yellow spots in damp woodland . it is a lusitanian species , protected in ireland by the wildlife act 1976 and the eu habitats directive .\nreich i , mcdonnell rj , mcinerney c , callanan s , gormally mj . eu - protected slug\nmccrone ej , sokolove pg . brain - gonad axis and photoperiodically - stimulated sexual maturation in the slug\nhow will i know if it is the kerry slug ? the kerry slug has a number of characteristics which make it relatively easy to identify . firstly it is only found in oak dominated woodland and unimproved open moor or blanket bog in co . kerry and west cork . secondly , specimens are either brown with yellow spots ( typical of woodland specimens ) or black with white spots ( typical of peatland specimens ) . lastly , when disturbed , the slug curls itself up into a defensive ball ( see photo ) . we encourage observers to submit a photograph with their records . attach photos to emails and send to info [ at ] biology . ie , ( just remove the square brackets ) .\nyoung ag , port gr , emmett bj , green di ( 1991 ) development of a forecast of slug activity : models to relate slug activity to meteorological conditions . crop prot 10 : 413\u2013415 . doi :\nkerry katona has been taking on gruelling workouts in recent weeks and today she flaunted the fruits of her labour in a new photo .\nanother life : in 1842 , a few years before the famine and while co kerry still had a few native sea eagles to poison , a naturalist named william andrews found a large and unfamiliar spotted slug among mossy rocks beside lough caragh .\nthreatened invertebrates such as the kerry slug ( geomalacus maculosus ) , the freshwater pearl mussel ( margaritifera margaritifera ) , the freshwater white - clawed crayfish ( austropotamobius pallipes ) and the damselfly ( coenagrion lunulatum ) can be found in irish wetlands .\ndescription : concerning its body colour , the irish yellow slug is quite similar to the yellow slug . usually , though , it is a bit darker and more greenish in colour . the spots dispersed over its body are irregular and may sometime melt together . generally , the irish yellow slug has more spots than the yellow slug and they reach further down the body sides . where the spotty pattern is limited at the foot margin by a light coloured zone near the foot margin in a yellow slug , this light coloured zone is missing in an irish yellow slug . between the centreline of the mantle shield and its margin , 23 wrinkles can be counted . an irish yellow slug ' s mucus is greenish in colour and so are its juveniles .\nkerry spoke last year about her desire to get into shape , after saying she gained weight following her temporary split from third husband george .\nwhen is the best time to spot it ? the best time to find the kerry slug is on wet , cloudy days when specimens are often seen crawling over bryophyte or moss - covered tree trunks or sandstone outcrops in suitable habitat . during sunny , warm weather the kerry slug takes refuge under bryophytes ( esp . mosses ) , in cracks on sandstone boulders and behind the vegetation at the base of sandstone rocks . surveys at dawn , dusk and during the night in spain have also proved successful .\nthe effect of these regulations is to add three species of invertebrates namely the kerry slug , freshwater crayfish and freshwater pearl mussel and all species of marine turtles to the list of protected species mentioned in the fifth schedule to the wildlife act , 1976 .\nmcdonnell rj , gormally mj . distribution and population dynamics of the kerry slug geomalacus maculosus ( arionidae ) . irish wildlife manuals , 2011 ; 54 . national parks and wildlife service , department of arts , heritage and the gaeltacht , dublin , ireland .\nirish yellow slug ( limacus maculatus ) from cambridgeshire , england . picture : brian eversham , ( source ) .\nirish yellow slug ( limacus maculatus ) from cambridgeshire , england . pictures : brian eversham , ( source ) .\nwebley d ( 1964 ) slug activity in relation to weather . ann app biol 53 : 407\u2013414 . doi :\nthe project is in two phases . the first is to survey suitable areas in cork and kerry to get a distribution map for the species .\n. . . historically , within ireland , g . maculosus was thought to be restricted to the devonian old red sandstone strata of west cork and kerry . however , during july 2010 , the species was collected on granite outcrops and on the trunks of conifer trees in cloosh forest , a conifer plantation near oughterard , co . galway ( kearney , 2010 ) . the widespread planting of commercial conifer forestry was originally thought to have had a detrimental effect on populations of given that the kerry slug was not found at the above sites , research focused on the recently discovered kerry slug population in the conifer plantation in cloosh forest , co . galway . . . .\nreich , i . , o\u2019meara , k . , mc donnell , r . , gormally , m . ( 2012 ) : \u2019an assessment of the use of conifer plantations by the kerry slug ( geomalacus maculosus ) with reference to the potential impacts of forestry operations\u2019\ncurrent known main populations are located in the south west ( cork and kerry ) with a recently ( 2010 ) discovered population in co . galway .\nthe kerry slug is too recent an arrival , just a few thousand years , so continental drift is not the reason . one of the alternative explanations is that it arrived in the boats of the first settlers in ireland , genetic evidence indicates the people who first populated ireland came from northern iberia . we ' re most closely related to the basques . we brought the slug with us .\nmonday\u2019s meeting of kerry county council was treated to a re - run of the \u2018environmentalist and the snail\u2019 story , with council officials quipping about the \u2018snail\u2019s pace\u2019 of the macroom by pass and a healy rae claiming the snail was \u2018looking over the ditch\u2019 and laughing at the traffic jams between cork and kerry .\nthe kerry violet is the common name given to the greater butterwort which sits in the bog lands , digesting any unfortunate insects which fall into its grasp .\nthe kerry slug gained some notoriety when it was discovered at cascade wood in baile bh\u00fairne diverting the proposed bypass to a different route . despite its high profile little is actually known about the mysterious creature which the south west of ireland shares with spain , portugal and possibly brittany .\nreich , i . , o\u2019meara , k . , cush , e . , tierney , f . , mc donnell , r . , gormally , m . ( 2013 ) : ' the kerry slug : how should we manage a protected species in commercial conifer plantations ? '\nit wasn\u2019t true . the judicial review that is currently delaying the road has been taken by residents near carrigaphooca castle . the grounds are an error in law relating to the assessment of the impact and rights of way . it has nothing to do with the protected kerry slug .\nnew roads can isolate and split up slug habitats , along with new building development . land \u201creclamation\u201d could mean clearing the slug\u2019s upland rocks , and grazing by \u201cescaped\u201d sheep , resident goats and wild deer all threaten the mossy interior of the woods .\n] . the mechanisms involved in determining slug colouration most likely vary with species and local adaptations may arise within populations of slugs exposed to different environmental conditions . pigmentation has been explained as a simple mendelian - inherited trait for some species of slug [\n, rather than in gardens . their need for wild habitats in one of the reasons the slug has become so rare .\nwhere is it found ? the global distribution of the kerry slug is ireland , spain and portugal and although the species has been reported from france , its presence there has never been confirmed . in ireland , the slug is restricted to west cork and co . kerry . here it is found in two habitat types , oak dominated woodland and unimproved open moor or blanket bog . within these habitats it is only present if there are sandstone outcrops and boulders largely bare of vegetation except for lichens , mosses and liverworts on which the species is thought to feed .\nin ireland , the slug is found only in west cork and kerry , as far as is known , and it is hoped the survey , being conducted by dr rory mcdonnell , of university college galway , will determine if it is also present in other parts of the country .\nkerry had spent the morning doing an hour of yoga before enjoying an early walk with husband george kay . she told fans she felt \u201camazing\u201d after her busy morning .\nthe banana slug has two pairs of tentacles functioning as sensory organs . the upper , longer pair are periscope - like eyestems . the lower , shorter pair ( above the slug\u2019s mouth ) is for feeling and smelling . photo by greg bodi via wikimedia commons .\nif the kerr slug made its way from iberia it would have done so along the coast which would have acted as a highway .\nkerry slugs are protected in all of the locations that they are found in . habitat loss and loss of some of their favorite foods ( lichens and mosses ) have been hurting the populations of the unique little slug . protection , monitoring , and captive breeding of the species have helped to keep them going .\nanatomy : like other slugs the kerry spotted slug has basic organs . it has an internal shell . the muscles of this animal includes muscles that pull the eyespot tentacles back , and have ommatophores as the only eye tentacle muscle darkly pigmented . other muscles include its paryngeal , furacate , buccalbulb , and cephalic reactors .\nmc donnell , r . j . and gormally , m . j . ( 2011 ) . distribution and population dynamics of the kerry slug , geomalacus maculosus ( arionidae ) . irish wildlife manuals , no . 54 . national parks and wildlifeservice , department of arts , heritage and the gaeltacht , dublin , ireland .\nthere are now known to be 46 species of slugs in britain and ireland with 37 confirmed to date in ireland . arion vulgaris is a new arrival in ireland and has the potential to become a serious pest as it spread . in the us it is referred to as the \u201cspanish slug\u201d because of its western european origin and while it appears to be currently restricted to some of northerly mid - west states it appears to be spreading rapidly . the kerry slug\nquigley , d . t . g . & k . flannery ( 2014 ) notes and records . plants . an exceptionally large \u201cseaball\u201d discovered on inch strand , co . kerry .\none significant finding was that , contrary to previous opinion , the kerry slug was found in coniferous woodland often at quite high densities . this has implications for the species as it means that there is potentially more habitat for it but that as a legally protected species , the impact of forestry operations need to be mitigated for .\nwhen attacked , slugs can contract their body , making themselves harder and more compact and more still and round . by doing this , they become firmly attached to the substrate . this , combined with the slippery mucus they produce , makes slugs more difficult for predators to grasp . the unpleasant taste of the mucus is also a deterrent . some species present different response behaviors when attacked , such as the kerry slug . in contrast to the general behavioral pattern , the kerry slug retracts its head , lets go of the substrate , rolls up completely , and stays contracted in a ball - like shape . this is a unique feature among all the arionidae , and among most other slugs . some slugs can self - amputate ( autotomy ) a portion of their tail to help the slug escape from a predator . some slug species hibernate underground during the winter in temperate climates , but in other species , the adults die in the autumn .\ncamouflage implies selective pressure from a visual predator . although passerine birds are known to prey upon a number of medium - large arionid slug species [\nthe slug is also found in spain and portugal . the species has been reported from france , though its presence has never been confirmed there .\nhabitat and distribution : on the crimea peninsula , in the caucasus mountains , as well as in bulgaria , the irish yellow slug inhabits deciduous forests . in northern and central europe , on the other hand , the species lives in natural habitats , often in woody places , below stones and fallen logs . contrary to the yellow slug , the irish yellow slug is not a commensal species , but prefers habitats near to nature . on the british isles , however , limacus maculatus is often found in the same habitats , as its relative , the yellow slug . the slugs often hide in fallen logs , often whole tree trunks are covered with mucus . the irish yellow slug feeds on mushrooms , lichens and dead plants .\nreich , i . , o ' meara , k . , cush , e . , tierney , f . , mc donnell , r . , gormally , m . ( 2012 ) : \u2019the impact of forestry management practices on the distribution of the kerry slug geomalacus maculosus allman and the investigation of other possible factors limiting its occurrence\u2019\n/ u / seandalai you ' re the divil , when you get behind the keys . it was a sad day for the kerry gastropods , when your lithic tools they did feel .\nreich i , o\u2019meara k , mcdonnell rj , gormally mj . an assessment of the use of conifer plantations by the kerry slug ( geomalacus maculosus ) with reference to the impact of forestry operations . irish wildlife manuals . 2012 ; 64 . national parks and wildlife service , department of arts , heritage and the gaeltacht . theatr irel .\n) are a commercially available biological control method that are effective against a wide range of common slug species . the nematodes are applied in water and actively seek out slugs in the soil and infect them , leading to the death of the slug . this control method is suitable for use in organic growing systems . other slug control methods are generally ineffective on a large scale , but can be somewhat useful in small gardens . these include beer traps ,\nthe slug mouth muscle comes from a california sea slug , aplysia californica , and was put into a 3d - printed body . sea slug muscles can apparently handle changes in environment better than many other muscles , which is a good baseline to start designing robots around . right now , the robots can only move one direction when stimulated . in future versions , the researchers hope to incorporate more nerves , so they can make the robots move forward and backward .\nhand search is the obvious option \u2013 \u201clabour intensive , but not excessively so\u201d \u2013 if there are certain problems about the underside of large boulders and the higher reaches of trees . while alternatives are assessed , the merits of just looking carefully inspire the kerry slug survey of ireland ( go to urltoken or kerryslug . com ) . here the npws , with dr rory mcdonnell of the applied ecology unit of nui galway , are appealing for volunteer sightings , with photos of the slug\u2019s two colourways to help .\n] ) . however , there is also evidence that different colour morphs in slug species can arise as local adaptations to different environmental conditions . while evans [\n- tests were used to test whether rgb reflectance values differed significantly between woodland and blanket bog substrate and between each of the two slug colour morphs . students\nsnail and slug promote epithelial - mesenchymal transition through beta - catenin - t - cell factor - 4 - dependent expression of transforming growth factor - beta3 .\nthe findings of the first research project have been published as an irish wildlife manual no . 54 [ 4 , 832kb ] . more research is being undertaken with npws funding on the distribution of kerry slug in conifer plantations and the impact of clear felling on these populations . national university of galway is also carrying out research on the diet and genetics of the species .\nslug , or land slug , is a common name for any apparently shell - less terrestrial gastropod mollusc . the word slug is also often used as part of the common name of any gastropod mollusc that has no shell , a very reduced shell , or only a small internal shell , particularly sea slugs and semislugs ( this is in contrast to the common name snail , which applies to gastropods that have a coiled shell large enough that the animal can fully retract its soft parts into the shell ) .\nslug , or land slug , is a common name for any apparently shell - less terrestrial gastropod mollusc . the word slug is also often used as part of the common name of any gastropod mollusc that has no shell , a very reduced shell , or only a small internal shell , particularly sea slugs and semislugs ( this is in contrast to the common name snail , which applies to gastropods that have a coiled shell large enough that the animal can fully retract its soft parts into the shell ) .\nmost people heard of the kerry slug for the first time two years ago , when it was found on the route of a planned bypass road at the cascade wood site , near ballyvourney . environment minister john gormley then agreed to extend a conservation area , so that the site could be saved . that would call for a re - routing of a small section of the road .\nbranson , b . a ( 1980 ) .\nthe recent gastropoda of oklahoma , part viii . the slug families limacidae , arionidae , veronicellidae , and philomycidae\n.\nwherever you find banana slugs , you\u2019ll recognize them when you see them . nothing in the forest looks quite like a banana slug . ( see the accompanying photo . )\nthe national parks and wildlife service ( npws ) felt confident that the slug was secure and might even expand its range as climate warms . but it had little actual data on how it was faring , especially outside the sac boundaries . as new development began to threaten its iberian populations , the animal was moved up in priority under the eu\u2019s habitats directive . in 2007 , in one of many commission actions against laggardly states , the european court of justice ordered ireland to establish a system of strict protection for the kerry slug , including monitoring of its population .\none of the wonders of kerry is its diversity . coast and mountain is a magical mix and this is one of europe\u2019s whale watching hotspots \u2013 even giant humpbacks have been seen in the atlantic waters to the west .\nkerry , thanks for reminding me that point reyes has banana slugs . i forgot to include pore in my list the first go - around , but i ' ve taken care of that now . btw , although it ' s totally none of my business , i have to admit that i ' m curious to know what your spouse or significant other thinks of your slug - kissing dispositions .\njordaens k , van riel p , geenen s , verhagen r , backeljau t . food - induced body pigmentation questions the taxonomic value of colour in the self - fertilizing slug\ni commented about a banana slug i saw on the stairway from one of the beaches at olympic np . it had black spots and looked a lot like a ripe banana .\nmeanwhile , kerry said this week that she ' d love a sixth child to add to her brood of five : molly , 15 , lilly - sue , 14 , heidi , max , eight , and dylan , two .\nthe aim of the kerry slug survey the aim of the survey is to accrue modern records for this internationally important invertebrate with the overall objective of producing an up - to - date distribution map . in ireland , there are five 10km grid squares where the species has not been recorded since pre - 1950 and other areas where the last records are pre - 1980 . the survey will help to address these important\nshould have the status of a genus on its own . the polish malacologist and slug specialist andrzej wiktor disagrees . in that case , the species would have to be added to the\nthe mucus secreted by the foot contains fibres that help prevent the slug from slipping down vertical surfaces . the\nslime trail\na slug leaves behind has some secondary effects : other slugs coming across a slime trail can recognise the slime trail as produced by one of the same species , which is useful in finding a mate . following a slime trail is also part of the hunting behaviour of some carnivorous slugs . body mucus provides some protection against predators , as it can make the slug hard to pick up and hold by a bird ' s beak , for example , and the mucus itself can be distasteful . some species of slug , such as limax maximus , secrete slime cords to suspend a pair during copulation .\nthere will soon be some extra space in the family home as kerry ' s eldest daughter molly wants to be a surgeon and will move to ireland to do a transition year . there she\u2019ll be staying with dad brian mcfadden\u2019s parents .\nkerry said : \u201cmolly wants to be a surgeon . she wants to get really good grades in her gcses so she\u2019s going to ireland to do a transition year . this will give her an extra year of biology and sciences . \u201d\nop is suggesting the existence within the last 20 , 000 years of a direct land bridge from northern spain to kerry . one look at a topographic map of the area would have told him why that ' s utterly and completely impossible\nthe ring takes in a great variety of landscapes \u2013 the famous mountains and lakes of kerry , rolling farmland and rugged heath and moor , ancient woodlandsand some of europe\u2019s most beautiful coastline \u2013 and is home to a huge variety of wildlife .\ni am looking at the impact of clear felling on the species inhabiting a commercial conifer plantation in connemara , investigating its habitat preferences , abundance and impact on the sympatric slug species lehmannia marginata .\nthe slime also contains pheremones that help slugs find mates . since the banana slug is a hermaphrodite - - each animal having both male and female reproductive organs \u2013 the task is not especially difficult .\nironically , neither the kerry slug nor the castle need have caused any delay to the macroom by - pass , which is at the heart of the intense local pressure to build this road . the castle is 6 kilometres from macroom and the snail more than twice that . the macroom by - pass is actually part of the planned cork \u2013 killarney dual carriageway . if the council had settled for a by pass it could have been build 10 years ago .\n= 6 of each colour morph ) were sacrificed using chloroform vapour and 1 cm \u00d7 1 cm skin samples from the slug mantle ( effectively all the mantle ) were removed following rowson et al . [\n\u201cthis will be the first full survey in 30 years and we\u2019re asking people to be the lookout for the slug , \u201d said dr mcdonnell , who is starting work in the glengarriff area this week .\nbut the road , which would have been part of the 21km macroom bypass project , has been shelved because of budgetary cutbacks . so , slug is safe for a few more years , at least .\nbody mucus provides some protection against predators , as it can make the slug hard to pick up and hold by a bird ' s beak , for example , and the mucus itself can be distasteful .\na brown and yellow spotted slug curled up into a tight ball so that its head is withdrawn completely , its mantle edge and tail are nearly touching , and none of its foot surface is exposed .\nthe mucus coating that most folks call slime is certainly a signature attribute . it actually serves many useful purposes . in addition to helping the slug avoid dehydration , the mucus helps the slug slide along the ground on the muscular foot covering its lower body , protects the animal\u2019s soft body from sharp rocks , twigs , and other hazards , and discourages predators with its foul taste and mouth - numbing anesthetic effects .\nmost mammals native to ireland and long established introduced species are found in the park . the bank vole was first identified in 1964 in northwest kerry . its range has now expanded and now includes the park . pine marten is another notable species in the park .\nhesse , the slight darkening of juveniles observed after 84 days of feeding trials in this study is likely to be a natural result of growth . as in some other slug species ( e . g . in\nthe mucus secreted by the foot contains fibres that help prevent the slug from slipping down vertical surfaces . the\nslime trail\na slug leaves behind has some secondary effects : other slugs coming across a slime trail can recognise the slime trail as produced by one of the same species , which is useful in finding a mate . following a slime trail is also part of the hunting behaviour of some carnivorous slugs .\na three - year research project has been completed on the kerry slug , the first of its kind on the species . this has developed a safe method of trapping and locating slugs using baited refuge traps . the project also provided information on the movements of slugs in woodland and on boulder fields . unsurprisingly , the research found that most slugs do not appear to move far . however more information is needed to determine whether the species can recolonise areas it has become extinct in .\nreich i , gormally mj , allcock al , mcdonnell rj , castillejo j , iglasias j , quinteiro j , smith cj . genetic study reveals close links between irish and northern spanish specimens of the protected lusitanian slug\n( a 180\u00b0 twisting of the internal organs ) during development . internally , slug anatomy clearly shows the effects of this rotation\u2014but externally , the bodies of slugs appear more or less symmetrical , except for the positioning of the\ncan a small , slimy , shell - less , forest - dwelling gastropod whose diet includes animal droppings and other dead stuff develop an enthusiastic fan following ? you\u2019re darn right . consider these facts about the banana slug :\n. . . free - living slugs were photographed from six sites in ireland across the western counties of galway , kerry and cork ( fig . 1 ) . sites were selected on the basis that previous surveys had found high numbers of kerry slugs in these areas [ 30 , 33 , 34 , 35 ] . forested sites were a combination of conifer plantations and oak woodlands ( fig . 1 : sites 1 , 3 and 5 ) , and open habitats surveyed were blanket bog areas ( fig . 1 : sites 2 , 4 and 6 ) . . . .\nits distribution and status in ireland is summarised by platts & speight ( 1988 ) . it is common in parts of west cork , south kerry and north kerry , in areas where acidic devonian sandstone rocks outcrop . its presence there is an old biogeographical puzzle but , along with other so - called lusitanian elements of the irish fauna and flora , it is possible that it was accidentally introduced at an early date by man . in the stone and early bronze ages commerce between iberia and south - west ireland was well - developed and could have provided the mechanism for transfer .\nslugs do not have a good public profile and most would consider them at best unpleasant and at worst , pests . the kerry slug cannot be accused of being a pest as it is only found in the wild landscapes of the south and west . the animals themselves are attractively marked with white or cream spots on a black or brown background . black slugs predominate in heathlands , whereas the brown form is only found in woodlands . however this is not fixed and the black slugs can be seen in wooded areas .\nscientists assume that the irish yellow slug originally came from the black sea region ( north - eastern turkey , caucasus , crimea peninsula and bulgaria ) . from there it has been introduced in several other parts of the former soviet union . besides , the irish yellow slug , as its name indicates , is present in ireland , as well as in parts of great britain . in continental europe , the species is expected to be found , especially in france .\nshirley mdf , rushton sp , young ag , port gr ( 2001 ) simulating the long - term dynamics of slug populations : a process - based modelling approach for pest control . j appl ecol 38 : 401\u2013411 . doi :\nthe basis for my research is the kerry slug geomalacus maculosus . this species is only found in ireland and northern spain and portugal , exhibiting a typical disjunct \u2019lusitanian\u2019 distribution . due to this narrow range it is listed as a protected species in article 17 of the eu habitats directive and has further protection under irish legislation . there is a lack of quantitative data on favourable management practices , the habitat size required to sustain populations and genetic variation across its home range , so my work is focusing on closing these knowledge gaps :\nirish yellow slug a medium to large slug with pale greenish - grey body overlaid with large irregular dark green markings . keel very short , sole whitish or yellowish . mucus pale yellow to deep orange . tentacles grey to bluish . a common variant has the dark mottling broken up into fine spots which create a spotted appearance rather similar to that of limacus flavus which it appears to displace . a late introduction from south - east europe , now widespread and common .\n. ) , demonstrating greater levels of boldness and exploratory behaviour , respectively . such consistent intraspecific behavioural types may also be common to other slugs , and studying their occurrence could have useful practical implications . for example , the grey field slug\nduring sunny , warm weather the slug takes refuge under mosses , in cracks on boulders , and behind the vegetation at the base of sandstone rocks . surveys at dawn , dusk , and during the night in spain have also proved successful .\nwe are delighted that you have recognized and publicized our charisma . thank you , thank you ! . . . seriously , though , thanks for your great fun facts on our namesake , the banana slug . keep up your great blog .\nlarge black slug arion ater a large roundback slug varying in colour through browns to black , with a similarly coloured , dull foot fringe and exhibiting a strong rocking response when stimulated . ubiquitous up to moderate altitudes . it is predominantly olive - , yellow - , reddish - to dark - brown or black with sole of more or less the same shade or lighter . a jet black form occurs on peatlands . the foot fringe is lined and coloured a similar shade to the back .\nalmost as impressive : his laundry list of on - field incidents , from kicking cardinals running back larry centers in the head , to spitting in the face of 49ers wide receiver j . j . stokes , to breaking the jaw of panthers quarterback kerry collins on a vicious helmet - to - helmet hit .\nireland . normally it is found in oak dominated woodland and unimproved open moor or blanket bog . within these habitats it is only present if there are sandstone outcrops and boulders largely bare of vegetation except for lichens , mosses and liverworts on which the species is thought to feed . ' we need to get the public involved in this survey to extend our knowledge of the kerry slug ' s distribution within ireland ' says dr . rory mc donnell , applied ecology unit , national university of ireland , galway . ' this is an easily identifiable slug ' says rory , ' with two colourations , both with spots . they are either brown with yellow spots , typical of woodland specimens or black with white spots , typical of peatland specimens . lastly , when disturbed , the slug curls itself up into a defensive ball . we encourage observers to submit a photograph with their records . rory heads up the collaboration between the national parks and wildlife service ( npws ) the applied ecology unit at the national university of ireland , galway and biology . ie .\nsnails ' veliger larvae already have primordial organs of an adult snail , such as eyes , tentacle stumps and the shell lid ( operculum ) . there is also a shell , which is reduced later in shell - less ( slug ) species .\n\u2019 geomalacus maculosus : why is this lusitanian slug species thriving in a commercial forestry plantation 200km north of its previously known distribution ? \u2019 oral presentation at the world congress of malacology 2013 , ponta delgada , sao miguel , azores islands , portugal .\nandrews managed , however , to get his specimen to another young naturalist , george allman , graduating in medicine at trinity college . after some dissection , allman introduced the slug to science as a new species , geomalacus maculosus , or \u201cspotted earth mollusc\u201d .\nthe more we learn about banana slugs , the more we come to appreciate that their presence enriches and helps to stabilize the ecosystems they inhabit . by feeding on detritus , they help to recycle nutrients and make them available for new growth . slug excretions not only provide nitrogen - rich fertilizer , but also help to disperse spores and seeds needed for forest plant regeneration . since the banana slug\u2019s ecological niche is not yet fully understood , we shouldn\u2019t be surprised to learn that there are other praiseworthy contributions .\npartial map of ireland showing survey sites ( black circles ) inside the distribution range of g . maculosus ( shaded area ) . conifer ( 1 ) and blanket bog ( 2 ) habitats at oughterrard , co . galway ; conifer habitat at tooreenafersha , co . kerry ( 3 ) ; blanket bog habitat adjacent to uragh woods , co . kerry ( 4 ) ; oak forest habitat at glengarriff nature reserve , co . cork ( 5 ) and blanket bog at leahill bog , co . cork ( 6 ) . black squares show the locations of galway , cork and dublin cities for reference . map modified from g . kindermann , 2016\u00a9\ntoday , its range in kerry and parts of cork is mostly on moors and in woods between the mountains , from killarney west to the dingle peninsula . the humid air and high rainfall of the region lets it roam among the rocks of open bog and lake shores ( where it is generally greeny - black with creamy white spots ) , as well as in the oakwoods ( where it is more typically ginger , with yellowy spots ) . it shares with its spanish and portuguese ancestors an affinity with old , weathered rocks , such as kerry\u2019s acid red sandstone , with rich rugs of lichens , mosses and liverworts for both food and shelter .\nthere are many species of sea slugs in irish waters that are usually only seen by scuba divers . however , sometimes a few get washed up on the shore and are easily overlooked once they are encrusted in sand . the internal shells of the sea slug"]}
{"id": 2205, "summary": [{"text": "the green chromide ( etroplus suratensis ) is a species of cichlid fish from freshwater and brackish water in southern india and sri lanka .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "other common names include pearlspot cichlid , banded pearlspot , and striped chromide .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "in kerala in india it is known locally as the karimeen .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "this fish is native to sri lanka and coastal regions of india .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "many populations are likely introductions .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is also introduced in singapore , where it occurs in estuaries .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the adult is oval in shape with a short snout .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is gray-green in colour with dark barring and a dark spot at the base of the pectoral fin .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "it commonly reaches 20 centimetres ( 7.9 in ) in length , and the maximum length is twice that .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this species lives in brackish water habitat types , such as river deltas .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it eats mainly aquatic plants , but it consumes the occasional mollusc , diatoms , and other animal matter .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "this species engages in attentive parental care in which several adults care for each brood .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "in 2010 this species was named the official state fish of kerala .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the following year was declared \" the year of the karimeen \" .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "karimeen pollichadhu , a fried dish , is a delicacy served in restaurants .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "it is familiar to tourists , but because it is very expensive it is not easily accessible to the common man .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "production of the species for food is expected to increase in the near future .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "they are more closely related to the paretroplus fishes from madagascar . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "green chromide", "paragraphs": ["the green chromide has a green or gold tinted oval shaped body with dark vertical bars . there are often gold spots found on the upper half of the body . the green chromide stays slender compared to other cichlid species .\nthe green chromide ( etroplus suratensis ) is also known by tropical fish keeping enthusiasts as the pearl spot , banded pearl spot , banded chromide , banded etroplus , karimeen , or pearlspot cichlid .\nsouthern india : green chromides are found in the fresh and brackish water habitats .\netroplus suratensis can tolerate freshwater for short periods of time but prefers brackish conditions . use fine sand for the substrate and provide hiding places with caves or wood . open swimming spaces must be provided . green chromide lives in a brackish water . even though they are aggressive in small tanks , they are peaceful in big tanks when there are at least 6 of green chromide fish .\nthe green chromide has a green , greenish brown , or gold tinted oval shaped body with six dark vertical bars on the body ( excluding those on the head and caudal peduncle ) . gold spots are distributed over the body of the fish , primarily on the upper half .\nthe green chromide cichlid inhabits brackish estuaries , coastal lagoons , the lower reaches of rivers and a number of freshwater habitats including a number of inland lakes . it is a hardy species that can breath atmospheric air .\ngreen chromide ( etroplus suratensis ) from lim , kelvin k . p . & jeffrey k . y . low , 1998 . a guide to the common marine fishes of singapore . singapore science centre . 163 pp .\nit\u2019s sometimes referred to using alternative vernacular names , most commonly \u2018pearl spot\u2019 , \u2018banded pearl spot\u2019 , \u2018banded chromide\u2019 , or \u2018karimeen\u2019 .\nthe green chromide is a relative peaceful species that can be kept in fresh or brackish water aquariums with other asian cichlids , archer fish , or similar sized loaches with the same water parameters . etroplus suratensis can live in freshwater environments , but they prefer brackish water conditions .\ncompared to other cichlid species , the green chromide keeps a \u201cslender\u201d body profile . although there is no sure visible way to determine the sex of green chromides ; males that are the same age as females tend to be larger and during breeding , the males develop more intense colors and black occipital stripes between the eye and opercle . females will develop a reddish , swollen , modified ovipositor during breeding .\ntan heok hui and lionel ng chin soon . 28 oct 2016 . green chromides spawning at sentosa . singapore biodiversity records 2016 : 141 - 142 .\nof the ten green chromide fry i obtained about 11 months ago , a pair has formed and they have spawned for the second time . here they are just finishing up , their pink eggs hanging from tiny threads . this second time , the parents chose exactly the same place on an artificial tree stump to deposit them , apparently sensing it to be the safest , most easily defended site .\nsuneetha gunawickrama , k . b . , 2007 - ruhuna journal of science 2 : 70 - 81 morphological heterogeneity and population differentiation in the green chromid etroplus suratensis ( pisces : cichlidae ) in sri lanka .\nquality flakes and pellets can provide the staple diet . vegetable matter should also be given in the form of spinach , peas , and lettuce . green chromides will also accept treats of blood worms and brine shrimp .\ngreen chromides are substrate spawners that may also use caves as spawning sites . wild fish in sri lanka breed twice a year from december to april and again from june to september during the pre monsoon and monsoon seasons . during these periods , water salinity increases and the water becomes cleaner .\ngreen chromide etroplus suratensis family cichlidae updated oct 2016 where seen ? this large colourful fish is often seen in groups in our mangroves at sungei buloh wetland reserve and pasir ris . the fish is native to india and sri lanka and was introduced to singapore , possibly through the aquarium trade . it has since escaped and are now breeding in our waters . features : up to 30cm , usually about 20cm long . oval with a short snout and small mouth . greyish green with 6 to 8 dark bars , a dark spot at the base of the pectoral fins , many scales with a pearly spot . it is sometimes called the pearlspot . what does it eat ? it is mainly herbivorous feeding on filamentous algae , plant material . it may also eat insects . at sungei buloh , often seen nibbling on jetty legs and mangrove roots . baby chromides : several adults may take care of a single brood that presumably were spawned by only two of the adults . human uses : elsewhere , it is raised in aquaculture and also in the aquarium trade .\ngreen chromides are classed as open water spawners but may use caves as their spawning sites . normally the eggs will be deposited on a flat rock which has previously been cleaned by the parents . the eggs should hatch after 36 hours and the fry will be free swimming a few days later . the fry can be fed on newly hatched brine shrimp , rotifers or crushed flake .\n: an oval - shaped fish with a pointed head . the coloration is olive green to greenish brown . the body is marked with six to eight transverse bars which may at times , be indistinct . each scale has a golden spot and the fins are body - colored . the anal fins may have some blue iridescence . at spawning times , all the colors are enhanced , making the normal dull - coloring look more impressive .\nin an aquarium environment , because they are sexually mature within a year , it is best to place a group of juvenile green chromides together until they pair off . spawning can be induced by gradually increasing the salinity in the breeding tank to replicate the seasonal monsoons . put several flat rocks in the aquarium and slowly increase the salinity in the tank to a brackish level . as the water becomes brackish , pairs will begin digging pits to use as nests .\nminimum tank size : 100 gallons care level : moderate temperament : relatively peaceful with similar sized fish aquarium hardiness : moderately hardy water conditions : 72\u00b0f - 80\u00b0f\u00b0 f , kh 10 - 25 , ph 7 . 0 - 8 . 0 max . size : 16 inches color form : green , yellow , brown diet : carnivorous compatibility : ok with other asian cichlids or loaches of similar size origin : sri lanka family : cichlidae lifespan : 6 - 12 years aquarist experience level : advanced\nis a euryhaline species that inhabits mainly brackish water and river mouths . it is an oval - shaped cichlid with a short snout , small mouth not extending past the front margin of the eye with a greyish - green colouration on the flanks , with 6 to 8 dark bars and a dark spot at base of the pectoral fin . most scales on the sides are with a pearly spot ( costa 2007 ) . macrophytic fragments form the most important component of its diet along with molluscs , although detritus , diatoms , and animal matter are also ingested ( de silva\nsides with 6 to 8 dark bars , a dark spot at base of pectoral fin , many scales on sides with a pearly spot . largely herbivorous , in small groups apparently confined to estuaries along north coast of singapore . to 30 cm . popular aquarium fish , introduced ( native to india and sri lanka ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nmadhusoodana kurup , b . , basheer , v . s . , raghavan , r . & cox , n . a .\netroplus suratensis is assessed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large overall population , even though it has a relatively declining trend in the wild , in kerala .\nis distributed in the coastal regions of peninsular india and sri lanka . in india , the wild populations have been recorded from the states of kerala and tamil nadu . there are also populations in goa , andhra pradesh , orissa and west bengal ( jayaram 1981 & 2010 , biju 2005 ) . these are likely introduced populations ( v . s . basheer pers . comm . ) . the species has now been introduced to dam reservoirs in the mountains and lakes and culture ponds ( rema devi\n( 1990 ) . adults engage in altruistic multiple parental care where several adults care for a single brood that presumably were spawned by only two of the adults ( ward and wyman 1977 ) .\netroplus suratensis is a popular foodfish . it is known locally as karimeen and is considered a delicacy . the species has been introduced to various other man - made habitats like tanks , ponds and dam reservoirs for culture and export .\nare subject to various pressures brought on by people like habitat deterioration brought on by the disposal of solid and liquid wastes and the discharge of human fecal matter from adjacent habitations and an increasing number of tourism resorts and houseboats , which are going beyond the carrying capacity of the backwaters / estuaries . a major threat is from exotic species like\n2009 ) . there have also been reports in the past , of the epizootic ulcerative syndrome ( eus ) disease outbreak , which has been to have spread in south and south - east asia since 1980 ( pathiratne & rajapakshe 1998 ) .\ndespite the species being in high demand , the wild populations of the species have not been given sufficient conservation attention . there have been attempts in the past to create ' no fishing zones ' within some of the larger estuaries and the species did seek refuge in these protected zones . such no - fishing zones should be extrapolated to other regions as well , to guarantee effective genetic preservation . this is declared as the state fish by the government of kerala . captive breeding has been undertaken by padmakumar et al . ( 2004 ) . an aquatic sanctuary was made in vembanad lake for this species . the vembanad lake protection forums has started ' matsyatavalam ' ( home of fishes ) for the sustainable fisheries of this species . cage culture of this species is being practiced in vembanad lake and vypin islands .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nall time favourite : fishermen in kerala , who have been hit by the trawler ban and bad weather , are trying to make a living by operating in the backwaters where the all - time favourite fish , karimeen , is still available . they fetch anywhere between rs . 120 and rs . 180 a kg . photo : h vibhu\nkarimeen ( pearl spot ) , the \u2018upper - middle class ' fish which is a favourite with tourists , is getting a profile uplift .\nkerala fisheries minister s . sarma announced in the assembly this week that the oval - shaped fish , which often serves as kerala ' s icon in the minds of gourmets , will be the official state fish . and , 2010 - 11 is being observed as \u2018the year of karimeen . ' the measure is expected to boost the production of karimeen ( etroplus suratensis ) .\nalready , a dozen states have an official fish . the national bureau of fish genetics resources had in 2008 suggested that states adopt a state fish , \u00e0 la state bird and animal .\nfried pearl spot ( karimeen pollichadhu ) is a delicacy that tops menus at restaurants . few tourists leave without having tasted it . a boat ride in the backwaters while relishing the karimeen pollichadhu is an integral part of an average tourist ' s kerala experience .\nhowever , for the common man , karimeen is too hot a delicacy \u2014 it is one of the most expensive fish . karimeen too is beyond the pocket of the poor .\nthe kuttanad region in alappuzha district is considered the tharavad ( family home ) of the fish . kerala now produces only 2 , 000 tonnes of karimeen . \u201cbecause of the new initiative , the production is expected to go up to 5 , 000 tonnes in a year , \u201d fisheries director p . i . sheikh pareeth said .\ntojo mathew was leaving the uae for good to join his wife in delhi .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nname from the words ' etron ' meaning belly and ' oplon ' for arms ; referring to the spines on the lower side ; that is , the long spinour anal - fin .\nbrackish ; benthopelagic ; depth range 10 - ? m . tropical ; 23\u00b0c - 26\u00b0c ( ref . 2060 ) ; 11\u00b0n - 6\u00b0s\nmaturity : l m 15 . 0 range ? - ? cm max length : 40 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 41236 ) ; common length : 20 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 6028 )\nprimarily found in brackish water but known to tolerate fresh or marine waters for short periods ( ref . 48490 ) . found in large rivers , reservoirs , lagoons and estuaries . feed on filamentous algae , plant material and insects .\nafter spawning , about 500 eggs are laid and attached to a submerged log , rock or sometimes roots and weeds , in still or slow flowing water . parents guard and fan the eggs until hatching , usually about 4 days . the fry shoal around their parents during the first weeks of growth . parents refrain from feeding from the time of spawning until the fry become independent .\npethiyagoda , r . , 1991 . freshwater fishes of sri lanka . the wildlife heritage trust of sri lanka , colombo . 362 p . ( ref . 6028 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 6250 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01660 ( 0 . 00974 - 0 . 02827 ) , b = 2 . 94 ( 2 . 79 - 3 . 09 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 9 \u00b10 . 26 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( tm = 2 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 32 of 100 ) .\nfrom the day we opened the first store in maidenhead , we\u2019ve firmly believed that one key to our success is employing fish keepers .\nno obvious external differences . when spawning , it may be possible to observe the more pointed genital papillae of the male .\n: to 18\n( 46 cm ) in nature , although not larger than 12\n( 30 cm ) in aquaria .\n: southeastern asia ; lives in brackish water river estuaries and moves in schools between pure freshwater and sea water at different times during the year .\n: a 45 - 55 gallon ( 170 - 209 l ) or 40 ( 101 cm ) is sufficient for fish under 8\n( 20 cm ) in length . adult fish need at tank of at least 56\n( 142 cm ) or 75 gallons ( 285 l ) to prosper . use a substrate of coral sand or less ideally , fine gravel . the tank can be well - planted with large , robust plants , although this species is a known plant eater . provide hiding places and retreats with large caves and wood . leave open swimming areas .\n: ph 7 - 9 ( 8 . 0 ) , 12 - 30 dh ( 20 ) , 73 - 81\u00b0f ( 23 - 27\u00b0c ) . a 1 to 1 . 5 % addition of sea salt is necessary . to obtain this dilution rate see suggestions under\n: a shoaling fish that should be kept in groups of at least 6 fish . in smaller schools , quarrels may break out . this fish may be more suitable to salt water community tanks than freshwater tanks . this fish can be kept with other brackish water species including\n, crustaceans , insects ; chopped meat ; pellets ; large flakes ; oatmeal ; plant matter ; vegetables ; spinach , peas , lettuce .\nsex : the only definite difference is the shape of the genital papilla which is visible at spawning times .\n: an open water spawner that lays up to 1000 eggs on a previously cleaned rock or in a cave . they hatch in 36 to 50 hours and are carefully guarded by the parents . the young are free - swimming after 7 - 8 more days . start feeding with\nnauplii , roftiers , and dry foods . the young are susceptible to fungal infections if kept in freshwater , and are difficult to raise even in brackish water . their coloring is different from that of the adults . they have a single transverse band around the mid - section . this band disappears , and for several weeks the fry are just silver . eventually they develop the adult coloring .\n: sexually mature from 6\n( 15 cm ) . this fish ' s colors are enhanced when they are kept in pure sea water .\n: 6 . a large fish that needs to be kept in brackish water .\ncarbon dioxide ( co2 ) emissions generated from urltoken operations ( server , data transfer , travel ) are mitigated through an association with anthrotect , an organization working with afro - indigenous and embera communities to protect forests in colombia ' s darien region . anthrotect is protecting the habitat of mongabay ' s mascot : the scale - crested pygmy tyrant .\nrainforest\nis used interchangeably with\nrain forest\non this site .\njungle\nis generally not used .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspecimens collected by fishermen in chilika lake in odisha state , india , the world ' s second largest coastal lagoon .\netroplus : from the ancient greek \u1f26\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd ( etron ) , meaning \u2018belly , lower abdomen\u2019 , and \u1f45\u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd ( hoplon ) , meaning \u2018weapon , armour\u2019 , in reference to the prominent spinous anal - fin rays in members of the genus .\nsuratensis : named for the type locality \u201csuratte\u201d , now the city of surat .\ngenerally considered native to peninsular india and sri lanka although some sources state that it is only native to sri lanka and was introduced to india for aquaculture purposes in 1950 .\ngiven that it was described from india in 1790 this would seem unlikely , however , and one of the publications often quoted ( welcomme , 1988 ) refers only to \u2018aquaculture and stocking lakes\u2019 in 1950 , suggesting it was simply introduced to land - locked freshwater environments at that time .\nin addition day ( 1877 ) wrote \u201ci have taken it inland in the wynaad\u201d , i . e . , wayanad district in northeastern kerala .\nin india its range stretches southwards down the western coast from the state of gujarat through maharashtra , goa , karnataka , and kerala states as far as the southern part of the peninsula in tamil nadu state .\nthere also exist records from andhra pradesh , odisha and west bengal states on the eastern coast with these populations also thought to have been introduced for aquaculture .\noccurrences in sri lanka are mostly limited to the western coast and pertain to north , north western , north central , western and southern provinces but there is at least one record from batticaloa in eastern province suggesting it might be distributed around much of the island .\ne . suratensis has also been introduced to peninsular malaysia and singapore where feral populations appear to be thriving .\ntype locality is \u2018suratte , india , 21\u00b012\u2019n , 72\u00b055\u2019e\u2019 , referring to modern - day surat which lies on the lower tapti river in gujarat state , western india .\nthis species is euryhaline and mostly inhabits brackish estuaries , coastal lagoons and the lower reaches of rivers .\nit also occurs in freshwater habitats , however , including a number of inland lakes in sri lanka although it appears to have been introduced intentionally .\nthere exists observational evidence to suggest that it can breathe atmospheric air to an extent , probably an adaptation to conditions of low dissolved oxygen .\nthe congener e . maculatus typically occurs in the same habitats and there exists evidence to suggest that this sympatry is not random and may represent a mutually beneficial relationship with a little cheating on the part of e . maculatus ( see \u2018notes\u2019 ) .\nthis is a gregarious species that is best - maintained in a sizeable group ( see \u2018behaviour and compatibility\u2019 ) meaning only the very largest home aquaria or public installations are suitable for long - term care .\nthis species can be maintained in fresh or brackish water so long as acidic conditions are avoided .\nd\u00e9cor is largely down to personal choice although a degree of structure , perhaps incorporating a sandy substrate , variably - shaped rocks and some driftwood branches , would adequately simulate natural conditions .\nit is intolerant to accumulation of organic pollutants and requires spotless water meaning weekly water changes of 25 - 50 % volume should be considered routine .\nph : 7 . 0 \u2013 8 . 5 , although in sri lanka it has been recorded in brackish lagoons where the salinity ranges from 0 . 02 to 28 . 00 with ph values of 5 . 0 to 9 . 6 .\nobservations of wild fish suggest it to be something of a generalist with a tendency to graze aufwuchs and filamentous algae from solid surfaces .\nthe stomachs of feral specimens in singapore were found to contain detritus , most of the algae groups , crustacean larvae and appendages , animal and plant organic matter , and sand , for example , while the fish themselves were seen biting at floating twigs , grazing submerged plant roots , the bottom of sluice gates and the sides of submerged pillars .\nin the aquarium it can be offered high quality prepared foods but displays a preference for small live or frozen items such as chironomid larvae ( bloodworm ) , tubifex , artemia , mosquito larvae , etc .\nat least some of the dried products should contain a significant proportion of vegetable matter such as spirulina or similar , while chopped peas and suchlike are also useful supplements .\nrelatively peaceful unless breeding and will not predate on any but the smallest fishes .\nin a community setting the addition of a group or two of gregarious , pelagic species to act as \u2018 dithers \u2018 is recommended .\nin freshwater cyprinids such as certain dawkinsia , devario or rasbora spp . are ideal for this purpose while in the brackish aquarium salt - tolerant poeciliid livebearers , e . g . , poecilia sphenops , can be used .\nbest avoided are territorial or otherwise aggressive species , including other cichlids unless the aquarium is very large , and those that require soft , acidic water .\netroplus species are loosely gregarious and tends to form groups unless spawning with juveniles in particular displaying a strong social response when threatened .\na group of 8 + individuals should therefore be the minimum purchase and these will form a noticeable dominance hierarchy once sexual maturity is reached .\nwhen maintained in smaller numbers weaker specimens can become the target of excessive abuse by dominant individuals or the group may fail to settle and behave nervously .\nmales tend to be larger than females of equivalent age but sexing of non - nuptial individuals can be tricky .\nin nuptial males the colour pattern becomes generally more intense and this is normally accompanied by the appearance of black occipital stripes between the eye and opercle .\nthe genital papillae in males is longer and more pointed than of females in which it is broader and rounder .\nin nuptial females the papillae becomes reddish , swollen and appears modified into an ovipositor .\nthis species is a biparental substrate spawner which forms temporary pair bonds when reproductively active .\nobservations of wild fish in sri lanka suggest that there are two such periods each year represented by the dry pre - monsoonal ( december to april ) and monsoonal ( june to september ; the monsoon season is dry in parts of sri lanka ) seasons when water salinity increases and turbidity decreases , the latter thought to benefit the fish via improved visual contact between adults and fry .\nadult e . suratensis were not observed to forage during broodcare , both remaining with the eggs and subsequently fry at all times .\nthis allowed them to select spawning sites with better chances of fry survival whereas during peak breeding season ( july ) e . maculatus laid its eggs in sparser vegetation and exhibited colonial reproductive behaviour , seemingly a \u2018trade - off\u2019 between fry protection and food for the adults .\nthe benefit of the latter behaviour is that one parent would normally remain with the brood while the other left the territory to forage with the roles reversed every few minutes , thus reducing the amount of time and energy devoted to fry care by half compared with e . suratensis but increasing the risk of predation .\nin the aquarium it\u2019s recommended to purchase a group of fish and allow them to select their own partners with young fish normally sexually mature by the age of a year .\nduring courtship a particular site , normally a rock although even the aquarium glass will do , is selected and the surrounding area defended against intruders from that point on .\neggs are deposited in typical fashion and attached via short filaments permitting a degree of movement .\nboth parents participate in guarding the territory and general brood - care such as fanning and mouthing the eggs to keep them sediment - free .\nincubation is approximately 48 - 72 hours depending on temperature with the fry swimming freely in a further 3 - 4 days .\nprior to hatching the adults excavate a number of nursery pits in the substrate surrounding the spawning site and the fry are moved between these until their yolk sacs are absorbed .\nif the fry remain with the adults they will graze on their parents\u2019 body mucus when they are 1 - 3 days free - swimming .\nparental care normally extends until the fry are 30 - 40 mm in length .\nsome breeders prefer to remove the eggs prior to hatching as they \u2018re often eaten by tankmates or the parents themselves , with the most common method being to remove the rock with eggs attached and place it in a separate container with water from the adults\u2019 tank .\nwater movement across the eggs is maintained by placing an air - line or filter outlet close to the rock while any displaying signs of fungus should be removed as they\u2019re noticed .\nonce free - swimming the fry are large enough to accept artemia nauplii and similar immediately .\nthis species is not especially popular in the aquarium hobby but is an important food fish across the majority of its range with some populations having crashed since the turn of the 21st century due to over - exploitation .\nit exhibits a widespread sympatry with the congener e . suratensis throughout its natural range and observations of wild fish provide evidence of a symbiotic relationship between the two in the tidal negombo lagoon , southwestern sri lanka .\ne . maculatus acted as a cleaner for the larger e . suratensis , removing parasites and suchlike by grazing the body and fins but the nutrition these provide is considered debatable and therefore not the benefit gained from the task .\nmore remarkably , the advantage to e . maculatus is hypothesised to be overall health , and therefore reproductive success , of e . suratensis because it is an active predator of its relative\u2019s offpsring .\ngroups of e . maculatus were seen consuming entire batches of e . suratensis eggs and fry while the latter displayed an apparently altruistic behaviour in which adult individuals unrelated to the parents would help defend the territory .\netroplus is the only cichlid genus native to the indian subcontinent and sri lanka and currently comprises three species among which e . canarensis is uniquely limited to freshwater and restricted in range while e . maculatus and e . suratensis are euryhaline and relatively widespread .\ne . maculatus can easily be told apart from the others since dark markings on the body are reduced to 1 - 3 dark blotches just above midbody ( unless stressed when short bars may appear in the upper portion of the body with a solid dark posteroventral patch ) and is much paler overall , with the majority of body scales having an orange - red centre .\nthe remaining species both possess a series of normally 6 dark vertical bars on the body ( excluding those on the head and caudal peduncle ) but in e . canarensis the anterior 3 bars tend to bifurcate as the fish mature , base body colour is buff - grey , and some body scales have a yellowish central patch , whereas in e . suratensis the bars remain solid throughout life , base body colour is greenish - brown , and numerous body scales have a pearly - white central spot .\ne . suratensis is also much the larger fish and capable of exceeding 300 mm sl .\nits closest relative among other cichlids is the malagasy endemic genus paretroplus and these two are sometimes grouped together under the putative subfamily etroplinae .\nthey are an ancient , morphologically distinct lineage and represent the evolutionary sister group to all other cichlids ( sparks and smith , 2004 ) with several unique specialised characters ( sparks , 2001 ; stiassny et al . , 2001 ) .\nthese include complex paired anterior swim bladder chambers that are located within enlarged exoccipital recesses forming a direct otophysic ( mechanical ) connection between the gas bladder and inner ear , highly modified supraoccipital and exocippital bones of the neurocranium , and specialized ligaments associated with the suspensorium and oral jaws .\netroplus can be told apart from paretroplus by a number of characters including : possession of tricuspid ( vs . unicuspid in paretroplus ) teeth ; teeth present in multiple rows in both upper and lower jaws ( vs . a single row of teeth in upper and lower jaws ; teeth numerous in both upper and lower jaws ( vs . teeth few in number ( < 18 in upper jaw , < 14 in lower ) ; paired anterior gas bladder extensions rather typical and tubelike ( vs . paired anterior gas bladder extensions highly - modified with multiple anterior polyplike chambers possessing a tough and thickened tunica externa , and extremely narrow connections ( diverticula ) to the main gas bladder chamber ) ; an elevated number of anal - fin spines ; configuration of the anal - fin pterygiophore \u2044hemal spine complex ( sparks , 2001 ; stiassny et al . , 2001 ) .\nbloch , m . e . , 1790 - berlin : i - xii + 1 - 128 , pls . 217 - 252 naturgeschichte der ausl\u00e4ndischen fische v . 4 .\nday , f . , 1877 - william dawson & sons , london : 369 - 552 the fishes of india ; being a natural history of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and fresh waters of india , burma , and ceylon . part 3 .\nde silva , s . s . , p . maitipe , and r . t . cumaranatunge , 1984 - environmental biology of fishes 10 ( 1 - 2 ) : 77 - 87 aspects of the biology of the euryhaline asian cichlid , etroplus suratensis .\nng , t . h . and h . h . tan , 2010 - journal of fish biology 76 ( 9 ) : 2238\u20132260 the introduction , origin and life - history attributes of the non - native cichlid etroplus suratensis in the coastal waters of singapore .\npadmakumar , k . g . , l . bindu and p . s . manu , 2012 - journal of biosciences 37 ( 1 ) supplement : 925 - 931 etroplus suratensis ( bloch ) , the state fish of kerala .\nsamarakoon , j . i . , 1983 - mahagasar \u2013 bulletin of the national institute of oceanography 16 : 357 - 362 breeding patterns of the indigenous cichlids etroplus suratensis and etroplus maculatus in an estuary in sri lanka .\nsparks , j . s . , 2008 - bulletin of the american museum of natural history 314 : 1 - 151 phylogeny of the cichlid subfamily etroplinae and taxonomic revision of the malagasy cichlid genus paretroplus ( teleostei , cichlidae ) .\nsparks , j . s . , and w . l . smith , 2004 - cladistics 20 : 501 - 517 phylogeny and biogeography of cichlid fishes ( teleostei : perciformes : cichlidae ) .\nward , j . a . and j . i . samarakoon , 1981 - environmental biology of fishes 6 ( 1 ) : 95 - 103 reproductive tactics of the asian cichlids of the genus etroplus in sri lanka .\nward , j . a . and r . l . wyman , 1977 - environmental biology of fishes 2 ( 2 ) : 137 - 145 ethology and ecology of cichlid fishes of the genus etroplus in sri lanka : preliminary findings .\nwelcomme , r . l . , 1988 - fao fisheries technical paper 294 : 1 - 318 international introductions of inland aquatic species .\nit is native to sri lanka and possibly peninsular india , peninsular malaysia and singapore however , it is believed to have been introduced to india and malaysia for aquaculture in the early 1950s .\nbecause of their size , they need a large aquarium of at least 100 gallon capacity with a fine sand or gravel substrate , lots of rock caves and driftwood for them to hide among , and plenty of open swimming space . they are a shoaling species and in an aquarium environment should be housed with at least 8 or more of their own kind to minimize any aggressive behavior . they become aggressive and will eat smaller tank mates when confined in a smaller sized aquarium .\nonce the pair select a rock or other site to lay their eggs on , they will defend the surrounding area against all intruders until the eggs are deposited . the female will deposit her eggs on the flat rocks where they are attached to the substrate with short filaments and will hatch , depending on water temperature , within 48 to 72 hours .\nafter the fry have hatched out , the parents will move the fry for their protection , to the \u201cnursery pits\u201d that they excavated around the spawning site until their egg sacs are absorbed and they become free swimming ( in about 3 to 4 days ) .\nduring this time , like discus , the fry remain with the adults and will graze on their parents\u2019 body mucus until they are fully free swimming . the fry can be then be fed newly hatched baby brine shrimp , rotifers , or finely crushed flake food . both parents stay with the eggs and brood at all times until they are capable of fending for themselves .\nadult etroplus suratensis are easy to feed and will accept a quality flake and pellet food as a staple diet , along with vegetable matter in the form of lettuce , spinach , peas , spirulina wafers , and fresh , frozen or freeze dried bloodworms and brine shrimp .\nunfortunately questions regarding fish , plants , diseases or tank setup will be ignored if submitted via the form below ! in order to ask such a question , please click this link ! the form below shall be used to ask about the website , functionality , issues or to give feedback . thanks a lot !\nwork properly ! please , consider enabling javascript in order to maximise your user experience while browsing .\nwork properly ! please , consider enabling cookies in order to maximise your user experience while browsing .\nusual size in fish tanks : 25 - 30 cm ( 9 . 84 - 11 . 81 inch )\nrecommended water hardness ( dgh ) : 12 - 26\u00b0n ( 214 . 29 - 464 . 29ppm )\nrather don\u2019t breed your fish if you don\u2019t know what to do with fry .\nif you\u2019re about to breed some fish , get parents from different sources to avoid inbreeding .\npufferfish often look cute , however they\u2019re predators and often kill tankmates as they mature ( there are exceptions ) .\nall comments must be submitted by registered members . please , click this link to login or register !\nplease , verify whether your login and password are valid . if you don ' t have an account here , register one free of charge , please .\nunfortunately this page doesn ' t allow discussion . please , find any other page that fits your area of interest as over 99 % of our pages allow discussion . the reason why no discussion is allowed here is this page is too general . thanks a lot for understanding ! click here to search , please !\namong mangrove roots . pasir ris park , feb 12 nibbling on mangrove roots . pasir ris park , feb 12\npearlspot ( etroplus suratensis ) from fishbase : technical fact sheet on the family , including fact sheets on the species .\nbackyard farm aquaculture ( ras ) vlog . . moving the fish , feed rates , ph & cycling the system . .\ncan only be sexed when spawning by viewing the shape of the genital papilla .\nundemanding cave spawners . female lays up to 200 small eggs ( 1 - 1 . 5 mm ) inside large flower pot or similar . both parents tend the eggs .\nthe female secretes a mucus layer on her sides , which the fry feed on . large clutches will sometimes cause damage to mother ' s skin and scales . eventually she chases them away at a size of 10 - 12mm .\nthe other adults generally stay out of the way and do not molest the youngsters much as they grow , but older juveniles will sometimes eat a complete batch of eggs or fry .\nthis is a shoaling fish that should be kept in groups of 6 or more . smaller groups can result in the fish fighting amongst themselves . can be kept with other peaceful but robust brackish tank mates such as\nfeed often with diverse vegetable matter such as frozen chopped spinach , peas or grated carrot . some flake and pellet food is appropriate but minimize protein to avoid overloading the filter .\nwater with good filtration and aeration . salt can inhibit good filter function so plan excess capacity .\nsalt levels should be about 1 / 10 of normal sea - salt concentration . use only aquarium - grade sea salt and not food - grade . increased salt levels can help fight / prevent infection , but reduce filter efficiency . ones suited to complete freshwater are available .\nthey tend to swim in circles so tank width is important - 60cm ( 23 . 6\n) x 60cm ( 23 . 6\n) x 90cm ( 35 . 4\n) minimum tank size for a group of six .\nsome references cite sizes up to 40cm ( 15 . 7\n) , but even large installations such as the london aquarium include few specimens over 20cm ( 7 . 9\n) .\nthis page was last edited on 13 december 2017 , at 02 : 49 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license unless otherwise noted .\ncarnivorous - does well with flake or pellet foods supplimented with frozen or live worms .\nother asian cichlids or loaches of similar size ; other fish with similar water parameters .\nto induce breeding , put several flat rocks in the aquarium and slowly increase the salinity of your aquarium to a brackish level . once the water has become brackish , pairs will begin digging pits to use as nests . the female will lay the eggs on the flat rocks or another flat surface ) . after the fry have hatched , the parents will move them to the nesting area for protection ."]}
{"id": 2207, "summary": [{"text": "ephemerelloidea is a superfamily of mayflies in the suborder pannota .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "it is a basal group of mayflies with a worldwide distribution .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "members of this super-family can be distinguished from those of caenoidea by the fact that the gills of the nymphs are not filamentous .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the following families are recognised : ephemerellidae", "topic": 2}], "title": "ephemerelloidea", "paragraphs": ["kento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30de\u30c0\u30e9\u30ab\u30b2\u30ed\u30a6\u4e0a\u79d1\nto\nephemerelloidea\n.\na new family coryphoridae is proposed in the superfamily ephemerelloidea for the monotypic genus coryphorus . characters that distinguish coryphoridae from all other ephemerelloidea are discussed . the male imago , male subimago , female imago , and egg of coryphorus aquilus peters are described for the first time .\nin order to contribute to currents and future studies of systematics and ecology of the group in brazil , a key for the identification of the brazilian ephemerelloidea genera is necessary . the aim of this paper is to present a key to nymphs and adults of the ephemerelloidea genera recorded from the country .\nother representative of pannota in south america , besides ephemerelloidea , is the family caenidae . despite the similarity between both groups having operculate gills on segment 2 , nymphs of south american ephemerelloidea can be distinguished from those of caenidae by the absence of filamentous gills 1 . the adults of ephemerelloidea can be differentiated by lacking an ommation on the mesonotum , the vein mp2 of the forewings not extending to the base and not curving from near the base of mp1 , and by the vein cup strongly curved to the inner margin of the wing ( mccafferty & wang 2000 ) .\nty - jour ti - key to the genera of ephemerelloidea ( insecta : ephemeroptera ) from brazil t2 - biota neotropica ur - urltoken py - 2006 - 01 - 01 au - dias , lucimar g . au - salles , frederico f . au - francischetti , cesar n . au - ferreira , paulo s\u00e9rgio f . kw - adults kw - brazil kw - ephemerelloidea kw - illustrated key kw - nymphs er -\n( ephemeroptera : ephemerelloidea : melanemerellidae ) , with comments on its systematic position and the higher classification of ephemeroptera . j . n . am . benthol . soc . 22 ( 2 ) : 263 - 275 .\nthe superfamily ephemerelloidea ( ephemeroptera ) is a cosmopolitan and very basal group of mayflies ( mccafferty & wang 2000 ) . together with the superfamily caenoidea , the ephemerelloidea are inserted in the suborder pannota , a group where the mature nymphs have less than half of their forewingpads freely extended beyond their fusion , although the wingpads remain externally recognizable as do the pro - and mesothoracic mesothoracic segments ( mccafferty and edmunds 1979 , mccafferty & wang 2000 ) .\nmolineri , c . , peters , j . g . & zu\u00f1iga de cardoso , m . c . 2002 . a new family , coryphoridae ( ephemeroptera : ephemerelloidea ) , and description of the winged and egg stages of\n@ article { bhlpart108229 , title = { key to the genera of ephemerelloidea ( insecta : ephemeroptera ) from brazil } , journal = { biota neotropica } , url = urltoken publisher = { } , author = { dias , lucimar g . and salles , frederico f . and francischetti , cesar n . and ferreira , paulo s\u00e9rgio f . } , year = { 2006 - 01 - 01 } , keywords = { adults | brazil | ephemerelloidea | illustrated key | nymphs | } , }\nall genera of ephemerelloidea from brazil were studied for the elaboration of the key . the specimens examined were borrowed from the following institutions : museu regional de entomologia , universidade federal de vi\u00e7osa , mg and of the departamento de zoologia , instituto de biologia da universidade federal do rio de janeiro , rj . . drawings were made on white paper with the aid of a leica camera lucida attached to a mz8 microscope .\nof the three families , eleven genera and 70 species of the superfamily ephemerelloidea represented in south america ( dominguez et al . 2004 , emmerich 2004 ) , all families , seven genera , and 20 species are registered from brazil ( molineri 2004 , salles et al . 2004 ) . coryphoridae and melanemerellidae are represented by one species , each , whereas leptohyphidae is the most diverse , with five genera and 18 species ( molineri 2004 , salles et al . 2004 ) .\nneste trabalho \u00e9 apresentada uma chave para identifica\u00e7\u00e3o dos g\u00eaneros brasileiros de ephemerelloidea , ninfas e adultos , pertencentes \u00e0s fam\u00edlias coryphoridae , leptohyphidae e melanemerellidae . atualmente , sete g\u00eaneros desta superfam\u00edlia s\u00e3o conhecidos no brasil . leptohyphidae \u00e9 a fam\u00edlia mais representativa , com cinco g\u00eaneros registrados para o pa\u00eds , leptohyphes eaton , 1882 , leptohyphodes ulmer , 1920 , traverhyphes molineri , 2001 , tricorythodes ulmer , 1920 and tricorythopsis traver , 1958 . coryphoridae e melanemerellidae s\u00e3o monot\u00edpicas , representadas por coryphorus peters , 1981e melanemerella ulmer , 1920 .\na key to the brazilian genera of ephemerelloidea , nymphs and adults , belonging to the families coryphoridae , leptohyphidae and melanemerellidae is presented . currently , seven genera of this superfamily are known in brazil . the leptohyphidae is the most representative family , with five genera registered from the country , leptohyphes eaton , 1882 , leptohyphodes ulmer , 1920 , traverhyphes molineri , 2001 , tricorythodes ulmer , 1920 and tricorythopsis traver , 1958 . the families coryphoridae and melanemerellidae are monotypic , represented by coryphorus peters , 1981and melanemerella ulmer , 1920 .\n< mods xmlns : xlink =\nurltoken\nversion =\n3 . 0\nxmlns : xsi =\nurltoken\nxmlns =\nurltoken\nxsi : schemalocation =\nurltoken urltoken\n> < titleinfo > < title > key to the genera of ephemerelloidea ( insecta : ephemeroptera ) from brazil < / title > < / titleinfo > < name > < namepart > dias , lucimar g . < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > salles , frederico f . < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > francischetti , cesar n . < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > ferreira , paulo s & # 233 ; rgio f . < / namepart > < / name > < typeofresource > text < / typeofresource > < genre authority =\nmarcgt\n> < / genre > < subject > < topic > adults < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > brazil < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > ephemerelloidea < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > illustrated key < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > nymphs < / topic > < / subject > < relateditem type =\nhost\n> < titleinfo > < title > biota neotropica < / title > < / titleinfo > < part > < date > 2006 - 01 - 01 < / date > < / part > < / relateditem > < identifier type =\nuri\n> urltoken < / identifier > < / mods >\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nlucimar g . dias i , ii ; frederico f . salles i , ii ; cesar n . francischetti i , ii ; paulo s\u00e9rgio f . ferreira i\ni museu de entomologia , departamento de biologia animal , universidade federal de vi\u00e7osa , 36571 - 000 vi\u00e7osa , mg , brazil . ( lucimar @ urltoken ) ( ffsalles @ urltoken ) ( cnfrancischetti @ urltoken ) ( pfiuza @ urltoken ) ii programa de p\u00f3s - gradua\u00e7\u00e3o em entomologia , departamento de biologia animal , universidade federal de vi\u00e7osa , 36571 - 000 vi\u00e7osa , mg , brazil\ncoryphoridae , represented only by coryphorus aquilus peters , 1981 , is known in brazil from the states of amazonas and par\u00e1 , northern region . c . aquilus peters , 1981 , is also recorded from colombia ( peters 1981 , molineri et al . 2002 ) and french guiana ( orth et al . 2000 ) .\nmelanemerellidae is represented by melanemerella brasiliana ulmer , 1920 , endemic to brazil and reported from the states of s\u00e3o paulo and esp\u00edrito santo , southeastern region ( ulmer 1920 , molineri & dom\u00ednguez 2003 ) .\nwith regard to leptohyphidae , the genera leptohyphes eaton , 1982 , tricorythodes ulmer , 1920 and tricorythopsis traver , 1958 , have five species each . they are widely distributed in brazil ( banks 1913 , ulmer 1920 , needham & murphy 1924 , traver 1959 , allen 1967 , 1973 , da - silva 1993 , molineri 1999 , 2001a , 2002 , 2003 ) . traverhyphes molineri , 2001 , is represented by two species , one from the southern region , and another from the southeastern region ( molineri 2001b , 2004 ) . the genus leptohyphodes ulmer , 1920 , is monotypic and known only from brazil , being represented by l . inanis ( pictet , 1843 ) . although the type - locality of l . inanis was referred only to\nbrazil\nin the original description ( pictet 1843 ) , traver ( 1944 ) described the nymph of the genus , based on specimens from the state of minas gerais , southeastern region .\nwe thank dr . carlos molineri ( faculdade de ci\u00eancias naturales e instituto miguel lillo san miguel de tucum\u00e1n , argentina ) and dr . teresinha maria castro della l\u00facia ( universidade federal de vi\u00e7osa minas gerais , brasil ) for their helpful review of the manuscript . we also thank the brazilian council of scientific and technological development ( cnpq ) for providing funds to lucimar g . dias , frederico f . salles and cesar n . francischetti to conduct postgraduate studies at the programa de p\u00f3s - gradua\u00e7\u00e3o em entomologia , universidade federal de vi\u00e7osa .\nallen , r . k . 1967 . new species of new world leptohyphinae ( ephemeroptera : tricorythidae ) . can . entomol . 99 : 350 - 375 .\neaton ( ephemeroptera : tricorythidae ) . pan - pac . entomol . , 49 : 363 - 372 .\nbanks , n . 1913 . the stanford expedition to brazil . 1911 . neuropteroid insects from brazil .\nda - silva , e . r . 1993 . efemer\u00f3pteros da serra dos \u00f3rg\u00e3os , estado do rio de janeiro . ii . descri\u00e7\u00e3o de uma nova esp\u00e9cie de\neaton , 1882 ( ephemeroptera , tricorythidae ) . rev . bras . entomol . 37 ( 2 ) : 313 - 316 .\ndom\u00ednguez , e . , hubbard , m . d . , pescador , m . l . & molineri , c . 2004 . checklist of the ephemeroptera of south america ( edition date 16 june 2004 ) . u r l\neaton , a . e . 1882 . an announcement of new genera of the ephemeridae . entomol . mon . mag . 18 : 207 - 208 .\nwiersema y mccafferty 2000 ( ephemeroptera : leptohyphidae ) para am\u00e9rica del sur . entomotropica . 19 ( 2 ) : 105 - 106 .\nmccafferty , w . p . & edmunds jr , g . f . 1979 . the higher classification of the ephemeroptera and its evolutionary basis . ann . entomol . soc . am . 72 : 5 - 12 .\nmccafferty , w . p . & wang t . - q . 2000 . phylogenetic systematics of the major lineages of pannote mayflies ( ephemeroptera : pannota ) . trans . am . entomol . soc . 126 ( 1 ) : 9 - 101 .\n( ephemeroptera : leptohyphidae ) : nuevas combinaciones y descripci\u00f3n de nuevas especies y estadios . rev . soc . entomol . argent . 60 : 217 - 238 .\nand related species ( insecta , ephemeroptera ) . spixiana . 24 ( 2 ) : 129 - 140 .\n( ephemeroptera : leptohyphidae ) with the descriptions of new species and stages . aquat . insect . 24 ( 4 ) : 273 - 308 .\neaton ( ephemeroptera : leptohyphidae ) with a key to the nymphs . stud . neotrop . fauna environ . 38 ( 1 ) : 47 - 70 .\ngroup ( ephemeroptera : leptohyphidae ) , with new subgenera , species and combinations . tijdsch . entomol . 147 : 197 - 220 .\north , k . , thomas , a . , dauta , c . , horeau , v . , brosse , s . & ademmer , c . 2000 . les eph\u00e9m\u00e8res de la guyane fran\u00e7aise . 1 . premier inventaire g\u00e9n\u00e9rique , a but de biosurveillance ( ephemeroptera ) . ephemera . 2 ( 1 ) : 25 - 38 .\n, a new genus and species of tricorythidae from the amazon basin ( ephemeroptera ) . aquat . insect . 3 : 209 - 217 .\npictet f . j . 1843 . histoire naturelle g\u00e9n\u00e9rale et particuli\u00e8re des insectes n\u00e9vropt\u00e8res . famille des \u00e9ph\u00e9m\u00e9rines . chez j . kessmann et ab . cherbuliz , geneva .\nsalles , f . f . , da - silva , e . r . , hubbard , m . d . & serr\u00e3o , j . e . 2004 . as esp\u00e9cies de ephemeroptera ( insecta ) registradas para o brasil . biota neotrop . 4 ( 2 ) : 1 - 34 .\ntraver , j . r . 1959 . the subfamily leptohyphinae . part ii : five new species of\ntraver , j . r . 1944 . notes on brazilian mayflies . bol . mus . nac . n . s . zool . 22 : 2 - 53 .\n1 . eyes elevated ( fig . 1 ) ; posterolateral projection of abdominal terga 2 - 5 curved dorsally ( fig . 2 ) ; dorsal tubercles present in all regions of the body ( fig . 2 ) coryphoridae , coryphorus\n1 ' . eyes not elevated ( fig . 3 ) ; posterolateral projection of abdominal terga 2 - 5 not curved dorsally ( fig . 4 - 6 ) ; tubercles usually absent or present in one or two regions of the body ( figs . 4 , 5 ) ; if tubercles present in all regions of the body , then tubercles paired ( fig . 6 ) 2\n2 ( 1 ' ) . abdominal terga 2 - 9 with a pair of submedian tubercles , more evident in the abdominal terga 3 - 9 ( fig . 6 ) ; gills with ventral lamellae fringed ( fig . 7 ) ; femora strongly expanded ( fig . 8 ) melanemerellidae , melanemerella\n2 ' . abdominal terga never with paired tubercles ( figs . 4 , 5 , 10 ) ; ventral gills without fringed lamellae ( figs . 13b , 14b ) ; femora generally not expanded ( fig . 9 ) leptohyphidae 3\n3 ( 2 ' ) . operculate gills subquadrangular , internal margins reaching median line ( fig . 10 ) ; gills present on abdominal segments 2 - 5 ; eyes of males divided ( fig . 11 ) leptohyphodes\n3 ' . operculate gills triangular , oval or rounded ( figs . 12 - 15 ) , internal margins not reaching median line ; gills present on abdominal segments 26 ; eyes of males generally not divided 4\n4 ( 3 ' ) . body smaller than 4 mm ; operculate gills with a weakly sclerotized transversal line ( fig . 15 ) tricorythopsis\n4 ' . body generally larger than 4 mm ; operculate gills without a transversal line ( figs . 12 - 14 ) 5\n5 ( 4 ' ) . operculate gills generally triangular ( fig . 12 ) ; if operculate gills ovoid , then femora circular and bordered with long setae ( fig . 16 ) . . . tricorythodes\n5 ' . operculate gills ovoid ( figs . 13 , 14 ) ; femora never bordered with long setae . . . 6\n6 ( 5 ' ) . ventral lamellae of operculate gills with a basal beak - like process ( fig . 13b ) ; operculate gills without dorsal ribs ( fig . 13a ) leptohyphes\n6 ' . ventral lamellae of operculate gills without a basal beak - like process ( fig . 14b ) ; operculate gills generally with one or two dorsal ribs ( fig . 14a ) . . . traverhyphes\n1 . forewings with 2 - 3 detached marginal intercalaries between apex of main intercalary veins ( fig . 17a ) ; hind wings present in both sexes ( fig . 17b ) . . . melanemerellidae , melanemerella\n1 ' . forewings without marginal intercalaries ( fig . 18a , 20 , 23 , 24 ) ; hind wings variable , present only in males , absent in both sexes , or , rarely , present in both sexes . . . 2\n2 ( 1 ' ) . compound eyes of male greatly enlarged and undivided , separated on dorsum of head by width of an eye ( fig . 19 ) ; cubital area of fore wings without intercalaries ( fig . 20 ) ; penis large , fused and distally broadened ( fig . 21 ) . . . coryphoridae , coryphorus\n2 ' . eyes of male similar to females , usually not enlarged ( fig . 22 ) ; if so , then eyes divided and close to each other in dorsal view ; intercalaries present on cubital area ( figs . 18 , 23 , 24 ) ; penis not as above ( figs . 25 - 29 ) . . . leptohyphidae . . . 3\n3 ( 2 ' ) . mesoscutellum with relatively long membranous filaments ( fig . 30 ) ; base of male forewings not broadened ( fig . 18 ) . . . 4\n3 ' . mesoscutellum without membranous filaments ( fig . 31 ) ; male forewings broadened at base ( fig . 23 , 24 ) . . . 6\n4 ( 3 ) . eyes of males divided ( fig . 32 ) ; forceps two - segmented ; hind wings absent in both sexes . . . leptohyphodes\n4 ' . eyes of males usually not divided ( fig . 22 ) ; forceps three - segmented ; hind wings present at least in males ( fig . 18 ) . . . 5\n5 ( 4 ' ) . penis\ny\nshaped , with apical spine and without dorsal spine ( fig . 25 ) . . . leptohyphes\n5 ' . penis not as above ( almost totally fused ) , without apical spine and with dorsal spine ( fig . 26 , 27 ) traverhyphes\n6 ( 5 ' ) . forceps three - segmented , basal swelling usually present at base of second joint ( fig . 28 ) . . . tricorythodes\n6 ' . forceps two - segmented , basal swelling absent at base of second joint ( fig . 29 ) tricorythopsis\ndepartamento de biologia vegetal - instituto de biologia unicamp cp 6109 13083 - 970 - campinas / sp tel . : ( + 55 19 ) 3521 - 6166 fax : ( + 55 19 ) 3521 - 6168 contato @ urltoken\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\ng : ephemerella walsh 1862 : 377 , typus e . excrucians walsh 1862 ( design . eaton 1868b : 87 )\ncornutus gose 1980 [ ephemerella ( ephemerella ) ] nom . praeocc . \u2014 syn . obj . tsuno [ serratella ]\nfuscata walker 1853 [ baetis ] nom . praeocc . \u2014 syn . obj . walkeri [ ephemerella ]\nimanishii gose 1980 [ ephemerella ( ephemerella ) ] nom . praeocc . \u2014 syn . obj . occiprens [ serratella ]\nserrata braasch 1981 [ ephemerella ( drunella ) ] nom . praeocc . \u2014 syn . obj . braaschi [ cincticostella ]\nspinosa ikonomov 1961 [ ephemerella ] nom . praeocc . \u2014 syn . obj . ikonomovi [ ephemerella ]\nundatella allen 1971 [ ephemerella ( acerella ) ] \u2014 syn . obj . uenoi [ ephemerella ( drunella ) ] \u2014 in torleya / g1\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nin order to access this website , please configure your browser to support cookies .\n877 . 705 . 1878 ( toll - free , u . s . & canada ) 773 . 753 . 3347 ( international )\ndias , lucimar g . salles , frederico f . francischetti , cesar n . ferreira , paulo s\u00e9rgio f .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nparent taxon : pannota according to t . h . ogden et al . 2009\nmaggie whitson marked the classification from\nspecies 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013\nas preferred for\ndrunella doddsi ( needham , 1927 )\n.\nmaggie whitson added the english common name\nwestern green drake ( mayfly )\nto\ndrunella doddsi ( needham , 1927 )\n.\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30de\u30c0\u30e9\u30ab\u30b2\u30ed\u30a6\u79d1\nto\nephemerellidae\n.\njennifer hammock split the classifications by bolds images ii from ephemerella dorothea needham , 1908 to their own page .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmaintained by w . p . mccafferty and a . v . provonsha . found at : urltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service ."]}
{"id": 2208, "summary": [{"text": "phyllodesmium guamense is a species of sea slug , an aeolid nudibranch , a marine gastropod mollusc in the family facelinidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the specific name guamense refers to the island of guam , its type locality . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "phyllodesmium guamense", "paragraphs": ["what type of species is phyllodesmium guamense ? below , you will find the taxonomic groups the phyllodesmium guamense species belongs to .\nwhich photographers have photos of phyllodesmium guamense species ? below , you will find the list of underwater photographers and their photos of the marine species phyllodesmium guamense .\nhow to identify phyllodesmium guamense marine species ? below , you will find the list of main identification criteria and physical characteristics of marine species phyllodesmium guamense . for each identification criteria , the corresponding physical characteristics of marine species phyllodesmium guamense are marked in green .\nphyllodesmium guamense\nuses camouflage and it looks like the soft coral\nsinularia\n.\nwhere is phyllodesmium guamense found in the world ? below , you will find the list and a world map of the geographic distribution where the marine species phyllodesmium guamense can be found .\nhow can i put and write and define phyllodesmium guamense in a sentence and how is the word phyllodesmium guamense used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528phyllodesmium guamense\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528phyllodesmium guamense\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528phyllodesmium guamense\u9020\u53e5 , phyllodesmium guamense meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\nthis is the place for phyllodesmium definition . you find here phyllodesmium meaning , synonyms of phyllodesmium and images for phyllodesmium copyright 2017 \u00a9 urltoken\nnick hope added the english common name\ncryptic phyllodesmium\nto\nphyllodesmium crypticum rudman , 1981\n.\nnick hope added the english common name\ngreat phyllodesmium\nto\nphyllodesmium magnum rudman , 1991\n.\ndana campbell selected\nphyllodesmium magnum\nto show in overview on\nphyllodesmium magnum rudman , 1991\n.\nhere you will find one or more explanations in english for the word phyllodesmium . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word phyllodesmium and , of course , phyllodesmium synonyms and on the right images related to the word phyllodesmium .\nphyllodesmium magnum is a species of sea slug , an aolid nudibranch , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family facelinidae .\nnick hope marked the common name\nnudibranch\nin an unknown language from\nphyllodesmium magnum rudman , 1991\nas untrusted .\nmoore e . & gosliner t . ( 2014 ) . additions to the genus phyllodesmium , with a phylogenetic analysis and its implications to the evolution of symbiosis . the veliger . 51 ( 4 ) : 237 - 251 . [ details ]\nrudman , w . b . ( 1991 ) . further studies on the taxonomy and biology of the octocoral - feeding genus phyllodesmium ehrenberg , 1831 ( nudibranchia : aeolidoidea ) . journal of molluscan studies . 57 : 167 - 203 . [ details ]\nrudman w . b . ( 1991 ) .\nfurther studies on the taxonomy and biology of the octocoral - feeding genus phyllodesmium ehrenberg , 1831 ( nudibranchia : aeolidacea )\n. journal of molluscan studies 57 ( 2 ) : 167\u2013203 . abstract .\nrudman , w . b . ( 1991 ) . further studies on the taxonomy and biology of the octocoral - feeding genus phyllodesmium ehrenberg , 1831 ( nudibranchia : aeolidoidea ) . < em > journal of molluscan studies . < / em > 57 : 167 - 203 .\n( of ennoia bergh , 1896 ) rudman , w . b . ( 1991 ) . further studies on the taxonomy and biology of the octocoral - feeding genus phyllodesmium ehrenberg , 1831 ( nudibranchia : aeolidoidea ) . journal of molluscan studies . 57 : 167 - 203 . [ details ]\n( of myrrhine bergh , 1905 ) rudman , w . b . ( 1991 ) . further studies on the taxonomy and biology of the octocoral - feeding genus phyllodesmium ehrenberg , 1831 ( nudibranchia : aeolidoidea ) . journal of molluscan studies . 57 : 167 - 203 . [ details ]\navila c . , ballesteros m . , slattery m . , starmer j . & paul v . j . ( 1998 ) phyllodesmium guamensis ( nudibranchia : aeolidoidea ) , a new species from guam ( micronesia ) . journal of molluscan studies 64 ( 2 ) : 147\u2013160 . [ details ]\nmoore e . & gosliner t . ( 2014 ) . additions to the genus < i > phyllodesmium < / i > , with a phylogenetic analysis and its implications to the evolution of symbiosis . < em > the veliger . < / em > 51 ( 4 ) : 237 - 251 .\nwagner d . , kahng s . e . & toonen r . j . ( 2009 ) .\nobservations on the life history and feeding ecology of a specialized nudibranch predator ( phyllodesmium poindimiei ) , with implications for biocontrol of an invasive octocoral ( carijoa riisei ) in hawaii\n. journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 372 ( 1 - 2 ) : 64 - 74 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . jembe . 2009 . 02 . 007 . pdf .\navila , ballesteros , slattery , starmer & paul , 1998 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 456805 on 2018 - 07 - 09\nehrenberg c . g . ( 1828 - 1831 ) . in : f . g . hemprich & c . g . ehrenberg , symbolae physicae seu icones et descriptiones animalium evertebratorum sepositis insectis quae ex itinere per africam borealem et asiam occidentalem , novae aut illustrate redierunt . decas i mollusca . berlin . vol . 1 ( plates ) [ 1828 ] , vol . 2 ( text , 126 pp . ) [ 1831 ] . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : folio h [ page 3 ] [ details ]\n( of ennoia bergh , 1896 ) bergh , l . s . r . ( 1896 ) . eolidiens d ' amboine . revue suisse de zoologie . 4 ( 2 ) : 385 - 394 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 392 [ details ]\n( of myrrhine bergh , 1905 ) bergh , l . s . r . ( 1905 ) . die opisthobranchiata der siboga - expedition . siboga - expeditie . 50 : 1 - 248 , pls 1 - 20 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 226 [ details ]\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nehrenberg c . g . ( 1828 ) . < i > symbolae physicae seu icones et descriptiones animalium evertebratorum sepositis insectis quae ex itinere per africam borealem et asiam occidentalem , novae aut illustrate redierunt . decas i mollusca < / i > . berlin . vol . 1 ( plates ) [ 1828 ] , vol . 2 ( text ) [ 1831 ] .\nehrenberg c . g . ( 1828 - 1831 ) . in : f . g . hemprich & c . g . ehrenberg , < i > symbolae physicae seu icones et descriptiones animalium evertebratorum sepositis insectis quae ex itinere per africam borealem et asiam occidentalem , novae aut illustrate redierunt . decas i mollusca < / i > . berlin . vol . 1 ( plates ) [ 1828 ] , vol . 2 ( text , 126 pp . ) [ 1831 ] .\nnomenclator zoologicus . a list of the names of genera and subgenera in zoology from the tenth edition of linnaeus , 1758 to the end of 2004 . digitised by ubio from vols . 1 - 9 of neave ( ed . ) , 1939 - 1996 plus supplementary digital - only volume . urltoken ( as at 2006 ) .\nsorry , the species or group that you asked for is not on the onezoom tree .\nthe open tree contains additional species not on the onezoom tree ( particularly subspecies and fossils ) . to check if this is why we cannot find your species or group , you can\n, then chances are you have entered a wrong number or a misspelt name .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nhere you will find one or more explanations in english for the word polydactyla . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word polydactyla and , of course , polydactyla synonyms and on the right images related to the word polydactyla .\ndadds , a . filix - femina plumosum , a . filix - femina corymbiferum , and d . . .\nthis is the place for polydactyla definition . you find here polydactyla meaning , synonyms of polydactyla and images for polydactyla copyright 2017 \u00a9 urltoken"]}
{"id": 2209, "summary": [{"text": "buckskin ( 1 april 1973 \u2013 1995 ) was a french-bred thoroughbred racehorse and sire .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "unraced as a two-year-old , he was trained in france in 1976 and 1977 before being transferred to race the united kingdom in 1978 and 1979 .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "a specialist stayer , he overcame serious physical problems to win several major long distance races including the prix du cadran ( twice ) , prix de barbeville , prix jean prat , doncaster cup , jockey club cup and henry ii stakes .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he was also the beaten favourite in three successive runnings of the ascot gold cup .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "after his retirement from racing , he became a very successful sire of national hunt horses . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "buckskin ( racehorse )", "paragraphs": ["how is this for a thoroughbred of a . . . - retired racehorse project | facebook\nhorse cartoon character . buckskin suit . horse head isolated on a white background . vector .\n22 , 370 a racehorse stock photos , vectors , and illustrations are available royalty - free .\nracehorse . despite a brief racing career as a two - year and then a . . .\nin the unsaddling enclosure cecil seemed genuinely upset that le moss had won , saying of buckskin \u201che is undoubtedly the greatest horse i have trained , and the bravest\u201d . it was buckskin\u2019s last race .\nhorse logo . king stallion in jump . racehorse head profile . stylish graphic template design for company , farm , race . vector illustration\nlike palomino , buckskin can vary in shade . this mare , golden belle , looks like a light bay , but is in truth a sooty buckskin . she is pictured here with her cremello colt by king ' s ransom . ( bred , owned , and photographed by red fox farm . )\nthe best runners up could possibly be the 1969 derby winner blakeney , st leger and king george winner alcide , and buckskin , who was twice second .\nmexico is a exquisite ex racehorse . he went from burning up the tracks to a nice quiet ranch gelding that needs a forever home . super sweet and easy\u2026\noffspring of pc genuine frost , perlino grandson of sun frost out of genuine doc o lena mare . these , dun and buckskin foals were born in march 2018\u2026\nanybody can enter into our retired racehorse project classifieds any horse for sale that raced or trained to race , regardless of its age , price or level of training .\nmessenger , ( foaled 1780 ) , racehorse who , though a thoroughbred who sired many successful thoroughbred ( flat ) racers , was most important as the foundation sire of the standardbred ( harness racehorse ) breed . a son of mambrino and grandson of matchem , he was foaled in england but was taken to philadelphia in 1788 . his descendants\u2026\ndesert orchid ( april 11 , 1979 \u2013 november 13 , 2006 ) , affectionately known as dessie , was an english racehorse . the gallant grey achieved iconic stat\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nhorse or mustang head with wavy mane sketch isolated icon . vector wild equine animal muzzle or racehorse trotter for sport team mascot or stallion for equestrian contest or horse races and exhibition\non his return to racing , shangamuzo was matched against buckskin in two races which were expected to decide the identity of the best staying horse in europe . in the doncaster cup , shangamuzo appeared less than fully fit and finished third behind buckskin and billion . in october , shangamuzo and buckskin met for the final time in the jockey club cup at newmmarket . there appeared to be no excuses for shangamuzo on this occasion as he proved no match for his rival and was beaten eight lengths into second place . [ 10 ]\nbuckskin was a great stayer , in 1977 , when trained in france , he had beaten sagaro three times , including in the prix du cadran . he was also runner up to that horse in the ascot gold cup . sagaro was then winning the gold cup for an unprecedented third time , a record that would stand , until surpassed by yeats more than thirty years later . owned by the volatile daniel wildenstein , buckskin was transferred , later that season , together with crow and some others , to be trained by peter walwyn at lambourn . after buckskin finished fourth behind shangamuzo in the gold cup of 1978 , wildenstein expressed his displeasure with the riding of pat eddery . by the late summer his horses were with henry cecil at warren place . cecil gave buckskin two races that year , the doncaster cup , and jockey club cup . buckskin won them both in effortless fashion , by wide margins . he was then put away for the winter with a view to be trained for the 1979 ascot gold cup .\nin the gold cup buckskin was ridden by stable jockey joe mercer , whilst his stable companion would be ridden by lester piggott , who was going for his ninth win in the race . the going was firm that day and buckskin , bandaged as previously , could not stride out in his usual fluent style . he took up the running just over four furlongs out , but the others , headed by arapahos and le moss , stayed with him . buckskin led into the straight , but was challenged by le moss , who took a slight advantage , with two furlongs remaining . these two were then engaged in a fierce tussle , all the time pulling further away from the remainder . inside the last furlong mercer eased buckskin right down when victory was gone and le moss won the race by a flattering seven lengths .\nle moss tuned up for the 1979 gold cup by beating john cherry and one other in the lymm stakes at haydock . buckskin , heavily bandaged , reappeared in the henry 11 stakes at sandown and annihilated a decent field , winning by fifteen lengths from pragmatic with arapahos and shangamuzo out with the washing . buckskin was a notoriously frail animal , and it was touch and go whether he would make ascot , which he did , let alone win .\nvector image\nhorse head sketch of brown racehorse\ncan be used for personal and commercial purposes according to the conditions of the purchased royalty - free license . the illustration is available for download in high resolution quality up to 4677x6614 and in eps file format .\nshangamuzo ( 13 march 1973 \u2013 after 1989 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse and sire best known for winning the ascot gold cup in 1978 . a specialist stayer , he won eight of his thirty - four races , finished second nine times and third on five occasions .\ni love chief , for a buckskin stud , and sweet pea , for a sweet mare , and mario , for a spunky stud pony , and dallas , for a sweet / spunky stud . ( : those are my favorites because my horses are named those . haha !\nwhen the cream gene is combined with bay , the result is buckskin . like the agouti gene , the cream gene does not affect black hairs , so only the brown hairs of the coat are diluted to the golden color . ( pictured at left is brilliant intuiten of frazer ' s stable . )\nhambletonian , ( foaled 1849 ) , american harness racehorse ( standardbred ) that was the ancestor of most present - day harness racers . the thrice inbred great - grandson of messenger ( foundation sire of the breed of standardbred s ) , he was the son of abdallah out of a crippled mare . his original\u2026\nshangamuzo , ridden by starkey , started at odds of 13 / 2 for the ascot gold cup over two and a half miles at royal ascot , with buckskin starting favourite ahead of the filly royal hive ( winner of the park hill stakes ) . the other runners included duky and hawkberry who had finished second and third to buckskin in the prix du cadran . smuggler did not contest the gold cup , his owner , lord porchester stating that the unfashionable status of stayers as breeding stallions meant that it would devalue the horse to even enter him in the race . buckskin ' s pacemaker palei set a strong pace until six furlongs from the finish when shangamuzo moved into the lead with buckskin close behind . the two engaged in a brief struggle before shangamuzo established a decisive advantage on the turn into the straight . he was never seriously challenged in the closing stages and won by two lengths from royal hive , with hawkberry a length and a half away in third . timeform described shangamuzo ' s performance as\na magnificent display of courage and endurance\n. in the goodwood cup , shangamuzo conceded weight to his rivals and led for most of the way but was caught in the closing stages and finished third behind tug of war and the three - year - old arapahos . it was subsequently discovered that the horse had sustained a leg injury in the race which kept him off the racecourse until the autumn . [ 10 ]\nshangamuzo remained in training as a six - year - old but failed to recover his best form in four races . his best effort came when he finished fourth of five , beaten four lengths by el badr in the prix du cadran . on his final appearance he finished a distant fourth behind le moss , buckskin and arapahos in the ascot gold cup . [ 11 ]\nbuckskin frequently crops up in lists of cecil ' s favourite horses , and his defeat in the 1979 gold cup at the hands of stablemate le moss was one of the saddest moments of his trainer ' s career .\nwhat happened at ascot makes me feel like judas iscariot ,\nwrote cecil in on the level . buckskin had dropped soles and a suspensory problem , and cecil performed wonders to keep him sound enough to even make the gold cup . it was supremely ironic that he supplied the horse who beat him . also , the brilliant bosra sham , winner of the 1 , 000 guineas , champion stakes and prince of wales ' s stakes , and the ex - italian bolkonski , his first british classic winner in the 1975 2 , 000 guineas .\nalong with the two base colors , chestnut and black , the thoroughbred gene pool also includes agouti ( bay ) , brown , grey , cream ( palomino , cremello , buckskin , perlino , smoky black , and smoky cream ) , frame overo , splash white , sabino , dominant white , manchado , rabicano , and due to a recent mutation , what appears to be true roan .\nhe showed promise as a two - year - old in 1975 , despite being beaten in all three of his races . in the following season he established himself as a good performer in handicaps , winning five races including the king george v stakes at royal ascot and finishing second in the jockey club cup . in 1977 he emerged as a top - class stayer despite winning only once from eleven starts : he won the doncaster cup and was placed in the paradise stakes , yorkshire cup , queen alexandra stakes and jockey club stakes . shangamuzo reached his peak as a five - year - old in 1978 when he engaged in a series of races against the outstanding french - bred stayer buckskin . shangamuzo decisively defeated buckskin in both the sagaro stakes and the ascot gold cup but after sustaining an injury in the goodwood cup he was beaten by his rival in the doncaster cup and the jockey club cup .\nfirstly what constitutes greatness ? for me it its firstly a matter of brilliance backed up by consistency , durability and versatility . to be the greatest ever you must demonstrate more of these qualities than any other racehorse in history . for me frankel scores exceptionally well in terms of brilliance and consistency , he scores reasonably in terms of durability but he scores lowly in terms of versatility . is there a horse who can outscore him using these 4 criteria ? i believe there is \u2013 and his name is secretariat .\ndaughter of wolf was speak up ' s first resident rescue horse . an elegant thoroughbred , former racehorse and broodmare , came to us after her owner died . his mother knew what could happen to a 19 year old broodmare and asked if we would accept her as a boarder at shelly ' s for the rest of her life . we did . we only wish her life could have been longer . she had to be euthanized after eight months due to a tumor that caused colic . run with the wind sweet wolf .\nin 1975 , the independent timeform organisation did not give a rating to shangamuzo but awarded him a\np\n, indicating that the colt was likely to make more than normal progress , and commented that he was certain to stay one and a half miles . [ 6 ] in the following year , shangamuzo was given a weight of 117 pounds in the official british free handicap , twenty - three pounds below the top - rated vitiges . he was given a rating of 108 by timeform , twenty - one pounds behind their best stayer sagaro , and was described in their annual racehorses of 1976 as\nvery genuine and consistent\n. [ 7 ] in 1977 , shangamuzo ' s timeform rating improved to 121 , twelve pounds behind the best stayers sagaro and dunfermline . in the inaugural international classification , he was given a rating of 84 , ten pounds below the top - rated older horses balmerino and orange bay . [ 8 ] in 1978 , shangamuzo achieved his peak timeform rating of 125 , eight pounds below the best stayer buckskin . in the international classification he was rated seven pounds below buckskin and sixteen pounds behind the top - rated alleged . [ 10 ] his abbreviated 1979 season saw him awarded a 113 rating by timeform . [ 11 ]\nhenry was associated with many great stayers such as le moss ( 1975 le levanstall ex feemoss by ballymoss ) , ardross ( 1976 run the gauntlet ex le melody by levmoss ) and buckskin ( 1973 yelapa ex bete a bon dieu by herbager ) . he trained a lot of other horses who also made names as national hunt stallions such as gunner b ( 1973 royal gunner ex sweet councillor by privy councillor ) , moscow society ( nijinsky ex afifa by dewan ) . in addition to the previously mentioned leading jumps sire old vic , he also trained the king george winner king\u2019s theatre ( 1991 sadler\u2019s wells ex regal beauty by princely native ) who became champion nh sire .\nthe horse\u2019s heart weights between 4 - 5 kg . , or about 1 % of their body mass . at rest the horse heart beats 30 - 40 beats per minute . at full speed however , the maximal heart rate ( hr max ) in a 2 - 3 year old racehorse can reach 240 - 250 beats per minute . the heart pumps . 8 - 1 . 2 liters in each beat . cardiac output is calculated by multiplying heart rate ( hr ) x stroke volume ( sv ) . at rest the heart cardiac output is approximately 25 liters per minute and increases to an amazing 300 liters per minute in elite athletes during exercise . therefore , a horse\u2019s heart is capable of pumping a 55 gallon barrel of blood per minute !\nafter finishing unplaced on his debut at a four - year - old , shangamuzo finished second by a neck to the filly centrocon in the paradise stakes at newbury . in may he ran third to bright finish and grey baron in the yorkshire cup and was then sent to france and finished fourth behind buckskin , sagaro and citoyen in the prix du cadran at longchamp racecourse . at royal ascot , he ran in the two and three quarter mile queen alexandra stakes and finished second behind the six - year - old john cherry , who , as a gelding , was not allowed to compete in many of the major staying races . later in june , shangamuzo reverted to handicaps and ran one of his few poor races when unplaced behind tug of war in the northumberland plate . [ 8 ]\naffair , a magnificent thoroughbred racehorse , had been admired by one of speak up ' s board members for several years . her wish was that she could help place him when his racing career ended . in july 2007 , affair suffered a shockingly dangerous fall during a race . luckingly he only suffered a splint bone fracture . his owner retired him and our speak up board member got her wish . affair ' s owner graciously sent him to speak up for rehab . he has recovered and has been adopted by raymond ! thank you to canter ohio ; to leanne and triple lee farm for fostering him ; to dr . barb schmidt , farrier trudy , massage therapist teresa , chiropractor dr . ron ; his rescue angels jessica , annie , paula and susan ; and the many who financially supported his rehab .\nby understanding the basics of equine exercise physiology , a racehorse trainer has the advantage of understanding how various physiological systems adapt and respond to training . in designing a comprehensive training plan for each horse the intensity , frequency , duration , and volume of the work is determined . the plan must also incorporate rest and recovery , and avoid overtraining . each new level of training is maintained until the body has adapted to the added stress , after which further increase in training load can be applied . alternating periods of increased workload , with a period of adaptation is known as \u201cprogressive loading . \u201d training should be specific to the event in order to train the appropriate structures and systems , doing work that is similar to racing which elicits neuro - muscular coordination . horses \u201clearn\u201d how to do the event . this principle of conditioning is known as \u201cmetabolic specificity . \u201d\nthere was no international classification of european two - year - olds in 1975 : the official handicappers of britain , ireland and france compiled separate rankings for horses which competed in those countries . in the british free handicap , gentilhombre was allotted a weight of 124 pounds , making him the eighth best juvenile colt , nine pounds below the top - rated wollow . the independent timeform organisation rated him on 122 , five pounds below wollow and eight behind the french - trained manado . in 1976 timeform gave gentilhombre a rating of 125 , seven pounds behind their best sprinter lochnager . in the british three - year - old ratings he was rated ten pounds below the top - rated vitiges . gentilhombre was timeform ' s best sprinter of 1977 , when he was rated on 131 . in the inaugural international classification , he was rated equal with buckskin as the third best older horse , behind balmerino and orange bay .\nshangamuzo , was a big , powerful , dark chestnut horse with a small white star and a white sock on his right hind leg [ 2 ] bred in england by henry rogers broughton , 2nd baron fairhaven . his sire klairon was a top - class racehorse whose wins included the poule d ' essai des poulains in 1955 . apart from shangamuzo , he sired the champion stakes winner lorenzaccio and prix jacques le marois winner luthier . klairon was a representative of the byerley turk sire line , [ 3 ] unlike more than 95 % of modern thoroughbreds , who descend directly from the darley arabian . [ 4 ] shangamuzo was one of several winners produced by his dam french fern , a high - class racemare who won the ribblesdale stakes in 1960 and was rated 118 by timeform . as a descendant of the broodmare french kiss , she was a distant relative of the breeders ' cup mile winner barathea . [ 5 ]\ngentilhombre ( 2 april 1973 \u2013 1 january 1992 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse and sire . as a two - year - old he won four races and finished third in the group two laurent perrier champagne stakes . in the following year he was mainly campaigned at sprint distances and established himself as one of the fastest three - year - olds in europe with wins in the cork and orrery stakes and prix de l ' abbaye . he was even better as a four - year - old , when he was rated the best sprinter in europe after winning the july cup ( on the disqualification of marinsky ) , the diadem stakes and a second prix de l ' abbaye ( in course record time ) . after two unsuccessful runs in 1978 he was retired from racing having won nine of his twenty - four races . he stood as a breeding stallion in europe and japan but had limited success as a sire of winners .\nin 1978 , shangamuzo moved to the newmarket stable of michael stoute . on his first appearance for his new trainer , shangamuzo started at odds of 12 / 1 for the sagaro stakes ( formerly the paradise stakes ) on very soft ground at ascot in april . ridden by greville starkey , he took the lead in the straight and drew away from his rivals to win by twelve lengths from the favourite buckskin . in his next two races , shangamuzo finished second to the dick hern - trained five - year - old smuggler in the yorkshire cup and the henry ii stakes . at york , shangamuzo was beaten two lengths by smuggler when attempting to concede three pounds to his rival , but was widely expected to reverse the form at level weights over a longer distance at sandown . in the henry ii stakes , however , shangamuzo appeared to be unsuited by the firm ground , and was beaten two and a half lengths . [ 10 ]\nthe horse has three basic muscle fiber types : type 1 , type 2a , and type 2b . these fibers have different contractile rates and metabolic energy characteristics . type 1 fibers , also known as \u201cslow twitch\u201d or \u201cred fibers\u201d and have high oxidative capacity and are resistant to fatigue in part related to their high density of mitochondria which can utilize fuels aerobically and have the highest oxidative capacity . mitocondria are the small organelles in the muscle cells that convert fuels ( fats and glycogen ) into atp . they have the highest lipid stores , highest densities of capillaries , and the lowest glycogen stores . they have the lowest glycolytic enzyme capacity of the three fiber types . type 2a are the \u201cintermediate fibers\u201d in terms of both contractile speed and metabolic properties between type 1 and type 2b . these fibers are aerobic , but also use a combination of glycogen and fat for energy generation . the thoroughbred has a high percentage of these \u201cintermediate\u201d fast twitch oxidative fibers that can produce speed and still utilize large amounts of oxygen and resist fatigue . type 2b \u201cfast twitch\u201d fibers have the fastest contractile speed , the largest cross - sectional area , the highest glycogen stores and glycolic capacity . they are ideally suited to short fast bursts of power . they have a low aerobic capacity and tend to depend on anaerobic glycolysis for energy generation . genetics determine muscle type and composition and is 95 % inheritable in humans , and is thought to be highly inheritable in horses ( snow and guy ) . in evaluating the fiber type distribution in a number of breeds of horses , heavy hunters had a very large proportion of type 1 fibers , while thoroughbreds and quarter horses had few type 1 fibers and a large number of the faster contracting 2a and 2b types . the percentage of each fiber type that a particular breed has in its muscle depends on the type of performance the breed is selected . thoroughbreds have the highest number of the highly aerobic 2a fibers , illustrating the importance of oxygen utilizing pathways in the thoroughbred racehorse . researchers also found that thoroughbred stayers have a high number of type 1 fibers than either sprinters or middle distance horses . unfortunately , within a breed , the spread in fiber type distribution is so small that fiber typing as a predictor of performance is probably of limited value . muscle strength , size and shape can be predictive of muscle fiber ratios . although each muscle may have a fiber type mix , generally a higher percentage of the \u201cfast twitch\u201d ( type 2 ) fibers are found in the horse\u2019s hindquarters providing power , whereas the \u201cslow twitch\u201d ( type 1 ) are found in the forelimbs providing stride , rhythm and a weight bearing role .\nrose grower and exam cheat who almost roasted the queen mother ; part three of our series celebrating henry cecil features an a - z guide by steve dennis , telling you everything you need to know about the racing legend . - free online library\nrose grower and exam cheat who almost roasted the queen mother ; part three of our series celebrating henry cecil features an a - z guide by steve dennis , telling you everything you need to know about the racing legend .\nmla style :\nrose grower and exam cheat who almost roasted the queen mother ; part three of our series celebrating henry cecil features an a - z guide by steve dennis , telling you everything you need to know about the racing legend . .\nthe free library . 2010 mgn ltd 09 jul . 2018 urltoken\nchicago style : the free library . s . v . rose grower and exam cheat who almost roasted the queen mother ; part three of our series celebrating henry cecil features an a - z guide by steve dennis , telling you everything you need to know about the racing legend . .\nretrieved jul 09 2018 from urltoken\napa style : rose grower and exam cheat who almost roasted the queen mother ; part three of our series celebrating henry cecil features an a - z guide by steve dennis , telling you everything you need to know about the racing legend . . ( n . d . ) > the free library . ( 2014 ) . retrieved jul 09 2018 from urltoken\naberdeen nearest town to cecil ' s place of birth , an event that took place on january 11 , 1943 . also ardross , superb stayer trained by cecil to win two gold cups ( 1981 , 82 ) , the prix royal - oak , the goodwood cup and doncaster cup , as well as six other group races . at the age of six , he may well have added the 1982 prix de l ' arc de triomphe to that list but for being slightly held up in his challenge ; he finished strongly but was beaten a head . in his autobiography , on the level , cecil says :\nhe was so close to winning the greatest race in the world it was heartbreaking . ardross was a great horse .\nalso approval , the first of his ten winners of the race that is now the racing post trophy , and irish oaks winner alydaress .\ncelestial cloud cecil ' s first winner , on may 17 , 1969 in a ripon maiden . cecil had made a less than auspicious start to his career as a trainer , and desperation was beginning to set in by the time he finally got off the mark . also commander in chief , the third of his four derby winners , and cloonagh , his first classic winner anywhere when she landed the 1973 irish 1 , 000 guineas .\ndavid cecil ' s twin brother , younger by around ten minutes . a comrade in arms at sunningdale prep school and canford school , david owned a couple of greyhounds with his elder brother after leaving school as well as being complicit in other varied examples of high - jinks . the twins ' paths diverged after a year at cirencester agricultural college ; david trained briefly but gained high renown in lambourn as landlord of the hare and hounds pub . he died in 2000 , at the early age of 57 .\neight oaks wins . it took cecil some time to capture his first oaks , which came in 1985 courtesy of eventual fillies ' triple crown winner oh so sharp , but after her the winners came in a torrent . diminuendo was next , in 1988 , although the unlucky scimitarra would have put her name on the roll of honour the previous year but for breaking down a furlong out with victory in sight . in 1989 snow bride was runner - up behind aliysa , but was later awarded the race after the winner tested positive for a prohibited substance . lady carla made it four in 1996 ; reams of verse ( 1997 ) , ramruma ( 1999 ) and love divine ( 2000 ) stretched the sequence , and light shift made it eight with a truly emotional success in 2007 . freemason lodge cecil ' s base in newmarket when he first took out a licence . his stepfather cecil boyd - rochfort had trained there since 1923 and the young cecil became his assistant in november 1964 , taking over on boyd - rochfort ' s retirement at the end of 1968 . a year later freemason lodge was sold , and cecil moved to marriott stables on the hamilton road . at the end of 1976 , cecil bought warren place from his father - in - law sir noel murless and has trained from the hilltop base ever since .\ngucci the ever - present footwear of the master of warren place . also gin and lime , which was cecil ' s drink of choice in his younger days and which led to the loss of several pairs of binoculars through\nforgetfulness\n.\nhorticulture cecil is rightly famed for his rose garden , and his vegetable garden is its equal for variety and quality . there are few things that don ' t grow at warren place ; should newmarket ever become besieged by an invading army , cecil would be able to sit out any length of occupation without fear of a change of diet . there are chickens too . also hermes ties .\nindian skimmer ghost - grey filly who was named after a rare breed of tern and lit up the late 1980s with a series of superlative performances . her victories included the prix de diane , in which she robbed the great miesque of her unbeaten record , the irish champion stakes and the champion stakes . before the last - named she was reluctant to go to the start , so cecil walked her all the way down the rowley mile , no doubt ruining a perfectly good pair of loafers in the process . his calming influence worked wonders ; she strolled home by four lengths .\njane cecil ' s third wife . also julie , his first wife , and jake , his youngest son .\nkatie cecil ' s eldest child and his only daughter . also kris , who won 14 of his 16 races ; one of those defeats came in the 2 , 000 guineas , in which he was outrun by tap on wood . he went on to win the st james ' s palace stakes , the sussex stakes , the queen elizabeth ii stakes and the lockinge stakes , before going under by a neck to guineas winner known fact in a thrilling contest for the qeii stakes . at stud , he sired oh so sharp among many other stars .\nlily an elderly grey belgian griffon , the apple of cecil ' s eye . the conventional master - pet relationship appears to have been inverted in this instance . there is only one boss , and cecil isn ' t it . also le moss , dual winner of the gold cup and dual winner of the stayers ' triple crown , which involves the goodwood cup and doncaster cup . le moss ' s 1980 gold cup win was named by cecil as his favourite race in a racing post poll , when he said :\nrather sentimentally , i am going for a race in which i was involved . le moss was lame through april and box - rested , yet despite being without a race that season he still led all the way .\nmurless sir noel , master trainer and cecil ' s father - in - law , source of the snippet of advice that helped a novice trainer in his formative years .\nafter watching my string work one day , he told me , ' your horses are galloping like a lot of old gentlemen . you must make them work ! ' ,\nwrote cecil in on the level .\ni have never been more grateful for a piece of advice .\nalso midday , cecil ' s first breeders ' cup winner , successful in the 2009 filly & mare turf .\nnoel cecil ' s eldest son . also newmarket , the suffolk town in which cecil does not train . his yard at warren place is some way out of the town , and actually falls within the parish of moulton . also natalie , cecil ' s second wife .\non the level cecil ' s thoroughly readable autobiography , published in 1983 and the source of a number of highly entertaining anecdotes concerning his younger days . for instance , he and his brother david were the first pupils at sunningdale prep school to fail the common entrance exam for eton , and it was only thanks to a cheating incident at their cramming establishment , when an invigilator had to go and tend to his rhubarb , that the twins passed the exam to gain entrance to dorset public school canford . also , in an early enslavement to fashion , cecil relates the tale of the new suede boots he purchased in order to look the part when working at greentree stud in kentucky . they were two sizes too small .\ni have rarely been more miserable ,\nhe writes . he also part - roasted the queen mother when placing her too close to a roaring fire during dinner at freemason lodge ; find a copy of the book and you will not be disappointed . also oath , cecil ' s most recent derby winner , oh so sharp , brilliant winner of the 1985 fillies ' triple crown , and dual classic winner old vic .\npierre de ronsard one of the prime specimens in cecil ' s large collection of roses , which climbs on an outside wall of warren place . pierre de ronsard is a cream - coloured bloom with internal unfolded petals suffused with a carmine blush . that ' s what it says in my gardening book , anyhow ; the plant itself is a thing of splendour .\nqueen alexandra stakes the first race won by cecil at royal ascot , the victory of parthenon in 1970 becoming the outrider for 71 further triumphs at the meeting . also quexioss , certainly not one of cecil ' s most notable runners but almost certainly his leading points - scorer in a game of scrabble . rose cecil ' s racing silks are rose , white braces , grey cap . his rosegrowing fame has almost outstripped his renown for training racehorses , although he takes a typically laid - back attitude to the art .\npeople think i ' m a great authority on roses ,\nhe once told richard edmondson of the independent ,\nbut i ' m not really . it ' s just a question of buying them and putting them in . if they die , you put another one in .\nalso reference point , winner of the derby , king george and st leger in 1987 and the best horse in cecil ' s best season .\nsoldiers lead ones , a substantial collection of which are meticulously painted and arrayed in a cabinet in cecil ' s study . his father - also henry - was also a soldier ; he was killed in action with the parachute regiment in north africa two weeks before cecil was born . also slip anchor , cecil ' s first derby winner and one of the most memorable ever , his victory being a masterclass of front - running and pace judgement by jockey steve cauthen . also self - deprecation , cecil ' s stock - in - trade .\ntten trainers ' championships . cecil led the way in 1976 , 78 , 79 , 82 , 84 , 85 , 87 , 88 , 90 and 93 ( in win money only ) . his most prolific season\nuup the flagpole , where the cecil standard goes whenever he trains a group 1 winner . the cecil flag - his scottish coat of arms consisting of three holly leaves and a horn - flies for a week after such an occurrence , with its most recent airing coming last november after midday ' s breeders ' cup win .\nvictim the fashion sort . brightly hued patchwork trousers and white shoes were once a feature , purple checks were sighted , and there was also a pair of trousers embroidered with ducks . jim joel once told julie cecil that\nall he needs is a banjo and he could join the black and white minstrels\n. these days his tastes are as finely tailored as ever but a good deal more conservative .\nhollow cecil ' s first group winner , who put the young trainer in the headlines in his first season with a comfortable success in the eclipse stakes . also wollow , son of wolver hollow and winner of the 2 , 000 guineas , eclipse stakes , sussex stakes and benson & hedges gold cup . also 1 , 000 guineas winner wince .\nrated rides . examples are lester piggott yashmak cecil ' s first grade 1 winner in the us , the filly landing the flower bowl invitational handicap at belmont park in october 1997 .\nhenry cecil great wolver xx - aboard vacarme in the 1983 richmond stakes at goodwood which , although seemingly innocuous , brought disqualification and the inevitable departure of daniel wildenstein from cecil ' s roster of owners , and kieren fallon ' s nightmare on bosra sham in the 1997 eclipse stakes , when he made traffic problems for himself in a five - runner field and left the trainer almost speechless with fury .\nzone when cecil was ' in it ' , there were few who could approach him for prolonged success . ahmed salman may have put it better than most when , after his oath had won the 1999 derby , he turned to the waiting media and said :\nwinning classics is easy . you just buy a horse and send it to henry cecil .\ncopyright 2010 mgn ltd no portion of this article can be reproduced without the express written permission from the copyright holder .\nterms of use | privacy policy | copyright \u00a9 2018 farlex , inc . | feedback | for webmasters\nin his sole year of racing . as a stallion saratoga is represented by stakes winners and the earners\nbroken in by trainer ready to be trained for track racing . 3 year old filly out of el padrino\nthis ad is for a two horse racing partnership in two pennsylvania bred colts that will run in pennsylvania and the midatlantic . the first colt is by the\u2026\ncourt jester is an off the track qh with only ten starts and 60 days of western riding . hes full of athleticism very light in his mouth experienced youth\u2026\ncopyright \u00a9 2005 - 2018 equinenow . com , llc . all rights reserved .\nthe thoroughbred has a remarkably colorful genetic palette , ranging from ordinary bays to dazzling dominant white pintos . this page will delve into the mechanisms behind the colors as well as dispel some common misunderstandings about thoroughbred color . for a more in depth discussion of equine color genetics in general , please see my main horse color page . most of the photos here are ones i saved on my computer ages ago to use as reference photos for my artwork , so i don ' t know who some of the photos are by . if you see one of yours , please let me know , and i will be more than happy to list you as the photographer and add a link to your webpage or email if you have one . also , i ' m always interested in seeing pix of unusually colored tbs , so feel free to email me if you have a unique picture to share . thanks !\nblack is a rare color for thoroughbreds , even though it is dominant to chestnut , the other base color . pictured at right is the aussie champion lonhro , a magnificent true black thoroughbred stallion . true black horses will not have any brown hairs in their coat , unlike brown or dark bay horses , who may look black , but who usually have brown hairs on their muzzles , flanks , and inner forearms and thighs . some black horses will fade with sun exposure - - - usually observable as brown hairs in the mane and tail - - - but it is only temporary , much like human hair will lighten in the summer . ( photo by ? )\nchestnut is recessive to black ( and all black - based colors ) . chestnuts vary in shade in from a light golden color to red to liver . some even have have flaxen manes and tails .\nbay is the most common color of thoroughbreds , and it is actually a modification of the black base color . the agouti gene acts to lighten the hairs on the body , but it does not affect the legs , mane or tail , which is why they remain black . agouti acts only on black body hairs , so a chestnut horse can carry the gene and pass it along to its offspring , but because chestnuts have no black hairs , the agouti gene has no observable effect on the coat . pictured at left is touch gold , a light bay . ( photo by tony leonard )\nbay comes in many shades , including a lovely reddish shade often referred to as blood bay or bright bay . awesome again is a nice example of this color . ( photo by tony leonard )\nbrown is also a common color in thoroughbreds . . like bay , it is a modification of the black base coat by an allele located at the same locus where agouti would be present . horses that are bay carry the agouti allele in either the homozygous dominant form [ aa ] or the heterzygous dominant form [ aa ] . horses that are not bay are considered ' aa . ' brown horses have been genetically tested to determine that they do not carry ' a ' or ' a ' but an allele present at the same locus known as ' at . ' thus they are neither bay or just black , but rather something else entirely , namely\nbrown .\nseattle slew was great example of this color . brown horses have a black coat except for telltale brown hairs on their muzzles , flanks , and inner forearms and thighs . ( photo by anne eberhardt )\na headshot of slew , showing his ( slightly sunbleached ) black coat and lighter muzzle . ( photo by anne eberhardt )\nunlike agouti , which can only act on the black gene , cream can modify any color it acts in conjunction with , though it is most commonly seen combined with chestnut , bay , and black . the cream gene is an incomplete dominant , meaning it is always expressed when it ' s present , but it acts differently in its heterozygous ( 1 copy of the gene ) and homozygous ( 2 copies of the gene ) states . simply put , horses with one copy of the cream gene will have a diluted coat ; horses with 2 copies will have a doubly diluted coat . double dilutes always have blue eyes . the cream gene does not effect black hairs in it ' s single form , only in it ' s double form .\nwhen chestnut is combined with one cream gene , the resulting color is palomino . just like chestnut , palomino ranges in intensity and shade . king ' s ransom , pictured at left , is an example of a pale palomino . he is owned by stoneybrooke farm . ( photo by milynda milam . )\nthe late glitter please , pictured at left , was a lovely darker palomino . he was the only palomino colored tb stallion in the world with an impressive show resume in fei dressage . ( photo by terri miller . )\nthis is rff the alchemist , a cremello son of king ' s ransom , pictured above . cremello occurs when a chestnut coat is combined with 2 cream genes ( one from each parent ) . though he looks white , he is actually a very pale cream color . white markings are discernable on double dilutes . ( bred by red fox farm , owned by gestuet falkenhorst , photo by gestuet falkenhorst . )\nperlino occurs when a bay coat is combined with 2 cream genes ( one from each parent ) . two cream genes do dilute the black points of the horse , often leaving a reddish cast to the points . rff platinum , a rare perlino daughter of rff king ' s ransom ( by milkie ' s desire ) out of a glitter please daughter .\nas is mentioned above , a single creme gene has very little , if any , effect on a black coat , so smoky blacks are hard to identify unless their pedigree is known or unless they produce cream dilute foals . this is tcf nightlight , the first known smoky black tb . she is by guaranteed gold out of puchi trap ( by puchilingui ) .\nthis horse is also not a tb ( he ' s an akhal - teke ) , but he is a smoky cream . notice how his black coat has been dramatically diluted because he carries 2 cream genes .\ntcf palladium is the first known smoky cream tb , and foal pictures of him can be seen on the true colors farm website .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nvalentino . . . .\ntino\n: 2014 chestnut thoroughbred colt . congratulations to our local trainer moriah who is head over heels with this wonderful boy .\npaint : 2009 paint who came to us as an unhandled stallion in the spring of 2013 . he has been gelded and completed 10 months of professional training . perfect for the advanced rider to continue taking him into any dirfection . congratulations to julie .\nmax , 2001 thoroughbred gelding , has been ridden , currently in training . light cribber in the stall . personality plus , extremely well behaved and gets along very well with other horses . enjoying his new home with laura and her other horses .\nmotown train : 2006 thoroughbred gelding by devil his due . unraced and sound . now learning the ropes with adopters annie and nick .\nsimon : may 2010 bay quarter horse colt , out of dolly . simon likes to talk , make faces , and grab the attention of anyone within his sight . he likes to move and we expect him to grow up to be a big boy . for an experienced horseperson that wants a bold and charismatic partner\u2026here he is . congratulations to julie and family .\nethel : bay quarter horse mare , 2 years old ; moved to blind horse sanctuary . thank you karen .\nmate : bay quarter horse gelding , 6 years old ; congratulations to lisa and chelsey .\nfancy : 2005 thoroughbred mare . 16\n3 hands and gorgeous . has had some training after her racing career . found her new home with maryann .\nhonor : 2008 thoroughbred gelding . approx . 15 . 2 hands . this beauty is very kind , sweet and willing . he is a perfect gentleman with the vet and farrier . he loads in and out of a trailer with no problem . four month of professional retraining under saddle . congratulations to our volunteer molly .\njolene : dark bay quarter horse mare ; 5 years old , branded . congratulations maryann .\nsweetie : quarter horse mare , 12 years old . congratulations vivian . sweetie gave birth to a beautiful healthy filly on 03 / 02 / 2010 .\ncandy : liver chestnut quarter horse mare ; 9 years old . congratulations to april .\nmr . mom , 1998 tennessee walking horse gelding , has been ridden by teenagers , very sweet personality , curious and gets along very well with other horses . congratulations to jeannie\njackson , a wonderful thoroughbred , was saved out of the kill pen at the shepherdsville , kentucky horse auction several years ago . at some point he was donated to a riding facility to be used in 4h classes . after he came up lame , the owner of the riding facility decided to\nget rid\nof him . his prior owner called us for help and speak up for horses was able to secure jackson and transition him into a loving forever home , where he is undergoing treatment for epm .\ncostly shoes , an older broodmare , needed a forever home after her owner decided to retire her . with the help of one of our wonderful volunteers , a home was found in florida . she will live out the rest of her days on a 900 acre plantation . as an added bonus , her fantastic new family has already adopted several other thoroughbreds , including one of costly shoes very own sons . mom and son are reunited .\nwe were able to secure five mustang mares from their owners who were charged with animal neglect in 2007 in harrison county , ky . all five were placed in a local foster home , where they thrived . under the loving care of john they regained their health and weight . two of these lovely mares were adopted by our foster family and will live happily in the bluegrass for the rest of their lives . the other three were adopted by paula and are happily staying together for the rest of their lives in a small private sanctuary . two of these three have been together since they were captured by the blm way back in 1996 ."]}
{"id": 2216, "summary": [{"text": "the red-naped bushshrike or red-naped boubou ( laniarius ruficeps ) is a species of bird in the malaconotidae family , which is native to the dry lowlands of the eastern afrotropics . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "red - naped bushshrike", "paragraphs": ["red - naped bushshrike ( laniarius ruficeps ) is a species of bird in the malaconotidae family .\nthis article is part of project malaconotidae , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each bushshrike , including made - up species .\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfry , h . ( 2018 ) . red - naped bush - shrike ( laniarius ruficeps ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\n18\u201319 cm ; one male 35 g , female 29\u201333\u00b74 g . male nominate race has forehead black , crown , nape and hindneck bright orange - rufous or rufous - red , well - defined . . .\n( sharpe , 1895 ) \u2013 ec , s & se ethiopia , c & s somalia ( except se coast ) and ne & se kenya .\n( erlanger , 1901 ) \u2013 s somalia coastal lowlands and adjacent e kenya ( kiunga ) .\nnot well known ; varied , described as creaking ( like sound of fishing reel ) , and harsh cawing very . . .\nadult and larval insects . forages on ground and lower branches in thickets , where it hunts silently , moving rapidly but furtively ; . . .\npoorly known . season may . solitary breeder ; possibly at times loosely colonial , with old ( 1920 ) record of 14 individuals found at kyal , in . . .\nnot globally threatened . patchily distributed , and uncommon to locally common . in somalia , present in nw in burao region , common at kyal , and patchily distributed from coast . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as uncommon to locally common ( harris and franklin 2000 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 289 , 642 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nenglish french online dictionary term bank , where you can search in more than 2 million words in categories and different pronunciation options .\nthis article is part of project aves , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each bird , including made - up species .\nthis article is part of project passeriformes , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each passerine , including made - up species .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en"]}
{"id": 2217, "summary": [{"text": "polystira picta is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family turridae , the turrids .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it has been found in the shallow subtidal waters of the gulf of tehuantepec . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "polystira picta", "paragraphs": ["turridae - turridae \u00bb polystira picta , id : 283199 , shell detail \u00ab shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc .\n- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : polystira picta ( l . a . reeve , 1843 ) - id : 2115450025\npleurotoma albida perry g . , 1811 accepted as polystira albida ( g . perry , 1811 ) ( type by original designation )\nspecies in the phylogenetic analysis included the following : turrinae : gemmula speciosa , gemmula diomedea , gemmula . kieneri , gemmula sogodensis , lophiotoma albina , lophiotoma acuta , lophiotoma cerithiformis , lophiotoma olangoensis , lophiotoma cingulifera , lophiotoma kingae , lophiotoma jickelli , lophiotoma polytropa , turris gamonsii , turris babylonia , turris spectabilis , turris normandavidsoni , turris grandis , turridrupa elongata , turridrupa bijubata , unedogemmula bisaya , unedogemmula leucotropis , unedogemmula tayabasensis , unedogemmula indica , unedogemmula panglaoensis , polystira oxytropis , polystira picta ; and terebridae : hastula hectica and terebra guttata , .\ntodd j . a . & rawlings t . a . ( 2014 ) . a review of the polystira clade \u2014 the neotropic\u2019s largest marine gastropod radiation ( neogastropoda : conoidea : turridae sensu stricto ) . zootaxa . 3884 ( 5 ) : 445 - 491 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\nmexico . sonora . shrimp trawler , 30 fathoms off cabo haro , guaymas .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 002 seconds . )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nversion 43 . 0 went live 11 / 6 / 2018 - i hope that the majority of issues have been fixed . my email address is on the home page if you see anything wrong .\nturris rombergii m\u00f6rch , o . a . l . , 1857 : c america\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthe source code for museums victoria collections is available on github under the mit license .\n- note : several protected species are illustrated here only for identification purposes . they are not for sale . - the photos in our gallery are in most cases just a sample from our stock , except when only one specimen is offered . we try to match the original color but it can vary if your screen is not correctly adjusted ( gamma correction ) .\nwoodring , w . p . 1928 . miocene mollusks from bowden , jamaica . part ii . gastropods and discussion of results . contributions to the geology and paleontology of the west indies . carnegie institution of washington publication 385 : vii + 564 pp . , 3 figs . , 40 pls page ( s ) : 145 [ details ]\nbouchet , p . ; kantor , y . i . ; sysoev , a . ; puillandre , n . ( 2011 ) . a new operational classification of the conoidea ( gastropoda ) . journal of molluscan studies . 77 ( 3 ) : 273 - 308 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of oxytropa glibert , 1955 ) bouchet , p . ; kantor , y . i . ; sysoev , a . ; puillandre , n . ( 2011 ) . a new operational classification of the conoidea ( gastropoda ) . journal of molluscan studies . 77 ( 3 ) : 273 - 308 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nusing cookies on urltoken shellauction uses cookies only for technical reasons and to facilitate and speed up your site navigation . by continuing to browse , you accept the use of cookies ; if you do not wish to receive them please disable them or not navigate this website further . more info cookies on urltoken\nutilizzo dei cookies su urltoken shellauction utilizza i cookies esclusivamente per ragioni tecniche e per facilitare e velocizzare la navigazione del sito . continuando a navigare accetti l ' utilizzo dei cookies , se non desideri riceverli ti invitiamo a disabilitarli oppure a non navigare questo sito ulteriormente . altre informazioni sui cookies di urltoken\nfamily : turridae | description : f + + , beautiful elongated and ornamented specimen ! ex . coll . p . williams\nthe photos in our gallery are in most cases just a sample from our stock , except when only one specimen is offered . we try to match the original color but it can vary if your screen is not correctly adjusted ( gamma correction ) .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nfrancisco m . heralde , iii , 1 , * yuri i . kantor , 2 mary anne q . astilla , 3 arturo o . lluisma , 3 rollan geronimo , 3 porfirio m . ali\u00f1o , 3 maren watkins , 4 patrice showers corneli , 5 baldomero m . olivera , 5 ameurfina d . santos , 1 and gisela p . concepcion 3\n4 department of pathology , university of utah , 421 wakara way , suite 3323 , 84108 , u . s . a\n5 department of biology , 257 s 1400 e , room 201 , university of utah , salt lake city , utah , 84112 , u . s . a\n* current address : department of biochemistry and molecular biology , college of medicine , university of the philippines , manila 1000 , philippines , moc . liamg @ edlarehmf tel / fax : + 632 - 526 - 4197\nto identify the polychaete group that is targeted as prey by species of gemmula , analysis of regurgitated food fragments was made ; phylogenetic analysis of an mtcoi gene fragment that was pcr - amplified from the regurgitated tissue of one specimen ( g . diomedea ) indicated close affinity of the prey to the terebellid polychaete amphitritides . specimens of gemmula speciosa , when challenged with the terebellid polychaete loimia sp . , were observed to attack the worm suggesting that gemmula species feed on terebellid polychaetes . lophiotoma acuta were also observed to feed on the same species of terebellid but were usually group - feeding in contrast to the solitary feeding of g . speciosa . unedogemmula bisaya did not feed on the terebellid which also supports the separation of the gemmula and unedogemmula clade .\ntwo lines of proof ( i . e . the molecular phylogenetic analysis and the feeding challenge ) supporting the toxin homology findings previously reported , provide consistent evidence that gemmula is a distinct clade of worm - hunting turrinae that feeds on terebellidae .\nhave been collected in relatively large numbers in philippine waters . in this study , we particularly focused on four deep - water\n) . we investigated their distribution and phylogeny , as information on the pattern of their distribution is scant and the phylogeny of these species has not yet been elucidated . in the superfamily conoidae , most previous investigations of molecular phylogeny have been carried out on\n) are still poorly understood . so far , only one study has been carried out (\nshells of gemmula species . top to bottom , gemmula speciosa , gemmula diomedea , gemmula sogodensis , gemmula kieneri .\nto further discriminate the species , we examined and compared the foregut anatomy , i . e . , radula , of three species . because their habitats are inaccessible , little is also known of their feeding biology . although turrids in general are known to feed on polychaetes , there are no available data on which species of polychaetes are preyed on by gemmula ( or any turrid ) species . we therefore collected new data on feeding behavior and potential prey preferences .\nsnails were purchased from local fishermen as by - catch in trawl nets along the mouth of manila bay ( from bataan to cavite and batangas ) and tangle nets in the seas of cebu and bohol . live snails were kept in seawater until they were processed for anatomical or molecular work . the relative distribution and abundance of gemmula speciosa along the periphery of manila bay was initially assessed by monitoring the collections per trawl of selected boats in august 2005 and from october 2005 to january 2006 . the abundance in all the sampling sites was monitored from the snails collected by the fishermen from february to may 2006 .\nthe snails were segregated by putative species and preserved for various uses . the snails were cracked and tissue samples ( hepatopancreas and foot ) were obtained and preserved in approximately 10 volumes of rnalater . voucher specimens were kept in 70 % ethanol . dna extraction was performed in fifty mg tissue samples ( hepatopancreas or foot ) using the puregene dna kit ( invitrogen ) or the dneasy tissue kit ( qiagen ) and aliquots were prepared . .\nthe 16s mitochondrial rrna gene was amplified using the primers 16sl ( 5\u2032 - gtttaccaaaaacatggcttc - 3\u2032 ) and 16sh ( 5\u2032 - ccggtctgaactcagatc acgt - 3\u2032 ) with uracil adaptor sequences . a pcr mix containing 20\u201340 ng genomic dna , 2\u03bcm of each primer , 2\u03bcm of dntp and 2\u03bcm of taq polymerase was prepared and cycled with the following profile : 95\u00b0c 1 min initial denaturation ; 40 cycles of 95\u00b0c 20 sec denaturation , 55\u00b0c 20 sec annealing and 72\u00b0c 30 sec extension ; and 72\u00b0c 5 min final extension . the pcr product was ligated to pneb206a ( user friendly cloning , new england biolabs ) and introduced into e . coli ( dh5a ) through chemical transformation . plasmids from transformants with inserts were sequenced through the abi 377 dna sequencer or submitted to the university of utah sequencing facility .\n) . a minimum evolution - based phylogenetic reconstruction was made using mega 3 . 1 (\n) . bootstrap values were calculated and putative clades were marked accordingly . the genetic distances were computed using the kimura - 2 - parameter model to determine the range of distances of the specimens that belong to a food type cluster .\nnote : the gu series of accession numbers are sequences obtained in this paper .\na second phylogenetic analysis was made using the combined 12s rdna and 16s rdna ( 12s previously reported in heralde et al . 2007 ) sequences . the concatenated sequences were aligned using clustal x . the alignments were refined manually using macclade 4 . 08 . the process was repeated for some highly variable regions as long as further refinement by eye seemed possible .\ntrees were optimized using the individual rrna gene sequence alignments and the concatenated alignments ( presented herein ) . final analyses were restricted to model - based maximum likelihood ( paup4b10 ) and bayesian inference ( mrbayes 3 . 1 . 2 ) to account for the complexity of sequence evolution . sequence evolution parameters were optimized by a gtr + i + g model that includes six possible substitution types ( gtr ) , allows some sites to be invariant ( i ) , allows across - site rate heterogeneity ( g ) and allows unequal base frequencies .\nthe maximum likelihood optimization used tbr branch swapping with 10 searches , each using a random addition of taxa . the analysis ended when the paup default criteria for convergence of the log - likelihood were met .\nthe bayesian analysis was run for two million generations with the first 500 , 000 generations discarded as burn - in trees . two mcmcmc runs ( metropolis - coupled markov - chain monte - carlo ) , using four chains each , were used to thoroughly explore tree space . convergence of the likelihoods was judged adequate by monitoring the ased ( average standard error of the difference ) in split frequencies between the two runs and by comparing plots of the tree log - likelihood trees from generation 500 , 000 to 2 million . by the last generation , average standard error was 0 . 0039 ; the plot of likelihoods versus generation had stabilized . furthermore , the psrf ( potential scale reduction factor ) reached 1 . 00 for the total tree length and for each model parameter .\nsince maximum likelihood and bayesian analyses converged to the same tree , only the bayesian results are presented below ( ml results are available from psc ) .\nlive snails were relaxed in 1 % cold magnesium chloride ( mgcl 2 ) for 2\u20133 hours and preserved in 95 % ethanol ; the sem of their radulae was carried out as described previously ( imperial et al . 2007 ) .\nsix samples of gemmula diomedea caught by trawling at depths of 231\u2013271 meters in the panglao 2005 expedition were relaxed in cold 1 % magnesium chloride for at least 2 hours and regurgitated tissues were recovered . genomic dna was extracted from the tissues using the dneasy tissue kit ( qiagen ) . an aliquot was prepared as template for mtcoi amplification using modified universal primers with user adaptor sequences ( simison 2000 ) . subsequent cloning into pneb206a , transformant screening and plasmid sequencing were as described above . the mtcoi sequence obtained was searched in the genbank database using blast ( basic local alignment search tool ) .\nthe snails used for the feeding experiments were maintained indoor using a 56 - liter aquarium containing seawater with salinity maintained at a range between 35\u201337 ppt . a filtration system and an aerator were in place while the feeding behavior of g . speciosa and other turrids was observed . the snails used in the experiment had been in the tanks for a period of 2\u20134 weeks with artificial lighting following a 12 hour light - dark cycle . the introduction of live terebellid worms into the tank was done at night .\nwere obtained from two different biogeographic regions . the first three sites came from manila bay in the south china sea region : site 1 is close to the bataan peninsula , site 2 is off corregidor island and site 3 is off the batangas coast . at these three sites ,\nspecimens were obtained as by - catch of commercial fish trawlers operating in these areas . the only larger\nwas only rarely collected at the southern sites within the visayan seas biogeographic region ( off sogod , cebu and off the island of panglao in bohol ) . the primary method for collection at the latter sites was tangle nets mostly laid at greater depths . at the sogod , cebu site , the major\ncollected per trawl was 20\u00b19 or a mean catch rate of 1 . 3\u00b10 . 6 per trawl - hour . the specimens ranged in length from 2 . 0 to 6 . 7 centimeters ( mean : 4 . 0\u00b11 . 1 cm . ) and collected at night . it must be noted that the fishing gear used effectively captured only those organisms that were either on or close to the surface of the substrate ( unlike dredges that go deeper ) .\nclade . this clade is where the food type / preference analysis is focused . the occurrence of\n) is also well - supported as indicated by a high bootstrap value ( 82 % ) .\nclades which have similar food type / preference ( i . e . , among worm - hunting cone species ) (\n) . we selected three clades of worm - hunting coniids ( i . e . s1 \u2013 sedentary polychaete feeders , mainly terebellidae , s2 \u2013 sedentary polychaete feeders , mainly capitellidae and e6 \u2013 errant polychaete feeders , mainly eunicidae ) based on the clade grouping of\n) . the largest distance range occurs among terebellidae feeders ( i . e . , the s1 clade ) , thus in\ncomparison of genetic distance between 16s rrna gene sequences of gemmula species and selected vermivorous cone clades . clade s1 , sedentary polychaete feeders , mainly terebellidae ; clade s2 , sedentary polychaete feeders , mainly capitellidae ; and clade e6 , errant polychaete feeders , mainly eunicidae .\n) with each other and with other forms in the subfamily turrinae was further inferred from the 12s and 16s mitochondrial rrna gene sequences . both bayesian and maximum likelihood methods , as described under experimental procedures , were used . the phylogenetic tree , shown in\nclade ) , separate from other groups in the subfamily turrinae that were included in the analysis . furthermore , the analysis suggests that the sister group of the\n) form a major monophyletic group within the turrinae , which is strongly supported by the analysis .\nand their relatives based on bayesian inference . ( an identical tree was returned by a full maximum likelihood analysis of the sequence data . ) branches are labeled with bayesian confidence values expressed as percentages . for clarity , some of the outgroup species used in the analysis have been pruned from this figure ( see methods for the full list ) . shown are various forms in the subfamily turrinae , including the four species that are the subject of this article ( shells of these species are shown in\n) . the seven clades identified by roman numerals all have 100 % support based on both bayesian and maximum likelihood analysis and have the following generic / subgeneric assignments within the subfamily turrinae : i .\nthere were significant morphological variations in the shells of g . speciosa specimens collected ( i . e . , gemmule shape , inter - gemmule distance , length and diameter ratio , etc ) . however , when molecular analysis was done to evaluate the specimens with different shell morphotypes , no significant differences could be detected in the rrna gene sequences of the morphological variants . thus , the shell morphological variation does not appear to be correlated with any significant genetic ( 12s and 16s rrna gene ) divergence .\n) the radula had type 2 wishbone teeth that were robust , short and curved , sometimes with a knifelike cutting edge on the main limb and a large accessory limb with a formula of 1 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 1 ( following powell\u2019s system ) . an analysis of the radular structure of\nradular morphology . scanning electron microscopy images of the radula of gemmula speciosa ( a\u2013b ) . gemmula sogodensis ( c\u2013d ) , unedogemmula bisaya ( e\u2013f ) and lophiotoma acuta ( g\u2013h ) . . the central tooth is prominent in both gemmula species and absent in u . bisaya and l . acuta\n) ; a fragment of mtcoi gene was pcr - amplified from the regurgitate , sequenced , and compared with sequences in genbank .\nprey determination . a freshly collected g . diomedea with regurgitated prey tissue . the samples were collected in the location code cp2340 ; 231\u2013271 meters deep , by trawl in bohol sea on a sandy / mud bottom .\nbelongs to the family terebellidae , a sedentary clade of polychaetes . given the significant homology in the toxin sequences from the three\nmolecular regurgitate analysis . blast hit for coi gene from regurgitated tissue ( query sequence ) indicating the generic identity of the polychaete to be amphitritides sp . ( subject sequence ) .\nthis hypothesis was experimentally evaluated by challenging the species that could be maintained successfully in an aquarium , g . speciosa , with a terebellid polychaete . the species of terebellidae most accessible was a loimia species . the addition of a terebellid to the tank containing turrids elicited activities such as movement of siphon and the active hunt for the prey for many of the turrids including the g . speciosa .\nl . acuta attacked the terebellid in groups . however , in some feeding events , it was also capable of feeding alone . in both cases , the l . acuta extended its proboscis and quickly stabbed the worm . it then attached itself and remained motionless for an extended period of time . a closer look at the snail\u2019s mouth shows that it takes in a small portion of the worm tissue and is not limited to just sucking . it is most likely that digestion is already taking place even in the mouth . after leaving a single worm being fed on by a l . acuta overnight , the latter was able to eat up the anterior portion of the worm including the tentacles . when l . acuta are group feeding , the prey is completely consumed .\nu . bisaya was not observed to react to the addition of loimia sp . into the tank . in most feeding experiments , it remained submerged in the substrate . the closest interaction between u . bisaya and loimia sp . documented was when the snail crawled on top of the worm being fed on by an l . acuta ( urltoken ) .\nto test the specificity of the snails\u2019 prey , other worms ( < 2 cm . ) , e . g . , blood worms ( glycera sp . ) and fireworms , were also introduced in the tank . several trials yielded no result as the turrids showed no activity after introduction of the worms both during day and night time . the snails remained partially burrowed under the substrate and the worms remained untouched .\ninvestigated in this study occur in relatively deep water ( > 50 meters ) . what is interesting is the striking difference in the pattern of their abundance across the collection sites . each species appeared to exhibit a similar distribution pattern (\n) , being much more abundant at one site and scarce at the other sites , but the site where a species was most abundant was different for each species . the other turrid species ,\nshowed another distribution pattern , being abundant at two sites ( sites 1\u20133 and 4 ) but not at the third site ( site 5 , which is geographically close to site 4 ) . the field distribution of gastropods is usually associated with their larval life cycles ( i . e . planktonic or non - planktonic ) (\n) . these larval life cycles are determined from the type of protoconch that each species possess . the\nruns in contrast with the expected pattern of larval distribution . this result warrants further exploration to explain the ecological factors that govern this distribution pattern .\nthe differences in distribution pattern among the four species could also be seen when comparing their abundance . from the collection by commercial fishing vessels near manila bay , the number of specimens of g . speciosa collected was greater than the other three ( g . sogodensis , g . diomedea and g . kieneri ) ; the latter two species were entirely absent from site 1 - 3 ( see table i ) . in sites 4 and 5 respectively , g . sogodensis and g . diomedea were the predominant species found , with only a minor amount of overlap . the fourth species , g . kieneri , was only collected at site 5 . again , the ecological factors that could explain these interspecies differences in the spatial pattern of abundance remain to be investigated .\n. the agreement of results from two independent gene markers provides strong support for the phylogenetic relationship of members of turrinae under study . the\n, indicates a sharing of biological characteristics ( like food type / preference ) . we have shown , by molecular regurgitate analysis , the diet of\nto be a tube - dwelling polychaete belonging to the terebellid group . similar attempts in\nclade in the tree relative to the other groups in the subfamily turrinae . this result further warrants the\ndefining a distinct clade within the subfamily turrinae . it should be noted , however , that the taxonomic status of the genus\nneeds reevaluation . recent unpublished data ( c . meyer , personal communication ) suggest that atlantic and eastern pacific forms of\nbeing predators of sedentary polychaetes in the family terebellidae . we have tested this hypothesis more directly : a\nwas consistent with the prediction of the 16s - based clustering of turrids with similar prey type / preference . the non - responsive behavior of\nsp . indicated that it may not be its prey preference . this also supports the generic separation of\nthis work was supported in part by grant gm46877 ( to b . m . o . ) .\nbouchet p , lozouet p , maestrati p , heros v . assessing the magnitude of species richness in tropical marine environments : exceptionally high numbers of molluscs at a new caledonia site .\nduda tf , jr , palumbi sr . molecular genetics of ecological diversification : duplication and rapid evolution of toxin genes of the venomous gastropod\nduda tf , jr , kohn aj , palumbi sr . origins of diverse feeding ecologies within\nespiritu jd , watkins m , monje vd , cartier ge , cruz lj , olivera bm . venomous cone snails : molecular phylogeny and the generation of toxin diversity .\nheralde fmiii , imperial j , bandyopadhyay pk , olivera bm , concepcion gp , santos ad . a rapidly diverging superfamily of peptide toxins in venomous .\nheralde fm , iii , watkins m , ownby j - p , bandyopadhyay pk , santos ad , concepcion gp , olivera bm . molecular phylogeny of some indo - pacific genera in the family turrinae h . adams and a . adams .\nhutchings pa , glasby cj . the amphitritinae ( polychaeta : terebellidae ) from australia .\nimperial j , kantor y , watkins m , heralde fmiii , stevenson bj , chen p , ownby p - j , bouchet p , olivera bm . the venomous auger snail\n( linnaeus , 1758 ) : molecular phylogeny , foregut anatomy and comparative toxinology .\njablonski d , lutz r . larval ecology of marine benthic invertebrates : paleobiological implications .\nkumar s , tamura k , jakobsen ib , nei m . mega2 : molecular evolutionary genetics analysis software .\nl\u00f3pez - vera e , heimer de la cotera ep , maillo m , riesgo - escovar jr , olivera bm , aguilar mb . a novel structural class of toxins : the methionine - rich peptides from the venoms of turrid marine snails ( mollusca , conoidea )\nmonje vd , ward r , olivera bm , cruz lj . 16s mitochondrial ribosomal rna gene sequences : a comparison of seven\n: four new species described in the philippines and three from elsewhere in the indo - pacific .\nolivera bm . conus venom peptides , receptor and ion channel targets , and drug design : 50 million years of neuropharmacology . essay e . e . just lecture , 1996 .\npowell awb . the family turridae in the indo - pacific : part 1 - the subfamily turrinae .\npuillandre n , samadi s , boisselier m - c , sysoev av , kantor yi , cruaud c , couloux a , bouchet p . starting to unravel the toxoglossan knot : molecular phylogeny of the \u201cturrids\u201d ( neogastropoda : conoidea )\nrex ma , stuart ct , coyne g . latitudinal gradients of species richness in the deep - sea benthos of the north atlantic .\nuc - berkeley : 2000 . evolution and phylogeography of new world gastropod faunas ; p . 202 .\ntaylor jd , kantor yi , sysoev av . foregut anatomy , feeding mechanisms , relationships and classification of the conoidea ( = toxoglossa ) ( gastropoda )\nwatkins m , hillyard dr , olivera bm . genes expressed in a turrid venom duct : divergence and similarity to conotoxins .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 plus mathml 2 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\nnuculana polita ( g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ) ( 1 , 2 , 6 ) sb\nanadara grandis ( broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 ) ( 2 , 4 , 6 )\nanadara nux ( g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ) * ( 1 ) sb\nanadara obesa ( g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ) ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 6 ) sb ,\nlunarca brevifrons ( g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ) ( 1 , 2 , 3 ) sb\nnoetia reversa ( g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ) * ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 6 ) sb ,\nargopecten ventricosus ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1842 ) ( 11 )\ncardites laticostata ( g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ) ( 1 , 2 , 3 ) sb\namericardia biangulata ( broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 ) *\ntrachycardium consors ( g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ) * ( 10 ) rb\ntrachycardium panamense ( g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ) ( 1 , 2 , 11 )\ntrachycardium procerum ( g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ) * ( 11 ) cs\ntrachycardium senticosum ( g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ) ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 6 ) sb\ntrigoniocardia obovalis ( g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ) ( 1 , 2 , 10 ) sb , rb\nchione subimbricata ( g . b . sowerby i , 1835 ) * ( 10 ) rb\nchione undatella ( g . b . sowerby i , 1835 ) ( 2 ) sb\nperiglypta multicostata ( g . b . sowerby i , 1835 ) * ( 11 ) cs\npitar concinnus ( g . b . sowerby i , 1835 ) ( 1 ) sb\npitar roseus ( broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 ) ( 1 , 2 , 3 ) sb\nprotothaca asperrima ( g . b . sowerby i , 1835 ) ( 2 , 9 ) sb , cl\nmulinia pallida ( broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 ) ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 6 )\ncerithidea valida ( c . b . adams , 1852 ) ( 6 ) m\nmarsupina nana ( broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 ) * ( 11 )\nengina jugosa ( c . b . adams , 1852 ) * ( 10 ) rb\nmelongena patula ( broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 ) ( 11 )\nnassarius luteostoma ( broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 ) *\nnassarius wilsoni ( c . b . adams , 1852 ) * ( 9 ) rb"]}
{"id": 2220, "summary": [{"text": "lates mariae , the bigeye lates , is a species of lates perch native to lake tanganyika and from the lualaba drainage in the democratic republic of the congo .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "juveniles inhabit inshore habitats while adults inhabit benthic environments in deeper waters , being the top predator at depths of 100 metres ( 330 ft ) and greater .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it is known to make diurnal migrations to surface waters to prey on pelagic fishes .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this species can reach a length of 80 centimetres ( 31 in ) tl .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this species is commercially important and is also popular as a game fish . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "bigeye lates", "paragraphs": ["how can i put and write and define bigeye lates in a sentence and how is the word bigeye lates used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528bigeye lates\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528bigeye lates\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528bigeye lates\u9020\u53e5 , bigeye lates meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\n\n' lates mariae\n' , the\n' bigeye lates\n' , is a species of lates perch native to lake tanganyika and from the commercially important and is also popular as a game fish .\nwikipedia article copyright notice : this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . it uses material from the wikipedia article\nbigeye lates\n.\nfacts summary : the bigeye lates ( lates mariae ) is a species of concern belonging in the species group\nfishes\nand found in the following area ( s ) : burundi , democratic republic of congo ( zaire ) , tanzania , zambia .\nglenn , c . r . 2006 .\nearth ' s endangered creatures - bigeye lates facts\n( online ) - licensed article from wikipedia : the free encyclopedia . accessed\ncoulter , g . w . , 1976 . the biology of lates species in lake tanganyika , and the status of the pelagic fishery for lates species and luciolates stapersii . j . fish biol . 9 : 235 - 259 . ( ref . 2216 )\nfreshwater ; demersal ; depth range ? - 75 m ( ref . 36901 ) . tropical ; 3\u00b0s - 9\u00b0s\nafrica : lake tanganyika ( ref . 2216 , 36901 ) ; widely distributed throughout the lake ( ref . 36901 ) . in the lukuga river ( lake tanganyika outflow ) , known up to niemba ( ref . 93587 ) . in the malagarazi river , known from the delta and the lower reaches ( ref . 54847 ) .\nmaturity : l m 45 . 5 range ? - ? cm max length : 80 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3636 )\njuveniles live in a specific inshore habitat until they reach 18 cm , thereafter they adopt a benthic habitat moving into deep water ( ref . 2216 ) . juveniles have been observed near or in affluent rivers ( ref . 36901 ) . top predator in depths below 100 m ; exploits both fishes and invertebrates ; migrate diurnally to surface to feed on pelagic clupeids ; highly susceptible to intensive fishing ( ref . 2216 ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5006 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00933 ( 0 . 00563 - 0 . 01547 ) , b = 3 . 01 ( 2 . 86 - 3 . 16 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 2 \u00b10 . 69 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( tmax = 12 - 13 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 40 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nsnoeks , j . ( freshwater fish red list authority ) & darwall , w . ( freshwater biodiversity assessment programme )\njustification : endemic to lake tanganyika where fisheries catches have declined by more than 50 % in the last 20 years due to heavy fishing . sedimentation inshore is a threat to habitat for juveniles . with an estimated generation time of 1 . 4\u20134 . 4 years ( fishbase ) the time period for decline is around 10 years . it is estimated that a decline of 30 % of 10 years is probable .\nendemic to lake tanganyika where it also enters the deltas of major rivers including the rusizi and malagarasi .\nadults found in bentho - pelagic and littoral zones in the lake . juveniles are found in lake ' s littoral zone , marginal macrophytes beds and lower parts of rivers .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nmax length : 80 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3636 )\nfreshwater ; demersal ; depth range ? - 75 m ( ref . 36901 )\npd 50 = 0 . 5006 many relatives ( e . g . carps ) 0 . 5 - 2 . 0 few relatives ( e . g . lungfishes )\nlow , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( tmax = 12 - 13 )\nthis article is only an excerpt . if it appears incomplete or if you wish to see article references , visit the rest of its contents here .\nnot too many people think of or even understand how much littering can actually impact our planet . something as simple as holding onto your trash until you can throw it away properly can have a huge impact on conservation , preservation , and our planet .\nhere are some photos that we thought you should take a look at that we hope will make you think twice before littering .\nlist of all endangered animals . list of all endangered plants . list of all endangered species ( animals & plants ) . by species group ( mammal , birds , etc ) . . . united states endangered species list . browse by country , island , us state . . . search for an endangered species profile .\nare you inspired by endangered animals ? check out our games and coloring pages ! more to come soon .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c1faa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c42d7 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 3234f3f4 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 32421473 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 345ea2c9 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nafrica : lake tanganyika ( ref . 2216 , 36901 ) ; widely distributed throughout the lake ( ref . 36901 ) . in the lukuga river ( lake tanganyika outflow ) , known up to niemba ( ref . 93587 ) . in the malagarazi river , known from the delta and the lower reaches ( ref . 54847 ) .\nfroese r . & pauly d . ( eds ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase ( version feb 2018 ) . in : roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , bailly n . , kirk p . m . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , nieukerken e . van , zarucchi j . , penev l . , eds . ( 2018 ) . species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 30th june 2018 . digital resource at urltoken species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 75e88168 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\n. if you continue to use the site we will assume that you agree with this .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nplease register , or login to see entire forum content . . . or use facebook .\nwelcome to the forum . help us make list of sets for 115 fish !\n0 . 7 195 170 specific bait 20pb k sonar / 30 . 10 . 2016\npowered by mybb , \u00a9 2002 - 2018 mybb group . this blog is created by fans . we are not affiliated with the developer of the game . this website uses cookies . by continuing to use the site you are agreeing to our use of cookies .\n; s\u00f6tvatten bottenlevande ; djupintervall ? - 75 m ( ref . 36901 ) . tropical , preferred ? ; 3\u00b0s - 9\u00b0s\nmaturity : l m 45 . 5 range ? - ? cm max length : 80 . 0 cm tl hane / ej k\u00f6nsbest\u00e4md ; ( ref . 3636 )"]}
{"id": 2223, "summary": [{"text": "capricciosa ( 2 march 1988 \u2013 after 2011 ) was an irish thoroughbred racehorse and broodmare .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in a racing career which lasted from june 1990 until april 1992 she won four of her seven races .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "she was one of the best juvenile fillies in britain and ireland in 1990 when she won four races including the debutante stakes , moyglare stud stakes and cheveley park stakes .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "she missed the whole of the next season and was then sent to race in the united states where she made no impact in two starts .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "she was retired from racing to become a broodmare in japan and produced at least eleven winners . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "capricciosa", "paragraphs": ["pizza capricciosa ingredients draw scheme on paper . print background composition for menu and posters . creative concept of modern design . vector illustration , vector\nin the land that invented the calzone , the capricciosa and the margarita , there is a severe shortage of skilled pizza makers or pizzaioli .\npizza capricciosa ingredients draw scheme on paper . print background composition for menu and posters . creative concept of modern design . vector illustration | stock vector | colourbox\nthe cheveley park stakes has a much longer history going back to 1899 . again it is disimilar to the colts ' races in that it does not have the vob - gap - aob structure . it does have vincent o ' brien winners with his last as late as 1990 with capricciosa . but no irish winner after that until 2011 when ger lyons won a muddling race with lightening pearl . because of the pattern race set - up it does attract french runners and when criquette maarek - head won in 2009 with special duty it was her fourth win going back to ma biche in 1982 . pascal bary also won for france in 2008 with natagora and another filly that went on to group 1 success as a 3yo .\nut enim ad minim veniam , quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat .\nut enim ad minim veniam , quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat . duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur .\npellentesque nulla justo , auctor ac maximus sed , tempus sed nibh . ut elit sapien , ornare et diam ac , efficitur luctus elit . proin ut nulla consequat , elementum lacus eu , cursus ipsum . fusce efficitur\u2026\nvarious versions have evolved over the years , sometimes by accident , sometimes on purpose ( injected humour and the like ) .\nit is a long established fact that a reader will be distracted by the readable content of a page when looking at its layout .\nthis page was last edited on 26 may 2017 , at 13 : 58 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\nprobably the best pizza in gozo . definitely the best view from the terrace . home made wine is a must try ! definitely highly recommended if you want to have a pizza !\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content .\nby creating an account , i agree to shutterstock ' s website terms , privacy policy , and licensing terms .\n\u00a9 2003 - 2018 shutterstock , inc . all rights reserved . made in nyc .\nsmall ( s ) has the shortest download time and is suitable for digital use .\nlarge ( l ) is suitable for large prints as well as digital use . it is the original image provided by the contributor .\nyou can redownload your image for free at any time , in any size .\neditorial content , such as news and celebrity images , are not cleared for commercial use . learn more on our support center .\nsign up to browse over million images , video clips , and music tracks . plus , get free weekly content and more .\n( we only support jpg and png images under 5mb and no larger than 4000px on either side at this time . )\nwe\u2019ve partnered with invision to make it easier to search and download our images in sketch and adobe\u00ae photoshop\u00ae .\n{ { t ( ' more _ than _ one _ credit ' , { zero : calc . totalcreditcost } ) } }\nonce this video clip is done converting , you ' ll be able to download it from your video conversion queue or download history .\neditorial use only photos don ' t have any model or property releases , which means they can ' t be used for commercial , promotional , advertorial or endorsement purposes . this type of content is intended to be used in connection with events that are newsworthy or of general interest ( for example , in a blog , textbook , newspaper or magazine article ) .\nthis format requires a quick conversion ( usually under 5 mins ) before download begins , or you can get the largest and smallest formats immediately .\ncrop for social , add text and more with istock editor . open in editor\nby clicking\nconfirm download\nyou agree that you ' ve read and agree to all applicable license agreements for this download .\njune 26 - it ' s patch day for the sims 4 on pc / mac patch notes here .\ndoes anybody like her ? i have read a lot of legacies that have her roommates as a main character , but i haven ' t seen any legacy stories that have eva in them . or have i not just found a legacy that has eva as a main character ?\nshe was a part of my batchelor - esque legacy though she did not win in the end . came close though ! she was always on her phone during the date .\ni didn ' t really have her in a legacy but she was one of the baby mama ' s for a sim i got from the gallery . . lol .\nlost , last seen on the gallery with a 1 at the end of her name .\ni ' ve never played her , where does she live ? ? ? she looks lovely .\nmy sim let her join the ' fit club ' - which is my sim ' s fitness club thing . i saw her on a running machine thing - she was kind of tubby - so i got my sim to invite her into the club - she was the last member in .\nshe had some kids in the background of a legacy i was playing . . . most of partihaus has some toxic genes that really shouldn ' t be passed down and the exception to that is marcus , not eva .\nfar and away from here , i ' d lie down to find some rest . no stars over uptown | short / misc . stories wanna play a game ? check out the 2018 tournament challenges at carl ' s forum | twitter\ni did a family man challenge when get together first came out and she was one of my many baby mommas . she made some cute kids though . and her black hair is a really strong gene , all of her like 8 kids got her black hair .\ni used marcus as a baby daddy in a wydc and his kid got this huge nose and tiny beady eyes , which i didn ' t really like .\nthanks to mccc i think marcus hs fathered about 20 children in my game .\nmy game too . marcus has five or six kids with different women thanks to mcc and then married an elderly lady and took her things when she promptly passed away lol .\njade rosa seems to have beautiful babies ! i can post them all as teens when i can if you want .\n. . . seriously ? you have to ask . . ? do the teenage mutant ninja turtles love pizza ? does sims 3 zelda mae have the ' childish ' trait ? is dead pool impossible to kill ?\nshe ' s pretty and not a mean or hot headed trait sim , that ' s just all sun shine - - not that it unique to sims 4 . . . but still ! i ' d be interested in a solo eva legacy - - when i say ' solo eva ' i mean a legacy where i don ' t need / have to play her roommates at all . . . i ' m a big fan of only focusing on playing 1 - 2 sims at any given time . . . 3 - 4 only if it ' s 1 - 2 off - spring lol .\ni think she looks real good , as you put it , tubby . chub just looks so natural and good on some sims imo !\nwhen you say\nshe did not win in the end\ndo you mean you had your sim ditch her for another female sim or you ended up starting your legacy over leaving eva out of it . . ? not important just you raised a question lol .\nwhen you say\nshe did not win in the end\ndo you mean you had your sim ditch her for another female sim or you ended up starting your legacy over leaving eva out of it . . ? not important just you raised a question lol . just noisy is all\nhe chose jade rosa in the end , though had a one nighter with candy . i need to get eva in a gene pool soon though . might do a reverse rags to riches seeing as she is materialistic\nbigstock and big stock photo are registered trademarks of shutterstock . bigstockphoto is a trademark of shutterstock . \u00a9 2004 - 2018 all rights reserved - bigstock\u00ae\nthe best curated collection of high - quality design templates for all your graphic needs .\nthe cheveley park stakes is a group 1 flat horse race in great britain open to two - year - old fillies . it is run on the rowley mile at newmarket over a distance of 6 furlongs ( 1 , 207 metres ) , and it is scheduled to take place each year in late september .\nthe event is named after cheveley park , an estate purchased by harry mccalmont in 1892 . it was established in 1899 , and the inaugural running was won by lutetia .\nthe race is currently held on the final day of newmarket ' s three - day cambridgeshire meeting , the same day as the cambridgeshire handicap .\nthe leading horses from the cheveley park stakes often go on to compete in the following season ' s 1 , 000 guineas . the first to win both was pretty polly ( 1903\u201304 ) , and the most recent was special duty ( 2009\u201310 ) .\nalec taylor , jr . \u2013 maid of the mist ( 1908 ) , maid of corinth ( 1909 ) , bayuda ( 1918 ) , miss gadabout ( 1924 )\nurltoken \u2013 international federation of horseracing authorities \u2013 cheveley park stakes ( 2016 ) .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 9 / 25 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\ninitially run over six furlongs , the race was extended to seven furlongs in 1992 and is contested every september . since 2014 it has formed part of the irish champions weekend , taking place on the sunday at the curragh , where it holds main billing along with the irish st leger and the national stakes .\nthe moyglare stud stakes was a group 3 contest until 1979 , when it was promoted to group 2 , attaining group 1 status in 1983 .\nthe moyglare stud stakes became part of the breeders\u2019 cup challenge series in 2009 .\nvery much like the national stakes does for the colts , the moyglare stud stakes often defines ireland\u2019s champion juvenile filly , but is also a significant pointer to the big races the following season .\naidan o\u2019brien has dominated the moyglare stud stakes in recent years and at the time of writing has won the race a record seven times : sequoyah ( 2000 ) , quarter moon ( 2001 ) , necklace ( 2003 ) , rumplestiltskin ( 2005 ) , misty for me ( 2010 ) , maybe ( 2011 ) , minding ( 2015 ) .\nhowever , in 2016 , it was his son , joseph , who provided the shock winner , as intricately landed the young trainer with his first group 1 success in his new career , beating his father\u2019s hydrangea .\ncopyright \u00a9 2013 - 16 . all rights reserved . all images are used with kind permission of the owner in all circumstances . these images may not be reproduced without the express permission of the image owner . developed by posterity - it\nblack caviar : the horse of a lifetime . . . the story and the wins\njapan cups 1981 - 1989 ( john henry & all along 1982 , etc . )\ndesert orchid : the official story so far . . . ( see\ndesert orchid : the glory years\n)\nunbridled greed : the rise and fall of j . t . lundy and calumet farm w / bonus footage\nthoroughbred greats - home movie films of retired legendary horses ( secretariat , seattle slew , etc . ) - rare ! !\nzenyatta ' s 2009 clemente l . hirsch stakes ( 12th straight win ) : tvg ' s\ninstant classic\nout of the gate . . . down to the wire : kentucky derby highlights ( 1920 - 1958 newsreel footage )\nhead - to - head : gigolo vs . bonfire . . . dancing to perfection\ndesert orchid : the glory years ( a . k . a .\ndesert orchid : living with the legend\nand\ndesert orchid : the official story so far . . .\n)\noctagonal : the big\no\n. . . the greatest of all time\nthoroughbred ( animal planet - episode # 1 - run fast . . . dream big ) w / bonus footage\nlegend of laffit pincay , jr . w / bonus footage ( retirement , etc . . )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\n/ / urltoken\nnumber of refugees accepted into the u . s . falls below the rest of the world combined for the first time since 1980\nbut despite record unemployment levels , today\u2019s italians are too proud to make pizza .\npizza makers show their ability in rome ' s via della conciliazione in the jubilee of the pizza makers . it has been claimed despite record unemployment levels , today ' s italians are too proud to make pizza\nat least 6 , 000 are desperately needed , according to new figures from business federation fipe .\n\u2018notwithstanding the economic crisis and unemployment , it is proving difficult to find them , \u2019 the association said in a report released this week .\nas the euro crisis bites , the demand for cheap fast food has boomed .\nin big cities pizza is still the most affordable and convenient food for office workers to grab at lunch - time , producing an annual turnover of nine billion euros .\nbut despite youth unemployment of 35 per cent the young italians no longer want to do the job . because of the long hours and low pay it is seen as work for immigrants .\nenrico stoppani , of the italian federation of merchants said : ' young people see hospitality as a low grade job .\n' even when they do go into the industry they want to be a chef in a five star hotel not a pizzaiolo . \u2019\nforeigners are increasingly taking their place in italy\u2019s 50 , 000 pizzerias , with egyptians emerging as a dominant force among the estimated 240 thousand pizzaioli , who earn as little as 1000 euro a month .\nallam rabie , who arrived in italy from cairo in 1990 and now runs his own pizzeria on rome\u2019s via cavour , said : \u2018it\u2019s s tough job because you work morning to night and your on your feet all day with your head in a hot oven .\n\u2018the young italians don\u2019t want to do it any more . they have everything \u2013 cars , clothes . before it wasn\u2019t like that . people had nothing so they had to work hard . \u2019\negyptians are used to hard work , he claimed . \u2018we also have a natural aptitude because we love cooking and are good at learning new things .\n\u2018of the egyptians working in italy , nine out of ten is a pizzaiolo , the tenth is a chef . we have completely taken over in rome . \u2019\none of rome\u2019s remaining homegrown pizza makers , vincenzo de mitis , who runs his own pizzeria in the monti district , said : \u2018there aren\u2019t many of us left .\n' the older generation are dying out and young italians don\u2019t want to do it because they aren\u2019t willing to work for such low wages .\nthey would rather go and work abroad and there are dozens of immigrants ready to take their place . '\n' we know where you live ' : angry protesters confront mitch . . .\n' diana would be ashamed ' : meghan ' s bitter half - sister . . .\npolice find the body of a missing four - month - old boy near . . .\n' prostitutes , orgies , group sex - all of it ' : ex - wife of . . .\nwoman , 38 , ' shoots her father in the head and then lives . . .\nalive ! four thai boys who made it out of cave in daring . . .\nbottleneck of 700 , 000 migrants wait in libya to cross the . . .\nwhat was agreed at chequers . . . and how the three - page . . .\n' this is no sell - out ' : theresa may insists she has chosen . . .\nsydney tower skywalk was ' shut down due to unsafe winds ' . . .\nselena gomez is seen with same mystery man she was with in may . . . after news her ex justin bieber is engaged to hailey baldwin\nkhloe kardashian reveals she stopped breast - feeding daughter true . . . three months after giving birth\ngiuliana rancic takes a hike with bill . . . as the couple vacation with friends ahead of her return to e ! news\nkhloe kardashian shows off neon sign in true ' s nursery . . . as she reveals it ' s kris jenner ' s handwriting\nmakeup artist joyce bonelli reaches out to the kardashian clan on instagram . . . after the famous family ' fire ' and unfollow her on social media\ndaddy daycare ! jared kushner takes kids back to d . c . after weekend in new jersey - as ivanka dons a short dress for visit to a nyc asphalt company\nsofia richie , 19 poses in a bikini top just after scott disick ' s ex kourtney kardashian , 39 , did the same . . . and fans call her out for it\nnaomi campbell wows in flamboyant feathered gown . . . while ashley graham sizzles in plunging lace dress as they walk in dolce & gabbana show in italy\nnaya rivera sells her five - bedroom la home for a cool $ 3 . 55 million after finalizing her divorce from ryan dorsey\nmel b ' is unable to pay her back taxes amid ongoing divorce battle with stephen belafonte . . . as it ' s estimated the pair owe up to $ 650k ' to the irs\nkylie jenner rocks curve - clinging attire as she shows off body . . . and considers going back to blonde\ndakota johnson dons striped wrap dress in la . . . after calling co - star chris hemsworth ' spectacular '\ncardi b hits back at troll who mocked her baby shower . . . as she shows off naked baby bump for photoshoot\nbuy your own celebrity hideaway ! castle adored by michael douglas and jack nicholson goes on sale for $ 5 . 2m ( and even comes with treehouse )\nant - man and the wasp soars to $ 76 million on opening weekend . . . beating its prequel by $ 19 million\nliam payne and cheryl split : carefree 1d star returns to stage for first time since break - up . . . as he poses happily with his backing dancers in france\ntristan thompson goes house hunting alone as he checks out $ 2m property in la with its own basketball court . . . just minutes from khloe ' s mansion\nchris hemsworth kicks off filming for the star - studded men in black spin - off as he cuts a sharp figure in london . . . 21 years after the first film hit screens\njill zarin admits she ' s ready to date again after being spotted with handsome businessman . . . following beloved husband bobby ' s death\ndj khaled cancels wireless performance due to ' travel issues ' just hours before his slot . . . as fans rage over his ' vacation ' snap\n13 reasons why villain justin prentice says he ' s not bothered by social media trolls . . . and that getting attacked online means he ' s doing his job as an actor\n' she didn ' t get those from me ' : kylie jenner says daughter stormi has dad travis scott ' s lips . . . as star reveals her breasts are ' three times the size ' post - baby\nkevin hart celebrates 39th birthday in las vegas . . . nearly a year after sin city cheating scandal\ndakota fanning joins michael b . jordan in voice cast of western anime series gen : lock\n' i regret making it public ' : guy pearce is remorseful for asserting his former co - star kevin spacey was ' handsy ' with him on the set of l . a . confidential\niconic movie home where molly ringwald ' s sixteen candles was filmed finally sells for $ 1 . 135 million after two years on market\nkendra caldwell duggar struggles through labor on counting on . . . before welcoming baby garrett\nwhy madonna dated only toyboys and why , as she pushes 60 , she ' s finally got bored with them . . . by the writer who knows her best\nbrooklyn beckham and squeeze lexy panterra get cozy at london club . . . enraging ex tallia storm\nyolanda hadid ' splits from boyfriend matt minnis ' . . . less than a year after david foster divorce\nbrooklyn beckham utilises his camera skills at wireless festival . . . after his debut photography book was slammed by fans\njustin bieber is the perfect gentleman as he handles the bags . . . while crop top - clad hailey baldwin struts alongside\n' i just don ' t want stuff ' kim kardashian doesn ' t buy her kids gifts to avoid spoiling them and sticks to a household budget . . . but says kanye is the ' biggest shopper '\njoanna gaines shares husband chip ' s unique birth tradition . . . as he cradles newborn son crew\nkylie jenner gushes baby stormi is ' changing every week ' and ' has cutest personality ' . . . as new mom admits to binge watching the handmaid ' s tale\nlena dunham says she was ' really smart ' to date ex jack antonoff . . . after posting nude selfie\ntom brady shows no mercy as he takes on gisele and his cancer - survivor mom in dodgeball . . . with a ' no crying ' rule\nlauren conrad ' s son liam takes a handful of cake . . . as proud mom ' celebrates one year with our little guy '\nkhloe kardashian ' anxious but eager ' as she gets back to work for the first time since true ' s birth . . . and her alarm goes off at 4 . 35am\nnia vardalos ' divorce filing . . . as duo split following 25 years of marriage\nkendall jenner boats in sheer dress . . . after snuggling up to her nba beau ben simmons at khloe kardashian ' s party\nkeyshia cole announces pregnancy on instagram . . . as boyfriend niko khale posts beach pic of couple\nanthony bourdain leaves majority of his $ 1 . 2m estate - which was rumored to be worth at least $ 16m - to 11 - year - old daughter ariane\nben affleck ' s $ 19m la mansion is surrounded by moving trucks . . . as it ' s revealed girlfriend lindsay shookus plans to spend more time on west coast\nbeaming kate gazes lovingly at sleeping prince louis as she and william attend his christening in their . . .\ntroubled actor jonathan rhys meyers is detained at lax after getting into a ' drunken fight with his wife and . . .\n' we only knew each other between action and cut ' : robin wright breaks her silence on kevin spacey ' s sexual . . .\nsupreme court cliffhanger is set for tonight as trump narrows his choices but keeps even his closest aides . . .\ntrump insists kim jong - un ' will honor ' promise to denuclearize despite blasting ' gangster - like demand ' and . . .\nlesbian couple are charged with neglect after they ' repeatedly gave young son marijuana for good behavior . . .\nfinal four thai cave boys and coach are in ' good health ' but must remain trapped underground for at least . . .\nrescued thai cave boys face a lifetime of trauma from their ordeal as traumatic memories could trigger fear . . .\nfrantic parents of rescued thai cave boys have not been told which children have been saved \u2013 as teammates . . .\nthree men will be executed over the infamous gang - rape and murder of a female student , 23 , on a delhi bus in . . .\nhollywood hostage actor who lost his eye , had nose and tongue slit , and was ' deprived of a member of his . . .\nhandcuffed harvey weinstein pleads not guilty to new rape charges , then shares a laugh with his lawyer after . . .\nmesmerising maps reveal record - breaking temperatures across the world as the earth experiences ' one of the . . .\ncouple arrested after their four - year - old son accidentally shots himself between the eyes could face ten . . .\npicture exclusive : a wintour wedding ! vogue editor - in - chief anna ' s daughter bee shaffer is the picture of . . .\nnumber of refugees accepted into the u . s . falls below the rest of the world combined for the first time . . .\nrevealed : the four warning signs you could be heading for divorce - including critcising your partner ' s . . .\nhere comes aunt meghan ! duchess of sussex looks elegant in an olive green shift dress by ralph lauren as she . . .\nhere come the godparents ! kate and william are joined by childhood friends - including guy pelly - and the . . .\nfit for a prince ! louis becomes the eighth royal baby to wear the historic honiton lace christening robe on . . .\npregnant pippa looks glowing in a very appropriate shade of baby blue - as she joins her parents and brother . . .\n' i hope he stays like this ' : kate and the archbishop of canterbury share a joke about sleeping louis as she . . .\nblue for a boy ! george and charlotte both wear the shade for their little brother louis ' christening as the . . .\nsuch a perfect princess ! cute charlotte steals the show again with her royal wave - and a very polite . . .\nthe duke and duchess of cambridge will serve slices of their wedding fruit cake from seven years ago to . . .\nit ' s a hat trick for mcqueen ! kate repeats the look she chose for george and charlotte ' s christenings in . . .\nmay will not face a vote of no confidence . . . for now : pm warns furious tory brexiteers at showdown meeting that sacking her would mean handing corbyn the keys to no 10\n' hi . i ' m linda o ' keefe . . . 45 years ago today , i disappeared and my killer was never found ' : police tweet as the 11 - year - old girl who was murdered in 1973 in a bid to publicize the cold case\nfarm heroes saga , the # 4 game on itunes . play it now !\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\nplus i william haggas : \u2018i wish i had shaamit now\u2019 i ap mccoy\u2019s grand national triumph in pictures i tony morris on the allure of the triple . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nover in western australia sunday afternoon harness racing driver aldo cortopassi drove his career 1000th winner . trainer / driver aldo cortopassi who began his driving career after a successful period in the local pony trots as a teenager reached a milestone that many harness drivers would dream of , and that was winning his 1000th race as a driver . aldo ' s first race win as a driver was on the 7th august 1993 at a track in country western australia , narrogin . . and then 3 weeks and 23 years later wins his 1000th winner as a driver on 3 year old hindu raja for long time stable clients kevin dinnigan & tammy pleysier . . { hindu standardbreds } . . when asked who was his major influence in harness racing aldo quickly replied frank ellis , who aldo worked for as a stable hand as a very young teenager at week - ends and after school . . aldo said that the best pacer he has driven was a mare called meggie dear { $ 186 , 171 & 1 : 55 . 5mr on 06 - dec - 2002 } he also said that the best horse he had trained and driven was total defiance who ' s career record . { $ 550 , 295 & a best of 1 : 52 . 6mr when exported to north america . } it ' s rather ironic that aldo drove hindu goddess for the first time which was the first horse that kevin & tammy owned back on 05 - august - 1994 and achieved the milestone of 1000 winners as a driver with { hindu raja } the last horse they will breed and race . . . to all concerned well done . . standardbred and breeding for all\nbyford harness racing trainer aldo cortopassi brought up his 200th winner as a trainer when odds - on favourite mago man just lasted to win the last race at gloucester park tonight . cortopassi began training in 1995 with his first winner being just miles ahead on 7th july 1995 at gloucester park . mago man is raced by vince vinciullo who enjoyed considerable success as an owner / trainer some 30 years ago with devils arrow and raceaway too which both finished in the stables of fred kersley after being given their early racing by vinciullo . devils arrow won 12 races however vinciullo hit the jackpot with raceaway too which won 21 races including the 1987 americas cup festival of sport cup . the $ 100 , 000 race had originally been intended to be run to co - incide with each defence of the americas cup yacht race . unfortunately the cup was lost in 1987 and the acfos cup was never run again . alan parker\nbeaudiene boaz ' s performance in his australian debut highlighted friday ' s harness racing at gloucester park with the highly touted two year old proving too good in the $ 125 , 000 premier suzuki golden slipper . wes cameron caught up with clinton hall just after the race . also on gptv this week : tom buchanan : tom previews his drives at pinjarra this monday . dylan egerton - green : dylan talks about his upcoming drives in pinjarra and northam . nathan turvey : nathan previews his monday drives at pinjarra and talks about what ' s coming up for his stable . aldo cortopassi : aldo on his drives at pinjarra , his venture into thoroughbred racing and the status of pacing cup winner hokonui ben for the full list of videos visit urltoken\nin the lead up to tomorrow night\u2019s bumper harness racing meeting at gloucester park , wes cameron speaks to ; morgan woodley mark congerton aldo cortopassi nathan turvey robbie williams for the full list of interviews urltoken on a night with two group one races , morgan woodley is confident straittothehilton has the gate speed to lead from barrier one in the $ 100 , 000 nhp westbred 2yo fillies classic . \u201cshe\u2019s shown in the past that she can come out fast from the outside barriers and this is probably her best draw in a long time so we\u2019ll be hoping to use that early speed and then just assess it as it happens , \u201d woodley said . owner / breeder mark congerton acknowledged the strength of the field but remained bullish of his filly , massive attack\u2019s , chances in the race . \u201cshe\u2019ll beat all of them , \u201d he said . \u201cshe\u2019s a very , very good filly . she\u2019s very tough , she\u2019s hard , she can lead , she\u2019s got great gate speed\u2026they won\u2019t beat her on friday night . \u201d maybe special trained by frank bonna faces a stern test amid such strong competition but driver nathan turvey remains quietly confident of her prospects . \u201cshe beat some quite nice fillies last start\u2026she\u2019ll probably go the fence from barrier nine but she\u2019s a lot better than people think , \u201d turvey said . for the full list of interviews visit urltoken\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nnew customers only , place a \u20ac10 bet on any sportsbook market - min stake \u20ac10 at odds of at least 1 . 5 ( 1 / 2 ) \u2014 and we\u2019ll give you \u20ac30 in free bets . only deposits made using cards or paypal will qualify for this promotion . free bets are valid for 30 days and must be used on a sportsbook market . free bets will be awarded after the qualifying bet has been settled . t & cs apply . games : one bonus per customer . \u20ac10 free to play on ted slot game , offer valid for 7 days . opt in on games promotions page . x15 wagering applies . t & cs apply .\nimportant info : 18 + . new uk + ire customers only . min deposit \u00a35 . certain payment methods and cashout excluded . min first bet \u00a35 . min odds 1 / 2 ( 1 . 5 ) . must be placed within 14 days of account reg . free bet credited upon placement of qualifying bet , valid for 24 hours . free bet stake not returned . t & cs apply .\nup to \u00a3100 in bet credits . new customers only . sign up , deposit \u00a35 or more to your account and bet365 will match your qualifying deposit in bet credits when you place qualifying bets to the same value and they are settled . min odds / bet and payment method exclusions apply . returns exclude bet credits stake . t & cs , time limits & exclusions apply .\nimportant info : 18 + . uk + ire only . min first bet \u00a310 a odds 1 / 2 or more . tote and pool excluded . must be placed within 14 days of account reg . \u00a330 credited as 3 x \u00a310 free bets . not valid with cashout . free bet valid for 4 days . free bet stake not returned . t & cs apply .\nnew william hill online customers only . min . unit stake of \u00a310 at odds of 1 / 2 or greater . only the ' win ' part from ew bets will count . free bet terms , payment method & country restrictions apply . free bets credited as 3 x \u00a310 . free bet stakes are not returned as part of the settlement of successful free bets . all free bets must be wagered within 30 days .\nonly available to new customers from uk & northern ireland . you must stake \u00a310 or more at single / cumulative odds of evens ( 2 . 0 ) or greater on your first bet . free bet balance of \u00a330 credited within 48 hours of your first bet being settled . free bets expire after 7 days . e - wallet restrictions apply . minimum 5 game rounds . game restrictions apply . maximum 30 free spins on selected games . free spins expire after 7 days . full t & cs apply .\nnew customers only . qualifying bet must be placed at odds of 2 . 0 or greater ; \u00a350 free sports bet split into 5 bets of \u00a310 each , valid on set events only ; * * wager must be 40 times the free casino bonus in order to withdraw winnings . credit or debit card deposits only ; deposit and bet of \u00a310 required within 7 days of opening new account , t & c apply .\n18 + , t & c ' s apply . cash stakes only . min \u00a310 stake required for initial \u00a35 free bet . min odds 1 / 2 . max \u00a325 in free bets . subsequent free bets equal 50 % average of each of 3 qualifying bets . 13 bets required to receive full \u00a325 free bet . qualifying bet must be placed within 30 days of opening account . free bet expires after 7 days . payment method restrictions apply .\nall original material is copyright \u00a9 2005 - 2018 by moneta communications . other material is copyright their respective owners .\nclick here for the thoroughbred village home page . for village news , follow @ tbvillage on twitter . for horseracing tips , follow @ villagebet on twitter . to contact the mayor by email : click here .\ntomoharu bushizawa\nshe worked today like she always does , which is what we wanted to see from her . her last performance ( 4th , grade 3 fukushima himba stakes ) wasn ' t too shabby , and her conditioning is definitely picking up with the weather getting warmer .\nyuichi shikato ( trainer )\nshe ' s giving off good vibes after working with her partner . she took a little break at the yamamoto training center after her last start , and she came back to us in very good shape . she ' s changed , physically , and she ' s become much more consistent lately . she should do fine even at 1 , 600 meters as long as she doesn ' t fight the flow .\nyuichi kitamura\nyou can tell right away she ' s in good form because of the way she ' s responding . our opponents are strong , but she just needs to concentrate on running her race at her rhythm . she never gives in easily , which is her best quality . hopefully , i can ride a race that will make the most of that .\nhideaki fujiwara ( trainer )\nher partner went a little faster than we had hoped for , but our horse is in good shape . i think everyone knows the big two aren ' t 100 percent right now , so this is our chance here . but to make the most of the opportunity , we have to be at our best which we think she ' s in . the conditions of the race are good and she has a very high ceiling . we ' re out to achieve something here , no question .\nnorihiro yokoyama\na horse of her class , it all comes down to her physical condition . if she ' s fit , then it ' s automatic that she ' ll be in the race . i saw her race in dubai , and she ran a good race . i was just really impressed by her ability . this is her first race back , and as it is with people , it ' s only natural to be a little tired after traveling abroad \u2013 especially in a cargo ! but i ' ve been told by the trainer she ' s in the form she needs to be in and she ' s won at the mile in the past so i don ' t anticipate too many problems .\nhiroyoshi matsuda ( trainer )\nshe isn ' t as edgy as she used to be , so she doesn ' t work like she used to . she got a little worked up last week and took the bit , but i think she was just getting loose because she ' s back to her usual old self . she looks very fit . the last race had to be tough on her . there ' s no question a longer distance is better for her , but the long straight at tokyo will make up for it . we don ' t need her to do anything special here ; all we ask from her is to be herself . the result will be there in the end if she does .\nyasuo ikee ( trainer )\nshe had the ideal workout today . started slow , and picked it up on the straight . she ' s a little plump right now , but she should be all right after the travel on the day of the race . if you look at the way she ran when she won the kyoto himba stakes two starts ago , a spacious track will probably bring out the best in her .\nhiroyuki nagahama ( trainer )\ni was reassured by her movement today . her breathing was good as well . she balked at working on the woodchip last week , so she trained on the hill today . the track was heavy , so i ' m not concerned with the 14 seconds through the last furlong . from her build to her performance , everything about her is better than what it was compared to last season . she ' s won back to back at 1 , 400 meters , and i think she ' s finally come into her own . we ' re really looking forward to how she does against this quality of competition in the mile .\nkazuo fujisawa ( trainer )\nno problem with her condition and she looks all right after the workout . she ' s been steady since her last start , and although she ' s become a really good racehorse , she hasn ' t faced the kind of competition and the pace she ' ll go up against here . things might not turn out the way we want it to , but at the very least , she has the potential to be as good as her mother , lady blond .\nhiroaki kiyoyama ( assistant trainer )\nshe ' s moving much better than she did for her last race . last year , she was running on her potential alone . this year , she ' s really learning how to race , step by step .\nyasuo tomomichi ( trainer )\nwe ' re pleased with the way she worked today . she ' s a little bit difficult to grasp , but her best distance is somewhere in between a mile and 2 , 000 meters .\nnobuhiro suzuki ( trainer )\nnothing fast , just took it nice and easy today , and her action was good . this has been our target for the spring all long and everything has gone according to plan so far . the competition is tough , no doubt , but there ' s no question our horse has gotten stronger as well . since training at ritto , she ' s put on a lot of muscle around the shoulders and her hind legs . i think it ' s rare for a horse to improve as much as she has at her age . i don ' t think she ' s ever been this good before , and we certainly have our hopes up for sure .\nkenichi fujioka ( trainer )\nshe worked exactly according to plan , and there ' s no question she ' s in much better form compared to her last start . i think all it comes down to is her being able to run a clean race .\nshigeyuki kojima ( trainer )\nshe ' s due for a break after this , so we ' re not holding back here . we worked her hard , and considering how bad she is on an off track , we ' re very pleased with what we saw from her today . we ' ve been taking it one race at a time , but i think she ' s in as good shape as she ever has been in . she can pretty much handle any pace , but the key for her is rhythm more than anything . i wanted the jockey , tetsuzo sato , to get a feel for her at the tokyo mile in the tokyo shimbun hai , and she ' s much stronger than she was back then . the 4 - year - olds are pretty tough , but given her form right now , we ' ll give them a run for their money .\nhirofumi shii\nif we wanted a fast time from her , we could ' ve gotten it . but she ' s just come back from racing in dubai so there ' s no need to push her . judging by the way she felt this morning , she can run her best race . she hasn ' t changed much from last season , but she probably doesn ' t need to because she ' s such a talented horse . the fans have been waiting all long for this matchup , and these two horses have to set the benchmark for all of racing over the next couple of months so we can ' t embarrass ourselves out there . she might be a little edgier right now than usual so a mile is probably good for her . i just hope we can get our season in japan off to a good start here .\nmikio matsunaga ( trainer )\nnot a whole lot of time after dubai , so there was no need for fast work . i ' m really pleased with the workout . she ' s put the weight back on , and her usual stuff will be enough to give us a chance . the tokyo course is really good for her , plus she knows how to race now so any pace is good for us . she was second in the record rose stakes so she can put up a fast time if it comes down to that .\nkyosuke maruta\nshe trained at her own pace which she usually does , and she looks very relaxed right now . mentally , she ' s probably right where we need her to be . i think she should be able to handle the extra distance just fine .\nyogelatiada munakata ( trainer )\nwe had to be picky about the course she worked on because of the rain today . she lost some weight after her last start , but she ' s managed to put it back on . her breathing was good , and we think she ' s in pretty good form at the moment . but i have to admit , we ' re in a pretty tough field here . we have nothing to lose ; we see ourselves as challengers . we just have to see how both the jockey and the horse do in their first grade 1 start .\nhayato yoshida\nshe had someone set the pace for her early on , and we just wanted to see her response over her position toward the front in her last race and if anything , she was probably better the last furlong today . i think it ' s safe to say she ' s in good condition . she can basically race from any position now , and you can always count on her to finish strong .\nkazu sato ( assistant trainer )\nwe gave her some much - needed rest following the last race . she ' s definitely in better shape compared to then , and running counterclockwise is a plus for her . she ' ll need some help with the pace here , though , because the other horses are so strong .\nred desire & buena vista back from dubai and back down to the mile , still think they will both run well . going for red desire to bounce back .\ni backed red desire - not a bad run after her wide run . but buena vista simply too good .\nstar nsw filly frith produced a brilliant all the way performance to take out an action - packed $ 150 , 000 g1 gannons wa oaks on friday night at gloucester park .\nharness racing driver bruce harpley , a postman in the town of junee , 435km south - west of sydney , has high hopes of celebrating his first drive in a race in western australia by guiding frith to victory in the $ 150 , 000 gannon ' s wa oaks at gloucester park on friday night .\nsire : special week ( jpn ) , dark bay or brown , 1995 . lifetime : 37 yearlings sold , median $ 197 , 400 .\nsire : agnes tachyon ( jpn ) , chestnut , 1998 . lifetime : 60 yearlings sold , median $ 250 , 916 .\nbroodmare sire : a . p . indy , dark bay or brown , 1989 .\nsire : tanino gimlet ( jpn ) , bay , 1999 . lifetime : 20 yearlings sold , median $ 165 , 663 .\njour polaire rallied to the lead in the final strides of the may 13 victoria mile ( g1 ) at toyko racecourse and just held off the favorite , lys gracieux , by a nose at the wire .\njapan ' s string of six straight weekly grade 1 races continues may 13 with the victoria mile for fillies and mares at tokyo , featuring the winner of the 2017 yushun himba ( japanese oaks , g1 ) , soul stirring ( jpn ) .\nrisen star , barbara fritchie , rachel alexandra , buena vista , general george , mineshaft handicap , razorback handicap , royal delta , southwest , las flores , bayakoa , fair grounds handicap , california cup derby , california cup oaks , february and more .\nbarbara fritchie , royal delta , buena vista , general george , bayakoa , razorback , southwest , and more .\npimlico , japan , belterra , santa anita , canterbury , monmouth , charles town and more .\nshowing a sparkling turn of foot in the stretch , straight girl wore down front - runner keiai elegant near the finish line in blitzing to victory in the victoria mile ( jpn - i ) may 17 at tokyo .\nverxina led gate to wire as she struck for a repeat win in the victoria mile ( jpn - i ) may 18 at tokyo racecourse .\nfour times second at the group i level in 2012 , verxina finally broke through in the victoria mile ( jpn - i ) may 12 at tokyo racecourse when holding off the strong late charge of whale capture to prevail by a nose ."]}
{"id": 2227, "summary": [{"text": "euchelus bicinctus is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family chilodontidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "many specimens of clanculus tonnerrei ( g & h nevill 1874 ) have been misdientified as belonging to this species , following a misidentification of issel ( 1869 ) ( herbert , 1996 ) . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "euchelus bicinctus", "paragraphs": ["worms - world register of marine species - euchelus bicinctus auct . non philippi , 1849\nspecies euchelus proximus a . adams , 1855 accepted as euchelus circulatus ( anton , 1849 )\nspecies euchelus bicinctus auct . non philippi , 1849 accepted as clanculus tonnerrei ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1874 )\nspecies euchelus angulatus pease , 1868 accepted as vaceuchelus foveolatus ( a . adams , 1853 )\nspecies euchelus hachijoensis pilsbry , 1904 accepted as herpetopoma rubrum ( a . adams , 1853 )\nspecies euchelus edentulus ( a . adams , 1853 ) accepted as clanculus edentulus a . adams , 1853\nto biodiversity heritage library ( 2 publications ) ( from synonym clanculus gibbonsi sowerby iii , 1912 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 2 publications ) ( from synonym euchelus bicinctus auct . non philippi , 1849 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 4 publications ) ( from synonym euchelus erythraeensis sturany , 1903 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 4 publications ) ( from synonym clanculus gennesi h . fischer , 1901 ) to encyclopedia of life to encyclopedia of life ( from synonym euchelus bicinctus auct . non philippi , 1849 ) to mnhn molluscs type collection ( 2000 - 31160 ) ( from synonym clanculus gennesi h . fischer , 1901 )\nspecies euchelus clathratus ( a . adams , 1853 ) accepted as vaceuchelus clathratus ( a . adams , 1853 )\nspecies euchelus erythraeensis sturany , 1903 accepted as clanculus tonnerrei ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1874 )\nspecies euchelus ruber ( a . adams , 1851 ) accepted as herpetopoma rubrum ( a . adams , 1853 )\n( of euchelus bicinctus auct . non philippi , 1849 ) herbert d . g . ( 1996 ) . observations on clanculus tonnerrei ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1874 ) ( mollusca gastropoda trochidae ) . tropical zoology 9 : 31 - 45 . [ details ]\nbetween otaki and waikanae . at first sight i took it to be a very small specimen of the banded dotterel ( charadrius bicinctus ) , several specimens of which were lying near , but observing that the colouration of the feet , breast , and head differed very much from that of c . bicinctus , i carefully preserved the skin .\nsubgenus euchelus ( pareuchelus ) o . boettger , 1907 \u2020 accepted as pareuchelus o . boettger , 1907 \u2020 ( original rank )\n\u00bb species euchelus ( herpetopoma ) foveolatus ( a . adams , 1851 ) accepted as vaceuchelus foveolatus ( a . adams , 1853 )\nspecies euchelus lamberti ( souverbie in souverbie & montrouzier , 1875 ) accepted as tallorbis roseola g . nevill & h . nevill , 1869\nsubgenus euchelus ( nevillia ) h . adams , 1868 accepted as nevillia h . adams , 1868 accepted as alcyna a . adams , 1860\nspecies euchelus gemmula w . h . turton , 1932 accepted as vaceuchelus gemmula ( w . h . turton , 1932 ) ( original combination )\nspecies euchelus natalensis e . a . smith , 1906 accepted as vaceuchelus natalensis ( e . a . smith , 1906 ) ( original combination )\nspecies euchelus scabriusculus a . adams & angas , 1867 accepted as herpetopoma scabriusculum ( a . adams & angas , 1867 ) ( original combination )\nsubgenus euchelus ( perrinia ) h . adams & a . adams , 1854 accepted as perrinia h . adams & a . adams , 1854 ( original rank )\n\u00bb species euchelus ( herpetopoma ) pruinosus b . a . marshall , 1979 accepted as herpetopoma pruinosum ( b . a . marshall , 1979 ) ( original combination )\nspecies euchelus seychellarum g . nevill & h . nevill , 1869 accepted as herpetopoma seychellarum ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1869 ) ( original combination )\n( of euchelus erythraeensis sturany , 1903 ) herbert d . g . ( 1996 ) . observations on clanculus tonnerrei ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1874 ) ( mollusca gastropoda trochidae ) . tropical zoology 9 : 31 - 45 . [ details ]\n( of trochus ( euchelus ) philippi , 1847 ) philippi r . a . ( 1847 ) . versuch einer systematischen eintheilung des geschlechtes trochus . zeitschrift f\u00fcr malakozoologie . 4 : 17 - 26 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 20 [ details ]\nngu ? n : wikipedia . c c trang : 36 . ch ng : euchelus , neomphalidae , vaceuchelus , anatomidae , pendromidae , cantrainea , angaria delphinus , herpetopoma , granata , danilia , choristella , addisoniidae , perrinia , lepetella , pseudococculinidae , vetulonia , lepetellidae , leptothyra , bothropoma , neomphaloidea , scissurelloidea , vaceuchelus scrobiculatus , arene cruentata , ataphridae , agathodonta elongata , pyropeltidae , tecticrater , peltospira , crysomallon , euchelus bicinctus , cinysca , mirachelus corbis , danilia tinei , retiskenea diploura , perrinia stellata , granata sulcifera , lepetelloidea , euchelus guttarosea , danilia affinis , mirachelus clinocnemus , herpetopoma barbieri , didianema pauli , lirapex , lirapex costellata , pyropelta ryukyuensis , angaria melanacantha , sutilizonidae , chilodonta suduirauti , bichoristes , herpetopoma naokoae , hybochelus leucogranulatus , agathodonta meteorae , nodopelta , emiliotia immaculatus , vaceuchelus vangoethemi , danilia stratmanni , vaceuchelus ludiviniae , vaceuchelus pagoboorum , trochaclis , angaria nhatrangensis , peltospira smaragdina , vaceuchelus vallesi , angaria turpini , planorbidella , herpetopoma eboreum , herpetopoma bella , perrinia cecileae , vaceuchelus abdii , pyropelta sibuetae , lacunoides vitreus , nodopelta rigneae , pyropelta oluae , angaria carmencita , cantrainea globuloides , danilia discordata , perrinia docili , cataegis , lirapex humata , danilia angulosa , mirachelus urueuauau , pachydermia , haliotoidea , depressizona exorum , homalopoma imperforata , danilia galeata , trachysma , euchelus atratus , turcica , homalopoma variecostata , bathyphytophilidae , herpetopoma larochei alacerrima , homalopoma fluctuata , vetulonia paucivaricosa , symmetromphalus , choristella tenera , depressigyra globulus , choristella vitrea , cantrainea yoyottei , liotipoma wallisensis , homalopoma umbilicata , leptothyra filifer , planorbidella planispira , vetulonia parajeffreysi , choristella nofronii , lepetodriloidea , angaria rugosa , cantrainea peloritana , danilia eucheliformis , angaria n . . .\nplease note that the content of this book primarily consists of articles available from wikipedia or other free sources online . pages : 52 . chapters : tricolia , tricolia pullus , lepetodrilus , mikadotrochus , euchelus , neomphalidae , vaceuchelus , anatomidae , pendromidae , addisonia excentrica , cantrainea , leptogyra , herpetopoma , pleurotomaria , angaria delphinus , eulithidium , granata , danilia , addisoniidae , perrinia , perotrochus , pseudococculinidae , choristella , vetulonia , lepetella , entemnotrochus , lepetellidae , bayerotrochus , leptothyra , neomphaloidea , kaiparapelta askewi , bothropoma , scissurelloidea , leptogyra costellata , eulithidium tessellatum , bayerotrochus africanus , copulabyssia colombia , tricolia retrolineata , vaceuchelus scrobiculatus , entemnotrochus rumphii , amphiplica plutonica , pseudococculina rimula , tecticrater , ataphridae , pyropeltidae , copulabyssia riosi , crysomallon , arene cruentata , melanodrymiidae , peltospira , cinysca , agathodonta elongata , copulabyssia leptalea , mirachelus corbis , helicopelta , euchelus bicinctus , perrinia stellata , tricolia saxatilis , pilus conicus , lepetodrilus shannonae , danilia tinei , granata sulcifera , tricolia adusta , lepetelloidea , mirachelus clinocnemus , euchelus guttarosea , phasianella australis , herpetopoma barbieri , danilia affinis , entemnotrochus adansonianus , sutilizonidae , pyropelta ryukyuensis , melanodrymia , osteopelta mirabilis , addisonia brophyi , lirapex , herpetopoma bella , tricolia speciosa , gorgoleptis , lirapex costellata , didianema pauli , leptogyra inconspicua , leptogyra inflata , leptogyra eritmeta , leptogyra verrilli , herpetopoma naokoae , hybochelus leucogranulatus , vaceuchelus vangoethemi , lepetodrilus atlanticus , sutilizona , lepetodrilus gordensis , nodopelta , vaceuchelus ludiviniae , vaceuchelus pagoboorum , melanodrymia galeronae , sutilizona tunnicliffae , pyropelta sibuetae , trochaclis , chilodonta suduirauti , pyropelta oluae , peltospira smaragdina , vaceuchelus vallesi , angaria melanacantha , emiliotia immaculatu . . .\n( of euchelus erythraeensis sturany , 1903 ) albano p . g . , bakker p . a . j . , janssen r . & eschner a . ( 2017 ) . an illustrated catalogue of rudolf sturany\u2019s type specimens in the naturhistorisches museum wien , austria ( nhmw ) : red sea gastropods . zoosystematics and evolution . 93 ( 1 ) : 45 - 94 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nfairly common . the distinctness of this form is not beyond doubt , vittata , littorinoides , and strebeli all seem to intergrade somewhat on the mainland , and investigation of specific values in this genus must be left for another occasion . i have , however , used strebeli for a number of chatham shells , evidently not bicinctus , of a uniformly dull colour , and very solid habit ; i have identical shells from dunedin harbour ( the type locality of strebeli ) and other forsterian localities . it may be noted , however , that reeve ' s figure of the type of his littorinoides ( conch . icon . , vol . 3 , pl . 12 , f . 94 ) looks as much like strebeli as it does the form commonly accepted as littorinoides .\nthis seems to be needed for the various minolioid genera such as talopia gray , 1842 , minolia a . ad , 3860 , talopena iredale , 1918 , spectamen iredale , 1924 , antisolarium , conominolia , zeminailia , and zetela , all of finlay , 1926 , but not ethminolia iredale , 1924 ; of these talopia is the oldest name , and may be taken as the foundation of the family . solariella wood , 1842 , and machaeroplax friele , 1877 , perhaps belong here , but , being northern groups , may be more closely related to other associations . thiele has placed these in his subfamily margaritinae , but iredale has noted ( rec . austr . mus . , vol . 14 , no . 4 , p . 258 , 1925 ) that , as far as austral species are concerned , this should be termed stomatellinae , and to the euchelus - stotnatella series the austral minolioids show little resemblance .\nmanual of conchology , structural and systematic : with illustrations of the species : tryon , george w . ( george washington ) , 1838 - 1888 : free download , borrow , and streaming : internet archive\ntryon , george w . ( george washington ) , 1838 - 1888 ; pilsbry , henry augustus , b . 1862 ; sharp , b\nvols . 11 - 17 ( published 1889 - 1898 / 8 ) by george w . tryon , continued by henry a . pilsbry vols . 11 - 17 have imprint : published by the conchological section , academy of natural sciences originally issued quarterly , in 68 pts consists of\nfirst series , marine univalves .\ncf . p . [ 4 ] of covers of individual pts includes bibliographical references and index\nthere are no reviews yet . be the first one to write a review .\nherbert d . g . ( 1996 ) . observations on clanculus tonnerrei ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1874 ) ( mollusca gastropoda trochidae ) . tropical zoology 9 : 31 - 45 . [ details ]\nherbert d . g . ( 2012 ) a revision of the chilodontidae ( gastropoda : vetigastropoda : seguenzioidea ) of southern africa and the south - western indian ocean . african invertebrates , 53 ( 2 ) : 381\u2013502 . [ 6 november 2012 ] , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nworms - world register of marine species - clanculus tonnerrei ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1874 )\nclanculus ( clanculopsis ) tonnerrei ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1874 ) \u00b7 accepted , alternate representation\n( of clanculus gennesi h . fischer , 1901 ) fischer h . ( 1901 ) . liste des coquilles recueillies par m . de gennes \u00e0 djibouti et ali - sabieh , avec description de plusieurs formes nouvelles . journal de conchyliologie . 49 : 96 - 130 , pl . 4 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 123 - 125 [ details ]\n( of clanculus gennesi h . fischer , 1901 ) herbert d . g . ( 1996 ) . observations on clanculus tonnerrei ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1874 ) ( mollusca gastropoda trochidae ) . tropical zoology 9 : 31 - 45 . [ details ]\n( of clanculus gennesi h . fischer , 1901 ) bosch d . t . , dance s . p . , moolenbeek r . g . & oliver p . g . ( 1995 ) seashells of eastern arabia . dubai : motivate publishing . 296 pp . [ details ]\n( of clanculus gibbonsi sowerby iii , 1912 ) herbert d . g . ( 1996 ) . observations on clanculus tonnerrei ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1874 ) ( mollusca gastropoda trochidae ) . tropical zoology 9 : 31 - 45 . [ details ]\n( of clanculus gibbonsi sowerby iii , 1912 ) petit , r . e . ( 2009 ) . george brettingham sowerby , i , ii & iii : their conchological publications and molluscan taxa . zootaxa . 2189 : 1\u2013218 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of clanculus ( clanculopsis ) tonnerrei ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1874 ) ) herbert d . g . ( 1996 ) . observations on clanculus tonnerrei ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1874 ) ( mollusca gastropoda trochidae ) . tropical zoology 9 : 31 - 45 . [ details ]\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nnatural history museum ( 2014 ) . dataset : collection specimens . resource : specimens . natural history museum data portal ( data . nhm . ac . uk ) . urltoken\nan open source project by the natural history museum ' s biodiversity informatics group .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nusing cookies on urltoken shellauction uses cookies only for technical reasons and to facilitate and speed up your site navigation . by continuing to browse , you accept the use of cookies ; if you do not wish to receive them please disable them or not navigate this website further . more info cookies on urltoken\nutilizzo dei cookies su urltoken shellauction utilizza i cookies esclusivamente per ragioni tecniche e per facilitare e velocizzare la navigazione del sito . continuando a navigare accetti l ' utilizzo dei cookies , se non desideri riceverli ti invitiamo a disabilitarli oppure a non navigare questo sito ulteriormente . altre informazioni sui cookies di urltoken\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\nsupplier out of stock . if you add this item to your wish list we will let you know when it becomes available .\nis the information for this product incomplete , wrong or inappropriate ? let us know about it .\ndoes this product have an incorrect or missing image ? send us a new image .\ncopyright \u00a9 loot\u2122 online ( pty ) ltd . all rights reserved . khutaza park , bell crescent , westlake business park . po box 30836 , tokai , 7966 , south africa . info @ urltoken loot is a member of the independent media group of companies . all prices displayed are subject to fluctuations and stock availability as outlined in our terms & conditions .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ntransactions and proceedings of the new zealand institute , 1879 . [ electronic resource ]\n, ph . d . , f . r . s . , director of the canterbury museum .\n[ read before the philosophical institute of canterbury , 26 th november , 1879 . ]\n, i offered a description of the skeleton of this interesting southern ziphioid whale . i then stated on the authority of the late mr . f . fuller , taxidermist of the canterbury museum , who went to secure the skeleton of that specimen , stranded in lyttelton harbour , some details about the characteristic form and colour of the skin of the animal in question . when my informant arrived where the fishermen were at work , he found that the blubber had nearly all been taken off , so that he could only partially obtain the required measurements . from the observations i am about to offer to the society , on two more specimens stranded since then on our sea - beach , it will be seen that some of the statements were far from being correct .\nin fact , the animal was so much cut about that its lower part was taken for the upper , and vice vers\u00e2 and consequently no dorsal fin could be found where it was looked for . the first of the specimens under review was stranded on sunday , the 17th of november , 1878 , near new brighton . there were numerous visitors at the time who observed another whale ( according to other lookers - on , two whales ) in the offing , by which the animal was driven into the surf , where soon it became helpless . gradually it was drifted upon the low sandy beach , where it died only after a long struggle . having received prompt information , i arrived early next morning on the scene , and found the animal quite intact , so that i could not only take the necessary measurements , but also have a careful sketch prepared , which , as the sequel will show , is of importance , in offering us some curious information as to the habits of this species of ziphioids .\ncolour : head , neck , and anterior portion of the back , as far as the dorsal fin , white ; the rest of the body black ; a white narrow line running along the edge of the dorsal fin , which is otherwise black . the line of division between the two colours is everywhere well marked , except upon\nthe cheeks , where blackish blotches advance some distance towards the nose . the cylindrical form of the animal for its length is rather slender , its height at the occiput being only 2 feet 3 inches , and at about nine feet from the tip of the lower jaw 3 feet 3 inches , after which it tapers gradually to the tail . the animal proved to be a young female .\nthe two teeth at the termination of the lower jaw stood half an inch above the gums , having a diameter of one inch where they rose above the latter . they are conical , and have a sharp apex , and are not covered anywhere with enamel , not even on the tip . the dentine shows a number of horizontal lines one above the other , running round the tooth . they are therefore quite different from the teeth of the two specimens described in vol . ix . ( transactions of the new zealand institute ) , which were found to be covered with a rough cement . they are also different from those of another specimen , of which i shall give some details further on .\na single fold begins below the throat , 1 foot 1 inch from the top of the lower jaw . after rising rapidly for four inches , it continues for seven inches more at a smaller angle , ceasing where the black colour of the throat begins . this fold is separated into two portions by a ridge of the breadth of half an inch below the centre of the throat .\nlips flesh - coloured ; roof of mouth slaty - black ; no signs of teeth along the jaws ; there is , however , a hardened ridge along both sides of the palate . the extremity of the lower jaw projects about two inches beyond the upper . the head rises steeply above the upper lip to the forehead .\nthe blow - hole is situated on the vertex of the head just above the eye . both the form and the size of the dorsal fin and of the tail - lobes , show that this species must be a remarkably swift swimmer .\nbefore giving a description of the external appearance of the specimen under review , i wish to allude to another female , 21 feet 6 inches long , of the same species , stranded on may 15th , 1879 , on the sea - beach near kaiapoi , and of which the skeleton was also secured .\nthis was , doubtless , a full - grown , aged animal , the terminal epiphyses being so well anchylosed to the body of the vertebr\u00e6 that even the line of junction could be scarcely distinguished , while in the new brighton specimen these discs were still unanchylosed , and detached themselves readily during maceration .\nin form of the body , and colouration , this animal resembled in every respect the new brighton specimen . however , the two teeth existing at the tip of the lower jaw could not be felt when passing the fingers over the gums , and were only disclosed when making incisions .\nthe teeth are the smallest of all those known to me , being 1\u00b798 and 2 inches long , and only \u00b746 of an inch broad . the left tooth weighs 66 and the right 62 grains . the flattened root is square , and somewhat constricted a quarter of an inch above the base , after which the tooth expands , being broadest about the middle . it then contracts rapidly , running out to a sharp point . this is thus confirmatory evidence that the teeth , with age , are absorbed , and disappear gradually below the gums ; although it is possible that even below the gums they may still be of some use to the animal . it is a peculiar character of the small teeth of the kaiapoi specimen that they should be so very thin , and terminate in a sharp point ; and that the latter should be covered with real enamel , different from any observed upon the dentine in any other teeth of the same species .\nis no doubt in my mind that with them the teeth in front of the lower jaw are both permanent and of larger size than those of the females , just in the same manner as they exist in other ziphioid genera . fortunately , however , there is some evidence at hand strengthening such an hypothesis .\ndr . hector , in his account of the skull of epiodon chathamiensis , * obtained in the chatham islands , describes the teeth of this species , as follows : \u2014\u201cthe lower jaw * * * terminates in two , short , stout , slightly compressed teeth , 2 inches long , and 4 inches in circumference , implanted in shallow sockets . the teeth have slight , irregular stri\u00e6 , and are worn down into two lateral facets , divided by an acute ridge . the position of the teeth , when the jaws are closed , is 2 inches beyond the upper mandible , and unless they are applied against callosities on the upper lip , it is difficult to conceive how they are worn down to this acute form . weight of teeth 817 and 836 grains . \u201d\nfinally , i should like to make a few observations on the nomenclature , and the changes proposed .\nin plate viii . , b is the vent , c the pudendum , and d the fold .\n[ read before the wellington philosophical society , 11 th october , 1879 . ]\nhaving since made a minute examination , i have not the slightest hesitation in pronouncing it to be a specimen of gould ' s hiaticula ruficapilla ; it appears to be a very common australian species .\nmr . gould , in his \u201chandbook to the birds of australia , \u201d * states : \u2014\u201cthe red - capped dotterel is universally dispersed over every part of the sea - shores of australia that i have visited , and everywhere evinces a greater preference for the shingly beach of the ocean , and especially for deep salt - water bays , than for the sides of rivers and inland waters ; it is very numerous in tasmania , on flinders ' island , on the sand - banks at the mouth of the hunter in new south wales , and at port adelaide in south australia ; and gilbert states that it is equally abundant in western australia , where it is likewise so strictly a bird of the coast that he never saw it inland . it is usually met with in pairs , but may be occasionally observed associating in small companies : \u2014\n\u201clike the tring\u0153 , this bird resorts to every possible device in order to lure the intruder from its nest ; throwing itself down upon its breast and flapping its wings , as if in the agonies of death , it will so continue until he has approached almost near enough to place his hand upon it , when it moves along for several yards , dragging one of its legs behind , and , if still followed , attempts to fly , and so well imitates the motion of a bird wounded in the wing , that the intruder is easily misled , and the eggs remain undiscovered . \u201d\n\u201cthe male has the forehead crossed by a broad band of white , which gradually diminishes to a point at the posterior angle of the eye ; above , a band of black , which also diminishes to a point at the same place ; from the angle of the mouth to the eye , a line of black , which is continued from the posterior angle of the eye down the sides of the neck ; crown of head , nape , and back of neck , rich rusty red ; all the upper surface and wings pale brown , each feather margined with a still lighter tint : primaries , blackish - brown ; the shafts and extreme edge of the inner webs white ; four central tail - feathers dark brown , the remainder white ; all the under surface white ; irides very dark brown ; bill dark reddish brown ; naked part of legs above the tarsi dark greenish grey , tarsi light grey ; feet blackish brown . \u201d\nthe example before us is probably an accidental straggler to our shores from australia , it is , however , a very interesting addition to our list of new zealand birds .\nit will be remembered that , in 1876 , dr . buller read before this society descriptions of several varieties of the common , wood - pigeon ( carpophaga nov\u0153 - zealandi\u0153 ) . i have now the pleasure of bringing under your notice two additional examples of albinism in this species .\nno . 1 is a beautiful albino , the whole plumage being pure white , with the exception of the lesser wing - coverts , which are a delicate yellowish - brown colour , but much more decided than in the specimen mentioned by dr . buller . the claws are yellow instead of black , which is the normal colour . this specimen was shot at springhill station , upper whareama , by mr . a . cameron , and by him presented to the museum ; he says it has frequently been seen about the station during the last four years .\nno . 2 is a partial albino . the head , neck , back , and fore - part of the breast are light brown , stained in places with coppery - purple ; lesser wing - coverts , coppery - purple ; quills and their coverts , light brown ; quills tipped and margined with white . tail - feathers brown , tipped with white ; under - surface steel grey , changing to brown towards the extremities ; under - parts from breast downwards , white , slightly tinged with brown ; eyes and feet the usual carmine pink ; claws yellowish - pink , tipped with black . this specimen was procured at pahautanui , and presented to the museum by mr . wise , a very old resident in the district .\nthe next specimen i have to draw your attention to is a curious and interesting variety of the kotuku , or white heron ( ardea syrmatophora ) .\non the right wing , near the \u201cbend , \u201d is a patch of dark feathers ; thence a band of black and brown passes right over the back and joins a much larger patch of the same colour on the left wing , and then extends obliquely across the breast , becoming fainter as it again approaches the left side . inner webs of primaries , lining of wings and flank - feathers , more or less marked with brown , passing in places into black . a black patch about an inch in length will also be noticed on the outer web of one of the \u201csecondary plume feathers . \u201d\ni have never before heard of a specimen of this species possessing a single coloured feather , and indeed i am informed that \u201cwhite as a kotuku \u201d has passed into a proverb amongst the natives . i was therefore surprised , when , on proceeding to examine the six specimens contained in the \u201ctype collection , \u201d in the colonial museum , i found that no less than three of them had the wings , especially the under - surfaces , more or less spotted or dashed with brown and black .\nmuseum collection . it is evidently the result of an accident , and from its appearance i should say that a shot had just passed below the nostril , splitting the bill in the manner shown . the left side of the upper mandible has also been broken off , but this was evidently a subsequent misfortune , as the broken edge is still somewhat sharp ; while the top of the bill and \u201cspike\u201d are smooth and polished . this unfortunate bird was presented to the museum several years ago , by mr . j . d . enys , who shot it at akitea .\n[ read before the wellington philosophical society , 27 th september , 1879 . ]\n( orange - wattled crow ) have been as yet entirely unknown , and the author , having chanced to find , towards the end of february last , two nests of this species near the ko - i - te - rangi hill , on the hokitika river , forwards the following description of them .\nthe nests , which were 15 inches externally , were somewhat loosely constructed of twigs and roots , and had well - formed cup - shaped interiors , lined with pine roots and twigs ; they were built in the branches of the coprosma , or \u201cblack\u201d scrub , which grows upon the low river - flats of westland , near the mountain ranges . the average height of the scrub in this instance was about 15 feet , while the nests were about 9 feet above the ground , and 200 feet distant from each other ; one contained an egg , the other , two nearly fledged birds . the egg has been presented to the colonial museum . the two young birds were kept for some weeks in a cage for the\npurpose of studying their habits ; their wattles were of a light - rose tint , changing into a violet colour towards the base , but after death , when their skins were dried , the wattles assumed a dull orange tint . the parent birds had wattles of the usual rich crimson - lake colour , the base being tinted with violet as in the young birds .\nthe egg has almost similarly rounded extremities . length 1\u00b77 inch , breadth 1\u00b71 inch ; the under tint of the egg is brownish , mottled with grey and dark brown blotches which are larger and darker at the larger ends .\n. translated from the zoology of the voyage of the \u201cnovara , \u201d by professor hutton .\npassage imperfectly developed ; transverse processes of the sacral vertebr\u00e6 triangular , flat ; no paratoids . ( fingers and toes not dilated at the tips ; maxillary teeth ) .\ntympanum , sacs , and auditory tubes wanting ; teeth in the upper jaw , and in two faint oblique rows on the palate , behind and between the interior nares . tongue roundish , more or less margined . fingers free . toes half webbed . projection of the navicular bone small .\nfitz . verhandl . d . zool - bot . gesellschaft zu wien , jahrg 1861 ; xi ; pag . 218 , taf . vi\nbody moderately compressed . eyes rather large ; muzzle rather longer than the eye ; exterior nostrils rather nearer to the eye than to the end of the muzzle .\na glandular fold between the posterior corner of the eye and the shoulder ; a second from the eyes , along the sides of the body to the thighs . several warts about the corner of the mouth , and a few smaller ones on the back and on the sides of the rump . two smooth , yellow callosities on the palm of the hand , one on the metacarpus of the thumb , and one near that of the fourth finger . fingers and toes depressed . toes connected by the web for about half their length , the free part bordered by the membrane . projection of the navicular bone faintly elevated . a dark - grey triangular band between the eyes , in front of which is a broadish and lighter oblique stripe ; hind limbs with broad cross bands on a yellowish - brown ground . belly and sides of rump dirty grey - violet , marbled with yellowish - brown ; a\nlight oblique streak running down from the anterior and posterior corners of the eye , and diverging to the rim of the upper jaw . male without sound - bag .\n[ read before the hawke ' s bay philosophical institute , 12 th may , 1879 . ]\nin the winter of 1878 , i received a glass jar from hampden , in this provincial district , containing three full - grown living green lizards . they were pretty nearly alike in size ; two of them were spotted with large irregular - shaped light - green spots , or markings , and one was wholly green . they had been found together , a short time before , in a hole , with a fourth , which was accidentally killed ; and , on their capture , were put carefully into a jar , and packed loosely in moss . on my receiving them i found them apparently very well , but unwilling to move or to face the light , seeking to bury themselves more and more in their mossy bed , so i left them alone , believing they were hybernating . meanwhile , i made many enquiries , by letter , as to their \u201chole , \u201d its linings , etc . , but gained little reliable information , save that \u201cin it , and with them , was a lot of stuff like blasting powder ; \u201d this , i have reason to believe , was the f\u00e6cal debris . i greatly regretted the loss of the fourth , as i think that would have proved to be a green male .\nduring the winter i looked at them three or four times , but they always acted in the same manner , as if averse to having their quiet sleep disturbed . on again looking at them early in october , i found them wholly altered ; they were now desirous of coming to the light , restless , and pawing against the glass , and had increased in number , having four little ones ! two being spotted with white , and two entirely green ; their lovely little bodies looking as if cased in silk velvet instead of scales ; this appearance continued for some weeks . i now lost no time in removing them to more suitable\nearly in november i was sorry to observe that the young ones , although all four had grown rapidly in length , were daily becoming more weak , especially the two entirely green ones ; this , of course , was owing to their not eating . on the 3rd of november one of the young green ones died . at this time , too , the head of one of the adult lizards ( as i believe , the female one ) swelled much , changed to a livid colour , and grew to an unshapely size , with a bloody discharge distilling from its ears . i thought , that something being the matter with its head , the other lizards in their scrambling about over each other ( which they commonly do ) had fixed their sharp claws in its ears , being now tender , and so caused them to bleed , & c . the sick lizard , however , was very patient under it ; and as its disorder increased , the skin of its head became more and more stretched with the swelling , and great and irregular throbbings or undulations were very apparent . ( here i should mention , that the regular pulsation in their throats is always prominently seen ) . and so , as this diseased lizard became\noffensive , yet still living ( though not eating ) , dirtying the others with its discharges , anal now as well as aural , i threw it out into the field .\none of the spotted young ones ( which i shall term no . 1 . ) also cast its skin on the 6th december ; like that of the large male it commenced at the snout , but it came away in fragments\u2014perhaps owing to its being both young and tender .\non the 8th december the second young green lizard died , just as the former young one died , from starvation . this one had , in common with the two young spotted ones , plenty of small flies ( now more easily obtained as the summer advanced ) , but it wanted the power to catch any .\nabout the 12th december the two remaining adult lizards seemed to be getting into a diseased state ; the handsome male , which had so lately shed its outer skin , had something the matter with its ear , from which a bloody discharge was oozing ( resembling in a smaller degree the early diseased state of the adult one that died ) , while the adult female was restless , swelled in the lower abdomen , and discharging a bloody mixture from its anus ; finding this one getting rapidly worse , with its anus greatly swelled and blotchy\u2014starred all round the margin as it were in a curious regular manner\u2014i lost no time in putting it into a bottle of spirits , and , on my going to look at it some ten minutes after , i found , to my astonishment , no less than 26 large living larv\u00e6 of that red - brown flesh - fly had been discharged from its anus ! these were each 5 lines long , and it was their posterior ends compacted together and jutting out from the lizard ' s anus which had given it in that part its peculiar appearance . now it flashed across my\nmind , \u2014their evident dislike and dread on their first seeing that flesh - fly in their cage ; and that this was also the cause of the death of my first lizard , into which the living larv\u00e6 had been deposited through its ears ! causing its head to possess and show those ugly , unnatural throbbings or semi - undulations . i now hastened to the adult male lizard , and caught it , and on gently squeezing its head i saw the posterior end of a larva presenting itself within its ear ; i took a needle and extracted it ; it was much larger than those in the spirits , and gorged with blood . after this the male lizard soon recovered and became lively , though that aural orifice completely closed up , and so remained until the next shedding of its skin , when i was glad to find that it resumed its former appearance . from the time of this discovery i was careful not to give them any more viviparous female flesh - flies , consequently i have had no more similar diseases to notice .\nthe big male lizard again shed its skin on the 24th january ; this time , however , in fragments , yet done quickly , all being over within two hours . and again this lizard shed its skin on the 15th of march , this time in large pieces ; finding that while it had extricated its hind - legs it could not draw out its tail , i caught it and helped it to do so . it was pleasing to see how quietly it remained in my hand , when it found out what i was doing , and how naturally it moved its long tail in an easy wriggling manner , and with\nstrong muscular power pulling against me , so that the whole outer skin of the tail came off , as at first , in one unbroken piece . the cast skin is damp , soft , and slightly clammy , on its being shed , but it quickly dries and hardens .\nthe young lizard ( no . 1 ) next cast off its skin on the 31st december , having assumed the milky appearance already mentioned the day before ; and to my great surprise this same lizard again put on the cloudy milky appearance on the 13th january , and again shed its skin on the following day when its scurf was just a fortnight old ! as before , it began to break away at its snout , but on this occasion , somehow , possibly owing to its fineness , it got rolled up together and backwards behind its eyes , giving the animal with its white wig the drollest appearance imaginable , so that i often laughed outright ! this time it was very slow in casting off its rags , as parts of its skin were still hanging on its sides on the 24th january\u2014just ten days\u2014when i caught it and helped it . this lizard again shed its skin on the 1st march , when it was two days in getting it wholly off : often biting it and tearing at it with its claws . the next time it did so was on the 19th april , having assumed the usual milky appearance two days before ; on this occasion its old scurf first broke through over its back .\nthe other young lizard ( no . 2 ) again cast off its outer skin on the 5th february , having the day before put on the peculiar milky appearance .\nbig adult male , 1878 , november 16 ; 1879 , january 24 ; march 15 . * young one , no . 1 , 1878 , december 6 , december 31 ; 1879 , january 14 , march 1 , april 19 . young one , no . 2 , 1878 , december 16 ; 1879 , february 5 .\ntheir manner of taking their prey ( flies ) is peculiar : when the lizard clearly sees the fly , and makes sure it is living , it steals towards it in the most stealthy manner . as the lizard nears the fly , and when within two inches of it , then is the time closely to notice its actions . first it arches its neck to a tolerably sharp angle , and its eyes swell and bulge out , or rather upwards , over their orbits , and the expression of its countenance alters greatly , taking on a fierce look ; next it lifts its little hand - like paws and moves them , only a toe or a finger at a time and often in the air , very slowly and cautiously ( much like a little child does its hands when stealing along on tip - toe ) , and then it nears its head towards its prey , but so very slowly that i have better detected its movement by watching its shadow cast on marked paper by strong sunlight , \u2014reminding me of the almost imperceptible movement of the hour - hand of a clock . at last it has got to\nwhich they also did . the large lizard often puts its tongue out ( \u201clicking its lips\u201d ) when it goes after a fly , especially if a big one ; i am inclined to think that it is hungry then . it is pretty to see the two young lizards going together after the same fly , especially if the fly is crawling above them , within , on the glass roof ; to see them walking slowly , side by side , with measured gait , and step by step , like a pair of hounds in a leash or a couple of miniature fairy - like little creatures , with their heads up , and their little black eyes glistening ; at such times , too , when they at last near the fly , they often trample on each other in their eagerness , but whenever they do so , they always take it very quietly , the one underneath neither struggling nor retaliating .\nit has often seemed to me as if it were a natural law , or rule , of these lizards ( a thing understood by them ) , that whenever they trample on , or walk slowly over , each other , or stand , or lie , or even sleep on each other , the under one , or ones , always take it patiently , and rarely ever move at all\u2014not even when the sharp claws of the upper lizard are pressing on the eyes of the one under him : i have often been surprised at this . i have never once seen them fight or fall out , or attempt to bite each other , although confined in so small a compass . they often spend hours lying on each other ' s backs , which is a favourite posture with them , and sometimes sleep , or spend , the whole night thus . i have seen the whole seven thus together in one lump , with , sometimes , the little ones underneath .\nthey don ' t seem very timid nor easily startled to any great degree with noises , or sights , or sounds . i keep them on the table in my sitting - room , at which i take my meals , etc . , and i have often thrown down a newspaper by their side , or struck the table with a book pretty strongly , yet they never start ; it is the same when the candles are lit . they appear , too , as if they liked to snugly ensconce themselves in their cage under the koromiko branch , or ( the two young ones ) stretched out at full length on the upper side of the twigs .\ni believe them to be inoffensive , peaceful , and sociable ; and if , as i have already surmised , the fourth one ( which was killed ) was also a male , then there would have been two couples , at least , hybernating together in one \u201chole ; \u201d or that \u201chole\u201d may have been their usual dwelling - place , seeing there were found in it \u201c lots of black stuff\u201d\u2014no doubt their dry and hardened f\u00e6ces , which could not , i think , have been so largely deposited during the short period then passed of their hybernation . an intelligent friend in the country , who is also an observer of nature , has informed me that he has found them , in clearing , \u201csix or seven together , cuddled up under the roots of a flax - bush\u201d ( phormium ) .\nand then passing their broad , thin , and large tongue right over their eyes , as if washing them , and always so finishing their drinking . i have also seen them lick the wet koromiko leaves when fresh ; and the young ones , more than once , lick the adult male . their tongue and palate are of a deep purple colour , much like that of some plums , and the tongue , when fully extended ( as in licking ) , has an emarginate appearance , which may , however , be owing to the action of the hyoid muscle .\nthey seem to like the water , as they often go singly into their water - trough , and remain extended in the water for some time . they can swim very fast , too , but clumsily , as if they were in a great hurry about it ; i have occasionally tried them at swimming in a large vessel of water .\nthey can run very swiftly , as i have often proved . when they merely walk , their tails are always straight ; but when they make haste their tails are undulated laterally throughout their whole length . here , no doubt , their under - squam\u00e6 help them ; this , indeed , i have in a measure ascertained , in my taking the large lizard into my hands and holding it vertically , when , to aid its ascent in crawling , all the squam\u00e6 below are used strongly , and one feels them curiously applied against the hand . * this , also , i think , will account for their being able to climb up on the outside of their glass dome , which they can do\u2014in which feat they are no doubt also materially aided by the large transverse scales on their toes , which are a beautiful object , and admirably adapted for climbing purposes . their claws , too , are exceedingly sharp , having a translucent or semi - crystalline appearance , and are set on at almost a right angle to their toes . one can hardly bear to hold them in one ' s hand when they struggle and use their sharp claws .\ntheir tails have also a strong prehensile power , as i have found in their clasping my fingers with them very closely , and so holding on . on one occasion i had to clear the tail of one which was fast , having taken a half - turn over itself in the sharp angle of a twiggy branch of half - withered and flaccid koromiko , which , i suppose , it had pressed down by lying upon it .\nthey sometimes spring a short distance very nimbly when they wish to get away from any little obstructions ; and they also jump down fearlessly and without hesitation . i have taken them up and allowed them to run over a book , etc . , held horizontally , 2\u20133 feet above the table , when they would run straight over the edge of the book and drop on the table on all - fours , like a weasel or a cat , and so continue to run as before .\nthey assume all manner of curious and grotesque positions , some of them being most extraordinary , and some apparently painful , but in reality i suppose are not so . whatever posture they assume they both can and\n[ footnote ] * the sensation being just as if every single scale was being forcibly moved forwards in rapid succession by the muscles of the animal .\n8 p . m . it had not moved , so also it was at 11 p . m . , when i went to bed , and when i came down the next morning it was still in exactly the same strange position ; i now thought it could not easily get out , so i lifted the glass to help it , but the moment i did so it scuttled away very fast .\nthey always take a most peculiar attitude to void their f\u00e6ces , which , however , they do not perform frequently . i always know when they are about to do so ( if on the look - out ) , for with young and old their preparation is pretty much alike . they first lift up their tails in a semi - curvature towards their backs , then they lift their hind - feet from the floor , and so slowly void their one pellet ; which done they gently lower their hind - feet , and then their tail , and move away . on one occasion i saw the adult male lizard , which was quietly at ease among the koromiko twigs , leave its lair and climb up into the water - trough ; at first i thought it was going to drink , or to bathe in the water , but i was agreeably surprised in noting its actions ; having got into the salt - cellar , it placed its feet on both sides , cocked - up its big tail , and voided its pellet into the water ! that over , it leisurely descended to its former resting - place . in their voiding the f\u00e6cal pellet the anus of the animal is produced much more than would be supposed . their dung is of a long oval shape 4\u20135 lines long , and not unlike that of a sheep ; it is black in colour , but always with a white adjunct ( uric acid ) , somewhat resembling that of a fowl , which portion always appears first ; they void rather slowly . sometimes , especially after eating \u201cbluebottle flies , \u201d the portions of the fly in rather coarse fragments are very plain in the deposit ."]}
{"id": 2230, "summary": [{"text": "the dugite / \u02c8dju\u02d0\u0261a\u026at / ( pseudonaja affinis ) is a species of venomous , potentially lethal , snake native to western australia , a member of the family elapidae .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "the local nyungar name for the dugite is dobitj . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "dugite", "paragraphs": ["dugite - native / package . json at master \u00b7 desktop / dugite - native \u00b7 github\nperth snake catcher\u2019s joust with fiery 1 . 5m dugite at spearwood factory | perthnow\nthe dugite is not very aggressive . a member of the brown snake family , the dugite is nowhere near as venomous as its cousin , the eastern brown snake .\ndugite snake image by rob ahern - some rights reserved . ( view image details )\nworkers at the factory spotted a 1 . 5m dugite coiled up outside their kitchen quarters .\nsnake catcher steve smartt with the fiesty 1 . 5 metre dugite which he later released in bushland .\nbut the dugite at ms cross ' parents ' home was the first of its kind for the season .\nlike other brown snakes , dugites are diurnal . the female dugite lays 10 to 20 eggs at a time .\ncommon dugite pseudonaja affinis affinis - notice the broad belly scales on the shed skin . ( photo taken at the west australian reptile park ) an extremely large common dugite pseudonaja affinis affinis - ( photo taken at the west australian reptile park )\nthe pictures show the dugite wrapping its mouth around the tiger snake ' s body , slowly swallowing the venomous victuals whole .\n\u2018a couple of hours later we saw the culprit by our pond - a 4 ft dugite slithering across the lawn . \u2019\nthe fact that the mainland dugite is common in degraded habitats and feeds on house mice suggests that it has a secure future .\nkyle releases a rescued brown snake . the dugite is a deadly species of brown snake found in south - western parts of australia .\n\u2018there are several species , the most important medically being the eastern or common brown , the western brown or gwardar and the dugite . \u2019\ndugites are cannibalistic . they eat members of their own species as well as other snakes . an individual dugite can swallow another snake almost as large as itself !\nsnake handler marcus cosentino , from slithers and sliders who bagged the dugite from mrs cross ' parents ' abode said the area around city beach was notorious for snakes .\nwell , that question has been settled , sort of , after pictures emerged of a dugite eating a tiger snake near capel in western australia ' s south west .\nms hedzik said she returned to the site later to see if the dugite was still working its way through the tiger snake , but there was no sign of it .\nother similar species of brown snake that overlap the dugite\u2019s distribution include the penisular brown snake pseudonaja inframacula , the western brown snake pseudonaja nuchalis and the eastern brown snake pseudonaja textilis .\nthe 35 - year - old , who is eight months pregnant , said the one metre dugite bolted as soon as it spotted her so she quickly rang a snake handler .\nmrs cross , who was aware how deadly a bite from a dugite can be , said at no stage did she fear for the safety of herself or her unborn bub .\nthey are protected under the australia\u2019s wildlife conservation act 1950 . this means if someone tries to injure or kill a dugite , they can be fined up to aud $ 4000 .\nthe dugite is a type of brown snake , which is very common around perth and surrounding areas . it is found through the south of western australia through the nullarbor plain and eyre peninsula\nin the wild , the dugite eats a variety of vertebrate prey including frogs , lizards , snakes , birds and mammals . however , the two largest groups of prey are lizards and house mice .\nthe dugite is a highly venomous snake . the adult usually olive green to brown , often with dark spots or flecks . the abdomen may also be dark , unlike that of other brown snakes .\nwell - known to south - western wa residents , the dugite has made itself at home around urban and semi - rural areas , drawn to the prevalence of its favoured prey \u2013 the house mouse .\na heavily pregnant mother - of - one said when she spotted a dugite scurrying across the driveway of her parents ' home , her first thought was to protect her two - year - old daughter .\ntiger snake venom activates prothrombin in presence of factor v and calcium , whereas the western brown , brown , dugite , and taipan snakes directly activate prothrombin and may result in very low fibrinogen levels and severe biochemical coagulopathy .\nthe dugite is a dangerous snake . the venom is neurotoxic although the dugite rarely envenoms when biting people . most people seen in hospital after an attack do not require anti - venom treatment . dugites will avoid people when they can , but will attack if surprised , particularly during mating period . venomous bite symptoms include abdominal pain , breathing and swallowing difficulty , convulsions , hypotension , kidney failure . can be fatal if no anti - venom treatment .\ndugites are diurnal , meaning that they aer most active during the day . this is quite common with other brown snakes . in terms of reproduction , a female dugite can lay between 10 to 20 snake eggs at one time .\nthe dugite is one of nine described species and two subspecies of brownsnake ( genus pseudonaja ) found in australia . the juveniles of all of these are very similar , sharing the dark head - blotch ( or blotches ) . many individuals are adorned with numerous dark crossbands .\nthe dugite may fall victim to raptors , monitor lizards , feral and domestic cats , and other snakes ( including its own species ) . although vertebrates are probably the main predators of this snake , there is evidence to suggest that spiders occasionally snare and feed on small specimens .\na dugite is an australian species of snake that is highly venomous that can inflict death in simply one bite . it is sometimes refered to as a brown snake and was first described by albert gunther in 1872 . there are 3 sub - species of dugites , and they are :\nthe dugite was bigger than the tiger - i thought it would have been the other way around , but he must have moved off , even with that big meal . i think anyone who came across that would have done what i ' d done , anyone would be rapt to see that .\nas mentioned above , the dugite is an extremely venenous snake . in fact , it is one of the most lethal in the world as it causes coagulopathic and precogulant effects ( meaning that the blood will clot and therefore the victim will die ) . despite this , dugites do avoid biting humans but humans are at risk as the numbers of dugite - human encounters rise when they are more active during the mating season which runs during october and november . in fact , the last death that was attributed to this snake was in 1993 , when an elderly male died in spearwood which is one of perth\u2019s southern suburbs .\nbecause of the snake\u2019s size and highly toxic venom the dugite is considered to be very dangerous to humans . its prevalence in residential areas and nervous disposition have helped make it responsible for approximately 70 % of all snake bites reporting to perth hospitals , but thanks to prompt and effective intervention , there has been only one recorded fatality .\ndugites are either brown , green , or grey . however , the colors vary between individual snakes . however , the most distinguishable feature of a dugite is the shape of its head . it is quite small compared to the neck , as it grades gradually into the body . they can grow up to 2m ( 6 . 56 feet ) long .\nalthough naturally shy , the dugite is easily agitated when confronted and will raise its forebody upright in a tight s - shape . it hisses loudly before making a fast snappy strike at the offender , usually aiming high . fortunately the fangs are very small and may not effectively penetrate solid shoes or heavy fabric ; however anyone with a suspected bite should seek immediate medical attention .\ndescription : the rottnest island dugite is genetically different from the mainland population and is generally smaller than the mainland version . it is blackish brown all over . it has a long , slim body with a small head . its blackish brown eyes are large and have a golden orange rim . there is also a defined ridge above the eye . its scales are quite large for its body and give it a semi - glossy look .\npseudonaja species live mainly in australia . about 3000 bites occur per year in australia from all species of snakes , 500 of which require antivenin . the dugite brown snake may be found in the southwestern corner of australia , in western australia and along the south australian border . the speckled brown snake can be found from central queensland to the eastern areas of the northern territory . ingram ' s snake may be found around barkly tableland of the northern territory , and the ringed snake may be found in the arid regions of all the mainland states . the western snake may be found throughout australia and the common brown snake in queensland , new south wales , and from victoria to the southeast of south australia .\nthe brown snake may be found all over australia . it has extremely potent venom , and although the quantity of venom injected is usually small , this snake causes more snakebite deaths in australia than any other . sudden and relatively early deaths have been recorded . its venom causes severe coagulation disturbances , neurotoxicity , and occasionally nephrotoxicity ( by a direct action of the venom ) , but not rhabdomyolysis . the gwardir is also known as the western brown snake , and the dugite is a spotted brown snake found in western australia . all need brown snake antivenom . see also venom supplies brown snake pages , emedicine brown snake guidelines , urltoken , avru brown snake info and treatment , australian reptile park , wikipedia . some more local pics :\nthe species occupies a wide variety of habitats including coastal dunes , heathlands , shrublands , woodlands and forests . it seems to cope well with heavily degraded habitats such as golf course , industrial parks and open agricultural country ; in fact , it is one of the few reptile species that has probably increased in numbers with the opening up of natural habitats and the introduction of the house mouse . around the perth area , the dugite is one of the most common reptiles found near buildings . in areas of human habitation the snakes take temporary shelter under refuse such as concrete slabs , fibro sheets , roofing tin and the like , but in more \u201cnatural\u201d surroundings they will shelter under rocks and in abandoned termite mounds , abandoned stick ant nests , and rabbit and rodent burrows . dugites also use burrows for overwintering .\nthe number of species increased from 10 , 711 to 10 , 793 , i . e . an increase of 82 species . 66 new species have been described , 9 species have been revalidated from synonymy and 16 subspecies were elevated to full species . . .\nover the past 4 months , the number of species increased from 10 , 639 to 10 , 711 .\nthe number of species has grown from 10 , 544 in the may release to now 10 , 639 ( + 95 species ) .\noverall , 212 new taxa have been added or changed their status or name .\nthe reptile database is a taxonomic database that provides basic information about all living reptile species , such as turtles , snakes , lizards , and crocodiles , as well as tuataras and amphisbaenians , but does not include dinosaurs .\ncurrently there are more than 10 , 000 species and an additional 2 , 700 subspecies . this is making reptiles the largest vertebrate group after fish ( ~ 25 , 000 species ) and birds ( ~ 10 , 000 species ) , and significantly larger than mammals ( ~ 5 , 000 species ) or amphibians ( ~ 6 , 000 species ) .\nthe reptile database provides taxonomic information for the catalogue of life and the encyclopedia of life . our taxonomic information has also been used by genbank and many other resources and is the only comprehensive reptile database on the web .\nthe reptile database can be used to find all species within a certain geographic area ( e . g . all snakes of egypt ) . its collection of more than 2 , 500 images allow users to identify a species or at least get an idea how the species or genus may look like . more than 30 , 000 references provide a guide to further information .\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nthe three subspecies are fairly similar in general appearance . the body is long and slender in build . scales are relatively large with a semi - glossy appearance . the head is rather small and indistinct from the neck . there is a strong brow ridge over the large eye , which is blackish brown with a golden orange rim surrounding the round pupil . the mouth lining is pink , while the glottis and trachea are black .\nmainland subspecies pseudonaja affinis affinis - the overall colour ranges from brown to olive brown to brownish grey , with irregular black / dark grey spotting ( each spot covering half to a whole scale ) . eastern and southern individuals are more heavily spotted ( sometimes becoming totally dark ) . the ventral surface is pale grey to brown with brownish orange or dark grey blotches .\nthe two island subspecies pseudonaja affinis exilis and p . a . tanneri are generally smaller and usually a uniform blackish brown above .\nmidbody scales in 19 rows , ventrals 190 - 230 , anal and subcaudal scales divided .\npseudonaja affinis affinis can reach total lengths of 2m ; however the average is probably around 1 . 5m . a specimen kept for some years in the perth zoo reached a total length of 2130mm . the two island subspecies appear to be smaller than the mainland subspecies , with the maximum recorded snout - vent lengths for pseudonaja affinis exilis and p . a . tanneri being 1005mm and 859mm respectively .\npseudonaja affinis affinis \u2013 far southwest corner of western australia , extending eastwards into western coastal south australia .\np . a . tanneri - boxer island and figure of eight island in the recherche archipelago ( wa ) .\nthe snakes are usually most active in the period between early spring and early autumn ( october through april ) and much less active from mid - autumn through late winter ( may through august ) .\nthey are known to be cannibalistic in the wild , and individuals can swallow snakes almost as large as themselves .\ndugites actively search for prey sheltering in holes , crevices , tussock grasses and under surface debris . the snake employs both venom and constriction to subdue its prey .\nthe species is diurnal . on hot days , activity occurs mainly in the morning and to a lesser extent in the afternoon .\nin captivity , adults can darken over the course of a few months . however , the significance of this colour change is obscure .\nin the mainland subspecies , males appear to mature at a snout - vent length of about 581mm and females at about 680mm .\nin the wild , male combat and mating occurs in late winter - early spring ( september ) , although male combat has been observed in pseudonaja affinis tanneri in mid - spring on boxer island . in the mainland population male combat involves , at least partly , the combatants loosely entwining their bodies . in captivity , mating can occur year around if the temperature is kept warm enough . after mating , captive females are said to eat very large amounts of food . a captive female weighing 309g when mated weighed 580g 27 days later . this represents an 87 . 7 percent gain and implies a daily rate gain of about 10g per day .\nwild caught females from the mainland lay their eggs from late spring to mid - summer ( mid - december to end of january ) . the clutch size ranges from 11 to 35 ( average 21 ) for mainland dugites . in the smaller island pseudonaja affinis tanneri , it ranges from 12 to 15 . eggs from mainland dugites have taken between 53 days ( at 30\u00b0c ) and 105 days ( at 23\u00b0c ) to hatch .\nwind the bandage around the bitten arm or leg , starting from the bite .\nseek medical attention as soon as possible . first aid guidelines were correct at time of publication however these guidelines change over time . for up to date first aid information consult medical professionals such as st john ' s ambulance .\nmirtshin , p . and davis , r . ( 1991 ) \u201cdangerous snakes of australia\u201d , revised edition , ure smith press\nwilson , s . and swan , g . ( 2008 ) \u201ca complete guide to reptiles of australia\u201d , reed new holland\ngithub is home to over 28 million developers working together to host and review code , manage projects , and build software together .\nif nothing happens , download the github extension for visual studio and try again .\nthis project provides bindings for node applications to interact with git repositories , using the same command line interface that core git offers .\nthe source is in typescript , but can be consumed by any javascript application .\nthis project is under active development for git - related projects at github . this will stabilize as this library gets more usage in production , and is open to external contributions that align with the project ' s goals .\nif you are interested in getting involved with this project , refer to the urltoken file for instructions and the documentation sections for more information about the project .\nas this is under active development , the roadmap is also subject to change . some ideas :\nyou signed in with another tab or window . reload to refresh your session .\nyou signed out in another tab or window . reload to refresh your session .\nscarborough mum daile cross was dropping her daughter olivia at her parents ' house in city beach on thursday morning when she noticed something black and skinny on the driveway near a car .\nmum still had olivia in her arms so i yelled at my mum to get her out of there ,\nshe said .\ni panicked a little because i have a phobia of snakes \u2013 i would rather have a spider fall on my head .\ni saw the snake heading towards the garage and i thought , ' you are not going in there ' , so i pressed the button for the garage .\nthe quick - thinking producer at watoday said she also bellowed at the two painters working at her parent ' s home to keep a look out for the unwelcome reptile .\ni ' m a bit of a mumma bear , so i just wanted to protect olivia ,\nshe said .\ndugites are roaming throughout the area , because it is near a dune system and near bold park ,\nhe said .\nthere are strips of bushland all around there so you see them all the way down to scarborough .\nmr cosentino was blunt when asked what would ' ve happened to mr cross if she was bitten .\nif she was bitten she would ' ve obviously been taken to hospital , and i ' m not sure what stress it would ' ve had on the unborn baby ,\nhe said .\nbut dugites are dangerous and venomous so essentially a bite could have been fatal .\nmr cosentino said with the warmer weather over the last couple of days , he ' s had a number of call outs for tiger snakes .\ni usually get about 50 call outs for dugites over the summer , but i usually only grab about 20 , because people forget to keep on an eye on them ,\nhe said .\nlast month a 75 - year - old woman died from a suspected snake bite south of fremantle after the warmest august day in 17 years brought the reptiles out of their torpor . follow watoday on twitter\nthe rare photos were taken by natalie hedzik , who works at iluka resource ' s mining operations near capel , and said it was a chance encounter .\ni was driving along a track after taking some water samples at a dam we have and just saw this mass in the middle of the road . i got out and had a look and was just absolutely amazed . i ' m really rapt to have seen something so amazing ,\nshe said .\nadam firstenberg from perth hills reptile removal said ms hedzik ' s photographs have captured an extremely rare event .\ni certainly haven ' t ever seen it in the wild before . they [ snakes ] will eat reptiles . . . i ' ve seen a snake eat a bobtail lizard before . but they have rear facing fangs to keep food moving backwards , so it ' s going to take a while for the snake to digest another snake .\n\u200baustralian tiger snakes are widely considered to be among the top 10 most deadly in the world , while dugites are known to use both venom and constriction to subdue their prey .\nbut mr firstenberg said it ' s unlikely the snakes fought to the death .\nsnakes are very opportunistic eaters , so if they need a meal and the opportunity is there they will take it ,\nhe said .\nbut this is certainly a very rare occurrence . we keep snakes ourselves and we feed them once a week , so this is a pretty meal to take on .\nif you need more of a snake fix , here ' s a rare sighting of a snakes ' mating ritual in nsw bushland .\nthe dinosaurs of zoorassic park are coming back but this time they\u2019re bringing some never before seen friends . australian prehistoric megafauna !\nwe\u2019ve got your school holiday covered with our wildly popular programs designed especially for osh club and vacation care groups .\nperth zoo works with the community and with partners here and overseas to save wildlife habitats .\nthis dangerous brown snake is slightly less venomous that its eastern counterparts and much less aggressive .\ndescription : dugites are venomous snakes . they vary in colour from grey to olive to brown on the top of their bodies , with an olive or yellowish belly . black scales can be scattered over the body and the head can be paler or darker than the rest of the body . young dugites have black heads .\ndiet : dugites are carnivores . before human settlement they mostly ate other reptiles , such as lizards and snakes . since then they have adapted well to eating mice and rats .\nin the wild : they may be found sheltering beneath logs or rocks or living in abandoned burrows or hollow logs . when disturbed , dugites are very shy and will often slither away , however , they will defend themselves if cornered .\nthe main natural predators of dugites are birds of prey and monitor lizards . introduced animals such as cats and dogs also attack dugites .\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . this website uses cookies that provide targeted advertising and which track your use of this website . by clicking \u2018continue\u2019 or by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\na highly venomous snake found in south - western australia , similar to the related brown snakes .\n\u2018other examples resembling the general appearance of dugites from the middleback ranges and environs have been found . \u2019\n\u2018this includes many populous areas , and dugites are a relatively frequent cause of snakebite in this area . \u2019\nstay up to date with our latest news and receive new words updates , blog posts , and more .\nin this article we explore how to impress employers with a spot - on cv .\narchaic words have a charm that never fades away , from french sounding to wondrously mysterious ones .\nadjectives are used with nouns to make the meaning more specific . if you use the noun\u2018 bear\u2019 it can mean any animal of that species . as soon as you say\u2018 a large , brown bear\u2019 you have given two of its . . .\nimpress your friends , family and colleagues with this unusual collection of football lingo .\ncatch up on the latest words in the news this june with robert groves .\nall the latest wordy news , linguistic insights , offers and competitions every month .\ndugites live in abandoned burrows or hollow logs . they can also be found sheltering underneath rocks or logs . in the summer months , they are often seen sunning themselves on roadsides .\ndugites are very shy but will attack if they feel threatened . when it attacks , it lifts its head and front part of its body up into an s - shape . it hisses loudly and then makes a sharp strike . this snake has small fangs but highly toxic venom which is dangerous to humans . these snakes should never be approached and should only be watched from a distance . anyone who may have been bitten by a snake should find medical help immediately .\ndugites search for prey in holes , cracks , small caves , grasses and under surface debris . it kills its prey by biting it and injecting venom and by wrapping its body around the animal and squeezing . this wrapping and squeezing is called constriction .\nnot listed under iucn ( 2016 ) . listed as vulnerable under the wildlife conservation act 1950 . all rottnest island\u2019s fauna is protected under the rottnest island authority act 1987 .\nsomething went wrong . please check that you have entered a valid email address .\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\nlays 10 - 20 eggs . hatchlings are 15 - 35 cm in length and can be brown , green or yellowish in colour , but always hatch with at least part of the head black .\nmap is from atlas of living australia website at urltoken licensed under creative commons attribution 3 . 0 australia license\nnpm run clean & & tsc - p . / tsconfig . json & & tsc - p . / examples / tsconfig . json\ncross - env local _ git _ directory = . / git / mocha - - require ts - node / register test / fast / * . ts test / auth / * . ts\ncross - env local _ git _ directory = . / git / mocha - t 20000ms - - require ts - node / register test / slow / * . ts test / auth / * . ts\nmocha - t 20000ms - - require ts - node / register test / external / * . ts\n{ examples , lib , script , test } / * * / * . ts\nhi there ! we ' re thrilled that you ' d like to contribute to this project . your help is essential for keeping it great .\nplease note that this project is released with a contributor code of conduct . by participating in this project you agree to abide by its terms .\npat your self on the back and wait for your pull request to be reviewed and merged .\nkeep your change as focused as possible . if there are multiple changes you would like to make that are not dependent upon each other , consider submitting them as separate pull requests .\nin your pull request description , provide as much detail as possible . this context helps the reviewer to understand the motivation for and impact of the change .\nhave a question about this project ? sign up for a free github account to open an issue and contact its maintainers and the community .\nby clicking \u201csign up for github\u201d , you agree to our terms of service and privacy statement . we\u2019ll occasionally send you account related emails .\nsign up for free to join this conversation on github . already have an account ? sign in to comment\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nyou appear to have javascript disabled . some parts of this site won ' t work properly .\n- storr et al . ( 2002 ) . snakes of western australia . western australian museum . 309\ndangerously venomous . note : even a bite from a ' virtually harmless ' or non - venomous reptile can result in serious complications . play it safe and don ' t get bitten by anything .\nnote : these are general threats and may not apply to this particular species .\nthere are many ways you can help our reptiles . here are my top three suggestions :\nstorr , g . m . ; smith , l . a . ; & johnstone , r . e . ( 2002 ) . snakes of western australia . western australian museum . 309 - search web for this book\nnote : the links below are automatically generated . some may not take you to useful information .\nnotes and disclaimer this information may not be complete . while all care is taken to ensure the accuracy of the information in this page , primary sources should always be consulted for definitive information . animals have an endearing habit of disobeying the rules , so the information on this page should be interpreted with a degree of flexibility . the author and site operator accepts no responsibility for any losses or damages incurred through using this web site or the information contained herein . don ' t get bitten by anything ! this page may be cited as : pseudonaja affinis at the australian reptile online database . last updated 2017 - 04 - 22 13 : 20 : 54 . retrieved from urltoken on the 10th of july , 2018 . before citing information contained in arod , please read our citing arod page . copyright notice this page , its content and layout are copyright \u00a9 2007 - 2018 stewart macdonald / ug media , unless otherwise stated . all photographs in the australian reptile online database are \u00a9 the photographer and may not be reproduced in any form without the express written consent of the photographer . no part of the australian reptile online database may be reproduced without written permission from stewart macdonald .\nbrown snakes are probably the most common cause of significant snakebites in australia . without appropriate antivenom treatment , a significant number of cases may be fatal . main risks are : coagulopathy , acute renal failure , neurotoxic paralysis . target organs : neuromuscular junction , coagulation system , kidneys .\nlocally : the bite is usually painless , without significant local erythema , bruising or oedema . bite marks may be difficult to see , and vary from a single puncture to multiple punctures or multiple scratches . local secondary infection is unusual . venom may spread to draining lymph nodes with consequent pain and / or tenderness and / or swelling . systemic : headache , nausea , vomiting , abdominal pain , impaired conscious state , occasionally loss of consciousness and convulsions . coagulopathy , rarely with overt bleeding manifestations . progressive neurotoxic paralysis can occur but is unusual . acute renal failure .\nmonitor coagulation to establish the presence and extent of coagulopathy , and as an index of systemic envenomation . this should be performed at presentation , on development of symptoms or signs of systemic envenomation , regularly thereafter , and 1 - 2 hours after antivenom therapy until sufficient antivenom has been given to reverse coagulopathy . in the absence of a haematology laboratory , whole blood clotting time in a glass test tube is useful . if a laboratory is available , prothrombin ratio , activated partial thromboplastin time , thrombin clotting time , fibrinogen level , and fibrin ( ogen ) breakdown products are most useful . other useful tests are complete blood picture and platelet count , serum electrolytes , creatinine , urea , serum enzymes , especially creatine kinase , urine output and urine myoglobin , and venom detection using csl venom detection kit . best sample is swab from bite site ( sample swab stick in kit ) . if patient has systemic envenomation urine may also be useful sample . blood is not a reliable sample .\nvenom is produced in paired modified salivary glands , superficially situated beneath the scales , posterior to the eye , and surrounded by muscles , the contraction of which compress the glands , expelling venom anteriorly via venom ducts to the fangs . the paired fangs , situated at the anterior part of the upper jaw , on the maxillary bones . they have an enclosed groove for venom transport , with an exit point near the fang tip . average fang length in adult brown snakes is 2 . 8 mm ( 2 . 0 - 4 . 0 mm ) , and average distance between fangs is 9 mm . average venom yield is 2 - 6 mg , maximum 167 mg ( pseudonaja textilis ) . mean venom injected at first bite ( defensive strike ) is 4 . 5 mg ( 0 . 03 to 9 . 10 mg ) , mean venom left on skin is 0 . 22 mg .\npseudonaja venom is a complex mixture of protein and non - protein components , not all of which have been fully evaluated . ( a ) neurotoxins : both presynaptic ( eg textilotoxin ) and postsynaptic ( pseudonajatoxin a and b ) . ( b ) procoagulants : principally prothrombin converters ( factor xa analogues ) , converting prothrombin to thrombin ( meziothrombin ) . ( c ) nephrotoxins : not conclusively demonstrated experimentally , but strongly suspected on clinical evidence .\n3 . 1 . 2 habitat brown snakes occupy a wide variety of habitats from arid dessert , to scrubland , to moister areas . they are not uncommon in association with man ' s activities , such as in paddocks , around rubbish dumps and farm buildings , and under elevated floors of country homesteads . principally diurnal , though active on warm nights .\n3 . 1 . 3 distribution brown snakes are restricted to continental australia and a few adjacent islands but not tasmania ( longmore 1986 ) . p . textilis is also reported from papua new guinea . ( cogger 1975 ) . distribution for each species based on museum records are shown in figures .\nvenom glands ( paired ) situated superficially in posterior part of head , connected by ducts to forward placed ( paired ) fangs . fangs small , may leave classic single or double puncture in man , or a more complicated array of scratches and other punctures , the latter by non - fang teeth ( white 1987a , c ) . classic bite mark in plaster is shown in figure . actual cases illustrated in figures .\n3 . 3 . 1 name : pseudonaja venom ; brown snake venom ; bsv components neurotoxins : textilotoxin ( = textilon ) ( coulter et al 1979 , southcott and coulter 1979 , coulter et al 1983 , su et al 1983 ) tyler et al 1987a ) pseudonajatoxin a ( parnett et al 1980 ) pseudonajatoxin b ( tyler et al 1987b ) coagulants : prothrombin converter ( unnamed ) from p . textilis . ( coulter et al 1983 , masci et al 1987 , white et al 1987 ) .\nvenom is used both in antivenom production and for laboratory research . the neurotoxins in particular may prove valuable in neuromuscular transmission research , and the procoagulants in further elucidating the mechanism of normal human coagulation .\nchildren : when playing in areas were brown snakes are common , either through accidental encounter ( ie stepping on snake ) or while trying to emulate naturalists ( ie trying to catch snake ) . adults : when living in areas where brown snakes are common , and moving around barefoot and without due care , or while putting hands etc into non - reconnoitred potential snake retreats ( ie hollow logs etc ) . farm workers : when working in areas where brown snakes are common . reptile keepers and snake handlers : if due care is not exercised in catching and handling snakes , including venom milking . recreation seekers : camping or walking or playing sport in areas where brown snakes are common . homes : around homes in brown snake prone areas where water is seasonally scarce and free water is available in the garden or home .\nbrown snakes are widely distributed in most habitats of mainland australia , but are absent form some southern islands and tasmania . while no high risk geographic regions have been identified , it is evident that brown snakes may readily enter metropolitan fringes , and country towns , and are frequently found around country rubbish dumps and under the floors of elevated country homesteads , and around farm buildings .\nno data , but unlikely to be hazardous unless there are open wounds in the gastrointestinal tract .\nthere is no evidence that venom can be absorbed through intact skin . current first - aid advice is to leave venom on skin for later venom identification .\n5 . 5 . 1 bites in human envenomation , venom is always inoculated by the snake biting . owing to the size of the fangs , venom is most likely to be inoculated cutaneously or subcutaneously .\nexperimentally , venom may be administered to test animals via subcutaneous , intramuscular , intravenous , intraperitoneal , and intraventricular ( cns ) routes .\nthe rate and amount of absorption will depend on the quantity of venom injected , the depth of injection , site of injection including vascularity , the activity of the victim , and the type , efficiency of application and length of application of first aid . clinical evidence from human cases of envenomation suggests that much initial venom movement is via the lymphatic pathways . this is supported by work in monkeys . ( barnes & trueta , 1941 ; sutherland et al 1975 ; sutherland & coulter , 1977 ; sutherland et al 1981a ) direct intravenous injection , unrecorded in man , obviously allows rapid systemic circulation of venom and may result in different effects from normal routes of inoculation , particularly in regard to coagulation .\nit appears that much venom is transported from the bite site via the lymphatic system , then concentrating in draining lymph nodes , before ultimately reaching the systemic circulation . however , experience with numerous human cases of brown snake envenomation shows that symptoms and signs of envenomation may occur within 15 - 30 minutes of the bite , especially in children . such early effects ( eg headache , nausea , abdominal pain , collapse ) may be due to either rapidly systemically circulating venom toxins , or systemically circulating autocoids released at the bite site by the action of venom on local tissue . once in the systemic circulation , venom rapidly reaches high concentrations in the kidneys and excreted in the urine . such venom must also exit the circulation , to enter the extravascular space where it binds within the neuromuscular junction ( presynaptically and / or postsynaptically ) and possibly other nerve junction sites ( eg autonomic system , perhaps causing abdominal pain ) . the kinetics of venom distribution , excretion , and detoxification are incompletely understood . neurotoxic paralysis usually takes at least 2 - 4 hours to become clinically detectable . coagulopathy however may become well established within 30 minues of a bite .\nlittle information is available on the metabolism of venom components in man , but most components are fully active in whole venom , requiring no further modification for activity . venom reaches high concentrations in the kidneys and excreted in urine . ( sutherland & coulter , 1977 a , b ) . the fate of specific venom components , particularly neurotoxins and procoagulants , is unclear . it seems likely that these components are progressively detoxified in situ .\n7 . 2 . 1 . 1 adults the human lethal dose for brown snake venom is unknown . without antivenom treatment , a few brown snake bites may be fatal ( fairley 1929a ) , but even in the early part of the 20th century , when neither antivenom nor icu facilities were available , only 8 . 6 % of reported brown snake bites were fatal . despite this , brown snakes are still thought to be the most common cause of fatal snakebite in australia . ( hilton 1989 ) .\n7 . 2 . 1 . 2 children no data available , but clearly the smaller body mass of a child compared to available venom ensures that children are more likely to receive a lethal dose than adults .\n7 . 2 . 2 animal data ld50 subcutaneous injection of dried venom in mice ( broad et al 1979 . ( mg / kg ) pseudonaja textilis 0 . 053 pseudonaja nuchalis 0 . 473 pseudonaja affinis 0 . 660\n8 . 1 . 1 . 1 toxicological analyses for venom detection swab from bite site moistened in sterile saline . if systemic envenomation also collect urine ( 5ml in sterile container ) . for venom analysis ( research only using radioimmunoassay ) : 5ml blood ; 5ml urine , frozen . at autopsy collect vitreous humor , lymph nodes draining bite area , excised bite site . ( for other laboratory tests see 10 . 2 . 1 )\n8 . 1 . 1 . 2 biomedical analyses for standard tests ( eg . serum / plasma electrolytes , ck , creatinine , urea ) collect venous blood in a container with appropriate anticoagulant as issued by the laboratory ( usually heparin ) .\n8 . 1 . 1 . 3 arterial blood gas analysis collect arterial blood by sterile arterial puncture into a container as issued by the laboratory .\n8 . 1 . 1 . 4 haematological analyses for whole blood clotting time as a\nbedside\ntest collect 5 - 10 ml of venous blood without anticoagulant ( either in the collection syringe or from a central line or other venous access line that may have anticoagulant ) and place in a glass test tube . carefully observe the time until a clot appears . for standard tests ( eg . coagulation studies , complete blood picture ) collect venous blood in appropriate containers with anticoagulant as issued by the laboratory ensuring that the right amount of blood is used ( for coagulation studies citrate will usually be the anticoagulant , while edta will be used for complete blood pictures ) .\n8 . 1 . 2 . 1 toxicological analyses for samples for standard venom detection : short term ( less than 24 hrs ) ordinary fridge is acceptable ( 4\u00b0c ) , in sterile container . long term , store frozen ( - 20\u00b0c or lower ) . for samples for venom analysis ( research ) store frozen ( - 200\u00b0c or lower ) .\n8 . 1 . 2 . 2 biomedical analyses for samples for standard tests refer to laboratory . in general keep at 4\u00b0c , particularly for samples for coagulation studies .\n8 . 2 . 1 . 2 advanced qualitative confirmation test ( s ) as for 8 . 2 . 1 . 1\n8 . 2 . 1 . 3 simple quantitative method ( s ) not applicable .\n8 . 2 . 1 . 4 advanced quantitative method ( s ) a radioimmune assay has been developed by staff at the commonwealth serum laboratories , melbourne to detect small quantities of many australian snake venoms . it is primarily a research tool , being too time consuming to be practical in determining emergency treatment of snakebite victims . it has proved useful in demonstrating snake venom either at autopsy or after patient recovery .\n8 . 2 . 2 . 1 simple qualitative test ( s ) see 8 . 2 . 1 . 1 .\n8 . 2 . 2 . 2 advanced qualitative confirmation test ( s ) see 8 . 2 . 1 . 1 .\n8 . 2 . 2 . 3 simple quantitative method ( s ) not applicable .\n8 . 2 . 2 . 4 advanced quantitative method ( s ) see 8 . 2 . 1 . 4 .\n8 . 2 . 2 . 5 other dedicated method ( s ) no data .\n8 . 2 . 3 interpretation of toxicological analyses for venom detection as for 8 . 1 . 1 . 1 subsection ( 12 ) : if the test is positive , it will indicate the presence of snake venom and the species / genus of snake and therefore the appropriate monovalent antivenom to neutralize the effects of that venom . if the test sample was a bite site swab , a positive result does not indicate either the presence of systemic envenomation , or the need to administer antivenom . other clinical criteria are required in this situation ( see sections 9 and 10 ) . if the test sample was urine a positive result indicates present or past systemic envenomation and together with other clinical and laboratory criteria may be used to determine the need for antivenom therapy . for venom analysis refer to the laboratory performing the tests .\n8 . 3 . 1 . 1 blood , plasma or serum electrolytes : look for imbalance , particularly evidence of dehydration , hyponatraemia ( inappropriate adh syndrome ? ) , hyperkalaemia ( renal damage , rhabdomyolysis ? ) . urea , creatinine : look for evidence of renal function impairment . ck : if high may indicate rhabdomyolysis , usually greater than 1000 u / l .\n8 . 3 . 1 . 2 urine output : low output may indicate renal damage or poor fluid input . myoglobin : if present indicates rhabdomyolysis , and may be missed as the red colouration of urine may be mistaken for haematuria ( both may be positive on dip stick testing ) . electrolytes if indicated ( eg . inappropriate adh syndrome )\n8 . 3 . 2 arterial blood gas analysis impaired respiratory function is usually secondary to neurotoxic paralysis ; look for evidence of poor oxygenation and its sequelae .\n8 . 3 . 5 interpretation of biomedical investigations the interpretation of the above tests should be made in the context of total patient assessment including clinical evidence of pathology such as paralysis , myolysis , coagulopathy and renal damage .\nwhile other investigations are not usually required to make the primary diagnosis of snakebite envenomation , they may be indicated in response to secondary effects of envenomation . if there is either renal failure or severe rhabdomyolysis ( unlikely with brown snake envenoming ) there may be a hyperkalaemia , hence an ecg may be appropriate . if the patient is unconscious , especially in the presence of a severe coagulopathy , then a ct head scan may be appropriate to determine if there is intracranial pathology such as a haemorrhage .\noverall interpretation of the results of the above tests will depend on the clinical setting . results should never be interpreted in isolation from an overall clinical assessment . a patient with positive venom detection from either the bite site or urine and a significant coagulopathy clearly is envenomed and will usually require antivenom therapy . a patient with positive venom detection from the bite site only and with no clinical symptoms or signs of envenoming and all other tests negative is not significantly envenomed at that point in time and does not require antivenom therapy . however this situation may change and so careful observation and repeat testing would be indicated . a patient presenting some hours after the bite with positive venom detection from the urine but clinically well and with all other tests either normal or showing a resolved coagulopathy , probably had a minor degree of envenomation , now resolved and will usually not require antivenom therapy . however they should be observed carefully for evidence of relapse .\n9 . 1 . 5 parenteral exposure in practical terms , the only likely route of entry , is by s . c . or i . d . injection . early symptoms , usually in the first six hours . local : the wound is often painless , without local erythema , oedema , or ecchymosis ; persistent bleeding from wound , variable ; pain or swelling of draining lymph nodes ( may take 1 - 4 hours to develop ) . systemic : collapse , unconsciousness , convulsions may all occur , especially in children , occasionally as rapidly as 15 minutes after the bite . headache , nausea , vomiting , abdominal pain , and visual disturbance may all occur . early signs of neurotoxic paralysis such as ptosis , diplopia , dysarthria may develop within 1 - 3 hours of the bite , or be delayed for 4 - 12 hours , or may not develop despite other evidence of severe envenomation . coagulopathy may develop within 30 minutes of the bite . delayed symptoms local : local bite site necrosis is not generally seen with brown snake bites but possibly might occur , particularly if first aid left in place more than 4 hours , or if a tourniquet used ( sutherland 1981 , 1983a ; white 1987d ) . systemic : paralysis progressive up to complete paralysis . coagulopathy bleeding from all puncture wounds . renal impairment oliguria or anuria .\n9 . 4 . 1 cardiovascular collapse , presumably due to hypotension , is common in the early stages of systemic envenomation , especially in children . the mechanism is uncertain but may be due to release of vasoactive substances by or from the venom . specific cardiac abnormalities due to brown snake envenomation in man are not described , although there has been a suspicion that brown snake venom may cause cardiac anomalies ( sutherland personal communication ) .\n9 . 4 . 2 respiratory no primary effects of brown snake venom on the respiratory system in man are reported , with the exception of respiratory muscle paralysis ( see below ) .\n9 . 4 . 3 . 1 cns while no direct cns toxins have been reported for brown snake venom , early collapse and convulsions do occur , especially in children . their aetiology remains uncertain .\n9 . 4 . 3 . 2 peripheral nervous system see 9 . 4 . 3 . 4\n9 . 4 . 3 . 4 skeletal and smooth muscle the effects of brown snake venom at the neuromuscular junction , have been documented experimentally . both presynaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins present , causing progressive neuromuscular paralysis , up to complete paralysis of all muscles of respiration ."]}
{"id": 2234, "summary": [{"text": "gymnoscelis daniloi is a moth in the geometridae family that is endemic to cape verde and are founded in the upper portions of the island of fogo in the areas of ch\u00e3 das caldeiras and within the large caldera .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the species was first described in portela and was named in 2009 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the wingspan is 18 \u2013 20 millimetres ( 0.71 \u2013 0.79 in ) .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the ground colour is pale brown to brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "both wings have numerous undulate blackish transverse lines . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "gymnoscelis daniloi", "paragraphs": ["new and interesting records of ten geometridae species from the cape verde islands are presented . the analysis is based on both morphological and molecular traits . two species are described as new : microloxia aistleitneri hausmann , sp . n . , and gymnoscelis daniloi hausmann , sp . n .\nvojnits a . 1994 . new eupithecia , gymnoscelis and chloroclystis species from africa and arabia ( lepidoptera , geometridae : larentiinae ) . - acta zoologica academiae scientiarum hungaricae 40 ( 3 ) : 269 a . o . .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nversion of november 10 , 2008 a joint project of the zoologische staatssammlung m\u00fcnchen ( dr . axel hausmann ) and the barcode of life data systems / global campaign geometridae ( dr . paul hebert , canada )\n1 . fogo , ch\u00e3 das caldeiras , 1650 \u2013 1700 m : view from the edge of the old caldeira ( bordeira ) at the two villages ( front bangaeira , rear portela ) , where collecting was performed . sparse vegetation is underlying strong antropogenous influence through agricultural land management ( photo : eyjolf aistleitner ; highres ) .\n2 . brava , sorno . bay at the northern side of the island . the small water course ( ribeira ) is with water almost all the year through . collecting site at approx . 40 - 50 m above sea - level ( photo : eyjolf aistleitner ; highres ) .\n3 . brava , santana , 450 \u2013 500 m : collecting site at the periphery of the village nova sintra , where the merculy vamp light source covers cultivated areas such as rocky slopes , the latter at the right hand outside the picture ( photo : eyjolf aistleitner ; highres ) .\nrecorded in baez & garcia ( 2005 : 87 ) , but not yet collected by the second author . occurrence of this ethiopian species on cape verde doubtful .\nnominate subspecies recorded on antao ( locus typicus ) , vicente ( new data ) , reputedly \u201cfogo\u201d ( baez & garcia 2005 : 87 ) and ' santiago ' ( erroneous data , coll . herbulot ) .\nrecorded on brava ( locus typicus ) , nicolau ( herbulot 1957 ; baez & garcia 2005 : 87 ) , reputedly also vicente ( herbulot 1957 ) , the last possibly referring to nominate subspecies . new data suggesting both brava and fogo populations to belong here\nwarren w . 1902b . new african drepanulidae , thyrididae , epiplemidae , and geometridae in the tring museum . - novitates zoologicae 9 : 487\u2013536 .\nprout l . b . 1958 . new species of indo - australian geometridae . - bulletin of the british museum of natural history ( entomology ) 6 ( 12 ) : 365\u2013463 .\nherbulot c . 1981c . mission entomologique du mus\u00e9e royal de l ' afrique centrale aux monts uluguru , tanzanie ( l . berger , n . leloup et j . debecker , v\u2013viii . 1971 ) . 26 . lepidoptera geometridae . - revue de zoologie et botanique africaines 95 ( 1 ) : 216\u2013226 .\nwarren w . 1901d . drepanulidae , thyrididae , epiplemidae , and geometridae from the aethiopian region . - novitates zoologicae 8 : 202\u2013217 .\nhausmann a . 2009d . new and interesting geometrid moths from the cape verde islands ( lepidoptera : geometridae ) . - shilap , revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda 37 ( 146 ) : 241\u2013247 .\ndietze k . 1904 . beitr\u00e4ge zur kenntnis der eupithecien . - deutsche entomologische zeitschrift , iris 15 ( 1903 ) ( 2 ) : 331\u2013387 .\nprout l . b . 1927a . a list of the geometridae ( lep . het ) known to occur in the island of s\u00e3o thom\u00e9 , with descriptions of some new species collected by mr . t . a . barns . - transactions of the entomological society of london 75 ( 1 ) : 187\u2013200 , pl . 20 .\nrothschild w . 1915c . lepidoptera of the m ' zab country , south algeria , collected by dr . ernst hartert and carl hilgert in 1914 . - novitates zoologicae 22 : 228\u2013243 .\nprout l . b . 1933\u20131938 . geometridae ( fauna africana , part 16 ) . \u2013 in : seitz . a . ( ed . ) , die gross - schmetterlinge der erde . - \u2014 16 .\nlienig f . & zeller p . c . 1846 . lepidopterologische faune von lievland und curland . - isis von oken 1846 : 176\u2013302 .\nherbulot c . 1957a . r\u00e9sultats de l ' exp\u00e9dition zoologique du professeur dr . hakan lindberg aux \u00eeles du cap vert durant l ' hiver 1953\u201354 . no 12 lepidopt\u00e8res geometridae . - commentationes biologicae , societatis scientiarum fennica 16 ( 10 ) : 1\u20138 , pl . 1 .\nherbulot c . 1988b . nouveaux larentiinae africains et malgaches ( lepidoptera geometridae ) . - miscellanea entomologica 51 : 85\u2013102 .\nherbulot c . 1981g . nouveaux geometridae du cameroun , du natal et de madagascar ( lep . ) . - bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de france 86 ( 9\u201310 ) : 207\u2013211 .\nboisduval j . b . a . 1840 . genera et index methodicus europaerorum lepidopterorum . - \u2014 : i\u2013x , 1\u2013238 .\nhaworth a . h . 1803\u20131828 . lepidoptera britannica : sistens digestionem novam insectorum lepidopterorum quae in magna britannia reperiuntur , larvarum pabulo , remporeque pascendi , expansione alarum , mensibusque volandi , synonymis atque locis observationibusque variis : etc . - \u2014 1\u20134 .\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on images to enlarge .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\n/ / scholastic news - - edition 4 ; 02 / 21 / 2000 , vol . 62 issue 18 , p3\na review of continental species of phrudocentra warren , 1895 ( lepidoptera : geometridae , geometrinae ) .\nviidalepp , j . ; lindt , a . / / shilap revista de lepidopterologia ; jun2012 , vol . 40 issue 158 , p171\na key to continental neotropical species of phrudocentra warren , 1895 , s . lat . is designed and provided with photos of moths and their male genital structures . the genus phrudocentra warren is redefined . two subgenera are reinstated within phrudocentra warren , s . lat . : phrudocentra warren , s . . . .\nmenophra abruptaria ( thunberg , 1792 ) , a species new for the maltese islands ( lepidoptera : geometridae ) .\ncatania , a . / / shilap revista de lepidopterologia ; jun2011 , vol . 39 issue 154 , p233\nmenophra abruptaria ( thunberg , 1792 ) is here recorded for the first time from the maltese islands .\na technique to measure the loss in tea crop by the defoliating pest ( hyposidra talaca walker ) on the basis of dry mass and leaf area parameters .\nprasad , anjali k . ; mukhopadhyay , ananda / / international journal of bio - resource & stress management ; jun2013 special , vol . 4 issue 2 , p358\ntea ( camellia sinensis ) is known as the queen of all beverages . india is the second largest producer of tea in the world , but the crop is largely damaged by the defoliating pest , hyposidra talaca walker ( geometridae : lepidoptera ) in the darjeeling foothills and plains . a study conducted under . . .\nparkinson , derek / / naturalist ( 00280771 ) ; apr2013 , vol . 138 issue 1082 , p16\nthe article discusses research on gorse ulex europaeus in yorkshire , england for the caterpillars of scotopteryx ( geometridae ) and evidences of swelling in stems identified as galls caused by the seed weevil stenopterapion scutellare as reported by keith palmer of the british plant gall society .\nthe corkscrew moths ( lepidoptera , geometroidea , sematuridae ) of trinidad and tobago .\ncock , matthew j . w . / / tropical lepidoptera research ; dec2016 , vol . 26 issue 2 , p101\ntwo similar , sexually dimorphic species of sematuridae are found in trinidad : mania lunus ( linnaeus ) and m . empedocles ( cramer ) . only the former is recorded from tobago . male and female adults and the male genitalia of both species are illustrated and diagnostic features are provided . . . .\nuchmanowicz , pauline / / commonweal ; 3 / 9 / 2012 , vol . 139 issue 5 , p10\nthe poem\ngeometridae ,\nby pauline uchmanowicz is presented . first line : to know this crepuscular ; last line : inching toward winged destiny .\ncat\u00e3\u00a1logo razonado de los lepidoptera de castilla y le\u00e3\u00b3n , espa\u00e3\u00b1a ( parte i ) ( lepidoptera : drepanidae , geometridae y cimeliidae ) .\njambrina , j . a . ; magro , r . / / shilap revista de lepidopterologia ; jun2013 , vol . 41 issue 162 , p173\na catalogue reasoned of lepidoptera from castilla y le\u00e3\u00b3n region , spain , is presented . the drepanidae boisduval , [ 1828 ] , geometridae leach , [ 1815 ] and cimeliidae chr\u00e3\u00a9tien , 1916 families , species are included .\ndesempe\u00e3\u00b1o productivo y propiedades de la canal en ovinos pelibuey y sus cruzas con suffolk o dorset .\nde la pe\u00f1a , jos\u00e9 armando partida ; varela , diego bra\u00f1a ; rojas , leonel mart\u00ednez / / t\u00e3\u00a9cnica pecuaria en m\u00e3\u00a9xico ; jul - sep2009 , vol . 47 issue 3 , p313\nto assess the effect of genotype and sex on productive performance , carcass yield and tissue composition , 60 lambs ( initial body weight 17 . 2\u00e2\u00b13 kg ) were allotted to six treatments in a completely randomized design , using a 2 x 3 factorial arrangement , with 2 sexes : female and male , and 3 . . .\npredator release from invertebrate generalists does not explain geometrid moth ( lepidoptera : geometridae ) outbreaks at high altitudes .\nschott , tino ; kapari , lauri ; hagen , snorre b . ; vindstad , ole petter l . ; jepsen , jane u . ; ims , rolf a . / / canadian entomologist ; apr2013 , vol . 145 issue 2 , p184\noutbreaks of geometrid defoliators in subarctic birch forest in fennoscandia often occur at high altitude in a distinct zone along the tree line . at the same time , moth larvae may not have an impact on the forest at lower altitude . directly adjacent outbreak and nonoutbreak areas offer unique . . .\nsome biological characteristics of nyssia graecarius ( lepidoptera : geometridae ) in urmia region .\nsafaralizadeh , mohammad hassan ; karimpour , younes / / journal of the entomological research society ; 2007 , vol . 9 issue 3 , p1\nsome biological characteristics of nyssia graecarius an occasional pest of many different deciduous plants was studied during the years 2005 and 2006 in urmia region ( northwestern of iran ) . the results of this study showed that , n . graecarius completes one generation in a year , overwintering as . . .\nmiller , william e . / / journal of the lepidopterists ' society ; 2014 , vol . 68 issue 3 , p203\nbody size , developmental rate , and metabolic rate were examined as potential phenotypic correlates of genome size using all 51 named species of lepidoptera with recorded genome sizes . genome sizes ranged 0 . 29 - 1 . 94 pg . because no direct comparative measures were available , surrogates were used : . . .\nthe complete nucleotide sequence of the mitochondrial genome of phthonandria atrilineata ( lepidoptera : geometridae ) .\nling yang ; zhao - jun wei ; gui - yun hong ; shao - tong jiang ; long - ping wen / / molecular biology reports ; jul2009 , vol . 36 issue 6 , p1441\nabstract\u00e2 \u00e2 using long - polymerase chain reaction ( long - pcr ) method , we determined the complete nucleotide sequence of the mitochondrial genome ( mitogenome ) of phthonandria atrilineata . the complete mtdna from p . \u00e2 atrilineata was 15 , 499 base pairs in length and contained 13 protein - coding . . .\nrhopalodes lecorrei , a new moth species from french guiana ( lepidoptera : geometridae : larentiinae : trichopterygini ) .\nviidalepp , jaan / / estonian journal of ecology ; 2011 , vol . 60 issue 4 , p321\na new species of geometrid moth , rhopalodes lecorrei sp . nov . is described from french guiana . the wing pattern , venation , and male and female genitalia of the new species are described , illustrated , and compared to allird species .\nthe geometrid moths ( lepidoptera ) from the middle and eastern black sea regions of turkey .\ncan , feza / / turkish journal of zoology ; 2008 , vol . 32 issue 3 , p351\nthe aim of the present study , which was performed in 2003 and 2005 in sinop , kastamonu , samsun , amasya , tokat , ordu , giresun , g\u00e3\u00bcm\u00e3\u00bcflhane , and trabzon provinces , located in the middle and eastern black sea regions of turkey , is to determine the species belonging to geometridae family . sweep . . .\nherbivore attack incasearia nitidainfluenced by plant ontogenetic variation in foliage quality and plant architecture .\nboege , karina / / oecologia ; apr2005 , vol . 143 issue 1 , p117\ntraits influencing plant quality as food and / or shelter for herbivores may change during plant ontogeny , and as a consequence , influence the amount of herbivory that plants receive as they develop . in this study , differences in herbivore density and herbivory were evaluated for two ontogenetic . . .\ncontribution to an understanding of the biology and the morphology of the early stages of a neotropical larentine : hagnagora vittata philippi , 1859 in chile ( insecta : lepidoptera : geometridae ) .\nking , gareth edward ; parra , luis e . / / acta zoologica cracoviensia - series b - invertebrata ; 2011 , vol . 54b issue 1 / 2 , p5\nneither the biology nor the early stages of the neotropical larentine hagnagora vittata philippi , 1859 ( insecta : lepidoptera : geometridae ) are known , in the present paper original data are presented on the insect ' s food - plant in captivity , observations of the imago in the wild state , in addition . . .\non distribution area of asovia maeoticaria ( alph\u00e3\u00a9raky , 1876 ) ( insecta : lepidoptera : geometridae ) .\nspecies asovia maeoticaria ( alph\u00e3\u00a9raky , 1876 ) was described from southeast ukraine and subsequently recorded in bulgaria , greece , european part of russia , parts of turkey and southeast romania . that led to the conclusion it has ponto - mediterranean distribution . authors discovered the species . . .\nthe phyllodonta latrata ( guen\u00e3\u00a9e ) species group in costa rica ( geometridae , ennominae ) .\nbolling sullivan , j . / / zookeys ; 2014 , issue 421 , p3\nhistorically , the name phyllodonta latrata ( guen\u00e3\u00a9e ) has been applied to what is a complex of three undescribed species in costa rica . they are very similar in maculation , but can be differentiated by genitalic characters and barcodes . p . alajuela sullivan , sp . n . occurs at lower altitudes in . . .\nanalysis of odorant - binding proteins in antennae of a geometrid species , ascotis selenaria cretacea , which produces lepidopteran type ii sex pheromone components .\nhayaki watanabe ; hiroko tabunoki ; nami miura ; ryoichi sato ; tetsu ando / / invertebrate neuroscience ; jun2007 , vol . 7 issue 2 , p109\nabstract\u00e2 \u00e2 information on the olfactory system in antennae of geometridae moths is very limited , and odorant - binding proteins ( obps ) working as transporters of lipophilic odors have not been identified . in the first investigation on this family of insects , we examined antennal obps of the . . .\ndescripci\u00e3\u00b3n de las larvas ii , iii y el pupario de compsomyiops fulvicrura ( diptera : calliphoridae ) .\ntrigo , a . ver\u000f # ; nica / / revista de la sociedad entomol\u00e3\u00b3gica argentina ; jul2006 , vol . 65 issue 1 / 2 , p87\nthe larvae ii , iii , and the puparium of compsomyiops fulvicrura ( robineau - desvoidy , 1830 ) are described . the material was collected in tandil ( buenos aires , argentina ) , during an experiment on sarcosaprophagous faunal succession . new diagnostic characters of c . fulvicrura , calliphora vicina . . .\nhow rapidly do invasive birch forest geometrids recruit larval parasitoids ? insights from comparison with a sympatric native geometrid .\nvindstad , o . ; schott , t . ; hagen , s . ; jepsen , j . ; kapari , l . ; ims , r . / / biological invasions ; jul2013 , vol . 15 issue 7 , p1573\ntwo related issues in studies of biological invasions are how quickly the enemy complexes of invasive species become as species - rich and efficient as those of native species and how important enemy release is for the establishment and spread of invaders . we addressed these issues for the . . .\nregistro de thyrinteina arnobia arnobia ( stoll ) ( lepidoptera : geometridae ) en eucalyptus sp . ( myrtaceae ) en sorriso , mato grosso y su depredaci\u00e3\u00b3n por zelus armillatus ( lepeletier & serville ) ( hemiptera : reduviidae : harpactorinae ) .\nbarreto , marliton rocha ; mojena , amador / / entomobrasilis ; ene - abr2014 , vol . 7 issue 1 , p69\nthe most important lepidopterans for eucalyptus crop are called defoliators . in brazil , some species occur from the amaz\u00e3\u00b4nia to rio grande do sul state and thyrinteina arnobia arnobia ( stoll ) ( lepidoptera : geometridae ) is cited as the most important lepidopteran defoliator in brazil and some . . .\nnew and interesting geometrid moths from the cape verde islands ( lepidoptera : geometridae ) .\nhausmann , a . / / shilap revista de lepidopterologia ; jun2009 , vol . 37 issue 146 , p241\ngrowth and development in a lepidopteran with variable instar number , pseudocoremia suavis ( geometridae ) , under standard rearing conditions and when parasitised by meteorus pulchricornis ( hymenoptera : braconidae ) .\nbarraclough , emma i . ; burgess , elisabeth p . j . ; kean , aliesha m . ; malone , louise a . / / european journal of entomology ; 2014 , vol . 111 issue 4 , p501\nthough extra instars are often associated with poor conditions and thought to be a compensation for a low growth rate , the reasons why they are necessary , and for variable instar number existing under standard rearing conditions , are not yet clear . in standard rearing conditions , approximately . . .\na review of biston leach , 1815 ( lepidoptera , geometridae , ennominae ) from china , with description of one new species .\nnan jiang ; dayong xue ; hongxiang han / / zookeys ; 10 / 25 / 2011 , vol . 139 , p45\nthe genus biston leach , 1815 is reviewed for china . seventeen species are recognized , of which b . mediolata sp . n . is described . b . pustulata ( warren , 1896 ) and b . panterinaria exanthemata ( moore , 1888 ) are newly recorded for china . the following new synonyms are established : b . suppressaria . . .\npobres pero honradas : lujuria burguesa y honorabilidad proletaria en las novelas breves de federica montseny .\nguirao , pedro garc\u00eda / / international journal of iberian studies ; 2011 , vol . 24 issue 3 , p155\nhacia 1922 la l\u00e3\u00adder anarquista federica montseny comen\u00e3\u00b3z a publicar novelas breves rom\u00e3\u00a1nticas en varios peri\u00e3\u00b3dicos anarquistas . fueron casi cincuenta escritos en los que dej\u00e3\u00b3 plasmada la misi\u00e3\u00b3n social de todo escritor anarquista : diagnosticar los males de la sociedad , denunciar . . .\ninvasion spread of operophtera brumata in northeastern united states and hybridization with o . bruceata .\nelkinton , joseph ; liebhold , andrew ; boettner , george ; sremac , marinko / / biological invasions ; nov2014 , vol . 16 issue 11 , p2263\nwe used five methods to estimate the rate of spread of the winter moth , operophtera brumata l . , a european lepidoptera , invading the northeastern usa and occasionally hybridizing with the closely related o . bruceata . these two species utilize the same sex attractant and pheromone traps capture . . .\nfaunistic composition , ecological properties , and zoogeographical composition of the elateridae ( coleoptera ) family in the western black sea region of turkey .\nkabalak , mahmut ; sert , osman / / journal of insect science ; 2013 , vol . 13 , p1\nthe main aim of this study was to understand the faunistic composition , ecological properties , and zoogeographical composition of the family elateridae ( coleoptera ) of the western black sea region of turkey . as a result , 44 species belonging to 5 subfamilies and 19 genera were identified . after . . .\nyoung , amanda b . ; cairns , david m . ; lafon , charles w . ; moen , jon / / arctic , antarctic & alpine research ; aug2014 , vol . 46 issue 3 , p659\nthe alpine treeline in northern fennoscandia is composed primarily of mountain birch ( betula pubescens ssp . czerepanovii ) , a deciduous tree that experiences episodic defoliation due to outbreaks of the autumnal moth ( epirrita autumnata ) and winter moth ( operophtera brumata ) . here , we use an . . .\nselidosema pyrenaearia ( boisduval , 1840 ) bona species de la pen\u00e3\u00adnsula ib\u00e3\u00a9rica y actualizaci\u00e3\u00b3n de las especies ib\u00e3\u00a9ricas de selidosema h\u00e3\u00bcbner , [ 1823 ] del grupo plumaria - brunnearia ( lepidoptera : geometridae , ennominae ) .\nredondo , v . ; gast\u00f3n , j . / / shilap revista de lepidopterologia ; mar2012 , vol . 40 issue 157 , p61\nwithin the european group of species , which up to now included only selidosema brunnearia ( villers , 1789 ) and s . plumaria ( [ denis & schifferm\u00e3\u00bcller ] , 1775 ) , a third taxon , selidosema pyrenaearia ( boisduval , 1840 ) has been raised to the rank of species . its distribution range comprises . . .\nmicroestructura del huevo de mallomus glabra ( rindge , 1971 ) y algunas consideraciones taxon\u00e3\u00b3micas ( lepidoptera : geometridae ) .\nbustamante f . , a . a . ; olivares , t . s . ; angulo , a . o . / / shilap revista de lepidopterologia ; mar2013 , vol . 41 issue 161 , p149\nthe egg of mallomus glabra ( rindge , 1971 ) is described based on specimens obtained in the laboratory from a female collected in the outskirts of the reserva nacional malalcahuello - nalcas ( 38\u00e2\u00b0 30 ' s ; 71\u00e2\u00b0 35 ' w ) and compared with eggs of other species in this genus . also , we make some . . .\nlewis , michelle n . ; steichen , renae m . ; summerville , keith s . / / journal of the iowa academy of science ; mar - jun2005 , vol . 112 issue 1 / 2 , p1\nnorth american prairie systems are believed co have supported substantial insect biodiversity . loss of prairie and oak savanna habitats , however , has been severe in many midwestern states , including iowa . an unanswered question facing land managers interested in restoring tallgrass prairies to . . .\ncaracterizaci\u00e3\u00b3n forrajera de un sistema silvopastoril de vegetaci\u00e3\u00b3n secundaria con base en la aptitud de suelo .\nbuenfil , gonzalo zapata ; z\u00fa\u00f1iga , francisco bautista ; calder\u00f3n , marta astier / / t\u00e3\u00a9cnica pecuaria en m\u00e3\u00a9xico ; jul - sep2009 , vol . 47 issue 3 , p257\ntree and shrub forage production were evaluated during the dry season in three soil within a silvopastoral system ( sps ) complementary to traditional , local cattle systems in yucatan , mexico . soils were epileptic cambisol ( cmlep , 24 % ) , endoskelectic cambisol ( cmnsk , 21 . 3 % ) and rodic luvisol . . .\na revision of the genus antepione packard with description of the new genus pionenta ferris ( lepidoptera , geometridae , ennominae ) .\nferris , clifford d . / / zookeys ; 2010 , vol . 71 , p49\nbased on genitalic studies , the new genus pionenta is established for two taxa formerly placed under antepione . the taxa hewesata and ochreata ( and previously associated synonyms ) are now synonomized as pionenta ochreata . three species of antepione are now recognized : a . thisoaria , a . imitata , . . .\nrim\u0161ait\u0117 , jolanta ; jonaitis , vytautas ; ivinskis , povilas ; vi\u0161inskien\u0117 , giedr\u0117 / / acta zoologica lituanica ; jun2005 , vol . 15 issue 2 , p165\nthe paper generalises the original data of more than 30 years of investigations in the lithuanian lter sites ( the baltic sea coastal area , \u00e4\u0153epkeliai state strict nature reserve , kamanos state strict nature reserve and the environs of lake dr\u00e5\u00abk\u00e5\u00a1iai ) . over 3 , 000 insect species belonging . . .\nidentification , synthesis and field testing of ( 3z , 6z , 9z ) - 3 , 6 , 9 - henicosatriene , a second bioactive component of the sex pheromone of the autumn gum moth , mnesampela privata .\nwalker , paul w . ; allen , geoff r . ; davies , noel w . ; smith , jason a . ; molesworth , peter p . ; nilsson , anna ; andersson , fredrik ; hedenstr\u00f6m , erik / / journal of chemical ecology ; dec2009 , vol . 35 issue 12 , p1411\nabstract the sex pheromone of mnesampela privata , an endemic pest of eucalyptus plantations in australia , was previously identified as a single bioactive compound , ( 3z , 6z , 9z ) - 3 , 6 , 9 - nonadecatriene ( c19 triene ) . initial field testing of lures containing 1 mg , 5 mg or 10 mg of c19 triene ( > 98 % . . .\na new species of the genus zamarada moore ( lepidoptera : geometridae ) from shivaliks in punjab , india .\nsood , rachita ; rose , h . s . ; pathania , p . c . / / journal of threatened taxa ; apr2009 , vol . 1 issue 4 , p236\nthe article presents a study which examines a new insect species of the genus , zamarada moore , in punjab , india . the study claims that the species is considered as a junior subjective synonym of the euchloris baliata . it examines the insect ' s alar expanse , wing venation , male genitalia and . . .\nregurgitant derived from the tea geometrid ectropis obliqua suppresses wound - induced polyphenol oxidases activity in tea plants .\nyang , zi - wei ; duan , xiao - na ; jin , shan ; li , xi - wang ; chen , zong - mao ; ren , bing - zhong ; sun , xiao - ling / / journal of chemical ecology ; jun2013 , vol . 39 issue 6 , p744\npolyphenol oxidases ( ppos ) have been reported to play an important role in protecting plants from attack by herbivores . however , little is known about their role in tea . here , we investigated the effect of ppos on interactions between tea plants and the tea geometrid ectropis obliqua , one of the . . .\nnew records of two species of cleora curtis ( lepidoptera : geometridae ) from mt . makiling , luzon , with a full checklist of species known from the philippines .\nbarrion - dupo , aimee lynn a . / / checklist ; 2013 , vol . 9 issue 2 , p452\ncleora contiguata bigladiata is recollected from its type locality 48 years after its original description in 1953 . meanwhile , c . decisaria and c . determinata are recorded in mt . makiling for the first time . the latter species is also a new country record . these additional locality data are . . .\ncross - coupling of 2 , 5 - bis ( chloromethylidene ) - 1 , 4 - dithiane with phenylacetylene as an example of preparation of symmetric bridging bisenyne compounds .\nmartynov , a . v . ; makhaeva , n . a . ; amosova , s . v . / / russian journal of organic chemistry ; nov2013 , vol . 49 issue 11 , p1720\nthe article presents the study regarding the symmetric bridging bisenyme compounds which focuses on the cross - coupling of 2 , 5 - bis ( chloromethylidene ) - 1 , 4 - thiane with phenylacetylene . it states that the cross - coupling of triflate and vinyl halides with terminal acetylenes is one of the most . . .\nexpression of the b - cell proliferation marker mum1 by melanocytic lesions and comparison with s100 , gp100 ( hmb45 ) , and melana .\nsundram , uma ; harvell , jeff d . ; rouse , robert v . ; natkunam , yasodha / / modern pathology ; aug2003 , vol . 16 issue 8 , p802\nthe diagnosis of malignant melanoma remains one of the most difficult to render in surgical pathology , partially because of its extreme histologic variability . limits in the sensitivity and / or specificity of the currently available melanocytic markers such as anti - s100 , hmb45 , and anti - melana . . .\nklemola , tero ; klemola , netta ; andersson , tommi ; ruohom\u00e4ki , kai / / population ecology ; apr2007 , vol . 49 issue 2 , p165\npopulations of the autumnal moth , epirrita autumnata , exhibit cycles with high amplitudes in northernmost europe , culminating in devastating outbreak densities at favourable sites . parasitism by hymenopteran parasitoids has been hypothesised to operate with a delayed density dependence capable . . .\nfunctionality of a reduced proboscis : fluid uptake by phigalia strigataria ( minot ) ( geometridae : ennominae ) .\ngrant , jessica i . ; djani , dylan m . ; lehnert , matthew s . / / journal of the lepidopterists ' society ; 2012 , vol . 66 issue 4 , p211\nthe structure and functionality of the reduced proboscis of males of p . strigataria was studied . scanning electron microscopy revealed a proboscis structurally similar to functional proboscises of other lepidopteran species , including chemo - and mechanosensilla and a tip - region with larger . . .\nriihim\u00e4ki , janne ; kaitaniemi , pekka ; ruohom\u00e4ki , kai / / oecologia ; jan2003 , vol . 134 issue 2 , p203\ndirect or plant - mediated interactions between herbivores may modify their spatial distribution among and within plants . in this study , we examined the effect of a leaf - chewing geometrid , the autumnal moth ( epirrita autumnata ) , on two different herbivore groups , leaf rolling deporaus betulae . . .\ngeometridae de la sierra de taibilla y de la reserva natural de la sierra de las cabras ( albacete - murcia , espa\u00e3\u00b1a ) ( lepidoptera : geometridae ) .\nguerrero , j . j . ; ortiz , a . s . ; rubio , r . m . ; calle , j . a . ; garre , m . / / shilap revista de lepidopterologia ; dec2010 , vol . 38 issue 152 , p417\nthe geometridae fauna of sierra de taibilla and sierra de las cabras natural park ( albacete - murcia , spain ) includes 162 species belonging to subfamilies ennominae , geometrinae , sterrhinae and larentiinae . elements with a mediterranean distribution ( 59 , 2 % ) represent a higher proportion than . . .\nhigh rates of parasitism of blueberry spanworm ( lepidoptera : geometridae ) by ichneumonidae and tachinidae in commercial lowbush blueberry fields .\ncutler , g . ; gariepy , t . ; silva , e . ; hillier , n . / / journal of pest science ; jun2015 , vol . 88 issue 2 , p219\nblueberry spanworm , itame ( macaria ) argillacearia packard , is an important defoliator of lowbush blueberry ( vaccinium angustifolium aiton ) , a major crop in eastern canada . in the summer of 2012 , we collected a large number of blueberry spanworm larvae from two managed blueberry fields in . . .\nthree new species of idaea treitschke ( geometridae : sterrhinae ) from the southwestern united states and northern mexico .\ncovell jr . , charles v . / / journal of the lepidopterists ' society ; 2015 , vol . 69 issue 1 , p317\nthree new species of idaea treitschke , 1825 ( geometridae : sterrhinae ) are described and illustrated : idaea knudsonaria n . sp . , type locality sierra diablo wildlife management area , culberson county , texas ; idaea kendallaria n . sp . , type locality santa ana refuge , hidalgo county , texas ; and idaea . . .\nthe life history of speranza exonerata ferguson , 2008 ( geometridae : ennominae : macariini ) .\nnelson , michael w . / / journal of the lepidopterists ' society ; 2015 , vol . 69 issue 2 , p77\nsperanza exonerata ferguson , 2008 ( geometridae : ennominae : macariini ) is a stenotopic moth only known from the northeastern usa . this species was reared from ova obtained from captive females in 2008 and 2009 ; the immature stages and life history are described . both a larval host plant . . .\nthree new species of hagnagora druce , 1885 ( lepidoptera , geometridae , larentiinae ) from ecuador and costa rica and a concise revision of the genus .\nthree new hagnagora druce species ( geometridae , larentiinae ) are described : hagnagora richardi brehm , sp . n . from ecuador , h . hedwigae brehm , sp . n . from ecuador , and h . mirandahenrichae brehm , sp . n . from costa rica . a checklist of taxa assigned to hagnagora is provided . hagnagora is . . .\nucla scientists image how parkinson ' s genes misfire in mice ; may help identify genes for autism , schizophrenia .\nfrom\nmiss lou\nto [ star trek ' s ] zulu : the multiple communities of nalo hopkirisonh .\n\u00a9 2018 by ebsco publishing . all rights reserved . privacy policy | terms of use\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nthe palaearctic hylaea fasciaria ( linnaeus , 1758 ) species group is revised ( lepidoptera : geometridae , ennominae ) . four taxa are considered valid at species level : h . fasciaria ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , h . pinicolaria ( bellier , 1861 ) , h . compararia ( staudinger , 1894 ) and one new species , h . mediterranea , from italy : sicily , calabria and molise . the following taxonomic changes are proposed : ellopia cedricola wehrli , 1919 , from turkey is downgraded to subspecies of hylaea fasciaria ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ( revised status ) , hylaea fasciaria cleui leraut , 1993 , from france is downgraded from subspecies to synonymy with h . fasciaria fasciaria ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ( new synonymy ) and ellopia compararia staudinger , 1894 , from algeria is raised from subspecies of hylaea fasciaria ( linnaeus , 1758 ) to species status ( revised status ) . hemithea squalidaria o . g . costa , 1848 from southern italy was placed in the genus hylaea , but it is reverted to its original combination as its taxonomic status is uncertain . adults , male and female genitalia and distribution maps are illustrated for all species . dna barcodes are presented for most taxa studied .\n( linnaeus , 1758 ) species group is revised ( lepidoptera : geometridae , ennominae ) . four\nthe nearctic and in the neotropical regions ( scoble 1999 ) . this view was questioned by pitkin ( 2002 ) , who noted\nrestricted to the palaearctic region . this view was not adopted by scoble and hausmann ( 2007 ) , who listed 12\ndata from collection specimens . these data were supplemented by adding data from recent faunistic inventories of\nsouth - western germany ( ebert 2003 ) . the taxa were delimited on the basis of combining data from morphology ,\nbiology and dna barcodes . the genitalia and the abdomen were prepared following methods described by\n2008 ) , those are described at ccdb ( 2013 ) . sequence divergence within and between species was calculat\ndistinguish taxa at species or subspecies level . the same applied both to the external and internal genitalia\nenitalia . certain structures in the genitalia pictures ( e . g . , the\nspecifically mentioned . many of these structures vary within species , but intraspecific variation is not illustrated .\ndiagnostic differences , even more so , than the external features . dna barcodes proved useful , providing detail\nuk ) , europe [ probably near \u00e5bo ( = turku ) , finland ] ( examined externally ) .\nesper , 1794 , die schmett . 3 suppl . ( 5\u20136 ) : 58 , pl . 90 , f\nachyr dagh , bertiz jaila , 1800 m ( examined , including genitalia ) [ originally as sp . , downgraded from species rank\n1954 ) , in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 4 ( suppl . ) : 32\nwingspan male 27\u201335 mm , female 34\u201339 mm . ground colour variable ( see variation ) , dominant colours being\ndifferent shades of reddish - brown and green . medial lines often whitish ( see v\ncosta , basal part moves away from costa ( not parallel with costa ) . p\nhindwings with postmedial line visible only . terminal line and fringes near forewing apex normally concolorous\nwith wings . hindwing postmedial line distinct , curved . discal spots absent . wings below as above , but paler . frons\npale - brown to brown - red , thorax and abdomen concolorous with wings . area between antennae ( vertex ) white .\nsexes with 2 + 2 spurs . tympanal organs medium - sized . sternites and tergites 3\u20138 of both sexes undifferentiated .\nsubapical spine ( occasionally with two spines ) in ventral margin . valva base with narrow\napproximately 90 degrees angle . vesica evenly narrowing tube , base with straight row of microcornuti\n( diagnostic characters underlined ) ( figure 14 ) : papillae anales wide , setose . apophyses\nposteriores long , straight . apophyses anteriores about 1 / 4 length of apophyses posteriores . lamella postvag\nposterior part of corpus bursae narrow , rather long , sclerotised , surface granulate . anterior part of corpus bursae\n( bernd m\u00fcller , pers . comm . ) . adults are nocturnal , attracted to light .\nconiferous forests , and less frequently in areas with coniferous trees such as nordic wetlands .\ncombined with information on biology , collecting locality , male and female genitalia and dna barcodes . an\nparts of scandinavia only these colours exist , whereas in southern europe various shades of green ( f .\nare dominant . in many areas both colour morphs coexist . position , width and colour of medial l\nmale , 1 . viii . 1972 , byerum , \u00f6land , sweden ( coll . skou ) . 1d .\n24 : g ) , armenia , without date ( coll . unknown ) . 1f .\nerre rouge , briancon , dept . hautes alpes , france ( coll . skou ) . 1h .\nehrli ) male , ex ovo , bey da\u011flari , antalya , turkey ( coll . m\u00fcller ) . 1i .\nfemale , 28 . vi . 1981 , karpenision , aetolia , greece ( coll . skou ) . 2a .\n0 , pizzo della rondine , sicily , italy ( coll . skou ) , holotype . 2b\ndella rondine , sicily , italy ( coll . skou ) , paratype . 2d .\nfemale , 5 . vi . 2005 , castelbuono , sicily , italy ( coll .\n004 , camping monte cinto , haut - asco , corsica , france ( coll . skou ) . 3c .\nmale , 6 . vii . 1951 , la foce , vizzavona , corsica , france ( coll . herbulot , coll . zsm ) . 3d .\n23 . vi . 1994 , haut asco , corsica , france ( coll . skou ) . 4a .\n11 , glacieres , blida , algeria ( coll . bmnh ) . 4c .\nfemale , 15 . ix . 1911 , glacieres , blida , algeria ( coll . bmnh ) . 5a .\n( bellier ) ( france , corsica , 20 . - 21 . vii . 2004 ) . figure 9 .\nconcave below apex . only green specimens are known . we retain taxon valid at\nline is not visible near costa . we have not had access to extensive materials from the transcaucasus , apart from two\nrank , and retain taxon valid at subspecies level . the taxon is , according\nrestricted to armenia ( transcaucasus ) . scoble ( 1999 ) did not mention the taxon at all , viidalepp ( 1996 ) consided it\nleraut , illustrated in leraut ( 2009 ) and hausmann ( 2001 ; fig . 66 ) , ( fig . 1g\n( linnaeus ) . wings are purple - pink to crimson - red and medial lines are ash grey . t\nother populations in the alps . dna barcodes are not available , so far , for french alps populations .\ngenitalia , finland : enonkoski , 16\u201318 . vii . 1996 , slide ps1344 ( coll . p\n. sihvonen ) . 10c . vesica , finland : enonkoski , 16\u201318 . vii . 199\n10d . base of vesica , finland : enonkoski , 16\u201318 . vii . 1996 , slide ps1344 ( coll . p\n11a . genitalia , italy : sicily , 1000 m , 9\u201310 . x . 20\nolotype ( coll skou ) . 11c . vesica , italy : sicily , 1000 m , 9\u201310\nf vesica , italy : sicily , 1000 m , 9\u201310 . x . 2010\n12a . genitalia , france : corsica , 1100 m , 20\u201321 . vii . 2004 , slid\nc . vesica , france : corsica , 1100 m , 20\u201321 . vii . 2004 , slide ps1542\n12d . base of vesica , france : corsica , 1100 m , 20\u201321 . vii . 20\ne ps1866 / bmnh geo 24840 ( coll . bmnh ) . 13b . aedeagus , algeria : blida ,\n3c . vesica , algeria : blida , 5 . vi . 1908 , slide ps187\n14b . reduced signum , finland : f\u00f6gl\u00f6 , 28 . vii . 1995 , slide ps1448 ( coll . p\nlide ps1739 , paratype ( coll . skou ) . 15b . signum , italy : sicily , 1000\nparatype ( coll . skou ) . 15c . ostium bursae and adjacent structures , italy : sicily , 1000 m , 9\u201310 . x . 20\n16a . genitalia , france : corsica , 1100 m , 20\u201321 . vii . 200\n16b . reduced signum , france : corsica , 1100 m , 20\u201321 . vii . 2004\nbmnh ) . 17b . posterior part of corpus bursae ( signum absent ) , algeria : blida , 13 . ix . 191\n( coll . bmnh ) . 17c . ostium bursae and adjacent structures , algeria : blida , 15 . ix . 1911 , slide ps18\nwn in grey . the examined records , which appear outside that area , are shown in black symbols .\no della rondine , 1000 m , 9 . - 10 . x . 2010 , peder skou leg . ; p\n1738 . , pasi sihvonen ( coll . skou , denmark , to be deposited at the zoological museum , university of copenhagen ,\nales and 4 females . 1 male and 3 females : italy , sicily , / 5 . 7 km ese san /\nstefano quisquina , / near pizzo della rondine , / 1000 m , 9 . - 10 . x . 2010 , / peder skou leg . ; prep . number 1739 . / ,\ns . of castelbuono , / 1350 m , 5 . vi . 2005 , / peder skou l\nspecimens in coll . peder skou , denmark ) . 1 male : italy , sicily , mt etna / ragabo restaur\n. jeppesen . 1 male : italy , sicily , / 5 . 3 km se collesano , / rifugio\norestano , / 1100 m , 8 . x . 2010 , / peder skou leg ( all in coll . skou , denmark ) . 1 male : i\nnicolosi / monte san leo / 1110 m , / n3739\u2019 - e1459\u2019 / 2 . juni 2001 / leg . norbert p\u00f6ll ; 305 [ g\ncollection , italy ) . 1 male : sicilia or . / mte . etna / 2km s milo / ( ct ) 800m / 20 . viii . 2001 / lg . hausm\nbarcode specimen id bc zsm lep 14248 ] ( zsm ) . other material exami\ncocuzzo , 1150 m , leg . s . scalercio , 28 . 7 . 1997 , bc zsm lep 14249 ( dna barcode analysed , zsm ) . 1 male : italy ,\nwingspan male 31 mm ( n = 4 ) , female 37\u201341 mm ( n = 4 ) . wings light g\nbefore costa , basal part moves away from costa ( not parallel with costa ) . postmedial line rather straig\nweakly curved , barely angled before it reaches costa near apex and evenly curved outwards on inner margin .\n. hindwing postmedial line distinct , curved . discal spots absent . wings below as above , but paler\n, thorax and abdomen concolorous with wings . area between antennae ( vertex ) white . antennae white\ndorsally , male antennae bipectinate , female antennae fasciculate . hindleg tibia of both sexes with 2 + 2 spurs .\ntympanal organs medium - sized . sternites and tergites 3\u20138 of both sexes undifferentiated .\nbarcoded ) . one further specimen has been reported from the island of marettimo , west of sicily ( l . dapporto ,\npers . comm . , not dna barcoded ) . outside this the distribution area needs verification . some specimens from\naterial . dna barcodes are not available , so far , for greek populations .\n( figure 21 ) . in pine forests and places with more scattered pine trees . altitude rang\nbarcodes . an overview of diagnostic morphological features is given in table 1 . the taxon\nlittle variation in habitus observed , so far . forewing postmedial line is straight or weak\nthe distribution areas , where the species occurs frequently , are shown in grey . the type localities of\nnew species . italy : sicily , 1000 metres above sea - level . 10 octob\nnew species , a rearing from the etna mountain , sicily . figure 22 . eggs .\n. figure 24 . pupa . figure 25 . male adult . see text for details . photos by d . righini .\n) . syntype ( s ) , corsica ( mountains of ) . bellier & apos ; s\nmuseum , london , uk . despite searches , we have not located the type .\ncosta well before apex and evenly curved outwards on inner margin . medial area concolorous with rest of wing .\ncurved . discal spots absent . wings below as above , but paler . frons red - brown\nwith wings . area between antennae ( vertex ) white . antennae white dorsally , male antennae bipectinate , female\nantennae fasciculate . hindleg tibia of both sexes with 2 + 2 spurs . t\nin pine forests and places with more scattered pine trees . it is found mostly in the mountains from 500\nto 1500 metres , but it occurs also at sea level ( rungs 1982 ) .\n? ) . syntypes male , female , algeria , near tenied el had .\nwhite . antennae white dorsally , male antennae bipectinate , female antennae fasciculate . hindleg tibia of both sexes\nwith 2 + 2 spurs . tympanal organs medium - sized . sternites and tergites 3\u20138 of both sexes undifferentiated .\nrow of microcornuti , not reaching aedeagus apex in above - mentioned species ) .\nand width and length of the posterior part of the corpus bursae are variable and should be treated with caution .\n100 specimens in the nhm ) , cf . prout ( 1912\u20131916 ) and tunisia\naccording to the original description ( staudinger , 1894 : 289 ) \u2019putatively in coniferous forest\u2019 .\nnot reach the aedeagus apex and signum is larger ) . the diagnostic , external characters shown in fig\nbiology , collecting locality , male and female genitalia and dna barcodes . an overview of diag\n. costa , 1848 , fauna regno napoli ( ent . ) : [ 331 ] , pl . ( geom . ) 2 , fig . 4 , (\ncoast : san cataldo , near lecce ; tyrrhenian coast : [ lago di ] patria [ near naples ] .\nbeing equal to 1 / 12 of an sicilian ounce . costa also reported the same wingspan for\nand the description of the taxon reported in costa & apos ; s text ( e . g\nailable to us has a wingspan of 31 mm , smallest female is 37 mm ) .\ntype specimen ( s ) of the taxon no longer exist . turati ( 1911 )\n( costa , 1882 ) ( ennominae ) are mentioned in the article . also conci ( 1975 ) reports that part\nsubfamily geometrinae ( see discussion above ) . we have been unable to trace a candidate for a neotype designation\nstages . we are greatly indebted to paul d . n . hebert and his competent team of bio for analysi\nscalercio ( italy ) , and marco infusino ( italy ) provided own data for comparative analysis . leonardo dapporto\nconci , c . ( 1975 ) repertorio delle biografie e bibliografie degli scrittori e cultori italiani di entomologia .\nd 9 , nachtfalter vii ( geometridae ) . stuttgart , e . ulmer ,\nhausmann , a . ( 2001 ) introduction . archiearinae , orthostixinae , desmobathrinae , alsophilinae , geometrinae .\narsholt , o . & van nieukerken , e . j . ( eds . ) ,\n. fauna europaea version 2 . 4 , released 27 january 2011 . available from : http : / /\nhill , l , randle , z . , fox , r . & parsons , m . ( 2011 ) provisional atlas\n. ( 2013 ) bestimmung von schmetterlingen ( lepidoptera ) und ihren pr\u00e4imaginalstadien . available from : http : / /\npitkin , l . m . ( 2002 ) neotropical ennomine moths : a review of the genera ( lepidoptera : geometridae ) .\nsaitou , n . & nei , m . ( 1987 ) the neighbour - joining method : a new method for reconstructing evolutionary trees .\nrg / geometridae / species _ checklists . php ( accessed 2 february 2013 )\ngico universit della r . di napoli . descrizioni tues forme nuove e note critiche .\nminsterio de agricultura pesca y alimentaci\u00f3n , madrid . part 2 : x + 775 pp .\n. . . it has since been successfully used for species delimitation in lepidopteran species that are difficult to separate morphologically ( see hajibabaei et al . 2006 , yang et al . 2012 ) . the barcoding gap between intra - and inter - specific variation was used for species discrimination ( hebert et al . 2004a , meier et al . 2006 , meier et al . 2008 , sihvonen et al . 2014 , jiang et al . 2014 ) . in the present study an overview of the chinese cyclidiinae is given with diagnostic characters for each genus and species , one new subspecies is described , two new synonyms are established , and one misidentification in chu and wang ( 1987 ) is revised . . . .\n. . . the morphological analysis indicated that some structures of the genitalia were found to be less diagnostic than the external characters between some species ( i . e . c . substigmaria and c . rectificata ) . sihvonen et al . ( 2014 ) also mentioned this trait in the geometridae . additionally , some structures of the male genitalia ( e . g . the shape of the valva ) sometimes varied among individuals of c . substigmaria . . . .\nannotated list of the moth fauna of anamur district ( i\u0307\u00e7el prov . , south turkey ) , with descriptions of new species ( lepidoptera ) .\ngbol is a national network of various natural history museums and other biodiversity research institutions in germany . the gbol partners provide their professional taxonomic expertise and existing \u2026\n[ more ]\nwe aim to understand better the phylogenetic relationships of the geometridae in the neotropical region . we already have sequenced ca . 150 genera but we still seek certain taxa for our work . i work\u2026\n[ more ]\nthe aim of the project is to get all iberian macroheterocera species will be barcoded . at the moment , 1158 specimens from 569 species have been barcoded mainly noctuoidea .\nle specie del genere tephronia nella regione sardo - corsa e descrizione di tephronia nuragica n . sp .\nle specie del genere tephronia nella regione sardo - corsa e descrizione di tephronia nuragica n . sp . riassunto analisi morfologiche e genetiche condotte su individui di tephronia h\u00fcbner , 1825 raccolti in sardegna e corsica indicano che in queste isole vivono t . cyrnea ( schawerda , 1932 ) e t . nuragica n . sp . , quest ' ultima in sostituzione di t . sepiaria ( hufnagel , 1767 ) . in alcune stazioni della . . . [ show full abstract ]\nrevision of the west - mediterranean geometrid genus ekboarmia , with description of a new species from . . .\nthe west - mediterranean geometrid moth genus ekboarmia wehrli , 1943 ( lepidoptera : geomet - ridae , ennominae ) is revised based on morphology , life history , and dna barcodes . it was found that wing patterns allow reliable identification of species , whereas the genitalia are rather uniform in shape and less informative , and the genetic divergence ( in the coi gene ) between species is considerably . . . [ show full abstract ]\n141 european ennominae species covered . 709 specimens in 16 colour plates . comprehensive text for each genus and species . 145 text - figures of diagnostic characters and other morphological structures . new synonymies , status revisions , new combinations and numerous new distribution data . systematic catalogue ."]}
{"id": 2235, "summary": [{"text": "the quillback ( carpiodes cyprinus ) is a type of freshwater fish of the sucker family .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is deeper-bodied than most suckers , leading to a carplike appearance .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "it can be distinguished from carp by the lack of barbels around the mouth . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "quillback", "paragraphs": ["quillback carpsuckers have also been introduced in mexico where they have established a reproducing population .\n12 may 2015 : the quillback mouse was released as part of the fungal cavern content .\nquillback carpsuckers are a minor commercial fish in the united states with little or no economic benefit to fishermen . quillback carpsuckers introduced to mexico however provide an important economic benefit to the northeastern portion of that country .\nquillback carpsuckers are bottom feeders . like other bottom feeders they help to keep their ecosystem clean by feeding on bottom matter .\ncomparative feeding ecology of two sympatric rockfish congeners , sebastes caurinus ( copper rockfish ) and s . maliger ( quillback rockfish )\nquillback are not of importance to anglers and are seldom caught except in very early spring . snagging for quillback occurs in the fast water below dams , where they tend to gather . the commercial catch of quillback is low and incidental to river carpsucker as neither species is in demand as a food - fish . they are an important forage fish to predators when they are young .\nadult quillback carpsuckers migrate , usually upstream , during reproduction . the exact distance of this migration is unknown , but most likely it depends on the on specific location . quillback carpsuckers , like most other fishes , generally return to their pre - spawn home range after reproduction .\nquillback carpsuckers prefer to feed on the bottoms of lakes , rivers and streams . specifically they prefer clear , bottom water . they seek aquatic\n9 september 2015 : the quillback mouse moved from sandtail desert with the relocation of fungal cavern to the hollow heights region with its release .\ncomparative allometric growth of the gastrointestinal tract of two sympatric congeners , copper rockfish ( sebastes caurinus ) and quillback rockfish ( s . maliger )\nquillback carpsuckers prefer to live in highly productive streams that are moderately deep and clear . quillback carpsuckers prefer clear water over very muddy waters , unlike other carpsuckers , but are highly adaptable to slow moving streams . they are also found in lakes ( and their tributaries ) including the great lakes .\nbreeding season quillback carpsuckers breed in the spring - summer months depending on water temperature . the ideal water temperature for breeding is 7 - 18 degrees celsius .\ncomparative allometric growth of the gastrointestinal tract of two sympatric congeners , copper rockfish ( sebastes caurinus ) and quillback rockfish ( s . maliger ) | request pdf\n- posterior two - thirds of lateral line clear ; dorsal - fin membranes not deeply incised ; anal rays typically 6 ( typically 7 in quillback rf ) .\nquillback carpsuckers have a very compressed body making them look flattened when viewed from the side . they have large silvery scales which give them a silver coloration from the side fading to a dark color towards their backs . quillback carpsuckers are distinguished from other carpsuckers by their long first dorsal ray . they have a typical sucker mouth and , when viewed from the side , the back of the mouth does not extend past the front edge of the eye . quillback carpsuckers have a deeply forked tail fin .\nquillback carpsuckers are found throughout much of eastern north america as far north as saskatchewan , south to florida and as far west as south dakota , kansas and alabama .\nquillback carpsucker prefer moderately clear , highly productive streams that have large , deep pools next to stable gravel or rubble bottoms . it is less tolerant of turbidity than the other carpsuckers , although they are often found in close association . quillback adapt easily to other habitats and often live in slow flowing streams , natural lakes and river impoundments .\nlike most other fish quillback carpsuckers use visual and tactile cues to perceive their environment . little else is known about how they percieve their environment or communicate with each other .\nmale and female quillback carpsuckers make a run , or migration , to their spawning areas . there they release eggs and sperm in shallow water over small gravelly ridges , sand or mud .\nthe quillback is a four - legged beaked creature found roaming the desert landscape of the western approach in western orlais . its body is burgundy in color , with feathers protruding from along the spine .\nmortality is high among the eggs , fry and young fish because they provide food for predatory fish who are grazing or browsing for food . among adult quillback carpsuckers mortality is 60 to 70 percent annually .\nfeeding ecology was compared between sympatrie populations of sebastes congeners , s . caurinus ( copper rockfish ) and s . maliger ( quillback rockfish ) , to determine the potential for interspecific competition for food resources . a total of 602 copper rockfish and 285 quillback rockfish were collected from rocky reefs in saanich inlet , british columbia , canada , from october 1986 to august 1990 . . . . [ show full abstract ]\nquillback carpsuckers feed and reproduce in schools . because they do not build nests to reproduce they simply travel in groups releasing eggs and sperm haphazardly . they also travel and feed in groups similar to other schooling fishes .\nfemale quillback carpsuckers release several hundred thousand eggs which are scattered haphazardly in shallow water . an average of 64 , 000 eggs are produced by six year old - female quillbacks . quillbacks achieve independence almost immediately after hatching .\ngrowth averages 7 to 9 cm ( 3 to 4 inches ) per year in the younger ages to about 2 to 4 cm ( 1 to 1 1 / 2 ) inches each year for older specimens . a six year - old quillback carpsucker would be about 31 cm ( 12 inches ) in length and weigh slightly over 450 g ( one pound ) . quillback carpsuckers are a long - lived species , with fish as old as 11 years found in populations .\nconservation and management quillbacks have no special conservation status in minnesota . they are not abundant in minnesota but are more common then our other two carpsuckers species . in more southern midwestern states , the quillback is a commercial species of modest value .\nquillback carpsuckers spawn in open lake , river and stream bottoms and hatch from an unguarded spawning area where eggs are released by the female and fertilized by the male ( or males ) . once eggs are fertilized they take 8 - 12 days to hatch .\nthe largest recorded quillback carpsucker was caught in nebraska on the missouri river by patrick fox jr . on june 3 , 2001 . it weighed 6 . 18 kg ( 13 lbs . 10 oz . ) and measured 71 . 2 cm ( 28 inches ) in length .\nsavitz , j . , l . g . bardygula , and l . scoma . 1989b . the first record of the quillback carpsucker ( carpiodes cyprinus ) in illinois waters of lake michigan . transactions of the illinois academy of science 82 ( 3 & 4 ) : 191 - 192 .\nhow big do they get ? how long do they live ? the quillback is our largest carpsucker and can reach 200 mm ( 20 in ) and 2 . 7 kg ( 6 lbs ) . they live for about 10 years , although we know of specimens from wisconsin as old as 12 years .\nabundant in the clearer streams in iowa . their range extends from the great border rivers into the large interior rivers and most river impoundments . along with the river carpsucker , they often make up a big portion of fish in these rivers . small streams occasionally have quillback populations , but their abundance is usually rare .\nthose men of learning who claim dominion over the cold , weirdly angled laws of this world would deny that unutterable savagery of nature , conjuring their knowledge as a man in repose draws a blanket over himself , somnolent , to distract from cognizant mind the lethargic caliginosity of this world . such mendacity is made manifest in the quillback .\nwhere do they live ? the quillback is most common in rivers and their connected lakes in the southern half of minnesota . it occurs less frequently in the northern drainages , but us absent from the upper mississippi river and lake superior drainages . this species normally occurs in the more quiet waters of medium to low gradient , rivers including their sloughs and flood plain lakes .\nquillback carpsuckers are critically imperiled in vermont . they are imperiled in new york and michigan . also they are vulnerable in alberta , saskatchewan , quebec , south dakota , kansas , oklahoma , arkansas , louisiana and north carolina . populations seem to be stable in wyoming , nebraska , wisconsin , indiana , kentucky , mississippi , georgia , west virginia , virginia , maryland , ontario , iowa , illinois , alabama , pennsylvania , manitoba and the district of columbia . ohio , south carolina , florida , missouri , minnesota and north dakota have not ranked\nthe quillback is our most common carpsucker . commonly found in most warmwater rivers and streams , they are very difficult to catch . in many mid - sized warmwater rivers , quillbacks are the most common fish in the stream - but the rarest catch on hook and line . because of this , some states allow the barbaric practice of snagging or\nsnatching\nwith treble hooks . this is a species that is so hard to catch that many otherwise ethical anglers resort to snagging , bowshooting , spearing , or other pathetic and unsportsmanlike methods to capture them . but true sportsmen will always rise to the challenge and figure out how to catch them .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nresearch curator of fishes , north carolina state museum of natural sciences , research laboratory , 4301 reedy creek rd . , raleigh , nc , 27607 , usa\nbanks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , a . l . gardner , and w . c . starnes\nchecklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada\nspecial publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3\nmurdy , edward o . , ray s . birdsong , and john a . musick\nnelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .\nfull author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h\u00e9ctor espinosa - p\u00e9rez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams\nrobins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nfemales begin developing eggs internally long before hatch . in comparison males are much less involved during the pre - fertilization . neither sex has any apparent parental involvement after fertilization . the eggs are not guarded and they are left to develop and hatch on their own .\nmortality is high among eggs , fry and young fish because they provide browsing foods for predatory fish . one anti - predator adaptation that the species has made is the production of several thousand eggs per breeding season to ensure the survival of some offspring . adult quillbacks are usually not preyed upon due to their size and their schooling behavior .\ntanya dewey ( editor ) , animal diversity web , courtney egan ( editor ) .\nmichael ervin ( author ) , eastern kentucky university , sherry harrel ( editor , instructor ) , eastern kentucky university .\nstate of florida . 2005 .\nflorida fish and wildlife conservation commission\n( on - line ) . accessed october 31 , 2005 at urltoken .\nhot spot network . 2005 .\nhotspot fishing\n( on - line ) . accessed october 31 , 2005 at urltoken .\n2005 .\nnature serve\n( on - line ) . accessed october 31 , 2005 at urltoken .\ncommonwealth of pennsylvania . 2005 .\npa chapter 12 suckers\n( on - line ) . accessed october 31 , 2005 at urltoken .\nmayhew , j . 1987 .\niowa fish and fishing\n( on - line ) . accessed october 31 , 2005 at urltoken .\npage , l . , b . burr . 2005 .\nfishbase\n( on - line ) . accessed october 31 , 2005 at urltoken .\nervin , m . 2006 .\ncarpiodes cyprinus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nbiokids is sponsored in part by the interagency education research initiative . it is a partnership of the university of michigan school of education , university of michigan museum of zoology , and the detroit public schools . this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant drl - 0628151 . copyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 , the regents of the university of michigan . all rights reserved .\nthe nonindigenous occurrences section of the nas species profiles has a new structure . the section is now dynamically updated from the nas database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information . occurrences are summarized in table 1 , alphabetically by state , with years of earliest and most recent observations , and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed . the table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states , years , and drainages selected . references to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables .\nbecker ( 1983 ) ; page and burr ( 1991 ) ; etnier and starnes ( 1993 ) ; jenkins and burkhead ( 1994 ) . taxonomy of the genus carpiodes on the lower atlantic slope is uncertain . some of the forms resembling c . cyprinus and c . velifer may represent undescribed species ( gilbert , personal communication ) .\ngreat lakes and st . lawrence river , hudson bay , and mississippi river basins from quebec to alberta and south to louisiana ; atlantic slope drainages from delaware river , new york , to altamaha river , south carolina ( except apparently absent from rappahannock and york drainages in virginia , and tar and neuse drainages in north carolina ) . gulf slope drainages from apalachicola river , florida and georgia , to pearl river , louisiana ( page and burr 1991 ) .\ntable 1 . states with nonindigenous occurrences , the earliest and latest observations in each state , and the tally and names of hucs with observations\u2020 . names and dates are hyperlinked to their relevant specimen records . the list of references for all nonindigenous occurrences of carpiodes cyprinus are found here .\nestablished in arizona , north carolina , virginia and wisconsin . unknown in illinois .\nbecker , g . c . 1983 . fishes of wisconsin . university of wisconsin press , madison , wi .\netnier , d . a . , and w . c . starnes . 1993 . the fishes of tennessee . university of tennessee press , knoxville , tn .\ngilbert , c . r . - florida museum of natural history , gainesville , fl .\njenkins , r . e . , and n . m . burkhead . 1994 . freshwater fishes of virginia . american fisheries society , bethesda , md .\nmiller , r . r . , and c . h . lowe . 1967 . fishes of arizona . 133 - 151 in lowe , c . h . , ed . the vertebrates of arizona . university of arizona press , tucson , az .\nmenhinick , e . f . 1991 . the freshwater fishes of north carolina . north carolina wildlife resources commission .\npage , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 1991 . a field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . the peterson field guide series , volume 42 . houghton mifflin company , boston , ma .\nfuller , p . , 2018 , carpiodes cyprinus ( lesueur , 1817 ) : u . s . geological survey , nonindigenous aquatic species database , gainesville , fl , urltoken revision date : 7 / 22 / 2004 , peer review date : 4 / 1 / 2016 , access date : 7 / 9 / 2018\nthis information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision . it is being provided to meet the need for timely best science . the information has not received final approval by the u . s . geological survey ( usgs ) and is provided on the condition that neither the usgs nor the u . s . government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information .\nthe data represented on this site vary in accuracy , scale , completeness , extent of coverage and origin . it is the user ' s responsibility to use these data consistent with their intended purpose and within stated limitations . we highly recommend reviewing metadata files prior to interpreting these data .\ncitation information : u . s . geological survey . [ 2018 ] . nonindigenous aquatic species database . gainesville , florida . accessed [ 7 / 9 / 2018 ] .\ncontact us if you are using data from this site for a publication to make sure the data are being used appropriately and for potential co - authorship if warranted . for queries involving fish , please contact pam fuller . for queries involving invertebrates , contact amy benson .\nthis page was last edited on 24 may 2017 , at 14 : 09 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of the large extent of occurrence , large number of subpopulations , large population size , apparently stable trend , and lack of major threats .\nrange includes the great lakes - st . lawrence river , hudson bay , and mississippi river basins from quebec to alberta and south to louisiana , west to wyoming ; atlantic slope drainages from the delaware river , new york , to the savannah river , georgia ( absent from several drainages ) ; gulf slope drainages from the apalachicola river , florida and georgia , to the pearl river , louisiana ( page and burr 2011 ) .\nthis species is represented by a large number of occurrences ( subpopulations ) . total adult population size is unknown but is very large . trend over the past 10 years or three generations is uncertain but likely relatively stable .\nthis fish inhabits pools , backwaters , and main channels of clear to turbid waters of creeks , small to large rivers , and lakes ( lee et al . 1980 , page and burr 2011 ) . it spawns over sand and mud bottoms in quiet waters of streams or overflow areas in bends of rivers or bays of lakes ( scott and crossman 1973 ) .\ncurrently , this species is of relatively low conservation concern and does not require significant additional protection or major management , monitoring , or research actions .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\nwhat do they eat ? quillbacks are vacuum cleaners of the stream where the bottom is soft . so , they consume all kinds of bottom detritus ( decaying matter ) , plant matter , and insect larvae , especially midge larvae . they probably consume as much dead matter as living matter . larval quillbacks begin life eating waterfleas and other small plankton ( floating microscopic plants and animals ) from the water column .\nwhat eats them ? young quillbacks undoubtedly are eaten by piscivorous ( fish - eating ) fishes , but predation on them has not been reported . small quillbacks often associate with sand and mudflats in larger rivers . so , they are probably preyed upon by herons and eagles . the number of quillbacks taken by humans is very small .\npermission is granted for the non - commercial educational or scientific use of the text and images on this web document . please credit the author or authors listed below .\nphotographs by konrad p . schmidt text by nicole paulson & jay t . hatch in cooperation with the minnesota department of natural resources ' minnaqua aquatic program\nmaintained by jay t . hatch general college and james ford bell museum of natural history university of minnesota , minneapolis / st . paul\nquillbacks are numerous in most warmwater rivers , but are probably the species of carpsucker most likely to occur in lakes and impoundments . they inhabit shallow , slow water areas , such as deep pools , backwaters , side channels , and the flats . they can and do enter the main current flow , and will definitely flee into deep fast water when hooked or , more likely , spooked by an angler .\nquillbacks are very difficult to catch , except at the urltoken roundup . night fishing can be very effective . smoke a cigar and put out a line . you might be surprised .\nbody color : gray to brown mottled w / yellow on anterior portion of body , and w / orange - brown spotting on lower , anterior of body ; fins dark , except anterior portion of spinous dorsal fin , which is splashed w / yellow . ( also see above underwater photo . )\n- body brown w / dark mottling ; dorsal - fin membranes not deeply incised ; head spine count typically differs .\n- body black w / yellow stripe along lateral line and across nape ; dorsal - fin margin not deeply incised .\nits hooked beak describes a smile that makes mock of the laws of man and maker , and in the sagging folds of its rough and squamous hide lies no elegant simplicity . but look upon its dorsal ridge for the proof , if logic be your refuge , for in the ebon spines that jut uncaringly from its back , no man of learning can fail to see the cold and twisted spires of the black city itself .\nthis is a creature research item . bring it to a creature research specialist to learn more about this type of creature .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthese sleepy little guys take it easy down under . they mostly live hunched over and roll around looking for food . once they find it , they usually nap and keep it safe and warm underneath them leaving a nice , warm breakfast for when they decide to wakeup . their big , sharp quills keep other mice away , giving them all the time in the world to finish their food .\nthis page was last modified on 27 may 2017 , at 03 : 41 .\niowa fish species how to fish for . . . trout fishing master angler program first fish program\niowa ' s natural resources plates include the state bird and flower , pheasant , eagle , buck and a brook trout . support conservation in iowa by buying a natural resource plate for your vehicle . natural resource plates\nexperience iowa ' s natural beauty and all the fun our state parks offer . make your online reservation for state park cabins , camping sites , shelters and lodges .\nbrown back with silvery reflections , sides tinged golden yellow with dark edged scales , white belly , large scales . it is often misidentified as other carpsuckers . the most notable characteristic is the lack of a nipple - like projection at the middle of the lower lip . it can be distinguished from the other carpsuckers by the number of scales along the lateral line ; it has 37 to 41 scales . adults are commonly 12 - to 17 - inches long and weigh 1 to 3 pounds .\nrecent stream sampling information is available from iowa dnr ' s biological monitoring and assessment program .\namenities listed are at city of ft . madison boat ramp . amenities vary by location in pool 19\namenities listed are for the toolsboro ramp . the ramp at toolsboro is paved but the road to the ramp is gravel . there is some shore fishing along the parking area and at the outlet of lake odessa . amenities vary by location in pool 18\nthe amenities list are for buffalo shores campground in buffalo , iowa . amenities at other locations in pool 16 vary by location .\namenities list for muscatine city ramp . this ramp is located in downtown muscatine . amenities vary by location in pool 17 .\nthis stretch is located in marshall , tama , the sw corner of benton , iowa , and johnson county . a popular access is at the hwy 21 access , which is part of the iowa river corridor wildlife area , just south of belle plaine .\nthis stretch is located in hardin and marshall county . a popular access is located in pine lake state park , just east of eldora on county road s56 .\nwapsi river environmental education center : 31555 52nd avenue , dixon , iowa 52745 . northeast of dixon along the wapsi river . and sherman park across the river in clinton county\nmac coon access is located five and one - half miles north of lockridge just east of willow blvd .\nchris larsen park : 1280 larsen park road / sioux city , ia . located on the sioux city riverfront along the missouri river . larsen park offers 110 acres on the sioux city riverfront . managed by the city of sioux city .\nlake manawa state park : 1100 south shore drive / council bluffs , ia 51501 phone : 712 - 366 - 0220 . managed by the iowa department of natural resources lake manawa state park has boat ramps on the missouri river within the park .\nthe highway 30 access is in the middle of this river section and is located 3 miles west of boone on the north side of highway 30 .\nthis stretch is located in benton and linn county . a popular river access is in the dudgeon lake wildlife area right of hwy 150 on the north side of vinton .\nthis stretch is found in linn and cedar county . a popular access is found in palisades state park which is on hwy 30 between cedar rapids and mount vernon .\nwilson island state recreation area : 32801 campground lane / missouri valley , ia 51555 phone - 712 - 642 - 2069 . managed by the iowa department of natural resources , wilson island recreation area has 544 acres along the missouri river near missouri valley iowa .\nthis stretch is located in linn and jones county . a popular access on this stretch is in pinicon ridge park , just off hwy 13 by central city .\nriverside access : on the south side of riverside . has a hard surface ramp but it is only usable during highwater , mostly used as a canoe take out .\nthis stretch is located in johnson county . a popular access is the tailwater east ramp located right below the coralville lake dam , east of north liberty and coralville .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\ncomparative feeding ecology of two sympatric rockfish congeners , sebastes caurinus ( copper rockfish ) . . .\nuniversity microfilms order no . umi00378980 . thesis ( ph . d . ) - - university of victoria , 1992 . includes bibliographical references .\nfood habits of lactating harp seals ( phoca groenlandica ) in the gulf of st . lawrence in march\ngrowth and feeding habits of grey seals ( halichoerus grypus ) in the northwestern gulf of st . lawrenc . . .\ngrowth and feeding habits were determined for 82 grey seals ( halichoerus grypus ) collected in the northwestern gulf of st . lawrence , canada , between 3 july and 6 december 1983 . male grey seals reached an asymptotic standard length of 242 cm , whereas females attained a length of 201 cm . most ( 96 % ) females 175 cm or longer and 5 years of age or older were pregnant . a larger proportion of grey . . . [ show full abstract ]"]}
{"id": 2242, "summary": [{"text": "the rough whiting , sillago nierstraszi , is a dubious species of coastal marine fish in the smelt-whiting family sillaginidae .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the species is known only from the holotype which was collected in 1941 on the south coast of papua new guinea , but is thought to be lost .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "s. nierstraszi is currently a valid species , although during his revision of the sillaginids , roland mckay suggested the species to be a senior synonym of sillago analis . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "rough whiting", "paragraphs": ["rough night in whiting for the whoa . . . - the times of northwest indiana\ntry fishing closer to shore over the next few days , surf conditions are going to be rough .\nwhiting began sleeping rough and on july 22 stole a car . police , who were watching him , gave chase . he tried to ram two police cars but was eventually stopped .\ntopping this week ' s roundup of those having a rough week is ibm , which is losing a major customer for its softlayer public cloud service .\nflathead and bream above the ferry . mud crabs in emigrant creek . tailor and bonito from the rocks . no offshore fishing due to rough conditions .\nthe best fitting models are indicated in bold . whiting * was an alternative model for whiting ( see text ) .\ntopping this week ' s roundup of companies that had a rough week is tanium , which saw its oem relationship with vmware come to an end this week .\nlong steep slope for 600m . mostly firm gravel and earth surface . some rough and potentially muddy sections with exposed tree roots . includes some bridges and steps .\ntopping this week ' s roundup of those having a rough week is lumenate , which filed for bankruptcy protection and disclosed millions of dollars in debt owed to a distributor .\ntopping this week ' s roundup of companies that had a rough week is solution provider pcm , which discovered that it may not have gotten what it expected when it bought en pointe .\nuneven gravel and earth surface , with some rough rocky and muddy sections . several steep slopes and some steps . includes a narrow gap , several bridges and a section along the road .\nwhiting was arrested for the third time on february 6 , appropriately by pc saunders . whiting seemed to shrug and yawn as he was charged .\nmodel choice summary for pelagic abundance data for cod , haddock , and whiting .\nmodel choice summary for abundance of cod , haddock and whiting in demersal trawls .\nwhiting , flathead , mud crabs above traffic bridge . mangrove jack and bream at boat harbour .\nthere are public toilets and places to eat in whiting bay . kilmory village hall also has toilets .\nnot everyone in the it industry was having a rough go of it this week . for a rundown of companies that made smart decisions , executed savvy strategic moves \u2013 or just had good luck \u2013 check out this week ' s five companies that came to win roundup .\na stiff climb to the remarkable prehistoric chambered cairns at giants\u2019 graves , revealing wonderful views over whiting bay .\nthere are bus stops in whiting bay and kilmory . you ' ll find timetable details at traveline scotland .\nmodel choice summary for the length distribution of cod , haddock , and whiting caught by demersal trawls in 2004 .\nbut they could not afford to focus only on whiting . supt ladley said :\nevery decision had to be made with the possibility that whiting could be innocent .\ndetectives were to interview hundreds of sex offenders throughout britain .\nglenashdale waterfall located to the west of whiting bay some 2km from the sea - about 2 hours for the walk .\npolice watched whiting go twice to his van and remove items . when he emerged a third time he got into the van and began to drive away . the officers were faced with a split - second decision - to follow whiting in the hope he would lead them to sarah or to stop him ? they stopped him and probably prevented whiting destroying important evidence .\nunless whiting finally admits killing sarah , the detail of how he abducted the girl and what happened to her will remain unknown .\nstart at the glenashdale forest entrance in whiting bay , \u00bc mile ( 0 . 5 km ) from ashdale bridge car park .\nafter one of the biggest murder investigations in britain , a raft of forensic evidence eventually showed conclusively that whiting had committed the crime .\nstart at the glenashdale forest entrance in whiting bay , \u00bc mile ( 0 . 5 km ) from the ashdale bridge car parks .\nsite description whiting park is a well - maintained 14 - acre park that sits on the southern shore of lake michigan . separated by less than 2 km along the lakefront , whiting park functions as a lakeside trap much like the migrant trap does . yet because the cover at whiting park is less dense , and because the site is generally less isolated by surrounding read more [ . . . ]\nsummary of the total catches of cod , haddock , and whiting over the 2004\u20132006 sampling seasons , sampled by all types of gear .\nfollow glenashdale burn up to the startling rocky cauldron that holds glenashdale falls , and return to whiting bay via an impressive iron age fort .\nauthor : ken brock general information : christina y . hyun at whiting public library editors : darel heitkamp and richard patterson photos : ryan sanderson\nover the next year and a half , scores of police officers and scientists attempted to find the evidence which would prove whiting ' s guilt .\njust into the new year more forensic evidence linked material found in sarah ' s matted hair at the burial site with whiting ' s van .\na goldenline whiting , sillago analis , from machan , queensland . source : lek / bowerbird urltoken license : cc by attribution - noncommercial - sharealike\nthe pressure was mounting on whiting . he moved into his father ' s home in crawley but vigilantes attacked the house , forcing him to flee .\nwhiting was the most abundant of the three species of interest in all 3 years of study . during 2004\u20132006 , 2756 whiting ( 10\u2013170 mm ) were sampled ( table 2 ) . they were first caught in the pelagic zone on 12 may 2004 ( day 133 ) , and the peak in abundance was observed on 17 may ( day 138 ) . the last pelagic whiting were caught on 27 july 2004 ( day 208 ; figure 4 c ) . exploratory models had indicated that there may be significant time and site effects on juvenile density ( table 3 ) . small differences between aic values in all models tested led to further analysis . new model fitting was carried out after removing the most extreme observation ( whiting * model in table 3 ) . this analysis led to the conclusion that there were no significant time or site effects and that pelagic whiting density was constant throughout the area during the sampling period . in the 2005 sampling season , the occurrence of juvenile whiting in the pelagic zone was consistent with the pattern observed in 2004 .\ndownload ' national fisheries plan for deepwater and middle - depth fisheries part 1b southern blue whiting chapter ' | mpi - ministry for primary industries . a new zealand government department .\nstart from dyemill forest car park or the aucheleffan forest entrance , one mile / 1 . 6 km east of kilmory . you can also start or exit at whiting bay .\nthroughout june , whiting were found only at the shallowest site . after that time , their numbers increased rapidly at the deeper sites . at the shallowest site , the density of whiting reached a plateau by mid - july at low densities . from mid - july , the highest densities of whiting were found at intermediate depths and , towards the end of the sampling season , on the deepest , most distant site from shore . small whiting were present in the area from the beginning of june , several weeks after the first cod were caught , and for the first month were found only at the most inshore , shallow site . throughout most of the sampling season , the largest fish were found at the shallowest site , closest to shore .\ndifferences in the timing of settlement among the three gadoid species investigated have been identified , with cod being the first species to commence settlement followed by haddock then whiting . there were also considerable differences in the duration of the process . haddock settled in the stonehaven area in one short pulse lasting \u223c2 weeks , while cod settled over \u223c1 month , and whiting over 2 months .\nyour document ' national fisheries plan for deepwater and middle - depth fisheries part 1b southern blue whiting chapter ' should start downloading automatically . if it does not , follow this link to your document .\nthere are several ways to get into the forest . the most popular is the glenashdale forest entrance in whiting bay ; this route leads to the spectacular glenashdale falls and the neolithic giants ' graves .\npelagic prey consumption by whiting juveniles dropped below the 50 % level at 29 ( \u00b16 ) mm ( by weight ) . settlement of whiting was a gradual process that took place in the 29 ( \u00b16 ) \u201385 ( \u00b16 ) mm size interval ; by 85 ( \u00b16 ) mm ( figures 2 c and 3 c ) , whiting could be considered settled . pelagic prey numbers constituted on average over 20 % of juvenile whiting prey up to the 115 - mm length class , and even in larger length classes , they accounted for a significant amount of prey ( only twice below 9 % at 130 and 160 mm ) . in stomachs analysed gravimetrically , the average proportion of pelagic prey by weight fell below 10 % by 60 mm ( with an exception at 110 mm ) and below 1 % by 130 mm . this indicates that pelagic prey were many contributors to the juvenile whiting diet through the entire length spectrum . no stomachs were analysed gravimetrically in the 10\u201320 and 150\u2013170 mm length classes .\nwhen interviewed whiting chainsmoked . he admitted the van was his but said little else . he refused to explain scratches on his body and arms . but there was no solid evidence and he was released .\nhow it ended up there remains a puzzle . it may be that whiting buried sarah ' s other clothes , which have not been found , but missed the shoe and threw it away in a panic .\nwhiting were found in the 2004 demersal samples from the beginning of june , 3 weeks after they were first detected in the pelagic zone . the density of 0 - group whiting increased throughout the sampling season ( figure 5 c ) . the patterns of density over time were different among sites ( indicated by the interaction between site and time in the model ; wald test , p < 0 . 05 ; table 4 ) and showed a rapid increase in the number of settling juveniles from 8 june ( day 160 ) . until 27 june ( day 181 ) , they were present exclusively at site 1 then were caught at all sites . the density of whiting at site 1 from 15 july ( day 197 ) reached a plateau at a level much lower than at the two other sites . at site 2 , after 6 july ( day 188 ) , numbers of fish increased rapidly , decreased , then levelled off at lower densities than at site 3 . although the increase in the density of whiting at site 3 was delayed relative to site 2 , their numbers increased in time to higher levels than at site 2 . overall , juvenile whiting at sites 2 and 3 were significantly ( t - test , p < 0 . 05 ) more abundant than at site 1 . the abundance patterns of juvenile whiting were consistent in 2004\u20132006 demersal catches . in 2005 , whiting abundance was significantly ( t - test ; p < 0 . 05 ) higher than in 2004 .\nat airforce and main beaches there ' s plenty of good tailor and bream around the walls . a few bream and luderick in the evans rivers , and bream , flathead , whiting and mud crabs in the upper reaches .\ntheir suspicions were quickly justified . in the van was a receipt for diesel which whiting bought at 10pm the night before from a garage at the buck barn crossroads , 15 miles north of littlehampton - nowhere near the funfair .\nwhiting had insisted on a receipt , even waiting for the till roll to be changed , though sarah or her body may have been in the van at the time . his good housekeeping , or meanness , wrecked his alibi .\non the day after sarah ' s disappearance , det insp paul williams , whose duties included keeping tabs on local sex offenders , drew up a list of the five most likely to have taken sarah . whiting was top of the list .\ncatches of cod , haddock , and whiting in pelagic trawls in 2004\u20132006 . data points indicate square root transformed mean number of fish , standardized to number per hour effort , on the sampling day . error bars indicate \u00b12 s . e .\nwithin 24 hours of sarah payne ' s disappearance , police were banging on roy whiting ' s door . her body would not be found for another 15 days but detectives were already almost certain she had been abducted by a paedophile and was most likely dead .\ntravel by ferry from ardrossan in north ayrshire to brodick and then follow the a841 south for 8 miles ( 12 . 8 km ) to whiting bay . leave your car in one of the council car parks at ashdale bridge , at the southern end of the village .\npelagic juvenile whiting ranged from 10 to 60 mm in size in 2004 . between the beginning of sampling and 14 june ( day 166 ) , a gradual increase in the maximum size of juveniles was recorded . throughout the sampling season , small whiting were consistently present in the pelagic samples ( figure 6 c ) . the size of juveniles in demersal samples ranged between 30 and 145 mm . there were significant differences in fish length between sites ( f - test , p < 0 . 001 ; table 5 ) and a significant interaction term between site and time ( f - test , p < 0 . 001 ; table 5 ) , indicating that length distributions changed with time with a different pattern between sites . although before 27 june ( day 181 ) , small whiting were caught only at site 1 , fish caught at the deeper sites 2 and 3 were overall significantly smaller than at site 1 ( t - test , p < 0 . 05 and < 0 . 001 , respectively ) . the size distribution of whiting , particularly the continuous presence of small juveniles until the end of july , combined with abundance patterns in the pelagic and demersal habitats indicate a protracted population settlement pattern lasting from the beginning of june until the beginning of august . the length distribution patterns of juvenile whiting in the demersal catches in 2005 and 2006 were consistent with the patterns observed in 2004 .\nthe facts of eight - year - old sarah ' s disappearance are familiar . on saturday july 1 last year she and her family were visiting her paternal grandparents in west kingston , a village a few miles east of whiting ' s home in littlehampton on the sussex coast .\nby that evening pc chris saunders was at whiting ' s flat . he was out . when saunders returned at 9 . 30pm , a white fiat ducato van was parked outside . whiting lied , claiming he was at a funfair in hove at the time of sarah ' s disappearance and spent the rest of the evening at home . pc saunders left but was uneasy and watched the house .\nwhat struck me was his blank expression ,\npc saunders said .\nhe wasn ' t overly concerned . he didn ' t show any emotions .\nwhiting had the most protracted settlement period among all three species investigated . juveniles were sampled in the pelagic zone from 12 may to 27 july 2004 . this was consistent with the general knowledge of the biology of the species , which is known to have an extended spawning season lasting until june\u2013july ( hislop , 1984 ) . whiting appeared in the demersal catches from 8 june 2004 until the end of the sampling season . the patterns of demersal abundance , pelagic abundance , and length distribution patterns all point towards a very extended period of settlement lasting from the beginning of june until the beginning of august .\nmckay , r . j . , 1992 . fao species catalogue . vol . 14 . sillaginid fishes of the world ( family sillaginidae ) . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of the sillago , smelt or indo - pacific whiting species known to date . rome : fao . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 14 ) : 87p . ( ref . 6205 )\nlength distribution of 0 - group cod ( a ) , haddock ( b ) , and whiting ( c ) caught in the pelagic zone in the 2004 sampling season . boxes indicate the 25th and 75th percentiles of all sizes measured . the upper bars indicate the 10th and the lower bars the 90th percentiles . the thick line indicates the median size . dots indicate the outliers .\nproportion of benthic prey items by weight in the diet of 0 - group cod ( a ) , haddock ( b ) , and whiting ( c ) . data points represent the percentage of benthic prey in individual fish . curved solid lines are the logistic regression model fit . vertical solid lines indicate the estimated l 50 . dotted lines indicate \u00b12 s . e . confidence intervals .\nproportion of benthic prey items by numbers in the diet of 0 - group cod ( a ) , haddock ( b ) , and whiting ( c ) . data points represent the percentage of benthic prey in individual fish . curved solid lines are the logistic regression model fit . vertical solid lines indicate the estimated l 50 . dotted lines indicate \u00b12 s . e . confidence intervals .\nthen det supt kennett was told that dna tests showed there was a one in a billion chance that a single hair found on the red sweatshirt was not sarah ' s . by the time the case came to trial 22 fibres from five different items found in whiting ' s van matched fibres found on the shoe , in sarah ' s hair and in the body bag used to recover her corpse .\ndorota k . bastrikin , alejandro gallego , colin p . millar , imants g . priede , emma g . jones ; settlement length and temporal settlement patterns of juvenile cod ( gadus morhua ) , haddock ( melanogrammus aeglefinus ) , and whiting ( merlangius merlangus ) in a northern north sea coastal nursery area , ices journal of marine science , volume 71 , issue 8 , 1 october 2014 , pages 2101\u20132113 , urltoken\nknowledge of settlement timing and duration , which has been identified as an important milestone for demersal fish , is critical to understanding population connectivity , relevant to the development of spatially\u2014and temporally\u2014resolved conservation measures , and recruitment variability , as important density - dependent dynamics may take place at this stage . to study the settlement ecology of cod haddock , and whiting , sampling was conducted over spring and summer 2004\u20132006 at the northern north sea nursery area . over 4000 0 - group juveniles were collected . settlement was associated with clear and progressive changes in the prey composition of these juveniles . the size of fish that could be considered settled was estimated as 49 ( \u00b13 ) mm for cod , 78 ( \u00b14 ) mm for haddock , and 85 ( \u00b16 ) mm for whiting . clear differences in temporal settlement patterns were also apparent . cod settled in a single pulse lasting about a month ( mid - may to mid - june ) and initially occupied shallower , inshore waters , whereas haddock settled in one pulse , lasting \u223c2 weeks ( second half of may ) , favouring deeper , farther offshore locations . whiting settled much later in the season and over a more protracted period ( early june to early august ) , and their depth preferences also changed over time and with increasing length .\nmixed models outputs of the temporal changes in demersal juvenile cod ( a ) , haddock ( b ) , and whiting ( c ) density ( solid lines ) on different sites ( site 1 , red lines ; site 2 , black ; site 3 , blue ) . density is expressed as numbers of juvenile fish per hour of sampling effort . dashed lines indicate \u00b12 s . e . confidence intervals . dots represent individual data .\nfrom the south : take i - 65 north to i - 90 west ( the indiana toll road ) , exit # 261 . heading west on i - 90 , exit north at calumet ave / us 41 ( exit # 5 ) and proceed north to 119th street . turn right ( east ) on 119th street and continue until it dead ends into front street . turning left ( north ) onto front street leads directly into whiting park .\none exceptional area of interest at whiting park is \u201cthe wall\u201d , a 5 - foot - tall concrete structure which forms the southern boundary of the park . sheltered from northerly lake michigan winds , the south side of the wall is lined with thick brush , providing ideal cover for small migrant passerines . walking \u201cthe wall\u201d anytime during migration can be exceedingly fruitful , and during periods of high winds it can harbor virtually the only migrants to be found along the lakefront .\nanother senior policeman , det supt peter kennett , was entertaining the payne family in a pub , when he received the text message :\ncall the scientists .\nhe was told that fibres found on the velcro on the\ncoolham shoe\nmatched those from items found in whiting ' s van . he passed the news on to the paynes .\nthere was total silence around the table while i slowly told them , then a sigh of relief all round ,\nrecalled det supt kennett .\nsamples were subjected to taxonomic , morphometric , and stomach contents analyses , where relevant ; see demain et al . ( 2011 ) for further detail . all fish caught were identified to species level and measured . juvenile cod , haddock , and whiting ( from now on referred to as juvenile fish , unless otherwise stated ) were preserved for further analyses , and the remaining fish were discarded . fish total length ( l t ) was measured to the nearest 0 . 1 mm using digital callipers , and juveniles were subsequently grouped into 5 - mm size classes .\nto determine the length at settlement of cod , haddock , and whiting , prey were categorized as pelagic or benthic , and changes in their relative abundance with increasing size were examined . the relative importance of the pelagic and benthic prey categories was analysed in 5 - mm size classes for juvenile fish sampled in all years and by all gear types . prey types were classed as pelagic or benthic depending on the habitat of the prey item at the time samples were collected , based on information from the literature . for fish species with ontogenetic changes in habitat ( e . g .\nlength distribution of 0 - group cod ( a ) , haddock ( b ) , and whiting ( c ) caught in the demersal zone ( combined data for 2004\u20132006 catches from demersal trawls and traps ) . boxes indicate the 25th and 75th percentiles of all sizes measured . the upper bars indicate the 10th and the lower bars the 90th percentiles . the thick line indicates the median . dots indicate outliers . black colour indicates juveniles caught in 2004 , blue in 2005 , and red in 2006 . on day 208 in 2006 , only one cod was sampled by a demersal trawl .\nthe patterns of length distribution changes through time were different for all three species . juvenile cod , haddock , and whiting in the stonehaven area displayed patterns of distribution with depth and distance from shore that led to species and size segregation in time and space , minimizing the potential for competition . the analysis of the feeding ecology of these species showed major differences in dietary composition and little evidence of juveniles preying on each other ( demain et al . , 2011 ) , which further supports this conclusion . these factors , taken together , suggest a degree of niche separation which would facilitate the coexistence of these three species .\nthe most intensive sampling took place in 2004 and provided weekly data on changes in the abundance and size frequency in the pelagic and demersal zone at the time of settlement for 0 - group cod , haddock , and whiting . information about spawning time , duration of the pelagic phase ( miller et al . , 1963 ) , and time and duration of settlement published previously in the literature determined the initial choice of a sampling period that extended from the end of april until the beginning of september . the limited sampling that was carried out in the 2005 and 2006 sampling seasons provided the basis for comparison of annual abundance fluctuations at the time of settlement and suggested that the 2005 sampling season was a year of higher abundance for all three species .\na significant correlation between indices of larval or juvenile fish abundance and subsequent recruitment was demonstrated by several studies ( helle et al . , 2000 ; begg and marteinsdottir , 2002 ; jonasson et al . , 2009 ) . there is no doubt that processes acting on the pelagic stages of gadoids are important controllers of recruitment success ( hjort , 1914 ; walford , 1938 ; cushing , 1975 ; bailey and houde , 1989 ; sundby et al . , 1989 ) . however , the importance of subsequent settlement was also recognized by campana et al . ( 1989 ) , tupper and boutilier ( 1995a , b , 1997 ) , campana ( 1996 ) , and h\u00fcssy et al . ( 1997 ) , who postulated that this transitional stage is crucial for future recruitment and that year - class strength is established at this point . the aim of the present study was to quantify ( i ) settlement length of cod , haddock , and whiting ; ( ii ) the timing of settlement ; and ( iii ) the duration of this process at the population and individual levels for these three species .\nsamples were collected in the 2004 sampling season by pelagic and demersal trawling . pelagic sampling started on 26 april and continued weekly from 12 may to 16 august . demersal sampling commenced on 12 may and continued in 1\u20132 weekly intervals ( mainly weekly ) until 31 august . sampling in 2005 consisted of four demersal and two pelagic sampling events , and in 2006 of two demersal and two pelagic sampling events . additionally , traps were deployed on five occasions in 2005 and on three occasions in 2006 . pelagic sampling was carried out with a methot\u2013isaacs\u2013kidd trawl and demersal sampling with a fine - mesh demersal trawl specifically designed to catch juvenile fish . details of gear used in field sampling are given in demain et al . ( 2011 ) . the dataset from the 2004 sampling season was the most comprehensive and was used to investigate changes in the patterns of catch per unit effort ( cpue ; hereafter referred to as \u201cdensity\u201d ) of 0 - group cod , haddock , and whiting in the pelagic and demersal zones over the settlement season . data from the demersal trawls from 2005 and 2006 were only used for comparison with the patterns observed in 2004 .\nthe abundance of cod and haddock in 2005 was significantly higher than in 2004 , although these results must be treated with caution , owing to the very limited number of samples taken in 2005 . these findings were , however , consistent with data from the international bottom trawl survey ( ibts ) , the scottish ground fish survey ( scogfs ) , and the english ground fish survey ( enggfs ; ices 2007a , b ) . they all indicate that , from the estimates of 0 - group cod and haddock recorded in 2005 and 1 - group cod and haddock recorded in 2006 , the 2005 year - class abundance was higher in the north sea , particularly in the central and northern part , than recent low levels ( for haddock about tenfold higher than the average for the 2001\u20132004 year classes ) . ibts data showed the highest numbers of 0 - group cod in quarter 3 ( july\u2013september ) in 2005 since 1998 , and the highest numbers of 1 - group cod in quarter 1 ( january\u2013march ) in 2006 since 2002 . scogfs and enggfs data showed the highest numbers of 1 - group cod in quarter 3 in 2006 since 2000 and 1998 , respectively . according to the ibts dataset , haddock had a moderate 0 - group year class in quarter 3 in 2005 ( compared with the high 0 - group class abundance in 1999 ) , comparable in size to the 2000 year class , and consistently large numbers of 1 - group haddock were sampled in quarter 1 ( january\u2013march ) in 2006 . no notable differences in abundance between the years were recorded in ibts , scogfs , or enggfs data for whiting .\nmarine ; demersal ; non - migratory . tropical ; 1\u00b0s - 13\u00b0s , 129\u00b0e - 152\u00b0e ( ref . 6205 )\nwestern central pacific : southern new guinea . known only from the holotype which could not be located . in most features , this species is similar to sillago analis and may prove to be a senior synonym . further collection is necessary to resolve the identity of this species .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 25 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 6205 )\noccur in inshore benthic areas ( ref . 6205 ) . oviparous ( ref . 205 ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00468 ( 0 . 00220 - 0 . 00994 ) , b = 3 . 13 ( 2 . 95 - 3 . 31 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 22 of 100 ) .\nalso making the list this week were dell emc for having to raise pc and server prices because of memory and ssd component shortages ; optiv security , which has seen a wave of executive departures since it was acquired by a private equity firm ; and employees at hexadite and nokia who were hit by rounds of layoffs .\nfrom the sudden resignation of intel ceo brian krzanich to dell technologies reaching an agreement to take the company public again , join crn as we look at the biggest stories impacting the channel in the first half of 2018 .\nalso making the list this week were distributor scansource , whose third - quarter sales took a hit from uncertainty created by avaya ' s recent bankruptcy filing , and cisco , microsoft and intel \u2013 all of whom scrambled to fix significant security flaws in their products .\nalso making the list this week were the republican national committee , whose voter database suffered a major data leak ; microsoft and users of its skype service , who suffered through connectivity problems , possibly caused by a ddos attack ; infosys , which agreed to pay new york state a $ 1 million fine to settle a visa case ; and blackberry , whose first - quarter results fell short of expectations .\nhe could have bought a house , a fancy car or even his own yacht . but david lindsay had a different dream .\n\u00a9 northern star ltd 2018 . unauthorised reproduction is prohibited under the laws of australia and by international treaty .\nit was an idyllic summer evening and the children , sarah , her brothers lee , 13 , and luke , 11 , and her five - year - old sister , charlotte , went to play in a cornfield near their grandparents ' home . the adults left the boys in charge .\nduring their game , sarah hurt herself and ran back towards her grandparents ' home . lee failed to catch her up and watched helplessly as she ran through a gap in the hedge . by the time he reached the lane she had vanished .\nthe adults were alerted and at 9pm sarah ' s mother , sara payne , dialled 999 . when police arrived lee told them he had seen a white van speeding away from the lane . he gave a vivid description of the driver , a scruffy man with\npiercing blue eyes\nwearing a workman ' s shirt .\ninspector jeff lister , the worthing sector commander , was the first senior officer on the scene . he knew instantly that the signs were grim and a makeshift incident room was set up in the grandparents ' conservatory . insp lister phoned detective superintendent alan ladley , the senior detective on call , at home . supt ladley reached the scene at midnight .\na huge search for sarah began . over the next 16 days more than 1 , 300 police officers hunted for her , supported by many members of the public .\nsupt ladley ' s team knew that with every passing hour the chances of the girl being found alive were becoming slimmer . in three quarters of child abduction cases the victim is dead within hours .\nother items in the van , including a knife , ropes , masking tape , plastic ties and a bottle of baby oil , did nothing to dispel the police ' s suspicions .\npolice probed his background and established that he had done building work near sarah ' s grandparents ' house . he had also walked a dog in the area .\ndetectives discovered that by the sunday he had altered his van , removing panelling and changing the back doors .\non july 17 a farm labourer was working in a field near pulborough , 15 miles north of west kingston and a few miles west of the buck barn garage , when he stumbled across sarah ' s naked body , partially buried . the state of the body made it impossible to establish the cause of death or whether the child had been sexually assaulted . it is thought most likely that sarah suffocated and her nakedness strongly suggested a sex offence .\na woman motorist remembered seeing a child ' s sandal on a lane near the village of coolham , not far from buck barn . the shoe was sarah ' s .\nit was not until christmas last year that the crucial forensic evidence began to emerge .\n\u00a9 2018 guardian news and media limited or its affiliated companies . all rights reserved .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nyearsley , g . k . , last , p . r . & morris , g . b . 1997 ,\ncodes for australian aquatic biota ( caab ) : an upgraded and expanded species coding system for australian fisheries databases\n, pp . 15 pp . + appendices\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : d4222f19 - c14e - 4709 - 8397 - 85eafd085d34\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 77d78672 - 5369 - 4a18 - 9528 - 8c4d83dd341f\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 294816\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\n> stream x\u009c\u0445 = k\u008f ] \u0437q\u0430v\u008a\u0455\u0435\u0090\u0444\u043a\u0435f + w\u00ad\u0095c\u0437\u0457\u045a\u043e\u0453\u04437\u0099\u043e\u043d\u0454\u0001\u008a | i oq ? \u0435m\u0080\u0002 ) \u0010\u0457\u045f\u0003 \u0452\u0090\u009c ! 9\u043c\u0457\u045e\n\u04530 ` \u009c = \u0097\u0087 \u000e\u0447\u00a7 \u045e | + nw\u0458o\u045b\u045f\u007f\u045c\u0449\u045c\u044d\u044f\u043c\u044d \u045f\u0457 | m\u007f\u045f\u044e\u0437\u0459\u0441\u045b ? \u009e\u045f\u0459\u043c y\u045b\u044d ; \u0018\u044co xv } \u045b\u044e\u000f\u0447\u044b\u0012\u0082 _ \u043d\u044b\u0453\u0084\u0430\u0437n\u0435\u008b\u0435\u0442\u0456\u043d\u009f\u044ew \u044d\u043f\u00a77 | v\u045cb\u0448e\u0095 f\u043f\u045b\u044f\u0453\u043f\u0443\u0080 ; \u0011\u0454 _ v\u007f\u044f\u0447\u007f\u007f\u0457oyb\u0089p\u0084 \u0086\u0434\u0001\u045en @ \u0459\u00a7\u044e\u0441 ^ . \u044ai\u0457vg\u045b ; \u0000\u0442\u0449\u0435\u044d \u0446g\u0437 * \u00adv\u008f\u0456w0\u008b\u0451\u045bv\u043b \u0091\u0447\u008f\u0449\u0453g\u0451y\u043b\u0430j\u043d { \u043c\u0097a\u0011 + l\u0452d\u009b\u0444\u0004\u0437\u045b\u044e\u007f & _ ~ \u0082 = \u043d\u045be\u0007\u0455\u0004\u0005\u0444\u0453\u00a7\u043a\u045cb \u044e\u043e\u045b 5\u0442i\u0439\u045b1\u0099\u0451\u0099\u045a ' \u0080\u008b\u0445x\u044dm\u0003 + \u043dc\u043a\u009a\u0014\u0436\u0439\u043do\u0433kkl\u0010\u0430\u00904k\u0446\u009e\u044c\u0438\u0013b - \u043ej < \u0014\u0451\u0442q \u0440\u0019\u044ew\u0086\u043b | h\u0430\u2116\u0088 < \u000fh\u045bc\u044a\u0446 \u0443\u0453z\u0095\u0014\u0432\u0099 | 6\u0443\u0093\u0449\u008c\u0458\u043c \u0446\u0013\u0452\u045cd\u0452 ~ \u0000muvk8\u0017 \u04524\u0442wk\u044d\u0444\u001448 & \u009f\u000e\u044a\u045fb \u0003g\u0003x\u000f ^ \u0086\u008c\u0457\u0002\u0080y\u0437\u008ej v\u008b\u0012\u0099\u0019 \u0433\u0458\u045c\u0443\u009d\u0096v\u0431 @ \u0445w\u0012 @ ta\u0440 x \\ \u044b\u044ao\u043f\u00a7\u0446\u045c\u043d\u009bh\u0439\u0001\u0006\u008a ` \u0442\u0019\u0445\u0005\u00ad\u0003 * \u044f\u0454\u00adw\u001b\u0441\u0436k ` \u0442\u0439\u0442 ` \u0445\u0441\u045c\u043c\u0081y\u0440\u0089 ~ \u0454\u04516\u0432\u0007\u0431\u043c ~ \u008c\u045f\u009f\u0090\u0437\u0080y\u0440k\u00ad\u0440 \\ \u0449k\u044a % \u009f\u2116\u0433 < \u0445\u04474z9\u0015\u044c\u0086s\u0435\u0438\u0435 \u0088\u0432\u0448\u045fv\u0015\u0011\u0439 . \u0452\u04316 \u044e\u009d\u008e\u0438\u0445 \u00a7t / \u0015\u0090 . \u0430\u044e3 ` \u0433u5\u044an + x ) \u0095w w\u044ex8\u009c \u0444\u0448 ~ v\u0439 o\u007f\u007f\u008co / \u0007i\u0000l\u0445\u0445\u044e\u0459\u043e . \u0442ye\b\u0004gd\u044c\u0015naf { \u008a\u008f\u043bdb\u0002\u043f\u044f ~ \u0006d\u0449\u0014l - d\u045c \u0098\u0444y _ \u0431\u044d\u0453\u0436\u045c\u0435\u0004r\u008at\u043apf : px\u0096\u009a2\u0448e\u0098p\u0098\u00a7e\u0015\u008bd\u044f\u0438\u0000\u009d\u0456 : \u0082\u0015\u0454\u0096\u044dv\u0448 \u0452\u0088\u0440\u0019\u009e\u0434\u0018\u0083\u043d\u0448\u0440\u045c\u044ee : v\u0449 - \u0010\u000f\u000e ~ | \u045fd\u2116 ] \u0431 sf\u045f\u008c\u0000 _ \u0445\u043e ] a\u0440 ] e\u0453\u0088\u0087\u043f\u0082\u000340\u0097\u0441h6r\u044e % y\u00a7 kq\u0094\u000e\u044fz ~ \u0448\u0454w\u0093\u0440\u0437\u045b\u00ad\u0434l \u0452j\u0448 \u0443\u0440\u0446u\u0437 + | \u045e\u009c\u0447\u0088 + | \u043d\u009d\u0435\u0093 \u044e\u043a , + \u0458l 3\u0098 ( \u0010l\u0438\u043d\u008a\u0447\u044b\u0083w\u0081 ~ c | q9\u0452\u0433\u044a [ \u0014\u043d\u0444\u0014 . \u009a \u0441\u0099 { m\u044c\u0458\u0436\u044f\u0452\u2116 \u0449e\u0012sf1\u2116\u043c g\u045f\u0004\u0435\u0455 ^ i\u045a1 ? m\u0005\u0431 \u00043\u044a\u045b\u0446y\u0016\u0457\u0444\u009cwy\u0444lf\u0010\u0448vep ) x \u0435 \\ \u045e ~ \u0434\u0432e\u0091\u0439\u0097\u001bm ' m\u043f\u0451 * ar \u0438 : / j\u0094\u0456\u0086\u0441\u0093mc\u001b\u044da\u009c\u0094\u043d\u0433\u0013\u0456\u0098\u0438\u008a\u0092r\u0004\u0451\nwe \u0451ac ? kjhx\u045bt\u0431 > \u0012 \\ \b\u0444h\u2116p\u0440\u0443\u044b\u0456\u043b ; \u043bx % d1\u0439\u044e\u0456\u0018\u0449k\u009b\u0010l > \u000e\u00004\u044b\u0454\u0084 ` ' \u008a\u0451\u0014\u0431c\u0448\u008a\u0442\u04312\u0002b\u001a ` y0 ` \u0090\u0082\u008a\u0449\u0012\u0455\u043f\u0457\u001b * $ \u0448\u008f\u0007d\u045eg\u0438\u0444\u0005ym\u0459\u0458y\u0015\n\u04396n\u0438\u0007\u0002\u044d\u044e [ \u0442\u001a \\ f ` \u0435 , \u0453\u043d\u0437\u044ef\u00a7\u043d\u0018\u0001\u044b\u007f\u04416\u0003\u043c\u0434b = v\u0438q\u0015\u0440\u0457\u0456d\u0436\u0439v\u0430u ( u ! \u0444\u0093b\u001bv * \u0430\u043b9\u0090r\u008a\u044b\u0002\b\u0084h\u001a\u043b\u0438\u044c\u0080\u0444\u0437 \u0000\u0434\u001a\u045c\u0434e\u0433\u0088\u0083\u0435\u043a\u0091a\u00915k\u0099\u0433z\u04544m\u0456o - \u0445i ; \u0018\u0439 \u0087 ~ k\u043e ^ v\u008c7 $ \u0430\u043a\u0080\u001a\u043c\u0435jo \u0094 . x . \u044b\u0086 . \u008e7vu\u0443h ^ o\u0442\u0087 | y ! \u00a7\u2116\u0434n\u0442\u045c\u00952\u0010\u0093\u0002\u0010\u0082f\u0452j\u0098\u0082\u0437\u0448\u045b\u045f\u045b5p\u0441\u0436 & n ; 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] \u0435\u043a\u0451 s \\ \u0442\u04341\u008a\u0006\u0003d\u0456\u0434\u0084\b \u0449\u044cb\u0432 > \u0094\u0089r\u0091uo\u0439\u0457\u0456\u0444\u0444\u0459\u0456\u2116\u0083mne\u0430\u0004 ; \u0455 # \u044fi\u045a | \u0433 _ \u0011\u0435\u0443 i # \u0444\u0435\b \u0430 - \u0438\u009e ) su\u0436qv\u0095\u0448 = \u0002o\u0449 } \u043f\u0451\u2116\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nthe south end forest covers much of the south east of arran . it\u2019s the largest area of native woodland on the island and supports many different trees , plants and wildlife , including a healthy population of red squirrels .\nthere are long and short waymarked trails to interesting forest places , including a waterfall viewing platform , a peaceful loch and a range of prehistoric sites . many of the trails have superb sea views .\npeople once believed that giants buried their victims here . today we think these unusual horned chambered cairns were built by stone age people for ceremonies . you ' ll enjoy the same sensational views as they did over 5000 years ago .\nclimb through the forest above the stunning eas mor waterfall to reach an enchanting loch in the hills .\nuneven earth and rock surface , with several muddy sections . long fairly steep slopes . crosses one shallow ford and has low overhanging branches .\nstart from eas mor car park , at the junction of the a841 and the minor road to kildonan , to the west of the village . it is maintained by volunteers from eas mor ecology .\na fabulous forest cycle route with wildlife , waterfalls and views to goatfell and ireland .\nstay on the forest roads or make a longer circular route by returning on the ross , a minor public road between lamlash and kilmory . the route includes short detours to glenashdale falls , meallach ' s grave and other archaeological features as well as open views to goatfell , holy isle and even ireland on a clear day .\nworking forest road with some steep climbs and loose surfaces . minor public road with one steep climb . mountain bikes are recommended for the forest section .\nexplore the south end and enjoy scenic views , mixed woodland and the tallest double waterfall in arran . this is great habitat for native red squirrels and one of the best places on the island to catch sight of them . the forest is full of ancient sites , including unusual horned chambered cairns , standing stones and an iron age hill fort .\nyou can also take trails from near kildonan to loch garbad , and from near kilmory to the aucheleffan standing stones and carn ban chambered cairn .\nthe dyemill to kilmory cycle route runs through the whole of the south end as well as neighbouring dyemill forest . it starts near lamlash and follows peaceful forest roads with some great viewpoints on the way .\nnot all routes in the forest are waymarked , so bring a map and compass if you want to explore further .\ncross the road to the forestry commission sign at the start of a narrow lane . the glenashdale forest entrance is \u00bc mile ( 0 . 5 km ) along the lane at grid reference ns 042 252 .\nalternatively , continue west on the a841 towards kilmory for another 7\u00bd miles ( 12 km ) . one mile ( 1 . 6 km ) east of the village you ' ll see a blue sign for the dyemill cycle route . turn right here and continue on a dirt track for one mile ( 1 . 6 km ) . there ' s informal parking at the aucheleffan forest entrance , grid reference nr 974 220 .\nka27 8qx is the nearest postcode to the glenashdale forest entrance . ka27 8ph is the nearest postcode for the aucheleffan forest entrance .\nthere are other forest trails at brodick castle , king ' s cave , north sannox , glenrickard and dyemill .\nbrock , kenneth j . birds of the indiana dunes . revised edition . the shirley heinze environmental fund , 1997 . brock , kenneth j . \u201ckirtland\u2019s warbler : indiana\u2019s first fall record . \u201d indiana audubon quarterly 73 . 1 ( 1995 ) : 1 - 2 .\nsorry , no records were found . please adjust your search criteria and try again .\nindiana audubon society ' s mission is to stimulate interest in birds and their protection ; to serve the needs of youth , civic , church , schools and other groups by providing information concerning birds ; and to educate the public concerning the necessity for conserving and preserving indiana ' s natural heritage , its unique flora and fauna .\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time ."]}
{"id": 2251, "summary": [{"text": "trichostetha coetzeri is an afrotropical species of flower scarab beetle endemic to south africa , where it occurs in the cape floristic region .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it was first described by perissinotto , \u0161\u00edpek & ball , 2014 . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "trichostetha curlei", "paragraphs": ["new treatment : trichostetha curlei perissinotto , sipek & ball , 2014 , . . .\nthe third instar larvae of trichostetha curlei . petr \u0161\u00edpek in perissinotto et al . ( 2014 ) .\ntrichostetha curlei sp . n . : female dorsal ( a ) and ventral ( b ) habitus . . . | download scientific diagram\ntypical habitat of trichostetha curlei on the southern slope of the elandsberg range . renzo perissinotto in perissinotto et al . ( 2014 ) .\nmale trichostetha curlei in its natural habitat on the elandsberg summit , november 2013 . jonathan ball in perissinotto et al . ( 2014 ) .\ndescription of adult and third instar larva of trichostetha curlei sp n . ( coleoptera , scarabaeidae , cetoniinae ) from the cape region of south africa\ndescription of adult and third instar larva of trichostetha curlei sp . n . ( coleoptera , scarabaeidae , cetoniinae ) from the cape region of south africa\ntrichostetha curlei sp . n . : female dorsal ( a ) and ventral ( b ) habitus ( length 17 . 3 mm ) ( photo : l clennell ) .\n( top ) male trichostetha curlei in ( left ) dorsal and ( right ) ventral views . ( bottom ) female in ( left ) dorsal and ( right ) ventral views . lynette clennell in perissinotto et al . ( 2014 ) .\nscarab beetles of the genus trichostetha occur across southern africa , reaching their greatest diversity in the cape floral region . one species , trichostetha fascicularis is found across south africa and southern botswana , and is divided into a number of subspecies , but most species have a much more restricted , localized range . the adults typically feed on pollen from a single or small number of flowers , though many species do not appear to feed as adults at all ; the adults being very short lived . no larvae of any species of trichostetha has been described to date .\nthe new species is named trichostetha curlei , in honour of alfred curle , the south african lepidopterist ( scientist that studies butterflies and moths ) , who first noted the new species . the adult is a 12 . 8 - 18 mm black or dark green scarab beetle with white speckles on its elytron ( the modified forewings of a beetle , which form a wing - case protecting the still useable hindwings ) . the beetles are covered with white hairs , with the males being notably more hairy than the females .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\njoin researchgate to access over 30 million figures and 118 + million publications \u2013 all in one place .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nsciency thoughts : a new species of scarab beetle from the elandsberg mountains of the western cape , south africa .\na new species of scarab beetle from the elandsberg mountains of the western cape , south africa .\nthe larvae is a typical scarab beetle larvae , reaching 38 - 41 mm in length ( considerably larger than the adult ) , with a creamy - white body with orange hairs and a dark - brown head . they were found living in underground rock crevices .\nthe adults were appeared in november and december ( early summer in south africa ) , and were found to visit the flowers of a wide variety of plants . however they appear to be incapable of feeding , instead apparently using the flowers as mating platforms .\nthe species was found living on arid quartzite fynbos in the elandsberg range at altitudes of about 1500 m above sea level . this comprises mostly medium density tall shrubs , comprising asters , proteas , ericas and restioids . most of the plants are derived from the fynbos biome , though some elements are associated with the succulent karoo biome .\na new species of scavenger scarab beetle from the early cretaceous of liaoning province , china .\nscavenger scarab beetles ( hybosoridae ) are small ( 5 - 7 mm ) , oval scarab beetles , with enlarged mandibles and mouthparts . they are typically carrion feeders , with some species favouring vertebrate dung . they are not a large group of beetles , with only about 600 . . .\na new species of bumble bee scarab beetle from the early cretaceous of inner mongolia .\nbumble bee scarab beetles ( glaphyridae ) are small , brightly coloured scarab beetles ; they are active animals , and frequently resemble bumble bees when in flight . there are eight extant genera in the family , two of which have fossil records . another two genera are known from the fossil record only . the fossil record of the family dates . . .\nscarabs of the tribe corythoderini are small beetles found living in the nests of termites , found across much of africa and south asia . they are tolerated by the termites , and apparently produce secretions which the termites use in some way , though the relationship is not well understood .\nstudied palaeobiology & evolution at the university of portsmouth , geosciences via the open university & ecology and conservation at christchurch university , canterbury . have worked in wildlife based tourism , mineral exploration , development , conservation , education & environmental chemistry . occasionally write articles for papers and magazines .\ndolichothele mottai & dolichothele camargorum : two new species of tarantula from brazil and bolivia .\nmagnitude 7 . 1 earthquake in puebla state , mexico , kills at least 225 people .\nselenium , arsenic and molybdenum in the bowland shale and related deposits in england , wales and ireland .\ncomet c / 2014 e2 ( jacques ) makes its closest approa . . .\nthis blog would be impossible without the work of countless scientists ( and others ) throughout the world . where possible i do my best to credit them , but there will always be many more who remain unmentioned ; this does not imply i am ungrateful for their contributions . any errors or inaccuracies are , of course , my own .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; 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9\u00b011 ' 19 . 95\nw ; 78 m . urltoken\ntwitter may be over capacity or experiencing a momentary hiccup . try again or visit twitter status for more information .\nyou can add location information to your tweets , such as your city or precise location , from the web and via third - party applications . you always have the option to delete your tweet location history . learn more\nhere ' s the url for this tweet . copy it to easily share with friends .\nby embedding twitter content in your website or app , you are agreeing to the twitter developer agreement and developer policy .\nnot on twitter ? sign up , tune into the things you care about , and get updates as they happen .\nthis timeline is where you\u2019ll spend most of your time , getting instant updates about what matters to you .\nhover over the profile pic and click the following button to unfollow any account .\nwhen you see a tweet you love , tap the heart \u2014 it lets the person who wrote it know you shared the love .\nthe fastest way to share someone else\u2019s tweet with your followers is with a retweet . tap the icon to send it instantly .\nadd your thoughts about any tweet with a reply . find a topic you\u2019re passionate about , and jump right in .\nbioz is the world ' s first search engine for life science experimentation . the patent - pending cloud platform combines the work of scientists with advanced nlp , machine learning , and ai technologies to help life scientists in academia and biopharma make faster and smarter experimentation decisions , ultimately speeding up drug discovery and increasing the rate of success in finding cures for diseases .\nlooking to join an exciting innovative team of entrepreneurs , scientists , and engineers ? bioz is the place for you ! we are looking for a few truly great people ."]}
{"id": 2259, "summary": [{"text": "sublimity ( foaled 23 april 2000 ) is an irish thoroughbred racehorse whose flat racing and hurdling career was highlighted in 2007 when he won the champion hurdle at the cheltenham festival .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "by selkirk and out of fig tree drive , sublimity is owned by bill hennessy and trained by his son robert alan hennessy in ratoath , county meath , ireland . ", "topic": 22}], "title": "sublimity ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["bbc sport | other sport . . . | horse racing | sublimity claims champion hurdle\nthe horse ' s owner , billionaire jp mcmanus , admitted that for once he had not backed the horse .\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for sublimity . sublimity is a mare born in 2006 october 19 by testa rossa out of rather droll\nhighlights for this hillsboro horseback riding lessons instructor include : horse leases , classical dressage , adult riding lessons , riding clinics , horse training , group lessons , horse boarding , beginning riders welcome , intermediate riders , private lessons , balanced seat , dressage training , beginner riding lessons for adults , weekend lessons , sublimity young riders , timid riders , confidence building for horse and rider , and lesson horses available .\n\u201chang on a second , \u201d said robbie . \u201cthis is a good horse . \u201d\nwinning flat mare out of gr . 2 winning dam for sale | paradering horse sales\n, 7pm , sublimity city hall , 245 nw johnson street , sublimity . meetings are open to the public . click for agenda > >\n1910 - here are a couple of photos from the\nhorse and buggy\ndays .\n- \u201cour horse would never be sold without paradering . ie\u201d jimmy & mary mangan - trainer\ncheck out all the latest bookmakers free bets to be claimed on this weekend\u2019s horse racing .\n1915 - roy e . king of sublimity ( courtesy santiam historical society ) . he rests in the union hill / king cemetery near sublimity .\nparelli 1 star junior instructor charlie johnson . a natural approach to horse training - if you truly love horses and have an interest in natural horse training , you\u0092ll love the parelli method of natural horsemanship - a holistic approach to natural horse training based on developing a natural relationship with your horse through understanding his / her nature and understanding the world from the horse ' s point of view . based on respect , love , and understanding horse nature and psychology \u0096 the parelli method enables anyone at any level to have fun with horses and achieve amazi ( cont ' d )\nabove , left to right : lena hermens , mary vanhandel , jesse ( the horse ) .\nhighlights for this hillsboro , oregon horseback riding lessons instructor include : classical dressage , confidence building for horse and rider , starting horses , timid riders , haul - ins , beginner riding lessons for adults , weekend lessons , horse boarding , lesson horses available , private lessons , ground work , balanced seat , horse training , dressage training , and sublimity group lessons .\nsublimity will be back at cheltenham in march when he tries to become only the second horse in history to regain the champion hurdle crown . photograph : toby melville / reuters / reuters\nhennessy , who is the son of sublimity ' s owner bill , has only recently taken out a training licence but rode much of the work on the horse when with carr .\n1995 - alan w . mcmahen became sublimity ' s first career fire chief .\nsteve wheeler tire center 400 sw sublimity blvd . sublimity map ( 503 ) 769 - 3446 mon - fri : 8am - 6pm , sat : 8am - 5pm\n40 listings were found in the sublimity , oregon horseback riding lessons instructor directory .\ncarberry said :\ni couldn ' t believe how well he was travelling going down to the last . what a horse , he is the best horse i ' ve ever ridden or ever likely to .\n' the boss ( bill hennessy ) is looking for a horse that might be able to go for the triumph hurdle , something with a similar rating as sublimity on the flat . '\nsomebody has made a proper job of getting this horse well - handicapped . so who is the trainer ?\nhenderson\u2019s appraisal is perhaps worth noting : \u201cbinocular is a year younger [ than punjabi ] and i still think he\u2019s a horse with a big future . \u2018ap\u2019 said he might just have had a bit of a blow from the horse . but the horse is young and i wouldn\u2019t be surprised if he has his day . \u201d\ni couldn ' t believe how well he was travelling going down to the last ,\nhe said .\nwhat a horse , he is the best horse i ' ve ever ridden or ever likely to .\nhighlights for this oregon city , oregon horseback riding lessons instructor include : horse leases , timid riders , lunge lessons , trailer loading , gift certificates available , beginner riding lessons for adults , private lessons , lesson horses available , young riders , problem horses , leasing , horse training , starting horses , beginning riders welcome , sublimity family friendly atmosphere , trail riding lessons , adult riding lessons , confidence building for horse and rider , ground work , weekend lessons , natural horsemanship training , haul - ins , and horse boarding .\nperforming at the union grange hall northeast of sublimity . ( photo by denny barnes for\nhe won a listed race on the flat for us and we knew he was a serious horse .\na delighted carberry said after the race :\nhe ' s the best horse i ' ve ridden .\nwe focus on a holistic horse / rider relationship . our english riding lessons encourage harmony between horse and rider . you will learn about the horse ' s physical and mental needs in accordance with the guidelines of classical dressage , natural horsemanship , and psycho - spiritual disciplines . our wonderful lesson horses support various riding levels and riding goals .\nhighlights for this sherwood horseback riding lessons instructor include : horseback riding , horse boarding , 5 years & up , balanced seat , balance and confidence for all types of riders , adult riding lessons , affordable , competing , starting horses , family friendly atmosphere , english instruction , and gentleness in your horse from the ground to the saddle , horse lessons , haul - ins , sublimity riding clinics , horse training , children ' s riding lessons , hunter jumper training , usef judge , advanced riders , private lessons , after school program , english , working student program , english horseback riding lessons . , intermediate riders , sales preparation & representation , coaching , confidence building for horse and rider , sublimity indoor riding arena , a circuit showing , english equitation , horse shows , jumper lessons , weekend lessons , internships , equitation , eventing coach , timid riders , ground work , and showing .\nhighlights for this hillsboro horseback riding lessons instructor include : hunter jumper training , ground work , hunt seat , family friendly atmosphere , young riders , private lessons , reasonable rates , breeding program , hunt seat equitation , hunters , family - friendly rates , weekend lessons , horse leases , lunge lessons , sublimity group lessons , children ' s riding lessons , showing , coaching , dressage training , confidence building for horse and rider , starting horses , beginning riders welcome , horse sales , beginner riding lessons for adults , sales preparation & representation , adult riding lessons , leasing , horse training , a circuit showing , sublimity haul - ins , and lesson horses available .\n( note : sublimity got its post office about twenty years before its larger neighbor stayton . in fact , drury s . stayton was one of the original trustees of sublimity college and sublimity ' s second postmaster . stayton was named for him only after he moved there . )\nsublimity ' s victory was so comprehensive that ladbrokes offers only 7 - 2 about a repeat success next year . betfred , on the other hand , expects to hold its offer of 8 - 1 until this morning and can expect plenty of takers , even though sublimity is apparently a difficult horse to keep healthy .\n1923 - the knights of columbus organized st . anthony ' s council # 2439 in sublimity .\nsublimity , a 16 - 1 shot , today won the smurfitt kappa champion hurdle at cheltenham .\nshould sublimity run in the limestone lad there is a strong possibility he will clash with dunguib .\nhighlights for this eagle creek , oregon horseback riding lessons instructor include : private lessons , traveling instructor , horse boarding , saddle fitting , group lessons , intermediate riders , horse sales , ground work , lunge lessons , natural horsemanship training , beginner riding lessons for adults , young riders , reasonable rates , weekend lessons , sublimity adult riding lessons , trailer loading , confidence building for horse and rider , children ' s riding lessons , coaching , certified instructor , and timid riders .\nhighlights for this banks horseback riding lessons instructor include : ground work , horseback riding camps , traveling instructor , weekend lessons , hunter jumper training , horse training , lunge lessons , group lessons , timid riders , dressage training , reasonable rates , showing , children ' s horse / pony birthday parties , gift certificates available , sublimity horse boarding , beginning riders welcome , family friendly atmosphere , private lessons , equitation all seats , children ' s riding lessons , trail riding lessons , starting horses , adult riding lessons , sales preparation & representation , haul - ins , lesson horses available , confidence building for horse and rider , natural horsemanship training , beginner riding lessons for adults , sublimity balanced seat , western pleasure , horse leases , family - friendly rates , leasing , classical dressage , young riders , intermediate riders , and working student program .\nfurthermore the horse he beat at chepstow pepite de soleil came out and won at wincanton at the weekend \u2013 get stuck in .\nvendors register now , space is limited . vendors must be approved in advance by city of sublimity .\npunjabi won the wbx . com\nfighting fifth\nhurdle at wetherby by a head from sublimity .\neven brave inca , last year ' s winner and as tough as any horse to have run up the cheltenham hill , offered little resistance as sublimity and philip carberry quickened into the lead just after the final flight . it had been obvious from the top of the hill , though , that any leader but sublimity would be on borrowed time .\nwill hayler : champion hurdle winner sublimity bows out from racing after a final spin at punchestown tomorrow evening .\nshe is a half sister to the champion hurdler sublimity , who also won 4 times on the flat .\nhighlights for this junction city , oregon horseback riding lessons instructor include : children ' s horse / pony birthday parties , and riding clinics .\nhighlights for this hillsboro horseback riding lessons instructor include : traveling instructor , young riders , trailer loading , ground work , beginner riding lessons for adults , problem horses , gift certificates available , haul - ins , sales preparation & representation , beginning riders welcome , starting horses , timid riders , horse leases , 4 - h , sublimity family - friendly rates , showing , confidence building for horse and rider , horse training , gaming and ohset training , barrel racing lessons , family friendly atmosphere , reasonable rates , lunge lessons , trail riding lessons , children ' s riding lessons , adult riding lessons , lesson horses available , horse boarding , breaking , sublimity private lessons , weekend lessons , balanced seat , coaching , western pleasure , group lessons , leasing , and intermediate riders .\ni have been very lucky to ride him from day one . he is a very good horse and he has proved it today .\nhe got into horse ownership as robbie went down the road of becoming a jockey and his primary aspiration was to have a runner at cheltenham .\nformer champion hurdle winner sublimity bounced back with a terrfic victory of the grade 1 leopardstown golf centre december hurdle .\nsublimity claimed a surprise victory in the champion hurdle after holding off fellow irish challengers brave inca and hardy eustace .\n1996 - on july 1 , sublimity school district no . 7 became part of the north santiam school district .\nwe ' ve already found the best sublimity horseback riding lessons instructor for you . simply press the continue button !\n1875 - drury smith stayton , in 1854 postmaster of sublimity and one of the founders of sublimity college , was one of the first buried in the grier cemetery between sublimity and stayton , which town he founded ( but that ' s another story ) . he was followed by his wife and later by these bronze markers on the original stones .\n\u201cyou\u2019d better hope that horse fails the vet tomorrow , \u201d said shane . \u201chis pelvis pops out , and he has loads of other problems . \u201d\n1907 - here is a class of public school district no . 7 , sublimity with its teacher , sister imelda .\njoseph and elizabeth bany susbauer family at the catholic foresters hall in sublimity , celebrating their golden wedding anniversary , 1925 .\n1914 - 1915 sublimity installed electric street lights from the stayton light company , paid for by a special city tax .\nhighlights for this west linn , oregon horseback riding lessons instructor include : group lessons , disabilities and special needs , certified instructor , children ' s horse / pony birthday parties , confidence building for horse and rider , beginner riding lessons for adults , beginning riders welcome , private lessons , and weekend lessons .\nurltoken horse sales helps horse trainers and horse breeders buy horses and sell horses in a more cost and time efficient way . thoroughbred buyers and bloodstock agents can find the latest irish horses for sale easily through urltoken this online community is enabling thoroughbred buyers and sellers to interact in a more convenient way . irish thoroughbreds are known for their quality across the world and urltoken provides a proven platform to sell irish horses . through our . . . read more about paradering\nas all eyes turn to the cheltenham festival , horse & hound\u2019s racing experts share their thoughts on which horses you should be looking out for this week .\nstay in touch with all the action from the cheltenham festival as it happens with daily reports and blogs from horse & hound\u2019s racing editor , catherine austen .\nwith that in mind , i\u2019m happy to look to the bottom of the weights and a young horse with a big future ; tom george\u2019s island flyer .\n1960 - after 108 years sublimity finally got a real post office building . postmistress clara neal received many requests from afar for first day cancellations from the only post office in the world named sublimity . ( a letter arrived from london , england simply addressed to\nsublimity .\n) it replaced the post office in mrs . neal ' s home , below .\nhighlights for this beavercreek , oregon horseback riding lessons instructor include : family friendly atmosphere , beginner to intermediate riders , weekend lessons , gift certificates available , western pleasure , riding lessons , english pleasure , showing , lesson horses available , leasing , trail riding lessons , beginning riders welcome , horseback riding lessons , horse lessons , sublimity beginner to advanced riders , equitation , english , western riding discipline , balance and confidence for all types of riders , 4h club , timid riders , ponies , private lessons , western games , beginner riding lessons for adults , horseback riding , horses , young riders , horseback riding camps , sublimity horse sales , horse boarding , adult riding lessons , group lessons , horse training , summer day camp program , hunter under saddle , intermediate riders , indoor riding arena , english pleasure and equitation , english horseback riding lessons . , and 4 - h .\n1997 - the santiam canyon stampede was established as an annual prca rodeo at the sublimity harvest festival grounds in early august .\ntrainer john carr ensured that members of the hennessy family walked away with a cool five figure sum . robbie hennessy , the son of the horse ' s owner , revealed that he had backed the horse at 400 - 1 - and , after another drunken night out , put more money down at 200 - 1 .\nin walked sublimity and out walked carr - or at least he tried . robbie told him to wait around , that this was a proper horse ; and that was exactly why carr had no interest .\nwe ' ve no chance of getting him ,\nthe trainer reasonably imparted .\nrobbie hennessy would love sublimity to land his first success for over two years in the mccarthy insurance group hurdle at cork today .\n1949 - the rural fire district was formed . one engine was purchased , equipped , housed and manned in the sublimity station .\n1962 - ed hassler next to a field of orchard grass . ( oregon state archives ) doerfler farms of sublimity is the largest grass seed producer in the world . christmas trees are also a major crop in the sublimity area , and are shipped worldwide .\ncheck the usdf web site to verify that your horse has been declared , verify your horse has been accepted by the breed or performance registry , verify award requirements and finally , to follow theadequan\u00ae / usdf all - breeds preliminary awards standings . learn more about the adequan\u00ae / usdf all - breeds awards program ( pdf file ) .\ntrained by sir michael stoute on the flat , he was bought by robbie hennessy at the sales for 32 , 000 guineas . hennessy now trains the horse himself , but it was in the care of john carr that sublimity beat brave inca to take the hurdling crown in 2007 under philip carberry .\nsir des champs returned from a near two - year injury layoff to record a listed victory in the boomerang animal bedding and boomerang horse & country store chase at thurles .\nsublime flight\nchampion hurdle winner sublimity in oils on canvas36x24\n\u00a32750a limited giclee is also available please contact us for details .\nserving : stayton , sublimity , aumsville , turner , scio , lyons , mill city , gates , detroit and the santiam canyon .\nrobbie hennessy is eyeing the urltoken ' fighting fifth ' hurdle at newcastle as the likely return date for 2007 champion hurdle hero sublimity .\nit was at leopardstown in 2008 where sublimity had his only grade one victory under robbie ' s care - probably bill ' s proudest day of them all . the reception for the little horse that day will be rivalled if coneygree wins in foxrock next month and only jumps racing can do that to us .\n1934 - the confectionary in sublimity , ben toepfer proprietor . ben started with food and\nnear beer\nduring prohibition , later had the real thing . ( courtesy santiam historical society ) this building and bar served as meier ' s sublimity saloon early in the century .\ngreat - grandfather was first sublimity settler by carl hobson , keizer , oregon ( a letter to the editor , date ? )\ni have been following with interest the possibility of the town of sublimity merging with stayton . i am opposed based upon a personal interest .\nplease keep me up to date with special offers and news from horse & hound and other brands operated by ti media limited via email . you can unsubscribe at any time .\nsublimity passed his wind test the following morning . robbie was gutted . two and a half years later , he won the champion hurdle .\n1890 - center street , sublimity , looking south . the rooming house or hotel is at the right ; the stores are farther along .\nlike other sublimity families , mathies and bernadine schmid shared sons and daughters with the church . in the front row , left to right , are sisters rosaria and thecla , and fathers mark and leo . mark wrote the history sublimity , story of an oregon countryside in 1951 .\n' at the moment sublimity is working very well and i couldn ' t be happier with him to be honest , ' said hennessy .\n1919 - i . j . boedigheimer and helen frances smith ' s 25th wedding anniversary in 1919 , taken on their front porch in sublimity .\ncarr also revealed that sublimity nearly took his chance in the vincent o ' brien county hurdle at the festival as he was so attractively weighted .\nreigning smurfit champion hurdler sublimity is bang on course for this year ' s cheltenham showpiece after pleasing in a work - out at navan yesterday .\nhennessy was not standing for that , and why should he ? for this breakthrough , with just his seventh runner , was an audacious vindication for the rookie , whose father , bill , owns sublimity and had transferred him from john carr . however enviable the privileges of nepotism , to some degree they left hennessy jnr on a hiding to nothing . if sublimity excelled , it would be down to the horse ; if not , well , it would obviously be down to the trainer .\npresident mcaleese left the plush royal box to present the hennessys with the trophy for the champion hurdle after watching willie mullin ' s horse ebaziyan set the irish on track in the first race .\nbill hennessy , owner of sublimity and robbie ' s dad , passed away over the weekend at the age of 79 . a bar owner in artane , the kick he got out of the former michael stoute - trained horse was probably something he recalled to help his waning spirits as he struggled with illness for several of his later years .\nchampion hurdle winner sublimity bowed out from racing at punchestown this evening , finishing fourth behind action master in the motivate challenge supported by failte ireland hurdle .\nthe other dual winners are bula ( 1970 and 71 ) , comedy of errors - the only horse to regain the title ( 1973 and 75 ) and hardy eustace ( 2004 and 05 ) .\nlong talked about by paul nicholls as his possible 2009 cheltenham festival arkle chase horse , this sturdy classic jumping type gets a handy four - year - old allowance in a field of just five .\nsublimity was settled in last place throughout the early stages , but moved menacingly into contention under a confident ride as the runners descended towards three from home .\nsublimity overtook former winners hardy eustace and brave inca at the last fence and raced clear to win the champion hurdle at cheltenham , england , on tuesday .\nnothing short of brilliant in four racecourse outings last season , the only horse to lower his colours was captain cee bee when he still emerged with huge credit as runner up in the supreme novices\u2019 hurdle .\nsublimity ' s route to a second \u00adchampion hurdle crown in march will probably need to go through binocular , currently the hot favourite for the race at around 6 - 4 . \u00adhennessy ' s horse is still a 10 - 1 chance \u2014 though he will surely be shorter if he wins tomorrow \u2014 and the trainer is in no doubt where the value lies .\ndents originals fine art :\nsublime flight\nchampion hurdle winner sublimity in oils on canvas36x24\n\u00a32750a limited giclee is also available please contact us for details .\n1947 - sublimity built its water system including a 370 ft . well and a 50 , 00 gallon water tower with asbestos pipes - how times have changed !\nchampion hurdle winner sublimity could be given an intriguing entry in the totesport ebor , a top flat race run at york , according to his trainer john carr .\n1920s - tony van handel ' s harness shop . jim ripp worked here . it is now the site of dr . heuberger ' s veterinary office . a leather horse collar rests on the plank sidewalk .\nall content copyright \u00a9 2016 urltoken horse sales . all rights reserved . paradering ltd is registered in ireland . office : ignite innovation centre , western gateway building , western road , cork . company number : 508031\nthe form of his run at cheltenham\u2019s open meeting back in november looks very solid , with the horse that beat him that day punchestowns now favourite for the world hurdle after following up in style at ascot .\nthe bookmaker was worst hit by a 400 - 1 bet on the hennessy ' s horse at the betting shop in dublin ' s ballyfermot , with a ? 50 , 000 payout to one lucky punter .\n1973 - the scarcity of nuns and high staffing costs forced st . boniface to close its grade school too . ( reminiscent of sublimity college closing a hundred years before on the same location ? ) school district 7c leased the former st . boniface high school for $ 10 , 000 annually for use as sublimity middle school .\ncastaway farms horseback riding school offers horse camps for kids . new this year is the miniature horse camp for children ages 5 - 10 yrs old . your child will be all smiles when they meet our mini horses ! they will enjoy learning about this unique and amazing breed in a fun & safe environment . working with a mini horse encourages discipline , responsibility and respect . the gentle nature of the mini helps build confidence and self - esteem - - important qualities that will carry over into adulthood . this camp will be the highlight of the summer and create long lasting memories for your child ! camp wi ( cont ' d )\nmurphy acknowledges masterminded is an exceptional horse , but he thinks if someone takes him on in the early stages of the champion chase , he may just lose concentration , which would then give big zeb a chance .\nthat rival did not go through with his effort quite as wholeheartedly , however , and sublimity was driven out by philip carberry to win by half a length . no doubt the intrusion of won in the dark contributed to ladbrokes ' decision to cut binocular to even money for the champion , with sublimity next at 10 - 1 .\n1987 - the rural fire district annexed the city fire department to become the current sublimity fire district . 1989 - a new headquarters station was built on parker st .\n2004 - sublimity ' s mayor ( for the second time ) is ray heuberger dvm . heubergers have been part of the church and town from the early days .\nwe took eight horses to navan and they worked over two miles . sublimity jumped very well and came away from them readily ,\nsaid trainer john carr .\nthe sublimity , oregon ( marion county ) horseback riding lessons instructor page is a match - when using our zip search - for the following zip codes : 97385 .\nlast year - two hurdles from home katchit appeared to have mastered osana but both favourite sizing europe and the previous year ' s winner sublimity loomed large . sizing europe lost his action and was virtually pulled up while a mistake at the last cost sublimity his chance . however osana wasn ' t done with and pushed katchit all the way . to the line failing by a length in a thrilling finish . in doing so , katchit became the first horse since persian war to win the champion after success in the previous season ' s triumph hurdle .\nthe horse is now 11 years old and has had his fair share of problems so we would love to finish him up while he is still in relatively good shape . he will spend his retirement with us and his days will be kept busy as a work partner and lead horse . it is important to keep him active because while his body might not be at its best shape , his mind is very sharp .\nperhaps , but maybe not quite yet , because the second winner of hennessy ' s training career could well arrive in a grade one too . sublimity is the second - favourite for the toshiba irish champion \u00adhurdle at leopardstown tomorrow , which will be his prep race before an attempt to become only the second horse \u2014 after comedy of errors \u2014 to regain the hurdling \u00adchampionship at cheltenham .\n1903 - in stayton the catholic community built themselves a church . it is said that the steeple was made a foot higher than sublimity ' s ! immaculate conception was dedicated in 1904 ( photo below courtesy vera boedigheimer ) , but it was not until 1931 that they had a resident pastor . father lainck drove his horse and buggy to stayton to say mass there on alternate sundays .\nregular readers of this column will know i\u2019m quite a fan of this horse , and he can earn us a few quid with a big run in the feature race at the newton - le - willows track tomorrow .\ncolorful new mural on the old 1960 post office building reflecting its new use as a telephone office . sublimity now has a large new post office , below , 2002 .\nthe picture may become clearer on sunday week in the aig europe champion hurdle at leopardstown if straw bear takes on the likes of al eile , sublimity and sizing europe .\n- \u201cbought a very nice mare through the website & sold one of mine as well . it\u2019s a really welcome addition to the horse industry & is changing the industry for the better . \u201d liam casey \u2013 breeder & owner\none horse who did hurdle like a natural was victor dartnall\u2019s lodge lane , and there\u2019s genuine excitement about his first try over the larger obstacles in the devon county show exeter novices\u2019 chase at 1 . 40pm ( friday ) .\n1896 - after a series of small farm fires , a group of farmers organized the\nfarmers relief association\nto provide mutual insurance , later known as sublimity insurance company .\n2006 - six months later , in august , there was an\nopen house\nfor the new archives facility . for lots more about this program , see sublimity history .\n. ) their music is a living continuation of the musical traditions of sublimity familes dating back 60 or 70 years . these traditions are profiled in an article by sharon barnes entitled\n2011 - the september sublimity harvest festival has grown hugely since 1972 , mostly in a mechanical direction , but we still see the ever popular draft horses . here are the herman hendrickses driving the tim bielenbergs ' fine team and oaklea farm freight wagon . ( it was my pleasure to tour downtown sublimity in this conveyance on a recent summer evening . )\nsublimity had to fight from there but just had the extra edge in speed on the run to the line , prevailing by half a length as the 11 / 10 favourite .\nphilip won the big race of the day , the smurfit kappa champion hurdle , riding sublimity . the horse is owned by the man who gave u2 frontman bono his name . bill hennessy , whose dublin hearing aid company bonavox reached worldwide fame thanks to a rock star formerly known as paul hewson , was the name on everyone ' s lips - including those of president mary mcaleese - after the race .\ncarr ' s bid of 32 , 000 guineas later and he was theirs . it had to be too good to be true : the horse had won a listed race only a few months later and had been rated 110 .\nwilliams will be at rosehill before flying out to ride flying tamari for almond lee , who was hayes ' no . 2 in hong kong before taking out his own licence . dunn will ride another lee horse , infinite delight .\nimperial commander is a handicapper stepping up massively in class , voy por ustedes is short enough at 7 / 2 , while the jury is still out on comeback horse war of attrition as he steps back up to three miles .\nsublimity , touched off in last month\u2019s fighting fifth and who won the 2007 champion hurdle before finishing fourth to katchit last season , had his cheltenham odds cut to 10 - 1 .\nthere was a big upset on day one of the cheltenham festival when 16 - 1 outsider sublimity lived up to his name with an emphatic victory in the grade one champion hurdle .\nsublimity and philip carberry landed odds of 16 - 1 in a thrilling renewal of the smurfit kappa champion hurdle , the feature race on the opening day of the 2007 cheltenham festival .\n1972 - the sublimity harvest festival began . the largest show of its kind west of the mississippi , it draws over 30 , 000 visitors on the weekend following labor day . the emphasis has shifted through the years from grass seed farming to tractor , draft horse , and truck pulls to\nmonster trucks ,\netc . originally in town it now has permanent competition fairgrounds adjacent to the local chemeketa community college .\nsport homepage | football | cricket | rugby union | rugby league | tennis | golf | motorsport | boxing | athletics | snooker | horse racing | cycling | disability sport | olympics 2012 | sport relief | other sport . . .\nwe\u2019ll strike early on friday with a horse your correspondent has been waiting three months to see in the shape of alan king\u2019s mount helicon , who makes his english debut in newbury\u2019s 1 . 00 race the q associates juvenile novices\u2019 hurdle .\nhighlights for this west linn horseback riding lessons instructor include : beginner riding lessons for adults , lesson horses available , confidence building for horse and rider , balanced seat , group lessons , young riders , certified instructor , and timid riders .\nhighlights for this portland , oregon horseback riding lessons instructor include : children ' s riding lessons , pony rides , family friendly atmosphere , company picnics , church events , school carnivals , and children ' s horse / pony birthday parties .\ncarr wanted to send sublimity for friday ' s county hurdle ( in which he has 10st 13lb ) but hennessy ruled otherwise .\nwe thought he ' d be a bit of a certainty if the topweight stayed in [ the county hurdle ] . but we decided the horse could be hurt , or we could be dead , so we ' d have a go at the champion this year ,\nhe said .\n2004 - june 5 was the 125th anniversary of our parish and the 1250th anniversary of the martyrdom of bishop boniface . mass with bishop steiner . german sausage picnic and music in a huge tent welcome to the community . display of historical artifacts , such as this door from the old sublimity college , supplied and displayed by sublimity ' s favorite historian , vera boedigheimer .\nsublimity has been carr ' s only runner to date at cheltenham , having run there in the past two years , which might change this year as motarqueb , racing in sublimity ' s colours might get a run in the vincent o ' brien county hurdle and killeaney could go for a spin in the cross - country race . but these horses are only bit players to the star of the show , sublimity , who will travel over on saturday by boat and be stabled at prestbury park prior to his challenge on the opening day of the festival .\nhennessy said : \u2018i was working there when the horse was with john as i was only going over to him two or three times a week . the chap who was killed had shaken my hand about 20 minutes before he was shot .\nthe expected heavy ground at leopardstown tomorrow is unlikely to suit sublimity ' s cruise - and - quicken style , though hennessy feels he may now be better equipped to deal with adversity .\n1853 - the hobson - whitney cemetery was established east of sublimity . family members of jeremiah kenoyer and john f . brewer , who were among the founders of sublimity college , are buried there , along with other pioneers . pioneer life was precarious . salem dixon , perhaps the first to be buried in the cemetery , died by\naccidental\nshooting . his epitaph :\nca 1950 - lively saturday nights were provided by local musicians , many from sublimity , at the aumsville pavilion . this is the\nrangeriders\nband . ( aumsville historical society photo )\nof the four previous champions in the field , katchit ( sixth ) fared best , followed by hardy eustace ( ninth ) , sublimity ( 15th ) and then brave inca ( 18th ) .\n1927 - rev . francis scherbring was appointed to minister to the sublimity and stayton parishes . he had served previously at salem and shaw . he organized the young people ' s club . noting the growth in the sublimity area he made plans to build a new gothic church ; these were near the final stage when he unexpectedly died in 1935 . 1927 - 1935 father francis scherbring , pastor\nthe pastor of st . boniface now celebrates the 8 : 00am sunday mass in shaw instead of sublimity . the st . boniface mixed choir continues to inspire at the 10 : 00am sunday mass in sublimity , but without their 8 : 00am mass , the st . boniface men ' s choir , active since the 1930s , is reduced to part time service at saturday evening vigil masses .\nwhen bill hennessy paid 32 , 000 guineas for a horse called sublimity at the newmarket sales in 2004 , he was more interested in his form on the flat than the fact his name means\nnobility in thought , feeling or style\n. it proved to be a worthy name for a champion here yesterday , though , as the seven - year - old won the champion hurdle by three lengths having travelled with exceptional ease throughout the race .\nsublimity and won in the dark were powerfully joining issue at that stage , but once again sizing europe was travelling better still . just as at cheltenham , however , the candle would abruptly flicker and die , as though a bitter wind had flung open the window . suddenly he was running on the spot , and instead sublimity was followed through by an apparent interloper in won in the dark .\n1863 - sublimity elementary school officially became district no . 7 , with 110 students . the term was extended from three months to five months , and teachers were paid $ 20 . 00 monthly .\n1912 - october , after several large fires , the city of sublimity formed the sublimity fire department . the fire department acquired one a . g . long # 10 chemical fire engine that had a 45 gallon tank , two wagon style wheels , two kerosene lanterns , an axe and a crowbar . information as to the leadership of the department is sketchy , however g . h . bell was president at its formation . many names still common to current sublimity appear on the early rosters , such as zuber , ditter , etzel , ripp , susbauer , kintz , riesterer , and welter .\nno admission charge . learn about sublimity ' s history , and maybe even your own family genealogy , through archived documents , photos and conversation with knowledgeable volunteer staff . coffee and cookies always available .\nthe ante - post betting suggests that there could well be another imminent victory for the visitors as the bill hennessy - owned sublimity is the 4 / 1 market leader for a follow - up .\n- \u201cthis is the new way of trading horses . i put up my horse for sale and she was sold in 2 days ! this is definitely the way things are going and it\u2019s definitely the way forward to sell horses . \u201d tom mullins \u2013 trainer\nwhat\u2019s even more remarkable is that binocular might face his biggest challenge for hurdling\u2019s greatest prize from a horse who stands in the same yard \u2013 punjabi . you could say henderson isn\u2019t so much facing an embarrassment of riches in this department as wallowing in them .\nfairytales can still come true , even today when the most promising jumpers change hands for anything up half - a - million pounds . sublimity , a lightly - raced ex - flat horse , who had been backed at 599 - 1 several months ago , landed yesterday ' s smurfit kappa champion hurdle at cheltenham to give the supremely - confident jockey philip carberry , perhaps the lowest - profile member of the famous irish racing family , his first festival winner .\ntherefore the horse carrying my cash at 9 / 1 each way with coral will be bottom weight seven is my number \u2013 he\u2019ll have no issues with the ground and badly needs a penalty to get into the weights for his various possible festival assignments next week .\ncarberry was always travelling well just in behind the front two and when he asked his mount to quicken , sublimity shot up the final incline to win by three lengths with afsoun a further neck away .\nbill van handel had purchased property northeast of sublimity near triumph road . his oldest daughter , mary , stayed with relatives in verboort while the new home place was prepared for the family . early one summer morning , all by herself , mary left for sublimity in the buggy shown with jesse , who was a fast walker . after about 75 miles they arrived at the crossroads of the sublimity / silverton silver creek roads . jesse balked and refused to continue straight east . it was near sunset and mary was very concerned , then remembered her dad saying if jesse ever gave any trouble , to\nlet him have his head .\nshe loosened the reins and he turned south to sublimity and they soon arrived safely , after dark at the new homesite . ( photo and story thanks to joe spenner . )\n1940s - sublimity got a new municipal water system , a new grade school , two general stores , a building supply store , and a tavern . wheat , oats , and barley were major crops .\nsublimity joined the leaders at the final flight and scooted right away to win in impressive fashion , ensuring philip joined siblings paul and nina in the record books having won a race at the showpiece meeting .\nphilip carberry - - who partnered dublin owner bill hennessy ' s gelding to success a year ago - - was again aboard sublimity and expressed himself very happy with the way his mount asserted his superiority .\neffective 10 / 1 / 2009 , a completed all - breeds declaration form must accompany all breed or performance registry papers for a horse to be declared for the usdf all - breeds program . the all - breeds declaration form is located on the usdf web site .\nthanks to joe spenner , this fine logging scene is at gale creek near verboort , oregon with wm . vanhandel on the right , before settling in sublimity , after perhaps traveling with these oxen to oregon .\n2010 in may the unused old municipal water tower was finally cut up and trucked away in pieces , a landmark not likely to be much missed . for years sublimity has shared a water system with stayton .\n1860s - sublimity had been bustling when the civil war broke out . it had a chinese laundry , five stores , a gun maker ' s shop , public school , college , methodist church , united brethren church , hotel , post office , public well and a furniture shop . some say sublimity was as large then as it is now . the civil war caused a severe decline in sublimity ' s population as settlers returned to their native states to fight , dissension over slavery being intense . the town became deserted ; the college closed but reopened in 1865 at the end of the war . it closed permanently in 1870 .\nif robbie hennessy was ever going to give it a go as a racehorse trainer , this was the year to do it , this year when he could have a high profile horse , a champion hurdle winner , who would draw media attention like a blooming rose draws bees . it wasn\u2019t easy on john carr . it\u2019s not often that you win a champion hurdle with a horse and then lose him from the yard the following year . but there was no falling out between carr and the hennessys . it was just one of those things .\n1904 - a new rural postal route began from sublimity to silver creek falls . 1905 - in the stayton mail : rural mail carrier b . s . branch went to the fair and brought back a wife .\nwith 6 - 4 favorite detroit city well back in the field of 10 , philip carberry kept 16 - 1 shot sublimity behind the two front runners until they approached the end of the 2 - mile race .\nsublimity had been backed ( including by his trainer ) at odds as big as 600 / 1 on the betting exchanges and started at just 16 / 1 having been well backed by the public in recent weeks .\n2009 vera boedigheimer , our dear friend passed away on may 12 . at the spring event of the oregon catholic historical society held at st . boniface archives & museum in sublimity , it was my privelege to announce :\nthanks to wikipedia for explaining the three - year - old is named after a greek mountain \u2013 \u201cone celebrated by hesiod because two springs sacred to the muses were located here : the aganippe and the hippocrene , both of which bear \u201chorse\u201d ( ? ? ? ? ? hippos ) in their toponym . in a related myth , the hippocrene spring was created when the winged horse pegasus aimed his hoof at a rock , striking it with such force that the spring burst from the spot . on helicon too was the spring where narcissus was inspired by his own beauty\u201d .\ncome have some fun and learn how to ride or just brush up on your skills ! riding is for all ages and all abilities . improves balance & eye hand coordination therapeutic riding lessons available i give private and group lessons ! your horse or lesson horse english & western with dressage basics well trained lesson horses ponies for young riders full sized lesson horses pony rides & parties training from the ground up\nriding and training with an emphasis on natural horsemanship\nplease fill out the contact form so i can contact you thanks : ) emai ( cont ' d )\nthe 599 - 1 was taken on the betting exchanges - some of it by the horse ' s trainer john carr - and the 66 - 1 with the bookmakers started disappearing before sublimity was seen on a track this season - in a small hurdle race at navan at the end of january . he hacked up that day by 20 lengths , but so lacking was that race in quality , many dismissed the performance out of hand . it was deemed to be of little relevance in champion hurdle discussions .\nthe chase offers horse riding lessons and training to beginning thru advanced students in a fun and supportive environment . we have over 20 years of experience teaching english riding and jumping . we teach riders how to develop clear communication skills to enable them to establish the willing cooperation of their equine partners . we offer private as well as group lessons , and have school horses available for riders without their own . the chase also trains horses and riders for competition , and attends horse shows and jumping competitions with our team throughout the year . we have a number ( cont ' d )\nbradstock and john carr have something in common : neither has reached double figures in terms of winners in a season . neither sublimity nor the late bill hennessy will be at leopardstown come christmas but there is talk coneygree might .\nbill hennessy , from artane , an owner of 40 years ' experience , paid 32 , 000 guineas to buy sublimity out of the stable of sir michael stoute . at one stage last year , hennessy feared his latest investment was in danger of dying .\nthere was a virus in the yard at christmas and sublimity got the worst of it . there was a time when we thought we were going to lose him ,\nhe recalled .\nthe balance of power still appears to be held by the irish contenders for the smurfit kappa champion hurdle , spearheaded by last year ' s hero sublimity and backed up by former dual title - holder hardy eustace and harchibald .\n1920 - joe schrewe resting after falling a douglas fir on his land in southwest sublimity . the stump looks to be about seven feet wide . born in germany , joe died in 1961 at 88 . he had three children .\nwith an irish grand national win on point barrow for pat hughes , in addition to numerous top class victories in sean mulryan ' s colours in france , carberry has been handed the task of steering sublimity in this years challenge .\nthe manner of sublimity ' s victory was such that , provided he remains sound , he should be defending his title next year . he is already quoted as high as 8 - 1 but as low as 7 - 2 .\n\u25a0the irish collected again when sublimity , backed at up to 600 - 1 several months ago and 66 - 1 more recently , won the champion hurdle on the opening day of england ' s famous cheltenham jumps carnival on tuesday ."]}
{"id": 2274, "summary": [{"text": "the fiery-throated hummingbird ( panterpe insignis ) is a medium-sized hummingbird which breeds only in the mountains of costa rica and western panama .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is the only member of the genus panterpe .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "this is a common to abundant bird of montane forest canopy above 1400 m , and also occurs in scrub at the woodland edges and clearings .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "this bird is 11 cm long and weighs 5.7 g .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it has a straight black bill and dusky feet .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the adult fiery-throated hummingbird has shiny green body plumage , a blue tail , and a white spot behind the eye .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it often looks dark , but when the light catches it at the right angle , it shows a brilliant blue crown , yellow-bordered bright orange throat , and blue chest patch .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the sexes are similar , but young birds have rufous fringes to the head plumage .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the call is a high-pitched twittering .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the female fiery-throated hummingbird is entirely responsible for nest building and incubation .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "she lays two white eggs in a bulky plant-fibre cup nest 2 \u2013 4 m high at the end of a descending bamboo stem or on a rootlet under a bank .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "incubation takes 15 \u2013 19 days , and fledging another 20-26 .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the food of this species is nectar , taken from a variety of small flowers , including epiphytic ericaceae and bromeliads .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "like other hummingbirds it also takes small insects as an essential source of protein .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "male fiery-throated hummingbirds defend flowers and scrubs in their feeding territories , and are dominant over most other hummingbirds .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "they will , however , allow females to share their food resources . ", "topic": 10}], "title": "fiery - throated hummingbird", "paragraphs": ["the fiery - throated hummingbird ( panterpe insignis ) - also known as irazu hummingbird - is a common , medium - sized hummingbird that occurs naturally in in the mountains of costa rica and western panama .\nthe fiery - throated hummingbird averages 11 cm or 4 . 3 inches in length and weighs about 5 . 7 g or 0 . 2 oz . it has a straight black bill and dusky - colored feet .\nthe fiery - throated hummingbirds primarily feed on nectar taken from a variety of brightly colored , scented small flowers of trees , herbs , shrubs and epiphytes , ericaceae and bromeliads .\nthe adult fiery - throated hummingbird has iridescent green body plumage , a dark blue tail , and a white spot behind each eye . it has a brilliant blue crown , yellow - bordered coppery orange throat , and blue chest patch . its sides and the back of the head are velvety black .\nstiles , f . g . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . fiery - throated hummingbird ( panterpe insignis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nhummingbird was perched about 8 m from us . i merged two recordings of the same bird taken about 1 minute apart . recording was normalized to - 3 db .\nthe female fiery - throated hummingbird is responsible for building the bulky cup - shaped nest out of plant fibers woven together and green moss on the outside for camouflage in a protected location , typically about 2 - 4 m high at the end of a descending bamboo stem or on a rootlet under a bank . she lines the nest with soft plant fibers , animal hair and feather down , and strengthens the structure with spider webbing and other sticky material , giving it an elastic quality to allow it to stretch to double its size as the chicks grow and need more room . the nest is typically found on a low , thin horizontal branch .\nfirst capture of a hummingbird . taken near kilometer 70 on the cerro de la muerte in central costa rica at paraiso de quetzal in june 2011 . these large hummingbirds were mobbing the feeders along with magnificent hummingbirds\nthey may also visit local hummingbird feeders for some sugar water , or drink out of bird baths or water fountains where they will either hover and sip water as it runs over the edge ; or they will perch on the edge and drink - like all the other birds ; however , they only remain still for a short moment .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : although this species may have a small range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend is not known , but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' common ' ( stotz et al . ( 1996 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthey are usually found in cloud forests at elevations of 1 , 400 m ( 4 , 600 feet ) or above ; as well as frequenting scrub at the woodland edges and clearings .\nspanish : colibr\u00ed garganta de fuego , colibr\u00ed insigne . . . french : colibri insigne . . . italian : colibr\u00ec goladifiamma , colibr\u00ec golaflammea . . . german : feuerkehlkolibri , feuerkehl - kolibri . . . czech : kolib ? \u00edk ohnivobrad\u00fd , kolibr\u00edk ohniv\u00fd . . . danish : ildstrubet kolibri . . . finnish : tulikurkkukolibri . . . japanese : hinodohachidori . . . dutch : irazukolibrie , irazu - kolibrie . . . norwegian : ildstrupekolibri . . . polish : duszek kraterowy . . . russian : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . slovak : medovec horsk\u00fd . . . swedish : eldstrupekolibri\nfound in north - central costa rica ( cordillera de tilar\u00e1n ) , south to extreme western panama .\nboth males and females look alike . immature birds have rufous - colored fringes to their head feathers .\nhummingbirds are named after the humming sound made by the beat of their wings . their wings make up to 100 beats per second , moving so rapidly that the naked eye cannot detect them . they are the only birds that can generate power on both the forward and backward wing strokes , which makes backward fly possible .\nhummingbirds are solitary in all aspects of life other than breeding ; and the male ' s only involvement in the reproductive process is the actual mating with the female . they neither live nor migrate in flocks ; and there is no pair bond for this species . males court females by flying in a u - shaped pattern in front of them . he will separate from the female immediately after copulation . one male may mate with several females . in all likelihood , the female will also mate with several males . the males do not participate in choosing the nest location , building the nest or raising the chicks .\nthe average clutch consists of 2 white eggs , each being about the size of a coffee bean . the female alone incubates ( broods ) the eggs for about 15 - 19 days . during this time , the male continues to defend his territory and the flowers he feeds on . the female is also the only one that protects and feeds the chicks with regurgitated food ( mostly insects since nectar is an insufficient source of protein for the growing chicks ) . as is the case with other hummingbirds , the chicks are only brooded for the first week or two . after about 12 days , the young are left alone even on cooler nights - probably due to the small nest size . the young leave the nest when they are about 20 - 26 days old .\nthey favor flowers with the highest sugar content ( often red - colored and tubular - shaped ) and seek out , and aggressively protect , those areas containing flowers with high energy nectar . they use their long , extendible , straw - like tongues to retrieve the nectar while hovering with their tails cocked upward as they are licking at the nectar up to 13 times per second . sometimes they may be seen hanging on the flower while feeding .\nmany native and cultivated plants on whose flowers these birds feed heavily rely on them for pollination . the mostly tubular - shaped flowers actually exclude most bees and butterflies from feeding on them and , subsequently , from pollinating the plants .\nthey also take some small spiders and insects - important sources of protein particularly needed during the breeding season to ensure the proper development of their young . insects are often caught in flight ( hawking ) ; snatched off leaves or branches , or are taken from spider webs . a nesting female can capture up to 2 , 000 insects a day .\nmales establish feeding territories , where they aggressively chase away other males as well as large insects - such as bumblebees and hawk moths - that want to feed in their territory . they use aerial flights and intimidating displays to defend their territories .\nmales are fiercely territorial . aerial battles between males are frequently observed and are usually very entertaining to the observer . even though males will defend the flowers and scrubs in their feeding territories against other male hummingbirds ; they usually tolerate females .\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nrichard garrigues , keith blomerley , keith and lynn youngs , bill wayman , peter nash .\nmartin flack , marc fasol , holger teichmann , jacqueserard , r\u00f3ger rodr\u00edguez , paul cools , auf , manakincarmelo , gunnar pettersson , michael schmitz , anthony villaume , phil kindermann , tadeusz rosinski , klaus lachenmaier , euclides campos , joseph c . boone , joe tobias , hal and kirsten snyder , kevinguse , henrik brings\u00f8e , ken havard , juan fdo . alvarez castro , keith and lynn youngs , luis vargas , dusan m . brinkhuizen .\ncabanis & heine , 1860 \u2013 nc costa rica ( cordillera de tilar\u00e1n ) s to extreme w panama ( bocas del toro , chiriqu\u00ed ) .\n10\u00b75\u201311 cm ; male 5\u00b79\u20136\u00b72 g , female 4\u00b79\u20135\u00b72 g . sexes alike . bill black except basal part of mandible pink , feet dusky grey . . .\napparently lacks true song . calls include a repeated nasal , squeaky \u201ckek . . . kek . . . \u201d , given in fast . . .\naug\u2013jan in costa rica . during breeding males do not lek but defend rich patches of flowers , usually of ericads (\nfollowing breeding at least part of population moves to lower elevations , down locally to 1400 . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . cites ii . restricted - range species : present in costa rica and panama highlands eba . species is generally common to abundant over most . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 154 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nalthough this species may have a small range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend is not known , but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : panterpe insignis . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nnatural vocalization ; the faster calls given while the bird was hovering in front of me , the slower paced ones given once it had perched . bird seemed alarmed by my presence .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict ."]}
{"id": 2278, "summary": [{"text": "the family notopteridae contains ten species of osteoglossiform ( bony-tongued ) fishes , commonly known as featherbacks and knifefishes .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "these fishes live in freshwater or brackish environments in africa , and south and southeast asia .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "with the denotation of \" knifefish \" , the notopterids should not be confused with gymnotiformes , the electric knifefishes from south and central america .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "although their manner of swimming is similar and they are superficially similar in appearance , the two groups are not closely related .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "a few of the larger species , especially chitala ornata , are food fish and occasionally aquarium pets .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the name is from greek noton meaning \" back \" and pteron meaning \" fin \" . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "notopteridae", "paragraphs": ["kento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30ca\u30ae\u30ca\u30bf\u30ca\u30de\u30ba\u79d1\nto\nnotopteridae\n.\nolfactory sensory neuron morphotypes in the featherback fish , notopterus notopterus ( osteoglossiformes : notopteridae ) .\nnotopteridae .\na dictionary of zoology . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nolfactory sensory neuron morphotypes in the featherback fish , notopterus notopterus ( osteoglossiformes : notopteridae ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nnotopteridae .\na dictionary of zoology . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nthe knifefish fall in two groups , the gymnotiformes order of electric knifefishes and the family notopteridae of the osteoglossiformes order .\nwhat made you want to look up notopteridae ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nthe other group of knifefishes are members of the notopteridae family belonging to the osteoglossiformes order . they are known as the featherbacks , or featherfin knifefishes , and knifefishes . they are found in southeast asia and africa . this is a small group of knife fish , with only ten species in four genera . these fish are generally smaller fish that inhabit freshwater or brackish environments . although they swim in a manner similar to the gymnotiformes , they are not closely related .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nchang & chou , 1977 ; u . jur . eas . | | - - \u2020\ncarroll , r . l . , 1988 : vertebrate paleontology and evolution . \u2013w . h . freeman and company , new york , 1988 , 698 .\ncarroll , r . l . , 1988 : appendix . 594 - 648 . in carroll , r . l . , 1988 : vertebrate paleontology and evolution . \u2013w . h . freeman and company , new york , 1988 , 698 .\nfrickhinger , k . a . , 1995 : fossil atlas - fishes . \u2013mergus - publishers for natural history and pet books , hans a . baensch , malle , germany , 1 - 1088 .\nhilton , e . j . , 2003 : comperative osteology and phylogenetic systematics of fossil and living bony - tongue fishes ( actinopterygii , teleostei , osteoglossomorpha ) . \u2013zoological journal of the linnean society : vol . 137 , # 1 , pp . 1 - 100\nlong , j . a . , 1995 : the rise of fishes : 500 million years of evolution . \u2013johns hopkins university press , baltimore & london , pp . 1 - 223\nli , g - q . , grande , l . & wilson , m . v . h . , 1997 : the species of \u2020 phareodus ( teleostei : osteoglossidae ) from the eocene of north america and their phylogenetic relationships . \u2013journal of vertebrate paleontology : vol . 17 , # 3 , pp . 487 - 505\nnelson , j . s . , 1994 : fishes of the world . \u2013john wiley & sons inc . , new york , 1994 , xx - 600\nzhang , j . - y . , 1998 : morphology and phylogenetic relationships of \u2020 kuntulunia ( teleostei : osteoglossomorpha ) .\n\u2013journal of vertebrate paleontology : vol . 18 , # 2 , pp . 280 - 300\nzhang , j . - y . , 2004 : new fossil osteoglossomoph from ningxia , china . \u2013journal of vertebrate paleontology : vol . 24 , # 3 , pp . 515 - 524\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nchiefly freshwater ; sometimes in brackish water . distribution : africa ( 2 ) and southeast asia ( 2 ) . small quill - like dorsal fin ( absent in xenomystus ) and long - based anal fin confluent with small caudal fin . combined anal and caudal rays 100 or more . pelvic fins , when present , small with 3 - 6 rays . no subopercle . scales in lateral line 120 - 180 . scutes along ventral 25 - 45 . maximum length 80 cm . small specimens are popular with home aquarists and large adults are exhibited in public aquaria . most are used for food in their native ranges ( ref . 4537 ) .\nthe list below must not be used as an authority reference synonymy list like those found in scientific published revisions , which must be the source to be used and cited eventually when they exist .\nrather , it reflects the current content of fishbase , and the progress with respect to synchronization with the catalog of fishes . however , we think it can be useful for users to assess the quality of information in fishbase , to start new work on the family , or to cross - check with other lists .\nbut we appreciate to be cited in publications when this list has been of any working value . in particular , for published scientific , we suggest then to cite it in the material and method section as a useful tool to conduct the research , but again , not as a taxonomic or nomenclatural authority reference .\nunless it is explicitly precised , the list is not complete , please search all original names published for the family in the catalog of fishes ( genera , species ) , including those with uncertain or unknown status , that are not included in fishbase when they are not attached to a valid species .\nthis list uses some data from catalog of fishes ( not shown but used to sort names ) .\nin the column coff , the digit indicates the status of synchronization with coff : 0 : not checked ; 1 : same status ; 2 : different status ; 3 : other combination ; 4 : synonym in coff ; 5 : species / subspecies issue ; 6 : synonym of another species in coff ; 7 : not in coff ; 8 : should not be in coff . the coff version currently used is the one published on 23 - 07 - 2014 ( ref . 97102 ) .\nwhen subfamilies are recognized , nominotypical subfamily first then other subfamilies by alphabetical order .\ntype genus of the family first ( or of subfamily when subfamilies are recognized ) then other genera by chronological order of description ( and alphabetical order ) .\ntype species of the genus first by chronological order ( and alphabetical order ) , with last listed misapplied names in a light gray font .\nlove words ? you must \u2014 there are over 200 , 000 words in our free online dictionary , but you are looking for one that\u2019s only in the merriam - webster unabridged dictionary .\nthe story of an imaginary word that managed to sneak past our editors and enter the dictionary .\ntake this quiz and discover 12 words for things you didn ' t know had words .\nvan der laan , r . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ( 2014 ) . family - group names of recent fishes . zootaxa . 3882 ( 1 ) : 1 - 230 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\neschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ndana campbell set\nfile : notopterus notopterus46 . jpg\nas an exemplar on\nnotopterus notopterus ( pallas , 1769 )\n.\ndana campbell set\nnotopterus notopterus\nas an exemplar on\nnotopterus notopterus ( pallas , 1769 )\n.\nyan wong changed the thumbnail image of\nfile : shanghai ocean aquarium - chitala blanci 2 . jpg\n.\nyan wong changed the thumbnail image of\nfile : shanghai ocean aquarium - chitala blanci 1 . jpg\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ndivision of fish neurobiology , pg department of zoology , rtm nagpur university campus , nagpur - 440 033 , india .\nas in other vertebrates , olfactory sensory neurons ( osns ) in fishes are the main components of sensory part of olfactory epithelium that relay olfactory information ( smell and taste ) to the brain .\nobjective of the present study was to analyze if any polymorphism occurs in the osns in a featherback fish , notopterus notopterus as far as the teleost lineage is concerned .\nwith the help of neuronal staining technique , polymorphism of osns in n . notopterus was studied .\nthree polymorphic forms of osns were identified which are ciliated osns , microvillus osns and crypt osns . these morphotypes were identified on the basis of location of their somata within the depth of olfactory epithelium and resulting length of their dendrites . the ciliated osns have basally situated somata and long , thin dendrites with a few apically arranged cilia while microvillous osns have somata located midway in the epithelium and thick moderate - length dendrites with microvilli . third cell type is crypt osns which are spherical or pear - shaped , located apically just close to the epithelial surface having cilia and microvilli in an invagination and devoid of any dendrite .\nn . notopterus belongs to order osteoglossiformes which is a representative of an early evolutionary lineage of teleost fishes . osn polymorphism reported in the present work indicates that it is a fairly conserved trait throughout the evolution of teleosts . to our knowledge , we are the first ones to report osn polymorphism in a member of the order osteoglossiformes .\npmid : 25206061 pmcid : pmc4117162 doi : 10 . 5214 / ans . 0972 . 7531 . 210205\nphyletic tree of the teleostei , based on nelson ( 1994 ) showing the occurrence of olfactory sensory neurons polymorphism ( p ) ( for references see the discussion section ) . the grey box / overlay depicts the group of acanthopterygii .\n( a ) photograph of notopterus notopterus . ( b ) in situ photograph of olfactory organ with brain of n . notopterus showing ; olfactory epithelium ( oe ) , olfactory bulb ( ob ) , olfactory tract ( ot ) , cerebrum ( c ) , optic lobe ( optl ) , cerebellum ( ceb ) and spinal cord ( spc ) . ( c ) horizontal section of the olfactory epithelium showing olfactory lamellae ( olfl ) radiating from the central raphe ( r ) . scale bar = 500 \u03bc m .\n( a ) part of horizontal section of olfactory epithelium showing location of sensory ( s ) and nonsensory ( ns ) regions of olfactory lamellae . scale bar = 100 \u03bc m . ( b ) magnified view of sensory region of olfactory lamellae showing ; basal cell ( bc ) , basal lamina ( bl ) , central core ( cc ) / lamina propria ( lp ) , crypt olfactory sensory neurons ( crosns ) , ciliated olfactory sensory neurons ( ciosns ) , microvillous olfactory sensory neurons ( mosns ) and supporting cell ( sc ) . scale bar = 50 \u03bc m . ( c ) magnified view of sensory region of olfactory lamellae ( left ) showing location of different cell types including ; crosns , ciosns and mosns in different zones of olfactory epithelium . scale bar = 25 \u03bc m . illustrations ( right ) of different types of olfactory sensory neurons found in different layers of olfactory epithelium ( upper dotted line represents epithelial surface and lower dotted line represents basal lamina ) .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nbenton , m . j . ( ed ) . ( 1993 ) . the fossil record 2 . chapman & hall , london , 845 pp .\neschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version .\nnelson , joseph s . , 1994 : null . fishes of the world , third edition . xvii + 600 .\nparker , s . p . ( ed ) . ( 1982 ) . synopsis and classification of living organisms . mcgraw - hill , new york . 2 volumes .\nrobins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al . , 1991 : world fishes important to north americans exclusive of species from the continental waters of the united states and canada . american fisheries society special publication , no . 21 . 243 .\nvan der laan , r . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ( 2014 ) . family - group names of recent fishes . < em > zootaxa . < / em > 3882 ( 1 ) : 1 - 230 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\n\u00a9 a dictionary of zoology 1999 , originally published by oxford university press 1999 .\nbase and merging with the small tail fin at the end of the tapering body . there are about six species found in south - east asia and africa .\nurltoken gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the modern language association ( mla ) , the chicago manual of style , and the american psychological association ( apa ) .\nwithin the \u201ccite this article\u201d tool , pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style . then , copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list .\nbecause each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article , urltoken cannot guarantee each citation it generates . therefore , it\u2019s best to use urltoken citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication\u2019s requirements and the most - recent information available at these sites :\nmost online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers . therefore , that information is unavailable for most urltoken content . however , the date of retrieval is often important . refer to each style\u2019s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates .\nin addition to the mla , chicago , and apa styles , your school , university , publication , or institution may have its own requirements for citations . therefore , be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list .\n. notopterids are long - bodied , small - scaled fishes with a small dorsal fin ( if present ) and a long , narrow anal fin that runs along most of the undersurface and continues into the tail fin . undulations along the anal fin enable the fishes to swim both forward and backward . notopterids are predacious and nocturnal and in some areas are sought as food . the largest (\n) may grow to a length of about 80 cm ( 32 inches ) . the species\n\u2026are confined to africa ; the notopterid ae ( featherbacks ) occur in africa , southeast asia , and india . the distribution of the osteoglossidae ( such as the pirarucu [ arapaima ] , the arowana [ scleropages ] , and the butterfly fish [ pantodon ] ) in africa , south america , and australasia ( believed by many authorities to have once been joined as a single\u2026\nfish , any of more than 30 , 000 species of vertebrate animals ( phylum chordata ) found in the fresh and salt waters of the world . living species range from the primitive , jawless lampreys and hagfishes through the cartilaginous sharks , skates , and rays to the abundant and diverse bony fishes . most\u2026\nvertebrate , any animal of the subphylum vertebrata , the predominant subphylum of the phylum chordata . they have backbones , from which they derive their name . the vertebrates are also characterized by a muscular system consisting pimarily of bilaterally paired masses and a central nervous system\u2026\nosteoglossomorph , ( superorder osteoglossomorpha ) , any member of what is widely believed to be the most primitive group of bony fishes . this reputation stems from their rudimentary caudal skeleton and the lack of a set of intermuscular bones throughout the abdominal and anterior caudal regions of\u2026\nchordate , any member of the phylum chordata , which includes the vertebrates , the most highly evolved animals , as well as two other subphyla\u2014the tunicates and cephalochordates . some classifications also include the phylum hemichordata with the chordates . as the name implies , at some time in the life\u2026\nwe welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles . you can make it easier for us to review and , hopefully , publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind .\nencyclop\u00e6dia britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience .\nyou may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered .\nat the bottom of the article , feel free to list any sources that support your changes , so that we can fully understand their context . ( internet urls are the best . )\nyour contribution may be further edited by our staff , and its publication is subject to our final approval . unfortunately , our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions .\nour editors will review what you ' ve submitted , and if it meets our criteria , we ' ll add it to the article .\nplease note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors , and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed .\nhorse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , \u2026\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\ncorrections ? updates ? omissions ? let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article ( requires login ) .\nif you prefer to suggest your own revision of the article , you can go to edit mode ( requires login ) .\nour editors will review what you\u2019ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article .\namlan kumar mitra , probir k . bandyopadhyay , yingchun gong , mrigen goswami , and biplab bhowmik\ndepartment of zoology , ranaghat college , p . o . ranaghat , nadia , 741201 west bengal india\ntwo new species of the genus trichodina ehrenberg , 1838 , t . silondiata sp . nov . and t . pangasi sp . nov . from the gills of freshwater fish silonia silondia ( hamilton 1822 ) and pangasius pangasius ( hamilton - buchanan ) respectively from the river ganges of west bengal are described here . wet smears of gills and skins were prepared in the field , air dried and impregnated with klein\u2019s dry silver method . in case of s . silondia ( hamilton 1822 ) 24 out of 146 host fishes were parasitized on the gills . infestation rate in case of p . pangasius ( hamilton - buchanan ) was not significant . from a total of 86 examined host fish , only seven were parasitized on the gills . the mean diameters of the body of the specimens of t . silondiata sp . nov . and t . pangasi sp . nov . were 32 . 7\u201360 . 6 ( 46 . 4 \u00b1 6 . 3 ) \u03bcm and 38 . 9\u201354 . 1 ( 44 . 9 \u00b1 3 . 0 ) \u03bcm respectively . taxonomic and morphometric data for these ectoparasitic trichodinids based on wet silver nitrate impregnated specimens are presented .\nectoparasite , protozoa , fish , river ganges , trichodina silondiata sp . nov . , trichodina pangasi sp . nov . , india\ntrichodinid ciliates are well - known ectoparasites of molluscs , fishes and amphibians . family trichodinidae claus , 1874 comprises ten genera including the largest and most widely distributed genus trichodina ehrenberg , 1838 having more than 250 species . since the studies of lom ( 1960 , 1970 ) , numerous species have been described from various parts of the world including india ( mitra and haldar 2004 , 2005 ; mitra and bandyopadhyay 2006 , 2009 , 2012 ) , bangladesh ( asmat et al . 2003 , 2006 ) , china ( gong et . al . 2006 ; xu et al . 1999 ; zhao and tang 2011 ) , north america ( wellborn 1967 ) , cuba and russia ( arthur and lom 1984a , b ) , south africa ( basson and van as 1991 ) japan ( imai et al . 1991 ) , germany ( dobberstein and palm 2000 ) and egypt ( al - rasheid et al . 2000 ) .\nthe present paper is based on the outcome of the biodiversity survey of ectoparasitic trichodinid ciliates of freshwater fishes in the river ganges in the area confined to the district of murshidabad of west bengal , india with taxonomic and morphometric descriptions of the two new species of the genus trichodina ehrenberg , 1830 .\nduring a biodiversity survey of ectoparasitic trichodinid ciliophorans in the freshwater fishes of the river ganges in the murshidabad district of west bengal , host fishes were collected by fishermen between february 2011 and december 2011 . gill , fin and skin smears were made on grease free slides at the river side . slides having presence of trichodinids were impregnated using klein\u2019s ( 1958 ) dry silver impregnation technique . examinations of prepared slides were made under an olympus research microscope ( model ch 20i ) at 1 , 000\u00d7 magnification with an oil immersion lens and photographs were taken with an olympus digital camera . all measurements are in micrometers and follow the uniform specific characteristics as proposed by lom ( 1958 ) ; wellborn ( 1967 ) and arthur and lom ( 1984a ) . in each case minimum and maximum values are given , followed in parentheses by arithmetic mean and standard deviation . in the case of denticles and radial pins , the mode is given instead of the arithmetic mean . the span of the denticle is measured from the tip of the blade to the tip of the ray . body diameter is measured as the adhesive disc plus border membrane . the description of denticle elements follows the guidelines of van as and basson ( 1989 ) . sequence and method of the description of denticle elements follows the recommendations of van as and basson ( 1992 ) .\nmorphometric comparisons of trichodina silondiata sp . nov . obtained in the present study with other closely relates species\nfigs . 2 \u2013 6 photomicrographs of silver nitrate impregnated adhesive discs of trichodina spp . ( 2 \u2013 4 ) t . silondiata sp . nov . ( 5 , 6 ) t . pangasi sp . nov .\ndiagrammatic drawings of the denticles of trichodinids . ( 7 , 8 ) trichodina silondiata sp . nov . from silonia silondia ( hamilton 1822 ) in the present study ; ( 9 , 10 ) t . caspialosae lom 1962 from the gills of alosa braschnikowi nilotica , redrawn from ( lom 1962 ) ; 11 t . ( luciopercae ) nigra lom 1970 from the gills of steizestedion lucioperca , redrawn from lom ( 1970 )\nthis trichodinid falls within the upper range of dimensions as a medium sized ciliophoran measuring 32 . 7\u201360 . 6 ( 46 . 4 \u00b1 6 . 3 ) \u03bcm . the concave adhesive disc is surrounded by a finely striated border membrane . denticular apparatus consists of some uniquely shaped denticles .\neach blade is fleshy and triangular . it is very difficult to differentiate between the distal margin and the anterior margin of the blade . blades keep themselves away from inner margin of the border membrane . distal margin of the blades falls downwards with a smooth curve , takes a sharp turn to form a clear apex that just touches the\n) in most of the cases . anterior blade apophysis is present . sharp tangent point lies below the distal margin . posterior margin of the blade forms a moderately deep semilunar curve , the deepest point of which lies at the same level as apex . posterior blade apophysis is absent . central part of the denticle is broad , triangular . the posterior tip of the central part is bluntly rounded and reaches almost midway between the\n) , fits tightly with the next denticle . the section of the central part above and below\naxis is similar . ray connection is short and broad . ray is uniformly thick along its length , and directed to the geometrical centre of the adhesive disc in most of the cases .\nthere are 6\u20138 ( 7 . 1 \u00b1 0 . 8 ) radial pins per denticle . adoral ciliary spiral takes a turn of 390\u2013400\u00b0 .\ntype locality : river ganges ( 24 . 16912\u00b0n and 88 . 32502\u00b0e ) , berhampore , murshidabad district , west bengal , india .\nholotype : one slide no . cp1 / 2011 obtained from the gills of silonia silondia ( hamilton 1822 ) collected at berhampore of murshidabad , west bengal , india is deposited in the department of zoology , ranaghat college , p . o . ranaghat , nadia , 741201 , west bengal , india .\nparatype : on the above numbered slide as well as on other slides ( cp4 / 2011 , cp / 2011 , cp16 / 2011 ) are deposited in the department of zoology , ranaghat college , p . o . ranaghat , nadia , 741201 , west bengal , india .\netymology : the name of the new species has been given after the species name of the host fish , silonia silondia ( hamilton 1822 ) .\nthe new species was compared with other fresh water and marine trichodinids and found three similar species with which a meaningful comparison could be made . these are : trichodina caspialosae lom 1962 from the gills of alosa braschnikowi milotica in rumanian black sea coast and t . ( luciopercae ) nigra lom 1970 from the gills of stizostedion lucioperca in the hungary .\n) in the structure of its blade . in the new species the blades are broad , rectangular and occupying most of the areas between\nsp . nov . are robust , with almost same width and pointing towards the centre of the denticulate ring . in few specimens of\n, rays are shorter than the blades which end in comparatively sharp ends ( fig .\nbut may be easily differentiated by its denticle structure . the blades of the new species are broad and almost rectangular , which have triangular outline in\nare gradually tapers to pointed ends . morphometric data between the two also differ significantly ( table\nfrom the discussion above , it clearly appears that silonia silondia ( hamilton 1822 ) harbors a new species of trichodinid ciliophoran and is proposed in this paper as trichodina silondiata sp . nov .\nmorphometric comparison of trichodina pangasi sp . nov obtained in the present study with trichodina siluri lom 1970\ndiagrammatic drawings of the denticles of trichodinids . ( 14 , 15 ) trichodina pangasi sp . nov . from pangasius pangasius ; ( 16 , 17 ) trichodina siluri lom 1970 , redrawn from lom ( 1970 )\nthis new species is a medium sized ciliophoran with a body dimension of 38 . 9\u201354 . 1 ( 44 . 9 \u00b1 3 . 0 ) \u03bcm . blade is broad and slightly angular . distal surface of the blade is truncated and runs parallel to the border membrane that keeps a wide distance from the adhesive disc . tangent point is flat , situated almost at the same level as distal surface . blade fills most of the space between\n- axis . apex of the blade is not prominent . inconspicuous apex ( when present in some matured specimens ) almost touches\n- axis . blade apophysis present . posterior surface forms shallow , near perfect semilunar curve with deepest point at the same level of blade apophysis . blade connection is broad . posterior projection of the blade is not present . central part is moderately sized , with triangular and flat rounded tip fitting tightly into preceding denticle . central part extends halfway to\n) . section of central part above and below x - axis is almost similar in shape . ray connection is short and broad . ray apophysis is present , situated very high and extending in an anterior distal direction . rays are of uniform thickening along their length and flat rounded tips are pointed towards the\nnumber of radial pins per denticle is 4\u20138 ( 5 . 1 \u00b1 0 . 6 ) . adoral ciliary spiral takes a turn of 390\u2013400\u00b0 .\ntype locality : river ganges ( 24 . 16912\u00b0n and 88 . 32502\u00b0e ) , berhampore , murshidabad , west bengal , india .\nholotype : one slide no . pp7 / 2011 obtained from the gills of pangasius pangasius ( hamilton - buchanan ) collected at berhampore of nadia , west bengal , india is deposited in the department of zoology , ranaghat college , p . o . ranaghat , nadia , 741201 , west bengal , india .\nparatype : on the above numbered slide as well as on other slides ( p27 / 2011 , pp4 / 2011 , pp14 / 2011 ) are deposited in the department of zoology , ranaghat college , p . o . ranaghat , nadia , 741201 , west bengal , india .\netymology : the species name of the new species is given after the genus name of the host fish , pangansius pangansius ( hamilton - buchanan ) .\npopulations of trichodinid ciliophorans obtained from freshwater fish pangasius pangasius ( hamilton - buchanan ) , with a mixed infestation of a species of tripartiella lom 1958 were compared with other freshwater and marine trichodinids and t . siluri lom 1970 was found to have a minor degree of resemblance with the populations harboring gills of the freshwater fish , pangasius pangasius .\nis unique . the adhesive disc remains confined to the inner side of the body . as a result , the adhesive disc keeps a significant wide gap with the border membrane , expressing the orientation of the radial pins very beautifully . but in case of\n) the gap is minimum between the border membrane and the adhesive disc . structures of blades in both the species are somewhat identical , but in the described species apex and blade apophysis are present in majority of the specimens ; these are absent in\nit is sharply angular and conical . in case of the populations of trichodinids obtained from\nwith these distinct and important differences in denticle structures it is justified to give a new species status to the ciliate isolated from pangansius pangansius ( hamilton - buchanan ) and we propose this trichodinid ciliophoran as , trichodina pangasi sp . nov .\nthe corresponding author ( akm ) is thankful to the university grants commission ( eastern regional office ) , lb - 8 , sector - iii , salt lake , kolkata - 700 098 ( west bengal ) for providing financial support in the form of minor research project ( mrp ) vide sanction no . f . psw - 087 / 10 - 11 ( ero ) . akm is also thankful to the teacher - in charge , ranaghat college and head , department of zoology , ranaghat college for allowing him to use necessary laboratory facilities .\nal - rasheid kas , ali ma , sakran t , baki aaa , ghaffar faa . trichodinid ectoparasites ( ciliophora : peritrichida ) of some river nile fish , egypt .\narthur jr , lom j . trichodinid protozoa ( ciliophora : peritrichida ) from freshwater fishes of rybinsk reservoir , ussr .\narthur jr , lom j ( 1984b ) some trichodinid ciliates ( protozoa : peritrichida ) from cuban fishes , with a description of trichodina cubanensis n . sp . from the skin of cichlasoma tetracantha . trans am micros soc 103 ( 2 ) : 172\u2013184\nbasson l , van as jg . trichodinids ( ciliophora : peritrichia ) from a calanoid copepod and catfish from south africa with notes on host specificity .\ndobberstein rc , palm hw . trichodinid ciliates ( peritrichida : trichodinidae ) from the bay of kiel , with description of\ngong y - c , yu y - h , villalobo e , zhu f - y , miao w . reevaluation of the phylogenetic relationship between mobilid and sessilid peritrichs ( ciliophora , oligohymenophorea ) based on small subunit rrna genes sequences .\nimai s , miyazaki h , nomura k . trichodinid species from the gill of cultured japanese eel ,\n, with the description of a new species based on light and scanning electron microscopy .\nlom j . a contribution to the systematics and morphology of endoparasitic trichodinids from amphibians with proposal of uniform specific characteristics .\nsp . nov . ( ciliophora : peritrichida ) , a new ectoparasitic trichodinid species from the gills of freshwater fishes in india .\nsp . n . ( ciliophora : peritrichida ) from freshwater fishes of india .\nehrenberg , 1838 ( protozoa : ciliophora : peritrichida ) from indian fresh water fishes .\nmitra ak , bandyopadhyay pk , gong y - c , bhowmik b . occurrence of trichodinid ciliophorans ( ciliophora : peritrichida ) in the freshwater fishes of the river churni with description of\nvan as jg , basson l . a further contribution to the taxonomy of trichodinidae ( ciliophora : peritrichida ) and a review of the taxonomic status of some ectoparasitic trichodinids .\nvan as jg , basson l . trichodinid ectoparasites ( ciliophora : peritrichida ) of freshwater fishes of the zambesi river system , with a reappraisal of host specificity .\nxu k , song w , warren a . trichodinid ectoparasites ( ciliophora : peritrichida ) from the gills of cultured marine fishes in china with the description of\nzhao y , tang f . taxonomic study of trichodinids ( protozoa : ciliophora ) infecting on gills of freshwater fishes ,\nbetta fish care infographic , a handy cheat sheet that will benefit any keepers of siamese fighting fish .\nfish tank care . guide to fish care with a simple look at aquarium filtration , how to clean a fish tank , and a fish tank maintenance schedule .\npiranhas , one of the most efficient predators with razor sharp teeth and a ferocious nature . piranha fish species , description , information , habitat , and more !\nsetting up a saltwater aquarium . guide to marine supplies , putting the aquarium together , cycling the aquarium water and adding fish !\nenter your freshwater aquarium enter parameters for your freshwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nenter your saltwater aquarium enter parameters for your saltwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nfish finder search our database for compatible pets ! enter characteristics of what you are looking for and find them instantly .\ndr . jungle ' s pets and animal speak - newsletter featured pet of the week and more . . .\ni have bought 2 bgkf and i have a 125 gallon tank . both fish have died within a day of me buying them . i have 2 red tips a black shark and a rainbow shark . my water . . . ( more ) gina\nthe graceful knifefishes have an attractive elongated body , and yes . . . it is shaped like a knife !\nthe knifefish move in a beautiful smooth , rippling motion that is a pleasure to watch . their bodies are long , tapered , and laterally compressed . this shape along with a continually moving fin on their underside , likens them to a household knife . the undulating motion of this bottom fin is what they use use to swim about .\nthese are unusual and fascinating aquarium specimens . some are small and others can get rather large . but all in all they make an attractive addition to a community tank or a splendid show fish in a specialty tank . the graceful movements of the knifefish are shown to best advantage in a longer aquarium .\nknifefish are found in two groups . the largest group are the gymnotiformes . these are the electric knifefishes , and are also known as the neotropical or south american knifefishes . these include the glass knifefishes , sand knifefishes , naked - back knifefishes , and the ghost knifefishes . they are strictly freshwater fish and are found in central and south america . there are about 150 described species in 32 genera , and another 50 or so species that are known but yet to be described . the actual number of species in the wild still to be discovered , is unknown .\nnow just to confuse the issue , there are also a few species that have the term ' knifefish ' used in their common name due to their body shape . these are not true knife fish , but are actually in the order perciforms , which are the ' perches ' or ' perch - like ' fishes . these are the grey knifefish\nthe knifefish species list below includes popular types , as well lesser known knifefish varieties . each fish guide has a description of the species , its place of origin , habitats and behaviors , as well as fish care to successful maintain them in an aquarium . fish pictures are also provided within each fish guide to help with identification , and to aid in choosing the best type of knifefish for your freshwater or brackish water fish tank .\nthey are characterized by having a continuous fin along the underside formed by a joining of the caudal and anal fin , and by either not having a dorsal fin or having a very small one . these fish can be quite large , ranging in size from about 8 inches ( 20 cm ) up to about 5 feet ( 152 cm ) though most are in about the 3 to 4 foot ( 91 - 122 cm ) size .\nsome of the other families in this order include unusual fishes such as the arowanas and butterflyfish , as well as the mormyridae family of elephantfishes .\nthese fish are found in central and south america . some of their characteristics are an eel - like body that ' s either flattened or rounded , no dorsal fin , an extremely long anal fin starting near the pectoral fin area which can move in an undulating forward or backward motion , no caudal fin or a greatly reduced one , and they have electric organs present .\nthe electric organs allow them to generate a very weak electric field around their body which helps them identify objects other than water . this field helps them with their spatial orientation and to navigate , along with helping them detect food . males use an electric ' stereotyped ' communication to court females .\nsome of these fish inhabit quiet lakes or lagoons while others live in main river channels . others , as some of those in the family sternopygidae , the genus\nlive along river banks or on flood plains among roots or plant matter . some species even like to burrow into substrate . largely nocturnal they become active at night and are predators that eat insects , crustaceans , and other fish . they are sensitive to some fish medications such as copper and those containing formalin .\nin general knifefish are shy secretive fish that will avoid the light , so provide them with hiding places such as hollow logs , rocks , and caves . most are nocturnal , eating and being more active at night . though usually peaceful with similar sized tank mates they can be aggressive eaters , smaller fish will not do well with them . some are also territorial and will quarrel with others of their own species . they are great jumpers so be sure you have a tight fitting top on the aquarium .\nfor success in keeping knifefish pay special attention to their feeding needs . being nocturnal they can be fed after you turn out the lights , just be sure to remove any uneaten foods in the morning to maintain good water quality and prevent an additional load on your filtration . knifefish live on average 3 to 7 years , with some species living over 10 years .\ncopyright \u00a9 [ animal - world ] 1998 - 2015 . all rights reserved .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nzoologia ( curitiba ) vol . 33 no . 4 curitiba 2016 epub sep 05 , 2016\n1 university of yaound\u00e9 1 , faculty of science . po box 812 yaound\u00e9 , cameroon .\n2 university of douala , faculty of science . po box 24157 douala , cameroon .\n3 institut des sciences de l ' \u00e9volution de montpellier , universit\u00e9 de montpellier . cc 065 , 34095 montpellier cedex 5 , france . present address : ird , bp 1857 , yaound\u00e9 , cameroon .\nkey words : quadriacanthus macruncus sp . nov . ; quadriacanthus ossaensis sp . nov . ; quadriacanthus submarginati sp . nov .\nparasitism is a major threat to fish productivity , especially in aquaculture systems ( bilong bilong et al . 1998 ) . several studies have been carried out on the monogenean fauna of clariid species in cameroon ( birgi 1988 , nack et al . 2005 , bilong bilong et al . 2007 , nack & bilong bilong 2007 ) , but none has studied clarias submarginatus peter , 1882 a common food resource for local people . this study was conducted at lake ossa ( 3\u00b045 ' - 3\u00b051 ' n , 9\u00b058 ' - 0\u00b003 ' e in cameroon , central africa ) situated 8 m above sea level and located 20 km to the west of the city of ed\u00e9a and 30 km from the atlantic ocean . according to wirrmann ( 1992 ) and wirrmann et al . ( 2001 ) , the lake ossa system is composed of several subunits , with a total surface area of about 3 , 800 ha . the system consists of three main lakes : m\u00e9via , located north ; ossa , at the middle ; and mwemb\u00e9 , in the south . ossa and m\u00e9via are the two largest within the system and communicate through a short channel , whereas mwemb\u00e9 is isolated . in its southeastern part , lake ossa , communicates with the sanaga river by a sinuous outlet ( nack et al . 2015 ) ( fig . 1 ) .\nmap of lake ossa : ( sm ) shore market , ( efm ) ed\u00e9a fish market ( modified from nack et al . 2015 ) .\nmorphometrics of quadriacanthus spp . used in this study are based on gussev ( 1962 ) and modified by n ' douba et al . ( 1999 ) . ( an ) anchor : ( a ) length , ( ba ) base width , ( e ) point length ; ( cc ) copulatory complex : ( ap ) accessory piece length , ( pe ) penis length ; ( cn ) cuneus : ( j ) length , ( i ) width ; ( db ) dorsal bar : ( ct ) centre length , ( h ) median process length , ( w ) width , ( x ) length , ( h ) hooklet length ; ( vb ) ventral bar : ( w ) width , ( x ) length , ( vg ) vagina .\nthe anatomy of the new species described herein corresponds to the diagnosis of quadriacanthus paperna , 1961 given by paperna ( 1961 ) , amended by kritsky & kulo ( 1988 ) and used by nack et al . ( 2015 ) .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 2fe39be9 - f936 - 4be4 - a907 - f8bdb8fea566\nsclerotized parts of quadriacanthus macruncus sp . nov . : ( cc ) copulatory complex , ( da ) dorsal anchor , ( db ) dorsal bar , ( dcn ) dorsal cuneus , ( h ) hooklets , ( va ) ventral anchor , ( vb ) ventral bar , ( vcn ) ventral cuneus , ( vg ) vagina . scale bar : 20 \u00b5m .\ntype locality . lake ossa , cameroon ( 3\u00b045 ' - 3\u00b051 ' n , 9\u00b058 ' - 10\u00b003 ' e ) .\ntype specimens . holotype deposited at the royal museum for central africa ( tervuren ) : # 37935 . paratype deposited at the royal museum for central africa ( tervuren ) : # 37936 .\netymology . the specific name , macruncus , refers to the large size of the anchors of this species .\nremarks . the morphology of the male copulatory complex of q . macruncus resembles q . levequei birgi , 1988 and q . euzeti nack , pariselle & bilong bilong , 2015 ; q . macruncus ) can be distinguished by its smaller size : ( pe = 25 . 1 - 31 . 5 vs 45 - 50 , 36 - 40 ; ap = 18 . 1 - 23 . 3 vs 30 - 35 , 25 - 28 ) , and by the morphology of the median process , directed posteriorly to the dorsal bar , triangular . this structure is in the shape of a stick in q . levequei and a funnel in q . euzeti .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 81837d50 - afb3 - 4c9a - ae61 - 073d2b42de1a\nsclerotized parts of quadriacanthus ossaensis sp . nov . : ( cc ) copulatory complex , ( da ) dorsal anchor , ( db ) dorsal bar , ( dcn ) dorsal cuneus , ( h ) hooklets , ( va ) ventral anchor , ( vb ) ventral bar , ( vcn ) ventral cuneus , ( vg ) vagina . scale bar : 20 \u00b5m .\ntype specimens . holotype deposited at the royal museum for central africa ( tervuren ) : # 37933 . paratype deposited at the royal museum for central africa ( tervuren ) : # 37934 .\netymology . the specific name , ossaensis , refers to the type locality of this species .\nremarks . the morphologies of the penis and of the accessory piece of q . ossaensis sp . nov . are similar to quadriacanthus ayameensis n ' douba , lambert & euzet , 1999 , a gill parasite of heterobranchus longifilis ( valenciennes , 1840 ) and heterobranchus isopterus bleeker , 1863 in the rivers bia , agn\u00e9by and in lake ayam\u00e9 ( ivory coast ) . quadriacanthus ossaensis can be distinguished from q . ayameensis species by having one tip of the distal end of the accessory piece shaped as a fork , by the size of the dorsal cuneus ( patch ) ( i = 2 . 5 - 7 vs 7 - 10 , j = 13 . 8 - 18 vs 8 - 11 ) , the trapezoid shape of the central sclerite of the dorsal bar , and the shape ( thin and twisted ) of the branches of the ventral bars .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 423b9d06 - 68fa - 4424 - 86f6 - 4d532d7075f4\nsclerotized parts of quadriacanthus submarginati sp . nov . : ( cc ) copulatory complex , ( da ) dorsal anchor , ( db ) dorsal bar , ( dcn ) dorsal cuneus , ( h ) hooklets , ( va ) ventral anchor , ( vb ) ventral bar , ( vcn ) ventral cuneus , ( vg ) vagina , ( sr ) seminal receptacle . scale bar : 20 \u00b5m .\ntype specimens . holotype deposited at the royal museum for central africa ( tervuren ) : # 37937 . paratype deposited at the royal museum for central africa ( tervuren ) : # 37938 .\netymology . the specific name , submarginati refers to specific name of the host .\nremarks . this species is close to q . macruncus sp . nov . in the morphology of the dorsal and ventral bars , dorsal and ventral anchors ; it differs from it in the morphology of the copulatory complex and the size of the point of its dorsal ( e = 6 . 1 - 9 . 7 vs 1 . 9 - 3 . 1 ) and ventral ( e = 8 - 11 . 7 vs 3 . 2 - 4 . 3 ) anchors .\nthis is the first record of c . submarginatus in the sanaga basin , precisely at lake ossa . up to now , this fish species was recorded in the rivers kienk\u00e9 ( at kribi ) , lob\u00e9 ( misspelled lobi ) and ntem ( in cameroon ) , komo and og\u00f4ou\u00e9 ( in gabon ) ( stiassny et al . 2007 ) .\nin this context of variable specificity according to ecological conditions , it would be interesting to determine the range of the host spectrum of quadriacanthus species from clarias pachynema , c . jaensis , p . afer and the newly studied c . submarginatus in the lake ossa system , where these fish are sympatric ( stiassny et al . 2007 ) .\nthe authors wish to thank a . r . bitja nyom for his technical advice in the host identification , and mm . a . p . ebbah , n . yomba , sok nguimbat , and n . biname for their assistance during the fieldwork .\nagn\u00e8se j - f , teugels gg ( 2005 ) insight into the phylogeny of african clariidae ( teleostei , siluriformes ) : implications for their body shape evolution , biogeography , and taxonomy . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 36 : 546 - 553 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . ympev . 2005 . 03 . 028 [ links ]\nbilong bilong cf , nack j , euzet l ( 2007 ) monog\u00e8nes de clarias ( siluriformes , clariidae ) au cameroun : ii . description de trois nouvelles esp\u00e8ces du genre birgiellus n . gen . ( dactylogyridea , ancyrocephalidae ) dans le bassin du nyong . parasite 14 : 121 - 130 . doi : 10 . 1051 / parasite / 2007142121 [ links ]\nbilong bilong cf , tombi j , nack j , fomena a ( 1998 ) les parasites peuvent - ils \u00eatre une cause de r\u00e9duction de la biodiversit\u00e9 des poissons ? biosciences proceeding 5 : 113 - 119 . [ links ]\nbirgi e ( 1988 ) monog\u00e8nes du genre quadriacanthus paperna , 1961 , parasites branchiaux de deux siluridae ( teleostei ) clarias pachynema , boulenger , 1903 , et clarias jaensis boulenger , 1909 au sud - cameroun ( description de 4 esp\u00e8ces nouvelles ) . annales de la facult\u00e9 des sciences de yaound\u00e9 , biologie - biochimie iii 5 : 113 - 129 . [ links ]\nbruton mn ( 1979 ) the survival of habitat desiccation by air - breathing clariid catfishes . environmental biology of fishes 4 : 273 - 280 . [ links ]\ncombes c ( 1990 ) rencontre , identification , installation dans le cycle des m\u00e9tazoaires parasites . bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 zoologique de france 115 : 99 - 105 . [ links ]\neuzet l , combe c ( 1980 ) les probl\u00e8mes de l ' esp\u00e8ce chez les animaux parasites . m\u00e9moire de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 zoologique de france 40 : 239 - 285 . [ links ]\ngussev av ( 1962 ) order dactylogyridea , p . 204 - 342 . in : bychovskaya - pavlovskaya ie , gussev av , dubinina mn , izymova na , smirnova ts , sokolovskaya il , shtein ga , shul ' man ss , epsthein vm ( eds . ) key to the parasites of freshwater fish of the ussr . jerusalem , israel program for scientific translations [ russian original : opredelitel ' parazitov presnovohnyh ryb sssr . moscow - leningrad , izadtel ' stovo akademii nauk sssr ] . [ links ]\nkritsky dc , kulo s - d ( 1988 ) the african species of quadriacanthus with proposal of quadriacanthoides gen . n . ( monogenea : dactylogyridae ) . proceedings of the helminthological society of washington 55 : 175 - 187 . [ links ]\nlegendre m , teugels gg , cauty c , jalabert b ( 1992 ) comparative study on morphology , growth rate and reproduction of clarias gariepinus ( burchell , 1822 ) , heterobranchus longifilis valenciennes , 1840 , and their reciprocal hybrids ( pisces , clariidae ) . journal of fish biology 40 : 59 - 79 . [ links ]\nmalmberg g ( 1957 ) on the occurrence of gyrodactylus on swedish fishes . skrifter utgivna av s\u00f6dra sveriges fiskerif\u00f6reningen : 19 - 76 . [ links ]\nnack j , bilong bilong cf ( 2007 ) biotope des ectoparasites branchiaux de clarias camerunensis l\u00f4nnberg , 1895 ( pisces ; clariidae ) : mod\u00e8les de croissance de l ' aire colonisable . journal of the cameroon academy of sciences 7 : 11 - 16 . [ links ]\nnack j , bilong bilong cf , euzet l ( 2005 ) monog\u00e8nes parasites de clariidae ( teleostei , siluriformes ) au cameroun : i description de deux nouvelles esp\u00e8ces du genre gyrodactylus dans le bassin du nyong . parasite 12 : 213 - 220 . doi : 10 . 1051 / parasite / 2005123213 [ links ]\nnack j , bitja nyom ar , pariselle a , bilong bilong cf ( 2015 ) new evidence of a lateral transfer of monogenean parasite between distant fish hosts in lake ossa , south cameroon : the case of quadriacanthus euzeti n . sp . journal of helminthology 90 : 455 - 459 . doi : 10 . 1017 / s0022149x15000577 [ links ]"]}
{"id": 2281, "summary": [{"text": "eudonia pallida is a species of moth of the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from most of europe .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 18 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing in april to late september in one generation per year .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on mosses and lichens at ground level .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it has been reared from larvae found amongst the moss calliergonella cuspidata . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "eudonia pallida", "paragraphs": ["eudonia pallida ( marsh grey ) - norfolk micro moths - the micro moths of norfolk .\nand quite distinctive , although care must be taken not to confuse small , worn specimens of related species .\nis distributed widely throughout the british isles , although tends to occur in damp situations such as fens or marshes .\nin common with a number of other british pyralidae , the early stages are not well described , but it is believed to feed on mosses or lichens at ground level . it has been reared from larvae amongst the moss\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 07 - 07 14 : 04 : 09 page render time : 0 . 3281s total w / procache : 0 . 3832s\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nscattered records from wetland sites , also fens , grassland , heathland and scrub .\nliterature states this is single - brooded , although norfolk records suggest multiple broods from may to october .\nrecorded in 54 ( 78 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1884 . last recorded in 2018 .\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\nclick here to support naturespot by making a donation - small or large - your gift is very much appreciated . thank you .\nwingspan around 18 mm . the palest of the british scopariinae and quite distinctive , although care must be taken not to confuse small , worn specimens of related species .\nscopariinae are a difficult group to identify and sometimes it is necessary to refer to genitalia to be sure . a useful guide can be found at the following link\nin common with a number of other british pyralidae , the early stages are not well described but it is believed to feed on mosses or lichens at ground level . it has been reared from larvae amongst the moss .\ndistributed widely throughout the british isles though not common . in the butterfly conservation\u2019s microlepidoptera report 2011 this species was classified as local .\nuncommon in leicestershire and rutland . l & r moth group status = d ( rare or rarely recorded )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nfor the county , we have a total of 1519 records from 134 sites . first recorded in 1868 .\nvc63 . west melton , 13 . 8 . 1996 , 23 . 7 . 1997 , 6 . 7 . 1999 ( heb ) ; wintersett country park , 26 . 7 . 1998 , 8 . 8 . 1998 det . heb ( psm , pm et . al . ) ; rawcliffe bridge , 18 . 7 . 2000 ( edc ) . new vice - county record .\nvc65 . marne barracks , 4 . 8 . 2006 ( chf ) . new vice - county record .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\na local and uncommon species in belgium . due to the more extensive knowledge of scopariinae , this species is now more observed than in the past .\nthe larva lives on mosses and lichens . its biology is not completely studied yet .\nthe adults have been seen from late april till late september , but most observations are done between may and july . they are active at dusk and later come to light .\nbelgium , antwerpen , viersel , 26 april 2004 . ( photo \u00a9 leo janssen )\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nbl\u00e5 punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och \u00f6vriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan inneh\u00e5lla observationer som inte \u00e4r validerade . kartan uppdateras var fj\u00e4rde vecka .\ni det avancerade verktyget kan man s\u00f6ka ut och f\u00e5 fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst l\u00e4n , i en viss biotop , substrat , som p\u00e5verkas av en hotfaktor , eller som \u00e4r knutna till en sk v\u00e4rdart , t ex tr\u00e4det alm . dessa kan \u00e4ven kombineras .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , knutna till alm , \u00e4r beroende av d\u00f6d ved och som finns i kronobergs l\u00e4n .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , lever i sm\u00e5vatten och som p\u00e5verkas negativt av igenv\u00e4xning .\ndefaultl\u00e4get i verktyget \u00e4r arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade 2015 och dessa \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga s\u00f6kfaktorer . under fliken r\u00f6dlistekategori kan man dock v\u00e4lja att \u00e4ven inkludera arter som inte \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade . om man v\u00e4ljer att inkludera icke r\u00f6dlistade arter beh\u00f6ver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanst\u00e4llning av vad som \u00e4r komplett .\ndenna funktion anv\u00e4nds n\u00e4r du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka p\u00e5 deras namn . du kan ocks\u00e5 v\u00e4lja att anv\u00e4nda knappen \u201dj\u00e4mf\u00f6r arter\u201d f\u00f6r att se bilder , kartor och k\u00e4nnetecken i en j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevy .\ndu kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via sl\u00e4kttr\u00e4det och d\u00e4r v\u00e4lja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat s\u00e4tt att g\u00f6ra ditt urval \u00e4r att anv\u00e4nda fliken \u201dfiltrera\u201d , d\u00e4r du kan s\u00f6ka p\u00e5 olika egenskaper . ovanf\u00f6r listan med s\u00f6kresultatet finns en knapp \u201dl\u00e4gg i mitt urval\u201d .\na resident species usually occurring singly or sparingly at mv light along the coast , although it is sometimes fairly common to common in a few spots inland . well distributed and increasing . this species is apparently single - brooded flying mainly from late may to late september , sometimes to the second week of october . the larval foodplant is not known in this country . ( pratt , 2011 ) .\na maximum of five species may be selected . the data for each species can be then viewed on the same page . tick the box below to select this species ."]}
{"id": 2282, "summary": [{"text": "amalda mamillata , common name the mammillate ancilla , is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family olividae , the olives . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "amalda mamillata", "paragraphs": ["what type of species is amalda mamillata ? below , you will find the taxonomic groups the amalda mamillata species belongs to .\nwhich photographers have photos of amalda mamillata species ? below , you will find the list of underwater photographers and their photos of the marine species amalda mamillata .\nhow to identify amalda mamillata marine species ? below , you will find the list of main identification criteria and physical characteristics of marine species amalda mamillata . for each identification criteria , the corresponding physical characteristics of marine species amalda mamillata are marked in green .\nwhere is amalda mamillata found in the world ? below , you will find the list and a world map of the geographic distribution where the marine species amalda mamillata can be found .\nancillariidae \u00bb amalda mamillata , id : 1032504 , shell detail \u00ab shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc .\namalda mamillata ( hinds , 1843 ) - taiwan , 38mm ; - trawled . indo - pacific distribution .\namalda similis ( sowerby , 1859 ) - mozambique , 57mm - one of the larger and more beautiful of the amalda species . this sand - dweller lives at depths accessible by scuba divers .\namalda h . & a . adams , 1853 : 148 . type species ( s . d . vokes , 1939 ) : ancillaria tankervillianus sow . [ sic ] = ancillaria tankervillii swainson , 1825 ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ ancillinae ] ; pacaud & le renard , 1995 : 166 [ ancillinae ] , sandella gray , 1857 , subgenus : baryspira fischer , 1883 , gamaspira olsson , 1956 , amalda ( baryspira ) ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ ancillinae ] ; pacaud & le renard , 1995 : 166 [ ancillinae ] . subgenus : gracilispira olsson , 1956 , amalda ( gracilispira ) ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ ancillinae ] ; pacaud & le renard , 1995 : 166 [ ancillinae ] . subgenus : alcospira cossmann , 1899 , amalda ( alcospira ) ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ ancillinae ] . subgenus : pinguispira finlay , 1927 , amalda ( pinguispira ) ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ ancillinae ] . subgenus : spinaspira olsson , 1956 ? , amalda ( spinispira ) ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ ancillinae ] .\namalda fuscolingua kilburn & bouchet , 1988 - new caledonia , 29mm ; - a rare species restricted to deepwater off southern new caledonia . the illustrated specimens are from \u00b1 400 meters of water .\namalda contusa ( reeve , 1864 ) - south africa , 32mm - taken by scuba divers in the remote transeki region . the flush of purple color on the spire is characteristic of the species .\namalda aureomarginata kilburn & bouchet , 1988 - new caledonia , 28mm - discovered during deep - water research . the species is found at depths up to 600 meters of water . it has only been recorded from off of southern new caledonia .\namalda vernedei heerlari van pel , 1989 - arafura sea , 78mm - trawled in 300 meters of water . there has been much speculation as the the identity of this species and its relationship to a . hilgendorfi von martens and a . vernedei sowerby . this illustrated shell seems far closer to vernedei than hilgendorfi , the latter which is less inflated and has a characteristic ridge on the spire .\n( of ancillaria mamillata hinds , 1844 ) hinds r . b . ( 1844 ) . mollusca . in : the zoology of the voyage of h . m . s .\nsulphur\n, under the command of captain sir edward belcher , r . n . , c . b . , f . r . g . s . , etc . , during the years 1836 - 42 . london : smith , elder and co . v + 72 pp . , 21 pls . [ pp . 1 - 24 , pls . 1 - 7 , july 1844 ; pp . 25 - 48 , pl . 8 - 14 , october 1844 ; p . i - v , 49 - 72 , pl . 15 - 21 , january 1845 ] . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 44 [ details ]\nancilla mammilla sowerby [ of authors ; non g . b . sowerby i , 1844 ]\n( of ancilla mammilla sowerby [ of authors ; non g . b . sowerby i , 1844 ] ) hu , c . h . & tao , h . j . 1995 . shells of taiwan illustrated in colour . national museum taiwan . 483p . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nversion 43 . 0 went live 11 / 6 / 2018 - i hope that the majority of issues have been fixed . my email address is on the home page if you see anything wrong .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nshell gallery view \u00ab shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc . \u00bb conchological megadatabase on mollusks\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\nclick on an image to view all the information : family , species , author , date , and full locality .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 1 . 337 seconds . )\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 002 seconds . )\n- note : several protected species are illustrated here only for identification purposes . they are not for sale . - the photos in our gallery are in most cases just a sample from our stock , except when only one specimen is offered . we try to match the original color but it can vary if your screen is not correctly adjusted ( gamma correction ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nthe photos in our gallery are in most cases just a sample from our stock , except when only one specimen is offered . we try to match the original color but it can vary if your screen is not correctly adjusted ( gamma correction ) .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nsearch urltoken search urltoken - enter search word . avoid using the word\nshell\n- e . g . , use oliva instead of oliva shell . * * * google olividae on the internet\nclick on the thumbnail images for an enlarged view . images will open up in a separate , resizeable window .\n* turn off your browser ' s pop - up blocker to see enlarged pictures and links . *\ntaxonomic ref . : ponder & lindberg . 1997 . towards a phylogeny of gastropod molluscs ; an analysis using morphological characters . zoological journal of the linnean society , 119 83 - 2651 .\noliva brugui\u00e8re , 1789 ; vaught , 1989 : 53 ; greifeneder & trusch , 1996 : 164 , cylindrus breyn , 1732 , strephopoma browne , 1758 , porphyria r\u00f6ding , 1798 , olivaria rafinesque , 1815 , ispidula gray , 1847 , dactylus h . & a . adams , 1853 ; subgenus : acutoliva petuch & sargent , 1986 , oliva ( acutoliva ) ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ olivinae ] . subgenus : annulatoliva petuch & sargent , 1986 , oliva ( annulatoliva ) ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ olivinae ] . subgenus : arctoliva petuch & sargent , 1986 , oliva ( arctoliva ) ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ olivinae ] . subgenus : cariboliva petuch & sargent , 1986 , oliva ( cariboliva ) ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ olivinae ] . subgenus : miniaceoliva petuch & sargent , 1986 , oliva ( miniaceoliva ) ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ olivinae ] . subgenus : multiplicoliva petuch & sargent , 1986 , oliva ( multiplicoliva ) ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ olivinae ] . subgenus : musteloliva petuch & sargent , 1986 , oliva ( musteloliva ) ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ olivinae ] . subgenus : proxoliva petuch & sargent , 1986 , oliva ( proxoliva ) ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ olivinae ] . subgenus : rufoliva petuch & sargent , 1986 , oliva ( rufoliva ) ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ olivinae ] . subgenus : viduoliva petuch & sargent , 1986 , oliva ( viduoliva ) ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ olivinae ] . subgenus : carmione gray , 1858 , oliva ( carmione ) ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ olivinae ] . subgenus : galeola gray , 1858 ( non klein , 1753 ) ? , oliva ( galeola ) ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ olivinae ] . subgenus : neocylindricus fischer , 1883 , oliva ( neocylindricus ) ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ olivinae ] . subgenus : omogymna von martens , 1897 , oliva ( omogymna ) ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ olivinae ] . subgenus : parvoliva thiele , 1929 , oliva ( paroliva ) ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ olivinae ] . subgenus : strephona m\u00f6rch , 1852 , oliva ( strephona ) ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ olivinae ] . subgenus : strephonella dall , 1909 , oliva ( strephonella ) ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ olivinae ] .\noliva fulgurator r\u00f6ding , 1798 - aruba , 57mm - this intertidal sand - dweller is limited to the southern caribbean .\noliva miniacea r\u00f6ding , 1798 - philippines , 89mm - a fairly sizable specimen of this common indo - pacific species . a number of color forms can be found throughout the range of the species .\noliva porphyria linn\u00e9 , 1758 - mexico , 101mm - the largest and most well - known of the oliva species . the species ranges from panama up into mexico . specimens larger than 5 inches have been found and are much sought - after by collectors .\noliva reticularis bollingi clench , 1934 - cuba , 46mm - specimens with brown banding have been given this form name . it is one of many reticularis - morphs that can be found throughout the caribbean .\noliva reticularis goajira petuch & sargent , 1986 - colombia , 44 - 55mm - one of many regional forms in the reticularis complex . the color pattern and mauve tint inside the aperture is characteristic of this subspecies , considered by some to be only a form .\noliva richerti kay , 1979 - hawaii , 28 - 31mm - one of the truly rare species of the genus , known only from \u00b1 200 meters of water off oahu . photo by mike severns hawaiian seashells image \u00a9 2001 - not to be reproduced or transmitted electronically .\noliva sairosa kilburn , 1978 - mozambique , 30 - 35mm - the species has dark purple color inside the aperture .\noliva ( strephona ) tisiphona duclos , 1844 - colombia , 40mm - an odd orange color form . related to the reticularis complex of olives . o . oblonga is a synonym .\nolivancillaria d ' orbigny , 1840 ( non d ' orbigny , 1839 ) ; vaught , 1989 : 53 [ olivinae ] ; pacaud & le renard , 1995 : 166 [ olivinae ] ; scaphula swainson , 1840 ( non benson , 1834 ) utriculina gray , 1847 , lintricula h . & a . adams , 1853 , claneophila gray , 1858 .\nagaronia gray , 1839 . hiatula swainson , 1840 ( non modeer , 1793 ) subgenus : morionella dall , 1909 ; cassis ( morionella ) ; pacaud & le renard , 1995 : 164 [ cassidae ] .\npetuch , 1987 - honduras , 28 - 29mm - taken by fishing trawlers . color pattern varies . the species is named for the late shell dealer leonard hill .\nolivella swainson , 1831 ; vaught , 1989 : 53 ; le renard , 1996 : 79 , olivina d ' orbigny , 1839 , micana gray , 1858 ; subgenus : callianax h . & a . adams , 1853 , scaphula gray , 1858 ( non benson , 1834 ) . subgenus : cupidoliva iredale , 1924 . subgenus : dactylidella woodring , 1928 . subgenus : dactylidia h . & a . adams , 1853 . subgenus : lamprodoma swainson , 1840 . ramola gray , 1858 , subgenus : lamprodomina marwick , 1931 . subgenus : macgintiella olsson , 1956 . subgenus : mansfieldella olssan & harbison , 1953 . subgenus : minioliva olsson , 1956 . subgenus : niteoliva olsson , 1956 . subgenus : orbignytesta klappenbach , 1962 . subgenus : pachyoliva olsson , 1956 . subgenus : ramoliva cotton & godfrey , 1932 . subgenus : toroliva olsson & harbison , 1953 . subgenus : zanoetella olsson , 1956 . belloliva peile , 1922 , subgenus : gemmoliva iredale , 1924 . subgenus : olivellopsis thiele , 1929 .\nancilla glabrata ( linn\u00e9 , 1758 ) - colombia , 67mm - an uncommon white color form with a hint of an orange band on the spire ; exceptiona size for the species .\nancilla glabrata ( linn\u00e9 , 1758 ) - colombia , 54mm - a rare pure white specimen with no hint of any other color .\nancilla mauritiana ( sowerby i , 1830 ) - somalia , 52mm - trawled in deepwater . limited to the western indian ocean .\nancilla v . ventricosa ( lamarck , 1811 ) - somalia , 34mm - a deepwater species limited to the indian ocean . there is some debate as to whether the deepwater somalian shells are actually this species .\nolividae on this page click name to view image - click \u00bb to view caption below .\nfour new species of the southern african holandric genus microchaetus rapp , 1849 are descriptionbed and illustrated : madidus , ritae , montanus and rivus . their relationships with other species are discussed , and keys are provided to distinguish the species . new localities are recorded for m . franciscus pickford , 1975 and m . pentheri rosa , 1898 . new synonyms : microchaeta pentheri var . saxatilis rosa , 1898 , microchaeta pentheri var . elizabethae michaelsen , 1899 and microchaetus saundersi brock & dick , 1935 = microchaetus pentheri rosa , 1898 .\nclanculus largillierti ( philippi , 1849 ) , previously of unknown provenance , has been found living intertidally and in shallow water off the mascarene islands of mauritius and reunion . as none of the original material is extant a neotype is designated . the taxon is redescriptionbed and is shown to be distinct from clanculus mauritianus melvill , 1909 .\nturridae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) of southern africa and mozambique . part 7 . subfamily mangeliinae , section 2"]}
{"id": 2299, "summary": [{"text": "silhouettia silhouettae is a species of air-breathing land snail , terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family streptaxidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "silhouettia silhouettae is the only species within the genus silhouettia . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "silhouettia silhouettae", "paragraphs": ["information on silhouettia silhouettae is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - silhouettia ( silhouettia silhouettae )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - silhouettia ( silhouettia silhouettae )\ntitle =\narkive species - silhouettia ( silhouettia silhouettae )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - < i > silhouettia silhouettae < / i >\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - < i > silhouettia silhouettae < / i >\ntitle =\narkive photo - < i > silhouettia silhouettae < / i >\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - < i > silhouettia silhouettae < / i > on a leaf\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - < i > silhouettia silhouettae < / i > on a leaf\ntitle =\narkive photo - < i > silhouettia silhouettae < / i > on a leaf\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - < i > silhouettia silhouettae < / i > on a leaf\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - < i > silhouettia silhouettae < / i > on a leaf\ntitle =\narkive photo - < i > silhouettia silhouettae < / i > on a leaf\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nclassified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nvulnerable b1ab ( iii ) + 2ab ( iii ) ; d2 ver 3 . 1\nthis species is assessed as vulnerable because it has a restricted distribution and the habitat within this area is deteriorating . both the eoo and aoo are estimated at 18 km\u00b2 and it is found in only 10 locations . invasive non - native plant species ( e . g .\n) are causing habitat degradation throughout this species ' range . fortunately , it remains abundant to date .\nendemic to seychelles islands , this snail species is found only on silhouette island . both its extent of occurrence ( eoo ) and area of occupancy ( aoo ) are estimated to be 18 km\u00b2 .\nthis species is restricted to high montane forest , from 300 - 770 m .\n) is currently the main threat this snail faces . small - scale wood plantations were a threat in the past .\nno conservation measures have been take , though a systematic monitoring scheme is in place . silhouette island should receive legal protection in order to protect threatened habitats , and invasive species must be controlled . research into this species ' life history and ecology would be beneficial .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nrecommended citation : global invasive species database ( 2018 ) species profile : cinnamomum verum . downloaded from urltoken on 09 - 07 - 2018 .\ninformations on cinnamomum verum has been recorded for the following locations . click on the name for additional informations .\nbarthelat , f . 2005 . note sur les esp\ufffdces exotiques envahissantes \ufffd mayotte . direction de l\ufffdagriculture et de la for\ufffdt . 30p summary : tableau synth\ufffdtique des plantes exotiques de mayotte class\ufffdes en fonction de leur niveau d envahissement .\ncentre des ressources biologiques . plantes tropicales . inra - cirad . 2007 . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 31 march 2008 ]\nconservatoire botanique national de mascarin ( boullet v . coord . ) 2007 . - cinnamomum verum index de la flore vasculaire de la r\ufffdunion ( trach\ufffdophytes ) : statuts , menaces et protections . - version 2007 . 1 summary : base de donn\ufffdes sur la flore de la r\ufffdunion . de nombreuses informations tr\ufffds utiles . available from : urltoken ; = 495dabfd0ca768a3c3abd672079f48b6 [ accessed 26 march 2008 ]\ndietz , h . dietz , h . ; wirth , l . r . wirth , l . r . ; buschmann , h . buschmann , h . , 2005 . variation in herbivore damage to invasive and native woody plant species in open forest vegetation on mahe , seychelles ( vol 4 , pg 511 , 2004 ) biological invasions . 7 ( 2 ) . mar 05 . 351 .\nfleischmann , karl ; edwards , peter j . ; ramseier , dieter ; kollmann , johannes , 2005 . stand structure , species diversity and regeneration of an endemic palm forest on the seychelles . african journal of ecology . 43 ( 4 ) . dec 2005 . 291 - 301 .\nflorence j . , chevillotte h . , ollier c . & meyer j . - y . 2007 . cinnamomum verum base de donn\ufffdes botaniques nadeaud de l herbier de la polyn\ufffdsie fran\ufffdaise ( pap ) . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 26 march 2008 ]\nfournet , j . 2002 . flore illustr\ufffde des phan\ufffdrogames de guadeloupe et de martinique . cirad - gondwana editions .\ngerlach , justin , 2004 . a 10 - year study of changes in forest vegetation on silhouette island , seychelles . journal for nature conservation ( jena ) . 12 ( 3 ) . 2004 . 149 - 155 .\nhuber , m . j . , ismail , s . & mougal , j . 2011 . campnosperma seychellarum . in : iucn 2012 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2012 . 1 summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 27 march 2012 ]\nitis ( integrated taxonomic information system ) , 2008 . online database cinnamomum verum j . presl summary : an online database that provides taxonomic information , common names , synonyms and geographical jurisdiction of a species . in addition links are provided to retrieve biological records and collection information from the global biodiversity information facility ( gbif ) data portal and bioscience articles from bioone journals . available from : urltoken ; _ value = 501529 [ accessed 18 march 2008 ]\nkaiser - bunbury , christopher n . ; valentin , terence ; mougal , james ; matatiken , denis ; ghazoul , jaboury . , 2011 . the tolerance of island plant - pollinator networks to alien plants . journal of ecology . 99 ( 1 ) . jan 2011 . 202 - 213 .\nkueffer , christoph , 2010 . reduced risk for positive soil - feedback on seedling regeneration by invasive trees on a very nutrient - poor soil in seychelles . biological invasions . 12 ( 1 ) . jan 2010 . 97 - 102 .\nkueffer , christoph ; kronauer , lilian ; edwards , peter j . , 2009 . wider spectrum of fruit traits in invasive than native floras may increase the vulnerability of oceanic islands to plant invasions . oikos . 118 ( 9 ) . sep 2009 . 1327 - 1334 .\nkueffer , christoph ; schumacher , eva ; dietz , hansjoerg ; fleischmann , karl ; edwards , peter j . , 2010 . managing successional trajectories in alien - dominated , novel ecosystems by facilitating seedling regeneration : a case study . biological conservation . 143 ( 7 ) . jul 2010 . 1792 - 1802 .\nkueffer , christoph ; schumacher , eva ; fleischmann , karl ; edwards , peter j . ; dietz , hansjoerg , 2007 . strong below - ground competition shapes tree regeneration in invasive cinnamomum verum forests . journal of ecology . 95 ( 2 ) . mar 2007 . 273 - 282 .\nkueffer , c . ; klingler , g . ; zirfass , k . ; schumacher , e . ; edwards , p . j . ; guesewell , s . , 2008 . invasive trees show only weak potential to impact nutrient dynamics in phosphorus - poor tropical forests in the seychelles . functional ecology . 22 ( 2 ) . apr 2008 . 359 - 366 .\nmackee , h . s . 1994 . catalogue des plantes introduites et cultiv\ufffdes en nouvelle - cal\ufffddonie , 2nd edn . mnhn , paris . summary : cet ouvrage liste 1412 taxons ( esp\ufffdces , sous esp\ufffdces et vari\ufffdt\ufffds ) introduits en nouvelle - cal\ufffddonie . l auteur pr\ufffdcise dans la majorit\ufffd des cas si l esp\ufffdce est cultiv\ufffde ou naturalis\ufffde .\nmeyer , j . - y . , loope , l . , sheppard , a . , munzinger , j . , jaffre , t . 2006 . les plantes envahissantes et potentiellement envahissantes dans l archipel n\ufffdo - cal\ufffddonien : premi\ufffdre \ufffdvaluation et recommandations de gestion . in m . - l . beauvais et al . ( 2006 ) : les esp\ufffdces envahissantes dans l\ufffdarchipel n\ufffdo - cal\ufffddonien , paris , ird \ufffdditions , 260 p . + c\ufffdd\ufffdrom .\nschumacher , eva ; kueffer , christoph ; edwards , peter j . ; dietz , hansjoerg , 2009 . influence of light and nutrient conditions on seedling growth of native and invasive trees in the seychelles . biological invasions . 11 ( 8 ) . oct 2009 . 1941 - 1954 .\nschumacher , eva ; kueffer , christoph ; tobler , monika ; gmuer , veronika ; edwards , peter j . ; dietz , hansjoerg , 2008 . influence of drought and shade on seedling growth of native and invasive trees in the seychelles . biotropica . 40 ( 5 ) . sep 2008 . 543 - 549 .\nvos , p . 2004 . case studies on the status of invasive woody plant species in the western indian ocean . 2 . the comoros archipelago ( union of the comoros and mayotte ) . fao . summary : article de synth\ufffdse sur les esp\ufffdces ligneuses envahissantes dans l archipel des comores et \ufffd mayotte et les strat\ufffdgies de gestion d\ufffdvelopp\ufffdes localement . available from : urltoken ; = 2 [ accessed 20 march 2008 ]\nzumbroich , thomas j . zumbroich , thomas j . , 2005 . the introduction of nutmeg ( myristica fragrans houtt . ) and cinnamon ( cinnamomum verum j . presl ) to america . acta botanica venezuelica . 28 ( 1 ) . 2005 . 155 - 160 .\ngeographic region : pacific , indian ocean ecosystem : terrestrial expert in the botany of french polynesia and the pacific islands , and has worked on ecology and biological control of miconia calvescens in french polynesia .\nd\ufffdl\ufffdgation \ufffd la recherche , gouvernement de polyn\ufffdsie fran\ufffdaise . b . p . 20981 , 98713 papeete , tahiti , polyn\ufffdsie fran\ufffdaise\nthe global invasive species database was developed and is managed by the invasive species specialist group ( issg ) of the species survival commission ( ssc ) of the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) . it was developed as part of the global initiative on invasive species led by the erstwhile global invasive species programme ( gisp ) in 2000 . the gisd over the past two years and has been redesigned with support from the abu dhabi environment agency , the italian ministry of environment and ispra - the institute for environmental protection and research , italy . terms and conditions of use\nstreptaxidae are carnivorous except for one species edentulina moreleti , which is herbivorous . all streptaxids have well - developed radula , except careoradula perelegans , which is the only known terrestrial gastropod without radula .\naltogether 66 species from the family streptaxidae are listed in the 2010 iucn red list .\nthe recent native distribution of streptaxidae includes south america , africa , arabia , madagascar , seychelles , mayotte , comores , mauritius , r\u00e9union , rodrigues , india , sri lanka , andamans , south - east asia and the philippines . the genus gibbulinella is found in the canary islands .\nonly the one family , streptaxidae , was recognized within the streptaxida streptaxoidea in the taxonomy of bouchet & rocroi ( 2005 ) .\nsutcharit et al . ( 2010 ) have established a new family diapheridae within streptaxoidea and they have added two genera diaphera and sinoennea into diapheridae .\nscolodonta doering , 1875 used to be classified within streptaxinae , but scolodonta is the type genus of the family scolodontidae ."]}
{"id": 2300, "summary": [{"text": "gymnarchus niloticus \u2013 commonly known as the aba , aba aba , frankfish , freshwater rat-tail , poisson-cheval , or african knifefish \u2013 is an electric fish , and the only species in the genus gymnarchus and the family gymnarchidae within the order osteoglossiformes .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is found in swamps , lakes and rivers in the nile , turkana , chad , niger , volta , senegal , and gambia basins . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "gymnarchus", "paragraphs": ["gymnarchus niloticus - aba aba knifefish trying to catch gut - loaded feeder and giving up . . . .\nc . michael hogan marked\nn58 _ w1150\nas trusted on the\ngymnarchus niloticus\npage .\ngymnarchus niloticus - aba aba knifefish trying to catch gut - loaded feeder and giving up . . . . - youtube\nc . michael hogan set\nn58 _ w1150\nas an exemplar on\ngymnarchus niloticus cuvier , 1829\n.\nfish biology ; gymnarchus niloticus ; lake chad ; fish nutrition ; diet ; feeding habits ; fish reproduction ; fish growth .\nc . michael hogan added text to\nfish species associates in the senegal river\non\ngymnarchus niloticus cuvier , 1829\n.\nwhat made you want to look up gymnarchus ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nthe nocturnal african freshwater fish gymnarchus niloticus operates a dipole electrostatic field generator and a sensor to detect the amplitude and frequency of disturbances in turbulent waters .\nfish biology ; gymnarchus niloticus ; lake chad ; fish nutrition ; diet ; prey selection ; fish reproduction ; sexual maturity ; fisheries resources and production ; swamp fisheries .\n149 . sagua , v . o . ( 1983 ) preliminary report on the biology of gymnarchus niloticus in lake chad . annual report of the lake chad research institute , maiduguri , nigeria . 1983 . pp . 61\u201363 . en .\n148 . sagua , v . o . ( 1982 ) preliminary observations on the feeding habits and reproductive biology of gymnarchus niloticus from lake chad . annual report of the lake chad research institute , maiduguri , nigeria . 1982 . pp . 50\u201356 . en . 6 ref .\nin contrast , gymnarchus niloticus ( gymnarchidae ) prepares a large floating nest from the matted stems of swamp grasses , biting off the stems and fashioning them into a trough - shaped structure with an internal length of about 50 cm ( 20 inches ) . spawning takes place in the nest , and one or\u2026\ngymnarchus niloticus survives well in the swampy conditions which have come to dominate the lake area since the drought and now form a significant part of commercial catches . prey mainly consists of tilapias or clarias catfish , all of which are swallowed tail - first and usually whole . breeding season is thought to be august - december . asymmetrical gonadal development has been observed . minimum size for maturity is 80 . 5cm ( 2kg ) in females and 84cm ( 1 . 8kg ) in males . other details of egg numbers and size are also given .\nelectric fish can be classified into two types : pulse fish or wave fish . gymnarchus niloticus is a wave fish , producing a near - sinusoidal discharge of around 500 hz . the electric discharge is produced from an electric organ that evolved from muscle , as can also be seen in gymnotiform electric fish , electric rays and skates . the convergent evolution between the south american gymnotiforms and the african mormyridae is remarkable , with the electric organ being produced via the substitution of the same amino acid in the same voltage - gated sodium channel despite the two groups of fish being on different continents and the evolution of the electric sense organ being separated in time by around 60 million years .\nsome species possess modifications of the mouthparts to facilitate feeding upon small invertebrates buried in muddy substrates . the shape and structure of these leads to the popular name of\nelephant nosed fish\nfor those species with particularly prominent mouth extensions . the extensions to the mouthparts usually consist of a fleshy elongation attached to the lower jaw . they are flexible , and equipped with touch , and possibly taste , sensors . their mouths are non - protrusible , and their head ( including the eyes ) , the dorsum and belly are covered by a thin layer of skin that is perforated with small pores leading to electroreceptors . only a single gonad is present , located on the left side of their body . [ 2 ] mormyridae and their close relative gymnarchus are also unique in being the only vertebrates where the male sperm cell doesn ' t have a flagellum . [ 3 ]\ngreek , gymnos = naked + greek , archos = anus ( ref . 45335 )\nfreshwater ; demersal ; ph range : 6 . 5 - 8 . 0 ; dh range : 10 - 25 ; potamodromous ( ref . 51243 ) . tropical ; 23\u00b0c - 28\u00b0c ( ref . 13614 ) ; 18\u00b0n - 2\u00b0n , 16\u00b0w - 36\u00b0e\nafrica : occurring in the gambia , senegal , niger , volta and chad river basins ( ref . 81275 ) , lake turkana ( ref . 52331 , 82489 ) and the baro river drainage ( ref . 58460 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 167 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 2915 ) ; max . published weight : 18 . 5 kg ( ref . 2915 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 183 - 230 . body depth 7 . 2 - 10 . 3 x sl . head 5 . 6 - 6 . 9 x sl . snout prominent . pectorals 1 . 9 - 5 . 0 x head length . body terminates in thin point . head without scales . scales small .\nfollowing flooding of the river banks ( gambia river ) , this species builds large elliptical floating nests in densely vegetated swamps at depths of about 1 - 1 . 5 m ; lays about 1000 ` amber - like ' eggs ; larvae hatching after 5 days ( ref . 10609 ) . feeds on crustaceans , insects and fish ( ref . 28714 ) . no pelvic , anal or caudal fins . possesses an electric organ that extends along almost the entire trunk to the tip of the tail ( ref . 10840 ) . also equipped with ampullary receptors and two types of tuberous receptors for electroreception ( ref . 10841 ) . showed increased electric organ discharge ( eod ) rate by 50 - 60 hz between 21 and 31\u00b0c ( ref . 10837 ) .\nit breeds in well - vegetated , marginal areas of swamps and rivers , where a large , floating nest , about 1 m in diameter is constructed . here the eggs are laid and later guarded by one of the parents ( ref . 27583 ) . distinct pairing ( ref . 205 ) .\nbigorne , r . , 1990 . gymnarchidae . p . 185 - 186 . in c . l\u00e9v\u00eaque , d . paugy and g . g . teugels ( eds . ) faune des poissons d ' eaux et saum\u00e2tres d ' afrique de l ' ouest . tome 1 . faune trop . 28 . mus\u00e9e royal de l ' afrique centrale , tervuren , belgique and orstom , paris . ( ref . 2911 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00380 ( 0 . 00148 - 0 . 00976 ) , b = 3 . 09 ( 2 . 87 - 3 . 31 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 7 \u00b10 . 58 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( k = 0 . 12 - 0 . 17 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high to very high vulnerability ( 71 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nazeroual , a . , entsua - mensah , m . , getahun , a . , lal\u00e8y\u00e8 , p . , moelants , t . & vreven , e .\nsnoeks , j . , tweddle , d . , getahun , a . , lal\u00e8y\u00e8 , p . , paugy , d . , zaiss , r . , fishar , m . r . a & brooks , e .\njustification : this species has a wide distribution , with no known major widespread threats . it is therefore listed as least concern . it has also been assessed regionally as least concern for western africa . in eastern africa , it is categorized as vulnerable . due to a lack of information on the species distribution and threats in north and northeast africa , it has been categorized as data deficient . it could even be regionally extinct within north africa .\nthis is a commercially important species in central africa . in northern africa , dams , water pollution ( agriculture , domestic and commercial / industrial ) , groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats . deforestation and drought are local threats in western africa .\nnone known . more research is needed into this species population numbers and range , biology and ecology , habitat status and threats , as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures .\nazeroual , a . , entsua - mensah , m . , getahun , a . , lal\u00e8y\u00e8 , p . , moelants , t . & vreven , e . 2010 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhas a huge natural range , being present throughout much of the northern half of africa . it\u2019s been recorded in egypt , sudan , kenya , chad , cameroon , nigeria , niger , senegal , benin , ghana , sierra leone , gambia and mauritania . given this somewhat patchy distribution , it is likely that it is present in other countries as well , or has been misidentified on several occasions . the latter theory would seem unlikely given the unique appearance of the species though .\n66\u2033 ( 165cm ) . captive specimens of over 48\u2033 ( 120cm ) are virtually unheard of .\nspeaking hypothetically , a truly huge aquarium would be required to house a fully grown adult fish , something in the region of 144\u2033 x 48\u2033 x 72\u2033 ( 360cm x 120cm x 120cm ) \u2013 8155 litres would be just about acceptable . although juveniles can be kept in smaller tanks they grow very quickly when fed correctly . it\u2019s best left to public aquaria or the tiny minority of hobbyists with the facilities to house such a beast .\nprefers a dimly lit tank with areas of dense planting , large pieces of driftwood and twisted roots for cover . any decor must obviously be weighted down securely . powerful and efficient external filtration is also a must , although any water movement should be kept to a minimum . a sump \u2013 type filter is by far the best option , as the fish tends to be very destructive towards any equipment contained within the tank such as heaters and the like .\ng . niloticus is carnivorous , and in nature feeds primarily on other fish and aquatic invertebrates . captive specimens readily accept most meaty live and frozen fare , such as fish fillets , prawns , mussels and earthworms . there is no need to feed live fish or mammal meat such as beef heart . the latter in particular is actually detrimental to the long term health of the fish . some specimens have been known to take dried foods , but this is the exception rather than the rule . it\u2019s likely that young fish will be easier to wean onto these .\nas unsuitable for the community tank , as it is for the hobbyist . it is highly predatory , extremely aggressive and territorial . it also possesses a mouth full of sharp teeth and a very powerful bite . experiments in which juveniles have been combined with other species have usually been successful for only a few months at most , and have always ended in some degree of disaster . if it does not kill tankmates straight away , it will often disfigure them irreparably . the eyes are particularly targeted , for some reason . even much larger fish are not safe and may have chunks of flesh removed or simply be bitten into pieces .\nit is also completely intolerant of conspecifics . keep it alone and as a single specimen . once it reaches a foot or so in length it won\u2019t hesitate to attack you either ! extreme caution must be exercised when feeding or performing tank maintenance . a bite from even a 2 foot specimen could easily sever a finger .\nunsurprisingly , captive spawning has not occured . in nature , it migrates into flooded areas during the wet season and breeds amongst aquatic vegetation in areas that are rich in micro - organisms . during breeding , the male builds a large bubble nest , into which the eggs are deposited . these supposedly hatch in around 5 days and the adults exhibit no parental care thereafter .\nalarmingly there have been batches of 2 - 3\u2033 specimens being imported with increasing regularity in recent years . in addition to the fact that it is quite delicate at this size , the species is simply not suited to the home aquarium in any respect . we can only speculate as to where the majority of these fish end up , as surely only a tiny number of aquarists are able to house one for life . if you see these for sale , and they are undoubtedly amazing looking fish , ask yourself if you have the money , facilities and knowledge to house a species that can grow to 5 1 / 2 feet in length and could remove your hand as an adult . if you do possess these attributes , you will find that as well as being one of the most belligerent aquarium inhabitants available , it is also one of the most intelligent . a real \u2018dream\u2019 species for the lover of tankbusting predatory fish then , but a potential nightmare for the vast majority of hobbyists . there is an albino form available occasionally which is much sought after and very expensive .\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\ndog , ( canis lupus familiaris ) , domestic mammal of the family canidae ( order carnivora ) . it is a subspecies\u2026\nfollowing flooding of the river banks ( gambia river ) , this species builds large elliptical floating nests in densely vegetated swamps at depths of about 1 - 1 . 5 m ; lays about 1000 ` amber - like ' eggs ; larvae hatching after 5 days ( ref . 10609 ) . feeds on crustaceans , insects and fish ( ref . 28714 ) . no pelvic , anal or caudal fins . possesses an electric organ that extends along almost the entire trunk to the tip of the tail ( ref . 10840 ) . also equipped with ampullary receptors and two types of tuberous receptors for electroreception ( ref . 10841 ) . showed increased electric organ discharge ( eod ) rate by 50 - 60 hz between 21 and 31\u00b0c ( ref . 10837 ) .\ndana campbell set\nfile : gymnarque du nil . jpg\nas an exemplar on\ngymnarchidae\n.\nthere are 141 species of fish recorded in the senegal river , . . .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nlove words ? you must \u2014 there are over 200 , 000 words in our free online dictionary , but you are looking for one that\u2019s only in the merriam - webster unabridged dictionary .\nthe story of an imaginary word that managed to sneak past our editors and enter the dictionary .\ntake this quiz and discover 12 words for things you didn ' t know had words .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspecial publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3\nrobins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00380 ( 0 . 00148 - 0 . 00976 ) , b = 3 . 09 ( 2 . 87 - 3 . 31 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref .\n) : 3 . 7 \u00b10 . 58 se ; based on food items .\n) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( k = 0 . 12 - 0 . 17 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nlike most websites we use cookies . this is to ensure that we give you the best experience possible .\ncontinuing to use urltoken means you agree to our use of cookies . if you would like to , you can learn more about the cookies we use .\ncab direct is the most thorough and extensive source of reference in the applied life sciences , incorporating the leading bibliographic databases cab abstracts and global health . cab direct provides a convenient , single point of access to all of your cabi database subscriptions .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\n094 . im , b . h . ( 1975 ) alimentation des synodontis . [ the nutition of synodontis . ] rapport , laboratoire d ' hydrobiologie , toulouse . 39p . fr .\nfish biology ; synodontis spp . ; chad basin ; fish nutrition ; diet ; prey selection ; trophic relationships .\n095 . im , b . h . ( 1977 ) etude de l ' alimentation de quelques esp\u00e8ces de synodontis ( poissons , mochocidae ) du tchad . [ study of the diet of some species of synodontis ( pisces , mochocidae ) from chad . ] th\u00e8se doct . spec . univ . paul sabatier de toulouse . 150pp . fr .\n096 . im , b . h . and lauzanne , l . ( 1978 ) la s\u00e9lection des proies chez hemisynodontis membranaceus ( pisces , mochocidae ) du lac tchad . [ prey selection by hemisynodontis membranaceus ( pisces , mochocidae ) from lake chad . ] cah . orstom . , s\u00e9r . hydrobiol . 12 ( 3 ) : 237\u2013244 . fr . 8 ref .\nfish biology ; hemisynodontis membranaceus ; lake chad ; fish nutrition ; diet ; prey selection ; zooplankton ; trophic relationships .\ncopepods are selected according to their size . over 460u , a greater number of them are retained by the branchiospinal apparatus . with cladoceran selection , size factor not dominant .\n097 . lake chad basin commission , n ' djamena ( chad ) ( 1981 ) action programme for the development of lake chad conventional basin , 1982\u20131986 . prepared jointly with undp . ( not published ) . 3 v . en , fr .\ngeneral appraisal ( fisheries ) ; chad basin ; agricultural development ; fisheries development ; project appraisal ; water resources ; economic analysis ; finance .\nfisheries are included in this report outlining a plan for the agricultural development of the chad basin in relation to the available water resources . an economic appraisal including finance requirements is presented .\n098 . langford , t . s . ( 1981 ) improvement of fish processing and transport on lake chad . ( nigeria ) . report on boatbuilding ( january 1978 to june 1981 ) . field document . fao ( rome ) , fisheries dept . 28p . en .\nfishing technology ; lake chad ; fishing boats ; new boat designs ; fisheries development .\nundp field report providing technical specifications for a new design of fishing boat for use on lake chad .\n099 . lauzanne , l . ( 1969 ) etude quantitative de nutrition des alestes baremoze ( pisc . , characidae ) . [ quantitative study of the nutrition of alestes baremoze ( pisc . , characidae ) ] . cah . orstom , ser . hydrobiol . , 3 ( 2 ) : 15\u201327 . fr . 16 ref .\nfish biology ; alestes baremoze ; chad basin ; fish nutrition ; zooplankton ; fish growth .\nthe annual ration consumed by a plankton - eating fish is evaluated . initially the daily ration consumed was established . then the quantity of plankton consumed annually by a fish of average size , whose growth was known , was determined allowing calculation of corresponding rate of digestion .\n100 . lauzanne , l . ( 1970 ) la s\u00e9lection des proies chez alestes baremoze ( pisc . , characidae ) . [ prey selection by alestes baremoze ( pisc . , characidae ) ] . cah . orstom , ser . hydrobiol . 4 ( 1 ) : 71\u201376 . fr . 5 ref .\nfish biology ; alestes baremoze ; chad basin ; fish nutrition ; diet ; prey selection ; zooplankton ; trophic relationships .\na . baremoze , a zooplankton feeder does not select its prey . the fishes under study ( 230\u2013250mm standard length ) keep plankton as small as 0 . 4mm . over a length of 0 . 88mm , all the plankton is retained . length class frequencies of the free plankton constituents were compared with those of the ingested plankton .\n101 . lauzanne , l . ( 1972 ) r\u00e9gimes alimentaires des principales esp\u00e8ces de poissons de l ' archipel oriental du lac tchad . [ feeding regimes of the principal fish species of the eastern archipelago of lake chad . ] verh . int . ver . limnol . 18 : 636\u2013646 . fr . 20 ref .\n102 . lauzanne , l . ( 1973 ) etude qualitative de la nutrition des alestes baremoze ( pisc . characidae ) . [ qualitative study of the nutrition of alestes baremoze ( pisc . characidae ) ] . cah . orstom , ser . hydrobiol . 7 ( 1 ) 3\u201315 . fr . 13 ref .\nfish biology ; alestes baremoze ; chad basin ; fish nutrition ; diet ; prey selection ; trophic relationships ; fish habitats ; fish migration .\ndiet of this fish studied in the variety of habitats ( lake and riverine ) visited during life - cycle and spawning migration . finding enough food is never a problem , except for the period when adults move upstream during low water . in all areas surveyed diet mainly consists of plankton crustaceans and small aquatic insects . in the rivers , however , during the flood , adults become herbivorous .\n103 . lauzanne , l . ( 1975a ) la s\u00e9lection des proies chez trois poissons malacophages du lac tchad . [ prey selection by three malacophagous fish from lake chad . ] cah . orstom , ser . hydrobiol . 9 ( 1 ) : 3\u20137 . fr . 9 ref .\nfish biology ; malacophagous fish ; synodontis schall ; synodontis clarias ; hyperopisus bebe ; lake chad ; fish nutrition ; diet ; prey selection ; benthic molluscs ; trophic relationships .\nthe comparison between stomach contents and benthic molluscs faunas shows that the three fishes studied ( synodontis schall , synodontis clarias ( mochocidae ) and hyperopisus bebe ( mormyridae ) essentially select small size , immature molluscs . such behaviour probably has a great influence on the dynamics of benthic molluscs populations .\n104 . lauzanne , l . ( 1975b ) r\u00e9gimes alimentaires d ' hydrocynus forskalli ( pisc . characidae ) dans le lac tchad et ses tributaires . [ feeding strategies of hydrocynus forskalli ( pisc . characidae ) in lake chad and its tributaries . ] cah . orstom , ser . hydrobiol . 9 ( 2 ) : 105\u2013121 . fr . 11 ref .\nfish biology ; hydrocynus forskalli ; chad basin ; fish nutrition ; diet ; prey selection ; trophic relationships ; biotopes ; hydrological cycle .\nfood and feeding habits in s . e . lake chad , lower chari and logone rivers studied according to size , biotopes and two hydrological seasons ( rise and fall in water level ) . stomach contents and feeding index of relative prey importance determined . characids ( especially alestes spp . ) are most important prey species .\n105 . lauzanne , l . ( 1975 ) les poissons du fleuve chari : clef de d\u00e9termination . [ fish of the river chari : identification key . ] notes techniques du centre orstom n ' djamena , no . 6 . 20p .\nfish biology ; chad basin ( river chari ) ; fish species ( general ) ; identification keys ; vernacular names .\nidentification key for fish of the river chari based on morphological characteristics . local names for species also given .\n106 . lauzanne , l . ( 1976 ) r\u00e9gimes alimentaires et relations trophiques des poissons du lac tchad .\n[ feeding strategies and trophic relationships of lake chad fish . ] cah . orstom , ser . hydrobiol . 10 ( 4 ) : 267\u2013310 . fr . 51 ref .\nfisheries ecology ; lake chad ; fish population structure ; fish nutrition ; diet ; trophic relationships ; fish habitats ; hydrological cycle ; species abundance ; stock assessment .\nfood and feeding habits of the main species from s . e . lake chad studied relative to habitat ( archipelago and open water ) and season ( flood or falling water level ) . stomach contents were analysed , feeding index determined and relative biomass estimated for each species by seine and gillnets .\n107 . lauzanne , l . ( 1977 ) aspects qualitatifs de l ' alimentation des poissons du tchad . [ qualitative and quantitative aspects of the nutrition of chadian fish . ] orstom , paris ; these . univ . paris vi . 284p . ( mimeo ) . fr . biblio ( 12p ) .\nfisheries ecology ; chad basin ( chad ) ; fish population structure ; fish nutrition ; trophic relationships ; hydrological cycle .\na detailed study of the nutrition of fish species in chad including both quantitative and qualitative aspects , trophic realtionships and the influence of hydrological patterns in this environment . special attention is given to alestes baremoze , brachysynodontis batensoda , hydrocynus forskalli , lates niloticus , tetraodon fahaka and tilapia galilaea .\n108 . lauzanne , l . ( 1978a ) croissance de sarotherodon galilaeus ( pisc . cichlidae ) dans le lac tchad . [ growth of sarotherodon galilaeus ( pisc . cichlidae ) in lake chad . ] cybium , s . 3 , 3 : 5\u201314 . fr . 11 ref .\nfish biology ; sarotherodon galilaeus ; lake chad ; fish growth ; length - weight analysis ; meristic characteristics .\ngrowth in length studied by back - calculation using opercular bones . length / weight relationship also computed .\n109 . lauzanne , l . ( 1978c ) etude quantitative de l ' alimentation de sarotherodon galilaeus ( pisc . cichlidae ) . [ quantitative study of the diet of sarotherodon galilaeus ( pisc . cichlidae ) ] . cah . orstom , ser . hydrobiol . 12 ( 1 ) : 71\u201381 . fr . 24 ref .\nfish biology ; sarotherodon galilaeus ; chad basin ; fish nutrition ; fish growth ; water temperature .\ndaily food consumption is calculated and correlated with water temperature . conversion rate is low ( 3 % ) . energy coefficient of growth computed using calorific equivalents reaches 19 % .\n110 . lauzanne , l . ( 1978d ) equivalents calorifiques de quelques poissons et de leur nourriture . [ calorific equivalents of some fish and their food . ] cah . orstom , ser . hydrobiol . 12 ( 1 ) : 89\u201392 . fr . 6 ref .\nfish biology ; lake chad ; fish nutrition ; diet ; calorific equivalents . calorific equivalents of some lake chad fish and their food were evaluated using a semi micro non - adiabatic oxygen bomb .\n111 . lauzanne , l . ( 1983 ) trophic relations of fishes in lake chad . in lake chad : ecology and productivity of a shallow tropical ecosystem , carmouze , j . - p . , durand , j . - r . , leveque , c . ( eds ) , pp . 489\u2013518 , monographiae biologicae 53 , the hague : dr . w . junk . en . fr . 42 ref .\nfisheries ecology ; lake chad ; fish population composition ; fish population structure ; fish nutrition ; trophic relationships ; foodchain energy efficiency ; hydrological cycle ; fish habitats .\nan overview of the trophic relations between fish in lake chad based on the work of the orstom centre at n ' djamena . both qualitative and quantitative aspects are presented . two major food chains ( plant and detritis based ) and nine major food types can be distinguished . planktivores dominate the archipelago region and the open water by piscivores . the food supply is well utilised in both situations , although in terms of energy efficiency , the community in the archieplago was more efficient than that in the open water . the hydrological cycle and environmental changes influence the food - chain patterns .\n112 . lauzanne , l . and iltis , a . ( 1975 ) la s\u00e9lection de la nourriture chez tilapia galilaea ( pisc . , cichlidae ) du lac tchad . [ food selection by tilapia galilaea ( pisc . , cichlidae ) from lake chad . ] cah . orstom , ser . hydrobiol . 9 ( 3 ) : 193\u2013199 . fr . 5 ref . fish biology ; tilapia galilaea ; lake chad ; fish nutrition ; diet ; prey selection ; blue - green algae .\nfood selection by this phytoplanktivorous fish is examined using co - efficent of selectivity . filamentous blue / green algae are favoured more than diatoms .\n113 . lek , s . and lek , s . ( 1977 ) ecologie et biologie de micralestes acutidens ( peters , 1852 ) du bassin du lac tchad . [ ecology and biology of micralestes acutidens ( peters , 1852 ) in the lake chad basin . ] cah . orstom , ser . hydrobiol . 11 ( 4 ) : 255\u2013268 . fr . 31 ref .\nfish biology ; micralestes acutidens ; chad basin ; fish reproduction ; fish growth ; fish nutrition ; fish habitats ; hydrological cycle .\ndetail is given of spawning , growth , age , mortality , food and feeding habits in relation to hydrological events and habitats .\n114 . lek , s . and lek , s . ( 1978a ) etudes de quelques esp\u00e8ces de petits mormyridae du bassin du lac tchad . i . observations sur la r\u00e9partition et l ' \u00e9cologie . [ study of some species of small mormyridae from the lake chad basin . i . observations on distribution and ecology . ] cah . orstom , ser . hydrobiol . 12 ( 3\u20134 ) : 225\u2013237 . fr . 17 ref .\nfisheries ecology ; chad basin ; mormyrid species ; fish population distribution ; hydrological cycle ; sahel drought ; lacustrine - swamp species transition .\nthe distribution and ecology of five small species of mormyrids was studied between 1970\u201377 , during which time the region was affected by a severe drought . the lacustrine species were replaced by species more adapted to swamp conditions as the water level in the s . e . archipeligo was reduced .\nr\u00e9gime alimentaire d ' ichthyborus besse besse ( joannis , 1835 ) ( pisces , citharinidae ) du bassin du lac tchad . [ dietary habits of ichthyborus besse besse ( joannis , 1835 ) ( pisces , citharinidae ) from the lake chad basin ) . cybium , s3 , no . 3 : 59\u201375 . fr . 6 ref .\nfish biology ; ichthyborus besse besse ; chad basin ; fish nutrition ; diet ; prey selection ; hydrological cycle ; size variations .\nfood and feeding habits studied in north cameroun floodplain and chari - logone rivers in relation to the hydrological seasons and size of fish . individuals longer than 60mm feed on small fish and fins of large fish .\n116 . lek , s . and lek , s . ( 1978c ) etude de l ' \u00e9cologie et la biologie d ' ichthyborus besse besse ( joannis , 1835 ) ( pisces , citharinidae ) du bassin du lac tchad . [ study of the ecology and biology of ichthyborus besse besse ( joannis , 1835 ) ( pisces , citharinidae ) from the lake chad basin . ] cybium , s3 , no . 4 : 65\u201386 . fr . 22 ref .\nfish biology ; ichthyborus besse besse ; chad basin ; fish population distribution ; fish growth ; scale readings ; peterson ' s method ; fish reproduction ; fish ecology .\naspects covered include distribution , spawning seasons and growth patterns ( scale readings and peterson ' s method ) .\n117 . leveque , c . ( co - ordinator ) ( 1988 ) chad basin , region 4 in african wetlands and shallow water bodies , bibliography , davies , b . , gasse , f . ( eds . ) pp . 180\u2013211 . orstom ( paris ) . fr . en .\na bibliography of some 500 references covering every aspect of scientific investigation including geology , pedologie , climatology , hydrology , palynology , zoology , botany and fisheries for all the wetland areas of the chad basin .\n118 . leveque , c . , dejoux , c . , lauzanne , l . , lemoalle , j . , saint - jean , l . and iltis , a . ( 1979 ) .\nla faune benthique du lac tchad : \u00e9cologie , peuplements et biomasses ( v . 5 ) . activit\u00e9 photosynth\u00e9tique du phytoplancton du lac tchad ( v . 6 ) . production secondaire ( zooplancton - benthos ) dans le lac tchad ( v . 7 ) . la v\u00e9g\u00e9tation aquatique du lac tchad ( v . 8 ) . r\u00e9union de travail sur la limnologie africaine ( comptes rendus ) , nairobi ( kenya ) , 16\u201323 dec 1979 . fr .\nfisheries ecology ; lake chad ; fish population structure ; species abundance ; stock assessment ; ecosystem ( overview ) .\nthe abundance , biomass and production of the fish population of lake chad is considered in these accounts ( especially v . 7 . ) . general overview of the lake chad ecosystem .\n119 . loubens , g . ( 1969 ) etude de certains peuplements ichtyologiques par des p\u00eaches au poison ( l\u00e9re note ) . [ study of certain fish populations using poison for fishing ( first note ) . ] cah . orstom , 3 ( 2 ) : 45\u201373 . fr . 12 ref .\nresearch methodology ; chad basin ; sampling techniques ( fish populations ) ; fish resource surveys ; poison fishing ; stock assessment ; fish population composition ; species abundance .\nsampling lake chad fish populations using poison allows estimation of the density and biomass , and determination of species and size composition .\n120 . loubens , g . ( 1970 ) etude de certain peuplements ichtyologiques par des p\u00eaches au poison ( 2\u00e9me note ) . [ study of certain fish populations using poison for fishing ( second note ) . ] cah . orstom , ser . hydrobiol . 4 ( 1 ) : 45\u201361 . 8 ref .\nresearch methodology ; chad basin ; sampling techniques ( fish populations ) ; fish resource surveys ; poison fishing ; stock assessment ; fish population distribution ; mathematical models .\nfish populations of the chad basin studied by considering a number of models to represent species distribution and biomass .\n121 . loubens , g . ( 1973 ) production de la p\u00eache et peuplements ichtyologiques d ' un bief du delta du chari . [ fisheries production and fish stocks in a channel of the chari delta ] . cah . orstom , ser . hydrobiol . 7 ( \u00be ) : 209\u2013233 . fr . 16 ref .\nfish resources and production ; chad basin ( river chari ) ; fishing practices ; fishing gear ; catch estimation ; stock assessment ; fish resource surveys ; hydrological cycle .\ninformation is given on the fishing patterns and production level , gear , fish populations and the relationship with the hydrological cycle as a follow - up to a previous study .\n122 . loubens , g . ( 1974 ) quelques aspects de la biologie de lates niloticus du tchad . [ some aspects of the biology of lates niloticus in chad . ] cah . orstom , ser . hydrobiol . 8 ( 1 ) : 3\u201321 . fr . 35 ref .\nfish biology ; lates niloticus ; chad basin ( chad ) ; fish growth ; scale readings ; von bertalanffys model ; fish reproduction ; sexual maturity ; spawning habits ; hydrological cycle .\ndetails of growth rate ( according to sex ) recorded at up to 61cm in 5 years , size ( only females exceed 1 metre in length ) , spawning activity and timing . scale readings and two von bertalanffy models presented .\n123 . loubens , g . and franc , j . ( 1972 ) etude m\u00e9thodologique pour la r\u00e9colte de statistique de p\u00eache bas\u00e9e sur l ' observation des p\u00eacheries d ' un bief du delta du chari . [ methodological study of the collection of fisheries statistics based on observations of the fishermen in the chari delta . ] rapport , orstom , n ' djamena , 44p . ( multigr . ) . fr . 7 ref .\nresearch methodology ; chad basin ( river chari ) ; fisheries statistics ; fishing practices ; fishing gear ; catch estimate ; fishing effort ( total ) ; ethnicity ; research priorities ; tabulated statistics .\nthe fisheries of douara - madide ( a channel of the chari delta ) are described including : gear , methods , the fishing communities and the seasonal cycle of activity . estimates of production , cpue , total effort are also given and examined critically . recommendations are made for further research . tables of relevant statistics are presented as appendices .\n124 . maembe , t . w . and gubio , a . ( 1981 ) report on a visit to jos , enugu and onitsha processed markets . field document , fao ( rome ) , fisheries dept . 12p . en .\nfish commerce and marketing ; lake chad ; processed fish products ; trade statistics ; prices ; markets ; retailing ; transportation ; distribution ; trade routes ; trading practices ; storage methods ; post - harvest losses ; economic analyses .\ninterim report of an fao investigation into the trade in lake chad fish , includes information on consumer demand , market prices , the organisation of retailing , post - harvest losses , transport and distribution patterns , storage methods .\n125 . maembe , t . w . ( 1982a ) improvement of fish processing and transportation on lake chad project , nigeria . field document , fao ( rome ) , fisheries dept . 32p . en .\nfish processing ; lake chad ; processed fish products ; post - harvest losses ; improved processing methods ; packaging ; transportation ; fish commerce & marketing ; co - operative formation ; training .\nthe report documents the status of fish - processing at lake chad including the problems of poor - handling , insect infestation and inadequate processing which result in losses of up to 60 % . the application of improved processing methods : new kilns , ice and brine are recommended , together with better packaging and transportation . initiatives to be followed - up in the future including formation of the baga fisheries co - op and further education through the fisheries vocational school at baga are also considered . detailed tables of statistics relating to the quantity and quality of traded fish are included as appendices .\n126 . maembe , t . w . ( 1982b ) improvement of fish processing and transportation on lake chad , nigeria . improvement of existing fish processing and handling methods . field document , fao ( rome ) , fisheries dept . 32p . en .\nfish processing ; lake chad ; fresh fish ; product quality ; improved processing methods ; ice and freezer technology .\nmethods for the improved handling and processing of fresh fish on lake chad are recommended as part of an undp project , including the use of ice and freezing .\n127 . mann , m . j . ( 1961a . ) survey of fish trade in the wulgo area . report , fed . fish . service . , maiduguri , nigeria . ( dactylogr . ) . en .\nfish commerce and marketing ; chad basin ( nigeria ) ; processed fish products ; markets ; prices ; trade routes ; distribution .\n128 . mann , m . j . ( 1962 ) fish production and marketing from the nigerian shores of lake chad ( 1960\u201361 ) . report , fed . fish . service , lagos , nigeria . 50p . ( multigr . ) en .\nfish commerce and marketing ; lake chad ; processed fish products ; trade statistics ; distribution ; transportation ; trade routes ; markets ; fisheries development .\n129 . meeren , a . g . l . van der . ( 1980 ) improvement of fish processing and transport on lake chad , nigeria . a socio - anthropological analysis of the fisheries of lake chad . field document . fao ( rome ) , fisheries dept . 45p . en .\nfisheries anthropology ; lake chad ; fisheries resources and production ; fishing communities ; ethnicity ; fisheries development ; fish processing ; fish commerce and marketing ; cooperative formation ; transportation ; economic analysis .\nsocio - anthropological aspects of fish production and processing at lake chad are examined including social organisation and the interaction between ethnic groups , and the potential for the formation of fishermens cooperatives to assist marketing .\n130 . migeod , f . w . h . ( 1925 ) through nigeria to lake chad . heath cranton ltd ( london ) . 330p .\nan early account of the environment and peoples around lake chad including some detailed observations of the fishing activity .\n131 . mills , a . ( 1979 ) handling and processing fish on lake chad . unpublished report , odnri ( london ) , 55p . ( mimeo . ) . en .\nfish processing ; lake chad ; processed fish products ; handling ; improved processing methods .\n132 . mok , m . ( 1974 ) biom\u00e9trie et biologie des schilbe ( pisces , siluriformes ) du bassin tchadien . 1\u00e8re partie : morphologie compar\u00e9e des deux esp\u00e8ces de schilbe . [ biommetry and biology of schilbe ( pisces , siluriformes ) in the chad basin . part 1 : morphology compared for two species of schilbe . ] cah . orstom . , ser . hydrobiol . , 8 ( 2 ) : 119\u2013135 . fr .\nfish biology ; schilbe uranoscopus ; schilbe mystus ; chad basin ; morphology ; biometry .\n133 . mok , m . ( 1975 ) biom\u00e9trie et biologie des schilbe ( pisc : siluriformes ) du bassin tchadien . 2\u00e8me partie : biologie compar\u00e9e des deux esp\u00e8ces . [ biometry and biologie of schilbe ( pisc : siluriformes ) from the chad basin . part 2 : biology compared for two species . ] cah . orstom , ser . hydrobiol . 9 : 33\u201360 . fr . 84 ref .\nfish biology ; schilbe uranoscopus ; schilbe mystus ; chad basin ; biometry ; fish nutrition ; fish reproduction ; fish migration ; life cycle ; condition coefficient ; hydrological cycle .\ntwo species in chad basin : schilbe uranoscopus and schilbe mystus . easily distinguished on basis of morphological and biometrical characteristics . ecological very similiar . juveniles entomophagus , adults ichthyophagous . both species move from lake to river during the flood . spawn in river logone , july - sept . condition factor high in rivers and lake , low in archipelago generally .\n134 . monod , t . ( 1928 ) l ' industrie des p\u00eaches au cameroun . [ the fishing industry in cameroun ] . paris , larose ed . , 504p . fr .\ngeneral appraisal ( fisheries ) ; chad basin ( cameroun ) ; historical account .\nthe first detailed description of fisheries in cameroun including fishing techniques ( many of which have now disappeared ) . however only deals with the northern course of the logone and chari in the chad basin .\n135 . moes , t . e . ( 1980 ) research and development priorities in the lake chad fisheries . a paper presented at the national seminar on fisheries research , 28\u201330th april 1980 , lagos , nigeria . fao ( rome ) , project ref : fao / nir / 74 / 001 . en .\nfish processing ; lake chad ; processed fish products ; post - harvest losses ; improved processing methods ; research priorities .\nan interim report of the fao team investigating post - harvest losses . the problem is outlined and the research undertaken to date explained . future research priorities are discussed including the application of improved processing methods such as brining , the ivory coast type smoking kiln and icing . a strategy for technology - transfer is also considered .\n136 . neiland , a . e . ( 1987 ) shrinking lake chad is still a big fishery ! fishing news international , 24 ( 2 ) : 41\u201342 . en .\ngeneral appraisal ( fisheries ) ; lake chad ; fish resources and production ; fish commerce & marketing ; fisheries management ; fish processing ; hydrological cycle ; sahel drought .\ndespite a large reduction in the size of the lake over the last 5 years , the fishery and resultant trade in fish products with southern nigerian markets is still significant , based largely on undersized tilapias and clarias catfish .\n137 . neiland , a . e . and verinumbe , i . ( 1990a ) fisheries development and resource usage conflict : a case study of deforestation associated with the lake chad fishery in nigeria . cemare research paper , university of portsmouth , uk . subsequently published in environmental conservation 18 ( 1991 ) : 111\u2013117 . en . 22 ref .\ngeneral appraisal ( fisheries ) ; lake chad ; fish processing ; fuelwood ; deforestation ; fisheries development ; resource usage conflict ; economic analysis .\na post - drought rejuvenation of the lake chad fisheries is likely to significantly increase the pressure placed on other local resources . in the case of the tree resources , it can be demonstrated that the concentration of population and fish processing activity along the western shoreline will further exacerbate the existing local deficit between supply and demand leading to further tree loss and environmental degradation . the problem is outlined and discussed in the context of both local and national economic considerations .\n138 . neiland , a . e . and verinumbe , i . ( 1990b ) the potential of the shrub calotropis procera ( asclepiadaceae ) as an alternative fuel source for processing fish at lake chad in nigeria : preliminary observations and identification of areas for further research . trop . sci 30 , 321\u2013323 . en . 6 ref .\nfish processing ; lake chad ; fisheries development ; fish processing ; fuelwood alternatives ; calotropis procera ; natural insecticide ; toxicity problems .\nbecause of the lack of fuelwood supplies around lake chad , local processors are now using stems of the shrub calotropis procera , which is locally abundant growing on exhausted soil . the sap of the plant is poisonous . it is not clear whether this has an impact on the fish products produced . the possibility that the accumulation of poison residues may render the fish unfit for human consumption should be investigated .\n139 . odunze , f . c . ( 1982 ) study of some aspects of the biology of clarias lazera in lake chad . annual report of the lake chad research institute , maiduguri , nigeria . 1982 . pp . 57\u201360 . en .\nfish biology ; clarias lazera ; lake chad ; fish reproduction ; sub - species identification ; morphology ; meristic characteristics ; biometry .\nfecundity , spawning activity , morphological and meristic investigation results are presented . it is suggested that their are two sub - species of this fish in the lake , broadly defined according to size ( small and normal size ) .\n140 . odunze , f . c . ( 1983 ) fecundity studies of tilapia zilli in lake chad . annual report of the lake chad research institute , maiduguri , nigeria . 1983 . pp . 71\u201373 . en . 3 ref .\nfish biology ; tilapia zilli ; lake chad ; fish reproduction ; sexual maturity ; hydrological cycle ; fisheries resources and production .\ntilapia zilli populations in lake chad have high reproductive potential , being fecund year round at a small size . main breeding season is january \u2013 april , corresponding to the annual water level increase . this fish is important commercially forming up to 80 % of all catches between january and may .\n141 . orstom ( 1977 ) les activiti\u00e9s de l ' orstom en r\u00e9publique du tchad . 3 : recherches biologiques et sciences humains . [ the work of orstom in the republic of chad . 3 : research in the biological and social sciences . ] notes tech . du centre orstom de n ' djamena ; no . 15 . 19p . fr . 63 ref .\ngeneral appraisal ( fisheries ) ; chad basin ; fisheries resources and production ; economic analysis ; ethnicity ; demography ; ecosystem ( overview ) ; limnology .\na general overview of the chad basin ecosystem including the fisheries resources and production , their economic significance and the characteristics of the indigenuous populations involved in fisheries . based on the research undertaken by the orstom centre at n ' djamena .\n142 . pellegrin , j . ( 1914 ) les poissons du bassin du lac tchad . [ the fish of the lake chad basin . ] paris , 154pp . fr .\nfish biology ; chad basin ; fish species ( general ) ; historical account .\nan early detailed description of the biology of fish of the chad basin including many fine illustrations .\n143 . quensiere , j . ( 1976 ) influence de la s\u00e9cheresse sur les p\u00eacheries du delta du chari ( 1971\u201373 ) . [ effect of drought on the fisheries of the chari delta ( 1971\u201373 ) ] . cah . orstom . , ser . hydrobiol . 10 ( 1 ) : 3\u201318 . fr . 12 ref .\nfisheries ecology ; river chari delta ; fisheries resources and production ; fishing effort ( total ) ; catch estimation ; catch per unit effort ; statistical surveys ; hydrological cycle ; sahel drought ; fish population dynamics .\ndetailed investigation of these fisheries based on monthly data collection for cpue , total fishing effort and total catch . correlation between drought and declining catch demonstrated . fish populations also became unstable and more diverse with the onset of drought . all fishing activity had ceased by april 1973 .\n144 . quensiere , j . ( 1979 ) synth\u00e8se des connaissances scientifiques sur la p\u00eache et l ' hydrologie du lac tchad et les effets de la s\u00e9cheresse . [ synthesis of scientific knowledge on the fishery and hydrology of lake chad and the effects of the drought . ] . fao ( rome ) / cifa , occass . doc . cpca no . 8 . 18p . fr . 80 ref .\ngeneral appraisal ( fisheries ) ; lake chad ; fisheries resources and production ; hydrological cycle ; sahel drought .\na comprehensive summary of scientific knowledge on the fishery and hydrology of the chad basin by an experienced researcher in the chad basin .\n145 . quensiere , j . ( 1981 ) de l ' int\u00e9r\u00eat que pr\u00e9sente l ' approche syn\u00e9cologique dans les \u00e9tudes d ' am\u00e9nagement halieutique ( \u00e9tude du renouvellement des stocks lacustres tchadiens par la plaine d ' inondation du nord - cameroun . ) . [ the synecological approach in fishery management studies ( study of the replenishment of stocks in lake chad using the north cameroons floodplain . ) . ] seminar on river basin management and development in africa , blantyre , malawi , 8\u201310 dec . 1980 . cifa ( fao , rome ) , tech pap . no . 8 : 173\u2013199 . fr . 5 ref .\nfisheries resources and production ; chad basin ; stock assessment ; research methodology ; fish population dynamics ; ecosystems ( overview ) ; fish habitats ; biotopes ; fish resource surveys .\nthe fish stocks of lake chad and north cameroons floodplain are assessed using a programme of sample surveys ; the relationship between the two water habitat types in supporting a viable fisheries resource within the chad basin ecosystem is examined .\n146 . richards , l . g . w . ( 1979 ) report prepared for the improvement of fish processing and transport project on lake chad , nigeria . fao ( rome ) , fisheries dept . 24p . en .\nfishing technology ; lake chad ; fishing boats ; mechanization ; outboard engines ; outboard engine maintenance ; training .\nundp project report on the possibilities for mechanization at lake chad and the training needs for outboard engine maintenance and repair services .\n147 . robinson , a . h . and robinson , p . k . ( 1969b ) a comparative study of the food habits of micralestes acutidens and alestes dageti ( pisc : characidae ) from the northern basin of lake chad . bull . inst . fr . afr . noire , 31 , ser . a : 951\u2013964 . en ."]}
{"id": 2301, "summary": [{"text": "terlingua ( february 7 , 1976 \u2013 april 29 , 2008 ) was an american thoroughbred bred in kentucky by tom gentry .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "she was a chestnut filly from the second crop of triple crown winner secretariat .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "terlingua was out of a crimson satan mare , crimson saint , who was a graded stakes winner as well as a very successful broodmare .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "besides terlingua , crimson saint produced 1990 ireland champion 3yr-old and european champion 3yr-old miler royal academy and the grade one stakes winner ( full brother ) pancho villa along with four other winners , one of which was a minor stakes winner with another that was stakes placed .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "terlingua was a record-breaking stakes winner , but she is most notable as the dam of the two-time leading north american sire storm cat .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "terlingua was known as the crown princess . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "terlingua ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["terlingua ( secretariat ex crimson saint ) during her racing career . | famous race horse terlingua ! | pinterest | horse , race horses and thoroughbred horse\nour horse corral with pens , turnout paddocks and loading chute coupled with our dry horse trailer camping \u25b6\ufe0f facilities completes our equestrian accommodations .\nhorse racing : death of terlingua , dam of outstanding sire storm cat , at 32 ; bloodstock world .\nhorse racing : death of terlingua , dam of outstanding sire storm cat , at 32 ; bloodstock world . - free online library\nhorse racing : tattersalls millions pounds 2 , 200 , 000 ; bloodstock world guineas breeder profile .\nstudents play tag on the playground at the terlingua school in terlingua , tx on april 22 , 2015 .\nterlingua at work , showing the form that reminded penny chenery of secretariat . photo reprinted here with the permission of inger drysdale . copyright the blood - horse .\nterlingua ( secretariat ex crimson saint ) during her racing career . | great race horses of the past and present | pinterest | horse , race horses and thoroughbre\u2026\nhave you ever fallen in love with a very special horse , a horse who spoke to your heart ? dedicated to all those who have had this experience \u2014 at least once ! \u2014 and particularly to the community of zenyatta . com , this is a story of just how magical the spirit of one horse can be\u2026 . .\ntrainer d . wayne lukas hand walks his champion filly . photo by milton toby . copyright the blood - horse .\nmla style :\nhorse racing : death of terlingua , dam of outstanding sire storm cat , at 32 ; bloodstock world . .\nthe free library . 2008 mgn ltd 09 jul . 2018 urltoken\nsecond and third grade students play on the tires in the playground at the terlingua school in terlingua , tx on april 22 , 2015 .\nchicago style : the free library . s . v . horse racing : death of terlingua , dam of outstanding sire storm cat , at 32 ; bloodstock world . .\nretrieved jul 09 2018 from urltoken\nsecretariat was known in life as a horse with a large\nheart .\nhowever , before his burial , he was necropsied at the university of kentucky . dr . thomas swerczek , the veterinarian who performed the necropsy , claims that he found that secretariat ' s heart was the largest he had ever seen in a horse\u2014approximately twice the size of a normal horse ' s heart . dr . swerczek states in correspondence :\nin addition to terlingua , the triple crown winner ' s top offspring included hopeful and travers winner general assembly , horse of the year lady ' s secret , as well as the classic winner and champion risen star .\nwhile ashford ' s focus has been on preparing american pharoah for his soon - to - begin stud career , the farm also has worked to keep the popular horse accessible to the public , offering tours via horse country inc . , and launching new social media channels to share photos and news .\nhorse racing : format in vogue as fledgling sale aims to build on impressive debut last year ; bloodstock world rachel pagones previews the tattersalls . . .\nan amazing , unbelievable performance by this miracle horse\u2014and look at mrs . tweedy ! ( laughing ) she ' s having the time of her life !\nsecretariat was awarded the eclipse award for horse of the year , the most prestigious honor in racing , both as a two - year - old ( the first horse so honored at that age ) and as a three - year - old . secretariat demonstrated his superiority on grass with wins in the canadian international stakes and the man o ' war stakes against older horses . his performance on grass earned him the eclipse award for outstanding male turf horse .\ntruenicks was developed in partnership by blood - horse llc and pedigree consultants , llc . truenicks reports are powered by the jockey club information systems , inc .\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for fantastic knight ( nzl ) . fantastic knight ( nzl ) is a gelding born in 2005 september 26 by fantastic light out of terlingua light\napa style : horse racing : death of terlingua , dam of outstanding sire storm cat , at 32 ; bloodstock world . . ( n . d . ) > the free library . ( 2014 ) . retrieved jul 09 2018 from urltoken\nthough not a big racing fan , i was playing hookey from work that day in september , 1978 and was at del mar , mainly to see one race , the del mar debutante , and one horse , terlingua . whenever i did go to the track , i was a 2 dollar better . today , i put $ 200 . 00 , on the nose of terlingua . the rest is history , and she paid $ 2 . 20 across the board . wonderful horse .\nlocals gather on the porch of the terlingua trading company next to starlight theatre in terlingua , tx to talk , drink and listen to musicians play on april 21 , 2015 .\nterlingua is more of a family than a . . . more\nmiles adams , right , plays guitar and sings next to two locals on the porch of the terlingua trading company in terlingua , tx on april 21 , 2015 . adams lives in terlingua and has been helping his father build a house there . less\nmiles adams , right , plays guitar and sings next to two locals on the porch of the terlingua trading company in terlingua , tx on april 21 , 2015 . adams lives in terlingua and has been helping his father build a . . . more\nstorm cat , shown , is the most famous of terlingua ' s 11 foals .\n9th u . s . triple crown champion ( 1973 ) u . s . horse of the year ( 1972 & 1973 ) leading broodmare sire in north america ( 1992 )\nterlingua , out of the crimson satan mare crimson saint , will be buried at overbrook .\nlocals gather on the porch of the terlingua trading company next to starlight theatre in terlingua , tx to talk , drink and listen to musicians play on april 21 , 2015 .\nterlingua is more of a family than a town ,\npat o ' bryan said . less\ncrimson saint , terlingua\u2019s dam , was a brilliant sprinter who was trained by wayne lukas\u2019 father .\nterlingua lost the championship , which was awarded jointly to it\u2019s in the air and candy eclair .\nterlingua ranch lodge 16000 terlingua ranch rd po box 638 terlingua tx 79852 - 0638 432 - 371 - 3146 office 432 - 371 - 2244 cafe 432 - 371 - 2960 security 432 - 371 - 2229 fax 29 . 4525654 , - 103 . 3941576 map info [ at ] urltoken email\nit should be noted that , like all racetrack excuses , there are reasons to doubt the explanations offered for secretariat ' s losses . there is a saying that\naround the racetrack , excuses are for losers and sore bettors\nbecause they are always offered by owners , trainers , and riders to deflect the blame when what was thought to be the best horse loses a race . [ 2 ] and william nack , who was secretariat ' s hagiographer , has a great incentive not to write anything negative about the horse\u2014he was given\nunprecedented access\nto the horse and his connections . [ 3 ]\nit was an unforgettable zenyatta moment as she caught up with the leader , musical romance , and won by a nose at the wire . it had to be the most amazing horse race i have witnessed .\nmarie : i honour & love ruffian . the quote came from blood - horse . but the point of the article was how my love for terlingua re - awakened me to my childhood passion of loving horses and especially , the thoroughbred . i have another article devoted only to ruffian that i wrote awhile back .\nwe ' re extremely lucky to have the horse ,\ncoolmore ' s m . v . magnier said of the stallion deal the day american pharoah arrived at ashford .\nand in fairness to [ trainer bob baffert ] , from the outset , a long time ago , he was telling us how good this horse was and that we should try and get him . and thankfully , we got a deal done with the zayats , and they ' re very good people . he ' s just an exceptional horse , everything about him . hopefully , we ' ll do half as good a job as bob has .\nlukas had always said terlingua was incredibly smart , and those close to her at overbrook confirmed that assessment .\nscanlan , lawrence . the horse god built : the untold story of secretariat , the world ' s greatest racehorse . new york : thomas dunne books / st . martin ' s press , 2007 . isbn 9780312367244\ngeneral assembly won the hopeful , and yet , if anything , terlingua was more highly regarded than the colt .\ndean , who ran the starlight for a decade , fears that terlingua\u2019s image will be distorted by reality television .\non october 16 , 1999 , in the winner ' s circle at keeneland race course in lexington , kentucky , the united states postal service honored the great horse , unveiling a 33 - cent postage stamp with his image .\n\u201ci\u2019ve spent 35 years promoting terlingua as a destination for tourists and travelers to the big bend . even though they offered me money to use terlingua as a location , i said , ' no thank you , \u2019\u201d he added .\nhi abigail , thank you for teaching me about terlingua , i\u2019d heard about her in passing in relation to d . wayne lukas , but never knew who she really was . i always thought that lady\u2019s secret was big red\u2019s premier daughter , but now i know terlingua was also ! it has always been said that \u2018the heart of a champion is passed down to his daughter\u2019 ! but it looks to me , that because secretariat\u2019s heart was twice the size of a normal horse\u2019s heart , that he passed it down to both terlingua and lady\u2019s secret ! how amazing ! ! !\nin the summer of 1978 . \u201ci could see the cross of that large horse ( secretariat ) on that mare with all that conformation for speed ( crimson saint ) , and i had a picture of her in my mind . \u201d\nwar admiral ' s champions were led by horse of the year busher , who propelled him to leading sire honors , while count fleet sired a pair of belmont stakes - winning horse of the year honorees in consecutive seasons in counterpoint and one count . the only triple crown winner to sire a triple crown winner was gallant fox ( 1930 ) , sire of omaha ( 1935 ) . affirmed , a solid international sire , was represented by 1993 canadian triple crown winner peteski .\nterlingua produced 11 foals , including additional graded stakes winner chapel of dreams . another of her offspring , pioneering , stands at stud at overbrook . terlingua\u2019s last foal , 8 - year - old final legacy , is a broodmare at overbrook .\nterlingua pictured here as a yearling , in a brochure produced by tom gentry promoting her forthcoming sale at keeneland in 1977 .\njohn holroyd stands looking at one of his redwood tables in la kiva bar in terlingua , tx on april 21 , 2015 . holroyd , who has been coming to terlingua since 1982 , recently purchased the bar . its previous . . . more\ncasimiro foster , left , and will dawkins jump down off of a boulder in big bend national park near terlingua , tx on april 23 , 2015 . foster and dawkins both live in terlingua and work together at the starlight . . . more\nwill dawkins , left , and casimiro foster jump down off of a boulder in big bend national park near terlingua , tx on april 23 , 2015 . foster and dawkins both live in terlingua and work together at the starlight . . . more\nmore disturbing is the show\u2019s announced plan to use a recent and tragic local homicide as a window into terlingua\u2019s troubled soul .\nwill dawkins and casimiro foster ' s dog roxy hike in big bend national park near terlingua , tx on april 23 , 2015 . foster and dawkins both live in terlingua and work together at the starlight theatre .\ni came . . . more\ni located old issues of the blood - horse and thoroughbred times on ebay and began to collect the ones that recorded terlingua\u2019s personal history . this collection would take another 3 or 4 years to complete , during which time i made some quite wonderful \u201cvirtual\u201d friendships with people who would actually notify me if \u201canything terlingua\u201d came up . deb strother became my \u201ceyes on the ground , \u201d locating back issues about terlingua for me ; without her help and guidance , i would never have learned much about secretariat\u2019s talented daughter , other than what seemed her only claim to fame : she was the dam of storm cat , foaled in 1983 .\nterlingua and her young jockey , darryl mchargue , come to the wire ahead of the field to set still another track record .\nher next victory , in the del mar debutante on september 3 , 1978 , gave her a record of 4 wins in as many starts . in an article headlined , \u201cthe west\u2019s filly still unbeaten , \u201d robert hebert of the blood - horse began :\n\u201cit\u2019s a tragedy on both sides of the aisle here . they are taking something that is very painful to us and hideous to the families , and turning it into a sideshow , \u201d said linda walker , a longtime resident and owner of horse stables .\nwhen meredith became barn foreman , she also used the \u201cterlingua test\u201d on new employees . \u201cshe was a really smart girl , \u201d she said , explaining that once a new employee passed the test by holding on , terlingua never tried it again with that individual .\nin 1973 , jerry jeff walker and the lost gonzo band put it on the cultural map with his \u201cviva terlingua , \u201d album .\nat the end of 1978 , terlingua was runner - up to co - champions candy \u00e9clair ( 1976 ) and it\u2019s in the air ( 1976 ) in the eclipse balloting . however , as edward l . bowen , writing in the blood - horse\u2019s \u201c thoroughbreds of 1978\u201d concluded , \u201cher unbeaten status has been shattered , but she remains the most exciting of the juvenile fillies of her season . \u201d\nterlingua foaled her most significant racehorses early in her career , but as the dam of storm cat , she continued as one of the most famed and respected broodmares at overbrook . and the farm still owns the last of terlingua ' s daughters , the boston harbor mare final legacy .\nstorm cat was a once - in - a - lifetime horse and the key to the success that overbrook farm enjoyed . my father often said that storm cat made him look like a genius ,\noverbrook farm owner william t . young jr . said in a statement .\nall these famous sons and daughters of secretariat are gone . terlingua lived so long that she is the final chapter among those racers and producers .\n( hrtv\u2019s inside information did a piece on terlingua shortly before her death , on april 29 , 2008 , at the age of 32 . )\nric waldman , consultant to overbrook farm , said\nterlingua represented an era at overbrook . in addition to being the dam of storm cat , she was part of a significant three - horse package that mr . young purchased in the early days of overbrook . the others were cinegita , from whom flanders and surfside came , and the other was three troikas ,\nwho won the arc de triomphe and produced group winner three angels .\nrachel blake looks on as jeff craven holds their son logan ' s hand during lunch at the rio bravo mexican restaurant in terlingua , tx on april 22 , 2015 .\nthe reality show seems pretty fake if you ask us ,\njeff said . the family lives in terlingua . less\nsecretariat , who spent his entire stud career at claiborne farm , never came close to replicating his own awe - inspiring accomplishments , but he did sire 1986 horse of the year lady ' s secret and 1988 dual classic winner risen star . he was also a leading broodmare sire , and made a lasting impact on the breed through daughters terlingua , the dam of storm cat , and weekend surprise , dam of a . p . indy .\njohn holroyd stands looking at one of his redwood tables in la kiva bar in terlingua , tx on april 21 , 2015 . holroyd , who has been coming to terlingua since 1982 , recently purchased the bar . its previous owner , glen felts , was found murdered there in february 2014 . less\nhe ' s [ turned out ] first thing in the morning - - actually , i lunge him first before he ' s turned out at 6 : 30 ,\nstallion manager richard barry said of the horse ' s routine .\nwe ' ve bred him to a couple of mares , and he ' s done that late morning and then early afternoon , and he ' s settled in really well . everything is no problem at all . he ' s as laid - back a horse as you ' d ever want . he ' s great in the breeding shed .\non tuesday , during the shooting of a scene at the edge of terlingua , \u201cbadlands\u201d producer adam bradley spoke briefly with a reporter , while nearby his cameraman was filming scenes involving a rattlesnake . the snake was repeatedly positioned and repositioned near a \u201cterlingua ghostown\u201d sign by tim knight , a locally hired man .\n( there are precious few video records of terlingua on the track . in this one she is shown racing \u2014 although the tape ends rather abruptly ! )\nit ' s unbelievable ,\nmagnier said of american pharoah ' s career .\nit ' s been [ 37 ] years since the last one , and it ' s a massive thing . it ' s a massive thing for everyone to get a chance to breed to this horse now .\nlocating even a scrap of information about her turned out to be an arduous task . the web was young in the 1990\u2019s and lacked depth in many areas : horse racing was one . but very gradually , over months and years of dogged research , a path to terlingua opened up . my first \u201csighting\u201d of her was on a pedigree site where i saw a photograph of terlingua as a broodmare , at her home , overbrook farm . even though she was in foal in the photo , her resemblance to secretariat was unmistakeable . she had his head , though not his ears , as well as his powerful hindquarters . i determined that i wanted a copy of this elegant photograph of the chestnut - red terlingua against a background of fall foliage , her beautiful face turned toward the camera .\nterlingua by secretariat , out of crimson saint by crimson satan . she was said to truly be \u201cher father\u2019s daughter . \u201d named for the texas town famous for its hot chili , terlingua started burning up the track her first time out . considered one of the fastest fillies of her generation , she became the darling of california racing fans . she launched quarter horse trainer d . wayne lukas on his new career racing thoroughbreds . unbeaten as a two - year - old out west , terlingua tasted her first defeat in the east . she reignited as a three - year - old and won several more races until she sustained a slab fracture in her right knee at age four . then , as a broodmare , \u201cthe brilliant daughter of secretariat\u201d outdid herself again , producing the incredible storm cat . he became one of the most influential stallions in racing , with a stud fee of $ 500 , 000 at one time . terlingua lived to be 32 .\nhrtv ' s superb profile on terlingua , mother of the amazingly prolific storm cat . she passed away on april 29th , 2008 . rip , beautiful girl .\nas i grieved , i began a search for additional secretariat memorabilia . and somewhere along the way , i read that penny chenery had observed that of all secretariat\u2019s offspring it was the filly , terlingua ( 1976 ) , who most reminded her of him . my curiosity peaked , i set off in search of terlingua .\ndoug blackmon , a local who is working with original productions , drinks a beer in the high sierra bar in terlingua , tx on april 21 , 2015 .\nsome fear that \u201cbadlands , \u201d planned as an eight - part series on the national geographic channel , will make terlingua into a duck dynasty of the desert .\nivey said folks feel that terlingua is the last connection to an authentic past and is too important a place to be the subject of a reality television show .\nthen , a few years ago , \u201cwhen storm cat ' s health was declining , \u201d young recalled , \u201cwe took blood and tissue samples from the horse , and we shared those with the uk gluck equine research center , to develop a baseline of data about storm cat ' s genetics , and with crestview . \u201d\nso far the only u . s . classic victory for horse sired by a son or grandson of storm cat is that achieved by shackleford ( truenicks , sro ) in the 2011 preakness stakes . still , his u . s . runners did also include a breeders ' cup classic ( gr . i ) hero in cat thief ( truenicks , sro ) and a pair of champion 2 - year - old fillies in storm flag flying and sweet catomine . in europe he had a pair of classic winners in black minnaloushe and nebraska tornado , and a european horse of the year in giant ' s causeway ( truenicks , sro ) .\npensioned after the 2000 breeding season , terlingua made a lasting contribution to contemporary breeding with her remarkably successful son and to the reputation of secretariat as a broodmare sire .\nas i followed the \u201cterlingua trail\u201d my passion for thoroughbreds made itself known \u2014 and this time , as a lady in her 40\u2019s , i was no longer apologetic .\nchris young of overbrook farm confirmed that storm cat , the powerful dark bay son of storm bird and terlingua ( by secretariat ) , \u201chas indeed been cloned . \u201d\ncaroline gore sits for a portrait in her home in terlingua , tx on april 23 , 2015 .\nit is tough living here , but it is so much more rewarding ,\nshe said .\nyou just need so much less in a place like this .\ngore has lived in terlingua for 24 years . less\nthis entry was posted in bloodlines archive and tagged chris young , cloned horses , cloning , frank mitchell , horse racing , polo , sires , stallions , storm cat , storm cat clone , thoroughbred , thoroughbred breeding , thoroughbred racing , thoroughbred sires , thoroughbred stallions , w . t . young by frank mitchell . bookmark the permalink .\nthis entry was posted in bloodlines , bloodstock and tagged bloodlines , frank mitchell , hirsch jacobs , horse racing , i ' m a chatterbox , la troienne , ogden phipps , pedigrees , secretariat , sires , stallions , thoroughbred breeding , thoroughbred pedigrees , thoroughbred racing , thoroughbred sires , thoroughbred stallions by frank mitchell . bookmark the permalink .\nchildren of secretariat : the flying filly responsible for storm cat | topics : terlingua , overbrook farm , secretariat , storm cat , d . wayne lukas | thoroughbred racing commentary\nstill , well into the 1980s , terlingua was little more than an outpost of hippies , river guides and other dropouts sharing the rocky ruins with the lizards and vinegaroons .\nin 2005 , secretariat appeared once more in espn classic ' s show who ' s no . 1 ? . in the list of\ngreatest sports performances\n( by individual athletes ) , the horse was the only non - human on the list , his run at belmont ranking second behind wilt chamberlain ' s 100 - point game .\nof course , i didn\u2019t really notice a community sprouting up all around me \u2014 i was just concentrating on nurturing my love for terlingua . but in trusting myself to follow her , terlingua carried me into a new world \u2014 into a landscape of hope and promise and delight , where the girl and the woman walk hand - in - hand .\nwhile there is now an extensive literature debating whether the x factor and heart size has a connection to athletic performance in racehorses , there is nonetheless reason to doubt the veracity of dr . swerczek ' s particular story about secretariat . the story of phar lap ' s enlarged heart , which was detected after an autopsy performed after that horse ' s mysterious death , was well publicized ( it appears in the encyclopedia of american racing , published in 1959 ) , and would have been known by any important equine veterinarian who worked with racehorses . further , dr . swerczek admits that he did not actually weigh the heart , and no pictures exist of the alleged organ . also , what are the odds that the horse with the alleged second largest heart would be another 1970 foal who was secretariat ' s chief rival in the triple crown races ? as secretariat is a popular horse , the desire to say that he had\nheart\nin the metaphorical sense is understandable ; whether he had\nheart\nin the literal sense is unproven .\nit then veers off into fiction , according to some locals , when it makes the claim that \u201cterlingua is effectively closed off to outsiders ; strangers are eyed with suspicion . \u201d\nthe culture of the 1960\u2019s was such that i was persuaded ( like most of my girlfriends ) to give up childhood passions as part of the ritual of becoming a young woman . it was as though we each had to make a personal sacrifice in order to be considered an adult , a person who had left the interests and impulses of our \u201cformer selves\u201d behind . for me , that meant divesting myself of horses , \u201cclassic\u201d comic books and barbie . so i put my c . w . anderson , walter farley and marguerite henry books away , along with my breyer horses , horse scrapbooks and a handful of horse stories that i had written and illustrated myself when i was a girl of twelve .\ntrainer d . wayne lukas had selected terlingua at auction at the keeneland july sale and purchased her for $ 275 , 000 for the partnership of barry beal and l . r . french jr . terlingua had the type of body - blocky and strongly muscled - that became identified as the type that lukas purchased during his early years as a leading trainer .\nfrom bill ivey , owner of most of the ghost town , to local journalists and businessmen , many with a deep stake in terlingua are telling original productions to take a hike .\nc . c . krull talks to her husband robert krull as he smokes a cigar on the porch of the starlight theatre in terlingua , tx on april 20 , 2015 . although they have been staying at the study butte rv park , they are building a home in terlingua because they fell in love with the place , c . c . krull said . less\nand terlingua did not let him down on the racetrack . she began by winning the nursery , the hollywood lassie , the hollywood juvenile championship over colts , and the del mar debutante .\nterri : thanks so much for leaving these comments on the terlingua article . i agree that terlingua\u2019s legacy has been assured and i do try to keep up with it . i know that danthebluegrassman ( pioneering ) is now at old friends and also was interested in the white fox , another of pioneering\u2019s progeny . of course , there are the storm cats , right ? giant\u2019s causeway is a love of mine and certainly looks quite a bit like terlingua during her youth . and chapel of dreams , a daughter of terlingua , was rescued by myself & case clay and is now living out her years in peace at three chimneys . i will definitely take a look at sassy image because it always interests me to see whether or not these descendants of \u201cmy girl\u201d look like her & especially through the withers . and it will be nice to see a \u201cterlingua\u201d hitting the track in 2011 ! thanks so much for telling me about her , terri .\ni forgot to mention , inglorious the canadian filly , who beat the boys in the queens plate stakes : she is also a great great granddaughter of terlingua . she will be running in the alabama stakes at saratoga the same day sassy image is racing in the ballerina stakes . there might be 3 terlingua ancestors running in the breeders cup this year ; wouldn\u2019t that be something .\nreturned to sprinting two weeks later , terlingua was second by a nose in the starlet at hollywood . then came two fourth - place finishes , and it was time for a long rest .\nterlingua , tx as seen from the top of a hill overlooking the town shortly after dawn on april 22 , 2015 . the chisos mountains of big bend national park stand in the distance .\neventually , people with money and ideas began arriving , and now terlingua is rocking again . a celebration of opportunistic , unregulated development , it would be unrecognizable to survivors of that bygone era .\nlexington , ky . - thirty years ago , terlingua started the hearts of secretariat ' s legion of fans beating with the hope that their champion was breeding on as he had raced . terlingua - fierce and fast daughter of his chestnut perfection and crimson saint - died this week at age 32 and was buried at overbrook farm , where she spent almost the entirety of her broodmare career .\nlukas then took terlingua on the road . she finished third in the g1 frizette at belmont park and second in the g2 alcibiades at keeneland , and suddenly she was no longer an undefeated sensation .\noverbrook broodmare manager r . t . blackburn took advantage of that mischievous nature to test new employees - terlingua would challenge anyone who tried to take her out of the stall for the first time .\nhis race records in the derby and the belmont stand to this day ; his run in the belmont is not only a race record but still the fastest time ever run at the distance of a mile and a half ( 2 . 4 km ) on a dirt track . indeed , no horse has ever come within 1 2 / 5 seconds ( approximately 5 - 6 lengths at 1 1 / 2 miles ) of secretariat ' s time , and the second fastest belmont stakes time is a full 2 seconds slower . were the official preakness time disregarded , and the word of the daily racing form clockers accepted , it could be said that he set a new speed record in each of the triple crown races , and he would have been the only horse in history to do so .\nterlingua raced throughout her career for barry beal and l . r . french jr . she retired with seven wins and four runner - up efforts from 17 races and earnings of $ 423 , 896 .\nyou are such an amazing writer . i am so glad i\u2019ve found this blog to learn more about this sport i love so much . i didn\u2019t know anything about terlingua before today ! thank you !\nthus , the recent appearance of a production crew from california working on a reality show with a dubious premise \u2014 that terlingua is an outpost of suspicious , standoffish outliers \u2014 has triggered a protective backlash .\n\u201cit\u2019s my town and my friends , and i know what they are going to do , make us look like idiots , \u201d said buckner cooke , a former reality show cameraman who lives in terlingua .\nabigail , thank you so much for introducing me to terlingua . from your tribute to her it is easy to see why she touched your heart . i\u2019ve learned so much from the vault . every horse you\u2019ve written about has now a little place in my heart because your writing is heartfelt and getting to know these horses has been a wonderful journey for me . to date the one that has touched me the most personally is \u2018shine on : the story of your host . i hope you never tire of writing as we all love what you have treated us to and because we all love horses so very much .\nmy best girl .\nterlingua as a broodmare at overbrook farm , captured by the lens of lydia a . williams ( law ) . photo reprinted here with the permission of law . copyright law .\nwhile armed and edgy conspiracy types can be found in the back country off texas 118 and other hidden pockets , don\u2019t look for them in the old ghost town of terlingua , now a booming tourist mecca .\nafter the better part of a decade , we will know whether the storm cat clone will be a success in this new venture and will add an asterisk to the history and legacy of terlingua ' s son .\na videographer for original productions films a rattlesnake falling from the\nterlingua ghostown\nsign at the entrance of the town on april 21 , 2015 . the videographer requested that the rattlesnake be placed . . . more\nwill dawkins and casimiro foster ' s dog roxy hike in big bend national park near terlingua , tx on april 23 , 2015 . foster and dawkins both live in terlingua and work together at the starlight theatre .\ni came out here to the national park and liked the area , so i moved here ,\ndawkins said .\nthe people at the starlight were very nice and hired me right away .\nless\nterlingua ranch lodge resort is a uniquely remote far west texas big bend vacation lodging , holiday getaway travel destination and pet - friendly hotel / motel / inn alternative featuring ( a ) rustic cabin guest rooms , pull - through and back - in rv sites , tent campgrounds , and horse accommodations , ( b ) a convenient airstrip , restaurant / cafe , swimming pool and other amenities , ( c ) engaging activities and entertainment including atv / orv exploring , hiking , biking , motorcycle and horseback riding , and stargazing , and ( d ) stunningly scenic attractions such as big bend national park , big bend ranch state park and the christmas mountains .\nfurthermore , secretariat ' s daughters have produced leading sires gone west ( out of stakes winner secrettame ) , a . p . indy ( out of stakes winner weekend surprise ) , and storm cat ( terlingua ) .\non a clear night , many constellations can be seen above the starlight theatre in terlingua , tx . the starlight theatre was once repurposed as a gathering place for parties and entertainment years after its roof . . . more\nterlingua \u2014 there has never been a shortage of loners or oddballs in south brewster county , a bleak , isolated region that attracts errant souls seeking escape from modern society , a complicated past or even an inconvenient identity .\nonly four horses joined secretariat for the june 9 , 1973 , running of the belmont stakes , including sham , who had finished second in both the derby and preakness . with so few horses in the race , and with secretariat expected to win , no\nshow\nbets were taken . before a crowd of 67 , 605 , secretariat and sham set a blistering early pace , opening a 10 - length cushion on the others . but while sham faded after the halfway mark ( ultimately finishing last ) , secretariat astonished spectators by picking up the killing pace\u2013eventually straining the television cameras ' wide - angle capability as they struggled to keep the distant challengers in the same frame . turcotte has said in documentaries that he could sense the horse wanted to be let loose , and he did so , letting the horse shift into\nhigh gear\nand run his own race .\nnicknamed big red ( as he was a large chestnut horse like man o ' war ) , he won the kentucky derby by gradually moving up on the field in the backstretch , then overtaking rival sham in the middle of the dash for home . making secretariat ' s derby win more impressive was the fact that sham ' s time of 1 : 59 4 / 5 equaled monarchos ' 2001 derby time , the second fastest in history .\nwaldman recalled that\nmr . young bought these mares to breed to storm bird , and to the cover of storm bird , cinegita and terlingua both made their mark by producing storm cat and the dam of flanders .\ncasimiro foster , left , and will dawkins jump down off of a boulder in big bend national park near terlingua , tx on april 23 , 2015 . foster and dawkins both live in terlingua and work together at the starlight theatre .\ni came out here to the national park and liked the area , so i moved here ,\ndawkins said .\nthe people at the starlight were very nice and hired me right away .\nless\nwill dawkins , left , and casimiro foster jump down off of a boulder in big bend national park near terlingua , tx on april 23 , 2015 . foster and dawkins both live in terlingua and work together at the starlight theatre .\ni came out here to the national park and liked the area , so i moved here ,\ndawkins said .\nthe people at the starlight were very nice and hired me right away .\nless\n\u201ci\u2019ll tell \u2019em to go straight to hell . reality shows are not reality , and when you get involved with folks like this , you can expect crap , \u201d said angie dean , who came to terlingua in 1989 .\nseattle slew made his mark on the breed by siring 1992 horse of the year a . p . indy . the latter has continued his legacy on the breed by siring multiple champions , finishing as last year ' s leading broodmare sire , and turning out multiple successful sons and grandsons at stud , including tapit . seattle slew also sired dual classic winner and champion swale and champions landaluce , slew o ' gold , capote , vindication , and surfside .\nflint\u2019s trial is expected to take two weeks , and in the way of small mercies to local sensibilities , no cameras or audio recording will be allowed in the courtroom in sierra blanca , more than 150 miles northwest of terlingua .\nand terlingua was an important factor in this realization , as well . the mare ' s second foal was grade 1 stakes winner storm cat , and her third was grade 2 stakes winner chapel of dreams ( by northern dancer ) .\nshe is , for one thing , inbred 4\u00d73 to the secretariat mare lady winborne and carries two more crosses to the 1973 triple crown winner through his daughters terlingua , dam of storm cat , and secrettame , dam of gone west .\nthroughout the cultural history of humankind , the horse is associated with inner journeys \u2026 . with travel between the worlds of mortality and immortality , typified by pegasus . in a similar vein , the jungian psychologist and storyteller , clarissa pinkola estes ( \u201cwomen who run with the wolves\u201d ) talks about how following one\u2019s inner spirit results in a kind of personal journey that eventually leads us to our spiritual home , a place where we find others who are like ourselves and in whose company we restore and refresh our souls . secretariat was the first to call to me , shining his light into the darkness where i had excised my passion for horses . but it was terlingua who acted as my companion and guide .\nemboldened , i varied my search vocabulary , until i came across equine photographer audrey crosby\u2019s site . she had been to visit terlingua at overbrook and had taken a few photos which she had posted on her website . i contacted audrey and she very kindly gave me some insight into terlingua\u2019s personality . she described the 17 year - old as either shy or indifferent to people \u2014 or both \u2014 but went on to talk about her pasture pal , island kitty ( 1976 ) the dam of champions shy tom ( 1986 ) and hennesy ( 1992 ) . it seemed that the two mares were devoted friends . and although my very first photos of terlingua came from audrey , she had not taken the much sought after picture that i had found on the pedigree website . there was , however , something about actually seeing terlingua that pulled at my heart strings . it was suddenly hugely important to read everything that i could get my hands on about her .\nhis blood flows through many other notable racehorses , including 2004 kentucky derby and preakness winner smarty jones , and he is most noted as a broodmare sire , being the broodmare sire of 1992 horse of the year and successful sire a . p . indy , secretariat ' s grandson through his daughter weekend surprise , who was sired by another triple crown winner , seattle slew . ap indy is the sire of 2007 belmont stakes winner rags to riches , the first filly to win at belmont since 1905 . secretariat is also the dam - sire of the great stallions storm cat ( by storm bird ) , through his daughter terlingua , herself an excellent racemare , and of gone west , through his daughter secrettame .\nthere was a magazine story many yrs ago ( in equus ? ) . about a tb mare who was found loose in ky ( ? ) and identified as a very fancy broodmare . was that terlingua ? the name rings a bell .\nkyle garmany , left , sings with jeff haislip at the starlight theatre in terlingua , tx on april 20 , 2015 . garmany was traveling through from austin and joined in haislip ' s performance for a song even though . . . more\nwhen i read the nearly off - hand comment that storm cat had been cloned last week in a vanity fair article profiling crestview genetics , i felt that electric sensation that the future was already here . or perhaps , the past was actually the future . then , rationalizing , my reaction was that someone had misspoken , had meant that a son or daughter of the most commercially dynamic sire of the past generation had actually been the horse cloned . not storm cat , surely .\nwhile secretariat ' s first crop included group 1 winner dactylographer , the results from the second were much better . in addition to terlingua , there was a second top - class juvenile in the crop of 1976 , a colt named general assembly .\n\u201cwe\u2019re happy to have tourists . that\u2019s how we live out here . my experience over the past 30 years is that terlingua has never been closed off to outsiders , \u201d said betty moore , who rents out rooms in the old miners\u2019 homes .\nthe ongoing \u201cbadlands\u201d spat is only the latest odd chapter in terlingua\u2019s improbable history . a century ago , more than 1 , 000 people , most of them mexican miners , lived here , extracting mercury ore and enjoying some amenities of civilized life .\na man who goes by\njimbo\nruns down a section of fm 170 that locals call\npepper ' s hill\nin terlingua , tx on april 23 , 2015 . jimbo , who said he was former military , ran 12 miles .\nrobert krull , right , looks on as wayne brown , left , helps tomi hutton get onto a stool on the porch of the starlight theatre before taking her picture on april 20 , 2015 in terlingua , tx . both were visiting . . . more\n\u201cfrom just the cast of characters they have chosen , i feel they are going to depict terlingua as a perpetual burning man festival , with a stranger , psychotic twist to it , and i don\u2019t want to be part of it , \u201d ivey said .\nthese words were to prove prophetic : in her first race of 1979 , the santa ynez stakes ( gr iii ) , terlingua defeated it\u2019s in the air . reeling off seven furlongs in 1 : 21 and one - fifth , \u201cthe west\u2019s sweetheart\u201d chipped a fifth of a second off the track record , set by tallahto in 1973 . a description of the victory includes the lines , \u201c\u2026terlingua , moving smoothly and beautifully , turned for home just coasting in front\u2026\u201d she went on to win the la brea stakes and the las flores handicap and finished second in the santa susanna , starlet and sierre madre stakes at three and four . in the las flores , she defeated a field that included the future dams of lady\u2019s secret ( 1982 ) , toussaud ( 1989 ) and sunday silence ( 1986 ) . on may 10 , 1980 , terlingua sustained a slab fracture to her right knee , following a workout at hollywood park . in the news of her retirement , terlingua was acknowledged as the \u201cbrilliant daughter of secretariat \u2013 crimson saint . \u201d\nher 1987 foal died shortly after birth , when it was discovered that terlingua was ni - positive , a condition where a mare sometimes makes antibodies that destroy her nursing foal\u2019s red blood cells . all her subsequent foals were placed on nurse mares as a precaution .\nafter world war ii , when all mining ceased , the population dispersed , leaving terlingua a true ghost town , stripped for salvage and abandoned . for years , starting in 1967 , it stirred only once a year , during the annual chili cook - off .\nkelly : glad to hear from you and thank you so much for taking the time to write . as it turns out , i do know a few things about pancho villa . here\u2019s a link to a site that shows the photo of him that i have in my collection : urltoken as you can see , he was a very , very good race horse and he died of an apparent heart attack 5 years ago . he had the cutest ears ! ! ! lord only knows where he got them from , since neither secretariat nor crimson saint had ears like this ! he was about terlingua\u2019s size \u2014 a little larger \u2014 and had more of crimson saint in terms of his body - type . he also showed that he could handle distances longer than the usual for a sprinter .\nrachel blake looks on as jeff craven holds their son logan ' s hand during lunch at the rio bravo mexican restaurant in terlingua , tx on april 22 , 2015 .\nthe reality show seems pretty fake if you ask us ,\njeff . . . more\nstorm cat ' s attraction in ireland would have been as a mid - priced son of storm bird , a horse whose offspring were then doing well in europe . the fact that his purchase was even a possibility underlines the fact that storm cat was not exactly regarded as a major commercial proposition for the u . s . sire ranks . he eventually remained at overbrook , beginning his stud career in 1988 at an advertised fee of $ 30 , 000 , although in the early years his seasons often traded at significantly lower prices .\njust a week later in the la brea , another record fell as terlingua ran seven furlongs in 1 : 20 4 / 5 , almost two seconds faster than the previous stakes record and just 4 / 5 off the track record set a day earlier by spectacular bid .\nc . c . krull talks to her husband robert krull as he smokes a cigar on the porch of the starlight theatre in terlingua , tx on april 20 , 2015 . although they have been staying at the study butte rv park , they are . . . more\nlinda : the story of your \u201cpersonal triple crown\u201d was just beautiful ! thanks so much for sharing it . and then to see nashua \u2014 wow ! he\u2019s another great favourite of mine . i\u2019m glad to hear that he knew he was royalty because he was always exactly that to me . i found him not only talented but beautiful as a \u201cyoung man\u201d and actually have a few photos of him in my thoroughbred photo collection . i am grateful that i have many \u201csisters\u201d and even a few \u201cbrothers\u201d out there with a desire to know as much as they can about thoroughbreds of today and yesteryear . zenyatta is really the first horse to move me the way secretariat & terlingua did . i love them all , but zenyatta reached out to me from the very start . she is really , really a precious gift !"]}
{"id": 2302, "summary": [{"text": "gallo blue chip is a standardbred harness racing horse who earned $ 4.2 million in total winnings during his racing career .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "gallo blue chip 's sire was magical mike , and his dam was camatross .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "magical mike 's sire was tyler b. , and his dam was racing date ; camatross ' sire was albatross , and her dam was bye bye camille . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "gallo blue chip", "paragraphs": ["gallo blue chip is retired to blue chip farms in wallkill , new york .\nthe gallo blue chip sponsorship is sponsored by martin scharf to honor his magnificent standardbred , gallo blue chip , who retired as the richest pacer in harness racing history .\nand he was the recipient of the $ 15 , 000 gallo blue chip scholarship , presented and funded by the owner of gallo blue chip , martin scharf and administered by the harness horse youth foundation .\nmark krousse , who has worked for ford since 1990 , is gallo blue chip ' s caretaker .\ngallo blue chip won $ 575 , 000 , pushing his career earnings to $ 1 , 418 , 811 .\nthe inquiry sign went up as the gallo blue chip family began to celebrate , but there was no question about the winner . gallo blue chip beat astreos by 3 1 / 4 lengths , and high on emotion placed third .\ngallo blue chip is the leading moneywinning pacer of all time , and the all - time leading moneywinning standardbred gelding .\nspeaking of gallo blue chip , i upset him in the hempt memorial at pocono in 2000 . teddy wing was driving gallo blue chip and i won the race with a colt named sam francisco , trained by virgil morgan , jr .\n\u00a9 blue chip farms . all rights reserved . \u00b7 website developed by able engine\ndespite his honors - including 2000 horse of the year - gallo blue chip may have been underappreciated , according to ford .\nmartin scharf presented the sixth annual gallo blue chip scholarship to michael fahy of washington , pennsylvania at the meadowlands racetrack over the weekend .\nthe race contained an intriguing sidelight : the rivalry between gallo blue chip and tyberwood . three times this year they found themselves close together on the track , and the first two times , tyberwood ' s driver , richie silverman , let his whip stray back , frightening the head - shy gallo blue chip . then , in the third meeting , tyberwood bumped gallo blue chip and was disqualified for the action .\nthe harness horse youth foundation ( hhyf ) is pleased to announce maja bown and hannah wieder as recipients of the gallo blue chip scholarship .\napplications for the 2012 gallo blue chip scholarship and other 2012 hhyf scholarships are now available at the website of the harness horse youth foundation .\nthe blue chip mare program has produced industry leading in foal rates across the board which lead to substantial cost savings to your bottom line . learn more about moving your mare to blue chip .\nthough blue chip farms is not the biggest breeder in terms of mare numbers , it has consistently delivered on quality and been a top breeder in the standardbred industry for many years . grand circuit competitors bred and raised by blue chip farms include gallo blue chip ( world champion , hall of famer and winner of $ 4 , 260 , 959 ) , santanna blue chip ( $ 1 , 597 , 725 ) , kenneth j ( $ 1 , 551 , 627 ) , hypnotic blue chip ( $ 1 , 532 , 752 ) , breeders crown winner spider blue chip ( $ 1 , 202 , 467 ) , isabella blue chip ( world champion , $ 792 , 069 ) and beloved angel ( $ 679 , 074 ) .\nthe annual gallo blue chip scholarship award will be presented thursday night december 29 , 2016 at the meadowlands . come on out and see the champ .\ngallo blue chip , the richest pacer of all time , will take his final curtain call with retirement ceremonies on saturday , june 4 at the meadowlands .\ngallo blue chip was retired on march 12 , 2005 . he enjoys a well - deserved life of leisure and fame in slate hill , n . y .\nthe harness horse youth foundation is pleased to announce that maja bown and hannah wieder have been selected as recipients of the gallo blue chip scholarship . . . .\non april 28 , 1997 gallo blue chip was born in wallkill , ny . he went on to earn over $ 4 . 2 million on the racetrack , retiring\nit has been announced that martin scharf will present the seventh annual gallo blue chip scholarship during the saturday , january 12 program at the meadowlands racetrack . . . .\ngallo blue chip was not only the highlight of my racing career , but the highlight of my life ,\nhe noted .\ni was pretty much established when he came along . but he made things much easier , for sure . gallo blue chip was a remarkable horse , a very , very special horse .\ncasey : i got to drive a great horse named gallo blue chip , a tough horse who won the meadowlands pace with dan dube . gallo blue chip was horse of the year in 2000 . that same year , i won the cleveland classic at northfield park with him . the next year , 2001 , i won the battle of lake erie , also at northfield , with gallo blue chip . he went in 1 : 51 , which was an all - age track record at the time .\nmartin scharf will present the 2014 gallo blue chip scholarships to two recipients in a winner ' s circle ceremony at the meadowlands on saturday , january 3 . . . .\nmartin scharf will present the 6th annual gallo blue chip scholarship to michael fahy of washington , pennsylvania during the saturday , january 7 race card at the meadowlands racetrack . . .\nat three , gallo blue chip won the meadowlands pace , north america cup and breeders crown , setting a single season ' s earning record of $ 2 . 3 million .\ngallo blue chip was undefeated in all eight starts of his freshman season of 1999 , sweeping all seven of his new york sire stakes contests including the $ 150 , 000 final .\nthis time , gallo blue chip had little trouble after a rocky start . gallo blue chip was forced to go wide around the first turn from the no . 9 post , taking the lead at the half in 534 5 and building on the lead , taking a 4 - length advantage into the homestretch . with dube prodding him , he was never challenged .\ntaken from a recent interview with walter case ; casey : i got to drive a great horse named gallo blue chip , a tough horse who won the meadowlands pace with dan dube . gallo blue chip was horse of the year in 2000 . that same year , i won the cleveland classic at northfield park with him . the next year , 2001 , i won the battle of lake erie , also at northfield , with gallo blue chip . he went in 1 : 51 , which was an all - age track record at the time .\ninterestingly , just three hours before his race , foiled again joined gallo blue chip for a ceremonial ribbon cutting ceremony by the two richest pacers of all time . with combined earnings over $ 10 million dollars , the two harness heroes posed for throngs of photographers in the new \u201cblue chip farms winners circle . \u201d\nwith the open division getting ready to start up for 2015 i wish i could see gallo blue chip in the entries . how i miss the tuesday drawers and racing on saturday nights .\nmartin scharf will present the 2016 gallo blue chip scholarships to garrett chellis and natalie martuscello in a winner\u2019s circle presentation during the meadowlands racetrack\u2019s thursday , december 29 program of racing . . . .\nit ' s great see to everyone checking in to gallo blue chip ' s page , gallo continues to spend his much earned pensioned time in upstate ny at mark fords training stable and enjoys his life and is very comfortable approaching his next birthday in april .\ndan was very active in the n . y . breeding program during the 1970s and 1980s . he stood sir taurus at his collins , ny farm for four years prior to moving him to blue chip farms in 1992 . sir taurus , now retired , still resides at blue chip . sir taurus turned 30 this year . dan was also the co - breeder of gallo blue chip , who retired as the sport ' s leading money winning pacer in 2005 .\ngallo blue chip ( nominated as race horse ) p , 4 , 1 : 48 . 4 ( $ 4 , 260 , 959 ) bay gelding , 1997 ( magical mike - camatross - albatross )\nthe harness horse youth foundation\u2019s scholarship selection committee was clearly in a new york state of mind when it named the winners of the 2013 gallo blue chip scholarship , sponsored by martin scharf . . . .\nmartin scharf will present the seventh annual gallo blue chip scholarships , named in honour of his great pacer , to kayla prentice and michelle galligan during the meadowlands racetrack\u2019s saturday , january 4 card . . . .\npopular horse owner martin scharf was on hand at the meadowlands on saturday evening to present nursing student maddie dudka with the $ 15 , 000 gallo blue chip scholarship , named for his champion pacer . . .\ngallo blue chip was purchased by his owner , martin scharf , for $ 100 , 000 from chris oakes of lockport , new york . he was bred by dan gernatt farms in collins , new york .\nit was a familiar scenario for gallo blue chip and tyberwood , crowded together near the halfway point of the meadowlands pace . the two had forged a strange and uncomfortable rivalry this season , mired with controversial tactics .\ni ' m not sure that gallo blue chip has gotten the respect he deserved ,\nford said .\ni saw a poll that had him ranked as the tenth best three - year - old since\nin a flurry of action , tyberwood nudged toward the rail , this time crowding another horse , aces n ' sevens , and sending ain ' t no stpn him jerking backward through a crowd of horses . but unlike earlier meetings between gallo blue chip and tyberwood , when the activity caused problems for gallo blue chip , this time the driver daniel dube guided the 3 - year - old gelding around the jam and into the lead . tyberwood was disqualified for causing multiple interference , and once gallo blue chip took the lead , there was no heading him as he won the $ 1 . 15 million meadowlands pace in 1 : 504 5 .\njulia zenker , the daughter of deborah lass and drew zenker , has been named the recipient of the $ 15 , 000 gallo blue chip scholarship by the harness horse youth foundation and sponsor martin scharf . . . .\nfoiled again added to his resume with his canadian pacing derby victory , as his share of the $ 794 , 870 purse pushed his lifetime earnings to $ 4 . 35 million , eclipsing the previous record of $ 4 . 26 million established by gallo blue chip upon his retirement in 2005 . gallo blue chip was horse of the year in 2000 as a 3 year old and voted the best older male pacer at age 4 in 2001 .\ngallo blue chip is the leading moneywinning pacer of all time and the all - time leading moneywinning standardbred gelding . bred by dan gernatt of collins , new york , gallo blue chip was foaled on april 28 , 1997 at blue chip farms in wallkill , new york . he was purchased for $ 32 , 000 at the 1998 harrisburg sale - on the same day as fellow 2011 living horse hall of fame inductee eternal camnation - by chris oakes of three crown jewels stable in wilkes barre , pennsylvania . in august 1999 , he was purchased by martin scharf of lawrence , new york for $ 100 , 000 . trained by mark ford and driven in most of his starts by dan dube , gallo blue chip raced from 1999 to early 2005 , and had a lifetime record of 133 - 53 - 19 - 9 .\nblue chip farms utilizes the mobile lab services offered by select breeders services ( sbs ) in chesapeake , maryland . the majority of the semen sbs processes from their stallions is used for export purposes as they have a huge following in europe . jean brown , vice president of blue chip farms , said ,\nduring the saturday , january 12 harness racing card at the meadowlands , martin scharf presented julia zenker , the daughter of deborah lass and drew zenker , with a $ 15 , 000 check as the winner of the gallo blue chip scholarship .\nby the end of his 3 - year - old campaign in 2000 , gallo blue chip had become the richest single - season moneywinning standardbred of all time by earning more than $ 2 . 4 million . major victories that year included the north america cup , meadowlands pace , art rooney pace , tattersalls pace and the breeders crown . in his little brown jug preview win , gallo blue chip set a world record for 3 - year - old pacers on a five - eighths - mile track ( 1 : 50 ) . gallo blue chip was voted 2000 horse of the year and pacer of the year , and also won both the usta and canadian ( o\u2019brien ) 3 - year - old pacing colt of the year awards .\nin a winner\u2019s circle presentation during the saturday , january 4 race card at the meadowlands racetrack , martin scharf presented the gallo blue chip scholarships to kayla prentice of vernon , new york and michelle galligan of cuddebackville , new york . . . .\nmr . gernatt loved horses and established dan gernatt farms , which sold yearlings commercially . his broodmare band produced many champions , especially on the new york sires stakes circuit . he bred $ 4 . 2 million winner gallo blue chip , and the top trotters bye tsem ( $ 515 , 194 ) , vernon blue chip ( $ 542 , 816 ) , and roz t collins ( $ 410 , 653 ) .\nas a 4 - year - old in 2001 , in a victory at the canadian pacing derby prep , gallo blue chip became the leading moneywinning pacer of all time with $ 3 , 227 , 861 to his credit . on his way to winning the 2001 pacing horse of the year award in both the u . s . and canada , gallo blue chip would win 10 out of 19 starts , including the graduate pace , battle of lake erie , american - national and the canadian pacing derby .\nas a racehorse , gallo blue chip was one of the gamest and most determined campaigners in harness racing history . in his honour , two determined students will receive scholarships that will help them make their own mark on history in the future . . . .\nin addition to the $ 1 . 1 million meadowlands pace in 2000 , gallo blue chip ' s other career highlights at the meadowlands included victories in the $ 300 , 000 graduate final in 2001 and the $ 121 , 000 presidential final in 2003 .\nin winning the presidential series final as a 6 - year - old in 2003 , gallo blue chip became the first pacer in history to break the $ 4 million mark in earnings . he would continue to race into 2005 as an 8 - year - old .\ngallo blue chip was inducted into the harness racing hall of fame on july 3 , 2011 , having received 34 % of the votes from members in good standing of the united states trotting association . he had a total of 53 wins of 133 starts during his career .\nannual members ( in good standing ) voted for the two horses they felt exemplified greatness . their choices are racehorse gallo blue chip who received 34 percent of the vote and racehorse eternal camnation who received 20 percent of the votes cast . the other nominees were rainbow blue ( 17 percent ) , garland lobell ( 15 percent ) and real desire ( 11 percent ) .\n. the scholarship , sponsored by martin scharf , honors the pacer who retired as the richest pacer of all time ; scharf campaigned gallo blue chip during his illustrious career . bown and wieder will be honored at a special dinner and winners circle ceremony at the meadowlands later this year .\ngallo\nenjoys a well - deserved life of leisure and fame in slate hill , new york , and has appeared at fairs and equine events as an ambassador of the sport . sponsored by martin scharf and administered by the harness horse youth foundation , the gallo blue chip scholarship is awarded annually to college - bound students from the new york - new jersey - pennsylvania area .\n' ' i was frightened very much coming to the half , ' ' said martin scharf , gallo blue chip ' s owner . ' ' when he cleared the lead i knew he was going to win . when he ' s on top , nobody can catch him . ' '\nthe $ 15 , 000 award , sponsored by scharf in honour of his pacing gelding that won over $ 4 . 2 million in his career and retired as the richest pacer of all - time , pushes overall gallo blue chip scholarship educational benefits to more than $ 100 , 000 .\ncongrats to dan dube on winning his 8000th race some of his greatest came with his old partner gallo .\ngallo blue chip and eternal camnation will be inducted on hall of fame day , sunday , july 3 , 2011 . the ceremonies for these two extraordinary standardbred racehorses will take place during the harness racing museum & hall of fame\u2019s annual dinner . for information on the hall of fame weekend and other festivities surrounding this important occasion visit\ngallo blue chip entered the race as the favorite , having won the north american cup in 1 : 501 5 , the second - fastest time in cup history . he started the season slowly but has improved under the guidance of mark ford , 29 , who became the youngest trainer to win two million - dollar races .\nin 2010 , blue chip farms expanded their focus by initiating a warmblood breeding program to develop young sporthorses . this venture began with the retirement and breeding availability of the two - time olympic gold medal winning show jumper mare , sapphire ( photo right ) . before her passing in june 2014 she was one mare in the small band of sporthorse broodmares at blue chip farms . blue chip farms has utilized sbs to assist them with importing frozen semen from top jumping stallions in europe . they also currently have a few of sapphire\u2019s colts they intend to keep as stallions so they can use sbs to collect and freeze semen for export to the eu to meet the demand expressed by european breeders . blue chip farms also stands two jumper stallions , domino ( darco x happy wind ) and ultimo van ter moude ( capitol i x major de la cour ) , in which sbs orchestrates the distribution of the semen throughout the united states and canada .\ngrowing up , gallo blue chip was one of my favorite horses , \u201d said kevin koury , who along with his father joe and brother joe jr . is part of the jjk stables partnership that owns foiled again with the burke racing stable , mark weaver and mike bruscemi .\nhe was a special horse and to pass him is unbelievable . \u201d\nas an eight - year - old in 2005 , he was continuing to race prior to his retirement on march 12 , 2005 . in 2005 , gallo blue chip retired\nas the sport ' s leading money winning pacer\nand standardbred gelding of all - time . he is the first horse to have won more than $ 4 million in the sport .\ngallo blue chip retires with a record of 53 wins , 19 seconds and nine thirds from 133 starts and earnings of $ 4 , 260 , 959 , mostly for martin scharf of lawrence , new york , who acquired him on august 8 , 1999 . his last win was in a condition pace , the 13th race on february 26 , 2005 at the meadowlands .\ni appreciate what gallo blue chip did now more than i ever did before ,\nsaid ford .\ni see what goes into it . you go to harrisburg [ for the yearling sale ] , and you realize that of all the horses sold , there can only be one who wins the races he did . i see how tough it is now to really do all that .\nthe muni side is offering significant ballast to the portfolio ,\ngallo said from his office at pittsburgh - based federated investors inc .\ngallo blue chip won eight of eight starts in 1999 , including seven new york sires stakes and the $ 150 , 000 championship . in 2000 , gallo blue chip won the meadowlands pace horse race at the meadowlands racetrack in new jersey with a time of 1 : 50 . 4 . the same year , he also won the breeder ' s crown three - year - old colt and gelding pace at mohawk racetrack in 1 : 51 . 1 . winning the north america cup ( 1 : 50 . 1 ; $ 1 million ) , tattersalls pace , and art rooney pace were additional major victories for him that year . he set the world record for three - year - old pacers on a 5 / 8 mile track in his win at the little brown jug preview with a time of 1 : 50 , becoming world champion .\nmeyerson has held important sales positions with ascentia wine estates , diageo chateau & estates , terlato wines , and e & j gallo during his impressive 17 year career .\ngallo blue chip became the all - time leading money - winning pacer in 2001 with $ 3 , 227 , 861 by winning the canadian pacing derby prep . that year , he won 10 out of 19 starts , including the battle of lake erie , graduate pace , canadian pacing derby , and american - national . he was the first pacer in the history of harness racing to earn more than $ 4 million in winnings , having done so in 2003 as a six - year - old at the presidential series final .\ntalk about a triple crown winner , how about the north america cup , meadowlands pace , and breeders crown all won by gallo in his horse of the year , 3yr old season .\n\u201csbs has very strict quality standards on the semen it processes for export . as such , our european agents feel comfortable marketing the frozen semen to their clients . they know that conception rates will be maximized . this is extremely important for blue chip\u2019s business model because in the standardbred industry the stallion owner isn\u2019t paid a service fee until the mare delivers a live foal . \u201d\nnestled on almost 700 acres in wallkill , ny sits blue chip farms , the leading commercial standardbred breeding and boarding farm in the state of new york . this beautiful farm with its rolling hills was founded in 1969 by the kimelman family then purchased in 2001 by tom grossman . mr . grossman became interested in standardbred racing when he was a teenager and bought his first horse in 1989 .\nthe hhyf has posted applications for the 2013 gallo blue chip scholarship on the website . the harness horse youth foundation is a charitable 501 ( c ) 3 organization dedicated to providing young people and their families educational opportunities with harness horses , in order to foster the next generation of participants and fans . the foundation has been making a difference in young people ' s lives since 1976 , and its programs include interactive learning experiences with these versatile animals , scholarship programs , and creation and distribution of educational materials . for more information on opportunities through hhyf , or to support its mission , go to urltoken .\nthe only knock on him is , he could have been gallo blue chips regular driver but choose off of him after winning a $ 100 , 000 . 00 the burlington stake in canada to drive another horse , who we would beat in the $ 1 , 000 . 000 . 00 north america cup elimination and final the next two weeks in a row . the rest would go on to become history . to this day i still say gallo would have never lost a race that year , which he didn ' t loose many if john\nthe boss\ncampbell would have stuck with him but it all turned out good for everyone . congrats to him on a well deserved night of recognition . we love and owe so much to daniel dube . gallo ' s regular and all time win and money earned driver .\nperhaps it was a night for underdogs , as only four betting favorites found the winners circle . ironically , horses named after 1976 movie icon , rocky , had a big night : salevster stallion ( race 1 , fin . 2nd ) , stallone blue chip ( r3 , 1st ) & yo cheyenne rocky ( r9 , 1st ) . nonetheless , team gural showed the world that they were up for the task !\nv2 wine group is pleased to announce the appointment of wine industry veteran scott ericson as the company\u2019s vice president of sales . ericson , whose 25 - year industry background includes top executive sales and marketing roles with blue chip wine companies , will oversee all sales functions for v2 wine group\u2019s expanding portfolio which includes dry creek vineyard , steelhead wines , and toad hollow vineyards . he will also manage sales in v2\u2019s growing export business .\njean said , \u201cbreeding success is what we strive for and sbs has assisted in that endeavor when utilizing frozen semen . for the warmbloods , it is going to be important for us to freeze semen from our young stallions for export to europe and canada especially while they are in training and showing . \u201d with their track record of success in the standardbred industry blue chip farms is sure to make its mark in the sporthorse world as well .\ngallo blue chip ' s owner , martin scharf , described his feelings about the horse ' s north america cup victory , saying ,\nwinning the north america cup was a thrill and a relief . even if you know a horse is good , he has to prove it . i ' ve been in this business for 10 years and you never really know if you have that caliber of a horse . the horse ' s trainer , mark ford , said of him in july of 2000 ,\nhe ' s a little hard to train . you won ' t be impressed if you train him in the middle of the week , but he is good when he races .\nblue chip farms stands and manages eleven standardbred stallions in the united states and canada . their roster includes chapter seven ( windsong\u2019s legacy x la riviera lindy ) , crazed ( credit winner x mary lou hall ) , credit winner ( photo below ; american winner x lawn tennis ) , muscle mass ( muscles yankee x graceful touch ) , american ideal ( western ideal x lifetime success ) , art major ( artsplace x perfect profile ) , bettor\u2019s delight ( cam\u2019s card shark x classic wish ) , rock n roll heaven ( rocknroll hanover x artistic vision ) , roll with joe ( cam\u2019s card shark x classic wish ) , shadow play ( the panderosa x matt\u2019s filly ) and sunshine beach ( somebeachsomewhere x light up ) . most of the stallions shuttle between the northern hemisphere and southern hemispheres or their frozen semen is shipped to europe . in 2014 more than 2500 mares were bred worldwide to the stallions of blue chip farms .\nas stock prices fall , federated muni and stock advantage fund ' s r . j . gallo and john l . nichol are providing more protection for investors than their peers by buying municipal bonds and shares of companies that pay high dividends .\nshould the new york mets become sellers ? what about the toronto blue jays and texas rangers ? those are just some of the clubs that will use june as a barometer for deciding what to do when the market really heats up in july .\nanother holding , an insured denver convention center hotel authority revenue bond , has a 5 . 125 percent coupon and matures in 2024 . because the insurer is a relative newcomer to the market , the bond ' s yield is higher , gallo said .\nv2 wine group announced the appointment of wine industry veteran ken meyerson as the company\u2019s director of national retail accounts . meyerson , whose 17 - year industry background includes top sales roles with blue chip wine companies , will oversee all sales in the national retail account arena for v2 wine group\u2019s expanding portfolio which includes dry creek vineyard , qup\u00e9 wine cellars , steelhead vineyards , valley of the moon and toad hollow vineyards among other luxury brands . he will report to scott ericson , v2 wine company\u2019s vice president , national sales manager .\ni was so unbelievably excited to hear the news about the scholarship . my parents have done and sacrificed so much for me over the years that i want to make them proud\nsaid $ 5 , 000 gallo blue chip recipient hannah wieder , of yonkers , new york . she will attend quinnipiac university to study diagnostic medical sonography . once she has her degree , she will move into an accelerated nursing program . getting involved in medicine is something that is near and dear to wieder , as she was born three months prematurely and spent several months in neonatal intensive care . a graduate of maria regina high school , hannah is an after school religious teacher , a eucharistic minister and has volunteered at white plains hospital , where she was born . her father alex campaigns a small stable at yonkers raceway .\ngives manager jeff banister some flexibility with the batting order ; joey gallo ' s bat , which has produced 16 home runs , has to fit somewhere . expect better days ahead , though if texas does slide , it will have plenty to market , including pending free agents like pitchers yu\ngallo and nichol have about 60 percent of the mutual fund ' s $ 572 million invested in muni bonds . the rest is in stocks such as at & t ; inc . , the largest u . s . telephone company . the approach is paying off in the worst year for stock markets since 2002 .\ngallo , who has a bachelor ' s degree in economics from the university of michigan at ann arbor and a master ' s degree in public affairs from princeton university , owns $ 5 million worth of aaa - rated chicago metropolitan water reclamation district bonds , which have a 5 percent coupon and mature in 2028 .\ngallo , 37 , a former analyst at the federal reserve bank of new york , and nichol , 43 , who used to oversee pension funds for the public employees retirement system of ohio , are beating rivals at funds such as the $ 622 million vanguard tax - managed balanced fund and the $ 373 million alliancebernstein tax - managed wealth preservation strategy .\nwhen he won the jug preview in 2000 , gene riegle came up to me and told me that gallo ' s race [ winning in 1 : 50 flat ] was the biggest trip he had ever seen a horse go in his life ,\nford recalled .\nhe told me that he wouldn ' t get beat in the [ little brown jug ] in 100 years . he might beat himself , but no one else could .\nericson , who most recently served as vice president , southwest division manager with w . j . deutsch & sons , worked with v2 president dan leese and v2 general manager katy leese at 585 wine partners , where he held the position of partner / western division manager for four years . prior to that he was with brown - forman beverages for nine years and progressed through several top sales and marketing roles . he began his career with e & j gallo winery and also held positions at heublein wine group and glen ellen winery .\nsince stumbling into a 2 - 11 hole to start the season , the blue jays have had the al ' s second - best record ( 24 - 16 ) . and while they ' re still in last place in the al east , they ' re just 5 1 / 2 games behind the front - running yankees and two back in the wild card , and they are welcoming the bronx bombers to toronto for a four - game series starting thursday . as if that wasn ' t enough cause for optimism , lefty francisco liriano is coming back from a three - week dl stint because of a shoulder injury to start on friday .\nnot surprisingly , shares of these fast - growing , high - quality companies don ' t come cheap . but when you buy tomorrow ' s blue chips \u2014 companies that stand a good chance of graduating to gargantuan status and that are likely to thrive in the toughest economic environments \u2014 you have to be willing to pay up a bit . this kind of stock can serve as a cornerstone of your portfolio for decades to come .\nwhenever i find a company that is really durable and able to grow 10 % to 15 % a year in any economy , i am willing to give it a little more leash ,\nsays joe milano , manager of t . rowe price ' s new america growth fund .\nwith lefty danny duffy out six to eight weeks due to an oblique strain , selling seems the more likely route . fellow starter ian kennedy has an opt - out after this year , but his performance to date ( 5 . 12 era , 5 . 43 fip ) looks a lot more like his 2013 to ' 15 struggles ( 84 era + ) than his resurgence from last season ( 117 era + ) , his first year in kansas city . shortstop alcides escobar ( . 186 / . 212 / . 236 ) is a change - of - scenery candidate , at best . on the other hand , lefty jason vargas ( 2 . 39 era , 3 . 22 fip ) has pitched his way into being a significant trade chip .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ndaniel r . gernatt sr . who operated dan gernatt farms in new york for many years and stood sir taurus at stud , died monday in his home after a brief illness . he was 97 . the farm was located in collins , ny , and the horses mr . gernatt bred all had the word\ncollins\nin their name .\nmr . gernatt owned companies which produced gravel and asphalt products , eventually with locations in several new york areas . he also at one time operated the largest dairy farm in erie county , ny .\nhe was a founder of the daniel and flavia gernatt family foundation , a charitable and private financial assistance program for organizations and entities in western new york state , mostly in the areas of education , health care and christian - related endeavors , particularly for those in need and who are homeless .\na lifelong member of st . joseph catholic church in gowanda , ny , mr . gernatt was a trustee and member of its holy name society . he was director of new york state dairy council , united states trotting association , a former president of gowanda chamber of commerce and former advisory board member for hsbc .\nhe is survived by a son , daniel jr . ; two daughters , patricia rebmann and phyllis ulmer ; a sister , esther dittenhofer ; 16 grandchildren ; and 32 great - grandchildren .\nhome : : news archive : : racing reports : : sale reports : : calendars : : guide directory : : contact the staff advertising rates & information for : horseman and fair world magazine : : urltoken : : harness racing weekend preview website design by elink design , inc . a lexington web design company : : hosted by intelliwire , llc , an offsite backup company site contents may not be reproduced without the expressed written consent of the publisher . \u00a9 2018 horseman publishing co . , lexington ky , all rights reserved\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ngoshen , ny - - - stanley bergstein , chairman of the living horse hall of fame nominating committee of the harness racing museum & hall of fame , has announced the results of recent balloting that determined the 2011 members of the harness racing living horse hall of fame .\nfrom april 2011 onward or call or write the museum at 240 main street , goshen , ny 10924 . phone : 845 . 294 . 6330 .\nthey must be retired from racing for five years and had a drug - free career . in addition , racehorses must have won 75 percent of their lifetime starts , or gone undefeated in a single season campaign of 12 or more races , or been the winner of $ 3 million lifetime or named harness horse of the year ( us and / or canada ) .\nstallions must rank among the 10 all - time leading money - winning sires at their gait or have sired at least 100 $ 200 , 000 winners or been a leading money - winning sire at his gait in three or more seasons .\nbroodmares are automatically elected if they have produced a $ 1 million winner and two other winners of $ 500 , 000 or produced a harness horse of the year ( us and / or canada ) and another $ 500 , 000 winner .\neternal camnation ( nominated as race horse ) p , 5 , 1 : 49 . 2 ( $ 3 , 748 , 574 ) bay mare , 1997 ( cam fella - cool world - nihilator )\neternal camnation ranks as the leading moneywinning pacing mare of all time , the third - leading moneywinning pacer of all time , and the tenth - leading moneywinning standardbred of all time .\nin 1999 eternal camnation finished second in her first race but went on to win her next 12 freshman contests , culminating with a breeders crown victory and both the usta and canadian ( o\u2019brien ) 2 - year - old pacing filly of the year awards .\nduring her 2000 sophomore season , \u201ccammie\u201d won the fan hanover and the jugette as her earnings topped the $ 1 million mark .\nas a 4 - year - old in 2001 , eternal camnation won the lady liberty , her second breeders crown , and the milton stakes . with her triumph in the roses are red final , eternal camnation became the richest distaff pacer ever . she finished the year a nose shy of $ 2 million in lifetime earnings and was voted 2001 pacing mare of the year in both the u . s . and canada .\nin 2002 , 5 - year - old eternal camnation won her second roses are red pace and milton stakes , again receiving u . s . and canadian pacing mare of the year honors .\nin 2003 , eternal camnation would win her last nine races , including her third breeders crown and milton stakes as well as the classic distaff . that year she set the world record for 5 - year - old and older pacing mares on a five - eighths - mile track and earned $ 908 , 346 , bringing her lifetime earnings to over $ 3 million . for the third time , she was voted pacing mare of the year in the u . s . and canada and also won canada\u2019s 2003 horse of the year award .\neternal camnation\u2019s greatest victory in 2004 was her classic distaff win . she garnered her fourth consecutive canadian older pacing mare of the year award and retired with $ 3 , 748 , 574 in lifetime earnings .\ncopyright \u00a92018 the united states trotting association . all rights reserved . this material may not be published , broadcast , rewritten or redistributed in any form without the expressed , written consent of the u . s . trotting association . please review our privacy policy maintained online by webmaster @ urltoken . united states trotting association 6130 s . sunbury rd . , westerville , ohio 43081 1 - 877 - 800 - usta mon . - fri . 8 a . m . - 4 : 30 p . m . est site map\ncolumbus , oh - - - daniel r . gernatt sr . , died monday in his home after a brief illness . he was 97 .\nmagical mike * b p , 3 , 1 : 50 . 2m $ 1 , 682 , 085 1991 standardbred\ntyler b b p , 3 , 1 : 55 . 1m $ 687 , 388 1977 standardbred\nmeadow skipper * br p , 3 , 1 : 55 . 1m $ 428 , 057 1960\nracing date br p , 3 , t1 : 57 . 2m $ 18 , 865 1977 standardbred\ngood time * b p , 1 : 57 . 4m $ 318 , 792 1946\nbreath o spring blk p , 3 , t2 : 01 . 1 $ 3 , 144 1953\ntarport martha p , 2 , 2 : 06 . 2f $ 1 , 009 1968 standardbred\nobrien hanover * p , 6 , 1 : 59 . 2m $ 302 , 255 1955\nadios betty b p , 2 , t1 : 58 . 4m $ 34 , 171 1951\nmeadow skipper * br p , 3 , 1 : 55 . 1m $ 428 , 057 1960 standardbred\ndancer hanover b p , 4 , t1 : 56 . 4m $ 87 , 746 1957\nbye bye byrd * b p , 5 , t1 : 56 . 1m $ 554 , 272 1955 standardbred\npoplar byrd b p , t1 : 59 . 3m $ 69 , 300 1944\nevalina hanover b p , 1 : 59 . 2m $ 12 , 420 1946\nkaola hanover b p , 4 , 2 : 05 . 3h $ 14 , 600 1949\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 harness racing museum & hall of fame . all rights reserved .\njennas beach boy - 1996 driscoll - 1 : 47 . 3 world record - the meadowlands\nit \\ ' s always fun to talk to a legend and i recently had such a pleasure . they call him casey . with 11 , 038 career wins , walter case , jr . is 8th on the all - time list of dash - winning harness drivers . he led north america in wins three times\u20141998 , 2001 and 2002 .\nas the richest pacer of all time . when his racing days were over , he continued to serve harness racing as an ambassador to the fans . he is now living out his retirement at mark ford training center .\ncanadian pacing derby , been there done that . good luck to this years final players .\nmcdermott is a freshman in business administration at the university of florida . he has aspirations of pursuing a masters degree and spoke about his opportunities to sit behind the extremely fast hurrikane kingcole , whom his father trains . in an in house interview , the younger mcdermott joked saying ,\ni have seen him ( hurrikane kingcole ) give\ntrouble in the bike , so i don ' t think my dad was going to let me sit behind him going full - speed .\nhe will head back to gainsville , florida for the spring semester .\nms . diaz , a resident of middletown , new york is a junior at stony brook university , studying chemical and molecular engineering . she will receive a $ 5 , 000 stipend . diaz noted that\nshe still has her senior thesis to complete , but once she is done with that , things will get a little easier at school .\ni ' m so honored to have received this scholarship as it relieves some of the financial burden of obtaining my college education ,\nsaid bown who will receive the $ 15 , 000 stipend . she is currently studying nursing and wellness at the university of new hampshire which will allow her to enter a nursing program after graduation . she hopes to positively affect more people through nursing than she would have been able to as a dietician . she is particularly interested in oncology , as she lost her father to cancer while she was in the sixth grade . bown was the recipient of the curt greene scholarship from hhyf in 2016 . she has worked at a number of new jersey stables during summer break .\nnow in its fifth decade of service to harness racing , the harness horse youth foundation is a charitable 501 ( c ) 3 organization dedicated to providing young people and their families educational opportunities with harness horses , in order to foster the next generation of participants and fans .\nthe foundation has been making a difference in young people ' s lives since 1976 , and its programs include interactive learning experiences with these versatile animals , scholarship programs , and creation and distribution of educational materials .\nfor more information on opportunities through hhyf , or to support its mission , go to urltoken .\nzenker is a graduate of new york ' s port jervis high school and is currently attending wagner college in staten island majoring in philosophy and spanish , in pursuit of a law degree . she has maintained a 3 . 9 gpa at wagner . the scholarship is named for scharf ' s great pacer , who retired as the richest pacer in the history of the sport , earning over $ 4 . 25 million dollars in his career , which lasted from 1999 - 2005 .\nfor the last two years zenker has divided her summer days between being a full time exercise rider at the schnittker stable and parade marshal at goshen historic track . she has worked with several other trainers at goshen since she was young . she also has a wide array of non - equine volunteer experience , including tutoring at el centro del inmigrante in staten island ( the immigration center of staten island ) , she has also interned with the calro project , been a project aide at the african refugee center in staten island , and served as generation citizen campus executive director at wagner )\nthe harness horse youth foundation , the industry leader in youth development is pleased to announce that applications are now available for the three 2018 scholarships hhyf offers . . . .\na reminder that applications for the three 2017 scholarships offered by the harness horse youth foundation are due at the end of this month . . . .\nas the harness horse youth foundation wraps up its 40th anniversary year , the organization is proud to look to the future . applications are now available for the three 2017 scholarships offered by the hhyf . . . .\nthe free for all pacers have taken turns beating each other for the majority of the meet thus far at the meadowlands . that trend continued on saturday night in the form of doctor butch . . . .\n\u00a9 2018 standardbred canada . all rights reserved . use of this site signifies your agreement and compliance with the legal disclaimer and privacy policy .\nhe was a great horse - a big horse . if you sat behind him and he was going slow you would never think that he was a great horse . he felt like a horse with not a lot , but when you got him going there was nothing like him . he was so powerful in the meadowlands pace and especially the jug preview . those are the races that i will always remember most . in the jug preview , he was parked the whole mile . you know , not many horses can do that , and the way he did it is very hard to describe . ( daniel dube , february 21 , 2008 )\neast rutherford , nj \u2013 harness fans , eager to check out the new meadowlands racing & entertainment complex , stormed into the facility saturday night ( nov . 23 ) by the thousands . shortly after the opening ceremonies , a series of snow squalls also stormed into the east rutherford sports complex .\ndespite the high winds , the spirit of the estimated 15 , 000 fans would never be diminished as the new facility was as exciting as the racing product . five of the thirteen races were determined by winning margins of less than a length and ten were won by 2 lengths or less . possibly the most exciting was the neck victory by foiled again over warrawee needy in the final leg of the tvg ffa in 1 : 49 . 3 .\nprevious to the ribbon cutting , miss rodeo new jersey delivered a poignant national anthem , followed by opening remarks by sam mckee , chairman jeff gural , sboa / nj president tom luchento , and ceo jason settlemoir . fans were reminded that three years ago the sboa / nj and gural met with the nj governor\u2019s administration and helped rescue the meadowlands racetrack from governmental extinction .\n\u201cthree years later , we are here in a magnificent new building , at the premier track in north america , looking forward to showcasing the best harness racing presented anywhere in the world , \u201d luchento said .\npatrons on the apron for the race two - tvg trot found themselves in a mini white - out due to a rapid burst of wind and snow . some of the best trotters in the world went behind the gate , where five out of the six starters were hambletonian finalists . wishing stone was victorious , and paid his supporters handsomely at odds of 9 - 1 .\none big fan of racing , usta executive director mike tanner found himself caught in the whirlwind . he proclaimed , \u201cthis place is great , \u201d as he tweeted \u2018not pompano\u2019 in response to the sudden blast of arctic air .\nfans and horsepeople alike were ecstatic about the new building . janet terhune , director of the harness racing museum & hall of fame , exclaimed , \u201cthe new meadowlands is absolutely fantastic . trotters ( owners club ) is a great experience\u2014it is very \u2018clubby . \u2019 the whole facility is filled with people and everybody loves racing . \u201d\nenjoying the atmosphere in trotters was the breeder of deweycheatumnhowe , steve jones . clearly enjoying his well appointed surroundings , \u201cjonesy\u201d stated , \u201cthe facility is fantastic . gural and his partners have done a great job . there is a lot of enthusiasm here . i like the night club , and all the gambling areas , the bars and everything ! i really think this is going to be a great place to be . \u201d"]}
{"id": 2308, "summary": [{"text": "eutane terminalis , the banded lichen moth , is a moth of the arctiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by walker in 1854 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is known from australia ( queensland and new south wales ) .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 15 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are black and yellow .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on lichen .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they are dark grey and yellow and reach a length of about 15 mm when full-grown .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they live communally . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "eutane terminalis", "paragraphs": ["eutane walker , 1854 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 2 : 531 ; ts : eutane terminalis walker\ntype - species : eutane terminalis walker , 1854 . list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . : 531 . [ bhl ]\neutane terminalis ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 495 , f . 356 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ]\neutane margarita bucsek , 2012 ; malaysia inst . zool . : ( 1 - 170 )\neutane virginalis bucsek , 2012 ; malaysia inst . zool . : ( 1 - 170 )\neutane trimochla turner , 1940 ; proc . r . soc . qd 51 ( 6 ) : 77\neutane\nnivea ; [ mob7 ] : 375 , pl . 6 , f . 434 , 459\nspecies of lichen moth are found all over the world , but most australian species are endemic ( only occur in australia ) . common species in the sydney region include the banded lichen moth eutane terminalis , manulea replana , the lydia lichen moth asura lydia , the alternating footman tigroides alternata , and the dimunitive footman scoliacma nana ,\neutane triplagiata pagenstecher , 1900 ; zoologica , stutt . 12 ( 29 ) : 59 , pl . 2 , f . 24\ngenus : eutane walker , 1854 . list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . ( 2 ) : 531 . [ bhl ]\neutane nivea hampson , 1905 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 15 ( 89 ) : 439 ; tl : pulo laut\neutane triplagiata ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 832 ( unrecognized ) ; [ nhm card ]\neutane alba hampson , 1900 ; cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 496 , pl . 33 , f . 9 ; tl : borneo , sandakan\nthe small , tufted caterpillars of the banded lichen moth ( eutane terminalis ) are often found crawling on house walls and ceilings in sydney suburbs . they have been found in great numbers during and after wet weather , especially on older woodwork and roofs , where lichens tend to grow . they manage to get into houses through ventilation grilles and other holes , looking for places to spin a cocoon and pupate . the caterpillars eventually pupate , to emerge as black and orange moths that congregate in gardens .\neutane aglaea hampson , 1914 ; cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 786 , f . 256 ; tl : br . n . guinea , mambare r . , biagi\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nedwards , e . d . 1996 ,\narctiidae\n, ed . nielsen , e . s . , edwards , e . d . & rangsi , t . v . ( eds ) , checklist of the lepidoptera of australia . monographs on australian lepidoptera , vol . 4 , pp . pp . 278 - 286 , csiro publishing , collingwood\nbutler , a . g . 1877 ,\non lepidoptera of the family lithosiidae , in the collection of the british museum\n, transactions of the entomological society of london , vol . 1877 , pp . 325 - 377\nlucas , t . p . 1890 ,\non queensland and other australian macro - lepidoptera , with localities , and descriptions of new species\n, proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales , ser . 2 , vol . 4 , no . 4 , pp . 1065 - 1099\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 87299c1c - 38b7 - 45c0 - 8b68 - 51981b638ad5\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : eec12b6b - 7e75 - 40fb - 9c63 - eb801d15dae2\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 7591b3ce - 86ed - 4501 - 883c - 112273befc06\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 474253\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nlichen moth caterpillars are typically dark coloured with clumps of black setae ( spiny hairs ) often with tufts on the back of the larva . adult moths have a wingspan up to 60 mm , but most species are much smaller .\nadult lichen moths can be recognised by their wing colouration , and the way they hold their wings . many rest with the wings rolled around the abdomen rather than holding them in the shape of a roof , leading to the common name of\nfootman\n.\nadult moths often have bright orange , yellow , red , black and white wing markings . in the related sub - family arctiinae the same colouring occurs in some species , giving those moths the common name of ' tiger moths ' .\nlichen moth species are found in areas where conditions favour the development of lichen and other encrusting algae . these habitats include everything from rainforests to alpine regions , and even deserts , where algae and lichen often form encrusting ' carpets ' on the ground . lichens are often important components of natural habitats , providing nutrients and preventing erosion , and lichen moths may provide a means of measuring environmental health .\nlichen moths can be found all year round except in colder southern regions . humid summers may be responsible for sudden population explosions of these moths .\nlichens , but other encrusting algae and moss may be eaten . mature larvae are sometimes reared from plant samples where they have been feeding on lichens on branches , leading to incorrect food plant records .\nskin irritation ( urticaria ) can result from handling some lichen moth caterpillars , but this is rare compared to larvae from some other moth families such as anthelidae and lymantriidae .\nthe bright colours of the adults may warn potential predators such as birds that the moths taste bad . lichens have many toxic chemicals , and the caterpillars which feed on them can store these chemicals as a defence mechanisms . these defensive chemicals are retained in the adult moths .\nlichen moths may also be good environmental indicators of pollution . pollutants such as acid rain and heavy metals often kill lichens , and absence , or reduced diversity of lichen moth species in affected areas may indicate that damage to the lichen community has occurred .\ncommon , i . f . b . 1990 . moths of australia . melbourne university press .\nnsw department of agriculture . 1976 . lichen - eating caterpillars . entomology branch insect pest bulletin 98 .\nhesbacher , s . , giez , g . embacher , k . fiedler , w . max , a . trawoger , r . turk , o . l . lange and p . proksch . 1995 . sequestration of lichen compounds by lichen - feeding members of the arctiidae ( lepidoptera ) . journal of chemical ecology 21 ( 12 ) : 2079 - 2089 .\nmarriott , p . 2009 . moths of victoria . part 2 - tiger moths and allies - noctuoidea ( a ) . 36pp . + cd rom . entomological society of victoria , melbourne .\nlithosiinae asura lydia male view full size photographer : d . britton \u00a9 australian museum\nthe source code for museums victoria collections is available on github under the mit license .\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nwalker , 1854 list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 1 : 1 - 278 ( 1854 ) , 2 : 279 - 581 ( 1854 ) , 3 : 583 - 775 ( 1855 ) , 4 : 777 - 976 ( 1855 ) , 5 : 977 - 1258 ( 1855 ) , 6 : 1259 - 1508 ( 1855 ) , 7 : 1509 - 1808 ( 1856 )\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\n( a question mark next to a word above means that we couldn ' t find it , but clicking the word might provide spelling suggestions . )\nnot helpful ? you might try using the wildcards * and ? to find the word you ' re looking for . for example , use\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ntype specimens : type ( s ) [ australia ] new holland : new holland , specimens from unstated localities and from new south wales , ( ? depository ) . .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nlisted below are a number of moth species , found in australia and which , in the larval stage , eat lichens . captive larvae may be made to eat foods other than what they would eat naturally . however , for the species listed below there is evidence ( or strong suspicion ) that the larvae eat lichens in the wild . some of the species listed below are also found outside australia but i have given only the australian distribution .\nthese are small moths , with body lengths between about 5 and 10 millimetres , depending on the species .\nthe species is found in southern australia . the larvae feed on lichens growing on trunks , fence posts or rocks and lichen fragments are incorporated in the larval cases .\nthis moth is found from central queensland to southern new south wales . the larvae can appear in large numbers on the outside walls of older wooden houses and often enter houses ( probably in search of pupation sites ) . such numbers or activities may cause concern but the larvae are not harmful and feed on the fine lichens that can be found on old woodwork .\nthis species is found between northern new south wales and cairns in northern queensland . its larvae have been found feeding on lichens growing on the trunks of pawpaw trees .\nthe first species is known from southern queensland to victoria and the adults rest on lichen - covered rocks . the larvae of both species are thought to eat lichens .\nthe moth ' s wing pattern matches the lichens on which it rests . the species is found from southern queensland to southern new south wales and the range probably extends into victoria . the larvae feed on lichens and shelter in tubes constructed from silk and lichen fragments .\nthis species is found from southern queensland to southern new south wales and feeds on lichens that grow in shady places on rocks or cliff faces .\nthe larvae of many narcyia species feed on lichens and make cases which incorporate lichen fragments . narcyia basiferana is found in new south wales and southern queensland while narcyia cataphracta is found in victoria , tasmania and south - east south australia . the latter is sometimes common in pine plantations where it feeds on the lichens growing on the trees .\nthe species ranges from southern queensland to victoria , tasmania and south - eastern south australia . the larvae are found on the trunks or branches of various plants and feed on lichens and possibly algae as well .\nthe species is found from southern queensland to south australia . the larvae live in silk - lined vertical tunnels in the ground . across the soil surface the larva constructs a soil - encrusted , silken tube that is attached firmly to the tunnel mouth and open at the other end . when not occupied by the larva this tube collapses . at night time the larva takes up position at the tube ' s open end and browses on terrestrial lichens . the larva also collects lichen fragments which it stores in a chamber just below the soil surface , so giving the larva a food supply for times when conditions are unsuitable for surface browsing .\nthis species has been found in north and south queensland and from there south to victoria , tasmania and south - east south australia . near adelaide larvae of this species have been seen eating moss and , less frequently , lichens on rocks in grassy areas .\nthe first species is found in southern queensland and new south wales and feeds on the lichens found on sandstone rock faces . the larval cases are ornamented with sand grains . the second species is found from southern queensland to victoria . the larvae feed on tree - trunk lichens and construct cases ornamented with lichen fragments .\nthis species , found from southern queensland to victoria , is thought to feed on lichens .\ncommon , ifb . ( 1993 , repr . of 1990 ed . ) . moths of australia . melbourne university press , melbourne\nwritten by heino lepp , updated on web 10 january , 2014 , webmaster , anbg ( anbg - info @ urltoken ) \u00a9 2012 australian national botanic gardens and australian national herbarium , canberra . all rights reserved"]}
{"id": 2310, "summary": [{"text": "the lesser hairy-footed dunnart ( sminthopsis youngsoni ) is a small carnivorous australian marsupial of the family dasyuridae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is a widespread and fairly common species , being found in many desert areas of western australia , northern territory and queensland .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its foraging strategies have been studied by haythornthwaite and dickman .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the lesser hairy-footed dunnart is distinguished from the very similar hairy-footed dunnart by its smaller size and less hairy soles . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "lesser hairy - footed dunnart", "paragraphs": ["dunnarts\u2019 lifespans vary . fat - tailed dunnarts only live for 15 - 18 months , but lesser hairy - footed dunnarts live to five years old .\na little long - tailed dunnart on our charles darwin reserve , wa . photo ben parkhurst . the julia creek dunnart ( one of the largest ) is up to 25cm from snout to tail , and weighs up to 70g . the lesser hairy - footed dunnart is one of the smallest species , weighing a measly 10g !\neleven different species of dunnart are found on bush heritage properties . we have hairy - footed dunnarts on eurardy ; charles darwin reserve supports four different species ( fat - tailed , little long - tailed , gilbert\u2019s and white - tailed ) ; stripe - faced dunnarts are found on naree station and boolcoomatta ; fat - tailed dunnarts occur on several properties including nardoo hills , bon bon , naree and eurardy ; and hairy - footed and lesser hairy - footed dunnarts both occur on ethabuka reserve .\nthe lesser hairy - footed dunnart is listed as least concern ( lr / lc ) , lowest risk . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category , on the iucn red list of threatened species\nit eats mainly insects including grasshoppers and crickets as well as spiders and other invertebrates . even though it is tiny , the lesser hairy - footed dunnart is very brave and will fiercely protect itself if it feels threatened , but if there is no food available they can become torpid .\nmckenzie , n . l . and cole , j . r . 2008 . lesser hairy - footed dunnart , sminthopsis youngsoni . in : s . van dyck and r . strahan ( eds ) , the mammals of australia . third edition , pp . 160 - 161 . reed new holland , sydney , australia .\na hairy - footed dunnart on eurardy reserve , wa . photo leanne hales . while 12 of the 19 dunnart species are considered \u2018of least concern\u2019 of extinction , many species have suffered a decline in their distribution . four species \u2013 chestnut , kakadu , julia creek and white - footed ( south - east mainland ) \u2013 are considered near threatened and three ( butler\u2019s , kangaroo island and sandhill ) are threatened according to the mammal action plan 2012 . many others are regionally threatened : the stripe - faced dunnart , for instance , is considered vulnerable in nsw .\na fat - tailed dunnart at bon bon reserve , sa . photo annette ruzicka . during the day dunnarts sleep in hollow logs , under rocks , in soil cracks or in small nests . these nests can be in logs , grass tussocks and grasstrees ( xanthorrhoea spp . ) . the hairy - footed dunnart is so small that it lives in the burrows made by spiders and bull ants !\na stripe - faced dunnart at boolcoomatta reserve , sa . photo annette ruzicka . threats\nthere is a large population which lives in a number of protected areas including uluru national park and rudall river national park , so it is considered unlikely that the numbers will be declining at the rate needed to be listed as threatened . the only threats to the lesser hairy - footed dunnart are not major . they include cats which were introduced to the habitat and frequent , huge fires , but these are considered only localized threats and are not a threat to the species .\nfat - tailed . white - tailed . hairy - footed . australia\u2019s dunnart species come in all shapes and sizes . dunnarts are nocturnal , carnivorous marsupials that are endemic to ( only found in ) australia . they\u2019re sometimes mistakenly called marsupial mice . though they ' re about the size of a mouse , they ' re more like quolls and mulgaras \u2013 fellow members of the dasyuridae family .\na fat - tailed dunnart on our charles darwin reserve , wa . photo tim doherty . there are 19 known species of dunnart and we have 11 different species on our reserves \u2013 charles darwin reserve in wa has five species on its own !\ndunnarts breed in spring and nest above ground . the stripe - faced dunnart has the shortest gestation of any mammal \u2013 only 11 days .\nacross our reserves we protect dunnart habitat by removing stock , preventing habitat clearance and implementing a patchy fire regime , so they can seek refuge in a \u2018mosaic\u2019 of vegetation . we also increase the dunnart\u2019s chance of living to a ripe old age by controlling feral cats and foxes .\na red - cheeked dunnart on cape york . photo annette ruzicka . the fat - tailed dunnart has the widest distribution \u2013 it\u2019s found across most of inland southern australia . other species , like the nationally endangered sandhill dunnart , have a far smaller range \u2013 this particular species is only found across less than 500 km 2 in three widely - separated populations in the great victoria desert in sa and wa and on the eyre peninsula .\ninappropriate fire regimes : that is , fires that are too frequent , intense and extensive . given a dunnart\u2019s home range can be as small as 50m , wildfires can wipe out an entire population .\na dunnart\u2019s tail is often nearly as long as its body and they have big black eyes , long whiskers , large ears and sharp teeth . their furry coats can be sandy , grey or brown , depending on the species .\nbeing nocturnal helps dunnarts conserve precious water and energy in extreme arid environments . and when it\u2019s cold , dunnart species happily share their nests with each other and with house mice , huddling together to stay warm . but those mice should sleep with one eye open \u2013 dunnarts will eat mice when temperatures warm again !\na stripe - faced dunnart captured during a survey at naree , nsw . photo ofalia ho . like other dasyurids , they have a fold of skin on the stomach instead of a fully formed pouch . here the tiny joeys drink from their mother\u2019s nipples for a month before they\u2019re suckled in the nest for another month .\na small sized dunnart , adults weigh 9 - 14 g . upper parts are yellow - brown contrasting sharply with the white underparts and feet . dark fur surrounds the eye and extends towards the muzzle . the tail is pinkish and about the same length as the hb , not obviously incrassated . interdigital pads on hind foot partially fused and covered in small granules and short bristly hairs .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , occurrence in a number of protected areas , and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category .\nthis species is endemic to australia , where it is distributed through the arid regions of western australia , northern territory , the top edge of south australia , and queensland ( mckenzie and cole 2008 ) .\nit is common in suitable habitat . there is no evidence of widescale population declines .\nit has been recorded in areas of sand plains , sand dunes , inter - dune habitats , hummock grasslands , tussock grasslands and open shrubland ( mckenzie and cole 2008 ) . females give birth to five or six young ( mckenzie and cole 2008 ) .\nthere appear to be no major threats to this species . predation from introduced cats and frequent , large - scale fires are localized threats .\nit has been recorded from a number of protected areas including rudall river national park ( western australia ) and uluru national park ( northern territory ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\n3 . shrubland - > 3 . 5 . shrubland - subtropical / tropical dry suitability : suitable 4 . grassland - > 4 . 5 . grassland - subtropical / tropical dry suitability : suitable 8 . desert - > 8 . 1 . desert - hot suitability : suitable\niucn . 2016 . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2016 - 2 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 04 september 2016 ) .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\npohjoisterritorionpussikko\nto\nsminthopsis youngsoni mckenzie and archer , 1982\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na carnivorous mammal , weighing only 0 . 01 kg . ( 0 . 022 lbs . ) , it lives up to 5 years and the females have litters of up to 5 or 6 young once a year . adults can be from 10 to 16 cm . ( 5 to 7 inches ) long . it is usually seen in sandy plains , inter - dune habitats , sand dunes , tussock grasslands , hummock grasslands and open shrubland . they get all the water they need from the insects they eat so they don ' t require to drink free water .\nit is listed in iucn red list of threatened species with a least concern ( lr / lc ) which is the designation for the lowest risk .\na curated database of candidate human ageing - related genes and genes associated with longevity and / or ageing in model organisms .\na curated database of genes associated with dietary restriction in model organisms either from genetic manipulation experiments or gene expression profiling .\nprojects focused on gene expression profiling of ageing and of dietary manipulations of ageing , such as caloric restriction .\nsoftware for ageing research , including the ageing research computational tools ( arct ) perl toolkit .\na curated database of ageing and life history information in animals , including extensive longevity records .\nthe benchmark genome assembly and annotation of the long - lived , cancer - resistant naked mole - rat ( heterocephalus glaber ) .\na high - coverage genome of the bowhead whale ( balaena mysticetus ) , the longest - lived mammal .\nanalyses using the anage database to study the evolution of longevity and ageing in vertebrate lineages .\na portal of ageing changes covering different biological levels , integrating molecular , physiological and pathological age - related data .\nthe whosage database contains people and biotech companies that are contributing to increase our understanding of ageing and life - extension .\n[ 0522 ] fisher et al . ( 2001 ) , the ecological basis of life history variation in marsupials\ncomments , suggestions , ideas , and bug reports are welcome . please contact us .\nwestern australia to exmouth peninsula in the south and west through little and great sandy deserts , through the southern half of the northern territory and into south - western queensland .\nall images on this website are \u00a9 lochman transparencies and should not be copied , downloaded , transferred , or re - created in any way , shape or form without prior consent .\ncarnarvon station cravens peak edgbaston ethabuka olkola pullen pullen reedy creek yourka more . . .\ndunnarts are found all over australia , from the tip of cape york to tasmania , from the east coast to south - west wa ( unusually the kimberley has very few dunnarts ) .\ndunnarts inhabit a whole host of environments . they live in arid and semi - arid woodlands , heathy forests , coastal ranges , dry sclerophyll forest , mallee scrub and grasslands .\nsome species live on the edges of paddocks , others thrive in deserts . how ? like mulgaras , dunnarts don\u2019t need to drink at all \u2013 they get the water they need from their prey !\ndepending on the species , they have litters of 5 to 10 joeys ( young ) . when born , joeys are smaller than a grain of rice !\ndunnarts emerge at night to feed . they\u2019re largely insectivorous , eating grasshoppers , crickets , termites , beetles and their larvae . but they\u2019re not picky eaters , they also munch on small reptiles , mammals , amphibians and spiders . some species can eat their body weight in a single night !\nduring times of plenty they store excess fat in their tails , which can take on a swollen , \u2018carrot - shaped\u2019 appearance . when food is scarce they draw on this fat to survive . they can also enter a state of torpor , saving energy by lowering their body temperature and metabolic rate \u2013 a kind of short - term hibernation .\nthe use of pesticides in agricultural areas can kill the insects that dunnarts eat .\na small carnivorous marsupial , about the size of a mouse with bristly footpads .\nthis insectivorous marsupial is nocturnal and shelters in burrows often dug by lizards during the day .\nfive or six pouch young are born in spring , which are independent from nov - feb .\nexmouth and along coast to port hedland , northern / central western deserts into nt and far west qld . absent from rocky / exposed areas of the pilbara . not endemic to western australia\nrights we support the open release of data and information about our collections . text content on this page is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international license . image content on this page is copyright wa museum ."]}
{"id": 2314, "summary": [{"text": "the four-line wrasse , larabicus quadrilineatus , is a species of wrasse native to the red sea and the gulf of aden .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it can be found on coral reefs at depths from the surface to 15 m ( 49 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "juveniles are cleaner fish , while the adults feed on coral polyps .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "this species grows to 11.5 cm ( 4.5 in ) in total length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this species is the only known member of its genus . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "four - line wrasse", "paragraphs": ["four line wrasse adults will reach only 2 . 9 inches ( 7 . 3 cm ) .\nthe four line wrasse is a beautiful fish but is quite secretive , shy and quick . . . making it a difficult fish to collect !\nthe 4 line wrasse comes from hawaii and isn\u2019t as available as the 6 line wrasse . it\u2019s not as aggressive as the 6 line wrasse , and is actually slightly small . you need to be careful when mixing it with other wrasse and basslet . needs a secure top as it\u2019s a jumper .\nthe four line wrasse is a small beautifully colored fish . the body is dark blue with four orange lines outlined in black running horizontally across the upper part , and the eyes are red . the white lines through the red eye is similar to that of the six line wrasse , but with four lines instead of six and a white chin you will quickly be able to differentiate the two . they are slightly smaller as well .\nthe four line wrasse , generally imported from hawaii , is available most of the year . usually it can be acquired by request from your pet store or found on the internet .\nit seems there is a direct correlation between size and sex for the four line wrasse . the males are generally the largest , with females coming in second and immature fish being the smallest .\nthe 6 line is much more readily available than the 4 line . although the 4 line is a little less violent than the 6 line i would avoid it as well . if your planning on adding it i would recommend making it the last fish you add . i had one and any new wrasse i would add would get harrassed to no end .\n\u2026flasher wrasse , also known as the eight - line fairy wrasse , originates from the waters of the red sea . the eightline flasher wrasse is a remarkably colored wrasse featuring different hues of yellow , orange and red . the distinguishing feature of this fish are the eight striking blue lines that run\u2026\nthe four line wrasse is found in the tropical north and south pacific ; from indonesia to australia , japan to hawaii , the marshall islands and adjoining areas . they inhabit seaward reefs at depths of 20 feet to 145 feet ( 6 - 44 meters ) , dwelling close to the bottom among corals and rubble .\nbeing active small colorful fish , the lined wrasses are popular for a small marine aquarium . they are quite hardy , disease resistant , and long lived . the aquarium care and behavior of the four line wrasse is very similar to that of the six line wrasse . once acclimated both these fish will even take care of a few pests in the aquarium , like the pyramidellid snails and commensal flatworms some coral keeping aquarists have to deal with at times . they are considered reef safe as they will not harm corals or coral anemones .\nthe hoeven ' s wrasse is also referred to as the tail spot wrasse , the yellow - lined wrasse , the orange - tipped rainbowfish , the tailspot wrasse , and the pinstriped wrasse . the body of this fish is blue - green in color and has pink or yellow stripes running horizontally across its sides . the color of the\u2026\nthe fourline wrasse is best kept as the only member of its species due to its aggression towards other line wrasses . if you want to keep more than one you ' ll need a large aquarium into which you introduce all line wrasses at the same time . this species is quite aggressive in aquariums and should only be kept with larger semi - aggressive fish such as marine angelfish , tangs and puffers . it should not be kept with other wrasse species . if you want to keep friendly species with your fourline wrasse ( which is risky ) you should introduce these before the wrasse .\n\u2026tailed flasher wrasse is the newest member of the genus paracheilinus to be imported from fiji and vanuatu . we are fortunate to offer you this occasional fish outside of diver ' s den and on a more regular basis . the red tailed flasher wrasse has a wide red patch with a single line on its dorsal fin . \u2026\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nno other wrasse did a better job on the few flatworms i had than my dusky wrasse . it is constantly investigating every nook and cranny of the live rock searching for pods or anything else it can find . you can also try a yellow or green coris wrasse .\nthe linespot flasher wrasse is also known as the dot dash or spot lined flasher wrasse , and is one of the most peaceful members of all the flasher wrasse . this gorgeous fish is an active show - stopper and makes a perfect addition to your peaceful community reef aquarium . the color of the female is\u2026\n4 lines tend to cost more than a 6 line and i guess people like the coloring better on a 6 line . i see 6 lines around me from 10 - 15 bucks and 4 lines go up to 30 bucks , so i guess for someone starting out with no knowledge or very little on either fish will go with the cheaper brighter fish . just a guess\nthe four lined wrasse should be kept singly as they do not co - habitat well with other lined wrasses . they are basically reef safe with more semi - aggressive fish such as tangs , angels , and butterflies . they will not harm corals or coral anemones . they can also be kept in a non - reef setting with goatfish , puffers , and squirrelfish .\n\u2026simply - striking grey head wrasse , or threespot wrasse has three white lines on either side of its head , three black spots along its back , and three false\neyes\nrunning along its dorsal fin back to a fourth on the tail in juveniles and females . adult male grey head wrasse , sport vivid blue stripes\u2026\nthe four line wrasses are excellent hiders and love to have live rock with plenty of retreats . they are diurnal , which means they are active by day and sleeping at night . as with all fish in this genus they sleep in a mucus cocoon , which fortunately does not seem degrade the water quality . it is thought that the cocoon protects them from predators as they sleep by masking their scent . in nature they are found with a coral called pocillopora meandrina .\ni ' m surprised to read this about a melanarus wrasse they are usually peaceful . mine is a model citizen .\nseems like very few people go with the 4 - line ' s . is there a reason why that is the case ? i always thought both were very active , eat flatworms , etc , but the 6 - line is much more violent . i am deciding on which to get . i do want to put other wrasses in the tank too , so don ' t want to guess wrong at the beginning .\nthis species is very popular because of its stunning beauty and small size which makes the fourline wrasse suitable for small marine aquariums . it has a green body with blue and purple fins and four horizontal stripes that run across the upper half of the body . each stripe is made up of three smaller stripes : one black stripe , one blue stripe and one red stripe . the eye is red with two white lines on it .\nmy reef tanks lots of rare fish , 180 , 180 , 125 lots of angels , tangs , wrasse . lit by leds\nin the wild they feed on many small organisms such as various crustaceans , molluscs , all kinds of worms , and fish eggs . in one article it was noted that during autopsy of 3 different four lines , one had remains of pistol shrimp , one had crab and a third only shrimp and gastropod larvae .\nthe fourline wrasse is an excellent jumper and it is important to cover the aquarium well do avoid that they jump out of the tank .\nwe have no information on the breeding of the fourline wrasse . sexing is possible since males are more colorful than females and grow larger .\n\u2026peaceful wrasses , including other halichoeres biocellatus . the red - lined wrasse will eat fireworms and pyramidellid snails ; protecting corals and clams . in addition , it may eat feather dusters , wild shrimp , tubeworms , and flatworms . it may also eat parasites off of tank mates . the red - lined wrasse \u2026\ni like the idea of the dusky and coris wrasses . my wife likes the green coris wrasses , as we have too much yellow in the tank already . are green coris wrasses as peaceful as the yellow variant ? will they accept other wrasses and also school together with other green coris ? i am going to open a new post specific on this question as well since this post may just be grabbing x - line wrasse browsers . thanks !\nthe fourline wrasse originates in the tropical pacific ocean where they are found from japan in the north to australia and the south and eastwards to hawaii and the marshall islands .\nthe sohal tang is hardy , but susceptible to a disease known as lateral line erosion , or hole in the head . a vegetarian diet high in vitamins , especially beta - carotene can aid in the prevention of development of the disease . stray voltages are also thought to contribute to this disease and the\u2026\n\u2026have an elongated body that is dark in color as a juvenile . when mature , their body lightens to a silver color , and they develop a dark longitudinal line spanning the entire length of the fish . these are very interesting fish that swim in a vertical position . these shrimpfish are difficult to keep\u2026\n\u2026 wrasse , also known as the diamond - tail fairy wrasse , originates solely from the marshall islands . in nature , they occur close to the substrate within the sand and rubble zones of the reef . they are gold in color with a vibrant blue head . their entire body is marked with a maze - like series of lines , \u2026\ni mainly just need a wrasse that will eat up my flatworm problem . any others that are more peaceful that we will do this ? seems like the flatworm eaters are always violent .\nideal conditions for the fourline wrasse is ph 8 . 1 - 8 . 4 , salinity 1 . 020 - 1 . 025 , and temperature 72 - 78\u00baf ( 22 - 26\u00b0c ) .\nthe fourline wrasse is a small , gorgeous wrasse from hawaii . these fish are very similar in design and behavior to their popular cousin the six line wrasse , but are colored slightly differently and not nearly as available to the hobbyist . the fourline wrasse has a hunter green colored body with horizontal neon blue lines running along its body . they have bright eyes highlighted in red , which also have a horizontal band . as they move their eye upward or downward the band becomes more noticeable . these fish are very peaceful and love to swim around with curiousity . the fourline are also beneficial for their interest in eating nuisance bristle and flat worms . these fish are perfect for reef tanks . the wrasse family of fish is a large group of usually very colorful free swimming fish . these fish are powerful swimmers using their pectoral fins to propel them through the water . wrasses usually have powerful jaws that enable them to crush their food , which includes worms . these fish usually have long continuous dorsal fins and are found in groups in the wild . the wrasses are one of the few fish that will bury themselves in the sand when sleeping or during flight . as with most pomacanthus angels , these fish go through extraordinary color changes from juvenile to adult . wrasses are also able to change their sex during these phase changes .\nthe aquarium should be well lit . keep the water quality high and the water parameters stable . good filtration and circulation is important if you want the fourline wrasse , as well as most other marine species , to thrive .\nthe fourline wrasse is a relatively small species and it can there fore be kept in aquarium as small as 20 gallon / 80 l . it is important to create an environment where your wrasse feels safe . if the fourline wrasse doesn ' t feel safe it will become stressed and very shy , spending most of its time hiding in the sand rather than swimming around showing itself off . there are two basic things to think if you want to create an environment that feels safe for you wrasses : 1 . the bottom of the tank should be covered with at least 2 - 3 in / 5 - 7 . 5 cm sand . the sand is important as the fourline wrasse wants to bury itself when it feels threatened and when it time for it to go to sleep . 2 . decorate the aquarium so that a lot of caves and other hiding places are created among live rock . at least some of the caves should be shaded .\nthe fourline wrasse is a carnivore that mainly eats micro invertebrates in the wild . they will accept most food types when kept in an aquarium including flake food and pellets . they should be fed a varied diet and you can for instance create a diet based around a high quality flake food and complement with other foods such as vitamin enriched brine shrimp and fine chopped sea food ( shrimps , clams , crab ) . feed your fourline wrasse 3 - 4 times a day .\nin the past my 4 - lines have always been nicer . but thats a fish by fish thing . i have had 6 - lines be very timid and not agressive at all towards anything but mayb e a snail / hermit here or there . yellow corris wrasse was a great addition in a zoo tank i had years ago . it was strictly zoas and palys with a few fish . the corris wrasse kept any pests i had under control and did a great job at it .\ncommon name : fourline wrasse scientific name : pseudocheilinus tetrataenia max size : 3 inches / 7 . 5 cm ph : 8 . 1 - 8 . 4 salinity : 1 . 020 - 1 . 025 temperature : 72 - 78\u00baf ( 22 - 26\u00b0c )\nthis species is relatively hardy once it has acclimatized to an aquarium and it is a species that can be recommended to people who want to start their first marine aquarium . it is important to introduce the fourline wrasse to your tank slowly , giving it ample time to acclimate before letting it out into its new home . it is best to allow 4 hours for acclimatization before releasing it . the fourline wrasse will be very shy for the first few days but will slowly become more and more active and visible in the tank .\nthe fourline wrasse is reef save in that regard that it doesn ' t touch corals or anemones , but it may eat small delicate shrimp and other small invertebrates . it will help you control organisms like pyramidellid snails , commensal flatworms , and bristleworms by eating them .\n\u2026shades before acclimating this one out of the box , because the male vrolik ' s wrasse is a true razzle - dazzler . neon red stripes pop against iridescent blues and greens . a sunny yellow dorsal fin glows under the glimmer lines of your lighting system . halichoeres chrysotaenia , while appearing similar\u2026\ni mainly just need a wrasse that will eat up my flatworm problem . any others that are more peaceful that we will do this ? i bought a melanurus a little while back and took him out after he took out all my bangaii cardinals . seems like the flatworm eaters are always violent .\n\u2026has multiple blue horizontal lines covering the head and body , which break into spots as they progress towards the tail . the female / sub - dominant male will change into a dominant male if incorporated into the aquarium as the only fish of this species . these wrasse are one of the most beautiful\u2026\n\u2026peaceful wrasses , including its own species , is an acceptable environment . it will eat fireworms and pyramidellid snails , protecting corals and clams . in addition , it may eat feather dusters , wild shrimp , tubeworms , and flatworms . it may also eat parasites off of tank mates . the christmas wrasse \u2026\n\u2026online . the richmond ' s wrasse has distinct chain - like lines along its sides , with females also exhibiting orange and yellow toward the anal fin . a 70 gallon or larger aquarium with a sealed lid , a 2 - 3 inch sandy bottom to hide under when frightened , and other peaceful wrasses , including its own\u2026\nthough they are shy secretive fish in the wild , once they become acclimated to the home aquarium they become quite boisterous . they are fine in a community tank but will become aggressive towards shy timid species in the same aquarium , and sometimes even larger fish . to prevent confrontations it is best to keep it with similar sized or larger semi - aggressive fish and to make a single lined wrasse the last addition to the aquarium . they do not co - habitat well with other lined wrasses .\nthis fourline wrasse seems to be displaying aggression towards a few pairs of peaceful hawaiian fairy flame wrasses ( c . jordani ) . fourline wrasses and others in their genus are aggressive toward slower moving or peaceful fish like fairy and flasher wrasses , leopard wrasses , and shy gobies . these are probably the least aggressive of their genus , but still need to be kept with fish that are larger and will not take their bossiness . they can do well in a reef tank as they will get rid of pyramidellid snails and flatworms , but they will attack ornamental shrimp . an interesting behavior is that they spin a cocoon at night within the rock work to sleep in .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is a red sea endemic that is collected for the aquarium trade . adults are live coral feeders . the conservation status of this species is unclear . there is no information available on current densities or on population declines associated with collection . it is recommended that more information is collected on the threat posed by the aquarium trade and how this may be affecting the population . it is therefore listed as data deficient .\nthis species occurs in fringing reefs , among coral heads and in areas with dense coral growth . adults feed on coral polyps while juveniles act as cleaners of other fishes . it relies on live coral .\nthis species is collected for the aquarium trade and this could possibly pose as a threat .\nthere are no species - specific conservation measures in place for this species . however , its distribution overlaps some marine protected areas within its range ( wood 2007 ) . it is recommended that more information is collected on the threat posed by the aquarium trade and how this may be affecting the population .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 0 - 15 m ( ref . 9710 ) . tropical\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 11 . 5 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 8883 )\noccurs in fringing reefs , among coral heads and in areas with dense coral growth ( ref . 9710 ) . adults feed on coral polyps while juveniles act as cleaners of other fishes .\nrandall , j . e . , 1986 . red sea reef fishes . london , immel publishing . 192 p . ( ref . 8883 )\n) : 24 . 8 - 29 . 2 , mean 27 . 6 ( based on 307 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00977 ( 0 . 00458 - 0 . 02086 ) , b = 3 . 05 ( 2 . 87 - 3 . 23 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 \u00b10 . 61 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 21 of 100 ) .\nplease select from the available marine fish species below . you may also click here to browse the category .\nplease select from the available invertebrate species below . you may also click here to browse the category .\nplease select from the available coral species below . you may also click here to browse the category .\nplease select from the available aquarium supplies below . you may also click here to browse the category .\nwith 79 or more in marine life . use coupon code : freeshipping more details\nall images , pictures and descriptions are generalizations and cannot be exact representations . copyright 2018 saltwaterfish . com . all rights reserved .\nreceive free shipping on qualifying order when you sign up to receive our email . open your email for complete details .\nmini reef aquarium guide . reef aquarium setup for large reef tanks , nano reef tanks , pico reef or micro reef aquariums with reef tank lighting , filtration , choosing coral reef animals , and problem solving !\nsetting up a saltwater aquarium . guide to marine supplies , putting the aquarium together , cycling the aquarium water and adding fish !\nthroughout the ages people of been fascinated , thrilled , frightened , and horrified by these creatures . they have been the subject of myths , novels , movies . . .\nobservations and insights of a marine enthusiast . an in - depth explanation of what it takes to be a successful marine aquarist\nenter your freshwater aquarium enter parameters for your freshwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nenter your saltwater aquarium enter parameters for your saltwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nfish finder search our database for compatible pets ! enter characteristics of what you are looking for and find them instantly .\ndr . jungle ' s pets and animal speak - newsletter featured pet of the week and more . . .\nwe would like to import some live zebra shark . contact me please . best regard , liu wei chung . email : s89186 @ urltoken\ni have a green moray eel that is just too big now , does anyone have a huge tank . . . . 400 + gallons ?\nbeing hardy and disease resistant , these fish are easy to maintain once they are established in the aquarium . they are poor shippers however , so make sure the individual you choose is eating and active .\n, provide a diet rich in all kinds of protein foods , formulas and flakes with an emphasis on small crustaceans . they are very active and need to be fed twice a day at least if not more . as with other lined wrasses they benefit from productive live rock . picking on the rock is a particular love of theirs and they will eat the copepods , amphipods , and other micro fauna it provides .\nthese fish are generally very easy to care for and are hardy . provide basic marine aquarium care with a 20 % water change monthly or 10 % twice a month .\nthis timid fish needs to have plenty of good quality live rock with holes for hiding to feel comfortable especially in a smaller aquarium .\nprefers sunlight to moderate light . they don ' t mind the bright light that most coral reef owners have due to their shallow water preferences .\nno special requirements . normal temperatures for marine fish is between 74\u00b0 and 79\u00b0 fahrenheit .\nin the wild they are not found far from the bottom , in fact no more than a foot above the substrate . they will spend time in the bottom of the aquarium , but usually spending most of the time in the rockwork .\ndo not keep with invertebrates such as small shrimp , or fish that are smaller than they are as they will become a quick meal . they have been known to go after small snails as well . it is feasible to keep the lined wrasses with larger crustacea however , as they reportedly are more amiable towards larger cleaner , marble and coral shrimp . shy fish such as firefish , gobies , grammas , fairy wrasses , flasher wrasses , leopard wrasses , and others will be pestered to death . the mandarins may or may not be picked on , but most likely will be . they will also out compete the mandarins and other fish for food . slow - moving feeders such as pipefish and seahorses will starve in their presence . predators such as groupers , lionfish , and scorpion fish will eat the lined wrasses in a heartbeat .\ncopyright \u00a9 [ animal - world ] 1998 - 2015 . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nbecause of the sheer size of our forum , we ' ve been forced to limit selling and trading to members who ' ve met a couple of criteria . ( if you ' re seeing this message , you haven ' t met them yet . ) please take a moment to acquaint yourself with our selling / trading rules to help make your stay a long and rewarding one .\navailability ; that ' s all . 4 lines don ' t get quite as big ( 3\nv . 4\n) , but their temperament is just the same . pretty aggressive .\n4 - lines are much nicer . both are territorial and rather vicious after established .\nthe bigger problem here is that the\nflatworm eaters\nare not very consistent in their tendency to eat flatworms . my advice in this situation is to get a fish that you want , and if it happens to eat flatworms , that ' s a bonus . every fish that i ' ve seen listed as a possible flatworm eater i ' ve seen fail in enough tanks that i don ' t even bother to recommend any of them anymore .\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ human beings , who are almost unique in having the ability to learn from the experience of others , are also remarkable for their apparent disinclination to do so . - douglas adams current tank info : 14g , 29g nano reefs\npowered by vbulletin\u00ae version 3 . 8 . 4 copyright \u00a92000 - 2018 , jelsoft enterprises ltd . powered by searchlight \u00a9 2018 axivo inc .\nuse of this web site is subject to the terms and conditions described in the user agreement . reef central tm reef central , llc . copyright \u00a91999 - 2014\nuser alert system provided by advanced user tagging v3 . 3 . 0 ( pro ) - vbulletin mods & addons copyright \u00a9 2018 dragonbyte technologies ltd .\nchoose 7278f 72 - 78\u00b0 f ( 13 ) dkh812 dkh 8 - 12 ( 13 ) ph8184 ph 8 . 1 - 8 . 4 ( 13 ) sg10201025 sg 1 . 020 - 1 . 025 ( 12 ) kh812 kh 8 - 12 ( 1 ) sg10231025 sg 1 . 023 - 1 . 025 ( 1 )\n\u2026this method is considered more advanced then other methods . it is geared toward sensitive inhabitants such as snails , corals , shrimp , sea stars , wrasses , and discus . you need the foster & smith aquatics fish acclimation kit and must be willing to monitor the entire process . gather a clean , 3 - or\u2026\n* free shipping on qualifying aquatic life orders $ 99 and up . free shipping on qualifying aquarium supplies orders $ 19 and up . excludes frozen foods .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 , doctors foster and smith . all rights reserved . 2253 air park road , p . o . box 100 , rhinelander , wisconsin 54501\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthis species does very well in reef setups without small shrimp but can be kept in\nfowlr\naquariums as well .\nurltoken is the world ' s leading destination for sustainable coral reef farming and the aquarium hobby . we offer a free open forum and reef related news and data to better educate aquarists and further our goals of sustainable reef management . reefs\u00ae community system | copyright \u00a9 2018"]}
{"id": 2319, "summary": [{"text": "the striped bush squirrel ( paraxerus flavovittis ) is a species of rodents in the family sciuridae found in kenya , malawi , mozambique , and tanzania .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "its natural habitats are moist savanna and plantations . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "striped bush squirrel", "paragraphs": [", the striped bush squirrel , is found throughout southern kenya , the united republic of tanzania , malawi , and northern mozambique .\nstriped bush squirrels eat seeds , fruits , roots , leaves , and buds .\n, yields clues about the communication of striped bush squirrels . tail flicking and ear wagging have been recorded in\nviljoen , s . 1977 . behaviour of the bush squirrel , paraxerus cepapi cepapi ( a . smith , 1836 ) .\nthere is very little information on the reproduction and mating systems in striped bush squirrels . however , in a related species , smith ' s bush squirrels ( paraxerus cepapi ) , there is more information .\nvery young striped bush squirrels have been collected in the months of march and april . in june , some half - grown young were collected . it has been suggested that the birthing season may occur around these months , and possibly a second one in september . a striped bush squirrel nest was recorded as being made from grass and coconut fibers and was located in a hollow tree .\nfollow the link to see all of schaapmans ' 2 photos of striped bush squirrel on flickr . please note that there are still 1000s of photos that schaapmans took that are not yet properly tagged or uploaded , so expect more photos in the future .\nthere is not much information on communication in striped bush squirrels except that young will emit a piercing squeak when threatened or fearful , to which the mother will respond .\nstriped bush squirrels are diurnal mammals . not much is known about their social system , but females and males associate with their young . there are no recordings of large associations of\nstriped bush squirrels are small to medium sized squirrels . head and body length measurement averages 175 mm and tail length also averages 175 mm . they can weight from 120 g to 200 g . striped bush squirrels undergo periodic color changes . the back can be dark grey or olive - brown , which can be replaced by brightly ochraceous tipped hairs . the dorsal surface can also take on a fulvous or bright gold hue .\nmurmurs , which is thought to be a form of communication used to contact another squirrel and can be aggressive or friendly . male and female\navailable information on the ecosystem roles of striped bush squirrels is lacking . it seems likely , however , that they disperse seeds of the tree species they feed on and affect the abundance of the specific plants on which they feed .\nstriped bush squirrels are terrestrial and live in a variety of habitats , from moist savannahs to forests . they can be found on cultivated lands , preferring sugar plum tree groves . populations are most numerous in old - growth hardwood forests .\n. striped bush squirrels nest in hardwood tree hollows and can be seen basking near their nest holes in the early morning . if they realize they have attracted attention , they will flee . it has been suggested that females are more wary than males .\nif a dominant p . cepapi narrows its eyes at a submissive p . cepapi , the submissive squirrel will run away and is then often chased by the dominant one .\nit is thought that color changes in the fur might be connected with age . color changes do not seem to be merely seasonal , but may depend on the physiological condition of the squirrel .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , it occurs in a number of protected areas , has a tolerance of a degree of habitat modification , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis east african species is distributed in extreme southern kenya , through eastern tanzania into northern mozambique and southeastern malawi .\nthis species is found in savannah , forest , and thicket habitats and has been recorded from cultivated land , showing a preference for groves of sugar plum ( uapaca spp . ) trees ( kingdon 1997 ) .\nthere are presumably no major threats as a whole to this widespread and somewhat adaptable species .\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t16207a115131995 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nif you want to see a larger version of a photo below ( or play a video ) , just click on it . it will open a lightbox with the larger photo or videoplayer .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\njuovapensasorava\nto\nparaxerus flavovittis ( peters , 1852 )\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhas a single dorsal lateral stripe on each side . this stripe can be ivory , white , or yellowish and there is a dark line on either side of each stripe . the top of the head eventually can become ochraceous . when the dorsal surface of the muzzle is grizzled ochraceous , the crown is often dark grey as well as the neck . facial lines are alternatively white and dark brown . the underside of is white . the dorsal foot surfaces can be dull ochraceous . the toes are heavily clawed .\nmale p . cepapi increase the frequency of mating calls when approaching mating season . the male mating call often begins in april and ends by january . the cycle of the male mating call is probably controlled by androgen . in captivity , a male p . cepapi mating call is often followed by chasing the female and attempting to mount her . it is possible that the presence of a female will stimulate the male to emit his mating call . this call by the male also possibly brings the female into estrus . captive males have been recorded emitting the mating call sporadically , and will murmur continuously in the presence of a female who has given her mating call .\nthe high pitched mating call of females , emitted while in estrus , is given in short pulses . this call may be followed by grunting or growling softly . a female\nyoung are well developed . weaning occurs between 4 and 6 weeks after birth . a new set of pups can be born as early as 62 days after birth of the last litter ;\n( allen and loveridge , 1942 ; butler , et al . , 2004 ; emmons , 1979 )\nbreeding season young are born in march and april , and perhaps in september , but the gestation period and breeding season are unknown .\nparental care shows that young will emit a squeak at ear piercing level when in danger or fearful . the mother will respond to this call , but one mother was observed fleeing from the rescue when she realized she was under observation .\na mother p . cepapi will remain in the nest almost continuously for the first days after parturition . males are often in the nest as well . paraxerus cepapi parents often approach their young and groom them forcefully .\nin order to move her young , a female p . cepapi will carry the young by gripping the ventral body surface of its hindleg in her mouth . the young holds on with arms , legs and tail . it has been indicated that a mother will retrieve her young up to 4 weeks of age . after this , the young will resist retrieval .\nneither the adult male nor the adult female will provide the young with solid food in the nest . for the first six months after birth , a young p . cepapi follows its parents around while eating .\n. being a species that lives in the savannah , however , tail flicking does not occur often outside of an alarm context . the savannah is one habitat for\n, so it is possible that minimal tail flicking occurs within this species as well , because of the risk of attracting predators . a quick head bob is also seen in\nin p . cepapi olfactory signals include mouthwiping and anal - dragging . mouthwiping is done after eating or during grooming . paraxerus cepapi has also been observed mouthwiping in a modified form resembling flehmen . face - tail - face grooming in p . cepapi distributes scent all over the body .\nindividuals feel threatened , they will emit a warning growl or hiss . teeth grinding may also be used as a warning . ticking sounds emited by young\nis classified as data deficient on the iucn list . it is not listed on either the cites appendices or the united states federal list .\nnicole mason ( author ) , michigan state university , barbara lundrigan ( editor , instructor ) , michigan state university .\nliving in sub - saharan africa ( south of 30 degrees north ) and madagascar .\nyoung are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\na terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .\na grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .\na terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5\u00b0 n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\n2007 .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service : working together\n( on - line ) . accessed march 16 , 2007 at urltoken .\n2007 .\nunep - wcmc species database : cites - listed species\n( on - line ) . accessed march 16 , 2007 at urltoken .\nallen , g . , a . loveridge . 1942 . scientific results of a fourth expedition to forested areas in east and central africa . i . mammals .\nbutler , j . , j . toit , j . bingham . 2004 . free - ranging domestic dogs ( canis familiaris ) as predators and prey in rural zimbabwe : threats of competition and disease to large wild carnivores .\nemmons , l . 1979 . observations on litter size and development of some african rainforest squirrels .\ngrubb , p . 2006 .\nthe iucn red list of threatened species\n( on - line ) . accessed march 16 , 2007 at urltoken .\nthomas , o . 1919 . on a small collection of mammals from lumbo , mozambique .\nviljoen , s . 1983 . communicatory behaviour of southern african tree squirrels , paraxerus palliatus ornatus , p . p . tongensis , p . c . cepapi and funisciurus congicus .\nto cite this page : mason , n . 2007 .\nparaxerus flavovittis\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\nby creating an account , i agree to shutterstock ' s website terms , privacy policy , and licensing terms .\n\u00a9 2003 - 2018 shutterstock , inc . all rights reserved . made in nyc .\nsmall ( s ) has the shortest download time and is suitable for digital use .\nlarge ( l ) is suitable for large prints as well as 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{"id": 2320, "summary": [{"text": "parasesarma leptosoma ( hilgendorf , 1869 ) , aka the arboreal crab , is an arboreal , leaf-eating mangrove crab , found on rhizophora mucronata and bruguiera gymnorhiza , but not on avicennia marina , and occupying an ecological niche similar to that of another sesarmid , aratus pisonii , from the americas .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "crabs of the family sesarmidae are some of the most diverse and important components of mangrove estuary communities in the tropics and are not found in europe .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "two genera common in african , asian and australian mangroves are parasesarma ( 26 species ) and perisesarma ( 23 species ) .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "often colourful , they have a squarish appearance and have two transverse pectinated crests on the upper edge of the male chelar carpus .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the two genera are separated by the absence in parasesarma or presence in perisesarma of an anterolateral tooth .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "parasesarma leptosoma occurs in mangrove estuaries along the coasts of kenya , tanzania , mozambique and south africa .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "in order to escape low tide predators , this species twice daily climbs mangrove stems to the canopy and feeds on fresh leaves , and is commonly found on rhizophora mucronata , but studies suggest that it prefers the foliage of bruguiera gymnorhiza .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "its diet also includes algae , mollusks , insects and annelids .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "its aversion to avicennia marina may be due to its secreting salt from its leaves , while both r. mucronata and b. gymnorhiza are salt excluders .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "distinguishing characters are its propodus being three times the length of its dactylus , and the carapace width only some 2 cm .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "females carry the eggs , which remain attached to the swimming legs or pleopods until hatching .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "important physiological adaptations enable these crabs to feed on leaves , with no evidence of fermentation in the gut , a solution common in other animals . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "parasesarma leptosoma", "paragraphs": ["remark also subgenus parasesarma in dahdouh , 1994 < 247 > . [ details ]\nmorphological differences among described zoeal stages of the genera perisesarma and parasesarma [ perisesarma fasciatum , this study ; perisesarma guttatum ( pereyra lago , 1993 ; flores et al . , 2003 ) * ; perisesarma bidens ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ) ; perisesarma messa ( greenwood and fielder , 1988 ) ; parasesarma leptosoma ( flores et al . , 2003 ) ; parasesarma acis ( terada , 1976 ) ; parasesarma catenata ( pereyra lago , 1987 ; flores et al . , 2003 ) * ; parasesarma pictum ( pasupathi and kannupandi , 1987 ) ; parasesarma erythrodactyla ( greenwood and fielder , 1988 ) ; parasesarma plicatum ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ; selvakumar , 1999 ) * ]\nemmerson , w . , cannicci , s . , porri , f . , 2003 . new records for parasesarma leptosoma ( hilgendorf , 1869 ) ( crustacea : decapoda : brachyura : sesarmidae ) from mangroves in mozambique and south africa . african zoology 38 ( 2 ) : 351 - 355 .\nvannini , m . and r . k . ruwa , 1994 . vertical migrations in the tree crab sesarma leptosoma ( decapoda , grapsidae ) . marine biology 118 : 271 - 278 .\n( of sesarma leptosoma hilgendorf , 1869 ) hartnoll , r . g . ( 1975 ) . the grapsidae and ocypodidae ( decapoda : brachyura ) of tanzania . j . zool . london 177 , 305 - 328 [ details ]\nvannini , m . , s . cannicci and r . k . ruwa , 1995 . effect of light intensity on vertical migration of the tree crab , sesarma leptosoma hilgendorf ( decapoda , grapsidae ) . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 185 : 181 - 189 .\nit has already been observed that the conserved morphological characteristics of the larvae of sesarmidae make differentiation at generic levels difficult in this family ( cuesta , 1999 ) . likewise , differentiation at species level are only possible , if at all , using a combination of several morphological features ( schubart and cuesta , 1998 ; cuesta and anger , 2001 ) . tables i and ii summarize the morphological differences of all described zoeal stages and the megalopa stage among species of perisesarma and parasesarma . we here included the larvae of the genus parasesarma because p . fasciatum was originally described as a member of parasesarma and because of the morphological similarity of the two genera ( see introduction ) . preliminary molecular comparisons also suggest a close phylogenetic relationship of these genera ( fratini et al . , 2004 ) . in the present study , we provide evidence that larval stages of perisesarma and parasesarma are very similar , to the point that it is impossible to distinguish the larvae consistently at the generic level . the first zoeal stage of parasesarma species bears five setae on the coxal endite of the maxillule ( table i ) , while p . fasciatum and perisesarma guttatum bear six setae on the coxal endite ( cf . pereyra lago , 1993 ) . however , the first zoeal stages of perisesarma messa and perisesarma bidens bear five setae , as the species of parasesarma ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ; greenwood and fielder , 1988 ) . it needs to be taken into account that the number of larval stages is variable ( 4\u20135 zoeal stages ) in both genera , and part of the variability in the setation of appendages could be due to this variability . for example , the number of scaphognathite setae on the maxilla of the zoea iv is reduced in species with five zoeal stages as compared with species with four zoeal stages ( table i ) . the zoea iv of p . guttatum is the only fourth stage with five setae on the distal segment of the endopod of the first maxilliped ; the sixth seta does not appear before the last zoeal stage ( zoea v ) . in contrast , parasesarma erythrodactyla and parasesarma plicatum , both species with five zoeal stages , show the sixth seta on the distal segment of the endopod of the first maxilliped already in stage iv . overall , the larval data ( zoea and megalopa ) support previous morphological and molecular indications and confirm a very close relationship between the genera perisesarma and parasesarma .\n( of sesarma leptosoma hilgendorf , 1869 ) ruwa , r . k . ( 1989 ) . macrofaunal composition and zonation on sandy beaches at gazi , kanamai and malindi bay , kenya . kenya journal of sciences ( series b ) 10 ( 1 - 2 ) : 31 - 45 [ details ]\nthe complete larval development of the sesarmid crab perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) from singapore was obtained from laboratory culture . all four zoeal stages , the megalopa and the first crab stage are described and illustrated . the morphological characteristics of the larvae of p . fasciatum are compared with those of other known larvae of the genera perisesarma and parasesarma . the larval morphology of p . fasciatum clearly presents the typical combination of features that characterize sesarmid larvae . overall , larval stages are very similar in perisesarma and parasesarma and it is impossible to distinguish these two genera by larval morphology .\nguillermo guerao , klaus anger , u . w . e . nettelmann , christoph d . schubart ; complete larval and early juvenile development of the mangrove crab perisesarma fasciatum ( crustacea : brachyura : sesarmidae ) from singapore , with a larval comparison of parasesarma and perisesarma , journal of plankton research , volume 26 , issue 12 , 1 december 2004 , pages 1389\u20131408 , urltoken\ntwo of the more conspicuous and species - rich genera of african , asian and australian mangroves are parasesarma ( 26 species ) and perisesarma ( 23 species ) . they are often colourful crabs , similar in their overall squarish appearance and even sharing the defining morphological characteristic of two transverse pectinated crests on the upper border of the male chelar carpus . the only distinguishing characteristic between the two genera is the absence ( parasesarma ) or presence ( perisesarma ) of an anterolateral tooth . in american sesarmid crabs , it has been shown that the anterolateral tooth is not a very consistent characteristic and it is often weakly pronounced or absent in some of the species ( von hagen , 1978 ; abele , 1992 ) . also in one asian species of perisesarma , perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) , the anterolateral tooth is not always clearly defined . therefore , lanchester ( 1900 ) originally placed this species in the subgenus parasesarma , however , noticing that one of the females has \u2018indications of a tooth behind the orbital angle\u2019 . also tweedie ( 1936 ) states that the \u2018epibranchial tooth is always low and obtuse , often obscure , and in one adult male , scarcely indicated\u2019 .\necological notes : adapted an aerial strategy where they can climb trees to avoid the incoming tide ; never seen on the forest floor . both true arboreal species , the american aratus pisonii milne - edwards , 1837 and the east african s . leptosoma , show morphological adaptations to life in the trees , namely a flat carapace , relatively long walking leg carpus and propodus and short dactylus ( hartnoll , 1988 ; vannini et al . , 1997 ) .\nin this study , we newly describe the complete larval and early juvenile development of p . fasciatum from singapore and compare it with other published larval descriptions of species of parasesarma and perisesarma to test whether there are consistent larval differences between these two genera ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ; terada , 1976 ; pasupathi and kannupandi , 1987 ; pereyra lago , 1987 , 1993 ; greenwood and fielder , 1988 ; selvakumar , 1999 ; flores et al . , 2003 ) . this is only the fourth species of the genus perisesarma for which zoeal stages are described , the third megalopal description , and the second which includes the first juvenile .\nsesarmid crabs are among the most diverse and important faunal components of mangrove forest communities worldwide . their importance for ecological processes related to leaf turnover is only recently being revealed ( macintosh , 1988 ; lee , 1989 , 1998 ; emmerson and mcgwynne , 1992 ; micheli , 1993a , b ; schrijvers et al . , 1996 ) . otherwise , very little is known about the biology of most of these tropical crabs , and even the systematic classification is far from being resolved . for a long time , most of the sesarmids were included in the genus sesarma say , 1817 . in 1895 , de man ( de man , 1895 ) introduced three subgenera ( i . e . episesarma , parasesarma and perisesarma ) based on the presence or absence of an anterolateral tooth and the type of tuberculation on the chelar carpus . ser\u00e8ne and soh ( ser\u00e8ne and soh , 1970 ) elevated these subgenera to full genus level and created a large number of new genera , thereby establishing a taxonomic system which even today is not fully accepted , only slowly adopted and still being revised ( davie , 1992 , 1994 ; ng and schubart , 2003 ) .\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\naccording to the new taxonomy of ser\u00e8ne and soh ( ser\u00e8ne and soh , 1970 ) , the genus sesarma is now restricted to the american continent , which has an impoverished sesarmid fauna compared to the indo - westpacific ( < 30 species in america as compared with > 200 species in the indo - westpacific ) . there are no sesarmid crabs in europe . many larval stages of sesarma and its sister genera aratus h . milne edwards , 1853 and armases abele , 1992 have been described over the past 50 years from american waters ( costlow and bookhout , 1960 , 1962 ; d\u00edaz and ewald , 1968 ; warner , 1968 ; fransozo and hebling , 1986 ; schubart and cuesta , 1998 ; cuesta and anger , 2001 ) . in contrast , there are only very few larval descriptions of sesarmid crabs from africa , asia and oceania ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ; terada , 1976 ; krishnan and kannupandi , 1987 ; pasupathi and kannupandi , 1987 ; pereyra lago , 1987 , 1993 ; greenwood and fielder , 1988 ; selvakumar , 1999 ; flores et al . , 2003 ; schubart et al . , 2003 ) , especially considering the large number of species that are present in the mangroves of these continents .\nperisesarma fasciatum is a relatively small and rounded representative of its genus . it lives in the upper , often dry , fringes of mangroves on relatively hard and sandy substratum and was repeatedly observed scurrying on mounds of the burrowing decapod thalassina ( c . d . schubart , personal observation ) . the known distribution of this species ranges from thailand [ rathbun , 1909 as sesarma ( chiromantes ) siamense ] , malaysia ( sasekumar , 1972 ) , singapore ( tweedie , 1936 ) and indonesia ( ser\u00e8ne and moosa , 1971 ) to hong kong ( soh , 1978 ) . otherwise , there is no published information on the biology of this crab species .\nseveral adult specimens of p . fasciatum were collected in the lim chu kang mangroves in singapore in january 2002 . they were transported alive to regensburg ( germany ) where they were slowly acclimated to fresh water . two females and two males were transported to the biologische anstalt helgoland ( germany ) in july 2002 , where they were maintained at a salinity of 5 ( 24\u00b0c ) and in an artificial 12 : 12 h light : dark cycle . the extrusion and incubation of eggs took place at the same conditions . larval rearing of one hatch was carried out at identical conditions of temperature and light , but at a salinity of 25 . the larvae were fed freshly hatched nauplii of artemia sp . ( great salt lake ) . water and food were changed daily . exuviae and specimens of each developmental stage were preserved in 70 % alcohol . first zoeal stages from three additional females were obtained in regensburg and barcelona ( spain ) for comparative purposes .\na wild binocular microscope , equipped with an ocular micrometer , was used for the dissection and measurements of individuals ( 10 individuals of each hatch and larval stage were measured ) . an olympus microscope was used for the determination of the setal formula and measurements of the appendages . the following measurements were taken : total length ( tl ) as the distance between the tips of the dorsal and rostral spines ; carapace length ( cl ) from the base of the rostral spine to the posterolateral carapace margin ; antennal exopod length ( el ) from the base of the antennal exopod to the distal margin ( without setae ) ; protopodal process length ( pl ) from the base of the antennal exopod to the tip of the protopodal process ; furcal length ( fl ) from an imaginary line across the base of the outer seta on the posterior margin of the telson to the furcal tip ; and basal telson length ( bt ) , from a line across the anterior margin to the posterior margin of the telson ( base of the outer seta ) . the proportions of the zoeal measurements el , pl , fl and bt were shown to be useful for separating species and genera of the sesarmidae ( cuesta , 1999 ) . for the megalopa , cl was measured as the distance from the frontal margin to the posterior margin of the carapace ; carapace width ( cw ) as the greatest distance across the carapace .\nall drawings were made with the aid of a camera lucida and microscope photography . the number of individuals of each larval stage examined to describe the morphology varied between 5 and 10 . the long aesthetascs of the antennules and the long plumose setae on the distal exopod of the maxillipeds and pleopods are not fully illustrated and are drawn truncated , instead . larval descriptions followed the basic malacostracan body pattern , and setal armature on appendages is described from proximal to distal segments and from endopod to exopod ( clark et al . , 1998 ) .\nsamples of all larval stages were deposited in the biological collections of reference of the institut de ci\u00e8ncies del mar ( csic ) in barcelona , under the catalogue numbers icmd 52 - 56 / 2004 .\nthe larval development of p . fasciatum was found to consist of four zoeal stages and one megalopa . the development through the zoea i stage lasted on average 4 . 6 \u00b1 1 . 2 d , the zoea ii stage took 3 . 7 \u00b1 0 . 7 d , the zoea iii 3 . 4 \u00b1 0 . 5 d , the zoea iv 4 . 7 \u00b1 0 . 5 and the megalopa 8 . 0 \u00b1 0 . 7 d ( values are mean \u00b1 sd ; initial n = 100 ) . total larval development from hatching to metamorphosis lasted 23 . 9 \u00b1 1 . 2 d . the comparison of zoeae i from four different hatches allowed to determine morphological and morphometric homogeneity ( i . e . no significant differences ) . the first zoeal stage is described in detail , while in subsequent stages only differences and changes are described .\nglobose , smooth and without tubercles . dorsal spine present , well developed and strongly curved posteriorly with sparsely minute protuberances . rostral spine present , straight and similar in length to spinous process of the antenna . lateral spines absent . pair of setae on the posterodorsal and anterodorsal regions . posterior and ventral margin without setae . eyes sessile .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . total animal , lateral view . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv . ( a 1 ) detail of the dorsal spine . scale bars = 0 . 15 mm .\nuniramous . endopod absent . exopod unsegmented with three terminal aesthetascs and two terminal seta .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . antennule . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iv ; ( d ) megalopa ; ( e ) first crab . scale bars = 0 . 05 mm .\nsimilar in size to rostral spine . protopodal process with one row of 12\u201315 spines of different size . exopod elongated , with two terminal simple setae ( one long and one medium - sized ) and two minute spines . pl / el = 2 . 35\u20132 . 40 .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . antenna . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv ; ( e ) megalopa ; ( f ) first crab . ( e 1 ) modified basal segment ; ( e 2 ) modified basal segment . mandible . ( g ) zoea i ; ( h ) zoea iv ; ( i ) megalopa . scale bars = 0 . 05 mm .\nexopod and epipod seta absent . coxal endite with six setae . basial endite with five setae and with two teeth . endopod two - segmented , with one seta on the proximal segment and one subterminal seta and four terminal setae on the distal segment .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . maxillule . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv . scale bars = 0 . 05 mm .\ncoxal endite bilobed , with 5 + 3 setae , distal lobe terminates in a spine . basial endite bilobed with 5 + 4 setae . endopod unsegmented , bilobed , with 2 + 3 long setae on the proximal and distal lobe respectively . scaphognathite ( exopod ) with four plumose marginal setae and long setose posterior process .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . maxilla . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv . ( a 1 ) detail of the distal lobe of the coxal endite . scale bars = 0 . 05 mm .\ncoxa with one seta . basis with 10 medial setae arranged 2 , 2 , 3 , 3 on the inner side , and a mat of long dorsobasal microtrichiae on the outer side . endopod five - segmented , with 2 , 2 , 1 , 2 , 5 ( one subterminal and four terminal ) . exopod two - segmented ( incipient ) ; distal segment with four long plumose natatory setae .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . first maxilliped . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea iii , endopod ; ( c ) zoea iv , endopod ; ( d ) megalopa ; ( e ) first crab . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .\ncoxa without setae . basis with four medial setae arranged 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 . endopod three - segmented , with 0 , 1 , 6 setae . exopod two - segmented ( incipient ) ; distal segment with four long plumose natatory setae .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . second maxilliped . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea iv ; ( c ) megalopa ; ( d ) first crab . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .\nfive somites . somites 2 and 3 with pairs of dorsolateral processes . somites 3\u20135 with posterolateral processes . somites 2\u20135 with pairs of posterodorsal setae .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . abdomen , dorsal view . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv ; ( e ) megalopa ; ( f ) first crab . ( a 1 ) detail of the furca ; ( e 1 ) modified telson ; ( e 2 ) modified telson . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . abdomen , lateral view . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .\nlateral and dorsal medial spines absent . furca large , slightly divergent with three pairs of serrate setae on the posterior margin . two rows of arrow - shaped small spines on the margins of furcal arms . fl / bt \u2264 2 ( 1 . 8\u20132 . 0 ) .\ntwo pairs of anterodorsal setae . each lateroventral margin with two setae . eyes stalked .\nscaphognathite with eight ( 3 + 5 ) plumose marginal setae , without long setose posterior process present in zoea 1 .\nbasis without a mat of long dorsobasal microtrichiae . exopod distal segment with six long plumose natatory setae .\nsegments 2 and 3 of endopod with additional setae ( 2 , 2 + 1 , 2 , 2 , 1 + 4 ) . exopod distal segment with eight long plumose natatory setae .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . pereiopods 1\u20135 . ( a ) zoea iii ; ( b ) zoea iv . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .\nprotopodal process with one row of 15\u201319 spines of different size . exopod with two terminal setae ( one long and one medium - sized ) . endopod segmented , slightly more than half the length of spinous process . pl / el = 2 . 0\u20132 . 1 .\ncoxal endite bilobed , with 6 + 4 setae . basial endite bilobed with 6 + 5 setae . scaphognathite with 20 plumose marginal setae .\nfifth segment of endopod with an additional subterminal seta ( 2 + 4 ) . exopod distal segment with nine long plumose natatory setae .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . third maxilliped . ( a ) zoea iv ; ( b ) megalopa ; ( c ) first crab . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .\nlonger than broad . with two lateral and longitudinal carinae . rostrum ventrally deflected with median cleft . setal arrangement as figured .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . ( a ) megalopa , lateral view ; ( b ) megalopa , detail of frontal view of the rostrum ; ( c ) megalopa , dorsal view ; ( d ) first crab , dorsal view . scale bars = 0 . 2 mm .\npeduncle three - segmented , with 2 , 1 , 1 setae respectively . endopod absent . exopod three - segmented , with 0 , 4 and 3 aesthetascs , respectively , and 0 , 1 , 2 setae .\npeduncle three - segmented , with 0 , 1 , 1 setae respectively . in several cases , exopod and spinous process present in different degrees of development . flagellum six - segmented , with 0 , 2 , 0 , 5 , 0 , 3 setae respectively .\ncoxal endite with 10 setae . basial endite with 17 ( 15 + 2 ) \u221218 ( 16 + 2 ) setae . endopod two - segmented , proximal segment with two setae , distal segment with three setae . two setae on the outer propodal margin .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . maxillule . ( a ) megalopa ; ( b ) first crab . scale bars = 0 . 05 mm .\ncoxal endite bilobed , with always 8 + 4 setae . basial endite bilobed with 8\u20139 + 6\u20137 setae . endopod unsegmented , with variable setation ( 2 + 3 , 1 + 3 , 2 + 2 , 0 + 0 setae ) . scaphognathite with 29\u201333 plumose marginal setae and two anterior setae and one posterolateral seta .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . maxilla . ( a ) megalopa ; ( b ) first crab . ( a 1 ) modified endopod . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .\nepipod with four long setae . coxal endite with seven to eight setae . basial endite with 10\u201311 setae . endopod very variable and different degrees of reduction with zero to nine setae ( 0 , 3 , 4 , 9 setae ) . exopod two - segmented , proximal segment with three distal setae , distal segment with five long terminal plumose setae .\nepipod rudimentary . coxa and basis not differentiated , with three to four setae . endopod four - segmented , with 0 , 1 , 4 , 7 setae respectively . exopod two - segmented , proximal segment with one medial seta , distal segment with seven terminal plumose setae .\nepipod elongated with 12 long setae . coxa and basis not differentiated with nine setae . endopod five - segmented , ischium , merus , carpus , propodus and dactylus with 8\u20139 , 7 , 3 , 3\u20134 , 4 setae respectively . exopod two - segmented , proximal segment without seta and distal segment with three long terminal plumose setae and one simple seta .\nall segments well differentiated , chelipeds and pereiopods 2\u20134 without spines . dactylus of fifth pereiopod with three long terminal setae and one short terminal spine . setal arrangement as figured .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . pereiopods 1\u20135 . ( a \u2013 e ) megalopa ; ( f \u2013 j ) first crab . ( e 1 ) detail of the distal part of dactyl of the fifth pereiopod ; ( j 1 ) detail of the distal part of dactyl of the fifth pereiopod . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .\nsomites 2\u20135 each with pairs of biramous pleopods , endopod unsegmented , with two terminal hooks ; exopod unsegmented with 13 , 13 , 13 , 10 long marginal plumose natatory setae respectively .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . ( a ) megalopa , pleopod 1 ; ( b ) megalopa , pleopod 4 ; ( c ) megalopa , uropod ; ( d ) carapace of crabs 1\u20133 . scale bars of a and b , 0 . 1 mm ; scale bar of d , 0 . 5 mm .\nuropods two - segmented on somite 6 , proximal segment with one and distal segment with five long plumose setae respectively .\nsquare - shaped , setation as figured . in two examined individuals , telson with two to three pairs of long setae and furcal branches present in two different degrees of development ( fig . 14 e 1 and e 2 ) .\nlonger than broad . frontal region broad , measuring one half of carapace width . anterolateral margins with three teeth , first largest and third smallest . setal arrangement as figured .\npeduncle three - segmented , with 5 , 1 , 1 setae respectively . endopod absent . exopod three - segmented , with 0 , 0 and 2 aesthetascs , respectively , and 0 , 0 , 2 setae .\npeduncle four - segmented , with 1\u20132 , 1 , 1 , 1 setae respectively . flagellum five - segmented , with 0 , 2 , 0 , 4\u20135 , 3 setae respectively .\ncoxal endite with 11 setae . basial endite with 19 setae . endopod two - segmented , proximal segment with two setae , distal segment with three setae .\ncoxal endite bilobed with 7 + 1 seta . basial endite bilobed with 6\u20137 + 6 setae . endopod unsegmented , without setae . scaphognathite with 34\u201336 plumose marginal setae and eight lateral setae .\nepipod with 6\u20137 long setae . coxal endite with 10 setae . basial endite with 11\u201312 setae . endopod with six setae . exopod two - segmented , proximal segment with one distal seta , distal segment with four long terminal plumose setae .\ncoxa and basis undifferentiated , with 1\u20132 setae . endopod four - segmented with 0\u20132 , 1 , 4\u20135 , 7 setae respectively . exopod three - segmented , proximal segment with five setae , second segment without setae and distal segment with five terminal plumose setae .\nepipod elongated with 20 long setae . coxa and basis undifferentiated with 14 setae . endopod five - segmented with 14 , 8 , 4 , 4\u20135 , 4 setae respectively . exopod two - segmented , proximal segment with seven setae and distal segment with four long terminal plumose setae .\nsetation as figured . propodus of pereiopods 2\u20135 with one long seta . dactylus of fifth pereiopod with one long terminal plumose seta .\nsecond to fourth crab stages are similar in morphology to the first stage , differing only in size ( fig . 16 d ) and in most of the setal counts .\noverall , the zoeal morphology of p . fasciatum is similar to that known of other sesarmid species . it conforms very closely to the characteristic listed by rice ( rice , 1980 ) and cuesta ( cuesta , 1999 ) for sesarmid larvae : ( 1 ) carapace without lateral spines ; ( 2 ) a 2 , 3 setation of the maxillar endopod ; ( 3 ) a 2 , 2 , 3 , 3 setation of the first maxilliped basis ; ( 4 ) a 0 , 1 , 6 setation of the second maxilliped endopod ; and ( 5 ) an abdomen with dorsolateral processes in somites 2 and 3 .\nlikewise , the morphology of the megalopal stage is similar to that known from the other species of the family sesarmidae ( cuesta , 1999 ) : ( 1 ) antennule without endopod ; ( 2 ) an antennular flagellum with 5\u20136 segments ; ( 3 ) a 0 , 4 mandibular palp setation ; ( 4 ) scaphognathite with 25\u201350 marginal plumose setae ; ( 5 ) endopod of the pleopods with two terminal hooks and exopod with seven and 14 plumose setae ; ( 6 ) propodus of the uropod with one seta and exopod with \u22647 setae .\nfor a species\u2013specific identification , there is one very useful characteristic by which megalopae of p . fasciatum can be distinguished from those of all other so - far described sesarmid megalopae : the presence of only five setae on the exopod of the uropod ( table ii ) . this is a useful characteristic , since these setae can be observed and counted easily with a microscope and since the uropod setation normally is characterized by low intraspecific variability ( cuesta , 1999 ) .\nsome megalopal features described in the present study for p . fasciatum appear to represent remnants of zoeal morphology : ( 1 ) the first segment of the antennular peduncle with a rudimentary exopod and / or spinous process in different stages of reduction ; ( 2 ) the bilobed endopod of the maxilla with a similar setation as in the zoeal stages ( 2 + 3 , 1 + 3 , 1 + 2 ) ; ( 3 ) the telson with a rudimentary furca and / or with three pairs of serrulate setae on the posterior margin in different stages of reduction . these features have been observed in only some of the studied individuals . similar traits were also found in the megalopae of other grapsoid species : aratus pisonii ( warner , 1968 ) , sesarma reticulatum ( costlow and bookhout , 1962 ) , p . plicatum ( selvakumar , 1999 ) , p . erythrodactyla ( greenwood and fielder , 1988 ) and armases angustipes ( cuesta and anger , 2001 ) . cuesta and anger ( 2001 ) suggested that retainment of zoeal characteristics in the megalopa could be due to unfavourable conditions during larval culturing . however , this still remains to be tested .\nknowledge of the first juvenile of sesarmid crabs is very limited . the first crab stage was previously only described for p . bidens ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ) . the overall morphology of p . fasciatum and p . bidens is very similar , and some morphometric and meristic features are summarized in table iii .\nthis study confirms that there is a useful set of morphological characteristics that allows to distinguish larvae of the crab family sesarmidae sensu ( schubart et al . , 2002 ) from all other decapod larvae , and these characteristics are shared by the asian mangrove crab p . fasciatum , as described here . however , for the identification of larval stages from the plankton at a genus and species level , descriptions of many more larvae of sesarmid crabs will be necessary and taxonomic revisions of the genera currently comprised within this family will need to be continued .\n( crustacea : decapoda : grapsidae ) in america , with the description of a new genus .\n, calazans , d . k . and pohle , g . w . (\n) morfolog\u00eda larval de la familia grapsidae ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura ) . phd thesis . universidad de sevilla , sevilla , spain .\ndana ( crustacea : brachyura : sesarminae ) with descriptions of three new species .\nser\u00e8ne and soh ( crustacea : brachyura : sesarminae ) with description of two new species .\nh . milne edwards ( brachyura , grapsidae ) reared under similar laboratory conditions .\nde man in relation to leaf - litter production in mgazana , a warm temperate southern african mangrove swamp .\n) first zoeal stages of grapsoid crabs ( crustacea : brachyura ) from the east african coast .\n, vannini , m . , cannicci , s . and schubart , c . d . ( 2004 ) tree - climbing mangrove crabs , a case of convergent evolution .\n( de haan , 1853 ) in the laboratory ( brachyura : grapsidae : sesarminae ) .\n) on a collection of crustaceans made at singapore and malacca . part i . brachyura .\n( l . ) druce ) leaf litter turnover in a hong kong tidal shrimp pond .\n) the ecology and physiology of decapods of mangrove swamps . in fincham , a . a . and rainbow , p . s . ( eds ) ,\n. symposia of the zoological society of london 59 . clarendon press , oxford , pp .\n) bericht \u00fcber die von herrn schiffscapit\u00e4n storm zu atjeh , an den westlichen k\u00fcsten von malakka , borneo und celebes sowie in der java - see gesammelten decapoden und stomatopoden .\nh . milne edwards , 1853 ( crustacea : decapoda : brachyura : sesarmidae ) .\nde haan , 1853 ( brachyura : grapsidae ) . in palanichamy , s . ( ed . ) ,\na . milne edwards ( decapoda : brachyura : grapsidae ) reared in the laboratory , with comments on larval generic and familial characters .\nspecies from panama , with identification keys and remarks on the american sesarminae ( crustacea : brachyura : grapsidae ) .\n, cuesta , j . a . and felder , d . l . (\n) glyptograpsidae , a new brachyuran family from central america : larval and adult morphology , and a molecular phylogeny of the grapsoidea .\n, liu , h . - c . and cuesta , j . a . (\n, a new genus and new species of tree - climbing crab ( crustacea : brachyura : sesarmidae ) from taiwan with notes on its ecology and larval morphology .\n( latreille , 1806 ) ( decapoda : brachyura : grapsidae ) reared in the laboratory .\n) on a collection of sesarmine crabs ( decapoda , brachyura , grapsidae ) from hong kong .\n) comparison of the larval developments of nine crabs belonging to the subfamily sesarminae .\n) on the crabs of the family grapsidae in the collection of the raffles museum .\n( h . milne - edwards ) reared in the laboratory ( brachyura , grapsidae ) .\n1 departament de biologia animal ( artr\u00f2podes ) , facultat de biologia ( u . b . ) , av . diagonal 645 , 08028 barcelona , spain , 2 alfred - wegener - institut f\u00fcr polar - und meeresforschung , biologische anstalt helgoland , meeresstation , 27498 helgoland , germany and 3 biologie 1 : zoologie , universit\u00e4t regensburg , 93040 regensburg , germany\njournal of plankton research vol . 26 no . 12 \u00a9 oxford university press 2004 ; all rights reserved\noxford university press is a department of the university of oxford . it furthers the university ' s objective of excellence in research , scholarship , and education by publishing worldwide\nfor full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription .\nzone : rhizophora mucronata and bruguiera gymnorrhiza forests - very common in dabasso kenya ( mida creek ) .\nhabitat : climbs on rhizophora mucronata and bruguiera gymnorrhiza trees ; strictly mangrove dependent .\nfood : consumes fresh leaves from the tree . usually found on rhizophora mucronata ( vannini and ruwa , 1994 ) , but a preliminary experiment hints that they prefer bruguiera gymnorrhiza leaves ( gillikin , 2000 ) . also eats algae , mollusks , insects and annelids ( dahdouh - guebas et al . , 1999 ) .\ndistinguishing characteristics : found climbing trunks of trees to canopy ; propodus three times longer than dactylus , carpace width ~ 2 cm .\ngeographical range : east africa , including mozambique and south africa ( emmerson et al . , 2003 ) .\ncannicci , s . , f . dahdouh - guebas and l . montemagno , 1993 . field keys for kenyan mangrove crabs . museo zoologico\nla specola\n, dipartimento di biologia animale e genetica dell ' universit\u00e0 degli studi di firenze , via romana 17 , i - 50125 firenze , italia .\ndahdouh - guebas , f . , m . giuggioli , a . oluoch , m . vannini & s . cannicci , 1999 . feeding habits of non - ocypodid crabs from two mangrove forests in kenya . bull . mar . sci . 64 ( 2 ) : 291 - 297 .\ngillikin , d . p . , 2000 . factors controlling the distribution of kenyan brachyuran mangrove crabs : salinity tolerance and ecophysiology of two kenyan neosarmatium species . m . sc . thesis , free university of brussels , brussels , belgium .\nhartnoll , r . g . , 1988 . evolution , systematics , and geographical distribution . in : w . w . burggren and b . r . mcmahon ( eds . ) biology of the land crabs cambridge university press . cambridge , uk . pp 6 - 54 .\nvannini , m . , a . oluoch and r . k . ruwa , 1997 . tree - climbing decapods of kenyan mangroves . in kjerfve , bj\u00f6rn , luiz drude de lacerdaand el hadji salif diop ( eds . ) . mangrove ecosystem studies in latin america and africa . unesco technical papers in marine science , paris , france : 325 - 338 .\nruwa , r . k . ( 1989 ) . macrofaunal composition and zonation on sandy beaches at gazi , kanamai and malindi bay , kenya . kenya journal of sciences ( series b ) 10 ( 1 - 2 ) : 31 - 45 [ details ]\nhartnoll , r . g . ( 1975 ) . the grapsidae and ocypodidae ( decapoda : brachyura ) of tanzania . j . zool . london 177 , 305 - 328 [ details ]\nthis research was funded by a national research foundation ( nrf ) natural resources , utilisation , ecology and management grant ( gun number 2050973 ) . the assistance of tshawe makanandana , mzo nkaitshana and sintu hola in the field and for collecting additional soil and leaf samples for analysis is greatly appreciated . this paper is for thandi my post - graduate student , friend and colleague who died tragically in october 2003 .\n) on the coastlines of kuwait . wetlands ecol manage 9 ( 5 ) : 421\u2013428\nallen ja , ewel kc , jack j ( 2001 ) patterns of natural and anthropogenic disturbance of the mangroves on the pacific island of kosrae . wetlands ecol manage 9 ( 3 ) : 291\u2013301\naraujo dsd , maciel nc ( 1979 ) os manguezais do reconcavo da baia de guanabara . serie tecnica 10 / 79 , decam\u2013depol , feema , rio de janeiro , 113 pp\nbranch gm , grindley jr ( 1979 ) ecology of southern african estuaries . part xi . mngazana : a mangrove estuary in transkei . s afr j zool 14 : 149\u2013170\n( decapoda ; oziidae ) , an ambush predator among the mangroves . j crustacean biol 18 : 57\u201363\n( decapoda , grapsidae ) in a sub - tropical estuary . interciencia 25 : 151\u2013158\ndahdouh - guebas f , verneirt m , cannicci s , kairo jg , tack jf , koedam n ( 2002 ) an exploratory study on grapsid crab zonation in kenyan mangroves . wetlands ecol manage 10 ( 3 ) : 179\u2013187\ndavie pjf ( 2002 ) crustacea : malacostraca : eucarida ( part 2 ) : decapoda - anomura , brachyura . in : wells a , houston wwk ( eds ) zoological catalogue of australia 193b . csiro publishing , melbourne australia , pp 641\nde boer wf ( 2002 ) the rise and fall of the mangrove forests in maputo bay , mozambique . wetlands ecol manage 10 ( 4 ) : 313\u2013322\n( brachyura , grapsidae ) in a marine environment . bull mar sci 45 : 148\u2013163\nfrom the subtropical / warm temperate transkei coast , eastern cape , south africa . fifth international crustacean congress , melbourne , australia 9\u201313 july 2001 ( abstract )\nemmerson wd ( 2005 ) the nutrient status of mngazana , a warm temperate mangrove estuary in the transkei , eastern cape , south africa . wetlands ecol manage 13 : 405\u2013418\ndeman in relation to leaf - litter production in mngazana , a mangrove estuary in transkei , southern africa . j exp mar biol ecol 157 : 41\u201353\n( hilgendorf , 1869 ) ( crustacea : decapoda : brachyura : sesarmidae ) from mangroves in mozambique and south africa . afr zool 38 : 351\u2013355\nerikson aa , saltis m , bell ss , dawes cj ( 2003 ) herbivore feeding preferences as measured by leaf damage and stomatal ingestion : a mangrove crab example . j exp mar biol ecol 289 : 123\u2013138\nfaraco lfd , da cunha lana p ( 2004 ) leaf - consumption levels in subtropical mangroves of paranagua bay ( se brazil ) . wetlands ecol manage 12 ( 2 ) : 115\u2013122\nfarnsworth ej , ellison am ( 1991 ) patterns of herbivory in belizean mangrove swamps . biotropica 23 : 555\u2013567\nford r ( 2003 ) mngazana social and natural resource utilisation survey . institute of natural resources report , 20 pp\nglaser m ( 2003 ) . interrelations between mangrove ecosystem , local economy and social sustainability in caete estuary , north brazil . wetlands ecol manage 11 ( 4 ) : 265\u2013272\ngrasshoff k , kremling k , ehrhardt m ( 1999 ) methods of seawater analysis , 3rd edn . vch publishers , 600 pp\njin - eong o ( 1995 ) the ecology of mangrove conservation and management . hydrobiologia 295 : 343\u2013341\nmacintosh dj , ashton ec , havanon s ( 2002 ) mangrove rehabilitation and intertidal biodiversity : a study in the ranong mangrove ecosystem , thailand . estuar coast shelf sci 55 : 331\u2013345\nmaclvor cc , smith tj ( 1995 ) differences in the crab fauna of mangrove areas at a southwest florida and a northeast australia location : implications for leaf litter processing . estuaries 18 : 591\u2013597\nmendes m , berger u , worbes m ( 2003 ) annual growth rings and long - term growth patterns of mangrove trees from the braganca peninsula , north brazil . wetlands ecol manage 11 ( 4 ) : 233\u2013242\nodum we , heald e ( 1975 ) the detritus - based food web of an estuarine mangrove community . in : cronin le ( ed ) estuarine research , vol 1 . academic press , new york , usa , pp 264\u2013286\nomodei zorini l , conti c , jiddawi n , ochiewo j , shunula j , cannicci s ( 2004 ) participatory appraisal for potential community - based mangrove management in east africa . wetlands ecol manage 12 ( 2 ) : 87\u2013102\nonuf cp , tel jm , valiela i ( 1977 ) interactions of nutrients , plant growth and herbivory in a mangrove ecosystem . ecology 58 : 514\u2013526\nquinn gp , keough mj ( 2002 ) experimental design and data analysis for biologists . cambridge university press , cambridge uk , pp 537\nrajkaran a , adams jb , dayimani v ( 2003 ) the effect of harvesting on the mangroves in the mngazana estuary . joint conference of the sasaqs and zssa , university of cape town , south africa , 30 june\u20134 july 2003 ( abstract )\nrasolofo mv ( 1997 ) use of mangroves by traditional fishermen in madagascar . mangroves salt marsh 1 : 243\u2013253\nrobertson ai , duke nc ( 1987 ) insect herbivory on mangrove leaves in north queensland . aust j ecol 12 : 1\u20137\nschories d , bergan ab , barletta m , krumme u , mehlig u , rademaker v ( 2003 ) the keystone role of leaf - removing crabs in mangrove forests of north brazil . wetlands ecol manage 11 ( 4 ) : 243\u2013255\nsivasothi n ( 2000 ) . niche preferences of tree - climbing crabs in singapore mangroves . crustaceana 73 : 25\u201338\nsivasothi n , murphy dh , ng pkl ( 1993 ) tree climbing and herbivory of crabs in the singapore mangroves . in : sasekumar a ( ed ) mangrove fisheries and connections . proceedings of the asean\u2013australian marine science project : living coastal resources workshop , malaysia , pp 220\u2013237\nsmith tj , boto kg , frusher sd , giddins rl ( 1991 ) keystone species and mangrove forest dynamics : the influence of burrowing by crabs on soil nutrient status and forest productivity . estuar coast shelf sci 33 : 419\u2013432\nsteinke td ( 1999 ) mangroves in south african estuaries . in : allanson ba , baird d ( eds ) estuaries of south africa . cambridge university press , cambridge , uk , pp 110\u2013440\nstoll - kleemaan s ( 2004 ) the rationale of socio - economic research for the successful protection of wetlands : the example of participatory management approaches . hydrobiologia 527 : 15\u201317\nturpie j , adams jb , joubert a , harrison td , collotty bm , maree ak , whitfield ak , wooldridge th , lamberth sj , taljaard s , van niekerk l ( 2002 ) assessment of the conservation priority status of south african estuaries for use in management and water allocation . water sa 28 : 191\u2013206\nunderwood aj ( 1997 ) experiments in ecology , their logical design and interpretation using analysis of variance . cambridge university press , cambridge , uk , pp 504\nhilgendorf ( decapoda , grapsidae ) . j exp mar biol ecol 185 : 181\u2013189\nward cj , steinke td ( 1982 ) a note on the distribution and approximate areas of mangroves in south africa . s afr j bot 1 : 51\u201353\nemmerson , w . d . & ndenze , t . t . wetlands ecol manage ( 2007 ) 15 : 13 . urltoken\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ndatabase contains : 10 . 643 species ( 763 with photo ) , 1 . 682 genera , 124 families\nella mai \u2013 boo ' d up ( remix ) ft . nicki minaj & quavo"]}
{"id": 2322, "summary": [{"text": "the black drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) is a small asian passerine bird of the drongo family dicruridae .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is a common resident breeder in much of tropical southern asia from southwest iran through india and sri lanka east to southern china and indonesia .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it is a wholly black bird with a distinctive forked tail and measures 28 cm ( 11 in ) in length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it feeds on insects , and is common in open agricultural areas and light forest throughout its range , perching conspicuously on a bare perch or along power or telephone lines .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the species is known for its aggressive behaviour towards much larger birds , such as crows , never hesitating to dive-bomb any bird of prey that invades its territory .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "this behaviour earns it the informal name of king crow .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "smaller birds often nest in the well-guarded vicinity of a nesting black drongo .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "previously grouped along with the african fork-tailed drongo ( dicrurus adsimilis ) , the asian forms are now treated as a separate species with several distinct populations .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the black drongo has been introduced to some pacific islands , where it has thrived and become abundant to the point of threatening and causing the extinction of native and endemic bird species there . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "black drongo", "paragraphs": ["local name of black drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) is bhujanga . classification of black drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) . habit and habitat of black drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) .\nblack drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) complete detail \u2013 updated . description of black drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) . habit and habitat of\n\u608d\u5c07 \u5927\u6372\u5c3e ( \u70cf\u9d96 ) \u51fa\u751f black drongo birthday 2015 . 7 . 8 - 9\nblack drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) is a species of bird in the dicruridae family .\nthe black drongo is a common sight across the country . photo courtsey : raju kasambe\nblack drongo - parent fed immature and both started calling after the latter flew to a different perch .\nenglish : papuan drongo ; french : drongo papou ; german : rundschwanzdrongo ; spanish : drogo pap\u00faa .\nblack drongo is a beautiful indian bird . it is a wholly black bird with a distinctive forked tail . size of black drongo is between 22 cm to 30 cm including the tail . the weight of adult is between 40 g . to 80 g .\nthe white - breasted kingfisher , indian roller , common myna and black drongo fed predominantly at 0 - 3m .\nthe black drongo is discerned from the ashy drongo ( dicrurus leucophaeus ) by its shiny blue - black throat and breast , which merge into black on the remainder of the underparts . it is separated from the white - bellied drongo ( dicrurus caerulescens ) by its black belly , flanks , and undertail - coverts . the black drongo could be confused with the crow - billed drongo ( dicrurus annectans ) , except that the latter has a shorter and less deeply forked tail and a heavier bill than the former . additionally , crow - billed drongos occur in dense forest whereas black drongos reside in more open country . the black drongo could also be confused with an adult drongo cuckoo ( surniculus lugubris ) , the habitat for which can overlap that of the black drongo . however , the cuckoo has a fine , down - curved black bill , a slightly indented square ended tail , and a clean black belly and vent with white - barring on the under - tail coverts and on the underside of the shorter , outer - tail feathers .\nserrao js , 1971 . black drongo dicrurus adsimilis fishing . newsletter for birdwatchers , 11 ( 7 ) . 10 .\nnext , the researchers played recorded drongo calls for captive southern pied babblers ( turdoides bicolor ) , white - and - brown birds frequently targeted by drongo deception . two calls were drongo calls ; one was a drongo mimicking a pied babbler alarm call , and one was a drongo mimicking a starling alarm call .\nsharma sk , 1991 . nocturnal feeding by black drongo . newsletter for birdwatchers , 31 ( 3 , 4 ) . 8 .\n\u201cwhile exploring the countryside in thailand in october 2012 , the black drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) was frequently encountered ( above ) .\ndiet : black drongo feeds mainly on insects such as ants and termites , locusts and crickets , beetles , bees , moths and butterflies . it also consumes small reptiles , birds and bats . black drongo feeds on flower nectar too , playing an important role in plant pollination .\nenglish : large racket - tailed drongo ; french : drongo \u00e0 raquettes ; german : flaggendrongo ; spanish : drogo de cola raqueta grande .\nactually , possible attack from above , from below , from the right , from the left , and especially from the rear . it\u2019s a bird ; it\u2019s a plane\u2013 no ! it\u2019s the black drongo ! the black drongo is a large , loud , black bird that has absolutely no fear of humans . this flying object is exclusive to the marianas islands . it has some distinct characteristics ; such as a shiny black coat with a long split \u201cv\u201d shaped tail . the black drongo , also known as the king crow , rocks and rules on the marianas !\nrange : black drongo is resident in southern asia , from sw iran , through india and sri lanka , east to southern china and indonesia .\nflight : black drongo performs agile , acrobatic evolutions and buoyant flights when it pursues a flying prey . usually , it has an undulating flight .\nconcluded that the black drongo served as little direct competition for any native species of birds on guam because of the drongos choice of foraging habitat .\none of my favourite birds to see when out walking in the bush is a rather conspicuous little black bird called the fork - tailed drongo .\nchange the english name for calyptorhynchus latirostris from \u201cslender - billed black - cockatoo\u201d to carnaby\u2019s black - cockatoo\u201d , following christidis and boles ( 2008 ) .\nchange the english name for calyptorhynchus baudinii from \u201cwhite - tailed black - cockatoo\u201d to \u201cbaudin\u2019s black - cockatoo\u201d , following christidis and boles ( 2008 ) .\nblack drongo breeds from february to august , earlier or later according to the place . female lays 2 to 5 white , pinkish or creamy eggs , spotted with reddish - brown . incubation lasts about two weeks . both parents share domestic duties and protect the nest . black drongo\u2019s nest is often parasitized by cuckoos .\nmaben af , 1982 . the feeding ecology of the black drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) on guam . long beach , california , usa : california state university .\nblack drongo has glossy blue - black or green - black plumage , with semi - translucent primaries visible in flight . adults usually have a small white spot at the base of the gape and the iris is dark brown in color . the tail is long and deeply forked , and curves out at the end of outer tail feathers . head is black , with only very small white patch at bill\u2019s commissures . bill is black . eyes are reddish . legs and feet are dark grey .\nthe native range of the black drongo includes afghanistan , india and sri lanka , to southeast asia , southern and eastern china , taiwan , malaysia , java and bali .\ndecandido r , nualsri c , allen d , 2004 . migration of black drongo dicrurus macrocercus in southern thailand in autumn 2003 . forktail , 20 : 143 - 144 .\nthere is a lot to love about the spangled drongo . for starters the name .\nus fish and wildlife service ( 2005 ; 2007 ) states the need for research pertaining to the following on rota : assessing the impact of black drongos upon both mariana crows and rota white - eyes ; evaluation and development of black drongo control techniques ; evaluation of the expected costs , benefits , and results of black drongo control ; and testing the effectiveness of habitat restoration that benefits the crow and white - eye but not the black drongo . the us fish and wildlife service ( 2005 ; 2007 ) suggests that such research is needed to determine if drongo control on rota is warranted and if it should be a priority , based upon other conservation needs of both the mariana crow and the rota white - eye .\nprotection / threats / status : black drongo populations are not threatened . this species is beneficial to agriculture , because it destroys large variety of insects which are pests for cultivated areas .\nthe white - breasted kingfisher , small bee - eater , indian roller and black drongo in our study typically perched at the height category of 6 - 9m to scan an area .\na rare seen bird . . . . . . . . greater racket - tailed drongo\nfork - tailed drongo - cuckoo ( surniculus dicruroides , with subspecies dicruroides and stewarti ) .\nfrench : drongo de ludwig ; german : geradschwanzdrongo ; spanish : drogo de cola cuadrada .\nsavannas , fields , and urban habitats outside forest , in more open environments than occupied by other drongos ; over much of its range the black drongo has become a commensal of man .\n: the indian roller and black drongo had the highest overlap ( 0 . 99 ) while the lowest overlap was between small bee - eater and common myna ( 0 . 11 ) .\nchange the english name of garrulax cachinnans from \u201crufous - breasted laughingthrush\u201d to \u201cblack - chinned laughingthrush\u201d .\nan african fork - tailed drongo , which can mimic the alarm cries of dozens of species .\nadult has glossy blue - black or green - black plumage , with semi - translucent primaries visible in flight . tail is long and deeply forked , and curves out at the end of outer tail feathers . head is black , with only very small white patch at bill\u2019s commissures . bill is black . eyes are reddish . legs and feet are dark grey . both sexes are similar .\nthe final mystery , of course , is what the birds on the right actually are . unfortunately , i failed to track down the original poster , but as best i can tell they\u2019re black drongo chicks . black drongos are members of the drongo family ( dicruridae ) and are native to southern and eastern asia . here\u2019s another photo i found that looks consistent with the previous one . if any drongo experts read this blog though and want to correct me , i\u2019d love to hear from you !\n: the niche overlap in perching height was highest between white - breasted kingfisher and black drongo ( 0 . 99 ) while the lowest was between indian roller and common myna ( 0 . 19 ) .\nto the unobservant , the black drongo could appear rather unremarkable . apart from the swift , balletic dives that it makes to pursue its prey , nothing about the drongo\u2019s physical appearance \u2014 the small squat body , the glossy black feathers or even the distinctive forked tail \u2014 is spectacular . but to merely glance and then ignore this bird is to lose sight of a bird truly remarkable , fearless and aggressive .\nfrench : drongo de nouvelle - irlande ; german : bandschwanzdrongo ; spanish : drogo de nueva irlanda .\nenglish : king crow ; french : drongo royal ; german : k\u00f6nigsdrongol ; spanish : drogo real .\n\u201cnearby to where i witnessed the black drongos feeding amongst the cattle , other species of drongos were sighted as well , but they never ventured anywhere near the herd . these include the ashy drongo ( dicrurus leucophaeus leucogenis ) ( above ) and the hair - crested drongo ( dicrurus hottentottus ) ( below ) . \u201d\nblack drongo is a beautiful indian bird . it is a wholly black bird with a distinctive forked tail . they are aggressive and fearless in nature . adults usually have a small white spot at the base of the gape and the iris is dark brown in color . the tail is long and deeply forked , and curves out at the end of outer tail feathers . head is black , with only very small white patch at bill\u2019s commissures . bill is black . eyes are reddish . legs and feet are dark grey\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026 . .\nbe careful not to confuse the fork tailed drongo with a similar looking bird , the black flycatcher . the flycatcher has only a slight indentation in the tail compared to distinct fork in the drongo\u2019s tail . drongo has a red - brown eye which shows when it catches the light , while the flycatcher has a dark brown eye . one of the ways to separate them them is whether the bird is bold and noisy , which will be the drongo or relatively quiet and unobtrusive , which is more likely to be the flycatcher .\nthe japanese originally introduced the black drongo to rota in 1935 to serve as a form of biological crop pest control to help increase the productivity of the sugar cane industry on the island . black drongos consume a large number of insect species in india that are considered serious pests of various important agricultural crops , including rice (\nin total , 1194 foraging observations of white - breasted kingfisher , 1052 of small bee - eater , 700 of indian roller , 1277 of common myna and 1186 of black drongo were recorded in the study area .\nthe drongo , seen here in flight , impersonates the calls of other birds in order to steal food .\nour results indicate that the white - breasted kingfisher , indian roller and black drongo foraged exclusively by gleaning , which suggests that these species adopted a foraging technique suitable to capturing slow moving insect prey on herbs and shrubs .\nglossy black with iridescent blue - green spots , red eye and a long forked , \u201cfish - like\u201d tail .\nl . ) : acute bee paralysis virus , black queen cell virus and sacbrood virus . j . invertebr pathol\ndicrurus macrocercus , commonly known as the black drongo , is a medium sized passerine bird native to much of southern asia and parts of indonesia . the species was introduced to rota , northern mariana islands , f . . .\nenglish : king crow ; french : drongo royal ; german : konigs - drongol ; spanish : drogo real .\nthe spangled drongo has glossy black plumage , with iridescent blue - green spots ( spangles ) , a long forked tail and blood red eyes . sexes are similar , but the female is slightly smaller . occasional white spotting can be seen on the upper wings of both sexes . young birds are more sooty black without the spangles and the eye is brown . the spangled drongo is noisy and conspicuous , usually active , and frequently aggressive to other species .\n\u201c drongo \u201d is even better and refers to \u201c 1 any black bird of the family dicruridae , native to india africa and australia , having a long forked tail . \u201d and of course the australian colloquial \u201c 2 a fool ; a simpleton . [ malagasy ; sense 2 probably from drongo an unsuccessful racehorse of the 1920s ] \u201d .\nthe red - eyed , black - feathered fork - tailed drongo is an irrepressible mimic , capable of reproducing the calls of everything from other birds to mongoose - like meerkats . now , a new study finds that these drongo birds are strategic copycats : they\ncry wolf\nabout potential danger , startling other animals and stealing their food .\nhigh niche overlap was recorded between indian roller and black drongo ( perch type , foraging height , foraging substrate and foraging method ) and white - breasted kingfisher and indian roller ( foraging height , foraging substrate and foraging method ) .\nsometimes drongos can deceive their victims by using their drongo alarm call . but after a while , if the drongo has called repeatedly , the targets stop responding . that ' s when the bird tries another tactic : vocal mimicry .\ncorrect the spelling of the name of the subspecies of black - crowned tchagra of northern somalia from wardangliensis to warsangliensis .\nthe highest niche overlap was recorded between indian rollers and black drongos and between white - breasted kingfishers and indian rollers .\nhabitat : black drongo is common in open areas , savannahs and countries . it lives in open forests , habitation , farmlands and slightly wooded habitats , near water . it may be found from sea level to 2000 metres of elevation .\nblack - crested tit ( periparus melanolophus ) is lumped with coal tit ( periparus ater ) , following gill et al . ( 2005 ) , but is retained as a group : coal tit ( black - crested ) periparus ater melanolophus .\nthe white - breasted kingfisher , small - bee - eater , indian roller and black drongo perched predominantly on electric power lines but common myna used mostly ground ( table 1 ) . the perching and foraging heights varied from 0 to 12m .\nin this study the white - breasted kingfisher , indian roller , common myna and black drongo foraged mainly at 0 - 3m above the ground , and the small bee - eater foraged at wide range of heights ( 0 - 12m ) .\nsugarcane , groundnut , green gram , black gram , cotton , etc . are other major crops cultivated in the area .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto black drongo has powerful and varied calls . they include scrapings and raucous calls , also metallic sounds . call is a harsh , throaty \u201cschweep - schweep\u201d . but we can also hear beautiful and clear whistles .\nthe white - breasted kingfisher , indian roller and black drongo used plants ( herbs , shrubs and trees ) as foraging substrate to find insect prey while small bee - eaters used air and common mynas used ground as substrates ( table 3 ) . foraging by gleaning was relatively higher than other methods in white - breasted kingfisher , indian roller and black drongo . the small bee - eater foraged mainly by aerial feeding and the common myna was shown to use ground feeding ( table 4 ) .\nso the black bird ' s first attempt was unsuccessful . he went back again to have another go at fetching the fire from yummani . so this time the spangled drongo waited for yummani to go to sleep , then he would swoop down and pick up the wood of fire . but just as he was flying away he made a noise and awoke yummani up so yummani whacked the black bird on the tail . that ' s how the spangled drongo got a fork in his tail .\n) . it therefore appears that both meerkats and pied babblers are deceived by drongo - specific and mimicked false alarm calls .\nlusk mr , 1993 . black drongo research . five - year progress report , fiscal year 1988 - 1992 . saipan , commonwealth of the northern mariana islands : division of fish and wildlife , department of lands and natural resources , 371 - 373 .\nthe scientific name for black - headed parrotbill changes from paradoxornis margaritae to psittiparus margaritae , following penhallurick and robson ( 2009 ) .\nthe scientific name for black - throated parrotbill changes from paradoxornis nipalensis to suthora nipalensis , following penhallurick and robson ( 2009 ) .\nthe black drongo appears to have little to no negative economic impact upon agriculture , aquaculture , forestry or horticulture . evidence from india indicates that the species actually has a positive impact upon agriculture by consuming large quantities of insects considered to be serious crop pests (\nali ams , asokan s , manikannan r , nithiyanandam gt , 2010 . nest - site characteristics and breeding biology of the black drongo dicrurus macrocercus in cauvery delta , southern india . world applied sciences journal , 9 ( 11 ) : 1280 - 1285 .\n: the highest overlap was found between white - breasted kingfisher and indian roller and indian roller and black drongo ( 0 . 98 ) while the lowest was found between small bee - eater and common myna ( 0 . 07 ) ( table 5 ) .\nso the drongo really is the bird that cried wolf , but it remains successful by crying wolf in lots of different ways .\nthere are no published data pertaining to predators or natural enemies of the black drongo within its native range . however , given their similar choice of habitat and the drongo\u2019s foraging activities at or shortly after dark , barn owls ( tyto alba ) could opportunistically prey upon them ( sharma , 1991 ; p . radley , commonwealth of the northern mariana islands division of fish and wildlife , saipan , personal observation , 2007 - 2011 ) . brown tree snakes have been documented killing black drongos on guam but the effect of the snake upon drongo populations on the island is unknown ( savidge , 1988 ) . de mello ( 1935 ) identified and described a species of haemoproteus blood parasite for the black drongo ( h . dicruri ) in india but its clinical or physiological effects upon the species are unknown . however , the genus of the parasite is known to be host specific ( savage and greiner , 2005 ) .\nfoundation for ecological security , 2012 . dicrurus macrocercus - vieillot , 1817 ( black drongo ) in deomurari . avis - ibis ( avian information system - indian biodiversity information system ) v . 1 . 0 . gujarat , india : foundation for ecological security . urltoken\nbanks , r . c . 1978 . nomenclature of the black - bellied whistling - duck . auk 95 : 348 - 352 .\nthe black drongo is primarily insectivorous and typically forages from exposed perches in open areas , from where it frequently makes sallies at prey in mid - air or on the ground . it often hunts insects at dusk and where insects are attracted at night to artificial lights (\nworthington dj , taisacan em , 1994 . rota bridled white - eye / black drongo research . annual report , fiscal year 1994 . saipan , commonwealth of the northern mariana islands : division of fish and wildlife , department of lands and natural resources , 17 - 20 .\ncorrect the spelling of the scientific name for black sicklebill from epimachus fastuosus to epimachus fastosus , following david et al . ( 2009 ) .\nfor starlings and meerkats in the kalahari desert , the fork - tailed drongo , a songbird with glossy black feathers and garnet - red eyes , is like the neighborhood dog : a trustworthy pal that ' s always on the alert and ready to warn you about dangerous predators .\nandamans in the bay of bengal . of the other two , the velvet - mantled drongo ( d . modestus ) occurs in west central africa and the sumatran drongo ( d . sumatranus ) is endemic to sumatra , indonesia . destruction of forest habitat is their primary threat .\nthe range of the black drongo is tropical to subtropical , extending mostly north of the equator between 45 degrees north latitude and 8 degrees south latitude . the species prefers more open countryside than other drongo species , including areas of cultivation , grasslands and savannas , open scrub and broken forest , and urban and residential areas , up to 1500 - 2000 m in elevation in the summer . it breeds mostly in lowland areas .\nthe babblers also ignored alarm calls after they heard one type\u2014such as a drongo ' s alarm\u2014three times . they dashed away , however , if the third alarm was made by a species they ' d not previously heard , such as a starling ( again , imitated by a drongo ) .\nsubspecies suthora verreauxi beaulieu belongs with black - throated parrotbill ( suthora nipalensis ) and becomes suthora nipalensis beaulieu . position this subspecies following suthora nipalensis ripponi .\nfollowing payne ( 2005 ) and erritz\u00f8e et al . ( 2012 ) , we recognize three subspecies of philippine drongo - cuckoo ( surniculus velutinus ) :\n: the highest niche overlap in foraging height was between white - breasted kingfisher and indian myna ; white - breasted kingfisher and common myna and indian roller and black drongo ( 0 . 99 ) while the lowest niche overlap ( 0 . 62 ) was found between small bee - eater and common myna .\nit is no wonder then that the black drongo should have the epithet \u2018king crow\u2019 bestowed on it , or that it should be called kotwal ( cop ) in hindi \u2014 given its no - nonsense approach to predators such as crows and kites , many small birds such as babblers , golden orioles and bulbuls nest in the vicinity of a drongo\u2019s nest . with the 24 - hour security service that comes with the location , they can hatch their eggs in peace .\ndrongos occur throughout the old world tropics and subtropics : there are four species in tropical and subtropical sub - saharan africa , four in madagascar and nearby island archipelagos , 11\u201313 centered in southern and southeast asia , from east iran and india to south manchuria ( bol hai ) , the philippines and central indonesian archipelagos , and just four ( possibly five ) from the east indonesian archipelagos to the solomon islands and north and east australia . most species are sedentary , but populations of those that breed in more temperate latitudes , of the black drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) , ashy drongo , and hair - crested drongo ( d . hottentottus ) in china , and the spangled drongo ( d . bracteatus ) in east australia , are migratory , shifting to the tropics in winter .\nthe drongos are a family , dicruridae , of passerine birds of the old world tropics . the 25 species in the family are placed in a single genus dicrurus . the drongo fantail ( chaetorhynchus papuensis ) , formerly named the pygmy drongo , is not closely related and is now placed in the family rhipiduridae .\nthe researchers found that the babblers were slower to resume foraging after abandoning their food when they heard a recording of a drongo mimicking their own species ' alarm call than when they heard drongo - specific alarm calls . that explains why the drongos have learned to mimic rather than just producing their own false alarm calls\nso he ' s often there when a drongo utters its loud , metallic alarm cries . because drongos perch on tree limbs , they ' re often in good positions to spot raptors\u2014and wise meerkats and other birds pay attention . they eavesdrop on the drongos , racing for cover if a drongo shouts a warning .\nthe fork - tailed drongo ( dicrurus adsimilis ) is a beautiful , shiny black - feathered bird with crimson red eyes . this sneaky birds steal food from others by making false alarm calls . stolen food makes up nearly a quarter of their entire food intake , so it turns out to be a decent strategy .\nthe drongo - monarch group is a core branch in a massive radiation of crow - like songbirds that appears to have exploded in australia some 20\u201330 million years ago , and quickly spread through the old world tropics . the drongo lineage would have been in the vanguard , reaching africa and radiating into 11\u201313 species in southeast asia and fringing archipelagos . left behind in montane new guinea , signposting the source of radiation as it were , was the pygmy drongo ( chaetorhynchus papuensis ) , the most monarch - like and ancestrally structured drongo of all . the fossil record , limited to the pleistocene for drongos , preserves little of this information .\nif a drongo is following a meerkat , for instance , and the small mammal turns up juicy larvae or a gecko , the drongo is likely to switch from honest sentry to deceptive thief . indeed drongos get as much as 23 percent of their daily food by making false alarms and stealing their target ' s dinner .\nedolius megarhynchus quoy and gaimard , 1830 ,\ndor\u00e9rei\n= port praslin , new ireland . monotypic member of spangled drongo ( d . bracteatus ) superspecies .\nall i can say is : whadda rool bloody drongo . the bloke is clearly a few sausages short of a barbecue and has kangaroos in his top paddock .\nthere\u2019s a type of bird \u2013 the african fork - tailed drongo \u2013 that belongs to a group of animals called kleptoparasites . kleptoparasites steal food from other animals .\ndespite their extrovert behavior , drongos have made little impact on human society and culture except for the black drongo . this species , a familiar urban commensal across southern asia , is often cultivated in captivity there . black drongos from taiwan were also introduced successfully to rota in the southern marianas ( micronesia ) in the 1930s , and from there had colonized neighboring guam by the early 1960s . its other vernacular name\u2014king crow\u2014celebrates its nerve and pugnacity in driving off predatorial birds much larger than itself .\nthree major foraging substrates , namely air , plants and ground , were recognized of which , the white - breasted kingfisher , indian roller and black drongo fell under the plant - guild because plant offers a greater variety of insect food . the small bee - eater used air and common myna used ground as major foraging substrates .\nthe drongos take advantage . sometimes , when a babbler or a meerkat finds a particularly tasty looking piece of food , a drongo lies by producing a false alarm call . when that happens , the meerkat drops the food and flees to find cover , leaving the drongo to steal the food , the meerkat none the wiser .\nput spangled and drongo together and you\u2019ve really got a name that gives more than the sum of its parts and that rolls off the tongue with a laughing question .\nreproduction : black drongo\u2019s nest is located high in tree . it is a loose cup made with twigs , grass , leaves and fibres , woven with spider webs . nest is usually built in a horizontal fork , at tip of a branch in an isolated tree . nest may be at about 4 to 10 metres above the ground .\nnest is usually built in a horizontal fork , at tip of a branch in an isolated tree . the cup nest is typically situated in a tree . the breeding season is from february to july . the cup nest is similar to that of the black drongo but is usually made up of more twigs and is well lined with grass .\ndrongo\n, entry in 1970 , bill wannan , australian folklore , lansdowne press , reprint 1979 , isbn 0 - 7018 - 1309 - 1 , page 200 .\nearly morning enjoy spotting birds in the others national park area . birds possible to be seen ; short \u2013 billed minivet , bar \u2013 winged flycatcher \u2013 shrike , grey treepie , lesser \u2013 racket tailed drongo , verditer flycatcher , chestnut \u2013 bellied leafbird , grey \u2013 throated babbler , black \u2013 throated parrotbill . ashy bubul , mountain bulbul , striated bulbul\nthe scientific name of the group black - bellied whistling - duck ( northern ) is dendrocygna autumnalis fulgens ( and not dendrocygna autumnalis autumnalis ) , following banks ( 1978 ) .\nthe word drongo is used in australian as a mild form of insult meaning\nidiot\nor\nstupid fellow\n. this usage derives from an australian racehorse of the same name ( apparently after the spangled drongo , dicrurus bracteatus ) in the 1920s that never won despite many places . [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] [ 15 ]\nthey generally react the same way to a drongo ' s alarm call as they do to the alarm call of a member of their own species ,\nflower says .\nin an effort to evaluate control measures necessary to reduce black drongo numbers on rota , craig ( 1999 ) reported shooting over 1000 drongos over eight mornings in 1991 . he estimated that continued control efforts over at least 40 mornings would reduce the drongo population on the island by 80 - 90 % . both lusk ( 1993 ) and worthington and taisacan ( 1994 ) , however , found it difficult to control drongos on rota using firearms . in the early 1990s the commonwealth of the northern mariana islands\u2019 division of fish and wildlife conducted a study to determine if the removal of black drongos on rota would increase the abundance of white - eyes on the island ( lusk , 1993 ; worthington and taisacan , 1994 ) . with repeated exposure to firearms drongos became wary of humans and fled when approached , well before being within shotgun range . no other efforts to control black drongos on rota have been attempted .\n11\u201313 in ( 26\u201332 cm ) ; 1 . 5\u20132 . 2 oz ( 40\u201360 gm ) . the archetypal drongo , slender bodied , jet black with blue or green gloss , red eye , uncrested and without hackles but well bristled around bill , and tail deeply forked ; sexes are similar , and immatures dull , shorter - tailed , and brown - eyed .\nglossy black plumage , with iridescent blue - green spots ( spangles ) , a long \u201cfish - like\u201d tail and blood red eyes . sexes are similar , but the female is slightly smaller . occasional white spotting can be seen on the upper wings in both sexes . young birds are more sooty black in colour , without the spangles , and the eye is brown .\nsimilarly , the scientific name of the group black - bellied whistling - duck ( southern ) is dendrocygna autumnalis autumnalis ( and not dendrocygna autumnalis discolor ) , following banks ( 1978 ) .\nafter lunch , will visit different habitat such as , huaw sai luang waterfall , farm land etc . in the national park area . birds possible to be seen ; plumbeous redstart , white \u2013 capped water redstart , slaty \u2013 backed forktail , black \u2013 backed forktail , blue whistling thrush , silver \u2013 breasted broadbill , black \u2013 napped monarch , asian paradise \u2013 flycatcher and more\u2026\ndrongo survival is only threatened when total treed habitat is limited in area . this is the case for species confined to small islands , such as those in the comoro group off the central east coast of africa . both the comoro drongo ( d . fuscipennis ) on grand comoro island and mayotte drongo ( d . waldenii ) on mayotte island are listed by iucn as endangered . two of the four species in the near threatened category also occur on small islands : d . aldabranus on aldabra island just north of the comoros , and d . andamanensis in the\nthe spangled drongo is usually seen perched on an open branch or telegraph wire , where it awaits a passing insect . once seen , its prey is pursued in an acrobatic display , and is caught in the drongo ' s slightly hooked bill . the spangled drongo then returns to its perch to eat its victim . the prey is guided into the bill with the assistance of sensitive , long , wire - like bristles bordering the bill ( rictal bristles ) . insects are also taken from foliage and from under bark ; fruit and nectar also form part of its diet .\nin accord with sacc ( proposal 570 ) and nacc ( chesser et al . 2013 ) , change the english name of thamnophilus atrinucha from western slaty - antshrike to black - crowned antshrike .\nblack - chinned babbler is transferred from the genus stachyridopsis to cyanoderma , following moyle et al . ( 2012 ) ; the scientific name for this species changes from stachyridopsis pyrrhops to cyanoderma pyrrhops .\nblack - browed babbler is transferred from the genus malacocincla to turdinus , following moyle et al . ( 2012 ) ; the scientific name for this species changes from malacocincla perspicillata to turdinus perspicillatus .\nblack - throated laughingthrush is transferred from the genus garrulax to ianthocincla , following moyle et al . ( 2012 ) ; the scientific name for this species changes from garrulax chinensis to ianthocincla chinensis .\nblack - chinned laughingthrush is transferred from the genus garrulax to trochalopteron , following moyle et al . ( 2012 ) ; the scientific name for this species changes from garrulax cachinnans to trochalopteron cachinnans .\nblack - faced laughingthrush is transferred from the genus garrulax to trochalopteron , following moyle et al . ( 2012 ) ; the scientific name for this species changes from garrulax affinis to trochalopteron affine .\nthe scientific name for black - chested mountain - tanager ( buthraupis eximia ) is changed to cnemathraupis eximia , following sacc proposal 437 , which is based on sedano and burns ( 2010 ) .\none of the best descriptions of the drongo\u2019s aggression can be found in colonial era civil servant and naturalist edward hamilton aitken\u2019s book , the common birds of bombay , which was published in 1900 .\nfor instance , the scientists measured the length of time a pied babbler stayed away from a tasty tidbit it had been handling after it heard a recording of a drongo making a warning cry , or a drongo imitating a babbler ' s alarm call , or that of a starling . tellingly , the babblers stayed away longest when the mimicked alarm was their own or a starling ' s .\nthe black drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) is common across the country , often seen perched high on power cables and exposed branches , keeping a keen eye out for passing insects , its chief form of nourishment . it can also be spotted perched on grazing animals and picking grub off their hides . though often colloquially called \u2018king crow\u2019 , the bird is not related to the crow family at all .\nforages by drongo - like sallying in more open mid and lower strata of forest , capturing a range of insects ; commonly associates with feeding flocks of other bird species , benefiting from insects disturbed .\nthe black drongo was introduced to rota , northern mariana islands , from taiwan by the japanese in 1935 as a form of biological crop pest control ( baker 1951 ) . the species is thought to have self - colonized guam , which is separated from rota by only 48 km ( jenkins , 1983 ) . it is now the most abundant avian species on guam and remains well established on rota .\nthe black drongo has no fear of humans , cars , or animals . they\u2019re among the first birds to wake up in the morning and the last birds to retire in the evening . they eat mostly insects and sometimes even lizards , and drink nectar from flowers . the most common places to find the drongos are perched on telephone lines , atop bare trees , or flying straight for your face !\nblack - necklaced scimitar - babbler is transferred from the genus pomatorhinus to megapomatorhinus , following moyle et al . ( 2012 ) ; the scientific name for this species changes from pomatorhinus erythrocnemis to megapomatorhinus erythrocnemis .\nblack - streaked scimitar - babbler is transferred from the genus pomatorhinus to megapomatorhinus , following moyle et al . ( 2012 ) ; the scientific name for this species changes from pomatorhinus graviox to megapomatorhinus graviox .\ninsert the newly added subspecies chrysothlypis chrysomelas titanota olson 1981 immediately following the species heading for black - and - yellow tanager ; the range of this subspecies is \u201ccaribbean slope of costa rica and western panama\u201d .\n11 - 13 in ( 26 - 32 cm ) ; 1 . 5 - 2 . 2 oz ( 40 - 60 gm ) . the archetypal drongo , slender bodied , jet black with blue or green gloss , red eye , uncrested and without hackles but well bristled around bill , and tail deeply forked ; sexes are similar , and immatures dull , shorter - tailed , and brown - eyed .\nthe white - breasted kingfisher , small bee - eater , indian roller and black drongo were sit - and - wait predators and they used perches mainly to locate prey and launch their attack . brookers et al . ( 1990 ) , asokan ( 1995 ) and yosef ( 2004 ) documented the importance of perches for prey detection / hunting , vigilance , resting as well as other activities of insectivorous birds .\ni caught up with this bird a few years ago at a bat\u2019s wing coral tree erythrina verspertilio that flowers in the late dry season . you can see the pollen from the flowers on the drongo\u2019s beak .\nthe pied babblers responded more strongly to fake starling and pied babbler calls than to drongo alarm calls , suggesting that taking on the voices of others benefits the drongos . in a follow - up experiment , the researchers again played various drongo calls to pied babblers . this time , they either played the same calls three times in a row or played two of the same calls followed by a third , different call .\ndicrurus macrocercus , commonly known as the black drongo , is a medium sized passerine bird native to much of southern asia and parts of indonesia . the species was introduced to rota , northern mariana islands , from taiwan by the japanese in the mid - 1930s as a form of biological crop pest control . from rota the species apparently self - colonized the nearby island of guam . the black drongo has been implicated as a predator and held at least partially responsible for the decline of one of the iucn\u2019s critically endangered red - listed avian species on rota , and has been observed as a source of frequent harassment to another . however , these assertions are supported by anecdotal evidence and no data indicate that drongos have a significant negative effect , or have played a significant role , in the decline of any bird species on guam or rota .\nthe drongos mimicked the alarm calls of other species for almost half their false alarms , and the birds that used a variety of alarm calls were more successful at not only tricking their targets , but tricking them over and over again . for instance , if a southern pied babbler recognized that a drongo was lying and ignored his alarm call , the drongo changed his approach and started mimicking a starling or another local bird .\nwith the transfer of black - throated laughingthrush from the genus garrulax to ianthocincla , the spelling of the scientific name for subspecies lochmius to lochmia , and the spelling of the scientific name for subspecies propinquus to propinqua .\nto determine what strategies drongos used in kleptoparasitism and what proportion of their food they obtained from kleptoparasitism , i conducted 294 approximately 1 h focal observations ( 55 \u00b1 1 min ; mean \u00b1 1 s . e . ) on 25 specific drongo individuals . a minimum of six focals were collected per drongo ( mean total observation time per drongo : 10 . 47 h , range : 4 . 02\u201320 . 10 ) between march 2008 and july 2008 . during focal observations i recorded the time drongos spent foraging when alone and when following target species , defined as watching the species at a distance of less than 20 m . i also recorded all foraging attempts ; whether the drongo was foraging alone or attempting to kleptoparasitize a food item found by a target individual of another species ; and what strategy drongos employed in kleptoparasitism . drongos used two strategies to kleptoparasitize food : ( i ) attack , the drongo flew directly at a target that was handling a food item and chased or attacked it ; and ( ii ) call from perch , the drongo called from a perch while watching a target that was handling a food item , in response to which the target commonly fled to cover abandoning the food . in all cases , i recorded whether the foraging attempt was successful . food items were categorized by size relative to drongo bill length ; the corresponding wet mass of items of these sizes has been previously established [ 21 ] which enabled the calculation of food mass intake per hour for each focal observation .\nrocamora , g . & yeatman - berthelot , d . ( 2018 ) . black drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nduring breeding season , some displays may be observed . pairs , or competitive trio , are perched close to each other , or face to face . they perform duets , singing with harsh scolding notes , while they strongly bow their heads up and down . they also perform fluttering aerial chases . most of tropical populations are resident and may be nomadic outside breeding season . however , populations living in northern areas are strongly migratory . black drongo is a gregarious bird , roosting in flocks outside breeding period . then , they disperse at dawn to their feeding areas . black drongo is very territorial , defending vigorously feeding and breeding territories . it is fearless in front of larger birds , and will attack much larger species if nest or young are threatened . it can chase large crows or kites . this species may even chase other birds , in order to steal their preys .\ninsert a newly added subspecies of black - striped sparrow , arremonops conirostris pastazae , immediately following arremonops conirostris umbrinus ; the range of pastazae is \u201csoutheastern ecuador ( pastaza river drainage ) \u201d ( krabbe and stejskal 2008 ) .\nbreakfast then check out birding in different part of doi angkhang area , then drive to chiang dao rice field area , looking for birds in the shrubs and the rice fields . wat tum phaplong . the possibility birds that can find is pin - tailed parrotfinch , pin - tailed green - pigeon , asian drongo cuckoo , banded bay cuckoo , black - naped monarch , plaintive cuckoo , blue \u2013 eared barbet , wire \u2013tailed swallow etc .\ntropical and subtropical forests , secondary growth , and forest edge to mangroves , open woodlands , and even urban environs are the habitat of drongos , according to species . some , such as the new guinean pygmy drongo , the african shining drongo ( d . atripennis ) , and sulawesi drongo ( d . montanus ) are confined to primary rainforest ; but others , notably the widespread asian black drongo , occupy towns , gardens , and open areas , and are a familiar sight perched on electric lines . where different species occur together , they co - exist by occupying different habitats . thus in southeast asia , the black , ashy , and greater racket - tailed ( d . paradiseus ) drongos live in more open woods , urban areas , and marshes , while the bronzed ( d . aeneus ) , lesser racket - tailed ( d . remifer ) , and hair - crested drongos keep to denser forests , often replacing one another altitudinally . in africa , square - tailed ( d . ludwigii ) , velvet - mantled ( d . modestus ) , and shining ( d . atripennis ) drongos replace one another in different strata in different structural habitats . wherever they occur , both resident and migratory populations are well dispersed at densities of about 5\u201340 birds per mi 2 , depending on productivity and connectivity of habitat .\nkrabbe , n . , and d . j . stejskal . 2008 . a new subspecies of black - striped sparrow arremonops conirostris from south - eastern ecuador . bulletin of the british ornithologists\u2019 club 128 : 126 - 130 .\nsexes alike . glossy black plumage ; long , deeply forked tail . diagnostic white spot at base of bill . the ashy drongo d . leucophaeus ( 30cm ) is grey - black , and more of a forest bird , breeding in himalaya and a winter visitor to the peninsula . usually solitary , sometimes small parties ; keeps lookout from exposed perch ; most common bird seen on rail and road travel in india ; drops to ground to capture prey ; launches short aerial sallies ; rides atop grazing cattle ; follows cattle , tractors , grass - cutters , fires ; thus consumes vast numbers of insects ; bold and aggressive species , with several birds nesting in same tree .\nintriguingly , when a meerkat came across a particularly delicious snack , such as a scorpion or fat larva , the drongos would sometimes let loose with an alarm call . sometimes the call would mimic that of the meerkat or another species , and sometimes it would be a drongo cry . this would typically spook the meerkat , making it drop the tasty morsel and retreat , at which point the drongo was free to swoop in for a free meal .\n\u201cnot only did the black drongos seem to be more alert during this foraging frenzy , they also appeared to be more aggressive , as regular squabbles were observed as they bickered over choice perches that would guarantee close proximity and quick access to insect prey . while this association with domestic cattle has previously been reported for black drongos ( lekagul & round , 1991 ) , nothing compares to being a front row spectator to all this action ! i also wonder if the black drongos have been known to have similar associations with other cattle ( semi - domesticated or wild ) , such as water buffalo ( bubalus bubalis ) , banteng ( bos javanicus ) or gaur ( bos frontalis ) ?\nthe black drongo is a medium sized passerine bird that is 27 - 28 . 5cm in length . its plumage is black with a slight blue iridescent gloss , and its tail is relatively long and deeply forked . the species usually exhibits a white rictal spot , located below and in front of the eye , at the base of the bill . juveniles tend to be duller than the adults with a sooty - brown tinge to their plumage and no gloss . they also exhibit vague pale scales on the breast and belly , and often show white fringing on the secondary or inner flight feathers . the tail of juvenile birds is shorter than those of adults and is only slightly forked .\nthe bright blue eyes and pink bill tell you right away that this is a baby crow . within about a week the bill will turn black like and adults\u2019 but the eyes and mouth corners with remain blue and pink respectively .\nso far 18 species of australian native birds have been identified as tool users , often in relation to getting food . noisy pittas and white - winged choughs know how to use implements to open hard - shelled gastropods . black - breasted buzzards place a rock in their beak and use it as a hammer to crack open emu eggs . black kites may pick up glowing sticks in and around bushfires to start a fire elsewhere and gain access to more food .\nthe problem , in aesop ' s famous story , is that the villagers eventually catch on to the boy who cried wolf , and learn to ignore his alarm calls . how does the drongo avoid the boy ' s mistake ?\n\u201cthese hungry black drongos appeared to display a heightened level of alertness , as they kept their eyes peeled for any hint of movement from a grasshopper or cricket that may be displaced by the advancing wave of grazing cows ( above ) ."]}
{"id": 2338, "summary": [{"text": "elachista maculicerusella is a moth of the elachistidae family that is found in europe .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the wingspan is 10 \u2013 12 millimetres ( 0.39 \u2013 0.47 in ) .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the moth flies from may to august depending on the location .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae mines the stems of phalaris arundiacea , phragmites australis and other grasses on occasion .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the mine starts at the leaf tip and descends as an irregular blotch mine .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the mine is flat and quite shallow .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the frass is initially deposited in the oldest , upper part of the mine , but later in strings .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the larva may leave the mine and restart elsewhere .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "pupation takes place outside of the mine . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "elachista maculicerusella", "paragraphs": ["elachista globulosa elachista globulosa ( c . agardh ) j . agardh , 1848 elachista\nelachista intermedia elachista elachista intermedia p . l . crouan & h . m . crouan , 1867\nelachista maculicerusella ( triple - spot dwarf ) - norfolk micro moths - the micro moths of norfolk .\nlita maculicerusella bruand , 1859 tinea cerusella h\u00fcbner , 1796 . samml . europ . schmett . : pl . 27 fig . 183 . elachista monosemiella r\u00e2ssler , 1881 . elachista maculicerusella ( bruand , 1859 ) .\ncephaloziella elachista ( j . b . jack ex gottsche & rabenh . ) schiffn . cephaloziella elachista\nelachista maculicerusella \u00a71 , male , surlingham , norfolk , 24 / 07 / 2009 , fw 4 . 7mm \u00a9 chris lewis\nid : forewing pale with darker markings , with ciliary line . of the possible remaining species only e . maculicerusella and e . subocellea appear to show any hint of a median fascia . e . maculicerusella has plain unbanded antennae , while those of subocellea are banded . the markings of e . maculicerusella are very variable and poorly marked specimens may require genital examination to distinguish from e . triatomea . male genitalia : of the 6 species in group b ( forewing pale with darker markings ) only e . maculicerusella has the vinculum produced into a distinct process and the width across the uncus lobes broader than the width across the tegumen just below the uncus lobes . female genitalia : of the 6 group b species only e . maculicerusella has a long sclerotised segment at the posterior end of the ductus bursae .\noccurring widely in england and southern scotland , less so in wales and ireland , this species is relatively common in damp habitats such as river and canal banks and marshes .\nthe small white and blackish adult is quite distinctive , and flies between may and august in one or two broods depending on latitude .\n) ; occasionally on other grasses . the pupa is anchored externally on the foodplant by a silken girdle .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 07 - 09 06 : 39 : 39 page render time : 0 . 3830s total w / procache : 0 . 4459s\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwhite / green blotch mine down from leaf tip . the pupa is anchored externally on the foodplant by a silken girdle .\nrecorded in 41 ( 59 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1874 . last recorded in 2018 .\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\nws : 10 - 12mm ; bivoltine may - jun , jul - aug ; reed canary - grass ( phalaris arundinacea ) , common reed ( phragmites australis ) ; in fens & marshes in england , wales and s . scotland synonym : e . monosemiella ( mbgbi3 )\n\u00a76 torver , cumbria ; 13 / 07 / 2015 ; male ; fw 4 . 8mm all images \u00a9 chris lewis\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nlarva makes a large whitish blotch and mines the leaf downwards . the frass tends to be deposited in the upper part of the mine ( british leafminers ) .\noviposition usually not far from the leaf tip . from there descends an irregular blotch mine . hering ( 1957a ) describes the mine as flat and quite shallow , giving it a greenish , rather than whitish appearance . frass initially in the oldest , upper part of the mine , later in strings . the larva can leave its mine and restart elsewhere . normally only one larva per mine , but sometimes two or even three mines in a leaf . pupation outside the mine ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\nlarva : the larvae of moths have a head capsule and chewing mouthparts with opposable mandibles ( see video of a gracillarid larva feeding ) , six thoracic legs and abdominal legs ( see examples ) .\nyellowish green , head and pronotum pale brown ; see steuer ( 1987a ) for a detailed description ( bladmineerders van europa ) . the larva is illustrated in british leafminers .\npupa : the pupae of moths have visible head appendages , wings and legs which lie in sheaths ( see examples ) .\nanchored externally on the foodplant by a silken girdle ( ukmoths ) . the pupa is illustrated in british leafminers .\nadult : the adult is illustrated in ukmoths . the species is included in urltoken .\ncomments : festuca pratensis is treated as schedonorus pratensis ( meadow fescue ) by stace ( 2010 ) .\ntime of year - larvae : october - june ; july ( british leafminers ) .\ntime of year - adults : between may and august in one or two broods depending on latitude ( ukmoths ) .\ndistribution in great britain and ireland : occurring widely in england and southern scotland , this species is relatively common in damp habitats such as river and canal banks and marshes ( ukmoths ) including anglesey , bedfordshire , caernarvonshire , cambridgeshire , denbighshire , derbyshire , dorset , east kent , east norfolk , east suffolk , flintshire , glamorgan , hertfordshire , huntingdonshire , kincardineshire , leicestershire , middlesex , north essex , north northumberland , north hampshire , north somerset , nottinghamshire , shropshire , south hampshire , south lancashire , south northumberland , south - east yorkshire , south - west yorkshire , stafford , surrey , warwickshire , west gloucestshire , west norfolk , west suffolk , westmorland and wigtownshire ( nbn atlas ) .\nalso recorded in the republic of ireland ( karsholt and van nieukerken in fauna europaea ) . see also ireland ' s nbdc interactive map .\ndistribution elsewhere : widespread in continental europe including austria , belgium , czech republic , danish mainland , estonia , european turkey , finland , french mainland , germany , hungary , italian mainland , latvia , lithuania , luxembourg , norwegian mainland , poland , romania , russia - central , east and north , slovakia , sweden , switzerland and the netherlands ( karsholt and van nieukerken in fauna europaea ) .\nclick here to support naturespot by making a donation - small or large - your gift is very much appreciated . thank you .\nwingspan 10 to 12 mm . the small white and dark blotched adult is quite distinctive .\nthe larvae mine the stems of reed canary - grass and common reed ; occasionally on other grasses . the pupa is anchored externally on the foodplant by a silken girdle .\noccurring widely in england as far as southern scotland , less so in wales and ireland . in the butterfly conservation\u2019s microlepidoptera report 2011 this species was classified as common .\noccasional in leicestershire and rutland . l & r moth group status = c ( very scarce resident or rare migrant ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nfood plant : phalaris arundinacea ( reed canary - grass ) , common reed ( phragmites communis ) and other grasses such as dactylis glomerata ( cock ' s - foot ) , meadow grass ( poa spp . ) .\nnotes : makes a large whitish blotch as the larva mines the leaf downwards ( as shown ) . the frass tends to be deposited in the upper part of the mine . the larva left the mine on 29 . iv . 2006 and pupated on 01 . v . 2006 . adult emerged 11 . v . 2006 .\nbl\u00e5 punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och \u00f6vriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan inneh\u00e5lla observationer som inte \u00e4r validerade . kartan uppdateras var fj\u00e4rde vecka .\ni det avancerade verktyget kan man s\u00f6ka ut och f\u00e5 fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst l\u00e4n , i en viss biotop , substrat , som p\u00e5verkas av en hotfaktor , eller som \u00e4r knutna till en sk v\u00e4rdart , t ex tr\u00e4det alm . dessa kan \u00e4ven kombineras .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , knutna till alm , \u00e4r beroende av d\u00f6d ved och som finns i kronobergs l\u00e4n .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , lever i sm\u00e5vatten och som p\u00e5verkas negativt av igenv\u00e4xning .\ndefaultl\u00e4get i verktyget \u00e4r arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade 2015 och dessa \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga s\u00f6kfaktorer . under fliken r\u00f6dlistekategori kan man dock v\u00e4lja att \u00e4ven inkludera arter som inte \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade . om man v\u00e4ljer att inkludera icke r\u00f6dlistade arter beh\u00f6ver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanst\u00e4llning av vad som \u00e4r komplett .\ndenna funktion anv\u00e4nds n\u00e4r du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka p\u00e5 deras namn . du kan ocks\u00e5 v\u00e4lja att anv\u00e4nda knappen \u201dj\u00e4mf\u00f6r arter\u201d f\u00f6r att se bilder , kartor och k\u00e4nnetecken i en j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevy .\ndu kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via sl\u00e4kttr\u00e4det och d\u00e4r v\u00e4lja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat s\u00e4tt att g\u00f6ra ditt urval \u00e4r att anv\u00e4nda fliken \u201dfiltrera\u201d , d\u00e4r du kan s\u00f6ka p\u00e5 olika egenskaper . ovanf\u00f6r listan med s\u00f6kresultatet finns en knapp \u201dl\u00e4gg i mitt urval\u201d .\nthe mit license copyright ( c ) 2014 - 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2014 openlayers contributors . all rights reserved . redistribution and use in source and binary forms , with or without modification , are permitted provided that the following conditions are met : 1 . redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer . 2 . redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and / or other materials provided with the distribution . this software is provided by openlayers contributors ` ` as is ' ' and any express or implied warranties , including , but not limited to , the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose are disclaimed . in no event shall copyright holder or contributors be liable for any direct , indirect , incidental , special , exemplary , or consequential damages ( including , but not limited to , procurement of substitute goods or services ; loss of use , data , or profits ; or business interruption ) however caused and on any theory of liability , whether in contract , strict liability , or tort ( including negligence or otherwise ) arising in any way out of the use of this software , even if advised of the possibility of such damage . the views and conclusions contained in the software and documentation are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing official policies , either expressed or implied , of openlayers contributors ."]}
{"id": 2354, "summary": [{"text": "crassostrea ingens is a species of fossil oyster , a marine bivalve mollusk in the family ostreidae , the oyster .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "this species lived during the pliocene .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "fossils have been found in new zealand shallow-water limestone and shellbeds .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "locations include the wairarapa , whanganui basin , gisborne district , north canterbury , and hawke 's bay ( especially in the te aute limestone ) . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "crassostrea ingens", "paragraphs": ["a fossilised oyster ( crassostrea ingens ) shell . it is a large , amorphous , thick , scaly , laminate shell .\n- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : crassostrea ingens ( c . a . von zittel , 1865 ) \u2020 - id : 7661000837\nspecies crassostrea graphoides auct . non schlotheim accepted as crassostrea cuttackensis ( newton & smith , 1912 ) accepted as magallana cuttackensis ( newton & smith , 1912 ) ( misspelling and misidentication )\n[ footnote ] * o . ingens , however , has since been collected at kaawa creek .\n( 1995 ) stable - isotope and amino acid profiles of the new zealand giant pliocene oyster crussostreu ingens .\nspecies crassostrea belcheri ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1871 ) represented as magallana belcheri ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1871 )\nspecies crassostrea hongkongensis lam & b . morton , 2003 represented as magallana hongkongensis ( lam & b . morton , 2003 ) ( original combination )\nthe present investigation goes to show how necessary it is not to neglect the evidence that small molluscs may have to offer , for it modifies very materially the earlier estimate of the age of the wilkie ' s bluff beds , which was based solely on the large and obvious fossils . the masses of crassostrea ingens and the large pectens and the corals at first glance appear to provide a faunule so different from that at nukumaru that stage distinction seems apparent , but closer study has shown that the difference is mainly a superficial one .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nexceedingly large ( 200 mm to more than 300 mm high ) , exceedingly thick and heavy , calcitic ; exterior irregularly foliose , without true radial or commarginal sculpture ; cemented to hard substrates by umbonal area of left valve . some specimens oval ( length up to 0 . 7 height ) but most narrowly elongate , length half height or less , and relatively deeply dished . left valve exceedingly thick , deep ( inflation of left valve 60 - 80 mm or more ; interior cavity 30 - 40 mm or more deep ) , most specimens curved weakly to left over ventral half ; ligamental area large , in most specimens elongate ( a little higher than wide ) , depressed medially and with a margining groove and ridge up each side ; no sign of chomata in any adult specimens . adductor scar at centre of cavity height , a little in front of centre , gently to steeply inclined ( dorsal side depressed ) , dorsal margin straight to slightly irregular , ventral margin deeply convex , i . e . , a rounded semicircular outline ; retaining bright purplish red colour in most pliocene specimens . ventral area of internal cavity with a wide shallow groove in most specimens , extending from posterior of adductor scar to antero - ventral extremity of shell . right valve almost flat , more weakly foliose than left , about 15 to 40 mm thick ( i . e . , considerably thinner than corresponding left valve ) ; hinge a mirror image of left one ; adductor scar as in left valve but less steeply inclined .\n( early nukumaruan ) occur in the base of hautawa shellbed at hautawa road , north of hunterville , rangitikei valley , and in the base of pukenui limestone in southern wairarapa . the oldest specimens referred here ( tentatively ) are relatively small ( to c . 150 mm long ) , narrow , laterally compressed specimens from the basal grit member of the hurupi formation in putangirua stream , eastern palliser bay ( early tongaporutuan ) ; we are not aware of any kapitean records . rare , poorly preserved ?\noccurs exceedingly abundantly in\nreefs\n( e . g . , in wilkies shellbed , wanganui ( mangapanian ) , in a bank up to eight metres thick found continuously over more than 45 km ) and scattered in very near - shore , subtidal shellbeds , and apparently occupied much the same semi - estuarine , near - shore niche as\ntongaporutuan - kapitean ? ; opoitian - early nukumaruan .\nwanganui river\n, type , almost certainly from the\nreef in wilkies shellbed , mangapanian . widespread and abundant in shallow - water , near - shore limestone and shellbeds of pliocene age ( opoitian to early nukumaruan ) in wanganui basin , gisborne district , hawke ' s bay ( particularly abundant in te aute limestone facies ) , wairarapa , and north canterbury .\ncite this publication as :\na . g . beu and j . i . raine ( 2009 ) . revised descriptions of new zealand cenozoic mollusca from beu and maxwell ( 1990 ) . gns science miscellaneous series no . 27 .\n\u00a9 gns science , 2009 isbn 978 - 0 - 478 - 19705 - 1 issn 1177 - 2441 ( included with a pdf facsimile file copy of new zealand geological survey paleontological bulletin 58 in cd version from : publications officer , gns science , p . o . box 30368 lower hutt , new zealand )\nnorth chanter island , kermadec group , raoul island sector , pacific ocean , n . z .\nwaipatiki limestone , south side , waipatiki beach , hawkes bay , n . z .\nbartrum bay , motutara , south muriwai coast , rodney district , west auckland , n . z .\nmathesons bay , leigh , rodney district , north auckland , n . z .\nkeyhole rock , spit beach , aromoana , dunedin heads , n . z .\nmatanganui limestone , south rocky side , tarawhenua peninsula , pitt island , chatham islands .\nfossil point , bosquet bay , kawau island , hauraki gulf , auckland , n . z .\nawapapa limestone , te mata peak , havelock north , hawke bay , n . z .\nmodern pholad bivalves which have bored into a piece of rock from a coastal shore platform . pholads use the edge of their shells to mechanically drill / cut into the rock . fossil examples like this image exist in rocks from the wanganui basin .\nthis specimen shows gastropod shells which have accumulated in muddy sediment , and then been ' current aligned ' , i . e . , the movement of the water has turned them so they face the same direction . this specimen comes from the cenozoic of new zealand . image shown in both plan and cross - sectional views . see also\nscallop shells embedded in a sandy limestone , from cenozoic sediments of hawke ' s bay .\n) . this specimen is formed from casts and molds . these fossils are often found in the port waikato area .\ntracks in sandstone . probably made by an echnoderm ( like a sea urchin or kina ) grazing on organic detritus on a sandy sea floor . these tracks can be see in waitamata group sediments , dated at about 20 - 18 million years old .\nthis group of microfossils is interesting as we don ' t really know what they are - we think they are algae .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmitchell , l . , curry , g . b . , and fallick , a . e .\nseveral beaches in the taranaki province of the north island are famous for fossils . this ancient oyster shell lived between 3 . 6 and 2 . 6 million years ago , and was buried in marine sediment that has since been uplifted .\nby comparison with an image and description in ' cenozoic mollusca of new zealand ' by beu and maxwell ( 1990 ) .\nto download this volume and to learn more about ancient molluscs in new zealand .\ndr daniel thomas from the institute of natural and mathematical sciences , massey university , made this model using a structured light 3d scanner ( 2015 ) . this fossil shell is from sediment that also contains fossil penguin bones . this specimen was found by daniel when he was looking for fossil penguins .\nplease do not reproduce without permission from puke ariki . contact images @ urltoken for more information . order images online here .\ncan you help us ? click \u2018add comment\u2019 to share names , details and stories to help enrich the collection .\nhelp us improve papers past : do our short survey and let us know how we ' re doing .\non the system and stage names applied to subdivisions of the tertiary strata in new zealand .\npapers past now contains more than just newspapers . use these links to navigate to other kinds of materials .\nthese links will always show you how deep you are in the collection . click them to get a broader view of the items you ' re currently viewing .\nenter names , places , or other keywords that you ' re curious about here . we ' ll look for them in the fulltext of millions of articles .\nbrowsed to an interesting page ? click here to search within the item you ' re currently viewing , or start a new search .\nuse these buttons to limit your searches to particular dates , titles , and more .\nswitch between images of the original document and text transcriptions and outlines you can cut and paste .\nif you ' d rather just browse through documents , click here to find titles and issues from particular dates and geographic regions .\nthe\nhelp\nlink will show you different tips for each page on the site , so click here often as you explore the site .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n[ read before the auckland institute , august 18 , 1939 ; received by the editor , october 5 , 1939 ; issued separately , june , 1940 . ]\nyears ago the writer closely studied the fossils occurring at kaawa creek , south of waikato heads , in beds that on palaeontological grounds have been assigned to the waitotaran stage of the wanganui system . these beds were found to be rich in small molluscs , in addition to the larger forms that had already been recorded by bartrum and powell (\n, p . 40 ) : \u2014\u201cthe high percentage of species that are peculiar to the beds , together with the small number found in pliocene rocks elsewhere in new zealand , shows that the faunule is definitely an isolated one , \u2014 . when the faunule is compared with that at hawera the difficulty of correlation becomes further apparent , for the kaawa and hawera beds belong to different facies , and on the whole the assemblage of species differs at each locality , there being only 19 species that are common to both . a striking feature of the faunule at kaawa is the entire absence of such typical waitotaran fossils as the large pelecypods\n, vol . 1 , no . 2 , p . 87 , 1931 ) shows a total absence of minutae , and as these are well represented in the faunule at kaawa , correlation is made still more difficult . not until a facies of the taranaki waitotaran is found in which minutae are represented can precise comparisons be made . \u201d\nan attempt to obtain minutae from several localities along the section between , and including , nukumaru beach and waihi beach , hawera , was recently made with moderate success . shortage of time made it necessary to limit collecting to a very brief interval ( two to three hours ) at each locality , and to devote most of this time to searching for matrix that appeared likely to yield small shells , little attention being given to collecting the larger species . collections of matrix were thus made at nukumaru beach , wilkie ' s bluff ( waitotara ) , mangapani ( 12 miles by road upstream from waitotara township ) , and waihi beach , hawera .\nthe present paper includes description of new species and furnishes new records ; in addition to these , an attempt is made to define more precisely than has been possible in the past the limit that should be drawn between the nukumaruan and waitotaran stages of the wanganui system .\npark ( repts . geol . explor . during 1886 - 87 , no . 18 , p . 57 , 1887 ) placed the rotella beds at nukumaru in the newer pliocene , the nukumaru limestone in older pliocene , and the coralline series at waitotara in the upper miocene . the palaeontological observations made in this paper go to show that actually these three horizons are not so widely separable as park thought , but are sufficiently close in faunal characteristics to be grouped together .\nalthough based originally on park ' s waitotara coralline series as developed at wilkie ' s bluff , waitotara ( park , loc . cit . , pp . 55 and 64 ) , as conceived at present the waitotaran includes the succession of beds from waitotara to beyond hawera ; it is here shown , however , to contain two distinct faunal communities . certain upper members of the sequence must be withdrawn from the waitotaran stage ; but they need not be recognised as an additional stage for they contain a faunule that is essentially nukumaruan .\nthe lists given below ; with the exception of that for waihi beach , hawera , do not represent the full muster of species at the various localities , those for wilkie ' s bluff and mangapani including only those species obtained during the visits recently made by the writer . though not comprehensive , these lists supply strong evidence regarding the correlation of certain beds along part of the nukumaru - hawera coastal section , and , as will be shown , assist in indicating more accurately than has hitherto been possible the sectional division between the nukumaruan and waitotaran stages .\n[ footnote ] * recorded by marshall and murdoch ( trans . n . z . inst . , vol . 52 , p . 123 , 1920 ) .\nthe presence of nukumaruan faunas in hawke ' s bay as well as in taranaki demonstrates that a continuous sea - way united these areas in nukumaruan times . this has already been shown by ongley ' s ( n . z . jour . sc . tech . , vol . 16 , no . 5 , p . 260 , 1935 ) recent demonstration that near manawatu gorge nukumaruan sediments once formed a continuous sheet across the mountain axis of mesozoic rocks which is shown on current geological maps of new zealand as intervening between extensive areas of pliocene strata on either side of this axis . it is not unreasonable to suppose that the sea\nconnection existed in the form of a great strait , for , as mr . powell has remarked to the writer , the conditions under which the oyster beds of the coralline series accumulated probably were analogous to those obtaining in foveaux strait at the present day ; such supposition is not opposed to a nukumaruan age for the beds at waitotara .\nthe outcrop collected from at mangapani extends for a chain or two along the left wall of mangapani valley , which enters the valley of the waitotara river approximately from the west at a point about 12 miles by road upstream from waitotara township . the fossils were obtained from loose , brown , micaceous quartzsands of shallow water character , underlying six or eight feet of a flaggy limestone ( upper limit not seen ) which contains large pectens here and there near its base .\nof the 64 species collected at mangapani , 43 ( 67\u00b71 per cent . ) are found at nukumaru or higher wanganuian horizons , or are recent , and do not occur at waipipi or hawera ; the following eight species ( 12\u00b75 per cent . ) occurring at mangapani are found also at waipipi or hawera , and not at nukumaru or higher wanganuian horizons : \u2014 chlamys ( phialopecten ) triphooki , eumarcia ( atamarcia ) benhami , polinices waipipiensis , polinices pateaensis , cerithioderma mangawera n . sp . , zelandiella pliocenica , alcithoe whakinoensis , stiracolpus haweraensis , taniella planisuturalis . of the species not entering into these percentages seven range from recent or from upper or mid - pliocene into the lower pliocene , and therefore cannot be used to show the affinity of these beds with either the nukumaruan or waitotaran . there are no species that are peculiar to the mangapani faunule .\n[ footnote ] * marwick ( trans . n . z . inst . , vol . 57 , p . 621 , 1927 ) states that c . orassitesta is a species important to the stratigrapher as it seems to be characteristic of the nukumaruan .\nat nukumaru , wilkie ' s bluff , mangapani , and in nukumaruan beds in hawke ' s bay are essentially alike , yet distinct from that at hawera ( which shows affinity with that at kaawa creek ) . at least 56 . 5 per cent . of the species of mollusca found at wilkie ' s bluff , and at least 53\u00b71 per cent . of those at mangapani , occur also at nukumaru .\nin view of all these facts there seems little reason for hesitation in assigning the mangapani beds to the nukumaruan stage .\nthe downward sequence between nukumaru and waitotara ( park , loc . cit . , p . 64 ) is : \u2014\nsoft brown micaceous sandstones ( park makes no reference to these being fossiliferous ) .\n? ? ? ( no exposure , but if coralline beds are present one would expect them to outcrop ) .\ndirect stratigraphical evidence on the correlation of the beds of the two areas is not at present available , though this may yet be obtained by search inland from waitotara . park ( loc . cit . , p . 67 ) has noted the similarity in succession of the strata in the sections at scinde island and pohui , hawke ' s bay , to that at waitotara ; in each case there is an upper and a lower limestone separated by about 150 feet of soft brown sandstone , the lower limestone\nat waitotara being a shell limestone passing down into brown calcareous sands ( i . e . , the upper part of park ' s coralline series ) . may it not be that the limestone at mangapani is equivalent to the lower calcareous beds at waitotara ? if so , the fossiliferous sands at the former locality must be lower in the sequence than the coralline beds at wilkie ' s bluff ; and this is in accord with the palaeontological evidence discussed below .\nb . percentage of species found in nukumaru and younger wanganuian beds , or recent , but not on waipipi\u2013hawera section .\nboth sets of beds are more nearly related faunally to mid - and upper wanganuian than to the waipipi - hawera beds , so nearly in fact that one is justified in assigning them to the nukumaruan .\nthe beds at mangapani are slightly older than those of the coralline series at waitotara .\nof the older series exposed to erosion increased as uplift continued . this would account for the greater number of derived forms in later rather than in the earlier beds of the younger sequence . another possibility is that the upper beds of the strata uplifted might be sparsely fossiliferous , and those exposed later to erosion rich in fossil species ; in which case any fossils derived from the older rocks would be more commonly found in later rather than in earlier members of the younger sequence . so far as is known , however , there is no evidence of unconformable relations or of notable disconformity at the requisite horizon along the wanganui section , but there is no stratigraphic evidence that such do not exist in the obscured portion of the coastal section between waitotara heads and the point some miles north - west , where the pliocene beds reappear from under drifts of sand . in fact , it is here that the stratigraphic equivalent of the mangapani beds is to be expected , if , as has been suggested above , these latter constitute a horizon that is lower than that of the coralline beds at waitotara .\nto the 73 species recorded by powell ( rec . auck . inst . mus . , vol . 1 , no . 2 , pp . 87\u201389 , 1931 ) from waihi beach , hawera , the following 40 have now to be added : \u2014\n( k indicates that the species is peculiar to the hawera and kaawa creek faunules ) .\nit is interesting to note that 11 of the species listed above occur also at kaawa creek , 10 of them being found only in the hawera and kaawa creek faunules . as a result of these additions the total number of species common to the two faunules now stands at 29 , and there is little doubt that further search for small molluscs will show additional connection between them . the presence at hawera of the hitherto exclusively kaawa creek species indicated in the above list strengthens the argument for correlation of these\ntwo horizons . the pyramidellid unit in the beds at hawera affords the same evidence , for it has much in common with that at kaawa creek , such species as chemnitzia ngatutura , odostomia bartrumi , and waikura n . sp . in particular being distinctive .\nthe additions in the above list bring the total number of species at hawera to 113 , and reduce the percentage of recent species from 35\u00b762 , as determined by powell ( rec . auck . inst . mus . , vol . 1 , no . 2 , p . 89 , 1931 ) , to 23\u00b70 ; compared with this the percentage of recent species at kaawa creek is 21\u00b76 . continued collecting at hawera , however , no doubt will still further reduce this percentage .\nthe writer is greatly indebted to professor j . a . bartrum , of auckland university college , for his ready assistance with photography , and for the suggestions he kindly made during preparation of the manuscript . to mr . j . n . anderson , engineer to the patea county council , he is also considerably indebted for help in locating certain fossiliferous outcrops along waitotara valley , including that at mangapani . mr . anderson kindly conducted the writer by car for many miles from waitotara township .\nnucula ( linucula ) wanganuica n . sp . ( fig . 10 ) .\nshell moderately inflated , beaks about posterior third , small , directed backwards . antero - dorsal margin short , curving downwards ; anterior end truncated , the margin straight , oblique ; ventral\nmargin regularly curved ; posterior margin convex , lightly sinused at its middle ; postero - dorsal margin very short , curved , descending rapidly . upper portion of valve smooth , weak concentric sculpture developing ventrally ( seen only under hand - lens ) . very fine microscopic radials are also developed , and these cut the concentric ridges in a fashion reminiscent of the sculpture of limopsis . only very good specimens show the lunule ornamented by weak radial threads as described by marwick for linucula . chondrophore triangular , oblique , broadening considerably below ; teeth moderately heavy , 7 posterior to pit , about 12 in front . margins finely crenate .\nnucula ( linucula ) aptera n . sp . ( fig . 1 ) .\nfrom n . wanganuica n . sp . this shell differs in having greater inflation of valve and fuller beak , stronger concentric sculpture , no antero - dorsal wing , and much finer teeth . tutamoensis , waipaoa and ruatakiensis lack the regular concentric sculpture , and have the outline different . beak at posterior fourth . divaricating radials well seen under microscope . hinge very light , there being 8 or 9 fine anterior teeth and about 7 posterior ones . margins finely crenate . radial threads present as in wanganuica .\nshell small , solid , a little oblique , prodissoconch not quite central , but not so laterally situated as that of h . kaawa , the species it most resembles . kaawa has the beak notably broader and is a thinner shell , more circular in outline . the radials of kaawa , though widely spaced like those of the new shell , are heavier and not of the nature of delicate fine threads . waitotara has the flat inter - spaces crossed by close - set concentric threads , which cause fine nodulation of radials where they cross them . the beak rises prominently above hinge , which is fairly broad . ligamental pit triangular ; on each side of it the hinge bears about 20 vertical taxodont teeth , extending for equal distances on each side of the pit . internally the whole of the ventral margin and the ventral parts of anterior and posterior margins are crenulated .\nheight , 1\u00b77 mm . ; length , 1\u00b77 mm . ; inflation ( one valve ) , 0\u00b76 mm .\nof neozelanic species this fossil most resembles g . coccinea hedley , a macquarie island species . it differs from other local species in the almost total absence of sinuation on ventral margin , the beaked effect at anterior being much less obvious than in coccinea , forsteriana and aucklandica . it is notably smaller than coccinea , and equally notably larger than the last two species . except for the unsinuated ventral margin and for the rather more\nerect posterior one , the outline is that of coccinea . the beak , however , is more turned inwards . in characters of hinge these two species resemble one another very closely . the fossil has tooth of left valve rather better developed . the right valve has a lamellar tooth developed below and just in front of beak ; above this there is a groove that engages the tooth of the left valve . coccinea has these teeth barely developed ( right valve ) . sculpture consists of concentric growth - ridges and striae and weak radial lines and very low folds , mostly towards posterior end , much as in coccinea . there is a broad fold running from umbo to postero - ventral margin .\nheight , 5\u00b70 mm . ; length , 6\u00b71 mm . ; inflation ( one valve ) , 1\u00b76 mm .\nheight , 2\u00b72 mm . ; length , 2\u00b705 mm . ; inflation ( one valve ) , 0\u00b76 mm .\nclosely allied to marshalli marwick , but is a larger and more heavily built species with much coarser ribbing and dorsal side drawn up a good deal more . the ribs are broad and heavy , and are separated by wide , shallow , almost flat - floored interstices , which are broader in relation to width of axials than are those of marshalli . the ribs are only 8 or 9 in number as compared with 11 or 12 in marshalli , from which species the large , heavy , shell and different ribbing provides ready separation .\nlocalities : nukumaru ( nukumaruan ) ; devil ' s elbow , napier - wairoa road ; kawau island , in 20 fathoms ( recent ) .\ntype from nukumaru . the type - material consists of odd right and left valves .\nshell auriform , imperforate , spire very slightly elevated . sculpture of thin , spaced spiral threads and curved axials , these two elements of equal strength , giving a fenestrated effect . in fact , the sculpture very closely indeed resembles that of scissurella geoffreyi , a fossil from kaawa creek . the present shell , however , has the broadly spreading aperture , concave columella and almost completely covered umbilicus of s . rosea ( hedley ) , the genotype of scissurona . slit deep , situated above periphery , not crossed by lamellae .\n[ the section below cannot be correctly rendered as it contains complex formatting . see the image of the page for a more accurate rendering . ]\nshell large , last whorl enlarging rapidly ; upper surface convex . spire low , its whorls lightly rounded ; sutures distinct . protoconch closely coiled , its nucleus minute . surface smooth to unaided eye , but hand - lens shows numerous fine spiral threads . periphery sharply rounded low down , almost angled . base practically smooth . umbilicus small , its width about 1 / 7 ; to \u215b that of least diameter of shell .\ndistinct in its lack of prominent sculpture ; large size and sharply angulated , narrow periphery ; laterally spreading aperture , in which respect it resembles edomita marwick .\nspire very low , whorls cenvex , suture channelled broadly , umbilicus wide and perspective . the body - whorl bears about eight distinct regular spiral cords , the first from suture being on rim\nof channel , the last forming a keel well below periphery and almost on outer edge of base . these cords become stronger and more distant from suture downwards . base smooth .\nlocalities : wilkie ' s bluff ( type ) ; mangapani ; devil ' s elbow , napier - wairoa road .\nnot unlike the recent sub - tatei ( suter ) , but the smooth base distinguishes it . albolapis laws has spirals on the base . politus ( suter ) has the spirals much finer . the specimen of unicarina from hawke ' s bay has the channel around suture not so strongly excavated .\none shell , probably a new species , close to finlayi , but with few axials and the umbilicus rather more open . specimen not good enough for description .\nseveral dozen very well preserved specimens have been collected . these show the surface to be sculptured with very numerous , dense radial threads , a feature not commented on at the time of description , owing no doubt to lack of the best material .\nrelated to subtilicosta marwick , but notably smaller and with relatively larger aperture , which is circular . spire lightly convex in outline , sutures moderately distinct ; whorls clasping , faintly convex and rather bulging anteriorly . height of body greater than half that of shell . body - whorl narrow ; aperture with its rim trumpet - like , heavily thickened on parietal wall ; aperture as wide as , or perhaps rather wider than , the body .\nthis species has relationship with both rekohuana powell and minor ( suter ) . from rekohuana it differs in having the whorls more clasping and sutures tangential , the height of body not so great relative to height of shell , and the aperture different , its posterior border being more nearly horizontal . minor is smaller and has the whorls bulging , those of rekohuana and of rekominor being flat .\nshell small , narrow , outline pupoid , whorls flat to very lightly convex , often bulging a little below , and thus slightly overhanging suture . periphery sub - angled , the angulation bearing a fine spiral groove . suture below periphery , the spiral thus in evidence above suture . not unlike morioria powell in shape , but the presence of peripheral angulation and of supra - sutural spiral distinguishes it . porrectoides is also a tapering species , but has not the angulation and coarse spiral . e . ngatutura is consistently much smaller .\nthis is an exquisitely fashioned little species , taller than either fricta or castlecliffensis , and having the heterostrophe protoconch similar to that described by powell for expansa . the embryo of fricta has the nucleus minute , that of both nukumaruensis and castlecliffensis being much larger . whorls well rounded , sutures strongly cut in , the summit of whorls being shouldered close in to suture . all adult whorls crossed by close , fine ( hair - like under hand - lens ) straight , slightly oblique axials , which extend well down on to base . numerous fine spiral threads , rather finer than the axials , are universally developed . aperture typical , elongate - oval , lips thin , peristome discontinuous . height of body - whorl about half that of shell .\nshell minute , attenuate , whorls convex , sutures distinct . protoconch with five thin raised spiral threadlets , spaced widely on posterior part of whorl , but closer together in front . axial sculpture almost obsolete , indicated by exceedingly low corrugations , and present on all post - nuclear whorls . body - whorl long , its height not quite half that of shell . aperture similar to that of analoga powell ; peristome continuous ; parietal callus thick .\nshell minute , spire elevated ( about twice height of aperture ) , whorls lightly convex to flat , sutures moderately defined , impressed , situated slightly below periphery . aperture roundly ovate ; outer\nlip thin , slightly effuse ; columella arcuate , set vertically , a slight umbilical chink present near its insertion . outer lip antecurrent to suture , which descends to meet aperture . good specimens show low , faint spirals over surface of last two whorls .\nfive specimens from mangapani are undoubtedly marshall and murdoch ' s ataxocerithium perplexum . like nukumaru shells they are considerably worn , but one is sufficiently preserved to show the sculpture and carination of zeacumantus lutulentus ( kiener ) , to which marshall and murdoch ' s name must fall in synonymy .\nshells from nukumaru and mangapani have characters close to those of this species . the protoconch , however , seems less bulging , but this may be due to wear , and the nodules are finer .\nthe protoconch is described in the generic diagnosis above . the embryonic volutions ( about 2 \u00bd in number ) increase slowly ; the early post - embryonic whorls increase rapidly at first and then gradually ; thus the protoconch as a whole projects in mucronate fashion . the embryo closes at an ill - defined varix , issuing from which there are three spirals , a third now appearing between the original embryonic ones . all adult whorls with three spiral keels , evenly and regularly nodulated , the nodules connected axially by ridges , weaker than the spirals , giving a fenestration of squares . sutures margined above by a thin thread , which issues from suture on body - whorl as a distinct cord marking the sharply angled periphery . base with two spiral threads .\nthe resemblance to isotriphora is superficial . it is more likely that the new zealand shell has arisen from a local group , such as notosinister or cautor , possibly the latter .\nheight ( estimated ) , 15\u00b70 mm . ; width , 5\u00b70 mm . larger specimens occur .\nnumerous topotypes have been obtained . the writer has this species also from mangapani , wilkie ' s bluff , and from an outcrop near devil ' s elbow ( napier - taupo road ) . the keels on the shells from these localities are slightly heavier and a little more distant one from the other , but otherwise they agree well with topotypes . hawera specimens show some variation in regard to the strength and number of secondary spirals ; some shells have the secondaries fine , even dense ; others have only one or two rather stronger secondaries between the pairs of keels .\nthree specimens were collected at hawera . the species occurs also at kaawa creek .\none very striking specimen with the umbilical perforation deep and entering right to the top of the shell , seeming to be more penetrating than that of sagenus the parietal callus is worn and outer lip badly broken back .\nthese shells carry the same number of spirals as octocarinata ( powell ) and also like that species lack the prominent shoulder of inornata . unlike the former , however , the posterior of spire - whorls\nhas two distinct , though fine , spirals developed , and not a broad swelling as in octocarinata . further , octocarinata has the aperture almost equal in height to that of the spire , whereas the new species has the height of the whole body about half that of the shell . the shell of cavatocarinata is thus more attenuate .\nlocalities : off otago heads , in 72 fathoms ( type ) ; nukumaru ; mangapani . the shells from nukumaru , though stumpier than the recent ones from otago heads , lack the shoulder of inornata and have fewer spirals .\nthe protoconch is large , its summit flattened and blunt ; smooth . the nucleus on the flattened summit is minute , closely coiled in planorboid fashion . after the first 1 \u00bd turns the coiling descends in helicoid volutions , the whorls enlarging rapidly , becoming strongly convex , and persisting for just over two turns to close of embryo . the large protoconch appears out of proportion to the size of the early adult whorls . the anterior canal is better defined than that of inornata , being not so open , and longer ; the beak is twisted somewhat to left ; umbilicus entirely closed ; there is no swollen rib comparable with that on inornata and related forms running from beak and bordering left side of umbilicus .\ncerithioderma ( miplioderma ) mangawera n . sp . ( fig . 17 ) .\nthe form of this pliocene species is entirely that of trichosirius finlayi laws , a fossil occurring in hutchinsonian and awamoan beds in the south island . the new species , however , is smaller , more lightly built , and has the axials much less oblique with respect to posterior suture . the posterior one of the three strongest spirals is higher up on whorl in mangawera , and above it there is one fairly strong spiral . finlayi has two , and sometimes three , spirals between suture and the posterior of the three heavy cords ; and these spirals are always much finer than the cords , appearing as spaced , thin but distinct thread .\nso far as the writer is aware this species has been known up till now only from the pliocene beds at petane . it is extremely close to f . maxwelli finlay , occurring in deep water off otago heads .\nshell very small , spire staged , body - whorl equal to spire in height , of about three post - nuclear whorls , the last one disproportionately long and narrow ; outlines straight . whorls convex , a little flattened around suture , which is distinct . protoconch\nheterostrophic , paucispiral , planorboid , well rounded and considerably tilted . spiral sculpture of weak , irregular striae here and there , but rather better developed than in the genotype ( g . dolichostoma ) ; growth - stages well seen . body - whorl long , widely convex in one broad sweep from suture to base ; aperture elongately oval , narrowly angled behind , rather broadly rounded in front ; columella set vertically , strongly arcuate , its fold indicated externally by a low swelling near junction with parietal wall , and becoming more strongly differentiated within aperture ; inner lip with a narrow , well developed pad of callus ; outer lip thin , lightly convex .\nthe shells from wanganui localities scarcely show the slight anterior bulge typical of christyi .\nshell of moderate size , attenuate , body not unduly inflated . whorls convex ; sutures distinct , margined by a low , moderately broad spiral . whorls rising steeply above shoulder . axials developed on all whorls , the interspaces rather narrower than the ribs ; 12 axials on last whorl , no obsolescence of axials evident . the whorls are higher in relation to width than are those of marshalli and imperator , more like those of attenuatus . axials are not so sharply defined as those of imperator and the spirals ( about 28 on body - whorl , each pair with an interstitial threadlet ) are finer . anterior canal long . protoconch typical of the genus .\na very delightfully preserved shell , more slender than any of its associates in zeadmete , quite devoid of axial sculpture , and having fine , close , evenly spaced and regular spiral cords over whole adult surface ; 12 spirals on penultimate whorl . whorls strongly shouldered , the suture almost channelled . the two folds on columella are equal in strength . protoconch normal .\nclosely allied to m . maoria ( marshall and murdoch ) , an awamoan fossil from target gully . it is , however , considerably larger , has the sutures very deeply channelled and the fenestration of sculpture closer . the spire - whorls have three spiral cords ( two in maoria ) ; the body - whorl four heavy ones ( three in maoria ) , and four or five fine spaced threads anterior to them . axials on body 14 in number ( 12 in maoria ) . nodules at intersections of spirals and axials present on all whorls . columella with three strong , evenly\nspaced plaits . inner lip fairly thickly callused . the protoconch is polygyrate , closely coiled , and has the nucleus tiny and central . outer lip broken .\nheight ( estimated ) , 20\u00b70 mm . ; width ( estimated ) , 10\u00b70 mm .\nrelated to z . opihiensis laws , a fossil from awamoan beds in south canterbury , but separable on account of the more numerous and finer axials ( 18 or 19 on penultimate whorl ; 11 or 12 on that of opihiensis ) , more cut in suture , and less swollen sub - sutural spiral . in apical characters the two forms are identical , the protoconch being conical , polygyrate and sharply pointed , its nucleus minute and base broad . both also have the two small denticles on mid - portion of columella , separated by a light groove . were it not for the protoconch these species would fall into macrozafra , for they agree in build , sculpture and denticulation of columella with m . subabnormis ( suter ) , the genotype of macrozafra .\nlocalities : mangapani ( type ) , common ; wilkie ' s bluff ; petane ; hawera .\njust as these shells placed in zafra differ from macrozafra in nuclear characters , so zemitrella inconspicua ( marshall ) , a fossil from the pakaurangi point beds , differs from other neozelanic zemitrella , as has been remarked by the writer ( trans . roy . soc . n . z . , vol . 68 , p . 496 , 1939 ) . if group - names are not already available for those forms with polygyrate apices , it seems that generic distinction should be accorded them .\nshell with spire very elongate and slowly tapering , whorls as high as broad , shouldered above posterior third , the shoulder concave and rising steeply to suture , which is clasping . below shoulder whorl descends vertically and is practically straight . shoulder with a swollen border around suture , and a thin spiral thread at about its anterior third , elsewhere with fine spiral striae and curved growth - lines . antepenultimate whorl with six strong , sharply raised and evenly spaced spiral cords , nodulated weakly where crossed by axials , the nodulation strongest on posterior cords , hardly visible on anterior one or two . body - whorl with 14 strong , spaced spiral cords , the upper few faintly nodulated ; interstitial spirals absent . axials very weakly developed , indefinite , indicated chiefly by nodulation on spirals ; some better developed than others , persisting weakly across spiral grooves ; all axials weakening and many dying out entirely towards anterior of whorls . sinus moderate , as indicated by growth - lines on shoulder . anterior notch broken away , but growth - lines on fasciole show it was moderately deep . aperture narrowly ovate , angled behind . sutures very oblique to the horizontal .\nseparable at a glance from all other neozelanic austrotoma on account of its tenuity of whorl and spire , and large size .\nshell tall and slender , outline of spire straight , protoconch missing . whorls with a broad , prominent rounded median keel carrying three or four spiral cinguli ; above keel three fine subequidistant spirals ; below keel two spirals , the lower the heavier . suture margined below by a swollen band consisting of two strong close nodular spirals , the nodules connected axially across interspace . body - whorl with 15 raised and spaced spiral cords , the last half - dozen or so becoming finer , though still well elevated ; most of the inter - spaces with an interstitial threadlet . sinus normal .\npliocene shells from several localities differ in a number of ways from the recent p . zelandica ( smith ) . they are more attenuate ( body much less swollen ) than zelandica , have whorls not so strongly shouldered , and lack the broad smooth zone on whorls .\nthree shells differing from sata in that they are notably less slender and have the protoconch larger and broader across the base .\nl . sata , a kaawa creek species , has been collected also at waihi beach , hawera .\nshell small , elevated , outlines convex above , straight below . whorls broadly sulcate medially ; sutures narrow at periphery . whorls axially ribbed , the ribs vertical , straight , nodulated at both extremities , the nodules at anterior ends rather sharper and stronger than those behind . penultimate whorl with 12 to 14 ribs , spaced at intervals greater than their own width . body - whorl swollen and pouting around periphery , contracting rapidly over short base to strongly twisted neck and well developed fasciole .\nsomewhat like z . biplex ( hutton ) , and z . turpicula marwick .\n( of dioeciostrea orton , 1928 ) orton j . h . ( 1928 ) . the dominant species of ostrea . nature . 121 ( 3044 ) : 320 - 321 . , available online at urltoken note : names in this paper are unavailable because there is a disclaimer p . 121 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\ngofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\ncoan , e . v . ; valentich - scott , p . ( 2012 ) . bivalve seashells of tropical west america . marine bivalve mollusks from baja california to northern peru . 2 vols , 1258 pp . [ details ]\n( of dioeciostrea orton , 1928 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]"]}
{"id": 2359, "summary": [{"text": "the yellow-billed babbler or white-headed babbler ( turdoides affinis ) is a member of the leiothrichidae family endemic to southern india and sri lanka .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the yellow-billed babbler is a common resident breeding bird in sri lanka and southern india .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "its habitat is scrub , cultivation and garden land .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "this species , like most babblers , is not migratory , and has short rounded wings and a weak flight and is usually seen calling and foraging in groups .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it is often mistaken for the jungle babbler , whose range overlaps in parts of southern india , although it has a distinctive call and tends to be found in more vegetated habitats .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "its name is also confused with t. leucocephala , which is also known as white-headed babbler . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "yellow - billed babbler", "paragraphs": ["yellow - billed babbler | for details check my blog www . drkris\u2026 | flickr\nenglish : yellow - billed scimitar babbler ; french : moineau friquet ; german : rotr\u00fcckens\u00e4bler .\nyellow - billed babbler ( turdoides affinis ) is a species of bird in the leiothrichidae family .\nthe orange - billed babbler ( turdoides rufescens ) also known as ceylon rufous babbler or sri lankan rufous babbler is a member of the leiothrichidae family .\na portion of the mural\nfrom so simple a beginning\nfocusing on the yellow - billed magpie .\nonce a pied cuckoo lays its egg in a yellow - billed babbler\u2019s nest , the latter has no way of telling the difference . the cuckoo eggs are turquoise blue like the poor babbler\u2019s .\nenglish : yellow - naped yuhina , yellow - collared ixulus ; french : yuhina \u00e0 cou roux ; german : gelbnackenyuhina .\npage 31 , yellow - billed pintail ( south georgia ) anas georgica georgica add a missing range statement : \u201csouth georgia i . \u201d\nthe orange - billed babbler is a resident breeding bird endemic to sri lanka . in the past , it was considered to be a race of jungle babbler , turdoides striatus .\npage 640 , yellow warbler dendroica petechia ruficapilla this subspecies is moved from the yellow warbler ( mangrove ) group dendroica petechia [ erithachorides group ] to the yellow warbler ( golden ) group dendroica petechia [ petechia group ] .\ni saw two birds ( yellow billed babbler ) frequenting a small tree in our garden . this tree is located almost in front of our main door . so we can observe them very easily from our living room .\nthroat , olive back , orange and yellow wings , and uniquely forked tail .\nother synonyms catalan : tordenc de bec groc czech : tim\u00e1lie \u017elutozob\u00e1 danish : lyshovedet larmdrossel german : gelbschnabeldrossling , gelbschnabel - drossling , gelbschnabel - schwatzh\u00e4herling english : white - billed babbler , white - headed babbler , yellow billed babbler , yellow - billed babbler , yellow - billed chatterer spanish : turdoide piquigualdo spanish ( spain ) : turdoide piquigualdo finnish : valkop\u00e4\u00e4timali french : crat\u00e9rope \u00e0 bec jaune , crat\u00e9rope affin italian : garrulo beccogiallo , garrulo testabianca japanese : kibashiyabuchimedori japanese : \u30ad\u30d0\u30b7\u30e4\u30d6\u30c1\u30e1\u30c9\u30ea latin : m [ alacocircus ] . affinis , turdoides affinis , turdoides affinis affinis lithuanian : geltonsnap\u0117 strazdin\u0117 timalija malayalam : \u0d2a\u0d42\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d3e\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d40\u0d30\u0d3f , \u0d2a\u0d42\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d3e\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d40\u0d30\u0d3f dutch : geelsnavelbabbelaar norwegian : gulnebbskriketrost polish : d\u017cunglotymal \u017c\u00f3\u0142todzioby , tymal z\u00f3ltodzioby , tymal \u017c\u00f3\u0142todzioby russian : \u0436\u0435\u043b\u0442\u043e\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0434\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0442\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043b\u0438\u044f , \u0436\u0435\u043b\u0442\u043e\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0434\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0442\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043b\u0438\u044f slovak : tim\u00e1liovec \u017eltozob\u00fd swedish : ljushuvad skriktrast tamil : venthalai silamban chinese : \u5370\u5ea6\u767d\u5934\u9e2b\u9e5b , \u767d\u5934\u9e2b\u9e5b chinese ( traditional ) : \u5370\u5ea6\u767d\u982d\u9d87\u9da5\ue00e\njamie , g . a . & de silva wijeyeratne , g . ( 2014 ) similarity of the calls of juvenile pied cuckoo clamator jacobinus and its sri lankan host species , yellow - billed babbler turdoides affinis . forktail 30 : 133 - 134\nthe backwaters waterbirds including cinnamon and yellow bitterns , bronze - winged and pheasant - tailed jacanas , and stork - billed kingfisher . also a chance of black - capped kingfisher .\nall day birding mang den where the primary target bird is the recently discovered and seldom seen endemic chestnut - eared laughingthrush . our guide has had very good success getting this species . other target birds are stripe - breasted woodpecker and black - hooded laughingthrush . other notable birds of the area are the scarce pale - capped pigeon , brown hornbill , yellow - billed nuthatch , rufous - faced warbler , red - billed scimitar - babbler , and short - billed scimitar - babbler . night at tba in mang den .\nenglish : yellow - bellied laughing thrush ; french : garrulaxe \u00e0 gorge jaune ; german : gelbbauchh\u00e4herling .\nenglish : pekin robin , red - billed hill tit ; french : l\u00e9iothrix jaune ; german : sonnenvogel .\nmudumalai np ( adjoining bandipur np ) including jungle hut cabins yellow - wattled lapwing , blue - faced malkoha , blue - bearded bee - eater , grey - headed and white - browed bulbuls , yellow - billed babbler and gold - fronted leafbird . also a chance of brown fish owl , jerdon ' s nightjar , white - naped woodpecker , indian pitta , white - bellied minivet and orange - headed thrush .\nbabbler with dark brown upperside , narrowly streaked pale underside , and variably whitish . . .\nblue - rumped & bar - bellied pitta , germain\u2019s peacock - pheasant , green peafowl , orange - necked partridge , great slaty woodpecker , lesser adjutant , grey - faced tit - babbler , collared , black - hooded , white - cheeked & orange - breasted laughingthrush , collared babbler , yellow - billed nuthatch , grey - crowned crocias , hume\u2019s treecreeper , grey - crowned tit , vietnamese cutia , indochinese cuckooshrike , slender - billed oriole , burmese shrike , vietnamese greenfinch , black - crowned fulvetta , black - crowned parrotbill , green peafowl , great slaty woodpecker , austen\u2019s brown hornbill , chestnut - eared , black - hooded & white - cheeked laughingthrush , yellow - billed nuthatch , pale - capped pigeon , coral - billed scimitar - babbler , white - winged magpie , grey - crowned crocias , golden - winged , red - tailed , black - hooded & white - cheeked laughingthrush , indochinese fulvetta , black - crowned barwing , annam partridge , blue - rumped & bar - bellied pitta , short - tailed scimitar babbler , austen\u2019s brown hornbill .\nas a result of these revisions , pomatorhinus erythrocnemis becomes a monotypic species , and the english name is changed to black - necklaced scimitar - babbler . the sequence of these species is : rusty - cheeked scimitar - babbler pomatorhinus erythrogenys spot - breasted scimitar - babbler pomatorhinus mcclellandi black - streaked scimitar - babbler pomatorhinus gravivox gray - sided scimitar - babbler pomatorhinus swinhoei black - necklaced scimitar - babbler pomatorhinus erythrocnemis reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\npage 136 , yellow rosella platycercus flaveolus adelaide rosella platycercus adelaidae in accord with raou , yellow rosella and adelaide rosella are lumped into a single species under the name crimson rosella ( platycercus elegans ) . the two former species continue to be recognized as groups : crimson rosella ( yellow ) platycercus elegans flaveolus crimson rosella ( adelaide ) platycercus elegans adelaidae / subadelaidae\npage 497 , long - billed wren - babbler rimator malacoptilus in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , this species is split into three species : \u2014 subspecies rimator malacoptilus pasquieri is elevated to species rank , with english name white - throated wren - babbler . \u2014 subspecies rimator malacoptilus albostriatus is elevated to species rank , with english name sumatran wren - babbler . rimator malacoptilus becomes monotypic , and retains the english name long - billed wren - babbler . the range statement for long - billed wren - babbler \u2013 e himalayas ( sikkim to e assam and ne myanmar ) \u2013 inadvertently was omitted from the clements checklist 6 . 5 spreadsheet ; we will reinstate the range statement in the next edition . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\n4 . 3 in ( 11 cm ) . the most brilliantly colored member of a large genus of mostly brown birds . chest orange or yellow ; head black , with gray throat and whitish cheeks and crown . wings black with brilliant orange and yellow highlights . tail black , edged with orange or yellow . mantle grayish and rump yellow . sexes similar . shape typical of genus : rounded , like a titmouse or kinglet , with a short , sharp bill , and tail of moderate length .\npage 499 , wedge - billed wren - babbler sphenocichla humei in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , subspecies sphenocichla humei roberti is elevated to species rank , with english name chevron - breasted babbler . sphenocichla hume i becomes monotypic , and the english name is changed to blackish - breasted babbler . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\nspecies shared only with sri lanka painted francolin , crested ( changeable ) hawk eagle , blue - faced malkoha , sri lanka frogmouth , jerdon\u2019s nightjar , indian swiftlet , malabar trogon , malabar pied hornbill , crimson - fronted barbet , orange ( scarlet ) minivet , jerdon\u2019s ( rufous - winged ) bush lark , hill ( pacific ) swallow , square - tailed black , white - browed and yellow - browed bulbuls , indian blackbird , indian ( white - browed ) scimitar babbler , dark - fronted and yellow - billed babblers , lesser hill myna , jerdon\u2019s ( blue - winged ) leafbird and long - billed ( loten\u2019s ) sunbird .\nmorning have the park ranger drive us up the mountain road on lang bien . key target birds there are black - throated tit , yellow - billed nuthatch , hume ' s treecreeper , black - crowned fulvetta , and vietnamese cutia . other interesting possibilities include mountain hawk - eagle , hodgson ' s hawk - cuckoo , dalat shrike - babbler , clicking shrike - babbler , bianchi ' s warbler , rufous - capped babbler , collared laughingthrush , and orange - bellied leafbird . afternoon return to the lake area to look for birds missed the previous day . night at dreams hotel .\nan additional aspect of my research involves understanding interspecific interactions and communication . originally i started investigating these interactions between pied babblers and fork - tailed drongos . more recently , i have begun investigating interspecific interactions in scimitar - bills , yellow - billed hornbills and wattled starlings .\nenglish : rough - templed tree - babbler ; french : lob\u00e9lia sp\u00e9ciosa ; german : goldstirn - buschtimalie .\nenglish : mount omei babbler ; french : garrulaxe de l ' omei ; german : omei - haeherling .\nenglish : golden - breasted tit babbler ; french : alcippe \u00e0 poitrine dor\u00e9e ; german : gold - alcippe .\nthis is a reupload - initially i had mistaken the turdoides affinis for turdoides striata , the jungle babblers , but a good youtube friend explained that it must be a yellow - billed babbler , so i had to change the title ; - ) well , whatever seven sisters they are - they are always noisy and funny , and come usually together with a gang of palm squirrels ( funambulus palmarum ) .\nenglish : lesser scaly - breasted wren - babbler , brown wrenbabbler ; french : turdinule mail\u00e9e ; german : moostimalie .\n5 . 25 in ( 13 . 2 cm ) . unique , rather bizarre appearance : black head with golden yellow forehead , lores , eye ring , and chin ; bright reddish orange tufts on side of head . streaked olive mantle with brown wings and tail . breast yellow with black spots .\npage 499 , long - tailed wren - babbler spelaeornis chocolatinus in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , the long - tailed wren - babbler is split into four species . \u2014 subspecies spelaeornis chocolatinus oatesi is elevated to species rank , with english name chin hills wren - babbler . \u2014 subspecies spelaeornis chocolatinus reptatus is elevated to species rank , with english name gray - bellied wren - babbler . \u2014 subspecies spelaeornis chocolatinus kinneari is elevated to species rank , with english name pale - throated wren - babbler . \u2014 spelaeornis chocolatinus becomes monotypic , and retains the english name long - tailed wren - babbler . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\nkukri belur ( kokkare bellur ) spot - billed pelican and painted stork nesting colony in village . also a chance of red - naped ibis and painted stork .\npage 496 , spot - breasted scimitar - babbler pomatorhinus erythrocnemis in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , this highly polytypic species is split into four species : \u2014 subspecies pomatorhinus erythrocnemis mcclellandi is elevated to species rank , with english name spot - breasted scimitar - babbler . \u2014 subspecies pomatorhinus erythrocnemis gravivox is elevated to species rank , with english name black - streaked scimitar - babbler . subspecies odicus , decarlei , dedekensi , and cowensae also now are transferred to black - streaked scimitar - babbler . \u2014 subspecies pomatorhinus erythrocnemis swinhoei is elevated to species rank , with english name gray - sided scimitar - babbler ; subspecies abbreviatus also is included in gray - sided scimitar - babbler . in addition , subspecies ferrugilatus and haringtoni are transferred from pomatorhinus erythrocnemis to the rusty - cheeked scimitar - babbler pomatorhinus erythrogenys . we also add the two following subspecies of rusty - cheeked scimitar - babbler , both of which inadvertently had been omitted from previous editions of clements checklist : pomatorhinus erythrogenys imberbis karenni , e myanmar pomatorhinus erythrogenys celatus shan states , e myanmar and nw thailand\n5 in ( 12 cm ) . tiny , long - tailed , brownish bird with rufous accents , finch - like yellow bill , and dark eyes . sexes similar .\nenglish : white - necked bald crow , yellow - headed rockfowl , guinea picathartes ; french : picatharte de guin\u00e9e ; german : weisshals stelzenkraehe ; spanish : picatartes cuelliblanco .\npage 500 , pygmy babbler stachyris plateni in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , subspecies stachyris plateni pygmaea is elevated to species rank , with english name visayan pygmy - babbler . stachyris plateni becomes monotypic , and the english name changes to mindanao pygmy - babbler . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\npage 499 , pygmy wren - babbler pnoepyga pusilla in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , subspecies pnoepyga pusilla formosana is elevated to species rank , with english name taiwan wren - babbler ; it also is repositioned to follow scaly - breasted wren - babbler pnoepyga albiventer . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\npage 494 , puff - throated babbler pellorneum ruficeps indictinctum correct a typographical error in the scientific name : change \u201cindictinctum \u201d to \u201c indistinctum . \u201d\npage 498 , large wren - babbler napothera macrodactyla rusty - breasted wren - babbler napothera rufipectus black - throated wren - babbler napothera atrigularis marbled wren - babbler napothera marmorata in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , these four species all are transferred to the genus turdinus . please note that for one of these species we failed to change the spelling of the species name : turdinus macrodactyla should be turdinus macrodactylus . we will correct this oversight in the next edition . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\nranganathitu bs mugger crocodile , waterbirds including a chance of spot - billed pelican , painted stork , great thick - knee and river tern , and raptors including a chance of indian spotted eagle .\npage 496 , indian scimitar - babbler pomatorhinus horsfieldii in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , subspecies pomatorhinus horsfieldii melanurus is elevated to species rank , with english name sri lanka scimitar - babbler . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\npage 497 , streak - breasted scimitar - babbler pomatorhinus ruficollis in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , subspecies pomatorhinus ruficollis musicus is elevated to species rank , with english name taiwan scimitar - babbler . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\nliocichla omeiensis riley , 1926 , mt . emei , sichuan . only recently recognized as full species , distinct from taiwanese endemic steere ' s babbler ( l . steerii ) .\nday 11 : yok don national park to mang den early morning birding at yok don before the scenic drive north to mang den in kontum province with a lunch stop en route . arrive in time for some late afternoon birding around mang den . overnight at mang den . day 12 : mang den a full day\u2019s birding at mang den where the recently - discovered and seldom - seen endemic , chestnut - eared laughingthrush , is the main target . other specialities of the mang den area include the scarce pale - capped pigeon , yellow - billed nuthatch , black - hooded laughingthrush and indochinese wren - babbler . overnight at mang den .\npreventing a nest parasite such as the pied cuckoo from laying eggs in its nest should be the first line of babbler defence . but babblers don\u2019t chase anything , let alone cuckoos .\npage 136 , bluebonnet ( yellow - vented ) northiella haematogaster / pallescens the scientific name of this new group is incorrect ; the name should be northiella haematogaster haematogaster / pallescens . we will correct this error in the next edition .\nthe pied cuckoo chick was a giant amongst its foster family of yellow - billed babblers . every morning for a few days , we watched the flock of dowdy brown birds frantically stuff leftover dog food , insects , and other tidbits from the garden into the gaping maw of the ever - hungry monster chick . the family must have been blind to think the fledgling with a pointed crest , prominent black and white plumage , and a long tail was its own .\n11 in ( 28 cm ) . slender grayish brown , long - tailed bird , which may remind americans of thrashers ( mimidae ) . plumage identical in both sexes , but male ' s eyes pale yellow , female ' s brown .\nfor the first picture common babbler ( turdoides caudatus ) might be a good place to start . i ' m not familiar with the group and there may be other species that look similar .\npage 289 , greater scythebill campylorhamphus pucherani in accord with sacc , the greater scythebill is transferred to the new genus drymotoxeres , and placed in a new position in the linear sequence of genera , immediately following the wedge - billed woodcreeper glyphorynchus spirurus .\npage 502 , miniature tit - babbler micromacronus leytensis in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , elevate subspecies micromacronus leytensis sordidus to species rank , with english name mindanao miniature - babbler . micromacronus leytensis becomes monotypic , and the english name changes to visayan miniature - babbler . we inadvertently used a different name , visayan tit - babbl er , in the clements checklist 6 . 5 spreadsheet ; we will correct this error in the next edition . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\n9 . 1 in ( 23 cm ) ; 1 . 75 oz ( 50 g ) . elegant thrush - shaped bird with brown mantle , black mask , and yellow throat and underparts . sexes monomorphic . nominate subspecies , from the western part of the range , has an olive green nape and crown , while the two isolated eastern subspecies have brilliant dark blue napes and crowns instead . jiangxi population has a clear , brilliant yellow chest , while birds from yunan have yellowish gray chests .\npage 506 , white - hooded babbler gampsorhynchus rufulus torquatus in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , subspecies gampsorhynchus rufulus torquatus is elevated to species rank , with english name collared babbler . subspecies gampsorhynchus rufulus saturatior also should be transferred to gampsorhynchus torquatus ( thus leaving white - hooded babbler gampsorhynchus rufulus as monotypic ) , but we failed to implement this change in the clements checklist 6 . 5 spreadsheet ; we will correct this mistake in the next edition . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\nthe orange - billed babbler lives in flocks of seven to ten or more . it is a noisy bird , and the presence of a flock may generally be known at some distance by the continual chattering , squeaking and chirping produced by its members . it is usually the first sign that a mixed - species feeding flock , so characteristic of asian wet forests , is in the vicinity . it feeds mainly on insects , but also eats jungle berries .\npage 30 , anas flavirostris altipetens anas flavirostris andium we announced in the updates and corrections of clements 6 . 4 that subspecies altipetens and andium were split from yellow - billed teal ( anas flavirostris ) to form a new species , andean teal ( anas andium ) . in the clements checklist 6 . 4 spreadsheet , we erected andean teal ( anas andium ) as a species , but we failed to change the species name of the two subspecies . this oversight is corrected in clements checklist 6 . 5 : andean teal anas andium altipetens anas andium andium\nparus fasciatus gambel , 1845 , monterey , california . six subspecies . while delacour long ago considered this species a babbler , many authorities have persisted in assigning it its own family or subfamily . however , the dna hybridization research\nclear distinguishable patterns are observed to be emerging in the responses of avian community structure to habitat characteristics in study , and undoubtedly this variation resulted in avian assemblages specific to the degree of anthropogenic distribution along the elevational gradient of the forest [ 8 ] . at forest edge and the juxtaposition of the edge support higher number of avian species than the other interior habitat . despite the anthropophilic species such as brown - headed barbet , red - vented bulbul , and yellow - billed babbler [ 26 , 31 ] some forest loving birds such as sri lanka wood pigeon and emerald - collared parakeet [ 21 ] were observed to actively utilize resources available in these habitats . although these observations are from our area of study , avian assemblages were typical to other neighborhood study systems available in literature [ 15 , 32 , 33 ] .\npage 480 , scarlet robin petroica multicolor in accord with raou , scarlet robin is split into two species : pacific robin ( petroica multicolor ) , including subspecies pusilla , feminina , similis , cognata , ambrynensis , soror , kleinschmidti , taveunensis , becki , polymorpha , septentrionalis , kulambangrae , dennisi , and multicolor ; and scarlet robin ( petrioca boodang ) , including subspecies campbelli , leggii , and boodang . page 481 , yellow robin eopsaltria australis in accord with raou , the english name is changed to eastern yellow robin . page 481 , gray - breasted robin eopsaltria griseogularis in accord with raou , the english name is changed to western yellow robin . page 481 , white - browed robin poecilodryas superciliosa in accord with raou , the two subspecies of white - browed robin are elevated to species rank : white - browed robin ( poecilodryas superciliosa ) and buff - sided robin ( poecilodyas cerviniventris ) .\nfollowing this , i worked as a research assistant for dr mandy ridley at the pied babbler project ( 2011 - 2013 ) . i carried out playback experiments and collected and analysed sound data from individuals and groups , throughout the breeding seasons .\nootacamund , nilgiri hills black - and - orange and nilgiri flycatchers , indian and nilgiri blue robins , black - chinned laughingthrush , indian scimitar babbler and nilgiri langur . also a chance of painted bush quail , nilgiri wood pigeon and forest wagtail .\nof sibley and ahlquist suggests the wrentit is the only new world babbler , whose ancestors crossed the bering land bridge in the mid - miocene ( 15\u201320 million years ago ) . sibley and ahlquist do place it in its own tribe , chamaeini .\n16 in ( 40 cm ) , 7 oz ( 200 g ) . elegantly proportioned bird of unmistakable appearance . head unfeathered , with unique black and orange - yellow skin pattern . eyes and powerful bill dark . mantle , wings , and tail black , or nearly so . neck and under - parts creamy white .\nall five endangered babblers are primarily threatened by habitat loss . all are forest birds . two are philippine endemics : the flame - templed babbler ( stachyris speciosa ) occurs only on negros and panay , while the negros striped - babbler ( s . negrorum ) is entirely restricted to that severely deforested island . the remaining three depend on high - elevation forests : the nilgiri laughing thrush ( garrulax cachinnnans ) , one of many imperiled inhabitants of india ' s nilgiri hills , the white - throated mountain babbler ( kupeornis gilberti ) , known to science only since 1949 , restricted to several places in nigeria and cameroon , and the gray - crowned crocias ( crocias lang - bianis ) , rediscovered in 1994 after 56 years of no records , from a few locations in vietnam .\npage 270 , straight - billed reedhaunter limnoctites rectirostris this species was placed in the genus limnornis in earlier editions of clements checklist . it was transferred to the genus limnotictes in the clements checklist 6 . 4 spreadsheet , in accord with sacc , but we did not acknowledge this change in taxonomy in the accompanying updates and corrections ( december 2009 ) .\npage 502 , striped tit - babbler macronous gularis in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , elevate the bornensis group of subspecies ( zopherus , zaperissus , everetti , ruficoma , javanicus , montanus , bornensis , argenteus , and cagayanensis ) to species rank , as bold - striped tit - babbler macronous bornensis . the remaining subspecies are retained in macronous gularis , but the english name changes to pin - striped tit - babbler . subspecies macronous bornensis javanicus , which previously did not exist in the clements checklist in the gularis / bornensis complex , is a new addition ; but we later realized that macronous flavicollis javanicus surely represents the same taxon . we will resolve this discrepancy in the next edition . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\nearly morning birding at cat tien . then transfer to di linh area , a fairly short drive away . the main birding site is the forested mountain pass known as deo suoi lanh . it ' s an excellent site for several specialties of the dalat highlands , notably white - crested laughingthrush , black - hooded laughingthrush , orange - breasted laughingthrush , and the near endemic black - crowned parrotbill . the first two laughingthrushes often travel in mixed flocks and are reliably seen . the orange - breasted laughingthrush is much more difficult . groups sometimes spend days looking along the road for it without success , as it is quite secretive and hard to find . our guide knows an out of the way locale not known to other guides where the bird is more possible . other birds of the di linh area include pin - tailed pigeon , silver - backed needletail , red - headed trogon , golden - throated barbet , indochinese green - magpie , black - throated tit , gray - faced tit - babbler , red - billed scimitar - babbler , and spot - necked babbler . it can also be good for raptors such as black eagle and rufous - winged buzzard . night at mai khanh hotel in di linh .\npage 499 , mishmi wren - babbler spelaeornis badeigularis in accord with inskipp et al . ( 1996 ) , rasmussen and atherton ( 2005 ) , collar ( 2006a ) , and many other sources , the english name is changed from mishmi wren - babbler to rusty - throated wren - babbler . references : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 . inskipp , t . , n . lindsey , and w . duckworth . 1996 . an annotated checklist of the birds of the oriental region . oriental bird club , sandy , united kingdom . rasmussen , p . c . , and j . c . atherton . 2005 . birds of south asia : the ripley guide . smithsonian institution and lynx edicions , washington d . c . and barcelona , spain .\npage 147 , dusky - billed parrotlet forpus sclateri in accord with sacc , change the scientific name of dusky - billed parrotlet from forpus sclateri to forpus modestus . the respective subspecies name changes are : forpus sclateri eidos becomes forpus modestus modestus forpus sclateri sclateri becomes forpus modestus sclateri page 147 , orange - chinned parakeet brotogeris jugularis in accord with sacc , the orange - chinned parakeet should be moved to a new position in the linear sequence of species of brotogeris parakeets . we intended to position orange - chinned parakeet immediately following gray - cheeked parakeet brotogeris pyrrhoptera , but we failed to implement this change in the clements checklist 6 . 5 spreadsheet . we will correct this oversight in the next round of revisions to clements checklist .\nall day birding limestone forest . key target species include brown hornbill , red - collared woodpecker , limestone leaf warbler , and sooty babbler . also possible is tonkin partridge . there is a good chance of seeing the endangered ha tinh langur as well . night at accommodations in the park .\npage 498 , limestone wren - babbler napothera crispifrons in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , napothera crispifrons is transferred to the genus gypsophila . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\npaleontology has , thus far , not served to clarify the origins and relationships of babblers , the only fossils being a middle pleistocene example of the modern species , the arabian babbler ( turdoides squamiceps ) . dna research seems to support asian origins in the oligocene , about 40 million years ago .\nnearly a century ago , ernst hartert , curator of the incredible rothschild collection of preserved birds , observed :\nwhat can ' t be classified is regarded as a babbling thrush .\nin the opinions of many of today ' s ornithologists , hartert then proceeded to confuse matters further . the convoluted history of babbler classification is well treated in sibley and ahlquist ' s phylogeny and classification of birds , and the reader is best referred to that book . suffice it to say that exactly what a babbler is , and how it should be classified , has been , and remains , a controversy among ornithologists .\npage 318 , thrush - like schiffornis ( southern ) schiffornis turdina [ turdina group ] with the recognition of a number of new groups within thrush - like schiffornis , the \u201csouthern\u201d group now is restricted to include just three subspecies : steinbachi , intermedia , and turdina . page 586 , tooth - billed catbird ailuroedus dentirostris in accord with raou , this species is transferred to the genus scenopoeetes .\npage 498 , luzon wren - babbler napothera rabori in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , subspecies napothera rabori sorsogonensis is elevated to species rank , with english name gray - banded babbler . subspecies napothera rabori mesoluzonica also should be transferred to napothera sorsogonensis , but we failed to implement this change in the clements checklist 6 . 5 spreadsheet ; we will correct this mistake in the next edition . additionally , in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , the two philippine species of napothera are transferred to a newly - described genus , robsonius . finally , collar also recommended changing the english name of robsonius rabori to \u201c rusty - faced babbler . \u201d we failed to implement this change to the english name in the clements checklist 6 . 5 spreadsheet ; we will correct this oversight in the next edition . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\npage 700 , slender - billed white - eye zosterops tenuirostris stenurus in accord with raou , subspecies zosterops tenuirostris strenuus is elevated to species rank , with english name robust white - eye . this species is extinct ; the year of extinction is 1923 . also note that the spelling of the species name is \u201c strenuus , \u201d not \u201c stenurus ; \u201d we will correct this error in the next edition .\n8 in ( 20 cm ) . striking bird reminiscent of new world thrashers ( mimidae ) . bright chestnut mantle , flanks , and vent . brownish primaries and tail . white chest and throat . remainder of head black , except for well - defined white eyebrow . long curving bill bright yellow , with black at rear of upper mandible , extending along part of culmen . legs gray . melodious voice .\nmy research interests are centred on avian social and breeding behaviour , and during the course of my phd ( supervised by dr . matt bell & dr . per smiseth ) i hope to investigate intra - and interspecific signalling and communication in the southern pied babbler . utilising playback and feeding experiments i aim to ascertain the amount of information use by babblers in a social context .\ninsects are the core of babbler diets . some species appear to feed exclusively on them , while many also eat fruit , other invertebrates , and small frogs and reptiles . as with any huge family , there have evolved some peculiar specialists . while the bearded reedling feeds vigorously on insects for most of the year , and rears its young entirely on them , it subsists on seeds during the winter , its digestive tract making remarkable adjustments to this change in diet . as one might expect , the desert - adapted arabian babbler will eat practically anything . on the other hand , the fire - tailed myzornis ( myzornis pyyrhoura ) has come to resemble a hummingbird or sunbird , consuming nectar with its insects , and becoming a pollinator in the process .\n14 in ( 35 cm ) , 7 . 7 oz ( 220 g ) . appears obviously related to preceding species , but markedly distinct . uniquely beautiful blue , black , and red pattern of bare skin on head , blue extending to base of bill . neck , mantle , back , and tail gray . a patch of black bristles on crown , and short ruff at base of bald head , can be erected when bird is excited . primaries black ; underparts pale yellow .\ndelacour ' s description fits most of the forest - dwelling babblers fairly well . it is in other sorts of habitat that particularly interesting variations have evolved . the arabian babbler ( turdoides squamiceps ) , of the semi - desert , with its highly developed\ntribal\nsocial system , and the semi - aquatic bearded reedling ( panurus biarmicus ) of the marshes , are two striking examples .\nmorning back at ta nung valley . afternoon birding higher elevation roadside near lake area of hotuyen lam . this site features birds such as red - vented barbet , gray - capped woodpecker , sooty - headed bulbul , black bulbul , chestnut - capped babbler , mountain fulvetta , snowy - browed flycatcher , gray bushchat , fire - breasted flowerpecker , and gould ' s sunbird . night at dreams hotel .\ncollar , n . & robson , c . ( 2018 ) . spiny babbler ( acanthoptila nipalensis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nmorning birding in bach ma national park looking for the endemic annam partridge and the near endemic short - tailed scimitar - babbler . also possible are brown hornbill , silver - breasted broadbill , blue - rumped pitta , bar - bellied pitta , indochinese green - magpie , and black - browed fulvetta . after lunch transfer to phong nha - ke bang national park , arriving by dark . night at accommodations in the park .\nat the moment i am a second - year phd candidate in a joint supervision program ( cotutelle ) between tel aviv university , israel and macquarie university , sydney , australia , and i also work as the director of the arava birding center in the dead sea & arava science centre . my thesis title is\nthe effect of group size and composition on individual behaviour , group dynamics and population regulation in the arabian babbler (\n) . to explore these relationships i conduct field experiments and observations on individual foraging success , foraging strategies and self versus social learning . together with this fieldwork i use the uniquely detailed 40 - year arabian babbler database to analyze long - term demographic effects . this database work involves finding what social or environmental factors promote group growth or extinction , and identifying critical group size effects in relation to eviction , dispersal and reproductive conflict behaviour .\npage 490 , yellow - throated laughingthrush garrulax galbanus courtoisi in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , subspecies garrulax galbanus courtoisi is elevated to species rank , with english name blue - crowned laughingthrush . subspecies garrulax galbanus simaoensis also should be transferred to garrula courtoisi , but we failed to implement this change in the clements checklist 6 . 5 spreadsheet ; we will correct this mistake in the next edition . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\nday 15 : bach ma national park to ho chi minh city via hue a full morning for birding at bach ma national park . target species here include the near - endemic indochinese wren - babbler , silver pheasant , long - tailed & silver - breasted broadbills , indochinese green magpie , ratchet - tailed treepie , masked , lesser - necklaced & black - throated laughingthrushes . in the afternoon transfer to hue airport for the short flight to ho chi minh city to connect with international flight to europe .\nperiyar np nilgiri langur , oriental darter , black baza , malabar trogon , great and malabar grey hornbills , white - bellied treepie , asian fairy bluebird and indian scimitar babbler , as well as nilgiri langur . also a chance of heart - spotted woodpecker , indian pitta , orange - headed thrush , wynaad laughingthrush , forest wagtail , asian elephant , gaur , leopard and rusty - spotted cats , sloth bear , dhole , indian crested porcupine , and oriental small - clawed and smooth - coated otters .\nthe indian subcontinent , including sri lanka , is another babbler stronghold , and 131 species are recorded there . the majority are birds of the himalayas , shared with china , but a number are endemic to peninsular india or sri lanka . in the middle east , babblers are represented by three species of turdoides . europe , including the united kingdom , share the bearded reedling ( panurus biarmicus ) with temperate asia . finally , on the pacific coast of north america is the wrentit ( chamaea fasciata ) .\ni possess a great passion for scientific research and conservation . having interned at the pied babbler research project in 2009 , i jumped at the opportunity to study the behavioural and physiological effects of temperature on pied babblers for my master\u2019s degree . this research was especially fascinating as it combined components of multiple disciplines ( climate change , avian biology , behavioural ecology , physiology , and conservation biology ) to answer conservation questions . my supervisors on this project included : amanda ridley , rowan martin , susan cunningham , and phil hockey .\nafter arrival transfer to cat tien national park , about 3 hours drive on somewhat congested roads . then birding near the park headquarters and accommodations , where coppersmith barbet , lesser yellownape , red - breasted parakeet , common woodshrike , ashy woodswallow , common iora , greater racket - tailed drongo , buff - breasted babbler , tickell ' s blue flycatcher , and common hill myna are possible . the trees behind the park buildings harbor a local group of endangered black - shanked douc langurs . night in accomodations within the park near park entrance .\npage 369 , yellow - eyed cuckoo - shrike coracina lineata in accord with raou , change the english name to barred cuckoo - shrike . page 372 , white - shouldered triller lalage sueurii white - winged triller lalage tricolor in accord with raou , white - winged and white - shouldered trillers are lumped into a single species , white - winged triller lalage sueurii . both former species still maintain an identity as groups : white - winged triller ( white - shouldered ) lalage sueurii sueurii white - winged triller ( white - winged ) lalage sueurii tricolor page 375 , gray - chinned minivet pericrocotus solaris deignani correct a typographic error in the range statement : change \u201ca vietnam\u201d to \u201cs vietnam . \u201d\nearly morning drive out to grasslands area where green peafowl commonly forage in the open . bird along the jeep track looking for other species such as red junglefowl , oriental darter , red - wattled lapwing , oriental pratincole , red - collared dove , barred cuckoo - dove , lesser coucal , white - throated kingfisher , chestnut - headed bee - eater , indian roller , black - and - buff woodpecker , collared falconet , thick - billed flycatcher , and scarlet - backed flowerpecker . there ' s a good chance of seeing woolly - necked storks flying overhad and some chance of seeing the rare lesser adjutant . at dusk look for great - eared nightjar and large - tailed nightjar . night at accommodations near park entrance .\npages 269 - 270 , cinclodes cinclodes in accord with sacc , the sequence of species in the genus cinclodes is rearranged . the new sequence of species is as follows : long - tailed cinclodes cinclodes pabsti blackish cinclodes cinclodes antarcticus buff - winged cinclodes cinclodes fuscus chestnut - winged cinclodes cinclodes albidiventris cordoba cinclodes cinclodes comechingonus cream - winged cinclodes cinclodes albiventris olrog\u2019s cinclodes cinclodes olrogi stout - billed cinclodes cinclodes excelsior royal cinclodes cinclodes aricomae white - winged cinclodes cinclodes atacamensis white - bellied cinclodes cinclodes palliatus gray - flanked cinclodes cinclodes oustaleti dark - bellied cinclodes cinclodes patagonicus surf cinclodes cinclodes taczanowskii seaside cinclodes cinclodes nigrofumosus we failed to implement this change in the clements checklist 6 . 5 spreadsheet , however , but we will correct this oversight in the next revision .\nusing the sentinel system of the babblers i will investigate whether they make adjustments to personal contributions this public good given the state of others , and also investigate whether alarm caller reliability is monitored by other group members . additionally i intend to explore the role of vocalisations in the context of nestling provisioning , investigating whether nestling provisioners transfer information from the nest site to the foraging group , which may be several hundred metres away . finally , i will be undertaking observational work to see which other bird species may be found around babbler groups , and exploring whether the babblers utilise information from heterospecific sources when making foraging decisions using playback experiments .\nmorning back at deo suoi lanh looking for species listed above . mid - day transfer to dalat , a tourist mecca with numerous western style hotels and restaurants . afternoon birding ta tung valley outside dalat . this valley is mostly an open area down a gravel road adjacent to a local farm . the main target bird there is gray - crowned crocias , which is sometimes easily seen and sometimes quite challenging to find . other interesting birds there include green - billed malkoha , greater coucal , indochinese barbet , green - backed tit , chestnut - vented nuthatch , hill prinia , black - crowned parrotbill , black - headed sibia , rufous - backed sibia , asian fairy - bluebird , verditer flycatcher , blue - winged leafbird , black - throated sunbird , and vietnamese greenfinch . night at dreams hotel in dalat .\nfourteen island endemics , seven restricted to the philippines , are included among the 39 near threatened species , and of the remainder , nine occur only in the malay peninsula , sumatra , and borneo . again , loss of habitat , in often restricted ranges , is the cause for their designation . finally , there is one categorized as data deficient , the miniature titbabbler ( micromacronus leytensis ) , at 3 in ( 7 . 6 cm ) , the smallest babbler . restricted to the philippine islands of leyte , samar , and mindanao , it is a forest - dependent species in a land of increasing deforestation , and has remained rare , and little known since its discovery in 1961 .\ni am now a phd student at macquarie university , sydney , under the supervision of dr amanda ridley , dr matt bell and a / prof simon griffith . my current work on the southern pied babbler is looking at how group members recognise one another and the implications this has for their social behaviour . using a series of playback experiments i am investigating whether they are able to individually recognise each other\u2019s vocalisation . i also look at when group member recognition develops in young birds , a factor which may be crucial in explaining life history events such as kidnapping . in addition i look at how responses to the vocalisations of previously familiar individuals change over varying periods of continued separation . this may help to explain observations of prospecting and dispersal in this species . other work includes looking at whether the pied babblers are able to recognise kin and how this is affecting their social interactions with neighbouring groups .\ncat tien national park features a variety of habitats including primary and secondary lowland tropical forest , wetlands , lakes , and open grassland . the first day will focus on forest birds along the track leading to crocodile lake . the primary target birds are scaly - breasted partridge and germain ' s peacock - pheasant . the former is especially secretive , while the latter is most easily seen when calling . other key species orange - breasted trogon , great hornbill , blue - eared barbet , blue - rumped pitta , bar - bellied pitta , ashy minivet , blyth ' s paradise - flycatcher , black - headed bulbul , ochraceous bulbul , gray - faced tit - babbler , and blue - winged leafbird . a dozen woodpeckers are possible including laced woodpecker , heart - spotted woodpecker , and great slaty woodpecker , and three broadbills are possible , namely black - and - red broadbill , long - tailed broadbill , and silver - breasted broadbill . night at accommodations near park entrance .\nsouthern india endemics grey junglefowl , grey - fronted ( pompadour ) green pigeon , nilgiri wood pigeon , malabar parakeet , malabar grey hornbill , malabar ( crimson - fronted ) and white - cheeked barbets , white - bellied treepie , malabar ( large ) woodshrike , malabar lark , white - spotted ( white - throated ) fantail , indian ( chestnut - bellied ) nuthatch , flame - throated ( black - crested ) and grey - headed bulbuls , black - and - orange and nilgiri flycatchers , white - bellied blue flycatcher , nilgiri blue and white - bellied blue robins ( both formerly white - bellied shortwing ) , malabar whistling thrush , black - chinned ( nilgiri ) and grey - breasted ( kerala ) laughingthrushes , ( indian ) rufous babbler , malabar white - headed ( chestnut - tailed ) starling , nilgiri ( plain ) flowerpecker , crimson - backed sunbird , nilgiri pipit and rufous - bellied ( black - throated ) munia . also a chance of broad - tailed grassbird and wynaad laughingthrush .\nfor so diverse a group of birds , generalizations are difficult . as did bertram smythies in the first edition of this encyclopedia , one cannot do better than to quote jean delacour , from his monumental 1946 monograph of the babblers :\nthey move restlessly among twigs and on the ground ; they hop about and dig among fallen leaves . usually they live in the undergrowth , sometimes on the ground among dense plant growth , fallen branches , climbers and evergreen trees , where they can be observed searching for berries and insects . while doing so , they move busily , flutter the wings a great deal , wag their tails and utter noisy calls . as rule , they are loud and varied vocally , hence the name babbler , for they are virtually never quiet . some sing very well and their full melodies ring out far . outside the breeding season , they move about in small troops . often they join with other birds into the mixed flocks characteristic of tropical forest , all seeking food together .\nthe first online digital theses library covering more than 1000 theses in sanskrit , malayalam , hindi and english the digitilization project done for the mahatma gandhi university , kerala , india commemorating 25 year of achievement . website \u00a9 copyright mahatma gandhi university and beehive digital concepts\nnatural vocalization ; song from a pair of birds ( part of a larger flock of the species ) moving low through small trees at the edge of hotel grounds near second growth forest .\nthis bird is moving all the time ! l ' oiseau change souvent de place .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : turdoides affinis . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 290 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be locally common ( grewal et al . 2002 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any current declines or substantial threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nsong complex , varied , rich and full of mimicry , consisting of series of alternating , quickly . . .\nmainly insects . in one long - term study , 2295 food items ( from 316 birds ) consisted of 86 % invertebrates and 14 % fruit and seeds ; beetles ( . . .\napr\u2013jun . nest a deep cup of grass , placed in small bush or built into sturdy grass clump . clutch 3\u20134 eggs , pale blue ; nestlings . . .\nnot globally threatened . restricted - range species : present in central himalayas eba . frequent and locally fairly common within patchy range ; possibly extends at w of range . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nrecently split from a broader timaliidae . to date , traditionally recognized genera cutia , kupeornis , phyllanthus , turdoides , garrulax , babax ( now in garrulax ) , heterophasia , leiothrix , minla , liocichla and actinodura have been recovered as members of a clade separate from those now placed in timaliidae or pellorneidae ; however , garrulax , actinodura , minla , heterophasia and turdoides , as typically circumscribed , have also been discovered to be polyphyletic . as a result , genetic data available to date # r # r # r # r # r ( many species have not been screened ) can be interpreted in various ways , permitting for a smaller number of larger genera , or many more genera characterized by fewer species , so listing presented here is provisional and dependent on additional molecular data for most of the as yet untested taxa . family name has been spelt in variety of different ways ; above is the original spelling , which is correctly formed and so must be used # r ."]}
{"id": 2365, "summary": [{"text": "paracossulus thrips is a species of moth of the cossidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in hungary , romania , ukraine , russia , kazakhstan and turkey .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of exclaves of open steppe vegetation on sands or loess and xerophilous grasslands on alkaline substrates .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the larvae bore the roots of artemisia species . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "paracossulus thrips", "paragraphs": ["paracossulus thrips - urdu meaning and translation of paracossulus thrips , translation , multiple word search ( seperate words with space ) , english to urdu machine translation of paracossulus thrips and more .\nwhat is there to think - at sineva by yakovlev paracossulus thrips . correct necessary .\nparacossulus thrips is a species of moth of the cossidae family . it is found in hungary , romania , ukraine , russia , kazakhstan and turkey .\nenter the name or part of a name you wish to search for . the asterisk character * can be used as wildcard . e . g . ' papilio * ' . keep in mind that the search is only based on the full taxon name .\nwe are still having problems with the search feature . unfortunately we cannot give a timeline when the advanced search will be fixed .\nthe id resolving service for stable taxon ids is currently under maintenance . meanwhile , please use the name search in order to find the taxon page .\nmuseum f\u00fcr naturkunde leibniz - institut f\u00fcr evolutions - und biodiversit\u00e4tsforschung invalidenstr . 43 10115 berlin germany e - mail : fauna - eu ( at ) mfn - berlin . de website : urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public ' - / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en '\nto receive our reports ( print and / or electronic ) and quarterly e - newsletter .\ncookies are not enabled . you must enable cookies before you can log in .\nthe distribution map is currently disabled . a new map solution will soon become available . in the meantime , please consult other species distribution map providers listed in the other resources panel below .\nannex ii : animal and plant species of community interest whose conservation requires the designation of special areas of conservation .\nannex iv : animal and plant species of community interest in need of strict protection .\ntemplate updated on 09 may 2018 14 : 41 from version 18 . 4 . 26\nthe european environment agency ( eea ) is an agency of the european union . legal notice\nwe use cookies to record some preference settings and to analyse how visitors use our web site . cookies do not contain any personal information about you . if you wish , see how to delete / disable cookies in your web browser . see also our privacy policy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nregions of the russian federation : the volga - don , east caucasus , the european central black earth , central european , western caucasus , krasnoyarsk , lower volga , prealtay , mid - volzhsky , south west siberian , south ural .\n[ 10 ] de jong , y . s . d . m . ( ed . ) ( 2011 ) fauna europaea version 2 . 4 ( faunaeur . org )\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\nalso common in the southern urals , in the south of western siberia , kazakhstan and altai .\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 11b67b9b - 1b16 - 46ec - 9863 - d09e2c2b2879\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 1a8c0252 - a2e2 - 4e88 - 8c67 - 7d55b13c8247\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 1eb21109 - 3907 - 4ac8 - b4ef - 06173f5907f2\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 3ca2d5db - 1b99 - 493d - 9c65 - a3958b4f981c\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 53e9bf1d - b31c - 48ba - a013 - 1f54326038d5\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : a3534fc1 - 8af9 - 40b8 - acb4 - 9e5e3015d538\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : e7715a02 - cad8 - 4407 - 8933 - abf95d8bd0b3\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f4c194ce - 984c - 4def - af0b - 7db8a4a30db1\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f7cb0cb7 - 5a6f - 4b7c - 8fe8 - 5096f8bf972d\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 244772\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country ."]}
{"id": 2371, "summary": [{"text": "ixodes neuquenensis is a species of tick that lives on the monito del monte ( dromiciops gliroides ) , a nocturnal marsupial that lives in the northern temperate forests of southern south america .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "due to the near-threatened status of its host , ixodes neuquenensis is also at risk . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "ixodes neuquenensis", "paragraphs": ["borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in ixodes cf . neuquenensis and ixodes sigelos ticks from the patagonian region of argentina\nborrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in ixodes cf . neuquenensis and ixodes sigelos ticks from the patagonian region of argentina - sciencedirect\nhave a fact about ixodes neuquenensis ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for ixodes neuquenensis ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nit is the first report of borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in ixodes ticks from brazil .\nthe presence of ixodes neuquenensis ( ringuelet , notas mus la plata 12 : 207\u2013216 , 1947 ) ( acari : ixodidae ) parasitizing populations of dromiciops gliroides thomas , 1894 ( microbiotheria : microbiotheriidae ) at chilo\u00e9 island confirms that this tick species is established in chile . no preference of the ticks for sex or age of the host was observed .\nnuttall , g . h . f . ( 1916 ) . notes on ticks . iv . relating to the genus ixodes and including a description of three new species and two new varieties .\nbenson mj , gawronski jd , eveleigh d , e , benson dr . intracellular symbionts and other bacteria associated with deer ticks ( ixodes scapularis ) from nantucket and wellfleet , cape cod , massachusetts .\nin summary , this study provides solid evidence for extending the range of lb borreliae to the western coast of south america . it also serves as a basis for further studies of relationships of b . chilensis with ixodes ticks and rodents , and the pathogenic relevance of this genospecies .\nalmost two years ago , we launched pubmed journals , an ncbi labs project . pubmed journals helped people follow the latest biomedical literature by making it easier to find and follow journals , browse new articles , and included a journal news feed to track new arrivals news links , trending articles and important article updates .\npubmed journals was a successful experiment . since september 2016 , nearly 20 , 000 people followed 10 , 453 distinct journals . each customer followed 3 journals on average .\nthough pubmed journals will no longer exist as a separate entity , we hope to add its features into future ncbi products . we appreciate your feedback over the years that made pubmed journals a productive test of new ideas .\nncbi labs is ncbi\u2019s product incubator for delivering new features and capabilities to ncbi end users .\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\namico , g . & aizen , m . a . ( 2000 ) mistletoe seed dispersal by a marsupial .\narmesto , j . j . , rozzi , r . , smith - ram\u00edrez , c . & arroyo , m . t . k . ( 1998 ) conservation targets in south american temperate forests .\nblack , w . c . & piesman , j . ( 1994 ) phylogeny of hard - and softtick taxa ( acari : ixodida ) based on mitochondrial 16s rdna sequences .\n. buenos aires : departamento editorial , universidad de buenos aires , 113 pp .\nclifford , c . m . , sonenshine , d . e . , keirans , j . e . & kohls , g . m . ( 1973 ) systematics of the subfamily ixodinae ( acarina : ixodidae ) . 1 . the subgenus of\ncorwin , d . , clifford , c . m . & keirans , j . e . ( 1979 ) an improved method for cleaning and preparing ticks for examination with the scanning electron microscope .\nkeirans , j . e . ( 1992 ) systematics of the ixodida ( argasidae , ixodidae , nuttalliellidae ) : an overview and some problems .\nmangold , a . j . , bargues , m . d . & mas coma , s . ( 1998 ) 18s rrna gene sequences and phylogenetic relationships of european hard - tick species ( acari : ixodidae ) .\nnuttall , g . h . f . ( 1916 ) notes on ticks . iv . relating to the genus\nspotorno , a . e . , marin , j . c . , y\u00e9venes , m . , wlaker , l . i . , fern\u00e1ndez - donoso , r . , pincheira , j . , berr\u00edos , m . e . & palma , r . e . ( 1997 ) chromosome divergences among american and the australian affinities of the american dromiciops .\nspringer , m . s . , westerman , m . , kavanagh , j . r . , burk , a . , woodburne , m . o . , kao , d . j . & krajewski , c . ( 1998 ) the origin of the australasian marsupial fauna and the phylogenetic affinities of the enigmatic monito del monte and marsupial mole .\nthompson , j . d . , higgins , d . g . & gibson , t . j . ( 1994 ) clustal w : improving the sensitivity of progressive multiple sequence alignment through sequence weighting , position - specific penalties weight matrix choice .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nthis translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations .\nmar\u00edn - vial , paula ; gonz\u00e1lez - acu\u00f1a , daniel ; celis - diez , juan l . ; cattan , pedro e . ; guglielmone , alberto a .\n) . the\nmountain monkey\nis the only species still alive from an ancient lineage dating back more than 40 million years . due to habitat loss , the population of this little marsupial has declined over recent years . this is bad news for\nbecause it is a very host - specific tick . if the\nmountain monkey\ngoes extinct , it will also spell doom for this tick , along with a whole suite of other parasites and symbionts which are dependent upon this little marsupial . reference : guglielmone aa , venzal jm , amico g , mangold aj , keirans je ( 2004 ) description of the nymph and larva and redescriptions of the female of\nif i ' m not mistaken , there is at least one extinct parasite described from a frozen mammoth .\ntommy - i think we had this conversation once before ! the parasite is a stomach bot , cobboldia russanovi . look at entomol . rev . 52 : 165 - 169 .\nhint : you ' re just looking at the tip of the iceberg . . .\nif you think you or your pets have a parasite , please seek the appropriate care you need from your own doctor or veterinarian .\nwhy parasite of the day ? ( if it ' s not every day . . . )\nthe united nations declared 2010 the international year of biodiversity . in celebration of the enormous diversity of parasites and to highlight their importance , we created this blog , which showcased a species of parasite every day . now that 2010 is over , we will continue to add more parasites from time to time , and write about any newly published research on parasite species that we have posted about yet .\nsee this post from the start of 2011 where we discuss the sheer scale of parasite biodiversity , and this post from the end of 2011 pretty much summarizes the mission of this blog .\ngot parasites ? the american society of parasitologists is interested . we invite you to share with us your observations , ideas and questions about parasites . our members and the journal of parasitology represent a wide range of research interests including ecology , evolution , systematics , immunology , biochemistry and molecular biology . please post any aspect of parasitology you wish to share with us on our facebook group page . please go to our home page at\nbush , albert , gerald esch and jacqueline fernandez . parasitism : the diversity and ecology of animal parasites . cambridge university press .\ncombes , claude . the art of being a parasite . university of chicago press .\ndesowitz , robert . new guinea tapeworms and jewish grandmothers . norton & company .\ndesowitz , robert . the malaria capers : tales of parasites and people . norton and compay .\nmoore , janice . parasites and the behavior of animals . oxford university press .\nzuk , marlene . riddled with life : friendly worms , ladybug sex , and the parasites that make us who we are . mariner books\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\n. buenos aires : departamento editorial de la universida de buenos aires , 113 pp .\nles tiques du monde . nomenclature , stades d\u00e9crits , h\u00f4tes , r\u00e9partition ( acarida , ixodida )\ncorwin , d . , clifford , c . m . , & keirans , j . e . ( 1979 ) . an improved method for cleaning and preparing ticks for examination with the scanning electron microscope .\nkeirans , clifford & corwin , 1976 ( acari : ixodidae ) in argentina and southern chile .\nneumann , 1911 ( acari : ixodidae ) : morphological and preliminary molecular evidences from 16srdna sequences .\nguglielmone , a . a . , robbins , r . g . , apanaskevich , d . a . , petney , t . n . , estrada - pe\u00f1a , a . , & horak , i . g . ( 2009 ) . comments on controversial tick ( acari : ixodida ) species names and species described or resurrected from 2003 to 2008 .\nhorak , i . g . , camicas , j . l . , & keirans , j . e . ( 2002 ) . the argasidae , ixodidae and nuttalliellidae acari : ixodida ) : a world list of valid tick names .\n, n . sp . ( acarina : ixodidae ) , a parasite of rodents in chile , with a method for preparing ticks for examination by scanning electron microscopy .\nlahille , f . ( 1916 ) . descripci\u00f3n de un nuevo ix\u00f3dido chileno .\n. volume ii ( sixth edition ) . baltimore : johns hopkins university press , 1936 pp .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nlarisa b . ivanova , 1 alexandra tomova , 1 daniel gonz\u00e1lez - acu\u00f1a , 4 roberto mur\u00faa , 5 claudia x . moreno , 1 , \u2020 claudio hern\u00e1ndez , 6 javier cabello , 7 , 8 carlos cabello , 9 thomas j . daniels , 2 , 10 henry p . godfrey , 3 and felipe c . cabello 1 , *\n\u2020 present address : grupo de microbiodiversidad y bioprospecci\u00f3n , facultad de ciencias , departamento de biociencias , universidad nacional de colombia - medell\u00edn , calle 59a no 63 \u2013 20 , medell\u00edn , colombia .\nin an effort to explore the question of whether b . burgdorferi s . l . is present in south america , i . stilesi ticks collected from vegetation and colilargos in a forest reserve in southern chile and from captive pudus undergoing rehabilitation in the same region were examined . these ticks harbored a novel lb group borrelial species genetically distinct from other lb borreliae from north america , europe and asia . we propose this new borrelial genospecies be named borrelia chilensis va1 in honor of its country of origin .\nsp . using serial dilution on solid medium and liquid media , ultrafiltration ( 0 . 2 \u03bcm and 0 . 45 \u03bcm pore sizes ) , flow cytometry , and antimicrobials ( kanamycin , erythromycin , tetracycline , gentamycin , novobiocin , vancomycin , bacitracin , cycloserine , rifampicin , phosphomycin , amphotericin b ) were unsuccessful .\nsubcultured at weekly intervals in bsk - h media ; early passages were stored at \u221280\u00b0c . cultured spirochetes frequently grew in long filamentous forms (\nmorphology of spirochetes from i . stilesi midgut ( a ) , or after in vitro culture for ( b ) 5 or ( c ) 12 days or after ( d ) 9 passages in bsk - h media ( magnification , 100\u00d7 ) .\nborrelial dna in ticks and comparison with dna from b . chilensis va1 cultured from a tick\nstandard and nested / seminested pcr amplification was used to detect borrelial dna in ticks obtained from the environment and from pudus and colilargos . tick 16s rdna was used as an internal control to define the quality of isolated dna . borrelial 16s rdna ( 800 bp ) was amplified from one flat male tick collected from vegetation in 2005 , two flat female ticks collected from vegetation in 2008 and two flat nymphs removed from colilargos in 2011 , including the one in which spirochetes were observed (\n) . the mean prevalence of infection in ticks ( 10 % ) was not significantly different between ticks collected from environmental vegetation in 2005 - 2008 and from colilargos in 2011 ( p > 0 . 05 , fisher\u2019s exact test ) . none of the ticks removed from pudus contained borrelial dna .\nb . chilensis va1 sequences in i . stilesi ticks and in b . chilensis va1 cultured from i . stilesi\na 2005 : 13 ticks from environmental vegetation , fixed in 70 % ethanol at 4\u00b0c : 1 positive for b . chilensis va1 ( 7 . 7 % prevalence ) .\nb 2008 : 25 ticks from environmental vegetation , fixed in 70 % ethanol at 4\u00b0c : 2 positive for b . chilensis va1 ( 8 . 0 % prevalence ) .\nc 2011 : 12 live ticks from four long - tailed pygmy rice rats ( colilargos ) ( oligoryzomys longicaudatus ) , 2 ticks positive for b . chilensis va1 ( 17 % prevalence ) . difference in prevalence of infection between ticks obtained from environmental vegetation and ticks removed from rice rats is not significant ( p > 0 . 5 , fisher\u2019s exact test ) .\nd b . chilensis ( bch ) va1 cultured from tick 5 ( fourth passage ) . sequences for clpa , clpx , nifs , pepx , pyrg , recg , rplb and uvra were identical to those obtained directly from tick 5 .\n) , indicating that they represented new alleles for each of these genes ( data not shown ) .\nsequences amplified from uruguayan ticks . additional phylogenetic analyses of 23s rrna and igs sequences from several ticks confirmed that borrelial sequences amplified from chilean ticks belonged to a single well - supported clade with 98 % and 99 % support , respectively ( data not shown ) .\nva1 was closely related to lb borrelia and only distantly related to rf borrelia . pairwise genetic distances of the concatenated housekeeping genes of\nva1 from rf borrelia were 0 . 2859 - 0 . 3011 , while pairwise genetic differences from other lb borreliae were 0 . 0952 - 0 . 1138 (\n) . all these distances are much larger than the species threshold of 0 . 0170 using this typing scheme (\nva1 was characterized using pcr and pulsed - field gel electrophoresis ( pfge ) on borrelial samples taken from the upper third of culture tubes . microscopic examination of two replicate preparations showed they contained < 1 and 4 contaminating\nsp . cells per 100 spirochetes . pcr and pfge results were similar with both preparations . lp17 was not present in\nb31a3 by pcr and corresponded to the smallest band in pfge . of the larger borrelial plasmids , lp54 and lp56 were identified by pcr in\n) probably corresponding to the four mid - range bands seen on pfge . this profile was clearly different from the mid - range profile of\nplasmid profiles of b . burgdorferi b31a3 and b . chilensis va1 analyzed by ( a ) pcr using primers designed for b . burgdorferi b31 and ( b ) pfge of whole - cell dna prepared in agarose plugs . see experimental procedures for details .\nticks collected from local vegetation and from a rodent endemic to chile and argentina . dna sequencing analysis of pcr amplicons from 16s and 23s rrna genes , igs ,\ns . l . complex . sequences for each gene from individual ticks ( when multiple sequences were available ) formed well - supported single clades within the lb borrelial group . furthermore , amplicons for igs ,\ns . l . complex . taken in toto , these observations provide strong evidence for these sequences representing a new borrelial species and the cultured organism validly representing the borrelial dna found in ticks . we propose to name this new species\n, and note that this extends the range of lb group borrelia in south america and the southern hemisphere .\n) . the reason for this is not clear . it might be the result of low spirochete load given that microscopy of tick gut fluid showed 0 - 1 spirochetes per field . low spirochete load may be a general condition of southern hemisphere borrelia as recently demonstrated by the inability of barbieri et al . to amplify full sequences of a new borrelial species in ticks from uruguay (\n) . other causes for this lack of amplification could be dna degradation as a result of the prolonged fixation of ticks in ethanol , the presence of pcr inhibitors in the dna extracted from the ticks , sequence heterogeneity at the priming sites or some combination of these factors . for example ,\n) . the different branching orders in these trees do not reflect phylogenetic uncertainty or the evolutionary history of the species but rather reflect the evolutionary history of the particularl loci used to generate the trees . the basal position of\nsp . after repeated attempts by different methods , we took advantage of the physical separation of spirochetes and gram - negative betaproteobacteria during culture to effect a partial separation of the two bacteria . pcr and pfge showed this new\nb31a3 while lacking others present in this strain . some of these latter negative results may not indicate absence of particular plasmids but may be a result of sequence heterogeneity at the priming sites .\n; kr\u00f3l j . e . , rogers , l . m . , sen , d . , and top , e . m . , genbank accession\n, no attendent publication ) , but the plasmid content of delftia sp . is in general poorly characterized (\nby pcr , but its presence in pfge analysis could not be definitively determined because of the multiplicity of mid - range sized plasmids visible on the gel . obtaining a pure culture of this bacterium will be essential to determine its pathogenic potential . in this regard , our inability to grow\nsp . may suggest a symbiotic relationship between these two bacteria and frustrate such studies .\nticks for this study were collected in the san martin experimental forest preserve ( 39\u00b038\u2032 s , 73\u00b007\u2032 w ) , universidad austral de chile , valdivia , chile and from captive pudu deer undergoing rehabilitation at the wildlife rescue center in the veterinary hospital at the faculty of veterinary sciences , universidad austral de chile , valdivia . the preserve is located in the valdivian temperate rain forest ecoregion in the eastern foothills of the pacific coastal range in region de los rios ( region xiv ) at an average elevation of 3 m above sea level . its climate is temperate and wet ( average temperature , 12 . 1\u00b0c , range 0\u00b0 to 30\u00b0c ; average annual rainfall , 2 , 500 mm ) ( miller , 1976 ; veblen and schlegel , 1982 ) .\nticks were collected in 2002 , 2003 , 2005 , 2008 and 2011 . a group of 38 ticks was collected from the environment during the austral springs of 2005 and 2008 by dragging 1 m\n) undergoing rehabilitation at the wildlife rescue center in the veterinary hospital , faculty of veterinary sciences , universidad austral de chile , valdivia ( one in 2002 , one in 2003 , and at least one in 2005 ) . all ticks clinging to the drag cloth or attached to the deer were removed with forceps , fixed with 70 % ethanol and stored in vials at 4\u00b0c for later identification and dna extraction . a third group of 12 ticks was removed with forceps from four colilargos (\n) trapped in the reserve in september , 2011 . these ticks were stored alive in sterile glass vials at ambient temperature for later identification , borrelial culture , and dna extraction . fixed and living ticks were identified by standard tick keys (\nabarca k , ribera m , prado p , lobos t , palacios o , ferres m , et al . neuroborreliosis in chile . report of a child probably infected by imported pets .\nataliba ac , resende js , yoshinari n , labruna mb . isolation and molecular characterization of a brazilian strain of\nbalashov ys . importance of continental drift in the distribution and evolution of ixodid ticks .\nbarbieri am , venzal jm , marcili a , almeida ap , gonzalez em , labruna mb .\nbouchard c , beauchamp g , nguon s , trudel l , milord f , lindsay lr , et al . associations between\ncollares - pereira m , couceiro s , franca i , kurtenbach k , schafer sm , vitorino l , et al . first isolation of\nde silva am , fikrig e , hodzic e , kantor fs , telford sr , iii , barthold sw . immune evasion by tickborne and host - adapted\ndsouli n , younsi - kabachii h , postic d , nouira s , gern l , bouattour a . reservoir role of lizard\nduarte jm , gonzalez s , maldonado je . the surprising evolutionary history of south american deer .\nestrada - pe\u00f1a a , ayllon n , de la fuente j . impact of climate trends on tick - borne pathogen transmission .\nfukunaga m , yanagihara y , sohnaka m . the 23s / 5s ribosomal rna genes (\ngazumyan a , schwartz jj , liveris d , schwartz i . sequence analysis of the ribosomal rna operon of the lyme disease spirochete ,\ngonz\u00e1lez - acu\u00f1a d , guglielmone aa . ticks ( acari : ixodoidea : argasidae , ixodidae ) of chile .\nguglielmone aa , venzal jm , gonz\u00e1lez - acu\u00f1a d , nava s , hinojosa a , mangold aj . the phylogenetic position of\nneumann , 1911 ( acari : ixodidae ) : morphological and preliminary molecular evidences from 16s rdna sequences .\nguglielmone aa , beati l , barros - battesti dm , labruna mb , nava s , venzal jm , et al . ticks ( ixodidae ) on humans in south america .\nguglielmone aa , nava s , gonz\u00e1lez - acu\u00f1a d , mangold a , robbins r . additional observations on the morphology and hosts of\nhail d , lauziere i , dowd se , bextine b . culture independent survey of the microbiota of the glassy - winged sharpshooter (\nhanincov\u00e1 k , kurtenbach k , diuk - wasser m , brei b , fish d . epidemic spread of lyme borreliosis , northeastern united states .\nhaven j , vargas lc , mongodin ef , xue v , hernandez y , pagan p , et al . pervasive recombination and sympatric genome diversification driven by frequency - dependent selection in\nheylen d , tijsse e , fonville m , matthysen e , sprong h . transmission dynamics of\nhoen ag , margos g , bent sj , diuk - wasser ma , barbour ag , kurtenbach k , fish d . phylogeography of\nisogai e , kamewaka y , isogai h , kimura k , fujii n , nishikawa t . complement - mediated killing of\niyer r , kalu o , purser j , norris s , stevenson b , schwartz i . linear and circular plasmid content in\njakcsic f , iriarte ja , jimenez je , martinez dr . invaders without frontiers : cross - border invasions of exotic mammals .\njewett mw , lawrence k , bestor ac , tilly k , grimm d , shaw p , et al . the critical role of the linear plasmid lp36 in the infectious cycle of\nkimura m . a simple method for estimating evolutionary rates of base substitutions through comparative studies of nucleotide sequences .\nkirby mx , jones ds , macfadden bj . lower miocene stratigraphy along the panama canal and its bearing on the central american peninsula .\nkjelland v , ytrehus b , stuen s , skarpaas t , slettan a . prevalence of\nknowles ll , richards cl . importance of genetic drift during pleistocene divergence as revealed by analyses of genomic variation .\nkr\u00f3l je , penrod jt , mccaslin h , rogers lm , yano h , stancik ad , dejonghe w , brown cj , parales re , wuertz s , top em . role of incp - 1\u03b2 plasmids pwdl7 : :\nkurtenbach k , kampen h , dizij a , arndt s , seitz hm , schaible ue , simon mm . infestation of rodents with larval\nkurtenbach k , hanincova k , tsao ji , margos g , fish d , ogden nh . fundamental processes in the evolutionary ecology of lyme borreliosis .\nkurtenbach k , gatewood a , bent sj , vollmer sa , ogden nh , margos g . population biology of lyme borreliosis spirochetes . in : robinson da , falush d , feil ej , editors .\nmargos g , gatewood ag , aanensen dm , hanincova k , terekhova d , vollmer sa , et al . mlst of housekeeping genes captures geographic population structure and suggests a european origin of\nmargos g , vollmer sa , cornet m , garnier m , fingerle v , wilske b , et al . a new\nmargos g , vollmer sa , ogden nh , fish d . population genetics , taxonomy , phylogeny and evolution of\nmarie - angele p , lommano e , humair pf , douet v , rais o , schaad m , et al . prevalence of\nmar\u00edn - vial p , gonz\u00e1lez - acu\u00f1a d , celis - diez jl , cattan pe , guglielmone aa . presence of\nmatuschka fr , klug b , schinkel tw , spielman a , richter d . diversity of european lyme disease spirochetes at the southern margin of their range .\nmiller a . the climate of chile . in : schwerdtfeger w , editor .\nmoreno cx , moy f , daniels tj , godfrey hp , cabello fc . molecular analysis of microbial communities identified in different developmental stages of\nneira o , cerda c , alvarado ma , palma s , abumohor p , wainstein e , et al . lyme disease in chile . prevalence study in selected groups .\nols\u00e9n b , jaenson tg , noppa l , bunikis j , bergstr\u00f6m s . a lyme borreliosis cycle in seabirds and\npepin km , eisen rj , mead ps , piesman j , fish d , hoen ag , et al . geographic variation in the relationship between human lyme disease incidence and density of infected host - seeking\npiesman j , fikrig e . ecology of borreliae and their arthropod vectors . in : samuels ds , radolf jd , editors .\nplatonov ae , karan ls , kolyasnikova nm , makhneva na , toporkova mg , maleev vv , et al . humans infected with relapsing fever spirochete\nsensu lato evidenced by restriction fragment length polymorphism of rrf ( 5s ) - rrl ( 23s ) intergenic spacer amplicons .\nqiu wg , bruno jf , mccaig wd , xu y , livey i , schriefer me , luft bj . wide distribution of a high - virulence\nradolf jd , caimano mj , stevenson b , hu lt . of ticks , mice and men : understanding the dual - host lifestyle of lyme disease spirochaetes .\nrudenko n , golovchenko m , grubhoffer l , oliver jh . , jr . updates on\nrudolph w , correa j , zurita l , manley w . equine piroplasmosis : leukocytic response to\nschwartz jj , gazumyan a , schwartz i . rrna gene organization in the lyme disease spirochete ,\nsota m , yano h , nagata y , ohtsubo y , genka h , anbutsu h , kawasaki h , tsuda m . functional analysis of unique class ii insertion sequence is1071\nstolze y , eikmeyer f , wibberg d , brandis g , karsten c , krahn i , schneiker - bekel s , viehover p , barsch a , keck m , top em , niehaus k , schluter a . incp - 1\u03b2 plasmids of\nsp . strains isolated from a wastewater treatment plant mediate resistance to and decolorization of the triphenylmethane dye crystal violet .\ntakano a , goka k , une y , shimada y , fujita h , shiino t , et al . isolation and characterization of a novel\ntamura k . estimation of the number of nucleotide substitutions when there are strong transition - transversion and g + c - content biases .\ntamura k , peterson d , peterson n , stecher g , nei m , kumar s . mega5 : molecular evolutionary genetics analysis using maximum likelihood , evolutionary distance , and maximum parsimony methods .\ntelford sr , iii , mather tn , moore si , wilson ml , spielman a . incompetence of deer as reservoirs of the lyme disease spirochete .\nvarela as , luttrell mp , howerth ew , moore va , davidson wr , stallknecht de , little se . first culture isolation of\nveblen tt , schlegel fm . ecological review of the southern forests of chile .\nvitorino lr , margos g , feil ej , collares - pereira m , ze - ze l , kurtenbach k . fine - scale phylogeographic structure of\nvollmer sa , bormane a , dinnis re , seelig f , dobson ad , aanensen dm , et al . host migration impacts on the phylogeography of lyme borreliosis spirochaete species in europe .\nwalker em , howell jk , you y , hoffmaster ar , heath jd , weinstock gm , norris sj . physical map of the genome of\nwang in , dykhuizen de , qiu w , dunn jj , bosler em , luft bj . genetic diversity of\nweisburg wg , barns sm , pelletier da , lane dj . 16s ribosomal dna amplification for phylogenetic study .\nzouache k , raharimalala fn , raquin v , tran - van v , raveloson lh , ravelonandro p , mavingui p . bacterial diversity of field - caught mosquitoes ,"]}
{"id": 2376, "summary": [{"text": "the costello tetra is a species of characin from the amazon basin and is found in brazil and peru .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the specific name comes from lake hyanuary in brazil .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "other common names used in english are january tetra and green neon .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the name \" green neon \" is also used for paracheirodon simulans . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "costello tetra", "paragraphs": [", the costello tetra is a species of least concern and has a stable population .\n10 x yellow phantom ' four - eye ' tetra ( h . roseus )\nalso known as the costello or green neon tetra , this species is seen much less often in the hobby than it used to be . it\u2019s occasionally confused with the common head and tail light tetra , h . ocellifer , as it resembles an elongated version of that species .\nhow to care for silvertip tetras . hasemania nana - silver tip tetra school size .\nspecimen from the german aquarium trade . \u00a9 hippocampus - bildarchiv . hyphessobrycon roseus ( g\u00e9ry , 1960 ) yellow phantom tetra | freshwater fish | pinterest | aqu\u2026\nan elongate slender tetra which is pale in base colour with a vivid bright yellow lateral line from the gills to the caudal peduncle . at the caudal peduncle there is a large black dot . the caudal fin itself is sharply forked and and the fins are mainly translucent with a slight yellow tint .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : assessed as least concern due to its sizeable distribution , which is probably wider than known , and the lack of any known major widespread threats .\nknown from floodplains lakes in the solim\u00f5es river ( local name of the amazon river above its confluence with the negro in brazil ) . there are no reliable records in peru but the species probably more than likely occurs there ( lima pers . comm . 2007 ) .\nh . hyanuary is a benthopelagic ( ecological region at the lowest level of water body ) species . occurs in flood plain lakes .\nnot a significant amount taken from the wild for the pet trade to cause threat .\neven if ornamental and as such exploited for the aquarium hobby , the harvest of the species is probably negligible for the species as a whole , considering that the species is probably not harvested in most of its range . it is however a species poorly known in nature .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 1 . wetlands ( inland ) - permanent rivers / streams / creeks ( includes waterfalls ) suitability : suitable 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - permanent freshwater lakes ( over 8ha ) suitability : suitable 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 6 . wetlands ( inland ) - seasonal / intermittent freshwater lakes ( over 8ha ) suitability : suitable 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 7 . wetlands ( inland ) - permanent freshwater marshes / pools ( under 8ha ) suitability : suitable\n1 . research - > 1 . 2 . population size , distribution & trends 1 . research - > 1 . 5 . threats\nbassleer , g . 1997 . color guide of tropical fish diseases : on freshwater fish . bassleer biofish , westmeerbeek , belgium .\nfroese , r . and pauly , d . 2006 . fishbase . available at : urltoken .\ng\u00e9ry , j . 1977 . characoids of the world . t . f . h . publications , inc . , neptune city , new jersey , usa .\ngrabda , e . and heese , t . 1991 . polskie nazewnictwo popularne kraglouste i ryby . cyclostomata et pisces . .\niucn . 2009 . iucn red list of threatened species ( ver . 2009 . 2 ) . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 3 november 2009 ) .\nklinkhardt , m , tesche , m . and greven , h . 1995 . database of fish chromosomes . .\nlima , f . c . t . , malabarba , l . r . , buckup , p . a . , pezzi da silva , j . f . , vari , r . p . , harold , a . , benine , r . , oyakawa , o . t . , pavanelli , c . s . , menezes , n . a . , lucena , c . a . s . , malabarba , m . c . s . l . , lucena , z . m . s . , reis , r . e . , langeani , f . , cassati , l . and bertaco , v . a . 2003 . genera incertae sedis ( uncertain placement ) in characidae . in : r . e . reis , s . o . kullander and c . j . ferraris , jr . ( eds ) , checklist of the freshwater fishes of south and central america , pp . 106 - 168 . porto alegre : edipucrs , brasil .\nortega , h . and vari , r . p . 1986 . annotated checklist of the freshwater fishes of peru . smithsonian contributions to zoology 437 : 1 - 25 .\nporto , j . i . r . , feldberg , e . , nakayama , c . m . and falcao , j . n . 1992 . a checklist of chromosome numbers and karyotypes of amazonian freshwater fishes . revue d ' hydrobiologie tropicale 25 ( 4 ) : 287 - 299 .\nriehl , r . and baensch , h . a . 1991 . aquarien atlas . band 1 . : 992 .\nriehl , r . and baensch , h . a . 1996 . aquarien atlas , band 1 . .\nrobins , c . r . , bailey , r . m . , bond , c . e . , brooker , j . r . , lachner , e . a . , lea , r . n . and scott , w . b . 1991 . world fishes important to north americans . exclusive of species from the continental waters of the united states and canada .\nscheel , j . j . 1973 . fish chromosomes and their evolution . interval report of danmarks akvarium , charlottenlu .\nswedish museum of natural history . 1999 . nrm ichthyology collection database . ichthyology section , department of vertebrate zoology , swedish museum of natural history , stockholm , sweden .\ntello , s . and s\u00e1nchez , h . 1995 . to be filled . unpublished .\nvarjo , m . , koli , l . and dahlstr\u00f6m , h . 2004 . kalannimiluettelo ( versio 10 / 03 ) . suomen biologian seura vanamo ry .\nwu , h . l . , shao , k . t . and lai , c . f . 1999 . latin - chinese dictionary of fishes names . the sueichan press , taiwan .\nthe female is more full and rounded in the belly than males . the male has a small hook on its anal fin . this is not always easy to see .\na peaceful shoaling community fish that should be kept in groups of 6 or more . keep with other peaceful community fish .\nprefers a densely planted tank with dark substrate and floating plants and some open swimming space .\nthis page was last edited on 13 december 2017 , at 03 : 18 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license unless otherwise noted .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nsorry , we do not currently have care information on this item . we are currently working on expanding our data . please check back .\nby creating an account , i agree to shutterstock ' s website terms , privacy policy , and licensing terms .\n\u00a9 2003 - 2018 shutterstock , inc . all rights reserved . made in nyc .\nsmall ( s ) has the shortest download time and is suitable for digital use .\nlarge ( l ) is suitable for large prints as well as digital use . it is the original image provided by the contributor .\nyou can redownload your image for free at any time , in any size .\neditorial content , such as news and celebrity images , are not cleared for commercial use . learn more on our support center .\nsign up to browse over million images , video clips , and music tracks . plus , get free weekly content and more .\n( we only support jpg and png images under 5mb and no larger than 4000px on either side at this time . )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nit hails from the amazon basin in peru and brazil . the type specimen was collected from lake hyanuary , near the brazilian city of manaus .\na standard 24\u2033 x 15\u2033 x 12\u2033 ( 60cm x 37 . 5cm x 30cm ) \u2013 70 litre tank is suitable for a small shoal .\na biotope setup would be very simple to arrange . use a substrate of river sand and add a few driftwood branches ( if you can\u2019t find driftwood of the desired shape , common beech is safe to use if thoroughly dried and stripped of bark ) and twisted roots . a few handfuls of dried leaves ( again beech can be used , or oak leaves are also suitable ) would complete the natural feel . aquatic plants are not a feature of this species \u2018 natural waters . allow the wood and leaves to stain the water the colour of weak tea , removing old leaves and replacing them every few weeks so they don\u2019t rot and foul the water . a small net bag filled with aquarium - safe peat can be added to the filter to aid in the simulation of black water conditions . use fairly dim lighting .\nalternatively , , it also does well in a well maintained , heavily planted tank . as any of these seen for sale will almost certainly be wild caught a more general setup is not really suitable .\nph : 6 . 0 - 7 . 0 . it tends to lose colour when kept in alkaline conditions .\nfeeds chiefly on small invertebrates in nature . in the aquarium it proves unfussy . feed a mixture of dried flakes and granules along with small live and frozen foods .\nit\u2019s a very peaceful species that won\u2019t compete well with very boisterous or much larger tankmates . ideally , keep it with other south american species , such as other hemigrammus or hyphessobrycon species , pencil fish , apistogramma dwarf cichlids , corydoras and small loricariids . in a more general community it can be combined with smaller rasboras , barbs , anabantoids and west african dwarf cichlids such as pelvicachromis species .\nalways buy a group of at least 6 of these , preferably 10 or more . it is a shoaling species by nature , and will fare much better when in the company of its own kind . like most tetras it actually looks far more effective when maintained like this anyway .\nadult males are slightly smaller and noticeably slimmer than females . the male also has a small hook on the anal fin , which is lacking in females .\nit can be spawned in a group , with half a dozen specimens of each sex being a good number . condition these with plenty of small live foods and spawning should not present too many problems .\nalternatively , it can be spawned in pairs . under this technique the fish are conditioned in male and female groups in separate tanks . when the females are noticeably full of eggs and the males are displaying their best colours , select the fattest female and best - coloured male and transfer them to the spawning tank in the evening . they should spawn the following morning .\nin either situation , the adults will eat the eggs given the chance and should be removed as soon as eggs are noticed . these will hatch in 24 - 36 hours , with the fry becoming free swimming a 3 - 4 days later . they should be fed on an infusoria \u2013 type food for the first few days , until they are large enough to accept microworm or brine shrimp nauplii . the eggs and fry are light sensitive in the early stages of life and the tank should be kept in darkness if possible .\nlike all hemigrammus , its taxonomic status is currently incertae sedis , meaning uncertain . the genus is currently used as something of a catch - all for over 70 species of small characin . most experts agree that a full revision is required , with the likely outcome that many species will be placed into new or different genera .\nfrom the day we opened the first store in maidenhead , we\u2019ve firmly believed that one key to our success is employing fish keepers .\nmature females are noticeably larger and fuller bellied . male fish also possess a tiny hook on the anal fin , which is absent in females .\nsoft and acidic . ph : 6 . 0 - 7 . 2 , dh : up to 12 degrees .\nanalysis of the five glycosylation sites of human alpha 1 - acid glycoprotein . - pubmed - ncbi\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nfull text is available as a scanned copy of the original print version . get a printable copy ( pdf file ) of the complete article ( 1 . 3m ) , or click on a page image below to browse page by page . links to pubmed are also available for selected references .\nthese references are in pubmed . this may not be the complete list of references from this article .\npervaiz s , brew k . homology and structure - function correlations between alpha 1 - acid glycoprotein and serum retinol - binding protein and its relatives .\npevsner j , reed rr , feinstein pg , snyder sh . molecular cloning of odorant - binding protein : member of a ligand carrier family .\nmartyn ja , abernethy dr , greenblatt dj . plasma protein binding of drugs after severe burn injury .\nkremer jm , wilting j , janssen lh . drug binding to human alpha - 1 - acid glycoprotein in health and disease .\nschmid k , nimerg rb , kimura a , yamaguchi h , binette jp . the carbohydrate units of human plasma alpha1 - acid glycoprotein .\nfournet b , montreuil j , strecker g , dorland l , haverkamp j , vliegenthart fg , binette jp , schmid k . determination of the primary structures of 16 asialo - carbohydrate units derived from human plasma alpha 1 - acid glycoprotein by 360 - mhz 1h nmr spectroscopy and permethylation analysis .\nschmid k , binette jp , dorland l , vliegenthart jf , fournet b , montreuil j . the primary structure of the asialo - carbohydrate units of the first glycosylation site of human plasma alpha 1 - acid glycoprotein .\nyoshima h , matsumoto a , mizuochi t , kawasaki t , kobata a . comparative study of the carbohydrate moieties of rat and human plasma alpha 1 - acid glycoproteins .\nbennett m , schmid k . immunosuppression by human plasma alpha 1 - acid glycoprotein : importance of the carbohydrate moiety .\nlain\u00e9 e , couderc r , roch - arveiller m , vasson mp , giroud jp , raichvarg d . modulation of human polymorphonuclear neutrophil functions by alpha 1 - acid glycoprotein .\nbories pn , guenounou m , f\u00e9ger j , kodari e , agneray j , durand g . human alpha 1 - acid glycoprotein - exposed macrophages release interleukin 1 inhibitory activity .\nlejeune pj , mallet b , farnarier c , kaplanski s . changes in serum level and affinity for concanavalin a of human alpha 1 - proteinase inhibitor in severe burn patients : relationship to natural killer cell activity .\nbayard b , kerckaert jp . evidence for uniformity of the carbohydrate chains in individual glycoprotein molecular variants .\nbierhuizen mf , de wit m , govers ca , ferwerda w , koeleman c , pos o , van dijk w . glycosylation of three molecular forms of human alpha 1 - acid glycoprotein having different interactions with concanavalin a . variations in the occurrence of di - , tri - , and tetraantennary glycans and the degree of sialylation .\nnicollet i , lebreton jp , fontaine m , hiron m . evidence for alpha - 1 - acid glycoprotein populations of different pi values after concanavalin a affinity chromatography . study of their evolution during inflammation in man .\nhansen je , larsen va , b\u00f8g - hansen tc . the microheterogeneity of alpha 1 - acid glycoprotein in inflammatory lung disease , cancer of the lung and normal health .\npos o , oostendorp ra , van der stelt me , scheper rj , van dijk w . con a - nonreactive human alpha 1 - acid glycoprotein ( agp ) is more effective in modulation of lymphocyte proliferation than con a - reactive agp serum variants .\npos o , van dijk w , ladiges n , linthorst c , sala m , van tiel d , boers w . glycosylation of four acute - phase glycoproteins secreted by rat liver cells in vivo and in vitro . effects of inflammation and dexamethasone .\nwells c , b\u00f8g - hansen tc , cooper eh , glass mr . the use of concanavalin a crossed immuno - affinoelectrophoresis to detect hormone - associated variations in alpha 1 - acid glycoprotein .\nyet mg , shao mc , wold f . effects of the protein matrix on glycan processing in glycoproteins .\ndahms nm , hart gw . influence of quaternary structure on glycosylation . differential subunit association affects the site - specific glycosylation of the common beta - chain from mac - 1 and lfa - 1 .\nwooten ew , bazzo r , edge cj , zamze s , dwek ra , rademacher tw . primary sequence dependence of conformation in oligomannose oligosaccharides .\npaulson jc , colley kj . glycosyltransferases . structure , localization , and control of cell type - specific glycosylation .\nschachter h , narasimhan s , gleeson p , vella g . control of branching during the biosynthesis of asparagine - linked oligosaccharides .\nbrockhausen i , carver jp , schachter h . control of glycoprotein synthesis . the use of oligosaccharide substrates and hplc to study the sequential pathway for n - acetylglucosaminyltransferases i , ii , iii , iv , v , and vi in the biosynthesis of highly branched n - glycans by hen oviduct membranes .\nhalsall hb , kirley tl , friedman ml . the preparation of orosomucoid from nephrotic urine .\nikenaka t , ishiguro m , emura j , kaufmann h , isemura s , bauer w , schmid k . isolation and partial characterization of the cyanogen bromide fragments of 1 - acid glycoprotein and the elucidation of the amino acid sequence of the carboxyl - terminal cyanogen bromide fragment .\nabe k , mckibbin jm , hakomori s . the monoclonal antibody directed to difucosylated type 2 chain ( fuc alpha 1 leads to 2gal beta 1 leads to 4 [ fuc alpha 1 leads to 3 ] glcnac ; y determinant ) .\nlaemmli uk . cleavage of structural proteins during the assembly of the head of bacteriophage t4 .\nbeavis rc , chait bt . cinnamic acid derivatives as matrices for ultraviolet laser desorption mass spectrometry of proteins .\ndente l , pizza mg , metspalu a , cortese r . structure and expression of the genes coding for human alpha 1 - acid glycoprotein .\nkaras m , hillenkamp f . laser desorption ionization of proteins with molecular masses exceeding 10 , 000 daltons .\nbeavis rc , chait bt . rapid , sensitive analysis of protein mixtures by mass spectrometry .\nchandrasekaran ev , davila m , nixon d , mendicino j . structures of the oligosaccharide chains of two forms of alpha 1 - acid glycoprotein purified from liver metastases of lung , colon , and breast tumors .\nkrusius t , finne j , rauvala h . the structural basis of the different affinities of two types of acidic n - glycosidic glycopeptides for concanavalin a - - sepharose .\nrademacher tw , dwek ra . the role of oligosaccharides in modifying protein function .\npollack l , atkinson ph . correlation of glycosylation forms with position in amino acid sequence .\nparekh rb , tse ag , dwek ra , williams af , rademacher tw . tissue - specific n - glycosylation , site - specific oligosaccharide patterns and lentil lectin recognition of rat thy - 1 .\nyamashita k , tachibana y , ohkura t , kobata a . enzymatic basis for the structural changes of asparagine - linked sugar chains of membrane glycoproteins of baby hamster kidney cells induced by polyoma transformation .\nkim ys , perdomo j , whitehead js , curtis kj . glycosyltransferases in human blood . ii . study of serum galactosyltransferase and n - acetylgalactosaminyltransferase in patients with liver diseases .\nlammers g , jamieson jc . studies on the effect of lysosomotropic agents on the release of gal beta 1 - 4glcnac alpha - 2 , 6 - sialytransferase from rat liver slices during the acute - phase response .\nnakaishi h , sanai y , shibuya m , nagai y . analysis of cellular expression of gangliosides by gene transfection . ii : rat 3y1 cells transformed with several dnas containing oncogenes ( fes , fps , ras & src ) invariably express sialosylparagloboside .\nmatsuura h , greene t , hakomori s . an alpha - n - acetylgalactosaminylation at the threonine residue of a defined peptide sequence creates the oncofetal peptide epitope in human fibronectin .\nbrisson jr , carver jp . solution conformation of asparagine - linked oligosaccharides : alpha ( 1 - 6 ) - linked moiety .\nparekh rb , dwek ra , thomas jr , opdenakker g , rademacher tw , wittwer aj , howard sc , nelson r , siegel nr , jennings mg , et al . cell - type - specific and site - specific n - glycosylation of type i and type ii human tissue plasminogen activator .\nparekh rb , dwek ra , rudd pm , thomas jr , rademacher tw , warren t , wun tc , hebert b , reitz b , palmier m , et al . n - glycosylation and in vitro enzymatic activity of human recombinant tissue plasminogen activator expressed in chinese hamster ovary cells and a murine cell line .\nswiedler sj , freed jh , tarentino al , plummer th , jr , hart gw . oligosaccharide microheterogeneity of the murine major histocompatibility antigens . reproducible site - specific patterns of sialylation and branching in asparagine - linked oligosaccharides .\nn\u00e9el d , merlu b , turpin e , rabourdin - combe c , mach b , goussault y , charron dj . characterization of n - linked oligosaccharides of an hla - dr molecule expressed in different cell lines .\nomics international organises 3000 + global conferenceseries events every year across usa , europe & asia with support from 1000 more scientific societies and publishes 700 + open access journals which contains over 50000 eminent personalities , reputed scientists as editorial board members .\n\u00a9 2008 - 2018 omics international - open access publisher . best viewed in mozilla firefox | google chrome | above ie 7 . 0 version\nthis image is subject to copyright . getty images reserves the right to pursue unauthorized users of this image or clip , and to seek damages for copyright violations . to learn more about copyright and getty images\u2019 enforcement program , click\nwe\u2019ve partnered with invision to make it easier to search and download our images in sketch and adobe\u00ae photoshop\u00ae .\n{ { t ( ' more _ than _ one _ credit ' , { zero : calc . totalcreditcost } ) } }\nonce this video clip is done converting , you ' ll be able to download it from your video conversion queue or download history .\neditorial use only photos don ' t have any model or property releases , which means they can ' t be used for commercial , promotional , advertorial or endorsement purposes . this type of content is intended to be used in connection with events that are newsworthy or of general interest ( for example , in a blog , textbook , newspaper or magazine article ) .\nthis format requires a quick conversion ( usually under 5 mins ) before download begins , or you can get the largest and smallest formats immediately .\ncrop for social , add text and more with istock editor . open in editor\nby clicking\nconfirm download\nyou agree that you ' ve read and agree to all applicable license agreements for this download .\nto provide you with additional information about how we collect and use your personal data , we ' ve recently updated our privacy policy and terms of service . please review these pages now , as they apply to your continued use of our website ."]}
{"id": 2378, "summary": [{"text": "the scar bank gem , ( ctenoplusia limbirena ) , also known as silver u-tail , is a moth of the noctuidae family .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is found in south-western europe , africa ( lesotho , the cape province , kwazulu-natal , transvaal , mozambique , zimbabwe , zambia , botswana , malawi and eastern and equatorial africa ) , the canary islands , arabia , the southern himalayas , india , sri lanka , indochina to south-eastern china , taiwan , sulawesi , bali and timor .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "in new zealand , it has been established since 2011 . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "ctenoplusia limbirena", "paragraphs": ["ctenoplusia limbirena looks very similar to another moth trichoplusia ni . ctenoplusia limbirena has a distinctive pale brownish / cream mark near the outer forewing margin .\nremarks : ctenoplusia limbirena has a palaeotropical - subtropical distribution and occurs in macaronesia , africa and southern asia . ctenoplusia limbirena migrates occasionally further north ( southern europe etc . ) .\nhabitat : ctenoplusia limbirena inhabits subtropical agricultural areas , fallo land and herb - rich borders of all kinds .\nctenoplusia ( ctenoplusia ) astrapeia ; [ ne10 ] , 156 ( missp . ? )\nctenoplusia ( ctenoplusia ) limbirena ; behounek & ronkay , 1999 , spixiana 22 ( 2 ) : 139 ; [ ne10 ] : 179 , pl . 12 , f . 52 - 56 , gen . 206 , 277 ; ronkay , ronkay & behounek , 2010 , witt catalogue 4 : 56\nplusia limbirena guen\u00e9e , 1852 ; in boisduval & guen\u00e9e , hist . nat . insectes ( spec . g\u00e9n . l\u00e9pid . ) 6 : 350 ; tl : madagascar\nctenoplusia limbirena is a member of noctuid moths ( family noctuidae ) and it is now found in new zealand . it has a wingspan is 40\u201345 mm . europe , africa , arabia , asia including se asia to urltoken the known range of this species .\nctenoplusia ( ctenoplusia ) placida sundicata behounek & ronkay , 1999 ; spixiana 22 ( 2 ) : 125 , pl . 1 , f . 15 - 16 ; tl : timor\nctenoplusia ( ctenoplusia ) sumbawana behounek & ronkay , 1999 ; spixiana 22 ( 2 ) : 126 , f . 14 , pl . 1 , f . 17 ; tl : sumbawa\n? ctenoplusia placida caledonica holloway , 1979 ; series entom . 15 : 481 ; tl : new caledonia\nctenoplusia ( ctenoplusia ) accentifera ; [ ne10 ] : 180 , pl . 12 , f . 57 - 62 , gen . 207 , 278 ; ronkay , ronkay & behounek , 2010 , witt catalogue 4 : 63\nlife cycle : ctenoplusia limbirena can be found all year round . i observed larvae feeding on urtica membranacea and other herbs near the coast in madeira in march 2013 ( ribeira da janela ) . the larvae live more concealed than those of related species such as trichoplusia ni or chrysodeixis chalcites and stay more near the ground or in the inner parts of the plants .\nctenoplusia caelata dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 99 ; tl : uganda , bwamba\nctenoplusia crinoides dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 100 ; tl : kenya , kakmega\nctenoplusia perispomena dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 97 ; tl : kenya , makakwet\nctenoplusia polycampta dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 94 ; tl : gabon , makokou\nctenoplusia triteia dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 96 ; tl : kenya , nairobi\nctenoplusia amydra dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 96 ; tl : cameroon , dchang plateau\nctenoplusia etiennei dufay , 1975 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 80 : 160 ; tl : reunion , grand maturum forest\nctenoplusia perplexa dufay , 1975 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 44 ( 4 ) : 115 ; tl : cameroon\nctenoplusia psileia dufay , 1975 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 44 ( 4 ) : 116 ; tl : cameroon\nctenoplusia asteia dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 103 ; tl : kenya , mt . elgon\nctenoplusia isospila dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 103 ; tl : tanzania , mt . roungou\u00e9\nctenoplusia proseides dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 102 ; tl : kenya , nairobi , muguga\nctenoplusia rubronitens dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 98 ; tl : cameroon , mt . cameroon\nctenoplusia scoteina dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 104 ; tl : kenya , nairobi , muguga\nctenoplusia selagisma dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 101 ; tl : tanzania , mt . merou\nctenoplusia dargei dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 102 ; tl : cameroon , bafut n ' guemba forest\nctenoplusia fulgens dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 97 ; tl : cameroon , bafut n ' guemba forest\nctenoplusia gemmata dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 98 ; tl : cameroon , bafut n ' guemba forest\nctenoplusia phoceoides dufay , 1972 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 41 : 99 ; tl : cameroon , bafut n ' guemba forest\nctenoplusia karthalae dufay , 1982 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 87 : 224 ; tl : comoro is . , grande comore ; la covalescence\nctenoplusia vermiculata dufay , 1970 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 39 ( 3 ) : 106 ; tl : mt . korintji , sumatra\nctenoplusia ( acanthoplusia ) javana behounek & ronkay , 1999 ; spixiana 22 ( 2 ) : 134 , f . 20 , pl . 1 , f . 13 ; tl : tjinjiroean\nsubfamily plusiinae . the caterpillars of moths in this subfamily have only three fully developed pairs of prolegs on the abdomen ( those on segments 3 and 4 are lost or reduced ) . thus they are often termed \u2018loopers\u2019 , as they have a similar mode of progression to larvae of geometridae . adults usually have at least a small metallic marking on the forewing ; thysanoplusia orichalcea has extensive golden forewing patches . all new zealand species occur overseas ; ctenoplusia limbirena is a very recently introduced species with a natural distribution from southern europe through to south - east asia ; it appears to be established and can be expected to become commoner in new zealand . larvae of most species feed on a range of herbaceous plants , especially garden plants , but ctenoplusia albostriata seems to prefer asteraceae .\nctenoplusia ( acanthoplusia ) latistigma floresiana behounek & ronkay , 1999 ; spixiana 22 ( 2 ) : 129 , f . 16 , pl . 2 , f . 33 - 34 ; tl : flores\nctenoplusia ( acanthoplusia ) armata behounek & ronkay , 1999 ; spixiana 22 ( 2 ) : 128 , f . 15 , pl . 2 , f . 30 - 31 ; tl : philippines , mindanao\nctenoplusia ( acanthoplusia ) latistigma sulawesiana behounek & ronkay , 1999 ; spixiana 22 ( 2 ) : 131 , f . 17 , pl . 2 , f . 32 ; tl : sulawesi , puncak , palopo , 900 - 1300m\nctenoplusia ( acanthoplusia ) dufayi behounek & ronkay , 1999 ; spixiana 22 ( 2 ) : 132 , f . 18 - 19 , pl . 2 , f . 35 ; tl : philippines , n . luzon , ifugao , banaue\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhost plants : the larva feeds polyphagous on herbs like solanaceae , fabaceae , asteraceae or urtica .\na rare autumn immigrant , mainly to the south and south - west of england , there have been around 15 records to date of this afrotropical species .\nthe species resembles silver y in appearance , but tends to be more reticulated , often with a violet or purple sheen , and usually a distinctive pale patch on the central part of the termen .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 06 - 16 13 : 10 : 19 page render time : 0 . 2971s total w / procache : 0 . 3835s\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nflies , caddisflies , craneflies , damselflies dragonflies , gnats , mayflies . midges , mosquitoes\ninsects ( ants , beetles , bugs , cicadas , cockroaches , centipedes , crickets , grasshoppers , lacewings , ladybirds , mantis , millipedes , scale , shield bugs , stick insects , wetas , weevils , etc . ) .\nreptiles ( frogs , geckos , skinks , snakes , lizards , turtles ) .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names a to f with photo .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names g to l with photo .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names m to q with photo .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names r to z with photo .\ntrees ( new zealand ) hebes and their hybrids & cultivars ( photos ) .\nweeds & escapee plants : a to f ( common names with photo ) .\nweeds & escapee plants : g to l ( common names with photo ) .\nweeds & escapee plants : m to q ( common names and photo ) .\nweeds & escapee plants : r to z ( common names with photo ) .\nthe larvae host plants include solanum spp , geranium , nicotiana tabacum , althea , salvia , primula , lactuca sativa , mentha piperita , verbascum sp . and agave sisalana .\n\u00a9 copyright 2008 - 2018 - t . e . r : r . a . i . n . all rights reserved . last update : 15 - feb - 18 . site designed & hosted by smokeylemon .\nen poursuivant votre navigation sur ce site , vous acceptez l\u2019utilisation de cookies pour vous proposer des contenus et services adapt\u00e9s et r\u00e9aliser des statistiques de visites . en savoir plus \u00e0 propos des cookies .\nversion valid\u00e9e du meilleur niveau de connaissance disponible \u00e0 un moment donn\u00e9 . cette cat\u00e9gorie indique une image fiable de la r\u00e9partition \u00e0 la date de r\u00e9alisation de la carte , avec une bonne pr\u00e9somption d ' absence dans les secteurs o\u00f9 le taxon n ' est pas mentionn\u00e9 . exemple : atlas des amphibiens et reptiles de m\u00e9tropole .\nensemble de donn\u00e9es contr\u00f4l\u00e9es issues de programmes : comprend les jeux de donn\u00e9es valid\u00e9es associ\u00e9s aux inventaires en cours ou \u00e0 des inventaires termin\u00e9s mais partiellement incomplets . diff\u00e8re du niveau\ndistribution de r\u00e9f\u00e9rence\nessentiellement sur le degr\u00e9 de compl\u00e9tude et d ' expertise coll\u00e9giale . c ' est - \u00e0 - dire que les donn\u00e9es pr\u00e9sent\u00e9es ont une forte fiabilit\u00e9 mais ne repr\u00e9sentent pas forc\u00e9ment l ' aire de r\u00e9partition nationale du taxon .\njeux de donn\u00e9es dont la m\u00e9thodologie d ' acquisition ou d ' organisation ne satisfait pas aux crit\u00e8res de d\u00e9finition d ' un inventaire pour l ' inpn . ces donn\u00e9es , provenant g\u00e9n\u00e9ralement de sp\u00e9cialistes et consid\u00e9r\u00e9es a priori comme fiables , ne sont pas encore int\u00e9gr\u00e9es \u00e0 un processus de validation tierce - partie . il s ' agit souvent de donn\u00e9es destin\u00e9es \u00e0 int\u00e9grer un inventaire . exemple : donn\u00e9es issues de cardobs , donn\u00e9es pr\u00e9 - tri\u00e9es de programmes de sciences participatives .\ndonn\u00e9es de programmes dont l ' objet principal n ' est pas l ' inventaire d ' esp\u00e8ces mais la qualification d ' une zone , en particulier d ' espaces prot\u00e9g\u00e9s ou de p\u00e9rim\u00e8tres d ' inventaire . exemple : znieff g1 et g2 , natura 2000 , espaces prot\u00e9g\u00e9s , apb .\nsweu - greece , africa , near east , asia minor . see [ maps ]\nplusia aenescens prout , 1921 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 9 ) 8 ( 43 ) : 24 , pl . 4 , f . 1 ; tl : [ zambia ] n . rhodesia\nindonesia , new guinea , new zealand , rapa is . . see [ maps ]\nphytometra albostriata ab . disjunctana strand , 1917 ; archiv naturg . 82 a ( 2 ) : 48\nplusia aurisuta dufay , 1968 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 37 : 203 ; tl : perinet region , madagascar\npolychrysia camptogamma hampson , 1910 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 8 ) 5 ( 29 ) : 430 ; tl : br . e . africa , kikuyu , roromo\nplusia caudata schaus , 1906 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 30 ( 1444 ) : 105 ; tl : mexico , orizaba\nplusia chalcopasta hampson , 1912 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 21 ( 4 ) : 1225 ; tl : gooty ; nilgiris ; ceylon ; maskeliya ; pattipada\nplusia edora prout , 1927 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . ( 1927 ) 75 : 222 ; tl : sao thom\u00e9\nplusia epargyra dufay , 1968 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 37 : 196 ; tl : p\u00e9rinet , e . madagascar\nphytometra euchroa hampson , 1918 ; novit . zool . 25 : 215 ; tl : natal , durban\nplusia euchroides carcasson , 1965 ; j . e . africa nat . hist . soc . 25 : 146 ; tl : uganda\nplusia fracta walker , [ 1858 ] ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 12 : 920 ; tl :\ncongo\nplusia gammaloba hampson , 1910 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 8 ) 5 ( 29 ) : 430 ; tl : madagascar\nplusia glaphyra dufay , 1974 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 43 : 109 , f . 13 - 14 ; tl : brazil , parana , castro\nplusia griveaudi dufay , 1968 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 37 : 208 ; tl : s . moramango , e . madagascar\nplusia lavendula hampson , 1902 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 2 ( 10 ) : 347 ; tl : cape colony\nplusia leucostigma dufay , 1968 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 37 : 208 ; tl : p\u00e9rinet , e . madagascar\nsweu , africa , canary islands , arabia , s . himalayas , india , sri lanka , indochina - se . china , taiwan , sulawesi , bali , timor . see [ maps ]\nplusia melanocephala m\u00f6schler , 1884 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 33 : 297 , pl . 16 , f . 11 ; tl : cape colony\nplusia micans dufay , 1968 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 37 : 206 ; tl : ambre mt . , n . madagascar\nphytometra nigrogemmea romieux , 1943 ; mitt . schweiz . ent . ges . 19 ( 3 ) : 111 , pl . 9 , f . 10 ; tl : upper katange , tshinkolobwe\nplusia orbifer guen\u00e9e , 1865 ; in vinson , voy . madagascar , annexe f : 47 , pl . 6 , f . 3 ; tl : madagascar\ns . ontario , e . usa - arizona , kansas , nebraska , iowa , wisconsin , mexico , antilles , ca - brazil , n . argentina . see [ maps ]\nlarva on aster sp . , erigeron canadensis , nicotiana tabacum , solidago sp . [ mna25 . 1 ] , 47\nplusia pauliana dufay , 1968 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 37 : 202 ; tl : e . madagascar , lakato\nplusia phocea hampson , 1910 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 8 ) 5 ( 29 ) : 433 ; tl : natal , durban\nplusia rhodographa dufay , 1968 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 37 : 205 ; tl : ambre mt . , n . madagascar\nplusia seyrigi dufay , 1968 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 37 : 207 ; tl : madagascar , bekily\nacnthoplusia dufay , 1970 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 39 ( 3 ) : 104 ; ts : pytometra tarassota hampson\nacanthoplusia adiaphora dufay , 1974 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 43 : 107 ; tl : formosa , wushe\nphytometra agnata var . sokutsuna strand , 1920 ; archiv naturg . 84 a ( 12 ) : 129 ; tl : formosa , banshoryo , sokutsu\nphytometra eugrapha hampson , 1913 ; cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . 13 : 474 , pl . 237 , f . 14 ; tl : dutch new guinea\nacanthoplusia herbuloti dufay , 1982 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 51 ( 3 ) : 73 ; tl : philippines\nplusia ichinosei dufay , 1965 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 34 : 194 ; tl : japan\nplusia latistigma prout , 1922 ; bull . hill mus . 1 ( 2 ) : 229 ; tl : ceram\nceylon , indochina , taiwn , sumatra , java , bali , sulawesi , timor , flores . see [ maps ]\nacanthoplusia sigillata dufay , 1970 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 39 ( 3 ) : 105\nplusia confusa ; holloway , 1976 , moths of borneo with special reference to mt . kinabalu : 32\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nrevision de plusiinae : descriptions de nouvelles especes asiatiques et notes synonymiques ( lep . noctuidae )\nreise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den behilfen des commodore b . von w\u00fcllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . band 2 . abtheilung 2 . lepidoptera . rhopalocera\n- 120 , ( inhalts - verz . ) 1 - 9 ( pl . 1 - 74 ) , ( felder & rogenhofer , 1874 ) , ( 5 ) : pl .\nneuere beitr\u00e4ge zur schmetterlingskunde mit abbildungen nach der natur . ( 1 - 16 )\nl\u00e9pidopt\u00e9res de madagascar . in vinson . voyage a madagascar au couronnement de radama ii . in vinson ,\nthe moths of india . supplementary paper to the volumes in\nthe fauna of british india\n. series iv . part v ( ? vi )\non some apparently new species and forms of noctuidae . collected by c . , f . , and j . pratt , in the mountains of central ceram , october , 1919 , to february , 1920\na list of noctuidae with descriptions of new forms collected in the island of sao thom\u00e9 by t . a . barns\ndie macrolepidopteren des amurgebiets . i . theil . rhopalocera , sphinges , bombyces , noctuae in romanoff ,\nwallengren , 1856 anteckningar i zoologien . i . kafferlandets macrolepidopter - fauna anteckn . zool . 1 : 1 - 78\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nmost searched in books : adobe pagemaker 7 . 0 autobiography of a book black turmeric actor prepares design of steel structures digital communication english to bengali wren and martin english grammar sanskrit grammar kannada dictionary icse board papers css w3schools learn hindi in 30 days linear integrated circuits machine drawing maza national science olympiad my experiments with truth networking interview questions english marathi dictionary bengali dictionary java project rapidex english speaking course hindi to tamil telugu to hindi security analysis and portfolio management social problems in india the grand design english to gujrati\nthe following moth families are covered by this online guide : hepialidae , zygaenidae , sesiidae , geometridae , saturniidae , sphingidae , erebidae ( includes the former families arctiidae and lymantriidae ) , nolidae , noctuidae .\nbrief general introductions to these and some of the included genera are presented below ; no key to families is given here , as characters tend to be rather technical and involve specialised preparation techniques ; it is quite easy , however , to learn to recognise which family a moth belongs to , especially in the limited new zealand fauna .\nthe ghost moths or swift moths are primitive moths with very short antennae , long abdomens , and hindwings rather similar in shape and wing venation to the forewings . the family is well represented in new zealand with 30 species , including our largest moth species , the puriri moth ( aenetus virescens ) with a wingspan up to 150 mm in the female . aenetus is confined to the north island ; caterpillars form characteristic scars on trunks of native and introduced trees . other hepialid larvae in new zealand are more or less subterranean , forming tunnels in the soil of grasslands or wetlands ( e . g . , wiseana spp , the porina moths ) or under leaf - litter in forests ( e . g . , dumbletonius spp . ) . adults of many species are crepuscular , flying at dusk , and coming to light before it is fully dark , but aenetus tends to fly later in the night .\nthe burnet and forester moths are an unusual family of day - flying lepidoptera , many of which are brightly coloured and distasteful to birds and other vertebrate predators . they are naturally absent from new zealand , and only a single introduced species , the bamboo moth ( artona martini ) is present , having first been detected in whangarei in 1996 . it is has now spread as far as auckland ; the hairy larvae can cause conspicuous defoliation of bamboos in gardens and parks and sometimes occur locally in huge numbers . the diurnal adults are less conspicuous . artoni martini originates in south - east asia , and was presumably introduced accidentally through trade .\nthe clearwings are another unusual family of day - flying moths , most of which are mimics of wasps or bees , with partially transparent wings . they are day - flying but often very hard to find as adults ; caterpillars are internal feeders in a wide range of plants . there is only a single introduced european species in new zealand : the currant clearwing ( synanthedon tipuliformis ) , which as its name suggests , feeds as a caterpillar inside stems of cultivated currants ( ribes spp . ) . adults may occasionally be seen flying around the currant bushes in sunshine . they are rarely found north of the central north island .\nthe loopers are a very large family of moths ( over 20 , 000 species worldwide ) , well represented in new zealand by over 250 species , where most species are endemic . the common name comes from the larvae , which do not have the full complement of abdominal prolegs ( usually they have prolegs only on segments 6 and 10 ) , and therefore progress in the characteristic \u2018inchworm\u2019 looping motion . an important feature of the family is the presence of tympanal organs ( \u2018ears\u2019 ) at the base of the abdomen .\nsubfamily ennominae . all new zealand ennominae ( about 55 species ) are medium - sized relatively robust moths ( although not as robust as noctuidae ) , and the males in most genera have feathery antennae . in the genus pseudocoremia , the hindwings are often yellowish and much brighter than the forewings under which they are concealed when the moth is at rest . declana contains robust noctuid - like species , most exhibiting lichen - like or bark - like patterning . some , like d . floccosa , are very variable in colour pattern . the fern loopers in the genera ischalis , sarisa and sestra have scalloped or hook - tipped forewings , usually with strong dark lines running across them ; males have simple , non - feathery antennae . chalastra males do have feathery antennae ; c . aristarcha and pellurgata are medium - sized moths with distinctive white markings . \u2018 chalastra \u2019 ochrea is more pseudocoremia - like and does not really belong with the other two chalastra species . gellonia and cleora are large brown moths , with feathery antennae in the males , and scalloped edges to the wings . cleora scriptaria , the kawakawa looper , is especially variable in pattern ; its current genus placement is likely to be incorrect . zermizinga indocilisaria is a small , grey , rather atypical ennomine , with an eastern distribution in new zealand . the female is short - winged ( brachypterous ) ; the species almost certainly originates from australia .\nsubfamily larentiinae . the larentiinae are very well represented in new zealand with about 200 described species . they tend to be more delicate , butterfly - like moths than ennominae , and some species ( e . g . asaphodes aegrota , austrocidaria similata , epyaxa rosearia ) will hold their wings vertically above the body like a butterfly when at rest . the subfamily contains many brightly coloured day - flying species , especially in the endemic genera paranotoreas , notoreas and dasyuris , many of which are restricted to open subalpine and alpine habitats . the cabbage tree looper ( epiphryne verriculata ) is a common and well known species belonging to this subfamily : the adults are often illustrated as a fine example of crypsis when resting on the dead leaves of their larval host - plant cordyline australis . the genus tatosoma is remarkable for the highly elongated abdomens of the males ; this feature has presumably evolved as a result of sexual selection by the females . the genus - level classification of larentiinae in new zealand is in need of extensive revision , e . g . moths currently assigned to the genus hydriomena are all wrongly placed . at the species level , the genera notoreas and pasiphila are particularly difficult and badly in need of revision ; identifications given here are based on those in nzac and there may still be errors .\nsubfamily sterrhinae . only a single species of this cosmopolitan subfamily ( usually called \u2018waves\u2019 ) occurs in new zealand ; this is scopula rubraria , which also occurs widely in australia . it is a very common species in pastures , roadsides and weedy places , especially in late summer , flying by day . larvae feed on a variety of herbaceous plants , including plantain ( plantago spp . ) .\nthe very large and unmistakeable gum emperor moth ( opodiphthera eucalypti ) is our only species of this family of silk moths , and was introduced from australia in the early 20th century . it is now widespread in new zealand , larvae feeding chiefly on eucalyptus spp . in gardens and parks , but also on schinus ( pepper tree ) .\nthe hawk - moths are a family of large streamlined moths ; many species are powerful fliers and migratory in habit . only one cosmopolitan species occurs regularly and breeds in new zealand , the convolvulus hawk - moth ( agrius convolvuli ) , with larvae feeding on convolvulaceae , including kumara ( sweet potato , ipomoea batatas ) . the silver - striped hawk - moth ( hippotion celerio ) occurs rarely as a migrant to new zealand : there appear to be very few recent records .\nthis family name has recently been revived ; the erebidae now include the former families arctiidae ( tiger moths ) and lymantriidae ( tussock moths ) along with several subfamilies formerly assigned to noctuidae . like noctuidae , erebidae have tympanal organs ( \u2018ears\u2019 ) on the metathorax . the family is very diverse in the tropics , but there are very few truly native species in new zealand .\nsubfamily lymantriinae . naturally absent from new zealand , the tussock moth subfamily is recorded here based on two accidentally introduced species which established briefly in the auckland area , but were subsequently eradicated . teia anartoides , the painted apple moth , originates from australia . the female has strongly reduced wings and is flightless ; males are day - flying . orgyia thyellina , the white - spotted tussock moth , originates from south - east asia , and has both winged ( flying ) and brachypterous ( flightless ) forms of the female . both species have hairy larvae with characteristic \u2018toothbrush\u2019 tufts on the dorsum ; larvae feed on a wide range of host plants , though teia prefer wattle ( acacia spp . ) .\nsubfamily arctiinae . this subfamily ( the tiger moths ) contains many colourful species worldwide ; larvae are hairy , with many secondary setae . the genus metacrias is our only endemic genus of arctiinae ; the three species chiefly occur in open habitats at higher elevations , and are almost confined to the south island ; only m . huttoni occurs in the north island ( ruahine range ) . females are flightless with minute wings , and males are diurnal with a strong , buzzing flight . larvae feed on a variety of herbaceous plants . two similar species of utetheisa ( crimson speckled footman ) occur as migrants to new zealand : u . pulchelloides ssp . vaga is a common migrant , with larvae on boraginaceae ; u . lotrix is very much rarer , with larvae on fabaceae . the cinnabar moth , tyria jacobaeae , is a european species introduced to new zealand in the 1920s as a biological control agent for its larval host - plant ragwort ( jacobaea vulgaris ( = senecio jacobaea ) ) . the conspicuous yellow and black banded larvae are distasteful to predators , as is the black and red day - flying adult . nyctemera annulata is an endemic species of a widespread genus ; larvae feed on senecio spp . the closely related australian n . amicus has reached northern new zealand and now hybridises freely there with n . annulata ; it can be difficult to distinguish the adults of the two species and the hybrid , but a white fringe to the wings probably always indicates some amicus parentage . specimens with whitish lines at the base of the forewing along the veins are the most likely to be nearly pure amicus .\nother erebid subfamilies . all other erebidae in new zealand were formerly assigned to noctuidae ( subfamilies catocalinae , hypeninae and hypenodinae ) . subfamily placements still remain uncertain for some species , as the subfamily classification of erebidae has so far been largely based on northern hemisphere genera . a number of species only occur in new zealand as migrants from australia ( genera achaea , anomis , eudocima , hypocala ) ; other australian species have become established ( the large dasypodia spp . , with larvae on acacia , pantydia sparsa , with larvae on a range of plants , and the geometrid - like artigisa melanephele , with larvae on fungi and dead wood ) . schrankia costaestrigalis is a common , near - cosmopolitan species ; being small and slender - bodied , it is often mistaken for a micro - moth . only two endemic erebid species are found in new zealand : the common rhapsa scotosialis , with larvae feeding on leaf - litter or hanging moss , and the less common trigonistis anticlina , a forest species whose larvae are unknown .\ntwo species of this family ( previously often treated as a subfamily of noctuidae ) are found in new zealand . larvae , as in arctiinae , have many secondary setae . the endemic nola parvitis is a rare species whose larvae feed on the endemic shrub helichrysum lanceolatum . the gum - leaf skeletoniser , uraba lugens , was accidentally introduced from australia and is now common in the northern north island , feeding on various myrtaceae , especially eucalyptus and lophostemon .\nthis is a huge worldwide family has about 140 named species in new zealand , which by world standards is an extremely limited fauna . adults have tympanal organs ( \u2018ears\u2019 ) on the metathorax , as do erebidae . it should be noted that the species of declana ( geometridae : ennominae ) resemble noctuidae superficially with their robust bodies and narrowish forewings .\nsubfamily amphipyrinae s . l . our two species of the endemic genus bityla are true amphipyrines , closely related to the northern hemisphere amphipyra . larvae of b . defigurata feed on muehlenbeckia vines ; adults overwinter . the life history of b . sericea is currently unknown . cosmodes is an unusual and striking endemic australian genus containing the single species c . elegans ; it occurs more or less regularly in new zealand , and probably breeds here at least temporarily . larvae feed on lobelia and verbena spp . proteuxoa is a large australian genus ; of the three species known from new zealand , one ( p . sanguinipuncta ) is a recent arrival , now well established . two species have been confused under the name proteuxoa comma , one of which may be undescribed , and both of which are thought to be endemic to new zealand , though closely related to australian species . proteuxoa species have larvae feeding on a range of herbaceous plants . the proper systematic placement of both proteuxoa and cosmodes remains to be determined ; they will probably be removed from amphipyrinae .\nsubfamily agaristinae . only the australian phalaenoides glycinae ( grapevine moth ) has been found in new zealand . the conspicuous black , white and red caterpillar feeds mainly on members of the plant family vitaceae ( including vitis , grapevine , and parthenocissus , virginia creeper ) , but is also recorded from other plants including cultivated fuchsia . formerly common in northern new zealand , this moth seems to have declined greatly here , and there have been few records ( if any ) in the last 10 years .\nsubfamily condicinae . only condica illecta ( formerly platysenta illecta ) has been recorded in new zealand , where it occurs rarely as an immigrant . overseas it is found in australia and throughout south - east asia and the pacific , where the larvae feed on various herbaceous plants in the family asteraceae .\nsubfamily heliothinae . the rare endemic heliothine australothis volatilis is known only from a few sites in central otago , where larvae feed on vittadinia ( asteraceae ) . adults are day - flying . our two species of helicoverpa are immigrant pest species ; h . armigera is by far the commoner species .\nthe large and highly enigmatic titanomis sisyrota is known only from ten specimens ( two of them lost ) , collected from scattered localities from the central north island to the southern south island . the last ( one of the lost specimens ) was collected in 1959 . the life history is unknown , but the very elongate , probing ovipositor of the female suggests that larvae are internal feeders . family placement of titanomis has never been satisfactorily resolved ; a recent published assignment to the micro - moth family glyphipterigidae is almost certainly incorrect , since morphology of the base of the abdomen suggests a more advanced position in ditrysia . extinction is a possibility , but as the moth has only ever been collected extremely rarely at long intervals , and was apparently widespread , it may well await rediscovery .\napart from unnamed species and species only recorded from the kermadecs , or only captured once in new zealand , there are a number of species of larger moth that are not represented in the image galleries . these fall into three categories :\n1 . species for which it proved impossible to find or borrow good enough specimens for photography . the following species are in this category : hepialidae : aoraia hespera , a . oreobolae ; geometridae : pseudocoremia hollyae , p . hudsoni , austrocidaria prionota , chloroclystis impudicis ; noctuidae : agrotis ceropachoides .\n2 . species of dubious taxonomic status , i . e . named species in unrevised groups that lack clear diagnostic features , that are not separated as species in nzac , and that require further taxonomic investigation . some may still prove to be valid species . the following species are currently in this category : geometridae : austrocidaria praerupta ( not distinguished from a . callichlora ) , dasyuris strategica , homodotis amblyterma , \u2018 hydriomena\u2019 canescens ( not distinguished from \u2018 h . \u2019 clarkei ) , notoreas galaxias , n . isoleuca , pasiphila acompsa , p . punicea , p . vieta , xanthorhoe lophogramma ( not distinguished from x . semifissata ) ; noctuidae : \u2018 aletia \u2019 cyanopetra ; \u2018 a . \u2019 probenota ( not distinguished from \u2018 a . \u2019 obsecrata ) ; ichneutica homerica ( not distinguished from holotype of i . cana , but an undescribed species is often called cana in collections ) ; meterana coctilis ( not distinguished from m . praesignis ) ; m . badia ( not distinguished from m . inchoata ) .\n3 . species for which no known specimen survives , and which have never been recognised since their original description : hepialidae : \u2018 porina \u2019 mairi ; geometridae : \u2018 hydriomena\u2019 iolanthe .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user"]}
{"id": 2389, "summary": [{"text": "opistoclanis is a genus of moths in the family sphingidae , containing only one species opistoclanis hawkeri , which is known from china ( yunnan ) , north-eastern thailand , laos and northern vietnam , where it has been recorded at altitudes between 888 and 2,800 meters .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "adults are on wing from late march to early may at the end of the dry season in thailand . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "opistoclanis", "paragraphs": ["transferred to opistoclanis by jordan , 1929 , novit . zool . 35 : 62\ngenus : opistoclanis jordan , 1929 . novit . zool . 35 : 62 . [ bhl ]\nclanis hawkeri joicey & talbot , 1921 , entomologist 54 : 106 . type locality : french indo - china [ laos / cambodia / vietnam ] .\nchina : urltoken ( yunnan ) . in thailand , o . hawkeri flies between late march and early may at the end of the dry season ( i . j . kitching , unpublished data ) .\nchina ( yunnan , hainan ) , northern thailand , laos ( khammouan province ) and northern vietnam ( inoue , kennett & kitching , [ 1996 ] 1997 ) .\nholarctic ; eastern palaearctic region . pleistocene refuge : monocentric - - yunnan refugium .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ntype - species : clanis hawkeri joicey & talbot , 1921 . entomologist 54 : 106 . [ bhl ]\ntype specimens : type ( s ) [ vietnam ] french indo - china : ? locality , ( ? depository ) . .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nadults are on wing from late march to early may at the end of the dry season in thailand ."]}
{"id": 2392, "summary": [{"text": "the golden-headed lion tamarin ( leontopithecus chrysomelas ) , also the golden-headed tamarin , is a lion tamarin endemic to brazil .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is found only in the lowland and premontane tropical forest fragments in the state of bahia , and therefore is considered to be an endangered species .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it lives at heights of 3 \u2013 10 metres ( 9.8 \u2013 32.8 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "its preferred habitat is within mature forest , but with habitat destruction this is not always the case .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "several sources seem to have different information on the number of individuals within a group , and the type of social system that may be apparent .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the golden-headed lion tamarin lives within group sizes ranging from 2 to 11 individuals , with the average size ranging from 4 to 7 .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "according to various sources , the group may consist of two adult males , one adult female , and any immature individuals , one male and one female and any immature individuals , or there may be one producing pair and a varying number of other group members , usually offspring from previous generations .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "there is not much known on its mating system , but according to different sources , and information on the possible social groups , it can be assumed that some may practice monogamous mating systems , and some may practice polyandrous mating systems .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "both males and females invest energy in caring for the young , and all members of the group also help with juvenile care . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "golden - headed lion tamarin", "paragraphs": ["pinto lpd , rylands ab . geographic distribution of the golden - headed lion tamarin ,\ngolden - headed lion tamarin geographic range . map courtesy of oona r\u00e4is\u00e4nen & iucn red list\ngolden - headed lion tamarin climbing a tree - trunk . courtesy of arkive . org .\nplay behavior of the golden - headed lion tamarin in brazilian cocoa agroforests . - pubmed - ncbi\nplay behavior of the golden - headed lion tamarin in brazilian cocoa agroforests - abstract - folia primatologica 2014 , vol . 85 , no . 3 - karger publishers\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - golden - headed lion tamarin ( leontopithecus chrysomelas )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - golden - headed lion tamarin ( leontopithecus chrysomelas )\ntitle =\narkive species - golden - headed lion tamarin ( leontopithecus chrysomelas )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ngolden - headed lion tamarins are one of four species of lion tamarins , all of which are from the rainforests of brazil , and all are endangered species . our golden - headed lion tamarins came to us from the brevard zoo in florida . in the wild a golden - headed lion tamarin\u2019s diet mainly consists of fruit , flowers , and insects . when you visit the zoo you may hear high - pitched trills and whines coming from these small creatures .\nthis fragmentation of the forest threatens loss of genetic diversity in small isolated populations , and collection golden - headed lion tamarin for the pet trade also used to be a big problem .\nnot to be confused with the golden lion tamarin , the golden - headed lion tamarin - - also called the golden - headed tamarin , and the gold and black lion tamarin - - is only found in the state of bahia in brazil . preferring tall evergreen broadleaf forests and semi - deciduous forests along the atlantic coast , they live in the food - rich forest canopy at 10 to 33 feet ( 3 to 10 meters ) . this small monkey thrives in the mature forest habitats that are quickly diminishing and becoming ever more fragmented , thereby impacting the viability of the species .\ncite this page as : cawthon lang ka . 2005 july 20 . primate factsheets : golden - headed lion tamarin ( leontopithecus chrysomelas ) behavior . < urltoken > . accessed 2018 july 9 .\nwhen threatened , the golden - headed lion tamarin raises its mane and fluffs it body hair to appear larger . at the same time , it flicks its tongue to frighten away the threat .\ncite this page as : cawthon lang ka . 2005 july 20 . primate factsheets : golden - headed lion tamarin ( leontopithecus chrysomelas ) conservation . < urltoken > . accessed 2018 july 9 .\ngolden - headed lion tamarins were once found much more widely across eastern brazil . today , surviving populations are scattered and thinly distributed .\nraboy be , dietz jm ( 2004 ) . diet , foraging , and use of space in wild golden - headed lion tamarins .\nan estimated 2 % of the golden - headed lion tamarin ' s original habitat remains in brazil\u2019s atlantic forest , one of the most endangered ecosystems on earth . the majority of the original forest has been cleared for farming , mining , ranching & expanding urban centers . most golden - headed lion tamarins are confined to the protected una biological reserve .\ncite this page as : cawthon lang ka . 2005 july 20 . primate factsheets : golden - headed lion tamarin ( leontopithecus chrysomelas ) taxonomy , morphology , & ecology . < urltoken > . accessed 2018 july 9 .\ngolden lion tamarins move quadrupedally through the trees and can spring and leap between branches and vines .\ngolden lion tamarins were upgraded from critically endangered to endangered in 2003 following these extensive conservation efforts . about one - third of the wild population today originated from golden lion tamarins raised in human care . about 3 , 200 golden lion tamarins live in the wild , most in or near the\nraboy be , neves lg , zeigler s , saraiva n , cardoso n , santos g , ballou j , leimgruber p ( 2010 ) . strength of habitat and landscape metrics in predicting golden - headed lion tamarin presence or absence in forest patches .\ninformation about wild golden - headed lion tamarin ecology primarily comes from research that has been conducted at una biological reserve by raboy and dietz since 1991 . comparative research on the ecology of golden - headed lion tamarins and golden lion tamarins ( l . rosalia ) is unfolding and preliminary results suggest that the two are not as similar as expected given their taxonomic relationship . care should be taken to avoid assuming the two exhibit identical ecological behaviors such as foraging , diet , and ranging patterns ( dietz 1997 ; raboy & dietz 2004 ) .\nsome of the problems contributing to their status in the wild include massive deforestation for commercial agriculture crops , habitat fragmentation , and encroaching human populations . export for the international pet trade may also be a factor contributing to declining golden - headed lion tamarin populations .\nthirty years ago , fewer than 200 golden lion tamarins could be found in their native habitat in brazil .\nstriking manes around their head is what gives them the name lion tamarin . all lion tamarins are endangered because of the serious level of destruction of the atlantic rain forest where they are found .\ngolden - headed lion tamarins are found only in brazil . due to habitat destruction , they are confined to the southern part of the state of bahia , brazil ( mitchell and erwin 1986 ) .\nin tamarin society , males and females mate for life and take equal part in raising their young .\nbecause of their relatively large home range sizes , golden - headed lion tamarins encounter other groups less frequently than golden lion tamarins , but when they do , they exhibit territorial behavior . intergroup behavior is aggressive and includes bouts of vocalizing , chasing , and fighting between individuals ( dietz et al . 1996 ; raboy & dietz 2004 ) .\nthere is scant data available on accidental mortality but there have been some unpublished reports of golden - headed lion tamarins getting caught in snare traps set for other animals and accidentally being killed ( oliver & santos 1991 ) .\nfollowing this important meeting , the zoo made a major commitment to the captive breeding and conservation of the golden lion tamarin and launched a long - term investigation into the reproduction , social behavior and husbandry of the species in human care . for many years , golden lion tamarins were free - ranging at the zoo to help them prepare for eventual reintroduction to the wild in brazil .\nthe zoo played an important role in creating the golden lion tamarin conservation program , which is still active today in field research , reintroduction , environmental education and habitat restoration . currently , the international committee for the conservation and management of lion tamarins advises the brazilian government on the research and conservation activities for these species .\nin the early 1970s , there were as few as 200 golden lion tamarins in the wild . they were upgraded from critically endangered to endangered in 2003 following intensive conservation efforts . about one - third of the wild population today originated from golden lion tamarins raised in human care .\nthe zoo population of golden lion tamarins has been managed globally since 1973 . in 1981 , golden lion tamarins became one of the first species to be designated as part of the association of zoos & aquariums\u2019 species survival plan , with 143 zoos participating in the captive breeding program .\nthe rapid rate of habitat destruction within the range of the golden - headed lion tamarins indicates that their numbers will not remain high for long and suggests that forest fragmentation will continue to whittle away at the existing population much like the pattern seen in golden lion tamarins ( l . rosalia ) ( oliver & santos 1991 ; rylands 1993 - 1994 ; de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ) . actions must be taken immediately to stop habitat destruction and begin to reconnect patches of forest that still harbor golden - headed lion tamarins ( oliver & santos ; de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ) .\ncool animal fact : golden - headed lion tamarins also communicate using smell . they have scent glands which they use to mark their territory and pathways to food sources . individuals can be identified by one another based on their scent .\nas with other lion tamarins , golden lion tamarins are a social species . in the wild , they live in groups of two to eight family members . the groups comprise a breeding pair , offspring of one or two litters and possibly other relatives . golden lion tamarins groom much like other primates . the juveniles play , chasing and wrestling with each other .\nboth male and female golden - headed lion tamarins have well - developed scent glands on their chest and around their genitals which secrete chemicals used to communicate information about the individual including sex and reproductive status as well as territory demarcation . unfortunately , no work has been done to analyze the chemical composition of these secretions and therefore little information is understood about the mechanism by which these work to signal other golden - headed lion tamarins ( ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) .\nthe limited data available on fecundity and mortality in golden - headed lion tamarins suggests that the population grows more slowly and is subject to higher levels of predation compared to golden lion tamarins ( l . rosalia ) ( dietz 1997 ) . wild golden - headed lion tamarins have never been seen producing more than one litter per year , so population growth is relatively slow . furthermore , disappearance rates are high within the population at una biological reserve and may be attributed to density of predators . mammalian and avian predators are a threat to these small animals , and when forest conditions are right , the predator population can thrive and have a negative effect on golden - headed lion tamarins ( dietz 1997 ) . unidentified disease is another contributor to mortality at una . certain illnesses can sweep through a group and kill all of the members within a few days ( dietz 1997 ) .\nthe nature of habitat fragmentation throughout the golden - headed lion tamarin ' s range will probably lead to problems associated with inbreeding including inbreeding depression , genetic drift , lack of genetic diversity , and lower recruitment rates . the total population at una is estimated to be between 240 and 460 individuals . though there is a wide discrepancy between estimates , the population is still thought to be less than the 500 breeding individuals necessary to maintain genetic diversity over the long term ( dietz et al . 1996 ) . additionally , the population at una represents the largest population in the most intact forest in the entire range of the golden - headed lion tamarin , so it is clear that other subpopulations are subject to loss of genetic diversity over time .\nwith a long , golden lion - like mane around its face the golden - headed lion tamarin is suitably named . about the same size as a squirrel , they can grow up to 30 cm long ( females are usually slightly larger ) plus a tail of approx . 35 cm ; the body is predominantly black with golden - orange limbs and males and females are similar in appearance . they have sharp claws ( unusual in primates as most others have nails ) , and they use these for climbing and catching prey . their food consists mainly of insects and lizards , as well as soft fruit .\ngolden - headed lion tamarins are diurnal and spend most of their time in tropical forests at heights of 3 to 10 meters . they do not even come down to sleep at night . leontopithecus chrysomela sleeps in tree holes , vines , or epiphytes .\nkey research on golden - headed lion tamarins began with adelmar coimbra - filho in the early 1970s and revolved around taxonomic history , geographic distribution and habitat type . he was the first to set up a captive breeding colony of the species and was instrumental in getting the land set aside for una , where long - term research on golden - headed tamarins is still being conducted ( rylands et al . 2002b ) . russell mittermeier , james dietz , anthony rylands , and becky raboy have also contributed greatly to the current base of knowledge about wild golden - headed lion tamarins while kristel de vleeschouwer and linda van elsacker have been driving forces behind captive research ( rylands et al . 2002b ) .\ngenerally hunters in this region are either leisure hunters or subsistence hunters and though golden - headed lion tamarins are seldom hunted for food , there are a few reports that hunters kill and eat them ( oliver & santos 1991 ; dos santos & blanes 1997 ) .\nthe golden - headed lion tamarin lives only in the altantic rainforest of coastal brazil . the primary ( undisturbed ) forest is now extremely fragmented , and while these monkeys will use forest regrowth and rubber plantations where some native trees remain , they depend on old growth forest for sleeping sites . home ranges can be from 40 to 100 hectares , depending on how rich the forest is in food .\ngolden - headed lion tamarins are primarily insectivorous and frugivorous . however , they have been known to eat invertebrates such as spiders and snails . there are also records of this species eating lizards , bird eggs , and even small birds ( nowak and paradiso 1983 ) .\nconservation status and threats the iucn red list categorized the golden - headed lion tamarin as endangered in 1982 , and it remains so today . as previously stated and worth repeating , just 2 % of its original habitat remains in brazil\u2019s atlantic forest , one of the most endangered ecosystems on earth . the majority of the original forest has been cleared for farming , mining , ranching & expanding urban centers . most golden - headed lion tamarins are confined to the protected una biological reserve . surviving populations are scattered and thinly distributed . conservation efforts in 1980 the brazilian government created the una biological reserve for the protection of the golden - headed lion tamarin and its habitat . over the years the park has been slowly growing as the government acquires more land . the population at una is the largest population in the most intact forest . there is also a captive breeding colony of 25 golden - headed lion tamarins at the rio de janeiro primate center . in the early 1990s , the landowner ' s environmental protection plan was created to educate the community about the importance of protecting the forest and the tamarins . the protection plan included conservation activities on over 70 % of the neighboring farms , educating farmers on how to use sustainable agriculture in order to preserve the tamarins ' habitat . the plan also educates school children , hunters and forest guards on conservation , property rights and land use . this method of educating and involving the community has had great success for preserving the tamarin and their habitat .\nappearance , size , & weight the golden - headed lion tamarin is a beautiful little monkey with a long , thick golden to orange mane around the face , as their name implies . the body is shiny black with golden to orange limbs , hands , and feet . its long tail is black and golden . weighing in at about 17 to 25 ounces ( 500 to 700 grams ) and measuring 8 to 13 inches ( 20 to 34 centimeters ) in body length plus a 12 to 15 inch ( 32 to 40 centimeter ) long tail , females are typically the larger gender , a rather uncommon occurrence in primates . with arms and legs of similar size to each other , the golden - headed lion tamarin comfortably moves through the forest canopy quadrupedally ( on all fours ) . as all callitrichids ( the family of new world monkeys that includes marmosets and tamarins ) , their fingers are long and dexterous , and they have claws rather than nails on all but the big toe . this clawed adaptation allows them to cling to and climb trees as easily as squirrels do .\ntranslocation program , where they may pose a risk to both translocated animals and the local animals ( although there was no golden - lion tamarin in the release site , there are other primate species ) . alternatively , in cases of zoonosis , potentially presenting a risk to the human population living in the area [\nthe iucn classes the golden - headed lion tamarin as endangered . once found widely across eastern brazil , today it only survives in pockets of eastern brazil , with total numbers estimated at 6 , 000 - 15 , 000 individuals . the primary threat is the ongoing destruction of the atlantic rainforest , with an estimated 2 - 5 % of their original habitat surviving as a result of deforestation for timber , charcoal and agriculture .\nhistorically , collection for the pet trade , severe habitat loss and fragmentation were the primary threats to golden lion tamarins . habitats were destroyed to make way for sugar cane and coffee production , cattle grazing , logging , charcoal and urbanization . as a result , in the early 1970s , there were as few as 200 golden lion tamarins in the wild .\nsome information about social behaviors must be extrapolated from studies of captive golden lion tamarins ( l . rosalia ) simply because there is not enough data from wild or captive studies on golden - headed lion tamarins . though the two species are closely related and likely share a repertoire of similar behaviors , using data from golden lion tamarins should be done prudently as new research on golden - headed lion tamarins will likely reveal similarities and differences between the species . among golden lion tamarins , grooming is a major form of social activity and occurs between all family members either as they huddle in close contact during the day or evening or between pairs of individuals throughout the day ( kleiman et al . 1988 ) . adult females groom males more frequently than the reverse , and this may indicate that adult males are dominant over adult females within the group . juveniles and subadults have high frequencies of grooming neonatal infants as they are interested in the youngest group members and attempt to make contact with them as often as possible . they will also groom the infants ' mother in an attempt to get closer to the newborn ( kleiman et al . 1988 ) .\nvocalizations among golden - headed lion tamarins are based on activity and behavior . trills are used when activity is solitary . clucks can be heard while an animal is foraging . long calls indicate vigilance . whines are made when two individuals are making contact with one another ( nowak and paradiso 1983 ) .\nlike most primates , golden - headed lion tamarins are a social species , typically living in family groups of 4 to 8 individuals . they breed once a year . when threatened they will fluff up their fur to make themselves appear bigger than they really are , and this helps them ward off predators .\noliveira cr , ruiz - miranda cr , kleiman dg , beck bb ( 2003 ) . play behavior in juvenile golden lion tamarins ( callitrichidae : primates ) : organization in relation to costs .\nat the smithsonian ' s national zoo , golden lion tamarins eat fruits , carrots , sweet potatoes , green beans , hard - boiled eggs , mealworms , crickets , and a marmoset gel .\njust 2 - 5 % of the golden - headed lion tamarin\u2019s original habitat remains in brazil ( 3 ) . this species is now only found in the east of brazil , in the southern portion of bahia ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 7 ) . here , the majority are confined to the protected una biological reserve ( 3 ) . they were originally found much more widely across eastern brazil ; today , surviving populations are scattered and thinly distributed ( 7 ) .\nin the eastern half of their range , golden - headed lion tamarin habitat is characterized by wet conditions throughout the year , but in 1995 , a severe drought occurred and resulted in a serious wildfire that threatened una biological reserve ( anonymous 1995 ) . the fire was started when neighboring farmers lost control of a fire they started to help clear their fields , a common technique used in south america to clear land of growth and add nutrients to the soil before planting crops .\na striking species , golden lion tamarins are small social south america primates with a magnificent reddish - gold coat and a long , backswept mane . once down to 200 individuals in the wild , intensive conservation efforts have helped the population recover . still an endangered species , there are about 3 , 200 in the wild\u2014about a third of which are descendants of golden lion tamarins raised in human care .\ntheir sleep patterns are regular , meaning that they sleep from dusk until sunrise , oftentimes with a midday nap . golden lion tamarins sleep in tree holes for warmth and protection from predators at night .\ngolden - headed lion tamarins live in family groups of 10 or more . multi male and female groups occur in the wild . following a gestation of between 125 - 130 days the female will normally give birth to twins and as with many tamarins , older siblings and the male will take turns in baby - sitting .\ngolden - headed lion tamarins have a pretty broad communications repertoire . their vocalizations are based on activities and social interactions . long calls maintain pair bonds and signal a group ' s presence in their territory . trills are used when activity is solitary , and they cluck while foraging . when two individuals make contact , they whine .\nlike other lion tamarins , the golden - headed lion tamarin is diurnal , that is , it sleeps at night and is active during the day . they live in groups ranging from 2 to 11 individuals , averaging at 5 to 8 . groups typically consist of 2 adult males , 1 adult female , and their offspring . although less is known about the mating habits of this tamarin species , scientists assume that , like other tamarin species , they are primarily monogamous . only one female in the group breeds and , like other callitrichids , she usually gives birth to twins . any other females\u2019 reproduction is suppressed by the pheromones and dominant behavior of the breeding female . both males and females care for the young , and all group members assist in childcare . at night , they sleep in holes in trees that were created by woodpeckers and they may occupy the same nest for 6 days before moving on .\ninformation about visual communication in golden - headed lion tamarins in also limited and therefore what is known about visual signals in golden lion tamarins must be applied to the former species ( ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) . the repertoire of visual signals is limited compared to the other communication forms , but includes both postural and facial expressions that act as signals to nearby individuals ( kleiman et al . 1988 ; kinzey 1997 ) . golden lion tamarins exhibit tongue - flicking , arch - walking , tail thrashing , rump displays and piloerection in sexual and social contexts ( kinzey 1997 ; ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) . most visual signals are used during territorial encounters , social interactions , and reproductive events ( ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) .\nli z , rogers e ( 2004 ) . habitat quality and activity budgets of white - headed langurs in fusui , china .\ngolden - headed lion tamarins are one of four species of lion tamarins in the genus leontopithecus that have similar body shapes and share several common features including a lionlike mane of hair surrounding their dark brown , or black , hairless faces ( rowe 1996 ) . the golden - headed lion tamarin has black fur over its entire body except for on its head and mane , where the fur is a light to deep golden color . it also has golden fur on part of its tail , hands , feet , and forearms ( rowe 1996 ; groves 2001 ) . males and females are about the same size and weight , though a female ' s weight fluctuates more than a male ' s during certain times in the reproductive cycle . in captivity , males weigh between 540 and 700 g ( 1 . 19 and 1 . 54 lb ) and average 620 g 1 . 37 lb ) and measure , on average , 250 mm ( 9 . 84 in ) while females weigh between 480 and 590 g ( 1 . 06 and 1 . 30 lb ) and average 534 . 8 g ( 1 . 18 lb ) and measure , on average 236 . 3 mm ( 9 . 30 in ) ( rosenberger & coimbra - filho 1984 ) . based on a few specimens , wild male golden - headed lion tamarins weigh 550 g ( 1 . 21 lb ) , and the average weight of wild females is 591 g ( 1 . 30 lb ) ( leigh 1994 ; raboy 2002 ) .\nblumstein dt ( 1998 ) . quantifying predation risk for refuging animals : a case study with golden marmots .\nthe first year of life is the most difficult for golden lion tamarins ; 50 percent of infants die during this time . the remaining individuals usually live for eight years and up to 15 years in human care .\ndiet primarily a frugivore , or fruit eater , the golden - headed lion tamarin has a fairly broad diet , consuming plants , fruits , flowers , nectar , insects and small invertebrates , including include insect larvae , spiders , snails , frogs , lizards , bird eggs and small snakes . they find animal prey in the leaf litter of the forest floor , in the holes and crevices of trees , and by breaking open rotting wood to find large insects . their long hands and slender fingers are well adapted to this method of foraging . only occasionally do they supplement their diets with less nutritious gum and tree sap since their preferred foods are available year round . the golden - headed lion tamarin , like all marmosets and tamarins , plays an important role in seed dispersal . the seeds of the fruits that they consume pass through the monkeys\u2019 digestive tracts unharmed and are defecated far enough away from the parent plant to result in greater distribution of the plant species . this , in turn , regrows the forest ' s resources and ultimately feeds more animals .\ngolden - headed lion tamarins are endemic to brazil and are found in small and disjunctive areas of forest in the coastal states of bahia and minas gerais ( rylands et al . 2002a ) . they are the northernmost species of lion tamarins and are found in the very southeastern area of bahia and the extreme northeast of minas gerais within 150 km ( 93 . 2 mi ) of the atlantic coast and at altitudes below 500 m ( 1640 ft ) . the range is bound by the rio de contas in the north , the rio jequitinhonha in the south , the atlantic ocean in the east , and a change in altitude and vegetation in the west ( de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ) . the total area extends over about 19 , 000 km\u00b2 ( 7336 mi\u00b2 ) , but the forests in which they are found are highly fragmented because of land use activities including cattle ranching and cocoa cultivation . they are found in over 100 sites throughout their range , but are protected only in bahia at una biological reserve , a 94 km\u00b2 ( 36 . 3 mi\u00b2 ) area that has a golden - headed lion tamarin population of 450 individuals as of 2000 ( de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ; rylands et al . 2002a ; cruz pers . comm . ) . there are more golden - headed lion tamarins than all of the other three species combined ( l . rosalia , l . chrysopygus , and l . caissara ) , with the total wild population estimated to be between 6 , 000 and 15 , 000 individuals ( de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ) . there are about 600 golden - headed lion tamarins in captivity around the world ( rylands et al . 2002a ) .\ncontinued conservation efforts ( such as reforestation and the creation of wildlife corridors ) are essential to sustain and grow the overall population , and to ensure all of the hard work put into saving golden lion tamarins is not undone .\nanother important behavior of cooperative infant care is food provisioning . for the first four weeks , the infants exclusively nurse , but food sharing begins during week five ( tardif et al . 2002 ) . by week 12 , young golden - headed lion tamarins are being provisioned at the highest rates , and sharing will decrease over time such that by about five months of age , they are no longer being provisioned by group members ( tardif et al . 2002 ) . though there is no data from wild golden - headed lion tamarins , wild golden lion tamarin juveniles ( l . rosalia ) are provisioned until 21 months of age , and the pattern may be similar across species ( tardif et al . 2002 ) . sharing food with infants may teach them an appropriate diet and provide them with important nutrients . in younger infants , foods that are high in lipids and protein that they are unable to acquire on their own , such as insects , are shared more frequently than other types of foods . older juveniles receive a wider variety of foods , probably as a way to learn about appropriate foods ( tardif et al . 2002 ) .\nthe golden - headed lion tamarin\u2019s name describes its striking appearance perfectly . the thick , long golden to orange mane around its face is indeed reminiscent of a male lion\u2019s mane ( 3 ) . when in danger or defending its territory , this tamarin raises its fantastic mane and fluffs up its fur to give it the appearance of being bigger than it really is , whilst flicking its tongue at the intruder to scare them away ( 5 ) . females and males are very similar in appearance , as are the young , but unlike most other primates , it is the adult female that is usually larger than the adult male ( 6 ) . the body is predominantly shiny and black , with golden to orange limbs and paws , and a black and golden coloured , long tail ( 7 ) . its fore and hind limbs are similar in size , allowing it to move quadrupedally through the forest ( 6 ) . their fingers are long and dextrous and , like all callitrichids , the nails have evolved into claws on all but the big toe , which has a flattened nail , allowing them to climb in a squirrel - like fashion through the trees ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) .\nother characteristics shared by lion tamarins include the presence of claw - like nails ( called tegulae ) instead of flat nails ( called ungulae ) as seen in humans and other primates , and the tendency to give birth to twins more frequently than singletons ( sussman 2000 ) . the claw - like nails seen in golden - headed lion tamarins aid in their locomotion patterns of quadrupedal running , clinging , and leaping between trees . having nails at the ends of their fingertips instead of on top of their fingertips allows them to efficiently grip vertical surfaces and may help stabilize them on small branches ( sussman 2000 ) . the pattern of twinning that is common among golden - headed lion tamarins is an unusual characteristic for primates because of the high time and caloric investment necessary to carry and care for two infants at once . lion tamarins and other callitrichines that exhibit this pattern have evolved social organizations and behaviors that include cooperative breeding to decrease the energetic strain on the mother and increase infant survival ( sussman 2000 ) .\nthe only significant protected area in which golden - headed lion tamarins are found is una biological reserve , a 94 km\u00b2 ( 36 . 3 mi\u00b2 ) park created specifically for their protection in 1980 . though the original governmental decree was for an area of 114 km\u00b2 ( 44 . 0 mi\u00b2 ) , this amount of land was not purchased immediately and for the last 25 years , the park has been growing incrementally as the government continues to acquire land ( de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ; cruz pers . comm . ) . forests surrounding una are still relatively intact and it should be a priority to purchase them and integrate them into the biological reserve because , as it exists now , una is not large enough to support a self - sustaining population of golden - headed lion tamarins ( rylands 1993 - 1994 ; de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ) . if purchase and integration is not possible , it will be essential to work with land owners to persuade them to initiate tamarin - friendly land use patterns . existing programs to educate private land owners in the areas around the reserve should continue while corridors should be grown connecting remaining old growth forests on private lands with una forests . ( de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ; mallinson 2001 ) . the landowners ' environmental education programme began in the early 1990s and focused on educating the community surrounding the reserve about the importance of protecting not only the reserve itself but contiguous forests . on over 70 % of the farms in the area , conservation activities have been undertaken including sustainable agricultural practices that focus on preserving forests and golden - headed lion tamarin habitat ( mallinson 2001 ) . school children , farm workers , hunters , and forest guards have been involved in the education program focusing on conservation , property rights , and land use as well as developing alternative sustainable economic undertakings ( mallinson 2001 ) . as land is purchased for more forest reserves or protected areas in areas other than una , programs like this should certainly be part of the transition from private to reserve land so that communities neighboring new reserves understand the importance of their actions on the golden - headed lion tamarin ' s habitat and ultimate survival .\ninteresting fact : all lion tamarins have long fingers and sharp claws to help them catch grubs and bugs in the trees .\nfollowing the drop in cocoa prices and the spread of witch ' s broom disease , unemployment rates soared in the region surrounding una biological reserve . displaced workers swarmed to the forests , both protected and unprotected , clearing the land for subsistence agriculture because of their lack of economic prospects ( padua et al . 2002 ) . additionally , cocoa plantation owners began to cut the primary forests of the cabruca and sell the lumber to supplement income . this resulted in an increased rate of forest fragmentation both within una and in the surrounding areas and directly impacting the golden - headed lion tamarin ( padua et al . 2002 ) .\nwhile the estimate of golden lion tamarins living in the wild has continued to rise in recent years , they are still classified as endangered because their habitat remains fragmented in to small , unconnected areas , each only capable of supporting a small number of groups . this has decreased the quality of tamarin habitat and limited their ability to grow populations . without intervention , inbreeding will contribute to the local extinction of many of these small populations , and eventually the entire species .\ngolden lion tamarins live in the heavily populated atlantic coastal regions of southeastern brazil . they live in humid forests with many vines , bromeliads , and other epiphytes . they occupy the closed canopy , often remaining 29 to 100 feet ( 10 to 30 meters ) off the ground .\nthe landowners ' environmental education programme needs to incorporate information about burning fields and the potential harm that can be done to neighboring forests , especially under certain environmental conditions . while the newly established buffer zone between the reserve and other lands might decrease the chance of a fire spreading too quickly to the center of the reserve , in some situations , una , and the golden - headed lion tamarins that live there , might be subject to serious natural disasters .\nin 1972 , the zoo held a ground - breaking conference bringing together 28 european , american and brazilian biologists to save the golden lion tamarin . long - term recommendations for husbandry were developed for research and conservation activities , including support for the breeding program in brazil , studies of breeding biology , protocols for captive husbandry and management , medical programs , hand - rearing guidelines , inter - institutional cooperation and the establishment of a studbook and a data bank to record all aspects of their propagation in human care .\nboth vocal and chemical communication are important to golden - headed lion tamarin groups . because they live in tropical forests , visual communication is less important in long - distance interactions but is important in interactions between individuals that are in proximity ( ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) . the only available information about vocal and visual communication in lion tamarins is for the golden lion tamarin ( l . rosalia ) , but it is believed that similarities exist among all species of leontopithecus ( ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) . there are six discrete categories of vocalizations in golden lion tamarin communication : tonal , clucks , trills , atonal , multisyllable , and combination ( ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) . tonal vocalizations include the\nwhine\nand\npeep\ncalls and serve as alarm and affiliation calls .\nwhines\nare given in reaction to the presence of predators while\npeeps\nare sounded by solitary young after being reunited with the group or by any group member upon finding food ( kleiman et al . 1988 ; boinski et al . 1994 ; ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) .\nclucks\nsignal reaction to the presence of a novel item or are giving during foraging bouts . they also can signal aggression when golden lion tamarins encounter neighbors or intruders and are given while chasing or mobbing predators ( kleiman et al . 1988 ; boinski et al . 1994 ) .\ntrills\nhave multiple purposes but mainly serve to indicate the location of the caller to other individuals over long distances . atonal calls such as\nrasps\nor\nscreeches\nare heard mostly during playing or as playing escalates to fighting ( kleiman et al . 1988 ; boinski et al . 1994 ) . multisyllable calls include the most important vocalizations for group cohesion , the\nshort\nand\nlong calls .\nthese are typically heard as golden lion tamarins leave their sleeping sites in the morning to locate their neighbors and are heard throughout the day as individuals keep in vocal contact with other group members ( peres 1991 ; ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) . combination calls also serve multiple purposes and include\ntrill - rasps ,\ntrill - whines ,\nand\ncluck - whines .\nthese are used by juveniles begging for attention , protection , or food or by group members as they defend their territory against intruders or predators ( ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) .\neach group has one breeding pair . the breeding season is between september and march , the warmest and wettest time of year . after a gestation period of about four and a half months , the female usually gives birth to twins . golden lion tamarins are born fully furred with their eyes open . they cling to their mothers for the first few weeks . all members of the group will carry and care for the infants , but the adult male usually does the largest share . the mother only takes the babies to nurse them . after about five weeks , babies begin to explore on their own ; they are weaned at 3 months . as with golden - headed lion tamarins , sexual maturity is reached at 18 months for females and 2 years for males .\ngolden - headed lion tamarins are sympatric with three other species of primates , the black tufted - ear marmoset ( callithrix kuhli ) , the yellow breasted capuchin ( cebus xanthosternos ) , and the northern masked titi ( callicebus personatus melanochir ) . the tamarins do not compete for resources with these other species because of differences in foraging techniques at different heights of the forest and the exploitation of different animal prey ( rylands 1989 ; 1993 ) . they form mixed - species groups with the black tufted - ear marmosets and often travel together with them for the entire day . during these associations , individuals of both species use the same pathways in the canopy , forage side - by - side in fruit trees , and coordinate periods of travel and rest ( raboy 1998 ) . golden - headed lion tamarins and black tufted - ear marmosets both utilize fruit as a major food resource and both are small and vulnerable to a number of predators . this interesting pattern of association is probably beneficial to both species in foraging benefits and increased detection of , and safety from , predators ( raboy 1998 ) . because of their excellent skills as insect foragers , golden - headed lion tamarins often facilitate the capture of insects by other species as well . birds like the white - fronted nunbird and the woodcreeper follow behind the tamarins as they forage in microhabitats and capture insects that are flushed out of bromeliads ( raboy 1998 ; hankerson et al . in press ) .\ngolden lion tamarins are small monkeys , weighing 17 to 24 ounces ( 482 to 680 grams ) and measuring 6 to 10 inches ( 15 to 25 centimeters ) in length with a tail of about 12 to 15 inches ( 32 to 40 centimeters ) . males and females are similar in appearance and size .\nwith records of over 100 localities where l . chrysomelas still occur through the region bounded by the rio de contas in the north and the rio jequitinhonha in the south , more populations remain than of all the other three lion tamarin species combined . however , the remaining forests are being destroyed at an unprecedented rate for the region and the populations surviving are seriously depleted and fragmented . an important aspect which has contributed to the more favourable situation of the golden - headed lion tamarin is the traditional and fairly widespread use of the \u201ccabruca\u201d system for shading cacao trees . some of the original canopy trees are left standing , and this allows for connectivity between forest patches . if well managed , this could be an important management tool for future conservation efforts . threats to golden - headed lion tamarins come from socio - economic transformations resulting from the difficulties of the cocoa industry ( low prices and disease epidemics ) , that have dominated the region over the last 15 years , resulting in the expansion of alternative crops , notably african palm oil and coconuts ( alger and caldas 1994 ) . in the west of its range , the forest is increasingly destroyed and fragmented as a result of cattle ranching ( pinto 1994 ; pinto and rylands 1997 ) . a study by dietz et a l . ( 2000 ) examined inbreeding depression in small ( 50 or less ) isolated populations of l . rosalia . they concluded that it reduced probability of long - term survival by about one - third . there is every reason to believe that inbreeding depression is likewise prejudicial to the isolated populations of l . chrysomelas , most especially in the western half of its range where forest fragmentation is extreme ( pinto and rylands , 1997 ) .\nin the early 1980s , large numbers of golden - headed lion tamarins were illegally exported from brazil to countries like belgium , france , french guiana , and japan in order to supply the booming pet trade and exotic animal collectors ( mallinson 2001 ; rylands et al . 2002a ; b ) . the brazilian environmental agency ibama concentrated efforts on recovery of illegally exported tamarins and , in 1986 , was able to begin a captive breeding colony with seized animals ( mallinson 2001 ) . the large numbers of recovered animals helped establish a genetically diverse founder population from which to begin captive breeding programs in brazil , europe , japan , and the united states ( ballou et al . 2002 ) . seizures of golden - headed lion tamarins continue today , though not nearly at as high of a rate as was seen in the 1980s . the international demand for these animals as pets still exists , and though it is not nearly as high , coupled with the other threats to the population , it may affect the future potential of the population to survive .\nlike other lion tamarins , golden - headed - lion tamarins are diurnal . they feed mainly on fruits , and play an important role in seed dispersal . they also feed on flowers and nectar ( 2 ) , and prey on small animals such as frogs , snails , lizards and spiders , and may opportunistically feed on gums , saps and latex from trees ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . animal prey is found in the forest floor litter and in the trees , in holes and crevices , and by breaking rotting wood to find large insects ( 6 ) ( 8 ) . their long hands and slender fingers help with this method of foraging ( 3 ) ( 5 ) .\nadministrators of una biological reserve continue to confiscate illegally kept golden - headed lion tamarins and , in 1999 , the captive population was over 600 individuals ( ballou et al . 2002 ) . one effort to decrease the number of animals taken as pets or killed for food is education . when poachers or hunters are encountered , they receive information about the importance of conservation and the brazilian laws that forbid the activity ( padua et al . 2002 ) . this simple message has been successful in decreasing hunting rates by 50 % according to ibama ( dos santos & blanes 1997 ; padua et al . 2002 ) . not only are hunters directly confronted if caught , education programs for all land owners and community members have been aimed at educating people about the endemism present in nearby the forests ( dos santos & blanes 1997 ) . armed with information about conservation of their unique surroundings , community members begin to see golden - headed lion tamarins not as food or a potential source of income , but as an important part of the ecosystem and part of the local heritage .\nthere are no external signs of ovulation , therefore reproductive females attract attention from breeding males by presenting their rumps toward the male and slightly lifting the tail . the male responds to this behavior by inspecting and sniffing the female ' s genitals , evaluating her attractiveness and reproductive status ( de vleeschouwer et al . 2000 ) . the highest occurrence of sexual behavior is during the peak of female receptivity , and once a female conceives , gestation lasts about four months ( 129 days ) ( french et al . 2002 ) . golden - headed lion tamarins exhibit birth seasonality even though they live in an area in which resources are equally abundant year - round . most births occur from october through april and there is a significant absence of births from may to september ( bach et al . 2001 ) . most primates that exhibit birth seasonality do so because reproductive events are energetically expensive , and to maximize likelihood of infant survival , breeding , birth , and lactation occur during times of high resource abundance ( sussman 2000 ) . golden - headed lion tamarins seem to exhibit birth seasonality in accordance with photoperiod . this may be an adaptation because there may be behavioral advantages of raising offspring during longer days ( bach et al . 2001 ) . in captivity , golden - headed lion tamarins can have one or two litters per year but in the wild they usually only have one per year ( de vleeschouwer et al . 2001 ) . rates of twinning are similar in captivity and in the wild , with more than half of the births resulting in twins rather than singletons ( bach et al . 2001 ) .\nhaving a healthy predator population within una is essential for the functioning of the ecosystem , but other efforts to decrease golden - headed lion tamarin mortality have been undertaken . current studies require that habituated animals be captured every six months to replace radio transmitter batteries . at this semiannual event , veterinary care is provided for the animals as a routine way to check their health and evaluate any concerns ( dietz et al . 1996 ) . by monitoring the health of the animals over time , changes can be noted and care can be provided in certain circumstances . monitoring and attempting to provide care for sick tamarins is an expensive and relatively futile process compared to eliminating sources of inbreeding depression that might cause certain individuals to be at higher risk for health problems . it is essential that una does not become an island of forest , cutting off dispersing golden - headed lion tamarins from entering new territories , starting new groups , or immigrating into the breeding position of existing groups . efforts to connect patches of forest throughout the range will increase the likelihood of gene flow in the population and will help to decrease the chances of the loss of genetic diversity ( dietz et al . 1996 ) . currently , studies to evaluate and prioritze areas for forest linkage are underway and will hopefully lead to management strategies and eventual reconnection of forest fragments ( raboy pers . comm . ) ."]}
{"id": 2398, "summary": [{"text": "cadlinidae is a family of sea slugs , dorid nudibranchs , marine gastropod mollusks in the superfamily doridoidea .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this family is within the clade euctenidiacea .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "molecular phylogenetic studies and their taxon-sampling schemes can have a strong influence of the resulting phylogeny .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "research by r.f. johnson in 2011 has shown that cadlina does not belong to the family chromodorididae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "she has therefore brought back the name cadlinidae from synonymy with chromodorididae .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "she also included the genus aldisa bergh , 1878 in the family cadlinidae . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "cadlinidae", "paragraphs": ["which taxonomic groups does the family cadlinidae belong to and what are the different cadlinidae genus ? below , you will find the taxonomic groups the family cadlinidae belongs to and the taxonomic tree with all the different genus .\nwhich are the most common photographed cadlinidae genus ? below , you will find the list of genus commonly photographed by underwater photographers .\nclade euthyneura clade nudipleura clade nudibranchia clade euctenidiacea clade doridacea | superfamilia = doridoidea | familia = cadlinidae | familia _ authority = bergh , 1891 | diversity _ ref = | diversity _ link = diversity of gastropods | diversity = 2 genera | type _ genus = cadlina bergh , 1878 | synonyms _ ref = | synonyms = cadlinidae is a family of . . .\naldisa bergh , 1878 ( taxonomy source ) aldisidae odhner , 1939 accepted as cadlinidae bergh , 1891 ( source of synonymy ) cadlina luarna ( er . marcus & ev . marcus , 1967 ) ( basis of record ) cadlina rumia er . marcus , 1955 ( additional source ) cadlinidae bergh , 1891 ( status source ) chromodorididae bergh , 1891 ( taxonomy source ) chromodoris magnifica ( quoy & gaimard , 1832 ) ( additional source ) doridoidea rafinesque , 1815 ( taxonomy source ) inuda er . marcus & ev . marcus , 1967 accepted as cadlina bergh , 1879 ( source of synonymy ) inuda luarna er . marcus & ev . marcus , 1967 accepted as cadlina luarna ( er . marcus & ev . marcus , 1967 ) ( source of synonymy ) inudinae er . marcus & ev . marcus , 1967 accepted as cadlinidae bergh , 1891 ( source of synonymy ) miamira bergh , 1874 ( source of synonymy ) orodoris bergh , 1875 accepted as miamira bergh , 1874 ( basis of record ) orodoris miamirana bergh , 1875 accepted as miamira miamirana ( bergh , 1875 ) ( source of synonymy )\na . \u2018phylogenetic scenario\u2019 for the chromodorid genera modified from [ 5 ] , [ 26 ] . b . morphological phylogeny of generic representatives for the chromodorididae [ 13 ] . c . combined 16s and coi phylogram of the chromodorididae from [ 27 ] . d . combined 16s and coi phylogram of the chromodorididae and cadlinidae from [ 28 ] . rudman ' s \u2018 chromodoris group\u2019 in red , \u2018 hypselodoris group\u2019 in blue , cadlinella in yellow , diversidoris ( not included in [ 5 ] , [ 13 ] , [ 26 ] ) , cadlina in grey and other dorids in black .\ngenus acanthochila m\u00f6rch , 1868 accepted as cadlina bergh , 1879 ( placed on the official index of rejected names by iczn opinion 812 ( bulletin of zoological nomenclature ( 1967 ) 24 : 91 . ) )\ngenus echinochila m\u00f6rch , 1869 accepted as cadlina bergh , 1879 ( placed on the official index of rejected names by iczn opinion 812 . ( bulletin of zoological nomenclature ( 1967 ) 24 : 91 . ) )\nbouchet p . & rocroi j . - p . ( 2005 ) . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia . 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 isbn 3 - 925919 - 72 - 4 . page ( s ) : 41 [ details ]\njohnson r . f . ( 2011 ) breaking family ties : taxon sampling and molecular phylogeny of chromodorid nudibranchs ( mollusca , gastropoda ) . zoologica scripta 40 ( 2 ) : 137 - 157 . [ details ]\n( of inudinae er . marcus & ev . marcus , 1967 ) bouchet p . & rocroi j . - p . ( 2005 ) . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia . 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 isbn 3 - 925919 - 72 - 4 . page ( s ) : 92 [ details ]\n( of inudinae er . marcus & ev . marcus , 1967 ) johnson r . f . ( 2011 ) breaking family ties : taxon sampling and molecular phylogeny of chromodorid nudibranchs ( mollusca , gastropoda ) . zoologica scripta 40 ( 2 ) : 137 - 157 . [ details ]\n( of echinochilidae odhner , 1968 ) bouchet p . & rocroi j . - p . ( 2005 ) . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia . 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 isbn 3 - 925919 - 72 - 4 . page ( s ) : 261 [ details ]\n( of aldisidae odhner , 1939 ) bouchet p . & rocroi j . - p . ( 2005 ) . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia . 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 isbn 3 - 925919 - 72 - 4 . page ( s ) : 22 [ details ]\n( of aldisidae odhner , 1939 ) johnson r . f . ( 2011 ) breaking family ties : taxon sampling and molecular phylogeny of chromodorid nudibranchs ( mollusca , gastropoda ) . zoologica scripta 40 ( 2 ) : 137 - 157 . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncadlina bergh , l . s . r . , 1878 type species : cadlina repanda alder , j . & a . hancock , 1842\ncadlinella thiele , j . , 1931 type species : cadlinella ornatissima risbec , j . , 1928\nchromocadlina odhner , n . h . j . in franc , a . , 1968 type species : chromocadlina panamensis odhner , n . h . j . in franc , a . , 1968\nhans - martin braun added the english common name\nyellow - margin dorid\nto\ncadlina luteomarginata mcfarland , 1966\n.\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nglatte prachtsternschnecke\nto\ncadlina laevis ( linnaeus , 1767 )\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ngenus : aldisa l . s . r . bergh , 1878 ( syn : adisa - db : 22 sp , 13 img )\ngenus : cadlina l . s . r . bergh , 1878 ( syn : acanthochila , echinochila , ectinochila , juanella , inuda - db : 25 sp , 10 img )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ncadlina ( sea - slugs ) ( e . g . figures a - b )\nthe web - pages on this web - site are generated from an underlying database . these can be cited as\nrespectively . whilst great care is taken to accurately identify specimens featured on this web - site and to allocate all records to the most appropriate taxonomic names available , no guarantee is offered that all identifications are accurate , nor that the taxa to which they have been allocated are currently valid . commentaries on habitat , distribution and biology are also subject to change as new information comes to light . if you have any enquiries , or any comments that will help improve the content or appearance of these pages , then please follow the links from ' contact ' on the left - hand panel .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\njohnson r . f . ( 2011 ) breaking family ties : taxon sampling and molecular phylogeny of chromodorid nudibranchs ( mollusca , gastropoda ) .\nfamily ceratosomatidae gray , 1857 accepted as chromodorididae bergh , 1891 ( under art . 23 . 9 , declared nomen oblitum by bouchet & rocroi , 2005 )\nsubfamily doriprismaticinae h . adams & a . adams , 1858 accepted as chromodorididae bergh , 1891 ( under art . 23 . 9 , declared nomen oblitum by bouchet & rocroi , 2005 )\nbouchet p . & rocroi j . - p . ( 2005 ) . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia . 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 isbn 3 - 925919 - 72 - 4 . [ details ]\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\ntotes les fotografies i textos son propietat dels seus autors i estan protegits per la llei de propietat intel\u00b7lectual . qualsevol \u00fas no autoritzat d\u2019aquest material pot comportar conseq\u00fc\u00e8ncies per l\u2019infractor .\n\u00a9 vimar 2012 - 2018 vimar \u00e9s un grup d ' estudis marins sense \u00e0nim de lucre . si vols col\u00b7laborar amb nosaltres , contacta ' ns . comprova la nostra pol\u00edtica de privacitat .\nla nostra p\u00e0gina web utilitza cookies . en accedir a les nostres planes i acceptar aquest missatge , consentiu expl\u00edcitament l ' \u00fas de cookies .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncitation : johnson rf , gosliner tm ( 2012 ) traditional taxonomic groupings mask evolutionary history : a molecular phylogeny and new classification of the chromodorid nudibranchs . plos one 7 ( 4 ) : e33479 . urltoken\neditor : jonathan h . badger , j . craig venter institute , united states of america\ncopyright : \u00a9 2012 johnson , gosliner . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : this work was supported by the california academy of sciences , the university of california santa cruz - department of ecology and evolutionary biology , the national science foundation deb 9978155 and deb 0329054 to tg , and an encyclopedia of life rubenstein fellowship to rj . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nnew collections ( from this contribution and [ 28 ] in blue . genbank specimens in red . size of circle represents number of specimens collected in each region . specimen details in supplementary table s1 ) .\nthe goals of this contribution are : ( 1 ) generate a phylogeny that tests the species level relationships of the chromodorid nudibranchs and confirms the monophyly of the chromodorididae , ( 2 ) assess the phylogenetic validity of the chromodorid genera , and ( 3 ) propose a new classification for the chromodorid nudibranchs that reflects their relationships .\nin this study and a companion study [ 28 ] , thanks to targeted collecting trips , dedicated collectors and dna extracted from museum collections , we were able to include specimens from throughout the indo - pacific ( ip ) , the eastern pacific ( ep ) and west atlantic ( wa ) ( figure 2 and table s1 ) . we use the term indo - pacific to define the biogeographic region including the tropical and subtropical regions of the indian ocean ( from the red sea to the east coast of south africa ) and both the western and central pacific , but not the tropical eastern pacific [ 40 ] . museum collections are an invaluable resource for biodiversity studies [ 41 ] . we have found existing natural history collections can reduce the need for additional collecting . our study , combined with data from [ 28 ] and genbank , is unique in its wide taxonomic and geographic sampling . because we have included both the type species of every genus and additional species of all 14 of the non - monotypic genera , we can test the monophyly every genus in the family ( table s1 ) .\nwe directly sequenced 142 specimens representing 106 species . we combined these new data with all available sequences on genbank ( table s1 ) . specimens and data from johnson [ 28 ] , genbank accession numbers beginning with eu , are included with new data for figure 2 , but are not treated as new in the numbers of specimens sequenced for this study . in total , we analyzed data from 244 chromodorid specimens , four actinocyclid species and four additional dorid nudibranch species for a total of 165 species and 252 individual specimens . we used doris kerguelensis as the outgroup based on preliminary analyses [ 28 ] . the chromodorid species include at least one species from all of the genera currently classified in the family chromodorididae . the number of species included in this analysis compared to the number of described species per genus is as follows : ardeadoris ( 2 / 2 ) , cadlinella ( 2 / 3 ) , ceratosoma ( 9 / 13 , two undescribed ) , chromodoris ( 50 / 88 , two undescribed ) , digidentis ( 3 / 4 ) , diversidoris ( 1 / 1 ) , durvilledoris ( 3 / 4 ) , glossodoris ( 17 / 30 , two undescribed ) , hypselodoris ( 30 / 59 , two undescribed ) , mexichromis ( 7 / 12 ) , noumea ( 12 / 22 ) , pectenodoris ( 2 / 2 ) , risbecia ( 3 / 5 ) , thorunna ( 8 / 12 ) , tyrinna ( 2 / 2 ) and verconia ( 1 / 1 ) ( s1 ) . all sequences taken from genbank are listed with gb following the species name . we also included coi sequence from two specimens from the moorea biocode project in our analyses ( urltoken ) . we have examined all of the new specimens included here and they are deposited in natural history museums , as indicated by catalog numbers . we never combined sequences from different individuals into chimeras representing one species ; specimens included in these analyses are treated as individuals .\nthe majority of the specimens used in this study are part of the california academy of sciences invertebrate zoology ( casiz ) collection . we had the permission of casiz to take tissue samples from specimens for dna analysis . as stated in the casiz collections policy : \u2018no specimens will be accessioned without adequate labeling , collection notes , field notes , or other locality information , nor without appropriate legal documentation ( collecting permits , export permits from country of origin , etc . ) when applicable . \u2019 we also included dna extracted for five specimens currently deposited in the museum national d ' histoire naturelle ( paris museum ) and the western australian museum . these tissues samples were collected during joint field trips under the agreement that the tissue could be sequenced at the california academy of sciences , while the specimens would remain at the respective museum . all other data used is from genbank or the moorea biocode database .\nmost of our samples were collected especially for molecular work and were preserved accordingly , either in 95 % etoh , sed buffer ( saturated nacl solution with edta and dmso ) or frozen . in addition to the specimens collected specifically for molecular study , we were also able to use museum material that was , either preserved in 70\u201375 % etoh or the original fixation method is unknown .\nthe cleaned , pcr products were copied and labeled with fluorescently dye - terminators ( big dye 3 . 1 abi ) in 10 \u00b5l reactions . each reaction contained 0 . 5\u20132 \u00b5l of cleaned pcr product , 1 . 63 \u00b5l of 5\u00d7 reaction buffer , . 5 \u00b5l of primer ( 10 mm stock ) , 0 . 5 \u00b5l\u20130 . 75 \u00b5l of big dye and water to 10 \u00b5l . these reactions were run on a perkin elmer 9600 - geneamp pcr system or a biorad mycycler\u2122 thermocycler ( software version 1 . 065 , bio - rad laboratories ) . the resulting labeled , single stranded dna was precipitated by addition of 2 . 5 \u00b5l of edta and sequential washing and pelleting in ( centrifuge details ) with 100 % and then 70 % etoh . the pelleted dna was denautured for two minutes at 94\u00b0c in 13\u201315 \u00b5l of hidi formamide ( applied biosystems ) . the denatured , labeled dna fragments were sequenced in both directions on the abi 3100 and 3130 genetic analyzer in the center for comparative genomics ( formerly the osher laboratory for molecular systematics ) at the california academy of sciences .\nwe assembled , edited and removed primer strands from forward and reverse strands for each gene fragment sequenced using sequencher ( ver . 4 . 7 . genecodes corporation ) and genious 3 . 0 - 5 . 3 . 3 ( biomatters ) . we aligned the coi sequences by eye and translated the base pair data into amino acids to using macclade 4 . 08 [ 46 ] to confirm alignment accuracy . we aligned 16s sequences with muscle [ 47 ] . we then further optimized the alignments by eye using both macclade [ 46 ] and genious 3 . 0 - 5 . 3 . 3 ( biomatters ) .\nwe tested for saturation or multiple substitutions at the same site by plotting the absolute number of transitions and transversions at each codon position ( 1 st , 2 nd , 3 rd ) for coi and at each base pair for 16s against both uncorrected p distance and log det using paup [ 48 ] and excel ( plots not shown ) .\nsequence data for both genes was not obtained for every specimen we studied . we worked with two main data sets , because we wanted to test the effect of missing data on the resulting phylogeny : the two data sets were : 1 ) combined 16s and coi for specimens with sequence data for both genes , 2 ) all 16s and coi data for all specimens ( table s1 . ) both of these data sets were analyzed both including and excluding variable characters in the 16s alignment . for all of these analyses we used doris kerguelensis as the outgroup .\nwe know from the discovery of polyphyletic and paraphyletic generic groupings in chromodoris , glossodoris , hypsleodoris , mexichromis and noumea [ 27 ] , [ 28 ] , that the current classification of the chromodorididae does not reflect the evolutionary history of the group . we cannot continue to use this current classification . we will use the resulting phylogenies to propose a new classification of the chromodorid nudibranchs . the proposed new classification is based on several fundamental tnets of phylogenetic classification . only clades are named , with two exceptions described below . each clade contains the type species of the name - bearing clade . exisiting , available names are utilized wherever possible to minimize the disruption to nomenclature , while simultaneously reflecting relationship . we will identify clades that include the type species of each chromodorid genus and delineate genera to minimize conflict with current classification and support recognition of interesting morphology . the translation of phylogenetic hypotheses into classifications is the best way to communicate results to a larger community , but even as the number of molecular phylogenies increases , the number of new classifications is decreasing [ 54 ] \u2013 [ 56 ] . the growing phylogeny / classification gap is troubling . phylogenies are hypotheses of relationship and communicating these new hypotheses is one of the main contributions systematics can make to the scientific community .\nthe sequenced coi fragment is 658 base pairs ( bp ) long . the edited 16s sequences are 531 bp long . the combined data sets with gaps introduced for alignment are 1189 base pairs long . all sequences are available from genbank coi ( jq727822\u2013jq727914 ) , 16s ( jq727689\u2013jq727821 ) and aligned data matrices are available upon request from the corresponding author . excluded variable 16s regions are identified as character sets in all nexus files . saturation was not found in the 16s fragment or the first or second positions of the coi fragment . there is slight saturation in the third position transitions in the coi data set ( not shown ) . the third positions were included in the bayesian analysis as the partitioning allows the parameters of this position to be estimated separately and the inclusion of the third positions did not change the resulting trees . the recommended model of evolution ( aic form mr . model test ) was used to set parameters in mr . bayes for each partition . the resulting best - fit model of evolution for each partition using the aic selection from mr . modeltest ver . 2 [ 78 ] were coi 1 st : gtr + g , coi 2nd : trn + i + g , coi 3 rd : gtr + i + g and 16s : gtr + i + g . these models correspond to the following settings in mr . bayes ; all partitions set to nst = 6 and rates = invgamma except for the coi second codon position partition which was set rates = gamma .\nthe figured trees are the resulting consensus phylograms from the bayesian analyses ( figures s1 , s2 ) . all posterior probabilities are shown above the branches on the bayesian phylograms . tree topology was not altered with the inclusion or exclusion or the 16s fragment ' s variable regions ( see figure s2 for comparison of trees with and without variable regions ) . the resulting phylogenetic hypotheses for each dataset are summarized below . we will discuss relationships in terms of posterior probabilities .\ncoi and 16s combined analysis : including only specimens with data for both genes ( figure s1 ) .\nthis data set included 164 individual chromodorids , representing 123 species , three species of actinocyclidae , four other dorids . the outgroup was doris kerguelensis . the data set included was 1189 bases long included gaps introduced to aid in alignment of variable regions . all bases are included . in the majority rule consensus phylogram resulting from the bayesian analysis , the chromodorids are monophyletic ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . they are sister ( pp = 0 . 98 ) to the monophyletic actinocyclids ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . cadlinella ornatissima is sister to the rest of the chromodorids ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . the monophyletic tyrinna ( pp = 1 . 00 ) is poorly supported as sister to the main clade of chromodorids ( pp = 0 . 82 ) . the main clade of all chromodorids , except cadlinella and tyrinna is supported ( pp = 0 . 85 ) . two clades of noumea ( both pp = 1 . 00 ) are part of a basal polytomy with the clade including the remaining chromodorid species ( pp = 0 . 89 ) . a well - supported clade ( pp = 1 . 00 ) containing some species of glossodoris is poorly supported at the base of the chromodorid grade . within this main clade of chromodorids , there is one very well supported clade , which includes all species of ceratosoma , durvilledoris , hypselodoris , mexichromis , pectenodoris , risbecia , thorunna and some digidentis ( pp = 1 . 00 ) diversidoris aurantionodulosa and noumea crocea are sister species ( pp = 1 . 00 ) and poorly supported ( pp = 0 . 78 ) as sister to a poorly supported clade ( pp = 0 . 66 ) that includes this well - supported clade and chromodoris alternata and chromodoris ambiguus ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . there is also a poorly supported clade ( or grade if the clade is collapsed ) of smaller clades made up of species of ardeadoris , chromodoris , diversidoris , glossodoris , noumea , verconia and one species of digidentis ( pp = 0 . 67 ) . of the other 12 non - monotypic traditional genera , seven ( ceratosoma , chromodoris , digidentis , glossodoris , hypselodoris , mexichromis , noumea ) are non - monophyletic and three ( durvilledoris , pectenodoris , risbecia ) are monophyletic but render another genus paraphyletic . both ardeadoris and thorunna are made paraphyletic by nested members of other genera ( noumea , glossodoris - within ardeadoris and digidentis - within thorunna ) . there are three species and five clades of eastern pacific and / or atlantic species .\nthis data set included 244 individual chromodorids , representing 157 species , four species of actinocyclidae , four other dorids . the outgroup was doris kerguelensis .\nthe complete data set included 1189 bases . the chromodorids are monophyletic ( pp = 0 . 94 ) . they are sister to the monophyletic actinocyclids ( pp = 0 . 98 ) . a clade including both species of cadlinella is sister to the rest of the chromodorids ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . the monophyletic tyrinna ( pp = 1 . 00 ) is poorly supported as sister to the main clade ( pp = 0 . 83 ) . there are two clades containing species of noumea and the one species of verconia ( pp = 1 . 00 and pp = 1 . 00 ) that form a polytomy with the clade of all of the remaining chromodorids ( pp = 0 . 85 ) . within the main clade of chromodorids , there is one very well supported clade , which includes all species of ceratosoma , durvilledoris , hypselodoris , mexichromis , pectenodoris , risbecia , thorunna and some digidentis ( pp = 1 . 00 ) and a grade of clades of species ardeadoris , chromodoris , diversidoris , glossodoris , noumea , verconia and one species of digidentis . of the other 12 non - monotypic traditional genera , seven ( ceratosoma , chromodoris , digidentis , glossodoris , hypselodoris , mexichromis , noumea ) are non - monophyletic and three ( durvilledoris , pectenodoris , risbecia ) are monophyletic but render another genus paraphyletic . both ardeadoris and thorunna are made paraphyletic by nested members of other genera ( noumea , glossodoris and digidentis ) ( figure 3 ) . more detailed results found within each clade will be discussed below . there are three individual species and five clades of eastern pacific or atlantic species ( figure 4 ) . the data set without variable regions included 1108 bases . there are only slight changes to the tree topology , including slight losses of support and changes to branching pattern in the species relationships within four clades containing species of noumea , glossodoris , chromodoris and thorunna . additionally , some clades are more well - supported in the phylogram without variable regions , most notably there is some support for the two noumea clades as sisters . all of these differences are mapped in mirrored trees ( figure s2 ) .\ntree is the same bayesian phylogram as figured in s3a . all specimens , both genes and all characters included .\ntree is the same bayesian phylogram as figured in s3a . all specimens , both genes and all characters included . blue = indo - pacific , red = atlantic and caribbean , gold = eastern pacific , green = sister group , black = outgroups . dark grey = solely eastern pacific and atlantic clades . light grey = primarily indo - pacific clades with eastern pacific members .\nour classification is based on our coi and 16s combined phylogeny with all specimens included ( figure s2a ) . the older name that describes this clade , ceratosomatidae gray 1857 [ 61 ] was declared nomen oblitum under art . 23 . 9 of the international code of zoological nomenclature [ 58 ] . even though it is older than the name in current usage , chromodorididae , it had not been used in over fifty years . in the phylogeny of the chromodorid nudibranchs , there are five basal clades : cadlinella , tyrinna , two clades made up of some species of noumea and verconia and one clade made up of some species of glossodoris . there is one , main , well - supported clade including species of ceratosoma , hypselodoris , and grade of clades . we will briefly introduce each clade and its member species in the context of a new classification for chromodorid nudibranchs ( figure 5 , s2a , s3 ) .\nthe two species of cadlinella included here , cadlinella ornatissima and cadlinellla subornatissima form a clade and are sister to the rest of the chromodorid species ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . these findings support previous results [ 27 ] , [ 28 ] and rudman ' s evolutionary scenario [ 5 ] , [ 26 ] . the widespread indo - pacific genus , cadlinella is an enigmatic taxon . it has at different times been considered it own separate family [ 64 ] , a part of the cadlininae [ 65 ] and a member of the chromodoridinae / chromodorididae [ 26 ] , [ 66 ] .\ncadlina burnayi ortea , 1988 [ 68 ] = t . nobilis [ 69 ]\nthe only two species of tyrinna : t . evelinae and t . nobilis are included here . tyrinna is always monophyletic ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . after the split from cadlinella , this clade is poorly - supported as the sister group to the main group of chromodorids ( pp = 0 . 83 ) . rudman [ 26 ] suggested that tyrinna , cadlinella and cadlina form a basal grade of primitive chromodorids . cadlina had been shown not to be a chromodorid [ 28 ] , but our results support rudman ' s suggestion that tyrinna and cadlinella are basal to the rest of the chromodorids . muniain et al [ 70 ] and schr\u00f6dl and millen [ 71 ] extensively reviewed the morphology of the two species in this clade .\nverconia verconis is well supported as part of a clade that includes n . haliclona , n . laboutei , n . romeri and n . simplex ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . noumea varians , n . purpurea and n . norba form a well - supported clade ( pp = 1 . 00 ) that is not part of a name bearing clade , but is one branch of the polytomy that includes the \u2018noumea sensu stricto\u2019 and the branch leading to the rest of the family ( pp = 0 . 88 ) . the monotypic genus verconia is nested within the noumea clade as suggested by rudman [ 75 ] and weakly supported as the sister species to another south australian species , n . haliclona , as found in the preliminary results shown by turner & wilson [ 27 ] .\ntype species : doris xantholeuca ehrenberg , 1831 [ 76 ] = g . pallida ( by subsequent designation )\nthe glossodoris clade ( pp = 1 . 00 ) includes species g . pallida and g . rufomargninata . in an important , but often overlooked detailed examination of the relationships of the species classified in the genus glossodoris , rudman identified five subgroups of this genus based on morphology [ 77 ] . the species in this glossodoris clade were considered by rudman [ 77 ] to be members of the \u2018 glossodoris pallida subgroup\u2019 . this clade also includes two species he did not include in any subgroup , g . cincta and g . hikuerenesis .\nlissodoris odhner , 1934 [ 80 ] . type species : l . mollis odhner , 1934 ( = c . aureomarginata cheeseman , 1881 [ 86 ] ( by monotypy )\nthis clade includes all of the indo - pacific species of chromodoris that are not part of the black - lined , planar egg mass clade ( pp = 1 . 00 ) , except chromodoris alternata and chromodoris ambiguus . this phylogeny is the first to find definitive support for a clade of chromodorids , first suggested by wilson [ 16 ] and turner and wilson [ 27 ] known to lay egg masses with extra - capsular yolk . when pease designated doris vibrata as the type species for the new genus goniobranchus , he should have changed the ending of vibrata to vibratus to reflect the masculine gender of the \u2013us ending . we have made that correction here and changed the gender of all of the species names that require changing ( names derived from adjectives ) in goniobranchus .\ncasella h . & a . adams , 1858 : 57 [ 84 ] . type species : c . gouldii h . & a . adams , 1858 [ 84 ] ( by monotypy )\nspecies included in the glossodoris atromarginata subgroup [ 77 ] are recovered in this clade , with the addition of g . sedna and digidentis kulonba ( pp = 0 . 95 ) .\nthis name will be used for all eastern pacific and atlantic species of chromodoris and glossodoris ( except glossodoris sedna ) . these species form a polytomy including glossodoris baumanni and three clades of atlantic and eastern pacific chromodorids .\nchromodoris clenchi , c . norrisi and c . sphoni ( pp = 1 . 00 )\nchromodoris krohni , c . luteorosea and c . purpurea ( pp = 0 . 78 )\nthese exclusively eastern pacific and atlantic clades do not form a monophyletic group , but we will provisionally name all of these species \u2018felimida\u2019 . this is the most conservative choice , the choice that requires the fewest name changes and is the least disruptive pending further information and broader taxon sampling .\nthe ardeadoris clade includes both species of ardeadoris : a . egretta and a . scottjohnsoni , five species of glossodoris ( g . averni , g . pullata , g . rubroannulata , g . tomsmithi and glossodoris undaurum ) and noumea angustolutea ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . . based on their analysis , turner and wilson [ 27 ] suggested that with more sampling it would be come clear if ardeadoris should be synonmized with glossodoris . by sampling more broadly within the family , we found the converse . four species of glossodoris and noumea angustolutea need to be included within ardeardoris because they are strongly supported as part of the clade including ardeadoris egretta and not the type species of glossodoris . three of the species , g . averni , g . undaurum and g . rubroannulata , found in this clade were part of rudman ' s glossodoris sedna subgroup [ 77 ]\nthis clade includes all of the black - lined species of chromodoris and chromodoris aspersa ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . this clade was identified by , both wilson & lee [ 17 ] and turner & wilson [ 27 ] , as the planar spawning or black - lined chromodoris clade . all of the members of this clade lay flat egg masses .\ntype species : diversidoris aurantionodulosa rudman , 1987 [ 89 ] ( by original designation ) .\nthe diversidoris includes , diversidoris aurantionodulosa , two yellow species of noumea , n . crocea and n . flava , and a new species from moorea , french polynesia - chromodoridae biocode 2937 ( pp = 0 . 95 ) .\nthe miamirinae clade includes all of the species currently classified as ceratosoma , durvilledoris , hypselodoris , mexichromis , pectenodoris , risbecia , thorunna and two species of digidentis ( pp = 1 . 00 )\nthis clade was first predicted by rudman [ 26 ] based on morphological similarities and then confirmed by rudman & berquist ' s [ 5 ] finding that all of the species in this clade feed exclusively on sponges of the family dysideaidae , although they assumed all of the genera to be monophyletic . miamirinae bergh 1891 is the oldest appropriate and available subfamily or family name for this clade . the remaining six genera ; miamira , ceratosoma , felimare , mexichromis , thorunna and hypselodoris make up the miamirinae .\nthe miamira clade includes the following species ( as currently classified ) ceratosoma alleni , ceratosoma magnificum , ceratosoma miamiranum , ceratosoma sinuatum . miamira is part of a grade with ceratosoma . the morphological phylogeny of species of ceratosoma and classified as miamira and orodoris , that was used as justification for their synonomy , predicted a sister group relationship between species of miamira and ceratosoma alleni [ 93 ] . our results confirm that c . alleni is more closely related to species of miamira , but do not find support for synonymy of miamira and ceratosoma . although , it is possible this relationship will be recovered with further sampling and by including molecular markers that will help resolve basal branches on the phylogeny .\nthe ceratosoma clade includes c . amoenum , c . gracillimum , c . ingozi , c . tenue , c . trilobatum and a new species . ( pp = 1 . 00 )\nthe felimare clade includes all eastern pacific , atlantic and mediterranean species of hypselodoris and two species of mexichromis , m . porterae and m . kempfi from the eastern pacific and caribbean respectively ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . both gosliner and johnson [ 13 ] and alejandrino and vald\u00e9s [ 31 ] hypothesized a sister group relationship between the indo - pacific and eastern pacific / atlantic species of hypselodoris . turner and wilson [ 27 ] did not recover that relationship , but instead found the same relationships shown here .\nthis clade includes the type species of mexichromis , m . antonii , known only from the eastern pacific and the three included species of durvilledoris , d . lemniscata , d . pusilla and d . similaris , the two described species of pectenodoris , p . aurora and p . trilineata and all of the indo - pacific species currently considered mexichromis , m . festiva , m . macropus , m . mariei and m . mutituberculata ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . there are two well - supported clades within the mexichromis clade . the clade including mexichromis antonii and the species of durvilledoris is sister to the clade including pectenodoris and indo - pacific mexichromis . these clades could be given two names , but it is much less disruptive and confusing to maintain the name mexichromis for all clade members . the clade including p . aurora and p . trilineata can be called the \u2018 pectenodoris \u2019 clade of mexichromis .\nthe thorunna clade includes all species of thorunna and two species of digidentis , d . arbutus and d . perplexa . all of species currently classified as thorunna are found in the indo - pacific and the species of digidentis are limited to southern australia . as suggested by rudman [ 26 ] , the only species within thorunna with mantle glands , t . australis and the species of digidentis ( all of which have mantle glands ) form a clade .\nthis clade includes all of the indo - pacific species of hypeslodoris and risbecia ( pp = 1 . 00 ) .\nspecies of risbecia s . s forms a well - supported clade nested within hypselodoris and can be referred to as the risbecia clade of hypselodoris . risbecia aplogema is not part of this risbecia clade and was previously considered a species of hypselodoris . including all of the members of the risbecia and hypselodoris bullocki clade in risbecia is not an option because this would render hypsleodoris paraphyletic . the second clade includes , h . bennetti , h , maritima , h . bertschi , h . paulinae , h . kaname , h . bollandi , h . obscura , h . infucata , h . zephrya and one or two new species . the third clade includes h . reidi , h . krakatoa , h . jacksoni and one new species . this clade was also recovered in gosliner & johnson ' s [ 13 ] morphological phylogeny of hypselodoris .\nthe enigmatic south australian species , chromodoris alternata and c . ambiguus are very different than other chromodorids . they are two of the five chromodorid species with a plesiomorphic serial reproductive system ( c . loringi , c . thompsoni , c . woddwardae ) [ 26 ] , [ 28 ] , [ 89 ] . all five of these species are found only in southeastern australia . these species were found to be more closely related to cadlina than chromodoris by wilson & lee [ 17 ] , but as part of the chromodorid grade in turner & wilson [ 27 ] . clearly further work on this group and its relationship to all cryptobranchs is needed . the addition of specimens of c . loringi , c . thompsoni and c . woodwardae [ 26 ] , [ 89 ] , [ 99 ] , the only other chromodorid species known to have a serial reproductive system may help solve this problem . these two species are always each other ' s closest relatives and are sister to the rest of the miamirainae in the all analyses . as suggested by dayrat & gosliner [ 60 ] they should be considered chromodorididae , because they are not included in a named clade . until the ambiguity of the relationship of these taxa to other chromodorids can be resolved , they should be considered chromodorididae alternata and chromodorididae ambiguous .\nin future contribtuions , we will work out synapomorphies for the clades identified here , but because of the amount of homoplasy and number of incomplete descriptions , this is a huge undertaking and not appropriate here .\nin summary , with the most comprehensive sampling of chromodorid species to date , we confirmed that the chromodorids are monophyletic and are sister to the monophyletic actinocyclids . we also found that the majority , 12 / 14 non - monotypic traditional genera , were not monophyletic or make another clade paraphyletc . seven traditional genera , ceratosoma , chromodoris , digidentis , glossodoris , hypselodoris , mexichromis , noumea are non - monophyletic and three ( durvilledoris , pectenodoris , risbecia ) are monophyletic but render another genus paraphyletic . both ardeadoris and thorunna are made paraphyletic by nested members of other genera ( noumea , glossodoris and digidentis ) . the two monotypic genera , diversidoris and verconia are nested within clades . only tyrinna and cadlinella are monophyletic and without disruption to any other clades ( figure 3 , s1 , s2 ) . the classification proposed here and discussed at length above renames clades and is more consisitent with evolutionary history ( figure s3 ) .\nthe most speciose chromodorid genera : chromodoris , glossodoris and hypselodoris were originally created to describe indo - pacific species . it wasn ' t until some time after these names were created that previously described , similar , brightly colored cryptobranch dorid species found in the eastern pacific , western atlantic and mediterranean were added to these genera [ 1 ] , [ 26 ] , [ 65 ] , [ 95 ] , [ 102 ] , [ 103 ] . in mexichromis the opposite is true . the type species , mexichromis antonii , was described from the eastern pacific and indo - pacific species were included later included in this genus [ 26 ] , [ 95 ] . other eastern pacific \u201c mexichromis \u201d are shown here to belong to felimare .\nthis new classification clarifies our view of biogeographic patterns in the chromodorid nudibranchs . instead of taxonomy obscuring patterns of diversification in this group , this taxonomy reflects and reinforces evolutionary history . it gives us a much better framework for exploring evolutionary questions .\nthe majority of chromodorid nudibranchs are found in the indo - pacific , but there are three individual species and five clades of solely atlantic and / or eastern pacific species ( figure 4 ) . the sister group to the rest of the chromodorids , cadlinella is found only in the indo - pacific , while the sister to the chromodorididae , the actinocyclidae is found in most temperate and tropical waters . although there are other possibly scenarios , such as trans - pacific dispersal and migration around africa , the pattern uncovered here , strongly supports the simplest hypothesis that the chromodorids diversified rapidly from the tropical tethyan realm . this pattern has been found in other gastropod groups [ 104 ] \u2013 [ 108 ] ( figure 4 ) . the chromodorids were likely widely distributed and different lineages diversified in isolation following vicariant events . this scenario is further supported by the fact that goniobranchis is sister to \u2018 doriprismatica \u2019 and its closest realitves and that all the memebers of goniobranchus are indo - pacific . also in this scenario , the specimens identified as d . sedna from the atlantic and eastern pacific appear to be distinct species as indicated by coi pairwise distances of 11 . 7\u201311 . 0 % between eastern pacific and altantic specimens while the three eastern pacific specimens are 0\u20130 . 7 % different from each other . this scenario clearly supports vicariance between the indo - pacific and eastern pacific and atlantic preceding the vicariance between the eastern pacific and atlantic . in the main chromodorid grade of clades there are two individual species and three clades that are exclusively atlantic and / or eastern pacific . specimens identified as \u2018 doriprismatica\u2019 sedna found both in the eastern pacific and the western atlantic , are always sisters and are nested within a clade of exclusively indo - pacific species . this is most likely a radiation into the eastern pacific and atlantic from the indo - pacific . the remainder of the atlantic and eastern pacific species , not included in the miamirinae , are part of a polytomy including five clades , three containing only eastern pacific and atlantic species of \u2018felimida\u2019 and the indo - pacific ardeadoris and chromodoris clades . \u2018felimida\u2019 baumanni , found in the eastern pacific , is also part of this polytomy . the relationships in this grade need to be examined more closely with the addition of more specimens and more genes .\nrelationships within the miramirinae clade are more resolved . there are two clades that include eastern pacific and atlantic species . the felimare clade is exclusively eastern pacific and atlantic . there are two eastern pacific and atlantic splits in this clade , the eastern pacific f . porterae and caribbean f . kempfi are potentially geminate species and are sister to a larger clade of eastern pacific , caribbean and eastern atlantic felimare species . more sampling is needed in this clade to further untangle the emergent biogeographic patterns within felimare . additionally , within the miamirinae , the eastern pacific species , mexichromis antonii , is sister to the exclusively indo - pacific m . lemniscata , m . pusilla and m . similaris and this clade is sister to the rest of the indo - pacific mexichromis . within the miamirinae , it appears that there had been more than one dispersal event from the indo - pacific , to eastern pacific and atlantic . ceratosoma and miamira species are only found in the indo - pacific and adjacent temperate regions . the sister taxon , the clade including : felimare , mexichromis , thorunna and hypselodoris , has a wider distribution . within this sister taxon , felilmare is exclusively eastern pacific and atlantic while its sister species in its sister taxon mexichromis , thorunna and hypselodoris are almost exclusively indo - pacific and adjacent temperate regions . mexichromis antonii , which is found in the eastern pacific , is the only speices in this clade not found in the indo - pacific or adjacent regions . thus , felimare and mexichromis antonii represent two distrinct invasions of the eastern pacific from the indo - pacific .\nwe hope the work presented here will serve as a starting point for further research into the evolutionary history of the chromodorid nudibranchs . this phylogeny is based only on mitochondrial genes , one of our first next steps will be to include sequences from nuclear genes for all of the species included here . the addition of more slowly evolving unlinked markers should help resolve some poorly supported node at the base of the phylogenies presented here and will add a separate line of evidence to this hypothesis . addtionally , morphological synapomorphies need to be found for the clades recoverd in this phyogeny . there is still much work to do in order to untangle the evolutionary history of this group . this phylogeny and classification is a start that will allow us to use names that represent monophyetic groups as the starting point for future discovery .\nthe electronic version of this document does not represent a published work according to the international code of zoological nomenclature ( iczn ) , and hence the nomenclatural acts contained in the electronic version are not available under that code from the electronic edition . therefore , a separate edition of this document was produced by a method that assures numerous identical and durable copies , and those copies were simultaneously obtainable ( from the publication date noted on the first page of this article ) for the purpose of providing a public and permanent scientific record , in accordance with article 8 . 1 of the code . the separate print - only edition is available on request from plos by sending a request to plos one , public library of science , 1160 battery street , suite 100 , san francisco , ca 94111 , usa along with a check for $ 10 ( to cover printing and postage ) payable to \u201cpublic library of science\u201d .\ntable of specimens used in this study . specimens used in this study listed by family . the names in this table reflect current classification not proposed classification ( new names are listed in the text ) . abbreviations are as follows : casiz = california academy of sciences , sam = south australian museum , wam = western australian museum , am = australian museum , zsm = zoologische staatssammlung m\u00fcnchen , sio - bic = scripps institute of oceanography , biocode = moorea biocode project .\nnew classification of the chromodorididae with synonyms . generic names and type species in bold and the most recent genus membership follows . listing order follows phylogeny .\nbayesian consensus phylogram including all specimens with data for both genes . posterior probabilities are listed above branches . doris kerguelensis is the outgroup . this phylogram is the consensus of 50 , 000 , 000 generations with trees sampled every 1000 generations with a burnin of 25 % . data was partitioned by gene and by codon position .\nbayesian consensus phylograms including all specimens . a . phylogram resulting from the inclusion of all characters b . phylogram resulting from excluding hard to align characters . doris kerguelensis is the outgroup . these phylograms are the consensuses of 50 , 000 , 000 generations with trees sampled every 1000 generations with a burnin of 25 % . data was partitioned by gene and by codon position . dotted lined indicate areas of disagreement .\n\u00e1ngel vald\u00e9s , don potts , nudibranch central at cas , especially marta pola , yolanda camacho , jamie chan and benoit dayrat , the potts lab ucsc , the center for comparative genomics at cas , especially josh hallas , boni cruz , susie lockhart , monica medina , kristy deiner , kristen cella , alessandra lopez , anna sellas and brian simison . a work of this scope is a true collaboration and would have been impossible with the dedication and knowledge of : cory pittman , pauline fiene , robert bolland , scott johnson , inbio and yolanda camacho , lucas cervera , larry harris , alicia hermosillo , yvonne valles , benoit dayrat , mike miller , hans bertsch , marta pola , goncalo caladao , shireen fahey , patrick krug , manuel malquias , correy whisson of wam , lindsay groves of lacm , moorea biocode project , philippe bouchet and census of marine life - pangolo and santo expeditions .\nconceived and designed the experiments : rfj tmg . performed the experiments : rfj . analyzed the data : rfj . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : tmg . wrote the paper : rfj . conceptualized and wrote the new classification : tmg rfj .\nedmunds m ( 1981 ) opishtobranchiate mollusca from ghana : chromodorididae . zoological journal of the linnean society 71 : 175\u2013201 .\nspecies ( gastropoda : nudibranchia ) ultrastructure and chemical analysis of mantle dermal formations ( mdfs ) . marine biology 106 : 245\u2013250 .\n( opisthobranchia , chromodorididae ) . journal of molluscan studies 72 ( 2 ) : 214\u2013216 .\nrudman wb , berquist pr ( 2007 ) a review of feeding specificity in the sponge - feeding chromodorididae ( nudibranchia : mollusca ) . molluscan research 27 ( 2 ) : 60\u201388 ."]}
{"id": 2407, "summary": [{"text": "holoptychius is an extinct genus of porolepiform lobe-finned fish from the middle devonian to carboniferous ( mississippian ) periods .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is known from fossils worldwide .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the genus was first described by louis agassiz in 1839 . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "holoptychius", "paragraphs": ["holoptychius bergmanni sp . nov . ( sarcopterygii , porolepiformes ) from the upper devonian of nunavut , canada , and a review of holoptychius taxonomy\ntitle : the porolepiform holoptychius jarviki author : illustration by philippe janvier sources : parc national de miguasha year : 2002 description : the porolepiform holoptychius jarviki , as drawn by philippe janvier .\nholoptychius cf . nobilissimus agassiz : luk\u0161evi\u010ds & zupin\u0161 , 2004 , lk . 108 , joon .\ntitle : reconstruction of the porolepiform holoptychius jarviki author : illustration by fran\u00e7ois miville - desch\u00eanes sources : parc national de miguasha year : 2000 description : reconstruction of the porolepiform holoptychius jarviki found at miguasha .\nwhat made you want to look up holoptychius ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\ntitle : holoptychius jarviki author : parc national de miguasha sources : parc national de miguasha year : 2002 description : the type specimen of the porolepiform holoptychius jarviki was discovered at miguasha by the american paleontologist william patten in 1912 . it is kept at the american museum of natural history in new york city .\nosteichthyes huxley , 1880 ; sarcopterygii romer , 1955 ; porolepiformes jarvik , 1942 ; holoptychius agassiz , 1839 figs . 2a - c , 3a - c .\nnew material from the upper devonian ( frasnian ) fram formation of ellesmere island , nunavut , canada , represents the second holoptychiid ( porolepiformes ) species to be described from the formation . the quality of preservation and preparation of the material enables description of underrepresented anatomy for holoptychius including the braincase ( ethmosphenoid and otico - occipital ) . the new species of holoptychius is diagnosed by , a quadrate articulation positioned on the lingual surface of the lower jaw , the presence of a marginal tooth field on all three coronoids , and the presence of a third mandibular sensory canal located dorsal to the infradentary foramina . traditional use of the name holoptychius has resulted in an overabundance of species . in recent years , efforts have been made to re - diagnose holoptychius according to discrete cranial features rather than more widely distributed aspects of scale morphology . the new species is diagnosed as holoptychius without any scales attributed to it with this new description , the recent nunavut paleontological expeditions continue to expand the fram formation ' s diverse vertebrate fauna , one that additionally includes the elpistostegalian tiktaalik roseae .\nalong with eusthenodon gavini , the sarcopterygians yarimba thomsoni , grenfellia meemanae and holoptychius sp . are also present . holoptychius is known only from its very distinct scales ; a second scale morphology is also present which may be similar to scales recently identified from estonia . grenfellia meemanae is known only from a partial shoulder girdle . the ornament covering the external bony surface of this girdle is very unusual and more reminiscent of a placoderm ornament .\n1896 . charles lyell and john wesley judd . the student ' s lyell : a manual of elementary geology . , page 389 . . . fish have been found abundantly , and have been referred to holoptychius nobilissimus . . .\nholoptychius seems to have been a particularly widespread genus of lobe - finned fish . \u202d \u202clike relative genera , \u202d \u202cthe body was streamlined with most of the fins in a more rearward placement on the body . \u202d \u202cthe scales were fairly large and round , \u202d \u202cand the tail was asymmetrical with an upper lobe far more greatly developed than the lower . \u202d \u202cbecause fish are driven by a\u202d \u202crearward propulsion of the tail they have a tendency to nosedive into the depths , \u202d \u202cbut the effect is magnified far greater if the upper lobe of the tail is more strongly developed . \u202d \u202cto counter this effect , \u202d \u202cthe pectoral fins\u202d ( \u202cthe forward pair near the head\u202d ) \u202care angled to act as hydroplanes to counter this down pitching . \u202d \u202cthe pectoral fins of holoptychius are particularly large suggesting that holoptychius were particularly fast swimmers .\nthe distinctive scale of this large lobe - fin fish has recently been found at red hill . evidently rare at the site , holoptychius fossils are common in late devonian rock elsewhere in pennsylvania , and , along with the antiarch placoderm bothriolepis , are characteristic of fossiliferous localities belonging to the sherman ' s creek member of the catskill formation .\nholoptychius is a widely distributed member of the porolepiformes , a group of medium to large lobe - fins primitively related to lungfishes ; porolepis , glyptolepis and laccognathus are also members of this group . porolepiforms were present in some marine deposits , but were most common in estuarine and freshwater habitats . their sluggish appearance has led some scientists to conclude they were ambush predators .\nbiogeographic relationships of the grenfell fauna and eastern australia during the late devonian were largely based on the distribution of the sinolepidae . taxa such as the sarcopterygians eusthenodon and holoptychius are well known from european and north american localities , but so far , not described from china . this may be due to the small number of sarcopterygians described , and future work may show that these taxa are also known from china .\nin 1858 a remarkably fine holoptychius andersoni was met with in the fish - bed ; and this , with many other specimens , fully bears out agassiz\u2019s conjectures for completing the form and details of the fish where his materials had been insufficient . dr . anderson thinks that the supine position of the holoptychii is of rare occurrence ; he has observed them usually to lie on their side . h . andersoni and h . flemingii are regarded by the author as specifically one , as he has not been able , in the numerous holoptychii that he has seen , to regard as distinct the differences pointed out in the descriptions of these two reputed species .\nscientists who famously discovered the lobe - finned fish fossil tiktaalik roseae , a species with some of the clearest evidence of the evolutionary transition from fish to limbed animals , have described another new species of predatory fossil lobe - finned fish from the same time and place . by describing more devonian species , they ' re gaining a greater understanding of the\nfish - eat - fish world\nthat drove the evolution of limbed vertebrates . dr . ted daeschler of drexel university and the academy of natural sciences of drexel university describes this new species he co - discovered in the canadian arctic . read more about this new species , holoptychius bergmanni , at urltoken\nbooks : fenton , c . l . and m . a . fenton . 1958 . the fossil book : a record of prehistoric life . garden city , new york : doubleday & company , inc . janvier , p . 1996 . early vertebrates . oxford : claredon press long , j . a . 1995 . the rise of fishes : 500 million years of evolution . baltimore & london : john hopkins univ . press . scientific papers : maisey , j . g . 1996 . discovering fossil fishes . new york : henry holt & co . image credits : the reconstruction of holoptychius is copyrighted \u00a9 . ( see terms of use . ) it was based on fenton and fenton ( 1958 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nfurther reading - \u202d \u202ca synopsis of the classification of the british palaeozoic rocks , \u202d \u202cwith a systematic description of the british palaeozoic fossils . fasciculus\u202d \u202c3 , \u202d \u202cmollusca and palaeozoic fishes\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202cf . \u202d \u202cm ' coy\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202c1855 .\ncontent copyright www . prehistoric - wildlife . com . the information here is completely free for your own study and research purposes , but please dont copy the articles word for word and claim them as your own work . the world of prehistory is constantly changing with the advent of new discoveries , as such its best if you use this information as a jumping off point for your own research . privacy & cookies policy\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under cc by - nc licence .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nparent taxon : asterolepididae according to d . k . elliott et al . 2000\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nother lobefins , including an unidentified lungfish , a juvenile rhizodont ( c . f . , sauripterus ) , red hill rhizodont , red hill megalichthyidid , and hyneria lindae were also found at red hill . you can also learn more about lobe - fin fishes .\nlast updated : july 9 , 2005 . ( see about this site . ) questions or comments should be sent to sorry , you need javascript on to email me . \u00a9 2005 dennis c . murphy . ( see terms of use . )\n, is one of the rare porolepiform species whose the entire body is known ; more than half the other species , about thirty in all , have only been identified by their scales .\nis known at various stages of growth , just like the other porolepiforms at miguasha , with specimens ranging from 8 . 5 to 47 cm long .\nthe fossils are often preserved in three dimensions , and the most beautiful example , discovered by william patten a century ago , is kept at the american museum of natural history in new york city .\nis recognized by its strongly epicercal tail and rounded fins ( except for the pectoral fin which has a stretched leaf - like shape ) that are equipped with a very fleshy scale - covered lobe at their base .\n, pays homage to the swedish professor erik jarvik ( 1907 - 1998 ) , who dedicated a large part of his life to studying sarcopterygian fossils from the escuminac formation .\nattained considerable size by the end of the upper devonian based on 6 - to 10 - cm wide scales left behind by some species .\nlove words ? you must \u2014 there are over 200 , 000 words in our free online dictionary , but you are looking for one that\u2019s only in the merriam - webster unabridged dictionary .\nthe story of an imaginary word that managed to sneak past our editors and enter the dictionary .\ntake this quiz and discover 12 words for things you didn ' t know had words .\nneil shubin ( u . chicago ) : finding tiktaalik , the fossil link between fish and land animals\nthis entry needs a photograph or drawing for illustration . please try to find a suitable image on wikimedia commons or upload one there yourself !\nthis entry lacks etymological information . if you are familiar with the origin of this term , please add it to the page per etymology instructions . you can also discuss it at the etymology scriptorium .\nthis page was last edited on 22 january 2016 , at 00 : 25 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nfrom southern new brunswick , canada , adds a new locality to eastern north america and suggests the assignment of a late devonian age for the kennebecasis formation . the formation has been considered early carboniferous based on a plant assemblage including\n. plant fossils likely originate from rocks overlying the kennebecasis formation , and are part of an unmapped westward extension of the carboniferous albert formation to the saint john area . the palaeobiogeographic implications of\nsuggest the cryptic presence of a classic late devonian fish assemblage in southern new brunswick and the possibility that tetrapod or near - tetrapod remains may be recovered from fossil - bearing horizons within the kennebecasis formation .\ndans le sud du nouveau - brunswick , canada , ajoute un nouvel emplacement dans l\u2019est de l\u2019am\u00e9rique du nord et permet d\u2019attribuer l\u2019\u00e2ge du d\u00e9vonien tardif \u00e0 la formation de kennebecasis . la formation \u00e9tait consid\u00e9r\u00e9e comme une unit\u00e9 du carbonif\u00e8re pr\u00e9coce d\u2019apr\u00e8s un assemblage v\u00e9g\u00e9tal comprenant le\n. les fossiles v\u00e9g\u00e9taux proviennent probablement de roches recouvrant la formation de kennebecasis et font partie d\u2019un prolongement non cartographi\u00e9 de la formation carbonif\u00e8re d\u2019albert en direction ouest jusqu\u2019\u00e0 la r\u00e9gion de saint - jean . les r\u00e9percussions pal\u00e9obiog\u00e9ographiques de la manifestation de l\u2019\nlaissent supposer la pr\u00e9sence cryptique d\u2019un assemblage de poissons classique du d\u00e9vonien tardif dans le sud du nouveau - brunswick et la possibilit\u00e9 d\u2019une r\u00e9cup\u00e9ration de restes de t\u00e9trapodes ou de quasi - t\u00e9trapodes des horizons fossilif\u00e8res \u00e0 l\u2019int\u00e9rieur de la formation de kennebecasis .\nbailey and matthew 1872 ) is late devonian in age . we provide a description of this new specimen identified as\n. 1985 ; barr and white 2004 ) . formation information can be found on - line in the lexicon database , bedrock nomenclature of new brunswick . we consider the plant fossils used to date the kennebecasis formation as carboniferous ( bell 1927 ; 1960 ) are not from this formation . the rocks yielding plant fossils originate from an overlying formation that may be an unmapped westward extension of the carboniferous albert formation to the saint john area . the occurrence of\nrepresents the only fossil known from the kennebecasis formation redbeds . given an otherwise absence of fossils from the kennebecasis formation , age determinations are extremely difficult . consequently , this discovery carries significant interest for stratigraphers and vertebrate palaeontologists .\nin southern new brunswick suggests the cryptic presence of a classic late devonian fish assemblage , in particular suggesting the possibility of finding arthrodire and antiarch placoderms and tristichopterid sarcopterygians ( schultze and cloutier 1996 ) , though none have been found to date . the vast majority of devonian tetrapod localities are known to also yield remains of\nthe kennebecasis formation is a poorly dated clastic sedimentary sequence from southern new brunswick that unconformably overlies neoproterozoic and early paleozoic rocks ( fig . 1 ) . the kennebecasis fault separates the kennebecasis formation from early silurian rocks of the kingston group to the northwest and a fault separates neoproterozoic and cambrian rocks to the southeast ( barr and white 1998 , 2004 ) . the kennebecasis formation refers to a sequence of conglomerates and coarse - grained sandstones on the shores of the confluence of the saint john and kennebecasis rivers in southern new brunswick , canada ( williams\nin the kennebecasis formation , kennebecasis island , new brunswick ( 1 ) . plant localities reexamined for this study ( 2 , 3 ) and geological survey of canada sites reported for plants ( 4 ) and\n( 5 ) are likely early carboniferous age . kennebecasis formation indicated as currently mapped .\nthe relationship of the kennebecasis formation to the memramcook formation to the east is uncertain . the memramcook formation is dated as fammenian to tournaisian and may be in part laterally equivalent to the late devonian to early carboniferous albert formation . recent maps show the kennebecasis formation as younger than the memramcook formation ( barr and white 2004 ) ; however , it may be equivalent to the lowest part of the memramcook formation .\nthe specimen described here was found on kennebecasis island in the red sandstones of the kennebecasis formation ( fig . 1 , locality 1 ) . the age of the kennebecasis formation ( williams\n. 1985 ) as described by hayes ( 1927 ) and hayes and howell ( 1937 ) , has been based on plants found in grey to brown siltstone and sandstone ( fig . 1 , localities 2\u20134 ) . the early carboniferous age was determined by bell ( 1927 , 1960 ) who used the plants to compare it to the horton group in nova scotia . the most recent geology maps place the kennebecasis formation as middle lower carboniferous ( mcleod\n. 1994 ; currie 1997 ; barr and white 2004 ) or as part of a late devonian - carboniferous package ( barr and white 1998 ; mcleod and johnson 1999 ) , and it is clear that the age is still uncertain . the discovery of a fossil vertebrate , here identified as\nsp . , suggests a late devonian age , approximately equivalent to the escuminac formation of gasp\u00e9 ( miguasha ) and the perry formation of southwestern new brunswick . this age determination disagrees with the early carboniferous age based on plants ( bell 1960 ) .\nwe argue below that the plant fossils are not from the kennebecasis formation as originally described by bailey and matthew ( 1872 ) . a review of plant and arthropod fossils , our preliminary field studies , and early descriptions of the history of the mapping of the formation suggest that the kennebecasis formation , as defined ( bailey and matthew 1872 ; hayes 1927 ; alcock 1938 ; williams\n. 1985 ) , does not include the plant and arthropod - bearing strata previously described from kennebecasis island ( copeland 1957 ; bell 1960 ) and the milkish head area ( matthew 19 ) . the fossiliferous outcrops on the north shore of kennebecasis island ( fig . 1 , locality 2 ) ( wilson 1914a , b ; bell 1960 ) and at polly sams point ( fig . 1 , locality 3 ) on milkish head ( nbm collection ) that contain a\nflora ( matthew 19 ; wilson 1914a ; bell 1960 ) and conchostracan remains ( copeland 1957 ) may be part of the albert formation , not currently recognized in the saint john area . further mapping will be required to determine the position of the plant - bearing beds . however , we tentatively retain them as early carboniferous and predict that the plant - bearing beds are at least equivalent in age to the albert formation and overlie red conglomerates and sandstones of the kennebecasis formation . early suggestions by ells ( 1906 ) that the kennebecasis rocks ( the red conglomerate - sandstone typical of the kennebecasis formation ) are overlain by grey plant - bearing beds of lower carboniferous age , would seem to agree with this and will require observations from a direct geologic contact .\nalmost all of the early work aimed at determining the age of the kennebecasis formation was published in annual reports of the geological survey of canada with little detail concerning fossil locations . the most recent survey map ( currie 1997 ) does not include the most notable fossil locations represented by gsc site numbers . preliminary field assessment to discover plant localities described from the early 1900\u2019s suggest these localities are silty grey beds exposed on the north shore of the island ( fig . 1 , locality 2 ) and brown sandstone beds at polly sams point and sea dog cove on milkish head ( fig . 1 , locality 3 ) . plant - bearing beds on the north shore of kennebecasis island contain abundant plant fragments in a fine - grained rippled unit , typical of the albert formation further west near norton ( falcon - lang 2004 ) . similarly ,\nrecovered at polly sams point and the flora identified by g . f . matthew from \u2018milkish\u2019 ( new brunswick museum collection ) are also typical of the albert formation . \u2018milkish\u2019 samples likely originated from outcrops on the mainland at milkish head or west of kennebecasis island ( fig . 1 , locality 4 ) . the new brunswick museum collections also include a single , partial fish fossil from\nmilkish , n . b .\n. the specimen ( nbmg 3085 ) , from a brown sandy sediment , belongs to an actinopterygian cf .\n, also typical of the albert formation fauna at norton ( miller and mcgovern 1997 ) and albert mines ( lambe 1910a ) . however , the material consists of only a patch of articulated scales and a partial median fin , and so is not very diagnostic . nevertheless , all these specimens come from a greenish grey siltstone that is consistent with the lithology of albert formation beds , and are therefore of dubious provenance in the kennebecasis formation .\ncomprise red sandstone interbedded with coarse , angular conglomerate typical of the kennebecasis formation . so far plants have not been recovered in these sandstone beds , with\nexamination of the red sandstones of the kennebecasis formation over the past 20 years by one of us ( rfm ) has failed to produce any fossil material . generally considered unfossiliferous , the sandstone and conglomerate units of the kennebecasis formation have been largely unexplored for fossils . field work in 2005 ( rfm ) resulted in a single locality producing vertebrate remains in a red sandstone interbedded with conglomerate . the specimen is reposited in the new brunswick museum palaeontology collection ( nbmg ) .\nmaterial : nbmg 13038 ( new brunswick museum ) , a dis - articulated skeleton ( fig . 2a ) preserved mostly as a natural mould , consisting of isolated left and right dentaries , patches of scales ( fig . 2b , c ) , an isolated maxilla , left and right cleithra , left entopterygoid , gular plates and several dermal skull bones , most likely representing a single individual . the individual elements are well - preserved showing pit - lines , sensory canal pores , complete teeth and an unbroken denticle field on the entopterygoid . the dermal bones are ornamented by coarse , evenly distributed , raised tubercles of variable size .\nlocality : minor fine - grained sandstone unit of the kennebecasis formation , approximately 1 meter above the contact with a coarse conglomeratic facies , southeastern shore of kennebecasis island , new brunswick , canada ( 45\u00b019 . 108n ; 66\u00b008 . 624w ) .\nsp . from the kennebecasis formation of southern new brunswick . approximately 75 to 100 scales preserved on the block . scale = 10 cm . b ) close up of dentary . scale = 1 cm . c ) close up of scales adjacent to dentary . scale = 1 cm . abbreviations : de . , dentary ; gu . , gular plate ; sc , area of scales indicated by arrows .\nthe specimen ( fig . 3a - c ) can be confidently assigned to the genus\non the basis of its unique and highly characteristic scale morphology ( \u00f8rvig 1957 ) in combination with a number of other distinctive skull and postcranial characters that indicate both sarcopterygian and porolepiform identity . the scales of nbmg 13038 are comparable to those of\nsp . from the kennebecasis formation of southern new brunswick . largest part showing disarticulated partial skeleton ( a ) ; partial counterpart ( b ) ; close - up of two scales seen in a ( c ) . scale = 3 cm . abbreviations : clth . , cleithrum ; de . , dentary ; entp . , entopterygoid ; gu . , gular plate ; id . 4 , fourth infradentary ( surrangular ) ; ? sq . , possible squamosal ; tu . cr , tubercle crescent .\nsp . from east greenland ( jarvik 1972 ) . by contrast with the tightly spaced vermicular ornament of\nfrom that assemblage , the ornament on the cleithrum of nbmg 13038 consists of more shallow , irregular pits . the element is unornamented in the region corresponding to the postbranchial lamina . the ventral lamina is anteroposteriorly short , tapering ventrally along its anterior margin where it bears a narrow overlap for the clavicle . interestingly , this margin is somewhat concave , in contrast with that observed in\nfrom miguasha ( cloutier and schultze 1996 ) . rather , it is somewhat similar to specimens from east greenland described by jarvik ( 1950 ) .\n, and bears a similar anterior dentary lamina that likely supported a tooth whorl ( jarvik 1972 ) . this character is now considered to be a generalized feature of basal sarcopterygians as evidenced by the presence of a similar dentary lamina and accompanying internasal cavity in a number of putative stem - sarcopterygians ( zhu\n. 1999 , 2001 ; zhu and yu 2002 ) and onychodonts ( see long 2001 ) . this is a feature expected to be observed in\na single fourth infradentary is present and can be identified on the basis of a v - shaped pit line and notch in its anteroventral margin , corresponding to the margin of the infradentary foramen . such foramina are known in the holoptychiid porolepiforms\nspecimens ( ahlberg 1991 ) and some stem - group sarcopterygians ( zhu and schultze 1997 ; yu 1998 ; zhu and yu 2004 ) . however , the overall morphology of the bone is identical to that known for\nthe gular plate ( fig . 3 , gu . ) is a triangular bone , broadest posteriorly and tapering anteriorly . its proportions are broader than those described for\nby jarvik ( 1972 ) , but difficult to evaluate by comparison to the material from miguasha . the median overlap surface of the gular is much broader than in other\nspecimens and forms a distinctly concave margin into the ornamented portion of the bone . the dermal ornament is not evenly distributed over the surface , but rather is coarsest posteromedially . anteriorly , the tubercles are finer and more widely spaced . laterally , they are more densely spaced , and gradually get finer towards the posterior - most angle of the bone .\nthe entopterygoid is very well though incompletely preserved . it is essentially indistinguishable from that of other\nafter making comparisons to recent work on the perry formation by david white , ells ( 1906 , p . 131 ) stated\none of the most important of the changes made in the geological work about st . john is the transference of the dark red conglomerates and sandstones of kennebecasis bay , several miles north of the city , from the lower carboniferous to the devonian\nfrom their previous position published in 1879 ( bailey\n. 1880 ) . ells ( 1908 ) noted the devonian age of the kennebecasis rocks again in his report for 19 as he laid out the results of continued mapping in southern new brunswick .\ninterest in the kennebecasis fossils continued for a few years as summary reports for the years 1906 , 1908 ( wilson 1909 ) and 1909 ( lambe 1910b ; wilson 1910 ) list several collections made by geological survey of canada personnel . henri ami added 50 fossils from kennebecasis island to the survey collections in 19 ( whiteaves 1908 ) ; robert ells , lawrence lambe and william wilson added kennebecasis island and milkish creek area fossils ( part of a lot of 2 , 000 specimens ) in 1909 . wilson ( 1914a ) described the plant assemblage found earlier on kennebecasis island and identified by matthew to include\n. although matthew described the plant assemblage as devonian , white ( p . 408 , in wilson 1914a ) who received a small collection to examine , believed that\nthe plant fragments you sent represent , almost without a doubt , a basal lower carboniferous flora . . . . . . dr . matthew , on the other hand , refers these rocks to the upper devonian\n. white thought only one species of\ncould be identified . wilson ( 1909 , p . 184 ) described his collecting for 1908 at kennebecasis island in\nrocks forming the western part of this island are grey sandstones , grits and shales : dipping n . 20\u00b0 , w . at an angle of 58\u00b0 . the shale is mostly fine - grained , greenish grey , breaking in places into irregular concoidal pieces . these shaly beds contain many fern stems , cordaites , lepidodendra , fronds of ferns and separate pinules in good state of preservation .\n. wilson then spent two weeks at moosehorn creek collecting in the albert formation . he compared the kennebecasis island specimens to those found further east at moosehorn creek , a site within the albert formation ( falcon - lang 2004 ) .\nour examination of the plant fossil locality on the north side of kennebecasis island agrees with the determination by white ( in wilson 1914a ) and bell ( 1960 ) , that specimens represent an early carboniferous assemblage and that the rocks containing plants might be part of the albert formation which crops out less than 40 km east of saint john along the kennebecasis river valley near bloomfield ( mcleod and johnson 1999 ) . bell ( 1960 ) listed six plants from kennebecasis island in his review of the horton group flora ;\nmade by kindle at milkish head ( fig . 1 ) and that its range is confined to the lower carboniferous . wilson ( 1915 ) in his palaeobotany report for 1914 recorded about 100 fossil plants collected by a . o . hayes from kennebecasis island , mostly\n. the summary report for 1915 ( kindle 1916 , p . 200 ) listed as an addition to the survey invertebrate collections\na crustacean fragment from the carboniferous formation at kennebecasis island , n . b .\ncollected by bell .\nand other plant remains from the northwestern shore of kennebecasis island which bell ( 1927 ) used to suggest an early carboniferous age for the kennebecasis formation . in the same report hayes and howell ( 1937 ) noted hayes had discovered abundant examples of the conchostracan\nin a grey shale on the south shore of milkish head and on the most southerly point west of sea dog cove ( fig . 1 ) .\nfrom gsc localities 1684 , 3520 and 1684 respectively . gsc 1684 is described as the lancaster formation near milkish head , east of saint john and collected by a . o . hayes , 1913 . gsc 3520 is reported to be a cove to the south of milkish head , kennebecasis bay near saint john , collected by i . r . jones , 1914 . copeland ( 1957 ) reported both of these as upper carboniferous , cumberland group , although both localities are in the kennebecasis formation as presently mapped . there may have been some error in the field notes for these sites as no cumberland group rocks have ever been identified from the milkish head area . copeland ( 1957 ) did not list\nis known from miguasha ( martens 1996 ) , occurring on clay bedding planes . specimens labelled \u2018\n\u2019 ( nbmg 10115 - 10117 ) from milkish are found on thin clay slabs although the source beds of these fossils has not been located . the specimens have not been identified ; however , they are not\nthis summary of the history of plant identification and dating of the kennebecasis formation leads us to believe the plant assemblages initially collected by ells in 1906 and described by matthew ( 19 ) , along with subsequent collections of plants and conchostracans , originate from lower carboniferous rocks overlying the devonian red sandstone and conglomerate of the kennebecasis formation ( hayes 1927 ) .\nhas a global distribution , known from the eastern united states ( catskill formation , uppermost famennian ; thomson 1976 ; schultze and cloutier 1996 ) , quebec ( escuminac formation , lower frasnian ; cloutier and schultze 1996 ; jarvik 1972 ) , the canadian arctic ( see kiaer 1915 in \u00f8rvig 1957 ) , greenland ( jarvik 1972 ) , numerous localities in europe , particularly the baltic states , russia , and britain , and australia ( young 1993 ; schultze and cloutier 1996 ) . since schultze and cloutier ( 1996 ) this genus has been described from the frasnian of colombia ( janvier and villarroel 2000 ) . the occurrence of definitive remains of\nin the kennebecasis formation lends strong support for the assignment of a late devonian age for this formation .\n. this conclusion is dubious . the reason an early carboniferous age assigned to the kennebecasis formation may be incorrect was discussed above . although bell ( 1960 ) described the lycopsids from kennebecasis island as an early carboniferous assemblage , it is possible they represent a late devonian flora such as that from red hill ( cressler and pfefferkorn 2005 ) where\ntends to be a rather abundant and common component of fish faunas , frequently represented by numerous scales . such scales or any other evidence of\nis lacking from any of the fossil fish beds in the albert formation , which would be in close stratigraphic apposition with the kennebecasis formation .\nwork by greiner ( 1977 , 1978 ) seemed to suggest that basal beds of the albert formation may have in fact been latest devonian . this conclusion was initially based on an osteolepi - form that was referred to the genus\n( greiner 1977 ) known from the late devonian of the baltic and germany . however , greiner cites no characters supporting this conclusion and a recent reappraisal of this and newly collected articulated material suggests a megalichthyid affinity , quite typical of many carboniferous vertebrate faunas . recent work by the authors , involving intensive collecting in the albert formation , shows that this formation is more typical of carboniferous vertebrate assemblages , with\nor any porolepiforms entirely lacking . spore analyses by st . peter ( 2003 ) indicate a tournaisian ( carboniferous ) age for the albert formation beds containing the osteolepiform remains . therefore , we do not see greiner\u2019s conclusions as related to the problem we have addressed here .\nspp . is a subject requiring considerable revision as few apomorphies can be used to diagnose the many species ( cloutier and schultze 1996 ) . consequently , we do not attempt to assign this material to any existing species nor do we attempt to establish it as a new taxon within the genus . the material is too incomplete to warrant a comparison with other known species of\nsp . in red sandstone beds typical of the formation . plant - bearing beds are lithologically distinct from the red sandstone and conglomerate of the kennebecasis formation as originally defined . plant fossils , including\nand other lower carboniferous horton group flora , were likely collected above an unmapped contact from rocks equivalent to the albert formation . these facts help resolve the confusion surrounding the middle palaeozoic stratigraphy in this region . it further implies that the kennebecasis formation may be in part equivalent to the well - established upper devonian memramcook formation ; however , we retain the distinction until proper stratigraphic work is accomplished . the presence of\nopens the possibility for the kennebecasis formation to yield additional late devonian fishes and possibly even tetrapods .\nagassiz , j . l . r . 1839 . fishes of the upper ludlow rock . in the silurian system , part 1 . founded on geological researches in the counties of solop , hereford , radnor , montgomery , caermarthen , brecon , pembroke , monmouth , gloucester , worcester , and stafford : with descriptions of the coal - fields and overlying formations . edited by r . i . murchison . london , john murray , pp . 605\u20136 .\nahlberg , p . e . 1991 . a re - examination of sarcopterygian interrelationships , with special reference to the porolepiformes . zoological journal of the linnean society , 103 , pp . 241\u2013287 .\nalcock , f . j . 1938 . geology of the saint john region , new brunswick . geological survey of canada , memoir 216 . 146 p .\nbailey , l . w . , and matthew , g . f . 1872 . preliminary report on the geology of southern new brunswick . geological survey of canada , report of progress , 1870 - 71 , pp . 13\u2013240 .\nbailey , l . w . , matthew , g . f . , and ells , r . w . 1880 . report on the geology of southern new brunswick , embracing the counties of charlotte , sunbury , queens , kings , st . john , and albert . geological survey of canada report of progress , 1878 - 79 , pt . d , pp . 1\u201326 .\nbarr , s . m . , and white , c . e . 1998 . geology of the kingston peninsula ( parts of nts 21g / 08 , g / 09 , h / 05 , and h12 ) , kings and queens counties , new brunswick . new brunswick department of natural resources and energy , minerals and energy division , plate 98 - 16 , scale 1 : 50 000 .\nbarr , s . m . , and white , c . e . 2004 . bedrock geology of the caledonian highlands of southern new brunswick . new brunswick department of natural resources , minerals , policy and planning division , plate 2004 - 138 , scale 1 : 100 000 .\nbell , w . a . 1927 . outline of carboniferous stratigraphy and geologic history of the maritime provinces of canada . transactions of the royal society of canada , 21 , pp . 75\u2013108 .\nbell , w . a . 1960 . mississippian horton group of type windsor - horton district , nova scotia . geological survey of canada , memoir 314 . 112 p .\nclack , j . 2005 . the emergence of early tetrapods . palaeo - geography , palaeoclimatology , palaeoecology , 232 , pp . 167\u2013189 .\ncloutier , r . , and schultze , h . - p . 1996 . porolepiform fishes ( sarcopterygii ) . in devonian fishes and plants of miguasha , quebec , canada . edited by h . - p . schultze and r . cloutier . verlag dr . friedrich pfeil , munich , pp . 248\u2013270 .\ncopeland , m . j . 1957 . the arthropod fauna of the upper carboniferous rocks of the maritime provinces . geological survey of canada , memoir 286 . 110 p .\ncressler , iii , w . l , and pfefferkorn , h . w . 2005 . a late devonian isoetalean lycopsid , otzinachsonia beerboweri , gen . et sp . nov . , from north - central pennsylvania , usa . american journal of botany , 92 , pp . 1131\u20131140 .\ncurrie , k . l . 1997 . geology , saint john - st . george region , new brunswick ( parts of 21g and 21h ) . geological survey of canada , open file 3418 , scale 1 : 100 000 .\nells , r . w . 1906 . southern new brunswick . geological survey of canada , summary report for 1906 , pp . 131\u2013139 .\nells , r . w . 1908 . surveys in southern new brunswick . geological survey of canada , summary report for 19 , pp . 74\u201376 .\nfalcon - lang , h . j . 2004 . early mississippian lycopsid forests in a delta - plain setting at norton , near sussex , new brunswick . journal of the geological society , london , 161 , pp . 969\u2013981 .\nfalcon - lang , h . j . , and miller , r . f . 20 . marie stopes and the fern ledges of saint john , new brunswick . in the role of women in the history of geology . edited by c . burek and b . higgs . geological society of london , special publications , 281 , pp . 277\u2013245 .\ngesner , a . 1839 . first report on the geological survey of the province of new brunswick . henry chubb , st . john . 87 p .\ngreiner , h . 1977 . crossopterygian fauna from the albert formation , new brunswick , canada , and its stratigraphicpaleoecologic significance . journal of paleontology , 51 , pp . 44\u201356 .\ngreiner , h . 1978 . late devonian facies inter - relationships in bordering areas of the north atlantic and the palaeogeo - graphic implications . palaeogeography , palaeoclimatology , palaeoecology , 25 , pp . 241\u2013263 .\ngross , w . 1941 . \u00fcber den unterkiefer einiger devonischer crossopterygier . abhandlungen der preu\u00dfichen akademie der wissenschaften , mathematisch - naturwissenschaftliche klasse , 7 , pp . 1\u201351 .\nhayes , a . o . 1914 . geology of the st . john map - area , new brunswick . geological survey of canada , summary report for 1913 , pp . 228\u2013243 .\nhayes , a . o . 1927 . bituminous shales and other mineral occurrences in the vicinty of sussex , new brunswick . geological survey of canada , summary report for 1925 , part c , pp . 125\u2013131 .\nhayes , a . o . , and howell , b . f . 1937 . geology of saint john , new brunswick . geological society of america , special papers number 5 . 146 p .\nhuxley , t . h . 1880 . on the application of the laws of evolution to the arrangement of the vertebrata , and more particularly of the mammalia . proceedings of the zoological society of london , 43 , pp . 649\u2013661 .\njanvier , p . , and villarroel , c . 2000 . devonian vertebrates from colombia . palaeontology , 43 , pp . 729\u2013763 .\njarvik , e . 1942 . on the structure of the snout of crossopterygians and the lower gnathostomes in general . zoologiska bidrag , uppsala , 21 , pp . 235\u2013675 .\njarvik , e . 1950 . middle devonian vertebrates from canning land and wegeners halv\u00f6 ( east greenland ) , part ii : crossopterygii . meddelelser om gr\u00f8nland , 96 , pp . 1\u2013132 .\njarvik , e . 1972 . middle and upper devonian porolepiformes from east greenland with special reference to glyptolepis groenlandica n . sp . meddelelser om gr\u00f8nland , 187 , pp . 1\u20133 .\njohanson , z . , and ritchie , a . 2000 . rhipidistians ( sarcopterygii ) from the hunter siltstone ( late famennian ) near grenfell , nsw , australia . mitteilungen aus dem museum f\u00fcr naturkunde in berlin , geowissenschaftliche reihe , 3 , pp . 111\u2013136 .\nkindle , e . m . 1916 . report of the stratigraphical palaeontologist . geological survey of canada , summary report for 1915 , pp . 198\u2013205 .\nlambe , l . m . 1910a . contributions to canadian palaeontology , volume iii , part v . palaeoniscoid fishes from the albert shales of new brunswick . canada department of mines , memoir no . 3 . 69 p .\nlambe , l . m . 1910b . palaeontology and zoology . geological survey of canada , summary report for 1909 , pp . 269\u2013 273 .\nlong , j . a . 2001 . on the relationships of psarolepis and the onychodontiform fishes . journal of vertebrate paleontology , 21 , pp . 815\u2013820 .\nmartens , t . h . 1996 . conchostraca ( phyllopoda , crustacea ) from the escuminac formation . in devonian fishes and plants of miguasha , quebec , canada . edited by h . - p . schultze and r . cloutier . verlag dr . friedrich pfeil , munich , pp . 112\u2013113 .\nmatthew , g . f . 19 . on some new species of silurian and devonian plants . transactions of the royal society of canada , 3rd series , 1 , pp . 185\u2013197 .\nmcleod , m . j . , and johnson , s . c . 1999 . bedrock geological compilation of the sussex map area ( nts 21 h / 12 ) , kings and queens counties , new brunswick . new brunswick department of natural resources and energy , minerals and energy division , plate 99 - 21 , scale 1 : 50 000 .\nmcleod , m . j . , johnson , s . c . , and ruitenberg , a . a . 1994 . geological map of southwestern new brunswick . new brunswick department of natural resources and energy , mineral resources , map nr - 5 , scale 1 : 250 000 .\nmiller , r . f . , and mcgovern , j . h . 1997 . preliminary report of fossil fish ( actinopterygii : palaeonisciformes ) from the lower carboniferous albert formation at norton , new brunswick ( nts 21 h / 12 ) . in current research 1996 . edited by b . m . w . carroll . new brunswick department of natural resources and energy , minerals and energy division , mineral resource report 97 - 4 , pp . 191\u2013200 .\n\u00f8rvig , t . 1957 . remarks on the vertebrate fauna of the lower upper devonian of escuminac bay , p . q . , canada , with special reference to the porolepiform crossopterygians . arkiv f\u00f6r zoologi , 10 , pp . 367\u2013426 .\nromer , a . s . 1955 . herpetichthyes , amphibiodei , choanichthyes or sarcopterygii ? nature , 176 , pp . 126 .\nschultze , h . - p . , and cloutier , r . 1996 . comparison of the escuminac formation ichthyofauna with other late givetian / early frasnian ichthyofaunas . in devonian fishes and plants of miguasha , quebec , canada . edited by h . - p . schultze and r . cloutier . verlag dr . friedrich pfeil , munich , pp . 348\u2013368 .\nst . peter , c . 2003 . revisions to lower carboniferous horton group stratigraphy in new brunswick , canada . in abstracts with programs , geological society of america , northeastern section 38th annual meeting , 35 , p . 19 .\nthomson , k . s . 1976 . the faunal relationships of rhipidistian fishes ( crossopterygii ) from the catskill ( upper devonian ) of pennsylvania . journal of paleontology , 50 , pp . 1203\u20131208 .\nwhiteaves , j . f . 1908 . surveys in southern new brunswick . geological survey of canada , summary report for 19 , pp . 105\u2013109 .\nwilliams , g . l . , fyffe , l . r . , wardle , r . j . , colman - sadd , s . p . , and boehner , r . c . 1985 . lexicon of canadian stratigraphy , volume vi , atlantic region . canadian society of petroleum geologists , calgary . 572 p .\nwilson , w . j . 1909 . summary report dealing with the field work in connexion with the collection of palaeontological material from the devonian and lower carboniferous of new brunswick . geological survey of canada , summary report for 1908 , pp . 183\u2013185 .\nwilson , w . j . 1910 . palaeontological material from the devonian and carboniferous of southern new brunswick . geological survey of canada , summary report for 1909 , pp . 274\u2013276 .\nwilson , w . j . 1914a . summary report dealing with the field work in connexion with the collection of palaeontological material from the devonian and lower carboniferous of new brunswick . geological survey of canada , summary report for 1912 , pp . 4\u2013410 .\nwilson , w . j . 1914b . palaeobotany . geological survey of canada , summary report for 1913 , pp . 322\u2013326 .\nwilson , w . j . 1915 . palaeobotany . geological survey of canada , summary report for 1914 , pp . 130\u2013134 .\nyoung , g . 1993 . middle paleozoic macrovertebrate biostratigraphy of eastern gondwana . in palaeozoic vertebrate biostratigraphy and biogeography . edited by j . a . long . johns hopkins university press , pp . 208\u2013251 .\nyu , x . 1998 . a new porolepiform - like fish , psarolepis romeri , gen . et . sp . nov . ( sarcopterygii , osteichthyes ) from the lower devonian of yunnan , china . journal of vertebrate paleontology 18 , pp . 261\u2013274 .\nzhu , m . , and schultze , h . - p . 1997 . the oldest sarcopterygian fish . lethaia 30 , pp . 293\u2013304 .\nzhu , m . , and yu , x . 2002 . a primitive fish close to the common ancestor of tetrapods and lungfish . nature 418 , pp . 767\u2013770 .\nzhu , m . , and yu , x . 2004 . lower jaw character transitions among major sarcopterygian groups - a survey based on new materials from yunnan , china . in recent advances in the origin and early radiation of vertebrates . edited by g . arratia , m . v . h . wilson , and r . cloutier . verlag dr . friedrich pfeil , munich , pp . 271\u2013286 .\nzhu , m . , yu , x . , and janvier , p . 1999 . a primitive fossil fish sheds light on the origin of bony fishes . nature 397 , pp . 6\u2013610 .\nzhu , m . , yu , x . , and ahlberg , p . 2001 . a primitive sarcopterygian fish with an eyestalk . nature 410 , pp . 81\u201384 .\nfor full functionality of this site it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\n( ) british antarctic ( terra nova ) expedition 1910 - . source is original\nbeacon sandstone , granite harbour reference : - ( ) british antarctic ( terra nova ) expedition 1910 - . source is original\nthe scientific data on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3 . 0 unported license .\nthis entry was posted on wednesday , september 28th , 2016 at 12 : 57 pm and is filed under . you can follow any responses to this entry through the rss 2 . 0 feed . you can skip to the end and leave a response . pinging is currently not allowed .\nthis translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations .\ndaeschler , edward b . ; downs , jason p . ; jenkins , farish a . ; shubin , neil h .\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\nkelvingrove art gallery and mu\u200bseum is scotland ' s most visited free . . .\nkelvingrove art gallery and mu\u200bseum is scotland ' s most visited free attraction . \u200b with 22 themed , state - of - the - art galleries displaying an astonishing 8000 objects , the collections are extensive , wide - ranging and internationally - significant .\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content .\ndup length string copy put def currentdict end / ct _ type1font exch definefont dup 5 1 roll put setglobal } ifelse dup / charstrings get 1 index / encoding get ct _ dfcharcode get charstring put rootfont / wmode 2 copy known { get } { pop pop 0 } ifelse exch 1000 scalefont setfont ct _ str1 0 ct _ dfcharcode put ct _ str1 exch ct _ dfsetcacheproc ct _ syntheticbold { currentpoint ct _ str1 show newpath moveto ct _ str1 true charpath ct _ strokewidth setlinewidth stroke } { ct _ str1 show } ifelse } def / ct _ type4showcharstring { ct _ dfdict ct _ dfcharcode charstring fdarray fdindex get dup / fontmatrix get dup ct _ defaultfontmtx ct _ matrixeq not { ct _ 1000mtx matrix concatmatrix concat } { pop } ifelse / private get adobe _ cooltype _ utility / ct _ level2 ? get not { ct _ dfdict / private 3 - 1 roll { put } 1183615869 internaldict / superexec get exec } if 1183615869 internaldict adobe _ cooltype _ utility / ct _ level2 ? get { 1 index } { 3 index / private get mark 6 1 roll } ifelse dup / runint known { / runint get } { pop / ccrun } ifelse get exec adobe _ cooltype _ utility / ct _ level2 ? get not { cleartomark } if } bind def / ct _ buildcharincremental { { adobe _ cooltype _ utility / ct _ makeocf get begin ct _ buildcharsetup ct _ showcharstring } stopped { stop } if end end end end } bind def / basefontnamestr ( bf00 ) def / ct _ type1fonttemplate 14 dict begin / fonttype 1 def / fontmatrix [ . 001 0 0 . 001 0 0 ] def / fontbbox [ - 250 - 250 1250 1250 ] def / encoding ct _ chexencoding def / painttype 0 def currentdict end def / basefonttemplate 11 dict begin / fontmatrix [ . 001 0 0 . 001 0 0 ] def / fontbbox [ - 250 - 250 1250 1250 ] def / encoding ct _ chexencoding def / buildchar / ct _ buildcharincremental load def ct _ clone ? { / fonttype 3 def / ct _ showcharstring / ct _ type3showcharstring load def / ct _ dfsetcacheproc / ct _ clonesetcacheproc load def / ct _ syntheticbold false def / ct _ strokewidth 1 def } { / fonttype 4 def / private 1 dict dup / leniv 4 put def / charstrings 1 dict dup / . notdef\nhis geological remarks on dura den , the author described the sedimentary strata in the vicinity as consisting of ( in ascending order ) \u20141 . grey sandstone , the equivalent of the carmylie and forfarshire flagstones , with\n, 3 . conglomerates , marls , and cornstone , with few and obscure fossils . 4 . the yellow sandstone , rich in remains of\nand other fishes , and about 300 or 400 feet in thickness . this sandstone is seen to rest unconformably on the clashbennie series of the old red at the northern opening of the den , and at the southern end is unconformably overlain by the carboniferous rocks . it is also exposed beneath the lower coal - series of cults , the lomonds , binnarty , and the cleish ilills . it is seen also in western scotland ( renfrewshire and ayrshire ) , and in berwickshire and elsewhere in the south , with its pterichthyan and holoptychian fossils . in the author ' s opinion it is entirely distinct from the \u201cyellow sandstone\u201d of the irish geologists .\nat dura den one thin bed in the yellow sandstone especially teems with fossil fish . the pamphractus - bed , towards the top of this thick deposit , is the only other stratum bearing fossil remains .\ndr . anderson also offered some remarks on the glyptopomus minor ( agass . ) , the specimen of which was obtained from this locality ; and he drew attention to two as yet undescribed fishes * also from dura den .\n\u2013 gsl fellows : log in with your lyell username and password . 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{"id": 2409, "summary": [{"text": "coelioxys , common name leaf-cutting cuckoo bees or sharp-tailed bees , is a genus of solitary kleptoparasitic or brood parasitic bees , belonging to the family megachilidae . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "coelioxys", "paragraphs": ["the australian species of the genus coelioxys latreille are revised . six species are recognized : coelioxys albolineata cockerell , 1905 ; coelioxys froggatti cockerell , 1911 ; coelioxys reginae cockerell , 1905 ; coelioxys weinlandi schulz , 1904 and two new species : coelioxys julia sp . n . and coelioxys tasmaniana sp . n . three names are synonymized : coelioxys biroi friese , 1909 syn . n . and coelioxys albolineata darwiniensis cockerell , 1929 syn . n . under coelioxys albolineata , and coelioxys victoriae rayment , 1935 syn . n . under coelioxys froggatti . species descriptions and redescriptions , illustrations , distribution maps , floral records and a key to both sexes of all species are provided .\na female coelioxys nectars on a flower . ( photo by diane wilson . )\nspecies coelioxys coturnix - red - tipped cuckoo - leaf - cutter - bugguide . net\nrestoring the landscape with native plants : native bee spotlight : cuckoo bees ~ coelioxys spp .\na female cuckoo bee , coelioxys sp . nectars on hairy false goldenaster , heterotheca villosa in late fall\ncoelioxys mexicana cresson : megachilidae ( coelioxini ) , hymenoptera ( this observation is from smith . . .\ndid you know : there are 18 species of coelioxys in colorado . while they mostly parasitize megachile , there are very specific host - parasite relationships \u2013 so each coelioxys species can only parasitize certain megachile species .\ncoelioxys rufitarsis rufitarsis smith : megachilidae ( coelioxini ) , hymenoptera ( observations are from robertson , . . .\ncoelioxys germana cresson : megachilidae ( coelioxini ) , hymenoptera ( observations are from robertson , smith . . .\ncoelioxys alternata alternata say : megachilidae ( coelioxini ) , hymenoptera ( observations are from robertson , . . .\ncoelioxys , gerstacker l . c . gives a description of this genus , with diagnoses and a synonymic revi\ncoelioxys sayi robertson : megachilidae ( coelioxini ) , hymenoptera ( observations are from robertson , graenicher , . . .\ncoelioxys octodentata say : megachilidae ( coelioxini ) , hymenoptera ( observations are from robertson , graenicher , . . .\ncoelioxys modesta smith : megachilidae ( coelioxini ) , hymenoptera ( observations are from robertson , graenicher , . . .\nbaker , j . r . ( 1971 ) . development and sexual dimorphism of larvae of the bee genus coelioxys .\ncoelioxys , gerstacker l . c . gives a description of this genus , with diagnoses and a synonymic revi - urltoken\n\u00a9 j . r . baker . 1975 . taxonomy of five nearctic subgenera of coelioxys ( hymenoptera : megachilidae ) . the university of kansas science bulletin . 50 ( 12 ) : 649 - 730 \u00b7 1 coelioxys mitchelli , female , top view\nholmberg , e . l . ( 1918 ) suplemento i a las especies argentinas de coelioxys . physis ( buenos aires ) , 4 , 145\u2013165 .\nrevision of the neotropical subgenera coelioxys ( platycoelioxys ) mitchell and c . ( rhinocoelioxys ) mitchell ( hymenoptera ; megachilidae ) with the description of one new species\nmoure , j . s . ( 1951 ) notas sinon\u00edmicas s\u00f4bre algumas esp\u00e9cies de coelioxys ( hymenopt . - apoidea ) . dusenia , 2 , 373\u2013418 .\nrevision of the neotropical subgenera coelioxys ( platycoelioxys ) mitchell and c . ( rhinocoelioxys ) mitchell ( hymenoptera ; megachilidae ) with the description of one new species .\nbiology and morphology of the immature stages of the cleptoparasitic bee coelioxys chichimeca ( hymenoptera , apoidea , megachilidae ) . ( american museum novitates , no . 3679 )\nholmberg , e . l . ( 1916 ) las especies argentinas de coelioxys . anales del museo nacional de historia natural de buenos aires , 28 , 541\u2013591 .\nbaker , j . r . 1975 . taxonomy of five nearctic subgenera of coelioxys ( hymenoptera : megachilidae ) . university of kansas science bulletin 50 : 649 - 730 .\nrevision of the neotropical subgenera coelioxys ( platycoelioxys ) mitchell and c . ( rhinocoelioxys ) mitchell ( hymenoptera ; megachilidae ) with the des . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nfriese , h . ( 1921 ) \u00fcber die kegelbienen ( coelioxys ) brasiliens . zoologische jahrb\u00fccher . abteilung f\u00fcr systematik , \u00f6kologie und geographie der tiere , 44 , 421\u2013486 .\nthere are currently no published keys to coelioxys . george else has a key in preparation . a photographic guide to the genus is available for download from the bwars website . distribution\nrevision of the neotropical subgenera coelioxys ( platycoelioxys ) mitchell and c . ( rhinocoelioxys ) mitchell ( hymenoptera ; megachilidae ) with the description of one new species | filho | zootaxa\nbaker , j . r . ( 1975 ) taxonomy of five neartic subgenera of coelioxys ( hymenoptera : megachilidae ) . the university of kansas science bulletin , 50 , 649\u2013730 .\njeff holmes changed the thumbnail image of\ncoelioxys - sayi , - female , - side _ 2012 - 06 - 07 - 15 . 12 . 41 - zs - pmax\n.\nrozen jr , j . g . , & kamel , s . m . ( 2006 ) . interspecific variation in immature larvae of the cleptoparasitic bee genus coelioxys ( hymenoptera : megachilidae ) .\nschwarz , n . ( 2001 ) revision der gattung radoszkowskiana popov 1955 und ein beitrag zur kenntnis der gattung coelioxys latreille 1809 ( hymenoptera : apidae : megachilinae ) . linzer biologische beitr\u00e4ge , 33 , 1267\u20131286 .\nvoith , j . ( 1997 ) coelioxys mandibularis nyl . as a cuckoo bee of osmia villosa ( schck . ) ( hymenoptera , apiformes , megachilidae ) . nachrichtenblatt der bayerischen entomologen , 46 , 20\u201325 .\na photographic test key by rowson and pavett is available via the bwars website . else and edwards cover coelioxys in their new book handbook of the bees of the british isles , which is due for publication soon .\nmitchell t . b . 1973 : a subgeneric revision of the genus coelioxys of the western hemisphere ( hymenoptera : megachilidae ) . department of entomology , north carolina state university , raleigh , nc , 129 pp .\nmitchell , t . b . ( 1973 ) a subgeneric revision of the genus coelioxys of the western hemisphere ( hymenoptera : megachilidae ) . department of entomology , north carolina state university , raleigh , 129 pp .\nscott , v . l . , kelley , s . t . , & strickler , k . ( 2000 ) . reproductive biology of two coelioxys cleptoparasites in relation to their megachile hosts ( hymenoptera : megachilidae ) .\ncoelioxys decipiens is distributed from north africa towards cyprus , crete , turkey , asia minor and central asia , until the himalayas ( ornosa et al . 2007 , ortiz - s\u00e1nchez et al . 2009 , grace 2010 ) .\nmonodontomerus wasps , pteromalus wasps , chaetodactylus osmiae pollen mites and cacoxenus indagator fly are all not guilty ! i watched a female coelioxys cuckoo bee enter this cavity and marked where the cell was she entered on the glass viewing window .\ni was lucky with my timings as when i opened this cell it was pure good luck to find the formidable mandibles of the coelioxys cuckoo bee larvae . it hatches before its host and is \u2018unarmed\u2019 feeding on the pollen nectar mix .\nschwarz , h . f . & michener , c . d . ( 1954 ) coelioxys barbata . in : michener , c . d . bees of panam\u00e1 . bulletin of the american museum of natural history , 104 , pp . 104\u2013105 .\nleafcutting bees are found throughout the world and are common in north america . in florida there are approximately 63 different species ( plus five subspecies ) within seven genera of leafcutter bees : ashmeadiella , heriades , hoplitis , coelioxys , lithurgus , megachile , and osmia .\nvinson , s . b . , frankie , g . & rao , a . ( 2011 ) field behavior of parasitic coelioxys chichimeca ( hymenoptera : megachilidae ) toward the host bee centris bicornuta ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . apidologie , 42 , 117\u2013127 . urltoken\ncoelioxys elongata is found throughout mainland britain from the south coast to inverness in scotland . it does appear to have a southerly and also coastal bias with an apparent absence from the entire english midlands , and inland scotland and wales . also recorded from ireland and the channel islands .\ncoelioxys , gerstacker ( l . c . ) gives a description of this genus , with diagnoses and a synonymic revision of the following species : - a . pale spots and bands of the thorax and abdomen formed of adpressed hairs . eyes with long hairs . fore coxae male appendiculated .\nscott , v . l . , kelley , s . t . & strickler , k . ( 2000 ) reproductive biology of two coelioxys cleptoparasites in relation to their megachile hosts ( hymenoptera : megachilidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america , 93 , 941\u2013948 . urltoken ; 2\nvirginia l . scott , scott t . kelley , karen strickler ; reproductive biology of two coelioxys cleptoparasites in relation to their megachile hosts ( hymenoptera : megachilidae ) , annals of the entomological society of america , volume 93 , issue 4 , 1 july 2000 , pages 941\u2013948 , urltoken ; 2\nin britain coelioxys quadridentata is restricted to england and south wales . there are no records for scotland or ireland . the greatest density of records is from dorset and surrey with more scattered records from the south - east up towards yorkshire . the bee is also recorded from jersey in the channel islands .\nrocha - filho , l . c . d . ( 2016 ) . a revision of the cleptoparasitic bee genus coelioxys ( hymenoptera : megachilidae ) from australia . eur . j . entomol . , 113 ( 1 ) , 2016 . 000 . doi : 10 . 14411 / eje . 2016 . 002 .\nrozen , j . g . & kamel , s . m . ( 2007 ) investigations on the biologies and immature stages of the cleptoparasitic bee genera radoszkowskiana and coelioxys and their hosts in the genus megachile ( hymenoptera : apoidea : megachilidae : megachilini ) . american museum novitates , 3573 , 1\u201343 . urltoken ; 2\nthis species is a cuckoo bee , acting as a cleptoparasite of megachile willughbiella and m . circumcincta . female megachile bees construct nests of larval cells from leaves and provision each cell with a mixture of pollen and nectar for the young . female coelioxys bees seek out these nests and use their sharp abdomens to pierce the cells and lay an egg . this egg hatches before that of the megachile bee and the second instar larva uses its long curved jaws to crush the egg or young larva of the megachile host . the coelioxys larva can then feed on the contents of the cell , having normal jaws in its later instars . it pupates within a cocoon spun within the host cell where the larva overwinters as a prepupa before emerging the following summer .\nthere are currently no published keys to coelioxys . george else has a key in preparation . a photographic guide to the genus is available for download from the bwars website . a distinctive group of largely black bees , with the females of most species having a pointed tip to the gaster . this species flies low over the ground looking for its host\u2019s nests , often in a purposeful manner .\nas it develops through its larval stages , the journal of apicultural research states that it grows a strong mandible , which it uses to crush the egg , or kill its host or other coelioxys larvae in the same cell . you can clearly see the fang like mandibles in the video . it can open them very wide which is useful when searching for its victim ( s ) in the dark .\nty - jour ti - description of mature larvae of megachile rotundata , m - apicalis , and their parasite , coelioxys rufocaudata ( hymenoptera : megachilidae ) t2 - entomological news . vl - 112 ur - urltoken pb - american entomological society , cy - [ philadelphia ] py - 2001 sp - 73 ep - 84 sn - 0013 - 872x au - torres , f au - gayubo , s f er -\nthe species is not listed in any national red lists or red data books . it is unknown whether it occurs within any protected areas . further research should be conducted to determine the population size and trends of the species . additional studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution as it has only recently been described . if the host species become known , it will be possible to understand more about the ecology of coelioxys elsei .\nmost leafcutting bees are moderately - sized ( around the size of a honey bee , ranging from 5 mm to 24 mm ) , stout - bodied , black bees . the females , except the parasitic coelioxys , carry pollen on hairs on the underside of the abdomen rather than on the hind legs like other bees . when a bee is carrying pollen , the underside of the abdomen appears light yellow to deep gold in color .\nthis is a darkly coloured bee 11 to 15 mm in length with narrow , sharply defined bands of pale hairs on the abdomen , hairy eyes and a toothed scutellum . as with all species in this genus , the female has a distinctively pointed end to the abdomen , whilst that of the male has several prongs . female coelioxys should be treated with care as they may sting ; males are said to emit an unpleasant odour when handled .\nthe species ' preferred habitat is unknown , but the areas where it has been collected are mediterranean forest and shrubs , xeric and anthropogenic areas ( cultivated lands ) and temporal streams . it has been collected from the sea level ( bulgaria ) up to approximately 2 , 150 m asl ( turkey ) . the species is kleptoparasitic , in that it parasitises the nests of other bee species , like every other coelioxys species ( michener 2007 ) , although the host is unknown . the species flies from april to july .\n@ article { bhlpart30989 , title = { description of mature larvae of megachile rotundata , m - apicalis , and their parasite , coelioxys rufocaudata ( hymenoptera : megachilidae ) } , journal = { entomological news . } , volume = { 112 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . } , url = urltoken publisher = { [ philadelphia ] american entomological society , 1925 - } , author = { torres , f and gayubo , s f } , year = { 2001 } , pages = { 73 - - 84 } , }\nmature larvae of five species representing each of the three principal groups within the genus megachile sensu lato ( i . e . , including creightonella and chalicodoma , which are often recognized at generic rank ) are described and are revealed to be quite similar to one another . on the basis of their descriptions a larval description of the genus is formulated . this , in turn , is compared with and found quite similar to a previously published preliminary description of mature larvae of the megachilini based on study of larval representatives of the three genera in the tribe : megachile , all species of which are pollen - collecting , and coelioxys and radoszkowskiana , both of which are cleptoparasitic , usually with megachile hosts .\nthese bees have no family loyalty . they parasitize nests made by their cousins , the\n, and probably don\u2019t even feel bad about it . they\u2019ve been doing this for so long they\u2019ve lost all pollen - carrying adaptations\u2013adults only need to feed themselves and never provision nests . instead , female\nnests and wait for the mother to leave . once the coast is clear , they pounce on a fully provisioned cell , using their pointy abdomens to pierce the leaf lining and lay their own eggs inside . the really clever part is how they hide the treachery . eggs are laid either within leaf layers or under the pollen provision so that the rightful nest owner won\u2019t suspect a thing .\nthe young cuckoo larva has gigantic mandibles that point forward rather than downward . this has one purpose : to kill the host larva . now the\nlarva has all of its host\u2019s pollen provisions to feed off of . after it\u2019s grown , it must time its exit from the nest with that of it\u2019s host \u201csiblings\u201d to avoid detection or destruction . if it makes good on this short window , it can repeat the cycle . next time you\u2019re block - watching , look to the surrounding area for cuckoo bees waiting to strike . they\u2019re usually active from june to september .\nthis entry was posted in 2014 , bee blocks , insect of the week , uncategorized . bookmark the permalink .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\n46 spp . in 9 subgenera in our area , ~ 500 spp . in 15 subgenera worldwide\nadults take nectar at flowers . ( they must be eating for themselves , because they do not provision a nest . )\n( other hosts known outside our area ) . using their sharp abdomen , the female breaks into\ndictionary of word roots and combining forms donald j . borror . 1960 . mayfield publishing company .\nfield book of insects of the united states and canada , aiming to answer common questions , frank eugene lutz . 1935 . putnam pub group .\ninsects of north carolina c . s . brimley . 1938 . north carolina department of agriculture .\ninsects : their natural history and diversity : with a photographic guide to insects of eastern north america stephen a . marshall . 2006 . firefly books ltd .\ninsects of the texas lost pines ( w . l . moody , jr . , natural history series , no . 33 ) stephen w . taber , scott b . fleenor . 2003 . m university press .\ncontributed by cotinis on 3 october , 2004 - 8 : 05am additional contributions by beatriz moisset , john s . ascher , v belov , h . go last updated 26 february , 2014 - 10 : 21pm\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhymenoptera name server version 0 . 03 4 . x . 2002 , website ( version 0 . 03 )\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\non the near continent , the bee is found in many western european countries ( including scandinavia ) from finland to spain and across to slovenia in the east . worldwide it is found in asia from turkey to siberia .\nshirt ( 1987 ) and falk ( 1991 ) both list this bee as being rare ( rdb3 ) .\ntypical habitat includes sandy heaths and coastal dune systems ( else , in prep ) . however , it has been found in other situations , such as flying with anthophora quadrimaculata ( panzer ) against a wall at a surrey railway station ( d baker , pers . obs . in baldock , 2008 ) .\nthe bee is reported to forage from common bird\u2019s - foot trefoil and white bryony .\nclick here to support naturespot by making a donation - small or large - your gift is very much appreciated . thank you .\nwhere a photo is surrounded by a red box it means that it is representative of the species but may not be the actual species described .\nwidespread but local . found throughout mainland britain from cornwall to the highlands in scotland . it does appear to have a southerly and coastal bias with an apparent absence from the english midlands , east anglia and inland scotland and wales .\naustralian faunal directory 2006 ( by j . c . cardale , 2001 , updated by k . l . walker , 2006 ) : hymenoptera : apoidea . australian biological resources study , canberra . urltoken ( last accessed 10 october 2015 ) .\nascher j . s . & pickering j . 2015 : discover life bee species guide and world checklist ( hymenoptera : apoidea : anthophila ) . urltoken guide = apoidea _ species . htm / ( last accessed 10 october 2015 ) .\nbatley m . & hogendoorn k . 2009 : diversity and conservation status of native australian bees . - apidologie 40 : 347 - 354 . go to original source . . .\ncockerell t . d . a . 1905 : descriptions and records of bees . i . - ann . mag . nat . hist . ( ser . 7 ) 16 : 216 - 225 . go to original source . . .\ncockerell t . d . a . 1911 : the bees of the solomon islands . - proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 36 : 160 - 178 . go to original source . . .\ncockerell t . d . a . 1929 : bees from the australian region . - am . mus . nov . 346 : 1 - 18 .\ndaly h . v . & magnacca k . n . 2003 : insects of hawaii . vol . 17 . hawaiian hylaeus ( nesoprosopis ) bees ( hymenoptera : apoidea ) . university of hawai ' i press , honolulu , 216 pp .\ndiva - gis 2015 : diva - gis program , ver . 7 . 5 . urltoken\nfriese h . 1909 : die bienenfauna von neu - guinea . - ann . hist . nat . mus . natl . hung . 7 : 179 - 288 .\ngonzalez v . h . , engel m . s . & griswold t . l . 2013 : the lithurgine bees of australia ( hymenoptera : megachilidae ) , with a note on megachile rotundipennis . - j . melittology 11 : 1 - 19 . go to original source . . .\nlatreille p . a . 1809 : genera crustaceorum et insectorum secundum ordinem naturalem in familias disposita , iconibus exemplurisque plurimis explicata . vol . 4 . koenig , paris , 399 pp .\nmichener c . d . 1965 : a classification of the bees of the australian and south pacific regions . - bull . am . mus . nat . hist . 130 : 1 - 362 .\nmichener c . d . 2007 : the bees of the world . 2nd ed . the johns hopkins university press , baltimore , md , 992 pp .\nrayment t . 1935 : a cluster of bees . sixty essays on the life - histories of australian bees , with specific descriptions of over 100 new species , and an introduction by professor e . f . phillips , d . ph . , cornell university , u . s . a . endeavour press , sydney , 752 pp .\nschulz w . a . 1904 : ein beitrag zur kenntnis der papuanischen hymenopteren - fauna . - berl . entomol . z . 49 : 209 - 239 .\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license ( cc by ) , which permits use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original publication is properly cited . no use , distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms .\naround this particular nest box , used by leafcutter bees , i filmed 7 different solitary bee parasites . there are several suspects that killed the bee larva , though some can be eliminated from the investigation !\nthe gruesome looking mandibles drop off after the \u2018deed\u2019 is done as they would prove almost useless when eating the nectar / pollen mixture . it therefore gets rid of the evidence ! the lava becomes \u2018unarmed\u2019 once again , finishing its development inside the leafcutter bee cell . a leafcutter bee larva mandibles could not be used to kill another larva . they are better equipped to eat and drink the pollen / nectar mix , which contains much more fluid nectar than that of a red mason bee cell .\nan extremely useful resource supports this book by a special web site feature within steve falk\u2019s flickr web site which furnishes extra photos and other useful resources to assist with identification .\nhi , i have found a cigar shaped \u201cnest\u201d about 6 inches long , stuck up underneath my garden parasol . half of it fell down when i opened the umbrella and i have had to take the other bit down . will the bee return to it if i just put it in a box underneath the umbrella or what shall i do with it ? put it in the shed or something ? does it need to hang upside down ?\naw shame ! she will not find them now . keep it level if possible and try not to move it too much as the eggs / larvae are very delicate . keep in a warm place out of sun . then leave them there ! if they are still alive contact me in october for more info ! hth george\nhi i bought a red mason bee nest box , it looks like the mason bee hasn\u2019t had a good year but i have evidence of a leafcutter bee and living larvae . i need to remove them so i can reuse the tubes nxt year . there are also nectar packages along with larvae . i have placed them in a small tin together with nectar , will they find their way to it ? these may seem silly questions but i\u2019m not all clued up on bees at the moment . thanks\nanna , i have seen your photos . leave the bees inside the paper tubes and do not open any more cells exposing the larvae . put them in a mouse proof container inside an outdoor shed etc then contact me in the spring . hth cheers , george ps you need a much better bee home !\ni have a bee house and have 7 off sealed tubed . however today i have noticed 2 of them seem to have been opened . do any solitary bees hatch the same year as sealed up . or has some predatory pest opened them up to get at the larva .\nhi joseph , difficult to say , as i have had several over the years and the small hole has usually been in the middle of the mud wall and the larvae have been fine in some cases and predates in others . i don\u2019t know the design of your box which may make it difficult to see into the tubes\u2026 . i can see in all of mine which helps \ud83d\ude0a\nhi , i have a fairly young bird of paradise plant which i recently put outside to get some summer sun . then today i noticed a leaf cutter bee taking leaves into a hole she\u2019d burrowed into the soil in the pot . as this is an indoor plant sooner or later it should come back indoors but i don\u2019t want to have the bees hatching out indoors . i think the plant will be ok in the greenhouse over winter but will this be ok for the bees ? when do they normally hatch out by the way ? thanks for your help . alyson\nthe bees wont hatch until next year so hopefully the green house should be fine . cheers , george\nhi george i have several leaf cutter bees in my nest box this year . is there anything i can do to help them hatch successfully . i know with mason bees people harvest the cocoons , but what about leafcutters ?\nsave my name , email , and website in this browser for the next time i comment .\nthis site uses akismet to reduce spam . learn how your comment data is processed .\ngenus , there are approximately 46 speces . the common name\ncuckoo bee\nis typically used for any bee species that lays its eggs in the nests of other bees . these bees are known as cleptoparasites , where the cuckoo bee larvae kill the host larvae and feed on the provisions ( pollen and nectar ) provided by the host bee .\ncuckoo bees are common in the summer months ; in central minnesota i typically see them from june until october . both males and females can be observed visiting flowers for nectar and females looking for , or waiting to enter a host ' s nest . these cuckoo bees lay their eggs in the nests of leafcutter bees ,\na female cuckoo bee watches for the female leafcutter bee to exit the nest in the rock cavity .\nthe cuckoo bee flies closer to the entrance anticipating the exit of the host bee .\nbees actively look for a host ' s nest . once a nest is found , the female cuckoo bee waits until the host bee leaves the nest to collect provisions . with a short window of opportunity , the cuckoo bee slips in the empty nest and looks for a fully provisioned brood cell to lay its eggs in .\nthe host leafcutter bee , megachile sp . enters the nest in the rock cavity carrying a piece of leaf to line or cap the brood cell .\nfemales have a sharply tapered or triangular - shaped abdomen . this acute point on the end of the abdomen is used to pierce through the layers of leaf pieces that line the brood cells of their host , leafcutter bees . the egg ( s ) is laid within the layers of leaves , or underneath the pollen mass hidden from sight in case the host leafcutter bee is still in the process of provisioning the nest . the cuckoo bee eggs are often different in size or appearance which may be another reason why the cuckoo bee hides the eggs .\nthe large sickle - like mandibles that the cuckoo bee larvae use to kill its siblings and host larva . illustration from : michener , c . d . ( 2000 ) . the bees of the world ( vol . 1 ) . jhu press .\nthe menacing part of this cleptoparasitic life cycle occurs after the cuckoo bee larva has hatched and begins to develop . the larva develops large sickle - shaped mandibles that are directed forward ( instead of downward ) to prepare to kill the host egg or young host larva . by the third or fourth instar , the\nlarva has killed any sibling larvae and the host . it now has an empty brood cell stocked with pollen and nectar provisions to feed on and develop .\nthe timing of adult emergence of cuckoo bees is very critical ; there is a short window of opportunity to overlap the timing of the host ' s adult emergence .\nspp . have been documented emerging slightly earlier or around the same time as their host . a larvae will often develop into an adult the same year as the nest is constructed and more female cuckoo bees are produced earlier in the season .\na female cuckoo bee perches on foliage low to the ground watching for a leafcutter bee to emerge from a nest in the ground .\ni regularly speak to garden , landscaping and native plant groups in the midwest and great lakes area .\n@ 2015 heather holm | restoring the landscape with native plants | . simple theme . powered by blogger .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nglobal environmental change threatens biodiversity , species persistence and distributions as well as antagonistic and mutualistic interactions ( barlow et al .\n) . in the tropics , ongoing deforestation results in a mosaic of forest fragments distributed between pastures and plantations ( vitousek et al .\n) . habitat fragmentation is a major threat to biodiversity ( davies et al .\n) and to disruption of trophic interactions , e . g . , predation and parasitism . the remaining forest fragments are influenced by edge effects because of the new matrix . edge effects in turn are known to change both the microclimate and the biotic communities ( laurance et al .\n) , since their coverage is expanding while that of continuous primary forest habitat is limited , and they enhance landscape connectivity ( barlow et al .\n) . however , studies along a fragmentation gradient of small secondary forest remnants are lacking .\nmost studies investigating whole communities of trap - nesting bees with large sample sizes in tropical countries have been done in agro - ecosystems or along land - use gradients ( klein et al .\n) . none of the studies investigated a fragmentation gradient that included different tree locations in order to measure edge effects of secondary forest remnants , which is important due to their potential for conservation and maintenance of ecosystem services for agricultural areas ( klein et al .\n) , materials for nest construction such as mud and plant materials ( wood chips , resin , leaves , oil ) ( taki et al .\n) especially in the canopy . trap nests are well suited for gaining information on biodiversity , abundance , and community parameters such as mortality and parasitism rates ( tscharntke et al .\n) . higher trophic levels are more affected by habitat modification ( valladares et al .\n) because their interactions are more sensitive to phenology , behavior , physiology , and abundances of multiple species ( suttle et al .\nthis study investigated the vertical distribution of bee communities , single species patterns , and community parameters along a fragmentation gradient including locations at different distances from the forest border of small secondary forests in the sarapiqu\u00ed region in costa rica . we hypothesized that larger fragments would contain a more species - rich and abundant bee community that would sustain a more abundant and diverse community of antagonists and therefore higher parasitism rates . we also expected lower mortality rates in larger fragments because of a higher variety of microhabitats and more natural microclimatic conditions . we expected a higher abundance and species diversity in the canopy and at the forest edge , although individual species may respond differently . we assumed that mortality rates would be lower in the forest center compared to the edge and that the rate would not respond to different heights , because this would be species dependent . concerning the parasitism rate of\nspecies and their cuckoo bees , we expected that cleptoparasites would be more affected by fragmentation due to their sensitivity to environmental changes and their higher trophic level ( holt et al .\nthis study was conducted in lowland rainforest fragments in the sarapiqu\u00ed region in northeastern costa rica during a 1 - year period , between february 2011 and february 2012 . to test for the effects of fragment size , we selected 12 differently sized secondary forest fragments ( 0 . 9\u201316 . 62 ha ) with no recent management activities and with at least a 2 - km distance between each . to minimize the influence of landscape and of foraging bees , every fragment had a similar landscape context with a forest cover of approximately 30 % forest cover and 70 % coverage of plantation ( banana , pineapple , ornamental plants ) or pasture in a 2 - km radius .\nin each of the 12 fragments , three trees , one in the forest fragment center , one at an intermediate distance , and one at the forest edge , were selected along a transect line to measure the influence of edge effects . we selected trees with a low and comparable vine cover . none of the selected trees flowered during the study period , and there was no mass flowering observed in the direct neighborhood . overstory density increased from the edge to the center of forest fragments , but not with fragment size .\nwe also did not include % cover of understory in our analysis , because it is significantly negatively related to the fragment size and also to the forest interior . at each tree , three packages of three trap nests were placed at three heights ( 2 , 10 , and 20 m ) , amounting to 27 trap nests per fragment . trap nests consisted of a pvc tube filled with different diameters of about 120 reed internodes (\n) , were collected and replaced by empty internodes of similar diameters . in the lab , nests were opened and identified to morpho - species ; living , dead , and parasitized cells were counted in order to calculate number of brood cells and the mortality and parasitism rates . only cells containing bees that died of unknown causes , most likely due to mold or other pathogenic microbiota ( keller et al .\n) , were included in the mortality rate . the nests were then placed in pieces of transparent plastic tube and closed with cotton at both ends . after emergence , adults were killed for later identification to species or morpho - species level .\nthe shannon index and the incidence - based coverage estimator ( ice ) were calculated with the software estimates ( vs . win 910 , 2014 ) .\nfor the variables ( 1 ) number of brood cells , ( 2 ) parasitism rate , ( 3 ) mortality rate , ( 4 ) raw species richness , ( 5 ) mean ice , and ( 6 ) shannon index , we calculated linear mixed effect models containing all interactions of size , location , and height with the statistical program r ( r development core team vs r 3 . 0 . 3 ) . the number of brood cells was analyzed with a poisson model , whereas the mortality and parasitism rates were analyzed with a binomial model and the species diversity measures with a gaussian model ( crawley\n) . to account for the nested design , the random term \u201cfragment\u201d was included . where necessary , an overdispersion correction term was included in the final models . during model selection , we also tested for the effects of overstory density on abundance , diversity and parasitism , and mortality rate . since it never was one of the most important factors and was related to tree location , we did not include this factor in our final models .\ncells of all brood cells , and ( 3 ) percentage parasitism per fragment were analyzed with linear models . the same procedure was chosen to analyze the preferences of individual species with sufficient sample size with respect to fragment size , tree location , and height . the best models were chosen according to the lowest aic ( burnham and anderson\nwe found a total of 2340 brood cells of 16 different bee species , comprising 10 non - parasitic and 6 parasitic bee species . fragment size alone had no impact on the response variables ( table\n) . location ( tree 1 at the forest edge , tree 2 at an intermediate distance , tree 3 at the forest center ) and height ( 2 , 10 , and 20 m ) had significant effects on the response variables .\neffects of fragment size , tree location , and height on bee abundance , parasitism and mortality rates , species richness , ice , and shannon diversity index .\nfragment size did not affect species diversity calculated per fragment ( species richness : p = 0 . 112 ; ice : p = 0 . 256 ; shannon : p = 0 . 09 ) . the percentage of the most abundant genus and the parasitism rates calculated per fragment did not respond to fragment size ( % centris : p = 0 . 25037 ; parasitism rate : p = 0 . 835090 ) .\nvertical distribution of bee abundance ( * * * p < 0 . 001 , height in meters ) .\n< 0 . 001 for 20 m at the intermediate tree , and 10 - and 20 - m heights for the inner tree ) .\nvertical distribution of species diversity with a the estimator ice and b shannon diversity index ( * * * p < 0 . 001 , height in meters ) .\nvertical distribution of the abundance of individual species ( * * * p < 0 . 001 ; * * p < 0 . 01 ; * p < 0 . 05 , height in meters ) .\n) , but species diversity was higher in the forest center compared to the forest edge . all three diversity variables ( raw species diversity , ice , and shannon index ) responded positively to the forest center ( observed species richness :\nedge effects on species diversity with a the estimator ice and b shannon diversity index ( * * * p < 0 . 001 ; * p < 0 . 05 ; tree 1 at the forest border , tree 2 at intermediate distance , and tree 3 in the forest center ) .\nmost species preferred forest conditions , but individual species responded differently . we found that\nedge effects on the abundance of individual species ( * * * p < 0 . 001 ; * * p < 0 . 01 ; * p < 0 . 05 ; tree 1 at the forest border , tree 2 at intermediate distance , and tree 3 in the forest center ) .\na mortality rate in relation to different heights ( 2 , 10 , 20 m ) . b parasitism rate of centris and their cuckoo bees in relation to different locations in the forest ( tree 1 at the forest border , tree 2 at intermediate distance , and tree 3 in the forest center ; * p < 0 . 05 ) .\ncontrary to our expectations , fragment size had no effect on bee diversity . previous studies in tropical systems relating bee diversity to size have revealed variable results , some showing an increase in diversity with size ( chacoff and aizen\n) and others finding no relationships between fragment size and diversity ( brosi et al .\n) . this variability could be due to many factors , since little is known about the nesting behavior of bees in tropical forests . the presence or absence of specific tree species , occurrence of natural nesting sites , and food availability ( tscharntke et al .\n) among other factors can affect bee species diversity unrelated to fragment size . however , our small - sized fragments appear to offer nesting opportunities and food resources for bees since we found similar species numbers as morato and campos (\n) in large amazonian fragments . possibly size would have had a significant impact if we had included larger fragments , since the latter contain more tall dead trees with nesting sites for bees ( didham and lawton\nin small fragments , there is often a dominance of few abundant species ( laurance et al .\n) , but parasitism rates did not respond to fragment size . fragments in our size range seem to provide sufficient hosts , but further research is needed to see whether a size effect would occur when larger fragments or primary forest are included .\nwas abundant in the understory and the canopy . however , none of the species preferred the intermediate height of 10 m . the reasons for strata preference could be microclimate and natural nesting availabilities ( morato\nspecies richness declined with height , which was opposite to the trends of the ice and the shannon index . the latter two variables are more sensitive for changes in community structure since they include species numbers and abundance data and because of their better suitability for greater numbers of rare species ( pianka\nspecies and their related cleptoparasites mainly occurred at the 2 - m height , whereas all other species were less abundant and mainly occurred at other heights . we conclude that species diversity of trap - nesting bees was higher at the canopy level . the abundant species in the understory can be considered rainforest specialists , e . g . ,\n) , whereas the majority of bees preferred the sunny dry conditions in the canopy . moreover , bee pollination is especially predominant in the canopy of tropical lowland forest ( bawa et al .\n) , so nesting closer to their food resources might be more attractive . our results suggest that the canopy preference could also be due to the lower mortality rate and the lower risk of being parasitized . previous studies investigating the vertical distribution of trap nesting bee communities in tropical rainforest found a canopy preference by bees in primary forest and large fragments ( morato\n) like we did in small secondary forest remnants . therefore , it is important to monitor bees and other insects at the canopy level .\nspecies diversity at 10 and 20 m was lower in larger compared to smaller fragments and at the forest fragment center at 10 and 20 m , which can be explained through our study design . ten and 20 m have different microclimatic conditions depending on forest structure since canopy height is lower in smaller fragments and at the edge ( didham and lawton\n) . the trap nests at 20 m at the edge and in smaller fragments were more sun exposed than those in larger fragments or in the forest center , where there are taller trees , resulting in more humid conditions , which affects nesting success . bees also find more natural nesting sites in larger fragments and the forest center , which could result in a lower colonization probability of trap nests ( viana et al .\ntotal bee abundance did not vary from edge to center due to opposing preferences of individual species .\npreferred the forest edge . this suggests that single species responses can be more informative than aggregated abundance and richness data in tropical forest remnants ( nem\u00e9sio and silveira\n) , and species - based analyses can help to understand contradictory responses to habitat fragmentation in the tropics .\n) . with ongoing deforestation and fragmentation and the resulting increase of edge conditions , aboveground nesting solitary bees could become more threatened in the future .\nthe lower ice estimates at the inner trees in larger fragments could be the result of more available natural nesting cavities inside larger fragments with taller trees and a higher amount of dead trees . the availability of natural nesting sites is known to affect nesting frequency in trap nests ( viana et al .\nmost study species preferred the forest center , but a few species preferred edge conditions , e . g . ,\n) . these two species seem to be better adapted to tolerate steeper temperature and humidity fluctuations and will probably profit from ongoing fragmentation and increased edge conditions . morato and campos (\n) also found that despite an overall preference for continuous forest and natural gaps , some species preferred disturbed habitats and deforested areas . with respect to the effects on pollination , we conclude that small forest fragments can help to sustain bee communities and to stabilize pollination services , which has been shown for stingless bees ( brosi et al .\n) . however , further fragmentation leading to an even greater increase in edge conditions will negatively affect trap - nesting bees .\nmortality rates tended to increase in larger fragments which is probably due to higher humidity that results in a higher fungal infestation rate of nests ( personal observation ) . however , larger fragments contain more tall trees ( didham and lawton\n) , so that larger fragments may be more suitable for some of the scarcer species . tree location did not affect mortality rates , because of the preferences of individual species . species probably prefer certain locations due to their advantage in survival , which is dependent on individual species traits ( nem\u00e9sio and silveira\nthe most interesting pattern was the significantly lower mortality in the canopy . most studied bee species preferred the canopy ( morato\n) , probably because it provides better conditions for survival as shown in our data . it is possible that the drier sunnier conditions in the canopy help to reduce infestations by fungi . it is also probably easier for bees to find nectar and pollen resources in the canopy ( bawa"]}
{"id": 2420, "summary": [{"text": "cabir ( also known as caribe , sybmos/cabir , symbian/cabir and epoc.cabir ) is the name of a computer worm developed in 2004 that is designed to infect mobile phones running symbian os .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it is believed to be the first computer worm that can infect mobile phones .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "when a phone is infected with cabir , the message \" caribe \" is displayed on the phone 's display , and is displayed every time the phone is turned on .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the worm then attempts to spread to other phones in the area using wireless bluetooth signals .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the worm was not sent out into the wild , but sent directly to anti-virus firms , who believe cabir in its current state is harmless .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "however , it does prove that mobile phones are also at risk from virus writers .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "experts also believe that the worm was developed by a group who call themselves 29a , a group of international hackers , as a \" proof of concept \" worm in order to catch world attention .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "several firms subsequently released tools to remove the worm , the first of which was the australian business tsg pacific .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the worm can attack and replicate on bluetooth enabled series 60 phones .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the worm tries to send itself to all bluetooth enabled devices that support the \" object push profile \" , which can also be non-symbian phones , desktop computers or even printers .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the worm spreads as a .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "sis file installed in the apps directory .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "cabir does not spread if the user does not accept the file-transfer or does not agree with the installation , though some older phones would keep on displaying popups , as cabir re-sent itself , rendering the ui useless until yes is clicked .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "cabir is the first mobile malware ever discovered while the worm is considered harmless because it replicates but does not perform any other activity , it will result in shortened battery life on portable devices due to constant scanning for other bluetooth enabled devices .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "cabir was named by the employees of kaspersky lab after their colleague elena kabirova .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "mabir , a variant of cabir , is capable of spreading not only via bluetooth but also via mms .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "by sending out copies of itself as a .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "sis file over cellular networks , it can affect even users who are outside the 10m range of bluetooth . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "cabir ( computer worm )", "paragraphs": ["cabir computer worm it was known as epoc . cabir and symbian / cabir developed in 2004 , designed to infect mobile phone running symbian os . . ! !\nimmediately after cabir worm was found , patches were released to mitigate the worm . f - secure developed a security patch to detect cabir worm and delete worm components from related directories .\nworm . symbi . cabir . a may gain entry into your computer in many ways . some of the common sources of worm . symbi . cabir . a are :\ncabir computer worm it was known as epoc . cabir and symbian / cabir developed in 2004 , designed to infect mobile phone running symbian os . . ! ! - urltoken\nhave a fact about cabir ( computer worm ) ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for cabir ( computer worm ) ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\ncabir ( also known as caribe , sybmos / cabir , symbian / cabir and epoc . cabir ) is the name of a computer worm developed in 2004 that is designed to infect mobile phones running symbian os .\nto get rid of worm . symbi . cabir . a from your computer , you need to perform the following steps :\nin this excerpt of chapter 9 from the art of computer virus research and defense , author peter szor dissects the cabir worm .\nfollowing these simple preventative measures will ensure that your computer remains free of infections like worm . symbi . cabir . a , and provide you with interruption - free enjoyment of your computer .\nworm . symbi . cabir . a also attempts to infect the windows registry of your computer . the purpose is to remain undetectable , protect other malicious programs it downloads , start up when the computer boots , and ultimately take full control over your computer .\nin this excerpt of chapter 9 from\nthe art of computer virus research and defense ,\nauthor peter szor dissects the cabir worm .\nby now , your computer should be completely free of worm . symbi . cabir . a infection . although it has been removed from your computer , it is equally important that you clean your windows registry of any malicious entries created by worm . symbi . cabir . a .\nwhat makes worms like worm . symbi . cabir . a extremely dangerous is its ability to spread quickly . a worm . symbi . cabir . a infection hits very fast ; so quickly that you won\u2019t even be aware that it was worm . symbi . cabir . a that infected your computer .\nlinks shared on social media websites pointing to worm . symbi . cabir . a\nthe primary symptoms of a worm . symbi . cabir . a infection are :\ncabir worm is the first computer worm that was designed to infect mobile phones . it was first found in 2004 and at that time it affected many mobile phones with symbian os . it is also known as caribe worm .\ntechnically worm . symbi . cabir . a is a worm , a type of malware that replicates and circulates without human intervention . worm . symbi . cabir . a can replicate and spread not only inside of your computer , but also to other computers connected to your network .\nan infection from worm . symbi . cabir . a can also modify the windows registry of your computer . it can maliciously create new registry entries and modify existing ones . therefore , even after you remove worm . symbi . cabir . a from your computer , it\u2019s very important to clean the registry .\nwhen worm . symbi . cabir . a infects your computer , it tries to create a copy of itself as a windows executable file ( . exe ) . after infecting you computer , worm . symbi . cabir . a will attempt to use your network to connect with its source computer . the primary intention is to update itself and download other malware programs and files .\nin the most common form , a worm like worm . symbi . cabir . a will penetrate your operating system . the intent always remains same - to spread malicious code . the worm will start by replicating itself on your computer . quickly thereafter , a worm such as worm . symbi . cabir . a will access your network , replicating itself and spreading to other computers on the network .\nthere is another version of cabir worm which is capable to replicate itself not only via bluetooth , but also using mms . it is called mabir worm .\nwe recommend using clamwin ( free download ) , a highly effective and widely used malware removal program to clean your computer of worm . symbi . cabir . a . in addition to worm . symbi . cabir . a , this program can detect and remove the latest variants of other malware .\nf - secure has issued a security patch on its site that will detect cabir and delete the worm components , as well as the worm files from the directory .\nclick the scan for issues button to check for worm . symbi . cabir . a registry - related issues .\nalthough the cabir worm is not considered a serious threat , huger still emphasizes the need for widespread education about mobile security .\nexternal media , such as pen drive , dvd , and memory card already infected with worm . symbi . cabir . a\nyour windows registry should now be cleaned of any remnants or infected keys related to worm . symbi . cabir . a .\nclamwin has an intuitive user interface that is easy to use . to get rid of worm . symbi . cabir . a , the first step is to install it , scan your computer , and remove the threat .\ncalled cabir , it infects series 60 mobile phones running the symbian operating system and it is highly infectious . when computer security researchers first downloaded cabir into a test device , they soon found their own phones under attack .\nworms such as worm . symbi . cabir . a can cause immense disruption to your computer activities . the best method for avoiding infection is prevention ; avoid downloading and installing programs from untrusted sources or opening executable mail attachments .\ncabir worm has a lots of significance in security of mobile phones . this worm demonstrated that mobile phones are also not safe from malware . and , it was a wake up call for all security experts .\nexperts believe that cabir worm was first developed by a group of international hackers called 29a . they wanted to prove that mobile phones are also vulnerable to malware . and so they developed this worm to catch world attention .\nworms such as worm . symbi . cabir . a are one of the most destructive forms of malware . they infect your computer with the sole purpose of disrupting your normal computer activities . they are similar to viruses , but different in one key way : automation . unlike viruses , worms don\u2019t required human intervention to spread ; worms have the capability to replicate and transmit themselves .\nthe symbos / cabir worm indicates a totally new era of computer worms that will slowly become more popular as wireless smart phones replace current mobile phone systems , which have limited programming ability . the cabir worm appeared in june 2004 , and it has a number of unique features . this worm can run on nokia 60 series phones running the symbian operating system . the symbian operating system is based on the epoc . in fact , symbian is epoc version 6 , also called epoc32 , but has a new name .\nafter infecting a mobile , cabir worm writes the word \u201ccaribe\u201d on the screen of the mobile and it gets activated automatically every time the mobile is turned on .\ncabir worm was first designed with the purpose of demonstrating vulnerabilities of mobile phones . reportedly it does not cause much harm other than showing the message \u201ccaribe\u201d on the screen .\naccording to the security report issued by f - secure , the cabir worm can only reach mobile phones that support bluetooth , have it turned on and are in discoverable mode .\nimmediately after installation , cabir worm gets activated and before the victim can understand the effects , it starts replicating it and infects other mobiles exploiting bluetooth . experts say , the worm starts infecting other mobiles over bluetooth even before the victim realizes it and disables his own bluetooth .\ntoday , computer security researchers use copper - shielded rooms where they can test how bluetooth and wifi viruses spread , without fear of an uncontrolled release .\ncabir replicates over bluetooth connections , arriving in a phone messaging inbox as a file called\ncaribe . sis\nthat contains the worm . when the user clicks the file and chooses to install the . sis file , the worm activates and starts looking for new devices to infect over bluetooth .\nthe victim first receives a file named caribe . sis in phone messaging inbox . if the victim cannot understand the risk and opens the file and chooses to install it , cabir worm infects the mobile .\n\u2013 the cabir virus first appeared 10 years ago . back then what was the overall situation with mobile malware ?\non june 15 , 2004 , at precisely 19 : 17 moscow time something happened that started a new era in computer security . we discovered the first malware created for smartphones .\n\u2013 so why is it named cabir ? after all , the screenshots on securelist show that the file contains a different name .\nduring the natural infection tests , cabir first talked to a bluetooth printer , which strangely acted as a\nsticky\nhoneypot system and blocked the worm given that the printer did not support the object exchange ( obex ) protocol that is required to send a file . however , the worm successfully infected another phone as soon as i turned the bluetooth printer off . cabir is overly active in finding other phones and that can easily drain the battery of the phone similarly to natural situations when your phone is hopelessly attempting to find a provider without finding one in range .\nif the worm is activated , it writes\ncaribe\non the screen , and will become active each time the phone is turned on .\nthat means the virus was given to security firms that were able to dissect the worm for examination , rather than maliciously released into the wild .\nthe first virus designed to infect mobile phones was detected tuesday , as reported by security firm f - secure in helsinki , finland . nicknamed cabir , the worm uses bluetooth technology running in symbian mobile phones that support nokia ' s series 60 smartphone platform . several mobile phone makers use symbian , including nokia .\nabout the author : jay geater is the president and ceo of solvusoft corporation , a global software company focused on providing innovative utility software . he is a lifelong computer geek and loves everything related to computers , software , and new technology .\nthe worm ' s code is compatible with mobile phones using arm series processors with symbian operating system . normally , by default the bluetooth communication feature is off on mobile phones . mobile phone users might exchange some little programs , and in doing so they open up the bluetooth communication channel to cabir - like worms as well .\ntang and co say this \u201cwhite worm\u201d approach can completely contain the malware in a limited amount of time , a claim that is rarely made of other anti - virus strategies .\nworms can take many forms . simple ones can intrude upon your browsing experience , consume your computer\u2019s resources through sheer reproduction , or even go to the extent of exhausting your network bandwidth . more malicious worms can also hijack your browser and use your email address to send spam messages .\nhe noted that the worm can only infect a phone after an installation message to the user , and this shows how crucial it is to have users understand proper virus - protection techniques .\nthe group that created cabir was known not only for its sophistication , but also for the fact that it issued its own e - zine . and a few months after the first appearance of cabir , it published information about the worm together with snippets of executable code , so some time later new modifications of cabir began to appear \u2013 every week . there was one virus writer with an extremely strong desire for fame who persistently sent us modifications of the virus with a request to give it a separate name ! he kept returning , again and again \u2013 for a year ! \u2013 trying to somehow get into the history books of mobile viruses . in the end he got what he wanted : we indeed classified one of the modifications as a separate family ; we kinda had to .\nmike mccamon , spokesperson for bluetooth , told technewsworld that the trade association is currently in the process of contacting the individuals that created the worm , and are also investigating security reports that are still coming in .\nwhat our analysts had successfully analyzed here ( which was later named cabir \u2013 see below ) was the first virus for cellphones , and it became a kind of a starting gun \u2013 signaling the start of the race for virus writers to create malicious code for smartphones \u2013 and create it is indeed what they did , with alarming speed . so much so that by the end of the year it was clear that we really needed a new department to analyze exclusively mobile viruses , especially since they were found to be quite different to computer viruses .\nthe worm was created by a group that is known for developing viruses to demonstrate vulnerabilities in technology , huger said .\nthis is a group that ' s done some watershed type of activities ,\nhe noted .\nso all the time while the athletes were running on the track , simultaneously the cabir virus was running too \u2013 all around the stands . i know , you couldn\u2019t make this up ! anyway , eventually cabir was bluetoothed into the cellphone in a pocket of an f - secure employee at the stadium ( question \u2013 why was he accepting unknown files by bluetooth ? : ) . days later the finnish antivirus company opportunely offered to install in the stadium a bluetooth scanner giving visitors the chance to check whether their phones had been infected with the virus . so there\u2019s your link \u2013 read : gimmick : ) \u2013 between cabir and f - secure .\ncabir managed to cause a minor , but rather curious and thus well - publicized outbreak . it just so happened that in 2005 a certain athletics tournament was taking place in finland . which meant there was a stadium crammed with folks from all over the planet . now , the damage radius of cabir was generally very small \u2013 as bluetooth\u2019s range is only about 20 meters . however , here , in a packed stadium ? \u2026 : ) . the problem was made even worse by the fact that nokia phones come from finland and are thus extremely popular there ! needless to say , cabir easily got into the stadium \u2013 on a cellphone in a pocket of one of the tens of thousands of spectators .\nbut the next attack might not be so civilized , f - secure noted . the company warns that the discovery of the worm proves that technologies are now available to create viruses for mobile phones , and that those technologies are now in the hands of virus writers .\nhe added that another item to note is that the worm can only be propagated if a device is in the discoverable mode , which means it is waiting to accept a connection . most device manufacturers have this as a default setting , he said , but a phone can easily be switched to a nondiscoverable mode .\ncabir is a different kind of threat , however , because it does not come through a carrier . huger said ,\nthis uses bluetooth , so you ' re not calling anybody . it just searches around the proximity to see if it can find another bluetooth device , and infects it that way .\nwhen executed , cabir installs itself into several directories of the symbian os intending to make sure it will run each time the user boots the phone . fortunately , this operation is disallowed in newer phone models . however , on older phones , worm components cannot be easily found without using custom file manager applications . cabir does not enumerate bluetooth devices ; instead , it tries to find only the first such device and communicates with that device . the standard bluetooth range is about 30 feet , and apparently not all bluetooth devices like to communicate with each other . ( however , researchers such as mark rowe are experienced with bluetooth signal amplification and pointed out that attackers could utilize such technology to extend the bluetooth range to about 300 feet , reliably . ) in addition , researchers such as ollie whitehouse of @ stake also demonstrated that bluetooth devices are discoverable even in the so - called\nnon - discoverable\nmode . several bluetooth - related attack tools exist today including the most popular bluesniff , btscanner , psmscan and redfang .\nthe worm currently has no harmful effects , but that does not mean it is not important , noted alfred huger , senior director of engineering for symantec ' s security response team .\nthe virus represents a wake - up call ,\nhe told technewsworld .\njust because this one isn ' t dangerous doesn ' t mean the next one won ' t be .\n\u2013 well , things weren\u2019t so bad , because even before the discovery of cabir viruses for palm os ( for palm pdas ) had appeared , so many antivirus companies had already developed protection for that platform . but eventually passions subsided , new viruses didn\u2019t appear , and many people just stopped thinking about palm os viruses and protection against them . ( also , palms weren\u2019t smartphones , and weren\u2019t all that popular \u2013 compared with hugely popular cellphones . ) but with the discovery of cabir , we called up again all we had learned earlier , modified it , and shortly after had on the market an antivirus for mobile platforms . ever since , more and more mobile viruses have appeared . and ever since , we\u2019ve been modifying and updating our mobile protection too . nothing to respond with , you ask ? hardly !\n\u2013 if you\u2019re referring to direct financial losses , it didn\u2019t cause any . it exhausted the battery pretty quickly \u2013 in just two to three hours \u2013 because constantly searching for bluetooth connections places a heavy load on the battery . in monetary terms , the later mobile viruses that in addition to transmitting themselves sent mmss to premium - rate numbers were far more damaging . for example , a well - known virus post - cabir , comwario , caused an epidemic in a spanish city whose financial damage came to the tune of several million euros .\ninside the room there was zero mobile coverage , and any and all communications were jammed : everything was done to prevent viruses from spreading beyond the room . the room turned out to be not only a necessary tool for testing mobile viruses , but also a favorite attraction for media folks , so we always took them there to have a look . these days the mobile malware scene has changed dramatically , and old school viruses like cabir have ceased to exist , so there\u2019s no need for such a room anymore , much to the disappointment of media types : ) .\nit was the most legendary group of virus writers in history . they created a massive amount of advanced and unique things . the group consisted of virus writers from all around the world , with membership changing all the time , but there was always a sort of a main skeleton crew made up of people from spain and brazil . one of them , a man named , if my memory serves me well , vallez , created cabir . the 29a group were not cybercriminals by modern standards \u2013 they were virus writers creating malware to test and demonstrate new virus technologies . thus , they were motivated by ideology rather than personal gain . they were firsts in many respects : the first to create a macro virus , the first to create a virus for the windows 64 platform\u2026 each creation of 29a was a breakthrough , used afterwards by other virus writers , and then by cybercriminals . and we have to remember that at that time \u2013 in 2004 \u2013 cybercrime was only just beginning to emerge . back then the majority of virus programs tended to be created just for kicks , by people trying to\u2026 \u2018express themselves\u2019 .\n, which was infecting symbian - powered nokia devices by spreading via unsecured bluetooth connections . with its discovery the world learned that there was now malware not just for computers \u2013 which everyone already knew too well about ( save for the odd hermit or monk ) \u2013 but also for smartphones . yes , many\na decade ! ) for most people ( some still aren\u2019t aware ) . meantime , our analysts made it into the history books !\nmobile viruses were almost non - existent 10 years ago . this is how i remember things from back then : in early 2004 we were holding an international press conference , and one of the journalists asked me when the first virus for cellphones would appear . i replied by next year\u2019s conference \u2013 for certain . sure enough , some months later \u2013 it appeared\u2026\none of our shift virus analysts was sent an unusual file , whose platform it was supposed to operate on was unknown . so he asked his colleague , roman kuzmenko , for help with the analysis of the suspicious object . roma was the natural choice , incidentally , being as he is very much a wunder - analyst and unparalleled in unlocking the mysteries of the oddest of things . as could have been expected , it only took him a couple of hours to work out that what we had here was a virus for the symbian os running on an arm processor . and this duo existed only on cellphones \u2013 specifically , on nokia ones .\nat that time , our experts couldn\u2019t immediately understand what the virus actually did , so we had to start running tests . but first we needed to get hold of a nokia smartphone , which proved no easy task ! such \u2018advanced\u2019 phones were not quite as common as they are today : ) . in the meantime our anti - malware lab continued to analyze the virus , and soon they found\u2026 the bomb ! they worked out that its key features were the ability to command the bluetooth protocol and transfer files . it looked like an absurdly efficient means of spreading disease \u2013 virus - based disease\u2026\nit does . we didn\u2019t have a selection of all the smartphones in operation back then for quick testing , as the idea of needing such a collection naturally hadn\u2019t occurred to us yet \u2013 cellphone viruses still didn\u2019t exist .\nso we founded such a department , with me heading it . later i was joined by another analyst , denis maslennikov , and one of the first things we decided together was to purchase all the mobile devices that existed on the market that could be attacked by malicious code \u2013 even if just theoretically . this was quite fun . after all , who doesn\u2019t like buying new kit \u2013 never mind loads of it in one go ? we procured all the symbian devices there were , plus all the phones based on windows , blackberry , and so on . still to this day , we continue to add new mobile devices to our exotic and very complete collection \u2013 in case a new mobile threat appears and we need devices to test with sharpish .\noh , that\u2019s a whole other story ! the screenshot shows the name the author gave it \u2013 caribe . however , it\u2019s customary in the antivirus industry to name viruses not according to how their authors\u2019 named them , but to come up with new names \u2013 so as not to fuel the authors\u2019 egos\u2026 oh , and maybe stamp our authority all over the conquered viruses !\nso there we were doing really advanced analysis work \u2013 deciding on a name \u2013 when our colleague elena kabirova walked into the room . given the jungian weirdness of the coincidence of her surname being similar to the virus\u2019s name , we asked her if she\u2019d like her name to go down in history as the name of the very first virus for cellphones . well , the rest\u2026 is history : ) .\nas often happens with viruses , we received an email with nothing but an attachment \u2013 which contained the virus file . it was sent to our address created specifically for this \u2013 newvirus @ urltoken . we knew about the sender of the email \u2013 he was listed in our databases as\u2026 not exactly a virus writer , but someone \u2018associated with\u2019 the underground . once in a while he would send us new malware samples created by european virus writers . as a rule , everything he\u2019d send always turned out to be something serious , i . e . , new and unique , so we knew this one would be something significant too straight away . sure enough , this was soon confirmed by strings contained in the malware code ( including mention of 29a ) . it was then clear that what we had here was a malicious program authored by the notorious , long - established international group of virus writers called 29a .\nat the time , we didn\u2019t know that the sender of the email had simultaneously sent the virus to several other antivirus companies ; still , that didn\u2019t really matter : we were the only ones able to figure out what the file was all about : ) .\nafter initial analysis of the virus it became clear that for testing we\u2019d need not one but two smartphones running symbian , because the virus transmitted itself from one phone to another using bluetooth . so we copied the virus onto the first phone , started bluetooth on the second in discoverable mode \u2013 and in an instant a request to accept the file came up on the second phone . and after receiving and running the file , the second phone automatically started searching for all available bluetooth - enabled devices nearby . thus , we confirmed that the virus disseminated and propagated via bluetooth . next , we distributed a press release telling the world about the appearance of the first cellphone virus . but that was only just the beginning\u2026\nthe functionality of the virus and its subsequent modifications presented us with a big practical problem at our office . after all , we were not in a vacuum , but in a typical working environment , where all around could have been folks who could accept this file on their nokias . we realized we were putting our own colleagues in jeopardy with possible infection ! this prompted us to fit out a special room with iron shielding where we could experiment safely with mobile malware .\n\u2013 you said this malware was created by a certain group of virus writers . t ell me more about it .\nthe group existed until around 2009 , though before then it had become a lot less active . some members of the group were arrested \u2013 in spain , brazil , and the czech republic \u2013 while others continue to write malware . we know this because we still come across familiar bits of code \u2013 kind of like their personal handwriting or thumbprint .\n\u2013 today we\u2019ve talked about a particular mobile threat \u2013 how it spread and the group behind it . but what we haven\u2019t discussed is the issue of protecting mobile platforms back then . did we really have nothing to respond with ?\ni agree to provide my email address to \u201cao kaspersky lab\u201d to receive information about new posts on the site . i understand that i can withdraw this consent at any time via e - mail by clicking the \u201cunsubscribe\u201d link that i find at the bottom of any e - mail sent to me for the purposes mentioned above .\nsymbian signing key reportedly stolen from nokia could have enabled powerful malware | protect your pc | tips , advice , and support . protect your pc | tips , advice , and support .\nhi folks ! now , if you\u2019re a regular reader of this here blog of mine , you\u2019ll know how i like to keep things positive . no matter where i am , no matter the weather ( mostly ) , no matter how jet - lagged , no matter how tired\u2026 \u2013 i keep things cheerful , cheery , chipper and chirpy . but sometimes , just occasionally , i [ \u2026 ]\nfootball / soccer is in the air all around the world this summer \u2013 especially in russia . so , sticking to this theme , herewith , a footie - post ; but not even a mention of the world cup\u2026 but , since i was on the faroe islands recently , i just had to tell you about their national football team . though the territory they [ \u2026 ]\nhej folks ! you\u2019ve seen what the faroe islands look like down on the ground . now , let\u2019s have a look at them from up above in a helicopter . hardly any words today folks ; just a ton of oh - my - green - and - glorious pics for your viewing pleasure\u2026 this is the north - western edge of the islands ; the best pics were taken [ \u2026 ]\nhej folks ! first off : geography test ! who\u2019s heard of the faroe islands ? ok , and who can point them out on a world map ? i reckon not all that many . but that\u2019s just wrong ! because these islands are so mandatorily categorically must - see \u2013 if only via photographs on a blog on the internet . so here you [ \u2026 ]\nhi folks ! can you guess what this is ? no \u2013 it\u2019s not malevich\u2019s black square . nor is it a rhetorical clickbait question . actually , if you look closely \u2013 if your screen shows it big enough \u2013 you\u2019ll see something that\u2019ll give you a clue , but you still might not get it\u2026\nhave you ever been inside a genuine fortress built by actual crusaders ? i hadn\u2019t \u2013 and i\u2019ve been to so many different interesting historical places in the world i\u2019ve lost count . but finally , recently , i did it : my first crusader castle visit ! here we are \u2013 a fortress built on a high , small patch of [ \u2026 ]\na docx attachment with \u0430 pdf document that disables windows defender and installs forged digital certificates . meet\u2026\nbut , once it starts replicating , it searches for other mobile phones exploiting the bluetooth connections . as a result , the battery of the mobile drains out very fast .\ni am a security researcher and founder and ceo of asigosec technologies ( opc ) private limited .\nif not redirected , please click here urltoken a blockchain is a distributed . . .\nif not redirected , please click here urltoken what is phishing ? . . .\nif not redirected , please click here urltoken a pos malware is . . .\nif not redirected , please click here urltoken smtp or s imple m ail t . . .\ncopyright \u00a9 amrita mitra 2015 . all rights reserved . simple theme . powered by blogger .\na further problem is that you need to\nhide\nwith mobile phones when you test replicate worms . although the recipient needs to accept the incoming message to successfully receive the message , you do not want to infect another phone\nby accident .\nin fact , there are several known vulnerabilities of bluetooth systems , and some of these can be utilized to execute arbitrary code on pocket pc devices , while others can be used to implement phishing attacks on a number of smart phones types .\nsure enough , in the future you can expect that worms are going to make phone calls from your mobile phone instead of you . there might be a new era of mms - ( multimedia messaging service ) based mass mailer worms as well as sms - ( short messages services ) based downloaders , porn dialers and spammer applications , as well . who is going to pay the bill ?\ni agree to techtarget\u2019s terms of use , privacy policy , and the transfer of my information to the united states for processing to provide me with relevant information as described in our privacy policy .\ni agree to my information being processed by techtarget and its partners to contact me via phone , email , or other means regarding information relevant to my professional interests . i may unsubscribe at any time .\nno problem ! submit your e - mail address below . we ' ll send you an email containing your password .\ndocker containers can help secure cloud applications , but malicious traffic can still move to and from those containers on a . . .\nsecurity professionals need to fight their natural skepticism and embrace cloud services adoption for the good of the enterprise , . . .\ndocker ' s kubernetes implementation provides enterprises with container orchestration options . expert rob shapland discusses what . . .\ncisco , samsung and french carrier orange have completed a successful 5g trial . the companies ' fixed wireless network delivered hd . . .\nthe green padlock on websites doesn ' t improve network security , so our expert addresses four ways to secure the modern network . . .\nhewlett packard enterprise has launched a 2u simplivity hci product for virtual desktops . the condensed compute and storage . . .\nintuit ' s latest ai project - - a digital financial assistant - - could help its customers save money , while breaking new technology . . .\na data science development pipeline is critical for digital business . but the sequence of the pipeline must be monitored closely . . .\nthe ' garbage in , gospel out ' approach to business analytics may be a valid approach for doing big data projects , but cios should . . .\nprotecting windows 10 takes a lot of juggling . it must be sure to use all the tools at its disposal to create the strongest . . .\nit can get ahead of windows 10 security problems by understanding its organizational needs and focusing on a few key areas , . . .\nmicrosoft offers a host of tools it pros can use to make the move to windows 10 a little easier . see how well you know your . . .\nwith the rise of hybrid cloud architectures , there ' s a heightened need for more sophisticated app and data integration tools . . . .\nrecent additions to google compute engine , particularly around images and templates , streamline how admins can create and manage . . .\nhybrid cloud is complex , and while automation helps , it also presents new risks . this book by clive longbottom dives into the . . .\nthe information security community has welcomed regulators\u2019 call on the banking industry to demonstrate their capability to . . .\ntechnology skills and education provider cnet training is calling on the datacentre community to help inform its research into . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfind the best app developers and mobile technology specialists to expand your mobile presence .\na new retail systems research ( rsr ) report titled ,\n2018 ecommerce performance : the stakes are increasing , but are retailers falling behind ? \u201d evaluates 80 major retail websites on page speed performance as well as shopper experience .\nthe infection spreads very quickly , usually before a user can disable bluetooth from the system settings .\nantivirus experts have been girding themselves for mobile security threats as the adoption of devices has grown . one protection against more widespread virus threats over mobile technology has been the way that cellular technology works , said yankee group senior analyst xj wang in an interview with technewsworld .\nhe noted that , in pc threats , viruses can be delivered directly to the user through web sites and e - mail . but in cellular technology , most internet - delivered content is first filtered through a carrier , where security can be implemented .\ni think on the cellular side , it ' s much easier to prevent virus infection , because every carrier has a mobile e - mail gateway ,\nwang said .\nwhen it comes to bluetooth , security is a very big deal ,\nhe said . he added that it ' s important to note that the bluetooth link has not been broken or hacked . rather , bluetooth is being used as a delivery mechanism .\nit ' s similar to the internet and viruses there ,\nmccamon noted .\nit ' s not that the internet itself is insecure ; it ' s that it ' s being used to transport viruses .\nthere are some antivirus tools and products available for mobile technology , and huger strongly recommends that mobile users at least investigate these to protect themselves .\nit ' s the same kind of prevention that people need to do with their pcs ,\nhe said .\nnow we have to extend that thinking about antivirus strategies to mobile devices .\nthere is an official report on the numbers of people vulnerable to bluetooth threats in london on this web page ( pdf ) . the report is free . http : / / www . zero - sum - net / partners / gr / bluetooth - and - social - networking - april - 2004 . pdf .\ndon ' t miss a story . get the latest headlines delivered to your inbox .\ni ' ll spring for a top - of - the - line model , because my phone is extremely important to me .\ni ' m content with a phone that ' s a couple of years old and doesn ' t cost an arm and a leg .\ni ' m a bargain smartphone shopper - - i ' ll take the best phone i can find that ' s free or close to it .\ni ' m considering giving up my smartphone and getting a basic mobile phone instead .\ni don ' t own a smartphone and i don ' t want one .\na well - executed content marketing strategy can help attract targeted traffic to your website . publish your company ' s blog , videos , events and more on all ec . view offer .\naccess millions of it and business decision makers . our full - service global marketing program delivers sales - ready leads . learn more .\nan otp has been send to your mobile . please enter otp to verify your mobile number\nan otp has been sent to your email address . please enter otp to verify your email address\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\ndouble - click the downloaded installer file to start the installation process . the welcome screen is displayed .\non the license agreement screen that appears , select the i accept the agreement radio button , and then click the next button .\nwhen you start clamwin , it prompts you to download the virus definitions database . click the yes button .\nonce the update completes , select one or more drive to scan . you can hold the shift key to select multiple drives to scan . click the scan button .\nwe recommend downloading and using ccleaner , a free windows registry cleaner tool to clean your registry . to clean your registry using ccleaner , please perform the following tasks :\nclick urltoken to access the download page of ccleaner and click the free download button to download ccleaner .\nclick the fix selected issues button to fix registry - related issues that ccleaner reports .\ntype a file name to backup the registry in the file name text box of the save as dialog box , and then click the save button .\nthis website is using cookies . by continuing to browse , you are agreeing to our use of cookies as explained in our privacy policy . i agree\nsolvusoft is recognized by microsoft as a leading independent software vendor , achieving the highest level of completence and excellence in software development . solvusoft ' s close relationship with microsoft as a gold certified partner enables us to provide best - in - class software solutions that are optimized for performance on windows operating systems .\nto achieve a gold competency level , solvusoft goes through extensive independent analysis that looks for , amongst other qualities , a high level of software expertise , a successful customer service track record , and top - tier customer value . as a gold certified independent software vendor ( isv ) , solvusoft is able to provide the highest level of customer satisfaction through delivering top - level software and service solutions , which have been subject to a rigourous and continually - audited approval process by microsoft .\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nvisitors are allowed 3 free articles per month ( without a subscription ) , and private browsing prevents us from counting how many stories you ' ve read . we hope you understand , and consider subscribing for unlimited online access .\nmobile phone viruses have been with us for some time . the first virus designed to spread via bluetooth contacts first reared its head in 2004 .\nbut while these viruses continue to evolve , there has been relatively little work on how to stop them . that\u2019s partly because viruses that spread by email or sms message can be scanned relatively easily by a network operator using existing technologies ( ie by comparing them to a database of known malware ) .\nbut short range viruses that spread from phone to phone via bluetooth and wifi are more insidious . mobile phones do not necessarily have the computing power to scan all incoming messages .\nthis problem is compounded by a crucial difference in the structure of the networks formed by short range wireless devices compared to the larger mobile phone network . bluetooth links constantly change throughout the day in a way that mimics the pattern of face - to - face connections between humans . that\u2019s hardly surprising given that bluetooth has a range of just a few metres .\nhowever , the mobile phone network is largely static , because calls have to routed through a centralised fibres .\nthe rapid change in the links between nodes has important implications . we looked at some of them earlier this year , such as the order in which contact occur . john tang at the university of cambridge in the uk and pals point out that dynamic nature of networks has been ignored in anti - virus strategies so far .\nthat looks set to change . today , tang and co reveal the new tricks they hope will smother this threat to dynamic networks .\none of the key differences between the way viruses spread on static and dynamic networks is the effect of the order in which infections occur . a seemingly trivial example is that it\u2019s impossible to catch a virus from someone who is not yet infected . and once your link with that person is broken , as happens in dynamic networks , you\u2019re safe . in a static network , by contrast , the links don\u2019t break and you simply become infected later .\nthat has important implications for the spread of mobile malware . in any phone network , certain phones make far more connections than others . one traditional approach is to target these nodes with patches that prevent the spread of malware .\nbut in a dynamic network the constant rewiring means that these important nodes change too . so the best connected nodes at one instant may not be the best connected at another . clearly , this has to be taken into account in any effective anti - malware strategy .\nso what to do ? tang and co say the answer is to beat the malware at its own game by spreading any patch through the network via the same bluetooth or wifi routes that the virus is using . in that way , the patches should reach the best connected nodes automatically .\nwhat\u2019s more , since the dynamic network more or less exactly mimics the pattern of face - to - face interactions between humans , wireless viruses spread mainly during weekdays when most human contacts are made . but they are largely dormant during the night when few contacts are made\nthat\u2019s significant because it means that any patch can catch up during the night . in fact , tang and co show that their patch can spread at a rate that outpaces any virus .\nthat looks to be an interesting development in the cat and mouse race between the virus makers and and breakers . but it seems unlikely to be the last word . it can only be a matter of time before malware developers exploit the techniques outlined by tang and co to spread their viruses more effectively through dynamic networks . and when that happens , the cycle will begin again .\nemerging technology from the arxiv covers the latest ideas and technologies that appear on the physics arxiv preprint server . it is part of the physics arxiv blog . email :\nunlimited online access including articles and video , plus the download with the top tech stories delivered daily to your inbox .\nby signing up you agree to receive email newsletters and notifications from mit technology review . you can unsubscribe at any time . view our privacy policy for more details .\nthe mission of mit technology review is to bring about better - informed and more conscious decisions about technology through authoritative , influential , and trustworthy journalism ."]}
{"id": 2421, "summary": [{"text": "aeoliscus strigatus , also known as the razorfish , is a member of the family centriscidae of the order syngnathiformes .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "this unique fish adopts a head-down tail-up position as an adaptation for hiding among sea urchin spines .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the razorfish is found in coastal waters in the indo-west pacific .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitat includes beds of sea grass and coral reefs , where sea urchins are found . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "aeoliscus strigatus", "paragraphs": ["what type of species is aeoliscus strigatus ? below , you will find the taxonomic groups the aeoliscus strigatus species belongs to .\nwhich photographers have photos of aeoliscus strigatus species ? below , you will find the list of underwater photographers and their photos of the marine species aeoliscus strigatus .\nhow to identify aeoliscus strigatus marine species ? below , you will find the list of main identification criteria and physical characteristics of marine species aeoliscus strigatus . for each identification criteria , the corresponding physical characteristics of marine species aeoliscus strigatus are marked in green .\nwhere is aeoliscus strigatus found in the world ? below , you will find the list and a world map of the geographic distribution where the marine species aeoliscus strigatus can be found .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nkatkarapukala\nto\naeoliscus strigatus ( g\u00fcnther , 1861 )\n.\nnick hope added the english common name\ncentriscus scutatus\nto\naeoliscus strigatus ( g\u00fcnther , 1861 )\n.\ndianne j . bray & vanessa j . thompson , aeoliscus strigatus in fishes of australia , accessed 10 jul 2018 , urltoken\nnick hope marked the common name\nmorinda spruce\nin an unknown language from\naeoliscus strigatus ( g\u00fcnther , 1861 )\nas untrusted .\nthere have been no dedicated surveys or population estimates carried out for aeoliscus strigatus . further research is needed to understand population size and trends in abundance for this species .\njointed razorfish , aeoliscus strigatus , at sorong , raja ampat islands , west papua , indonesia , depth 6 m . source : orangkucing / urltoken license : cc by attribution - sharealike\naeoliscus strigatus is taken for use in the aquarium trade , however it ' s not clear to what degree the species is targeted versus being caught as bycatch . the level of offtake from wild populations has not been quantified .\nrazorfishes ( including aeoliscus strigatus , centriscus cristatus , and centriscus scutatus ) are not used as food , but are sought by aquarium hobbyists . they are taken as bycatch in bottoms trawls , and by hand ( fritzsche and thiesfeld 1999 ) .\ncitation :\nrazorfishes , aeoliscus strigatus ~ marinebio . org .\nmarinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 1 / 14 / 2013 2 : 22 : 00 pm ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio\naeoliscus strigatus is found in the indo - west pacific , from the western indian ocean along the coasts of east africa , madagascar , comoros and the seychelles , throughout southeast asia , and from the great barrier reef , and new caledonia ( smith and smith 1963 , garpe and \u00f6hman 2003 , allen 2009 , allen and erdmann 2012 ) .\naeoliscus is derived from aeolius , a region from asia minor and aeolus , the greek god of winds . the species name strigata is from the latin meaning stripe in reference to the dark stripe along the sides .\nthe loss , fragmentation and degradation of seagrass ecosystems is also likely to be detrimental to aeoliscus strigatus populations , as research by horinouchi et al . ( 2009 ) found that this species was restricted to continuous beds of seagrass . attenuation of water movement may increase with seagrass bed size , which may be important in its microhabitat choice ( horinouchi et al . 2009 ) . seagrasses are threatened by coastal development , runoff , and overfishing ( waycott et al . 2009 ; short et al . 2011 ) .\nresearch aeoliscus strigatus \u00bb barcode of life ~ bioone ~ biodiversity heritage library ~ cites ~ cornell macaulay library [ audio / video ] ~ encyclopedia of life ( eol ) ~ esa online journals ~ fishbase ~ florida museum of natural history ichthyology department ~ gbif ~ google scholar ~ itis ~ iucn redlist ( threatened status ) ~ marine species identification portal ~ ncbi ( pubmed , genbank , etc . ) ~ ocean biogeographic information system ~ plos ~ siris ~ tree of life web project ~ unep - wcmc species database ~ worms\naeoliscus strigatus forms schools that swim vertically with heads oriented downward among branching corals ( allen 2009 ) , the spines of sea urchins ( diadema spp . : coppard and campbell 2004 ; heinzeller and nebelsick 2005 ) , and in seagrass beds ( nakamura et al . 2002 ) . this species feeds primarily on crustacean zooplankton ( fritzsche and thiesfeld 1999 ) , and ontogenic dietary differences have been observed ( horinouchi et al . 2012 ) . larger individuals feed primarily on gammaridean amphipods , whereas juveniles feed predominantly on planktonic copepods ( horinouchi et al . 2012 ) .\njointed razorfish differ from members of the genus centriscus in having a jointed , versus a rigid first dorsal - fin spine . the other species of aeoliscus , a . punctulatus , occurs in the western indian ocean and the red sea , and differs in having small black spots over body .\nablennes hians , abudebduf sp . , abudefduf abdominalis , abudefduf luridus , abudefduf saxatilis , abudefduf septemfasciatus , abudefduf sexfasciatus , abudefduf sordidus , abudefduf taurus , abudefduf vaigiensis , abudefduf whitleyi , acanthistius brasilianus , acanthistius fuscus , acanthopagrus berda , acanthostracion notacanthus , acanthostracion polygonia , acanthostracion polygonius , acanthostracion quadricornis , acanthurus achilles , acanthurus albipectoralis , acanthurus auranticavus , acanthurus bahianus , acanthurus blochii , acanthurus chirurgus , acanthurus coeruleus , acanthurus dussumieri , acanthurus guttatus , acanthurus leucopareius , acanthurus lineatus , acanthurus mata , acanthurus monroviae , acanthurus nigricans , acanthurus nigricauda , acanthurus nigrofuscus , acanthurus nigroris , acanthurus nubilus , acanthurus olivaceus , acanthurus pyroferus , acanthurus sp . , acanthurus spp . , acanthurus thompsoni , acanthurus triostegus , acanthurus xanthopterus , aeoliscus strigatus , aetobatis narinari , aetobatus narinari , albula glossodonta , albula vulpes , alectis ciliaris , alepes vari , alphestes afer , aluterus monoceros , aluterus scriptus , amanses scopas , amblycirrhitus pinos , amblyglyphidodon aureus , amblyglyphidodon curacao , amblyglyphidodon leucogaster , amblyglyphidodon orbicularis\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) . 2014 . catalog of fishes . updated 23 july 2014 . available at : urltoken .\naustralia ( northern territory , queensland , western australia ) ; cambodia ; china ; india ( andaman is . ) ; indonesia ( bali , jawa , kalimantan , lesser sunda is . , maluku , papua , sulawesi , sumatera ) ; japan ( kyushu ) ; madagascar ; malaysia ( peninsular malaysia , sabah , sarawak ) ; mayotte ; micronesia , federated states of ; mozambique ; new caledonia ; palau ; papua new guinea ( bismarck archipelago , north solomons , papua new guinea ( main island group ) ) ; philippines ; seychelles ( aldabra , seychelles ( main island group ) ) ; taiwan , province of china ( kin - men , ma - tsu - pai - chuan , taiwan , province of china ( main island ) ) ; tanzania , united republic of ; vanuatu ; viet nam\nthe loss and degradation of seagrass and coral reef habitat in the region are likely leading to declines in the population .\nbruno and selig ( 2007 ) performed the first regional scale and long - term analysis of coral cover in the west pacific , compiling a coral cover database of 6001 quantitative surveys of 2667 subtidal coral reefs performed from 1968 and 2004 from sumatra in the west to french polynesia in the east . they found that the region - wide average of coral coverage was 22 . 1 % in 2003 , down from an estimated historical ( 100 - 1000 y . b . p . ) coverage of 50 % ( salvat 2002 ) . the great barrier reef has lost 40 % of its coral cover since 1986 ( hughes et al . 2011 , de ' ath et al . 2012 ) .\ndecreases in coral can result from a number of factors , including coral bleaching caused by elevated sea temperatures , storms , predator and disease outbreaks , sedimentation from urban development and agriculture , and destructive fishing practices such as trawling and using dynamite ( bruno and selig 2007 , carpenter et al . 2008 ) .\nalthough it is clear that coral reefs and seagrasses have been declining and will likely continue to do so , these declines have not been quantified in recent years for areas outside of the great barrier reef , nor have they been quantified over time frames that are relevant to the likely short generation length of the species .\nthere are no species - specific conservation actions in place . this species occurs in many marine protected areas across its range . it is not included in any international legislation or trade controls .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nform schools among the spines of diadema or staghorn corals , and feed on minute crustaceans in the zooplankton . remarkable for their strange body shape and swimming habit : the body is encased in an armor of thin , transparent plates ; they swim in synchronized groups , each fish in a vertical position with the snout pointing downwards .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthe jointed razorfish is an unusual species that is encased in thin plates . it swims with the head down and the back facing the direction of travel .\nthe jointed razorfish has a highly compressed body that is encased in thin plates . it has a long pointed snout and an elongated dorsal spine with a moveable tip .\nthe species is yellowish brown to pale with a black stripe running from the snout to the caudal peduncle .\nthe map below shows the australian distribution of the species based on public sightings and specimens in australian museums . click on the map for detailed information . source : atlas of living australia .\nfishes in the family centriscidae have an unusual mode of swimming . they swim in a vertical position with the head down and with the back facing the direction of travel .\njointed razorfish are often seen in schools that dart between coral branches or between the spines of sea urchins ( diadema ) when disturbed .\nallen , g . r . 1997 . marine fishes of tropical australia and south - east asia . western australian museum . pp . 292 .\nkuiter , r . h . 1996 . guide to sea fishes of australia . new holland . pp . 433 .\nkuiter , r . h . 2000 . seahorses , pipefishes and their relatives . a comprehensive guide to syngnathiformes . tmc publishing pp . 240 .\nrandall , j . e . , allen , g . r . & r . c . steene . 1997 . fishes of the great barrier reef and coral sea . crawford house press . pp . 557 .\nthe remarkable jointed razorfish has a rigid \u2018razor - thin\u2019 body encased in transparent ' armour ' , a long pointed snout and a jointed dorsal - fin spine . they are yellowish - brown to pale green on the back , and silvery on the sides , with a dark mid - lateral stripe along the body . the first dorsal - fin spine is ' jointed ' or hinged and often held at an angle to the body . jointed razorfish often swim in large synchronised schools , and seek refuge amongst coral branches or sea urchin spines .\ntropical indo - west pacific , from east africa to australia and north to southern japan . known in australian waters from the tip of cape york , northern queensland to northern nsw . this schooling species lives on coral reefs in sheltered bays and lagoons on the continental shelf at 1\u201342 m .\njointed razorfish live in association with a variety of invertebrates such as acropora corals , gorgonians , black corals , sea whips , diadema sea urchins and seagrasses .\nmeristic features : dorsal fin iii , 10 ; anal fin 12 ; pectorla fin 11\u201312 ; pelvic fin 4 .\nbody elongate , extremely compressed , encased in protective transparent sutured plates ; ventral edge very compressed , ' sharp ' ; interorbital space striated , convex , longtitudinal agroove absent ; snout long and tubular ; mouth small , teeth absent ; lateral line absent . caudal and soft dorsal fins situated ventrally ; spinous dorsal fin hinged , and positioned at end of body where the caudal fin is usually found .\ncolour varies with habitat , ranging from a silvery greenish - to yellowish - brown , or quite pale . individuals living amongst seagrasses have tend to be more greenish - yellow body with a diffused longitudinal stripe from the snout to the tail fin . those in sandy or rubble habitats are often paler with a black longitudinal stripe .\noviparous , sexes separate , fertilisation external . eggs and larvae are pelagic , juveniles settle at about 20 mm in length , often within the spines of the sea urchin diadema .\nthe jointed razorfish may be taken as bycatch in commerical fisheries . although this species is collected for the aquarium industry , individuals are difficult to keep in captivity .\nrazorfish usually swim in a head - down position , moving in the direction of their dorsal surface .\namphisile strigata g\u00fcnther 1861 , cat . fish . brit . mus . 3 : 528 . type localith : java , indonesia .\nallen , g . r . 1997 . marine fishes of tropical australia and south - east asia . western australian museum . 292 p .\nfritzsche , r . a . & k . g . thiesfeld . 1999 . centriscidae : shrimpfishes ( razorfishes ) , p . 2281 - 2282 in carpenter , k . e . & v . e . niem . species identification guide for fisheries purposes . the living marine resources of the western central pacific . bony fishes part 2 ( mugilidae to carangidae ) . fao , rome .\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1861 . catalogue of the acanthopterygian fishes in the collection of the british museum . 3 . gobiidae , discoboli , pediculati , blenniidae , labyrinthici , mugilidae , notacanthi . london . 3 : i - xxv + 1 - 586 + i - x .\nhoese , d . f . , bray , d . j . , paxton , j . r . & allen , g . r . 2006 . fishes . in beesley p . l . & wells a . ( eds ) zoological catalogue of australia . volume 35 abrs & csiro publishing : australia . 3 volumes .\nkuiter , r . h . 1996 . guide to sea fishes of australia . new holland .\nkuiter , r . h . 2009 . seahorses and their relatives . aquatic photographics , seaford , australia , 333 p .\nleis , j . m . & rennis , d . s . 2000 . centriscidae ( razorfishes ) in leis j . m . and carson - ewart b . m . ( eds ) the larvae of indo - pacific coastal fishes : an identification guide to marine fish larvae . brill , the netherlands .\nmichael , s . w . 2001 . reef fishes volume 1 : a guide to their identification , behaviour and captive care . tfh publications inc . , new jersey , usa .\nokiyama , m . 1988 . an atlas of the early stage fishes in japan . tokai university press , tokyo . 1157 pp . [ in japanese ]\nrandall , j . e . 2005 . reef and shore fishes of the south pacific . university of hawai\u2019i press honolulu .\nrandall , j . e . , allen , g . r . & steene , r . c . 1997 . fishes of the great barrier reef and coral sea . crawford house publishing bathurst .\nrussell , b . c . & w . houston . 1989 . offshore fishes of the arafura sea . the beagle 6 ( 1 ) : 69 - 84 .\nwhitley , g . p . & allan , j . 1958 . the sea - horse and its relatives . the griffin press , adelaide , australia .\ndescription form schools among the spines of @ diadema @ or staghorn corals , and feed on minute crustaceans in the zooplankton . . . .\ndescription form schools among the spines of @ diadema @ or staghorn corals , and feed on minute crustaceans in the zooplankton . remarkable for their strange body shape and swimming habit : the body is encased in an armor of thin , transparent plates ; they swim in synchronized groups , each fish in a vertical position with the snout pointing downwards . [ details ]\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of amphisile strigata g\u00fcnther , 1861 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nauthority authority given as gunther , 1857 ( original combination ) in < 130 > . [ details ]\npacific aquarium - new york city [ local fish store travel ep . 5 ]\nnyc ' s largest aquarium fish store ! ! fishtown usa . nyc aquarium doctors\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndescription : the striped shrimpfish , or razorfish , is a distant relative of the pipefish and seahorses . it has a slender , silver , flattened body with a dark longitudinal line that runs the entire length of the body , even going through the eyes . it has a long slender snout and a long sharp dorsal spine . the body is encased in transparent bony plates that provide protection from predators . if its habitat is seagrass , the body coloration is usually greenish - yellow with brown stripes for camouflage purposes .\nsize : striped shrimpfish can grow up to six inches ( 15 cm ) .\nbehavior : this fish has a unique method of swimming . it swims in synchronized schools in a vertical position ( upside - down ) with the snout pointing straight down . this head - down , tail - up position allows it to hide in the branches of coral or spines of a sea urchin . by hiding among the spines , the shrimpfish is protected from predators and able to hunt for potential food .\nreproduction : males and females release gametes into the open water where external fertilization takes place . the eggs are pelagic and once the juvenile reaches a length of 0 . 75 inches ( 2 cm ) they settle toward the bottom looking for sea urchins to inhabit .\nhabitat / range : the striped shrimpfish inhabits shallow coral reefs and seagrass beds with sea urchins throughout the indo - west pacific .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nyearsley , g . k . , last , p . r . & morris , g . b . 1997 ,\ncodes for australian aquatic biota ( caab ) : an upgraded and expanded species coding system for australian fisheries databases\n, pp . 15 pp . + appendices\nmohr , e . 1937 ,\nrevision der centriscidae ( acanthoptergii , centrisciformes )\n, dana reports , vol . 13 , pp . 1 - 69 figs 1 - 33 pls 1 - 2\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 4542b0db - 8f9e - 4c1a - 95fc - d344921c8171\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f57fb160 - dcc7 - 4311 - 9795 - fb845a2c328d\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 750ff67b - 38c0 - 4a4a - a8da - d9923763199f\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 354359\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nplease select from the available marine fish species below . you may also click here to browse the category .\nplease select from the available invertebrate species below . you may also click here to browse the category .\nplease select from the available coral species below . you may also click here to browse the category .\nplease select from the available aquarium supplies below . you may also click here to browse the category .\nwith 79 or more in marine life . use coupon code : freeshipping more details\nall images , pictures and descriptions are generalizations and cannot be exact representations . copyright 2018 saltwaterfish . com . all rights reserved .\nreceive free shipping on qualifying order when you sign up to receive our email . open your email for complete details .\nthis home page section for this species is currently being developed and will be completed asap ! if you would like to help out or know of a great video , photo or site about this species , let us know and we ' ll notify you as soon as it is finished . our current project plan is to have all marine species home pages finished before christmas this year . if you ' d like to find out more about our ongoing projects here at marinebio , check out our marinebio projects page .\nstart or join a discussion about this species below or send us an email to report any errors or submit suggestions for this page . we greatly appreciate all feedback !\nhelp us protect and restore marine life by supporting our various online community - centered marine conservation projects that are effectively sharing the wonders of the ocean with millions each year around the world , raising a balanced awareness of the increasingly troubling and often very complex marine conservation issues that affect marine life and ourselves directly , providing support to marine conservation groups on the frontlines that are making real differences today , and the scientists , teachers and students involved in the marine life sciences .\nwith your support , most marine life and their ocean habitats can be protected , if not restored to their former natural levels of biodiversity . we sincerely thank our thousands of members , donors and sponsors , who have decided to get involved and support the marinebio conservation society .\ndeep music digitally imported urltoken proton radio * radio paradise radiotunes somafm wers 88 . 9 fm\n~ sharing the wonders of the ocean to inspire conservation , education , research , and a sea ethic ~ marinebio . org , inc . is a u . s . 501 ( c ) 3 charitable , nonprofit organization . contact : info @ urltoken all marinebio conservation society memberships and donations are tax deductible in the united states . > < ( ( ( ( \u00b0 > \u00a9 1998 - 2017 marinebio copyright & terms of use . privacy policy . > - < \u00b0\u00b0 > - <\nfor all at last returns to the sea \u2014 to oceanus , the ocean river , like the everflowing stream of time , the beginning and the end .\n- rachel carson\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nuse on websites and for limited audiences in social media , apps , or live performances .\nvj fractal red kaleidoscopic background . background motion with fractal design . disco spectrum lights concert spot bulb . light tunnel .\nvj fractal gold kaleidoscopic background . background motion with fractal design . disco spectrum lights concert spot bulb . light tunnel .\nskeleton shrimps swaying on black sand slope and muck , caprella sp . hd , up30224\nsoccer ball in goal net with slowmotion . slowmotion football ball in the net .\nstage lights and different shapes art gallery . series 3 + version from 1 to 26 + orange - blue - purple and white color series\nover 10 , 961 , 482 royalty - free video clips with 76 , 091 new stock clips added weekly .\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\ncontent in the dryad digital repository is offered\nas is .\nby downloading files , you agree to the dryad terms of service . to the extent possible under law , the authors have waived all copyright and related or neighboring rights to this data .\nthis dataset contains data on : abundance ( individuals / m ^ 2 ) , standing biomass ( g / ind ) , size - corrected biomass ( g ^ alpha / ind ) , trophic group ( herbivore , omnivore , planktivore , invertivore , piscivore ) , time - averaged temperature kinetics , community - level species richness ( # of species ) and sampling area ( m ^ 2 ) . this dataset was collected by visual counts of 5609 populations of reef fishes spread across 49 sites around tropical and subtropical seas ( see publication for full methods description ) .\nbarneche dr , kulbicki m , floeter sr , friedlander am , allen ap ( 2016 ) energetic and ecological constraints on population density of reef fishes . proceedings of the royal society b 283 ( 1823 ) : 20152186 . urltoken\nbarneche dr , kulbicki m , floeter sr , friedlander am , allen ap ( 2016 ) data from : energetic and ecological constraints on population density of reef fishes .\ndryad is a nonprofit repository for data underlying the international scientific and medical literature .\nlatest build fri , 29 jun 2018 05 : 39 : 03 utc . served by aws - prod"]}
{"id": 2423, "summary": [{"text": "tritia reticulata , common name the \" netted dog whelk \" is a species of small european sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusc in the family nassariidae , the dog whelks or nassa mud snails . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "tritia reticulata", "paragraphs": ["tritia reticulata ( linnaeus , 1758 ) - syn . nassarius reticulatus - netted dog - whelk\ngastropods ( tritia reticulata ) eat bivalve destroyed by crab , medium shot . black sea . ukraine .\ngastropods ( tritia reticulata ) eat bivalve destroyed by crab , close up . black sea . ukraine .\ngastropoda ( tritia reticulata ) crawling on a sandy bottom in search of food , close - up . black sea . ukraine .\nscientific and european names : tritia reticulata , nassarius reticulatus , hinia reticulata , netted dog whelk , dvaergkonk , fuikhoren , gevlochten fuikhoorn , gevlochten fuikhoren , grande nasse , nasse reticulee , netzreusenschnecke .\ngastropods ( tritia reticulata ) crawling from different sides to the smell of bivalve destroyed by crab , wide shot . black sea . ukraine .\n- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : tritia reticulata ( c . linnaeus , 1758 ) - id : 1950001060\nnassa reticulata viriditincta ( var . ) dautzenberg , ph . & h . fischer , 1925\nnassa ( hinia ) reticulata var . viriditincta dautzenberg & fischer h . , 1925 ( synonym )\nhabitats type , critical habitats , limiting factors : inhabiting shallow water sandy bottom shelf areas . the critical habitats are the hypoxic shelf zones . the main limiting factors are oxygen deficiency and a decline in populations of the gastropod mollusc tritia reticulata .\n( of hinia reticulata ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) bodc . ( 2009 ) . species list from the british oceanographic data centre . [ details ]\npizzolla , p . f 2005 . tritia reticulata netted dog whelk . in tyler - walters h . and hiscock k . ( eds ) marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information reviews , [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom . [ cited 09 - 07 - 2018 ] . available from : urltoken\nthe paper deals with statistical processing of information on the tritia distribution ; collected during summers of 1973\u20141976 in some testing grounds near the black sea coasts , of the crimea and the caucasus . it is established that the random value x distribution ( tritia biomass ) does not correspond to the normal law . coming from the fact that the mass is a function proportional to the volume , it is suggested to transform the initial value x into the randomvalue z = \u00b3\u221a\u0445 whose distribution is close to the normal one . the dependence of the average z values on the depth of the tritia habitat and the ground type is determined by dispersion analysis .\nbiology : a psammophilic hermit crab , inhabiting shallow water biotopes including low salinity areas . prefers sandy and shelly grounds , usually at depths of 1 - 10 m , but sometimes can be found up to a depth 40 - 42 m . it is easily recognized by its habit of carrying a snail shell of tritia reticulata , ceritium vulgatum , or sometimes , young rapana thomasiana , in which the unarmored diogenes abdomen is concealed .\n( of nassa ( hinia ) reticulata var . viriditincta dautzenberg & fischer h . , 1925 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of nassa ( hinia ) reticulata ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) dautzenberg , ph . ; fischer , p . - h . ( 1925 ) . les mollusques marins du finist\u00e8re et en particulier de la r\u00e9gion de roscoff . les presses universitaires de france : paris . 180 pp . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 36 [ details ]\n( of nassa ( hinia ) reticulata ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) dautzenberg , ph . ; fischer , p . - h . ( 1925 ) . les mollusques marins du finist\u00e8re et en particulier de la r\u00e9gion de roscoff . les presses universitaires de france : paris . 180 pp . ( look up in ror ) page ( s ) : 36 [ details ]\n( of nassa ( hinia ) reticulata var . viriditincta dautzenberg & fischer h . , 1925 ) dautzenberg , ph . ; fischer , p . - h . ( 1925 ) . les mollusques marins du finist\u00e8re et en particulier de la r\u00e9gion de roscoff . les presses universitaires de france : paris . 180 pp . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 36 [ details ]\n( of nassa ( hinia ) reticulata var . viriditincta dautzenberg & fischer h . , 1925 ) dautzenberg , ph . ; fischer , p . - h . ( 1925 ) . les mollusques marins du finist\u00e8re et en particulier de la r\u00e9gion de roscoff . les presses universitaires de france : paris . 180 pp . ( look up in ror ) page ( s ) : 36 [ details ]\n( of nassa reticulata ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) bucquoy e . , dautzenberg p . & dollfus g . ( 1882 - 1886 ) . les mollusques marins du roussillon . tome ier . gastropodes . paris , j . b . bailli\u00e8re & fils 570 p . , 66 pl . [ pp . 1 - 40 , pl . 1 - 5 , february 1882 ; pp . 41 - 84 , pl . 6 - 10 , august 1882 ; pp . 85 - 135 , pl . 11 - 15 , february 1883 ; pp . 136 - 196 , pl . 16 - 20 , august 1883 ; pp . 197 - 222 , pl . 21 - 25 , january 1884 ; pp . 223 - 258 , pl . 26 - 30 , february 1884 ; pp . 259 - 298 , pl . 31 - 35 , august 1884 ; pp . 299 - 342 , pl . 36 - 40 , september 1884 ; p . 343 - 386 , pl . 41 - 45 , february 1885 ; p . 387 - 418 , pl . 46 - 50 , august 1885 ; pp . 419 - 454 , pl . pl . 51 - 60 , january 1886 ; p . 455 - 486 , pl . 56 - 60 , april 1886 ; p . 487 - 570 , pl . 61 - 66 , october 1886 ] , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of buccinum reticulatum linnaeus , 1758 ) linnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of buccinum anglicum r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) r\u00f6ding p . f . ( 1798 ) . museum boltenianum sive catalogus cimeliorum e tribus regnis naturae quae olim collegerat joa . fried . bolten m . d . p . d . pars secunda continens conchylia sive testacea univalvia , bivalvia et multivalvia . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of buccinum chrysostomum r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) r\u00f6ding p . f . ( 1798 ) . museum boltenianum sive catalogus cimeliorum e tribus regnis naturae quae olim collegerat joa . fried . bolten m . d . p . d . pars secunda continens conchylia sive testacea univalvia , bivalvia et multivalvia . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of buccinum marginulatum lamarck , 1822 ) lamarck [ j . - b . m . ] de . ( 1822 ) . histoire naturelle des animaux sans vert\u00e8bres . tome septi\u00e8me . paris : published by the author , 711 pp . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 278 [ details ]\n( of buccinum porcatum r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) r\u00f6ding p . f . ( 1798 ) . museum boltenianum sive catalogus cimeliorum e tribus regnis naturae quae olim collegerat joa . fried . bolten m . d . p . d . pars secunda continens conchylia sive testacea univalvia , bivalvia et multivalvia . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of buccinum vulgatum gmelin , 1791 ) gmelin j . f . ( 1791 ) . vermes . in : gmelin j . f . ( ed . ) caroli a linnaei systema naturae per regna tria naturae , ed . 10 . tome 1 ( 6 ) . g . e . beer , lipsiae [ leipzig ] . pp . 3021 - 3910 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of nassa oblonga m\u00f6rch , 1852 ) m\u00f6rch , o . a . l . ( 1852 - 1853 ) catalogus conchyliorum quae reliquit d\u2019alphonso d\u2019aguirra & gadea comes de yoldi , regis daniae cubiculariorum princeps , ordinis dannebrogici in prima classe & ordinis caroli terth eques . fasciculus primus . cephalophora , 170 pp . [ 1852 ] ; fasciculus secundus . acephala . annulata cirripedia . echinodermata , 74 pp . l . klein , hafniae , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of nassa isomera locard , 1886 ) locard a . ( 1886 ) . prodrome de malacologie fran\u00e7aise . catalogue g\u00e9n\u00e9ral des mollusques vivants de france . mollusque marins . lyon , h . georg & paris , bailli\u00e8re : pp . x + 778 , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 135 - 136 , 549 [ details ]\n( of nassarius reticulatus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) sanjuan a . , p\u00e9rez - losada m . & rol\u00e1n e . ( 1997 ) allozyme evidence for cryptic speciation in sympatric populations of nassarius spp . ( mollusca , gastropoda ) . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom 77 : 773 - 784 . [ details ]\ngalindo , l . a . ; puillandre , n . ; utge , j . ; lozouet , p . ; bouchet , p . ( 2016 ) . the phylogeny and systematics of the nassariidae revisited ( gastropoda , buccinoidea ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution . 99 : 337 - 353 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 343 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\ngalindo , l . a . ; puillandre , n . ; utge , j . ; lozouet , p . ; bouchet , p . ( 2016 ) . the phylogeny and systematics of the nassariidae revisited ( gastropoda , buccinoidea ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution . 99 : 337 - 353 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of nassa limicola martens , 1870 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of nassa oblonga m\u00f6rch , 1852 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of nassa poirieri locard , 1887 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of nassa bourguignati locard , 1887 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of nassa cancellata martens , 1870 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of nassa coronata nobre , 1884 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of nassa isomera locard , 1886 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of nassarius reticulatus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) landau b . m . , da silva c . m . & gili c . ( 2009 ) the early pliocene gastropoda ( mollusca ) of estepona , southern spain . part 8 , nassariidae . palaeontos 17 : 1 - 101 . [ details ]\n( of nassarius reticulatus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) van dingenen f . , ceulemans l . , landau b . m . & da silva c . m . ( 2015 ) . the family nassariidae ( gastropoda : buccinoidea ) from the late neogene of northwestern france . cainozoic research . 15 ( 1 - 2 ) : 75 - 122 . [ details ]\n( of nassarius ( hinia ) reticulatus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) hayward , p . j . ; ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) . ( 1990 ) . the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe : 1 . introduction and protozoans to arthropods . clarendon press : oxford , uk . isbn 0 - 19 - 857356 - 1 . 627 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of nassarius ( hinia ) reticulatus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) muller , y . ( 2004 ) . faune et flore du littoral du nord , du pas - de - calais et de la belgique : inventaire . [ coastal fauna and flora of the nord , pas - de - calais and belgium : inventory ] . commission r\u00e9gionale de biologie r\u00e9gion nord pas - de - calais : france . 307 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of nassarius ( hinia ) reticulatus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) galindo , l . a . ; puillandre , n . ; utge , j . ; lozouet , p . ; bouchet , p . ( 2016 ) . the phylogeny and systematics of the nassariidae revisited ( gastropoda , buccinoidea ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution . 99 : 337 - 353 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of buccinum reticulatum linnaeus , 1758 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of buccinum reticulatum linnaeus , 1758 ) cernohorsky w . o . ( 1984 ) . systematics of the family nassariidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . bulletin of the auckland institute and museum 14 : 1 - 356 . [ details ]\n( of buccinum anglicum r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of buccinum vulgatum gmelin , 1791 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of buccinum porcatum r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of buccinum chrysostomum r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of nassarius reticulatus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) gofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of nassarius reticulatus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) rolan , e . ; luque , a . a . ( 1995 ) . nassarius reticulatus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) y nassarius nitidus ( jeffreys , 1867 ) ( gastropoda , nassariidae ) , dos especies validas de los mares de europa . iberus . 12 , 59 - 76 . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nvliz belgian marine species consortium ( 2010 onwards ) . belgian register of marine species .\ngalindo , l . a . ; puillandre , n . ; utge , j . ; lozouet , p . ; bouchet , p . ( 2016 ) . the phylogeny and systematics of the nassariidae revisited ( gastropoda , buccinoidea ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution . 99 : 337 - 353 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 343 [ details ] available for editors\ngalindo , l . a . ; puillandre , n . ; utge , j . ; lozouet , p . ; bouchet , p . ( 2016 ) . the phylogeny and systematics of the nassariidae revisited ( gastropoda , buccinoidea ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution . 99 : 337 - 353 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nversion 43 . 0 went live 11 / 6 / 2018 - i hope that the majority of issues have been fixed . my email address is on the home page if you see anything wrong .\nbuccinum marginulatum lamarck , j . b . p . a . de , 1822\nnassa bourguignati locard , e . a . a . , 1887 : nw france\n( linnaeus , 1758 ) . accessed through : sergeyeva , o . ( 2018 ) black sea checklist for ocean - ukraine & sibema at : urltoken ; = 876821 on 2018 - 07 - 09\nsergeyeva , o . ( 2018 ) . black sea checklist for ocean - ukraine & sibema .\na small creamy - brown whelk ( up to 3 cm in height ) it has a pointed , straight sided spire . the criss - crossing of longitudinal and spiral ridges gives the whelk its characteristic netted ( reticulate ) pattern . it has an oval aperture with an outer lip that is thickened and toothed in mature animals . the inner lip extends over the body - whorl and the siphonal canal is deep and at an oblique angle .\nhas been recorded from the moroccan coast , extending through the mediterranean as far east as greece and into the black sea . populations are scattered around european coastlines including france and northern spain , to northernmost records in the baltic sea ( just east of stockholm ) .\ncommon on the lower rocky shore , from the low water of spring tides ( lwst ) extending to sublittoral depths of up to 15 m . as a burrower , it can be found on both rocky and sandy shores in a mixture of rock , mud and sand , or within pockets of soft material on rocky shores under runnels of water at low tide .\nis also tolerant of salinities as low as 16 ppt and can be found in estuaries .\nfish , j . d . & fish , s . , 1996 . a student ' s guide to the seashore . cambridge : cambridge university press .\nhayward , p . , nelson - smith , t . & shields , c . 1996 . collins pocket guide . sea shore of britain and northern europe . london : harpercollins .\nhayward , p . j . & ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) 1995b . handbook of the marine fauna of north - west europe . oxford : oxford university press .\nnational biodiversity network ( nbn ) atlas website . available from : http : / / www . nbnatlas . org . accessed 01 april 2017\npicton , b . e . & costello , m . j . , 1998 . biomar biotope viewer : a guide to marine habitats , fauna and flora of britain and ireland . [ cd - rom ] environmental sciences unit , trinity college , dublin . , urltoken\nmarine life information network ( marlin ) , the marine biological association of the uk ( see contact us ) \u00a9 2018 the marine biological association of the uk , all rights reserved .\nthe information ( text only ) provided by the marine life information network ( marlin ) is licensed under a creative commons attribution - non - commercial - share alike 2 . 0 uk : england & wales license . note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own terms and conditions and they may or may not be available for reuse . permissions beyond the scope of this license are available here . based on a work at urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nan educational resource dedicated mainly to the photography and diversity of marine life that can be found in coastal waters and intertidal areas of great britain and ireland .\nscroll down and rollover titles to change screen image or click on title to view image .\na common mollusc species often found living on the middle but especially the lowershore . can be found under rocks and weed ; and in rockpools with sandy bottoms . locally very common around the south - west coast .\naphotomarine supports open source data recording and sharing for the benefit of wildlife , recorders , research , science and education . the project recommends the following websites and works with the following bodies and organisations .\nthe conchological society of great britain and ireland helping to understand , identify , record , and conserve molluscs .\nthe marine biological association or mba , based in plymouth , is one of the world\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s longest - running societies dedicated to promoting research into our oceans and the life they support . since 1884 the mba has been providing a unified , clear , independent voice on behalf of the marine biological community . it has a growing membership in over 40 countries .\nthe cisfbr or cornwall and isles of scilly federation of biological recorders is an independent umbrella organisation supporting independent recorders and recording groups in the county of cornwall .\nthe cornish biodiversity network or cbn is the largest open source wildlife database in cornwall that sends open source data to the nbn ( national biodiversity network ) . it is a new recording system based on the erica database , the largest recording resource in cornwall . the cbn best supports the activities and needs of the independent recording community and recording groups in cornwall .\nthe national biodiversity network or nbn is a charity that supports open source data sharing and recording supporting conservation , science and education .\nwhy do recorders need open source ?\n. simply because it supports the core values of wildlife recording and the free use of records and data over a very wide network that includes partners like the natural history museum . the link here is to the nbn atlas . the link here is to the nbn atlas .\nthe taxonomy used here is based on that of the following database , which is also used by the mba , nhm and the nbn .\nover 99 % of the species records on aphotomarine are open source but they are also copyright david fenwick . species records published on aphotomarine may not be used on any database , list or distribution map , without a signed user agreement . cornish records that appear on aphotomarine are recorded using the erica database to benefit recording in cornwall and scientific and historical recording in general . no financial benefit must be taken from any record produced by david fenwick , records are of educational benefit only . records by david fenwick must ' ' never ' ' be financially traded .\nthe main objective of this website is in furthering environmental awareness and education through the medium of photography . to increase awareness and access to the wildlife of the region and help\npeople find and identify it . sometimes the difference between species is obvious but many species can only be determined by observing microscopic characteristics that are specific to any one species .\nthe gastropod netted dog whelk ( nassarius reticulatus ) crawls along the sandy bottom .\ngastropod netted dog whelk crawling on muddy ground , then leaves the frame , close - up .\nthe gastropod mollusc netted dog whelk ( nassarius reticulatus ) is buried in the sandy soil .\nover 10 , 966 , 411 royalty - free video clips with 81 , 058 new stock clips added weekly .\nnorway to canarias , madeira to black sea . original taxon : buccinum reticulatum . synonyms : anglicum , cancellata , chrysostomum , coronata , minor \u2026 limicola \u2026 25m deep , adra , almeria , andalucia , spain . 28 - 29mm .\nin nets , marina di ravenna , emilia - romagna , italy . 23mm .\na specimen from near atlantic . 10m deep , taliarte , gran canaria , canarias . 20 - 21mm .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nto organize and save selections in a folder you must first register or log in . registration is free !\nyou ' ll get access to all the essential fotolia content and so much more .\nadobe stock offers an incredible range of exceptional images , videos , and templates plus 3d , editorial , and premium assets to make your work stand out .\npreview watermarked images inside your designs to make sure they look just right . then license and manage them directly within photoshop cc , illustrator cc , indesign cc , and other adobe desktop apps for a seamless workflow .\n{\ninterception\n: {\nipc\n: false ,\nii\n:\n1\n} ,\nfotolia _ range\n: {\nsearch _ max _ xs _ price\n: {\nrange _ value\n:\nall\n,\nrange _ min\n: 1 ,\nrange _ before _ last _ value\n: 3 ,\nrange _ max\n:\nall\n,\nrange _ step\n: 1 ,\nrange _ value _ labels\n: {\n1\n:\n1 credit\n,\n2\n:\n2 credits\n,\n3\n:\n3 credits\n,\nall\n:\ndo not filter\n} } } ,\nfotolia _ color _ picker\n: {\ncurrent _ colors\n: [ ] ,\nnb _ max _ colors\n: 5 } ,\nfotolia _ thumb _ size\n: {\nthumbs _ container _ class _ by _ size\n: {\n160\n:\nthumbs - list - medium\n,\n220\n:\nthumbs - list - large\n,\n240\n:\nthumbs - list - mosaic\n} } ,\nfotolia _ tooltip\n: {\nlicenses _ label\n:\nlicenses :\n} ,\nfotolia\n: {\nhost _ base\n:\nurltoken\n} ,\nsearch\n: {\nheader - search\n: {\nautocomplete _ container _ id\n:\nsearch - 5b43a90867150\n,\nautocomplete _ url\n:\nhttps : \\ / \\ / autocomplete . urltoken \\ / ? language _ id = 3\n} } }\nen poursuivant votre navigation sur ce site , vous acceptez l\u2019utilisation de cookies pour vous proposer des contenus et services adapt\u00e9s et r\u00e9aliser des statistiques de visites . en savoir plus \u00e0 propos des cookies .\n\u00d7 merci d ' apporter des pr\u00e9cisions concernant le probl\u00e8me rencontr\u00e9 ( identification , repr\u00e9sentativit\u00e9 , etc . )\nmerci pour votre contribution \u00e0 l ' am\u00e9lioration de l ' inpn . nous avons transmis ces informations \u00e0 un expert pour v\u00e9rification et correction .\ncorrespond \u00e0 un signalement sur la base d ' au moins une observation av\u00e9r\u00e9e dans une p\u00e9riode de 10 ans ( 20 ans pour les invert\u00e9br\u00e9s peu connus ) pr\u00e9c\u00e9dant l ' ann\u00e9e de r\u00e9f\u00e9rence et aucune pr\u00e9somption de disparition depuis l ' obtention de la derni\u00e8re donn\u00e9e ni doute sur le caract\u00e8re reproducteur et implant\u00e9 de cette population . pour les esp\u00e8ces migratrices , la pr & easence ; indiqu & eae ; concerne les zones de reproduction .\nune derni\u00e8re observation fiable remontant \u00e0 plus de 10 ans par rapport \u00e0 la date de r\u00e9f\u00e9rence , aucune recherche sp\u00e9cifique r\u00e9cente et aucune pr\u00e9somption de disparition depuis cette date [ vert\u00e9br\u00e9s , plantes et invert\u00e9br\u00e9s bien \u00e9tudi\u00e9s ( rhopaloc\u00e8res , orthopt\u00e8res , odonates . . . ) ] ;\nune derni\u00e8re observation fiable remontant \u00e0 plus de 20 ans , aucune recherche sp\u00e9cifique r\u00e9cente et aucune pr\u00e9somption de disparition depuis cette date [ taxons peu connus : fonge , nombreux invert\u00e9br\u00e9s . . . ] .\nce point recouvre l ' absence , par nature plus difficile \u00e0 d\u00e9montrer que la pr\u00e9sence . ce statut se base sur un ou plusieurs des crit\u00e8res suivants :\nce statut doit \u00e9galement \u00eatre attribu\u00e9 \u00e0 un d\u00e9partement dans lequel la pr\u00e9sence de l ' esp\u00e8ce est occasionnelle .\ncas particulier d ' absence li\u00e9e \u00e0 une disparition av\u00e9r\u00e9e depuis moins d ' un demi - si\u00e8cle ( les disparitions anciennes sont trait\u00e9es comme \u00ab absence probable ou certaine \u00bb ) .\ndans l ' \u00e9tat des connaissances , on ne peut pas se prononcer sur la pr\u00e9sence ou l ' absence actuelle dans le d\u00e9partement . il s ' agit du statut utilis\u00e9 par d\u00e9faut quand on ne se situe pas dans une des cat\u00e9gories pr\u00e9c\u00e9dente ou d\u00e8s lors qu ' il y a un doute .\navertissement : les donn\u00e9es mises \u00e0 disposition refl\u00e8tent l ' \u00e9tat d ' avancement des connaissances ou la disponibilit\u00e9 des inventaires . en aucun cas elles ne sauraient \u00eatre consid\u00e9r\u00e9es comme exhaustives .\ninventaire national du patrimoine naturel , site web : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\noccurrence describes how often the species is found on surveys within its distribution . it is calculated as the % of reef sites surveyed by rls divers across all the ecoregions in which the species has been observed\nabundance is calculated as the average number of individuals recorded per rls transect , where present .\nplease use this form only for a single type of error . if you see multiple errors on the page for this species , please report these in separate forms by clicking on this button again after submitting this form\nthank you for highlighting this error . we appreciate your assistance in maintaining high quality control standards\n( linnaeus , 1758 ) . accessed through : costello , m . j . ; bouchet , p . ; boxshall , g . ; arvanitidis , c . ; appeltans , w . ( 2018 ) european register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 876821 on 2018 - 07 - 09\ncostello , m . j . ; bouchet , p . ; boxshall , g . ; arvanitidis , c . ; appeltans , w . ( 2018 ) . european register of marine species .\n( of nassarius ( hinia ) reticulatus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) hayward , p . j . ; ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) . ( 1990 ) . the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe : 1 . introduction and protozoans to arthropods . clarendon press : oxford , uk . isbn 0 - 19 - 857356 - 1 . 627 pp . ( look up in ror ) [ details ]\n( of nassarius ( hinia ) reticulatus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) galindo , l . a . ; puillandre , n . ; utge , j . ; lozouet , p . ; bouchet , p . ( 2016 ) . the phylogeny and systematics of the nassariidae revisited ( gastropoda , buccinoidea ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution . 99 : 337 - 353 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors\n( of nassarius reticulatus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) gofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in ror ) [ details ]\nlamarck [ j . - b . m . ] de . ( 1822 ) . histoire naturelle des animaux sans vert\u00e8bres . tome septi\u00e8me . paris : published by the author , 711 pp .\nlamarck and 19th century authors treated planaxis as a genus of feminine gender . worms follows prevailing current . . . [ details ]\nbodc . ( 2009 ) . species list from the british oceanographic data centre . [ details ]\nthis translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations .\ncommon names : engl : hermit crab ; russ : rak otshel ' nik diogen ; ukr : rak - diogen samitnik .\ntaxonomic descriptions : one of two species of the paguridae family in the black sea . the first left leg with claw is much bigger than the right leg . dactylus moves on vertical plane . the coloration of its body is yellow . the anterior edge of the carapace has acute triangular lateral projections . the internal sides of the dactyli have unequal tooths . length up to 30 mm .\ndistribution : black sea coastal waters and southern sea of azov , mediterranean sea , east atlantic coast from the north sea untill the coasts of angola .\npopulation trends : decline in population numbers since the late 1970s . a reduction of 60 - 70 % over the last 10 years according to direct visual observations .\nconservation measures proposed : enter in the black sea red data book . reduction in black sea coastal zone pollution .\npovchun , a . s . , 1992 . izmenenie donnykh soobschestv karkinitskogo zaliva ( changes in the bottom communities of karkinitsky bay ) . in : mnogoletnye izmenenya zoobentosa chernogo morya ( multiannual changes in the black sea zoobenthos ) , kiev , naukova dumka , p . 105 - 138 ( in russian ) .\nkiseleva , m . i . , 1992 . smena donnykh soobschestv biotopa peska u yugo - zapadnogo poberezhya kryma ( changes in bottom communities on the sand biotope near the south - western crimean coast ) . in : mnogoletnye izmenenya zoobentosa chernogo morya ( multiannual changes in the black sea zoobenthos ) , kiev , naukova dumka , p . 62 - 69 , ( in russian ) .\nsources : hayward , p . ; nelson - smith , a . ; shields , c . ( 1999 ) . gids van kust en strand : flora en fauna [ coast and beach guide : flora and fauna ] . tirion : baarn , netherlands . isbn 90 - 5210 - 327 - 5 . 352 , ill . pp .\nsources : lindner , g . ( 1999 ) . schelpengids : schelpen uit de wereldzee\u00ebn , vorm , voorkomen , systematiek [ the shell guide : shells from the world oceans , shape , distribution and systematics ] . tirion : baarn , the netherlands . isbn 90 - 5210 - 409 - 3 . 320 pp .\nsources : muller , y . ( 2004 ) . faune et flore du littoral du nord , du pas - de - calais et de la belgique : inventaire . [ coastal fauna and flora of the nord , pas - de - calais and belgium : inventory ] . commission r\u00e9gionale de biologie r\u00e9gion nord pas - de - calais : france . 307 pp .\nlinnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp .\ngofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 180 - 213\nhowson , c . m . ; picton , b . e . ( ed . ) ( 1997 ) . the species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the british isles and surrounding seas . ulster museum publication , 276 . the ulster museum : belfast , uk . isbn 0 - 948150 - 06 - 8 . vi , 508 ( + cd - rom ) pp .\nrol\u00e1n e . , 2005 . malacological fauna from the cape verde archipelago . part 1 , polyplacophora and gastropoda .\nrolan e . & luque a . a . ( 1995 ) nassarius reticulatus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) y nassarius nitidus ( jeffreys , 1867 ) ( gastropoda , nassariidae ) , dos especies validas de los mares de europa . iberus 12 : 59\u201376 .\nsanjuan a . , p\u00e9rez - losada m . & rol\u00e1n e . ( 1997 ) allozyme evidence for cryptic speciation in sympatric populations of nassarius spp . ( mollusca , gastropoda ) . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom 77 : 773 - 784 .\n( linnaeus , 1758 ) . in : costello , m . j . ; bouchet , p . ; boxshall , g . ; arvantidis , c . ; appeltans , w . ( 2014 ) european register of marine species , accessed through pesi at\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 license\npesi is funded by the european union 7th framework programme within the research infrastructures programme . contract no . ri - 223806 . activity area : capacities . period 2008 - 2011 - website hosted & developed by vliz banner picture : gannet ( morus bassanus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) by karl van ginderdeuren - contact pesi"]}
{"id": 2426, "summary": [{"text": "allomerus decemarticulatus is an amazonian ant species found in the tropics of south america .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "this species is most notable for the workers \u2019 complex and extreme predatory behavior , which involves a symbiosis with both a plant and fungal species .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "they live in leaf pockets of a host plant species , hirtella physophora .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "these leaf pockets are areas inside of the plant between the leaves and the stem .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "each colony , which consists of about 1,200 workers , inhabits a single tree ; however , the ants are spread among the leaf pockets , with typically 40 workers per pocket .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "their diet primarily consists of large insects that are captured on the plant , but they also eat some kinds of food bodies produced by the plant as well as its nectar .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they are able to capture their prey , which is much larger than themselves , by constructing a platform that acts as a trap for the unsuspecting prey .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the ants hide in the trap and attack when any insect lands on it .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "this technique is an example of ambush predation . ", "topic": 10}], "title": "allomerus decemarticulatus", "paragraphs": ["the above specimen data are provided by antweb . please see allomerus decemarticulatus for further details\nallomerus mayr , 1878 : 873 . type - species : allomerus decemarticulatus , by subsequent designation of wheeler , w . m . 1911f : 158 .\nallomerus mayr , 1878 : 873 . type species : allomerus decemarticulatus mayr , by subsequent designation of wheeler , w . m . 1911 : 158 .\nthe workers of allomerus decemarticulatus construct a trap for capturing prey that is built from plant material and fungi .\npalabras clave . allomerus , hormigas , formicidae , am\u00e9rica del sur , taxonom\u00eda .\ntable 1 . list of the allomerus species here recognized and their plant records .\nallomerus septemarticulatus mayr stat . rev . ( fig . 5 a , b )\nallomerus octoarticulatus mayr , 1878 : 874 ( w ) ; forel , 1904 : 679 ( q , m ) ; wheeler g . c . & wheeler j . , 1955 : 125 ( l ) ; kempf 1972 : 19 ( revised status as species ) ; bolton 1995 : 61 ( catalogue ) . allomerus tuberculatus forel , 1912 : 2 ( w , m ) ; allomerus decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . tuberculatus : wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 201 . n . syn . allomerus decemarticulatus octoarticulatus : wheeler , w . m . , 1942 : 199 . allomerus octoarticulatus var . demerarae wheeler , w . m . in wheeler , g . c . , 1935 : 92 ( w , q , m ) ; allomerus decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . demerarae : wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 200 . n . syn . allomerus decemarticulatus novemarticulatus wheeler , w . m . & mann in wheeler , w . m . , 1942 : 199 ( w ) . n . syn . allomerus decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . exanguis wheeler , w . m . & mann , in wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 200 [ unavailable name ] . allomerus decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . angulatus wheeler , w . m . & mann , in wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 201 [ unavailable name ] . allomerus decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . melanoticus : wheeler , w . m . & mann , in wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 202 [ unavailable name ] .\nallomerus octoarticulatus mayr ( figs . 4 a , b , c , d , e )\nallomerus septemarticulatus mayr , 1878 : 874 ( w ) ; forel , 1904 : 680 ( q ) ; allomerus octoarticulatus var . septemarticulatus : forel , 1904 : 680 ; allomerus octoarticulatus septemarticulatus : wheeler w . m . , 1942 : 203 ; bolton 1995 : 61 .\nthe resident allomerus decemarticulatus colonies were over - provisioned ( experimental trees ; open circles ; n = 31 ) or not ( control trees ; filled circles ; n = 41 ) ( means \u00b1 se ) .\nwheeler ( 1942 ) reports an a . decemarticulatus collection made on expanded hirtella peduncles and another ( probably ) on tococa or duroia , both from brazil . dejean et al . ( 2001 ) cite monogynous colonies of a . decemarticulatus in hirtella physophora ( chrysobalanaceae ) , with populations of more than 1 . 000 workers , which patrol leaves during the day , searching for prey . the allomerus material reported by kempf ( 1975 : 347 ) as a . decemarticulatus could be allomerus brevipilosus , if there is species fidelity to the associated plants .\nallomerus vogeli kempf , 1975 : 348 ( w , m ) ; bolton 1995 : 61 .\none amazon species ( allomerus decemarticulatus ) cooperatively builds extensive traps from plant fiber . these traps have many holes and , when an insect steps on one , hundreds of ants inside use the openings to seize it with their jaws .\nrelative operational taxonomic unit ( otu ) richness of bacterial phyla in cuticular microbiomes of allomerus and tetraponera ants . for allomerus , two proteobacteria otus that could not be assigned to a class were omitted from the analysis .\nwheeler ( 1942 ) reports an a . decemarticulatus collection made on expanded hirtella peduncles and another ( probably ) on tococa or duroia , both from brazil . dejean et al . ( 2001 ) cite monogynous colonies of a . decemarticulatus in hirtella physophora ( chrysobalanaceae ) , with populations of more than 1 . 000 workers , which patrol leaves during the day , searching for prey . the allomerus material reported by kempf ( 1975 : 347 ) as a . decemarticulatus could be a . brevipilosus , if there is species fidelity to the associated plants .\nfern\u00e1ndez , f . 2007a . the myrmicine ant genus allomerus mayr . caldasia . 29 : 159 - 175 . pdf\ntop image : a wasp tries to steal from an allomerus trap ( photo from de jean et al 2012 ) .\n. . . in the study area , plant individuals are mostly inhabited by a . decemarticulatus with a single mature colony per plant ( solano et al . , 2003 ) , although another allomerus species , a . octoarticulatus , can compete for the same host plant in a few locations . allomerus decemarticulatus is a strictly monogynous ant species ( grangier et al . , 2009 ) . reproductive individuals are produced throughout the year , since there is no massive mating swarm ( grangier et al . , 2009 ) . . . .\nfigure 5 . allomerus septemarticulatus . a , worker in lateral view ; b , queen in lateral view , wings omitted .\n3 . corbara b . 2005 . les pi\u00e9ges des fourmis allomerus . insectes 138 ( 3 ) : 15 - 17 .\ndejean et al . ( 2001 ) studied predatory behavior in allomerus decemarticulatus . more recently dejean et al . ( 2005 ) registered trap building behavior for the first time in this species . these structures seem to help ants catch prey , and was an unknown behavior in ants .\ndejean et al . ( 2001 ) studied predatory behavior in allomerus decemarticulatus . more recently dejean et al . ( 2005 ) registered trap building behavior for the first time in this species . these structures seem to help ants catch prey , and was an unknown behavior in ants .\n6 . dejean a . , p . j . solano , m . belin - depoux , p . cerdan & b . corbara . 2001 . predatory behavior of patrolling allomerus decemarticulatus workers ( formicidae : myrmicinae ) on their host plant . sociobiology 37 : 571 - 577 .\n. . . in the study area , plant individuals are almost exclusively inhabited by a . decemarticulatus with a single colony per plant ( solano et al . 2003 ) . moreover , a . decemarticulatus has never been found in association with another myrmecophyte ( grangier et al . 2009 ) . as in any other protective mutualism between ants and plants , a . decemarticulatus workers protect their host plant from defoliators , thus favouring its vegetative growth ( grangier et al . 2008 ; orivel et al . 2011 ) . . . .\nto summarize , we found z . annulosus only on pubescent plants , including the myrmecophyte h . physophora whether or not the plant was sheltering a mutualistic a . decemarticulatus colony . the plant is slightly protected from defoliators , while z . annulosus is aided throughout its entire development . the relationship between z . annulosus and a . decemarticulatus corresponds to the simple coexistence of two competitors sharing hunting areas , with z . annulosus individuals benefiting from enemy - free space thanks to the presence of plant trichomes protecting them from a . decemarticulatus attacks .\n. . . plant individuals are almost exclusively inhabited by the arboreal ant a . decemarticulatus with a single colony per plant ( solano et al . 2003 ) . moreover , a . decemarticulatus has never been found in association with another myrmecophyte species in the study area ( grangier et al . 2009 ) . as in any other protective mutualism between ants and plants , a . decemarticulatus workers protect their host plant from defoliators through their predatory behaviour ( dejean et al . 2001dejean et al . , 2005 grangier et al . 2008 ) . . . .\nthe ants , called allomerus decemarticulatus , live in trees in the amazon . their trap is made of natural plant hairs , some regurgitated goo , and a binding fungus that the ants , amazingly , appear to farm . it allows the ants to snag a meal , such as a large flying insect , that they otherwise could not handle .\n. . . allomerus decemarticulatus is a strictly monogynous ant species ( grangier et al . , 2009 ) . reproductive individuals are produced throughout the year , since there is no massive mating swarm ( grangier et al . , 2009 ) . founding queens disperse by flying from their mother colony to search for an available host plant . . . .\nallomerus decemarticulatus mayr , 1878 : 874 ( w ) ; kempf , 1975 : 347 ( q ) . worker measurements ( n = 1 ) : hw 0 . 55 hl 0 . 58 , 0 . 60 sl 0 . 33 0 . 55 wl 0 . 58 gl 0 . 54 tl 2 . 20 ci 94 si 60 .\nwhen prey were placed on the stems , a . decemarticulatus workers were always the first to find and spread - eagle them ; z . annulosus nymphs never tried to feed on these prey .\n. . . ( chrysobalanaceae ) , and its obligatory ant partner , allomerus decemarticulatus mayr ( myrmicinae ) ( grangier et al . 2009 ) . previous studies on this association demonstrated a conflict between ant behaviour and host plant reproduction , resulting in very low fruit production ( orivel et al . 2011 ; mal\u00e9 et al . 2012 ) . . . .\nfive polymorphic microsatellite loci of the arboreal ant allomerus decemarticulatus ( myrmicinae ) were isolated and characterized . the amplification and polymorphism of seven additional microsatellite loci , previously developed for the ant species a . octoarticulatus and wasmannia auropunctata , were also tested and the amplification conditions necessary for genotyping the complete set of 12 multiplexed markers in a . decemarticulatus determined . the number of alleles per locus ranged from three to 15 and observed heterozygosity varied from 0 . 09 to 0 . 95 . cross - species amplification of these loci was also successfully achieved in additional species of the same ant subfamily , myrmicinae . this set of microsatellite markers will be used in studies on the mating system and population genetic structure of myrmicinae in general and a . decemarticulatus in particular .\nfive polymorphic microsatellite loci of the arboreal ant allomerus decemarticulatus ( myrmicinae ) were isolated and characterized . the amplification and polymorphism of seven additional microsatellite loci , previously developed for the ant species a . octoarticulatus and wasmannia auropunctata , were also tested and the amplification conditions necessary for genotyping the complete set of 12 multiplexed markers in a . decemarticulatus determined . the number of alleles per locus ranged from three to 15 and observed heterozygosity varied from 0 . 09 to 0 . 95 . cross - species amplification of these loci was also successfully achieved in additional species of the same ant subfamily , myrmicinae . this set of microsatellite markers will be used in studies on the mating system and population genetic structure of myrmicinae in general and a . decemarticulatus in particular .\n16 . wheeler g . c . 1935 . the larva of allomerus ( hym . : formicidae ) . psyche 42 ( 2 ) : 92 - 98 .\nalthough associations between myrmecophytes and their plant ants are recognized as a particularly effective form of protective mutualism , their functioning remains incompletely understood . this field study examined the ant - plant hirtella physophora and its obligate ant associate allomerus decemarticulatus . we formulated two hypotheses on the highly specific nature of this association : ( 1 ) ant . . . [ show full abstract ]\n. . . all allomerus species are specialist plant - ants inhabiting a variety of myrmecophytic hosts ( fernandez 2007 ) . in the study area , the plants are mostly inhabited by a . decemarticulatus with a single mature colony per plant ( grangier et al . 2009 ) , although another allomerus species , a . octoarticulatus , can compete for the same host plant in a few sites . the ants provide their host plant with protection from phytophagous insects , thus favouring its vegetative growth ( grangier et al . 2008a ; orivel et al . 2011 ) . . . .\nbolton , b . 2003 . synopsis and classification of formicidae . mem . am . entomol . inst . 71 : 370pp ( page 208 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini )\nthe tree is home to ants called allomerus decemarticulatus , which defend it from hungry insects . in return , the tree provides the ants with leaf pouches and swollen thorns as shelter , and feeds them with nectar and sugary nodules . these food sources are rich in carbohydrates but low in proteins . to supplement their diets , the ants need flesh , and they get it by shaping the tree into traps .\nthe trap ant , allomerus decemarticulatus , is a small , unassuming south american insect , staying out of sight much of the time in nest pouches among the branches of the tree , hirtella physophora . in this arboreal environment animal prey can be hard to come by . any substantial insect the ants would dearly love to get their mandibles into can simply relinquish its grip on the tree and fall or fly to safety .\nbackground and aims : the plant hirtella physophora , the ant allomerus decemarticulatus and a fungus , trimmatostroma sp . , form a tripartite association . the ants manipulate both the plant trichomes and the fungus to build galleries under the stems of their host plant used to capture prey . in addition to its structural role , the fungus also improves nutrient uptake by the host plant . but it . . . [ show full abstract ]\nallomerus decemarticulatus - trap - making . . . actual production of the trap occurs by first cutting plant hairs ( trichomes ) from a narrow vertical stretch of the stem outside of the domatia . . . and regurgitate the mold that acts as a paste and holds the trichomes together . . . this mold will continue to grow in between the trichomes and around the holes to fill out and reinforce the structure . . .\ntop 5 frightening insects you think insects are just little harmless nuisances ? then you need to be filled in on these top 5 scary insects , that either inflict unbearable pain or chase you half a mile . allomerus decemarticulatus closeup picture : april nobile , urltoken allomerus decemarticulatus trapping insect picture by alain degean gun picture : urltoken didier descouens , smartse & hans hillewaert for the bullet ant pictures japanese giant hornet pics by kenpei . music used : dance of the pixies by jens kiilstofte urltoken licensed under creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international ( urltoken )\nvolatile reaction\nkevin macleod ( incompetech . com ) licensed under creative commons : by attribution 3 . 0 urltoken make sure to subscribe if you want another top 5 every week ! and leave suggestions down below for what should be next ! if you do you might be put in the next video !\notus comprise pyrotags sharing \u226597 % nucleotide identity . hpad , hirtella - hosted a . decemarticulatus ; cnao , cordia - hosted a . octoarticulatus ; hpao , hirtella - hosted a . octoarticulatus ; avg , average ; sterr , standard error .\nfigure s1 . rarefaction curves ( 97 % shared identity ) for allomerus ( hpao station , hpad station , cnao station ) and tetraponera ( ngong hills , kitengela , mpala road ) ant samples .\nbolton , b . 1994 . identification guide to the ant genera of the world . cambridge , mass . : harvard university press , 222 pp . ( page 106 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini )\njaffe , k . 1993 . el mundo de las hormigas . baruta , venezuela : equinoccio ( ediciones de la universidad sim\u00f3n bol\u00edvar ) , 188 pp . ( page 10 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini )\nwheeler , w . m . 1910b . ants : their structure , development and behavior . new york : columbia university press , xxv + 663 pp . ( page 140 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini )\nallomerus brevipilosus n . sp . ( w ) brazil . a . decemarticulatus mayr , 1878 : 874 ( w , q ) brazil , french guiana . a . dentatus n . sp . ( w ) venezuela . a . maietae n . sp . ( w ) brazil . a . octoarticulatus mayr , 1878 : 874 ( w , q , m ) brazil , bolivia , colombia , french guiana , per\u00fa . = a . tuberculatus forel , 1912 : 2 ( w , m ) . n . syn . = a . octoarticulatus var . demerarae wheeler , w . m . in wheeler , g . c . , 1935 : 92 ( w , q , m ) . = a . decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . demerarae : wheeler , 1942 : 200 . = a . novemarticulatus wheeler , w . m . & mann in wheeler , w . m . , 1942 : 199 ( w ) . n . syn . = a . decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . exanguis wheeler , w . m . & mann , in wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 200 . = a . decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . angulatus wheeler , w . m . & mann , in wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 201 . = a . decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . tuberculatus : wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 201 . = a . decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . melanoticus wheeler , w . m . & mann , in wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 202 . a . septemarticulatus mayr , 1878 : 874 ( w , q ) brazil . status rev . a . undecemarticulatus n . sp . ( w ) venezuela . a . vogeli kempf , 1975 : 348 ( w , m ) . venezuela , brazil .\nthis specimen is very similar to what is here described as an a . decemarticulatus queen , although the virtual lack of erect pilosity raises attention . there are short hairs on the head , propodeum and ventral surface of the gaster , but the rest of the body can be considered as glabrous . taking into account both queens ( one described above ) which were seen and referred to this species , plus the data provided by kempf ( 1975 : 347 ) , it can certainly be established that the a . decemarticulatus queen has moderate to dense pilosity . the glabrous queen collected in an a . decemarticulatus nest provides the bases to speculate about polygyny or symbiotic processes ( parasitism ) mentioned by h\u00f6lldobler and wilson ( 1990 ) . this interesting finding will be explored in further publications .\nmal\u00e9 , p . g . , loiseau , a . , estoup , a . , quilichini , a . , & orivel , j . ( 2010 ) . characterization of polymorphic microsatellite loci in the neotropical plant - ant allomerus decemarticulatus ( formicidae : myrmicinae ) and multiplexing with other microsatellites from the ant subfamily myrmicinae . eur . j . entomol . , 107 ( 4 ) , 673 - 675 . doi : 10 . 14411 / eje . 2010 . 074 .\nforel , a . 1895b . a fauna das formigas do brazil . bol . mus . para . hist . nat . ethnogr . 1 : 89 - 139 ( page 125 , allomerus in myrmicinae , myrmicini )\nforel , a . 1917 . cadre synoptique actuel de la faune universelle des fourmis . bull . soc . vaudoise sci . nat . 51 : 229 - 253 ( page 243 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini )\nh\u00f6lldobler , b . ; wilson , e . o . 1990 . the ants . cambridge , mass . : harvard university press , xii + 732 pp . ( page 16 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini )\nillustration of the presence of z . annulosus as a function of the presence of allomerus decemarticulatus and the mean number of leaves ( \u00b1se ) of h . physophora . presence of z . annulosus ( filled circle ) , absence ( empty circle ) . glm : factors ants : ns ; size : ns ; leaves : p < 0 . 01 ; ants - size interaction : ns ; leaves - size interaction : ns ; ants - leaves interaction : p < 0 . 01 .\nin the understory of pristine guianese forests , the myrmecophyte hirtella physophora almost exclusively shelters colonies of the plant - ant allomerus decemarticulatus in its leaf pouches . we experimentally tested three non - mutually exclusive hypotheses concerning phenomena that can determine the species specificity of this association throughout the foundation stage of the colonies : ( 1 ) interspecific competition results in the overwhelming presence of a . decemarticulatus queens or incipient colonies ; ( 2 ) exclusion filters prevent other ant species from entering the leaf pouches ; and ( 3 ) host - recognition influences the choice of founding queens , especially a . decemarticulatus . neither interspecific competition , nor the purported exclusion filters that we examined play a major role in maintaining the specificity of this association . unexpectedly , the plant trichomes lining the domatia appear to serve as construction material during claustral foundation rather than as a filter . finally , a . decemarticulatus queens are able to identify their host plant from a distance through chemical and / or visual cues , which is rarely demonstrated in studies on obligatory ant\u2013plant associations . we discuss the possibility that this specific host - recognition ability could participate in shaping a compartmentalized plant - ant community where direct competition between ant symbionts is limited . \u00a9 2009 the linnean society of london , biological journal of the linnean society , 2009 , 97 , 90\u201397 .\nallomerus samples were collected in french guiana from three inland sites , basevie , area 9 , and area 24 , which all are close to the field station at barrage de petit saut . hirtella - hosted a . decemarticulatus colonies ( hpad ) were sampled as well as cordia - hosted a . octoarticulatus colonies ( cnao ) and hirtella - hosted a . octoarticulatus ( hpao ) colonies . five worker ants from each of the hpad , cnao , and hpao samples were pooled and stored in 1 ml of 20 % glycerol at \u221220\u00b0c , until processing . allomerus decemarticulatus and a . octoarticulatus ants were distinguished morphologically by counting the number of antennal segments of representative worker ants under a stereomicroscope , 10 for a . decemarticulatus and eight for a . octoarticulatus . tetraponera penzigi workers were provided by naomi e . pierce ( harvard , u . s . a . ) and were sampled from kitengela ( s1 o 23\u2032526\u2032\u2032 e36 o 49\u2032108\u2032\u2032 ) and ngong hills ( s1 o 26\u2032946\u2032\u2032 e36 o 38\u2032358\u2032\u2032 ) from southern kenya ( near nairobi ) , as well as mpala road ( n0 o 32\u2032 e36 o 42\u2032 ) from central kenya ( laikipia district ) . an average of five worker ants were collected from each colony and were preserved in 1 ml of 20 % glycerol .\n. . . this third partner , an ascomycota from the order chaetothyriales , therefore serves a structural purpose . allomerus decemarticulatus also supply their host tree with nutrients via the walls of the domatia and the fungus with wastes , whilst the fungus , in turn , also provides the host plant with nutrients [ 19 , 26 ] . finally , the workers partially castrate their host plant by cutting and chewing both the sterile and fertile parts of the flower buds [ 24 , 27 ] . . . .\ncomments . although there are no phylogenetic studies for tribe solenopsidini , allomerus seems to be a monophyletic genus . the clypeal configuretion and the constriction in the proximal base of each antennal club segment seem to be unique characteristics within the solenopsidini ( bolton 1987 ) . the clypeus , which is broadly inserted between the frontal antennal lobes , contradicts the tribal characterization ( except for diplomorium and allomerus , the remaining tribe members possess a narrow insertion , making the carinae close together ) . as bolton ( 1987 ) points out , the clypeal configuretion in allomerus can be a plesiomorphic condition or a secondary broadening . for now , neither of the explanations can be stated as more valid than the other .\nmayr , g . 1878 [ 1877 ] . formiciden gesammelt in brasilien von professor trail . verh . k - k . zool . - bot . ges . wien 27 : 867 - 878 ( page 873 , allomerus as genus )\ndalla torre , k . w . von . 1893 . catalogus hymenopterorum hucusque descriptorum systematicus et synonymicus . vol . 7 . formicidae ( heterogyna ) . leipzig : w . engelmann , 289 pp . ( page 78 , allomerus in myrmicinae )\nwe also noted what kinds of interactions occurred between z . annulosus and a . decemarticulatus workers . during observations conducted prior to this study , we verified if one of the species preyed on the other . we then verified if they competed for prey by conducting experiments where we placed live nasutitermes sp . termite workers at three different places on a plant sheltering both an a . decemarticulatus colony and z . annulosus second or third instar nymphs . ( 1 ) we dropped a termite from ca . 5 cm in height onto the centre of the upper surface of the leaves where a z . annulosus was hunting . ( 2 ) we then dropped a termite near the domatia where workers were much more numerous . ( 3 ) finally , using forceps and selecting an internode situated above a leaf on which a z . annulosus was hunting , we placed the prey on the side of the stem without the trap built by a . decemarticulatus workers . each time we noted whether a z . annulosus or an a . decemarticulatus worker caught the prey first and verified if the other tried to rob the prey , or if they shared it . fifty replicates were conducted in each case .\nwhen prey were dropped near the domatia , a . decemarticulatus and z . annulosus caught them first 20 and 30 times , respectively ( fisher ' s exact - test : p = 0 . 07 ) . when the ants caught the prey first , z . annulosus nymphs approached the domatia in five cases out of 20 , extending their rosters toward the prey , but finally gave up and moved further away . the a . decemarticulatus workers never reacted when the z . annulosus nymphs caught the prey first , allowing the nymphs to move slowly toward the centre of the leaves to eat the prey .\nthe allomerus decemarticulatus species is native to the tropics of south america . they are featured on this list because of their unique way of ambushing unwary giant insects . amazonian ants use a particular kind of fungus that they grow themselves \u2013 it\u2019s never present in stems that weren\u2019t touched by these ants . when the unsuspecting insect lands on a stem full of those trap holes , the predator insects swoop in and catch it with their mandibles . then , they slowly drag the captive to a leaf pouch , where they tear their prey apart . ouch .\nthe neotropical myrmicine ant genus allomerus mayr is revised . the genus is apparently monophyletic based on the antennal club configuretion . i recognize 8 species ( 4 described as new ) : allomerus brevipilosus n . sp . ( brazil ) , a . decemarticulatus mayr ( brazil , french guiana ) , a . dentatus n . sp . ( venezuela ) , a . maietae n . sp . ( brazil ) , a . octoarticulatus mayr ( = a . tuberculatus forel n . syn . = a . octoarticulatus var . demerarae w . m . wheeler n . syn . = a . novemarticulatus wheeler & mann n . syn . [ brazil , bolivia , colombia , french guiana , peru ] ) , a . septemarticulatus mayr status rev . ( brazil ) , a . undecemarticulatus n . sp . ( venezuela ) and a . vogeli kempf ( venezuela , brazil ) . better knowledge of the taxonomy of allomerus is needed to understand the apparently sporadic differences in antennal flagellomere number and speciation processes that are probably linked to plant cavity colonization .\nemery , c . 1895l . die gattung dorylus fab . und die systematische eintheilung der formiciden . zool . jahrb . abt . syst . geogr . biol . tiere 8 : 685 - 778 ( page 769 , allomerus in myrmicinae , myrmicini )\nthe plant hirtella physophora , the ant allomerus decemarticulatus and a fungus , trimmatostroma sp . , form a tripartite association . the ants manipulate both the plant trichomes and the fungus to build galleries under the stems of their host plant used to capture prey . in addition to its structural role , the fungus also improves nutrient uptake by the host plant . but it still remains unclear whether the fungus plays an indirect or a direct role in transferring nutrients to the plant . this study aimed to trace the transfer of n from the fungus to the plant ' s stem tissue .\namong those plants on which we observed z . annulosus was hirtella physophora ( chrysobalanaceae ) , a myrmecophyte that specifically houses colonies of the plant - ant allomerus decemarticulatus ( myrmicinae ) in pouches situated at the base of the leaf lamina , and provides them with extrafloral nectar . the workers of this species forage for prey on the host plant foliage and build gallery - shaped traps to capture large insects [ 24 ] , [ 25 ] . therefore , in the case of h . physophora , two predators seem to share a limited territory represented by the plant ' s foliage .\nfigure 7 . allomerus vogeli . a , worker in lateral view ; b , worker head in full face view ; c , male head in full face view ; d , male front wing . redrawn from kempf 1975 : 349 , figures 1 - 4 .\nse ofrece una revisi\u00f3n de las hormigas myrmicinae del g\u00e9nero allomerus mayr . este es un g\u00e9nero aparentemente monofil\u00e9tico debido a la configureci\u00f3n de la maza antenal . se reconocen ocho species ( cuatro nuevas ) : allomerus brevipilosus n . sp . ( brasil ) , a . decemarticulatus mayr ( brasil , guayana francesa ) , a . dentatus n . sp . ( venezuela ) , a . maietae n . sp . ( brasil ) , a . octoarticulatus mayr ( = a . tuberculatus forel n . syn . = a . octoarticulatus var . demerarae w . m . wheeler n . syn . = a . novemarticulatus wheeler & mann n . syn . [ brasil , bolivia , colombia , guayana francesa , per\u00fa ] ) , a . septemarticulatus mayr status rev . ( brasil ) , a . undecemarticulatus n . sp . ( venezuela ) y a . vogeli kempf ( venezuela , brasil ) . se necesita saber m\u00e1s de la taxonom\u00eda y la biolog\u00eda de allomerus para entender las diferencias aparentemente espor\u00e1dicas en el n\u00famero de segmentos de las antenas y los procesos de especiaci\u00f3n ligados a la colonizaci\u00f3n de partes internas de las plantas .\nwe focused this study on hirtella physophora ( chrysobalanaceae ) that houses colonies of allomerus decemarticulatus ( myrmicinae ) in pouches situated at the base of the leaf lamina ( fig . 1 ) and provides them with extrafloral nectar . workers build galleries under the stems of their host - plants that serve as traps to capture insects of up to 1800 times the weight of a worker ( fig . 1 ; [ 25 ] ) . to build these galleries , the workers first cut plant trichomes along the stems , clearing a path ; then , using uncut trichomes as pillars , they build the vault of the galleries by binding together the cut trichomes with the mycelium of a fungus that they manipulate [ 25 ] . this third partner , an ascomycota from the order chaetothyriales , therefore serves a structural purpose . allomerus decemarticulatus also supply their host tree with nutrients via the walls of the domatia and the fungus with wastes , whilst the fungus , in turn , also provides the host plant with nutrients [ 19 ] , [ 26 ] . finally , the workers partially castrate their host plant by cutting and chewing both the sterile and fertile parts of the flower buds [ 24 ] , [ 27 ] .\ncomments . allomerus maietae is distinguished from the rest of the species by the shape of the mesosomal profile in lateral view ( fig . 3 ) , where the weakly convex promesonotum passes smoothly into the propodeum , which is slightly concave . the propodeal spiracle is very high . the body hairs are longer than in any other allomerus species , as well as the clypeal hairs , where the medial hair reaches half of the mandibularl length . the intermediate antennal flagelomeres are relatively slender . the type specimen was captured in maieta neblinensis in the amazon .\nashmead , w . h . 1905c . a skeleton of a new arrangement of the families , subfamilies , tribes and genera of the ants , or the superfamily formicoidea . can . entomol . 37 : 381 - 384 ( page 383 , allomerus in myrmicinae , stenammini )\ninsect fungiculture is practiced by ants , termites , beetles , and gall midges and it has been suggested to be widespread among plant\u2013ants . some of the insects engaged in fungiculture , including attine ants and bark beetles , are known to use symbiotic antibiotic - producing actinobacteria to protect themselves and their fungal cultivars against infection . in this study , we analyze the bacterial communities on the cuticles of the plant\u2013ant genera allomerus and tetraponera using deep sequencing of 16s rrna . allomerus ants cultivate fungus as a building material to strengthen traps for prey , while tetraponera ants cultivate fungus as a food source . we report that allomerus and tetraponera microbiomes contain > 75 % proteobacteria and remarkably the bacterial phyla that dominate their cuticular microbiomes are very similar despite their geographic separation ( south america and africa , respectively ) . notably , antibiotic - producing actinomycete bacteria represent a tiny fraction of the cuticular microbiomes of both allomerus and tetraponera spp . and instead they are dominated by \u03b3 - proteobacteria erwinia and serratia spp . both these phyla are known to contain antibiotic - producing species which might therefore play a protective role in these ant\u2013plant systems .\nwheeler , w . m . 1911g . a list of the type species of the genera and subgenera of formicidae . ann . n . y . acad . sci . 21 : 157 - 175 ( page 158 , type - species : allomerus decearticulatus ; by subsequent designation )\nettershank , g . 1966 . a generic revision of the world myrmicinae related to solenopsis and pheidologeton ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . aust . j . zool . 14 : 73 - 171 ( page 111 , review of genus ; page 81 , allomerus in myrmicinae , megalomyrmex genus group )\n. . . these treelets have longlived leaves that bear a pair of leaf - domatia at the base of each lamina . the domatia differ both morphologically and anatomically from the lamina ( leroy et al . 2008 ) . in the study area , h . physophora is strictly associated with the plant\u2013ant a . decemarticulatus ( myrmici - nae ) . . . .\n5 . debout g . , r . pereyra , b . c . emerson y d . w . yu . 2005 . characterization of polymorphic microsatellites in the castration parasite plant - ant allomerus octoarticulatus cf . demerarae ( formicidae : myrmicinae ) . molecular ecology notes 6 : 182 - 184 .\nemery , c . 1914e . intorno alla classificazione dei myrmicinae . rend . sess . r . accad . sci . ist . bologna cl . sci . fis . ( n . s . ) 18 : 29 - 42 ( page 41 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini [ subtribe monomoriini ] )\nseveral allomerus specimens with new name labels were found in the mzsp , but it was impossible to establish the origin of these names , as no one else is actually working on the revision of the genus ( brand\u00e3o , personal communication ) ; some of these names are used in the present paper .\nalthough most classifications place allomerus in the tribe solenopsidini ( h\u00f6lldobler & wilson 1990 , bolton 1987 , 2003 ) , this genus ( and the old world diplomorium ) do not fit the tribal diagnosis offered by bolton ( 1987 , 2003 ) . bolton ( 1987 ) suggests diplomorium ( monotypic genus known from south africa ) as the genus closest to allomerus , especially based on its clypeal configuretion . if this sister group relation is shown to be true , it might be a biogeographical distribution to be studied carefully , because no known group of sister ant taxa possesses such distribution that joins the amazon valley with south africa .\nallomerus octoarticulatus may be a species complex . it is not possible to be sure as no types of the subspecies or varieties linked to this named were seen except for those of allomerus demerarae . i decided that the subspecies or varieties should be placed as octoarticulatus synonyms , due to the following reasons : the observation of allomerus demerarae cotypes ( lacm ) and the a . tuberculatus forel paratype picture ( mcz webpage ) shows that the only difference between these ants and the a . octoarticulatus concept is based upon differences in the propodeum . in a . demerarae the propodeum is slightly longer , and in a . angulatus and a . tuberculatus it is slightly angulate . the allomerus tuberculatus paratype photograph ( mcz webpage ) shows no signs of the tubercles mentioned by wheeler ( 1942 ) when referring to this variety . from the observed material it can be said that a gradation exists in terms of propodeal shape , from convex without angles and teeth , to highly angulate ( in lateral view ) . on the other hand the posterior and basal propodeal faces can be simple or with a pair of lateral carinae . in the few observed females and the observations made by wheeler ( 1942 ) , it seems that the propodeum is also variable , from rounded and continuous to toothed , with the female in an intermediate condition . i prefer to interpret these observations in the sense of allomerus octoarticulatus as a variable species . it is possible that it is really a complex with several species , but this can only be determined with more material and the observation of types .\nlittle is known about the aggressiveness of plant - ants typically living in isolated trees nor about how that aggressiveness varies based on this isolation . here , we examine intra - and interspecific aggressiveness between workers of two allomerus species associated with two different myrmecophytes . in both cases , the level of intraspecific aggressiveness is very low whatever the distance separating the tested nests , while interspecific conflicts are always violent . similar patterns of aggressiveness have been reported in various ant species , but the strictly arboreal life of allomerus ants associated with the isolation of their adult colonies highlight different ecological conditions that might explain the lack of aggressiveness between conspecifics .\nit is something manufactured by the ants from elements coming from the plant and the environment ,\nhe said in an email interview .\ncontrary to social spiders which are also collectively building a trap ( their web ) from the silk they produce , the trap of allomerus is made from external products .\nwheeler , w . m . 1922i . ants of the american museum congo expedition . a contribution to the myrmecology of africa . vii . keys to the genera and subgenera of ants . bull . am . mus . nat . hist . 45 : 631 - 710 ( page 663 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini )\nwhen z . annulosus nymphs moved from one leaf to another they walked on the upper part of the stems , avoiding putting their legs on the trap where a . decemarticulatus workers ambushed in a group . nevertheless , there were exceptions as five first and second instar nymphs were captured , meaning that exceptionally small z . annulosus nymphs can be caught despite the care they take to avoid the traps .\nonly otus comprising \u22651 % relative pyrotag abundance are shown . also shown is the average percent abundance ( avg ) and standard error ( sterr ) of taxa . taxonomy at the level of class is shown for proteobacteria . otu , operational taxonomic unit ; hpad , hirtella - hosted a . decemarticulatus ; cnao , cordia - hosted a . octoarticulatus ; hpao , hirtella - hosted a . octoarticulatus .\nfigure s1 . photographs of the reproductive parts of hirtella physophora during the different stages of anthesis and fruiting . ( a ) flower buds are segregated on fasciculate racemous inflorescences ; ( b ) as the flower opens , the stamens and the style progressively uncoil ; ( c ) flowers are characterized by a pentamerous perianth with five pale pink to white petals alternating with the sepal . allomerus decemarticulatus workers can be observed foraging at the mouth of the floral cup ; ( d ) once the flowers are completely open , the stigma from one flower is several centimetres away from that flower\u2019s anthers , but can be very close to the anthers of another flower ; ( e - f ) the fruit is a fleshy drupe . ( jpeg 4670 kb )\nfigure 4 . allomerus octoarticulatus . a , worker in lateral view ; b , worker head in full face view ; c , queen in lateral view , wings omitted ; d , queen head in full face view ; e , male head in full face view . fig . 4e redrawn from kempf 1975 : 349 , figure 5 .\nthis species has been collected on hirtella myrmecophila ( mzsp ) , leaf cavities in remijia physophora , beneath leaves and caulinar cavities in tocota setifera pilger in brazil , and caulinar cavities in cordia hispidissima in bolivia ( wheeler 1942 ) . debout et al . ( 2005 ) isolated 15 a . octoarticulatus ( cf . demerarae ) microsatelites , obtaining high intrapopulation variation , results that are also likely for a . decemarticulatus .\ndebout g . d . g . , pereyra r . , emerson b . c . & yu d . w . 2006 : characterization of polymorphic microsatellites in the castration parasite plant - ant allomerus octoarticulatus cf . demerarae ( formicidae : myrmicinae ) . mol . ecol . notes 6 : 182 - 184 go to original source . . .\nthe diversity of proteobacteria within allomerus and tetraponera cuticular microbiomes . ( a and c ) relative abundance of pyrotags from proteobacterial classes ; ( b and d ) relative abundance of operational taxonomic units ( otus ) ( 97 % identity ) from proteobacterial classes . the distribution and average relative abundance of proteobacteria pyrotags and otus is enumerated in table s1 .\n. . . hirtella physophora is an understorey myrmecophytic shrub whose ant - domatia consist of two leaf pouches situated at the base of the leaf blade , on both sides of the petiole . the leaf blades bear extra - floral nectaries on their abaxial surface ( leroy et al . 2008 ) . in french guiana , h . physophora is specifically associated with the plant ant a . decemarticulatus ( myrmicinae ) . . . .\nbolton , b . 1987 . a review of the solenopsis genus - group and revision of afrotropical monomorium mayr ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . bull . br . mus . ( nat . hist . ) entomol . 54 : 263 - 452 ( page 282 , review of genus ; page 271 , allomerus in myrmicinae , in solenopsis genus group )\ndlussky , g . m . ; fedoseeva , e . b . 1988 . origin and early stages of evolution in ants . pp . 70 - 144 in : ponomarenko , a . g . ( ed . ) cretaceous biocenotic crisis and insect evolution . moskva : nauka , 232 pp . ( page 80 , allomerus in myrmicinae , megalomyrmecini )\nin the case of allomerus novemarticulatus , it has been synonymized with a . octoarticulatus for many reasons . in the first place , no 9 - segmented antennae have been seen in workers . there is an a . octoarticulatus worker in which the left antennae seems to be 9 - segmented , but the specimen\u2019s level of conservation does not permit verification . on the other hand , wheeler ( 1942 : 199 ) observed that a . novemarticulatus is almost identical to a . octoarticulatus , except for the 9 antennal segments . it is better to leave this species as conspecific with a . octoarticulatus until better material is available and ensures the existence of an independent allomerus species that actually possesses 9 antennal segments .\nwhen termite prey were experimentally placed onto the centre of the leaves , z . annulosus nymphs always detected them first , captured them and fed on them , while a . decemarticulatus workers never tried to rob these prey . if a patrolling worker arrived by chance , the z . annulosus only lifted the prey with its rostrum , avoiding any contact between the prey and the ant ( n = 17 cases out of 50 ) .\n. . . these treelets have long - lived leaves that bear extraxoral nectaries and a pair of pouches at the base of each lamina . the leaf pouches that shelter ant colonies , diver both morphologically and anatomically from the lamina ( leroy et al . 2008 ) . each h . physophora is almost always associated with a . decemarticulatus ( 99 % of the inhabited plants , the remaining being inhabited by crematogaster sp . . . .\nrelative pyrotag abundance of phyla in cuticular microbiomes of allomerus and tetraponera ants . the cuticles of both ant genera are dominated by proteobacteria . we also report the average relative abundance \u00b1 the standard error for each phyla observed . for the tetraponera graph , cyanobacteria and candidate phylum tm7 are not shown but are present in average abundances of < 0 . 01 % .\nallomerus samples were collected in french guiana and tetraponera samples were collected in kenya ( see materials and methods ) . bacteria were washed off from ant cuticles using sterile 20 % glycerol and bacterial dna was extracted and used as template for pcr with universal primers gray28f and gray519r ( materials and methods ) . the 16s amplicons that resulted were 454 - pyrosequenced with a gs flx sequencer ( roche ) using the gs flx titanium series chemistry kit . sequence data were quality filtered and taxonomy was assigned using the quantitative insights into microbial ecology ( qiime ) software package ( caporaso et al . 2010b ) . in total , 16 , 427 pyrotags ( allomerus ) and 8388 pyrotags ( tetraponera ) passed quality filtering and were assigned taxonomy .\nthere is another queen from french guiana , petit - saut collected by b . corbara and coworkers in june 9th , 2000 ( no . 5299 , deposited in ceplac ) and with a label that states \u201cdans nid allomerus 10 - articulatus / hirtella 4\u201d . it is a dealate female and was collected in an apparently normal nest in terms of the population , including the queen itself .\nproportion of trees bearing zelus annulosus in each category . n = number of plants observed ; different letters indicate significant differences at p < 0 . 01 ( fisher\u2019s exact - tests and the sequential bonferroni procedure ) . the four cordia nodosa and the tococa guianensis sheltering z . annulosus were occupied by allomerus octoarticulatus and crematogaster laevis , respectively , while the other treelets sheltered azteca spp . colonies .\n( a ) leaves bear leaf pouches ( left arrow ) at the base of their laminas . allomerus decemarticulatus workers capture a green locust thanks to their trap : a gallery made using severed host plant trichomes and the mycelium of an astomycota fungus that the ants manipulate to create a composite material pierced by numerous holes ( from under which the workers ambush prey ) . a wasp is seen robbing a piece of the locust abdomen ; the wasp was also captured in turn as was the red reduviid ( right arrow ) . ( b ) at the distal position of the branch , flowers are segregated on racemous inflorescences at different stages of maturation from flower buds to fully open flowers . ( c ) development of young , green ( i . e . unripe ) drupes . ( d ) a dark purple ( i . e . ripe ) drupe . scale bars represent 1 cm .\ngiven that we previously isolated six actinobacterial species from allomerus ants ( one amycolatopsis spp . and five streptomyces spp . ) and four of the isolates produced antifungal compounds ( seipke et al . 2012c ) , it is somewhat surprising that antibiotic - producing actinobacteria are not abundant on allomerus ants . additionally , even though our sampling suggested the absence of antibiotic - producing actinobacteria within the cuticular microbiome of tetraponera ants , we could readily isolate antibiotic - producing actinobacteria from the ants used in this study , including three streptomyces spp . and three saccharopolyspora spp , five of which have antifungal activity ( table s2 ) . in fact , this highlights the caution with which culture - dependent studies should be treated as our own approach was biased toward the selective isolation of actinomycetes , which have a \u201chairy\u201d colony morphology due to their filamentous growth and are easy to identify by eye on agar plates . the culture - independent data suggests that filamentous actinomycete bacteria have a rare abundance on allomerus and tetraponera spp . as most of the species observed in culturing studies were not detected by deep sequencing the same samples ( materials and methods ) . as noted above , however , it is likely we under - sampled rare bacterial genera .\nthe assumption that z . annulosus is able to coexist with a . decemarticulatus raises questions about the nature of the biological interactions between z . annulosus , understory plants and ants patrolling their foliage for prey [ 26 ] . in general , these plants benefit from the presence of ants that patrol their foliage , and prey on herbivorous insects . the relationship is mutualistic when the plants reward the ants with sugary substances and / or shelter for the colony ( as is the case for myrmecophytes ) .\nallomerus workers hide in the galleries with their heads just under the holes , mandibles wide open , seemingly waiting for an insect to land ,\nthe scientists write .\nto kill the insect , they grasp its free legs , antennae or wings , and move in and out of holes in opposite directions until the prey is progressively stretched against the gallery and swarms of workers can sting it .\npublished information on the maximum size and weight of the prey captured by arboreal ants is sparse . oecophylla longinoda workers can capture large insects 20 to 50 times their weight , with this ratio exceptionally reaching 580 for a small bird captured and transported after it had fallen to the ground [ 22 ] . allomerus workers use their gallery - shaped trap to capture insects up to 1800 times their weight [ 16 ] .\nin the original description , kempf ( 1975 ) mentions that the a . vogeli worker possesses 9 flagelomeres , sometimes 10 due to the division of segments 2 or 3 , the worker ( figure 1 in kempf 1975 ) has 11 segments as a total . allomerus vogeli , a . dentatus and a . maietae share in the possession of a propodeal tooth or spine , which separates them from the rest of the species that belong to the genus . allomerus vogeli is distinguished from a . dentatus ( the closest related species according to morphological traits ) because of the position of the propodeal spiracle that in a . dentatus is closer to the propodeal spine than in a . vogeli . this species is known from merc\u00e9s , rio negro , amazonas , brazil ; the type material was collected in myrmidone macrosperma ( kempf 1975 ) .\nant - fungus associations are well known from attine ants , whose nutrition is based on a symbiosis with basidiomycete fungi . otherwise , only a few non - nutritional ant - fungus associations have been recorded to date . here we focus on one of these associations involving allomerus plant - ants that build galleried structures on their myrmecophytic hosts in order to ambush prey . we show that this . . . [ show full abstract ]\nallomerus plant associations are of high biological interest . table 1 shows the species list and associated plants based on literature and specimen labels . surely , more field collections will be needed before establishing the exclusiveness of some ants to certain plants . additional information and taxonomically well defined species will result in further symbiosis and coevolutionary studies , as those dealing with the crematogaster and macaranga association in asia ( itino et al . 2001 ) .\nmyrmecophytism occurs in plants that offer ants a nesting space and , often , food rewards in exchange for protection from predators and competitors . such biotic protection by ants can , however , interfere with the activity of pollinators leading to potential negative consequences for the plant\u2019s reproduction . in this study , we focused on the association between the understory myrmecophyte , hirtella physophora ( chrysobalanaceae ) , and its obligate ant partner , allomerus decemarticulatus ( myrmicinae ) . we investigated the reproductive biology of h . physophora and the putative mechanisms that may limit ant\u2013pollinator conflict . our results show that h . physophora is an obligate outcrosser , self - incompatible , and potentially insect - pollinated species . the reproduction of h . physophora relies entirely on pollen transfer by pollinators that are likely quite specific . potential interference between flower - visiting insects during pollination may also be lessened by a spatial and temporal segregation of ant and pollinator activities , thus enabling pollen transfer and fruit production ."]}
{"id": 2431, "summary": [{"text": "the camiguin hawk-owl or camiguin boobook ( ninox leventisi ) is an owl species of the philippines island camiguin .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it was previously known as a subspecies of the philippine hawk-owl , but only reclassified in mid-2012 , as voice and other evidence suggested it a distinct species . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "camiguin hawk - owl", "paragraphs": ["the first owl , the camiguin hawk - owl , is found only on the small island of camiguin sur , close to northern mindanao .\ntwo new species of owls have been discovered in the philippines . at the top left is the cebu hawk - owl and at the bottom right is the camiguin hawk - owl .\nthe cebu hawk owl , left , and a pair of camiguin hawk owls ( christian artuso / r . o . hutchinson , via rasmussen et al . , forktail )\ntwo of the species had never been described nor officially named , until now . one of the newly identified owl species , now called the camiguin hawk - owl , lives only on the small island of camiguin sur and has a very different voice and set of physical features than other owls in the region , the researchers said . it has blue - gray eyes and sings a long solo song at night that builds in intensity with a low growling tone . pairs of camiguin hawk - owls , meanwhile , sing short barking duets that kick off with a growl .\nbibliographic information : rasmussen et al . 2012 . vocal divergence and new species in the philippine hawk owl ninox philippensis complex . forktail 28 : 1\u201320\nnfefi - bcc has been successful with breeding the philippine eagle - owl ( bubo philippensis ) ( iucn \u2018vulnerable\u2019 ) , producing 13 owlets between 2005 and 2012 . the centre also houses the philippine hawk - owl .\nrecording av # 13552 . philippines : camiguin sur ( 9 . 15 , 124 . 72 ) recorded by lisa paguntalan\nthe researchers , who reported their findings in forktail , the journal of asian ornithology , also identified the cebu hawk - owl after studying its structure and vocalizations .\nthe development of the philippine owls conservation programme is supported by the world owl trust and uk owl - tag . it was initiated in 1996 for the conservation of owl species of varying conservation status , including a few critically endangered ones .\nin camiguin sur , information about the population distribution and habitat requirements of the newly described camiguin hawk - owl was obtained from new research initiatives , in collaboration with a biology student from misamis state university \u2013 iligan institute of technology ( msu - iit ) . the discovery of this owl brought a significant amount of attention to the conservation importance of forests on the island . initial surveys in forest patches with the potential of being included in the mt . timpoong - hibok hibok natural monument are slated to commence in 2013 - 2014 .\nin fact , the researchers found that the philippine hawk - owl ( ninox philippensis ) consists of seven allopatric species , or those that emerge as a consequence of individuals being isolated geographically , or temporally . they also identified one subspecies .\non cebu island , the stepping up of ecological studies on the cebu hawk - owl leading to its elevation from a subspecies of the philippine hawk - owl ( ninox philippensis ) into a full species . distribution surveys , habitat assessments and radio - telemetry studies were conducted in few of the largest remnant forest patches on the island . these studies revealed that the species is almost certainly \u2018endangered\u2019 , requiring urgent conservation action . discussions for creating forest corridors and expanding existing forest habitats are ongoing .\ntwo new owl species have been identified in the philippines , and researchers say the birds ' songs led them to the discovery .\nthe second discovery is the cebu hawk - owl . this bird was thought to be extinct , as the forests of cebu have almost all been lost due to deforestation . but it had never been considered a distinct form . study of its structure and vocalizations confirmed that it is a new species .\nin the sulu islands , where the sulu hawk - owl ( ninox reyi ) ( birdlife international \u2018vulnerable\u2019 ) can be found , surveys will commence soon with the clearing political climate . initial population surveys for the mindanao scops owl ( otus mirus ) were conducted in 2011 in baluno , pasonanca national park , with biology students from western mindanao state university . these collaborations with academic institutions were also part of pbcfi\u2019s efforts to build capacity among locals to conduct basic research .\nc . 25 cm . round - headed , white - throated owl with only short filamentous extensions on ear - coverts , most of plumage looks rather evenly barred with dark brown and buff to tawny . . .\noriginal description : rasmussen , p . c . , allen , d . n . s . , collar , n . j . , demeulemeester , b . , hutchinson , r . o . , jakosalem , p . g . , kennedy , r . s . , lambert , f . r . and paguntalan , l . m . 2012 . vocal divergence and new species in the philippine hawk owl ninox philippensis complex . forktail 28 : p . 1 - 20 .\nfjelds\u00e5 , j . ( 2018 ) . camiguin boobook ( ninox leventisi ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\n\u201cmore than 15 years ago , we realized that new subspecies of ninox hawk - owls existed in the philippines , \u201d she said . \u201cbut it wasn\u2019t until last year that we obtained enough recordings that we could confirm that they were not just subspecies , but two new species of owls . \u201d\nmore than 15 years ago , we realized that new subspecies of ninox hawk - owls existed in the philippines ,\nzoologist pam rasmussen , of michigan state university ( msu ) , said in a statement .\nbut it wasn ' t until last year that we obtained enough recordings that we could confirm that they were not just subspecies , but two new species of owls .\nexamination of photos using flash and without flash and where the two eyes of an individual owl are at different angles to a light source demonstrates that the eye colour is yellow and that the bluish colouration illustrated here is in fact an artifact or reflection of artifical light . see urltoken for an example of a photo taken without flash and other recent photos on the internet .\ntap here to turn on desktop notifications to get the news sent straight to you .\nthe owls don ' t learn their songs , which are genetically programmed in their dna and are used to attract mates or defend their territory ; so if they ' re very different , they must be new species ,\nrasmussen explained in a statement from msu .\nwhen we first heard the songs of both owls , we were amazed because they were so distinctly different that we realized they were new species .\nfollow livescience on twitter @ livescience . we ' re also on facebook & google + .\ncopyright 2012 livescience , a techmedianetwork company . all rights reserved . this material may not be published , broadcast , rewritten or redistributed .\nfirst - person essays , features , interviews and q & as ; about life today .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nmikkola , heimo . 2013 .\nowls of the world : a photographic guide ( second edition )\n. bloomsbury .\nrecently described species , differing from n . philippensis and other close congeners ( see n . philippensis ) in plumage and morphometrics , grey to whitish eyes and , especially , voice # r . monotypic .\nvery low - pitched , typically short strophes repeated after brief pauses , with many rapid , irregular . . .\nendangered . restricted - range species : present in mindanao and the eastern visayas eba . likely to be at risk . type collected in jun 1968 . forest now restricted to only the . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\naffinities of many species in this genus are uncertain ; research required in order to clarify relationships .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\na multinational team of ornithologists has discovered two new species of owls in the philippines .\n\u201cthe discovery , which is featured in the current issue of forktail , the journal of asian ornithology , took years to confirm , but it was well worth the effort , \u201d said lead author dr pam rasmussen of the michigan state university\u2019s museum .\nannouncing the finding of a single bird is rare enough . but the discovery of two new bird species in a single paper is so rare that rasmussen and the other researchers couldn\u2019t recall the last time it happened .\ndespite being so close geographically to related owls on mindanao , it has quite different physical characteristics and voice . at night , it gives a long solo song that builds in intensity , with a distinctive low growling tone . pairs of owls give short barking duets that start with a growl . they also are the only owls to have blue - gray eyes .\n\u201cthe owls don\u2019t learn their songs , which are genetically programmed in their dna and are used to attract mates or defend their territory ; so if they\u2019re very different , they must be new species , \u201d dr rasmussen explained . \u201cwhen we first heard the songs of both owls , we were amazed because they were so distinctly different that we realized they were new species . \u201d\nthe owls have avoided recognition as distinct species for so long because the group shows complex variation in appearance that had been poorly studied , and their songs were unknown . both islands are off the beaten path for ornithologists and birders , who usually visit the larger islands that host more bird species .\njuvenile australopithecus climbed trees , 3 . 32 - million - year - old foot fossil shows\n\u00a9 2011 - 2018 . sci - news . com . all rights reserved . | back to top\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhighly distinctive vocally , and will be treated as new species in forthcoming analysis ( rasmussen et al . ms )\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 189 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nour vision is the long - term conservation of the philippines\u2019 native and endemic wildlife and natural habitats for the benefit of future generations of all peoples who may inhabit and share the natural resources of the country .\nmanila office 3a star pavilion apts . 519 alonso st . malate , manila 1004 philippines tel & fax : ( + 63 ) 2 522 4505 bacolod office ( hq ) nfefi compound south capitol road bacolod city 6100 philippines tel : ( + 63 ) 34 4358209 fax : ( + 63 ) 433 9234\nto enhance and enable the conservation of the philippines unique and threatened environment , biodiversity and natural resources into perpetuity , through the establishment of integrated biodiversity conservation and development programs particularly conservation breeding , that include dissemination of knowledge , management practices and the active participation and collaboration of relevant stakeholders , particularly those who are dependent upon the natural resources of the region .\nall content and design \u00a9 2014 by philippines biodiversity conservation foundation , inc . managed by <\ntarget =\n_ blank\n>"]}
{"id": 2432, "summary": [{"text": "the knifetooth dogfish , is a harmless sleeper shark of the family somniosidae , found in the eastern atlantic , from scotland to spain , portugal , and senegal , and the southwest pacific from new zealand , between latitudes 58 \u00b0 n and 15 \u00b0 n , at depths of between 200 and 1,600 m. its length is up to 1.1 m.", "topic": 18}], "title": "knifetooth dogfish", "paragraphs": ["showing page 1 . found 11 sentences matching phrase\nknifetooth dogfish\n. found in 0 ms . translation memories are created by human , but computer aligned , which might cause mistakes . they come from many sources and are not checked . be warned .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nnortheast atlantic : atlantic slope from scotland to spain , portugal ( compagno in prep ) . eastern central atlantic : mauritania and senegal ( fern\u00e1ndez et al . 2005 , compagno in prep ) .\ncompagno ( in prep ) reports this species as relatively common in the eastern atlantic . this temperate to tropical species is rarely caught in commercial or research trawling west of scotland ( t . blasdale pers . obs . ) and this is likely the northern fringe of its distribution . the species is caught in very small numbers in commercial trawl catches and fisheries research services ( frs ) deep - water surveys west of scotland fishing at depths between 500 m and 1 , 900 m ( t . blasdale pers . obs . ) . it is not mentioned in the report of the ministry of agriculture fisheries and food ( maff ) surveys in the 1970s , fishing at depths between 366 m and 1 , 280 m , indicating that it was not common in this area at that time either ( bridger 1978 ) . there is therefore no information from which to infer trends in this area or other areas of the eastern atlantic .\na little - known deepwater , temperate to subtropical shark , found on or near the sea bottom at depths of 200\u20131 , 600 m ( compagno in prep ) . probably ovoviviparous ( compagno in prep . ) . maximum size is reported at about 110 cm tl ( compagno in prep . ) .\nreportedly captured in bottom trawls , with line gear , and with fixed bottom nets in the eastern atlantic , but apparently of limited interest to fisheries ( compagno in prep . ) .\nareas of the northeast atlantic , for example the rockall trough have been subject to a fairly rapid increase in deepwater fishing activities since the 1990s with overall concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks ( gordon 2003 ) . the species is a known bycatch of the longline fishery targeting black scabbardfish (\n. 2005 ) . it is also taken by the basque artisanal longline fleet targeting deepwater sharks in the bay of biscay ( heessen 2003 ) .\nvery infrequently caught by french and scottish deep - water trawlers working west of scotland ( ices sub - area via ) ( t . blasdale pers . obs . ) . very limited data exists on the catches of gill - netters in this area but one retrieved net did not contain any of this species ( in a total catch of 8 . 5 tonnes ) ( stecf 2006 ) .\n. ( 2005 ) report that the catch of these squalids declined from 158 tons ( 87 % of elasmobranch landings ) in 1992 to 22 tons ( 59 % ) in 2001 , with a minimum of 3 . 5 tons in 1999 . the decline may be attributable to a set of factors , including a shift in the depths fished , economic reasons ( the value and quality of elasmobranch landings fell during the period of the study ) and probable over - exploitation of both the target and bycatch species .\nthere are no conservation measures in place for this species . scymnodon ringens is not included in the list of species covered by the european union total allowable catch for deepwater sharks , thus it is not covered by fisheries measures . recommended actions : the affect of deepwater fishing pressure on this species is of concern , particularly off mauritania , where this species is taken of bycatch of expanding deepwater fisheries . it is strongly recommended that efforts be made to quantify and monitor bycatch in these fisheries and determine the impact of these on this species .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngreek , skymnos , - ou = little lion + greek , odous = teeth ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; bathypelagic ; depth range 200 - 1600 m ( ref . 247 ) , usually 550 - 1450 m ( ref . 10717 ) . deep - water ; 58\u00b0n - 15\u00b0n\neastern atlantic : along the slope from scotland to spain , portugal , senegal . southwest pacific : new zealand ( ref . 26346 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 110 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 247 )\nanal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 0 . black in color ; small dorsal fin spines ; short snout ; small lanceolate teeth without cusplets in upper jaw and huge high , knife - cusped cutting teeth in lower jaw ; mouth very wide and broadly arched ; caudal fin with weak subterminal notch and no lower lobe ( ref . 247 ) .\na rare species ( ref . 26346 ) inhabiting continental slopes ( ref . 247 ) . usually mesopelagic although taken most often near the bottom ( ref . 10717 ) . its razor - edged lower teeth is used to attack and dismember large prey ( ref . 247 ) . ovoviviparous ( ref . 205 ) . utilized dried salted for human consumption and for fishmeal ( ref . 247 ) .\nprobably ovoviviparous ( ref . 247 ) . distinct pairing with embrace ( ref . 205 ) .\ncompagno , l . j . v . , 1984 . fao species catalogue . vol . 4 . sharks of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date . part 1 - hexanchiformes to lamniformes . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 4 / 1 ) : 1 - 249 . rome , fao . ( ref . 247 )\n) : 4 . 2 - 11 . 4 , mean 7 . 7 ( based on 164 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00479 ( 0 . 00203 - 0 . 01128 ) , b = 3 . 13 ( 2 . 92 - 3 . 34 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 9 \u00b10 . 7 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( fec assumed to be < 100 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high vulnerability ( 58 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\ncontinental slope , on or near the bottom at depths of 200 to 1600 m . probably\nbigelow , h . b . and w . c . schroeder , 1957 . a study of the sharks of the suborder squaloidea . bull . mus . comp . zool . harv . univ . , 117 ( 1 ) : 150 p .\nmaurin , c . and m . bonnet , 1970 . poissons des cotes nord - ouest africaines ( campagnes de la ' thalassia ' , 1962 et 1968 ) . rev . trav . inst . peches marit . , nantes , 34 ( 2 ) : 125 - 70\nkrefft , g . and e . tortonese , 1973 . squalidae . in clofnam . check - list of the fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and of the mediterranean , edited by j . - c . hureau and t . monod . paris , unesco , vol . 1 : 37 - 48\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\na rare species ( ref . 26346 ) inhabiting continental slopes ( ref . 247 ) . usually mesopelagic although taken most often near the bottom ( ref . 10717 ) . its razor - edged lower teeth is used to attack and dismember large prey ( ref . 247 ) . ovoviviparous ( ref . 205 ) . utilized dried salted for human consumption and for fishmeal ( ref . 247 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ncookies help us deliver our services . by using our services , you agree to our use of cookies .\nn . e . i . starry ray blonde ray sandy ray small - eyed ray undulate ray white skate round ray rabbit fish ratfishes n . e . i . knife - nosed chimaeras longnose chimaeras cartilaginous fishes n . e . i . groundfishes n . e . i . pelagic fishes n . e . i . marine fishes n . e . i . finfishes n . e . i .\nsorry , no definitions found . check out and contribute to the discussion of this word !\nlog in or sign up to get involved in the conversation . it ' s quick and easy .\nwordnik is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organization , ein # 47 - 2198092 .\nenglish german online dictionary term bank , where you can search in more than 2 million words in categories and different pronunciation options ."]}
{"id": 2440, "summary": [{"text": "gentlemen ( foaled 1992 ) is an argentinian thoroughbred racehorse .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "he was the champion three-year-old colt in argentina and then raced successfully in the united states . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "gentlemen ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["but , according to conventional wisdom , entering gentlemen in the classic wasn ' t good horse sense .\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for gentlemen . gentlemen is a gelding born in 2012 october 7 by bernardini out of god love it\nfort apache ( 1948 ) - - ( movie clip ) gentlemen , this . . .\ni asked hubbard the other day what he was thinking when gentlemen finally crossed the finish line .\nthey ' re no gentlemen you want the read moral of war horse ? : never trust a pale , thin man . like the gentlemen from buffy they will steal your hearts ( or your horses ) and leave you for dead . how . . .\nalthough gentlemen ' s trainer , richard mandella , believed the odds of his horse winning were much better than that , not even he dared push for the classic .\nthe current race record for gentlemen is 1 wins from 25 starts with prizemoney of $ 643 , 950 . 00 .\na horse is a horse ( of course , of course ) yep , war horse is told from the point of view of a horse . namely joey ,\na spindly - looking half - thoroughbred colt\n( 1 . 2 ) . talk about an interesting narrative . . .\nagain , if they agreed to the suggestions it would be casting a slur on the ladies and gentlemen who subscribed for the fountain .\nthe training of racehorses , simply expressed , is maintaining a horse in the best condition to run . exercise and feeding programs and knowledge of the individual horse are factors involved . a good trainer selects a jockey who suits the horse and , perhaps more important , enters the horse in suitable races . a trainer of a horse for a classic race not only must develop the horse into peak condition but must time the development so that the horse reaches its peak on a certain day , which is the most difficult art of all .\nthat ' s easy to figure . i mean , who would you rather deal with - - al davis and the other nfl owners or gentlemen ?\nsewell , anna .\npart 3 , chapter 32 : a horse fair .\nit was a victory for the sport of horse racing over the horse racing business . if there was an eclipse award for brass , hubbard would have won it hands down .\nthe horse stands 16 hands 2 inches and the figure of the soldier is life size .\nthe horse memorial was used as a backdrop for a motor car ad in the 1950s .\nsewell , a . ( 1870 ) . part 3 , chapter 32 : a horse fair .\nan early view of the horse memorial with the old howitzer and artillery memorial in the background .\nwhen the horse memorial was originally built , it was intended that water be supplied for horses .\ngentlemen\u2019s bet , a major stakes winner of $ 744 , 155 while racing for his owner , harry t . rosenblum , has been retired to stud and will stand the 2018 breeding season at brent and crystal fernung\u2019s journeyman stud in ocala , florida . gentlemen\u2019s bet was a winner in 5 of his first 6 starts and 7 races overall . among [ \u2026 ]\nso , with that as the book on hubbard , no one at churchill downs for last year ' s breeders ' cup should have gasped when he entered his best horse , gentlemen , in the day ' s most prestigious race , the classic . yet , almost everyone did .\nbrown ( br ) \u2013 a horse registered as brown will also have a brown mane and tail .\nbrent and crystal fernung\u2019s journeyman stud , located in ocala , fla . , has set breeding fees for their 2018 stallion roster featuring new stallion gentlemen\u2019s bet . a multiple grade 1 - placed earner of $ 744 , 155 , gentlemen\u2019s bet won six of 11 starts during his racing career with victories in the hot springs stakes and frank j . de francis memorial [ \u2026 ]\nthat would have been all he won . gentlemen started bleeding early in the race , a malady he encountered during another race earlier in the year , and smartly shut down , finishing last .\nhorse racing at the galway race course , ballybrit , county galway , connaught ( connacht ) , ireland .\nto use a figure of speech , he begged to say that mrs meyer had worked like a horse .\nroan ( ro ) \u2013 a roan horse has an even mixture of white hairs mixed in with another colour .\ngeorge slender george slender is a roap - accredited steward with the california horse racing board and over the last 43 years has officiated at every track in california , working thoroughbred , quarter horse and all - breeds fair race meets . from 1959 to 1972 , george , a former horse trainer , held positions as placing judge , paddock judge , horse identifier and starter . he was recently inducted into the santa rosa junior college sports hall of fame .\nafter they had run one mile , with just a quarter - mile to go , gentlemen stretched his lead to two lengths . skip away was next , five lengths over running stag . but after switching from the inside to the outside , wagon limit was now running fourth . and as the two old warriors struggled to finish their fight in the stretch , wagon limit came flying past skip away and finally past gentlemen .\nreflecting on the reasons for great horses like skip away and gentlemen to get upset at times , jerkens said : ' ' it ' s awfully hard for a horse to be at his best at all times . i ' ve always thought a horse should be at his best 75 to 80 percent of the time . and he ' ll always have an off - day . both horses came back to him after killing each other . ' '\nhe was still running last halfway through the race while gentlemen , the 6 - year - old argentine star , was setting a brisk pace with skip away right at his heels . skip away had a brief lead after the first quarter - mile . but gentlemen poked his head in front after half a mile . and he widened his lead to half a length after they had dueled for three - quarters of a mile .\nas they crossed the line , it was wagon limit by 5 1 / 2 lengths over gentlemen , who had 4 3 / 4 lengths on skip away , with running stag , fire king and pacificbounty strung out behind .\nfrance galop is the organization governing french horse racing . the organization was created in 1995 from the merger of three horse racing authorities : the soci\u00e9t\u00e9 d\u2019encouragement et des steeple - chases de france , the soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de sport de france , and the soci\u00e9t\u00e9 sportive d\u2019encouragement .\nthe wiser decision would have been to pay a $ 200 , 000 supplemental fee into the $ 1 - million breeders ' cup mile , in which gentlemen would have been a clear favorite . the classic had a bigger purse - - the biggest ever , in fact - - at $ 4 , 689 , 920 . but it also had a much steeper supplemental fee , $ 800 , 000 , and gentlemen figured to go off at no better than 6 - 1 .\nin france the first documented horse race was held in 1651 as the result of a wager between two noblemen . during the reign of\n\u201ci don ' t think the sport loses anything . if anything the sport gained fans who watched this horse , \u201d mitchell said .\ntopthorn is everything you would look for in a horse\u2014or a sports car : a\nshining black stallion\n( 5 . 16 ) and\nan eight - horsepower horse\n( 5 . 19 ) . he and joey become bffs through circumstance ( topth . . .\n\u201cthis is our second year of recognizing horse racing stewards for their dedication and contributions to our great sport , \u201d said roap chairman hugh gallagher . \u201cthis lady and these four gentlemen have excelled as career racing officials by bringing integrity , consistency and a commitment to a level playing field for all horsemen and women . their passion and professional performance are great examples for stewards throughout the country . \u201d\nknowledge of the first horse race is lost in prehistory . both four - hitch chariot and mounted ( bareback ) races were held in the\nthe scene at goff\u2019s horse sale yesterday was described as \u2018extraordinary\u2019 as a thoroughbred montjeu colt sold for a whopping \u20ac2 , 850 , 000 .\n\u2026from the late 18th century , horse racing in kentucky has roots as deep as those of the hardy perennial bluegrass that has long nurtured the thoroughbreds raised on the state\u2019s famous horse farms , especially in the lexington area . frontiersman daniel boone was responsible for introducing colonial legislation in 1775 \u201cto\u2026\nthen then was the horse called ' event of the year , ' which could have turned into the ' event of his career ' in 1998 . the best ride baze had ever been given in the kentucky derby , the horse went lame just a week before the prestigious race .\na discussion concerning the museum at the racetrack in saratoga springs , new york , from the documentary horse power : the national museum of racing .\nthere are seven different official colours for racehorses\u2026 you can see the abbreviations for each colour below in the racecard on raceday next to each horse .\n\u201chis legacy now is everyone ' s looking forward again when his foals are born , how successful they are going to be , can he sire a triple crown winner himself . in the horse business you ' re always looking forward for the next big horse , \u201d calder pointed out .\namerican pharoah is not only horse racing ' s ruler , but he ' s king of the court at the buckingham palace of thoroughbred horse farms , ashford stud near versailles , ky , just minutes from keeneland , where pharoah\u2019s career ended in october 2015 with the breeder ' s cup victory .\nno doubt a horse fair is a very amusing place to those who have nothing to lose ; at any rate , there is plenty to see .\nfrom 1791 provided a standard for judging a horse\u2019s breeding ( and thereby , at least to some degree , its racing qualities ) . in france the\nhorse whisperer joey tells us early on that\nonly one man was ever [ his ] master\n( 1 . 3 ) and not in a kinky fifty shades kind of way , either . good thing , since he ' s a horse . joey and albert ' s relation . . .\nthere was a great deal of bargaining , of running up and beating down ; and if a horse may speak his mind so far as he understands , i should say there were more lies told and more trickery at that horse fair than a clever man could give an account of . i was put with two or three other strong , useful - looking horses , and a good many people came to look at us . the gentlemen always turned from me when they saw my broken knees ; though the man who had me swore it was only a slip in the stall .\nhe talked it over with his few partners , and the consensus was that gentlemen , a 6 - year - old argentine bred with victories in the hollywood gold cup and pacific classic , deserved one last chance before retiring to prove himself against the likes of skip away and silver charm .\n' ' favorite trick was a part of history , ' ' byrne said with feeling , explaining again why he would surrender the horse of the year . ' ' i loved him . but i was faced with a decision that i had to make . that ' s what horse racing is all about . ' '\nhis work ethic is amazing and he ' s never changed that ,\nsays long - term agent ray harris when asked about the secrets of baze ' s success .\nhe ' s one of the greatest gentlemen and emissaries for the game in the history of the sport .\n\u2014involve jumping . this article is confined to thoroughbred horse racing on the flat without jumps . racing on the flat with horses other than thoroughbreds is described in the article\nthey were arabian horses , imported into england between the late 17th and early 18th century by gentlemen who wanted to breed better racehorses . when they bred with britain\u2019s native , heavier horses , they produced offspring who were much faster , but still had great stamina \u2013 they were the very first \u2018thoroughbred\u2019 racehorses .\ncolourful racing silks are a familiar element of horse racing , and their introduction dates to the formal organization of the sport in the 18th century . though they primarily serve an aesthetic purpose in the modern sport , their original use in racing was to allow spectators to distinguish one horse from another during races in an age before television and public - address systems . to this day horse owners must register a unique pattern and set of colours ( worn on the jockey\u2019s jacket and helmet cover ) with a regulatory board .\n( 2011\u201312 ) , a drama about horse racing . ( the deaths and subsequent outcry among many viewers helped lead to the abrupt cancellation of the show after just one season . ) such events\u2014augmented by the changing interests of the global sporting public\u2014contributed to the continuing decline in the popularity of horse racing through the first decades of the 21st century .\nafter a few years , the cross - country reproduction tour began to take its toll on the horse . eclipse became \u201cvery decrepit and foundered in his feet . \u201d he was ferried around in what may have been the first horse box , a four - wheeled carriage drawn by two other horses , with snacks and refreshments for the ride .\nhe\u2019s gone from the racetrack and the record crowds , but at blood horse magazine in lexington , editor - in - chief eric mitchell says he ' s still important .\nplease keep me up to date with special offers and news from horse & hound and other brands operated by ti media limited via email . you can unsubscribe at any time .\nthe famous horse memorial used to stand on an island in rink street , at st georges park , before it was moved to it ' s present location in cape road .\ncandy ride ' s beyer speed figure of 123 for the 2003 pacific classic ( usa - i ) was the highest figure for any horse running in the united states that year .\nsecretariart still holds the race records for each leg of the triple crown , and was a slightly bigger horse than pharoah . calder says the legend of secretariat has swelled the crowds .\nbut while skip away was racing gentlemen and other world - class horses in new york this fall , awesome again was winning the hawthorne gold cup in his prep race for the breeders ' cup . the critics , reviewing his year at the races , tended to ask : whom did he beat ? he answered their doubts today .\nthe winner of the belmont , the first horse to win the triple crown in 37 years , is now rolling in the mud in the mornings and still the hottest ticket in kentucky .\nskip away ' s nine - race winning streak and his march on racing ' s money record were both broken yesterday when he and gentlemen were run down in the muddy homestretch by the 34 - 1 long shot wagon limit , who streaked past them to win the $ 1 million jockey club gold cup by 5 1 / 2 lengths .\nthat ' s right , the hard charging three - year - old on the track , according to stallion manager richard barry , is , well , \u201che\u2019s as quiet as a lamb , never done anything bad he ' s a pure gentlemen to be around . he ' s a very good boy . compared to the rest of them , he\u2019s a saint ! \u201d\nbut silver charm did not help himself as they raced the final furlong spread across the track . gary stevens , his rider , thought the horse drifted to the outside because swain , the leading horse from europe , also had made a wide turn . ' ' and here comes awesome again inside , ' ' stevens said , ' ' and i don ' t think silver charm ever saw him . ' '\nthe 1760s and 1770s were some of the louchest years in britain\u2019s history . one woman in five made a living selling sex . gambling was similarly rife through every level of society . at its tamest , this involved cock fighting and horse racing . when a man collapsed outside the posh gentlemen\u2019s club brooks , members staked money on whether or not he was dead . even high - society women were involved . those with no other income , david g . schwartz writes in roll the bones : the history of gambling , \u201csometimes allowed their houses to be turned into gambling houses . \u201d\nhorse racing is one of the oldest of all sports , and its basic concept has undergone virtually no change over the centuries . it developed from a primitive contest of speed or stamina between two horses into a spectacle involving large fields of runners , sophisticated electronic monitoring equipment , and immense sums of money , but its essential feature has always been the same : the horse that finishes first is the winner . in the modern era , horse racing developed from a diversion of the leisure class into a huge public - entertainment business . by the first decades of the 21st century , however , the sport\u2019s popularity had shrunk considerably .\n\u201che is pretty unique for a stallion . he ' s very laid back . yeah , he ' s unflappable really , he ' s an easy horse to have around the place , \u201d he said .\nthe price not only represents the highest for a yearling in the northern hemisphere this year , it is also the second highest price ever in ireland . the winning bidder for the expensive horse was mv magnier .\n\u2026out of town for the horse races\u2014as they do by the thousands in june for the derby on epsom downs and the royal week at ascot near windsor and in july for the goodwood races in west sussex . \u2026\nbarbara borden first licensed as a steward in 1993 , barb borden currently serves as a roap - accredited steward in kentucky . she has been a steward at keeneland , churchill downs , turfway park , ellis park , kentucky downs , bluegrass downs , and dueling grounds . borden has held numerous racing official positions including licensing administrator , detention barn assistant , horse identifier and kentucky thoroughbred development fund administrator . borden participates on the license review , rules and regulations and safety and integrity committees of the kentucky horse racing commission . an accomplished horsewoman , barb is a staunch advocate for thoroughbred aftercare and sits on the board of the horse rescue group , second stride .\nother than joey and topthorn , most of the horses in war horse are pretty flat characters . but they serve to show that , just like people , different horses have different personalities . zoeykind old z . . .\nhis first win came a few months later , on a horse trained by his father , a former jockey himself , and the total prize money that baze has since accumulated stands at a staggering us $ 186 million .\ndone ,\nsaid the salesman ;\nand you may depend upon it there ' s a monstrous deal of quality in that horse , and if you want him for cab work he ' s a bargain .\nas he did , the classic was ending in high drama . awesome again crossed the line less than one length in front of silver charm , the winner of last year ' s kentucky derby , who won second place by the length of his neck over the 6 - year - old irish horse swain . and swain finished third by a nose over victory gallop , who won this year ' s belmont stakes . at the far end of the scale , the 6 - year - old argentine champion gentlemen suffered pulmonary bleeding , was eased up by his rider , corey nakatani , and finished last in the final race of his career .\nthe unveiling of the famous horse memorial in february , 1905 . the statue used to stand on an island in rink street , near st georges park , before it was moved to it ' s present location in cape road .\nrelics of the legendary horse were coveted after his death . bits of his body began to materialize around the country , like pieces of the true cross . and , there were far more pieces of his anatomy circulating that could have belonged to a single horse ( not unlike bits of the true cross ) . there were , at one point , six eclipse skeletons knocking around , and nine \u201cauthentic\u201d hooves , some of which were repurposed as trophies and inkstands .\nin 1769 , o\u2019kelly bought the horse in two installments of 450 and 1100 guineas ( a guinea was one pound , one shilling ) . by that point , o\u2019kelly had already begun to clamber up the british social and economic ladder .\n' ' i ' m ready to cry , but i won ' t , ' ' said sonny hine , the trainer of skip away , who won nine straight races before losing the last two . ' ' i feel really bad about the horse . i thought he broke a step too slowly and , by the time they reached the first turn , i knew they were in trouble . i am disappointed for the horse . he gave me plenty . ' '\na nicholl for your thoughtsmorpurgo ' s author ' s note introduces us to nicholls as though he ' s a historical figure who painted a picture of a forgotten war hero : joey the horse . note to shmoopers : th . . .\nthe third traditional sport , horse racing , is in many ways the most exciting . young boys and girls race cross - country over various distances up to 20 miles ( 32 km ) , depending on the ages of their mares and geldings . \u2026\n. horse racing , both of chariots and of mounted riders , was a well - organized public entertainment in the roman empire . the history of organized racing in other ancient civilizations is not very firmly established . presumably , organized racing began in such countries as\nin a brief but brilliant career , candy ride became a champion in his native argentina and proved himself a top - flight racehorse in the united states . in spite of this , he retired to stud with modest expectations , based partly on the disappointing stud careers of south american - bred standouts such as gentlemen , siphon , and sandpit . he has since gained a reputation as a sire of top - flight runners in the range from 7 to 10 furlongs .\nshortly before eclipse\u2019s first race , at the age of five , a group of bookmakers had sneaked down from london for a glimpse of this exceptional horse at a private trial . they missed it , but , according to an 1853 account , they ran into an old woman \u201ctoddling along\u201d nearby . she knew almost nothing about horse racing , she said , but she could tell them that \u201cwhite legs\u201d was far in front , and that the others would never overtake him , \u201cif he ran to the world\u2019s end . \u201d\npuerto madero has the potential to develop into the top horse in the country ,\nhubbard said .\nsaturday is going to tell us an awful lot . but if he wins , there ' s no question he ' s no . 1 .\nnow hubbard is ready to give it another shot . the best horse in his barn this year is puerto madero , a 5 - year - old chilean bred who won the donn handicap at gulfstream park in florida six weeks ago with an upset of silver charm .\nlexington , ky . ( december 8 , 2015 ) \u2014 the racing officials accreditation program ( roap ) announced today five winners of the 2015 pete pedersen award , which is presented annually to stewards who have made important contributions to the thoroughbred and quarter horse racing industries .\n' ' he ' s very sound , but we found a little filling , ' ' hine said . ' ' a little filling now means a lot more later . at the moment , he ' s not lame , he ' s very sound . we ' ll just have to wait and see . he might have jammed himself a little in the race . he and gentlemen were going strong on the front end , then staggered late . the track took its toll on them .\njoseph v . shields jr . , the financier and vice chairman of the new york racing association , who owns wagon limit , said with feeling : ' ' we just hoped the horse could keep moving and moving , and i rode him harder than robbie did . ' '\na bay horse , candy ride stands 16 hands and \u00bd inch . he is short - coupled , well - balanced and athletic but has small feet . he was forced into retirement by an injury to an ankle ligament . he was easy to train during his racing days .\nin which those who bet horses finishing in the first three places share the total amount bet minus a percentage for the management . the pari - mutuel was perfected with the introduction in the 20th century of the totalizator , a machine that mechanically records bets and can provide an almost instant reflection of betting in all pools . it displays the approximate odds to win on each horse and the total amount of wagering on each horse in each of various betting pools . the customary pools are win , place , and show , and there are such specialty wagers as the\nall horses born in the same year share their official birthday as the 1st january . when racing as two - year - olds , a horse born in the early months of the year is likely to be more mature than one born later , despite officially being the same age .\nwinning racehorses has always been best expressed as \u201cbreed the best to the best and hope for the best . \u201d the performance of a breeding horse\u2019s progeny is the real test , but , for horses untried at stud , the qualifications are pedigree , racing ability , and physical conformation . what breeders learned early in the history of horse racing is that crossing bloodlines can potentially overcome flaws in horses . if , for example , one breed is known for stamina and another known for speed , interbreeding the two might result in a healthy mix of both qualities in their offspring .\nthe same historical progression was followed for wagers , with the bets in early ( two - horse ) races being simply to win and modern bets being placed on the first three horses ( win , place , and show ) . from private bets , wagering was extended in the 19th century to\n\u2026against children , were replaced by horse races in which fleeter steeds were handicapped , a notion of equality that led eventually to age and weight classes ( though not to height classes ) in many modern sports . although the traditional sport of boxing flourished throughout the 18th century , it was not until 1743\u2026\nthat was the first race in the national thoroughbred racing assn . ' s new series to determine the champion older horse . the second race is saturday ' s santa anita handicap , and , despite his win in florida , puerto madero is only the second favorite in the early line behind silver charm .\nawesome again not only won the laurels and the loot , but also his sixth straight start in a perfect year at the races . to do it , he needed to make a furious dash through the homestretch and knife his way through the 10 - horse field to hit the finish line in front .\nprince alfred ' s birthday the park olympics rfc olympics rfc the horse memorial the horse memorial heh , heh , hare ! improvements to the park - 1905 st george\u2019s park reservoir the art galleries the aviary the\nmaster harold\ntearoom women ' s auxillary air force camp mannville open air theatre hawkers happy with art in the park decision . pearson conservatory prince alfred ' s guard memorial pag memorial sea scouts port elizabeth bowling green club the pool pearson conservatory the cenotaph giant antique urns vanish from historical st george\u2019s site umzintzani day parade historic conservatory being renovated r5 . 5m restoration of pearson conservatory nears completion pearson conservatory steelwork now complete\nnotable are the horse - racing venues at laurel , bowie , and pimlico , the latter the home of the annual preakness stakes ( may ) . baltimore has a professional baseball team , the orioles , and gridiron football team , the ravens . restaurants present a plethora of cuisines , but the traditional gastronomy of maryland tends to\u2026\nthe pete pedersen award special selection committee is composed of five members from roap - affiliated organizations : rick baedeker ( arci / california horse racing board ) , tim capps ( university of louisville ) , dan metzger ( thoroughbred owners and breeders association ) , terry meyocks ( jockeys\u2019 guild ) and scott wells ( thoroughbred racing associations ) .\nthe dramatic dash by wagon limit left gentlemen second and skip away third , and stunned the 18 , 360 spectators at belmont park , who had been watching a speed duel by the two superstars in the tight field of six . but as they turned for home , they were challenged by an intruder who had run last most of the way : wagon limit , a 4 - year - old son of conquistador cielo , who had won just one of his nine races this year and hadn ' t raced in two months . four times in wagon limit ' s career , he had finished behind the great skip away .\non a day when skip away ran out of the money and lost his chance to become the world ' s richest race horse , awesome again won the world ' s richest race when he rushed through the pack in a blanket finish and snatched the $ 5 . 2 million breeders ' cup classic by three - quarters of a length over silver charm .\nbut jerkens admitted to modest expectations for his horse , saying : ' ' i thought he ' d get a piece of the purse . he ' s been training extra good , so we took a chance and it worked out . this was like winning a lot of races all at once . his best races have been on this kind of track . ' '\ngraded stakes winner cool coal man was represented by his first winner when the 2 - year - old filly valery stripe captured a five - furlong maiden race at camarero race track in puerto rico may 24 . the blood - horse reports that the juvenile filly was the first starter for cool coal man , who stands at journeyman stud near ocala , fla . [ \u2026 ]\nto avoid this nightmare scenario , it is far easier just to capitulate in the first place . when you discover a copy of horse & hound has passed over your threshold , just purchase a subscription and be done with it . it will be safer for all concerned , and you never know , you may even enjoy your new life . take it from one who knows .\n' ' i wanted to have the money record , but i ' m not going to go for the record at the expense of the horse . if that means not going to the breeders ' cup , then it means not going to the breeders ' cup . right now , he ' s walking fine . we ' ll just have to wait and see . ' '\ncool coal man , a grade 2 winner of $ 929 , 728 by horse of the year mineshaft , will stand the 2014 breeding season at brent & crystal fernung\u2019s journeyman stud in ocala , fl . his fee will be $ 3 , 500 stands and nurses . a top miler from the a . p . indy sire line , cool coal man began his career winning [ \u2026 ]\n18th century was allegedly born during the 1764 solar eclipse , which tracked from iberia to scandinavia , at noon on april fool\u2019s day . he was named , appropriately , eclipse , and had a brief racing career of just 17 months . at that point he had to be retired , not for any physical reason , but because he won so consistently that no one bet on any other horse .\nbut the saddest of words on this otherwise upbeat day at the races came from hine , who trains skip away for his wife , carolyn , the horse ' s nominal owner . they both dote on skippy , and they both mourn when he loses . and he has never conquered churchill downs : he ran 12th in his only other appearance at the track , in the kentucky derby two years ago .\nkhozan , a half - brother to champion racehorse royal delta , has been retired to journeyman stud in florida , according to a blood - horse report . the distorted humor colt , who drew $ 1 million from al shaqab racing at the fasig - tipton florida select 2 - year - old sale , retires with two wins from two career starts . khozan was an early favorite on the kentucky [ \u2026 ]\nskip away was led back to his barn by his trainer , sonny hine , who has been glowing for months over his horse ' s extraordinary record . he hadn ' t lost since he ran second to formal gold in last year ' s woodward stakes , and he stood on the threshold of history yesterday with earnings of $ 9 . 5 million , just $ 500 , 000 short of cigar ' s career record .\nhe is a 4 - year - old son of deputy minister , who was bred by stronach and trained by other people until byrne took charge of the stable this year . since then , the horse has run and won almost unnoticed , although he beat silver charm by one length in june in the stephen foster handicap at churchill downs and then won twice at saratoga in august : in the whitney and the saratoga breeders ' cup handicap .\nas racing became big business , governments entered wagering with offtrack betting , which was very beneficial to racing in australia , new zealand , and france and less so in england and new york city . in the united states , illegal bookmaking offtrack became the province of organized crime . legal offtrack betting parlours proliferated during the late 20th century but were less prevalent in the 21st because of the growth of online gambling and the general decline in horse racing\u2019s popularity .\nbut word began to get out about his speed . \u201cat first , \u201d writes nicholas clee , author of eclipse : the story of the rogue , the madam , and the horse that changed racing , it was \u201cthe trainer , owner and stable staff . \u201d from there , the bookmakers and other gamblers . by the time eclipse\u2019s hooves hit the turf , \u201cthe whole place [ was ] abuzz . \u201d o\u2019kelly , a racing enthusiast , professional gambler , and occasional conman , had taken note .\nin fact , no one knows quite how fast eclipse could have run if pushed , though some accounts have him galloping off at almost 60 miles an hour . \u201cno horse could be found to call forth his extreme pace , \u201d according to the farrier and naturalist , published in 1828 . it\u2019s likely that speed came from his unusual lineage : eclipse is said to be have been descended from two of three arabian stallions that had recently been imported to the united kingdom , and are thought of as the \u201cfoundation stallions\u201d of what we now consider thoroughbreds .\nshould your partner demonstrate an unhealthy interest in all matters equine , you can be sure that somewhere within the walls of your castle you will find a copy of that subversive journal , horse & hound . it may be well hidden , but trust me , it will be there . it may be pristine and unblemished amid a stack of country life or marie claire , or more likely it will be a grubby well - thumbed edition passed hand - to - hand like a secret society\u2019s badge of honour and carefully hidden underneath the cushion of your favourite armchair .\nin america , interest in horse racing exploded after the civil war . by 1890 there were 314 racetracks , operating in nearly every state . incensed , antigambling coalitions pushed through legislation in most parts of the country , and by 1908 only 25 racetracks remained in operation . finally , even new york racetracks were shut down in 1911 when state legislation outlawed quoting of odds , soliciting bets , and recording bets in a fixed place . in response , many owners , trainers , and jockeys shifted their operations to europe . when new york racetracks reopened in 1913 , most of the earlier african american jockeys never returned .\ndave hicks dave hicks , who retired in 2013 , served as a steward at the new york racing association tracks , gulfstream park , rockingham park and suffolk downs , among others . during his years at nyra , hicks was active in the rule review / development process , with \u201chouse rules\u201d and with the new york racing and wagering board rules . he also organized and personally conducted a weekly program for apprentice jockeys . he had a similar program in florida before coming to new york and has initiated this program again in florida . before becoming a racing official , hicks was a thoroughbred horse trainer in new england .\nif you are lucky inertia will rule and your equestrian charge will simply lower its head and stuff its enormous face with any available vegetation . if you are unlucky war will be declared , and you will lose ; physically you will lose and mentally you will lose . should you be as unwise to utter the ill - judged words , \u201c it\u2019s me or the horse \u201c , you will find your pre - packed cases on the doorstep , vying for space with the tradesman who has just changed the locks . then before you know it , a smooth - talking dressage instructor will be sitting on your chesterfield sampling your sherry .\nto be registered as a thoroughbred , a foal must be the product of a \u201clive cover , \u201d meaning a witnessed natural mating of a stallion and a mare . though artificial insemination and embryo transfer are possible and common in other horse breeds , it is banned with thoroughbreds . the population of the breed is thereby controlled , assuring a high monetary value for the horses in the process . because each foal is assigned an official birth date of january 1 , to facilitate the age groups that define thoroughbred races , it is important that mares foal as early as possible in the calendar year . this assures maximum development time for the foal before training and racing .\nthe beginning of the modern era of racing is generally considered to have been the inauguration of the english classic races : the st . leger in 1776 , the oaks in 1779 , and the derby in 1780 . all were dashes for three - year - olds . to these races were later added the two thousand guineas in 1809 and the one thousand guineas in 1814 . ( the st . leger , derby , and two thousand guineas have come to constitute the british triple crown of horse racing . ) during the 19th century , races of the english classic pattern\u2014dashes for three - year - olds carrying level weights\u2014spread all over the world . the french classics are the prix du jockey club ( 1836 ) , the grand prix du paris ( 1863 ) , and the prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe ( 1920 ) .\nduring the late 1920s and the \u201930s racetracks became an important source of tax revenue , and by the second half of the 20th century horse racing had become big business . fields regularly numbered a dozen or more . once race meetings lasted a day or two , later a week or two , and today , particularly where climate allows , races may be scheduled for half the year or more . more racing dates require more horses , and horses are raced more intensively . purses grew , particularly after world war ii . in 1981 a new american race , the arlington million ( run at arlington park in arlington heights , illinois , outside of chicago ) , was the first million - dollar race . purses routinely topped this amount in the 21st century , growing to greater than $ 10 million for certain high - profile races .\nthe original king\u2019s plates were standardized races\u2014all were for six - year - old horses carrying 168 pounds at 4 - mile heats , a horse having to win two heats to be adjudged the winner . beginning in 1751 , five - year - olds carrying 140 pounds ( 63 . 5 kg ) and four - year - olds carrying 126 pounds ( 57 kg ) were admitted to the king\u2019s plates , and heats were reduced to 2 miles ( 3 . 2 km ) . other racing for four - year - olds was well established by then , and a race for three - year - olds carrying 112 pounds ( 51 kg ) in one 3 - mile ( 4 . 8 - km ) heat was run in 1731 . heat racing for four - year - olds continued in the united states until the 1860s . by that time , heat racing had long since been overshadowed in europe by dash racing , a \u201cdash\u201d being any race decided by only one heat , regardless of its distance .\nlong strings of young horses out of the country , fresh from the marshes ; and droves of shaggy little welsh ponies , no higher than merrylegs ; and hundreds of cart horses of all sorts , some of them with their long tails braided up and tied with scarlet cord ; and a good many like myself , handsome and high - bred , but fallen into the middle class , through some accident or blemish , unsoundness of wind , or some other complaint . there were some splendid animals quite in their prime , and fit for anything ; they were throwing out their legs and showing off their paces in high style , as they were trotted out with a leading rein , the groom running by the side . but round in the background there were a number of poor things , sadly broken down with hard work , with their knees knuckling over and their hind legs swinging out at every step , and there were some very dejected - looking old horses , with the under lip hanging down and the ears lying back heavily , as if there were no more pleasure in life , and no more hope ; there were some so thin you might see all their ribs , and some with old sores on their backs and hips . these were sad sights for a horse to look upon , who knows not but he may come to the same state .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhis ' fearless tenacity ' surprises some , but it serves the sport well .\nrandall dee hubbard was born and raised in smith center , kan . , ( pop : 2 , 000 ) , helped in his family ' s ice house until he ventured out to work wheat fields from texas to north dakota , played a little junior college basketball , then took a steady job as a junior high coach and teacher in towanda , kan . , for $ 3 , 200 a year .\ntwo years later , he became a salesman for a glass company in wichita because the pay was better .\nwithin 20 years , r . d . hubbard , known as dee to friends , had parlayed that $ 90 - a - week job into the ownership a fortune 500 company , afg industries inc . , which had annual revenues of about $ 700 million .\nbilly m . jones , a wichita state professor who wrote a book about hubbard ,\nmagic with sand ,\nonce said ,\nhubbard ' s most identifiable trait is his fearless tenacity . he is not afraid to work and learn , and , most important , he ' s not afraid of risks .\nabove all else , dee hubbard , 63 , is a good businessman . he has more than $ 50 million tied into the racing industry , including his investment in hollywood park , where he is the chairman and chief executive officer ; his ownership of ruidoso downs in new mexico and the crystal springs farm in lexington , ky . ; and the management of his own quarter horses and thoroughbreds , who have won close to $ 15 million over the years .\ni couldn ' t get past the $ 800 , 000 ,\nhe said .\nit wasn ' t his money ,\nhubbard said this week , dryly , probably wishing it hadn ' t been his , either .\ni was thinking , ' how dumb am i ?\n' hubbard said .\nbut mandella said the only words hubbard said to him were ,\nwe gave it a shot .\nhubbard acknowledged that the big ' cap will be more challenging than the donn because the field , which also includes free house and event of the year , is deeper ; puerto madero is carrying a couple more pounds and silver charm is carrying a couple less , and silver charm will not have to come from the far outside after drawing the no . 1 post position thursday .\nto still be there at the end of the year , however , puerto madero probably will have to at least run in the breeders ' cup classic next winter at churchill downs . that means hubbard and his partners would have to pony up another $ 800 , 000 in supplemental fees .\nif his declaration shortly after last year ' s breeders ' cup still holds , that decision has already been made .\nwe ' ll be back next year with puerto madero ,\nhe said .\nhe was left standing at the altar when al davis pulled out of a deal at the last minute for a new stadium at hollywood park in 1995 , taking the raiders to oakland instead .\nif davis prevails in his latest legal battles with the nfl and regains the l . a . territory , his first choice for the stadium probably would be hollywood park .\nif we could go back to the deal last time , we ' d definitely entertain that ,\nhubbard said .\ni don ' t have a problem with al . i believe we could have gotten something done if the league hadn ' t made it more complicated .\nit was clear from talking to hubbard that the prospect of bringing the raiders to hollywood park intrigues him . it was equally clear that he has more fun talking about his horses .\nrandy harvey can be reached at his e - mail address : randy . harvey @ urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsky sports news takes you through all of the day ' s racing news , plus alex hammond ' s tip of the day .\nfollow the latest from the written press with the best gossip and speculation from the papers .\nsky has launched a pub finder for eager fans wanting to find a venue to watch sky sports .\nget a sports star to visit your old secondary school as part of our free schools initiative .\ndundalk stages their annual 12th of july fixture this afternoon , with the marshes handicap the feature .\nopen an account with betfair and bet at least \u20ac5 at min odds of 1 / 5 on the sportsbook . win or lose betfair match your first bet up to \u20ac50 . free bet stakes not returned\naerial virtual replay is provided by an external vendor trakus , for personal infotainment only . due to the frequent usage of mobile phones at the racecourses , the signals receiving by trakus system may be affected and thus the accuracy of aerial virtual replay cannot be guaranteed . every effort is made to ensure the information is up to the closest approximation , but the club assumes no responsibility for it . for the actual race results , the customers should refer to real replay videos .\ncopyright \u00a9 2000 - 2017 the hong kong jockey club . all rights reserved .\nby jim murray august 16 , 1998 well , it was a slam . . .\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . ."]}
{"id": 2444, "summary": [{"text": "formicoxenus provancheri , common name shampoo ant , is a species of ant in the subfamily myrmicinae .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it is found in canada and the united states . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "formicoxenus provancheri", "paragraphs": ["formicoxenus provancheri can be found in canada and the united states ( 1 ) .\nthe above specimen data are provided by antweb . please see formicoxenus provancheri for further details\nthere are currently no specific conservation measures known to be in place for formicoxenus provancheri .\nsenior synonym of formicoxenus emersoni , formicoxenus hirtipilis : creighton , 1950a pdf : 279 ; of formicoxenus glacialis : cole , 1954d : 241 .\nformicoxenus provancheri has also been shown to possess the ability to follow scent trails deposited by myrmica incompleta workers . this trail allows formicoxenus provancheri to follow hosts to new nest sites ( 5 ) .\nformicoxenus provancheri is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nsenior synonym of formicoxenus emersoni , formicoxenus hirtipilis : creighton , 1950a pdf : 279 ; of formicoxenus glacialis : cole , 1954d pdf : 241 .\nformicoxenus provancheri belongs to a genus whose species are known as \u2018guest - ants\u2019 , social parasites that live in colonies of other ant species . formicoxenus provancheri inhabits the nest of myrmica incompleta , an ant species three to five times larger than itself ( 2 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - ant ( formicoxenus provancheri )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - ant ( formicoxenus provancheri )\ntitle =\narkive species - ant ( formicoxenus provancheri )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ncombination in formicoxenus ( mychothorax ) : emery , 1924f pdf : 262 ; in formicoxenus : francoeur , loiselle & buschinger , 1985 : 377 .\ncombination in formicoxenus ( mychothorax ) : emery , 1924f pdf : 262 ; in formicoxenus : francoeur , loiselle & buschinger , 1985 pdf : 377 .\nthe nests of myrmica incompleta which are inhabited by formicoxenus provancheri are found in clumps of moss and under logs and stones in damp meadows and bogs ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nlenoir , a . , detrain , c . and barbazanges , n . ( 1992 ) host trail following by the guest ant formicoxenus provancheri . experientia , 48 ( 1 ) : 94 - 97 .\naggressive reproductive conflicts and dominance interactions among queens are involved in establishing functional monogyny in the ant , formicoxenus provancheri . competition among potential reproductives may lead to the founding of new societies by budding or colony fragmentation .\nall female formicoxenus provancheri have a spermatheca ( a receptacle in which sperm is stored after mating ) and are able to mate and produce fertilised eggs , although only one female in a nest is fertile and will breed ( 2 ) .\nerrard , c . , fresneau , d . , heinze , j . , francoeur , a . and lenoir , a . ( 1997 ) social organization in the guest - ant formicoxenus provancheri . ethology , 103 ( 1 ) : 149 - 159 .\nglacialis . leptothorax emersoni subsp . glacialis wheeler , w . m . 1907b : 71 ( w . q . m . ) u . s . a . subspecies of provancheri : creighton , 1950a : 280 . junior synonym of provancheri : cole , 1954d : 241 .\nlenoir , a . , errard , c . , francoeur , a . and loiselle , r . ( 1992 ) biological and ethological observations on the interactions between the parasite ant formicoxenus provancheri and its host myrmica incompleta . insectes sociaux , 39 ( 1 ) : 81 - 97 .\n[ mackay , lowrie , et al . , 1988 : 89 ( in key ) and wheeler & wheeler , 1989a pdf : 323 , recombine formicoxenus provancheri in leptothorax , apparently unaware of the revision by francoeur , { ? et al } { ? , whose combination is reaffirmed by bolton , 1995b : 207 } ] .\n[ mackay , lowrie , et al . , 1988 : 89 ( in key ) and wheeler & wheeler , 1989a pdf : 323 , recombine formicoxenus provancheri in leptothorax , apparently unaware of the revision by francoeur , { ? et al } { ? , whose combination is reaffirmed by bolton , 1995b : 207 } ] .\nfrancoeur , a . ; loiselle , r . ; buschinger , a . 1985 . biosyst\u00e9matique de la tribu leptothoracini ( formicidae , hymenoptera ) . 1 . le genre formicoxenus dans la r\u00e9gion holarctique . nat . can . ( qu\u00e9 . ) 112 : 343 - 403 pdf ( page 377 , queen , male described , combination in formicoxenus )\nkannowski , p . b . 1958 (\n1957\n) . notes on the ant leptothorax provancheri emery . psyche ( cambridge ) 64 : 1 - 5 . pdf\nkannowski , p . b . ( 1957 ) notes on the ant leptothorax provancheri emery . psyche : a journal of entomology , 64 ( 1 ) : 1 - 5\nhirtipilis . leptothorax emersoni subsp . hirtipilis wheeler , w . m . 1917a : 515 ( w . ) canada . junior synonym of provancheri : creighton , 1950a : 279 .\nfrancoeur , a . ; loiselle , r . ; buschinger , a . 1984 . taxonomic revision of the ant genus formicoxenus ( formicidae , hymenoptera ) . [ abstract . ] p . 528 in : xvii international congress of entomology . hamburg , federal republic of germany , august 20 - 26 , 1984 . abst ( page 528 , new combination in formicoxenus )\nbuschinger , a . ; francoeur , a . ; fischer , k . 1981 [ 1980 ] . functional monogyny , sexual behavior , and karyotype of the guest ant , leptothorax provancheri emery ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) . psyche ( camb . ) 87 : 1 - 12 pdf ( page 8 , karyotype described )\nemersoni . leptothorax emersoni wheeler , w . m . 1901a : 433 , figs . 2 , 3 ( w . q . m . ) u . s . a . combination in l . ( mychothorax ) : emery , 1924d : 261 . junior synonym of provancheri : creighton , 1950a : 279 . see also : wheeler , w . m . 1903c : 230 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nthis species nests under stones , and is a guest in the nests of myrmica incompleta and myrmica fracticornis . apparently it cannot live without its host in the laboratory , although it can be found nesting alone in the field . sexuals occur in the nests in july and august . ( mackay and mackay 2002 )\nthe following information is derived from barry bolton ' s new general catalogue , a catalogue of the world ' s ants .\nemery , 1895c : 320 ( w . ) canada . francoeur , loiselle & buschinger , 1985 : 377 ( q . m . ) ; wheeler , g . c . & wheeler , j . 1973b : 73 ( l . ) ; buschinger , francoeur & fischer , 1981 : 8 ( k . ) . combination in\n: cole , 1954d : 241 . see also : wheeler , w . m . 1903c : 229 . [ mackay , lowrie ,\n. 1988 : 89 ( in key ) and wheeler , g . c . & wheeler , j . 1989a : 323 , recombine\nbuschinger , a . ( 2009 ) social parasitism among ants : a review . ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . myrmecological news 12 : 219 - 235 .\ncole , a . c . , jr . 1954d . studies of new mexico ants . x . the genus leptothorax ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . j . tenn . acad . sci . 29 : 240 - 241 ( page 241 , senior synonym of glacialis )\ncreighton , w . s . 1950a . the ants of north america . bull . mus . comp . zool . 104 : 1 - 585 ( page 279 , senior synonym of emersoni and hirtipilis )\nemery , c . 1895d . beitr\u00e4ge zur kenntniss der nordamerikanischen ameisenfauna . ( schluss ) . zool . jahrb . abt . syst . geogr . biol . tiere 8 : 257 - 360 ( page 320 , worker described )\nemery , c . 1922c . hymenoptera . fam . formicidae . subfam . myrmicinae . [ part ] . genera insectorum 174b : 95 - 206 ( page 262 , combination in l . ( mycothorax ) )\nmackay , w . p . ; lowrie , d . ; fisher , a . ; mackay , e . e . ; barnes , f . ; lowrie , d . 1988 . the ants of los alamos county , new mexico ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . pp . 79 - 131 in : trager , j . c . ( ed . ) advances in myrmecology . leiden : e . j . brill , xxvii + 551 pp . ( page 89 , see also )\nmackay , w . p . and e . mackay . 2002 . the ants of new mexico ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . edwin mellen press , lewiston , ny .\nwheeler , g . c . ; wheeler , j . 1973b . ant larvae of four tribes : second supplement ( hymenoptera : formicidae : myrmicinae ) . psyche ( camb . ) 80 : 70 - 82 ( page 73 , larva described )\nwheeler , g . c . ; wheeler , j . 1989a [ 1988 ] . notes on ant larvae : myrmicinae . trans . am . entomol . soc . 114 : 319 - 327 ( page 323 , see also )\nwheeler , w . m . 1903d . a revision of the north american ants of the genus leptothorax mayr . proc . acad . nat . sci . phila . 55 : 215 - 260 ( page 229 , see also )\nthis page was last modified on 9 november 2016 , at 18 : 17 .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nyou must log in to access this functionality . you may create an account , or log in anonymously , here .\nfrancoeur , loiselle & buschinger , 1985 : 377 ( q . m . ) ; wheeler & wheeler , 1973b pdf : 73 ( l . ) ; buschinger , francoeur & fischer , 1981 pdf : 8 ( k . ) .\n2 times found in marshy meadow , 0 times found in meadow , 1 times found in riparian area , mixed sagebrush , woodland .\n3 times search , 0 times under rock , 0 times log stage 3 .\nantweb content is licensed under a creative commons attribution license . we encourage use of antweb images . in print , each image must include attribution to its photographer and\nfrom urltoken\nin the figure caption . for websites , images must be clearly identified as coming from urltoken , with a backward link to the respective source page . see how to cite antweb .\nantweb is funded from private donations and from grants from the national science foundation , deb - 0344731 , ef - 0431330 and deb - 0842395 . c : 1\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nfrancoeur , loiselle & buschinger , 1985 pdf : 377 ( q . m . ) ; wheeler & wheeler , 1973b pdf : 73 ( l . ) ; buschinger , francoeur & fischer , 1981 pdf : 8 ( k . ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nh\u00f6lldobler , b . , and wilson , e . o . , the ants . belknap press of harvard university press , cambridge ma 1990 .\nheinze , j . , and smith , t . a . , behav . ecol . sociobiol .\nlenoir , a . , errard , c . , francoeur , a . , and loiselle , r . , ins . soc .\nfrancoeur , a . , loiselle , r . , and buschinger , a . , naturaliste can .\nbuschinger , a . , francoeur , a . and fischer , k . , psyche\nheinze , j . , in : queen number and sociality in insects . ed . l . keller . oxford university press , oxford ( in press ) .\ngadagkar , g . , and joshi , n . v . , curr . sci .\nh\u00f6lldobler , b . , and carlin , n . f . , behav . ecol . sociobiol .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user"]}
{"id": 2445, "summary": [{"text": "brachymeles bonitae , commonly known as hikida 's short-legged skink or the stub-limbed burrowing skink , is a species of skink found in the philippines .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it was first described in 1839 by andr\u00e9 marie constant dum\u00e9ril and gabriel bibron .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is endemic to the philippines . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "brachymeles bonitae", "paragraphs": ["evaluating the diversity of philippine slender skinks of the brachymeles bonitae complex ( reptilia : . . .\nadditions to philippine slender skinks of the brachymeles bonitae complex ( reptilia : squamata : scinc . . .\nmaggie whitson marked\nfile : brachymeles bonitae ( ku 330100 ) from mid - elevation , mt . cagua - zookeys - 266 - 001 - g054 . jpg\nas trusted on the\nbrachymeles bonitae\npage .\nsarah miller set\nbrachymeles boholensis\nas an exemplar on\nbrachymeles gracilis fischer 1885\n.\nsarah miller set\nbrachymeles taylori\nas an exemplar on\nbrachymeles boulengeri taylor 1922\n.\nadditions to philippine slender skinks of the brachymeles bonitae complex ( reptilia : squamata : scincidae ) iii : a new species from tablas island .\nadditions to philippine slender skinks of the brachymeles bonitae complex ( reptilia : squamata : scincidae ) ii : a new species from the northern philippines .\nadditions to philippine slender skinks of the brachymeles bonitae complex ( reptilia : squamata : scincidae ) iii : a new species from tablas island . - pubmed - ncbi\nevaluating the diversity of philippine slender skinks of the brachymeles bonitae complex ( reptilia : squamata : scincidae ) : redescription of b . tridactylus and descriptions of two new species\nadditions to philippine slender skinks of the brachymeles bonitae complex ( reptilia : squamata : scincidae ) ii : a new species from the northern phili . . . - pubmed - ncbi\n( pdf ) evaluating the diversity of philippine slender skinks of the brachymeles bonitae complex ( reptilia : squamata : scincidae ) : redescription of b . tridactylus and descriptions of two new species\nyan wong changed the thumbnail image of\nfile : brachymeles bonitae ( ku 330100 ) from mid - elevation , mt . cagua - zookeys - 266 - 001 - g054 . jpg\n.\nwe review the species of the brachymeles bonitae complex ( b . bonitae and b . tridactylus ) and describe an additional two new species in this highly specialized , limb - reduced , endemic philippine clade of fossorial lizards . for more than 4 decades , b . bonitae has been recognized as a single ' ' widespread ' ' species , a perception that has persisted as a result of limited sampling and similar overall . . . [ show full abstract ]\npopulation genetic structure and revised geographic range for the tridactyl skink ( brachymeles munti . . .\nin this paper we examined characters measured or counted on external body surfaces , and analyzed molecular variation , for a subset of the brachymeles bonitae species complex ( b . bonitae and b . tridactylus ) . our analyses revealed new , undescribed diversity within this complex , and we describe two new species as well as redescribe b . tridactylus . we designate populations of b . bonitae from aurora province on luzon island as b . isangdaliri , and populations of b . bonitae from masbate island as b . mapalanggaon . what makes b . isangaliri special is that it represents the first unidactyl species of brachymeles , meaning this species has only a single small digit on its hands and feet . if that wasn\u2019t enough , b . mapalanggaon is the first known limbed , but digitless species within this genus . such a neat complex of small , burrowing lizards !\n. . . nov . increases the known species diversity of the genus in the philippines to 37 , and future examination of other allopatric populations of the b . bonitae complex may reveal additional diversity ( davis et al . 2014 ) . brachymeles ligtas sp . . . .\nwe describe a new digitless scincid lizard of the genus brachymeles from northern luzon and camiguin norte islands in the philippines . this species belongs to the brachymeles bonitae complex , and both molecular and morphological data confirm that this species is distinct from all other congeners . formerly considered to be a single widespread species , this group of species has been the focus of . . . [ show full abstract ]\nwe describe a new digitless scincid lizard of the genus brachymeles from northern luzon and camiguin norte islands in the philippines . this species belongs to the brachymeles bonitae complex , and both molecular and morphological data confirm that this species is distinct from all other congeners . formerly considered to be a single widespread species , this group of species has been the focus of recent systematic reviews . here we describe a new species in the b . bonitae complex , recognized currently to constitute five species . brachymeles ilocandia sp . nov . is the second digitless and the seventeenth non - pentadactyl species in genus . the description of this species brings the total number of species in the genus to 40 , and provides new insight into unique distribution patterns of species of the northern philippines .\ntaylor , e . h . ( 1917 ) brachymeles , a genus of philippine lizards . philippine journal of science , 12 , 267\u2013279 .\ntaylor , e . h . ( 1917 ) brachymeles , a genus of philippine lizards . the philippine journal of science , 12 , 267\u2013279 .\ndavis d . r . , feller , k . d . , brown , r . f . & siler , c . s . ( 2014 ) evaluating the diversity of philippine slender skinks of the brachymeles bonitae complex ( reptilia : squamata : scincidae ) : redescription of b . tridactylus and descriptions of two new species . journal of herpetology , 48 , 480\u2013494 .\ndavis , d . r . , k . d . feller , r . m . brown , and c . d . siler . 2014 . evaluating the diversity of philippine slender skinks of the brachymeles bonitae complex ( reptilia : squamata : scincidae ) : redescription of b . tridactylus and descriptions of two new species . journal of herpetology 48 : 480 - 494 . pdf\ndavis , d . r . , feller , k . d . , brown , r . m . & siler , c . d . ( 2014 ) evaluating the diversity of philippine slender skinks of the brachymeles bonitae complex ( reptilia : squamata : scincidae ) : redescription of b . tridactylus and descriptions of two new species . journal of herpetology , 48 , 480\u2013494 . urltoken\n. . . finally , brachymeles bonitae sensu stricto represents an instance of both cases : some individuals have digitless limbs while others have two fingers and one toe ( davis et al . 2014 ) . philippine species of brachymeles form a monophyletic clade , suggesting in situ diversification of the genus across the archipelago ( siler & brown 2011 ; siler et al . 2011a ) . hypotheses for the high levels of philippine diversity of plants and animals have focused on the influence of changing sea levels on species diversification ( brown et al . 2013 ) . . . .\na new species of slender skink is described from the philippines . the species is endemic to lubang island , and is assigned to the brachymeles bonitae complex based on phenotypic and genetic data . specimens were collected from lubang island between 1991 and 2012 , and were examined based on morphological data ( qualitative traits , meristic counts , and mensural measurements ) . published genetic . . . [ show full abstract ]\nhikida , t . ( 1982 ) a new limbless brachymeles ( sauria : scincidae ) from mt . kinabalu , north borneo . copeia , 1982 , 840\u2013844 .\ndavis , drew r . ; kathryn d . feller , rafe m . brown , and cameron d . siler 2014 . evaluating the diversity of philippine slender skinks of the brachymeles bonitae complex ( reptilia : squamata : scincidae ) : redescription of b . tridactylus and descriptions of two new species . journal of herpetology dec 2014 , vol . 48 , no . 4 : 480 - 494 . - get paper here\nhikida , t . ( 1982 ) a new limbless brachymeles ( sauria : scincidae ) from mt . kinabalu , north borneo . copeia , 1982 , 840\u2013844 . urltoken\nsiler , c . d . , crombie , r . i . , diesmos , a . c . & brown , r . m . ( 2011c ) redescription of two poorly known slender skinks , brachymeles bicolor and brachymeles pathfinderi ( reptilia : squamata : scincidae ) , from the philippines . journal of herpetology , 45 , 355\u2013369 .\nbrown , w . c . ( 1956 ) a revision of the genus brachymeles ( scincidae ) , with descriptions of new species and subspecies . breviora , 54 , 1\u201319 .\n. . . however , only two genera include semifossorial taxa : brachymeles and lygosoma ( siler et al . 2012b ; davis et al . 2014 ) . whereas 39 of 41 species in brachymeles are endemic to the philippines ( davis et al . 2016 ) , this genus has never been recorded in the palawan paic . two species of lygosoma ( l . . . .\n. . . ) , and they exhibit a diverse array of ecomorphologies . however , only two genera include semifossorial taxa : brachymeles and lygosoma ( siler et al . 2012b ; davis et al . 2014 ) . whereas 39 of 41 species in brachymeles are endemic to the philippines ( davis et al . 2016 ) , this genus has never been recorded in the palawan paic . . . .\ndavis , drew r . ; aaron d . geheber , jessa l . watters , michelle l . penrod , kathryn d . feller , alissa ashford , josh kouri , daniel nguyen , kathryn shauberger , kyra sheatsley , claire winfrey , rachel wong , marites b . sanguila , rafe m . brown & cameron d . sil 2016 . additions to philippine slender skinks of the brachymeles bonitae complex ( reptilia : squamata : scincidae ) iii : a new species from tablas island . zootaxa 4132 ( 1 ) : 030\u2013043 - get paper here\ngeheber , a . d . , davis , d . r . , watters , j . w . , penrod , m . l . , feller , k . d . , davey , c . s . , ellsworth , e . d . , flanagan , r . l . , heitz , b . d . , moore , t . , nguyen , m . d . c . , roberts , a . , sutton , j . , sanguila , m . b . , linkem , c . w . , brown , r . m . & siler , c . d . ( 2016 ) additions to the philippine slender skinks of the brachymeles bonitae complex ( reptilia : squamata : scincidae : brachymeles ) i : a new species from lubang island . zootaxa , 4132 ( 1 ) , 1\u201314 . urltoken\nbrown , w . c . & rabor , d . s . ( 1967 ) review of the genus brachymeles ( scincidae ) , with descriptions of new species and subspecies . proceedings of the california academy of sciences , 15 , 525\u2013548 .\nsiler , c . d . ( 2010 ) squamata , scincidae , brachymeles elerae ( taylor , 1917 ) : rediscovery in old balbalan , cordillera mountain range , luzon island , philippines , and natural history . check list , 6 , 616\u2013618 . urltoken\n. . . lygosoma tabonorum is the first philippine endemic species within the genus . based on our current understanding of species - level diversity within the ecologically similar brachymeles in the philippines ( davis et al . 2014 ) , we anticipate the description of additional cryptic species among the members of the l . quadrupes species complex , with additional study of molecular and morphological analyses . although both brachymeles and lygosoma occur in the philippines , they are nearly allopatric in their distributions ( fig . 1 ) . . . .\nsiler , c . d . , jones , r . m . , welton , l . j . & brown , r . m . ( 2011d ) redescription of tetradactyl , philippine slender skinks ( genus brachymeles ) . herpetologica , 67 , 300\u2013317 .\n. . . we sampled 39 individuals , representing all but two of the 41 species of brachymeles currently recognized for our ingroup ( figure 1 ; supporting information table s1 ; davis et al . , 2016 ; siler et al . , 2016 ) . multilocus phylogenetic datasets were available for most species from previously published work for the coding region of the mitochon - drial gene nadh dehydrogenase subunit 1 ( nd1 ) , and three nuclear loci : brain - derived neurotrophic factor ( bdnf ) , rna fingerprint protein 35 ( r35 ) , and prostaglandin e receptor 4 ( ptger4 ) ( davis et al . , 2014 ; siler et al . , 2011asiler et al . , , 2011bsiler et al . , , 2012 ) . we collected near complete sequence datasets for all four loci for all remaining ingroup taxa ( supporting miriamae ; c is all philippine brachymeles species ; d represents the pentadactyl clade with its sister group of partially digit reduced b . elerae and b . mutingkamay ; e is the pentadactyl brachymeles clade ; f is the digit - reduced clade of brachymeles . . . .\nsiler , c . d . , diesmos , a . c . & brown , r . m . ( 2010a ) a new loam - swimming skink , genus brachymeles ( reptilia : squamata : scincidae ) from luzon and catanduanes islands , philippines . journal of herpetology , 44 , 49\u201360 .\nsiler , c . d . & brown , r . m . ( 2010 ) phylogeny - based species delimitation in philippine slender skinks ( reptilia : squamata : scincidae : brachymeles ) : taxonomic revision of pentadactyl species groups and description of three new species . herpetological monographs , 24 , 1\u201354 . urltoken\nsiler , c . d . , diesmos , a . c . & brown , r . m . ( 2010b ) a new loam - swimming skink , genus brachymeles ( reptilia : squamata : scincidae ) from luzon and catanduanes islands , philippines . journal of herpetology , 44 , 49\u201360 . urltoken\nsiler , c . d . , rico , e . l . , duya , m . r . & brown , r . m . ( 2009 ) a new limb - reduced , loam - swimming skink ( squamata : scincidae : brachymeles ) from central luzon island , philippines . herpetologica , 65 , 449\u2013459 .\nsiler , c . d . , rico , e . l . , duya , m . r . & brown , r . m . ( 2009 ) a new limb - reduced , loam - swimming skink ( squamata : scincidae : brachymeles ) from central luzon island , philippines . herpetologica , 65 , 449\u2013459 . urltoken\nsiler , c . d . , balete , d . s . , diesmos , a . c . & brown , r . m . ( 2010b ) a new legless loam - swimming lizard ( reptilia : squamata : scincidae : genus brachymeles ) from the bicol peninsula , luzon island , philippines . copeia , 2010 , 114\u2013122 .\nsiler , c . d . , balete , d . s . , diesmos , a . c . & brown , r . m . ( 2010a ) a new legless loam - swimming lizard ( reptilia : squamata : scincidae : genus brachymeles ) from the bicol peninsula , luzon island , philippines . copeia , 2010 , 114\u2013122 . urltoken\nsiler , c . d . , diesmos , a . c . , alcala , a . c . & brown , r . m . ( 2011a ) phylogeny of philippine slender skinks ( scincidae : brachymeles ) reveals underestimated species diversity , complex biogeographical relationships , and cryptic patterns of lineage diversification . molecular phylogenetics and evolution , 59 , 53\u201365 .\nsiler , c . d . , diesmos , a . c . , alcala , a . c . & brown , r . m . ( 2011 ) phylogeny of philippine slender skinks ( scincidae : brachymeles ) reveals underestimated species diversity , complex biogeographical relationships , and cryptic patterns of lineage diversification . molecular phylogenetics and evolution , 59 , 53\u201365 . urltoken\n. . . the majority of species of brachymeles are found exclusively in the philippines ; the two exceptions include b . miriamae heyer from thailand and b . apus hikida from borneo ( heyer 1972 ; hikida 1982 ) . though the morphology and evolutionary history of brachymeles are both well represented in the literature , the ecology of these species is not well known ( davis et al . 2014 ) . species prefer dry habitats and have been found in leaf litter , loose soil , or under decaying logs ( siler et al . 2009siler et al . , 2010asiler et al . , b , 2011asiler et al . , b , c , d , 2012a davis et al . 2014 ) . . . .\nwe use data from external morphology and mitochondrial gene sequences to provide the basis for a taxonomic revision of two polytypic , pentadactyl philippine species of scincid lizards of the genus brachymeles . although previous studies have noted significant morphological variation among island populations , the similarities in body size and scale pigmentation and pattern have led to the . . . [ show full abstract ]\nspecies diversity in skinks in the genus brachymeles recently has undergone a state of flux , with numerous taxonomic discoveries over the past few years . newly available , robust data sets from morphological data and molecular sequences have revealed that taxonomic diversity within this unique group of lizards is substantially underestimated . in this third recent monographic revision of a major . . . [ show full abstract ]\n. . . the island nation is home to a wide variety of endemic skinks ( family scincidae ) , including a unique radiation of semi - fossorial species in the genus brachymeles dum\u00e9ril & bibron . the genus brachymeles consists currently of 40 species ( davis et al . 2014 ; geheber et al . 2016 ; siler et al . 2016 ) , with all but two species occurring in the philippines ( b . apus hikida in borneo and b . miriamae heyer in thailand ; siler et al . 2009 siler et al . , 2010a siler et al . , b , 2011a siler et al . , b , c , d , 2012a siler et al . , 2016 siler 2010 ; davis et al . 2014 ; geheber et al . 2016 ) . . . .\nprevious work with skinks in the genus brachymeles has revealed a remarkable level of unknown diversity , leading to the descriptions of many new species . historically , many species were recognized to occur throughout multiple islands and distinct faunal regions . however , as sampling has increased , and comprehensive morphological and molecular examinations have occurred , these once wide ranging species are now recognized as complexes of multiple unique lineages .\nsiler , c . d . , fuiten , a . m . , jones , r . m . , alcala , a . c . & brown , r . m . ( 2011b ) phylogeny - based species delimitation in philippines slender skinks ( reptilia : squamata : scincidae ) ii : taxonomic revision of brachymeles samarensis and description of five new species . herpetological monographs , 25 , 76\u2013112 .\nsiler , c . d . , jones , r . m . , diesmos , a . c . , diesmos , m . l . & brown , r . m . ( 2012a ) phylogeny - based species delimitation in philippine slender skinks ( reptilia : squamata : scincidae ) iii : taxonomic revision of the brachymeles gracilis complex and descriptions of three new species . herpetological monographs , 26 , 135\u2013172 .\nsiler , c . d . , jones , r . m . , diesmos , a . c . , diesmos , m . l . & brown , r . m . ( 2012a ) phylogeny - based species delimitation in philippine slender skinks ( reptilia : squamata : scincidae ) iii : taxonomic revision of the brachymeles gracilis complex and descriptions of three new species . herpetological monographs , 26 , 135\u2013172 . urltoken\nwith robust new datasets from morphology and dna sequences , we review the limbed , nonpentadactyl species of the brachymeles samarensis complex ( now known to include b . cebuensis , b . minimus , and b . lukbani ) , and describe five new species in this highly limb - reduced , endemic philippine clade of scincid lizards . for more than four decades , b . samarensis has been recognized as a single . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe philippines is home to a remarkable number of species of amphibians and reptiles . this amazing diversity is often due to the complex geological history of this archipelago with islands cyclically being isolated and then reconnected , as sea levels would fluctuate . one group of reptiles with a remarkable amount of morphological and genetic diversity is the philippine slender skinks of the genus brachymeles . these lizards often inhabit leaf litter and soil substrates , and many exhibit some form of limb - or digit - reduction .\n. . . all species are slender , elongate lizards possessing relatively homogeneous brown scale coloration . interestingly , the clade represents one of only a handful of scincid genera to possess a full spectrum of digit and limb states , from species with more robust , pentadactyl limbs to those with externally limbless bodies ( siler et al . 2011a siler et al . , 2012a davis et al . 2014 ) . of the 39 currently recognized species of brachymeles , 18 are pentadactyl ( b . . . .\n. . . we anticipate that his work will be of interest to wildlife managers , students , biogeographers , conservationists , and cebu residents . most of the species we observed are common and widely distributed\u2014with some rare exceptions , cebu endemics , and numerous taxa for which current classifications underestimate species diversity ( barley et al . , 2013 ; brown et al . , 2013b ; linkem et al . , 2011 ; siler et al . , 2011a ) . of special interest are two island endemics , brachymeles cebuensis , malayotyphlops hypogius . . . .\n. . . despite the observed variance in body forms among recognized taxa , a suite of recent studies has revealed that a general convergence on gross overall morphological appearances within phylogenetically - identified subclades has led to broad underestimation of alpha diversity ( siler et al . 2009siler et al . , 2010a , b , 2011a , b , c , d , 2012a , 2016 ; siler 2010 ; davis et al . 2014 ; geheber et al . 2016 ) . recent molecular data has provided insight into the distribution of previously unrecognized diversity within the genus , leading to the recognition of several species complexes ( siler et al . 2011d ; davis et al . 2014 ) . one species complex in particular , the b . bonitae complex sensu davis et al . ( 2014 ) , was originally thought to be a single widely distributed species with variable morphology ( brown & rabor 1967 ) . . . .\n. . . though the morphology and evolutionary history of brachymeles are both well represented in the literature , the ecology of these species is not well known ( davis et al . 2014 ) . species prefer dry habitats and have been found in leaf litter , loose soil , or under decaying logs ( siler et al . 2009siler et al . , 2010asiler et al . , b , 2011asiler et al . , b , c , d , 2012a davis et al . 2014 ) . most species are found in disturbed secondary growth lowland habitats ; however , several species ( b . . . .\n. . . the genus brachymeles consists currently of 40 species ( davis et al . 2014 ; geheber et al . 2016 ; siler et al . 2016 ) , with all but two species occurring in the philippines ( b . apus hikida in borneo and b . miriamae heyer in thailand ; siler et al . 2009 siler et al . , 2010a siler et al . , b , 2011a siler et al . , b , c , d , 2012a siler et al . , 2016 siler 2010 ; davis et al . 2014 ; geheber et al . 2016 ) . species in this genus are known to be both secretive and semi - fossorial , with individuals often inhabiting decomposing organic matter ( i . e . , decaying coconut husks , rotting tree logs ) . . . .\n. . . during pleistocene glacial cycles , decreases in the sea level led to the formation of philippine aggregate island complexes ( paics ; brown & guttman 2002 ; fig . 1a ) in which adjacent islands separated by shallow seas were connected by land bridges , allowing for faunal exchange and gene flow between islands within a single paic ( brown et al . , 2013 ) . although this process likely contributed to the development of distinct faunal regions within the philippines , studies suggest that species diversification patterns in brachymeles do not follow predicted paic - based diversification patterns , with evidence suggesting a number of overseas dispersal events may have also taken place during the radiation of this group throughout the archipelago ( siler et al . 2011a ) . furthermore , studies on radiations of other philippine reptiles ( linkem et al . 2010linkem et al . , 2011 siler et al . 2010c siler et al . , 2012b siler et al . , 2014 welton et al . 2013 welton et al . , 2014 ) have also partially or fully rejected paic formation and fragmentation events in the generation and maintenance of species diversity . . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , it occurs in a number of protected areas , has a tolerance of a degree of habitat modification , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis species is endemic to the philippines , where it has been recorded from the islands of luzon , polillo , marinduque , mindoro , calotcot , tablas , sibuyan , lubang , camiguin norte and masbate ( brown and alcala 1980 ) . it ranges from close to sea level to about 800 m asl .\nthis species has been recorded from both primary and secondary tropical moist forest , and has also been within coconut groves and similar plantations . animals seem to be largely terrestrial and are found in leaf litter , under rotting logs , and amongst similar ground cover ( brown and alcala 1980 ) .\nthis species is found within numerous protected areas . no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nsiler cd 1 , davis dr 2 , freitas es 3 , huron na 4 , geheber ad 5 , watters jl 6 , penrod ml 7 , pape\u0219 m 8 , amrein a 9 , anwar a 10 , cooper d 10 , hein t 10 , manning a 10 , patel n 10 , pinaroc l 10 , diesmos ac 11 , diesmos ml 12 , oliveros ch 13 , brown rm 14 .\ndepartment of biology , university of oklahoma , 730 van vleet oval , norman , ok 73019 , usa . sam noble oklahoma museum of natural history , university of oklahoma , 2401 chautauqua avenue , norman , ok 73072 , usa . ; email : camsiler @ ou . edu .\ndepartment of biology , university of south dakota , 414 east clark street , vermillion , sd 57069 , usa . ; email : drew . davis @ usd . edu .\ndepartment of biology , university of oklahoma , 730 van vleet oval , norman , ok 73019 , usa . ; email : elysefreitas @ gmail . com .\ndepartment of biology , university of oklahoma , 730 van vleet oval , norman , ok 73019 , usa . ; email : nahuron @ ou . edu .\ndepartment of biology , university of oklahoma , 730 van vleet oval , norman , ok 73019 , usa ; email : a . w . amrein @ gmail . com .\nsam noble oklahoma museum of natural history , university of oklahoma , 2401 chautauqua avenue , norman , ok 73072 , usa . ; email : jwatters @ ou . edu .\ndepartment of biology , university of oklahoma , 730 van vleet oval , norman , ok 73019 , usa ; email : michelle . l . penrod - 1 @ ou . edu .\ndepartment of integrative biology , oklahoma state university , 501 life sciences west , stillwater , ok , 74074 usa . ; email : papes @ okstate . edu .\ndepartment of biology , university of oklahoma , 730 van vleet oval , norman , ok 73019 , usa . ; email : annalisa . r . manning - 1 @ ou . edu .\ndepartment of biology , university of oklahoma , 730 van vleet oval , norman , ok 73019 , usa . ; email : unknown .\nherpetology section , zoology division , philippine national museum , rizal park , burgos street , manila , philippines . ; email : arvin . diesmos @ gmail . com .\nuniversity of santo tomas , espana boulevard , manila , philippines . ; email : maediesmos @ gmail . com .\ndepartment of biological sciences , louisiana state university , 220 life sciences building , baton rouge , la 70803 , usa . ; email : carloliveros @ gmail . com .\nbiodiversity institute and department of ecology and evolutionary biology , university of kansas , 1345 jayhawk boulevard , lawrence , ks 66045 , usa . ; email : rafe @ ku . edu .\ndavis dr 1 , geheber ad 2 , watters jl 3 , penrod ml 4 , feller kd 5 , ashford a 6 , kouri j 4 , nguyen d 4 , shauberger k 4 , sheatsley k 4 , winfrey c 4 , wong r 4 , sanguila mb 7 , brown rm 8 , siler cd 9 .\ndepartment of biology , university of oklahoma , 730 van vleet oval , norman , ok 73019 , usa . ; email : aaron . d . geheber - 1 @ ou . edu .\nschool of biological sciences , university of bristol , tyndall avenue , bristol , bs8 1tq , uk . ; email : kate . feller @ gmail . com .\ndepartment of biology , university of oklahoma , 730 van vleet oval , norman , ok 73019 , usa . ; email : aashford @ ou . edu .\nfather saturnino urios university , san francisco street , 8600 butuan city , philippines ; email : unknown .\ndepartment of biology , university of oklahoma , 730 van vleet oval , norman , ok 73019 , usa . sam noble oklahoma museum of natural history , university of oklahoma , 2401 chautauqua avenue , norman , ok 73072 , usa . ; email : unknown .\ncameron d . siler department of biology , university of oklahoma , 730 van vleet oval , norman , ok 73019 , usa . sam noble oklahoma museum of natural history , university of oklahoma , 2401 chautauqua avenue , norman , ok 73072 , usa .\ndrew r . davis department of biology , university of south dakota , 414 east clark street , vermillion , sd 57069 , usa .\nelyse s . freitas department of biology , university of oklahoma , 730 van vleet oval , norman , ok 73019 , usa .\nnicholas a . huron department of biology , university of oklahoma , 730 van vleet oval , norman , ok 73019 , usa .\njessa l . watters sam noble oklahoma museum of natural history , university of oklahoma , 2401 chautauqua avenue , norman , ok 73072 , usa .\nmonica pape\u0219 department of integrative biology , oklahoma state university , 501 life sciences west , stillwater , ok , 74074 usa .\nandrew amrein department of biology , university of oklahoma , 730 van vleet oval , norman , ok 73019 , usa .\nalyssa anwar department of biology , university of oklahoma , 730 van vleet oval , norman , ok 73019 , usa .\ndontae cooper department of biology , university of oklahoma , 730 van vleet oval , norman , ok 73019 , usa .\ntucker hein department of biology , university of oklahoma , 730 van vleet oval , norman , ok 73019 , usa .\nannalisa manning department of biology , university of oklahoma , 730 van vleet oval , norman , ok 73019 , usa .\nneeral patel department of biology , university of oklahoma , 730 van vleet oval , norman , ok 73019 , usa .\nlauren pinaroc department of biology , university of oklahoma , 730 van vleet oval , norman , ok 73019 , usa .\narvin c . diesmos herpetology section , zoology division , philippine national museum , rizal park , burgos street , manila , philippines .\nmae l . diesmos university of santo tomas , espana boulevard , manila , philippines .\ncarl h . oliveros department of biological sciences , louisiana state university , 220 life sciences building , baton rouge , la 70803 , usa .\nrafe m . brown biodiversity institute and department of ecology and evolutionary biology , university of kansas , 1345 jayhawk boulevard , lawrence , ks 66045 , usa .\ncameron d . siler , drew r . davis , elyse s . freitas , nicholas a . huron , aaron d . geheber , jessa l . watters , michelle l . penrod , monica pape\u0219 , andrew amrein , alyssa anwar , dontae cooper , tucker hein , annalisa manning , neeral patel , lauren pinaroc , arvin c . diesmos , mae l . diesmos , carl h . oliveros , rafe m . brown\nbarve , n . , barve , v . , jim\u00e9nez - valverde , a . , lira - noriega , a . , maher , s . p . , peterson , a . t . , sober\u00f3n , j . & villalobos , f . 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( 1980 ) philippine lizards of the family scincidae . philippine university press , dumaguete city , philippines , 264 pp .\nbrown , w . c . & rabor , d . s . ( 1967 ) review of the genus bracheymeles ( scincidae ) , with descriptions of new species and subspecies . proceedings of the california academy of sciences , series 4 , 15 , 525\u2013548 . avaliable from : urltoken ( accessed 20 jun . 2016 )\nheyer , w . r . ( 1972 ) a new limbless skink ( reptilia : scincidae ) from thailand with comments on the generic status of the limbless skinks of southeast asia . fieldiana zoology , 58 , 109\u2013129 . urltoken\ninternational union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) ( 2015 ) iucn red list of threatened species . version 2015 . 4 . available from : urltoken ( accessed 15 july 2015 ) .\nk\u00f6hler , g . ( 2012 ) color catalog for field biologists . herpeton , offenbach , 49 pp .\nlinkem , c . w . & brown , r . m . ( 2013 ) systematic revision of the parvoscincus decipiens ( boulenger , 1894 ) complex of philippine forest skinks ( squamata : scincidae : lygosominae ) with descriptions of seven new species . zootaxa , 3700 ( 4 ) , 501\u2013533 . urltoken\nlinkem , c . w . , hesed , k . m . , diesmos , a . c . & brown , r . m . ( 2010 ) species boundaries and cryptic lineage diversity in a philippine forest skink complex ( reptilia ; squamata ; scincidae : lygosominae ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution , 56 , 572\u2013585 .\nlinkem , c . w . , diesmos , a . c . & brown , r . m . ( 2011 ) molecular systematics of the philippine forest skinks ( reptilia : scincidae : sphenomorphus ) : testing morphological and biogeographic hypotheses of interspecific relationships . zoological journal of the linnaean society , 163 , 1217\u20131243 . urltoken\nsiler , c . d . & brown , r . m . ( 2011 ) evidence for repeated acquisition and loss of complex body - form characters in an insular clade of southeast asian semi - fossorial skinks . evolution , 65 , 2641\u20132663 . urltoken\nsiler , c . d . , swab , j . c . , oliveros , c . h . , diesmos , a . c . , averia , l . , alcala , a . c . & brown , r . m . ( 2012b ) amphibians and reptiles , romblon island group , central philippines : comprehensive herpetofaunal inventory . check list , 8 , 443\u2013462 . urltoken\nsiler , c . d . , welton , l . j . , davis , d . r . , watters , j . l . , davey , c . s . , diesmos , a . c . , diesmos , m . l . & brown , r . m . ( 2014 ) taxonomic revision of the pseudogekko compresicorpus complex ( reptilia : squamata : gekkonidae ) , with descriptions of three new species . herpetological monographs , 28 , 110\u2013139 . urltoken\nwatters , j . l . & siler , c . d . ( 2016 ) involving undergraduates in research \u2013 herpetology , spring 2015 . available from : urltoken ( accessed 3 may 2016 )\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\n( siler et al . , 2012 ) . all but two of these species are endemic to the\nbrown , 2010 ; siler et al . , 2011b , 2012 ) . t\nrecently ( siler and brown , 2010 ; siler et al . , 2011b , 2012 ) .\nreptiles . a growing body of literature ( welton et al . , 2010a , b ;\ncongener populations ( siler and brown , 2011 ; siler et al . , 2011a ) .\nluzon island ( figs . 2 , 3 ) . almost 80 yr later , t\nv3 . 2 . 1 ( ronquist and huelsenbeck , 2003 ) . the alignment was\ncriterion ( aic ) , as implemented in jmodeltest v2 . 1 . 4 ( guindon\nand gascuel , 2003 ; darriba et al . , 2012 ) , was used to select the\nin the central and northern philippines . sampling localities are indicated by numerical labels , and the hypothesized\n, illustrated by the maximum clade credibility tree resulting from bayesian analyses . nodes supported by\n( appendix 1 ) as well as fore - and hindlimb digit states and number of presacral vertebrae . numerical labels correspond to sampling localities\nnumbers indicating scales in the supraciliary series . illustrations by k . d . feller and c . d . siler\nield pairs with reference to the 1st , 2nd , and 3rd pairs ( when present ) . in cases of scale -\ncount variation within species , numbers of individuals showing speci\ufb01c counts are given in parentheses . male ,\nscale rows ( vs . 65\u201370 ) , 90\u201398 paravertebral scale rows ( vs . 85\u2013\n( pnm 9792 ; formerly ku 323937 ; holotype ) in dorsal , lateral , and ventral views . taxonomically diagnostic head scales are labeled as follows : c , chin\nsupraocular . roman numerals indicate scales in the supraocular series , with arabic numbers indicating scales in the supraciliary series . illustrations by\nseparated by single medial scale ( fig . 4 ) . scales on limbs smaller\ne ; wgs - 84 ) , by c . d . siler and j .\nvertebrae ( vs . 53 ) , 80\u201384 axilla\u2013groin scale rows ( vs . 83\u201390 ) , and\nothers , fourth and \ufb01fth subocular ; infralabials \ufb01ve ( fig . 4 ) .\nsingle medial scale , left third chin shield reduced in size ( fig . 4 ) .\non the following criteria : vu b2ab ( iii , iv ) ; d2 ( iucn , 2013 ) .\nand one on mindoro ( siler et al . , 2011b , 2012 ) .\n( siler et al . , 2011a ) , evolution of morphological novelty ( siler\nnity structure ( siler et al . , unpubl . data ) . we note that at most\nical phenomena ( losos et al . , 1998 ; mahler et al . , 2013 ) . the role\nstudies ; we are particularly grateful to t . m . lim , c . custodio ,\nagtag , and j . l . de leon for their logistical support of this\nc . d . siler , and nsf deb 0743491 and ef - 0334952 to r . m .\nbrown . for the loans of specimens we thank d . blackburn , j .\nvindum , and a . leviton ( california academy of sciences ) , j .\nbarnes and a . c . diesmos ( philippine national museum ) , j .\noris ( field museum of natural history ) , r . crombie and k .\nmaterial . both c . d . siler and r . m . brown extend a special\nthanks to a . alcala , a . diesmos , and m . diesmos for their\nberlocher ( eds . ) , endless forms : species and speciation , pp . 57\u201375 .\nnetic analyses : lost in the land of long trees . systematic biology 59 :\n, mt . isarog : paratypes ( cas - su 24173 , 24413 ) .\n24487 ) ; se slope mt . halcon , tarogin barrio : paratypes ( cas - su 24549\u2013\nsouthern slope of mt . canlaon : ( cas - su 19424 , 19426\u201327 , 19429 , 19452 ,\n( cas 60724 ) , paratypes ( cas 60723 , 60725 , mcz 26577 ) .\ncatarman town : paratypes ( cas - su 28199 , 28314 , 28329 , 28331 , 28358\u201359 ) ."]}
{"id": 2451, "summary": [{"text": "the austral snipes , coenocorypha , also known as the new zealand snipes or tutukiwi , are a genus of tiny birds in the sandpiper family , which are now only found on new zealand 's outlying islands .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "there are currently three living species and six known extinct species , with the subantarctic snipe having three subspecies , including the campbell island snipe discovered as recently as 1997 .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the genus was once distributed from fiji , new caledonia and norfolk island , across new zealand and southwards into new zealand 's subantarctic islands , but predation by introduced species , especially rats , has drastically reduced their range . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "austral snipe", "paragraphs": ["01 _ worthy _ an _ extinct _ austral _ snipe _ 2013 . pdf\nnominate race at least locally moves to lower altitudes during austral winter , e . g . reaching . . .\nworthy , t . h . , a . anderson , c . sand , 2013 . an extinct austral snipe aves : coenocorypha from new caledonia . emu 113 , 383\u2013393 .\nworthy , t . h . , a . anderson , c . sand , 2013 . an extinct austral snipe aves : coenocorypha from new caledonia . emu 113 , 383\u2013393 . | trevor worthy - urltoken\nrichard chamberlain with latham\u2019s snipe t0 \u2013 the first ever snipe to be tracked migrating between australia and japan . photo : karin lundstr\u00f6m .\nthe latham\u2019s snipe project was initiated to better understand the ecology and habitat use of latham\u2019s snipe ( gallinago hardwickii ) , a shorebird species that breeds in japan and migrates to australia for the austral spring - summer . using light - level geolocators deployed on snipe in port fairy , south - west victoria , the first ever full migration track for the species has been obtained . the latham\u2019s snipe project is supported by cerdi , the australia japan foundation and the woodland and wetlands trust .\na new and extinct species of austral snipe ( aves : scolopacidae : coenocorypha ) is described from late holocene cave deposits in new caledonia . the new species is larger than all congeners in the new zealand archipelago , including its subantarctic islands , bu\ntaxonomy of north and south island snipe ( aves : scolopacidae : coenocorypha ) , with analysis of a remarkable collection of snipe bones from greymouth , new zealand .\nchathamica , was a species of new zealand snipe endemic to the chatham islands .\nkingsford , r . t . 2000 . ecological impacts if dams , water diversions and river management on floodplain wetlands in australia . austral ecol . 25 : 109 - 127 .\nhandbook of australian , new zealand & antarctic birds . volume 3 . snipe to pigeons\nthe woodlands and wetlands trust ( jerrabomberra wetlands ) is a partner on the latham\u2019s snipe project through its snipe program in canberra and provision of funding to support the project .\nkingsford , r . t . ( 2000 ) . ecological impacts of dams , water diversions and river managements on floodplains wetlands in australia . austral ecology . 25 : 109 - 127 .\n) , with analysis of a remarkable collection of snipe bones from greymouth , new zealand .\nas rats had landed on campbell island with sealers in the early 1800s , no snipe remained when naturalists arrived in 1840 . however , in 1997 a few snipe were discovered on tiny jacquemart island , close to campbell island . to protect snipe and other birds , in 2001 the department of conservation eradicated the rats from campbell island . in 2005 snipe were found to have recolonised naturally . by early 2006 there were 30 snipe there , and they were considered to be on the way to repopulating 11 , 000 - hectare campbell island . the campbell snipe was named as a separate subspecies of subantarctic snipe ( coenocorypha aucklandica perseverance ) in 2010 .\nthe australian painted snipe is not known to cross - breed with any other species of bird .\nproject lead dr birgita hansen helping young ranger kelly bateup to measure a snipe . photo lori gould .\nas far as i can tell , all three are rare , nocturnal species of the high andes or austral lowlands that apparently roost in wooded areas and then feed and display in bogs or grassy areas \u2026 . i . e . somewhat more woodcock - like in being tied to wooded areas more than are most snipe .\npredation by feral animals is a potential threat to the australian painted snipe . the habit of the snipe to nest on the ground could render it vulnerable to introduced terrestrial predators such as the european red fox (\nin addition to australian studies , the latham\u2019s snipe project team visited hokkaido , japan in july 2016 , to assist with the wild bird society of japan with their snipe research . this was critical to strengthening ties between the 2 countries and provided the australian team with many insights and new information about snipe in japan .\nsnipe existed on the mainland until pacific rats and dogs exterminated them before european settlement . four populations live on southern islands : the snares island snipe ( estimated at 1 , 000 birds in 1987 ) , and three subspecies of the subantarctic snipe , one on each of the auckland islands , antipodes islands and campbell island .\npainted snipe - profile ( office of environment & heritage ( oeh ) , 2014al ) [ internet ] .\nanon . 2002 . painted snippets - newsletter of the australian painted snipe project . 1 : 1 - 5\nrogers , d . 2002 . australian painted snipe needs help . the tattler 30 : 1 - 2 .\nanonymous ( 1928 ) . first snipe of the season . windsor and richmond gazette 6 january 1928 , 1 .\nenvironment australia ( 2003ad ) . information sheet - australian painted snipe ( rostratula australis ) . available from : urltoken .\nrogers , d . 2001 . conservation directions - painted snipe . wingspan 11 ( 4 ) : 6 - 7 .\nhansen , b . ( 2015 ) . latham\u2019s snipe count results . geelong naturalist 51 ( 8 ) , 9 .\nas recently as 1964 there was another species of new zealand snipe , the south island snipe . a remnant population occurred on nearby big south cape island , but when rats invaded the island from a fishing boat they soon killed most of the snipe . two were rescued for release on a safe island but died . it was later found that they were both males .\nno comprehensive management documents have been prepared for the australian painted snipe . however , a brief recovery outline for the species is featured in the action plan for australian birds 2000 ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) and the information sheet - australian painted snipe ( rostratula australis ) ( environment australia 2003ad ) discusses the implications of the australian painted snipe as a nationally threatened species .\nnew south wales national parks and wildlife service ( nsw npws ) ( 1999b ) . threatened species information - painted snipe .\nnew south wales national parks and wildlife service . 1999 . threatened species information sheet - painted snipe . npws , hurstville .\nhansen , b . ( 2016 ) . latham\u2019s snipe tracking project \u2014 news brief . wader quest newsletter 3 , 17 .\nmale vermilion flycatchers are showy and unmistakable , but the females may hold the keys to identification if vermilion flycatcher is split into multiple species . this female will look very dusky and smudgy to north american birders who are familiar with vermilion flycatcher ( northern ) and is a member of the austral migrant group , which can be reported as vermilion flycatcher ( austral ) in ebird . watch for these to appear in amazonia ( e . g . , eastern peru ) from april to october . photo chris wood / macaulay library .\nlowe , v . t . ( 1963 ) . observations on the painted snipe . emu . 62 : 220 - 37 .\nthomas , e . ( 1975 ) . painted snipe breeding at barham , nsw . australian bird watcher . 6 : 133 .\nfilming a black grouse lek early one morning , when a common snipe flew up and started singing . . . chip - per . . . chip - per . . . chip - per . . . . next task is to film the snipe drumming !\nnsw national parks and wildlife service ( nsw npws ) ( 1999by ) . painted snipe threatened species information . available from : urltoken .\nthe subspecies group vermilion flycatcher ( austral ) pyrocephalus rubinus rubinus is retained , and the polytypic group vermilion flycatcher ( galapagos ) pyrocephalus rubinus nanus / dubius is split into two monotypic groups ; dubius is extinct and a single island endemic , while nanus occurs on multiple islands and remains relatively common .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - common snipe calling and preening\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - common snipe calling and preening\ntitle =\narkive video - common snipe calling and preening\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe latham\u2019s snipe project was initiated in the wake of a victorian civil and administrative tribunal case in 2014 , regarding a housing development proposal on an important latham\u2019s snipe wetland ( powling street wetlands ) in port fairy , south - west victoria . during the case , proponents claimed that the housing development would not impact the snipe population because the birds would move to another site . however , there was no evidence to support this claim .\nhansen , b . ( 2016 ) . latham\u2019s snipe use of urban versus non - urban wetland habitat in victoria . tattler 38 , 15 .\nhansen , b . ( 2015 ) . latham\u2019s snipe and urban wetlands in the port fairy region . vwsg bulletin 38 , 73 - 74 .\nalthough traditionally considered a race of the greater painted snipe which occurs in africa and asia , recent studies of the morphology and dna of the australian painted snipe indicate that is should be regarded as a full species . they often occur in small parties , sometimes comprising one sex only . australian painted snipe usually sit quietly beneath cover during the day , becoming more active near dusk , when they begin foraging , and they may remain active all night . usually remaining in cover when foraging , where they skulk about , painted snipe rhythmically bob their heads downwards to probe the soft mud while they walk . when disturbed , australian painted snipe usually remain motionless , and will not flush unless the observer is very close . when flushed , painted snipe fly a short distance , usually keeping low , with slow , erratic wing - beats and legs dangling behind . they are usually silent .\ndescribed by one observer as ' pygmy kiwis ' 1 , chatham island snipe once inhabited most of the islands in the group , but from the 1890s were confined to rangatira ( south east ) island , a refuge for several endangered birds . the snipe has since been reintroduced to m\u0101ngere island , and has made its own way to little m\u0101ngere and rabbit islands . like all snipe , they find food by probing their beak into soft soil .\nnew south wales national parks and wildlife service ( nsw npws ) ( 2006 ) . painted snipe - endangered species listing . available from : urltoken .\n: three species of andean snipe were traditionally ( e . g . , peters 1934 , hellmayr & conover 1948 ) placed in a separate genus ,\nthe wild bird society of japan is a collaborator on the latham\u2019s snipe project through contribution to field study , knowledge sharing and reciprocal exchange of researchers .\nuntil recently , the australian painted snipe was considered to be a subspecies of the species rostratula benghalensis that occurs in africa and asia . a recent taxonomic study by lane and rogers ( 2000 ) together with a dna study , as yet unpublished , verify that the australian painted snipe is a separate species . it has been confirmed that this new species is acceptable , that it will be known as rostratula australis ( australian painted snipe ) , and that it will appear in the new australian checklist of birds to be published in 2003 . there is no evidence that the australian painted snipe migrates outside of australia .\nyes \u2013 having looked at a lot of snipe skins over time , i always wondered why chubbia was dropped . it looked like a fine subset in the woodcock - snipe clade . i think that some shifting may occur as we find out more , but including chubbia improves the taxonomy of this group . \u201d\nsome snipe appear to be highly site faithful , whilst others may transit through an area on their way to other non - breeding areas in southern australia .\nthe australia japan foundation is the key funding partner on the latham\u2019s snipe project , supporting field - based engagement activities and exchange of australian and japanese scientists .\nrecorded as far south as subantarctic campbell island ( 52\u00b0s ) , the ruddy turnstone is the third most numerous arctic migrant wader species that occurs in new zealand . breeding adults have brightly patterned black , white , rufous - brown or\ntortoiseshell\nplumage on the upperparts , which develops annually towards the end of the austral summer .\nthe latham\u2019s snipe project has gathered a large body of dedicated counters and volunteers . as the project continues to acquire new knowledge about the species , the number of people participating in counts and catches continues to grow . there is now an extended network of volunteers across eastern australia who contribute to the monitoring of snipe .\nhiggins pj , davies sjjf ( 1996 ) handbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds , vol 3 . snipe to pigeons . oxford university press , melbourne\nthe latham\u2019s snipe project will continue to expand its research in canberra , to build additional information about the ecology of the species from a non - coastal location .\nthe australian painted snipe project was established in 2001 to address population declines identified for the species across australia . with the help of the project the australian painted snipe has been recognised as an endemic species unique to the more widespread greater painted snipe . with these findings came the realisation that there were many gaps in our knowledge of this opportunistic and cryptic wader . through it\u2019s monitoring program , the project continues to fill these gaps , track population trends and document habitat requirements in order to halt species decline . in 2011 birdlife australia nominated the australian painted snipe to be upgraded to endangered under the epbc act ; a result will be found in 2012 .\nmcgilp , j . n . ( 1934b ) . the nesting of the painted snipe ( rostratula australis ) . south australian ornithologist . 12 : 167 - 169 .\nin queensland , anecdotal evidence by national parks and wildlife service staff also indicates declines in numbers of australian painted snipe has occurred over the last 3 - 4 decades .\natlas of living australia ( 2015 ) . atlas of living australia . spatial data portal for latham\u2019s snipe . available online : urltoken ( retrieved 20 november 2015 ) .\nnew zealand snipes have been described as living fossils and the most primitive of snipe - like birds . like the northern hemisphere snipe and woodcock , they stay among dense vegetation , moving out at dusk to feed in more open areas . however , these southern cousins are not migratory , remaining year - round on their own small island groups .\nthreatened species of the northern territory - australian painted snipe rostratula australis ( taylor , r , r . chatto & j . woinarski , 2013 ) [ information sheet ] .\nthe replacement of endemic wetland vegetation by invasive , noxious weeds could render habitats less suitable or unsuitable for the snipe ( rogers et al . 2005 ) . for example ,\njaensch , r . ( 2003 ) . breeding by australian painted snipe in the diamantina channel country , south - western queensland . stilt . 43 : 20 - 22 .\nthe south beach wetlands and landcare group is a key partner on the latham\u2019s snipe project , providing knowledge , funding through landcare , field assistance and access to landholder networks .\nthe research to track the migration patterns of the latham\u2019s snipe ( gallinago hardwickii ) is being coordinated by dr birgita hansen , a research fellow at cerdi . the latham\u2019s snipe project is a collaboration between researchers , ornithologists and community groups . the team works collaboratively with colleagues from the wild bird society of japan ( wbsj ) . close connections with japan have been forged through this project , and there has been exchange of researchers between australia and hokkaido , japan , to conduct snipe research and teach school students about shorebird conservation .\npainted snipe - endangered species listing . nsw scientific committee - final determination ( nsw department of environment , climate change and water ( nsw deccw ) , 2004o ) [ internet ] .\nprotect and manage habitat at principal breeding and wintering sites and , as a precautionary measure , identify and protect any additional habitat used by the australian painted snipe in the last 10 years .\nhornsby , p . 1998 . observations of a painted snipe rostratula benghalensis and great egret ardea alba in the north flinders ranges . south aust . orn . 33 : 25 - 6 .\nlane , b . & forest , b . ( 1984 ) . preliminary results from banding latham\u2019s snipe ( gallinago hardwickii ) in southern victoria . victorian wader study group bulletin 8 , 2\u201312 .\na new and extinct species of austral snipe ( aves : scolopacidae : coenocorypha ) is described from late holocene cave deposits in new caledonia . the new species is larger than all congeners in the new zealand archipelago , including its subantarctic islands , but is slightly smaller than c . miratropica from viti levu , fiji . better developed ligamental sulci and attachment processes on the humerus suggest that this new species was perhaps the strongest flier in the genus . nevertheless , it went extinct within c . 1000 years of human arrival in new caledonia , probably as a result of depredation by the rats that arrived with humans .\nthe latham\u2019s snipe project has combined a variety of research and monitoring approaches , including observation , survey , geolocator studies , radio tracking and satellite tracking , to substantially increase our knowledge of the species .\nthe habitat of the australian painted snipe might also be degraded by other processes . grazing and associated trampling of wetland vegetation by cattle and / or sheep is a threat to the australian painted snipe , particularly in arid regions where grazing tends to become concentrated around wetlands in the dry season ( nsw npws 1999b ; rogers et al . 2005 ) . for example , an apparent decline in australian painted snipe numbers in the kimberley region of western australia has been linked to overgrazing by cattle ( johnstone & storr 1998 ) . it is possible that cattle could also trample nests ( hassell & rogers 2002 ) .\nas a wetland inhabitant , the australian painted snipe is also presumed to be vulnerable to other processes that reduce the potential for flooding , such as prolonged drought ( del hoyo et al . 1996 ) .\nlane , b . a . and rogers , d . i . 2000 . the taxonomic and conservation status of the australian painted snipe rostratula ( benghalensis ) australis . stilt 36 : 26 - 34 .\nmore recently , the project has expanded further to include an investigation into the ecology of the population in canberra , and to investigate the characteristics of wetland habitats used by snipe south - west victoria . .\nthe victorian wader study group is a partner to the project through the group\u2019s long - term scientific program on waders and terns . the latham\u2019s snipe project field activities form part of the vwsg\u2019s monitoring program .\nthe endemic new zealand snipes ( coenocorypha species ) are among the least known native birds . as their m\u0101ori name , tutukiwi , suggests , they resemble small kiwi with their long bills , stout legs and probing method of finding worms , insect larvae and other invertebrates . they are considered waders , but live and feed in forest and shrubland , not near water . the snares island snipe ( coenocorypha huegeli ) and subantarctic snipe ( coenocorypha aucklandica ) are about the size of a blackbird , measuring 23 centimetres and weighing 110 grams . the chatham island snipe ( coenocorypha pusilla ) is smaller at 20 centimetres and 80 grams .\nsince 2002 , national surveys for the australian painted snipe have been conducted twice per year at important historic and contemporary sites and other sites of interest ( d . ingwersen 2007 , pers . comm . ) .\nanother threat to the australian painted snipe is likely to be predation by feral animals . this species is a ground - nesting bird , and predation by foxes on eggs and young birds is known to occur .\nhiggins , p . & davies , s . ( eds ) ( 1996 ) . handbook of australian , new zealand & antarctic birds , volume 3 : snipe to pigeons . oxford university press , melbourne .\nscientific name : rostratula australis common name : australian painted snipe until recently , the australian painted snipe was considered to be a subspecies of rostratula benghalensis , a species that occurs across africa and asia ( marchant & higgins 1993 ) . however , lane and rogers ( 2000 ) recommended treating the subspecies found in australia ( r . benghalensis australis ) as a full species ( r . australis ) based on its distinctive appearance , call , measurements and anatomy . recent genetic studies indicate that the australian painted snipe is a distinct species that diverged around 19 million years ago . it is now accepted as a full species ( baker et . al . 2007 ; l . christidis 2002 , pers . comm . ) . the australian painted snipe is the only member of the genus rostratula that occurs in australia ( del hoyo et al . 1996 ) .\nhassell , c . j . & d . i . rogers ( 2002 ) . painted snipe nesting at taylor ' s lagoon near broome , north - western australia . stilt . 41 : 14 - 21 .\nlane , b . a . & d . i . rogers ( 2000 ) . the australian painted snipe , rostratula ( benghalensis ) australis : an endangered species ? . stilt . 36 : 26 - 34 .\nhassell , c . j . , and d . i . rogers . 2002 . painted snipe nesting at taylor ' s lagoon near broome , north - western australia . the stilt 41 : 14 - 21 .\nhansen , b . , wilson , d . , koyama , k . ( 2015 ) . australian researchers to study latham\u2019s snipe migration . bird research water bird news . oct . 2015 . japan bird research association .\nan area of improved grassland was dominated by rushes juncus spp . and purple moor - grass molinia caerulea . in order to try and attract breeding common snipe gallinago gallinago , the rush was cut in 2003 with tractor mounted mowers and then grazed . in addition , 18 small scrapes were dug and higher water levels were maintained . the number of snipe increased from one nesting pair in 2003 to 11 nesting pairs in both 2004 and 2005 .\nall of this is qualitative , superficial , and potentially irrelevant \u2013 there is no reason why some snipe would not converge on \u201cwoodcockness\u201d , and in fact there may be a continuum between the two groups in ecology and morphology .\nhansen , b . , honan , j . , stewart , d . ( 2015 ) . what is the relative importance of urban wetlands for latham\u2019s snipe in south - west victoria ? australasian ornithological conference 2015 , adelaide .\nno major field studies have been conducted on the australian painted snipe . however , some moderately detailed information on the breeding behaviour of the snipe has been collected from opportunistic encounters with nesting birds ( hassell & rogers 2002 ; jaensch 2003 ; jaensch et al . 2004 ; lowe 1963 ; mcgilp 1934b ) , and the taxonomy , conservation status and habitat preferences of the species have been reviewed ( lane & rogers 2000 ; rogers et al . 2005 ) .\nthe australian painted snipe is infrequently and irregularly recorded in australia . it is absent from cape york peninsula and has been recorded only once from tasmania . there has been no marked change in the range of this species over time .\nshigeta , y . , hiraoka , t . & gonzalez , j . ( 2002 ) . the first authentic record of the latham\u2019s snipe gallinago hardwickii for the philippines . journal of the yamashina institute of ornithology 34 , 240\u2013244 .\nthe likely causes of the decline of the australian painted snipe are habitat modification and loss . the species has probably suffered considerably from wetland drainage and the diversion of water from rivers , which means that shallow wetlands , its key habitat , never form . major water resource developments in the northern murray - darling basin from the 1960s - 1990s have coincided with a decline in snipe numbers ( lane and rogers 2000 ) . salinization is also likely to be adversely affecting suitable habitat , as is grazing and trampling by stock . grazing and trampling by stock in wetland areas can reduce or eliminate the vegetative cover used by the snipe for shelter ( especially when breeding ) , and allow easier assess to the birds by predators . impact on habitat through grazing and trampling by stock are thought to be the reason for the decline in numbers in the kimberley , western australia , ( johnstone and storr 1998 ) . similarly , cultivation practices that remove the perennial vegetation round the edges of swamps and wetlands are thought to increase the vulnerability of the snipe to predation . another threat to the australian painted snipe is likely to be predation by feral animals . this species is a ground - nesting bird , and predation by foxes on eggs and young birds is known to occur . most likely , the australian painted snipe will continue to decline in numbers because the processes that have caused past decline in numbers are ongoing .\njaensch , r . , j . mccabe , j . wahl & w . houston ( 2004 ) . breeding by australian painted snipe on the torilla plain , brigalow belt coast , queensland . stilt . 45 : 39 - 42 .\nin summary , the australian painted snipe is not often recorded and is in limited numbers across its range . although there have been a number of analyses investigating the decline in numbers of painted snipe , none of them are conclusive . however , the consistent trend in all the analyses and evidence is the same - they all indicate a substantial decline in numbers has occurred over the last few decades . the reason for the species ' decline is likely to be associated with the loss of inland wetlands , its key habitat , large changes to wetland systems and predation by introduced animals . most likely , the australian painted snipe will continue to decline in numbers because the processes that have caused past declines in numbers are ongoing .\nhiggins , p . j . ; davies , s . j . j . f ( eds ) . 1996 . handbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds . vol . 3 , snipe to pigeons . oxford university press , melbourne .\nan understanding of migration phenology is critical to the conservation of long - distance migrants . latham\u2019s snipe gallinago hardwickii is a cryptic , dispersed migratory wader that breeds in northern japan during the austral winter and migrates to australia for the non - breeding period . records of this species for new south wales ( nsw ) and the australian capital territory ( act ) were extracted from a range of data sources including hunting reports , the atlas of living australia , ebird and citizen science records , generating a dataset of first - arrival dates for 170 years ( 1846\u20132016 ) . the first record in each year , corresponding to the expected arrival period of latham\u2019s snipe on southward migration , was used to infer the date of first arrival . these dates were analysed using simple linear regression against julian day to test the hypothesis that changes in climate ( i . e . increasing mean annual temperature ) might result in a corresponding shift in arrival dates . the mean julian day of first arrivals in nsw and the act was 14 august \u00b1 9 days , with no significant change over the 170 - year span of records . this suggests that migration phenology of latham\u2019s snipe has not been strongly influenced by changing large - scale climatic conditions at either the breeding or non - breeding grounds .\neach island population is threatened by any accidental introduction of rats . in 2005 , 30 snares snipe were transferred to rat - free putauhinu island near stewart island , to establish a back - up population . thirty birds were released on codfish island in 2012 .\nleach , g . j . , c . g . lloyd & h . b . hines ( 1987 ) . observations at the nest of a painted snipe rostratula benghalensis in south - east queensland . australian bird watcher . 12 : 15 - 19 .\nleach , g . j . , lloyd , c . g . and hines , h . b . 1987 . observations at the nest of the painted snipe rostratula benghalensis in south - east queensland . aust . bird watcher 12 : 15 - 19 .\nthe project has also been very successful in engaging local communities including school children in the canberra young rangers program . this is an important outcome of the project \u2013 the increase engagement with the public to highlight the importance of wetland habitat protection for snipe conservation .\nthe likely causes of the decline of the australian painted snipe are habitat modification and loss . the species has probably suffered considerably from wetland drainage and the diversion of water from rivers , which means that shallow wetlands , its key habitat , never form . major water resource developments in the northern murray - darling basin from the 1960s - 1990s have coincided with a decline in snipe numbers ( lane and rogers 2000 ) . salinization is also likely to be adversely affecting suitable habitat , as is grazing and trampling by stock . grazing and trampling by stock in wetland areas can reduce or eliminate the vegetative cover used by the snipe for shelter ( especially when breeding ) , and allow easier access to the birds by predators . impact on habitat through grazing and tramping by stock are thought to be the reason for the decline in numbers in the kimberley , western australia , ( johnstone and storr 1998 ) . similarly , cultivation practices that remove the perennial vegetation round the edges of swamps and wetlands are thought to increase the vulnerability of the snipe to predation .\nhansen , b . , honan , j . , wilson , d . , chamberlain , r . , stewart , d . & gould , l . ( 2016 ) . first latham\u2019s snipe \u2018t0\u2019 with geolocator recaptured at port fairy ! tattler 41 , 14 .\nthreats the australian painted snipe is threatened by the drainage of wetlands and the diversion of water from major rivers for irrigation , which prevents shallow wetlands from forming . a decline in the kimberley division of western australia has been linked with overgrazing and trampling by cattle .\nas influxes of numbers of australian painted snipe irregularly occur in areas , it is possible that the species naturally fluctuates in numbers , building up in numbers when environmental conditions are favourable and declining when conditions are less favourable . there has been some speculation that the decline in numbers of australian painted snipe may be associated with natural fluctuations in the population . in 2001 - 2002 , with the start of a national painted snipe project , there was an unusually large number of sightings . the factors contributing to this large number of sightings were thought to be : ( 1 ) a good breeding year for the species in 2000 - 01 ; ( 2 ) widespread inland drought driving birds towards the coast where they are more likely to be seen ; and ( 3 ) increased awareness in the bird watching community that sightings should be reported . however , it is considered that the decline observed in the australian painted snipe since the 1950s - 1970s is not part of a natural fluctuation in the population . the decline has been prolonged , is widespread and has occurred over various wet and dry cycles .\nhansen , b . , honan , j . , wilson , d . , chamberlain , r . , stewart , d . , gould , l . ( 2016 ) . konnichiwa ojishigi : following latham\u2019s snipe from japan to australia . tattler 41 , 13 - 14 .\nhiggins , p . j . , and davies , s . j . j . f . ( eds ) ( 1996 ) . \u2018handbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds . vol . 3 . snipe to pigeons . \u2019 ( oxford university press : melbourne . )\nhansen , b . , veltheim , i . ( 2015 ) . wetlands , brolgas and latham\u2019s snipe : south - west victoria\u2019s great natural assets . pp . 57 - 58 in : wetlands australia , national wetlands update february 2015 \u2014 issue no 26 , commonwealth of australia 2015 .\nhabitat the australian painted snipe inhabits many different types of shallow , brackish or freshwater terrestrial wetlands , especially temporary ones , which have muddy margins and small , low - lying islands . suitable wetlands usually support a mosaic of low , patchy vegetation , as well as lignum and canegrass .\nin summary , the population of the australian painted snipe may naturally fluctuate in numbers , but it is unlikely to ever exceed 10 000 mature individuals . in the past it has declined in numbers , and most likely will continue to decline as result of further loss of suitable wetland habitat .\nthe trends in the available data and evidence are consistent and considered to be sufficient enough to indicate that the australian painted snipe has declined substantially in numbers , with possible declines of up to 90 % , though there are some concerns regarding the limitations of some of this data ( see criterion 1 ) . there has been some speculation that the decline in numbers of australian painted snipe may be associated with natural fluctuations in the population . in 2001 - 2002 , with the start of a national painted snipe project , there was an unusually large number of sightings . the factors contributing to this large number of sightings were thought to be : ( 1 ) a good breeding year for the species in 2000 - 01 ; ( 2 ) widespread inland drought driving birds towards the coast where they are more likely to be seen ; and ( 3 ) increased awareness in the bird watching community that sightings should be reported . however , it is considered that the decline observed in the australian painted snipe since the 1950s - 1970s is not part of a natural fluctuation in the population . the decline has been prolonged , is widespread and has occurred over various wet and dry cycles .\nwilson , d . , hansen , b . , honan , j . chamberlain , r . ( 2017 ) . 170 years of latham\u2019s snipe gallinago hardwickii arrivals in new south wales and the australian capital territory show no change in arrival date . australian field ornithology 34 , 76 - 79 .\nbreeding occurs from september to january with the laying of two pinkish - brown , blotched eggs , which the parents incubate alternately . like the snares island and subantarctic snipe , each hatchling follows one parent and is fed for several weeks . they feed on worms , amphipods and a variety of insects .\ndistinctiveness the australian painted snipe is a distinctive bird and unlikely to be confused with any other species ( marchant & higgins 1993 ) . in flight , the australian painted snipe can be differentiated from its close relative , rostratula benghalensis , by its rounded wing shape ( d . ingwersen 2007 , pers . comm . ) . detectability the australian painted snipe is difficult to detect . it is thought to be mainly crepuscular , but can be detected during the day . it is secretive but conspicuous on the rare occasions that it ventures out into the open ( d . ingwersen 2007 , pers . comm . ; marchant & higgins 1993 ) . intensive vigilance is required to detect flushed birds ( d . ingwersen 2007 , pers . comm . ) . this species may often be overlooked during wader and other waterbird census projects because of its cryptic behaviour and occurrence in rank vegetation ( lane & rogers 2000 ) .\nbaker , a . j . , s . l . pereira , d . i . rogers , r . elbourne & c . j . hassell ( 2007 ) . mitochondrial - dna evidence shows the australian painted snipe is a full species , rostratula australis . emu . 107 iss 3 : 185 - 189 .\nthreatened species scientific committee ( tssc ) ( 2003y ) . non - current commonwealth listing advice for rostratula australis ( australian painted snipe ) . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 15 - aug - 2003 . ceased to be in effect under the epbc act from 14 - may - 2013 .\npossibly there has been a reduction in the area that it occupies within its range ( sometimes referred to as area of occupancy ) . when comparing geographic data from the birds australia databases , the painted snipe has been recorded in much fewer areas during the 1998 - 2002 field atlas compared to the earlier 1977 - 1981 field atlas , suggesting that this species is declining in the areas that it occupies within its range . however , as the australian painted snipe appears to fluctuate in numbers and in the areas it occupies in response to environmental conditions , the significance of the decrease shown between the two atlases cannot be ascertained until the causes of the decrease are looked at in more detail .\nthe latham\u2019s snipe project team hopes to visit hokkaido again in 2018 , to participate in a census of the breeding grounds with the wild bird society of japan . a funding application is currently being considered to support this visit and if successful , will also support the project to expand its education , outreach and community engagement program in canberra and japan .\nthe latham\u2019s snipe project has used a number of strategies to address its objectives . the most critical of these has been to establish the project as a partnership between academic research and community groups . this has been achieved through a co - design approach that draws upon years of knowledge and expertise gained by community members which is combined with traditional scientific research .\nthis stocky blackbird - sized bird is a heavyweight - lifter among waders . its stout body , short powerful legs and feet , and robust wedge - shaped bill allow it to turn over large shells , stones and flotsam , such as driftwood and seaweed , while foraging for sandhoppers and other crustaceans . an annual circumpolar breeder on arctic and subarctic tundra , the ruddy turnstone is one of around 40 arctic breeding wading bird species that migrate south and reach new zealand . its migration route is not fully understood . some birds may fly south over the pacific ocean and some may fly along the east asia - australasian flyway . after spending the austral summer in new zealand ruddy turnstones are thought to fly to the korean peninsula before flying on to siberian breeding grounds .\nwetlands , the habitat of the australian painted snipe , have been altered significantly throughout australia since european settlement , with approximately 50 % of australian wetlands converted to other uses . in some regions , the loss has been greater than in other areas . for example , on the swan coastal plain of western australia , 75 % of the wetlands have been filled or drained , and in south - east south australia , 89 % have been destroyed ( environment australia 1997 ) . a number of wetland systems in the murray - darling basin have suffered considerably from degradation and loss due to changes in flooding patterns and land uses . for example , it is estimated that about 76 % of the lower murrumbidgee wetlands have been lost or degraded , and substantial changes have also occurred in the macquarie wetlands , chowchilla floodplain and gwydir wetlands ( kingsford and thomas 1995 , 2001 ; kingsford 2000 ) . in victoria , shallow freshwater marshes and edges of deep freshwater marshes , the preferred habitat of australian painted snipe , have been depleted more than any other type of wetlands . as a result of this well - documented decline in wetlands , it may be inferred that substantial areas of suitable habitat for the australian painted snipe have also declined , and that because of this , the population numbers of this already scarce species have further diminished . although the loss of wetlands would be detrimental to all waterbirds , it is likely to be particularly so to an uncommon species of waterbird such as the australian painted snipe .\nin 2001 , a project was initiated by the threatened bird network and australasian wader studies group to improve knowledge of the australian painted snipe so that meaningful conservation actions could be proposed ( rogers et al . 2005 ) . recovery actions implemented as part of this study include ( garnett & crowley 2000 ; d . ingwersen 2007 , pers . comm . ; rogers et al . 2005 ) :\nthe latham\u2019s snipe project takes an unusual and innovative approach to investigating the migration and habitat use of this species . by building a collaboration with community groups from the outset , the project has established a research and monitoring program that combines traditional scientific approaches with community - based monitoring to answer questions about the species ecology and conservation . this is a rare example of a successful co - designed project .\nmovements the movements of the australian painted snipe are poorly understood . the species is possibly dispersive in response to the flooding and drying out of wetlands , and they are capable of travelling great distances . however , over 90 % of all records are received between august and march , introducing a possible seasonal element into their pattern of movements ; it is unknown where they generally occur outside these times .\nthe species is listed as rare or threatened under queensland , nsw , victorian , south australian , western australian and northern territory legislation . currently , the australian painted snipe is not listed as threatened under the commonwealth epbc act , however it is listed under the migratory and the marine provisions of the epbc act as rostratula benghalensis as it was considered to be part of this species when these listings were made .\nthe ruddy turnstone is a circumpolar annual breeder on arctic and subarctic tundra , mainly north of 60\u00b0 n , making it one of the most northerly - breeding wader species . one bird was tracked in two consecutive years migrating from alaska to australia via the central pacific and back to siberia via the east asian - australasian flyway , each ' round trip ' a journey of 27 , 000 km . a bird banded in invercargill has been recorded on southward migration through broome in north - west australia during september in three successive years . this , along with tracks of birds flying south to australia via coastal china and indonesia , indicates some birds migrate along the same route before continuing on to new zealand . after spending the austral summer in new zealand ruddy turnstones are thought to fly to the korean peninsula in north - east asia before flying on to siberian breeding grounds .\nit seems likely that the total population of mature individuals of australian painted snipe does not exceed 10 , 000 mature individuals , and is therefore limited . the population size is not known , but watkins ( 1993 ) estimated the population to be 1 , 500 , while garnett and crowley ( 2000 ) estimated the population to be 5 , 000 breeding birds . the basis for these estimates is not clear . lane and rogers ( 2000 ) were only able to find 550 records for the species across australia from 1800 until 2000 . over the two decades prior to 2002 , there were only 5 - 25 records per year ( unpublished data ) . records of the australian painted snipe generally refer to single birds but there are sightings of small groups of 3 - 4 and flocks up to about 30 ( marchant and higgins 1993 ) .\ninformation from counts conducted by the south beach wetlands and landcare group formed the basis for designing a survey program that focused on a range of sites where snipe were present and absent . the group\u2019s observations over time were critical to determining how to design a capture - based program aimed to deploying geolocators , which require re - capture of the bird and hence , knowledge of the bird\u2019s likely behaviour from year - to - year .\nrecords indicate that the australian painted snipe is in limited numbers across its range . the trends in the available data and evidence are consistent , and considered to be sufficient enough to indicate that the australian painted snipe has declined substantially in numbers , with possible declines of up to 90 % , though there are some concerns regarding the limitations of some of this data . although this species may undergo natural fluctuations in numbers , the recently observed decline is not considered to be part of a natural cycle . the species is likely to have suffered from loss of its wetland habitat , as over 50 % of wetland habitat in australia has been lost or altered since european settlement . the impact of past and future losses of wetlands will most likely result in further declines in numbers of this rare species . the species is eligible for listing as vulnerable under criteria 1 and 3 .\nconcern exists that changes to fire regimes might be affecting savannah vegetation around wetlands in northern australia ( white 1997 ) . over some time scales , fire may not be detrimental to the habitat of the australian painted snipe . for example , fire is employed as a management tool at wetlands in the riverina region to prevent the formation of dense stands of canegrass . however , the long term effects of persistent burning are poorly known ( rogers et al . 2005 ) .\nrogers , d . , i . hance , s . paton , c . tzaros , p . griffioen , m . herring , r . jaensch , l . oring , a . silcocks & m . weston ( 2005 ) . the breeding bottleneck : breeding habitat and population decline in the australian painted snipe . in : straw , p . , ed . status and conservation of seabirds in the east asian - australasian flyway . pp . 15 - 23 .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . puna snipe ( gallinago andina ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nan independent expert on australia ' s bird databases has conducted a number of unpublished analyses on the eastcoast bird database ( for details of this database , see griffioen and clarke 2002 ) . while acknowledging that such a comparison across databases is limited , the expert concludes that a substantial decline has occurred since the 1970s . of all the analyses to date , this one gives most support to the notion that a marked decline has occurred in numbers of australian painted snipe .\nso alarming was the snipe\u2019s night - time call that it gave rise to the m\u0101ori tradition of the fearful hakawai or h\u014dkioi \u2013 one of the spirit birds of rakamaomao ( the wind ) that dwelt in space and came down to earth only at night . muttonbirders have compared the noise to a cable chain being lowered into a boat . preceded by a sequence of calls , this eerie sound is produced by vibrating tail feathers as the bird plunges from high in the air .\nis a thorny shrub that currently infests more than 800 000 ha of land in the semi - arid and sub - humid tropical regions of australia , and has the potential to become much more widespread . it thrives around sources of water and forms tall , dense thickets that are unlikely to be used by the snipe and more generally have a detrimental impact on the health of wetland communities ( crc for australian weed management et al . 2003 ; rogers et al . 2005 ) .\nthey say home is where the heart is , well here it is . all your needs are sure to be met with this stunning renovated home , immaculately presented both inside and out , it would ideally suit first home buyers or investors alike who are searching for a solid home to move straight into with nothing to worry about other than unrestricted living . attributes include 3 good sized bedrooms with built - ins , central family bathroom , spacious lounge , modern kitchen with stone bench tops that overlooks onto a bright sunroom making it perfect for your enjoyment all year round . further qualities include drive through garage , quality floor coverings , air - con , gas cooktop , solar panels , low maintenance gardens . situated within close proximity to local shopping precincts , cafes , restaurants , public transport , a variety of well regarded schools , recreational facilities and easy access to m5 / m7 motorways . inspection without delay is a must ! call us at ray white green valley or ray white austral on 9608 - 1555 and speak to anyone of our award winning salespeople .\nbreeding ecology of brown skuas ( catharacta antarctica lonnbergi ) was studied at bird island , south georgia in the austral summers of 2000 / 2001\u20132003 / 2004 . a complete census recorded 467 breeding pairs in 3 . 55 km 2 of suitable habitat ( 132 pairs per km 2 ) , and an additional 312 nonbreeders at club - sites . comparison with previous counts indicates two phases of population change : an initial rapid increase ( 3 . 6 % per annum ) from the late 1950s to early 1980s , probably attributable to increased carrion availability from the expanding antarctic fur seal ( arctocephalus gazella ) population , followed by slower growth ( 0 . 9 % p . a . ) . currently , seal carrion dominates the diet of skuas during incubation , with a switch to seabird prey during chick - rearing . breeding is now later , chick growth poorer , and productivity significantly lower than in the early 1980s . there is also a strong seasonal decline in adult attendance , and chicks that hatch later and are in poorer condition are less likely to fledge . these results suggest a long - term increase in competition for carrion that is particularly apparent once fur seal pupping has ceased ."]}
{"id": 2456, "summary": [{"text": "the grey-lined hawk ( buteo nitidus ) is a smallish raptor found in open country and forest edges .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "it is sometimes placed in the genus asturina as asturina nitida .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the species has been split by the aou from the grey hawk .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the grey-lined hawk is found from southern costa rica to argentina .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the grey-lined hawk is 46 \u2013 61 cm ( 18 \u2013 24 in ) in length and weighs 475 g ( 16.8 oz ) average .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the adult has a pale grey body , the tail is black with three white bands and the legs are orange .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it has fine white barring on the upper parts .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "immature birds have dark brown upperparts , a pale-banded brown tail , brown-spotted white underparts and a brown streaked buff head and neck .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this species is quite short-winged , and has a fast agile flight for a buteo .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it feeds mainly on lizards and snakes , but will also take small mammals , birds and frogs .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it usually sits on an open high perch from which it swoops on its prey , but will also hunt from a low glide .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the nest is of sticks and built high in a tree .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the usual clutch is one to three , usually two white to pale blue eggs .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the young take about 6 weeks to fledging . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "grey - lined hawk", "paragraphs": ["photo of adult grey - lined hawk perched in dead tree . note barred back and nape , compared with unbarred grey back and nape of grey hawk .\ngrey - lined hawk ( buteo nitidus ) is a species of bird in the accipitridae family .\n38\u201346 cm ; male 350\u2013497 g , female 320\u2013592 g ; wingspan 75\u201394 cm . grey overall , with fine dark grey barring above and bolder white barring below ; tail . . .\n38 - 46 cm . a small pale grey hawk with fairly broad wings , extensively barred dark grey . the tail has a single solid black sub - terminal band . fast flapping flight with short glides , soars on flat wings . voice . a high , clear , drawn out disyllabic whistle .\nbierregaard , r . o . , jr , boesman , p . & marks , j . s . ( 2018 ) . grey - lined hawk ( buteo nitidus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\neitniear , j . , s . mcgehee , w . waddell . 1990 . gray hawk mobbed by olive - throated parakeets .\nglinski , r . 1988 . gray hawk . pp . 83 - 86 in r glinski , b pendleton , m moss , m lefranc , jr . , b millsap , eds .\ngrey - lined hawk , buteo nitidus , parque natural tayrona , birds caribe birding in santa marta many endemics ( about 25 ) and specialties occur here including santa marta antpitta , band - tailed , santa marta wood wren , bangs wood wren , white - tipped quetzal , santa marta sabrewing , santa marta wren , blue bearded helmetcrest , white - tailed starfrontlet , santa marta warbler , santa marta parakeet , santa marta mountain - tanager , yellow - crowned whitestart , santa marta bush - tyrant , santa marta rufous antpitta , brown - rumped tapaculo , rusty - headed spinetail , santa marta brush - finch , santa marta blossomcrown , santa marta foliage - gleaner , golden - breasted fruiteater , yellow - legged and black - hooded thrushes , black - headed tanager \u2013furthermore an undescribed species of santa marta screech - owl , rusty - breasted antpitta , santa marta tapaculo , black backed thornbill , .\napparently some gray hawk pairs stay together after the breeding season is over . the gray hawks that overwintered in arizona were a pair . glinski called them out by mimicking their territorial breeding calls , and they responded in kind ( glinski , 1998 ) .\nthis species and b . plagiatus sometimes placed in asturina , partly because of distinctive moult pattern . probably closest to b . ridgwayi and b . lineatus ; previously considered to form a clade with these and rupornis magnirostris , but latter found to be basal to all buteos # r # r # r , and this group may be more closely allied to leucopternis than to buteo . until recently , commonly considered conspecific with b . plagiatus , which differs in its plain vs barred grey crown , nape , back and wings ( 3 ) ; uppertail coverts white vs grey with white tips , resulting in bold vs narrow white band on base of uppertail ( 2 ) ; and longer call , without sudden drop in pitch in middle of note ( 2 , perhaps 3 ) # r . n race blakei previously known as costaricensis , but latter name invalid , as preoccupied ( by b . jamaicensis costaricensis ) . three subspecies usually recognized .\nthere are no documented cases of predation of gray hawks , but like other mid - sized hawks , they may be vulnerable to larger birds of prey . raptor nestlings in the tropics may on rare occasions succumb to predation from arboreal hunters such as monkeys , coatis , snakes , and other birds , so it is possible that gray hawk nestlings may as well ( emmons and feer , 1997 ) .\non their wintering range , other factors could lead to gray hawk decline . glinski banded seven nestlings in arizona that were recovered in northern sinaloa state in mexico , and six of these had been shot . the greatest threat on these wintering grounds , however , is habitat loss . there , the gray hawks\u2019 thornscrub habitat is being widely cleared for agriculture . gray hawks continue to persist along the living fence rows of trees that divide the agricultural fields , but it is unclear how many hawks this disrupted habitat can support , nor , ultimately , what effects this might have on arizona\u2019s breeding population . little is known about demographics or conservation throughout the rest of the gray hawk ' s range ( glinski , 1988 , 1998 ; nabhan and sheridan , 1977 ; tellman et al . , 1997 ; urls below ) .\ngray hawks are important predators of smaller lizards and snakes throughout their range , though cryptic coloration , speed , and good hiding places can help some reptile prey evade capture . gray hawks occasionally prey upon small birds . smaller birds will often deter predation by mobbing birds of prey to drive them away . olive - throated parakeets have been seen mobbing a gray hawk to force it to leave the area ( eitniear et al . , 1990 ) .\nthroughout their range , gray hawks inhabit woodlands and arid deciduous forests . in the tropics they prefer dry second growth forest and thorn scrub . they tend to select patchy open forest , forest edges , and savanna trees . it is not uncommon to find them on agricultural fields . in denser woodland they tend to keep high in the forest canopy . gray hawk northern breeding range is found in deciduous cottonwood - willow forests and mesquite bosques along riparian corridors or in evergreen oak woodlands ( glinski , 1998 ; stiles and skutch , 1989 ) .\nsince the range of gray hawks in the united states is so limited , many birdwatchers come to arizona and texas to see them . bird watching has become increasingly important to the economy of southeastern arizona . just as the gray hawk ' s distribution barely extends into southern arizona , so do the ranges of many other tropical and subtropical bird species . several migratory species also use the area\u2019s river corridors as they pass north from mexico . over 400 bird species draw birdwatchers from around the world . their visitation has been an economic boon to the area . in 2001 , visitors to two well - known birding spots in southeastern arizona - ramsey canyon preserve and the san pedro riparian national conservation area - spent an estimated $ 10 . 1 million to $ 16 . 9 million . about a third of the gray hawk nest sites in arizona have been identified in the san pedro ncr . while gray hawks are not the sole draw to the area , the numbers clearly illustrate the impact that conservation has on regional economies . gray hawks , as well as people , stand to benefit from this perceived economic value . ( bibles , 1999 ; relly , 2002 ; viers , 2000 ) .\nbibles ( 1999 ) also revealed that gray hawks prefer home ranges with taller trees and more open understory , probably because these enable them to observe their cryptic prey more easily . the increased flight space may also facilitate greater capture success . mesquite bosques are the primary foraging areas of gray hawks breeding in arizona because they have these characteristics . the amount of mesquite bosque seems to be the main factor that determines habitat quality in gray hawk nesting range in arizona . ( amadon and phillips , 1939 ; bibles , 1999 ; glinski , 1988 ; glinski and millsap , 1987 ; gurrola - hidalgo and chavez , 1996 ; stensrude , 1965 ) .\ngray hawks from northern populations arrive in arizona around mid - march to breed . nest site fidelity is high , and gray hawk territories remain fairly constant from year to year . pairs begin building the nest right after courtship , but they partition the work . the male builds the foundation , and the female shapes most of the bowl out of green , leafy twigs from the nest tree or neighboring trees . northerly - breeding gray hawks primarily nest in cottonwood trees , but they will also nest in willow , ash , oak , hackberry , and mesquites . they choose nest sites in the upper third of the tree , usually in branches away from the trunk . nests are crow - sized , about 60 cm across . the female usually lays two eggs in early may , although studies of nest productivity in arizona have recorded nests with four or even eight eggs per clutch with a mean of 1 . 2 or 1 . 1 young per occupied breeding site . the eggs are white to pale blue and rarely marked . only females incubate the eggs . incubation lasts about 33 days , during which the male captures food for the female . after hatching , the young stay in the nest for about six weeks .\n) range from the amazon basin in south america into the southwestern united states . they are migratory in the northern part of their range , arriving in southern arizona and extreme south texas in the spring to breed , and occasionally entering new mexico . these northern members of the species generally depart in mid - october to overwinter in mexico , although they can be found in south texas year - round , and rare records exist of winter residents in arizona . further south in their range , gray hawks are non - migratory ( glinski , 1998 ; kaufman , 2000 ; stiles and skutch , 1989 ; terres , 1980 ) .\ngray hawks are medium - sized , woodland buteos , with shorter wings and longer tails than typical buteos . adult birds have a slate - gray back , finely barred gray and white underparts , a black tail with two or three white bands , and a white rump . juveniles have dark brown backs and buff - streaked underparts , brownish - gray tails with five to nine narrow black bars , and a dark brown eye stripe . both adult and immature birds have dark gray or black beaks , brown irises , and yellow ceres and legs . males are smaller than females . gray hawks fly with accipiter - like movements , alternately flapping and gliding gracefully . their flight pattern and gray color is similar to that of northern goshawks , which led to their other common name , \u201cmexican goshawks . \u201d northern goshawks , however , have a white eyebrow and lack the tail barring distinctive of gray hawks ( glinski , 1998 ; kaufman , 2000 ; stiles and skutch , 1989 ; terres , 1980 ; wheeler and clark , 1995 ) .\narizona is the northernmost stronghold of breeding gray hawks , with nearly 80 known nest sites , most of which are protected in nature preserves or conservation easements . six pairs also nest regularly along the rio grande river in south texas . there is one reported incidence of nesting in new mexico . further south in their range , gray hawks are non - migratory and nest from december through may in tall , evergreen trees ( bibles , 1999 ; brandt , 1951 ; glinski , 1988 ; glinski , 1998 ; hubbard , 1974 ; stiles and skutch , 1989 ; terres , 1980 ) .\nfemales alone provide incubation , but the male feeds her . the male provides most of the food for the first two weeks post - hatching , after which the female begins to hunt as well . it is not known how quickly the young can hunt for themselves once they leave the nest .\ngray hawks are swift , agile fliers that can actively pursue prey by maneuvering through trees . they perch in the forest understory , locate prey in the trees or on the ground with their keen eyesight , and make short dashes to capture it whit their talons . they take reptiles , small mammals , birds , and some insects . in arizona , glinski ( 1988 ) studied food types delivered to nestlings and found that the diet was composed predominantly of terrestrial and arboreal lizards ( 74 % ) , garter snakes ( 5 % ) , nestling and adult birds ( 11 % ) , and mammals ( 10 % ) . bibles\u2019 ( 1999 ) study of nest productivity in arizona revealed similar findings , with reptiles comprising 68 . 6 % of prey delivered to nestlings ( all were lizards but for one snake ) , mammals 19 . 6 % ( rodents and one rabbit ) , birds 9 . 8 % , and amphibians 2 % ( a toad ) .\ngray hawks have no special conservation status , although their limited numbers at the northern extreme of their range have led management agencies in arizona to regard them as \u201csensitive species\u201d and in texas to consider them \u201cthreatened . \u201d arizona breeding populations seem to be holding steady , with reproduction balancing the losses from mortality . fortunately , most of the 80 nest sites in arizona today are located on protected lands . concerned about how human demand for ground and surface water has seriously reduced desert riparian areas in the southwestern united states , private landowners and public and private conservation organizations have worked to set aside the remaining riparian corridors in southern arizona . further protection of the cottonwood - willow forests and mesquite bosques they support will demand protection of the waters that sustain them . if land managers succeed , this will be good news for gray hawks and the myriad other species that use these areas . their only threat then would be recreational disturbance . nesting gray hawks are sensitive to human activity near their nests , and many of the protected areas are frequented by recreational groups . something as innocuous as a family picnic unknowingly staged near a nest tree can cause gray hawks to abandon their nest .\nrobin kropp ( author ) , university of arizona , jorge schondube ( editor ) , university of arizona .\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nyoung are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nhumans benefit economically by promoting tourism that focuses on the appreciation of natural areas or animals . ecotourism implies that there are existing programs that profit from the appreciation of natural areas or animals .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nreproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .\nreferring to something living or located adjacent to a waterbody ( usually , but not always , a river or stream ) .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\ntexas parks and wildlife , texas threatened and endangered birds\n( on - line ) . accessed april 12 , 2002 at urltoken .\nusda forest service , coronado national forest , santa catalina ranger district , tucson , arizona , usa . threatened , endangered , and sensitive species\n( on - line ) . accessed april 12 , 2002 at urltoken .\namadon , d . , a . phillips . 1939 . notes on the mexican goshawk .\n. albuquerque , new mexico : unpublished report to office of endangered species , u . s . fish and wildlife service .\ngurrola - hidalgo , m . , n . chavez . 1996 . serpentes : lampropeltis triangulum nelsoni ( milk snake ) . predation . .\nnabhan , g . , t . sheridan . 1977 . living fencerows of the rio san miguel , sonora , mexico : traditional technology for floodplain management .\nrelly , j . 2002 .\narizona daily star : birding ' s big bucks . february 7 , 2002\n( on - line ) . accessed april 12 , 2002 at urltoken .\nstensrude , c . 1965 . observations on a pair of gray hawks in southern arizona .\narizona\u2019s changing rivers : how people have affected the rivers . water resources research center issue paper 19\nviers , j . 2000 .\neconomic development institute 2000 abstracts - southeastern arizona birdng trail\n( on - line ) . accessed april 12 , 2002 at urltoken .\n. london , san diego : academic press , harcourt brace and co . .\nto cite this page : kropp , r . 2002 .\nasturina nitida\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\nbuteo nitidus and b . plagiatus ( del hoyo and collar 2014 ) were previously lumped as b . nitidus following aou ( 2006 ) , the gender agreement of which follows david and gosselin ( 2002a ) , and before then were placed in the genus asturina following aou ( 1998 ) , and before then were split as a . nitida and a . plagiata following sibley and monroe ( 1990 , 1993 ) .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthis species has a large range from central america to amazonia and south into argentina . occurs from southwest costa rica south through panama and colombia to west ecuador on the west of the andes and on the east of the andes from east colombia , venezuela and guianas through east ecuador , northeast peru and much of brazil to north and east bolivia , paraguay and north argentina . the species is also found on trinidad .\ndescribed in parts of very large range as locally common and tolerant of open and secondary forest ; typically absent from closed humid forest . population likely to be large ( ferguson - lees & christie 2001 ) . trend justification : this species is suspected to lose 21 . 3 - 28 . 7 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 22 years ) based on a model of amazonian deforestation ( soares - filho et al . 2006 , bird et al . 2011 ) . it is suspected to decline by < 25 % over three generations as it is not highly forest - dependent , favouring open country and forest edges .\noccurs in very wide variety of forest habitats from gallery and open woodland through to fairly open savannah with clumps of trees but is not typically found in dense humid forest . found from sea level up to 800 m , occasionally as high as 1 , 300 m . feeds on reptiles , amphibians , insects , small mammals and birds .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n( todd , 1915 ) \u2013 e bolivia and c brazil ( mato grosso to piau\u00ed and rio de janeiro ) s to paraguay and n argentina ( s to tucum\u00e1n and n santa fe ) .\nthere are two primary vocalizations : a series of 3\u20138 piping notes used primarily during the . . .\nadaptable , found in lowland tropical to subtropical zones in rain forest edge , disturbed forest and . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . cites ii . no hard data on numbers or population trends , but generally considered widespread , locally common to relatively numerous , . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\npreviously incorporated several other genera , including e . g . rupornis , morphnarchus , pseudastur , as well as leucopternis and buteogallus . present arrangement based largely on recent molecular studies # r # r # r , but further modification likely .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\njosep del hoyo , thore noernberg , pieter de groot boersma , greg baker , jacob . wijpkema , david ascanio , desmond allen , anthony laven , helbert e . noventa .\nmargareta wieser , lars petersson , jacob . wijpkema , luis r figueroa , paul van giersbergen , josef widmer , eduardo freitez gassan , stanislav harvan\u010d\u00edk , holger teichmann , thore noernberg , manakincarmelo , rodrigo y castro , nimali digo and thilanka edirisinghe , christophe gouraud , lmarce , juan fdo . alvarez castro , mauricio rueda , roger ahlman , samantha klein , sirroyalty , joe tobias , dusan m . brinkhuizen , manakin nature tours , tadeusz stawarczyk , alfredo rosas .\ncombined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : buteo nitidus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 293 , 917 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n* * direct email link protected by javascript . enable javascript or email ' ian ' ( at symbol ) ' urltoken ' . * *\naperture : f8 . 0 shutter speed : 1 / 2000 sec focal length : 400 . 0 mm\nmodel : canon eos 450d exposure : 1 / 1250 s aperture : 5 . 6 focal length : 390 mm iso : 200 flash : no"]}
{"id": 2461, "summary": [{"text": "harpa major , common name large harp , or major harp , is a species of large predatory sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusks in the family harpidae , the harp snails and their allies . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "harpa major", "paragraphs": ["harpa davidis major ( var . ) r\u00f6ding , p . f . , 1798\n( of harpa major major r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) cossignani t . ( 2013 ) nuova harpa dalle isole marchesi . malacologia mostra mondiale 81 : 4 . [ november 2013 ] [ details ]\nharpa major - 108mm , f + + + , vietnam . big beauty . $ 12 sold\nharpidae \u00bb harpa major philippines , id : 693196 , shell detail \u00ab shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc .\nharpa harpa - 48mm , f + + + , philippines . beautiful color and pattern . $ 12\nharpa harpa - 71 . 6mm , f + + + , philippines . unusual double joined ribs . $ 35\nharpa major ( dwarf form ) - 50mm , gem , north queensland , rare , dredged 15 mts . beautiful little shell with unusual coloring from an isolated location . $ 85 sold\n( of harpa kawamurai habe , 1970 ) frydman f . ( 2000 ) harpa kawamurai and harpa kajiyamai : a critical re - evaluation ( gastropoda : harpidae ) . vita marina 47 ( 3 ) : 73 - 79 . [ details ]\nharpa ventricosa\u2020 lamarck , j . b . p . a . de , 1801\nharpa articularis - 88mm , gem , philippines . dark color form . $ 9\nharpa kajiyamai - 46mm , f + + + , philippines . uncommon . $ 35\nharpa kawamurai - 50mm , f + + ( minor faults only ) , china . $ 8\nharpa cabriti - 67 . 5mm , gem - , madagascar . nice dark specimen . $ 35\nfamily : harpidae born : 1798 , roding genus and description : harpa major , 64 . 5 mm , f + + + / gem ,\nsuperb pattern & color origin : collected by local fishermen by nets off olango island , cebu philippines , august 2012 .\nsearch urltoken search urltoken - enter search word . avoid using the word\nshell\n- e . g . , use harpa instead of harpa shell . * * * google harpidae on the internet\n( of harpa ventricosa lamarck , 1801 ) rehder h . a . ( 1992 ) . harpa cabriti fischer , 1860 , a replacement name for harpa ventricosa lamarck , 1816 ( gastropoda : harpidae ) . the nautilus . 106 ( 3 ) : 123 - 124 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) - hawaii , 74mm - an exceptional shell . though most trap - collected hawaiian h . major are crabbed , this specimen is seemingly in live taken condition .\nharpa r\u00f6ding , 1798 ; thiele , 1931 : 343 ( as harpa ( rumph . ) walch , 1771 ) [ harpidae ] ; keen , 1971 : 620 ( as harpa r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) [ harpidae ] ; vaught , 1989 : 52 ( as harpa r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) [ harpinae ] ; pacaud & le renard , 1995 : 166 ( as harpa pallas , 1774 ) [ harpidae ] ; cithara klein in jousseaume , 1881 ; harpalis link , 1806 ; harparia rafinesque , 1815 ; lyra griffith & pidgeon , 1934 ; subgenus : eocithara fischer , 1883 ; eocithara fischer , 1883 ; harpa ( eocithara ) ; pacaud & le renard , 1995 : 166 [ harpidae ] .\nharpa articularis - 68mm , f + + + , new south wales . hard to obtain from this location now . $ 6\n( r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) - coral sea , 36mm - an unusual dwarf , white form of harpa cf . major . the shells were found in 40 to 50 feet of water on white sand in the lagoon of east diamond island . shells courtesy of b . raines . there are similar specimens in the australian museum ( pers . com . - k . hutsell ) .\ncossignani t . ( 2013 ) nuova harpa dalle isole marchesi . malacologia mostra mondiale 81 : 4 . [ november 2013 ] [ details ]\nharpa kawamurai - 55mm , gem - , china . the chinese species is smaller and is more delicate with a lighter shell . $ 15\n( linn & , 1758 ) - philippines , 50mm - the type species of the genus harpa . found from the south pacific through east africa , but most commonly found in the philippines and indonesia . see\nuncommon in silty sand at scuba depths in hawaii but common in shallow water elsewhere . emerges at night to feed upon shrimp . attains 5 inches . hawaii and the indo - pacific . harpa conoidalis is a synonym .\n( of harpa kawamurai habe , 1970 ) dance , s . p . & g . t . poppe , 1999 family harpidae . in : a conchological iconography ( conchbooks , ed . ) , 69 p . [ details ]\n( of harpa kawamurai habe , 1970 ) habe t . & kosuge s . ( 1970 ) shells of the western pacific in color . vol . 2 , the tropical pacific . osaka : hoikusha . 233 pp . , 66 pls . [ details ]\n( of harpa conoidalis lamarck , 1822 ) walls , j . g . ( 1980 ) . conchs , tibias and harps . a survey of the molluscan families strombidae and harpidae . t . f . h . publications ltd , hong kong . [ details ]\nswainson , 1822 - ecuador , 84mm - trawled by fishing boat . this is the only species of harpa found in the panamaic province . this is the southern - most range for the species , which is found as far north as the gulf of california .\n( of harpa conoidalis lamarck , 1822 ) liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of harpa ligata menke , 1828 ) menke , k . t . ( 1828 ) . synopsis methodica molluscorum generum omnium et specierum earum , quae in museo menkeano adservantur ; cum synonymia critica et novarum specierum diagnosibus . menke , pyrmont . xii + 91 pp . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 35 [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nwalls , j . g . ( 1980 ) . conchs , tibias and harps . a survey of the molluscan families strombidae and harpidae . t . f . h . publications ltd , hong kong . [ details ]\norr j . ( 1985 ) . hong kong seashells . the urban council , hong kong [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nversion 43 . 0 went live 11 / 6 / 2018 - i hope that the majority of issues have been fixed . my email address is on the home page if you see anything wrong .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 001 seconds . )\nshell gallery view \u00ab shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc . \u00bb conchological megadatabase on mollusks\nclick on an image to view all the information : family , species , author , date , and full locality .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 3 . 002 seconds . )\nwe ' ve updated our privacy policy and by continuing you ' re agreeing to the updated terms .\nwhen you visit our site , preselected companies may use cookies or other certain information on your device to serve relevant ads and for analytics purposes . learn more\n( 1973 ) . rehder presented 11 species of living harps . there have been many new taxa proposed since 1973 . all but one are now generally accepted as forms of one or the other of the 11 species addressed by rehder . only\nrehder , 1993 is mostly accepted as a valid addition to his 1973 list . whether or not all 11 of the taxa addressed by rehder ( plus\n) are truly separate species or if the many localized forms given species / subspecies names actually represent separate species will have to await a comprehensive dna analysis .\n( two or one blotch ) to be able to accept his argument . i would also note that the characters described for\n( \u201cbody whorl \u2026 more broadly ovate and rounded , \u201d \u201cribs tend to be narrower and more distant\u201d ) . my own opinion is that\nspecies addressed by rehder and the\naccepted\nspecies addressed 31 and 42 years later .\n. indo - pacific mollusca , volume 3 , no . 16 . delaware museum of natural history .\nare quite variable within populations and across geographic range . so variable that they occur readily across taxa , especially those that share common geographic distributions and influences , and most often cannot be relied upon to distinguish between species when confronted with a particular specimen . in my presentations i have limited the features discussed to those that should be relied upon to distinguish among taxa . i have presented the protoconchs for all , but did not find this feature to be helpful ( too variable , too often missing or incomplete , and too similar ) in distinguishing among taxa , except in a few cases (\n) . i did not find color to be helpful for taxa that are otherwise close and from the same locales . i did not find reliance on \u201cblotching\u201d to be more than partially helpful without linkage to other confirming features . i have addressed the distribution of parietal glazing and found it to be quite helpful and distinctive for many taxa ( especially when linked to other features ) , but not decidedly so for the most problematic taxa (\n) . i do not present a general description of each taxa , which is available many places elsewhere ( see rehder 1973 ) . rather , for some i present some background information and then start my descriptions with the parietal glazing and follow with those features that i found can best be used to distinguish among taxa .\nthe following table presents the features i found best allow identifying and distinguishing the 12 taxa . the green cells describe key features that should be identified first ( and in some taxa , alone or linked to other \u201cgreens , \u201d are sufficient to identify a taxon ) . the pink cells describe features very helpful in narrowing the possibilities for otherwise similar taxa . the yellow cells describe features that i found very consistently separate taxa within the geographic range of\n. i apologize for the tiny text in the table , but i wanted to get it all on one page .\n, and from a dozen to several dozen for the others , limited examination of shells displayed at shell shows by exhibitors and dealers , some images from the web ( usually too poor to be helpful ) , and images in literature ( also usually also too poor to be helpful ) . obviously , my sample is limited in terms of actual material for close examination , and my conclusions should be tempered accordingly . i would be happy to hear from those with specimens in any of these taxa that question or confirm my observations (\n) . however , i would also hope that you can provide good quality photos or would be willing to loan the specimens for a photo session . i will continue to add to these presentations with comments or more photos / material contributed by other fans of\n. three terms ( subsutural plateau , shoulder and t ) should be understood . normally , \u201cshoulder\u201d refers to the area from the suture to an inflection point ( a pronounced downward angle ) or , when absent , the periphery . all\n, the shoulder would normally be the area from suture to the inflection point ( where spines are located ) . i have defined the area from the suture to the inflection point as the subsutural plateau . and , when i refer to the shoulder , i am referring narrowly to the spiral line representing the inflection where the subsutural plateau turns downward ( and is where the rib spines normally occur ) . i have observed that all mature\nhas three . as a matter of shorthand i may use t1 , t2 , t3 or t4 to refer to the teleoconch whorls . so ,\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\none of my favourite families . only a small but very beautiful family of approx . 25 species ( harps ) and 24 ( morum ) . the shell sculpture is amazing and the harp color patterns are intricate and visually stunning . their habitat ranges from intertidal to rare deep water species from southern australia and queensland .\naustroharpa loisae - 28 . 3mm , gem , western australia . $ 850 sold\naustroharpa exquisita - 22 . 4mm , gem - , southern queensland . rare deep water species . $ 350 sold\naustroharpa exquisita - 22 . 4mm , gem - , southern queensland . $ 350 sold\naustroharpa exquisita - 22 . 4mm , gem - , southern queensland . $ 350 sold\naustroharpa exquisita - 19 . 6mm , f + + + , southern queensland . $ 250 sold\naustroharpa exquisita - 19 . 9mm , f + + + , southern queensland . $ 350 sold\nmorum teramachii - 51mm , f + + + , philippines . $ 40 sold\nmorum cancellatum - 41mm , f + + + , china . $ 20 sold\nmorum mathewsi - 28mm , f + + ( minor faults ) , brazil . $ 60\nmorum watanabei - 29mm , gem , philippines . beaut little specimens . $ 20\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nitems shipping internationally may be subject to customs processing depending on the item ' s declared value .\nsellers set the item ' s declared value and must comply with customs declaration laws .\nthis amount includes applicable customs duties , taxes , brokerage and other fees . this amount is subject to change until you make payment . for additional information , see the global shipping program terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab\nthis amount includes applicable customs duties , taxes , brokerage and other fees . this amount is subject to change until you make payment . if you reside in an eu member state besides uk , import vat on this purchase is not recoverable . for additional information , see the global shipping program terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab\nestimated delivery dates - opens in a new window or tab include seller ' s handling time , origin zip code , destination zip code and time of acceptance and will depend on shipping service selected and receipt of cleared payment - opens in a new window or tab . delivery times may vary , especially during peak periods .\nany international shipping and import charges are paid in part to pitney bowes inc . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\ninternational shipping and import charges paid to pitney bowes inc . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\ninternational shipping paid to pitney bowes inc . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\nany international shipping is paid in part to pitney bowes inc . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\na brand - new , unused , unopened , undamaged item ( including handmade items ) . see the seller ' s\nlisting for full details . see all condition definitions - opens in a new window or tab\nthis item will be shipped through the global shipping program and includes international tracking . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\nthere are 1 items available . please enter a number less than or equal to 1 .\n* estimated delivery dates - opens in a new window or tab include seller ' s handling time , origin zip code , destination zip code and time of acceptance and will depend on shipping service selected and receipt of cleared payment - opens in a new window or tab . delivery times may vary , especially during peak periods .\nwill usually ship within 1 business day of receiving cleared payment - opens in a new window or tab .\nqualifying purchases could enjoy no interest if paid in full in 6 months on purchases of $ 99 or more . other offers may also be available .\ninterest will be charged to your account from the purchase date if the balance is not paid in full within 6 months . minimum monthly payments are required . subject to credit approval . see terms - opens in a new window or tab\nwe combine auction and store items . please wait for our invoice for mutiple items purchase for proper postage fees . items will be sent by philippine post regular small packet mail ( up to 2 kilograms ) and philippine post air parcel ( over 2 kilograms and up to 30 kilograms ) within 1 working days upon receipt of cleared payment . tracking no . will be emailed as soon as its available . travel time usually takes 3 to 4 weeks worldwide . dhl and ups available upon request .\ncopyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 ebay inc . all rights reserved . accessibility , user agreement , privacy , cookies and adchoice\nthe shells of this family have a polished highly patterned appearance . all have strong axial ribs . a flaring lip on the final whorl dominates the flattened spire . the family has less than a dozen species .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nby w . k . emerson , spec . publ . , s . aust . dept . mines and energy , 5 : 51 - 56 , 1985 ( isbn 0 7243 7411 6 ) , both obscure , but must - have papers for morum specialists .\nand finally , most shell books of general or regional scope include harpidae and offer supplemental help in identifying the region - specific harpidae species .\nclick on the thumbnail images for an enlarged view . images will open up in a separate , resizeable window .\n* turn off your browser ' s pop - up blocker to see enlarged pictures and links . *\naustroharpa finlay , 1931 ( fossil ) ; subgenus : palamharpa iredale , 1931 ( recent ) .\n( iredale , 1931 ) - queensland , australia , 19 . 5mm - a small , distinct species with cancellate sculpture . specimens are also found with a purple - colored spire .\nhart & limpus , 1998 - south australia , 22 . 1mm - one of the truly rare austroharpa species , in the collection of travis payne . described in la conchiglia 30 ( 289 ) : 53 - 55 .\nverco , 1896 - south western australia , 30mm - a western form typically found in south australia .\nkrauss , 1848 ] - madagascar , 60mm - a stocky , strongly shouldered , and heavily ribbed form . it is most commonly found in the western indian ocean , though specimens of this form have surfaced in micronesia and melanesia . this specimen is from tulear .\nlamarck , 1822 - philippines , 82 . 6mm - indo - pacific distribution . one of the most common of the harp species .\nfischer , 1860 - madagascar , 96mm - this specimen exhibits an unusual thickening of the ribs towards the outer portion of the body whorl .\nfischer , 1860 - madagascar , 90 - 95mm - this image illustrates two extremes of this variable species , found with a seemingly infinite combination of rib , shape and coloration combinations .\nfischer , 1860 - madagascar , 90 - 96mm - two extremes of the same - - light and dark ; thick and thin rib structure . the species exhibits a tremendous amount of variation .\n( linn\u00e9 , 1758 ) - mauritius , 59mm - a classic rarity , endemic to mauritius .\n( linn\u00e9 , 1758 ) - mauritius , 85mm - a superior specimen , perfect in every way .\n( linn\u00e9 , 1758 ) - mauritius , 109 . 7mm ! - the famed world record size ( largest known , or recorded ) specimen of this legendary species , which has passed through the collections of e . malone , d . dan , and now resides in the collection of travis payne .\nswainson , 1822 - ecuador , 83mm - a gerontic specimen with a thick , heavy columellar calus , and a coalescing and thickening of the ribs along the last portion of the body whorl .\nrehder , 1993 - hawaii , 66mm - a crabbed , but close - to - live specimen taken off haleiwa , northwest oahu in a deep water lobster trap set in 350 feet of water . original description in\nrehder , 1993 - hawaii - a fabulous specimen , of unspecified size , in the collection of travis payne .\nbroderip & sowerby , 1829 - marquesas islands , 21 . 7mm - a fabulous live collected specimen , taken scuba diving at nuku hiva island in 35 feet of water . one of the great rarities of this genus .\n( linn & , 1758 ) - philippines , 40 . 8mm - a dwarf red form from palawan province . the characteristic clusters of three to four fine black lines that cross the ribs is quite evident in this specimen .\n( linn & , 1758 ) - philippines , 78 . 1mm - from samar island , collected by a local diver in about 18 feet of water . this is an enormous specimen in the collection of travis payne .\nrehder , 1973 - philippines , 43mm - has a thin , light - weight shell . very close and considered to be subspecific with\nrehder , 1973 - philippines , 63 . 5mm - a large , dark specimen collected in zamboanga , southern mindanao island , now in the collection of travis payne .\nrehder , 1973 - philippines , 61 . 8mm - color and shading of h . kajiyamai can vary somewhat . this unusual and beautiful specimen from balut island has orange coloration .\n( r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) - hawaii , 66mm - a synonym is h . conoidalis lamarck , 1843 . specimen taken in trap set in 350 feet of water off oahu .\n( r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) - midway island , 110 . 7mm - a rather large specimen for hawaiian waters . the largest recorded specimen is from mauritius and is 129 . 5mm ( re :\n( r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) - philippines , 67 - 68mm - an unusual color form being collected from siasi island in the sulu sea .\nmorum r\u00f6ding , 1798 . type species : morum oniscus ( linnaeus , 1767 ) ; lambidium link , 1807 ; oniscia sowerby , 1824 ; theliostoma sowerby , 1824 ( nom . nud . ) ; oniscidia swainson , 1840 ( err . ) ; ersina\n1840\ngray , 1847 ( unavail . ) ; plesioniscia fischer , 1884 . subgenus : oniscidia m\u00f6rch , 1852 ; oniscidia m\u00f6rch , 1852 ; emerson , 1995 : 95 ( apex 10 ( 2 - 3 ) ) ; onischidea olsson , 1931 ( err . ) ; onimusira kuroda , 1955 ( nom . nud . ) ; pulchroniscia garrard , 1961 ; cancellomorum emerson & old , 1963 ; onimusiro kira in kuroda , habe & oyama , 1971 .\nshikama , 1973 - philippines , 37mm - this moderately rare species is also found in the south china sea .\nshikama , 1973 - philippines , 37mm - a balut island specimen trapped in tangle nets set by fishermen in 60 - 80 fathoms of water . the species exhibits very little variation .\n( sowerby , 1824 ) - taiwan , 47 . 7mm - trawled in 60 fathoms of water in northeast taiwan straits . somewhat similar to both\n( sowerby , 1824 ) - japan , 39mm - compare with the specimen from taiwan . this specimen has a more scabrous sculpture . trawled in 60 - 100 meters of water .\n( reeve , 1842 ) - colombia , 40 - 45mm - the pustulation and color development on the shield varies considerably .\nspecimens . the body whorl sculpture is rather different from typically smaller specimens , lacking the rows of short , prominent spines below the shoulder spines .\n( a . adams , 1855 ) - australia , 66mm - trawled in 75 fathoms of water at north reef , off gladstone . grows to be the largest species of morum ; the largest recorded up to 2001 is 86 . 8mm in length . in the\n( a . adams , 1855 ) - philippines , 59mm - philippine specimens of this species have elicited much discussion as to its true identity . it has been illustrated as\nfrom that species ( see below ) , and is also considered to be a true form of m . grande\n. there is considerable difference in the shell shape , and formation of the shoulder spines . this might represent a regional form of m . grande , or be a totally different species .\nkosuge , 1981 is a junior subjective synonym . dr . kosuge ' s description was publish just a few months after dr . emerson ' s . there is no doubt that the two taxa are conspecific . this species is frequently taken in tangle nets of philippine fishermen .\npetuch , 1979 - philippines , 23mm - one of the smallest species of the genus . it is mostly known from moderately deep water habitats in the central philippines . the pinkish - orange shield with white pustules is characteristic of the species .\npetuch , 1979 - philippines , 23 . 5 & 27 . 5 mm - a pair in the collection of travis payne , which illustrate the variable color of the apertural shield . both represent exceptional specimens .\npetuch , 1987 - colombia , 45mm - an interesting specimen with an unusual orange shield . the species has only been collected from the north coast of south america between colombia and venezuela . the\npetuch , 1987 - colombia , 39mm - an exceptionally dark colored specimen . m . lindae is one of three known extant species of cancellomorum from the western atlantic .\npetuch , 1987 - colombia , 41 . 8mm - a white shield , as this specimen exhibits , is quite unusual for this species , but it would be a misnomer to refer to it as an albino shell .\nemerson , 1981 - marshall islands , 19 . 2mm - endemic to the kwajalein atoll . this is an enormous specimen for the species in the collection of franck frydman . it is 2 . 1mm larger than the 2001 listed size record .\nemerson , 1967 - brazil , 28 . 4 mm - from rio do fogo , rio grande do norte , brazil . a superb specimen in the collection of travis payne .\n( linn\u00e9 , 1767 ) - florida keys , 23 . 5mm - type species of the genus .\nreeve , l . a . , 1842 - brazil , 23 - 24mm - southern - most range of the species .\nmelvill , 1919 - south africa , 31 . 4mm - this rather rare species was trawled off durban , natal province , in about 175 fathoms of water .\nkuroda & habe , in habe , 1961 - philippines , 59mm - the species is also found in japan .\n( reeve , 1842 ) - panama , 32 - 35mm - an intertidal species ranging from the outer baja south to peru . this image illustrates to exteme forms of the species .\nkuroda & habe , in habe , 1961 - philippines , 61 . 3mm - a specimen from balut island , taken from 80 fathoms of water . the species is most closely related to morum grande .\ndance & emerson , 1967 is considered a synonym ( pers . com . h . g . lee ) . a member of the\ncomplex . this dead - collected , but representative specimen is from the collection of travis payne .\nemerson , 1968 - galapagos islands , 29 . 9 mm - one of the great rarities of the genus . this is an exceptional specimen in the collection of travis payne .\nkosuge , 1981 - philippines , 42mm - taken in a tangle net set in 20 - 40 fathoms of water in leyte gulf , samar island . this species has been long identified as\n, but differs from that species by the more developed cancellate sculpture and other features . it is , though , a member of the m . cancellatum complex , which also includes m . grande . some specimens from japan identified as m . cancellatum may , in fact , be m . watanabei .\nharpidae on this page click name to view image - click \u00bb to view caption below .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsorry , the in - page video player requires internet explorer . you can download the video using the\ndownload\nlinks provided below .\ncook islands islands : rr = rarotonga , mg = mangaia , at = \u2018\u0101tiu , mk = ma\u2018uke , mt = miti\u2018\u0101ro , ak = aitutaki , pl = palmerston , pn = penrhyn , mn = manuae , tk = tak\u016btea , tn = tongareva ( ts = tongaleva spoken , tw = tongareva written , they say\nel\nbut write\nr\n) , mh = manihiki , rk = rakahanga , pk = pukapuka , ns = nassau , sw = suwarrow . after a polynesian name : ^ = orthography query . countries and other : fij = fiji , wt = wallis & futuna , sam = samoa , ton = tonga , niu = niue , ck = cook islands , ckm = cook islands m\u0101ori , fp = french polynesia , aus = australs , soc = societies , tah = tahiti , tua = tuamotus , mqs = marquesas , mng = mangareva , pit = pitcain group , eas = easter island , haw = hawai\u2018i , nz = new zealand , nzm = new zealand m\u0101ori\nmccormack , gerald ( 2007 ) cook islands biodiversity database , version 2007 . 2 . cook islands natural heritage trust , rarotonga . online at http : / / cookislands . bishopmuseum . org .\ncopyright \u00a9 2007 ( july ) the cook islands natural heritage trust , all rights reserved . copyright & use policy\nthis site uses cookies to provide better user experience . you can change your cookie policy in your browser settings . i understand\nharfovka is a regular oval shell without significant spikes or studs . the only interesting feature on the surface is ribbed mussels , which make up about 12 wide or narrow ribs . the ribs are striking striped spots that are more noticeable than small strips on the rest of the surface . harfovka a small spiral snail , which results in a wide oval opening . because of the weak structure shows through color and the inner body .\nthe peculiarity of shungite is not only the unclear origin of its formation ; it is rather a mystery , but the composition as well ."]}
{"id": 2465, "summary": [{"text": "cerberilla affinis is a species of sea slug , an aeolid nudibranch , a marine heterobranch mollusc in the family aeolidiidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described as a variety by bergh , 1888 but elevated to species status by burn , 1966 . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "cerberilla affinis", "paragraphs": ["what type of species is cerberilla affinis ? below , you will find the taxonomic groups the cerberilla affinis species belongs to .\nwhich photographers have photos of cerberilla affinis species ? below , you will find the list of underwater photographers and their photos of the marine species cerberilla affinis .\nhere as promised are pages on cerberilla affinis and cerberilla annulata , two of the fascinating sand - dwelling aeolids .\ncerberilla annulata & c . affinis from : bill rudman , november 26 , 1999\nhow to identify cerberilla affinis marine species ? below , you will find the list of main identification criteria and physical characteristics of marine species cerberilla affinis . for each identification criteria , the corresponding physical characteristics of marine species cerberilla affinis are marked in green .\nwhere is cerberilla affinis found in the world ? below , you will find the list and a world map of the geographic distribution where the marine species cerberilla affinis can be found .\ncitation :\nblack - ringed cerberilla nudibranchs , cerberilla affinis ~ marinebio . org .\nmarinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 1 / 14 / 2010 2 : 22 : 00 pm ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio\nhi bill , looking at this 2003 photo of a slug which we had been unable to identify , it struck me now that it could be a species of cerberilla . what do you think ?\ncerberilla affinis was originally described from indonesia . it is also known from lord howe island , the eastern australian mainland and new caledonia and is probably widespread in at least the west pacific . two species from the indian ocean , c . africana eliot , 1903b ( east africa ) and c . moebii ( bergh , 1888b - mauritius ) are very similar in colour and may prove to be synonymous . unfortunately most species have been described from single specimens , and so the colour variability of species is not well understood .\nresearch cerberilla affinis \u00bb barcode of life ~ bioone ~ biodiversity heritage library ~ cites ~ cornell macaulay library [ audio / video ] ~ encyclopedia of life ( eol ) ~ esa online journals ~ fishbase ~ florida museum of natural history ichthyology department ~ gbif ~ google scholar ~ itis ~ iucn redlist ( threatened status ) ~ marine species identification portal ~ ncbi ( pubmed , genbank , etc . ) ~ ocean biogeographic information system ~ plos ~ siris ~ tree of life web project ~ unep - wcmc species database ~ worms\nspecies of cerberilla live in sandy substrates where they burrow beneath the surface and so are seldom seen . they have a very broad foot and the cerata are often very long and extremely numerous , arranged in transverse rows across the body .\nthanks nils , i am pretty sure this is a juvenile of cerberilla annulata . if you look at the phoptos on the forum you will see the body proportions change quite considerably as the animal grows in size . best wishes bill rudman\ndear binyamin , this is indeed a cerberilla , and most probably cerberilla annulata . i don ' t think its been recorded from your part of the world , but i have found it in zanzibar , east africa . i should have a photo of it which i will post when i get a chance . your animal is most probably a juvenile . when they are smaller , the head tentacles are proportionally much larger than when they are adults . best wishes , bill rudman\nhi bill , i finally came across another cerberilla here in the marshall islands . i am assuming these are the same as the cerberilla sp . 3 i sent a while back , although there are a couple of differences . it does not exhibit the black tips of the cephalic tentacles seen in the earlier specimens from enewetak and guam . the new specimen also has much more distinct yellow bands above the black ones on the cerata , providing a bit more evidence that it may be c . annulata . this specimen was found in kwajalein ' s harbor , crawling on sand at a depth of about 1 meter . it measured about 20mm , a bit over half the length of the cerberilla sp . 3 sent earlier . scott\nthanks scott , thanks for the beautiful photos . it certainly looks like c . annulata and suggests that your earlier animal , which i called cerberilla sp . 3 may have been a variant with very faded yellow markings . the black - tipped rhinophores and oral tentacles in cerberilla sp . 3 are apparently variable because in clay carlson ' s message the guam animal seems to lack black - tipped rhinophores . you are probably right in suggesting they are all colour forms of c . annulata but as i said earlier , it is easier to amalgamate them when we are sure , than separate them if we find they are indeed different .\ndear bill , here is a small pale cerberilla which we think may be the same as the darker ones in our other message . it was found during november - december 2003 with the dark species on a sandy bottom in 2 - 5m depths at lizard island ( qld , australia ) . body length 7 - 10mm . regards nils\nas promised in an earlier message [ # 13224 ] here is a record of cerberilla annulata from zanzibar , tanzania . i found it half dead in a pool in muddy sand at lowtide . in the lower photos the long grey oral tentacles are folded down the side of the foot on each side . the specimen is propped up on a pair of forceps so i could photograph it properly , so don ' t be ashamed if your photo has a blemish , our aim is to get a record of the shape and colour , a perfect photo is a bonus , but not essential .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nlord howe is , off new south wales , australia , december 1988 . 70mm long alive . photos : bill rudman .\nbergh , l . s . r . ( 1888 ) . beitr\u00e4ge zur kenntniss der aeolidiaden . ix . verhandlungen der koniglich - kaiserlich zoologisch - botanischen gesellschaft in wien ( abhandlungen ) , 38 : 673 - 706 , pls . 16 - 20 .\ncarmona l . , pola m . , gosliner t . m . & cervera j . l . 2013 . a tale that morphology fails to tell : a molecular phylogeny of aeolidiidae ( aeolidida , nudibranchia , gastropoda ) . plos one 8 ( 5 ) : e63000 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0063000 , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nto biological information system for marine life ( bismal ) to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 1 nucleotides ; 0 proteins ) to sea slug forum ( via archive . org )\nhtml public\n- / / ietf / / dtd html 3 . 0 / / en\nhtml . dtd\nis a large aeolid that is found on sand where it is nocturnally active . it feeds on cerianthid anemones which build tubes in soft sediment . this species was described by bergh in 1888 .\nit type localities include near manila in the philippines and edam , indonesia . specimens have also been recorded from australia , okinawa , and as far east as midway atoll .\n\u00a9 the slug site , michael d . miller 1999 . all rights reserved .\nthe oral tentacles and rhinophores are banded with yellow , grey - brown , white and navy - blue . the cerata with black and yellow rings are often very long and extremely numerous , arranged in transverse rows across the body . it has a black\nmask\naround the rhinophores . the color of the body and foot is white with the foot marginated in yellow\nthe dorsum is low and flattened in profile and the foot is exeptionally broad . the anterior foot corners are prominent , being enlarged into long sharply pointed tentacles\nthe oral tentales are exeptionally large , tapering and the tip is pointed . the rhinophores which araised from a common base , are short slender and smooth .\nthe cerata are circular , slender and smooth , and they taper rapidly to a pointed tip ( fusiform ) . they are arranged in rows with the longest nearest to the midline . they are differently colored according to their position on the body ; basically they are whitish with black and yellow rings near the center .\nit keeps all its cerata pointed backwards when it is crawling normally or burrowing , but when it disturbed the longest cerata are extended .\ngenerally found on intertidal sand flats where it can rapidly burrow to escape potentiel predators and search for food . it is nocturnally active\n10 specimens from 10 to 25 - 30 mm observed on this day . . .\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\n\u201ca dive resort designed for divers , complete with a splendid . . . \u201d\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content .\nis a nocturnally active sand - dwelling sea - slug . it is characterized by a black\nmask\naround the rhinophores , and by whitish cerata with a thin black ring near the bases , followed by a white or yellow band , then a broad dark greyish subapical band and yellowish apices . the oral tentacles are very long with alternating broad brown and whitish bands , and have a blueish tinge . the rhinophores are short , also with alternating brown and whitish bands and a blueish tinge . the foot is wide and has angular extensions anteriorly .\noccurrence describes how often the species is found on surveys within its distribution . it is calculated as the % of reef sites surveyed by rls divers across all the ecoregions in which the species has been observed\nabundance is calculated as the average number of individuals recorded per rls transect , where present .\nplease use this form only for a single type of error . if you see multiple errors on the page for this species , please report these in separate forms by clicking on this button again after submitting this form\nthank you for highlighting this error . we appreciate your assistance in maintaining high quality control standards\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nthis is a cream species decorated with dark brown and peach bands . the tips of the rhinophores and cephalic tentacles are banded in violet and blue .\nfirst recorded in hawaii from midway atoll by terry gosliner and pf in june , 1993 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsorry , the in - page video player requires internet explorer . you can download the video using the\ndownload\nlinks provided below .\nglobal distribution : native indonesia - s . japan - gbreef - cooks - hawai\u2018i cook islands status : native ; marine , near - shore , reef - flat moat key features : a seaslug to 5cm . creamy white with conspicuous cerata ( = lobes ) each with a fine black ring and often terminally brown . the front tentacles ( = cephalic tentacles are long with purple bands and a brown base , while the hind tentacles ( = rhinophores ) are short and brown .\ncook islands islands : rr = rarotonga , mg = mangaia , at = \u2018\u0101tiu , mk = ma\u2018uke , mt = miti\u2018\u0101ro , ak = aitutaki , pl = palmerston , pn = penrhyn , mn = manuae , tk = tak\u016btea , tn = tongareva ( ts = tongaleva spoken , tw = tongareva written , they say\nel\nbut write\nr\n) , mh = manihiki , rk = rakahanga , pk = pukapuka , ns = nassau , sw = suwarrow . after a polynesian name : ^ = orthography query . countries and other : fij = fiji , wt = wallis & futuna , sam = samoa , ton = tonga , niu = niue , ck = cook islands , ckm = cook islands m\u0101ori , fp = french polynesia , aus = australs , soc = societies , tah = tahiti , tua = tuamotus , mqs = marquesas , mng = mangareva , pit = pitcain group , eas = easter island , haw = hawai\u2018i , nz = new zealand , nzm = new zealand m\u0101ori\nvouchers : rarotonga : muri moat , near shore , 21 / 1 / 99 , tamsyn dearlove & d . drumm ;\nmccormack , gerald ( 2007 ) cook islands biodiversity database , version 2007 . 2 . cook islands natural heritage trust , rarotonga . online at http : / / cookislands . bishopmuseum . org .\ncopyright \u00a9 2007 ( july ) the cook islands natural heritage trust , all rights reserved . copyright & use policy\nin indo - pacific nudibranchs . at closer look it is actually a very light colored\n. what makes the id for sure are the cerata with black and yellow sub - apical bands , the black mask and the blue oral tentacles .\nthis species is rather large , reaching 90 mm and has a very wide indo - pacific distribution . it is active nocturnally feeding on tube anemones .\nruben is a retired dentist and faculty . diving since 1980 with over 5000 dives . shoots nikon d200 in seacam housing with sea and sea strobes .\nwebmasters notes : ruben actually recorded the above image with new equipment , that is a nikon d800e camera ! folks this is the new kid on the block camera wise . now let ' s see if perhaps santa will drop one in my sock next christmas !\n\u00a9 the slug site , michael d . miller 2014 . all rights reserved .\nupper : adult , 62mm long . lower : juvenile , 32mm long . showing change in body proportions between juveniles and adults . koumac beach ( = baie de ouanap ) , near koumac , new caledonia , 20\u00b034 ' s , 164\u00b016 ' e , mixed soft and hard substrate , grassbeds , algae , october 1993 . photos : bill rudman .\nthis sand dwelling aeolid has a wide tropical indo - west pacific distribution with published records from new guinea ( quoy & gaimard ) and tahiti ( bergh ) . i have found it in zanzibar , tanzania and new caledonia . it is characterised by the relatively long cerata , white body and cerata , and yellow ( upper ) and black ( lower ) band near the ceratal tip .\nreference : \u2022 quoy , j . r . & gaimard , j . p . ( 1832 ) . voyages de d\u00e9couvertes de l ` astrolabe pendant les annees 1826 - 1829 sous le commandement de m . j . dumont d ` urville . zoologie , 2 : 1 - 686 .\nlocality : mazzizini , zanzibar , tanzania , 9 july 1971 . 45mm long alive . am c145653 . photos : bill rudman\nlocality : eilat , divers ' village , israel , red sea . depth : 6 m , length : ca . 2 cm . october 2003 . sandy flat with occasional corals . photographer : binyamin and shulamit koretz\ni must say that the length of the oral tentacles shown in your photos are amazing . considering the reduced size of the rhinophores , it suggests that using the oral tentacles for touch , is more important in locating prey than using the chemosensory abilities of the rhinophores . best wishes , bill rudman\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by kbanasihan , 06 / 28 / 2010\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis home page section for this species is currently being developed and will be completed asap ! if you would like to help out or know of a great video , photo or site about this species , let us know and we ' ll notify you as soon as it is finished . our current project plan is to have all marine species home pages finished before christmas this year . if you ' d like to find out more about our ongoing projects here at marinebio , check out our marinebio projects page .\nstart or join a discussion about this species below or send us an email to report any errors or submit suggestions for this page . we greatly appreciate all feedback !\nhelp us protect and restore marine life by supporting our various online community - centered marine conservation projects that are effectively sharing the wonders of the ocean with millions each year around the world , raising a balanced awareness of the increasingly troubling and often very complex marine conservation issues that affect marine life and ourselves directly , providing support to marine conservation groups on the frontlines that are making real differences today , and the scientists , teachers and students involved in the marine life sciences .\nwith your support , most marine life and their ocean habitats can be protected , if not restored to their former natural levels of biodiversity . we sincerely thank our thousands of members , donors and sponsors , who have decided to get involved and support the marinebio conservation society .\ndeep music digitally imported urltoken proton radio * radio paradise radiotunes somafm wers 88 . 9 fm\n~ sharing the wonders of the ocean to inspire conservation , education , research , and a sea ethic ~ marinebio . org , inc . is a u . s . 501 ( c ) 3 charitable , nonprofit organization . contact : info @ urltoken all marinebio conservation society memberships and donations are tax deductible in the united states . > < ( ( ( ( \u00b0 > \u00a9 1998 - 2017 marinebio copyright & terms of use . privacy policy . > - < \u00b0\u00b0 > - <\nfor all at last returns to the sea \u2014 to oceanus , the ocean river , like the everflowing stream of time , the beginning and the end .\n- rachel carson\n( of fenrisia bergh , 1888 ) bergh , l . s . r . ( 1888 - 1889 ) . nudibranchien vom meere der insel mauritius . in : reisen im archipel der philippinen von dr . c . semper , vol . 2 : malakologische untersuchungen . part 3 , pp . 755 - 872 , pl . 77 - 84 . [ pp . 755 - 814 , pl . 77 - 81 , august 2 , 1888 ; pp . 815 - 872 , pl . 82 - 84 , march 27 , 1889 , according to winckworth , 1946 ] . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 788 - 789 [ details ]\ngofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nbieler , r . & r . e . petit , 2012 . molluscan taxa in the publications of the museum godeffroy of hamburg , with a discussion of the godeffroy sales catalogs ( 1864\u20131884 ) , the journal des museum godeffroy ( 1873\u20131910 ) , and a history of the museum . zootaxa , 3511 : 1 - 80 [ 9 october ] . urltoken available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 59 , 66 [ details ]\n( of fenrisia bergh , 1888 ) pruvot - fol a . 1935 . de quelques suppressions de genres jug\u00e9s inutiles , parmi les mollusques opisthobranches ( note de syst\u00e9matique n\u00b0 xiv ) . bulletin du museum national d ' histoire naturelle , ( 1 ) 7 ( 4 ) : 254 - 257 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 255 [ details ]\ndepth range based on 5 specimens in 2 taxa . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 1 sample . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 3 - 529 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 5 . 344 - 5 . 344 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 39 . 989 - 39 . 989 salinity ( pps ) : 34 . 142 - 34 . 142 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 0 . 713 - 0 . 713 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 3 . 116 - 3 . 116 silicate ( umol / l ) : 78 . 844 - 78 . 844 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : 3 - 529 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\ngofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 180 - 213\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nurltoken | science , health and medical journals , full text articles and books .\nplease wait while you are being redirected , or click here if you aren ' t redirected in 10 seconds . . ."]}
{"id": 2471, "summary": [{"text": "pocillopora grandis , is one of fifteen described species in the family pocilloporidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is known commonly as antler coral , and is found in the indo-west pacific to the eastern tropical pacific . ", "topic": 22}], "title": "pocillopora grandis", "paragraphs": ["the following term was not found in genome : pocillopora grandis [ orgn ] .\nnomenclature according to veron & pichon ( 1976 ) and schmidt - roach et al . ( 2014 ) , p . grandis dana , 1846 is a synonym of p . eydouxi milne . . .\nfr\u00e9d\u00e9ric ducarme marked\nfile : trapezia flavopunctata , cach\u00e9 dans un pocillopora eydouxi . jpg\nas trusted on the\npocillopora eydouxi\npage .\npocillopora eydouxi . fiji . a large colony in shallow water . neville coleman .\npocillopora eydouxi . great barrier reef , australia . detail of a branch . mary stafford - smith .\npocillopora eydouxi . dampier archipelago , western australia . a community dominated by p . eydouxi . ed lovell .\ncyndy parr merged another page with < i > pocillopora eydouxi < / i > milne edwards & haime , 1860 .\npocillopora eydouxi . ryukyu islands , japan . p . eydouxi ( right ) next to p . verrucosa ( left ) . charlie veron .\nfr\u00e9d\u00e9ric ducarme marked\nfile : trapezia flavopunctata , cach\u00e9 dans un pocillopora eydouxi . jpg\nas trusted on the\ntrapezia flavopunctata\npage .\nnomenclature according to veron & pichon ( 1976 ) and schmidt - roach et al . ( 2014 ) , p . grandis dana , 1846 is a synonym of p . eydouxi milne edwards , 1860 . since the latter is considered a junior synonym it is invalid , even though these authors state that it should be suppressed because the name p . eydouxi has been more commonly used . such a suppression should be done by a ruling of the iczn . [ details ]\ncyndy parr marked the classification from\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis )\nas preferred for\npocillopora eydouxi milne edwards & haime , 1860\n.\nfr\u00e9d\u00e9ric ducarme set\nfile : trapezia flavopunctata , cach\u00e9 dans un pocillopora eydouxi . jpg\nas an exemplar on\ntrapezia flavopunctata eydoux and souleyet , 1842\n.\npocillopora eydouxi . kiribati , equatorial western pacific . p . eydouxi ( right ) with p . zelli ( left ) showing differences in the appearance of verrucae . len zell .\n( of pocillopora coronata gardiner , 1897 ) schmidt - roach s , miller kj , lundgren p , andreakis n ( 2014 ) with eyes wide open : a revision of species within and closely related to the pocillopora damicornis species complex ( scleractinia ; pocilloporidae ) using morphology and genetics . zoological journal of the linnean society 170 : 1 - 33 . [ details ]\n( of pocillopora rugosa gardiner , 1897 ) schmidt - roach s , miller kj , lundgren p , andreakis n ( 2014 ) with eyes wide open : a revision of species within and closely related to the pocillopora damicornis species complex ( scleractinia ; pocilloporidae ) using morphology and genetics . zoological journal of the linnean society 170 : 1 - 33 . [ details ]\n( of pocillopora eydouxi milne edwards , 1860 ) schmidt - roach s , miller kj , lundgren p , andreakis n ( 2014 ) with eyes wide open : a revision of species within and closely related to the pocillopora damicornis species complex ( scleractinia ; pocilloporidae ) using morphology and genetics . zoological journal of the linnean society 170 : 1 - 33 . [ details ]\n( of pocillopora eydouxi milne edwards , 1860 ) veron , j . e . n . ( 1986 ) . corals of australia and the indo - pacific . angus & robertson publishers , london . [ details ]\n( of pocillopora eydouxi milne edwards , 1860 ) veron jen . ( 2000 ) . corals of the world . vol . 1\u20133 . australian institute of marine science and crr , queensland , australia . [ details ]\n( of pocillopora eydouxi milne edwards , 1860 ) sheppard , c . r . c . ( 1987 ) . coral species of the indian ocean and adjacent seas : a synonymised compilation and some regional distribution patterns . atoll research bulletin nr 307 [ details ]\n( of pocillopora symmetrica thiel , 1932 ) veron , j . e . n . & m . pichon ( 1976 ) . scleractinia of eastern australia . part i . families thamnasteriidae , astroceoniidae , pocilloporidae . australian institute of marine science monograph series . volume i . [ details ]\n( of pocillopora rugosa gardiner , 1897 ) gardiner js ( 1897 ) on some collections of corals of the family pocilloporidae from the s . w . pacific - ocean . proceedings of the zoological society of london 1897 : 941 - 953 , pls . 56 - 57 . [ details ]\n( of pocillopora coronata gardiner , 1897 ) gardiner js ( 1897 ) on some collections of corals of the family pocilloporidae from the s . w . pacific - ocean . proceedings of the zoological society of london 1897 : 941 - 953 , pls . 56 - 57 . [ details ]\n( of pocillopora eydouxi milne edwards , 1860 ) veron , j . e . n . & m . pichon ( 1976 ) . scleractinia of eastern australia . part i . families thamnasteriidae , astroceoniidae , pocilloporidae . australian institute of marine science monograph series . volume i . [ details ]\n( of pocillopora eydouxi milne edwards , 1860 ) cairns , s . d . ; hoeksema , b . w . & van der land , j . ( 2007 ) . as a contribution to unesco - ioc register of marine organisms . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of pocillopora eydouxi milne edwards , 1860 ) liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nschmidt - roach s , miller kj , lundgren p , andreakis n ( 2014 ) with eyes wide open : a revision of species within and closely related to the pocillopora damicornis species complex ( scleractinia ; pocilloporidae ) using morphology and genetics . zoological journal of the linnean society 170 : 1 - 33 .\nschmidt - roach s , miller kj , lundgren p , andreakis n ( 2014 ) with eyes wide open : a revision of species within and closely related to the pocillopora damicornis species complex ( scleractinia ; pocilloporidae ) using morphology and genetics . zoological journal of the linnean society 170 : 1 - 33 . [ details ]\n( of pocillopora symmetrica thiel , 1932 ) thiel , m . e . ( 1932 ) . madreporaria . zugleich ein versuch einer vergleichenden oekologie der gefundenen formen . resultats scientifiques du voyage aux indes orientales neerlandaises . memoires du mus\u00e9e royal d ' histoire naturelle de belgique . 2 ( 12 ) : 1 - 177 , pls . 1 - 21 . [ details ]\n( of pocillopora eydouxi milne edwards , 1860 ) cairns , s . d . ; gershwin , l . ; brook , f . j . ; pugh , p . ; dawson , e . w . ; oca\u00f1a o . v . ; vervoort , w . ; williams , g . ; watson , j . e . ; opresko , d . m . ; schuchert , p . ; hine , p . m . ; gordon , d . p . ; campbell , h . j . ; wright , a . j . ; s\u00e1nchez , j . a . ; fautin , d . g . ( 2009 ) . phylum cnidaria : corals , medusae , hydroids , myxozoans . in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) ( 2009 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity : 1 . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . pp . 59 - 101 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncommon : revillagigedo islands ( reyes - bonilla 2003 ) , malpelo ( glynn and ault 2000 ) and gorgona islands ( zapata and vargas - \u00e1ngel 2003 ) .\nrare : gulf of california and nearby areas , nayarit , jalisco , colima , guerrero and oaxaca ( reyes - bonilla 2003 ) ; costa rica including cocos island , and ecuador including the gal\u00e1pagos islands ( glynn and ault 2000 ) .\nis likely to be moderately common in panama ( reported at 24 sites in las perlas and 77 sites in gulf of chiriqui ) , colombia and costa rica . in addition , according to jim\u00e9nez and cort\u00e9s ( 2003 ) ,\ncan be found in moderate abundance at culebra bay , costa rica . likewise , in the gal\u00e1pagos islands , this coral is moderately common in the northern archipelago ( hickman 2005 ) but uncommon in the central region ( hickman and chiriboga pers . comm . ) . in addition , guzm\u00e1n\n. pers . comm . ) , following the severe coral mortality associated with recent enso events ( 1982 - 83 and 1997 - 98 ) and red tides .\nin the gal\u00e1pagos islands , pocilloporid communities were well developed off northeastern san cristobal , espanola and floreana island until the 1980s ( glynn 1994 , 2003 ) , but disappeared following the 1982 - 83 enso event , with minimal coral recruitment since ( glynn 2003 ) .\nthere is no species specific population information available for this species . however , there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined , and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species . this species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only ( wilkinson 2004 ) . we assume that most , if not all , mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average , the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs . reef losses throughout the species ' range have been estimated over three generations , two in the past and one projected into the future .\nthe age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years ( wallace 1999 ) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years . furthermore , based on average sizes and growth rates , we assume that average generation length is 10 years , unless otherwise stated . total longevity is not known , but likely to be more than ten years . therefore any population decline rates for the red list assessment are measured over at least 30 years .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ndana , j . d . ( 1846 - 1849 ) . zoophytes . united states exploring expedition during the years 1838 - 1842 . lea and blanchard , philadelphia . 7 : 1 - 740 , 61 pls . ( 1846 : 1 - 120 , 709 - 720 ; 1848 : 121 - 708 , 721 - 740 ; 1849 : atlas pls . 1 - 61 ) . [ details ]\nhoeksema , b . w . ; cairns , s . ( 2018 ) . world list of scleractinia .\nbr\u00fcggemann , f . ( 1879 ) . corals . in : zoology of rodriguez . philosophical transactions of the royal society of london series b , biological sciences . 168 : 569 - 579 . [ details ]\nsheppard , c . r . c . ( 1987 ) . coral species of the indian ocean and adjacent seas : a synonymised compilation and some regional distribution patterns . atoll research bulletin nr 307 [ details ]\nin the indo - west pacific , this species is found in the red sea and the gulf of aden , the southwest and northeastern indian ocean , the central indo - pacific , tropical australia , southern japan and the south china sea , the oceanic west pacific , the central pacific , the hawaiian islands and johnston atoll , the far eastern pacific .\n: salango island , los frailes , sucre island and la plata island , and throughout the galpagos archipelago ( except for fernandina and the west side of isabela ) ( glynn 2003 ) .\nclassification from integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) selected by cyndy parr - see more .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\ndana , j . d . ( 1846 - 1849 ) . zoophytes . united states exploring expedition during the years 1838 - 1842 . < em > lea and blanchard , philadelphia . < / em > 7 : 1 - 740 , 61 pls . ( 1846 : 1 - 120 , 709 - 720 ; 1848 : 121 - 708 , 721 - 740 ; 1849 : atlas pls . 1 - 61 ) .\nbr\u00fcggemann , f . ( 1879 ) . corals . in : zoology of rodriguez . < em > philosophical transactions of the royal society of london series b , biological sciences . < / em > 168 : 569 - 579 .\nsheppard , c . r . c . ( 1987 ) . coral species of the indian ocean and adjacent seas : a synonymised compilation and some regional distribution patterns . atoll research bulletin nr 307\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\nthank you for your contribution to the improvement of the inpn . the information submitted has been sent to an expert for verification and correction .\nwarning : the data available reflects the progression status of knowledge or the availability of the inventories . it should never be considered as comprehensive .\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\ncites is an international agreement between governments , aimed to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ncolonies are composed of stout , upright , flattened branches . colonies are often over one metre across and may form large single species stands . branches may be widely separated or may be compact , especially where currents are strong . verrucae are uniform in shape and spacing .\nhabitat : most reef environments , but especially exposed reef fronts and where currents are strong .\ntaxonomic note : source reference : veron ( 2000 ) . taxonomic references : veron and pichon ( 1976 ) , dai ( 1989 ) . additional identification guides : randall and myers ( 1983 ) , veron ( 1986 ) , nishihira and veron ( 1995 ) .\n\u00a9 2011 - 2012 australian institute of marine science and crr cc by - nc 3 . 0\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nvaughan , t . w . 1907 ,\nrecent madreporaria of the hawaiian islands and laysan\n, bulletin of the united states national museum , vol . 59 , pp . 1 - 427\ngardiner , j . s . 1897 ,\non some collections of corals of the family pocilloporidae from the s . w pacific ocean\n, proceedings of the zoological society of london , vol . 1898 , pp . 941 - 953\nthiel , m . e . 1932 ,\nmadreporaria zugleich ein versuch einer vergleichenden oekologie der gefundenen formen\n, m\u00e9moires du mus\u00e9e royal d ' histoire naturelle de belgique , vol . 2 , pp . 12 1 - 177\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 1c5b4808 - 44d8 - 4f07 - 9394 - 3677efc1153c\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 39587bca - c678 - 4f70 - 8cb0 - 7f5348ac1b2d\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 73335bbc - 8e3e - 4dd0 - a47b - 78c49a191278\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : c7be6561 - 057b - 4a3b - afc4 - e4b3dc15154e\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 613953\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 2480, "summary": [{"text": "parnassius acco , the varnished apollo , is a high-altitude butterfly found in asia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is a member of the snow apollo genus parnassius of the swallowtail family , papilionidae . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "parnassius acco", "paragraphs": ["you selected parnassius acco gemmifer fruhstorfer , 1904 . this is a synonym for :\nyou selected parnassius acco acconus fruhstorfer , 1903 . this is a synonym for :\nparnassius latreille , 1804 [ 13 spp . ] parnassius ( parnassius ) actius ( eversmann , 1843 ) parnassius ( parnassius ) apollo ( linnaeus , 1758 ) parnassius ( parnassius ) apollonius ( eversmann , 1847 ) parnassius ( parnassius ) bremeri bremer , 1864 parnassius ( parnassius ) dongalaicus tytler , 1926 * - rikihiroi kawasaki , 1995 * parnassius ( parnassius ) epaphus oberth\u00fcr , 1879 parnassius ( parnassius ) honrathi staudinger , 1882 parnassius ( parnassius ) jacquemontii boisduval , 1836 parnassius ( parnassius ) nomion fischer de waldheim , 1823 parnassius ( parnassius ) phoebus ( fabricius , 1793 ) * - ruckbeili deckert , 1909 * parnassius ( parnassius ) sacerdos stichel , 1906 * parnassius ( parnassius ) smintheus doubleday , 1847 * - behrii edwards , 1870 * parnassius ( parnassius ) tianschanicus oberth\u00fcr , 1879\noriginally described as parnassius acco subsp . transhimalayensis eisner , 1938 treated as a subspecies of tadumia ( tadumia ) acco gray by eisner ( 1959 : 167 ) . treated as a subspecies of parnassius ( tadumia ) acco gray , 1852 by weiss ( 1992 : 73 ) . treated as a synonym of parnassius acco acco gray , 1853 by rose ( 2000 : 264 ) .\noriginally described as parnassius acco subspec . gemmifer fruhstorfer , 1904 treated as a subspecies of tadumia acco by bryk ( 1940 : 36 ) . treated as a subspecies of tadumia ( tadumia ) acco gray by eisner ( 1959 : 169 ) . treated as a subspecies of parnassius ( tadumia ) acco gray , 1852 by weiss ( 1992 : 74 ) . synonymized with parnassius acco acco gray by inaoka & sugisawa ( 1997 : 95 ) . treated as a subspecies of parnassius acco gray , 1853 by rose ( 2000 : 264 ) .\n. . . except przewalskii is really just a subspecies of acco , so these are p . acco kunlunica . adam .\nfinally i got a + specimen of parnassius acco . this one is ssp . mirabilis . fresh parnassius specimens with deep red oceli look awesome .\nthose are both gorgeous subspecies of acco . my compliments on your spreading style for parnassius - - really nice !\nsorimachi , y . 1994a . the world of parnassius acco gray , 1853 [ in japanese ] . apollo , 3 : 43 - 76 .\ninaoka , s . & sugisawa , s . 1997 . basic materials for studies on parnassius acco gray , 1853 [ in japanese ] . wallace , 3 : 93 - 110 .\nshinkai , a . 1997 . the complete illustrated catalogue of parnassiinae ( lepidoptera : papilionidae ) , no . 2 . parnassius acco gray , 1853 . wallace , 3 : 41 - 90 .\ngenerally , what i was trying to say is that to my mind , acco and bubo are closely related but still different species .\ndriopa korshunov , 1988 [ 8 spp . ] parnassius ( driopa ) ariadne lederer , 1853 - clarius eversmann , 1843 * parnassius ( driopa ) clodius m\u00e9n\u00e9tri\u00e9s , 1855 parnassius ( driopa ) eversmanni m\u00e9n\u00e9tri\u00e9s , 1855 - felderi bremer , 1861 * - litoreus stichel , 1907 * parnassius ( driopa ) glacialis butler , 1866 * - sulphurus antram , 1924 * parnassius ( driopa ) mnemosyne ( linnaeus , 1758 ) parnassius ( driopa ) nordmanni [ m\u00e9n\u00e9tri\u00e9s ] , 1850 parnassius ( driopa ) orleans oberth\u00fcr , 1890 parnassius ( driopa ) stubbendorfii m\u00e9n\u00e9tri\u00e9s , 1849 - hoenei schweitzer , 1912 *\nbaileyi [ parnassius ( tadumia ) acco ] : originally described as a subspecies of p . acco , later placed with rothschildianus or przewalskii ( e . g . , bryk 1935 ) , and subsequently also treated as a separate species ( e . g . , weiss 1992 ) ; more recently , however , regarded by most authors again as conspecific with p . acco ( ackery 1975 , eisner 1976 , inaoka & sugisawa 1997 , shinkai 1997 , sorimachi 1994a , sorimachi 1995 , weiss 1992 ) .\nohya , a . 1993 . geographical and individual variations of the genus parnassius latreille , 1804 . ( 7 ) parnassius szechenyii frivaldszky , 1886 - parnassius cephalus grum - grshimailo , 1891 - parnassius schultei weiss & michel , 1898 - parnassius maharaja avinoff , 1916 . illustrations of selected insects in the world . series a ( lepidoptera ) , 7 : 97 - 116 .\nrose , k . 2000 . zur verbreitung und subspezifischen gliederung von parnassius acco gray , 1853 , in china ( einschlie\u00dflich tibet ) ( lepidoptera : papilionidae ) . entomologische zeitschrift , 110 ( 9 ) : 262 - 272 .\nsave parnassius to get e - mail alerts and updates on your ebay feed .\nphoebus [ parnassius ( parnassius ) ] : for taxa formerly treated as conspecific with p . phoebus , see also under p . sacerdos , and p . smintheus .\nalthough classified under the swallowtail butterfly family , none of the parnassius species possess tails .\nsugisawa , s . 1996 . geographical and individual variations of the genus parnassius latreille , 1804 ( 9 ) - parnassius epaphus oberth\u00fcr & parnassius dongalaicus tytler . illustrations of selected insects in the world . series a ( lepidoptera ) , 9 : 133 - 155 .\nrothschildianus [ parnassius ( tadumia ) acco ] : originally described as a separate species and subsequently placed with baileyi or prezewalskii ( e . g . , bryk 1935 , weiss 1992 ) ; more recently , however , these taxa are generally seen as comprising a single species conspecific with p . acco ( ackery 1975 , eisner 1976 , hancock 1983 , inaoka & sugisawa 1997 , rose 2000 , shinkai 1997 , sorimachi 1994a , sorimachi 1995 ) .\nhunnyngtoni [ parnassius ( tadumia ) ] : in the past often treated as conspecific with p . acco ( e . g . , ackery 1975 , eisner 1976 , hancock 1983 ) , but now generally accepted as a separate species which is morphologically and ecologically quite distinct from p . acco ( bryk 1935 , collins & morris 1985 , d ' abrera 1990 , h\u00e4user 1993 , inaoka & sugisawa 1997 , sorimachi 1994a , sorimachi 1995 , weiss 1991 ) .\nprzewalskii [ parnassius ( tadumia ) acco ] : originally described as a separate species and subsequently treated as such by many authors ( e . g . , bryk 1935 , munroe 1961 , verity 1905 - 1911 ) ; more recently , however , seen by most authors as conspecific with p . acco ( e . g . , ackery 1975 , eisner 1976 , inaoka & sugisawa 1997 , rose 2000 , shinkai 1997 , sorimachi 1994a , sorimachi 1995 , weiss 1992 ) .\nhuberi [ parnassius ( tadumia ) schultei ] : recently described as a distinct species closely related to p . acco and p . schultei ; in judging from the original description ( paulus 1999 ) , the taxon resembles more closely p . schultei with which it is allopatric and treated here as conspecific .\ni have reported about some of the chinese parnassius species in several papers from 2000 to 2005 ( see list of references ) . it is the aim of this paper to inform about those taxa which were described afterwards . an analysis of few subspecies which i have overlooked in the publications mentioned above is supplemented . some controversial issues regarding p . acco yvonne and p . imperator milarepa are discussed . two new synonyms are introduced : p . acco aristocratus kocman , 1999 is a new synonym ( syn . n . ) of p . acco yvonne ( eisner , 1959 ) ; p . imperator milarepa hamada , 2003 is a new synonym ( syn . n . ) of p . imperator irmae bryk , 1932 .\ni see . . . and as for your question of\nwhether anyone had treated baileyi , bubo , and pseudobubo as separate species from acco\n, i never said\npseudobubo\nwas separate from acco , i just said that to my mind , the name ( designation ) is poor and unsuccessful (\np . baileyi pseudoprzewalskii\n) . but don ' t get me wrong , i ' m not an adherent of\nphilatelic approach\n. . . victor\nohya , a . 1990 . geographical and individual variations of the genus parnassius latreille , 1804 - ( 5 ) parnassius imperator oberth\u00fcr , 1883 . illustrations of selected insects in the world . series a ( lepidoptera ) , 5 : 65 - 80 .\nnardelli , u . 1991 . anmerkungen zur zucht von parnassius - arten sowie bericht \u00fcber eine zucht von parnassius phoebus sternitzkii ( lepidoptera : papilionidae ) . nachrichten des entomologischen vereins apollo . , n . f . 12 ( 2 ) : 141 - 152 .\nadam , being , obviously , not too deep into the dna analysis , i nevertheless consider it all still has too much room left to be studied and researched . . . could you please tell your opinion regarding the acco / baileyi relations ? what about , say , bubo ? to me ,\np . acco pseudobubo\nlooks and sounds pretty lay , for the two taxa have virtually nothing in common even morphologically ; it ' s like naming an urticae a\npseudoio\n. . . victor\niwamoto , y . & inomata , t . 1988 . geographical and individual variations of the genus parnassius latreille , 1804 - ( 3 ) parnassius eversmanni m\u00e9n\u00e9tri\u00e9s , 1855 . illustrations of selected insects in the world . series a ( lepidoptera ) , 3 : 33 - 48 .\nkimura , k . 1997 . geographical and individual variations of the genus parnassius latreille , 1804 ( 10 ) - parnassius phoebus ( fabricius , 1793 ) in palaearctic region . illustrations of selected insects in the world . series a ( lepidoptera ) , 10 : 157 - 172 .\npaulus , v . 1999 . a new species of parnassius discovered in north tibet , china . wallace , 6 : 2 - 7 .\nstshetkin , ju . ju . 1979 . the species status of parnassius cardinal gr . - gr . and a new subspecies of parnassius delphius ev . ( lepidoptera : papilionidae ) [ in russian ] . doklady akademii nauk tadzhikskoi ssr , 22 ( 2 ) : 63 - 66 .\nhering , m . 1931 . parnassius glacialis butl . als bona species . parnassiana , 1 ( 7 / 8 ) : 10 - 11 .\nhello someone have the oberthur 1890 original paper of the description of parnassius orleans ? ( 3pp . ) i can ' t found it ! thanks\nrikihiroi [ parnassius ( parnassius ) dongalaicus ] : recently described as a separate species related to p . epaphus , and subsequently united with p . dongalaicus ( sorimachi 1995 , sugisawa 1996 ) , which previously had been regarded as conspecific with p . epaphus ( bryk 1935 ; see above ) .\nthis genus has had an inordinate number of generic segregates proposed , some of which are considered by most authors to represent subgenera . our north american species are usually treated as belonging to the subgenera parnassius [ including p . phoebus , behrii & smintheus ] and driopa [ including parnassius eversmanni & clodius ] .\nhering , m . 1935 . \u00fcber einige geographische formen von parnassius apollo phoebus f . parnassiana , 3 ( 4 / 5 ) : 45 - 46 .\nparnassius latreille , 1804 ; nouv . dict . hist . nat . 24 ( 6 ) : 185 , 199 , type species : papilio apollo linnaeus .\nmany detailed books and checklists have been published on the taxonomy of parnassius ( e . g . see weiss , 1991 - 2005 ; tshikolovets , 1998 - 2003 ) ; these books usually offer high quality images and color maps , and illustrate a substantial range of morphological variability for many of the species of parnassius .\nsorimachi , y . 1995 . the primer of parnassius [ in japanese ] . y . sorimachi , saitama ; 181 pp . [ including 40 pls . ]\nthe apollos , parnassius are different in appearance from other swallowtails , being of moderate size , with white ground colour , spotted with red , black and blue .\nhuang , h . 1999 . parnassius liudongi sp . nov . from chinese tianshan ( lepidoptera : papilionidae ) . lambillionea , 99 ( 3 ) : 335 - 337 .\nkawasaki , y . & rose , k . 1997 . notes on parnassius cephalus grum - grshimailo , 1891 from western tibet . wallace , 3 : 7 - 12 .\nhaving received tremendous attention from both collectors and taxonomists , parnassius butterflies are among the most well studied butterflies in alpine zones . the region of greatest diversity of parnassius is the eastern palaearctic , from pakistan to central asia and china . a few species extend as far as europe , japan , and into the nearctic ( weiss , 1991 , 1995 ) .\nthe caterpillars of parnassius , like other swallowtails , possess the peculiar structure known as an osmeterium at the back of their head . they feed on various members of crassulaceae and papaveraceae . isolation of parnassius populations in various mountain ranges has resulted in differentiation and subsequent description of numerous subspecies , varieties and forms ( e . g . bryk , 1935 ) .\nthe last three replace one another geographically , are closely similar , closely related , and are treated by many authors as belonging to the single wide - ranging palearctic species parnassius phoebus .\na molecular phylogenetic study from 2008 suggests firstly that baronia brevicornis salvin 1893 , rather than belonging to an outgroup baroniinae belongs to parnassiini , together with hypermnestra and parnassius . secondly that the earliest split within the genus parnassius is between subgenus parnassius ( the \u2018apollo\u2019 group , whose caterpillars feed on crassulaceae , exceptionally saxifragaceae ) and the ancestor of the remaining seven subgenera . the existence of the subgenera is confirmed by molecular phylogenies . six of the other subgenera have fumariaceae as the larval foodplant , while the larvae of the remaining genus kreizbergia feed on scrophulariaceae [ 8 ]\nschultei [ parnassius ( tadumia ) ] : recently described as a distinct species and generally accepted as such ( e . g . , h\u00e4user 1993 , ohya 1993 , sorimachi 1995 ) .\nsimo [ parnassius ( sachaia ) ] : for taxa formerly treated as conspecific with p . simo , see also under p . andreji , p . boedromius , and p . simonius .\ndongalaicus [ parnassius ( parnassius ) epaphus ] : originally described as a separate species , but subsequently regarded as conspecific with p . epaphus ( bryk 1935 ) ; recently , again , it has been recognized as a separate species and as conspecific with rikihiroi kawasaki , 1995 ( see below ) based on the sympatric occurence with p . epaphus ( sorimachi 1995 , sugisawa 1996 ) .\nnazari , vazrick . 2006 . parnassius latreille , 1804 . version 07 july 2006 ( under construction ) . [ 1 ] in the tree of life web project , [ 2 ] shows cladogram\nthe number of species recognized within parnassius varies widely from author to author , with conservative treatments allowing for around 20 or 30 , and more liberal treatments recognizing as many as 50 or 60 species .\nacco [ parnassius ( tadumia ) ] : is treated here to include baileyi south , przewalskii alpheraky , and all related taxa some of which at times have been regarded as distinct species ( e . g . , bryk 1935 , chou 1994 , collins & morris 1985 , munroe 1961 ) ; the view of a single species has been accepted by most recent authors based on the allopatric occurence of the different taxa concerned ( e . g . , ackery 1975 , eisner 1976 , hancock 1983 , inaoka & sugisawa 1997 , rose 2000 , shinkai 1997 , sorimachi 1994a , sorimachi 1995 ) .\nsugisawa , s . & kawasaki , y . 1997 . re - classification of parnassius imperator from central and southern parts of tibet . gekkan - mushi , 318 : 4 - 9 ; plate 2 .\ndechaine , eric g . , andrew p . martin . 2004 . historic cycles of fragmentation and expansion in parnassius smintheus ( papilionidae ) inferred using mitochondrial dna . evolution , 58 ( 1 ) : 113\u2013127\nruckbeili [ parnassius ( parnassius ) phoebus ] : described originally as a subspecies of p . phoebus , it has in the past also been placed with p . actius ( hering 1935 ) or even accorded species rank ( eisner 1976 : 107 ) ; recent studies regard this taxon , again , as conspecific with p . phoebus ( e . g . , kimura 1997 , shepard & manyley 1998 , sorimachi 1995 ) .\nkeyghobadi , n . , roland , j . and strobeck , c . 1999 . influence of landscape on the population genetic structure of the alpine butterfly parnassius smintheus ( papilionidae ) . molecular ecology 8 : 1481\u20131495 .\nchoui [ parnassius ( tadumia ) szechenyii ] : recently described as a separate species related to p . szechenyii ; as judged from the illustrations of the original description , however , it seems unlikely to be specifically distinct .\nferris , c . d . 1976 . a proposed revision of non - arctic parnassius phoebus fabricius in north america ( papilionidae ) . journal of research on the lepidoptera , 15 ( 1 ) : 1 - 22 .\ndespite growing interest , the exact number of \u201cspecies\u201d within parnassius remains disputed , as more recent checklists present conflicting numbers , ranging from 38 ( unep - wcmc , 2006 ) to 47 ( weiss 1991 ) . many of these species , however , are morphologically very similar . eight subgenera are generally recognized within parnassius , as follows ( in chronological order ; from bryk , 1935 ; h\u00e4user et al . , 2005 ; savela , 2005 ) :\ninaoka , s . & ogawa , m . 1992 . notes on parnassius stenosemus honrath , 1890 with description of a new subspecies [ in japanese ] . gekkan - mushi , 253 : 4 - 8 ; plate 2 .\nkatoh t , chichvarkhin a , yagi t , omoto k . 2005 phylogeny and evolution of butterflies of the genus parnassius : inferences from mitochondrial 16s and nd1 sequences . zoolog sci . 22 ( 3 ) : 343 - 51 pdf\ni ' ve just bought this parnassius in auction ( not internet ) and i wonder if it ' s realy p . stoliczkanus on the right and p . hardwicki on the left ? is someone can confirm this ideas ? thank you\ngundorov , s . 1998 . taxonomic notes on the parnassius simonius complex ( lepidoptera , papilionidae ) from middle asia ( alai and transalai mountains ) . transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan , 49 ( 3 ) : 194 - 198 .\nsome european countries have local regulations protecting their parnassius species ( p . mnemosyne , p . phoebus and p . apollo ) ( collins and morris , 1985 ) . the well - known species , p . apollo , is extinct in some european countries but is relatively common in other parts of its range . it is the only species covered by cites , despite the fact that numerous other species of parnassius are in need of immediate attention ( collins and morris , 1985 ) .\n. . . it is probably best to agree to disagree , . . .\n- end of quotation - is\nthan\nmissing or should it be understood as\nit is better to allow to prohibit\n? generally , what i was trying to say is that to my mind , acco and bubo are closely related but still different species . of course , i ' m in no way a local authority but maybe someday somebody will share my opinion . victor\nclarius [ parnassius ( driopa ) ariadne ] : the species has in the past often been referred to under this name ( e . g . , bryk 1935 , eisner 1974 ) which , however , is invalid as a junior primary homonym .\neven the more common parnassius species in asia comprise many local subspecies and distinct populations , many of which are extremely vulnerable and on the verge of extinction . some highly endangered parnassius include p . arcticus , p . ariadne , p . boedromius , p . cardinal , p . felderi , p . loxias , p . patricius , p . simo , p . simonius , and nearly all tibetan species ; some of these species are listed in red data books for russia , yakutia or tajikistan ( dinets , 2002 ) . many species are known from only a few specimens , and several have been rare in collection for decades , including parnassius autocrator which inhabits the northern part of the hindukush district in afghanistan and tajikistan ( weiss , 1991 ) .\ndelphius [ parnassius ( koramius ) ] : for taxa formerly treated as conspecific with p . delphius , see also under p . acdestis , p . cardinal , p . maximinus , p . staudingeri , p . stenosemus , and p . stoliczkanus .\nammosovi [ parnassius ( sachaia ) arcticus ] : originally described as a separate species but subsequently found to be a junior synonym of arcticus eisner , which first had been misplaced under p . simo ( see h\u00e4user 1993 , tuzov et al . 1997 ) .\npriamus [ parnassius ( koramius ) patricius ] : originally described as a subspecies of p . acdestis , but subsequently recognized as belonging to p . patricius ( bryk 1935 , eisner 1976 , h\u00e4user 1993 , tuzov et al . 1997 , weiss 1992 ) .\nkitahara , h . 1990 . comparison of male genitalia of natural hybrids in sympatric habitat of parnassius glacialis butler and p . hoenei schweitzer ( lepidoptera , papilionidae ) [ in japanaese ] . tyo to ga , 41 ( 2 ) : 45 - 49 .\nkatoh , t . , chechvarkin , a . , yagi , t . , omoto , k . , 2005 . phylogeny and evolution of butterflies of the genus parnassius : inferences from mitochondrial 16s and nd1 sequences . zoological science 22 : 343 - 351 .\nnosei [ parnassius ( tadumia ) maharaja ] : described as a separate species and treated as such by chou ( 1994 ) and weiss ( 1992 ) , it is now seen as conspecific with p . maharaja ( h\u00e4user 1993 , ohya 1993 , sorimachi 1995 ) .\nkoiwaya , s . 1995 . re - assortment of parnassius simo and andreji - on the discovery of sympatric habitat of p . simo and p . andreji , with the description of new ssp . of andreji . gekkan - mushi , 297 : 8 - 13 .\nkawasaki , y . 1996 . the classification of subspecies group of parnassius acdestis grum - grshimailo , 1891 ( lepidoptera papilionidae ) and its diffusion with descriptions of three new subspecies from tibet and record of two aberrant forms . wallace , 2 : 23 - 39 ; 3 pls .\nsacerdos [ parnassius ( parnassius ) ] : the populations of the european alps have long been treated as conspecific with p . phoebus ( e . g . , ackery 1975 , bryk 1935 , eisner 1976 , kimura 1997 , munroe 1961 ) ; however , they are not only geographically well separated but also distinct morphologically as well as in terms of habitat requirements and larval hostplants from asian or north american taxa of the p . phoebus complex and thus should be accorded species status ( see also , h\u00e4user 1993 , nardelli 1991 , shepard & manyley 1998 ) .\nbeehri [ parnassius ( parnassius ) smintheus ] : as the other north american taxa in this group , beehri was in the past generally placed as a subspecies of p . phoebus ( e . g . , bryk 1935 , eisner 1976 , ferris 1976 , tyler et al . 1994 ) ; following the separation of nearctic taxa at species level under p . smintheus ( see below ) , it consequently has now to be placed with the latter taxon ; in a recent study , species rank has been accordet to beehri based on differences in egg morphology ( shepard & manley 1998 ) .\nshepard , j . h . & manley , t . r . 1998 . a species revision of the parnassius phoebus complex in north america ( lepidoptera : papilionidae ) . in : emmel , t . c . ( ed ) : systematics of western north american butterflies . mariposa press , .\nyes , alain is correct , the publication in etudes d ' entomologie vol . 14 ( 1891 ) is not actually the original description of parnassius orleans but a reproduction of it . it is necessary to check the real original description , as sometimes changes are made in subsequent reproductions . adam .\nomoto , k . , katoh , t . , chichvarkhin , a . , yagi , t . , 2004 . molecular systematics and evolution of the ' apollo ' butterflies of the genus parnassius ( lepidoptera : papilionidae ) based on mitochondrial dna sequence data . gene 326 : 141 - 147 .\nthe parnassius butterflies also have a peculiar reproductive strategy in that the male has special accessory glands that produce a mating plug that seals the female genitalia after mating . this is believed to ensure the success of the male and to prevent other males from mating and avoids sperm competition . [ 4 ]\nlabeyriei [ parnassius ( tadumia ) maharaja ] : first described as a separate species and treated as such by chou ( 1994 ) and weiss ( 1992 ) , it is now regarded as conspecific with p . maharaja ( d ' abrera 1990 , h\u00e4user 1993 , ohya 1993 , sorimachi 1995 ) .\nhide [ parnassius ( koramius ) patricius ] : first described and subsequently treated as a separate species ( e . g . , chou 1994 , sorimachi 1995 , weiss 1992 ) ; here , regarded as conspecific with p . patricius with which it is closely related and from which it is geographically separated .\nsmintheus [ parnassius ( parnassius ) ] : originally described as a species , but subsequently always treated as conspecific with p . phoebus ( e . g . , ackery 1975 , bryk 1935 , collins & morris 1985 , eisner 1976 , ferris 1976 , munroe 1961 , sorimachi 1995 ) ; recent studies based on egg morphology and other characters ( shepard & manley 1998 ) confirm that the north american populations from the rocky mountains should be regarded as distinct at species level ( see also h\u00e4user 1993 , layberry et al . 1998 : 79 , nardelli 1991 , tyler et al . 1994 : pl . 49 ) .\nthe parnassius species of butterflies are often hard to identify and can sometimes only be identified by dissection of the genitalia . [ 2 ] the phylogeny of the group is still under study using molecular techniques . the exact number of species within the genus is disputed and numbers range from 38 to 47 . [ 3 ]\nhello michel the problem is , this publication has been made appart . not in the etudes d ' entomologie . so the exact reference is simply : 1890 . description d ' une esp\u00e8ce nouvelle de l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8re appartenant au genre parnassius . ( rennes ) : 3 pp . i presume it is hide somewhere on a shelf !\nkiritshenkoi [ parnassius ( koramius ) staudingeri ] : generally treated as conspecific with p . delphius ( ackery 1975 , bryk 1935 ) or p . staudingeri ( sorimachi 1995 , weiss 1992 ) ; recently listed as a separate species by tuzov et al . ( 1997 : 139 ) based on a sympatric occurence with p . staudingeri .\ntwo molecular studies have been published on the phylogeny of the genus parnassius ( omoto et al . , 2004 ; katoh et al . , 2005 ) . omoto et al . looked at 777 bp of the mitochondrial nd5 gene in a large number of parnassius speicies , and katoh et al . used mitochondrial 16s ribosomal rna ( 504 bp ) and nadh dehydrogenase subunit 1 ( 469 bp ) in a smaller number of species . both of these studies recover several well - supported clusters of species - groups that to some degree correspond to those previously recognized based on morphological characters ( e . g . hancock , 1983 ) , but fail to resolve the deeper phylogenetic relationships among them .\npythia [ parnassius ( tadumia ) cephalus ] : this taxon is based on a single female specimen which was described as a separate species and listed as such by munroe ( 1961 ) , but is now generally treated as conspecific with p . cephalus ( bryk 1935 , h\u00e4user 1993 , ohya 1993 , kawasaki & rose 1997 , weiss 1992 ) .\nsulphurus [ parnassius ( driopa ) glacialis ] : this taxon was described as a distinct species on the basis of a single male specimen allegedly from tibet but without reliable locality data ; it has been synonymized by bryk ( 1935 ) with p . glacialis , a view which has subsequently been followed ( e . g . , fujioka et al . 1997 ) .\nnote : the wing pattern in parnassius species is inconsistent and the very many subspecies and forms make identification problematic and uncertain . structural characters derived from the genitalia , wing venation , sphragis and foretibial epiphysis are more , but not entirely reliable . the description given here is a guide only . for an identification key see ackery p . r . ( 1975 ) .\nthe females of parnassius have a\nsphragis\nthat is present on the lower side of the end of the abdomen after mating . it is formed from a hard waxy secretion made by the male during mating and functions to prevent other males from mating with the female afterwards . see illustrations in ehrlich & ehrlich ' how to know the butterflies ' on page 32 .\nmus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle , paris . types listed by bernardi , g . , and viette , p . 1966 . les types et typoides de parnassius ( s . l . ) se trouvant au museum de paris . bull . soc . ent . fr . 71 95 - 103 , 163 - 166 . 9 229 - 233 , 304 - 309 .\nliudongi [ parnassius ( koramius ) acdestis ] : recently described as a separate species closely related to p . acdestis ; in judging from the orginal description ( huang 1999 ) , the differences mentioned in male genitalia and female sphragis based on two specimens of each sex do not appear to warrant distinction at species level but rather seem to be within common margins of intraspecific variation .\nparnassius comes for greek parnassios ( \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3iota ; \u03bf\u03c2 ) -\nparnassian\n, after a mountain associated with apollo in greek mythology . latreille created the genus for a species until then called papilio apollo , so the reference to apollo makes sense . in fact , many of the names chosen for new species and subspecies in this genus have kept up this apollo / mount olympus theme\nmaharaja [ parnassius ( tadumia ) ] : first described as a species , but later often placed as a subspecies of p . cephalus ( ackery 1975 , bryk 1922 , eisner 1976 , hancock 1983 ) ; now generally accepted as a separate species , ( e . g . , collins & morris 1985 , bryk 1935 , h\u00e4user 1993 , ohya 1993 , sorimachi 1995 , weiss 1992 ) .\nnatural history museum specimens largely determined by curt eisner types listed in ackery , p . r . ( 1973 ) : a list of the type - specimens of parnassius ( lepidoptera : papilionidae ) in the british museum ( natural history ) . bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 29 ( 1 ) ( 9 . xi . 1973 ) : 1\u201435 , 1 pl . pdf\nstoliczkanus [ parnassius ( koramius ) ] : first described as a distinct species and mostly treated as such ( bryk 1935 , h\u00e4user 1993 , inaoka & ogawa 1992 , collins & morris 1985 , d ' abrera 1990 , munroe 1961 , sorimachi 1995 , weiss 1992 ) , but sometimes regarded as conspecific with p . delphius ( e . g . , ackery 1975 , eisner 1976 , hancock 1983 , verity 1905 - 1911 ) .\nandreji [ parnassius ( sachaia ) ] : long treated as conspecific with p . simo ( e . g . , ackery 1975 , bryk 1935 , collins & morris 1985 , eisner 1976 , and munroe 1961 ) , but recently accepted as a separate species by chou ( 1994 ) , sorimachi ( 1995 : 72 ) , and weiss ( 1991 ) , which has also been found sympatrically with p . simo ( koiwaya 1995 ) .\nmaximinus [ parnassius ( koramius ) ] : previously regarded as conspecific with p . delphius ( e . g . , ackery 1975 , bryk 1935 , collins & morris 1985 , hancock 1983 , munroe 1961 ) , but recently recognized as a separate species by kreuzberg ( 1985 ) , a view which has since been generally followed ( lukhtanov & lukhtanov 1994 , sorimachi 1995 , tshikolovets 2000 , tuzov et al . 1997 , weiss 1992 ) .\nall of these genus - level names , together with a few others that are generally overlooked ( e . g . erythrodriopa korshunov , 1988 ; adoritis ko\u00e7ak , 1989 ; quinhaicus korshonov , 1990 , and kreizbergius korshunov , 1990 ) , have been synonymized with parnassius ( munroe , 1961 ; hesselbarth et al . , 1995 ) , although they are still used to designate \u201cspecies - groups\u201d within the genus ( omoto et al . , 2004 ; h\u00e4user et al . , 2005 ) . more recent treatments are confined to grouping parnassius species under a number of species - groups that may not correspond to the subgeneric classification ( weiss , 1991 - 2005 ; tshikolovets , 1998 - 2003 ) . the number of species included in each of these subgenera ( or species - groups ) varies in checklists ( e . g . see bryk , 1935 ; h\u00e4user et al . , 2005 ) .\nnandadevinensis [ parnassius stoliczkanus ] : this taxon has been based on a single male specimen and was described as a distinct species ; judged from the original descrription , it could probably represent an aberrant specimen of p . stoliczkanus or even p . acdestis , but a definite statement can hardly be made before more material or information becomes available ( see h\u00e4user 1993 : 141 , huang 1999 : 337 , kawasaki 1996 : 36 , weiss 1992 : 101 ) .\nlitoreus [ parnassius ( driopa ) felderi ] : generally treated as conspecific with p . eversmanni or p . felderi ( e . g . , bryk 1935 , eisner 1974 , iwamoto & inomata 1988 , weiss 1999 ) , but it has been listed as a possibly distinct species by korshunov & gorbunov ( 1995 : 52 ) . unpublished results of genetic studies ( zakharov in prep . ) confirm the conspecifity of p . eversmanni and the taxa felderi and litoreus .\nhoenei [ parnassius ( driopa ) stubbendorfii ] : generally regarded as conspecific with p . stubbendorfii based on its allopatric occurence ( e . g . , ackery 1975 , bryk 1935 , collins & morris 1985 , eisner 1974 , fujioka et al . 1997 , and hancock 1983 ) , but treated as a separate species by fukuda et al . ( 1982 ) , kitahara ( 1990 ) , korzhunov & gorbunov ( 1995 : 51 ) , and sorimachi ( 1995 : 128 ) .\nsimonius [ parnassius ( sachaia ) ] : originally described and later generally treated as conspecific with p . simo ( e . g . , ackery 1975 , bryk 1935 , collins & morris 1985 , munroe 1961 ) ; first regarded as a separate species by kreuzberg ( 1985 ) , and accepted as such by gundorov ( 1998 ) , sorimachi ( 1995 : 74 ) , tshikolovets ( 1997 ) , tuzov et al . ( 1997 : 141 ) , and weiss ( 1991 ) .\nindeed , i don ' t know any up - to - date or relatively recent paper wherein bubo is treated as a ssp . of baileyi , the only reference i found being :\ntreated as a subspecies of parnassius ( tadumia ) baileyi south , 1913 by weiss ( 1992 : 82 )\n. but still , i believe my example of urticae and io shows somewhat a way more dramatic difference , than yours one with actually one and the same species ( p . machaon ) .\nthanks , adam . indeed , i don ' t know any up - to - date or relatively recent paper wherein bubo is treated as a ssp . of baileyi , the only reference i found being :\ntreated as a subspecies of parnassius ( tadumia ) baileyi south , 1913 by weiss ( 1992 : 82 )\n. but still , i believe my example of urticae and io shows somewhat a way more dramatic difference , than yours one with actually one and the same species ( p . machaon ) . victor\narcticus [ parnassius ( sachaia ) ] : originally described as a siberian subspecies of p . simo , a species which does not occur in siberia , and subsequently placed as conspecific with p . tenedius ( eisner 1969 ) ; recognized as a separate species by mr\u00e1cek ( 1989 ) , and recently accepted as such ( e . g . , korshunov & gorbunov 1995 : 54 , sorimachi 1995 , tuzov et al . 1997 : 142 , and weiss 1991 ) ; includes ammosovi korshunov as a junior synonym ( see above ) .\nstenosemus [ parnassius ( koramius ) ] : originally described as a subspecies of p . delphius , and long treated as conspecific with p . delphius or p . stoliczkanus ( e . g . , ackery 1975 , collins & morris 1985 , eisner 1976 , hancock 1983 , verity 1905 - 1911 ) ; subsequently treated as a separate species by bryk ( 1935 ) , a view which recently has been generally accepted also based on sympatric occurence with p . stoliczkanus ( inaoka & ogawa 1992 , munroe 1961 , sorimachi 1995 , weiss 1992 ) .\nboedromius [ parnassius ( sachaia ) ] : originally described as a separate species , but later mostly regarded as conspecific with p . simo ( e . g , ackery 1975 , bryk 1935 , collins & morris 1985 , d ' abrera 1990 , eisner 1976 , munroe 1961 , verity 1905 - 1911 ) ; reinstated as a separate species by kreuzberg ( 1985 ) , and recently accepted as such by most authors ( e . g . , h\u00e4user 1993 , lukhtanov & lukhtanov 1994 , sorimachi 1995 , tuzov et al . 1997 , and weiss 1991 ) .\ncardinal [ parnassius ( koramius ) ] : for a long time regarded as a subspecies of p . delphius ( e . g . , ackery 1975 , bryk 1935 , eisner 1976 , collins & morris 1985 , d ' abrera 1990 , munroe 1961 ) , but later recognized as a distinct species which partly coexists with other members of the p . delphius group ( kreuzberg 1985 , stshetkin 1979 ) , a view which lately has been generally accepted ( e . g . , h\u00e4user 1993 , sorimachi 1995 , tuzov et al . 1997 , weiss 1992 ) .\naugustus [ parnassius ( kailasius ) imperator ] : recently proposed as a separate species from p . imperator by sugisawa & kawasaki ( 1997 ) based on differences in male genitalia and wing pattern ; regarded as conspecific with p . imperator by all previous authors , e . g . , ackery ( 1975 ) , bryk ( 1935 ) , collins & morris ( 1985 ) , ohya ( 1990 ) , sorimachi ( 1995 : 166 ) , and weiss ( 1991 ) ; this view is accepted here as no truely sympatric occurence of the two taxa has yet been demonstrated .\nfelderi [ parnassius ( driopa ) ] : until recently mostly treated as conspecific with p . eversmanni ( e . g . , ackery 1975 , bryk 1935 , eisner 1974 , fujioka et al . 1997 , iwamoto & inomata 1988 , and sorimachi 1995 : 173 ) , but regarded as a separate species by collins & morris ( 1985 ) , korshunov & gorbunov ( 1995 : 52 ) , tuzov et al . ( 1997 : 138 ) , and weiss ( 1999 ) . unpublished results of genetic studies ( zakharov in prep . ) confirm the conspecifity of p . eversmanni and the taxa felderi and litoreus .\nstaudingeri [ parnassius ( koramius ) ] : for a long time regarded as conspecific with p . delphius ( ackery 1975 , bryk 1935 , collins & morris 1985 , eisner 1976 , hancock 1983 , munroe 1961 ) ; reinstated as a distinct species by kreuzberg ( 1985 ) , and now generally accepted as such ( chou 1994 , h\u00e4user 1993 , sorimachi 1995 , tshikolovets 2000 , tuzov et al . 1997 , and weiss 1992 ) ; a number of taxa currently subordinated under this species have also been suspected to represent distinct species and await further study ( e . g . , kiritschenkoi avinov ; see also tshikolovets 1997 : 51 , tuzov et al . 1997 : 139 , weiss 1992 : 108 ) .\nfirst thing is to look in the corresponding volumes of the zoological record , therefore i checked in year 1890 , 91 and 92 and found this : from which we can learn that parnassius orleans was described in fascicule xiv of etudes d ' entomologie , and was mentionned again in fascicule xvi ! i have to check in my copy of etudes d ' entomologie which i have in a complete state , but is binded , therefore scan will not be easy to make . . . a + , michel ps : if someone can explain how to upload reasonnable size picture , i would be happy ( i use urltoken and i use the direct link as all the other ones do not seem to work . . . )\nlondon : taylor and francis ; calcutta and simla , thacker , spink , & co . ; [ etc . , etc . ]\nevidence reported by james - hixon for item butterflies02bingiala on november 18 , 2006 : no visible notice of copyright ; stated date is 1907 .\nthere are no reviews yet . be the first one to write a review .\nthese males are of ssp . aristocratus . . . ( qinghai , nangqian , dana mt . 4500 m )\nand these belong with przewalskii ssp . kunlunica ( qinghai , kunlunshan , 5100 m ) .\nas a good species if you prefer to , after all species vs subspecies is really a subjective decision without conducting breeding experiments at least to f2 to see if the offspring are fertile or not . however , omoto\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is turned off in your web browser . please turn it on to take full advantage of arctos , or try our html specimensearch option .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c1faa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c25e1 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c277b - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322dd07d - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322de4fe - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322de75d - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 3303fd4d - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nh\u00e4user c . , holstein j . , kroupa a . s . , steiner a . & turiault m . ( eds ) . ( 2018 ) . globis ( gart ) : global butterfly information system ( version sep 2013 ) . in : roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , bailly n . , kirk p . m . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , nieukerken e . van , zarucchi j . , penev l . , eds . ( 2018 ) . species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 30th june 2018 . digital resource at urltoken species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 408d4f1b - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\n. if you continue to use the site we will assume that you agree with this .\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 408d53c1 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\ncopyright \u00a9 andre gorodinski . the insects from the palaearctic region . web design by mrs . l . gorodinski .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nplease note : we may still be awaiting delivery of some of these new arrivals , also some sell very quickly . prices subject to change\nrobert westphal theinsectcollector avenida playa cristall 43 , casa 2 ( urb . pino alto ) 43892 miami playa ( tarragona ) spain\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 / / en\ngi | 52421651 | gb | aau45333 . 1 | nadh dehydrogenase subunit 1 [ parnassia sp . wurdack d795 ]\nyrc informatics platform - version 3 . 0 created and maintained by : michael riffle\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnumber of names appearing only in this repository : 2511782 ( 61 . 20 % )\ndescription : ion will ultimately contain all the organism names related data found within the thomson reuters life science literature databases .\nprepared by christoph l . h\u00e4user , in cooperation with rienk de jong , gerardo lamas , robert k . robbins , campbell smith & richard i . vane - wright .\nparnassiinae duponchel , [ 1835 ] [ 66 spp . ] parnassiini duponchel , [ 1835 ] :\nleptocircini kirby , 1896 [ = lampropterini bryk , 1929 ; [ = graphiini talbot , 1939 ] * [ 144 spp . ]\nmimoides brown , 1991 [ 11 spp . ] mimoides ariarathes ( esper , 1788 ) mimoides euryleon ( hewitson , [ 1856 ] ) mimoides ilus ( fabricius , 1793 ) - belesis ( bates , 1864 ) * - branchus ( doubleday , 1846 ) * mimoides lysithous ( h\u00fcbner , [ 1821 ] ) - eupatorion ( lucas , 1857 ) * - harrisianus ( swainson , 1822 ) * - oedipus ( felder , 1865 ) * - rurik ( eschscholtz , 1821 ) * - sebastianus ( oberth\u00fcr , 1880 ) * mimoides microdamas ( burmeister , 1878 ) mimoides pausanias ( hewitson , 1852 ) mimoides phaon ( boisduval , 1836 ) - hipparchus ( staudinger , 1884 ) * mimoides protodamas ( godart , 1819 ) mimoides thymbraeus ( boisduval , 1836 ) mimoides xeniades ( hewitson , 1867 ) * - chibcha ( fassl , 1912 ) * - harmodius ( doubleday , 1846 ) * mimoides xynias ( hewitson , 1875 ) - trapeza ( rothschild & jordan , 1906 ) *\nprotesilaus swainson , [ 1832 ] [ 11 spp . ] protesilaus aguiari ( d ' almeida , 1937 ) protesilaus earis ( rothschild & jordan , 1906 ) * protesilaus glaucolaus ( bates , 1864 ) protesilaus helios ( rothschild & jordan , 1906 ) protesilaus leucosilaus ( zik\u00e1n , 1937 ) * protesilaus macrosilaus ( gray , [ 1853 ] ) * - penthesilaus ( felder & felder , 1865 ) * protesilaus molops ( rothschild & jordan , 1906 ) - hetaerius ( rothschild & jordan , 1906 ) * protesilaus orthosilaus ( weymer , 1899 ) protesilaus protesilaus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) - archesilaus ( felder & felder , 1865 ) * - embrikstrandi ( d ' almeida , 1936 ) * - nigricornis ( staudinger , 1884 ) * - pseudosilaus ( zikan , 1937 ) * - travassosi ( d ' almeida , 1938 ) * protesilaus stenodesmus ( rothschild & jordan , 1906 ) protesilaus telesilaus ( felder & felder , 1864 )\nprotographium munroe , [ 1961 ] [ 14 spp . ] protographium agesilaus ( gu\u00e9rin & percheron , 1835 ) - autosilaus ( bates , 1861 ) * - neosilaus ( hopffer , 1865 ) * - oberthueri ( rothschild & jordan , 1906 ) * protographium anaxilaus ( felder & felder , 1865 ) * - arcesilaus ( lucas , 1852 ) * protographium asius ( fabricius , 1781 ) protographium calliste ( bates , 1864 ) protographium celadon ( lucas , 1852 ) protographium dioxippus ( hewitson , [ 1856 ] ) - lacandones ( bates , 1864 ) * protographium epidaus ( doubleday , 1846 ) protographium leosthenes ( doubleday , 1846 ) protographium leucaspis ( godart , 1819 ) protographium marcellinus ( doubleday , [ 1845 ] ) protographium marcellus ( cramer , [ 1777 ] ) protographium philolaus ( boisduval , 1836 ) - oberthueri ( rothschild & jordan , 1906 ) * - xanticles ( bates , 1863 ) * protographium thyastes ( drury , 1782 ) - marchandii ( boisduval , 1836 ) * protographium zonaria ( butler , 1869 )\nbattus scopoli , 1777 [ 12 spp . ] battus belus ( cramer , [ 1777 ] ) battus chalceus ( rothschild & jordan , 1906 ) * - ingenuus ( dyar , 1907 ) * battus crassus ( cramer , [ 1777 ] ) battus devilliersii ( godart , 1823 ) battus eracon ( godman & salvin , 1897 ) battus laodamas ( felder & felder , 1859 ) battus lycidas ( cramer , [ 1777 ] ) battus madyes ( doubleday , 1846 ) - philetas ( hewitson , 1869 ) * battus philenor ( linnaues , 1771 ) battus polydamas ( linnaeus , 1758 ) - archidamas ( boisduval , 1836 ) * - psittacus ( molina , 1782 ) * - streckerianus ( honrath , 1884 ) * battus polystictus ( butler , 1874 ) battus zetides munroe , 1971 - zetes ( westwood , 1847 ) *\ncressida swainson , 1832 [ 1 sp . ] cressida cressida ( fabricius , 1775 )\neuryades felder & felder , 1864 [ 2 spp . ] euryades corethrus ( boisduval , 1836 ) euryades duponchelii ( lucas , 1836 )\nlosaria moore , [ 1902 ] [ 4 spp . ] losaria coon ( fabricius , 1793 ) losaria neptunus ( gu\u00e9rin - m\u00e9neville , 1840 ) losaria palu ( martin , 1912 ) * losaria rhodifer ( butler , 1876 )\nornithoptera boisduval , [ 1832 ] [ 12 spp . ] ornithoptera aesacus ( ney , 1903 ) * ornithoptera alexandrae ( rothschild , 1907 ) ornithoptera chimaera ( rothschild , 1904 ) ornithoptera croesus wallace , 1859 * ornithoptera goliath oberth\u00fcr , 1888 ornithoptera meridionalis ( rothschild , 1897 ) ornithoptera paradisea staudinger , 1893 ornithoptera priamus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) - akakeae kobayashi & koiwaya , 1978 * - allotei ( rothschild , 1914 ) * - euphorion ( gray , [ 1853 ] ) * ornithoptera richmondia ( gray , [ 1853 ] ) * ornithoptera rothschildi kenrick , 1911 - akakeae kobayashi & koiwaya , 1978 * ornithoptera tithonus de haan , 1840 ornithoptera victoriae ( gray , 1856 ) - allotei ( rothschild , 1914 ) *\npharmacophagus haase , 1892 [ 1 sp . ] pharmacophagus antenor ( drury , 1773 )\ntrogonoptera rippon , [ 1890 ] [ 2 spp . ] trogonoptera brookiana ( wallace , 1855 ) trogonoptera trojana ( honrath , 1886 )\nmeandrusa moore , 1888 [ 3 spp . ] meandrusa payeni ( boisduval , 1836 ) meandrusa sciron ( leech , 1890 ) * - hercules ( blanchard , 1871 ) * meandrusa lachinus ( fruhstorfer , 1902 ) * - gyas ( westwood , 1841 ) *\nabderus [ papilio ( pterourus ) ] : generally seen as conspecific with p . garamas ( e . g . , bryk 1930 , d ' abrera 1981 , d ' almeida 1966 , tyler et al . 1994 ) , but sometimes also treated as a distinct species ( collins & morris 1985 : 87 , hancock 1983 , llorente - bousquets et al . 1997 ) .\nadamas [ pachliopta ] : previously regarded as conspecific with p . aristolochiae ( e . g . , fujioka et al . 1997 , tsukada & nishiyama 1982 ) , but recently accepted as a separate species by page & treadaway ( 1995 ) .\naesacus [ ornithoptera ] : generally regarded as a separate species ( e . g , collins & morris 1985 : 83 , hancock 1983 , hancock & orr 1997 , munroe 1961 , otani & kimura 1998 , von kn\u00f6tgen 1997 ) , but also considered as conspecific with o . priamus by parsons ( 1996 ) .\naethiops [ papilio ( druryia ) microps ] : formerly in general use as the species name ( e . g . , carcasson 1975 , d ' abrera 1980 , munroe 1961 ) , but invalid as a junior primary homonym ( ackery et al . 1995 , hancock 1983 ) ; aethiopsis hancock , 1983 has been proposed as an objective replacement name ( see below ) , but microps storace , 1952 is also seen as a conspecific taxon and hence available as species name ( ackery et al . 1995 : 152 ) .\naethiopsis [ papilio ( druryia ) microps ] : proposed as an objective replacement name for p . aethiops rothschild & jordan , 1905 , which is invalid as a junior primary homonym ( hancock 1983 : 38 ) ; at species level , however , microps storace , 1952 is already available as a valid name ( see below ) .\naglaope [ parides panthonus ] : previously treated as a separate species ( e . g . , collins & morris 1985 : 70 , d ' almeida 1966 , and hancock 1983 : 47 ) , but recently regarded as conspecific with p . panthonus by lamas ( pers . com . ) , and tyler et al . ( 1994 : 28 ) .\nakakeae [ ornithoptera priamus / rothschildi ] : originally described as a separate species , but now regarded as an interspecific hybrid between o . priamus and o . rothschildi ( otani & kimura 1998 : 101 ) .\nalcindor [ papilio ( menelaides ) polytes ] : generally held to be conspecific with p . polytes ( e . g . , bryk 1930 , d ' abrera 1982 , tsukada & nishiyama 1982 ) but recently elevated to species rank by fujioka et al . ( 1997 : 228 ) .\nalexiares [ papilio ( pterourus ) glaucus ] : previously regarded as a separate species ( e . g . , collins & morris 1985 , d ' abrera 1981 , d ' almeida 1966 : 132 , hagen & scriber 1995 , hancock 1983 , munroe 1961 ) , but recently seen as conspecific with p . glaucus ( llorente - bousquets et al . 1997 , tyler et al . 1994 ) .\nallotei [ ornithoptera priamus / victoriae ] : originally described and subsequently often listed as a separate species ( e . g . , munroe 1961 ) , it is now recognized as an interspecific hybrid between o . priamus and o . victoriae ( collins & morris 1985 : 82 , haugum & low 1978 . 1985 , otani & kimura 1998 : 99 , parsons 1999 : 225 ) .\nanaxilaus [ protographium ] : the species was formerly known under the name of arcesilaus lucas which , however , is invalid as a junior primary homonym ( see below ) .\nangolanus [ graphium ( arisbe ) ] : in former times the species was known under the name of pylades fabricius , which is invalid as a junior primary homonym ( see below ) .\nannae [ pachliopta phlegon ] : previously in use as the species name ( e . g . , d ' abrera 1982 ) , but invalid as a junior primary homonym ; strandi bryk , 1930 has been proposed as an available replacement name ( see below ) .\nantiphus [ pachliopta ] : until recently regarded as conspecific with p . aristolochiae ( e . g . , fujioka et al . 1997 , tsukada & nishiyama 1982 ) , but now recognized as a separate species by page & treadaway ( 1995 ) .\napollinaris [ archon ] : for a long time treated as a subspecies of a . apollinus ( e . g . , ackery 1975 , bryk 1934 , d ' abrera 1990 , igarashi 1979 , collins & morris 1985 , hancock 1983 ) , but now generally accepted as a distinct species based on the sympatric occurence with a . apollinus in part of its range ( carbonell 1991 , de freina 1985 , hesselbarth et al . 1995 ) .\narcas [ parides eurimedes ] : the species has long been known under this name which , however , is invalid as a junior primary homonym ; eurimedes stoll is available as a subjective replacement name ( tyler et al . 1994 ) .\narcesilaus [ protographium anaxilaus ] : previously the species has been known under this name ( e . g . , d ' abrera 1981 , d ' almeida 1966 , munroe 1961 ) which , however , is invalid as a junior primary homonym ( hancock 1983 ) .\narchesilaus [ protesilaus protesilaus ] : listed as a separate species by d ' almeida ( 1966 : 249 ) , but now generally regarded as conspecific with p . protesilaus ( e . g . , brown 1991 , hancock 1983 : 20 , munroe 1961 , tyler et al . 1994 : 30 ) .\narchidamas [ battus polydamas ] : previously mostly treated as a separate species ( e . g . , collins & morris 1985 : 70 , d ' almeida 1966 , hancock 1983 : 47 , m\u00f6hn 1999 , racheli & pariset 1992 ) , but recently regarded as conspecific with b . polydamas by lamas ( pers . com . ) , and tyler et al . ( 1994 : 28 ) ; the oldest available name for this taxon is probably papilio psittacus molina , 1782 ( see below ) , which hitherto has been interpreted as representing a species of castniidae ( racheli & pariset , 1992 : 53 ) .\naristeus [ papilio ( pterourus ) menatius ] : previously in use as the species name ( e . g . , bryk 1930 , d ' abrera 1981 ) but invalid as a junior primary homonym ( hancock 1983 : 32 ) ."]}
{"id": 2490, "summary": [{"text": "carvalho 's surinam toad ( pipa carvalhoi ) is a species of frog in the pipidae family endemic to brazil .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests , dry savanna , moist savanna , subtropical or tropical dry shrubland , subtropical or tropical moist shrubland , freshwater marshes , ponds , and aquaculture ponds .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "carvalho ' s surinam toad", "paragraphs": ["the carvalho ' s surinam toad ( pipa carvalhoi ) is a species of frog in the pipidae family . it is endemic to brazil . more\nthe carvalho ' s surinam toad is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\ncarvalho ' s surinam toad elsewhere on the web * wikipedia * urltoken edit and show details add or delete facts , download data in json or rdf formats , and explore topic metadata . more\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\n< p > this section provides information about the protein and gene name ( s ) and synonym ( s ) and about the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / names _ and _ taxonomy _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\n< p > this section provides information on the quaternary structure of a protein and on interaction ( s ) with other proteins or protein complexes . < p > < a href = ' / help / interaction _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on sequence similarities with other proteins and the domain ( s ) present in a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / family _ and _ domains _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this indicates the type of evidence that supports the existence of the protein . note that the \u2018protein existence\u2019 evidence does not give information on the accuracy or correctness of the sequence ( s ) displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ existence ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides information on the name ( s ) of the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / organism - name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides one or more accession number ( s ) . these are stable identifiers and should be used to cite uniprotkb entries . upon integration into uniprotkb , each entry is assigned a unique accession number , which is called \u2018primary ( citable ) accession number\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / accession _ numbers ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section displays by default the canonical protein sequence and upon request all isoforms described in the entry . it also includes information pertinent to the sequence ( s ) , including < a href =\nurltoken\n> length < / a > and < a href =\nurltoken\n> molecular weight < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequences _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the checksum is a form of redundancy check that is calculated from the sequence . it is useful for tracking sequence updates . < / p > < p > it should be noted that while , in theory , two different sequences could have the same checksum value , the likelihood that this would happen is extremely low . < / p > < p > however uniprotkb may contain entries with identical sequences in case of multiple genes ( paralogs ) . < / p > < p > the checksum is computed as the sequence 64 - bit cyclic redundancy check value ( crc64 ) using the generator polynomial : x < sup > 64 < / sup > + x < sup > 4 < / sup > + x < sup > 3 < / sup > + x + 1 . the algorithm is described in the iso 3309 standard . < / p > < p class =\npublication\n> press w . h . , flannery b . p . , teukolsky s . a . and vetterling w . t . < br / > < strong > cyclic redundancy and other checksums < / strong > < br / > < a href =\nurltoken\n> numerical recipes in c 2nd ed . , pp896 - 902 , cambridge university press ( 1993 ) < / a > ) < / p >\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis species occurs widely in eastern and northeastern brazil in the following states : cear\u00e1 , para\u00edba , pernambuco , alagoas , bahia , esp\u00edrito santo , and minas gerais , and presumably also rio grande do norte and sergipe .\nit is common in suitable habitat , but such habitats are scarce through much of its range .\nit is an aquatic species that occurs in permanent waterbodies in dry\ncaatinga\nsavannah and\nagreste\ntransition vegetation between\ncaatinga\nand atlantic forest . it breeds in water , the eggs being carried on the back of the female , with the larvae developing in the water . it can be found in fish farms , where it can be a pest .\nthe major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to livestock grazing and agriculture , in particular contamination of breeding ponds as a result of their being used by livestock . pollution of waterbodies by pesticides might also be a problem .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the annotation score provides a heuristic measure of the annotation content of a uniprotkb entry or proteome . this score < strong > cannot < / strong > be used as a measure of the accuracy of the annotation as we cannot define the \u2018correct annotation\u2019 for any given protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / annotation _ score ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides any useful information about the protein , mostly biological knowledge . < p > < a href = ' / help / function _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the < a href =\nurltoken\n> gene ontology ( go ) < / a > project provides a set of hierarchical controlled vocabulary split into 3 categories : < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ ontology ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides an exhaustive list of all names of the protein , from commonly used to obsolete , to allow unambiguous identification of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ names ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been imported from another database using automatic procedures . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000313\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section shows the unique identifier assigned by the ncbi to the source organism of the protein . this is known as the \u2018taxonomic identifier\u2019 or \u2018taxid\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ identifier ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section contains the taxonomic hierarchical classification lineage of the source organism . it lists the nodes as they appear top - down in the taxonomic tree , with the more general grouping listed first . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ lineage ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018family and domains\u2019 section denotes the positions of regions of coiled coil within the protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / coiled ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000256\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > uniprotkb keywords constitute a < a href =\nurltoken\n> controlled vocabulary < / a > with a hierarchical structure . keywords summarise the content of a uniprotkb entry and facilitate the search for proteins of interest . < p > < a href = ' / help / keywords ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is complete or not . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018sequence\u2019 section is used for sequence fragments to indicate that the residue at the extremity of the sequence is not the actual terminal residue in the complete protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / non _ ter ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section is used to point to information related to entries and found in data collections other than uniprotkb . < p > < a href = ' / help / cross _ references _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides general information on the entry . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ information _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides a mnemonic identifier for a uniprotkb entry , but it is not a stable identifier . each reviewed entry is assigned a unique entry name upon integration into uniprotkb / swiss - prot . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section shows the date of integration of the entry into uniprotkb , the date of the last sequence update and the date of the last annotation modification ( \u2018last modified\u2019 ) . the version number for both the entry and the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > are also displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ history ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section indicates whether the entry has been manually annotated and reviewed by uniprotkb curators or not , in other words , if the entry belongs to the swiss - prot section of uniprotkb ( < strong > reviewed < / strong > ) or to the computer - annotated trembl section ( < strong > unreviewed < / strong > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na variety of organizations and individuals have contributed photographs to calphotos . please follow the usage guidelines provided with each image . use and copyright information , as well as other details about the photo such as the date and the location , are available by clicking on the\ndouble - check spelling , grammar , punctuation . translators work best when there are no errors or typos .\nif words are different , search our dictionary to understand why and pick the right word .\nif phrases are different , try searching our examples to help pick the right phrase .\nwe ' ve combined the most accurate english to spanish translations , dictionary , verb conjugations , and spanish to english translators into one very powerful search box .\nspanishdict is devoted to improving our site based on user feedback and introducing new and innovative features that will continue to help people learn and love the spanish language . have a suggestion , idea , or comment ? send us your feedback .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsorry , the species or group that you asked for is not on the onezoom tree .\nthe open tree contains additional species not on the onezoom tree ( particularly subspecies and fossils ) . to check if this is why we cannot find your species or group , you can\n, then chances are you have entered a wrong number or a misspelt name ."]}
{"id": 2491, "summary": [{"text": "appias sabina , the sabine albatross or albatross white , is a butterfly of the pieridae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in africa .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is 44 \u2013 55 millimetres ( 1.7 \u2013 2.2 in ) for males and 44 \u2013 53 mm ( 1.7 \u2013 2.1 in ) for females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing year-round .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on drypetes gerrardi , drypetes ugandensis , ritchiea fragrans , phyllanthus , and boscia species", "topic": 29}], "title": "appias sabina", "paragraphs": ["appias ( glutophrissa ) bicolor appias ( glutophrissa ) defecta appias ( glutophrissa ) divisapex appias ( glutophrissa ) latimarginata appias ( glutophrissa ) reversa appias haendeli appias isokani var . dubia appias sabina f . absyrtus appias sabina f . divisapex appias sabina f . epaphioides appias sabina f . euphrosyne appias sabina f . reversa appias sabina f . semiepaphia appias sabina f . thalia appias sabina sabina f . bicolor appias sabina var . defecta appias sabina var . latimarginata appias udei appias weberi belenois confusa belenois coniata mylothris majungana papilio hecyra phrissura phoebe pieris ( phrissura ) coniata f . hemichlora pieris sabina\nappias ( glutophrissa ) bicolor ( talbot , 1943 ) appias ( glutophrissa ) defecta ( gaede , 1916 ) appias ( glutophrissa ) divisapex ( hulstaert , 1924 ) appias ( glutophrissa ) latimarginata ( gaede , 1916 ) appias ( glutophrissa ) reversa ( stoneham , 1957 ) appias haendeli ( suffert , 1904 ) appias isokani var . dubia ( aurivillius , 1899 ) appias sabina f . absyrtus ( stoneham , 1957 ) appias sabina f . divisapex ( hulstaert , 1924 ) appias sabina f . epaphioides ( stoneham , 1957 ) appias sabina f . euphrosyne ( stoneham , 1957 ) appias sabina f . reversa ( stoneham , 1957 ) appias sabina f . semiepaphia ( strand , 1911 ) appias sabina f . thalia ( stoneham , 1957 ) appias sabina sabina f . bicolor ( talbot , 1943 ) appias sabina var . defecta ( gaede , 1916 ) appias sabina var . latimarginata ( gaede , 1916 ) appias udei ( suffert , 1904 ) appias weberi ( suffert , 1904 ) belenois confusa ( butler , 1872 ) belenois coniata ( butler , 1879 ) mylothris majungana ( grose - smith , 1891 ) papilio hecyra ( mabille , 1880 ) phrissura phoebe ( butler , 1901 ) pieris ( phrissura ) coniata f . hemichlora ( mabille , 1898 ) pieris sabina ( c . & r . felder , 1865 )\nappias sabina ( albatross white ) male , ngoye . [ photo steve woodhall \u00a9 ]\nappias sabina ( albatross white ) female , ngoye . [ photo steve woodhall \u00a9 ]\nappias sabina ( albatross white ) male , ngoye . [ photos steve woodhall \u00a9 ]\nat first glance appias sabina can be mistaken for certain mylothris species , but in appias the apex on the forewing is more acute . in sabina the black spots are small and do not extend onto the costa of the forewing . in similar mylothris species , e . g . poppea and rhodope , there is a flush of bright yellow at the base of the underside forewings , but in appias sabina the yellow is restricted to the costa of the hindwing .\nappias sabina , the sabine albatross or albatross white , is a butterfly of the pieridae family . it is found in africa . the habitat consists of forests .\nappias sabina is a common and widely distributed species found across most of sub - saharan africa from sierra leone to western kenya , and south to the northern parts of south africa . it also occurs on madagascar and the comoro islands .\nthere are about 23 - 28 species that are currently accepted as members of appias , comprising 7 - 8 species from the australian region , 16 - 20 from the oriental region , and 6 in africa . it is difficult to be precise about numbers as there is uncertainty regarding the taxonomic status of some species .\n\u00a9 2016 , butterfly conservation society , ghana - african butterfly research institute - icom ltd .\nthis is a forest species , often seen along logging roads , but is migratory in behaviour so can turn up in savannah / woodland habitats , botanical gardens and city parks .\nmales are usually seen singly or in two ' s and three ' s amidst aggregations of belenois , eurema and mylothris , imbibing mineralised moisture around the edges of puddles on forest tracks .\nall photographs , artwork , text & website design are the property of adrian hoskins ( unless otherwise stated ) and are protected by copyright . photographs or text on this website must not be reproduced in part or in whole or published elsewhere without prior written consent of adrian hoskins / urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe website uses cookies to allow us to better understand how the site is used . by continuing to use this site , you consent to this policy . click to learn more .\nnotification will be sent to your e - mail address every time the item price is decreased .\ncopyright \u00a9 2012 insect designs . all rights reserved . abn : 75141197423 | ecommerce website by online visions\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is turned off in your web browser . please turn it on to take full advantage of arctos , or try our html specimensearch option .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nright now the scientific names on some species do not show on the site - we are working to fix this problem which should be solved after the back - up this morning .\nupload tip : if your photo does not get uploaded properly , try to resize it to less than 3 mb .\nwould you like to see your friends photos in the igoterra gallery ? invite them and get 2 months free subcription extension for every new friend who joins . click here to get to the invitation page\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nthe wingspan is 44\u201355 millimetres ( 1 . 7\u20132 . 2 in ) for males and 44\u201353 mm ( 1 . 7\u20132 . 1 in ) for females . adults are on wing year - round ."]}
{"id": 2497, "summary": [{"text": "mantella baroni ( common names baron 's mantella , variegated golden frog or madagascar poison frog ) is a species of frog in the mantellidae family .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "the species was described by george albert boulenger in 1888 , who named it after its collector , richard baron .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it is endemic to madagascar .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , rivers , and degraded former forest .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "although it has been classified as least concern species by the iucn due to its relatively wide distribution , it is threatened by habitat loss .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is listed on cites appendix ii . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "mantella baroni", "paragraphs": ["mantella baroni grows to between 0 . 9 and 1 . 2 inches in length .\nmantella bernhardi is the smallest mantella , ranging between three - fourths and 1 inch in length .\nthe \u201cblushing mantella\u201d is sold as a color variety of mantella expectata , but its status still remains unclear .\nthis beautiful pattern is present on both species though they are not closely related . to tell the two apart , examine their throats . mantella madagascariensis has a sky - blue , horseshoe - shaped marking . mantella baroni has a single dot or solid - black throat . additionally , the red on the limbs of m . madagascariensis extends fully through its thighs , but the color stops at the joint on m . baroni .\nmantella laevigata is the only nonterrestrial mantella . its enlarged toe pads enable it to climb into small tree holes and bamboo wells , where they breed .\nthe island of madagascar is home to more than 220 species of frogs found nowhere else in the world , including the 16 described mantella species . mantella aurantiaca .\nmantella ' milotympanum ' is very different in both appearance and behaviour from m . aurantiaca\nmantella baroni grows to between 0 . 9 and 1 . 2 inches in length , and a mature m . madagascariensis is between 0 . 8 and 1 . 1 inches . although m . baroni has a large distribution throughout the remaining forests in eastern madagascar , m . madagascariensis has a smaller range and is confined to primary rain forest . both species are often found near streams and exist sympatrically in at least one location . both are rarely bred in captivity , and imports are frequently mixed up together under the all - inclusive common name \u201cpainted mantella . \u201d\nmantella baroni was first described by boulenger ( 1888 ) . it is a member of the m . cowani species group ( goodman and benstead 2003 ) . there is a report of hybridization with m . cowani in the wild , at a locality near antoetra ( andreone et al . 2005 ) .\nwith a range in northern madagascar , mantella nigricans can be found streamside at the forest\u2019s edge .\nthe largest of the mantellas , mantella viridis can reach up to 1 . 2 inches in length .\none mantella species , m . laevigata , also shares the trait of providing parental care in common with dendrobatids . mantella laevigata females feed infertile eggs to their tadpoles to ensure they get the food they need .\nmantella baroni is listed as a species of \u201cleast concern\u201d because it occupies a sizeable range , is tolerant to habitat change , and is thought to be present in high population densities . it occurs in several protected areas , including three national parks ( ranomafana , mantadia and andringitra , and the pic ivohibe special reserve ( iucn 2008 ) .\nmantella baroni boulenger , 1888 , ann . mag . nat . hist . , ser . 6 , 1 : 106 . holotype : bmnh 1947 . 2 . 7 . 19 ( formerly 84 . 12 . 22 . 50 ) according to vences , glaw , and b\u00f6hme , 1999 , alytes , 17 : 23 . type locality :\nmadagascar\n.\nmantella pulchra is a shy , seldom kept species . it also appears to be tolerant of a wide range of temperatures\nmantella baroni is an active diurnal forager ( clark et al . 2005 ) . it consumes a greater number of prey , as well as larger prey , than do other species of mantella ( clark et al . 2006 ) . adult m . baroni consume various arthropods , with ants contributing the largest percentage of the diet ( odierna et al . 2001 ) . ingestion of ants , beetles , and mites creates high alkaloid concentrations in the frog\u2019s skin , making it toxic to predators ( odierna et al . 2001 ) . although ants are the primary prey , the majority of toxins come from mites ( daly et al . 2007 ) . the bright colors of m . baroni are thus aposematic and serve as a warning sign of their toxicity ( clark et al . 2005 ) . the mechanism that the frog uses to sequester these alkaloids is unknown ( clark et al . 2005 ) . alkaloid composition can vary both temporally and geographically in this species ( daly et al . 2007 ; clark et al . 2006 ) .\nalso confusingly similar in appearance are the two painted mantellas : m . baroni and m . madagascariensis . dorsally , both have elegant lime - green blotches where their limbs attach to their bodies , and these blotches contrast with their black dorsum and striking orange and black legs .\nphrynomantis maculatus thominot , 1889 , bull . soc . philomath . , paris , ser . 8 , 1 : 27 . syntypes : mnhnp ( 4 specimens ) according to the original publication ; mnhnp 6807a - d ( 4 specimens ) according to guib\u00e9 , 1950\n1948\n, cat . types amph . mus . natl . hist . nat . : 33 . mnhnp 1991 . 2854 ( formerly 6807a ) designated lectotype by glaw and vences , 1994 , fieldguide amph . rept . madagascar , ed . 2 : 403 . type locality :\nl ' ile de la r\u00e9union\n; rendered as\nnosy komba ( dubious )\nby glaw and vences , 1992 , fieldguide amph . rept . madagascar : 279 . synonymy ( with mantella cowanii ) by guib\u00e9 , 1964 , senckenb . biol . , 45 : 259 - 264 ; guib\u00e9 , 1978 , bonn . zool . monogr . , 11 : 83 . synonymy with mantella baroni as by boulenger , 1890 , zool . rec . , 26 : 21 ; ( with mantella baroni as mantella madagascariensis ) glaw and vences , 1994 , fieldguide amph . rept . madagascar , ed . 2 : 403 .\nhighly desirable for its bright - blue legs and lemon - colored dorsum , mantella expectata has colors that can fade during a simulated rainy season .\nsee vences , glaw , and b\u00f6hme , 1999 , alytes , 17 : 3 - 72 , for discussion of confusion surrounding type allocation and nomenclature . removed from the synonymy of mantella cowanii by glaw and vences , 1994 , fieldguide amph . rept . madagascar , ed . 2 : 403 ( as mantella madagascariensis , a nomen dubium ) where it had been placed by methuen and hewitt , 1913 , ann . transvaal mus . , 4 : 57 . in the mantella cowani group according to vences , glaw , and b\u00f6hme , 1999 , alytes , 17 : 3 - 72 , and glaw and vences , 2006 , organisms divers . evol . , electron . suppl . , 11 ( 1 ) : 2 . staniszewski , 2001 , mantellas : 154 - 158 , provided an account . rabemananjara , chiari , ramilijaona , and vences , 2007 , frontiers zool . , 4 : 1 - 10 , suggested on the basis of molecular evidence that mantella baroni is just a northern color morph of mantella cowanii , but hesitated to formalize the taxonomic change . glaw and vences , 2007 , field guide amph . rept . madagascar , ed . 3 : 194 - 195 , provided an account .\nlastly , there\u2019s mantella haraldmeieri . found in the far southeast of madagascar , they live in humid rain forests often along streams . copper - colored hind limbs contrast with the mint - green of their upper forearms and brown body . mantella haraldmeieri measures between 0 . 8 and 1 . 1 inches in length . they are not often seen in captivity .\nsadly , 10 of the 16 mantella species are considered threatened with extinction by the world conservation union because of their small distribution and declining populations . habitat destruction is the largest problem facing the genus as agriculture , logging , charcoal production and livestock grazing eat away at the last mantella habitats . collection of frogs for the pet trade has also notably affected these frogs .\n22 - 30mm . patterned largely in black with orange or red bands around the limbs . this species is much shyer athan the closely related m . baroni and rarely ventures from the preferred humid , leafy base of the vivarium apart from the odd bold male specimen in search of a female . males are quite vocal , the call being reminiscent of a slower crickets chirrup . breeding is quite a frequent occurrence in captivity with 40 or so eggs being nestled in damp leaves or moss . temperature - wise it prefers slightly higher than that described for the golden mantella although it is quite tolerant of low temperatures as long as there is sufficient cover .\nmantella manery differs by having a white frenal stripe and dark - brown body . described in 1999 , only a couple of the frogs have been recorded where they were found in primary forest near a stream .\n20 - 25mm . confusion reigns with this species as most were imported as mantella cowanii before 1994 . it is easy to distinguish because its dorsum ( particularly is head ) possesses a silvery brown sheen . the flanks nearly always have lime green or blue patches . it is a plump but extremely agile species and is certainly the most nervy mantella although it often searches for food in open daylight and males are quite bold when excited . i have found that it thrives in conditions similar to the golden mantella although it is more tolerant of warm temperatures . breeding is rather infrequent mainly because females are not easily coaxed into producing eggs .\ntwo other mantella frogs largely brown in color are m . betsileo and m . ebenaui . the two appear nearly identical with russet to copper - colored backs , black flanks and grayish limbs . both grow to about 0 . 8 inches long . it\u2019s not possible to tell them apart based on appearance alone . mantella ebenaui lives in lowland rain forests , tree plantations and human - altered forests in the north of the island . mantella betsileo occurs farther south with few known populations . at this time , all brown mantellas found for sale are normally sold as m . betsileo , but i speculate that many are in fact m . ebenaui .\nthat was 1996 . it was my introduction to the genus mantella , a fascinating group of frogs endemic to the island of madagascar . with their bright aposematic coloration and diurnal behavior , mantellas have become popular vivarium subjects .\nmantellas such as this mantella pulchra , have a tremendous appetite . feed them small crickets , flightless fruit flies , termites , roach nymphs , small spiders , rice - flower beetle larvae , small waxworms and other available invertebrates .\nmarojezy mantella ( mantella sp . ) to 30mm . from the marojezy mountains in extreme north - east madagascar . discovered in 1993 . it differs mainly in having a white line around the lip , a horseshoe - shaped marking on the throat ( absent in mantella laevigata ) and specialized digits are absent . this species is not known to actively climb ( it is placed here because of its syntopic relationship with the former species and eggs are always deposited on the ground . it particularly inhabits the cool , stony mountain brooks where it is known to feed on small crustaceans that crawl out onto the rocks . i know of someone who feeds this species water shrimp ( asellus ) native to the beds of our own uk brooks . overall it is a slimmer species than the climbing mantella and can attain 32mm . requires a temperature no greater than 74\u00b0f . ( preferably cooler ) in captivity due to its high altitude distribution .\none mantella appearing in the pet trade in the recent past is often sold as a color variety of m . expectata or under the common name \u201cblushing mantella . \u201d these frogs have markings similar to m . expectata , but the yellow of the dorsum is replaced by an orange that fades to deep crimson posteriorly . the legs are also different , not blue but gray and sometimes splashed with the same crimson found on the dorsum . the status of this frog\u2019s species remains unclear .\nmantella nigricans has a large range in northern madagascar , but it has only been exported in small numbers and is uncommon in captivity . this frog is a streamside species , living at the forest edge often near water . colored walnut - brown and lime - green , these frogs appear at first glance like an unusually green m . pulchra . mantella nigricans grows to 1 . 1 inches . particularly bold in captivity , males call relentlessly after feeding or misting with a metallic - sounding chirp .\nreferences rabemananjara , f . c . e . , y . chiari , o . ravoahangimalala ramilijaona & m . vences . 2007 . evidence for recent gene flow between north - eastern and south - eastern madagascar from a phylogeography of the mantella cowani group . \u2013 frontiers in zoology 4 : article 1 . vences , m . , f . glaw & w . b\u00f6hme . 1999 . a review of the genus mantella ( anura , ranidae , mantellinae ) : taxonomy , distribution and conservation of malagasy poison frogs . \u2013 alytes 17 ( 1 - 2 ) : 3 - 72 .\nmale m . baroni emit an intense sequence of short , single - click notes , calling during the day from refuges under grass , bushes , and rocks ( glaw and vences 2007 ) . mantelline frogs lack amplexus ( glaw and vences 2007 ) . females lay eggs on land ( clark et al . 2005 ) . the eggs are unpigmented and always found close to water ( clark et al . 2005 ) . females can lay up to 130 eggs in one clutch ( clark et al . 2005 ) . when the eggs develop into tadpoles , the tadpoles are washed away by rain into a nearby body of water ( goodman and benstead 2003 ) .\nthe only nonterrestrial member of the genus is m . laevigata . with their enlarged toe pads , they can climb to the small tree holes and bamboo wells in which they breed . mantella laevigata can grow to 1 . 1 inches in length . two - tone in pear - green and black , they resemble the closely related m . manery .\n15 - 18mm so different in appearance and behaviour to m . aurantiaca that it must merit being raised to specific status . occurring in the fiherenana valley in central east madagascar it requires slightly higher temperatures ( 70\u00b0f . minimum ) than the golden mantella . its size makes it the smallest subspecies / species of the mantellas . the dorsum is a slightly drab orange ( males brighter than females ) while the venter is a greenish yellow ( orange yellow in m . aurantiaca ) . this species is overall much slimmer than the golden mantella , the eyes are oblong rather than round and the skin is much more granular . raised veins are apparent on the hind limbs , as its name suggests the eardrum ( tympanum ) is black as is the nostril region and there is a black line apparent from the eye to the nostril . perhaps most significantly is its very nervous disposition and semi - nocturnal behaviour . in addition males are amongst the most vociferous of the mantellas and will call for many hours . i have just had a spawning from the species and the eggs are quite different from the golden mantella possessing a yellowish - brown nucleus and measuring only 1mm in diameter .\nthe island of madagascar is home to more than 220 species of frogs found nowhere else in the world , including the 16 described mantella species . most live in the eastern tropical forests , but species also inhabit drier regions in the western half of the island . some , such as m . ebenaui , are adaptable and reside in dry woods , rain forests and degraded habitat within their range , but most mantellas are specific to where they live and have small restricted distributions .\nthe big daddy of mantella frogs is m . viridis . the species can reach 1 . 2 inches and has a stocky , robust body structure . similar to that of m . crocea , its pattern is a solid - green body interrupted by a black face mask . these frogs are restricted to extreme northern madagascar , where they live near seasonal streams in dry forests . in captivity they can take relatively large food items and greedily devour half - inch - long crickets .\none highly prized species is m . expectata . it displays remarkable sky - blue legs and a contrasting lemon - yellow dorsum . these frogs measure between 0 . 8 and 1 inch in length . in captivity , my group displays these attractive colors when kept in drier conditions . when exposed to a simulated rainy season , they fade to a less attractive steel - blue and mustard - yellow . mantella expectata is limited to the dry southwest of madagascar mostly near seasonal streams and rocky canyons .\nopposite the striking appearance of m . cowani is the mildly patterned m . bernhardi . mainly black with hints of gray on the head , this is the smallest mantella species . it often only grows to 0 . 7 of an inch in length . it has a unique trill - like call , consisting of several clicks strung together . all other male mantellas produce one or two notes . only a handful of m . bernhardi populations are known to occur in lowland rain forests of southeast madagascar .\nof all madagascar\u2019s frogs , mantella aurantiaca is the most recognized . varying in shades of orange and red , they are hardy in captivity when provided with cool conditions , meaning the temperature in their enclosure rarely rises above 75 degrees fahrenheit . they live in several swamp forests in east - central madagascar , and adults measure between 0 . 8 and 1 . 2 inches . at this time they are not exported for the pet trade , but captive - bred frogs are periodically available from breeders and dealers .\na third frog sometimes confused with the two painted mantellas is m . pulchra . although somewhat variable in the wild , most imported frogs of this species look like a messy , faded version of m . madagascariensis with the contrasting orange and black legs replaced by a pattern of browns . brown is also present on the dorsum and usually fades to light tan at the very tip of the head . mantella pulchra measures between 0 . 8 and 1 inch , and it lives in moist forests in northeastern madagascar often near streams or swamps . they have a reputation for being rather shy in captivity , but they gladly come out in the open when offered food .\nthe most remarkably patterned mantella is m . cowani , which is dressed in black and contrasting neon red , orange or yellow . these frogs reach between 0 . 9 and 1 . 1 inches in length . their eye - catching patterns fueled a demand for the species far greater than its dwindling wild populations could support , and in 2003 all exports were fortunately stopped . habitat destruction also has taken a large toll on m . cowani , and it is now confined to small strips of forest along streams in the central highlands . in captivity , the frog is sensitive to even moderately warm temperatures . some people report frequent exposure to temperatures above 70 degrees can cause heat stress and death . for this reason , m . cowani must be kept in a cool basement or air - conditioned room .\nthere are no reviews yet . be the first one to write a review .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfrost , d . r . 2015 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 . new york , usa . available at : urltoken .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its relatively wide distribution , tolerance of a degree of habitat modification and presumed large population .\nthis species is broadly distributed in east - central madagascar from fierenana south to andringitra , at 600 - 1 , 400 m asl ( andreone et al . 2007 ) .\nit is a terrestrial rainforest species . it has also been found outside forest in slash - and - burn areas , even at considerable distance from forest . it probably cannot tolerate the complete opening up of the habitat . the eggs are laid on land , and the larvae are washed by rain into streams , where they develop .\nthis species is found in the international pet trade but not at levels that constitute a serious threat .\nalthough somewhat adaptable , deforestation caused by urbanization , agriculture ( including slash and burn agricultural practices ) and logging does affect it adversely . it is in the international pet trade , but this is unlikely to be a serious threat .\nspecies in this genus have tested positive for batrachochytrium dendrobatidis ( bd ) , however currently there have been no negative effects observed within amphibian populations in madagascar suggesting the bd strain has a low virulence level ( bletz et al . 2015 ) .\nconservation actions this species occurs in the ranomafana , mantadia and andringitra national parks , and in the pic ivohibe special reserve . it is listed on cites appendix ii . conservation needed a carefully regulated trade is the best management option for this species . research needed further research is essential to fully understand the distribution , origin , type and virulence of bd lineages found in madagascar ( bletz et al . 2015 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nis a small frog , with adults measuring 22 - 30 mm in snout - vent length . the head , dorsum , and flanks are solid black . a yellowish rostral stripe is apparent , generally ending past the eye . the front limb and femur are yellow to greenish in appearance , with this coloration continuing up the flanks into a large , rounded flank blotch . these flank blotches will sometimes expand dorsally across the back and connect to the opposite side blotch , resulting in a more yellow dorsum ( this is most often seen in\nfrom the andringitra region ) . hindlimbs ( tibia , tarsus , and foot ) are orange with irregular black stripes . there are no flashmarks on the lower hindlimbs , in contrast to those of\n. the venter , throat , and limbs are black and marked with a few yellow to greenish , rarely blue blotches . the throat has one circular marking , but may be all black . the iris is black ( glaw and vences 2007 ) .\nthis species is found only in east - central madagascar , from fierenana south to andringitra , at an elevation of 600 - 1 , 200m ( iucn 2008 ) .\noccupies a number of habitats including swamp forests , semi - arid streambeds , bamboo groves , and streamside forests ( andriantsiferana et al . 2006 ) in the rainforest it is often found close to rivers and streams ( goodman and benstead 2003 ; glaw and vences 2007 ) , but it has also been found in slash - and - burn areas away from rainforest ( iucn 2008 ) .\nandriantsiferana , m . , andriamaharavo , n . r . , razafindrabe , c . r . , harisoa , c . , rasendra , p . , garraffo , m . , spande , t . , and daly , j . ( 2006 ) .\nboulenger , g . a . ( 1888 ) . ' ' descriptions of new reptiles and batrachians from madagascar . ' '\nclark , v . c . , rakotomalala , v . , ramilijaona , o . , abrell , l . , and fisher , b . l . ( 2006 ) . ' ' individual variation in alkaloid content of poison frogs of madagascar (\nclark , v . c . , raxworthy , c . j . , rakotomalala , v . , sierwald , p . , and fisher , b . l . ( 2005 ) . ' ' convergent evolution of chemical defense in poison frogs and arthropod prey between madagascar and the neotropics . ' '\ndaly , j . w . , garraffo , m . , spande , t . f . , giddings , l . , saporito , r . a . , vieites , d . r . , and vences , m . ( 2008 ) . ' ' individual and geographic variation of skin alkaloids in three species of madagascan poison frogs (\ngoodman , s . m . , and benstead , j . p . ( 2003 ) .\niucn ( 2008 ) . 2008 iucn red list of threatened species . www . iucnredlist . org . downloaded on 11 december 2008 .\nodierna , g . , vences , m . , aprea , g . , l\u00f6tters , s . , and andreone , f . ( 2001 ) . ' ' chromosome data for malagasy poison frogs ( amphibia : ranidae :\nnathan van patten ( nathanielmvanpatten at st . bhsu . edu ) , black hills state university\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\npeering through a small aquarium\u2019s water - stained glass , i spotted what i had saved my allowance for weeks to buy . a tiny frog poked its head out from a pile of moss in the corner and hopped toward the front of the tank chasing an unsuspecting cricket . this beauty was the lone orange frog of several assorted mantellas this local pet store had left . i brought it home and placed it into a heavily planted terrarium . then i sat down in front of the enclosure and eagerly watched as the frog explored its new surroundings .\nit\u2019s a thrill to watch a group of them interact . males wrestle each other over territory or call from atop leaf litter in the cage . not only is their captive behavior interesting but also their natural history . get to know these unique amphibians and you , too , will likely become passionate about the poison frogs of madagascar .\nmantellas are most active during the wettest time of year : december to february . during this time males call loudly to defend territory , and females feed on ants , mites and other small invertebrates in preparation for breeding .\nmost species breed near streams . eggs are laid nearby on land , usually in moist depressions . the water from heavy rain then flushes the developing tadpoles into nearby pools of water .\nwhen the rain stops and the cooler dry months follow , mantellas become less active . the severity of this dry season varies in different parts of madagascar . some mantellas , such as m . milotympanum , aestivate in extreme conditions until the weather improves ; others simply become less visible and live among leaf litter on the forest floor waiting for rain to return .\noften associated with the similarly small and colorful south american poison frogs of the dendrobatidae family , mantellas also possess poisonous alkaloids in their skin . however , mantellas seem to loose their toxicity in captivity over time . although not very dangerous to humans , contact with the frogs should be avoided .\nalthough they share many things in common with dendrobatids , mantellas are not closely related to them . they are placed within the anuran subfamily mantellinae . their taxonomy seems to constantly be under revision , and it has changed considerably during the past two decades . currently , there are 16 recognized species . many other mantellas appearing different from the described species exist , but work still needs to be done in order to determine their official status .\nonce thought to be a color variety of m . aurantiaca , m . milotympanum can be distinguished by its smaller size ( usually 0 . 7 to 0 . 9 inches ) , granular skin and black tympanums . the species is only known to occur in several pockets of gallery forest near swamps , and it\u2019s also critically endangered , yet it still sporadically appears in the pet trade . golden and lime - green frogs exist , which otherwise appear identical to m . milotympanum , but await further research .\nfemale m . crocea grow close to an inch in length , but males may mature at only 0 . 7 inches .\nclosely related to m . milotympanum is m . crocea . colored yellow , khaki - brown or bronze , the frog\u2019s monotone color is broken by a chocolate face mask , and often brown speckling on the dorsum and limbs . female m . crocea grow close to an inch in length , but males may mature at only 0 . 7 inches . these frogs have a tiny distribution , and inhabit forests similar to and near those of m . aurantiaca and m . milotympanum in east - central madagascar . in captivity , they are hardy as long as they are not exposed to temperatures above the mid to high 70s .\nonce thought to be a color variety of m . aurantiaca , m . milotympanum can be distinguished by its smaller size ( usually 0 . 7 to 0 . 9 inches ) , granular skin and black tympanums .\nwild mantellas are particularly sensitive when first acquired , and they usually arrive malnourished and with parasites . for this reason , quarantine newly imported frogs for several weeks or months in simple housing . monitor them carefully , and treat problems with the necessary medication as advised by a veterinarian . after this acclimation period they can be moved to more permanent setups .\nalthough the overwhelming majority of mantellas found for sale are wild - caught , breeding does occur in captivity . talk to people at a local herpetological society and search the internet to locate the captive - bred species you are looking for .\na standard 15 - gallon aquarium lined with an inch of wetted sphagnum moss , a few pieces of cork bark , artificial plants and a small , shallow water bowl are sufficient for a group of six frogs . moist paper towels can be used as an alternative to moss , but it must be changed frequently , sometimes daily , to ensure the frogs\u2019 health . sphagnum moss should be taken out and rinsed periodically , and replace it as needed .\nbecause of these frogs\u2019 territorial behavior , provide sufficient hide spots , so all frogs feel secure . artificial or live plants , pieces of cork bark , crumpled and moist paper towel , driftwood , or film canisters are all good options .\nalternatively , living terraria can be created to house mantellas . the bacteria and live plants in these systems help break down waste and minimize the amount of work needed to maintain them . it can be more difficult to monitor mantellas in these complex setups , but the aesthetics of a carefully designed terrarium outweigh this for some people .\na basic terrarium design consists of a drainage layer ( gravel , leca or a false - bottom of some sort ) , followed by nylon mesh . several inches of soil and leaf litter are placed atop the mesh . avoid potting soil because the added chemical fertilizers may irritate or harm mantellas . instead , opt for a pre - mixed soil blend from a pet store or terrarium supply company . tropical plants will grow well in this substrate , but remember to first rinse them thoroughly before placing them in the enclosure to remove pesticides . use driftwood or cork - bark tubes to create dramatic effects and provide the frogs with places to perch .\nif live plants are grown within the enclosure , make sure the lighting provided does not overheat the cage .\nwhether choosing a simple setup or living terrarium , a temperature range between 65 and 75 degrees works well . some species , such as m . aurantiaca , m . cowani and m . crocea , are particularly sensitive to warm temperatures , and they quickly decline in health when exposed to them . others , such as m . expectata and m . laevigata , prefer temperatures several degrees warmer than the aforementioned range . daytime highs can reach nearly 80 degrees .\nif live plants are grown within the enclosure , make sure the lighting provided does not overheat the cage . allow the humidity level to remain high most of the time , particularly when temperatures are on the warmer side . achieve this by using glass or plastic wrap to seal sections of a screen cover and misting the cage as needed . some species from drier regions of madagascar , such as m . expectata and m . viridis , may prefer less humid conditions than rain forest species , such as m . madagascariensis or m . nigricans .\nmantellas have a tremendous appetite . feed them small crickets , flightless fruit flies , termites , roach nymphs , small spiders , rice - flower beetle larvae , small waxworms and other available invertebrates .\nfeed the frogs twice a week or in small quantities daily , and offer anywhere from two to 10 food items per frog depending on the kind and size of the feeders , and the frequency with which you feed the frogs . use high - quality vitamin and mineral supplements so the frogs\u2019 nutritional requirements are met . alternately , use a calcium and multivitamin supplement lightly on food during most feedings .\nacclimated , healthy mantellas make wonderful captives . their fascinating behavior , and the bright contrasting colors and patterns of many species , make them an ideal candidate for the tropical terrarium . male frogs engage in charming territorial conflicts involving calling and sometimes even physical combat depending on the species . predominately diurnal , they spend much of the day hunting for food and patrolling their territory , and you can easily view this interesting behavior .\nthis page requires javascript . it seems that your browser does not have javascript enabled . please enable javascript and press the reload / refresh button on your browser .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\ncites is an international agreement between governments , aimed to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival .\n* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .\nwill find all uses of\nhyl . . .\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hylarana , hyla , hylidae , hylinae , hylaedactyla .\nwill find all uses of\n. . . hyla\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hyla , hylidae , plectrohyla , ptychadena hylaea , adenomera hylaedactyla\nwill find all records that contain stand - alone uses of hyla : e . g . , hyla , hyla arenicolor\ninterprets this as\nlithobates or pipiens\nso will find the union of all records that contain either\nlithobates\nor\npipiens\n: e . g . , lithobates omiltemanus , hylorana pipiens\ninterprets this as\nlithobates and pipiens\nso will return all records that have the character string\nlithobates pipiens\nanywhere within a record : e . g . , all members of the lithobates pipiens complex .\nplease note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .\nfor access to available specimen data for this species , from over 350 scientific collections , go to vertnet .\ncopyright \u00a9 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfrost , darrel r . 2004 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 3 . 0 ( 22 august , 2004 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa\namphibian species of the world : an online reference v5 . 3 , database ( version 5 . 3 )\nfrost , darrel r . 2009 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 3 ( 12 february , 2009 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\neggs are best left in situ until the well - formed tadpoles are ready to hatch out which is usually after the 2 - 6 day mark . mist them regularly to ensure they do not dry out . hatching is a critical time in the development . somehow the eggs need to be submersed in water so that tadpoles can wriggle free . however where eggs are situated in holes or crevice or they are adhered to the underside of rocks or bark they can be difficult to remove manually without crushing the tadpoles themselves . if this is the case either remove the entire log , rock etc . and submerse in water , or remove adult mantellas and begin to fill up the aquarium or glass tray .\nthis group consist of some of the most beautiful of the mantellas and also some of the most confusing in terms of taxonomy .\n21 - 29mm discovered in 1981 in the extreme south - east of the madagascar and is rarely imported into the hobby probably due to the lack of demand . distinguished from the very similar\nby the heart - shaped marking on the brownish dorsum . the front limbs also tend to be a whitish - green and the hind - limbs a dull orange . it produces relatively large clutches of 60 or more yellowish - white eggs .\nyou can e - mail me at : marcstan @ urltoken all rights reserved . all text and photo ' s - copyright \u00a91996 - 9 marc staniszewski most recent revision : 30 / 09 / 98 back to my personal file"]}
{"id": 2508, "summary": [{"text": "aboma etheostoma , the scaly boy , is a species of goby native to the pacific coast of central america from mexico to panama .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "this species is the only known member of its genus . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "aboma etheostoma", "paragraphs": ["what type of species is aboma etheostoma ? below , you will find the taxonomic groups the aboma etheostoma species belongs to .\nwhich photographers have photos of aboma etheostoma species ? below , you will find the list of underwater photographers and their photos of the marine species aboma etheostoma .\nhow to identify aboma etheostoma marine species ? below , you will find the list of main identification criteria and physical characteristics of marine species aboma etheostoma . for each identification criteria , the corresponding physical characteristics of marine species aboma etheostoma are marked in green .\nwhere is aboma etheostoma found in the world ? below , you will find the list and a world map of the geographic distribution where the marine species aboma etheostoma can be found .\n( of gobiosoma etheostoma ( jordan & starks , 1895 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is widespread in the eastern pacific . however , there is no population information , and more information is needed to determine the impact of extensive habitat loss from coastal development and aquaculture on this substrate - specific , shallow - water species . it is listed as data deficient .\nthis species is endemic to the eastern pacific , ranging from the eastern gulf of california to panama .\nthere is no population information available for this species . it is thought to be uncommon .\nthis demersal species inhabits shallow estuaries ( 0 - 8 m ) , and is restricted to substrate of a firm mixture of mud and sand . it feeds on mobile benthic worms and crustacea .\nthis species is threatened by loss of habitat due to shrimp farming , coastal aquaculture , and mangrove destruction from coastal development . as this species is restricted to near - shore shallow water habitat with specific substrate , more information is needed to determine the effect of widespread habitat loss and degradation on its population .\nthere are no known specific conservation measures for this species . this species ' distribution falls partially into a number of marine protected areas in the eastern pacific ( wdpa 2006 ) . additionally , populations are known to exist within ramsar sites in southeastern gulf of california .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 3 . 4 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 92840 )\ndistinguished by having the following characteristics : large eyes ; small mouth ; ctenoid scales on body ; 4 modified basicaudal scales on caudal peduncle ; vii spines in first dorsal fin , first 2 of which may be elongate in males ; mottled , light brown pigment on body ; maximally reaching 3 . 4 cm sl ( ref . 92840 ) .\ninhabits shallow intertidal areas with sandy / mud substrate ( ref . 92840 ) .\nr\u00fcber , l . , j . l . van tassell and r . zardoyal , 2003 . rapid speciation and ecological divergence in the american seven - spined gobies ( gobiidae , gobiosomatini ) inferred from a molecular phylogeny . evolution 57 ( 7 ) : 1584 - 1598 . ( ref . 51797 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00891 ( 0 . 00418 - 0 . 01902 ) , b = 3 . 07 ( 2 . 89 - 3 . 25 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 2 \u00b10 . 3 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\neschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of gobiosoma polyporosum dawson , 1969 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on image to enlarge .\nhead rounded , snout pointed ; mouth small ( ends under pupil ) , oblique ; eye large ( ~ snout length ) ; narrow between eyes ( < 1 / 2 eye diameter ) ; no barbels under chin or under front nostril ; males with large canines in outer row of teeth on side of lower jaw ; preopercle with 2 - 3 pores ; no teeth on side of roof of mouth ; dorsal fin vii spines ( large males - first spine long , ribbon - like , reaching to middle of soft dorsal ) , 11 - 12 ( usually 12 ) dorsal rays ; 10 - 12 ( usually 11 ) anal rays ; pectoral 16 - 19 rays , longer than pelvic ; pelvics fused in disc ; male papilla long & slender ; body scaled rearward of line under 2nd dorsal spine to upper pectoral base & from lower pectoral base to anus , 26 - 30 lateral rows of scales ; 4 large , very rough scales on base of tail fin .\n( preserved fish ) tan to grey brown , head with scattered black dots , 2 prominent spots behind eye , 2 oblique bars from eye to under rear end of lower jaw ; 4 - 5 rows of dark spots forming a dark lateral stripe along body ; belly pale ; tail with 5 - 6 dark chevrons ( lower 1 / 2 of those marks darker ) ; 1 / 2 inner half of pectoral with a dark chevron ( upper 1 / 2 darker ) ; anal dusky , darker at edge ; 1st dorsal with 2 rows of spots , top row forming a dark stripe between 4th to 7th spines second dorsal mottle ; pelvics dusky ; pectoral with yellow spot and , dark curved bar .\ncastri - aguirre , j . l . , espinoza - p\u00e9rez , h . and schmitter - soto , j . j . , 2002 . , lista sitem\u00e1tica , biogeogr\u00e1fica y ecol\u00f3gica de la ictiofauna estuarino lagunar y vicaria de m\u00e9xico . en : lozano - vilano , m . l . ( ed . ) . libro jubilar en honor al dr . salvador contreras balderas . , universidad autonoma de nuevo le\u00f3n : 117 - 142 .\ndawson , c . e . , 1969 . , a new seven - spined goby , gobiosoma ( austrogobius ) polyporosum , from the pacific coast of panam\u00e1 . , copeia , 1969 : 510 - 514 .\nfindley , l . t . , hendrickx , m . e . , brusca , r . c . , van der heiden , a . m . , hastings , p . a . , torre , j . , 2003 . , diversidad de la macrofauna marina del golfo de california , mexico . , cd - rom versi\u00f3n 1 . 0 . projecto de la macrofauna del golfo . derechos reservados de los autores y conservaci\u00f3n internacional .\nfischer , w . , krup , f . , schneider , w . , sommer , c . , carpenter , k . e . and niem , v . h . , 1995 . , guia fao para la identificacion de especies de para los fines de la pesca . pacifico centro - oriental . volumen ii . vertebrados - parte 1 . , fao2 : 647 - 1200 .\nhoese , d . f . , 1971 . , a revision of the eastern pacific species of the gobiid fish genus gobiosoma , with a discussion of the relationships of the genus . ph . d . diss . univ . california , san diego . , university of california : 213pp .\njordan , d . s . and evermann , b . w . , 1898 . , the fishes of north and middle america : a descriptive catalogue of the species of fish - like vertebrates found in the waters of north america , north of the isthmus of panama . part iii . , bull . u . s . nat . mus . , 47 : 2183 - 3136 .\njordan , d . s . , 1895 . , the fishes of sinaloa . , proceedings of the california academy of sciences ( series 2 ) , 5 : 377 - 514 .\nlopez , m . i . and bussing , w . a . , 1982 . , lista provisional de los peces marinos de la costa rica . , revista de biologia tropical , 30 ( 1 ) : 5 - 26 .\nvan der heiden , a . m . and findley , l . t . , 1988 . , lista de los peces marinos del sur de sinaloa , m\u00e9xico . , anales del centro de ciencias del mar y limnologia de la universidad autonoma nacional de mexico , 15 : 209 - 224 .\ni thank ashley macdonald and john pickering , university of georgia , for technical support in building this page .\nr\u00e3\u00bcber , l . , j . l . van tassell and r . zardoyal , 2003 . rapid speciation and ecological divergence in the american seven - spined gobies ( gobiidae , gobiosomatini ) inferred from a molecular phylogeny . evolution 57 ( 7 ) : 1584 - 1598 . ( ref . 51797 )\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00891 ( 0 . 00418 - 0 . 01902 ) , b = 3 . 07 ( 2 . 89 - 3 . 25 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref .\n) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspecial publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3\nnelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .\nfull author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h\u00e9ctor espinosa - p\u00e9rez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhead and body slender ; head elongate , snout pointed ; eye large ( ~ snout length ) ; narrow between eyes ( < \u00bd eye diameter ) ; mouth small ; males with large canines in outer row of teeth on side of lower jaw ; no teeth on sides of roof of mouth ; tongue round to blunt ; head without barbels ; front nostril tubular , rear with raised rim ; preopercle with 2 - 3 pores ; dorsal fin vii ( large males - 1st spine long , ribbon - like , reaching to middle of soft dorsal ) + i , 11 - 12 ; anal fin i , 10 - 12 rays ; pectoral 16 - 19 rays , longer than pelvic ; pelvics fused in disc ; body scaled rearward of line under 2nd dorsal spine to upper pectoral base & from lower pectoral base to anus ; scales rough , large , 26 - 30 l ateral rows ; 4 large , very rough scales on base of tail fin .\ntan to grey brown ; lower part of head with scattered black dots , 2 prominent spots behind eye , 2 oblique bars from eye to under rear end of lower jaw ; 4 - 6 rows of dark spots forming narrow dark stripes along body ; 1st dorsal with 2 thick dark stripes ; 2nd dorsal with 3 rows of dark spots ; anal dusky , darker at edge ; pectoral base with a dark curved bar ; pelvics dusky ; tail fin with 5 - 6 dark chevron bars .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\njordan , david s . & e . c . starks in jordan , david s . 1895 .\nchinese academy of fishery sciences ( 2003 ) chinese aquatic germplasm resources database . : urltoken\neschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version .\neschmeyer , william n . , ed . , 1998 : catalog of fishes . special publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3 . 2905 .\nescobar - fern\u00e1ndez , r . and m . siri ( 1997 ) nombres vern\u00e1culos y cient\u00edficos de los peces del pac\u00edfico mexicano . : universidad aut\u00f3noma de baja california , sociedad ictiol\u00f3gica mexicana , a . c . mexico .\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication .\nnelson , j . s . , e . j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea and j . d . williams ( 2004 ) common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . : american fisheries society , special publication 29 , bethesda , maryland . ix , 386 p . + 1 cd .\nnelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds . , 2004 : common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico , sixth edition . american fisheries society special publication , no . 29 . ix + 386 .\nr\u00fcber , l . , j . l . van tassell and r . zardoyal ( 2003 ) rapid speciation and ecological divergence in the american seven - spined gobies ( gobiidae , gobiosomatini ) inferred from a molecular phylogeny . : evolution 57 ( 7 ) : 1584 - 1598 .\nwu , h . l . , k . - t . shao and c . f . lai ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) latin - chinese dictionary of fishes names . : the sueichan press , taiwan . 1028 p .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhead - rounded but more compressed that the typical gobiosoma head ; the overall body is distinctly more slender than a gobiosoma .\ncolor - color pattern is variable ; generally dark colored with light areas on the head and light saddles behind the first dorsal and on the caudal peduncle ; distinct dak banding on the tail is distinctly noticable as is the dark mark on the pectoral fin .\nnotes - this species does not belong in the genus gobiosoma . see ruber , van tassell and zardoya . 2003 . evolution 57 ( 7 ) : 1584 - 1598"]}
{"id": 2509, "summary": [{"text": "the biak scops owl is an owl endemic to the twin islands of biak-supiori in geelvink bay , papua ( formerly irian jaya ) , indonesia .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it is classified as vulnerable due to its very small range and destruction of its habitat .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "biak scops owls ( scops beccarii salvadori ) are 20 \u2013 25 cm birds from the genus outs contain 45 other species .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "biak scops are frequently seen as dark brown and dark rufous forms with long ear tufts and pale a whitish brown facial disc .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "baik 's are very small creatures , but have hoarse , corvid - like voices .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "their diet mostly consist of small vertebrates or insects , although due to being an ongoing decline they are seldomly seen ; however , most are found in blaik island in heavy wooded areas near villages in supiori islands off northwest new guinea .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "however , the reproducing of biak scops owls is unknown and is still in the process of studying . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "biak scops owl", "paragraphs": ["the biak scops owl is a small owl with moderately long ear - tufts . it is also known as the beccari scops owl .\nowl information . . . index of owl species . . . photos of various owl species for identification\nthe biak scops owls measure about 8 - 10 inches ( 20 - 25 cm ) in length .\nthe biak island scops owls ( otus beccarii ) - also known as beccari scope owls , moluccan scops owls or papuan scops owls - are endemic to the twin islands of biak - supiori in geelvink bay , off northwestern new guinea papua ( formerly irian jaya ) in indonesia .\nbiak scops owls have a very small range and are endangered due to destruction of their forest habitats , and their numbers are suspected to be declining .\naustralasia : biak island . otus beccarii is endemic to the twin islands of biak - supiori in geelvink bay , papua ( formerly irian jaya ) , indonesia\n25 cm ; no data on body mass . medium - sized scops - owl ; said to occur in dark and rufous - brown and tawny and dark grey - brown forms ; almost certainly morphs , but sometimes . . .\n( gibbs 1993 , poulsen and frolander 1994 , eastwood 1996b ) . one was heard in and around biak - utara reserve in 1997\n. 2012 ) . subsequently , it has been suggested that this species is widespread in forested habitats around biak and supiori ( b . beehler\n2000 ) . however , more recently , the species has been encountered regularly in remnant forest patches in southern biak ( k . d . bishop\ntawny - brown owl with short , inconspicuous ear - tufts . yellow eyes . rather distinct , pale whitish eyebrows and facial disc . densely barred brown upperparts with some white on scapulars . brown or rich rufous underparts , probably colour morphs but possibly sex dimorphism , with very fine barring . similar spp . the only owl on biak - supiori . papuan frogmouth podargus papuensis and large - tailed nightjar caprimulgus macrurus have different habits and long tails . voice probably a harsh croak , rasping at close range but sounding more like a deer\u2019s bark at long range . hints calling birds can usually be stalked and seen in the beam of a torch\nmembers of the genus otus are the scops and screech owls . they are relatively small owls , with short , rounded wings . most have erectile ear - tufts . otus is a worldwide genus , containing some 45 species .\nholt , d . w . , berkley , r . , deppe , c . , enr\u00edquez rocha , p . , petersen , j . l . , rangel salazar , j . l . , segars , k . p . , wood , k . l . , de juana , e . , sharpe , c . j . & marks , j . s . ( 2018 ) . biak scops - owl ( otus beccarii ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\n25 cm . tawny - brown owl with short , inconspicuous ear - tufts . yellow eyes . rather distinct , pale whitish eyebrows and facial disc . densely barred brown upperparts with some white on scapulars . brown or rich rufous underparts , probably colour morphs but possibly sex dimorphism , with very fine barring .\nidentify and record the species ' s vocalisations to aid detection . conduct surveys on both biak and supiori , using tape - playback of vocalisations , to establish its current distribution , population status and assess its habitat requirements . investigate further its taxonomic status and relationship to other\nczech : v\u00fdrecek beccariuv , v\u00fdre ? ek beccari ? v . . . danish : papuadv\u00e6rghornugle . . . dutch : biak - dwergooruil . . . estonian : biaki p\u00e4ll . . . finnish : biakinp\u00f6ll\u00f6nen . . . french : petit - duc de beccari . . . german : beccarieule , beccari - zwergohreule . . . indonesian : celepuk biak . . . italian : assiolo di beccari . . . japanese : biakukonohazuku . . . norwegian : biakugle . . . polish : syczek papuaski . . . russian : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? , ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . slovak : v\u00fdrik biacky . . . spanish : autillo de biak . . . swedish : biakdv\u00e4rguv . . . chinese : ? ? ? ?\nthere are very few records of this species , which is classified as endangered on the basis of its very small range and apparent restriction to tall lowland forest , which is severely fragmented and declining . however it may prove to be more common and widespread , and justify reclassification as vulnerable . its status is unclear , as it is a nocturnal species with poorly - known calls and only recently considered to be a separate species . a 1973 survey of the island found only one pair , it was not recorded during three 1990s visits to biak and just one was heard in and around biak - utara reserve in 1997 . however , two were heard one morning in 1995 , and it was suspected to be fairly widespread in moderate numbers in 1982 , based on vocalisations and local reports , although not actually observed .\nthe population is estimated to number 2 , 500 - 9 , 999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records , descriptions of abundance and range size . this is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size , and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated extent of occurrence is likely to be occupied . this estimate is equivalent to 3 , 750 - 14 , 999 individuals , rounded here to 3 , 500 - 15 , 000 individuals . it is assumed that all mature individuals are in a single sub - population ( g . dutson in litt . 2013 ) . trend justification : the widespread loss of forest on the island of biak suggests that the species has declined , but parts of supiori are virtually impenetrable and as such may provide a refuge . based on this information , the population is suspected to be declining at a moderate rate .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nholt , d . w . ; berkley , r . ; deppe , c . ; enriquez rocha , p . l . ; olsen , p . d . ; petersen , j . l . ; rangel salazar , j . l . ; segars , k . p . ; wood , k . l . 1999 . strigidae ( typical owls ) . in : del hoyo , j . ; elliott , a . ; sargatal , j . ( ed . ) , handbook of the birds of the world , pp . 76 - 242 . lynx edicions , barcelona , spain .\nprobably a harsh croak , rasping at close range but sounding more like a deer ' s bark at long range .\ncalling birds can usually be stalked and seen in the beam of a torch .\nvulnerable b1ab ( ii , iii , v ) ; c2a ( ii ) ver 3 . 1\nbeehler , b . , bishop , k . , dutson , g . , holmes , d . , ripley , s . , van balen , b . & van beirs , m .\nallinson , t , benstead , p . , bird , j . , dutson , g . , symes , a . & taylor , j .\nthis species has been downlisted to vulnerable on the basis that its habitat is not as fragmented as once thought , along with evidence that it is more widespread than previously thought . nevertheless , its population is estimated to be small and inferred to be in on - going decline .\n1999 ) . its status is uncertain , as it is a nocturnal species with poorly - known calls and only recently considered to be a separate species . a survey of the island in 1973 found only one pair\n2000 ) . furthermore , forest does not regenerate easily on areas of raised coralline limestone . much of supiori comprises virtually impenetrable forest on limestone mountains , which is likely to be safe from habitat degradation .\nspecies . afford formal protection to key sites supporting the species , as appropriate .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\noriginal description : salvadori , tommaso . 1876 . annali del museo civico di storia naturale di genova , 7 ( 1875 ) , p . 906 - 907 .\nk\u00f6nig , claus & weick , friedhelm . 2008 .\nowls : a guide to the owls of the world ( second edition )\n. yale university press .\nmikkola , heimo . 2013 .\nowls of the world : a photographic guide ( second edition )\n. bloomsbury .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : otus beccarii . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nsometimes treated as conspecific with either o . manadensis or o . magicus ; song similar to latter\u2019s , but significant differences from both in plumage . monotypic .\nhoarse , corvid - like croak , repeated in series ; at close range , described as \u201ca quite . . .\ndense forest and forest edge ; locally near villages . occurs from near sea - level to 1000 m elevation .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nsequence of species in this genus is adopted in an attempt to conform to the findings of several recent molecular - phylogenetic studies # r # r , notwithstanding difficulty that a considerable number of taxa have not yet been sampled . relationships of many species remain uncertain . includes genus mimizuku . previously incorporated genus megascops .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\ntheir primary habitats are forests , including partially logged forests , up to at least 1 , 000 feet ( 300 m ) and coastal swamp forests bounded by heavily forested limestone cliffs . they appear to avoid heavily logged or degraded forests\nthey have short , inconspicuous ear - tufts and densely barred brown upperparts with some white on the scapulars ( shoulder feathers ) . the plumage below is brown or rich rufous , with fine barring .\nthe only other owls occurring within their range - - the papuan frogmouth podargus papuensis and large - tailed nightjar caprimulgus macrurus - - can easily be differentiated by their long tails .\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 293 , 274 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nrarest bird in the world : the cone - billed tanager , the mystery .\natlapetes blancae , 8 years later , still not found . wish or species ?\nit inhabits forest , including partially logged forest , up to at least 300 m , including coastal swamp - forest bounded by heavily forested limestone cliffs . it may be poorly tolerant of habitat degradation , as there have been no records from heavily logged or degraded forest .\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15"]}
{"id": 2514, "summary": [{"text": "the threadfin shad ( dorosoma petenense ) is a small pelagic fish common in rivers , large streams , and reservoirs of the southeastern united states .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "like the american gizzard shad , the threadfin shad has an elongated dorsal ray , but unlike the gizzard shad its mouth is more terminal without projecting upper jaw .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the fins of threadfin shad often have a yellowish color , especially the caudal fin .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the back is grey to blue with a dark spot on the shoulder .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "d. petenense is more often found in moving water , and is rarely found deep in the water column .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it occur in large schools , sometimes with gizzard shad , and can be seen on the surface at dawn and dusk .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the threadfin shad may reach lengths of 8 inches , but only rarely .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this fish is very sensitive to changes in temperature and dissolved oxygen , and die-offs are frequent in late summer and fall , especially when water temperature reaches 42 \u00b0f .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the threadfin shad is a favorite food for many game fishes including striped bass , largemouth bass , smallmouth bass , and catfishes .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "this fish is widely introduced throughout the united states as a forage for game fish . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "threadfin shad", "paragraphs": ["like gizzard shad , threadfin shad are most commonly found in large rivers and reservoirs .\nthreadfin shad grow quickly and do not get as large as gizzard shad . average length is 4 inches .\noften used as a bait fish . threadfin shad almost never bite on a hook .\nthreadfin shad spawn on the surface shortly after dawn along a weedy shoreline or in open water around rafts of driftwood and debris .\nthreadfin shad are a good baitfish for most game species and have been stocked in many lakes to provide more food for game fish .\nunfortunately , the scientific community knows little about habitat use or movement patterns of gizzard and threadfin shad . as you might expect , shad are highly mobile and tend to school in very large abundance during the day , likely for protection from predators . however , at night shad tend to break from tightly packed schools and scatter . generally , smaller shad orient near the water surface , while adult shad tend to be evenly distributed from top to bottom .\nspawn : threadfin shad spawn on hard surfaces near deep water but right on the surface . it occurs when water temperatures reach about 60\u00b0 , usually during a full moon . the shad spawn is a prime time to fish for bass .\nproblems ? since threadfin shad are so sensitive to cold and don ' t grow to large sizes , they are not much of a problem for other gamefish , although the young shad do compete with young fish of other species for food .\nstrawn , k . 1965 . resistance of threadfin shad to low temperatures . proc . annual conf . southeastern assoc . game and fish comm . 17 : 290\u2013293 .\nhaskell , w . l . 1959 . diet of the mississippi threadfin shad , dorosoma petenense atchafalayae , in arizona . copeia 1959 ( 4 ) : 298 - 302 .\nlambou , v . w . , 1965 . observations on size distribution and spawning behavior of threadfin shad . trans . amer . fish . soc . 94 : 385\u2013386 .\ngrowth rates for threadfin are different than gizzard shad . most of the yearly spawn are 2 inches by late summer . they will reach 3 to 4 inches by october in most of the southern impoundments . threadfin will remain a potential bass food its entire life , particularly where fish in the 7 - pound - plus category cruise . shad are a barometer of water quality and bass populations . parallels are just beginning to show bass numbers and growth , relating to threadfin reproduction . when the shad numbers are strong , the bass are thriving . when the shad crash , the bass numbers fall .\nthreadfin shad , shown beside a golden shiner , mississippi ( inland ) silverside , sacramento pikeminnow , and wakasagi . photo by robert vincik , california department of fish and game .\nthreadfin shad , captured in rotary screw trap on the sacramento river at knight ' s landing on 11 / 23 / 2008 . photo by nicholas miguel , california department of fish and game .\nlambou , v . w . 1965 . observations on size distribution and spawning behavior of threadfin shad . trans . amer . fish . soc . 94 ( 4 ) : 385 - 386 .\nirwin - larrimore , e . r . 1989 . alewife and threadfin shad ecology in dale hollow reservoir , tennessee . m . sc . thesis , tennessee technological university , cookeville 66 pp .\nthreadfin shad naturally occur in waters west of the appalachian mountains , north to kentucky , west to east texas , south to the rio grande drainage , and east to florida . the species has been widely introduced in california and arizona , as well as appalachian and southern atlantic states . threadfin shad are common in all east texas streams and have been introduced as forage fish in many reservoirs statewide .\nburns , j . w . 1966 . threadfin shad . pp . 481\u2013488 . in : a . calhoun ( ed . ) inland fisheries management , california department of fish and game , sacramento .\nparsons , j . w . and j . b . kimsey . 1954 . a report on the mississippi threadfin shad . prog . fish - cult . 16 ( 4 ) : 179 - 181 .\nmclean , r . b . , p . t . singley , d . m . lodge & r . a . wallace . 1982 . synchronous spawning of threadfin shad . copeia 1982 : 952\u2013955 .\nthe threadfin shad ( dorosoma petenense , shown in photo ) is an important baitfish in many lakes . they are small and provide high protein food for bass , crappie , stripers , hybrids and other fish .\ngizzard and threadfin shad are closely related species . both are planktivores ( filter - feed microscopic , free - floating plants and animals with closely spaced gill rakers ) , grow rapidly , have short life spans , and associate in large schools . unique characteristics include an elongated , back dorsal fin ray and keeled midline from the throat to the anal fin . under 4 inches in length , both species are similar in appearance with blue or gray backs and silver sides , but are discernable by the shape of the snout and color of the tail . the gizzard shad has a rounded snout with a subterminal mouth , whereas threadfin shad have a pointed snout and terminal mouth ( i . e . , can open lower jaw by sliding finger off snout ) . threadfin also have a yellow - colored tail . however , gizzard shad reach much larger sizes ( > 10 inches ) than threadfin shad ( 4 inches = average adult size ) .\nmiller , r . v . 1967 . food of the threadfin shad , dorosoma petenense , in lake chicot , arkansas . trans . amer . fish . soc . 96 ( 3 ) : 243 - 246 .\ngriffith , j . s . 1978 . effects of low temperature on the survival and behavior of threadfin shad , dorosoma petenense . trans . amer . fish . soc . 107 ( 1 ) : 63 - 70 .\nmiller , r . r . 1963 . genus dorosoma rafinesque 1820 , gizzard shad , threadfin shad , 99 . 443 - 451 . in : family clupeidae . vol . 1 , pt . 3 . s . f . hildebrand , ed . memoir , sears foundation of marine research , yale university , new haven , connecticut .\nschools of threadfin shad seek shoreline cover each night . this cover can take the form of grass , moss beds , logjams , standing timber or brushpiles . early in the morning , generally shortly after dawn , the threadfin leave this shallow water cover for deeper areas where they may disperse slightly for the balance of the midday period and early afternoon hours .\ndorosoma is greek for\nlance body\n, referring to the lance - like shape of young shad . the word petenense refers to lake peten in the yucatan , the species type locality . threadfin shad are usually easily distinguished from gizzard shad by the fact that the upper jaw does not project beyond the lower jaw . the anal fin usually has 20 - 25 rays , as opposed to 29 - 35 rays found in gizzard shad . the upper surface is silver - blue and grades to nearly white on the sides and belly . all fins have yellow tint except the dorsal . in this species , unlike gizzard shad , the chin and floor of the mouth is speckled with black pigment . adults are considerably smaller than gizzard shad adults , rarely exceeding 6 inches in length .\nberry , f . h . , m . t . huish , and h . moody . 1959 . spawning mortality of the threadfin shad , dorosoma petenense ( g\u00fcnther ) , in florida . copeia 1959 ( 3 ) : 192 .\njohnson , j . e . 1971 . maturity and fecundity of the threadfin shad , dorosoma petenense ( g\u00fcnther ) , in central arizona reservoirs . trans . amer . fish . soc . 100 ( 1 ) : 74 - 85 .\ngizzard shad spawning habits are similar to that of threadfin , but spawning is more likely to occur throughout the day . although gizzard shad can tolerate water temperatures near freezing , die - offs can occur due to sudden temperature changes resulting from severe cold fronts . gizzard shad seem to prefer plankton and typically grow very fast ( 4 - 7 inches within the first year ) . they also reach much larger sizes than threadfin shad , as adults exceed 10 inches and maximum size is 20 inches . this can be problematic in some reservoirs , as adults get too large to be eaten by bass and other predators and can comprise over half of the total fish biomass . in turbid reservoirs that have limited abundance of plankton , gizzard shad can adapt and feed on detritus ( decaying organic matter typically found on the bottom ) .\nthreadfin shad are the more abundant species in both sam rayburn and toledo bend reservoirs . threadfin shad are very prolific . spawning begins in the spring when water temperatures reach 70 degrees and continues through fall until temperatures drop below 70 degrees . some fish that were spawned in the spring will reach sexual maturity and spawn in the fall . spawning usually occurs in large groups along the shoreline or vegetation edges , as eggs are adhesive and sink . spawning is typically restricted to the first several hours of daylight . threadfin shad are not tolerant of cold water temperatures , as die - offs occur if water temperatures fall to below 45 - 50 degrees . young and adult threadfin eat phytoplankton and zooplankton , and primarily feed near the water surface . average lifespan is 2 - 4 years . average adults are 3 - 5 inches long and maximum length is 8 inches .\njohnson , j . e . 1970 . age , growth , and population dynamics of threadfin shad , dorosoma petenense ( g\u00fcnther ) in central arizona reservoirs . trans . amer . fish . soc . 99 ( 4 ) : 739 - 753 .\nnative range of the threadfin shad is somewhat debated . before 1945 , the threadfin shad was found only in rivers and streams flowing into the gulf of mexico , from florida to mexico ( forbes and richardson , 1920 ; smith , 1979 ) . later , its range expanded northward ( trautman , 1981 ) . in 1948 , thread - fin shad were discovered in impoundments of the tennessee river ( tennessee valley authority , 1954 ) , and in 1957 the first illinois specimens were collected from tributaries of the ohio river ( minckley and krumholz , 1960 ) . an alternative opinion is that the threadfin shad was originally found as far south as belize and was distributed northward into gulf states as well as states bordering the lower mississippi and ohio rivers , including illinois and missouri ( page and burr , 1991 ) [ quoted from irons et al . 2009 ] .\nfeeding habits : plankton is the main food source for threadfin shad . they run in schools of similar size fish and you often see them feeding right on the surface late in the day when photosensitive plankton rises to the top as the sun sets .\nlake and reservoir populations use both the shoreline and open water areas . essentially it is an open water species , living at or near the surface , however , they have been collected at depths of up to 100 feet . they will hybridize with the threadfin shad .\nthreadfin shad live primarily on microscopic plant and animal life , phytoplankton and zooplankton , which is why they are often found around rock riprap , bridge and dock pilings , and areas with gentle current where algae grows or is washed into the system . they are more surface - oriented than gizzard shad , and frequently move in huge schools just under the surface , sometimes migrating for miles each day .\nkilambi , r . v . , and r . e . baglin , jr . 1969 . fecundity of the threadfin shad , dorosoma petenense , in beaver and bull shoals reservoirs . trans . amer . fish . soc . 98 ( 2 ) : 320 - 322 .\nsantucci , v . j . , jr . , and r . c . heidinger . 1986 . use of total myomere numbers to differentiate larvae of threadfin and gizzard shad . transactions of the illinois academy of science 79 ( 3 / 4 ) : 197 - 202 .\nthe threadfin then re - group and return to the shallow water cover late in the afternoon , frequently by reversing the same exit route they used that morning .\nhowever , i suggest that anglers can take advantage of three predictable patterns of shad movement . 1 ) as stated above , when water temperatures are above 70 degrees , threadfin shad spawn in the early morning around cover , especially on vegetation edges . it is common for largemouth bass to pattern feeding around these morning spawns , which can pay big dividends to anglers . 2 ) it is common sense to assume that shad distribution , like bass , is primarily controlled by their prey ( plankton ) . because of this , wind blown points and banks can concentrate free - floating plankton . plankton attracts shad , which draws feeding bass . many anglers get discouraged with high winds , but controlled drifts with the waves on wind - blown areas can put fish in the boat on an otherwise slow day . 3 ) i could find only one scientific study that examined seasonal movements of shad . during the summer , shad were primarily off - shore in open water . however , in the fall the majority of shad left the open water and hit the banks , both during the day and night . shad tended to be uniformly scattered in shallow water , both in main lake areas and in coves . therefore , beating the banks and covering a lot of water may be the most productive fall bass fishing pattern .\nburgess , g . h . 1980 . dorosoma petenense ( g\u00fcnther ) , threadfin shad . pp . 70 in d . s . lee , et al . atlas of north american freshwater fishes . n . c . state mus . nat . hist . , raleigh , i - r + 854 pp .\ngizzard shad grow quickly and attain a much larger size than threadfins . some adults can reach over 18 inches long and weigh over 2 - pounds .\ndistribution : native to the u . s . west of the appalachian mountains , north to kentucky , west to east texas , south to the rio grande drainage , and east to floridian rivers , the threadfin shad have been transplanted to waters all over the u . s . they do best in large rivers and lakes\nthreadfin shad school along the shoreline , with small groups of 1 - 2 females and 3 - 15 males breaking away and moving toward shore ; the groups swim erratically near surface , then move quickly toward a log , vegetation or other submerged object while releasing eggs and milt ( lambou 1965 ; wallus et al . 1990 ) .\nbaker , c . d . and e . h . schmitz . 1971 . food habits of adult gizzard and threadfin shad in two ozark reservoirs , pp . 3 - 11 . in : reservoir fisheries and limnology . g . e . hall , ed , spec . publ . , no8 , american fisheries society , washington d . c .\ngizzard shad are omnivorous filter feeder taking both phytoplankton and zoo plankton . the adults have more than 400 , fine gill rakers that can catch minute plankton . gizzard shad have an unusual digestion process for fish . the vegetable material they eat is ground in a gizzard like stomach . some bottom material is often ingested while feeding .\nthreadfin shad can spawn by the end of their first summer but will usually wait until their second summer to mate . this occurs between april and august and peaks in june or july when temperatures are greater than 20\u00b0c although spawning between 14\u00b0c and 18\u00b0c has been seen . at dawn threadfin shad will gather near a submerged or floating object and will begin charging at it , turning away at the last instant . at this point of turning , eggs or sperm are released and thrown so that they stick to the object or fertilize eggs that are already stuck . females will release 900 - 21 , 000 eggs in a season depending on their size . these eggs will hatch 3 - 6 days later into\ndiet includes phytoplankton such as blue - green bacteria , diatoms , and green algae ; dipteran larvae ; water mites ; invertebrate eggs ; and fish larvae ( haskell 1959 ; miller 1967 ; baker and schmitz 1971 ; goldstein and simon 1999 ) . baker and schmitz ( 1971 ) noted that threadfin shad feed more in the water column than does the similar species\nattraction to light : threadfin are attracted to light , and at night they can be found around lighted docks . many fishermen put out lights to attract them and the game fish that follow .\nfound in the backwaters of sluggish rivers and the deep , slow pools of smaller streams . gizzard shad become more abundant as a lake gains fertility through natural aging or added pollutants . they are often found over a mucky bottom , which they filter when feeding . unlike many other herrings , gizzard shad are non - migratory and stay near their home areas .\nthreadfin shad are more likely to be found in waters with a noticeable current and are usually in the upper five feet of water . they are quite temperature sensitive , with die - offs reported at temperatures below 45\u00b0f . spawning begins in the spring when water temperatures reach approximately 70\u00b0f , and may continue into the summer . during spawning , one or more females are accompanied by several males .\nconcern exists regarding possible impacts on other fish species with planktonic larvae , such as minnows and suckers , and on young centrarchids . dill and cordone ( 1997 ) stated that threadfin compete with young centrarchids for food and that they have destroyed kokanee fishing in some areas . population increases and crashes of threadfin shad caused diet shifts from zooplankton to zoobenthos , as well as an increase in tissue mercury content due to benthic foraging , in several species of zooplanktivorous fishes ( inland silverside ; young - of - year largemouth bass and bluegill ) in clear lake , california ( eagles - smith et al . 2008 ) .\nfactors contributing to this problem are the gizzard shad ' s high reproductive capacity , rapid growth rate , and efficient and direct use of plankton ( hubbs 1934 ; miller 1960 ; bodola 1965 ) .\nshelton , w . l . , c . d . riggs & l . g . hill . 1982 . comparative reproductive biology of the threadfin and gizzard shad in lake texoma , oklahoma - texas . pp . 47\u201351 . in : c . f . bryan , j . v . connor & f . m . truesdale ( ed . ) the fifth annual larval fish conference , louisiana cooperative fisheries research unit , baton rouge .\ntisa , m . s . & j . j . ney . 1991 . compatibility of alewives and gizzard shad as reservoir forage fish . trans . amer . fish . soc . 120 : 157\u2013165 .\nconditions for gizzard shad populations are optimal in warm , fertile , shallow bodies of water with soft mud bottoms , high turbidity , and relatively few predators ( miller 1960 ; zeller and wyatt 1967 ) .\ndown - looking echogram of data collected in a mobile survey in j . strom thurmond reservoir on the savannah river , georgia . the layer of small fish above the thermocline ( here approximately the top quarter of the water column ) are mostly threadfin shad . the layer of medium - sized fish below the thermocline is mostly blueback herring . the few individual large fish distributed between the layers and among the blueback herring are most likely striped bass .\nthe gizzard shad spawns in spring , may to june , when water temperatures reach the mid 60s to mid 70s . will start at 50 degrees . usually has a six week spawning period . the gizzard shad spawn begins at night in shallow water . as early as age two they gather in large schools to broadcast their eggs and milt in shoreline shallows . females produce up to 400 , 000 eggs that are randomly scattered adhere to plants , rocks or firm substrate . when conditions are perfect , gizzard shad can actually spawn a second time . eggs hatch in two to three days . no nesting behavior or parental care is shown by adults .\nmoderate to heavy predation by large game species , fluctuating water levels , deep clear water , and steep shorelines ( factors that are less than optimal for many species ) tend to be associated with lower gizzard shad populations .\nthe gizzard shad has the typical herring family shape , but with a distinctive dorsal fin . its short , soft - rayed dorsal fin is located at the center of its back . it has a long , trailing filament as the rear ray , longer than any of the other rays . the gizzard shad ' s back is silvery blue - green to gray . the sides are silvery or reflect blue , green , brassy or reddish tints . there is no lateral line . the tail is deeply forked , and the lower jaw is slightly shorter than the upper jaw . the snout is blunt . the mouth is small , and there is a deep notch in the center of the upper jaw . the gizzard shad ' s eye is large . there is a big , purplish - blue spot near the edge of the upper gill in young gizzard shad and small adults . this spot is faint or disappears completely in larger , older fish . the fins are dusky and there are the usual herring sawtooth - edged belly scales . gizzard shad grow rapidly and can reach a maximum size of about 18 inches .\ngizzard shad are filter feeders straining small organisms particularly from organic deposits . adults have fine gill rakers to strain these minute plant plankton ; the food is ground and digested in their gizzard - like stomach , hence the name .\nlatitudinal trends in reproductive characteristics are evident for some species of clupeidae . however , selection for life history styles may operate at the population level . the reproductive cycles of alewife alosa pseudoharengus and threadfin shad dorosoma petenense in dale hollow reservoir , tennessee , were monitored over two spawning seasons on the basis of a gonadosomatic index ( gsi ) . inshore movements normally associated with spawning migrations were monitored using gill nets in spring 1989 . gsi values peaked for both species at least one month earlier in 1989 than in 1988 due to warmer water temperatures earlier in the year . highest gsi values for female alewife occurred each year when surface water temperatures were about 20\u00b0 c ; threadfin shad gsi values peaked at temperatures of 22\u00b0\u201326\u00b0 c . trends in male gsi values in both species were similar to those in females . alewives were not abundant in warm ( > 22\u00b0 c ) , shallow water after 1 may 1989 , but alewife gsi values remained high after this date , suggesting that elevated inshore temperatures limited alewife reproduction . all aspects of alewife reproduction were comparable to other populations of alewife but did not follow latitudinal trends . threadfin shad reproductive characteristics were similar to other published accounts . we suggest that thermal regimes and reservoir trophic status are important factors for clupeid reproduction and population - level analysis is suggested when considering reproductive styles . further , our ability to predict the ecology of introduced species in freshwater systems is impaired when species considered have not coevolved or evolved in marine environments .\nthreadfin shad can be found in the open waters of sluggish backwaters , large ponds , and reservoirs where they stay close to the inlets of small streams or along the surfaces of dams . they are dependent on light for foraging and will generally stay high in the water column , rarely dropping deeper than 18 m . they are warm water fish that prefer summer temperatures between 22\u00b0c and 24\u00b0c and will die if the water drops below 6\u00b0c . they are very tolerant of salinity and can even live in salt water although it seems to lead to problems with reproduction . they are most often found in schools organized by size with smaller groups tending to be deeper in the water column , especially at night . it is not uncommon to see these schools very close to the surface as they are chased by fish below and by birds from above . threadfin shad feed exclusively on plankton but have two methods of catching it , resulting in a broad diet of the available invertebrates . small zooplankton , phytoplankton , and detritus are filtered through their gill\ntexas distribution : eastern half of the state ( hubbs et al . 1991 ) . warren et al . ( 2000 ) listed the following drainage units for distribution of threadfin shad in the state : red river ( from the mouth upstream to and including the kiamichi river ) , sabine lake ( including minor coastal drainages west to galveston bay ) , galveston bay ( including minor coastal drainages west to mouth of brazos river ) , brazos river , colorado river , san antonio bay ( including minor coastal drainages west of mouth of colorado river to mouth of nueces river ) , nueces river .\nsize : adults may reach five to seven inches but most are one to two inches long . many shad die off each winter due to cold water - - they can not live in water colder than 35\u00b0 and start dying off at 45\u00b0 - - so not many reach a big size .\nlife cycle : females lay eggs on hard surfaces in shallow water and males fertilize them from first light to sunrise when the water temperature reaches the high 60\u00b0 range . eggs hatch and the tiny shad school up and eat plankton , gradually moving to deeper water . they stay in the open deep water until time to spawn the next spring .\nlife span 3 - 11 years , few live beyond age 3 . in general , short life spans are correlated with rapid growth rates in the first year of life . in more northern parts of its range , gizzard shad typically live to ages 5 to 7 and may live to ages 10 or 11 ( miller 1960 ; jester 1962 ) .\nlarvae that stay near the surface during the day and fall deeper into the water column at night . they will mature into juveniles when they are 2 cm in length , approximately 2 - 3 weeks later depending on the water temperature . in optimal conditions they will grow 1 - 3 cm per month for the first summer but usually reach only 4 - 6 cm by end of their first year . few live to be older than 2 years or grow to over 10 cm long . the largest threadfin shad found in california was a 22 cm long individual from the salton sea where the salt water decreases reproduction , and thus competition , allowing each individual a larger amount of prey than they would find in a freshwater lake of the same size .\ngrowth is rapid , up to seven inches in the first year have been recorded . their rapid growth means that largemouth and smallmouth bass are able to eat them for only a short time each spring . after the spawn , the gizzard fry just explode in growth . they will be 1 1 / 2 to 2 inches in midsummer , but by late fall , they ' re often 5 inches long and a little large for the majority of largemouth bass . shad school up as juveniles in quiet surface waters , adults near bottom . striped bass are the dominant predator for the large gizzards and keep them under control so that young largemouth bass and large shad don ' t have to compete for the same limited planktonic food allowing the fingerling black bass to grow quicker .\nlike many other anglers , i am always researching ways to catch more largemouth bass . while watching a fishing show featuring rick clunn , a legendary tournament angler known for his intellectual out - of - the - box approach , a point he made really struck home with me . that is , far too many anglers spend all their time researching the habits and behavior of largemouth bass . time may be better spent researching habits and life histories of their prey species . why ? because with the exception of the largemouth bass spring spawning period , prey species habits and movement control a majority of largemouth bass location and behavior ( i . e . , find the bait and you find the bass ) . this article focuses on the life history of the primary prey species at sam rayburn and toledo bend reservoirs : gizzard and threadfin shad .\ndescription : the elongated fin on the dorsal fins gives the threadfin its name . the mouth is terminal and the lower part of the upper jaw is not notched . the anal fin has 20 to 28 rays ; the dorsal , 10 to 13 rays . color is bluish gray on the back with a persistent black or purple spot just behind the head . the lower side is silver to creamy white . the fins have a yellow tint , which gives it the local name of \u201cyellowtails\u201d ) .\ngizzard shad of all ages are extremely fragile , and handling them or keeping them in captivity for controlled laboratory testing is difficult even under the best of circumstances ( shoemaker 1942 ; bodola 1965 ; reutter and herdendorf 1974 ) ; consequently , many specific habitat requirements can only be assumed from field observations , and few or no quantitative data are available for most habitat variables . comprehensive life history and habitat information was given by bodola ( 1965 ) , jester and jensen ( 1972 ) , and miller ( 1960 ) .\nwe analyzed data on spring and summertime larval and juvenile fish distribution and abundance in the upper san francisco estuary ( sfe ) , california between 1995 and 2001 . the upper sfe includes the tidal freshwater areas of the sacramento - san joaquin delta downstream to the euryhaline environment of san pablo bay . the sampling period included years with a variety of outflow conditions . fifty taxa were collected using a larval tow net . two common native species , delta smelt hypomesus transpacifucus and longfin smelt spirinchus thaleichthys , and four common alien taxa , striped bass morone saxatilis , threadfin shad dorosoma petenense , gobies of the genus tridentiger , and yellowfin goby acanthogobins flavimanus , were selected for detailed analysis . outflow conditions had a strong influence on the geographic distribution of most of the species , but distribution with respect to the 2 psu isohaline ( x2 ) was not affected . the distribution patterns of delta smelt , longfin smelt , and striped bass were consistent with larvae moving from upstream freshwater spawning areas to down - stream estuarine rearing areas . there were no obvious relationships of outflow with annual abundance indices . our results support the idea of using x2 as an organizing principle in understanding the ecology of larval fishes in the upper sfe . additional years of sampling will likely lead to additional insights into the early life history of upper sfe fishes . ? ? copyright by the american fisheries society 2004 .\nyour contact information is used to deliver requested updates or to access your subscriber preferences . children under 13 years of age must have a parent / guardian & apos ; s consent before providing any personal information to the agency .\ngreek , doris = lance + greek , soma = body ( ref . 45335 )\ndoro = meaning lanceolate ; soma = body ( referring to the body shape of the young ) , and petenense , for the type locality lake pet\u00e9n , guatemala ( ref . 79012 )\nmarine ; freshwater ; brackish ; pelagic - neritic ; anadromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 0 - 15 m ( ref . 39049 ) . subtropical ; 20\u00b0c - 30\u00b0c ( ref . 115833 ) ; 42\u00b0n - 15\u00b0n , 159\u00b0w - 81\u00b0w ( ref . 188 )\nnorth and central america : gulf of mexico drainage , mississippi system , from the ohio river of kentucky and southern indiana southwest to oklahoma , and south to texas and florida , also rivers around the gulf to northern guatemala ; also belize river , british honduras . introduced in hawaiian waters ( ref . 188 ) and in chesapeake bay tributaries ( ref . 93252 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? , range 5 - 5 . 5 cm max length : 33 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 96339 ) ; common length : 10 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 9291 ) ; max . reported age : 4 years ( ref . 12193 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 11 - 15 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 17 - 27 ; vertebrae : 43 - 44 . body moderately deep ; belly with 15 to 18 + 8 to 12 scutes . mouth small . last dorsal fin ray long , about equal to distance from snout tip to mid - pectoral fin or beyond ; anal fin relatively short . scales relatively large , regularly arranged . a dark spot behind gill opening . gill rakers fine and numerous ( ref . 188 ) . body bright silvery , especially on sides , opercles and underparts . back and upper sides bluish black or dark olivaceous ( ref . 37032 ) .\noften schooling , occurring mainly in freshwater ( in large rivers , reservoirs , lakes , and swamps ) . prefer the presence of smooth , steep - sided surfaces such as dams , cement - lined pools and rip rapped streams ( ref . 39049 ) . but adults are also found in brackish or saline water of estuaries and bays ( up to 32 . 3 ppt salinity ( ref . 39050 ) ; juveniles to about 15 ppt ) . larvae are pelagic probably found only in freshwater ( ref . 39046 ) . filter - feeders , but not entirely herbivorous since recorded food items include copepods , cladocerans and fish fry . also feed on organic material of sand and detritus bottoms ( ref . 9114 ) . breed in the spring and in autumn , in freshwater , near or over plants or other objects . eggs adhere to aquatic vegetation ( ref . 4639 ) . caught exclusively in fresh waters and sometimes in mouths of rivers ( ref . 9291 ) . also ref . 58302 .\nbreed in spring and again in autumn , in open waters near or over plants or other objects ; eggs slightly adhesive ( ref . 188 ) . females can produce 5 , 000 to 20 , 000 eggs depending upon their size ( ref . 44091 ) .\nwhitehead , p . j . p . , 1985 . fao species catalogue . vol . 7 . clupeoid fishes of the world ( suborder clupeoidei ) . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of the herrings , sardines , pilchards , sprats , shads , anchovies and wolf - herrings . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 7 / 1 ) : 1 - 303 . rome : fao . ( ref . 188 )\n) : 23 . 3 - 28 . 1 , mean 25 . 5 ( based on 182 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5312 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00912 ( 0 . 00560 - 0 . 01485 ) , b = 2 . 97 ( 2 . 83 - 3 . 11 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 8 \u00b10 . 1 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( tm = 1 - 2 ; tmax = 4 ; fec = 800 ) .\nprior r = 0 . 59 , 2 sd range = 0 . 26 - 1 . 34 , log ( r ) = - 0 . 53 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 41 , based on : 4 tgen , 1 tmax , 3 fec records\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 31 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe nonindigenous occurrences section of the nas species profiles has a new structure . the section is now dynamically updated from the nas database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information . occurrences are summarized in table 1 , alphabetically by state , with years of earliest and most recent observations , and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed . the table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states , years , and drainages selected . references to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables .\netnier and starnes ( 1993 ) ; moyle ( 1976a ) ; whitehead ( 1985 ) ; page and burr ( 1991 ) .\ngiven the fact that they were stocked in the tennessee river and were able to migrate from there , and the fact that there are no early records , we consider it not - native to areas upstream of the lower tennessee river ( on both the tennessee and the mississippi and ohio rivers ) . many of the areas of arkansas are also questionable . the earliest record for the state is 1955 despite a fair amount of sampling in the state ( as depicted by fishnet2 . net ) .\ntable 1 . states with nonindigenous occurrences , the earliest and latest observations in each state , and the tally and names of hucs with observations\u2020 . names and dates are hyperlinked to their relevant specimen records . the list of references for all nonindigenous occurrences of dorosoma petenense are found here .\nalafia ; apalachicola ; apalachicola bay ; aucilla ; big cypress swamp ; blackwater ; caloosahatchee ; cape canaveral ; charlotte harbor ; chipola ; choctawhatchee bay ; crystal - pithlachascotee ; daytona - st . augustine ; escambia ; everglades ; florida southeast coast ; hillsborough ; kissimmee ; lake okeechobee ; little manatee ; lower chattahoochee ; lower choctawhatchee ; lower ochlockonee ; lower st . johns ; lower suwannee ; myakka ; nassau ; new ; northern gulf of mexico ; northern okeechobee inflow ; oklawaha ; peace ; pensacola bay ; sarasota bay ; southern florida ; st . andrew - st . joseph bays ; st . johns ; tampa bay ; tampa bay ; upper st . johns ; vero beach ; withlacoochee ; yellow\naltamaha ; apalachicola basin ; broad ; coosawattee ; cumberland - st . simons ; etowah ; little ; lower chattahoochee ; lower flint ; lower savannah ; middle chattahoochee - lake harding ; middle chattahoochee - walter f ; ogeechee coastal ; ohoopee ; satilla ; savannah ; tugaloo ; upper ocmulgee ; upper oconee ; withlacoochee\nbear - wyaconda ; beaver reservoir ; bull shoals lake ; cahokia - joachim ; lower missouri ; lower missouri - moreau ; lower osage ; new madrid - st . johns ; peruque - piasa ; salt ; south grand ; spring ; the sny ; upper mississippi - cape girardeau ; upper white\narkansas - white - red region ; bird ; black bear - red rock ; blue ; bois d ' arc - island ; cache ; chikaskia ; clear boggy ; deep fork ; dirty - greenleaf ; elk ; farmers - mud ; illinois ; kaw lake ; kiamichi ; lake o ' the cherokees ; lake texoma ; little ; lower canadian ; lower canadian - walnut ; lower cimarron ; lower cimarron - skeleton ; lower neosho ; lower north canadian ; lower north fork red ; lower salt fork arkansas ; lower verdigris ; lower washita ; middle north canadian ; middle verdigris ; middle washita ; pecan - waterhole ; polecat - snake ; poteau ; robert s . kerr reservoir ; spring ; upper little\n* hucs are not listed for states where the observation ( s ) cannot be approximated to a huc ( e . g . state centroids or canadian provinces ) .\nprefers lakes , ponds , rivers , reservoirs and estuaries , but does not endure cold water ( 7 - 14\u00b0c ) . spawning occurs often before one year of age over vegetation or logs in open water at 21\u00b0c .\nit is unknown whether the populations on the east coast of georgia resulted from past stocking or from dispersal through estuarine waters ( miller and jorgenson 1969 ; dahlberg and scott 1971b ) . populations in other locations were intentionally stocked as forage .\ncanadian river population possibly extirpated ( sublette et al . 1990 ) . populations in several west virginia lakes extirpated by cold weather ( stauffer et al . 1995 ) . probably not established in the platte drainage of colorado ( walker 1993 ) . introduced and abundant in reservoirs of the colorado river ( deacon and williams 1984 ) . starnes et al . ( 2011 ) report that it is likely extirpated from the potomac river system . established in other areas .\nstock introduced into the colorado river was from the tennessee river ( minckley 1973 ) . dill and cordone ( 1997 ) gave the history of the introduction of this species into california . although lee et al . ( 1980 et seq . ) listed the species as native to florida , gilbert ( personal communication ) believes there is a considerable amount of circumstantial evidence to indicate that this species is not native east of the mississippi river , but was introduced as a forage fish beginning in the early 1900s . gilbert cites the fact that there are no published records of the species east of the mississippi river prior to the 1940s . expansion of the range of this species during the past half century likely resulted from a combination of natural range extension and human introduction ( gilbert , personal communication ) .\nboschung , h . t . 1992 . catalogue of freshwater and marine fishes of alabama . alabama museum of natural history bulletin 14 : 1 - 266 .\nbouc , k . 1987 . the fish book . nebraskaland magazine 65 ( 1 ) : 1 - 130 .\nbradley , w . g . and j . e . deacon . 1967 . the biotic communities of southern nevada . nevada state museum anthropological papers no . 13 , part 4 . 201 - 273 .\nburkhead , n . m . , s . j . walsh , b . j . freeman , and j . d . williams . 1997 . status and restoration of the etowah river , an imperiled southern appalachian ecosystem . pages 375 - 444 in benz , g . w . , and d . e . collins , eds . aquatic fauna in peril : the southeastern perspective . southeast aquatic research institute , lenz design & communications . decatur , ga .\nburr , b . m . , and m . l . warren , jr . 1986 . a distributional atlas of kentucky fishes . scientific and technical series no . 4 . kentucky state nature preserves commission , frankfort , ky .\nclay , w . m . 1975 . the fishes of kentucky . kentucky department of fish and wildlife resources , frankfort , ky .\ncooper , e . l . 1983 . fishes of pennsylvania . pennsylvania state university press , university park , pa .\ncross , f . b . 1967 . handbook of fishes of kansas . state biological survey and university of kansas museum of natural history , miscellaneous publication 45 , topeka , ks .\ndahlberg , m . d . , and d . c . scott . 1971a . the freshwater fishes of georgia . bulletin of the georgia academy of science 29 : 1 - 64 .\ndahlberg , m . d . , and d . c . scott . 1971b . introductions of freshwater fishes in georgia . bulletin of the georgia academy of science 29 : 245 - 252 .\neagles - smith , c . a . , t . h . suchanek , a . e . colwell , n . l . anderson , and p . b . moyle . 2008 . changes in fish diets and food web mercury bioaccumulation induced by an invasive planktivorous fish . ecological applications 18 ( 8 supplement ) : a213 - a226 . urltoken\nerdsman , d . s . 1984 . exotic fishes in puerto rico . pages 162 - 176 in courtenay , w . r . , jr . , and j . r . stauffer , jr , eds . distribution , biology , and management of exotic fishes . john hopkins university press . baltimore , md .\njenkins , r . e . , and n . m . burkhead . 1994 . freshwater fishes of virginia . american fisheries society , bethesda , md .\nla rivers , i . 1962 . fishes and fisheries of nevada . nevada state print office , carson city , nv .\nlee , d . s . , c . r . gilbert , c . h . hocutt , r . e . jenkins , d . e . mcallister , and j . r . stauffer , jr . 1980 et seq . atlas of north american freshwater fishes . north carolina state museum of natural history , raleigh , nc .\nmaciolek , j . a . 1984 . exotic fishes in hawaii and other islands of oceania . pages 131 - 161 in w . r . courtenay , jr . , and j . r . stauffer , jr . , editors . distribution , biology , and management of exotic fishes . the johns hopkins university press , baltimore , md .\nmatern , s . a . , p . b . moyle , and l . c . pierce . 2002 . native and alien fishes in a california estuarine marsh : twenty - one years of changing assemblages . transactions of the american fisheries society 131 : 797 - 816 .\nmenhinick , e . f . 1991 . the freshwater fishes of north carolina . north carolina wildlife resources commission , raleigh , nc .\nmiller , r . r . , and c . h . lowe . 1967 . part 2 . fishes of arizona . pages 133 - 151 in lowe , c . h , ed . the vertebrates of arizona . university of arizona press . tuscon , az .\nmiller , g . l . , and s . c . jorgenson . 1969 . seasonal occurence and length of frequency distribution of some marine fishes of coastal georgia . data report no . 35 . u . s . fish and wildlife service , washington , dc .\nmiller , r . j . , and h . w . robison . 1973 . the fishes of oklahoma . oklahoma state university press , stillwater , ok .\nminckley , w . l . 1973 . fishes of arizona . arizona fish and game department . sims printing company , inc . , phoenix , az .\nminckley , w . l . , and l . a . krumholz . 1960 . natural hybridization between the clupeid genera dorosoma and signalosa , with a report on the distribution of s . petenensis . zoologica 44 ( 4 ) : 171 - 180 .\nmoyle , p . b . 1976a . inland fishes of california . university of california press , berkeley , ca .\nmoyle , p . b . 1976b . fish introduction in california : history and impact on native fishes . biological conservation 9 : 101 - 118 .\nmoyle , p . b . and j . randall . 1999 . distribution maps of fishes in california . urltoken .\npage , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 1991 . a field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . the peterson field guide series , volume 42 . houghton mifflin company , boston , ma .\npflieger , w . l . 1975 . the fishes of missouri . missouri department of conservation , jefferson city , mo .\nraasch , m . s . , and v . l . altemus , sr . 1991 . delaware ' s freshwater and brackish water fishes - a popular account . delaware state college for the study of del - mar - va habitats and the society of natural history of delaware . 166 pp .\nrasmussen , j . l . 1998 . aquatic nuisance species of the mississippi river basin . 60th midwest fish and wildlife conference , aquatic nuisance species symposium , dec . 7 , 1998 , cincinnati , oh .\nred river authority of texas . 2001 . red and canadian basins fish inventory : grayson county . red river authority of texas .\nred river authority of texas . 2001 . red and canadian basins fish inventory : red river county . red river authority of texas .\nschmidt , b . - chief fisheries mangement , division of wildlife resources , salt lake city , ut . response to nbs - g non - indigenous questionaire . 1992 .\nsmith , p . w . 1979 . the fishes of illinois . university of illinois press , urbana , il .\nsommer , t . , b . harrell , m . nobriga , r . brown , p . moyle , w . kimmerer , and l . schemel . 2001 . california ' s yolo bypass : evidence that flood control can be compatible with fisheries , wetlands , wildlife , and agriculture . fisheries 26 ( 8 ) : 6 - 16 .\nsouthwick , r . - district fisheries supervisor , virginia department of game and inland fisheries . richmond , va . response to nbs - g non - indigenous questionaire . 1992 .\nstarnes , w . c . , j . odenkirk , and m . j . ashton . 2011 . update and analysis of fish occurrences in the lower potomac river drainage in the vicinity of plummers island , maryland\u2014contribution xxxi to the natural history of plummers island , maryland . proceedings of the biological society of washington 124 ( 4 ) : 280 - 309 .\nstauffer , j . r . , jr . , j . m . boltz , and l . r . white . 1995 . the fishes of west virginia . academy of natural sciences of philadelphia , philadelphia , pa .\nsublette , j . e . , m . d . hatch , and m . sublette . 1990 . the fishes of new mexico . new mexico department of game and fish , university of new mexico press , albuquerque , nm .\ntilmant , j . t . 1999 . management of nonindigenous aquatic fish in the u . s . national park system . national park service . 50 pp .\nwoodling , j . 1985 . colorado ' s little fish : a guide to the minnows and other lesser known fishes in the state of colorado . colorado division of wildlife , denver , co .\nzuckerman , l . d . , and r . j . behnke . 1986 . introduced fishes in the san luis valley , colorado . pages 435 - 452 in r . h . stroud , ed . fish culture in fisheries management . proceedings of a symposium on the role of fish culture in fisheries management at lake ozark , mo , march 31 - april 3 , 1985 . american fisheries society , bethesda , md .\npam fuller , and matt neilson , 2018 , dorosoma petenense ( g\u00fcnther , 1867 ) : u . s . geological survey , nonindigenous aquatic species database , gainesville , fl , urltoken revision date : 12 / 28 / 2016 , peer review date : 4 / 1 / 2016 , access date : 7 / 9 / 2018\nthis information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision . it is being provided to meet the need for timely best science . the information has not received final approval by the u . s . geological survey ( usgs ) and is provided on the condition that neither the usgs nor the u . s . government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information .\nthe data represented on this site vary in accuracy , scale , completeness , extent of coverage and origin . it is the user ' s responsibility to use these data consistent with their intended purpose and within stated limitations . we highly recommend reviewing metadata files prior to interpreting these data .\ncitation information : u . s . geological survey . [ 2018 ] . nonindigenous aquatic species database . gainesville , florida . accessed [ 7 / 9 / 2018 ] .\ncontact us if you are using data from this site for a publication to make sure the data are being used appropriately and for potential co - authorship if warranted . for queries involving fish , please contact pam fuller . for queries involving invertebrates , contact amy benson ."]}
{"id": 2515, "summary": [{"text": "the fitzinger 's robber frog ( craugastor fitzingeri ) is a species of frog in the family craugastoridae .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is found in colombia , costa rica , honduras , nicaragua , and panama .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests , subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , and heavily degraded former forest . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "craugastor fitzingeri", "paragraphs": ["craugastor ( craugastor ) fitzingeri \u2014 hedges , duellman , and heinicke , 2008 , zootaxa , 1737 : 37 .\nhylodes ( craugastor ) fitzingeri \u2014 cope , 1862 , proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , 14 : 153 .\ncraugastor fitzingeri eats a variety of invertebrate prey items ( lieberman 1986 ) . shifts in prey preferences occur as individuals age ( whitfield and donnelly 2006 ) .\ncraugastor fitzingeri does not aggregate or coordinate with other individuals when calling ( duellman 1976 ) . however , calling is thought to aid males in spacing themselves territorially ( savage 2002 ) .\nindividuals may be found on low vegetation and debris in the forest , and near forest edges ( savage 2002 ) . snakes such as liophis epinephalus consume craugastor fitzingeri ( sexton and heatewole 1965 ) .\nhylodes ( craugastor ) pulchrigulus \u2014 cope , 1863 , proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , 15 : 48 .\nhylodes ( craugastor ) griseus \u2014 cope , 1863 , proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , 15 : 48 .\nlithodytes ( craugastor ) griseus \u2014 cope , 1866 , proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , 18 : 132 .\neleutherodactylus ( craugastor ) fitzingeri \u2014 hedges , 1989 , in woods ( ed . ) , biogeograph . w . indies : 317 , by implication ; lynch , 1996 , in powell and henderson ( eds . ) , contr . w . indian herpetol . : 154 .\ncraugastor fitzingeri \u2014 crawford and smith , 2005 , mol . phylogenet . evol . , 35 : 551 , by implication ; frost , grant , faivovich , bain , haas , haddad , de s\u00e1 , channing , wilkinson , donnellan , raxworthy , campbell , blotto , moler , drewes , nussbaum , lynch , green , and wheeler , 2006 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 297 : 360 .\nboth species are members of the rugulosus species group , and are limited to forested riparian habitats . these species are much more robust frogs ( they have been described as\nfitzingeri on steroids\n) , and with experience are easily distinguished from\neleutherodactylus fitzingeri \u2014 stejneger , 1904 , annu . rep . u . s . natl . mus . for 1902 : 582 - 583 , by implication ; dunn , 1931 , occas . pap . boston soc . nat . hist . , 5 : 385 .\ncraugastor pulchrigulus cope , 1862 , proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , 14 : 357 . holotype : usnm 4354 , lost , according to savage , 1974 , herpetologica , 30 : 296 , who designated lacm 76859 neotype . lynch and myers , 1983 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 175 : 530 , rejected the neotype designation . type locality :\ntruando\n, depto . choc\u00f3 , colombia . neotype from\npanam\u00e1 : canal zone : barro colorado island , near the laboratory\n. synonymy by savage , 1974 , herpetologica , 30 : 298 .\nhylodes fitzingeri schmidt , 1857 , sitzungsber . akad . wiss . wien , phys . math . naturwiss . kl . , 24 : 12 . holotype : km 1012 / 1343 , lost according to savage , 1970 , proc . california acad . sci . , ser . 4 , 38 : 273\u2013288 , who designated lacm 76859 neotype . lynch and myers , 1983 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 175 : 530 , discussed reasons for rejecting the neotype designation . type locality :\nneu - granada\n; expanded by schmidt , 1858 , denkschr . akad . wiss . wien , math . naturwiss . kl . , 14 : 248 to\ncordilleren von neu - granada [ western panama ] in einer h\u00f6he von gegen 4000\u2032 [ polish feet , therefore = 915 m , according to savage , 1970 , proc . california acad . sci . , ser . 4 , 38 : 273\u2013288 ]\n. neotype from\npanam\u00e1 : canal zone : barro colorado island , near the laboratory\n.\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfrost , d . r . 2015 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 . new york , usa . available at : urltoken .\nthis species was previously within the genus eleutherodactylus ( crawford and smith , 2005 ) .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , tolerance of a degree of habitat modification , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis species is known from northeastern honduras and northwestern costa rica , south to northwestern colombia , up to 1 , 520m asl .\nthis species is often common in costa rica , although populations have undergone some recorded declines at la selva ( federico bola\u00f1os pers . comm . ) .\nan inhabitant of humid lowland and montane forest , and is often seen in disturbed forest or forest edge . in lowland dry forest areas , it is restricted to riparian gallery forest in the dry season , but disperses throughout forest in the wet season ( federico bola\u00f1os pers . comm . ) . reproduction occurs by direct development . in colombia , it has not been recorded from secondary forest .\nmuseum specimens of this species have been found to have chytrid fungi ( r . puschendorf pers . comm . ) , but populations are still high . there are no major threats to the species habitat overall at present as it has a wide range .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nthe following account comes from lynch and myers ( 1983 ) , savage ( 2002 ) , and personal observations .\nare moderate - sized frogs . adult males have snout - vent lengths ( svl ) of 23 . 5 - 35 . 0 mm , adult females ' svl reaches 52 . 5 mm . skin on dorsum is mildly tuberculate and variably patterns with different shades of brown , tan and black . ventral skin is quite smooth . the ventral abdomen is bright white in adults , while the ventral thighs are often yellowy . the two main field characters for identification are 1 ) the distinct yellowish dots on the otherwise brown posterior surface of the thighs , and 2 ) the presence of fine pigmentation in the gular ( throat ) region that is conspicuously absent from the middle of the gular area , thus forming a white longitudinal mid - gular stripe . gular pigmentation is sometimes faded or absent , however , and the mid - gular stripe difficult to observe .\nadult males can usually be sexed by their larger tympanum ( 3 / 5 to 4 / 5 of eye length in males , but 2 / 5 to 3 / 5 of eye length in females ) , and by the presence of a rather small white nuptial pad on the thumb . males also have vocal slits on the floor of their mouths . subgular vocal sac not usually evident externally . finger i longer than finger ii ; disc on fingers i and ii round , and on fingers iii and iv truncate . toes more or less webbed , the modal webbing formula is = i 2 - - 2 + ii 1 3 / 4 - 3 - iii 21 / 2 - 4 - iv 4 - - 21 / 2 . lateral fringes on unwebbed portion of toes .\ndisplay a variety of color patterns from gray brown , orangish brown up olive . some animals have a mediodorsal stripe that can be light brown , gray or yellowish . occasionally frogs have an irregular stripe that can form a w - shape over the scapular area of the back . the lips have gray or brown lineal stripes alternated with whitish stripes . tiny hatchings are nearly black all over , with a bright white gular stripe that appears almost painted on .\nare found in sympatry and both have yellow dots on the posterior thighs . however , the dots in\nmight also have a longer rostrum and sharper canthus rostralis , but this has not been verified . two other species of\ninhabits humid lowlands and lower montane forest ( 0 - 1200 m ) from eastern honduras and southward along both atlantic and pacific versants of costa rica and panama , and into northwestern colombia in the inter - andean valleys and in the chocoan lowlands as far south as the bay of buenaventura . detailed locality records are found in the following references : mccranie and wilson ( 2002 ) on honduras , koehler ( 2001 ) on nicaragua , savage ( 2002 ) on costa rica , and lynch and myers ( 1983 ) on panama and colombia .\nthis species is one of the most common species in southwest costa rica occurring in secondary and primary forest . in this region they make up an important component , ~ 50 % of prey , in the diets of the snakes bothrops asper and leptodiera septentrionalis ( ryan , unpublished ) .\noccurs in a variety of habitats , from the wet rain forests of northwestern of colombia to seasonally dry gallery forest on the pacific side of central panama .\nis commonly found in disturbed places including shrubs near houses and pastures ( pers . obs . ) , however this species also occurs in primary forest ( lynch and myers 1983 ) .\nis mainly nocturnal , but it is possible to find it by day on the forest floor , or concealed in leaf litter . at night one usually finds these frogs on leaves or low branches . lynch and myers ( 1983 ) report finding this species on rocks in small streams . often one hears\nstart to call sporadically at around 3 or 4 o ' clock in the afternoon ( pers . obs . ) .\nhas two distinct calls ( lynch and myers 1983 ; ibanez et al . 1999 ) . one call sounds very much like a person striking two small stones together about eight times , starting slowly but with increasing frequency . in fact , the patient observer will often find that she can get\nto respond to this noise in the field ( g . hoebel , pers . comm . ; pers . obs . ) . some people visiting or native to lower central america occasionally mistake this\ncall for the call of an introduced species of house gecko that is commonly heard inside buildings in urban areas here . the second call of\nconsists of one or two click sounds , that may be reasonably imitated by a person using the tongue against the roof of one ' s mouth . calls of\nare otherwise sporadic and the calling frog difficult to locate . however , it does seem they will call in response to each other ' s calls , as well as human imitations or recordings of conspecifics ( lynch and myers 1983 ) . although not experimentally demonstrated , the second , shorter call may be a more aggressive , territorial call ( lynch and myers 1983 )\nthe males call generally from elevated positions on low plants . hoebel ( 1999 ) made the following observations on\nat la selva biological station , heredia , costa rica . the height of perch sites varied between 0 and 1 . 6 m , and the males perched significantly higher that females or juveniles . there were no significant differences in perch height between calling and silent males , between males calling by day or night , or between males calling on dry or rainy nights . because males that call only sporadically are difficult to locate , lynch and myers ( 1983 ) suggested that this calling behavior may be an adaptation to avoid acoustically foraging predators such as the frog - eating bat ,\nshows direct development , often with some form of parental care of the terrestrial eggs ( savage 2002 ) . females attend eggs that are typically deposited in the leaf litter or in holes in tree buttresses . mendoza et al . ( 2002 ) report finding a nest in a small cavity on the ground containing a clutch of 85 round and yellowish eggs , with a female\nsitting on the nest . ryan ( 2005 ) reports eggs are placed and cared for in small depressions on the forest floor under the leaf litter , but can be found in litter piles near buttresses . in southwest costa rica eggs with attendant females have been found in january , february , april , june , and september , suggesting prolonged breeding that spans the dry and wet seasons . average number of eggs per clutch was 67 . 3 \u00b1 19 . 8 ( range 24 \u2013 81 ) eggs for 10 clutches . average nest dimensions was 61 x 69 x 23 mm ( length x width x depth ) . during the day females sit on the eggs completely covering the entire clutch , and she stay with the eggs until they hatch ( ryan 2005 ) . hatchlings are 7 . 2 mm svl and possess a visible yellow yolk sac and stay near the nest for up to 24 hours after hatching ( ryan 2005 ) .\nis among the most abundant and widespread frogs of lower central america . among native species of\n, this one may be the most tolerant of habitat disturbance and open spaces . this frog can be found crossing lawns , calling from manicured bushes and low thickets , but never too far from forested habitat . therefore , this species is of very low conservation concern relative to other frogs .\nthese frogs are non - poisonous and completely harmless . they are probably not consumed by people .\nthe karyotype is 2n = 22 , typically with two pairs of metacentric chromosomes , three of submetacentric , three telocentrics and one subtelocentric chromosome . however , individual and geographic variation can be found especially in the number of metacentric and submetacentric pairs so that the nf = 36 , 38 , 40 ( de weese 1976 cited in savage 2002 ) .\nlynch , j . d . and duellman , w . e . ( 1997 ) .\nlynch , j . d . , and myers , c . w . ( 1983 ) . ' ' frogs of the\nmccranie , j . r . , and wilson , l . d . ( 2002 ) . ' ' the amphibians of honduras . ' '\nk . adler and t . d . perry , eds . , society for the study of amphibians and reptiles , ithaca , new york .\nquijano , f . m . , santos - barrera , g . , and pacheco - rodr\u00edguez , j . ( 2002 ) . ' '\nlos anfibios del monumento natural barro colorado , parque nacional soberania y areas adyacentes / the amphibians of barro colorado nature monument , soberania national park and adjacent areas .\nryan , m . j . ( 2005 ) . ' ' egg attendance by female frogs in two species of eleutherodactylus from costa rica . ' '\ncarolina pola\u00f1a and andrew crawford ( caropil at yahoo . com , crawfordaj at naos . si . edu ) , smithsonian tropical research institute\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspecies description based on savage ( 2002 ) . medium - sized frog . males to 35 mm , females to 53 mm .\nthe color of the dorsal surface ranges from gray - brown to brown to orange - brown . a lighter middorsal stripe is sometimes present . the dorsal surface is quite warty , with some ridging .\nthe belly is pale white or yellow , while the throat is almost always grey with a white line down the center . the ventral surface is smooth .\nthe rear surface of the thigh has many light yellow spots on a dark brown to black background . the upper surface of the thigh usually has some dark bars . the undersides of the thighs are usually yellowish or greenish .\niris grayish or bronzish ( one , the other , or both ) , with a brown or red stripe dividing the upper and lower halves .\ndunn ( 1931 ) reported a clutch of 44 eggs attended by a male found in leaf litter . later studies suggested it was probably a female because of its large size ( lynch and myers 1983 ) .\na series of harsh clacks ( savage 2002 ) that sounds rather like a cackle . males generally call after heavy rains and around dusk , but do not call late into the night ( savage 2002 ) . the vocal sac is internal ( savage 2002 ) .\ntracie\nthe bug lady\ninvites you on an out of this world walk on . . .\na night tour would not be complete without encountering a common rain frog . this is by far the most common nocturnal frog in drake bay .\nthey are medium sized frogs , and adults measure between 23 and 53 millimeters . as with most frogs , females are much larger than males . males are very vocal and can be heard calling sporadically throughout the night , much more frequently during the rainy season .\ntheir advertising call has been described as a series of\nclacks\n, resembling two small rocks being struck against one another . males will respond to other calling males as well as to humans imitators . this makes locating these frogs a much easier task . it seems that males respond to other calls with a much shorter and harsher cackle , possibly a territorial call . males seem to be quite territorial and we have had several irate frogs approach us frantically when we call out to them .\ncoloration and color patterns may be quite variable within this species . some individuals have a stripe running down their back , some have spots , while others have a solid color . coloration may range from gray to brown and anywhere in between .\nthis has led to much confusion and many misidentifications of these frogs by researchers throughout the years .\neven with all of these variations , they do have a few distinguishing characteristics . a pattern of yellow spots overlaid on a dark background located on the back of the thighs and a diffuse white line running down the middle of their throat are diagnostic . their call is also diagnostic . since females don ' t call , though , this is only useful in identifying males .\ndespite being so abundant , common rain frogs have proven to be something of an enigma for scientists . the first recorded discovery of their nest dates back to june 2 , 1931 . dunn found a nest with 44 eggs laid on the ground , underneath leaf litter . there was an adult frog , probably a female , guarding the egg clutch .\nincredibly , this was the only recorded egg clutch found by scientists for over 70 years ! during these 7 decades researches pursued , unsuccessfully , their quest for the common rain frog ' s egg clutch . a thirteen month study of the leaf litter carried out at la selva biological station failed to reveal any nests .\nin 2002 , 71 years after the first nest was discovered , mendoza found a second common rain frog nest on the ground with 85 eggs and a female frog guarding them . the embryos in this species go through direct development inside the egg . they never have a free swimming tadpole stage and tiny , fully formed frogs emerge from the eggs .\ncommon rain frogs are known to exist in humid zones of honduras , nicaragua , costa rica , panama , and colombia .\n\u00a9 2018 gianfranco g\u00f3mez and tracie stice . all rights reserved . the use of any photographs , reproduced in any form or by any means , electronic or mechanical , or stored in a retrieval system , without prior consent of the owner - is an infringement of the copyright law and is forbidden .\nfitzinger ' s robber frog found in corcovado , costa rica in 2013 . filmed by heidi rockney\n* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .\nwill find all uses of\nhyl . . .\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hylarana , hyla , hylidae , hylinae , hylaedactyla .\nwill find all uses of\n. . . hyla\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hyla , hylidae , plectrohyla , ptychadena hylaea , adenomera hylaedactyla\nwill find all records that contain stand - alone uses of hyla : e . g . , hyla , hyla arenicolor\ninterprets this as\nlithobates or pipiens\nso will find the union of all records that contain either\nlithobates\nor\npipiens\n: e . g . , lithobates omiltemanus , hylorana pipiens\ninterprets this as\nlithobates and pipiens\nso will return all records that have the character string\nlithobates pipiens\nanywhere within a record : e . g . , all members of the lithobates pipiens complex .\nhyla grisea hallowell , 1861\n1860\n, proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , 12 : 485 . holotype : not stated , although possibly still in usnm ; reported as ansp , lost , by savage , 1974 , herpetologica , 30 : 296 , who designated lacm 76859 neotype . lynch and myers , 1983 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 175 : 530 , rejected the neotype designation . type locality :\nnicaragua\n. neotype from\npanam\u00e1 : canal zone : barro colorado island , near the laboratory\n. synonymy by savage , 1974 , herpetologica , 30 : 289\u2013299 .\nleiyla g\u00fcntheri keferstein , 1868 , arch . naturgesch . , 34 : 296 . holotype : ziug , now destroyed , according to savage , 1974 , herpetologica , 30 : 296 , who designated lacm 76859 as neotype . lynch and myers , 1983 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 175 : 530 , rejected the neotype designation . type locality :\ncostarica\n. neotype from\npanam\u00e1 : canal zone : barro colorado island , near the laboratory\n. also described as new by keferstein , 1868 , nachr . ges . wiss . g\u00f6ttingen , 1868 : 330 . synonymy by savage , 1974 , herpetologica , 30 : 289 - 299 . junior secondary homonym of hylodes g\u00fcntheri steindachner , 1864 .\nlithodytes guentheri \u2014 cope , 1887 , bull . u . s . natl . mus . , 32 : 16 .\nliohyla guentheri \u2014 g\u00fcnther , 1900 , biol . centr . amer . , rept . batr . , vol . 7 , part 155 : 220 .\nhylodes nubilus g\u00fcnther , 1901 , biol . centr . amer . , rept . batr . , vol . 7 , part 162 : 237 . holotype : bmnh 1947 . 2 . 15 . 80 ( formerly 1902 . 5 . 13 . 29 ) , according to xxx . type locality :\ncosta rica , [ provincia de san jos\u00e9 , cant\u00f3n de escaz\u00fa , ] escazu\n, 1000 m . savage , 1974 , rev . biol . tropical , 22 : 90 , commented on the type locality . synonymy by savage , 1974 , herpetologica , 30 : 289 - 299 .\neleutherodactylus nubilus \u2014 noble , 1918 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 38 : 331 . taylor , 1952 , univ . kansas sci . bull . , 35 : 762 .\neleutherodactylus griseus \u2014 cei , 1956 , invest . zool . chilen . , 3 : 54 .\nfitzinger ' s robber frog ( frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 74 ) .\nhumid lowlands and lower montane forest ( 0\u20131200 m ) from northeastern honduras , eastern nicaragua and south and east throughout both atlantic and pacific versants of costa rica and panama , and into northwestern colombia on the pacific lowlands and upper basins of the cauca river valley .\nplease note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .\nfor access to available specimen data for this species , from over 350 scientific collections , go to vertnet .\ncopyright \u00a9 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\namphibian species of the world : an online reference v5 . 3 , database ( version 5 . 3 )\nfrost , darrel r . 2009 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 3 ( 12 february , 2009 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service ."]}
{"id": 2516, "summary": [{"text": "metarminoidea is a provisional taxonomic superfamily of colourful sea slugs , aeolid nudibranchs , marine opisthobranch gastropod molluscs in the clade nudibranchia .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this name is unfortunately not available as a superfamily name , because it is not based on a genus .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it is used here because , as of february 2015 , no replacement name has yet been proposed . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "metarminoidea", "paragraphs": ["no one has contributed data records for metarminoidea yet . learn how to contribute .\nif you are generating a pdf of a journal article or book chapter , please feel free to enter the title and author information . the information you enter here will be stored in the downloaded file to assist you in managing your downloaded pdfs locally .\nthank you for your request . please wait for an email containing a link to download the pdf .\nsign up to receive the latest bhl news , content highlights , and promotions .\nbhl relies on donations to provide free pdf downloads and other services . help keep bhl free and open !\nthere was an issue with the request . please try again and if the problem persists , please send us feedback .\nfranc a . ( 1968 ) sous - classe des opisthobranches . in : p . grasse ( ed ) . traite de zoologie 5 ( 3 ) : 608 - 893 . page ( s ) : 878 [ details ]\nnomenclature introduced as\nnew\nin the trait\u00e9 de zoologie but actually dating back to metarminacea odhner , 1944 and spelled so . . .\nnomenclature introduced as\nnew\nin the trait\u00e9 de zoologie but actually dating back to metarminacea odhner , 1944 and spelled so elsewhere in the text ( pp . 629 , 665 ) . contains families madrellidae , dironidae , and zephyrinidae . treated as a superfamily and not available as such a family - group name ( not based on a genus ) . [ details ]\nvaught , k . c . ; tucker abbott , r . ; boss , k . j . ( 1989 ) . a classification of the living mollusca . american malacologists : melbourne . isbn 0 - 915826 - 22 - 4 . xii , 195 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nbouchet p . & rocroi j . - p . ( 2005 ) . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia . 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 isbn 3 - 925919 - 72 - 4 . [ details ]\nclassification for the gastropods , from listings in urltoken and ponder and lindberg , 1997 , modified to take into account the work of bouchet and rocroi , 2005 and strong and kohler , 2009 . the suffix for the superfamilies used here , - oidea , may be more technically correct than the\n- acea\nsuffix used elsewhere on this site . - acea is used in botany for plant families , and elsewhere in zoology occasionally , for example the mammalian order\ncetacea\n.\ncalyptraeoidea capuloidea carinarioidea cingulopsoidea cypraeoidea ficoidea laubierinoidea littorinoidea naticoidea rissooidea ( includes hydrobiidae , etc . ) stromboidea tonnoidea trivioidea vanikoroidea velutinoidea vermetoidea xenophoroidea\nponder , w . f . and lindberg , d . r . 1997 . towards a phylogeny of gastropod molluscs : an analysis using morphological characters . zoological journal of the linnean society . 119 : 83 - 265 .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncookies help us deliver our services . by using our services , you agree to our use of cookies . find out more\ngoniaeolis typica is a species of sea slug , a nudibranch , a marine gastropod mollusc in the family goniaeolididae . goniaeolis typica is the only species in the genus goniaeolis and it is the only genus within the family goniaeolididae .\ngonieolis is the original spelling , but incorrect subsequent spelling goniaeolis is conserved under art . 33 . 3 . 1 of the code . the synonymy with goniaeolis lobata was discussed in detail by odhner in 1922 .\nit is endemic to scandinavian waters . this species was described from kristiansund , norway . it has subsequently been reported from the skagerrak , the hardangerfjord , and at the mouth of the trondheimsfjord . the species is known from 30 to 666 m .\nexternal and internal anatomy was described by nils hjalmar odhner in detail in 1922 .\nolive snail ( olividae spp . ) leave marks in sand 1 / 2\nto 2\nlong phylum : mollusca class : gastropoda / univalvia\npacific blue mussel ( mytilus spp . ) also called\nbay\nor\nfoolish\nmussel phylum mollusca class bivalvia family mytilidae\ngiant pacific octopus ( gpo ) ( enteroctopus dofleini ) bigger than a basketball = gpo when small , look at eyes . no lashes = gpo largest and longest lived of all octopeds usually 100lbs phylum mollusca class cephalopoda\nred octopus ( octopus rubescens ) small . has lashes . phylum mollusca class cephalopoda\nsome images used in this set are licensed under the creative commons through urltoken . click to see the original works with their full license .\nthe dexiarchia are a clade of nudibranchs characterised by a right - laterally located anus and usually a more or less branched digestive gland . the basal genus\n[ bd86 ] barash , a . , & z . danin . 1986 . further additions to the knowledge of indo - pacific mollusca in the mediterranean sea ( lessepsian migrants ) .\n[ br05 ] bouchet , p . , & j . - p . rocroi . 2005 . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families .\n[ bw09 ] bryce , c . , & c . whisson . 2009 . the macromolluscs of mermaid ( rowley shoals ) , scott and seringapatam reefs , western australia .\n[ f27 ] finlay , h . j . 1927 . a further commentary on new zealand molluscan systematics .\n[ h01 ] huys , r . 2001 . splanchnotrophid systematics : a case of polyphyly and taxonomic myopia .\n[ kc11 ] kocot , k . m . , j . t . cannon , c . todt , m . r . citarella , a . b . kohn , a . meyer , s . r . santos , c . schander , l . l . moroz , b . lieb & k . m . halanych . 2011 . phylogenomics reveals deep molluscan relationships .\n[ mg - h11 ] mcennulty , f . r . , k . l . gowlett - holmes , a . williams , f . althaus , j . fromont , g . c . b . poore , t . d . o\u2019hara , l . marsh , p . kott , s . slack - smith , p . alderslade & m . v . kitahara . 2011 . the deepwater megabenthic invertebrates on the western continental margin of australia ( 100\u20131100 m depths ) : composition , distribution and novelty .\nvol . ii pt i . stanford university press : stanford university ( california ) .\n[ pp78 ] poorman , f . l . , & l . h . poorman . 1978 . additional molluscan records from bah\u00eda de los angeles , baja california norte .\nis a genus of relatively large bubble snails with a well - developed shell into which the animal is able to withdraw completely .\n[ c60 ] cox , l . r . 1960 . gastropoda : general characteristics of gastropoda .\npp . i84\u2013i169 . geological society of america , and university of kansas press .\n[ f27a ] finlay , h . j . 1927a . a further commentary on new zealand molluscan systematics .\n[ f27b ] finlay , h . j . 1927b . new specific names for austral mollusca .\n[ j49 ] johnson , r . i . 1949 . jesse wedgwood mighels with a bibliography and a catalogue of his species .\n[ m54 ] macpherson , j . h . 1954 . molluscs ( sea shells and snails ) .\nmalaquias , m . a . e . , & d . g . reid . 2008 . systematic revision of the living species of bullidae ( mollusca : gastropoda : cephalaspidea ) , with a molecular phylogenetic analysis .\nthe diaphanidae are a group of thin - shelled bubble snails lacking mantle parapodia , jaws or gizzard plates .\n( from ohnheiser & malaquias 2014 ) : umbilicate thin , fragile , voluminous shell present into which the animal is capable of retreating completely ; jaws and gizzard plates absent , radula usually with single lateral tooth on each side and rachidian present . foot usually forked posteriorly , parapodia absent . penis armed .\n[ a27 ] allan , r . s . 1927 . the geology and palaeontology of the lower waihao basin , south canterbury , new zealand .\n[ ph90 ] petit , r . e . & m . g . harasewych . 1990 . catalogue of the superfamily cancellarioidea forbes and hanley , 1851 ( gastropoda : prosobranchia ) .\nthe retusidae , canoe shells , are a family of cephalaspid gastropods characterised by the lack of a radula .\n[ gas03 ] gulbin , v . v . , i . s . arzamastsev & v . m . shulkin . 2003 . ecological monitoring of the water area of port vostochnyi ( wrangel bay ) in the sea of japan ( 1995\u20132002 ) .\n[ hs01 ] hayward , b . w . , a . b . stephenson , m . s . morley , w . m . blom , h . r . grenfell , f . j . brook , j . l . riley , f . thompson & j . j . hayward . 2001 . marine biota of parengarenga harbour , northland , new zealand .\nthe haminoeidae are a group of bubble snails that primarily graze on algal tissue and / or diatoms ; the shell may be partially or entirely covered by lateral outgrowths of the mantle . the shell may be thin and fragile as in the genus\n2014 ) : shell usually thin , translucent , fragile , occasionally solid and thick ; varying from bulloid to cylindrical - elongate ; spiral grooves may be present at ends or covering entire shell . mantle and other body parts usually dull and cryptically coloured , occasionally colourful or capable of changing colour to suit environment . muscular buccal bulb present containing chitinous jaws and radula formed by variably - shaped central tooth plus hook - shaped lateral teeth . fizzard present with three plates containing pointed rods .\n[ f27 ] finlay , h . j . 1927 . new specific names for austral mollusca .\nthe thecosomata , sea butterflies , are a group of pelagic marine gastropods that have the foot modified into a pair of wing - like parapodia used in swimming . most thecosomata retain a calcareous shell , though the shell is demineralised or lost in some subgroups .\n[ b26 ] bigelow , h . b . 1926 . plankton of the offshore waters of the gulf of maine .\nthe philinidae are a group of headshield slugs with a delicate internal shell and a dorsal aspect divided between the four regions of head , visceral mass and lateral parapodial lobes .\n[ aps - p86 ] arnaud , p . m . , cl . poizat & l . v . salvini - plawen . 1986 . marine - interstitial gastropoda ( including one freshwater interstitial species ) .\nthe gymnosomata , sea angels , are a group of shell - less , pelagic marine gastropods in which the foot has been modified into a pair of large parapodia used for swimming .\n[ h01 ] huys , r . 2001 . splanchnotrophid systematics : a case of polyphyly and taxonomic myopia .\nthe cavoliniidae are a group of sea butterflies with an uncoiled shell present at maturity .\nthe aplysiomorpha , sea hares and related taxa , are a group of soft - bodied marine gastropods with a reduced shell ( external in akeridae , internal in aplysiidae ) . they are characterised by the presence of the defensive opaline and purple glands in the mantle cavity , and an oesophageal gizzard containing an anterior chamber with large chitinous plates and a posterior chamber with numerous fine spines (\n[ cg99 ] carlton , j . t . , j . b . geller , m . l . reaka - kudla & e . a . norse . 1999 . historical extinctions in the sea .\n, pp . i84\u2013i169 . geological society of america , and university of kansas press .\n[ s11 ] simone , l . r . l . 2011 . phylogeny of the caenogastropoda ( mollusca ) , based on comparative morphology .\n[ tn03 ] thollesson , m . , & j . l . norenburg . 2003 . ribbon worm relationships : a phylogeny of the phylum nemertea .\nthe systellommatophora are a group of slug - like gastropods , including the marine onchidiidae and the terrestrial veronicelloidea . members of this group have two pairs of contractile tentacles on the head , with the eyes at the tip of the upper pair , and have the anus and renal opening at the posterior end of the body ( burch & pearce 1990 ) .\nvol . ii , pt i . stanford university press : stanford university ( california ) .\n[ tc89 ] tapparone canefri , t . 1889 . viaggio di leonardo fea in birmania e regioni vicine . xviii . \u2014molluschi terrestri e d\u2019acqua dolce .\nthe scaphopoda , tusk shells , are a group of benthic molluscs with a tubular shell that live buried in the sediment , feeding on micro - organisms . in members of the dentalioida , the shell generally tapers evenly , whereas gadilida commonly have the shell constricted toward the mouth . the two lineages also differ in foot morphology : dentalioida have the foot with an encircling sheath that is expanded laterally and interrupted dorsally ; gadilida have the foot simple and vermiform , or distally expanded into a symmetrical disc ( ludbrook 1960 ) .\n[ dk08 ] darragh , t . a . , & g . w . kendrick . 2008 . silicified eocene molluscs from the lower murchison district , southern carnarvon basin , western australia .\n[ go06 ] giribet , g . , a . okusu , a . r . lindgren , s . w . huff , m . schr\u00f6dl & m . k . nishiguchi . 2006 . evidence for a clade composed of molluscs with serially repeated structures : monoplacophorans are related to chitons .\n[ gr98 ] giribet , g . , & c . ribera . 1998 . the position of arthropods in the animal kingdom : a search for a reliable outgroup for internal arthropod phylogeny .\npp . i37\u2013i41 . geological society of america , and university of kansas press .\n, a new genus and new species of ordovician scaphopod , and the early history of scaphopod mollusks .\n[ sw11 ] smith , s . a . , n . g . wilson , f . e . goetz , c . feehery , s . c . s . andrade , g . w . rouse , g . giribet & c . w . dunn . 2011 . resolving the evolutionary relationships of molluscs with phylogenomic tools .\n[ s98 ] stilwell , j . d . 1998 . late cretaceous mollusca from the chatham islands , new zealand .\ni ' m an entomologist and taxonomist , currently based in perth , western australia . if you ' d like to comment ( or offer work ) , i can be e - mailed at gerarus at westnet . com . au .\nthe information presented on this site has been collated from a number of external sources . apart from the time taken to bring it all together , very little of it represents my own work . all images and quoted text remain the intellectual property of their original owners , and remain subject to all relevant copyrights and controls . if you re - use anything taken from this site , please attribute it to the original owner . if you are the intellectual owner of anything presented and you are unhappy with the manner of its usage , please do not hesitate to contact me so that i may rectify things .\na nudibranch is any of the soft - bodied , shell - less marine gastropods comprising the mollusk taxon ( order or suborder ) nudibranchia . found on the bottom of oceans throughout the world , from reefs and sandy shallows to seabeds a mile deep , there are more than 3 , 000 known species of nudibranchs ( holland 2008 ) . the word\nnudibranch ,\nwhich comes from the latin nudus for\nnaked ,\nand the greek brankhia for gills , describes their feathery gills and horns that many have on their dorsal sides ( ngs 2008 ) . nudibranchs sometimes are called sea slugs , although this term technically applies to a more inclusive taxon of marine gastropod mollusks , heterobranchia ( which includes , but is not exclusive to , the nudibranchs ) .\nnudibranchs are known for their often extraordinary colors , striking forms , and intricate patterns . such brilliant hues and fascinating shapes have added greatly to the wonder of nature . however , nudibranchs also provide important ecological functions , playing an important role in marine food chains , both as predator ( corals , sponges , anemones , barnacles , fish ) and prey ( fish , sea spiders , turtles , sea stars ) \u2014the latter role despite protective mechanisms ranging from poisons , to camouflage , to stinging cells .\nnudibranchs are members of the gastropod class ( gastropoda ) of mollusks . as gastropods , their body plan involves a torsion or twisting during larval development whereby the visceral mass twists 180 degrees in relation to the head . gastropoda ( meaning\nstomach - foot\n) is typified by a large , ventral , muscular foot for locomotion , and a distinct head that has eyes and sensory tentacles .\nthe taxon that nudibranchs comprise , nudibranchia , generally is placed either at the suborder level , under the order opisthobranchia of the superorder heterobranchia and subclass orthogastropoda , or at the order level under the subclass opisthobranchia ( itis 2004 ) . while often casually called\nsea slugs ,\nthere are numerous other kinds of sea slugs belonging to several taxonomic groups that are not very closely related to nudibranchs . a fair number of these other sea slugs are colorful and thus are even more easily confused with nudibranchs .\nthe body forms of nudibranchs vary enormously , but because they are opisthobranchs , unlike most other gastropods they are bilaterally symmetrical because they have undergone secondary detorsion . the adult form is without a shell or operculum ( a bony or horny plate covering the opening of the shell , when the body is withdrawn ) . often oblong in shape , some are thick and other flattened , and some are short and others long ( ngs 2008 ) . they vary in adult size from six millimeters ( 0 . 25 inches ) to 31 centimeters ( 12 inches ) in length ( ngs 2008 ) . nudibranchs have cephalic ( head ) tentacles and oral tentacles , which are sensitive to touch , taste , and smell . two club - shaped rhinophores ( highly sensitive head - mounted sensory appendages or tentacles ) detect odors .\nthe name nudibranch is appropriate , since the dorids ( infraclass anthobranchia ) breathe through a branchial plume of bushy extremities on their back , rather than using gills . by contrast , on the back of the aeolids in infraclass cladobranchia , there are brightly colored sets of tentacles called cerata .\nnudibranchs occur in marine environments worldwide , in all the world ' s oceans , and can be found depths nearly a mile down , but are most abundant , and reach their greatest size and variation , in shallow , tropical waters ( ngs 2008 ) .\nwhile they lack shells , nudibranchs have developed other defense mechanisms : poisons , stinging cells , and camouflage .\nsome nudibranchs have toxic secretions , mostly derived from the poisons of their prey but some have poisons of their own making ( holland 2008 ) . for example , some species consume toxic sponges and alter and store the poisonous compounds and secrete them from skin cells or glands as needed ( holland 2008 ) .\nsome utilize stinging cells , ingested from anemones , fire corals , and hydroids , and employ these along their own extremities ( holland 2008 ) . nudibranchs that feed on hydroids can store the hydroid ' s nematocysts ( stinging cells ) in the dorsal body wall , the cerata ( frick 2003 ) . the nematocysts can move through the alimentary tract without harming the nudibranch . once further into the organism , the cells are brought to specific placements on the creature ' s hind body via intestinal protuberances . it is not yet clear how the nudibranches can protect themselves from the hydroids and their nematocysts , but special cells with large vacuoles probably play an important role .\nthe vivid color of various nudibranchs helps to warn predators of such defenses . among the nudibranchs can be found the most colorful creatures on earth . the intense and bright coloring , such as especially seen on chromodorids , warns that they are distasteful or poisonous ( aposematic coloration ) .\ncamouflage also is used . the anatomy and color of nudibranchs may resemble the texture and color of the surrounding plants , sponges , and substrate , allowing them to be difficult to discern . some may mimic toxic nudibranches .\nthe tough - skin and abrasive quality of nudibranchs also may be a detriment ( holland 2008 ) . another way of protection is the release of a sour liquid from the skin . once the specimen is physically irritated or touched by another creature , it will release the slime automatically .\nnudibranchs are carnivorous , feeding on sponges , hydroids , bryozoans , coral , barnacles , eggs , tunicates , anemones , or small fish . some eat other nudibranches , including members of their own species . some graze on algae . some nudibranchs derive nutrition from ingested photosynthetic algae ( holland 2008 ) .\ndespite their protective mechanisms , nudibranchs have a number of predators , including certain species of fish , sea spiders , turtles , crabs , and sea stars , as well as some people ( such as chileans and islanders from off alaska and russia ) who consume them after removing the toxic organs ( holland 2008 ) .\nnudibranchs are simultaneous hermaphroditic , and thus have a set of reproductive organs for both genders . they can rarely fertilize themselves , but can mate with any other mature members of their species ( ngs 2008 ) .\nnudibranchs typically deposit their eggs within a gelatinous spiral ( klussmann - kolb 2001 ) . some masses ( coils , ribbons , or tangled clumbs ) may reach up to two million at a time ( holland 2008 ) .\nthe taxonomy of the nudibranchia is still under investigation and is subject to frequent revision . many taxonomists in the past treated the nudibranchia as an order , based on the authoritative work of johannes thiele ( 1931 ) , who built on the concepts of henri milne - edwards ( 1848 ) . newer insights derived from morphological data and gene - sequence research have supported the basic taxonomic divisions . on the basis of investigation of 18s rdna sequence data , there is strong evidence for support of the monophyly of the nudibranchia and its two major groups , the anthobranchia / doridoidea and cladobranchia .\ncompeting taxonomies remain , with nudibranchia variously considered an order or a suborder , and diverse classes and subclasses recognized ; for example , opisthobranchia may variously be considered an order or a subclass . ponder and lindberg ( 1997 ) recognize two subclasses within gastropoda ( orthogastropoda and eogastropoda ) , with nudibranchia placed within the subclass orthogastropoda . the integrated taxonomic information system recognizes nudibranchia as an order in the subclass opisthobranchia ( itis 2004 ) .\nthe dorids ( infraorder anthobranchia ) have the following characteristics : the branchial plume forms a cluster on the posterior part of the neck , around the eyes . fringes on the mantle do not contain any intestines .\nthe aeolids ( infraorder cladobranchia ) have the following characteristics : instead of the branchial plume , they have cerata . they lack a mantle . only species of the cladobranchia are reported to house zooxanthellae .\nschr\u00f6dl et al . ( 2001 ) have offered other revisions in the taxonomy of the nudibranchia . here they are divided into two major clades :\ndexiarchia nom . nov . ( = doridoxoidea + dendronotoidea + aeolidoidea + \u201carminoidea\u201d ) .\nfrick , k . 2003 . predator suites and flabellinid nudibranch nematocyst complements in the gulf of maine proceedings of the 22nd annual scientific diving symposium , american academy of underwater sciences . greenville , north carolina . retrieved july 23 , 2008 .\nholland , j . s . 2008 . living color : toxic nudibranchs\u2014soft , seagoing slugs\u2014produce a brilliant defense national geographic , june 2008 . retrieved july 23 , 2008 .\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . 2004 . nudibranchia blainville , 1814 itis taxonomic serial no . : 78156 . retrieved july 23 , 2008 .\nklussmann - kolb , a . 2001 . the reproductive systems of the nudibranchia ( gastropoda , opisthobranchia ) : comparative histology and ultrastructure of the nidamental glands with aspects of functional morphology zoologischer anzeiger 240 ( 2 ) : 119\u2013136 . retrieved july 23 , 2008 .\nnational geographic society . 2008 . nudibranch ( nudibranchia ) national geographic society . retrieved july 23 , 2008 .\nponder , w . f . , and d . r . lindberg . 1997 . \u201ctowards a phylogeny of gastropod molluscs : an analysis using morphological characters . \u201d zoological journal of the linnean society 119 : 83 - 2651 .\nschr\u00f6dl , m . , h . w\u00e4gele , and r . c . willan . 2001 . taxonomic redescription of the doridoxidae ( gastropoda : opisthobranchia ) , an enigmatic family of deep water nudibranchs , with discussion of basal nudibranch phylogeny zoologischer anzeiger 240 ( 1 ) : 83 - 97 . retrieved july 23 , 2008 .\nw\u00e4gele , h . , and r . c . willan . 2000 . phylogeny of the nudibranchia . zoological journal of the linnean society 1 ( 1 ) : 83\u2013181 .\nnew world encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the wikipedia article in accordance with new world encyclopedia standards . this article abides by terms of the creative commons cc - by - sa 3 . 0 license ( cc - by - sa ) , which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution . credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the new world encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the wikimedia foundation . to cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats . the history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here :\nnote : some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed .\nthis page was last modified on 26 july 2008 , at 23 : 44 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution / share - alike license ; additional terms may apply . see terms of use for details .\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30ab\u30eb\u30b3\u30c6\u30a3\u30a2\u79d1\nto\ncharcotiidae\n.\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30d8\u30ed\u79d1\nto\nheroidae\n.\njennifer hammock split the classifications by marlin resource from janolus cristatus ( delle chiaje , 1841 ) to their own page .\nsarah miller marked\ndescription\nas hidden on the\nhero formosa loven , 1841\npage . reasons to hide : duplicate\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nhelix pomatia sealed in its shell with a calcareous epiphragm snail is a common name loosely applied to shelled gastropods . the name is most often applied to land snails , terrestrial pulmonate gastropod molluscs . however , the common name snail is also used for most of the members of the molluscan class gastropoda that have a coiled shell that is large enough for the animal to retract completely into . when the word \u201csnail\u201d is used in this most general sense , it includes not just land snails but also numerous species of sea snails and freshwater snails . gastropods that naturally lack a shell , or have only an internal shell , are mostly called slugs , and land snails that have only a very small shell ( that they cannot retract into ) are often called semi - slugs . snails have considerable human relevance , including as food items , as pests , as vectors of disease , and their shells are used as decorative objects and are incorporated into jewelry . the snail has also had some cultural significance , and has been used as a metaphor .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\noriginal file name : haeckel _ nudibranchia . jpg resolution : 1139x1617 file size : 926900 bytes date : 2007 : 09 : 01 22 : 38 : 05 upload time : 2007 : 09 : 01 22 : 41 : 10\n, the largest suborder of the order opisthobranchia . there are more than 3 , 000 described species .\ncomes from latin nudus meaning\nnaked\n, and greek brankhia meaning\ngills\n. the name is appropriate since the dorids ( infraclass anthobranchia ) breathe through a branchial plume of bushy extremities on their back , rather than using gills . by contrast , on the back of the aeolids in infraclass cladobranchia there are brightly colored sets of tentacles called cerata .\ns have cephalic ( head ) tentacles , which are sensitive to touch , taste , and smell . club - shaped rhinophores detect the odors .\ns , or , on some occasions , members of their own species . there is also a group that feeds on tunicates and\nbody forms can vary wildly . they lack a mantle cavity . their size varies from 40 to 600 mm .\nthey occur worldwide at all depths , but they reach their greatest size and variation in warm , shallow waters .\n, they have had to evolve another means of defense : camouflage , through color patterns that make them invisible ( cryptic behavior ) or warn off predators as being distasteful or poisonous ( aposematic behavior ) . champions in their colorful display are the chromodorids . the\ns that feed on hydroids store the hydroid ' s nematocysts ( stinging cells ) in the dorsal body wall . this enables the\n( 1848 ) . but new insights through morphological data and gene - sequence research , cause some confidence in the congruence of the data sets of the new and the old . on the basis of investigation of 18s rdna sequence data , there has been found strong evidence for support of the monophyly of the\nthe dorids ( infraorder anthobranchia ) have the following characteristics : the branchial plume forms a cluster on the posterior part of the neck , around the eyes . fringes on the mantle do not contain any intestines .\nthe aeolids ( infraorder cladobranchia ) have the following characteristics : instead of the branchial plume , they have cerata . they lack a mantle . only species of the cladobranchia are reported to home . zooxanthellae .\nthe text in this page is based on the copyrighted wikipedia article shown in above url . it is used under the gnu free documentation license . you may redistribute it , verbatim or modified , providing that you comply with the terms of the gfdl .\nurltoken does not have the copyright for this image . this photograph or artwork is copyright by the photographer or the original artist . if you are to use this photograph , please contact the copyright owner or the poster .\ncopyleft \u00a9 since 1995 , animal pictures archive . all rights may be reserved ."]}
{"id": 2518, "summary": [{"text": "pasty ( 1 may 1973 \u2013 12 february 1993 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse and broodmare .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "she was the leading two-year-old filly of her generation in britain in 1975 when she was undefeated in five races including the lavant stakes , lowther stakes and cheveley park stakes .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "she failed to progress as a three-year-old and finished no better than fourth in her five races .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "she was then retired to become a broodmare and produced at least three minor winners . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "pasty ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["pasty was retired from racing to become a broodmare and produced at least ten foals between 1978 and 1991 . pasty died in australia on 12 february 1993 .\nthe cornish pasty association is a community interest company , registered in england and wales , no 07847774 . \u0003copyright \u00a9 2016 cornish pasty association . all rights reserved .\nthe chough bakery world pasty championships 2016 gold titleholders these guys know a thing or two about pasty excellence . it\u2019s \u201c the only place to buy a cornish pasty\u201d argues russell jackson and many others agree . find it smack bang in the middle of the quayside in padstow .\na devon pasty - crimped on the top , not on the side . photograph : alamy\nunderstanding the news , 127 years ago today . pasty central day in history , february 17th .\nwith their newly won protected geographical status , the name of the cornish pasty can no longer be taken in vain . our top five are below , but where do you go for a proper pasty ?\nsarah\u2019s pasty shop you\u2019ll smell this pasty shop before you see it says paul darcey for it\u2019s ickle in size but big on flavour . hunt it down in the heart of looe and make an agonising decision between the traditional or pasty - with - a - twist options . sarah gets a big thumbs up for her ultimate breakfast pasty crammed with sausagemeat , bacon , mushrooms , tomato , baked beans , egg and flaked potato ( an ingenious creation ) and there\u2019s lots of love for fishy friday when locally caught fish makes pasty perfection .\nhorse muscle fibre is different . the colour of horse meat is a darker red than beef and the fat is a yellow \u2013 orange colour which is completely different .\nhorse and jockey bakery gives excellent value for money . the standard pasty is massive , good filling and pastry . all locally made . the cakes and rolls again worth every penny . well worth a visit .\nlike williams ' other good horses , which included may hill , pasty was sent into training with peter walwyn at lambourn in berkshire .\nthe cornish bakery with six shops in cornwall and even more across the midlands and south of england , the cornish bakery has gone big in spreading pasty love and boy do they do it well . their winning formula of mevagissey roots , proper cornish innovation and award - winning status ( their traditional steak scored top marks in the 2013 world pasty championships no less ) has made them part of the pasty elite . there ' s just a little bit of craziness for their speciality \u2018travelling empanada\u2019 pasty - imagine the good old pasty combined with spicy flavours from around the world and you\u2019re on the right track . and the best bit ? 5p from every purchase goes to cornish mining heritage . good work guys !\nwarrens bakery you don\u2019t get to be the oldest cornish pasty producer in the world and the oldest bakery in cornwall without earning a few fans along the way and didn\u2019t our social media callout show it ! in little over 150 years warren\u2019s bakery has gone from having just one pasty shop in st just and feeding the cornish miners , to having their name above the door of 50 bakeries and satisfying the pasty masses . oh , and they have played no small part in commercialising the cornish pasty and pioneering its popularity both here and abroad . warren\u2019s we thank you !\nmake sure you have a good enough horse to make it worthwhile , we all go through our fair share of donkeys , but in the end you are only as good as the horse you are riding .\nany professional meat supplier or butcher would know whether it is horse or beef ,\nhe said .\nbest mate has become the first horse since arkle in the 1960s to win three consecutive gold cups at cheltenham .\nhis third straight win marks a remarkable achievement not just by the horse , but the team behind his success .\nhe spoke of his frustration that anyone could have mistaken his horse meat for beef even if it was mislabelled .\ni ' m sure opinion will be divided on the subject of where to find cornwall ' s finest oggie . where do you go for a proper pasty ?\nmy americans know all about horse racing in hong kong ,\nsays happy valley executive director bill nader , who spent years working for the new york racing association .\nbut i guess my americans are all horse people .\nif your horse is tail rubbing and you suspect pinworms please call us on 01409 255549 / 01822613838 to discuss appropriate treatment .\nas you load up your horse and close the ramp , you feel a slight pang of guilt that he is all on his own . maybe this is a good excuse for getting another horse so that he has a road trip buddy in future ?\nsomething new ? whatever your age horse riding is a fantastic hobby and and exciting way to learn new [ . . . ]\nso we offered it to horse & hound and are delighted to see they ' re running it in the 9 march issue .\nit is a big year for culloty - in may , he is getting married to girlfriend susie , whose food magnate family own , among others , the ginsters cornish pasty company .\nif they horse has misbehaved , what is the point of the judge getting on it ? it is never going to get placed .\nat the far end of a refrigerated warehouse is a grisly sight you would never see in britain : row upon row of horse carcasses .\nfirst trip to cornwall in about 10 years and i am a sucker for a pasty . they are open from the crack of dawn and are churning out hot and cold products from 9am .\nfor many families , pasty - making was a daily task and recipes were passed from mothers to daughters , rarely written down . producing a magic pasty takes a certain knack and many cooks take so much pride in theirs , that not many will share their recipes . some have even been known to take them to the grave , refusing to pass them on even to their offspring .\nit\u2019s a simple question but boy does it trigger a passionate debate . when we threw it out to our facebook and twitter friends we received an outpouring of pasty love as well as 101 answers .\nthe rising sun trail is our newest horse riding trail taking you on a 6 - 7 hour ride across open moor [ . . . ]\nrowe\u2019s bakery with a shop in almost every town in cornwall it\u2019s little wonder that rowe\u2019s bakery is a strong contender for the pasty crown . these guys have been firing up their ovens since 1949 and have got the perfect recipe nailed . their traditional steak is simply \u2018ansome and we\u2019re big fans of their ever changing range of pasties with added pizzazz \u2013 try the reggae reggae pasty for a taste of cornwall with a kick !\nthe french meat processor spanghero were quick to point the finger at their romanian suppliers after it emerged they had sold thousands of tonnes horse meat as beef .\noh what lovely horse . when i worked with the shires our sister farm had the world record tallest horse . he was called boringdon black king and he stood at 19 . 3hh . that was back in the early 90 ' s . king has since passed on . his best friend was a 8hh shetland .\nand another one . oh it\u2019s back again . relentlessly . unsurprisingly , since horse tail is used to string violins i believe , this stings rather a lot .\nthe abattoir , which was named by the romanian authorities as the source of the meat in the current horse scandal , is owned by local businessman iulian cazacut .\ndo you remember a week or so ago , someone on here complained that their horse had misbehaved on the go round during a showing class , and the judge declined to ride their horse in the class . they basically accused the judge of not being very brave as they\nknew\ntheir horse would have been ok with the judge on board . well - yesterday at the royal one of the judges had a very bad fall from a horse which bucked and misbehaved really badly , which has resulted in them breaking a bone in their back . the royal is a show where you cannot prepare your horse for eveyrthing it will see - carriages , heavy horses , hackneys etc - so it is entirely possible that the horse in question acted entirely out of character . my point is more that the person who posted originally ought to be more aware of the accidents that can happen , and to consider the fact that a judge does not want to be put in a position of danger by riding a horse that is not capable of behaving correctly with its own rider . my best wishes for a speedy recovery go to the judge involved .\nbecause you\u2019ve been up since 4am and you know you won\u2019t be home until 10pm . you know you shouldn\u2019t , but actually monster munch , a pasty and 10 bottles of lucozade are exactly what you need to see you through .\nann\u2019s pasties a \u2018proper\u2019 cornish girl through and through ann learnt how to make pasties the best way you can \u2013 from her mother ! she\u2019s now somewhat of a pasty maestro and having drawn people far and wide to her brightly coloured pasty shop on the lizard she has pleased her legion of fans by opening a second shop in helston and supplying a select pick of delis and shops . \u201cdelicious and the very best ! \u201d says gill wiley \u2013 here , here !\nit\u2019s only because you care and you just want to get to the end of your trip in one piece ( and with a fully - functioning horse and vehicle ) .\npurists might say that the meat should be beef skirt ( not steak ) , and the pastry should be short - crust . i ' m pretty sure that 19th century tin - miners \u2013 who cooked up the original pasty as a handy form of packed lunch \u2013 would have been glad of any meat content ( i believe they used to put apple at one end ) . but i agree with the cornish pasty association , no artificial flavourings nor additives should be allowed .\nplease keep me up to date with special offers and news from horse & hound and other brands operated by ti media limited via email . you can unsubscribe at any time .\n[ quote ] oh what lovely horse . when i worked with the shires our sister farm had the world record tallest horse . he was called boringdon black king and he stood at 19 . 3hh . that was back in the early 90 ' s . king has since passed on . his best friend was a 8hh shetland . [ / quote ] i remember him ! he often appeared in horse & amp ; pony mag . the shetland as well i absolutely love heavyweight horses - most of them are so lovely and gentle .\nother sweets are available , but we reckon these little delights are 100 % necessary for any horse - related travel ( even if you\u2019re just going 10 minutes down the road ) .\npasty ( gb ) gr . f , 1973 { 19 - b } dp = 23 - 4 - 2 - 0 - 7 ( 36 ) di = 3 . 50 cd = 1 . 00 - 10 starts , wins , places , shows\nhorse & jockey bakery when size matters follow your nose to the horse and jockey bakery in helston and porthleven . renowned for their ample proportions , the pasties hang off the side of a plate ( a true sign that you\u2019ve got a goodun\u2019 ) and pack a big punch when it comes flovour . they get patricia bastow\u2019s vote on facebook as well as an avalanche of others !\npasty was a\nneat , well - made\ngrey mare bred in england by her owner percival williams . she was from the second crop of foals sired by raffingora , a very fast horse who won the king george stakes and several major handicap races including the cherkley sprint handicap at epsom downs racecourse when he ran five furlongs in 53 . 89 seconds under a weight of 140 pounds . he was beginning to make a mark as a breeding stallion in europe when he was exported to japan in 1973 . pasty ' s dam ma marie was a granddaughter of the broodmare scotia ' s glen , whose other descendants included the 2000 guineas winner our babu and the eclipse stakes winner king of the tudors .\npersonally , i wouldn ' t touch a ginsters . genuinely cornish , yes , but i ' ve seen and smelt the factory ( in callington , since you asked ) . what about the ubiquitous west cornwall pasty company ? yep , they are all\nhand - made\nin falmouth . based in buckinghamshire , though - with outlets in leeds , norwich , reading station , bristol , bath ( thank goodness , because i do get an urge for a pasty when i ' m a long way from home ) .\nvery tasty . big . i cut mine in half & fry off the other half with baked beans . 2 meals 1 pasty . i ' ve even had to take some into work they ' re well received . a bit of cornwall in the midlands . x\na posting from the royal on another thread said that the horse was spooked by carriages in the adjacent ring and alot of the horses in same class were upset . maybe this time the horse / owners were not to blame for putting in a poorly prepared horse . very unfortunate incident but when will show organisers wake up and do ring plans with some common sense , even the most seasoned show horse can get upset at carriages and drays . like the time they put the ladies hunters in a small ring immediately next to the fairground at newbury . the ride next to the ring was one of those towers that has seats on chains that the faster it goes the farther out the seats spin in the air - actually in the air space of one side of the ring !\ni didn ' t see that post but in the ror class at cheshire one horse was being a * * * * * in the go round and the judge said she wouldn ' t ride it and the girl left the ring . this horse was spinning broncing and generally being a right pig . my horse is quite sharp and sensetive but he was well mannered enough to not let his tension make him misbehave , the judge rode him really well and i couldn ' t of been happier , but had he misbehaved i wouldn ' t of expected her to ride him . i think it is rude of people to think the judge ought to ride their horse , if its that badly behaved with a familiar jockey then its not the judges job to sort it out . they are judges .\nin order to adopt a targeted strategic worm control plan for your horse and save you money , penbode equine vets advise that you should have a worm egg count done on each of your horses in may / june , and a second one in august . we can then advise you whether worming of your horse is required or is unnecessary , potentially reducing your worming costs and delaying the development or resistance .\nhg i believe that umenno is doing well in young horse classes in switzerland just now , as that is where he is based . he has qualified for the swiss 6yr old showjumping champs with rudi wallerbosch .\nbut mr cazacut , owner of doly - com , the abattoir where the horse meat came from , said he had his suspicions but refused to make public who he believes is behind the \u00a3300 , 000 fraud .\nrebel morrow has been riding since before she could walk and was the highest placed australian at the athens olympics on her horse oaklea groover . rebel originally comes from kilcoy in rural queensland and comes from a strong horse background . rebel\u2019s mum , vicky , was a professional horse trainer winning multiple state and national titles in western pleasure . rebel\u2019s dad wayne was a horseman who broke in their horses and now works as a master farrier . rebel , and her brother lyndon were in the australian youth western pleasure team that toured america in 1988 . the morrow\u2019s then met the infamous simon kale who introduced them to eventing , and got rebel up and running as a successful junior .\npasty began her three - year - old season in the fred darling stakes over seven furlongs at newbury racecourse in april in which she finished fourth behind rowantree , solar and manilata . in the 1000 guineas over the rowley mile course at newmarket , pasty started 12 / 1 second favourite but made little impression , finishing twentieth of the twenty - five runners behind the french - trained favourite flying water . at royal ascot she again ran poorly , finishing last of the eight runners behind kesar queen . she was then dropped in class but did not recover her form , finishing unplaced in two handicap races over six furlongs .\nas dermot ryan , manager of ashford , said in an email :\nfor those people that want to operate at the very highest levels of the game you can ' t afford to ignore a horse like american pharoah .\nsport homepage | football | cricket | rugby union | rugby league | tennis | golf | motorsport | boxing | athletics | snooker | horse racing | cycling | disability sport | olympics 2012 | sport relief | other sport . . .\nwe think this is unique in the uk \u2013 a guided full day\u2019s trail ride which also includes a stop to enjoy a guided tour and tasting at a world - renowned winery ! camel valley have been producing award - winning wines since 1989 and offer a fascinating tour around the winery , which also includes a glass of one of their wonderful wines . we head out from hallagenna across bodmin moor before joining the camel trail . if we are lucky we might catch sight of the steam train on the bodmin \u2013 wenford railway line . enjoying a pasty lunch before starting our tour . it\u2019s then a pleasant ride back to hallagenna . \u00a3160 per person including pasty .\npengenna pasties the crimp of a pasty is as important as the ingredients and pengenna pasties in bude , tintagel and st ives is one of the few cornish bakers firmly in the top crimp camp \u2013 and it works ! our facebook friends couldn\u2019t wait to heap praise on their \u2018homemade deliciousness\u2019 and gave lots of thanks for their vegan variety .\n\u2013 or rather a photograph of the late john thaw , who played the cerebral sleuth on itv . he was occupying part of the abundance of wood panelling around the ancient walls and below the sloping beams of the 16th - century white horse in oxford .\nit was me that made the original post , i wasnt trying to be rude or teasy that the judge didnt ride my horse i was just asking a question as i have never done showing classes before . i do agree that it would be dangerous for a judge to get on a horse if it is misbehaving that badly , i wouldnt get on a horse i didnt no if it was going mad , but abbey was just jogging and was a bit fresh thats all . this past weekend she was a little star and the judge said she gave her a very nice balanced ride , and we got pulled in 4th out or a field of around 10 , so i think she was just a little excited last week . i hope the judge recovers quickly .\nin time , though , you get to happy valley . the tram took longer than expected , which meant i failed in my fatherly duty . in true pre - k fashion , my daughter instructed me to bet the first horse in the first race to come in first\u2014that would have been namjong turbo being ridden by kc leung\u2014but i didn ' t make the 7 : 15 post . i bet the kid ' s birthday trifecta in the fifth\u2014china delight , strathtay , and endorsing , in order\u2014but only the last horse came in .\ni am a teacher with many years experience , judged outstanding and i have decided to take some of my resources which i ' ve shared to over half a million downloaders freely to my shop . i want to share and enjoy more time with my dogs in cornwall . thank you for buying and helping me live my dream - one pasty at a time : )\ni agree . i took a horse to windsor once that had been basically re - brken it was in such a state when we got it but it had been to several local shows and behaved perfectly and clients had ridden him in the school so i had no worries when the late vin toulson got on him . . . . . until he took off at a dead run and completed two laps before vin could pull him up . lucky the ground was good and the horse apppropiately studded or there would have been an accident the speed they went round the corners . most judges will get on most horses but sometimes they hae to decide if its worth the risk . chances are if the horse is misbehaving enough to make them dubious it isnt going to be placed anyway so why risk it ?\ncontinuing with a theme here . riders legs , never being out of breeches , can be so pasty in relation to the corresponding arms that they actually reflect sunlight when on a rare sunday afternoon off they are exposed to a few rays . given this unprecedented exposure they will proceed to turn the shade of a winner\u2019s rosette in the time it takes to ride prelim 18 .\nalmost all the draught beers here were comparatively local . there was a white horse bitter from stanford in the vale and a nicely balanced copper - coloured session ale called oxford prospect , brewed even closer to home . plus the zesty brakspear oxford gold from witney , 12 miles away .\nphilps rarely without a queue of drooling customers snaking out of the door , this west cornwall bakery had the praise rolling in from our pasty connoisseurs . \u201cconsistently hot and flavoursome with the pastry packed to bursting\u201d says margaret deady while janet ward - stanley echoed the words of many when she said \u201cyummy , yummy , yummy\u201d . grab one in hayle , marazion or praze - an - beeble .\nthe pasties are not 100 % reliable ( go early , before they go limp from hanging around on the cafeteria - style counter ) , but they are utterly authentic , homemade by mrs margaret burford . the views are fantastic , too ( eat your oggie overlooking the atlantic ) and as part of the geevor tin mine museum , you couldn ' t get closer to the pasty ' s roots .\nit was the advent of cornish mining in the 19th century that really brought the pasty into its own and made it an important part of the life of so many cornish families . pasties were taken down the mines by the adults and children who worked there ; the shape and size made them ideal for carrying , and they became the staple for the daily \u2018crib\u2019 or \u2018croust\u2019 \u2013 cornish dialect for a bite to eat , usually taken mid - morning . it is thought that the miners gave the pasty its distinctive d shape too \u2013 the crust became a handle , which was discarded to prevent contaminating the food with grubby , possibly arsenic - ridden hands . others will dispute this , arguing that miners ate their pasties wrapped in muslin or paper bags so that they could enjoy every last bit , as we do today .\nno one knows this better than ashford . in 2000 , coolmore , headed by irishman john magnier , shelled out a reported $ 70 million , the most money ever spent on a horse , for the breeding rights of kentucky derby winner fusaichi pegasus . to magnier , and the rest of the horse racing industry , a derby winner with a blue - chip pedigree and the body of adonis seemed like a license to print money . fupeg , as he is known in racing circles , started out his stallion career in february of his four - year - old year , just like pharoah will , but for a price of $ 150 , 000 . and just like pharoah will be , fupeg was matched with the best mares money could buy . to date , fupeg has not produced a kentucky derby winner or a horse with a household name . his fee has sunk to $ 7 , 500 .\nfor a long time , horse racing had little competition . it ' s only recently people in hong kong can even watch soccer from around the world ,\nsays larry yeung , the hkjc media communications manager . to which ip added gravely ,\nwe never underestimate the threats from other forms of entertainment .\n\u201ci did anything that was around because there wasn\u2019t a lot on . i did pony club and everything that goes with it . my pony club instructor was beryl sabidina and i also did every clinic i could . i always wanted to event , i don\u2019t know why but i probably read about it in the horse magazine . \u201d\nnow , i do like a good pasty , i really do . my husband reckons i ' m genetically programmed to sniff one out the moment i get within a mile or two of , say , bodmin moor . and it ' s kind of true . as soon as i cross the border ( welcome to kernow , goodbye devon ) , i get an itch , a hunger for a hot pasty . and it ' s a hunger that , after years of practice , i can quickly satisfy . two miles into cornwall on the a30 , there ' s a couple of butchers in launceston who make a half - decent oggie ; on the a38 , i ' d recommend paul bray & son in tideford ( 10 minutes , the other side of the tamar bridge ) . but i have to say , i ' ve kissed a lot of frogs during my long quest for the handsome prince of pasties .\n\u201ci then moved to nsw in 1999 , to base with tarsha and took my 3 * horse oaklea reprieve and a young one showing a bit of potential called groover . moving down to nsw was the turning point to becoming professional , living and breathing it 24 / 7 and being amongst the most competitive riders in the country . \u201d\npasty began her racing career in the dr abernethy maiden plate over five furlongs at wolverhampton racecourse in june . racing against moderate opposition she took the lead in the final furlong and won by one and a half lengths . in july she won a minor race over five furlongs at sandown park racecourse and was then moved up in class for the lavant stakes over the same distance at goodwood racecourse . receiving weight from her three opponents , she started odds - on favourite and won by one and a half lengths from the ian balding - trained key to the kingdom . in august , pasty , ridden by pat eddery started at odds of 15 / 8 for the group two lowther stakes over six furlongs at york racecourse . she was one of five fillies still in contention a furlong from the finish and drew ahead to win by a length from the seaton delaval stakes winner sweet nightingale from whom she was receiving three pounds .\ncolin dexter would have liked the white horse , i suspect . not , perhaps , on a friday or saturday evening when its limited floor - space would be heaving with students from nearby trinity college , but certainly at lunchtime , with little to interrupt the flow of thought : no jukebox or background music ; no games machines ; no tv .\nhorse racing is to hong kong as college basketball is to kentucky , cricket is to india , and table tennis is to mainland china . it ' s the national pastime , but for real , not like baseball in the united states . let matt hegarty , industry reporter for the daily racing form , explain through the lens of american myopia :\nthe important thing \u2013 i ' ll just get the flag out \u2013 is that no jumped - up , made - in - slough , mince - and - mash , flakey - pastry , crimped - on - top , just - pretending - to - be cornish pasties can take our name in vain . it ' s got to be proper cornish , ok . with that in mind , here are 5 of the best ( in my opinion ) places to go for a pasty .\nmay or june is the best time . the dung sample should only be collected when your horse has not been wormed for at least eight weeks ( 13 weeks if you last used the equest wormer ) otherwise you could have an artificially low worm egg count . please seek individual advice from our vets for all horses less than four years old and pregnant mares .\nit ' s a teenage boy ' s dream : from the middle of february till june , three times a day , pharoah will mate with upwards of 200 of the fastest , richest and most beautiful mares in the land . each roll in the hay will only take about 30 seconds , but each will carry the hope that another great horse will be born .\n\u201cthe plan had always been for me to have a year off to ride after i finished school before starting university , but the 2 - star horse i had at the time had a few soundness issues in late 2000 , so with no guarantee of having a high level horse to ride in 2001 i ended up at uni a year earlier than expected . this was one of those occasions in life that a departure from the script turns out to be really positive , as it meant that i never had that opportunity to put study off for a year and then another year until it all got too distant . i never got out of the habit of studying , which is an easy thing to let slip by the wayside if you get caught up in riding . \u201d\nanother 100 % agreement here . i ' ve given up ride judging because of the amount of ill prepared horses that are brought in to the ring , & amp ; the ' oh well if you ' re not brave enough ' attitude from the competitors . i ' m not there to prove anything to anybody , mny job in the ring is to select what is in my opinion the best horse in the class . if part of that assessment is to decline to ride something then just accept it , take the horse home , & amp ; do some more work on it . some ride judges aren ' t the best but the whole point is the horse should be well mannered enough to go for anybody for the 3 - 4 minutes that it ' s being ridden . it ' s a real bugbear of mine that quality horses who are obviously being sharp & amp ; aren ' t penalised for it at the upper levels . judges shouldn ' t ignore bad behavior because their riding skills allow them to deal with it . all the rule books say that manners are of paramount importance & amp ; ride judges as well as competitors should remember that\nthe gold stood up very nicely to the curried chicken in my south african \u201cbunny chow\u201d . no , i\u2019d never heard of it either , despite having been to cape town twice . it originated in durban , apparently . lovely big and spicy chicken chunks , served in a hollowed - out loaf ; in the white horse at least , there are some properly roasted potatoes in there , too .\nso , pro tip : if you ' re planning on throwing down some cash at happy valley , know that the number four is unlucky . it ' s an old superstition , as the word for four sounds like the word for death . tradition , however , only goes so far .\nif chinese people think four horse going to win , they bet on it ,\nsays yip .\nthere was no international classification of european two - year - olds in 1975 : the official handicappers of britain , ireland and france compiled separate rankings for horses which competed in those countries . in the british free handicap , pasty was the top - rated two - year - old filly , a pound ahead of dame foolish and eight behind the leading colt wollow . the independent timeform organisation awarded her a rating of 122 , six pounds below the french filly theia . timeform did not award the filly a rating as a three - year - old .\n3 . ) hong kong jockey club , today : imagine if the nfl itself owned the teams , stadiums , players , broadcast rights , all of the television networks , food and beverage , and every legal wager placed on every game . it isn ' t horse - apples - to - apples , but that generally describes the hong kong jockey club . if you will please , mr . hegarty :\n\u201cit still brings a smile to my face , so yeah it\u2019s worth it . whether it\u2019s your young horse winning its first intro event or giving your student the confidence to jump a fence they didn\u2019t think was possible . watching the total bliss on your horses face while you scratch his itchy bum , or seeing my parents shed a tear while they watched me ride at the olympics . it\u2019s all good . \u201d\namerican pharoah didn ' t immediately impress the racing cognoscente . a solid bay horse with middle - of - the - road pedigree , he was once described as looking like a\nplain brown wrapper\nas a yearling and he didn ' t impress buyers enough to pay the $ 300 , 000 reserve price his breeders and then - owners , zayat stables put on the colt when they put him up for auction .\nfor me , the competition is what it\u2019s all about . eventing is such an exhilarating sport , and i do enjoy my dressage as well . i find the training process itself so rewarding and sometimes the rides you have at home bring as much joy as winning an event . riding professionally allows you to concentrate on training and improving every day on every horse , and bringing a horse up the grades is gratifying . it\u2019s a great feeling to get in the truck with some nice horses on the back and head off in a different direction every weekend and test ourselves , our horses , and our training . we have a fabulous spirit in our little eventing community , and the people and horses we meet are pretty special . the other bonus is that we get to work for ourselves in the great outdoors , that deserves a special celebratory party right there .\nbecause , despite all advice , reason and common sense , you can\u2019t face staying in your boots all day in this heat , and so swap out of your long , sensible , protective footwear into trainers . trainers that have holes in them \u2014 either because they\u2019re your old , knackered trainers that are now consigned to the yard , or because they\u2019re your smart running trainers you paid extra for to have holes in , to make you more aerodynamic or something , and they happen to be in the car and it won\u2019t destroy them to wear them at the yard just this once ( it will ) . you will inevitably end up hosing off a horse in these shoes . because it\u2019s hot . so hot you even put your trainers on . and if you avoid hosing off a horse in them you\u2019ll spill not insignificant amounts from a water bucket over one anyway .\ni put this basic question to a number people at the track : what is it about hong kong and horse racing ? like everything in life outside of win , place , and show , there is no definitive answer . there are many non - definitive ones , though . they run eight a pop at happy valley , so in clip - cloppity synchronicity : sound the trumpet . load the chute . and we ' re off .\n\u201ci\u2019ve always been competitive with whatever i do , but i was more interested in playing rugby for australia than riding . when i left school i didn\u2019t want to get a job so i thought i\u2019d ride horses so it just happened for me as opposed to me desperately wanting to be a horse rider . anything i do i want to be good at , and it dawned on me one day that this is what i could do . \u201d\nso what you ' re looking for is this : under new protected status , a genuine cornish pasty must be made in cornwall . it must have a distinctive\nd\nshape , crimped on one side ( never on top ) ; the filling should be\nchunky\n( minced or roughly cut chunks of beef \u2013 representing no less than 12 . 5 % of the content ) ; add potato , swede ( in cornwall , some of us call it turnip ) , onion and a light seasoning , packed into a pastry case (\ngolden in colour , savoury , glazed with milk or egg and robust enough to retain its shape\n) and slowly baked .\nlaying down the law on quality is all very well , but there ' s a lot of genuinely cornish pasties out there that couldn ' t satisfy a single one of the directive ' s must haves . steak , yes , but just a solitary chunk lost in a sticky potato stodge ; or lots of rather grey meat that looks like it ' s been boiled , or been through a hot - wash cycle . add gristle . add heavy , lardy pastry ( pet hate : chomping through a wall of the stuff before you hit the filling ) . light seasoning ? how many post - pasty hours have i spent looking for pints of water to drown the salt .\nmr reynolds was a member of the committee which formed the new brighton trotting club . he was a life member of three racing clubs in canterbury . in 1890 mr reynolds invented a starting clock and was appointed a starter . this prevented him from racing horse but he was one of the nine men invited by the late mr h mace to his home , brooklyn lodge , north brighton where the new brighton trotting club was formed . mr reynolds later resigned as starter and took up the position of timekeeper .\nexcellent jockey and was lucky to be at warwick one day when his mount just held on in a driving finish . it was at that point when i first saw a jockey virtually carry his horse over the line . sad to hear of his passing , even sadder to hear of his battle with the demon drink , but he leaves me with many happy memories none more so than being at paddockside to cheer home his last st leger win on silver patriach . . . . was it really 18 years ago : - 0\nnow , back to the article : \u201cdateline - baraga , february 17th . louie lashapell , a french - canadian under the influence of 40 rod made a racehourse of the dss & a track . he got along about a mile in grand style , when the passenger train overtook him , and before the train could be stopped , he found himself 40 feet in the air . he came down uninjured , but the poor horse was cut up in a horrible manner , and the cutter was knocked into first class kindling wood . \u201d\nhi , i am 14 and am 100 % decided on horse riding as a career path . i know i would like to do eventing and it is early days , however i am looking for some advice for what i could do to gain experience . i have riding lessons every 2 weeks and have been looking at volunteering , however i was wondering when i should start looking for apprenticeships ? i am aiming to finish my education first , but would you have any tips for me to become prepared for that other professional riders were not ?\n\u201cthe time i spent at uni allowed me to learn to ride at a professional level without having the pressure of being a professional . it allowed me to mature as a rider and competitor . as a pro , everything you do with a horse has more riding on it because it is your sole purpose in life . if you\u2019re not ready for that , either because your riding isn\u2019t quite established , or you don\u2019t have the horses or even if you lack the maturity and confidence in yourself then you risk being burned by the whole experience . \u201d\nthe marquette mining journal published an article about an incident that occurred on this day in 1888 , but it requires a bit of background to understand . a rod is a unit of measurement equal to 5 and a half yards . a type of whiskey in those days was known as \u201c40 rod\u201d , because when purchased that\u2019s about as far it usually stays inside the jug . the dss & a is the duluth , south shore and atlantic railroad . and finally , a cutter is a small sleigh , usually seating one person and drawn by a single horse .\ni remember the post fmm and i entirely agree with you . such a shame the judge was injured hope they get better very soon . as well as we know our horses , we can ' t expect a stranger to know them , nor take our word for it when it is in a strange environment . yes , riding is a risk anyway , but riding an unknown horse in what can be a ' scary ' environment , puts even more risk out there . i think judges are well within their rights to decline riding something if they have any doubt .\n\u201chave a high tolerance level to anything annoying . a horse whinnying all night and day because it\u2019s left its friends , bloody flies , they really get to you . but really , i think you have to have to understand that this sport and profession has no limits , no boundaries . it\u2019s not sensitive to stress and pain and at times things are just completely out of your hands . it can be really tough , any you have to be able to survive all of it and take each day as it comes and never lose sight of why you started\u2026 for the love of that animal . \u201d\nkevin is one of our most determined , focused and competitive professional riders . he rides an exhaustible amount of horses at most events and is a great producer of horses . the energy and enthusiasm that he puts into his huge operation is inspiring , and he freely admits to having tunnel vision when it comes to achieving his goals . kevin grew up in north queensland on a dairy farm in millaa millaa , and stated his intentions early by asking for his first horse at two years of age . his non - horsey parents obliged and started the ball rolling on a career that will undoubtedly be one of the best australia has produced .\ni threw a bit of scratch on another race , but i don ' t even remember which one , or what horse won . i was too intoxicated by the experience\u2014also : by tsingtao\u2014to do the thing where i pretend to read the racing form in some official manner . or to try my luck . to test my providence . to lay some wood on a winner , blissfully unaware that 2015 is considered a fortunate one for those of us born in a year of the pig . had i only known to trifecta my lucky oinking numbers , 2 - 5 - 8 . i didn ' t know . i was far from home . i don ' t believe in fate .\n5 . ) happy valley jockey club , tomorrow : horse racing has long been emperor in hong kong , and the sport doesn ' t run the risk of becoming trapped in a claustrophobic niche as it has in the united states . still , things fluctuate . as of late , the hong kong jockey club is on a roll . 2013 - 14 turnover was up 11 percent over the previous year , and nader projects another increase this year .\nit was down when i got here in 2007 , but now every year is record - breaking ,\nhe says .\ni had a lot of good years working for the nyra , but here , it ' s heaven . if i could trade it for another life , i wouldn ' t .\nit ' s a stereotype that can be taken too far , but gambling isn ' t simply a form of ( somewhat ) illicit entertainment in this part of the world .\nlike westerners , asian horse players believe that through research , strategy , insight , and mental sharpness , you will get the desired result ,\nsays professor chung - ying cheng of the university of hawaii at manoa , one of the leading chinese philosophy scholars in the united states .\nwhere there is a difference is the belief that the skills have come from providence . that you ' re blessed , and that although you ' re not in charge of the outcome , fortune combines with your character to present opportunities . luck is something you encounter with equal chance of success and failure . it ' s an ancient idea , so why not try your luck ?\nworking in the great outdoors when it\u2019s 40 degrees , blowing a gale or raining . some of the horses we get to meet can be not so nice , and sometimes i think that i should get on board with a piece of ribboned string tied to my tail so i make a prettier kite when i fly . the bank account : that can be ugly too , that\u2019s when you get to meet mr stress , he and i are great friends . lameness : especially before major events . not funny . and the one thing i just hate is when you ( accidentally of course ) bat yourself in the face as you attempt to swat one of the million flies that invade your personal space . or , picture this one . on a young horse , one hand on the reins , one on the monkey strap and said fly gets trapped under your sunglasses ! nice .\nlesson engages pupils in the story of the trojan war by teaching pupils how to draw the trojan horse . the lesson includes links to video , snap shops and ideas for other cross curriculua work . lesson plan and all the resources you need for an outstanding art / history lesson . engaging activities and notebook file which leads you and the pupils through the lesson . part of a full series on ancient greeks available either separately or as a full pack at a reduced cost . i have been teaching over twenty years and have been an adviser and leader of teaching and learning in a school . i have been consistently judged as outstanding including whilst been observed by a lead inspector teaching these lessons . i h ope that the resources save you time and energy and engage your pupils . i have tried all the lessons myself and used them in my own recent teaching . objectives support english skills and cross curricula skills . matched to the new curriculum ."]}
{"id": 2523, "summary": [{"text": "the scaly-tailed possum or the ilangnalya ( wyulda squamicaudata ) is found in northwestern australia .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is restricted to the kimberley region in western australia .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "as it is monotypic in its genus , it is sometimes known simply by its genus \u2014 the wyulda .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the scaly-tailed possum is a member of the family phalangeridae , which means that it is related to cuscuses and brushtail possums .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is a solitary nocturnal forager that feeds on leaves , flowers and fruit .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "as its name implies , its distinguishing feature is a hairless , scaly tail .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the possum has a limited range and is found in high rainfall coastal regions of the north kimberley between yampi sound and kalumburu , as well as further inland in the east kimberley at emma gorge .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "populations also inhabit bigge island and boongaree island .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the preferred habitat of this animal is sandstone based woodlands where it can shelter in rock piles and fissures and feed in the trees . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "scaly - tailed possum", "paragraphs": ["the scaly - tailed possum was once considered endangered but is now less threatened .\n( scaly - tailed possum ) is found only in the kimberley region of northwestern australia . scaly - tailed possums are taxonomically placed in the family\nthe scaly - tailed possum is known to breed in the dry season . the recorded litter size is one . information on the reproductive behavior of the scaly - tailed possum is limited .\nthe scaly - tailed possum is restricted to the kimberly division in the north of western australia .\ninformation on the scaly - tailed possum is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nthe enigmatic and poorly understood scaly - tailed possum ( wyulda squamicaudata ) was last seen in 1917 .\nhelp scientists continue their reseach in the kimberley on the scaly - tailed possum and other rare animals .\n\u201cthis left either the scaly - tailed possum or the rock ringtail , and the amount of hair on the base of the tail , easily seen in the photos , confirmed it was the scaly - tailed possum . \u201d\na scaly - tailed possum caught on a camera trap in awc\u2019s artesian range . ( c ) australian wildlife conservancy ,\nthe scaly - tailed possum inhabits areas with trees and rocks in the broken sandstone country of savannah woodlands in hot tropics .\none of the trapping sites . if i were a scaly - tailed possum i would live here ( c ) jack ashby\nruncie , m . 1999 . movements , dens and feeding behavior of the tropical scaly - tailed possum ( wyulda squamicaudata ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - scaly - tailed possum ( wyulda squamicaudata )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - scaly - tailed possum ( wyulda squamicaudata )\ntitle =\narkive species - scaly - tailed possum ( wyulda squamicaudata )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nscaly - tailed possums tend to live solitarily on home ranges of approximately one hectare . individual home ranges often overlap .\nthe diet mainly consists of fruits , blossoms , and leaves of eucalyptus , terminalia , etc . the scaly - tailed possum has also been known to feed on insects and small vertebrates .\nscaly - tailed possum ( wyulda squamicaudata ) specimens were found at el questro station in the east kimberley . the researchers suggest the finding also represents the first discovery of the species in eastern kimberley .\noriginally looking for the northern quoll ( dasyurus hallucatus ) , a species at high risk from the cane toad invasion , the team were surprised to see the rare scaly - tailed possum in the resulting images .\nosborne mj , christidis l ( 2002 ) molecular relationships of the cuscuses , brushtail and scaly - tailed possums ( phalangerinae ) . aust j zool 50 : 135\u2013149\nas its name implies , its distinguishing feature is a hairless , scaly tail .\ntrapping densities suggest that scaly - tailed possums prefer low , open woodlands and vine thickets . they are nocturnal and rely heavily on rock piles for shelter during the day .\nlittle to nothing is known about parental investment in scaly - tailed possums . however , equal participation of both parents in parental investment has been observed in other phalangerid species like\nscaly - tailed possums have no easily definable , direct , or large - scale impact on humans . their remote habitat and rarity make this a difficult topic to research .\nthe pelage of the scaly - tailed possum is short , fine , and dense . the general dorsal color is pale or dark ashy gray while the underside color is white . a dark stripe , which may be obscure or distinct , runs along the mid - dorsal line from the shoulders to the rump . the scaly - tailed possum has a prehensile tail that is densely furred at the base and has nonoverlapping , thick scales for the remainder of its length . the head is short and wide with short ears . the claws are short and not strongly curved .\ndoody , sean j . ; david rhind c , christina m . castellano b and michael bass ( 2012 ) .\nrediscovery of the scaly - tailed possum ( wyulda squamicaudata ) in the eastern kimberley\n. australian mammalogy 34 ( 2 ) : 260\u2013262 . doi : 10 . 1071 / am11039 .\nin general , there is little information about scaly - tailed possum behavior . they are herbivorous , feeding primarily on the leaves of various trees and shrub species . when these phalangerids feed , individuals climb out to the outermost branches of trees and use their forelimbs to pluck leaves . scaly - tailed possums achieve stability by gripping sturdy branches with their prehensile tails . they are also proficient at moving around in tree canopies and have been recorded making branch - to - branch leaps of up to one meter .\nnovember 2012 was a good trip \u2013 we found golden back tree rats in a couple of spots ( in the tree above our tents , it turned out ) , monjons and kimberley rock rats . this was amazing , but not the dream scaly tailed possum ( or golden bandicoots ) . i\u2019d have to go back .\ngenetic analysis has confirmed that although the population is isolated , it is the same species as the west kimberley possum .\nlittle to no data is available on which animals act as primary predators of scaly - tailed possums . it is likely , however , that feral cats , large birds of prey , and large snakes may be important predators .\nas \u201cdata deficient\u201d with a declining population trend . according to the department of environment and conservation western australia , more data must be gathered concerning the conservation status of scaly - tailed possums before they can be declared a threatened species .\nonce again , the holy grail evaded me \u2013 rock rats were everywhere , and we had some exciting encounters with more common species like an echidna , quolls and ningbings , but the scaly - tailed possum stayed out of reach . frustratingly , a week or so after we left one of the january sites , a possum wandered through one of the camera traps we left set in the forests . obviously i\u2019m pleased the species is there , but i can\u2019t help feeling that nature is cruel .\nruncie , m . 2000 . biparental care and obligate monogamy in the rock - haunting possum , petropseudes dahli , from tropical australia .\nthe finding has also extended the habitat range of the possum by some 300 to 400 kilometres from known populations in the west kimberley .\n. artesian range is in one of the least accessible parts of australia , requiring a combination of propeller - plane , serious 4wd and helicopter to get to . as amazing as it was to see these species on the screen , i instantly knew i had to go and see them in the flesh . for me , the scaly - tailed possum had become the holy grail .\nnotable \u2013 children ' s book council of australia a traditional dreamtime story that features the scaly - tailed possum only found in a remote part of the kimberley region of australia\u2019s north west and the echidna , one of australia\u2019s most unusual mammals . illustrated with paintings on silk , the story also tells of the wandjina , the creator and great spirit of the wunambal people of the kimberley .\ni got the call to join two trips to the area ( in november 2012 and january 2014 ) to trap sites on possible dispersal routes out of the artesian hotspot , to see how far their ranges extend . i went to each trip with extremely high hopes , but a sleep - depriving fear that they might be too far from the centre to find the scaly - tailed possum .\nof course , you can\u2019t prove absence , but trips like this have helped determine that the artesian range\u2019s special species seem not to venture too far . now that the inventory of neighbouring properties is drawing to a close i\u2019ll have to get myself onto one of the trips back to the heart of this amazing , extinction - free oasis , and finally set eyes on that scaly - tailed possum .\nbecause so few scaly - tailed possums have ever been captured , vlittle is known about their longevity or population age - structures . however , studies done on other phalangerid species have produced life expectancy statistics of 17 years for females and 12 years for males .\nand are the only member of their genus . little is known about this species due to their overall secretive behavior combined with the rugged nature of their habitat . scaly - tailed possums are considered the least well understood of all phalangerids , with only 54 confirmed scientific captures .\nthe scaly - tailed possum is assessed as near threatened because its area of occupancy may be < 2 , 000 km 2 and may be declining , but not at a rate of 30 % in 12 years ( three generations ) . recent records are from a small number of location . survey effort of the remote area where it occurs has been insufficient to estimate the actual number of locations , but this is probably > 10 .\nlittle is known about the effects that scaly - tailed possums have on the ecosystems they inhabit . because they have different foraging and habitat related behaviors than other closely related phalangerids , it is difficult to assess how similar their effects on the ecosystem are to those of other possums .\nwemmer , c . , l . collins . 1978 . communication patterns in two phalangerid marsupials , the gray cuscus ( phalanger gymnotis ) and the brush possum ( trichosurus vulpecula ) .\nscaly - tailed possums are small - to - medium sized marsupials weighing an average of 1500 grams . they have relatively small ears and a total body length averaging 415 mm for males and 375 mm for females . all individuals have gray dorsal surfaces and white ventral surfaces with naked paws and noses . many individuals also have a black stripe running down the center of their back . as their name implies , scaly - tailed possums have rough tails which are covered in scales . these tails , averaging 290 mm in length , are hairless and prehensile which enables these possums to maintain firm grips on tree branches when they forage . this type of tail is unique to\nbarnett , j . , r . how , w . humphreys . 1982 . habitat effects on organ weights , longevity and reproduction in the mountain brushtail possum , trichosurus caninus ( ogilby ) .\ntaylor , a . , p . cowan , b . fricke , d . cooper . 2000 . genetic analysis of the mating system of the common brushtail possum ( trichosaurus vulpecula ) in the new zealand farmland .\nkreigenhofer , b . 2011 . exploring social interactions and olfactory communication in the common brushtail possum : implications for management : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of master of science in \u201cconservation biology\u201d .\nit seems that artesian range is the only place in mainland australia not to have suffered any mammal extinctions since european colonisation . a community of amazing endemics has clung on \u2013 scaly - tailed possums , golden - backed tree rats , monjons , golden bandicoots and kimberley rock rats . when i was analyzing those camera trap images in 2011 i was a couple of hundred kilometres south of artesian , on awc northwest\u2019s main home sanctuary ,\nthe scaly - tailed possum occurs in rugged sandstones with adjacent open woodland or closed forest , sometimes with rainforest elements . it forages mainly in trees but may venture into open areas to feed on flowers , fruits , seeds and leaves . in captivity it also eats nuts and insects . it shelters in rock piles , under rock slabs and in underground crevices . females give birth mainly in the dry season between march and august , although breeding may extend later in the dry season . a single juvenile is carried in the pouch for 150 - 200 days and is weaned after eight months . females are sexually mature at two years ( humphreys et al . 1984 ; runcie 1999 ; burbidge and webb 2008 ) .\n, although there is some debate over phalangerid relationships . brush - tailed possums establish dominance hierarchies in which dominant males and females are most likely to breed with one another . in brush - tailed possums , these hierarchies are often matriarchal in structure , with females dominant to males . breeding pairs might spend up to 40 days courting before they mate . scent marking and vocalizations are used to avoid direct aggression between co - dominant individuals . it is possible that these or similar behaviors take place in\nthere is no robust estimate of population size . it is locally common at some sites in the north - west kimberley and on bigge island ; but is apparently uncommon in the east kimberley . a 2003 survey demonstrated persistence in prince regent national park and at mitchell plateau ( start et al . 2007 ) . recent surveys ( 2011 , 2012 ) by the australian wildlife conservancy have recorded scaly - tailed possums as locally common in the artesian range south of the prince regent ( sarah legge pers . comm . ) . it has been recently recorded on augustus island via camera trapping .\nnational parks within its range are managed by the department of parks and wildlife . aboriginal lands , most of which are indigenous protected areas , are managed by the wunambal gaambera aboriginal corporation and the dambimangari aboriginal corporation . artesian range sanctuary is managed by the australian wildlife conservancy . emma gorge is within the el questro pastoral lease . there is regional fire management in the western parts of its range , intensive management of fire at artesian range , and regional fire management immediately to the east of the main distribution through the ecofire project . a research project on scaly - tailed possums at artesian range ( australian wildlife conservancy / university of tasmania ) began in late 2012 , aimed at describing the impacts of fire patterns and feral cats on their ecology and survival .\nwe would like to thank the following people and institutions for providing samples or assisting with sample collection : christina castellano , simon clulow , rosie honin , colin mchenry , david pearson , ian radford , western australia department of environment and conservation , australian wildlife conservancy , western australian museum , south australian museum and australian museum . paleo - climate data were generously provided by jeremy vanderwal . we are also grateful to craig moritz for helpful comments on the manuscript . this research was supported by funding from the chadwick fellowship ( australian museum ) , australian geographic society and monash university .\nalexander wb ( 1919 ) a new species of marsupial of the subfamily phalangerinae . j r soc west aust 4 : 31\u201336\namante c , eakins bw ( 2009 ) etopo1 1 arc - 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globin gene of ancient evolutionary origin . proc natl acad sci usa 98 : 1101\u20131106\n- globin gene of ancient evolutionary origin . proc natl acad sci usa 98 : 1101\u20131106\nwoinarski jcz , mackey b , nix h , traill b ( 2007 ) the nature of northern australia : natural values , ecological processes and future prospects . anu e press , canberra\nwoinarski jcz , legge s , fitzsimons ja , traill bj , burbidge aa , fisher a , firth rsc , gordon ij , griffiths ad , johnson cn , mckenzie nl , palmer c , radford i , rankmore b , ritchie eg , ward s , ziembicki m ( 2011 ) the disappearing mammal fauna of northern australia : context , cause and response . conserv lett 4 : 192\u2013201\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nmammalogists for helping to forge the nomenclatural mesh that holds our science together . * journal of mammalogy * to refer to this work as a checklist undervalues it and does not give sufficient credit to the authors and editors for their meticulous efforts in its production . a valuable reference work and a vital tool , particularly for researchers . * journal of natural history * by far the most convenient source for finding the correct scientific name of any mammal and should be on the reference shelf of libraries striving to have useful science sections . * science books and films * the editors and authors are to be congratulated for undertaking such an outstanding and authoritative work , and it should serve as a standard reference for mammalian species taxonomy for many years to come . * journal of mammalian evolution * the third edition adds to its reputation as an outstanding and authorative work . * national museum of natural history weekly update & forecast * impressive and elegant work . - - g . r . seamons * reference reviews * a must - have text for any professional mammalogist , and a useful and authoritative reference for scientists and students in other disciplines . * southeastern naturalist * a magnificent work important to anyone seriously interested in mammals . this work is essential for academic or special libraries supporting zoology or conservation and for large public libraries . * american reference books annual * as were many of our colleagues , we were waiting for this revised edition since 2003 . . . we can say that the wait was worth it . - - sergio solari and robert j . baker * journal of mammalogy *\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nmajor threats are inappropriate fire regimes ( too frequent , extensive and hot ) and predation by feral cats . information on the effects of these threats is limited .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nlittle is known about the mating system of this species . however , substantial research has been done on other phalangerid species . one such highly researched species is the\nfemales produce only one offspring per year , between march and august . young are weaned within eight months and females and males become sexually mature at two years and 18 months , respectively .\n) . as in all mammals , females invest heavily in offspring through gestation and lactation .\nfew intra - specific interactions have ever been witnessed . phalangerids as a group , however , are known to signal one another both chemically and with physical behaviors such as tail slapping to warn of nearby predators . like other mammals , they likely have a keen sense of smell .\nhudson berkhouse ( author ) , texas a & m university , jessica light ( editor ) , texas a & m university , tanya dewey ( editor ) , university of michigan - ann arbor .\nliving in australia , new zealand , tasmania , new guinea and associated islands .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nthe kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males , each of which also pairs with several different females .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\nheinsohn , t . 2000 . short communication : predation by the white - breasted sea eagle haliaeetus leucogaster on phalangerid possums in new ireland , papua new guinea .\nhumphreys , w . , r . how , a . bradley , c . kemper , d . kitchener . 1984 . the biology of wyulda squamicaudata , alexander 1919 .\nmcknight , m . 2008 .\nwyulda squamicaudata\n( on - line ) . iucn redlist . accessed october 01 , 2015 at urltoken .\npotter , s . , d . rosauer , j . doody , m . webb , m . eldridge . 2014 . persistence of a potentially rare mammalian genus ( wyulda ) provides evidence for areas of evolutionary refugia within the kimberley , australia . .\nto cite this page : berkhouse , h . 2015 .\nwyulda squamicaudata\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nclassified as data deficient ( dd ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\napart from the type specimen , which came from violet valley in the east kimberley , all records are from the high rainfall , near - coastal north - west kimberley of western australia ( burbidge and webb 2008 ) . it has not been recorded in east kimberley since 1917 and is thought to be extinct from here . it is also found on bigge and boongaree islands ( a . burbidge pers . comm . ) .\nit is found in low open woodland , using four different types of rock formations for dens during the day ( it is highly dependent on these rock formations ) : rockpiles , sunken rockpiles , large rock slabs , and underground rock crevices ( runcie 1999 ) . at night , it feeds on four species of trees ( xanthostemon eucalyptoides , x . paradoxus , eucalyptus sp . , and planchonia careya ) ( runcie 1999 ) . one young is born between march and august ( runcie 1999 ) .\nobservations : not much is known about the longevity of these animals . it has been argued that they live over 6 years ( bernhard grzimek 1990 ) , but more detailed studies are lacking .\nlamoreux , j . & hilton - taylor , c . ( global mammal assessment team )\nlisted as data deficient in view of the absence of recent information on its threats and conservation status . there is concern that its habitat quality is declining and the degree to which introduced cats pose a threat is unknown .\nthere have not been many surveys within its range , and there are only isolated records . the species is sparsely and patchily distributed ( runcie 1999 ) . runcie ( 1999 ) found a density of 2 . 3 - 4 . 6 possums per hectare , which is nearly five times higher than that estimated by humphreys et al . ( 1984 ) . however , the study by runcie ( 1999 ) was limited to one small area , and the results may not apply elsewhere ( a . burbidge pers . comm . ) .\nthere are no data on threats , but this species is probably adversely affected by changed fire regimes and predation by introduced cats . on the mitchell plateau , proposed mining activity could affect this species .\nthis species is occurs in prince regent nature reserve . recommended actions ( maxwell et al . 1996 ) for this species include : monitor abundance at selected sites throughout range , including the islands ; conduct research aimed at understanding the biology , ecology , conservation status , and requirements . there needs to be research on fire ecology .\ngroves , c . p . ( 2005 ) . wilson , d . e . ; reeder , d . m , eds . mammal species of the world ( 3rd ed . ) . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . p . 50 . oclc 62265494 . isbn 0 - 801 - 88221 - 4 .\nmcknight , m . ( 2008 ) . wyulda squamicaudata . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . retrieved 28 december 2008 . database entry includes justification for why this species is data deficient\nmenkhorst , peter ( 2001 ) . a field guide to the mammals of australia . oxford university press . p . 84 .\npotter , sally ; dan rosauer ; j . sean doody ; myfanwy j . webb ; mark d . b . eldridge ( 2014 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nsuomuh\u00e4nt\u00e4kusu\nto\nwyulda squamicaudata alexander , 1918\n.\nan endemic mammal has been rediscovered in the eastern kimberley , almost a century after its last recorded sighting .\nnow a cane toad research team from monash university have rediscovered it in the east kimberley .\nduring an ongoing study of the impacts of cane toad invasion on native fauna in wa , the team set up remote camera traps at el questro station .\n\u201ci was stunned , i\u2019m familiar with the mammal fauna of northern australia , and knew that there were no brushtail possums with bare tails , \u201d dr doody says .\nthree of the cameras set up at emma gorge produced 20 photographs of at least four individual possums in 1 , 037 trap days .\nthe cameras were within 400 metres of each other on both sides of the gorge and close to the tourist trail . possums were exclusively nocturnal .\nthere have been concerns that the first record in 1917 was an error , if so , this represents the first discovery of the species in the eastern kimberley .\ndr doody says the species may have remained elusive due to two main factors .\n\u201cit\u2019s a nocturnal mammal occupying steep escarpments dissected by gorges , and there are not enough biologists surveying the kimberley , \u201d he says .\nthe work has helped fill the knowledge gap about the mammals in tropical australia and the study has been published in csiro ' s australian mammalogy .\nthe population at emma gorge currently receives protection from its location in the el questro wilderness park .\ndr doody says the area will become federal property in 2015 , which should secure this important population .\nless than a year after a life - threatening accident , steve plain began his journey to climb the world\u2019s seven summits .\nthis month we celebrate an event 50 years ago in western new south wales that changed the course of australian history : the discovery of mungo woman .\nphotographer james dorey offers advice on capturing the perfect shot of our native bees .\nwith a hefty body , a massive wingspan , and a loud , low - pitched buzz , the tropical carpenter bee can be a pretty intimidating sight .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nyou must have javascript enabled in your browser to utilize the functionality of this website .\nover the past few years i have been spending my spare time in a remote area of the kimberley , on the northwest corner of australia , helping a conservation ngo \u2013 the australian wildlife conservancy ( awc ) \u2013 to do ecological fieldwork . awc are australia\u2019s largest private owner of land for conservation , and their mission is to manage it based on scientific research . in the northwest their big long - term projects involve determining the effects of cattle and different fire management practices on tropical savannah ecosystems . and in my most recent two trips i\u2019ve been lucky enough to be involved in the detection of super - scarce species in extremely remote pockets of rainforest and monsoonal woodland .\na few years ago awc acquired an amazing patch of the kimberley called artesian range \u2013 monsoonal savannah criss - crossed with sandstone ranges , gorges of vine - thickets and rainforest pockets . i remember going through the first set of remote camera trap images that came back from artestian in 2011 and being amazed at the species that were being detected .\nsoon after , the awc northwest ecologists ventured into artesian range for live trapping and found a number of clustered locations that these species , the \u201cartesian specials\u201d were found . having proved that they weren\u2019t all extinct in this region , the next question was to determine the how far their ranges extended . if artesian range was a \u201csink\u201d for the exciting mammal species , then inventories of the species in the areas that they could feasibly disperse into had to happen , on to other parts of the awc property as well as neighbouring government crown land and cattle stations .\nthese two times of year are actually quite challenging to work in \u2013 november\u2019s season is known as the \u201cbuild up\u201d \u2013 the hottest and most humid time of the year , before the monsoon hits . in order to avoid the 40 + \u00b0c heat and the 80 - 95 % humidity , we would check our mammal traps between about 4am and 8 . 30am , and then sit in a cave or a pond we could be reasonably confident lacked saltwater crocodiles all day until we could venture out to reset the traps in the evening .\nevery four or five days the helicopter would come and drop us in a site that had the characteristic sandstone gorges with boulder fields , rainforest and vine - thicket pockets . we hauled our equipment over creeks and rock features ( rarely through creeks as saltwater crocs were everywhere : standing by camp on one of the sites one night \u2013 on a major tidal river \u2013 i counted seven between me and the far bank ) to see what species we could find . we laid traps and cameras , and spent the nights searching by spotlight .\njanuary 2014 gave me a taste of the wet season in full swing . it\u2019s an incredible time of swollen rivers , suddenly appearing waterfalls and six hour long thunder storms where lightning flashes more than once a second . the amazing things that the water did to the gorge - ridden landscape made it impossible to resent the inch of water in my tent ."]}
{"id": 2526, "summary": [{"text": "labullinyphia is a monoypic genus of spiders in the linyphiidae family endemic to sri lanka .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the sole species is labullinyphia tersa .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was first described in 1985 by van helsdingen . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "labullinyphia", "paragraphs": ["phylogenetic placement of the enigmatic genus labullinyphia van helsdingen , 1985 , with redescription . . .\nbenjamin , s . p . & hormiga , g . ( 2009 ) phylogenetic placement of the enigmatic genus labullinyphia van helsdingen , 1985 , with redescription of labullinyphia tersa ( simon , 1894 ) from sri lanka ( araneae : linyphiidae ) . contributions to natural history , 12 , 161\u2013181 .\nbenjamin , s . p . & hormiga , g . ( 2009 ) . phylogenetic placement of the enigmatic genus labullinyphia van helsdingen , 1985 , with redescription of labullinyphia tersa ( simon , 1894 ) from sri lanka ( araneae : linyphiidae ) . contributions to natural history 12 : 161 - 181 . - - show included taxa\nlinyphia tersa simon , 1894a : 691 ( d f ) . labullinyphia tersa van helsdingen , 1985b : 16 , f . 5 - 7 ( t f from linyphia ) . labullinyphia tersa millidge , 1993c : 146 , f . 12 ( f ) . labullinyphia tersa benjamin & hormiga , 2009 : 169 , f . 1a - f , 2a - c , 3 , 4a - b , 5a - i , 6a - f , 7a - i , 8a - f , 9a - f ( f , d m ) .\nlsid : [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 011000 ]\nhelsdingen , p . j . van ( 1985b ) . araneae : linyphiidae of sri lanka , with a note on erigonidae . entomologica scandinavica ( suppl . ) 30 : 13 - 30 . - - show included taxa\nmillidge , a . f . ( 1993c ) . further remarks on the taxonomy and relationships of the linyphiidae , based on the epigynal duct confirmations and other characters ( araneae ) . bulletin of the british arachnological society 9 : 145 - 156 . - - show included taxa\nsimon , e . ( 1894a ) . histoire naturelle des araign\u00e9es . paris 1 , 489 - 760 . - - show included taxa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nworld spider catalog , version 11 . 0 , website ( version 11 . 0 )\nplatnick , norman i . 2011 . the world spider catalog , v . 11 . 0 . american museum of natural history . database built by robert j . raven from the files underlying the website at urltoken doi : 10 . 5531 / db . iz . 0001\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\nthis page was last edited on 1 may 2018 , at 06 : 53 .\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\n. . . distribution . india ( map 2 ) , sri lanka , china , southeast asia [ benjamin , 2015 ; wsc , 2016 ] . , flat dorsally , finely rugulose , covered with fine grey hairs . . . .\n. . . distribution . india ( map 2 ) , pakistan and sri lanka [ benjamin , 2015 ; wsc , 2016 ] . thankful to dr krushnamegh kunte , lab 8 , national centre for biological sciences , ( bangalore , india ) for allowing me to use the stereo microscope facility and to deposit the studied specimens . . . .\n. . . currently , 64 species placed in 48 genera are known from sri lanka ( world spider catalog 2015 ) . however , recent fieldwork and taxonomic work conducted by us suggests that this is only a fraction of the true diversity of the family on the island ( benjamin 2004 ( benjamin , 2006 ( benjamin , 2010 ( benjamin , 2015 . here we report results of our endeavor to survey and describe this diversity , recording three new genera for the island as well as describing four new species . . . .\ni would appreciated it if you could send me a copy of this paper .\ntwo new species of the genus myrmarachne are described ( myrmarachne acutidens sp . n . , myrmarachne epigealis sp . n . ) , and myrmarachne macrognatha and myrmarachne melanocephala are redescribed from flores specimens . the females of myrmarachne macrognatha are recorded for the first time .\nthe higher - level phylogenetic relationships of crab spiders ( thomisidae ) are studied from morphological data . 33 taxa are coded for 74 characters ( 53 binary and 21 multistate ) . several analyses using equal , successive and implied weights were carried out . the most parsimonious tree obtained by analysis with successive and implied weights is put forward as the preferred hypothesis of thomisid . . . [ show full abstract ]\nfive species of ant - mimicking jumping spiders are recorded from india : myrmarachne kuwagata yaginuma , 1967 , m . melanocephala macleay , 1839 , m . plataleoides ( o . pickard - cambridge , 1869 ) , m . prava ( karsch , 1880 ) , and m . ramunni narayan , 1915 . all these species are redescribed and illustrated in detail .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsuresh p . benjamin national institute of fundamental studies , hantana road , kandy , sri lanka .\nnilani kanesharatnam national institute of fundamental studies , hantana road , kandy , sri lanka .\nbenjamin , s . p . ( 2004 ) taxonomic revision and a phylogenetic hypothesis for the jumping spider subfamily ballinae ( araneae , salticidae ) . zoological journal of the linnean society , 142 , 1\u201382 . urltoken\nbenjamin , s . p . ( 2006 ) the male of marengo nitida with the description of m . rattotensis new species from sri lanka ( araneae : salticidae ) . zootaxa , 1326 , 25\u201336 .\nbenjamin , s . p . ( 2010 ) revision and cladistic analysis of the jumping spider genus onomastus ( araneae : salticidae ) . zoological journal of the linnean society , 159 , 711\u2013745 . urltoken\nbenjamin , s . p . ( 2011 ) phylogenetics and comparative morphology of crab spiders ( araneae : dionycha , thomisidae ) . zootaxa , 3080 , 1\u2013108 .\nbremer , k . ( 1988 ) the limits of amino acid sequence data in angiosperm phylogenetic reconstruction . evolution , 42 . 795\u2013803 . urltoken\nbremer , k . ( 1994 ) branch support and tree stability . cladistics , 10 , 295\u2013304 . urltoken\ndingerkus , g . & uhler , l . d . ( 1977 ) enzyme clearing of alcian blue stained whole small vertebrates for demonstration of cartilage . stain technology , 52 , 229\u2013232 . urltoken\nedwards , g . b . ( 2015 ) freyinae , a major new subfamily of neotropical jumping spiders ( araneae : salticidae ) . zootaxa , 4036 , 1\u201387 . urltoken\nfarris , j . s . ( 1970 ) methods for computing wagner trees . systematic zoology , 19 , 83\u201392 . urltoken\nfitch , w . m . ( 1971 ) toward defining the course of evolution : minimum change for a specific tree topology . systematic biology , 20 , 406\u2013416 . urltoken\ngaliano , m . e . ( 1962 ) redescripciones de especies del gnero lyssomanes hentz , 1845 , basadas en los ejenplares tpicos . descripcin de una especie nueva ( araneae : salticidae ) . acta zoologica lilloana , 18 , 45\u201397 .\ngaliano , m . e . ( 1980 ) revisin del gnero lyssomanes hentz , 1845 ( araneae : salticidae ) . opera lilloana , 30 , 1\u2013104 .\ngoloboff , p . a . , farris , j . s . , k\u00e4llersj , m . , oxelman , b . , ram\u00edrez , m . j . & szumik , c . a . ( 2003 ) improvements to resampling measures of group support . cladistics , 19 , 324\u2013332 . urltoken\ngoloboff , p . a . , farris , j . s . & nixon , k . ( 2008 ) tnt : a free program for phylogenetic analysis . cladistics , 24 , 774\u2013786 . urltoken\nmaddison , w . p . ( 2015 ) a phylogenetic classification of jumping spiders ( araneae : salticidae ) . journal of arachnology , 43 , 231\u2013292 . urltoken\nmaddison , w . p . & maddison , d . r . ( 2009 ) mesquite : a modular system for evolutionary analysis . in : version 2 . 72 urltoken\nmaddison , w . p . & needham , k . m . ( 2006 ) lapsiines and hisponines as phylogenetically basal salticid spiders ( araneae : salticidae ) . zootaxa , 1255 , 37\u201355 .\nnixon , k . c . ( 2002 ) winclada . published by the author , ithaca , new york .\nono , h . ( 1995 ) four east asian spiders of the families eresidae , araneidae , thomisidae and salticidae ( arachnida , araneae ) . bulletin of the national science museum , series a ( zoology ) , 21 , 157\u2013156 .\npr\u00f3szyski , j . & deeleman - reinhold , c . l . ( 2013 ) description of some salticidae ( aranei ) from the malay archipelago . iii . salticidae of borneo , with comments on adjacent territories . arthropoda selecta , 22 , 113\u2013144 .\nsimon , e . ( 1900 ) tudes arachnologiques . 30e m\u00e9moire . xlvii . descriptions d ' esp\u00e8ces nouvelles de la famille des attidae . annales de la soci\u00e9t entomologique de france , 69 , 27\u201361 .\nwanless , f . r . ( 1980a ) a revision of the spider genera asemonea and pandisus ( araneae : salticidae ) . bulletin of the british museum ( natural history ) zoology , 39 , 213\u2013257 .\nwanless , f . r . ( 1980b ) a revision of the spider genus onomastus ( araneae : salticidae ) . bulletin of the british museum ( natural history ) zoology , 39 , 179\u2013188 .\nwanless , f . r . ( 1981 ) a revision of the spider genus hispo ( araneae : salticidae ) . bulletin of the british museum ( natural history ) zoology 41 , 179\u2013198 .\nworld spider catalog ( 2016 ) world spider catalog . natural history museum bern . [ version 16 . 5 ] available from : urltoken ( accessed 25 april 2016 )\nzhang , j . x . & li , d . ( 2005 ) four new and one newly recorded species of the jumping spiders ( araneae : salticidae : lyssomaninae & spartaeinae ) from ( sub ) tropical china . raffles bulletin of zoology , 53 , 221\u2013229 ."]}
{"id": 2531, "summary": [{"text": "marsupials are any members of the mammalian infraclass marsupialia .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "all extant marsupials are endemic to australasia and the americas .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "a distinctive characteristic common to these species is that most of the young are carried in a pouch .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "well-known marsupials include kangaroos , wallabies , koalas , possums , opossums , wombats , tasmanian devils , and the recently extinct thylacines .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "others include the numbat , the bandicoot , the bettong , the bilby , the quoll , the quokka , and the potoroo .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "marsupials represent the clade originating from the last common ancestor of extant metatherians .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "like other mammals in the metatheria , they give birth to relatively undeveloped young that often reside with the mother in a pouch , for a certain amount of time .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "close to 70 % of the 334 extant species occur on the australian continent ( the mainland , tasmania , new guinea and nearby islands ) .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the remaining 100 are found in the americas \u2014 primarily in south america , but thirteen in central america , and one in north america , north of mexico . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "marsupial", "paragraphs": ["\u2018the production of a marsupial genetic linkage map is perhaps one of the most important objectives in marsupial research . \u2019\nnilsson ma , arnason u , spencer pbs , janke a . marsupial relationships and a timeline for marsupial radiation in south gondwana .\n\u2018dental development also occurs throughout the period of attachment in other marsupial species . \u2019\n\u2018now the tasmanian devil is the largest meat - eating marsupial existing today . \u2019\nwood jones , f . ( 1948 ) . the study of a generalized marsupial\n( didelphidae : marsupialia ) : contribution to the reconstruction of the marsupial morphotype .\n, 1955 . studies on marsupial reproduction . iii . normal and delayed pregnancy in\nseasonal changes in the reproductive tract of the male marsupial bandicoot , isoodon macrourus .\nalso possibly important to marsupial sex lives : kangaroos can unhinge their lower jaws .\n, 1952 . the tasmanian or marsupial devil . its habits and family life .\n, 1955b . studies on marsupial reproduction . 3 . normal and delayed pregnancy in\nthe marsupial mitochondrial genome and the evolution of placental mammals . - pubmed - ncbi\nmarsupial young are born relatively underdeveloped . in some but not all marsupial species , the mother develops a special pouch on her body in which to nurse her young .\nthe team then compared the wallaby and opossum data to the dna of 20 other marsupial species , including the wallaroo , the common wombat , and the marsupial mole , to find out which marsupial lineages are more closely related and which split off first .\nsystematics and evolution of the dasyurid marsupial genus sminthopsis : i . the macroura species group\nsystematics and evolution of the dasyurid marsupial genus sminthopsis : ii . the murina species group\n) , ranges through the united states into canada . the largest living marsupial is the\n\u2018the marsupial family tarsipedidae contains a single species , the honey possum or noolbender . \u2019\nkean , r . i . ( 1961 ) . the evolution of marsupial reproduction .\nrattner , j . b . ( 1972 ) . nuclear shaping in marsupial spermatids .\n) : evidence for multiple , topographically organized and interconnected representations in an australian marsupial .\nnumbats are small marsupial anteaters that eat termites . one species became extinct in 1960s .\nembryo - endometrial interactions during early development after embryonic diapause in the marsupial tammar wallaby .\nliving marsupial are divided into about 16 families representing about 250 species . these include :\n\u2018this was catastrophic for some of the local animals , especially the big marsupial carnivores . \u2019\n\u2018tooth replacement in marsupial mammals differs from the condition generally believed to characterize eutherian mammals . \u2019\nsharman , g . b . ( 1974 ) . marsupial taxonomy and phylogeny . aust .\nchristensen jl , hill rm . receptive fields of single cells of a marsupial visual cortex of\nchristensen jl , hill rm . response properties of single cells of a marsupial visual cortex .\nfrappell pb , mortola jp . respiratory function in a newborn marsupial with skin gas exchange .\ngemmell rt , little gj . the structure of the lung of the newborn marsupial bandicoot ,\nmla citation :\nmarsupial reproduction .\nurltoken . 09 jul 2018 < urltoken > .\nmoir , r . j . , somers , m . and waring , h . ( 1956 ) . studies on marsupial nutrition . i . ruminant - like digestion in a herbivorous marsupial\nnilsson m , arnason u , spencer p . b . s , janke a ( 2004 ) marsupial relationships and a timeline for marsupial radiation in south gondwana . gene 340 : 189\u2013196 .\n\u2018the marsupial wolf , now probably extinct , was once widespread in australia and new guinea . \u2019\n\u2018many of the extinct marsupial megafauna were large , herbivorous browsers , some weighing several tons . \u2019\ndasyurus viverrinus , a small class of marsupial with a gray or brown coat spotted with white .\nan australian marsupial , which somewhat resembles a small bear in appearance . the legs are short and\u2026\n1962b . role of the corpus luteum in marsupial reproduction . nature 194 : 890 - 891 .\nresults of the archbold expeditions . no . 104 . systematic revision of the marsupial dasyurid genus sminthopsis thomas\nwhen a deputy arrived at the scene there was indeed a marsupial wandering around rural palmetto state county .\nhughes , r . l . ( 1965 ) . comparative morphology of spermatozoa from five marsupial families .\ntioughton , e . leg . ( 1959 ) . the marsupial fauna : its origin and radiation .\ntyndale - biscoe , c . h . ( 1968 ) . reproduction and postnatal development in the marsupial\nmagalhaes - castro b , saraiva pe . sensory and motor representation in the cerebral cortex of the marsupial\nszalay x . a new appraisal of marsupial phylogeny and classification . in : archer m , editor .\nclements f , hope p , daniels c , chapman i , wittert g . thermogenesis in the marsupial\ngemmell rt , selwood l . structural development in the newborn marsupial , the stripe - faced dunnart ,\nthe antechinus is a small nocturnal marsupial mouse with a pointy nose . it hunts for small insects .\nand o ' donoghue , c . h . , 1913 . the reproductive cycle in the marsupial (\nseasonal changes in the reproductive tract of the male marsupial bandicoot , isoodon macrourus . - pubmed - ncbi\ngodthelp h , wroe s , archer m ( 1999 ) a new marsupial from the early eocene tingamarra local fauna of murgon , southeastern queensland : a prototypical australian marsupial ? j mammal evol 6 : 289\u2013313 .\n\u201c marsupial \u201d in diccionario de la lengua espa\u00f1ola , vig\u00e9sima tercera edici\u00f3n , real academia espa\u00f1ola , 2014 .\n\u2018the homology of the teeth in the marsupial dentition has been controversial and there are several alternate nomenclatures . \u2019\nhorovitz i , sanchez - villagra mr . a morphological analysis of marsupial mammal higher - level phylogenetic relationships .\nopossum , of the marsupial family . some species have pouches while others do not , and will therefore\u2026\na class of marsupial mammals native to america . they include a large number of species , ranging in size\u2026\nloudon a , rothwell n , stock m . brown fat , thermogenesis and physiological birth in a marsupial .\nembryo - endometrial interactions during early development after embryonic diapause in the marsupial tammar wallaby . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe search for diagnostic south american or australidelphian marsupial morphological characters has been so far confounded by the lack of a resolved marsupial phylogeny [ 21 ] , [ 22 ] , [ 28 ] . the newly established marsupial tree can now be applied not only to morphological and paleontological studies but also to clearly distinguish genomic changes .\nthe dna comparisons clearly showed that the mountain monkey belongs to the south american group on the marsupial evolutionary tree .\n\u201c marsupial \u201d in le tr\u00e9sor de la langue fran\u00e7aise informatis\u00e9 ( the digitized treasury of the french language ) .\nmartin , g . f . and megirian , d . ( 1972 ) . corticobulbar projections of the marsupial phalanger\npak poy , r . k . f . ( 1957 ) . electron microscopy of the marsupial renal glomerulus .\nsharman , g . b . ( 1955 ) . studies on marsupial reproduction . ii . the oestrus cycle of\ntyndale - biscoe , c . h . ( 1965 ) . the female urogenital system and reproduction of the marsupial\nhaight jr , neylon l . an analysis of some thalamic projections to parietofrontal neocortex in the marsupial native cat ,\njohnson ji , haight jr , megirian d . convolutions related to sensory projections in cerebral neocortex of marsupial wombats .\n( phalangeridae ) , with a comparative commentary on the organization of the posterior thalamus in marsupial and placental mammals .\nrose rw , kuswanti n . thyroid function and the development of endothermy in a marsupial , the tasmanian bettong ,\nmarsupial moles of the australian dessert have no eyes or ears and have a horny shield to protect their noses .\nthis small omnivorous marsupial became extinct in 1950 due to rabbits and introduced predators such as feral cats and foxes .\nthe ultrastructure of the lung of two newborn marsupial species , the northern native cat , dasyurus h . . .\n1892 , the american naturalist\u200e , page 125 : showing that this animal is marsupial , consists of the following characters .\naround 23 million years ago , during the late oligocene era , this marsupial lion roamed in northwestern queensland , australia .\nbut the tasmanian tiger , the marsupial lion and megalania ( a 1 , 300 - pound lizard ) are gone .\nfamily \u2020 thylacinidae : thylacine ( a . k . a . marsupial wolf , tasmanian wolf , tasmanian tiger ) .\nkathiresan , s . ( 1969 ) . morphological studies on the thymus . part i . thymus of the marsupial -\nmoss , m . l . and applebaum , e . ( 1963 ) . the fibrillar matrix of marsupial enamel .\nkudo m , aitkin lm , nelson je . auditory forebrain organization of an australian marsupial , the northern native cat (\na genus or subgenus of marsupial quadreupeds of the family phalangistd\u00e6 , peculiar to australia .\n- whitney , \u2026\nrenfree mb . marsupial reproduction : the choice between placentation and lactation . in . in : finn ca , editor .\nspotted tailed quolls are the size of a large cat . they are the second largest carnivorous marsupial and are endangered .\n, 1834 . on the generation of the marsupial animals , with a description of the impregnated uterus of a kangaroo .\nquincy the queensland koala has been equipped with the latest blood sugar monitor , hopefully quelling a quandary for the diabetic marsupial .\nthe new species include microbes , plants , animals and even the confirmation of an extinct marsupial , based on its fossil .\n\u2018unlike the large cats that have two enlarged canines , marsupial lions had enlarged incisors that were used to stab prey . \u2019\n\u2018small mammals such as bush rats and marsupial carnivores survived the fires by hiding under boulders and in damp rock crevasses . \u2019\n\u2018this marsupial family is restricted to wooded areas of eastern australia and contains a single living species , the familiar koala . \u2019\nneylon l , haight jr . neocortical projections of the suprageniculate and posterior thalamic nuclei in the marsupial brush - tailed possum ,\n. marsupial and placental mammals are very different , and diverged from each other a long time ago on the evolutionary tree .\nofficials later released the graphic images of the marsupial , before and after it underwent surgery for the arrows to be removed .\nwere examined between 0 and 21 pp . due to the slow postnatal development of the marsupial offspring , the investigation periods in\nrunciman sic , baudinette rv , gannon bj . postnatal development of the lung parenchyma in a marsupial : the tammar wallaby .\n( 1945 and later ) papers have contributed greatly to knowledge of the comparative anatomy of the marsupial reproduc - tive system .\nthe primers used for amplification of single copy marsupial introns containing retroposed elements . the primers used for amplification of single copy marsupial introns containing retroposed elements . the location of each marker on the chromosomes ( chr . ) in the monodelphis genome is listed .\nthe marsupial mode of reproduction is very complex , and the evolution from placental to marsupial would require the simultaneous alteration of several independent systems not to mention the development of the pouch and the physical capability necessary for the fetus to crawl to the pouch .\nwhat makes a marsupial , a marsupial ? a discussion on the historical biogeography and biological evolution of marsupial mammals . dr . robert voss is a professor at richard gilder graduate school and the american museum of natural history . his primary research interests are the evolution of marsupials and the systematics and biogeography of other neotropical mammals that inhabit moist - forest habitats in amazonia and the andes .\nat the earliest evolutionary split between marsupial relatives and placentals , you would expect two fossils like this to be geographically close .\nmost marsupial females , like this red kangaroo mom , have an upward - opening pocket called a pouch , for their young .\n\u2018\u2018this new fossil provides precious new information , and sheds light on the evolution of all marsupial mammals , \u2019 he said . \u2019\n\u2018placental and marsupial mammals are more closely related to one another than to the third living group of mammals , the monotremes . \u2019\nin marsupial species the young are born live , and the mother has a placenta but it is not considered a true placenta .\nhollis , d . e . and lyne , a . g . ( 1974 ) . innervation of vibrissa follicles in the marsupial\naitkin lm , nelson je , shepherd rk . hearing , vocalization and the external ear of a marsupial , the northern quoll ,\nhaight jr , neylon l . the organization of neocortical projections from the ventroposterior thalamic complex in the marsupial brush - tailed possum ,\nibbotson mr , mark rf . orientation and spatiotemporal tuning of cells in the primary visual cortex of an australian marsupial , the wallaby\na strange carniovorous marsupial that lived around 15 million years ago in australia had an insatiable appetite for escargot , shell and all .\nhughes r . l . , hall l . s . ( 1988 ) structural adaptations of the newborn marsupial . in : tyndale - biscoe c . h . , janssens p . a . ( eds ) the developing marsupial . springer , berlin , heidelberg\ntasmanian tigers were marsupial wolves that had stripes like a tiger . people hunted them to extinction . the last died in 1936 .\nbecause of this multiple - offspring strategy and other adaptabilities unique to the marsupial , populations can increase rapidly when food is plentiful .\nmarsupial reproductive strategies are based primarily on the lactation phase , which is in contrast with eutherian mammals where intrauterine development of the young is the primary reproductive investment . the marsupial neonate is born at an extremely early stage of development ( most weigh < 0 . 01 % of the mother ' s body weight at birth ) relative to the neonate of eutherian mammals , even compared with bears and insectivores whose newborn are more developmentally advanced than any marsupial neonate . newly hatched monotreme young are roughly as immature as the newborn marsupial .\n1952 , the motor\u200e , page 520 : it seemed to me , meandering around earls court , that motors should be more marsupial .\nabout 23 million years ago in australia , a marsupial lion lived in the open forest and spent part of its life in trees .\nbut fair warning \u2014 in some cases , these packs can make their wearers look like marsupial moms carrying their little joeys to term .\n\u2018so the extension of the term \u2018marsupial\u2019 is the set of all marsupials : kangaroos , wallabies , wombats , and so on . \u2019\nflynn , t . t . ( 1911 ) . notes on marsupial anatomy . ii . on the female genital organs of a virgin\nkrause , w . j . ( 1972 ) . the distribution of brunner\u2019s glands in 55 marsupial species native to the australian region .\nwade , o . and neely , p . ( 1949 ) . the heart and attached vessels of the opossum , a marsupial .\nbravo h , olavarria j , martinich s . patterns of interhemispheric and striate - peristriate connections in visual cortex of the south american marsupial\nhaight jr , sanderson kj , neylon l , patten gs . relationships of the visual cortex in the marsupial brush - tailed possum ,\nrenfree mb , tyndale - biscoe ch . manipulation of marsupial embryos and pouch young . in . in : daniel jc , editor .\nspringer ms , kirsch jaw , case ja . the chronicle of marsupial evolution . in : givinish t , sytsma k , editors .\nimportant observations ended a controversy , about the route taken by the marsupial foetus during parturition , which had continued for over 100 years .\nhowever , molecular data also suggests none of the living marsupial orders are much older than 65million years old , and that all the orders had diverged 50 - 55 million years ago . also , whilst all extinct marsupial orders are gondwanan , none are known that existed before the palaeocene . this suggests few marsupials survived the kt mass extinction , and that post - kt marsupial evolution mostly occurred in gondwana .\ndunnart ( sminthopsis ) , a marsupial mouse . the species can be found in australia and new guinea , in grassland and dryland habitats .\ndennis , b . j . and kerr , d . i . b . ( 1961a ) . somaesthetic pathways in the marsupial phalanger ,\nmartin , g . f . , megirian , d . and roebuck , a . ( 1971 ) . corticobulbar projections of the marsupial phalanger\namong the first is another bizarre carnivorous marsupial that looks like a younger and far more powerful cousin of the earlier snail - eating malleodectids .\nburri ph , haenni b , tschanz sa , makanya an . morphometry and allometry of the postnatal marsupial lung development : an ultrastructural study .\npilton , p . e . and sharman , g . b . , 1959 . oestrous cycle , gestation period and parturition in the marsupial\nwerdelin l ( 1987 ) jaw geometry and molar morphology in marsupial carnivores : analysis of a constraint and its macroevolutionary consequences . paleobiology 13 : 342\u2013350\nthe tasmanian tiger , known to science as the thylacine , was the only member of its genus of marsupial carnivores to live to modern times .\none pooch found antechinus species in the scenic rim , an area that hadn ' t seen the marsupial since the late 1980s , baker says .\nwhat made you want to look up marsupial ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nmartin , g . f . , megirian , d . and roebuck , a . ( 1970 ) . the corticospinal tract of the marsupial phalanger\nshorey , c . d . and hughes , r . l . ( 1972 ) . uterine glandular regeneration during the follicular phase in the marsupial\nheath cj , jones eg . interhemispheric pathways in the absence of a corpus callosum . an experimental study of commissural connexions in the marsupial phalanger .\nweller wl , haight jr , neylon l , johnson ji . a re - assessment of the mechanoreceptor projections to cerebral neocortex in marsupial wallabies (\n, 1961 . the evolution of marsupial reproduction . tech . pap . for . res . inst . n . z . no . 35 .\nnonetheless , many extant marsupials resemble placentals in appearance . for example , the marsupial tasmanian\nwolf\n( thylacinus ) resembles its placental counterpart , the wolf ( canis ) , the marsupial\nmouse\n( dasycerus ) resembles the placental mouse ( mus ) , and the marsupial\nanteater\n( myrmecobius ) resembles the placental anteater ( myrmecophaga ) ( mayr 2001 ) . evolutionists hold this to be an example of independent , convergent evolution .\n\u2018named akidolestes , the extinct animal had jaws , teeth , and forelimbs that identify it as a close relative of modern placental and marsupial mammals . \u2019\n\u2018when we studied all the patterns of amino - acid replacement and silent substitution , we discovered several replacements that all placental and marsupial mammals share . \u2019\nbiggers , j . d . and de lamater , e . d . ( 1965 ) . marsupial spermatozoa pairing in the epididymis of american forms .\nadey wr , kerr di . the cerebral representation of deep somatic sensibility in the marsupial phalanger and the rabbit ; an evoked potential and histological study .\nmakanya an , sparrow mp , warui mp , mwangi dk , burri ph . morphological analysis of the postnatally developing marsupial lung , the quokka wallaby .\nbartholomew , g . a . , 1956 . temperature regulation in the macropod marsupial setonix brachyurus . physiol . zool . 29 : 26 - 41 .\nberger , p . j . , 1966 . eleven - month \u2018embryonic diapause\u2019 in a marsupial . nature 211 ( 5047 ) : 435 - 436 .\nmoir , r . j . , somers , m . and waring , h . , 1956 . studies on marsupial nutrition . i . ruminant - like digestion in a herbivorous marsupial ( setonix brachyurus quoy and gaimard ) . aust . j . biol . sci . 9 : 293 - 304 .\nspringer m . s , westerman m , kavanagh j . r , burk a , woodburne m . o , et al . ( 1998 ) the origin of the australasian marsupial fauna and the phylogenetic affinities of the enigmatic monito de monte and marsupial mole . proc r soc lond b 265 : 2381\u20132386 .\ngoin fj ( 1989 ) late cenozoic south american marsupial and placental carnivores : changes in predator - prey evolution . abstracts v internatl ther congr 1 : 271\u2013272\nbolliger , a . and macindoe , n . m . ( 1950 ) . eye changes in a marsupial experimentally infected with kala - azar and trypanosomiasis .\n, 1947 . some problems of marsupial phylogeny . rep . aust . n . z . assn . adv . sci . 25 : 71 - 102 .\nbennett , verity . 2012 . fossil focus : marsupial evolution \u2013 a limited story ? palaeontology online , volume 2 , article 10 , 1 - 9 .\nhorovitz i , s\u00e1nchez - villagra m . r ( 2003 ) a morphological analysis of marsupial mammal higher - level phylogenetic relationships . cladistics 19 : 181\u2013212 .\nthe animals that migrated into australia after the flood were all exposed to similar conditions and potentially the same environmental extremes which would be necessary to trigger the obligatory convergent evolution of the trait in all local mammals . the mammals that migrated to australia were either all marsupial by coincidence or there exists the ability for the placentals to evolve to a marsupial mode of reproduction if it is advantageous . the existence of the marsupial / placental twins makes the latter seem a possible explanation\nin another picture , a shorts - clad tourist found himself on the receiving end of a marsupial ' s powerful kick , as two other kangaroos looked on .\nblair , d . m . , davies , f . and francis e t . b . ( 1942 ) . the conducting system of the marsupial heart .\nshorey , c . d . and hughes , r . l . ( 1973 ) . development , function , and regression of the corpus luteum in the marsupial\nthe pelvis of the echidna ; sa , sacrum ; il , illum ; is , ischium ; p , pubis ; m , marsupial bone .\n\u2014\u2026\nthese include the articulated skeletons of the ram - sized , sloth - like nimbadon - an extinct marsupial that fell in while moving overhead in the tree tops .\n2002 , fiction fix : first injection , page 58 : but there ' s this pouch just below my belly button , very marsupial , where the kangaroo lives .\n\u2018once the female hip - pocket frog , an australian species also known as the marsupial frog , lays up to 20 white eggs , her work is done . \u2019\nthe arrows , described in news release from the department as ' crossbow arrows ' , struck the marsupial the the side of its body and near its right eye .\nbaudinette rv , runciman sic , frappell pf , gannon bj . development of the marsupial cardiorespiratory system . in : tyndale - biscoe ch , janssens pa , editors .\n\u2018the tasmanian devil is the world ' s largest marsupial predator but its very survival is at stake as an horrific cancer threatens up to 90 % of its population . \u2019\naitkin lm , irvine dr , nelson je , merzenich mm , clarey jc . frequency representation in the auditory midbrain and forebrain of a marsupial , the northern native cat (\nthe most famous marsupial is the kangaroo , but there are many others , such as wallabies , opossums , koalas , and wombats . what makes marsupials different from primates or rodents ( who are also mammals ) is that the mothers have pouches to hold their young . this is because when marsupial babies are born , they ' re not quite ready for the world , so the pouch gives them a chance to grow and be safe before having to live on their own . when you think marsupial , think\npouch .\nguiler , e . r . and heddle , r w . l . ( 1970 ) . testicular and body temperatures in the tasmanian devil and three other species of marsupial .\nconvergent evolution is the appearance of similar traits in distantly related lineages . examples of convergent evolution between placentals and marsupials are the extinct tasmanian \u201cwolf\u201d ( a very wolflike marsupial ) , marsupial \u201cmoles\u201d ( living molelike marsupials that burrow in the sandy deserts of australia ) , and kangaroo rats ( north american rodents that hop on their hind legs like kangaroos ) .\nwhile making a stop in australia during his 24k magic world tour , mars cuddled up alongside a koala and shared a few flirty puns that would make any marsupial - lover blush .\nthe tasmanian tiger , or thylacine , was a striped , wolf - like marsupial now likely extinct . it was hunted by ranchers and farmers because it often attacked sheep and chickens .\nthere are 235 species of australian marsupial and 99 species of american ones . american marsupials are often called opossums and aren ' t as large and as varied as the australian ones .\ngiven this particular developmental scenario , several questions may be examined to determine if the changeover to marsupial reproduction is possible , or if the differences between the two systems are irreducibly complex .\ncoleman gt , zhang hq , murray gm , zachariah mk , rowe mj . organization of somatosensory areas i and ii in marsupial cerebral cortex : parallel processing in the possum sensory cortex .\nbentley , p . j . , 1960 . evaporative water loss and temperature regulation in the marsupial setonix brachyurus . aust . j . exp . biol . 38 : 301 - 306 .\nthe earliest known marsupial , sinodelphys szalaya , has been found in deposits in northeastern china dating to about 125 ma ( luo et al . , 2003 ) . this was a small insectivore / carnivore that had adapted for tree - climbing . it is the earliest known member of the metatheria , the group that living marsupials belong , though it was not strictly a marsupial .\nafter watching the last surviving tasmanian - tiger walking around in a pen on film , i began to wonder how significant the difference was between the marsupial and placental reproductive system . this marsupial wolf appeared and behaved just like any other dog . is it possible for it to belong to the same biblical kindship group as the dingo who later replaced him ? the marsupial counterparts are in many cases identical to a placental twin , and distinguishing them as unrelated is not possible without a much closer inspection than necessary for the differences we typically use to distinguish the biblical kinds .\nthe virginia opossum is north america ' s only marsupial . there ' s an old folk tale that opossum young were born in their mother ' s nose , then sneezed into the pouch .\nmikkelsen t . s , wakefield m . j , aken b , amemiya c . t , chang j . l , duke s , et al . ( 2007 ) genome of the marsupial\nwaring , h . , sharman , g . b . , lovat , d . and kahan , m . ( 1955 ) . studies on marsupial reproduction . i . general features and techniques .\nsince there is no apparent reason for differences in the placement of marsupial and placental wolffian ducts in males , the positions of the wolffian ducts seem to have been determined by the respective female requirements .\nin addition to the wolf , there are numerous other marsupials which are essentially identical to a placental counterpart . there is a marsupial squirrel , anteater , mole , mouse , and others which are indistinguishable from placental mammals with the exception of the differences in their mode of gestation . the evolutionists propose that the marsupial and placental mammals diverged from one another about 100 million years ago and the similarities that exist between these species have evolved coincidently as a result of common environmental exposures . the creationists on the other hand , generally assume each marsupial is a unique kind from each other and from their placental twin .\nmass specific rates of oxygen consumption ( v\u0307o 2 ) in the two marsupial species m . domestica and m . eugenii during the postnatal development . both marsupial species were characterized by low v\u0307o 2 at birth and did not reach v\u0307o 2 levels predictable from the allometric curve of adult marsupials ( hayssen & lacey , 1985 ) until 42\u201356 days in m . domestica and until 111 days in m . eugenii .\nmarsupial babies are nourished with milk supplied by their mothers through teats inside their pouches . because their young are born relatively underdeveloped these young animals lactate for a very long time compared to equivalent placental animals .\nmunemasa m , nikaido m , nishihara h , donnellan s , austin c . c , et al . ( 2008 ) newly discovered young core - sines in marsupial genomes . gene 407 : 176\u2013185 .\nat times when survival has become difficult and the death rates of mothers and children are high , the marsupial mode of reproduction may prevent high mortality rates from affecting the death of the other . under severe environmental stress when giving birth earlier becomes advantageous for the success of the population , then the marsupial reproductive mode may be selectable from the natural variation that exists within the timing and developmental rates of these events .\nthere are no marsupials that are highly specialized runners and none that live in water or have powered flight . however , some fill very similar ecological niches to some placental mammals , and look superficially similar . for example , notoryctes is called the marsupial mole ; the sugar glider , petaurus , glides between trees in the same way as the placental flying squirrel ; the numbat , myrmecobius , is a marsupial anteater ; and the thylacine , which sadly went extinct in the 1980s , is called the marsupial wolf . despite the limited geographical range of modern metatherians , they are found in the fossil record on every modern continent .\nlike all marsupial females , the wombat has a pouch\u2014but it opens toward the mother\u2019s rear , rather than toward her head . this keeps dirt from filling up the pouch when the mother wombat is busy digging !\nthe order dasyuromorphia includes myrmecobius , the numbat or marsupial ant - eater . myrmecobius is interesting because no similar forms are known in the fossil record before the occurrence of still - living species in the pleistocene .\nszalay f . s ( 1982 ) a new appraisal of marsupial phylogeny and classification . in : archer m , editor . carnivorous marsupials . sydney : royal zoological society of new south wales . pp . 621\u2013640 .\nbeck r . m . d , godthelp h , weisbecker v , archer m , hand s . j ( 2008 ) australia ' s oldest marsupial fossils and their biogeographical implications . plos one 3 : e1858 .\nphillips m . j , pratt r . c ( 2008 ) family - level relationships among the australasian marsupial \u201cherbivores\u201d ( diprotodontia : koala , wombats , kangaroos and possums ) . mol phylogent evol 46 : 594\u2013605 .\nthe relationship among the four australasian orders is not resolved , and of special interest is the phylogenetic position of the marsupial mole , notoryctes typhlops , which has been debated for a long time [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 14 ] , [ 17 ] \u2013 [ 19 ] , [ 21 ] , [ 23 ] . the marsupial mole is the only burrowing marsupial and is found in the deserts of australia . the eyes of the marsupial mole are vestigial and the fore - and hind limbs are morphologically derived due to the burrowing lifestyle . the derived morphology and the fact that the marsupial mole is the single species in the order notoryctemorphia have complicated attempts to resolve its phylogenetic position relative to the other three australian orders . most analyses of molecular sequence data find the marsupial mole closely related to the orders dasyuromorphia and peramelemorphia , but the support values are generally weak [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 14 ] , [ 17 ] \u2013 [ 19 ] , [ 23 ] , and the exact phylogenetic position relative to the other two orders is yet to be determined . during the retroposon screening one marker was found supporting a grouping of notoryctes , dasyuromorphia , and peramelemorphia ( p = 0 . 3333 [ 1 0 0 ] ) . the single retroposon marker is in agreement with the results from the sequence data . extended screening of retroposons can provide additional evidence for the position of the marsupial mole among marsupials and which of the orders , dasyuromorphia or peramelemorphia , is the sister group .\nadey , w . r . and kerr , d . i . b . ( 1954 ) . the cerebral representation of deep somatic sensibility in the marsupial phalanger and the rabbit ; an evoked potential and histological study .\nclezy , j . k . a . , dennis , b . j . and kerr , d . i . b . ( 1961 ) . a degeneration study of the somaesthetic afferent systems in the marsupial phalanger ,\n' although it is very different from the others , it appears to have been related to the dasyures - marsupial carnivores such as tasmanian devils and the extinct tasmanian tigers that are unique to australia and new guinea . '\nincreasing body size and species numbers also took place in the wombats ( vombatidae ) and the diprotodonts ( diprotodontidae ) . the large predators , thylacines ( thylacinidae ) and marsupial lions ( thylacoleonidae ) also increased in size .\nas the time approaches for the young marsupial to be born the female marsupial cleans out its pouch by sticking her head into her pouch licking the inside of it clean . it then takes up a\nbirthing position\nby sitting on its back with its tail between its legs and the hind legs extended straight forward . it also leans the trunk of its body forward . it then licks its birth canal opening possibly to stimulate the birth .\ntyler cj , dunlop sa , lund rd , harman am , dann jf , beazley ld , lund js . anatomical comparison of the macaque and marsupial visual cortex : common features that may reflect retention of essential cortical elements .\nsinger d , zeller u , hehenkamp e , schmidt h , kuhn h - j . suppression and activation of kleiber ' s rule in the neonatal period : a comparative calorimetric investigation in preterm human and small marsupial neonates .\nthanks to marsha bundman for editorial assistance . pontus lind\u00e9n , petra berkes , and erin m . arms assisted with lab work . axel janke provided samples . the marsupial paintings in figure 2 were provided by j\u00f3n baldur hl\u00ed\u00f0berg .\nmeredith r . w , westerman m , case j . a , springer m . s ( 2008 ) a phylogeny and timescale for marsupial evolution based on sequences for five nuclear genes . j mamm evol 15 : 1\u201326 .\nalthough the advantages of marsupial vs . placental birth may not be obvious , upon further examination several trade - offs become apparent . the placenta is extremely beneficial for many reasons , and allows the organism enough advantage to replace its marsupial counterpart if introduced into the same area . however , for everything there is a trade - off , and the gestation length may represent a direct exchange between what ' s advantageous for the child as opposed to the mother .\ngreen b ( 1997 ) field energetics and water flux in marsupials . in : saunders nr , hinds la ( eds ) marsupial biology : recent research , new perspectives . university of new south wales press , sidney , pp 143\u2013162\nbut the rescue 11 crew from st . tammany parish ' s fire district 1 noticed more than just a dead marsupial on monday morning . ( april 2 ) there were three baby opossums trying to nurse off their dead mother .\nmalleodectes mirabilis ( artist ' s impression pictured ) was a carnivorous marsupial with an ' insatiable appetite ' for snails , according to researchers . they say it had hammer - like premolars that allowed it to crack and crush snail shells\nwhat is a marsupial ? a marsupial is an animal belonging to the order marsupiala , infraclass metatheria . members include the kangaroo , koala , tasmanian devil and the virginia opossum . marsupials give birth to fetal - like young following a brief gestation period . the young then nurse for an extended period of time . it is generally accepted that a marsupial is a non - placental mammal whose female carries her young in a pouch , or marsupium , which provides the developing young with the proper environment , warmth , possess a placenta , although the placenta is non - invasive and functions in nutrient and waste transfer for a very short period of time , about 3 days in the virginia opossum .\nwhile most marsupials can swim , there are no marine marsupials . they reason for this is the fact that marsupial babies are carried in a pouch outside the body and would drown if their mother was to submerge herself in water .\nsharman g . b . ( 1959 ) marsupial reproduction . in : keast a . , crocker r . l . , christian c . s . ( eds ) biogeography and ecology in australia . monographiae biologicae . springer , dordrecht\nthough marsupials today do not have as many species as do the placental mammals , they are quite structurally diverse . they range from small four - footed forms like the marsupial mole , notoryctes , to the large two - legged kangaroos .\nthese example sentences are selected automatically from various online news sources to reflect current usage of the word ' marsupial . ' views expressed in the examples do not represent the opinion of merriam - webster or its editors . send us feedback .\na feature of the gestation period of marsupials is its short duration . the foetal marsupial may spend as little as twelve to thirteen days in the reproductive tract . why is the gestation period so short and what happens in this time ?\nmackerras , m . j . and smith , r . h . , 1960 . breeding the short - nosed marsupial bandicoot , isoodon macrourus gould ) , in captivity . aust . j . zool . 8 : 371 - 382 .\nmarlow , b . j . , 1961 . reproductive behaviour of the marsupial mouse , antechinus flavipes ( waterhouse ) ( marsupialia ) and the development of the pouch young . aust . j . zool . 9 : 203 - 218 .\nhowever , whilst the vast majority of post kt marsupial evolution occurred in the southern continents , they almost certainly first evolved in the northern continents . with a complete absence of south american cretaceous marsupial fossils , the oldest south american marsupials are 63 - 61 million years old fossils found in the tiupampian levels in argentina and bolivia . it is therefore argued that marsupials only migrated to south america from north america by the end of the cretaceous , between 70 and 65 mya .\nthey found that all of the species had common retroposons , and thus a common ancestor . closer analysis revealed that the south american opossum order , didelphimorphia , was the oldest living marsupial order , indicating that all marsupials originated in south america .\nthe pattern of the marsupial vagina is varied by differences in expansions either of the lateral canals anteriorly , or of the median sac . lateral canals are long in the caenolestidae and the whole vagina tends to be long in the australian marsupials .\ncitation : nilsson ma , churakov g , sommer m , tran nv , zemann a , brosius j , et al . ( 2010 ) tracking marsupial evolution using archaic genomic retroposon insertions . plos biol 8 ( 7 ) : e1000436 . urltoken\nphillips m . j , mclenachan p . a , down c , gibb g . c , penny d ( 2006 ) combined mitochondrial and nuclear dna sequences resolve the interrelations of the major australasian marsupial radiations . syst biol 55 : 122\u2013137 .\naplin k . p , archer m ( 1987 ) recent advances in marsupial systematics with a new syncretic classification . in : archer m , editor . possums and opossums : studies in evolution . sydney : surrey beatty . pp . xv\u2013lxi .\nprevious studies had tried to tackle the question by comparing small bits of dna or physical differences between marsupials , such as ankle joint characteristics , phillips said . the new study , in contrast , examines large chunks of marsupial genomes for evolutionary clues .\nthe female reproductive system is generally similar to the placental system , although it does have more differences than the male systems . there is also a larger variation in size and shape between different marsupial species , although all share the same basic morphology .\nthree different search strategies ( see materials and methods ) revealed \u223c217 , 000 retroposon - containing genomic loci . highly conserved exonic primers were generated for 228 loci and experimentally tested on a small set of species . after carefully screening the sequences , we selected 32 loci based on criteria outlined in the materials and methods section for amplification in 20 marsupial species ( table s2 ) . we carefully aligned and analyzed approximately 440 marsupial sequences to reveal 53 informative markers ( figure 2 , table 1 ) .\nwaring , h . , sharman , g . b . , lovat , d . and kahan , m . 1955 . studies on marsupial reproduction . i . general features and techniques . aust . j . zool . 3 : 34 - 43 .\nduring this period , north american marsupials became extinct , with marsupial extinctions occurring during the miocene in europe . this pattern of extinction in the north contrasts to that observed in the south , where marsupials underwent adaptive radiation and continued to migrate throughout gondwana .\n) is an example of a marsupial that has readily adapted to changing conditions brought about by people and is even plentiful in some urban centres . its adaptability to different locales is attributed to its tolerance for a variety of food , including household refuse . the\n) and is considered to have retained many primitive features of the australian common ancestor . the order peramelemorphia consists of two families of bandicoots , both of which have been found in a wide range of habitats . notoryctemorphia only contains one species of marsupial mole (\nwombat ( family vombatidae ) . the three living species of wombats are marsupial mammals found only in australia and tasmania . with a remaining population of only about 100 individuals , the northern hairy - nosed wombat ( lasiorhinus krefftii ) is considered to be critically endangered .\nabstract \u2013 the 3 - d skeletal images obtained from reconstruction of ct scans and x - rays , and soft - tissue images produced by mri , provide invaluable information of the internal and gross anatomy of the north - western marsupial mole ( notoryetes caurinus ) .\ntime - course of lung structural changes ( top panel ) and metabolic development ( bottom panel ) in one marsupial species ( m . domestica ) and eutherian species ( altricial : s . murinus , m . auratus ; precocial : t . belangeri , c . aperea ) . in eutherian species alveolized lung structure and adult metabolic rate were reached at the latest within 1 week after birth ( closed arrow ) , whereas the marsupial species did not reach the same developmental stage until 6\u20138 weeks after birth ( dashed arrow ) .\nmost males and females breed with different partners and then go their separate ways . females raise their joeys on their own . most females have some type of pouch for their young . but not all marsupial pouches are as deep as a kangaroo\u2019s pouch . unlike the koala or kangaroo , most marsupial mothers give birth to several joeys at one time . their pouch is shallow . when the joeys are old enough , they can climb onto mom\u2019s back instead of creating a lot of weight for her to carry around in her pouch .\nthe phylogenetic relationship between marsupial orders is unresolved . for example , the relationship between the order microbiotheria ( boxed ) and other marsupial orders changes depending on what type of data is used to construct the phylogenetic tree . the six phylogenies shown are based on dna sequencing ( a , b ) , dental and skeletal morphology ( c , d ) , mitochondrial genome ( b , e ) , and a meta - analysis that combined numerous phylogenetic relationships described in the literature ( f ) . ( a ) is the same tree shown in\nthe marsupial egg descends from the female ' s ovary into an uterus where it is fertilized . once fertilised the eggs is encased in a very thin shell similar to that of birds and reptiles . this shell is just a few microns thick and disintegrates when the egg reaches the third phase of gestation . a remnant from the evolutionary past this unusual characteristic is common amongst marsupial mammals . marsupials only develop a very ' primitive ' choriovitelline placenta where the egg , with its embryo inside , is attached to the mother ' s uterine wall for only a very short period and doesn ' t develop into a chorioallantoic placenta like in placental mammals . ( the only exception is in bandicoots ) . the gestation period for a marsupial is between 12 to 30 days and varies amongst the different types of marsupials .\nthere exists a mystery concerning the origin or migration of the marsupials ( pouched mammals ) following the great biblical flood of noah . prior to the modern introduction of placentals into australia , the continent was inhabited by only marsupial and monotreme mammals . most of the 140 species of marsupials in australia are found nowhere else in the world . the only naturally occurring marsupial in the united states is the possum , didelphis marsupialis . this overwhelming presence in australia should be explained through natural affects upon these animals during their reoccupation of the postflood world .\non most marsupial females , the pouch is like a pocket opening upward . but the pouch of the virginia opossum of north america and the wombat of australia opens toward the tail . all marsupials have good hearing and a good sense of smell . most walk on the ground or are good climbers , and one , the water opossum or yapok of south america , can swim ! bandicoots , kangaroos , wallabies , and possums have two toes fused together . the numbat is the only marsupial active during the day\u2014all others are nocturnal or crepuscular .\na single functional oviduct is present in birds and monotremes . probably analogous development of a median vagina occurred in oviparous therians during some 50 million years preceding separation of marsupials and placentals . eggs were hard shelled according to the vestigial evidence of a caruncle on the marsupial embryo .\nvan kampen , p . n . , 1905 . die tympnelgegend des sa\u00fcgetierschadels . morph . jahrb . 34 : 321 - 722 . ( cited by patterson , b . , 1965 . the auditory region of the borhyaenid marsupial cladosictis breviora 217 : 1 - 9 . )\nmarsupials are non - placental mammals belonging to the infraclass ( or order ) marsupialia . marsupial females typically have an external pouch ( called the marsupium , from which the name ' marsupial ' derives ) in which the immature young are raised after birth until early infancy . the newborn typically crawl to this pouch after birth , and attach themselves to milk - secreting teats ( nipples ) , and are nursed until they can survive outside the pouch . this time period in the pouch is similar to the later stages of a placental mammal ' s development in the womb .\nearly lineage specification in this marsupial suggests mechanisms that differ from and challenge mammalian paradigms established from studies on mouse development . these new data , together with emerging information on cow , pig and even human show that early developmental mechanisms in mammals are more evolutionarily plastic than was previously recognised .\nfigure 1 \u2014 cleared - and - stained post - natal marsupial ( grey short - tailed opossum , monodelphis domestica ; left ) and pre - natal placental ( four - striped grass mouse , rhabdomys pumilio ; right ) , showing differences in development at time of birth . bony elements are highlighted in pink . ( image modified from goswami , a . , weisbecker , v . and s\u00e1nchez - villagra , m . r . . 2009 . developmental modularity and the marsupial - placental dichotomy . journal of experimental zoology part b , molecular and developmental evolution 312b , 186\u2013195 .\nthe exclusive presence of marsupials in australia following the flood , and the fact that numerous marsupial / placental counterparts exist forces the creation theorist to reach out for a new explanation . if it was possible for the marsupial mode of reproduction to evolve from the placental mammal , then the exclusive existence of the marsupials in australia might be explained through the evolution of placental mammals to marsupials . convergent evolution occurs when several distinct kinds exist in the same biotype , and are all exposed to the same selection . this results in the evolution of similar traits or behaviors in unrelated organisms .\ncalaby , j . h . 1958 . studies on marsupial nutrition ii . the rate of passage of food residues and digestibility of crude fibre and protein by the quokka , setonix brachyurus ( quoy and gaimard ) . aust . j . biol . sci . 11 : 571 - 580 .\ntwo marsupial species ( monodelphis domestica , macropus eugenii ) and four eutherian species ( mesocricetus auratus , suncus murinus , tupaia belangeri and cavia aperea ) were examined to compare and contrast the timing of lung and metabolic development during the postnatal maturation of the mammalian respiratory apparatus . using light , scanning and transmission electron microscopy , the lung structural changes were correlated with indirect calorimetry to track the metabolic development . marsupial and eutherian species followed the same pattern of mammalian lung development , but differed in the developmental pace . in the two newborn marsupial species , the lung parenchyma was at the early terminal sac stage , with large terminal air sacs , and the lung developed slowly . in contrast , the newborn eutherian species had more advanced lungs at the late terminal sac stage in altricial species ( m . auratus , s . murinus ) and at the alveolar stage in precocial species ( t . belangeri , c . aperea ) . postnatal lung development proceeded rapidly in eutherian species . the marsupial species had a low metabolic rate at birth and achieved adult metabolism late in postnatal development . in contrast , newborn eutherian species had high metabolic rates and reached adult metabolism during the first week of life . the time course of the metabolic development is thus tightly linked to the structural differentiation of the lungs and the timing of postnatal lung development . these differences in the neonatal lung structure and the timing of postnatal lung maturation between marsupial and eutherian species reflect their differing reproductive strategies ."]}
{"id": 2542, "summary": [{"text": "sea apple is a common name for the colorful and somewhat round sea cucumbers of the genera paracucumaria and pseudocolochirus , found in indo-pacific waters .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "sea apples are filter feeders with tentacles , ovate bodies , and tube-like feet .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they can release their internal organs or a toxin into the water when stressed . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "sea apple", "paragraphs": ["kfc and apple hit by backlash from beijing\u2019s spat with philippines over south china sea .\nlots of myths in this hobby . . . sea apple toxin is not one of them .\nthe apple will automatically anchor at a corner with high waterflow . it is true that sometimes the apple will wander about .\nyour sea apple can nuke everything in your tank ( even if you have a 500 gallon tank ! ) the sea apple belongs in a smaller tank by itself ( and perhaps a few death row inmates ) .\nwhat about the toxins that the sea apple may let out . the tenticals seem to be getting worse .\npseudocolochirus violaceus ( dendrochirotida : cucumariidae ) sea apple cucumber by lee sui kei rachel , 2016 , on taxo4254 .\nsmashed iphones latest in south china sea spat kfc and apple hit by backlash from beijing\u2019s spat with philippines over south china sea . check out this story on urltoken urltoken\nevisceration has apparently not been observed in the others ( which are curiously - mostly made up of deep - sea members ) . its not clear if some deep - sea sea cucumbers - such as sea pigs eviscerate or not .\nsooner or later , a sea lion always pops up . this is a gal\u00e1pagos sea lion ( zalophus wollebaeki ) .\nsam apple is the author of the memoir \u201camerican parent\u201d and teaches journalism at the university of pennsylvania .\nin this column i will discuss some of the most colourful and controversial sea cucumbers in the hobby \u2013 the sea apples .\ni just want to say . my sea apple is fine in my 7 gallons since my purchase . from my observation , you can make a sea apple tank easily . the trick is you should block all the power head by using live rocks . and try to make your hob filter on either left or right hand corner .\nsea cucumbers actually taste like cucumbers . and when you pickle them they taste like pickles . aren ' t sea cucumbers amazing .\nrecently my huge lta decided to move . he happened to move to where the sea apple sits . the tenticals of the anemone were touching the sea apple and i wasnt really sure what to do so i just let nature do as it will . maybe not a good idea ? the sea apple seemed to move but not very far and it doesnt look that great . his tenticals are out a lot as usuall but a couple of them look to be\nmelting\nfor a lack of better words . any advice\nthe great pearlfish , conqueror of sea cucumber bums , devourer of reproductive organs , all - around decent critter to anything but a sea cucumber .\ni would avoid putting anything else in the tank since the apple death will most likely kill everything else in the tank .\nthere are several parasites that have snails as an intermediate host . however , apple snails are relatively resistant to many of these parasites , which are often host specific and do not regenerate in other hosts like apple snails . however , at least one parasite (\napple only tank , does sound good . . . i think a 5 gallon would do the trick . . . . .\nyou have teeth in your head , but some sea cucumbers have them in their bum . imagine , if you will , the life of a sea cucumber dentist .\n( the edible sea cucumber which is black along the upper surface , and bright pink along the belly , also from the red sea and indo - pacific ) .\nan apple snail with an egg deposition problem . the eggs collect near the shell opening qnd not on the surface ( pomacea canaliculata ) .\nthis sea apple ( pseudocholochirus ) has extended its tree - like feeding tentacles into the water column to capture tiny planktonic food . although these animals have a reputation for being extremely dangerous to a coral reef aquarium , they only cause problems in self - defense . a sea apple can make an attractive and interesting addition to well - designed aquarium in which the animal is protected from pump intakes and receives appropriate and sufficient food . photo by julian sprung\nbut i find that if you make your hob with high waterflow , it wont move easily for the apple needs current to filter its food .\na sea cucumber behavior wherein they can expel their\nguts\nthrough their body wall .\nfrom wikipedia ! sea urchins ! who doesn ' t love em ? the spiny balls of the sea ! we eat em ! they ' re important to marine ecosystems . . .\nthe natural history museum in rotterdam will exhibit reconstructions of the sea monster later this year .\nthis sea lion came into a little cove . the trees in the background are mangroves .\ngal\u00e1pagos green turtle ( chelonia mydas agassisi ) . gal\u00e1pagos green turtles are a subspecies of the pacific green sea turtle , and the only population of green sea turtles nesting in the gal\u00e1pagos .\nhere ' s another thought . . . i feel that there is a much greater chance that you bring home a fish that wipes out all the others , than bringing home an apple and it doing the same . i better stop now as my apple could be proving me wrong at the moment . . .\nthe letters denote the sea cucumber\u2019s increasing level of discomfort . ( click for larger view . )\nsea world ' s trevor long says dolphins\nare enriched by the experience\nof performing .\nincreasingly innovative maritime raids near the narrow bab al - mandab maritime passage , which connects the red sea with the gulf of aden and the arabian sea , add to already severe difficulties getting aid and commercial supplies to a country that imports 90 percent of its food and fuel by sea .\nthe sea apple should be fed liquid foods of brine shrimp , grated mussel , or other carnivorous preparations at least three times per week . if you notice an oily residue on the surface of the acclimation container , find cucumber floating on top of the water , any cloudiness in the bag , or note that the acclimation water is very discolored do not add cucumber or acclimation water to the aquarium . it is important to be cautious in caring for the sea apple as it can have adverse effects if done improperly .\nthe stem cells phyto - elite intensive body sea scrub comes in either green apple or citrus and it helps to refresh and smooth skin . this product helps with the anti - aging process , exfoliating and polishing the skin to leave behind an enjoyable sensory experience .\nsorry i probably should have worded my comment better . . was trying to indicate that if he was not concerned about the potential danger of the sea apple . . fine - not that he did not care about the cuke . my apology if i offended .\nfigure 4 . 3 frost damage to an apple flower ( left ) ; and on small fruits ( right ) [ russet patches near the eyes and rings ] .\nthese animals may look like boring lumps . . . but sea cucumbers have all sorts of surprises .\nformulated with the atoligomer , which is a high concentrate of pure microminerals drawn from the sea water , this scrub helps infuse the skin with natural minerals and strengthen and rejuvenate the epidermis . the entire sea scrub is based around the mineral - rich natural sea salt that enhances the penetration of the active ingredients .\nsprung , j . 2001 . invertebrates : a quick reference guide . sea challengers , danville , ca .\nechinodermata ! starfish ! sea urchins ! sea cucumbers ! stone lillies ! feather stars ! blastozoans ! sea daisies ! marine invertebrates found throughout the world ' s oceans with a rich and ancient fossil legacy . their biology and evolution includes a wide range of crazy and wonderful things . let me share those things with you !\nso , here ' s the thing - sea cucumbers , like most echinoderms directly lack a way to excrete wastes . they are essentially open to seawater the way starfish , sea urchin , and other echinoderms are . .\noh . . . okay . . . that changes things a little . try just moving the sea apple and see if that ' s enough . if the aneomne isn ' t showing damage then the toxins may only be limited . still . . . keep a close eye on things .\nkfc and apple \u201care just closely associated with the u . s . , and you are seeing people picking the closest symbol they can think of to demonstrate against , \u201d he said .\nanimal rights activist june killington visits sea world to distribute postcards that claim the park is an\naquaprison\n.\ninterestingly , the extent to which evisceration occurs varies among different groups . here is a generalized classification for sea cucumbers taken\ni know that sea apples are difficult and nasty in death which is why i want a species tank for one .\nthe sea apple is poisonous when stressed . the poison is powerful and can not only kill the anemone but harm the entire tank . if it dies they are known to release even more of this poison . i do not suggest you let nature take its course as this may result in tank - wide problems .\nyou will also want to ensure that you do not have any species of fish that are known to be predators of sea cucumbers . most trigger fish , some wrasses and butterfly fish will nip at the tube feet of sea cucumbers . although sea cucumbers are nocturnal , our rock landscaping usualy does not provide enough protection to hide in and be completely safe from predatory fish .\na poison apple tree ( manzanillo ; hippomane mancinella ) . this is the only indigenous toxic plant in the gal\u00e1pagos - the sap causes severe dermatitis and the fruit can be fatal to humans , though tortoises eat it .\nmunday p . l , van herwerden l , dudgeon c . l . evidence for sympatric speciation by host shift in the sea .\nkfc is china\u2019s biggest restaurant chain with more than 5 , 000 outlets . it is overhauling its struggling business there after a food scandal and marketing missteps . apple has faced a series of legal hurdles this year in china .\nchinese nationalists have protested at kfc outlets and called for boycotts of the fast - food chain , while photos and video circulating online and on social media show people wearing scarves and banners with patriotic slogans smashing apple iphones in protest .\nwhile the iphone x may have stolen the headlines , in fact the iphone 8 could be the sleeper hit of apple ' s new range , offering the same power as the x but with features and a design users trust .\ntrowbridge c . d , todd c . d . host - plant change in marine specialist herbivores : ascoglossan sea slugs on introduced macroalgae .\nsea apples are going to move around till they find a spot they are comfortable with . . and there isn ' t much you can do about it . many would consider sea apples\nhigh risk\nand\nexpert only\n- not a great choice for most tanks .\nthe sea cucumber , though , has a trick up its sleeve . remarkably , it can regenerate complex body parts like intestines and , yes , gonads . and it\u2019s a damn good thing it can , because sea cucumbers defend themselves in what might be described as a fairly unorthodox manner .\napple ' s watch will free you from your phone - while making sure you don ' t suffer the fear of missing out . it ' s a huge step forward , and a compelling reason for the average user to buy a smartwatch .\nthis defenseless - looking sea cucumber has a secret weapon . when under threat , it expels its own guts as sticky filaments that can tangle or injure\u2026\ni recently purchased a sea apple , and wanted to find some more information about how best to care for it . a friend of mine has had his sea apple for about 4 months , and it seems to be doing well . he target feeds it by using a turkey baster to squirt enriched baby brine shrimp ( soaked in selcon for an hour or so ) a couple of times a week , and aside from that he says it catches some of the bits of adult brine that he feeds to his fish and larger corals . i know that there is a risk of them poisoning the tank if they die , but i really like the thing and really want to have one in my tank . is this crazy , or is it really as easy to keep as my friend says ? thanks ,\ni have had a very nice sea apple for 4 - 5 years and he just went belly up over the last week . no poison excreted whew . i put him in a hospital tank to offer more food and care , but i still lost him . params were all near perfect and no other losses in the tank . and no other tankmates seemed to pay any attention to him day or night .\ntoonen , r . j . 2003 . invertebrate non - column : sea cucumbers - part ii . in advanced aquarists online magazine . january 2003 . urltoken\nfile photo - people walk past a ship docked at the red sea port of hodeidah , yemen february 1 , 2017 . reuters / abduljabbar zeyad / files\nwell , hopefully that provides you with sufficient information to make an educated decision about whether or not your aquarium is suitable for a sea apple . if you decide that you would like to add one of these beautiful and fascinating animals to your tank , i also hope that the information that i have provided here will allow you a good chance at keeping it healthy and happy for a long time in your aquarium !\nlane , david j . w . and didier vandenspiegel . 2003 . a guide to sea stars and other echinoderms of singapore . singapore science centre . 187pp .\ndifferent kinds of sea cucumbers evert / expel different organs . these can also vary depending on certain times of the year ( as we ' ll see ) .\nbut as sea cucumbers were better studied - it turned out that these cases were not quite so clear cut ! and defense was sometimes just not an option .\nimages here from the encyclopedia of life this week , something about the many different kinds of asteroids ( aka sea star or starfish ! ) t . . .\nsea apples are suspension feeders that need ample quantities of phytoplankton to survive . you can purchase or culture phytoplankton to feed these animals , but satisfying their demand and keeping them alive long term requires a high degree of effort and dedication . the sad fact is , most sea apples kept in aquariums gradually starve to death .\ncan anyone provide me a trustable source regarding this ? i would also like to know if there are any recent papers exploring why males get pregnant in sea horses .\nthis defenseless - looking sea cucumber has a secret weapon . when under threat , it expels its own guts as sticky filaments that can tangle or injure its aggressor .\nsea cucumbers are , of course , the\nworm - like\nechinoderms . they usually eat fine mud or organic goo and are composed of 3 main parts !\nsea world has earned a reputation for its rescue and rehabilitation work and its funding of marine research , but critics say such projects are a\nfig leaf\n.\n: please do not purchase them . while being very colorfull and a temptation to add one to our aquariums , these animals are not suitable for keeping within our aquariums . being filter feeders and not deposit feeders as the other sea cucumbers are , they are almost guaranteed to slowly starve to death . once stressed or having died , a sea apple is one of the most toxic of their family and will kill a great many of your other aquarium pets quickly . the risk is far too great to take a chance on trying to keep an animal that is all but impossible for us to feed properly .\nsuch pearlfishes come in a range of species , and don\u2019t necessarily limit themselves to invading sea cucumbers . they\u2019ll also work their way into sea stars , and are so named because they\u2019ve been found dead inside oysters , completely coated in mother - of - pearl . beautiful , really , though i reckon the pearlfish would beg to differ .\nwow - congratulations on keeping such a fragile creature for so long . i ' m not sure what their natural lifespan is , but you did great with that one ! when i saw the subject line , i was thinking - the lifespan of the other creatures in the tank will be\nas short\nas the sea apple - i don ' t sell sea apples but i ' ve seen the disasters that can occur when people buy them and they come into harm ' s way . . . they nuke and kill everything 4 - 5 years - my hat is off to you - well done ! jenn\nshipping industry sources say shipping firms were becoming more reluctant to deliver goods to houthi - controlled hodeidah port together with the neighboring port of salif also on the rea sea .\nsea apples on aquarium invertebrates by dr rob toonen on the advanced aquarist ' s online magazine : details the toxic nature and low success rate of keeping these animals in captivity .\nso like a disgraced samurai disemboweling himself , the sea cucumber gifts the world with its intestines , whether the world wants them or not . interestingly , though , the pearlfish doesn\u2019t itself seem to trigger this reaction for reasons that aren\u2019t yet clear . and it\u2019s important to consider that the fish in fact benefits from the evisceration , because by using the sea cucumber as a home , it necessarily adopts its host\u2019s predators . its survival depends on the sea cucumber\u2019s ability to defend itself , which is quite intriguing from an evolutionary perspective .\nand sure enough , tests with expelled viscera and a place for the sea cucumbers to hide was effective against one of their most aggressive predators . . the sun star . .\n( photo by emily miller kauai ) so , recently i ' ve gotten a bunch of questions about these peculiar sea urchins via email - and so i thou . . .\nother than those few simple precautions , a sea cucumber ' s only real danger within our aquariums is from starving to death . if you notice that your sea cucumber is slowly shriking ( getting smaller ) , then it would be a good idea to try and find it another home that can provide the amount of detritus and organics it needs to thrive .\nthe ornately colored sea anemone ( uh - nem - uh - nee ) is named after the equally flashy terrestrial anemone flower . a close relative of coral and jellyfish , anemones are stinging polyps that spend most of their time attached to rocks on the sea bottom or on coral reefs waiting for fish to pass close enough to get ensnared in their venom - filled tentacles .\nhe story of modern cancer research begins , somewhat improbably , with the sea urchin . in the first decade of the 20th century , the german biologist theodor boveri discovered that if he fertilized sea - urchin eggs with two sperm rather than one , some of the cells would end up with the wrong number of chromosomes and fail to develop properly . it was the era before modern genetics , but boveri was aware that cancer cells , like the deformed sea urchin cells , had abnormal chromosomes ; whatever caused cancer , he surmised , had something to do with chromosomes .\nwhen purchasing a cucumber , as with everything , you should research that specific species , if possible , i say if possible , because there is very little known as this group of animals is very little studied . thankfully most deposit feeding sea cucumbers that i am familiar with are very similiar and only differ in their adult size . when choosing from the few varieties of sea cucumber species normaly available to the hobby , i would first ensure that the sea cucumber will not become a very large specimen as it will most likely not find enough to eat within our aquariums .\nrespiratory trees are unique to sea cucumbers and are not found in any other echinoderm . all species of holothuroids must use at least one of these organs to breath . respiratory trees are often fed oxygen by the sea cucumber actually breathing through their anus . they not only excrete waste from their anus , but expand and contract their muscular body walls in a slow rhythm , which in turn draws in and expels water . this is where the respiratory trees extract the oxygen . there are a few species of sea cucumbers that also allow small fishes to enter and exit the anus .\ni ' ve eaten sea cucumber on many occasions . the species i ' ve tried have a very subtle taste that tends to convey the flavor of the sauce . there is a substantive gelatinous texture to it which is what most people seem to remember most . sea cucumber harvests are becoming a conservation issue - so at this point i would enjoy with some restraint and caution . .\nhe similarly dismisses the idea that sea world\nkidnaps\ndolphins from the wild , since , apart from anything else , taking dolphins from the wild for commercial use is illegal in australia .\nthe book features chapters on several australian zoos and on the dolphins at sea world .\nyou have to get the animal ' s hunger level just right before a performance ,\nhe says .\nyou see some very agitated seals and sea lions just before their performance , because they know they are going to be fed but that they have to do a performance before that happens .\na maritime source familiar with the area said that , depending on the current , any free floating mines could be pushed into the open sea in an area close to the bab al - mandab .\nbut , i do know that the sea apple which i had in my tank is still back in the store where i returned it . it was in the store for about 3 - 4 months before i purchased it , so . . as for right now it ' s going on maybe 9 - 10 months of living in captivity and i have no idea how long they had it before then . the guy i purchased it from has had his in his tank at home for about 3 years if i rember right .\nchinese state media called for\nrational patriotism\nwednesday amid anti - u . s . protests in recent days after an international tribunal ruled against beijing over its territorial claims in the south china sea .\nsea world ' s gate takings are estimated at more than $ 133 million annually . of that it spends $ 1 million on rescue , research and rehabilitation , or three - quarters of 1 per cent .\na saudi frigate was attacked on jan . 30 close to the red sea port of hodeidah in which two crew members were killed and three wounded , saudi official media reported , blaming houthis for the attack .\nin several posts here at saltwater smarts , i\u2019ve mentioned that certain marine organisms routinely offered in the aquarium trade should come with a warning label\u2014especially for novice hobbyists . in these cases , i\u2019m usually referring to animals that are really gorgeous or exotic - looking ( hence hard to resist ) but either difficult to keep alive or dangerous to tankmates for one reason or another . in the case of the sea cucumbers known as sea apples (\npelletreau , k . n . , & g . muller - parker . 2002 . sulfuric acid in the phaeophyte alga desmarestia munda deters feeding by the sea urchin strongylocentrotus droebachiensis . marine biology 141 : 1 - 9 .\nif you want a ron howard movie about a man obsessed with a creature from the deep ,\nin the heart of the sea ,\nsadly , is not the place to start . try\nsplash .\nwhile not a complicted animal to care for , there are a few concerns to take into consideration when adding a sea cucumber to your aquarium . not being the quickest or brightest of creatures , any pump inlet that is not covered or protected will pose a very real danger to your sea cucumber . keeping the inlet guards that should have come with your pump when you purchased it , in place , will prevent any such accidents from happening .\nwhen threatened , some sea cucumbers discharge sticky threads to ensnare their enemies . others can mutilate their own bodies as a defense mechanism . they violently contract their muscles and jettison some of their internal organs out of their anus .\nbut the sea cucumber may not be entirely defenseless against the invasions of the pearlfish . some species have what could be functioning as a built - in gate in their anus \u2014 a handy accessory considering that in addition to the pearlfish , crabs and clams have also been known to make themselves at home inside the poor critters ( the sea cucumber , it seems , like any good host , can never really enjoy itself at its own party ) .\nthe day after i meet killington , i pay a visit to trevor long , sea world ' s director of marine sciences . long has worked at sea world since 1973 and was involved in the collection of many of its animals . killington had described him as some kind of monster , but he seems perfectly amiable , if a little defensive , with a snow - white beard and skin cured to a rich caramel by decades of uv exposure .\nand by no means was i trying to say 3 months was a success . just that i have cared for one , and it was my first addition to a new tank ( please note : my tank was up for about 2 months before i added anything , i also did not have a protien skimmer , or a fuge at the time ) . during that time i only saw growth in the creature , and it was always feeding . which is one of the tell - tale signs of the health of a sea apple is if it ' s not feeding or taking on some water .\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ you can ' t kill a fish born to hang . . . . . 65 - gal red sea reef 12 - gal nanocube\nbut for the past two years she has focused on sea world , which she calls an\naquaprison\nwhere\ndolphins that have been stolen from the ocean or bred in captivity perform tricks every day for dead fish\n.\nlandry c , geyer l . b , arakaki y , uehara t , palumbi s . r . a recent speciation event in the indo - west pacific : rapid evolution of gamete recognition and sperm morphology in cryptic species of sea urchin .\ndespite this , they are sceptical about the park ' s research claims . sea world ' s website lists 84 marine research projects it has funded in the past 10 years , 65 of which have been included in peer - reviewed publications .\nno no its the sea apple . you know how the tenticale sticks out and they look kinda like . . . . . . a feather sorta thing ? lol well one of them seems to be\nmelted\n. i am not sure what to do . i just did a partial water change cuz the salinaty was very very high . ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? not sure how that happened but after the water change ( straight from the tap ) the water was high range ph 8 . 2 , amonia between 0 and . 25ppm the nitrite at 0 ppm and the nitrate around 10 ppm\nparks such as sea world generally don ' t keep endangered species ; they keep bottlenose dolphins , which are abundant in the wild .\nso it ' s pretty transparent that it ' s not about conservation . it ' s about money .\nthis behavior is the strange product of a housing crisis . you see , shelter is in short supply on many seafloors , particularly those that lack reefs . and there are few better shelters than sea cucumbers , little mobile homes that pearlfishes will enter pretty much as they please , leaving to hunt and returning for protection . if they can\u2019t return to the same one , no worries at all . there\u2019s plenty of decent housing squirming around the seafloor \u2014 if you\u2019re willing to live in a sea cucumber\u2019s bum .\ni have a question about sea apple behavior . please spare me the\nthey ' ll nuke your tank\ncomments , as i fully understand the chances i have taken . ( imo i think most , only most not all , are made up or caused by powerheads ) anyways , i have had my apple for about two weeks now . it made its way to one of the sides and has been hanging out there for the majority of the time . this morning i woke up to find it almost to the top of the tank , about six inches away from my korolia . so i turned it off to avoid any hazard should he decided to make a left ! is this normal behavoir ? or is he stressed ? water is completely stable and nothing in my tank is showing signs of stress , quite the opposite actually . also , his feeders only come out about half way , and only a few times a day . is this normal ? ? ? ? ? ? ? i may swallow the 60 bucks and get rid of him . . . . . let me know .\nhamel , j . f . , & a . mercier . 1998 . diet and feeding behaviour of the sea cucumber cucumaria frondosa in the st lawrence estuary , eastern canada . canadian journal of zoology - revue canadienne de zoologie 76 : 1194 - 1198 .\none tropical family of sea cucumbers , have special structures called cuverian tubules which are adhesive and used specifically for defense . i ' ll be blogging about those - hopefully next week . . so i will hold off on saying much about those for now .\nnext time , i\u2019ll continue on with the remainder of the issues you raise in this question and try to give you an actual answer to what conditions you require to have a reasonable chance of keeping a sea cucumber healthy in your aquarium . . . .\nwith a little knowledge and care taken , a sea cucumber can and will be very helpfull in keeping your sandbed looking clean and fresh . most everyone has heard of the horror storys of a cucumber\nnuking\ntheir tanks , i have never had this happen and know of no one that has . now sea apples are a different story , i would never have one in my tank since they are the most likely to nuke a tank and when they do , its right up there with small nuclear devices .\nfile photo - a houthi militia media officer checks a camera next to giant cranes , damaged by saudi - led air strikes , at a container terminal at the red sea port of hodeidah , yemen november 16 , 2016 . reuters / khaled abdullah / file photo\ninfertile eggs just like chickens , apple snails do lay eggs even when they are not fertilized . this should be kept in mind of you have a single snails or several snails without a single male . if the eggs never hatch , even not when you are sure that the snails have mated , one should also think of bad conditions for the eggs ( dry air , to humid air with condensing water , low temperatures etc . ) .\nwith countries phasing out the captivity of\nman ' s best friend in the ocean\n, the gold coast ' s sea world dolphinarium looks like an endangered species . or is it ? tim elliott meets those working on both sides of a highly emotional divide .\nhamel , j . f . , p . k . l . ng , & a . mercier . 1999 . life cycle of the pea crab pinnotheres halingi sp nov . , an obligate symbiont of the sea cucumber holothuria scabra jaeger . ophelia 50 : 149 - 175 .\nhow can they turn into liquid ? anyway i am about to make a thesis . . . i want to try what you said here if a sea cucumber really can regenerate when cut into two . . . i really am amazed . . . anyway thanks for the info\nthere are more than 1 , 000 sea anemone species found throughout the world\u2019s oceans at various depths , although the largest and most varied occur in coastal tropical waters . they run the full spectrum of colors and can be as small as half an inch or as large as 6 feet across .\ndepending on what species it is , the pearlfish initiates one of two relationships once inside : a commensal one , in which it simply takes up space without either helping or adversely affecting the sea cucumber , or a rather more parasitic one , in which it chows down on its host\u2019s gonads .\nlast week\u2019s ruling by the united nations tribunal in the hague , netherlands , found there was no legal basis for beijing\u2019s claim to most of the south china sea . despite overlapping claims , beijing has been undertaking vast infrastructure projects in the area to secure natural resources and control strategic shipping lanes .\nthere are about 95 species in 11 genera and four families . tentacles are simple . respiratory trees are present . the calcareous ring is without posterior projections . the body wall is generally soft and pliant . most forms live in shallow water , though one family is restricted to the deep sea .\ngreat performances , fantastic experience , it makes you feel like you ' re there at sea . the whale scenes are intense and tge drama is heartbreaking seeing what these men went through . i liked the man vs nature and man vs man aspects . could have been better with character development though\nurbina bay is perhaps best known as the site of an uplift event which raised 385 acres of the sea bed by up to 13 feet in 1954 . the uplift was so rapid that turtles , fish , lobsters , and other marine life was stranded . chunks of coral are still visible .\narnold is similarly worried by sea world ' s involvement in establishing marine parks in asia . in 2012 , sea world ' s owner , village roadshow , struck a deal with a chinese company to develop ocean paradise , a marine theme park in hainan which is to be stocked with dolphins and beluga whales . long is to head up village roadshow ' s involvement in the project .\nthe culture in asia is not exactly animal - friendly ,\narnold says .\nif it takes off in asia , aquariums will explode and the abuse and the potential for abuse will explode .\nthe various attachment ligament / tissues which connect and anchor all of the various internal organs to the body wall all begin to rapidly soften . sea cucumbers , like all echinoderms have a unique kind of connective tissue which permits them to toughen or soften their body texture at the animal ' s whim .\nthere are about 340 species in 35 genera and three families . tentacles are shield - shaped . respiratory trees are present . the calcareous ring is without posterior projections . the body wall is generally soft and pliant . most forms live in shallow water , though one family is restricted to the deep sea .\ni suspect this is one of those threads where if you don ' t have any concern about the critter - fine . but having owned alot of cukes including apples i would not be as confident as you . i have had a number of\nturd\ncukes puke their intestines on me over the yrs . . . just std tank maintenance where you don ' t see the buggers and they get frightened . . . same kind of defense response from an apple may have adverse impact on entire tank .\nrabindra , s . , b . a . macdonald , p . lawton , & m . l . h . thomas . 1998 . feeding response of the dendrochirote sea cucumber cucumaria frondosa ( echinodermata : holothuroidea ) to changing food concentrations in the laboratory . canadian journal of zoology 76 : 1842 - 1849 .\nregeneration time in sea cucumbers apparently varies on which organs were lost and in what species . . regrowth time varied from 7 to 145 days ! ! yes , that means that at the shorter end of the range , there were some species for which regeneration of an organ could take as little as a week !\nin any case , you should also tell your friend that unless they begin to add phytoplankton to their tank on a regular basis , there is a good chance that their sea apple will slowly starve to death over the period of a year or so ( as i explained last time ) . as for the amount and frequency of feeding , it is harder to say . the specifics depend on your aquarium , the number and type of suspension feeders and such , but following the instructions on the phytoplankton products ought to suffice . a good rule of thumb is that if you cannot see the animal poop , it is not getting enough food . the obvious gauge is that if the animal grows it is being fed enough - - if it shrinks , it is starving , and you need to increase the feeding frequency and / or amount .\nsea world certainly has its supporters .\nit is absolutely the lesser evil ,\nsays sue arnold , from australians for animals .\ni have been to the most appalling aquaria in mexico , canada and europe . there are a hell of a lot of places i ' d be shutting down before sea world .\narnold says she\ndoesn ' t know of any dolphinaria that has their standard\n, and that she\nwould always work with trevor [ long ]\n. yet she remains conflicted .\ngiven the amount of animals he rescues , it ' s an incredible contradiction for him to be involved in the captive industry .\nsuch projects are a\nfig leaf\n, according to sarah lucas , from australia for dolphins , a melbourne - based group with more than 120 , 000 supporters .\ndolphinaria like sea world claim they are helping conservation through research ,\nshe says ,\nwhen really they are businesses making money through commercial dolphin shows .\nok . . . the apple will move around the tank to find a place with good flow where it can filter feed . i had a beautiful purple one that lasted for years but in the end there was not enough dissolved food in the water and it slowly wasted away . . . and yes you are right , it died in the tank and nothing else died from toxins . toxins are mostly for self defense , but you never know how these animals work so be carefull either way . you will need to feed that guy or he will die .\nif buddhists are right about that whole reincarnation thing , it\u2019d be hard to imagine what you\u2019d have to do wrong to die and come back as a sea cucumber . one minute you\u2019re human and the next you\u2019re crawling around the seafloor as what is essentially a mobile intestine , hoovering up food at one end and expelling it through the other .\nthe most important feature distinguishing the sea cucumbers is a calcareous ring that encircles the pharynx or throat . this ring serves as an attachment point for muscles operating the oral tentacles and for the anterior ends of other muscles that contract the body longitudinally . sea cucumbers are also distinct as echinoderms in having a circlet of oral tentacles . these may be simple , digitate ( with finger - like projections ) , pinnate ( feather - like ) , or peltate ( flattened and shield - like ) . a third key feature , found in 90 % of living species , is the reduction of the skeleton to microscopic ossicles . in some species , the ossicles may be enlarged and plate - like .\nsea world gets 1 . 5 million visitors a year .\nmost of these people come from general suburbia ,\nsays long .\nthey are not watching david attenborough , they are playing xbox . if they come here and develop an empathy and appreciation for the animals , they ' ll be more likely to take action to protect them .\ni was with jenn , i was going to start spewing the normal feeding problems and stuff of sea apples , but if you were able to keep on for 4 - 5 years you fully understood he feeding requirements of them . did it maintain its size all the way to the end ? have you changed anything in the tank ? substrates / feeding ? g ~\n\u201cthe part that hasn\u2019t really been substantiated is the fact that you have some sea cucumbers that have these kind of spines around the anus called anal teeth , \u201d said mah . \u201cand it isn\u2019t clear if these anal teeth really are active defensive mechanisms that keep things like fish and crabs out , or if they\u2019re just there and we assume they\u2019re defensive in some way . \u201d\nit ' s late afternoon when we turn up to sea world , driving into the car park in killington ' s hatchback , which is plastered with\ni ' m against dolphin captivity\nand\nsea world sucks\nstickers . killington is dressed in black , with a chunky gold necklace and hair the colour of ribena . in the klieg - light glare of surfers paradise , she sticks out like a goth at a beach party . she is also the most profane woman i have ever met , spraying around expletives like blasts from an uzi .\nlook at this f . . . ing place , would you ,\nshe mutters , gazing with undiluted scorn at the theme park ' s gates .\nwhat a f . . . ing disgrace .\nthe sea fennel ( crithmum maritimum l . ) is a wild plant from the same family of the parsley and celery , that is used as a fresh ingredient for many food preparations . in this work , some alternative culinary uses for this aromatic plant as a dried ingredient have been proposed . therefore , two drying technologies were applied with the aim to obtain a new spice - colorant without chemical synthesis . the results are discussed in terms of visual quality , odor and taste of the dehydrated products . moreover , the effects on the overall sensory properties of some dishes prepared using the two different types of this new spice are reported . the introduction of the dried sea fennel in gastronomy could increase the sensory appeal of some traditional dishes and support the creation of many new recipes .\n\u201ctwo strategies are observed for entering , \u201d parmentier said . \u201cone , head first by propelling itself with violent strokes of the tail ; two , tail first by placing the head at the cloaca of the sea cucumber and moving the thin tail forward alongside its own body at the level of the lateral line , \u201d then slowing backing into the host , though not yet all the way .\nthey hate us , these dolphins ,\nshe says .\nif they could talk , they would say , ' you motherf . . . ers . '\nshe has brought with her a stack of glossy postcards . the postcards look legitimate , with the sea world logo beneath a picture of a cheery - looking dolphin . flip it over , however , and it reads :\ndon ' t buy a ticket to animal cruelty . open your mind and your heart and know that cetaceans are not here to amuse and entertain us . go to sea world shut down on facebook for more information .\nas we walk around , killington hands these cards to everyone she meets , including staff , even popping into the toilets to leave stacks of them beside handbasins .\nsince the most common cause for the demise of a sea cucumber within our aquariums is from starvation , i would not get more than one at first and give it a few months to determine if the single sea cucumber is able to fully process the surface layer of your sandbed . again , i would not purchase a large species as not only will they most likely slowly starve to death , but due to their size , they very frequently only extend half of their length out of the rock work onto the sandbed , which over due time , means that as they gather sand grains , it all gets expelled back behind your landscape causing those areas to eventualy get a very deep sandbed while the depth of your sandbed at the front of your tank gets shallower by the day .\nin the meantime , the shifting of expectations will be left to people such as june killington . at sea world , i watch as she engages a middle - aged woman and her two children .\nwhat do you think of the dolphins being locked up ?\nkillington asks her . the woman shrugs .\nnothing really . look at them . they ' re not being badly treated .\nmagnificent apex predators that spend most of their lives roaming the sea ice of the arctic , where they hunt for seals . everything about them evolved to suit living in one of the harshest environments on earth . all of which makes it more than a little sad to see them in a zoo , where they too often live in small enclosures , swim in lukewarm pools , and dine on anything but blubber .\nin the winter of 1820 , the new england whaling ship essex was assaulted by something no one could believe : a whale of mammoth size and will , and an almost human sense of vengeance . the real - life maritime disaster would inspire herman melville ' s moby - dick . but that told only half the story .\nin the heart of the sea\nreveals the encounter ' s harrowing aftermath , as the ship ' s surviving crew is pushed to their limits and forced to do the unthinkable to stay alive . braving storms , starvation , panic and despair , the men will call into question their deepest beliefs , from the value of their lives to the morality of their trade , as their captain searches for direction on the open sea and his first mate still seeks to bring the great whale down .\nthe committee subsequently recommended that no more dolphinariums be set up , and that those in existence be phased out , which is what subsequently happened to the facilities in south australia , western australia and victoria . only two dolphinariums now remain in australia : sea world and dolphin marine magic , a smaller operation in coffs harbour , on the nsw north coast , that has also attracted controversy over the treatment of its animals .\ntoday boveri is celebrated for discovering the origins of cancer , but another german scientist , otto warburg , was studying sea - urchin eggs around the same time as boveri . his research , too , was hailed as a major breakthrough in our understanding of cancer . but in the following decades , warburg\u2019s discovery would largely disappear from the cancer narrative , his contributions considered so negligible that they were left out of textbooks altogether .\n\u201cprobably the best thing that sea cucumbers are known for is evisceration , \u201d said marine biologist christopher mah , \u201cwhich is tossing their guts out at predators when they are harassed by them . so you have a crab or a fish or something and what they\u2019ll do is literally eviscerate , just take a good chunk of their intestine that will spool out of their body and get shot out at the predator or whatever as a distraction . \u201d"]}
{"id": 2546, "summary": [{"text": "wilson 's storm petrel ( oceanites oceanicus ) , also known as wilson 's petrel , is a small seabird of the austral storm petrel family oceanitidae .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is one of the most abundant bird species in the world and has a circumpolar distribution mainly in the seas of the southern hemisphere but extending northwards during the summer of the northern hemisphere .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the world population has been estimated to be more than 50 million pairs .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the name commemorates the scottish-american ornithologist alexander wilson .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the genus name oceanites refers to the mythical oceanids , the three thousand daughters of tethys .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the species name is from latin oceanus , \" ocean \" . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "wilson ' s storm petrel", "paragraphs": ["flat - clawed storm petrel , wilson\u2019s petrel , wilson\u2019s storm petrel , yellow - webbed storm - petrel .\nthe one record of the wilson\u2019s storm - petrel was from the middle shelf .\nno specific conservation measures are currently in place for wilson\u2019s storm - petrel ( 2 ) .\nwilson ' s storm petrel is one of the most abundant bird species in the world .\n> calls of wilson & apos ; s storm petrel : functions , i . . .\nwilson\u2019s storm - petrel is extremely wide ranging , visiting all major oceans except the arctic ( 3 ) .\nwilson ' s storm - petrel spends much of its life at sea ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) .\nthis map shows the geographic location of 1 wilson\u2019s storm - petrel sightings ( blue star ) on petra\u2019s fishing trip from port o\u2019connor .\n) . olfactory guidance of leach ' s storm petrel to the breeding island .\ng\u0119bczy\u0144ski ak ( 1995 ) is there a hypothermia in wilson\u2019s storm petrel chicks ? . polish polar res 16 : 175\u2013184\n1 . wilson\u2019s storm petrels are one of the most numerous birds in the world .\nfigure 1 . distribution of the leach ' s storm - petrel in north america .\nwilson ' s storm - petrel is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nsee howell ( 2012 ) for a detailed account of the distribution of wilson ' s storm - petrel in north america .\nobst bs , nagy ka ( 1993 ) stomach oil and energy budgets of wilson\u2019s storm petrel nestlings . condor 95 : 792\u2013805\ntwo subspecies of wilson\u2019s storm - petrel are recognised : oceanites oceanicus exasperatus and the slightly smaller oceanites oceanicus oceanicus ( 3 ) .\npearman , m . 2000 . first records of elliot\u00b4s storm petrel oceanites gracilipes in argentina .\nwe had left the expected range of many humboldt current species including elliot\u2019s storm - petrel .\n4 . wilson\u2019s storm petrels are the smallest warm - blooded animal to breed in the antarctic .\nwilson\u2019s storm petrels are gregarious at sea with flocks reaching several thousands at staging points during migration .\nthe latest sighting details and map for wilson ' s storm petrel are only available to our birdguides ultimate or our birdguides pro subscribers .\nthe life expectancy of a wilson ' s storm - petrel is approximately 10 years and four months ( quillfeldt & m\u00f6stl 2003 ) .\nin australian territories , the dark morph of the white - bellied storm - petrel ( fregetta grallaria ) may be confused with the wilson ' s storm - petrel . furthermore , the species is also superficially similar to leach ' s storm - petrel ( oceanodroma leucorhoa ) ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) .\nwilson ' s storm - petrel ( oceanites oceanicus ) doing the ' water walking ' thing . image by patrick coin , from wikipedia .\nbirdlife international . 2013 . species factsheet : wilson ' s storm - petrel oceanites oceanicus . downloaded from birdlife international on 5 march 2013 .\ndue to its fragility on land , wilson\u2019s storm - petrel only comes to shore at night , to avoid predators such as gulls and eagles . when threatened , wilson\u2019s storm - petrel may squeak and eject an oily liquid from the stomach in defence ( 2 ) ( 6 ) .\nthe breeding season for the wilson ' s storm - petrel is from november to december and march to may ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) .\nthe graph below shows the number and date of all wilson\u2019s storm - petrel sightings offshore texas . not seen yet on a texas pelagic trip .\nwilson ' s storm - petrel patters on the ocean surface with wings almost horizontal . photographed by leonard medlock on the august 08 bbc extreme pelagic\nother names : flat - clawed or yellow - webbed storm - petrel , mother carey ' s chicken .\nolivier f ( 2003 ) detailed information on 196 grid sites used for snow petrel and wilson\u2019s storm petrel surveys in the windmill islands during the 2002 / 2003 season . australian antarctic data centre\u2013snowhite metadata .\nthe wings of wilson\u2019s storm - petrel are distinctively short and rounded , and its feet can be seen protruding slightly past its square tail when in flight . when gliding close to the water\u2019s surface , wilson\u2019s storm - petrel appears to \u2018jump\u2019 as it repeatedly dips its long legs in the water . this species has a distinctive bright yellow membrane between its black toes , which is thought to attract prey ( 2 ) . as in other storm - petrels , the female wilson\u2019s storm - petrel is larger than the male ( 4 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - wilson\u2019s storm - petrel ( oceanites oceanicus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - wilson\u2019s storm - petrel ( oceanites oceanicus )\ntitle =\narkive species - wilson\u2019s storm - petrel ( oceanites oceanicus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nbretagnolle , v . 1989 . calls of wilson ' s storm petrel : functions , individual and sexual recognitions , and geographic variation . behaviour 111 : 98\u2013112 .\noceanites oceanicus ( wilson ' s storm - petrel ) : species management profile for tasmania ' s threatened species link ( threatened species section ( tss ) , 2014xt ) [ state action plan ] .\nat nesting sites wilson\u2019s storm petrel are killed by skuas and starvation , due to the blocking of the burrow by hard snow , is a cause of chick mortality .\nthe global population of the wilson ' s storm - petrel is estimated to be in the order of 12 000 000\u201330 000 000 birds ( birdlife international 2010b ) .\naustralian antarctic division ( aad ) ( 2010 ) . wilson ' s storm petrel factsheet . available from : urltoken . [ accessed : 02 - nov - 2010 ] .\nmoore , c . c . 1992 . wilson ' s petrel with legs ensnared in fishing mesh . british birds 85 : 556 .\nquillfeldt p ( 2001 ) variation of breeding success in wilson\u2019s storm petrels : influence of environmental factors . antarct sci 13 : 400\u2013409\nwilson\u2019s storm petrel are numerous and wide ranging . they migrate from their antarctic breeding grounds to north of the equator in the atlantic , indian and pacific oceans , with few birds migrating north into the eastern pacific ocean . their range overlaps with many other storm petrel species .\nolivier f ( 2005 ) detailed information on the location and characteristics of wilson\u2019s storm petrel nests found during systematic surveys in the mawson and casey regions . australian antarctic data centre\u2013snowhite metadata .\n5 . during storms at sea wilson\u2019s storm petrels will fly in the troughs of waves in order to take some sort of cover .\ndive ? does wilson ' s storm - petrel dive ? i have seen thousands of wilsons and never saw a single bird dive under the water . parmelee ( 1993 ) descrbes an incident of wilson ' s storm - petrel\nsubmerging to grasp rising oil droplets before the droplets could float to the surface and burst .\ni don ' t really consider that diving .\nprotection / threats / status : in spite of predation on the breeding grounds , the wilson\u2019s storm - petrel is one of the most abundant of all seabirds . the population was estimated at 12 , 000 , 000 / 30 , 000 , 000 individuals in 2004 , and it is still suspected to be stable . the wilson\u2019s storm - petrel is currently evaluated as least concern .\nmoore , c . c . ( 1992 ) . wilson ' s petrel with legs ensnared in fishing mesh . british birds . 85 : 556 .\nthis analysis of the flight behaviour of wilson ' s storm petrel indicates that its \u2018hovering\u2019 is an energetically inexpensive foraging stragegy which is probably available only to small , surface - feeding birds with low wingloading .\n) . much work remains to determine the nonbreeding distributions of these populations . the smaller , dark - rumped swinhoe ' s storm - petrel (\nwilson ' s storm - petrel is one of the world ' s most abundant seabirds and the smallest endotherm ( generating its own heat for warmth ) that breeds in antarctic waters ( b\u00fc\u00dfer et al . 2004 ; quillfeldt & m\u00f6stl 2003 ) .\n3 . the \u201cstorm\u201d in the bird\u2019s name refers to the idea that the appearance of flocks of the bird foretold of a coming storm .\n\u2019s storm - petrels and both a typical and an atypical , well - marked example of elliot\u2019s storm - petrel . the puerto montt birds show less white on the belly and more white on the vent than typical elliot\u2019s storm - petrels . elliot\u2019s also shows a clear divide between belly and rump , along the femoral tract , although this may sometimes be faint or hidden .\noff western australia and the northern territory , wilson ' s storm - petrels are mainly observed along the coast during migration ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) .\nwilson ' s storm - petrels are diurnal feeders , consuming mainly pelagic ( marine ) crustaceans and fish with some cephalopods , polychaetes , gastropods and carrion .\ninterestingly in relation to wilson\u2019s storm - petrel , harrison notes \u201ccape horn birds may have pale vents ( naveen , pers . comm . ) . \u201d it would appear ron naveen was most likely referring here once again to\nthe breeding range of wilson ' s storm - petrel includes subantarctic islands from cape horn , chile , east to the kerguelen islands , the french southern territories and also includes coastal antarctica ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) .\nwilson ' s storm - petrel breeds colonially in holes and crevices in cliffs , rocky slopes and screes on islands in the fuegian region of chile and the subantarctic , the antarctic mainland , and possibly in the andes .\njames pc ( 1983 ) storm petrel tape lures : which sex is attracted ? ring migr 4 : 249\u2013253 .\nquillfeldt . p . 2001 . variation in breeding success of wilson ' s storm petrels : influence of environmental factors . antarctic science 13 : 400 - 409 .\nwilson\u2019s storm - petrel uses a wide range of vocal signals to communicate . it is a strong flier and an excellent swimmer , but cannot sustain itself for more than a few steps when walking on land ( 2 ) .\ncopestake , pg & croxall , jp ( 1985 ) . aspects of the breeding biology of wilson ' s storm petrel oceanites oceanicus at bird island , south georgia . british antarctica survey bulletin . 66 : 7 - 17 .\nby w . b . alexander in \u201cbirds of the ocean\u201d ( 1928 ) . the taxon was later described in detail by murphy ( 1936 ) and referred to as \u201cfuegian petrel\u201d , a new subspecies of wilsons storm - petrel . subsequent to that , for reasons we have yet to establish , the taxon was \u201cdropped\u201d as a race of wilson\u2019s . until very recently only two races of wilsons storm - petrel\nadults are taken mostly by great skuas ( c . skua ) which take wilson ' s storm - petrels from the ground and in flight . remains of wilson ' s storm - petrels are frequent in skuas ' middens ( ground burrow used for food ) at many sites . at south georgia , some birds may be taken by southern giant - petrels ( macronectes giganteus ) and northern giant - petrels ( m . halli ) . there is one record of predation of a wilson ' s storm - petrel by a shark ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) .\ndepartment of sustainability , environment , water , population and communities . 2013 . oceanites oceanicus - wilson ' s storm - petrel in species profile and threats database , department of sustainability , environment , water , population and communities , canberra .\nwilson\u2019s storm petrels young and eggs are preyed upon by skuas , gulls , owls , and falcons . because of their small size adults may also be taken by falcons .\ncopestake , p . g . and croxall , j . p . ( 1985 ) aspects of the breeding biology of wilson\u2019s storm petrel oceanites oceanicus at bird island , south georgia . british antarctic survey bulletin , 66 : 7 - 17 .\nbehaviors the most obvious storm - petrel behavior is pattering their feet along the surface of the water when feeding . this is best observed on a calm ocean . observe the angle of the wings when pattering . wilson ' s storm - petrel holds its wing in a horizontal to a shallow v shape as seen in chris ciccone ' s photograph . usually found in groups either resting on the ocean or feeding .\nsaville , s . , stevenson , b . , & southley , i . 2003 . a possible sighting of an \u2018extinct\u2019 bird \u2013 the new zealand storm - petrel .\nlockley , r . m . 1983 . flight of the storm petrel . david & charles , newton abbott & london .\ncopestake , p . g . , and j . p . croxall . 1985 . aspects of the breeding biology of wilson ' s storm - petrel oceanites oceanicus at bird island , south georgia . british antarctic survey bulletin 66 : 7 - 17 .\nintroduction : the wilson\u2019s storm - petrel is included in the southern subfamily oceanitinae , but it is a transequatorial migrant that winters in the northern hemisphere . this species has wide range and large populations . however , the main threats are first the ingestion of plastic , and then , the fishing nets where birds can be entangled at sea . it also has some natural avian predators on the breeding islands . the wilson\u2019s storm - petrel spends most of the year at sea and comes on land only for breeding .\nin australia , most reports of the wilson ' s storm - petrel are from the edge of the continental shelf and during autumn . the species is known to breed on heard island , where it is described as abundant ( woehler & johnstone 1991 ) .\nwithin the antarctic area , certain sites have been designated specially protected areas ( aspa ) ( ats 2008 ) to preserve historical , scientific and environmental values . some of these include sites of breeding importance to the wilson ' s storm - petrel , namely :\nwilson\u2019s storm petrel is a small storm petrel with short , rounded wings and long legs projecting beyond the tail in flight . it is about 18 cm in length with a wing span of approximately 40 cm . their upperparts are mostly sooty - brown except for a conspicuous white rump and a pale brown band showing across the greater wing - coverts . their underside is mainly sooty - brown .\nvelez , l . g . ( 1995 ) . wilson ' s storm petrels oceanites oceanicus breeding at the bertrab nunatak , filchner iceshelf , antarctica . marine ornithology . 23 : 67 .\nthe wilson ' s storm - petrel is a pelagic ( marine ) species distributed throughout most of the world ' s oceans . its distribution stretches north through the mid - latitudes of the northern hemisphere and south through the oceans surrounding australia and the australian antarctic territory ( aat ) ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) .\nwilson\u2019s storm - petrel is among the most numerous of all birds . no global threat to this species is known , but it does face competition from commercial fishing , as well as the problem of pesticide and heavy metal contamination of its food sources ( 2 ) .\nwilson\u2019s storm - petrel makes nests in burrows or rock crevices , and tends to breed together in loose colonies . the breeding season is around november to december . each pair lays a single egg , which hatches after an incubation period of around 43 days ( 2 ) .\nwilson\u2019s storm - petrel breeds around the cold waters of antarctica , on rocky islets , cliffs and amongst boulder scree . during the southern winter it heads north , and may be seen around small rocky islands in the atlantic and indian oceans ( 2 ) ( 5 ) .\ndavis p ( 1957 ) the breeding of the storm petrel . british birds 50 : 85\u2013384 , 85 - 101 , 371 - 384 .\nmany also displayed a lightly mottled vent / lower belly suggestive of elliot\u2019s . we considered elliot\u2019s a remote possibility off\nthe diet of wilson\u2019s storm - petrel is mostly based on planktonic crustaceans , especially krill , but may also include fish , squid and other molluscs . this species can detect prey by smell , and is known to search out and follow fishing trawlers ( 2 ) ( 6 ) .\nbeck , j . r . , and d . w . brown . 1972 . the breeding biology of wilson ' s storm petrel , oceanites oceanicus ( kuhl ) , at signy island , south orkney islands . british antarctic survey sci . rep . 69 : 1 - 54 .\nin summer , wilson ' s storm - petrels move in a circumpolar oceanic range , mostly restricted to the southern ocean ( south of 50\u00b0 s to 40\u00b0 s in the south - west region of the range ) . in the atlantic and south - west indian oceans , the species is found to approximately 30\u00b0 s off western south america ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) .\n) , nesting off japan , korea , china , and russia , is so similar it has been considered a race of leach ' s storm - petrel ; the two are appropriately considered a superspecies .\ningestion of plastics is a primary threat to wilson ' s storm - petrels , with a high proportion of adults and pre - fledged chicks reported to have plastic in stomachs ( moser & lee 1992 ) .\nsince unplugged birds recovered their olfactory capabilities during the experiment , we pooled them with the control birds in global homing success analysis . a g - test ( one - tailed ) indicated a lower global homing success of plugged birds with respect to pooled control and unplugged birds in common diving petrel ( p < 0 . 05 ) , madeiran storm petrel ( p < 0 . 05 ) , wilson ' s storm petrel ( p < 0 . 01 ) and thin - billed prions ( p < 0 . 001 ) .\nwilson\u2019s storm petrel breed on the antarctic continent , south georgia , kerguelen , falklands , tierra del fuego islands off cape horn , and possibly also at peter , bouvet , heard , the balleny islands and islands off graham land . non - breeders may remain in the north throughout the year .\nthe wilson\u2019s storm - petrel is a transequatorial migrant . it migrates from the breeding grounds in antarctic to n of the equator in atlantic , indian and pacific oceans . a few birds migrate n into e pacific ocean . the non - breeding birds may remain in the north throughout the year .\nthe right storm - petrel to watch wilson ' s is the storm - petrel to watch as it readily approaches boats and can often be observed within 3 feet of the boat . harrison says it follows ships and attends trawlers . ( harrison 1983 ) . follows ships means it will follow the wake of a boat that is steaming along without dispersing fish waste or chum . attends trawlers refers to gathering behind a fishing vessel discarding fish parts .\nwilson ' s storm petrel was included as a new zealand bird species without locality in buller ' s birds of new zealand , 1888 . there are two subspecies : oceanicus whuich breeds on subantarctic islands in the south atlantic and south indian ocean , and exasperatus which breeds on coasts and islands of antarctica and is an uncommon passage migrant through new zealand waters .\npower , d . m . and d . g . ainley . 1986 . seabird geographic variability : similarity among populations of leach ' s storm - petrel . auk no . 103 : 575 - 585 . close\nhedd p , montevecchi wa ( 2006 ) diet and trophic position of leach ' s storm - petrel during breeding and moult , inferred from stable isotope analysis of feathers . mar ecol prog ser 322 : 291\u2013301 .\non my first pelagic trip to monterey bay in california , i was looking forward to identifying several new storm - petrels . the first flock spotted was far from the boat almost to the horizon . i decided to wait for a closer flock . but the next flock was also far away as was the following flock and they didn ' t seem to respond to the boat ' s chumming . i realized that other storm - petrels are not boat followers and i had to work at identifying distant storm - petrels . that ' s when i came to appreciate our wonderful little bird watcher friendly wilson ' s storm - petrel .\nthe white band across the rump and the yellow webbing is diagnostic but the wilson ' s storm - petrel is hard to identify , especially in flight . the square tail , brownish wingbar ( usually best seen on worn plumage ) and feet slightly extending beyond tail are useful identifiers ( lindsay 1986 ) .\nthe wilson ' s storm - petrel has been identified as a conservation value in the temperate east ( dsewpac 2012aa ) marine region . see schedule 2 of the temperate east marine bioregional plan ( dsewpac 2012aa ) for regional advice . maps of biologically important areas have been developed for wilson ' s storm - petrel in the temperate east ( dsewpac 2012aa ) marine region and may provide additional relevant information . go to the conservation values atlas to view the locations of these biologically important areas . the\nspecies group report card - seabirds\nfor the temperate east ( dsewpac 2012aa ) marine region provides additional information .\nmaguire ej , zonfrillo b , clark h , wilkins m ( 1980 ) status of storm petrel in clyde and forth . scottish birds 11 : 51\u201353 .\nthe wilson ' s storm petrel migrates from its antarctic breeding grounds to north of the equator in the atlantic , indian and pacific oceans . the ross sea birds and birds south of australia , migrate to the indian ocean . they are gregarious at sea with flocks reaching several thousands at staging points during migration .\nbehaviour in the wild : the wilson\u2019s storm - petrel feeds mainly on crustaceans , especially krill of genus euphausia , small fish ( 2 - 8 cm long ) , squid and carrion . it also follows ships and trawlers for offal , and often feeds around large cetaceans that lead the preys to the surface .\nquillfeldt , p . & e . m\u00f6stl ( 2003 ) . resource allocation in wilson ' s storm - petrels oceanites oceanicus determined by measurement of glucocorticoid excretion . acta ethologica . 5 ( 2 ) : 115 - 122 .\none of the most numerous of all sea birds ( 3 ) , wilson\u2019s storm - petrel ( oceanites oceanicus ) is predominantly sooty - black with a white , u - shaped rump . there is a pale bar on the upperwing , and the dark underwing has a paler patch on the underwing - coverts ( 3 ) .\nbreeding sites of wilson ' s storm - petrel outside the americas include south shetland , bouvet\u00f8y , crozet , kerguelen , heard , macquarie , balleny , scott , and peter islands , and many other small islands and archipelagos in the southern ocean , as well as antarctica ( murphy 1936 , onley and scofield 2007 , brooke 2004 ) .\nunderside scott surner captured this view of wilson ' s storm - petrel which shows the underside as it banks toward the boat . notice that the wings are dark underneath and that the white rump wraps on either side of the tail down to the legs . the bird ' s left leg clearly extends beyond tail . look closely at the right foot and you can see a hint of the yellow web between the toes . the close approach of this storm - petrel and the thousands that swarm in our waters makes photographs like this possible . great picture scott . thanks for sharing .\nthe average size of individuals is 15\u201319 cm in length , with a wingspan of 38\u201342 cm . each wing is 14\u201315 cm long , and the tail is 5 . 7\u20136 . 2 cm long . the average weight of a wilson ' s storm - petrel is approximately 34\u201350 grams ( lindsay 1986 ; marchant & higgins 1990 ) . wilson ' s storm - petrels are gregarious ; congregating when feeding and migrating and breeding colonially . at sea they are found singularly or in small flocks . historically , groups of hundreds to thousands were recorded at whaling stations ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) .\nhowell , s . n . g . 2012 . petrels , albatrosses and storm - petrels of north america . princeton university press , new jersey .\n- once again we found ourselves puzzled by storm - petrels in chilean waters .\nquillfeldt , p . , and h . - u . peter . 2000 . provisioning and growth in chicks of wilson ' s storm - petrels ( oceanites oceanicus ) on king george island , south shetland islands . polar biology 23 : 817 - 824 .\nwilson ' s storm petrel feeds over the continental shelf . they feed , typically of storm petrels , by running along the surface of the water with wings outstretched and bill , or their entire head , submerged in the water to scoop in their food , taking minutiae from the surface . they feed on crustacea , cephalopods , fish , and offal . they readily follow ships and attend trawlers , attracted by the left overs , and whales and dolphins .\nmontage showing representatives of the five main petrel clades . top left : great shearwater ( puffinus gravis ) . top right : black - capped petrel ( petrodoma hasitata ) , both images by patrick coin . below , top to bottom : southern giant petrel ( macronectes giganteus ) by brocken inaglory ; broad - billed prion ( pachyptila vittata ) , by rosemary tully ; westland petrel ( procellaria westlandica ) , by mark jobling .\n15\u201320 cm ; 28\u201350 g ; wingspan 34\u201342 cm . small blackish storm - petrel with long legs , square - ended tail and white horseshoe on uppertail - coverts . head and . . .\nin the non - breeding season , the birds are mainly seen in tropical and subtropical waters ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) . in pack - ice , the species rests on ice - floes and flies in the shelter of floes during gales . outside of the breeding season , the wilson ' s storm - petrel roosts on the sea surface ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) .\nin the breeding season , the species is seen foraging near to breeding sites . their range extends a few degrees into the subtropical zone where breeding is on islands is close to the subtropical convergence . in the ross sea in summer , most birds are within 500 km of nesting grounds , and individuals are mainly found in open water north of pack ice . within pack - ice , the wilson ' s storm - petrel frequents light pack . however , the species is more often seen over wide leads and pools rather than near ice - floes or brash - ice . concentrations of the wilson ' s storm - petrel have been observed at the edge of pack ice . on the antarctic continent , birds are occasionally seen well inland ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) .\nb\u00fc\u00dfer , c . , a . kahles & p . quillfeldt ( 2004 ) . breeding success and chick provisioning in wilson ' s storm - petrels oceanites oceanicus over seven years : frequent failures due to food shortage and entombment . polar biology . 27 : 613 - 622 .\ngladbach , a . , c . braun , a . nordt , h . u . peter & p . quillfeldt ( 2009 ) . chick provisioning and nest attendance of male and female wilson ' s storm petrels oceanites oceanicus . polar biology . 32 : 1315 - 1321 .\nscott spangenber donated this great photo of wilson\u2019s storm - petrel from the july 19 , 2008 bbc pelagic to the continental shelf edge , the bird on the left has its feet closed as usual , but the bird on the right is caught with both feet open giving us a clear look at the yellow web . nice photo scott . yellow webs are not a field mark for the ordinary observer , but with a good photograph they are pretty definitive . the only other storm - petrel in our area to display yellow web is the white - faced storm - petrel which is otherwise very distinctive . notice also how clearly the white rump wraps around the underside of the bird to the left and the light band on the upper wing clearly stops short of the leading edge of the left wing .\nwilson\u2019s storm petrel return to their colonies in november / december and eggs are laid in mid - december ( approximately one month later at heard island and iles kerguelen ) . both parents share the 39\u201348 day incubation period , taking alternative shifts of about 48 hours . once the chicks hatch they are fed irregulary by both parents for up to 52 days . fledging and dispersion begins in april / may .\ndespite its small size and seemingly weak flight , this bird is at home on the roughest of seas , flying in the troughs of the waves during gales . it also travels huge distances - - from the antarctic to the edge of the arctic . although it nests only in far southern oceans , wilson ' s storm - petrel is often the most common seabird off the atlantic coast of the united states .\ncalls and songs : sounds by xeno - canto the wilson\u2019s storm - petrel\u2019s main call is a loud , nasal , grating \u00ab aark aark \u00bb given from the ground at colonies . the male utters a monotonous chatter to attract females \u201caark - uh - ah - ah - uh - uh\u201d . this species is usually silent at sea , but some quiet , low squeaks can be heard within the feeding flocks . the birds may call during aerial pursuits or while flying above the nesting hole at night .\n\u2019s position near the southern edge of the expected range for many humboldt current seabirds .\n( ed . a . s . king and j . mclelland ) , pp .\nseabird season is in full swing , as this week ' s terrific winner demonstrates .\naround antarctica , 72 . 9 % of observations of the feeding systems of wilson ' s storm - petrel were of pattering with 27 . 1 % of observations being of dipping ( n = 284 ) ( harper 1987 ) . comparatively , in the ross sea , 74 % of observations were of pattering , 23 % were of dipping and 3 % were of surface - seizing ( n = 35 ) ( harper 1987 ) .\nreproduction of this species : the breeding season occurs between november / december and late january / late march throughout the range . the wilson\u2019s storm - petrel breeds in loose colonies established on rocky islands , on cliffs or among boulder scree . it nests in cavities , rock crevices or burrows ( 20 - 50 cm long ) . the nest can be unlined , but sometimes , the nest - chamber is lined with feathers and moss .\nwilson\u2019s storm petrels have the ability to hover just above the water\u2019s surface in order to pluck at plankton just underneath . their feet will dip in at a spot in the water ( perhaps to attract prey ) , the bird will nab the food , and then it will flutter to a new spot a little ways away . they will also sometimes make rare dives in order to nab small fish .\nmatsudaira\u2019s storm - petrel , at sea off denis island , seychelles , november 2014 . this sequence of one individual illustrates the long wings and relatively long , deeply forked tail of this large , dark - rumped oceanodroma . note how the apparent shape , size and contrast of the white patch at the primary bases and of the pale upperwing bar appear to change with angle and light . tubenoses project & extreme gadfly petrel expeditions \u00a9 hadoram shirihai\nidentification - dark with white rump the first storm - petrel you are likely to see in new england waters is the wilson ' s storm - petrel or wsp . the first characteristic you will notice is that it is a dark bird with a prominent white rump . your identification problem will be to separate it from the three other dark with white rump storm - petrels possible in our waters . separating new england storm - petrels . in this awesome photograph taken by scott spangenberg you can see the primary field marks of the wsp . the most prominent feature is the complete , white band on the rump . when flying the long legs trail behind the tail . ( 1 ) . there are white bands on both upper wings that do not reach the leading edge of the wing . ( 2 ) notice the straight trailing edge of the wings in calm winds . ( 3 )\nwilson\u2019s storm petrels feed by running along the surface of the water with wings outstretched and the bill ( or their entire head ) submerged in the water to scoop in their food , taking minutiae from the surface . they feed on crustacea ( amphipods and euphausia ) , cephalopods ( squid ) , fish , offal , etc .\nwilson ' s storm - petrel breeds on rocky islets , on cliffs and amongst boulder scree . it prefers to feed mainly in cold waters over continental shelves or inshore , with a diet of comprised mainly of planktonic crustaceans ( especially krill ) and fish ( del hoyo et al . 1992 ) . its diet shifts from mainly crustaceans during egg formation to an increased proportion of fish during chick - rearing and moulting ( quillfeldt et al . 2005 ) .\n2 . the bird is named after alexander wilson , a scottish - american naturalist who is called the \u201cfather of american ornithology . \u201d\nwilson ' s storm petrel ( oceanites oceanicus ) characteristically feeds by \u2018hovering\u2019 over the water surface , but its technique for this is unlike that of other flying vertebrates . the kinematics and aerodynamics of this \u2018hovering\u2019 flight were investigated to determine the possible sources of lift ; various nonaerodynamic sources of lift were discounted . it is suggested that the storm petrel soars into an ambient , horizontal wind , and thus is not hovering in the usual sense . such soaring into a horizontal wind is only possible if some thrust component counteracts the bird ' s aerodynamic drag , and it is shown that the hydrodynamic drag of the feet through the water is adequate to balance aerodynamic drag . the bird is thus analagous to a kite , where the tension in the string counterbalances the aerodynamic drag of the kite .\nthe movements of the storm petrel ' s wings during \u2018hovering\u2019 suggest that the bird may use the wing - flip mechanism for generation of high lift coefficients ( weis - fogh , 1973 , 1976 ) . such high lift coefficients are required for the bird to \u2018hover\u2019 under calm conditions , when ambient wind velocity is less than 5 m s \u22121 . use of the wing - flip mechanism would enable the bird to \u2018hover\u2019 at lower ambient wind velocities . ground effect also contributes to the bird ' s ability to \u2018hover\u2019 .\nsuch was the interest sparked by these birds that we began to closely inspect all storm - petrels thereafter .\nsex differences in biometrics of european storm petrels ( hydrobates pelagicus ) attracted to playback calls in southern europe .\nthe diet of the wilson ' s storm - petrel shifts from mainly crustaceans during egg formation to an increased proportion of fish during chick - rearing and moulting ( quillfeldt et al . 2005 ) . fish prey includes antarctic silverside ( pleuragramma antarcticum ) , lanternfish ( protomyctophum bolini ) and norman ' s lanternfish ( p . normani ) . squid are usually taken in higher proportions outside the breeding season . species consumed include the glacial squid ( psychroteuthis glacialis ) and orchomene sp . other items eaten include cirriped larvae , gastropods and nereid worms ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) .\nharrison , p . , m . sallaberry , c . p . gaskin , k . a . baird , a . jaramillo , s . m . metz , m . pearman , m . o ' keeffe , j . dowdall , s . enright , k . fahy , j . gilligan , and g . lillie . 2013 . a nwq species of storm - petrel from chile . auk 130 : 180 - 191 .\ncarboneras , c . , jutglar , f . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . wilson ' s storm - petrel ( oceanites oceanicus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe vocalizations of the wilson & apos ; s storm petrel ( class aves ) are described briefly . the functions of these calls was determined by experimental playback . the grating call was highly stereotyped individually , and was used in sexual contexts ( short version ) or agonistic situations ( long version ) . in contrast , the chattering call , displayed only by males , was used for self - advertisement and species recognition . the geographic variation of calls exhibited between two different populations is discussed .\nwilson ' s storm - petrels return to breeding sites in late october to early december . during summer , some immatures remain in tropic areas but adults may be distributed within 750 km of breeding sites . the maximum foraging range of breeding birds at south georgia is estimated at 189\u2013250 km and at the antarctic peninsula , 744 km ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) .\nbenvenuti , s . , ioal\u00e8 , p . , gagliardo , a . and bonadonna , f .\nnaveen , r . ( 1981 ) storm petrels of the world . an introductory guide to their identification . in :\nthe wilson\u2019s storm - petrel feeds by \u201crunning\u201d over the surface . it flies low over the water with dangling legs and outstretched wings . the bill ( or the entire head ) is submerged in the water to seize the food . the birds patter on the water surface with their feet , displaying conspicuously the yellow webs , in order to disturb the preys and to attract them to the surface . dipping , pattering , skimming and shallow - plunging are the usual techniques . they are very gregarious and forage in flocks .\nhabitat : the wilson\u2019s storm - petrel is strictly marine . during the breeding season , it frequents the cold waters inshore or over the continental shelf . outside this period , it is mainly over pelagic waters . the breeding colonies are established on remote , rocky islands , usually on cliffs or among boulder scree . although it avoids snow and ice , there are some records of birds nesting up to 120 kilometres inland in e antarctica , at 600 metres of elevation . it nests in rock crevices and self - excavated burrows under boulders .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\nthe views expressed are those of the author ( s ) and are not necessarily those of scientific american .\nperneger tv ( 1998 ) what ' s wrong with bonferroni adjustments . brit med j 316 : 1236\u20131238 .\nsubspecies and range : the wilson\u2019s storm - petrel has three recognized subspecies . o . o . chilensis breeds in tierra del fuego . outside this period , it can be found at least as far as peru . o . o . oceanicus is present in all major oceans . it breeds on subantarctic islands from cape horn e to kerguelen and heard islands . o . o . exasperatus is also present in all major oceans . it breeds on south sandwich islands , the islands of scotia sea and coastal antarctica . this one is the largest race .\n7 . the name \u201cpetrel\u201d refers to saint peter and was given to the species because the birds\u2019 hovering makes them look like they are walking on water .\nchicks can reach 145 % of adult body weight by fledging , and adult wilson ' s storm - petrels may also increase their body weight during chick raising . this is due to the provisioning of krill in february to march when it is at its peak density in waters surrounding breeding sites ( copestake & croxall 1985 ) . this ability to gain sufficient weight will impact the success of the individual .\nthe wilson\u2019s storm - petrel returns to the colonies in november / december . they are monogamous , usually with long - term pair - bonds retained from year to year . the nuptial displays include aerial pursuits at night . two or several birds fly fast in circles above the nesting site while calling loudly . it is suggested that the conspicuous white rump is helpful in these displays performed in almost total darkness . the female performs a pre - laying exodus during 10 - 11 days prior to the egg - laying . they are loosely colonial and may share the site with other seabird species .\npresent address : department of zoology , duke university , durham , north carolina 27706 , u . s . a .\nleach ' s storm - petrel , also known as leach ' s petrel and mother cary ' s chicken , is the most widespread procellariiform breeding in the northern hemisphere . more than eight million pairs nest in burrows or crevices on atlantic islands from norway to massachusetts and on pacific islands from baja california to hokkaido , japan . outside the long nesting season , these seabirds disperse widely in the atlantic and pacific oceans , well away from land and mainly in the tropics . millions more nonbreeders , mostly immatures , remain at sea year - round , although many of them visit colonies during the nesting season . small and dark and not usually gregarious or attracted to ships , this species is inconspicuous at sea . even at nesting islands , individuals fly to and from their subterranean nests only at night . many aspects of their lives remain mysteries .\nand shows some plumage features suggestive of elliot\u2019s including pale mottling on the belly and a paler underwing panel . some indeed suspect\ncramp s , simmons kel ( 1977 ) the birds of the western palearctic , vol . 1 . oxford university press .\non migration in the indian and pacific oceans , the species remains far out to sea ; although first - year birds may follow the coasts of southern continents . birds often congregate and feed at ocean fronts , and are occasionally sighted inshore ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) . in south - east australia , wilson ' s storm - petrels are found over waters of surface temperatures between 9 . 4\u201322 . 0 \u00b0c ( reid et al . 2002 ) .\nin the south - west pacific ocean , wilson ' s storm - petrels are observed on passage off new caledonia in march to june ; off vanuatu in october ; the solomon islands in april ; and papua new guinea ( png ) in may and september to november . winter records from southern png , solomon island and the coral sea suggest a possible extension of wintering areas off northern australia to the northern coral sea ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) .\nin the waters off of chile ,\nfuegian storm - petrel\nis very common , usually found within 509 km of the coast between 3 . 10\u00b0s and 53 . 63\u00b0s ( spear and ainley 2007 ) . similarly , beck ( in murphy 1936 ) recorded this taxa within 250 km of shore . in austral spring , the nonbreeding season , densities of this taxon are greatest off of southern chile , though other concentrations occur extend to northern chile . in austral autumn , the breeding season , concentrations were bifurcated , with the largest numbers off central and southern chile .\nflood . r . l . and thomas b . 2007 . identification of \u2018black - and - white\u2019 storm - petrels of the north atlantic .\nmolecular evidence revealed that traditional grouping of all storm - petrels in a single family was paraphyletic # r # r ; precise relationships at higher levels within this order are still disputed , but storm - petrels now generally split into two families , comprising \u201csouthern\u201d oceanitidae and \u201cnorthern\u201d hydrobatidae # r .\nthis species account is dedicated in honor of bill ellison , a member of the cornell lab of ornithology ' s administrative board .\npalma , r . l . , a . j . d . tennyson , c . p . gaskin , and a . jaramillo . 2012 . the scientific name , author , and date for the\nfuegian storm - petrel\n, a subspecies of oceanites oceanicus from southern south america . notornis 59 : 74 - 78 .\nin the caribbean region , wilson ' s storm - petrels occur off guadeloupe mid - february to early august , with a peak in april , and seasonally fairly common around the bahamas from late april to mid - june , but for the most part uncommon in the caribbean . rare to locally fairly common from april to september , but mainly late may to august in the gulf of mexico , with the largest concentrations around the mouth of the mississippi river ( howell 2012 ) .\nolivier f , wotherspoon sj ( 2006 ) modeling habitat selection using presence - only data : case study of a colonial hollow nesting bird , the snow petrel . ecol model ( in press )\nwilson\u2019s storm - petrel ( oceanites oceanicus ) is known to breed in antarctic and subantarctic latitudes . nests are usually on rocky islets but also occur up to 120 km inland and almost 600 m asl in eastern antarctica . the subspecies chilensis breeds in tierra del fuego but there is increasing evidence that it may also nest in the chilean andes . the chilean ornithologist rafael barros v . found several apparently lost individuals , most of them juveniles still with some downy plumage , in an area of the andes where he lived between 1917 and 1928 . subsequently , in 1936 , robert c . murphy indicated that many birds captured in november\u2013december off valpara\u00edso showed enlarged gonads , implying a possible breeding area nearby .\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nwilson ' s storm - petrels lay single egg clutches . both parents incubate the chick , rotating approximately every two days , and attend to the provisioning of chicks . hatching mainly takes place in the first half of february and chicks stay in the nest burrows for about 60 days . during the day , the chick is left unattended and is fed by adults on nocturnal visits until fledging . fledging starts in the second half of march ( gladbach et al . 2009 ; marchant & higgins 1990 ) .\nin the antarctic peninsula nests in cavities in glacial rubble , scree , and also in tunnels excavated by the birds under boulders . usually enters and leaves the nest site at night . one egg per nest . both parents incubate the egg and feed the chick . adults , eggs and chicks preyed upon by skuas . ( harrison 1983 ) . an even bigger danger is that the adult , egg , or chick become trapped in the burrow by a heavy snow storm . researchers in antarctica found mummified remains in burrows . when to see look for wilson ' s storm - petrel from june to october on stellwagen bank and even in the harbor in summer . the highest numbers are seen in july and early august . the bird is best observed on very calm seas when you can see it pattering on the water picking up bits of food on the wing .\nfowler ja , hulbert me , smith g ( 1986 ) sex ratio in a sample of storm petrels tape - lured in shetland . seabird 9 : 15\u201319 .\nrobbins , c . s . ( 1983 ) . golden field guide to birds of north america . golden press . 360p . [ details ]\nwest coast pelagic trips have started using beef suet as chum and are having more success at getting the storm - petrels closer to the boat . on a socal over night trip a large flock of black storm - petrels and fork - tailed storm - petrels responded to suet that had been put through a hamburger meat grinder . a large flock of least storm - petrels ignored the commotion . on the atlantic side , band - rumped storm - petrels that usually make a single pass by the boat and are gone also responded to suet that had been put through a meat grinder . the birds made pass after pass over the suet . it is hard to get the butcher to grind suet for you , but you need very small piece of suet for the birds to pick up quickly as they fly over the water .\nhabitat : widespread in the world\u2019s oceans . some authorities consider it the world\u2019s most abundant seabird . certainly , it is the most abundant pelagic bird in the north atlantic for much of the warmer months ( apr into oct ) , even though it nests at islands in the far southern oceans .\ni should note that \u2018petrel\u2019 is supposed to be pronounced in similar fashion to the name peter , since it apparently originated as a diminutive form of that name ( and hence started out as \u2018peter - el\u2019 ) . the books say that petrels are named after st . peter since he \u201cwalked ( somewhat fearfully ) on the stormy sea of galilee at christ\u2019s invitation\u201d ( lockley 1983 , p . 8 ) . the irony here is that the \u2018water walking\u2019 behaviour referred to here is practised by storm - petrels , not by petrels proper ( storm - petrels don\u2019t really walk on the water ; rather , they patter across the surface with their large webbed feet while flying ) [ adjacent image , showing this behaviour , by patrick coin ] . so , petrels \u2013 most of which are speedy soarers \u2013 are named after the idiosyncratic behaviour practised by storm - petrels .\nolivier f , wotherspoon sj ( 2005 ) gis based applications of resource selection functions to the prediction of snow petrel distribution and abundance in east antarctica : comparing models at multiple scales . ecol model 189 : 105\u2013129\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nintriguing are inland reports of wilson ' s storm - petrels from the andes that suggest the possibility of an inland component to the species ' range ( marin 2002 , alvaro jaramillo , personal communications ) . several reports from as far as 110 km inland and 1400 m in elevation of adults and juveniles mostly april and may ( though there are several from late january through march ) , and even small flocks encountered in las cuevas , mendoza , argentina in january , 1940 ( zotta 1944 ) . though these sightings may be attributed to vagrancy , the number of storm - petrel records from the andes and evidence such as a bird found with an egg in its oviduct underneath the eyrie of a peregrine falcon ( falco peregrinus ) ( alvaro jaramillo , personal communication ) point to nesting somewhere inland , likely the andes . in the northern hemisphere , oceanites rarely occur as vagrants after storms so the same is assumed in the southern hemisphere .\nat sea ,\nfuegian storm - petrel ( o . o . chilensis ) is found in the highest density over the continental slope within the humboldt current . densities of this taxon decrease with sea surface temperature and wind speed , and increase with sea surface salinity ( spear and ainley 2007 ) . the subspecies oceanicus and exasperatus are found in the deep waters of the south equatorial current .\nwhen it blows a hard gale of wind the stormy petrel makes its appearance . while the sea runs mountains high , and every wave threatens destruction to the labouring vessel , this little harbinger of storms is seen enjoying itself , on rapid pinion , up and down the roaring billows . when the storm is over it appears no more . it must have been hatched in \u00e6olus ' s cave , amongst a clutch of squalls and tempests ; for whenever they get out upon the ocean it always contrives to be of the party . \u2014 charles waterton"]}
{"id": 2555, "summary": [{"text": "ithycythara pentagonalis is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family mangeliidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "tucker considers ithycythara auberiana a synonym of ithycythara pentagonalis reeve , l.a. , 1845", "topic": 21}], "title": "ithycythara pentagonalis", "paragraphs": ["ithycythara pentagonalis reeve , l . a . , 1845 : st vincent , west indies\nithycythara is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family mangeliidae .\nspecies pleurotoma acutangulus e . a . smith , 1882 accepted as ithycythara acutangulus ( e . a . smith , 1882 ) ( original combination )\nfonte : wikipedia . paginas : 90 . capitulos : bela , eucithara , lienardia , mangelia , pseudorhaphitoma , guraleus , anacithara , antiguraleus , pyrgocythara , kurtziella , ithycythara , benthomangelia , clathromangelia , mangiliella , brachycythara , tenaturris , citharomangelia , leiocithara , heterocithara , neoguraleus , pleurotomoides , cryoturris , turrella , thelecythara , paraclathurella , anticlinura , paramontana , belaturricula , marita , kurtzia , benthomangelia abyssopacifica , gingicithara , neoguraleus interruptus , glyphoturris , thelecytharella , benthomangelia subtrophonoidea , austropusilla , belaturricula dissimilis , brachycythara multicinctata , belaturricula antarctica , ithycythara apicodenticulata , acmaturris , glyptaesopus , benthomangelia trophonoidea , benthomangelia gracilispira , clathromangelia fuscoligata , clathromangelia loiselieri , benthomangelia decapitata , clathromangelia strigilata , clathromangelia variegata , euclathurella , benthomangelia celebensis , pyrgocythara candidissima , pyrgocythara densestriata , belaturricula turrita , benthomangelia brachytona , pseudorhaphitoma perplexior , pseudorhaphitoma unicostata , platycythara , clathromangelia quadrillum , ithycythara septemcostata , thelecythara dominguezi , brachycythara beatriceae , clathromangelia coffea , pyrgocythara albovittata , brachycythara atlantidea , pyrgocythara fuscoligata , pyrgocythara subdiaphana , belaturricula ergata , pseudorhaphitoma kilburni , pyrgocythara urceolata , cryoturris quadrilineata , ithycythara funicostata , ithycythara pentagonalis , ithycythara acutangulus , macteola , pyrgocythara hemphilli , benthomangelia bandella , kurtziella margaritifera , clathromangelia granum , mangelia pseudoattenuata , brachycythara biconica , clathromangelia strigillata , belaturricula gaini , benthomangelia brevis , clathromangelia rhyssa , brachycythara stegeri , ithycythara lanceolata , ithycythara muricoides , pyrgocythara angulosa , thelecythara dushanae , benthomangelia antonia , glyptaesopus proctorae , pyrgocythara cinctella , pyrgocythar . . .\n5 / 12 / 2009 10 : 29 am - peggy williams added to harry ' s comments with :\ni agree with harry that marlo ' s shell is more likely rubricata and that pentagonalis and auberiana may be synonymous ( in fact , someone has determined so , since malacolog has them synonymized . ) but i think parkeri is distinctly more slender and has fewer ribs than the others .\nid : 280182 original name : ithycythara _ pentagonalis9 . jpg size 666x414 - 87237 bytes image manager : jan delsing directory : 3810 created : 2015 - 11 - 08 12 : 26 : 53 - user jan delsing last change : 2015 - 11 - 08 12 : 27 : 24 - user jan delsing url : urltoken text function : [ [ i : 280182 ; image ] ] , [ [ it : 280182 ] ] ( thumbnail )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nversion 43 . 0 went live 11 / 6 / 2018 - i hope that the majority of issues have been fixed . my email address is on the home page if you see anything wrong .\nvol . 2 mollusques , p 174 ; pl . 24 / 4 - 6\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\nclick on an image to view a larger image of that shell . author , date , and full locality are given on the labels with shells .\nphilippines . mactan . punta engano . taken with lumun lumun nets , 100 - 150 m . collected by local fishermen . 2009 .\nphilippines . cebu . lilo - an . collected at 50 - 150 m . 2008 .\nphilippines . olango island . 20 - 25 m . from local fishermen . 2008\nphilippines . palawan . balabac island . dived about 25 m . by fishermen from olango . 2006 .\nphilippines . mactan island . taken 80 - 100 m . with lumun lumun nets . 2003 .\nphilippines . north of cebu . liloan . 10 - 25 m . 2017 .\nphilippines . olango island . 10 - 25 m . collected by local fishermen . 2010 .\nphilippines . butuan . trawled at 50 - 100 m . collected by local fishermen . 2010 .\nphilippines . nocnocan island . 20 - 50 m . collected by local fishermen . 2010 .\nphilippines . palawan . taken between 10 and 25 meters deep water . from local fishermen . 2010 .\nphilippines . bohol . nocnocan island . 10 - 25 m . collected by local fishermen . 2009 .\nphilippines . palawan . found at about 10 - 25 m . collected by local fishermen . 2009 .\nphilippines . palawan . balabac island . taken 10 - 15 m . collected by local fishermen . 2009 .\nphilippines . olango island . dived , 15 - 30 m . collected by local fishermen . 2009 .\nphilippines . palawan . taken at 10 - 25 m . collected by local fishermen . 2009 .\nphilippines . olango island . taken at 10 - 25 m . collected by local fishermen . 2008 .\nphilippines . bohol . near pandakan island . scuba 18 m . - guphil i - 2004 . hypo .\nphilippines . north of cebu . liloan . tangle nets . 8 - 12 m . 2017 .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 1 . 501 seconds . )\nwe ' ve updated our privacy policy and by continuing you ' re agreeing to the updated terms .\nwhen you visit our site , preselected companies may use cookies or other certain information on your device to serve relevant ads and for analytics purposes . learn more\ndiscussions , photo series , how to identify or distinguish a species or between species .\nwas\ncommon .\nhowever , it appears this is a sublittoral species and probably rarely found except as a beach shell .\nthe one specimen i have was collected at the artificial and unique inlet habitat at palm beach and is not representative of normal habitat for many , many of the species collected there . i was wondering if anyone has had the good fortune to collect this shell live anywhere in florida by any means ?\ni am pretty sure that i had this species in dredgings , in the days when you could get them . i have traded most of my small shells for pectinidae , so i cannot check .\nas full species without synonyms . searches of the florida museum of natural history\u2019s invertebrate zoology master database and the bailey - matthews shell museum database revealed no records of any of these four names . )\n5 / 12 / 2009 11 : 45 am - harry added :\ndear peggy , marlo et al . , reeve ( 1845 : sp . 255 ) and abbott ( 1958 : 96 ) described shells with five axial ribs . abbott failed to compare his species with reeve ' s . i agree that the profile of the abbott ' s species ( type figure ) is a bit stouter . harry reeve , l . , 1843 - 1846 . the genus pleurotoma . conchologia iconica 1 : 40 pls . , facing text blocks + index . jan . - apr . abbott , r . t . , 1958 . the marine mollusks of grand cayman island , british west indies . monographs of the acad . nat . sci . phila . 11 : vi + pp . 1 - 138 + 5 pls . + index .\nmarlo ' s comment : thanks to all for comments and hopefully there will be more . harry ' s and linda ' s comments appear to confirm that\nis a sublittoral species and probably collectable as a live shell only when dredged , but for exceptional circumstances . as to the name issue , i ' ll stay with\nthe photos in our gallery are in most cases just a sample from our stock , except when only one specimen is offered . we try to match the original color but it can vary if your screen is not correctly adjusted ( gamma correction ) .\n- note : several protected species are illustrated here only for identification purposes . they are not for sale . - the photos in our gallery are in most cases just a sample from our stock , except when only one specimen is offered . we try to match the original color but it can vary if your screen is not correctly adjusted ( gamma correction ) .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsaint vincent and the grenadines , source : reeve , 1845 . original description & figure .\nfor every image in gallery , either accepted or unconfirmed , you can add , change or verify determination ( identification ) , or write comments .\nsupplier out of stock . if you add this item to your wish list we will let you know when it becomes available .\nis the information for this product incomplete , wrong or inappropriate ? let us know about it .\ndoes this product have an incorrect or missing image ? send us a new image .\ncopyright \u00a9 loot\u2122 online ( pty ) ltd . all rights reserved . khutaza park , bell crescent , westlake business park . po box 30836 , tokai , 7966 , south africa . info @ urltoken loot is a member of the independent media group of companies . all prices displayed are subject to fluctuations and stock availability as outlined in our terms & conditions .\n\u00a9 university of florida george a . smathers libraries . all rights reserved . terms of use for electronic resources and copyright information powered by sobekcm\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( bela ) violacea ( mighels & c . b . adams , 1842 ) accepted as curtitoma violacea ( mighels & c . b . adams , 1842 )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( clathurella ) commutabilis e . a . smith , 1890 accepted as mitromorpha commutabilis ( e . a . smith , 1890 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( clathurella ) horneana e . a . smith , 1884 accepted as clathurella horneana ( e . a . smith , 1884 )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( clathurella ) letourneuxiana crosse & p . fischer , 1865 accepted as turrella letourneuxiana ( crosse & p . fischer , 1865 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( clathurella ) lucida e . a . smith , 1884 accepted as pseudodaphnella lucida ( e . a . smith , 1884 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( clathurella ) multigranosa e . a . smith , 1890 accepted as mitromorpha multigranosa ( e . a . smith , 1890 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( clathurella ) perinsignis e . a . smith , 1884 accepted as raphitoma perinsignis ( e . a . smith , 1884 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( clathurella ) usta e . a . smith , 1890 accepted as mitromorpha usta ( e . a . smith , 1890 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( clavus ) albobalteata e . a . smith , 1890 accepted as austrodrillia albobalteata ( e . a . smith , 1890 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( clavus ) amanda e . a . smith , 1882 accepted as drillia sinuosa ( montagu , 1803 )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( clavus ) hottentota e . a . smith , 1882 accepted as clavus hottentotus ( e . a . smith , 1882 )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( clavus ) interpunctata e . a . smith , 1882 accepted as splendrillia interpunctata ( e . a . smith , 1882 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( clavus ) prolongata e . a . smith , 1890 accepted as inodrillia prolongata ( e . a . smith , 1890 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( defrancia ) asperulata e . a . smith , 1882 accepted as veprecula pungens ( gould , 1860 )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( drillia ) amoena e . a . smith , 1884 accepted as neoguraleus amoenus ( e . a . smith , 1884 ) ( original combination )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( drillia ) atkinsonii e . a . smith , 1877 accepted as drillia crenularis ( lamarck , 1816 ) accepted as ptychobela nodulosa ( gmelin , 1791 )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( drillia ) baynhami e . a . smith , 1891 accepted as ptychobela baynhami ( e . a . smith , 1891 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( drillia ) cookei e . a . smith , 1888 accepted as syntomodrillia cookei ( e . a . smith , 1888 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( drillia ) essingtonensis e . a . smith , 1888 accepted as inquisitor mastersi ( brazier , 1876 )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( drillia ) incerta e . a . smith , 1877 accepted as inquisitor incertus ( e . a . smith , 1877 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( drillia ) intertincta e . a . smith , 1877 accepted as inquisitor intertinctus ( e . a . smith , 1877 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( drillia ) latisinuata e . a . smith , 1877 accepted as funa latisinuata ( e . a . smith , 1877 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( drillia ) mindanensis e . a . smith , 1877 accepted as cheungbeia mindanensis ( e . a . smith , 1877 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( drillia ) nodilirata e . a . smith , 1877 accepted as clavus nodiliratus ( e . a . smith , 1877 )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( drillia ) subochracea e . a . smith , 1877 accepted as aguilaria subochracea ( e . a . smith , 1877 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( drillia ) torresiana e . a . smith , 1884 accepted as inquisitor sterrha ( r . b . watson , 1881 )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( drillia ) turtoni e . a . smith , 1890 accepted as glyphostoma turtoni ( e . a . smith , 1890 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( hemipleurotoma ) alticincta r . murdoch & suter , 1906 accepted as iredalula alticincta ( murdoch & suter , 1906 ) ( original combination )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( leucosyrinx ) augusta r . murdoch & suter , 1906 accepted as paracomitas augusta ( murdoch & suter , 1906 )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( leucosyrinx ) eremita r . murdoch & suter , 1906 accepted as leucosyrinx eremita ( murdoch & suter , 1906 ) ( original combination )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( mangelia ) hypsela r . b . watson , 1881 accepted as syntomodrillia hypsela ( r . b . watson , 1881 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( mangelia ) lallemantiana crosse & p . fischer , 1865 accepted as guraleus lallemantianus ( crosse & p . fischer , 1865 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( mangelia ) mellissii e . a . smith , 1890 accepted as mangelia mellissii ( e . a . smith , 1890 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( mangelia ) vincentina crosse & p . fischer , 1865 accepted as guraleus pictus ( a . adams & angas , 1864 )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( mangilia ) atlantica e . a . smith , 1890 represented as pleurotoma atlantica e . a . smith , 1890\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( mangilia ) albolabiata e . a . smith , 1884 accepted as mangelia albolabiata ( e . a . smith , 1884 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( mangilia ) coppingeri e . a . smith , 1881 accepted as savatieria coppingeri ( e . a . smith , 1881 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( mangilia ) mellissi e . a . smith , 1890 accepted as stellatoma mellissi ( e . a . smith , 1890 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( mangilia ) ordinaria e . a . smith , 1882 accepted as agathotoma ordinaria ( e . a . smith , 1882 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( mangilia ) pellyi e . a . smith , 1882 accepted as mangelia pellyi ( e . a . smith , 1882 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( mangilia ) sinclairii e . a . smith , 1884 accepted as neoguraleus finlayi powell , 1942\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( mangilia ) subquadrata e . a . smith , 1888 accepted as clathurella subquadrata ( e . a . smith , 1888 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( mangilia ) trizonata e . a . smith , 1882 accepted as neoguraleus trizonata ( e . a . smith , 1882 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( perrona ) marmarina r . b . watson , 1881 accepted as fenimorea marmarina ( r . b . watson , 1881 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( pleurotomella ) pandionis verrill , 1880 accepted as pleurotomella pandionis ( a . e . verrill , 1880 ) ( original combination )\nsubgenus pleurotoma ( spirotropis ) g . o . sars , 1878 accepted as spirotropis g . o . sars , 1878\nsubgenus pleurotoma ( surcula ) accepted as surcula h . adams & a . adams , 1853 accepted as turricula schumacher , 1817\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( surcula ) goniodes r . b . watson , 1881 accepted as aforia goniodes ( r . b . watson , 1881 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( surcula ) lepta r . b . watson , 1881 accepted as aforia watsoni kantor , harasewych & puillandre , 2016\n\u00bb species pleurotoma ( thesbia ) translucida r . b . watson , 1881 accepted as xanthodaphne translucida ( r . b . watson , 1881 ) ( basionym )\nspecies pleurotoma acanthodes r . b . watson , 1881 accepted as kurtziella acanthodes ( r . b . watson , 1881 ) ( original combination )\nspecies pleurotoma acuminata mighels , 1845 accepted as pyrgocythara mighelsi ( kay , 1979 ) ( invalid : junior homonym of pleurotoma acuminata j . sowerby , 1816 ; clavus mighelsi is a replacement name )\nspecies pleurotoma acutigemmata e . a . smith , 1877 accepted as turridrupa acutigemmata ( e . a . smith , 1877 ) ( original combination )\nspecies pleurotoma adamsii e . a . smith , 1884 accepted as cryoturris adamsii ( e . a . smith , 1884 ) ( original combination )\nspecies pleurotoma adelpha dautzenberg & fischer h . , 1896 accepted as phymorhynchus sulciferus ( bush , 1893 ) ( synonym )\nspecies pleurotoma agalma e . a . smith , 1906 accepted as paradrillia agalma ( e . a . smith , 1906 ) ( original combination )\nspecies pleurotoma aganactica r . b . watson , 1886 accepted as spirotropis aganactica ( r . b . watson , 1886 ) ( original combination )\nspecies pleurotoma agassizi verrill & s . smith , 1880 accepted as gymnobela agassizii ( verrill & s . smith [ in verrill ] , 1880 )\nspecies pleurotoma agassizii verrill & s . smith [ in verrill ] , 1880 accepted as gymnobela agassizii ( verrill & s . smith [ in verrill ] , 1880 ) ( original combination )\nspecies pleurotoma aglaophanes r . b . watson , 1882 accepted as clionella aglaophanes ( r . b . watson , 1882 ) ( original combination )\nspecies pleurotoma albata e . a . smith , 1882 accepted as etremopsis albata ( e . a . smith , 1882 ) ( original combination )\nspecies pleurotoma albicarinata g . b . sowerby ii , 1870 accepted as polystira oxytropis ( g . b . sowerby i , 1834 )\nspecies pleurotoma albicaudata e . a . smith , 1882 accepted as kermia albicaudata ( e . a . smith , 1882 ) ( original combination )\nspecies pleurotoma albida perry g . , 1811 accepted as polystira albida ( g . perry , 1811 ) ( original combination )\nspecies pleurotoma albida deshayes , 1835 accepted as mangelia unifasciata ( deshayes , 1835 ) ( invalid : junior homonym of pleurotoma albida perry , 1811 and p . albida risso , 1826 )\nspecies pleurotoma alboangulata e . a . smith , 1882 accepted as carinodrillia alboangulata ( e . a . smith , 1882 ) ( original combination )\nspecies pleurotoma albocincta c . b . adams , 1845 accepted as pilsbryspira albocincta ( c . b . adams , 1845 ) ( original combination )\nspecies pleurotoma albofasciata e . a . smith , 1877 accepted as turridrupa albofasciata ( e . a . smith , 1877 ) ( original combination )\nspecies pleurotoma albolabiata e . a . smith , 1884 accepted as mangelia albolabiata ( e . a . smith , 1884 ) ( original combination )\nspecies pleurotoma albomaculata c . b . adams , 1845 accepted as drillia albomaculata ( c . b . adams , 1845 ) ( original combination )\nspecies pleurotoma albomaculata d ' orbigny , 1847 accepted as pilsbryspira nodata ( c . b . adams , 1850 ) ( non c . b . adams , 1845 )\nspecies pleurotoma albovittata c . b . adams , 1845 accepted as pyrgocythara albovittata ( c . b . adams , 1845 ) ( original combination )\nspecies pleurotoma alternans e . a . smith , 1882 accepted as pseudodaphnella alternans ( e . a . smith , 1882 ) ( original combination )\nspecies pleurotoma amanda e . a . smith , 1882 accepted as drillia sinuosa ( montagu , 1803 )\nspecies pleurotoma amicta e . a . smith , 1877 accepted as turris amicta ( e . a . smith , 1877 ) ( original combination )\nspecies pleurotoma amoena ( e . a . smith , 1884 ) accepted as neoguraleus amoenus ( e . a . smith , 1884 )\nspecies pleurotoma angustae c . b . adams , 1850 accepted as decoradrillia pulchella ( reeve , 1845 )\nspecies pleurotoma anteridion r . b . watson , 1881 accepted as comitas anteridion ( r . b . watson , 1881 ) ( original combination )\nspecies pleurotoma arafurensis e . a . smith , 1884 accepted as daphnella arafurensis ( e . a . smith , 1884 ) ( original combination )\nspecies pleurotoma araneosa r . b . watson , 1881 accepted as xanthodaphne araneosa ( r . b . watson , 1881 ) ( original combination )\nspecies pleurotoma arcana e . a . smith , 1899 accepted as comitas arcana ( e . a . smith , 1899 ) ( original combination )\n, invalid : not pleurotoma pagoda reeve , 1845 . p . alta harris , 1897 is replacement name )\ngrammatical gender feminine , as composed with the greek noun \u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u03ae , an incision ( gender : feminine ) . however philippi ( 1836 : 165 , footnote ) and others defended treating it as neuter . [ details ]\n1 marine biology department , universidade federal fluminense , p . o . box 100 . 644 , niter\u00f3i , rj , brazil\nabstract . biogeographic distributional patterns of gastropods are proposed based on the species ' geo - graphic and bathymetric distribution . samples were collected along the brazilian continental margin between 18\u00b0 s and 23\u00b0 s , at 37 stations with depths from 20 m to 1 , 330 m . the analysis of the biogeographic distribution patterns confirmed the existence of a transitional zone from tropical to subtropical waters in the area of both the continental shelf and slope , suggesting a relationship with water mass circulation . we observed a high species turnover rate between the shelf and slope . the analysis of gastropod species distribution revealed a similar pattern on the shelf and slope and a large difference between shallow and deep - water faunas .\nkeywords : macrobenthos , continental margins , geographical distribution , vertical distribution , soft bottoms , brazil , southwestern atlantic ocean .\nresumen . los patrones de distribuci\u00f3n biogeogr\u00e1fica de gastr\u00f3podos fueron propuestos basados en la distribuci\u00f3n geogr\u00e1fica y batim\u00e9trica de las especies . los muestreos fueron realizados en el margen continental brasile\u00f1o entre 18\u00b0s y 23\u00b0s , en 37 estaciones de 20 m a 1 . 330 m de profundidad . el an\u00e1lisis de los patrones de distribuci\u00f3n biogeogr\u00e1fica confirm\u00f3 la existencia de una zona de transici\u00f3n de aguas tropicales a aguas subtropicales , que se encuentra en la zona de la plataforma continental y tambi\u00e9n en la zona del talud continental , esto puede sugerir una relaci\u00f3n con la circulaci\u00f3n de las masas de agua . se observ\u00f3 una elevada tasa de turnover de las especies entre la plataforma y el talud continental . el an\u00e1lisis de las especies de gastr\u00f3podos revel\u00f3 un patr\u00f3n similar tanto en la plataforma como en el talud y una gran diferencia entre las faunas de las aguas someras y profundas .\npalabras clave : macrobentos , margen continental , distribuci\u00f3n geogr\u00e1fica , distribuci\u00f3n vertical , fondos blandos , brasil , oc\u00e9ano atl\u00e1ntico sudoccidental .\nunderstanding the patterns of the geographic distribution of life is a very o\u00edd issue in biology , and one that continues to be debated . in the sea , geographic patterns ( e . g . , in species assemblages and diversity ) have been described for both shallow and deep - sea fauna ( rex , 1993 ; rex et al , 1993 ; clarke & crame , 1997 ; gray , 1998 ; willig et al , 2003 ; hillebrand , 2004 ) .\nlongitudinal and latitudinal barriers represented by the arrangement of land masses and oceans , by temperatura gradients , and by hydrodynamic patterns and water properties divide the oceans into a series of biogeographic realms with their own characteristic species assemblages ( briggs , 1995 ; longhurst , 1998 ) . the sea surface temperature is supposed to be the main forc\u00e9 limiting the latitudinal distribution of marine species . therefore , biogeographic realms are not expected to be the same along a depth gradient . in general , the wider a species ' vertical distributional range , the wider its geographical distribution ( harley et al , 2003 ) . eurybathic taxa ( those with a broader vertical range ) show a wider horizontal distribution than stenobathic taxa ( those with a narrow vertical range ) ( vinogradova , 1997 ) . due to the fact that deep - sea species are mainly stenobathic , abyssal and hadal fauna show higher levels of endemism ( vinogradova , 1997 ; zezina , 1997 ) . the bulk of shallow - sea fauna is also stenobathic but , according to menzies et al . ( 1973 ) , the fauna on the continental slope has a wider geographical distribution than that of any other vertical faunal zone .\nseveral authors have discussed zoogeographic and diversity patterns for brazilian shallow waters based on benthic invertebrates ( e . g . , briggs , 1974 ; semenov , 1978 ; kempf , 1979 ; palacio , 1982 ; floeter & soares - gomes , 1999 ) , but few have discussed biogeographic patterns of the neighbouring slope or abyssal zones ( alien & sanders , 1996 is a good example for abyssal basins ) .\nthe effect of the latitudinal gradient is so strong on the species diversity of marine molluscs that it is also evident at the genus and family level ( roy et al . , 1998 ; crame , 2000 ) and recognized in fossil assemblages ( crame , 2002 ; jablonski et al , 2006 ) . however , in spite of the fact that molluscs are one of the earliest taxa used to investigate latitudinal trends in marine biodiversity , some doubts exist as to whether the latitudinal trends observed in the northern hemisphere also occur in the southern hemisphere ( crame , 2000 ; valdovinos et al , 2003 ; linse et al , 2006 ) . some results are conflicting . for example , the patterns found for pacific ocean molluscs in the southern hemisphere by valdovinos et al . ( 2003 ) opposed those found by fortes & absal\u00e3o ( 2004 ) .\nthe present study aimed to investigate patterns in both the regional and depth distribution of gastropod molluscs , discussing aspects of slope and shelf diversity and provinciality , contributing to the discussion about the latitudinal diversity gradient in the southern hemisphere .\nthe study area comprised the slope and continental shelf between 18\u00b0 - 23\u00b0s and 38\u00b0 - 41\u00b0w , encompassing an area ranging from the abrolhos reef bank , situated in the north of doce river , to the offshore and near - shore region in the vicinity of the para\u00edba do sul river . the study area was divided into two regions : north ( 18\u00b0 - 19\u00b0s ) , up to 200 km - long , and south ( 21 o - 23\u00b0s ) , where the shelf is narrow and shallow , ranging from 10 to 30 km in width ( fig . 1 ) . the continental slope in both regions is narrow and steep ( emery & uchuoi , 1984 ) . the oceanographic conditions consist of oligotrophic area s that are associated with the tropical waters of the brazil current ( bc ) and mesotrophic area s due to the seasonal upwelling of the cold , nutri - ent - rich waters of the south atlantic central water ( sacw ) south of the doce river ( 20\u00b0s ) ( valent\u00edn et al , 1987 ) . primary productivity var\u00edes from 0 . 3 g c m - 2 d - 1 to 1 . 1 g c m - 2 d - 1 ( gaeta et al , 1999 ) and the input of the doce and para\u00edba do sul rivers is about 900 m s\n. the grain - size distribution is not uniform in the area , varying with depth ; shallower stations have coarse sediments and deeper stations have finer sedi - ments . the clay and silt concentrations revealed a depth gradient as well , with higher concentrations occurring at deeper stations . concentration of calcium carbonate exhibited a patchy distribution , with higher percentages in the western sector ( soares - gomes et al , 1999 ) .\ndata for this study were obtained in april 1995 , dur - ing the joint oceanographic project ( jops - ii / leg 8 ) , on board the r / v victor hansen from bremen uni - versity , germany . sampling was carried out at 41 stations , between the depths of 20 m and 1 , 330 m ( fig . 1 and table 1 ) . molluscs were present in 37 of these 41 stations ( 23 stations in the shelf zone and 14 in the slope zone ) . the sediment was sampled in triplicate with a 0 . 1 m 2 van veen grab and a 60 x 60 x 30 cm box - corer . samples were standardized to an area of 0 . 1 m and 10 l of sediment volume . the macrozoo - benthos was sieved out with a 0 . 5 mm mesh size , fixed in 70 % ethanol , and sorted under a stereomicro - scope for taxonomic identification .\nthe frequency of occurrence ( f o = number of oc - currences of a species at the shelf or slope stations / total number of shelf or slope stations ) was calculated , and species were classified according to their value as constant ( f o > 50 % ) , common ( 10 % \u2264f o \u226450 % ) , or rare ( f o < 10 % ) . species distribution over the shelf and slope was examined by plotting a histogram of the number of species against the number of stations oc - cupied .\nwe used estimates 6 . obi software ( colwell , 1997 ) to determine whether the species were classified as\nunique\n( restricted to a single site ) ,\nduplicates\n( occurring at exactly two sites ) ,\nsingletons\n( represented by a single individual ) , or\ndoubletons\n( represented by only two individu\u00e1is ) , following the terminology of colwell & coddington ( 1994 ) .\nto perform a species richness scale analysis , the total data set was divided into four regions according to their location in geographic area s ( north and south ) and bathymetric zones ( shelf and slope ) : north shelf , south shelf , north slope , and south slope . due to dif - ferent sampling efforts , randomized species cumula - tives curves were plotted using primer 6 . 1 . 6 software . thus , we were able to compare species richness among regions , where the y - axis is the cumulative number of species and the x - axis the station numbers ( north shelf : 17 , south shelf ; 6 , north slope : 5 , south slope : 9 ) . an area of 0 . 1 m 2 was considered for each sampling station . according to gray ( 2002 ) , when sample sizes are different , this method is preferable to rarefaction curves as proposed by sanders ( 1968 ) . species diversity was also estimated on a progressive spatial scale , according to gray ' s terminology ( 2000 ) : sample species richness ( sr s ) and species richness in large area s ( north shelf , south shelf , north slope , south slope ) ( sr l ) . together , the four regions comprised the total area species richness ( sr t ) . in order to calc\u00falate the proportion by which a given region is richer than the average of samples within the total area , whittaker ' s ( 1972 ) original beta diversity measure ( \u00df w = ( \u03b3 / \u03b1 ) - 1 ) was used , where \u03b3 is the total number of species resulting from merging a number of individual samples and \u03b1 is the average number of species per individual sample . beta diversity was measured over sectors [ \u00df w = ( sr l / mean sr s ) ] and total area [ \u00df w = ( sr t / mean sr s ) ] scales , where mean nsr s was the mean sample diversity .\nthe species ' geographic and bathymetric distribution ranges were determined based on information available in the literature ( abbott , 1974 ; merlano & hegedus , 1994 ; rios , 1994 , among others ) and in the malacolog 3 . 1 electronic database ( rosenberg , 1993 - urltoken ) . geographic boundaries were established based on the south - western atlantic biogeographic provinces ( tropical , paulista , patagonic , malvinas ) defined by palacio ( 1982 ) using the endemism rate . for a better representation of the geographic distribution in the area , the species were grouped according to their occurrence in the north and south regions . the shelf samples provided 211 species : 91 from the south region , 179 from the north region , and 59 from both regions . from the slope samples , 96 species were used : 72 from the south region , 55 from the north , and 31 from both regions . depending on the bathymetric distribution , species were designated according to the zonation proposed by zezina ( 1997 ) and vinogradova ( 1997 ) as : shallow species ( 0 - 200 m depth ) , bathyal species ( 200 - 3 , 000 m ) , and abyssal species ( 3 , 000 - 6 , 000 m ) . species found in both the shelf and bathyal zones were designated eurybathic .\nwe excluded pelagic species and juveniles ( 12 . 25 % of the total number of species ) from the analyses due , not only to the difficulties in identifying juveniles , but also to the aim of the present study , which is to analyze only benthic species . only individu\u00e1is identified to the species level or ones that could unequivocally be labelled as species were used in the analysis .\na total of 9 , 845 specimens , 404 species and morpho - types ( including empty shells ) , 189 genera , and 73 families were collected over the entire study area . a set of 243 species , 93 genera , and 28 families was found exclusively in the shelf zone , whereas 137 species , 43 genera , and 14 families were exclusive to the slope zone . only 24 species ( 6 % ) , 20 genera ( 10 . 6 % ) , and 16 families ( 22 % ) occurred in both zones ( appendix 1 and 2 ) .\nspecies distribution over the shelf shows that about half the species ( 130 ) were restricted to one station and none occurred at all stations . the same pattern was found for the slope , with 110 species restricted to one single site . considering the shelf and slope , about 3 % of the species occurred at more than 50 % of all sites ( fig . 2 ) . on the shelf , 2 % were constant , 32 % common , and 66 % rare species . on the slope , the corresponding figures were 1 % , 42 % , and 57 % .\nin the whole area , 48 % of the species were unique and 18 % were duplicates . singletons and doubletons represented 34 % and 13 % , correspondingly . the north shelf featured 26 % unique species and 17 % singletons , and the north slope had 12 % unique species and 5 % singletons ( table 2 ) .\nthe cumulative dominance on the shelf was similar for both north and south regions . on the slope , there was a great difference in cumulative dominance be - tween the two regions , with the north presenting the highest evenness ( fig . 3 ) . comparing the cumulative dominance along a vertical gradient , the evenness of the north slope was almost 10 % higher than that of the north shelf , whereas the evenness of the south shelf was 40 % higher than that of the south slope ( fig . 3 ) .\nthe estimated species richness on the north shelf was higher than on the south shelf . however , when the sampling area was standardized to 0 . 6 m 2 ( considering the area of a station as 0 . 1 m 2 , ) , the richness was similar on both shelves ( fig . 4 ) . the south slope displayed a higher total cumulative number of species per area than did the north slope . conversely , when standardizing the sampling area to 0 . 5 m 2 , richness was higher on the north slope . in the north , species richness was 0 . 5 m 2 higher in the slope zone than in the shelf zone , whereas the opposite pattern was observed in the south ( fig . 4 ) .\nin terms of diversity scales , the alpha diversity ( sr s ) values found in the study area ranged from 2 to 84 species . the mean alpha diversity was highest on the north shelf , where 84 species were found at one station , followed by the south shelf , where richness ranged from 15 to 43 species within stations . the highest value of beta diversity ( sr l / means sr s ) was found on the north shelf ( 6 . 66 ) and the lowest on the north slope ( 3 . 22 ) . \u00df w values almost doubled on the largest scale ( sr t / means sr s ) compared to the highest value found on the large area scale ( table 2 ) .\nappendix 1 . taxonomic list of species from the continental shelf ( 25 - 200 m depth ) .\nap\u00e9ndice 1 . lista taxon\u00f3mica de especies de la plataforma continental ( 25 - 200 m de profundidad ) .\nappendix 2 . taxonomic list of species from the continental slope ( 300 - 1330 m depth ) .\nap\u00e9ndice 2 . lista taxon\u00f3mica de especies de la plataforma continental ( 300 - 1330 m de profundidad ) .\nbulla\naff .\nabyssicola dal\u00ed , 1881 bulla\naff .\neb\u00farnea ( dal\u00ed , 1881 )\nfor the continental shelf samples , 211 species and 89 genera were characterized according to their occur - rence in the southwestem atlantic zoogeographic provinces : 91 species from the south , 179 from the north , and 59 species from both regions . for the continental slope samples , 96 species and 52 genera were characterized : 72 species from the south , 55 from the north , and 31 from both regions .\nin terms of the geographical distribution of taxa , the number of genera with a wide distributional range ( occurring in more than three provinces ) was lower than the genera with narrower distributions for both shelf and slope stations . however , considering the genera that occurred in both zones , the number of wide - range distributions was higher than the narrow - range ones ( table 3 ) .\nat the shelf stations , the number of species co - occurring in both tropical and paulista ( tropical - paulista species ) provinces was greater than the number of tropical species occurring in both regions . in addition , the number of tropical , paulista , and tropi - cal - paulista species decreased and the number of wide - distribution eurythermic species increased in the southwestem atlantic provinces ( tropical - paulista - patagonic species ) towards the south ( fig . 5 ) . at the slope stations , tropical species were the majority in both regions . the number of tropical , paulista , tropi - cal - paulista , tropical - paulista - patagonic , and subtropical paulista - patagonic species increased towards the south . the number of endemic species was higher in the north for both shelf and slope stations . in addi - tion , a greater number of tropical endemic species was present at the slope stations in both the south and north , and the shelf stations displayed the highest occurrence of paulista endemic species . the number of species occurring in all western atlantic provinces was greater on the south shelf ( table 4 ) . furthermore , shelf stations showed a higher number of eurybathic species ( with a wide bathymetrical range ) than did slope stations ( table 5 ) .\nthe shelf - slope transition zone is known to have a high species turnover rate ( rex et al , 1977 ) . more - over , species typically found on continental shelves and species from continental slope zones can coexist there , leading to higher species richness . however , evidence from studies done on the brazilian continental slope showed that the depth where this species turnover begins is variable . in this study , we found high species turnover at station 16 ( 300 m depth ) , where some deep - sea species , such as alvania xantias ( watson , 1885 ) , brookula spinulata ( absal\u00e3o , miyaji & pimenta , 2001 ) , and solariella lubrica ( dal\u00ed , 1881 ) showed a high dominance . miyaji ( 2001 ) found a rough change , with 8 % of sampled species occurring exclusively at depths greater than 400 m , whereas sumida & pires - vanin ( 1997 ) found a different com - munity from shallow area s occurring between 320 m and 500 m depth .\nanalyzing the vertical distribution of species found in this study ( table 2 ) , we observed the occurrence of shallow - water and eurybathic species ( shallow - bathyal , shallow - bathyal - abyssal , bathyal - abyssal distributions ) at the slope stations . this pattern might constitute evidence of the slope ' s capacity to allow the co - existence of shallow and deep - water species .\nthe depth gradient differed between the north and south regions : the north shelf showed the highest local , regional , and between - habitat species richness , whereas the south slope had the highest species richness , with values ci\u00f3se to the shelf ones . along local gradients , the general pattern observed is that species richness changes with depth , increasing from ca . 200 m to 1500 - 2500 m or more , and then decreasing towards the abyssal plain ( rex et al , 1993 , 2000 ; gray , 2002 ) . nevertheless , those unimodal patterns do not appear to be universal ( rex et al , 1997 ; stuart et al , 2001 ) , showing that the change in species richness is not related to depth itself ( gray , 2002 ) .\nin addition to the above - mentioned patterns , environmental features also changed with depth . both north and south slopes are narrow and steep , with more homogeneous bottoms that are dominated by silt fractions and a higher concentration of organic carbon .\nthe disappearance of some tropical species towards the south suggests that the southernmost limit of the tropical province is located ci\u00f3se to 21\u00b0s , ac - cording to the results found for gastropods ( floeter & soares - gomes , 1999 ) ; cirripeds ( young , 1995 ) , and polychaetes ( lana , 1987 ) . nevertheless , the location of that limit remains uncertain ( absal\u00e3o , 1989 ; mello , 1993 ; briggs , 1995 ) . recently , joyeux et al . ( 2001 ) and floeter et al . ( 2008 ) found that , for tropical reef fishes , the southern limit is 28\u00b0s .\nmany studies have demonstrated that the bounda - ries of shallow - water faunal distribution are correlated to water masses boundaries ( stevenson et al , 1998 ; culver & buzas , 2000 ) . the presence of species with tropical affinities over the shelf area could be ex - plained by the predominance of the warm and saline water mass of the brazil current ( bc ) ( absal\u00e3o , 1989 ; miyaji , 1995 , 2001 ) that flows southwards ( parallel to the shelf break ) to 35\u00b0s ( emilsson , 1961 ) . in that region , the bc mixes with the cold and less saline water mass of the malvina current and the water character - istics become markedly subtropical , with salinity and temperature ranging between 36 - 35 and 20\u00b0 - 10\u00b0c , respectively ( emilsson , 1961 ) . this fact influences the occurrence of cold - water affinity species ( semenov & berman , 1977 ; palacio , 1982 ) .\nhowever , the most significant factor for the main - tenance of cold - water species , as well as of eurybathic species in the shelf zone , particularly in the north region , might be the penetration of the south atlantic central water ( sacw ) into the continental shelf re - gions . this water mass acts as a vehicle for larval dispersal from cold , deeper regions to warm , shal - lower area s ( absal\u00e3o , 1989 ; miyaji , 1995 , 2001 ) , and extends northwards to espirito santo state ( gaeta et al , 1999 ) .\nimportant changes occur in the benthic faunal structure within the large vertical interval of the bathyal zone . the most obvious difference between shallow and deep - bottoms is the reduction in the number of latitudinal or climatic belts , both in terms of biomass and of faunal structures ( zezina , 1997 ) . as there is a simplification in the water mass structure of the continental slope floor region , a reduction in the number of faunal provinces is to be expected ( semenov & berman , 1977 ; zezina , 1997 ; culver & buzas , 2000 ) . culver & buzas ( 2000 ) found that the differences in benthic foraminifera fauna between shallow ( < 200 m ) and deep water ( > 200 m ) provinces at the same latitude were greater than between adjacent shallow water provinces .\nas expected , species occurring in the shelf zone were very distinct from those in the slope area , with only 24 ( out of 315 ) species shared between the two zones . when the latitudinal distribution of slope species is analyzed , the pattern is similar to the shelf species distribution . however , the number of tropical and tropical - paulista species increased in the south region .\nstudies on geographical distributions of deep - sea species have shown a greater number of species with wider horizontal ranges ( vinogradova , 1997 ; zezina , 1997 ) . however , the present study found few species with wide range distributions towards the slope sta - tions . similar results were observed for the geographic distribution of genera . the restricted - range genera ( 1 to 2 provinces ) were represented by six more genera than the wide - range ones ( > 2 provinces ) . it is , however , possible that the lower number of samples for the slope region ( 14 stations vs . 23 in the shelf zone ) might induce such contradictory results . it is expected that enhanced sampling efforts will not only tend to increase the more sparsely distributed species , but also the number of\nrare\nendemic species ( alien & sand - ers , 1996 ) .\nzezina ( 1997 ) proposed biogeographic schemes for the bathyal zone based on a recent brachiopod distribution , which is very similar to the results found in the present study for gastropods firom the continental slope . this scheme proposed , for depths greater than 700 m in the northeast and central brazilian bathyal zone ( similar to the schemes for shallow - water fauna in the southwestern atlantic ) , a sub - area named the atlantic - central american ( divided into caribbean and brazilian provinces ) and the south brazilian - uruguayan subtropical area in the southeast and south bathyal zones . also , for recent brachiopods living below 700 m , zezina ( 1997 ) defined only one area for the entire southwestern atlantic ocean : the amphi - atlantic bathyal area within the central atlantic province .\na great species turnover rate was observed between the shelf and slope . an analysis of the gastro - pod species distribution revealed a similar pattern of regional distribution in shelf and slope zones and a great difference between shallow and deep - water faunas . although the present analysis of biogeographic distribution patterns confirmed the existence of a transitional zone firom tropical to subtropical waters in the case of the slope zone , the sampling effort done on the southeastern atlantic slope is still too little and those results should be viewed with caution .\nthe authors are indebted to dr . bastian knoppers for the invitation to join in the joint oceanographic project ii ( jops - ii ) , and to drs . ricardo silva absal\u00e3o and paulo m\u00e1rcio costa for helping with taxonomic identification . we also thank dr . sergio floeter for some valuable suggestions that improved the manuscript and carla mendes for reviewing the english version .\nabbott , rj . 1974 . american seashells , van nostrand reinhold , new york , 663 pp .\nabsal\u00e3o , r . s . 1989 . padr\u00f5es distributivos e zoogeograf\u00eda dos moluscos da plataforma continental brasileira parte iii . comiss\u00e3o ocean\u00f3grafica espirito santo i . mem . inst . oswaldo cruz , rio de janeiro , 84 ( 4 ) : 1 - 6 .\nalien , j . a . & h . l . sanders . 1996 . the zoogeography , diversity and origin of the deep - sea protobranch bivalves of the atlantic : the epilogue . progr . oceanogr . , 38 : 95 - 153 .\nattolini , f . s . 1997 . composi\u00e7\u00e3o e distribui\u00e7\u00e3o dos anel\u00eddeos poliquetas na plataforma continental da regi\u00e3o da bacia de campos , rj , brasil . msc . thesis , universidade de s\u00e3o paulo , s\u00e3o paulo , 102 pp .\nbriggs , j . c . 1974 . marine zoogeography . mcgraw - hill , new york , 475 pp .\nbriggs , j . c . 1995 . global biogeography . developments in paleontology and stratigraphy . elsevier , amsterdam , 472 pp .\nclarke , a . & j . a . crame . 1997 . diversity , latitude and time : patterns in the shallow sea . in : r . f . g ormond , j . d . gage & m . v . \u00e1ngel ( eds . ) . marine biodiversity . patterns and processes , cambridge university press , cambridge , pp . 122 - 147 .\ncolwell , r . k . 1997 . estimates : statistical estimation of species richness and shared species from samples , version 5 . user ' s guide and application . department of ecology and evolutionary biology , university of connecticut storrs , ct , usa .\ncolwell , r . k . & j . a . coddington . 1994 . estimating terrestrial biodiversity through extrapolation . phil . trans . r . soc . bull . , 345 : 101 - 118 .\ncrame , j . a . 2000 . evolution of taxonomic diversity gradients in the marine realm : evidence from the composition of recent bivalve faunas . paleobiology , 26 : 188 - 241 .\ncrame , j . a . 2002 . evolution of taxonomic diversity in the marine realm : a comparison of late jurassic and recent bivalve faunas . paleobiology , 28 : 184 - 207 .\nculver , s . j . & m . a . buzas . 2000 . global latitudinal species diversity gradient in deep - sea benthic foramin\u00edfera . deep - sea res . i , 47 : 259 - 275 .\nemery , k . o . & e . uchuoi . 1984 . the geology of the atlantic ocean . springer verlag , new york , 1050 pp .\nemilsson , i . 1961 . the shelf and coastal waters off southern brazil . boln . inst . oceanogr . s\u00e3o paulo , 11 ( 2 ) : 101 - 112 .\nfloeter , s . r . & a . soares - gomes . 1999 . biogeographic and species richness patterns of gastropoda on the southwestern atlantic . rev . bras . biol . , 59 ( 4 ) : 567 - 575 .\nfloeter , s . r . , l . a . rocha , d . r . robertson , j . c . joyeux , w . f . smith - vaniz , p . wirtz , aj . edwards , j . p . bareiros , c . e . l . ferreira , j . l . gasparini , a . brito , j . m . falcon , b . w . bowen & g . bernerdi . 2008 . atlantic reef fish biogeography and evolution . j . biogeogr . , 35 : 22 - 47 .\nfortes , r . r . & r . s . absal\u00e3o . 2004 . the applicability of rapoport ' s rule to the marine molluscs of the americas . j . biogeogr . , 31 : 1909 - 1916 .\ngaeta , s . a . , j . a . lorenzzetti , l . b . miranda , s . m . m . , susini - ribeiro , m . popeu & c . e . s . ara\u00fajo . 1999 . the vitoria eddy and its relation to the phytoplankton biomass and primary productivity during the austral fall of 1995 . arch . fish . mar . res . , 47 ( 2 / 3 ) : 253 - 270 .\ngray , j . s . 1998 . gradients in marine biodiversity . in : r . f . g ormond , j . d . gage & m . v . \u00e1ngel ( eds . ) . marine biodiversity , cambridge university press , cambridge , pp . 18 - 34 .\ngray , j . s . 2000 . the measurement of marine species diversity , with an application to the benthic fauna of the norwegian continental shelf . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol . , 250 : 23 - 49 ."]}
{"id": 2564, "summary": [{"text": "the schouteden 's swift ( schoutedenapus schoutedeni ) is a species of swift in the family apodidae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is endemic to democratic republic of the congo .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "its common name and latin binomial commemorate the belgian zoologist henri eugene schouteden . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "schouteden ' s swift", "paragraphs": ["schouteden ' s swift ( schoutedenapus schoutedeni ) is a species of bird in the apodidae family .\nthe schouteden ' s swift ( schoutedenapus schoutedeni ) is an endangered swift that is endemic to democratic republic of the congo in central africa ; where it lives in subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and montanes .\n17 cm . dark - coloured swift . appears all black in the field with medium - forked tail .\nchantler , p . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . schouteden ' s swift ( schoutedenapus schoutedeni ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nif you have videos , photographs or sound recordings you can share them on the internet bird collection . it ' s free and easy to do .\nconduct field surveys in the itombwe mountains to determine its distribution more accurately and to assess its population size . once a baseline population estimate has been obtained , continue to monitor population trends . monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation within the species ' s range . ensure effective protection of itombwe forest nature reserve . increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status .\nthe population is assumed to be small ( < 10 , 000 ) owing to the lack of confirmed records other than five specimens collected during 1956 - 1972 . it is placed in the band 2 , 500 - 9 , 999 individuals , equating to 1 , 667 - 6 , 666 mature individuals , rounded here to 1 , 500 - 7 , 000 mature individuals . trend justification : the population is suspected to be declining in line with the clearance and degradation of forest within the species ' s range .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\nthis little - known species is presumed to have a small population which is almost certainly declining as its forest habitat is severely threatened . it is , therefore , classified as vulnerable .\n( drc ) , where it appears to be resident . however , there are possible sightings from bwindi forest , uganda ( near the border with the drc ) ,\n, which indicates that the species may have a less restricted range than previously thought ( t . butynski\nthe species was formerly known only from clearings in transitional and lowland forest , at low and intermediate altitudes ( c . 1 , 000 - 1 , 470 m ) , but there are now indications that it may also be found over montane forest ( up to 2 , 700 m [ t . butynski\n, although this may be reduced by its recent designation as a community reserve ( a . plumptre\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ne drcongo in itombwe mts , where collected from mubandakika , butokolo , bionga and kamituga ; perhaps occurs n to mt tshiaberimu , and possible sightings also from bwindi forest , in sw uganda # r .\npresumed to be a highland species , mainly because was collected from butokolo at 1470 m .\nfemale collected in feb had enlarged oocytes ; two specimens from oct did not have enlarged gonads .\nvulnerable . restricted - range species : present in eastern zaire lowlands eba . still known from only five specimens . habitat within species\u2019 range thought still to be in . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nsequence of genera here based on findings from recent phylogenetic studies # r # r # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : schoutedenapus schoutedeni . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 292 , 716 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nmobile version - juza . ea @ urltoken - terms of use and privacy - p . iva 01501900334 - rea 167997 - pec juzaphoto @ urltoken\nkari pihlaviita marked the finnish common name\nzairenkiit\u00e4j\u00e4\nfrom\nschoutedenapus schoutedeni ( prigogine , 1960 )\nas trusted .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nswiftlet information . . . swiftlet species index . . . swiftlet species photo gallery\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nbirding buddies is moving on . . . this site may not be available soon . more information\ngeolocation some features on this page require a location . please enable geolocation or enter your zip code to use these feature .\ngeolocation error there was an error getting your location . you may need to update your browser ."]}
{"id": 2565, "summary": [{"text": "the plumbeous tyrant ( knipolegus cabanisi ) is a species of bird in the family tyrannidae .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is found in southeastern peru , western bolivia and northern argentina .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "this and the jelski 's black tyrant are sometimes considered conspecific , in which case , the bird is then usually referred to as the andean tyrant . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "plumbeous tyrant", "paragraphs": ["nobody uploaded sound recordings for plumbeous black - tyrant ( knipolegus cabanisi ) yet .\n2c . called\npinto ' s tyrant - manakin\nin meyer de schauensee ( 1966 ) and\nserra tyrant - manakin\nin snow ( 2004b ) .\njohnson ' s tody - tyrant\nalso adopted by fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) .\ndid not change from\ntody - flycatcher\nto\ntody - tyrant .\n22c . called\nolive - crowned pygmy - tyrant\nin wetmore ( 1972 ) .\n49a . called\nlight - eyed pygmy - tyrant\nin wetmore ( 1972 ) .\nthe arrangement of the knipolegus black - tyrants is based on hosner and moyle ( 2012 ) and fjelds\u00e5 et al . ( 2018 ) . since eumyiobius would be embedded in knipolegus , it has been merged into knipolegus . hosner and moyle ' s results provide support for treating caatinga black - tyrant , knipolegus franciscanus , as a separate species from white - winged black - tyrant , knipolegus aterrimus , and also plumbeous tyrant , knipolegus cabanisi , separate from jelski ' s black - tyrant , knipolegus signatus .\n44a . called\nsharp - tailed grass - tyrant\nby ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) .\ni have split the blackish chat - tyrant , ochthoeca nigrita , and maroon - belted chat - tyrant , ochthoeca thoracica , from the slaty - backed chat - tyrant , ochthoeca cinnamomeiventris , based on a combination of fjelds\u00e5 et al . ( 2018 ) , ridgely and greenfield ( 2001 ) , hilty ( 2003 ) , and garcia - moreno et al . ( 1998 ) .\n45b . called\nwhite - breasted pygmy - tyrant\nin meyer de schauensee ( 1966 ) and parker et al . ( 1982 ) .\nby traylor ( 1977 , 1979a ) . thus , it was renamed\nfork - tailed tody - tyrant\nby ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) .\npassed to make the english name\njohnson ' s tody - tyrant\n, in honor of its recently deceased describer , ned . k . johnson .\n, and considered them conspecific , but noted that they might also be considered separate species , as also noted by ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) . sibley & monroe ( 1990 ) considered them conspecific and coined the name\nandean tyrant\nfor the composite species , and this was followed by ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) and fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) ; fjelds\u00e5 & krabbe ( 1990 ) also considered them conspecific but used\nplumbeous tyrant ,\nbut see ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) for reasons not to use that english name .\n62c . johnson and jones suggested\nlulu ' s tody - tyrant\nfor the english name . the logical\nrufous - headed\nis already in use in\nhosner & moyle ( 2012 ) recommended use of the english name caatinga black - tyrant because it was already the most frequently used name for the taxon when treated as a species .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . plumbeous black - tyrant ( knipolegus cabanisi ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\n83a . called\ncinnamon tyrant - manakin\nin sibley & monroe ( 1990 ) ,\ncinnamon tyrant\nin mobley & prum ( 1995 ) , fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) , and schulenberg et al . ( 2007 ) , and\ncinnamon neopipo\nin ridgely & greenfield ( 2001 ) and hilty ( 2003 ) , thus perhaps setting a new temporal record for lack of stability in an english name .\nthe andean tyrant is a montane flycatcher in low andean woodlands . they are found from peru south along the east slope of the andes through bolivia into northern argentina , where the species might be most abundant . males are dark slaty to black with red irides and white edging to some wing feathers , while females are dull - eyed and brownish above and whitish below with a rusty rump and edging to the tail feathers . male andean tyrants display for females by making a high whirring arc flight into the air . the white - winged black - tyrant is fairly similar to andean tyrant , but is found in more open habitats and has more obvious white in the wings ( males ) .\n36 . formerly ( e . g . , meyer de schauensee 1970 ) called\nyellow - bellied bristle - tyrant\n; see ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) for reasons for the need for their new english name for this species .\ndo form a distinctive group within the genus and thus the english name bristle - tyrant is retained for them , following ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) . hilty & brown ( 1986 ) , ridgely & greenfield ( 2001 ) , hilty ( 2003 ) , and fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) retained\nin recent years considered conspecific with k . signatus , although in earlier times the two were even placed in different genera . molecular # r and morphological data support treatment as separate species , present form differing in its blue - grey ( dark - tipped ) vs blackish bill in male ( 3 ) ; overall slightly paler , plumbeous plumage in male ( ns [ 1 ] ) ; much brighter rufous uppertail - coverts in female ( 2 ) ; and much buffier wingbars in female ( 2 ) . described form \u201c k . subflammulatus \u201d now known to refer to immature male plumage of present species . monotypic .\nalthough ohlson et al . ( 2013 ) estimate that the tyrannidae have been a separate lineage since roughly 25 - 30 million years ago ( mid - oligocene ) , the current diversification of the group dates to the last 20 million years . the tyrant flycatchers remain among the most difficult to classify and identify , full of cryptic species . some flycatchers are so cryptic that there remains controversy about whether 1 or 2 species are involved , such as the the cordilleran and pacific - slope flycatchers .\nthe second branch is the chat - tyrant clade unofficially called ochthoecini . fjelds\u00e5 et al . confirm the arrangment of genera . silvicultrix is separated from ochthoeca ( see garc\u00eda - moreno and arctander , 1998 ) and several of the former myiophobus are temporarily designated \u201cmyiophobus\u201d ( years later , we still await a proper name ) . moreover , tumbezia has been merged into ochthoeca , with ohlson et al . ( 2013 ) pushing me over the line on this . there is still some guesswork in the arrangement of this group , but at the generic level is agrees with lanyon ( 1986 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the pre - split species has been described as ' uncommon ' ( stotz et al . 1996 ) . trend justification : this population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nat 23 , 54 , 103 , and 157 seconds . a cow in the background .\ndrr - pit while shooting 2 m up and down again displaying white wing patch . tape ref . ( b 20 - 24 )\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 298 , 206 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\njacob . wijpkema , tomas grim , ken simonite , h\u00e9ctor bernardo fern\u00e1ndez , lars petersson , josep del hoyo , miguel andina , silvia vitale , rich bayldon , manakincarmelo .\nse peru ( e cuzco , n puno ) , se bolivia ( cochabamba , santa cruz , tarija ) and nw argentina ( jujuy s to tucum\u00e1n and se catamarca ) .\n, especially in shorter bill , overall more dark slate - grey , wings and tail dusky , inner webs of . . .\nusually quiet . male utters \u201ctec\u201d or \u201ctchick\u201d call , also makes wing - whirring noise , during display ( . . .\ninterior of lower growth of humid montane forest and woodland , less frequently at borders ; also . . .\nlittle known . insects . usually inconspicuous and quiet ; also generally solitary , and does not follow mixed - species flocks . perches upright . . .\neggs in oct\u2013jan in argentina ( tucum\u00e1n and jujuy ) ; female in breeding condition in mid nov , another with brood patch in late dec and one . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . uncommon to locally fairly common . rare and very poorly known in peru ; fairly common in argentina and parts of bolivia . occurs in . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nhighly speciose family , herein divided into nine subfamilies ( with ten tribes ) ; recent studies # r # r suggest that the first four listed ( platyrinchinae , pipritinae , tachurisinae , pipromorphinae ) are sister to rest of family , and may merit treatment as 1\u20134 separate families .\ntogether with lessonia and hymenops forms a well - supported clade # r # r which was previously also considered to include pyrocephalus # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\njavascript is required . please enable javascript before you are allowed to see this page .\nit ' s hard to find photos of lulu ' s tody - flycatcher - you have a good one .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\neven though they have been reduced from their traditional size , mainly by losing the rhynchocyclidae , the tyrannidae remain the largest of the suboscine families the tyrannidae include about one quarter of all of the suboscines .\nthe new slimmed - down tyrannidae have a simpler structure than the old tyrannidae . there are three major and two minor clades designated as subfamilies . the first subamily is hirundineinae . this is a small subfamily containing only 6 species . ohlson et al . ( 2008 ) considered this group closest to the tyranninae and fluvicolinae . in contrast , fjelds\u00e5 et al . ( 2018 ) and tello et al . ( 2009 ) found them sister to the elaeniinae . rheindt et al . ' s ( 2008a ) data put them in a more basal position , sister to the combined elaeniinae , tyranninae , and fluvicolinae . for now , i ' m following ohlson et al . ( 2013 ) which puts them in a basal trichotomy with the elaeniinae and a clade containing the other three subfamilies . note that the three former myiophobus included in this subfamily are not closely related to the rest of myiophobus . they have been given a new genus name , nephelomyias , by ohlsson et al . ( 2009 ) .\nthe second subfamily contains the elaenias ( elaeniinae ) . it has two major branches : euscarthmini and elaeniini . ohlson et al . ( 2008 ) and tello et al . ( 2009 ) find very similar results for the euscarthmini . rheindt et al . ( 2008a ) is a bit different , but not very strongly so . sixteen species of phyllomyias tyrannulets are separated from the main phyllomyias group ( part of elaeniini ) and placed variously in the revived genera tyranniscus and xanthomyias . i ' ve also included five tyrannulets from mercocerculus in xanthomyias . it ' s not clear whether these two groups are sisters or nested , and it seemed best to treat them as one genus for now . this reduces mercocerculus itself to a single species which belongs in elaeniini .\nthe arrangement of species within zimmerius is based on rheindt et al . ( 2008c , 2013 ) . based on rheindt et al . ( 2013 ) , mistletoe tyrannulet , zimmerius parvus , specious tyrannulet , zimmerius improbus ( inc . tamae ) , and venezuelan tyrannulet , zimmerius petersi , are split from paltry tyrannulet , zimmerius vilissimus .\ncoopmans ' s tyrannulet , zimmerius minimus , comprising minimus and cumanensis has somewhat speculatively been split from golden - faced tyrannulet , zimmerius chrysops , based on comments in rheindt et al . , ( 2013 ) . i continue include the loja tyrannulet , zimmerius flavidifrons . rheindt et al . , ( 2014 ) describe a mosiac population that is linked to both the golden - faced and peruvian tyrannulets . it includes flavidifrons and an undescribed peruvian population and may end up being lumped in with the peruvian tyrannulet . thus the old chrysops with 5 subspecies has been divided among coopmans ' s , choco , golden - faced , and loja tyrannulets . finally , chico ' s tyrannulet , zimmerius chicomendesi , newly described by whitney et al . , ( 2013c ) , has been added to the list .\nthe situation in the elaeniini is rather complicated , with different analyses giving quite different results . there are five groups , and once again , i rely on the multi - gene analysis of ohlson et al . ( 2013 ) to resolve their order . the clades start with ( 1 ) the tyrannulus and the myiopagis elaenias and ( 2 ) the elaenia elaenias . these form a trichotomy with a clade consisting of the remaining three groups : ( 3 ) suiriri ; ( 4 ) the capsiempis - phyllomyias group ; and ( 5 ) the pseudelaenia - serpophaga group . see ericson et al . ( 2006b ) , ohlson et al . ( 2008 ) , rheindt et al . ( 2008a ) , and tello et al . ( 2009 ) for alternative treatments .\nthe chapada flycatcher , suiriri affinis , is unrelated to the other suiriri taxa and has been moved to fluvicolini .\nzucker et al . ( 2016 ) found that nesotriccus is embedded in phaeomyias and that both are very closely related to phyllomyias . accordingly , i have merged nesotriccus ( cocos flycatcher ) and phaeomyias into phyllomyias . it would not be unreasonable to go a step further and merge the monotypic capsiempis with phyllomyias . however , both names have equal priority and need a first reviser action to decide between them . since there ' s not a strong need to merge them , it can wait .\nalso based on zucker et al . ( 2016 ) , the mouse - colored tyrannulet , formerly phaeomyias murina , has been split into amazonian mouse - colored tyrannulet , phyllomyias murinus , including wagae , and northern mouse - colored tyrannulet , phyllomyias incomtus , including eremonomus .\nstraneck ' s tyrannulet / gray - crowned tyrannulet , serpophaga griseicapilla , has had a somewhat checkered history . it was previously referred to as serpophaga griseiceps , but the type of griseiceps was actually a juvenile of s . munda ( herzog and mazur barnett , 2004 ) . straneck ( 2007 ) gave it the name s . griseiceps . it has also been referred to as gray - crowned tyrannulet , and monte tyrannulet .\nthe treatment of tyranninae follows ohlson et al . ( 2013 ) , which analyses all of the genes considered in both ohlson et al . ( 2008 ) and tello et al . ( 2009 ) . within tyranninae , the attilas are basal , followed by the piratic flycatcher ( legatus ) , and the ramphotrigon flatbills ( including deltarhynchus ) . the remainder of tyranninae is divided into a myiarchus group and a kingbird group . there were some differences between ohlson et al . ( 2008 ) and tello et al . ( 2009 ) . i ' m following the resolution of these differences proposed in ohlson et al . ( 2013 ) , but we should keep in mind that some of the genes are telling incongruent stories and that additional information may change some of the details .\nis its closest relative . they are sister species in tello et al . ( 2009 ) , but the support is not great and chaves et al . ( 2008 ) has them separated . i ' ve also separated the fork - tailed flycatcher in\nbased on tello et al . ( 2009 ) . once it is out of\nis based on joseph et al . ( 2004 ) and sari and parker ( 2012 ) . they both note some issues within\n. they may represent incompelete lineage sorting , species boundaries that need to be redrawn , or even cryptic species . one such involves la sagra ' s and stolid flycatchers , which seem to be mutually paraphyletic ( joseph et al . 2004 ) . other such problems exist for\nalso within the myiarchus group , sirystes , sirystes sibilator has been split into : sibilant sirystes , sirystes sibilator , white - rumped sirystes , sirystes albocinereus , todd ' s sirystes , sirystes subcanescens , and choco sirystes , sirystes albogriseus , based on donegan ( 2013 ) .\nbased on garrido et al . ( 2009 ) , the loggerhead kingbird has been split into three species : western loggerhead kingbird , tyrannus caudifasciatus , hispaniolan kingbird , tyrannus gabbii , and puerto rican kingbird , tyrannus taylori . the three are easily distinguished by their calls , or with a little care , by their plumage .\ni now follow fjelds\u00e5 et al . ( 2018 ) for the fluvicolinae , in preference to ohlson et al . ( 2013 ) . in contrast , ohlson et al . ( 2008 ) and tello et al . ( 2009 ) obtain different concerning the fluvicolinae , with tello et al . much closer to the more recent ohlson et al . ( 2013 ) . in particular , i use fjelds\u00e5 et al . to position colonia and ( true ) myiophobus , hoping that the denser taxon sampling does the trick .\ni now split the fluvicolinae into four tribes , corresponding to fjelds\u00e5 ' s clades a through d .\nthe fluvicolini come first . there ' s been some minor rearrangement and a few additions . following fjelds\u00e5 et al . ( 2018 ) , i ' ve included colonia here , as well as the black - and - white monjita , now called heteroxolmis dominicanus , previously in genus xolmis . there is one other addition . the chapada flycatcher , formerly suiriri affinis ( not s . islerorum , see kirwan et al . , 2014a ) is not related to suiriri . rather , lopes et al . ( 2018 ) found it is sister to sublegatus . lopes et al . established a new genus for it , guyramemua , so the chapada flycatcher becomes guyramemua affine and moves from elaeniini to fluvicolini .\nalso , based on carmi et al . ( 2016 ) , the vermilion flycatcher , formerly pyrocephalus rubinus , has been split into four species :\nthe contopini follow cicero and johnson ( 2002 ) , ohlson et al . ( 2008 , 2013 ) and tello et al . ( 2009 ) telling the same basic story . the only real disagreement concerns whether sayornis and mitrephanes are sister taxa . note also that the true myiophobus are basal in contipini . finally , empidonax taxonomy follows cicero and johnson ( 2002 ) and johnson and cicero ( 2002 ) . however , fjelds\u00e5 et al . ( 2018 ) have called this into question . their phylogenies suggest that empidonax is not monophyletic . support for this is weak , but further data may force a change here .\nthe treatment of the xolmini now follows fjelds\u00e5 et al . ( 2018 ) , replacing ohlson et al . ( 2013 ) , the very similar tello et al . ( 2009 ) and the slightly different ohlson et al . ( 2008 ) .\nthe more complete taxon sampling by fjelds\u00e5 et al . has forced a split - up of the genus xolmis . besides sending the black - and - white monjita to the fluvicolini ( heteroxolmis ) , the fire - eyed diucon , now pyrope pyrope , moves to pyrope . i ' ve also moved the black - crowned monjita , neoxolmis coronatus , rusty - backed monjita , neoxolmis rubetra , and salinas monjita , neoxolmis salinarum , to neoxolmis from xolmis . finally , the gray monjita , now nengetus cinereus , has been placed in nengetus ( swainson 1827 ) . it had historically been in the genus taenioptera ( bonaparte 1825 ) , of which it is the type . however , although bonaparte alluded to taenioptera as a subgenus in 1825 , he did not actually establish the name until 1831 . thus nengetus has priority .\nthe order in anairetes and uromyias is based on dubay and witt ( 2012 ) and roy et al . ( 1999 ) . dubay and witt use additional genetic information to argue that the two uromyias species ( agilis and agraphia ) form a clade sister to the rest of anairetes , contrary to the conclusions of roy et al . ( 1999 ) . whether to treat them as one genus or two is a matter of opinion . the sacc has endorsed using two genera .\n[ relationships of family , sequence of genera ] [ add subfamilies ? ] . sibley & ahlquist ( 1985 , 1990 ) found that the tyrannidae consisted of two major groups , the\nmionectidae\nfor\nand several genera of small flycatchers placed in the subfamily elaeniinae ( sensu traylor 1979a ) ; sibley & ahlquist ' s data also indicated that the\nmionectidae\nand tyrannidae were not sister groups .\nsubsequent analyses ( s . lanyon 1985 , w . lanyon 1988a , b ) did not support such a division . however , chesser ( 2004 ) found the same deep division in the tyrannidae , but found that the two groups were sisters . tello et al . ( 2009 ) found that\nfor detailed discussions of relationships among genera , see traylor ( 1977 ) and w . lanyon ( 1985 , 1986 , 1988a , 1988b , 1988c ) . [\nbroad definition of phyllomyias , he noted that this genus is likely polyphyletic , with p . fasciatus , p . griseocapilla , and p . griseiceps possibly forming a group unrelated to the other species , which would force minimally the resurrection of tyranniscus ( see note 6 ) .\non described vocal differences ; this treatment returns to earlier ones ( cory & hellmayr 1927 , zimmer 1941c , phelps & phelps 1950a ) that treated the two as separate before meyer de schauensee ' s ( 1966 , 1970 ) and traylor ' s ( 1977 < ? > , 1979a ) classifications . stiles & skutch ( 1989 ) further recognized andean birds as a separate species ,\n, returning to the classification of ( ref ) . elevation of these taxa to species rank was not followed by fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) due to lack of published analyses of vocal differences or other data .\n, were formerly ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 , zimmer 1941b ,\n3a . phyllomyias reiseri and p . virescens were considered conspecific by cory & hellmayr ( 1927 ) , meyer de schauensee ( 1970 ) , and traylor ( 1977 < ? > , 1979a , 1982 ) , but see zimmer ( 1955 ) , meyer de schauensee ( 1966 ) , stotz ( 1990 ) , and hayes ( 1995 ) ; they form a superspecies ( sibley & monroe 1990 ) , along with p . urichi ( fitzpatrick 2004 ) .\n4 . [ split from virescens ; silva ( 1996 ) . ] ; followed by fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) .\n6 . the species nigrocapillus , cinereiceps , and uropygialis were formerly ( e . g . , ridgway 1907 , cory & hellmayr 1927 , zimmer 1941b , phelps & phelps 1950a , meyer de schauensee 1970 ) placed in a separate genus , tyranniscus , but they were transferred to phyllomyias by traylor ( 1977 , 1979a ) . <\nwere formerly ( e . g . , zimmer 1941c , meyer de schauensee 1970 ) placed in a separate genus ,\n7a . the tarsal morphology of tyrannulus has been interpreted to indicate that it belongs in the cotingidae ( ridgway 1907 ) . traylor ( 1977 ) considered tyrannulus most closely related to myiopagis because of plumage similarities to m . gaimardii .\nwas formerly ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 ) included in\n; zimmer ( 1941b ) treated the two as separate , and this has been followed in all subsequent classifications .\n7c . hilty ( 2003 ) suspected that myiopagis caniceps might not belong in that genus , but rheindt et al . ( 2009 ) confirmed that it belongs there .\nknown only from the type specimen from goi\u00e1s , brazil , and formerly considered a valid species ( e . g . ,\ngenetic data ( rheindt et al . 2009 , cuervo et al . 2014 ) reveal that\nrecent genetic data ( rheindt et al . 2009 , tello et al . 2009 ) confirm this placement .\n7e .\nserpophaga berliozi ,\ndescribed as a valid species from amazonas , peru , is now considered a synonym of myiopagis g . gaimardii ( meyer de schauensee 1966 , mayr 1971 , traylor 1979a ) .\n8 . described since meyer de schauensee ( 1970 ) : coopmans & krabbe ( 2000 ) .\n8b . myiopagis viridicata and m . cotta of jamaica are sister species ( fitzpatrick 2004 ) .\n8c . hilty ( 2003 ) suspected that myiopagis viridicata might consist of more than one species ; genetic data ( rheindt et al . 2009 ) indicate a very deep split between cis - and trans - andean populations .\n8d . fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) suggested that elaenia martinica and e . chiriquensis were sister species .\n8e . olrog ( 1963 ) suggested that elaenia spectabilis should be considered conspecific with e . flavogaster .\n8ee . genetic data ( rheindt et al . 2008a ) indicate that the traditional linear sequence of\nspecies , as given here , does not accurately reflect phylogenetic relationships among taxa .\n8f . fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) suggested that elaenia flavogaster and e . gigas were closely related based on vocal , behavioral , and plumage similarities , but genetic data ( rheindt et al . 2008a ) indicate that they are not closely related .\n9 . elaenia ridleyana was formerly ( e . g . , zimmer 1941a , meyer de schauensee 1970 , traylor 1979a ) considered a subspecies of e . spectabilis or of e . chiriquensis ( cory & hellmayr 1927 ) ; treated here as a species separate from following sick ( 1985 ) and ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) ; e . ridleyana forms a superspecies with e . spectabilis ( sibley & monroe 1990 ) .\nmight be closely related ; they may hybridize to an uncertain extent in n . peru ( fjelds\u00e5 & krabbe 1990 ) . rheindt et al . ( 2008a ) found that andean populations ( cuzco ) were genetically more similar to sympatric populations of\nbut suggested that this could be due to gene flow between them . rheindt et al . ( 2009 ) provided evidence that the subspecies\n10a . elaenia frantzii and e . obscura were considered to form a superspecies by aou ( 1983 ) but not by subsequent authors ; they were formerly ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 ) considered conspecific ; zimmer ( 1941a ) provided rationale for their treatment as separate species , and this has been followed in most subsequent classifications . genetic data ( rheindt et al . 2008a ) indicate that they are not closely related . fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) suggested that e . dayi might also be closely related to these two ; genetic data ( rheindt et al . 2008 ) indicate that e . dayi and e . obscura are sister species .\n10c . sibley & monroe ( 1990 ) considered elaenia albiceps and e . parvirostris to form a superspecies . genetic data ( rheindt et al . 2008a ) indicate that they are not closely related . although they seem to intergrade in some areas of central bolivia , they are sympatric without interbreeding in argentina ( traylor 1982 ) .\n10cc . zimmer ( 1941a ) proposed that elaenia cristata and e . ruficeps were probably sister species based on morphology and habitat similarities , and this is strongly supported by genetic data ( rheindt et al . 2008a ) .\n10d . the subspecies modesta was formerly ( ref ) considered a separate species from elaenia albiceps , but see zimmer ( 1941a ) . jaramillo ( 2003 ) suggested that e . albiceps consists of more than one species .\n10e . the subspecies tyleri of cerro duida was described as a separate species from elaenia dayi ( chapman 1929 ) .\nof the tepui region was formerly ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 ) considered a separate species from\n, but they were treated as conspecific by zimmer ( 1941a ) . genetic data ( rheindt et al . 2008a , 2009 ) indicate that\n10g . elaenia pallatangae and e . albiceps may hybridize to an uncertain extent in ecuador and n . peru ( fitzpatrick 2004 , fjelds\u00e5 & krabbe 1990 ) .\n, but slud ( 1964 ) noted vocal differences between the two and recommended treatment as separate species . this has been followed by most subsequent classifications ( e . g . , wetmore 1972 , traylor 1977 < ? > , 1979a , stiles & skutch 1989 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) , thus returning to the classification of cory & hellmayr ( 1927 ) ; they constitute a superspecies ( aou 1983 , 1998 , sibley & monroe 1990 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) .\ncorrect spelling for species name is brunneicapillus , not brunneicapillum ( david & gosselin 2002a ) .\nhas been interpreted to indicate that it belongs in the cotingidae ( ridgway 1907 ) .\ngenetic data ( tello et al . 2009 ) indicate that it is the sister to\n; this has been followed by most subsequent classifications ( e . g . , traylor < ? > 1977 , 1979 , ridgely & tudor 1994 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) , but wetmore ( 1972 ) maintained\non the basis of differences in primary shape , rectrix shape , and relative tail length .\nforms a superspecies with middle american c . imberbe ( aou 1983 , 1998 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) ; meyer de schauensee ( 1966 ) suggested that they might be conspecific , but they are sympatric in costa rica ( stiles & skutch 1989 ) .\nmay consist of more than one species ; rheindt et al . ( 2008c ) found genetic evidence consistent with at least three species , but recommended waiting for additional analyses .\n12 . some authors ( cory & hellmayr 1927 , short 1975 , sibley & monroe 1990 ) considered s . affinis as a species separate from s . suiriri , but they intergrade in southeastern bolivia , northeastern paraguay , and southwestern brazil ( laubmann 1940 , zimmer 1955 , traylor 1982 , hayes 1995 , 2001 ) . their vocalizations are similar ( zimmer et al . 2001 ) , and all 17 specimens from the paraguayan hybrid zone are intermediate , suggesting free interbreeding ( hayes 1995 , 2001 ) .\n13 . described since meyer de schauensee ( 1970 ) : zimmer et al . ( 2001 ) .\n13a . lopes et al . ( 2018 ) found that suiriri affinis was not closely related to suiriri suiriri but rather to a group of genera including phyllomyias , phaeomyias , and capsiempis ; they named a new genus for affinis :\n14 . morphological data indicate that mecocerculus is almost certainly polyphyletic ( lanyon 1988a ) , but no choice now but to retain as is without further study . with leucophrys as the type species for the genus , placement of the genus arbitrarily reflects the position of m . leucophrys in lanyon ' s ( 1988a ) phylogeny .\n14a . mecocerculus poecilocercus and m . hellmayri form a superspecies ( fitzpatrick 2004 ) .\n14b . fjelds\u00e5 & krabbe ( 1990 ) suggested that the subspecies pallidior of western peru might be considered a separate species from mecocerculus leucophrys .\n15 . anairetes nigrocristatus was formerly ( e . g . , zimmer 1940b , meyer de schauensee 1970 , traylor 1977 < ? > , 1979a ) considered conspecific with a . reguloides , but see fjelds\u00e5 & krabbe ( 1990 ) and ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) for recognition as a separate species , as was suspected was the best treatment by meyer de schauensee ( 1966 ) ; they form a superspecies ( sibley & monroe 1990 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) and are sister taxa ( dubay & witt 2012 ) .\n15a . spizitornis was formerly ( e . g . , oberholser 1920b , cory & hellmayr 1927 , zimmer 1940b ) used for anairetes , but see < ref > , meyer de schauensee 1966 ) .\n15b . genetic data ( roy et al . 1999 ) confirm that anairetes parulus and a . fernandezianus are sister species .\nwas formerly ( e . g . , reluctantly by zimmer 1940b ) placed in the monotypic genus\nand is sister to a . parulus + a . flavirostris , and together they are sister to a . reguloides + a . nigrocristatus\nwere traditionally ( e . g . , meyer de schauensee 1970 , traylor ( 1977 , 1979a ) placed in\nmany recent classifications ( e . g . , dickinson 2003 ) have merged uromyias into anairetes\non the basis of morphological and vocal characters , roy et al . ' s ( 1999 ) genetic data found that it is embedded within\n17a . silva ( 1990 ) showed that\nserpophaga araguayae ,\nformerly ( e . g . , meyer de schauensee 1970 ) considered a valid species (\nbananal tyrannulet\n) , is actually a synonym of myiopagis c . caniceps .\n18 . serpophaga munda is often considered a subspecies ( e . g . , zimmer 1955 , traylor 1977 < ? > , 1979a , straneck 1993 ) or morph ( short 1975 ) of s . subcristata , but see olrog ( 1963 ) and herzog ( 2001 ) .\nknown from four specimens from bolivia , was formerly considered a valid species ( e . g . , zimmer 1955 , meyer de schauensee 1966 , 1970 ) . traylor ( 1979 ) treated\nmight consist of more than one species . ridgely & greenfield ( 2001 ) considered the subspecies\n) of southwestern ecuador and northwestern peru to represent a separate species based on differences in vocalizations .\nrheindt et al . ( 2008c ) found genetic evidence consistent with two species , and zucker et al . ( 2016 ) found additional evidence for multiple species within\n21b . cory & hellmayr ( 1927 ) and fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) noted that evidence for treatment of polystictus pectoralis and p . superciliaris as congeneric is weak\n21c . fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) noted that the possibly extinct subspecies bogotensis probably deserves treatment as a separate species from polystictus pectoralis . fjelds\u00e5 & krabbe ( 1990 ) suggested that the northern subspecies brevipennis might also deserve treatment as a separate species .\n22 . sibley & monroe ( 1990 ) considered pseudocolopteryx acutipennis and p . dinelliana to form a superspecies .\n22a . pseudocolopteryx is feminine , so the correct spelling of the species name is dinelliana ( david & gosselin 2002b ) .\n) that differ in vocalizations and displays , and do not respond to cross - playback experiments .\n22b . pseudotriccus pelzelni and p . simplex form a superspecies ( sibley & monroe 1990 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) and might be conspecific ( fjelds\u00e5 & krabbe 1990 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) .\n22d . pseudotriccus ruficeps was formerly ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 ) placed in the monotypic genus caenotriccus , but see zimmer ( 1940 ) for its merger into pseudotriccus .\n23 . see sick ( 1985 ) , ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) , and fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) for reasons for maintaining corythopis torquatus and c . delalandi as separate species ; they form a superspecies ( sibley & monroe 1990 ) .\nmeyer de schauensee 1966 ) placed in the conopophagidae , but see ames et al . ( 1968 ) for independent anatomical data sets that show that this species belongs in the tyrannidae . < sibley - ahlquist etc . refs > . tello and bates ( 2007 ) and tello et al . ( 2009 ) found strong support for a sister relationship between\n24 . corythopis is masculine , so the correct spelling of the species name is torquatus ( david & gosselin 2002b ) .\n24a . euscarthmus was formerly ( < ref > ) placed in the formicariidae [ = thamnophilidae ] because of similarities in tarsal scutellation .\n( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 ) , but see lanyon ( 1988a ) .\ngenetic data ( tello et al . 2009 ) confirm that it is not the sister to any of these genera but is a member of a group of genera that includes\n25a . stigmatura napensis and s . budytoides were formerly ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 , pinto 1944 ) considered conspecific , and napensis was described as a subspecies of s . budytoides ; recent authors have followed zimmer ( 1940b ) in treating them as separate species ; they are considered to form a superspecies by sibley & monroe ( 1990 ) and fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) .\n25b . stigmatura was formerly ( < ref > ) placed in the formicariidae [ = thamnophilidae ] because of its superficial resemblance to the genus formicivora .\n26 . the species vilissimus , bolivianus , cinereicapilla , gracilipes , acer , and viridiflavus ( with chrysops and albigularis ) were formerly ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 , zimmer 1941b , phelps & phelps 1950a , meyer de schauensee 1970 ) placed in a separate genus , tyranniscus , but see traylor ( 1977 ) for separation in the genus zimmerius .\nbased on differences in voice . ridgely & greenfield ( 2001 ) , krabbe & nielsson ( 2003 ) , and fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) also noted that the taxon\n, from honduras to nw colombia , should also be considered a separate species .\n28a . zimmerius cinereicapilla was formerly ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 ) considered conspecific with z . gracilipes .\n28b . zimmerius acer was treated as a separate species from zimmerius gracilipes by cory & hellmayr ( 1927 ) , but zimmer ( 1941 ) treated them as conspecific ; pinto ( 1944 ) , however , treated them as separate species and noted that both had been collected at santarem , brazil ( gyldenstolpe 1941 ) . most recent classifications ( e . g . , sibley & monroe 1990 , ridgely & tudor 1994 , dickinson 2003 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) have followed zimmer ( 1941 ) in treating them as conspecific . rheindt et al . ' s ( 2008b ) genetic data indicate that acer and gracilipes are not sisters , with acer basal to all other zimmerius taxa sampled .\n29 . described since meyer de schauensee ( 1970 ) : alvarez - alfonso & whitney ( 2001 ) .\n, from southwestern amazonian brazil that is likely most closely related to z . villarejoi ; recognized by\nas a separate species , a treatment supported by cory & hellmayr ( 1927 ) , zimmer ( 1941 ) , and fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) ; they constitute a superspecies ( sibley & monroe 1990 ) .\nmore recent genetic data ( rheindt et al . 2008b ) indicate that current species limits in the\n31a . the southern subspecies ottonis was formerly ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 ) considered a separate species from phylloscartes ophthalmicus .\n31b . phylloscartes lanyoni and p . orbitalis are sister taxa ( graves 1988 ) that form a superspecies ( sibley & monroe 1990 ) ; fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) also considered p . venezuelanus a member of this superspecies .\nwas formerly ( e . g . , ridgway 1907 ) placed in the genus capsiempis .\n1cc . phylloscartes gualaquizae , one of the former members of pogonotriccus ( see note 31 above ) , is not a member of that group ( robbins et al . 1987 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) .\n31d . vocal and foraging behavior suggests that phylloscartes nigrifrons might be most closely related to p . flaviventris and p . parkeri ( fitzpatrick 2004 ) .\n, and ridgway placed it in leptotriccus with p . sylviolus and p . flaviventris\n32 . described since meyer de schauensee ( 1970 ) : graves ( 1988 ) .\n( fitzpatrick 2004 ) ; they were all considered conspecific by cory & hellmayr ( 1927 ) .\nknown only from the unique type specimen from\nrio de janeiro\nand formerly considered a valid species ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 ,\n33 . described since meyer de schauensee ( 1970 ) : teixeira ( 1987 ) .\n34 . described since meyer de schauensee ( 1970 ) : willis & oniki ( 1992 ) .\n35 . described since meyer de schauensee ( 1970 ) : gonzaga & pacheco ( 1995 ) .\n36a . phylloscartes flaviventris and p . parkeri form a superspecies ( fitzpatrick and stotz 1997 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) .\n36b . phylloscartes ceciliae , p . superciliaris , p . roquettei , and p . sylviolus might be closely related to , or part of , the p . flaviventris - p . parkeri superspecies ( fitzpatrick and stotz 1997 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) .\n37 . described since meyer de schauensee ( 1970 ) : fitzpatrick and stotz ( 1997 ) .\nwere formerly ( e . g . , zimmer 1941c , phelps & phelps 1950a , meyer de schauensee 1970 ) placed in the genus\nby traylor ( 1977 , 1979 ) , as first proposed by van rossem ( 1938 ) , and a merger supported by morphological data ( ames 1971 , lanyon 1988a ; cf . zimmer 1941c ) ; wetmore ( 1972 ) tentatively maintained\non the basis of plumage differences , evident even in juvenal plumage , and primary shape in adult males .\nshow no signs of gene flow between them , suggesting that more than one species may be involved ( miller et al . 2008 ) .\n40b .\nmionectes turi ,\ndescribed from\ncayenne\nas a valid species , is now considered a synonym of mionectes oleagineus wallacei ( meyer de schauensee 1966 ) .\nand thus should be treated as a separate species ; additional gene sampling and vocal analyses needed .\n41 . linear sequence of species in leptopogon follows bates & zink ( 1994 ) , who showed that genetic data indicate that the lowland species amaurocephalus is sister to the ancestor of the rest of the genus , and the highest - elevation species are most recently derived .\n41a . leptopogon rufipectus and l . taczanowskii are sister species ( zimmer 1941c , bates & zink 1994 ) that form a superspecies ( parker et al . 1985 , sibley & monroe 1990 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) .\n41b . leptopogon rufipectus was formerly ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 , phelps & phelps 1950a ) known as l . erythrops , but see < ref > .\n41c . traylor ( 1977 ) considered sublegatus so closely related to elaenia , as reflected in their traditional placement in linear sequences , that they might be considered congeneric , but syringeal morphology ( lanyon 1988a ) does not support a close relationship .\n41d . fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) suggested that further study might show that the distinctive southern subspecies albidiventris might be a separate species from leptopogon superciliaris .\n41e . called\nmangrove scrub flycatcher\nin haverschmidt & mees ( 1994 ) .\n41f . haverschmidt & mees ( 1994 ) , who treated sublegatus obscurior as a subspecies of s . modestus , called the composite species\nforest scrub flycatcher\n.\n42 . all sublegatus were formerly considered conspecific ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 , meyer de schauensee 1970 ) , with the composite species called\nscrub flycatcher .\nspecies limits in sublegatus have been fluid and confusing , including different treatments by the same author ( e . g . , traylor 1977 < ? > , 1979a vs . traylor 1982 ) ; zimmer ( 1941b ) considered the taxon glaber , currently treated as a subspecies of s . modestus , to be a separate species that included s . obscurior ( and also the subspecies orinocensis , and pallens , as well as the taxa peruvianus and sordidus , which were considered synonyms of s . obscurior by traylor 1979a ) ; see also fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) . seasonal movements may also complicate evidence of sympatry ( meyer de schauensee 1966 , traylor 1982 ) . vocal differences exist among the three taxa recognized as species here , but formal analysis and additional research badly needed . see ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) for a synopsis .\n42aa . short ( 1975 ) and sibley & monroe ( 1990 ) considered inezia tenuirostris and i . inornata to form a superspecies .\n42b . the tarsal morphology of inezia has been interpreted to indicate that it belongs in the cotingidae ( ridgway 1907 ? ref ) .\n( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 , phelps & phelps 1950a ) placed in phaeomyias , but see zimmer ( 1955 ) .\ngenetic data ( tello et al . 2009 ) indicate that it is sister to \u201c\ngenetic data ( tello et al . 2009 ) indicate that it is a member of a group consisting mainly of the flatbills , but that it has no close relatives .\nrepresented a monophyletic group , the\nflatbills .\nbirdsley ( 2002 ) questioned the monophyly of the group based on an analysis of morphological and behavioral data . genetic data ( tello and bates 2007 ) indicate that the flatbills are monophyletic if\nare removed . tello et al . ( 2009 ) found that the genera from\nby lanyon ( 1988b ) based on syringeal morphology , and this merger is supported by the genetic data of tello & bates ( 2007 ) and tello et al . ( 2009 ) , who also found that\n45a . although meyer de schauensee ( 1970 ) considered myiornis albiventris to be a subspecies of m . auricularis , this was not followed by previous ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 , zimmer 1940 ) or subsequent authors ; they are considered to form a superspecies by sibley & monroe ( 1990 ) and fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) .\n46 . myiornis atricapillus was formerly ( e . g . , zimmer 1940 , meyer de schauensee 1970 ) considered a subspecies of m . ecaudatus , but most recent classifications have followed wetmore ( 1972 ) in considering the evidence insufficient for treatment as conspecific , thus returning to the classification of ridgway ( 1907 ) and cory & hellmayr ( 1927 ) ; they constitute a superspecies ( aou 1983 , sibley & monroe 1990 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) .\nwas formerly ( e . g . , ridgway 1907 , cory & hellmayr 1927 ,\non the basis of differences in wing shape , bill shape , relative tail length , and extent of rictal bristles .\n46b . the authenticity of a specimen from northern colombia ( romero & rodriguez 1980 ) was questioned by ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) and fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) ; examination of the specimen by f . g . stiles confirmed the identification . whether this record represents a wandering individual or sympatry with\n47 . oncostoma cinereigulare and o . olivaceum form a superspecies ( aou 1983 , 1998 , sibley & monroe 1990 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) ; they were considered conspecific by cory & hellmayr ( 1927 ) .\n47c . the name squamaecristatus was previously considered to have priority over pileatus ( e . g . , ridgway 1907 ) .\n48 . lophotriccus galeatus was formerly ( e . g . , phelps & phelps 1950a , meyer de schauensee 1970 ) placed in the monotypic genus colopteryx ( based on its unusually narrow outer primaries ) , but this was merged into lophotriccus by traylor ( 1977 , 1979a ) .\n49 . lanyon ( 1988b ) recommended that atalotriccus be merged into lophotriccus , and this was followed by aou ( 1998 ) ; however , see ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) for reasons to maintain as separate genus until relationships are resolved .\n0b . hemitriccus as defined by traylor ( 1979 ) and used here is likely paraphyletic with respect to lophotriccus ( cohn - haft 1996 ) and perhaps atalotriccus and oncostoma .\nwere formerly ( e . g . , meyer de schauensee 1970 ) placed in the genus\n51a . ridgely & greenfield ( 2001 ) and hilty ( 2003 ) suspected that hemitriccus margaritaceiventer might consist of more than one species ; cory & hellmayr ( 1927 ) treated the subspecies impiger and septentrionalis both as separate species , and chapman ( 1929 ) described the subspecies duidae as a species ; all were considered conspecific with h . margaritaceiventer by meyer de schauensee ( 1966 , 1970 ) .\n51b . hemitriccus mirandae was formerly ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 ) placed in todirostrum .\n, but most recent authors have followed zimmer ( 1940 ) and meyer de schauensee ( 1966 ) in treating them as separate species .\nwere called\nbamboo - tyrants\nby ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) .\npending to modify english names of \u201ctody - tyrants\u201d and \u201cpygmy - tyrants . \u201d\n54 . hemitriccus josephinae was formerly ( e . g . , meyer de schauensee 1970 ) placed in monotypic genus microcochlearius , but recent classifications have followed traylor ( 1977 , 1979a ) in merging this into hemitriccus .\n55 . hemitriccus griseipectus was formerly ( e . g . , meyer de schauensee 1970 , traylor 1977 < ? > , 1979a , < check r - t > ) considered conspecific with h . zosterops , but see cohn - haft et al . ( 1997 ) for rationale for treatment as separate species , thus returning to the classification of cory & hellmayr ( 1927 ) ."]}
{"id": 2572, "summary": [{"text": "the lesser prairie chicken ( tympanuchus pallidicinctus ) , a species in the grouse family , is slightly smaller and paler than its near relative the greater prairie chicken .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "about half of its current population lives in western kansas , with the other half in the sandhills and prairies of western oklahoma , the texas panhandle including the llano estacado , eastern new mexico , and southeastern colorado .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "like its larger relative , it is known for its lekking behavior .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "considered \" vulnerable \" by the iucn due to its restricted and patchy range , it is vulnerable to habitat destruction .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "there is evidence suggesting that global warming may have a particularly detrimental influence by greatly reducing the size of the sagebrush ecosystem .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "subfossil remains are known , e.g. , from rocky arroyo in the guadalupe mountains , outside the species ' current range but where more habitat existed in the less humid conditions in the outgoing last ice age .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "range contraction apparently took place no later than about 8000 bc .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the united states department of the interior has proposed creating a lesser prairie chicken preserve as a national monument , but it remains controversial , and president barack obama has not taken action on the proposal under the antiquities act of 1906 as of february 2010 .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "on march 27 , 2014 , the lesser prairie chicken was listed as threatened ( t ) under the endangered species act .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "in 2015 , senator jerry moran ( r-kan ) introduced an amendment to legislation authorizing construction of the keystone xl pipeline that would overturn the listing .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "he disputed the listing as , \" ... another example of unnecessary intrusion into private lives and businesses by the federal government . \u201d his action as supported by the american energy alliance , and opposed by the league of conservation voters .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "when the senate voted on the keystone bill , it did not get the 60 votes in favor that was required to pass .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "it got only 53 republican and 1 democratic senator to vote in favor . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "lesser prairie chicken", "paragraphs": ["the purchase of 30 , 000 acres of lesser prairie chicken habitat in kansas .\nnrcs\u2019 prairie chicken efforts are part of working lands for wildlife ( wlfw ) , through which nrcs provides technical and financial assistance to help ranchers restore and protect habitat for prairie chicken . visit nrcs\u2019 lesser prairie - chicken webpage to learn more .\nthe species - protection battle over the lesser prairie chicken has raged for over 20 years . as part of a\nwoodward\u2019s lesser prairie chicken festival wraps nature , wildlife , geography and conservation into a compelling package of eco - adventuring .\nthis march 2007 photo provided by the texas parks and wildlife department shows a male lesser prairie chicken in a mating stature in the texas panhandle . the obama administration has placed the lesser prairie . . . more\nwashington \u2013 - the fight over the keystone xl pipeline is about to become a fight over the lesser prairie chicken as well .\nthe western association of fish and wildlife agencies , which oversees the lesser prairie - chicken range - wide conservation plan , said in its second annual report to the u . s . fish and wildlife service that the lesser prairie chicken had another successful year in 2015 .\nthe surveys will be conducted by helicopter in locations chosen randomly within lesser prairie chicken range , which is part of the methodology strategy .\nhicken is because it ' s smaller and pastier than the greater prairie - chicken .\na smaller , paler version of the greater prairie - chicken , the lesser prairie - chicken is now found only in restricted areas of five states in the southern great plains . it inhabits open rangeland dominated by shinnery oak or sand sagebrush .\nproducers in kansas , oklahoma , new mexico , texas and colorado are helping the lesser prairie - chicken rebound by voluntarily conserving habitat on their land .\na male lesser prairie chicken in the texas panhandle . the bird ' s entire habitat includes parts of colorado , kansas , new mexico , oklahoma and texas .\nfederal plan to save prairie chickens ruffles state feathers the federal government just listed the lesser prairie chicken as a threatened species , but states are pushing back hard , saying that restrictions could negatively impact a number of industries .\nsee and hear the quickly vanishing lesser prairie chicken displaying on its booming and gobbling grounds at the annual lesser prairie chicken festival in woodward . a popular birding event in the state of oklahoma , visitors to this festival are invited to come share and experience the natural heritage of the high plains of northwest oklahoma with activities that include prairie dog , turkey and owl viewing , as well as geocaching , star gazing and nature workshops .\na male lesser prairie chicken in the texas panhandle . the bird ' s entire habitat includes parts of colorado , kansas , new mexico , oklahoma and texas . jon mcroberts / ap hide caption\nthe fish and wildlife service has been threatening to step in and protect the lesser prairie chicken for years , a sour prospect for farmers and ranchers , who own almost all the bird ' s habitat .\nother species of birds that may be spotted besides the popular lesser prairie chicken include the snowy plover , burrowing owl , prairie falcon , least tern , roadrunner , chestnut - collared longspur , scissor - tailed flycatcher , canyon wren , rock wren , indigo bunting , lark sparrow and more . whether enjoying a birding trek in the early morning , or setting out on a nighttime owl prowl , the lesser prairie chicken festival is a bird - lover ' s paradise .\nthis undated file photo provided by u . s . fish and wildlife service shows a male lesser prairie chicken in southeastern new mexico . ( u . s . fish and wildlife service via ap , file )\nasked how many takes it took him to get \u201clesser prairie chicken\u201d out , duffy just laughs . \u201conce , in the old dallas , we had the phrase , \u2018well , daddy , i think the whole herd\u2019s got screwworm . \u2019 and \u2018screwworm\u2019 did not come out of larry\u2019s and my mouth for about an hour . it\u2019s one of those phrases . \u2018lesser prairie chicken\u2019 is one of those phrases , \u201d he says .\nrecently the five range states , wafwa , federal and state agencies and organizations working on lesser prairie - chicken conservation met in edmond , oklahoma , to share information on current chicken conservation efforts and identify new strategies for working together . you can read wafwa ' s piece on the edmond meeting\nthough it has achieved a complete legal victory , the petroleum association and the other businesses , landowners , and developers that have partnered with the states on the lesser prairie chicken initiative council have many challenges ahead of them . when announcing that it had finalized the chicken ' s delisting , fws\nsen . jerry moran ( r - kansas ) is seeking to attach an amendment to legislation authorizing construction of the pipeline that would throw out federal protections for the lesser prairie chicken , a bird native to midwestern prairies .\na month after senior u . s . district judge robert junell upheld his september 2015 ruling overturning the listing of the lesser prairie chicken as \u201cthreatened , \u201d a second - year update offered good news on the species .\n\u201cthose industry participants within the rwp are demonstrating they can be both economically viable and conserve the lesser prairie chicken even with the downturn in oil prices , which extends to other energy - related industries , \u201d he said .\nthe lesser prairie - chicken is a nationally identified target species of the working lands for wildlife ( wlfw ) partnership , a collaborative approach to conserve habitat while keeping working lands working . from 2010 to 2015 , the lesser prairie - chicken initiative ( part of the wlfw family ) enabled producers to conserve more than 1 million acres of prime habitat . from 2016 to 2018 , nrcs aims to conserve 500 , 000 additional acres . read our fy2016 - 2018 conservation strategy .\nthis year the lesser prairie - chicken has faced a variety of attacks aimed at undoing its recent listing . now , a lawsuit filed by the permian basin petroleum association and four new mexico counties has succeeded in doing just that\u2014at least temporarily .\njoin the oklahoma audubon council for an amazing prairie experience . this year ' s event will include another round of field trips and workshops , such as lesser prairie chicken viewing from blinds or vans , an opportunity to actively participate in protecting the species by helping to mark fences in the area and much more .\nnrcs offers technical and financial assistance to help agricultural producers to voluntarily conserve lesser prairie - chicken habitat on private lands . this assistance helps producers plan and implement a variety of conservation activities , or practices , that benefit the bird and agricultural operations .\nthe states and their private - sector partners will need to consistently demonstrate that their commitment to preserving the lesser prairie chicken has not wavered after their court win . they will have to demonstrate the type of positive results detailed in a march 31 , 2016\n( lincoln : university of nebraska press , 1983 ) . v . w . lehmann ,\nthe attwater prairie chicken : current status and restoration opportunities ,\nthe prairie grass has died back and the wildlife that depends on it is suffering . lesser prairie chickens only live about a year and a half on average , so a couple of years without many chicks takes a serious toll .\n. wind - energy facilities are increasing in the great plains , particularly in states with lesser prairie - chickens as these have the highest potential for wind energy development .\nscience to solutions : a new study by researchers at kansas state university identifies specific grazing practices that create the varied grassland habitat structure that lesser prairie - chickens need .\nfinancial assistance helps producers pay for the adoption of a system of conservation practices that improve the health of prairie and grassland ecosystems . nrcs assistance covers part of the cost . common conservation practices for the lesser prairie - chicken include the removal of redcedar and mesquite and use of prescribed grazing and burning . see a full list of practices .\nenvironmental activist groups instinctively oppose voluntary conservation , and organizations such as defenders of wildlife\u2014which brought the original listing suit against fws\u2014will fight vigorously to restore federal control over the lesser prairie chicken . after the federal court ' s september 1 decision , a defenders of wildlife senior official\nstill , it ' s tough being a lesser prairie chicken these days . this type of grouse once spanned an enormous area , though now they survive mainly in pockets of oklahoma and kansas . their numbers are plummeting ; in 2012 , the population dropped by half .\nadult male lesser prairie chickens ( tympanuchus pallidicinctus ) have brightly colored air sacs on the sides of their neck that they inflate during courtship displays . cimarron national grassland , kansas .\nthe service is officially removing the lesser prairie - chicken from the federal list of endangered and threatened wildlife in accordance with the september 2015 court order vacating our 2014 listing determination . this administrative action and the decision not to appeal the court\u2019s ruling do not constitute a biological determination on whether or not the lesser prairie - chicken warrants federal protection . the direct final rule ( docket no . fws - es - r2 - 2016 - 0028 ) will be available in the federal register reading room on july 19 , 2016 , and publish on july 20 , 2016 .\n\u201cthis is a tribute to wafwa and all of the stakeholders who work every day to ensure the success of the range - wide plan . this is good news for the lesser prairie chicken , the habitat and everyone who lives , works and plays in these areas , \u201d he added .\nfield report ; what does the prairie look like from a coyote ' s eye view , and why does that matter to lesser prairie - chickens ? lpci range conservationist marina osier , based in lamar , colorado , answers this question in her recent field report .\nvan pelt reported landowners are stepping up and implementing conservation practices benefiting the chicken . eight landowner contracts were finalized covering 67 , 512 acres . conservation measures are being implemented range - wide , including habitat restoration on 8 , 214 of 15 , 911 prescribed acres . a total of $ 1 , 821 , 737 was paid to landowners managing their lands to generate credits for lesser prairie chicken conservation , he said .\nwhen you enroll land with lpci , follow a sustainable grazing plan , and complete other conservation practices to benefit lesser prairie - chickens , you can run your ranch without fear of esa regulation .\nlast year\u2019s aerial surveys found an abundance of spring rainfall in 2015 , along with ongoing efforts associated with the range - wide plan and other conservation initiatives , helped increase the lesser prairie chicken population by approximately 25 percent from 2014 to 2015 . results from this year\u2019s surveys will be available on july 1 .\nthis march 2007 photo provided by the texas parks and wildlife department shows a male lesser prairie chicken in a mating stature in the texas panhandle . the obama administration has placed the lesser prairie chicken on a list of threatened species , a move that could affect oil and gas drilling , wind farms and other activities in five central and southwestern states . the decision by the fish and wildlife service is a step below \u201cendangered\u201d status and allows for more flexibility in how the protections for the bird will be carried out under the endangered species act . ( ap photo / texas parks and wildlife department , jon mcroberts ) less\ngerrit vyn is a wildlife biologist who photographed and recorded the sounds of five of these species : the greater and lesser prairie chicken , greater sage grouse , sharp - tailed grouse and gunnison sage grouse .\nall of these species have undergone drastic population declines since we settled the west ,\nvyn says .\nfor the fish and wildlife service to come out and say , ' yes , we ' re going to classify the lesser prairie chicken as a threatened species , but we ' re not going to change anything , ' seems to beg the question , then why did you take the step ?\npruitt says .\nprimarily due to large - scale loss of habitat and fragmentation of habitat , their range distribution has been reduced by roughly 85 percent . about 95 percent of the lesser prairie chicken\u2019s habitat is privately owned , making the land management decisions of producers pivotal to the bird\u2019s success . stewardship - minded producers are helping the at - risk bird and many other wildlife species by voluntarily improving the health of prairie and grassland ecosystems .\nthrough wlfw , nrcs targets conservation efforts where the returns are highest by targeting threats to the bird . for the lesser prairie - chicken , the loss and fragmentation of habitat is caused by invading mesquite and redcedars , poor grassland and prairie health and conversion to cropland . wlfw is able to provide technical and financial assistance through the environmental quality incentives program and agricultural conservation easement program , two programs funded through the farm bill .\n\u201cthe u . s . fish and wildlife service is best suited to judge whether a species requires a listing . . . voluntary measures are essential and will continue to play a role in this species\u2019 conservation management , but unfortunately they alone are not sufficient for the lesser prairie - chicken , \u201d trusty said in a statement for audubon .\nwayne keller is scanning the vast expanse of caramel - colored prairie from his ranch south of dodge city for prairie chickens . keller says it ' s drought that is killing them .\nagain later that year , arguing that the bird belonged on the endangered list . a petroleum industry association and four new mexico counties sued fws as well , arguing that the agency failed to take into consideration voluntary conservation efforts in the affected states\u2014colorado , kansas , new mexico , oklahoma , and texas . wildlife regulators and private enterprises in those states , concerned with the severe economic impact of an esa listing for the chicken , created a voluntary lesser prairie chicken initiative .\nproviding predictability . when you enroll land with lpci , follow a sustainable grazing plan , and complete other conservation practices to benefit lesser prairie - chickens , you can run your ranch without fear of esa regulation . learn more\nadult male lesser prairie chickens ( tympanuchus pallidicinctus ) have brightly colored air sacs on the sides of their neck that they inflate during courtship displays . cimarron national grassland , kansas . gerrit vyn / gerritvynphoto . com hide caption\nmeet ed koger , a rancher in south - central kansas who manages his pastures with prescribed grazing and burning , which simultaneously provides good forage for his cattle and habitat for the lesser prairie - chicken . \u201cas long as i incorporate fire in my management of the prairie on this ranch , \u201d he says , \u201ci\u2019m going to have more wildlife , and i\u2019m going to produce more pounds of beef . \u201d learn more about ed\u2019s ranch .\nthe lesser prairie chicken is the latest member of the grouse family to face congressional scrutiny . in december , a provision included in the omnibus spending bill barred the interior department from moving forward on proposing endangered species act protections for the greater sage - grouse , and from finalizing those protections for the gunnison sage - grouse , which the department has listed as threatened .\ntop , from left : lesser prairie - chicken , melody lytle / audubon photography awards ; ring - necked pheasant , lynn cleveland / apa ; california quail , pat ulrich / apa ; bottom , from left : wild turkeys , steve green / apa ; willow ptarmigan , nps photos / katie thoresen / flickr creative commons ; spruce grouse , justin peter / apa .\n( boston : houghton mifflin , 1977 ) . heather miller ,\nvanishing with the prairie ,\ncome to woodward ' s lesser prairie chicken festival and embark on a series of field trips led by local experts around northwest oklahoma plus an excursion to black mesa . visitors to this much - loved birding event will also enjoy an art show and sale showcasing local artists and vendors , as well as a variety of informative workshops and speakers . most events require pre - registration .\nthe u . s . fish and wildlife service has completed initial reviews of three endangered species act petitions and found that two present substantial information that the petitioned action may be warranted . a petition to list the lesser prairie - chicken as endangered and another to list the leopard as endangered throughout its range in africa will move to the next phase , where each species will undergo a thorough status review .\nto fws on the conservation plan ' s second year . the plan has led to a\n25 percent increase in the lesser prairie chicken population . . . industry partners committed nearly $ 51 million in fees to pay for mitigation actions , and landowners across the range agreed to conserve more than 67 , 000 acres of habitat .\non june 13 , 2016 , an umbrella group of western - state wildlife agencies\nthe department of interior ' s fish and wildlife service listed the bird as threatened under the endangered species act in march , citing the\nrapid and severe decline\nof lesser prairie chicken populations . protections for\nthreatened\nspecies are not as strict as those for\nendangered\nspecies , but the service said the listing recognizes that the bird is\nlikely to become in danger of extinction within the foreseeable future .\nnrcs launched the lesser prairie - chicken initiative ( lpci ) in 2010 , establishing a partnership of ranchers , agencies , universities , non - profit groups and businesses that embrace a common vision \u2013 wildlife conservation through sustainable ranching . this innovative partnership of ranchers , agencies , universities , non - profit groups and businesses all embrace a common vision \u2013 achieving wildlife conservation through sustainable ranching . visit urltoken to learn more about the partnership .\nallow habitat regeneration , manage grazing to provide adequate cover and forage for prairie chickens . continue to manage occupied habitats on private lands , and hasten progress towards effective management on public lands . protect occupied habitats . develop and promote effective incentives for land - owners to maintain populations . continue monitoring leks and develop statistically robust methods of estimating populations from lek data . regulate the construction of tall structures in or near lesser prairie - chicken habitats . ensure effective evaluation and mitigation of the impacts of wind turbine and other tall structure installation on the species .\nspoiler alert ! this week\u2019s episode of dallas saw john ross ( josh henderson ) and bobby ( patrick duffy ) each take bold steps in their battle over fracking at southfork . in the end , even though john ross had convinced the ranch hands that more money could be made in oil than cattle , bobby managed to put a hold on john ross\u2019s drilling permit by informing the sierra club of a potentially endangered population of lesser prairie chicken .\nvoluntary conservation efforts have been in the works for years . in the lead - up to the usfws decision in 2014 , the western association of fish and wildlife agencies ( wafwa ) and the five states with lesser prairie - chicken habitat finalized a massive plan to protect the bird across its range . but in the end , usfws decided that it couldn ' t measure the impact of those programs because not enough landowners and companies had enrolled in them .\na little smaller and paler than the greater prairie - chicken , this grouse is adapted to arid short - grass regions of the southern great plains . at one time it was abundant in this region , but it has declined seriously , and is now an uncommon bird found in a few local concentrations .\nthey ' ve lost 84 percent of the shortgrass prairie , which this bird depends on as its home ,\nashe says .\nthe pbpa , along with chaves , eddy , lea and roosevelt counties in new mexico , had sued the department of the interior and fish and wildlife service to overturn the chicken\u2019s listing .\nstill , participants who walk away would sacrifice their hefty enrollment fees , counters wafwa grassland coordinator bill van pelt . and even if the bird\u2019s federally threatened status evaporates , prairie - chicken declines could trigger yet another listing process , van pelt says , prodding more people to sign up . \u201cfor us , it\u2019s still business as usual . \u201d\nwafwa in partnership with the states of new mexico , colorado , kansas , oklahoma and texas have embarked on an innovative and unprecedented approach to wildlife conservation . this partnership began in 2012 with the directors of the five states that are home to the lesser prairie chicken ( lpc ) and its habitat to create a document that outlined the needs of this charismatic grouse species endemic to the five states . this document , \u201c the lesser prairie chicken range - wide conservation plan , \u201d ( rwp ) , written by the states lpc interstate working group , addresses the needs of this species , establish population goals and provides a mechanism for industry to continue operating . this document brings together the different voluntary conservation programs in the high plains into a common approach to provide for both minimization and mitigation of impacts and conservation of lpc habitat . the only plan of its kind endorsed by the us fish and wildlife service , it was incorporated into the section 4 ( d ) special rule at the time of listing in 2014 . strong participation in the plan could lead to a timely delisting of the lpc .\nhas disappeared from most of former range and is probably still declining ; considered to be threatened . biggest problem is conversion of natural prairie to farmland .\nwe ' re walking toward a lek , which is kind of like a singles bar for prairie chickens . they get together and do their thing .\n, val w . lehmann , nancy lehmann - carssow , and nova j . silvy ,\nprairie chickens ,\naccessed july 09 , 2018 ,\naerial surveys of the chicken\u2019s population began march 17 and are expected to continue through mid - may in the five states that contain the bird\u2019s habitat : texas , new mexico , oklahoma , kansas and colorado .\non september 1 , a u . s . district judge in texas vacated the u . s . fish and wildlife service\u2019s decision to designate the lesser prairie - chicken as threatened under the endangered species act . his ruling stated that prior to listing , the agency failed to follow its own rules for gauging whether existing conservation programs could help stem the bird ' s decline . \u201cit\u2019s just one more cut into the ( agency\u2019s ) authority and the efficacy of the esa , \u201d says karyn stockdale , a senior advisor for the national audubon society and former director of audubon new mexico .\nturkeys , ptarmigans , pheasants , grouse , and quail\u2014these birds are all capable of doing crazy things . take the lesser prairie - chicken for example . to show off to the ladies , the males suck air in and out of the ping pong balls on the sides of their neck , make weird moaning sounds , and do a snazzy quick - feet display , all at the same time . so the real question is , just how crazy can these birds be ? try this true / false quiz , and check the answers below to see if you can separate fowl truth from fiction .\n. in oklahoma 39 . 5 % of the prairie - chicken mortality recorded was due to fence collisions , while in new mexico , this figure was 26 . 5 percent . the species has also been found to avoid power lines and so it is likely that the erection of other tall structures ( including wind turbines ) will lead to increased habitat fragmentation and reduced home range sizes ( pruett\nbest known for their dramatic courtship display , the bird depends on prairie and grassland ecosystems that have evolved under the interaction of fire and large herbivore grazing over the years .\nif it\u2019s good for the bird , it\u2019s good for the herd . with lpci technical and financial assistance , landowners can improve habitat for both prairie - chickens and livestock , boosting ranch sustainability .\nwayne keller , a rancher whose land is south of dodge city , kan . , scans his land for prairie chickens . the federal government has proposed listing the bird as an endangered species .\nsome sound like alien techno music , others resemble old lawnmower engines . . . but all of these calls were made by grouse and prairie chickens . recordings provided by cornell laboratory of ornithology .\nsandhill country , sage and bluestem grass , oak shinnery . found in sandy short - grass prairie regions with scattered shrubs such as sand sage . often found around stands of low , scrubby oaks ( havard and mohr ' s oak , also called\nshin oak\n) . regularly comes to agricultural fields to feed on waste grain , but disappears from areas where too much of native prairie is taken over by farmland .\nwayne keller , a rancher whose land is south of dodge city , kan . , scans his land for prairie chickens . the federal government has proposed listing the bird as an endangered species . frank morris / kcur hide caption\nwin - win conservation . if it\u2019s good for the bird , it\u2019s good for the herd . with lpci technical and financial assistance , landowners can improve habitat for both prairie - chickens and livestock , boosting ranch sustainability . learn more\nin the report , wafwa said the chicken\u2019s range - wide population had increased by 25 percent to just more than 29 , 000 birds , industry partners had committed nearly $ 51 million in fees to pay for mitigation actions , and landowners across the five - state range agreed to conserve more than 67 , 000 acres of habitat .\nthe plan will pay landowners to make their property more livable for prairie chickens , and companies that degrade habitat will have to compensate landowners to create more of it elsewhere . it could be profitable for farmers and ranchers \u2014 and it needs to be .\nscience to solutions : hot off the press ! new research shows that patch - burn grazing creates the mosaic of grassland habitat structure that prairie - chickens depend on . lpci ' s latest science to solutions paper describes the research and its implications for range management .\nthey only nest on the ground , nowhere near a tree or anything else , like an oil derrick or wind turbine , sticking up from the prairie . there were once millions of the birds , and ashe says now there may be fewer than 18 , 000 .\nevery spring , flocks of prairie chickens and grouse gather in the prairies of the american west to strut and sing and fight for the attention of females . it ' s called a lek , and like many wildlife mating rituals , it ' s all about female choice .\nthe prairie - chicken , which has an elaborate , chest - puffing mating dance and a call similar to woody the woodpecker\u2019s laugh , currently struts on just 16 percent of its historic range . oil and gas development , wind farms , roads , transmission lines , fences , and other development have threatened these last slivers of existing habitat . and thanks to drought on the southern plains , population numbers plummeted from around 35 , 000 to 17 , 616 between 2012 and 2013\u2014which partly explains usfws ' s motivation for listing them . \u201cthis is an incredibly difficult creature to save , \u201d says audubon texas executive director brian trusty . \u201cit\u2019s really fickle . \u201d\nan aggressive encounter between two male greater prairie chickens ( tympanuchus cupido ) . during aggressive encounters , males leap into the air and strike their opponent with feet , wings and / or beak . fort pierre national grassland , south dakota . gerrit vyn / gerritvynphoto . com hide caption\nin montana , an area of unplowed grassland called the northern prairie was listed on the interior department memorandum , discussed as a possible home for a new national bison range . but the state\u2019s representative at large , denny rehberg , a republican , said in a statement , \u201cthe antiquities act was never intended as an end - run around the will of the people nor as a land - grab device for east coast politicians . \u201d\nthat business may already be producing some results for prairie - chickens : their numbers have climbed back to 29 , 000 , a 25 percent increase since last year ' s listing . \u201cyou can\u2019t ignore that you had 180 companies modifying their behavior , \u201d van pelt argues . but even he admits that drought relief is the most important factor : \u201cwe\u2019ve had a lot of rain . that\u2019s what it takes for this bird . \u201d\nif the federal court ' s decision stands , prairie - chickens will be cut off from federal endangered species recovery funds , and landowners will be free to destroy the bird ' s remaining habitat without consequence . even wafwa\u2019s range - wide plan could lose its teeth : without the looming threat of the listing , there would be no incentive for landowners and industries to participate , li says . with 100 , 000 acres and $ 46 million tied up in voluntary contracts , \u201cthere\u2019s potentially a lot to lose . \u201d\nthe global population is estimated to number 20 , 000 - 40 , 000 individuals ( h . whitlaw in litt . 2007 ) . trend justification : this species is declining rapidly ( rogers 1997 ; wolfe et al . 2007 ) , owing to conversion and development of prairie grasslands . it has undergone a large and statistically significant decrease over the last 40 years in north america ( 99 . 6 % decline over 40 years , equating to a 75 . 7 % decline per decade ; data from breeding bird survey and / or christmas bird count [ butcher and niven 2007 ] ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndownload tiles as . zip files : a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | j | k | l | m | n | o | p | all tiles in one . zip file download tiles as . gz files : a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | j | k | l | m | n | o | p | all tiles in one . tgz file\nurltoken no longer supports internet explorer 9 or earlier . please upgrade your browser .\ncedar mesa in southeastern utah is on an interior department list of possible national monuments . the department says the list is preliminary .\ndenver \u2014 in much of the nation , \u201cmonument\u201d is an innocuous word , conjuring up images of historical figures cast in bronze or road - side plaques few stop to read .\nin the west , though , it\u2019s a fighting word , bound up for years with simmering resentments against the federal government and presidential powers . the feeling dates to the days when , with the stroke of a pen , theodore roosevelt declared lands he wished to protect as national monuments under the american antiquities act .\na new monument fight erupted this week when representative rob bishop , republican of utah , said he had uncovered a \u201csecret\u201d interior department memorandum suggesting that the federal government was considering national monument designation for 14 huge blocks of land in nine states from montana to new mexico .\na spokeswoman for the department of the interior , kendra barkoff , said the list was not secret at all , but simply a \u201cvery , very , very preliminary , \u201d internal working document resulting from a brainstorming session that interior secretary ken salazar , a democrat and former senator from colorado , had requested about the lands in the west .\n\u201cno decisions have been made about which areas , if any , might merit more serious review and consideration , \u201d ms . barkoff said in a statement .\nbut the word \u201csecret , \u201d especially when applied to the possible doings of far - away federal bureaucrats , is right up there with \u201cmonument\u201d in its ability to unleash vitriol among western conservatives . in 1996 , president bill clinton created the 1 . 7 million - acre grand staircase - escalante national monument in southern utah with a surprise announcement that still resonates across the region as a symbol of government powers , or what critics call the abuse of those powers .\nthe new interior department memorandum , people in both parties said , has reopened a wound from those days that never quite healed .\nthe san rafael swell in central utah is on the list , along with 13 other sites .\n\u201cgiven the lingering frustration felt by many utahns , following the 1996 \u2018stroke of the pen\u2019 monument designation , it is totally inappropriate for this federal agency to even have preliminary discussions without involving the stakeholders on the ground , \u201d said representative jim matheson , democrat of utah , a state that had two of the possible new monuments on the list , the san rafael swell and cedar mesa .\nms . barkoff at the interior department said in an interview that mr . salazar , as colorado\u2019s attorney general , united states senator and secretary of the interior , had a history of seeking consensus , and that any discussion of monument designation would be open to public and congressional involvement .\nfrom the new york times . you may opt - out at any time .\nyou agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for the new york times ' s products and services .\na spokesman for the southern utah wilderness alliance , a conservation group , said the appearance of secrecy in monument talks had melded with ideological opposition to the obama administration \u2014 widespread in a deeply republican part of the country .\n\u201ci don\u2019t think it\u2019s as much about the specifics of the land issues as it is pure ideological concerns , \u201d said the group\u2019s executive director , scott groene . \u201cthere\u2019s already been a great fury going on in this state , and it\u2019s hard to imagine that this really changes any of that . \u201d\nthe fury is nothing new . in 1969 , for example , the town of boulder , utah , passed a resolution changing its name to johnson\u2019s folly , and predicted the town\u2019s demise after president lyndon b . johnson added thousands of acres to arches and capitol reef national monuments , which were both later designated national parks by congress .\nthe town later reverted to its original name , and on its web site the boulder business group now proudly calls the town the \u201cgateway to the grand staircase - escalante national monument . \u201d\nrepresentative bishop , who was teaching history and government in a high school in northern utah when that monument was created in 1996 , also held out the possibility that cooler heads and calmer discussions could prevail on land protection in the west . the prerequisite , he said , is transparency and genuine dialogue . if westerners think there is a foregone conclusion , hostility to more national monuments will be unavoidable .\n\u201cif they do things in an open and transparent way and involve everyone , then there\u2019s no need for yelling and screaming , \u201d mr . bishop said . \u201cdo it the right way , and we can work it out . \u201d\nwe\u2019re interested in your feedback on this page . tell us what you think .\naccessibility concerns ? email us at accessibility @ urltoken . we would love to hear from you .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\ntap here to turn on desktop notifications to get the news sent straight to you .\nmoran said in a statement that the listing is\nyet another example of unnecessary intrusion into private lives and businesses by the federal government .\nhe said the listing is hurting farmers , ranchers , oil and gas development , transportation , and wind farms .\ni am confident there are ways to conserve the species without hindering economic development in rural communities ,\nmoran said .\nlisting the bird as a threatened species is not the answer .\nthe league of conservation voters called the moran amendment\negregious\nin a letter to senators urging them to vote against it , describing it as\ncongressional meddling in science - based decision making .\nthe american energy alliance , a group linked to one of the koch brothers , put out a statement monday , saying the alliance would treat the amendment as a\nkey vote ,\nto be included in its annual energy scorecard rating of lawmakers .\n' yes ' is the pro - wildlife , pro - energy , pro - private property , and pro - human flourishing vote ,\nthe group wrote .\nsen . lisa murkowski ( r - alaska ) , who has been leading the senate floor debate on the keystone bill , indicated tuesday evening that votes on the moran amendment and others are likely on wednesday .\nupdate : jan . 28 , 4 : 36 p . m . - - the senate voted on the moran measure wednesday afternoon . a majority of 54 senators - - all the republicans present and one democrat , joe manchin ( w . va . ) - - voted in favor of the measure , but the amendment did not get the 60 votes it needed to pass .\nfirst - person essays , features , interviews and q & as ; about life today .\nfrom the < a href =\nurltoken\ntarget =\n_ blank\n> u . s . state department ' s report < / a > on the keystone xl pipeline , jan . 2014 . drivers of oilsands development are global and any single infrastructure project is unlikely to significantly affect the rate of extraction in oilsands areas .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\n40 cm . plump , brown - barred gamebird . yellow wattles of skin form eyebrow . in courtship , reddish - orange air - sacs on sides of neck inflated and neck - plumes ( pinnae ) erected . female has shorter neck - plumes and barred tail .\nin west - central kansas , which is larger , darker and has yellow - orange air - sacs .\nthis species qualifies as vulnerable owing to a long - term and rapid population decline . although most populations appear to have stabilized or increased since 1995 , populations in north - east texas and parts of oklahoma have declined precipitously since 2005 , and in south - east new mexico since 2001 . as the effects of drought and the increasing demand for both fossil fuel and renewable energy development ( including wind and biofuels ) continue to place remaining habitats at risk , the species is precautionarily retained as vulnerable until positive trends have been sustained .\n. it is now most common in dwarf shrub - mixed grass vegetation , sometimes interspersed with short grass and , optimally , with some portion ( < 25 % ) of the landscape in row grains as supplemental winter forage . successful nests tend to be in areas with greater shrub cover and visual obstructions ( davis 2009 ) . leks are usually on elevated areas with short vegetation ( hagen 2005 , wolfe\n. large areas of habitat have been purchased by some states and the nature conservancy and candidate conservation agreements with assurances are being implemented in texas . research has been conducted on its ecology and conservation which will facilitate the production of recovery plans . over 900 birds have been radio - tracked between 1999 and 2010 . miles of unneeded fences have been removed in parts of oklahoma and texas and a method has been developed to mark remaining fences to reduce mortality ( rogers 1997 )\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t22679519a118850421 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nu . s . fish and wildlife service home page about the u . s . fish & wildlife service department of the interior urltoken accessibility privacy notices\nthe mission of the u . s . fish and wildlife service is working with others to conserve , protect , and enhance fish , wildlife , plants and their habitats for the continuing benefit of the american people .\nall images credit to and courtesy of the u . s . fish and wildlife service unless specified otherwise .\nforages mostly on ground , sometimes above ground in oaks . may move several miles every day from roosting areas to good feeding sites .\nusually 11 - 13 . whitish to pale buff , finely speckled with brown and olive . incubation is by female only , 22 - 24 days . young : downy young leave nest shortly after hatching . female tends young , but young feed themselves . young are able to make short flights at age of 1 - 2 weeks , but are not full - grown for several more weeks .\ndowny young leave nest shortly after hatching . female tends young , but young feed themselves . young are able to make short flights at age of 1 - 2 weeks , but are not full - grown for several more weeks .\nincludes seeds , acorns , insects , leaves . diet varies with season . eats seeds and leaves of a wide variety of plants , including oak leaves and acorns . may eat much waste grain around agricultural fields in fall and winter . eats many insects , including grasshoppers and beetles , especially in summer . also eats some flowers , twigs , oak galls .\nin spring , at dawn and again in evening , males gather on\nbooming grounds\nand display there to attract females . booming ground on slight rise or level open ground , with good visibility . in display , male raises feather tufts on neck , stamps feet rapidly while making hollow gobbling sounds ; may leap in the air with loud cackles . female visits booming ground , mates with one of the males . nest site is on ground , usually under a shrub or clump of grass . nest ( built by female ) is shallow depression lined with a few bits of grass , weeds .\nno regular migration , but some may move many miles between summer and winter ranges .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\nin the broadest and most detailed study of its kind , audubon scientists have used hundreds of thousands of citizen - science observations and sophisticated climate models to predict how birds in the u . s . and canada will react to climate change .\nthe darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season .\neach map is a visual guide to where a particular bird species may find the climate conditions it needs to survive in the future . we call this the bird\u2019s \u201cclimatic range . \u201d\nthe darker the shaded area , the more likely it is the bird species will find suitable climate conditions to survive there .\nthe outline of the approximate current range for each season remains fixed in each frame , allowing you to compare how the range will expand , contract , or shift in the future .\nthe first frame of the animation shows where the bird can find a suitable climate today ( based on data from 2000 ) . the next three frames predict where this bird\u2019s suitable climate may shift in the future\u2014one frame each for 2020 , 2050 , and 2080 .\nyou can play or pause the animation with the orange button in the lower left , or select an individual frame to study by clicking on its year .\nthe darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season . more on reading these maps .\ngail patricelli is one of a few researchers using robotic birds to study avian courtship . her current work focuses on the greater sage - grouse .\nthe endangered species act is under attack . but how much trouble is it in ?\npoliticians are asking for major changes to the law\u2014and even an outright repeal . here ' s how the esa could take a hit and everything that ' s at stake .\nhow well do you know your north american fowl ? find out with this true / false quiz .\ntell congress to oppose a harmful rider that threatens sage - grouse and other wildlife .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\ntechnical assistance is free to producers , through which the agency\u2019s conservationists work side - by - side with producers to develop a conservation plan . this plan is customized the producer\u2019s land and provides a roadmap for how to use a system of conservation practices to meet natural resource and production goals .\nif you\u2019re interested in technical and financial assistance from nrcs , please contact your local usda service center . a conservationist in your community will help you develop a conservation plan customized to your land , and if you\u2019re interested , apply for financial assistance through farm bill conservation programs . learn more about getting started with nrcs .\ncollaboration and partnership . more than 25 agencies , nonprofit organizations , universities , and private businesses have pooled resources and know - how to conserve rural agriculture and provide habitat for native wildlife . learn more\nscience - based action . how do we know if our range management strategies are working ? lpci - funded research ensures we\u2019re doing enough of the right things in the right places to achieve our conservation goals . learn more\nmore than 25 agencies , nonprofit organizations , universities , and private businesses have pooled resources and know - how to conserve rural agriculture and provide habitat for native wildlife .\nhow do we know if our range management strategies are working ? lpci - funded research ensures we\u2019re doing enough of the right things in the right places to achieve our conservation goals .\non july 20 , 2016 , ten months after a u . s . district court for the western district of texas judge\nits delisting decision . the decision not only validates the work of a public - private bird - conservation partnership , it will also test the viability of such state - based efforts .\narrangement with environmental activists , fws listed the bird as threatened in april 2014 . preferring a higher designation , the same activist groups with which fws settled\ndecision agreed with the states that under the esa , fws failed to fully \u201ctak [ e ] into account those efforts , if any , being made by any state \u2026 to protect such species . \u201d 16 u . s . c . \u00a7 1533 ( b ) ( 1 ) ( a ) . a september 15 , 2015\nby featured expert contributor sam boxerman of sidley austin llp provides a full analysis of that decision . on february 29 , 2016 , the texas federal court\nthat it would be\nundertaking a thorough re - evaluation of the bird ' s status and the threats it faces using the best available scientific information to determine anew whether listing under the esa is warranted .\nfws ' s statement , and its silence on the private - public conservation effort , is not surprising , especially considering that the agency had endorsed the council ' s rangewide conservation plan in october 2013 , but then reversed course and imposed the\nthreatened\ndesignation just seven months later .\n,\npeople who had previously been prepared to abide by the rules under a listing are now heading towards the bulldozers again .\n. all those involved in a self - regulatory mechanism have a shared stake in its success , and the voluntary nature of the program allows them to quickly adapt their efforts . such incentives and flexibility do not exist in a one - size - fits - all government regulation ."]}
{"id": 2573, "summary": [{"text": "dichocoenia is a genus of stony coral ( scleractinia ) in the family meandrinidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the corals in this genus are massive , hump-forming or flattened corals with irregular calyces .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "they are found in the caribbean sea and western atlantic ocean . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "dichocoenia", "paragraphs": ["dichocoenia stokesi . caribbean . colony with tentacles extended at night . charlie veron .\ndichocoenia stokesi . caribbean . this species commonly forms small spherical colonies . charlie veron .\naims coral factsheet photo : dichocoenia stokesi . caribbean . an encrusting colony . charlie veron .\ne . c . peters ( personal communication ) considers the recent caribbean genus dichocoenia to consist of only one highly polymorphic species ( manuscript in preparation ) . cairns ( 1982 ) and zlatarski and estalella ( 1982 ) both synonymized d . stellaris with this species .\n( of dichocoenia stellaris milne edwards & haime , 1848 ) milne edwards h , haime j ( 1849 ) recherches sur les polypiers . m\u00e9moire 4 . monographie des astr\u00e9ides . annales des sciences naturelles , zoologie , series 3 , 12 : 95 - 197 . [ details ]\n( of dichocoenia stellaris milne edwards & haime , 1848 ) zlatarski v . n . ; martinez e . n . ( 1982 ) . les scl\u00e9ractiniaires de cuba avec des donn\u00e9es sur les organismes associ\u00e9s . editions l\u2019acad\u00e9mie bulgare des sciences , sofia . 472 pp . [ details ]\n( of dichocoenia stellaris milne edwards & haime , 1848 ) cairns , s . d . ; hoeksema , b . w . & van der land , j . ( 2007 ) . as a contribution to unesco - ioc register of marine organisms . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of dichocoenia stokesi f . stellaris milne edwards & haime , 1848 ) scaps , p . ; saunders , j . ( 2011 ) . shallow water stony corals ( scleractinia , milleporidae , and stylasteridae ) from utila and cayos cochinos , honduras . isrn zoology . 2011 : 1 - 9 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ntaxonomic note : taxonomic note : colonies from lower reef slopes or shaded habitats have markedly smaller corallites than those from more exposed environments and are usually identified as dichocoenia stellaris ( see wells , 1973b ) . source reference : veron ( 2000 ) . taxonomic references : roos ( 1971 ) , wells ( 1973b ) , cairns ( 1982 ) . additional identification guides : colin ( 1978 ) , humann ( 1993 ) .\nmilne edwards h . , haime j . ( 1848 ) . note sur la classification de la deuxi\u00e8me tribu de la famille des astr\u00e9ides . comptes rendus de l ' acad\u00e9mie des sciences , paris . 27 : 490\u2013497 . [ details ]\nhoeksema , b . w . ; cairns , s . ( 2018 ) . world list of scleractinia .\nmilne edwards & haime , 1848 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 267382 on 2018 - 07 - 09\nbudd , a . f . , fukami , h . , smith , n . d . & knowlton , n . 2012 . taxonomic classification of the reef coral family mussidae ( cnidaria : anthozoa : scleractinia . zoological journal of the linnean society 166 : 465\u2013529 . [ details ]\nvan der land , j . ( ed ) . ( 2008 ) . unesco - ioc register of marine organisms ( urmo ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nveron jen . ( 2000 ) . corals of the world . vol . 1\u20133 . australian institute of marine science and crr , queensland , australia . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthis species occurs in the caribbean , gulf of mexico , florida ( including the florida middle grounds ) , the bahamas , and bermuda .\nthis species is common , and may be locally abundant in certain habitats and localities .\nthere is no species specific population information available for this species . however , there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined , and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species . this species is particularly susceptible to bleaching , disease , and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years ( wilkinson 2004 ) . we assume that most , if not all , mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average , the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs . reef losses throughout the species ' range have been estimated over three generations , two in the past and one projected into the future .\nthe age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years ( wallace 1999 ) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years . furthermore , based on average sizes and growth rates , we assume that average generation length is 10 years , unless otherwise stated . total longevity is not known , but likely to be more than ten years . therefore any population decline rates for the red list assessment are measured over at least 30 years .\nthis species is found in back and fore reef environments , rocky reefs , lagoon habitats , spur and groove formations , channels , and sometimes at the base of the reef , from 2 - 72 m . hemispherical heads are more abundant on shallow exposed reefs from 5 - 20 m ( goreau and wells , 1967 ; e . weil . pers . comm . ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ncolonies are massive , often spherical , or may form thick submassive plates . corallites are evenly spaced , plocoid or ploco - meandroid . septo - costae are usually in two neatly alternating orders .\ncolour : a distinctive orange - brown with white septo - costae , rarely green .\n\u00a9 2011 - 2012 australian institute of marine science and crr cc by - nc 3 . 0\nm . de kluijver , g . gijswijt , r . de leon & i . da cunda\ncolonies form rounded heads , domes or flattened plates . rounded colonies may reach 40 cm in diameter . the\nhumann , p . , 1993 . reef coral identification - florida caribbean bahamas , ( ed . n . deloach ) . new world publications , inc . , paramount miller graphics , inc . , jacksonville , florida .\nroos , p . j . , 1964 . the distribution of reef corals in curacao . stud . fauna curacao , 20 : 1 - 51 .\nroos , p . j . , 1971 . the shallow - water stony corals of the netherlands antilles . studies on the fauna of cura\u00e7ao and other caribbean islands , 130 .\nvoss , g . l . , 1976 . seashore life of florida and the carribbean . banyan books , inc . miami , florida .\nlas colonias de esta especie forman peque\u00f1as estructuras masivas o l\u00e1minas gruesas de forma oval . tienen un color crema o verde - caf\u00e9 . la caracter\u00edstica distintiva de la especie consiste en las estructuras ovales que se extienden por arriba de la superficie entre los coralitos ( coenesteum ) . los coralitos son ovales y se vuelven elongados casi meandroides cerca del \u00e1rea donde se dividen . los coralitos se encuentran separados unos de otros y la superficie entre \u00e9stos tiene una textura granular ( photo 2 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nif you are reading this text , you are viewing this document with a frames - incapable browser . this document was designed to be viewed by a frames - capable browser such as netscape navigator 2 . 0 . if you would like access to nmita database information but are having difficulty finding an appropriate browser , email us at\nmilne edwards h , haime j ( 1849 ) recherches sur les polypiers . m\u00e9moire 4 . monographie des astr\u00e9ides . annales des sciences naturelles , zoologie , series 3 , 12 : 95 - 197 . [ details ]\nmilne edwards & haime , 1848 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 289807 on 2018 - 07 - 09\n( of astrea porcata lamarck , 1816 ) lamarck , j . - b . m . de . ( 1816 ) . histoire naturelle des animaux sans vert\u00e8bres . tome second . paris : verdi\u00e8re , 568 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nzlatarski v . n . ; martinez e . n . ( 1982 ) . les scl\u00e9ractiniaires de cuba avec des donn\u00e9es sur les organismes associ\u00e9s . editions l\u2019acad\u00e9mie bulgare des sciences , sofia . 472 pp . [ details ]\ncairns , s . d . ; hoeksema , b . w . & van der land , j . ( 2007 ) . as a contribution to unesco - ioc register of marine organisms . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\ncairns , s . d . , jaap , w . c . , and j . c . lang . 2009 . scleractinia ( cnidaria ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 333\u2013347 in felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . [ details ]\n( of astrea porcata lamarck , 1816 ) budd , a . f . , fukami , h . , smith , n . d . & knowlton , n . 2012 . taxonomic classification of the reef coral family mussidae ( cnidaria : anthozoa : scleractinia . zoological journal of the linnean society 166 : 465\u2013529 . [ details ]\nin the western atlantic , this coral was been divided into two species ( d . stokesii and d . stellaris ) , although most researchers lump both corals in d . stokesii . cairns et al . ( 1999 ) regard the two as distinct .\njustification : this species is listed as data deficient as there is no reliable information on population status , and there are taxonomic uncertainties on the validity of the species . if this species is shown to be valid , and to be affected by white plague at levels similar to that observed in d . stokesii , this species may qualify for listing in a threatened category due to its low abundance .\nthis species occurs in the caribbean , southern gulf of mexico , florida ( including the florida middle grounds ) , and the bahamas .\nthis species is usually uncommon . this is a deep - water species , often classified as the more abundant and closely related\n, and there is no reliable information on its current population status . ( aronson , r . , precht , w . , moore , j . , weil , e . , and bruckner , a . pers . comm . )\nthis species is found in fore reef habitats below 15 m . coexists with d . stokesii in deeper water . ( aronson , r . , precht , w . , moore , j . , weil , e . , and bruckner , a . pers . comm . ) this species may be found to 22 m .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nput your suggestion in the fields below . empty fields will keep the existing data .\nsiquijor is a splendid island situated between negros , bohol and mindanao . its waters are clear and rich in hard corals . the island has several tourist attractions such as a superb tropical but artificial forest , falls , caves and others .\nnone , but dive boats from dumaguete and even mactan will visit . there are a couple of hotels along the south coast , style tropical paradise .\nin the shallow brown algae , going over deeper into green algae , then fringing reef . at about 20 - 25 m starts a sloping sand bottom .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc .\nscleractinian coral recruitment patterns at salt river submarine canyon , st . croix , u . s . virgin islands | article rogers cs , fitz iii hc , gilnack m , beets j , hardin j ( 1984 ) coral reefs 3 : 69 - 76 1 x mention ( s )\nthe distribution of algae , corals , and gorgonians in relation to depth , light attenuation , water movement and grazing pressure in the fringing reef . . . | article van den hoek c , breeman am , bak rpm , van buurt g ( 1978 ) aquat bot 5 : 1 - 46 1 x mention ( s )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ncairns , s . d . , d . r . calder , a . brinckmann - voss , c . b . castro , d . g . fautin , p . r . pugh , c . e . mills , w . c . jaap , m . n . arai , s . h . d . haddock , and d . m . opresko . 2002 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : cnidaria and ctenophora . 2nd edition . american fisheries society , special publication 28 , bethesda , maryland . 115 pp .\nwidespread distribution in the tropical western atlantic , occurs on most classes of marine hardbottom communities , and has recently been classfied as common in much of its range , with more than 50 localities having been recorded . but it has been designated as vulnerable by the iucn in part because of recent declines . more information is needed .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\nwidespread distribution in the tropical western atlantic , including the gulf of mexico , southern florida , bahamas , mexico , jamaica , belize , cuba , puerto rico , bermuda , curacao and bonaire and south to northern south america .\nthere are records for more than 50 localities between urltoken and the florida fish and wildlife conservation commission invertebrate collection and this species has a relatively large range .\ncommon on low - relief hardbottom communities , patch reefs , fringing reefs , spur and groove reefs , transitional reefs and deeper intermediate reefs .\nall coral reefs are being adversely affected by bleaching from rising ocean temperatures and water temperatures in 2005 were the warmest they ' d been in 150 years ( eakin et al . 2010 ) . coral disease , bleaching , sedimentation , and habitat loss are threats to this species and ocean acidification and climate change may be ( aronson et al . 2008 ) .\na 2008 iucn assessment estimated an approximate 38 % loss in the short term over its entire range ( aronson et al . 2008 ) .\n( > 2 , 500 , 000 square km ( greater than 1 , 000 , 000 square miles ) ) widespread distribution in the tropical western atlantic , including the gulf of mexico , southern florida , bahamas , mexico , jamaica , belize , cuba , puerto rico , bermuda , curacao and bonaire and south to northern south america .\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\na79bak02fcus : low reported recruitment rates . little information on reproductive ecology in resources consulted .\np91pet01fcus : protozoan parasites , diseases of unknown etiology . a90ghi01fcus : susceptible to bleaching ( loss of zooxanthellae ) due to adverse environmental conditions . a81ant02fcus : seldom inflicted with black band disease , never reported with white band disease . a15vau01fcus : growth rate measured at 2 - 7 mm / yr increase in diameter and 2 - 5 . 2 mm / yr increase in height . p93pet01fcus : slow growth rate at 1 - 2 mm / yr .\noverall depth range from 2 - 40 + m , but typically occurs from 3 - 20 m on most classes of marine hardbottom communities .\ndata needed on reproduction and recruitment patterns . information needed on susceptibility to sedimentation and eutrophication .\nfour components to a stony coral element occurrence : 1 . ) determine size and boundary of site to be surveyed , 2 . ) determine density of colonies via quadrats , 3 . ) determine size distribution of colonies with a note on maximum colony size , and 4 . ) provide habitat description .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nalmy , c . c . , jr . and carrion - torres , c . 1963 . shallow - water stony corals of puerto rico . caribbean journal of science 3 : 133 - 162 .\naronson , r . , a . bruckner , j . moore , b . precht , and e . weil . 2008 . [ various coral species treatments ] in : iucn 2010 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2010 . 4 . urltoken .\nbak , r . p . m . 1975 . ecological aspects of the distribution of reef corals in the netherlands antilles . bijdragen tot de dierkunde 45 : 181 - 190 .\nbak , r . p . m . and elgershuizen , j . h . b . w . 1976 . patterns of oil - sediment rejection in corals . marine biology 37 : 105 - 113 .\nbak , r . p . m . , brouns , j . j . w . m . and heys , f . m . l . 1977 . regeneration aspects of spatial competition in the scleractinian corals agaricia agaricites and montastrea annularis . proceedings of the 3rd international coral reef symposium 1 : 143 - 148 .\ncairns , s . d . 1982 . stony corals of carrie bow cay , belize . smithsonian contributions to the marine sciences 12 : 271 - 302 .\ncairns , s . d . , calder , d . r . , brinckman - voss , a . , castro , c . b . , pugh , p . r . , cutress , c . e . , jaap , w . c . , fautin , d . g . , larson , r . j . , harbison , g . r . , arai , m . n . and opresko , d . m . 1991 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : cnidaria and ctenophora . american fisheries society special publication 22 , bethesda , maryland . 75 pp .\ncolin , p . l . 1978 . caribbean reef invertebrates and plants . thf publications , hong kong . 512 pp .\ndahlgren , e . j . 1989 . gorgonian community structure and reef zonation patterns on yucatan coral reefs . bull . mar . sci . 45 ( 3 ) : 678 - 696\ndodge , r . e . , logan , a . and antonius , a . 1982 . quantitative reef assessment studies in bermuda : a comparison of methods and preliminary results . bulletin of marine science 32 ( 3 ) : 745 - 760 .\ndryer , s . and logan , a . 1978 . holocene reefs and sediments of castle harbor , bermuda . journal of marine research 36 ( 3 ) : 399 - 425 .\ndunne , r . p . and brown , b . e . 1979 . some aspects of the ecology of reefs surrounding anegada , british virgin islands . atoll research bulletin 236 : 1 - 83 .\ndustan , p . 1985 . community structure of reef - building corals in the florida keys : carysfort reef , key largo and long key reef , dry tortugas . atoll research bulletin 288 : 1 - 27 .\ndustan , p . and halas , j . c . 1987 . changes in the reef - coral community of carysfort reef , key largo , florida : 1974 to 1982 . coral reefs 6 : 91 - 106 .\nedmunds , p . j . , roberts , d . a . and singer , r . 1990 . reefs of the northeastern caribbean i . scleractinian populations . bulletin of marine science 46 ( 3 ) : 780 - 789 .\nfarrell , t . m . , d ' elia , c . f . , lubbers , l . and pastor , l . j . 1983 . hermatypic coral diversity and reef zonation at cayos arcas , campeche , gulf of mexico . atoll research bulletin 270 : 1 - 7 .\nflorida museum of natural history . undated c . invertebrate zoology master database . online . available : urltoken\nghiold , j . and smith , s . h . 1990 . bleaching and recovery of deep - water , reef - dwelling invertebrates in the cayman islands , b . w . i . caribbean journal of science 26 ( 1 - 2 ) : 52 - 61 .\ngoldberg , w . m . 1973a . the ecology of the coral - octocoral communities off the southeast florida coast : geomorphology , species composition and zonation . bulletin of marine science 23 ( 3 ) : 465 - 487 .\ngoodwin , m . h . , cole , m . j . , stewart , w . e . and zimmermann , b . l . 1976 . species density and associations in caribbean reef corals . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 24 : 19 - 31 .\ngoreau , t . f . 1959 . the ecology of jamaican coral reefs . i . species composition and zonation . ecology 40 : 67 - 90 .\ngoreau , t . f . and wells , j . w . 1967 . the shallow - water scleractinia of jamaica : revised list of species and their vertical distribution range . bulletin of marine science 17 ( 2 ) : 442 - 453 .\nhopkins , t . s . , blizzard , d . r . , brawley , s . a . , earle , s . a . , grimm , d . e . , gilbert , d . k . , johnson , p . g . , livingston , e . h . , lutz , c . h . , shaw , j . k . and shaw , b . b . 1977 . a preliminary characterization of the biotic components of composite strip transects on the florida middle grounds , northeastern gulf of mexico . proceedings of the 3rd international coral reef symposium 1 : 31 - 37 .\nhumann , p . and n . deloach . 2013 . reef coral identification : florida , carribean , bahamas . new world publications inc . jacksonville , florida . 270 pp .\njaap , w . c . 1984 . the ecology of the south florida coral reefs : a community profile . u . s . fish and wildlife service , office of biological services , washington , d . c . fws / obs - 82 / 08 . 138 pp .\njaap , w . c . , halas , j . c . and muller , r . g . 1988 . community dynamics of stony corals ( scleractinia and milleporina ) at key largo national marine sanctuary , key largo , florida during 1981 - 1986 . proceedings of the 6th international coral reef symposium 2 : 237 - 243 .\njaap , w . c . , w . g . lyons , p . dustan and j . c . halas . 1989 . stony coral ( scleractinia and milleporina ) community structure at bird key reef , ft . jefferson national monument , dry tortugas , florida . florida marine research publications 46 : 1 - 31\nkuhlmann , d . 1974 . the coral reefs of cuba . proceedings of the 2nd international coral reef symposium 2 : 69 - 83 .\nlogan , a . 1984 . interspecific aggression in hermatypic corals from bermuda . coral reefs 3 : 131 - 138 .\nroberts , h . h . 1972 . coral reefs of st . lucia , west indies . caribbean journal of science 12 ( 3 - 4 ) : 179 - 190 .\nrogers , c . s . , h . c . fitz , iii , m . gilnack , j . beets , and j . hardin . 1984 . scleractinian coral recruitment patterns at salt river submarine canyon , st . croix , u . s . virgin islands . coral reefs 3 : 69 - 76 .\nrogers , c . s . , m . gilnack , and h . c . fitz , iii . 1983 . monitoring of coral reefs with linear transects : a study of storm damage . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 66 : 285 - 300 .\nscatterday , j . w . 1974 . reefs and associated coral assemblages off bonaire , netherlands antilles , and their bearing on pleistocene and recent reef models . proceedings of the 2nd international coral reef symposium 2 : 85 - 106 .\nscoffin , t . p . and garrett , p . 1974 . processes in the formation and preservation of internal structure in bermuda patch reefs . proceedings of the 2nd international coral reef symposium 2 : 429 - 448 .\nsmith , f . g . w . 1971 . atlantic reef corals . university of miami press , coral gables , florida . 164 pp .\nsterrer , w . 1986 . marine fauna and flora of bermuda . a systematic guide to the identification of marine organisms . john wiley and sons , new york . 742 pp .\ntomascik , t . and sander , f . 1987a . effects of eutrophication on reef - building corals . ii . structure of scleractinian coral communities on fringing reefs , barbados , west indies . marine biology 94 : 53 - 75 .\ntunnell , j . w . , jr . 1988 . regional comparison of southwestern gulf of mexico to caribbean sea coral reefs . proceedings of the 6th international coral reef symposium 3 : 303 - 308 .\nvaughan , t . w . 1915 . the geologic significance of the growth - rate of the floridian and bahamian shoal - water corals . journal of the washington academy of sciences 5 : 591 - 600 .\nwells , j . w . 1973a . new and old scleractinian corals from jamaica . bulletin of marine science 23 ( 1 ) : 16 - 58 .\nwheaton , j . l . , and w . c . jaap . 1988 . corals and other prominent benthic cnidaria of looe key national marine sanctuary . florida marine research publications 43 , 25 pp .\nwhite , m . h . and porter , j . w . 1985 . the establishment and monitoring of two permanent photograph transects in looe key and key largo national marine sanctuaries ( florida keys ) . proceedings of the 5th international coral reef congress 6 : 531 - 537 .\nzlatarski , v . n . and estalella , n . m . 1982 . les scleractiniaires de cuba avec des donnees sur les organismes associes . academic bulgare des sciences , sofia , bulgaria . 472 pp .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users ."]}
{"id": 2576, "summary": [{"text": "fragum unedo is a species of cockle , a marine bivalve mollusc in the family cardiidae , commonly known as the pacific strawberry cockle .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is found in tropical seas in the indo-pacific region and the empty shells are prized for use in decorative crafts . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "fragum unedo", "paragraphs": ["pacific strawberry cockle ( fragum unedo ) from sealife base : technical fact sheet .\nultrastructural differences between the anterior and posterior adductors of the strawberry cockle , fragum unedo .\nultrastructural differences between the anterior and posterior adductors of the strawberry cockle , fragum unedo . - pubmed - ncbi\nfragum fragum is a photosymbiotic species intermediate between corculum and fragum unedo . semi - transparent posterior areas ( pigment and windows ) exist to allow light penetration . as well , siphonal tentacles are exposed to light on posterior shell surface and contain photosymbionts .\nfamily : bivalvia born : 1758 , linne genus and description : fragum unedo , 26 . 5 & 31 mm , f + + / f + + + , set of 2 specimens origin : collected by a local fishermen by nets off panglao island , bohol philippines , march 2013 .\npacific strawberry cockle ( fragum unedo ) in the bivalves section by j . m . poutiers in the fao species identification guide for fishery purposes : the living marine resources of the western central pacific volume 1 : seaweeds , corals , bivalves and gastropods on the food and agriculture organization of the united nations ( fao ) website .\nthis is the type species of the genus fragum . kirkendale ( 2009 ) has shown ( and others have confirmed e . g . herrera et al . 2015 ) that fragum is paraphyletic and includes corculum and lunulicardia , the two other wholly photosymbiotic lineages of cardiids . the phylogeny of members of the fraginae subfamily is in a state of flux and the taxonomy of the group is in need of attention .\nfragum unedo is commonly found in the indo - pacific region . prior literature shows that specimens have been found in sri lanka , southern japan , the pacific islands as well as the northern and eastern coasts of australia . ( 12 . 87n , 93e , 41 . 23n , 142 . 55e , 35 . 9s , 159 . 08e ) ( e . o . l . 2012 ) .\nstrawberry cockle fragum unedo family cardiidae updated oct 2016 where seen ? this pretty clam is not often seen , usually on sandy shores near reefs . elsewhere , they are shallow burrowers in sandy bottoms , often occuring in dense populations . features : 4 - 6cm . the sturdy two - part shell is heavy , squarish with strong ribs marked with little red beads . human uses : elsewhere , it is used in decorative shellcraft and may be eaten by coastal dwellers .\nqld , nt and wa in australia , but widely distributed in the indo - west pacific . wilson and stevenson 1977 note that placement of red scales appears different than in f . unedo from the pacific ocean and philippines .\nkirkendale ( 2009 ) has shown ( and others have confirmed e . g . herrera et al . 2015 ) that fragum is paraphyletic and includes corculum and lunulicardia , the two other wholly photosymbiotic lineages of cardiids . the phylogeny of members of the fraginae subfamily is in a state of flux and the taxonomy of the group is in need of attention\n( of cardium unedo linnaeus , 1758 ) linnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nadductors of fragum unedo were observed ultrastructurally and their muscle cells were classified according to the statistically analyzed diameter of their thick myofilaments . two types of smooth muscle cells were observed in the opaque portion of the anterior adductor : a - type cells containing thick myofilaments of about 46 nm in diameter and b - type cells having 62 nm thick myofilaments . the posterior adductor was also composed of two kinds of cells : the b - type cell , which had thick myofilaments of about 67 nm in diameter , and the c - type , containing thick myofilaments of 90 nm . two types of oblique - striated cells were commonly recognized in the translucent portions of anterior and posterior adductors . our observations thus indicate that the posterior adductor generally consists of cells which have thicker myofilaments than the ones of the anterior adductor .\nas f . unedo burrows just below the surface ( habitat ) they are still susceptible to predation . in northern australian cockle - bed , starfish and rays are important ecological predators of cardiids ( rudman 1998 ) . the locomotory pattern of jumping ( locomotion ) is used as a means to escape from predatory species , displacing the cardiid a few centimetres from their prior location .\nmembers of the cardiidae family , like many other marine bivalves are gonochoristic , meaning individuals are either male or female . by means of broadcast spawning they are able to reproduce sexually ( hickman et al . 2011 ) , utilizing processes of external fertilisation ( ruppert , fox and barnes 2004 ; wilbur and yonge 1964 ) . no research has been conducted into the seasonal spawning patterns of f . unedo individuals . however , research conducted by kandeel et al . ( 2013 ) on cerastoderma glaucum , a cardiid cockle , has found that spawning events maybe be dependent on temperature and lunar cycles . c . glaucum are known to have an annual pattern of four spawning events ( kandeel et al . 2013 ) , it is possible that f . unedo may follow a similar trend .\nlike many other cardiids , f . unedo individuals spend most of their adult lives as a sedentary ( soo & todd 2014 ) , suspension feeder ( respiration and feeding ) . however , f . unedo individuals are not stuck in a single place for their entire lives , as they have the capability to locomote and burrow into sediments , using a muscular foot ( locomotion ) . the suspension feeding lifestyle imposes constraints upon the bivalves\u2019 lifestyle , generally restricting it to aquatic environments ( habitat ) . however , during seasonal changes in tidal levels ( underwood 1981 ; tsimplis & woodworth 1994 ) , expose the intertidal reef zones . like other intertidal bivalves , f . undeo have developed the ability to survive without access to water for periods of time ( up to 8h at times ) . they accomplish this via aerial respiration , which is able to take place across the exposed posterior mantle region .\nit is assumed that , f . unedo have a typical bivalve open circulatory system . with a three chambered heart , consisting of a single ventricle fed by a pair of lateral atria ( rudman 1998 ) , situated in a pericardial chamber . the heart is used to pump recently oxygenated blood , oxygenated haemoglobin is then transported to the rest of the body through blood ( ruppert , fox and barnes 2004 ; hickman et al . 2011 ) . while veins return de - oxygenated blood back to the gills and eventually the heart .\nit is assumed that , the excretory system of f . unedo is similar to many other bivalves . made up of a complex , were the heart and kidney have become a single organ . the excretory system is separated from the circulatory system by the pericardium ( wilbur and yonge 1964 ) . the pericardium contains pericardial glands , which aid in the nutrient filtration process . the system contains two nephridium , that act as pseudo - kidneys and concentrate waste products ( rudman 1998 ) . each nephridium empties into the exhalant siphon chamber via their respective nephridiopore ( ruppert , fox and barnes 2004 ) .\ntan siong kiat and henrietta p . m . woo , 2010 preliminary checklist of the molluscs of singapore ( pdf ) , lee kong chian natural history museum , national university of singapore .\ntan , k . s . & l . m . chou , 2000 . a guide to the common seashells of singapore . singapore science centre . 160 pp .\nabbott , r . tucker , 1991 . seashells of south east asia . graham brash , singapore . 145 pp .\n( of cardium cruentum perry , 1811 ) perry , g . ( 1811 ) . conchology , or the natural history of shells : containing a new arrangement of the genera and species , illustrated by coloured engravings executed from the natural specimens , and including the latest discoveries . 1 - 4 , plates 1 - 61 . london . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hemicardium tegulatum dautzenberg , 1900 ) dautzenberg , ph . ( 1900 ) . description d ' une esp\u00e8ce nouvelle appartenant au genre hemicardium . j . conchyliol . xlviii : 5 - 8 , plate i ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\npoorten , j . j . ter , 2005 . outline of a systematic index - recent cardiidae ( lamarck , 1809 ) . visaya net . ( updated 2009 for worms ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\npoorten , j . j . ter , 2009 . the cardiidae of the panglao marine biodiversity project 2004 and the panglao 2005 deep - sea cruise with descriptions of four new species ( bivalvia ) . vita malacologica 8 : 9 - 96 [ 21 november 2009 ] . available online at urltoken available online at urltoken [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of cardium cruentum perry , 1811 ) poorten , j . j . ter , 2005 . outline of a systematic index - recent cardiidae ( lamarck , 1809 ) . visaya net . ( updated 2009 for worms ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hemicardium tegulatum dautzenberg , 1900 ) poorten , j . j . ter , 2005 . outline of a systematic index - recent cardiidae ( lamarck , 1809 ) . visaya net . ( updated 2009 for worms ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nraffles museum of biodiversity research rmbr has its origins in the raffles museum which was founded in 1849 . established on\u2026\ndeveloped by moving mouse \u00a9 2018 lee kong chian natural history museum . all rights reserved . terms of use .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nmorelet , l . 1889 ,\ncatalogue des coquilles recueillies par m . pavie dans le cambodge et la royaume de siam\n, journal de conchyliologie , ser . 3 , vol . 29 , no . 2 , pp . 121 - 200\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 020dd48e - df2b - 43b6 - 9a5b - a2af40dc5edd\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 13390f09 - 3979 - 4e03 - 8f42 - d662e0bfc10b\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 218a93c6 - bbc5 - 4a65 - 8c0d - 3d64bb634731\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 6ab12a17 - 9635 - 43e9 - b3d8 - 6344c922138a\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 0422a683 - fb73 - 48fd - aeee - daa6ecb61452\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 481385\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\nphilippines . bohol . tubigon . 20 - 25 m . collected by local fishermen . 2009 .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 002 seconds . )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\nparasitism and symbioses in aquatic ecosystems ( v2 . 0 beta 1 . 4 )\njournal of phycology 36 : 1153 - 1161 . doi : 10 . 1046 / j . 1529 - 8817 . 2000 . 00010 . x\nthis web site was designed by laure guillou and fabrice not ( biological station of roscoff , cnrs , france ) . contributions or suggestions are very welcome and can be submitted either to laure guillou or to fabrice not .\n) . the two domed valves are equivalve , valves that mirror each other in both size and shape . however , each valve is asymmetrical . the valves are usually white or cream in colour , with strawberry - red scales ( fig . 2 ) . when in a still environment two siphons are able to be observed , an inhalant siphon (\nindividuals usually grow to lengths of 40mm , but when conditions are good they are able to grow to maximum lengths of 65mm .\nshell with a scanning electronic microscope . they found that the shell was a bioceramic composite . made up of long and thin aragonite , crystal form of calcium carbonate caco3 , sheets and layers of collagen protein . the aragonite sheets were found to have a herringbone structure , which gives the shells added strength ( chen , peng and wu 2007 ) .\nlateral view , the shell is of rhomboidal shaped ( fig . 3 ) .\ndorsal view , the prosogyrate umbo aids to form the major characteristic heart shape ( fig . 4 ) .\nthe shells have a short heterodont , cyclodont hinge , and an external parivincular ligament .\nthe hinge of each valve usually has two cardinal teeth ( fig . 7 ) :\nno research has been conducted into embryonic or larval development . the most educated assumption , is that they have similar embryonic and larval development to most other heterodont bivalves .\nafter the egg has been externally fertilized , the embryo undergoes the process of spiral cleavage ( hickman et al . 2011 ; wilbur and yonge 1964 ) . upon completion of embryonic cleavage , the embryo develops into a free swimming trochophore larvae ( ruppert , fox and barnes 2004 ) . this simple planktonic larval form , is dispersal utilizing ocean currents .\nthe trochophore larvae develops into the , longer lived , veliger larvae , unique to the molluscan phyla . during the veliger stage the mantle , shell and foot of the mollusc begin to develop ( hickman et al . 2011 ) . after successful feeding and dispersal , of the veliger larvae in the pelagic zone , the veliger larval form is lost as the bivalve develops into their adult forms (\nsavazzi ( 1985 ) states that members of the cardiidae family , display a variety of locomotory patterns that utilize the molluscs well developed l - shaped foot ( fig . 11 ) . these include , burrowing , jumping , ploughing and emerging ( fig . 12 ) .\nto loosen the sediment , cardiids eject water into the substrate at the beginning of each burrowing sequence ( wilbur and yonge 1964 ) allowing for easier burrowing . the burrowing process consists of a small number of burrowing sequences ( savazzi 1985 ) in which the shell rocks forwards and backwards ( fig . 13 ) , while being pulled downward by the foot ( ruppert , fox and barnes 2004 ) .\njumping involves the rapid extension of the muscular foot , propelling the shell backwards . it is not uncommon for several jumps to occur in response ( savazzi 1985 ) .\nploughing , horizontal movement through the sediment , is the process of repeated burrowing sequences , with the hinge line horizontal and the foot pointing forward ( savazzi 1985 ) .\nlaboratory tests completed by savazzi ( 1985 ) found that movement involved in emerging from substrate occurred in a single movement , displacing the cardiid forward . emerging was often a result of insufficient oxygenation ( savazzi 1985 ) .\nrespire through the use of gas exchange which primarily occurs via the gills . additionally , when exposed from water , aerial respiration is possible through oxygen diffusion through the mantle ( kawaguti 1983 ) .\nmost heterodont bivalves are suspension feeders ( fig . 14 ) , pumping water and plankton in through an inhalant siphon ( ruppert , fox and barnes 2004 ) . large ctenidia are used to filter water and food particles . within ctenidia , water is moved using specialised cilia , that create current , causing the oxygenated and plankton filled waters to pump past the thin gill filaments of the demibranchs ( wilbur and yonge 1964 ) . this allows nutrients and gasses to diffuse across the cells . the filtered water is then pumped out through the exhalent siphon ( ruppert , fox and barnes 2004 ) .\nhave a similar nervous system to other bivalves . where a reduction of the head has resulted in limited cephalisation . instead of having a single large brain , bivalves have four separated ganglia ( wilbur and yonge 1964 ) :\ncerebropleural ganglia , aids in the coordination of the muscular foot and the adductor muscle . pedal ganglia , provide motor control over the anterior pedal retractor muscles , byssal retractor muscles and the muscular foot . visceral ganglia , are responsible for the mantle , siphons , gills , heart , nephridia and gonads . siphonal ganglia , receives sensory information obtained by the siphons ( ruppert , fox and barnes 2004 ) .\nas the head is located internally within the bivalves\u2019 shell , it is unable to collect sensory information , and this task has been passed onto the foot and siphons ( rudman 1998 ) .\nevolutionally bivalves undergone a complete loss of their radula , and developed two shells ( valves ) that are bilaterally symmetrical , with their hinge as the axial point . balvalia can be grouped into three major clades based on their morphological characteristics ( ruppert , fox and barnes 2004 ) :\nconsists of most extant bivalves , they are filter feeders with complex filibranch gills .\n, was an important economic subsistence species for aboriginal communities in the western torres strait , before modern times .\nhas not yet been assessed for the iucn red list , and the current status of the species in unknown . however , like most other animals with a calcium carbonate , strawberry cockles are becoming more and more disadvantaged as the oceans become more acidic .\natlas of living australia . distribution map ( n . d . ) retrieved from\n, new york , ny : mcgraw - hill companies , pp . 352 - 358 .\nlinnaeus , c 1758 , \u201csystem naturae\u201d , regnum animale . cura societatis zoologicae germanicae ( 10th edi ) ,\nohno , t , katoh , t and yamasu , t 1995 . \u201cthe origin of algal - bivalve photo - symbiosis\u201d ,\npoutiers , jm 1998 , \u201cbivalves . acephala , lamellibranchia , pelecypoda\u201d , pp . 123 - 362 . in carpenter , ke and\n, vol . 1 , seaweeds , corals , bivalves , and gastropods . rome ,\n, belmont , calif : thomson - brooks / cole , pp . 367 - 403 .\nacanthocardia tuberculate ) \u201d , stuttgarter beitr . naturk . a ( biol . ) , vol . 353 , pp . 1 - 12 .\naustralian customers can pay by direct bank deposit ( preferred ) , paypal or cheque . overseas customers please pay by paypal unless other arrangements have been made\nprices quoted below are for regular airmail . please note that we can register and / or insure on larger orders . please enquire .\ncombining items in the one package is the most economical way to buy as postage stays the same up to 500grams .\nas postage figures vary dramatically from state to state and country to country please message us if you need an accurate quote .\nwe offer a money - back guarantee if not happy with the item . money will be refunded once the item has been returned in its original condition . return postage is the buyers responsibility .\nthis is a single item listing . if an auction is running , the winning bidder will be the highest bidder .\ni sold 4 more of my pin badges tonight , so over 100 sales now . the same newbie who purchase 4 of the 4th february has come back for 4 more\n42 created tue 10 jul 2018 05 : 04 : 12 ( aest ) . copyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 ebid ltd\nshell solid and inequilateral , umbonal keel rounded , subquadrate to trapezoidal with strongly digitate posterior margin . no strong keel . strong broad , flat radial ribs ranging from 23 to 31 , mean 27 . lunule narrow , smooth with raised dorsal margin . escutcheon broad , smooth . exterior white , ribs with irregular , transverse red scales , sometimes with pale brown blotches ; interior white . it is distinct from all other fragines by the prominent red scales on the ribs of the shell . shell length and width to around 5 cm while depth to above 6 cm .\nthis is the most heavily bodied , heavily shelled species of the subfamily fraginae . in contrast to corculum that has a very light , thin and transparent shell ( in areas ) , this species also participates in photosymbiosis but in a very different manner . soft anatomy is not contained within the shell but is exposed as highly distinct leaf - like extensions of the posterior siphonal area , similar to but unique from the hypertrophied mantle of giant clams . these are spread out on the surface of the sediment and function to greatly increase surface area for photosymbionts that are contained within the exposed tissue .\nall cockles or cardiids have short siphons . because of this morphological constraint , infaunal cardiids live close to the sediment water interface in order to filter water . this could be considered a preadaptation for a photosymbiotic lifestyle , as it also facilitates optimal light penetration into the soft tissues in shell interior where photosymbionts are housed .\nrights we support the open release of data and information about our collections . text content on this page is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international license . image content on this page is copyright wa museum .\nthe great barrier reef and adjacent isles : a comprehensive survey for visitor , naturalist and photographer .\nhylleberg , j . ( 2004 ) . lexical approach to cardiacea . records of taxa . illustrated and annotated records of living and fossil shells , with emphasis on the families cardiidae and lymnocardiidae ( mollusca : bivalvia ) . part 3 : n - z .\nkirkendale , l . ( 2009 ) . their day in the sun : molecular phylogenetics and origin of photosymbiosis in the \u2018other\u2019 group of photosymbiotic marine bivalves ( cardiidae : fraginae ) .\nbrisbane , queensland : jacaranda press . nielsen , c . ( 1976 ) . checklist of bivalves from pmbc beach and reef flat , phuket , thailand .\noostingh , c . h . ( 1925 ) . report on a collection of recent shells from obi and halmahera , molluccas .\npoorten , j . j . ter . ( 2009 ) . the cardiidae of the panglao marine biodiversity project 2004 and the panglao 2005 deep - sea cruise with descriptions of four new species ( bivalvia ) . vita malacologica , 8 , 9 - 96 .\npersselin , s . l . ( 1998 ) . the evolution of shell windows within the fraginae ( bivalvia : cardiidae ) and the origin of algal symbiosis in cardiids . m . s . thesis in biology : university of guam .\nreeve , l . a . ( ed . ) . conchologica iconica . london : reeve & bentham vol . 2 ( as\n, report on the zoological collections made in the indo - pacific ocean during the voyage of the h . m . s . ' alert ' 1881 - 2 . london , british museum trustees , printed by taylor , & francis . [ part i . collections of melanesia , pp . 34 - 116 ; part ii . collections from the western indian ocean , pp . 487 - 508 ; explanation of plates pp . 657 - 659 ] .\ntan , s . k . , & low , m . e . y . ( 2014 ) . checklist of the mollusca of cocos ( keeling ) / christmas island ecoregion . raffles bulletin of zoology , suppl . , 30 : 313 - 375 .\nwilson , b . r . , & stevenson , s . e . ( 1977 ) . cardiidae ( mollusca , bivalvia ) of western australia .\nwillan , r . c . , bryce , c . , & slack - smith , s . m . ( 2015 ) . kimberley marine biota . historical data : molluscs .\nshell medium , inequilateral , shell notably higher than long , sharply pointed ventrally with strong keel . posterior flattened and narrow , steep . sculpture of strong radial ribs circa 32 range 27 - 37 ( wam material ) , surfaces broad and flat . ribs flattened with close set transverse curved scales , becoming coarser anteriorly . lateral teeth extremely inequidistant from cardinals . shell cream , rugae or nodules on ribs often yellowish . interior color white , but with often yellow - orange flares radiating from umbonal cavity .\nintertidal to shallow subtidal insandy areas . generally in sheltered areas . in reefal habitats can be found from sandy areas through to seagrass bed perimeters and rubble .\nqld , nt and wa in australia , but widely distributed in the indo - west pacific .\nhedley , c . ( 1899 ) . the mollusca of funafuti . part 2 . pelecypoda and brachiopoda .\nhylleberg , j . ( 2004 ) . lexical approach to cardiacea . records of taxa . illustrated and annotated records of living and fossil shells , with emphasis on the families cardiidae and lymnocardiidae ( mollusca : bivalvia ) . part 2 : a - m .\n. vol . 1 . bathhurst , new south wales : crawford house press .\nmaes , v . o . ( 1967 ) . the littoral marine mollusks of cocos - keeling islands ( indian ocean ) .\npersselin , s . l . ( 1998 ) . the evolution of shell windows within the fraginae ( bivalvia : cardiidae ) and the origin of algal symbiosis in cardiids . m . s . thesis in biology , university of guam .\nreeve , l . a . ( ed . ) . conchologica iconica , vol . 2 . london :\ntan , s . k . & low , m . e . y . ( 2014 ) . checklist of the mollusca of cocos ( keeling ) / christmas island ecoregion . raffles bulletin of zoology , suppl . , 30 , 313 - 375 .\ntantanasiriwong , r . ( 1979 ) . a checklist of marine bivalves from phuket ( area ) .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ndepartment of biology , faculty of science , shimane university , matsue , japan .\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\ngrown under ordinary air . i . active species of inorganic carbon utilized for photosynthesis . pl . cell physiol . 28 : 273\u2013281\nblank , r . j . , trench , r . k . ( 1985 ) . speciation and symbiotic dinoflagellates . science , n . y . 229 : 656\u2013658\nand the occurrence of age gradients in calcification and photosynthesis . j . exp . bot . 27 : 864\u2013878\nbradford , m . m . ( 1976 ) . a rapid sensitive method for the quantitation of microgram quantities of protein utilizing the principle of protein - dye binding . analyl . biochem . 72 : 248\u2013254\ncook , c . b . ( 1983 ) . metabolic interchange in algae - invertebrate symbiosis . int . rev . cytol . 14 : 117\u2013210\nfankboner , p . v . ( 1971 ) . intracellular digestion of symbiotic zooxanthellae by host amoebocytes in giant clams ( bivalvia : tridacnidae ) , with a note on the nutritional role of the hypertrophied siphonal epidermis . biol . bull . mar . biol . lab . , woods hole 141 : 222\u2013234\nguillard , r . r . l . , ryther , j . h . ( 1962 ) . studies on marine planktonic diatoms . i .\nhinde , r . ( 1988 ) . factors produced by symbiotic marine invertebrates with affect translocation between the symbionts . in : scannerini s . et al . ( ed . ) nato asi series , vol . h17 . cell to cell signals in plant , animal and microbial symbiosis . springer - verlag , berlin , p . 311\u2013324\nin higher plants , algae and natural phytoplankton . biochem . physiol . pfl . 167 : 191\u2013194\n( l . ) and its associated zooxanthellae . pacif . sci . 4 : 43\u201349\nkawaguti , s . ( 1966 ) . electron microscopy on the mantle of the giant clam with special reference to zooxanthellae and iridophores . biol . j . okayama univ . 12 : 81\u201392\nkawaguti , s . ( 1968 ) . electron microscopy on zooxanthellae in the mantle nad gill of the heart shell . biol . j . okayama univ . 14 : 1\u201312\nkawaguti , s . ( 1983 ) . the third record of association between bivalve molluses and zooxanthellae . proc . japan acad . 59 ( ser . b ) : 17\u201320\nkeller , m . d . , selvin , r . c . , claus , w . , guillard , r . r . l . ( 1987 ) . media for the culture of oceanic ultraplankton . j . phycol . 23 : 633\u2013638\nmuscatine , l . ( 1965 ) . symbiosis of hydra and algae . iii extracellular products of the algae . comp . biochem . physiol . 16 : 77\u201392\nmuscatine , l . ( 1967 ) . glycerol excretion by symbiotic algae from corals and tridacna and its control by the host . science , n . y . 156 : 516\u2013519\nmuscatine , l . ( 1990 ) . the role of symbiotic algae in carbon and energy flux in reef corals . in : dubinsky z . ( ed . ) coral reefs . elsevier science publishers b . v . , amsterdam , p . 75\u201387\nmuscatine , l . , cernichiari , e ( 1969 ) . assimilation of photosynthetic products of zooxanthellae by a reef coral . biol . bull . mar . biol . lab . , woods hole 137 : 506\u2013523\nmuscatine , l . , pool , r . r . , cernichiari , e . ( 1972 ) . some factors influencing selective release of soluble organic material by zooxanthellae from reef corals . mar . biol . 13 : 298\u2013308\nnorton , j . h . , shepherd m . a . , long h . m . , fitt , w . k . ( 1992 ) . the zooxanthellal tubular system in the giant clam . biol . bull . mar . biol . lab . , woods hole 183 : 503\u2013506\nokaichi , t . , nishio , s . , imatomi , y . ( 1982 ) . collection and mass culture . in : jap . fish . soc . ( ed . ) toxic phytoplankton - occurrence , mode of action , and toxins . koseisha - koseikaku , tokyo , p . 23\u201334 ( in japanese )\nstreamer , m . , griffiths , d . j . , luong - van thinh ( 1988 ) . the products of photosynthesis by zooxanthellae (\nsutton , d . c . , hoegh - guldberg , o . ( 1990 ) . host - zooxanthellae interactions in four temperate marine invertebrate symbioses : assessment of effect of host extracts on symbionts . biol . bull . mar biol . lab . , woods hole 178 : 175\u2013186\ntrench , r . k . ( 1971 ) . the physiology and biochemistry of zooxanthellae symbiotic with marine coelenterates . iii . the effect of homogenates of host tissues on the excretion of photosynthetic products\nby zooxanthellae from two marine coelenterates . proc . r . soc . lond . ( ser . b ) 177 : 251\u2013264\ntrench , r . k . , wethey , porter , d . s . ( 1981 ) . observations on the symbiosis with zooxanthellae among the tridacnidae ( mollusca , bivalvia ) . biol . bull . mar . biol . lab . , woods hole 161 : 180\u2013198\nwafar , m . v . , qasim , s . z . ( 1975 ) . carbon fixation and excretion in symbiotic algae ( zooxanthellae ) in the presence of host homogenates . indian j . mar . sci . 4 : 43\u201346\nwaterbury , j . b . , stanier , r . y . ( 1981 ) . isolation and growth of cyanobacteria from marine and hypersaline environments . in : starr , m . p . , stolp , h . , tr\u00fcper , h . g . ( eds . ) the orokaryotes , vol . 1 . springer - verlag , berlin , p . 221\u2013223\nin order to access this website , please configure your browser to support cookies .\n877 . 705 . 1878 ( toll - free , u . s . & canada ) 773 . 753 . 3347 ( international )"]}
{"id": 2588, "summary": [{"text": "anelosimus eximius is a species of social spider in the genus anelosimus , native to the lesser antilles and the area from panama to argentina .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "colonies can comprise several thousand individuals .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "anelosimus eximius are classified as a social spider species because they engage in shared brood care and cooperate to capture prey within their web , which allows them to capture prey much larger than a single individual would be able to .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "their webs do not capture a lot of prey , but the prey that are caught are significantly larger than most prey captured in the webs of other individual social or antisocial spider species .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "thus , their techniques provide more nutrients than other social spider colonies may obtain .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "these techniques are most efficient in anelosimus eximius colonies of about 1,000 individuals .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the sociality of anelosimus eximius aids in the increased fitness of the species .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "one potential cost of sociality in anelosimus eximius is that they produce fewer egg sacs .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "however , each egg sac holds more individual offspring than most arachnid egg sacs would normally hold .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "thus , the benefits seem to outweigh the costs .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is difficult to explain how sociality has evolved from a typically solitary animal .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "one trait that has facilitated this shift is the lack of discrimination against foreign offspring .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it has also been questioned whether the alloparental behavior of anelosimus eximius was an ancestral trait or if the species had to overcome discrimination in order to gain their trait of sociality .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "through studies on social and sub-social species that observed reactions to foreign offspring , scientists discovered that the species did not need to overcome discrimination ; both sub-social and social species of arachnids showed no discrimination towards foreign offspring . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "anelosimus eximius", "paragraphs": ["colony size and individual fitness in the social spider anelosimus eximius . - pubmed - ncbi\nexploratory recruitment plasticity in a social spider ( anelosimus eximius ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nsmith , d . 1986 . population genetics of anelosimus eximius ( araneae , theridiidae ) .\nview image of anelosimus eximius are social spiders ( credit : aaron pomerantz / perunature . com )\nview image of anelosimus eximius live in dense colonies ( credit : aaron pomerantz / perunature . com )\nview image of anelosimus eximius colonies can be massive ( credit : bernard dupont , cc by 2 . 0 )\naviles , l . 1986 . sex - ratio bias and possible group selection in the social spider anelosimus eximius .\nvollrath , f . 1985 . eusociality and extraordinary sex ratios in the spider anelosimus eximius ( araneae : theridiidae .\nnentwig , w . 1985 . social spiders catch larger prey : a study of anelosimus eximius ( araneae : theridiidae .\naviles , l . , p . tufino . 1998 . colony size and individual fitness in the social spider anelosimus eximius .\nvollrath , f . 1986 . environment , reproduction and the sex ratio of the social spider anelosimus eximius ( araneae , theridiidae ) .\nsaffre , f . , a . mailleux , j . deneubourg . 2000 . exploratory recruitment plasticity in a social spider ( anelosimus eximius ) .\nebert , d . 1998 . behavioral asymmetry in relation to body weight and hunger in the tropical social spider anelosimus eximius ( araneae , theridiidae ) .\nvakanas , g . , k . bertrand . 2001 . coordination of behavioral sequences between individuals during prey capture in a social spider , anelosimus eximius .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - south american social spider ( anelosimus eximius )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - south american social spider ( anelosimus eximius )\ntitle =\narkive species - south american social spider ( anelosimus eximius )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nto cite this page : carrell , s . 2016 .\nanelosimus eximius\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nagnarsson i ( 2006 ) a revision of the new world eximius lineage of anelosimus ( araneae , theridiidae ) and a phylogenetic analysis using worldwide exemplars . zool j linnean soc 146 ( 4 ) : 453\u2013593\nsettepani , v . , l . grinsted , j . granfeldt , j . jensen , t . bilde . 2013 . task specialization in two social spiders , stegodyphus sarasinorum ( eresidae ) and anelosimus eximius ( theridiidae ) .\na . eximius is perhaps the best known of the social spiders , but that is not saying much .\nfowler , h . , e . venticinque . 1996 . interference competition and scavenging by crematogaster ants ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) associated with the webs of the social spider anelosimus eximius ( araneae : theridiidae ) in the central amazon .\nview image of this bee got stuck in an a . eximius colony ( credit : aaron pomerantz / perunature . com )\nin species like a . eximius , spiders are essentially clones . brothers and sisters mate with each other , generation after generation , so that colonies become highly inbred .\nthese two processes together help to explain why a . eximius colonies tend to be found in clusters , sometimes as many as 40 related colonies within just a few kilometres .\namong the thousands of species of spiders ( 40 , 000 arachnids ) , there are only about 23 species that live in social groups . anelosimus eximius is most commonly found in south american countries from panama to argentina . the massive spider webs that are created by these spiders can contain spiders in excess of 50 , 000 with females outnumbering men 10 to 1 .\nthese spiders , like a . eximius with its massive funnel pits of doom , may superficially seem to behave like social insects . but in truth they could hardly be more different .\naviles , l . , w . maddison . 1991 . when is the sex ratio biased in social spiders ? : chromosome studies of embryos and male meiosis in anelosimus species ( araneae , therididae ) .\nmajer , m . , i . agnarsson , j . scenning , j . bilde . 2013 . social spiders of the genus anelosimus occur in wetter , more productive environments than non - social species .\nanelosimus eximius is a species of spider that is also known as \u201csocial spider\u201d because it socializes with its fellow spiders and builds colossal spider webs that have the potential of reaching up to 25 feet ( 7 . 6m ) in height and 5ft ( 1 . 5m ) in width . according to the journal of arachnology , this brazilian spider species is a very cooperative and group - living spider .\nviera c , ghione s , costa , fg ( 2007 ) mechanisms underlying egg - sac opening in the subsocial spider anelosimus cf . studiosus ( araneae theridiidae ) . ethol evol ecol 19 ( 1 ) : 61\u201367\nanelosimus eximius , the species i encountered in the rainforest , is not the only kind of social spider in the world , but it does construct the biggest webs . some can reach more than 25ft ( 7 . 6m ) feet long and 5ft ( 1 . 5m ) wide . a web that size could contain as many as 50 , 000 individual spiders . that is a lot of legs , eyes and fangs .\nbut these cases aside , social spiders just about always build webs . and most of these webs have complex , three - dimensional structures , like the cone - shaped a . eximius webs i encountered in the jungle .\na . eximius was first discovered more than a century ago by a french arachnologist named eug\u00e8ne simon . more social spiders have been discovered since . one was found as recently as 2006 , in ecuador , by entomologist leticia avil\u00e9s .\nfor example , an a . eximius colony contains adult males and females as well as youngsters , but the majority of spiders on the web are females . in the early 1980s , researchers found that males comprise only between 5 % and 22 % of any colony ' s populace .\na . eximius was first discovered more than a century ago by a french arachnologist named eug\u00e8ne simon . an interesting advantage that these social spiders acquire by building giant webs is that they can capture prey which can be much larger in size than what a solitary spider would have been able to catch . these communal spiders work together to build , maintain and clean their webs .\nexploratory recruitment was investigated in an artificial experimental set - up on location in french guyana . groups of 200 freshly collected spiders of the neotropical social theridiid anelosimus eximius were released on an open circular surface and offered a choice between two accessible shelters . results indicated that a clear - cut collective decision was not always reached , unlike what we found using a different set - up in another set of experiments . simulations were conducted using available information in order to explore the potential causes for this difference . theoretical projections fit experimental data and strongly suggest that variability in the collective response results from a combination between modifications of the environment ' s properties and alteration of the recruitment procedure . multiple variants of the theoretical set - up ( including external bias ) are investigated and emphasize plasticity in the collective response . new experimental studies are suggested and adaptative value of exploratory recruitment in social spiders is briefly discussed .\nfunding was provided by a natural sciences and engineering research council of canada ( nserc ) discovery grant to l . a ( 261354 - 2008 rgpi ) . k . s . was additionally supported by an nserc canada graduate scholarship ( master\u2019s ) award ( 2009\u20132010 ) . the staff of simbioe and el ministerio del ambiente de ecuador assisted greatly with logistics and obtaining permits . the associates of reserva ec\u00f3logica antisana , estacion biol\u00f3gica jatun sacha , and bellavista cloudforest reserve all provided fantastic general assistance and field support . maurico vega and gabriel iturralde provided valuable field and spider identification assistance . members of the zoology department at ubc provided valuable comments on the manuscript . two anonymous reviewers provided many detailed suggestions that improved the manuscript greatly .\nn . sp . from uruguay ( araneae : theridiidae ) . j arachnol 40 ( 1 ) : 78\u201384\nagnarsson i , aviles l , coddington j , maddison w ( 2006 ) sociality in theridiid spiders : repeated origins of an evolutionary dead end . evolution 60 ( 11 ) : 2342\u20132351\nspiders ( araneae : theridiidae ) inferred from six molecular loci and morphology . mol phylogenet evol 43 ( 2007 ) : 833\u2013851\nagnarsson i , maddison wp , avil\u00e9s l ( 2010 ) complete separation along matrilines in a social spider metapopulation inferred from hypervariable mitochondrial dna region . mol ecol 19 : 3052\u20133063\navil\u00e9s l ( 1997 ) causes and consequences of cooperation and permanent - sociality in spiders . in : choe j , crespi b ( eds ) evolution of social behaviour in insects and arachnids . cambridge university press , cambridge , pp 476\u2013498\navil\u00e9s l , harwood g , koenig w ( 2012 ) a quantitative index of sociality and its application to group - living spiders and other social organisms . ethology 118 : 1219\u20131229\n, a cloud forest social spider with only slightly female - biased primary sex ratios . j arachnol 39 : 178\u2013182\nbates d , maechler m , bolker b ( 2011 ) lme4 : linear mixed - effects models using s4 classes . r package version 0 . 999375 - 38 .\nbergm\u00fcller r , johnstone r , russell a , bshary r ( 2007 ) integrating cooperative breeding into theoretical concepts of cooperation . behav process 76 ( 2 ) : 61\u201372\nclutton - brock t ( 2009 ) cooperation between non - kin in animal societies . nature 461 : 51\u201357\ncrawley , mj ( 2002 ) . statistical computing : an introduction to data analysis using s - plus . wiley , chichester\ncrespi b , yanega d ( 1995 ) the definition of eusociality . behav ecol 6 ( 1 ) : 109\u2013115\ncullen e ( 1957 ) adaptations in the kittiwake to cliff - nesting . ibis 99 : 275\u2013302\ndugatkin la ( 1997 ) cooperation among animals : an evolutionary perspective . oxford university press , oxford\nevans ta ( 1998 ) offspring recognition by mother crab spiders with extreme maternal care . proc biol sci 265 ( 1391 ) : 129\u2013134\nfoelix rf ( 1996 ) the biology of spiders , 2nd edn . harvard university press , cambridge\ngadagkar r ( 1990 ) evolution of eusociality : the advantage of assured fitness returns . phil trans r soc lond b 329 ( 1252 ) : 17\u201325\ngibbons me , ferguson am , lee dr , jaeger rg ( 2003 ) mother\u2013offspring discrimination in the red - backed salamander may be context dependent . j inf 59 ( 3 )\ngrinsted l , agnarsson i , bilde t ( 2012 ) subsocial behaviour and brood adoption in mixed - species colonies of two theridiid spiders . naturwissenschaften 99 ( 12 ) : 1021\u20131030\nhunt j ( 1999 ) trait mapping and salience in the evolution of eusocial vespid wasps . evolution 53 : 225\u2013237\njamieson ig , craig jl ( 1987 ) critique of helping behaviour in birds : a departure from functional explanations . in : bateson p , klopferm p ( eds ) perspectives in ethology , vol 7 . plenum , new york , pp 79\u201398\n( araneae , sicariidae ) and the evolution of maternal care in spiders . j arachnol 31 : 90\u2013104\njones tc , riechert s ( 2008 ) patterns of reproductive success associated with social structure and microclimate in a spider system . anim behav 76 : 2001\u20132019\njones tc , riechert se , dalrymple se , parker pg ( 2007 ) fostering model explains variation in levels of sociality in a spider system . anim behav 73 : 195\u2013204\njones tc , pruitt jn , riechert se ( 2010 ) fecundity and reproductive success in a socially polymorphic spider : social individuals experience depressed fitness when in isolation . ecol entomol 35 : 684\u2013690\nkoenig w , dickinson j ( 2004 ) ecology and evolution of cooperative breeding in birds . cambridge university press , cambridge\nlefevre k , montgomerie r , gaston aj ( 1998 ) parent\u2013offspring recognition in thick - billed murres ( aves : alcidae ) . anim behav 55 : 925\u2013938\nlubin yd , bilde t ( 2007 ) the evolution of sociality in spiders . adv study behav 37 : 83\u2013145\nphillips ml , tang - martinez z ( 1998 ) parent\u2013offspring discrimination in the prairie vole and the effects of odors and diet . can j zool 76 ( 4 ) : 711\u2013716\nr development core team ( 2008 ) r : a language and environment for statistical computing . r foundation for statistical computing , vienna , austria . isbn 3 - 900051 - 07 - 0 , url\nsaffre f , krafft b , deneubourg jl ( 1997 ) what are the mechanisms involved in the emergence of cooperation ? the spider model . in : th\u00e9raulaz g , spitz g ( eds ) auto - organization et comportement . herm\u00e9s , paris , pp 85\u201390\nsamuk k , ledue ee , avil\u00e9s l ( 2011 ) sister clade comparisons reveal reduced maternal care behaviour in social cobweb spiders . behav ecol 23 ( 1 ) : 35\u201343\n( araneae : eresidae ) and the implications for the evolution of sociality . anim behav 63 ( 4 ) : 649\u2013658\nseddon pj , van heezik y ( 1993 ) parent\u2013offspring recognition in the jackass penguin . j field ornithol 64 : 27\u201331\ntella j , forero m , donazar j , negro j , hiraldo f ( 1997 ) non - adaptive adoptions of nestlings in the colonial lesser kestrel : proximate causes and fitness consequences . behav ecol sociobiol 40 : 253\u2013260\ntoth al , varala k , newman tc , miguez fe , hutchison sk , willoughby da , simons jf , egholm m , hunt jh , hudson me ( 2007 ) wasp gene expression supports an evolutionary link between maternal behavior and eusociality . science 318 : 441\u2013444\nwisenden b ( 1999 ) alloparental care in fishes . rev fish biol fish 9 : 45\u201370\nsamuk , k . & avil\u00e9s , l . behav ecol sociobiol ( 2013 ) 67 : 1275 . urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ndepartment of ecology and evolutionary biology , university of arizona , tucson , arizona 85721 , usa .\nit is like a scene from a horror film : spider webs several metres wide that are home to thousands of spiders . why did these spiders turn social ?\neight legs , eight eyes and a pair of venomous fangs \u2013 the average spider is so well - equipped that it ' s easy to see why arachnophobes are terrified . but there is one saving grace : at least spiders are solitary , so they are usually encountered in small numbers .\nbut then i found myself trudging along a muddy path in the peruvian amazon jungle , face to face with a spider colony several thousand strong . their funnel - shaped web arched from tree to tree , a structure containing too many of the creepy crawlies to count .\nthese were spiders but not as i knew them : they appeared to function as a society , just like ants or bees .\nmost spiders are indeed lone wolves , but a scant handful have evolved a level of sociality to rival ant colonies , bee hives , or even primate societies .\nsociality shows up in at least seven spider families . in all we know of around 25 social species among the 45 , 000 described spider species on the planet . sociality evolved at least a dozen separate times among them .\nwhile the details vary from species to species among the social spiders , many of their features are similar .\ncommunal spiders work together to build , maintain , and clean their webs . they cooperate in capturing prey , and dine together when they snare a large feast .\nthe females feed their offspring by vomiting up food for them , just like mother birds . they even regurgitate food for juveniles other than their own . in other words , they work together to care for the youngest in the colony . it is a sort of spider day - care .\nnearby colonies tend to be related to each other , because new colonies form in one of two ways .\nsometimes , a large web is broken in half , perhaps by heavy rainfall or falling branches , or even a falling monkey . in its place , two smaller colonies are left behind .\nother times , individual females will strike out on their own , setting up a new web . eventually other dispersing females will join the group ; perhaps ones who tried to set up their own webs but failed . survival is more likely in groups , after all .\ngregarious arachnids are not much studied \u2013 perhaps because so few of them exist in the first place .\nmy students know more about social spiders than your average arachnologist ,\nsays linda rayor , an entomologist at cornell university in ithaca , new york , who studies australia ' s social huntsman spiders .\nmost animals are solitary ,\nshe tells me ,\nwhether you ' re looking at mammals , or birds , or whatever . social behaviour in otherwise solitary animals is cool .\nas i watched the social spiders go about their day deep in the jungle , a bee found itself stuck in the giant web . suddenly , dozens of the eight - legged predators descended en masse onto the struggling black - and - yellow striped insect . it was impossible to see through the writhing mass of tiny spider legs , but one thing was certain : that bee was done for .\nif death by one spider seems bad enough , it must be nothing compared to an attack by a whole swarm of them .\nthe first spider , the proto - spider , was probably solitary . so the spiders that gave rise to today ' s truly social species must have been too . but then they did something remarkable : they turned sub - social : they learned to tolerate each other , at least for a time \u2013 even if they did not exactly enjoy hanging out in groups .\nthat early tolerance could have come about as a result of parental care . in some spiders alive today , that is just defending an egg sac , but in others \u2013 the ones that are poised to evolve sociality \u2013 it looks more familiar to our mammal brains .\nin those species , females provide food and protection for their developing offspring , and occasionally even to other juveniles . in some species , mothers even make the ultimate sacrifice , allowing themselves in their last moments to become a meal for their brood . sub - social spiders can still be cannibals , after all .\nthey ' re the spiders that already have cooperation as juveniles ,\nsays arachnologist jonathan pruitt of the university of california , santa barbara .\nbut as they mature , they become intolerant of each other .\nin other words , juvenile tolerance alone is not enough to turn spiders fully social . the environment in which the spiders live also has to be right . researchers have discovered three ecological elements that often lead to cooperative living among arachnids .\nsolitary spiders living in places where it is difficult to subdue large or more profitable prey alone may eventually figure out that it is in their interest to work together . it is a smaller step from tolerance to cooperation than from aggression to cooperation .\nanother common feature is heavy rain . rain does not have to be frequent , but when it is really intense , it has the potential to seriously damage spider webs . when a tempest takes out the web and threatens a spider ' s survival , the ones with just a glimmer of social behaviour might fare just a little better than their isolationist peers .\nas a result , some have hypothesised that rough weather favours cooperation , since in those conditions it is the spiders that share the task of maintaining and repairing their webs that fare best .\nmany hands make light work of web repair ,\nsays pruitt .\nthen there is the web itself . there are only a couple of instances in which spiders that do not build webs have evolved to be sub - social . these web - less social spiders , living in places like the australian deserts or in african scrub habitat , have to cope with unusual circumstances \u2013 like enormous prey or particularly aggressive raiding ants .\npruitt thinks that could be a simple matter of mechanics . it is easier for two spiders just on the cusp of evolving sociality to join their webs together if they exist in three dimensions than if they weave flatter , two - dimensional ones , like charlotte ' s eponymous web .\nsome combination of tolerance , prey size , rough weather , and web geometry combine to create the perfect storm for social behaviour to emerge in spiders .\nadd in the fact that it is easier to defend yourself against predators in a group , and that communal webs offer spiders the relative safety of staying in one place rather than risking travelling away from the web onto which you are born to live somewhere else , and for some species , cooperation is a good deal .\nbees and ants sort into separate castes . some are workers , some are soldiers ( or drones ) , and then there is a reproductive class . those not included in the reproductive class are sterile ; they could not reproduce even if they wanted to .\nsocial spiders , meanwhile , are more egalitarian . anyone can do any job , and all are capable of reproduction .\nview image of driver ants are divided into strict castes ( credit : redmond o . durrell / alamy stock photo )\nit is not that spider societies do not rely on the division of labour . it is just that those roles are not strictly governed as they are for the social insects .\nand while some female social spiders do not wind up reproducing , it is not because they are physically or genetically incapable . instead , it is usually just because they have not lived successful enough lives . it takes a lot of nutrition to make a few hundred spider babies , and a spider that does not have a rich enough diet is not really up to the task .\ninstead , roles in spider colonies are usually sorted on the basis of age and sex . researchers are increasingly coming to realise that social spiders also sort themselves according to their individual personalities .\nthey ' re incredibly well organised ,\nsays pruitt .\nby paying close attention to individual spiders , he and others have discovered that certain spiders are more likely to spend their days attacking predators , while others are more likely to repair the webs , help keep parasites away , clean the web , rear the young , and so on .\nspider vocations are intimately tied to their efficiency at those vocations ,\nhe says .\nthough it is not yet clear whether those skills develop through experience or because of innate aptitude , some spiders are clearly in the construction business , some are hunters , others are on janitorial duty , and still others offer childcare services .\nsince adolescent spiders do not go off in search of new colonies , there is no influx of new genetic material . for that reason , some suspect that spider personalities develop as a result of early life experiences , not genetics .\nin spite of a lack of genetic diversity , they exhibit this exquisite diversity in terms of their personalities ,\npruitt says .\nview image of stegodyphus sarasinorum spiders have personalities ( credit : dinesh rao , cc by 2 . 0 )\nin 2013 , he and his colleagues looked at a social spider called stegodyphus sarasinorum , native to india , sri lanka , and nepal . they found that individual personality traits predict which job each spider performs .\ns . sarasinorum is found in dry scrubland . but like the spiders i found in the rainforests of peru , these arachnids work cooperatively to build and maintain their webs and to capture food .\nusing tiny dabs of paint applied to the spiders , pruitt and his team were able to track 40 from each of two different wild colonies . individuals that were bolder were more likely to be involved in attacking prey \u2013 but other characteristics , like body size or a spider ' s level of aggression , did not factor into their vocation .\nresponding to stimuli from a prey caught in the web elicits different responses according to a set of individual characteristics ,\nthey concluded .\nin other words , social spiders have distinct personalities , which in turn help to define their roles in the community .\nin a way , that is not so different from human societies . bold , risk - taking people might be more likely to wind up fighting fires or enrolling in a police academy , while the more calculating , deliberative types wind up as lawyers or architects .\ndespite lacking a backbone , invertebrates like insects and arachnids lend themselves well to studying complex social behaviour .\nwhen it comes to a behaviour that any sort of animal can do , insects [ and arachnids ] can do it , if not do it better ,\nsays entomologist phil torres .\nafter all , they have been evolving on our planet for a lot longer than any bird or mammal has .\nsometimes , as many as 40 colonies can be found within a distance of 1 km . to put that into perspective , check out the below image\nin the below picture , a colonized spider web was discovered in a north texas park in 2007 . the people in the below picture - mike mccord , left , and freddie gowin - the lake tawokoni state park rangers , monitor a giant communal spider web at the park .\nin 2013 in santo antonio da platina , brazil , these spider webs housing large quantities of spiders were eradicated by strong winds that detached the webs from their anchors , thereby , carrying the spiders and their ruined home to new sites . this event led to a \u201cspider rain\u201d in which people in santo antonio da platina observed spiders raining from the sky .\nwithin the built colonies , roles are segregated for all the spiders - males and females alike . some work as \u201cwarriors\u201d - those who act as predators and attack the prey - while some work to clean and maintain the webs .\nsocial spiders are likely to have evolved from subsocial ancestors via the subsocial route .\nit has been suggested that the transition from subsocial to social living requires a change in three behavioural traits : from premating dispersal ( wherein juveniles are dispersed from the colonies before breeding ) to postmating dispersal ( wherein juveniles are dispersed from the colonies after breeding ) , from outbreeding to inbreeding mating system , and from maternal care to cooperative breeding .\nromanian workers accidentally discover 5 . 5 million - year - old sealed cave teeming with freakish , bizarre looking creatures .\ninformation on the south american social spider is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\npublished online 4 august 2008 | nature | doi : 10 . 1038 / news . 2008 . 1007\nfor many people it ' s the ultimate nightmare : thousands of spiders collaborating to form a well organized society . a new study published this week in\nreveals how colonies of one spider species grow to an enormous size , and the surprising factors that ultimately limit their expansion .\nspiders are usually thought of as lone hunters . however , a few dozen species do live cooperatively , building collective webs and sharing food - gathering and child care between them . one example is the neotropical species\nresearchers based in the university of arizona , tucson , and university of british columbia , vancouver , have now examined colonies of the spiders in the jatun sacha biological reserve and cuyabeno nature reserve in ecuador , measuring the sizes of colonies and recording the prey captured in their communal webs .\nthe team discovered that as colonies grew larger , they actually caught fewer prey per spider than smaller colonies . to explain this , they turned to allometry , the study of the relationship between size and shape in biology . this is usually applied to single organisms , but the researchers found that it was equally relevant for the whole colony of spiders .\nas the number of occupants grows , the volume of the webs they construct increases - but the surface - area - to - volume ratio declines . the area of web is the all - important determinant of numbers of prey caught , so bigger colonies catch proportionally fewer prey items .\nat first , researcher leticia avil\u00e9s was puzzled by the finding : \u201cit begged the question of why the spiders lived in groups in the first place . \u201d\nbut she and her colleagues found a factor that compensated for the numbers effect . when they estimated the biomass \u2013 the dry weight - of prey caught , they found that larger webs spun by bigger colonies are able to capture larger prey items . larger portion sizes compensated for the falling number of prey - at least , up to a certain point .\ncombining both of these factors , they found that the amount of food available for each spider peaked in colonies containing around 500 spiders . \u201cprevious work had shown that social spiders are able to capture prey several times their body size . no previous work , however , had shown the relationship between colony size and the number and size of insects captured or between colony size and biomass captured per capita , \u201d notes avil\u00e9s .\nit was previously known that above a certain size the colonies break up , with the occupants dispersing to form new colonies . this research now seems to provide an explanation . although the study found many colonies larger than the optimum size , none was found with more than 9 , 000 spiders . below this size the occupants are better off staying put than starting a new , much smaller colony .\nthis is an exciting new perspective for thinking about how social web - spinning spiders have evolved ,\nsays todd blackledge at the university of akron , ohio , who studies web - weaving spiders .\nin the past the focus has been on the genetic effects of inbreeding in colonies . this tells us a lot more about the ecological factors governing colony size .\nis a social spider found in the neotropical region , specifically in central and south america . in particular , it inhabits as far north as panama and then sthrough eastern ecuador to peru . this spider is found patchily in locations such as suriname as well as eastern and southern brazil . colonies can also be found on islands such as trinidad and the lesser antilles .\nis found in the lowland rainforest . in particular , this social spider is found in the interior forest floor and forest edge . therefore this species of spider is rarely ever found in the canopy levels of the rain forest . typically , they are found in cleared areas or around tree falls . the webs can be found as low as a meter off the ground to 20 meters in the canopy .\ncolonies decrease in web area size altitude decreases . according to volrath ( 1986 ) , this is due to seasons generally being harsher at lower altitudes and damaging the webs .\n( majer , et al . , 2013 ; smith , 1986 ; vollrath , 1986 )\nsize can range from 4 . 4 to 6 millimeters . guevara and aviles ( 2011 ) report the female weight ranges from 2 . 55 to 11 . 82 mg . females are reported to be larger in weight and length than males although no specific measurements have been published for males . the size and weight of juvenile spiders have not yet been recorded in any published studies .\nthe social spider , like other arachnids , begins as an egg . here in this first stage , the spider goes through its first molt . the incubation period within the egg sac is 20 to 30 days . after the first molt the spiders emerge from the egg sacs . after emerging the social spiders then go through 5 to 6 developmental stages , depending on sex . each time period in between molts is numbered as an instar , or stage . the third instar is when the spiders begin to take part in colony duties . the males reach reproductive maturity in their 5th instar while females reach reproductive maturity in their 6th instar . reaching these maturity stages can take up to 2 to 3 months .\nmales can attract females through patterned vibrations with the strings that make up their web , as well as visual cues , such as swaying of the legs . in addition males can lay down a scent of pheromones on a line of thread to direct the female towards them . in some cases , the males use both methods of vibration and pheromone communication .\nin most cases males seek out the female because the females stay with the nest to invest in the web and eggs . this social spider is considered polygynandrous .\nis aseasonal , meaning the spiders do not have a particular season . furthermore , the social spider can breed more than once in its life span . depending on the resource factor , such as food , each egg sac can carry 17 to 53 eggs . the eggs hatch after an incubation period of 20 to 30 days .\nfemales reach maturity in the 6th instar while males mature in the 5th instar . when spiders reach their 3rd instar they become involved in colony tasks , such as hunting , maintenance , and mating .\naviles ( 1986 ) suggests that both parents invest an equal amount in the offspring . however , according to vollrath ( 1985 ) , females invest significantly more into the young . vollrath says the males contribute little to nothing beyond the mating process .\nthe spiderlings are cared for by the female until the 3rd instar . the female protects , feeds , and hunts for the young . the adult social spiders invest in the spiderlings until they can interact in colony duties .\naccording to avil\u00e9s ( 1986 ) , female spiders have an average life span of 76 \u00b1 13 days while males have an average of 71 \u00b1 13 days . the maximum lifespan of sexes are close in range . a single female was reported to have lived 94 - 103 days in the wild , while there are recordings of three males living 103 \u00b1 13 days in the wild . these spiders are not kept in captivity .\nthese particular social spiders perform tasks that are shared through the colony . the tasks include web maintenance and construction , brood care , defenses , along with attacking prey for when insects hit their trap . furthermore , the spiders cooperate when capturing the trapped insects . according to settepani et al . ( 2013 ) , these tasks are often separated by age and sex . females after the third instar are more likely to perform the colony tasks as well as hunt . researchers believe\nperforms these tasks to be more efficient in the idea of maintaining a successful colony .\nthe social spiders are sedentary . emigration is very rare . however , according to smith and hagen ( 1996 ) , when the spiders do relocate it occurs when the nests are by the roadside . this may be due to the nests being more open or vulnerable to trucks driving or having less cover from the weather .\n( agnarrson , 2005 ; kim , et al . , 2005 ; powers and aviles , 2007 ; settepani , et al . , 2013 ; smith and hagen , 1996 )\nhome range and territory size is the size of their web . rarely , does\ntravel out of its own web . therefore its home range is a 3 - d area with the range of volume from 0 . 0001 to 1 , 000 meters cubed .\nnentwig ( 1985 ) records area of the social spiders ' webs being from 20 to 28 meters squared .\naccording to vakanas and bertrand ( 2001 ) and kraft and cookson ( 2012 ) , there is no observable direct communication between the spiders . however , there does appear to be organization and cooperation , leading to the ability to catch larger prey . the spiders appear to adjust their behavior to match the situation or the prey .\nin terms of perception , these social spiders perceive their surroundings through their web . the span of their web acts as a visual perception of depth of their environment .\nutilizes the strings by vibration of the legs and abdomen to communicate with another spider . in addition , they can also communicate through attaching pheromones to threads for sexual communication .\ncreates its web to act as a net trap . above their main net they have a vertical non - stick web . this part acts as a net to trap and cause insects to fall into a bowl shaped nest below to be bombarded by the thousands of spiders ( vollrath , 1986 ) . although they are small organisms this technique allows them to catch much larger prey . reported by nentwig ( 1994 ) , the diet of\nwas studied in two sites . the first was cerro galera , panama where their prey - capture made up of 19 . 9 % of formicoidea ( ants ) , 17 . 8 % of coleoptera ( beetles ) , 17 . 2 % of heteroptera ( true bugs ) , and 12 . 7 % of blattodea ( roaches ) . the second was el valle , panama where their diet composed of 9 . 1 % of formicoidea , 35 . 0 % of coleoptera , 10 . 6 % of heteroptera , and 10 . 6 % of blattodea . the authors concluded that the spiders are consuming these groups in larger percentages than what is naturally available .\n, the spider has kleptoparasites that thrive within their web . these are organisms that are also referred to as food stealers . the social spiders ' main kleptoparaiste is\n. according to cangialosi ( 1990 ) due to the parasitic spiders , the social spiders can lose up to 26 % of their food resource . consequently , the social spiders address this problem through avoiding , tolerating , and fighting off the kleptoparasites .\nthe conservation status of this spider has not yet been reported . this spider is not recognized by the iucn red list , is not protected by cites , and is not federally or state listed . because no scientific publications suggest its populations are in peril , no conservation measures are currently in place .\nskyler carrell ( author ) , radford university , karen powers ( editor ) , radford university , april tingle ( editor ) , radford university , emily clark ( editor ) , radford university , cari mcgregor ( editor ) , radford university , jacob vaught ( editor ) , radford university .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nused loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies . more specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits ( a continuous , modular society ) - as in clonal organisms .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nreproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .\nthe kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males , each of which also pairs with several different females .\nrainforests , both temperate and tropical , are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground . epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant . precipitation is typically not limiting , but may be somewhat seasonal .\na wetland area that may be permanently or intermittently covered in water , often dominated by woody vegetation .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\n2014 .\niucn red list\n( on - line ) . accessed march 23 , 2015 at urltoken .\naviles , l . 1997 . causes and consequences of cooperation and permanent - sociality in spiders .\nbreene , r . 2014 .\narachnid developmental stages : current terminology\n( on - line ) . welcome to the american tarantula society headquarters . accessed march 01 , 2015 at urltoken .\nguevara , j . , l . aviles . 2011 . influence of body size and level of cooperation on the prey capture efficiency of two sympatric social spiders exhibiting an included niche pattern .\nkim , k . , k . bertrand , j . choe . 2005 . cooperative prey capture by young subsocial spiders : ii . behavioral mechanism .\nkrafft , b . , l . cookson . 2012 . the role of silk in the behaviour and sociality of spiders .\npowers , k . , l . aviles . 2007 . the role of prey size and abundance in the geographical distribution of spider sociality .\nsalomon , m . , d . mayntz , y . lubin . 2008 . colony nutrition skews reproduction in a social spider .\nyip , e . , l . rayor . 2013 . the influence of siblings on body condition in a social spider : is prey sharing cooperation or competition ? .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\ncenter for nonlinear phenomena and complex systems , universit\u00e9 libre de bruxelles , c . p . 231 , bvd , du triomphe , brussels , b - 1050 , belgium ."]}
{"id": 2589, "summary": [{"text": "the fancy rat is a domesticated rat ( rattus norvegicus ) , which is the most common breed among pet rats .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "the name fancy rat derives from the idea of animal fancy ( promotion of domesticated animals ) or the phrase \" to fancy \" ( to like , or appreciate ) .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "fancy rats have their origins as the targets for blood sport in 18th - and 19th-century europe .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "specially bred as pets since then , fancy rats now come in a wide variety of colors and coat types and are bred and raised by several rat enthusiast groups around the world .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "fancy rats are commonly sold as pets in stores and by breeders .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "domesticated rats are physiologically and psychologically different from their wild relatives , and \u2014 when acquired from reputable breeders and shops \u2014 pose no more of a health risk than other common pets .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "for example , domesticated brown rats are not considered a disease threat , while exposure to wild rat populations could introduce pathogens like salmonella into the home .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "fancy rats experience different health risks from their wild counterparts , and thus are less likely to succumb to many of the same illnesses as wild rats .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "fancy rats care for themselves , and are thus very affordable compared to even other small pets .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "this is one of the biggest draws to them .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "additionally , fancy rats are quite independent , loyal and easily trained , earning them comparison to both cats and dogs .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "this comparison is merited given fancy rats are considered more intelligent than any other domesticated rodent .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "wild-caught specimens that become docile and bred in many generations still fall under fancy type . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "fancy rat", "paragraphs": ["national fancy rat society . articles and information on the health of fancy rats .\nthe following is a brief description of the rat markings as recognized by the american fancy rat and mouse association . see fancy rat genes : marked for genetics .\nfancy rat faq - 13 . can two males co - exist in one cage ?\noscar the fancy rat ( petsitters club s . ) : tessa krailing : 9780590195256 : urltoken books\nthe proper usage of fancy is the keeping of pet rats the name fancy rat derives from the idea of animal fancy or the phrase ,\nto fancy\n( to like , or appreciate )\nfancy\n, regular , feeder and breeder rats are really all the same . dumbos are just ear placement , and they only grow bigger if they are genetically bigger or if they are fed well .\nthe fancy rat population today descended from the\nbrown rat\nlatin name rattus norvegicus , that colonized europe in the 18th century .\nlissenberg , j . ( 2006 ) fancy rats . rebo publishers , the netherlands .\nthe american fancy rat and mouse association , a california - based non - profit club of rodent enthusiasts that sets breed standards , organizes shows , and helps to promote both the fancy rat and the fancy mouse as appealing pets , was formed in 1983 . the afrma claim their main objective is to \u201cpromote and encourage the breeding and exhibition of fancy rats and mice for show and pets . \u201d being held annually on november 12th of every year , fancy rat & mouse day is sponsored by afrma , with the aim of popularizing raising and breeding fancy mice and rats as pets and companions .\nthe following is a brief description of the rat varieties ( coat , body , ear types ; rats do not come in breeds ) as recognized by the american fancy rat and mouse association . see fancy rat genes : coats & misc . for genetics .\nbut what is a fancy rat ? a fancy rat is a rat who has been bred to conform to a written standard . its coat , color , conformation , size , and personality all were taken into account by its breeder in an attempt to create an ideal show animal . in other words , the term \u201cfancy rat\u201d is the equivalent of saying \u201cpure - bred dog . \u201d today\u2019s fancy rats are as far distanced from wild rats as poodles are from wolves .\ninteractions within groups of fancy rats : how to introduce new animals to an existing group etc . .\nkelly , jasey .\nhairless vs . fancy rats for pets\naccessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken\nenvironment : the fancy rat can be found on every continent aside from antarctica . it is the most successful mammal only second to humans .\nat london & southern counties mouse & rat club shows the rats are judged to the standards published by the national fancy rat society , apart from the lscmrc unstandardised class .\nas the fancy rat\u2019s popularity has grown , so has its availability . most colors and coat types are available anywhere in the u . s .\nthe rat and mouse club of america identifies four main varieties of rats : standard , rex , hairless and tailless . in addition , the american fancy rat and mouse association recognizes satin and dumbo rats . the national fancy rat society recognizes many varieties , but it has banned tailless and hairless rats from exhibition in the united kingdom .\nif the ville rat takes your fancy , why not broaden your reading tastes further , starting with pulpcurry\u2019s article five great crime novels set in asia ? ville rat is out 6 october .\nsenses fancy rats have limited vision , and rely on their keen senses of smell and hearing to perceive their world .\nkelly , jasey .\nhairless vs . fancy rats for pets .\nanimals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / hairless - vs - fancy - rats - pets - 2436 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .\nkelly , jasey . ( n . d . ) . hairless vs . fancy rats for pets . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / hairless - vs - fancy - rats - pets - 2436 . html\nany other varieties\nof fancy rats include topaz , lilac agouti , cinnamon pearl and silver fawn . these names point to each rat ' s coloration .\nlifespan of the fancy rat ; some common medical problems and what to do about them ; things your vet may not know about rats ; safety - precautions if taking on an orphaned wild rat .\nhello ! i actually breed fancy rats ( pet rats ) and i ' m here to tell you that , where there are some definitive differences , fancy rats really aren ' t all that biologically different from their wild cousins . both fancy rats and wild rats are descendants of the norway rat , and thus have a lot of similatities , however , due to years of domestication , also have many differences . one of the biggest differences is that fancy rats have a lot fewer adrenal glands than wild rats do . this causes them to be calmer , and less aggressive than their wild relatives . as well , fancy rats are a fair bit smaller than most wild rats and come in a much wider array of colorations . wild rats are generally grey , brow or black as they need too bland in with their surroundings , whereas fancy rats come in all sorts of variations from spotted , striped , siamese , hooded , and so many more . there are a number of mutations of the standard fancy rat including the rex ( similar to a rex rabbit ) hairless , and dumbo ! fancy rats are highly intelligent and very social animals who make amazing companion animals . i own 3 adult rats ( all of which are rescues ) and currently have a litter of 7 babies . now , with all of these differences aside , fancy rats and wild rats are still quite similar . if you raise a wild rat in captivity , then it can turn out to be just as amazing a pet as a fancy rat . and , if you release a fancy rat into the wild , it will learn to survive as a wild rat . two of my adult rats are fancy rats , however my 3rd ( meeko ) is actually a wild rat . meeko was raised in captivity just like a fancy rat would be , and where i can see some differences between her and my other two ( she is larger and more active ) she is still just as much of a treasured family member as the others are . ultimately , the main difference between fancy rats and wild rats is how they are raised .\nfancy rats were first bred since the 18th century and have evolved to be very different in disposition , temperament and even coloration than ordinary wild rats . for example , while a wild rat may be either black or brown a fancy rat can sport a multitude of colors , such as white , cinnamon or even having a blue hue .\na rat graps another rat ' s skin in its teeth and attempts to pull the rat in a particular direction .\nintroduction : the fancy rat is the typical rat that is sold in pet stores and seen in homes . it is the most common species of pet rat . i decided i would study the rat because it was accessible and also carries a rich history . the rat that i studied was located in the glen apartments . the rat is female and is named \u201crossi\u201d .\nthe hairless rat is simply a rat with mutated genes resulting in a bald rat with smooth , soft skin . they may have some hair around the genitals in some cases . fancy rats and hairless rats have much of the same care requirements and temperament .\nnom - ology a study in rat nutrition . urltoken confessions of a rat breeder urltoken\nthe tailless rat is sometimes called the manx rat , a nod to the tailless manx cat . in fact , a tailless rat sometimes has a hint of a tail or a short , furry stub where the tail would be . the national fancy rat society has banned exhibition of the tailless rat because a rat ' s tail helps him regulate his body heat and is considered necessary for robust health .\nspecial needs fancy rats have front teeth that never stop growing - - so they need lots of healthy things to chew on like treat sticks .\nfancy rat & mouse day gives us the opportunity to celebrate these beautiful creatures . not to be confused with wild ( black ) rats , the fancy rat is the domesticated brown rat ; while the fancy mouse is the domesticated form of the house mouse . both can be very smart and affectionate and make ideal pets , particularly for children ( especially since there is much less looking after than with a dog , cat or rabbit ! ) . but don\u2019t let that make you think the members of the fancy rat and mouse association take their fancy rats and mice less seriously than they would take any other pets ! fancy rat and mouse breeders and enthusiasts head to california several times a year , where professionally bred varieties are judged on a range of categories . it is , in reality , a serious business . karen robbins , afrma\u2019s spokeswoman , makes a convincing argument for the pets , saying , \u201crats are very intelligent and can be trained like dogs . they are clean like cats\u2014always washing themselves\u2014and are very personable . they know their owners and want to be out with them . \u201d\na little background about rossi\u2026 i have spent the past few weeks observing the behavior and mannerisms of a certain female fancy rat named \u201crossi\u201d ( short for rossi roo ) . rossi is known as a hooded fancy rat because of the breed\u2019s coat . the rat as white except for its \u201chood\u201d which is dark brown and covers all of her head and some of her back . her tail and her paws are light pink .\nover the next 45 years interest in fancy rats was very sporadic . several times there were people interested in starting rat clubs ; however , there was never enough support to really have a go at it . 1976 was the turning point . in january of that year the national fancy rat society was founded . this was the first ever \u201crats only\u201d organization . it set standards , published a newsletter , and held shows . since 1976 interest in fancy rats has grown enormously , and many new varieties have been found and standardized .\nfancy rats enjoy living together in pairs . it is best to house two females together , as two males may become territorial . they are the smartest of all small pets , and can learn their names and simple tricks . they have tons of energy and are really fun to watch . fancy rats enjoy running on wheels and in exercise balls . calm , curious and fun - loving , fancy rats love to play and interact with their pet parents .\none rat runs away from the other , the second rat may or may not pursue .\nmore photos of each rat shown can be seen by clicking the rat ' s name .\ndomestication : domestic mice originated from stocks captured in china , japan and europe and developed into fancy mice . these fancy mice were found in pet shops in the 20th century , and were developed into laboratory mouse strains . fancy mice are primarily descended from m . musculus domesticus , with a little admixture of the other three subspecies . as such , domestic mice do not represent one of the single subspecies , but are a mixture of all four . ( silver , 1995 ) .\nthe domestic or fancy rat is descended from the brown rat ( also known as the norwegian rat ) and is thought to have originated from asia moving into europe in 1553 and then onto the us in 1775 . it lives in burrows and is a good swimmer and can often be found inhabiting sewers .\nin 1901 miss mary douglas , the \u201cmother of the rat fancy , \u201d wrote to the n . m . c . and asked whether they would consider opening their doors to rats . the n . m . c . agreed , and the first classes for fancy rats were staged in the fall of 1901 . by 1912 there was enough interest in rats that the club\u2019s name was officially changed to the national mouse and rat club .\nfancy rats are social . a pet rat left in the wild for an extended period of time may learn fear and appear nervous , but if they were handled by their previous owners , they are quite likely to come\nkuramoto t , yokoe m , yagasaki k , kawaguchi t , kumafuji k , serikawa t . genetic analyses of fancy rat - derived mutations . exp anim . 2010 ; 59 ( 2 ) : 147 - 55 .\nmeet mouse , the agouti hooded rat ! photo courtesy of laurel l . of pet rat lovers !\nhairless rat babies ; males help raise babies ; pedigreed rat ; babies savagely killed / tailless mice .\na rat will rarely bother the incision of another rat unless she is an obsessive groomer or barber .\nou breed what ? i\u2019m used to that response now , and i can\u2019t really blame people . most have never even heard of fancy rats . when you say rat most people picture either wild rats or the pink - eyed domestic rats sold for years as snake food in pet shops . i\u2019ll admit this vision of rats is not particularly appealing and i can almost understand their dislike of such creatures . they have never met a fancy rat .\ndumbo rats are rumored to be the sweetest & most gentle of the fancy varieties . can this be true ? amazingly , the answer is a resounding\nyes !\nif you find that your rat has a unique or odd marking , see if you can match it up with other known markings ! every year , new mutations occur within the pet fancy rat trade . whether or not the breeder or owner has knowledge of it , it could start a new trend in rat markings ; much in the way that the popular down under rat has !\ngo to afrma official rat standard go to rat type issues - judging 101 for examples of type problems .\nto read more about bruxing and to hear rat sound samples , go to the norway rat vocalizations page .\nto read more about chattering and to hear rat sound samples , go to the norway rat vocalizations page .\nmeet sativa , the fawn hooded red rat ! photo courtesy of laurel l . of pet rat lovers !\noccasionally , the furry rat will scratch the hairless rat when in close proximity\u2014though not necessarily due to fighting .\ndry the rat with a towel , and move the rat to a clean cage to let him dry .\nthe hairless rat is bald with pink , thin skin that is nearly translucent . if he has whiskers , they are short and curly . his hairlessness is caused by a genetic mutation , and people with fur allergies might appreciate his baldness . the national fancy rat society says the lack of fur makes this rat susceptible to cold and injury .\ncopyright \u00a9 1995\u20132018 american fancy rat and mouse association all text , artwork , and photos are copyright to afrma , and / or the author , artist , or photographer . unauthorized copying of any part constitutes a breach of copyright law .\nin addition to the more well known varieties , the national fancy rat society recognizes at least 21 new varieties . these have poetic or exotic names such as powder blue , quick silver , cinnamon chinchilla , russian pearl and sable burmese .\nthe term\nfancy\nrefers to the fact that they are completely domesticated , and come in a wide variety of colours , patterns and coat types not found in wild rats .\nsome people may fancy rats as pets , but for the most part , a rat in the house is not considered a good thing . rats have been plaguing humans - - and giving them the plague - - for thousands of years .\nthis article is from the rat health care booklet . order one today ! check out the info at rat books\ntoday , both phil and perry abramenko are the government of alberta\u2019s rat and pest specialists overseeing the rat control program .\nthe rex fancy rat has a curly coat and whiskers . his dense , soft coat comes in many colors , and it lacks the guard hairs that make rat fur coarse . this unusual coat makes him a good pet for people who are allergic to other rats , according to the book\npet rats .\nthe rat fancy is relatively young in the united states . the first u . s . club , the mouse and rat breeders association , appeared in 1978 . in 1983 the american fancy rat and mouse association originated . since that time rats have been imported from england so that the u . s . now has all the varieties available overseas . fanciers in the u . s . have also been responsible for originating a number of their own varieties . there are now several clubs in the united states , and many more worldwide catering to rats ( and mice ) .\nmay occur when a sidling rat makes physical contact with another rat . using the broadside of its body , the sidling rat presses against the second rat . the sidling rat may tuck his head town , sometimes as far down as between his front paws ( possibly to protect it ) , or under the second rat ( possibly to gain leverage ) . the second rat may reciprocate , such that both rats push against each other . alternatively , the second rat may be pushed back . if the encounter happens on a ledge , the pushing rat may maneuver the second rat off the ledge .\nwild rats can be found all over europe , although they originated in asia . the population spread across the world when the rats were sneaky stowaways on merchant ships . the domestic or fancy rat is descended from the brown rat ( also known as the norwegian rat ) and is thought to have originated from asia moving into europe in 1553 and then onto the us in 1775 .\nover the last 100 years interest in the fancy rat has waxed and waned ; however , in the last 15 years the popularity of fancy rats has skyrocketed . people have discovered that they are bright , intelligent , affectionate , gentle , and make wonderful pets . they don\u2019t bite , don\u2019t bark , never leave fur all over the house , and are easy and inexpensive to care for . many people today don\u2019t have the time , energy , or money to own a dog . a rat is the next best thing .\nbelly up roll by henry ( black and white rat ) under harvey ( black rat ) . photo courtesy of jon lyman\nrat forum > rat related forums > caring for accidental litters > ethical breeding . . . what you should know before breeding\nstaples and clips resist casual exploration by the rat , but can be removed with minimal skin damage by a persistent rat .\nbucsis and somerville : training your pet rat , barron ' s books , 2000 . basic rat care and training information .\nthere are many\ntypes\nof fancy rats - different colours , different coat types , even rats with different ears , no hair , or tailless rats . because our laws do not allow rats to be brought into australia , some of these types are found only overseas . australia has developed a unique type of fancy rat , known as the\ndownunder\nrat . although we cannot import rats , we can export them , so downunder rats are now found throughout the world , including the usa , uk and parts of europe .\nrat molars are similar to the molar depicted in figure 2 . rat incisors , however , have a single , open , root that continues to grow throughout the rat ' s life .\nhenry ( black and white rat in foreground ) bounds after willy ( brown rat in background ) . photo courtesy of jon lyman\nrat babies - 1 day old - picture guide of a litter of 1 - day - old rat babies by karen robbins .\nyou can submit your rat for rat of the week by sending a photo and a little story about your rat by email or snail mail to the addresses at the bottom of the page .\ni think\nfancy\nrats is a term gave mainly by pet shops . in their thoughts it means a different color other than agouti , blacks , albino , and hooded rats . . most of the time their fancy are also dumbo - eared . , but not always . around here fancy rats can be american blue ( any markings ) , dumbo or top eared . the feeder rats around here ( in the past ) were blacks and albino . . . now there is a feeder breeder , breeding dumbos for food purpose though . i don ' t believe breeders use the words fancy . . . because most view rats as equals . i also have heard from pet owners that they think the dumbo rats get bigger . both dumbo and top ears can get the same size . i hope i understood the question . . . . - hilary\ncoat : fancy rats can be found in a wide and varying array of colors ; m ost commonly seen in solid colors or with hooded markings . some fancy rats will retain the wild brown agouti color , 3 tones on a single hair ; others have black based hair , one color on one hair . some common agouti shades include agouti , cinnamon , and fawn . black based shades include black , beige , and chocolate .\none male rat\nsrr - do your best\nwas introduced from american fancy rat colony ( spoiled ratten rattery : srr , in kansas city , missouri ) to kyoto university on july 13 , 2005 . inbreeding started from f1 progeny of male\nsrr - do your best\nand a female pvg / seac . ( sep 25 , 2009 )\nwhen introducing a new rat to a group of rats , usually only the dominant resident rat will be aggressive toward the newcomer at first . this is the dominant rat\u2019s \u201cjob . \u201d once the new rat is accepted by the dominant rat , the others may show some aggression in turn , but it usually won\u2019t be as severe .\nwhile we will never be able to have a model that fully replicates the extent of the our own complex physical and behavioural state , the fancy rat has greatly progressed our understanding of many different diseases and disorders , and they will likely continue to provide a very valuable contribution to research .\ntry to prevent your rat from eating anything in excess and he should be fine . some foods to avoid giving your rat include :\nhabitat your fancy rat needs a well - ventilated wire home with a solid floor . it should be large enough for a food dish and water bottle , a hiding house and climbing toys . there should be plenty of room for all cage accessories , and for her to move around freely .\na very striking blazed husky rat . this husky rat is young so it has not yet lost its blaze , but the next picture in this hubt is probably the same rat at a later age !\njuvenile - type defense tactic in which one rat rolls onto his back before another , sometimes after receiving a nip or bite on the rump . the top rat may then step on the supine rat , sometimes orienting himself perpendicular to the long axis of the supine rat ( thus avoiding the whiskers ) , and pinning him down . the top rat may groom the supine rat ' s belly ( see also\nmay occur when a sidling rat approaches another very closely . the hind foot closest to the second rat kicks out , and may contact the second rat on the flank or higher on the the back .\neach of the foods on this list are great for supplementing a healthy rat diet based off of one of the best rat foods available .\nunfortunately , the popularity of fancy rats began to decline after the death of miss douglas in 1921 . less and less interest in rats was shown over the next few years and in 1929 the club was reorganized dropping the word rat from its name . the national mouse club is still in existence today .\nrats and mice have a bad rap with large parts of society , as they are often associated with dangerous germs and dirt . what\u2019s more , rats and mice are often feared by people , especially children . most of all , if you are not already a fancy rat or mouse enthusiast , it is important to remember that these animals are not the same ones that you\u2019re probably thinking of , the ones associated with the spread of various diseases such as the bubonic plague or other such widespread disasters to humanity . fancy rats and mice have been kept as pets for years and are both clean and gentle , and definitely nothing to be afraid of . the fancy rat and mouse show out on every year on fancy rat and mouse day by the afrma is not only open to rats and mice and their owners , but also to people who have no experience with these animals and are just curious , to the point that there is no entrance fee . this could be a great opportunity to become acquainted with the creatures and get more comfortable around them . you might also want to watch some of the competitions organized that rats and mice take part in , and watch them win medals and trophies . it\u2019s truly an unforgettable experience ! and if you find yourself becoming particularly interested in fancy rats and mice and all of the things they are capable of , why not attend the display event that exhibits the rats and mice that afrma members have been breeding specificaly for the purpose of showing people just how adorable a purebred fancy rat or mouse can be . this event can also be a great opportunity for all sorts of pet lovers to meet and bond over their experiences , exchange advice , etc .\nlike it was previously stated , rat species differ in their life expectancies . and there is a difference between wild rats encountered in the wild than those typically sold in your local pet store . wild rats are usually of the two following species : the norway rat ( rattus norvegicus ) and the roof rat ( rattus rattus ) . pet store sold rats are called \u201claboratory rats\u201d or , alternatively , fancy rats . they are usually domesticated norway rats .\n. boxing is a defensive strategy : as long as the subordinate rat maintains whisker - to - whisker contact , the dominant rat cannot bite his rump . the dominant rat may respond to the boxing tactic with a\nfrom the subordinate rat . nose - offs are a defensive strategy : as long as the subordinate rat maintains whisker - to - whisker contact , the dominant rat cannot bite him . nose - offs may escalate into\nrat , which is the standard lab rat , has an abnormally high incidence of mammary tumors . however , the incidence of mammary tumors in my\ndeep intake of breath through wide open mouth . frequently associated with stretching . for some wonderful photos of rat yawns , check out the dapper rat\nin the early 1800s colored mice began to find their way into europe and became popular , particularly in the u . k . in 1895 the national mouse club was founded in england . they set standards for the different varieties and held shows . it was because of this organization that the rat fancy was born .\none male rat\nsrr - rocket science\nwas introduced from american fancy rat colony ( spoiled ratten rattery : srr , in kansas city , missouri ) to kyoto university on july 13 , 2005 . inbreeding started from f1 progeny of male\nsrr - rocket science\nand a female pvg / seac . homozygous rats for mink were selected for inbreeding . ( sep 25 , 2009 )\nthe rat actually has a rather long history as a domestic animal . the first documented domesticated rats were bred in england in 1800 , but it is most likely that they had been around for hundreds of years before that . whatever the date , by 1901 enough unusual colors and patterns had turned up that there was interest in them as desirable exhibition animals , and thus the rat fancy was born .\nfancy rats come in a variety of common , uncommon , and straight up rare markings . there are so many beautiful ratties out there that it is mind boggling ! unfortunately , none of us can have them all . however , we can dream right ?\nas the sport of rat - baiting began to die down because of the inaction of animal cruelty laws , rats became regarded in high society as a pet of status . jack black , the rat catcher to her majesty queen victoria , was the man to talk to if someone wanted a pet rat . ( he is responsible for most of the breeds we see today . ) the fancy rat became a popular pet for high society women to carry around in squirrel cages or to keep on small leashes . queen victoria and beatrix potter were two of his customers .\nthe brown or norway rat , rattus norvegicus , is the species which was domesticated into what we recognize as fancy or pet rats . this animal began steadily colonizing europe , and particularly england , in the early 18th century . upon its arrival the brown rat was quick to drive out the indigenous black rats . because it was larger and more adaptable , the brown rat was able to thrive in environments that were not suitable for the black rats . thus england was somewhat overrun with rats .\ncan you just treat the rat for the bacteria rather than having the rat tested ? this seems that it would be far cheaper than doing the test .\nwe have all seen hooded rats , especially in dreadful stores such as petsmart . the hooded rat is super common , and can be found in many rat households . nearly every rat owner has owned a hooded rat at some point . hooded rats can come in a variety of colors , with many different patterns .\n, ten speed press , 1997 . the editor capitalizes on the mystery surrounding the rat to present a sensationalized history of the rat : packed with rat facts , fiction , lore , maps , and even a glossary . she also examines the rat ' s role in science , literature , and of course film .\nadult mice are much smaller than adult rats ( fig . 1 ) . adult mice weigh about 30 grams , and fancy mice tip the scales at about 50 grams . adult mice have bodies that are 3 - 4 inches long with 3 - 4 inch tails .\nas you can see , the rat has significant hair loss and even sores .\na rat of either breed that grows up in the wild will be wild , and a rat of either breed that grows up with people will be tame .\ndominant trait \u2014 a standard eared rat has just the normal , wild - type rat ears . they are normal sized and set on top of the head .\none rat grooms a recumbent rat ' s belly . may be an attempt to reach the nape , which is the goal of play fighting . see also\nhere is a brief list of rat behaviors that are relevant to health issues .\nstandard or normal ( my pet rat sickle r . i . p . )\nmismarked : refers to a rat with imperfect markings compared to a show standard .\nchinchilla blaze berkshire rat , owned by julie klaz . photo \u00a91999 craig robbins .\nblack variegated rat owned and bred by karen robbins . photo \u00a91996 craig robbins .\nthank you ! we will notify you when this item is in stock . rat\nhistory of the siamese rat in the u . k . - by geoff izzard\ni need a rat for pet . kindly help me with that . thank you\nq : i think my rat is in pain . how can i tell ?\nso what is the risk of this disease if you or your children have a pet rat ? fancy rats are very popular as easy to maintain , social and gentle pets . they are common children\u2019s pets but also have an avid following among adults who can\u2019t afford or don\u2019t have the lifestyle suitable for a dog or cat . fancy rats are widely available from both pet stores and private breeders in different colors , sizes and conformations . however , few , if any of the pet rats sold are tested for the bacteria that cause rat - bite fever . the prevalence of the bacteria in rats can vary , from as few as 10 % to as many as 100 % of rats in a breeding colony or laboratory that are infected . any pet rat can carry these organisms , but the risk of actually contracting the disease from the rat is very low .\nthe nfrs was formed in 1976 by a group of enthusiasts intent on promoting the rat both as a pet and an exhibition animal . over the years this philosophy has been upheld so that now , as then , we are equally open to breeders , pet owners or people who are a mixture of the two . the nfrs is the club for everyone who appreciates the rat for what it is - a superior pet and fancy animal .\nthere can be much prejudice against the rat due to the spread of plague , but it was the black rat that played a part in this epidemic and it was not the rat itself that carried the plague but the fleas that it carried .\nthough your first choice of rat should be based on health and temperament , maybe you would like to get a certain type or color of rat , or maybe you already chose your rat and are interested to know what his unique coloring is .\n. cinderella ' s fairy godmother turns the rat into a coachman .\ni was born a rat . i expected to be a rat all my days . but life is full of surprises .\nreading level : ages 4 - 8 .\nas part of a health monitoring program , rat owners and breeders may wish to test to know a rat\u2019s infection status prior to admitting new animals into existing colonies .\nuse your other hand and a toothbrush to lather a tiny bit of standard human shampoo on the rat\u2019s skin . avoid getting soap in the rat\u2019s eyes or mouth .\nboth hairless rats and fancy rats make ideal companion pets and entertain their owners with their inquisitive nature , playful attitudes and willingness to hitch a ride on a shoulder . even though they are more susceptible to illness and other problems , a hairless rat can make an ideal , friendly pet for someone willing to take the time to keep their environment clean and healthy .\nthreatening posture in which one rat ( usually but not always the dominant one ) approaches another rat sideways or broadside (\ncrab walks\n) , with his back strongly arched , and crowds the second rat . sidling may a successful strategy to counter\nsize . your rat will need to have room to run around and play in his cage . make sure that you get a cage that is large enough for your rat to run around in . the general rule is 2 square feet per rat .\nthis article is from the winter 1998 afrma rat & mouse tales news - magazine .\nsee separate articles , are rat - mouse hybrids possible ? and the hybridization page .\nthis rat looks to be cinnamon - - an agouti rat with the recessive mink gene . the eyes appear to be black , so it cannot be fawn or amber .\nagouti aoc rex rat owned and bred by geri hauser . photo \u00a91992 larry ferris .\nblack self tailless rat owned and bred by jazmyn concolor . photo \u00a91996 craig robbins .\n12 - day - old dumbo kitten rat showing how the ears are set away from the head . rat owned and bred by jozzette hagemann . photo \u00a92016 karen robbins .\nself - the solid colored rat , no markings . the color goes to the toes\nshow rat is larger and has a smoother coat . both owned by nichole royer .\nthis patchwork hairless rat will continue to molt and regrow its hair during its lifetime .\ntake extra care in helping your hairless rat avoid extreme temperatures , sharp objects , and rough handling as the lack of fur makes the rat more susceptible to skin injuries .\nsugarbaby . . . my heart rat the sweetest love i ' ve ever known .\ni need a rat for pet . kindly help me with that . thank you ramprasad\nneutering a male rat is a little more complicated than neutering a dog or cat .\na body wrap works by preventing the rat from bending over to reach the incision .\nthe following is a brief description of the rat varieties as recognized by the american fancy rat and mouse association . this information is taken from the afrma brochure . for complete details of the standards including points , faults , eliminations , and disqualifications , please refer to the afrma show regulations & standards book . rats do not come in breeds ( different shapes and sizes ) like in other species but in varieties ( different coat types , ear type , no tail )\nthe success of the rat in research today has been linked to the wistar institute in america and their development of the wistar albino strain . there are currently 117 albino strains of the laboratory rat , all of which can be traced genetically back to the one rat , likely to have arisen as a mutation from a hooded ( piebald ) rat strain .\nthis is a guinea pig , but it is exactly the same as rat bumble foot . very gross , very painful , and very difficult for a rat to go through .\nkuramoto t , yokoe m , yagasaki k , kawaguchi t , kumafuji k , serikawa t . genetic analyses of fancy rat - derived mutations . exp anim . 2010 ; 59 ( 2 ) : 147 - 55 . takashi kuramoto , satoshi nakanishi , ken - ichi yamasaki , kenta kumafuji , yuichi sakakibara , yuki neoda , akiko takizawa , takehito kaneko , mito otsuki , ryoko hashimoto , birger voigt , tomoji mashimo and tadao serikawa genetic quality control of the rat strains at the national bio resource project - rat . ibc . 2010 volume 2 article no . 0012\na few white rats have been brought in by pet stores , biology teachers and well meaning individuals who did not know it was unlawful to have rats in alberta . the white rat or laboratory rat is a domesticated norway rat . if white rats escaped captivity or were turned loose , they could multiply and spread throughout alberta just like the wild norway rat .\nthis woodrat has the closest resemblance to the house rat and is often confused with it .\n\u0095 sign differences : due to their larger body size , rat feces are larger than mouse feces ( also see differences in rat and mouse sign from a pest management perspective ) .\ni have a new dog and he is a rat killer . i am soooooo happy !\n, in which the hindquarters follow the forequarters and the rat ends up on its back .\none rat retreats to a safe area , preferably far away from the aggressive rat . he may stay there , sitting quietly for a long time , sometimes up to an hour .\nbristle coat rat owned and bred by jozzette & mike hagemann . photo \u00a92013 karen robbins .\na berkshire rat has a perfectly solid colored body , with some white on the belly . unlike the veriberk , the white does not extend up the sides of the rat\u2019s belly . any white will be solely on the underside of the rat . berkshires are extremely common .\n. rosie ' s rat - phobic mom surprises her on her birthday with a black and white baby rat , who she names midnight . reading level : ages 4 - 8 .\nmarked varieties of rats generally sport two colors of fur that form patterns . for example , the capped variety has a body that ' s solid white and a head with a cap of color that stops at the ears . the irish variety sports a white triangle on the chest , plus white feet and a body fur of a different shade . the national fancy rat society lists 11 marked varieties .\nthe hooded rat is a descendant of the brown rat . after years of domestication , different colors and patterns were bred from uniquely marked rats , making the available colors , patterns , and coat types appear more within the pet rat population . almost every pet rat can trace its origination to rattus norvegicus , a species common in europe where they were first heavily domesticated .\njack black also supplied the live rats for rat - baiting alongside his partner jimmy shaw ( also known as jemmy ) . jemmy shaw\u2019s dog \u201cjacko\u201d held the world record for rat killing .\n\u200ba submissive rat will often roll over onto it\u2019s back displaying it\u2019s belly to the air ( or the dominant rat ) in response to even very minor dominance behaviour . the more submissive the rat generally the faster they will be to roll over . this behaviour generally placates the dominant rat before any more serious dominating behaviour can occur . it is also more common in kittens and young rats who roll over to more senior rats as a matter of course . problems can occur when a rat rolls over submissively when the dominating rat really wants grooming . this can lead to some confusion as the dominating rat attempts to communicate it\u2019s wants to the submissive rat and it\u2019s only response is to become more pliant and submissive , letting out \u2018peeps\u2019 in protest and confusion .\nthe domestic brown rat is most often called a\nfancy rat\n. the rats raised for pets today descend from the\nbrown rat\n, rattus norvegicus , that only colonized europe in the 16th century . being that the brown rats are larger and bolder they have pretty much taken over the position held for centuries by their cousins the black rats . the latter are the\nblack rat\nof legend that carried the fleas that in turn carried the black plague all over europe , these were not the brown rats kept as pets today . there are a very few fanciers now trying to domesticate the more timid black rat , rattus rattus but they are not readily available to adopt any where in any number . the brown rat was used first for blood sport and latter in laboratories for experiments so they have been bred down thousands of generations to be docile and friendly towards humans .\nall other written and visual materials used by permission of specific authors for the sole use of the rat guide . brought to you by kuddlykorner4u see logos page for linking to the rat guide .\nsara b . conrow , \u201cfurther observations on taillessness in the rat , \u201d 1917 p . 155\nwow this link will really help me when i ' m getting a pet rat for christmas .\nvideo of niles eye boggling ( 3 second video , 850 mb , quicktime ) . video courtesy of r . arthur of the dapper rat , niles the rat belongs to l . dux .\ni want a female hairless rat can someone get me one please . 909 - 917 - 2480\ni love my hairless rat kojack . he is such a stud . and my best friend .\na rat learns to press a lever for water , but only when the light comes on .\ngould\u2019s goanna is commonly eaten in indigenous communities , but can contain high levels of rat poison .\nhello i am looking to buy a rat . how much would the shipping and everything be ?\nq : my rat sways back and forth while standing still . i something wrong with him ?\nin the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in europe , norway rats were captured and used for food during times of famine . rat - catchers were hired to exterminate rats and capture live ones for rat fights , rat coursing , and rat pits . rat - catchers captured and housed wild rats in cages as well ( matthews 1898 ) . during this time , naturally occurring albino , black , and hooded norway rats may have preferentially captured or chosen from litters of captive rats for their distinctive appearance\nrat odor is stressful to mice and has an effect on their behavior and reproduction . in fact , rat odor is sometimes used as a predator odor to study anxiety and antipredator behavior in mice .\nrust colored rat with white on belly found outside trying to figure out if it was someones pet and got away or a bad outdoors rat how can i tell . gave him some water and millet\none rat grooms the other , frequently around the neck or head ( especially the eyes , mouth , chin and ears ) . somewhat less frequently , one rat may groom the flanks of another .\n(\npoofing\n) : the rat ' s body hair stands on end . may occur when the rat is cold , or when stressed , such as during or after an intense altercation .\npeople who could call any rat ugly . . . no matter what it looks like . . . and say that a pet rat ' s only value is the cuteness factor - - - -\nwhen taking your rat to the hospital for surgery , make sure your rat has eaten something that morning , and the cage has food and water ; it may be a while before the surgery .\nwhen introducing rats , you should have two cages so the new rat can have his own cage at first . ( the second cage can be the resident rat ' s travel cage . ) never just plop a new rat in the resident rats\u2019 cage because the residents will always defend their territory .\nmost rats do a good job of grooming themselves , so it is not necessary to bathe your rat often . however , you may decide to give your rat a bath if he develops a bad smell . at most , you should only need to bathe your rat once or twice per year .\nin an article on tailless rats in the \u201cnational fancy rat society handbook\u201d ( pp . 51 - 53 ) nick mays reports that in september of 1985 a tailless rat appeared in one of his litters . at about the same time another english fancier , jean judd , discovered a tailless in one of her litters . since that time a number of tailless have been produced all over the world . interestingly , many ( possibly all ? ) of these tailless trace their ancestry back to a strain of siamese bred by another english fancier ."]}
{"id": 2591, "summary": [{"text": "midway lady ( foaled 1983 ) was an american-bred , british-trained thoroughbred racehorse and broodmare who won two british classic races in 1986 .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in a racing career lasting from august 1985 until june 1986 , the filly ran six times and won her last five races .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "she sustained her only defeat when finishing second on her racecourse debut but won her remaining three races in 1985 including the may hill stakes at doncaster and the prix marcel boussac at longchamp .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "her three-year-old campaign consisted of only two races , as she won the 1000 guineas at newmarket and the oaks at epsom a month later .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "after sustaining a serious leg injury , she was retired to stud where she became a successful producer of winners including the oaks winner eswarah . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "midway lady", "paragraphs": ["100 greatest rides ; my greatest ride ray cochrane on midway lady in the 1986 oaks .\nthe midway state feat . lady gaga - don ' t give up ( single ) . jpg\neswarah emulated her dam midway lady , who was successful in 1986 , by winning the fillies ' contest .\nobama isn ' t the first president to visit midway ; richard nixon held secret talks there with the south vietnamese president in 1969 . former first lady laura bush also visited midway during her husband ' s presidency .\nimage - the midway state feat . lady gaga - don ' t give up ( single ) . jpg | gagapedia | fandom powered by wikia\nthe daughter of hanbury ' s 1986 1 , 000 guineas and oaks winner , midway lady , got the better of a good tussle with summitville .\nlady gaga discusses what to expect from her halftime show during super bowl li .\nour lady of mt . carmel celebrates 80 years | herald community newspapers | urltoken\nlocated in downtown san diego , the uss midway ( museum ) was america\u2019s . . .\ntrailing midway through the opening set , the lady trojans fought back down the stretch with a rally to take a 19 - 18 lead . a trio of dyersburg points gave the lady trojans some breathing room as the black and gold girls took the opening set 25 - 20 .\nthis movie was released in the same year as the similarly titled lucky lady ( 1975 ) . funny lady ( 1975 ) came out in the u . s . on march 15 , 1975 , and lucky lady ( 1975 ) was released there later on december 25 , 1975 .\nthe lady falcons and falcons play tomorrow night at midway starting at 6 against slidell . it is our first home game in a while so come out and support the falcons ! ! ! !\nmidway is part of the papah\u0101naumoku\u0101kea marine national monument , the largest protected marine refuge in the world .\nthe race has produced two oaks winners in midway lady ( 1985 ) and reams of verse ( 1996 ) , while the former also captured the 1 , 000 guineas en route to epsom success in 1986 .\nthe us won its most famous naval victory when it defeated japan at the battle of midway in 1942 .\nlady gaga has already made history with her super bowl halftime performance , even though it won\u2019t happen until early sunday evening at the midway point between the atlanta falcons / new england patriots \u2019 nfl championship game in houston .\nupon arriving thursday shortly before noon , the president emerged from air force one and was met by midway residents .\nthe white house announced last week that obama was quadrupling the size of the papahanaumokuakea marine sanctuary , which includes midway .\ntons of plastic debris washes ashore on midway each year and it ' s taking a devastating toll on the wildlife there .\na laysan albatross feeds its chick on midway . the birds carry five tons of plastic waste onto the island each year .\nthe 80th annual\nour lady of mt . carmel festival\nwas held july 13 to 16 , from 6 to 11 p . m . , at the our lady of mt . carmel church , at 934 stewart place in franklin square .\ndyersburg returns to the court on monday , sept . 18 when the lady trojans host millington at 6 p . m .\nmidway isd will maximize individual potential within a learner - centered and supportive environment to prepare students to excel in a global society .\nmidway through the third set , the lady trojans found themselves trailing 16 - 9 to the resurgent tca squad . but , a lady trojan run aided by a pair of shelby hopper aces and a carly weeks kill covered much of the remainder of the match , leading to a 22 - 18 lead by the lady trojans . late in the set , a hopper block led to dyersburg getting to match point and mari - hanna newsom added an ace to win it 25 - 19 to clinch the set and the match .\nthe midway jh boys and girls played awesome tonight ! ! ! both teams went to forestburg and won ! what a great season .\nthe blog posts are also taken from the stock of homilies he delivered , egg timer in hand , over 23 years at midway .\nthe midway jr . high girls are doing a bake sale in henrietta today from 9 - 3 . they have lots of goodies ! they are beside the burger shop on omega . go out and support the lady falcons so they can all go to a basketball camp this summer !\nwith every wave and each smile , grace huntley hopes to brighten the day of motorists who pass her each morning at an intersection in midway .\nhis ministry at midway all happened after he retired as associate pastor of our lady of the snows parish in 1989 , when he was a young 70 . ( \u201cit was my own idea , in all humility , \u201d he told the chicago catholic , as the archdiocesan newspaper was then known . )\nlocated in downtown san diego , the uss midway ( museum ) was america\u2019s longest - serving aircraft carrier of the 20th century . today , the interactive museum is an unforgettable adventure for the entire family as guests walk in the footsteps of the 225 , 000 young men who served on midway . visitors explore a floating city at sea , the amazing flight deck and its 29 restored aircraft , flight simulators , and are inspired in the battle of midway theater , included with admission . admission also includes a self - guided audio tour narrated by midway sailors in english , mandarin , spanish , japanese , french and german . visiting midway is a once - in - a - lifetime experience in san diego , known around the world as\nnavy town , usa .\nmidway , an atoll in the northwestern hawaiian islands , was an important naval air station and submarine refit base for the us during the second world war .\nmidway lady ( usa ) b . f , 1983 { 8 - k } dp = 4 - 7 - 23 - 1 - 5 ( 40 ) di = 1 . 29 cd = 0 . 10 - 6 starts , 5 wins , 0 places , 1 shows career earnings : $ 503 , 436\ndyersburg\u0092s emma boatright ( 17 ) goes up for a block during the lady trojans\u0092 win over trinity christian academy on thursday evening in the terry glover gymnasium .\nthough the set count was 3 - 0 for the lady trojans when they hosted trinity christian academy on thursday night in the terry glover gymnasium , the sweep was not an easy 1 - 2 - 3 victory as dyersburg rallied from behind in two of the three to take the win over the visiting lady lions .\nas a yearling , pourparler was sold to beatrice , lady granard , and sent into training with paddy prendergast at his stable at the curragh in county kildare .\nsonic lady was retired from racing to become a broodmare for her owner ' s darley stud . she produced two group race winners , both sired by blushing groom :\npaints brushes in a glass vase , little girl painting a cup , adult ice hockey practice in an nearly empty ice arena , small boy / children playing hockey , lady in a coffee shop talking to a customer , sandwich being served on a plate , young lady talking to a man , while the people mill around in the background .\n( cnn ) president barack obama ventured to the tiny pacific speck of midway atoll on thursday , taking in the newly expanded wildlife refuge in an attempt to burnish his environmental legacy .\nsonic lady made her three - year - old debut in the group three nell gwyn stakes over seven furlongs at newmarket racecourse on 15 april . [ 8 ] she was traveling easily throughout the race and pulled clear of the field in the closing stages to win by three lengths from lady sophie , with the cheveley park stakes winner embla in fourth place . her reappearance was the front page story on the first edition of the newly founded racing post : the rival sporting life ' s front page had featured embla . [ 9 ] on 1 may sonic lady started the 6 / 4 favourite for the 173rd running of the 1000 guineas over the rowley mile course at newmarket . swinburn opted to ride sonic lady in preference to her stable companion maysoon who had won the fred darling stakes at newbury . [ 10 ] she became unsettled in the preliminaries and arrived at the start in an agitated state . she took the lead approaching the final quarter mile but was overtaken in the closing stages and finished third , beaten three quarters of a length and a head by midway lady and maysoon . [ 11 ]\nmailing address : p . o . box 114 , midway , ky 40347 email : [ email protected ] | tel : ( 859 ) 873 - 7053 | fax : ( 859 ) 873 - 5723\nyou want to see a fat man , mr . hall says , try the cracker barrel , you\u2019ll see a dozen at once . same with the tattooed lady . ditto with pierced women . nothing special .\nthrough her daughter soninke , who was exported to japan , she was also the great - grand - dam of logi universe and the shuka sho winner deirdre . sonic lady died after a paddock accident in february 1996 .\noriginal content available for non - commercial use under a creative commons license , except where noted . taft midway driller - taft , ca ~ 800 center st . , taft , ca 93268 ~ privacy policy ~ terms of service\nhe then served as pastor or associate pastor at several parishes , mostly on the southwest side or in the southwest suburbs near midway , although he did spend some time as a missionary pastor in the diocese of fairbanks , alaska .\n\u201ci think if lady gaga comes out there and makes this an anti - trump tirade , i think that\u2019s really the final step of the declaration of war between our pop culture people and the actual citizens , \u201d whittle continued .\nthere was also the bearded lady , who found a lover when her husband was out of town and shaved to please him . but it turned out the lover preferred her with the beard and rejected her , as did her husband .\nthe lady trojans got down early in the second set , trailing 7 - 6 before a dyersburg run gave the home team control of the set with kills from kelsie johnson and rachel finley to build a 13 - 9 lead . the lady lions fought back to cut the lead to two but a pair of johnson kills sparked another run which saw senior cassandra swift add a kill and an ace to the mix as dyersburg took a 25 - 16 win in the second set .\nin september , sonic lady was sent to france to contest the prix du moulin over 1600 metres at longchamp racecourse . she started the 8 / 5 favourite with her main opposition expected to come from the german colt lirung , who had won the prix jacques le marois at deauville racecourse in august . sonic lady refused to settle for swinburn and pulled hard from the start . she was still fighting her jockey ' s attempts to restrain her when she turned into the straight on the wide outside . sonic lady moved easily into the lead 400 metres from the finish but had to be ridden out by swinburn to win by a head from the french colt thrill show , with lirung three lengths back in third place . [ 11 ]\ncoach stoner will be taking the students who are participating in tennis to rider isd to practice on tuesday , march 24th , and tuesday , march 31st , from 6 pm to 8 pm . a bus will leave from midway at 5 : 15 pm both days . please send money with your student . we will stop to eat after we practice . the bus should be back at midway between 9 and 9 : 30 pm . if you have any questions please contact coach stoner . thanks !\n\u201cher husband , coming home after a few days and seeing the beard was gone , knew something was amiss , \u201d mr . hall said . \u201che chased her down the midway with a gun . \u201d this is how it used to be on the road .\nsonic lady was a bay mare with a small white star . [ 2 ] bred in kentucky by j . allan mctier . she was sired by the disqualified 2000 guineas winner nureyev out of the child stakes winner stumped . apart from sonic lady , nureyev was the sire of the winners of at least forty - five group one / grade i including peintre celebre , spinning world , zilzal , stravinsky and miesque . [ 3 ] his career as a stallion has been described as\noutstanding\n. [ 4 ]\n\u201cnowadays , it\u2019s in the contracts : no freaks , \u201d says mr . hall , who believes political correctness is putting people out of work . \u201cdo - gooders run things . i\u2019m telling you , this life was very good for freaks . these kind of people made money . they were hams , but they could never be actors . who\u2019s putting a bearded lady or a one - armed girl in a leading lady role on broadway ? this way they lived a great life . no more . it\u2019s ridiculous . \u201d\nas a yearling , sonic lady was consigned to the fasig - tipton sales , where she was bought for $ 500 , 000 by sheikh mohammed . the filly was sent to england where she was trained by michael stoute at newmarket , suffolk . [ 6 ]\nwhat i respect most about this album , and perhaps about lady gaga as a whole , is the purpose . the story of her aunt joanne ( who died of lupus in 1974 ) , this character , this album . . . they all seem like something lady gaga needed to excavate from deep inside her creative spirit . it ' s not about producing an album of club bangers or about pleasing fans ; it ' s about vitality . come to think of it , maybe that ' s why it packs such a punch .\nbattle of midway department of the navy . office of the chief of naval operations . naval observatory . ( 1942 - 09 / 18 / 1947 ) arc identifier 13196 / local identifier 80 - mn - 9168d . made possible by a donation from john and paige curran .\nobama hopes to further solidify his climate agenda when he travels onward from midway to the group of 20 summit in china . he sealed an historic climate accord with beijing in 2014 , and officials said they hope to further cooperation during his bilateral meetings with chinese president xi jinping on saturday .\nbefore sonic lady appeared on the racecourse she had acquired a reputation as the best filly in stoute ' s stable and had been supported in the betting for the 1000 guineas . she made her debut in the blue seal stakes over six furlongs at ascot racecourse in september . sonic lady accelerated clear of her eight opponents in the final quarter mile and won by seven lengths from warm welcome despite drifting to the right in the closing stages . [ 7 ] despite never having contested a group race she ended the year as the 3 / 1 favourite for the 1000 guineas . [ 6 ]\nfather george mckenna was born less than a year after the end of world war i . he was ordained a priest a month before d - day . he had been , officially , retired for 13 years when 9 / 11 happened , but he was still the volunteer chaplain at midway international airport .\nhe began celebrating mass in the midway airlines courtesy room ; when that airline went bankrupt , he got permission from southwest and frontier airlines to celebrate saturday afternoon and sunday morning liturgies at gate b2 . when the airport terminal was renovated and expanded in 2003 , it had a dedicated chapel for the first time .\nsonic lady was not , technically a thoroughbred as her female ancestry could not be traced to one of the foundation mares of the breed . she was a product of the half - bred verdict family , whose ancestry could be traced no further back than an unnamed perion mare foaled in 1837 . so many non - thoroughbreds from this family won major races that the descendants of the perion mare were admitted to the general stud book in 1969 as half - bred family 3 . members of this family include quashed , attraction and sonic lady ' s great - grandmother lucasland , the winner of the july cup in 1966 [ 5 ]\nat royal ascot in june sonic lady started the 8 / 15 favourite for the coronation stakes ( then a group two race ) and won impressively [ 13 ] by two length from embla and someone special . she then added a victory in the child stakes ( now the group one falmouth stakes ) at newmarket on 9 july , beating dusty dollar by one and a half lengths . three weeks later at goodwood racecourse , sonic lady was matched against colts and older horses for the first time in the group one sussex stakes . the filly started the 5 / 6 favourite ahead of the queen anne stakes winner pennine walk and the kentucky derby runner - up bold arrangement . swinburn restrained sonic lady at the back of the five runner field before making a forward move in the straight . she quickly took the lead and went clear before being eased down to win by one and a half lengths from her stable companion scottish reel . [ 11 ]\nbattle of midway ( usa ) b . c , 2014 { 10 - a } dp = 10 - 14 - 17 - 2 - 1 ( 44 ) di = 2 . 83 cd = 0 . 68 - 10 starts , 5 wins , 2 places , 2 shows career earnings : $ 1 , 249 , 949\non friday night , lady shadow ( shadow play ) did what she couldn ' t do the previous two weeks at saratoga casino hotel and that is defeat regular open winner spreester . lady shadow is very close to the $ 2 million mark in career earnings as the melissa beckwith trainee cruised to an open length romp in friday ' s fillies and mares . the veteran seven year old moved out to the front in the early going in the $ 14 , 500 feature and built an insurmountable lead as she passed three quarters in 1 : 24 . mark beckwith then pulled the trigger and the lead got bigger with lady shadow pacing away to win in 1 : 53 . 1 by four and a half lengths . culinary delight n ( larry stalbaum ) surged up the inside to be second while the favored spreester ( frank coppola jr ) earned the show spot while a beaten favorite . lady shadow paid $ 7 . 90 to win and led an exacta and triple that came back $ 47 . 40 and $ 91 , respectively . the veteran distaffer now has accrued more than $ 1 . 99 million in career earnings after recording her first win in the local feature . live racing continues on saturday night at saratoga with a 6 : 45pm first post . by mike sardella , for saratoga raceway\nlady singing in front of a microphone , while wearing a headset , two lab technicians are checking a vial and putting in a machine , military personnel lined in formation , crowd at a park mingling , spectators line the boards at a hockey game , couple walking on a golf course with golf clubs in hand , woman speaking in a meeting and man at head of table is speaking as well , little boys playing soccer , kids coming down a big slide at a fair , two young ladies and a young man walking down a set of stairs , mature couple eating in a restaurant , two young girls talking and laughing while they eat , shoppers on a busy main street , kid running up playground equipment , crowds , hand pulling a switch , flames in industrial equipment , hands packing plastic pieces in a box , aerial view of city and roads in the fall , symphony orchestra playing , lady singing while playing guitar with band members , waves lapping on the beach , lady singing , little boy walking along a metal fence , aerial view of building , young men in a gymnasium ; balls covering the floor , robotic machines picking up the balls and throwing them , boy facing crowds and people cheering in the stands , aerial view of glass building as the sun sets , midway swings going around , aerial view of midway with swings in centre and city in background , band singing and playing instruments , crowd watching an outdoor concert , view of drummer from the back panning to band members and lead singer , fireworks in the sky while two young women watch , girl singing , applause and cheers from the public ; logo north bay \u201cinvestinnorthbay\u201d .\nnearly three years after the release of artpop , lady gaga is back and draped in pastels . on friday , the pop star ' s new album joanne dropped , with a diverse range sprawling from the amped - up rock of\nperfect illusion\nto\nmillion reasons ,\nher soulful tearjerker . now that the rest of the songs have been released , we have a more complete picture of the dreamy country twang joanne has to offer . it ' s hard to say if it ' s lady gaga ' s best album to date \u2014 each one is so vastly different from the last \u2014 but it sure strikes a powerful chord from the first note to the last .\nthe king of the midway , ward hall , upper left , and , clockwise , some of his associates : diane falk , a sword swallower ; pete terhurne , known as poobah ; chris christ , mr . hall\u0092s business partner ; vicki condor , left , the four - legged woman , and chelsea ramer , a fire eater ; and red stuart , the human blockhead .\nyork , pa . \u2014 ward hall , the king of the midway , has perpetrated perhaps his greatest illusion . he has risen from the dead . he has collected up his big top , rustled up the midget , dusted off the rubber fetuses and beat it back out on the road . once again , he is the geriatric front man of the last traveling freak show in america .\nafter an eight - week break , sonic lady was sent to the united states for the breeders ' cup mile at santa anita park . starting the 2 . 3 / 1 favourite she tracked the leaders before briefly taking the lead in the straight . she was soon overtaken and faded in the closing stages to finish seventh , three and a half lengths behind the winner last tycoon . [ 11 ]\nin 1985 , the independent timeform organisation gave sonic lady a rating of 109p , the\np\nindicating that she was likely to improve . [ 6 ] in the following year she was given a timeform rating of 129 , placing her alongside the prix vermeille winner darara as the highest - rated three - year - old filly of the season . in the official international classification she was given a rating of 127 , a pound ahead of darara and the prix de diane winner lacovia , making her the top - rated european three - year - old filly . [ 11 ] in the 1987 international classification , sonic lady was rated on 123 level with asteroid field as the best older female racehorse in europe in the 7 furlongs plus division : timeform gave her a rating of 125 . [ 16 ]\nbarbra had learned to ride horses and could even jump hurdles on them , and there was a cut scene in\nfunny lady\nwhere fanny ( who could also ride ) was seen on horseback , cantering around a riding - arena . only one still photo is around from this missing scene , probably one of many that were excised from the final print in order to trim the running - time .\nthe lady falcons will be in bowie at second monday next saturday and sunday . we will have all kinds of baked goods , so come out ! we are raising money to go to the state basketball tournament . the girls are very excited to be able to go and we appreciate everyone ' s support ! also if you want to bake something to donate please contact coach stoner or courtney wyatt ! thanks !\na total of 11 fillies have completed the oaks / park hill stakes double . lady evelyn was the first in 1849 and has been followed by brown duchess ( 1861 ) , marie stuart ( 1873 ) , jannette ( 1878 ) , miss jummy ( 1886 ) , amiable ( 1894 ) , canterbury pilgrim ( 1896 ) , pretty polly ( 1904 ) , love in idleness ( 1921 ) , brownhylda ( 1923 ) and pia ( 1967 ) .\nlet me start by saying that this is hallowed ground ,\nobama said , noting that this was the site of the 1942 battle of midway , where\na number of young men lost their lives here . . . for us to be able to visit this monument and remind ourselves of the sailors and airmen and everyone involved who were able to rebuff the japanese force , that was vastly outnumbered , is a testament to their courage and their perseverance .\nthe outdoors is the biggest attraction . the staggeringly beautiful , rough - hewn hill country , spring - fed swimming holes , a string of lakes along the colorado river , and 10 months of warm temperatures ( too warm in the summer ) draw hikers and boaters and bikers outdoors . lance armstrong lives and trains here , and lady bird johnson lake ( town lake to locals ) , which runs through the city ' s center , is a favorite training spot for rowers .\nfor sonic lady ' s next race , the irish 1000 guineas at the curragh on 24 may she was equipped with a new bridle incorporating a rubber noseband , which was designed to help her settle . her participation in the race was in doubt as she arrived without her equine passport but she was allowed to run after a copy was faxed from newmarket . [ 12 ] she started 4 / 1 joint favourite with the poule d ' essai des pouliches winner baiser vole and won easily by two lengths . [ 13 ]\nany student who will be participating in athletics and are entering grades 6 , 9 or 11 will need a current sports physical . dr . mathis will be at midway friday , august 21st at 8 am to do sports physicals . if your child needs one please be there by 8 am that day . also if they are in any other grade and do not have a current physical on file with the school they will need to come that day . if you have any questions please call coach stoner or the school at 940 - 476 - 2222 .\nthe album winds down from the midway energetic peaks stretching from\njohn wayne\nto\ncome to mama .\nflorence welch joins for what i think must be the album ' s weakest song ,\nhey girl .\nit ' s lovely to hear welch ' s voice , but i ' ll admit she really shines in high - drama , high - range songs that sound like hymns for goddesses . you know , the work she usually produces . we end at\nangel down ,\nanother sweet , emotional ballad that fills us with enough sorrow to go right back to\ndiamond heart\nand start all over again .\nit is also spectacular as an ecosystem , and our ability to not just designate but build on this incredible natural beauty that is home to 7 , 000 marine species , that sees millions of birds , many of them endangered , sea turtles , hawaiian monk seals , black coral , all sorts of species that in many other places we no longer see , we ' ll extend that 550 , 000 miles in ways that ensure not only that midway itself is protected , that the entire ecosystem will be able to generate the kind of biodiversity that allows us to study it , research and understand our oceans better than we ever have before .\nsonic lady remained in training as a four - year - old with the breeders ' cup as her main objective . her training in the early part of the year was disrupted by a foot injury and she appeared to be less than fully fit when she made her seasonal debut in the queen anne stakes at royal ascot where she finished third , beaten a length and a head by the colts then again and water cay . [ 14 ] three weeks later she was matched against the leading three - year - old filly forest flower in the child stakes at newmarket . [ 15 ] the early pace was very slow and swinburn opted to send the filly into the lead after two furlongs . in the closing stages she held off the sustained challenge of the aga khan ' s filly shaikiya to win by a head with forest flower ten and a half lengths back in fourth . sonic lady did not race again until 26 september , when she finished third behind milligram and miesque in the queen elizabeth ii stakes at ascot . in november , the filly was sent to california for her second attempt at the breeders cup mile , with the panamanian jockey laffit pincay replacing swinburn . racing on medication , including lasix and bute , she started the 2 . 9 / 1 favourite , but had no answer to the finishing speed of miesque and finished third of the fourteen runners . [ 16 ]\nsituated about midway up the florida peninsula on the gulf of mexico , clearwater is the postcard perfect coastal resort town : sun - drenched beaches , sailboats cheek by jowl with yachts in the marinas that line clearwater harbor , well - traveled bike trails , and a plethora of public golf courses nearby . now that real estate prices have plummeted throughout florida - - they ' re down about 50 percent in clearwater - - this idyll is available to a wider range of retirees . a two - bedroom condo on the beach can be had for about $ 200 , 000 , a sum made even more affordable when coupled with a homestead exemption of up to $ 50 , 000 for residents and no state income tax .\ncinematographer vilmos zsigmond was originally hired as director of photography , but after executives watched the dailies of the musical number\ngreat day\n, they agreed zsigmond ' s lighting style ( modelled after musical theatre in the 1930s ) was too dark and he was fired . director herbert ross objected , and barbra streisand was surprised by zsigmond ' s dismissal . james wong howe was coaxed out of his retirement to shoot the film , but midway through , he fell ill , and was absent for ten days . in the interim , cinematographer ernest laszlo was called in . laszlo ' s work included the aquacade sequence filmed near the usc campus . aerial photographer nelson tyler assisted in the\nlet ' s hear it for me\nnumber filmed at santa monica ' s airport .\nsituated about midway up the florida peninsula on the gulf of mexico , clearwater is the postcard perfect coastal resort town : sun - drenched beaches , sailboats cheek by jowl with yachts in the marinas that line clearwater harbor , well - traveled bike trails , and a plethora of public golf courses nearby . a two - bedroom condo on the beach can be had for about $ 200 , 000 , a sum made even more affordable when coupled with a homestead exemption of up to $ 50 , 000 for residents and no state income tax . with a population of 107 , 700 , clearwater is a small town , but should you need an experience that is available only in bigger cities , st . petersburg , with its museum of fine arts , the florida orchestra , and major league baseball team - - the tampa bay devil rays - - is only 20 miles away .\ncamera shows aerial view of city hall building , nipissing university and canadore college buildings , steve omischl sport fields , lady and daughter at table , dark inside of industrial building and then man turning on the lights , inside an office building , then inside a store with a man pulling a cart of fresh produce and showing a display of asparagus , aerial view of tipi , and three children grabbing their bags as they leave through a door while the dog is wagging its tail , man pulling cart into open space , and people setting up in a sports hall , bleachers in the background , quick glance of open space in industrial setting , hockey stick being wrapped with tape , man walking among large tires , two young ladies and one man in library setting , talking / laughing , man walking alongside a pile of plastic pipes , robotic arm turning , two ladies walking in an office , opening a file drawer and searching through files , man\u2019s hands playing the piano and movement of the piano keys , kids in a classroom , girl talking to a male teacher while other students are in the background , girls\u2019 beach volley ball game happening on the beach , and then men playing beach volleyball . ( singing continues )\ntaft started off quietly with four runs in the bottom of the first inning before erupting for 12 runs in the last half of the second inning . the lady wildcats followed up with a run in the third and four more in the fourth inning . corie evans led the charge by going 3 - for - 5 with four runs scored and five runs batted in . jasmine miles was 3 - for - 3 with three runs scored and three runs batted in . olivia ortlieb , brinley rosenberger and lexxi evarts each were 2 - for - 3 with ortlieb scoring three runs and knocking one in . meanwhile , evarts scored two runs and drove two in while rosenberger scored two times . katie brown was 2 - for - 2 in the game while madison borrecco , katie evans and grace armstrong each were 1 - for - 2 . borrecco also scored twice while driving two runners in while armstrong scored a run . katie evans scored two runs and drove two in . brooklyn yaws was 1 - for - 1 in the game with a run scored and a run batted in . allison mizener scored two runs while kaylee neher scored once . k . evans , yaws and rosenberger each had a double in the game while corie evans had two doubles and a home run . miles also had a home run in the game . roslyn maino threw five innings allowing a hit and striking out 11 . taft closes out the regular season friday when they host bakersfield christian on senior day . the game begins at 4 p . m .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\neswarah held on from something exciting to give michael jarvis his first oaks victory at epsom .\nthe 11 - 4 joint favourite , ridden by richard hills , also enjoying his first oaks win , denied a fairytale story for the runner - up ' s trainer david elsworth .\nelsworth , who trained the great horses desert orchid and persian punch , was seeking his first british classic win .\nbut something exciting ( 7 - 1 ) just could not reel in the unbeaten eswarah , with pictavia ( 8 - 1 ) staying on in third .\nvirginia waters , the other joint - favourite , weaved her way through the pack after the turn for home but did not get the trip , finishing fourth .\nmagical romance , who had set the earlier pace , stayed on well to come fifth .\nher dam was very good , but this filly is exceptional . she has trained beautifully ,\nsaid jarvis of the winner .\nshe ' s done it well . i thought richard may have gone too soon with her , but it seems to have been the right thing to do .\nit was the 66 - year - old trainer ' s second british classic victory , coming after ameerat won the 1 , 000 guineas in 2001 .\njockey hills told the bbc :\ni followed them into the straight and it was then a matter of waiting before i pounced .\nthey slowed up about six furlongs out , which was good because my filly got a good breather into her for the run - in .\neswarah could now run in the irish oaks on 17 july although jarvis hinted that the yorkshire equivalent was a more likely target .\n1 eswarah ( r hills ) 11 - 4 jf 2 something exciting ( t quinn ) 7 - 1 3 pictavia ( k manning ) 8 - 1 12 ran . dist : \u00bdl , 3l .\nsport homepage | football | cricket | rugby union | rugby league | tennis | golf | motorsport | boxing | athletics | snooker | horse racing | cycling | disability sport | olympics 2012 | sport relief | other sport . . .\nare they trainer ben hanbury ; ' not a day goes by when i don ' t miss my time as a trainer ' . - free online library\nare they trainer ben hanbury ; ' not a day goes by when i don ' t miss my time as a trainer ' .\nmla style :\nare they trainer ben hanbury ; ' not a day goes by when i don ' t miss my time as a trainer ' . .\nthe free library . 2009 mgn ltd 09 jul . 2018 urltoken\nchicago style : the free library . s . v . are they trainer ben hanbury ; ' not a day goes by when i don ' t miss my time as a trainer ' . .\nretrieved jul 09 2018 from urltoken\napa style : are they trainer ben hanbury ; ' not a day goes by when i don ' t miss my time as a trainer ' . . ( n . d . ) > the free library . ( 2014 ) . retrieved jul 09 2018 from urltoken\ncopyright 2009 mgn ltd no portion of this article can be reproduced without the express written permission from the copyright holder .\ni gotta horse . . . where owners get their say each week derek lucie - smith , spokesman for the calvera partnership , owners of paco boy .\nsla concern over working horses in dark ; ` trainers must think carefully ' warns solicitor .\neswarah bids to prove she is a ten with classic glory ; jarvis filly out to emulate her mother on biggest stage .\nterms of use | privacy policy | copyright \u00a9 2018 farlex , inc . | feedback | for webmasters\nowner : mr . harry ranier breeder : edward a . seltzer & shadowland farm winnings : 6 starts : 5 - 0 - 1 , $ 503 , 436 1st 1000 guineas s . gr . 1 ( gb ) , the oaks s . gr . 1 ( gb ) , may hill s . gr . 3 ( gb ) , prix marcel boussac gr . 1 ( fr ) . sold at 1986 keeneland november mixed sale , $ 3 , 300 , 000 . 5 wins in 6 starts 2 to 3 years , 238 , 015 pounds , ff434 , 550 . leading filly on the 1986 international c ( close )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nview at the internet pinball serial number database ( ipsnd . net ) ( external site )\nflippers ( 3 ) , pop bumpers ( 3 ) , 5 - bank drop targets ( 1 ) , captive ball ( 1 ) , rollunder spinner ( 1 ) .\nall photographs licensed from original photographers , who retain their copyright . do not use without permission !\nsite design , phrasing , and other local content copyright 2004 - 2018 by the internet pinball database\u2122 .\nthe ibm strategic repository for digital assets such as images and videos is located at urltoken . this repository is populated with tens of thousands of assets and should be your first stop for asset selection .\nuse of this site is subject to terms and conditions as expressed on the home page .\nfall league in bellevue tomorrow night for the girls . if you have any questions please contact coach stoner .\ndon ' t forget girls open gym tomorrow night ( thursday ) from 6pm - 8pm . all jh and hs girls need to try and make it . also any alumni that want to come play ball , come on out ! ! !\ngirls open gym tomorrow from 6 - 8 pm . jh and hs girls come out and play . also if you are an alumni come out and play some ball ! ! !\ni ' m beyond blessed to have this group of jr . high girls as my first jh team to coach . thank you girls for being so amazing ! i can ' t thank you each enough for what you have meant to me . you are each a blessing to me . awesome season girls ! ! ! - coach stoner\nwhat more can i add about molls that hasnt already been said ! loved , spoilt and adored by me .\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\nfantastic museum . take lot of time for you visit . there are real aircraft ' s on the aircraft deck . fantastic experience\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content .\nt & cs apply on all offers . new customers only ; debit / credit cards only .\nthis site uses cookies . by continuing to browse this site you are agree to our use of cookies .\nchoose the plan that ' s right for you . digital access or digital and print delivery .\n\u00a9 copyright 2006 - 2018 gatehouse media , llc . all rights reserved \u2022 gatehouse lifestyle\noriginal content available for non - commercial use under a creative commons license , except where noted . the dispatch ~ 30 e . first ave . , lexington , nc 27292 ~ privacy policy ~ terms of service\nchoose the plan that\u2019s right for you . digital access or digital and print delivery .\nmeteorology ( thunderstorms ) : part 2 - u . s . navy aviation training film ( 1953 )\nmeteorology ( thunderstorms ) : part 1 - u . s . navy aviation training film ( 1953 )\nchat with us in facebook messenger . find out what ' s happening in the world as it unfolds .\nit ' s a remote destination for air force one - - the tiny dot of an island is a three - hour flight northwest of honolulu , surrounded by a vast expanse of ocean . but the president hopes the trek will help underscore the efforts he ' s taken to preserve some of the world ' s threatened ecosystems .\nthe president was also planning to snorkel off the coast of the atoll , according to a pool report .\nobama was going to\ninteract directly\nwith some of the wildlife , according to his top climate adviser brian deese , though he didn ' t specify what that might entail .\ntwo - dozen bird species , including the black - footed albatross and red - footed booby , occupy the island , as well as dozens of coral reef - dwelling fish in the surrounding water .\nendangered monk seals , green turtles and tiger sharks are among the other species that share the fragile marine environment there .\nlike his visit last year to the alaskan wilderness , obama hopes his stop in a remote and threatened environment will prompt more americans to take climate change seriously .\nhe made his case for taking action during remarks near lake tahoe wednesday , warning against electing leaders who deny warming temperatures are the result of human activity .\nthe fact is it is man - made ,\nobama said .\nit ' s not ' we think it is man - made , ' it ' s not , ' we guess it is man - made , ' it ' s not , ' a lot of people are saying it ' s man - made , ' it ' s not , ' i ' m not a scientist so i don ' t know . ' you don ' t have to be scientist . you have to read , or listen to scientists , to know that the overwhelming body of scientific evidence shows us that climate change is caused by human activity .\nhe was participating in a yearly summit organized by nevada sen . harry reid .\n\u00a9 2018 cable news network . turner broadcasting system , inc . all rights reserved . cnn sans \u2122 & \u00a9 2016 cable news network . terms of service | privacy guidelines | adchoices\nnever mess with a team that has just loss their first league game in several years . the taft varsity softball team showed why tuesday afternoon when they shut out the robert f . kennedy thunderbirds 21 - 0 at home . with the victory , taft improves to 20 - 6 overall and 10 - 1 in the south sequoia league .\n\u00a9 copyright 2006 - 2018 gatehouse media , llc . all rights reserved \u2022 gatehouse news\nchat with us on facebook messenger . learn what ' s trending across popsugar .\ni might not be flawless , but you know i ' ve got a diamond heart .\njoanne opens in earnest with\ndiamond heart ,\nwhich proceeds with a sleepy build to the chorus .\ni might not be flawless , but you know i ' ve got a diamond heart ,\ngaga croons . by the time i reached the bridge , where gaga ' s voice really soars , i was in .\ngood thing i know what i ' m worth ,\nshe belts . going into\na - yo\nand the much slower , guitar - driven melody of\njoanne ,\nit ' s clear that nostalgic american vibe \u2014 country , rock and roll , and maybe even a little bit of folk \u2014 is where we ' ll live . at this point in my personal experience with the album , i ' ve unpacked some boxes and moved right in .\nlistening to and loving joanne reminds me of a similar experience i had five years ago , when the decemberists released their own country - style masterpiece , the king is dead . i remember being struck by how exceptional it sounded when the decemberists mixed their style and sounds with more traditional ( and simpler ) bluegrass textures . i realize now , with the help of gaga , that there must be some magic there . when an artist that ' s so entrenched in one genre of music gets the chance to tap into such a specific and traditional sound , it ' s like their personal lens casts everything in a whole new light . the result is something notably fresh , undeniably close to the heart and , in my opinion , quite impactful .\nas we get into the meat of the album , it ' s clear there are notes of gaga ' s theatrical background too .\ncome to mama\nis perhaps the most striking example of a voice influenced by musical theater , but there ' s also a noted drama to the most upbeat songs like\njohn wayne ,\ndancin ' in circles ,\nand\nsinner ' s prayer .\nin these songs , the character of\njoanne\nmight be the most palpable . pointed lyrics like\nevery john is just the same ,\nand\nfeels good to be lonely ,\nnod at the sorrow in the album ' s underbelly , but the raw energy of the songs is equally undeniable . these might be my favorite songs on the album . the lyrics are poignant , the imagery is sharp , and the beats are electrifying . the fire in these songs is present in all of gaga ' s work , because i recognize the feelings i get from listening to it .\nby signing up , i agree to the terms & to receive emails from popsugar .\npopsugar ' s privacy policy has been updated effective as of may 25 , 2018 . click here to read it .\nshe is the first halftime show performer to receive an admonition from the national rifle association about what she should \u2014 or , rather , should not \u2014 do during her super bowl performance .\nspeaking on nra tv , conservative political commentator bill whittle strongly implored gaga to leave any political statements out of her 13 - minute sunday performance at houston\u2019s nrg stadium .\nwhittle began by taking a shot at the nfl for picking gaga just a year after beyonc\u00e9 fueled criticism from conservative corners for her 2016 super bowl halftime show performance . it featured the live debut of her overtly political song \u201cformation , \u201d which found her and her dancers wearing quasi - military outfits inspired by the black panthers ."]}
{"id": 2596, "summary": [{"text": "ptychochromis makira is a species of cichlid only known from the antainambalana river in the northernmost part of the toamasina province in madagascar .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss and overfishing , and has suffered a severe decline in recent years .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it reaches a length of 14.6 centimetres ( 5.7 in ) sl . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "ptychochromis makira", "paragraphs": ["ptychochromis makira is known only from the type series , collected in the antainambalana river just north of maroansetra in northeastern madagascar . the southern range limit of p . makira is not known with certainty as that region has not been extensively surveyed for freshwater fishes ( stiassny and sparks , 2006 ) .\nptychochromis ernestmagnusi , sparks , john s . & stiassny , melanie l . j . , 2010\nit is not currently known whether p . makira is found and is widespread or not within the boundaries of the makira forest protected area / national park , the largest ( c . 3 , 500 km\u00b2 ) contiguous tract of principally lowland rainforest remaining in madagascar .\nalthough once common throughout the region of maroansetra , ptychochromis makira has suffered a severe decline in abundance in recent years , according to local fishermen ( ref . 57663 ) . they report that the species is now rare ( ref . 57663 ) .\nalthough once common throughout the region of maroansetra , ptychochromis makira has suffered a severe decline in abundance in recent years , according to local fishermen ( ref . 57663 ) . they report that the species is now rare ( ref . 57663 ) .\naccording to fishermen near the type locality , p . makira has suffered a severe decline in abundance and is considered to be rare ( stiassny and sparks 2006 ) .\nfigure 1 . ptychochromis ernestmagnusi , amnh 249490 , holotype , adult male , 146 . 6 mm sl ( scale bar = 1cm ) .\nfigure 7 . lateral pigmentation pattern in preservation for : a ) ptychochromis makira ( amnh 237131 , holotype , 151 . 0 mm sl , adult male ) , and b ) p . ernestmagnusi ( amnh 249488 , paratype , 99 . 5 mm sl , adult ) . dashed lines indicate relative adult lateral barring pattern and orientation .\nfigure 1 . ptychochromis ernestmagnusi , amnh 249490 , holotype , adult male , 146 . 6 mm sl ( scale bar = 1 cm ) .\nfigure 3 . left lateral view of the dorsoposterior margin of the neurocranium illustrating morphology of the supraneural bones ( in black ) and their relationship to the supraoccipital bone . a ) ptychochromis ernestmagnusi , b ) p . makira , c ) p . c ur v id e ns , and d ) p . oligacanthus . arrows indicate degree of overlap of supraoccipital crest by anterior supraneural .\nfigure 3 . left lateral view of the dorsoposterior margin of the neurocranium illustrating morphology of the supraneural bones ( in black ) and their relationship to the supraoccipital bone . a ) ptychochromis ernestmagnusi , b ) p . makira , c ) p . c u r v i d e n s , and d ) p . oligacanthus . arrows indicate degree of overlap of supraoccipital crest by anterior supraneural .\nfigure 5 . ptychochromis ernestmagnusi , amnh 249490 , holotype , 146 . 6 mm sl , adult male . freshly captured specimen illustrating adult coloration in life . photo by paul loiselle .\ntable 2 . morphological character matrix for species of ptychochromis and outgroups included in phylogenetic analysis . inapplicable character assignments are designated by ( - ) . \u201c a \u201d = character states 0 & 1 . character state descriptions presented in appendix 1 .\nmartinez , c . m . , j . arroyave and j . s . sparks , 2015 . a new species of ptychochromis from southeastern madagascar ( teleostei : cichlidae ) . zootaxa 4044 ( 1 ) : 79 - 92 . ( ref . 105395 )\nsparks , john s . & stiassny , melanie l . j . , 2010 , a new species of ptychochromis from northeastern madagascar ( teleostei : cichlidae ) , with an updated phylogeny and revised diagnosis for the genus , zootaxa 2341 , pp . 33 - 51 : 34 - 48\nsparks , john s . , stiassny , melanie l . j . ( 2010 ) : a new species of ptychochromis from northeastern madagascar ( teleostei : cichlidae ) , with an updated phylogeny and revised diagnosis for the genus . zootaxa 2341 : 33 - 51 , doi : 10 . 5281 / zenodo . 193312\ntable 1 . morphometric and meristic data for ptychochromis ernestmagnusi , new species . proportional measurements ( mm ) in percent standard length ( sl ) or percent head length ( hl ) , unless noted otherwise . values in parentheses indicate number of specimens examined with that count . ( h ) indicates count corresponding to holotype .\nfigure 6 . relative geographic distributions of species of ptychochromis exhibiting the\neastern type palatine\nconfiguration , including the geographically proximate sister species , p . ma k ira and p . ernestmagnusi , new species . note : arrow for p . grandidieri indicates that distribution for species extends southward along the eastern coast of madagascar .\nfigure 6 . relative geographic distributions of species of ptychochromis exhibiting the \u201c eastern type palatine \u201d configuration , including the geographically proximate sister species , p . m a k i r a and p . ernestmagnusi , new species . note : arrow for p . grandidieri indicates that distribution for species extends southward along the eastern coast of madagascar .\nstiassny , m . l . j . and j . s . sparks , 2006 . phylogeny and taxonomic revision of the endemic malagasy genus ptychochromis ( teleostei : cichlidae ) , with the description of five new species and a diagnosis for katria , new genus . am . mus . novit . 3535 : 1 - 55 . ( ref . 57663 )\ngreek , ptyx , = fold + greek , chromis = a fish , perhaps a perch ( ref . 45335 )\nthe species is named after the region in which the type specimens were collected ( ref . 57663 )\nafrica : antainambalana river , northeastern madagascar ( ref . 57663 , 83427 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 14 . 6 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 57663 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 13 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 12 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 8 - 9 ; vertebrae : 27 . it is distinguished from all congeners by the presence of three laterosensory pore foramina on the lachrymal and a unique pigmentation pattern consisting of four distinctive v - shaped black bars on the flanks superimposed on an overall whitish base ( ref . 57663 ) . extremely deep - bodied and laterally compressed ( ref . 57663 ) . it has a total of six infraorbital bones ( ref . 57663 ) . in preservative , the ground coloration is pale creamy white to yellow , body much lighter ventrally ; 4 black v - shaped bands present on flanks , which extend ventrally to lateraly midline ; fins pale yellow to grayish and blackish terminally , except pectoral fins ( ref . 57663 ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5010 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01995 ( 0 . 00906 - 0 . 04395 ) , b = 3 . 01 ( 2 . 83 - 3 . 19 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 \u00b10 . 3 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 21 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 14 . 6 cm sl maschio / sesso non determinato ; ( ref . 57663 )\nspine dorsali ( totale ) : 13 ; raggi dorsali molli ( totale ) : 12 ; spine anali 3 ; raggi anali molli : 8 - 9 ; vertebre : 27 . it is distinguished from all congeners by the presence of three laterosensory pore foramina on the lachrymal and a unique pigmentation pattern consisting of four distinctive v - shaped black bars on the flanks superimposed on an overall whitish base ( ref . 57663 ) . extremely deep - bodied and laterally compressed ( ref . 57663 ) . it has a total of six infraorbital bones ( ref . 57663 ) . in preservative , the ground coloration is pale creamy white to yellow , body much lighter ventrally ; 4 black v - shaped bands present on flanks , which extend ventrally to lateraly midline ; fins pale yellow to grayish and blackish terminally , except pectoral fins ( ref . 57663 ) .\nresilienza ( ref . 69278 ) : alto , tempo minimo di raddoppiamento della popolazione meno di 15 mesi ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . 2014 . catalog of fishes . updated 3 january 2014 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 3 jan 2014 ) .\nraminosoa , n . , rasoloariniaina , r , ravelomanana , t . & velosoa , j .\nthis species is endemic to madagascar . it is only known from the type series comprising two specimens , collected in the antainambalana river just north of maroansetra in northeastern madagascar ( stiassny and sparks 2006 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nfigure 8 . strict consensus cladogram of nine optimal topologies recovered ( tree length = 1018 , ci = 0 . 67 , ri = 0 . 61 ) based on the simultaneous analysis of the nucleotide dataset of stiassny and sparks ( 2006 ) and 24 morphological transformations . unambiguously optimized morphological features supporting recovered nodes are designated by solid ( unique feature ) and open ( homoplasious feature ) circles . character numbers ( above braches ) and states ( below branches ) correspond to the morphological transformations listed in table 2 and appendix . . .\nfigure 2 . left lateral view of the oral jaws and anterior region of the suspensorium of p . ernestmagnusi ( amnh 249489 , paratype , 87 . 5 mm sl , female , c & s ) illustrating the\neastern type palatine\n( shaded in gray ) morphology .\n249490 , 146 . 6 mm sl , male , mananara ( du nord ) river at antanambaobe village ( 16 \u00b0 16 \u2032 0 1 \u2033s , 49 \u00b0 40 \u2032 0 1 \u2033e ) , madagascar , 120 m a . s . l . , mg 10 - 06 , coll . p . v . loiselle , 4 october 2006 .\n249488 , 9 ex . , incl . 1 ex . c & s , 75 . 9\u201399 . 5 mm sl , mananara ( du nord ) river at antanibaolina village ( 16 \u00b0 15 \u2032 0 1 \u2033s , 49 \u00b0 40 \u2032 41 \u2033e ) , madagascar , 108 m a . s . l . , mg 09 - 06 , coll . p . v . loiselle , 4 october 2006 . amnh\n249489 , 8 ex . , incl . 1 ex . c & s , 51 . 5 \u201399 . 0 mm sl , data as for holotype . mnhn\n2009 - 1674 , 2 ex . , 79 . 4 \u201398 . 0 mm sl , data as for holotype . ummz\n1935 - 0007 , 1 ex . , 128 . 5 mm sl , mananara ( du nord ) river , madagascar . no additional collection locality information available .\nby an anterior displacement of the first supraneural such that it overlies the dorsoposterior margin of the supraoccipital ( fig . 3\nthe possession of supraneurals with a characteristically flattened dorsal profile , which is interpreted here as a synapomorphy uniting these two geographically proximate species . also shared with p . m a k i r a is the presence of strong ( paired ) lateral barring as a prominent component of pigmentation patterning ; however , p . m a k i r a can be distinguished by distinctively v - shaped lateral flank bars , whereas in\nis further distinguished from p . m a k i r a by conspicuous iridescent spangling on the flank and dorsal fin near its base , dusky grayish - green base coloration ( vs . whitish ) , four lachrymal laterosensory foramina ( vs . three ) , and a total of seven ( vs . six ) infraorbital bones .\ndescription . morphometric and meristic data presented in table 1 . external anatomical characteristics and general pigmentation pattern in life and preservation can be observed in figures 1\nb . moderately deep bodied and laterally compressed . dorsal body profile convex , becoming significantly more so in larger specimens ( ca . 100 mm sl and larger ) . ventral body profile weakly to moderately convex . lateral snout outline straight in smaller specimens , and becoming weakly curved ( convex ) in larger individuals . predorsal profile moderately to strongly convex from mid - orbit to dorsal - fin origin , becoming more pronounced in larger specimens and creating weak \u201cnuchal hump\u201d . supraoccipital crest prominent in lateral view and conspicuously deep bodied in larger individuals ( ca . 100 mm sl ) . caudal peduncle short , deep , and laterally compressed . origin of dorsal fin located well anterior to vertical through pectoral - fin insertion . origin of pelvic fin located considerably posterior to vertical through pectoral - fin insertion .\ntotal vertebral count 27 or 28 , with formulae of 13 + 14 ( mode ) , 13 + 15 , and 14 + 14 precaudal and caudal vertebrae , respectively .\noral jaws isognathous and small . oral dentition bilaterally symmetrical and bicuspid , with moderately to well - developed distally expanded and slightly recurved cusps ( fig . 2\n) . outer row teeth of both premaxilla and dentary enlarged relative to teeth of inner rows and graded in size ( i . e . , becoming smaller ) posterolaterally .\nouter row teeth procumbently implanted in rostral portion of lower jaw , and oriented vertically elsewhere . outer row teeth in upper jaw more or less vertically oriented . upper jaw with three or four rows of teeth anteriorly and tapering to single ( i . e . , outer ) row posteriorly . lower jaw with three rows of teeth rostrally , and tapering to single ( i . e . , outer ) row posteriorly . although smaller , inner rows of teeth on both premaxilla and dentary of same morphology ( bilaterally symmetrical and bicuspid ) as those of respective outer row . dentition covers about anterior 2 / 3 of dentary and nearly entire surface ( > 80 % ) of premaxillary arcade .\nscales : lateral line to dorsal fin 18 4 ( 8 ) , 4 . 5 ( 2 ) , 5 ( 7 , h ) , 6 ( 1 )\nlower pharyngeal jaw ( lpj = fused 5 th ceratobranchial elements ) robust with interdigitating suture on posteroventral margin . dentition on lpj and upper pharyngeal jaw ( upj ) comprised of numerous , closely set , strongly hooked and bicuspid teeth . cusps on lpj teeth better developed posteriorly . posteromedially on both lpj and third pharyngobranchial toothplate , dentition becoming robust and molariform ( fig . 4 a ) ; other teeth of these elements hooked and bicuspid . expansive second pharyngobranchial toothplate bearing five or six rows of well - developed , hooked and bicuspid teeth . two or three rows of hooked and bicuspid teeth present on \u201cfree\u201d second epibranchial toothplate . fourth upper toothplate covered with numerous , closely - set rows of smaller hooked and bicuspid teeth ; teeth becoming progressively smaller and much less well developed posteriorly . strong concavity and associated sickle - like prong present on caudomedial margin of fourth upper toothplate . dorsal surface of fourth ceratobranchial elements bearing numerous robust , laterally expanded , toothplates . fourth ceratobranchial toothplates confluent with outer row gill rakers of these elements . dentition on fourth ceratobranchial toothplates unicuspid and more or less conical to weakly hooked and bicuspid laterally , and becoming progressively more strongly hooked and bicuspid medially ( similar to pattern observed for lateral lpj dentition ) . contralateral fourth ceratobranchial elements bearing strong concavity and associated prong ( = hook ) on medial margin .\neleven or 12 relatively elongate gill rakers arrayed along lower limb of first arch , excluding raker in angle of arch ( fig . 4 b ) . lower limb rakers of first gill arch denticulate dorsomedially , bearing numerous conical to weakly hooked and bicuspid teeth . nine weakly developed and triangular epibranchial gill rakers . remaining gill arches bearing short , robust , and strongly laterally expanded ( particularly , distally near crown ) rakers . these rakers strongly denticulate dorsally , bearing numerous elongate and conical ( becoming bulbous apically ) to weakly hooked and bicuspid teeth .\n. ( a ) dorsal view of the lower pharyngeal jaw ( fused 5 th ceratobranchial elements ) illustrating molariform caudomedial tooth morphology . left lateral view of the : ( b ) lower limb of the first gill arch ( ceratobranchial 1 and hypobranchial 1 ) with gill rakers shaded in gray , and ( c ) lachrymal ( pores shaded in gray ) and additional bones of the infraorbital series .\nflank squamation comprised of large , regularly imbricate , weakly ctenoid scales . scale margins becoming progressively more ctenoid posteriorly on flank . ctenoid scales extend from about dorsal - fin origin ( i . e . , ranging from slightly anterior to somewhat posterior of fin insertion ) dorsal to upper branch of lateral line and somewhat posterior to pectoral - fin base below upper lateral line , to proximal portion of caudal fin . scales on anterior portion of nape and throughout head region cycloid . scales on opercle and subopercle cycloid . cheek scales cycloid and comprising four rows ; fourth ( ventral ) row frequently poorly developed and comprising few scales . snout , lachrymal , and anterior portion of interorbital region to about level of mid - orbit asquamate . anterior chest scales somewhat reduced in size and embedded . scales extending onto caudal fin reduced in size and ctenoid anteriorly , markedly smaller and cycloid posteriorly . pored scales of lower branch of lateral line frequently extending onto caudal fin ( i . e . , beyond hypural flexure ) for one or two rows . lateral - line scales with well - developed canals , and numbering 34 to 37 ( mode 34 ) . four or five ( mode ) scale rows between bases of pectoral and pelvic fins . four ( mode ) to six scales in diagonal from upper branch of lateral line to dorsal - fin origin . no scale rows extending onto dorsal - and anal - fin membranes proximal to base of fins .\ndorsal fin with xii or xiii spines and 11 to 13 soft rays . anal fin with iii spines and seven to nine soft rays . first anal - fin spine conspicuously short , whereas second and third spines elongate and more or less similar in length . distal margins of soft dorsal and anal fins becoming produced and tapered in larger specimens ; posteriorly margins reaching to about caudal - fin origin in smaller individuals ( < 80 mm sl ) and extending well beyond origin in larger specimens ( fig . 1\n) . pectoral fin elongate , deep bodied and paddle - like ; becoming tapered distally ( i . e . , dorsal rays much longer than ventral ) . adpressed pelvic fin terminating well before anal - fin origin in smaller specimens , and extending to about anal - fin origin in larger individuals ( > 90 mm sl ) . caudal fin emarginate , trailing margins of upper and lower lobes becoming at most weakly produced in larger individuals ( > 80 mm sl ) .\nmiscellaneous osteology and anatomy . exoccipital foramina on posterior of neurocranium poorly developed ; simple and lacking complex interior chamber ( see stiassny , 1991 , and sparks , 2008 , for a discussion of exoccipital foramen development in malagasy - south asian cichlids ) . paired , anterior gas bladder diverticula well developed , elongate , and tube - like ; however , rather feeble in structure ( i . e . , not rigid and thick walled ) and similar to main gas bladder chamber . diverticula in contact with exoccipital region of neurocranium via connective tissue but not penetrating into exoccipital foramina ( sparks , 2008 ; fig . 3\na ) . infraorbital series composed of seven distinct elements ( fig . 4 c ) . lachrymal ( = first infraorbital or io 1 ) with four neurosensory pores ; fourth pore communicating with anterior pore of second infraorbital ( io 2 ) . second infraorbital excluded from orbital margin by io 3 . cephalic laterosensory canals well developed with enlarged pores ( e . g . , including those on preopercle and dentary ; figs . 2\n& 4 c ) . uncinate process and anterior arm of first epibranchial element short and robust ( fig . 4 b ) . well - developed process ( = prong / hook ) and deep indentation ( = excavation ) present on medial face of fourth ceratobranchial element . supraneurals ( fig . 3\na ) rostrally positioned , with first supraneural overlying dorsoposterior margin of supraoccipital crest . both supraneurals characteristically shaped with flat dorsal margins ( fig . 3\n) . overall uniform greenish base coloration with a dusky gray overlay , not notably darker dorsally than ventrally . many scales bearing a small , conspicuous iridescent spot along posterior scale margin . pigmentation pattern composed of five or six ( mode , holotype ) prominent midlateral blotches intersected by six to eight less strongly pigmented vertical bars . nape dark gray , snout and cheek dusky grey , and gular region black . fins uniformly dark blackish - gray , with some small iridescent spots proximally in soft dorsal . pectoral fin hyaline .\n) . ground coloration reddish - brown , slightly paler ventrally than dorsally . traces of iridescent spangling present , particularly in larger specimens , and most evident ventrally on flank . pigmentation pattern consisting of five or six ( mode , holotype ) prominent midlateral blotches with significantly paler intersecting vertical bars retained in preservation . most posterior blotch , located on caudal peduncle ( i . e . , sixth blotch in series if present ) , significantly paler than others . fins pale reddish - brown , trailing margins of soft anal and dorsal fins blackish . pectoral fin hyaline . pelvic fin pale reddish - brown , and becoming charcoal to blackish distally . anterior interorbital region , snout , and lachrymal dark gray . lower lip creamy brown . gular region dark grayish - black .\n) . currently known only from the type localities , which are located in the middle to lower reaches of the mananara ( du nord ) river , northeastern madagascar . this region is characterized by humid , lowland rainforest ( unesco - mab biosphere reserves directory , 2009 ) , and remains poorly surveyed for freshwater fishes . it is unknown whether the new species is more widely distributed within the region , and also whether it occurs in smaller tributaries of the mananara ( du nord ) river or other adjacent drainage basins to the north and south . substantial forest cover remains in the region and it is likely the new species has a significantly more widespread geographic distribution than current collection data would indicate . the mananara ( du nord ) river is a relatively large basin that extends from its headwaters through regions of intact forest and low population density . it is a typical eastern drainage , with a steep overall profile , and a generally rocky to sandy substrate . it is likely that the new species of\nis restricted to the middle to lower reaches of the river and its tributaries , given that suitable habitat and adequate trophic resources are most likely lacking at higher elevations , as is typical for other eastern basins ( sparks , 2005 a , b ) .\nconservation status . although forested portions of the coastal region to the south of the mananara ( du nord ) river are encompassed by the mananara - nord biosphere reserve ( designated in 1990 ) , which extends from 16 \u00b0 09 ' to 16 \u00b0 36 ' s and 49 \u00b0 31 ' to 49 \u00b0 53 ' e , and covers 140 , 000 hectares , the mananara river and its south bank tributaries are not included within the terrestrial component of the protected area ( which also includes a smaller marine component ) ( unesco - mab biosphere reserves directory , 2009 ) . we anticipate that the new species is not only more widespread in the region due to similar available habitats , but that it also receives some degree of protection from habitat degradation , deforestation , and overfishing within the biosphere reserve , which protects some of the last remaining remnants of lowland rainforest in eastern madagascar . in general , species of\n, which remains relatively common and widespread along the highly developed and densely populated eastern coast of the island ) . nevertheless , members of the genus are rapidly extirpated from areas where habitats have become severely disturbed and water quality is negatively impacted ( e . g . , severe deforestation and development resulting in highly turbid drainage basins ) ( sparks & stiassny , 2003 , 2008 ) .\netymology . named in honor of mr . ernest magnus of berlin , germany , and new york city , at the request of the family of dr . rudolph g . arndt , whose support of ichthyological exploration and research at the american museum of natural history is gratefully acknowledged .\nwas problematic in that study . based primarily on features of the palatine bone of the suspensorium , stiassny and sparks ( 2006 ) recognized two groups of\n: a \u201cwestern clade\u201d characterized by a compact palatine head with an upright orientation and marked elevation of the lateral ethmoid process ( i . e . , \u201cwestern type palatine\u201d ) , and an \u201ceastern group\u201d in which the palatine exhibits a markedly horizontal orientation , an elongate palatine prong , and less prominent ( weakly elevated ) lateral ethmoid process ( i . e . , \u201ceastern type palatine\u201d ) . on the cladogram presented by stiassny and sparks ( 2006 : fig . 2\n) , unambiguous optimization of the \u201cwestern type palatine\u201d configuration ( sparks & stiassny , 2006 : character 14 , node d ) was interpreted as evidence for monophyly of a \u201cwestern clade\u201d ; however , the \u201ceastern type palatine\u201d morphology described above was not unambiguously optimized on that phylogenetic reconstruction . as a result , the relationships of the four eastern species included in our 2006 analysis ( viz . ,\n) were represented as a polytomy ( stiassny & sparks , 2006 : fig . 2\nhere we have identified an additional putatively homologous anatomical feature unique to the \u201ceastern group\u201d , rostral displacement of the supraneural elements such that the anterior supraneural comes to overlie the dorsoposterior margin of the supraoccipital of the neurocranium . this supraneural configuration is lacking in all other members of\nto test this hypothesis , we reran our prior phylogenetic analysis ( stiassny & sparks , 2006 : fig . 2\n) using the same methodological approach , search parameters , and combined morphological and molecular dataset , with the inclusion of the new species and including coding for the unique \u201ceastern group\u201d supraneural configuration described above and the two features ( discussed below ) hypothesized to unite p . m a k i r a and the new species ( for a total of 24 morphological transformations and 2053 total characters ; characters 1\u201321 are described in detail in sparks & stiassny , 2006 : table 1 and results ) . a complete list of the morphological character descriptions is presented in the appendix and the corresponding data matrix is presented in table 2 . as the results indicate ( fig . 7\n) , we again failed to recover a monophyletic \u201ceastern group\u201d despite the fact that these five species possess both the novel supraneural feature ( character 22 , fig . 3\na\u2013c ) and \u201ceastern type palatine\u201d configuration ( sparks & stiassny , 2006 : character 21 ; fig . 2\nthat exhibit an \u201ceastern type palatine\u201d configuration , p . m a k i r a shares with\nis the presence of a characteristic lateral barring pattern , in which each prominent midlateral blotch is intersected by a pair of narrow and less strongly pigmented vertical or oblique bars ( fig . 7\n; character 24 ) . however , in p . m a k i r a these pairs of lateral flank bars are distinctively v - shaped ( fig . 7\nb ) . despite inconclusive results in our earlier phylogenetic analysis ( sparks & stiassny , 2006 : fig . 2\n, our new analysis recovered a sister group relationship between p . m a k i r a and\nsupported by the two unambiguously optimized anatomical features ( characters 23 & 24 ) discussed above .\nis readily distinguished from p . m a k i r a by conspicuous iridescent spangling on the flank and dorsal fin membrane near its base , dusky grayish - green base coloration ( vs . whitish ) , four lachrymal laterosensory foramina ( vs . three ) , and a total of seven ( vs . six ) infraorbital bones . although only two specimens of p . m a k i r a have been collected to date and admittedly represent a rather limited size range , the new species is also more shallow bodied ( 41 . 7\u201346 . 1 vs . 48 . 1\u201348 . 9 % sl in p . m a k i r a ) , has a larger eye ( 29 . 5\u201337 . 4 vs . 25 . 6\u201327 . 6 % hl in p . m a k i r a ) , a longer head ( 34 . 2\u201337 . 1 vs . 32 . 0\u2013 32 . 2 % sl in p . m a k i r a ) , a shorter preanal length ( 71 . 6\u201373 . 5 vs . 75 . 1 % sl in p . m a k i r a ) , and a greater lateral line scale count ( 34\u201337 vs . 33 in\n) than its sister taxon , p . m a k i r a .\n217739 , holotype , eastern madagascar , tamatave province , river nosivolo , below zule\u2019s village , large side - pool off mainstream . amnh\n93701 , 20 ex . , 10 ex . c & s , eastern madagascar , tamatave province , river nosivolo below ampasimaniona village , 26 km east - northeast of marolambo . ummz\n97111 , 10 ex . , 1 ex . c & s , eastern madagascar , tamatave province , mangoro drainage , village of marolambo , nosivolo river . amnh\n97150 , 4 ex . , 1 ex . c & s , eastern madagascar , tamatave province , river nosivolo by ambarimasina village , ca . 16 km east northeast of marolambo . ummz\n235046 , 1 ex . c & s , eastern madagascar , tamatave province , nosivolo river , near village of marolambo , mangoro drainage .\n216068 , 25 ex . , eastern madagascar , large baylake , behind dunes 1 km south of turnoff from marolambo - mananjary road , ca . 100 meters from sea . ummz\n235043 , 2 ex . c & s , northeastern madagascar , lac anjavibe , nosy be . ummz\n235045 , 2 ex . c & s , southeastern madagascar , sahapindra river , near vevembe .\n237130 , paratype , 1 ex . ( c & s in part ) , data as for holotype . mnhn\n2006 - 0 780 , paratypes , 3 ex . , data as for holotype .\n237131 , holotype , northeastern madagascar , antalaha province , north of maroansetra , near town of marovonona , antainambalana river , purchased from local fishermen by augustin sarovy , j . s . sparks , w . l . smith , and k . l . tang . amnh\n237132 , paratype , 1 ex . ( c & s in part ) , data as for holotype .\n232462 , holotype , male , northeastern madagascar , antalaha province , north of sambava , mahanara river at antsirabe - nord , just upstream of bridge over route n - 5 ( 13 \u00b0 58 . 49 \u2032s ; 49 \u00b0 57 . 81 \u2032e ) , pvl - 01 - 29 , p . v . loiselle and local fishermen . amnh\n231249 , paratype , 1 ex . , northeastern madagascar , antalaha province , main channel of the mahanara river at antsirabe - nord , at bridge on route n - 5 ( 13 \u00b0 38 . 49 \u2032s 49 \u00b0 57 . 81 \u2032e ) , pvl - 00 - 07 , p . v . loiselle . amnh\n231258 , paratypes , 3 ex . , 1 ex . c & s , northeastern madagascar , antalaha province , main channel of the mahanara river at antsirsabe - nord , at bridge on route n - 5 ( 13 \u00b0 58 . 49 \u2032s 49 \u00b0 57 . 81 \u2032e ) , pvl - 00 - 12 , p . v . loiselle . mnhn\n232458 , paratype , 1 ex . , northeastern madagascar , antalaha province , mahanara river , ca . 4 km northwest of antsirabe - nord ( 13 \u00b0 57 . 30 \u2032s 49 \u00b0 56 . 20 \u2032e ) , pvl - 01 - 27 , p . v . loiselle and local fishermen . mhng\n2623 . 82 , holotype , northern madagascar , antsiranana ( diego suarez ) province , andranofanjava , andranofanjava - sandriapiana river system , p . de rham and j . - c . nourissat . mhng\n2676 . 096 , paratypes , 2 ex . , data as for holotype . amnh\n237133 , paratypes , 2 ex . , 1 ex . c & s , data as for holotype . mhng\n2623 . 84 , paratype , 1 ex . , northern madagascar , antsiranana ( diego suarez ) province , mirosolava , p . de rham and j . - c . nourissat .\n237066 , holotype , juvenile ; northeastern madagascar , antalaha province , near town of mandritsara , sofia drainage basin , amboaboa ( = ambomboa ) river ( 15 \u00b0 50 \u2032 1 \u2033s ; 48 \u00b0 42 \u2032 51 \u2033e ) , j . s . sparks and k . j . riseng .\n237492 , holotype , adult female , northwestern madagascar , antalaha province , northeast of antsohihy , ankofia drainage , anjingo river ( 14 \u00ba 50 \u2032 41 . 0\u2033s , 48 \u00ba 14 \u2032 38 . 3 e ) , jss 94 - 19 , j . s . sparks , k . j . riseng , and local malagasy guides . ummz\n237063 , paratypes , 5 ex . , 1 ex . c & s , data as for holotype . amnh\n237064 , paratypes , 5 ex . , 2 ex . c & s , northwestern madagascar , antalaha province , northeast of antsohihy , ankofia drainage , bora special reserve , bemahavony river ( tributary of anjingo river ) ( 14 \u00ba 52 \u2032 20 . 4 \u2033s , 48 \u00ba 14 \u2032 52 . 2 \u2033e ) , jss 94 - 20 . amnh\n237065 , paratype , 1 ex . , northwestern madagascar , antalaha province , northeast of antsohihy , ankofia drainage , lake andrapongy ( 14 \u00ba 41 \u2032 49 . 3 \u2033s , 48 \u00ba 0 7 \u2032 54 . 3 \u2033e ) , jss 94 - 21 . ummz\n237067 , paratypes , 7 ex . , northwestern madagascar , antalaha province , northeast of antsohihy , ankofia drainage , anjingo river ( 14 \u00ba 50 \u2032 39 . 7 \u2033s , 48 \u00ba 14 \u2032 39 . 5 \u2033e ) , jss 94 - 54 .\na . 4147 , holotype , madagascar , region of high forests , humblot and grandidier . see discussion in sparks ( 2003 ) regarding the locality of the holotype . additional non - type material examined : mnhn\na . 310 , 1 ex . , rivers that cross the eastern slope , lantz . amnh\n88018 , 56 ex . , 1 ex . , c & s , southeastern madagascar , mananjary , estuary of mananjary river , 21 \u00ba05\u2032s 48 \u00ba 27 \u2032e . amnh\n88053 , 2 ex . , southeastern madagascar , mananjary , estuary of mananjary river , 21 \u00ba 0 5 \u2032s , 48 \u00ba 27 \u2032e . amnh\n88076 , 2 ex . , eastern madagascar , vatomandry , 19 \u00ba 20 \u2032s , 49 \u00ba 0 0\u2032e . amnh\n88090 , 3 ex . , eastern madagascar , mahanoro , 19 \u00ba 55 \u2032s , 48 \u00ba 50 \u2032e . amnh\n88092 , 17 ex . , eastern madagascar , mahanoro , pangalanes canal north of mangoro river . amnh\n88102 , 36 ex . , 14 ex . c & s , eastern madagascar , baylake behind dunes , ca . 100 m from sea . amnh\n88117 , 18 ex . , eastern madagascar , tamatave market , 18 \u00ba 10 \u2032s , 49 \u00ba 25 \u2032e . amnh\n88140 , 1 ex . , eastern madagascar , 25 km north of tamatave , pangalanes canal , 18 \u00ba 0 0\u2032s , 49 \u00ba 25 \u2032e . amnh\n88153 , 11 ex . , eastern madagascar , between fenerive and tamatave , pangalanes canal , 18 \u00ba 0 0\u2032s , 49 \u00ba 25 \u2032e . amnh\n96999 , 52 ex . , 2 ex . c & s , eastern madagascar , tamatave province , mangoro river near mouth . amnh\n97008 , 185 ex . , eastern madagascar , salehy village , 1 km south of turnoff from marolambo - mananjary road , 19 \u00ba 55 \u2032s , 48 \u00ba 50 \u2032e . amnh\n97028 , 7 ex . , 3 ex . c & s , eastern madagascar , tamatave province , bay lake behind first dune ca . 100 m from sea , east of road by sahey village , 1 km south of turnoff from marolambo - manajary road . amnh\n97057 , 1 ex . , eastern madagascar , ambodisovoka village , savalany river . amnh\n228067 , 3 ex . , southeastern madagascar , lopary , mananizo river . amnh\n228072 , 6 ex . , southeastern madagascar , ampataka village , sahambavy river . amnh\n228074 , 3 ex . , southeastern madagascar , 12 km north of farafangana , manampatrona river , 22 \u00ba 43 \u2032 47 \u2033s , 47 \u00ba 47 \u2032 25 \u2033e . amnh\n231347 , 1 ex . , southeastern madagascar , ampataka village , sahambavy river , 23 \u00ba 21 \u2019 04\u201ds , 47 \u00ba 28 \u2032 18 \u2033e . amnh\n231352 , 4 ex . , southeastern madagascar , manombo special reserve , takoandra river , 23 \u00ba 0 1 \u2032 27 \u2033s , 47 \u00ba 43 \u2032 16 \u2033e . mnhn\n233524 , 17 ex . , 2 ex . c & s , madagascar , southeastern coastal region . ummz\n237312 , 3 ex . , 1 ex . c & s , southeastern madagascar , manombo special reserve . ummz\n237495 , 5 ex . , southeastern madagascar , 6 km north of karianga at mahavelo , rienana drainage , andriambondro river , 22 \u00ba 21 \u2032 47 \u2033s , 47 \u00ba 22 \u2032 0 5 \u2033e . ummz\n238453 , 2 ex . , southeastern madagascar , near manombo special reserve . ummz\n238472 , 11 ex . , 2 ex . c & s , southeastern madagascar , farafangana market . ummz\n3 . 936 , lectotype , \u201c madagascar , in flumine samberano , nossib\u00e9 , in lacu pambilao\u201d , pollen and van dam . additional non - type material examined : amnh\n18841 , 1 ex . , madagascar ( probably mainland , sambirano region ) . amnh\n58491 , 9 ex . , northwestern madagascar , lake amparihibe , at the mouth of the inflowing small stream , lake antsidihy , nosy be . amnh\n215522 , 4 ex . , northwestern madagascar , lake bemapaza , nosy be . amnh\n215523 , 15 ex . , northwestern madagascar , lakes djabala and ampombilava , nosy be . amnh\n230699 , 3 ex . , northwestern madagascar , lake andjavibe , nosy be . amnh\n232399 , 2 ex . , northwestern madagascar , lake ampombilava , nosy be . amnh\n232415 , 3 ex . , northwestern madagascar , lake djabala , nosy be . mnhn\n1962 - 322 , 1 ex . , northwestern madagascar , sambirano river . ummz\n236591 , 26 ex . , 4 ex . c & s , northwestern madagascar , lake ampombilava , nosy be . ummz\n237498 , 22 ex . , 2 ex . c & s , northwestern madagascar , lake djabala , nosy be . ummz\n237493 , 3 ex . , northwestern madagascar , lac de deux soeurs , nosy be . ummz\n237494 , 1 ex . , northwestern madagascar , lake amparihibe , nosy be . ummz\n237496 , 6 ex . , northwestern madagascar , lake bempazava , nosy be . ummz\n237497 , 8 ex . , northwestern madagascar , lake anjavibe , island of nosy be . ummz\n237499 , 11 ex . , 1 ex . c & s , northwestern madagascar , mananjeba drainage , andranomaloto river , northeast of town of ambanja .\n: bmnh 1882 . 2 . 25 : 69 , lectotype , betsileo , madagascar . bmnh 1882 . 2 . 25 : 70 , paralectotype , betsileo , madagascar . amnh\n217763 , 1 ex . , south - central madagascar , manantanana river , headwaters near iaritsena , ambalavao region , mangoky drainage . ummz\n238115 , 5 ex . , dry skeletons , south - central madagascar ilanana river , south of isalo national park .\nfigure 2 . left lateral view of the oral jaws and anterior region of the suspensorium of p . ernestmagnusi ( amnh 249489 , paratype , 87 . 5 mm sl , female , c & s ) illustrating the \u201c eastern type palatine \u201d ( shaded in gray ) morphology .\nno known copyright restrictions apply . see agosti , d . , egloff , w . , 2009 . taxonomic information exchange and copyright : the plazi approach . bmc research notes 2009 , 2 : 53 for further explanation .\nnamed after the malagasy word for black , mainty , referring to the species\u2019 uniform dark pigmentation pattern in preservation and large black midlateral blotch in life ( ref . 105395 )\nafrika : known only from fort dauphin region near taolagnaro in extreme southeastern madagascar ( ref . 105395 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 14 . 9 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . )\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) ."]}
{"id": 2610, "summary": [{"text": "burara amara , the small green awlet , is a species of hesperid butterfly found in northeast india and southeast asia .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the butterfly has been reassigned to the genus burara by vane-wright and de jong ( 2003 ) and is now burara amara . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "burara amara", "paragraphs": ["small green awlet , burara amara ( moore , 1865 ) , [ 4 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ] formerly bibasis amara .\nburara amara ; huang & xue , 2004 , neue ent . nachr . 57 : 145 ( name )\n[ thailand ] ismene amara ; godfrey , 1930 : 356 . ( west : me wong ) bibasis amara ; evans , 1949 : 50 . ( siam ) bibasis amara ; pinratana , 1985 : 16 , pl . 3 , fig . 7 , \u2642 , \u2642 ( un ) , \u2642 ( un ) . ( chiang mai / chaiyaphum / ratchaburi / kanchanaburi / chonburi / chanthaburi ) bibasis gomata gomata ; pinratana , 1985 : pl . 3 , fig . 8a , \u2642 . ( in part ) burara amara ; ek - amnuay , [ 2007 ] : 724 , pl . 331 , fig . h9 , \u2642 , \u2642 ( un ) , \u2642 , \u2642 ( un ) . ( chiang mai / chanthaburi ) burara amara ; chiba , 2009 : 13 , pl . 4 , fig . 11\u2642 . ( chiang rai / chiang dao / mewong / fang / chantaburi ) burara amara ; kimura et al . , 2011 : 22 , fig . \u2642 , \u2642 ( un ) . ( chiang dao / kao soi dao / kao khiewo ) burara amara ; ek - amnuay , 2012 : 772 , pl . 355 , fig . h8 , \u2642 , \u2642 , \u2642 ( un ) . ( chiang mai / chanthaburi ) burara amara ; s . sophonviwatkul , c . sunthornwiphat & t . laola , 2015 - : butterflies of thailand , fig . \u2642 ( un ) . ( ratchaburi ) [ laos ] burara amara ; masui & uehara , 1994 ; 6 , fig . 44 . ( luang phabang ) burara amara ; osada , u\u00e9mura & uehara , 1999 ; 221 , pl . 130 , fig . \u2642 ( un ) . ( oudomxay ) burara amara ; chiba , 2009 : 13 , pl . 4 , fig . 11\u2642 . ( laos ) burara amara ; nakamura & wakahara , 2012 ; 56 . [ vietnam ] bibasis amara ; devyatkin & monastyrskii , 1999 ; 155 . ( north : ba be ; cuc phuong ) bibasis amara ; ikeda et al . , 2001b : 58 , figs . 1 : 3\u2642 , 4\u2642 ( un ) , 5 : 2 ( \u2642genitalia ) . ( cuc phuong ) bibasis amara ; hao et al . , 2004 : 12 . ( cuc phuong ) burara amara ; miyazaki , saito & saito , 2007c ; 41 , fig . h - 135 , \u2642 . ( lam dong : dai duc me ) burara amara ; chiba , 2009 : 13 , pl . 4 , fig . 11\u2642 . ( north / central ) bibasis amara ; monastyrskii & devyatkin , 2015 ; 70 . ( n / c )\nismene amara pindapatra fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 62 ; tl : assam\nburara gomata ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 55\nburara aphrodite ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 55\nburara imperialis ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 55\nburara oedipodea ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 54\nburara phul ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 54\nburara tuckeri ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 54\nburara gomata radiosa ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 55\nburara imperialis imperialis ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 55\nburara imperialis veteratrix ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 55\nburara oedipodea excellens ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 54\ngreen awlet , burara vasutana moore , 1865 [ 4 ] [ 7 ] [ 13 ] formerly bibasis vasutana .\npale green awlet , burara gomata ( moore , 1865 ) , [ 4 ] [ 6 ] formerly bibasis gomata .\n{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . burara amara ( moore , 1865 ) . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 10 , 2018 ] .\nplain orange awlet , burara anadi de nic\u00e9ville , 1883 [ 4 ] [ 7 ] [ 9 ] formerly bibasis anadi .\norange - striped awl , burara jaina ( moore , 1865 ) , [ 4 ] [ 11 ] formerly bibasis jaina .\nismene amara pindapatra fruhstorfer , 1911 : deut . ent . zeit . [ iris ] 25 : 62 . tl . naga ; khasia hills , assam . ( nhml )\norange awlet , burara harisa ( moore , 1865 ) , [ 4 ] [ 7 ] [ 10 ] formerly bibasis harisa .\nbranded orange awlet , burara oedipodea ( swainson , 1820 ) , [ 4 ] [ 7 ] [ 12 ] formerly bibasis oedipodea .\nnote : bibasis contains just three diurnal species , of which only one occurs in india ; the crepuscular remainder having been removed to burara . the species now shifted to burara are morphologically and behaviorally distinct from bibasis , within which many authors have formerly included them . [ 3 ]\namara ; \u2642 , type ( red ) , h2395 , bengal . ( nhml . examined . ) pindappatra ; \u2642 , type ( red ) , h2396 , assam . h . fruhstorfer . ( nhml . examined . )\non : ismene amara moore , [ 1866 ] od : proc . zool . soc . lond . 1865 ( 3 ) : 783 . tl : n . e . bengal , india . ( nhml ) distribution : sikkim , assam , myanmar , andamans , thailand , laos , vietnam , hainan .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nbibasis amara\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 16 october 2007 .\nismene swainson , 1820 ; zool . illustr . ( 1 ) 1 : pl . 16 ( preocc . ismene savigny , 1816 ) ; ts : ismene oedipodea swainson\nbibasis ( coeliadinae ) ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 56\nismene gomata moore , [ 1866 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1865 ( 3 ) : 783 ; tl : darjeeling\ngomata radiosa ( pl\u00f6tz , 1885 ) ( ismene ) ; berl . ent . z . 29 ( 2 ) : 232 ; tl : celebes\nismene gomata vajra fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 61 ; tl : java\nbibasis iluska ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 56\nbibasis iluska iluska ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 56\nismene mahintha moore , [ 1875 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1874 ( 4 ) : 575 , pl . 67 , f . 4 ; tl : burma\nismene nestor zonaras fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 63 ; tl : wetter i .\nhasora nestor ; piepers & snellen , 1910 , rhop . java [ 2 ] : 14 , pl . 6 , f . 17a - b\nceylon , india - assam , burma , s . vietnam , malaya , philippines . see [ maps ]\ngoniloba sena moore , [ 1866 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1865 ( 3 ) : 778 ; tl : bengal\nbibasis sena ; moore , [ 1881 ] , lepid . ceylon 1 ( 4 ) : 161 , pl . 65 , f . 3 , 3a ; piepers & snellen , 1910 , rhop . java [ 2 ] : 16 , pl . 6 , f . 21a - b ; [ bir ] , 469 ; [ bow ] : pl . 185 , f . 17 ; [ mrs ] , 693 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 56\n1019x734 ( ~ 77kb ) underside thailand , chantaburi province , khao - khitchakut national park , the krating rivulet valley among the tropical forest above the waterfalls . 6th january 2006 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\nsri lanka , s . india - burma , thailand , laos , hainan , andamans\nbibasis uniformis elwes & edwards , 1897 ; trans . zool . soc . lond . 14 ( 4 ) : 305 , pl . 27 , f . 95 ; tl : java\nbibasis sena uniformis ; inoue & kawazoe , 1964 , ty\u00f4 to ga 15 ( 2 ) : 35 ; [ bmp ] : 333 , pl . 52 , f . 9\nbibasis sena senata ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 56\nsikkim - burma , thailand , laos , haina , andamans , s . yunnan . see [ maps ]\nbibasis arradi [ sic ? ] ; [ bow ] : pl . 185 , f . 13 ( text )\nismene aphrodite fruhstorfer , 1905 ; soc . ent . 20 ( 18 ) : 141 ; tl : celebes\nburma , thailand , laos , vietnam , malay peninsula , singapore , borneo , sumatra , java , palawan , mindanao . see [ maps ]\nismene etelka hewitson , 1867 ; ill . exot . butts [ 5 ] ( ismene i - ii ) : [ 88 ] , pl . [ 44 ] ; tl : sarawak\nismene harisa moore , [ 1866 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1865 ( 3 ) : 782 ; tl : bengal\nismene harisa asambha fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 61 ; tl : n . vietnam , chieem - hoa\nismene harisa distanti evans , 1932 ; indian butterflies ( edn . 2 ) : 319 ; tl : singapore\nbibasis harisa consobrina ; [ bmp ] : 332 , pl . 52 , f . 4 - 6\nismene imperialis pl\u00f6tz , 1886 ; stettin ent . ztg 47 ( 1 - 3 ) : 115 ; tl : celebes\nw . ghats , mussoorie - sikkim , assam , burma , n . thailand , vietnam . see [ maps ]\nismene jaina vasundhara fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 59 ; tl : assam\nismene velva evans , 1932 ; indian butterflies ( edn . 2 ) : 318 , no . i . 2 . 9\nbibasis jaina velva ; [ bmp ] : 333 , pl . 62 , f . 4\nismene jaina margana fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 60 ; tl : siam , hinlap\nismene jaina formosana fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 59 ; tl : formosa\nchaba , assam , burma , indo - china , malay peninsula , sumatra , java , borneo , palawan , philippines , sulawesi . see [ maps ]\nismene oedipodea swainson , 1820 ; zool . illustr . ( 1 ) 1 : pl . 16 ; tl : java\nlarva on hiptage benghalensis [ mrs ] , combretum , hiptage vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 54\nismene excellens hopffer , 1874 ; stettin ent . ztg 35 ( 1 - 3 ) : 39 ; tl : celebes\nismene oedipodea [ ? ] athena fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 61 ; tl : thailand\nbibasis owstoni eliot , 1980 ; malayan nat . j . 33 ( 3 / 4 ) : 150 , f . 10 , 11 , 15 , 16 ; tl : malaysia , pahang , fraser ' s hill\nismene septentrionis c . & r . felder , [ 1867 ] ; reise fregatte novara , bd 2 ( abth . 2 ) ( 3 ) : 525 , pl . 73 , f . 3 ; tl : china\nsri lanka , n . india , malay peninsula , java , borneo , palawan , mindanao , sulawesi , banggai , sula . see [ maps ]\nbibasis tuckeri elwes & edwards , 1897 ; trans . zool . soc . lond . 14 ( 4 ) : 293 , pl . 20 ; tl : tavoy , s . burma\nlarva on hiptage vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 54\nunipuncta lee , 1962 ; acta ent . sin . 11 ( 2 ) : 141 , 146\nnepal , sikkim , assam , burma , thailand , laos . see [ maps ]\nismene [ ? ] kanara evans , 1926 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 31 ( 1 ) : 63\nbibasis kanara ; [ bow ] : pl . 185 , f . 15 ( text )\nismene fergusonii de nic\u00e9ville , [ 1893 ] ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 7 ( 3 ) : 345 , pl . j , f . 6 ; tl : s . india\n[ \u00b2 ] this may require parentheses or not . i don ' t have the necessary information for this taxon .\nthe butterflies of the malay peninsula . fourth edition revised by j . n . eliot with plates by bernard d ' abrera\nreise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den behilfen des commodore b . von w\u00fcllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . band 2 . abtheilung 2 . lepidoptera . rhopalocera\n- 120 , ( inhalts - verz . ) 1 - 9 ( pl . 1 - 74 ) , ( felder & rogenhofer , 1874 ) , ( 5 ) : pl .\nillustrations of new species of exotic butterflies selected chiefly from the collections of w . wilson saunders and william c . hewitson\na catalogue of the lepidopterous insects in the museum of the hon . east - india company in horsfield & moore ,\nneue hesperiden des indischen archipels und ost - africa ' s aus der collection des herrn h . ribbe in blasewitz - dresden , gesammelt von den herren : c . ribbe auf celebes , java un den aru - inseln , k\u00fcnstler auf malacca ( perak ) ; k\u00fchn auf west - guinea ( jekar ) ; menger auf ceylon\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe agaricales , or euagarics clade , is a monophyletic group of approximately 8500 mushroom species . . . read more\nthe tree of life web project ( tol ) is a collaborative effort of biologists and nature enthusiasts from around the world . on more than 10 , 000 world wide web pages , the project provides information about biodiversity , the characteristics of different groups of organisms , and their evolutionary history ( phylogeny ) .\neach page contains information about a particular group , e . g . , salamanders , segmented worms , phlox flowers , tyrannosaurs , euglenids , heliconius butterflies , club fungi , or the vampire squid . tol pages are linked one to another hierarchically , in the form of the evolutionary tree of life . starting with the root of all life on earth and moving out along diverging branches to individual species , the structure of the tol project thus illustrates the genetic connections between all living things .\nthe affinities of all the beings of the same class have sometimes been represented by a great tree . . . as buds give rise by growth to fresh buds , and these if vigorous , branch out and overtop on all sides many a feebler branch , so by generation i believe it has been with the great tree of life , which fills with its dead and broken branches the crust of the earth , and covers the surface with its ever branching and beautiful ramifications .\ntree of life design , images , and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2005 tree of life web project . all rights reserved . image of rose \u00a9 1999 nick kurzenko . image of annelid worm \u00a9 2001 greg w . rouse .\nmoore , 1865 \u2013 small green awlet . kunte , k . , s . sondhi , and p . roy ( chief editors ) .\nif mentioning specific images please give media code ( s ) . for misidentifications please list reasons to assist in diagnosis .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 , all rights reserved . national centre for biological sciences ( ncbs ) holds copyright for all the original material and compilations on this website , although contributing writers and photographers may hold copyright for their material as cited . material from this website can be used freely for educational , basic research and conservation purposes , provided that this website is acknowledged and properly cited as the source . contact us to obtain prior permission for any other use , including for large data downloads and collaborative research .\nrajkamal goswami , ashoka trust for research in ecology and the environment , bangalore .\ndescribes average size , max , range ; type of size ( perimeter , length , volume , weight . . . ) .\nmale and female : upperside brown with a greenish gloss ; costal streak of forewing ochreous yellow in the male , less prominent in the female ; male with a blackish subbasal patch . cilia of both wings short and brownish white . body dark brown ; abdomen with greyish segmental bands . underside , forewing brown , becoming bluish black along the base of the costa ; posterior margin broadly brownish white ; hindwing bluish black ; veins of both wings brownish white , the space between them having a greyish blue parallel line running their entire length . both wings also with the black ochreous - yellow - encirled basal spot . thorax in front and beneath , head , palpi , legs , middle of abdomen , and anal tuft ochreous yellow . femora and tibiae with a black spot ; sides of abdomen black , the segmental bands prominent , cilia greyish .\ndescribes the general appearance of the taxon ; e . g body plan , shape and color of external features , typical postures . may be referred to as or include habit , defined as the characteristic mode of growth or occurrence associated to its environment , particularly for plants . comprising its size , shape , texture and orientation . example : tree , shrubs , herbs . may also be referred to include anatomy .\nincludes abundance information ( population size , density ) and demographics ( e . g . age stratification ) .\ndescribes the likelihood of the species becoming extinct in the present day or in the near future . population size is treated under population biology , and trends in population sizes are treated under trends . however , this is the preferred element if an object includes all of these things and details about conservation listings .\nkunte , k . 2000 , butterflies of peninsular india , university press , hyderabad .\nkunte , k . and u . kodandaramaiah . 2011 . history of species pages on butterflies of india website . in k . kunte , s . kalesh and u . kodandaramaiah ( eds . ) . butterflies of india , v . 1 . 05 . indian foundation for butterflies . url : urltoken accessed on 23 . 8 . 2012 .\nantram , c . b . 1924 , butterflies of india , thacker , spink & co , kolkata .\nwatson , e . y . 1891 , hesperiidae indicae . vest and co . madras .\nvane - wright , r . i . & de jong , r . 2003 . the butterflies of sulawesi : annotated checklist for a critical island fauna . zoologische verhandelingen , leiden ( 343 ) : 1\u2013267 .\nevans , w . h . 1927 , the identification of indian butterflies , bombay natural history society , mumbai , india .\nthe butterflies of the kameng protected area complex in western arunachal pradesh , india , covering . . .\nthe present paper is the result of a butterfly diversity survey in the mishmi hills , arunachal prad . . .\n| | best supported on google chrome , firefox 3 . 0 + , internet explorer 8 . 0 + , safari 4 . 0 + , opera 10 + . powered by the open source biodiversity informatics platform . technology partner strand life sciences\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nchiang mai : fang dist . 1\u2642 ; phrao dist . 1\u2640 ; chiang dao dist . 1\u2642 ; san sai dist . 1\u2642 ( photo ) ; omkoi dist . 1\u2642 .\nmoore , f . , [ 1866 ] : on the lepidopterous insects of bengal .\nfruhstorfer , h . , 1911 : neue hesperiden des indo - malayischen faunengebietes und besprechung verwandter formen .\nan individual sipping on wet sand . satchari national park , habigonj . 31 - 10 - 2013\nstatus : rare . habit and habitat : very fast flier . prefer well forested areas . more active in the morning and before evening . local distribution : northeast region . range : bangladesh , india , myanmar and thailand\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 international license .\ncopyright \u00a9 tahsinur rahman shihan ( 2015 - 2018 ) in photographs and texts . all rights reserved . simple theme . powered by blogger .\nmoore , 1865 \u2013 harisa orange awlet . kunte , k . , s . sondhi , and p . roy ( chief editors ) .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nthe project through outreach and awareness programs would provide a better knowledge of butterfly diversity and their importance to students , local communities and policymakers . the awareness of the students and local communities would be crucial milestone in promoting community conservation measures .\nfixed width circular plot count method along the transects will be followed for sampling butterflies . depending upon the availability of suitable plots and accessibility in the sloppy terrain , transects of 600 - 1000 m will be established covering various elevation sites and vegetation types . along the transects , permanent points will be marked at 50 - 100 m apart . elevational distance between two consecutive sites will vary from 150 - 350 m depending upon the accessibility and availability of the plots in laying the transects . climatic and vegetation data will be collected .\nread about the latest progress of this project in the reports , articles and promotional materials below .\njournal of threatened taxa , 26 may 2018 , vol 10 , no . 6 , 11775 - 11779\nread more about the activities undertaken and findings of this project in the final report below .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nin book : proceedings of national conference on zoology for future education and research , publisher : queen marry ' s college , chennai , pp . 61 - 77\nestablished by government of india under national board for wildlife ( nbwl ) . out of 668 p\nbelongs to the most conspicuously recognizable insect order lepidoptera . so far 1 , 504 species of butterflies\nare mostly circumscribed to certain pockets . hence a comprehensive research is necessary to unearth the\nhidden natural history of butterfly in arunachal pradesh . the present article is a critique of butterflies from\nfamily ( sherri , 2003 ; maria de la paz celorio , 2013 ) .\nanand padhye , sheetal shelke and neelesh dahanukar . 2012 . distribution and composition of butterfly\nbetham , j . a . ( 1980 ) . the butterflies of the central provinces .\nchandra , k . ( 2006 ) . the butterflies ( lepidoptera : rhopalocera ) of kangerghati national park ( chhattisgarh ) .\nareas as an indicator for meeting global biodiversity targets . philosophical transactions of the royal\nchoudhary , m . ( 1995 ) . insecta : lepidoptera , pp . 45 - 52 .\nabrera , b . ( 1982 , 1985 , 1986 ) . butterflies of the oriental region . parts i , ii & iii , hill house , australia .\ndoubleday , e . ( 1845 ) . description of new or imperially described diurnal lepidoptera .\n. r . , murphy , d . d . 1987 . conservation lessons from long - term studies of checker spot butterflies .\nhassan , s . a . ( 1994 ) . butterflies of islamabad and murree hills . asian study group , islamabad , 1 - 68 .\n. b . ( 1978 ) . butterfly migrations in the nilgiri hills of south india ( lepidoptera : rhopalocera ) .\n. b . ( 1987a ) . the butterflies of the nilgiri mountains of southern india ( lepidoptera : rhopalocera ) .\n. b . ( 1987b ) . the butterflies of the nilgiri mountains of southern india ( lepidoptera : rhopalocera ) .\n. b . ( 1987c ) . the butterflies of the nilgiri mountains of southern india ( lepidoptera : rhopalocera ) .\nmandal , d . k . ( 1985 ) . notes on the papilionidae of arunachal pradesh , north - east india .\nmoore and swinhoe . 1890 - 1913 . lepidoptera indica by : 10 volume complete . a\n. ( 1975 ) . butterflies transects in a linear habitat , 1964 - 1973 .\nniklas janz , klas nyblom and so ren nylin . ( 2001 ) . evolutionary dynamics of host - plant specialization :\nseitz . 1906 - 1928 . the macrolepidoptera of the world by : issued in parts , complete . contain a brief\ndescription and a coloured figure of every species . the palaearctic section of 380 pages and 89\nshafer , c . l . 1999 . national park and reserve planning to protect biological diversity : some basic elements .\n. 2007 . checklist of south asian skipper butterflies ( lepidoptera : hesperiidae ) .\nsmith , c . 1989 . butterflies of nepal , 352 pp . ( tecpress service l . p\nswinhoe , c . ( 1886 ) . on the lepidoptera of mhow . proceeding of\narshney , r . k . 2010 . genera of indian butterflies : 1 - 186 . published by\narshney , r . k . ( 2006 ) . an estimate of the number of butterfly species in the indian region . bionotes ,\nalpole , m . j . and sheldon , i . r . ( 1992 ) . sampling butterflies rain forest : an evaluation of transect walk\nelle , c . s . and levin , s . a . 2005 . spatial attributes and reserve design models : a review .\nwitt , d . o . ( 1909 ) . the butterflies ( rhopalocera ) of the nimar district central provinces .\n- blyth , m . a . 1957 . butterflies of the indian region .\nbutterflies of sacon ( s\u00e1lim ali centre for ornithology and natural history ) campus , anaikatti , coim . . .\nthe freshwater fish fauna of new amarambalam reserve forest ( narf ) in the southern western ghats ( kerala ) is constituted by 43 species belonging to 13 families and 28 genera . family cyprinidae dominated with 20 species followed by balitoridae and bagridae ( four species each ) . narf may harbour higher freshwater fish species diversity than in protected areas in north kerala . the area around . . . [ show full abstract ]\na checklist of butterflies , so far recorded from madhya pradesh and chhattisgarh , representing 174 species / subspecies of 100 genera under eight families is given .\nthe community structure of butterflies was studied in the dry deciduous , thorny forest of anaikatty hills , western ghats . pierid butterflies showed greater abundance , which may be due to the relatively greater abundance of capparaceae and caesalpinaceae plants in the area . more species of nymphalid butterflies were recorded from the area than any other family . six endemic species and eight . . . [ show full abstract ]\nankita gupta , swapnil a . lokhande & abhay soman . 2013 . parasitoids of hesperiidae from peninsular india with description of a new species of dolichogenidea ( hymenoptera : braconidae ) parasitic on caterpillar of borbo cinnara ( wallace ) ( lepidoptera : hesperiidae ) zootaxa 3701 ( 2 ) : 277\u2013290 .\n( moore , [ 1866 ] ) \u2013 common orange awlet . kunte , k . , s . sondhi , and p . roy ( chief editors ) .\n( moore , [ 1866 ] ) \u2013 pale green awlet . kunte , k . , s . sondhi , and p . roy ( chief editors ) .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\nthe awls and related genera have long , narrow forewings , rounded hindwings with a characteristic deep fold at the inner margin and produced at the tornus . the adult sexes are alike excepting that males have specialised scales and scent brands on the forewings . they have large labial palpi which have a thin third segment protruding ahead of the eye . the eyes are large , an adaptation to the crepuscular habits of this species .\nthis list forms part of the full list of butterflies of india ( hesperiidae ) which itself is part of the complete list of butterflies of india .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nbadamia exclamationis\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved april 20 , 2018 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nbibasis sena\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 16 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nbibasis gomata\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 16 october 2007 .\nharibal , meena ( 1992 ) . the butterflies of sikkim himalaya and their natural history . gangtok , sikkim , india : sikkim nature conservation foundation .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nbibasis anadi\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 16 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nbibasis harisa\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 16 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nbibasis jaina\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 16 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nbibasis oedipodea\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 16 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nbibasis vasutana\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 16 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nchoaspes benjaminii\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 12 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nchoaspes plateni\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 12 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nchoaspes xanthopogon\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 12 october 2007 .\nthe common name similar awlking is that of taxon similis ( vide evans ( 1932 ) ) which is not recognised as a valid species by savela and by tolweb ( ref its page on genus choaspes ) . taxon similis is now considered to be a synonym of taxon xanthopogon .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nchoaspes hemixanthus ssp . furcata\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . accessed 12 october 2007 .\nthe species is considered to be furcata by lepindex , and as furcatus by tolweb . savela gives it as furcatus without appropriate reference for the change . accordingly it is being retained as furcata , with furcatus as redirect , pending the availability of a proper reference .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nhasora anura\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 12 october 2007 .\nhasora alexis ( fabricius , 1775 ) is a synonym of h . chromus vide beccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nhasora chromus\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nhasora chromus\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 12 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nhasora taminatus\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 12 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nhasora schoenherr\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 12 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nhasora badra\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 12 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nhasora vitta\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 12 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nhasora khoda\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 12 october 2007 .\nevans in the identification of indian butterflies , ( 1932 ) ( ser no i 1 . 9 , pp 224 ) records it as occurring in the nicobars .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nhasora leucospila\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 12 october 2007 .\nevans in the identification of indian butterflies , ( 1932 ) ( ser no i 1 . 10 , pp 224 ) records it as occurring in the nicobars .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nhasora salanga\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 2 october 2007 .\nevans , w . h . ( 1932 ) . the identification of indian butterflies ( 2nd ed . ) . mumbai , india : bombay natural history society .\ngay , thomas ; kehimkar , isaac david ; punetha , jagdish chandra ( 1992 ) . common butterflies of india . nature guides . bombay , india : world wide fund for nature - india by oxford university press . isbn 978 - 0195631647 .\nkunte , krushnamegh ( 2000 ) . butterflies of peninsular india . india , a lifescape . hyderabad , india : universities press . isbn 978 - 8173713545 .\nwatson , e . y . ( 1891 ) hesperiidae indicae . vest and co . madras .\nwynter - blyth , mark alexander ( 1957 ) . butterflies of the indian region . bombay , india : bombay natural history society . isbn 978 - 8170192329 .\nbeccaloni , george ; scoble , malcolm ; kitching , ian ; simonsen , thomas ; robinson , gaden ; pitkin , brian ; hine , adrian ; lyal , chris .\nbrower , andrew v . z . and warren , andrew , ( 2007 ) . coeliadinae evans 1937 . version 21 february 2007 ( temporary ) . urltoken in the tree of life web project , urltoken .\nthis page is based on a wikipedia article written by authors ( here ) . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 license ; additional terms may apply . images , videos and audio are available under their respective licenses .\nempusa pennata , common names conehead mantis in english and mantis palo in spanish , is a species of praying mantis in genus empusa . it can be found in spain and parts of portugal , france , lebanon , central and southern italy and greece . the species invalidly cited by their synonyms in many tropical checklists such as in india and sri lanka .\nempusa pennata generally has large and thin body along with a great flying apparatus by their pair of wings and light body mass . also , they are mostly found in perennial herbs and scrubs . there are three ways for insects to find mates : chemical , acoustic , and visual signals . cryptic coloration is significant to some predatory insects like mantids , which is used to protect themselves from predators and to capture their prey .\nthis species of mantis , although similar in size to the common european praying mantis ( mantis religiosa ) , is easily distinguished by the protrusion from its crown . both male and females , even from first hatching carry this tall extension giving them a very alien appearance . they live in areas that are warm and dry and use their cryptic colouring of either greens and pinks or various shades of brown to keep them hidden from predators . the female may grow to a length of 10cm while the male is shorter and slimmer . the male has distinctive \u2018feather\u2019 type antennae as shown on the image above .\nhowever , insects that depend on vision will hinder to find their mate because they will be undetectable to each other . therefore , as an alternative way to find mates , sex pheromone is used . the releasing of sex pheromone by empusa pennata is an adaption derived from sexual selection .\nmantids stalk their prey and pounce on it , grasping it with their raptorial forelegs . only living prey is selected and it is consumed directly after the catch . the predator orients itself optically , and therefore only takes notice of moving prey . the maximum size of prey which mantids can overwhelm is species - specific and depends on the prey type . on average mantids eat crickets of 50 % their own body weight , while cockroaches can weigh up to 110 % ."]}
{"id": 2622, "summary": [{"text": "pseudotrichonotus is a genus of fish in the family pseudotrichonotidae native to the indian and pacific ocean .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "this genus is the only member of its family . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "pseudotrichonotus", "paragraphs": ["pogonoski j j ( 2015 ) . pseudotrichonotus belos new species , first record of the fish family pseudotrichonotidae from australia ( teleostei : aulopiformes ) .\n< i > pseudotrichonotus < / i > < i > belos < / i > new species , first record of the fish family pseudotrichonotidae from australia ( teleostei : aulopiformes ) .\npseudotrichonotus belos gill & pogonoski 2016 , zootaxa 4205 ( 2 ) : 190 , figs . 1 - 2 . type locality : southwest of exmouth gulf , western australia , 22\u00b051 ' s , 113\u00b031 ' e , depth 100 m .\nparin , n . v . , 1992 . pseudotrichonotus xanthotaenia ( pseudotrichonotidae , aulopiformes ) - - new species from the saya de malha bank . j . ichthyol . 32 ( 7 ) : 128 - 131 . ( ref . 41477 )\nholotype of the dart sand - diving lizardfish , pseudotrichonotus belos , from southwest of exmouth gulf , western australia , depth 100 m - csiro h 6406 - 04 . source : louise conboy / australlian national fish collection , csiro . license : all rights reserved\njohnson , g . d . , baldwin , c . c . , okiyama , m . & tominaga , y . ( 1996 ) osteology and relationships of pseudotrichonotus altivelis ( teleostei : aulopiformes : pseudotrichonotidae ) . ichthyological research , 43 , 17\u201345 . urltoken\nparin , n . v . ( 1992 ) pseudotrichonotus xanthotaenia ( pseudotrichonotidae , aulopiformes ) - - a new fish from the saya - de - malha submarine rise . voprosy ikhtiologii , 32 , 156\u2013158 . [ in russian . english translation in journal of ichthyology , 32 , 128\u2013131 .\ngill ac , pogonoski jj . < i > pseudotrichonotus < / i > < i > belos < / i > new species , first record of the fish family pseudotrichonotidae from australia ( teleostei : aulopiformes ) . zootaxa . 2016 ; dec 054205 : zootaxa . 4205 . 2 . 8\ngill ac , pogonoski jj . < i > pseudotrichonotus < / i > < i > belos < / i > new species , first record of the fish family pseudotrichonotidae from australia ( teleostei : aulopiformes ) . zootaxa 2016 ; 4205 ( 2 ) : zootaxa . 4205 . 2 . 8 urltoken < i > pseudotrichonotus < / i > _ < i > belos < / i > _ new _ species _ first _ record _ of _ the _ fish _ family _ pseudotrichonotidae _ from _ australia _ _ teleostei : _ aulopiformes _ _ . accessed july 9 , 2018 .\ngill ac , pogonoski jj :\n< i > pseudotrichonotus < / i > < i > belos < / i > new species , first record of the fish family pseudotrichonotidae from australia ( teleostei : aulopiformes ) .\nzootaxa , vol . 4205 , no . 2 , 2016 , pp . zootaxa . 4205 . 2 . 8 , urltoken < i > pseudotrichonotus < / i > _ < i > belos < / i > _ new _ species _ first _ record _ of _ the _ fish _ family _ pseudotrichonotidae _ from _ australia _ _ teleostei : _ aulopiformes _ _ . accessed july 9 , 2018 .\nthis dataset contains the digitized treatments in plazi based on the original journal article gill , anthony c . , pogonoski , john j . ( 2016 ) : pseudotrichonotus belos new species , first record of the fish family pseudotrichonotidae from australia ( teleostei : aulopiformes ) . zootaxa 4205 ( 2 ) : 189 - 193 , doi :\ngill ac & pogonoski jj . ( 2016 ) . < i > pseudotrichonotus < / i > < i > belos < / i > new species , first record of the fish family pseudotrichonotidae from australia ( teleostei : aulopiformes ) . zootaxa , 4205 , pp . zootaxa . 4205 . 2 . 8 . doi : 10 . 11646 / zootaxa . 4205 . 2 . 8\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nanthony c . gill macleay museum and school of life and environmental sciences , a12 \u2013 macleay building , the university of sydney , new south wales 2006 , australia . ichthyology , australian museum , 1 william street , sydney , new south wales 2010 , australia\njohn j . pogonoski australian national fish collection , national research collections australia , commonwealth scientific and industrial research organisation , gpo box 1538 , hobart , tasmania 7001 , australia .\nthe pdf file you selected should load here if your web browser has a pdf reader plug - in installed ( for example , a recent version of adobe acrobat reader ) .\nif you would like more information about how to print , save , and work with pdfs , highwire press provides a helpful frequently asked questions about pdfs .\nalternatively , you can download the pdf file directly to your computer , from where it can be opened using a pdf reader . to download the pdf , click the download link above .\ngreek , pseudes = false + greek , thrix , - ichos = hair + greek , noton = back ( ref . 45335 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 9 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . )\ninhabits sandy bottoms of about 30 m depth ; has been observed to dive into the sand .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 0 \u00b10 . 67 se ; based on food items .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .\neschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . 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\u00b1\u0081\u00f6\u00f7zc\u0090o\u00f3\u0014 _ _ \u00df \\ - \u00ee\u00ec\u00e1eo\u0082\u008e\u0012\u00b6\u00f9\u00fb\u00e0u\u00e0 [ \u00b9\u0011 * fv\u00a1\u0088 - \u0011\b\u00eduk\u00ffo ojl\u00f0\u0095\u00ef\u00fc\u00f0\u00e8\u0007\u00ea @ \u00f4\u00ed\u008a\u00ea\u0091q | \u00f9\u00b21 _ fm\u00eb\u008f\u0013 } \u00fc\u00f5\u0011\u00ec = \u001a\u00f2\u009a\u00f4\u0001 ] m ( s\u0000\u0086\u00aeo\u00f8 \u0093\u00f2\n\u00f0q\u00b6\u0082 [ \u00ec [ # \u009e\u0095\u0016\n\u00fe\u00ea\u0092k\u00b4\u00f4\u0005 & \u00ac ? \u0092\u00a3\u00f6\u00ea\u009b2i\u00e3ff\u0006\u008a\u00ec\u0017\u000e\u0014\u0098\u009f9i\u0010\u0011\u009a , ` \u00be\u00e5\u0012\u00b1\u0018 ) \u00f8w\u00f1 [\n\u00ae ( + k\u008c1 ~ ko\u00e0 / pcr\u008dx\u00bbj \u009c\u00f0\u00a5\u008emt\u00f8\u0081\n\\ \u009at\u0082\u00b1 / \u0093\u0019 / \u00b6 ) \u00ac5\u00b7\u00e5\u001a\u00e1z\u009b * \u0001j\u00f3\u00f7\u00800j\u0004\u0018\u00ecg\n: | \u00a4\u0080\u00e2z\u0087 $ a\u00b4 \u00bf . j\u00f0 ! \u0094\u009c\u00bb\u00e9\u008a\u007f\u009d\u00b4\u00a9 \u00a6\u00aa\u00e4\u0092m\u00e8\u009agz4\u000e \u00ea0\u00ec\u0082\u00e1\u00a6\u00f5 : qx t\u0083\u00f5\u0011\u00ba\u00ae\u00e1\u00fe\u00b2\u00b1y\u00fd\u00ba\u00ac\u0091 % . \u0006 . \u00e2\u008d\u008d\u008b\u00b6\u00acap6\u008b\u00ab\u00e8\u00f3p\u00a7\u00aeq\u00b8 ^ \u00f6h\u00f5gr\u0005 ( \u008b\u00fa\u0083 - \u00f8\u0094d\u00e1\u00e6\u00f45\n\u0084\b\u00ec\u00eb\u009d\u0080 _ c\u0084q \u0016\u00f1\u00e9\u0083\u00b2\u008d\u00f8 | \u00ef\u00e0\u0084\u00ab\u00ea\u0080ba\u00e01i\u00f5 . / \u00a2\u00fb\u0010 \u00afr\u00e6\u0084\u00ff + [ 02\u007f\u00ff8n\u0003k ' \u00f3\u0081\u00f8\u00ad\u008b\u0011\u00f8x\u00b8 . v / \u00d7\u00e6\u00ea\u00e5 ~ \u00ae\u0005\u00b9\u00a1 \u00e9\u00fe\u0014\u00fa\u0092\u0002xc\u00ael wh\u0093n\u009b \u0080\u00aa\u00e8a\u0012\u0006\u00e3\u0018o * \u00bd\u00be\u00e1sn\u0099\u00b2 { \u0080 % _ \u00b1\u00b3\n\u00f6\u00f5\u00e15ok\u00b0d\u0083 ? 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\u00fb\u0093n\u00e1\u00e6 ? r\u0014e\u00e3\u00e6\u0000\u00f4e\u00b6\u00ac { \u00f7d\u00e9\u00b3 \u00e0\u0081t y\u00f7 , \u00fa\u00e5\u00ea\u00ab\b\u0017\u00d73\u0019\u00b9a : \u00f3\u00f8 \u00f2\u0095\u00b9\u00ff\u00e3\u00e0\u00fav / \u00b4\u00d7\u00ef\u00e0\u00e1\u00bd\u00b2m\u0001\b ? \u00b03\u00f8v\u009a\u00e5 ! \u0082\u00f2\u00ebi w\u00b1\u00b9\u00ae\u00e8\u009f\u00b5 \u00ecf\u00aek\u00f6 & \u0089 [ j\u0003 # \u0018o\u00e7\u00a3 @ \u008b\u00fe\u0096\u00f6\u00f0 is\u00af\u0019t\u0012 ? \u00b8bp ` oj\u00ecx ( \u00f3\u008e \u00b1p\u0091\u00d7\u001b\u00ee\u00965\u00eb : \u00b0ukb\u00f6\u00e3n\u00f0 \\ p\u00efg\u00e1\u00e1 \u00f6\u009f48wg\u009ah\u00a4 - \u0016\u00b8\u00ab\u00adt\u00b2 \u00ab ) \u00be \u0016\u0095 / ^ \u00b8\u0086\u00ff\u00bby\u00e1\u00ec\u00eaf\u009e\u00eb\u0094 \u00e0\u00fak , \u00f6\u00fem\u0005 ( @ yl\u00a3\u00b1\u009fd\u00f3m\u00d7\u00e9\u00ea * rcr\u0083 = \u00bf\u00fd og : ! \u00ff \u00f0nt\u0084\u00adb\u0001\u0080 y\u00a7\u0010 ~ $ \u00e2\u0088\u00f2d\u0091o\u0016\u00057o ( \u00ae * \u00fd\u00bfw\u00e8 ` { \u00fe\u0012p\u00a3\u00f2a\u0006\u009e\u00f6 ( \u0087 - \u00a8\u00fb\u00e5\u0017\u0090 n\u0005\u00fb\u00f52\u00e41\u00e6\u001a\u0094\u0089\u0014 | \u00e0wp\u00ee\u00b1\u008b\u00f5\u00a5 l > \u009e\u00fb\u00ab o { y\u00a5 \u0097h\u000f + \u00e0 [ \u00f9orl\u00b9 \u00eb\u0015 % r\u00e5\u0097\u00bdh\u0003\u0004\u0004 @ \u008du\u00a3 \u0012\u0010\u00e8\u0001d\u00dfv\u00a7 - \u000f\u00f1\u00edx . \u0004 / \u00efml\u0005\u0005\u0014\u00e3\u000f * \u009b\u00bdj . tp\u00ad\u00ed\u009e\u000f\u00e6 ' \u00a7\u00f1\u00e1 + \u00ea\u00aa + \u00f2\u008b\u00b7v\u00f2\u009d\u0005t\u00f9\u008ec ; / q\u00e2\u00e1\u00e1\u00a6z\u00e0\u00b7\u00ear1iq\u00011\u00e0\u0098\u00fb\u0013\u008d\u00e8wc\u0098\u0083\u00e6\u00ab\u008d ! \u00bfw ) \u00b4b\u0007\u00f9\u00f2\u00e3\u009eu q\u0084x\u0096\u00ff\u0095\u00f8 z\u00b1\u00ec\u00e5\u00076 \u00f9zb\u000ev . u\u0013\u00ef\u00fd\u00efyd\u00f8\u00e3\u00e0o\u00e2\u0087q\u008f\u00bd\u0088 $ \u0010\u00f6 > \u00b2\u00f3 \u008e\u00f3\u00f0u\u0014\b\u0080 \u00b6\u008a\u00a8\u000e\u00e6\u00ea\u0097\u008a\u00f2ku\u00ec\u00b5 ) h ' \u00e1z\u00a4 \u00eb\u00fat\u0004\u00a5 \u0002l\u0016ch \u00ad\u009a\u0013\u00f4\u00fc\u00e2 \u00b7\u00b3\u00a9\u0006\u00f9\u0093\u00e5\u00a9 ~ \u001a\u009ec\u00ae\u00f0 \u00a8\u00e8k\u001b \\ \u00eary u\u00f3\u001a s\u00b7sl\u0086o\u0083\u00ad % \b\u00a4\u008f\u00a7 ) \u008c\u0098 rl > \u00e8\u00e0\u00e8\u0091\u00e5\u00ec99\u00bb\u0089\u008ay\u00b1\u0018\u0006r \u00e4\u00aar\u00ee\u0015n , \u00fb ~ \u00e2z\u00ec\u0080\u00f3r\u009f\u00d7 - \u00f9\u0019\u00114 < \u0098 ' \u008a\n@ 3t\u00e4 < \u00ee\u00ef ] \u00f5\u00ec3 w : mt\u0016\u00f0\u00ad\u00e0 ( \u0096\u00ae\u00b9b\u00ee\u00fa\u00b1 - \u00a7\u00eb\u00f31\u00f6k ? ^ l = t _ j 0\u00b5\u00e7 @ \u0091\u00ec \u00ed ~ \u0014\u00af\u00f8\u00fc\u00e9\u00a6f\u00b3b\u00b69g\u00a3\u0090\u0097u\u0082 $ \u00b4\u00e8\u00f4\u00ee | c\u0090\u009f\u00e5 ! p3\u00ba\u0080\u00e9\u00e8w : \u00e5\u00bd\u00f0r ? dy\u00ba\u00f0\u00eb\u00ef\u0010 | \u000f\u00eavi\u0096v\u00e3\u0014\u00f0qp1s \u00f1 \\ n\u00ec t\u00fc\u00928\u00f1\u00e7\u00efp\u0094l\u00a7 ' \u00e1\u00e64\u00b4 & \u00f9\u00e7\u00a3\u0002w $ 0\u00ee\u00e9 * @ \u0007 ; _ s = \u00e6 ) \u009d6 . \u0081\u00f41\u00fc\u0097\u0010x\u00e6\u009eq\u00ab\u0013b\u00118\u00f8q\u00f4\u009cd\u0087ne\u00e7\u00e3\u00f1\u00b6\u00a3y\u00f4\u00b01\b\u0019\u0084\n\u0091t\u00e5 + \u00ff\u000f\u0011\u008b\u00f2\u00fbe\u00eec\u001b\u0084m & i ; \u00e7\u00aa\u00eb ` , \u0097\u00ab\u00fe\u00ab\u009a\u00acb\u00e2 # \u00bduz / [ \u00efa\u0094\u00e9\u00f1\u00fe / \u0017g\u00e9 ( \u00f5\u000f\u0011 { p\u00fc\u00eb\u00e4\u008cez\u00e1\u00f3\u00f9 | \u00829\u0010tjwwj\u00e1vb\u00bd\u00e4 _ 8 & wkix ; \u008a @ \u00e7q\u00bb\u009e\u0012 \u0091\u00fc\u00a7\u0013\u00a6 ! % h\u0095 ? pg\u0004\u00a2cb _ \u00a1 ` \u0081 & \u00bd\u009a\u0097\u00e6\u00fd\u0007\u00ee < 9 6\u00f8\u00f1\u00f0\u00df\u0099\u00a9\u00b4\u008e\u00ef\u00bfpd\u00f61\u009a\u001a\u00e6\u00fc\u00fa\u00e0\u0006\u0094\u00e6 & c ; \u00ae\u00e3\u00e7\u00fe\u008f\u00ef ^ \u00a5\u00f5 / \u00a7\u00af\u0082\u00b6\u00fa\u00fe\u00ebxs\u00ab\u00f9\u00f1\u00b7\u00f3\u0087\u00ec\u00e7\u00fe\u0098 : z\u00f6\u0004\u00f7\u00a2 | : \u0092\u00f5\u00e5\u00e2 - \u00ef\u00e2p ' db\u00b0q\u00e2\u007f\u00e1\u00042\u00f3x\u00e9\u00eb \\ r / q\u0004 % \u009a\u00a3 / \u00f5m % \u00f3 = \u0095\u00b7 v \\ mog\u0018\u00fdn\u00e9\u00b9j\u00ed\u00ed\u00fb\u00ef\u00fc\u00a1\u00b3d\u00ef\u00f2\u00e0\u00fe\u009b\u0019\u00a1k\u0099\u00ec\u00f0w\u0000\u00a9 ^ \u00a7\u00f2\u00fbgx\u00ac\u000f \u00e5bv . \u009c\u0005b ! \u009f\u00bd\u00e4\u0082\u0015m\u00e09\u00f8e / \u00aa\u00e7\u0084\u0092\u0019z\u00eb\u00f4\u00e2\u0005\u0019\u0081\u007f\u00f4\u00f7\u00fe\u00eeb\u00b0n\u00fd\u00e7\u0087ql\u00efj\u00f5\u0011 ! \u00e0\u00ee\u00ae = @ \u0098\u00e3y\u0016eva\u0088\u0007 \u00b2vt\n# \u00ad\u00e5 ; | \u00a7\u0000\u00e5 _ o\u00e0cm\u00a5 ! \u00eb\u0002\u0007\u0007\u00f5\u00f1y\u00a2y4 7\u00e3wxd \\ \u0082s\u00e7\u0096 z ~ 9\u00e1 c9\u00acv\u009a\u00e2 \\ \u0005\u009a8\u00f1\u0082a \u00ac \u00fd\u00f1y\u0099\u00f9\u00e5\u00fc\u00aed\u00bc\u0015\u0004\u00f8z\u00fa\u009b\u00f0\u001a\u0017\u0095\u00bda\u00e8\u0017\u00a7 @ \u00e6\u00f3 \u00df\u00e0\u00b8\u0097\u00b2\u00ad\u00f2\u0015\u0094\u00ea\u0084d . \u00eb\u00e3q\u00aa\u0093\u000f\u0019\u00e5\u001a\u00e4 \u0015\u00b8\n\u0098\u00f3h\u00fb\u0096 | \u0012\u0012\u00ab\u00f02\u008c ] \u0099\u00ab\u00eb\u00ea\u009f\u009d\u00a8\u0007 / \u00ec & 1\u00e9\u00f2\u00fc / \u00f1q \u00ab\u00b8\u00a3c ^ \u00f0\u00ee\u0093\u00fe \u00eb > !\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 87 - 110 m ( ref . 41477 ) . tropical\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 6 . 0 cm sl ( female )\ndorsal soft rays ( total ) : 33 ; anal soft rays : 13 ; vertebrae : 49 . head pointed . body beam - like . mouth small . upper jaw protrusible ; protruding slightly beyond the lower one when mouth is closed . interorbital space is very narrow ; just less than 1 / 3 of eye diameter . branchiostegal rays 6 . gill rakers spinelike , 4 + 1 + 8 . caudal fin rays 8 - 10 ( ref . 41477 ) .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00389 ( 0 . 00180 - 0 . 00842 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 5 \u00b10 . 2 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\na small sand - diving lizardfish known from only three specimens . the species is pale pinkish with a bright yellow midlateral stripe that breaks up into four spots along the rear of the body , a faint iridescent bluish - grey stripe below the yellow , and a series of purplish spots within the yellow stripe that become saddles posteriorly .\ntrawled in depths of 100\u2013120 m offshore between exmouth gulf and shark bay , western australia .\ndistinguished by the following characters : dorsal - fin origin well behind pelvic - fin origin , predorsal length 39 . 6\u201341 . 2 % sl ; dorsal - fin rays 31\u201333 ; anal - fin rays 12 .\nthe specific name belos is from the greek meaning arrow or dart , in reference to the dart - like appearance of this species .\nnew species , first record of the fish family pseudotrichonotidae from australia ( teleostei : aulopiformes ) . zootaxa 4205 ( 2 ) : 189\u2013193 .\nurltoken is the world ' s leading destination for sustainable coral reef farming and the aquarium hobby . we offer a free open forum and reef related news and data to better educate aquarists and further our goals of sustainable reef management . reefs\u00ae community system | copyright \u00a9 2018\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by cmilitante , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by cmilitante , 14 / 03 / 2013\njohnson , r . k . ( 1982 ) fishes of the families evermanellidae and scoleparchidae : systematics , morphology , interrelationships , and zoogeography . fieldiana zoology ( new series ) , 12 , 1\u2013252 .\nmachida , y . ( 1988 ) pseudotrichonotidae . in : masuda , k . , amaoka , k . , araga , c . , uyeno , t . & yoshino , t . ( eds . ) , the fishes of the japanese archipelago . second edition . tokai university press , tokyo , pp . 60\u201360 .\nmasuda , h . , araga , c . & yoshino , t . ( 1975 ) coastal fishes of southern japan . tokai university press , tokyo , 379 pp .\nnakabo , t . ( 2002 ) pseudotrichonotidae . in : nakabo , t . ( ed . ) fishes of japan with pictorial keys to the species . english edition , volume 1 . tokai university press , tokyo , pp . 350\u2013350 .\nsaruwatari , t . , l\u00f3pez , j . a . & pietsch , t . w . ( 1997 ) cyanine blue : a versatile and harmless stain for specimen observation . copeia , 1997 , 840\u2013841 . urltoken\nthis content is password protected . to view it please enter your password below :\nfor one of world\u2019s foremost fish finders ( dr . gerald allen ) , \u2018no better place\u2019 than this dive site by molly bergen\nbird ' s head natural history notes ( vol . 4 ) : the pygmy seahorses of raja ampat by dr richard smith\nbig shoes to fill ! dr . mccook takes over , from dr . mark erdmann , as ci indonesia ' s senior advisor for marine progr\u2026 urltoken\noff course the ladies are involved too . read about an extraordinary group of women who are changing their lives wh\u2026 urltoken\naustrian photographer shares his amazing images from the bird ' s head seascape ' s triton bay . enjoy ! \u2026 urltoken\non the papuan mainland , halfway between raja and triton bay , lies fak - fak . read about how efforts to create mpa ' s i\u2026 urltoken\nis reef restoration in raja ampat , the world ' s most bio - diverse marine habitat necessary . yes it is ! read how thi\u2026 urltoken\nthe art of describing a new species of fish by dr . gerald r . allen\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nmacleay museum and school of life and environmental sciences , a12 - macleay building , the university of sydney , new south wales 2006 , australia . ichthyology , australian museum , 1 william street , sydney , new south wales 2010 , australia . anthony . c . gill @ sydney . edu . au .\nzootaxa 4205 : 2 2016 dec 05 pg zootaxa . 4205 . 2 . 8\n< i > plectranthias < / i > < i > takasei < / i > , new species of anthiadine fish from southern japan ( teleostei : serranidae ) .\na new jellynose , ateleopus edentatus , from the western pacific ocean ( teleostei : ateleopodiformes : ateleopodidae ) .\nthree new species of the indo - pacific fish genus hime ( aulopidae , aulopiformes ) , all resembling the type species h . japonica ( g\u00fcnther 1877 ) .\npempheris bexillon , a new species of sweeper ( teleostei : pempheridae ) from the western indian ocean .\nplectorhinchus caeruleonothus , a new species of sweetlips ( perciformes : < br / > haemulidae ) from northern australia and the resurrection of p . unicolor ( macleay , 1883 ) , species previously confused with p . schotaf ( forssk\u00e5l , 1775 ) .\ntaxonomic revision of the flathead fish genus platycephalus bloch , 1785 ( teleostei : platycephalidae ) from australia , with description of a new species .\namblyceps accari , a new species of torrent catfish ( teleostei : amblycipitidae ) from the western ghats of india .\na new species of the genus hypleurochilus ( teleostei : blenniidae ) from trindade island and martin vaz archipelago , brazil .\nsatyrichthys kikingeri pogoreutz , vitecek & ahnelt , 2013 , a junior synonym of satyrichthys laticeps ( schlegel , 1852 ) ( actinopterygii : teleostei : peristediidae ) .\na new species of anchovy , encrasicholina macrocephala ( clupeiformes : engraulidae ) , from the northwestern indian ocean .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 2627, "summary": [{"text": "ichnotropis grandiceps is a species of african lizards in the family lacertidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "they are commonly called caprivi rough-scaled lizards as they are largely found in southwestern africa on the border of the caprivi strip .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the cape rough-scaled lizards are terrestrial and found in the range of open woodland and mesic savanna .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the caprivi rough-scaled lizards are medium in size and distributed in parts of namibia and botswana .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "this species is on the international union for conservation of nature 's red list for endangered species as they are rare and has not been seen or collected since 1998 .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "data about the population or specimens collected are needed for the iucn to obtain more information about the unknown threats that may be impacting them . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "ichnotropis grandiceps", "paragraphs": ["ichnotropis grandiceps broadley 1967 ichnotropis grandiceps \u2014 auerbach 1987 : 132 ichnotropis grandiceps \u2014 edwards et al . 2013\njustification : ichnotropis grandiceps is a rare species and it is unknown whether threats are impacting it . therefore an assessment of data deficient has been made . further research should be carried out before a more accurate assessment of its conservation status can be made .\nbroadley , d . g . 1967 . a new species of ichnotropis ( sauria : lacertidae ) from the botswana - caprivi border . arnoldia 3 ( 24 ) : 1 - 5\nbischoff , w . 1991 . \u00fcbersicht der arten und unterarten der familie lacertidae 2 . die gattungen eremias , gallotia , gastropholis , heliobolus , holaspis und ichnotropis . die eidechse 2 ( 2 ) : 14 - 21 - get paper here\nberg , m . p . van den 2017 . an annotated bibliographic history of ichnotropis peters , 1854 ( reptilia , lacertidae ) with remarks on the validity of some of the including species . l @ certidae ( eidechsen online ) , 2017 [ 4 ] : 60 - 138 . - get paper here\nthe number of species increased from 10 , 711 to 10 , 793 , i . e . an increase of 82 species . 66 new species have been described , 9 species have been revalidated from synonymy and 16 subspecies were elevated to full species . . .\nover the past 4 months , the number of species increased from 10 , 639 to 10 , 711 .\nthe number of species has grown from 10 , 544 in the may release to now 10 , 639 ( + 95 species ) .\noverall , 212 new taxa have been added or changed their status or name .\nthe reptile database is a taxonomic database that provides basic information about all living reptile species , such as turtles , snakes , lizards , and crocodiles , as well as tuataras and amphisbaenians , but does not include dinosaurs .\ncurrently there are more than 10 , 000 species and an additional 2 , 700 subspecies . this is making reptiles the largest vertebrate group after fish ( ~ 25 , 000 species ) and birds ( ~ 10 , 000 species ) , and significantly larger than mammals ( ~ 5 , 000 species ) or amphibians ( ~ 6 , 000 species ) .\nthe reptile database provides taxonomic information for the catalogue of life and the encyclopedia of life . our taxonomic information has also been used by genbank and many other resources and is the only comprehensive reptile database on the web .\nthe reptile database can be used to find all species within a certain geographic area ( e . g . all snakes of egypt ) . its collection of more than 2 , 500 images allow users to identify a species or at least get an idea how the species or genus may look like . more than 30 , 000 references provide a guide to further information .\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\ntype locality : 25 miles west of mohembo , botswana , on the border of the caprivi strip ( south west africa ) .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nholotype : usnm 163989 , an adult male . paratypes : um 16278 ( male ) and usnm 163990 ( juvenile ) . ( um = umtali museum , rhodesia ) . besides the type and paratypes , only 4 other specimens are known , collected by w . d . haacke and residing in the transvaal museum : tm 30822 , tm 38309 , tm 38310 and tm 38404 .\nalexander , g & marais , j . 2007 . a guide to the reptiles of southern africa . struik publishers , 408 pp . [ book review in elaphe 16 ( 3 ) : 18 ]\nauerbach , r . d . 1987 . the amphibians and reptiles of botswana . mokwepa consultants , botswana , 295 pp .\nauerbach , ronald daniel 1986 . first steps in setswana herpetology . botswana notes and records ( gaborone ) , 18 : 71 - 90 .\nbranch , w . r . 1998 . field guide to the snakes and other reptiles of southern africa . 3rd ed . fully revised and updated to include 83 new species . ralph curtis books ( sanibel island , florida ) , 399 pp .\nbranch , w . r . , baard , e . h . w . , haacke , w . d . , jacobsen , n . , poynton , j . c . , & broadley , d . g . , eds . 1988 . a provisional and annotated checklist of the herpetofauna of southern africa . j . herp . assoc . africa 34 : 1 - 19 . - get paper here\nbranch , william r . 1993 . a photographic guide to snakes and other reptiles of southern africa . cape town : struik publishers , 144 s .\nbranch , w . r . 1988 . field guide to the snakes and other reptiles of southern africa . struik publishers , cape town , 328 pp .\nbroadley , d . g . 2004 . herpetofauna of the four corners area . - in : r . & childes , s . l . ( eds . ) 2004 . biodiversity of the four corners area : technical reviews volume two ( chapters 5 - 15 ) . timberlake , j . occasional publications in biodiversity no 15 , biodiversity foundation for africa , bulawayo / zambezi society , harare , zimbabwe : 313 - 346\nconradie w , bills r , and branch wr . 2016 . the herpetofauna of the cubango , cuito , and lower cuando river catchments of south - eastern angola . amphibian & reptile conservation 10 ( 2 ) [ special section ] : 6\u201336 - get paper here\nconradie , w . 2012 . herpetofauna of the cubango - okovango river catchment . a report on a rapid biodiversity survey conducted in may 2012 . port elizabeth museum ( bayworld ) . 17 pp\nedwards , shelley ; william r . branch , bieke vanhooydonck , anthony herrel , g . john measey , krystal a . tolley 2013 . taxonomic adjustments in the systematics of the southern african lacertid lizards ( sauria : lacertidae ) . zootaxa 3669 ( 2 ) : 101\u2013114 - get paper here\ngriffin , m . 2003 . annotated checklist and provisional national conservation status of namibian reptiles . namibia scientific society , windhoek . [ 2 ] + 169 pp .\nhaacke , w . d . 1970 . new herpetological records from south west africa . ann . transvaal mus . 26 ( 12 ) : 277 - 283 - get paper here\nherrmann , h . - w . ; w . r . branch 2013 . fifty years of herpetological research in the namib desert and namibia with an updated and annotated species checklist . journal of arid environments 93 : 94\u2013115 - get paper here\nkirchhof , s . ; engleder , a . ; mayer , w . & richter , k . 2011 . die radiation der lacertiden des s\u00fcdlichen afrikas . elaphe 19 ( 4 ) : 6 - 11\nlewin , amir ; anat feldman , aaron m . bauer , jonathan belmaker , donald g . broadley , laurent chirio , yuval itescu , matthew lebreton , erez maza , danny meirte , zolt\u00e1n t . nagy , maria novosolov , uri roll , oliver tallowin , jean - fran\u00e7ois trape , enav vidan and 2016 . patterns of species richness , endemism and environmental gradients of african reptiles . journal of biogeography , doi : 10 . 1111 / jbi . 12848 - get paper here\nmayer , w ; berger - dell ' mour - h 1988 . proteinelektrophoretische untersuchungen zur systematik der gattungen aporosaura , meroles , pedioplanis und heliobolus ( sauria : lacertidae ) aus s\u00fcdwest - afrika . herpetozoa 1 ( 1 - 2 ) : 23 - 29 - get paper here\nmertens , r . 1971 . die herpetofauna s\u00fcdwest - afrikas . senck . naturf . gesell . , frankfurt am main , abhandl . 529 : 110 pp .\npietersen dw , pietersen ew , conradie w . 2017 . preliminary herpetological survey of ngonye falls and surrounding regions in south - western zambia . amphibian & reptile conservation 11 ( 1 ) [ special section ] : 24\u201343 ( e148 - get paper here\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nde silva , r . , milligan , h . t . , wearn , o . r . , wren , s . , zamin , t . , sears , j . , wilson , p . , lewis , s . , lintott , p . & powney , g .\nthis species is found in the caprivi strip and adjacent botswana and northeast namibia .\nthis species is rare . searches have been carried out for this species , but it has not been collected in recent years ( branch 1998 ) .\nthis species was listed as secure in namibia conservation status report ( griffin 1999 ) but further research is needed into the population numbers and possible threats of this species .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis entry needs a photograph or drawing for illustration . please try to find a suitable image on wikimedia commons or upload one there yourself ! particularly :\nnothing on commons 2016 , july 16\nthis page was last edited on 16 may 2017 , at 00 : 39 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nlizards are reptiles closely related to snakes . like snakes some of them are legless whilst others resemble snakes but have legs . the larger lizards take on a ' crocodile ' appearance , but overall they come in all shapes , sizes and colours which helps their defensive capabilities .\nas lizards do not have the built - in temperature controls of most other animals , they tend to live in areas where the ground doesn ' t freeze and in cold winters lizards hibernate . they are the most common of reptiles in deserts , such as the namib desert , and other dry regions such as the kalahari desert . if the desert temperature does becomes too hot for lizards , they will seek shade or go under the sand to escape the hot sunshine . other areas of special interest to enjoy lizards are the auas mountains in central namibia and the etosha pan .\nlizards are cunning creatures and as with snakes can defend themselves in a variety of ways . like snakes , lizards bluff or play tricks such as swelling up , lashing the tail and hissing . african chameleons are famous for changing colour and other lizards have the same gift . although it is widely believed chameleons change colour to camouflage themselves from enemies , they also can turn a darker colour to absorb more heat from the sun ' s rays .\nunlike snakes , some lizards can eat plants although insects and small animals feature regularly on the menu . reproduction is by depositing eggs in nests whilst others are hatched inside the females . lizards are measured from the tip of the snout to the vent on the body , directly behind the rear limbs , annotated as svl ( snout vent length ) .\nagamas belong to the family agaidae and are small to large lizards with either a flattened or a cylindrical shaped body . they have large heads , well - developed limbs with a narrowing long tail that cannot be shed or regenerated . agamas are active during the day and mainly terrestrial , although some species are specific to living in trees or amongst rocks . some species feed on ants , whilst others are predominately herbivores . they are known to form social groups with territorial patterns that are well - developed and displays include the males showing off brightly - coloured crests , frills or throat fans common . agamas are closely related to chameleons and there are only 2 subfamilies in southern africa . they are :\nthe bushveld lizard ( heliobolis lugubris ) is closely related to sand and desert lizards .\nthere is only 1 species of festive gecko in namibia . it is a very small gecko with long , slender , clawed toes that do not have ' sticky ' scansors .\ngirdled lizards belong to the family cordylidae and are so called because of their body scale arrangement hence the name . the scales on the tail are set in regular rings and are spiny and the tail can be shed and regenerated , although slowly and not the original condition . they have a short tongue covered with long papillae . the head of a girdled lizard is triangular and flattened on the top and covered with large shield that are fused to the skull .\nthey are mainly a rock dwelling although some species do live in trees or on the ground . rock living species are protected from the abrasiveness of moving between rock surfaces by their rough scales . this is also a safety advantage when escaping from predators along with the ability to sneak into rock crevices and inflating the body and shortening and thickening the skull , possible due to the unusual head hinged structure .\na wide variety of large vertebrates are eaten by girdled lizards , whilst some of the larger members of the species add plants and small vertebrates to their menu . females give birth to between 1 to 6 young each year when males become territorial during the breeding season . there are 6 species of girdled lizards found in namibia and 3 of them are endemic to the country . they are :\nmonitors belong the family varanidae and are the largest of the lizards . they are not poisonous and all living monitors are similar in appearance , with well - developed limbs and strong claws . the tail cannot be shed or regenerated as with other species of lizard . smaller species eat insects whilst larger monitors will take anything it can overpower . prey might be torn to shred by their claws or even consumed whole . little is known of their breeding habits as they are shy creatures with sightings and observations of their mating habits and egg - laying uncommon . females lay large , soft - shelled eggs in termite nests or holes . as the skins are an attractive item for hunters and poachers to pass on to the fashion industry , all varinids are a protected species in southern africa .\nplated lizards belong to the family gerrhosauridae and have strong legs and longish tails . members of the species that live in grasslands can take on a snake - like appearance as their limbs are somewhat reduced . the head has large , symmetrical head shields and the body is covered with rectangular plates that overlap ( hence the name ) .\nthey are diurnal , oviparous lizards and although they are terrestrial , some species will find their way into rock crevices . there are 3 subfamilies of plated lizards in namibia . they are :\na small genus that to a lizard run around on the ground on sandy soil in savannah . females lay eggs and die soon after the first egg is laid . rough - scaled lizards of namibia are :\nsand lizards are a group with cylindrical bodies and long tails . they are diurnal and terrestrial in nature , often seen dashing between clumps of sparse vegetation . these lizards lay small clutches of soft - shelled eggs with 5 species endemic to namibia . sand lizards of namibia are :\nsandveld lizards have rounded snouts , a cylindrical body and a longer than usual tail . they are fairly common creatures in their distribution range , but are rarely seen because of their secretive nature , even though they are terrestrial lacertids . they forage early morning and late afternoon / early evening , which is the best time to try and catch a glimpse of them tucking into flying termites .\nsome species feed on scorpions . unlike other lizards who lie in wait to ambush their prey , sandveld lizards will go out to hunt for their food . predators include birds of prey and snakes . some species having brightly coloured tails to fend offer attackers , which protects the more vulnerable areas of head and body .\nidentification of many species of lizards are done by scale count , but colouration and distribution can also be reliably used in determining different species . sandveld lizards in namibia are :\nan art gallery turned guest house - the space is truly alternative and worth a visit if you are interested in philosophical conversation , innovative thinking and staying somewhere out of the norm .\noffers a variety of suites , luxury rooms and self catering units . ideal for the business traveller or holiday maker\n15km outside of swakopmund this elegant . pet friendly , guest house offers amazing views over the namib desert . accommodation is in either guest house rooms or self catering units\nwell established , swiss managed guesthouse which is always a popular choice . offers good quality accommodation & occasional wine tasting nights\nan intimate and sophisticated family - run boutique guesthouse offering comfortable accommodation . a highlight is that each of the en - suite rooms has a private fireplace .\na very popular choice , offers excellent rooms at extremely reasonable prices . possibly best value for money in swakopmund\nabsolutely unique ! built on stilts into the swakop river - many units offer great views . feels more like a traditional country lodge rather than an establishment in a busy tourist town .\na newer addition , situated in an old historic building near the town center . expect attention to detail and italian flair .\nnamibia is diverse and spectacular , desolate and unforgiving . for many the excitement of game viewing will revolve around larger mammals , rare and exotic birds or a beautiful array of fascination sea creatures . there is one other class of animal that earns its wildlife stripes the country over ; often feared , much admired but usually avoided - it is none other than the world of reptiles .\na reptile is an animal that has dry , scaly skin and breathe through lungs . they are classed as a vertibrates ( animals that have a backbone ) .\nhabitats play an incredibly important role in the life and survival of reptiles . namibia has 5 different categories of vegetation types : desert , nama karoo , succulent karoo shrubland , arid savannah and moist savannah . each biome experiences mainly a temperate climate , contrasting wildly in seasonal rainfall and temperature . in turn , these meteorological boundaries affect who lives where and for how long , including every reptile , large or small .\nas reptiles are cold blooded they obtain their heat externally ( as opposed to internally as with humans and birds ) usually from the sun , by basking . they can then absorb the warmth from the environment and commute between sun and shade to maintain a constant and favoured temperature . burrowing species take advantage of hot surface layers of soil or rocks warmed by the heat of the sun to gain heat .\nmost reptiles reproduce sexually , mating during the spring . the young are born in summer . all turtles , crocodiles , as well as some as some snakes and lizards are oviparous - females that lay eggs that have shells . only a few species of reptiles provide care for their eggs or young although amongst pythons and some skinks , the female wraps her body around the eggs to assist in the incubation period .\nthere are more species of reptile than mammal in namibia . reptiles species number 256 ( with 112 species within etosha national park and 95 in namib - naukluft park ) as opposed to 186 land and sea mammals . snake species number 92 . pythons attract an enormous amount of fascination and as they are attracted to water they will lurk in the reeds of waterholes waiting for an opportunity for a meal . cobras , puff adders and the black mamba add to the reptilian mystique and are regularly seen crossing roads or at waterholes . the dry river beds of the namib desert are host to the occasional chameleon as well as the black - necked spitting cobra .\nwithout doubt the reptile of all reptiles has to be the crocodile . reaching a maximum of length of nearly 6m and weighing up to 1 , 000kg , this species will take large game including man . best to hop on a boat cruise along the chobe river , a mokoro trip in the okavango delta or from the safety of a 4 x 4 self - drive tour along the riverbanks of the zambezi or chobe rivers to get the best views !\nfrogs are the oldest known amphibians . they inhabited the earth over 200 million years ago and thousands of species of frogs and toads have developed from their ancestors . these small , tailless animals have characteristic bulging eyes and strong hind legs that enable them to leap distances far greater then the total length of their bodies . they are highly adaptable to any environment and can be found all over namibia ; in lowveld or highveld , the namib desert , forests , mountains and in coastal regions .\nsome species spend their entire life in or near water , others spend part of their life as a water animal and part as a land animal , whilst others live mainly on land and find water to mate . certain species of frogs can climb and dwell in trees ( they have sticky pads on ends of fingers and toes ) and others are burrowers that live underground .\nfrogs are namibia ' s only amphibians . they do not drink water though . around 51 species are thought to occur in the country . some 16 species have been recorded in etosha national park . they spend most of the year underground in etosha in dried mud , waiting for the next rainy season . none of them are truly aquatic as they do not depend on water throughout the year . all species avoid the pan as it is too salty .\nthe giant african bullfrog is the most commonly observed , but only in periods of brief rain to breed . once they are above the surface the race is on to consume enough food to sustain them through the dry winter months . frogs are cannibals though and can swallow any animal it can fit into their mouths . other species found in etosha include the bushveld rain frog , ornate frog and namibia ' s rarest , the spotted rubber frog .\namongst the leopard and mountain zebra tracks of the naukluft mountains , amphibians are common . river frogs abound amongst the fountains and pools of crystal - clear water . large tadpoles are more easily observed than adults and the sound of marbled rubber frog precedes their appearance . common platanna reside in remaining naukluft pools or in the ephemeral tsondab river . widely distributed and close to the dunes is the tremelo sand frog .\nthe desert rain frog is an inhabitant of the sperrgebiet , one of namibia ' s true surviving wilderness areas . those fortunate to have lived and worked there can appreciate this vast stretch of the namib desert . banned for public access due to diamond mining restrictions , the rather unusually attractive desert rain frog can emerge form their underground hide - outs for short winter periods when the winds have died . they enjoy cooler temperatures and take advantage of the seasonal moisture .\nalmost all frogs have the same body structure less for variable size and colour differences . females are invariably larger than males . front legs are short , hind legs are large and the body and head are flat and bereft of a neck . the tongue is attached to the front of the mouth , a feature that allows them to flick it out quickly to capture prey . they have internal organs such as a heart , liver , lungs and kidneys and although frogs breathe by lungs , they also breath through their skin .\nthe skin is thin and moist and many species have poison glands in their skin which irritates an attackers mouth , causing the predator to release the frog . there is only 1 species of frog that has hair ( the african hairy - frog , what else ? ) and some species can change colour with changes in temperature , light and humidity .\nwith such large eyes , you would expect frogs to have good eyesight . their eyes bulge out enabling them to see in almost any direction to capture food and stay safe . frogs that hunt at night have a better sense smell than those that don ' t and they have a delicate sense of touch , particularly when in water . tongues and mouths have numerous taste buds enabling them to spit out bad - tasting food .\nspecies such as the painted reed frog are very beautiful . unfortunately frogs have been branded as cold and slimy , ugly and repulsive but a different opinion can be formed if they are handled and studied a bit . there are no poisonous or dangerous frogs in the country and you won ' t catch warts from picking up a toad either !\nfrogs are difficult to recognize . they make distinctive sounds , as do birds , calling out to females in the mating season in a louder voice than that of a female . to find a frog it is best to go out at night ( or in the rain ) with a torch . this is not advisable if you in the okavango delta when other potentially dangerous nocturnal creatures are around doing the same thing ( less the torch ) but many species are likely to occur in the vicinity of lodges and camps . so after your traditional early morning or late afternoon game drive in etosha national park or naukluft national park , it might be possible to go on an accompanied night ' frogging safari ' .\nthere are 3 stages in the life of a frog . egg , tadpole and a 4 - limbed adult . most frogs mate in the rainy season in water . the male will enter first , probably as a sign of bravado , to attract some mates . females will only respond to calls from the same species and they are grasped by the males as soon as they enter the water before clinging to her back . the male then fertilizes the eggs in this position and they will hatch between 3 to 25 days afterwards , depending on species and temperature . a tiny tailed animal , known as a tadpole hatches from the egg .\nthe tadpole is not completely developed when they hatch . they resemble tiny fish and breath through gills . their form changes as they grow . hind legs appear first , enabling them to swim and feed on plants and decaying animal matter , frog eggs or other tadpoles . once the digestive system has changed they can eat live animals . the tadpole will then lose its gills and its metamorphosis ( change ) takes place into a tiny frog . most tadpoles change into adults within 8 to 10 weeks . enemies of tadpoles include platannas , water tortoises , fish , dragonfly larvae , water beetles , water bugs and water scorpions . adult frogs eat mainly insects and other small insects such as earthworms , minnows and spiders .\nfrog or a toad ? toads are one of the frog families . it is deemed incorrect to separate the two . one is an order ( frogs ) , the other is a family within that order ( toads ) .\nthe body of a toad is broader , flatter and darker than a frog ' s .\nmost toads live in land . adult toads go to water only to breed .\nfrogs benefit humans in many ways . the consume large numbers of insects , which could become pests . their legs provide us with food , the legs of larger frogs are considered a delicacy in many countries . there are 12 families of frogs found in namibia\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 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{"id": 2633, "summary": [{"text": "urotrichini is a taxonomic tribe of the mole family , and consists of japanese and american shrew-moles .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "they belong to the old world moles and relatives branch of the mole family ( talpidae ) .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "there are only three species , each of which represents its own genus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the name \" shrew-moles \" refers to their morphological resemblance to shrews , while generally being thought of as \" true moles \" .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the species are the japanese shrew mole , true 's shrew mole and american shrew mole .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "in japan , the word \" himizu \" ( \u30d2\u30df\u30ba ) may refer to both to the japanese shrew mole in particular and urotrichini in general ; when true 's shrew mole is distinguished from the general himizu forms , the feminine diminutive word \" hime \" is added to refer to the smaller size of that species .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "although they are common in japan , their alpine habitats , small size , and secretive lifestyle makes them generally unknown except among some mountain people and researchers . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "urotrichini", "paragraphs": [", subfamily uropsilinae ) and showed a phylogenetic history moderately different from that of shrew moles ( tribes neurotrichini and urotrichini , subfamily talpinae ) . members of the genus\n) focused on less - saturated transversional substitutions , the depth of the calibration point seems too old ( 25\u201335 mya for the divergence between urotrichini and talpini ) , so that the estimated time scale may be overestimated . the estimates of kirihara et al . (\n. . . another plesiomorphic character is the presence of a single and undivided mesostyle in the upper molars ( character 17 # 1 ; character 18 # 1 ) , a feature shared with uropsilus and the urotrichini . however , the teeth of t . minor do not show other specializations present in urotrichini , such as enlarged incisor alveoli and the broadened mandibular ramus ( barrow & macleod 2008 ; sansalone 2015 ) . the only explicit specializations that can be observed in t . minor are an enlarged p1 , which is morphologically different from the caniniform p1 exhibited by the highly fossorial moles ( see in example g . antiquus ; schwermann & martin 2012 ) , and slightly hypsodont molars . . . .\n. . . another plesiomorphic character is the presence of a single and undivided mesostyle in the upper molars ( character 17 # 1 ; character 18 # 1 ) , a feature shared with uropsilus and the urotrichini . however , the teeth of t . minor do not show other specializations present in urotrichini , such as enlarged incisor alveoli and the broadened mandibular ramus ( barrow & macleod 2008 ; sansalone 2015 ) . the only explicit specializations that can be observed in t . minor are an enlarged p1 , which is morphologically different from the caniniform p1 exhibited by the highly fossorial moles ( see in example g . antiquus ; schwermann & martin 2012 ) , and slightly hypsodont molars . ziegler ( 2012 ) suggested this increased hypsodonty was an adaptation to drier environments . . . .\nthe chinese long - tailed mole ( scaptonyx fusicaudus ) closely resembles american ( neurotrichus gibbsii ) and japanese ( dymecodon pilirostris and urotrichus talpoides ) shrew moles in size , appearance , and ecological habits , yet it has traditionally been classified either together with ( viz subfamily urotrichinae ) or separately ( tribe scaptonychini ) from the latter genera ( tribe urotrichini sensu . . . [ show full abstract ]\nurotrichini is a taxonomic tribe of the mole family , and consists of japanese and american shrew - moles . they belong to the old world moles and relatives branch of the mole family ( talpidae ) . there are only three species , each of which represents its own genus . the name ` shrew - moles ` refers to their morphological resemblance to shrews , while gene . . . . .\nconflicting taxonomic classifications regarding the establishment and composition of subfamilies and tribes have been proposed for the talpid family ( hutchison 1968 ; yates 1984 ; mckenna and bell 1997 ; hutterer 2005 ) , with substantial confusion also surrounding the phylogenetic placement and taxonomic assignment of talpids in the fossil record ( ziegler 2003 , 2012 ; klietmann et al . 2015 ) . because of the robustness of the forelimb in some talpids , relatively plentiful numbers of humeri are preserved as fossils for some lineages ( e . g . , talpini , scalopini , urotrichini ) , and can provide insights into locomotory adaptations through geological time . however , the resolution of locomotory adaptations through time requires a well - resolved phylogeny , which is currently not available .\n) . tribal divergences commenced during the priabonian stage ( 39 . 5\u201333 . 9 ma ) of the late eocene when scalopini diverged from other tribes at 37 . 0 ma ( 95 % ci = 39 . 5\u201335 . 3 ma ) , and continued through the rupelian ( 33 . 9\u201328 . 1 ma ) and chattian ( 28 . 1\u201323 . 03 ma ) stages of the oligocene when the three shrew mole tribes ( scaptonychini , urotrichini , neurotrichini ) diverged from each other between 30 and 27 ma ( 95 % ci = 34\u201323 ma ) . divergences between chinese and north american scalopins , between european and asian talpins , and between the two long - tailed mole lineages all occurred in the mid - miocene ( ca . 16 ma ; 95 % ci = 22\u201310 ma ) . finally , divergences between sister genera generally occurred between 18 and 7 my ( 95 % ci = 26\u20134 ma ) . the lineage - through - time ( ltt ) plot (\nmembers of the mammalian family talpidae\u2014the moles , shrew moles , and desmans\u2014include some of the least studied mammals on earth . the 43 recognized living species reflect a surprisingly diverse set of lifestyles including terrestrial , semi - fossorial , semi - aquatic , fossorial , and aquatic - fossorial ( nowak 1999 ; hutterer 2005 ) . the evolution of adaptive specializations to these diverse environments produced substantial morphological variation , for example in skeletal anatomy ( freeman 1886 ) and sensory systems ( catania 2000 ) . however , increasingly derived \u201cstepping - stone\u201d phenotypic adaptations can be identified across a morphological gradient from the terrestrial shrew - like moles ( uropsilinae ) , to the semi - fossorial shrew moles / long - tailed moles ( neurotrichini , urotrichini , and scaptonychini ) , and further to the fossorial \u201ctrue moles\u201d ( talpini and scalopini ) . conversely , the more aquatic members of the family , the desmans ( desmanini ) and the aquatic - fossorial star - nosed mole ( condylurini ) , are among the most unique and morphologically isolated of living mammals .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspeciation and evolution in the family talpidae ( mammalia : insectivora ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nresearch support , u . s . gov ' t , non - p . h . s .\nresearch support , u . s . gov ' t , p . h . s .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nparent taxon : talpinae according to o . g . bendukidze et al . 2009\nbiokids is sponsored in part by the interagency education research initiative . it is a partnership of the university of michigan school of education , university of michigan museum of zoology , and the detroit public schools . this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant drl - 0628151 . copyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 , the regents of the university of michigan . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vols . 1 & 2\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nto elucidate the origins of the japanese mammalian fauna from the perspectives of biogeography and community ecology , i reviewed molecular phylogenetic and phylogeographic studies for all non - volant terrestrial mammals indigenous to the japanese archipelago ( 63 species ) , with a particular focus on obtaining reliable chronological data . the results of this review demonstrate that geological vicariance events in the tsugaru and korea ( tsushima ) straits can explain the distribution of many japanese mammals , in particular the hokkaido - endemic species with late pleistocene origins and the honshu\u2013shikoku\u2013kyushu - endemic species with middle pleistocene or earlier origins . phylogenetic relatedness also contributed to the observed patterns of distribution through the processes of competitive exclusion and species assortment , and abiotic environmental filtering was another important factor . later colonists of honshu\u2013shikoku\u2013kyushu , from northern hokkaido or the southern tsushima islands , were mostly excluded owing to the competitive dominance of earlier residents or environmental filtering . on the other hand , the fragmented distributions of some species with more ancient origins in both hokkaido and honshu\u2013shikoku\u2013kyushu may be a result of the competitive dominance of later migrants . ecological coexistence can be achieved by phylogenetically dispersed species , supporting the principle of species assortment . because almost all aspects of the mammalian faunal assembly in japan can be explained by geological events or community ecological processes , the japanese archipelago may be an ideal model island system in which to study the mechanisms of faunal assembly .\ni am deeply grateful to masaharu motokawa and hiroshi kajihara for inviting me to contribute to their comprehensive book on japanese animals , and for their encouragement during the manuscript preparation process . i thank masaharu motokawa , hon - tsen yu , and an anonymous reviewer for providing valuable feedback on an earlier version of this manuscript . i also thank hitoshi suzuki and past and present members of his laboratory for their invaluable assistance with my research on the molecular phylogenetics and phylogeography of mammals .\nhere , i have reviewed molecular phylogenetic and phylogeographic studies of japanese mammals to obtain reliable estimates of the divergence time between the japanese and the continental species ( or lineage ) and the time to the most recent common ancestor ( mrca ) of the japanese mammals . where no chronological data were provided in the previous study , even though some dna sequences were determined and available in the dna database , i briefly calculated these times by using the lineage - specific evolutionary rate . it should be noted here that the most commonly used evolutionary rates proposed by brown et al . (\napplied this rate to all the mammalian lineage divergence ) , so that the applications of these rates to other groups would be difficult because of the differences in the evolutionary rates among mammalian groups . for example , a corollary of the application of the evolutionary rate obtained from a slowly evolving lineage ( e . g . , ungulates ) into a rapidly evolving lineage ( e . g . , rodents ) is an overestimation of the divergence times on the rapidly evolving lineage .\n) . these species could be classified into two subfamilies , soricinae and crocidurinae ( dubey et al .\n) genes , these subfamilies were demonstrated to have diverged in the late early miocene [ ca . 20 mya ( million years ago ) ( fumagalli et al .\nspecies in hokkaido established their lineages by different histories in spite of the similar distribution patterns . however , in ohdachi et al . (\n) , the time scale for the lineage differentiations was not assessed based on their molecular data . hope et al . (\nincluding the hokkaido linage was in the period of the late pleistocene ( < 0 . 13 mya ) . this time estimate is in agreement with the distribution pattern of\nspecies evolution . however , because the evolutionary rate of hope et al . (\nspecies might have fallen into circular argument . nevertheless , a similar evolutionary rate was suggested to be fit to the late quaternary phylogeography of various taxa from rodents to carnivorans around the bering straits ( hope et al .\n) . therefore , i used the 11 % / myr ( million years ) divergence rate in this tentative time estimations . the average pairwise genetic distances between species endemic to the hsk region (\ns , respectively ) were calculated to be 8 . 3 % and 8 . 8 % , respectively , thus suggesting that these lineages diverged 0 . 75 and 0 . 8 mya in the early to middle pleistocene , respectively . on the other hand , hokkaido lineages of\ns were estimated to have diverged 0 . 07 and 0 . 56 mya , respectively . it is obvious to obtain the age estimate consistent with hope et al . (\nbecause of the same assumption about the evolutionary rate . however , the middle pleistocene origin of the hokkaido lineage of\nwas inferred to have split 0 . 09 mya , implying that the lineage diversifications in hokkaido might have occurred in the late pleistocene . meanwhile , it was estimated that\n, where the average pairwise distance between khabarovsk and hokkaido haplotypes and that among the hokkaido haplotypes both show 1 . 6 % corresponding to 0 . 15 mya based on the 11 % / myr divergence rate , suggesting that the hokkaido lineage diverged from the continental one in the final part of the middle pleistocene . regarding\n, it was calculated that the divergence between the hokkaido and the continental lineages , that among three haplogroups in hokkaido , and that within each of the three haplogroups , occurred 0 . 07 , 0 . 05 , and 0 . 02 mya , respectively . all the events took place in the late pleistocene . the foregoing calculation suggests that the absence of\n, whose origin in hokkaido is in the middle pleistocene , did not cross the tsugaru strait , when the land bridge was formed . probably , the lineage expansion would have occurred in the late pleistocene , as suggested in\nat 3 . 5 mya ) . however , special caution must be given to the interpretation of their results . first ,\ngene whose substitutions would be saturated in the time scale of their study , where the calibration point was set to approximately 20 mya , that is , at a level subjected to the saturation problem ( steppan et al .\n, i suppose that their time estimates could be more realistic because they estimated divergence times by less - saturated nuclear protein - coding genes and obtained dates largely concordant with the fossil records ( he et al .\n) estimated 1 . 25 mya , as already explained , 3 . 03 mya estimated for the split between\n) could correspond to age about 0 . 83 mya by a very brief proportion calculation . furthermore , yuan et al . (\nin taiwan is 10 . 5 % . if i use the 11 % / myr of hope et al . (\n) , the time estimate for this divergence would be 0 . 95 mya , which is close to 0 . 83 mya , although slightly larger .\n) clarified that there are four geographically separated phylogroups in the japanese archipelago , one in kyushu and the other three in honshu . the most southern kyushu lineage first diverged , then the chugoku lineage in the southwestern honshu , and in the last kinki lineage in the east of the chugoku region and the lineage in east and central honshu were separated . the time to the mrca of the four phylogroups was inferred to be 0 . 39 mya , and divergence in each phylogroup was estimated to have occurred within 0 . 059 mya , on the basis of the 1 . 36 % transversional susbtitutions at the third codon positions per million years calculated from setting the divergence time between soricinae and crocidurinae to be 20 mya , according to fumagali et al . (\n) , in which the transversional susbtitutions at the third codon positions was checked to be not saturated . in addition , by using the 11 % / myr of hope et al . (\n) where average pairwise genetic distances between haplotypes in kyushu and east - central clades is 3 . 0 % , the divergence time was calculated to be 0 . 27 mya , which is not inconsistent with the middle pleistocene origin of\nas estimated earlier ( 0 . 39 mya ) . all these inferences suggest that\n) . as already described , because the tsugaru strait was not considered to have had a land bridge in the late pleistocene , the absence of this species from hokkaido can be explained by the late pleistocene expansion of the honshu lineages from each refugium . the reason for the absence of this species from the shikoku islands is not clear .\n( amami , okinawa , miyako , and yaeyama isl . , bp10 ; table\n) genes , and estimated that the crocidurinae shrew species were inferred to have diversified on mainly palaearctic and oriental regions since the late miocene . one of major clades derived from the diversifications is the asian clade , where all the four\n) . using the calibration point of 20 mya for the divergence between soricinae and crocidurinae , dubey et al . (\n, whose phylogenetic affinity was not unambiguously inferred , was generated 5 . 42 mya during the earliest diversification among the asian clade .\nin tsushima islands has not been dated in any of these previous studies , data used by motokawa et al . (\ngene between the tsushima lineage and the most closely related cheju lineage was 1 . 2 % , suggesting that the divergence time is 0 . 1 mya on the basis of the 11 % / myr divergence rate of hope et al . (\nincluding the japanese lineage have never been investigated . thus , the time scale cannot be evaluated here . concerning the other intraspecific genetic diversity of these crocidurinae species , it was suggested that there is a clear phylogeographic demarcation between eastern and western japanese lineages in\n) . their average pairwise genetic distance is 3 . 7 % , indicating that evolutionary split between eastern and western linages occurred 0 . 34 mya based on the 11 % / myr divergence rate . it has also been known that individuals of\n( zemlemrova et al . 2013 ) ] . no talpid species are observed in hokkaido . the biogeographic patterns for the talpid species are bp6 [ the lesser japanese shrew mole\n) . their precise distributions are not considered to overlap except for the narrow geographic boundaries among them . in fact , the distribution of\npredominantly occupies the western part of japan and possesses the same species as in the eurasian continent . these distribution patterns suggest the different evolutionary history among these mole and shrew mole species . previous molecular phylogenetic analyses have clarified that the asian fossorial moles formed a monophyletic lineage (\n, i could not discuss the origin of this species hereafter ) . namely , among the japanese mole species ,\nat the last . combined with the distributions of these moles in the japanese archipelago , these phylogenetic relationships suggest that the japanese mole species migrated from the eurasian continent following the branching order in the phylogeny , implying that the earlier the migration is , the more restricted the distributions are to montane regions , islands and small areas , and the northeastern region in honshu . on the basis of the fossil record ( 16 . 4\u201320 . 5 mya for the earliest talpini fossil in east asia and 4 . 0\u20134 . 3 mya for the oldest\nlineage was estimated to be 17 . 1 mya in the analyses using the mitochondrial\n( both eurasian and japanese lineages are included ) 5 . 7 mya . on the other hand , using the similar calibration standard based on the fossil records , he et al . (\nsplit occurred 3 . 42 to 4 . 5 mya , thus indicating estimates younger than those in shinohara et al . (\n) . this difference in the time estimates would be caused by the stronger effect of the mitochondrial genes in shinohara et al . (\nbranched off in this order 12 . 6\u201317 . 7 , 6 . 6\u20139 . 2 , and 2 . 5\u20133 . 4 mya , respectively ( tsuchiya et al .\nbranched off in this order 5 . 21 , 3 . 64 , 2 . 31 , and 1 . 20 mya , respectively . these time estimates are much younger than those in other studies . i suppose that the divergence times inferred by shinohara et al . (\n) might be overestimates because they depended on the mitochondrial genes in some degree for the time scale , where the mitochondrial genes would not work well because of the saturation problem , and also adopted the calibration point based on the earliest record of talpini in east asia ( 16 . 4\u201320 . 5 mya ) , which might also be too old for the mitochondrial gene variations to be calibrated . although tsuchiya et al . (\n) are in agreement with the geological and eustatic records and the migration ages of the proboscidean species into japan . kirihara et al . (\ngene ( 4\u20136 % / myr ) , these two \u201cspecies\u201d diverged 0 . 3 to 0 . 5 mya ; this is a level of intraspecific variation ( kirihara et al .\nendemic to the japanese archipelago , their origins have not been clearly understood . previous molecular phylogenetic analyses demonstrated that these two shrew mole species formed a clade ( shinohara et al .\n) . however , no time scale has been estimated yet . furthermore , as no talpid species is closely related to one of these species ( that is , the clade consists of these two species only ) , it is not clear which species migrated into the japanese archipelago first . taking into account that\n( average pairwise genetic distance was 11 . 4 % ; data were derived from shinohara et al .\nshow a very high extent of intraspecific variations corresponding to the interspecific difference in other mole and shrew mole species ( shinohara et al .\nare 7 % , 10 . 6 % , and 6 . 9 % , respectively , on the basis of the data of shinohara et al . (\n) , which could be calculated to be 1 . 17\u20131 . 75 mya , 1 . 77\u20132 . 65 mya , and 1 . 15\u20131 . 73 mya , respectively , following a 4\u20136 % / myr\n) . assuming that the divergence between asian and barbary macaques occurred 3 . 0 mya , based on the fossil record and using a portion of the mitochondrial dna sequences (\n0 . 65 to 0 . 73 mya and the differentiation among three japanese lineages took place 0 . 19 to 0 . 37 mya . on the other hand , tosi et al . (\n) genes for the divergence time estimations postulating that the initial divergence of macaques occurred 5 . 5 mya , caused by the messinian salinity crisis . in this study , the time for the branching of\nfrom the other closely related species above was estimated to be 1 . 0 mya in the y - chromosomal gene tree . although not estimated clearly , the mitochondrial gene tree suggested that\ndiverged in a time younger than 1 . 2 mya , which is consistent with the y - chromosomal gene estimation ( tosi et al .\n) and also is not contradicted by the estimates of hayasaka et al . (\nwas estimated to be 0 . 38 to 0 . 42 mya ( chu et al .\ninto the eastern marginal islands of the eurasian continent . although the exact time of the migration has not been fixed yet , the last estimate by chu et al . (\nexperienced a rapid expansion 0 . 16 to 1 . 00 mya ( marmi et al .\nwith more individual samples from the northernmost shimokita peninsula ( located in the northern part of aomori prefecture in northernmost honshu ) to the southernmost yakushima islands ( located in the south of the kyushu islands ) by the control region sequences , demonstrated that there are major eastern and western lineages in the japanese archipelago , and suggested that the eastern lineage experienced the recent northward demographic expansion from a refugium in the post - glacial periods in the late quaternary .\n) , in which almost all the species are observed in europe and africa . the japanese dormouse\nis the only species within gliridae that inhabits east asia , it is extremely difficult to infer the origin of this species in japan by only investigating the extant species . nevertheless , nunome et al . (\n( 25 mya ) that their divergence occurred 24 to 30 mya under the background of major glirid diversifications during a relatively warmer climate period from the early oligocene ( 34 mya ) to the mid - miocene climatic optimum ( 15\u201317 mya ) . these time estimates suggest that the origin of the japanese dormouse may have predated the formation of the japanese archipelago ( about 15 mya ; neall and trewick\n) . additionally , it could be argued that the past 15 million years have seen declines of east asian dormice because of the climate change into colder and drier environments , which the dormice do not favor ( zachos et al .\npossesses nine geographic lineages that diversified 3 to 5 mya . yasuda et al . (\n) concluded that the divergences into these local populations occurred within the japanese archipelago . furthermore , they showed that the extent of the genetic divergence among the geographically separated populations corresponds to that of interspecific variations in other mammalian groups . thus , they also suggested that each local population can be regarded as a cryptic species .\n) . there are three types of ecological lifestyles among squirrels [ arboreal ( tree squirrels ) , terrestrial ( ground squirrels ) , and gliding ( flying squirrels ) locomotors ] . recent molecular phylogenetic analyses of the multiple nuclear and mitochondrial genetic loci have determined five major lineages corresponding to subfamilial level and suggested that the arboreal tree squirrel is the ancestral type that would have had a key role in the major squirrel diversifications and subsequent derivation of the terrestrial and gliding squirrel lineages ( mercer and roth\n) , which are assigned to two of these major clades , a clade of arboreal and gliding squirrels ( sciurinae in steppan et al .\n) and a clade of mostly ground squirrels ( xerinae in steppan et al .\n( terrestrial , but , in fact , intermediate between terrestrial and arboreal ) ( steppan et al .\nthe japanese sciurid species show clear distributional trends . namely , congeneric species do not share the same distribution although species in the different genera do coexist in the same region (\nin the hsk region ) . hence , it follows that there are only two biogeographic patterns for the squirrels on the japanese archipelago , bp2 ( table\nspecies in the family soricidae . although some phylogenetic and phylogeographic studies have been known for\n) , few of these examined time scales for the lineage differentiations or demographic events . oshida and masuda (\nto be 4 . 0 to 5 . 2 mya based on the 0 . 5 % transversional substitutions / myr of the\n) . this value would be an overestimate , probably because of the use of the underestimated substitution rate ( from the application of the slowly evolving ungulate rate into the rapidly evolving rodent time scale ) . later , oshida et al . (\ngene considering that the divergence rate was suggested to be variable among rodents within the range of 5\u201310 % / myr [ see brunhoff et al . (\n) for the rationale ] . if i adopt the 5\u201310 % / myr of divergence rate for the case of\nwas inferred to be 4 . 9\u20136 . 8 % , the divergence time between these species is 0 . 49\u20131 . 36 mya ( 4 . 9\u20136 . 8 % divided by 5\u201310 % ) , which is more consistent with the palaeontological evidence suggesting that the lineage of\nlineage migrated into the japanese archipelago via northern or southern routes is not easy , the origin from the korean peninsula , the southern route , may be plausible because their absence in hokkaido can more easily be explained . however , even if it is the case , it is difficult to understand why the ancestral lineage did not reach hokkaido despite the multiple chances of migration via the land bridges formed in the tsugaru strait since the early to middle pleistocene period . probably , the population expansion might have occurred in the late pleistocene as in\nis not clear because there have been no molecular chronological studies comparing the continental and hokkaido lineages . if i calculate their divergence time on the basis of the\n; hokkaido , korean , and transbaikalian individuals ) , it was inferred that the hokkaido lineage diverged from the monophyletic korean and transbaikalian lineage 0 . 18 to 0 . 36 mya in the middle pleistocene , where the average between genetic distances of the hokkaido / korea ( 1 . 3 % ) and the hokkaido / transbaikalia ( 2 . 3 % ) was divided by the 5\u201310 % / myr divergence rate ( oshida et al .\nfrom europe to east asia and suggested the recent rapid population expansion , although no time frame was provided . my tentative hypothesis is the middle pleistocene origin for the hokkaido lineage of\n. however , more rigorous phylogeographic studies are needed for future precise time estimations .\n, the hokkaido population was clarified as a monophyletic lineage ( oshida et al .\n) , and the divergence from the eurasian lineages was estimated to have taken place 0 . 2 to 0 . 4 mya based on the 5\u201310 % / myr divergence rate for the\n, no studies have been conducted on the intraspecific genetic diversity . comparison of the\n) enabled me to estimate that the average sequence difference between them was 12 . 3 % , implying that they diverged 1 . 2 to 2 . 5 mya on the basis of the 5\u201310 % / myr divergence rate as above ( oshida et al .\nare mainly distributed in the southern parts of the eurasian continent rather than the northern eurasian regions . among them ,\n, endemic to japan , is the most divergent lineage within the genus ( oshida et al .\nlineage took place around the late miocene period ( about 8\u201310 mya ) . li et al . ( 2013 ) also examined the\ngene and obtained a much older time estimate ( 12 . 5 mya ) for the origin of the\n( 0 . 6\u20131 . 3 mya ) as the calibration points . however , these time values might be results of overestimations : first , because of using the underestimated evolutionary rate of irwin et al . (\ngene to estimate reliable divergence times because of the severe saturation effect as has been noted . if i apply the 5\u201310 % / myr divergence rate of\nand the other congeneric species was estimated to have occurred 1 . 39 to 3 . 06 mya , which is more similar to or slightly more ancient than the date of the origin of similarly the hsk - endemic sciurid species ,\n) . the phylogeographic analyses of the mitochondrial d - loop region by oshida et al . (\nin the japanese archipelago and suggested that the kyushu is the ancestral region for the diversification of this species because the kyushu population has the most divergent or ancestral haplotypes and two of three major lineages . combined with the presence of the closely related\n. the divergence among the three major lineages was estimated to have occurred 0 . 4 to 1 . 0 mya based on the evolutionary rate of the human d - loop sequences ( 8 . 6 % / million years ; vigilant et al .\ngene and found that there are five distinct phylogroups ( kyushu , southwest , southeast , central , and north ) , including the three major lineages of oshida et al . (\n) . using 5\u201310 % / myr for the divergence rate , they estimated that diversifications among five major lineages occurred 0 . 09 to 0 . 24 mya . these estimates are in agreement with the divergence time between\nand the closest species ( 1 . 39\u20133 . 06 mya ) . additionally , oshida et al . (\n, in which the other species are all found in the american continent . there have been few phylogeographic studies including the hokkaido lineage of\n) examined one individual from hokkaido together with many samples from russia , china , and korea . they showed that there are at least three divergent lineages in this species , northern eurasian , korean , and central chinese lineages ( but the validity of the last one is still open to question because this is based on pet shop samples with unknown origin ) . the japanese chipmunk is included in the northern eurasian lineage . although their approach for the divergence time estimation is arbitrary because they forced the divergence among these major lineages to have occurred in the onset of the middle pleistocene period without clear explanations for the calibration procedure , the differentiations among lineages within the northern eurasian clade , including the lineage of hokkaido , was calculated to have transpired 0 . 11 to 0 . 47 mya in the middle to late pleistocene period . here again , if i apply the 5\u201310 % / myr rule to the data of obolenskaya et al . (\n) , the divergence time among the northern eurasian lineages was estimated to be 0 . 10 to 0 . 19 mya ( average genetic difference among 90 individuals within the northern eurasian clade , 0 . 95 % , divided by 5\u201310 % ) , which is congruent with the estimate of obolenskaya et al . (\n, all belonging to the subfamily murinae . the murinae is the most diversified subfamily within the muridae , and the interrelationships among the major lineages ( genera ) within this subfamily have remained to be elucidated because of the rapid diversifications during a relatively short evolutionary time span ( sato and suzuki\nlineage endemic to nepal , the lineage mainly occupying the east asia , and the lineage mainly observed in europe . four species are found in japan , the striped field mouse\ndivergence at 12 mya . because more closely related species are missing in continental asia , it is supposed that the formation of the japanese archipelago might have affected the generation of such highly divergent endemic species . because the time estimates for the generation of\n( 5 . 9 mya ) correspond to the late miocene age that saw the vegetation changes promoted by the environmental shift to a colder and drier climate ( cerling et al .\nfrom all the major islands and neighboring small islands , and estimated , with the evolutionary rate of 2 . 4 % / lineage / myr ( suzuki et al .\nseparating central ( honshu , shikoku , and kyushu islands ) and peripheral ( hokkaido , sado , izu , and satsunan islands ) lineages . tomozawa and suzuki (\n) for the central / peripheral trend , although the hokkaido and sado lineages were included in the central lineage , the satsunan lineages were observed in both lineages , and the oki and tsushima lineages were added to the peripheral lineage . tomozawa and suzuki (\n) discussed that allopatric fragmentation might have caused the generation of the central and peripheral lineages , and the recent population expansion at 0 . 14 mya ( based on 2 . 4 % / lineage / myr as earlier ) formed the current distribution pattern of the central lineage , where the male - biased dispersal might replace the nuclear genome of hokkaido , sado , and a part of satsunan populations with the peripheral mtdna types that remained because of female philopatry . it should be noted here that although all the dating estimates are fundamentally based on the frequently used divergence time between\n( 12 mya ) , the recent palaeontological ( 11 . 0\u201312 . 3 mya ; benton and donoghue\n) and molecular phylogenetic ( 8 . 6\u201310 . 3 mya ; steppan et al .\n) studies have gradually supported younger dates than 12 mya . therefore , the real divergence and population expansion times could also be more recent than obtained here based on the 12 mya for the\nand clarified the monophyly of the hokkaido population to the continental one . the estimate for the divergence time of the hokkaido lineage from the continental equivalent in the most recent study was 0 . 1 mya in the late pleistocene , based on fossil calibrations that the divergence between\n) . both these studies indicated that the population from siberia to the russian far east harbors a higher extent of genetic diversity , therefore implying the existence of refugia in the glacial periods in the pleistocene . probably the hokkaido lineage is a result of the population expansion from the refugial region in far east asia ( serizawa et al .\n) and mainly favors open environments ( e . g . , grasslands ; ohdachi et al .\n) , which is suggestive of the recent rapid population expansion across wide areas in eurasia . yasuda et al . (\n) estimated on the basis of 2 . 4 % / lineage / myr ( suzuki et al .\n) that the divergence between the japan / korea and european lineages occurred 0 . 08 mya in the late pleistocene and also suggested that the population expansion within the japanese archipelago occurred 0 . 03 mya . such a recent establishment of this species in japan is in agreement with the lack of any fossil records of this species in japan ( ohdachi et al .\n) that the korea ( tsushima ) strait was not available by land bridges in this age . i discussed the possible process of the origin of\nin the text ( oversea dispersal hypothesis ) . here again , also note that dating with the 2 . 4 % / lineage / myr rate of suzuki et al . (\ngene lineage that is not found in the other populations in southeast asia and concluded that it was established by a natural dispersal instead of an anthropogenic effect . on the other hand , shimada et al . (\nin ryukyu islands was shown to be closely related to the laos lineage within a strongly supported clade of the southern southeast asian clade and did not show close affinity with the geographically close taiwan lineage . because of this ambiguous status , i did not consider this species in discussions .\n) , and the divergence time between these species was estimated to be 6 . 5\u20138 . 1 mya by nuclear gene analyses (\n) suggested with rdna - rflp data that the lineages in amami\u2013oshima and tokunoshima diverged 1 . 2 to 2 . 3 mya based on the previously estimated evolutionary rate of 1\u20132 % / myr , whereas the time was 4 . 4 mya based on a partial\ngene data although it depended on the evolutionary rate of brown et al . (\nwas 5 . 4 % , which could be calculated to be 2 . 58 and 1 . 13 mya , respectively , on the basis of the 2 . 4 % / lineage / myr substitution rate ( suzuki et al .\nsplit , which is not consistent with the current knowledge as already noted ( 8 . 6\u201310 . 3 mya , steppan et al .\n) . if i adopt the average 10 . 55 mya { ( [ 8 . 6 + 10 . 3 ] / 2 + [ 11 + 12 . 3 ] / 2 ) / 2 } , 20\u201330 % means 2 . 11\u20133 . 17 mya for the divergence of the lineage for\n) that the ryukyu islands were connected multiple times to the eurasian continent in two stages , the former of which was 1 . 3 to 1 . 6 mya .\n) for the genus name , but basically adopted the common names and species numbers in ohdachi et al . (\n) . the origins of these three species in hokkaido are considered independent of each other . kohli et al . (\n) . they found that there are distinct phylogroups that would have been derived from at least three refugia located in western eurasia , central eurasia , and beringia . the divergences among these phylogroups were estimated to have occurred during the last 0 . 1 million years in the late pleistocene . it was also suggested that the monophyletic hokkaido lineage was possibly originated by the expansion from a northern refugium , beringia . if the establishment of this species in hokkaido originally occurred in the late pleistocene , it can explain the absence of this species in more southern japanese islands because of the same reason for\nat 2 . 5 mya ) that the monophyletic hokkaido lineage diverged from the clade mainly composed of the far east russian and sakhalin lineages 0 . 27 mya and experienced the population expansion 0 . 04\u20130 . 05 mya in hokkaido . although abramson et al . (\n) did not provide intra - lineage dating information , the most recent common ancestor of the hokkaido individuals could be estimated to be present in the late pleistocene ( < 0 . 13 mya ) , inferred from the branch length of the phylogeny that they provided . therefore , the absence of\n) was estimated to have occurred in the middle pleistocene ( 0 . 81 mya ; abramson et al .\n) . based on the results of the mitochondrial dna control region , kawai et al . (\n) detected four phylogroups from the several fragmented populations in hokkaido and concluded that such phylogroups were shaped by the genetic divergences across several refugia formed in the glacial periods since the middle pleistocene . this conclusion is because in their study the time to the mrca of the\nphylogroups was estimated to be 0 . 12\u20130 . 58 mya in the middle pleistocene based on the \u201cmutation\u201d rate of 3 . 6 % / myr ( based on the divergence time of 7\u20138 mya between\n) and 17 % / myr ( based on the divergence time of 1 . 8 mya for the siberian and the nearctic brown lemmings ; fedorov and stenseth\n) estimated for the arvicoline control region diversity . however , despite that these rates were originally proposed as \u201cdivergence\u201d rates considering two descendant lineages , kawai et al . (\n) adopted them as per - lineage mutation rates . therefore , the foregoing estimates ( 0 . 12\u20130 . 58 mya ) should be corrected to 0 . 24\u20131 . 16 mya . the corrected estimates also largely include the middle pleistocene period and are not inconsistent with the divergence of the\nlineage as estimated above ( 0 . 81 mya ) . it is not clear why\ndid not reach more southern japanese islands despite the presence of the land bridge in the tsugaru strait in the middle pleistocene , but a community ecological mechanism may explain the absence in honshu and more southern islands .\n) . the former was mainly found in the eastern honshu and the latter in the western honshu , shikoku , and kyushu , while their distributions are partly overlapped in the central honshu . their ancestral common lineage was inferred to have diverged 0 . 9 to 2 . 3 mya from the clade composed of\n) . time scales for the differentiations have not been fully assessed to date in a reliable manner . assuming that the time to the mrca of the red - backed voles was 1 . 8 mya , luo et al . (\n) estimated with the fossil calibration ( 2 . 6 mya for the time to the mrca of\n0 . 50 mya . these time estimates might be too recent to be regarded as those for valid species differentiation . iwasa and suzuki (\nspecies in honshu by morphological criteria only . probably future taxonomic revision would be needed on the basis of more rigorous morphological and molecular phylogenetic studies for the\nspecies in the hsk region . alternatively , it is also probable that the ancestral polymorphisms of both species have been retained since the divergence between\n. female philopatry might have influenced the maintenance of such divergent lineage in the mitochondrial gene . iwasa and suzuki (\ngene , which is male specific and irrelevant for the female philopatry . also in this case , all the populations may be assigned to one\n) and includes mainly herbivorous small rodents adapted to grasslands , taiga , steppe , and tundra . there is only one\n) . there have been few studies that examined chronological aspects of this species based on molecular data . bannikova et al . (\ngene and the time constraint of 2 . 2 mya for the radiation of the basal\ndiverged from the aforementioned closely related species 0 . 95 mya . the time estimate is similar to that of the\nspecies in hsk . in the fossil evidence , this species was found since the middle pleistocene ( kawamura et al .\ncould have expanded to all the japanese islands , hokkaido , honshu , shikoku , and kyushu . the absence of this species from hokkaido and shikoku requires some explanation in light of phylogeography or ecology . kaneko (\nand species in the same guild would shed more light on the reasons for the peculiar distribution pattern of this species .\n) . in japan , 3 species are present and their distributions are geographically partitioned . the mountain hare\nfrom the other genera was 9 . 44 mya in the total data analysis and 8 . 63 mya in the nuclear gene data analysis on the basis of the palaeontological records ( leporidae\u2013ochotonidae split , 20\u201340 mya ; the origin of the modern leporid , 12\u201320 mya ; the divergence of the genus\n, 4\u20136 mya ; the oldest divergence time of the ingroup , 60 mya ) . probably the former value ( 9 . 44 mya ) would be overestimated because the mitochondrial genes were included in the examined data matrix . the latter estimate ( 8 . 63 mya ) is not contradicted by the late miocene origin of the murine rodent genus\n, also endemic to the ryukyu region ( 6 . 5\u20138 . 0 mya ; sato and suzuki\nwas not resolved on the earlier radiation among different leporid genera . assuming the molecular clock of the\nfrom each sister lineage were estimated to be 12\u201316 mya , 4\u20135 mya , and 0 . 5\u20130 . 6 mya , respectively ( yamada et al .\nlineage was 3 . 62 mya , which is not in disagreement with the estimate within the pliocene in yamada et al . (\n( 12\u201316 mya ) is much earlier than that of matthee et al . (\n) ( 8 . 63 mya ) , which mainly used nuclear genes . the difference would be attributed to the distinct properties between mitochondrial and nuclear genes for dating divergences , as repeatedly discussed earlier . therefore , the divergence times of yamada et al . (\n) might be somewhat overestimated because of the exclusive use of the mitochondrial genes . if i conduct a simple calculation that 8 . 63 mya is 62 % of 14 mya ( average between 12 and 16 myas ) and apply this proportion to the other estimates of yamada et al . (\nare calculated to be 2 . 48\u20133 . 10 mya and 0 . 31\u20130 . 37 mya , respectively .\n) detected major two lineages ( northern and southern lineages ) and suggested several regions for refugia during the pleistocene glacial periods ( kanto , chubu , shikoku , and kyushu ) , where the genetic diversity was estimated to be higher . these two major clades were inferred to have diverged 1 . 2 mya following the lineage - specific evolutionary rate of 1 . 4 % / lineage / myr ( therefore , 2 . 8 % divergence rate ) on the basis of the assumption that\ngene also indicated a similar but a little younger divergence time between northern and southern lineages ( 1 . 07 mya ; nunome et al ."]}
{"id": 2638, "summary": [{"text": "the lesser long-tailed shrew tenrec ( microgale longicaudata ) is a species of mammal in the family tenrecidae .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is active at all hours of the day and night , but each individual maintains its own pattern of rest and activity . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "lesser long - tailed shrew tenrec", "paragraphs": ["\u2014 lesser long tailed shrew tenrec [ 1 ] conservation status least concern ( iucn 3 . 1 ) \u2026\n\u2014 short tailed shrew tenrec [ 1 ] conservation status least concern ( iucn 3 . 1 ) [ \u2026\na cowan\u2019s shrew tenrec , microgale cowani , in captivity . \u00a9 peter j . stephenson\n\u2014 drouhard s shrew tenrec [ 1 ] conservation status least concern ( iucn 3 . 1 ) [ \u2026\n\u2014 cowan s shrew tenrec [ 1 ] conservation status least concern ( iucn 3 . 1 ) [ 2 \u2026\n\u2014 dobson s shrew tenrec [ 1 ] conservation status least concern ( iucn 3 . 1 ) [ 2 \u2026\nolson , l . e . , goodman , s . m . & yoder , a . d . ( 2004 ) : illumination of cryptic species boundaries in long - tailed shrew tenrecs ( mammalia : tenrecidae ; microgale ) provides insights into geographic variation and distributional constraints . biological journal of the linnean society 83 ( 1 ) : 1 - 22 . (\nhabitat loss and fragmentation through conversion of forest to agricultural land , logging activities and fire may threaten this species in the long - term .\nk\u00fcnzle , h . ( 2012 ) : amygdalar connections in the lesser hedgehog tenrec . brain structure & function 217 ( 1 ) : 141 - 164 . (\nk\u00fcnzle , h . ( 2002 ) : distribution of perihippocampo - hippocampal projection neurons in the lesser hedgehog tenrec . neuroscience research 44 ( 4 ) : 405 - 419 . (\ngerrits , d . n . ( 1997a ) : keeping and breeding the lesser hedgehog tenrec ( echinops telfairi ) . mitteilungen der bundesarbeitsgruppe ( bag ) kleins\u00e4uger 2 / 97 : 3 . (\nsavage , r . j . g . , and m . r . long . 1986 . mammal evolution : an illustrated guide . new york : facts on file . isbn 081601194x .\nweber , a . ( 2006 ) : der kleine igeltanrek ( echinops telfairi ) [ the lesser hedgehog tenrec ( echinops telfairi ) ] . rodentia 6 ( 4 ) : 31 - 34 . (\nschwarzenberger , f . & k\u00fcnzle , h . ( 2004 ) : faecal reproductive hormones in male and female lesser tenrec ( echinops telfairi ) . advances in ethology 38 ( suppl . ) : 116 .\ntenrecs with very narrow distributions or specific threats may need extra help . more research is required to confirm the distribution and abundance of poorly known shrew tenrec species ( e . g . dryad , montane and nasolo ' s shrew tenrecs ) . if they genuinely occur in only a handful of sites , conservation efforts will be needed to target their habitat .\nh\u00f6hle , m . ( 2006 ) : der gro\u00dfe tanrek ( tenrec ecaudatus ) - haltung und nachzucht der gr\u00f6\u00dften tanrek - art [ the tailless tenrec ( tenrec ecaudatus ) - keeping and breeding the largest tenrec species ] . rodentia 6 ( 1 ) : 45 - 47 . (\nnicoll , m . e . & rathbun , g . b . ( 1990 ) : african insectivora and elephant - shrews : an action plan for their conservation . iucn / ssc insectivore , tree - shrew and elephant - shrew specialist group , gland , schweiz . 53 pp . (\nwhile they are currently a species of least concern , logging has decreased the population of lesser madagascar tenrecs in some areas of their range .\nfindlay , g . h . ( 1944 ) : the development of the auditory ossicles in the elephant shrew , the tenrec , and the golden mole . proceedings of the zoolological society of london 114b : 91 - 99 .\nk\u00fcnzle , h . ( 1998c ) : origin and terminal distribution of the trigeminal projections to the inferior and superior colliculi in the lesser hedgehog tenrec . european journal of neuroscience 10 ( 1 ) : 368 - 376 . (\nsoarimalala , v . & goodman , s . m . ( 2008 ) : new distributional records of the recently described and endangered shrew tenrec microgale nasoloi ( tenrecidae : afrosoricida ) from central western madagascar . mammalian biology 73 : 468\u2013471 .\n\u2014 ma\u017easis tenrekas statusas t sritis zoologija | vardynas taksono rangas r\u016b\u0161is atitikmenys : lot . echinops telfairi angl . lesser hedgehog tenrec ; small madagascar hedgehog vok . kleiner igeltanrek rus . \u0438\u0433\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u043d\u0440\u0435\u043a \u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0430 ; \u043c\u0430\u043b\u044b\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u043d\u0440\u0435\u043a ry\u0161iai : \u2026 \u2026\nkupitz , d . g . ( 2000 ) : remarks on the lesser hedgehog tenrec ( echinops telfairi ) . translation of article from mitteilungen der bundesarbeitsgruppe ( bag ) kleins\u00e4uger e . v . 3 / 2000 : 8 - 11 . (\ndobson , g . e . ( 1882b ) : the anatomy of microgale longicauda , with remarks on the homologies of the long flexors of the toes in mammalia . journal of anatomy and physiology 16 ( 3 ) : 355\u2013361 . (\nlouwman , j . w . w . ( 1973a ) : breeding the tailless tenrec tenrec ecaudatus at wassenaar zoo . international zoo yearbook 13 : 125 - 126 . (\nsome biologists use tenrecomorpha as the name for the tenrec - golden mole clade , but bronner and jenkins ( 2005 ) argue that afrosoricida is more appropriate , despite their misgivings about the similarity between the name\nafrosoricida\nand the unrelated shrew subgenus afrosorex .\nmany people confuse lesser tenrecs with a species of african hedgehog found in pet stores but these are not the same animals ; hedgehogs are members of a different order .\nlesser madagascar tenrecs are covered with spines , which range in color from white to black . fine hairs cover their paws and bellies , and their tails are barely visible .\nhas a nocturnal activity pattern and resembles a shrew in terms of lifestyle . it uses its hind limbs and elongated prehensile tail for climbing and richochetting among tree branches in forest habitats .\ngoodman , s . m . , langrand , o . & raxworthy , c . j . ( 1993a ) : food habits of the madagascar long - eared owl asio madagascariensis in two habitats in southern madagascar . ostrich 64 : 79 - 85 .\npoppitt , s . d . , speakman , j . r . & racey , p . a . ( 1994 ) : energetics of reproduction in the lesser hedgehog tenrec , echinops telfairi ( martin ) . physiological zoology 67 ( 4 ) : 976 - 994 .\nhilgartner , r . d . ( 2005 ) : some ecological and behavioural notes on the shrew tenrec microgale cf . longicaudata in the dry deciduous forest of western madagascar . afrotherian conservation ( newsletter of the iucn / ssc afrotheria specialist group ) 3 : 3 - 5 . (\nlesser madagascar tenrecs weigh 4 to 7 ounces ( 113 to 255 grams ) and grow to between 5 . 5 and 7 inches ( 14 to 18 centimeters ) in length .\nthe tenrecinae are spiny tenrecs . the largest species is the tailless tenrec , tenrec ecaudatus , which weighs up to 1 kg . it is as large as a rabbit , and is less spinescent than the other species . other spiny tenrecs are the two species of hedgehog tenrec ( setifer setosus and echinops telfairi ) and the two species of streaked tenrec ( hemicentetes semispinosus and h . nigriceps )\nsoarimalala , v . , raheriarisena , m . & goodman , s . m . ( 2010 ) : new distributional records from central - eastern madagascar and patterns of morphological variation in the endangered shrew tenrec microgale jobihely ( afrosoricida : tenrecidae ) . mammalia 74 ( 2 ) : 187\u2013198 . (\nschmolke , c . & k\u00fcnzle , h . ( 1997 ) : on the presence of dendrite bundles in the cerebral cortex of the madagascan lesser hedgehog tenrec and the red - eared pond turtle . anatomy and embryology ( berlin ) 196 ( 3 ) : 195 - 213 . (\nsu\u00e1rez , r . , villal\u00f3n , a . , k\u00fcnzle , h . , mpodozis , j . ( 2009 ) : transposition and intermingling of galphai2 and galphao afferences into single vomeronasal glomeruli in the madagascan lesser tenrec echinops telfairi . plos one 4 ( 11 ) : e8005 . (\nriordan , d . v . ( 1972 ) : reproduction in the spiny hedgehog tenrec setifer setosus and the pigmy hedgehog tenrec echinops telfairi . jersey wildlife preservation trust annual report 9 : 18 - 25 .\nstephenson , p . j . , speakman , j . r . & racey , p . a . ( 1994 ) : field metabolic rate in two species of shrew - tenrec , microgale dobsoni and m . talazaci . comparative biochemistry and physiology a 107 ( 2 ) : 283 - 287 . (\ngoodman , s . m . , raxworthy , c . j . , maminirina , c . p . & olson , l . e . ( 2006 ) : a new species of shrew tenrec ( microgale jobihely ) from northern madagascar . journal of zoology 270 ( 2 ) : 384 - 398 . (\nlovegrove , b . g . & g\u00e9nin , f . ( 2008 ) : torpor and hibernation in a basal placental mammal , the lesser hedgehog tenrec echinops telfairi . journal of comparative physiology b ( biochemical , systemic , and environmental physiology ) : 178 ( 6 ) : 691 - 698 . (\nscaling , a . ( 1971 ) : progress report on the breeding of pigmy hedgehog tenrec echinops telfairi and spiny hedgehog tenrec setifer setosus . jersey wildlife preservation trust annual report 8 : 12 - 14 . (\nin the wild , lesser madagascar tenrecs are opportunistic feeders ; they will forage on the ground and in trees for invertebrates . they will also eat some other small animals , such as baby mice .\na lowland streaked tenrec , hemicentetes semispinosus . \u00a9 l . e . olson & s . m . goodman\nnicoll , m . e . ( 2009 ) : species profile : the common tenrec , tenrec ecaudatus . afrotherian conservation ( newsletter of the iucn / ssc afrotheria specialist group ) 7 : 2 - 3 . (\nschwarzenberger , f . & k\u00fcnzle , h . ( 2005 ) : special features of reproduction in the lesser tenrec ( echinops telfairi ) . erkrankungen der zootiere . verhandlungsbericht des internationalen symposiums \u00fcber die erkrankungen der zoo - und wildtiere / international symposium on diseases of zoo and wild animals 42 : 68 - 70 .\nmacphee , r . d . e . ( 1987a ) : the shrew tenrecs of madagascar : systematic revision and holocene distribution of microgale ( insectivora : tenrecidae ) . american museum novitates 2889 : 1 - 45 . (\nstephenson , p . j . ( 1995a ) : taxonomy of shrew - tenrecs ( microgale spp . ) from eastern and central madagascar . journal of zoology , london 235 ( 2 ) : 339 - 350 . (\nenders , a . c . , carter , a . m . , k\u00fcnzle , h . & vogel , p . ( 2005 ) : structure of the ovaries of the nimba otter shrew , micropotamogale lamottei , and the madagascar hedgehog tenrec , echinops telfairi . cells tissues organs 179 ( 4 ) : 179 - 191 . (\ngoodman , s . m . , vasey , n . & burney , d . a . ( 2007 ) : description of a new species of subfossil shrew tenrec ( afrosoricida : tenrecidae : microgale ) from cave deposits in southeastern madagascar . proceedings of the biological society of washington 120 ( 4 ) : 367 - 376 . (\nenders , a . c . , blankenship , t . n . , goodman , s . m . , soarimalala , v . & carter , a . m . ( 2007 ) : placental diversity in malagasy tenrecs : placentation in shrew tenrecs ( microgale spp . ) , the mole - like rice tenrec ( oryzorictes hova ) and the web - footed tenrec ( limnogale mergulus ) . placenta 28 ( 7 ) : 748 - 759 . (\nnikaido , m . , cao , y . , okada , n . & hasegawa , m . ( 2003 ) : the phylogenetic relationships of insectivores with special reference to the lesser hedgehog tenrec as inferred from the complete sequence of their mitochondrial genome . genes & genetic systems 78 ( 1 ) : 107 - 112 . (\n\u2014 / ten rek / , n . any of several insectivorous mammals of the family tenrecidae , of madagascar , having a long , pointed snout , certain species of which are spiny and tailless . also , tanrec . [ 1720 30 ; < f < malagasy t\u00e0ndraka ] * * * \u25aa mammal family any \u2026\ntatayah , r . v . ( 1996 ) : an evaluation of the carcass and meat quality of tenrec ( tenrec ecaudatus ) . bsc ( hons ) agriculture dissertation . university of mauritius . r\u00e9duit , mauritius ( unp ) .\nkosaka , k . , k\u00fcnzle , h . & kosaka , t . ( 2005 ) : organization of the main olfactory bulb of lesser hedgehog tenrecs . neuroscience research 53 ( 4 ) : 353 - 362 . (\nzimmer , c . ( 2004 ) : tenrec tales . muse , may / june 2004 . ( free full text )\na number of predators are known or suspected to feed on tenrecs . these range from birds of prey and viverrid carnivores to snakes ; some small shrew tenrecs ( microgale spp . ) may even be attacked by larger species of their own genus .\nmillins , c . ( 2005 ) : management to prevent metabolic bone disease in lesser hedgehog tenrecs ( echinops telfairi ) and the use of radiography to monitor bone density . case study submitted in partial fulfilment msc wild animal health , london .\nvahrusheva , g . v . & ilchenko , o . g . ( 2005 ) : nash opyt iskusstvennogo vykarmlivanija iglistogo tenreka i ochkovogo listonosa . [ our experience of hand - rearing lesser hedgehog tenrec and seba ' s fruit bat . ] [ in russian ] . nauchnye issledovanija v zoologicheskih parkah ( scientific research in zoological parks ) 18 : 43 - 50 . (\nsigaud , m . , caceres , s . , picard , m . , desvars , a . & michault , a . ( 2009 ) : le tanrec ( tenrec ecaudatus ) : r\u00e9servoir animal de leptospires ? [ tailless tenrec ( tenrec ecaudatus ) : natural maintenance host of leptospires ? ] bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de pathologie exotique 102 ( 1 ) : 19 - 20 . (\nrichaud , j . ( 1970 ) : immunit\u00e9 du tenrec \u00e0 la peste exp\u00e9rimentale : aspect immunologique . [ immunity of the tenrec to experimental plague : immunological aspect . ] comptes rendus de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de biologie 164 ( 4 ) : 931 - 933 . (\nphilippen , h . - d . ( 2003 ) : haltung und pflege des kleinen igeltanreks ( echinops telfairi martin 1838 ) - der\ntambotriky\nist das ideale heimtier f\u00fcr nachtschw\u00e4rmer [ keeping the lesser hedgehog tenrec ( echinops telfairi martin 1838 ) - the\ntambotriky\nis the ideal pet for night owls ] . rodentia 3 ( 3 ) : 42 - 46 . (\nsmaller than the greater madagascar tenrecs , they are not actually closely related species\u2014they are classified in separate genera . lesser madagascar tenrecs are nocturnal and have poor eyesight , but their whiskers are very sensitive and their senses of smell and hearing are well developed .\nharrison , t . m . & harrison , s . h . ( 2017 ) : evaluation of husbandry and mortality in lesser hedgehog tenrecs ( echinops telfairi ) . journal of zoo and wildlife medicine 48 ( 2 ) : 440 - 445 . (\nstephenson , p . j . & racey , p . a . ( 1993b ) : reproductive energetics of the tenrecidae ( mammalia : insectivora ) . ii . the shrew - tenrecs , microgale spp . physiological zoology 66 ( 5 ) : 664 - 685 . (\nhas an exceeding long , prehensile tail . the tail is usually is 1 . 5 to 2 . 6 times the length of the body . the tail is composed of 47 vertebrae , which is more than any other mammal besides the pangolins . the tail is used by these animals in their climbing and richocheting locomotion . to aid in their semi - arboreal and scansorial lifestyle ,\nmorawski , m . , br\u00fcckner , g . , j\u00e4ger , c . , seeger , g . , k\u00fcnzle , h . & arendt , t . ( 2010 ) : aggrecan - based extracellular matrix shows unique cortical features and conserved subcortical principles of mammalian brain organization in the madagascan lesser hedgehog tenrec ( echinops telfairi martin , 1838 ) . neuroscience 165 ( 3 ) : 831 - 849 . (\nbrygoo , e . - r . ( 1960 ) : immunit\u00e9 du h\u00e9risson et du tenrec \u00e0 la peste exp\u00e9rimentale [ immunity of the hedgehog and the tenrec to experimental plague ] [ in french ] . archives de l ' institut pasteur de madagascar 28 : 47 - 52 .\npiccinini , m . , kleinschmidt , t . , gorr , t . , weber , r . e . , k\u00fcnzle , h . & braunitzer , g . ( 1991 ) : primary structure and oxygen - binding properties of the hemoglobin from the lesser hedgehog tenrec ( echinops telfairi , zalambdodonta ) . evidence for phylogenetic isolation . biol . chem . hoppe - seyler 372 : 975 - 989 . (\nrook , c . ( 2007c ) : zoo ' s tenrec sweeter after therapy . lansing state journal , published march 28 , 2007 . (\nhildwein , g . ( 1964a ) : evolution saisonni\u00e8re de la thermor\u00e9gulation chez le tenrec ( centetes ecaudatus ) . [ seasonal course of thermoregulation in the tenrec ( centetes ecaudatus ) . ] comptes rendus des s\u00e9ances de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de biologie et de ses filiales 158 : 1137 - 1139 . (\njenkins , p . d . ( 2003 ) : microgale , shrew tenrecs . in : goodman , s . m . & benstead , j . p . ( eds ) : the natural history of madagascar . university of chicago press , chicago and london . pp . 1273 - 1278 .\nmiller , m . ( 2007 ) : potter park zoo ' s tenrec has caesarean . lansing state journal , published september 1 , 2007 . (\napanaskevich , d . a . , soarimalala , v . & goodman , s . m . ( 2013 ) : a new ixodes species ( acari : ixodidae ) , parasite of shrew tenrecs ( afrosoricida : tenrecidae ) in madagascar . journal of parasitology 99 ( 6 ) : 970 - 972 . (\nbenstead , j . p . , and l . e . olson . 2003 . limnogale mergulus , web - footed tenrec or aquatic tenrec . pages 1267\u201373 in s . m . goodman and j . p . benstead , the natural history of madagascar . chicago : university of chicago press . isbn 9780226303079 .\ngoodman , s . m . ( 2003a ) : oryzorictes , mole tenrec or rice tenrec . in : goodman , s . m . & benstead , j . p . ( eds ) : the natural history of madagascar . university of chicago press , chicago and london . pp . 1278 - 1281 .\nhildwein , g . ( 1970 ) : capacit\u00e9s thermor\u00e9gulatrices d ' un mammif\u00e8re insectivore primitif , le tenrec ; leurs variations saisonni\u00e8res . [ thermoregulatory capacities of a primitive insectivorous mammal , the tenrec ; their seasonal variations . ] archives des sciences physiologiques ( paris ) 24 ( 1 ) : 55 - 71 . (\nk\u00fcnzle , h . ( 2006 ) : thalamo - striatal projections in the hedgehog tenrec . brain research 1100 ( 1 ) : 78 - 92 . (\nnicoll , m . e . ( 2003 ) : tenrec ecaudatus , tenrec , tandraka , trandraka . in : goodman , s . m . & benstead , j . p . ( eds ) : the natural history of madagascar . university of chicago press , chicago and london . pp . 1283 - 1287 .\nrobinson , t . , j . fu , b . ferguson - smith , et al . 2004 . cross - species chromosome painting in the golden mole and elephant - shrew : support for the mammalian clades afrotheria and afroinsectiphillia but not afroinsectivora . proceedings of the royal society b 271 ( 1547 ) : 1477\u201384 .\nlesser madagascar tenrecs go through torpor for three to five months during the cold season and begin mating when they emerge , usually in october . torpor is a state of hibernation - like inactivity in the body , in which the animal ' s temperature , respiration , and heartbeat decrease to conserve energy .\nk\u00fcnzle , h . ( 1998d ) : trigeminal projections to thalamus and subthalamus in the hedgehog tenrec . neuroscience 86 ( 2 ) : 651 - 661 . (\nrook , c . ( 2007b ) : potter park zoo ' s tenrec is back in action . lansing state journal , published march 15 , 2007 . (\nchabaud , a . g . & brygoo , e . - r . ( 1960 ) : deux nouveaux metastrongylides parasites du tenrec ( 1 ) [ two new metastrongylides parasitic of tenrec ( 1 ) - in french . ] m\u00e9moires de l ' institut scientifique de madagascar ( s\u00e9rie a ) 14 : 161 - 172 . (\nanonymous ( 1967 ) : tenrec note . . . duluth zoo , minn . aazpa newsletter vol . viii , no . 8 , august , 1967 : 8 .\nnicoll , m . e . ( 1986 ) : diel variation in body temperature in tenrec ecaudatus during seasonal hypothermia . journal of mammalogy 67 : 759 - 762 .\nrook , c . ( 2007a ) : tiny patient : zoo tenrec battling cancer with help from msu . lansing state journal , published february 20 , 2007 . (\ntatayah , r . v . & driver , b . m . f . ( 2000 ) : an evaluation of the carcass quality of male tenrec ( tenrec ecaudatus ) , a non - conventional source of meat protein in mauritius . science and technology , research journal of the university of mauritius 6 : 69 - 82 . (\nharrison , t . m . , dominguez , p . , hanzlik , k . , sikarskie , j . g . , agnew , d . , bergin , i . , fitzgerald , s . d . , kitchell , b . e . & mcniel , e . ( 2010 ) : treatment of an amelanotic melanoma using radiation therapy in a lesser madagascar hedgehog tenrec ( echinops telfairi ) . journal of zoo and wildlife medicine 41 ( 1 ) : 152 - 157 . (\nk\u00fcnzle , h . ( 1996a ) : diencephalic connections of the superior colliculus in the hedgehog tenrec . experimental brain research 111 ( 3 ) : 356 - 370 . (\nberken , p . a . ( 2006 ) : sonografische topografie der gro\u00dfen abdominalen organe und echografische gravidit\u00e4tsdiagnostik beim kleinen igeltenrek - echinops telfairi [ sonographic topography of the large abdominal organs and echographic gravidity diagnostics in the lesser hedgehog tenrec - echinops telfairi ] [ in german ] . inaugural - dissertation zur erlangung der tiermedizinischen doktorw\u00fcrde der tier\u00e4rztlichen fakult\u00e4t der ludwig - maximilians - universit\u00e4t m\u00fcnchen ( doctoral thesis in veterinary medicine at the faculty of veterinary medicine of the ludwig maximilian university munich ) . 121 pp . (\nthompson , k . a . , agnew , d . , nofs , s . a . & harrison , t . m . ( 2017 ) : obstetrical and postpartum complications in lesser madagascar hedgehog tenrecs ( echinops telfairi ) : four cases . journal of zoo and wildlife medicine 48 ( 2 ) : 446 - 452 . (\nk\u00fcnzle , h . ( 1996b ) : prominent collicular projections to the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus in the hedgehog tenrec . annals of anatomy , supplement 178 : 199 - 200 .\njenkins , p . d . , raxworthy , c . j . & nussbaum , r . a . ( 1997 ) : a new species of microgale ( insectivora , tenrecidae ) , with comments on the status of four other taxa of shrew tenrecs . the bulletin of the natural history museum ( zoology ) 63 ( 1 ) : 1 - 12 .\nthaller , d . , schmid , n . , schwarzenberger , f . , streich , w . j . , k\u00fcnzle , h . & clauss , m . ( 2008 ) : hemosiderosis in captive lesser hedgehog tenrecs ( echinops telfairi ) . 5th european zoo nutrition conference , january 24th - 27th , 2008 , chester , uk . (\nbenstead , j . p . & olson , l . e . ( 2003 ) : limnogale mergulus , web - footed tenrec or aquatic tenrec . in : goodman , s . m . & benstead , j . p . ( eds ) : the natural history of madagascar . university of chicago press , chicago and london . pp . 1267 - 1273 . (\nthaller , d . , k\u00fcnzle , h . , clauss , m . , schwarzenberger , f . & schmidt , p . ( 2006 ) : longtime pathological survey of a colony of captive held lesser hedgehog tenrecs ( echinops telfairi ) . 24th meeting of the european society of veterinary pathology , edinburgh , august 30th to september 2nd , 2006 . (\nk\u00fcnzle , h . ( 2005a ) : the striatum in the hedgehog tenrec : histochemical organization and cortical afferents . brain research 1034 ( 1 - 2 ) : 90 - 113 . (\nstephenson , p . j . ( 2017b ) : new bamboo named after a tenrec . afrotherian conservation ( newsletter of the iucn / ssc afrotheria specialist group ) 13 : 50 . (\nasher , r . j . , and m . hofreiter . 2006 . tenrec phylogeny and the noninvasive extraction of nuclear dna . syst biol 55 ( 2 ) : 181\u201394 . pmid 16522569 .\nk\u00fcnzle , h . ( 1997 ) : connections of the superior colliculus with the tegmentum and the cerebellum in the hedgehog tenrec . neuroscience research 28 ( 2 ) : 127 - 145 . (\nasher , r . j . & hofreiter , m . ( 2006 ) : tenrec phylogeny and the noninvasive extraction of nuclear dna . systematic biology 55 ( 2 ) : 181 - 194 . (\nk\u00fcnzle , h . ( 1998b ) : thalamic territories innervated by cerebellar nuclear afferents in the hedgehog tenrec , echinops telfairi . journal of comparative neurology 402 ( 3 ) : 313 - 326 . (\nleche , w . ( 1905 ) : ein eigenartiges s\u00e4ugetierhirn , nebst bemerkungen \u00fcber den hirnbau der insectivora [ probably on the brain of tenrec ecaudatus ] . anatomischer anzeiger 26 : 577 - 589 .\nnicoll , m . e . ( 1982 ) : reproductive ecology of tenrec ecaudatus ( insectivora : tenrecidae ) in the seychelles . unpublished ph . d . dissertation , university of aberdeen , uk .\niucn2006 | assessors = afrotheria specialist group ( tenrec section ) , olson , l . & goodman , s . | year = 2006 | id = 40592 | title = echinops telfairi | downloaded =\nendo , h . , oishi , m . , yonezawa , t . , rakotondraparany , f . , & hasegawa , m . ( 2007 ) : the semifossorial function of the forelimb in the common rice tenrec ( oryzorictes hova ) and the streaked tenrec ( hemicentetes hemispinosus ) . anatomia , histologia , embryologia : journal of veterinary medicine series c 36 ( 6 ) : 413 - 418 . (\nalp\u00e1r , a . , k\u00fcnzle , h . , g\u00e4rtner , u . , popkova , y . , bauer , u . , grosche , j . , reichenbach , a . & h\u00e4rtig , w . ( 2010 ) : slow age - dependent decline of doublecortin expression and brdu labeling in the forebrain from lesser hedgehog tenrecs . brain research 1330 : 9 - 19 . (\nehrlich , c . ( 2005 ) : der tiefland - streifentanrek ( hemicentetes semispinosus ) [ the lowland streaked tenrec ( hemicentetes semispinosus ) ] . rodentia 5 ( 4 ) : 31 - 34 . (\nfinlay , s . & cooper , n . ( 2015 ) : morphological diversity in tenrecs ( afrosoricida , tenrecidae ) : comparing tenrec skull diversity to their closest relatives . peerj 3 : e927 . (\nk\u00fcnzle , h . ( 2003 ) : neocortical connections with perihippocampal and periamygdalar regions in the hedgehog tenrec . anatomy and embryology ( berlin ) 207 ( 4 - 5 ) : 389 - 407 . (\nstephenson , p . j . ( 1993b ) : reproductive biology of the large - eared tenrec , geogale aurita ( insectivora : tenrecidae ) . mammalia 57 ( 4 ) : 553 - 563 . (\nstephenson , p . j . ( 1994c ) : notes on the biology of the fossorial tenrec , oryzorictes hova ( insectivora : tenrecidae ) . mammalia 58 ( 2 ) : 312 - 315 . (\nk\u00fcnzle , h . 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( 2008 ) : the presence and absence of prosencephalic cell groups relaying striatal information to the medial and lateral thalamus in tenrec . journal of anatomy 212 ( 6 ) : 795 - 816 . (\nk\u00fcnzle , h . & radtke - schuller , s . ( 2001c ) : hippocampal fields in the hedgehog tenrec . their architecture and major intrinsic connections . neuroscience research 41 ( 3 ) : 267 - 291 . (\nnicoll , m . e . ( 1985a ) : responses to seychelles tropical forest seasons by a litter - foraging mammalian insectivore , tenrec ecaudatus , native to madagascar . journal of animal ecology 54 : 71 - 88 .\nstephenson , p . j . ( 1994b ) : resting metabolic rate and body temperature in the aquatic tenrec , limnogale mergulus ( insectivora : tenrecidae ) . acta theriologica 39 ( 1 ) : 89 - 92 . (\nwever , e . g . & herman , p . n . ( 1968 ) : stridulation and hearing in the tenrec , hemicentetes semispinosus . journal of auditory research 8 ( 1 ) : 39 - 42 . (\nbrown - s\u00e9quard , e . 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(\neastern rain forest in madagascar is habitat for many tenrec species , yet much of it is being lost to provide land for agriculture such as these paddy fields in the north - east of the country . \u00a9 peter j . stephenson\nk\u00fcnzle , h . ( 1998a ) : care and breeding of the madagascan hedgehog tenrec , echinops telfairi , under laboratory conditions . der tierschutzbeauftragte 1 / 98 : 5 - 12 ; 2 / 98 : 113 - 115 . (\nk\u00fcnzle , h . & radtke - schuller , s . ( 2000a ) : basal telencephalic regions connected with the olfactory bulb in a madagascan hedgehog tenrec . journal of comparative neurology 423 ( 4 ) : 706 - 726 . (\nradtke - schuller , s . & k\u00fcnzle , h . ( 2000 ) : olfactory bulb and retrobulbar regions in the hedgehog tenrec : organization and interconnections . journal of comparative neurology 423 ( 4 ) : 687 - 705 . (\nstephenson , p . j . 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( 2004 ) : [ a comparative study of thin structure of tenrec spines ( mammalia , tenrecidae ) ] [ in russian ] . zoologicheskii zhurnal 83 ( 2 ) : 159 - 165 . (\nk\u00fcnzle , h . & radtke - schuller , s . ( 2000b ) : the subrhinal paleocortex in the hedgehog tenrec : a multiarchitectonic characterization and an analysis of its connections with the olfactory bulb . anatomy and embryology 202 ( 6 ) : 491 - 506 . (\nwallis , m . ( 2009 ) : prolactin in the afrotheria : characterization of genes encoding prolactin in elephant ( loxodonta africana ) , hyrax ( procavia capensis ) and tenrec ( echinops telfairi ) . journal of endocrinology 200 ( 2 ) : 233 - 240 . (\nk\u00fcnzle , h . & lotter , g . ( 1996 ) : efferents from the lateral frontal cortex to spinomedullary target areas , trigeminal nuclei , and spinally projecting brainstem regions in the hedgehog tenrec . journal of comparative neurology 372 ( 1 ) : 88 - 110 . (\nsillitoe , r . v . , k\u00fcnzle , h . & hawkes , r . ( 2003 ) : zebrin ii compartmentation of the cerebellum in a basal insectivore , the madagascan hedgehog tenrec echinops telfairi . journal of anatomy 203 ( 3 ) : 283 - 296 . (\nstephenson , p . j . & racey , p . a . ( 1993a ) : reproductive energetics of the tenrecidae ( mammalia : insectivora ) . i . the large - eared tenrec , geogale aurita . physiological zoology 66 ( 5 ) : 643 - 663 . (\nh\u00f6rchner , f . ( 1962 ) : zur helminthenfauna des igeltanreks ( echinops telfairi martin ) . [ on the helminth fauna of the tenrec ( echinops telfairi martin ) . ] zeitschrift f\u00fcr parasitenkunde [ now\nparasitology research\n] 22 ( 2 ) : 176 - 182 . (\ntenrecs are generally found in forest habitats . most species occur in the eastern rain forests , but a handful ( e . g . geogale , echinops ) are adapted to the arid spiny desert in the south - west of madagascar . the aquatic tenrec ( limnogale mergulus ) requires clear , running freshwater . some species - such as tailless tenrecs ( tenrec ecaudatus ) and streaked tenrecs ( hemicentetes ) - appear able to adapt easily to man - induced disturbance , and can survive in secondary forest or agricultural land . mole tenrecs ( oryzorictes ) have been found in rice fields .\ncarter , a . m . , blankenship , t . n . , k\u00fcnzle , h . & enders , a . c . ( 2004 ) : structure of the definitive placenta of the tenrec , echinops telfairi . placenta 25 ( 2 - 3 ) : 218 - 232 . (\nk\u00fcnzle , h . , poulsen nautrup , c . & schwarzenberger , f . ( 2007 ) : high inter - individual variation in the gestation length of the hedgehog tenrec , echinops telfairi ( afrotheria ) . animal reproduction science 97 ( 3 - 4 ) : 364 - 374 . (\nrudloff , k . ( 1996 ) : das tierportr\u00e4t : gro\u00dfer igeltanrek , setifer setosus frohriep , 1806 [ the animal portrait : greater hedgehog tenrec , setifer setosus frohriep , 1806 ] [ article in german ] . mitteilungen der bundesarbeitsgruppe ( bag ) kleins\u00e4uger 3 / 1996 : 10 . (\nfaulstich , b . m . , radtke - schuller , s . & koessl , m . ( 1999 ) : dpoae from the cochlea of the tenrec , echinops telfairi . in : abstracts of the 22nd midwinter research meeting of the association for research in otolaryngology , abstract number 375 . (\nriedelsheimer , b . , unterberger , p . , k\u00fcnzle , h . & welsch , u . ( 2007 ) : histological study of the cloacal region and associated structures in the hedgehog tenrec echinops telfairi . mammalian biology - zeitschrift f\u00fcr s\u00e4ugetierkunde 72 ( 6 ) : 330 - 341 . (\nschunke , a . c . & zeller , u . ( 2010 ) : chondrocranium and dermal bones of the lowland streaked tenrec hemicentetes semispinosus ( afrosoricida , tenrecidae ) and their comparison with potamogale and other insectivoran - grade placental mammals . vertebrate zoology 60 ( 1 ) : 37 - 72 . (\nhildebrandt , k . b . p . , goodman , s . m . & olson , l . e . ( 2007 ) : mitonuclear phylogeography and species limits in the malagasy mole - tenrec , oryzorictes hova . oral presentation , annual meeting of the american society of mammalogists , albuquerque , new mexico .\nlevesque , d . l . , rakotondravony , d . & lovegrove , b . g . ( 2012 ) : home range and shelter site selection in the greater hedgehog tenrec in the dry deciduous forest of western madagascar . journal of zoology ( london ) 287 ( 3 ) : 161 - 168 . (\nbrady , s . , harrison , t . , rodriguez jr , c . o . , johnson , a . & wack , r . f . ( 2016 ) : oral squamous cell carcinoma in a greater hedgehog tenrec ( setifer setosus ) . veterinary record case reports 4 ( 1 ) : e000314 . (\ncarter , a . m . , blankenship , t . n . , k\u00fcnzle , h . & enders , a . c . ( 2005 ) : development of the haemophagous region and labyrinth of the placenta of the tenrec , echinops telfairi . placenta 26 ( 2 - 3 ) : 251 - 261 . (\nk\u00fcnzle , h . , radtke - schuller , s . & stebut , b . ( 2002 ) : parabrachio - cortical connections with the lateral hemisphere in the madagascan hedgehog tenrec : prominent projections to layer 1 , weak projections from layer 6 . brain research bulletin 57 ( 5 ) : 705 - 719 . (\nstephenson , p . j . ( 2003 ) : hemicentetes , streaked tenrec , sora , tsora . in : goodman , s . m . & benstead , j . p . ( eds ) : the natural history of madagascar . university of chicago press , chicago and london . pp . 1281 - 1283 . (\nstumpf , p . , k\u00fcnzle , h . & welsch , u . ( 2004 ) : cutaneous eccrine glands of the foot pads of the small madagascan tenrec ( echinops telfairi , insectivora , tenrecidae ) : skin glands in a primitive mammal . cell and tissue research 315 ( 1 ) : 59 - 70 . (\nganzhorn , j . u . , ganzhorn , a . w . , abraham , j . - p . , andriamanarivo , l . & ramananjatovo , a . ( 1990 ) : the impact of selective logging on forest structure and tenrec populations in western madagascar . oecologia 84 ( 1 ) : 126 - 133 . (\nhenke , j . , reinert , j . , preissel , a . k . & radtke - schuller , s . ( 2007 ) : partially antagonisable anaesthesia of the small hedgehog tenrec ( echinops telfairi ) with medetomidine , midazolam and ketamine . journal of experimental animal science 43 ( 4 ) : 255 - 264 . (\nnicoll , m . e . ( 1983 ) : mechanisms and consequences of large litter production in tenrec ecaudatus ( insectivora : tenrecidae ) . proceedings of the 3rd international colloquium on the ecology and taxonomy of african small mammals . annales de la mus\u00e9e royale de l ' afrique centrale , sciences zoologiques 237 : 219 - 226 .\nbenstead , j . p . , barnes , k . h . & pringle , c . m . ( 2001 ) : diet , activity patterns , foraging movement and responses to deforestation of the aquatic tenrec limnogale mergulus ( lipotyphla : tenrecidae ) in eastern madagascar . journal of zoology ( london ) 254 : 119 - 129 . (\nmeyer , d . ( 2008 ) :\nkleine gro\u00dfe igeltanreks\n\u2013 einige bemerkungen zur gelungenen nachzucht des gro\u00dfen igeltanreks ( setifer setosus ) [\nsmall greater hedgehog tenrecs\n- some remarks on the successful captive breeding of the greater hedgehog tenrec ( setifer setosus ) ] . rodentia 8 ( 5 ) : 29 - 31 . (\nthe aquatic tenrec ( limnogale mergulus ) is the greatest cause for concern among conservationists . it is known from only 10 sites in madagascar and appears to be restricted to clear streams with abundant prey . siltation caused by widespread deforestation is expected to cause problems as it will reduce prey species . animals are also drowned in eel and crayfish traps .\ndrexl , m . , faulstich , m . , stebut , b . , radtke - schuller , s . & k\u00f6ssl , m . ( 2003 ) : distortion product otoacoustic emissions and auditory evoked potentials in the hedgehog tenrec , echinops telfairi . journal of the association for research in otolaryngology 4 ( 4 ) : 555 - 564 . (\nandriatsarafara , f . r . ( 1981 ) : quelques observations sur l ' ontog\u00e9nie et le comportement de tenrec ecaudatus ( schreber 1777 ) en captivit\u00e9 : comparaisons avec les donn\u00e9es connues chez d ' autres insectivores [ some observations on development and behaviour of tenrec ecaudatus ( schreber , 1777 ) in captivity : comparisons with data known from other insectivores ] [ in french ] . 1\u00e8re partie ( rapport de stage ; 22 pp . ) et 2\u00e8me partie ( meacute ; moire , 23 pp . ) . dipl\u00f4me d ' etudes approfondies de sciences biologiques appliqu\u00e9es ( option : ecologie animale ) , etablissement d ' enseignement sup\u00e9rieur des sciences antananarivo , universit\u00e9 de madagascar , antananarivo . 45 pp . (\nstephenson , p . j . ( 2003 ) : lipotyphla ( ex insectivora ) : geogale aurita , large - eared tenrec . in : goodman , s . m . & benstead , j . p . ( eds ) : the natural history of madagascar . university of chicago press , chicago and london . pp . 1265 - 1267 . (\nliagkouras , i . , michaloudi , h . , batzios , c . , psaroulis , d . , georgiadis , m . , k\u00fcnzle , h . & papadopoulos , g . c . ( 2008 ) : pyramidal neurons in the septal and temporal ca1 field of the human and hedgehog tenrec hippocampus . brain research 1218 : 35 - 46 . (\nendo , h . , yonezawa , t . , rakotondraparany , f . , sasaki , m . & hasegawa , m . ( 2006 ) : the adaptational strategies of the hindlimb muscles in the tenrecidae species including the aquatic web - footed tenrec ( limnogale mergulus ) . annals of anatomy ( anatomischer anzeiger ) 188 ( 4 ) : 383 - 390 . (\nhildwein , g . & kayser , c . ( 1970 ) : [ relation between colonic temperature and oxygen consumption of an insectivora , the tenrec , during a nycthemeral period ( numerical value of q10 ) ] . [ article in french ] . comptes rendus des s\u00e9ances de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de biologie et de ses filiales 164 ( 2 ) : 429 - 432 . (\nthe mammal was an early tenrec ; the island it had arrived on probably had no other mammals and so this early lineage evolved over generations to adapt its body shape to its environment . as a result of a process called\nadaptive radiation\n( made famous by darwin ' s finches on galapagos ) new species appeared , each physically suited for its niche , free of competition .\nendo , h . , koyabu , d . , kimura , j . , rakotondraparany , f . , matsui , a . , yonezawa , t . , shinohara , a . & hasegawa , m . ( 2010 ) : a quill vibrating mechanism for a sounding apparatus in the streaked tenrec ( hemicentetes semispinosus ) . zoological science 27 ( 5 ) : 427 - 432 . (\nade , m . ( 1996a ) : examination of the digestive tract contents of tenrec ecaudatus schreber , 1777 ( tenrecidae , insectivora ) from western madagascar . in : ganzhorn , j . u . & sorg , j . - p . ( eds . ) : ecology and economy of a tropical dry forest in madagascar . primate report 46 ( 1 ) : 233 - 250 . (\nrakotondravelo , m . l . ( 2001 ) : etude d ' impact de l ' application du fipronil 7 , 5 ulv sur le tenrec echinops telfairi ( martin , 1838 ) dans le sud de madagascar . in : zehrer , w . ( ed ) : la lutte antiacridienne \u00e0 madagascar . tome iii : ecotoxicologie . gtz , antananarivo , madagascar . pp . 243 - 259 .\nstumpf , p . , riedelsheimer , b . , k\u00fcnzle , h . & welsch , u . ( 2005 ) : antimicrobial and scent marking functions of the glands of the anogenital region of a primitive mammal : the small madagascan tenrec ( echinops telfairi , insectivora ) . poster 188 , 100th annual meeting of the anatomische gesellschaft , leipzig ( germany ) march 11 - 14 , 2005 .\neverson , k . m . , hildebrandt , k . b . p . , goodman , s . m . & olson , l . e . ( 2018 ) : caught in the act : incipient speciation across a latitudinal gradient in a semifossorial mammal from madagascar , the mole tenrec oryzorictes hova ( tenrecidae ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution : in press ( available online 28 february 2018 ) (\nzherebtsova , o . v . ( 2003 ) : [ mechanisms of spine mobility in tenrec ecaudatus and hemicentetes semispinosus ( insectivora , tenrecidae ) . ] in : zherebtsova , o . v . & nikulina , a . n . ( ed . ) : [ theriological investigations . no . 2 . ] sankt - peterburg : teriologicheskoe obshchestvo , pp . 139 - 147 . [ in russian with english summary ]\nat least some species of tenrecs are social , living in multigenerational family groups with over a dozen individuals . tenrecs have a gestation period of 50 to 64 days , and give birth to a number of relatively undeveloped young . while the otter shrews have just two young per litter , the tailless tenrec can have as many as 32 , and females possess up to 29 teats , more than any other mammal ( martin 1984 ) .\nas a rule , tenrecs tend to be small animals . the smallest species are the size of shrews , with a body length of around 4 . 5 cm ( 1 . 8 in ) , and weighing just 5 g ( 0 . 18 oz ) , while the largest , the common or tailless tenrec , is 25 to 39 cm ( 9 . 8 to 15 in ) in length , and can weigh over 1 kilogram ( 2 . 2 lb ) ( martin 1984 ) .\nlagadec , e . , gomard , y . , le minter , g . , cordonin , c . , cardinale , e . , ramasindrazana , b . , dietrich , m . , goodman , s . m . , tortosa , p . & dellagi , k . ( 2016 ) : identification of tenrec ecaudatus , a wild mammal introduced to mayotte island , as a reservoir of the newly identified human pathogenic leptospira mayottensis . plos neglected tropical diseases 10 ( 8 ) : e0004933 . (\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthe form prolixacaudata may represent a distinct species ( olson et al . 2004 , soarimalala and goodman 2011 ) . note : this is an amended assessment to correct the order of the assessors .\njustification : it is listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , presence in a number of protected areas , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a threatened category .\nthis species is widespread in the eastern humid forests of madagascar , ranging from montagne d ' ambre in the north , south to andohahela . it has an altitudinal range of 530 to 2 , 500 m asl ( goodman et al . 2013 ) . the prolixicaudata form is restricted to the northern humid forests and is known from marojejy and montagne d\u2019ambre national parks , anjanaharibe - sud and manongarivo special reserves and a new reserve being developed ( goodman et al . 2013 , nicoll and ratsifandrihamanana 2014 ) .\nit is a relatively common species , especially at higher elevations ( goodman et al . 2013 )\nit is a scansorial species that is present in eastern tropical humid forest , from lowlands to high - elevation rainforest . it may be found in slightly degraded forest .\nit has been recorded from a number of protected areas including the ambohitantely special reserve ; anjanaharibe - sud special reserve ; manongarivo special reserve ; marojejy national park ; montagne d ' ambre national park ; andringitra national park ; pic d\u2019ivohibe special reserve ; ranomafana national park ; ambatovaky special reserve ; mangerivola special reserve ; mantadia national park and andohahela national park . further studies are needed into the taxonomy , biology and ecology of this species . a further review of known specimens of m . majori , m . longicaudata and m . principula is needed to elucidate the range of these three species .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfollowing simpson ( 1931 ) , the term\ntenrecoid\nhas also been widely misused as a general name for a vaguely defined grouping of ( extinct and extant ) taxa characterized by zalambdodonty , even though it has become clear that some of these were not technically zalambdodont , and that zalambdodonty may have arisen independently several times ( e . g . broom , 1916 ) . this further militates against its stricter nomenclatorial use , even at taxonomic ranks below order .\nthe supraordinal affiliation of the afrosoricida remains controversial . molecular data strongly support an affinity within the afrotheria , whereas morphological data suggest a closer relationship to lipotyphlans . lipotyphlan monophyly , however , is only weakly supported by cladistic analyses of morphological data ( asher , 1999 ) and phylogenetic analyses of combined anatomical and molecular data strongly support the inclusion of afrosoricids within afrotheria ( asher et al . , 2003 ) .\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nis endemic to madagascar . this species is specifically located in the northern and eastern parts of the country , ranging from the parc national de la montange d ' ambre at 12 degrees south to the parc national d ' andonhahela at 25 degrees south .\n, are terrestrial mammals with a preference for areas of dense vegetation . they can be found in various habitats located across madagascar , including eastern humid forest , central highlands , the mountainous northern highlands , sambirano lowland forest , western deciduous dry forest , and the isolated humid forest of montange d ' ambre . they inhabit elevations of from 440 m above sea level to 1990 m .\nis small , weighing only 5 to 12 g , and measuring 75 to 158 mm in total length . like other members of the genus ,\nis known to possess coats composed of a soft dark brown to black fur on the back with a gray or lead colored belly .\nsince the testes , which have a volume of 50 mm ^ 3 , are found in the abdominal area and do not descend into a scrotum , there is very little to rely on for external physical cues to determine sex . males and females are almost indistinguishable from one another ."]}